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HARVARD UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY OF THE
MINERALOGICAL
LABORATORY
UNIVERSITY MUSEUM
Waier-Sapplj and Irrigation Paper No. 150 Series M, General Hydrographic InvestigationB, 16
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES GEOUKUCAL SI KVEY
CHARLES I). WALCOTT, Director
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS,
AND FORMULAS
BY
ROBERT K. IIORTON
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMKNT PRINTING OFFICE
190(>
CONTENTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.
Introduction 7
Definitions of terms 7
Notation 8
Base formulas 9
Equivalent coefficients 9
Approximate relative dis(»harge over weirs 9
References 10
Theory of weir measurements 10
Development of the weir 10
Theorem of Torricelli " \ 10
Elementary deduction of the weir formula 11
Application of the parabolic law of velocity to weirs 12
General formula for weirs and orifices 12
Vertical contraction 13
Velocity of approach , 14
Theoretical formulas 14
Distribution of velocity in channel of approach 16
Distribution of energy in channel of approa<'h 17
The thin-edged weir 20
Earlier experiments and formulas 20
Castel 20
Poucelet and Lesbros 21
Boileau 21
East Indian engineers' formula 22
Experiments and formula of James B. Francis 23
Experiments and formula of Fteley and Stearns 26
Bazin's experiments 29
Bazin's formulas for thin-edged weirs 31
Derived formulas for thin-edged rectangular weirs 34
Fteley and Steams-Francis formula 34
Hamilton Smith's formula 34
Smith-Francis formula 37
Parmley's formula 37
Extension of the w^eir" formulas to higher heads 39
Comparison of weir formulas 40
Comparison of various velocity of approach corrections 40
End contractions — incomplete contraction 44
Compound weir 46
Triangular weir 46
General formula 46
Thomson's experiments 46
3
4 CONTENTS,
The thin-edged weir — Continued. Page.
Trapezoidal weir 47
The Cippoletti trapezoidal weir 47
Cippoletti's formula 48
Requirements and accuracy of weir gagings 49
Precautions for standard weii* gaging 49
Plank and beam weirs of sensible crest width 52
Reduction of the mean of several observations of head 52
Effect of error in determining the head on weirs 58
Error of the mean where the head varies 54
Weir not level 57
Convexity of water surface in leading channel 58
Results of experiments on various forms of weir cross sections 59
The use of weirs of irregular section 59
Modifications of the nappe form 60
Experimental data for weirs of irregular cross section 61
Base formula for discharge over weirs of irregular cross section 62
Bazin's experiments on weirs of irregular cross section 63
Bazin's correction for velocity of approach 63
Recomputation of coefficients in Bazin's experiments 66
Cornell University hydraulic laboratory 85
Experiments of United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways. 86
Experiments at Cornell University hydraulic laboratory on models of
old Croton dam 90
Experiments of United States Geological Survey at Cornell University
hydraulic laboratory 95
Experiments on model of Merrimac River dam at Lawrence, Mass. . . 107
Flow over weirs with broad crests 110
Theoretical formula of Unwin and Frizell 110
BlackwelPs experiments on discharge over broad-crested weirs 112
East Indian engineers' formula for broad-crested weirs 114
Fteley and Steams experiments on broad- crested weirs 116
Bazin's formula and experiments on broad-crested weirs 117
Experiments of the United States Geological Survey on broad-crested
weirs 119
Table of disc^harge over broad-crested weirs with stable nappe 121
Effect of rounding upstream crest edge 122
Experiments on weirs with downstream slope or apron of varying inclina-
tion 124
Triangular weirs with vertical upstream face and sloping aprons 124
Triangular weirs with upstream batter 1:1 and varying slope of apron . 1 26
Experiments on weirs of trapezoidal section with upstream slope of
i:l, horizontal crest, and varying downstream slopes 127
Combination of coefficients for weirs with compound slopes 127
Weirs with varying slope of upstream face 128
Dams of ogee cross section, Plattsburg-( -hambly tyi)e 1 30
Experiments on discharge over actual dams 131
Blackstone River at Albion, Mass 132
Muskingum River, Ohio 132
Ottawa River dam, Canada 132
Austin, Tex. , dam 133
Roughness of crest 133
Fal Is 1 :y)
Weir curved in plan 136
CONTENTS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 5
Page.
Snbmerged weire 137
Theoretical formula 137
Fteley and Steams submerged-weir formula 138
Clemens HerscheFs formula 139
The Chanoine and Mary formula 140
R. H. Rhind's formula 141
Bazin's formulas 141
Increase of head by submerjred weirs 142
Rankine's formulas 142
Colonel Dya8*s formula 143
Submerged weirs of irregular section 143
Bazin's experiments 143
Data concerning East Indian weirs 144
United States Deep Waterways experiments 146
Weir discharge under varying head 146
Priematic reser\^oir, no inflow 147
Approximate time of lowering prismatic or nonprismatic reservoir 147
Reservoir prismatic, with uniform inflow 148
General formulas 148
Formulas for time of rise to any head H, prismatic reservoir with uni-
form inflow 149
Nonprismatic reservoir, uniform inflow 153
Variable inflow, nonprismatic reservoir - 154
Tables for calculations of weir discharge 156
Table 1. Head due to various velocities 157
Table 2. Percentage increafee in discharge by various rates of velo<'ity of
approach 1 59
Tables 3, 4. Discharge over a thin-edged weir by the Francis formula 162
Tables 5, 6. Three-halves powers 171
Table 7. Flow over broad-crest weirs with stable nappe 177
Table 8. Backwater caused by a dam or weir 180
Index 187
Platb L Bazin's coefficients 32
n. £ffect of errors in weir experiments 54
m. Modifications of nappe form 60
IV-XIL Bazin's experiments 66
XTTT, XIV. Cornell hydraulic laboratory experiments 86
XV-X VIII. United States Deep Waterways experiments 90
XIX-XXII. Croton dam experiments 94
XXIII-XXXII. United States Geological Survey experiments 106
XXXIII. Merrimac River dam experiments 108
XXXIV-XXXV. Cross sections of ogee dams 130
XXXVI. Coefficient diagram for ogee dams 130
XXXVII. Experiments on actual dams 132
XXXVIII. Diagram of variable discharge 150
Fig. 1. Torricellian theorem applied to a weir 11
2. Rectangular orifice 12
3. Distribution of velocities 16
4. Triangular weir 46
6. Trapezoidal weir 47
6 ILLUSTRATIONS.
PafOu
Fig. 6. Sections of the Francis weir 51
7. Inclined weir 57
8. Broad-crested weir 110
9. CoeflScient curve for triangular weirs 125
10. Fall : 135
11. Weir curved or angular in plan 136
12. Submerged weir 137
13. East Indian weir section 145
14. East Indian weir section 145
15. Concave backwater surface 180
16. Convex backwater surface 181
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND
FORMULAS.
By Robert E. Hobton.
INTRODUCTION.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS.
The word ''weir" will be used to describe any structure used to
determine the volume of flow of water from measurements of its
depth on a crest or sill of known length and form. In this general
sense timber and masonry dams having various shapes of section,
reservoir overflows, and the like may be weirs. Terms, more or less
synonymous, used to describe such weirs are ''comb," ''wasteway,"
''spillway," ''overwash," "roUway," and ''overfall."
The French term " nappe," suggesting the curved surface of a cloth
hanging over the edge of a table, has been fittingly used to designate
the overfalling sheet of water.
The expression "wetted underneath" has been used to describe the
condition of the nappe designated by Bazin as "noy^es en dessous,"
signifying that the water level between the nappe and the toe of the
weir is raised by vacuum above the general water level below the
weir.
"Thin-edged weir" and "sharp-crested weir" are used to designate
a weir in which the nappe, or overfalling sheet, touches only the
smooth, sharp upstream corner or edge of the crest, the thickness of
which is probably immaterial so long as this condition is fulfilled.
A "suppressed weir" has a channel of approach whose width is the
length of the weir crest.
A "contracted weir" has a crest length that is less than the width
of the channel of approach.
The term "channel of approach," or "leading channel," defines the
body of water immediately upstream from the weir, in which is
located the gage by which the depth of overflow is measured.
"Section of approach" may refer to the cross section of the leading
channel, if the depth and width of the leading channel are uniform;
otherwise it will, in general, apply to the cross section of the channel
of approach in which the gage is located.
7
8 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
" Weir section'" refers to the cross section of the overflowing stream
in the plane of the weir crest.
''Crest contraction" refers to the diminished cross section of the
overflowing stream resulting from the upward curvature of the lower
water filaments in passing the crest edge. It does not include the
downward curvature of the water surface near the weir crest.
The ''vertical contraction of the nappe" includes both the crest
contraction ahd the surface contraction.
"Incomplete contraction" may take place either at the crest or at
the ends of a weir, and will occur when the bottom or side walls of
the channel of approach are so near the weir as to prevent the com-
plete curvature of the water tilament-s as they pass the contracting
edge.
Dimensions are uniformly expressed in feet and decimals, velocities
in feet per second, and quantities of flow in cubic feet per second,
unless otherwise stated in the text.
In the preparation of this paper much computation has been involved
and it is expected that errors will appear, which, if attention is called
to them, may be corrected in the future. Information concerning
such errors will be gratefully received.
NOTATION.
The symbols given below are used in the values indicated. The
meaning of additional symbols as used and special uses of those that
follow are given in the text:
Z)=Measured or actual depth on the creet of weir, usually dcjtenuined as the differ-
ence of elevation of the weir crest and the water level, taken at a point
sufficiently far upstream from the weir to avoid the surface curve.
-ff=The head corrected for the effect of velocity of approach, or the observed head
where there is no velocity of approach. As will he explained, D is applied
in formulas like Bazin's, in which the correction for velocity of approach is
included in the coefficient, ^is applied in formulas where it is eliminated.
v=Mean velocity of approach in the leading channel, usually taken in a cross sec-
tion opposite which D is determined.
r«
/i= Velocity head = a,,-.
^= Acceleration by gravity. Value here used 32.16.
P= Height of weir crest above bottom of channel of approach, where channel is
rectangular.
H^=Width of channel of approach Avhere D is measured.
.4= Area of cross section of channel of approach.
(7= Area of channel section where D is measured, per unit length of crest.
a=Area of weir section of di8charge=Z> L,
i= Actual length of weir crest for a suppressed weir, or length corrected for end
contractions, if any.
2/= Actual length of crest of a weir with end contractions.
-^''= Number of complete end contractionn.
/?= Breadth of crest of a broad-crested weir.
/S'= Batter or slope of crest, feet horizontal to one vertical.
INTRODUCTION. 9
d= Depth of crest submergence in a drowned or submeiiged weir.
^= Volume of discharge per unit of time.
C, M, m, ^, a,/ etc., empirical coefficients.
BASE FORMULAS.
The following formulas have been adopted by the engineers named:
Q~ MLI/^]2gB. Hamilton Smith (theoretical).
=^LII^]2(/iI, Bazin, with no velocity of approach.
=mLD4'^^D. Bazin, with velocity of approach.
= CLin. Francis « (used here).
= CLH^+fL. Fteley and Steams.
EQUIVALENT COEFFICIENTS.
The relations between the several coefficients, so far as they can be
^ven here, are as follows:
M is a direct measure of the relation of the actual to the theoret-
ical weir discharge.
APPROXIMATE RELATIVE DISCHARGE OVER WEIRS.
For a thin-edged weir, the coefficient C in the Francis formula is
3.33=-o-. Let C be the coefficient for any other weir, and x the
relative discharge as compared with the thin-edged weir, then
V»:C".:l:«
or, as a percentage,
aji=100i»=30r.
a The coefflciont C of Fiancii) includes all the constant or empirical factors appearing in the
formnUt, which is thus thrown into the simplest form for computation.
10 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
This expresaion will be found convenient in comparing the effect on
discharge of various modifications of the weir cross section. For a
broad-crested weir with stable nappe, C^i=2.64, see p. 121. The dis-
charge over such a weir is thus seen to be 79.2 per cent of that for a
thin-edged weir by the Francis formula.
REFERENCES.
The following authorities are referi'ed to by page wherever cited
in the text:
Bazin, H., Recent experiments on flow of water over weirs. Translated by Arthur
Marichal and J. C. Trautwine, jr. Proc. Engineers' Club Philadelphia, vol. 7,
No. 5, January, 1890, pp. 259-^10; vol. 9, No. 3, July, 1892, pp. 231-244; No. 4,
October, 1892, pp. 287-319; vol. 10, No. 2, April, 1893, pp. 121-164.
Bazin, H., Experiences nouvelles sur r^coulement en d^versoir, 6°"* art., Annales
des Ponts et Chauss^es, M^inoires et Documents, 1898, 2»« trimestre, pp. 121-264.
This paper gives the results of experiments on weirs of irregular section.
Bazin's earlier papers, published in Annales des Ponts et Chauss^s, 1888, 1890,
1891, 1894, and 1896, giving results of experiments chiefly relating to thin-edged
weirs and velocity of approach, have been translated by Marichal and Trautwine.
Bellasis, E. S., Hydraulics.
BovEY, H. T., Hydraulics.
Francis, James B., Lowell hydraulic experiments.
Frizell, James P., Water power.
Fteley, a., and Stearns, F. P., Experiments on the flow of water, etc. Trans. Am.
Soc. Civil Engineers, January, February, March, 1883, vol. 12, pp. 1-118.
Merriman, Mansfield, Hydraulics.
Rafter, George W., On the flow of water over dams. Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Engi-
neers, vol. 44, pp. 220-398, including discussion.
Smith, Hamilton, Hydraulics.
THEORY OF WEIR MEASUREMENTS.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE WEIR.
The weir as applied to stream gaging^ is a special adaptation of mill
dam, to which the term weir, meaning a hindrance or obstruction, has
been applied from early times. The knowledge of a definite relation
between the length and depth of overflow and the quantity also proba-
bly antedates considerably the scientific determination of the relation
between these elements.
In theory a weir or notch ^' is closely related to the orifice; in fact,
an orifice becomes a notch when the water level falls below its upper
boundary.
THEOREM OF TORRICELLI.
The theorem of Torricelli, enunciated in his De Motu Gravium
Naturaliter Accelerato, lt)4:8, states that tlw velocity of a fluid poMing
through an oriflce in the side of a i^eui^volr is the same as that which
mould he acquired by a heary body falling freely through the vertical
a Commonly applied to a deep, narrow weir.
THEORY OF WKIR MEASUREMENTS. 11
height measured from the surface of the fluid In the rei<eriy)!r to the
ctmter of the orifice.
This theorem forms the basis of hydrokinetics and renders the weir
and orifice applicable to stream measurement. The truth of this prop-
osition was confirmed by the experiments of Mariotte, published in
1685. It can also be demonstrated from the laws of dynamics and the
principles of energy."
ELEMENTARY DEDUCTION OF THE WEIR FORMULA.
In deducing a theoretical expression for flow over a weir it is
assumed that each filament or horizontal lamina of the nappe is actu-
ated by gravity acting through the head above it as if it were flowing
through an independent orifice. In fig. 1 the head on the successive
orifices being 7/i, //j, Z?^, etc., and their respective areas .!„ A^^ Jg,
etc., the total discharge would be
Q=C-^gS^A,u}^A,H^\^^AJiy\. ... (2)
Fig. 1.— Torricellian theorem applied to a weir.
If the small orifices A be considered as successive increments of head
H^ the weir formula may be derived by the summation of the quantities
in parentheses. jET comprises ii elementary strips, the breadth of each
is — . The heads on successive strips are , — , etc., and the total
becomes
T TT
where = J+^i, etc., for a rectangular weir. The sum of the
- - - - 2 4
series Vl+V2+V3+ to V^=3 n^.
Hence the discharge is
The above summation is more readily accomplished by calculus.
a See Wood, Elementary Mechanics, p. 167, al.so p. 291.
12
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
APPLICATION OF THE PARABOLIC LAW OF VELOCITY TO WEIRS.
The following elementary demonstration clearly illustrates the char-
acter of the weir:
According to Torricelli's theorem {see fig. 1), the velocity (v) of a
filament at any depth (x) below surface will be v=^^]'2gx. This is the
equation of a parabola having its axis t>X vertical and its origin O
at water surface. Replacing the series of jets by a weir with crest at
X, the mean velocity of all the filaments will be the average ordinate
of the parabola OPQ. The average ordinate is the area divided by
the height, but the area of a parabola is two-thirds that of the circum-
scribed rectangle; hence the mean velocity of flow through the weir
is two-thirds the velocity at the crest, i. e., two-thirds the velocity
due to the total head ^on the crest. The discharge for unit length
of crest is the head JI^ or area of opening per unit length, multiplied
by the mean velocity. This quantity also represents the area of the
parabolic velocity curve OPQX, The mean velocity of flow in the
nappe occurs, theoretically, at two-thirds the depth on the crest.
The modification of the theoretical discharge by velocity of approach,
the surface curve, the vertical contraction at the crest, and the various
forms that the nappe may assume under different conditions of aera-
tion, form of weir section, and head control the practical utility of the
weir as a device for gaging streams.
GENERAL FORMULA FOR WEIRS AND ORIFICES.a
Consider first a rectangular opening in the side of a retaining vessel.
The velocity of flow through an elementary layer whose area is Ldy
will be from Torricelli's theorem:
^
y H. H.
y»<K
W- L -^
FiQ. 2.— Rectangular orifice.
The discharge through the entire opening will be, per unit of time,
neglecting contractions,
4^. Ldy (4)
a The correlation of the weir and orifice has been given by Merriman. See Hydraulics, pp. 42-43.
VERTICAL CONTRACTION. 13
This is a general equation for the flow through any weir or orifice,
rectangular or otherwise, Q being expressed as a function of y. In
the present instance L is constant. Integrating,
<2=|ZV^(^.*-//.*) (5)
For a weir or notch, the upper edge will be at surface, H^= t>, and
calling //,= //" in equation (5),
^=|ZV^//* (6)
In the common formula for orifices, only the head on the center of
gravity of the opening is considered.
Eicpressing IT^ and //j in terms of the depth H on the center of
gravity of the opening and the height of opening d^ Merriman obtains,
after substituting these values in and expanding equation (5) by the
binomial theorem, the equivalent formula.
The sum of the infinite series in brackets expresses the error of the
ordinary formula for orifices as given by the remainder of the equa-
tion. This error varies from 1.1 per cent when h=d to 0.1 per cent
when h=Sd.
VERTICAL CONTRACTION.
Practical weir formulas differ from the theoretical formula (6) in
that velocity of approach must be considered and the discharge must
be modified by a contraction coeflicient to allow for diminished sec-
tion of the nappe as it passes ov^er the crest lip. Velocity of approach
is considered on pages 14 to 20. Experiments to determine the weir
coefficient occupy most of the remainder of the paper. The nature of
the contraction coefficient is here described.
Vertical contraction expresses the relation of the thickness of nappe,
«, in the plane of the weir crest, to the depth on the crest, //. If the
ratio X //were unity, the discharge would conform closely with the
expression
The usual coefficient in the weir formula expresses nearly the ratio
The vertical contraction comprises two factors, the surface curve or
depression of the surface of the nappe and the contraction of the
under surface of the nappe at the crest edge. The latter factor in
14 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
particular will vary with form of the weir cross section, and in gen-
eral variation in the vertical contraction is the principal source of
variation in the discharge coefficient for various forms of weirs.
The usual base weir formula, Q=2 3 LHTlgll^ is elsewhere given
for an orifice in which the upper edge is a free surface. If instead
the depth on the upper edge of the orifice is d^ the surface contraction,
there results the formula
$=|jfZV^(//*-rfi) (8)
This is considered as the true weir formula by Merriman." In this
formula only the crest-lip contraction modifies the discharge, necessi-
tating the introduction of the coefficient. The practical difficulties of
measuring d prevent the use of this as a working formula.
Similarly a formula may be derived in which only the effective
cross section s is considered, but even this will require some correction
of the velocitv. Such formulas are complicated by the variation of 8
and d with velocity of approach.* Hence, practical considerations
included, it has commonly been preferred to adopt the convenient
2
base formula for weirs, Q=^^ MLII^l^gll^ or an equivalent, and throw
all the burden of corrections for contraction into the coefficient M,
VEIiOCITY OF APPROACH.
THEORETICAL FORMULAS.
Before considering the various practical weir formulas in use some
general considerations regarding velocit}' of approach and its effect on
the head and discharge may be presented.
In the general formula (4) for the efflux of water when the water
approaches the orifice or notch with a velocity r, then with free dis-
charge, writing D-^h in place of //, for a rectangular orifice, we have
Q= / V2r/y .My (9)
i>i and />g being the measured depth on upper and lower edges of the
orifice, and h= ^ the velocity head.
To assume that D-\-h equals // is to assume that the water level is
a Hydraullf'H, p. 123.
&See Traiitwiue and Marichal's translation of Bazln's Kxperimentfi, pp. 231-307, where may also be
found other data, including a r^Hum<:' of M. Boussinosq's (.•labonitc studii*H of the vertical contrac-
tion of the nappe, which appeared in Comptes Rendus de 1' Aeadeniie den 8(Meuces for October 24, 1887.
VELOCITY OF APPROACH. 15
increased by the amount h^ or, as is often stated, that ^ is ''measured
to the surface of still water." This is not strictlj'^ correct, how-
ever, l)ecause of friction and unequal velocities, which tend to make
H—D>h^ as explained below.
For a weir, Dj equals zero; integrating,
Since Q = ^Z^]2gff^^ we have
^=|(i>+A)*— aH* {9a)
This is the velocity' correction formula used by James B. Francis."
Since h appears in both the superior and inferior limits of integra-
tion, it is evident that h increases the velocity only, and not the sec-
tion of discharge. The criticism is sometimes made that Francis's
equation has the form of an increase of the height of the section of
discharge as well as the velocity.
The second general method of correcting for velocity of approach
consists of adding directly to the measured head some function of the
velocity head, making
JI=D+ah
in the formula
Q^CLII^'lgH
or
Q=aL{D+ah)^'lg{D+ah) 9J
This is the method employed by Boiieau, Fteley and Stearns, and
Bazin. No attempt is made to follow theory, but an empirical correc-
tion is applied, affecting both the velocity and area of section.
By either method v must be determined by successive approxima-
tions unless itiias been directly measured.
Boiieau and Bazin modify (95) so as to include the area of section of
channel of approach, and since the velocity of approach equals Q A^
a separate determination of v is unnecessary. Bazin also combines
the factor for velocity of approach with the weir coefficient.
The various modifications of the velocity correction formulas are
given in conjunction with the weir formulas of the several experi-
menters.
oBorey gives similar proof of this formula for the additional oam>H of (1) an oriflco with free din-
rhafge, (2) a submerged orifice, (3) a partially submerged orifice or drowned weir, thus establishing
itM generality.
16 WEIB EXPEBIMENT8, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
DISTRIBUTION OF VELOCITY IN CHANNEL OF APPROACH.
The discharge over a weir takes place by virtue of the potential
energy of the layer of water l}nng above the level of the weir crest,
which is rendered kinetic by the act of falling over the weir. If the
water approaches the weir with an initial velocity, it is evident that
some part of the concurrent energy will facilitate the discharge.
The theoretical correction formulas may not truly represent the
effect of velocity of approach for various reasons:
1. The fall in the leading channel adjacent to the measuring section
is the source of the velocity of approach, and this fall will always be
greater than that requirexl to produce the existing velocities, because
some fall will be utilized in overcoming friction.
2. The velocity is seldom uniform at all parts of the leading chan-
nel and the energy of the water varies accordingly. This effect is
discussed later (p. 17).
3. It is not certain just what portion of the energy of the water in
the section of the leading channel goes to increase the discharge.
Fig. 8.— Difltributioii of velocltlee.
In general the threads of the water in the cross section of the chan-
nel of approach to a weir have varying velocities. It follows that, as
will be shown, the ratio of the actual energy of the approaching water
to the energy due to the mean velocity will be greater than unit}^ and
for this reason the correction for velocity of approach will be greater
than if the energy were that due to a fall through a head produced by
the mean velocity v. The more nearly uniform is the velocity of the
water in the leading channel the smaller will be the necessarj^ coeffi-
cient a in the velocity head formula. The velocity may be rendered
very nearlj' uniform by the use of stilling racks or baffles. Where
this was done in the experiments on which a formula was based (that
of Francis, for example) a larger velocity of approach correction than
that obtained by the author may be necessary in applying the formula
to cases where there is wide variation in the velocity in the leading
channel. To avoid such a contingency it is desimble, when practi-
cable, to measure head to surface of still water, because more accurate
results can be obtained and wash against instruments prevented.
VELOCITY OF APPROACH. 17
The vertical and horizontal velocity curves in an open channel iisii-
all\^ closely resemble parabolas. A weir interi>oses an obstruction in
the lower part of the channel, checking the Ijottoin velocities. The
velocity is not, however, confined to the filaments in line with the sec-
tion of the discharge opening of the weir. As a result of viscosity of
the liquid, the upper rapidly moving layers drag the filaments under-
neath, and the velocity ma}' extend nearly or (juite to the channel bot-
tom. There will usually, however, be a line (A B C, fig. 3), rising
as the weir is approached, below which there is no forward velocity.
The line A B C is the envelopt^. of the curves of vertical velocity
in the channel of approach.
There will be a similar area of low velocity at each side of the chan-
nel for a contracted weir. The inequality of velocities for such weirs
being usually greater than for suppressed weirs, it follows that a
larger coefficient in the formula for velocity of approach may be
required. This is confirmed by experiment.
Various assumptions have been made as to what portion of the
energy of the approaching stream goes to increase the discharge, (a)
that resulting from the mean velocity deduced from the discharge
divided b}^ the area of the entire section of the channel of approach;
(b) that of the mean velocity obtained liy using the sectional area of
the moving water, above the line ABC, fig. 3; (c) that of the fila-
ments lying in line with or nearest to the section of the weir opening,
determined approximately b}' the surface velocit\\''
DISTRIBUTION OF ENERGY IN CHANNEL OF APPROACH.
Consider unit width of the chaimel of approach:
Let Vg = Surface velocity.
/'^=Mean velocity.
/'ft = Bottom velocity.
V = Velocit}'^ at a height x above bottom.
X= Depth of water in channel of approach.
tc = Weight of unit volume.
The general formula for kinetic energy is
K. E.=-|^ (10)
where Pr= weight of the moving mass.
If the velocit}^ increases uniformly from bottom to surface, the
velocity at height x will Ix*
a Smith, Hamilton, Hydraalics, p. 68.
IBR 160-06 2
18 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
I^t dx be the thickness of a lamina one unit wide at height a*. The
total kinetic energy for the depth ^Y'will be
(^''^6+x('>~^''')y^^^^' .... (11)
If the velocity is uniform, the total kinetic energy per unit width
is found by integmtion to be
K.E.=^'f- ....... (1.)
Integrating for the simple case where Vi^—0 and the velocit}- increases
uniformly from the bottom to the surface so that v„=\^^ we have
K. ¥.. = -'''^-'' (13)
g
Comparing this with the expression for kinetic energy of a stream
flowing with the uniform velocity v (formula 12), we find the mass
energy of the stream with uniformly varying velocity to be twice as
great as for the uniform velocity.
By a similar integration the ratio of the total kinetic energy to the
kinetic energy corresponding to the mean velocity in the channel of
approach can be obtained for any assumption as to the distribution of
velocities in the leading charmel. The resulting ratio will depend
upon the relative areas of section with low and high velocities which
go to make up the mean, and in practice it will generally exceed unit}'.
The lowering of the water surface from the level of a still pond will
also be greater in the case of unequal velocities than in the case of a
uniform velocity equal to their mean. The theoretical weir formula
indicates the same discharge in case of a uniform velocity of approach
V as in case of varying velocities whose mean is equal to v^ although
in the former case the actual drawing down of the head if it were
measured would be found greater. If h were the velocity head
corresponding to the mean velocity, and if 7;,, i\, v^^ etc., 7\ were the
actual velocities in the n unit areas of cross section, the actual velocity
head h! will be such that
^"-(^'i*+''/+etc. V)=7r(>A' = IntegralK. ¥..
Now,
9 ?'* = 'A'4:^/f = K. E. of average velocity.
As shown above, tlie integral K. E. is the greater.
VELOCITY OF APPROACH. 19
It follows that A'>A.
If a=f(.
Then
A'=aA.
Introducing veloi*ity of approach in the discharge formula we sub-
istitute D-\-h for H^ and integrate between the limits zero and D,
Hence, for the same discharge, the area of weir section is greater
without velocity of approach by nearly the amount KL.
For a given measured head 2>, the effect of velocity of approach,
whatever it may be, appears as an increase in the mean velocity of
discharge in the plane of the weir. The relation of the mean velocity
of discharge for a weir with velocity of approach to that for a weir
without such velocit}' is shown by the following expression, the mean
head being the same in both cases:
Mean velocity in the plane of the ^^\x—^-.
then ^\^\\D^\ (/>+A)*-Ai
It will be seen that the discharge over a weir with velocity of
approach is less than that for the same total head and greater than
that for the same measured head without velocity of approach, and
that with a given measured head the greater the velocity of approach
the greater will be the discharge.
In a weir section opening out of still water there is always a con-
siderable surface velocity, the parabolic law (see fig. 3) being modified
by fluid friction, which tends to equalize the velocities. Velocity of
approach, being usually greater at the surface, furthers this equaliza-
tion. Some of the kinetic energy of the swifter-moving filaments is
transferred to their slower-moving neighbor's, the result being that
while the kinetic energy of the whole mass Q passing the weir per
second remains constant, yet the avef'oge velocity is accelerated and
the discharge rate is increased as compared with the theoretical quan-
tities. This will be clearer if we consider two contiguous filaments,
each having unit section a, one with a velocity of 1, the other of 2 feet
per second. The two will discharge 2+1 units flow per second, hav-
ing the total kinetic energy indicated below:
TT IT IXl' . 2X2' .aw
20 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
If, now, the velocities are equalized, 9 units of kinetic energy will
be equally divided between the two filaments, so that, the new velocity
being v,
^awv X '?•* _ ^aw
^g ~~^g
The average velocity before equalization was 1.5.
The discharge from two filaments having equal velocities will l>e
3.802 units, as compared with 8.00 for two filaments having unequal
velocities.
TUK thix-i:dged weir.
EARLIER EXPERIMENTS AND FORMULAS.
Prior to 1860 the practice of weir measurement was in a somewhat
chaotic condition, especially in England, Germany, and the United
States. There were manj' experimental results, but the experiments
were made.on so small a scale that the various influences affecting the
measurements and the lack of proper standards made the results
erratic and untrustworthy in detail. Greater advancement had been
made in France by such savants as Dubuat, Eytelwein, lyAubuisson,
Castel, Poncelet, Lesbros, and Boileau. Some of the work of the
early French experimenters has proved, in the light of wider experi-
ence, to be of considerable value.
EXPERIMENTS OF CASTEL.
The first experiments deserving consideration are of those of M.
Castel, conducted at the waterworks of Toulouse in 1835 and 1836."
Castel erected his apparatus on a terrace in conjunction with the water
tower, which received a continuous supply of 1.32 cubic feet per
second, capable of being increased to 1.77 cubic feet per second. The
weir consisted of a wooden dam, surmounted by a crest of copper
0.001 foot in thickness, situated in the lower end of a leading channel,
19.5 feet long, 2.428 feet wide, and 1.772 feet deep. Screens were
placed across the upper end of the channel to reduce oscillations.
The head was measured at a point 1.60 feet upstream from the weir by
means of a point gage. The overflow was measured in a zinc-lined
tank having a capacity of 113.024 cubic feet. The length of the crest
for weirs with suppressed contractions varied from 2.393 to 2.438
feet. Heights of weirs varying from 0.105 to 0.7382 were used, and
a Originally published in MC'moires Acad, Sci. Toulouse, IKi?. Sec D'Aubuisson's Hydraulics, Ben-
nett's translation, pp. 74-77. Data recomputed by Hamilton Smith in his Hydraulics, pp. 80-82 and
13H-l4r). The recomputed coefflcienta will be found valuable in calculating dlschaige for verj' small
and very low weizs.
THIN-EDO p:d weirs. 21
a similar scries of experiments was performed on suppressed weirs
1. 1844 feet long. The head varied for the longer weirs from about
0.1 to 0.25 foot. Additional experiments were made on contracted
weirs having various lengths, from 0.0328 to 1.6483 feet, in a channel
2.428 feet wide, and for lengths from 0.0328 to 0.6542 foot in a chan-
nel 1.148 feet wide. The experiments on these narrow slit weirs
included depths varying from 0.1 or 0.2 foot to a maxuuum of about
0.8 foot.
D'AubuivSson gives the following formula, derived from the experi-
ments of Castel for a suppressed weir:
Q=SAS72LDylI)+O.OSfW' (14)
where W is the measured central surface velocity of approach, ordi-
narily^ about 1.2i'.
EXPERIMENTS OF PONCELET AND LESBR08.
The experiments made by Poncelet and Lesbros, at Metz, in 1827
and 1828, under the auspices of the French Government, were contin-
ued by Lesbros in 1836. The final results were not published, how-
ever, until some years later. ^
The experiments of Poncelet and Lesbros and of Lesbros were per-
formed chiefly on a weir in a fixed copper plate, length 5.562 feet.
The head was measured in all cases in a reservoir 11.48 feet upstream,
beyond the influence of velocity of approach. The crest depth varied
from about 0.05 to 0.60 or 0.80 foot. The experiments of Lesbros
are notable from the fact that a large number of forms of channel of
approach were employed, including those with contracted and con-
vergent sides, elevated bottoms, etc. The experiments of Lesbros on
these special forms of weirs have been carefully recomputed by Ham-
ilton Smith, and may be useful in determining the discharge through
weirs having similar modifications.*
EXPERIMENTS OF BOILEAU.
The experiments of Boileau^ at Metz, in 1846, included 3 suppressed
weirs, having lengths and heights as follows:
(1) Length 5.30 feet, height 1.54 feet.
(2) Length 2.94 feet, height 1.12 feet
(3) Length 2.94 feet, height 1.60 feet.
The depth of overflow varied from 0.19 to 0.72 foot. Boileau
obtained the following formula for a suppressed weir:
(>=3.3455^^|^^— ^Zi?^ .... (1.5)
a Experiences hydrauliques sur lea lois de r^coulement de I'eau, Paris, 1852.
b Smith, Hamilton, Hydraulics, pp. 96 and 97 and 101-107. Also plates 1-2 and 8.
cGa.\igeage de cours d'eau, etc., Paris, 1850.
22 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
This formula includes the correction for velocity of approach. The
coefficient C^ it will be noticed, is given as a constant. Boileau after-
wards gave a table of corrections varying with the depth, indicating a
discharge from 96 to lOT per cent of that obtained with the constant
coefficient. Additional experiments by Boileau on suppressed weirs
having a crest length of about 0.95 foot have been recomputed by
Hamilton Smith. ^ The heights of weirs were, respectively, 2.028,
2.690, 2.018, and 2.638 feet. In these experiments the discharge was
determined by measurement through orifices.
EAST INDIAN ENGINEERS' FORMULA.*
The East Indian engineers' formula for thin-edged weirs is
where
Reducing,
Q^\ ML ^2(jJP= CLH^
C=\4^j M=^.ZbM
Jf=:l-(M^i^/ + ^3)
(16)
J/=:0.654 -0.01 //
C/=3.4989-0.0635 IF
\
(17)
This formula applies to a suppressed weir. Method of correction
for velocity of approach is not stated. Coefficient M has a maximum
value 0.654, and decreases slowly as the head increases. Limits of
applicability of formula are not stated. Values of C are given below :
CcH'fficieiit ('for thin-edged vrirSj East Indian eruiinetn's* formula. <"
Hln
feet.
1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
1
0.4
1
0.5
0.6 1
0.7
0.8
0.9
0
3.499
3.494
3.488
3.483
3.478
3. 472
3.467
3. 462
3.456
3.451
1
3.445
8.440
3.4a5
3. 429
3. 424
3.419
3.413
3.4a*<
3.403
3.397
•2
1 3.392
3.386
3.381
3. 376
3.370
3.365
3.;J60
3.354
3.349
3.»14
3
3.338
3.333
3.328
3.322
3.317 1
3.312
3.306
3.301
3.296
3.290
•1
1 3.285
3.280
3.274
3. 269
3.2<>4
3.2;)8
8.253
3. 24S
3. 242
3.237
5
3.221
3.226
3.221
3.215
3.210
3.20.')
3.199 1
3.191
3.189
3.1.S3
6
3.178
3.172
3.167
3. 162
3. 156
3. 151
3.146 ;
3.140
3.135
3.130
7
' 3.121
3.119
3.114
3.108
3.103
3.098
3.092
3.087
3. 082
3.076
8
3.071
3.066
3.060
3.a'>5
3.050
8.044
3.039 '
3.034
3.028
3.023
9
3.017
3.012
3.007
3.001
2. 996
2.991
2.985 1
2.980
2.975
2.969
« Hydraulic."^, pp. 133-135.
''Given in J. Mullins's Irrigation Manual, Introduced in
region of upper Hud.son River. Not ^iven in BellasLs'.s re(
r For East Indian engineers' Imiad-crested weir formula,
Kee p. 114.
United States by G. W. liafter and used in
ent East Indian work on hydraulics,
u.sing eoeflk'ients derived from -the above,
THIN-EDGED WEIRS. 23
«
EXPERIMENTS AND FORMULA OF JAMES B. FRANCIS.
The experiments on discharge over thin-edged weirs," upon which
the Francis formula is based, were made in October and November,
1852, at the lower locks of the Pawtucket canal, leading from Con-
cord River past the Lowell dam to slack water of Merrimac River.
Additional experiments were made by Francis in 1848 * at the center
vent water wheel at the Boott Cotton Mills in Lowell, with gates
blocked open and with constant head. A uniform but unknown vol-
ume of water was thus passed through the turbine and over a weir
having various numbers of end contractions, the effect of which was
thus detennined. Similar experiments were made in 1851 at the Tre-
mont turbine,*" where a constant volume of water was passed over
weirs of lengths ranging from 3.5 to 16.98 feet and with from two to
eight end contractions. These experiments were made to determine
the exponent n in the weir formula
Francis here found n=1.47, but adopted the value 7i=1.5=3 2, in
the experiments of 1852.
The Pawtucket canal lock was not in use at the time of the Lowell
experiments in 1852 and the miter gates at the upper lock chamber
were removed and the weir was erected in the lower hollow quoin of
the gate chamber. The middle gates at the foot of the upper cham-
ber were replaced by a bulkhead having a sluice for drawing off the
water. A timber flume in the lower chamber of the lock was ased as
a measiiring basin to determine the flow over the weir. Its length
was 102 feet and its width about 11.6 feet. A swinging apron gate
was so arranged over the crest of the weir that, when opened, the
water flowed freely into the measuring basin below, and when closed,
with its upper edge against the weir, the overflow passed into a
wooden diverting channel, placed across the top of the lock chamber,
and flowed into Concord River. An electric sounder was attached
to the gate framework, by which a signal was given when the edge of
the swinging gate was at the center of the nappe, when either opening
or closing. By this means the time of starting and stopping of each
experimental period was observed on a marine chronometer. The
depth on the weir was observed b}^ hook gages. The readings were
taken in wooden stilling boxes, 11 by 18 inches square, open at the
top, and having a 1-inch round hole through the bottom, which was
about 4 inches below the weir crest. The weir was in the lower quoin
of the gate recess, and the hook gage boxes were in the upper quoin,
projecting slightly beyond the main lock walls. In weirs with end
aFranciK, J. B., Lowell Hydraulic Experiments, pp. 103-135. 6 Idem, pp. 96-102. oldem, pp. 76-96.
24
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
contractions the full width of the channel was used. For suppressed
weirs, a leading channel having a width equal to the length of the
weir crest was formed by constructing vertical timber walls within
the main canal, extending 20 feet upstream from the weir and having
their upper ends flaring about 1 foot toward the canal walls. Water
was freely admitted on both side^ of these timber walls. The hook
gage boxes were outside of this channel. The holes in the bottom
were plugged, and flush piezometer pipes were used to connect the
hook-gage boxes with the inner face of the side walls of the channel
of approach. Observations of the head by hook gage were taken at
intervals of about 15 seconds. Each experimental period covered
from 190 to 900 seconds. The hook-gage readings were reduced to
weir cresf level as a datum and arranged in groups of two or three,
which agreed closely. The mean head was determined by the correc-
tion formula (48). In one period, 18 observations of heads ranged
from 0.6310 to 0.0605 foot; their arithmetical mean was 0.6428;
the computed correction was minus 0.0008.
The measured head was corrected for velocity of approach by using
the theoretical formula given below. The range and character of the
experiments, together with the general results, are shown in the fol-
lowing table:
Thin-edged weir e.rperiments of J. B. Francis at tlie Imrer lockny Lowell, Mass.f 1852.
Serial
3
Range of ve-
c
i
o**
num-
bers of
"^l
Range of ob-
served head.
locity of
approach, in
leet per
1
^0
Discharge coeflicient
experi-
-s^
"oJ sS
in feet.
u
2
$B
v.
ments.
fs
' C3
second.
1
Sfc;
1
1
C
C 1
II
0 5* ^
7— —
1
t^-
"
■ —
lii
2*
1
1
1 '
1
3
11
j
.2 , 2
_H_i
i?
l«
u*
H
fc H
'A
<
S
1
ii 4I
4I
13.96
; 5.048
1.52480
1.56910
0.7<W2 l0.7889
9.997
'^
i.:i6
3.3318
1
3.3002 3.3181
5 10
6
13.96
5.048
1.23690
1.25490
.5904 .6000
9.997
2
1.16
3.3412
3.3159 , 3.3338
n ' 33
23
13.96
i 5. 018
. 91570
,1.06920
.3951 ! .48(W
9.997
2
1.00
3.3383
3.3110 ! 3.3223
34 ' 3ft
2
13.9f5
5.048
1.01025
1.02625
. mn . 359<5
7.997
4
1.02
3.3617
3.8586 3.3601
36 43 ,
8
13.96
2. 014
1.02805
|1. 07945
.9496 '1.0049
9.997
2
1.0.',
3.3567
3.8498 1 8.3627
44 1 fAi
7
9.992
5.048
.974r30
, .98675
. 5376 . 5455
9. 995
0
0.98
3.3437
3.33Q6 i 3.3409
51 ' 55
5 1
9.992
5.048
.99240
1.00600
. 5477 . 5589
9.995
0
1.00
3.3349
3.3243 1 3.3270
56 1 61
6
13.96
' 5.W8
.77690
.81860
.3170 1 .:«05
9.997
2
0.80
3. 3287
3.3188 j 3.3246
6'2 66
5
13.96
2. 014
. 77115
1 .88865
.6694 ' .7963
9.997
2
0.83
3.3435
3.3376 3.3403
67 71
v
9.992
5.048
. 7362
. 81495
.:^TO j .4213
9. 995
0
0.80
3.3424
3.3341 ' 3.3393
72 ' 78
7
13.96
5.048
..59190
. ^rvvi.-)
.2182 1 .2509
9.997
2
0.62
3.3806
3.3237 ' 3.3275
79 84
6
13.96
' 2.014
. 63135
. \ 6 J85
.5193 , .r>196
9.i>97
2
0.65
3.3278
3.3244 1 3.3262
85 ' 88
4
13.96
2. 01 1
.66940
.68815
.4:i82 1 .4526
7.997
4
0.<V8
3.&S82
3.3333 1 8.3368
FRANCIS EXPERIMENTO. ' 25
From a discussion of these experiments Francis presents the final
formula —
Q=S.SSZJI^.
If there are end contractions,
Z=Z'-0.1iY//: [ . . (18)
If there is velocity of approach,
The mean velocity v was determined by successive approximations;
h was determined by the usual formula —
'=h ■
The Francis formula for velocity of approach correction is cumber-
some, and several substitutes have been devised, some of which are
described in the following paragraphs.
(1) Determine the approximate velocity of approach v^^ by a single
trial computation of Q^ using D=Il,
Then use
to determine the final value of Q. For a given value of v this gives
too large a value of ZT, but the approximate value of t\ is somewhat
too small, partially counterbalancing the error and usually giving a
final value of Q sufficiently precise.
(2) By developing into series and omitting the powers h!D above
the first, A being always relatively small, the following closely approxi-
mate equivalent of the Francis correction formula, given by Emerson,*
is obtained:
//=i?+A-g75 (1^)
(3) Hunking and Hart* derive from the Francis correction formula
the following equivalent expression:
KI)^=II^=(D+h)^-h^ (20)
-=[^+S(i>'"]'-[-S©"-t ■ • <^'>
where G is the area of channel section in which D is measured, per
unit length of crest.
a Hydrodynamics, p. 286. t» Jour. Franklin Inst , Phlla., August. 18S4, pp. 121-126.
26
WEIB EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
For a suppressed weir,
For a contracted weir.
r- _ ^-
(22)
Hunking and Hart have computed values of K by the sohition of
the above formula for each 0.005 increment in D G to 0.36. The
results extended by formula (23) are given below.
VelocUt/ of approach correction, fcuAor K
Hunking
0.3
1.022359
and HartformuJny
H^=KD^'
•
DIG
.000
0.0
1.00000
1
0.1
0.2
1.009980
0.4
0.5
1.062250
0.6
1.002628
1.039840
1.08964
.005
1.000006
1.002785
1.010480 1
1.023110
1.040836
1.063495
1.091134
.010
1.000026
1.003053
1.010994
1.023875
1.041832
1.064740
1.092628
.015
1.000058
1.003335
1.011519 :
1.024653 I
1. 042828
1.065985
1.094122
.020
1.006103
1.003628 1
1.012057 '
1.026444
1.043824
1.067230
1.095616
.025
1.000161
1.003933
1. 012607
1.026248
1.045069
1.068724
1.097359
.030
1.000231.
1.004251 ,
1.013169
1.027065 ,
1.046065
1.069969
1.098853
.oa5
1.000314
1.004581 1
1.013744 '
1.027895
1.047061
1.071214
1.100347
.010
1.000409
1.004923
1.014331
1.028739
1.048306
1.072708
1.102090
.045
1.000518
1.005278
1.014931
1.029596 j
1.049302
1.073953
1.103584
.a5o
1.000638
1.005644 '
1.015M3
1.030467 1
1.060298
1.075198
1.105078
.{m
1.000'/V2
1.006023
l.*016167 ,
1.031350 ,
1.051543
1.076692
1.106821
.060
1.000917
1.006414
1.016805
1.032248
1.052788
1.078186
1.108564
.065
1.001075
1.006817 1
1.017455 1
i.os^n
1.053784
1.079431
1.110058 1
.070
1.001246
1.007232
1.018107
1.034113
1.055029
1.080925
1.111801
.075
1.001429
1.007659 1
1.018792
1.035109
1.056274
1.082419
1.113544 ,
.080
1.001624
1.008099 '
1.019480 ,
1.03.5856 1
1. 057270
1.083664
1. 115038
.085
1.001832
1.008551
1.020180
1. 03(3852 i
1.058515
1.085158
1.116781
.090
'1.002051
1.009016
1.020893
1.037848 I
1.059760
1.086652
1. 118524
.095
1.002284
1.009491
1.021620
1.038844
1.061005
1.088146
1.120267
The general formula for K is too complex for common use. The
expressions
^=1+0.2489^2^ (23)
and
^-+(^)-
m)
are stated to give results correct within one-hundredth and one-fiftieth
of I per cent, respectively, for values of /i less than 0.36.
EXPERIMENTS AND FORMULAS OF FTELEY AND STEARNS.
The first series of experiments by Fteley and Stearns on thin-edged
weir discharge^. were made in March and April, 1877, on a suppres.sed
weir, with crest 5 feet in length, erected in Sudbury conduit below
Farm Pond, Metropolitan waterworks of Boston.
Water from Farm Pond was let into the leading channel through
"Fteley, A., and Steams, F. P., Experiment,** on the flow of wnter, ct«.: Trans. Am. Soc. C. E.,
vol. 12, Jan.. Feb., Mar., 1883. pp. 1-118.
EXPERIMENTS OF FTELEY AND STEARNS. 27
hoad-j^tps until the desired level for the experiment, as found by
previous trial, was reached. A swinging gate was then raised from
the crest of the weir and the water was allowed to flow over. The
maintenance of a uniform reghiien was facilitated by the large area
and the consequent small variation of level in Farm Pond, so that the
outflow from the gates was sensibly proportional to the height they
were raised. The water flowed from the weir into the conduit chan-
nel below, and was measured volumetrically. For the smaller heads
the length of the measuring basin was 22 feet, and for the larger
heads S^ feet.
The crest depth was observed by hook gage in a pail below the weir,
connected to the channel of approach by a rubber tube entering the
top of the side wall, 6 feet upstream from the weir crest. Hook-gage
readings of head were taken every half minute until uniform regimen
was established, and every minute thereafter. The depths in the meas-
uring basin were also taken by hook gage. The bottom of the conduit
wa8 concave, and was graded to a slope of 1 foot per mile. It was
covered with water previous to each experiment, leaving a nearly
rectangidar section.
The experiments in 1877 included 81 depths on a suppressed weir
of 5 feet crest length, 3.17 feet high. The observed heads varied
from 0.0735 to 0.8198 foot.
In 1879 a suppressed weir, with a creat length of 19 feet, was
erected in Farm Pond Gate House. Head-gates and screens were
close to weir; otherwise the apparatus for measuring head and starting
and stopping flow w^as similar to that used in previous experiments.
The crest of the weir was an iron bar 8^ inches wide and one-fourth
inch thick, planed and filed and attached to the upper weir timber with
screws. No variation in level of the weir crest occurred. As in the
preceding experiments, no by-pass was provided, and the entire over-
flow entered Sudbury conduit below the weir. The conduit was
partly filled with water at the start, leaving a nearly rectangular sec-
tion, 11,800 feet in length and about 9 feet wide. A difference of 3
feet in water level was utilized in measuring discharge, the total capac-
ity being 300,272 cubic feet. Semipartitions w^ere provided to reduce
oscillation of the water. Many observations, covering a considerable
period of time, were required to determine the true water level. This
series of experiment included 10 depths on a suppressed weir 19 feet
long and 6.55 feet high, with measured heads varying from 0.4685 to
1.6038 feet and velocities of approach ranging from 0.151 to 0.840 foot
per second.
From measurements on weirs 5 and 19 feet in length, respectively,
and from a recalculation of the experiments of James B. Francis,
Fteley and Stearns obtained the final formula
Q=S.UL/n +0,0011 (25)
28 WEIB EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
In the above, if there is velocity of approach,
or =1.5 for suppressed weirs.
« =2.05 for weirs with end contractions.
The value of the velocity head coefficient a was determined from
94 additional experiments on the 5-foot weir in 1878. These involved
measured heads ranging from 0.1884 to 0.9443 foot, heights of weir
ranging from 0.50 to 3.47 feet, and velocities of approach reaching a
maximum of 2.35 feet per second. Also 17 experiments were made
on weirs 3, 3.3, and 4 feet long respectively; the first with two and
the last two with one end contraction. These experiments included
measured heads varying from 0.5574 to 0.8702 foot, and velocities of
approach from 0.23 to 1.239 feet per second.
In all ejcperiments on velocity of approach, the head was measured
6 feet upstream from crest. The width of channel was 5 feet.^
Fteley and Stearns found the following values of a for suppressed
weirs:
Fteley and Steams* 8 valv£ of a. for suppressed weirs.
Meiwured
depth on
weir,
in feet.
1
Depth of channel of approach below weir t
crest, in feet. |
1
0.50
1.00
1.70
2.60*'
0.2
1.70
1.87
1.66
1.51
.3
1.53
1.83
1.65
1.50
.4
1.53
1.79
1.63
1.49
.5
1.53
1.75
1.62
1.48
.6
1.52
1.71
1.60
1.47
. 7
1.51
1.68
1.59
1.4(>
.8
cl.bO
M.65
1.57
1.45
.9
1.49
1.63
1.56
<1.44
1.0
1.48
1.61
1.54
1.43
1.1
1.59
1.53
. 1.42
1.2
1.57
1.51
1.41
1.3
1 1.55
1.49
1.40
1.4
1.54
1.48
1.39
1.5
1.52
1.46
1.38
1.6
1.51
1.44
1.37
' 1.7
1.49
1.43
1.36
1.8
1.9
2.0
1.41
1.40
1.38
1. 35
1.34 '
1.33
1
a Fteley and Steams, idem pp. .V23.
fc Applicable to (?realor heights of weir.
o Limit of experiments.
bazin's experiments. 29
Current-meter measurements showed a nearly uniform distribution
of velocities in the channel of approach above the 19-foot weir, a fact
to be taken account of when the formulas are applied to cases where
the velocity of approach varies in different portions of the leading
channel.
If there are end contractions, the net length of weir should be deter-
mined by the Francis formula,
The head should be measured at the surface of the channel of
approach, 6 feet upstream from the weir crast.
BAZIN'S EXPERIMENTS.
Bazin's experiments on thin-edged weirs were performed in the side
channel of the Canal de Bourgogne, near Dijon, France, and were
begun in 1886. Their results were published in Annales des Fonts et
Chauss^es and have been translated by Marichal and Trautwine."
The standard weir consisted of horizontal timbers 4 inches square,
with an iron crest plate 0.276 inch in thickness. Air chambers were
placed at the ends of the weir on the downstream side, to insure full
aeration of the nappe. End contractions were suppressed^ The
height of the firet weir was 3.27 feet above channel bottom, and the
head was measured in *'Bazin pits," one at each side of the channel
16. rM) feet upstream from the weir crest. The pit consisted of a lat-
eral chamber in the cement masonry forming the walls of the canal.
The chamber was square, 1.64 feet on each side, and communicated
with the channel of approach by a circular opening 4 inches in diameter,
placed at the bottom of the side wall and having its mouth exactly
flush with the face of the wall. The oscillations of the water surface
in the lateral chamber were thus rendered much less prominent than
in the channel of approach. The water level in the Bazin pit was
observed by dial indicators attached to floats, the index magnifying
the variations in water level four times, the datum for the indicators
having been previously determined by means of hook gages placed
above the crest of the weir and by needle-pointed slide gages in the
leading channel.
A drop gate was constructed on the crest of the weir to shut off the
discharge at will. In each experiment the head-gates through which
the water entered the leading channel were first raised and the water
was allowed to assume the desired level. The weir gate was then
raised, and the head-gates were manipulated to maintain a nearly con-
a Bazin, H., Recent experiments on flow of water over weirs, trannlated fmm the French by Mari-
chal and Trautwine: Proc. Engineers' Club Phila., vol. 7. Jan., 1890, pp. 259-310; vol. 9, pp. 231-244,
287-319; vol. 10, pp. 121-164.
30
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
stant inflow. The arithmetical mean of the observations during each
period of uniform regimen was used as the measured head for that
experiment.
The overflow passed into a measuring channel, 656.17 feet in length,
whose walls were made of smooth Portland cement concrete. The
channel was 6.56 feet wide, its side walls were 3.937 feet high, and its
lower end was closed by water-tight masonry. Its bottom was graded
to a slope of about 1: 1,000. The volume of inflow was determined by
first covering the channel bottom with water, then noting the change
of level during each experimental period, the capacity of the channel
at various heights having previously been carefully determined. A
slight filtration occurred, necessitating a correction of about one-eighth
of 1 per cent of the total volume. The observations for each regimen
were continued through a period of 12 to 30 minutes.
Sixty -seven experiments w^ere made on a weir 3.72 feet high, includ
ing heads from the least up to 1.017 feet. A})ove this point the
volumetric measuring channel filled so quickly as to require the use of
a shorter weir. Thirty -eight experiments were made with a standard
weir, 8.28 feet long and 3.72 feet high, with heads varying from the
least up to 1.34 feet. For heads exceeding 1.34 feet it was necessary
to reduce the height of the weir in order that the depth above the weir
should not exceed that of the channel of approach. Forty-eight
experiments were made on a weir 1.64 feet long and 3.297 feet high,
with heads ranging from the least up to 1.780 feet. These experiments
sufficed to calibrate the standard weir with a degree of accuracy stated
bj' Bazin as less than 1 per cent of error.
In order to determine the effect of varying velocities of approach
the following additional series of experiments were made on sup-
pressed weirs 2 meters (6.56 feet) in length.
E.rperimt'uts on ^nppresned weirs J meters in leyigth.
Number
of experi-
ment.
Range of head in feet
From— 1
To—
28-f30
0.489 1
1.443
29-129
.314
1.407
27^41
.298 J
1.338
44
.296
1.3:^8
Height of
experimen-
tal weir, in
feet.
2.46
1.64
1.15
0.79
The standard weir was 3.72 feet high, and the experimental weirs
were placed 46 to 199 meters downstream. The discharge was not
measured volumetrically. A uniform regimen of flow was established
and the depths on the two weirs were simultaneously observed during
each period of flow.
bazin's formulas. 31
These experiments afforded data for the determination of the rela-
tive effect of different velocities of approach, corresponding to the
different depths of the leading channel.
From these experiments Bazin deduces coefficients for a thin-edged
weir 3.72 feet high, for heads up to 1.97 feet, stated to give the true
discharge within 1 per cent."
BAZIN*S FORMULAS FOR THIN-EDGED WEIRS.
Starting with the theoretical formula for a weir without velocity of
approach, in the form
Q=fJLLn4^2gIf
and substituting
for II, in the case of a weir having velocity of approach, there results,
Bazin obtained, by mathematical ti*ansformation, the equivalent^
Bazin writes
* 771
for which equation he obtains, by mathematical transformation, the
approximate equivalent*^
-=<^+2H^)- ■■■■■■ (^'^)
The calculation of the factor /; appearing in this formula requires
the discharge ^ to be known.
Assuming that the channel of approach has a constant depth P below
the crest of the weir, and that its width is equal to the length of the
a Bazin, H., Experiences nouvelles) sur T^coulement en deverHOir: Ann. Pontfi et Chaufis^es, M<^m. et
Doc., 1888, 2^ trimefltre. See translation by Marichal and Trau twine in Pnw. Eng. Club Phila., vol. 7,
pp. 259-310; vol. 9. pp. 231-244.
*The steps in the derivation of this formula arc given by Tniutwine and Marichal in their trans-
latioii of Bazin's report of his experiments, in Proc, Eng. Club Phlla., vol. 7, p. 280.
« The steps in detail are given by Trautwine and Marichal in their translation of Bazin, in Proc.
Eng. Club PhUa., vol. 7, No. 5, p. 281.
32 WEIK EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
weir, V may be expressed in terms.of these factors, and of the discharge
(^=;«.Z2>V2^).
Using this value of v, Bazin obtains the expression
m=t^\}+'^Qlj^^~\ (28)
3
where c^=o ^ '^^*- ci? is a nearly constant factor, varying only with
m^. The value of co as well as that of a can be determined by com-
parativ^e experiments on thin-edged weirs of different heights.^
From a discussion of his own experiments and those of Fteley and
Stearns, Bazin finally obtained the formulas
Q=fJLLH4*2igII^ no velocity of approach; 1
Q=jnLDy2gD^ with velocity of approach. J
(29)
i. .,,., 0.003 X 3.281 _ ,^. ,0.00984^ ^on^
/i=0.405H jy- =0.405H ^ ... \6K))
5
For a weir with velocity of approach «=q and a?=0.55. Substitut-
ing in equations (27) and (28),
.=;. [1+0.55 (^^,;^^J] (32)
171-
VI-
These formulas give values of m agreeing with the results of the
experiments within 1 per cent for weirs exceeding about 1 foot in
height within the experimental range of head.
Approximately, for heads from 4 inches to 1 foot.
7;i=0.425+O
^<>>l^)' ^^^^
correct within 2 to 3 per cent.
The following table gives Bazin's experimental coefficients, the head
and height of weir (originally meters) having been reduced to feet:
a For detailed analy.sis see Trautwine and Marichal, Proc. Eng. Club Phlla.. vol. 7, pp. 282-283.
b Experimental tabular values of |u differing very slightly from the formula within the range of
Bazin's experiments are also given.
■^ CJ
V ^
I ^
IBB 150-06 3
BAZIN S FORMULAS.
33
Values of the Bazin coefficient C in the formula Q=CLH^ for a thin-edged weir, wilhout
end contrachon.
i
Measured
headl).
Hei
0.66
Ifht of crest of weir atx>ve bwl of cha
0.98 j 1.31 1.64 1 1.97 ' 2.62
anel of
3.28
approf
"4.!e
C
3.598
tch, in 1
6.56
C
3.598
feet.
QC
c
Meaxured
headi).
Metere.
Feet.
C j C
C
C
3.601
C
C
0.164
3.678
3.6S3
3.617 3.609
3.601
8.601
3.594
0.06
.197
3.657
3.609
3.585 3.569
8.669
3.561
3.553 1 3.563
3.553
3.550
.06
.230
8.649
3.598 3.569 3.553
3.545
3.537
3.529
3.529
3.521
3.522
.07
.262
3.657
3.585 3.553 3.537
3.529
3.513
3.513
3.506 ; 3.506
8.499
.08
1 .295
3.665 3.585 \ 3.545 | 3.529
3.513
3.497
3.497
3.489 . 3.481
3.481
.09
.828
8.681 3.585 3.545 1 3.521
3.505
3.480
8.481
3.473 3.473
3.466
.10
.394
3.705 3.593 3.545 | 3.518
3.497
3.478
8.465
8.449 3.449
3.441
.12
.459
3.737 3.609 3.553 ^513
3.489
3.465
8.449
3.482 3.432
8.422
.14
.525
3.777 3.633 3.561 ' 8.513
8.489
3.457
8.440
3.424 3.416
3.406
.16
.501
8.810 3.657 , 3.560 3.521
8.489
3.467
3.482
3.416
3.408
3.392
.18
.656
3,850 3.681:8.585 3.529
3.497
3.457
3.432
8.408
3.892
8.380
.20
.722
8.882 3.705 3.601 3.545
3.505
3.457
8.432
3.400
8.892
8.371
.22
.7K7
3.914 3.729 ' 8.625 3.561
3. 513
3.465
3.432
3.400
3.384
3.864
.24
.853
8.946 3.753 3.649 3.577
3.529
3.465
3.440
3.400
3.384
3.358
.26
.919
3.978 3.78'> 3.665
3.593 ; 3.537
3.478
3.440
3.400
8.400
3.884
8.858
8.348
.28
.984
4.010 3.810
3.689
3.609
3.553
3.481
8.449
3.876
.30
1.060
3.834
3.706
3.626
3.561
3.497
8.449
3.400
3.376
3.843
.32
1 1.116
3.858
3.721
3.641
3.577
3.505
3.467
3.400
8.376
3.388
.34
1 1.181
3.874
8.745 1 3.657
3.593
3.513
3.465
3.400
3.376
3.333
.86
1.247
8.898
3.761
3.678 3.601
3.681 3.617
3.521
3.529
3.465
3.473
3.400
3.400
3.376
8.328
3.323
.38
1.312
3.922
3.785
3.376
.40
1.378
8.938
3.801
3.697
3.625
3.537
3.481
3.408
3.376
3.319
.42
1.444
3.962
3.818
3.713
3.641
3.545
3.489
3.408
3.876
3.316
.44
1.609
3.978
3.834
8.729
3.657
3.558
3.489
3.408
3.376
3.311
.46
1.575
3.850
3.745
3.753
3.665 1 8-561
3.497
8.505
3.408
3.376
3.376
3.306
3.309
.48
.50
3.866
3.681
1 1.640
8.669
8.416
1.706
1.772
1.137
1.908
1.969
3.874
3.890
8.769
8.786
3.798
8.810
8.818
8.689
3.697
3.718
3.721
3.737
3.577
8.585
3.598
3.601
3.617
8.613
3.513
8.521
3.629
3.537
3.416
3.416
3.424
3.424
3.424
3.376
3.376
3.376
8.376
3.376
3.298
3.294
3.289
3.285
3.282
.52
.54
.56
.58
.60
,
3.906
3.922
8.930
0.20
i Meters.
0.30
0.40 , 0.60
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.50
2.00
00
This table, unfortunately, is inconvenient for intei*polation in English
units. The values also differ slightly from those computed from the
formulas. The table illustrates the difficulty of practical application
of a weir formula in which the coefficient varies rapidly both with
head and height of weir.
34
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
A table has been added giving values of pi computed by l^rmula
(30) for a thin-edged weir without velocity of approach.
Values of u in the Bazin formula, for weirs of infinite height, with no velocity of approarh.
H.
Feet.
0.
0.01.
0.02.
0.03.
0.04.
0.05.
0.06.
0.07.
0.08.
0.09.
0.1.
0.0
1.389
0.8970
0.7331
0. 6.S10
0.6018
0.6693
0.6467
0. 5280
0.6142
0.50»4
.1
0.50&4
.4944
.4870
.4807
.4753
.4706
.4665
.4628
.4596
.4668
.4.M2
.2
.4642
.4618
.4497
.4478
.4460
.4444
.4429
.4414
.4401
.4389
.4378
.3
.4378
.4867
.4367
.4348
.4339
.4331
.4324
.4316
.4309
.4302
.4296
.4
.4296
.4290
.4284
.4278
.4278
.4268
.4264
.4260
.4255
.4251
.4247
.5
.4247
.4243
.4289
.4286
.4232
.4229
.422.T
.4222
.4219
.4216
.4^4
.6
.4214
.4211
.4208
.4206
.4204
.4202
.4-200
.4197
.4195
.4193
.4191
.7
.4191
.4189
.4187
.4186
.4183
.4181
.4180
.4178
.4176
.4174
.4173
.8
.4178
.4171
.4170
.4168
.4167
.4166
.4164
.4163
.4162
.4160
.4159
.9
.4169
.4158
.4167
.4166
.4164
.4163
.4162
.4161
.4160
.4149
.4148
1.0
.4148
.4147
.4146
.4146
.4145
.4144
.4143
. 4142
.4141
.4140
.4139
1.1
.4189
.4139
.4138
.4137
.4186
.4136
.4135
.4134
.4133
.4138
.4132
1.2
.4132
.4181
.4131
.4130
.4129
.4129
.4128
.4127
.4127
.4126
.4126
1.3
.4126
.4126
.4124
.4124
.4123
.41*23
.4122
.4122
.4121
.4121
.4120
1.4
.4120
.4120
.4119
.4119
. 4118
.4118
.4117
.4117
.4116
.4116
.4116
1.6
.4116
.4116
.4116
.4114
.4114
.4113
.4113
.4118
.4112
.4112
.4112
1.6
.4112
.4111
.4111
.4110
.4110
.4110
.4109
.4109
.4108
.4108
.4108 1
1.7
.4106
.4108
.4107
.4107
.4107
.4106
.4106
.4106
.4105
.4106
.4105
1.8
.4106
.4104
.4104
.4104
.4103
.4103
.4108
.4103
.4102
.4102
.4102 ,
1.9
.4102
.4102
.4101
.4101
.4101
.4100
.4100
.4100
.4100
.4099
.4099
2.0
.4099
1
1 1
DERIVED FORMULAS FOR THIN-EDGED RECTANGULAR WEIRS.
A number of weir formulas have been derived from subsequent
analysis o% recomputation of the experiments of Francis, Fteley and
Steams, and Bazin, diflfering more or less from those given by the
experimenters.
FTELEY AND STEARNS-FRANCIS IXJRMULA.**
Q=S.dSLJI^ +0.001 Z (34)
Correction for end contractions is to be made by the Francis
formula; velocity of approach correction by the Fteley and Steams
formulas
H—D+Lbh^ for suppressed weir.
If=D+2.0bh, for contracted weir.
HAMILTON smith's FORMULA.*
The base formula adopted is
Q=^ MLIlhgll
(35)
aFleley and iSU'aras, Experiments on the flow of water, etc.: Trans. Am. See. C. E., vol. 12, p. 82.
{> Smith, Hamilton, Hydiaulics, pp. 12»-132.
DERIVE!) F0RMITLA8 FOR THIN-EDGED WKTRS.
85
The velocity of approach correction is made by the use of the
formulas
//=/>+1.4A, for contracted weirs."
I£=I}+lih^ for suppressed weirs.
A diagram and tables of values of the coeflScient Jf are given by the
author. The correction for partial or complete contraction is included
in the coefficient, separate values of Jf being given for suppressed and
contracted weirs.
Making (7= 5 M^j2gl the Smith formula (35) may be written
which is directly comparable with the Francis formula.
Smith's coefficients in the above form are given in the following
tables.
Hamilion Smithes coefficient fvr vjeirs with ccmtracHon suppressed at both ends, for use in
the formula Q=CLlfi.
Head,
in feet.
19
16
J
10
?<-leiijrth of weir. In fee
7 ; 5 j 4
L
1
in
2a
0.66 1»
0.1
.15
3.515
3.440
3.615
3.446
3.520
3.445
3.520
8.451
3.526
3.451
3.611
3.542
3.461
3.472
3.488
.2
8.397
3.403
3.408
3.408
3.413
3.429
3.436
3.450
3.610
.25
3.871
3.376
3.381
8.386
8.392
3.403
3.413
8.429
3.494
.3
3.349
8.854
3.860
8.866
3.876
8.386
3.408
3.418
3.483
.4
3.S22
3.328
3.833
8.844
3.360
8.371
3.386
3.403
3.478
.5
3.812
3.817
8.322
8.888
8.354
3.371
3.386
8.406
3.478
.6
3.306
3.312
3.317
3.388
3.354
8.371
3.392
3.413
3.488
.7
3.806
8.312
8.317
3.388
3.860
3.876
3.397
3.424
8.494
.8
3.306
3.317
3.322
3.344
3.365
8.386
8.406
8.441
3.510
.9
3.312
3.317
3.328
3.354
8.875
3.397
8.418
8.451
1.0
3.812
8.322
3.338
8.360
3.386
8.408
8.429
8.467
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.6
1.7
2.0
3.817
3.317
3.322
3.328
3.328
3.388
3.338
3.328
3.338
8.338
8.344
8.344
8.349
3.349
3.344
3.849
3.360
3.365
3.371
3.376
8.381
8.371
3.381
8.386
3.392
3.408
3.408
3.413
3.397
3.403
8.413
3.424
3.429
3.435
8.419
3.429
8.440
8.446
8.456
3.461
3.445
8.456
8.467
i
i
1
a The lue of the head corresponding to central surface velocity without correction, to determine D,
i^ alao recommended.
bApproxinuite.
36 ^KIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Hamillan Smith':* coefficiehts for weirs with two complete end contractions, for use in th*
ftrrmuUi q=CTjfi.
Head.
I
'=length of wuir, in feel
0.66
la
2
2.6
3
4
5
3.491
7
10
8.504
15
3.504
19 1
0.1
3.381
3.419
3.456
3.478
8.488
3.494
3.499
3.510
.15
3.312
3.344
3.392
3.406
8.413
3.419
3.424
3.424
3.429
3.43.'>
3.435
.2
3.269
3.806
3.349
3.366
3.371
3.376
3.376
3.381
3.886
3.392
3,392
.25
3.237
3.274
3.322
3.333
3.338
3.344
3.849
3.864
3.360
3.360
3.36.1
.3
3.215
3.263
#3.296
8.306
8.312
8.822
3.322
3.383
3.338
3.83H
3.344
.4
3.183
3.215
3.258
8.274
3.280
8.285
3.290
3.301
3.306
3.812
3.317
.5
3.156
3.189
3.237
3.247
3.253
3.264
3.269
3.280
3.290
3.295
3.301
.6
3.140
3.172
3.215
8.231
3.287
3.247
3.258
3.269
3.280
3.285
3.290
.7
3.130
3.166
3.199
3.210
3.226
3.231
3.242
3.258
3.274
3.280
8.2«6
.8
3.183
3.199
3.216
3.221
3.281
3.247
3.269
3.274
S-'iao
.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
8.167
3.156
3.140
3.130
3.114
8.103
3.189
3.172
3.162
3.151
3.135
3.124
3.114
3.199
8.ias
3. 172
8.162
8.151
3.140
3.130
3.210
3.199
3.189
3.178
3.167
3.166
3.151
3.226
3.215
3.205
3.194
3.199
3.178
3.167
3.242
3.231
3.226
3.215
3.205
3.199
3.189
3.258
3.253
3.242
3.237
3.231
3.221
3.215
3.269
3.264
3.258
3.253
3.247
3.242
3.237
3.274
3,269
3.264
3 264
3.25S
3.258
3.253
1.6
1.7
3.103
3.114
3.140
3.162
3.183
3.178
3.210
3.205
3.231
3.226
3 247
3.247
2.0
a Approximate.
Hamilton Smith* s coefficient Cfor long weirs.
H
0.00
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
.08
.09
0.1
3.6096
3.4957
3.4818
3.4678
3.4539
3.4400
3.4314
3.4229
3.4143
8.4058
0.2
8.3972
3.3908
3.3844
3.3780
8.3716
8.8662
3.3637
3.8612
3.8488
8.3463
0.8
3.8488
8.3411
3.3884
3.3358
3.3331
3.33(M
3.3277
3.3250
3.3224
3.3197
0.4
0.5
8.3170
3.3154
8.3138
3.3122
3.8106
3.3090
3.3074
3.3058
3.3042
3.3026
I 3.3010
I 3.3005
I 3.2999
' 3.2994
3.2968
3.2983
3.2978
3.2972
3.2967
3.2961
0.6
0.7
3.2956
3.2849
3.2945
3.2838
3.2935
3.2828
3.2924
3.2817
3.2913
3.2806
3.2902
3.2796
3.2892
3.2785
3.2881
3.2773
3. 2870
3.2762
3.2860
3.2752
Hamilton Smith's formula is based on a critical discussion of the
experiments of Lesbros, Poncelet and Lesbros, -James B. Franci.'<,
Fteley and Stearns, and Hamilton Smith; including series with and
without contractions and having crest lengths from 0.66 to 19 feet.
DERIVED FORMULAS FOR THIW-EDGED WEIRS. 37
SMITH-FRANCIS FOBMUUL.
The Smith-Francis formula," based on Francis's experiments, reduced
to the basis of correction for contractions and velocity of approach
used with Hamilton Smith's formula, is,
for a suppressed weir,
^=3.29 fL+^^ff^ (36)
for weir of great length or with one contraction,
^=3.29Z^* (37)
for weir with full contraction,
^=3.29(^Z-g^i7* (88)
If there is velocity of approach,
II=D+1A A, for a contracted weir.
JT=D+H A, for a suppressed weir.
parmlet's formula.*
Parmley's formula is
Q=CKLD^ (89)
If there are end contractions, the correction is to be made by the
Francis formula,
X=Z'~0.1ir//
The factor JST represents the correction for velocity of approach.
The factor has been derived by comparing the velocity correction
factor in the Bazin formula (formula 32), written in the form
K=[l+0.55(±y],
with the approximate Francis correction as deduced by Hunking and
Hart (formula 23), written in the form
K= ["1+0.2489(^2^1'
where a is the area of the section of discharge, for either a suppressed
or contracted weir, and A is the section of the leading channel. It is
observexi that there is an approximately constant relation between the
two corrections, that of Bazin being 2.2 times that of Francis.
a Smith, namilton, Hydraulics, pp. 99 and 137.
bBttiter, G. W., On the flow of water over dams: Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. 44, pp. 360-859, dlscus-
■ion by Walter C. Parmley.
38
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Parmley adopts the Bazin correction and gives the following table,
which may also conveniently be applied in computing discharge by
Bazin's formula.
The discharge coefficient C used by Parmley is that for a weir with
no velocity of approach, as in the Francis formula. It is not, how-
ever, constant. Its values have been deduced from a mean curve rep-
resenting the experiments of Francis, Fteley and Stearns, and Bazin.
Velocity of approach correction^ Ky Parmley and Bazin formulas.
0.00
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
.06
.09
0.1
1.0001
1.0002
1.0005
1.0009
1.0014
1.0020
1.0027
1.0086
1.0044
1.0055
1.0066
1.0079
1.0093 I
1.0108
1.0124
1.0141
1.0169
1.0178
1.0198
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
1.0220
1.0495
1.0880
1. 1376
1.0243
1.0529
1.0926
1.1431
1.0266
1.0563
1.0970
1.1487
1.0291
1.0599
1. 1017
1.1546
1.0317
1.0636
1.1065
1.1604
1.0344
1.0674
1. 1114
1.1664
1.0372
1.0713
1.1164
1.1726
1.0401
1.0753
1. 1215
1.1787
1.0431
1.0794
1.1267
1.1860
1.0463
1.0837
1. 1321
1.1916
Parmley' s iveir formula, coefficient C.
feet.
0.0
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.06
0.09
.1
3.580
.2
8.478 I
.3
3.420 '
.4
3.385
.6
3.368
.6
3.358
.7
3.361
.8
3.346
.9
3.340
1.0
3.334
1.1
3.329
1.2
3. 324
1.3
3.319
1.4
3.313
1.5
3.307
1.6
3.801
1.7
3.296
1.8
3.290
1.9
3.285
2.0
. 3.280
1 1
3.471
3.416
3.383
3.367
3.857
3.351
3.a45
3.339
3.334
3.328
3.324
3.318
3.312
3.306
3.801
3.295
3.290
3. 285
3.556
3.464
3.412
8.381
3.866
3.856
3.360
3.846 !
3.339 '
3.383
3.328
3.823 I
8.818 I
8.812 '
8.306 I
8.300 I
3.296
3.-289
3.284
8.644
3.458
3.408
8.380
8.364
3.366
8.860
8.344
8.338
8.832
3.328
8.322
8.317
8.811
3.306
3.300
3.294
3.288
3.2H4
8.682
8.451
8.404
3.378
3.363
3.855
3.849
3.344
3.338
3.332
3. 327
3.322
8.317
8.311
3.305
3.299
3.294
3.288
3.283
3.520
8.444
8.400
3.876
8.862
8.364
3.349
3.343
3.387
3.332
3.326
3.322
3.316
3.310
3.304
3.298
3.293
3.288
3.282
3.512
3.439
3.397
3.374
3.361
3.353
3.346
3.342
3 836
3.331
3.326
3. 321
3. 315
3.309
3.303
3.298
3.292
3.287
3.282
3.503
3.434
3.394
8.373
8.860
8.853
3.348
8.342
3.386
8.880
8.326
3.320
3. 315
3.309
3.303
3 298
3.292
3.286
3.282
3.495
3.430
3.391
3.371
8.360
8.362
8.847
8.841
8.836
3.860
8.325
3.820
3.814
^3.308
8.802
3.297
3.291
3.286
3.281
3.486
3.425
8.888
3.870
8.869
8.8.%
8.347
3.841
3.836
3.329
3.324
8.320
8.814
8.306
3.302
3.296
3.291
3.285
3.280
THIN-EDGED WEIRS.
39
EXTENSION OF THE WEIR FORMULA TO HIGHER HEADS.
It will be noticed that all the accepted formulas for discharge over
thin -edged rectangular weirs are based on experiments in which the
head did not exceed 2 feet above crest. It is often desirable to utilize
the weir for stream gagings where the head is greater, especially for
the determination of maximum . discharge of streams, the head fre-
quently being as large as 6, 8, or even 10 or 12 feet.
In the experiments at Cornell University' on weirs of irregular sec-
tion it was often necessary to utilize depths on the standard weir
exceeding the known limit of the formula. A series of experiments
was accordingh' carried out in which a depth on a standard thin-edged
weir (16 feet long) not exceeding the limit of the formula was utilized
to determine the discharge over a similar but shorter standard thin-
edged weir (6.56 feet long) for depths up to approximately 5 feet."
The results of these experiments, as recomputed, eliminating slight
errors in the original, are given below.
It will be noted that the weir was short and the velocity of approach
relatively large, yet, according to the results when corrected by the
Francis method, the average value of C for heads from 0.75 to 4.85
feet is 3.296, or 98.88 per cent of the Francis coefficient for a thin-
edged weir. The average value of 6^ for heads from 0.746 foot to 2
feet is 3.266, and for heads from 2 to 4.85 feet, 3.278.
United /States Deep Waterwaytt experiments at Cornell hydraulic laboratory for extension of
thin-edged weir formula.
Standard ireir, 16
feet long, 18.13
feet bigh.
Lower thin-edged weir:
P=5.2, /.=
6.66.
q, cubic
feet per
second,
per foot
{ cor-
rected) .
H
Cor.D,
longi-
tudinal,
piezome-
ter, centi-
meters.
Q.Bazln
formula,
in cubic
feet per
second.
Observed
P, fluflh,
piezome-
ter, centi-
meters.
D,
in feet.
4
I)
P+I)
K
Bunking
and
Hart.
//i
r- ^
1
2
8
»
6
7
'__.
12.28
14.12
22.744
0.7462
0.1255
1.0041
0.6469
2.1066
3.266
15.30
19.42
27.&56
.9139
. 1495
1.0056
.8787
2.9143
3.317
18.39
25.35
33. 175
1.0885
.1731
1.0075
1.1434
3.8183
3.331
21.65
32.24
39.419
1.2933
.1992
1.0099
1.4849
4. 8685
3. 279
24.16
37.86
44.000
1.4486
. 2173
1.0122
1.7564
6.7252
3.260
27.21
46.13
49.699
1.6306
.2387
1.0141
2. 1116
6.8333
3.23JJ
30.16
62.62
55.213
1.8115
.2583
1.0166
2.4787
7.9750
3.218
30.22
52.77
55.128
1.8088
.2581
1.0166
2.4730
7.9977
3.234
87.90
78.46
68.238
2.2389
.8010
1.0225
3.4254
11.1516
3.226
44.22
92.79
80.566
2.6434
.3870
1.0283
4.4193
14.0960
3.190
59.00
143.90
106.689
3.4660
.4000
1.0398
6.6095
21.8902
3. 312
74.22
202.87
180.286
4.2747
.4512
1.0604
9.2867
30.8008
3.317
81.69
233.81
142.567
4.67/3
.4735
1.0557
10. 6789
35.6933
3.833
aRafte
r, G. W., C
)n the flov
T of water
over dams
V. Trans. A
m.SiX!.C.
E.. vol. 44,
p. 397.
40
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
If it is borne in mind that the influences which go to make up vari-
ation in the weir coefficient are more potent for low than for larger
heads, it may be confidently asserted that the Francis formula is appli-
cable within 2 per cent for heads as great as 5 feet, and by inference it
is probably applicable for much greater heads as well.
COMPARISON OF WEIR FORMULAS.
The later weir formulas all give results agreeing, for the range of
beads covered, within the limit of accuracy ,of ordinary stream meas-
urements. Which of the several formulas to use will be determined
by convenience and by the conditions attending the measurements.
The Francis formula is applicable foi^ weirs with perfect bottom
contraction and for any head above 0.50 foot.
The Hamilton Smith, Fteley and Stearns, and Bazin formulas are
more accurate for very slight heads, or where bottom contraction is
imperfect, this element, which tends to increase discharge, being
included in the larger velocity of approach correction. These for-
mulas are, however, based on experiments none of which exceeded 2
feet head, and they have not been extended.
For suppressed weirs in rectangular channels having conditions
closely duplicating Bazin's experiments, his formula is probably most
applicable. The head should preferably be measured in a Bazin pit,
opening at the bottom of the channel, 16.4 feet upstream from the
weir. In a suppressed weir, if the nappe is allowed to expand later-
ally after leaving the weir, the computed discharge by any of the for-
mulas should he increased from one-fourth to one-half of 1 per cent.
Comparative discharge by various formtUas over weirs of great height and length; no end
contractions nor velocity of approach, «
Fonnula.
Coefficient C, for heads rangtiig from
0.20 to 4 feet.
Per cent of discharge by Francis
formula for heads ranging from
0.20 to 4 feet.
Caatel
Boileau
Welgbach
FranclB
Fteley and Stearns
Bazin
Fteley-Steams-Franeis .
Hamilton Smith
Smith- Francis
Parmlfey
East Indian engineers .
8.285
0.20
104.616
100.865
102.075
100.00
105.012
109.281
101.400
101.916
98.70
104.340
104.640
0.50
1.00
104.616
104.616
100.365
100.866
99.406
100.0
100.0
99.807
99.51
102.188
99.801
99.90
99.570
99.080
98.520
98.70
98.70
101.040
100.020
104.16
108.35
104.616
100.365
100.0
99.827
98.035
99.412
96.560
a Computed by H. R. Beebe, C. K.
00MFARI80N OF WEIR FORMULAS.
41
Table phofwmg comparative discharge per fool of crest for suppressed weirs of various
lengths f heads, and velocities of approach.^
Length (L)
Height (P)
Hemd (/))
Approximaie velocity of approach (v) .
Cartel
Boiieau
Francis
Fteley and Stearns
Bazin
Fteley-Steams-FranciH .
Hamilton Smith
Bmith-Franeis
Parmley
Average.
2
1
1.0
1.90
3. 7822
3,8630
3.5373
3.7268
3. 7845
3. 7297
3.9220
4.0581
3. 7924
2
2
1.0
1.18
3.6127
3.5484
3. 4218
3.4729
3.3766
3. 4752
3.6392
3.7109
3.5337
3.800 I 3.532
10
2
1.0
1.16
3.6217
3.5484
3.4218
3.4730
3.3766
3. 4752
3. 4872
3.4847
3.5337
3.490
10
4
1.0
.68
3.5308
3.4144
3.3632
3.3669
3,4002
3.3690
3.3878
3.3876
3.3347
10
4
4
2.16
30.3037
30.9046
28.2983
29. 7470
29.7555
29.7000
31.573
3. 395
30.040
a Computed by H. R. Beebe, C. E.
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS VELOCITT OF APPROACH CORRECTIONS.
The various modes of correction for velocity of approach used by
different investigators can be rendered nearly identical in form, vary-
ing, however, in the value of the coefficient a adopted.
Comparative coefficients of correction for vdocUy of approach for thin-edged weirs teUh end
contractions suppressed.
Experimenter.
Value of a In the for-
, mula//=i)+tt2^
1
Valuee of *> in
the formula
Boiieau
Lesbros
Fteley and Steams
a=1.8
a=1.56
cr=1.5
a=1.69 or a
Francis
f' (»=0.2489
Bazin
<»— 0.55
a Emerson.
b]
Bunking and Hart.
The above values were all derived from experiments on thin-edged
weirs. Bazin's experiments covered the larger range of velocities and
were most elaborate. It may be noted that the correction applied by
Bazin is two and two- tenths times that of Francis for a given velocity
42
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
of approach. Bazin's correction is, in effect, an increase in the meas-
ured head of 1.69 times the velocity head, while Francis increases the
2 111
measured head by an amount 7.^jj^ l^s tha/n the velocity head accord-
ing to Emerson's formula.
Raiio of the various corrections for reloeUly of approach for suppressed weirs.
Bazin
Fteley and Stearns
Hamilton Smith . .
Francis
Bazin.
Fteley and Hamilton i i,.--. -,„«.,
Steams. ' Smith. I ^ranoia.
1.000
1.127 i
1. 271
2.2
.887
1.000
1.128 1
1.957
.789
.887
1.000
1.7.36
.454
.511 1
.576
1.000
The factors in the above table are not strictly accurate, for the rea-
son that the expressions used to deduce the equivalents from the dif-
ferent formulas are in some cases approximations. They sen^e to
illustrate the relative magnitude of the different corrections for thin-
edged weirs without end contractions. For thin-edged weirs with end
contraction, Hamilton Smith uses the coefficient a=\A and Fteley and
Stearns give the coefficient ar=2.05.
There are no experiments available relative to the value of the
velocity correction for other than thin-edged weirs. It is necessary,
therefore, to utilize the values above given for weirs of irregular sec-
tion. It will be seen that it matters little in what manner the correc-
tion for velocity of approach is applied, either by directly increasing
the observed head, as in the formulas of Hamilton Smith and Fteley
and Stearns, or by including the correction in the weir coefficient, as
is done by Bazin, or by utilizing a special formula to derive the cor-
rected head, after the manner of James B. Francis. The three methods
can be rendered equivalent in their effect.
The important point is that the corrected result must be the same as
that given by the author of the formula which is used to calculate the
discharge. As to the relative value of the different modes of apply-
ing the correction, it may be said of that of Francis, that in its original
form it is cumbersome, })ut it renders the correction independent of
dimensions of the leading channel, as do also the formulas for correc-
tion used by Hamilton Smith, and Fteley and Stearns. Inasmuch as
the velocity head is a function of the discharge, successive approxima-
tions are necessary to obtain the final corrected head by any one of
these three formulas.
By using the Hunking and Hart formula the correction for the
Francis weir formula becomes fairly simple, as it does not require the
determination of the mean velocity of approach by successive approxi-
COMPARISON OF WEIR FORMULAS. 43
mations, but to apply this formula it is necessary to know the dimen-
sions of the leading channel and of the weir section. The approxima-
tion given by Emerson is also much simpler than the original Francis
formula.
6azitt% method of including the velocity correction in the coefficient
makes the weir coefficients obtained by the experiments comparable
one with another only when both the head and velocity of approach
are the same in both cases.^ His correction also involves the dimen«
sions of the leading channel as factors. Obviously, in the case of
many broad-ci-ested weirs utilized for measuring flow, the dimensions
of the leading channel can not be ascertained accurately and there is
great variation of velocity in different portions of the section of ap-
proach. It becomes necessary that the correction should be in such a
form that it is a function of the velocity and not of the channel
dimensions.
It is to be noticed that where an attempt has been made in the
weir experiments to eliminate velocity of approach effect from the
coefficient the velocity has been nearly equalized by screens and has
been determined by successive approximations. It is suggested that
where the velocities vary widely they be determined by current
meter in several subdivisions of the section, the approximate integral
kinetic energy estimated, and a value of a selected depending on the
ratio of -j so obtained, where h is the velocity head corresponding to
the mean velocity and A' is the velocity head which would result if the
actual velocities were equalized. Inasmuch as the surface velocity
usually exceeds the mean velocity in the channel of approach in about
the same ratio that A' exceeds A, the suggestion is made by Hamilton
Smith* that where the velocity of approach is unavoidably variable,
or the boundaries of the current are uncertain, the surface velocity v^
be measured by floats and applied directly in the determination of the
(|uantity A.
The variations in discharge over a thin-edged weir, by the different
formulas, are often less than the difference in the correction for velocity
of approach would indicate. In the formula of Fteley and Stearns, as
compared with Francis, for example, the larger velocity correction is
in part compensated by a smaller weir coefficient, and the same is true
of the formulas of Hamilton Smith and Bazin for cases where the head
is large.
a See special diacuasioii of the point, p. 63. b Smith, Hamilton, Hydraulics, p. 84.
44 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
END CONTRACTIONS— INCOMPLETE CONTRACTION.
The formula for end contractions deduced by James B. Francis is
very generally used. The correction is made to the length of weir,
the result obtained being the length of a suppressed weir that will
give the same discharge.
L^L-hNH (40)
J = A coeflScient, the value of which, deduced by Francis, is
J=0.1.
Z'= Actual length of weir crest.
L = Length of equivalent suppressed weir crest.
ir= Number of end contractions.
^=EflFective head, feet.
The experiments of Fteley and Stearns,^ while somewhat discordant,
indicate an average value of h for heads from 0.3 to 1 foot, of- about
0.1. The value of & apparently decreases as the head increases. It
also decreases if the end contraction piece is so near the side of the
channel as to render the contraction incomplete.
Hamilton Smith shows that side contractions and bottom or crest
contraction are mutually related, and that the side width of the chan-
nel of approach should be fully three times the least dimension of the
weir. Usually L is much greater than //, and the side width may be
made at least as great as SZT. The specification of Francis is, side
width > //.
Smith's rule indicates that to provide complete contraction the area
of leading section -J. must bear a relation to the area of weir section a
depending upon the relative head and length of crest.
For three weirs of equal section a, the following values of A^ the
necessary channel-section area, are given:
Z'=12
//= 1
a=12
A^ 72=6a
Z'- 4
//= 3
a=12
^=264=2.2a
Z'= 1
//=12
a=12
J.=105=8.7a
Hamilton Smith prefera to use separate coeflScients for suppressed
weirs from those for contracted weirs, the relation between the coeffi-
cients being expressed by the formula
C,= C.{\^z^ (41)
(^=Coefficient for partially suppressed weir, as with complete sup-
pression on sides and full contraction at bottom.
a Fteley and Stearns, ExperlmentB on the flow of water, etc.: Trans. Am. Soc. C. £., vol. 12, pp.
10&-113.
END CONTRACTIONS. 45
C^= Coefficient for completely contracted weir.
^= Least dimension of weir, whether L or //.
R = Wetted perimeter of weir=Z+2iy.
I' = Distance from any side of weir to the respective side of channel,
where there is partial suppression.
S = Length of sides on which there is partial suppression.
Smith's values of contraction coefficient z in formula 31 are
■l\
t
3
u.ooo
2
.005
1
.026
i
.06
0
.16
The ratio }^X approximately measures the amount of contraction.^
Bazin does not give a formula for weirs with end contractions. The
Bazin formula may be applied to weirs in which the height of weir is
so small that the bottom contraction is partially suppressed. The
Bazin coefficient then includes:
1. Effect of contraction from surface curve.
2. Effect of crest contraction and its modification by both velocity
of approach and by partial suppression, if any.
3. Effect of velocity of approach proper.
4. Effect of distribution of velocities in channel of approach.
5. Loss of head from friction and eddies.
As the Bazin weirs were very low, and these factors go to increase
the correction necessary, it will be seen that the relatively large
velocity of approach correction required by Bazin's formula may be
readily accounted for.
The experiments of Flinn and Dyer on the Cippoletti weir (see
p. 48) indicate that the effect of end contraction may be somewhat
greater than that indicated by the Francis formula. Any experiments
in which similar volumes of water have been successively passed over
weirs with and without end contractions may be utilized to determine
the effect of such contractions.
It may be added that a more elaborate study of end contractions is
desirable. It is to be borne in mind, however, that to secure greater
accuracy in this regard a more complicated or variable correction than
that of Francis must probably be used, and the result will be to greatly
increase the labor of weir computations in the interest of what is
usually a comparatively small matter, the better remedy being prob-
ably the use of weirs with end contractions suppressed, wherever
practicable.
a Smith, Hamilton, Hydniallcs, pp. llft-128. Smith's critical diactUMlon of this subject will be
foand of value In calculating discharge for weln with partially suppreflsed contraction either at sides
orhouom.
46 WEIB EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FOBMULA8.
COMPOUND WEIR.
A weir with a low- water notch depressed below the general crest
level may sometimes be used to advantage in gaging small, variable
streams. The discharge over such a weir, constructed with end con-
tractions on both sections, can be calculated as for two separate weirs,
the lower short section having end contractions for all heads. The
flow over the two upper sections is computed as for a suppressed weir.
Such a weir has been used for the determination of the low-water
flow of very small streams, for which purpose it is well adapted, the
entire stream when at low stages flowing in the central notch, in a
stream relatively deep and narrow.
The measurement of very thin sheets of water on a broad weir is
subject to peculiar difficulties, including uncertainty of coefficient,
adhesion of nappe to weir face, dispersion by winds, and a large per-
centage error in the results if there is a small error in measuring the
head.
TRIANGULAR WEIR.
GENERAL iXDRMULA.
Referring to fig. 4, we may write
l\H-y'.\L\H.
t.
Fig. 4.— Triansrular weir.
Substituting, in equation (4),
^l^L^^m (45J)
Thomson's experiments.
The mean coefficient of contraction for a ttiin-edged triangular weir
deduced experimentally by Prof. James Thomson, of Belfast, is Jr=
0.617," the formula being
Q^—ML'^Yg H^^l.^^^^LH^ (43)
' ' • ■ -■ >
aBritiflh Ansociation Report, 18.58 (oiigrinal not consulted). Merriman given the mean value of M.
for heMis between 0.2 and 0.» foot aa 0.d92.
TBAPEZOIDAL WBIB8. 47
For a right-angled notch,
Z=2lT2LndQ=2.64jr* (44)
The length of the contracting edges in a triangular notch being pro-
portional to the depth, it is believed that the coefficient of discharge
is somewhat more constant than for a rectangular weir.^
TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR.
The discharge in this case may be determined directly from the
integral formula (4) as for a triangular weir, by integrating between
the limite AD and CE, fig. 6. It may also be derived as follows:
Fio. 5.— Trapezoidal weir.
0= slope of one side to the vertical.
By integration,
<?=|V2^ZZr*+A^V2^^* (45)
in which coeflicient^ of contraction for the horizontal crest and for
the end slopes must be introduced.
THE CIPPOLETTI TBAPEZOIDAL WEIR.
The discharge over a trapezoidal without contraction would be the
sum of that for a rectangular weir added to that for two triangular
weirs forming the ends. From the experiments of James B. Francis*
it appears that each end contraction reduces the effective length of the
weir 0.1//. The contraction decreases the discharge by the amount
If the ends of the weir, instead of being vertical, are inclined out-
ward in such manner that the discharge through the added area coun-
terbalances the decrease from the end contraction, then the effective
a The coefficient 2.64 is the same as that deduced for broad crest weirn with stable nappe. A table of
Talaes of 2.6iH' is ^ven on page 177, which may be applied In calculating flow over triangular weirs,
b Lowell Hydraulic Experiments.
IBB 150—06 4
48 WEIB EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
length of the weir will remain constant as the head increases, the same
as in a suppressed weir. The discharge through the end triangle ABC
will be, from equation (42),
Where z is the width or base of the end triangle. Equating the
two expressions for Q^ and solving for 2, we find, assuming Jf to have
the same value in both cases,
^=\h (46)
This condition defines the (yippoletti weir.^
CIPPOLETTI'S FORMULA.
Cippoletti derived his formula from a discussion of the experiments
of James B. Francis, selecting a coeflBcient 1 per cent greater, making
^=1 X0.629Z^V2<7^=3.367ZJ7* .... (47)
L is the length of the crest or base of the trapezoid.
Flinn and Dyer* experimented at the testing flume of the Holyoke
Water Power Company by passing the same volume of water succes-
sively over a trapezoidal experimental weir and over the gaging weir
of the turbine testing flume 19.7 feet downstream. The latter, it is
stated, complied in form with Francis's specifications.
The depths were observed b}^ hook gage; eleven readings, as a rule,
being taken and their arithmetical mean used for the determination of
ahead. The thirty-two series of valid experiments range from 0.3
foot depth on a weir with sill length of 3 feet to a head of 1.25 feet on
a sill 9 feet long.
The discharge over the standard weir was calculated by the formulas
of J. B. Francis and of Hamilton Smith. The correction for veloeit\^
of approach at the experimental weir was made by the formula of
Hamilton Smith, for use with contracted rectangular weirs,
Flinn and Dyer's coeflScients are as follows:
Mean of 32 experiments, (7=3.283
Mean after rejecting 5 diminished weights, C=3.301
In genei-al, the coefficient diminished as the head increased, suggest-
ing that the end inclination should slightly exceed // in the Cippoletti
weir, to provide complete compensation, and that the end contraction
a First described by Cesare Cippoletti in Canal Villoresi, Modulo per la Dispensa delle Acque, 1887.
b Flinn, A. D., and Dyer, C. W. D., The Cippoletti trapezoidal weir: Trans. Am. See. C. E., vol. 32,
1894, pp. 9-33.
WEIR GAGIKG8. 49
coefficient in the trapezoidal weir may be greater than 0.1//, an used
by Francis.
The question is complicated by velocity of approach. For example,
had the Francis velocity-correction formula been used by Flinn and
Dyer, their values of C would have been larger. As a tentative con-
clusion it is probable that the application of either the Francis for-
mula with his velocity-head correction or the Flinn and Dyer coefficient
with the Smith velocity correction will, when applied to a Cippoletti
weir, give results as accurate as the precision of the coefficients will
justify.
REQUIREMENTS ANI> ACCURACY OF WEIR GAGINGS.
PRECAUTIONS FOR STANDARD WEIR GAGING.
Certain specifications were laid down by James B. Francis as guides
in cases where the utmost precision is desired in weir measurements."
The limits of applicability of the weir have been greatly extended
since 1852, and some of the uncertainties as to the effect of various
modificationK of weir construction have been removed.
In general, for standard thin-edged weirs —
1. The upstream crest edge should be sharp and smooth.
2. The overflowing sheet should touch only the upstream crest
corner.
3. The nappe should be perfectly aerated.
4. The upstream face of the weir should be vertical.
5. The crest should be level from end to end.
6. The measurements of head should show the true actual elevation
of water surface above the level of the weir crest.
7. The depth of leading channel should be suflBcient to provide com-
plete crest contractions, and, if they are not suppressed, the width of
channel should be sufficient to provide complete end contractions.
8. A weir discharging from a quiet pond is to be preferred. If this
is not available, the velocity of approach in the leading channel should
be rendered as uniform as possible and correction made therefor b}'^
the method employed by the experimenter in deriving the formula.
In order to fulfill these requirements, certain secondary conditions
are necessary. The depth on the weir should })e measured at a point
far enough upstream from the crest to be unaffected by the surface
curvature, caused by the discharge.
a Francis, J. B., Lowell Hydraulic Experiments, pp. 133-135.
50 WEIK EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIEKT8, AND FORMULAS.
The distance upstream to the point of measuring the head has been
as follows:
Distance ujMream from weir to gage U4<ed by variotis experimenters.
I I Distance
Experimenter. I Date. upstream, in
feet.
Poncelet and Lesbroe 1828
Lesbros I IK^
Francis 1852
Hamilton Smith, jr ' 1874-1876
Fteley and Stearns 1878
Bazin i 1886
11.48
11.48
6.00
7.60
6.00
16. 40
Six feet upstream from crest is a distance frequently used, but this
may be insujfficient for suppressed weirs, and also for those having
irregular cross sections or upstream slopes. Boileau considered the
origin of the surface curvature to be at a distance from the weir equal
to about 2.5 times the height of crest above the bottom of the channel
of approach, indicating that for a suppressed weir the head should
be measured at least this distance from the crest. ^ For a weir dis-
charging from a still pond the head can be measured at any consider-
able distance from the weir. Hamilton Smith* states that, for w^eirs
with full contraction, //can be measured at any convenient point from
4 feet to 10 feet from the crest.
The head may be measured directly by a graduated scale or hook
gage, or by means of a piezometer tube having its orifice flush with
the side wall of the leading channel, and at right angles to the direc-
tion of flow of the water.
The depth of the leading channel in Francis's experiments was 4.<J
feet below crest, and Francis lays down the rule that the depth of the
leading canal should be at least three times the head on the weir.
Hamilton Smith fixes the minimum depth of the leading channel l)elow
the crest at 2//.
Fteley and Stearns^ state that the depth of the leading channel
below weir crest should be at least 0.5 foot, in order that correction
for velocity of approach may be reliably made for depths occurring in
their measurements, and that a greater depth of leading channel is to
be preferred.
To provide complete end contractions, Francis states that the dis-
tance from the side of the channel of approach to the end of the Aveir
ovei*flow should be at least equal to the depth oh the weir. Hamilton
a Fteley and Steamfl, Experiments on the flow of water, etc.: Trana. Am. Soc. C. K., vol. 12, p. 47.
«» Smith, Hamilton, Hydraulics, pp. 129-131.
cn)id.,ppllJi-U4.
WEIR GAGING9.
51
Smith considers that the distance from the end of the weir to the side
of the channel should be at least 2jy, and that the depth of channel
below crest, also the side distance, should in no case be less than 1
foot. Francis further specifies that the length of weir crest should
be at least three times the depth of overflow. The nappe should not
l>e allowed to expand laterally immediately below a suppressed weir.
In order that the nappe may be perfectly aerated, Francis considers
that the fall below crest level on the downstream side should be not
less than i//, increasing for very long weirs or in cases where the
downstream channel is shallow. He found, however, no perceptible
diflference in the discharge for a head of 0.85 foot, whether the water
on the downstream side was 1.05 feet or 0.0255 foot below crest level.
Fteley and Stearns and Hamilton Smith agree that, if the water is
Crest 4.6 \:i bci-L' t-r.-^ -^^^
Fig. 6.— Sections of the Francis weir. A, General section of weir; B, detail of crest.
deep below, it may risei to crest level on downstream side of weir
without sensible error, and Fteley and Stearns add that a weir may be
submerged to a depth of 15 per cent of the head without an error
exceeding 1 per cent.
The thickness of crest lip is immaterial so long as the edge is sharp
and square and the nappe cuts free and is freely aerated. The latter
conditions require, however, that the crest shall be thin, especially
where the head is slight.
Fig. 6 shows cross sections of the crest of the weir used by James B.
Francis at the Lower Merrimac locks at Lowell, in 1852, in deriving
hLs formula. The crest consisted of a cast-iron plate 13 inches wide
and 1 inch thick, planed true and smooth on all surfaces. Its upper
52 WEIH EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
edge was chamfered on the downstream side at an angle of 45^ to a
thickness of 0.25 inch at the edge. As shown, the nappe cut
clear from the top of the crest in an unbroken sheet. The lowest
head used by Francis was over 0.5 foot. For very low heads the crest
lip should be thinner. A wooden crest tends, by capillary attraction,
to cause the nappe to adhere to the flat top surface under low heads.
A wooden crest is cheap, easily adjusted, and convenient for tempo-
rary use, but it will, in time, tend to become somewhat rounded,
reducing the vertical contraction of the nappe.
A cast-iron crest will usually have to be made to order. A large
steel angle bar may often be obtained from st-ock sizes of the rolling
mills more cheaply. Such a bar, with legs, say S and 6 inches,
respectively, with the 6-inch flat fac^ planed and its edge trued, will
form a rigid and permanent crest. The 3-inch leg may be bolted to
the top of the timbers forming the body of the weir.
It may be added that approximate corrections for rounding of
upstream corner of the crest, inclination of the weir upstream or
downstream, or incomplete contractions can be made from data now
available. In constructing gaging weirs preference, however, should
be given to those forms which render the determination of the dis-
charge the most simple, and the extent to which the preceding speci-
flcations may be departed from judiciously will depend upon the exi-
gencies of the case and the purposes for which the results are desired.
PLANK AND BEAM WEIRS OF SENSIBLE CREST WIDTH.
Experiments on weirs with crest boards 1, 2, or 4 inches in thickness
were made by Black well, Fteley and Stearns, and Bazin. The results
show that for depths exceeding 1.5 to 2 times the crest width the
nappe will break free, and if properly aerated the coefficient will then
be identical with that for a thin-edged weir.
When the nappe adheres to the crest the coefficients are very uncer-
tain for such weirs, adhesion of nappe to downstream fac^e of crest
and modified aeration entering to give divergent values.
The precise stage at which the change from an adhering to a free
nappe or the reverse occurs is not constant, but varies with velocity of
approach and with rate of change of the head as the changing point is
approached, being different for a sudden and for a gradual change, and
also when the point of change is approached by an increasing as com-
pared with a decreasing head.
REDUCTION OF THE MEAN OF SEVERAL OBSERVATIONS OF HEAD.
In measuring a constant volume of water, several observations of
the head on the weir are desirable, the accurac}" of the result,
according to the theory of least squares, being proportional to the
square root of the number of observations.
WEIR GAGING8. 53
In weir experiments it is often impossible to maintain a perfectly
uniform head or regimen. If ttie variations are minute the arithmet-
ical mean may be used directly. If the variations are of wider range,
or if the utmost precision is required, the following correction
formula of Francis may be applied: ^
Let />!, Z>,, ^s, etc., Z>„ represent the several successive observed
heads.
Let /j, t^y ^3, etc., tn represent the corresponding intervals of time
between the several observations.
Let T represent their sum, or the total time interval.
^=the total volume of water flowing over the weir in the time T,
2>=the mean depth on the weir that would discharge the quantity
Q in the time T.
Z=the length of weir crest.
67= the weir coefficient.
We have, very nearly,
Q=^^ CLD^^^^-'^ OLD}+i<^ CZ;A^+etc.+% CLD}
JL £1 2i Z
Also,
Q^TCLD^.
Equating, eliminating the common factor (7Z, and solving for 27, we
have
EFFECT OF ERROR IN DETERMINING THE HEAD ON WEIRS. &
Consider the formula
Differentiating, we have
^^=1 CL^dH.
The error of any gaging when H-\-dHvA taken as the head instead
of the true head U being used will be dQ^ and the ratio of this quan-
tity to the true discharge Q will be
dQ_ZCL4Tl Z dH ,,Q.
« 2C'Z^ "^ ^
This formula will give nearly the correct value of the error if the
increment dH approaches an infinitesimal.
aFranciii, J. B., Lowell Hydraulic Experiments, p. 113.
b Rafter, G. W., On the flow of water over dams: Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. 44, p. 686; data here
giyen based on discnasion by Walter C. Parmley.
54
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
In the following table is shown the effect of errors of one thou-
sandth, five thousandths, one hundredth, and five hundredths foot,
respectively, for various heads. This clearly illustrates both the
necessity of proper care and the folly of ultra precision in measuring
the relatively large values of II with which we are mainly concerned.
The curves of error on PI. II are equilateral hyperbolas, which have
been reduced to straight lines by plotting on logarithmic scales.
Percentage error in discharge resulting from ntrimis errors in the measured head on imrit.
Error in measured head, in feet.
Head, in
feet.
0.001
0.006
Percent.
0.01
Per cent.
0.06
Per cetU.
Per cent.
0.1
.5
1.5
.3
7.5
1.5
15
3
15
1.0
.15
.75
1.5
7.5
5.0
.03
.15
.3
1.5
10.0
.015
.075
.15
.75
An error of a half -tenth foot under 5 feet head causes the same
error in the result as an error of one-half hundredth foot with a head
of one-half foot.
In weir experiments it is important to know the effect of an error
in head ^on the resultant coefficient of discharge C. The error in C
is evidently equivalent to the error in Q found above, where II is
constant.
ERROR OP THE MEAN WHERE THE HEAD VARIES.
In determining the volume of flow over dams where gaging records
are. kept, the method usually pursued has been to have readings taken
twice daily, as at morning and evening, showing the depth flowing
over the crest of the dam. The average of the two readings for each
day has been found and the volume of flow corresponding to this
average head has been taken as the mean rate of flow over the dam
for the day.
It is evident, however, that as the discharge varies more rapidly
than the head (usually considered to be proportional to the three-halves
power of the head), the volume of discharge obtained as above
described will be somewhat less than the amount which actually passes
over the dam. The following analysis has been made to show the
magnitude of the error introduced by using the above method.
Assuming that the initial depth on the crest of the dam is zero, but
increases at a uniform rate to 11^ at the end of a time interval T, the
MMunired head in feet.
u • . - -^ r
WEIR GAQINOfl.
55
mean head deduced from observations at the beginning and end of the
period would be i H^^ the head at any time t would be
where y is a constant.
We may write the usual formula for weir discharge ^= CLJH^\
then, if the he^d varies from zero to 5J, the total volume of flow in
the time 7^ will be
0
(50)
The total discharge corresponding to the average head ^ H^ is
Q„=CL(^^yT=CLQ0T^ . . . . (61)
The ratio of the discharge is
Volume by average head _ Q^y
Actual volume ~ Qt
2
5
=0.8840 . . (62)
It appears that where the initial or terminal head is zero the volume
of flow determined by using the average head will be 11.6 per cent
too small. This percentage of error is the same whatever may be the
maximum head //, and whether the stream is rising or falling. It is
also independent of the rate of change in the head.
Conditions like those above discussed occur at milldams during the
season of low water, when the pond is allowed to till up at night and
the water is drawn down to crest level or below during the da}^ when
mills are running.
The following example will illusti*ate. Suppose a sharp-crested
weir without end contractions, with crest 1 foot long, on which the
water rises to a depth of 1 foot in a period of 10 seconds —
Mea7i depth on a weir vjiih rarifing head.
Time, in seconds I 1
Head, in feet, at end of each second. . . .1
Average head for period 05
Average head, second to second .
.05 1
;
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
.2
.3
.4
.6
.6
.7
.8
.9
1.0
.1
.15
.2
.25
.3
.35
.4
.45
.5
.15
.25
.35
.46
.55
.65
.75
.85
.96
56
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMTTLAS,
Usioff the average head during each second the volume of flow may
be approximately integrated bj^ finite differences, as follows, the dis-
charge being taken from Francis's tables:
Discharge over a weir with varying fiecul.
Time, in secondn.
Average hend,
Infeet.
Discharge, in '
8econd-feet.
Oto 1
0.05
0. 037
1 to 2
.15
.194
2 to 3
.25
.416
3to 4
.:i5
.690
4to 5
.45
1.005
5to 6
.55
1.358
6 to 7
.65
1. 745
7to 8
.75
2.163
8to 9
.85
2.609
9 to 10
Total
.95
3.083
13.30
The average head for the entire period, 0.6 foot, gives a discharge
for 10 seconds of 11.773 second-feet, or 88.5 per cent of that given
above, the numerical result agreeing closely with that obtained by
analysis. The volume of flow from average head equals seven-eighths
of the true integral volume of flow, approximately.
If there is an initial head Z?^, then when the head varies uniformly.
The total volume of flow in time 7^ will be
Q,= I Qdt=CL \ {ir,+ft)^dt^l^L(^II,-^fT^-\j,CLir}.
The average head during time Tis
The total volume of flow corresponding to this head is
3
Q^.= CL(jr,-\-\fT)T
W£IB GAOINOS.
57
The ratio of the actual or integral discharge to the discharge by the
average head is
( HJ^-fT^ T
lime by average ^head_ 5 ^ y J^ _^ y
Integral volume
[(^/wr)*-//,,*]
(58)
The value of this ratio is independent of the coefficient or length of
weir, but varies with the rate of change of head.
WEIR NOT LEVEL.
If the crest of a gaging weir is not truly horizontal, but is a little
inclined, the discharge may be closely approximated by the use of the
average crest depth //in the ordinary- formula, or more precisely by
the formula below, applicable also to weirs of any inclination.
Fio. 7.— Inclined weir
The flow through the elementary width dl is
dQ= Cll^dl
Total discharge=C= / ClI^ dl=C I f ^A+^V" 0
Integrating,
dl
0= :^^'^^ fi/i-iii^
(54)
In this formula either the mean coefficient deduced by Thomson
(see p. 46) for a triangular weir, in which C=1.32, or that of Fran-
o
cLs, in which - C' = 1.332, may be used. If there are end contractions,
5
the net length,
should be used.
Z=Z'-0.2 (^^),
58 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS,
The dischai'ge using the average head,
rr ^.+^.
Jia- 2 '
is
Q=CL(^^^^^ (55)
The extent of variation from the true discharge resulting from the
use of formula (55) in place of the integral formula (54) is illustrated
by the following:
Let L=\0 feet, II^^LO foot, j, C=^L3'S'2.
Discharge by (55) for average head = 33. 30 cubic feet per second.
If ^g— ^1=0.01 foot— true discharge, (>=33.30 cubic feet per second.
If ^g—/^ =0.10 foot— true discharge, ^=33.30 cubic feet per second.
If //^—//i =0.50 foot— true discharge, ^=33.54 cubic feet per second.
In general, since the discharge varies more rapidly than the head,
the effect of calculating the discharge from the average head will be
to give too small discharge, the error increasing with the variation in
crest level.
Hence the discharge obtained by using the average crest level for a
weir having an inclined or uneven crest will be somewhat deficient.
The magnitude of the variations in height of the crest will determine
whether the average profile can be used or whether the crest should he
subdivided into sections, each comprising portions having very nearh'
the same elevation (whether adjacent or not), and the discharge over
each section computed as for a separate weir.
In general it may be stated that the error in the value of Q^
increases directly in proportion a.s the ratio of the difference in the
limiting heads to the average head is increased.
CONVEXITY OF WATER SURFACE IN LEADING CHANNEL.
If there are wide variations in velocity in the measuring section, the
level of the water surface may be affected, since water in motion
exerts less pressure than when at rest.
Conditions of equilibrium cause the swift-moving current to rise
above the level of the slower-moving portions. If the head is meas-
ured near still water at the shore, the result may be slightly too small.
The difference in height" may be expressed in the form,
D,- /},=., :il-^^ (56)
The coeflicient /• is often assumed equal to unity, but evidently
varies with the distribution of velocities whose resultant effect it
measures.
aHuinphre>-H and Abbot, Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River, 1876, p. 320.
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS. 59
RE8UIiT8 OF EXPERIMENTS ON VAB10U8 FORMS OF MTEIR
CROSS SECTIONS.
THE USE OP WEIRS OP IRREGULAR SECTION.
Many cases arise where it is desired to estimate, approximately, at
least, the flow over dams of peculiar cross section.
The construction of so-called standard or thin-edged weirs that
shall be permanently useful to measure the flow of large and variable
streams is so difficult and expensive as to be frequently impracticable.
Existing milldams often aflford a convenient substitute. In the
following pages are presented the results of the leading experiments
to determine proper coeflScient^ for ''irregular'' weirs, followed by a
grouping of experiments on similar models, whether all by one experi-
menter or not. The data are not always as complete or consistent as
could be desired, but the need for fair working coefllcients is very
great, and, in the line of making use of all the available information,
the several diagrams of comparison and the conclusions therefrom are
presented, with the understanding that these are not final, although it
is quite certain that the laws of coeflicient variation are correctly out-
lined by the data at present available, and they form, therefore, a safe
working hypothesis.
Weir models of irregular section are calibrated in order that exist-
ing dams of similar cross section may be used for stream gaging. It
becomes necessary to calibrate the experimental models for a wider
range of heads than has commonly been emploj^ed in experiments on
standard thin-edged weirs, in order that the range of rise and fall of
the stream from low water to high may be included.
While the recent experimental data include heads as great as from 4
to 6 feet, yet it is often necessary to determine the discharge for still
greater heads, and experiments on certain forms with heads up to 10
or 12 feet are needed.
In this connection the greater relative facility of securing accurate
results with weirs for high than for low heads may be noted.
The proportional error resulting from variations in crest level, as
well as uncertainties as to the nappe form and consecjuent value of the
coefficient, largely disappear as the head increases. The eSect of form
of crest and friction is also relatively diminished. It is probably true
that the coefficients for many ordinary forms of weir section would
tend toward a common constant value if the head were indefinitely
increased. The above facts render milldams especially useful for the
determination of the maximum discharge of streams. Dams can be
used for this purpose when the presence of logs and drift carried
down by the flood preclude the use of current metei-s or other gaging
instruments.
60 WEIB EXPEBIMENTB, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE NAPPE FORM.
The elaborate investigations of Bazin relative to the physics of weir
discharge set forth clearly the importance of taking into consideration
the particular form assumed by the nappe. This is especmlly true in
weirs of irregular section in which there is usually more opportunit3'
for change of form than for a thin-edged weir. In general the nappe
may—
1 . Discharge freely, touching onl}'^ the upstream crest edge.
2. Adhere to top of crest.
3. Adhere to downstream face of crest.
4. Adhere to both top and downstream face.
5. Remain detached, but become wetted underneath.
6. Adhere to top, but remain detached from face and become wetted
underneath.
7. In any of the cases where the nappe is *' wetted underneath" this
condition may be replaced by a depressed nappe, having air imprisoned
underneath at less than atmospheric pressure.
The nappe may undergo several of these modifications in succession
as the head is varied. The successive forms that appear with an
increasing stage may diflFer from those pertaining to similar stages
with a decreasing head. The head at which the changes of nappe form
occur vary with the rate of change of head, whether increasing or
decreasing, and with other conditions.
The law of coeflBcients may be greatly modified or even reversed
when a change of form takes place in the nappe.
The effect of modifications of nappe form on various irregular weir
sections is shown in PI. III. The coeflBcients are those of Bazin and
include velocity of approach. The coefficient curve for any form of
weir having a stable nappe is a continuous, smooth line. When the
nappe becomes depressed, detached, or wetted underneath during the
progress of an experiment, the resulting coefficient curve may consist
of a series of discontinuous or even disconnected arcs terminating
abruptly in ^^ pouits d'arret^'^ where the form of nappe changes. The
modifications of nappe form are usually confined to comparatively low
heads, the nappe sometimes undergoing several succevssive changes as
the head increases from zero until a stable condition is reached beyond
which further increase of head produces no change. The condition
of the nappe when depressed or wetted underneath can usually be
restored to that of free discharge by providing adequate aeration.
The weir sections shown in PI. Ill are unusually susceptible of changes
of nappe form. Among weirs of irregular section there is a large
class for which, from the nature of their section, the nappe can assume
only one form unless drowned. Such weirs, it is suggested, may, if
properly calibrated, equal or exceed the usefulness of the thin-edged
Obasnred depth on weir (feet).
m
O
3) a
S i
5 I
o
I
>
z
o
m
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i> § s
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1KB 150—06 5
WEIKS OF IKREGULAR SECTION.
61
weir for purposes of stream gaging, because of their greater stability
of section and because the thin-edged weir is not free from modifica-
tion of nappe form for low heads.
As an example^ Bazin gives the following coefficients applying to
a thin-edged weir 2.46 feet high, with a head of 0.656 foot, under
various conditions:
Condition of nappe.
Free discharge, full aeration
Nappe depressed, partial vacuum underneath
Nappe wetted undemeath-, dowr stream water
level, 0.42 foot below crest-
Nappe adherinfc to downstream face of weir, res-
saoltata distance
Bazln coeffi-
clentm. | C"'"^^
0.433
3.47
.460
3.69
.497
3.99
.564
4.45
Per cent of
the Francifi
coefficient.
104.1
110.7
119.7
133,5
These coefficients include velocity of approach effect, which tends
to magnify their differences somewhat. There is, however, a range
of 26 per cent variation in discharge between the extremes. *»
The departure in the weir coefficient from that applying to a thin-
edged weir, for most forms of weirs of irregular section, results from
some permanent modification of the nappe form. Weirs with sloping
upstream faces reduce the crest contraction, broad-crested weirs cause
adherence of the nappe to the crest, aprons cause permanent adherence
of the nappe to the downstream face.
BXPERIMENTAL DATA FOR WEIRS OF IRREGULAR CROSS
SECTION.
The only experiments on irregular or broad-crested weirs in which
the discharge has been determined volumetrically are those of Black-
well on weirs 3 feet broad, of Francis on the Merrimac dam, and of
the United States Geological Survey for lower heads, on various forms
of section. So far as the writer is aware, all other such experiments
have been made by comparison with standard weirs.
In the following pages are included the results of the experiments
of Bazin on 29 forms of cross section; also those of the United States
Deep Waterways Board under the direction of George W. Rafter, and
those of John R. Freeman at Cornell University hydraulic laboratory.
The results of 20 series of experiments, chiefly on weirs with broad and
ogee crest sections, made under the writer's direction at Cornell Uni-
versity hydraulic laboratory, are here for the first time published.
oBaAn'e general dlMniflsion of the above and other modifications of the coefficient has been tran8-
lated by the writer, and may be found in Rafter' 8 paper, On the flow of water over dams: Trans.
Am. See. C. E., vol. 44, pp. 264-261.
62 WEIK EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
As it has been necessary to reduce the experimental data to a uni-
form basis for purposes of comparison the original data, together with
the results obtained by recalculation, have been included for theBazin,
United States Deep Waterways, and Freeman experiments.
BASE FORMULA FOR DISCHARGE OVER WEIRS OF IRREGULAR CROSS
SECTION.
Precedent to the opening of the hydraulic laboratory of Cornell
University the most elaborate experiments on weirs of irregular cross
section were those of Bazin. His experiments were all reduced in
such manner as to include the velocity of approach correction in the
discharge coefficient.
In America the formula most commonly used is that adopted by
James B. Francis, in which velocity of approach is eliminated from
the coefficient bj'^ correcting the head, thus reducing the conditions as
nearly as possible to the basis of no velocity of approach before apply-
ing the formula.
In order to render Bazin^s results comparable with the later experi-
ments, it has been necessary to adopt a standard or base formula to
which all the experiments should be reduced. The considerations lead-
ing to the adoption of the formula of Francis here used are given
below.
In the process of gaging streams at dams the head is usually
measured in comparatively still water in an open pond. This condi-
tion could not be duplicated in the Cornell experiments. As the
formula of James B. Francis is most simple in form for the case of a
weir with no velocity of approach, and as it is often convenient to
compare the discharge over a dam with that for a thin-edged weir of
standard form, a weir formula of the base form used by Francis has
been adopted in reducing the experiments. In this formula,
Z= Length of crest corrected for end contractions, if any.
i7=Head on weir crest corrected for velocity of approach by
the Francis correction formula or an equivalent method.
C=A coefficient determined from experiments on a model dam.
In this connection it may be remarked that the formula of Bazin
includes the correction for velocity of approach in the weir coefficient;
hence the coefficient for a given weir is compamble onlj' with that for
another weir under the same head when the velocity of approach is
the same in both cases. Bazin's formula also expresses the velocity of
approach implicitly by means of the depth and breadth of the leading
channel. In actual gagings the leading channel is often of irregular
form, hence it becomes necessar}^ to eliminate the depth and breadth
of the channel from the formula.
WEIRS OF IRREGULAR SECTION. 63
There is considerable variation in the magnitude of the correction
for velocity of approach used by different experimenters. As a rule,
the velocity of approach is negligible at gaging stations at dams. It
became necessar3% therefore, in reducing these experiments to deter-
mine from the measured discharge and observed head what the head
would have been had the same discharge taken place over a weir
in a still pond. To accomplish this the formula for correction for
velocity of approach adopted by James B. Francis has been used.
This being the case, it is to be noted that in applying the coefficients,
which, as given, have been reduced as nearly as possible to the basis
of no velocity of approach, the same method of velocity correction
must be used, and if it is used no error will result where the actual
velocity- of approach is nearly the same as that which occurred in the
experiments.
bazin's experiments on weirs of irreguij^r cross section.
These include a wide variety of forms, many of which will seldom
be found in America, and the use of which for purposes of gaging
would be ill advised.
The small size of the models used, high velocity of approach, and
narrow range of heads covered, limit the application of these results.
No effort has been made to present all the results in this paper. ** Cer-
tain series, useful for comparison, have been recomputed as des(*ribed
below, and by grouping similar sections we may determine the gen-
eral effect of various slope and crest modifications.
bazin's corrbction for velocity op approach.
The base formula for weir discharge adopted by Bazin and the
method of taking into account the velocity of approach are described
in connection with his experiments on thin-edged weirs (p. 31).
The following discussion shows the complex character of the Bazin
coefficients, and the fact that they do not express directly the relative
dis<^:harging capacity of weirs of irregular section.
The effect of velocity of approach is to increase the discharge at a
given observed head, 2>, over what it would be if the same head were
measured in still water, as in a deep, broad pond.
Bazin's coefficients in the form published are not readily applicable
in practice to weirs of other heights, or to weirs in ponds, or otherwise
to any but weirs in restricted channels of the depth and width of the
weir.
a For complete original data, see Bazin, an translated by Marichal and Trautwlne in Proe. Engineers
Club Phila., vol. 7, pp. 259-810; vol, 9, pp. 231-244, 287-319; vol. 10, pp. 121-164; rIbo nuraeroua experi-
ments reduced to English units by Rafter and others, Trans. Am. Soc. C. £., vol. 44, pp. 220-398.
64 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
The Bazin coefficients as published may be considered as compris-
ing two principal factors. M being the Bazin coefficient, we raay write
i^— velocity of approach eflfect.
6^= contraction effect.
Bazin uses a correction formula for velocity of approach, derived
from the expression
Consider a standard weir and experimental weir both of the same
height, but of different form, the measured depth being the same, and
the Bazin coefficients being M and m, the velocity of approach and
discharge Fand v and Q and </, respectively^ and C and Cj the coeffi-
cients in a formula in which the velocity of approach correction is
eliminated from the coefficient and applied to the head; then the dis-
charge for the standard weir would be,
using the Bazin coefficients,
where J/' = Jlf V %g and Z=1.0;
using the coefficient C\
taking roots
(
Bazin does not give the quantities of flow in the tables of results of
his experiments, hence to determine // it is necessary to calculate Q.
t% and h from the known values M and D and from P, the height of
weir.
D being the same for both the standard and the experimental weirs,
we have for the experimental weir
(7, beingr the coeflBcient for the experimental weir, and A, the velocity
bead.
WEIRS OF IBREOULAR SECTION. 65
Hence, bv multiplication,
and
or
\Mj \CJ -'D+ah ^ D '
\Mj -\i'J ^ D+air
M- C^\D+ahJ.
The velocity of approach for a given depth on a weir is proportional
to C, hence, since h is proportional to »•', we have
Hf).
Hence,
m
\" I)+ah /
m
The ratio ng used by Bazin is not, therefore, precisely a measure of
the relative discharging capacities of the two weirs under similar con-
ditions of head and velocity of approach, for the reason that the
velocity of approach will not be the same for both weirs if the Bazin
coefficients are different. The ratio j/JMih made up of two factors,
one of which, Cj (7, expresses the absolute relative discharging capaci-
ties of the two weirs under similar conditions of head and velocity of
approach, and the other expresses the effect of the change in discharg-
ing capacity on the velocity of approach for a given depth on a weir
of given height.
Thus the coefficient Miov any weir has, by Bazin's method of reduc-
tion, different values for every depth and for every^ height of weir
that may occur.
For reasons elsewhere stated it is preferred to express by -^ only
the relative discharging capacities of the weirs where the velocity of
approach is the same in both. It is then practically a measure of the
vertical contraction of the nappe, and is constant for a given head for
any height of weir, and may be sensibly constant for various depths
on the weir.
66 WEIR EXPEEIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
RECOMPUTATION OP COEFFICIENTS IN BAZIN*8 EXPERIMENTS.
In reporting the results of his experiments on weirs of irregular
section, Bazin gives the observed heads on the standard weir of com-
parison, the absolute coefficient m applying for each depth on the
experimental weir and the ratio ml Mot the experimental and standard,
weir coefficients.
The results give coefficients which strictly apply only to weirs having
both the same form of sei^tion and the same heights as those of Bazin.
Although weirs of sectional form geometrically similar to Bazin's are
common, yet few actual weirs have the same height as his. There
appear to be two elements which ma}^ render inaccurate the applica-
tion of Bazin's absolute coefficients to weirs of varying height: (1) The
difference in velocity of approach; (2) the difference in contraction of
the nappe for a higher or lower weir.
In order to render the resuhi- of Bazin's experiments comparable
one with another and with later experiments, a number of series have
been recomputed, the velocity of approach being treated in the same
manner as in the computation of experiments at Cornell hydraulic
laboratory.
The method is outlined below, the references being to the tables of
Bazin's experiments given on pages 68 to 81.
Column 2 gives the observed head reduced to feet for the experi-
mental weir.
Column 4 the absolute coefficient C^ — vi 4^2g,
(These have been reduced from Bazin's original tables.)
Column 5 gives the discharge per foot of crest over the experimental
weir calculated by the formula
Q=mLD ^2gD= C.LlA,
quantities in column 8 being taken directly from a table of three-halves
powers.
In column 6 the actual velocit}^ of approach, v= j^^Tp ^® &i^'^"»
and in column 7 the velocity head, h — ^^ •
The discharga over the standard weir was calculated by Bazin by
using his own formula and velocity of approach correction. He does
not give the discharge, however, and we have been obliged to work
back and obtain it from the data given for the experimental weir.
Having determined the actual discharge and the observed head, we
are now at libeily to assume such a law of velocity of approach cor-
rection in deducing our new coefficients as we choose. We will there-
fore deduce the coefficients in such form that when applied to a weir
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER Na 160 PU IV
ffooncr crest
Coeffl-
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Corrected head In feet.
1.1 1.8 1.3 1.4 1.6
EXPERIMENTS OF BAZIN ON BROAD-CRESTED WEIRS.
Velocity-of -approach correction by the Francis method.
U. & QEOLOQfCAL eURVEY
WATEK-SUPPLY FAKR MX ISO PL. V
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SeriesM/
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EXPERIMENTS OF BAZIN ON WEIRS OF TRIANGULAR SECTION WITH VARYING
DOWNSTREAM SLOPE.
Velocity-of-approach correction by the Francis method.
U. «. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 1M PU VI
-^ S,
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cient
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EXPERIMENTS OF BAZIN ON WEIRS OF TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION WITH VARYING
DOWNSTREAM SLOPE.
Velocity-of-approach correction by the Francis method. (See also PI. VII.)
U. a. OCOCOQICAL SURVEY
Ooefll-
dent
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER Na 160 PL. VII
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Corrected head In feet.
EXPERIMENTS OF BAZIN ON WEIRS OF TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION WITH VARYING
DOWNSTREAM SLOPE.
Velocity-of-approach correction by the Francis method. (For cross section sef^ Pi. VI.)
8. GEOLOQBAI. SURVEY
WATER-eUPPtY PAPER NO. 1W PL. VM
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EXPERIMENTS OF BAZIN ON WEIRS OF TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION WITH VARYING
DOWNSTREAM SLOPE.
1KB 150-06 6
Velocrty-of -approach correction by the Francis nnethod.
U. «. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. ISO PL. IX
CMfll-
dent
C. Corrected he«d In feet.
« .1 .t .3 .4 .6 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1 l.C 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.<
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CorrcNtod head in feet.
EXPERIMENTS OF BAZIN ON WEIRS OF TRIANGULAR SECTION WITH VARYING
DOWNSTREAM SLOPE.
Velocity-of-approach correction by the Francis nnethod.
S. QEOLOOICAL SUNVCY
Ooefll-
i.-l«nt
a
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. ISO PU X
19
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Slope of ufMtream face. Run for unit rise.
MEAN CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS FOR VARYING SLOPE OF UPSTREAM FACE.
I i I^S
Coe-ffl-
cient
r.
0 .1 S. .3 .4
Corrected head In feet.
3 .6 .7 .« .» 1.0 1.1 l.< 1.3 I.i 1.5
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Ck>rrected head in feet.
EXPERIMENTS OF BAZIN ON WEIRS OF TRIANGULAR SECTION WITH VARYING
UPSTREAM SLOPE.
Velocity-of -approach correction by the Francis method.
U. a. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. tftO PL. XI
Coeffl-
clent
C
0 a Jl
GoiTMted head la feec
.S A A A .7 .8 .9L0U1AL9LAL5
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Corrected head In fit* t.
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6
EXPERI
MENTS OF BAZIN ON WEIRS OF TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION WITH VARYING
UPSTREAM SLOPE.
U. 8. QEOLOOICAL SUKVEY
WATEH-SUPPLY PAPEK NO. 160 PI. XII
Ooefll-
dent
C.
0
Corrected head In feet.
.6 .7 .8 .9 LO
1.9 LS LA U6
3.6
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Corrected head in feet.
^ <^0.67'
EXPERIMENTS OF BAZIN ON WEIRS OF TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION WITH VARYING
UPSTREAM SLOPE.
Velocity-of-approach correction by the Francis method. (See alto PI. XI.)
WEIRS OF IRREGULAR SECTION. 67
in which there is velocity of approach we may apply the correction
formula of Francis,
/I=[{D+h)^-'h^lK
A sufficient approximation to this formula for our present purposes
ma^^ be obtained if we simply make
where v is the velocity of approach corresponding to the trial dis-
charge for the head />, no successive approximations being made, as
would be necessary to determine the true head II hj the Francis cor-
rection formula.
For example, in an extreme case, using a thin-edged weir
i>=:1.0, />=1.0, V {sipi^Tox.)j,^=^'^^~ = 1.6^6
// = L==0.(>431 whence //= I>+^= 1.0431 ,
and ^^3.547.
By the Francis correction formula we tind, using three successive
approximations,
^1 = 3.5183 giving ?;= 1.7591
(>,=3.5387 giving t^=1.7694
^3=3.541 as the final discharge,
that the difference is 0.11 of 1 per cent. We are therefore justified
in using this method to determine values of Cto two places decimals,
or to within one-fourth to one-half per cent.
We have also used ^l2g=S.02, as in the reduction of the Cornell
experiments.
Column 8 gives the corrected head,
II=D+h.
Column 10 gives the final coefficient (;' deduced by the fornuila
"-^iir
Pis- IV to XII show the resulting discharge coefficients.
68 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Bcuin^s experiments on weirs of irregular section.
Bazin's Series, No. 86.
Crest length, 6.56 feet.
Crert height, 2.46 feet.
J
CroMi
H
lectlon.
Period.
Observed
head,
experi-
mental
weir /),
in feet.
/>*
(\
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
r
tf-
'20
^
C
i
1
2
8
4
. _i
6
7
8
»
10
1
0.1820
0.0777
2.7829
0.2160
0.082
0.1820
0.0777
2.78
2
.2119
.0976
2.8712
.2801
.105
.2119
.0976
2.87
3
.2509
. 1257
2.9674
.3733
.138
.2509
.1257
2.97
4
.2781
.1466
2.9754
.4369
.159
.2781
.1466
2.98
6
.3067
.1701
3.0957
.5273
.190
0.0006
.3078
.1701
8.10
6
.3392
.1974
3.0957
.6119
.218
.0008
.8400
.1963
8.09
7
.3678
.2232
3.1839
.7098
.251
.0010
.8688
.2241
8.17
8
.4016
.2549
3.2321
.8233
.288
.0018
.4029
.2589
3.24
9
.4251
.2771
3.2641
.9038
.803
.0014
.4266
.2786
3.24
10
.4527
.3049
3.3283
1.0153
.8.10
.0019
.4646
.8069
8.31
11
.4770
.3294
3.3844
1.1137
.379
.0022
.4792
.8316
3.36
12
.6075
.8616
3.4406
1.2449
.420
.0027
.5102
.8642
8.42
18
.5360
.3924
3.4807
1.3656
.465
.0033
.5398
.3957
8.45
14
.5639 , .4236
3.5868
1.4992
.4S6
.0039
.6678
.4280
8.50
15
.5973
.4618
3.6930
1.6661
.542
.0046
.6018
.4671
8.54
16
a. 5804
.3858
8.4666
1.8349
.446
.0081
.6335
.8897
8.42
17
0.6032
.4683
3.4486
1.6166
.528
.0044
.6076
.4740
8.41
18
a.6347
.5060
3.4646
1.7608
.566
.0061
.6898
.5120
8.42
Bazin
8 Series. 1»
Jo. 89.
"^r
y
Crest
Crest
ength, 6.66feet.
Iieight. 2.46 feet.
1
Crow section.
1
0.2079
0.0948
2. 7669
0.2626
0.098
0.2379
0.09^
2.77 1
2
.2873
.1538
2.7669
.4260
.165
.2873
.1588
2.77 ,
3
.3641
.2196
2.7669
.6083
.216
0.0008
.3649
.2206
2.76
4
.4387
.2859
2.8280
.8062
.279
.0012
.4349
.2869
2.81
6
.4963
.3494
2.8792
1.0063
.340
.0018
.4981
.8515
2,86
6
.5619
.4213
2,9(574
1.2513
.414
.0026
.6635
.4286
2.96
7
.6831
.6036
3.0476
1.6860
.498
.0039
.6370
.5084
8.02
K
.6890
.67195
3.0877
1.7678
.5<»
.0049
.6939
.5782
3.0ti
9
.7490
.6482
3. 1679
2.0548
.640
.0064
.7564
.6561
8.18
10
.7985 .7135
3.2160
2.2975
.706
.0078
.806!)
.7236
3.18
11
.8546 .7906
3.2962
2.6090
.785
.0097
.8648
.8081
8.25
12
.9228 .K867
3.3524
2.9701
.879
.0120
.9348
.9W1
s.-i« 1
13
.9648 .9479
3.4826
S.2513
.»t9
.0140
.9788
.9687
3.36
14
1.0236 1.0362
3.4887
3.6163
1.038
.01(«
1.0404
1.0606
3.41 1
15
1.0784 1.1193
3.5288
3.9511
1.118
.0195
1.0979
1.1506
8.43 j
U\
1.1312 1.2028
3.5849
4.3060
1.201
.0224
1.1536
1.2396
8.47 1
17
1.1866 1.2932
3.6331
4.6943
1.292
.0259
1.2125
1.8359
8.51
18
1. 2375 1. 3767
3.6732
5. 0)26
1.364
'.0288
1.2663
1.4246
3.54
19
1.2959 1.47M
3. 7052
5.4737
1.456
.0331
1.3290
1.5821
8.57
20
a 1.0807 1.1239
3. 5368
3.9786
1.122
.0196
1.1002
1.1687
8.45
21
a 1.1587 !l.2477
3.5448
4. 4169
1.219
.0281
1.1818
1.2850
8.44
a Nappe free from the crest
WEIRS OF IRREOCLaR SECTION.
69
Bazin*s experiments an weirs of irregular section— Continued.
Bazin'B Sciries, No. 113.
Creit height, 2.463 feet.
:_!.
(>OM wrtlon.
!
1 Period.
I
ObBcnred
head, i
expert- j
mental
weir D,
In feet.
3
4
h
6
I
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
0.208
.289
.443
.518
.592
.667
.736
.805
I^ I c,
0.0948
.1554
.2187
.2949
.3728
.4555
.5447
.6314
.7223
.8017
.9066
.989 ' .9835
1.055 1.0530
1.076 |l.ll62
1. 114 'l. 1768
1.159 !l.2478
1.197 1.3096
1.252 1.4009
1.320 .1.5166
2.64
2.66
2.66
2.65
2.66
2.64
2.71
2.76
2.78
2.80
2.85
2.88
2.91
2.94
2.96
8.00
3.01
3.06
3.11
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, In
cubic feet
per ,
second. ,
0.2503
.4184
.5817
.7815
.9916
1.2025
1.4761
1.7964
2.0080
2.2441
2.5810
2.8325
3.aMl
3.2816
3.4686
3.7434
3.9419
4.2868
4.7166
'i0
.821
.872
.925
.968 I
1.032 '
1.076 '
1.164 I
1.246 <
1 «~
!
7
0.206
0.0007
.269
.0011
.332
.0017
.392
.0024
.472
.0034
1 .M2
.0045
.612
.0068
, .672
.0070
.758
.0090
H ^ H^ C I
.0105 I
.0118 '
.0132 I
.0143
.0165 i
.0179 '
.0206
.0243
8
e
10
0.208
0,09484
2.68
.289
.1562
2.ri6
.8637
.2196
2.65
.4441
.296
2.64
.5197
.375
2.64
.5944
.4578
2.68
.67(M
.549
2.69
.74a'>
.6377
2.r2
.8108
.7303
2.75
.8700
.8115
2.77
.9450
.91865
2.81
.9995
.9925
2.84
1.0468
1.068
2.86
1.0892
1.1364
2.88
1.1283
1.1980
2.88
1.1755
1.274
2.93
1.2149
1.339
2.94
1.2726
1.436
2.98
1.3413
1.558
3.03
I
Bazln's Series, No. 114.
Crest height, 2.46 feet
CroM Bectlon.
1
0.204
0.0921
2.47
0.2275
0.a56
0.204 jo. 0921
2.47
2
.280
.1482
2.54
.3764
.137
.280 ! .1482
2.64
3
.352
.2069
2.69
.5411
.193
0.0006
.3626 .2097
2.58
4
.433
.28497
2.60
.7409
.256
.0011
.4»11 .2860
2.59
5
.604
.3578
2.59
.9267
.318
.0016
.5a')5 I .a'i94
2.58
6
.578
.4394
2.60
1. 1424
.376
.0022
.5802
.4417
2.59
7
.657
.6325
2.62
1.3952
.446
.0031
.6601
.5362
2.60
8
.735
.6302
2.68
1.6511
.517
.0(M2
.7392 .6353
2.69
9
.810
.7290
2.63
1.9173
.587
.0064
.8154 .7358
2.60
10
.882
.8283
2.65
2.1960
.656
.0068
.8888 .8381
2.62
11
.958
.9377
2.66
2.4943
.728
.0083
.9663 .»194
2.63
12
1.034
1.0511
2.68
2.8178
.806
.0102
1.0442 1.0667
2.64
i 13
1.112
lATZI
2.69
3.1516
.883
.0120
1. 1240
1. 1917
2.65
14 .
1.171
1.2672
2.70
3. 4214
.941
.0137
1.1847
1.2899
2.65
15
1.243
1.3866
2.73
3.7832
1.021
.0161
1.2591
1.4127
2.67
1 ^«
1.301
1.4rf^
2.73
4.0510
1.078
.0181
1.3191
1.5149
2.66
17
1.S84
1.6282
2.76
4.4938
1.168
.0213
1.4053
1.6654
2.70
70
WEIR EXPERIMKNT8, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Bazin^a exp^ments on wetra of irregular aedion — Continued.
Bazin's Series, No. 115.
Crest height, 2.46 feet.
Period
Observed
I head,
experi-
I mental
I weirD,
I in feet.
1
0.196
2
.264
3
.:M2
4
.415
' 5
.495
6
.566
7 1
.638
8 '
.716
9
.792
10 i
.871
11
.M8
12
1.023
13
1.097
14
1.178
15 '
1.260
16
1.330
17 1
1.388
18 .
1.424
19
1.467
D»
CroBB section.
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
t'
2^
//
6
7
8
7/«
0.0868
2.25
0.1963
0.073
.1357
2.41
.8270
.120
.2001
2. 45
.4902
.175
.2674
2.51
.6712
.233
.34*3
2.50
.8708
.290
I .4258
2.55
1.0858
.858
.5096
2.54
1.2944
.418
.6069
2.56
1.5511
.487
.7049
2.60
1.8327
.563
.8129
2.60
2.1ia5 1
.634
.9230
2.60
2.4098 '
.706
1.0347
2.61
2.7006 '
.775
1.1490
2.63
8.0219 I
.849
1.2786
2.64
3.3765 1
.928
1.4144
2.65
3. 7482
1.009
1.5388
2.68
4.1106
1.085
1.6363
2.69
4.3990
1.144
1.6993
2.70
4.5881
1.18
11.7768
2.70
4.797
1.26
I
0.0005
.0008
.0013
.0020
.0027
.0037
.0049
.0062
.0078
.0095
.0112
.0134
.0159
.0181
.0202
.0216
.0247
0.196
.264
.3425
.4158
.4963
.5680
.6407
.7197
.7969
.8782
.9558
1.0325
1.1089
1.1914
1.276
1.348
1.408
1. 446
1.492
0.0868
.1357
.2005
.2683
.3494
.42H
.5132
.6109
.7115
.8227
.9347
1.0491
1.1679
1.2997
1.4414
1.5<'.51
1. 6707
1.7388
1.8225
10
2.25
2.41
2.44
2.50
2.49
2.51
2.52
2.54
2.58
2.57
2. 58
2.57
2.58
2.59
2.58
2.62
2.62
2.64
2.63
Bazin's Series, No. 116.
Great height, 2.46 feet.
Crom section.
1
0.177
0.0745
2.71
2
.225
.1068
2.83
3
.296
.1611
2.90
4
.367
.•2224
2.92
5
.4*5
.2870
2.95
6
.504
.S.'i/S
2.98
7
.537
. 39:^5
2.99
8
.639
.5108
3.01
9
.713
.6021
8.00
10
.781
.6902
3.00
11
.849
.7823
3.02
12
.917
.8781
3.02
13
.986
.9791
3.a5
14
1.053
1.08a5
3.06
15
1.120
1.1853
3.08
16
1. IK-)
1.28995
3.09
17
1.251
1.3992
3.10
■ 18
1.317
1.5114
3.12
0.2019
.3022
.4672
.6494
.8467
1.0662
1.1776
1.5375
1.8063
2.070(5
2.3625
2.6519
2.9863
3.3063
3.6507
3.98.^9
4. 3375
4.7156
0.076
.112
.169
.229
.292
.360
.392
.497
.569
.640
.713
.793
.864
.942
1.019
1.092
1.169
1.2.W
0. 177
.225
.296
I .8678
.4363
.5060
.5394
.6429
. 7181
.7874
.8568
.9267
.9975
1.0667
1.1362
1.2035
2723
.0243 I 1.8418
0.0008
.0013
.0020
.0024
.0039
.0051
.0064
.0078
.0097
.0116
.0137
.0162
.0185
021. \ Is
0.0745
.1068
.1611
.2232
.2879
.3599
.3957
.5156
.6084
.6982
.7933
.8925
.9963
1.1021
1.2108
1.3203
1.4346
1.5529
2.71
2.83
2.90
2.91
2.»4
2.96
2.98
2.98
2.97
2.96
2.98
2.97
3.00
3.00
3. 02
3.02
3.02
3.04
WEIB8 OF IKBEOULAR SECTION.
7]
BazivCs experiments on veirs of irregular section — Continued.
Basin'8 Series. No. 117. ^***^^P^^M^ j
Crest height. 2.46 feet. ^" /^ > > ♦
CroMMctlon.
ObBcrved
I head.
I weiri>,
in feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
U
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
/;«
0.158 |0. 06282
.201 .09212
.'289 I .15M
.361 .21691
.27808
.34724
.42134
.5060
.59678 ^
.67702 j
.76168 !
.87096
.96352
1.0976
1.1996
1.3096
1.4262
.426
.494
.562
.635
.708
.771
.834
.912
.989
1.061
1.129
1.197
1.267
1.336
1.5442
2.19
2.64
2.57
2.65
2.73
2.77
2.83
2.82
2.86
2.89
2.91
2.98
2.95
2.95
2.95
2.97
2.98
2.99
Q, flow
per fool,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
0. 137C
.2432
.3994
.5126
. 7592
.9619
1.1924
1.4267 j
1.7049
1.9666 I
2.2156 I
2.5519 I
2.9014 I
3.2376 I
8.5388
3.8896 I
4.2501 '
4.6172 !
2g
0.043
.091
.145
.182
0.0005
.263
.0011
.321
.0016
.395
.0025
.461
.0033
.539
.0045
.606
.674
.758
.841
.919
.987
1.062
1.139
1.214 !
.0068
.0070
.0090
.0110
.0132
.0152
.0176
.0202
.022S
7/
0. 158
.204
.289
.3615 I
.4271 I
.4956
.5646
.6383 I
.7125
.7768 I
.8410 I
.9210
1.0000 I
1.0772
1.1442
1.2145 I
1.2872 I
1.35HS
jn
0.0628
.0921
.1554
.2178
.2791
.3493
.4247
.5096
.6020 I
. 6849 ,
. 7713 1
.8839 j
1.0000
1.1177 '
1.2236 !
1.3392 I
1.4601 j
1.5842 !
1
c
\
1
1 10
I- -
' 2.19
2.64
2.56
2.35
2.72
2.76
2.81
2.80
2.83
2.86
2.87
2.89
2.90
2.90
2.89
2.90
2.91
2.91
Bacin'B Series. No. 136.
Crest length, 6.519 feet.
Crest height, 2.46 feet.
Crow Boctlon.
1
0.188
0.0783
3.90
0.306
0.12
0.0002
0. 1832
0.0783
3.90
2
.244
.1206
3.86
.467
.17
.0004
.2444
.1206
8.87
f »
.804
.1676
3.86
.647
.23
.0008
.3048
.1684
8.84
4
.364
.2196
3.86
.849
.30
.0014
.3654
.2206
8.85
5
.424
.2761
3.88
1.071 1
.37
.0021
.4261
.2781
3.85
6
.484
.3367
3.87
1.804
.44
.0030
.4870-
.3399
3.84
7
.642
.3990
8.88
1.548 1
.52
.0042
.5462
.4035
8.84
8
.597
.4610
3.89
1.798
.59
.0064
.6024
.4671
8.84
9
.658
.5338
3.91
2.088
.67
.0070
.6650
.5423
8.85
10
.713
.6021
8.92
2.360
.74
.0085
.7215
.6135
3.85
11
.776
.6836
8.93
2.684
.83
.0107
.7867
.6982
3.W
12
.830
.7562
3.97
8.001
.91
.0129
.8427
.7740
3.88
13
.887
.8354
3.96
3.300 1
.99
.0152
.9022
.8667
3.85
14
.963
.9808
3.98
3.701 j
1.06
.0181
.9711
.9568
3.87
15
1.010
1.0150
3.97
4.029
1.16
.0209
1.0309
1.0468
3.85
16
1.068
1.1087
4.00
4.417
1.25
.0243
1.0923
1.1411
3.87
17
1.122
1.1886
3.99
4.748 '
1.33
.0275
1.1495
1.2316
8.8(i
18
1.179
1.2802
4.01
5.133
1.41
.0309
1.2099
1.3310
3.86
19
1.244
1.3875
4.01
6.564
1.60
.0850
1.2790
1.4446
3.86
20
1.299
1.4806
4.01
6.935
1.68
.0388
1.3378
1.5477
3.84
«
1.361
1.5878
4.03
6.408
1.68
.0439
1.4W9
1.6654
3.86
72 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Bazin's experiments on iDeirs of irregular section — Continaed.
Bazin's Series, No. 187. ~J^^!&'
Crest length, 6.523 feet. *f^^^^9>>^
Crest height, 2.46 feet. *v///////////?fft^
CroM section.
Period.
Observed
bead,
experi-
mental
weir A
in feel.
8
0.1388
(^1
4
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
t'
1^
2i7
//
8
0.2686
h\
C
1
2
0.268
6
6
0.18
7
0
11
1
8.47
0.482
0.0006
0.1395
3.46
2
.332
.1974
3.45
.680
.24
.0009
.3329
.1922
3.M
3
.391
.2445
3.50
.856
.30
.0014
.3924
.2454
8.49
4
.451
.3029
3.47
1.051
.86
.0020
.4530
.8049
3.45
5
.513
.3674
8.63
1.295
.44
.0080
.6160
.3707
8.49
6
.578
.4394
3.51
1.540
.61
.0040
.6820
.4440
8.47
7
.637
.6084
8.51
1.783
.67
.0061
.6421
.5144
3.47
8
.700
.6857
3.55
2.080
.66
.0068
.7068
.6945
3.50
9
.766
.6692
3.56
2.382
.74
.0085
.7735
.6797
8.60
10
.822
.7452
8.56
2.652
.81
.0102
.8322
.7589
3.49
11
.8S7
.8354
3.56
2.978
.89
.0123
.8993
.8524
3.49
12
.946
.9201
3.62
3.334
.98
.0149
.9609
.9420
3.54
13
1.012
1.0180
3.59
8.662
1.05
.0171
1.0291
1.0438
3.61
14
1.078
1.1198
3.61
4.013
1.14
.0202
1.0982
1.1506
3.51
16
1.142
1.2204
3.60
4.392
1.22
.0231
1.1651
1.2575
8.49
16
1.201
1.8162
3.62
4.778
1.30
.0268
1.2273
1.3591
3.52
17
1.262
1.4178
8.62
5.140
1.38
.0296
1.2916
1.4686
3.50
18
1.322
1.6200
3.64
5.533
1.46
.0331
1.3661
1.6773
3.51
Bazin's Serief*. No. 188.
Crest length, 6.632 feet.
Crest height, 1.64 feet.
CroM Mctton.
1
0.194
2
.283
3
.327
4
.391
6
.447
6
.610
7
.671
8
.626
9
.685
10
.745
11
.807
12
.873
13
.927
14
.992
16
1.015
16
1.110
17
1.176
18
1.233
19
1.289
20
1.355
21
1.429
0.0854
.1349
.1870
.2445
.2989
.8642
.4314
.4963
.5670
.6431
.7250
.8157
.8926
.9880
1.0683
1.1695
1.2753
1.3691
1.4645
1. 5773
1.7082
3.57
3.50
3.48
8.50
8.66
8.63
3.62
3.71
8.66
3.69
3.70
8.72
3.72
3.76
3.80
8.78
3.79
3.81
3.82
8.82
3.83
0.306
.473
.651
.868
1.064
1.S21
1.660
1.838 j
2.076
2.873
2.683
3.086
8.318
8.715
4.060
4.422
4.851
6.220
6.577
6.036
6.542
0.17
.26
.83
.42
.60
.61
.70
.81
.89
.99
1.09
1.21
1.29
1.41
1.51
1.61
1.72
1.82
1.90
2.01
2.13
0.0004
.0010
.0017
.0027
.0089
.0068
.0076
.0102
.0123
.0152
.0185
.0228
.0259
.0309
.0354
.0403
.0460
.0516
.0561
.0628
.0705
0.1944
0.0854
.2640
.1357
.8287
.1887
.8987
.2473
.4519
.3039
.5158
.3706
.5786
.4405
.6362
.5072
.6973
.6820
.7602
.6626
nun
.9529
1.0229
1.0804
1.1603
1.2220
1.2846
1.3461
1.4178
1.4996
.8481
.9303 I
1.0347
1.1224
1.2832
1.3508 I
1.4650 I
1.5599
1.6886 I
1.8862 i
3.57
8.48
3.46
3.47
3.50
8.56
8.54
3.62
3.56
3.58
3.57
8.58
8.56
8.59
8.62
8.58
3.59
8.69
3.68
8.57
8.66
WEIRS OF IRREGULAR SECTION.
73
Ba2m*8 ejcperiments an wevrs of irregular gection — Continued.
Basin's Series, No. 145.
Crest length. 6.M1 feet.
Crest height. 1.64 feet.
OrowMctlon.
Period.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Observed
head,
experi-
mental
weir D,
in feet.
0.859
.424
.479
.547
.592
.658
.720
.781
.835
.902
.962
1.032
1.087
1. 152
1.210
1.274
i.3:m
1.396
1.467
0.2151
.2761
.3315
.4046
.4636
.5338
.6109
.6902
.7631
.8567
.9435
1.0484
1.1333
1.2364
1.3310
1.4380
1.5408
1.6494
1.7768
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
I P®"^^
I second.
3.02
3.10
3.18
3.25
3.35
3.38
3.42
3.47
3.49
3.53
3.53
3.53
3.58
3.58
3.61
3.61
3.62
3.64
3.64
I
0.649
.856
1.053
1.316
1.558
1.805
2.090
2.394
2.668
3.025
3.332
8.707
4.045
4.408
4.801
5.198
5.575
6.006
6.479
0.32
.50 I
.60 I
.69
.78
.89 '
.99
1.07
1.19
1.28
1.39 '
1.48
1.58
1.68
1.78
1.88
1.98
2.09
0.0016
.0027
.0039
.0056
.0071
•0095
.0123
.0152
.0178
.0220
.0265
.0300
.0341
.0888
.0489
.0493
.0549
.0609
.0679
H
7/3
10
0.3606
0.2169
2.99
.4267
.2790
3.07
.4809
.3885
3.16
.5526
.4112
8.20
.5994
.4686
8.33
.6676
.5447
3.31
.7323
.6263
8.34
.7962
.7102
3.37
.8528
.7878
8.38
.9240
.8882
8.41
.9875
.9806
3.40
1.0620
1.0944
3.39
1. 1211
1.1869
8.41
1.1908
1.2997
3.89
1.'2539
1.4042
8.42
1.3238
1. 521S
3.42
1.3889
1.6370
8.40
1.4569
1.7586
3.42
1.5349
1.9016
3.41
Bazin's Series, No. 141.
(^rest length. 6.520 feet.
Crvst height, 2.46 feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
IH
19
JO
0.216
.281
.865
.425
.489
.561
.624
.692
.758
.822
.888
.956
1.029
1.113
1.165
1.237 ,
1.298
1.369 '
1.431
1.463 !
0.0997
.1490
.2116
.2771
.3420 !
.4202
.4929
.5757 I
.6600 I
.7462 '
.8368
.9347
1.0438
1. 1742
1.2575
1.3758 I
1.4788 ,
1.6018 I
1.7118
1.7696
Cross Mctloii.
8.02
0.301
O.ll
0.0002
0.2152
0.0997
8.02
3.09
.460
.17
.0004
.2814
.1490
3.09
3.07
.660
.24
.0009
.3559
.2124
8.06
3.(M
.842
.29
.0013
.4263
.2781
3.02
3.08
1.053
.37
.0021
.4911
.3441
8.06
3.08
1.294
.43
.0029
.6639
.4236
8.06
3.17
1.562
.51
.0040
.6280
.4976
3.14
3.11
1.791
.57
.0051
.6971
.5820
3.06
3.12
2.a59
.64
.0064
.7644
.6678
3.08
3.15
2.347
.72
.0081
.8301
.7562
3.10
8.17
2.653
.79
.0097
.8977
.8509
3.12
3.19
2.983
.87
.0118
.9678
.9523
8.13
3.17
3.809
.95
.0140
1.04,30
1.0652
3.12
3.20
3.767
1.04
.oir>8
1.1298
1.2012
3.13
3.21
4.045
1.12
.0195
1.1845
1.2884
3.14
3.20
4.416
1.19
.0220
1.2590
1. 4127
3.13
3.22
4.7(»
1.27
.0251
1.3281
1.6218
3.13
3.22
5. 152
I.:i4
.0279
1.3969
1.6.511
3.12
3.24
5.540
1.12
.0313
1.4023
1.7677
3.13
3.25
5. 752
1.47
.03:v»
1.4966
1.8307
3.14
IRR 150—06 7
74 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
BaziiVg experiments on iveirs of irregular section — Continued.
Bazin
Crest
B Series, >
length, 6.5
height. 2.4
Observed
head,
experi-
mental
weir D,
in feet.
• o. 142.
23 feet.
6 feet.
^ T'
iM
Crest
Cron section.
Period.
d
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, In
cubic feet
per
Becond.
V
2g
H
^
c
'
2
8
_*_
6
«_
7
8 9
10
1
0.300
0.1643
2.88
0.464
0.17
O.OOM
0.3004 0.1648
2.82
2
.369
.2242
2.87
.643
.23
.0008
.3698 , .2251
2.86 .
3
.447
.2989
2.87
.a5i
.29
.0013
.4483 I .2999
2.84 1
4
.509
.3631
2.86
1.038
.35
.0019
.5109 .3652
2.84
5
.591
.4544
2.88
1.308
.43
.0029
..•ygsg | .4578
2.86
6
.666
.5485
2.86
1.554
.50
.0089
.6699 .5184
2.88
7
.727
.6199
2.92
1.810
.67
.0051
.7327 .6263
2.89
8
.795
.7089
2.94
2.084
.64
.0064
.8014 .7155
2.91
9
.861
.7989
2.94
2.349
.71
.0078
.8688 .8101
2.90
10
.984
.9027
2.95
2.664
.78
.0095
.9435; .9158
2.91 <
11
1.007
1.0105
2.96
2.980
.86
.0115
1.0185 1.0286
2.89
12
1.079
1.1208
2.98
3.338
.94
.0137
1.0927 1.1427
2.92
13
1.149
1.2316
2.98
3.665
1.01
.0159
1.1649 1.2575
2.92
14
1.222
1.3508
2.99
4.087
1.10
.0188
1.2408 1.3824
2.92
15
1.285
1.4567
3.00
4.870
1.17
.0213
1.8063 1.4925
2.98
16
1.362
l..'i895
8.00
4.770
1.25
.0243
1.3863 1.6317
2.92
17
1.480
1.7100
8.01
5.147
1.30
.0263
1.4563 1.7569
2.93
Bazln
Crest
R Series, >
ength, 6.5
lieight, 1.6
ro. 139.
82 feet.
4 feet.
~^'\^^
Crest ]
1
0.190
0.0828
8.66
0.803
0.17
0.0004
0.19M
0.0828
3.66
2
.253
.1278
3.68
.467
.25
.0010
.2540
.1280
8.65
3
.312
.1743
3.72
.647
.33
.0017
.3137
.1769
3.68
4
.375
.2297
3.66
.Ml
.42
.0027
.3777
.2823
8.62
5
.434
.2860
3.73
1.067
.52
.0(M2
.4382 ; .2899
3.68
6
.500
.3586
3.72
1.317
.62
.0060
.5060
.8600
3.6. '
7
.552
.4101
8.78
1.550
.71
.0078
.5598
.4191
3.70
8
.615
.4823
3.76
1. 812
.80
.0099
.6249
.4941
3.67 '
9
.667
.5447
3.82
2.081
.90
.0126
.6796
.5607
3.71
10
.733
.6276
3.79
2.880
1.00
.01&-)
.7485 1 .6482
3.67
11
.798
.7128
3.80
2.709
1.11
.0192
.81?2 .7385
3.67
12
.852
.7865
3.84
3. 022
1.21
.0228
.8748 .8185
3.69 :
13
.915
.8753
3.86
3.378
1.32
.0271
.9421 i .9143
3.68 '
14
.969
.9538
3.87
3. 692
1.41
.0309
.9961 .9940
8.71
15
1. 023
1.0347
3.92
4.038
1.52
.0359
1.0589 1.0897
8.71
16
1.092
1.1411
3.90
4.446
1.63
.0413
1.1833 1.2060
8.68
17
1. lol
1.2348
3.90
4.816
1.72
.0460
1.1970 1.3096
3.68
18
1.210
1.3:«0
3.94
5. 240
1.84
.aV26
1.2626 ' 1.4194
8.69
19
1.268
1.4110
3. 95
5. 570
1.92
.0573
1.3153 1.5080
3.69
20
1.326
1. 5269
3.93
6.013
2. 03
.0641
1.3901 1.6388
3.67 '
21
1.3W
1.6459
3.93
n.48.1
•-,3
. O/W)
1.4645 1.7714
3.6<i
WE1B8 OF IBKEOULAB SECTIOir.
75
Bonn's experiments on weirs of irregular section — Continued.
Badn'B Series, No. 140. "
Crest length, 6.5S2 feet
Crest height, 1.64 feet.
Period.
Observed
expe^-
mental
weirD,
in feet.
i>»
Ci
Q,flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
r
««
^
H
H^
C
1
2
8
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
3.74
1
0.192
0.0885
3.77
0.815
0.17
0.0004
0.1924
0.0841
2
.252
.1265
S.74
.478
.25
.0010
.2530
.1273
8.72
- 3
.308
.1709
3.75
.641
.33
.0017
.8097
.1726
3.71
4
.371
.2260
3.71
.838
.42
.0027
.3727
.2278
3.68
6
.436
.2879
3.77
1.086
.62
.0042
.4102
.2919
3.T2
6
.488
.3399
3.74
1.276
.60
.0056
.4936
.3472
8.66
7
.549
.4068
8.81
1.551
.71
.0078
.5668
.4157
8.73
8
.604
.4694
8.82
1.792
.80
.0099
.6189
.4811
3.72
9
.664
.5411
3.83
2.072
.90
.0126
.6766
.6670
8.72
10
.719
.6096
3.84
2.342
.99
.0162
.7842
.6289
8.72
11
.786
.6956
3.88
2.700
l.U
.0192
.8042
.7209
8.74
12
.837
.7668
3.88
2.968
1.20
.0224
.8504
.7961
8.73
IB
.905
.8610
3.92
3.375
1.32
.0271
.9321
.8996
3.75
14
.961
.9421
8.90
3.674
1.41
.0809
.9919
.9880
3.72
15
1.028
1.0347
3.95
4.069
1.53
.0864
1.0694
1.0698
8.78
16
1.060
1.1224
8.93
4.402
1.62
.0406
1.1208
1.1869
3.71
17
1.148
1.2220
3.97
4.843
1.74
.0471
1.1901
1.2961
3.78
18
1.195
1.3068
3.96
5.187
1.88
.0521
1.2471
1.3925
3.72
19
1.254
1.4043
3.97
5.558
1.92
.0678
1.3113
1.60U
8.70
20
1.316
1.5097
3.99
6.024
2.03
.0641
1.8801
1.6211
3.72
«
1.375
1.6123
4.01
6.456
2.14
.0712
1.4462
1.7888
8.71
Baziu's Series, No. 147.
Crest length, 6.586 feet.
Crest height. 2.46 feet.
OromweeOon,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1*1
20
21
0.231
0.1110
.306
.1709
.378
.2278
.438
.2899
.508
.956»
.569
.4292
.687
.5084
.6«1
.5620
.734
.6289
.797
.7116
.M6
.7768
.898
.8510
.953
.9808
1.015
1.0226
1.068
1.0960
1.116
1.1774
1.165
1.2575
1.217
1.3426
1.265
1.4228
1.332
1.5873
1.394
1.6159
2.75
2.85
2.86
2.97
3.02
3.18
3.20
3.24
3.34 I
3.40
3.44 I
3.53
3.57
3.63
3.67
3.73
3.79
3.83
3,85
3.89
3.98
0.306
0.11
0.0002
.485
.18
.0005
.662
.23
.0008
.861
.80
.0014
1.078
.37
.0021
1.848
.44
.0080
1.626
.64
.0045
1.821
.58
.0052
2.109
.66
.0068
2.417
.74
.0083
2.673
.81
.0102
8.004
.89
.0123
3.320
.97
.0146
3.708
1.06
.0175
4.037
1.15
.0200
4.401
1.22
.0231
4.775
1.31
.0267
5.132
1.40
.0805
5.467
1.47
.0336
5.991
1.58
.0388
6.567
1.68
.0439
0.2312
.3085
.3738
.4394
.5061
.5720
.6415
.6862
.7408
.8053
.8552
.9108
.9676
1.0825
1.0836
1.1381
1. 1917
1.2475
1.2986
1.370S
1.4379
0.1110
.1709
.2287
.2909
.3589
.4326
.6132
.5682
.6378
.7228
.7906
.8681
.9523
1.0484
1.1286
1.2140
1.3013
1.3925
1.4805
1.6053
1.7244
2.76
2.84
2.85"'
2.96
8.00
3.10
3.17
3.20
3.31
3.35
3.38
3.46
3.49
3.53
3.58
3.62
3.67
3.68
3.70
3.73
3.81
76
WEIR EXPEKIMENT8, COEFFICIENTS, AND FOBMULA8.
Bazin^s experimerUs on weirs of irregular section — Continaed.
Barin'8 Series, No. 149.
Crest length, 6.618 feet.
Crest height, 2.46 feet
Grow Mctlon.
Period.
1
Observed
head,
experi-
mental
weir D,
in feet.
I^
a
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
ttecond.
V
20
H
l/»
C
!«
8
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
0.248
0.1235
2.56
0.816
0.12
0.0002
0.2482
0.1285
2.56
2
.817
.1785
2.58
.462
.17
.0004
.3174
.1786
2.69
8
.390
.2486
2.67
.651
.23
.0008
.3908
.2445
2.66
4
.455
.3070
2.73
.838
.29
.0013
.4563
.3080
2.72
5
.521
.3761
2.82
1.060
.36
.0020
.5230
..3782
2.80
6
.585
.4475
2.89
1.295
.43
.0030
.6850
.4476
2.89
7
.653
.5277
2.97
1.568
.61
.0040
.6570
.6326
2.94
8
.706
.6920
8.00
1.776
.56
.0049
.7099
.5983
2,97
9
.766
.6705
3.08
2.067
.64
.0064
.7724
.6788
3.05
10
.818
.7398
8.16
2.388
.71
.0078
.8268
.7507
8.11
U
.882
.8283
3.23
2.674
.80
.0099
.8979
.8509
8.14
12
.942
.9143
8.80
3.016
.89
.0128
.9543
.9318
8.23
18
.999
.9985
3.36
3.856
.97
.0146
1.0156
1.0241
3.28
14
1.051
1.0774
8.39
3.627
1.08
.0165
1.0665
1.1006
3.30
16
1.108
1.1584
3.45
4.002
1.12
.0196
1.1225
1.1885
3.37
16
1.166
1.2675
3.49
4.897
1.20
.0224
1.1874
1.2982
8.40
17
1.209
1.3294
3.52
4.682
1.27
.0251
1.2341
1.8708
3.42
18
1.281
1.4499
3.57
5.177
1.38
.0296
1.8106
1.6011
8.45
19
1.830
1.6338
3.60
6.508
1.46
.0327
1.3627
1.6912
8.46
20
1.385
1.6800
8.68
5.917
1.64
.0869
1.4219
1.6966
8.49
21
1.446
1.7888
3.67
6.386
1.64
.0418
1.4878
1.8161
8.62
Bazin'
Crest 1
Crest 1
M Series, N
ength, 6.5
leight, 2M
0.248
o. 150.
18 feet.
Sfeet.
•
Cross se
etion.
0.1286
1
0.1285
2.53
0.314
0.12
0.0002
0.2482
2.54
2
.323
.1836
2.65
.488
.16
.0004
.3234
.1836
2.66
3
.379
.2333
2.78
.648
.23
.0008
.3798
.2842
2.77
4
.459
.3110
2.82
.877
.80
.0014
.4604
.8120
2.81
6
.512
.3664
2.91
1.065
.36
.0020
.6140
.3686
2.89
6
.586
.4486
2.96
1.329
.43
.0029
.5889
.4521
2.94
7
.637
.5084
3.07
1.560
.60
.0039
.6409
.6132
8.04
8
.698
.5832
3.12
1.819
.57
.0061
.7031
.6896
3.09
9
.751
.t>508
3.18
2.070
.64
.0064
.7574
.6687
8.14
10
.814
.7344
3.26
2.393
.73
.0083
.8223
.7462
3.21
11
.869
.8101
3.*31
2.681
.80
.0099
.8789
.8241
3.26
12
.928
.8910
3.37
3.013
.89
.0123
.9403
.9114
3.31
IS
.982
. 9732
3.42
3.328
.97
.0146
.9966
.9965
3.34
14
1.043
i.oervi
3.47
3.713
1.06
.0175
i.oea'i
1.0918
3.40
15
1.095
LHriS
3.51
4.037
1.13
.0199 ' 1.1149
1.1774
3.4:<
16
1.162
1.23(V4
3.66
4.414
1.22
.0231 1.1761
1.2737
8.4i'>
17
1.215
i.it'm
3. 5K
4.797
l.:{0
.l»2tKH 1.2413
1.3825
3.47
18
l.-2.^9
1.4127
3.r»:i
5.118
l.:w
.0296 1.2856
1.4584
3. .^1
19
i.3i:>
I . .'Hiso
3. (y>
n.:^V2
1.4«i
,^V\\ . I.:i481
1.5651
3.62
'M
l.:i*23
1..VJIH
3. IM
h. .MH
1.47
.033« I.3.Y16
1.5H07
3.51
21
l.'iXA)
i.r.iii
3. <W
f). %-2
l.f>>
.(«7I , 1.4171
l.K8<W
S.W
2*2
1.439
1.7'2<i2
:i. 73
6. 116
l.thl
.(MIH
1.480.S
1.8028
3.56
WEIRS OF IRREGULAR SECTION.
Bazin*tf exfterimentA on weirs of irregular section — Continued.
Bazm'8 Series. No. 151.
Crest length, 6.560 feet.
Crest height. 2.48 feet.
CroM teetlon.
77
Period.
Obfleryed
experi-
mental
weir D,
In feet.
Di
(\
1
2
S
4
1
0.201
0.0901
1
2.71
2
.240
.1176
2.81
3
.807
.1701
2.79
4
.S91
.2445
2.79
6
.445
.2969
2.92
6
.514
.3685
2.95
7
.687
.3985
2. 98
8
.573
.4837
8.05
9
.648
.5156
3.09
10
.695
.5796
3.20
11
.756
.6574
3.24
12
.800
.7165
3.30
IS
.826
.7607
3.31
14
.867
.8078
3.36
15
.921
.8839
8.39
16
.975
.9628
3.46
17
1.027
1.0408
3.61
18
1.090
1.1380
3.52
19
1.112
1.1727
3.67 1
29
1.140
1.2172
3.60
21
1.209
1.3294
3.61
22
1.248
1.3942
3.64
2S
1.314
1.5063
3.68
24
1.852
1.5721
3.71
25
1.416
1.6850
3.75
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cable feet
per
second.
0.244
.329
.474
.684
.867
1.069
1.174
1.324
1.594
1.856
2.129
2.862
2.486
2.712
2.997
3.332
3.658
4.013
4.177
4.382
4.801
6.060
6.657
6.825
6.337
0.09
.12
.17
.24
.30
.37
.51
.69
.66
.72
.76
.81
.89
.97
1.04
1.13
1.17
1.23
1.31
1.36
1.47
1.62"
1.64
0.0001
.0002
.0004
.0009
.0014
.0021
.0024
.0030
.0040
.OOM
.0068
.0081
.0090
.0102
.0123
.0146
.0168
.0199
.0218
.0231
.0267
.0288
.0336
0859
.0418
//
/fi
C
8
9
10
0.2011
0.0901
2.71
.2422
.1191
2.76
.3074
.1701
2.79
.3919
.2454
2.79
.4464
.2979
2.91
.5161
.8707
2.94
.53M
.3967
2.97
.5760
.4371
3.03
.6170
.5204
3.06
.7004
.6857
3.17
.7628
.6665
3.19
.8081
.7263
3.25
.83.')0
.7681
3.26
.8772
.8213
3.80
.9383
.9013
3.32
.9896
.9850
8.38
1.0438
1.0667
3.47
1.1099
1.1695
3.48
1.1883
1.2060
3.46
1.1631
1.2543
3.60
1.2857
1.8741
8.49
1.2768
1.4431
3.61
1.3476
1.5651
3.55
1.3879
1.6362
8.66
1.4578
1.7604
3.60
78 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Bazin*s experiments on weir$ of irregular section — Gontinaed.
Bazin'B Series, No. 168.
Crest length, 6.616 feet.
Great height, 2.46 feet.
CronMotton.
Period.
Obflerred
experi-
mental
weir D,
In feet.
/)•
Ci
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir. In
cubic feet
per
second.
6
V
6
H
ifl
C
10
2.72
1
«
8
4
2.78
7
8
9
1
0.287
0.1154
0.814
0.12
0.0002
0.2372
0.1154
2
.801
.1661
2.77
.457
.16
.0004
.9014
.1651
2,77
3
.872
.2269
2.79
.683
.22
.0008
.3728
.2278
2.78 i
4
.873
.2278
2.83
.645
.28
.0008
.3788
.2287
2.82
5
.440
.2919
2.90
.847
.29
.0018
.4413
.2929
2.89
6
.606
.8589
2.03
1.052
.36
.0019
.6069
.3610
2.91
7
.576
.4871
3.00
1.311
.48
.0080
.6790
.4406
2.98
8
.687
.6004
3.07
1.560
.60
.0089
.6409
.blS2
3.04
9
.696
.6807
8.10
1.801
.67
.0061
.7011
.5870
3.07
10
.701
.6870
8.10
1.820
.58
.0052
.7062
.5983
8.07
11
.760
.6626
3.15
2.085
.65
.0066
. 7666
.6717
3.10
12
.762
.6652
3.16
2.101
.66
.0066
.7686
.6743
3.12
13
.814
.7844
3.20
2.849
.72
.0081
.8221
.7452
3.15
14
.879
.8241
3.25
2.678
.80
.0099
.8889
.8381
3.20
16
.937
.9071
3.29
2.984
.88
.0120
.9490
.9245
3.23
16
.993
.9895
3.84
3.307
.96
.0143
1.0073
1.0105
3.27
17
1.001
i:ooi5
3.33
3.380
.96
.0143
1.0153
1.0226
3.26
18
1.055
1.0886
3.40
3.672
1.05
.0171
1.0721
1.1099
3.31
19
1.102
1.1569
3.41
3.956
1.11
.0192
1.1212
1.1869
3.:«
20
1.170
1.2656
8.46
4.394
1.21
.0228
1.1928
1.3090
3.87
21
1.226
1.3576
8.48
4.733
1.28
.0255
1.2515
1.3992
3.38
22
1.290
1.4662
8.51
5.159
1.38
.0296
1.3196
1.5166
3.40
23
1.289
1.4635
3.52
5.139
1.37
.0292
1.3182
1.5132
3.40
24
1.847
1.5634
3.58
5.607
1.45
.0327
1.8791
1.6193
8.40
26
1.404
1.6636
3.58
5.943
1.54
.0369
1.4409
l.?298
3.44
26
1.436
1.7208
3.58
6.158
1.58
.0388
1.4748
1.7914
3.44
WEIRS OF IRBEOULAR 8?:CT10N.
Bazin's experiment on toeirs of irregular action — Continued.
Bazin'8 Series, No. 154.
Crest lennrth, 6.516 feet.
Crest height, 2.46 feet.
79
CroM section.
Period.
Obeepved
head,
experi-
mental
weir i>,
in feet.
D«
Ci
Q.flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
V
H
H»
a
1
t
S
4
~5
6
7
8
9
10
1
0.236
0.1147
2.70
0.811
0.12
0.0002
0.2632
0.1849
2.80
2
.806
.1709
2,74
.469
.17
.0004
.8064
.1709
2.74
8
.873
.2278
2.83
.645
.28
.0006
.3738
.2287
2.82
4
.447
.2909
2.85
.862
.29
.0013
.4483
.2999
2.84
6
.506
.8621
2.95
1.068
.36
.0020
.5100
.8642
2.94
6
.677
.4382
2.97
1.801
.87
.0021
.6791
.4406
2.96
7
.643
.6166
8.04
1.569
.51
.0040
.6470
.6004
8.02
8
.706
.5938
8.07
1.821
.67
.0051
.7111
.5996
8.04
9
.760
.6626
8.17
2.102
.65
.0066
.7666
.6717
8.11
10
.823
.7466
3.20
2.889
.78
.0063
.8818
.7576
8.16
U
.888
.8368
3.20
2.678
.80
.0099
.8979
.8609
8.15
12
.946
.9201
8.24
2.961
.87
.0118
.9578
.9876
8.18
18
1.011
1.0166
8.28
8.884
.96
.0143
1.0258
1.0877
8.21
14
1.075
1.1146
8.31
8.674
1.03
.0165
1.0915
1.1396
3.22
15
1.188
1.2140
3.36
4.066
1.13
.0199
1.1579
1.2461
8.26
16
1.196
1.3063
8.87
4.415
1.20
.0224
1.2174
1.8426
3.29
17
1.260
1.3975
8.40
4.760
1.28
.0255
1.2755
1.4397
8.81
18
1.810
1.4994
3.43
5.145
1.36
.0288
1.8888
1.5494
8.32
19
1.870
1.6035
3.45
5.520
1.44
.0322
1.4022
1.6601
8.82
20
1.480
1.7100
8.48
5.961
1.58
.0864
1.4664
1.7750
8.85
80
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Bazin^s experiments on weirs of irregular section — ContinucHl.
#
Basin's Series, No. 156.
Crest height, 2.46 feet.
Crest width, 0.66 foot.
Upstream slope, i to 1.
Downstream slope, 5 to 1.
Period.
Observed
head,
experi-
mental
weir A
in feet.
i>«
Ci
<2, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
f
2y
H
//*
C
1
2
8
4
6
6
7
0.0002
»•
9
0.1220
TO
2.76
1
0.246
0.1220
2.76
0.387
0.12
0.2462
2
.311
.1734
2.80
.486
.17
.0004
.3114
.1734
2.80
3
.382
.2361
2.84
.671
.24
.0009
.3829
.2370
2.83
4
.446
.2979
2.90
.864
.80
.0014
.4474
.2989
2.89
5
.508
.3621
2; 91
1.054
.36
.0020
.5100
.3642
2,89
6
.576
.4371
2.95
1.289
.42
.0027
. 5787
.4406
2.92
7
.688
.5096
8.01
1.634
.49
.0037
.6417
.5144
2.98
8
.703
.5895
8.06
1.804
.67
.0061
.7081
.5958
3.03
9
.764
.6678
3.10
2.070
.64
.0064
.7704
.6757
3.06
10
.834
.7617
3.13
2.384
.72
.0081
.8421
.7727
3.08 .
11
.888
.8368
3.17
2.653
.79
.0097
.8977
.8510"
3.12 1
12
.966
.9347
3.24
3.028
.88
.0120
.9680
.9524
3.18 1
13
1.018
1.0272
3.22
3.309
.95
.0140
1.0820
1.0484
8.16
U
1.074
1.1130
3. SO
3.673
1.04
.0168
1.0908
1.1396
3.22
15
1.139
1.2166
3.29
3.999
1.11
.0192
1.1582
1.2462
3.21
16
1.203
1.8194
3.81
4.367
1.19
.0220
1.2260
1.3558
3.22
17
1.267
1.4262
3.34
4.764
1.26
.0247
1.2917
1.4686
3.24
]8
1.341
1.5529
3.36
5.218
1.87
.0292
1.3702
1.6035
3.25
19
1.394
1.6459
8.36
5.530
1.43
.0318
1.4258
1.7028
3.25
20
1.457
1.7587
3.39
5.962
1.52
.0359
1. 4929
1.8241
3.27
Basin's Series, No. 158.
Crest length, 6.520 feet.
Crest height, 2.46 feet
CroasMctloa.
1
0.234
0. 1132
2.79
0.316
0.12
0.0002
0.2342
0.1132
2.79
2
.312
.1743
2.72 1
.474
.17
.0004
.3124
.1748
2.72
3
.383
.2870
2.77 1
.656
.23
.0008
.3838
.2379
2.76
4
.457
.3090
2.79
.862
.29
.0018
.4583
.8100
2.78
5
.530
.3858
2.81
1.085
.36
.0020
.6320
.3880
2.80
6
.600
. 4648
2.82
1.311
.43
.0030
.6030
.4683
2.80
7
.672
.5509
2.86 1
1.576
.50
.0039
.6769
.5557
2. HI
8
.733
. 6276
2.90 i
1.821
.57
.0051
.7381
.6340
2.87
9
.799
. 7142
2.91 1
2.078
.(>4
.0064
.8054
.722:j
2.88
10
.SCO
. 7975
2.95
2.354
.71
.0078
.8678
.8087
2.91
11
.930
.8969
3.00 1
2. 691
.79
.0097
.9397
.9114
2.95
12
.984
.9761
3.04
2.967
.86
.0115
.9955
.9925
2.99
13
1.065
1.0836
3.10
3.348
.95
.0140
1.0690
1.1053
3.03
14
1.125
1.1933
3.12
3.713
1.04
.0168
1. 1418
1.2204
3.04
15
1.177
1.2769
3.15 '
4.022
1.10
.0188
1.1968
1.3029
3.08
16
1.243
1.3858
3.19
4.434
1.20
.0224
1.2654
1.4228
3.12
17
1.297
1.4771
3.22
4.766
1.27
.0251
1.3221
1.5200
3.14
18
1.861
1.5878
3.25
5.168
1.35
.0283
1.8893
1.6370
3.16
19
1.412
1.6779
8.30
5.544
1.43
.0348
1.4468
1.7406
3.18
20
1.457
1.7587
3.32
5. 839
1.49
.0345
1.4916
1.8215
3.22
WEIRS OF IBREOrLAR SECTION.
81
BcLzin^s experiments on weirs of irregular secLiwi — Continueil.
B Series, No. 159.
4 ^y'y:-
^t^^^^Z>?^
-».*.v
Crest 1
engtb, 6.611 feet,
lelght, 2.46 feet.
-rmmrnm^^
^5»>w
Crest 1
GroH seotton.
! Period.
Observed
experi-
mental
weir D,
in feet.
1^
4
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir. In
cubic feet
per
second.
V
2tr
^
//«
C
1
2
8
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
0.284
0.1132
2.68
0.303
0.11
0.0002
0.2842
0.1132
2.68
2
.304
.1676
2.75
.462
.17
.0004
.3044
.1676
2.74
3
.379
.2833
2.82
.657
.28
.0008
.8798
.2342
2.80
4
.387
.2408
2.82
.680
.24
.0009
.3879
.2417
2.81
5
.467
.3090
2.81
.868
.30
.0014
.4684
.3100
2.80
6
.616
.8707
2.91
1.079
.36
.0020
.6180
.3728
2.89
' 7
.626
.3815
2.84
1.085
.86
.0020
.6280
.3886
2.83
8
.599
.4686
2.82
1.308
.43
.0030
.6020
.4671
2.81
9
.664
.6411
2.87
1.553
.50
.0039
.6679
.6460
2.84
10
.670
.5484
2.83
1.562
.49
.0037
.6737
.6538
2.80
11
.785
.6802
2.88
1.818
.56
.0049
.7399
.6366
2.86
12
.797
.7115
2.W
2.092
.64
.0064
.8034
.7196
2.91
18
.861
.7969
2.99
2.389
.72
.0081
.8693
.8101
2.95
14
.876
.8199
2.94
2.411
.72
.0081
.8848
.8311
2.90
15
.936
.9042
2.93
2.649
.78
.0095
.0445
.9172
2.89
16
.991
.9910
3.01
2.988
.86
.0115
1.0066
1.009
2.96
17
1.068
1.1037
8.06
8.383
.94
.0137
1.0817
1.1255
2.96
18
1.126
1. 1M8
8.10
3.704
1.03
.0165
1. 1425
1.2204
8.04
19
1.146
1.2252
3.06
8.751
1.04
.0168
1,1618
1.2526
3.00
20
1.198
1.8112
3.08
4.036
1.10
.0188
1.2168
1.8425
3.00
21
1.261
1.4161
3.11
4.416
1.19
.0220
1.2880
1.4533
3.03
22
1.320
1.5166
3.16
4.777
1.27
.0251
1 3451
1.5599
3.06
23
1.332
1.5878
3.13
4.820
1.27
.0251
1.3571
1.5808
3.05
24
1.389
1.6370
3.14
5. 150
1.33»
.0275
1.4165
1.6850
3.06
25
1.445
1. 7870
3.19
5.551
1.42
.0313
1.4763
1.7982
3.09
26
1.466
1.75^
3.19
5.614
1.48
.'0348
1.4908
1.8188
8.09
82 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Bazin^s experiments on weira of irregular section — Continued.
Basin's Series, No. 160.
Crest height, 2.46 feet.
Crest width, 1.31 feet.
• Upstream slope, ^ to 1.
Downstream slope, 6 to 1.
i Period.
1
Observed
head,
experi-
mental
weir i>,
In feet.
/)«
a
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
V
6
'2g
ff
ifJ
C
10
2.80
1
8
8
4
o
7
8
9
0.3089
1
0.451
0.3029
2.81
0.H540
0.29
0.0013
0.4523
2
.522
. 3772
2.82
1.0637
.86
.0020
.6240
.3793
2.80
3
.693
.4667
2.84
1.2970
.42
.0027
.5967
.4601
2.82
4
.663
.5399
2.88
1.5549
.60
.0089
.6669
.6447
2.86
5
.735
.6302
2.89
1.8213
.67
.0051
.7401
.6366
2.86
6
.798
.7128
2.91
2.0742
.64
.0064
.8044
.7209
2.88
7
.863
.8017
2.92
2.3410
.70
.0076
.8706
.8129
2.88
8
.930
.8969
2.97
2.6638
.78
.0096
.9895
.9100
2.98
9
.998
.9970
2.99
2.9810
.86
.0116
1.0095
1.0185
2.94
10
1.074
1. 1130
3.02
3.3861
.95
.0140
1.0680
1.1849
2.94
11
1.129
1.1996
3.03
3.6348
1.01
.0159
1.1449
1.2252
2.97
12
1.193
1.3030
3.06
3.9872
1.09
.0185
1.2115
1.3834
2.98
13
1.264
1.4043
3.08
4.3252
1.16
.0209
1.2749
1.4397
3.00
14
1.32(i
1.6269
3.10
4.7834
1.25
.0243
1.3503
1.5686
3.02
15
1.389
1.6870
8.14
6.1402
1.34
.0279
1.4169
1.6867
3.05
16
1.457
1.7587
3.16
5.5675
1.42
.0313
1.4883
1,8161
3.06
Bazin'8 Series, No. 161.
Crest lensrth, 6.643 feet.
Crest height, 1.64 feet.
JjM
1
0.298
0.1627
2
.854
.2107
3
.413
.2654
4
.472
.3243
6
.629
.3847
6
.581
.4429
7
.689
.5108
8
.693
.5770
9
.750
.6496
10
.804
.7209
11
.864
.8031
12
.919
.8810
13
.960
.9406
14 .
.992
.9880
15
1,019
1.0287
16
1.056
1.0851
17
1.083
1.1271
18
1.118
1.1821
19
1.157
1.2445
20
1.187
1.2932
21
1.225
1.3558
22
1. 2f>:^
1.4194
23
1.289
1.4635
24
1.326
1.5269
25
1.359
1.5843
4.81
4.80
4.26
4.23
4.22
4.25
4.24
4.26
4.28
4.31
4.31
4.32
4.33
4.30
4.31
4.28
4.27
4.24
4.17
4.16
4.12
4.09
4.11
4.08
4.08
0.701
.906
1.131
1.371
1.625
1.883
2. 167
2.458
2.782
8.107
3.461
3.806
4.078
4. 248
4.434
4.665
4.825
6.003
5.171
5.380
6.378
5.808
6.001
6.242
6.416
0.86
.45
.56
.65
.75
.85
.95
1.06
1.16
1.27
1.38
1.49
1.57
1.61
1.67
1.72
1.78
1.81
1.84
1.90
1.95
2.00
2.05
2.10
2.15
0.0020
.0031
.0049
.0066
.0087
.0112
.0140
.0171
.0209
.0251
.0296
.0845
.0388
.0403
.0434
.0460
.0493
.0509
.0526
.0661
.0691
.0622
.0658
.0686
.0719
Cro«a Motion.
0.8000
0.1643
4.27
.8571
.2133
4.25
.4179
.2702
4.19
.4786
.3814
4.14
.6377
.8946
4.12
.6922
.4665
4.13
.6530
.6277
4.U
.7101
.5988
4.11
.7709
.6770
4.11
.8291
.7648
4.12
.8936
.8462
4.10
.9536
.9303
4.09
.9983
.9970
4.08
1.0828
1.0484
4.05
1.0624
1.0944
4.05
1.1020
1.1569
4.08
1.1328
1.2044
4.01
1.1689
1.2640
3.96
1.2096
1.8810
3.88
1.2431
1.8858
3.88
1.2841
1.4550
3.83
1.3252
1.6262
8.81
1.3543
1.5756
3.81
1.3946
1.6476
3.79
1.4309
1.7118
3.76
WKIR8 OK IRREGULAR SECTION.
83
Bazin^s earperiment* on loeira of irregular section — Continaed.
Bazin'M Series. No. 163.
Crest length. 6.635 foet.
Crest hdsbt 1.64 feet.
CroM section.
Period.
Obeen'ed
head,
experi-
mcnial
I weir A
in feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
A
9
10
11
12
13
.244 '
.303
.366
.423
.4^
.536
.693
.653
.702
.769
.827
L0790
.1206
.1668
.2215
.27M
.3388
.3924
.4567
.5277
.5882
.6744
.7521
14
.949
.9245
15 ,
.998
.9970
16
1.056
1.0851
17
1.114
1. 1758
18
1.171
1.2672
19
1.231
1.3658
20
1.285
1.4567
21 ,
1.389
1.5495
3.81
3.83
8.84
8.83
8.83
3.82
8.86
8.94
3.91
4.(M
3.98
4.02
4.02
4.04
4.06
4.06
4.a'>
4.07
4.07
4.12
4.17
, Q. flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
0.301
.463
.641
.850
1.058
1.295
1.513
1.799
2.063
2.376
2.688
8.023
3.329
8.735
4.048
4.425
4.779
5.169
5.576
6.014
6.464
0.17
.25
.33
.42
.51
.61
.69
.81
.90
1.01
1.11
1.22
1.32
1.44
1.58
1.64
1.74
1.84
1.94
2.06
2.17
'241
O.OOIM
.0009
.oof?
.0027
.0040
.0058
.0074
.0102
.0126
.0159
.0188
.0231
.0271
.0822
.0864
.0418
.0471
.0526
.0585
.0660
.0782
n
0.1844
.2449
.9047
.8687
.4270
.4915
.5434
.6082
.6656
.7179
.7878
.8501
.9091
.9812
1.0344
1.0978
1.1611
1.2236
1.2895
1.8510
1.4122
//*
0.0790
. 1218
.1684
.2241
.2791
.3441
.4001
.4683
.5435
.6084
.6995
.7837
.8667
.9717
1.0514
1.1505
1.2510
1.8541
1.4635
1.5703
1.6779
10
3.81
3.82
3.81
3.79
3.77
3.76
8.78
3.84
8.80
8.90
3.84
3.86
3.84
8.84
3.85
8.85
8.82
8.82
8.81
3.88
3.85
Bazin'B Series, No. 164.
Crest length, 6.684 feet.
Crest height, 1.64 feet.
Gross section.
1
0.244
2
.305
8
.867
4
.425
6
.482
6
.540
7
.592
8
.651
9
.702
10
.766
11
12
.817,
.877 I
18
.989
14
.993
15
1.052
16
1.115
17
1.162
18
1.219
19
1.277
20
1.330
0.1206
3.86
.1685
3.91
.2224
3.87
.2771
8.90
.3346
8.87
.3968
8.87
.4565
8.94
.6252
3.94
.5882
3.97
.6705
4.00
.7385
4.08
.8213
4.06
.9100
4.07
.9896
4.10
1.0790
4.09
1.1774
4.12
1.2528
4.13
1.3459
4.15
1.4431
4.18
1.6338
4.19
0.467
.659
.859
1.080
1.296
1.536
1.797
2.069
2.384
2.684
2.978
3.325
3.704
4.0.>')
4.417
4.862
5.163
5.602
6.019
6.411
0.25
0.0009
.84
.0018
.43
.0090
.52
.0042
.61
.0058
.70
.0076
.81
.0102
.90
.0126
.99
.0152
1.11
.0188
1.21
.0228
1.32
.0271
1.44
.0322
1.54
.03l>9
1.64
.041H
1.76
.0482
1.84
.0526
1.96
.0597
2.06
.0660
2.16
.072o
0.2449
.8068
.3700
.4292
.4878
.M76
.6022
.6636
.7172
.7848
.8398
.9041
.9722
1.0299
1.0938
1.1632
1.2146
1.2787
1.3430
1.402r>
0.1213
.1701
.2251
.2810
.3409
.4a57
.4671
.5410
.6071
.6955
.7699
.8595
.9583
l.(M53
1.1442
1.2543
1.3392
1.4465
1.55(>4
1.6<i01
3.85
3.88
3.82
3.84
8.80
3.79
3.S5
3.82
3.84
3.86
3.87
3.87
3.86
3.88
3.86
3.88
3.86
3.87
3.87
3.86
84 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Bazin^H experiments on weirs of irregular section — Continued.
Bazin'K 8erieR, No. 165.
Crest lengtb, 6.544 feet.
Crest belgbt, 1.64 feet.
\^:/§^Mm??,,»^
CrowaectioD.
Period.
Observed
bead,
experi-
mental
weir D,
in feet.
lA
c,
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
1
1
2
8
4
5
0.837
0.1957
3.56
0.696
2
.401
.2640
3.56
.904
3
.464
.3161
3.56
1.125
4
.028
.3836
3.55
1.363
5
.593
.4567
3.54
1.618
6
.656
.5313
3.54
1.880
7
.720
.6109
3.54
2.162
8
.783
.6929
3.55
2.461
9
.843
.7740
3.58
' 2.771
10
.904
.8595
3.61
3.103
U
.969
.9538
3.63
3.462
12
1.029
1.0438
3.63
3.789
13
1.090
1.1380
3.64
4.150
14
1.153
1.2381
3.65
4.526
15
1.217
1.3426
3.66
4.904
16
1.279
1.4465
3.68
5.386
17
1.341
1.5529
3.68
5.704
18
1.401
1.6583
3.69
6.125
19
,.44«
1. 7424
3.78
6.490
1«
2y
H
i_
0.35
.44
.54
.63
.73
.82
.92
1.02
1.11
1.22
1.33
1.42
1.52
1.62
1.71
1.83
1.92
2.02
2.10
0.0019
.0080
.0045
.0062
.0063
.0105
.0182
.0162
.0192
.0231
.0275
.0313
.0359
.0408
.0455
.0521
.0673
.0634
.0686
I O.S
.4040
.5842
I .6013
.6665
.7882
.7992
i .8622
i .9271
.9965
j 1.0603
i 1.1259
1.1988
1.2625
1.8811
1.8968
1.4644
1.5166
i/»
I C
0.1974
.2568
.3202
.3902
.4660
.5435
.6276
.7142
.8003
.8926
.9940
1.0913
1.1948
1.3046
1.4178
1.5855
1.6590 I
1.7714
1.8680
10
3.54
8.52
3.51
3.49
3.47
8.46
8.44
3.45
8.46
8.47
8.48
8.47
8.47
8.47
3.46
8.48
3.45
3.46
3.47
Bazin's Scries, No. 176.
(^rest length, 6.519 feet.
Cre«t height, 2.46 feet.
Cron section.
3
4
5
(i
7
8
9
10
11
18
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
0.287
.296
.365
.439
.494
.565
.618
.r»H2
.7»J
.797
.84!!
.910
.974
1.027
1.0H8
1.139
1.196
1.218
1.308
1.355
1.420
1154
1611
2206
2909
3472
4247
4858
5632
6270 I
7115
7989
8681 I
9613 I
040H
1349 I
215f. !
3079
3942
4874
5773
6921
2. 'ft
2.74
2.92
2.95
3.04
3.10
8.19
3.22
3.29
3.35
3.41
3. 45
3.51
8.53
3.57
3.62
3.65
3.68
3.73
3.75
3.80
0.317
.441
.645
.858
1.055
1.318
1.550
1.813
2.06(i
2. 385
2. ?24
2.995
3. 373
3.671
4.034
4.416
4. 782
5. 115
5.558
5.925
6.422
0.12
.16
.23
.30
.86
.43
.50
.58 '
.65 i
.73
.82
.98
1.05
1.14
1.28
1.30
1.38
1.47
1.55
1.66 I
0.0002
0.2872
.0004
.2964
.0008
.3658
.0014
.4404
.0020
.4960
.0080
.5680
.0052
.0066
.0083
.0105
.0149
.0171
.0202
.0235
.0263
.0296
.0336
.0374
.0428
.6219
.6872
.7896
.8073
.8715
.9223
.9889
1.0441
1.1062
1.1625
1.228
1.2776
1.3366
1.3924
1.4628
0.1154
.1611
.2214 j
.2919 !
.3494 I
.4281 I
.4905
.6696
.6366 I
.7260 I
.8129
' .8853
' .9836
I 1.0667
I 1.1668
I 1.2626
\ 1.3508
j 1.4448
! 1.5460
j 1.6423
I 1.7695
2.76
2.74
2.91
2.94
8.02
8. OK
3.16
3.18
3.24
3.29
3.35
8.38
3.43
3.44
3.46
3.62
a64
3.54
3.60
3.61
3.63
WEIRS OF IBBEGULAR SECTION.
85
Bazin'ft ejcperiments on tueirs of irregular wcriort— Continucni.
Bazin'
Cre«l
Creutt
R Series, N
ength, 6.5
leight, 2.U
Obeerved
head
experi-
mental
welrD,
in feet.
0. 178.
18 feet.
Ueet.
V
CYOMMCtlon.
i
Period.
1
D«
c,
Q, flow
per foot,
experi-
mental
weir, in
cubic feet
per
second.
2P
H
0
(/
1
2
S
4
&
6
7
. . .
0.0002
8
10
1
1
0.222
0.1046
2.88
0.297
0.11
0.2222
0.1M6
2.84 1
2
.299
.1685
2.95
.482
.17
.0004
.2994
.1685
2.95
8
.367
.2224
2.96
.658
.23
.0008
.8678
.2283
2.95
4
.481
.2880
3.08
.872
.30
.0014
.4324
.2840
3.07
6
.491
.8441
8.18
1.077
.87
.0021
.4931
.8462 ;
8.11
6
.666
.4146
3.19
1.823
.47
.0034
.5594
.4180
3.16
7
.614
.4811
8.24
1.558
.51
.0040
.6180
.4868
3.21
8
.600
.5472
8.28
1.794
.57
.0061
.6741
.5533
3.24
9
.782
.6263
8.38
2.065
.65
.0066
.7386
.6353 ,
3.28
10
.789
.7009
3.86
2.355
.73
.0083
.7973
.7116 '
3.31
11
.847
.7796
3.43
2.675
.81
.0102
.8672
.7934
3.37
12
.906
.8624
8.46
2.983
.89
.0123
.9183
.8796
3.39
13
.966
.9494
8.51
8.381
.97
.0146
.9606
.9716
3.43
14
1.028
1.0423
8.58
8.671
1.06
.0171
1.0451
1.0683 1
3.44
15
1.088
1.1271
3.58
4.045
1.14
.0202
1.1032
1.1584
3.49
16
1.142
1.2204
3.60
4.392
1.22
.0231
1.1651
1.2675 1
3.49
17
1.195
1.8063
3.64
4.755
1.30
.0268
1.2213
1.3492
3.S2
18
1.259
1.4127
3.66
5.170
1.39
.0900
1.2890
1.4635 i
3.58
19
1.314
1.5068
8.69
5.5?2
1.48
.0341
1.3481
1.5651
8.66
20
1.866
1.5066
3.72
5.952
1.55
.0374
1.4084
1.6618
3.58
21
1.424
1.6092
3.75
6.876
1.65
.0428
1.4663
1.7750 ,
3.59
CORNELL UNIVERSITY HYDRAULIC LABORATORY/'
This laboratory, erected in 1898, includes a reservoir formed by a
masonry dam on Fall Creek, at Ithaca, N. Y. An experimental chan-
nel is supplied with water from the pond and has, as its gcneml
dimensions, length, 400 feet; breadth, 16 feet; depth, 10 feet; bottom
grade, 1:500. Fall Creek drains an area of 117 square miles, and
affords a minimum water supply estimated at 12 second-feet. The
hydraulic laboratory is located at Triphammer Falls, where a descent
of 189 feet occurs. The weirs used in the experiments here described
were erected in the concrete-lined experimental channel. The water
supply was regulated by wooden head-gates, operated by lever, rack,
and pinion, the outflow from the canal passing over the declivity below.
a In reducing the experiments at Cornell hydraulic laboraton*- the value of // for Ithaca, latitude
42° 27', Altitude 500 feet, has been taken aa 32.16, making) 2(/-8.02,.^---U.015547. ^l 2g=b.2b.
86 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
EXPERIMENTS OF UNITED STATES BOARD OF ENGINEERS ON DEEP
WATERWAYS.
These experiments were performed at Cornell University hydraulic
laboratory in May and June, 1899, for the United States Board of
Engineers on Deep Waterways, under the immediate direction of
George W. Rafter, engineer for water supply, in conjunction with
Prof. Gardner S. Williams. The results of the original computations
were published in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. 44, together with an
extended discussion. In the experiments a closely regulated volume
of water was passed over a standard thin-edged weir which was placed
near the upper end of the experimental canal and had a height of 13.13
feet and a crest length of 16 feet, end contractions suppressed. The
nappe was aerated, but was not allowed to expand on downstream side.
The water flowed down the experimental canal past a series of screens
and baffles and over the experimental weir placed at the lower end of
the channel.
The experimental weirs were about 4.5 feet high and 6.56 feet crest
length. A leading channel of planed boards, 6.56 feet wide and 48
feet in lengthy extended upstream from the experimental weir, having
at its upper end flaring sides extending 8.3 feet upstream and meeting
the sides of the main channel.
The head on both weirs was read by means of open manometers
connected to galvanized-iron piezometer pipes, placed horizontally-
across the bottom of the narrow leading channel, 37 feet upstream
from the weir. At the standard weir two piezometers were used, one
termed the middle piezometer, placed across the leading channel, 8
inches above the bottom and 10 feet upstream from the standard weir.
A second or upstream piezometer was placed 25 feet upstream from
the standard weir. Readings of both piezometers were taken. It was
decided, however, to use the middle piezometer .is the basis of calcu-
lation of discharge over the standard weir. Near the close of the
experiments it was found that this did not give results agreeing with
those which would have been obtained from a piezometer placed flush
with the bottom of the channel, as is shown to be necessary from the
experiments of H. F. Mills ^ and others. A correction curve was
accordingl}^ deduced from comparative experiments between the middle
piezometer and the flush piezometer, and the readings of the middle
piezometer thus corrected were applied in the Bazin formula to calcu-
late the discharge over the standard weir for heads not exceeding the
limit of Bazin's experiments. For depths on the standard weir greater
than 2 feet the discharge wa,s computed by using coefficients deduced
for higher heads on a shorter experimental weir, on the basis of the
Fmncis formula. Owing to the uncertainty^ as to the piezometers and
« Mills, H. F., Experiments upon piezometera vtixd in hydraulic investigations, Boston, 187K-
ui
>
z
O
u
o
CD
o
>-
U. S. GEOLOO'CAL SURVEV
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 150 PL. XIV
CORNELL HYDRAULIC LABORATORY, ARRANGED FOR WEIR EXPERIMENTS.
WEIRS OF IRREGULAR SECTION. 87
other conditions, the original results of the experiments were rredited
with a possihle error of 5 or ♦> per cent.
In connection with the experiment«j on models of the Croton dam, a
very thorough comparison of the so-called upstream piezometer with
other methods of obtaining the head on a standard weir was made by
Professor Williams. It was found that the upstream piezometer gave
the actual head on the standard weir correctly. These results werecom-
municated to the writer, and a recomputation of the Deep Waterways
exjjeriments has been made, using readings of the upstream piezome-
ter to calculate the standard weir discharge by Bazin's formula. This
method of calculation eliminates the necessity for correcting the pie-
zometer readings at the standard weir, as was necessary in the previous
reductions. The discharge over the experimental weir has been cal-
culated from readings of a piezometer placed 38 feet upstream from
the weir and 8 inches above channel bottom, corrected to the basis of
a flush piezometer.
The United States Deep Waterways experiments included, for each
experimental model, a smaller number of heads or periods than either
the Croton or United States Geological Survey experiments. They
were also the first experiments of the kind conducted at the Cornell
laljoratory, and the experience gained has probably contributed to the
securing of somewhat greater accuracy' in the later experiments. It is
believed, however, that, as recomputed, the United States Deep Water-
ways experiments do not differ much in accuracy from those made on
models of the Croton dam, which are stated by John R. Freeman to
be reliable within about 2 per cent. The coefficient*j obtained by
recomputation, when compared with the original United States Deep
Waterways coefficients, show few differences exceeding 2 per cent.
The variations are plus and minus in about equal numbers, and it is
believed that these experiments are entitled to greater weight than
they have hitherto received.
In the accompanying tables a summary of the recomputation is
given.
IKK 150—06 8
88 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Recomputaiimi of United States Deep Watenvays Board experimenii on flow of water orer
model dams, Cornell University hydraulic laboratory , 1899,
Weir model.
SerieMl.
P-4.91. i-6.68.
Series t.
mm\
P=«4.90. X=«.58.
2
/). in
feet.
flow '
per I
fcx)t. in
I cm bio
feet per
second..
!
1
Num-
ber of
*=i;
//=
^'i
obser-
i>+A
vationft
of
head.
I
I
4.9?2 ,
4.872 ,
3 ' 4.858
4 j i 4.138 '
5 I I 3.368
« I 1.725 '
7 1 1.190 '
I
SeriMi.
Serieah
P-4.91. £-6.68.
Series 6.
5.05
4.15
3.35
2.55
1.75
.923
.34
5
89. 7:^
39.44
39.31 ^
31.47
22.81
8.71
4.88
42.18
31.17
22.89
15.0:^ I
8.39
3.02 '
.82 ■
146. 70 1
123.00 I
98.80
75.72 :
50.65 !
P=4.90. /.=6.58.
Series 9.
P=4.94. /,=6.58.
1 I 142.75
2 I 119.20
3 96.r2
4 I 74.50
1 I 144.00
2 120.50
3 97.27 '
4 74. 35
5 49. 77
4.812
4.034 ]
3.242 i
2.484 '
1.662 ,
4.682 '
3.969
3.173
2.444
4.728
3.953
3.192
2.439
1.633
1 i 147.10
2 i 123.00 I
3 99.62
4 76.22
o 51.00 I
4.825
4.034
8.268
2. 500
1.673 !
41.04
81.22
21.49
13.27
8.21
41.40
30.72 I
21.64
14.07
41.22 I
30.50 t
21.53
14.18
7.(i3
41.16
30.47
21.48
14. 24
7.85 I
4.23 0.2782
3.50 .1959
2.65 .1092
1.80 .0504
1.24 .0239
10
4.972
4.872
4.853
4.138
3.368
1.725
1.190
5.050
4.150
3.350
2.550
1.750
.923
.340
8.584
3.668 ,
3.940
3.789
8.690
3.844
3.759
8.712
3.758
3.733
3.691
3.6:«
3.406
4.120
3.:
5.28 I
3.49 ' 8.383 I
1.75 ! 3.882 I
5.11
4.28
3.43
2.57
1.73
3.54:
3.873
3.484
3.485
3.485
I
5.0902
4.2299
8.8512
2.5344
1.6859
4.30 .2875 I 4.9695
3.47 .1872 4.1562
2.67 . .1108 I 3.2838
1.92 ' .a573 I 2.5018
4.28 .2848 5.0078
3. 45 . 1850 4. 1380
2.62 .1067 3.299
1.92 .0573 2.4963
1.17 .0213 1.6543
4.20
3.38
2. 62
1.92
1.19
.2742
.1776
.1067
.0573
.0220
5.0992
4.2116
3.3927
2.5573
1.6950
41
15
21
l.^i
18
21
15
21
21
27
27
27
•23
3. .574
3.503 I
3.503 '
3.289
3.751
3.787
3.626
3.637
3.557
3.678 ,
3.623
3.591
3.596
3.585
3.575 i
3.525 .
3.437
3.482
3.557 .
31
•j7
25
21
2**
29
27
•27
IK
2ii
2;i
l.>
•22
29
(I Same as series 7, but upstream face covered with i-inch mesh galvanized wire netting.
WEIRS OF IBREOULAB SECTION.
89
RecomptUation of United States Deep Waterways Board experiments onflow of water over
model dams, Comell Dniversity hydraulic laboratory , 1899 — Contiiiued.
Weir model.
1
Series 10.
P^A^bl. Z.-6.58.
SerieslS.
JP-4.60. L«e.68.
Pb.4.58. X«6.fi8.
Series 16.
yot^e /Aft
P«4.fi8. L=6.S8.
i»-4.57.
L-6.68.
aeries 17,
P-4.OT. £«6.5&
SeriesJS.
P-4.66
Cor-
rected
depth
D, ex-
peri-
mental
weir,
centi-
meteni.
i),in
feet.
flow
per
foot, in
cubic
feet per
seoond
I
5.046 42.01
4.961 81.27
3.641 22.88
2.887 14.77
2.024 8.12
4.892
4.189
8.464
2.707
1.980
1 154.55
126.80
144.70
116.60
88.52
60.02
80.80
157.05
131.60
105.40
80.25
54.25
28.05
96.75
66.80
5.069
4.160
8.174
2.174
4.747
8.825
2.904
1.969
1.010
42.06
81.66
22.02
14.34
8.26
80.69
21.58
14.12
7.86
30.69
21.75
14.07
7.85
2.89
129.55 I 4.250
105.00 8.444
79.52 I 2.608
58.66 1.760
126.75 I 4,157 80.69
102.55 ' 3.364 j 21.87
78.02 2.559 | 14.02
62.00 ' 1.706 7.73
127.80 4.175, 31.08
108.82 I 3.389 21.87
78.39 2.571 ' 14.34
51.57 1.691 ' 7.73
82.40 1.068 3.82
38.523 1.264
[49.362 ' 4.899
125.693 4.123
100.766 I 3.305
75.427 2.474
5.47
40.19
30.25
21.38
13.85 i
4.87
3.50
2.72
1.99
1.24
J7-
D+h
8
Num-
ber of
obeer-
vatlons
of
head.
0.2969
.1904
.1160
.0616
4.45
3.60
2.72
1.97
1.26
3.19
2.48
1.82
1.17
3.28
2.60
1.90
1.19
.51
.3079
.2016
.1150
.0603
.0247
.1682
.0966
.0515
.0213
4.23
8.45
2.72
1.97
1.24
.51
3.55
2.72
1.97
1.26
3.52
2.75
1.97
1.24
3.55
2.75
2.02
1.24
.68
.92
4.23
3.45
2.70
1.94
.1678
.1051
.0661
.0220
.0040
.2782
.1860
.1150
.0608
.0239
.0040
.1959
.1160
.0603
.0247
.1926
.1176
.1959
.1176
.0634
.0239
.00?2
.0132
.2782
.1850
.1133
.0585
5.8429
4.6614
8.7660
2.9486
10
8.402
8.220
3.068
2.917
2.0479 I 2.771
5.1999 I 8.547
4.8906 I 3.418
3.6790 ! 3.252
2.7673 j 8.115
1.9647 ' 8.022
5.219
4.2566
8.2256
2.1968
4.9143
3.9801
2.9601
1.9910
1.0140
2.674
2.468
2.438
2.418
5.4292
4.6020
3.5780
2.6938
1.8039
.9240
4.4459
3.5590
2.6683
1.7847
4.8496
3.4816
2.6193
1.7299
4.3709
3.6066
2.6344
1. 7149
1.0702
1.2772
5.1772
4.3080
3.4183
2.5325
2.817
2.790
2.763
2.859
2.830
3.254
3.208
8.212
3.188
8.219
3.096
8.820
8.257
3.217
3.883
3.883
8.866
3.307
3.897
3.401
3.881
3.354
3.442
3.450
3.790
3.412
3 383
3.383
3.487
21
21
20
17
17
90
WEIR EXPERIMKNTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
RecompiUatian of Ihiited States Deep Waterways Board eji^eriments on jimr of ivaier oter
model dams, Cornell Vnivermty hydraulic laboralary, 1899 — Continued.
Weir model.
1
Cor-
rected
depth
Z), ex-
peri-
mental
weir,
centi-
meters.
I), in
feet.
flow
per
foot, in
oubic
feet per
second.
I
D-irh
Cx
Num-
ber of
objicr-
vationii
of
head.
1
2
8
4 j 6
6 7
8
0.8899
1.7028
4.9362
4.0802
8.3088
2.5855
1.7706
9
8.276
3.367
8.651
8.694
8.461
3.401
8.260
10
Series 19.
P-5.28. X»>6.68.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
27.04
51.36
142.128
119.442
97.858
77.246
53.42
0.8869 1 2.75
1.685 7.46
4.662 40.04
8.918 29.62
8.210 20.78
2.534 ' 14.17
1.752 7.68
0.44 0.0030
1.07 ' .0178
4.20 .2742
3.23 .1622
2.46 .0933
1.82 .ft')15
1.09 .0185
1
...'....
Column 5 shows the discharge over the experimental weir per foot
of crest, deduced from the readings of the upstream piezometer at the
standard weir, by Bazin^s formula, and corrected for slight leakage.
Column 3 shows the head on the experimental weir, in centimeters,
taken by a piezometer 38 feet upstream and 8 inches above channel
bottom, corrected to reduce it to the equivalent reading of the flush
piezometer.
Column 4 shows the equivalent head in feet.
Column 6 shows the absolute velocity of approach.
Column 7 shows the velocity head.
Column 8 shows the head corrected for velocity of approach; the
correction being made by the simple addition of the velocity head to
the measured head, which is assumed to be a sufficiently precise equiv-
alent to the Francis correction formula for this purpose.
Column 9 gives the coefficient Cj, deduced from the foregoing.
The resulting coefficient diagrams are shown on Pis. XV to XVII I,
inclusive.
EXPERIMENTS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY HYDRAULIC LABORATORY ON
MODELS OF OLD CROTON DAM.^
These experiments were made in November and December, 1899,
by Prof. Gardner S. Williams, under the direction of John R. Free-
man. The standard weir used was located near the head of the experi-
mental canal, water being admitted and regulated by head-gates in the
usual manner. The standard weir was 11.25 feet high and 16 feet
long on the crest. The experimental weir was placed 232.5 feet far-
ther downstream, and also occupied the full width of the experimental
canal. The models of the Croton dam were constructed of framed
timber and were 6 to 9 feet high.
a Report on New York's water 8upply, Freeman, 1900, pp. 139-141.
U. &. OeOLOOlCAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 1M PL. XV
Coeffl.
rient
3.40
'~~
"
~~"
^~
r
o
Set
7«
/O
^
xao
A
S0
Vea
/^
pC
■^
--'
'^
3.00
*^
JL
i^
'^
2 80
^
J^
• fg
f^
-^
■^
f^
=
2.40
'
'
— z
V-
—
-^
s-
■
■j=s
^
-Vj-
1I.M
_j
__J
.8 1.2 l.« t.0 2.4 2.8 S.2 3.6
Corrected head In feet.
4.0 4.4 4.8 ft.2 hA S.0
SeriatO
t>"-6.S6'--*
%^
Series /Z
Ooeffl-
dent
1
X80
O
Ser/e
r/A
1
p
A
SeU
/J
J
\^
-^
S.40
*^'
SJN
-<
r
-<:
■^
r
^
^
^
^
>-
—
—
—
-
P^
-^
I
\_
f\
a
»1
t.00
^
72
0 .4 .8 1.8 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 .^ft 4.0 4.4 4.8 h.t A.O 6.0
I'orrected hfuU \\\ feec.
tf^e^
Series J f
^fl«^p
Series 13
EXPERIMENTS OF UNITED STATES DEEP WATERWAYS BOARD AT CORNELL
UNIVERSITY, 1899.
« 3 2 a
r
r
-|
I
1 *
: ■'
1 1 I 1 i-i." f
*« ki
- c
"1
M
= i
s 2
/
/
/
fl^
r
^
'A
y
r
°D
*
r/
/^
» G
,/
P
/
i
1
% % % \
ri »j »{ <
% t
4 •
- s
1 1 i . • 1 1 1 1 • I
1 .
^
V
<
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1 > < ' 1 I 1 1 1 1
- V 8- -
%^^
s
-iZ^Pk
f:2 Z 0
/:* > O "
; 1
>
1
I
-
m
\ ]
^
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>
:
f^ o ^
ii"
1
J j944»g'^u9g'foqujA£
•
>-
QC
UJ
>
z
D
o
<
o
111
<
UJ
<
I-
<n
a
UJ
I-
I-
z
QC
2 S
U. S. OEOLOQICAL •UflVEY
WATER-aUPPLY PAPER NO. 150 PU XVII
Corrtcted head In ftt'C.
)
1
.
»
I.S
1.6
a
0
2
.4
S.K
3.8
S.6
4.0
4.4
4.8
A.«
&.
O Sen'es 7 A Series 8
V WW!
7~ .»ii.~w
*•
^0.67 '
toefB
• '•i?;^^^^>>^- *J
•-ii*nt
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 2
S.JO
^///////////////////^^
SERIES 7-8
G
S.M
%
-
^
-^
ir
",
r
—
"■
a
3140
_
*""*
' '
1 M ' 1
' '
1—1
' '
h— 1
* ' '
■
^<?JJ
.^7////////////////////// ^///. v/y////x k
a.co
5£/f/£0 J^
_J
£1
a
■>*
^
^
.(^
— -
o
■
3.40
_
"1-
^
■4^
—
-^
1
_
. O Series
14
r— 1
r— 1
A Series /5
r— 1
f— 1
1 — 1
^
-1
T^'blZ^WrV^h^^' ^^•^'
^^-^'S^^^P^?^^"^?^^"^^ - -*-^'^ '
" /5. Upstream anafe rounded;
rad.'0.33'
a.40
/S
>
^
A
^
o
V
£.2
:='
3.00
1
o
_
0 .4 .8 l.« 1.0 S.0 8.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.2 .').6
Corrected head //In feet.
EXPERIMENTS OF UNITED STATES DEEP WATERWAYS BOARD AT CORNELL
UNIVERSITY, 1899.
U. 8. GEOLOQICAL SURVFV
WATlII-euPPLY PAPOi NO. 150 PL. XVIII
Cr9Stb»tter6:/
Cr99t batter 6:/
- !
X60
5
r^jra
'f
tM^-.-^x^ ?
£^i^^,^ J.
S.40
H
\——
^
_^f W t \ i 1 t w t
riT'
^^_
_
^=H
,
-
sH
^'t^
<LJ
9120 1
_
J
T
1 . 1
r
."J
_
1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 S.S S.6 4.0 4.4 4.S 6.1
Corrected head H In feet.
XM
'
"^~'
"~~
■~~"
"~"
~"
cir
si
/?/,
s
18
S.M
r
^-7.o'--*r
: -■■imx
S.40
_^
^^
ly-
.^^
)-
_i
±2
r
^~
(I>
S.»
,
:>t
ne
3 m, in
dian Lake
%•
.8 l.< 1.0 8.0 2.4 2.8 S.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8 6.2 6.8
Corrected head H in feet.
—
*a
-t*
T"— 1
./,
"■-^
' 5£v?/
:j
'3
Ja
J
3.C0
f^
-H
1--
r"
■"2
—
—
^
w
3>i40
T
>4
w^
P^S>-^
_
£
_J
3.90
^
t
GJ
—
^ I 1
_
1.9 1.6 9.0 9.i 9.8 8.2 8.0 4.0 4.4 4.8 6.8 6.0 CO
Corrected head H in feet.
EXPERIMENTS OF UNITED STATES DEEP WATERWAYS BOARD AT CORNELL
UNIVERSITY, 1899.
WEIKS OF IRREGULAR SECTION.
91
The head on the weirs was measured by means of open glass manom-
eters connected to piezometer tubes in the channel above each weir.
The piezometer tubes were made of 1-inch galvanized-iron pipe with
small holes drilled along the sides, the ends being plugged. At the
standard weir three piezometers were used, placed parallel to the cur-
rent, at about mid-depth of the channel, one being near each side and
one at mid-width of the channel, the mid-length of the pipes being
26.5 feet upstream from the standard weir. A hook gage in the same
section was used to check the observed head.
ErperimtnUt on volume of flow over models of old OroUm daniy Oomell University hydrau-
lic laboratory J 1899.
Period
, No.
aeries 1— Model A. '
Round crent, old Croton dam, xmooth pine, I
creut and slope 16 feet long. Nov. 28-29.
fij Mean
sen^ed | \^i^
depth I *7p?f
dam, »Ve1-
^««««^ipec^ond.
Series la— Model A.
Round crest, old Croton dam, upplaned
plank, crest 16 feet long, smooth slope.
Not. 6. 1899.
1 2.7229
2 I 2.1867
3 I 1.438H
4 I .9830
5 I .5907
6 I .1280
1 , 2.0897
2 1.829S
8 I 1,5878
1.685
1.288
.749
.449
.219
.024
Correc-
tion
for
veloc-
ity of
proach,
in feet.
0.04S9
.0259
.0087
.0081
.0008
.0000
Serinf—ModelA.
Round crest, old Croton dam, 16-foot nnooth
cre*t, rough slope formed of cleats and
stone to simulate concrete and riprap. Dec.
4.1899.
Series S— Model A.
Round crest, old Croton dam, 16-foot crest,
covered Mrith wire cloth of No. 18 wire,
I -inch mesh,a rough slope, as In series 2. i
Nov. 28, 1899.
a In experiments with wire cloth over crest,
oompenaate for thicknesB of wire.
1.2562
.9929
.6801
.4871
2. 9227
2.8591
2.4948
2.1420
1.6238
1.2597
1,1419
.7196
.4873
1.
1.794
1.51G
1.248 '
.880 I
.623
.545
.288
.166
2.0080
1. 124
1.4091
.712
.8675
.366
.42l«
.133
.1184
1
.020
Cor-
rected
head
on
model
dam,
in feet.
.978
.0149
.810
.0102
.661
.0068
.467 1
.0034
.338
.0018
.175
.0004
.111
.0002
0526
.OiOO
.0857
.0241
.0120
.0060
.0046
.0013
.0004
.0197
.0078
.0021
.0003
.0000
2.7668
2.2116
1.4476
.9861
.5915
.1280
2. 1046
1.8395
1.5946
1.2596
.9947
.6306
.4873
2. 9753
2.9091
2.5306
2. 1661
1.6358
1.2657
1.1465
.7209
.4877
2.0187
1.4129
.8656
.4251
. 1144
Dis-
charge
over
model
dam
per
foot of
length,
in cu-
bic feet
('X
per sec-
ond.
7
8
14.762
3.208
10.562
3.211
5.604
3.218
3.154
3.222
1.451
3.190
.147
3.408
9.578
7.883
6.284
3.137
3.160
3.121
4.287 I 3.032
3.006 ' 3.030
1.494 I 2.988
.991 2.913
16. 175
15.969 I
12.933 I
10.211 I
6.740 I
4.548 I
3.913 !
1.945 '
1.087 I
9.037 !
5.308 I
2.527
.861 I
3.240
3! 218
3.213
3.203
3.222
3.194
3.188
3.178
3.192
3.118
3. 161
3.13H
3.099
.124 ' 3.205
0.004 foot is deducted from observed depth to
92
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Experiments on wlume of flmv over models of old Qroion dam, Cornell University hydrau-
lic laboratory, 1899 —Continued.
Series l—Model B.
Angular crest, old Croton dam, 16-f(K)t crest,
all unplaned plank. Nov. 15, 1899.
Scries 2— Model B.
Angular creat, old Croton dam, 16-foot un-
planed plank, crest xlope roughened with
cleats and stone. Nov. 28, 1899.
Scries t— Continued model B.
Conditions as in preceding. Nov. 16, 1H99.
Series S—MwlH B.
Angular crest, old Croton dam, wire cloth on
crest, rough Hlope. Nov. 16, 1H99.
Series 1— Model C.
Round crest, old Croton dam, 12-inch timber
on crest.. 16 feet long, rough slope. Dec.
1.1899.
Series 1 — CotUinued nwdel (\
Couditihns as in preceding. Dec. 4. 1899.
Series 1 — Mn<lel I).
Angular creHt, old Croton dam, Ti-inch tim- I
her, on 16-foot crest, rough slope. Nov. 16,
1X99.
Period
No.
Ob-
served
depth
on
model
dam,
in feet.
t
Mean
veloc-
ity of
proach.
In feet
per
second.
Correc-
tion
for
velocN
ityof
ap-
proach,
in feet
Cor-
rected
head
on
model
in feel.
Dis-
chai^e
over
model
per
foot of
length,
in cubic
feet p€T
8e<x>nd-
1
1
1
a
8
4
5
6
4
H
1 ' 1.8635
0.973
0.0147
1.8782
9.506
3.693
2 ' .9246
.370
.0021
.9267
8.272
3.668
3 ] .6419
.219
.0008
.6427
1.870
3.6S0
4
.3481
.090
.0001
.3482
.741
3.a«
5
.1787
.034
.0000
. 1787
.272
13.478
3.6t»l
1 2.4126
1.298
.0262
2.4388
3..S39
2 1.6251
.736
.0084
1.5836
6.945
3.rt67
3 .9611
.391
.0024
.9686
8.466
3.ti65
4 .5167
.162
.0004
.5161
1.369
3.692
5 .3051
.077
.0001
.3a52
.631
3.742
6 .0890
.012
.0000
.0890
.094
3. .'HO
1 1.8930
.988
.0151
1.9081
9.683
3-674
2 ^ .9606
.391
.0024
.9629
3.465
3.667
3 .7028
.261
.0010
.7038
2.165
3-»rfM
4 .3941
.108
.0002
.3943
.900
3. t^V»
5 .1962
.039
.0000
.1962
.314
3.641
1 1 2.0a'»3
1.047
.0170
02.0183
10.885
3. 622
2 ' .9787
.389
.0024
.9771
8.468
3..5j**>
3 .7391
.259
.0011
.7362
2.241
3.54S
4 .1785
.032
.0000
.1746
.260
3.567
1
1.9941
1.097
.0187
2.0128
9.904
3.4o8
2
1.1817
.512
.0040
1. 18.->7
4.211
3.262
8 ! .8832
.828
.0017
.8849
2.894
3.116
4 .6873
.222
.0008
.6881
l.r22
3.017
5
.4986
.141
.0003
.4989
1.065
3.022
6
.2992
.071
.0001
.'2998
.622
S.1>W
7
.1177
.019
.0000
.1177
.139
3.4.TO
8 .0846
•"^^
.0000
.0846
.067
2.723
1 2.7146
1.632
.0414
2.7660
15.917
3.479
•2 2. 4519
1.436
.0320
2.4839
13.629
3.4*2
3 1.5566
.774
.0093
1.5659
6.660
3.399
4
1.1046
.016
.0000
.1046
.112
3.311
5
.1070
.0165
.0000
.1070
.118
3. 371
1
1.2390
.495
.0038
1.2428
5.026
3.6-2^
2 . 7885
.249
.0010
.7«li.'S
2. 415
3.44:>
3 . 4448
.113
.0002
.4450
l.OM
3. .-vM
n In experiments with wire cloth over crest, 0.004 foot is deducted from observed depth to com-
peuBate for thickness of wire.
WEIB8 OF IRREO0LAR SECTION.
93
Experimeni* on volume of flow over models of old Croton dam, Cornell University hydntu-
lie laboratory y 1899 — Continued.
Period
No.
Ob-
served
depth
on
model
dam,
in feet.
Mean
veloc-
ity of
proach,
in feet
per
second.
Correc-
tion
for
vekK'-
ity of
ap-
proach,
in feet.
Cor-
rected
head
on
model
dam,
in feet.
Dis-
charge
over
model
dam
per
foot of
length,
in cubic
feet per
second.
Ci
1
t S
4
6
6
7
8
1 2.3061
1.154
0.0207
2.8258
11.778
3.321
2 1 1.8125
.845
.0111
1.8286
8.214
3.836
Series 1— Model E.
3 1.2278
.507
.0040
1.2818
4.682
3.388
16-foot angular crest, old Croton dam, with-
4 .8MW
.313
.0015
.8613
2.744
3.433
out timber, but with obstructed channel.
5 .5745
.179
.0006
.5750
1.616
3.477
with sharp contraction. Nov. 18, 1899.
6 ' .3245
.078
.0001
.3246
.641
3.466
7 1 .1120
.017
.0000
.1120
.183 ' 3.548
8 .1102
.017
.0000
.1102
.140 1 3.827
1 1 1.4569
.636
.0063
1.4632
5.957 3.366
2 , .9168
.338
.0018
.9186
2.982 1 3.387
SerifM I— Model A', repeated.
3 1 .6866
.287
.0009
.6875
2.087
3.578
Conditions as in preceding. Nov. 2S, 1899.
4 1 .4820
5 .2811
.148
.071
.0008
.0001
.4823
.2812
1.240
.579
3.702
3.883
6 . .1416
.028
1.139
.0000
.0202
.1416
2.3129
.226 4.208
1
2.2927
all. 613 3.:«2
Series t— Model E.
:
2.2914
1.1896
1.138
.478
.0202
.0084
2.3116
1.1429
611.606
4.278
3.302
3.501
Angular crest, old Croton dam, 16 feet long
4
1.1403
.453
.0031
1.1434
a 4. 097 3.351
without timber, and with slope instead of
5
1.1006
.448
.0081
1.1087
64.034 3.479
sharp edge to upstream end of obstruction.
6
1.1099
.467
.0082
1. 1131
4.119
3.507
Nov. 27, 189tf.
7
.4763
.141
.0008
.4766
1.180
3.586
«
.0233
.081
.0000
.0283
, .025
7.029
o Trap open.
6 Trap closed.
At the experimental weir two similar piezometers, each about one
third of the width of the channel from the side, were used. Owing
to the long back slope of some of the model dams, the head was
measured 69.75 feet upstream from the crest of the experimental
weirs. Readings of all the piezometers were taken at half-minute
intervals, two and sometimes three observers working at each weir.
The mean of ten to twenty observations was used to determine the
head for each period in the experiment. Freeman states that he
considers the results of these experiments for heads up to 2.5 feet,
including all sources of errors, as certainly correct within 2 per
cent, and probably much closer. In reducing the experiments, the
head on the experimental weir is corrected by a methtxi comparable
with that of Francis. Freeman does not give the resulting coefficients
for the weir formula, but presents the results in the form of diagrams
showing the discharge per foot of crest for the variods models. In
the accompanying tables the computations have been carried out to
94 WEIE EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
show the coefficients, some errors in the original data liaving been
omitted.
Column 3 shows the observed head on the experimental dam, in feet.
Column 7 shows the computed discharge over the experimental dam,
per foot of crest. This was determined by calculating the discharge
over the standard weir by means of both the Francis and Bazin for-
mulas, the mean of the two having been used. The result corrected
for slight leakage, divided by 16 (the length in feet of the experi-
mental weir model), appears in column 7.
Columns 4 and 5 show the velocity of approach and the correspond-
ing velocity head at the experimental weir. The velocity of approach
correction was made by adding directly the velocity head as given to
the observed depth on the model dam, this being considered a suffi-
ciently close approximation to the Francis method of correction.
Columns 1 to 7 are taken from the original (computations. The
coefficient C^ has been computed from the data in columns 6 and 7 by
the formula
in
Pis. XIX to XXII show the resulting coefficients applicable in the
formula here adopted,
correction for velocity of approach being made by the Francis correc-
tion formula or an equivalent method.
These experiments were performed for the specific purpose of
determining the discharge over the old Croton dam. They include
two main groups: (1) Experiments on round-crested portion of the
dam; (2) experiments on the angular-crested portion of the dam.
Each group includes series of experiments on: {a) Model of smooth-
planed pine; (J) model of unplaned plank; {c) model with cleats and
fragments of stone on the upstream slope to simulate the natural back
tilling; (rf) model with rough slope and with i-inch-mesh wire cloth on
crest to simulate cut stone; {e) model surmounted by 12-inch-8quaro
timber on crest. Experiments were added with a construction to
simulate a natural rock ledge lying upstream from the angular portion
of the dam.
The experiments were abbreviated owing to lateness of season and
trouble from air in the gage pipes.
The value of the results is limited by the narrow range of heads
covered. The models were of unusual forms, and show some peculiar
differences when an attempt is made to compare the results with those
of other weirs of similar slopes. The data are of value as showing the
effect of various degrees of roughness on the discharge.
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 150 PL. XIX
clent
C.
Corrected head // In feet.
0 •> A .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 t.3 2.4 2.6 2.8 8.0
f
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Corrected head // in feet.
I t ~ i.~_r*i*£. 1 ~ I-~Jf~ —
SEKIES /a, MODEL A ^ /^
EXPERIMENTS ON ROUND-CRESTED MODELS OF OLD CROTON DAM.
1KB 150—06 9
U. S. OEOLCXUCAL SURVEY
rlent
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. ISO PL. XX
Corrected head H in fwt.
.8 1.0 l.S 1.4 1.6 1.8 S.0 t.S 8.4
f 1
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Corrected head /Fin feet.
ys.a3 H
jrzI-Ss^ £5_*t'^ '*^—~
T __
S£fffCS t ANB Z, MODEL 3
3£ff/t}S 3, MODEL S,ffOl/^H SLOPE
lOO »j
EXPERIMENTS ON ANGULAR-CRESTED MODELS OF OLD CROTON DAM.
U. 9. GEOLOGICAL 6URVCV
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 180 PL XXI
34,0
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100 H
SCRIES /, MODCL O
OLD CROTON 0AM MODELS WITH CREST TIMBER.
U. «. QEOLOQICAL SUflVEY
Ooeffl-
eient
C
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER Na 1M PL. XXII
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SERIES /, MODEL E. End a open
SERIES Z. MODEL E End ^ with sJop/n^ approach
ANGULAR CROTON DAM MODEL. WITH CONSTRUCTION TO
SIMULATE ROCK LEDGE.
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WEIR8 OF IRREGULAR SECTION. 95
EXPERIMENTS OF UNITED STATES GEOIXXilCAL SURVEY AT CORNELL
UNIVERSITY HYDRAULIC LABORATORY.
In April, 1903, the writer was instructed to plan and execute iv *<crie8
of experiments on models of dams similar to those in use at gaging sta-
tions of the Geological Survey in New York, Michigan, and elsewhere.
The experiments were performed at the hydraulic laboratory of
Cornell University, mainly during the months of May and June, J903,
and were conducted, under the supervision of the writer, by Prof.
Gardner S. Williams, director of the laboratory.
The various types of dams most commonly occurring were grouped
as follows:
1. Weirs with broad horizontal or slightly inclined crests.
2. Weirs with vertical downstream faces and inclined upstream
slopes.
3. Weirs having compound slopes, including those with inclined
upstream faces and with either broad crests or with sloping aprons.
4. Completely or partially curved weir sections, including those of
ogee profile.
It was found impossible to include in the experiments all the forms
of section desired, and it was accordingly determined to limit the
experiments to the thorough stud}' of two classes — weirs with broad
crests and weirs with ogee sections — and to extend, if possible, the
measurements to include dams with vertical downstream faces and
sloping upstream approaches. The order of operation used in pre-
vious experiments was transposed, the experimental models being built
on a bulkhead forming the standard weir Jiitherto used and located
near the head of the experimental canal.
The quantity of water passing over the experimental weir was meas-
ured on a standard weir below, 6.65 feet high and having a crest length
of 15.93 feet. The head on the standard weir was measured in a
Bazin pit, 3 by 4 feet in section, reaching to the depth of the bottom
of the canal, and communicating therewith through a pipe 4 inches in
diameter and about 3.5 feet long, opening at the bottom of the channel
of approach, 29. 88 feet upstream from the weir. The head on the stand-
ard weir was observed in the gage pit by means of a hook gage read-
ing to millimetei-s and estimated to about one-fifth millimeter. The
conditions at the standard weir were thus closely comparable to those
obtained in Bazius experiments, and his formula for this height and
length of weir was applied to determine the discharge. Observations
to determine the leakage between the experimental and standard weirs
were made, and corrections were applied for whatever leakage was
indicated, the amount being usualh' less than 0.01 cubic foot per second
per foot of (;rest. The discharge over the standard weir was com-
96
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
puted in cubic meters per second and has been reduced to cubic
feet per second, the discharge table beingf as follows:
Discfiarge (wer aUindard weir at different heads.
Head, in
metera.
Q in cubic
meters, per
second.
Head, in
meters.
0.60
Q in cubic
raeten*, per
second.
4. 21730
0.05
0. 111863
.10
. 296230
.70
5. 34459
.15
. 53207
.80
6. 57096
.20
.81166
.90
7. 89078
.25
1.12871
1.00
9.30650
.30
1.48032
1.10
10. 81066
.40
2. 27850
1.20
12. 40420
.50
3. 193,50
1
The discharge curve for the standard weir has also been carefully
checked by comparing the depth flowing over with that on a similar
weir, using the formula and method of determining the head adoptc^d
by Fteley and Stearns; it has also been checked by float and cur-
rent-meter measurements, and for lower heads by means of volumetric
measurement of the di.scharge in the gaging channel, so that it is
believed that the discharge in these experiments is known within 1 or
2 per cent of error as a maximum.
The work of calibrating the standard weir had been accomplished by
Professor Williams and his assistants before the experiments of the
United States Geological Survey were taken up, so that somewhat
more certainty attaches to the results of these later experiments than
to earlier experiments made before the standard-weir discharge had
been thoroughly checked.
It was the wish of the Geological Survey that the conditions at the
experimental weirs should conform to those actually existing at dams
which are utilized as weirs, in connection with the stream-gaging
operations. In such cases it is often impracticable to utilize gage pits
of the form adopted by Bazin or to use piezometer or hook gages.
The usual method is to read the depth directly on a graduated vertical
scale or measure the distance to water surface from a suitable bench
mark. The method adopted in the weir experiments consisted of
reading directly the distance to water surface from bench marks
located above the central line of the channel. The readings were
taken by means of a needle-pointed plumb bob attached to a steel tape
forming a point gage, readings being taken to thousandths of a foot
Two gages were used, one located 10.8 feet upstream from the
crest and another 16.059 feet upstream. In series XXXV and
following, for the higher heads, the readings of the upstream tape
were used. For heads where no general difference was apparent the
average of the readings of the two tapes was taken. In general, the
WEIRS OF IRREGULAR SECTION.
97
surface curve did not perceptibly affect the reading of the gage nearest
the weir for depths below 3 feet. The readings of the tapes were
checked from time to time by observations with hook gages, thus prac-
tically eliminating the effect of temperature on the tapes. Observa-
tions of the head were usually taken at intervals of thirty seconds.
Great care was used to maintain a uniform regimen of flow during
each experimental period, and the variations of head were very slight.
The character of the observations is illustrated by the following data
taken from the experiments:
Readings of tapea to determine head at experiinenttd weir.
Series XL.
Period 10.
Date 6.22,03.
Time.
Readings.
A,
TO.
«.
12
37
40
42.681
.681
.680
.681
12
39
00
.682
12
52
30
42.680
.681
.680
.679
12
54
30
.680
Mean
42.68a5
_l
Series XLIII.
Period 3,
Date 6,26.03.
Time.
h. m. ».
12 36 20
Readings.
12 42 10
Mean
2.3a5
.302
.302
.302
.301
.302
.301
.300
.300
. I
2.3015
Series XLI.
Period 5.
Date 6. 23, as.
Time.
k. m. «.
1 34 30
1 51 20
Mean
Readings.
43.633
.632
. 633
.r)30
. 630
.633
.635
.6:i5
.6;i4
.633
.630
.635
.630
.635
.635
. 633
.6,S0
.630
.630
.630
.630
.634
.6:^0
.628
.630
. 632
.628
.631
43.6317
98
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
For the lower headt? the discharge over the experimental weir was
volumetricall y determined by measuring the rise of water in the canal,
as follows:
List of experimental periods for which the discharge was volumefrically detennined.
Series.
30
31
34
37
38
Periods.
1,13,14,16
10,11
1,9,10
5«
5,6
Series.
39
40
41
43
43 «
Periods.
1
Series.
Periods.
! 1
44
1,2,3
I 1,2
45
1,2,3
13,14
46
1,2,3
' 1,2,3
47
1,2,3
1,2,3,4
United Stales Geological Survey experiments at Cornell University hydranlic laboratory f/n
model of Platlsburg dam.
[Series No. XXX. Height of weir-- P. 11.25 feet; length of weir cre8t=L. 15.9G9 feet; width of
chaimel-=6, 15.970 feef. height of upstream crest corner. 10.50 feet; crest width. 3 feet.]
No.
Measured head
tal weir
Num-
o^; , mam.
tions. ■
on experimen-
, in feet.
Mini- Mean
mum. =/>.
area of
section
per
foot of
crest.
v~
mean
veloc-
ity
of ap-
proach,
in feet
per sec-
ond.
Head corrected
for velocity
of approach.
in feet.
i
7/5 H
Q- dis-
charge
per
f(K)t of
crest,
in cu-
bi<' feet
per sec-
ond.
Dis-
charge
coeffi-
cient
Ci.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
92
0.0993
0.0818
0.096
11.JM7
0.007
0.030
0.096
0.084
2.835
2
31
. 7993
.78613
2.790
14.041
1.155
4. 710
2. 810
16. 218
3.443
3
19
3. 1993
3. 1473
3.187 i 14.438
1.396
5.766
3.216
•20. 152
3.495
4
2t>
2.3993
2.3173
2.384 1 153.635
.926
3. 710
2.396
12. 631
3.4ft5
5
29
1.7973
1.7853
1.793 1 13.043
.636
2.412
1.799
8. 282
3.433
G
27
1.1803
1.1?23
1.174 12.425
.3M
1.274
1.176
4.:399
3.454
7
18
1.0133
1.0073
1.010 12.260
.280
1.016
1.011
3.43.>
3.381
8
16
.8043
.8003
.802 12.053
.200
.719
.803
2.409
3.:«8
9
34
. 6143
.6113
.613 11.8&I
. 136
.481
.614
l.(J08
:3.345
10
24
.508:3
.5073
..508 li.7.58
.102
.:362
.508
1.195
3.302
11
15
.4283
. 42(53
.427 11.678
.079'
.280
.428
.921
:3.L>96 ,
J 2
20
. 2943
.2903
.291 11.542
.046
.157
.291
. 526
:3.344
13
32
. 293(3
.290:3
.292 11.543
.044
.158
.292
.5(W
:3.':o9 '
14
21
.1783
. 1763
.178 11.427
.021
.075
.178
.240
3. '202 .
15
24
.1793
.17:33
.179 11.429
.020
.076
.179
.226
2.976 ;
16
40
.0893
. 0893
. 089
ll.:340
.007
.027
.059
.076
2.841
17
26
1.5.373
1.5:303
1.53-2
12. 783
.517
1.904
1.535
6.607
3.471
18
25
2. io:w
2. 0813
2.094
13.315
.793
3.051
2.104
10. 576
3.466
WEIBS OF IRREODLAR SECTION.
99
Uf*iied SUxttg (ieological Surrey exin'rimeiiUt at Cornell University hydraulic UilH/raU/ry on
model of PUittabury dam — Contiiuiecl.
fSeriesNo. XXXI. Heiifhi of weir=P. 11.25 feet; length of weir crest -A. 7,WW feel: width of chan-
nel=/i, 15.970 feet: height of upstream <'rest corner, 10.r>() feet; width of crest, 3 feet.]
No.
1
1
Measured hetid on exp<
tal weir, in ftel
Xum-
^l Maxi- Mini-
va- mum. mum.
tlons. 1
?ri men-
Mean
area of
1 section
1 per
foot of
crest.
mean
vt'loc-
ity
of a\t-
pro»w'h,
in feet
j>er
second.
Head corrected
for velocity
of approach,
in feet.
0--dis-
charge
per
foot of
crest,
in cu-
bic fee I
per
si^ond.
Dis-
charge
coefli-
eientr',.
L=ef.
fective
length
of erest
weir.
~L
i
8 1 4
J~
I'^'e
7
H
»
10
11
12
1
25
6. 1003 4. 9273
5. 0014
•259.585
1.201
11. '2.-7
5.023
41.925
3.724
7.436
2
15
4.2873 4.1693
4.2214
247.078
.945
8.714
4.235
31.086
3.567
7. 514
3
44
3.6893 3.5253
3.6191
507.460
,856
6.890
3.621
23.868
3.464
7.580
4
21
2.8213 2.8003
2.8185
224. 674
.551
4.743
2.823
16. 170
3.409
7.656
5
39
2.2713 2.2623
2.2696
215. 780
.412
3.425
2.273
11.545
3.377
7.711
6
40
1.S903 1.3813
1.8861
201.998
.206
1.6S3
1.387
5.338
3.269
7.799
7
26
.9673 .9658
.9663
195. OW
•. 125
.960
.966
3.120
8. '284
7.841
8
25
1.8793 1.8723
1.8749
,209.606
.326
2.570
1.876
8.814
3.429
7.750
9
30
.6093 .6083
.6087
189.383
.0(>5
.476
.609
1.562
3.288
7.877
10
18
.6073 .6063
.6063
189.345
.060
.472
.606
1.456
3,083
7.877
11
40
.3023 1 .2993
.3017
,184.471
.020
.165
.301
.469
2.838
7.908
12
19
.3003 .2993
.3017
184. 481
.021
.166
.302
.490
2.956
7.908
[Series No. XXXII. Height of wc-jr= P, 11.25 feet; length of weir cre8t=/., 7.979 feet; width of chan-
nel =6, 15.970 feet: height of upstream crest corner, 9.75 feet; width of crest, 3 feet.]
6
7 j
8
9
10 i
I n
10
23
26
34
32
27
27
28
31
28
53
2.1193
4.0313
2.6693
.9953
5.5543
4.7343
4.0173
3.3053 I
2.5863
1.9913
1.4113
2.0943
3.9883
2.6333
.9923
5.2983
4.&143
3.9883
3. '2673
2.5193
1.9693
1.4023
I
2.1173 213.476
4.0053 243.627
2.6469 221.934 I
.9942 195.540
5.4712 •2<;7.038 i
4.6947 254.637 '
4.0007 '240. 808 I
3.2890 '232.188 '
2.5596 220.539
1.9801 211.285
1.4015 {202.044
0.0O4
.928 '
.535
.135 I
1-.141 I
.925
.701 j
.506
.357 I
.221 i
3.081
8.055
4.317
.992
12. 855
10. 235
8.010
5.984
4.104
2.790
1.661
11.029
29.846
15. 398
3. :«2
50. 440
38.701
29.395
21. 278
14.460
9.686
5.701
3.580
7.767
3.706
7.577
3. 567
7.714
3. 370
7.880
3.924
7.430
3.7S2
7.508
8.65<)
7.678
3.55(1
7.649
3. 524
7. T£i
3.471
7.7S1
3.434
7.839
nw 150—06 10
100 WEIR EXPERIME1ST8, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
United States Geological Survey experimaits at Cornell University hydraulic laboratory on
model of Plattsburg dam — Continued.
[Series No. XXXIII. Height of weir=P, 11.25 feet; length of weir creet^L. 15.969 feet; width of
channel = b, 15.970 feet; height of upstream creHt corner, 9.79 feet; width of eresit, 3 feet.]
No.
MeaKured head on experimen-
tal weir, in feet.
Num-
ber of
obser- .
va- ,
tions. '
Maxi- ; Mini-
mum. I mum.
Mean
8
1
15
2
48
3
29
4
33
5
23
6
24
7
52
8
42
9
12
0.7563
.9973
1.3963
1.7898
2.3733
2.6683
.5593
.6603
.6601
0.7493
.9873
1.3903 I
1.7803
2.3368
2.6503
.5193
.6493
.6783
0.762
.992
1.3»1
1.7W
2.352
2.660
.553
.653
.679
1
A =
area of
section
per
foot of
crest.
12.003
12.243
12.644
13.034
13.603
13.910
11.803
11.904
11.930
mean
veloc-
ity
of ap-
proach,
in feet
per sec-
ond.
0.183
.281
.468
.671
.990
1.170
1.183
.152
.156
Head corrected
for velocity
Q=di8-
charge
of approach,
in feet.
per
' foot of
crest.
in cubic
//»
II
feet per
sec-
ond.
8
9
1 10
0.653
0.753
' 2.197
.990
.993
' 3.489
1.651
1.^7
5.913
2.396
1.790
8.747
3.641
2.367
13. 4M
4.387
2.680
16.272
.432
.572
1.397
.528
.654
1.808
.660
.680
1.H66
Dis-
charge
coeffi-
cient
I II
3.863
3.473
3.580
3.651
8.696
3.709
3.232
3.422
3.380
[Series No. XXXIV. Height of weir=P, 11.25 feet: length of weir cre8t=L, 15.969 feel; width of
channe]=&, 15.970 feet; height of upstream crest comer, 8.37 feet; width of crest, 3 feet.]
— --
— —
—
—
1
16
0.6453
0.6383
0.641
11.891
0.137
0.513
0.641
1.632
3.182
2
16
.64*23
.6383
.640
11.891
.141
.513
.640
1.680
3.276
3
21
2.025:^
2.0043
2.015
13.266
.816
2.882
2.025
10.826
3.756
4
19
1.6308
1.6203
1.628
12.878
.592
2.086
1.633
7.627
3.656
5
19
1.2293
1.232
12,483
.391
1.371
1.236
4.877
3. 555
6
14
.9523
.9483
.960
12.201
.261
.927
.951
8. 185
3.434
7
20
.4013
.3983
.400
11.660
.070
.263
.400
.815
3.225
8
10
.6243
.6243
.624
11.875
.136
.493
.625
1.613
3.269
9
32
.2248
.2203
.222
11.473
.029
.105
.222
.328
3.133
10
39
.1103
.1093
.110
11.360
.009
.086
.110
.100
2.777
11
14
6.0963
5.0793
3.089
14.340
1.509
5.515
3.1-22
21.636
3.923
12
25
2.7763
2.7263
2.749
14.000
1.258
4, 615
2.7?2
17.612
3.816
13
31
2.4383
2.3968
2.421
13. 672
1.061
3.8a5
2.487
14.874
8.778 1
14
26
2.8013
2.7963
.800
12.050
.194
.716
.800
2.341
8.271
WEIB8 OF IRBKGULAK SKOTION.
101
United Statea Geological Surrey experiments at Cornell lhurer»itij hydraulic laboratory
on model of Chambly dam,
[Series No. XXXV. Height of welr=P, 11.25 feet; length of weir crest=X<, 15.969 feet; width of
channel =ft, 15.970 feet; height of npittream crest comer. 10.25 feet; width of crest 4.5 feet.]
Meoitured head on exyn
tal weir, in feet
L'rimen-
Mean
A ^
area of
section
per
f(Mn of
crcHt.
r=
mean
veloc-
ity
of ap-
proach,
in feel
per
second.
Head corrected
for velocity
of approach,
in feet.
i/* ;/
1
Q-dls-
charge
per
foot of
crest,
in cubic
feet per
Hecond.
DIs-
chaive
coeffi-
cient
No.
Num-
ber of
obser-
va-
tions.
Maxi- 1 Mini-
mum. 1 mum.
1
t S 4
5 I 6
7
8
9
v»
11
1
&1 ' 2.5503 1 2.5463
0.&49 ' 11.799
0.110
0.407
0.M9
1.297
3.189
2
55 1.0103
1.0063
1.008 ' 12.259
.272
1.014
1.009
3.331
3.285
3
40 1. 5643
1.5523
1.569 12.810
.511
1.954
1.5<>3
6.M8
3.352
4
40 2.0273
2.0133
2.021
13.272
.744
2.890
2.029
9.874
3.416
5
38
1.7513 j 1.7308
1.739
12.990
.602
2.304
1.744
7.816
3.392
6
45
1.2673 1.2583
1.262
12:513
.379
1.422
1.265
4.747
3.337
7
41
.7593 1 .7543
.757 12.008
. 176
.660
.758
2.114
3.206
8
43 .4453 .4373
.441 11.692
.079
.293
.441
.919
3.132
9
20 .3043 .3003
.:»2 11.553
.045
.166
.302
.525
3. 159
11
18 3.7303 3.7063
3.755 15.006
1.740
7.403
3.798
26.114 I 3.528
12
17 3.2193 j 3.1813
3. 195 14. 446
1.406
5.789
8.224 ' 20.319
3. 510
13
17 , 3.0O23 ! 2.9873
2.987 14.238
1.283
5.224
3.011 18.267
3.496
14
18 2.6743 2.6643
2.642 13.892
1.077
4.334
2.658 14.963
3.452
15
23 2.3533 ! 2.3283
2.317 ' 13.568
.901
3.555
2.:«0 12.221
3.438
16
22 , 1.4923 1.4873
1.463 1 12.713
.478
1.775
1.466 ' 6.072 3.4*20
17
37 .2103 .2093
.184 1 11.4a=)
.02:^
.079
. 184 ' . 258
3.260
IM
25
.3913 .8908
.391 1 11.642
.065
.245
.391 .758
3.096
19
17
.3313 .3:^13
.331 1 11.582
.053
.191
.331 .609
3. 194
20
24
.'2523 ,2523
.253 1 11.504
.0:^5
.127
.253 .404
3.258
21
21
.2208 1 .2193
.221 11.472
.028
.104
.221 .325
3.120
22
• 24 ■ .1843
.1833
.183 11.434
.021
.078
.183
.2:J8
3.039
23
19 .1323
.1313
.132 11.383
.012
.048
.132
.136
2.826
•24
20 .0823 .0823
.083 j 11.3^4
.007
.024
.083
.079
3.321
[Series No. XXXVI. Height of weir=P, 11.25 feet; length of weir crestv=L, 15.969 feet; width of chan-
nel-^6, 16.970 feet; height of upstream crest corner, 10.50 f(»et; width of crest, 4.5 feet, with 4 inches
radius quarter roand.]
f 1
1
18 2.7653 2.6913
2.741
13.991
1.185
4.594
2. 764
16.586
3.610
2'
18 2.8613 2.2913
2. 316
13.567
.936
3.558
2.330
12.698
3.569 V
3 ;
30 2.9373 2.8923
1.915 13.166
.702
2.666 1
1.923
9.243
3.467
4
23 1.5173 1.4993
1.607 1 12.758
.501
1.857
1.511
6.390 ' 3.441
S
21 1.1143 1.1013
1.111 12.361
.820
1. 173 1
1.112
3.950 3.367
6
19 .7553 .7493
.753
12.004
.177 1
.654 '
.753
2.123 3.248
7 1
22 ' .4»43 .4903
.492
11.743
.095 1
.345 1
.492
1.113 3.221
1
102 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
United States (ieologiad Surrey experiments at Cornell hydraulic laboratory on model of
Dolgeivlle dam with injured apron.
[Series No. XXXVII. HeiKht of weir=P. ll.:6 feet; length of weir cre8t=L, 16.969 feet; width of
channel^--/), 15.970 feet; height of upstream crest corner, 10.26 feet; width of crest, o feet.]
No.
Measu
red head on experimen-
tal weir, in feet.
Maxi- 1 Mini- Mean-
mum. ' mum. 1 t).
1
1
A^
area of
section
per foot
of
crest.
t'—
mean
veUx*-
ity of
ap-
proach,
in feet
per sec-
ond.
Head corrected 1 ^.
for velocity 1 Q=dls-
of approach, charge
in feet. , Per
foot of
Dis-
charge
Num-
ber of
obser-
va-
tions.
Hi
, crest, coeffl-
1 in cu- cient
jr bic feet (\.
per sec-
ond. '
1
*
8 4
5 1 •
7
8
9 10
11
1
30
0.9203 0.9113
0. 916 1 12. 166
0.261
0.878
0.917 3.049
3.474
2
35
3.5613 3.4233
3. 565 14. 816
1.535
6.828
3.599 22.744
3.331
3
28
2.9123 2.8573
2.927 ' 14.178
1.170
5.060
2.947 16.593
S.279
4
52
2.3293 2.2903
2.324 13.574
.906
3.570
2.336 12.297 3.444
6
69
1.6418 1 1.6213
1.635 12.885
.585
2.100
1.640 ; 7.544 ! 3.693
5a
41
1.3973 1 1.3923
.415
11.666
.069
.267
.416 .810 3.029
United Stolen Geologicol. Surrey erperimeftvLa at O/mell hydraulic laboratory on model oj
DolgemUe dam,
[Series No. XXXVIII. Height of weir-P, 11.25 feet; length of weir cre«t=£, 15.969 feet; widtli of
channel^ft, 15.970 feet; height of upstream crest corner, 10.25 feet; width of crest, 600 feet.]
Measured head
tal weir
on experimen-
in feet.
^0.
Num-
ber of
obser-
va-
tions.
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
Mean^
1
2
8
4
6
1
32
0.3973
0.3913
0.395
2
36
1.6843
1.6713
1.689
3
25
1. 1143
1.1693
1. 112
4
32
.7513
.7473
.749
5
34
.5093
.5083
.m
6
24
.2173
. 2113
.209
7
27
3.4726 3.4586
3. 470
8
34
3.1176 ! 3.0806
3.100
9
29
2.6176 2.5926
2.6a5
10
30
2.20% 2.1806
2.198
11
28
1.9306 1.8156
1.920
12
28
1.528<i
1.5106
1.517
A =
area of
section
per foot
of
crest.
11.646
12.940
12.362
12.000
11.754
11.460
14.721
14. 351
13.a')6
13. 449
18. 171
12. 768
mean
veloc-
ity of
ap-
proach,
in feet
per sec-
ond.
0.068
.6a5
.333
.186
.101
.026
1.466
1.271
1.019
.846
.7-26
.614
Head corrected
for velocity
of approach,
in feet.
H^
8
0.249
2.206
1.176
.649
.358
.096
6.551
5.521
4.243
3.283
2.677
1.872
[Series No. XXXIX. Height of weir=P, 11.25 feet; length of weir cre8t=L, 15.969 feet; width of
channel =b, 15.700 feet; height of upstream crest comer. 10.26 feet; width of crest. 6 feet.]
1
2
3 '
^
6 I
6
7 '
8 '
9I
10
26 I 0.(>88S I 0.6793
22
3;}
24
^1
36 I
32
39 '
32
.4188
3.9806
3.1506
2.5066
1.8986
1.2716
.8286
. 5626
.4153
3.9206
3.1366
2.4806
1.8756
1. 2626
.8206
.r)606
f 0.683 ,
1 .683
.418
3.943
3.145
2.488
1.884
1.26H
.826 I
.561
11.931
11.934
11.668
15. 194
14.396
13.739
13.135
12.618
12.077
11.811
0.170
.167
.081
1.721
1.280
.401
.218
.125
0.565
0.684
2.027 3.686
.665
.684
1.995 3.680
.270
.418
.944 j 3.497
7.956
8.986
26.150 3.287
5.642
3.169
18.481
3.266
3.968 '
2.602
13.268
8.352
2.601 1
1.891
9.186
8.582
1.482 .
1.270
5.025
3.509
.752
.827
2.639 ' 8.494 I
.420 !
.561
1.481
9.906
WEtRS 0B» lBttE<^dT.Att 8RCTI6N.
108
Vnited States Geotogical Survey experimenU at ComeU hydraulic lalxyraiory on model of
fiai'iop weirs vith vertical faces.
{Si'iien NO. XL. Height of weit=P, 11.25 feet; length of weir cre8t= L, 15.969 feet; width of channel =
6, 15*970 feet; width of broad cre«t, 0.479 foot; nappe aerated.]
! I
Head corrected ' '
Measured head on experlmen- ' I <;=^ , for velocity ' (^=di»- ,
tal weir, in feet. , y|= mean of approach, charge
areaof|]f^'Jf- *« ^^^t.
7- — . action I '^l^^
Num. I I IPe^ '««^:pro£-h;
! r=
^o' I MaxI- , Mini- Mean=j ^^ ilin feet'l „J
008«r- _,,,,_ -miin« n I *-*^^»" nor «*»<»- 1
obwer-
va-
tIon«.
mum. mum.
A i
per Bee-'
ond.
//
crest, pipnt
in cubic ^*®"^
1
2
8
4 '
5
6
7
9
10
11
t' I 8"T""4
19 ! 0.6343 0.6293
36
.2643
.2618
. 1216
1.9916
1.6256
26 I 1.2566
21 ' .9766
21 , .8218
10 .6518
10 .4508
. I
.2593
.2513 i
.1206 1
1.9816
1.6106
1.2496 I
.9706 !
.8163 .
.6493
.4483 I
0.631
.260
.'2M
.124
1.989
1.618
1.256
.977
.820
.650
.449
11.882 I
11.511
11.515
11.375
13.238
12.868
12.507
12.228
12.070
11.900
11.700
0. 133
.011
.710
.530
.377
.262
.204
.139
.074
I
1
I 2.1
1.502
.133
.136
.044
!.821
!.065
.412
.967
.743
.524
.301
;feet per
Hecond.j
10 I 11
3.148
2.584
2.794
2.943
3.332
3.301
0.632
1.5H0
.260
.343
.264
.3«0
.124
.129
1.996
9.401
1.622
6.819
1.259
4.713
.978
3.209
.820
2.469
.650
1.654
.449
.867
' 3.338
I 3.318
' 3.325
I 3.154
I 2.881
[Series No. XLI. Height of weir = P, 11.25 feet; length of weir crewl = L, 15.969 feet; width of
channel - 6, 15.970 feet; width of broad crest, 1.646 feet; nappe partly aeraUnl.]
1
25
3.8606
3.8256
3.842 1 15.092 |
1.692
7.651 '
25
8.1906
3.1666
8.177
14.428
1.317
5.730 '
1 26
2.6906
2.6656
2.674
13.925
1.050
4.413
81
2.0906
2.0116
2.022
13.272
.680
2.889
28
1.6043
1.5973
1.601
12.852 1
.462
2.032 ;
27
1.2873
1.2293
1.238
12.4R4
.307
1.372 I
25
.9443
.9393
.942
12. 192 '
.203
.915
34
.6733
.6698
.671
11.922
.123
.575
1 30
.4893
.4873
.488
11.739
.078
.3411
18
.3298
.330
11.581 1
.045
.190
84
.2113
.2093
.210
11.461 '
.024
.096
.122
.788
11.373 1
12.088
.011
.153
.(M3
22
.1253
.1218
.699
! ^
.4206
.4186
.417
11.668
.061
• .270
44
.4206
.4126
.417
11.668
1
.065
.270
3.883
3.202
2.690
2.028
1.604
1.234
.942
.692
.488
.330
.210
.122
.788
.417
.417
25.581
18.995
14.624
9.021
5.936
3.835
2.476
1.472
.910
.?m
.272
.130
1.840
.760
.759
3.337
3.315
3.314
3.123
2.922
2.796
2.706
2.560
2.669
2.742
2.827
3.047
2.681
2. 782
2.815
[Scries No.
XUI.
nel=fe,
Height of welr=P, 11.26 feet; length of weir crest =L, 15.S
15.970 feet; width of broad cre«t, 12.239 feet; nappe partly
69 feet; width of chan-
aerated.]
1
33
0.1706
0.1626
2
32
4.3706
4.3416 !
3
26
3.8316
3.8006
4
38
3.0446
8.0256
5
32
3.7356
3.7186
6
29
3.5856
3.5776 :
7
38
3.3966
3.3806 '
8
27
2.2506
2.2406
9
1 ^
1.4706
1.4526
10
1 ^
1.0986
1.0906
11
36
.6406
.6376
12
28
1
.6126
.6106
0.168
4.353
3.809 '
3.032
1.728
2.580
3.387
2.243
1.449
1.096
.639
.611
11.418
15.604
15.060
14.283 I
12.979
13.831
14.63M
V,\. 4W
12.700
12. 347
11.890
11.862
0.016
0.069
1.58-t
9.196
1.321
7.510
.971
5.317
.467
2.278
.787
4.166
1.130
6. 2S.'>
.6.^7!
.2.S.S
.116 .
.109 !
3.373
1.718
1.149
..511
.478
1.168
389
835
046
732
589
406
249
451
097
639
611
0.180
24.716
19.896
13. 876
6.066
10.882
16. .'i35
8.870
4.682
3.129
1. 375
1.290 I
2.611
2.688
2.649
2. 610
•2.663
2.6i2
2.tai
2. 629
2. 701
2. 723
2. 689
2.700
104 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
United States Geological Surt^ey ejcperiments at Cornell hydraulic laboratory on model of
Jiat'iop weirs with vertical f area — ^Continiied.
[Series No. XLIII. Height of weir=P, 11.25 feet; length of weir crest =/.. 15.969 feet; width of channel =
b, 15.970 feet; width of broad crest, 16.302 feet; surface somewhat rough; nappe partly aerated.]
No.
Measured head on experimen-
tal weir, in feet.
Num-
ber (of
obser-
va-
tions.
1
12
2
12
8
10
4
26
5
33
6
27
7
34
8
80
9
28
10
25
11
.26
Maxi-
Mini-
mum.
8
mum.
4
0.8536
0.8606
.4496
.4426
.3246
.3106
.6986
.6856
4.4506
4.-U76
3.6806
3.6306
2.9426
2.9306
2.:i626
2.3686
1.8956
1.886<>
1.4826
1.4756
1.2086
1.2026
Mean^
A=
area of
sec^tion
per ffK)t
of
crest.
0.851
.447
.812
.689
4.432
3.661
2.935
2.360
1.890
1.480
1.206
I
12.102
11.698
11.563
11.940
15.683
14. 912
14.186
13. 611
13. 141
12. 731
12.457
mean
veloc-
ity Oi
^)roach,
in feet
per sec-
ond.
Head corrected,
for velocity ]
of approach,
in feet.
1^
Q=dis-
charge
per
foot of
crest,
in cubic
feet per
second
10
Dis-
charge
ccxjm-
rient
11
0.168
0.786
0.852
2.027
2.679
.069
.299
.447
.811
2.713
.040
.174
.312
.468
2.684
.129
.573
.690
1.W4
2.696
1.595
9.449
'4.469
25.011
2.647
1.251
7.076
3.686
18. 657
2.637
.930
5.062
2.948
13.200
2.608
.706
3.644
2.368
9.607
2.637
.620
2.607
1.894
6.841
2.624
.374
1.804
1.482
4.767
2.531
.282
1.327
1.208
8.620
2.652
[Series No. XLIIIo. Height of weir=P, 11.25 feet: length of weir cre8t=L, 15.969 feet; width of chan-
nel—6, 15.970 feet; width of broad crest, 16.302 feet; smooth planed surface.]
1
19
0.3626
0.3596
0.3()1
11.612
0.050 1
0.217
0.361
0,576
2.653
2
20
.2496
.2426
.246
11.497
.026 ;
.122
.246
.mt
2.494
3
44
.1686
.1646
.167
11.418
.013
.068
.167
.153
2.240
4
16
.9906
.9846
.986
12. 236
.214
.980
.986
2.618
2.673
5
28
.985(>
.9776
.981
12. '232
.210
.973
.982
2. 568
2.638
6
Z)
.7886
.7826
.786
12. 036
,153
.697
.786 '
1.847
2.651
7
81
.6226
.6206
.621
11.872
.110
.490
.622
1.309
2. 670
8
21
.4976
.4946
.496
11. 747
.080
.360
.496.
.945
2.704
9
25
.3926
.3906
.392
11.643
.aT8 ;
.246
.892
.670
2.728
10
31
.2806
.2786
.280
11.530
.036
.148
.280
.421
2.848
11
28
.1006
.1606
. 161
11.411
.016
.064
.161
.184
2.851
12
24
.0776
.0756
.077
11.327
.006
.021
.077
.066
3.127
[Series No. XLIV. Height of weir=/'. 11.25 feet: length of weir cre8t=/v, 15.969 feet; width of chan-
nel =?>. 15.970 feet; width of broad crest, 8.980 feet.]
1
27
0. 3i:v>
0.3116
0. 312
11.663
0.040
0.174
0.812
0.469
2.691
2
20
.1596
. 1576
.159
11.410
.014
.064
.169
.163
2.570
3
32
.4196
.4176
.419
11.670 ,
.058
.271
.419
.679
2.504
4
20
3.0666
3.0506
3.a=>8
14.309 ,
.98(i
6.386
3.073
14.105
2.619
5
19
2.3306
2.3116
2.319
13.669
.68t)
8.547
2.326
9.807
2.624
6
17
2. miC>
2.8486
1.856
13. 107
.512
2.537
1.860
6. 712
2.646
7
31
1.5166
1. 5106
1.513
12. 763
.386
1.864
1.515
4.928
2,642
8
28
1. 2556
1. 2606
1.252
12. 503
.297
1.404
1.254
3.718
2.649
9
31
1.039(1
1.0356
1.03H
12.289 ,
.228
1.059
1.089
2.803
2.646
10
29
.8996
.8916
.897
12. 148
.186
.850
.897
2.264
2.652
11
26
. 7326
.7306
.732-
11.983
.140
.627
.732
1.676
2.678
12
32
.5046
.5006
.502
11.753
.08:3
.aV)
.502
.971
2.727
_ _ _
_
_
_
WEIRS OF IRBEGULAK SECTION.
105
United StaUs Geolo^cal Survey experiments at Cornell hydraulic laboratory on model of
flat-top v)eirs with vertical faces — C^ontinued.
[Series Ko. XLV. Height of weir^P, 11.25 feet; length of weir create/.. 15.969 feet; width of chan-
nel =6, 15.970 feet; width of broad crest, 5.875 feet; nap|>e partly aerated.]
No.
tal weir^ in feet.
area of
r=
mean
veloc-
ity of
ap-
proach,
in feet
per
second.
Head corrected
for velocity
of approach,
in feet.
1 Q=di8-
1 <'hanpe
! per
foot of
1 crext.
incubii'
feet per
stH'ond.
Dis-
charge
coeffi-
cient
Num-
ber of
obser-
va-
tions.
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
Mean =
J).
section
per foot
of
crest.
1
8 S
4
5
6
7
H 9
10
11
1
24 0.1766
0.1726
0.174
11.424
0.018
0.0?2 0.174
1 0.207
2.867
2
32
.2556
.2526
.253
11.504
.029
.127' .263
.337
2.647
3
38
.3906
.3886
.390
11.640
.065
.243 .390
.641
2.635 ,
4
31
.9906
.9786
.982
12.233
.209
.975 1 .983
2. 557
2. 624
5
31 1.2456
1.2396
1.242
12.492
.293
1.386 1.243
8.666
2.645
6
82 .9126
.9066
.908
12.169
.189
.367 .909
2.2W
2.646
7
42 .7346
.7806
.783
11.963
.189
.627 .733
1.670
2.663
8
26 1.0006
.9916
1.996
13.247
.664
2.830 2.001
7.469
2.639
9
33 .5906
.5806
1.585
12.836
.410
2.000 1.587
6.264
2.632
10 .
23 .5916
.5896
.590
11.841
.108
.454 .590
1.220
2.689
11
36 .5216
.6116
.520
11.771
.087
.376 .621
1
1.022
2.722
[Series No. XLVI. Height of welr=P. 11.25 feet: length of weir cre8t=L. 15.969 feet; width of chan-
nel=6. 15.970 feet; width of broad crest, 3.174 feet; nappe partly aerated.]
1
2
3 I
4 I
5
7
8
9
»!
12 I
26 0.2526
41 .1916
.4186
2.9686
2.4966
2.0376
1.6006
1.2326
.9726
.7866
.6026
.da'i6
0.2446
.1896
.4156
2.9416
2.4806
2.0126
1.5906
1.2286
.9706
.7816
.6006
.5026
0.250
.191
.417
2.965
2.486
2.0QO
1.597
1.282
.972
.784
.1j02
11.601 I
11.441
11.668
14.216 I
13.737 '
13.280
12.847 I
12.483 I
12.222
12.036
11.852
11. 7M
0.029
.019
.066
1.048
.803
.594
.417
.291
.208
.154 ,
.106
.082
0.126
.083
.269
6.147 I
3.943
2.903
2.022
1.370 I
.959
.695
.467
.357
0.250
.191
.417
2.981
2.496
2.0S5
1.599
1.234
.972
.785
.602
0.333
.221
.766
14.901
11.032
7.895
5.360
3.628
2.549
1.856
1.264
.967
2.665
2.660
2.845
2.895
2.798
2.720
2.650
2.647
2.658
2.670
2.686
2.706
[Series No. XLVII. Height of welr= P, 11.26 feet; length of weir crests L, 15.969 feet: width of chan-
nel =6, 15.970 feet; width of broad crest, 0.927 foot; nappe partly aerated.]
1
27
0.1666
2
29
.2816
3
31
.4156
29
2.9446
29
2.5306
26
2.0196
29
1.5786
30
1.2296
27
1.0096
10
34
.7786
11
27
.6296
12
90
.4616
0.1636
0.165
11.416
0.016 1
0.067
0.165
0.180
2.690
.2726 !
.278
11.529
.033
.147
.278
.377
2.563
.4106
.412
11.663
.060 1
.265
.412
.700
2.644
2.9206
2.93;^
14.184
1.187 '
5.076
2.9M
16.840
3.318
2.6116 !
2.522
13.772 ,
.970 1
4.037
2.536
13.360
3.314
2.0106
2.014
13, 2M 1
.722
2.874
2.021
9.572
3.331
1.5706 '
1.592
12.842
.512
2.015
1.596
6.582
3.266
1.2286 1
i.2-:6
12.477
.345
1.361
1.228
4.308
3.166
1.0046
1.007
12.258
.248
1.012
1.008
3.M6
3.008
.7756 ,
.777
12.027
.163 1
.(W5
.777
1.9(>o
2.869
.6276
.629
11.879
.117 1
.499
.629
1.389
2.786
.4606
.461
11.712
.073
.313
.461
.859
2.744
106 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
United StateH Geological Survey experimenis at Cornell hydraulic laborutory on model of
Merrimae River dam^ at LauTencey Masn.
[Height of weir=P, 6.65 feet; length of weir crest^L, 9.999 feet; width of channel =6, 15.97 ftn-t.]
No.
la
2a
3a
21
10
11
22
23
12
1
24
2
3
13
4
25
5
MetLvured head on experimen-
tal weir, !n feet.
Num- : ;
Il£L^/ 1 Maxi- Mini- Mean =
va. ' "*""^- ^""™- ^^■
A =
area of
section
per
foot of
crest.
tions.
2
I
r
4.001
10.651
3.980
10. 580
3.630
10.280
3.680
10.280
3.166
9.816
2.815
9.465
2. 510
9.160
2.223
8.873
2.130
8.780
2. on
8.691
1.850
8.500
1.746
8.396
1.645
8.295
1.496
8.146
1. 322
7.972
1. 268
7.918
1.089
7.739
.764
7.414
.584
7.234
..■)8;3
7.233
.198
6.848
t'=
mean
vcloc-
ity
of ap-
proach,
in feet
per sec-
ond.
618
563
309
319
939
654
424
200
127
066
.932
.860
.802
.691
.600
.556
. 462
.284
.195
.192
Head corrected
for velocity
of approach,
in feet.
//*
8.288
8.051
7.029
7.029
6.769
4.837
4.067
3.361
3.150
2.983
2.542
2.327
2.302
1.882
1.528
1.434
1.141
.669
.447
.446
.088
H
4.094
4.018
3.670
3.670
8.216
2.860
2.548
2.244
2.149
2.049
1.868
1.756
1.743
1.497
1.327
1.272
1.092
.765
.585
.584
.198
Q=dte- '
<!harge
per
foot of
crest,
in cubic
feet per|
Din-
charge
coeffi-
cient
(\.
second.
10
11
27.893
27.120
23.740
23.738
19.089
15.660
13.049
10.652
9.898
9.265
7.929 '
7.227
6.a51
5.631
4.791
4.410
3.581
2.108
1.412
1.389
0.270
I
3.365
3.367
3.377
3.377
8.300
3.287
3. -208
3.169
3.142
3.158
3.113
3.105
2.889
3.074
3.185
3.075
3.138
3.151
8. 158
3.114
3.067
In the accompanying tables (pp. 98-106), columns 2, »3, and 4 show,
respectively, the number of observations of head *and the maximum
and minimum readings in each experimental period. In colunm 5 is
given the mean head on the experimental weir deduced from the tape
observations above described. Column 6 shows the area of cros^i sec-
tion of the channel of approach per foot of crest. For suppresised
weirs this quantity equals the sum of the height of weir plus the
measured depth on crest. For weirs, with one end contraction the
quantity A is obtained by dividing the total area of the water section,
where D is measured, by the net length of the weir crest corrected
for the end contraction. For those series where the depth on the
experimental weir was increased by contracting the weir to about one-
half of the channel width and introducing one end contraction, the
net length of crest has been determined by the method of Francis, by
deducting one tenth the head from the measured length of crest. The
discharge per foot of crest of the experimental weir given in column
10 has been deduced from the discharge over the standard weir.
i
1
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.], — ^ . .p — J. . , J , J ,
_ y< -_
1 X Iw .
g
.
-
I..
^
»<
^
\
o >
Plates XXllI and XXIV will be found immediately preceding
page 95.
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WEIRS OF IRKKCirLAR 8E0TTOK. 107
obtained, as described above, by dividing the total discharge by the
net length of the experimental weir. The mean velocity of approat^h
r, given in column 7, has been obtained by the formula
The correction for velocity of approa<*h has ))oen carefully computed
by the Francis formula
where
The resulting values of //* are given in column 8. The correspond-
ing values of //, given in column 9, have been obtained by interpola-
tion from a table of three-halves powers. The discharge coefficient C^
given in column 11 has been obtained by the formula
t>l— 3.
This coefficient represents the disc*harge i)er linear foot of crest, if
the head is 1 foot, with no velocity of approach, it being the coefficient
in a weir formula of the same form as that used by J. B. Francis for
a thin-edged weir.
Pis. XXIU to XXXII show the coefficient diagrams deduced from
thes<^ experiments.
EXPERIMENTS ON MODEL OF DAM OF THE ERSEX COMPANY, MERRIMAC
RIVER, AT LAWRENCE, MASS."
A series of experiments covering five different depths on crest was
made by James B. Francis at lower locks, Lowell, Mass., November,
1852. The model had a crest length of 9.999 feet, with end contractions
suppreased. Height of water was measured by hook gage in a cham-
ber at one side of the channel, 6 feet upstream from crest, so arranged
as to give substantially the height of the still-water surface above the
crest without correction for velocity of approach. The discharge was
volumetrically determined as in Francis's thin-edged weir experiments.
The experiments of Francis covered depths on crest ranging from
0.5872 foot to 1.6338 feet. From these experiments he deduced tne
foiiuula for discharge,
^=3.01208Z//*".
aFranciH. J. B., Lowell Hydraulic Exi>erlments. pp. 18<;-137.
108 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
If the discharge were expressed in terms of the usual formula,
Q= CJ^H^^ with a varying coefficient C^^ we should have a continu-
ously increasing coefficient.
A series of experiments on a similar model dam, 6.65 feet high, with
crest length of 15.932 feet, was made at Cornell ITniversity h3^draulic
laboratory in 1903. The model there used differed from that shown
by Francis only in the substitution of a flatter upstream slope near the
bottom of the canal, as shown in PI. XXXIII. The end conti-actions
were suppressed and the depth on crest was measured with steel tape
and plumb bob suspended over center of channel at points 14.67 feet
and 29.82 feet, respectively, upstream from crest of experimentAl weir.
Discharge was previously measured over the standard weir, calibrated
by Bazin's and Fteley and Stearns's formulas, located at head of experi-
mental canal.
The experiments covered a raiige of heads varying from 0.198 foot to
4.94 feet. In the majority of the experiments the head was observed
at both points. The upper point of measuring depth was at the
upstream end of the inclined approach. The lower point was over the
incline, where the area of the section of approach was smaller and
the velocity larger than in the deeper channel above. The experi-
ments have been reduced with reference to the heads measured 29.82
feet upstream from crest. By comparison of the depths simultane-
ously observed at the two points correction factors have been deduced
for the reduction of the remaining experiments, in which the head was
observed at the downstream point of observation only.
The observed head has been corrected for velocity of approach by
the formula of Francis. The resulting mean coefficient curve, based
on 19 valid observations, shows a larger coefficient of discharge in the
s
formula Q— C\LH^ than does that of Francis.
For a head of 1 foot the formula of Francis for the Merrimac dam
gives a discharge of 90.3 per cent of that for a thin-edged weir. The
Cornell experiments show 94.5 per cent of the discharge over a thin-
edged weir under the same head.
fe
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WKIRS OK IKKKOULAK SKCTION.
loy
Ifiinhanjt' jM'r font of creM, Francis fonnuhi for Merrimac dam, atmiHtreti wifh Conull
ej'jierimenti* on »imilnr rroits Hiction.
iN'pih on
0. 15
.20
.25
.m
.;>5
.40
.45
.50
.55
.HO
.H5
.70
. 75
.SO
Q per f<M)t of
orest. in cu-
bk" feet per
het'ona. i
Fruncb*. I
('(x'ffifient f'\ in fonnuhi
q-^CxLU^.
' (l per iijoi of
ui'pti. on s,?;-,'"'-"-
Coetticieniri in formula
crest. //.
0. 1H53
.2567
.;^M
. 4774
.6043
.7431
'. 8877
l.(>i30
1. 206
1. 379
1.5581
1.7452
1.9395
2. 1408
I
Francis's
formula.
2. 845
2. 871
2.889
2.905
2.913
2.937
2.940
2. 940
2.956
2.966
2. 973
2.980
2.986
2. 992
Cornell ex- '
perimeuts. ,
3.a5
3. mi
3.07
3.08
3.09
3.11
3. 12
3.13
3. \\\b
3.14
3. 14
3.14
3.14
3.15
•et per |
Kecond, i
Francis.
Francis's
formula.
Cornell ex-
perimeutM.
-I-
0.85
.JK)
.95
1.00
1. 15
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2. 50
3.00
3. 50
4.00
2.3490
2. 5636
2. 784(>
3.0121
3. 75(K)
4. 2378
5.6012
2. 997
3. 002
3. (X)7
3.012
3.041
3. 033
3. 048
8. ()975
I
3. 075
16. 1750
3.113
25. 121K)
3. 140
3.15
3. 15
3. 15
3.13
3.12
3.10
3. 12
3.14
3. 20
3. 26
3. 31
3.36
A.side from Blackwell'« experiinents the Francis forinula for the
Merrimac dam was until recently the only one available for a large
dam of irregular section, and for want of more appropriate dato it has
been used for the calculation of discharge over many forms of weirs
of irregular section, and in spite of Francis's explicit caution, it has
been applied where the heads differed widely from those used in the
original experiments.
Considering the limited experiments on which it is based, Francis's
Merrimac dam formula gives good agreement with the much more
extended experiments on a similar section made at Cornell hydraulic
laboratory.
110 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
FLOW OVER WEIRS WITH BROAD CRESTS.
THEORBTICAIi FORMULA OF UNWIN AND FRIZELL.**
Consider a weir of such breadth that the nappe becomes of sensibly
uniform depth in the portion BC^ fig. 8, the upstream corner of the
weir being rounded to prevent vertical contraction and the surface
slightly inclined downstream so that it becomes parallel with the
surface of the nappe BC.
Pig. 8.— Broad-crested weir.
The fall causing the velocity Fin the section BO is H—d. It fol-
lows that if V is the mean velocity in BC
v=^l'2g{H^ Q= Ldv=Zd^2g{I{-d)
In this equation Q is 0 when d—0 or d—IL There must, there-
fore, be an intermediate value of d for which Q will be a maxinium.
Differentiating we find for the condition of a maximum,
d 2
Giving H—d—!^ and d= ^ 11^ or, for maximum discharge, one-thii-d
the head would be exj^ended in producing the velocity of flow. With
this value of d the expression for discharge becomes
^ T Tf
or if V2.^=8.02,
(5.S)
In this formula frictional resistance has been neglected. The di.«<-
charge given is the maximum for the conditions, and would result only
if the stream discharges itself in accordance with the '^principle of
least energy.'"
BlackwelFs experiments, given elsewhere, show a considerably
larger coeflicient for weirs 3 feet broad, slightly inclined downward,
than for those with horizontal crests.
a Given by W. C. Unwiu, in article I on Hydrodynamics In Ency. Brit Independently derived by
J. P. Frizell. See hie Water Power, pp. 1S&-200.
WEIB8 WITH BBOAD OBESTS.
Ill
Let d=KHy then from the formula first given
Q=LKH-i^mX -K)
<7,=8.02-ff'VI=X
(69)
The theoretical coefficient Ci can be computed from this equation if
^has been determined experimentally.
From profiles taken in connection with United States Deep Water-
ways experiments at Cornell Cniversity hydraulic laboratory in 1899
the following values of D and d for broad-crested weirs have been
scaled and the ratio i/ /> computed. Z> was taken 4 feet upstream
from the upper face of the weir, and does not include velocity of
approach correction; values of d^ and d^ were taken at the lower-crest
lip and center of crest, re8pectiveh\ The value of rf, at center of
cre^t has been used in the computations.
Values of D and dfor broad-cresUd tueirs.
Broad-creeted weir.
.L_
Broad-cretted wdr.
D
0.90
1.16
1.80
2.60
3.56
5.15
35
45
75 I
20 '
72 I
20 '
0.52
1.14
1.76
2.52
3.16
0.58
.69
.63
.67
.71
.61
1.00
1.32
1.98
2.85
3.90
4.65
.50
.50
.70
.50
.98
.50
1.70
.60
2.50
.64
3.10
.61
For low heads a sudden drop begins near the upstreana crest corner
and terminates at a distance 1.5 to 2 Z> below the upstream corner.
From this point to within a distance about equal to D from the down-
stream crest corner the surface is nearly parallel with the crest.
If the width of crest is not greater than 2.5 to 3 Z^ the nappe passes
over the broad crest in a continuous surface curve, becoming more
nearly convex as the ratio D B increases.
For low heads Cornell experiment 13, crest 6.56 feet wide, with
rounded upstream comer, complies very well with the theory of dis-
112 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, C0EFFICIENT8, AND FORMULAS.
charge in accordance of the principle of least energy. The coefficient
computed as above is
6; =8.02X0. 685^1 -0^585
= 8.02X0.585X0.6442
=3.02
The experimental coefficient with head corrected for velocity of
approach i« 2.82.
The following additional data may be cited:
Trautwine^ cjuotes data of Elwood Morris, C. E., for Clegg's dam.
Cape Fear River, North Carolina. Horizontal crest 8.42 feet wide,
vei'tical faces. //=1.25 feet, d (throughout central portion of crest)
=0.50 foot, d H=0.40.
Thos. T. Johnston* gives data of elaborate profiles of the nappe for
Desplaines River dam, Illinois. Horizontal planed stone coping, ver-
tical downstream face; upstream face batter, 1 2:1. //=0.587 foot.
rf=0.315 to 0.307 foot in central, nearly level portion at distances i.o
to 4 feet from upstream edge of crest. Johnston and Cooley deduce
the coefficient C=1.69 for this case.
BLACKWELL's EXPERIMENTS ON DISCHARGE OF WATER OVER BROAD-
CRESTED WEIRS.
Experiments made by Thomas E. Blackwell,^ M. Inst. C. E., are of
interest as being probably the first recorded for weirs with broad crests.
The discharge was volumetrically measured, and the conditions were
generally favomble to accuracy. The experiments were made on a
side pond of the Kennet and Avon Canal, 106,200 square feet surface
area, closed by a lock at each end, the water being admitted from time
to time as required, the relation between area of reservoir and volume
of discharge being such that there was no sensible variation in water
level during an experiment.
The weir was constructed in a dock to which the water had access
through an irregularly shaped channel 40 feet in width, cut off from
the main pond by a submerged masonry wall 9 feet wide, situated "2'}
feet upstream from the weir, having its top 18 inches to 20 inches
below water surface.
The water level in the pond being constant when outflow took plai-e,
the weir, which had a crest adjustable in a vertical plane, was set with
its crest level at the depth below water surface desired for an experi-
ment, by means of adjusting screw\s at the ends of the weir; the water
aEngineera' Pocket Book.
b Johnston, T. T., and Cooley, E. L., New experimental data for flow over a broad-crest dam: Jour.
Western Soc. Engrs., vol. 1, Jan., 1896, pp. 80-51.
cOriglnal paper before Institution of Civil Engineers of London, reprinted in the Journal of the
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, March and April, 1852.
WEIRS WITH BROAD CRESTS. 113
was then allowed to waste through the weir until a uniform regimen
of flow was established.
A gaging tank having a floor of brick laid in cement, with plank
sides, and 441). 39 cubic feet cai>acity, was erected at the foot of the
weir. At a given signal the lid of this tank was raised, the time
noted, and the rate of filling of the tank recorded by several observ-
ers. Such leakage from the tank as occurred was separately measured
and allowed for. There was no correction for velocity of approach or
for end contractions.
The wind was so slight as to be negligible, except during one series
when there was a brisk wind blowing downstream. The experimenter
states that parallel experiments on a quiet day indicated an increase of
about 5 per cent in discharge due to this wind.
The crest of the thin-edged weir consisted of an iron plate barely
one-sixteenth inch thick. A square-top plank 2 inches thick was
attached to the weir, and an apron of deal boards, roughly planed so
as to form an uninterrupted continuation downstream, constituted the
wide-crested weir used in the experiments.
The coeflScient C\ from Blackwell's experiments has been worked
out and is given in the following table. The measured depths taken
in inches have also been reduced to feet.
1KB 150—06 12
114 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
BlackweWs experiments on broad-crested weirs, Kennet and Avon (hnal, England, 18S0.
EAST INDIAN ENGINEERS' FORMULA FOR BROAD-CRESTED WEIRS.^
This fornmla is
Q=\ M'JfH ^TgJi, or if V'2 r/=«-^^^. (^=6.S63rZB^= C\LH^ (60)
Where J/'=coefficient for thin-edged weir*=0.664— O.OliSr,
(61)
oMiillins, Gen. Joseph, Irrigation Manual, Madras, 1890.
bSee table giving values of M and equivalent values of C, p. 22.
WEIRS WITH BROAD ORESrS.
115
Experimental data not given. This formula gives values of M* or
C\ decreasing as breadth of crest B increases, and for low heads
increasing to a maximum for a head of about 1 foot, then slowly
decreasing.
The formula reduces to
c-6'r^^+i-^;>^^^(^+^)V56' .
//+i
j-
■ (62)
For ^=0
which diffei-s by the ratio R from the equivalent value of V for a
thin-edged weir.
Vnlxi/e^ of cofffirient C^ <>/" discharge over a brwui-^'reMU'd weir and of R^ the ratio of the
farmer to C the coeflicierU, of discharge over a thin-edged weir^ hg .\fnllins* tt formula.
I feet. -^
Ifoot.
L-l
2 feet.
R
(\
3 feet.
R (
4 feet.
3l
4
6 '
7 j
8 I
9 •
10 I
0.975
.983
.988
.990
.992
.998 I
.994
.994
.995
.995
I i-
3.359
3.335 1
3.296 '
3.253 ,
3.204
3.155 I
3.104
3.a54
3.003
2.950 I
0.962
. 975
.981
.985
.988
.989
.991
.992
.992
3. 316
8.807 I
3.275
3.237
3.191
3.144 I
3.095 I
3.0J5
2.995 ,
2.944
0.95
.967
• .975
.98
.983 '
.986 I
.988
3.319
3.279 I
3.255 I
3.220
3. 177 I
3.132 ,
8.085 ;
3.037 i
2.9H8 I
2. 937
0.938
.958
.969
. 975
.979
.982
.984
.98(>
.988
.989
Ci
3.230
3.251
3.2:^1
3.204
3.164
3. 121
3.075
3.028
3.042
2.930
5 feet.
6 feet.
I
7 feet.
I
0.925
.95
.962
.97
.975
.978
.981
(\
3. 182
3.22
3.213
3.193
3.149
3.11
3.06
3.017
2.97
2.92
Cy
0.912
.942
.966
.965
.971 I
.975 I
.978
.980 j
.982 I
.984 ,
3. 144
3.194
3. 192
3.171 i
3 137
3.09«
3. G^l
3.012 I
2.966
2.916
R
0.9
.933
.96
.96
.967
.971
.975
.977
.98
.982
^1
8 feet.
A' I <\
3.100
3. IWi j
3.171
3. 154
3.123
3.080 ,
3.046
2,999
3.019 ,
2.910 '
0.H88
.925
.944
.955
.962
.968
.972
.975
.978
.979
3.057
■3. i:«
3.150
3. 138
3.110
3.076
3.056
2.994
2.950
2.093
The values of C^ given in the above table have been deduced from
the corresponding values of C for a thin-edged weir by Mullins's
formula. The ratio R may, if desired, be applied approximately to
correct values of. C derived from other standard weir formulas.
116 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
FTELEY AND STEARNS EXPERIMENTS ON BROAD-CRESTED WEIRS. *•
The formula of Fteley and Stearns is based on five series of experi-
ments made in the Sudbury River conduit, Boston, 1877, on weirs 2, 3,
4, 6, and 10 inches wide, respectively. Suppressed weirs 5 feet long
were used, the depths being as follows:
Fteley ajid StearM ejperitnenUf,
Width of
crest, in
Number
of experi-
ments.
RanReof depth observed
on broad crests, in feet.
inches.
From— To—
2
7
0. 1158 0. 2926
3
21
. 1307 • . 4619
4
25
. 1318 . 6484
6
22
. 1320 . 8075
10
17
.1352 .8941
1
The results are given by the authors in the form of a table of cor-
rections to be added algebraically to the measuf&d head for the broad-
crested weir to obtain the head on a thin-edged weir that would give
the same discharge.
Fteley and Stearns's correction c may be found approximately from
the formula
6'=0.2016V[(0.807 ^-//)'+0.2146 Il^]-0,1H16 B . . (63)
or if X~ 0.2016, //i = 0. 1 876, /i= 0.2146, 6^=0.807, then
Q=CZ[II-mB+kyl{aB^IJy+JiB']^ . . . (64)
If the head on a broad-crested weir is II, the discharge will \ye
Q=CL{II+c)^ (6.5)
(/being the coeflicient of discharge for thin-edged weirs.
If (\ is the coefficient for the l)road weir, then we may also writo
Hence
(««)
From formula (66) have been calculated Fteley and Stearns's coeffi-
cients for weirs with nappe adhering to crest for use in the formula
Q=CLIJ\
a Fteley and Stearns, Experiments on the flow of water, etc.: Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. 12, pp. 86-96.
WEIRS WITH BROAD CRESTS.
117
^•orrection for velocity of approach being made by adding 1.5 -- to the
measured head to obtain H,^
Vahies of the ratio .] of the coeffirierU of discharge for a broad-crested v^rir, l/y Fteley
arid Steams^ 8 exjjerimentgy to that for a thin-edged weir.
If -
Width of crest, in Inehen.
3 1
4
6
8 '
10
12
1
0.0
.1
0.7466
0.74798
0.7562
0.7589
0.7576
0.7676
.2
.H234
.7878
.7740
.7CT9 1
.7644
. 7624
.3
.91?2
.8ft24
.8003
.7809 1
.7727
.7685
.4 '
.9963
.9201
.8353
.6003
.7850
.7768
.5 ..
.980t'i
.8781
.8255 1
.8008
.7865
.6 ..
1.008U
.9290
.8567
.8199
.7989
.7 .
1
.9691
.8911 1
.8424
.8130
.8 ..
.9997
.9245
.8695
.8339
.9 ..
1.0317
.9653
.8983
.8552
1.0 |..
1.1 ..
1.2'..
.9685
1.0090 1
1.0317
1.0499
.9406
.9508
.9732
.9948
1.0148
1.0317
.8824
.9027
1
;
.9252
1.3 --
.9466
1.4 ..
1.6 L.
1
;
.9657
1
1
1
.9850
bazin's formula and experiments on broad-crested weirs.
These included series of about 20 periods each for depths not
exceeding 1.4 feet on weirs of 0.164:, 0.328, 0.656, 1.315, 2.62, and
6.56 feet breadth of crest. The coeflScient Ci in the formula Q= C^Llfi^
deduced from a recomputation of the experiments on weirs 2.46 feet
high, using the Francis velocity of approach correction, is given
on PL IV.
Other experiments were made for the four narrower weirs with
heights 1.148 and 1.64 feet, to determine the comparative velocity of
approach eflfect.
Bazin shows that if the nappe is free from the downstream face of
the weir it may assume two forms: (1) It may adhere to the horizontal
<'rest surface; (2) it may become detached at the upstream edge in
such a manner as to flow over the crest without touching the
downstream edge. In the second case the influence of the flat crest
evidently disappears and the discharge is like that over a thin-edged
weir. The nappe usually assumes this form when the depth I) exceeds
twice the breadth of crest B^ but it may occur whenever the depth
exceeds \B, Between these limits the nappe is in a state of insta-
bility; it tends to detach itself from the crest, and may do so under the
a Fteley and Steama's formula for a thin-edged weir lias been iised to oalculate Q in deriving these
coefflnienta, the experiments having been made under conditions similar to those under which their
formoja wan derived.
118 WK[R KXPERTMKNl^, rOEFFTCTENTS, AND FORMULAS.
influence of any external disturbance, a«, for example, the entrance of
air or the passage of a floating object over the weir.
When the nappe adheres to the crest, the coeflSeient t\ depends
chiefly on the ratio D B and may be represented by the formula
t;= f/ (0.70+0. 185 /> J?) (67)
in which 6' is the coeflicient for a thin-edged weir.
When I) B=L5() to 2, (\ C=0.9S to 1.07 if the nappe adheres to
crest, or (\ r=1.00 if nappe is detached, and for /) B>'2, 6; 6^=1.00.
Between the limits D—\,bR and D—±R the value which the coeffi-
cient 6i will assume in a particular case is uncertain. Bazin considers
that his formula gives accurate results for adhering nappes with
breadth of crests up to 2 or 8 feet. For a crest 6.56 feet wide and
/>= 1.476 feet he finds the result by formula (67) 98.4 per cent of
that given directl}^ by the experiment.
Valuer of the ratio (\l(\ fivr a hrond-rrested weir^ with adhering lutppe^ hy Hazin^n
formvdaJ^
Dili
0.0
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
1.0
1.'2
1.3
1.4
1.5
0
0.01
0.02
0.70J
0. 7018
0.7087
. 7185
.7204
.7222
.7370
.7388
.7407
.7555
.7574
.7592
.7740
.7758
.7777
.7925
.7944
.7962
.8110
.8128
.8147
.82%
.8314
.8332
.8480
.8498
.8517
.8(565
.8fi84
.8702
.88:)0
.8868
.8887
.9035
.9a'>4
.9072
.9220
.9238
.9257
.WOT.
.9424
.9442
.9590
.96as
.9627
.9775
.9794
.9812
6V( '-=0.700 4-0.185 7>.'fi.
0.01 I 0.05 6. Or;
0.7056
.7240
.7426
.7610
.7796
.7980
.8166
.8350
.8536
.8720
.8906
.9090
.9276
.9460
.9646
.9830
0.7074 I 0.7092 0.7111
.7259
.7444
.7629
.7814
.81iM
.8369
.8554
.8739
.8924
.9109
.9294
.9479
.9664
.9849
.7278
.7462
.7648
.7832
.8018
.8202
.8388
.8572
.8758
.8942
.91-28
.7296
.7481
.7666
.7851
.8036
.8221
.8406
.8691
. 8776
.89*51
.9146
0.07
0.08
0.7130
0.7148
.7314
.7333
.7500
.7518
.7684
.7703
. 7870
.7888
.8064
.8073
.8240
.V258
.8424
.8443
.9312 I .9331
.9498 .9516
. 9682 . 9701
.98«W .9886
.8610
.8794
.8980 .
.9164
.9350
.9534
.9719 :
.9904 I
.8628
.><813
.8998
.9183
.9:ttW
.9553
.97:i8
.9923 '
0.7166
.7352
.7536
.7722
.7906
.8092
.8276
.R462
.8646
.8832
.9016
.9202
.9386
.9572
.9756
.9M2
«lf there 1« velocity of approach, the value
ratio ^•,/<'may be applied hi a formula which
the head // or in the coefficient.
of DIB, not II]B, should
includes the velocity of
Ih' used as an argument. The
appnwoh c»<»rn'ction, either in
Bazin's formula gives ratios which continually increase as //
increases, li remaining constant, and which continually decrease as
B increases, // remaining constant. It gives, however, a constant
I'atio for all widths or heads where the ratio // B is unchanged.
Compared with their respective standard weir formulas, MuUins's
formula gives for a broad-crested weir a continuously decreasing ratio
of discharge as B increases from zero, II remaining constant, and a
continuously increasing discharge as //increases from zero, B remain-
ing constant; Fteley and Stearns's experiments give a discharge ratio
which is less than unity, but which varies in an irregular manner,
depending on the head and breadth of weir.
WEIRS WITH BROAD CRESTS.
119
On referring to PI. IV, in which the Bazin coefficients are given in a
form comparable with the experiments of the United States Geological
Survey, it will be noticed that, except for the lowest heads, the coeffi-
cient curves are simple linear functions of the head. The rate of
increase of the coefficients as the head increases grows rapidly less
as the breadth of the weir increases, indicating that for a very broad
weir the coefficient would be sensibly constant throughout the range
of stability of the nappe.
For the narrower weirs the coefficients tend to increase rapidly
almost from the start toward the value for a thin-edged weir or
detached nappe. For the weirs 2.62 and 6.50 feet breadth of crest
the total variation in the coefficient for 'the range of heads covered by
the experiments is compamtively small. The average coefficients are
as follows:
Average Bazin coefficlentHf hroad-crested iveirs.
Bazin series Crest width,
No. I in feet.
113
114
115
1.312
2.624
6.56
Range of head, in feet.
From— To-
Lowest.
0.35
.55
Average con-
, stant coelfl-
t cient, C\.
0.60
2.64
.85
2.59
1.32
2.62
Highest.
0 2.58
a Coefficient increases slowly throughout.
The average coefficients show a fair agreement with the constant
coefficient for broad-crested weirs with stable nappe deduced from the
experiments of the "United States Geological Survey (page 120).
EXPERIMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ON BROAD-
ORESTED WEIRS.
The method of conducting these experiments and the detailed results
are given on pages 95-107. The coefficient curves are presented on Pis.
XXVIII to XXXII. It may be remarked here that the models were
larger and the range of breadth of crest and depth of flow experi-
mented upon was greater than in the earlier experiments described.
In general, the laws of behavior of the nappe pointed out by Fteley
and Stearns and Bazin were confirmed.
120 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
The following table presents a r^sum^ of the results:
R^mmS of United l^ies Geological Survey experimerits on broad-crested weirs.
Nappe '
un- ' Nappe
I stable de-
n^o/ifii 'or tached
SerieH. of crest, | ^^ ^^^
\ m feet. ^jj^„ ^^
I valuer
I below,
in feet.
CoeflSclent 61 varies between
the limlte—
CoeCBcient
constant.
Head, In feet. Coefficient.
40
47
46 I
45
44 I
43 I
43fi
Average.
0.479
.927
1.646
3.174
5.875
8.980
12.239
16.302
16.302
0.3 1
0.8
.81
1.8
.7
2.8
.5 .
.5 .
.5 j.
.4 .
head. |i.^m—
in feet.
0.3
.3
.7
.5
.5
.5
.3
To—
0.8
1.8
2.8
1.3
.9
2.0
2.0
1.1
Prom— To—
2.64
2.57 ;
2.56 j
2.70 I
2.72 i
2.73 I
2.62 i
2.'
I 2.73 j
3.32
3.31
3.32
2.64
2.64
2.62
2.64
1.0
2.68
2.72
1 2.68 11
2.72
2.68
2.64
Above
head,
in feet.
0.8
1.8
2.8
1.3
.9
2.0
2.0
1.1
1.0
I
3.32 I
3.31 '
3.32
Increases,
2.64
2.62
«2.64
b2.6S I
2.64
2.634
" Coefficient shows tendency to increaae slowly with head.
b Edges of planed and matched boards not flush. Crest smoothed in series 43a.
The deductions that f9llow have been based on a consideration of
earlier experiments as well as those here given for the first time.
1. For depths below 0.3 to 0.6 foot the nappe is very unstable,
owing probably to magnified effect of crest friction and to the varying
aeration or adhesion of the nappe to the downstream weir face.
2. For heads from 0.5 foot to 1 or 2 feet for very broad weirs, or
from 0.5 foot to the point of detachment for narrower weirs, the
coefficient is somewhat variable and changes in an uncertain manner.
For the broader weirs, the range of variation of Ci between the depths
indicated is narrow, from 2.73 to 2.62.
3. When the nappe becomes detached the coefficient remains nearly
identical with that for a thin-edged weir. For the narrower weirs the
coefficient incre^ises rapidly within the range of tendency to detach-
ment indicated by Bazin, i. e., for heads between D and 2D.
4. On the broader weirs for depths exceeding 1 to 2 feet up to the
limit of the experiments (about 5 feet), the experiments indicate a sen-
sibly constant coefficient for all depths. Where there is any tendencv
to variation within the i-ange indicated there is a gi*adual increase
in C,.
For weirs of 5 to 16 feet breadth the experiments show no conspicu-
ous tendency for the coefficient (^, to change with variation in either
//or />, the range of value of C\ being from 2.62 to 2.64.
The line of detachment of the nappe for a weir of 5 feet breadth
would })e 7.5 to 10 feet head or perhaps more, and a higher head for
WEIRS WITH BROAD CRESTS. 121
broader crests. If this depth were ever reached it may be surmised
that the coefficient C\ would increase to about 3.33 at the point of
detachment. It would also appear, as is in fai^t indicated in Bazin's
formula, that the coefficient should very slowly increase with // and
decrease as B increases, independent of the tendency to detachment
of the nappe, and owing to the decreased relative effect of crest fric-
tion and contraction.
The United States Geological Survey experiments indicate that this
effect is of relativel}' little significance for large heads and broad well's,
and hence a constant coefficient covering a wide range may be safely
adopted.
The average coefficient, 2.64, which we have tentatively chosen for
weirs exceeding 3 feet in breadth under heads exceeding 2 feet, ma}"
apparently be applied for considerably lower heads for weirs of 5 feet
or more crest breadth with but small error.
TABLE OF DISCHARGE OVER BROAD-CRESTED WEIRS WITH STABLE NAPPE.
A table has been calculated, using ^^1=2.64 and covering heads vary-
ing b}' 0.1 foot increment from zero to 10 feet (p. 177). It is consid-
ered applicable for weirs of 3 feet or more crest breadth when II B
lies between the general limits 0.25 to 1.5. The coefficient 2.64 gives
a discharge 79.2 per cent of that for a thin-edged weir by the Francis
foimiula. The relative discharge obtained by other formulas and
experimenters is shown in the following table:
Comparison of hrOfid-rreMed iceir formulae and e.y^perimeriJK ffirin(f percentage of
discharge over a thin-edged urh."
1 foot width. 2.62 feet width. 6..% feet width.
Fonniila or experiment. , jf^^Q^; ]^ f i 5 ^ - ' ^ j," 1.5 ' u.2r~0.5 ~l.O ' 'iTT
I i/-=0.5 1.0 1.5 1.31 2.62 1 3.93 1.(.4 3.28 6.56 9. H4
_ ' ' ! .' I '
96.7 I 97.5 ! 98.0 [ , ,93.2 95.5 1 97.5 | 98.2
78.6 i 88.2 98.5 I | '
79.2 ; 88.5 ' 97.8 79.2 ' 88.5 , 97.8 74.6 79.2 88.5 I 97.8
Mnllinse'
Ftfley and Steams
Bazin formula
U. S. Deep Waterways ex-
penmentA
82.8 93.3 , 114.1 72.0 71.1 | 72.3 | 73.2
U. S. Geological Sun'ev ex-
periments I 81.0 I 90.3 97.5 '<'79.5 'c81.3 ,e86.7 I 79.2 rf79.2 d79.2 ^79.2
« No velocity of approach.
fr£ast Indian en^fineerH* formula, given in Mullin.s'8 Irrigation Mannal, Madm.s Presidency.
<• Weir 2.17 feet broad.
rf Weir 5.88 feet broad.
Considering the low heads used, it may be noted that before Bazin's
experiments only those of Blackwell included a weir breadth sufficient
to eliminate the early tendency to detachment and permit the existence
of the stable period for which a constant coefficient aj)plies.
122 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Blackwell's experiments on weirs 3 feet broad indicate a maximum
coefficient C^ of 2.65 to 2.77 for a head of about 0.5 foot, decreasing as
the head increased.
The experiments of the United States Deep Waterways Board on
models with 2.62 and 6.56 foot crest width are shown on PI. XV. For
the narrower weir the coefficient increased uniformly with the head.
The nappe did not leave the crest, although the experiments were
continued to the limit B) B—% at which stage the coefficient exceeded
that for a thin-edged weir. For the broader weir the coefficients are
much less variable and the curves indicate that the coefficients approach
a constant as the breadth of crest is increased.
It will be noted that considerable care must be exercised in deter-
mining the condition of the nappe for broad-crested weirs of incon-
siderable width, while for those of greater breadth the wind ma}' exerf
considerable influence on the nappe on the broad crest under lower
heads. The constant coefficient 2.64 has been deduced from experi-
ments on weirs with smooth, planed crests and sharp upstream crest
angles. The effect of crest roughness on weir discharge is discussed
on page 133.
EFFECT OF ROUNDING UPSTREAM CREST EDGE.
Experiments by Fteley and Stearns^ indicate that the effect of
rounding the upstream crest corner is to virtually lower the weir, by
allowing the water to pass over with less vertical contraction. To
determine the discharge over a thin-edged weir, with upstream crest
corner rounded to a radius R^ add to the measured head the quantity
^=o.70jB {m
The above formula was deduced by Fteley and Stearns from experi-
ments on weirs with crest radii of one-fourth, ,one-half , and 1 inch.
For heads not exceeding 0.17, 0.26, and 0.45 foot, respectively, the
nappe adhered to the crest, and the formula does not apply.
The correction formula (68) is equivalent to increasing the dis-
charge coefficient in the ratio
or nearly in the ratio
/^+0.7ig\^
H '
A second series of experiments was made with rounded upstream
edges of similar radii applied to a crest 4 inches wide, giving the cor-
rection formula for this case,
X=0A1R (69)
a Experiments on the flow of water, etc.: Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. 12, pp. 97-101.
EFFECT OF ROrNDING UPSTREAM CREST EDGE.
123
where ^ is a correction to be added to the measured head before
applying the formula for discharge over the broad-crested weir. This
formula is applicable for depths of not less than 0.17 and 0.26 foot,
respectively, on weirs with radii of one-fourth and one-half inch.
Fteley and Stearns's formulas show the effect to decrease with the
breadth of crest. It also decreases, whe|i expressed as a percentage,
with the head. These formulas are probably applicable to weirs with
smaller, though not to those with greatly larger, radii than those of the
experimental weirs.
Bazin experimented upon two weii-s, duplicated in the Ignited States
Deep Waterways experiments, having crest widths of 2.624 and 6.56
feet, respectively, with an upstream crest radius of 0.328 foot (PL
IV).
Broad-crested i/Wr« unth n»inded upstream mrn4r.
Head, In
feet.
0.25
.50
1.00
1.50
1.50
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
CoeffioicDt Ci, Bazin'H experiments.
Crest width, 2.ti2 feet.
With angle With round-
creet. ed creRt.
2.52
2.59
2.64
2.69
2.85
2.95
3.00
3.04 I
Crest width, 6.66 feet.
With angle With roimd-
crest. ed crest.
2.40
2.515
2.575
2,635
2.58
2.76
2.89
2.92
Coefficient (\, United States Deep Waterways experi-
ments.
2.67
2.92
2.39
2.75
3.00
2.41
2.93
3,17
2.44
3.11
3.34
2.47
3.30
3.51
2.50
Nappe free.
• 3.00
2. 53
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
2.81
United States Deep Waterways series 14 and 15, PI. XV, show the
effect of rounding the upstream crest corner, radius 0.33 foot, on a
model of the Kexford flats, New York, dam. In this case, with a
weir 22 feet broad with 6:1 slope on each face, the effect of rounding
becomes comparatively slight, the average increase being about 2
per cent.
United States Geological Survey experiments, series Nos. XXXV
and XXXVI, PI. XXVI, show the effect of the addition of a 4-inch
radius (0.33 foot), quarter-round extension to the upstream face of the
model of an ogee-section dam, having 4.5 feet crest width, 4.5 :1 slope.
124
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Effect of rounded upstream crest comer on an ogee dam.
Head, in
feet.
0.50
1.00
2.00
3.00
Chambly
model,
scries 35.
Same, with
rounded up-
stream crest
comer.
Difference
per cent of
Francis's
coefficient.
3.18
3.30
3.42
3.49
3.23
3.34
3.51
3.64
-fl.5
-tl.2
-h2.7
+4.5
EXPERIMENTS ON WEIRS WITH DOWNSTREAM SLOPE, OR APRON,
OF VARYING INCLINATION.
Aside from the experiments of Blackwell on weirs with very slight
inclination and a few series by other experimenters on weirs of irreg-
ular section involving aprons, the data on this subject are limited to
those of Bazin^s experiments.
Bazin selected a number of weir types, each having a constant top
width, height, and upstream inclination and applied to each a number
of different downstream slopes.^
TRIANGLXAR WEIRS WITH VERTICAL UPSTREAM FACE AND SLOPIN(J
APRONS.
Such weirs are occasionally used, as where the apron slopes to the
stream bed in log slides. A similar form in which the downstream
slope terminates at a greater or less distance from the vertical upstream
face is not uncommon, and to this form the Bazin experiments may
probably be applied, provided the breadth of the sloping apron is con-
siderable. The experiments are of special interest, however, as show-
ing the effect of attaching a sloping apron to the downstream face of
a thin-edged weir, and by inference affording an indication of the effect
of a similar apron attached to any form of cross section. The results
of Bazin's experiments recomputed on the basis of the Francis for-
mula are shown on PI. V.
Four series of experhnents on weirs 2.46 feet high are included.
For all these series the coefficient C tends to remain nearly constant
for the range of heads covered, 0.2 foot to 1.5 feet, there being a slight
increase in C with the lower heads only.
Two series on weirs 1.64 feet high are also given. In series 145,
slope of apron 3:1, there is a general increase in coefficient with head
below 0.9 foot. Series 138, for a weir 1.64 feet high, is duplicated on
a weir 2.46 feet high, and the latter series is given preference in the
general curve. The lower weirs indicate in both cases slightly higher
coefficients, possibly owing to the incomplete elimination of the effect
of ex(^essive velocity of approach.
u Ba/in did not attem)>t to rollate the resultfl extenMively. His general rt'sum^' has been tiunslAted
by the writer, and may lie found In Kept. U. S. Board of Kngineent on I>eep Waterways, pt, 2. 1900.
pp. 64(M;58.
WEIRS WITH VARYING DOWNSTREAM SLOPE.
125
The average constant coefficients for the several series are shown in
the following table:
Mean coefficienLf, triangular weirs wiifi van/ing apnm slope.
Series.
I Range of head.
Height. Slope.
Froni-
Kange of C.
Average (\
Fnnn-
TtH
136
2.46
1
0.3
1.40
3.84
3.88
3.85
137
2.46
2
.3
1.6
3. 48
3.52
3.50
13S
1.64
2
•7
1.5
3.56
3.58
3.57
146
1.64
3
.9
1.5
3.39
3.41
3.40
141
2.46
5
.6
1.5
3:08
3.14
3.13
142
2.46
10
.75
1.5
2.90
2.93
2.91
3.9
i
I
— t
I
6.We,'rst\64ft',high.
3.8
\
\
i.
rv-.
3.7
^
3.6
\
V"\
J
^
\
'^^
t fk
\
frtr-m nf^vn^fSm^nts*/ va^trx
I
\
•
"^ 3 I
\,
1
\
\
^3.3
\
s
3.2
\
\
s
JL 1
N
^
^
sf.
•^
3.0
^
"Nfc,
'^
^
2.9
**
■^
^
>^ ^
^
2.8
t
"~i
•
i
8
4
b
8
8
^
1
0
1
1
12
Slope or batter of downstream face of weini.
Fig. 9.— Coefficient curve for triangular weirs.
The mean coefficients have also been plotted on fig. 9 and a general
curve drawn. This curve becomes approximately a straight line when
plotted on logarithmic cross-section paper. Its equation expressed in
logarithmic form is
C^^gl • (TO)
where S is the batter or slope of apron.
126 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
If /S=6, then, solving by logarithms,
log 6=0.7781513
log 6°"=0.0933782
log glw =9.90H6218
log 3.85=0.5854607
log C=0.4920825
(7=3.105
Fig. 9 gives C=3.07; the difference is 1 per cent.
The following conclusions deduced from the recomputed data con-
form in general with those of Bazin:
1. For steep apron slopes where the nappe tends to break free, the
apron materially increases the discharge by i)eniutting a partial
vacuum to be formed underneath the nappe.
2. For flat apron slopes the conditions approach thosti for a hori-
zontal crest.
3. For an apron slope of aljout 3:1, the discharge is nearly the same
as for a thin-edged weir.
4. For slopes greater than 3 :i the apron diminishes the discharge
the amount of diminution increasing as the slope becomes flatter.
TRIANGULAR WEIRS WITH UPSTREAM BATTER 1:1 AND VARYING SLOPE
OF APRON.
Three series of experiments by Bazin are included (PI. IX), all made
from weirs 1.64: feet high. The resulte are comparable among them-
selves, but owing to the high velocity of approach their general appli-
cability is less certain.
Series No. 161, downstream slope 1:1, shows a generally decreasing
coefficient with an apparent tendency to become constant through a
narrow range of heads, from 0.5 to 0.9 foot, with 6^= about 4.11.
Series No. 163 and 165, with apron slopes of 2:1 and 5:1, give coeffi-
cient lines, which may be fairly represented by the constants 3. 82 and
3.47, respectively. These coefficients compare with those for vertical
weirs with the same apron slopes as follows:
Comparative roeffirijent*.
Batter of
apron.
1:1
2:1
5:1
Vertical , Face iii-
face.
C
.clined 1:1.
I C
3.85
3.53
:113
4.11
3.82
3.47
Difference,
per cent,
Francis's
c(H»flRcient.
+ 7.8
+ 8.7
+10.2
WEIRS WITH VARYING DOWNSTREAM SLOPE.
127
EXPERIMENTS ON WEIRS OF TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION WITH UPSTREAM
SLOPE OF i:l, HORIZONTAL CREST, AND VARYING DOWNSTREAM
SLOPES.
Five series of Bazin's experiments on weii*s 2.46 feet high, with
crest width of 0.66 foot, are shown on Pis. VI and VII. The curves
indicate coefficients increasing with the head, the mte of increase being
more rapid for the steeper apron slopes. There is a tendency to
depression at about 0.4 foot head, representing, possibly, the point at
which the nappe changes from adhering to depressed condition on the
downstream face. The curves are all convex, and apparently approach
a constant, which was not, however, reached within the limit of experi-
ments, except, perhaps, for the flattest slope of 5:1. The coefficients
increase in value as the steepness of the apron slope increases.
Three series of experiments on weirs similar to those above described,
but with flat crests 1.317 feet wide, are shown on PI. VIII. The
coefficient curves are of uncertain form for heads below 0.6 foot.
For greater heads they may be represented by inclined straight
lines. The coefficients increase uniformly with the head, the initial
values for 0.6 foot head being nearly the same for the several slopes,
the increase being more rapid for the steeper downstream slopes.
It may be seen from the following table that increased width of the
flat crest, as compared with that of the preceding weir, causes a
decrease in the discharge.
Comparative coefficients at 1-fooi head, weirs with flat crests and J;7 upstream slope.
Slope of
aproD.
Great wid
0.66
1:1
3.62
2:1
3.38
3:1
3.265
4:1
3.205
5:1
3. 195
6:1
1.317
2.985
2.94
2.93
COMBINATION OF COEFFICIENTS FOR WEIRS WITH COMPOUND
SJ.OPES.
Series 163 for an apron slope 2:1 represents a weir form which would
be produced by placing^ vertical face to vertical face, a weir with back
slope 1:1 and a weir with apron slope 2:1. For the former, Bazin's
experiments indicate 10 per cent excess discharge over that for a thin-
edged weir, and for the latter (from PI. V) 6—3.50, equivalent to 5.
128 WEIR KXPERIMENT8, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
per cent excess over a thin-edged weir. If the discharge over the 1:1
upstream slope was similarly increased by the addition of an apron,
C would be e3.66X 1.06 = 3.84. PI. IX indicates 6^=3.82.
The above method of determining the coefficient for weir of irregu-
lar cross section by combining the coefficients for two principal ele-
ments of which it is composed, as separate weirs, is restricted in its
application and may lead to inconsistencies.
WEIRS WITH VARYING SLOPE OF UPSTREAM FACE.
Experiments were made by Bazin on thin-edged weirs inclined at
various angles. Bazin found the ratio of the coefficient of discharge
to that for a vertical thin-edged weir to be sensibly constant for all
heads within the limits of his experiments, 0.0 to 1.5 feet. BazinV
results were expressed in the form of a modulus by which to multiply
the coefficient for a vertical weir to obtain that for an inclined weir.
Assuming the Francis coefficient 3.33 to apply to a vertical weir, the
coefficients for weirs of various inclinations would be as follows:
Coefficierdu for inclined weirs, Bazin^s experiments.
(I horizontal to 1 vertical...
Upstream inclination of the weir < 2 horizontal to 3 vertical. . .
[l horizontal to 3 vertical. ..
Vertical weir ^
1 horizontal to 3 vertical. . .
2 horizontal to 3 vertical. . .
1 horizontal to 1 vertical . . .
2 horizontal to 1 vertical. . .
4 horizontal to 1 vertical . . .
Downstream inclination of the weir. .
Sarin's
modulus.
r
0.93
3.097
.94
3.130
.96
3.197
^ 1.00
3.3*1
1.04
3.463
1.07
3. 56:^
1.10
3.663
1.12
3.996
1.09
3.6:w
On PI. XVI are shown the results of United States Deep Waterways
experiments on weirs 4.9 feet high, having horizontal crests 0.()7 foot
broad, and with various inclinations of the upstream slope. The
experiments cover heads from 1.75 to 5.2 feet, but only 3 or 4 points
are giv^en on each coeiBcient curve. The results indicate in a genenil
way, however, nearly constant coefficients for each inclination of the
upstream face. The values of the coefficients are considerably smaller
than those obtamed by Bazin, whose experiments were on weirs 2.46
feet high with sharp crests.
Pis. X, XI, and XII show the results of experiments of Bazin on
weirs of irregular section, with various upstream slopes. PI. X
includes 5 series of experiments on weirs 1.64 feet high, with sharp
WEIRS WITH VARYING UPSTREAM SLOPES.
129
crest angles, and 2 : 1 downstream slopes. The coefficient curves
show a depression period at from 0.3 to 0.7 foot ht^ad, beyond which
the coeiBcients ma}' be fairl}' represented b}' constants up to 1.5 foot
head (the limit of the experiment). A general curve showing the
constant coefficient in terms of a downstream slope or batter has been
added. This indic^ates a maximum coefficient of discharge for an
upstream slope of about 2.() : 1. llazin found, for thin-edged weirs,
with inclined downstream slopes, a maximum coefficient for an incli-
nation of 30", or If : 1.
Pis. XI and XII show coefficient curves for weirs having the same
upstream slopes as in PI. X, but 2.46 feet high, and with flat crests
0.67 foot wide. The coefficient curves are convex outward, indicating
that they may approach constant values at some point beyond the
limits of the experiments. The marked difference in character of
these coefficient curves, as compared with those in the preceding
group, is notable. For weirs with flat crests 0.67 foot wide the
coefficients for a given head uniformly increase as the slope becomes
flatter up to a batter of about If : 1. They are also greater for all
heads w^ithin the limit of the experiments than the coefficients for
weira with sharp crest angles. The comparative values are indicated
in the following table:
Comparative coefficients, weirs with varying upstream slope.
Up-
fdream
slope.
Vert.
Pl.X,
sharp erent,
I 2 : 1 down-
RtreRm
I Klope; aver-
age con-
stant coef-
fldent.
Pis. XI and XII, 0.67 feet
crest width, 2 : 1 down-
stream slope.
Head, in feet.
f I
3.58
3.68
3.72 "
3.83
3.87
0.5
(•
2.78
2.87
2.92
3.03
3.13
1.0 I
c
3.26 I
3. :u '
3.38
3.42 I
3.43
1.5
('
3. 51
3. 56
3.62
3.6o
3.61
It will be seen that the addition of the flat crest has an effect in this
case similar to that observed in Pis. VI and VIII, showing the results
of experiments by Bazin on weirs with various downstream slopes.
United States Deep Waterways series No. 7, PI. XVII, may be
compared with Bazin's series No. 178, shown on PI. XI. The former
gives a coefficient of 3.55 for a head of 2 feet on a weir 4. 81^5 feet
high, the coeflicient slowly increasing with the head. Tlie latter gives
a coefficient of 3.0 for a head of 1.5 feet, decreasing rapidly as the
head decreases.
Jt» 150— oe 13
EIR EX
excess «
slope
be SJ
ove iiK
"jectioi
whicJj
n and
SIRS
uent-
igle.s
)r a ^
lin 1
re e
ient
the
s f o
clii
d
oi
**" • '-'x.r** ■•
^.- - , "^' ":"*^' *"''' i- t-on-
^QN. ?T
"-ArrSHUHC^ttiuiBLY TYPE.
• -:• ^ - -, ^ ^^^'^ sections of fl.„
:.----. - ■^-^^'^<1««>« used as weirs a^
- -'-. • -- ^.-^~" ' ~ ' "^a^tream crest radius su|fioio„ri^
- - -^ W. a-., exclude (he Dolgevilk ^-r^^^'
• . -«.^ free near the .mt forother t£ ^^■
u. ■ •---'f>'r/i«nd. the Austin dam, ,rith,otv!J^^^^-*
» "fV-^r.. from the meaner data inikhh t.. '- """ " *
«-- »
"' ••'™»^ Z^" ««il8We data io onier.
M\i utd increased incJinafion of sJore"-,
• for various depths are as fi^k>wC;
U. a. QEOUMICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 180 PL. XXXIV
Bq5eo/jnqde/\ ^ — . *
PLA T T 5 BURG, N. K I
rs)
(E)
Smooth stone
COMPARATIVE SIZE OF MODELS AND SECTIONS OF OGEE DAMS-
130 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
United States Geological Survey series No. XXXIX, PL XXVIII,
and United States Deep Waterways series No. 18, PL XVIII, repre-
sent weirs with vertical downstream faces and inclined crests. The
upstream slope does not, however, extend back to the bottom of the
channel of approach, but is cut off abruptly by a vertical upstream
face. The average coefficients deduced from these series have been
plotted on a general curve on PL XVI, the coefficients agreeing
closely with those of the United States Deep Waterways experiments
on weirs of similar upstream slope, extending to the channel bottom.
LTnited Stjites Geological Survey series No. XXX represents the Dolge-
ville dam, with rounded crest removed, leaving a trapezoid with crest
6 feet broad and 1 foot lower at upstream than at downstream edge.
The coefficient is not constant, but apparently approaches a constant
value of about 3.25 for heads exceeding 3 feet. United States Deep
Waterways series No. 18 represents a model of the spillway of the
Indian Lake dam, having a crest 7 feet wide, 1.5 feet lower at
upstream than at downstream edge, which gives an average constant
coefficient of 3.42.
It is suggested that if the upstream slope of an inclined weir is con-
tinued back (> feet or more and terminates in a vertical upstream face,
the discharge coefficient will not differ materially from that for an
upstream slope extending to the channel bottom.
DAMS OF OGEE CROSS SECTION, PLATTSBURG-CHAMBLY TYPE.
The United States Geological Survey experiments on dams of this
type are shown on Pis. XXllI to XXVII. Cross sections of the
various dams, with lines indicating the comparative size of the models
used in the United States Geological Survey experiments, are shown
on PI. XXXIV. Cross sections of other ogee dams used as weirs are
shown on PI. XXXV.
This class includes dams with downstream crest radius sufficiently
large to retain the nappe always in contact, yet not so large as to sim-
ulate a broad flat crest. We thus exclude the Dolgeville section on
the one hand, in which the nappe as observed in the existing dam par-
tially or completely breaks free near the crest for other than very low
stages, and on the other hand, the Austin dam, with a crest radius of
20 feet, which appears, from the meager data available, to lie outside
this class.
We have arranged the available data in order, advancing with
decreased })readth and increased inclination of sloping upstream face.
The coefficients for various depths are as follows:
U. 1. aCOUKXCAL SURVCV
WATER-tOPPLY PAPER NO. 160 PL. XXXIV
PLATT^BURG.N.Y. I
(B)
(E)
Smooth atone
COMPARATIVE SIZE OF MODELS AND SECTIONS OF OQEE DAMS.
U. 8. QEOCOOtCAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. ISO PL. XXXV
B£A V£R RIVER. N. Y.
ss' ^
TRENTON FALL S, N. K
H ANN AW A FALLS, N.Y.
Crast. Treoton/a/Js
Honk Falls, N.Y.
Crest9tcVon
CROSS SECTIONS OF OGEE DAMS.
DAMS OF OOKE CROSS SECTION.
131
Comparatiit roefficientH, dam* of ogee rrogs section.
***™ \ bly.
Approx. constant coeffi- I
Hent 3.-I35
Breadih of slope, in feet . I 4.5
Batter of i«lope I 4J:1
( 'rust radius, in feet 2.0
Experiment [ ,
Senes ,
Platts-
burg.
3.48
3
4:1
3.0
r.s.G.s.
•«30
Modified Platt,««burK.
3.4«
3
4:1
3.0
3.4M
3
4:1
3.0
3.70
•2:1
3.0
3.70
3
2:1
3.0
3.70
3
2:1
3.0
3
1.04:1
3.0
.S.CJ.S. Meanof r.S.(}.S. U.S.G.S. Mean of r.S.Ci
*31 30-31 632 a 33 I 32-33 34
0.5foot
1.0 foot
8.:w
2.0feet
3.42
8.0feet
3.49
4.0feei
3. 53
3.22
3.43
3.42 I
3.47 ,
3. 52
3.29
3. 35
3.43
3.54
5.0feet 3.62
e.Ofeet !
3.36
3.:^85
3.45
3. 53
3.29
3.37 I
3.51
3.57 '
3.67
3.73 i.
3.22
3.44
3.67
3. 72
3.74
3. 255
3.405
3. 59
3. 645
3. 705
3.46
3. 75
3.87
3.88
I
ai5.969 feet cre«t length, without end contraction,
fr 7.979 feet crest length, one end contraction.
It appears that the rounded crest changes the character of the law
of coeflScient from a vahie tending toward a constant for each back
sloj)e to a .slowly increasing function of the head. Compared with the
constant cx>eflScients for weirs with .similar upstream slopes extending
l»ack to canal bottom, and with vertical faces, we find that the con-
stant values deduced for these cases correspond with the values of the
var^'ing coefficients for ogee sections at a medium head of 2 to 4 feet.
By plotting the data for weirs of ogee section on logarithmic cross-
section paper the following convenient approximate formula has been
deduced, applicable for weirs with 2 or 3 feet crest radius and up-
stream slopes 3 to 4.5 feet broad. S indicates the batter ratio of the
1 horizontal run
' vertical rise
vertical rise
6^= [3.62-0.16 i^-l)] 11^
If .S = 2 : 1 //=4.0 6'=3.46X 4*'*'
log 4^^=0.080103 6'=3.46X 1.0716 =
The experiments give f'=3.74.
(71)
3.70.
EXPERIMENTS ON DISCHARGE OVER ACTUAL DAMS.
On PI. XXXVII are shown the results of a number of experiments
made by measuring the discharge over existing dams by means of floats
or current meters. Aside from those for the Austin, Tex., dam, the
data have been collected by Mr. (xeorge T. Nelles."
•« DL<%rii.sKion of paper by H. W. Rafter on the flow of water over danLs: Trans. Am. S^k*. <'. E., vol. 44,
pp. iTy-8fi2.
132 WEIIt EXPERIMENTS, COEKFICIENTfi, AND tX)ftMULArf.
BLACKSTONE RIVER AT ALBION, MA88.
This is a timber dam 217 feet long, with horizontal crest 1 foot wide,
vertical downstream face, and upstream slope covered with riprap.
Discharge was measured by current meter 500 feet below dam, and the
depth was measured by hook gage 20 feet upstream from crest, Co-
efficients have not been corrected to eliminate velocity of approach.
They Illustrate the uncertainty of discharge for broad-crested weirs of
small width under low heads.
MUSKINGUM RIVER, OHIO.
Discharge was measured by rod floats in a cross section 500 feet
above the dams, which are constructed of timber cribs filled with stone.
Data by Maj. W. H. Bixby, U. S. Army.
IXscharge data for Mtiskiiig^im River danis.
Num-
ber of
dam.
Length
on crest,
in feet.
I Area of i Dis-
Mean ' diflcharge charge,
height, in'section, in in cubic
feet. I fwuare ' feet per
I feet. second.
848 I 12.6
535 ' 15.9
472 14. 2
515 16. 0
7, 765
8,360
8,230
7,330
18,118
25, 559
21,015
22,310
Mean
velocity, .,^„ ,_
infeetDer *7™;*'^
second. '^^■
Kail nvt^T Obfierred
Fall over, ^,^,p^^^jj
crest, in
feet.
2.333
3.045
2.553
3.044
8.00 I
6.70 '
7,00
5.16
Coeffi-
cient i\
2.86 4.419
4. 66 4. 72:^
4.40 4.812
5. 90 3. 015
I
The depth on crest has not been corrected to eliminate velocity of
approach.
OTTAWA RIVER DAM, CANADA.
Data by T. C. Clark, C. E. Dam 30 feet high, with upstream and
downstream faces planked and sloping 3: 1, forming sharp crest angle
at junction.
Discfiargf data for Ottawa River dam.
Length of I Depth on '..r^.^^^T't
jdam,Fn feet, crest.in feet, ^'^^^'^^^^^
DiHcliarge
coefficient C.
1,600
1,760
2.5
10.0 I
26,000
190,000
4.106 I
3.40c< I
I
These data are notable as giving the only authentic value of dis-
charge over a dam under so great a head as 10 feet. The high coeffi-
cient found for a head of 2.5 feet renders the results somewhat doubtful.
U. ft. fiCdCOOICAL SUftviY
WATER-ftUf^^LV PAPCR NO. 1M PL. XXXVII
toem-
clent
-
-
e-i®
.''
3)
*-^
2>-
•"'
'T
._.J
L
rtent
.4 .6 .S 1.0 \.t 1.4
Corrected head H In feet.
TAYLOR-HOWARD EXPERIMENTS ON DAM AT AUSTIN, TEX
Uu^ S^cvonof j/
V
4.M
~~"
—""
~~
—
jf
xto
/ \
1
f
i
SteM
i
r
C\>
S,40
.S .« .6 .8 1.0
Corrected hemd // In feet.
EXPERIMENTS OF OWKIHT PORTER, BLACKSTONE RIVER, ALBION, MASS.
Timber cr>bi . Hone ftll^a
Co«ffi-
ci«nt
C.
"^
"^
v..
-
•%\
n
—
-
^
~
—
-.
.-
-
■" '
'«*
C3|
-•"
—'
>»
^
^
^,
^ ,
-^
_^
•
1^
^IV-
4.0
5.0
Corrected head // in feet.
MUSKINGUM RIVER DAM. DATA BY MAJ. W. H. BIXBY, U. 8. A.
EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE COEFFICIENT C FROM ACTUAL DAMS.
ROUGHNESS OF CREST.
133
AUSTIN, TEX., DAM.«
A series of cun-ent-meter measurements of the discharge over this
dam were made in January and March, UMK). Seveml observations at
each depth have been combined. The resulting mean coefficients are
given in the following table:
I Hscharge coefficient* for the Aiuiihi, Te.r., (lam.
l>Htl-.
1
Num-
ber.
II
1
//=depth
atcrcHt
of dam.
Range of vari-
ation of ('.
From— Tti—
Number
of de-
termina-
tions.
Average
value
1
1900.
1
' Jan. 15
1
1.09
0.838
3. 09 3. 14
4
3. 132
Jan. 18 1
2
.72
.625
3.00 3.11
11
3. 053
Jan. 26
3
.42
.33
3. 06 3. 13
4
3.112
Mar. 28
4
1.44
1.04
3. 32 3. 36
•^
3.333
Mar. 28
5
1.32
.96
3. 26 3. 33
5
3.302
Average j
3.186
ROUGHNESS OF CREST.
The models used in weir experiments have usually been constructed
of planed and matched timber. In actual dams a wide variety of con-
ditions exist, includnig, in the order of roughness, sheet-steel crests,
l)oards smoothed by wear and rendered slippery by water soaking and
fungus growths, unplaned boards, dressed masonry, formed concrete,
rubble and undressed ashlar, with earth, cobble, or broken-stone
approaches. For the determination of the extent, if any, to which
the coefficient applying for a smooth -crested dam must be modified to
apply to any of these conditions, the following data are available.
UNITED STATES DEEP WATERWAYS, SERIES 7 AND 8 (PL. XVIl).
Model dams, 4.9 feet high, 2: 1 slope on both faces. The mean coeffi-
cients are about 1 per cent greater for crest of planed boards than
for crest covered with one-fourth-inch mesh wire cloth.
fl Taylor, T. U., the Austin dam: Water-Sup. and In. Paper No. 40, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900, p. ;
134 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
CROTON DAM, ROUND-CREST SECTION, MODEL A (PL. XIX).
Crest rounded, radius 10 feet. Upstream slope about H: 1.
Comparative coefficients iviih varying roughness^ C^oton round crest.
I Series.
la
Head, in jSmooth-pine
feet. crest.
0.25
.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3. 34
3.24
3.21
3. 21
3.21
3.21
3.21
Unplaned-
plank crest
and slope.n
2.84
2.91
3.04
3.12
3.15
3. 15
Broken- Broken-
stone slope, . stone slope,
unplaned ; wire cloth
crest. on crest.
3.18
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.22
3.16
3.09
3.15
3.15
3.15
3.15
3.15
a This series appears doubtful. —R. K. H.
CROTON DAM, ANGULAR SECTION, MODEL B (PL. XX).
Apron slope 1.25:1, upstream slope 6.24:1 for 13 feet, then rough,
and slope about 4: 1 to bottom.
Comparative coefficitmtJty varying roughness, Croton angxdar creti.
^. Series.'
Head. ^
Unplaned
plank.
Unplaned
plank,
rough -stone
approach.
Rough-stone
approach,
wire cloth
on crest.
0.25
3.61
3.63
3.56
.50
3.66
3.57
1.00
3.67
3.66
3.58
1.50
3.68
3.66
3.60 ,
2.00
3.70
3.66
3.61 '
2.50
3. 70
3.66
3.62
The data given above are somewhat discordant, but indurate that in
general the decrease in discharge resulting from the roughness of the
various materials forming the crests and approaches of dams will not
exceed from 1 to 2 per cent for low heads, and usually decreases as
the depth of overflow increases.
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS. 135
FALLS.
Bellasis^ presents the following analysis for a fall in which there is
neither a raised weir nor a lateral reduction in section. If v is the
mean velocity at OD^ near to ^4^, then v is lK)th the velocity of
approach and the velocity in the weir formula
^=ie^J2g(^I)+a^^y
Fio. 10.— Fall.
where c is a coefficient of velocitv.
4 4
(l-gac»)^=5^2^Z>
^cV^
^=—
Vi-
a&
Making a=l.(K) and c=0.79.
SAM .in ^_. i-j.
(72)
The depth 7) is to be measured so near AB that the water shall have
acquired its velocit.y of efflux. The depth will, of course, be affected
by the surface curve, the upstream extension of which will l)e longer
according as the slope of the leading channel is flatter, being very
great for a horizontal channel. The formula needs experimental veri-
tication, but affords a convenient basis of approximation of the flow
through troughs and sluices and over aprons and falls.
Experimental data for c are needed.
a Hydraulics, p. 99.
136 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
WEIR CURVED IN PLAN.
Milldams of both wood and masonry are often constructed to bow
upstream, sometimes to secure the added strength of arched form, or to
secure additional spillway length, or to follow the crest oi a favorable
rock ledge, or to throw the ice-bearing current awaj- from intake
gates. The dam may follow the arc of a circle, or, as is common with
timber dams, there may be an abrupt angle in the plan of the dam.
Fig. 11 shows a graphical comparison of curved and angle dams with a
straight dam across the same channel, the former being each 13.5 per
cent longer than the straight crested dam.
If such an arched spillway opens out of a broad, deep pond, the dis-
charge over it would be greater than for a straight overfall very nearly
in proportion to the excess in length of the arc as compared with the
length of its chord.
When the stream is confined in a restricted channel, the increased
velocit}^ of approach above the longer spillway will become a factor.
Thus if two dams — one straight, the other arched — were placed in the
same straight, uniform channel, and the depth on crest measured at
the same distance upstream from each, then, with the same measured
head on both, the velocity of approach to the arched dam would be
Fig. 11.— -Weir curved or autfular in plau.
greater nearly in the same proportion that its length of crest and dis-
charge are greater than for the straight crest. Properly corrected for
velocity of approach, the arched dam will give a correct measurement
of the discharge, the length of the arc being used as the crest length.
When the length of the arc greatly exceeds the channel width, the
velocity of approach may become excessive, introducing uncertainty
as to the proper correction coeflScient, difficulty in measuring the head,
and an uplifting of the central swifter-flowing portion of the stream
surface.
The circular overflow lip of a vertical artesian-well casing* is sonie-
times used to approximate the flow, the measured depth of water
above the lip of the pipe, together with its circumference, being used
in the weir fornuila.^
'« Experiments showing the diwjharjfc Qver a circular weir to be proportional to the length of the
arc were made by Simpw^n at Chew Magna, Somersetshire, England, 1850, not recorded in detcJL
WEIB EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS. 137
SUBMBRGKD WKI U8.
THEORETICAL FORMULA.
In a ^'subme reared,'' "' drowned," ''incomplete," or *' partial" weir the
water on the downstream side stands above the crest level.
The submerged weir is not extensively used as a device for stream
gaging. A knowledge of the relations of head, rise, and discharge
of such weirs is, however, of great importance in works of river
improvement, canals, etc., and the leading formulas are here presented.
It ma3^ be added that for situations whei*e head can not be sacTiliced,
precluding the use of an ordinary' weir, and where the velocity is not
a continuous function of the depth, as in race wavs, making a channel-
rating curve inapplicable, the use of submerged weirs to measure or
control the discharge merits consideration. Their use for such pur-
poses as the equable division and distribution of water in power canals
has hitherto been very rCvStricted, owing to the lack of experimental
coefficients.
Let ^=Head on upstream side, corrected for velocity of approach.
/>= Measured head, upstream side of weir.
rf= Measured head, downstream side of weir, or the depth of
drowning, taken below the ressault.
Z= Difference of elevation, upstream and downstream sides
P= Height of weir above channel bottom.
i = Length of weir crest, feet.
^«=Mean velocity of approach.
A = Head on a thin-edged weir that would give the same dis-
charge.
M' and C coefficients of discharge for a submerged weir.
n
Fio. IZ-^ubmerged weir.
The theoretical formula of Dubuat for discharge is obtained by
regarding the overflow as composed of two portions, one through the
upper part D—d^ treated as free discharge, the other through the
lower part rf, treated as flow through a submerged orifice.
Combining the two discharges,
Q= Q.+ Q2= I 4^L{D-d)^-VLd^^lg{D-d)
IBB 150—06 14
138 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
By reducing, including a coefficient, and using the head //corrected
for velocit}" of approach, we have the general fornnula for a submerged
weir.
<^^lM'L^27,z(ri+'£) = C"L(llV^^Z . . . (73)
The head due to the velocit}^ of retreat should in strictnes.s he sii>>-
tracted from the depth of submergence d. This is not commonl\' done.
however, in the experiments, where the usual method of producing the
submergence is bv damming and retarding the water below. In prac-
tice, if the velocity of retreat is large, the correction should l)e made.
The theory of fonnula (78) makes C'=i.o times the value of tlie
coefficient 0 in the free portion of the discharge." This value is
adopted })v Dubuat and Weisbach.
D'Aubuisson gives C' — iASC.
Francis's earlv experiments make 0' = 1.SSC\
From gage recopds of large rock-tilled crib dams on Kentucky
River, having planked upstream slope 3:1 and vertical steps below
crest — height of dams about 20 feet, heads -4 to 7.5 feet, mean 5.3
feet — Nelles found results as follows:
Dam No. 3, water falling slowly 4 days, C' = l,5(\
Dam No. 2, water falling slowly 3 days, ^" = 1.53r.
Dam No. 1, water rising and falling slowly o days, ("~1.4^C\
FTELEY AND STEARNS SUBMERGED-WEIR FORMULA. &
Fteley and Stearns use the base formula
Q^CLQl+'ly-Z (74)
Coefficients for theal>ove formula were derived from experiments on
thin-edged weirs, by Fteley and Stearns and by J. B. Francis, and
give correct results for weirs for which the free discharge w^ould l)e
correctly calculated by the Francis formula.
The head on upstream side varied from 0.3251 to 0.9704: foot, and
y^ varied from — ().0()3 to o.OSl with air under nappe, and from 0.(>77
to 0.975 with no air under nappe, and in applying the formula the
same conditions should })e complied with. The authors comment that
where sufficient head can not be obtained for a weir of the usiial free-
discharge type, a submerged weir may be used, provided that the head
does not vary greatly.
«See valual>k* discussion of submorKcd weirn by (ieo. T. Nelles in Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. «.
pp. So^aKS.
ft Fteley and Jiicttnis, ExperimeaUM ou the flow of water, etc.: Trans. Am. Soc. C. E.. vol. 12, pp.
101-108.
SUBMEBGED WEIRd.
139
From a large-scale curve Fteley and Stearns derive the following
table of coefficient t\, for formula (74):
FltUy and Steams* s coefficients far submerged weirs.
d
H
0.0
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
. 7
.8
.9
3.:i65
3.286
3.214
3.155
3.113
3.092
3.092
3.122
3.190
3.330
3.359
3. 278
3.2C7
3.150
3.110
3.091
3.093
3.127
3.200
3.331
3.352
3.271
3.201
3.145
3.107
3.090
3.095
3.131
3.209
o.oa
3.335
3.34:^
3.264
3.194
3.140
3.104
3.090
3.097
3.137
3.221
0.04
I
3. 343
3.3:« I
3.256
3. 188
3.135
3. 102
3.089 '
3.099 j
3. 143 1
3.233 I
0.06
3.360
3.327
3. 249
3.182
3.131
3.100
3.089
3.102
3.150
3.247
I
0.06
3.368
3.318
3.241
3.176
3.127
3.098
3.089
3.105
3.156
3.262
0.07
3.371
3.310
I 3.234
3.170
I 3. 123
j 3.096
' 3.090
j 3.109
! 3. 164
I
3.280
O.OH
3. 372
3.302
3. 227
3.165
3.119
3.095
3.090
3.113
3.172
3.:^00
0.09
I
3. 370
I 3.294
I 3. 22(>
3.159
I 3.116
I 3.093
, 3.091
! 3.117
3.181
3.325
Where -^^ is less than 0.15 Q is not sensibly affected bv submergence.
Where -^ is from 0.5 to 0.8 6' may l)e taken at 3.10.
Correction for velocity of approach was made by the formula
H—D-{-^^. No correction was made for velocitv of retreat.
The formula is probably applicable to larger dams and greater depths
by selecting proper values of (7, -jj being a relative quantit\\
A number of empirical formulae for submerged-weir discharge are
also used.
CLEMENS HERSCHEL'S PORMULA.a
HerscheFs formula, based on experiments of J. B. Francis, 1848,
Fteley and Stearns, 1877, and J. B. Francis, 1883, is
^=3.33Z(ir//)*=3.33ZA* (75)
In this formula the measured head * is reduced to an equivalent head
that would give the same discharge over a free overflow. The value of
A //
the coefficient N—-fT depends on the proportional submergence -jj-
oHerEhel, Clemen, The problem of the submerged weir: Trans. Am. Soo. C. E., vol. 14. Ma5% 1886,
pp. 190-196.
ft Corrected for velocity of approach by method for Francis's formula before applying in above
ioimola.
140 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
The valuer of this ratio, together with their probable error, are
given below.
GoefficiftU Ny HergcheVs submerged-weir formula. ^^
d
0.0
0.0
1.000
.1
1.005
.2
.985
.3
.959
.4
.929
.5
.892
.6
.846
. 7
.787
.8
.703
.9
.574
.0.01
0.02
1.004
1.006
1.003
1.002
.982
.980
.956
. 953
.926
.922
.888
.884
.841
.836
.780
.773
.692
.681
.557
.539
0.08
.006
1.007
.000
.998
.977
.975
.950
.947
.919
.915
.880
.875
.830
.824
.766
.758
.669
.656
.520
.498
1.007
.996
.972
.944
.912
.871
.818
.750
.644
.471
0.06
0.07
1.007
.994
.970
.941
.908
.866 ,
.813 i
.742 '
.631
.441
1.006 I
.992
.967
.938 [
.904
.861
.806
.732
.618
.402
0.06
1.006
.989
.964
.9:^5
.900
.856
.800
.723
.604
.352
0.09
1.005
.987
.961
.932
.896
.8.51
.794
.714
..590
.275
a Values for — exceeding 0.80 less accurately determined.
D
=0,
=0.
=0.
=0.
=0.
= 0.
=0.
.02 to 0.14,
16 to 0.22,
24 to 0,32,
33 to 0.41,
42 to 0.59,
60 to 0.65,
66 to .071,
72 to .084,
variation
variation
variation
variation
variation
variation
variation
variation
of iV=
of ir=
of ir=
of .Y=
of .y=
of ir=
of iV^=
ofJV=
zhO.005
±0.008
dbO.012
dbO.015
d=0.018.
±0.017
±0.014
±0.011
to 0.007.
to 0.010.
to 0.014.
to 0.017.
to 0.015.
to 0.012.
to 0.009.
This table indicates that for depths of submergence not exceeding
20 per cent, the head will not ordinarily be increased more than 2
per cent.
The discharge over a submerged weir, according to Hers<^hers for-
mula, bears the ratio iV* to that over an unsubmerged weir under the
same head.
THE CHANOINB AND MARY FORMULA.
Q^M'LH'l^Z (76)
This expression has a form similar to that for the ordinary formula
for submerged orifices. It is applicable only under conditions identi-
cal with those for which J/' has been determined. ^
a Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., vol. 34, p. 176.
SUBMERGED WSIBS. 141
R. H. RHIND'S FORMULA."
Q=3rLyl2grdyl'Z+6Mi^+l/^ . . (77)
This may be reduced to the theoretical formula (73) }>y omitting
the correction for velocity of approach.
BAZIN'S FORMULAS. 6
By duplicating, with various depths of submergence, his experi-
ments on thin-edged weirs Bazin deduced the following expressions
for the coefficients for submerged weirs to be applied in the discharge
formula
Let P represent, as heretofore, the height of weir crest above chan-
nel bottom, the coefficient m being that which would apply to the
same weir with free discharge.
(1) Accurate formula with small values of d:
[i.O'>+0.16(^p-0.05^2)] ^^^^
(2) Accurate formula with large values of d:
ra'^m [(^1.08+0.18 jT) 7^/>^] • • • • • (7^)
(3) Approximate formula for all cases:
m'^m (^1.05 +0.21 ^ ^^^ (^^)
The above formulas are for weirs without end contractions.
The coefficient m contains the correction for velocity of approach of
the free-discharge weir, and m' contains the necessary factor (if an}')
for the resulting modification of the velocity of approach effect, when
the weir becomes drowned. They are only strictly accurate, there-
fore, when VI* is substituted for m in Bazin's formula.
In Bazin^s formulas the height 7' of the weir enters as a controlling
factor in (I), and is present less prominently in (2) and (3).
The modification by drowning is made to depend on .jin (2), and
on this ratio and that of the cube root of -j. jointly in formula (3).
"It is often difficult to determine Por to apply these formulas to a
weir fed by a large pond and having end contractions.
a Proc. Inst Civil EngiDeen, 1886.
frBazlD, H., Experiences nouTelles mir r^foulement en d^vemiir, 6-« art., Ann. PonL«< et Chauss^^OK,
H^moirofl et Dociunenui, 1898.
rn —m
142 WEIB EXPKRIMKNT8, COEFFICIENTS AND FORMULAfl.
Atisume P=oo
Then (2) becomes
(81)
and differs from (3) when similarly reduced only in the sukstitution
of 1.05 for 1.08 as a coefficient.
If
Ex. />=4'
;//:= 0.425
rf=2'
/;/ = O.425Xl.0S
P=:c
= 0.864,
the discharge being 89.4 per cent of that over an unsubmerged weir
under the same head.
Comparison of submerged-weir formiUas. »
d, feet. .
/f, feet .
dm ....
.25
2.0
i '
.50 ,
2.0 ;
.75 '
2.0 '
I
.25
1.0
.50
1.0
-It I ■ I
Percentage of unmibmerKed-weir dixoharge.
1.0
J
Fteley-SteaniH.. 99.91 95.06
Herachel 100.15 95.83
Baziii(3) j 100.43 96.40
89.29
95.01
82.61
64.02
90.56
95.83
84.24
M.95
89.78
9{>.40
83.34
66. 15
n Wefr aflsumed U) be ver\' high ho that there is no velocity of approach or (»f retreat. The coefTi-
-r V T taken at 3.33 for the Fifley-
ver\' high ho that there is no velocity of approa
clcnt of discharge for a thin-edged weir with free discharge has been
Stearns and Herwhel formulaN.
INCREASE OF HEAD BY SUBMERGED WEIRS.
Any of the submepged-weir formulas may be transformed into
expressions giving the rise in water level caused by the construction
of a submerged weir in a channel or canal; in this form they are most
useful in the design of slack- water navigation works.
rankine\s formulas."
Weir not drowned, with flat or slightly rounded crest:
//=
A =y^^j, approximate (82)
Weir drowned: ,
First approximation —
Se(^ond approximation —
(83)
"(Uvil Knginccring. p. fi89.
SUBMERGED WEIRS. 14S
COLONEL DYAS's FORMLTJl.^
This is intended to determine the height of a weir on the crest of a
fall in an irrigation or other canal to maintain a desired uniform depth
and slope.
7>= Depth on weir, feet.
A'= Depth of uniform channel, feet.
/*=X—/?= Height of weir necessary.
-.4= Area uniform channel vSection, feet.
^=Hydi'aulic radius, feet.
*V= Slope or fall in feet, per f(X)t.
Z = Len|^th of weir crest, feet.
y^^/90(Ljt^7?.V\ _|25.8122i?.9 .... (84)
lf.l=l(X)0 X^IO' Ii=H,SS .S'=o.o<)l L=10iK
^^^r900xioo()«xpxo.oonA_^^, ,^^^^
L 10000 _|
=9.0856-1.0441 = 8.04
7>=l()-8.04= 1.96 feet.
In this case length of weir equals width of channel, and the velocity
of approach would be the mean velocity, which by Kutt-er's formula
will vary, say, from 8 to 10 feet per second under the conditions,
dejx?nding on the value of the coefficient of roughness 7i, This would
make the flow in the channel 8,000 to 10,(X)0 cubic feet per second.
As a check on the calculated depth />, it will be found that the flow
over a weir 100 feet long under a head 8.04 feet (corrected for the
large velocity of approach) will also \)e from, say, 8,000 to 10,000
cubic feet per second, depending upon the coeflicient used in the weir
formula.
SUBMERGED WEIRS OF IRREGULAR SECTION.
For certain forms of irregular weirs liaving verticHl downstream
faces, the discharge when subject to submergence may probably be
approximated by applying the ratio of drowned to free discharge for
a thin-edged weir similarly submerged as a correction to the coeffi-
cient for free discharge over the weir in question. For broad-crested
weirs or weirs with aprons this method probabU^ will not be applicable^
BAZIN's EXPERIMENTS.
For many of the model weirs of irregular section for which free-
discharge coefficients were obtained by Bazin, duplicate series of coef-
ticient^j with various degrees of submergence were also obtained.
a Wibion, H. M., Irrigation in India: Twelfth Ann. Kept. V, S. CJeol. Survey, 1H90-9I, pi. 2. p. IK2.
144 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Many of the^e data have been reduced to English units by Nelles.**
Evidently each form of weir section will require a special formula or
table of coefficients, and little more can be done than to refer to the
original data for each specific case.
By way of general illustration of the character of submergence effect
on weirs of irregular section, the writer has deduced the following
roughly approximate formulas from Bazin^s experiments on triangular
weirs with vertical upstream faces and sloping aprons. The weirs
were 2.46 feet high and the end contractions were suppressed. Coeffi-
cient curves for free discharge are given on PI. V.
Three series are included:
Series 195, batter of fat*^ 1:1.
Series 196, batter of face 2 : 1.
Series 197, batter of face 5 : 1.
Experiments in which the proportional submergence -=: was nearly
the same were grouped, and the average values of A, i>, and d were
determined. From these the mean values of ^ and ^ were computed
and platted and a straight-line formula deduced.
f=0.72+i(l--^)| (H5)
J=0.08+0.17J?.
The initial effect occurs when
d 0.17^^0.20
D- 17i5+0.08 ^^^
In the above formulas A is the measured head on a weir with free
overflow, having the same form of cross section, that would give the
same discharge. D is the depth on the submerged weir, d is the depth
of submergence, and B is the batter or slope of the apron.
DATA CONCERNING EAST INDIAN WEIRS.
The following data compiled by Nelles* are derived from observa-
tions on actual dams under heads unusually great. The calculated
coefficients in the ordinary weir formula {a)
in the theoretical subitierged-weir formula (b)
Q^M'U'2gz(d+\z\
and in the Rhind formula (77) are given in columns 14, 13, and 12,
respectively (p. 145), the observed head being corrected for velocity of
approach.
a Trans. Am. Soc. C. E.. vol. 44, pp. 35»-383. «» Loc. cit.
SITBICKROBD WElBd.
145
a
©d
if
dd
dci
li"
do
<69
m
do
do
if
dei
Mi
|8-8S2||32||§5|ag§g8|||§5§|
I
eon iA«
it
rl
■ rt C o '^
xt:
5
I
&
1
I
i
d
I
a .§
146
WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
UNITED STATES DEEP WATERWAYS EXPERIMENTS.'*
These experiments were made in 1899 at Cornell University hydrau-
lic lahomtory on a model having completely rounded profile, beinjjr a
design for a submerged dam for regulation of Lake Erie.
The coefficient curve for free discharge is given on PI. XVI. Tho
absolute coefficients and the relative discharge with varioiLs degrees of
submergence are shown below. The Francis formula is used.
Q^ CLIP.
Ah
solute coeffic
Submer-
gence from
backwater.
^ Feet.
ientn.
D
«
c
Feet.
0.0
0.00
3.70
.1
.66
3.67
2
1.32
3.64
.3
1.98
3.60
.4
2.64
3.54
.5
3. 30
3.47
.6
3.99
3.36
.7
4.62
3.17
.8
5.28
2.88
.9
5.94
2.30
Relative coefflcientji^ Vyiited States Deej) Waierftuys submerged'weir modd.
d
c
h
r
H
c
' H
<:
0.0
1.000
, 0.5
0. 937
.1
.991
.6
.907
.2
.98:^
. 7
.856
.3
.972
.8
.778
.4
.956
.9
1.0
.621
C is the coefficient for free discharge over a similar weir under the
same head.
WEIR DISCHARGE UXBER VARTING IIEAI>.
Problems of weir discharge under varying head occur in the design
of storage reservoirs for river regulation, and in determining the maxi-
mum discharge of streams.
"Rept. r. S. Board of KnglneerN on Deep Waterways, pi. 1, p. 291.
WEIR DISCHARGE I'NDER VARYING HEAD. ' l47
An effort has }>een made in the present chapter to record the various
working fonnulas resulting, from the solution of this mathematically
difficult portion of the theory' of the weir, and to give numericjil data
to facilitate calculations.
It is assumed that there is no velocity of approach, or, if any, that the
head has l>een corrected therefor. The weir coefficient is also assumed
to continue constant through the range of variation of the head.
Notation:
T =Time in seconds rcijuired for the head to change between
two assigned values.
//^—Initial depth on weir, feet.
//, = Depth on weir at the time /.
.y = Reservoir surface area, square feet.
L = Length of ovei*fl€)W weir, feet.
/ =Rate of inflow to reservoir, cubic feet per second.
Q =Rate of outflow at time f.
PRISMATIC RESERVOIR. NO INFLOW, TIME REQUIRED TO LOWER
WATER SURFACE FROM Ho TO.//^.«
dQ=CLindt=-Silir
s
11 ""^ ill I
Where V= \M^^lg=-f^:^h M
T=3c, when //,=().
If X=: 1,000,000, //;=4, 7/^=0.1, C'-8.88, and Z = 100,
10(') 10 V 1 — 2/ ^' seconds = 4.44 hours.
To lower the reservoir from 77=4 to 11- i would require 3,0(^0
seconds.
APPROXIMATE TIME OF LOWERING PRISMATIC OR NONPRIS-
MATIC RESERVOIR.
Choosing small successive values of 77^—//^, we may solve this
problem approximately, as shown in the following table:
Time required to lower reservoir from 7/^ to 7/^= Mean O ^^"^
aDes iDjirenipiirs Tiiwht'iibuch, I, 1902. p. 2:J0.
148 WEIR EXPfiKlMlENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
We niav take the mean discbarge between tbe narrow liniit^^ /^, and
Q^=^{hUh}) (89)
or, using the average he^id,
Q^=CLQ^''t/^^ (9c)
In the following example we have' used the latter value, and have*
made /l^— 71^=0,5 foot. A similar solution may be made for a non-
prismatic reservoir, using successive values of - *1^^ * as the reservoir
area, and determining the increments of Thy formula (88).
Example of i^arying dmharge.
1
Ho
Ht
Average
Q i>er8eoond.
'lOOO
Q
rforlncre-
, ment
Total T, in
fiec-onds.
4.0
8.5
3. 75
2,417.0
0.4137
207
207
3.5 1
8.0
8. 25
1,951.0
.5126
256
46:^
8.0
2.5
2.75
1,519.0
.6580
330
793
2. 5 i
2.0
2.25
1,124.0
.8970
448
1,241
2.0 ;
1.5
1.75
771.0
1.2970
1 650
1,891
1.5
1.0
1.25
465.4
2.1500
1,070
2,961
The total time required in seconds is 2,961, as compared with 3,<KM>
by formula (87).
The time retjuired, using the average Q instead of the average //in
the calculation, that is, using formula (89) instead of (90), is 2,933..">
seconds.
The time T is directly proportional to the area of storage surface
and inversely proportional to the length of spillwa}'. It is also usu-
ally proportional to the value of C in the weir formula.
RESERVOIR PRISMATIC, WITH UNIFORM INFLOW.^
GENERAL FORMULAS.
Starting with reservoir full to crest level, /^=0, to find the time
required for the depth of overflow to reach a given stage, //,.
tiMullins, Lieut. (Jen. J.. Irrigation Manual, Madras Govt., 1890. App. V, pp. 214-223.
WEIR DISCHARGE UNDER VARYING HEAD. 149
When individual values of the increment 11^—11^ are small, not over
0.5 foot each, if successive values are taken, we have approximately:
._s{n,-iQ
2
j_2(If,-II,)S+Q,+ Q, (32)
jit
^=time required to rise through the increment 11^— 11^,
A summation of the successive values of t required for the water to
rise each increment will give the total time of rise from 11^ to //^.
Formula (92) will give the maximum run-off from a catchment area
tributary to a reservoir if two successive values of 7/ and the corre-
sponding value of t are known.
Formnla (92) may also be used to determine T for a nonprismatic
reservoir with a variable rate of inflow by choosing such increments,
Ih—Ily^ that the average values of 8^ /, and Q will be nearly correct.
Variations in the weir coefficient C may also be considered.
FORMULAS FOR TIME OF RISE TO ANY HEAD H, PRISMATIC RESERVOIR
WITH UNIFORM INFLOW.
Several analytical solutions of this problem have been made. Start-
ing at spillway level, let 11^ equal the depth of overflow correspond-
ing to the quantity of inflow /. The problem is stated by the follow-
ing differential equation whose primitive is required:
(Rate inflow— rate outflow) dt—d (increase in storage), or
{I-CLH^)dt=SdH (93)
In the solution, mathematical substitutions are necessary in order to
render the time-outflow equation integrable in known forms. A very
clear demonstration for a special value of C has been given by Frizell."
By modifying FrizelFs formula to adapt it to the use of any value of
Cm the weir formula, the following equation is obtained:
-^r=nat.log V~-^-:_^-+V3tan ^^-Vstan ^ ^^ (94)
where J=^/ ^
When H—H^^ the second member becomes the sum of an infinite
and two finite quantities, T\% then infinite, and the outflow can never
a Water Power, pp. 200-203.
150 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
become equal to the inflow, or // can never equal //„, which quantity
it approaches as a linait as T increases. Frizell places H—rJIa, /•
having anj' value less than unity, and, being very nearly unity, ^
will be more nearly so, and is taken as equal to unity, without great
error, enabling the two inverse trigonometric constants to be evaluated
in terms of arc, giving Hnallj' :
T=
— — , ( nat. log ^ -,_,— 0.88625 )
3(6"ZV)5 \ ^'' /
(95)
Nat. log iY^ 2. 302585 log,, .V
E. Ludlow Gould" gives the following formula, identit«l with the
alwve except in the form of the constant of integration :
T=
Vl+V/-+/
2.y r ,
. nat.
(96)
r— yy as before, (fould does not consider ^r constant, but derives
the values of the function in brackets for various values of ?•, from
which the following table has been derived:
T a/«e« oj 0, Gould* 8 formula.
Ha
0
0.0
0.0000
.1
. 1532
.2
.3137
.3
.4865
••*
.6747
.5
.8876
.«
1. 1489
.7
1. 4792
.8
1.9141
.9
2.6129
. 3301
.5047
.6960
. 9137
1.1750
1.5145
1.9(v)8
2. 7681
.0153 0.0306 0.0459, 0.0()13 0.
. 1()854; . . 1838 . 1992 . 2155
. 3464, . 3628
.5229 .5411
.7173 .7386
. 9399 . 9660
1.2012 1.2322
1.5498 1.58.=>1
2.0176 2.0715; 2.1488 2.
2.9233 3.0785 3.2347 3.
.3791
. 5593
. 7598
.9921 1,
1.2674' 1
1.6203 1
0766
2319
39551
5775'
7811
018;i
3027!
6556;
2262
3889
0.0919
.248:5.
.4137
. 5957'
.8024;
1.0444
i.:«8o|
1.7073
2. 3035
3.5441
0. 1072,
.2646
I
0. 12260. 137KS
2810 .297;i
.4319 .4501. .468:J
.6139. .t«21 .«5a4
. 8237
1.07a5j
1.3733
1.7590
2.3808
4.0096
.8450 .8663
1.0966'l. 1128
1.40861.4439
1.81071.8624
2. 4582 2. 5:^^*)
4. 47604. 9405
a Engineering News, Dec. 5, 1901, pp. 480-481.
WEIR DISCHARGE UNDER VARYING HEAD. 151
VVe may write formula (9)
R. S. Woodward suggests the formula *
I
(99)
where Jr=sin-^ yj ^±^ =8in-» f^^
This, like the preceding expressions, becomes infinity when the
integral is carried over the entire range X=0 to X=-, conforming
with the physical conditions.
The writer has evaluated this function for finite values of -jj
by mechanical quadrature, as shown in the diagram, PL XXXVIII.
The diagram illustrates the rapid rise until a head closely approaching
11^ is attained, occupying a comparatively short time interval, while
for further increments of head the time interval is relativel}^ very
great.
E. Sherman Gould * gives the same integral developed as an infinite
series
aEngineeriDg News, December 5. 1901, p. 431.
bfingineering News, Noyember 14, 1901, pp. 362-368.
160—06 16
where
152 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
If we write
(102)
then Frizell's formula may be written T=Fxp{ jr J
E. L. Gould's formula may be written T—Fy. ^(rjj
Woodward's formula may be written T=2Ft/^ I ->r j
E. Shennan Gould's formula may be written T= Fx ^ (jT )
The formulas are therefore identical, the transcendental factors
bearing the relation,
<i)-(D=-a)-(i)
The E. L. Gould, Woodward, and E. S. Gould formulas are appli-
cable for any value of the ratio r> . That of Frizell can be strictly
applied onl}" when ,f is nearly unity. In the E. S. Gould formula
^\W) c^"^'®^?^'*^ ^®^y slowly as the argument approaches unity.
For rough calculations E. S. Gould gives the rule
TI-TrL{pi/f)^=SII
where /^ is the coefficient in the weir formula for reducing final
head to mean head.
T= -^ — 5 (103)
/-rZ(/i//)*
The ratio /^ of the constant mean head which would give the total
discharge SIfm the time The finds by trial.
E. S. Gould gives the values
/i=0.H7 for small values of //
to /i=(),75 for large values of H.
Comparing the formulas.
Let Ay= 1,000,000 square feet
(7=3.33 = ^
Z=100
7=10,000 cubic feet per second
/4=r-^V=30*=9.655 feet
WEIR DISCHABOE UNDER VARYING HEAD. 153
Required the time to rise to a height 7/^=0.9//= 8. 6895 feet.
J^=^^^-_- =643.5
Frizell (95) r=1677.6 seconds.
E. L. Gould (96) r= 1681.5 seconds.
Woodward (99) T= 1660. 2 seconds.
E. S. Gould (approximate) (103) r=1488.3 seconds.
The difference in the value of T by the first three formulas repre-
sents the difference in the values of the transcendental portions of the
equations as evaluated by different methods.
The time required to rise from ^ to /^ will be the difference of
the times 71 and T^ by the above formulas.
NONPRISMATIC RESERVOIR, UNIFORM INFLOW.
P. P. L. O'CONNELL.^
Representing the reservoir by a cone having its apex at distance A^
below plane of the overflow.
Area at overflow level = S^ — 7t{aAy I (\()X\
Area at any other level = 5= ^[^^ +//)]* J
where oc is the slope of the sides, or where there is a foot horizontal
run to 1 foot vertical rise. From (104) with S^ and a given, A may
be determined.
Where the factor /, ^-J/rr^
1 1 9 3 9 / ' 77 »
.r=
-uz\
(105)
a Mullins's Irrigation Manual.
154 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
E. L. GOULD."
Calling / the angle of inclination of the banks, I\ the perimeter, at
spillway level, exclusive of overflow,
S=. S^+BH+Bjr where B= 1\ cot i
B^ = 7t cot 7^ T=Yl
"--'~^- \(s^{VL)^+B{ICLf) nat. log >^+>f^+r .
-/?,7Mnat.log(l^r*)+7'n-^(/(7Z)*Vr • (^^^)
For /=90° and ^=0, the above formula reduces to (96). the equa-
tion for a prismatic reservoir.
VARIABLE INFLrOW, NONPRISMATIC RESERVOIR.
This problem may be solved by dividing the reservoir into successive
levels, and solving by the formulas previously given, as if each la\'er
represented a portion of a reservoir with a constant inflow equal to
the average rate, or if the formulas for prismatic reservoir are used,
then each layer will be supposed to represent a portion of a prismatic
reservoir of area equal to the average area of the layer.
Mullins's formula may often be more conveniently used and a better
solution be obtained than by attempting to average the area and inflow,
as would be necessary to apply the analytical formulas given.
The general differential equation for rise in time Twith a variahK*
inflow and reservoir area is
{I-Q)dT=SdH ....... (107)
If we can express /as a function of 7", and S and Q as functions of
H^ and integrate between the limits 11=0^ 11=- II^^ we may obtain an
equation between //and Tsimilar to those given for prismatic reser-
voirs with constant inflow.
We may write the ordinary weir formula,
a Loc. Cit.
WKIR DISCHARGE UNDER VARYING HEAD. 155
The area S can usually be readily expressed in terms of the area at
crest level and slope of the reservoir sides (assumed constant within
the narrow limits 0, ff); the inflow /often increases nearly as a linear
function of T while a stream is rising rapidly; we have, then,
Substituting in (107)
( l^+fT-CLHi)dT=(S^+2a^Sjr+a'H')dII . (108)
The complete primitive of this differential equation can be deter-
mined only as an infinite series.^
Rivers during flood usually rise rapidly and fall slowly. The time-
inflow function can sometimes be approximated by a modified sinusoid. .
1= I,+I^ sin {bty^ (109)
where n=or>l
7^= Total duration of flood.
7^= Maximum mte of inflow.
7J„=Time elapsed from beginning of rise to maximum.
The constants are so chosen that the arc value of the duration of
the flood from stage J^ through to the same stage is tt, or,
{bt)^=7t h=Y (11^)
For the maximum we will have, differentiating (109),
cos(&rj^=0, or(Jrj«=| . . . (Ill)
«=log £ X 1^=3.32204 log (^£) . . . (112)
common logarithms being used.
If r=1000 and if ^^=200, then n=3.322 log 5=2.322,
«*•*" 1
J= j^=0.0143, and ^=0.43066
aSeddon, James A., C. E. (Proc. Am. Soc. C. E., vol. 24, June, 1898, pp. 659-598), has solved equation
(106) for the Great Lakes reservoir system, assuming an annual cycle following the law I^Im+A
9in t; /m being the mean inflow and Tthe time arc on a circle whose circumference represents one
year. He also assumes <2-iQo+&^> or a linear function of the height H.
156 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, • COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Example of mr'mble flood discharge computed hij formula (109).
t, in sec-
onds.
(W)
U^ iht)
1
(W)"
1.1667
Angle.
1
sin («)"
100
1.43
0. 155a%
0.06695
o
66
55
0.9199
200
2.86
.456366
.196694
1.573
90
00
1.0000
:iOO
4.29
. 632457
.27259
1. 8732
107
21
.9938
400
5.72
. 757396
.32644
2.1206
121
08
.a'ittO
j 500
7.15
.854306
.36820
2.3346
133
49
.7216
600
8.58
.933487
.40233
2.5254
144
42
.5779
. 700
10.01
1.000434
.43100
2. 6978
155
00
.3907
800
• 11.44
1.058426
.45618
2.8588
163
52
.2779
900
12.87
1. 109578
.47790
3.0054
172
12
.1320
^ The form of the graph of the flood may be determined by plotting
the quantities in the last column of this table in terms of t. The
resulting curve rises rapidly to a maximum when ^=200, after which
it descends slowly.
TABIiES FOR CAIiCUIiATIONS OF WEIR DISCHARGE.
The investigations at Cornell University have greatly extended the
limit for which weir coefficients are definitely known. The experi-
ments of Bazin did not reach beyond 1.8 feet head maximum. The
tables of Francis for thin-edged weirs extended to a head of 3 feet.
The experiments at Cornell have furnished the coefficients for a
variety of weir forms for heads up to 4, 5, and 6 feet. At such heads
the nappe form has become stable for nearly all forms of weirs. We
may now predict the probable extension of the coefficient curves for
higher heads with more confidence than could be done by starting
from a lower datum.
Owing to their usefulness in the approximate determination of flood
discharges, the weir tables have been carried up to a head of 10 feet.
In the tables here given the head is uniformly expressed in feet.
For computing the flow over irrigation modules and other small weirs
where the head is measured in inches, weir tables expressed with the
inch as the argument of head are convenient. Numerous tables of
this character are available. The following may be referred to:
The Emerson weir tables, computed by Charla A. Adams, pages 251-285 of Emer-
Bon's Hydrodjmamics, published by J. and W. Jolly, Holyoke, Mass. These give
discharge in cubic feet per minute for weirs with two end contractions having length?
of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 16, and 20 feet. The discharge is computed by the Francis
formula for heads from 0.001 foot to 2 feet, advancing by thousandths of a foot, with
auxiliary table of decimal equivalents of fractional parts of inches.
TABLES FOB CALCULATING WEIR DISCHARGE. 157
The Measurement and Division of Water, Bulletin No. 27, Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Fort Ck>llins, Colo. This publication gives tables of discharge in cubic
feet per second, com])uted by the Francis formula, for a weir 1 foot long, for heads
in inches and sixteenths, from ^V. in<^h to :)0 inches, with auxiliary table for end
contractions, and for velocity of approach correction by the Fteley and Steams
rule {H=Di-ih). A similar weir table for a weir 1 inch long is given. Also a table
of dischaiige for Cippoletti weirs ( C=3.36i), for lengths of crest sill of 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4,
5, and 10 feet. Head in inches and decimals with feet equivalents.
Special Instructions to Watermasters as to Measurements of Water, State Engineer's
Office, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1896. Table of discharge, in cubic feet per second, for
1-foot crest, based on the Francis formula, with auxiliary table for end contractions
and velocity of approach. The head is expressed in inches and thirty-seconds (with
equivalents in feet) for ^ inch to 36 inches. A similar table for heads in inches and
sixteenths, from ^ to 36 inches, gives the discharge in cubic feet per second by the
Francis formula for weirs with two end contractions and for the crest lengths of 1, li,
2, 2J, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 feet A table for trapezoidal weirs (0=3.367)
of various crest lengths is also given.
CWfornia Hydrography, by J. B. lippincott, Water-Supply Paper No. 81, United
States Geological Survey. This publication contains a table of weir discharge in
cubic feet per second for heads, advancing by sixteenths, from y^,^ i^c^ to 10 inches
(with equivalent decimals of a foot), for weirs with two end contractions having
crest lengths as follows: 4, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 inches, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20 feet. Based on the Francis formula. Also published as
a circular.
The tables that follow are all original computations, with exception
of the " Francis weir tables," page 162, and the table of head due to
various velocities, page 158.
TABLE I.— HEAD DUE TO VARIOUS VELOCITIES.a
This table gives values of the expression
based on the constant of gravity for the latitude and altitude of Lowell,
Mass.,
fl'=32.1618, 1=0.01554639.
a Francis, Lowell Hydzaulic ExperimeDts, extended.
158 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COi:FFIOIENTS, AND FORMFLAS.
Table 1. — Values of h=-^j or heads dive to velocities from 0 to 4-99 feet per second.
V
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.0
0.0000
0.0000
o.uuou
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
0.0001
.1
.0002
.0002
.0002
.0008
.0008
.0003
.0004
.0004
•00(»
.0006
.2
.0006
.0007
.0008
.0008
.0009
.0010
,0011
.0011
•0012
.0018
.3
.0014
.0015
.0016
.0017
.0018
.0019
.0020
.0021
0022
.0024
,4
.0025
.0026
.0027
.0029
.0080
.0081
.0038
.0034
-0086
.0087
.5
.0039
.0040
.0042
.0044
.0046
.0047
.0049
.0061
•0052
.0054
.6
.0056
.0068
.0060
.0062
.0064
.0066
.0068
.0070
•0072
.0074
.7
.0076
.0078
.0081
.0088
.0086
.0067
.0090
.0092
■ 0096
.0097
.8
.0099
.0102
.0106
.0107
.0110
.0112
.0116
.0118
.0120
.0123
.9
.0126
.0129
.0182
.0184
.0187
.0140
.0148
.0146
.0149
.0162
1.0
0.0165
0.0159
0.0162
0.0166
0.0168
0.0171
0.0176
0.0178
0.0181
0.0185
.1
.0188
.0192
.0196
.0199
.0202
.0206
.0209
.0213
.0216
.0220
.2
.0224
.0228
.0281
.0236
.0289
.0248
.0247
.0261
.0256
.0880
.3
.0263
.0267
.0271
.0276
.0279
.0283
.0288
.0292
.0296
.0300 '
.4
.0305
.0309
.0318
.0818
.0622
.0327
.0381
.0386
.0341
.0045
.5
.0350
.0354
.0369
.0364
.0869
.0374
.0378
.0388
.0888
.0898 ,
.6
.0898
.0403
.0408
.0413
.0418
.0423
.0428
.0484
.0489
.0444
.7
.0449
.0455
.0460
.0466
.0471
.0476
.0482
.0487
.0493
.0498 '
.8
.0501
.0509
.0616
.0621
.0826
.0582
.0638
.0644
.0649
.0666
.9
.0661
.0567
.0678
.0679
.0686
.0691
.0507
.0603
.0609
.0616
2.0
0.0622
0.0628
0.0684
0.0641
0.0647
0.0668
0.0660
0.0666
0.0673
0,0679
.1
.0686
.0692
.0699
.0706
.0712
.0719
.0726
.0732
.0739
.0746
.2
.0762
.0759
.0766
.0778
.0780
.0787
.0794
.0801
.0808
.0H15
.3
.0822
.0830
.0637
.0844
.0861
.0869
.0866
.0878
.0881
.0688
.4
.0895
.0903
.0910
.0918
.0926
.0983
.0941
.0948
.0966
.0964
.5
.0972
.0979
.0987
.0996
.1008
.1011
.1019
.1027
.1035
.1048
.6
.1061
.1059
.1067
.1076
.1084
.1092
.1100
.1108
.1117
.1125 '
.7
.1183
.1142
.1150
.1169
.1167
.1176
.1184
.1193
.1201
.1210
.8
.1219
.1228
.1286
.1246
.1264
.1268
.1272
.1281
.1289
.1296
.9
.1807
.1816
.1326
.1885
.1844
.1868
.1362
.1371
.1381
.1890
8.0
0.1399
0.1409
0.1418
0.1427
0.1437
0.1446
0.1456
0.1466
0.1476
0.1484
.1
.1494
.1604
.1613
.1628
.1688
.1648
.1552
.1662
.1572
.1662
.2
.1592
.1602
.1612
.1622
.1632
.1642
.1662
.1662
.1678
.1683
.3
.1693
.1703
.1714
.1724
.1734
.1746
.1766
.1766
.1776
.1787
.4
.1797
.1808
.1818
.1829
.1840
.1860
.1861
.1872
.1883
.1804
.5
.1904
.1916
.1926
.1937
.1948
.1969
.1970
.1981
.1992
.2004
.6
.2015
.2026
.2037
.2049
.2060
.2071
.2068
.2004
.2106
.2117
.7
.2128
.2140
.2151
.2163
.2175
.2186
.2198
.2210
.2221
.2233
.8
.2245
.2257
.2269
.2280
.2292
.2304
.2316
.2828
.2840
.2852
.9
.2365
.2377
.2389
.2401
.2413
.2426
.2438
.2450
.2468
.2475
4.0
0.2487
0.2500
0.2612
0.2525
0.2537
0.2860
0.2668
0.2576
0.2688
0.2601
.1
.2613
.2626
.2639
.2652
.2665
.2677
.2690
.2703
.2716
.2729
.2
.2742
.2755
.2709
.2782
.2795
.2808
.2821
.2885
.2848
.2861
.3
.2875
.2888
.2901
.2915
.2928
.'2942
.2965
.2969
.2982
.2996
.4
.3010
.3023
.3087
.3061
.8066
.3079
.8092
.8106
.8120
.81S4
.5
.3148
'.3162
.3176
.3190
.3204
.8218
.3233
.8247
.8261
.3276
.6
.3290
.:)304
.3318
.3338
.8847
.8362
.8876
.8890
.8406
.8420
.7
.3434
.3449
.3463
.3478
.8493
.8608
.8522
.8687
.8562
.3367
.8
.3.'>82
.3597
.3612
.3627
.8642
.8657
.8672
.8687
.8702
.8717
1 ■»
.8733
.3748
.3763
.3779
.8794
.8809
.8825
.8840
.8856
.8871
TABLK8 FOR CALOULATINa WEIR DISCHARGE. 159
This value will sutfice in ordinary corrections for velocity of
approach for localities in the United States.
Velocittj of affproach correctvm.
Francis, and as used in portions of this paper (approximate) H=D-\-h
Fteley and Steams, contracteci weir //=/>-f 1.5A
Hamilton Smith, suppressed weir H=D+Hh
Hamilton Smith, oontraot€<i weir H=D j 1.4/i
TABLE 2.— PERCENTAGE INCREASE IN DISCHARGE BY VARIOUS
RATES OF VELOCITY OF APPROACH.
This table ha.s been calculated from the Francis correction formula,
7/^ = (Z?+A)*-A*.
The percentage increase in discharge over that at the same meas-
ured head with no velocity of approach is
Percentage=100 ^3 =K . . . . (118)
160 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMtTLAS.
r. g S
c4 d d
5 I
1 -
I 1
^ o o
cj d d
o i s
ci d d
» i 5
rA d d
.1
•s i
I <
s I
H ■2
a
ii
"* o ©
I
I I
I
IT
iH O O
S 8
§1
a» o S
d d d
oo S 8
d d d
j d d d
gjJ2';5o»'»-*eoooc4oieie<i^»-;.-it-;,.^^^i-;^»H
^^g^s$;!:ss!s^ssi;S8SS7
00 e^ d t»' lO -^' CO cj «^' ci
fi<Or^adt<^'^eeOOCic«f-if-4r4i-«r^r-4f-<fH
g> ^* d c^ d V OQ CI ci
S
1H
S5?
flO C*
8 S 8 S 8
p
25.39
13.64
9.83
7.14
5.86
5 8 ^ S
^- m d C4
S
S5
^
8 S
S S8 ^ f:
2
js^Joddideocicir-if-ifHiir-ifH
ddc^td^cocJf-iiHr-iiHiH
gSSS252gS?a8888fSP&8gS
2 9 9;;
Og" d d -* ^" C« Ci »H iH rH r^
S88^S?$3IS:^8S8SS8 8S28^
9 9 ? So
^c6*6-^e6cir^firirA
S8S8^8SSIS8S8p!8SS$$9$S8SS
^■t-:'9«09»oiFHr^ri
CJd'^COCJiifHr-!
f:
r: ? 8 ;2 5§
S 8 S
8 8
9^?SoSgSSSS$^SS
d
id eo c< ci rH
i-j *
«
8 8 S J5 S
g F^ 8
^9$888SSSgS^8S
«
00
^' Ci e^ r^ r-;
d eO d r; ,H • • • •
9 8
ss {:« s^ s; s; s s s :^ s :s
•»
g5S8S?JS98SS5SS8J;5:i2S2SaS2
i
id ei I-; 1-4 i-J
?i8gg^S55iS
t;88SSS2SS228S85
COp^rH
838^8'^ 89
S2;!:^;^SS886&888S
ci r;
88535SSSS
S28S&8S8SSS33SS
"^
CJI'tOXOtOOiO
d • • • ,H- ^- c4 ci
OiOOiOOiOOiOOinOiCOiCO
co" m ^' V id id d d r-" r-' x' od d d d
TABLES FOR CALCHLATING WEIK DI0CHAROE.
161
O ^ fH
■<«i O O
« S ::
90 o d
aC M S I
I CO d d
I
tj^^cit*od■<'c^doo^^^^dlClOld'•«■^'^l•«o*oooo
g3igar4»ac-<j<i-4dadr>-'d<d>Cio-<4'^^eJ«oeeMeo
dMgo«6'ar^«i-Jo»oci>'"«d»cioV^'^^oocoe»5eoc»5
r^dd«g<OCJdaci^ddt(tiC'^<r'reosoeoeoo<5CM
•O f-» o
eo d d
g I
f ^ o
CO d d
CO S S
00 d d
« .-• o
00 d d
a»jftjgj»ocldodt>^di6id^'*'.'^iJcoeooo«eoe4c4
ddmttrHio«-ido6c^dtOio^^eQeocoeococlc4cJ
1-4 r-t O
00 d d
§
n
o ^H e
00 d d
ci d d
«3i I
d d d I
I
5
I* f-i O
ci d d
^ o d
ci d d
•d^»-;^fi^^^»^W'C»c^''^^eocoooeoc4c4'M''M*
f^ '•• eo o< c* •^ iH
co«d«deododi'-'d»rf'*^-^ooeocoeocJci'?4*ic4
ddgQgjaoo«dccdiOic-^-^eocoo9eoe>lc4c4cl?lcl
fcoofcg;jr«c4.dr-*dd'«if'*^eoeooocicic4cicic4oi
d^ddp4cdr^(OiC'^'^eocoooe4cicic4C4cie>iiH
d^^aOiodaodto-^'^e6eococ<c4c4c<?Jc4c4f-4r-4
«i£l£l»^'^c>t*'*^iO'^^coe6eoc4c^MNWi-<iHi-;
gdr5doodt-^iOM''^eoe6oociffleicic4iHiHiHi-i»-i
^«dicc4a6diO'^'^e6eocJc4c4clcJr-ii-4fHrHr^iH
«dQd^i-ia6dtoVe6eoc4c4e4e4c^<-ii-iiPHr4t-«<Hr-4
^{:3^3SS^8^3F^$^88S8:Si;S^3
^^r^eOfHr<^i0^eoe6eoc^c4c4c^i-4r4^r-:«-<rHi-i«-«
88^:i:S89^SS88SS8^SSi:38iS:S^
c4«dcidi^«d'fl«coeocie4oioi.-ii^i-iiHi-;iHi-;rHr^
oiooiooiooooiooiaotaoicoioo
f-irHcicJeoeo-^'^iOiO^&tor^t'^adxddd
162 WKIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
To use this table the discharge corresponding to the measured head
D may be taken directly from Table 3 or 4 and the quantity so obtained
increased by the percentage indicated in Table 2. This table is espe-
ciall}'^ useful where the velocity of approach is measured directly. If
the velocity of approach is determined from the approximate discharge
Q
by the formula ^'=^9 successive approximate corrections may 1m»
required.
Table 2 shows directly the relative error introduced by various veloci-
ties of approach. The large error introduced by moderate velocities
with low heads and the comparatively small error resulting from
higher velocities under great heads are conspicuous.
TABLES 3 AND 4.— DISCHARGE OVER A THIN-EDGED WEIR BY
THE FRANCIS FORMULA.
These tables give the discharge in cubic feet per second, for a crest
length of 1 foot, without contractions, computed by the formula
Table 3. — Discharge over a thin-edged weir per foot of cretl.
Head //.feet.
.000
.001
.008
.008
.004
.006
.006
.007
.008
009
.009
0.00
0.0000
0.0001
0.0003
0.0005
0.0008
0.0012
0.0015
0.0020
0.0024
0.0028
.01
.0083
.0038
.0044
.0049
.0056
.0061
.0067
.0074
.0080
.0087
.02
.0094
.0101
.0109
.0116
.0121
.0132
.0140
.0148
.0166
.0164
.03
.0178
.0182
.0191
.0200
.0209
.0218
.0227
.0287
.0247
.0256 '
.04
.0266
.0276
.0287
.0297
.0907
.0318
.0829
.0839
.0850
.0861 !
.05
.0872
.0384
.0895
.0406
.0418
.0480
.0441
.0458
.0465
.0477
.06
.0489
.0502
.0614
.0527
.0639
.0652
.0566
.0678
.0690
.0601
.07
.0617
.0630
.0643
.0657
.0670
.0684
.0698
.0712
.0725
.0739
.08
.0753
.0768
.0782
.0796
.0811
.0825
.0840
.0855
.0869
.0684
.09
.0899
.0914
.0929
.(mi
.0960
.0976
.0990
.1006
.1022
.1087
0.10
0.1053
0.1069
0.1085
0. 1101
0. 1117
0.1188
0.1149
0.1166
0.1182
0.1196
.11
.1215
.1231
.1248
.1266
.1282
.1299
.1316
.1888
.1850
.1867
.12
.1384
.1402
.1419
.1436
.1454
.1472
.1489
.1507
.1625
.1543
.13
.1661
.1679
.1597
.1615
.1683
.1652
.1670
.1689
.1707
.1726
.14
.1744
.1763
.1782
.1801
.1820
.1889
.1868
.1877
.1896
.1915 <
.16
.1936
.1964
.1973
.1993
. 2012
.2032
.2062
.2072
.2091
.2111 ,
.16
.2131
.2151
.2171
.2191
.2212
.2232
.2252
.2273
.2298
.2314 '
.17
.2334
.2355
.2375
.2396
.2417
.2488
.2469
.2480
.2601
.18
.2543
.2564
.2586
.2607
.2628
.2660
.2671
.2698
.2714
.2736
.19
.2758
.2780
.2802
.2823
.2845
.2867
.2890
.2912
.2984
.2956
0.20
0.2978
0.3001
0.3023
0.3046
0.3068
0.3091
0.8118
0.8186
0.8159
0.8182
.21
.3206
.3228
.8260
.3274
.3297
.8320
.8348
.8366
.8389
.8413
.22
.3436
.3460
.3483
.3607
.3580
.8654
.8678
.8601
.8625
.8649 1
.23
.3673
.3697
.3721
.8745
.8769
.8794
.8818
.8842
.8866
.3891 !
.24
.3915
.3940
.3964
.3989
.4014
.4088
.4068
.4068
.4113
.4138
.2.')
.4162
.4187
.4213
.4238
.4268
.4288
.4313
.4889
.4364
.4889
.26
.4415
.4440
.4466
.4491
.4517
.4643
.4668
.4694
.4620
.4646
.27
.4672
.4698
.4724
.4750
.4776
.4802
.4828
.4856
.4881
.4907
.2K
.4934
.4960
.4987
.6013
.6040
.5067
.509:)
.5120
.6147
.6174
.29
.5200
.5227
.52W
.6281
.5308
_
.5336
.5863
.6890
.5417
.M44 >
TABLES FOR CALCFLATING WEIR DISCHARGE.
Table 3. — Dheharge over a thin-edged weir per foot o/ rrrtrf-r-Continued.
1(53
UendK.feet.
.000 i .001 .002
1
.008
.004
.005
.OM
-'
.008 .009
O.S)
0.5432
0.5199 0.5527
0.5564
0.5582
0.6609 0.6687
0.6664
0.6692 0.5720
.31
.5746
.5775 1 .5808
.6881
.5859
.5887 .5916 .5943
.5972 1 .6000
.32
.6028
.6056 j .6086
.6U3
.6141
.6170 .6198 .6227
.6255 .6284
1 .33
.6313
.6811 1 .6870
.6399
.6428
.6457 ; .6186 ; .6515
.6544
.6578
1 .31
.6602
.6631 \ .6660
.6689
.6719
.6748
.6777
.6807
.6836
.6866
.35
.6896
.8925 1 .6951
.6984
.7014
.7043
.7073
.7108
.7133
.7168
.36
.7198
.7223
.7258
.7283
.7313
.7343
.7873
.7404
.7484
.7464
.37
.7496
.7526
.7565
.7586
.7616
.7647
.7678
.7708
.7739
.7770
.;»
.7800
.7831
.7862
.7898
.7924
.7965! .7986
.8017
.8048
.8079
.39
.8110
.8142
.8173
.8204
.8235
.8267 ' .8298
1
.8330
.8361
.8898
0.40
0.8424
0.8156
0.8488
0.8519
0.8551
0.8583 ; 0.8615
0.8646
0.8678
0.8710
.41
.8742
.8774
.8806
.8888
.8870
.8903
.8985
.8967
.8999
.9032
.42
.9064
.9096
.9129
.9161
.9194
.9226
.9259
.9292
.9824
.9357
.43
.9880
.9422
.9155
.9488
.9521
.9654
.9587
.9620
.9668 1 .9686
.44
.9719
.9752
.9785
.9619
.9852
.9886
.9919
.9952
.9986 1 1.0019
.45
1.0062
1.0086
1.0119
1.0153
1.0187
1.0220
1.02W
1.0288
1.0821
1.0855
.46
1.0389
1.0423
1.0457
1.0491
1.0525
1.0559
1.0608
1.0627
1.0661
1.0696
1 ••''^
1.0730
1.0764
1.0798
1.0833
1.0867
1.0901
1.0986
1.0970
1.1005
1.1039
•«
1.1074
1.1109
1.1148
1.1178
1.1213
1.1248
1.1282
1. 1317
1.1352
1.1387
' .49
1.1422
1.1457
1.1492
1.1627
1.1562
1.1597
1.1682
1.1668
1.1708 , 1.1738
o.so
1.1778
1.1809
1.1844
1.1879
1. 1916
1.1950
1.1986
1.2021
1.2057 1 1.2098
.51
1.2128
1.2164
1.2200
1.2285
1.2271
1.2307
1.2348
1.2379
1.2415 1.2451
.52
1.2487
1.2528
1.2569
1.2695
1.2631
1.2667
1.2703
1.2740
1.2776 ! 1.2812
.58
1.2849
1.2885
1.2921
1.2958
1.2994
1.3081
1.8067
1.8104
1.8141 1 1.3177
.M
1.3214
1.8261
1.8287
1.8824
1.3361
1.8398
1.3486
1.8472
1.8609 ' 1.8546
.55
1.3583
1.8620
1.8657
1.8694
1.3781
1.8768
1.8806
1.3843
1.3880 1.3918
.56
1.8966
1.3992
1.4090
1.4067
1.4105
1.4142
1.4180 j 1.4217
1.4255 , 1.4293
.57
1.4330
1.4868
1.4406
1.4444
1.4481
1.4519
1.4567 1 1.4695
1.4633 ' 1.4671
.5H
1.4709
1.4747
1.4785
1.4823
1.4862
1.4800
1.4938 1.4976
1.6014 ' 1.5053
.59
1.5091
1.6180
1.6168
1.6206
1.6245
1.5283
1.5822 1.5361
1.6399 1 1.5438
0.60
1.5476
1.6515
1.6551
1.6696
1.5681
1.6670
1.5709
1.5748
1.6787 i 1.6826 |
.61
1.5865
1.5901
1.5048
1.5962
1.6021
1.6060
1.6100
1.6139
1.6178 1 1.6217
.62
1.6257
1.6*296
1.6385
1.6376
1.6414
1.6454
1.6493
1.6533
1.6572 ' 1.6612
.63
1.6662
1.6601
1.6731
1.6771
1.6810
1.6850
1.6890' 1.6980
1.6970 1.7010
.61
1.7060
1.7090
1.7180
1.7170
1.7210
1.7260
1.7290 1 1.7330
1.7370 1 1.7410 1
.65
1.7461
1.7491
1.7681
1.7672
1.7612
1.7652
1.7693 1.7733
1.7774 1.7814
.66
1.7865
1.7896
1.7986
1.7977
1.8018
1.8058
1.8099 1.8140
1.8181 1.8221
.67
1.8262
1.8806
1.8344
1.8885
1.8426
1.8467
1.8508 ! 1.8549
1.8590 1 1.8682
.68
1.8678
1.8714
1.8765
1.8796
1.8888
1.8879
1.8920 1.8962
1.9003 1.9045 1
.69
1.9066
1.9128
1.9169
1.9211
1.9252
1.9294
1.9336 1 1.9377
1.9119 1 1.9461 '
0.70
1.950B
1.9544
1.9586
1.9628
1.9670
1.9712
1.9754 ' 1.9796
1.9838 1.9880 '
.71
1.9922
1.9964
2.0006
2.0048
2.0091
2.0133
2.0175 2.0217
2.0260 2.0302 1
.72
2.0344
2.0887
2.0429
2.0472
2.0514
2.0657
2.0599 2.0642
2.0684.
2.0727
.73
2.0770
2,0612
2.0865
2.0898
2.0941
2.0983
2.1026 2.1069
2. 1112
2.1156 1
.74
2.1196
2.1241
2.1284
2.1327
2.1370
2.1413
2.1456 2.1499
2.1543
2.1586
.75
2.1629
2.1672
2.1716
2.1769
2.1802
2.1846
2. 1889 2. 1932
2.1976
2.2019
.76
2.2068
2.2107
2.2160
2.2194
2.2237
2.2281
2.2325 ' 2.2369
2.2412
2.2456 1
.77
2.2800
2.2544
2.26R8
2.2682
2.2675
2.2719
2.27e>3 2.2807
2.2851
2.2896 ,
.78
2.2940
2.2984
2.8028
2.8072
2.3116
2.3161
2.3205 2.3249 2.3293
2.3338 1
.79
2.8382
2.8427
Z8471
2.8515
2.3560
2.3604
2.3649 2.3694 2.8788
2.8783
164 WEIK EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Table 3. — Discharge ot^er a thin-edged weir per fooi of creM — Continued.
Head //, feet
.000
.001
2.3872
.002
2.3917
.008
.004
.006 1 .006
.007
.006
.009
0.80
2.3828
2.8962
2.4006
2.4061 2.4096
2.4141
1
2.4186 2:4281 '
.81
2.4276
2.4321
2.4866
2.4411
2.4456
2.4501 2.4546
2.4661
'2.4636 2.4681
.82
2.4727
2.4772
2.4817
2.4862
2.4908
2.4958 2.4999
2.5044
2.5069 2.5136
.83
2.5180
2.5226
2,5271
2.5317
2.5863
2.6408 2.54M
2.5600
2.6646' 2.^01
.84
2.5637
2.5683
2.5728
2. 5T74
2.5820
2.5866 2.5912
2.5058
2.6004 2.6060
.85
2.6096
2.6142
2.6188
2.6234
2.6280
2. 6327 2. 6373
2.6419
2.6465 2,6511
.86
2.6558
2.6604
2.6650
2.6697
2.6743
2.6790 2.6886
2.6888
2.6929 2.6976
.87
2.7022
2.7069
2.7116
2.7162
2.7209
2.T266 2.7302
2.7349
2.7896 j 2.744S
.88
2.7490
2.7536
2.7583
2.7680
2.7677
2.7724 2.7771
2.7818
2.7865 2.7912 ,
.89
2.7969
2.8007
2.8054
2.8101
2.8148
2.8196 j 2.8248
2.8290
2.8887 2.8386 |
0.90
2.8432
2.8479
2.8527
2.8574
2.8622
2.8669 2.8717
2.8764
2.8812 ; 2.8860
.91
2.8907
2.8955
2.9008
2.9060
2.9098
2.9146 2.9194
2.9241
2.9289 2.9837
.92
2.9385
2.9433
2.9481
2.9629
2.9577
2.9625 : 2.9678
2.9721
2.9769 2.9817 ,
.93
2.9865
2.9914
2.9962
8.0010
3.0058
8.0107 3.0165
3.0203
3.02S2 ; 3.OS0O
.94
3.0348
8.0397
3.0445
3.0494
3.0542
3.0591 3.0689
3.0688
3.0737 3.0785
.95
3.0834
3.0883
3.0931
3.0980
3.1029
8.1078 3.1127
3.1175
3.1224 3.127S
.96
3.1322
3.1371
8.1420
3.1469
3. 1618
3.1567
3. 1616
3.1665
3.1714 ! 3.1764
.97
8.1813
3.1862
3.1911
3.1960
3.2010
3.2069
3.2108
3.2158
3.2207 8.2267
.98
3.2806
3.2365
8.2406
3.2454
3.2504
3.2564
3.2603
3.2668
3.2702 1 3.2762
.99
3.2802
3.2851
3.2901
3.2951
3.3001
3.3061
3.3100
3.3160
3.3200 J 3.3260 >
1.00
3.3300
3.8350
3.3400
3.3160
3.3500
3.3550
3.8600
3.3650
3.3700 3.3751
.01
3.3801
3.3851
3.3901
3.3951
3.4002
3.4052 3.4102
3.4163
3.4203
8.4264
.02
3.4304
3.4354
3.4405
3.4465
3.4506
3.4667 3.4607
3.4668
3.4706
8.4759
.03
8.4810
3.4860
3.4911
3.4962
3.6013
3.5063 3.6114
3. .5166
8.5216
3.6267
.04
8.5318
3.5869
3.5420
3.5471
3.5S22
3.5573 1 3. 5624
3.6676
3.6726
8.6777
.06
3.5828
3.5880
3. .^931
3.5982
3.6038
3.6066 : 3.6136
3.6187
8.6239
3.6290
.06
3.6842
3.6393
3.6444
3.6496
3.6647
8.6599' 3.6651
3.6702
3.6754
3.68(K>
.07
3.6857
3.6909
3.6960
3. 7012
3.7064
3.7116 : 3.7167
3.7219
3.7271 3.7S2S
.08
3.7875
3.7427
3.7479
3.7531
3.7583
3.7635 1 3.7687
3.7789
3.7791 3.7843 >
.09
3.7895
3.7947
8.8000
3.8062
3.8104
3.8156 3.8209
3.8261
3.8313 3.8966
1.10
3.8418
3.8470
3.8523
3.8575
3.8628
1
3.8680 1 8.8733
3.8785»
3.8888 3.8890
.11
3.8948
3.89%
3.9048
3.9101
3.9154
8.9206 1 3.9259
3.9312
3.9865 8.9418
.12
3.9470
3.9523
3.9576
3.9629
3.9682 1 3.9736 3.9788
3.9841
8.9894 8.9947
.13
4.0000
4.0063
4.0106
4.0160
4.0213
4.0266
4.0819
4.0872
4.0426 . 4.0479 '
.14
4.0532
4.0586
4.0639
4.0692
4.0746
4.0799
4.0858
4.0906
4.0960 4.1013
.15
4.1067
4.1120
4.1174
4.1228
4. 1281
4.1335
4.1389
4.1442
4,1496
4.15S0
.16
4.1604
4.1657
4.1711
4.1765
4.1819
4.1873
4.1927
4.1981
4.2035'
4.2089
.17
4.2143
4.2197
4.2251
4.2305
4.2859
4.2413
4.2467
4.2522
4.2676
4.3690
.18
4.2684
4.2738
4.2793
4.2847
4.2901
4.2956
4.3010
4.3065
4.8119
4.8178 j
.19
4.3228
4.3282
4.3837
4.3392
4.3446
4.8601
4.8666
4.3610
4.3665
4.8n9 '
1.20
4.3774
4.3829
4.3883
4.3938
4.3998
4.4048 ; 4.4106
4.4166
4.4212
4.4267
.21
4.4322
4.4377
4.4432
4.4487
4.4542
4.4697 ' 4. 4662
4.4707
4.4763
4.4818
.22
4.4878
4.4928
4.4983
4.5038
4.5094
4.5149 4.6204
4.6260
4.5816
4.6370
.23
4.5426
4.5481
4.6587
4.5692
4.5647
4.6708 1 4.6759
4.6814
4.5870
4.5926
.24
4.5981
4.6036
4.6092
4.6148
4.6203
4.6259 ! 4.6316
4.6871
4.6127
4.6482
.26
4.6538
4.6594
4.6650
4.6706
4.6762
4.6818 1 4.6874
4.6980
4.6986
4.7042
.26
4.7098
4.7154
4.7210
4.7266
4.7322
4.7378 1 4.7436
4.7491
4.7547
4.7603
.27
4.7660
4.7716
4.7772
4.7829
4.7885
4.7941 4.7998
4.8054
4.8111
4.8167
.28
4.8224
4.8280
4.8337
4.8893
4.8450
4.8606 1 4.8668
4.8620
4.8676
4.8788
.29
4.8790
4.8847
4.8908
4.8960
4.9017
4.9074 ' 4.9131
4.9187
4.9244
4.9901
TABLES FOB CALCULATING WEIB DIHCHARGE.
165
Table 3. — Diacharge wer a thin-edged weir per foot of creM — Continued.
Head H, feet.
.000
.001
.002
4.9472
.000
.004
.OOi
4.9643
.«M
.007
.008
.000
- -
4.9872
1.30
4.9858
4.9415
4.9629
4.9586
4.9700
4.9757
4.9814
.31
4.99»
4.9966 5.004S
5.0100
5.0158 ' 5.0215
5.0272
5.0830
5.0887
5.0444
.32
5.0502
5.0550 i 5.0616
5.0674
6.0731 5.0789
6.0846
5.09O4
6.0961
5. 1019
.38
5.1077
5.1134 ! 5.1192 1 5.1249
5.1307 5.1366
5.1423
5.1480
5.1638
5.1596
.M
5.1654
6. 1712 ] 5. 1769
5.1827
5.18K5 ' 6.1943
5.2001
5.0269
5.2117
5.2176
.iT
5.2238
5.2291 1 5.2849
5.2407
5.2465 6.2523
5.25K2
5.2640
5.2698
5.2756
! "^
5.2814
5.2878 6.2931
5.2989
6.8048 5.3106
6.3161
5.3223
6.3281
6.8340
1 .37
5.3396
5.3456
5.8516
5.8673
5.3632 5.3691
5.3749
5.3808
5.3866
5.8925
.3S
5.30S4
5.4142
5.4101
5.4160
5.4219 1 5.4277
5.4336
5.4395
5.4451
5.4518
.39
5.4672
5.4630 1 5.46»9
5.4748
5.4807 1 5.4866
5.4925
5.4984
5.5043
6.5102
1.40
5. .5162
5.5221 5.5280
5.5389
5.5398 1 5.5457
5. 5516
5.5576
5.5635
5.6694
.41
5.5754
5.5813 6. .'5872
5.5982
5.6991 , 5.6050
5.6110
5.6169
5.6229
6.6288
.42
.x(J348
5.6407 5.6467
5.6526
6.6686
5.6646
6.6705
5.6765
5.6825
5.6884
.43
5.6944
5.70W ! 5.7064
5.7123
5.7183
5.7243
5.7308
5.7363
5.7423
6.7482
.44
5.7.T42
5.7602 5.7662
5.7722
5.7782 5,7842
5. 7902
5. 7962
5.8023
5.8088
.46
5.K14S
5.8203 5.8263
5.8323
5.83H4 \ .5.8444
5. 8504
5.8664
5.8625
5.8685
.46
5.8745
5.8806
5.8866
5.8926
5.8987 , 5.9047
5.9108
5. 9168
5.9229
5.9289
.47
5.9350
5.9410
6.9471
5.9682
5.9592 5.9658
5. 9714
5.9774
5.9836
5.9896
.48
5.9957
6.0017
6.0078
6.0189
6.O200 6.0261
6.0322
6.0382
6.0448
6.0504
.40
1
6.0565
6.0626
6.0687
6.0748
6.«J09 6.0870
6.0931
6.0993
6.1054
6. 1115
, 1.50
6. 1176
6.1237
6.1296
6.1360
6. 1421 6. 1482
6.1543
6.1005
6.1666
6.1727
; .51
6.1789
6.1860
6.1912
6.1973
6.2034 . 6.2096
6.2157
6.2219
6.2280
6.2342
.52
6.2404
6.2465
6.2527
6.2588
6.2650 1 6.2712
6.2r73
6.2835
6.2897
6.2959
.53
6.3020
6.8082
6.3144
6.8206
6.32«» j 6.3380
6.8391
6.3453
6.3515
6.3577
.54
6.3639
6.8701 ' 6.3768
6.3825.
6.3887 ' 6.3949
6.4012
6.4074
6.4136
6.4198
.55
6.4260
6.4322 1 6.4385
6.4447
6.4509 1 6.4571
6.4634
6.4696
6.4758
6.4821
.56
6.4883
6.4945 6.500K
6. .'1070
6.5133 6.5195
6.5258
6. 5820
6.6383
6.5445
.57
6.5506
6.6570 6.5683
6.5696
6.5758 6.5821
6.5884
6.5946
6.6009
6.6072
.58
6.6185
6.6198 6.6260
6.6328
6.6386 6.6449
6.6512
6.6576
6.6638
6.6701
.60
6.6764
6.6827 6.6800
6.6953
6.7016 6.7079
6.7142
6.7205
6.7268
6.7381
1.60
6.7804
6.745h , 6.7521
6.7584
6.7647 6.7711
6.7774
6.7837
6.7901
6.7964
.61
6.8027
6.8091 , 6.8154
6.8217
6.8281 , 6.8344
6.8408
6.8471
6.8535
6.8598
.62
6.8662
6.8726 6.8789
6.8853
6.8916 6.8980
6.9044
6.9108
6.9171
6.9285
.68
6.9299
6.9963 1 6.9426
6.9490
6.9654 6.9618
6.9682
6.9746
6.9810
6.9874
.64
6.9987
7.0001 1 7.0065
7.0129
7.0193 1 7.0258
7.0322
7.0386
7.0460
7.0514
.65
7.0578
7.0642' 7.0706
7.0771
7.0836 1 7.0899
7.0963
7.1028
7.1092
7.1166
.66
7.1221
7. 1285 7. 1349
7. 1414
7. 1478
7.1543
7.1607
7. 1672
7.1736
7.1801
.67
7.1865
7.1960 7.1994
7.2059
7.2124
7.2188
7.2253
7.2318
7.2382
7.2447
.68
7.2512
7.2576 7.2641
7.2706
7.2771
7.2886
7.2901
7.2965
7.3030
7.3096
.60
7.3160
7.3226 7.8290
7.3865
7.3420
7.3486
7.3560
7.3616
7.3680
7.3745
1.70
7.3810
7.3876 7.3941
7.4006
7.4071
7.4136
7.4201
7.4267
7.4332
7.4397
.71
7.4468
7.4628 7.4598
7.4650
7.4?24
7.4789
7.4855
7.4920
7.4986
7.5051
.72
7.5117
7.5182 7.6248
7.6813
7.5379
7.5445
7. 5610
7. .5576
7.5641
7. 5707
.73
7.5T73
7.6839 7.6904
7.6070
7.6036
7.6102
7.6167
7. &23&
7.6299
7.6866
.74
7.6431
7.6497 ; 7.6668
7.6628
7.6694
7.6760
7.6826
7.6S92
7.6968
7.7024
.75
7.7091
7.7157 7.7228
7.7289
7.7355
7.7421
7.7487
7.7554
7.7620
7.7686
.76
7.7752
7.7819
7.7885
7.7951
7.8018
7.8084
7.8150
7.8217
7.8283
7.8349
.77
7.8416
7.8482
7.8649
7.8615
7.8682
7.8748
7.8815
7.8882
7.8948
7.9015
.78
7.9081
7.9148 7.9215
7.9281
7.9848
7.9416
7.9482
7.9648
7.9615
7.9682
■" 1
7.9749
7.9816 7.9682
■ ■
7.9949
8.0016
8.0083
8.0160
8.0217
8.0284
8.0351
166 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Table 3. — Discharge over a thin-edged weir per foot of crent — Continued.
Head H, feet.
.000
8.0418
.001 .002
.008
.004
8.0686
.006
.006
...7
.006
.009
1.80
8.0485 8.0562
8.0619
8.0753
8.0620
8.0888
8.0965
8.1022
.81
8.1089
8.1156 8.1228
8.1291
8.1858
8.1426
8.1498
8.1560
8.1627
8.16^
.82
8.1762
8.1829 - 8.1897
8.1964
8.2082
8.2099
8.2167
8.2234
8.2302
8.ZJ69 "
.83
8.2437
8.2504 8.2572
8.2640
8.2707
8.2775
8.2842
8.2910
8.2978
8.3046
.84
8.3113
8.8181 8.3249 | 8.3317
8.3885 8.3462
8.3520
8.3688
8.8656
8.3724
.8ft
8.3792
8.3860
8.8928
8.3996
8.4064 8.4132
8.4200
8.4268
8.4386
8.4401
.86
8.4472
8.4540
8.4608
8.4677
8.4746 8.4813
8.4881
8.4949
8.6018
H.5066
.87
8.5154
8.5223
8.5291
8.6859
8.5428
8.5496
8.5564
8.5683
8.6701
8.5770
.88
8.5838
8.5907 ! 8.6976
8.6044
8.6112
8.6181
8.6250
8.6818
8.6887
8.6456
.89
8. 6624
8.6603 8.6661
8.6780
8.6799
8.6868
8.6986
8.7006
8.7074
8.7148
1.90
8.7212
8.7281 8.7349
^8. 7418
8.7487
8.7556
8.7625
8.7694
8.7763
8.7882
.91
8.7901
8.7970
8.8089
^8108
8.5177
8.8246
8.8316
H.8386
8.8454
8.H523
.92
8.8592
8.8662
8.8731
8.8800
8.8869
8.8989
8.9008
8.9077
8.9147
8.9216 .
.93
8.9285
8.9355
8.9424
8.9494
8.9568
8.9683
8.9702
8.9772
8.9641
8.9911
.94
8.9980
9.0050 1 9.0119
9.0189
9.0269
9.0628
9.0696
9.0468
9.0687
9.0607
.95
9.0677
9.0747 9. 0810
9.0886
9.0966
9.1026
9.1096
9.1165
9.1285
9.1905
.96
9.1376
9.1446 1 9.1615
9.1685
9.1655
9.1725
9.1795
9.1865
9.1936
9.2005
.97
9.2075
9.2145
9.2216
9.2286
9.2866
9.2426
9.2496
9,2567
9.2637
9.2707
.98
9.2777
9.2848
9.2918
9.2988
9.8069
9.3129
9.8199
9.3270
9.8810
9.3411
.99
9.a481
9.8552
9.3622
9.3693
9.8768
9.8834
9.8904
9.8976
9.4045
9.4116
2.00
9.4187
9.4257 1 9.4328
9.4399
9.4469
9.4640
9.4611
9.4682
9.4752
9.4823
.01
9.4891
9.4965 ' 9.6036
9.5106
9.5177 : 9.5248
9.5819
9.6890
9.5461
9.5532
.02
9.6603
9.5674 9.5745
9.5816
9.5887
9.6958
9.6029
9.6100
9.6in
9.6C243
.03
9.6314
9.6386
9.6456
9. 6827
9.6699
9.6670
9.6741
9.6812
9.68M
9.6955
.04
9.7026
9.7098
9. 7169
9.7240
9.7812
9.7383
9.7465
9.7526
9.7698
9.7669
.06
9.7741
9.7812
9.7884
9.7955
9.8027
9.8098
9.8170
9.8242
9.8313
9.KJK5
.06
9.8167
9.8528
9.8600
9.8672
9.8744
9.8815
9.8887
9.8959
9.9031
9.9108
.07
9.9174
9.9246 9.9818
9.9390
9.9462
9.9534
9.9606
9.9678
9.9750
9.9KS2
.08
9.9894
9.9966 10.004
10.011
10.018 10.025
10.088
10.040
10.047
10.0&4
.09
10.062
10.060 110.076
10.088
10.090 110.098
10.105
10.112
10.119
10.127
2.10
10. 134
10.141 ,10.148
10. 156
10. 168 10. 170
10.177
10. 185
10.192
10.189
.11
10.206
10.214
10.221
10.228
10.235 10.248
10.260
10.257
10.264
10.272
.12
10.279
10.286
10.298
10.301
10.308
10.316
10.323
10.380
10.337
10.344 '
.13
10.362
10.359
10.366
10.874
10.381
10.388
10.396
10.403
10.410
10.417
.14
10.425
10.432
10.489
10.447
10. 4M
10.461
10.469
10. 476
10.483
10.491
.15
10.498
10.505
10. 513
10.620
10.527
10.585
10.542
10.649
10.557
10.564
.16
10.571
10.579
10.686
10.593
10.601 10.608
10.615
10.628
10.630
10.637
.17
10.645
10.652 10.659
10.667
10.674
10.682
10.689
10.696
10.704
10.711
.18
10.718
10.726
10. 733
10.741
10.748
10. 755
10.768
10.770
10.777
10. 7«5
.19
10.792
10.800
10.807
10. 814
10.822
10.829
10.837
10.844
10.851
lO.HTi©
2. 20
10.866
10.874
10.881
10.888
10.896 10.903
10.911
10.918
10.926
lO.S^i
.21
10.940
10.948
10,955
10.963
10.970
10.978
10.985
10.992
11.000
11.007
.22
11.015
11.022 |ll.030
11.037
11.045
11.052
11.059
11.067
11.074
11.0^-2
.23
11.089
11.097
11.104
11.112
11.119
11.127
11.134
11.141
11. 149
11. 156
.24
11.164
11.171
11.179
11.186
11.194 11.201
11.209
11.216
11.224
11.231
.26
11.239
11.246
11. 2M
11.261
11.269 11.276
11.2M
11.291
11.299
11.806
.26
11.314
11.321
11.329
11.836
11.344 11.351
11.869
11.366
11.371
ll.?81
.27
11.389
11.396
11.404
11.412
11.419 11.427
11.434
11.442
11.419
11.467
.28
11.464
11.472 11.479
11.487
11. 4W 11.502
11.610
11.517
11.625
11.682 ,
.29
1
11. MO
11.547 11.555
11.662
11.570 11.678
11.685
11.508
11.600
1L608
TABLES FOR CALCULATING WEIR DISCHARGE. 167
Table 3. — Discharge over a thin-edged iveir per foot of crejtt — Continued.
Head ^« feet.
2.90
.81
.82
.88
.34
.35
.36
.37
.88
2.70
.71
.72
.78
.74
.75
.76
.77
.78
.79
11.615
11.691
11.767
11.843
11.920
11.996
12.073
12.150
12.227
12.304
2.40
12.381
.41
12.450
.42
12.536
.43
12.614
.44
12.692
.45
12.770
.46
12.848
.47
12.927
.48
13.005
.49
13.084
2.50
13.163
.51
13.242
.52
1&821
.53
13.401
.54
18.480
.55
18.560
.56
13.640
.57
18.720
.58
13.800
.59
18.880
2,60
13.961
.61
14.041
.62
14.122
.63
14.208
.64
14.284
.65
14.356
.66
14.447
.67
14.528
.68
14.610
.69
14.602
14.774
14.856
14.938
15.021
15.103
15.186
1.5.269
15.352
1.5.435
15.519
.001
11.623
11.699
11.775
11.851
11,927
12.004
12.061
12,157
12.234
12.312
12.389
12.466
12.544
12.622
12.700
12.778
12.856 i
12.985
13.013
18.092
13. 171
13.250
13,329
18.409
18.488
13.568
13.648
18.728
13.808
18.888
18.969
14.049
14.130
14.211
14.292
14.873
14.455
14.536
14.618
14.700
14.782
14.864
14.946
15.029
15. 112
15. 194
15.277
15.360
15.443
15.527
11.681
11.706
11.783
11.859
11.985
12.012
12.068
12.165
12.242
12.819
12.897
12.474
12.552
12.630
12,708
12.786
12.864
12.942
13.021
18.100
13.179
13.258
18.887
13.417
18.496
13.576
13.656
18.736
18.816
13.896
13.977
14.067
14,138
14.219
14.800
14.382
14.463
14.545
14.626
14.708
14.790
14.872
14.955
15.087 1
15. 120
15.208
15.285
15.369
15.452
15.535
11.638
11.714
11.790
11.866
11.943
12.019
12.096
12.178
12.260
12.827
12. 4M
12.482
12.560
12.637
12.715
12.794
12.872
12.950
13.029
13.108
18.187
13.266
18.345
13.424
13.504
18.584
13.664
18.744
13.824
13.904
13.985
14.065
14.146
14.227
14.308
14.390
14.471
14.563
14.634
14.716
14.798
14.881
14.963
15.045
15.128
15.211
15.294
15.377
15.460
15.544
11.646 I
11.722
11.798
11.874 I
11.960 I
12.027
12. 104 I
12.181 I
12,258
12.835
12.412 I
12.490 I
12.567 '
12.645
12.723 I
12.801
12.880
12.968
13.067
18. 116
18.195
13.274
13.353
13.432
13.512
13.592
18.672
13. 752
13.832
13.912
18.998
14.074
14.154
14.285
14.816
14.398
14.479
14.661
14.643
14.725
14.807
14.889
14.971
15.064
15. 136
15.219
15.302
15. 385
15.468
15.552
11.653
ll.?29
11.805
11.882
11.968
12.035
12, 111
12.188
12.265
12.342
12.420
12. 497
12.575
12,658
12.731
12.809
12.888
12,966
13.045
13.124
18.202
13.282
13.361
13,440
13.520
13.600
13.680
18.760
13.840
13.920
14.001
14.082
14. 162
14.243
14.325
14.406
14.487
14.569
14.661
14.733
14.815
14.897
14.979
15.062
15. 145
15.227
15.310
15.394
15.477
15. 560
.CM
.007
.COS
.009
11.661
11.669
11.676
11.684
11.737
11.744
11.752
11.760
11.813
11.821
11.828
11.836
11.889
11.897
11.904
11.912
11.966
11.973
11.981
11.989
12.042
12.050
12.068
12.066
12. 119
12.127
12. 134
12. 142
12.196
12.204
12.211
12.219
12.273
12.281
12.288
12.296
12.850
12.358
12.366
12.873
12.428
12.486
12.443
12.461
12.605
12.513
12.521
12.528
12.583
12.591
12.598
12,606
12.661
12.669
12.676
12.684
12.739
12. 747
12.754
12.672
12.817
12. 825
12.833
12.840
12.895
12,903
12.911
12.919
. 12.974
12,982
12.990
12.997
18.053
1.3.060
13.068
13.076
13.131
13.139
13. 147
13.165
13.210
13.218
13.286
13.284
13.290
13.297
13.305
13,313
13.369
13.377
13.385
13.393
' 13.448
13.456
13.464
13. 472
13.528
18.536
13.644
13.662
13.608
13. 616
13.624
13.632
13.688
13.696
13.704
13.712
13.768
13.776
13.784
13.792
13.848
13.856
13.864
13.872
13.928
13.936
13.944
13.963
14.009
14.017
14.026
14.033
14.090
14.098
14.106
14,114
14. 171
14. 179
14. 187
14. 195
14.252
14.260
14.268
14.276
14.383
14.341
14.349
14.357
14.414
14.422
14.430
14.438
14.496
14.504
14. 512
14.520
14.577
14.585
14.594
14.602
14.659
14.667
14.675
14.684
14.741
14.749
14.757
14.766
14.823
14.831
14.839
14.fM8
14.905
14. 913
14.922
14.930
14.988
14.996
15.004
15.012
15.070
15.078
15.087
15.095
15. 153
15. 161
15. 169
15. 178
15.236
15.244
15.252
15.261
15.319
15.327
15.3a5
15.344
15.402
16.410
15.419
15. 427
15.485
15.494
15, 502
15.510
15.569
15.577
15.586
15.594
IBB 150— 06 16
168 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
T.\BLB 3. — Discharge over a thin-edged weir per fool of creM — Continued.
Head /f. feet.
.000
.001
.008
.008
2.80
15.602
15.610
15.619
15.627
.81
15.686
15.694
15.702
15. 711
.82
15. 769
15.778
15.786
15.795
.83
15.853
15.862
15.870
16.879
.84
15.938
15.916
15.954
15.963
.85
16.022
16.030
16.089
16.047
.86
16.106
16. 115
16.123
16. 132
.87
16.191
16.199
16.208
16.216
.88
16.275
16.284
16.292
16.301
16.360
16.369
16.377
16.886
2.90
16.445
16.454
16.462
16.471
.91
16.530
16.539
16.547
16.556
.92
16. 616
16.624
16.633
16.641
.93
16. 701
16. 710
16.718
16.727
.94
16.787
16.795
16.804
16.812
.95
16.872
16.881
16.890
16.898
.96
16.958
16.967
16.975
16.984
.97
17.044
17.053
17.062
17.070
.98
17.180
17. 139
17.148
17.156
.99
17. 217
17. 225
17.2S4
17.243
8.00
17.3033
0
.006 ! .006 .007 I .008
15.635
15. 719
15.803
15.887
15.971
16.056
16. 140
16.225
16.309
16.394 I
I
16.479 '
16.565 j
16.650
16.785 I
16.821 I
16.907 '
16.993
17.079
17.165
17.261
16.644
15.728
15.811
15.895
15.980
16.064
16.148 I
16.233 :
16.318 j
16.403 I
16.488
16.673
16.658
16. 744
16.890
16.915
17.001
17.087
17.174
17.260
15.662
15.786
16.820
15,904
15.968
16.072
16. 157
16.242
16.326
16.411
16.496
16.582
16.667
16.762
16.838
16.924
17.010
17.096
17. 182
17.269
16.661
15.744
15.828 .
16.912 I
15.997
16.081 I
16.165 '
16.250 I
16.335
16.420
16.605
16.690
16.675
16. 761
16.847
16.982
17.018
17.105
17. 191
17.277
15.663
15.758
15.837
15.921
16.005
16.089
16. 174
16.258 .
16.343
16.428
16.513
16.599
16.684 I
16.770 ■
le.S.'io
16.941 I
17.027 I
17.113
17.199
17.286
15.677
15. 761
15. R45
15.929
16.013
16.096
16.182
16.267
16.352
16.437
16.522
16.607
16.693
16.778
16.864
16.950
17.036
17.122
17.206
17.295
Table 4. — Discharge w^er a thin-edged weir per foot, ofcrett.
Head .
if, feet. I
0.0
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.00
.01
1.0 ;
1.1 '
1.2'
1.3
1.4
1.5 '
l.fi
1.7
l.S
1.9
0.0000
.1053
.2978
.M72
.8424
1.1773
1.5476
1.9503
2.3828
2.8432
3.3300
8.8418
4. 3774
4.9368
5.5162
6.1170
6. 7394
7. 3810
H.0418
H. 7212
0.0033
. 1215
.3205
.5748
.8742
1.2128
1.5865
1.9922
2. 4276
2.8907
3.3W1
3. 8943
4.4322
4.9929
5. 5754
6. 1789
6.8027
7.4463
8.1689
8.7901
.02
.08
0.0094
.1384
.3436
.6028
.9084
1.2487
1.6257
2.0344
2. 4727
2.9385
4304
9470
487:^
fti02
6348
2404
8662
5117
1762
8,")92
0.0173
.1561
.3673
.6313
.9390
1.2849
1.6652
2.0770
2.5180
2.9865
8. 4810
4.0000
4.5426
5.1077
5.6944
6.3020 j
6.9299 ,
7.5773 I
8.2487 '
8. 928.i
.04
0.0266 ,
.1744 j
.3915 I
.6602
.9719
1.3214 I
1.7050
2.1198 I
2.6637 !
8.0848 i
8.5318
4.a5S2
4.5081 I
5.1654 I
5.7542
6.3638 '
6.9937
7.6431
8.3118
8.9980 I
.05
0.0372
.1935
. 4162
.6895
1.0052
1.3583
1.7451
2.1629
2.6096
3.0834
3.5828
4.1067
4. 6538
5.2233
5. 8143
6.4260
7.0578
7.7091
8.3792
9.0677
.06
0.0489 '
.2131 .
.4415 I
.7193
1.0889 I
J. 3955 !
l.T8>5
2.2068
2.6558
8.1822 I
3.6342
4.1604
4.7098
6.2814
5.8745
6.4888
7. 1221
7.7752
8. 4 172
9.1375
.07
I
.08
0.0617
.2334
.1672
.7495
1.0730
1.4330
1.8262
2.2500
2.7022
3. 1813
3.6857
4.2143
4.7660
.5.3398
5.9350
6.5508
7.1865
7.8416
8.6154
9.2075
0.0753
.2543
.4984
.7800
1.1074 ,
1.4709
1.8678
2.2910
2.7490
8.2306
3.7375
4.2384
4.8224
5.3984 i
5.9957
6.6ia5 '
7.2512
7.9081
8.5888 I
8.2777
0.0899
.2758
.6200
.8110
1.1422
1.5091
1.9086
2.3382
2.7959
8.2»e
3.789?>
4.3228
4.^790
5. 4.'>?2
6.056.5
6.6761
7.316**
7.9749
8.6524
9.34M
^ I
TABLES FOR CALCULATING WEIR DISCHARGE.
169
Table 4. — Discharge over a thin-edged weir per foot of crest — Continaed.
Head ! ^
.01
.02
M
.04
2.0
9.4187
9.4894
9.5608
9.6814
9.7026
2.1
10.1340
10.2060
10.2790
10.8620
10.4260
2.2
10.8660
10.9400
11.0160
11.0690
11.1640
2.3
11.6150
11.6910
11.7670
11.8430
11.9200
Z4
12.3810
12.4690
12.5860
12.6140
12.6920
2.5 13.1690
18.2480
13.8210
18.4010
18.4800
2.6 13.9610
14.0410
14.1220
14.2080
14.2840
2.7 14.7740
14.8560
14.9880
15.0210
16.1080
2.8 15.6020
16.6860
15l7690
16.8'aO
16.9880
2.9 16.44S0
16.6800
16.6160
16.7010
16.7870
8.0 , 17.3088
17.3899
17.4698
17.5684
17.6608
8.1 : 18.1754
18.2634 18.8516
18.4399
18.5285
3.2 i 19.0619
19.1515 19.2410
19.3307
19.4206
8.3 1 19.9624
20.0538 20.1442
20.2854
20.8267
3.4 1 20.8777
20.9690 21.0618
21.1638
21.2464
8.5 , 21.8046
21.8980 i 21.9917
22.0866
22.1795
3.6 22.7456
22.8405
22.9854
28.0806
23.1259
8.7 \ 23.6999
23.7962
28.8924
23.9887
24.0852
3.8 24.6678
24.7646
24.8621
24.9600
26.0576
8.9
25.6473
2&7459
25.8748
25.9487
26.0429
4.0
26.6400
26.7399
26.8401
26.9404
27.0406
4.1
27.6458
27.7466
27.8478
27.9494
28.0509
4-2
28.6626
28.7652
28.6678
28.9708
29.0782
4.8
29.6926
29.7962
29.9001
80.0040
20.l<m
4.4
30.7842
30.8391
80.9440
31.0493
31.1545
4-5
31.7878
81.8941
32.0006
82.1065
82.2128
4.6
32.8684
32.9607
38.0679
33.1755
38.2830
4.7 38.9807
84.0873
34.1475
34.2560
34.8646
4. A 85^0198
85.1288
35.2354
85.8480
35.4578
4.9 1 36.1182
1
86.2297
36.8406
86.4615
36.5624
5.0 j 37.2KM
37.3423
37.4542
87.6661
37.6783
• 6.1 ; 38w8629
38.4658
88.5787
88.0919
38.8062
6l2 « 39.4865
89.6004
39.7146
89.8288
39.9430
5.3 40.6310
40.7462
40.5281
40.9766
41.0919
5.4 41.7866
41.9024
42.0186
42.1862
42.2517
5.5 ! 42.9628
43.0700
48.1871
48.3043
43.4219
5.6 • 44.1292
44.2474
44.8669
44.4845
44.6080
6.7 45.8166
45.4869
45.5554
45l6746
45.7945
6.8 , 46.5141
46.6347
46.7562
46.8757
46.99r3
5.9
47.7226
47.8488
47.9653
48.0869
48.20&1
6.0
48.9407
49.0682
49.1858
49.9083
48.4312
&1
110.1694
50.2980
60.4162
60.5401
50.6687
d.2
51-4082
51.6324
51.6570
61.7818
51.9034
6.3 ' 52.6670
62,7822
52.9077
58.0836
53.1591
6.4 1 58.9157
54.0419
64.1684
64.2950
64.4219
6.5 i 55.1832
55.3116
66.4392
55. 5667
55.6943
6.6 1 »6.4625
56.6910
56.7192
56.8478
56.9766
6.7 \ .W.7505
57.8801
58.0093
58.1388
58.2687
6.8 .'».0482
60.1788
59.3090
50.4428
59. 5700
6.9
60.3656
60.4868
60.6183
60.7499
60.8814
9.7741
10.4980
11.2390
11.9960
12.7700
13.6600
14.8660
15. 1860
16.0220
16.8720
17.7876
18.6170
19.6106
20.4179
21.8890
22.2734
23.2211
24. 1818
25.1555
26.1422
27.1412
28.1525
29.1761
80.2118
31.2597
32.3198
38.8906
84.4735
85.6677
36.6736
37.7906
38.9184
40.0576
41.2074
42.868:^
42.5394
44.7216
45. 9140
47. 1172
48.8303
49.5537
50. 7875
52.0318
58.2850
54.5487
55.8221
57. 1055
58.3982
59.7009
6L0129
9.8457
10.6710
11.8140
12.0730
12.8480
12.6400
14.4470
15.2690
16.1060
16.9580
17.8248
18.7056
19.6007
20.5C9.)
21.4319
22.3677
28.3167
24.2787
25.2537
26.2414
27.2417
28.2544
29.2790
30.3168
31.3649
32.4259
38.4985
34.5824
35.6780
36.7845
37.9027
39.0819
40. 1718
41.3230
42.4848
43.6673
44.8404
46.0839
47.2380
48.4522
49.6766
50.9114
52. 1681
53.4109
54.6756
55.9500
57.2340
5K. 5281
r)9. 8314
61. 1415
.07
.08
9.9174
9.9894
10.6450
10.7180
11.8890
11.4640
12.1600
12.2270
12.9270
13.0050
13.7200
13.8000
14.5280
14.6100
15.3620
16.4860
16.1910
16.2760
17.0440
17.1300
17.9124
18.0000
18.7945
18.8838
19.6910
19.7812
'20.6011
20.6930
21.5248
21.6180
22.4618
22.5564
28.4122
24.3756
26.8620
26.8410
27.8423
28.3663
29.3823
80.4205
31.4705
32.5824
38.6064
34.6913
35.7882
36.8961
38.0153
39.1466
40.2867
41.4386
42.6017
43.7752
44.9593
46.1538
47.3589
48.5744
49.7999
51.0856
52.2818
58. 5871
54.8025
56.0779
57. 3233
58.6580
59.9623
61.2763
28.5081
24.4728
25.4602
26.4406
27.4482
28.4682
29.4856
90.6261
81.6764
32.6398
33.7143
34.8005
&^8964
37.0073
38.1276
39.2691
40.4012
41.6544
42.7186
48.8981
45.0782
46.2740
47.4798
48.6963
49.9230
51. 1595
52.4062
53.6630
54.9297
56.2061
57. 4921
.'W. 7882
60.0935
61.4082
I
10.0620
10.7920
11.6400
12.8040
18.0840
13.8800
14.0920
15.6190
16.3600
17. 2170
18.0876
18.9727
19.8718
20.7849
21.7118
22.6510
28.6040
24.6697
26.6488
26.6401
27.6411
28.6604
29.5890
30.6297
31.6820
82.7462
33.8226
34.9097
36.0066
87.1188
i 38.2404
89.3726
40.6161
41.6708
42.8355
44.0109
46.1974
46.8989
47.6010
48.8186
50.0462
51.2837
62.5314
63.7892
56.0669
56.8848
57. 6213
58.9180
60.2244
61.54(M
170 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTO, AND FORMULAS.
Table 4. — Discharge over a thin-edged weir per foot of crest — Continued.
Head
H, feet
.00
.01
.02
.08
62.0692
.04
62.2017
.06
.06
.07
.08
.09
62.8657
7.0
61.6786
61.8048
61.9370
62.3343
62.4671
62.6000
62.7329
7.1
62.9986
63. 1318
63.2650
63.3992
63.5317
63.6653
68.7991
63.9827
64.0665
64.2004
7.2
64.3343
64.4685
64.6027
64.7369
64.8711
65.0066
65.1268
65.2750
65.4095
65.5444
7.3
65.6793
65.8145
65.9493
66.0845
66.2197
66.3562
66.4908
66.6263
66. 7618
66.8977
7.4
67.0336
67.1694
67.3068
67.4415
67.5777
67.7139
67.a504
67.9869
68.1235 68,2600
7.6
68.8969
68.5337
68.6706
68.8078
68.9447
69.0818
69.2794
69.3566
69.4941
69.6316
7.6
69.7695
69.9070
70.0449
70.1827
70.3209
70.4591
70.5973
70.7356
70.8737
71.0123
7.7
71.1508
71.2896
71.4282
71.5670
71.7059
71.8461
71.9843
?2.12S5
72,2627
72.4743
7.8
72.5414
'?2.6809
72.8208
72.9608
73.1002
73.2400
73.3802 73.6201
73.6603 TS-SOa**
7.9
78.9410
74.0815
74.2220
74.8626
74.5031
74.6439
74.7848
74.9260
75.0669
75.2081
8.0
75.8492
75.4908
75.6320
75.7735
76.9160
76.0569
76.1987
76.3406
76.4824
7&G248
8.1
76.7665
76.9087
77.0609
77.1934
77.8360
77.4784
77.6210
77.7638
77.9067 78.0496
8.2
78.1924
78.3356
78.4788
78.6220
78.7655 78.9067
79.a'>22
79.1967
79.1B96 , 79.4834
8.8
79.6278
79.7711
79.9153
80.0592
80.2084
80.8479
80.4921
80.6366
80.7811 80.9260
8.4
81.0705
81.2154
81.3602
81.5064
81.6503
81.7956
81.9406
82,0862
82.2314
82,8769
8.6
82.5224
82.6682
82.8141
82.9600
83.1068
83.2517
83.8979
83.5440
83.6902
83.8367
8.6
83.9833
84.1298
84.2763
84.4228
84.6697
84.7165
84.8634
85.0106
86.1578
85.3049
8.7
85.4521
85.5996
85.7472
85.8947
86.0455
86. 1897
86.3876
86.4854
86.6836
86.7815
8.8
86.9297
87.0778
87.2264
87.3745
87.6231
87.6716
87.8204
87.9689
88.1178
88.2666
8.9
88.4192
88.5647
88.7139
88.8630
89.0126
89. 1617
89.3113
89.4608
89.6103
88.7602
9.0
89.9100
90.0599
90.2064
90.3699
90.5101
90.6602
90.4778
90.9609
9L1115
91.2620
9.1
91.4125
91.5633
91.7142
91.8650
92.0159
92. 1671
92.8183
92.4694
92.6206
92.7721
9.2
92.9237
93.0782
93.2267
93.3785
93.6804
98.6822
93.8341
93.9863
94.13H1
94.2900
9.3
94.4428
94.5950
94.7475
94.9000
95.0529
95.2054
95.3582
95.5111
95.6689
96.8171
9.4
95.9703
96.1234
96.2766
96.4298 [ 96.5883
96.7368
96.8903
97.0442
97.1977
97.8516
9.6
97.6057
97.6596
97.8188
97.9679 98.1021
98.2763
98.4808
98.5858
98.7398
98.8943
9.6
99.0492
99.2040
99.3589
99.5141 99.6689
99.8211
99.9798
100.1344
100.2899
100.4455
9.7
100.6010
100.7665
100.9123
101.0678 101.2237
101.3799
101.6867
101.6919
101,8481
102.0042
9.8
102.1607
102.3169
102.4734
102.6299 102.7868
102.9433
103.1001
103.2570
103.4141
103.5710
9.9
108.7282
103.8853
104.0429
104.2000 ,104.3676
104.5121
104.6726
104.8804
104.9882
105.1461
10.0
105.8039
105.4618
106. 6199
105.7781 105.9363
106.0945
106.2530
106.4115
106.5700
106.72K5
When applied to a weir with ^ end contractions, the measured
crcvst length Z' should be reduced by the formula
When applied to a weir having appreciable velocity of approach,
the measured head should be corrected by the correction formula of
Francis (see p. 15), or b}^ one of the simpler approximate equivalents;
or the correction may be applied as a percentage to the discharg^^ by
the use of Table 2.
Table 3, taken from Lowell Hydraulic Experiments, by James B.
Francis, gives the discharge for heads from zero to 3 feet, advancing
by thousandths.
Table 4 is original and gives the discharge for heads from zero to
10.09 feet, advancing by hundredths.
TABLES FOR CALCULATING WEIR DISCHARGE.
171
Bj increasing the quantities from either table 1 per cent, the dis-
charge by the Cippoletti formula will be obtained,
^=3.361 Z/A
In calculating discharge by this formula, the head should be cor-
rected for velocity of approach by the formula
J7=i?+1.5//.
TABLES 5 AND 6.— THREE-HALVES POWERS.
These tables of three-halves powers (cubes of the square roots) were
prepared by the writer to facilitate the calculation of discharge over
weirs of various forms, by the use of coefficients taken from the
diagrams that accompany this paper and the base formula
Q^ CLII^.
Table 5. — Three-halrtH povfers for numbers 0 to 1.49.
Niunbeni.
.000
0.0000
.001
.002
.oos
.004
.006
.006
0.0006
.007
0.0007
.008
0.0008
.000
.010
0.0010
o.oo
0.0001
0.00Q2
0.0003
O.OOOl
0.0005
0.0009
.01
.0010
.00118
.00186
.00154
.00172
.00190
.00208
.00236
.00244
.00262
.0028
.02
.0028
.00304
.00328
.00352
.00876
.00400
.00424
.00448
.00472
.00496
.0052
.03
.0052
.00548
.00576
.00604
.00682
.00660
.00688
.00716
.00744
.00772
.0080
.04
.0060
.00832
.00864
.00896
.00928
.00960
.00992
.01024
.01056
.01088
.0112
.05
.0112
.01165
.01190
.01225
.01260
.01295
.01330
.01365
.01400
.01485
.0147
.06
.0147
.01608
.01546
.01584
.01622
.01660
.02056
.01698
.01736
.01774
.01812
.0185
.07
.0185
.01891
.01982
.01973
.02014
.02137
.02178
.02219
.0226
.08
.0226
.02304
.02348
.02392
.02436
.02480
.02524
.02568
.02612
.02656
.0270
.09
.0270
.02746
.02792
.0283M
.02884
.02980
.02976
.03022
.08068
.08114
.0316
O.IO
0.0316
0.08209
0.08258
0.06307
0.08356
0.08405
0.03454
0.08603
00355.2
0.03601
0.0365
.11
.0365
.03701
.08752
.08808
.03854
.08905
.08956
.04007
.04058
.04109
.0416
.12
.0416
.04218
.04266
.04319
.04372
.04425
.04478
.04681
.04584
.04687
.0469
.18
.0469
.04745
.04800
.04855
.04910
.04965
.06020
.05075
.05130
.05185
.0524
.14
.0524
.05297
.06354
.05411
.05468
.05525
.05582
.05639
.05696
.05753
.0681
.15
.0681
.05869
.05928
.05987
.06046
.06105
.06164
.06223
.06282
.06841
.0640
.16
.0640
.06451
.06622
.06583
.06644
.067a5
.06766
.06827
.06888
.06949
.0701
.17
.0701
.070T3
.07136
.07199
.07262
.07325
.07388
.07451
.07514
.07577
.0764
.18
.07M
.07704
.07768
.07832
.07896
.07960
.08024
.06088
.06152
.08216
.0828
.19
.0828
.06346
.06412
.08478
.06544
.08610
.08676
.08742
.08808
.08874
.0894
0.20
0.0694
0.09008
0.09076
0.09144
0.09212
0.09280
0.09348
0.09416
0.09484
009552
0.0962
.21
.0W2
.09690
.09760
.09830
.09900
.09970
.10040
. 10110
.1018
.1025
.1032
.22
.1082
.10891
.10462
.10583
.10604
.10675
.10746
.10817
.10888
.10959
.1103
.23
.1108
.11103
.11176
.11249
.11822
.11895
.11468
.11541
.11614
.11687
.1176
.24
.1176
.11834
.11908
.11982
.12506
.12130
.12204
.12278
.12362
.12426
.1250
.23
.1250
.12576
.12652
.12728
' .12804
.12880
.12956
.13032
.13108
.13184
.1326
.26
.1326
.13337
.18414
.13491
.13568
.13645
.13722
.13799
.13876
.13963
.1408
.27
.1408
.14100
.14188
.14267
.14346
, .14425
.14504
.14583
.14662
.14741 .1482
.28
.1482
.1490
.1496
.1506
.1514
.1522
1530
.1538
.1540
. 1554 . 1562
.29
1
.1562
.15701
.15782
.15868
1 .15944
.16025
.16106
. 16187
. 16268
.16349 .1643
172 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Table 5. — Three-halves pmcern for num}}ern 0 to 1.49 — Continued.
Numbers.
.000
.001
0. 16513
.002
0.16696
•OOS
0.16679
.004
0. 16762
.006
0.16845
.006
0.1692H
0.17011
.008
0.17094
.000
0.17177
.010
0.30
0.1643
0.1726
.31
.1726
.17344
. 17428
.17512
.17696
.17680
.17764
.17848
.17982
.18016
.1810
.32
.1810
.18186
.18272
.18858
.18444
.18530
.18616
.18702
.18788
.18874
.l*^*'.
.38
.1896
.19047
. 19134
.19221
.19808
.19396
.19482
.19669
.19656
.19748
.19Ki
.34
.1983
.19918
.20006
.20094
.20182
.20270
.20358
.20446
.206M
.20622
.2071
.8fi
.2071
.20799
.20888
.20977
.21066
.21155
.21244
.21383
.21422
.21611
.2160
.86
.2160
.21691
.21782
.21873
.21964
.22055
.22146
.22237
.22828
.22419
.-2251
.37
.2251
.22601
.22692
.22783
.22874
.22965
.23056
.2317
.23238
.28829
.234-2
.38
.2842
.23614
.23608
.28702
.23796
.23890
.23984
.24078
.24172
.24266
.24:v;
.89
.2436
.24454
.24648
.24642
.24786
.24830
.24924
.26018
.26112
.25206
.*2fi3U
0.40
0.2630
0.25395
0.25480
0.26585
0.25680
0.26T75
0.25870J 0.26965
0.26060
0.261550.262?.
.41
.2625
.'26347
.26444
.26541
.26638
.26735
.26832
.26929
.27026
.27123
.2722
.42
.2722
. 27318
.27416
.27614
.27612
.27710
.27808
.27906
.28004
. 28102
.'>«20
.48
.2820
.28299
.28397
.28497
.28696
.28695
.28794
.28893
.28992
.29091
.'2919
.44
.2919
.2929
.2939
.2949
.2959
.2969
.2979
.2989
.2«9
.3009
.3019
.46
.3019
.30291
.30392
.30498
.305»4
.30695
.307%
.80897
.30998
.31099
.31-20
.46
.3120
.31302
.31404
.31506
.31608
.31710
.31812
.81914
.32016
.82118
.3222
.47
.3222
.82323
.3242^
.32529
.32632
. 327:i5
.32838
.82941
.33044
.38147
.8325
.48
.3826
.33355
.33460
.33565
.33670
. 33775
.33880
.33985
.34090
.34195
.34:W
.49
.3430
.34406
.34512
.84618
.34724
.3483
.34936
.85012
.85148
.35264
.35*i
0.60
0.8536
0.36466
0.36672
0.35678
0.35784
0.36890
0.35996
0.36102
0.36208
0.36314
0.3642
.51
.3642
.86628
.36636
.36744
.36852
.36960
.37068
.87176
.87281
.37392
.37.10
.52
.3750
.37608
. 37716
.37824
.87982
.88040
.38148
.38256
.38364
.38472
.Sfs.\f^
.68
.8858
.88690
.38800
.38910
.89020
.39130
.39240
.89850
.39460
.3957
. 290A
.54
.3968
.39791
.39902
.40013
.40124
.40236
.40346
.40457
.40668
.40679
.4079
.56
.4079
.40902
.41014
.41126
.41238
.41350
.41462
.41574
.41686
.41798, .4191
.42918 .4303
.56
.4191
.42022
.42134
.42246
.42358
.42470
.42682
.42694
.42806
.67
.4803
.43144
.43258
.43372
.48486
.48600
.43714
.43828
.43SM2
.44(^
.4417
..•>8
.4417
.44285
.44400
.44616
.44630
.44745
.44860
.44976
.45090
.45205
.4,^32
.69
.4632
.46436
.46552
.45668
.46784
.46000
.46016
.46132
.46248
.46364
.4648
0.60
0.4648
0.46696
0.46712
0.46828
0.46944
0.47060
0.47176
0.47292
0.47408
0. 47824 0.47M
.61
.4764
.47758
.47876
.47994
.48112
.48230
.48348
.48466
.48684
.48702 .IfcKJ
.62
.4882
.48938
.49056
. 49174
.49292
.49410
.49528
.49646
.49764
.49882 .5000
.63
.5000
.50120
.50240
.5086
.6048
.5060
.5072
.6084
.5096
.6108
.51-20
.61
.6120
.5132
.5144
.5156.
.6168
.6180
.6192
.6204
.5216
.5228
.5240
.66
.5240
.62522
.526-14
.52766
.52888
.53010
.53132
.68254
.53376
.53496
.5862 .
.66
.5362
.53742
.53861
.53986
.64108
.64230
.64352
.64474
.54596
.64718 .6484 \
.67
.6484
.54963
.55086
.6V209
.66332
.55455
.55578
.55701
- .55824
.55947 .5Hl»7
.68
.6607
.56195
.56320
. 56445
.56570
.66695
.56820
.56945
.57070
.67196 .5752
.69
.5732
.57446
.5757
.57695
.57820
.67945
.58070
.58195
.58320
.58M5 .5S57
0.70
0.6867
0.58696
0.58822
0.58948
0.69074
0.59200
0.59326
0.59452
0.69678
0. 59704 0.69h3
.71
.5983
.69956
.60082
.60208
.60834
.60460
.60686
.60712
.60838
.60861 .6109
.72
.6109
.61218
.61346
. 61474
.61602
.61730
.61858
.61986
.62114
.62242 .6237
.73
.6237
.62499
. 62628
. 62757
.62886
.63015
.68144
.63278
.63402
.63581 .63Gt>
.74
.6366
.63789
.63918
.61W7
.64176
.64305
.64484
.64563
.64692
.64821 .61»'j
.76
.6495
.65081
.65212
.65343
.65474
.65605
.65736
.65867
.66998
.66129 .6626
.76
.6626
.66391
. 66522
.66653
.66784
. 66915
.67046
.67177
.67308
.67489 .6757
.77
.6767
.67702
.678:^4
. 67966
.68098
.68230
.68362
.68494
.68626
.68768 .6889
.78
.6889
.69028
.69156
.69289
.60422
.69556
.69688
.69821
.69954
.70087 .7022
.79
.7022
.70353
.70486
.70(J19
.70752
.70886
.71018
.71151
.71284
.71417 .7165
TABLES FOR CALCULATING WKIR DIflCHARliE.
Tablk o. — Three-kcdveat poircrnfor nnmltetH 0 to /.4f* — Continued.
178
Numbers.
.000
0.7156
.001
0.71685
.00)B
0.71820
.OOS .004 .005 , .006
0.71965 0.7a090| 0.T2225 0.72360|
.007
0. 72495
.008
0.72680
.000 1 .010
0.7276510.7290
0.80
.81
.7290
.78035
.7317
.78805
.78440
.785751 .73710
.73845
.73980
. 74115
.7425
.82
.7426
.74387
.74624
.74661
.74798
.749851 .75072
.75209
.76679
.75346
.75488] .7562
.83
.7562
. 75757
.75894
.76031
.76168
.76805 .76443]
. 76716
.76853| .7699
.84
.7099
.77128
.7T266
.774C4
.77542
.77680 .77818
.77956
.78094
.78232, .7887
.85
.7837
.78508
. 78646 . 787H4
.78922
.79060 .99198
.79386
.79474
.79612. .7975
.86
.7975
.79890| .80080. .80170
.8031
.8045 .8059
.8078
.8087
.8101 ! .8115
.87
.8115
.8129 1 .8143
.8157
.8171 .8185
.K199 ■
.8213
.8227
.8241 1 .8255
.88
.8255
.82691 .82832
.82973
.84386
.83114 .83255
.83896
.836:n
.88678
.88819 .8396
.88
.8396
.84102
.84244
.84528
.W670
. 84812'
.84954
.86096
.85238 .8538
0.90
0.8588
0.86523
0.86666
0.86809
0.a5952
0.86095 0.86238!
0.86381
0.86524
0. 86667,0. HtWl
.91
.8681
.86953
.87096
.8723^
.87882
.87525 .87668
.87811
.87954
.8809*; .8824
.92
.8824
.88885| .8853
.88675
.88S20 .XS9lVi .89110'
.89255
.8940
.89545 .8969
.93
.8969
.89835 .89980
.90125
.90270| .90415 .9056 '
.90705
.9085
.9099:>| .9114
.94
.9114
.9i2a5
.9143
.91575
.91720| .91865| .92010
. 92155
.9230
.92445 .9259
.95
.9269
.92737
.928K4
.99081
.98178 .93325 .98472
.93619
.93766
.93913 .9406
.96
.9406
.94207
.94354
.94501
. 94648' . 947951 . 94942
.95089
.9523(>
.958831 .955:{
.97
.9553
.95679
.96828
.95977
.96126
.96275; .9W24
.96573
.96722
.96871 .9702
.96
.9702
.97168
.97316
.97464
.97612
.97760 .97908
.98056
.98204
.98352' .9860
.90
.9860
.9865
.9880
.9895
.9910
.9925 j .9940
.9955
.9970
.9985 1.0000
1.00
1.0000
1.0015
1.0080
1.0O45
1.0060
1.0075 1.0090 1
I.OIO)
1.0120
1.0185 1.0150
1.01
1.0160
1.01652
1.01804
1.01956
1.02108
1.02260! 1.02412
1.02564
1.02716
1.02868,1.0802
1.02
1,0902
1.08171
1.08322
1.08473
1.03624
1.03775 1.03926
1.04077
1.04282
1.04879' 1.0453
1.03
1.0453
1.04683
1.04836
1.04989
1.05142
1.05295| 1.05448
1.05601
1.05754
1.069071.0606
1.04
1.0606
1.06213
1.06366
1.06519
1.06672
1.06825 1.06978
1.07131
1.07284
1.074371.0759
1.05
1.0759
1.07744
1.07898
1.08062
1.08206
1.0836o' 1.08614
1.08668
1.08822
1.06976|1.0918
1.06
1.0913
1.09285
1.09440
1.09595
1.09750 1.09905 1.10060
1.10215
1.10870
1.105251.1068
1.07
1.106H
1.10836
1.10992
1.11148
1.11804^ 1.11460; 1.11616
1. 11772
1.11928
1. 12084 ll. 1224
1.08
1,1224
1.12396
1.12552
1.12708
1.12864 1.13020 1.18176
1.13332
1.134SS
1.18644'l.l380
1.09
1.1380
1.13967
1. 14114
1.14271
1.14428 1.14585 1.14742
1.14899
1.15056
1.152131.1537
1.10
1.1537
1.15528
1.15686
1.15844
1.16002 I.16160| 1.16818
1.17582 1.177401 1.17898
1.16476
1.16634
1. 16792 1. 1695
1.11
1.1695
1.17108
1.17266
1. 17424
1.18066
1.18214
1.183721.1853
1.12
1.1863
1.18689
1.18848
1.19007
1.19166J 1.19325| 1.19484;
1.19643
1.21240
1.19802
1.199611.2012
1.18
1.2012
1.20280
1.20440
1.20600
1.20760 1.20920 1.21080
1.21400
1.215601.2172
1.14
1.2172
1.21880
1.22040
1.22200
1.22360 1.22520' 1.22880|
1.22840
1.23000
1.231601.2332
1.15
1.2332
1.23482
1.23644
1.23806
1.23968 1.24130 1.24292
1.24454
1.24616
1.247781.2494
1.16
1.2494
1.25102
1.25264
1.25426
1.25588 1.26750 1.25912'
1.26074
1. 262:^6
1.263981.2656
1.17
1.2666
1.26722
1.26881
1.27046
1.27:08 1.27370, 1.27532
1.27694
1. 27856
1.280181.2818
1.18
1.2818
1.28843
1.28506
1.28669
1.28832 1.28995
1.29158'
1.29321
1.29484
1.296471.2981
1.19
1.2981
1.29974 1,30138
L 30302
1.30466 1.80680
1.80791'
1.30958
1.31122
1.81286'l.8145
1
1.20
1.3145
1.31615 1.31780
1.31945
1.32110, 1.32275
1. 32440
1.326a'>
1.32770
1.329:i5 1.3310
1.21
1.3310
1.33266 1.33430
1.83595
1.33760 1.38925
1.34090
1.34255
1.34420
1.345H5 1.3475
1.22
1.3475
1.34916 L 35082
1.35248
1.35414 1.35580
1.3'>746'
1.35912
1.36078
1.36244 1.3&11
1.23
1.3641
1.36577 1.36744
1.36911
1.37678J 1.37245
1.37412
1.37579
1.87746
1.37913'l.3808
1.24
1.3808
L 382471 1.38414
1.38681
1.38748 1.38915
1.39082
1.39249
1.39416
1.39583,1.3975
1.25
1.3975
1.39919 1.40088
1.40267
1.40426
1. 40595
1.40764
1.40933
1.41102
1.412711.4144
1.26
1.4144
1.41608, 1.41776
1.4329 1 1.4346
1.41944
1.42112
1.42280
1. 42448
1.42616
1. 42784
1.42952 1.4312
1.27
1.4312
1.4363
1.4380 1.4897
1.4414 1
1.4431
1.4448
1.4465 1.4482
1.28
1.4482
1.4499 ! 1.4516
1.4583
1.4550 1.4567
1.45M 1
1.4601
1.4618
1. 4635 ^1. 46-V2
1.29
1.4652
1.4669
1.4686
1.4703
1.4720
1.4737
1.4754 1
1. 4771
1.47H8
1.4Ma5
1.4822
174 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Table 5. — Three-halt^ powers for numbers 0 to 1.49 — Continued.
Numbers.
.000
.001
.002
.008
.004
.006
.006
.007
.008
.000 > .010
1.30
1.4822
1.48392
1.48564
1.48736
1.48908
1.49080
1.49262
1.49424
1.49696
1.497681.4994
1.31
1.4994
1.50112
1.60-^84
1.6045$
1.60628
1.60800
1.50972
1.61144
1.51316
1.514881.6166
1.32
1.5166
1.51832
1.62004
1.62176
1.62348
1.62620
1.62692
1.52864
1.63036
1.632081.5338
1.33
1.6338
1.63554
1.58728
1.6S902
1.64076
1.64250
1.64424
1.64696| 1.54772
1.549461.5512
1.34
1.5512
1.55294
1.56468
1.66642
1.66816
1.56990
1.66164
1.56S88
1.56512
1. 56686 1.568ti
1.36 .
1.6686
1.67034; 1.57208
1.67382
1.67656
1.67730
1.57904
1.58078
1.58252
1.584261.5860
1.36
1.5860
1.58775
1.58950
1.69125
1.59300
1.69475
1.69650l 1.60825
1.60000
1.601751.603:1
1.37
1.6035
1.60526
1.60702
1.60878
1.61064
1.61280
1.61406
1.61582
1.61768
1.619M 1.6211
1.38
1.6211
1.62287
1.62464
1.62641
1.62818
1.62996
1.68172
1.63349
1.63626
1.637031.6388
1.39
1.6388
1.64067
1.64234
1.64411
1.64688
1.64766
1.64942
1.65119
1.65U96
1.654731.6565
1.40
1.6665
1.65828
1.66006
1.66184
l.(?6862
1.66540
1.66718
1.66896
1.67075
1.67252
1.6743
1.41
1.6748
1.67608 1.67786
1.67964
1.68142
1.68320
1.68498
1.68676
1.68854
1.69082
1.6921
1.42
1.6921
1.69389 1.69568
1.69747
1.69926
1.70i06
1.70284
1.7(M6S
1.70642
1.70821
1.7100
1.43
1.7100
1.7118 1 1,7136
1.7154
1.7172
1.7190
1.7208
1.7226
1.7244
1.7262
1.72«0
1.44
1.7280
1.7298
1.7316
1.7384
1.7352
1.7870
1.7388
1.7406
1. 7424
1.7442
1.7460
1.45
1.74(iO
1.74781
1.74962
1. 75143
1. 75324
1.75605
1.76686
1.76867
1.76048
1. 76229*1. 7641
1.40
1. 7611
1.76692
1. 76774
1.76956
1. 77138
1.77320
1.77502
1.77684
1.77866
1.7804s'l.7823
1.47
1.7823
1.78412
1.78594
1.78776
1.78958
1.79140
1.79822
1.79604
1.79686
1.79868^1.8005
1.48
1.8006
1.80233
1.80416
1.80599
1.80782
1.80965
1.81148
1.81831
1.81514
1.81697 1.8188
1.49
1.8188
Table 6. — Three-halves potuers for numbers from 0 to 12.
0.00
.01
.02
.03
.04
.a5
.06
.07
.08
.09
0.10
.11
.12
.13
.14
.15
.16
. 17
.18
.19
j:
O.OOOojl. 0000,2. 8284
.00101
.00281,
.00521
.00801
.01121
.01471
.01851
.02261
. 0270|1,
0. 03161 1,
.03(i5|l,
.01161.
.0469,1.
0150 2. 8497
0802 2.8710
04532.8923
0606 2.9137
07592.9362
09132.9567
1068 2.9782
1224 2.9998
1380 3.0215
1637 3.0432 5.
1695 3.06505.
1853 3.0868 5.
20r2 3.108<}j5.
.052411. 2172 3. 130t»i5.
:l
aWlll. '2332 3. 15255.
2494 3. 1745 6.
j;
.0640,1
.07011.265(>3.196(j|5.
.07641
.08281.
2818 3.2187 5.
29813.2409 5.
1962
2222
2482
2743
3004
S26(>
3528
3791
4064
4317
4581
4845
6110
5375
5641
5907
6173
6440
6708
6975
I
000011.
11.
060111.
090211.
120311.
1505
1807
2109
2412 11.
2715,11,
3019,11.
332311,
862711.
393211.
1803
2139
2475
2811 14,
314814.
348514.
382214.
4160
4497 14.
4836! 15.
7337
7705
8073
8442
8810
9179
7 I 8
10
18. 5203 22. 6274 27. 0000,31. 6228
18. 6600 22. 6699!27. 04.50,31 . 6702
089031.7177
1351 81. 7652
1802131.8127
18.6997 22.7123|27.
18.6394|22.754827.
18.6792
18. 7190
18. 7689
14.964918.7988
22. 7973
22.8399
22.8825
•22.9251
27.
27.2253;31.8602
•27,
27
I
991918.8387 22.9677:27.
028918.878623.0103:27.
270531.9078
8156 31.9554
360832.0030
40rio!32.0506
517415.
551315.
5852!l5. 1400,18. 9985
6192 15.1772;i9.038l>
066918.9185
103018.9585
O.IJ
J,.
42.37,11. 6532
6872
7213
4542|11
484811.
5154 11.
b\m 11.
5767ill.
^1
214319.0786
2515'l9.1187 23.
2887:19. 1589 23.
0530
0957
1884
1812
2240 27. 6324 '32. 2H92
2668 27. 6778;32. 3370
27,T232|3a.3848
4512 32.0983,
4965 82. 1460;
6418 3-2. 1937
5871 1:«. 2414
'8;3:
7554
'895
8236
15. 3260119. 1990123. 3525
8954
r
363219.239223.
40a5 19. 2794 23.
7686 ;«. 4326
814032.4804
438327.85953-2.528;?
11
36.4829
36.6326
36.5624
36.6322
36.6820
86.7319
36.7818
36.8317
36.8816
36.9315
36.9815
37.0315
87.0815
87. 1315
37. 1816
37. 2317
37.2817
37.8319
37.3820
37.4.^22
TABLES FOR CALCULATING WEIR DT8CHARGE. 175
Table 6. — Three-halves powers for numbers from 0 to 12 — Continued.
\%
<Sl
^
^^^
0.20
.21
.22
.23
.24
.25
.26
.27
.28
o.ao
.31
.34
.35
.96
.37
0.40
.41
.42
.43
.44
.45
.46
.47
.48
.49
0.G0
.51
.52
.54
.»
.56
.57
.58
.59
o.eo
.61
.64
.65
.66
.67
.66
.69
1
!
.09S2jl.
.10321,
.11031.
.11761.
. 12S0 1.
.13261.
. 14031.
.14821.
. 1562' 1.
0.16431.
.17261.
I .18101.
. 18961.
. idssli,
.20711
.21601.
.22511.
.23421,
.24861.
'r
0. 0894 1. 3145 3. 2631 5. ?243 8. 6074,11. 8578il5. 4379
.3310.3. 2854 J5. 7512'
.3475I3. 3077 5.7781!
3641
3.8301
38083.8525
39753.37605.8500
41443.3975I5.886I
4312'3,420l'5.9192|
8.638211.892016.4762
8.669011.926315.5126
5.8060i 8.6998.11.960615.5501
8.73e7|ll.9949
8.761SI2.0293
8.792612.0636
8.823512.0981
16.;7001 19. 6021 23. 7825 28,
4482 3. 4427 5. 9403 8. 8545 12. 1325 16. 7376 19. 6425 23. 825728.
4652I3. 4654 5. 9675 8. 8806 12. 1670 16. 7752 19. 6830
15.5866
15.6250
16.6616
8196
3599
4002
4405
480H
5212
48223.48815.9947
4994|3.51096.0220
51663.5337 6.0498
5338'3.55666.0767
55123.57966.1041
6686|3. 60256. 1315
58603.62556.1590
8.9167112.201515.8129
19.7
60353.6486
6211 3. 6n7
63883.6949
6.1865
6.2141
6.2417
0. 2580 L 6565 3. 7181 6. 2693
. 2625 1. 6743 3. 7413 6. 2970
I .27221. 692113. 7646|6. 3247
3.764616.3247
iS.788ol6.8525
.28201.7100S.
. 29191. 728o|3. 8114 6. 3803
. 80191. 7460:3. 8849 6. 4081
. 3120 1. 7641 13. 868416. 4360
.3222!l.7823'3.8819;6.4639
. 3325|l. 8005 3. 9055'6. 4919
{ .34301.8188:3.92926.5199
j I
p. 85381. 837113. 9629 6. 5479
.36421.85653.97666.6760
.875o'l.87404.0004 6.6041
.419i;i.9484
.48031.9672
.38581.8926
.39681.9111
. 4079!l. 9297 4. 07206. 6887
4.0242 6.6323
4.04816.6605
4.0960,6.7170
4.12006.7453
.4417 1.9660,4. 1441 16. 7737
. 4582 2. 0049*4. 1682'6. 8021
4.19246.8306
0.46482.0238
.4764 2.04294.2166 6
.48822.06194.2408 6.
.50002.08104.26516.
.5120'2. 1002 4. 2895.6.
.524o|2.1]95|4.3189 6.
.5362 2. 138814. 8388|7.
.5484 2.158l'4.3628 7.
.5607 2. 1775!4. 38747.
.57822.197ok4119'7.
8590
8875
9161
9447
9783
0020
0307
0695
7235 23. 9121 28. 3612 33. 0564
8. 9478 12. 2361 1 15. 8606 19. 7641 23. 9563 28. 40e9[33. 1046
«046'23. 9986 28. 4627 33. 1527
8152 24. 041828. 4985;83. 2009
8.979012.2706;i5.8882
9.010212.305315.9260
9.041412.S399;15.9637
9.0726,12.374616.0015
9. 104o|l2. 4093.16. 0393
9.135312.444016.0772
9.1667112.478816.1150
i't
I
9. 2296112. 6485|16. 1909 20.
9. 2610 12. 5833 16. 2288 20.
9.2925,12.6182|l6.2668
9. 3241 12. 668216. 8048 20.
9. 8857I12. 6882 16. 8429:20.
.9514
10
23. 4812 27. 9060|32. 5762;
23. 524227.
23.5672'27.
23. 6102|28.
23.653328.
23.6963 28.
557023.7894128.
23.8689 28.
32.6241'
9960J32. 6?20
0416132. 720o|
0872 32.7680,
132832.8160,
1784 82. 8640
2241 '32. 9121
2698182.9600
3155'33.0083
I
8858 24. 0851 28. 5444 33. 2492
9265 24. 1285:28. 5902,33. 2974
96T2 24. 1718 28. 6361 133. 3457
007924.215228.
048624.258628.
9. 1981112. 5136'16. 152920. 0894 24. S02l!28.
1.682033.3940
(.7279|33.4423
1.773933.4906
-1^.
3455 28. 8199|33. 5890
389028.
20.2118i24.432528.
4761 i28.
9.387312.7232:16.3810
9.418912.758216.4191
9.4506
9.4824
9.5141
12.7983|16.4572
12.8284ll6.4964
12.8635'16.5336
5469112.
677812.9838
6097
6416
12.9691
13.0043'
673513.0396
7055|l3.0749
16. 5718
16.6101
16.6484
16.6867
16.7250
16.7634
9. 7375II8. 110816. 8018 20.
9.
j:
>.7695il3.1457
L 8016 13. 1811
1.833713.2165,
9.8659
9.8981
9.9808
9.9626
16.8402
16.8787
16. 9172
13.262016.
13.2876|l6.
13.323117.
13. 3587 17. 0714 2L 0769
;.9567
;.9943
.0828
9.994913.394317.1101
10.0272
10.
13.429917.
13.466617.
1874
10.092013.601817.2172
13.537017.2649
10.156913.6728,17.3087
1302 24. S
171024.3
8|2
2627|24.
293624.
334624.
375624.
4165 24.
457524.
4985!24.
I
6396|24.
5807 24.
621824.
6630J24.
7041 24.
7463J25.
786625.
827825.
869l|25.
9104,25.
5196|29.
563229.
865933.6874
9119 33. 6358
957933.6842
004033.7827'
050l|33.7811
0962 33.8297
606829.
6605 29. 142433. 8782
694129.
7378'29.
L 1886 33. 9267
>. 2847,38. 9753
781529.
825329.
869129.
9129 29.
9567 29.
0005'29.
0444|29.
088329.
132229.
1762 29.
20.9931
21.0345
281034.0239
827234.0725
3735 34.1211
4198 34.1698
4661 134. 2185
5124 34. 2672
5588 34. 3159
605234.3647
6616 34.4135
698034. 46-23
20. 951825. 2202 29. 7445 34. 5111
25.264229.791034.5599
25.308229.8375 34.6088
25. 3522 29. 8841 134. 6577
2L 1174|25. 3963 29. 9806 34. 7066
1488 21. 1589'25. 4404,29. 9772'34. 7557
21 . 2004 25. 4845|30. 0238 34. 8045
21. 2419 25. 5287 30. 0704134. a535
2I.2834I25.5729I30.
21.3250125.6171130.
43
1. 1171 134. 9025
1. 1638 34. 9516
11
37.4824
87.5826
37.5828
37.6831
87.6833
37.7336
87.7840
87.8343
87.8847
87.9351
37.9655
38.0859
38.0864
88.1369
38.1874
38.2879
38.3896
38.4402
38.4908
38.5415
38.5922
88.6429
38.6986
88.7448
88.7951
88.8459
38.8967
88.9475
88.9984
39.0493
89.1002
39. 1511
39.2020
39.2580
89.3040
39.3550
39.4060
39. 4571
89.5082
39.5593
39.6104
39. 6616
39. 7127
39.7689
39.8151
39.8663
39. 9176
39.9689
76 I
176 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Table 6. — Three-halves powers for numbers from 0 to 12 — Continued.
The tables of three-halves powers may conveniently be used
in conjunction with Crelle's Rechentafeln, or similar tables of the
products of pairs of factors. C will usually be constant, or nearly so.
Entering Crelle's tables with C or CL as an argument, the discharge
corresponding to values of 11^ read from the tables here given may be
taken out directly, and usually with sufficient precision at least for
1 foot length of crest, without any arithmetical computation. Table o
gives 11^ for values of Htrom zero to 1.5 feet, advancing by thou-
sandths. In Table 6 the increment is 0.1 foot, and the range zero to
12 feet. Should 77* be required for larger values of H^ it may be
found from the three-halves power of i//, by the formula
^•=8(f)'
(114)
TABLES FOR CALrULATTNO WEIR DTSCHARCIK.
177
TABLE 7.— FLOW OVER BROAD-CRESTBD WEIRS, WITH STABLE
NAPPE.
This table gives values of
where
Z=l
The derivation of this coefficient is given in connection with discus-
sion of broad -crested weirs (pp. 119-121). It may be applied to broad-
crested weira of any width of cross section exceeding 2 feet within such
limiting heads that the nappe does not adhere to the downstream fat*e
of the weir for low heads nor tend to become detached with increased
head. Under the latter condition the coefficient increases to a limit
near the value which applies for a thin-edged weir, a point being
finally reached where the nappe breaks entirely free from the broad
crest and discharges in the same manner as for a thin-edged weir.
The coefficient, 2.B4, may often be applied for weirs exceeding 2-feet
crest width and for heads from 0.5 foot up to 1.5 or 2 times the breadth
of weir crest. If corrections for the velocity of approach are required
the Francis correction formula, or its equivalent, should be used.
Table 7. — IfVir discharge per foot ofcreM length,
[Coefficient Ci=2M.]
Head H, feet.
"
0
0.000
2.64
%
7.47
8
13.7
4
21.1
5
29.5
6
38.8
7
48.9
8
59.7
9
71.3
10
■
0.00
83.5
.01
.003
2.68
7. 52
13.8
21.2
29.6
38.9
49.0
59.8
71.4
H3.6
.02
.007
2.72
7.58
13.8
21.3
29.7
89.0
49.1
59.9
71.5
83.7
.08
.014
2.76
7.64
13.9
21.4
29.8
39.1
49.2
60.1
71.6
8;j.9
.M
.021
2.80
7.69
14.0
21.4
29.9
39.2
49.3
60.2
71.7
84.0
.06
.080
2.84
7.76
14.1
21.6
30.0
39.3
49.4
60.3
71.9
84.1
.06
.089
2.88
7.81
14.1
21.6
30.0
39.4
49.5
60.4
ri.o
84.2
.07
.049
2.92
7.86
14.2
21.7
80.1
39.5
49.6
60.5
72.1
81.4
.08
.060
2.96
7.92
14.3
21.8
30.2
39.6
49.7
60.6
72.2
84.5
.09
.071
8.00
7.98
14.8
21.8
30.3
39.7
49.8
60.7
72.3
84.6
0.10
0.083
3.04
8.03
14.4
21.9
30.4
39.8
49.9
60.8
72.5
84.7
.11
.096
3.09
8.09
14.6
22.0
30.5
39.9
50.0
61.0
72.6
84.9
.12
.110
8.13
8.15
14.6
22.1
30.6
40.0
50.2
61.1
72.7
85.0
.13
.124
3.17
8.21
14.6
22.2
30.7
40.1
50.3
61.2
72.8
85.1
.14
.138
3.21
8.26
14.7
22.2
30.8
40.2
50.4
61.3
72.9
85.2
.16
.153
8.26
8.32
14.8
22.3
30.8
40.3
50.5
61.4
73.1
85.4
.16
.169
3.30
8.38
14.8
22..4
30.9
40.4
60.6
61.5
73.2
86.5
.17
.185
3.34
8.44
14.9
22.5
31.0
40.5
60.7
61.6
73.3
86.6
.18
.202
3.38
8.50
15.0
22.6
31.1
40.6
50.8
61.8
73.4
85.7
1 •"
..«
3.«
8.56
15.0
22.6
31.2
40.7
50.9
61.9
73. .-)
85.9
178 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Table 7. — Weir discharge per foot of cretfl length — Ck>ntintied.
Head//, feet.
0
1
35
8
4
5
6
7
8
•
10
0.20
0.236
3.47
8.61
15.1
22.7
31.3
40.8
51.0
62.0
73.7
86.0
.21
.254
3.51
8.67
15.2
22.8
31.4
40.9
51.1
62.1
73.8
86.1
.22
.272
3. 56
8.73
15.2
22.9
31.5
41.0
61.2
62.2
73.9
86.2
.23
.291
3.60
8.79
15.3
23.0
31.6
41.0
51.3
62 3
74.0
86.4
.24
.810
3.64
8.85
15.4
23.0
81.7
41.1
61.4
62.4
74.1
86.5
.26
.330
3.69
8.91
16.6
23.1
31.8
41.2
51.6
62.6
74.3
86.6
.26
.350
3.73
8.97
16.5
23.2
81.8
41.3
61.6
62.7
74.4
86.H '
.27
.870
3.78
9.03
15.6
23.3
31.9
41.4
51.7
62.8
74.5 86.9 .
.28 .
.391
3.82
9.09
15.7
23.4
32.0
41.5
61.9
62.9
74.6 87.0 ■
.29
.412
3.87
9.15
15.8
23.4
32.1
41.6
62.0
63.0
74.8 87.1
0.80
0.434
3.91
9.21
15.8
23.6
82.2
41.7
62.1
68.1
74.9 87.8
.31
.466
3.96
9.27
15.9
23.6
32.3
41.8
52.2
63.2
75.0 87.4
.32
.478
4.00
9.33
16.0
28.7
32.4
41.9
62.3
63.4
75.1 87.5
.33
.500
4.05
9.39
16.0
23.8
32.5
42.0
62.4
68.5
75.2
87.6
.34
.524
4.10
9.45
16.2
23.9
32.6
42.1
52.5
63.6
75.4
87.8
.85
.547
4.14
9.51
16.2
24.0
32.7
42.2
52.6
63.7
75.5
87.9
.86
.670
4.19
9.67
16.3
24.1
32.8
42.3
62.7
63.8
75.6
88.0
.37
.594
4.23
9.63
16.3
24.1
32.8
42.4
62.8
63.9
75.7
88.2
.38
.618
4.-28
9.69
16.4
24.2
32.9
42.6
62,9
64.0
76.8
88.8
.39
.643
4.33
9.75
16.6
24.8
83.0
42.6
63.0
64.2
76.0
88.4
0.40
0.668
4.37
9.82
16.6
24.4
33.1
42.7
68.1
64.8
76.1
88.6
.41
.693
4.42
9.88
16.6
24.4
83.2
42.8
63.2
64.4
76.2
88.7
.42
.719
4.47
9.M
16.7
24.5
33.3
4i9
68.4
64.5
76.3
88.8
.43
.744
4.51
10.0
16.8
24.6
33.4
43.0
53.6
64.6
76.4
88.9
.44
.771
4.56
10.1
16.8
24.7
83.5
43.1
68.6
64.7
76.6
89.0
.45
.797
4.61
10.1
16.9
24.8
33.6
43.2
68.7
64.8
76.7
89.2
.46
.824
4.66
10.2
17.0
24.9
33.7
43.3
68.8
66.0
76.8
89.8
.47
.851
4.70
10.2
17.1
24.9
33.8
43.4
63.9
66.1
76.9
89.4
.48
.878
4.75
10.3
17.1
26.0
33.9
43.6
64.0
65.2
77.0
89.6
.49
.905
4.80
10.4
17.2
25.1
34.0
43.6
54.1
65.8
77.2
89.7
0.50
0.934
4.85
10.4
17.3
25.2
34.0
43.7
54.2
66.4
77.3
89.8
.51
.961
4.90
10.5
17.4
25.3
34.1
48.8
54.8
65.6
77.4
90.0
.52
.990
4.95
10.6
17.4
25.4
34.2
44.0
54.4
65.6
77.5
90.1
.53
1.02
5.00
10.6
17.5
25.4
34.3
44.1
64.6
65.8
77.7
90.2
.54
1.05
6.04
10.7
17.6
26.6
34.4
44.2
64.7
65.9
77.8
90.3
.55
1.08
5.09
10.8
17.7
25.6
34.6
44.3
54.8
66.0
77.9
90.5
.56
1.11
5.14
10.8
17.7
26.7
34.6
44.4
54.9
66.1
78.0
90.6
.57
1.14
5.19
10.9
17.8
25.8
34.7
44.5
65.0
66.2
78.2
90.7
.58
1.17
5.24
10.9
17.9
2.5.9
34.8
44.6
65.1
66.3
78.3
90.8
.59
1.20
5. -29
11.0
18.0
26.0
34.9
44.7
55.2
66.6
73.4
91.0
0.60
1.23
5.34
11.1
IH.O
26.0
a5.o
44.8
55.3
66.6
78.6
91.1
.61
1.26
5.39
11.1
18. 1
26.1
a5.i
44.9
55.4
66.7
78.6
91.2
.62
1.29
5.44
11.2
18.2
26.2
35.2
45.0
55.5
66.8
78.8
91.4
.63
1.32
5.49
11.2
18.2
26.3
35.3
46.1
56.6
66.9
78.9
91.5
.64
1.35
5.54
11.3
18.3
26.4
35.4
46.2
65.7
67.0
79.0
91.6
.66
1.38
5.60
11.4
18.4
26.5
35.4
45.3
55.9
67.2
79.1
91.8
.66
1.42
5.65
11.4
18.5
26.6
35.5
45.4
56.0
67.3
79.3
91.9
.67
1.45
5.70
11.5
18.6
26.6
35. 6
45.5
56.1
67.4
79.4
92.0
.68
1.48
6.75
11.6
18.6
26.7
35.7
45.6
56.2
67.5
79.5
92.1
.69
1.51
5.80
11.6
18.7
26.8
35.8
45.7
56.3
67.6
79.6
92.3
TABLES FOR CALCULATlNf* WKIR DISCHAKGK.
Table 7. — Weir discharge per foot of rrent length — Continued.
179
Head JJ. feet
0
1
2
S
*
6
6
7
N
0
10
H
^\
5.85
11.7
18.8
26.9
35.9
45.8
56.4
0.70
1.66
67.7
79.8
92.4
.71
1.68
5.90
11.8
18.9
27.0
86.0
45.9
66.5
67.9
79.9
92.6
.72
1.61
6.96
11.8
18.9
27.1
36.1
46.0
56.6
68,0
80.0
92.7
.78
1.65
6.01
11.9
19.0
27.2
86.2
46.1
56.7
68.1
80.1
92.8
.74
1.68
6.06
12.0
19.1
27.2
36.3
46.2
56.8
68.2
80.2
92.9
.76
1.71
6.11
12.0
19.2
27.3
36.4
46.3
57.0
68.8
90 A
93.0
.76
1.76
6.16
12.1
19.2
27.4
36.5
46.4
57.1
68.4
80.6
93.2
.77
1.78
6.22
12.2
19.8
27.5
36.6
46.6
67.2
68.6
80.6
93.8
.78
1.82
6.27
12.2
19.4
27.6
36.7
46.6
57.3
68.7
80.7
93.4
.79
1.86
6.32
12.3
19.5
27.7
86.8
46.7
67.4
68.8
80.9
93.6
0.80
1.89
6.38
12.4
19.6
27.8
36.9
46.8
57.6
68.9
81.0
98.7
.81
1.92
6.43
12.4
19.6
27.8
37.0
46.9
67.6
69.0
81.1
93.8
.82
1.96
6.48
12.5
19.7
27.9
37.1
47.0
67.7
69.2
81.2
94.0
.88
2.00
6.54
12.6
19.8
28.0
87.2
47.1
57.8
69.3
81.4
94.1
.84
2.03
6.59
12.6
19.9
28.1
87.3
47.2
58.0
69.4
81.6
94.2
.86
2.07
6.64
12.7
19.9
28.2
37.4
47.3
58.1
69.5
81.6*
94.4
.86
2.10
6.70
12.8
20.0
28.3
37.4
47.4
58.2
69.6
81.7
94.6
.87
2,14
6.76
12.8
20.1
28.4
87.5
47.5
58.3
69.7
81.9
94.6
; .88
2.18
6.80
12.9
20.2
28.5
37.6
47.6
58.4
69.9
82.0
94.7
' .88
2.22
6.86
13.0
20.2
28.6
87.7
47.7
58.5
70.0
82.1
94.9
0.90
2.26
6.91
13.0
20.8
28.6
37.8
47.8
68.6
70.1
82.2
95.0
.91
2.29
6.97
13.1
20.4
28.7
87.9
48.0
68.7
70.2
82.4
95.1
.92
2.33
7.02
13.2
20.5
28.8
38.0
48.1
68.8
70.3
82.5
95.3
.93
2.37
7.08
13.2
20.6
28.9
38.1
48.2
69.0
70.4
82.6
95.4
.94
2.41
7.13
18.3
20.6
2910
38.2
48.3
59.1
70.6
82.7
96.5
.95
2.44
7.19
18.4
20.7
29.1
38.3
48.4
59.2
70.7
82.9
95.6
.96
2.48
7.24
13.4
20.8
29.2
38.4
48.5
69.3
70.8
83.0
96.8
.97
2.82
7.30
18.5
20.9
29.8
38.5
48.6
59.4
70.9
83.1
95.9
.96
2.56
7.36
13.6
21.0
29.3
88.6
48 7
69.5
71.0
83.2
96.0
.99
2.60
7.41
13.6
21.0
29.4
38.7
48.8
59.6
71.2
83.4
96.2
1.00
1
2.64
7.47
13.7
21.1
29.5
38.8
48.9
59.7
71.8
83.5
96.3
180 WEIB EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
TABLE 8.— BACKWATER CAUSED BY A DAM OR WEIR.
In a channel of uniform depth, width, and slope, let
Z>= Original uniform depth.
(/2= Depth at the dam or obstruction.
rfi= Depth at a point upstream.
/= Distance upstream to the point d^,
?^= Width of channel.
/i= Distance upstream to the '^hydrostatic limit."
x9= Natural uniform slope or inclination of water surface and
stream bed, assumed parallel.
^= Acceleration of gravity.
C= Coefficient in the Chezy or slope formula ^»= C^HS^
where R is the hydrauUc radiu8=-"f* f_J^S^..
wetted perimeter
The value of (7 varies for rivers from about 50 to 140.
The distance upstream from the obstruction at which the depth will
be d^ may be found by the formula
I
7^ is a function of -v-, whose value can be expressed mathematically-
only as a transcendental equation. The numerical values of this func-
tion are given in Table 8. F^ will be found opposite the argument
-^, and F^ opposite ^ .
Fio. 15.— Concave backwater surface.
The inverse problem of finding the depth at any given distance /
upstream can be solved only by successive trials.
Using the above equation, a series of values of d^ may be determined
giving in tabular form the corresponding values of I, From this data
the form of the surface curve may be graphically shown or the depth
of back piling at any point may be interpolated.
If 2^=5, /7,= 10, r=75, .S^O.OOOl, ^=0.5, and i^,=0.13lS,
TABLES FOB CALCULATING WEIB DISCHARGE.
181
C'olumn (2) in the following table give« the values of I for varioiw
values of d^ computed by means of formula (115).
Form of backwater curve above a dam.
d
I
5
rf,-«
Depth,
feet
(1).
Distance
from dam
to depth di,
feet
(2).
Hydrostatic
depth at
distance /,
feet
(8).
Depth of
•'back
piling,"
feet
(4).
9
11,687
8.88
.17
8
24,277
7.57
.43
7
88,526
6.15
.85
6.5
47,024
5.30
1.20
6.4
48,798
5.18
1.27
6.S
50,796
a5.00
1.30
6.2
52,813
a5.00
1.20
6.1
55,010
a5.00
1.10
6
57,240
a5.00
1.00
6.6
67,252
a6.00
.60
5.3
82,940
a6.00
.30
5.1
101,265
a6.00
.10
a Above hydrostatic limit.
If the pond formed by the dam were level, the hydrffstatic depth 6
at any distance upstream would be
S=d^—l sin S
(116)
Column (3) in the above table shows this factor for the several values
of /. The true "back piling" or rise due to the mrface miruatiire is
expressed by the difference d^S^ as given in column (4).
This quantity has a maximum value at the hydrostatic limit ^ or ter-
minus of the level pond, where d=D.
Its location is such that if l^ is the distance upstream from the dam
*•- sin S
(117)
Flo. 16.— Convex backwater surfnoe.
In the example given the hydrostatic limit oc(»ur8 at a distance
Z, =60,000 feet above the dam, at which point the maximum back piling
of about 1.31 feet occurs.
Above the hydrostatic limit the depth of back piling is d^-D.
182 WEIB EXPERIMENTS, COEPKICIENT8, AND FORMULAS.
When S>'i (118)
the pond surface will not be concave, but a renwu or bj^draulic
jump will occur, having a height
(Hi*)
where v^ is the mean velocity corresponding to rf,. To find the dis-
tance upstream to the point where the jump occurs, solve equation
(115) for the value of rf,, found by formula (119).
If /S=0.004 ^^=100 1^2=0.008216.
If«/,=S w=lOO I}=5 i?=j^=4.56.
4
*"^^ 1000 —^'^'"^^ '^®* P®'' second.
^,, = 100^
Let the depth at the dam be 10 feet; using r/, as found above as the
terminal depth in formula (116), we obtain
'='or()oi"+ ^(0:004-^^0 <^«""^»^
7^; = 0.2578 i<;= 0.1318
Z=630+(250-311)X 0.126=622.3 feet
The hydrostatic limit in this case is
10 5
If the channel above an obstiTiction consists of successive reaches
having different slopes or cross sections, the depth at the head of the
first reach or level may be found by the method outlined, and using
this as the initial depth d^^ a similar solution may be made for the
second and succeeding levels.**
a Table H has been extended from Bresae's original table by inteipolation. Demonstrations of the
formulas here given may be found in Merrtman's or Bovey's Hydraulics. In case of a faH a different
function must be employed. Itn values will be found in the works mentioned.
TABLKS FOB CALCULATING WEIR DISCHARGE.
18JT
Table 8. — Backwater function (F) for a dam or ohstruction.
[The column headloRBare hundredthH for valiieftof ^^ from zl'th to 0.1:9. thousandths for valuw of ,
from U.30 to O.tm. ami ten-thoiiKandtiut for values of ^^ from 0.900 to 0.9W.]
d
0
1
F
2
S
4
F
5
F
6
F
7
F
S
F
9
.•
F
F
0.0
0.0000
0.0001
0.0008
o.ooa5
0.0009
0.0013
0.0018
0.0026
0.0034
0.0042
-1
.oow
.0061
.0072
.0085
.0098
.0113
.0128
.0045
.0162
.0181
.2
.OSJOI
.0221
.0243
.0266
.0290
.0314
.0340
.o:w7
. 0:i95
.0425
0.30
0.O155
0.0458
0.0461
0.(M61
0.0467
0.0471
0.0474
0.0477
0.0480
0.O183
.31
.04«
.(M»<9
.0193
.0496
.0499
.0503
.a'w
.0509
. 0.')12
.0516
' .:«
.a=>i9
.0522
.0526
.0629
.0533
.0536
.a'>39
.a'>43
.0546
.avio
.33
.a>53
.0556
.0560
.0563
.0567
.0570
.0573
.0577
.or>K)
.a-iw
.34
.a>7
.0591
.05W
.0598
.0601
.0605
.0609
.a5r2
.0616
.0tU9
.35
.0628
.0627
.0630
.0634
.0638
.0642
.0615
.0649
.0«V>3
. WW)
.36
.066 J
.06»H
.0668
.0672
.0676
.0680
.0683
.0687
.0691
.0695
.37
.0699
.0703
.0707
.0711
.0716
.0718
.0722
.0726
.0730
.0731
.38
.07»t
.0742
.0746
.0780
.0754
.0758
.0763
.0767
.0771
.0775
.39
.0779
.0783
.0787
.0792
.0796
.0800
.0804
.0808
.0813
.0817
0.40
0.0h2I
0.0825
0.0830
0.0834
0.0839
0.0843
0.0847
0.0852
0.0N56
0.0861
.41
.0^6.'>
.0869
.0874
.0878
.0683
.0887
.0891
.0896
.0900
.0905
.42
.0909
.0918
.0926
.0935
.0943
.0952
.0961
.0969
.0978
.0986
.43
.099.-)
.0996
.0997
.0997
.0998
.0999
.1000
.1001
.1001
.1002
.44
.1003
.1008
.1013
.1018
.1023
.1030
.1032
.1037
.1042
.1047
.45
.10r>2
.1057
.1062
.1067
.1072
.1077
.1082
.1087
.1092
.1097
.46
.1102
.1107
.1112
.1118
.1123
.1128
.1133
.1138
.1144
.1149
.47
• IIM
.1159
.1165
.1170
.1175
.1180
.1186
.1191
.1196
.1-202
.4H
.1207
.1212
.1218
.1224
.1229
.1234
. 1240
.1246
. 1215
.1256
.49
.1262
..1268
.1273
.1279
.1284
.1290
,1296
.1301
.1307
.1312
O.ftO
0. 131H
0.1324
0.1330
0.1335
0.1841
0.1847
0.1353
0.1359
0. 13(U
0. 1370
.51
.1376
.1382
.1388
.1394
.1400
.1406
.1411
.1117
.1423
.1429
..V2
.U3ft
.1441
.1447
.1454
.1460
.1466
.1472
.1478
.1485
.1491
..t3
. 1197
.1503
.1510
.1616
.1622
.1528
. 1535
.1541
.1547
.1554
.54
.1560
.1566
. 1573
.1580
.1686
.1592
.1599
.1606
.1612
.1618
..»
. 1625
.1632
.1638
.1645
.1652
. 1658
.1665
. 1672
.1679
. 1685
.56
.1692
.1699
.1706
.1713
.1720
.1726
.1733
.1740
.1747
.1754
.37
.176L
.1768
.1775
. 1782
.1789
.1796
.1801
.1811
. 181H
. 1K25
.58
.1832
.1839
.1847
.IKVl
.1861
.1868
.1876
.1SK3
.1890
.1898
.59
.1905
.1912
.1920
.1928
.1935
.1942
.1960
. 1958
.19«k5
. 1972
1 0.60
0.1980
0.1988
0.1996
0.2003
0.2011
0.2019
0.2027
0.2035
0. 2012
0. 20.%
, .61
.2058
.2066
.2074
.2082
.2090
.2098
.2106
.2114
.2122
.2130
.62
.2138
.2146
.2155
.2163
.2171
.2180
.21H8
.2196
. -220 1
.2213
.63
.2221
.2238
.2246
.2255
.2264
.2272
.2280
.'2-2S9
. 2298
.&i
.2306
.2315
.2824
.2333
.(2342
.23.'t0
.23.'i9
.2368
.2377
.2386
.65
.2395
.24W
.2413
.2422
.2431
.2440
.2450
. 2459
.2468
. 2477
.66
.2486
.2495
.2505
.2514
.2524
.2533
.'2512
. 2552
.2.561
. 2571
. .67
.2580
.2589
.2897
.2606
.2615
.2624
.2632
.2641
.2650
.2658
. .68
.2867
.2678
.2689
.2700
.2711
.2722
.2734
.2745
.27.V5
.2767
.69
1
.2778
.2788
.2799
.2810
.2820
.2830
.2»41
.2852
.28(;2
.2872
IBB 150—06 17
184 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORM^LA^i.
Table S.--liachmter function {F) for a dam or obstruction — Continues!.
[The ooliimn hetidlngM are hundredthH for valucM of ~ from zero to 0.29. thousandths for va1u«. »i ^
a (J
from 0.30 to 0.899, and ten-thouHiindths for values of ^ from 0.900 to 0.999.1
rf
D
0
1
i
8
4
o
6
8
0
F
/'
F
F
/'
F
F
F
F
/•
0.70
0.2883
0.2894
0.2905
0.2915
0. 292<)
0. 2937
0.2948
0.-2959
0.29(J9
0.29W
.71
.2991
.3002
.3013
.3025
.30:^
.:»47
.3058
.:I070
.3081
.3093
.72
.3104
.3116
.3127
.3139
.8150
.3162
.8174
.8186
.3197
.3209
.78
.8221
.323:^
. 3245
.32.58
.8*270
.3282
.8294
.3306
.3319
.3:«i
.74
.8343
.3:i56
.3:J68
.3381
.339:^
.:M0t5
.8419
.:i432
.8444
.»i:>7
.75
.3470
.348!{
.3496
.8510
.3523
. :i53ii
.8549
.3568
.8576
.3590 \
.76
.3603
.3617
.3630
.8IV44
.»i57
.3671
.8685
.»i99
.3713
.3727
.77
.3741
.3755
.3770
.37H4
.3799
.3813
.3828
.:JH42
.3857
.3871
.78
.3886
.3901
.3916
.3932
.8947
.3962
.:«77
.3993
.4008
.4024
.79
.4039
.4ttV»
.4070
.4086
.4101
.4117
.4133
.4149
.4166
.4182
0.80
0.4198
0.4215
0.4-231
0. 4248
0.4264
0.4281
0.4298
0. 4315
0.4338
0. 4350
.81
.4367
.4384
.4402
.4419
.4437
.4454
. 4472
.4490
.4608
.45-26
.82
. 4544
.4563
. 4581
.4600
. 461 S
.4637
.4('»56
.4675
.4695
.4714
.83
.4733
.4753
.4772
.4792
.4811
.4.^:^1
.4851
. 4871
.4892
.4912
.W
.4982
.4953
.4974
.4995
. 5G16
.50:^7
.5a59
.5081
.5102
.5124
.85
.5146
. 5168
.5191
.5213
. 52:^«i
. 5258
. 5281
.530*
.5:«h
..V151
.86
.5;i74
.5398
.5422
. 5446
.5470
.5494
. 5519
.5.>44
. 55(59
.55W 1
.87
.5619
.5645
.5671
.5697
.5723
.5719
. :.77(5
.58a^
..58;w
.58.J7 .
.88
.5884
.5912
.5940
.6969
.5997
.6025
.6orv>
.60M
.(5114
.6143
.89
.6178
.&20i
.0235
.6265
.6296
.6327
.6359
.6892
.«24
.(•►457
0.900
0.6489
0.6492
0.6496
0.6499
.6502
0.6506
0.6509
0.(5512
0.6.M5
0.(5519
.901
.6522
.6525
.6529
.&532
.658(i
.6539
.0642
.(i>46
.6549
.(i553
.902
.6556
.6559
.6563
.65(>6
.6570
.6573
. ti576
.6.580
. 6.>:i
.6587
.903
.6590
.6594
.6597
.6600
.6604
.6608
.«>11
.6614
. (5(51 ^
. i5t5-22
.904
.6625
.6629
.6632
.(i63()
.6639
.6642
.6646
.6650
.t56Ki
. (>ti.'i6
.906
.6660
.6664
.6667
.6670
.6674
.6678
.6681
.6684
.66KS
.(5«i92
.906
.6695
.6698
.6702
.6706
.6709
.6712
.671«
.6720
.672:^
. (57-215
.907
.6730
.6784
.6737
.6741
. 6744
.6748
.6752
.6755
.6759
. (57(52
.908
.6766
.6770
.6778
.6777
. 678()
.6784
.6788
.6791
.6795
.679h
.909
.6802
.6806
.6809
. 6813
.6817
.6820
.6824
.6828
. 68:«
.6X35
0.910
0.6839
0.6843
0. 6M6
0.6850
0.68.>1
0.6858
0.6861
0. 68(55
0. (58(59
0.6K72
.911
.6876
.0880
.()8K4
..W87
.(i891
.6895
.6S99
.6903
.6906
.6910
.912
.6914
.6918
.6922
.6925
.6929
.6933
.6937
.6941
.'6944
.(5iM^
.913
.6962
.6956
.69ti0
. 69*53
. ♦;967
.6971
.6975
.6979
.6982
.69M<;
.914
.6990
.6994
.6998
.7002
.7000
.7010
.7013
.7017
.7021
.702.5
. 915
.7029
.70:«
.7037
.7011
.7045
.7049
.7053
.7057
.7061
.70115
.916
.70<J9
.7073
.7077
.7081
.7085
.7089
.7093
.7097
.7101
.7105
.917
.7109
.7113
.7117
. 7121
. 7125
.7129
.713;^
.7iarr
.7141
. 7145
.918
. 7149
.7153
.7167
.7161
. 71(V5
.7170
.7174
.7178
. 7182
.71W
.919
.7190
.71W
.7198
.7202
.72tKi
.7210
. 7215
. 7219
.7223
.7227
0.920
0. 72:u
0.7235
0.7239
0. 7244
0. 724H
0. 7252
0. 7256
0.7260
0. 7265
0.7269
.921
. 7273
.7277
.7281
.728ti
. 7290
.7294
.72»<
.7302
.7307
.7811
.922
.7315
.7319
. 7324
. 7328
.7332
.788(5
.7841
.7346
.7349
.7364
.923
. 7:tSh
. T.m
.73t)7
.7:^71
.7375
.7380
.7884
.7888
.7392
.7397
.924
.7101
.7ta5
.7410
.7414
.7419
.7423
.7427
. 7432
.7436
' .7441
. 925
. 7445
. 74:)0
.74;>4
.746«
. 74»»
.74<58
. 7472
. 7476
.7481
.748t;
. \Y2i\
.7490
.7494
.7499
.75(M
.7508
. 7512
.7517
. 7522
. 75'2t5
.7530
.927
. 75:i;-)
. 7540
. 7r>44
. 7M9
. 75.->3
.755S
. 75ea
.7567
.7572
.7576 1
.928
.7:>H1
.75W
. 7.^^90
. 7595
.7600
.7(504
.7(509
.7614
.7619
.1^2A 1
.929
. 7<i2S
. 76:«
. 7637
. 7(^42
. 7IM7
.7(5.52
.7656
.7661
. 7(K5(5
.«;«
TABLES FOR CALCULATING WEIR DISCHARGE.
185
Tablk 8. — Bwknyiter Junction {F) for a dam or obstruction — Continued.
{The column headings are hundredtlut for values of . from zero to 0.29, thoumndtliH for values of ^
a a ,
from 0.30 to 0.899. and ten -thousandths for values of ^- from 0.900 to 0.999.]
a
_i
D
d
0
1
a
S
4
5
6
7
8
9
F
F
F
F
/•
F
F
F
F
F
0.990
0.7675
0.7680
0.7685
0.7t589
0.7694
0.7699
0.7704
0.7709
0.7713
0.7718
.931
.7723
.7728
.7724
.7738
.7748
.7748
. 7752
.7757
.7762
.7767
.932
.7772
.THl
.7782
.7787
.7792
.7796
.7801
.7806
.7811
.7816
.983
.7821
.7826
.7881
.7836
.7841
.7846
.7851
.7856
. 7861
.7866
.9S1
.7871
.7876
.7881
.7886
.7891
.7896
.7902
.7907
.7912
.7917
.935
.7922
.7927
.7982
.7937
.7942
.7948
.7953
.7958
.7963
.7968
.986
.7973
.7978
.7984
.7989
.7994
.8000
.8006
.8010
.8015
.8021
.987
.8026
.8081
.8087
.8042
.8047
.8062
.8068
.8063
.8068
.8074
.98K
.8079
.HOW
.8090
.8096
.8101
.8106
.8111
.8117
.8122
.8128
.989
.8133
.8i:w
.8144
.8150
.8155
.8160
.8166
.8172
.8177
.8182
0.940
0.8188
0.8191
0.8199
0.8205
0.8210
0.8216
0.8222
0.8227
0-8233
0.8238
.»11
.8244
.8250
.8256
. 8262
.8268
.8274
.8280
.8286
.8292
.8298
.942
.8301
.S307
.8313
.8318
.8324
.8330
.8336
.8342
.8347
.8353
.943
.8359
.8365
.8371
.8377
.8388
.8388
.8394
.8400
.8406
.8412
.9*4
.M18
.8424
.8480
.8436
.8442
.8448
.8454
.8460
.8466
.84?2
.945
.8478
.8484
.8490
.8496
.8t02
.8508
.8515
.8521
.8527
.853:}
.946
.8539
.8545
.8552
.8558
.8564
.&570
.8577
.8583
.8589
.8.596
.947
.8602
.8608
.8615
.8621
.8627
.8634
.8640
.8(>46
.8652
.8(i59
.»18
.8665
.8672
.8678
.8684
.8691
. 869S
.8704
.8710
.8717
.8724
.919
.8780
.8736
.8743
.8750
.8756
.8762
.8769
.8776
.8782
.8788
0.9ri0
0.8795
0.8802
0.8809
.8815
0.8822
0.8829
0.8836
0.8843
0.8849
0.8856
.951
.8863
.8870
.8877
.8883
.8890
.8897
.8904
.8911
.8917
.8924
.952
.8931
.8988
.8945
.8952
.8969
.8966
.8974
.8981
.8988
.8995
.953
.9002
.9009
.9016
.9023
.9080
.9038
.9045
.9052
.9059
.9066
.9M
.9073
.90HO
.9088
•9095
.9108
.9110
.9117
.9125
.9132
.9140
.965
.9147
.91M
.9162
.9169
.9177
.9184
.9191
.9199
.9206
.9214
.956
.9221
.9229
.9236
.9244
.9252
.9260
.9267
.9275
.9283
.9290
.967
.9298
.9306
.9814
.9321
.9829
.9337
.9&45
.9353
.9360
.9368
.958
.9876
.9384
.9392
.9400
.9408
.9416
.9425
.943:^
.9141
.9449
.959
.9457
.9465
.9473
.9482
.9490
.9498
.9fi06
.9614
.9523
.9531
0.960
0.«)39
0.9548
0.9556
0.9664
0.9673
0.9582
0.9590
0.9598
0.9607
0.9616
.961
.9621
.9632
.9641
.9650
.9658
.9666
.9675
.9(»a
.9692
.9700
.962
.9709
.9718
.9727
.9736
.9745
.9754
.9763
.9772
.9781
.9790
.963
.9799
.9808
.9817
.9826
.9835
.9844
.98.>4
.98«»
.9872
.9881
.964
.9890
.9899
.9909
.9918
.9928
.9937
.9947
.9956
.99<>i
.9975
.965
.9985
.9994
l.OOW
1.0018
1.0023
1.0082
1.0042
l.OOil
1.0061
1.0070
.966
1.0080
1.0090
1.0100
1.0110
1.0120
i.oi:«)
1.0140
1.0150
1.0160
1.0170
.967
1.0181
1.0191
1.0201
1.0211
1.0221
1.0231
1.0241
1.0251
1.0261
1.0271
.968
1.0282
1.0292
1.0803
1.0814
1.0J524
1.0335
1.0^46
1.0356
1.0367
1.0378
.969
1.0389
1.0899
1.0410
1.0421
1.0432
1.0443
1.04.i;i
1.0464
1.0475
1.0486
0.970
1.W97
1.0608
l.a519
1.0530
1.0542
1.0658
1.05<»5
1.0576
l.a587
1.0698
.971
1.0610
1.0622
1.0633
1.0645
1.0657
1.0668
1.0681)
1.0692
1.0704
1. 0715
1 .972
1.0727
1.0789
1.0751
1.0763
1.0775
1.0788
l.OWO
1.0812
1.0824
1.0836
' .973
1.0848
1.0861
1.0873
1.0886
1.0898
1.0911
1.0924
1.0936
1.0949
1.0961
.974
^ 1.0974
1.0987
LIOOO
1.1018
1.1026
1.1040
1.1053
1.1066
1. 1079
1.1092
« .975
' 1.1105
1. 1119
1.1132
1.1146
1.1159
1.1173
1.1187
1.1200
1. 1214
1.1227
1 .976
1.1241
1.1255
1.1269
1.1284
1.1298
1.1312
1.1326
1.1340
i.i;y>5
1.1»;9
.977
1.1383
1.1896
1.1413
1.1427
1.14-42
1. 1457
1. 1472
1. 1487
1.1501
1. 1516
.978
1.1681
1.1546
1. 1562
1. 1578
1.1593
1.1608
1.1624
1.1640
1. 16.^5
1.1670
.979
1.1686
1.1702
1.171S
1.1735
1. 1751
1. 1767
1.1783
1.1799
1.1816
1.1832
186 WEIR EXPERIMENTS, COEFFICIENTS, AND FORMULAS.
Table 8. — Backwater function (F) for a dam or obstruction — Continued.
[The column headinf^ are hundredths for value8 of ^ from zero to 0.29, thousandths for vahus
of -~ from 0.30 to 0.899, and ten-thou8andth.s for values of R fnmi 0.900 to 0.999.1
d a
': 0
'
i
8
4
5
6
7
8
9
F
F
:
F
F
F
F
F
F
f
F
0. 980 1. 1848
1.1865
1.1882
1.1899
1.1916
1.19^4
1.1951
1.1968
1.1965
1.2002
.981 1.2019
1.20.S7
1.2a55
1.2073
1.2091
1.2109
1.2127
1.2145
1.2163
1.2181
.982 ! 1.2199
1.2218
1.2237
1. 2256
1.-2275
1.2294
1.2814
1.2333
1.2352
1.2371
.983 1.2390
1.2410
1.2430
1. 2451
1.2471
1.2491
1.2511
1.2531
1.2.»2
1.2572
.984 1.2592
1.2614
1.2635
1.2656
1.2678
1.2700
1.2721
1.2742
1.2764
1.2786
.985 1.2807
1.2830
1.2853
1.2876
1.2899
1.2922
1.2945
1.2968
1.2991
1.3014
.980 1.3037
1.3062
1.3086
1.3111
1.3136
1. 3160
1. 3185
1.3210
1.8235
1.3259
.987 i 1.3284
1.3311
1.3337
1.3364
1.3391
1.3418
1.3444
1.8471
1. 3498
1.3524
.988 ! 1.3551
1.3580
1.3609
1.3638
1.3667
1.3696
1.3725
1.3T54
1.3783
1.3812
.989 ! 1.3841
1.3873
1.3905
1.3936
1.3968
1.4000
1.4032
1.4064
1.4095
1. 4127
0.990 ' 1.4159
1.4194
1.4229
1.4264
1.4299
1.4334
1.4370
1.4406
1.4440
1.4475
.991 1.4510
1.4M9
1.4588
1.4628
1.1667
1.4706
1.4745
1.4784
1.4824
1.4863
.992
1.4902
1.4947
1.4991
1.5036
1.5080
1.5125
1. .5170
1.6214
1.5259
1.5308
.993
1.5348
1.5399
1.5451
1..5502
1.5563
1.5604
1.5656
'1.6707
1.5758
1.5810
.994
1.5861
1.5922
1.5983
1.6043
1.6104
1.6165
1.6226
1.6287
1.6347
1.6108
.995
1.6469
1.6543
1.6618
1.6692
1. 6767
1.6841
1.6915
1.6990
1.706^1
1.7139
.996
1.7213
1.7309
1.7405
1.7501
1.7597
1.7692
1. r;88
1.7884
1.7980
1.8076
.997
1. 8172
1.8307
1.8442
1.8677
1.8712
1.8848
1.8982
1.9118 1 1.9253
1.9388
.998
1.9528
1.97&4
1.9986
2.0216
2.0447
2.0678
2.0910
2. 1141
2.1878
2.1603
.999
2.1834
1.000
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:::::::::::::: ::::;;::'.....:::.i
INDEX
Pa, re.
Al bion, Mass., dam at, flow over i:i2
Angular wein. See Welre, anKular.
Afiproach. channel of. S*e Channel of ap-
proach.
«?<-tion of, deAnltion of 7
veKx»iiy of. Ser Velocity of approach.
.Vsi'tiu, Tex., dam at, flow over 133
Authorities cited, list of 10
Biukwater, depth of 180-182
depth of, figure:* showing ISO, 181
table showing 183-186
Bazin, H., base formula of 9
coeflicieiita of. for thin-edged weirs 61
plate showing 32
<^)rrectlon of, for velocity of approach . 63-65
experimcntH of, on effect of rounding
upstream crt^st edge 123
on .••iibmerged weint qf Irregular
se<'tion 1-13-U4
on thin-edged weirs 29-31
on trapezoidal weirs 127
on triangular weirs V2A-12()
on weirH of irregular crow* section. . 63-85
on weirs with com{>ound slopes.. 127-128
on weirs with varying upstream
slopes 128-129
plate showing 66
londula of, c(»mparison of, with other
formulas 40-42
for submenred weirs 1 J 1-142 ;
for thin-edged weirs 81 -.S4
for weirs with end contraction, use '
of 45
formulas and experiments of. on broad-
crestcil weirs 117-119
Bf llasis, — , on falls 136
Rlack.'itone River, dam on, flow over 132 |
RIackwell, T. K.. experiments of. on broad-
cre-stcd weirs 112-114, 122 !
Boileau, P.. exp<>rimentsof, on thin-crested
weirs 21-22 j
formula of, compared with other for- >
mulas 40-41
Broad-creBted weirs. See Weirs, broad-
created.
C'aj'tel, M., experiments of, on thin-crested
weirs 20-21
formula of, compared with other for-
mulas 40-41
Chambly dam, model of, experiments on . . 101
Page.
Channel, leading, definition of 7
Channel of approach, deflnition of 7
depth of, for weir gaging 50
energy in, distribution of 17-20
velocity in, distribution of 16-17
Chanolne and Marj*, formula of, for sub-
merged weirs 140
Cippoletti, Cesare, formula of, for tmi»e-
zoidal weirs 48-49
weir of, deflnition of 47-18
('legg's dam, flow over 112
CoefllcientM. relations of 9
Compound weirs, flow over 46
Contracted weirs, deflnition of 7
C4mtraction, crest, deflnition of 8
Contraction, en«l. formula for 44-45
Contraction, vertical, deflnition of 8
effect of 13-14
Cornell Cniversity.hydniullc lalK>ratory of ,
description of 86-87
hydraulic lalK)mtory of, experiments
at 39.8.-)-107
ex{)eriments at, plate showing 86
Crest, character of 52
roughness of, corrections for 13:^134
Crest, contraction, definition of 8
Croton dam, crest of, correction for 134
model of, flow over, experiments on 90-94
flow over, expn'riments on, plate
showing 94
Dams, backwater caused by, depth of 180-182
backwater caused by, depth of, table
showing 183-1.S6
Dams, actual, flow over, experiments on . . 131-lH;i
flow over, experiments on, plate show-
ing 132
Dams, mcxlel, crest of. correction for 133
flow over, experiments on 8H-9()
Dams, submerged, dfita con^'erning 144-1 45
D'Aubuis.son,J. F.. formula of 21
Deep Waterways, C. S. Board of KuKinccrs
on, experiments of, on sub-
merged weirs 14(1
experiments of, on weirs of irregular
section s.vy(»
on woirs with varying uiistreain
slopes " 12S-130
plate showing 90
formula of, for broad-crested weirs. . . 121-122
Definitions of terms 7-8
Desplaines River dam, flow over 112
Dimensions, methods of expressing 8
187
188
INDEX.
Page.
Dolgeville dam, model of, experiments
on 102
Dyafl, — , formula of, for submerg^ed weirs . . 143
Dyer, C. W. D., and Fllnn, A. D., experi-
ment of 46. 48
East Indies, engineers of, formulas of, for
broad-crested weirs 114-116,121
formulas of, for thin-edged weirs 22, 40
submerged dams in, data concern-
ing 144-145
Energy, dlstributiou of, in channel of ap-
proach 17-20
Error, effect of, In determining head 53
Essex County, dam of, model of, experiments
on 107-109
Falls, flow over 136
flow over, flgure showing 136
Farm Pond, Mass., experiments on thin-
edged weirs at 28
Flinn, A. D., and Dyer, C. W. D., experi-
ments ol 45, 48
Flow, method of expressing 8
Formulas, comparison of 40-42
listof 9
Francis, J. B., base formula of 9
experiments and formulas of, for thin-
crested weirs 23-26
formula of, compared with other formu-
las 40
disi'harge by, table showing 1(12-171
for end contractions 44
for weirs of irregular cross sections. 62
weir of. diagram showing .il
Francis, J. B., and Smith, H., formula of.
for thin-edged weirs 37
Francis, J. B., Stearns, F. P., and Ftclcy,
A., formula of, for thin-edged
weirs 26. 29. 34. 4(M1
Freeman, J. U., experiments of 90-94
Frizell, J. P., formula of, for broad-crested
weirs 110-112
Fteley and Steams. Sfc Stearns and Fteley.
Fteley, A., Stearns. F. P., and Francis, J.
B., formula of, for thin-edged
weirs 26, 29. 34. 40-11
Gaging, aecumcy of 53-58
requirements for 49-53
Geological Survey, United St^ites, exiwri-
ments of, on broad - crested
weirs 119-121
experiment** of, on rounding upstream
etige 123,124
on weirs of irregular section 98-107
on weirs with varying slopes 130
plate showing 106
Go'ild. E. L., formula of, for discharge
from nonprisniatic reservoir 1 .vi
formula of, for discharge from pris-
matic reservoir 150-152
Gould, £. S., formula of, for discharge
from prismatic reservoir 151-152
Hart and Hunkiiig. formula of, for thin-
edged weirs 25-26
Head, determination of, error in, effect of. 53-67
determination of, error In, effect of,
plate showing ■>4
effect of velcKJltles on. table showing. IST-lVi*
increase in, effect of 39-4U
from submerged weir 142-14,;
variation In 53-64, 97-iPs
diagram showing l.i<>
effect of 14e-l.'Wi
Herschel, C, formula of, for submerged
weirs 13»-140
HortOD, R. E., experiments of 95-1(^7
Hunking and Hart, formula of, for thin-
edged weirs '2^*in
Inclined weirs. See Weirs, inclined.
India. Sec East Indies.
Inflow, effect of, on reser\*oir 1 lfv-lfW>
Johnston, T. T., on flow over Desplaini^s
Ri ver dam
11
Lawrence, Ma.ss., dam at, model of, experi-
ments on ia7-l«J9
dam at, model of, experiments on. plate
showing l<iri
Leading channel, definition of 7
Lesbros. (>xi)erimentK of. on thin-edged
weirs I'l
formulas of, compare<l with other for-
mulas 41
I^sbros and Poncelet, experiments of, on
thin-edged weirs Ji
Lowell. Mass., ex(>eriments at 23-26, 107- IW
Merrimac River, dam on, experiments on. . H»i
dam on, experiments on, plate showing. ]()>i
Metz. Germany, experiments on thin-edged
weirs at 21-22
Morris, Elwood, on Clegg's dam 1 IJ
Muskingum River, dam on. flow over l.fj
Nappe, definition of 7
form of, modifications c»f ♦H>-^l
modifications of, plate showing m»
Nelles, George T., data col le<'ted by i::i
Notation, explanation of .«» s
O'Connell, P. P. L., formula of. for discbarge
from nonprismatic rvser>-oir IV
Orifice, flow through 12-i:.
flow throtigh, figure showing IJ
Ottawa River dam. Canada, flow over VM
Parabolic law of velocity, application of, to
weirs IJ
Parmley, W. C, formula of, compared with i
other formulas 40-4 1
formula of, for thln-edgcd weirs 37-:*" \
Plattsburg dam, model of, experiments on . 9b- U* I
Poncelet and Lesbroe, experiments of. on
thin-edged weirs ji j
Rafter, G. W., experiments of s.V'.«»
Rankine, W. J., formula of. for .<iubmerged
weirs 142 |
Reservoirs, lower! ng of, time required for. 14tVl ».
Rhind,R.H.,fonnulaof.forsubmcrgedweini I il
INDEX.
189
PftCft
St*vtion of approach, definition of 7
shairp-crested weirs, definition of 7
Smith, Hamilton, base formula of 9
lormnla of, for thin-edged weirs 22,
94-36. 4(M1, 44
Smith. H., and Franci«, J. B., formula of,
for thin-edged wein« 37
Mrarns, F. P., and Fteley. A..base fomiulaof 9
experiments of, on broad-crested
weiiB 116-117
on rounding upper crest 122-124
on thin-edged weirs 26-29
formula of, compared with other formu-
las 40-41
for submerged weirs 13^139
for thin-edged weirs 34
Su-ams, F. P., Fteley, A., and Francis, J. B.,
form ula of, for thi n-edged weirs . 26,
29,34,4(M1
submerged weirs. See Weirs, submerged.
Suppressed weirs, definition of 7
Thin-edged weirs. :k-e Weirs, thin-edged.
Thom.son, James, experiments of, on coefn-
cient of contraction for thin-
edged weirs 46-47
Three-halves powers, table of 171-176
Torricelli, G., theory of 10-11
iheor}' of, application of, to weir, figure
showing 11
Toulouse, France, experiments at, on thin-
edged weirs 20-21
Trapezoidal weirs. See Weirs, trapezoidal.
Triangular weirs. See Weirs, triangular.
I'nited States Board of Engineers on Deep
Waterways. See Deep Water-
ways.
I'nited States Geological Survey. See Geo-
logical Survey.
I'nwin, W. (?., formula of, for broad-crested
weirs 110-112
Wlmities, method of expressing 8
VeKK?lty, parabolic law of, application of . . 12
Velocity of approach, distribution of 16-17
distribution of, figure showing 16
efTect of, on weir discharge 14-20, 68
correction for 14-16, 41-43, 63-66
table showing (Bunking and
Hart formula) 26
table showing (Parmly and
Bazin formula) 38
table showing 169-162
energy of, distribution of 17-20
formulas for 14-20
hcfid due to, table showing 157-159
Vfrtiral contraction. See Ck>ntraction, ver-
tical.
Weir i<ection, definition of 8
W«ir», aprons of, variation in, effect of .. 124-127
backwater caused by» depth of 180-182
Page.
Weirs, backwater cause<i by, depth of, table
showing 183-186
definition of 7
dischaiige over, relative approximate.. 10-11
variation in 146-154
diagram showing 150
fiow over, calculation of, tables for . . 156-186
measurement of. formulas for 9.
9-12,11-13,40-43
theory of 10-14
gaging at. Sty; Gaging,
head on. See Head.
Weirs, angular, flow over 136
flow over, figure showing 136
Weirs, broad-crested, edge of, rounding of,
effect of 124
flow over 110-122
figure showing 110
table showing 177-179
Weirs, compound, flow over 46
Weirs, contracted, definition of 7
Weirs, curved, flow over 13<l
flow over, figure showing 136
Weirs, East Indian, flow over 144-145
flow over, figures showing 145
Weirs, flat-top, models of, experiments on. 103-105
Weirs, inclined, flow over 127-130
flow over, figure showing 57
Weirs, irregular, flow over,experiment.'<on. 61-110
flow over, formulas for. basic 62-63
use of 59
Weirs, of sensible crest width, flow over . . . 52
Weirs, ogee cross-jsectioned, flow over 130-131
flow over, plate showing 130
Weirs, submerged, flow over 137-146
flow over, figure showing 137
increiise of head due to 142-143
Weirs, suppressed, definition of 7
Weirs, thin-edged, definition of 7
discharge over, table showing 162-171
flow over, measurement of, experiments
on and formulas for 20-29, 31-16
measurement of. fonnulas for, compari-
son of 40-41
formulas for, ex tension of 39^0
Weirs, trapezoidal, aprons of. variation in,
effect of 127
cross-section of 47
flow over, formulas for, figures showing . 17
formulas for 47
Weirs, triangular, aprons of, variation in,
effect of 124-126
coefllcient curve for, figure showing . . . 12.>
flow over, experiments on, figure show-
ing 46
experiments on and formulas for . . 46-47
Weirs, uneven, flow over 57-58
Weisbach, formula of 40
*' Wetted underneath," definition of 7
Williams, O. S., exin^riments by 90-107
Woodman, R. S., formula of, for discharge
from prismatic reservoir 151-152
CLASSIFICATfON OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
[\Vau»r-«upply I»aper No. I.tO.]
The serial publu^tions of the United States (ieological Survey consist of (1)
Annual Rejwrte, (2) Monograplis, (3) ProfeHsional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5)
Mineral Kejources, (6) W ater-Supply and Irri^tion Papers, (7) Toj>ojfraphir Atlas
of Uniteti States — folios and separate slieets thereof, (8) (ieolopic Atlas of the Tnited
States — folios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publica-
tion; the others are distrihute<l free. A circular jnving complete lists may be had
tin application.
Mo:^t of the above publications may U* obtaine<l or cimsulted in the following ways:
1. A limited number are delivere<l to the Dirwtor of the Survey, from whom they
may be obtained, free of charj^e (exa»pt classes 2, 7, and 8), on application.
2. A certain nnml)er are (lelivennl to Senators and Representatives in C\>n>rn's.«,
f«»r distribntion.
'.i. ( )ther copies are deposited with the SujH^irintendent of Docunients, Washington,
I). ('., from whom they may l)e had at prices slightly alnjve cost.
4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public-
lil>raries in the large cities throughout the United States, where they may Ikj coii-
pulte<l by those interested.
. The Pnifessional Pajiers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of
'Subjects, and the total numlitM- issued is large. They have therefore been classified
into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, I)es<Tiptive ge^jlogy; C, System-
atic geology ami jjaleontology ; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and
physics; F, (ieography; (J, Miscellaneous; M, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water
storage; K, Pumi>ing water; L, Qi^o^ity of water; M, (ieneral hydrographic investi-
gations; X, Water power; O, Undergrouml waters; P, Hydrographic progress rej)orts.
This paper is the sixteenth in Series M, the complete list of which follows. (PP=
l'n>fessional Paj)er; B=BulIetin; WS= Water-Supply Faj)er):
SKRIEH M— <fEXERAL H VDROGRAPHK' IXVEMTIOATIOSS.
WS 'j*i. Met htid-s of Stream mea-surenu' lit. 1901. 51 pp., 12 pis.
WS 6\. Aeonrary of stream measurt'ments. by K. C. Miirj^hy. 1902. 99 pp.. 4 pLs.
W.s 76. OlJK*rvHtion.M (Hi the flow of rivers in the vicinity of New York City. l»y H. A. l're«sey. 1902.
108 pp., 13 pis.
\VS MO. The relation of rainfall to run-off. by (i. \V. Rafter. 190:J. 104 pi>.
WS M. California hydrography, by J. B. Lippineott. 1903. 4HX pp., 1 pi.
WS HH. The Passaic flrxxi of 1902, by (i. B. Hpllister an«l M. (). LeiRhton. 1«(W. Vi pp., 15 i)ls.
\Vs 91. Natural features and ei-onomie development of the Sandusky, Mnumee, MnfkinKum. and
Miami dminage Hrea.s in Ohio, by B. U. Flynn and M. H. Flynn. 1904. \'M) j»|i.
W-« 92. The Passaic floo<l of 1903, by M. O. Leiichton. 1904. 4S pp., 7 pis.
W.< y4. tlydrographic manual of the United States Geological Survey, preimri'd l)y K. (\ Murphy^
J. C. Hoyt, and G. B. Hollisti'r. 190J. 76 pp., 3 pis.
Ws ^. Accuracy of stream measurement.s (second edition), by E. C. Murphy. 1901. 169 pp.. (» pis.
WS 96 Destnictive floods in the United States in VMK\, by K. V. Murphy. 1901. M ])p.. 13 pis,
WS 106. Water rejvmrces of the Philadelphia district, by Florence BtuH'Oin. 190 1. 75 pp., 4 |)ls.
WS 109. Hydrography of the .Su.«»quehnnna River drainage bnsin, by J. ('. Hoyt «nd R. H. .\n<lersnn.
1904. 215 pp., 28 pis.
Ws 116. Water resourct»s near 8anta BarUim, ('alifornia. b> .1. B. Lippineott. I9<i4. W |>p.. S pN.
WS 147. Destnictive floods in the Unititl States in 1904, by E. C. Murphy and oih.rs. ii>o.\ 2in; pp.,
18 pis,
WS 1.50. Weir experiments, coefficients, and formula-s, by R. K. Horton. 19(x;. isy pi*., 3S pis.
Correspondence Hhould be addressed to
The I)ike<tok,
Unite!^ States (teoi/kikal SrRVEY,
WAsniN(;T()N, I). C.
Jastary. 1906.
Water-Sapply and Irrigation Paper No. 151
Senas L, Qaalitj of Water, 11
DKPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES (iEOUXHCAL SURVEY
CHARLES D. WALCOTT. Dirfxtor
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER
BY
MARSHALL O. LEIGHTON
WASHINGTON
aOYEBNMENT PRINTING OPFIOB
1905
CONTENTS.
Lfetter of transmittal 7
IntrodQction ._ __ _ 9
Sanitary analyses - . _ 10
Inorganic an^yaes _. ..- 13
General observations 16
Field determinations 17
Suspended matter 18
Methods of determination 18
Turbidity 22
United States Geological Survey turbidity rod 23
Description _ 23
Objections _ 25
Jackson's turbidimeter 1 26
Description _ _ 26
Tests 29
Probable error 40
Color 41
Occurrence 41
Color standards 42
G^eological Survey standard 42
Field standards _ . . 48
Description _.. 43
Use 44
Iron 45
Chlorides... 47
Laboratory determination 47
Field determination .. 50
Standard silver-nitrate tablets 50
Practical tests of method _ 53
Estimation of chlorine .- 55
Hardness ..- 56
General statement 56
Field method of determination _ _ 57
Use of sodium-oleate tablets 57
Test of sodium-oleate tablets 57
Estimation of hardness _ 61
Hardening constituents 62
Classes 62
Carbonates 63
Tests of sodium acid-sulphate tablets 63
EiStimation of alkalinity 66
Normal and add carbonates 66
Sulphates 69
Determination by turbidimeter 70
Precautions 73
Calcium _ '. 73
Instruments and reagents _ _ 74
Index 77
3
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
Platk I. Jackson's candle tnrbidimeter _ 26
n. Tabes and disks for determining color of water 46
III. United States Geological Survey tablet case 50
rV. United States Geological Survey field case 74
Fig. 1. Jackson^s electric tnrbidimeter _ 28
2. Logarithmic scale of turbidity 38
8. Turbidity curve 39
5
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
Department of the Interior,
United States (ieological Sirvey,
Hydro«raphi(' Branch,
Washington^ Z>. C.^ June »9, 1905.
Sir: I transmit herewith a manuscript entitled "Field Assay of
Water,-' by Marshall O. Leighton, and request that it l)e published as
one of the series of Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers.
In this manuscript are described and discussed the methods which
have for some time been used with success in connection with the
investigations into the quality of water in various parts of the United
States carried on by the division of hydro-economics. As the meth-
ods have proved of value, it is l)elieved that their publication in the
form submitted will be of general interest.
Very respectfully, F. H. Newell,
(^hief Engineer.
Hon. Charles D. Walcott,
Director United States Geological Survey.
7
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER
By M. O. Leighton.
INTRODUCTION.
A chemist aims to secure exceeding refinement in analytical meth-
ods and results. He seldom considers whether or not a method is
sufficiently exact for certain broad purposes. The fact that it is
incomplete, approximate, or susceptible of refinement is to him suffi-
cient reason for improving or rejecting it at the first opportunity.
The scrutiny to which chemical methods have been subjected in
the endeavor to secure exact results has led in many cases to processes
so complicated and expensive that in commercial work the advan-
tages do not compensate for the increased cost and delay which the
methods involve. The result has been that the chemical profession
distinguishes between two classes of chemical methods which differ
in degree of accuracy. The first includes the exact methods, which
afford results as nearly perfect as chemical procedure will permit.
Such methods are used in all cases where minute differences in analy-
sis would cause errors in interpretation or in subsequent chemical
procedure. The second class consists of " commercial methods," so
called because the results obtained by them, while departing from
the actual truth, are sufficiently accurate to insure the profitable con-
duct of industrial chemical processes without appreciable error or
waste. Methods of the first class are the product of chemistry,
while those of the second are used in response to the demands of
expediency — they are good enough for the purposes for which they
are used.
In no branch of chemistry are approximate results more service-
able than in the analysis of water for hydro-economic surveys, or
surveys made to determine the value of water and its applicability
for use in domestic supply, boilers, industries, etc. Under the condi-
tions which generally prevail it is necessary to resort to long, tedious,
and expensive processes in order to secure a determination of the
character and amount of foreign constituents in water. It is the
practice in such cases to secure a sample of the water and transport
10 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. Ino.151.
it to a laboratory, where, after conventional delays, it is passed
through the usual course of analysis.
There has in the past been surprisingly little discrimination usetl
with reference to the selection of determinations for specific purposes,
and as a general rule the same procedure has usually been followed
without regard to the object of the particular investigation. If the
purpose of the analysis is to determine the incrusting constituents,
the course pursued has been to follow the entire analytical procedure.
If, on the other hand, it is desired to determine the amount of organic
pollution in a water and show its value for domestic use, the chemist
forthwith begins the round of nitrogen determinations, and closes
with a statement of the oxygen consumed and the number of bacteria
per cubic centimeter. In only a few well-known laboratories has
this rule been violated, and such is the conservatism in the chemical
profession that it will probably be largely followed in future. Con-
servatism is the safeguard of science and one of the most commenda-
ble qualities of a chemist, but an excess is sometimes almost as bad as
a deficiency.
SANITARY ANALYSES.
The requisites to be met by a water in almost every line of special
development are broad and flexible. In the sanitary analysis certain
results receive certain interpretations, which remain generally
unchanged if the results are varied by 1, 2, 3, or sometimes even 10
per cent. A strange feature in connection with sanitary analyses of
water is that, in addition to insisting upon superrefinement, many
chemists persist in making determinations that are admittedly to no
purpK)se. It is a common thing to see an analyst's report of a water
containing the results of determinations of albuminoid and free
ammonia, nitrates, and nitrites, accompanied by a footnote statin|i^
that these results are unworthy of trust and mean very little, except
to verify conclusions made from inspection of the territory from
which the water was taken. In case such conclusions do not agree
with the analytical evidence, the latter is invariably discredited.
It is to be hoped that some day the great and growing swarm of
water analysts will awaken to the fact that sanitary analyses, as gen-
erally applied and interpreted, are but a successioii of unrelated
absurdities. Water experts, who encounter real problems, who must
use analytical data as a basis for the design and construction of
purification plants, and whose varied experience has taught them that
in the United States the waters are as diverse in character as the
climates, have learned a few things not taught in text-books nor antic-
ipated in the beautiful theory of the oxidation of organic matter.
The occasional isolated sanitary analysis of water is positively with-
out value. There are throughout the country numerous State, munic-
LMCHTON.! SAKITABY ANALYSES. 11
ipal, and private laboratories in which sanitary analyses are car-
ried on. The water analyzed to-day may be from a well, to-morrow
from a brook, and the next day from a pond. From the results of a
single analysis wise and ponderous verdicts are sent broadcast, and
the eager, waiting public is duly impressed. No one understands
how singularly misleading a sanitary analysis of water can be until he
has examined the results of such analyses of samples taken daily or
hourly from the same source ; then he sees that in general only a few
single analyses in the group contain results which would admit of the
interpretation that is finally placed upon the series.
If there is at hand a well-defined problem which involves the con-
sideration of nitrogenous matter and the state in which it appears in
a water, certain daily nitrogen determinations are of undoubted
value; not, however, by reason of the absolute amounts which are
revealed in each determination, but by reason of the daily relations
and variations which appear in the successive analyses, and upon
which interpretations can be placed. This statement, it should be
emphasized, refers almost entirely to water slightly or moderately
polluted, and does not include sewage. The organic matter normally
occurring in a natural water, or what may be more accurately
described as a highly dilute sewage, is, after all, practically infini-
tesimal in amount. The diflSculties attendant upon a determination
of nitrogen in its various forms and the true interpretation of the
results, grow less and less as the amount of organic matter is increased.
Yet, even with strong sewages some of the determinations, such as
albuminoid ammonia and nitrites, are not usually productive of val-
uable information.
In an article entitled "The composition of sewage in relation to
problems of disposal," *» Mr. George W. Fuller discusses in a charac-
teristically clear manner an experiment which illustrates the apparent
futility of the albuminoid-ammonia determination, as follows :
lUustrative of the varying relation of nitrogen In the form of albuminoid am-
monia to the total organic nitrogen present In raw sewage, there are given
below in a table the results of an experiment made in the Lawrence laboratory
and published in the 1804 report of the Massachusetts State board of health,
page 461. A bottle of fresh sewage was analyzed just after its collection and
again at frequent intervals, allowing the natural decomposition processes to
take place at room temperature. In this table it is seen that fresh sewage
contains dissolved oxygen, coming, of course, from the water supply which forms
the principal portion of the sewage. It also contains nitrogen in the form of
nitrates, as well as other salts which are completely oxidized. Through the
agency of the bacteria and the oxygen dissolved in the water and yielded by the
oxidized salts, the carbon of the organic matter is oxidized and the organic
nitrogen uniting with the hydrogen forms free ammonia.
• Technology Quarterly. June, 1903, pp. 143-144.
12
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
[NO. 151.
i?
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LEIGHT0N.1
SANITABY ANALYSES.
13
Thus it is seen from the results in the table, page [12], that the dissolved oxy-
^D and the nitrates gradually disappear, the bacteria for a time increase, the
oxygen consumed (carbonaceous matter) decreases, the nitrogen as free ammo-
nia increases, and the organic nitrogen (Kjeldahl) decreases. The nitrogen
HH albuminoid ammonia, however, remains approximately constant, notwith-
standing that more than 20 parts of organic nitrogen are changed to free am-
monia, and some 5 or 6 parts of free nitrogen escape into the atmosphere.
The nitrite determination, which has been regarded by many as
one of the most valuable pollution indicators, fluctuates in a stream
or reservoir according to the amount of available oxygen rather than
the amount of organic matter undergoing oxidation. It will rise
and fall in amount when there is a positive certainty that it can not
be due to increase or decrease of organic pollution. Nevertheless,
many an interpretation has been made largely on the evidence pre-
v^ented by this determination.
By far the greater number of sanitary water analyses reported
include the determination of oxygen consumed, a test which is
dependent upon so many features that as a whole the great mass of
determinations which have been made are valueless for purposes of
comparison. The following table, compiled by Mr. George W.
Fuller, shows clearly the relative results of the determinations made
according to different methods. In short, the only practical value of
the " oxygen-consumed " determination is in its application to highly
polluted waters of the same general character and origin, and then
only for purposes of comparison between the successive determina-
tions made by absolutely the same method. In other words, it is
essentially a sewage determination.
Approximate comparison of average amounts of oxygen consumed by sewage and
seicage effluents as shown by different methods.
Method.
of Bolntion.
Kftbel, as practiced at Boston and gener-
aUy in America.
Kubel, as practiced at Lawrence, Mass
Ktibel, as practiced in Germany
English official tests
do t 2 minutes
do 10 minutes
f80°F 3 minutes
. -do 15 minutes
-.do I 4hours
''Absolute" oxygen consamed I Boiling ..., do
Boiling ... 5 minutes .
'^^/"^SP.'S*^^ Period of contact, ^f^^
1.00
.65
1.25
.20
.35
.60
4.00
"!-
INORGANIC ANALYSES.
In the determination of inorganic constituents in a water it would
make no difference, in the decision to accept or reject that water for
boiler use, for irrigation, or for manufacturing, if the harmful con-
stituents were conteined, for example, in the proportion of 40, 44,
or 48 grains per gallon. The lines dividing good and bad water for
14
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
[NO. 151.
boiler purposes are very broad. If a water contains a certain amount
of incrusting constituents and a method used is inaccurate to a limit of
5, or even 10, per cent, it would not lead tx> the acceptance of a bad
water or the rejection of a good one. The " good " and " bad "
provinces are approached too gradually to admit of such consequences.
Another error arises from the conventional methods of expression
of results. If the analyst finds that a water contains certain amounts
of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, and certain equiva-
lents of the carbonate, sulphate, and chloride radicals, he unites thest*
substances according to methods which are apparently not uniform
and entitled to little scientific justification. It is a well-known fact
that if several chemists, each independent of every other, analyze a
certain water, there will almost invariably be wide differences in the
expression of results.
Dr. F. W. Clarke, chief chemist of the United States Geological
Survey, in a recent communication has given an excellent illustration
of the various hypothetical combinations w^hich may be made of the
results of a single analysis of water. The statements are set forth in
the following table. Each series of combinations is based upon a
generally accepted hypothesis, and each represents a water that is
tt'tally different from the others.
Analpsis of water from artesian well at Macomb, IIL<^
[Orams per liter.]
Statement in ionic form
SiO, .
Al,08
Fe,0,
SO4 .
CO,-.
a ...
Na-..
K....
Ca...
Mg ..
Statement according to hypothetical combinations.
a Bv Qeorge Steiger, laboratory of United States Geological Survey.
<» AljOg, FegOa, SiO*, conventionally retarded as colloidal,
i.KinirroN.l INORGANIC ANALYSES. 15
The inorganic constituents of a water should invariably be ex-
pressed as positive and negative ions, and if so expressed the result
determined according to approximate methods is as valuable as the
expression of precisely determined constituents united according to
the individual ideas of the analyst.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
A practical disadvantage in chemical water surveys arising from
the insistence on refined methods of analysis and lack of discTim-
ination in the choice of specific determinations is the delay which
arises in securing valuable information with refei^ence to wide areas.
Jlonths and even years have Ikhmi spent upon water surveys covering
only a comparatively small portion of the country. Two examples
are here cited.
The most important chemical survey in the United States has been
carried on since 1888 by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. This
survey work may safely Ix^ taken as the standard in this or any other
country. During this period of sixteen years the appropriations for
the work have been on an average about $30,000 a year, making a
total cost of not far from $480,000. A large part of this sum has
l)een used to pay expenses of experimentation and can not be charged
to water survey. The work was confined to Massachusett-s.
In the year 1898 the Ohio State board of health commenced an
examination of the principal streams of the State, making monthly
analyses of samples of water taken from numerous points along
the various streams. This work was continued five years before the
State was covered, and there resulted merely a large number of peri-
odical analyses in sets of twelve, showing the character of the
stream water and its variation according to local conditions.
These two cases are typical. No one would claim that all the
results could have been reached by the use of field methods. Un-
doubtedly a large part of them could have been obtained far more
cheaply and quickly, and there would have been no loss to the cause
of pure water, nor to science generally, had some of the determina-
tions been omitted.
Among water analysts there seems to be a general tendency to attack
every water problem as though the object were to prove its fitness or
unfitness for drinking purposes. In many investigations it is well
known at the outset that the water can not be used for domestic pur-
I>oses and the problem is of quite another character. The conven-
tional grind of nitrogen determinations has been made to do service
in almost every conceivable water problem. It has been used fre-
quently in investigating pollution problems in which organic matter
bad absolutely no part. A study of the results obtained in many
16 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [no, 151.
laboratories will show that in the routine work a number of deter-
minations could be omitted without detriment. These facts are
mentioned in order to emphasize the point that if care and dis-
crimination were used in the selection of tests the work necessary
in carrying on chemical surveys might be decreased and the money
available for such work might be distributed over a wider field;
results of more immediate use might be secured and the completion
of a chemical survey would not be postponed for the benefit of future
generations. " Commercial methods " serve useful purposes in man-
ufacturing; the success of enormous industrial plants is dependent
upon them, and in water surveys they would at least be businesslike.
It was these considerations, in connection with the knowledge of
ihe vast areas covered by the United States, which led the United
States Geological Survey, through its hydro-economic division, to
investigate the practicability of employing field methods for the
determination of important characteristics of water. It was realized
that if there could be provided a few simple tests, the apparatus for
which could be taken into the field and used on the spot, large areas
might be covered in a sjiort time, and if it were necessary for any
reason to make periodical determinations the cost of the work would
still be small and the total would not run up into the large sums
which have been spent in such investigations. In general, the testi-
mony of a large number of approximate results is far more repre-
sentative of actual conditions than that of one or two refined analyses.
The idea of testing waters in the field is by no means new. Ver\'
successful field tests have been carried on by numerous authorities.
Probably one of the most successful systems now in use is that of the
Bureau of Soils, Department of Agriculture. Another excellent field
outfit for sanitary analysis has been devised and used with satisfaction
by Mrs. Ellen H. Richards. Several others are noteworthy. They all
involve the use of considerable apparatus and the carrying of stand-
ard solutions. Specially equipped wagons are necessary in some
cases. In others the variety of determinations is limited or the
equipment can not be used in an extensive circuit without renewal of
reagents. The difficulty of carrying solutions and complex apparatus
into the field is obvious. The ideal equipment is one which can be
carried on journeys afoot or on horseback without much fatigue.
The sources of useful or desirable water supply are not distributed
with reference to the railroad or wagon routes and the field man must
often climb mountains or trace obscure trails to accomplish his pur-
pose. The outfit should contain a sufficient supply of reagents to
serve for a large number of determinations without renewal. The
processes should be rapid and the results fairly accurate and compre-
hensive. Finally, the equipment should be provided with material
for so various a series of determinations that with proper discrim-
LKiGHTox.) FIELD DETERMINATIONS. 17
ination the essential characteristics of a water may be shown, whether
the purposes l)e domestic or industrial water supply, irrigation, or
any other special line of utilization. Volumetric methods requiring
the use of burettes are objectionable; gravimetric methods are impos-
sible. Therefore, in the Survey's study of field methods the whole
matter developed into a question of choosing the most useful deter-
minations and so modifying the volumetric methods that their us(»
would be practicable, while at the same time they would give a degree
of accuracy sufficiently close for all practical purposes.
To the methods hereinafter proposed the term " assay '' readily
lends itself. There is no attempt at water analysis. The plan contem-
plates the determination of ingredients which give to water certain
well-known characteristics. The methods and the suggestions with
reference to their application are only tentative and will be modified
as experience may dictate. As they stand they are the result of
extended experimentation, and the tests to which they have been put
show that they are practicable. They have been found to be more
nearly accurate than was at first anticipated, though this fact, it is
believed, has not greatly increased their usefulness for the purposes
in view. By their use, combined with a fair amount of common
sense, the essential characteristics of waters can be ascertained at
small expense. In almost every situation in which such determina-
tions are significant they will afford sufficiently satisfactory data.
In the case of finely balanced considerations of a purely physical,
chemical, or geologic nature, however, they are practically useless.
They are intended for practical purposes and have no place in pure
science.
FFEIiD DETERMIXATIOXS.
The following determinations are described on subsequent pages :
1. Turbidity.
2. Color.
3. Iron.
4. Chlorine or total chlorides.
5. Total hardness.
6. Alkalinity.
7. Normal carbonates.
8. Bicarbonates.
9. Total sulphates.
10. Calcium.
It should be stated at the outset that the successful operation of
these methods depends, as in all chemical procedure, upon the manner
in which they are applied. A failure to insist upon strict compli-
ance with the rules laid down may result in total failure,
iRB 151—05 2
18 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [xo.lSL
SUSPENDED MATTER.
The turbidity of water is that j)r()pertv which is imparted to it by
substance carried in suspension. In many parts of the United States
waters are often extremely muddy, and when this condition is main-
tained during long periods it becomes one of the most serious diffi-
culties with which the water-supply enginet»r has to deal. Turbid
water is ()bje(!tionable for domestic use. In industrial operations,
especially in those in which w^ater enters into manufacturing pro-
cesses, turbidity is a factor which, if not removed, may exert a harm-
ful influence upon the manufactured products. It is also important
in connection with irrigation works. One of the serious troubles in
Western reservoirs is loss of storage capacity due to silt deposits- In
the construction of irrigation canals the amount of turbidity usually
carried by the water often determines the grade of the canal. Such
canals nnist have grade sudicient to cause the flowing water to carry
along suspended matter and not allow it to settle. If this is not taken
into consideration, the nuiintenance of the irrigation system Ixjcomes
extremely expensive, and cases have occurred where the canals have
l>een practically filled by the deposits of suspended matter.
The suspended substances causing turbidity are of various char-
acters. They are found often in a flocculent condition, settling
readily when the water which carries them becomes quiescent. On
the other hand, the tiu'bid matter is often made up of minute par-
ticles of clay, so fine that they pass through certain filtering media.
In some cases the problem of removing turbidity from the water is
so diflicult that the process which may be successful is so radical that
it will remove also dissolved organic material and even a large num-
ber of the bacteria.
METHODS OF DETERMINATION.
There are several methods of estimating the proportion of sus-
pended matter in a water, all but one of which have their particular
fields of usefulness. The first is merely a statement of the observer's
.opinion of the degi-ee of turbidity, such as ''very slight,'* "slight,''
"distinct," or "decided." Although this method of estimation has
no real value, it is used by many w^ater chemists.
The secoiKJ method is also based upon the appearance of the water,
but dillVrs from the first in that a definite and fairly well-fixed basis
of comi)ariM)n is provided. A water containing no suspended matter
is j)racti(ally transparent, but matter in suspension intercepts the
rays of traii>mitted light. An observer can see objects distinctly
through a body of clear water, but as the water becomes more and
more nuuldy the objects can be seen less and less^ distinctly until
LEiGHTOX.l SUSPENDED MATTER. 19
they are quite lost to view. Now, it has been found by experiment
that there is a fairly definite relation between the proportion
of light rays intercepted and the amount of matter in suspension.
This relation varies somewhat with the character of the sus-
pended matter and with the size of the particles, but for the purpose
to which this method of measurement is applicable the variations do
not often seriously affect the interpretations placed upon the results.
The details of the method will be explained on later pages under the
caption " Turbidity." For the present it will be sufficient to state
that it has found its greatest usefulnass in connection with the
adaptation and operation of water-filtration plants and sewage-
disposal works.
The third method of measuring the amount of suspended matter
in water consists in separating it from a weighed portion of the fluid
by filtration, weighing the filtered water, and stating the difference
between the two weights as suspended matter. The form of state-
ment commonly used is parts of suspended matter per million of
water, milligrams per liter, or some other comprehensive proportion.
Tliis is undoubtedly the best method of determination, as it is rela-
tively accurate and can be used in the study of all water problems.
Its practical disadvantage is that the determination requires a large
amount of time and can not be economically performed in serial
investigations without considerable equipment and tedious labor.
It is also true that the processes for which a knowledge of suspended
matter is necassary will generally in practical work be as well served
by an approximate determination as by a precise one; therefore the
cruder methods, based upon photometry, are more often used. •
There is, however, no necessarily constant relation between the
weight of suspended matter in a given volume of water and the
turbidity produced. A certain weight of suspended substance of
one kind does not usually produce the same degree of turbidity as
a similar weight of another substance. In other words, the turbid-
ity determination takes no account of the character, weight, or volume
of the suspended matter. This has been clearly demonstrated by
Mr. Robert Spurr Weston in the report on Water-Purification
Investigation and on Plans Proposed for Sewerage and Waterv»orks
Systems made to the sewerage and water l)oard of New Oraums,
La., pages 27 and 28. To overcome the errors above cited, Mr. Weston
has proposed the use of a " turbidity coefficient," as follows :
AU optical methods for the determination of turbidity are naturally compared
with the gravimetric determination of the suspended matter which produces
the turbidity. Equal weights of suspended matter do liot necessarily produce
the same turbidity. For example, waters which contain suspended silt or sand
exhibit less turt>idity per unit of suspended matter by weight than do waters
containing finely divided clay. Therefore the ratio between silica turbidity,
20 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [no. isi.
determined optically, and suspended matter, determined gravi metrically, is
most important, as it is an index of the character of the suspended matter pro-
ducing the turbidity. To express this relation most conveniently, the term
" turbidity coefficient " has been adopted.
Turbidity coefficient equals Susj^ded matter.
bihca turbidity.
Naturally this coefficient varies with different waters, generally increasing
with the size of the particles composing the suspended matter. Thus the
samples of unsettled river water have the highest turbidity coefficient, while
samples from the effluents of the three-day subsiding basins have the lowest, as
the following table will show :
Table of average turbidity coefficients.
Turbidity
coefficient.
Mississippi River water l.tJS
Mississippi River water, after 0 hours' subsidence .1^)
Mississippi River water, after 12 hours' subsidence . HT
Mississippi River water, after 18 hours' subsidence .Si;
Mississippi River water, after 24 hours' subsidence .ST)
Mississippi River water, after 48 hours' subsidence .SO
Mississippi River water,.after 24 hours' subsidence and coagulation .«H»
This table is very easy to understand, since the coarser particles of low
turbidlty-pro<lucing iwwer and somewhat higher specific gravity gradually sep-
arate out according to their hydraulic values, the finer particles of high tur-
bidity-producing power and somewhat lower specific gravity remaining longest
In susi)enslon.
The idea of Mr. Weston above set forth is an admirable one and
should be utilized in connection with all water investigations.
The fourth method of determining suspended matter consists in
measuring the cubical contents thereof after sedimentation. This
method takes no account of the weight of the substance nor of the
turbidity produced by it, and its particular value is confined to those
highly turbid waters which it is proposed to conserve in storag*.*
reservoirs or to conduct in canals. In the preparation of reservoirs
for irrigation and domestic uses in the arid and semiarid regions, one
of the most troublesome features is the loss of storage capacity in the
reservoir by reason of its filling up with matter deposited from sus-
pension, and indeed it is necessary in the construction of these res(»r-
voirs to provide means whereby the silt can be removed at proper
intervals. The problem is, therefore, one of cubical contents and the
observations are usually made by filling a 100 c. c. graduate with the
turbid water, allowing the suspended matter to settle, and readin*r
the depth of the sediment and expressing it in percentage terms. •
The results of such observations do not bear any more constant rela-
tion to the turbidity produced by the suspended matter than do the
determinations of actual weight. An interesting series of observa-
tions upon this point has recently been compiled by the Geological
LEIGHTOK.]
SUSPENDED MATTEB.
21
Survey, the water being taken from Gila River at San Carlos, Ariz.
This river is probably the muddiest in the United States, and the
observations represent extreme conditions. Turbidity measurements
consume so small an amount of time in comparison with that necessary
in the observation of per cent volume of total solids that an endeavor
was made to determine whether or not turbidity measurements pos-
sess any constant relation to amount of matter. If such were found
to be the case the work necessary in preparing plans for storage reser-
voirs would be considerably shortened.
Parallel determinations were therefore made of turbidity and per
cent volume of sediment upon daily samples taken from Gila River
from July 21 to October 24, 1904, the results of which are set forth in
the following table. It will be noted in this table that the conversion
factor, which should be constant if the hypothesis were correct, varies
so widely as to indicate unmistakably the entire absence of any con-
stant relation between the two sets of observations :
Parallel observations of per cent volume of sediment and of turbidity, in terms
of parts per millioti, of silica in water from Gila River at 8an Carlos, Ariz.
Date.
Per cent
sediment
volume.
Turbidity
(silica parts
per million).
27,300
Conversion
factor.
Date.
Per cent
sediment
volume.
15
Turbidity
(silica parts
per million).
Conversion
factor.
July 21..
12
2,280
Aug. 12..
63,936
4.260
22..
16.5
37,800
2,290
i , 13..
10
57,600
5,760
23..
19
43,200
2,280
14..
11
33,550
3,050
24..
18.5
43,200
2,340
15..
17
48,000
2,820
25..
21
44,784
2,140
16..
18.5
54,000
2,920
26--
18
41,568
2,310
17..
15
42,000
2,800
27-.
16
40,572
2,540
18..
13
39,000
3,000
28-.
9
40,800
4,530
19..
9
33,000
3,670
29.-
21
53,000
2,520
20..
12
39,000
3, 250
30..
19
64,000
3,370
21..
15. 5
36,000
2,320
31-.
12
64,000
5,330
22..
13
36,000
2,770
Aug. 1.-
13
53,312
4,110
23..
10
27,000
2,700
2..
22
73,536
3,340
24..
13
39,000
3,000
3..
20
67,200
3,350
25--
8
30,000
3, 750
4..
19
70,368
3,680
26..
9
30,000
3, 340
5-.
15
68,936
4,260
27..
8
27,000
3,380
6..
15
62,400
4,160
28_.
8
24,000
3,000
7. .
14
62,400
4,460
29-.
8
27,000
3,380
8..
15
67,200
4,480
30-.
8
27, 000
3,380
9.-
14
63,936
4,560
31..
8
21,000
2,630
10..
14
60,768
4,340
Sept. 1..
8.5
28,500
3,360
11.-
13
62.400
4,800
! 2-.
8.5
30,000
3,520
22
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
[NO. 151-
Parallel observations of per cent vohime of sediment and of turbidity, in temt^
of parts per million, of silica in water from OiUi River, etc, — Continued.
Date.
Per cent
sediment
volume.
Turbidity
(silica partK
per million).
33,960
ConverBlon
factor.
Date.
Per cent
sediment
volume.
0.5
Turbidity
(silica parts
per million).
650
factor.
Sept. 8._
9
3,770
Sept. 29..
l.SOC)
4._
8
36,000
4,500 '
36..
.5
600
1,300
5..
18
40,980
8,150
2,800
Oct. 1-.
Trace.
650
6-.
15
42,000
2..
2.5
850
7--
11
40,980
31,500
8,730
3--
Trace.
650
8..
10
3,150
1
Trace.
280
" " '"
9--
6.5
25,200
3,880
5..
Trace.
220
10-.
3.5
9,200
2,630
6.-
Trace.
6,400
11..
1.5
4,200
2,800
7.-
2
42,000
12..
1.5
8,150
2,090
8.-
10
42,000
4,200
18--
5
14,000
2,800
9..
13
39,000
3,000
14-.
7.5
20,000
2,670
10..
12
86,000
»,000
15..
4
18,000
3,250
11..
18
27,000
2, OK)
16..
6
16,000
2,670
12..
9
18,000
2,000
17--
6
16,000
2,670
13--
5.5
12,000
2,184>
18.-
5
13,000
2,600
14-.
8.5
8,000
2,280
19-.
5
11,320
2,260
15..
2.5
4,400
1,760
20..
4
12,000
3,000
16..
2
3,800
1,900
21..
2
6,800
8,000
17..
1
8,750
3, 7.V)
22..
1
5,500
5,500
18..
7
26,000
8.720
23-.
3.5
8,000
2,280
19.
2
6,000
8.(K)0
24.
14
80,000
2,140
20.-
1.5
3,000
2,000
25-.
17
80,000
1,760
21.-
.5
1,000
2.0(K)
26..
8
7,000
2,330
22..
.3
900
3,000
27.-
2
8,000
4,000
1 23..
.5
800
1,600
28..
1
1,000
1,000
: 24..
.5
766
1,5:K)
TURB
tDITY.
As all the usual methods for the determination of turbidity are
fairly familiar, having been repeatedly described in numerous scien-
tific journals, no further statements are necessary here. It is custom-
ary at the present time to adopt as a basis for the scale of each an
absolute turbidity produced by a definite amount of finely divide<l
silica in a (x^rtain volume of water. The scale has been described
by its originators, Messrs. George C. Whipple and Daniel D. Jackson,
in Technology Quarterly, Vol. XII, No. 4, December, 1899, pages
283-287.
LElGHTf)N.l SrSPKNDKD MATTKK. 2«^
ITmiTED KTATEN UKOM»tiI( AL SURVEY TI'KBIDITY ROD.
DKSfRriTlON.
This rod, devised by Messrs. Allen Hnzen and (fe()r<re (\ Whipi)le,
is a modification of the ori«:inal llazen rod, and is des<MMl)ed in the
following extract from circular No. 0 of the division of hydrography.
United States (leological Survey :
Propofted turbiditf/ standard. — The standard of tm-hidity shaU bo a wator
which ct>ntalns KK) parts of silica iK»r miUion in such a state of fineness tliat a
bright platinum wire 1 niillinieter in diameter can just he se<»n when tlie center
of the wire is KM) millimetei-s Inflow the surface of the water and the eye of the
observer is 1.2 meters above the wire, the observation l>einj; nnnle in the middle
of the day, in the oiH»n air. but not in sunli>;ht. and in a vissol so larpe tliat the
sides do not shut out the liglit so as to influence the n»sults. The turbidity of
such water shall he Hn\
The turbidity of waters more turbid than the standard sliall be coinpute<l as
f<»llow«: The ratio of the turbidity of the water to 1(H) shall be as the extendeil
\olume is to the original volume when the water is diluted with a clear water
until the mixture is of standard turbidity.
The turbidities of waters lower than the stamlard should be compute<l as fol-
lows: The ratio of the turbidity of the water to KM) shall be as the ratio of the
original volume of water of standanl turbidity is to the extended volume when
such water is diluted with clear water until its tiu'bidity is e«iunl to that of the
water under examination.
Tlii.s standard can bo used in both Held and laboratory. In the field tlie wire
method will be emi)loyed as at present, except for a new gra<luation, while in the
laboratorj' the metho<ls of dilution and comi>arison now in use for the silica
standard will'be employe<l.
Method of application to the platinum-u-irr prorrss. - -A rod with a platinum
wire inserte<l in it at a fixed iH)iut and projecting from it at a right angle will
he used, as at present. The graduation shall be as follows : The graduation
mark of 100 shall be placed on the head of the rod at a tlistance of UK) uiilli-
nieters from the center of the wire. Other gra<luations will l>e made. base<l cm
the l>est obtainable data, in such a way that when a water is diluted the read-
ings will decrease in the same proporti(m as the percentage of tlie original water
in the mixture. Such a rod, having the graduation shown in the tM])le l)elow,
shall be known as the United States (ieological Survey turbidity rod of 1!H)2.
When this rod is immersed in water, the visibility of tlie projecting platinum
wire at tlie deptli from the surface shown in the second column will determine
ttie degree of turbidity, as indicated in the first column.
24
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
Oraduation of turbidity rod of 1902.
[NO. 151.
Turbidity.
Depth of
wire.
Corre-
sponding
value on
reciprocal
scale.
Turbidity.
Depth of
wire.
Corre-
sponding
value on
reciprocal
scale.
mm.
mm.
7
1,095
0.023
70
138
0.184
8
971
.026 ,
75
130
.196
9
873
.029 '
80
122
.208
10
794
.032 '
85
116
.219
11
729
.035
90
110
.230
12
674
.038
95
105
.242
13
627
.041
100
100
.254
14
587
.043
110
93
.278
15
551
.046
120
86
.295
16
520
.049
130
81
.314
17
493
.052
140
76
.384
18
468
.054
150
72
.35
19
446
.057
160
68.7
.87
20
426
.060
180
62.4
.41
22
891
.065
200
57.4
.44
24
361
.070
250
49.1
.52
26
336
.076
300
43.2
.59
28
314
.081 .
350
38.8
.-65
30
296
.086 1
400
35.4
.72
35
257
.099
500
30.9
.H2
. 40
228
.111
600
27.7
.92
45
205
.124
800
23.4
1.09
50
187
.136
1,000
20.9
1.21
55
171
.148
1,500
17.1
1.49
60
158
.160
2,000
14.8
1.72
65
147
.172
3,000
12.1
2.10
This table is compiled from observations made at Cincinnati, St. IjOuIs, New-
Orleans, Pittsburg, Brooklyn, rblladelphia. and Boston, for records of which
we are Indebted to several ol)servers. The values of the turbidities by the recli>-
rocal scale are Includetl In the table for convenience, but they do not form a part
of the standard.
This graduation Is subject to revision whenever additional data shall make
it ne<'essary and revised rods shall be designated by the same name, but with
the year of revision substituted for 19()2. The revisions shall have as their
basis the 100 mark, 100 millimeters from the wire.
Near the end of the rod, at a distance of 1.2 meters from the platinum wire,
a wire ring shall be placed dlrec»tly above the wire, through which the observer
will look, the object of the ring being to control the distance from the wire to
the eye.
LEiGHTOx.l SUSPENDED MATTER. 25
When the turbidity is greater than 5(K) the water Rhould be diluted before the
observation is made. Wlien tlie turbidity is l)elo\v 7 this method can not be
usetl, and comparison should l)e made with the silioa standard properly diluted
in bottles or tubes, as des<TilH?d by Whipple and Jackson in Technology Quar-
terly, Vol. XII. No. 4, December, 1899.
The numlier obtained by dividing the weight of suspended matter in parts per
million by the turbidity as ol)tained alM)ve shall l)e called the coefficient of fine-
ness. If greater than unity it indicates that the matter in suspension in the
water is coarser than the standard ; if less than unity, that it is finer than the
standard.
This standard is proposed with the idea of combining the best features of the
platinum-wire and silica methods of measuring turbidities as commonly used,
and of avoiding, as far as possible, the objections to each.
OBJECTIONS TO ROD METHOD.
The method of turbidity determination above outlined answers
all purposes demanded in ordinary use. In field determinations it
has many objections which are not easily overcome. It was readily
observed in practice that the method is largely a test of the individual
and that the point at which the wire disappears from view varies
according to the eyesight of the observer. Under ordinary condi-
tions this variation is not sufficient to influence the interpretations
placed upon the results, but there are some conditions under which
the variation would be large enough to cause considerable error.
Again, the method was found to be inaccurate and unsafe in deter-
mining turbidity above 100. It is also difficult to select the conditions
})rescribed in the directions above set forth. A person in the field
is governed absolutely by the conditions which he meets, and it is
exceptional when he is able to be at a desired point at a given time.
Therefore the observation, which must be made " in the middle of the
day, in the open air, but not in sunlight, and in a vessel so large that
the sides do not shut out the light,'' is in most cases an undertaking
of extreme difficulty. Another observation is more important; it is
nec'essary for the field man to take observations in the running stream,
f )bviously it would l)e impracticable to carry about a container large
enough to meet these prescril)ed conditions, and in the majority of
cases a turbidity reading must be taken at long distances from points
at which such containers can be borrowed. It is well known that
in many easels the suspended matter in running streams occurs in
clouds. In a certain section of the stream the turbidity at one
moment may be high and at the next moment much reduced, or vice
versa. Often the observer, after fixing the point at which the plati-
num wire disappears, finds that before he is able to read the scale
the wire is either plainly in sight or has become submerged below the
point of correct turbidity reading.
^6 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. fvo. IM.
All these objections make the use of the turbidity rod undesirable
in general field work. AVliile its value at selected stations is acknowl-
edged, it has been found to be impracticable under less favorable cir-
cumstances ; consequently a new method w as sought.
JA€KKON*S TURBIDIMETER.
DESCRIPTION.
The needs of the Survey were found to be met in a satisfactory'
manner by the use of a turbidimeter devised by Mr. Daniel D. Jack-
son, chemist in charge of the Mount Prospect laboratory, department
of water supply, gas, and electricity, city of New York. The follow-
ing is a report by Mr. Jackson with reference to this instrument :
The suspended matter or turbidity in natural waters is the most imiM>rtant
physical characteristic In many sections of the country. In such se<-tious the
selection of new water 8ui)i)lies, as well as the improvement of existing sup-
plies, rests, to a verj' great extent, upon a consideration of this particular
feature. These milky or muddy waters are often quite variable in the aunmnt
and nature of their suspended matter, and, in case' they are to \ye piiriftetl.
require considerable study to determine the i)roi)er treatment.
When the maximum and the average turbidity in a water are known, quest ii>ns
may be st)lved relating to the nature, size, and construction of settling basins,
filter plants, and clear- w^ater reservoirs, and, finally, in determining the elli
ciency of the removal of suspended matter in such -filter plants we must kn*iw
the turbidity of the water l)efore and after filtration.
The hj'drographic branch of the United States Geological Sun'ey is p;ir-
ticularly interested in developing accurate and rapid methods for the deter-
mination of turbidity, both for data relating to water supplies as well a>
relating to the erosion and the carrying power of'susi)ended matter by rivers
and streams. It Is necessary that the field methods should be comparable with
those of the laboratory, that the work should lie rapidly accomplished, and that
the results should express, as nearly as possible, the actual w^eight of the
suspended matter present.
If we determine the total solids in a water l)efore and after filtration through
a Berkfeld filter, the difference in the results obtained will give the weight <»f
the suspended matter present, but this method is tedious in the lalwratorj- and
Impossible in the field. It is evident that some photometric standard of com-
parison must be used, and extensive studies have shown that whatever tlie
instrument employed for this puriwse it should be graduated by a standard
turbid water. The standard now employed is known as the ** silica standard."
and Is made from diatomaceous earth.a
This standard is preferable to all others that have been usetl In that it is
absolutely insoluble, has a very uniform size of particle, and, unlike clay, dt)es
not cake together on standing. The diatomaceous earth (infusorial earth) is
found in natural der)osits in many parts of the country. To prt^pare the
standard this material is first washed and ignited to free it from organic matter.
It is then ground to an Impalpable iKJwder in an agate mortar, put through a 2««)-
mesh sieve to break up tlie lumps produccxl in grinding, treatetl with dilute
hydrochloric acid, and the finest i>ortion decanted. This fine iwrticm is then
dried at 100° C, cooled in a desiccator, and kept in a tightly stopi>ere<l bottle.
•Whipple, O. C, and .Tftckson, I). I)., Silica Htandards for the determination of the
turbidity in water: Techn. Quart., vol. 12. No. 4, l»e<'.. 181)9,
U. S. QEOLOOICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 1S1 PL. I
JACKSON'S CANDLE TURBIDIMETER.
LEIGHTON.1 SUSPENDED MATTER. 27
One grnni of this imiterinl Ih weighed out and put into 1 liter of distilled water.
The mixture represents a standard of 1,()(K) parts i>er ui ill ion of silica turbidity,
and dilutions may tte made from this for comparison with natural waters.
Readings made with this standard compare very well with the actual weight
of the susiiended matter in water, but it has been found that the standard as
prp[)ared varies slightly when made by different analysts. The author now pro-
lioses to make the standard absolute by making readings on the candle turbidim-
eter and so adjusting the mixture that the standard of 1.000 parts per million
will always read 2.3 centimeters on the instrument.
THK CANDLK TrilBIDIMRTER.
The original form of this instrument was first described by the writer in the
Journal of the American Chemical Society, November, 1901, but since that time
it has been considerably improved upon. The accompanying illustration gives
u gix)d idea of the present form of the instrument and its use. [Stn? PI. I.] The
apparatus consists of a gla.ns tube, closed at the bottom and graduated in centi-
meters and millimeters depth. This is surrounded by a brass holder, open at the
t)ottom and supported by a stand, in the center of which Ik a standard English
candle, so adjusted by means of a spring below that its top rim Is always Just
^ inches below the bottom of the glass tube.
The water to be determined for turbidity is poured into the glass tube until the
image of the lighted candle l>eiow Just disappears:© The depth of the water In the
tube is then read (using the Iwttom of the meniscus), and this depth is compared
with a table which gives the turbidity of the water in parts per million of
silica. The tube itself may \>e graduated in turbidity as well as in millimeters
depth, thus dispensing with the use of the table. Between 5,(K)0 and 100 parts
I>er million of silica a tul)e 25 centimeters in length is necessary, or a comparison
with silica standards in tubes or bottles may be substituted. The candle instru-
ment is very convenient in the laboratory, and as its source of light is the stand-
ard (*andle it is ready for use at all times. The candle must always be proiierly
trimmed, and the determination must be made rapidly, ^^ a^ not to heat the
liquid to any extent. The most accurate work is obtained in a dark room, and
the candle should be so placed as not to be subjected to a draft of air. The
latter necessity renders the iastrument absolutely imi>ossible for use in the
field.
Several fonns of field apparatus In which the candle was employed as a
soun^ of light were attempted, but were entirely unsuccessful, and it was found
necessary to resort to the electric light for field use.
THB ELECTRIC Tl* RBI DIMETER.
This instrument was designed by the author for the use of the hydrographic
branch of the United States (ieological Survey, and is intended for field use
only. Its construction is so regulated as to be exactly comparable with the
candle turbidimeter, and the measuring tubes for each have l)een made inter-
changeable.
The electric turbidimeter as shown in fig. 1 consists of the same graduated
glass tube as described for the candle turbidimeter, inclosed in a similar manner
* It has been found in actual field work that the end point in the electric tui'bidim/pter,
viz, the disappearance of the cross of light, is f^enerally sharper and less subject to per-
sonal errors tlian the end point above designated. This is especially true when the two
Instruments are used by the same person. I. e.. a common end point is more satisfactory.
The Geological Survey has therefore placed the glass plate and cross disk in the candle
turbidimeter.
28
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
[NO. 151.
.•b
by a brass holder (A) open at the bottom. This holder is attached to the end of
a brass cylinder (w) containing a 2.5- volt dry battery (O) and a 2.5- volt electri<*
light id). Above the electric-light bulb, at a distance of 1 centimeter, is a disk
of glass (e) which is ground on the under side. Immediately above tlrt« Is a
brass disk (&) 1 millimeter thick, through the center of which a cross is cut iB\.
The lines in this cross are 0.5 millimeter wide. From the top of the brass -plate
to the bottom of the graduates! glass tube the distance is just 1 centimeter.
To make a determination with the electric turbidimeter, first pour the turbid
water to l)e tested back and forth from the glass tube to another vessel until
it is thoroughly mixed, and then turn on the light by adjusting the screw if)
at the bottom of the instrument. Place the graduated glass tube in the holder,
which has been screwed into place above the light, and pour the turbid water
into the tube until the cross of light just
disapi>ear8. If the tube is not graduated
directly in parts i)er million of silica, read
the depth in millimeters of the water in the
tube and refer to the table given later. In
reading use the t)ottom of the meniscus as
the reading point In the lower part of the
tube read past the disappearance of the
sharp cross of light to the disappearsince *»f
the hazy cross of light. In this way the
end point is the same as in the candle
turbidimeter. Higher up in the tube there is
only the sharp cross of light for an end ixiiut.
If the turbidity is above 100 parts iK?r
million use the short tube (25 centimeters
long). If the turbidity is between 100 part*
and 25 parts i^er million the long tube <7r*
centimeters) may be employed, but at any
lK)int below 100 the glass tube and the
holder may be removed and the instrument
lowered directly into the turbid water by
means of a steel millimeter tape. Any de-
gree of turbidity may be read in this manner
provided the water is sufficiently deep.
IWk If the water is shallow and below 2r>
I JaL-f turbidity, close estimations may be made
l>y holding a bottle of the water towartl the
light and comparing it with the remem-
bered appearance of standards of 5, 10, 15, and 20 parts per million in bottles
of the same size.
In the determination of turbidity with Jackson's turbidimeter
many of the objections to the use of the United States Geological Sur-
vey turbidity rod are avoided. As the standard illumination is a
part of the apparatus itself rather than the sun, none of the limita-
tions which apply to the use of the rod, such as time of day, shade,
etc., are necessary considerations. The instrument may be used at
night if desired. As the sample to be tested is collected from the
body of water under observation, inaccuracies due to moving water
and variations in turbidity caused thereby are avoided, and it is not
Fifl. 1. — Jackson's electric turbidi-
meter.
LEIGHTON.]
SUSPENDED MATTEE.
29
necessary to consider the depth of water in the river or lake under
observation. In the use of the rod this is often a very troublesome
feature, because, in case of low turbidity, there may not be water of
sufficient depth to allow the rod to be submerged to the point of disap-
pearance of the platinum wire. Another advantage is that the end
point in Jackson's turbidimeter is approached more sharply and the
use of the instrument is not practically a test of the observer's eye-
sight, for the measurement of turbidity depends upon the obliteration
of a beam of light, and not upon the definition of a certain object.
TESTS OF ELECTRIC TURBIDIMETER.
The Jackson electric turbidimeter is made up of several parts
which it was necessary to test in order to determine their effect upon
the accuracy of the instrument. These tests, made by Mr. R. B.
Dole, assistant engineer. United States Geological Survey, under the
direction of Mr. Daniel D. Jackson, are classified as follows :
1. Tests of the battery for current, electromotive force, and dura-
bility.
2. Tests of the electric bulb for intensity of light.
3. Test of the ground-glass plate for opacity.
4. Calibration of the tube with silica standard.
5. Determination of the probable error.
6. Calibration of the tube with a sulphate standard. This will be
treated under the heading " Sulphates," on page 69.
Battery test. — The " Reliable " 2-cell battery, 6 inches long, was
selected and tested, first for constant current and then for recupera-
tion, by running it for one minute, alternating with a rest of five
minutes. These tests, applied to three cartridges selected at random,
resulted as follows :
Results of tests of 6-inch 2-cell ^'Reliable " battery.
BATTKRY NO. 1.
Atendof-
Current.
Ampere. \
0.250 1
.245
.243
.242 '
.240
.240
.238 '
.236 1
.235 '
.235
.235
1
Loss.
Ampere.
0.005
.002
.001
.002
.000
.002
.002
.001
.000
.000
.015
E. M. F.
Light.
0 minute __
Volts.
2.66
Bright.
1 miirnte , , , . -
2 minutes
3 minates
4 TnvfXTiteif^ _
.'5 minntAfl _ _ .
6 minutes
7 Tninntep . . .
8 miniit^. ...
9 minntes
2.50
10 minutes
Bright.
30
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
[NO. 15L
Results of tests of 6-inch 2'Cell '^Reliable " battery — Continued.
BATTKRY NO. 1 AFTER A REST OF 90 MINUTES.
0 minute..
1 minute . .
2 minutes -
3 minutes.
4 minutes.
5 minutes.
6 minutes -
7 minutes.
8 minutes.
9 minutes.
10 minutes.
At end of—
Current.
Loss.
E. M. F.
Li^ht.
0 minut-e _ _ . _ .
Ampere.
0.250
.245
.243
.241
.239
.237
.236
.235
.235
.234
.234
VoUi.
2.66
Bright.
1 miTiTite
0.003
.002
.002
.002
.002
.001
.001
.000
.001
.000
2 miTintes
3 jniTnit^-fl -
4 minutes - -
5 minutes _ _
6 minutes. . _
7 minutes
8 minutes
9 minutes.
10 minutes -
2.50
Bright.
.016
BATTERY NO. 2.
BATTERY NO. 2 AFTER A REST OF 90 MINUTES.
0 minutp
0.263
.258
.253
.252
.250
.248
.246
.245
.244
.243
.243
2.70
Bright.
1 minute
0.005
,(m
.001
.002
.002
.002
.001
.001
.001
.000
2 minutes -
3 minutes _ _. -
4- minntflH
5 minutes
6 minutes. .
7 minutes
8 minutes . . ....
9 miTint^s
10 minutes
2.52
Bright.
.020
LEiGimx.l SUSPENDED MATTEB.
Results of tests of G-inch 2'Cell *\R€liaUe*' hatteru — Continued.
81
BATTERY NO. 3;
Alendof—
Current.
Ampere.
0.273
.270
.265
.262
.260
.258
.255
.253
.252
.251
.250
Law.
Ampere.
E.M.F.
Light.
Bright.
0 minute .
VolU.
2.82
1 minute. .
0.003
.005
.003
.002
.002
.003
.002
.001
.001
2 miiint^^
3 minutes
4 minutes
5 minutes
6 minutes
7 minutes
H minnt^vi
9 minutes . .
10 minutes.-
.001
2.60 Bright.
.023
1
BATrEKY NO. 3 APTE
:R REST O
F 90 MINITTES.
0 minute
0.256
.252
.249
.246
.244
.243
.242
.241
.240
.239
.238
2.70
Bright.
1 minute. _
0.004
.003
.003
.002
.001
.001
.001
.001
.001
.001
2 minutes
3 minutes .-. _..
4 minutes
5 minutes _
6 minutes _ -
7 minutes
8 minutes :
-
9 minutes _
10 Tninnt^s ...
2.50 Bright.
.018
The batteries were next tested for recuperation by alternating one
minute of use with five minutes of rest, as follows :
BATTERY NO. 1.
Period.
Initial
current.
Ampere.
0.243
.242
.241
.240
.240
Pinal
current.
Ampere.
0. 238
.237
.237
.238
.236
Drop in
current.
Initial
voltage.
Final
voltage.
Drop in
voltage.
First minntA _
Ampere.
0.005
.005
.004
.002
.004
2.60
2.56
2.56
2.56
2.57
2.54
2.51
2.50
2.50
2.50
0.06
Second minute
.05
Third minute
.06
Fouriih minute
.06
Fifth minute
.07
32
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
BATTERY NO. 2.
[NO. 151.
Period.
First minute _ _ .
Second minute..
Third minute _..
Fourth minute .
Fifth minute . . .
Initial
current.
Final
current.
Ampere.
Ampere.
0.349
0.245
.249
.245
.248
.245
.247
.243
.247
.243
Drop in j Initial Final Drop in
current, voltage, voltage. Ivoltiige.
Ampere.
0.004
.004
.003
.004
.004
2.63
2.56
2.63
2.56
2.63
2.56
2.62
3.56
2.63
2.60
0.07
.07
.07
.06
.03
BATTERY NO. 3.
First minute . . .
Second minute..
Third minute...
Fourth minute .
Fifth minute - .
0.260
.257
.255
.254
.253
0.255
0.005
2.76
.253
.004
2.72
.251
.004
2.70
.250
.004
2.70
.249
.004
2.66
2.66
2.63
2.63
2.60
0.10
.06
.07
.07
.06
Volts.
Highest voltage observed 2.k1
Lowest voltage observed 2. 5«»
Extreme variation.
.32
Reckoned on an average voltage of 2.66 volts, this is a variation of
12 per cent.
Ampere.
Highest amperage observed 0.273
Lowest amperage observed .2:^1
Maximum variation . 030
Reckoned on an average amperage of 0.248 ampere this is a variation
of 16 per cent in current. The drop in current averages O.OO'J
ampere per minute, or about 0.8 per cent.
It will be seen from these results that the battery is quick in recov-
ery and that while in use the reduction in electromotive force
is comparatively small. The change in current observed in the bat-
teries tested does not cause any error in a turbidit}'^ estimation.
Readings were made at different times with a standard of turbidity
corresponding to 250 parts per million of silica, and in every case the
variation in depth of liquid read in the gi^aduated tube came within
the probable deviation occurring in reading. The ordinary varia-
tion of current in the battery does not affect the accuracy of the
in.strument to a measurable degree.
This battery will remain effective under ordinary conditions from
fifty to sixty days, at the end of which time it is advisable to change
the cartridge.
LEIGHTDN.]
SUSPENDED MATTER.
38
El^ctriC'lmlb test. — Several lights were tested to see if there were a
noticeable deviation in the intensity of light produced. The test of
four sample lights is here given :
Battery.
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 8.
Lamp
No. 1.
1
Lamp
No. 2.
8.5
Lamp
No. 8.
8.4
Lamp
No.1.
8.7
7. 7
8.6'
8.6
8.2
8.0
8.9 .
8.5
8.3
7.9
The numbers given are the depths in centimeters produced by using
a standard turbidity of 250 with different batteries and lights. The
mean of these observations is 8.4, while the average deviation from the
mean is 0.3, which brings three of the lamps within the limit allowed
on individual readings under constant conditions; the fourth light,
however, falls without the limit of error. The lamps were chosen
at random from a stock of 2.5-volt lights. It is evident that here is a
variation which must be overcome. It may be done by buying a
large stock of lamps and selecting only such as come within the stand-
ard conditions, or by buying lamps of guaranteed candle power.
In conclusion it may be said that it is well to test a new lamp with
silica standard before using it in the field.
Glass-plate test. — The glass diaphragm placed over the lamp is
ground on one side in order to tone and diffuse the rays from the
electric light. It also makes possible the use of a much shorter
glass tube than would otherwise be necessary, and it reduces varia-
tion in candlepower in the effect thereof on turbidity determina-
tions. It appears to be possible to procure glasses which are groimd
to the same opacity. Different glasses were tried in the instrument
without any apparent effect on the depth of turbid liquid required
to shut off the light. It may be said in connection with the ground
glass that the cross slit of brass above it should be constant in width
of aperture. As this offers no mechanical difficulties, no experi-
ments were made to determine the effect of variation in the width
of the slit.
Calihratian for turbidity. — When work was begun on the calibra-
tion of the instrument it was necessary to prepare a standard silica
solution. The standard heretofore used has been very difficult to
match on account of the difficulty of grinding the silica fine enough
to reach the required turbidity. The standard is such that it gives
a reading of 500 parts per million at a depth of 4.5 centimeters,
while the standard prepared by ordinary grinding gives a reading
of 500 parts per million at a depth of about 5.7 centimeters. Several
IRR 151—05 3
34
FIELD ASSAY OF WATEB.
[NO. 151.
careful grindings failed to give the desired reading of 4.5 centime-
ters. It was therefore decided to make some very careful grindings
and to select as a standard the one giving the lowest reading in
depth with the turbidimeter. It was found that the particles of
silica need to be rubbed apart with the finger after being ground, in
order to secure the maximum turbidity. It is of interest to note the
various readings with the four standard solutions prepared.
Variations in turbidity readings tcith different degrees of fineness of silica.
DEPTH, IN CENTIMETERS. PRODUCED WITH 500 STANDARD.
Standard
No.l.
standard
No. 2.
Standard
No. 8.
Standard
No. 4.
5.7
5.8
4.4
6.1
5.6
5.4
4.6
6.0
5.6
5.3
4.5
6.1
5.7
5.2
4.4
6.1
«5.6
a5.3
«4.5
«6.1
DEPTH, IN CENTIMETERS. PRODUCED WITH 250 STANDARD.
10.2
10.2
8.6
11.0
10.2
9.7
8.5
11.1
10.1
9.9
8.6
11.0
10.2
10.0
8.7
11.0
«10.2
«10.0
«8.6
«11.0
DEPTH, IN CENTIMETERS, PRODUCED WITH 125 STANDARD.
20.0 i
19.8
16.7
21.7
20.3 1
19.6
16.9
21.5
20.5
19.9
17.0
22.0
20.5 ,
20.1
«19.8
17.1
21.8
«20.3
1
0 16.9
a21.8
• Average.
According to these readings it was found that solution No. 3 prac-
tically coincides with the old standard and was therefore used as
standard. It is believed that this choice will result in less confusion
in the future when a new standard solution is desired, because this
chosen turbidity represents the limit in grinding.
The work of calibration consisted in taking readings with different
dilutions of the silica standard. After thoroughly shaking the stand-
LEIGHTON.]
SUSPENDED MATTEB.
35
ard it was poured into the graduated tube until the depth was
reached at which the cross of light disappeared. Precautions were
taken to secure uniform conditions of light, and the battery was tested
for current at frequent intervals. In the following tables the actual
readings of the tube are given, after which the average and average
deviation are stated. Observations deviating by more than the aver-
age deviation are then discarded and 'the average of the remainder is
taken to determine the resultant point on the curve which represents
the turbiditv scale.
Calibration of turbidimeter for standard of 250 parts per million turbidity.
[Centimeters. Excewi of average deviation indicated by italic figures.]
Beading.
Deviation.
Beading.
Deviation.
9.2
0,6
8.6
0.1
8.4
.3
8.4
.3
8.7
''
8.8
.1
8.9
.2 '
8.4
,3
8.5
.2 '
8.4
.3
9.2
.5
9.2
,5
. 8.4
.S I
8.4
,3
8.7
.0 1
8.7
.0
8.9
.2
8.9
.2
8.5
.2 1
8.5
.2
8.6
.1
8.8
.1
8.8
.1
8.9
.2
8.9
.2
8.7
.0
9.0
,3
8.5
.2
8.7
8.8
.0
.1
269.9
6.2
8.5
.2
Mean=269.9 4- 31=8.7. Average deviatlon^6.2-j- 31=0.2.
It will be not«d that 10 of 31 readings differ from the mean by an
amount gi-eater than the average deviation (0.2). Only 3 readings
have a deviation greater than 0.3. It is therefore assumed that
under ordinary conditions a variation of 0.3 centimeter at 250
standard should be allowed.
36 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [»o. 151.
Calibration of turbidimeter for standard of 200 parts per million turbidity.
[Centimeters. Excess of average deviation indicated by italic figures.]
Beading.
Deviation.
Beading.
Deviation.
11.8
O.S
10.6
0.4
11.1
•1 1
11.3
.3
11.1
.1
11.1
.1
11.0
.0
11.1
.1
11.0
.0
11.0
.0
10.9
.1
11.0
.0
11.5
.s
10.9
.1
10.6
11.1
.4
.1
187.8
2.9
10.7
.3 \
1
Mean=187.3^17-=11.0. Average deviation— 2.0 -M7»0.2.
The deviation of 6 of the 17 observations exceeds 0.2 centimeter,
the average deviation. Only 3 observations exceed 0.3 centimeter in
deviation. Under ordinary circumstances we mpy consider 0.3 cen-
timeter as the average deviation.
Calibration of turbi4imetei' for standard of 100 parts per million turbidity.
[Centimeters. Excess of average deviation Indicated by italic flgnrea.]
Beading.
Deviation.
Beading.
Deviation.
21.9
0.2
i
21.9
0.2
21.5
.2
22.2
.5
21.6
.1
21.0
.7
21.1
,6
21.9
.2
22.2
,6
21.5
.2
21.0
. 7
21.9
.2
21.9
21.5
.2
.2
808.1
4.7
Mean— 303.1 ~ 14=21.7. Average deviation— 4.7 >- 14—0.3.
The deviation of 5 of the 14 observations exceeds 0.3 centimeter.
the average deviation. Probably 0.4 centimeter would be the ordi-
nary deviation. If we reckon 0.4 as the average deviation, mean =
21.8. Probably 21.7 is correct.
LXIGRION.]
&U8P£KD£t) MAtTEB.
87
Calihratian of turhidimeter for standard of 125 parts per million turbidity.
[Gentlmeten. EzceM of ayerage deviation Indicated by Italic figures.]
Beading.
D«»viation.
Beading.
Derlatlon.
17.3
0.0
1 17.2
.1
16.7
,6
1 17.5
.2
17.2
17.4
17.3
A
.1
.0
i 17.4
1 155.6
.1
1.5
17.6
.3
Mean — 155.6 -r- 9 ^ 17.3. Average deviation —i 1.5 -r- 9 — 0.2.
The average deviation from 9 readings is 0.2 centimeter and is
exceeded by only 2 readings. Probably more readings would give
greater deviations and the average deviation would be increased.
Calibration of turbidimeter for standard of 500 parts per million turbidity.
[Centimeters. Excess of average deviation Indicated by Italic flgares.]
Beading.
Deviation.
Beading.
Deviation,
4.4
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.4
0.1
.1
.0
.1
.1
I
4.6
4.5.
.1
.0
31.4
.5
Mean»31.4-s-7»4.5. Average deviatlon=0.5-^7=B0.1.
Though only 7 readings are here given, many more were taken
without getting anomalous results. The probable deviation is 0.1
centimeter and wiU not be exceeded. Mean =4.5 centimeters.
Turbidity of IfiOO parts per million. — From many observations
at different times, 2.3 centimeters is the reading for 1,000 standard.
Average devlation=0.1 centimeter.
Mean =2.3 centimeters.
We have, then, determined by actual experiment the depth cor-
responding to 6 turbidities :
Turbidity 100
Depth (centimeters)— 21.7
125
200
250
500
1,000
17.3
11.0
8.7
4.5
2.3
88
MELD ASSAY OF WATEB.
[iro. 151.
These points are then plotted on logarithmic cross-section paper
(fig. 2) and intermediate points determined by measurement on
the plot.
Below 100, depths have been determined at 50 and at 25 by usinp: a
longer tube, with which the effect will be the same as lowering the
light into the standard by means of a tape. The observations made
ifi.7em.
2/
X
iO
X
^v
tB
X
n
V
IB
\
13
X
13
X
\
ti
\
If
\
\,
9
\,
n 8
\
\
\
1: d
3
\
\,
\
\
4
9
\
\
^
^
\
N
\
09
Zi
OO J>
OO
•«
OO
s
la
&
OO A
30
a
» 9C
kHA
Ports per million of silica
Fig. 2. — Logarithmic scale of turbidity.
at 50 and 25 seem to indicate that the curve begins to swing away
from its course at 100. This change may be due to the fact that the
distance between light and eye is increased. From 1,000 to 100 the
light is 25 centimeters from the eye; at 50 it is 40 centimeters away,
while at 25 the distance is 65 centimeters. The readings are as
follows :
LKiGHTON.l SUSPENDED MATTEB. S9
CaUhraiion of turbidimeter for standard of 50 and 25 parts per million turbidity.
[Centimeters.]
346.8
Meaii»346.8H- 10»=34.7.
[Centimeters.]
25 parts. ;
64
61
56
61
63
60
65
430
Mean-»430-^7=61.
400 SOO SOO
. Part* per million of silica
Fig. 3. — ^Turbidity curve.
40
FIELD ASSAY OF WAtEft.
(no. 151.
These readings may not be accurate. Further experiments may
show that they are too low. At most, however, they are within 10
parts per million of silica in their relation to the real values (fig. 3).
The limit of accuracy between 100 and 1,000 is well defined from the
points determined.
From the values heretofore determined the depths of liquid in the
turbidimeter corresponding to a silica standard of turbidity are sot
forth in the following table :
T u rb id it y deter m in at ions.
Depth.
SUica.
1 Depth.
Silica.
Cm.
Parts per
miUion.
Cm.
Partuper
miUion.
2.3
1,000
10.5
210 .
2.6
900
11.0
200
2.9
800
11.5
190
3.2
700
' 12.1
180 .
3.5
650
12.8
170
3.8
600
13.6
160
4.1
550
14.4
150
4.5
500
15.4
140
4.9
450
16.6
130
5.6
400
18.0
120
6.3
350
19.6
110
7.3
800
; 21.7
100
7.6
290
23.0
90
7.8
280
25.0
80
8.1
270
28.0
70
8.5
260
31.0
60
8.7
250
35.0
50
9.1
240
42.0
40
9.5
280
52.0
30
10.0
220
, 70.0
1
20
DETERMINATION OF THE PROBABLE ERROR.
Readings on the same standard solution with the same battery
and light by the same jjerson will vary within narrow limits. These
limits have been determined for several points and calculated as
average deviation.
LMGHTON.3 COLOa. 41
Limit ft of accuracy on duplicate readings.
1
1
Average devi-
ation in centi-
meters.
Limit of accaraey in parts per million.
1,000
0.1
Reading correct within 35 parts.
500
.1
Reading correct within 15 parts.
250
.3
Reading correct within 10 parts.
200
.3
Reading correct within 8 parts.
100
.4
Reading correct within 5. parts.
50
Reading correct within 5 parts.
30
Reading correct within 5 parts.
In other words, a turbidity between 500 and 1,000 parts can be
measured accurately within 35 parts. Between 200 and 500 parts
measurement can be made within 10 to 15 parts, and between 50 and
200 within 5 to 8 parts per million.
The limit of accuracy is not changed by change of observers. Since
the thing seen is a ray of light, it appears to be visible to any eye and
appears to be shut off at the same depth for different observers.
The limit is greater than that change in depth caused by normal
variations in the current. Therefore the limit of accuracy is not
increased by variations in the battery within ordinary limits.
Changes in the electric bulb can introduce a constant error greater
than the probable error in determination. Therefore only such
lamps should be used as have been tested with a standard silica
solution.
In the general field work of the hydrographic branch the field
assistants and those cooperating are instructed to use the Jackson tur-
bidimeter in connection with all waters having a turbidity of more
than 100, while the turbidity rod could be used in waters having a
lower turbidity. The objections mentioned in connection with the
use of this rod are not so serious in the determination of low tur-
bidities.
COLOR.
OCCURRENCE.
The term " color " as used in water chemistry should not be con-
founded with the term as ordinarily used. The streams of the Missis-
sippi A'alley, and indeed the great river itself, appear highly colored.
One will find rivers which are habitually red, yellow, brown, or black
in appearance. This color is not due to the water itself, but to the
character of the matter which is carried in suspension. It is a factor
of the turbidity, and reveals the nature of the geologic formations
eroded by the flowing water. On the other hand, waters may have a
42 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [xo. 151.
color due to dissolved substances, and this is the feature referred to
by the term as used in water analysis.
In those parts of the United States where the underlying rock is
resistant — that is, where it does not readily break up and disintegrate
under the forces of erosion — we usually find colored water. At first
sight it seems paradoxical that the clear waters of New England,
many of which drain from granitic formations and hills of gravel,
are colored, while those of the Central West, which carry large
amounts of suspended matter eroded from the surface, are, when freed
from turbidity, nearly colorless. In many cases this is due to the fact
that the substances in suspension are of such nature that they absorb
any color which might have been dissolved. On the other hand, in
New England streams the color due to the decay of vegetable matter,
such as peat or muck, remains in solution, and while the water is gen-
erally very clear the color itself is apparent in varying degrees.
The importance of the color determination arises from the fact that
in public supplies consumers demand a clear, colorless liquid, and
are reluctant to accept any other. In manufacturing processes a
colored water often works harm. In certain classes of waters the
dissolved color is a fair index of the amount of organic matter con-
tained. These facts pertain primarily to unpolluted water, for it is
apparent that a water contaminated by wastes may have colors aris-
ing from sources such as dyes, sediments, etc. On the whole, the color
of a natural water which can be applied to domestic and manufac-
turing purposes affects its value along economic lines. The periodical
determination of dissolved color is necessary, as its intensity varies
with the seasons and is influenced by sunlight, precipitation, and
various other natural phenomena.
COLOR STANDARDS.
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY STANDARD.
The standard of color determinations adopted by the United States
Geological Survey is known as the platinum-cobalt method, devised
by Mr. Allen Hjizen, from whom so many practical and extremely
valuable ideas with reference to the determination of quality of water
have come.
The method is as follows :
A standard solution which has a color of 500 is made by dis-
solving 1.246 grams potassium-platinic chloride <» (PtCl4^KCl>,
containing 0.5 gram platinum, and 1 gram of crystallized cobalt
chloride (CoCL„6ll20), containing 0.25 gram of cobalt in water, with
" Potassium-plat Idous chloride is a salt that Is often substituted by dealers In place of
the potaHsium-platinic chloride. It is Rometlmos Incorrectly labeled. The platlnous salt
has a reddish color, while the platinic salt has a yellow color.
LEIQHTON.l COLOR. 48
100 cubic centimeters concentrated hydrochloric acid, and making up
to 1 liter with distilled water. By diluting this solution, standards
are prepared having values of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60,
and 70. The numbers correspond to the metallic platinum in the solu-
tions in parts per million. These are kept in 100 c. c. Ne&sler jars
of such diameter that the liquid shall have a depth between 20 and 25
centimeters and shall l)e protected from dust. The color of a sample
is ol)served by filling a similar tube with water and comparing it
with the standards. The observation is made by looking verti-
cally downward through the tubes upon a white surface placed at
such an angle that light is reflected upward through the column of
liquid. The reading is recorded to the nearest unit. Waters that
Iiave a color darker than 70 are diluted before making the compar-
ison, in order that no difficulties may be encountered in match-
ing the hues. Water containing matter in suspension is filtered
until no visible turbidity remains. If the suspended matter is coarse,
filter paper may be used for this purpose; if the suspended matter is
fine, the use of the Berkfeld filter is recommended. The use of a Pas-
teur filter is to be avoided, as it exerts a decolorizing action.
It is impracticable to carry the standard tubes above described into
the field for observations, and yet field observations are of great con-
venience and value to the sanitary engineer, and in general to the
investigations of the United States Geological Survey.
FIELD 8TAl<rDiJU>8.
DESCRIPTION.
Disks of colored glass have been prepared by Mr. Allen Hazen, in
cooperation with the Survey, as standards for measuring color of water
in the field." These disks have been rated by Mr. George C. Whipple
to correspond with the platinum-cobalt standard. The color is meas-
ured by balancing the color of the water in a metallic tube with glass
ends against the colors of glass disks of known value. The number
on each disk represents the corresponding color of a water. This is
not a new standard, but a new application of an old standard. The
glass disks are rated to correspond with the platinum-cobalt color
standard. The process bears the same relation to the usual labora-
torj' process that an aneroid barometer bears to a mercurial barometer.
The metallic tubes and glass standards are more portable and better
adapted to field use than the Nessler tubes and color solutions hereto-
fore used. The standards are disks of amber-colored glass, mounted
with aluminum. Each disk carries two numbers. One number is
over 100, and is a serial number for the purpose of identification.
• I*resaey, H. A., Observations on flow of rivers In vicinity of New York City : Water-
Sup, and Irr. Paper No. 76, U. S. (Jeol. Survey, 1903, VI. X.
44 FIELD ABSAY OF WATEB. [sciSL
The other number is less than 100, and shows the color value of the
disk; that is to say, the color of each disk is equal to the color of a
solution of the designated number of parts per million of platinum
with the required amount of cobalt to match the hue when seen in a
depth of 200 millimeters. When a water comes between two disks its
value can be estimated between them by judgment. Two or more
disks can be used, one behind the other, in which case their combined
value is the sum of the individual values. By combining the disks of
a series in different ways a considerable number of values can be pro-
duced, allowing the closer matching of many waters.
USE OF FIELD STANDARDS.
Filling the tubes. — The tube, having an aluminum stopper, is to be
filled with water, the color of which is to be determined. Rinse the
tube once or twice by filling and emptying it. The second tube, hav-
hig the clips to hold the glass disks, is made much like the one holding
the water, to facilitate comparison. Theoretically this tube should
be filled with distilled water. Practically it makes very little differ-
ence whether it is filled with distilled water or empty. Use distilled
water when it is convenient to do so, and when distilled water of
unquestionable quality is at hand; otherwise wipe the inside of the
tube dry to prevent fogging of the glass ends, and proceed with the
tube empty.
Holding the tubes. — Hold the tubes at such a distance from the eye
that the sides of the tubes just can not be seen. This occurs when the
near end of the tube is 8 or 9 inches from the eye. Hold the tubes at
such an angle that both can be seen at once with one eye. Good
results can not be obtained in any other way. Interchange the tubes
once or twice, as sometimes the light on the right and left is not quite
equal.
Background, — There should be a clear white background with a
strong illumination. The best results can not be obtained with either
too little or too much light. In a gray day look at the sky near the
horizon away from the sun. In a bright day look at a piece of
white paper or tile upon which a strong light falls. The white sur-
face may be vertical and the tubes held horizontally, or the tubes may
be held at an angle directed downward toward a horizontal surface,
as may be most convenient. Good results can not be obtained by
artificial light.
Turbid water, — The colors of very turbid waters can not be meas-
ured in this way. Slight turbidities do not interfere seriously with
the results. Waters too turbid for direct observations should be
filtered through thick filter paper before being tested; and in case
the suspended matter causing the turbidity is fine in grain and large
LKIGHTON.l IRON. 45
in amount, even this method may fail. The turbidity of water should
be taken as far as possible in connection with color observations,
except in cases where it is obvious from inspection that there is prac-
tically no turbidity.
Highly colored waters. — Some waters will be found having a
higher color than can be matched by the standards. In general,
waters with colors above 100 should not be matched in 200-millimeter
tubes, and the results with waters having colors below 80 will be
considerably more accurate than with more highly colored ones.
Two procedures are possible with waters having higher colors;
namely, to dilute with distilled water before measuring the color, or to
use shorter tubes. The latter procedure is the more convenient, but
both are equally accurate. To measure the color with short tubes,
put the highly colored water in a tube of one-half the usual length
and match as usual. It is not necessary to have a short standard
holder. The 200-millimeter tube can be used. After the water is
matched the result is multiplied by 2. In case the color is too high
to be read in a 100-millimeter tube it can be put in a 50-millimeter
tube, and the result multiplied by 4. When dilution is used the
highly colored water is mixed with one or more volumes of distilled
water, the color matched, and the result multiplied by a correspond-
ing factor. The tube itself can be used for measuring the colored
water and the distilled water, and the mixing can be done in a tumbler
or any convenient clean vessel.
Cleaning the tubes. — Always keep the tubes clean. Take particu-
lar care of the glass ends. All the ends are removable for the purpose
of cleaning, and should not be screwed on too tightly. They should
be water-tight when screwed up only loosely, for if screwed on hard
they may stick so as to come off with difficulty.
IRON.
One of the important determinations which it is necessary to
include in many special investigations is that of iron. Water con-
taining an appreciable amount of this metal can not be used in many
manufacturing processes. It is objectionable in domestic uses by
reason of its taste and the discoloration of linen. Certain solutions
of iron in boiler feed waters are particularly destructive. Iron in
ground waters stimulates the growth of Crenothrix, w^hich frequently
clogs water pipes. On the other hand, iron has a certain medicinal
value, and when it is in the form of sulphate has valuable coagulat-
ing properties. The last-named effect is well demonstrated in streams
draining coal regions.**
■ Lelghton, M. O., Qaality of water in Susquehanna River drainage basin : Water-Sup.
and Irr. Paper No. 108, U. 8. Oeol. Survey, 1904, p. 36.
46 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [no. 151
Colorimetric methods are believed to be the simplest and best for
the determination of iron in natural waters, and they readily lend
themselves to modification for field purposes. That which involves
the use of potassium ferrocyanide, described on page 220 of Sutton's
Volumetric Analysis, ninth edition, was selected as best adapted for
the purposes in view. The process involves the addition of acid and
KCXS to the water under investigation or to the residual solution of
that water, thereby producing a characteristic blood-red color. The
depth of this color is absoluteh^ fixed by the amount of iron in the
water. It is then necessary to add to a similar mixture, made up witli
distilled water, such a quantity of standard iron solution as will pro-
duce in this solution exactly the same shade of red as is shown in the
water under investigation. Then from the amount of standard iron
solution used to produce that shade of red the amount of iron in the
water under investigation may easily be determined.
The modification of this method for field purposes consists of the
use of fixed color standards, each having been previously rated to cor-
respond with some known equivalent of iron. The apparatus used
in the work is that already described for the determination of natural
color. (PL II.) The color standards are red glass disks, rated and
used in precisely the same way as the natural color standards. The
colored light is transmitted djrectly through the disk tube, and the
disks may be changed or combined until the color of the sample under
examination is matched. Then from the rating of the disks the
amount of iron may be stated.
A sample of the clear water to be tested is poured into a 50- or 100-
c. c. graduate to the 45 c. c. mark, 2 cubic centimeters of concentrated
nitric acid added, and the contents thoroughly mixed in order to con-
vert all ferrous iron present into ferric iron. The fluid should then
be allowed to stand about five minutes.
The mixing and oxidation is preferably accomplished by pouring
the solution from the graduate into another vessel, such as the gla>>
turbidimeter tube, and vice versa, at least eight or ten timevS. To the
acidified solution in the graduate is then added 3 cubic centimeters of
a solution of potassium sulphocyanide containing 20 grams KCNS
per liter, and the liquids are thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand
10 minutes. The solution is now transferred to the aluminum color-
imeter tube, which has a capacity of about 45 cubic centimeters and i>
about 8 inches long.
Nitric acid is used in the above method instead of hydrochloric
acid, commonly employed, in the first place to avoid any corrosion of
the aluminum tube, the desirability of the use of which will l>e ex-
plained later. With the employment of nitric acid instead of hydro-
chloric acid, moreover, it was discovered that the color produced in
UJ
O
O
cc
o
CO
D
LEIGHTON.l CHLORIDES, 47
ii-oii solutions by the addition of sulphocyanide is somewhat deeper
and does not fade nearly so rapidly. Finally, the addition of nitric
acid not only effects the required acidity of the solution essential to
the test, but obviates the need of employing potassium permanganate
in order to convert any ferrous iron present to the ferric state.
Tlie aluminum tube is employed in the assay for iron in natural
waters, because (1) it is light, (2) it can not be easily broken in
transportation, like the glass tubes used in the water laboratories, (3)
it is provided with a suitable spring for supporting the colored-glass
disks, (4) it provides a suitable depth of column of the water for the
iron determination, and (5) it is generally used by the hydrographic
division in determining the natural colors of waters. The aluminiun
colorimeter tube thus serves a double purpose, and obviates the neces-
sity of carrying special tubes in the field for the iron assay.
The results reached by this method of determination should be as
accurate for practical purposes as those attained by the laboratory
method.
CHLORIDES.
The determination of chlorides in water is significant in two gen-
eral lines of investigation. In connection with sanitary analyses, it
is in certain parts of the country a valuable index of sewage pollu-
tion. In analyses of water for boiler and industrial purposes it is
also important, as the chloridas of calcium and magnesium corrode
boiler plates.
LABORATORY DETERMINATION.
With reference to the determination of chlorides from a sanitary
standpoint, the following article by Mr. Daniel D. Jackson, chemist
in charge of the Mount Prospect laboratory, department of water
supply, gas, and electricity, of New York City, is presented :
Chlorine, a constituent of common salt, is present in nearly all natural waters.
Its original sources are mineral salt de[)osits and finely divided salt spray from
the sea. This latter Is carried with dust particles by the wind and precipitated
with the rain. All salt found In waters not coming from these original sources
comes from domestic drainage, and indicates that the water is at the present time
polluted, or was polluted and has since been purified. By a comparison of the
salt contents of any water under examination with the normal chlorine figure
for that region, the extent of past or present pollution may be determined.
PHY8IOIXXJICAL FUNCTIONS OF COMMON SALT.
Salt always occurs in drainage from animal sources because in all animal
c'<t)nomy a certain fairly definite amount of common salt is eaten with the food
daily and later expelled from the body in practically the same condition in
which it was absorbed. That it plays an important role in the blood is indi-
cated by the fact than on an average it constitutes about one-halt ot tU^ total
48 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [no. IM.
blood asb. It iH also found tbat normal gastric Juice can not be formed without
the presence of salt, and that in many other secretions of the body its presence
is probably a necessity.
SALT AS AN INDICATION OF POLLUTION.
The amount of salt in a water is a valuable indication of pollution because
of the following facts : The animal body exi)els the same amount of salt that it
absorbs; tills salt is unchangeable in the soil and is very soluble in water: it
must eventually form a part of the drainage and become mixed with the general
run-off of the region in which it is exi)elled. The average amount of salt enter-
ing the drainage of any particular district is so constant for each inhabitant
that it has been daimeii that the numl)er of people living on a drainage area
may be determined with a fair degree of accuracy from the average run-ofT and
the excess of chlorine over the normal.o Stearns estimates the chlorine in the
run-off of any drainage area not receiving factory waste to be increased about
one-tenth of a part i)er million by every 20 inhabitants per square mile.
SALT IN THE WATERS OF INLAND STATES.
All salt in natural uni)ol luted waters farther inland than Ohio comes from
mineral dei)ORits. The salt winds from the sea have no effect beyond this
State, but, unfortunately, west of this State a large proportion of the natunil
waters are more or less affected by the salt deposits. The underground ssilt
seems to spread over a broad area, and exerts not only a wide but a varhiblo
influence over most of the waters. In these inland States, while the "normal
chlorine " would be prac'tlcally zero, the value of the determination of chlorin«»
is in most cases vitiated by the variable quantity of salt from minenil sourcfs.
Determinations of chlorine in samples of water taken above and liolow a city
which runs Its drainage into the stream examined may give the extent of iioUu-
tion due to the city sewage, but the waters so far analyzed in the inland States
give indications that the question of normal chlorine does not to any gre:it
extent enter into sanitary problems.
SALT IN COAST STATE WATEBS.
On the other hand, the coast Stsite waters are practically unaffected by this
mineral salt, and while very extensive deix)sits exist, especially in the State
of New York, they are in narrow jwckets and exert an influence over a verj
limited area. Except in these pockets the mineral salt has apparently been
washed into the sea.
It is foimd that in the coast States the salt in the natural waters whicli
comes from original sources is practically all brought in by the sea winds, and
that a certain normal amount Is i>resent in the waters of each locality.
The difference in the normal amount in different localities is due to varia-
tions in distance from the seacoast. in the amount of rainfall, in the rate of
evai)oration, in the amount of protection from ocean winds, and in the dlrwtion
of the prevailing winds. In spite of the great variety of causes which affet*i
the normal chlorine in natural waters, the normal for any particular region is
surprisingly constant.
The chlorine dcHTcases as waters farther and farther inland are tested. s<>
that by conne<'ting with lines on the map lo<*alitles having the same normal we
find that these lines of e<uial chlorine (isochlors) follow in a genera! way the
•Rept, Ma.ssachusetts State Board of Ucaltb, 1890, pt. 1, p. 680.
i^QHTON.] ' CHLORIDES. 49
coast lines, and as they extend inland are still more or less parallel to the coast.
The distance of these lines from the coast depends chiefly ui)on the general
dire<'tion of the wind and the protectinj; influences of mountains on the coast
or of islands near the mainland.
COLLECTION OF SAMPLES.
In order to obtain the normal chlorine lines for any State it is first necessary
t<i collec*t a large numl)er of analyses for chlorine in waters taken at different
seasons over the entire area to be covere<l. It is evident that near the seacoast,
where the variations in chlorine within a limited urea are greatest, the largest
amount of data must be collected. A large number of samples of water taken
from surface and ground sources must be obtained. The pond waters usually
give the t)est results, and careful insi)ection of the drainage area of such sources
gives a good idea of whether or not the water is subject to i)ollution. Samples
for analy.sis should be chosen as far from human habitation as possible.
SOLUTIONS REQUIRED IN THE ANALYSIS OF WATER FOR CHLORINE.
The following solutions are employed in the analysis of water for chlorine :
Sialt .solution. — A solution of chemically inire fused salt, containing 1 milli-
gram of chlorine in each cubic centimeter, is made by dissolving l.(>48 grams of
the fused sodium chloride in 1 liter of distilled water free from chlorine.
tiilver-nitrate solution. — Two and one-half grams of crystallized silver nitrate
are dissolved in 1 liter of distilled water free from chlorine. To this solution
water or strong silver nitrate is added until by actual titration 10 cubic centi-
meters of it are equal to 5 cubic centimeters of the standard salt solution.
One cubic centimeter of this solution is then e<iual to 0.5 milligram of chlorine.
Pot assium-chr ornate solution. — An indicator solution is made by adding 50
grams of potassium chromate to 1 liter of distilled water and then adding suffi-
cient silver-nitrate solution to precipitate all the chlorine present and turn the
precipitate slightly reddish. This is allowed to stand, and by filtering or decant-
ing the clear solution is then obtaine<l.
EmulHiitn of alumina. — This is made by dissolving 125 grams of i>otassium or
ammonium alum in 1 liter of water and precipitating the alumina from boiling
solution by ammonia. After precipitation the alumina must l>e washed free
from chlorine, sulphate, and ammonia by successive treatments, settlings, and
decantations with cold distilled water.
METHOD OF PROCEDURE IN THE ANALYSIS OF WATER FOR CUIX>RINE.
Pour 25 cubic centimeters of the water to be tested into a white porcelain
di.sh. Add about one- half a cubic centimeter of chromate solution and run in
standard silver-nitrate solution from a Imrette until the first faint reddish tint
api)ears. This is more easily note<l if for comparison a dish containing the
ssime amount of water and chromate is kept beside the dish in which the test is
made.
If 1 Of more cubic centimeters of silver nitrate are necessary to reach an end
I>oint, the test may be made without evaporation, but if less is required then
evaporate 250 cubic centimeters to 25 cubic centimeters volume l>efore making
the test It may at times be necessary to evaporate more than this if the
chlorine present is very close to zero in amount.
It is best to always titrate with 25 cubic centimeters of the water. In this
case 0.1 cubic centimeter is subtracted from the results as an Indicator error.
IRR 151—05 4
50 FIELD ASSAY OF WATEB. [»o. iftl
If more than this amount Is used In titration, subtract 0.1 cubic centimeter for
each 25 cubic c*enti meters of the volume of water titrated.
If 250 cubic centimeters of water are taken, the number of cubic centimeters
of silver-nitrate solution used to obtain an end i)oint minus 0.1 <;ubic centimeter
multiplied by 2, gives the chlorine in parts per million.
Example : 250 cubic centimeters are eva[)orated to a volume of 25 cubic centi-
meters and chromate solution added. In the titration 3.5 cubic centimeters of
silver nitrate are used. Then (3.5 — 0.1) x2 = 6.8. The water, then, contains
6.8 parts i)er million of chlorine.
If the sample is highly coloi-ed and vei-y turbid it may be necessary to clarify
it by treating It with an emulsion of alumina. This Is best accomplished by
bringing the water Just to the lK)lllug i)olnt. and then adding alumina and
shaking the emulsion. In a few minutes the clarified water may be decanted.
This is allowed to cool and the required amount Is measuretl out for titration.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE USE OF THE NORMAL CHLORINE MAP.
Having drawn a map of this character for any coast State, we are then able
to estimate the pollution In any natural water by the amount of chlorine pres^ent
over the normal. In some Instances It Is first necesbary to ascertain that the
chlorine Is not from mineral sources.
It will be seen that the normal clilorine lines are of great practical value.
both to the chemist and to the engineer, as they give an index from which may
be estimated the sanitary quality of most waters analyssed within the coast
States. The chlorine also furnishes Information as to the ^urce of deei>-
seated springs or artesian wells.
While this chlorine in the general run-off Is In direct proportion to the popu-
lation on a drainage area, provided none of the sewage is carried outside of that
area, yet waters in this region may have l)een purified before reaching thi
source from which they are collected. The clilorine would still be pre«*eiit and
It Is necessary to find from other tests whether the pollution Is present or past.
It will be noted in Mr. Jackson's discussion that the determination
of chlorine for the location of isochlors should be made by very pre-
cise laboratory methods. Iix fact, such precision should l^e used in all
cases in which it is necessary to decide whether or not a water in a
country where normal chlorine is significant contains chlorides in an
amount which corresponds to or approximates a normal for the
country from which the water comes. In general water surveys,
however, it is necessary to make such nice distinctions only in rare
cases. In the determination of chlorides in a water which is to Ix*
used for l)oiler or industrial purposes this refinement is not necessary,
and field methods will generally suffice.
FIELD DETERMINATION.
STANDARD 8ILTEB-NITRATE TABLETH.
The Geological Survey proposes to use a method for the rapid
determination of chlorides which, from numerous experiments, seems
to meet the conditions in a satisfactory manner. In place of the
U. «- OEOLOOlCAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 1B1 PL. Ill
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TABLET CASE.
LEIGHTON.] CHIiOBIDES. 51
standard solution of silver nitrate, which must be measured in a
burette when applied to a water under examination, there are used
tablets of silver nitrate containing a known equivalent of this reagent.
These tablets are packed in tubes and carried in a leather case, the
details of which are shown in PI. III. This method of packing is
well designed to avoid mechanical agitation of the tablets, which
would result in their loss of active equivalent. The tablets are held
securely in place by the stoppers, which are suflSciently small to be
pushed through the lumen of the tube as fast as the tablets are used.
This maintains a constant pressure against the tablets and prevents
their agitation.
The manufacture of stable silver-nitrate tablets proved to be
K)mewhat difficult. A niunber of pharmaceutical experts who were
engaged at various times to prepare them failed to produce a tablet
which was reasonably stable. Those which are now supplied to the
Survey are made by the Kremers-Urban Company, of Milwaukee,
Wis., and are of superior quality.
In connection with the determination of chlorides it is necessary
to carry into the field only a small bottle of potassium-chromate crys-
tals or solution and a heavy glazed porcelain mortar, together with a
pestle of approved design. The tablets are dissolved in a measured
quantity of water, a small amount of potassium chromate having first
l>een placed in the solution. The end point is indicated by the change
in color in the usual way and the number of tablets of known equiva-
lent indicates the amount of chloride in the water.
This method may be objected to by some chemists because it is
generally believed that the results of a chlorine determination made
on a water without first evaporating the same are too high. This
is apparently true with waters like those of New England, which con-
lain only minute quantities of chlorine, but in the waters of the
greater part of the country the chlorides are so high in amount that
the error which arises from direct titration is not large enough to be
of significance in industrial work.
AMiile the tablets may be manufactured to contain almost any
i*easonable amount of silver nitrate, it has been found that the most
convenient equivalents for general field use are those of approximately
1 and 10 milligrams of chlorine. In all special cases the strength of
tablets should be adjusted to suit conditions. As it is practically
impossible to manufacture tablets of the exact equivalent desired, it is
necessary to determine the strength of each new supply and to make
calculations of all field results accordingly.
The following statement includes various tests of a supply of
tablets. Each tablet was made up to contain an equivalent of as near
1 milligram of chlorine as possible. The purposes of the tests were
52
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
[NO. 151,
to determine the variation in equivalent of single tablets and the
combined equivalent of tablets in sets of 5 and 10, the actual values
in milligrams of chlorine being determined by volumetric methods.
Tests to determine variation in silver-nitrate tablets.
[Milligrama.]
Single tablets.
6 tablets.
1 10 tablets.
Equiva-
lent of
1 tablet.
Deviation
from
mean.
-0.046
- .056 '
+ .044 ;
+ .067 1
1
Equiva-
lent of
6 tablets.
6.000
6.280
6.210
6.110
6.090
6.200
6.060
6.110
Mean Deviation
equiva- of 1 tab-
lent of 1 let from
tablet. mean.
Equiva-
lent of 10
tablets.
Mean
equiva-
lent of 1
tablet.
Deviation
of 1 tab-
let from
mean.
0.96
.96
1.049
1.062
1.012
1.046
1.042
1.022
1.018
1.040
1.016
1.082
-0.016
+ .019
+ .016
- .006
- .009
+ .018
- .011
- .006
Maximum
deviation.
10.24
10.16
10.17
10.18
1.024
1.016
1.017
1.018
+0.0066
- .0086
- .0016
- .0006
Mean.
Maximum
deviation.
Mean.
Mean.
deviation.
1.006
-f 0.067
1
6.211
1.027
+0.019
10.186 1.018
+0.0066
It will be seen from the above results that the maximum variation
in the equivalent of single tablets is 0.057 milligram of chlorine for
each tablet. Therefore, considering the maximum variation shown
in the single tablets and allowing, for purposes of illustration, that
the maximum error may always be present in a determination, it
would be necessary to use 18 tablets in a determination in order to
reach an error equivalent to 1 milligram of chlorine. The mean
value, however, of the single tablet is thoroughly representative of all
the tablets tested, the variations lying above and below the mean value
equally. It wnll be se*»n, further, that when the tablets are used in
larger quantities and the combined equivalents of such quantities are
compared, the deviations from the mean are considerably less and the
maximum deviation is practically negligible. This is shown e^spe-
cially well in the statement of the comparison of the ten tablets. It
is therefore apparent that the tablets do not vary by an appreciable
amount, and that having e^stablished their equivalent by taking the
mean of several determinations, such mean can be used in connection
with the field determinations of chlorine in natural waters.
LEIGHTOM.]
GHLiOBIDES.
58
PRACTICAL TESTS WITH TABLET MSTHOD.
Three chloride solutions were made up at random, which, when
tested by precise methods, were found to contain 4,280, 12,940, and
1,372 parts of chlorine per million, respectively. These solutions
were titrated with tablets, and the end points reached in the same
manner as that used in the field. The results are set forth in the
following table :
Tests of silver-nitrate tablets, with solutions of known equivalent.
SOLUTION NO. 1.— CHLORINE, 4,280 PARTS PER MILLION.
Yolnmeof
aoliition.
Number of
tablets.
Value of
tablets.
Parts chlo-
rine, tablet
method.
Deviation
from actual
value.
Per cent
deviation.
c. c.
22
5
188.0
21.0
1.052
1.052
6,850
4,410
-f2,070
-f 180
48.4
8.04
5
21.0
1.052
4,410
-f 180
8.04
25
10.4
10.1
4,200
- 80
1.87
25
I 10.0
\ 8.0
10.1
1.052
} 4.160
- 120
2.80
50
20.8
f 20.0
10.1
10.1
4,200
- 80
1.87
50
5.0
1.0
1.052
.481
4,154
- 126
2.44
15.06
Mean deviation (six results)— >15.06-h6»2.51 per cent.
SOLUTION NO. 2.— CHLORINE 12,940 PARTS PER MILLION.
26
82.25
10.1
12,510
-430
• 8.82
26
82.0
10.1
12,430
-510
8.04
15
r 19.5
I 1.0
10.1
1.052
} 18,200
-1-260
2.01
15
1 18.5
I 8.0
10.1
1.052
1 18,020
4- 80
.62
5
64.0
1.052
18,470
+530
4.09
18.98
Mean devlation=13.98-r5«2.80 per cent.
54 FIELD ASSAY OF WATEB. [no. 151.
2*e8t8 of silver-nitrate tablets j icith solutions of knotcn equivalent — Continued.
SOLUTION NO. 3.— CHLORINE 1,372 PARTS PER MILLION.
Volume of
solution.
50
50
50
20
Value of
tablets.
Parts Ohio- Deviation
rine, tablet from actual '
method. value.
. Percent
deviation.
1,353
- 19
- U
- 14
+ 20
-hl08
1.38
1.02
1.02
1.46
7.80
12.27
Mean deviation:^ 12.27-^5=2.45 per cent.
The first result in the table above set forth is so radically wrong
that it is inserted to illustrate a condition which must always be
avoided when this method is employed, viz, the use of a large number
of tablets. It will be noted that a considerable amount of strong
chloride solution was used with tablets of low equivalent, i. e., 1.05*2
milligrams of chlorine. This made it necessary to use 133 tablets to
reach the end point, with a result that is absurd. But 25 and 50
cubic centimeters of the same solution are titrated with the tablets
with only a small error when the tablets of larger equivalent, 10.1
milligrams of chlorine, are used. On the whole, the results shown in
the above table are very satisfactory, the error involved in the deter-
minations averaging about 2.5 to 3 per cent, which is well within the
limits of field work. Indeed, when the method was designed it wa.^
believed that an error of 5 per cent would be as small as could l)e
expected.
A very simple way of testing for small amounts of chlorine i^
afforded by cutting tablets into quarters with a jackknife. Only
ordinary care need be used and the quarters may then be taken for
analysis without extreme regard to the selection of large or small
pieces. The following account of some experiments performed is
submitted :
No. 1. Twenty tablets were cut into quarters. Each quarter should
precipitate 0.25 milligram of CI. To 100 cubic centimeters of water
(blank = 0.13 cubic centimeter) 1 cubic centimeter of NaCl was
LJUGHTOM.]
CHIiOBIDES.
55
added, making the actual value of the water = 1.13 milligrams CI.
l^^our quarters gave no end reaction, but five quarters did. This
experiment was done fifteen times with the same results. One and
one- fourth tablets ai-e equivalent to 1.25 milligrams CI.
No. 2. Twenty more tablets were cut up and added as above, except
that 1.1 cubic centimeters of NaCl were used, making the value of
water=1.23 milligrams CI (blank+0.13 cubic centimeter). Five
quarters used in eight out of twelve titrations. This shows a varia-
tion in quartering of possibly an equivalent of 0.02 milligram CI, or
0.2 part per million, an insignificant amount.
Xo. 3. Next' 1 cubic centimeter of NaCl was used (=1.13 milli-
grams CI). One whole tablet gave no end reaction, but one whole
tablet-|-one quarter tablet gave a reaction in every case.
No. 4. The same was done with 0.9 cubic centimeter NaCl (=1.03
milligrams CI). One tablet, no end reaction ; IJ tablets, end reaction.
No. 5. The same, using 1.2 cubic centimeters NaCl ( = 1.33 milli-
grams CI). One tablet, no end reaction,=l milligram CI; IJ tab-
lets, no end reaction,=1.25 milligrams CI; IJ tablets gave end reac-
tion,=1.50 milligrams CI.
Nos. 3, 4, and 5 were each done ten times.
The value of these results and their accuracy are shown below :
No.
Hmigrams chlorine.
Actual con-
tent.
Found by titration.
1
1.13
1.25
2
123 1 ««l>o^l-2'^
1 4 show 1.50
8
1.13 1 1.25
4
1.03 1.25
5
1.38 i 1.50
This method comes within 0.25 milligram of the amount of chlo-
rine present, or within 2.5 parts per million of chlorine. This pro-
cedure is recommended. If only ordinary care be used in cutting
tablets, their value will be within 1 part in a million.
ESTIMATION OF CHLOBINE. ^
A known amount (about 50 c. c.) of the water to be tested is meas-
ured into a glazed porcelain mortar (4 inches diameter) and 5 drops
of potassium chromate (5 per cent solution) added.
One silver-nitrate tablet is then cut into quarters, using ordinary
care to get the quarters equal. Whole tablets are added to the water
56 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [no. 151.
till near the end point, when quarter tablets are used. The end point
is the api)earance of the red color of silver chromate.
■^—^ir — =milligram8 per liter of chlorine, when W=cubic ceu-
timeters of water used, n = number of tablets used, and A = value
of one tablet in milligrams of chlorine. Proper allowance should be
finally made for the amount of silver nitrate consumed in the end
reaction.
Each tube of AgNOg tablets is marked with its equivalent of
chlorine.
Note. — Silver-nitrate tablets^ should not be bandied' with* the fingers nor
exposed to sunlight Keep ail tubes well stoppered.
HARDNESS.
GENERAL STATEMENT.
A hard water is popularly recognized as a water with which it is
difficult to obtain a soap lather. Strictly defined, it is that i)roperty
imparted to water by the carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates
of calcium and magnesium. Chemical methods for the determina-
tion of hardness are not yet well defined; in fact, the whole subject
is somewhat chaotic. A method which may be satisfactory for the
waters of one part of the United States may be of little value for
those of another. Consequently there has developed a rude geo-
graphic distribution of methods, each being adapted to the peculiari-
ties of the waters in the regions in wiiich they are used. The result
is that comparisons between hardness determinations made in differ-
ent regions are somewhat uncertain and nearly always unsatisfactory.
The effect of hard water upon the lathering properties of sodium
soap — that is, the soap used for laundry and toilet purposes — hsis
been made use of in determining hardness. Indeed, the soap test
w^as the earliest and is still the commonest of all those employed for
this purpose. A standard solution of a pure soap, usually a high-
grade castile, is standardized against a solution of calcium chloride,
the equivalent of which has been determined in terms of calcium car-
bonate. The details of this process are too familiar to warrant fur-
ther description. Practically, the principal weaknass of the test i>
the determination of the end point, which is not sharply defined.
The sodium salts pf oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids which compose a
pure soap are definite chemical compounds, and their transformation
into calcium and magnesium soaps should follow the usual course of
chemical change, and therefore the soap test is not merely a test of the
soap-consuming power of water, as maintained by some chemists.
In practice the soap test is limited in its usefulness, and its result>
are modified by many conditions. A few authorities who have
made minute studies of the soap method are impressed with its pos-
LEIQHTON.] HABDNESS. 57
sibilities, but the modifications which they suggest are somewhat cum-
bersome, involve superrefinements, and in the end require so much
time that the importance of the results is not commensurate. In
those parts of the country where soft waters abound and where it is
known that magnesium salts are not abundant the test has great
value. Its usefulness is limited in the waters of the Mississippi
basin, and it fails entirely when applied to western waters.
FIELD METHOD.
USE OF SODIiM-OLEATE TABLETS.
The soap test has been modified for field use by the substitution of
tablets of pure sodium oleate for the soap solution. Sodium oleate
can be obtained in pure form and readily divided in tablets, each con-
taining a known amount of the reagent. The tablets used by the
Geological Survey in field work are made by the Kremers-Urban
Company, of Milwaukee, Wis. They are of three grades, " full,"
^- half," and " quarter," or, as they are usually denoted, " F," " H,"
and '* Q," according to their content of 10, 5, or 2.5 milligrams of
sodium oleate, respectively.
In using the.se tablets, 100 cubic centimeters of the water to be
tested are placed in a specially designed bottle (Emil Greiner)
having a heavy semispherical bottom. Tablets are then added one at
a time and dissolved in the water. This process is greatly hastened
by trituration of the tablets in the bottle with a blunt glass rod.
After each tablet is dissolved the bottle should be shaken and laid
upon its side, and the determination conducted in precisely the same
manner as that prescribed in the case of the soap solution. From
the number of tablets used and their equivalent the hardness may be
determined.
The facility with which this determination may be carried on is
largely determined by practice. When first attempted it seems awk-
ward, but after a few trials the operator finds that it can be readily
]-ierformed. The proper way is to start with the F tablets until near
the end point, then apply the H, and finally the Q tablets. This of
course may become a method of " trial and error," but the skilled field
man will seldom add tablets beyond the end point. The appearance
of the lather at various stagesLis characteristic and affords a guide for
the operator. In order to show certain characteristic features in the
tablet method for the hardness determination the following results
of a test made of a supply of tablets are set forth :
TEST OF 80D11M-0LEATE TABLETS.
For a standard of hardness, 0.2 gram of Iceland spar was dissolved
in HCl, evaporated to dryness three times in IICl and twice with
water. Finally the residue was dissolved and diluted to one liter
58
FIELD ASSAY OF WATEB.
[HO. 15L
with redistilled water. Five cubic centimeters of this solution of
CaCla is equivalent to 1 milligram CaCOj.
The tablets used in the work are of three equivalents, and are
designated as follows :
One F tablet contains an approximate equivalent of 0.0014 gram oaleimn
carbonate.
One II tablet contains an approximate equivalent of 0.0007 gram calcium
carbonate.
One Q tablet contains an approximate equivalent of 0.0003 gram calciiun
carbonate.
The first test was to determine the amount of sodium-oleate tablet
reacted with 100 cubic centimeters distilled water. In the follow-
ing tabulated statement the sign + denotes a permanent foam or
satisfactory end point, while — denotes no end point.
Standardization of sodium-oleate tablets against 100 cubic centimeters dis-
tilled water.
P.
H.
Q-
»Q.
3Q
2.
H.^
-f
-f
—
-\-
--
-f
-f
4-
—
-r
—
-f
-f-
-f
—
^
-
-1-
-h
+
—
+
-
-f
-f
—
-f
-
-f
-h
—
-h •
—
Results in the above series of experiments indicate that 100 cubic
centimeters distilled water requires about 0.006 grams of sodium
oleate.
To reduce this to terms of calcium carbonate experiments were
made with 100 cubic centimeters distilled water containing varying
amounts of calcium chloride. It was found by repeated trial that
where two H tablets were used it required 3.2 cubic centimeters of the
CaClo solution in 100 cubic centimeters of distilled water to react
exactly. Consequently, as the 100 cubic centimet>ers distilled water
required one H tablet, the remaining IT tablet was equivalent to the
CaCla- Therefore the distilled water is equivalent in the soap reaction
to 3.2 cubic centimeters of CaCla, or 0.64 milligram CaCOg.
The first experiments in standardizing the tablets were made with
the standard CaClj solution diluted with 100 cubic centimeters dis-
tilled water against one F tablet, with results as follows :
LEIGUTON.]
HARDNESS.
Standardization of sodium-oleate tablet F.
59
^Si'ifJer, HeBHlt.
8.0. ... Foam.
3.5 ' Foam.
3.6 Foam.
3.7 Foam.
8.7 I Foam.
3.7_. . Foam.
3. 7. . . Foam.
3.8 .. No foam.
8.8 . Nofoam.
4.0 Nofoam.
I
From the above it appears that one F tablet is equivalent to 3.7
cubic centimeters CaClj solution with 100 cubic centimeters distilled
water, or actually equivalent to 6.9 cubic centimeters (3.7+3.2 cubic
centimeters), which expressed in terms of CaCOj is equal to 1.38
milligrams.
Using seven F tablets in 100 cubic centimeters distilled water against
different amounts of the CaClj solution the following results were
reported :
CaCLAffAinst
7 P tablets.
Beeult.
c. c.
41.7
Foam.
41.5
Foam.
42.5
Foam.
44.9
Foam.
45.0
Foam.
45.9
Nofoam.
46.0
No foam.
From the above results it appears that the end point is practically
reached with 45 cubic centimeters CaClj solution. With the amount
for 100 cubic centimeters distilled water added, seven tablets are
therefore equivalent to 48.2 cubic centimeters CaCU, or 9.G4 milli-
grams CaCOa- This allows for one tablet an equivalent of 1.37
milligrams CaCOg, which agrees with the previous determinations
within the limit of experimental error.
60
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
[NO. ISL
Experiments were made with various combinations of tablets as
follows :
CbC1«.
Tablets (number
and value).
Result.
c. c.
3.2
4Q
No foam.
3.2
5Q
Foam.
3.0
5Q
Foam.
3.0
5Q
Foam.
2.8
4Q
Foam.
2.9
4Q
Foam.
45.0
7F
Foam.
46.9
7F
No foam.
45.9
7F-flQ
Foam.
45.0
14 H
45.0
15 H
Foam.
45.0
6F + 2H
Foam.
45.0
6F+2H
Foam.
Analyzing the results above given we have:
1.
Caa2+100 c. c.
distilled
water.
Tablets
(number and
value).
Result.
c. c.
3.2
4Q
No foam.
3.2
5Q
Foam.
3.0
5Q
Foam.
2.8
4Q
Foam.
2.9
4Q
Foam.
Therefore four Q tablets are equivalent to an amount of CaCO,
lying between 1.28 milligrams and 1.22 milligrams, or one Q tablet to
an amount lying between 0.32 and 0.30. Using either as the value,
the error will not be significant. 0.31 milligram is probably the most
accurate factor.
2.
CaCl-+100 c. c.
distilled
water.
Tablets
(number and
value).
Result.
c. c.
45.0
45.9
45.9
7F
7F
7F-hlQ
Foam.
No foam.
Foam.
LEI6HTON.1
HABDNESS.
61
Therefore seven F tablets are equivalent to an amount of CaCO,
lying between 9.82 and 9.64 milligrams, or one tablet to an amount
lying between 1.40 and 1.38 milligrams. The error introduced
if either 1.40 or 1.38 is used as a factor will be less than ^ and
therefore insignificant.
OftCLflOOc. 0.
diBtiUed
water.
Tableto
(niimber and
value).
Result.
c. c.
45
45
45
14 H
15 H
6F-f2H
No foam.
Foam.
Foam.
Therefore the equivalent of 9.64 milligrams CaCOs lies between the
value of 14 and 15 H tablets, or one tablet is equivalent to an amount
of CaCOj between 0.69 and 0.64 milligram. But from the third
experiment it is seen that two H tablets are equivalent to 1.36 milli-
grams (9.64— [6X1.38]), or one tablet to 0.68 milligram.
E8TIM1TI0N OF HARDNESS.
The directions for using these tablets should be followed absolutely.
The end-point foam should be permanent for at least five minutes,
the bottle lying upon its side. The smallest number of tablets possi-
ble should be used; for example, if the hardness of a water is 120
parts per million on direct titration without correction, the best
procedure assuming the given value of the tablets used would be as
follows :
Milligrams CaCOv
8 F tablets equivalent to 11.04
1 II tablet equivalenf to . .(;8
1 Q tablet equivalent to — ^ . 31
Total 12. 03
Subtracting 0.64 milligram CaCO, for distlUed water . 64
Hardness expressed by tablets 11.39
Or in parts per million 113. 9
In this case the error would be equivalent to 0.03 milligrams CaCOg,
an amount unimportant in practical work.
The end point can be approached in the manner above described
after the operator has had a short experience with the method. The
comparative permanence of the preliminary foam pellicles which do
not remain imbroken for the entire five minutes is a guide.
62 FIELD ASSAY OF WATEB. [mo. 151.
HARDENING C30N8TITUENT8.
CLASSES.
It is customary to distinguish between temporary and permanent
hardness. Temporary hardness is due to the carbonates (and bicar-
bonates) of calcium and magnesium. Calcium and magnesium car-
bonates are not readily soluble in water unless accompanied by carbon
dioxide. Under such circumstances it is supposed that the carbonates
become bicarbonates, although the bicarbonates of these two elements
have never been isolated. A\Tien waters containing calcium and mag-
nesium bicarbonates are boiled the carbon dioxide is driven off and the
normal carbonates of calcium and magnesium are precipitated.
Therefore, the properties which they impart to the water are desig-
nated temporary hardness. Permanent hardness, on the other hand,
is that property which is imparted to waters by the sulphates, chlor-
ides, and nitrates of the alkali earths. They are not precipitated by
ordinary boiling, and therefore their effects are regarded as perma-
nent. The usual method of determining temporary and permanent
hardness by the soap test consists in making the test on a sample of
water before boiling, and another on a similar sample after boiling;
the difference in the two results representing the temporary hardne?^.
Temporary and permanent hardness are often expressed as alka-
linity and incrusting constituents, respectively, and it is common to
see, even in analytical reports of well-informed chemists, the ex-
pression " alkalinity or temporary hardness." This expression i>
misleading. It is approximately correct when the waters of New
England and certain other portions of the country are referred to,
but as a general statement concerning the majority of waters nothing
could l)e more inaccurate. There are abundant instances in which
waters are alkaline to an extraordinary degree, and yet are widely
known as soft waters, giving little or no reaction with the soap test.
The alkalinity in such cases is due to the carbonates of sodium and
potassium, which, while they impart a truly alkaline reaction, have no
hardening effect. The majority of the waters of the United States
contain alkali carbonates, and therefore any interpretation of alka-
linity as being equivalent to temporary hardness with such waters is
erroneous.
If the alkalinity found in a water is the result of the carbonates
of the alkali-earth elements, its industrial significance is consider-
ably different from that of the carbonates of the alkalies. For ex-
ample, calcium carbonate forms soft scale when used in boilers,
while sodium carbonate forms no scale, but presents a much less
important difficulty, that of foaming. If, however, a water con-
taining calcium carbonate were used for irrigation purposes, it
LEIGHTOK.l HARDNESS. 63
would not damage crops unless it were present in extremely high
proportions — ^higher, in fact, than it is almost ever found in nature.
On the other hand, a small amount of sodium carbonate is destruc-
tive to crops. It is as desirable to know whether the sulphat-es and
chlorides which are found in the water are of the alkali earths or
the alkalies, for they present variations in usefulness with reference
to industries similar to those above described in the case of the car-
bonates-
It has been the- endeavor of the Geological Survey to so modify
the methods by which the various determinations of the hardening
constituents of water may be made that they can be used in the field.
These methods are set forth in subsequent pages. They do not in-
clude all of the determinations desirable for some classes of work, but
sufficient to allow of a very comprehensive interpretation concerning
the quality of any wat^r under investigation.
C^ABBONATEH.
The determination of alkalinity or carbonates is a simple volu-
metric process. It requires only a standard solution of an acid,
preferably a mineral acid, with accurate means for measuring the
^^me, and a proper indicator solution. On account of the carbon
dioxide set free by the determination, methyl orange is the indicator
in commonest use. The objections already cited to carrying standard
solutions and burettes in the field led to an attempt to adopt an
acid which could be preserved in tablet form. Many organic acids
were tried, but is was found that they were either too weak to
afford a definite end point or were of so deliquescent a character
that they could not be made to form stable tablets. It was finally
decided to adopt the use of sodium acid sulphate. Tablets made
from this reagent are easily regulated in equivalent and are of an
extremely stable nature. The results which can be procured through
their use are very satisfactory.
TESTS OF SODIUM ACID-BTnLPHATE TABLETS.
For use in titrating against sodium acid-sulphate tablets a fiftieth
normal solution of sodium carbonate was made, in which each cubic
centimeter equals 1.06 milligram NaCO.,. Six sets of five sodium acid-
sulphate tablets each were then dissolved in 50 cubic centimeters of
distilled water and each solution was titrated with the standard
sodium carbonate. The results of these titrations are shown in the
following table :
64
FIELD ASSAY OF WATER.
Standardization of sodium acid-sulphate taJ)lets.
[so. 151.
NaHS04.
NaaCOa-
Ylilue of 1 tablet. '
r. c.
c. c.
MgCaCOi.
10.60
2.15
2.08
10.15
2.05
2.02
10.85
2.20
2.08
10.30
2.10
2.04
10.10
2.05
2.03
10.10
2.05
2.03
Assuming these final reactions,
NagCOs + 2NaHS04 = 2Na2S04 + IIjO + COj,
and CaCOg + 2NaHS04 = CaS04 + HjO + CO2 + NajSO^,
then for the expression of the value of our tablet in milligrams of
CaCOg we have the following proportion :
NajCOg
CaCOT ''
106
100'
The experiments above described were made with solutions of the
acid-sulphate tablets, and the results show the constancy of the reac-
tion between the normal carbonate and the sulphate. They do not
show, however, the variations which would occur in the practical
use of the tablets applied directly to tlie alkaline solution, as would
lye done in the field. Therefore the following tests are submitted to
?how the deviations which may arise in suct^essive tablets or succi^-
sive sets of tablets. The tablets used were marked " Lot 715, sodium
acid-sulphate equivalent to 1.995 milligrams calcium carbonate.
These tablets had been in stock for several months, had received some
rough handling, and were in poor condition. In fact, they repre-
sented the most unfavorable conditions that might l^e supposed to
occur in connection with the field use of tablets, and the variations
Avhich are shown may be accepted as the extreme variations which
are likely to occur in common use.
In testing and standardizing the sodium acid-sulphate tablets nor-
mal solutions of sulphuric acid and sodium carbonate were useil.
Tests were made as follows:
Solutions of unknown strength of sodium carbonate were made up
and the alkalinity was determined volumetrically with standard sul-
phuric acid solution. Following this, determinations of the same
unknown solutions were made with the tablets. Varying amount>
of the solution were used, with a corresponding variation in the num-
ber of tablets.
LEIGHTOS.]
HARDNESS.
65
Cumparativc determinations of alkalinity in carbonate itolutions with standard
sulphuric-acid and sodium acid-sulphate tablets,
CARBONATE SOLUTION NO. 1.— ALKALINITY, 5,764 PARTS PER MILLION IN
TERMS OF CALCIUM CARBONATE.
Amount of
fiolntion.
Number of
tablets.
Parts per
million.
Deviation
in parts per
millionT
Per cent de-
viation.
e.c.
1.9
3.5
7.0
11.0
10.5
17.5
46.5
5
10
20
32
30
50
135
5,225
5,674
5,674
1 5,726
5,674
5,767
-539
- 90
- 90
- 38
- 90
-r 8
9.3
1.56
1.56
.66
1.56
.05
CARBONATE SOLUTION NO. 2.— ALKALINITY, 2,312 PARTS PER MILLION IN
TERMS OF CALCIUM CARBONATE.
4.5
5
2,207
-105
4.55
10.0
12
2,383
+ 71
3.1
15.0
18
21.0
25
2,384
+ 72
3.1
19.0
23
25.5
25.0
80
30
] 2,359
+ 47
2.0
51.0
50.5
60
59
} 2,328
+ 14
.61
The figures of the above tables show that when a large number
of tablets are used to determine alkalinity the results are more
nearly correct than when a few are used. This is especially notice-
able in the first entries in the two tables, where the small amount
of the alkaline solution used requires only five tablets. The error
in each of these cases is larger than is permissible even in field
work. In the remainder of the tests, however, the variation is not
sufficiently great to be appreciable, especially in the weaker car-
bonate solutions, where it is shown that the use of a larger number
of tablets involves a minimum error. This suggests that in con-
nection with the field determination of carbonates it is advisable,
wherever waters of a low alkalinity are tested, to use a large amount
of the water in order that a large number of tablets can be used to
neutralize the alkalinity, and thereby avoid the error arising from
the variation which occurs in the single tablets.
1KB 151—05 5
66 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [xo. 15L
ESTIMATION OP ALKALINITY.
.Measure 100 cubic centimeters of water to be test^ into a glazed
porcelain mortar (4 inches diameter). Add two drops niethyl-
orange indicator. Add NaHS04 tablets till an acid reaction i.s
reached. Then add some of the original water that is being tested,
drop by drop, till an alkaline reaction is exactly reached. Measure
the liquid in the mortar and to the amount of the reading add 1 cubic
centimeter for the wetted interior of the dish. The following for-
mula is convenient for use in making calculations of alkalinity :
1,000 n A , .„. ,.^ ^ ^ ,,^
^ equals milligram per liter of CaCOj.
When W equals cubic centimeter of water used;
n equals number tablets used;
A equals value of 1 t«,blet in milligrams of CaCOg.
Each consignment of tablets is marked with its value in equivalent
of CaCOa.
NORMAL AND ACID CARBONATES.
It is nearly always of value to determine the proportion of normal
and acid carbonates in a water, for it affords a fairly good index to
the character of the base with which the carbon dioxide is united.
It is a generally accepted idea that the carbonates of the alkaline-
earth metals are, when in solution in water, in the form of bicarlxni-
ates. For the general purposes of field work it may be considered
that all bicarbonates occurring in natural waters are alkaline-earth
carbonates and may conveniently be calculated as CaCO,. All
normal carbonates, on the other hand, must be alkali carbonates,
conveniently calculated as NajCOg. This generalization is not
uniformly true, especially in certain classes of western waters. It ha>
been plainly shown, by the work of Messrs. Frank K. Cameron and
Lyman J. Briggs, of the Bureau of Soils, United States Department
of Agriculture, that there is considerable complexity in the occur-
rence and equilibrium of carbonates and bicarbonates in waters.
There are, however, few practical water problems occurring outside
of the alkali-desert regions in which the interpretation of bicarbon-
ates as alkaline-earth carbonates and normal carbonates as alkali
carbonates would lead to erroneous results. The field men of the
United States Geological Survey are therefore instructed to re}K)rt
bicarbonates as CaCOg and normal carbonates as Na2C08, in the
absence of data which will allow of other interpretations.
The method of determining carbonates and bicarbonates in aqueou>
solution is discussed by Mr. Frank K. Cameron, chemist of the Bureau
of Soils, in Bulletin No. 18 of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, Bureau of Soils, pages 77-89. The method depends upon the
LEIGHT0N.3 HAEDNESS. 67
fact that while phenolphthalein reacts with the normal carbonates of
the alkali and alkaline-earth metals and not with the bicarbonates,
methyl orange reacts with either. The water under investigation
is titrated with a standard solution of potassium acid sulphate,
using phenolphthalein as an indicator, the first end point being the
complete disappearance of the red color. Methyl orange is then
added to the solution, and the titration is continued with the same
standard until a pink acid reaction is obtained. The amount of
standard solution used to reach the first end point is a measure of
the amount of normal carbonates, while the total amount used in
securing both end points, less twice that for the first end point, is a
measure of the bicarbonatas.
The reaction taking place before and up to the total neutraliza-
tion of the phenolphthalein is a conversion of carbonates into bicar-
bonates and can probably be expressed as follows :
2KHSO,+2Xa2C08=Na2SO,+K,SO,+2NaHC03
or
2KHSO,+2MgC03=MgSO,+K2SO,+Mg(HC03)2.
The neutralization of bicarbonates probably takes place in this
manner :
2KHSO,+2NaHC03=Na2S04+K2SO,+2H2Q-f2CO,
or
2KHSO,+Mg(HC03)2=MgSO,+K2SO,+2H,0+2C02.
It is evident that w^hen the end point with phenolphthalein has
been reached there remains as a product of the fii'st reaction, in addi-
tion to the bicarbonates originally present, an amount of bicarbon-
ates equal in reacting power to the reaction shown by the phe-
nolphthalein. In other words, double the amount of potassium acid
sulphate required to convert the carbonates to bicarbonates, and so
destroy the color of the phenolphthalein, is necessary to completely
neutralize the normal carbonates as indicated by methyl orange.
This must be taken into consideration in computing the results from
the titration.
Inasmuch as the reactions taking place when sodium acid sulphate
is used must be similar to those with the use of potassium acid sul-
phate, there is no reason to believe that the tablets now in use in this
division may not be substituted for the standard solution suggested by
Mr. Cameron. Experiments have been made to determine the accu-
racy of the results obtainable and are discussed in the following
paragraphs.
An unknown amount of thoroughly fused Kahlbaum's sodium
bicarbonate was dissolved in distilled water that had previously been
boiled to drive out carbonic acid. Twenty-five cubic centimeters of
68 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [no. 151.
this solution, which should contain only sodium carbonate, was tested
by adding phenolphthalein, triturating and dissolving standard tab-
lets of sodium acid sulphate till decolorized, adding methyl orange,
and continuing the trituration until the methyl-orange end point was
reached. Another equal portion of the solution was tested by adding
methyl orange alone and dissolving tablets imtil the end point was
reached. The results in the two cases were as follows :
1. Necessary for phenolphthalein end point Otabletji.
Excess necessary for methyl -orange end point 9 tablets.
2. Total necessary for methyl-orange end point 18 tablets.
Two solutions were then made, one similar to the first, of sodium
carbonate in boiled distilled water, the other of supposedly pure
Kahlbaum's sodium bicarbonate in distilled water, also boiled. These
were tested by solution of tablets, using first phenolphthalein and
then methyl orange as an indicator, as in the first case.
Sodium carbonate solution 25 cubic centlmeterji.
Necessary for phenolphthalein end point 27 tablets.
Necessary excess for methyl-orange end point 27 tablets.
Sodium bicarbonate solution 25 cubic x.-entimeters.
Necessary for phenolphthalein end point 15 tablets.
Necessary excess for methyl-orange end point 57 tablets.
It is evident that the solution of bicarbonate was impure, 30 tablets
out of a total of 72 being required for the neutralization of the normal
carbonate. A mixture of these two solutions was then made, as
follows :
Cubic cent I-
Sodium carbonate solution KB)
Solution containing bicarbonate lu)
Distilled water (boiled) IW
It is evident that the number of tablets required by this solution, if
the method is reliable, will be equal to one-fourth of the sum of all
the tablets used to neutralize the two original solutions, 25 cubic centi-
meters being taken in each case. This should be true, not only of
the whole determination, but of each part. Tests made of the mix-
ture resulted as follows :
Necessary for phenolphthalein end point lOJ tablets.
Necessary excess for methyl-orange end point 21 tablets.
Inspection of these figures and comparison with those preceding
indicate that, in so far as it is possible to judge under the conditions,
the method is accurate and reliable.
To make the determination, measure a convenient quantity of the
water to be tested into a porcelain mortar and add 4 drops of
phenolphthalein (1 per cent). Triturate the standard NaHS04 ^^
lets in the mortar, one at a time, until the color disappears. Note the
LEitJHTON.l HAKDNESS. 69
number of tablets and then add 4 drops of methyl orange (1 per cent).
Continue the titration with the tablets until the orange color of the
solution changes to a faint pink. Then note the total number of
tablets used in both titrations. The equivalent of the sodium acid-
sulphate tablets is usually given in terms of calcium carbonate.
Therefore the amount of bicarbonates in the water may be calcu-
lated directly from this valuation. In order to calculate the normal
carbonates as NajCO.,, it will be necessary to multiply the valuation
of the sodium-sulphate tablets given by 1.06, the conversion factor of
CaCOa to Na^CO,.
For computation of the normal carbonates in parts per million,
double the number of tablets used for the decolorization of phenol-
phthalein, multiply by the equivalent of each tablet in milligrams
Na^COj. Then multiply this product by 1,000 and divide the whole by
the number of cubic centimeters of the sample tested. To find bicar-
LM>nates in parts per million, subtract from the total number of tablets
Used in the two titrations twice the number required for the phenol-
phthalein end point and multiply this difference by the equivalent of
each tablet in terms of calcium carbonate. Then multiply this prod-
uct by 1,000 and divide by the number of cubic centimeters of water
tested.
For the convenient expression of the above in formulas, assume the
following symbols:
A = equivalent of NaHSO* tablets in terms of milligrams of CaCOj.
B=:equivalent of NaHSO^ tablets in terms of milligrams of NagCOg.
The conversion factor being 1.06, we have
n = number of tablets used to reach first or phenolphthalein end point.
X = number of tablets used to reach second or methyl-orange end point.
W= amount in cubic centimeters of water tested.
Then for the determination of normal carbonates we have the formula
2,000nB
W
and for the determination of bicarbonates
l,000(y-2n)A
w
The results of the two above equations will be the expression of parts
per million.
8ULPHATES.
Water generally contains either one or more of the sulphates of
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron. If present in
minute amounts the effect of any or all of them is negligible, but if
70 FIELD ASSAY OF WATER. [no. 16L
they appear in large proportions they do damage in every branch of
science or industry in which it is necessary to use water. Calcium,
magnesium, and iron sulphates damage boilers, textiles, soaps, malt
liquors, paper, and many other manufactured products, while they
render water undesirable for domestic purposes. The sulphates of
sodium and potassium are troublesome in boilers, and damage crops
when water containing large amounts is used for irrigation. A
knowledge of the amoimt of sulphates in a water is of great im-
portance.
The determination of sulphates, as it is usually performed in the
laboratory, is a slow, laborious, and expensive process. A field
method has, however, been devised by which the sulphates can be
determined in a few minutes and with a degree of accuracy sufficient
for all practical purposes. The determination involves the use of
the Jackson turbidimeter, described on previous pages. In the fol
lowing paragraphs the determination of sulphates is described by
the originator of the method, Mr. Daniel D. Jackson :
DETERMINATION BY TURBIDIMETER.
Knowledge of the amount of sulphates In a water to be used for industrial
purposes is especially important The scale which is most troublesome to remove
from boilers is produced by the precipitation of sulphate of lime. If the amount
of sulphate is considerable the detenni nation of lime may be made by the
turbidimeter with a fair degree of accuracy. The method is as follows :
To 100 cubic centimeters of water to be tested add 1 cubic centimeter of hydro-
chloric acid (1-1) and 1 gram of solid barium-chloride crystals. If the amount
of sulphate is low, 200 or 300 cubic centimeters of water must be treated in
order to fill the longer tube employed. In this case add 1 cubic centimeter of
acid and 1 gram of barium chloride for each 100 cubic centimeters of water
taken.
The mixture should be allowed to stand for ten minutes, and in this time it
should be frequently shaken. It is best to employ a bottle for this purpose.
Treating the water in the cold with solid barium chloride causes the barium
sulphate to be precipiUited in a finely divided state, and the turbidity produce!
may then be read by either the candle or the electric turbidimeter.
In the lower part of the tube the end point is taken when the hazy cross of
light disappears. This is a higher reading than the point where the sharp
cross disappears. Higher up in the tube there is no hazy cross of light, and the
end point is the disaitpearance of the sharp cross of light When this ix>int
is obtained, remove the glass tube and find the depth of the liquid (using tlie
bottom of the meniscus in reading). Refer this reading to the accompanying
table to obtain the parts per million or grains per gallon of sulphate present
The readings of these instnniients are only to a very slight extent affecteil
by the amount of light used, so that a fairly wide variation in this respect gives
little or no error in the result. This Is also true with variations in the color
of diflferent natural waters. The reason for this lies in the fact that the end
point Is not to any great extent dependent upon the amount of light cut out
but to the complete covering up of the image of light by the particles in suspen-
sion. It is surprising to find that the interposition of disks, even of highly col-
ored glass, produces little or no effect upon the end point
L£IGIITON.]
HARDNESS.
71
In using the electric turbidimeter. If the image becomes perceptibly dim the
battery is replaced by a fresh one, but if the analyst Is careful to keep the light
turned off except when actually making readings the batteries will last for a con-
siderable period of time. Fresh electric bulbs and batteries may be obtained
from the Howard Electric Novelty Company, 221-227 Canal street, New York
City, or 183 Lake street, Chicago. If any parts of the Instrument are lost or
broken they may be r^laced by Baker & Fox, 83 Schermerhorn street, Brook-
lyn, N. Y.
Table far converting readings in depths 6|/ the turbidimeter into parts per mil-
lion or grains per gallon of sulphate.
BMkUngln
centime-
ters.
Parts per
million,
80s.
QraixiB per
United
States ral-
lon, 80,.
1
1 Reading in
! centime-
ters.
Parts per
million,
SO,.
Grains per
UniteS^
States gal-
lon, SO,.
1.0
522
30.5
3.9
144
8.4
1.1
478
28.0
4.0
140
8.2
1.3
442
25.8
4.1
187
8.0
1.3
410
24.0
4.2
183
7.8
1.4
383
22.4
4.8
131
7.7
1.5
859
21.0
4.4
128
7.5
1.6
338
19.8
4.5
125
7.8
1.7
319
18.6
4.6
122
7.1
1.8
302
17.7
4.7
119
7.0
1.9
287
16.8
4.8
117
6.8
2.0
273
16.0
4.9
115
6.7
2.1
261
15.3
5.0
118
6.6
2.2
250
14.6
5.1
110
6.4
2.8
239
14.0
5.2
108
6.3
2.4
230
13.5
5.3
106
6.2
2.5
221
12.9
5.4
104
6.0
2.6
213
12.4
5.5
108
6.0
2.7
205
12.0
5.6
101
5.9
2.8
198
11.6
5.7
99
5.8
2.9
191
11.2
5.8
97
5.7.
8.0
185
10.8
5.9
96 ^
5.6
8.1
179
10.5
6.0
94
6.5
3.2
173
10.1
6.1
93
5.4
8.8
168
9.8
6.2
91
5.8
3.4
164
9.6
6.8
90
5.2
8.5
159
9.8
6.4
88
5.1
8.6
155
9.1
6.5
87
5.1
8.7
151
8.8
6.6
86
5.0
3.8
147
8.6
1 '-'
1
84
4.9
72
FIELD AB8AY OF WATEB.
[NO. 151.
Table for converting readings in depths by the turbidimeter into parts per mil-
lion or grains per gallon of sulphate — Continued.
Reading in
centime-
ters.
Parts per
million,
SO,.
Grains per
United
States gal-
lon, SO,.
; Reading In
1 eentime-
' ters.
Parts per
million,
80a.
United
States gal-
lon, 80k.
6.8
83
4.9
J 12.4
46
2.7
6.9
82
4.8
12.6
45
2.6
7.0
81
4.8
12.8
44
2.6
7.1
80
4.7
13.0
43
2.5
7.2
79
4.7
18.5
42
2.5
7.3
78
4.6
-14.0
41
2.4
7.4
77
4.5
14.5
39
.2.3
7.5
76
4.4
15.0
88
2.3
7.6
75
4.4
15.5
87
2.2
7.7
74
4.3
16.0
36
2.1
7.8
73
4.3
W.5
35
2.0
7.9
72
4.2
17.0
34
2.0
8.0
7i
4.2
17.5
33
1.9
8.1
70
4.1
18.0
32
1.9
8.2
69
4.0
18.5
31
1.8
8.8
68
4.0
19.0
30
1.8
8.5
67
3.9
20.0
29
1.7
8.6
66
3.9
21.0
28
1.7
8.7
65
3.8
22.0
27
1.6
8.8
64
3.8
22.5
26
1.6
9.0
63
3.7
23.0
25
1.5
9.1
62
3.7
24.0
24
1.4
9.3
61
3.6
25.0
23
1.3
^.5
•60
3.6
26.5
22
1.3
9.7
59
3.5
28.0
21
i;2
9.8
58
3.4
29.0
20
1.2
10.0
57
3.3
31.0
19
1.1
10.2
56
3.3
33.0
18
1.1
10.4
55
3.2
35.0
17
1.0
10.6
54
3.2
37.5
16
1.0
10.8
53
3.1
40.0
15
.9
11.0
52
3.1
43.0
14
.9
11.2
51
3.0
46.5
13
.8
11.4
50
8.0
50.0
12
.7
11.6
49
2.9
55.5
11
.6
11.8
48
2.8
62.0
10
.6
12.0
47
2.7
68.0
9
.5
LEiQHTON.] HABDNE8S. 73
PRECAUTIONS IN USE OF INSTRUMENT.
1. The same care sbould be taken as in measuring turbidity to bare tbe tur-
bidimeter In good running order. 2. Always sbnke the solution until nil tbe
barium chloride is dissolved. Otherwise a flaky precipitate may be obtained.
:\ Since the barium-sulphate precipitate is very heavy, the solution should be
mixed frequently by pouring and shaking while readings are being made. 4.
Only sufficient hydrochloric acid should be added to moke the water acid.
CALCICX.
The determination of calcium is made by means of the turbidi-
meter, the method being similar to that described in the chapter on
sulphates. It is the latest, and therefore the least known, of all the
determinations here described. While the results which have been
reached by this method appear to be satisfactory, no particular plan
has yet been offered to determine certain necessary facts with ref-
erence to the behavior of precipitated calcium oxalate. The method
depends upon the turbidity produced by the precipitation of calcium
oxalate upon the addition of ammonium oxalate to the water under
investigation. Whether or not the variations which occur in the
character of this precipitate under different conditions are sufficient
to affect appreciably the degree of turbidity produced is a matter
which is yet to receive attention.
The test is made in the following manner : To 100 cubic centimeters
of the water to be tested add a few drops of ammonium hydroxide,
NH^OH. The amount added should be barely sufficient to impart to
the water a perceptible ammoniacal odor. Then add crystals of am-
monium oxalate. The amount of crystals to be added depends, of
course, upon the amount of lime in the water. As this is yet undeter-
mined, care should be taken to add an excess of ammonium oxalate.
Mix thoroughly and allow the solution to stand for ten or fifteen
minutes. Then determine the turbidity with the Jackson turbidi-
meter precisely as described in previous pages in the case of sulphates,
and state the amount of calcium according to the table given below.
The treatment above described will precipitate materials other than
calcium, but they are usually in so small a proportion in natural
waters that they do not often give trouble. The most frequent com-
plication arises from the precipitation of magnesium on the addition
of ammonia. If the precipitate is sufficient in amount to materially
affect the degree of turbidity it should be filtered before the addition
of ammonium oxalate.
74
FIELD ASSAY OF WATEB.
[NO. 15L
The table given below for the determination of calcium is less satis-
factory than that for sulphates, and it will probably be found that
corrections must be made as future experience dictates.
Table for determining calcium toith Jackson's turWdimeter.
Beading
in cen-
timeters.
Par taper
million.
Beading
in cen-
timeters.
Parts per
million.
Beading
in cen-
timeters.
Partsper
•Beading
in cen-
timeters.
Partsper
million.
1.0
1,150
4.0
167
7.0
80
10.0
53
1.1
1,000
4.1
162
7.1
78
10.2
52
1.2
890
4.2
156
7.2
77
10.4
51
1.3
795
4.3
151
7.8
76
i 10.6
50
1.4
715
4.4
146
7.4
74
10.8
49
1.5
650
4.5^
142
7.5
73
11.0
48
1.6
595
4.6
137
7.6
72
! 11.2
47
1.7
550
4.7
133
7.7
71
11.4
46
1.8
506
4.8
130
7.8
70
11.7
45
1.9
470
4.9
126
7.9
69
11.9
44
2.0
435
5.0
123
8.0
68
12.8
48
2.1
410
5.1
119
8.1
67
' 12.4
42
2.2
380
5.2
116
8.2
66
12.7
41
2.8
360
5.3
113
8.3
65
13.0
40
2.4
340
5.4
110
8.4
64
13.3
89
2.5
320
5.5
107
8.5
64
.13.7
38
2.6
305
5.6
105
8.6
63
14.0
37
2.7
288
5.7
102
8.7
62
14.4
36
2.8
274
5.8
100
8.8
61 I
60 1
14.8
35
2.9
. 261
5.9
98
8.9
15.3
34
3.0
248
6.0
96
9.0
60
15.7
33
3.1
238
6.1
94
9.1
59
16.2
32
3.2
228
6.2
92
9.2
58 ;
16.7
81
3.3
218 ,
6.3
90
9.8
57
17.3
80
3.4
209
6.4
88
9.4
57
17.9
29
3.5
200
6.5
87
9.5
56
18.5
28
3.6
194
6.6
85
9.6
55
19.2
27
3.7
186 !
6.7
84
9.7
55
20.0
26
3.8
179
6.8
82
9.8
54;
21.7
24
3.9
173
6.9
81
9.9
54
22.7
28
INSTRUMENTS AND REAGENTS.
The field case (see PL IV) contains the instruments and reagents
described below :
1. A Berkfeld army filter for removing suspended matter from
water under investigation. The porous stone in this filter should
LEiOHTOJc.l INSTRUMENTS AND REAGENTS. 75
be removed from the tube frequently and thoroughly cleansed with
the small stiff brush provided for this purpose. If it is desired to
secure sterile water, or if the only water available is known to be
polluted and a supply for drinking purposes is desired, the filter stone
should be boiled or baked frequently. Watch the filter stone closely
for cracks and imperfections. When water is pumped through the
filter, care should be taken that the suction end does not rest on
sand or mud ; such materials, if drawn into the buckets of the pump,
are troublesome and materially shorten the term of usefulness of the
filter.
2. One or more leather cases containing tubes of reagent tablets.
The equivalent of each tablet of the various reagents should be noted
on a slip pasted upon the inside of the case.
The tablets are packed in tubes to prevent mechanical agitation.
This is highly important, because if the tablets are loosely packed
a loss of active chemical reagent is inevitable. Tablets which show
signs of extraordinary wear should be rejected. In using a tube
one of the cork stoppers should be removed and the tablets poured
out as needed. When the end point is reached the cork should be
replaced and the stoppers in the opposite end of the tube should be
pushed through the lumen until the tablets remaining in the tube are
projected against the opposite stopper, thus holding them securely.
Sodium-oleate tablets are packed in unmarked transparent glass
tubes. Two grades of silver-nitrate tablets are usually issued. The
tubes containing tablets of the higher equivalent have a cross etched
on the glass, while those with the lower equivalent are etched with
a single transverse line. The sodium acid-sulphate tablets are packed
in transparent glass tubes, upon each of which is etched the symbol
NaHSO,.
3. One case containing four aluminum tubes for natural color and
for iron determinations. There will also be provided brown-glass
disks for the color determination or red-glass ones for the iron, or
both. The equivalent of each disk in terms of parts per million is
engraved on the aluminum rim.
4. One Jackson candle or electric turbidimeter with two graduated
cylinders for same. An extra electric bulb, a ground-glass disk, a
brass cross disk, a standard English candle, and a dry battery will be
p^o^aded with each turbidimeter. The field observer should not use
any dry battery which has been in his possession over sixty days,
irrespective of the intensity of the light produced by it. Candles
other than the standard English sperm should not be used.
The candle turbidimeter should be used in preference to the electric
whenever possible, as the former is the more steady instrument and
insures uniformity of results. If, however, it is necessary to make
76^ B^IELD ASSAY OF WATER. [so. 161.
determinations in exposed places when the wind is blowing, the elec-
tric turbidimeter must be used, as the slightest flickering of the candle
flame will introduce errors in the determinations. Whenever possible,
water samples should be carried to a convenient shelter and assayed-
5. Seven special dropping bottles containing the following rea-
gents: Concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) ; concentrated hydrochloric
acid (HCl) ; concentrated ammonium hydroxide (NH^OH) ; two per
cent solution of potassium sulphocyanide (KCNS) ; five per cent solu-
tion of potassium chromate (K2Cr04) ; one per cent solution of
phenolphthalein ; onfe-tenth per cent solution of methyl orange. .
Care should be taken to close the stoppers in these dropping bottles
where they are packed in the cases.
6. Two salt-mouth bottles containing pure crystals of barium
chloride and ammonium oxalate.
AH bottles containing chemicals have etched labels, except the
indicators, the colors and odors of which are sufficient for identifi-
cation.
7. One heavily glazed porcelain mortar and pestle.
8. One round-bottom glass bottle, with glass pestle, for hardness
determination.
9. One small horn spoon for handling crystals noted in section 6.
10. One 5 c. c. pipette in case for general use in measuring small
amounts of liquid.
11. One centigrade thermometer in brass case.
12. One loose-leaf notebook. This notebook is made up of printed
cards, with every alternate leaf a blank.
INDEX.
Agricnltnral Department, field aaaay of wa-
ter by 16
Alkalinity, detennlnatlon of 66
discDfisionof 62-68
Analysis, methodsof 9,1M5
Anal>-fiis, commercial, character of 9
Analysis, sanitary, requirements of 10
AasAT, definition of 17
Battery of turbidimeter, tests of 29-32
Bicarbonates, determination of 66-69
BoOer water, quality of ia-14,62
Bolbs, electric-light, for turbidimeter, tests
of 33
Calcium, determination of 73-74
Calcium carbonate, effect of 62-63
Candle turbidimeter, description of 27
Tiewof 26
Carbonates, determination of 63-69
Chemicals, list of, in Survey outfit 74-76
Chlorine, determination of, in field 4S, 60-66
determination of, in laboratory 47-50
occurrence of 47-49
Chlorine maps, construction and use of . . . . 60
Clarke, F. W., on water analysis 14
Color of water, definition of 41-42
determination of 44-46
tubes and dif>ks for, plate show-
ing 46
standards of 42-44
Conservatism, abuse of 10
Crenothrix, growth of ^ 46
Heotric turbidimeter, description of 27-28
view of 28
Filtration, determination of turbidity by.. 19
Fuller, George W., on nitrogen determina-
tion 11-13
Geological Survey, field case of, description
of lfr-17, 74-76
field case of, view of 74
tablet case, description of 75
view of 50
Gila River, Arizona, turbidity of 21-22
f ilasR plate for turbidimeter, tests of 83
Hardening constituents, classes of 62-63
HardneiHi, permanent, definition of 62
determination of 70-74
Hs rdnesB, temporary, definition of 62
determination of 63-69
Hardness, total, definition of 66-61
determination of 56-^7, 61
Hazen, Allen, turbidity rod of 23
Hypothetical combinations, unreliability
of 14
Incrusting constituents, determination of,
accuracy of 13-14
Instruments, list of, in Survey outfit 74-76
Page.
Iron in water, determination of 46-47
effects of 45
Isochlora, determination of 50
Jackson, D. D., on chlorides 47-50
on sulphates 70-73
on turbidity 22
Jackson's turbidimeters, description of 26-28
tests of 29-41
views of 26,28
Macomb, 111., well at, water of, analyses of. 14
Massachusetts, water survey in 15
Nitrites, determination of, futility of, in
sanitary analysis 11-.13
Ohio, water survey in 16
Oxygen, relation of nitrites and 13
Platinum-cobalt method of color determi-
nation 42-43
modification of, infield 43-44
use of 44-46
Reagents, list of, in Survey outfit 74-76
Richards, Ellen H., field assay outfit of ... . 16
Sewage, analysis of, lutcrpretatlon of 11-13
Silica, standard solution of, preparation of. 83-34
Silver-nitrate tablets, manufacture and use
of 60-61,66-56
tests of 61-56
Soap test for hardness, use of 56
Sodium acid sulphate tablets, tests of 63-65
use of 66
Sodium carbonate, effect of 62-63
Sodium-oleate tablets, tests of 57-61
use of 57,61
Sulphates, determination of 70-73
Tablet case, description of 75
view of 60
Turbidimeters, Jackson's, deHcription of . . . 26-28
testsof 29-41
use of 27-28, 70-71
views of 26, 28
Turbidity, curves of, figures showing 38, 89
definition of 18
determination of, methods of 18-41
Geological Survey rod for determina-
tion of 23-26
relation of volume of suspended matter
and 19-20
relation of weight of suspended mat-
ter and 20-22
standard of 22-23,33-iO
' Turbidity coefficient, definition of 19-20
Water, analysis of, interpretations of 13-1.5
methodsof 9-10
I Water surveys, chemical, slowness of 15-16
Water surveys, field, speed of 16
Weston, R. S., on turbidity 19-20
Whipple, G. C, on turbidity scale 22-23
77
PUBLICATIONS OF UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
[Water-Supply Paper No. 151.]
The serial publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1 ) Annual
Reports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5) Mineral Re-
sources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas of United
States — ^folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of United States— folios
thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publication; the others
are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists may be had on application.
Most of the above publications maybe obtained or consulted in the following ways:
1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they
may be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8) , on application.
2. A certain number are allotted to every member of Congress, from whom they
may be obtained, free of charge, on application.
3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D. C, from whom they may be had at practically cost.
4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public
librari^ in the large cities throughout the United States, where they may be con-
sulted by those interested.
The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of
subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified
into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, System-
atic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and
physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water stor-
age; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investiga-
tions; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports.
This paper is the eleventh in Series L, the complete list of which follows.
(PP=Profe88ional Paper; B=Bulletin; WS= Water-Supply Paper.)
Sbribs L— Quality of Wateb.
WS 3. Sewage irrigation, by O. W. Rafter. 1897. 100 pp., 4 pls^ (Out of stock.)
W.S 22* Sewage Irrigation, Pt. II. by G. W. Rafter. 1899. 100 pp., 7 pis. (Out of stock.)
Wif 72. Sewage pollution near New York City, by M. O. Leigh ton. 1902. 76 pp., 8 pis.
WS 76. Plow of rivers near New York City, by H. A. Pressey. 190S. 108 pp , 13 pis.
WS 79. Normal and polluted waters In northeastern United States, by M. O. Leigh ton. 1903. 192 pp.,
15 pis.
WS 108. Review of the laws forbidding pollution of inland waters in the United States, by E. B.
Goodell. 1904. 120 pp.
WS 108. Quality of water In the Susquehanna River drainage basin, by M. O. Leighton, with an
introductory chapter on physiographic features, by 0. B. Hollister. 1904. 76 pp., 4 pis.
WS 113. Strawboard and oil wastes, by R. L. Sackett and Isaiah Bowman. 19a5. 52 pp., 4 pis.
WS 121. Preliminary report on the pollution of Lake Champlain, by M. O. Leighton. 1905. 119 pp.,
18 pis.
WS 144. The normal distribution of chlorine in the natural waters of New York and New England,
by D. D. Jackson. 1905. 31 pp.. 5 pis.
WS 151. Field assay of water, by M. O. Leighton. 1905. 77 pp., 4 pis.
Ck>rreepondence should be addressed to
The Dirbctor,
United States Geological Survey,
Washington, D. C.
October, 1905.
I
LIBEAET CATALOGUE SUPS.
[Mount each slip upon a separate card, placing the subject at the top of the
second slip. The name of the series should not be re()eated on the series
card, but the additional numbers should be added, as received, to the first
entry.]
Leighton, Marshall 0[ra] 1874-
. . . Field assay of water, by Marshall O. Leigh ton.
Washington, Gov't print, off., 1905.
77, ill p. illus., IVpL, diagrs. 23*"". (U.S. Geolo^cal survey. Water-
supply and irrigation paper no. 151 )
Subject series: L, Quality of water, 11.
1. Water— analysis.
Leighton, Marshall 0[ra] 1874-
j ... Field assay of water, by Marshall O. Leighton.
I * Washington, Gov't print, off., 1905.
z
77, iii p. illus., IV pi., diagrs. 23«". (U. 8. Geological survey. Water-
supply and irrigation paper no. 151)
Subject series: L, Quality of water, 11.
1. Water—analysis.
U. S. Geological survey.
i Water-supply and irrigation papers.
I no. 151. Leighton, M. O. Field, assay of water. 1905.
^ U.S. Dept. of the Interior.
I see also
I U. S. Geological survey.
IRR 151—05 6 III
Watar-Snpply and Irrigation Paper No. 152 Series l, Quality of Water, 12
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DlRBCTOB
A REVIEW
OF THE
POLLUTION OF INLAND WATERS
IN THE UNITED STATES
SECX)ND EDITION
By ED'WIN B. GOODELL
WASHINGTON
GOVEUNMKNT PRINTING OFFICE
1905
CONTENTS.
Letter of transniittal 5
Water poUntion under the common law _ 7
Principles and decisions 7
Classification 7
A. Rights'of riparian owners to pnre water as against one another. 8
Case in exception 10
Opinion of Vice-Chanceller Pitney, of New Jersey 11
Missouri V, Illinois et al _ 20
Riparian rights in arid and mining States _ 21
B. Bights of the public (as distinguished from individual owners) *
to have inland waters kept free from x)ollution 23
C. Conditions under which, and extent to which, public munici-
palities may use inland waters in disposing of sewage from public
sewers 24
Citations of cases 25
Excerpts from important decisi ns 26
Statutory restrictions of water pollution 32
Claasification - 32
Class I: States with partial restrictions , 33
Alabama - 33
Arkansas 34
Delaware , * - 35
Florida - - 35
Georgia 85
Idaho 86
Iowa 36
Kansas ._ 36
Kentucky 36
Louisiana 36
Michigan _. 36
Mississippi 38
Nebraska 38
North Dakota _ 39
Oklahoma 39
Rhode Island 40
Wisconsin 43
Class 11: States with general restrictions 45
California 46
Colorado 48
Illinois ^ 48
Indiana -- - — 49
8
4 CONTENTS.
Statntory restrictions of water poUntion— Continued. Pmtee.
Class II: States with general restrictions — Continued.
Maine... 51
Maryland 02
MisEOuri. 58
Nevada 54
New Mexico. 5f5
North Carolina . _ 58
Ohio -. 611-
Oregon 62
South Dakota 63
Tennessee 64
Texas ._ 64
Utah 60
Virginia _ 60
Washington _ 67
West Virginia _ _ 69
Wyoming .* 70
Class III: States with severe restrictions 73
Connecticut ' 74
Massachusetts ..'. 77
Minnesota _ HI
New Hampshire _ 8*,*
New Jersey H6
New York lil
Pennsylvania 13*2
Vermont : , 137
General rules 141
Rights and duties of riparian owners 141
Rights and duties of municipal corporations 142
Rights and duties of the public 143
Public rights and duties enforce! by statute 14:^
Progress of legislation _ . _ 14.S
Index 145
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
Department of the Interior,
United States Geological Survey,
Hydrographic Branch,
Washington^ D. 6^, August 17^ 1905.
Sir: I transmit herewith a manscript entitled "A Review of the
Laws Forbidding Pollution of Inland Waters of the United States,"
prepared by Edwin B. Goodell, and request that it be published as a
water-supply and irrigation paper. This paper is a second edition of
Water-Supply Paper No. 103, published last year. The subject-
matter has been brought to date by the incorporation of the statutes
passed since the first edition was prepared, and the section on pollu-
tion under the common law has been amplified to include the arid
States and Territories.
One of the important features involved in the determination of
the water supplies of the United States and the preparation of reports
upon the best methods of utilizing water resources is the character of
those supplies. In the more populous sections of the country the
quality of water is dependent to a large degree upon the amount and
character of the pollution which is allowed to discharge into the
streams. Therefore it has been found desirable to study different
State laws regulating and controlling this matter and to determine
the scope of the work to a large degree according to them.
Mr. Goodell has presented the subject of antipollution laws in a
manner which will be of assistance to public officials, water compa-
nies, manufacturers, farmers, and legislators, rather than to members
of the bench and bar. The broad legal principles under which anti-
pollution statutes become operative are explained, and important
court decisions are quoted to show authority for various deductions.
The statutes enacted in the different States are classified according to
the general scope, and an opportunity is thereby afforded to compare
their effectiveness and desirability. In short, the paper provides
specific information necessary to a popular knowledge of the condi-
tions in each State with respect to one feature of the conservation of
natural water resources. Its distribution should be of material assist-
ance in bringing about a general apprehension of correct principles
upon the subject.
Very respectfully, ' F. H. Newell,
Chief Engmeer,
Hon. Charles D. Walcott,
Director United States Geological Survey,
6
A REVIEW OF THE LAWS FORBIDDING POLLUTION OF
INLAND WATERS IN THE UNITED STATES.
By Edwin B. Goodell.
This subject naturally divides into two parts: (1) A summary of
the common law upon the subject of water pollution — i. e., the law tis
pronounced and determined by the courts independently of legis-
lative action, and (2) a summary or abstract of the statutes enacted
by the various legislatures for the correction of the evil.
WATER POIiliUnON IHSTJEB THE COMMON liAW.
The full treatment of this branch of the subject involves the exami-
nation of the very numerous decisions which have been rendered by
the courts in England and the United States in the determination of
litigation arising from alleged violations of the right to have inland
waters preserved in their natural state. It .necessarily follows that a
full treatment of this branch of the subject would be beyond the
scope of this paper. It is not the purpose of the present publication
to furnish a complete work upon water pollution for the use of mem-
bers of the bench and bar, but rather to put into the hands of public
officials and others who may be interested in the subject a guide for
their action and references to the sources from which a more exhaust-
ive knowledge of the subject may be obtained if required.
No attempt, accordingly, will be here made to present a detailed
.statement of the entire law against water pollution as it exists inde-
pendently of statutes, but this branch of the subject will be confined
to a statement of the general principles which are to be deduced from
the decisions, with references to some of the leading cases.
PRINCIPLES AND DECISIONS.
CLASSIFICATION.
These principles and decisions have been classified and are pre-
sented in the following groups :
A. The rights of riparian owners to pure water as against one
another.
7
8 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION. (No. 152.
B. The rights of the public (as distinguished from individual
owners) to have inland waters kept free from pollution by riparian
owners or others.
C. The conditions under which, and the extent to which, public
municipalities may use inland waters in disposing of sewage matter
from public sewers,
A. RIGHTS OP RIPARIAN OWNERS TO PURE WATER AS AGAINST ONE
ANOTHER.
In contemplation of law the water flowing over the land is part
of the realty and belongs to the owner of the soil. But the latter 's
ownership thereof is a qualified one. He may use it in certain ways
as it passes, may take from it for his own use to a certain extent, and
may thus, incidentally, somewhat diminish its volume and slightly
alter its character. But its nature is to pass on to the owners of the
adjoining soil, and the next owner has precisely the same rights
therein as every other owner. It follows, therefore, that as no ripa-
rian owner of a stream may appropriate all the water which comes
to him, neither may he so corrupt or pollute it as to injure the other
owners by diminishing the value of their property in the natural
stream. This prohibition is independent of any statute ; it is a part
of the law of the land, except in certain of the arid and mining States
of the West; its application in these is discussed on pages 21-23.
The conflict of rights between the several ownei-s has given rise to
litigation in many hundreds of instance^?, and it is impossible to give
a rule, limiting the owner's right to use the water of a stream as it
passes, more exact than this : Every owner may make such use of the
water for farming and domestic purposes as is reasonable, and in
the States in which the doctrine of prior appropriation obtains may
use the water which he has acquired by appropriation, and the lower
owners must accept the diminution and perturbation of the water
which necessarily follows from this reasonable use.
If the use for farming or domestic purposes is challenged by an-
other owner, the question of its reasonableness, in that case, is to be
determined by court or jury as a question of fact.
If the water is used for any other than farming or domestic pur-
poses, it must be such a use as will not change the character of the
water from its natural state or make it less useful to other owners.
If the riparian owner cast sewage, filth, or waste material therein,
he does it at his peril.
Independent of statutory provisions there is a remedy for these
wrongs in the following ways:
By private suit against the wrongdoer for damages.
By injunction when the wrong is a continuing one.
By' indictment when the injury affects the rights of the public
cooDtti.] RESTRICTIONS OP COMMON LAW. 9
AMiere the acts causing the pollution are done in one jurisdiction
and the injuries suffered are in another, the injured party has his
remedy in a civil action to the same extent as if the injurious act and
the resulting injury were in the same jurisdiction.
These general principles will be found to be fully sustained by the
cases. The following are given, not as an exhaustive list, but to
enable the reader to find authorities if his needs require :
Alabama :
Drake t\ Iron Co., 14 So. Rep., 749; 102 Ala.^ 501 ; 24 L. R. A.. 64; 48 Am.
St Rep.. 77.
Tenn. Coal Co. r. Hamilton, 14 So. Rep., 1«7.
Lewis V. Stein, 16 Ala., 214.
Arkansas :
State r. Chapin, 17 Ark., 361.
California :
I'otter r. Fronient et al., 47 Cal., 165.
People r. Elk River Mill and Lumber Co., 107 Cal., 214; 8. C. 40 Pac. Rep.,
48Hi.
Mining Co. r. Mining Co., 48 Pac. Rep., 828.
People r. (lold Run Ditch Co., 66 Cal., 138 ; 56 Am. Rep., 80 ; 4 Pac. Rep.,
1152.«
Colorado :
City of Durango r. Chapman, (50 Pac. Rep., (535.
Connecticut:
Morgan r. Danbury, ()7 Conn., 484.
Nolan r. New Britain, (59 Conn., (5(58.
(teorgia :
Satterfield r. Rowan, 83 (la., 187 ; S. C. 9 S. B. Rep., 677.
Indiana :
Muncie Pulp Co. r. Martin, 55 X. E. Rep., 796.
State r. Herring (Ind., 1897), 48 N. E. Rep., 598.
State r. Wabash Pai)er Co., 48 N. E. Rep., 653.
Weston Paper Co. r. Pope, 155 Ind., 394.
Indiana rK>l is Water Co. v. Am. Straw Board Co., 57 Fed. Rep., 1000.
Iowa :
Ferguson r. Mfg. Co., 77 la., 576; S. C. 42 N. W\ Rep., 448.
Kinnaird r. Oil Co. (Ky.), 12 S. W. Rep., 937.
Maine :
Gerrish r. Brown, 51 Me., 25(5, 81 Am. Dec., 569.
Maryland :
Baltimore r. Warren Mfg. Co., 59 Md., 96.
Price V. Lawson, 74 Md., 499.
Massachusetts :
Ball r. Nye. 99 Mass., 582.
Martin r. (ileason, 139 Mass., 183.
Merri field r. Lombard, 13 Allen, 16.
Woodward v. Worcester, 121 Mass., 245.
Dwight Printing Co. v. Boston, 122 Mass., 583.
McGenness v. Adriatic Mills, 116 Mass., 177.
a This case was one brought in behalf of the people to restrain a public nuisance,
caused by discharging the refuse from mining operations into an unnavlgable stream.
The injunction was granted and It was heid that the right to pollute the stream in this
manner could not be gained by prescription.
10 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
Minnesota :
Roller MillB v. Wright, 30 Minn., 254.
Mississippi :
Mississippi Mills t\ Smith, 69 Miss., 299 ; S. C. 11 So. Rep., 2a
Missouri :
Smith V. Conathy, 11 Mo., 517.
New Hampshire:
Hayes i\ Waldron, 44 N. H., 580.
New Jersey :
Holsman i\ Boiling Springs Co., 1 McCart, 335.
Aequackanonk Water Co. v, Watson, 2 Stew. Eq., 366.
Beach r. Sterling Iron and Zinc Co., 9 Dick., 65.
Same case affirmed on appeal, 10 Dick, 824.
(See the opinion of Pitney, V. C, in the last-cited case, given in fall on
pp. 11-20.)
0*Riley v. McChesney, 3 Lans., 278.
Covert v. Cranford, 141 N. Y., 521.
Townsend v. Bell, 24 N. Y. S. (70 Hun, 557), 193.
Smith V, Cranford, 32 N. Y. S., 375.
Ohio:
The Columbus, etc., Co. r. Tucker, 48 Ohio St, 41 ; S. C. 26 N. E. Rep.* 63a
Thayer v. Brooks, 17 Ohio, 489.
Pennsylvania :
Elder v. Lykens Valley CJoal CJo., 157 Pa. St, 490.
Hindson v, Markle, 171 Pa. St, 138.
Stevenson v. Ebervale Coal Co., 201 Pa. St, 112.
Rhode Island :
Stillman v. Mfg. Co., 3 W. & M. (R. L), 546.
Richmond Mfg. Co. i\ x\tlantic De Laine Co., 10 R. I., 106.
South Carolina :
Threatt r. Mining Co. (S. C, 1897), 26 S. E. Rep., 970.
Vermont :
Snow V. Parsons, 28 Vt, 459.
Canfield v. Andrew, 54 Vt, 1.
Wisconsin :
Middlestadt t'. Starch Co. (Wis.), 66 N. W. Rep., 713.
Hazeltine v. Case, 46 W^is., 391.
Greene i\ Nunnemacher, 36 Wis., 50.
Wyoming :
Howell V. Johnson, 89 Fed. Rep., 556.«
English :
Mason v. Hill, 5 B. & Ad., 1.
Embry v. Owen, (i Exch., 353.
Wood V. Waud. 3 Exch., 748.
Bealey v. Shaw, (5 East, 208.
CASE IN EXCEPTION.
A single case in Pennsylvania seems to create an exception to the
operation of the principles above stated, viz, Sanderson v. Pennsyl-
vania Coal Company, 113 Pa. St., 126.
• In this case the injurj' arose from an act done in Montana, but the injurloufl result
occurred in the State of Wyoming.
GOODKLL.1 BESTRICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 11
This was a case brought by a riparian owner who had established a
home on the banks of a stream, after ascertaining, by a careful inves-
tigation, that its waters were uncontaminated by any influx of dele-
terious matter, and who used the waters of the stream for domestic
purposes. Subsequently a coal mine was opened higher up the
stream, and the mining company, in the course of its mining opera-
tions, pumped the water from the mine to the surface, where it ran
into this stream and rendered the water unfit for domestic use. The
c^se was bitterly contested, and came before the court several times.
(See 86 Pa. St.,'401 ; 94 Pa. St., 303, and 102 Pa. St., 370.)
In the final decision the court refused damages to the riparian
owner. The reasoning of the court indicates that this result was due
lo its unwillingness to impose upon the immense coal-mining interests
of the State the burden of paying for the damage to property in the
water of streams caused by their operations; but the reason given for
the decision, in the court's attempt to harmonize it with the principles
firmly established by precedent in Pennsylvania, was that the water
which the defendant conducted into the stream was contaminated
only by the coal, which was a natural product, and hence was said to
be conducted into the stream in its " natural state." This reasoning
is specious, since the presence of coal in the brook was due wholly to
the operations of the defendant company, the stream in its natural
state showing no trace of coal, and the doctrine thus established for
Pennsylvania has not found favor in any other jurisdiction.
But in subsequent decisions the courts of Pennsylvania have been
careful not to extend the force of Sanderson v. Pennsylvania Coal
Company beyond the single act of turning the natural drainage from a
mine into a stream. (See Elder v. Lykens Valley Coal Co., 157 Pa.
St., 490; Hindson v. Markle, 171 Pa. St., 138, and Stevenson v. Eber-
vale Coal Co., 201 Pa. St., 112.)
OPINION OF VICE-CHANCELLOB PTTNEY, OF NEW JEBSET.
The whole subject was thoroughly treated in Beach v. Sterling Iron
and Zinc Company (9 Dick. (N. J.), 65).
This was an action for an injunction, brought by the manufacturers
of a white tissue paper against a mining company, the water from
whose mines was pumped into the stream above the paper works and
tefouled the water, making it unfit for the purposes of the complain-
ant. The opinion gives a careful and most lucid and interesting
review of the course of decisions sustaining and enforcing the rights
of riparian owners upon streams above tide water to have the water
in the stream maintained in its natural condition. The decision of
the court in this case was affirmed by the court of errors and appeals
12 LAWS FOBBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION. [No. 152.
(10 Dick., 824) upon the opinion of the court below, which is given
here in full :
The material facts of the case are undisputed. The only dispute is as to tht*
degree of discoloration caused by the defendant's operations and the len^h of
time over which such discoloration extended.
The facts clearly established are as follows:
The Wallkill River rises in the southern part of Sussex Ounty and flows upon
a course nearly north, passing through the villages of Franklin and Hamburg.
At the latter place is situated an artificial pond, called the Furnace Pond. eauHed
by an old dam, upon which, for several years, has been a paper mill driven bj- the
waters of the river from that i)ond. The complainant, Beach, purchased this
water iK)wer and lands connected with it in the summer of 1891. for the purpose
of erecting a plant for the manufacture of what is known as white tissue imper.
Associateil with him were two gentlemen by the name of Sparks, who had previ-
ously been engaged in the business of waxing white tissue paper according to a
process which they controlled, and the project was to both manufacture and wax,
for market, white tissue paper. For that puriwse the corporation was formed,
of which Mr. Beach and the Messrs. Sparks were stockholders, and the latter
were the active managers. A large amount of money was spent in erecting a
plant between the date of the purchase and the 1st of February, 1892, when tbey
commenced the manufacture of white tissue paper and carried it on with success
for about a year.
The manufacture of such paper requires a perfectly clear, pure water, and
before purchasing the Hamburg water power the complainants inspected the
stream and inquired as to its character for clearness, and satisfied themselves
that they would be able to use It for making white tissue paper without incur-
ring the expense: of filtration, and their experience for a year proved that their
expectations were just.
' In the month of February, 1893, complaints began to come in from the pur-
chasers of their paper that it was deteriorating in the matter of whiteness, and
they investigated the cause. The pond was frozen over, but they knew by repu-
tation that mining operations were being carried on at Greenspot by the defend-
ant, and they went there March 1 and found a stream of highly colored water
flowing from the defendant's mine shaft into the river, traced its effect in dis-
coloration to their i)ond, and by subsequent observations by themselves and
others in the neighborhood traced its effect not only in and through the Fuma<-e
Pond, but for miles down the river to the north of Hamburg. In fact, several
respectable and creilible witnesses, called by the complainants, testified to the
discoloration of the water in the Furnace Pond and beyond, and the complain-
ants were stopped by the court from producing further evidence on that subje^-t
in the opening of their case. Several witnesses called by the defendant, among
them its sui>erintendent, corroborated this evidence, and there is no attempt to
meet it.
The color was a peculiar reildish-yellow tint, which was in marked contrast
with the discoloration due to the ordinary road and field wash after a heavy
storm or spring thaw.
This peculiar discoloration continued throughout the month of March and,
with some intermissions and variations in degree of discoloration, through the
month of April. Complainants early in March were obliged to stop the makiug
of white tissue paper. Negotiations between the parties for some arrangement
of the matter failing, the bill was filed on the 21st of April, lSa3.
The iuunediate origin of the discoloration was as follows : The defendant c*or-
poration was organized by two gentlemen by the name of Ueckscher and two by
oooDELL.] BESTRICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 18
the name of Wetherlll for the i)ur])08e of reaching and working a bed of franlc-
linite ore which had been located by boring exploration at a depth of about a
thousand feet below the surface near this iK)int called (ireensiwt. It was the
continuation of a seam of ore for many years worked to the ^uthwest of Green-
BiH>t by two companies, one of which — viz, the Lehigh Zinc and Iron Company —
was owned and controlled by the Heckschers and Wetherllls. In the spring or
early summer of 1891 the defendant commenced to sink a i)eri)endicular shaft,
known as the " Parker shaft," 10 by 21) feet in diameter, and after passing
through a small amount of super incximbent earth struck solid limestone rock.
It continued the working without cessation until August 11, 1802, when, having
attained a depth of 560 feet (many feet lower than the l>ed of the Wallkill), the
workmen struck a water-bearing fissure or rent in the rock, which instantly
flooded the mine and drove them out. IVevious to that time they had encoun-
tered small seams or fissures from time to time. prodiK'ing a little water and
sometimes a little mud, which they pumped up, of course, carried through a
trough or trunk several hundred feet westerly toward the Wallkill till it reached
a small spring run, where it was discharged, and from thence it ran into the
Wallkill. The amount of water up to August was small, and its discoloration
was slight, so that it was not felt or observed by complainants. The infiux in
August, 1892. was discolored by a fine clay, amounting almost to a pigment, hav-
ing a high reddish-yellow tint and intermixed Avith a small quantity of very fine
sand. This water rose to within 40 feet of the surface, and resisted all attempts
to lower It by the pumps then in use and until very large and heavy pumps were
introduced. This was done in September. After the shaft filleil with water
there was no further movement; it became i)erfectly quiet, and the clay and
sand began to settle, so that the water in the upi)er reach of the shaft became
comparatively clear. The first water that was discharged after heavy pumping
commenced came from near the top and was but slightly dlsc*olored, such dis-
coloration being due to the disturbance of the day and sand which had settled
on the timbering of the shaft. The quantitj'^ of water struck in the fissure was
so great that with these powerful pumps very slow advani'e was made, the
pumps being lowered from time to time, and the greater the depth attained the
less rapid the advance and the greater the discoloration.
Oil about the Ist of Januar>% 1893, the water was reduced to a de[)th of 420
feet from the surface, and a delay there occurred of alx)ut three wi»eks. cause<l
by the necessity of establishing a pumping station at that \yo\nt When the
rapid pumping commenced again, at or near the 1st of February, the discharge
was much discolored, and continued growing worse and worse until the bottom
was reached, and there, without detailing the circumstances, the greatest dis-
coloration was reached, and continue<l during the month of March. The discol-
oring clay is so very fine in its texture that a very slight movement of particles
of water with which it comes in contact will thoroughly mix It, and it will only
subside in perfectly still water. This accounts for the fact that it did not fully
subside in passing through complainants' pond, which Is quite narrow, so that It
is probable that the volume of the water of the Wallkill causes continued motion
throughout its length.
After the shaft had been entirely pumped out and the volume of water stored
in the fissure had been entirely exhausted and the flow reduce<l to the natural
supply of the flssure, and the various water channels which had been created
throughout it by the sudden drawing off of the water had arrived at what the
experts call an ** angle of repose,** so that no further scouring resulted from the
flow of the ordinary quantity of water, there was no discoloration and the water
ran clear. This condition was, as claimed by the defendant, reached some time
in the summer of 1893, and the case shows that from about the middle of April
14 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION I No. 152.
or the 1st of May till about the middle of July the discoloratlons were temporary
and increasingly infrequent, and usually the result of clearing out the different
settling basins, called " sinks," which had been established in the rock at differ
ent points in the shaft. Since that time the shaft has been sunk over 20O fee>
without finding any more water or fissures.
The proof is clear that the result of the contribution of this discolored water
to the waters of the river was to render the mixture when It reached complain-
ants' mill unfit, without filtration, for use in making white pai>er.
An ingenious experiment was made by an expert, as follows : He ascertainetL
by a rough measurement, that the flow of the river was about forty times tluit of
the output from the mine, and he took a jar of perfectly clear water and mixed
with it one-fortieth of its quantity of tlu» dirty water that came from the nilue,
and exhibited the sample to show to what a slight extent it was discolored.
The dirty water which he used had been confined In a jar for several months,
with the result that the fine particles of clay had partially coagulate<l and gath-
ered into little flakes, and when shaken up did not produce the same dejjree of
discoloration as exhibited when freshly taken from the running stream. But
even that experiment showed that the result of so slight a mixture made the
whole mass palpably roily. In point of fact, as shown by the evidence of the
expert paper makers, a very small admixture of mud or clay will render tlie
water improper, without filtration, for making white tissue pai)er ; and the effect
of that evidence Is that the river in Its ordinary clear state is no clearer than is
necessary for that purpose. A very small admixture of coloring or dirty matter
renders It unfit for use.
Several matters are urged in defense to this case. First, but faintly, that the
doctrine finally established by a bare majority of a divided court in I»ennsylva-
nia,in Sanderson r. The Coal Company (80 Pa. St, 401; 04 Pa. St, 303; 102 Pa.
St, 370, and 113 Pa. St, 12(5), should be adopted here. The history of tliat cas**.
In its various phases, Is given by a writer In the Ameri(ran Law Ueglster (u. s.),
vol. 1, p. 1 (1894). It was an action, as here, by a riparian proprietor against a
mining company for ix)llutlng a natural stream with water pumiMMi from its
mine. After three decisions by the supreme court of Pennsylvania In favor of
the plaintiff's right, that court finally held the contrary and affirmed the right of
the coal company to discharge Its acid mine water Into the creek, without regani
to Its effect ui)on lands below, ui)on the broad ground that the nec^esslties of tlK»
mining Interests of the (Commonwealth re<iulred It This result was attributed
by the author of the article In the American Law Register (pp. 5. 18), In part to
a lack of care on the part of the learned judge who prepared the first prevailing
opinion (8(> Pa. St., 40(5). The doctrine of that case Is shown by that writer to
be inharmonious with a long line of previous decisions In Pennsylvania, and has
not been, so far as I can learn, followed In any other State — certainly not hi
this State. It was repudiated In Ohio, whose mining Interests are quite largi'.
In the recent and well-considered case of The Columbus, etc., C-o. v. Tucker <4.s
Ohio St, 41 ) . I refer particularly to the lucid expressions of the learned Judge
found on pages 58 and 02.
It was not suggested on the argument that the doctrine ever had the least
foothold In this State. No case of a stream fouled by mining operations has
indeed ever, so far as I know, been presented to our courts, but the right of a
riparian proi)rletor to have the waters of the stream come to him uuchang^l
in quality, as well as undiminished In quantity, has been determined In the
clearest and most i)osltlve manner. In fact, the doctrine stated so tersely by
Chancellor Kent In Gardner v, Newburgh (2 Johns. Ch. 162, at p. 166)— "A right
to a stream of water is as sacred as a right to the soil over which it flows. It
rooDELL.1 RESTRICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 15
is a part of the freehold " — has always been adhered to by our courts. I need
refer only to Holsman v. Boiling Spring C/O. (1 MoCart. 335), and Acquacka-
nonk Water Co. r. Watson (2 Stew. Eq., 366). In the last case the right was
stated by the learned master in an extremely clear and comprehensive manner,
and the decree advised by him was unanimously affirmed on appeal, for the
reasons by him given.
The facts of that case are, in a manner, analogous to those here under con-
sideration. Watson owned and operated a bleachery which required for use
clear and pure water, which he obtained from a small stream running through
his land. The water company, desiring to supply the city of Passaic with pota-
ble water, proposed to take this small stream above the bleachery and substi-
tute for it an equal or greater quantity of Passaic River w^ater, drawn from the
Dundee Canal and used to drive its pumps. This the court restrained, on the
ground that the substituted water was not of equal purity with that abstracted.
There Is a line of cases of pollution by mine water in England which sustains
the general doctrine. Hodgkinson v. Ennor (4 Best and S., 229) was the case, as
here, of a paper maker against a miner who had permitted dirty washings of
lead ores to run through rents, called ** swallets," In limestone rock into a sub-
terraneous stream, rendeMng the water, which in its course came to plaintiff's
paper mill, unfit for use in the manufacture of paper, and the action was sus-
tained by Chief Justice Cockburn and Justices Blackburn and Mellor.
Magor V. Chadwick (11 Ad. and E., 571) was a suit by a brewer against a
miner.
Pennington v. The Brinsop Coal Co. (L. R., 5 Ch. Div. 769) (1877) was a suit
by a manufacturer against a coal miner, where the only allegation of Injury was
that the acid contributed to the water from the mine rendered It less fit for use
In the engine boilers, driving the machinery of the plalntlff*s mill. An injunc-
tion was allowed. Defendant relied, without success, upon the ground taken In
Sanderson v. The Coal Co., supra, that the acid could not l>e removed from the
water ; that there was no means of remedying the evil, and an injunction would
absolutely stop its work. The learned judge (Fry) refused even to exercise the
right given by the English statute to give damages instead of an Injunction,
relying on Clowes v, Staffordshire Waterworks (L. R., 8 Ch. App., 12,5) (1873),
and he declared that he would have granted the Injunction, although the present
damage was only nominal, because of the injury to the riparian rights of the
plaintiff, and such is the doctrine of the case relied on, which was a suit by a
silk dyeing and washing establishment against a waterworks company for ren-
dering the water coming to their works less clear and pure.
The English cases dealing with pollution by mine water culminated in the
case of Young i-. Bankler (L. R., App. Cas., (591) (1893), in the House of Lords,
on appeal from Scotland. The case was argued, elaborately, of course, before
six law lords, whose unanimous judgments were delivered after consideration.
The riparian proprietor (Bankler), the plaintiff there, was a distiller, and used
the water of the stream In his distilling process, presumably for making mash,
for which it was peculiarly fit by reason of its softness. The added mine water
did not render it unfit for ordinary purposes — there called primary purposes —
but by reason of Its hardness rendered it less fit for distilling pun>oses. San-
derson V, The Coal Co. was cited, but the court repudiated its doctrine and was
unanimous in judgment In favor of the respondent, who was the plaintiff and
liad Judgment below. Lord Macnaghten, at page 699, says : " Then the api)el-
lant urged (precisely as does the defendant here) that working (X)al was the
natural and proper use of their mineral property. They said they could not
continue to work unless they were permitted to discharge the water which
16 LAWS FOBBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION, [No. lo2.
accumulates in their mine, and they added that this water course is the natural
and proper channel to carry off the surplus water of the district All that may
be very true, but in this -country, at any rate, it is not permissible in such a
case for a man to use his own property so as to injure the property of hi**
neighbor."
There are numerous English cases upon the general right of a riparian proyiri-
etor to have the waters of his stream come to him in its natural condition. t»f
which I cite Grossley v. Lightowler (L. R., 3 Eq. Cas., 279; 2 Chan. App., 4T.s»
(18G7) ; Attorney-General v. Lunatic Asylum (L. R., 4 Ch. App.. 145) (lS<i^)-
Numerous other cases will be found cited in Gould, Waters, section 219, and iu
Higg. Pol. Waterc, 132 et seci.
The argument was advanced by the defendant that the use of the defendant's
property for mining purposes is what was termed, unfortunately, I think, by
Lord Cairns, in Fletcher v. Rylands (L. R., 3 11. L., 330, at pp. 338. 339) (ISiWi.
a natural user, and similar in that respect to plowing a field, and that If it Ik*
unlawful for defendant here to cast into the stream the muddy waters from its
mine it is also unlawful for the farmer to plow his land and allow the uiuddy
water which runs from it after a heavy rain to reach the river. But the very
statement of the two cases shows the alisence of analog^' between them. In the
first place, the water from the plowed field comes thereon by natural caiuses
l)eyond the farmer's control and runs by gravity to the stream, while In the case
of the mine the water is, as here, found and raised by artificial means from a
level far below that of the river and would never reach it but for the act of the
miner, and in tlie second place, by the common law of the land every owner may
cultivate his land without regard to its effects upon his neighlK)r, while such is
not the law as to mining. The supreme court of Ohio, In Columbus Company r.
Taylor (48 Ohio, 41, at p. 58), repudiates the notion that mining was a natural
use of the land in the sense that farming is.
The ground of a reasonable natural user seems to be at the bottom of what
was said In Merrifleld ?•. Worcester (110 Mass., 21(5) uix>n this topic. So far as
the expressions there useil favor the notion that a city or town may collect and
discharge sewage matter Into a fresh-water stream to the injury of a riparian
owner without liability to action they are contrary to the law as held in Eng-
land for centuries. See Iligg. Pol. Waterc, 127 et seq.. where several csise-s
besides these above cited are collected.
Equally untenable Is another iK)sition advanced by the defendant, viz, that
the river was always more or less polluted by (X)utributions from other mlm^
and from the washing of plowed fields, public roads, and railroad embank-
ments. Such insistments have been freijuently made and alwaj's overruliNl.
The question In such cases seems to be whether the stream has already be<x>me
so far i)olluted by contributors who have aciiuired a right so to do by adverse
use or otherwise as that the pollution presently opposed will not sensibly alter
its condition. And even In such a case the courts have held that the imrty has
the right to deal with each contributor in detail and to buy off such contributors
as have acquired a right, and is not obliged to submit to fresh cx)ntrlbutors.
I cite the following authorities: Ross r. Butler (4 C. E. Gr., 2m, at p. :Un}) :
iVttorney-General r. Steward (5 C. E. Gr., 415, at p. 419), where the learneil
chancellor says ; " The defendants have no right to i)ollute or corrupt the waters
of the creek, or if they are already partially polluted to render them more so:'*
to Cleveland v. The (Jas Co. (5 C. E. Gr., 201. at p. 208) ; and to Meigs r. I.ister
(8 C. E. Gr., 199, at p. 205), where the learned chancellor says: "The posit iou
taken by counsel that the complainants were entitletl to no relief from this
nuisance because the locality was surrounded by other nuisances and dedicated
GOODKLL.1 RESTRICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 1
to such purix>8es has no foundation In law or in fact If there were severa.
nuisances of the like nature surrounding them, they must seek relief from each
separately. They can not be Joined In one suit nor need the suits proceed pari
passu."
In Crossley r. Lightowler (L. R., 2 Ch. App., 478. p. 481, 1807) Lord Chelms-
ford says : " But the defendants contend that the plaintiffs have no rl^ht to
fomplaln of any i)ollution of the Ilebble occasioned by them, because there are
many other manufacturers who i)our polluting matter into the stream above the
[dnintiffs* works, so that they never c*ould have the water In a fit state for use
even if the defendants altogether ceased to foul It. The case of St. Helen's
Smelting Co. v. Tipping (11 H. L. Ch., (U2; 11 Jur. N. S.. 785), Is, however, an
answer to this defense. Where there are many existing nuisances, either to the
air or to water, It may be very difficult to trace to its source the injury occa-
sioned by any one of them ; but If the defendants add to the former foul state
of the water and yet are not to be resi)onsible on account of its previous condi-
tion, this conseiiuence would follow that if the plaintiffs were to make terms
with the other polluters of the stream so as to have water free from Impurities
produced by their works, the defendants might say, * We began to foul the
stream at a time when, as against you, it was lawful for us to do so, Inasmuch
as it was unfit for your use, nnd you can not now, by getting rid of the exist-
ing pollutions from other sources, prevent our continuing to do what, at the
time when we began, you had no right to object to.* " ( Attorney-General v.
Lunatic Asylum, 4 Ch. App., 145, p. 150, report of the exi)ert, and p. 155. )
In Attorney-General v. Leeds <L. R., 5 Ch. App., 583, i>. 595, 1870) the lord
chancellor says : " I think the argument deduced from the foul state of the
water before it gets to Leeds is not deserving of any weight for two reasons :
First — and it is hardly disputed— the evil did become seriously aggravated
when the new sewer was opened — that Is to say, sixteen or seventeen years
:igo ; and, secondly, the nuisance might terminate ; and no one can say it was
right tliat when one nuisance terminates there should be another brought Into
existence."
The sensible and material Increase In the discoloration of the water, In this
case resulting from the contribution of the defendant's mine, Is clearly proved.
The complainant was able to make white paper successfully and satisfactorily
from February 1, 1892, for nearly a year, and until the serious discharge of dis-
colored water from the defendant's sliaft, in January, 1893 ; and they were also
able to make such paper after the discoloretl water ceased to run, in June or
July, 1893. During the intermediate period, while the discoloration of the water
being discharged from the defendant's mine was the greatest, complainant could
not make white paper satisfactorily.
In whatever point of view the complainant's case Is considered it seems
entirely clear and free fn)m doubt. I can not think the least doubt is cast upon
the law by the last decision in the Sanderson case, in Pennsylvania, and the
facts of the case are substantially undisputed. The complainants* title and pos-
ijcssion of the ripa, though put In issue by the answer, is established by the
proofs and was finally admitted at the hearing. Their right to have the water
come to them in its natural condition follows inevitably. (Holsman t\ Boiling
Spring Co., 1 McCart, 335, at p. 343, bottom, and cases there cited.) The
learned chancellor there says : " Where the complainant seeks protection in
the enjoyment of a natural water course upon his land, the right will ordi-
narily be regarded as clear. And the mere fact that the defendant denies the
right by his answer or sets up title in himself by adverse user will not entitle
him to an issue before the allowance of an Injunction."
IBB 152—05 M 2
18 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 132.
, There can be no doubt that, upon the facts presented, it would be tbe duty
of a judge to direct a verdict, and the rule adopted by the court of errors and
ai^eals in Higgins v. The Water Co. (9 Stew. Eq., 538) applies. I refer to the
language of the chief justice on page 544 et seq.
The jurisdiction of this court to adopt, on final hearing, the extreme remedy
of an injunction in this class of cases, when the right is clear, is well estab-
lished, not only by the case just cited, but by Acquackanonk Water Co. r.
Watson, supra, which was decided by the court of errors and appeals, and by
Holsman v. Boiling Spring Co., supra, decided by Chancellor Green, and by
Shields V, Arndt (3 Gr. Ch., 234), and by Carlisle v. Cooi)er (6 C. E. Gr., 570).
It was suggested that in this case no injunction should be ordered, but that
the complainants should be left to their action at law for damages. I am
unable to adopt that view. It must now be considered as settled law In this
State that the maintenance of a nuisance of the kind here in question is, in
effect, a taking of property. Pennsylvania Railroad Co. r. Angel (14 Stew. Ekj.,
316, p. 329), where Judge Dixon, speaking for the court of errors and appeals,
says : ** This principle rests upon the express terms of the Constitution. In
declaring that private property shall not be taken without recompense, that
instrument secures to owners not only the possession of property, but also
those rights which render i)ossession valuable. Whether you flood the farmer^s
fields so that they can not be cultivated, or pollute the bleacher's stream so
that his fabrics are stained, or fill one's dwelling with smells and noise so that
it can not be occupied In comfort, you equally take away the owner's property.
In neither instance has the owner any less of material things than he had
before, but in each case the utility of his property has been impaired by a
direct invasion of the bounds of his private dominion. This Is the taking of
his property in a constitutional sense. Of course, mere statutory authority-
will not avail for such an Interference with private property. This doctrine
has been frequenjtly enforced In our courts," and he proceeds to cite previous
authorities in the same court. If this be so, then the legislature has no power
to authorize the maintenance of a nuisance for the promotion of private objects,
even uiK)n terms of making compensation; for no authority is necessary for
the position that the legislature is powerless to enact a law declaring that
defendant may hai^e complainants' mill and water power ui)on terms of payini:
them what a court may ascertain it is worth. And I am unable to distinguish
such action and that of leaving complainants to the remedy of repeated actions
at law to recover damages as often as they are suffered. In this respect our
system of laws varies from that of England, where Parliament is omnliiotent
and is not confined to the mere making of laws — the true function of a legis-
lature— but may take private profierty for private purposes, with or without
making compensation, the only restraint uiwn Its power being its own innate
sense of justice. Hence the English courts are authorized. In cases of certain
nuisances, to give damages once for all instead of an injunction.
The result of my consideration of the subject Is that there Is no princi])lr-
which will sustain a court of equity in refusing an injunction against the main-
tenance of an established continuing nuisance and leaving the injured party to
his remed^v at law. To do so is, in effect, to i)ermlt a party to take his neighbor's
land for his own use upon terms of making such compensation as a jury shall
assess. This Is Inadmissible.
The object and oflice of a verdict and judgment at law is to establish the right
and give comr)ensatlon for past Injuries. The right being once made clear.
whether by judgment at law or upon Incontrovertible rules of law and well-
established facts, the remedy In equity by Injunction to prevent future injury is
a matter of right, and the relief can not be refused.
GOODELL.1 BESTRICTIONS OF COMMON lAW. 19
Tbe ground, however, mainly relied upon by defendant is that the proofs show
that tbe nuisance has entirely abated and that there is no danger of its recur-
rence, and hence an injunction is unnecessary and improi)er.
At about the time the injunction was issued — July 11, 180^^ — defendant pur-
chased a small tract of land skirting the railroad, between the shaft and the
rirer, and established on it a settling basin, into which the mine water was
turned and given opix)rtunity for subsidence before reaching the river. The
result was that it was substantially clear, and no further injury has been since
felt at the paper mill. It is also in proof that from that time up to July, 1804, the
water was usually clear when it came from the mine. At the sessions of Decem-
ber 27 and December 28, 1893, Professor Nason, a competent geologist and min-
ing expert, testified that, in his opinion, no further clay and water-bearing seams
or rents would be met in the course of defendant's mining oi)erations, and that
the rent which had given so much trouble had, by natural causes, become harm-
less. It was not suggested that all or any large proiK)rtion of the discolored clay
dei)osit had been removed, but the theory was that the descending water had
worn channels in the clay, resulting in little rivulets centering at the se<?tion by
the shaft, and that the scouring power of the water — that is, its ix)wer to bring
down clay — had ceased by reason of the clay banks and beds of the little rivulets
having arrived at an " angle of rei)ose." The stability of this state of affairs
depends, of course, upon the unifbrmity of the flow of water, both as to quantity
and source of inflow, and Professor Nason, on cross-examination, admitted some
uncertainty in this respect After his examination and the close of the evidence
on both sides, and before the argument, viz, about July IG, 1894, an unexpecte<l
influx of muddy water ocirurred, due to an overflow from a flume carrying water
from the neighboring mine of the Lehigh Zinc and Iron Company, which found
Its way into the seam or rent at a ix)int where it came to the surface, al)out
1,800 feet from the Parker (defendant's) shaft. This opening was a surface
fissure or swallet in the rock — quite common where limestone rocks come to the
surface. In this case, as I understand Professor Nason, he did not supiwse or
infer, from the trend of the fissure, that it reached the surface in that neighbor-
hood, but such was the fact. It was promptly stopped by defendant and filled
up, so as to prevent any more water getting in at that point
Now, it seems to me that this occurrence shows the impossibility of aflirming
that there will be no further incursions of muddy water. It is true that with the
continued use of the settling ground no injury will probably result to complain-
ants from such an Irruption. I say "probably," because, in case of a sudden
irruption of discolored water, the quantity might be so great as to overwork the
present settling basin. But without a decree and injunction tlie defendant will
be at liberty to discontinue its use and permit any muddy water that may appear
to flow into the Furnace Pond as of old.
At the time the complainants filed their bill the injury was serious and contin-
uous. The defendant positively declined to stop it, but claimed the right to con-
tinue it. To complainants' bill was interposed a general denial, and setting up a
right to persist In the injury as long as its necessities refjuired. On all these
issues the defendant is beaten. The complainants have established their case,
and it would seem to be a most lame and impotent conclusion to refuse to give
them the very relief prayed for, viz, a perpetual injunction. I am unable to
imagine any other decree in their favor which would adequately meet the case
and give them the Just fruits of their suit ; and, surely, if there is no danger of
further discoloration the injunction will do the defendant no harm, but will be
of value as a muniment of title to the complainants' property. The language
of Lord Justice Turner, In Goldsmid r. Tunbridge Wells Commissioners (L. R.,
X Cb,, App., 349, p. 355), applies: " In this particular case I think that regard
20 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
must be had not merely to the comfort or convenience of the occupier of tlie
estate, which may only be interfered with temporarilj' and in a partial dej^ive.
but that regard must also be had to the effect of the nuisance upon the value of
the estate and upon the prosi^ect of dealing with it to advantage; and I can not
but think that the value of this estate, and the prospect of advantageous* ly
dealing with it, is and will be affected by the continuance of this nuisance."
But the defendant further urges that the complainants have manifested a dis-
position to make an unreasonably harsh and oppressive use of their rights in tin*
premises, and have thereby w^eakened their standing in equity and disentitled
them to the extreme decree asked for.
In the month of March, 1893, while the outflow from the mine was at its
worst, negotiations took place betw^een the parties for some sort of settlement,
and a filter was mentioned. The complainants offered to be satisfied if defend-
ant would furnish them with a filter of proper size, which they said, and alK»ut
which there is no dispute, would cost $5,000. The defendant offered to pay one-
half of the expense of the filter, the same to l>e in full compensation for all
damages up to the time it was furnished, which offer the complainants refused
to accept. I can see nothing harsh or oppressive in that refusal.
Next, and after bill filed, as I now recollect, defendant made an arranf^einent
with the tenant of a gi-istmill, located upon a little stream which empties into
the Furnace Pond, for a right to divert water from the mill and carry it hy a
fiunie several hundred feet down to the complainants' works and furnish them
with clear water from that stream. Complainants employed an expert U*
examine the stream and see w^hether it would supply suflScient water for their
paper engines, with the result that they were informed and believed that it wa.s
not sufllcient, and declined to accept it as a substitute for the river water. The
defendant, nevertheless, in the face of complainants' refusal, built the flume — a
mere wooden trough, set upon benches and trestles — along the surface of the
ground down to the mill yard of the complainants. The complainants refuse<l to
allow it to be put across their mill yard, because it would prevent them fn>m
having access to their works and from free passage with carts and wagons from
one part to the other, and said that anything of that kind must be put under-
ground in iron pipes. But the radical dlflJculty with that movement on the p:irt
of the defendant was that the right to the use of the water was merely obtained
temporarily from a mere tenant of the mill property, and did not give tbe c<mi-
plalnants any permanent right to the flow of the stream, even if it had i»een
large enough for their punwses. I can see nothing harsh or oppressive in t*om-
plainants' action in refusing this offer of substitution. They not only had tht'
strict right in law to refuse to accept them, but their conduct In so doing, in my
judgment, was not inequitable.
I shall advise a decree establishing the complainants' right to the flow of the
stream in its natural condition and an injunction with costs.
MISSOURI V. ILLINOIS ET AL.
\^^le^e an injurious act in one State is so far-reaching in its injuri-
ous consequences as to threaten the rights of property and the health
of a large number of citizens in another State, the latter State may
become a party complainant in the Supreme Court of the United
States to enforce the legal remedies of its citizens for such inju^ie^=.
(Missouri i\ Illinois et al. (U. S. Supreme Court, October term,
1900), 180 U.S., 208.)
.KHJDBLL.] RESTRICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 21
This was a case in which the State of Missouri sued to restrain the
State of Illinois and the Sanitary District of Chicago from carrying
the sewage of Chicago through an artificial channel to the Mississippi
River. The right of the State of Missouri to protect its citizens by
this action and to implead the State of Illinois as a party defendant
and to have an injunction against the defendants in case the facts
alleged in its bill should be established was upheld by a divided court
in overruling a demurrer to the bill. The defendants have answered,
but at the time of the present writing the final hearing has not been
reached.
BIGHTS OP aiPABIAN OWNERS IN ABID AND MINING STATES.
In certain of the arid and mining States of the West the doctrine
of riparian rights has been in whole or in part abrogated by what is
known as the doctrine of prior appropriation. Where the latter doc-
trine prevails the rights of riparian owners as given above do not
exist, and where the doctrine of prior appropriation has been adopted
in part the rights of appropriators to some extent supersede the
rights of riparian owners.
'"Appropriation " is an actual use of the water for a beneficial
purpose by a person having the right to make such use, i. e., by any
person having lawful access to the water. The appropriator, by the
fact of appropriation, acquires the right, as against riparian owners,
to use the water in the .state and condition and to the extent necessary
for the purpose for which he has appropriated it. Subsequent appro-
priators also acquire rights, but such are subordinate to the rights of
the prior appropriator.
The doctrine of prior appropriation has been adopted to the extent
indicated in the States mentioned below :
Arizona :
Clough V, W^ing, 17 Pac. Rep., 453.
Colorado: •
**Tbe right to divert unappropriated waters of any natural stream sliall
never be denied." Const, Art. XVI, sec. 0.
Wheeler v. Northern Colorado I. Co., 10 Col., 582.
3 Am. St. Rep., 603 ; 17 Pac. Rep., 487.
Idaho :
Constitution of 1889, Art. XV, sec. 3.
Wilterding r. Green, 45 Pac. Rep., 134 ; 4 Idaho, 773.
Montana :
Constitution, Art. Ill, sec. 15.
Smith V. Denniflf, 24 Mont, 20.
81 Am. St Rep., 408; 60 Pac. Rep., 398; 50 L. R. A., 741.
Nevada :
Reno Smelting, etc.. Works v. Stevenson, 20 Nev., 269.
22 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATEE POLLUTION. [No. 152.
New Mexico :
Compiled Laws of New Mexico, sec. 23.
Albuquerque Land and Irr. Co. v. Gutierrez, 61 Pac. Rep., 357.
North Dakota:
Springville v. Fullmer, 7 Utah, 450.
Stowell V, Johnson, 7 Utah, 215.
Wyoming :
Farm Investment Co. v. Carpenter, 9 Wyo-, 110 ; 50 L. R. A., 747 ; 61 Pac
Rep., 288.
In California the common law as to riparian rights seems to pre-
vail, except as to rights acquired by appropriation upon public lands
made before any riparian owner has acquired title to lands below.
(Lux V. Haggin, 69 CaL, 254.)
In Oregon the right of appropriation is confined to such rights a.s
were acquired before Washington became a State, under an act of
Congress passed in 1866. (Simmons v. Winters, 21 Oreg., 35; 2^
Am. St. Rep., 727; 27 Pac. Eep., 7.)
In Washington the right of appropriation seems to be recognized,
at least as to the portion east of the Cascade Mountains in that State,
but not as against settlers who have obtained riparian rights before
the appropriation.
Isaacs V. Barber, 30 L. R. A., G65.
10 Wash., 124 ; 45 Am. St Rep., 772.
38 Pac. Rep., 871.
Benton r. Johncox, 39 L. R. A., 107 ; 17 Wash., 277.
61 Am. St. Rep., 912 ; 49 Tac, 495.
In several of the arid or partly arid States not included in the
above list the riparian owner holds subject to the right of those own-
ing above him to a reasonable use of the water for irrigation
purposes.
Rhodes r. Whitehead, 27 Tex., 309 ; 84 Am. Dec., 631.
Tolle V. Carreth. 31 Tex., 362 ; 98 Am. Dec., 540.
Fleming t\ Davis, 37 Tex., 173.
Baker v. Brown, 55 Tex., 377.
Mud Creek Irr., etc., Co. v, Vivian, 74 Tex., 170; 11 S. W. Rep., 107&
Barrett v. Metcalf, 12 Tex. Civ. App., 247 ; 33 S. W. Rep., 758.
So far as the doctrine of prior appropriation is recognized, the
rights of riparian owners are pro tanto extinguished. In such States,
therefore, the general statements already given require modification.
In States where the doctrine of prior appropriation is established
it may be safely asserted :
1. That the riparian owners can not complain of pollution s<> far
as such pollution necessarily results from the use for which tlio
appropriator has appropriated the water.
2. That no person, except a prior appropriator, may pollute the
stream so as to render the water less fit for use by one who has law-
GooDELL.] RESTRICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 23
fully appropriated it, and such prior appropriator can not so pollute
the water by a subsequent appropriation to a new use.
Fairplay Hydraulic Mining Co. v. Westou, 29 Colo., 125.
3. Xo appropriator or other person may pollute waters to the
extent of creating a public nuisance.
Woodruff V, North Bloomfleld Gravel Mining Co., 8 I^wy., 028; 10 Fed.
Rep.. 25 ; 9 Lawy., 441 ; 18 Fed. Rep., 753.
People V, Gold Run Ditch, etc., Co., 66 Cal., 138; 56 Am. Rep., 80; 4 Pac.
Rep., 1152.
Carson r. Hayes, 39 Oreg., 97 ; 65 Pac. Rep., 814.
Suffolk Gold Min. and Milling Co. v. San Miguel Consd. Mining and Milling
Co., 9 Colo. App., 407 ; 48 Pac. Rep., 828.
Nixon V, Bear River and A. Water Co., 24 Cal., 367 ; 85 Am. Dec.. 69.
Levaroni v. Miller, 34 Cal., 231 ; 91 Am. Dec., 692.
Yuba Lake, etc., Co. v. Yuba Co., Super. Ct.. 66 Cal., 311 ; 5 Pac. Rep., 490.
McLaughlin r. Del Re, 71 Cal., 230; 16 Pac. Rep., 881.
B. RIGHTS OF THE PUBLIC (a8 DISTINGUISHED FROM INDIVIDUAL
owners) TO HAVE INLAND WATERS KEPT FREE FRO>I POLLUTION BY
RIPARIAN OWNERS OR OTHERS.
Whenever the pollution of a stream or other body of water injuri-
ously affects the health or materially interferes with the peace and
comfort of a large and indefinite number of people in the neighbor-
hood, such pollution becomes what is known as a public nuisance.
But, except under such circumstances, the public, as such, has no
standing to prevent the pollution of waters. When, however, there
is a public or quasi-public ownership of the banks of a stream, as in
the case of a source of water supply owned by a municipality or
owned by a company which supplies the inhabitants of a munici-
pality with water, the public is interested in the enforcement of the
rights of riparian proprietors, as stated under heading "A."
\Vhere there is a public nuisance caused by the pollution of water,
it is the duty of public authorities to cause its abatement, and their
right to do so has been sustained in numerous cases. Where the
public is injured in its capacity of riparian owner the remedy is
either by injunction or by criminal proceedings, according to the
nature of the wrong and the laws and practice of the jurisdiction in
which the offense occurs.
The following are cases in which the pollution of water has been
held to be a public nuisance:
Board of Health v. Casey, 3 N. Y. S., 399.
People V. BIk River Mill and Lumber Company, 107 Cal., 214.
State r. Taylor, 29 Ind., 517.
Greene v. Nunnemacher, 36 Wis., 50.
24 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. Ia2-
C. CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH, AND EXTENT TO WHICH, PUBLIC MUNia-
PAL1TIE8 MAY USE INLAND WATERS IN DISPOSING OF SEWAGE FROM
PUBLIC SEWERS.
This subject has but recently been receiving attention from the
courts. It seems to have been the custom of municipalities to dis-
charge their sewers freely into the larger streams, and until within
the last few years but little, if any, objection to the practice has
found its way into the courts. Latterly the increase of population,
with the consequent increase of the amount of sewage matter so dis-
charged, has brought about a condition of affairs that has produml
opposition and in many cases litigation. The principles establLsheJ
by the decisions thus made necessary are briefly summarized as
follows :
Municipalities, if riparian owners, have the same rights and are
subject to the same restrictions. in the use and treatment of the water
flowing over their lands as private owners are — i. e., they may deix>sit
sewage and other filth in such waters, provided always that by so
doing they cause no injury to property below them. They may
drain the surface water from their streets into water courses, with
the impurities which it naturally carrias, provided they do not
thereby increase the flow of water into the stream so as to exceed
the capacity of the channel to the injury of property below.
Bralnerd r. Newton, 154 Mass., 255 ; 27 N. E., 905.
Cone r. Hartford, 28 Conn., 303.
Where municipalities are expressly authorized by statute to con-
struct a system of sewerage, and to cause the sewage matter to l)e
discharged into any particular waters, the statutory authority is to
be exercised subject to the implied condition that such discharge will
not constitute a nuisance. Legislative authority can go no further
than to authorize municipalities to acquire the rights of lower owners
by purchase or condemnation, because of the constitutional i-e^^trir-
tion against taking private property for public use without just
compensation.
It will thus l)e seen that the increase of population under the pres-
ent conditions and with the now prevalent methods of sewage disposal
in cities is rapidly leading to a condition of affairs which will call
for radical changes. Many cities will find themselves unable to dis-
pose of their sewage matter by means of rivers without enormous
expense, and probably not without additional legislation. As will
be seen hereafter, the subject is already receiving serious attention
from legislators.
G<H>DELL.] BESTRICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 25
CITATION OF GASES.
The following cases will be found to sustain the general principles
above stated :
Knglish :
(;olclsniid t\ Tunbridge Wells Imp. Com.. L. R., 1 Chan. App., 349.
Holt V. Rochdale, L. R., 10 Eq. Cases, :ir>4.
Attorney -General r. Leeds, L. R., 5 Chan. App., 583.
Attorney-(ieneral iv Richmond, L. R., 2 Eq. Cases, 300.
Attorney-General v. Hackney T^ocal Board, L. R., 20 Eq. Cases, 026.
Attorney-(»eneral r. Cockerniouth Ix)cal Board, L. R., 18 Eq. Cases, 172.
Attorney-General r. Luton I»c*al Board, 2 Jurist, 180.
Attomey-Cieneral r. Halifax, 39 L. J. (X. S.), 129.
North Staffordshire R. R. Co. v. Tunstall Local Board, 39 L. J., Chan., 131.
Attorney -General r. Kingston on Thames, 34 L. J., 481.
Attorney-<;eneral r. Basingstoke, 45 L. J. (N. S.), 726.
Attorney-General r. Colney Hatch Lunatic Asylum, L. R., 4th (^h. DIv., 146.
Attorney -(General r. Birmingham, 4 Kay & Johns., 528.
Attorney-(4eneral r. Metropolitan Board of Works, 1 H. & M., 298.
Bidder v. Croyden Locnil Board, 6 L. T., 778.
Manchester, etc.. Railway Co. r. Worksop Board of Health, 23 Beav., 198.
Oldaker r. Hunt, 6 De Gex, McN. & G., 376.
Alabama :
Birmingham r. Land, 374 So. Rep., 613.
California :
People r. City of San Luis Obispo, 116 Cal., 617.
Peterson r. City of Santa Rosa, 51 Pac. (Cal.), 557.
Connecticut :
Morgan r. Danbury, 67 Conn., 484.
Nolan r. New Britain, m Conn., 6(«.
(See extracts from opinions in the Conn, cases given below.)
Georgia :
Columbia Av. Savings Fund, etc., Co. v. Prison Commission of Georgia, 92.
Fed. Rep., 801 (Clr. Ct. West Dlv. Ga., 1899).
Illinois:
Village of D<vight v. Hayes, 150 HI., 273.
Robb r. Village of La Grange (1895), 158 HI., 21.
Barrett v. Cemetery As.sn., 159 HI., 385.
Indiana :
Valparaiso u. Hagen, 153 Ind., ;i37 ; 48 L. R. A., 707 ; 74 Am. St. Rep., 305 ;
54 N. E., 1062. «
Iowa :
Randolf v. Town of Bloomfleld, 77 la., .50.
Loughran v. City of Des Moines, 72 la., 382 ; S. C. 34 N. W. Rep., 172.
« In this case it was held that wliere c municipality acts In conformity to the stntute,
KklllfuUy and without negligence, it may discbarge its sewage into a stream and tlie
lower proprietors may not have an injunction, and are entitled to no compensation for the
damages suffered by them.
This seems to settle the law in that State ; hut the reasoning Is not convincing, and it
is believed no other State has. so far, adopted that rule, which might, perhaps, ]ie held
violative of that clause of the Constitution of the United States which forl^lds the taking
of private property for public use without compensation.
26 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
Kansas :
Topeka Water Supply Co. v. City of Potwln, 43 Kan., 404.
Massachusetts :
Brainard v. Newton (Mass. Sup.), 27 N. E. Rep., 995, and 154 Mass., 255.
Morse v. Worcester, 139 Mass., 389.
Boston Rolling Mills v, Cambridge, 117 Mass., 396.
Haskell r. New Bedford, lOS Mass., 20a
Woodward r. Worcester, 121 Mass., 245.
Middlesex Co. t\ Lowell, 149 Mass., 509.
Merrifieid v, Worcester, 110 Mass., 216.«
Missouri :
The Joplin Consolidated Mining Co. v. City of Joplin, 124 Mo., 129.
New Hampshire:
Vale Mills t\ Nashua, 63 N. H., 136.
New Jersey :
Doremus t\ Paterson, 65 N. J. Eq., 711.
State r. Freeholders of Bergen, 1 Dick.. 173
Atty. Gen. v. City of Paterson, 45 Atl. (N. J., 1900), 995; 60 N. J. Bq., 385
New York :
Butler V, Village of Edgewater, 6 N. T. S., 174.
Chapman t\ City of Rochester, 110 N. Y., 273.
Pennsylvania :
Good V. Altoona City, 162 Pa. St, 493.
EXCERPTS FROM IMPORTANT DECISIONS.
In Owens v. Lancaster City (182 Pa. St., 257, and 193 Pa. St., 436)
the right of a city to use a stream passing through it as an open sewer,
subject only to liability for any injury done to adjoining property
through its negligence, seems to be conceded.
As to the limits of this right, and the consequences for which the
municipality would be liable in the State of Pennsylvania, see the
following cases :
The city was held liable for injury done to plaintiflTs wharf by
deposits from a sewer, in Butcher's Ice and Coaf Company lk Phila-
delphia. (15GPa. St., 54.)
It was held liable to a lot owner for maintaining a sewer mouth
upon his lot, in Harris v. City. (155 Pa. St., 76.)
It w^as held liable for destroying the value of wells, caused by the
flowing of polluted river water into them by underground passages,
in Good r, Altoona. (1G2 Pa. St., 493.)
It was held liable for damages caused by accumulations of filth,
ashes, or other material, that obstruct the flow of the water and throw
''In Merrifleld r. Worcester damapres were refused to a riparian owner who soed in
tort for tbe pollution of hlg stream. The decision turned upon the nonliability of munid-
pal corporations for the consequences of the Judicial acts of their governing bodies. It
holds that the plaintiff roi^^ht recover for injury caused by pollution due to the improper
construction or unreasonable use of the sewers, or to tbe negligence or other faolt of th<*
defendant in the care and management of them. It is no authority for the principle
established in Indiana in Valparaiso r. Hagen.
COODKLL.1 RESTBICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 27
it out upon the lands of adjoining owners, in Blizzard v. The Borough
of Danville. (175 Pa., 479.)
In Owens v. Lancaster City (182 Pa. St., 257), at page 262, Mr.
Justice Green remarks, obiter: "We apprehend the same principle
would apply to the injury inflicted by allowing offensive and injuri-
ous odors and smells to issue from the polluting substances dis-
charged into the stream from the city sewers."
Xolan V. New Britain (69 Conn., 668) was an action for damagas
caused by the defendant's discharge of its public sewers into a stream
called Pipers Brook, which ran through plaintiff's land.
The city had, in 1872, under alleged legislative authority, con-
demned and taken, and condemned the right to take, occupy, and
appropriate Pipers Brook for sewer purposes, but plaintiff did not
appear in the proceedings, nor was any award made to him.
Significant excerpts from the supreme court's opinion, by Andrews,
C. J., are here given:
The use of Pipers Brook which the complainant charges that the defendant
has made, unless there is n lawful warrant therefor, causes a public nui-
sance. ♦ ♦ ♦ That it would be a public nuisance to render the water of a
Ktream so impure that it could not be used for domestic purposes or for water-
ini? cattle, and so that it gave off noxious and unhealthy odors is hardly open
to question (Chapman v. Rochester, 110 N. Y., 273), for the reason that these
causes would injuriously affect every riparian owner along the whole length
of the stream and every person who lived near it If a municipal corporation,
in the absence of a legal right to do so, causes sewage to pollute a water course,
to the use of which a lower owner through whose premises the water course
flows is entitled, it is guilty of a nuisance for which damages may be recovered.
[Many authorities cited.]
C>n page 681, after an examination of the alleged statutory author-
ity, the opinion continues:
If it had been the intent of the legislature by the act of 1872 to authorize the
common council of the city of New Britain to take or to affect any lands outside
of the city limits, it Is certain there would have been in the act some provision
for the ascertainment of damages to be paid to the landowner. The right of
the plaintiff to have the water of Pilfers Brook flow through his land as it had
l)een accustomed to flow (1. e., pure and uncontaminated) is not an easement,
but is inseparably annexed to the soil. (Wadsworth v. Tillotson, 15 Conn., 366,
:{73.) To deprive the plaintiff of that part of his soil for the purposes named in
that act would be the taking of private property for public use, and the plaintiff
would be entitled to have just compensation.
As the complainant lived outside the city limits, it was held that he
was in no way affected by the assessment proceedings.
The other defenses amounted to a claim of right to such use of the
stream by prescription. As to this defense the court says, at page
683:
The sixth defense presents the question of prescription. We have already
indicated our opinion that the use of Pipers Brook of which the plaintiff com-
28 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. tNo.ir,L>.
plains is a public nuisance. We suppose the law to be so that a public nulsanei'
can not be prescribed for. No length of time can legitimate, or enable a party
to prescribe for, a public nuisance. (People v. Cunningham, 1 Denio., 524:
Mills r. Hall, 9 Wencl., 315; Veazie v, Dwinel, 50 Me., 479, 490; Comnioowealth
1'. Upton, 6 Gray, 471, 476; Wood on Nuisances, 722; 19 Am. and Eng. Enoyc- of
Law, 30.) When an action is brought by a party who has suffered a si)eci;il
injury in consecjuence of a public nuisance, a prescriptive right to do the act^«
complained of can not be maintained against him. (Bowen v. Wendt, 103 Cal,
23G ; Peoi)le i'. Gold Run, etc., Mining Co., m Cal., 138 ; Boston Rolling Mills r.
Cambridge. 117 Mass., 39(5; O'Brien t\ St. Paul, 18 Minn., 176; Cooley on Torts.
614.) There is no occasion to discuss this defense further, because the defend-
ant's counsel in their brief expressly disclaim that any right can be obtained
by prescription to commit such a nuisance.
In Morgan v. City of Danbury (67 Conn., 484) the question of
restraining a city from polluting the water of a stream by sewage, at
the suit of a mill owner below the city, was thoroughly discusseil.
and the injunction sustained. The opinion is written by Baldwin, J..
and the important portions of it are as follows (p. 493) :
The nuisance thus complained of consisted, then, of discharging into a river,
above the plaintiff's premises, certain substances of a kind and in such a man-
ner that the water came to him polluted, and a deix>sit was made upon his land
and in his mill pond whereby noxious odors were created, dangerous to hi^
health and that of others, his dam partly filled up by filth, and the use and value
of his property largely taken away — injuries which the defendant intended tti
increase by enlarging its sewer system, and adding to the amount of the de-
posits made from the sewers in the river, the re-sult of which would be to fill
up his mill i)ond with filth and sewage, and make his property valueless.
These allegations were denied, but they have been found true, and there is
nothing inconsistent with their truth in the special finding of facts. They stateil
that the deposits from the sewers both filled up the plaintiff's mill |)ond, and ik»1-
luted the air he breathed and the v^aters that flowed over his property. These,
though proceeding from the same act, produce<I separate injuries. A nuisam-e
was created with a double aspect. That to the waters of the stream and the air
above it it was found constituted a public nuisance, though it was one which ab*»
wrought a special and i^eculiar injury to the plaintiflf. That from filling up the
mill iKjnd constituted simply a private nuisance. (Haskell v. New Bedford, ics
Mass., 208, 216; Bray ton v. Fall River, 113 Mass., 218, 229.) It was proper thai
the injunction should be so framed as to protect the plaintiff against eveo
serious and irreparable injury which he might suffer by the continuance of the
nuisance, and its terms are fully conformable to the claims stated in his coui-
plaint.
The defendant contends that the decree Is too broad, in that it restrains the
discharge into the river of any sewage, even if not of a noxious or polluting
character, or though entirely and permanently disinfected and purified.
The primary meaning of "sewage" is that which passes through a .sewer
(Century Dictionary; Webster's International Dictionary). A secondary mean-
ing is (lerivetl from the usual character of the contents of a sewer, and as useil
in that sense the word signifies the refuse and foul matter, solid or liquid,
which it so carries off.
In the plaintiff's complaint the connection in which the term is employed is
such as to indicate that it was Intended to carry the secondary meaning.
GooDBLU] BESTBICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 29
And further, at page 496 :
The defendant urges that it should not be made responsible for the acts of
others, and that if Its sewage Is thoroughly disinfected, sterilized, and imrltied
before its discharge Into the river nothing further should be reiiulred, even
though as it flows down the stream it maj' l^e brought into contact with other
substnnc-es in such a way as to work a nuisant*e. But the right to deposit a thing
in any place must ahvaj's be dependent not only on its own nature but on the
nature of the place in question and the uses to which that has already bcH?n put.
A lighted match may be safely thrown into a brook under ordinary circum-
stJinces, but not should it hapi)en to be (covered with oil from a leaky tank.
If different parties by several acts foul the same stream, each may be enjoined
agiiinst the commission of the wrong with which he is individually -chargeable.
And see, also, Watson t\ Town of New Milford (72 Conn., 561) ;
Piatt Bros. & Co. v. Waterbiiry (72 Conn., 531) ; and note on " Righth
of municipal corporations to drain sewage into waters," appended to
a report of the last-named case in 48 Lawyers' Rep. Annotated,
page 691.
In Mayor, etc., of Birmingham, v. Land (34 So. Rep., 613), decided
by the supreme court of Alabama in June, 1903, the Connecticut
cases above cited were followed. Among other things, the court, per
McClellan, C. J., say :
The fact that the city of Birmingham had statutory authorization to construct
a sewer emptying into Valley Creek, m\x>ii the condemnation of lands taken or
injured in its construction and use, is not of importance, since the lands here
injured have not been condemned. The nuisance is none the less a nuisance
l>ecause of the statutory iwwer referred to, the right to exercise the power in
r€*spe<*t of this land not having been acquired. City of Mansfield v. Balliett
(05 Ohio St.. 451 ; 58 L. R. A.. 628, and note).
See, to the same effect, Sammons v. City of Gloversville (67 N. E.
Rep., 622) , decided by the court of appeals of New York, June 9, 1903.
In this case an injunction was granted, its operation being suspended
to enable the defendant to obtain legislative relief, or to abate the
nuisance.
In Middlesex Company v. Lowell (149 Mass., 509), decided in 1889,
it was held that an injunction should be granted to restrain defend-
ant from discharging sewage into plaintiff's mill pond, and that no
right to do so could be acquired by prescription.
This places Massachusetts in line with the other States, notwith-
standing the decision in Merrifield v. Worcester that a city is not
liable for damages caused by lawfully laying out and constructing
and reasonably using a system of sewers in accordance with plans
adopted by the proper corporate body, upon the principle that such
liody acts quasi judicially in so adopting plans.
In Butler r. Village of ^Vhite Plains (69 N. Y. Supp., 198; N. Y.
Sup. Court App. Div., 2d Dept., March, 1901), an injunction was
80 LAWS FOBBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
granted against a nuisance caused by the deposit of the eflSuent of
defendant's sewage in the Bronx River. The fact that others wen*
polluting the stream was no defense.
Grey, Attorney-General, v. Paterson (13 Dick., 1; on appeal, 1.')
Dick., 385), was an action brought by riparian owners below Paterson
for an injunction restraining the city of Paterson from depositing or
discharging its sewage through its drains or sewers into the Passaic
River, and from constructing new sewers to discharge into said river,
and from enlarging or increasing its present sewerage system with
outlets into said river.
By an act passed in 1867 (P. L. of 1867, p. 653, sec. 17) Paterson
had been authorized by the legislature as follows :
That the mayor and aldermen of the city of Paterson are hereby authorized to
cause such surveys, maps, and returns to be made as may be necessary to enaltle
them to prescribe and adopt, either for the whole or any part of said city, the
location of streets and sewers, or either, and the width thereof, hereafter to Ih»
opened or constructed therein, and when such location, width, and grade shall 1m>
adopted, the surveys, maps, and returns prescribing and defining the same shall
\ic recorded in the clerk's office of the county of Passaic, and thereupon no stre<*t
or sewer shall thereafter within the district comprised in any such survey, map,
or return be opened or constructed, except in conformity therewith as to lo<»a-
tion, width, and gratle, and fully to accomplish the purposes contemplated by this
section the said mayor and aldermen may employ such engineers, surveyors, and
other i^ersons, and provide for their compensation and i)a8s such ordinances as
they may deem to be proper, and may enter upon any land for making surveys
and examinations.
On the 26th of February, 1868, Paterson was further authorized to
construct sewers and drains (P. L., 1868, p. 126). The second section
provides :
That all such sewers and drains shall be constructed in conformity with the
plans thereof adopted or which shall be adopted by said maj^or and aldernuHi
pursuant to the seventeenth section of the act approved April 4, 18*57, entitled
"A further supplement to the act' entitled *An act amending and revising the a<t
to incorporate the city of Paterson.' "
It was found by the court that, so far as the authority of the State
can avail for that purpose, the legislative consent, in this case, fur-
nishes ample protection to the city for the appropriate exercise of the
power granted.
It was further said that riparian owners l)elow the point where the
tide ebbs and flows were not entitled to an injunction, l)ecause the
title to their lands did not extend below high-water mark.
The title of owners above the ebb and flow of the tide extends tc»
the middle of the stream, subject only to the rights of the public for
purposes of navigation; and it is held that, notwithstanding the leg-
islative grant of authority, such owners can not be deprived of their
GooDia-L.] RESTRICTIONS OF COMMON LAW. 31
right of property in the river without just compensation. Following
the case of Beach v. Sterling Iron and Zinc Company (9 Dick., 65), as
affirmed in 10 Dick., 824, it was decided that the owners above tide
water were entitled to compensation, but in view of the great detri-
ment to the city if an injunction should be granted and the compara-
tively small injury done to the owners the injunction was refused,
except in the alternative that the city should refuse to make such
compensation for the diminished value of their lands as shall be
ascertained to be just
In this case there is no recognition of the damage done to the lands
adjoining or near the stream. The complainant^ right to redress
arises wholly from the injury done to the water, in which they have
a proprietary right
In Winchell v. Waukesha (110 Wis., 101), Dodge, J., gave the
opinion, which in part is as follows:
The findings and evidence disclose a very obvious nuisance, which, if created
and maintained by an individual, would entitle the plaintiff to the aid of a
c"ourt of equity to effect its abatement, and to damages if pecuniary Injury he
tf^tablisbed, with the decisions of this court • ♦ ♦ It has been declared by
this court in Harper r. Milwaukee (30 Wis., 365, 372), that " the general rule of
law is that a municipal corporation has no more right to erect and maintain a
nuisance than a private individual possesses, and an action may be maintained
against such corporation for injuries occasioned by a nuisance for which it is
responsible in any case in which, under like circumstances, nn action could be
maintained by an individual." Again, in Hughes t\ Fond du Lac (73 Wis., 380,
383) it is said : "A municipal corporation is no more exempt from liability in
case it creates a nuisance, either public or private, than an individual." These
{statements are very broad, and, appellant insists, must yield to various excep-
tions and limitations (pp. 105 and :106).
When, if ever, the legislature shall enact that streams generally or any stream
shall be used, as sewers without liability to the owners of the soil through which
they run, the question of constitutional protection to private rights may be
forced upon the courts for decision. Until such enactment is made, however, in
clear and unambiguous terms, we shall be slow to hold by inference or implica-
tion that it has l)een made at all. The right of the riparian owner to the
natural flow of waters, substantially unimpaired in volume and purity. Is one
of great value, which the law^ nowhere has more persistently recognized than in
Wisconsin. Not alone the strictly private right but important public interests,
would l)e seriously jeopardized by promiscuous pollution of our streams and
lakes. Considerations of aesthetic attractiveness, industrial utility, and public
health and comfort are involved. Amid this conflict of important rights, we can
not believe that the legislature concealed, in words merely authorizing mnnici-
jtalities to raise and expend money for the construction of sewers, a declaration
of policy that each municipality might. In Its discretion, without liability to
individuals, take practical possession of the nearest stream as a vehicle for the
transportation of its sewage in a crude and deleterious (X)ndition. At that
stage in its logic we can not agree with the Indiana court In Valparaiso v.
Hagen (153 Ind., 337).
32 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
STATUTORY RESTRICTIONS OF WATER POIiliUTIOX.
CLASSIFICATION.
Speaking generally, jurisdiction over the pollution of waters in the
United States is confined to the several States. There is no pro siou
in the Constitution which gives to Congress authority in theji- emi?^,
partly, no doubt, because at the time of its adoption. tUe gi'eat impor-
tance of the subject from an interstate point of virw was not thought
of. Hence, by the familiar principle that the several States retain
full sovereign powers except so far as such powers are restricted by
the National Constitution or expressly delegated thereby to the
National Government, the States have full control of this subject.
In reviewing these laws, accordingly, we must examine the statutes
of all the States and Territories.
Uniformity of legislation is not to be expected. The natural condi-
tions existing in different portions of the vast territory are s() various,
the density of population differs so widely in the different section.^
involved, and public enlightenment as to the deleterious etfect> of
water pollution and the necessity to restrain it is, in sparsely settle<l
districts, so far l)ehind that which has been developed in congested
areas by the terrible consequences, that statutory regulations must
necessarily differ. In some States there is found nothing more than
a simple provision making it a crime to poison wells and sprinsrr^,
while others have made elaborate provisions designed to check ami.
so far as possible, absolutely to prevent all pollution of waters l\v
mingling with them the refuse products of animal life or the wastes
of human industry. If, therefore, we are to avoid making this review
a mere catalogue of statutes, it will be necessary to adopt some system
of classification and grouping. Doubtless a mere citation of the
statutes of all the States, taken in their alphabetical order, wouM
serve a useful purpose in enabling the reader to turn to the particu-
lar section in which his interest lies and to find the legislation whic'
affects this section. But if, by a logical grouping of States accordi
to their progress in this particular, we can give a clearer idea o^
status of such legislation as a whole, without seriously interfe.
with the usefulness of the book as a compendium of State ^ ws u •
this subject, much will be gained.
Accordingly, I have arranged the States and Territories -^n th**
groups or classes, placing those in each group in alphabeti.^1 ni
for convenience of reference. ' '
GooDELL.] PABTIAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS ALABAMA. 33
CLASS I. STATES WITH PARTIAL RESTRICTIONS.
This gi'oup comprises those States and Territories in which the
legislature has confined itself to forbidding the poisoning or pollution
of drinking water in certain ways or in certain localities. They
Ix^lo. "r in the same category because they are all at the same stage of
<,'rowth *. sanitary education — i. e., there is manifest in their legisla-
tion no sense oT the general desirability of pure natural waters, but
only a desire to p/^vent certain acts recognized as criminal in intent
or as likely to injure special groups of persons (public or private cor-
porations) whom the legislature desires to protect.
An alphabetical list of the States and Territori^ in Class I, with
the statutes in force in each at the close of 1905, either given in full
or abstracted so as to show their nature and force, is here presented.
AI^BAMA.
[Acts of Alabama, 1896-97. p. 1281.]
AX ACT to punish any person who iK)nutes or contaminates water suppUed to
cities and towns of the State.
Section 1. Be it enacted hy the general a^nemhhj of Alabama^ That
it shall be unlawful for any person to knowingly deposit any dead ani-
mal or nauseous substance in any source, standpipe, or reservoir from
which water is supplied to any city or town of said State. Any per-
son violating the provisions of this act shall be guilty of a misde-
meanor, and upon conviction shall be punished by a fine not exceeding
SoOO and may be sentenced to hard labor for the county not exceeding
one year.
Approved, Februar\^ 17, 1897.
[General Acts, Alabama, 1903, Act No. r)42, p. 499.]
AN ACT to amend, reconstruct, and provide for the enforcement of the laws
relating to the public health.
Sec. 15 (p. 508). Whenever complaint shall be made in writing to a
;h officer of a county, city, or town that there is in any pond, lake,
tream owned or maintained by a private individual or corporation
^;»rsoiMPr: of infection, or unsanitary condition, which is prejudicial
lO the public health, or likely to l)ecome so, or any material or thing
^^"t isjorrossly offensive or indecent, it shall be the duty of such
•ii officer to thoroughly investigate such complaint. If upon
stigation said health officer shall be of the opinion that said com-
..*L is lyell founded, he shall at once notify the person responsible
'^or that he must remove or abate, at his own expense, said source
.. > ion, unsanitary condition, or grossly offensive or indecent
IB 152—05 M 3
34 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
material or thing. Should such person responsible for said nuisanw
refuse or neglect to obey such order, said officer shall refer the matter
to the county board of health for investigation, and either party to
the contest may request the State health officer to be present and par
ticipate in fhe investigation. Should said county board of health
agree with the opinion of said health officer, and should the person
responsible for said nuisance or for said indecent material or thin^^
still refuse or neglect to comply with the decision reached by saiil
county board of health, the health officer to whom said complaint wa^
first made shall proceed with as little delay as possible to cause said
source of infection, unsanitary condition, or grossly oifensive mate-
rail or thing to be removed or abated at the expense of the i)ers<)!i
responsible therefor.
ARKANSAS. ^
[Sandel and Hill's Digest. 1804.]
Sec. 1903. The throwing or dragging of dead animals, or animal>
in a dying condition, into any running stream or other body of
water in this State is a misdemeanor.
Anyone violating the provisions of this chapter, on convictioTi
thereof, shall be fined in any sum not less than ten nor more than
fifty dollars. (Act March 27, 1891.)
(Laws of 1895, Act t:XXVI, p. 183.]
AN ACT authorizing municipal cori)oration8 and other corporations to exeivi;"^*
- certain privilogrea, and for other purposes.
Sec. 7. If any person shall * * * commit such a nuisance in
or near the impounding dams or reservoirs of any water plant, or
shall pollute the water or effect [aflfect] its wholesome qualities, he
shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and be fined for each ami
every offense in any sum not exceeding $200.
[Sandel and HiH's Digest, sec. 5134.]
They [municipal corporations] shall have the power to provide a
supply of water by constructing or acijuiring, by purchase or other-
wise, wells, pumps, cisterns, reservoirs, or waterworks; to regulate
the same; to prevent the unnecessary waste of water; to prevent the
pollution of the water and injury to the waterworks; and for the pur-
pose of establishing or supplying waterworks any municipal cor|H)ni-
tion may go beyond its territorial limits; and its jurisdiction to pre-
vent or punish any pollution or injury to the stream or source of
water, or to the waterworks, shall extend five miles beyond its cor-
porate limits. [As amended by laws of 1903, act 88, p. 152.]
u«HjDKLL.l PARTIAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS. 85
DELAWARE.
[Laws of 1893, p. 1024.]
AN ACT to amend chapter 242, volume 10, of the Laws of Delaware, entitleil
"An act to provide for the light iug of Middletown."
Sec. 10 (p. 1029). That if any person or persons shall designedly
or maliciously injure the said light and water works, or obstruct the
water to and from the same, or in any manner pollute the water
supply ♦ * * they shall forfeit and pay to the commissioner of
the town of Middletown a fine not exceeding one hundred (100) dol-
lars, to be recovered, etc.
FLORIDA.
[Revised Statutes of Florida, approved January 8, 1801.]
Sec. 2658. Poiftoning food or water. — Whoever mingles any poison
with food, drink, or medicine, with intent to kill or injure another
I)erson, or wilfully poisons any spring, well, or reservoir of water
with such intent, shall be punished by imprisonment in the State
prison for life or any term of years.
Sec. 2665. Carrupting or interfering with water supply, — Whoever
wilfully or maliciously defiles, corrupts, or makes impure any spring
or other source of water or reservoir, or destroys or injures any pipe,
conductor of water, or other property pertaining to an aqueduct, or
aids or abets in any such trespass, shall be punished by imprisonment
not exceeding one year or by fine not exceeding one thousand dollars.
GEORGIA.
[Laws of 1896, p. 84.1
No. 57. AN ACT to prohibit the poisoning of any spring, well, or reservoir of
water, to provide a penalty for the violation of the same, and for other pur-
poses.
Sec. 1. Be it enacted by the general assembly of the State of
Georgia^ and it is hereby enacted by authority of the same^ That from
and after the passage of this act any person who wilfully and wan-
tonly poisons or procures another to poison any spring, fountain,
well, or reservoir of water shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and on
conviction therefor shall be imprisoned in the penit-entiary for a
term of not l^s than two nor more than twenty years.
Sec. 2. Repeals inconsistent laws.
Approved, December 19, 1896.
IDAHO.
[Penal Code, passed 1901.]
Sec. 4916. Every person * * * who wilfully poisons any spring,
well, or reservoir of water is punishable by imprisonment in the State
prison for a term not less than one nor more than ten years.
86 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
IOWA.
[Code of Iowa, annotated, 1897.]
Sec. 4979. Throwing dead animals in stream^ spring^ etc. — If any
person throw, or cause to lx» thrown, any dead animal into any river.
well, spring, cistern, reservoir, stream, or pond, he shall he impris-
oned in the county jail not less than ten nor more than thirty day>
or be fined not less than five nor more than one hundred dollars.
KANSAS.
[Laws of 1005. chap. 267, fish and game law.]
Sec. (5. It shall be unlawful for any person to empty or throw into
or place in any lake, pond, river, creek, or stream, or other water
within or bordering on this State, any acid, drug, lime, or other dele-
terious substance, or fishberries, or dynamite, giant powder, or other
explosive matter of whatever kind, or any material or liquid which
may kill, stun, poison, or craze fish; provided, that nothing in thi>
section shall be construed to prevent the proper use of explosivi^
for the exclusive purpose of improving navigation, or for blastin^r
rock on [in] preparing foundations, or other improvements on or
along the streams or waters of the State.
KENTUCKY.
[Compilation by John D. Carroll, 2d ed., 1899.]
Sec 1278. If any person shall cast or place the carcass of any cat-
tle or that of any other dead beast in any water course or within
twenty-five yards thereof, or shall cast the same into any spring, <»r
into any pond, such person, for every such offence, shall be fined for
the first offense not less than five nor more than twenty dollars, and
every subsequent offense not less than twenty nor more than one hun-
dred dollars. (Under head of " Offences against public health.")
LOUISIANA.
[Revised Laws (Wolff).]
Sec 924. Amending law of 1882, page 109.
Makes it an offense to " throw or cause to be' thrown or conveycnl
into any navigable stream, bay, or lake within this State, bagasse
from sugar mills, ballast from vessels, sinking timber of any kind, or
any other matter of a nature to form an obstruction to its free navi-
gation."
MICHIGAN.
[Complied Laws of the State of Michigan (Lewis M. Miller).]
Sec. 11496. Willfully poisoning spring, well, or reservoir made a
crime.
cooDBLi*.] PARTIAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — MICHIGAN. 37
Sec. 2806. The council (of any village located upon or adjacent to
any of the navigable waters of this State) shall have authority to
" provide by ordinance for the preservation of the purity of the
waters of any harbor, river, or other waters within the village," and
other powers.
Sec. 3146. The council (of any city IcK'ated upon or adjacent to any
of the navigable waters of the State) '* shall have authority to pro-
vide by ordinance for the prestTvation of the purity of the waters
of any harlx)r, river, or other waters within the city, and within one-
half of a mile from the corporate boundaries thereof; to prohibit and
punish the casting or depositing therein of any filth, logs, floating
matter, or any injurious thing," and other powers.
[Public Acts, 1891), No. 80, p. llo.]
AN ACTF to prevent and puninh the pollution and contamination of the waters
of the stream known as Wolf Creek, in Lenawee County, Michigan, and the
tributaries thereof.
The people of the State of Mirhigmi enact:
Section 1. It shall be unlawful for any person or persons to wil-
fully or in any other manner knowingly to befoul, pollute, contami-
nate in any manner, so as to render said water offensive for drinking
l)urposes, the waters of that stream situated in the townships of
Adrian, Rome, and Cambridge, Lenawee County, Michigan, and
known commonly as Wolf Creek, or any tributary thereof situated
in siiid county, at any place in said stream above the dam from which
the water supply of the city of Adrian i§ taken.
Sec. 2. WTioever mischievously, maliciously, or wilfully puts any
dead animal, carcass or part thereof, or any other putrid, nauseous,
noisome, or offensive substance in said stream or its tributaries, or in
any other manner befouls the waters of said stream or its tributaries
in an unwholesome or offensive manner, or shall drain the contents
of any barnyard, waste factory products, or other unwholesome sub-
stance, into the water of said stream or its tributaries, shall be
deenried guilty of a violation of this act.
Sec. 3. Any person convicted of a violation of this act shall be
punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars and not less
than five dollars and costs of prosecution, and in default of the pay-
ment of said fine and costs he shall l)e imprisoned in the jail of
Lenawee County not less than ten nor more than ninety days, or both
such fine and impriscmment, in the discretion of the court.
This act is ordered to take immediate effect.
Approved, May 17, 1899.
38 LAWS FORSroDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
mouse Enrolled Act No. 404.]
AN ACT in relatiou to the liollutiou of the waters of Pine River in the counties
of Midland and Gratiot, and Cass River in the county of Tuscola.
Sec. 1. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, or corporation,
except municipal corporations, or any agent oj* employe of such firm
or corporation to pollute the waters of Pine River in the counties of
Midland and Gratiot, and Cass River in the county of Tuscola, by
depositing or attempting to deposit therein any beet pulp or other
waste matter of any kind or character liable to decomposition.
Sec. 2. Any person, firm, or corporation, or any agent or employe
of such firm or corporation, found guilty of a violation of this act
shall be punished by a fine of not less than one hundred fifty dollars,
or more than three hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county
jail for not less than throe months nor more than six months, or by
both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court.
MISSISSIPPI.
[Annotated Code of the General Statute Laws (Thompson, Dlllard & Campbell). 1
Sec. 1326 (under *' Crimes and misdemeanors"). If any f)erson
shall in any manner permanently obstruct any of the navigable
waters, or shall place any obstruction therein and not remove the
same within a reasonable time, or if any person shall pollute any
such waters by putting therein the carcass of any dead animal, or any
refuse or foul matter, or any matter or thing calculated to render the
water thereof less fit for drink or the sustenance of fish, the person
so offending, in either case, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and, on
conviction, shall be punished by a fine of not more than fifty dollar>.
or by imprisonment in the county jail not more than thirty days, or
both ; but this shall not apply to the Mississippi or Yazoo rivers.
[Amended; Laws of 1898, chap. 80, p. 101.]
Exception of Mississippi and Yazoo rivers dropped out, and tht'
following clause added : " But this act shall not be so construed as to
prevent any city or town in this State from constructing sewers s<>
as to empty into any navigable streams of water in this State."
(Approved February 10, 1898.)
NEBRiVSKA.
[Complied Statutes of Nebraska, 1807.1
Sec. 0892 (Criminal Code, sec. 229). Putting offensive m<itter into
well or spring, — If any person or j^rsons shall put any dead animal,
carcass, or part thereof, or other filthy substance, into any well, or
into any spring, brook, or branch of running water, of which use is
oooDELL.] PABTIAI. STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NORTH DAKOTA. 89
made for domevStic purposes, every pei-son so offending shall be fined
in any sum not less than two nor more than forty dollars.
Sec. 6893 (230). If any person or ptu^sons shall put the carcass of
any dead animal, or the offals from any slaughterhouse* or butcher's
establishment, packing house, or fish houst\ or any spoiled meats or
sjx)iled fish, or any putrid animal substance, or the contents of any
privy vault, upon or into any river, bay, creek, pond, canal, road,
btreet, alley, lot, field, meadow, public ground, market space, or com-
mon * * * he shall be fined in any sum not less than one nor
more than fifty dollars.
NORTH DAKOTA.
[RevlMOd Codes ot North Dakota, 1899.]
Sec. 7291 (Penal Code, sec. 435). Fonliiuj water with gm tar, —
PIvery jxjrson who throws or deposits any gas tar or refuse of any gas
house or factory into any public waters, river, or stream, or into any
sewer or stream emptying into any such public waters, river, or
stream, is guilty of a misdemeanor.
[('bap. 60. Fouling the public waters of this State.]
Sec. 7653. Fouliny public waters, — Pivery person who deposits or
places or causes to be deposited or placed any dead animal, offal, or
other refuse matter offensive to the sight or smell or deleterious to
health upon the banks or in the waters of any lake or stream, so far
as the same is within the jurisdiction of the State is guilty of a mis-
demeanor, and upon conviction thereof is punishable by a fine of not
less than twenty and not exceeding one hundred dollars.
Sec. 7654. Extent of la^t section, — The provisions of the last sec-
tion shall be construed to include privies and privy vaults and any
stable, shed, pen, yard, or corral wherein is kept any horse, cattle,
sheep, or swine and located nearer than sixty feet from the top of the
bank of such lake or stream, and also any slaughter house, grave,
graveyard, or cemetery located nearer than eighty feet therefrom.
But the provisions of said section shall not be construed to prevent
any incorporated city wdthin this State from running its sewers into
any river: Provided, That where there is :i dam across said river
within the corporate limits of any such city, any such sewer shall con-
nect with such river below such dam.
OKLAHOMA.
[Wilson's Revised and Annotated Statutes of Oklahoma, vol. 1, p. 894.1
Sec. 3732. From "An act to prevent public nuisances and fixing
penalties for maintaining the same."
40 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION. [No. 152,
Sec. 1G. It shall be unlawful for any person or persons or corpora-
tions to put any dead animal, carcass, or part thereof into any well,
spring, brook, or branch of lunning water of which use is made for
domestic purposes. Ev^ery person or persons so offending shall, oi,
conviction thereof, be fined in any sum not less than five nor more
than one hundred dollars.
Sec. 8733. Any person or persons or corporations who shall put
any dead animal or any part of the carcass of a dead animal into any
river, creek, or pond shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined in any
sum not less than two nor more than twenty-five dollai's.
Sec. 2344. Every person who throws or deposits any gas tar 4)r
refuse of any gas house or factory into any public waters, river, or
stream, or into any sewer or stream emptying into any such public
waters, river, or stream is guilty of a misdemeanor.
RHODE ISLAND.
[Revision of 1890, sec. 16. p. 077.1
OFFENCES AGAINST THE PERSON.
Sec. 16. Every person who shall mingle any poison with any foo*!,
drink, or medicine, with intent to kill or injure any pers<m, and every
person who shall wilfully poiscm any spring, well, or reservoir of
water with such intent shall be imprisoned for life or for any term <»f
years.
[Laws of Rhode Island, 1004, chap. 1222, p. 33.]
AN ACT for the better protwtion of the sheU fisheries in the pubUc waters of
this State.
Sec 1. No person shall deposit in, or allow to escape into, or shall
cause or permit to be deposited in, or allowed to escaj^e into any of the
public w^aters of this State any substance which shall in any manner
injuriously affect the growth of the shellfish in or under said waters,
or which shall in any manner affect the flavor or odor of such shell-
fish so as to injuriously affect the sale thereof, or which shall cau^*
any injury to the public and private fisheries of this State.
Sec 2. Any person violating any of the provisions of this aci
shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined not le^s than five hundred
dollars or more than two thousand dollars, one-half thereof to the
use of the complainant and one-half thereof to the us(» of the State:
Prorided, That in case of conviction upon prosecution by the com-
missioners of shell fisheries the whole of any fine imposed shall gt) to
the use of the State.
Sec 3. Every person violating any of the provisions of this act
shall be liable to pay to the party injured by such violation double
r.<x>DELL.] PARTIAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — RHODE ISLAND. 41
the amount of damages eausetl thereby, to 1k» reoovered in an action
of the case in any court of coni|xHent jurisdiction. It shall not be
necessary, lK*fore bringing suit for the recovery of such damages, for
a criminal prosecution to have In^en first instituted for the violation
of the provisions of this act, nor shall the recovery of damages under
this section be a bar to such criminal prost»cution.
Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of the commissioners of shell fisheries
to investigate all complaints made to them of the violation of any of
the provisions of this act. For the purpose of such investigation said
eonimissioners.may make examination of the premises, hold public
hearings, summon witnesses, and take testimony under oath, and they
shall have power to punish, by fine or imprisonment or both, all con-
tempt of their authority in any hearing before them. They may
employ professional or expert services as they may deem desirable.
Sec. 5. It shall be the duty of the shell fish commissioners to prose-
cute any person in their opinion guilty of the violation of any of the
provisions of this act, and in all such prosecutions said commissioners
shall not be required to enter into any recognizance or to give surety
for costs. It shall be the duty of the attorney-general to conduct the
])rosecution of all cases brought by said commissioners imder the
provisions of this act. Complaints may also he brought and prose-
cuted by any citizen for any violation of its provisions.
Sec. 6. The expenses incurred by the commissioners of shell fish-
eries in the performance of the duties imposed upon them by this act
.-hall be paid by the general treasurer out of any funds in the treasury
not otherwise appropriated, upon the presentation of vouchers there-
for duh^ certified by their chairman.
Sec. 7. All provisions of the General Laws, of the Public Laws,
and of any special law inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed,
and this act shall take effect upon its passage.
[Laws of Rhode Island, 1004, chap. 1178, p. 58.}
AN ACT to prevent i)oUution of the 80urces of the water supply of the cities
of Paw tucket and Woonsocket and the towns of Bristol and East Providence.
Sec. 1. Section 1 of chapter 491 of the Public Laws is hereby
amended so as to read as follows :
'^ Sec. 1. Xo person shall throw or discharge, or suffer to be dis-
charged from land owned, occupied, or controlled by him, into any
stream, pond, or reservoir used as a source of water supply by the
city of Woonsocket, the city of Pawtucket, the city of Newport, the
town of Bristol, the town of Warren, the town of East Providence,
the town of Narragansett, the town of Jamestown, the East Green-
wich fire district, or by any water company supplying water for
domestic use in any of said cities or towns, or into any tributary or
42 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. CN*'- l'»2.
feeder of any such stream, pond, or restn'voir, any sewerage, draina*?*.
refuse, or noxious or polluting matter of such nature as will corrupt
or impair the quality of the waters of said stream, pond, or reservoir,
or render the same injurious to health, Avhieh water shall bo of the
recognized standard of purity to be 'determined by the State boanl
of health or other recognized authority. But the provisions of thi^
section shall not interfere with or prevent the enriching of land for
agricultural purposes by the owner or occupant thereof if no human
excrement is used thereon. Any person violating the provisions of
this section shall be punished for each offence by a fine of fifty dollars
or by imprisonment for not to exceed thirty days or by both such fine
and imprisonment.
Sec. 2. Section 2 of chapter 491 is hereby amended so as to rea<l as
follows :
" Sec. 2. The State board of health or the secretary of said bojinl.
when satisfied that any sewerage, drainage, or refuse or }K>lluting
matter exists in a locality such that there is danger that said sewer-
age, drainage, or refuse or polluting matter may corrupt or impair
the quality of said waters or render them injurious to healths may
order the owner or occupant of the premises where said sewerage.
drainage, or refuse or polluting matter exists to remove the same from
said premises within such time after the serving of the notice prv-
scribed in the next succeeding section as said board or secretary may
designate; and if the owner or occupant neglects or refuses so to do
he shall be fined twenty dollars for each day during which he permits
.said sewerage, drainage, or refuse or polluting matter to remain uikhi
said premises after the time prescribed for the removal thereof.'*
Sec. 3. Section 3 of chapter 491 is hereby amended so as to read as
follows :
" Sec. 3. Such notice shall be in writing, signed by the secretary of
the State board of health or the person performing the duties of that
official, and shall be served by any sheriff, deputy sheriff, or con-
stable by reading the same in the presence or hearing of the owner,
occupant, or his authorized agent, or by leaving a copy of the same in
the hands or possession of, or at the last and usual place of alxnle of.
said owner, occupant, or agent if within this State: Proruled^ hftir-
ercr. That if said owner, occupant, or agent be a corporation inc<»r-
porated in this State, said notice shall be served by leaving a (\)py
thereof at the last and usual place of alK)de of the president or person
performing the duties of president of said corporation. But if said
[)remises are unoccui)ied, or the residence of the owner is unknown or
without this State, or if the said owner is a corporation incorporate*]
without this State, the notice may l)e served by posting a cx)py of the
same on the premises and by advertising the same in some newspaf>er
published in Providence County in such manner and for such length
nrw^DELL.] PARTIAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS WISCONSIN. 43
of time as the State lK)ar(l of health or the Secretary thereof may
<h»termine/'
Sec. 4. Section 4 of chapter 41)1 is hereby amended so as to read as
follows :
'• Sec. 4. The secretary of the State lK)ard of health, when so
directed by said board, shall prosecute for all violations of this chap-
ter and shall not be required to give surety for costs upon complaints
made by him; but the cities? of Woonsocket and Pawtucket and the
towns of Bristol and East Providence shall be directly liable to the
State for the costs incurred in the prosecution for violation of this
chapter in their respective cases."
Sec. 5. Section 5 of chapter 491 is hereby amended so as to read as
follows :
" Sec. 5. The appellate division of the supreme court, upon the
application of the mayors of said cities or the presidents of the town
councils of said towns, or upon the application of the secretary of the
State board of health, may issue an injunction to enforce the orders
of the State board of health, or the secretary thereof, provided for in
this chapter."
Sec. 6. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby
rei>ealed, and this act shall take effect upon its passage.
Passed April 12, 1904.
WISCONSIN.
[Wlsfonsln Statutes. 1808, p. 051.]
POWERS OF COUNCIL IN CITIES UNDER GENERAL LAW.
57. To provide for the preservation of any harbor within or of
the city; prevent any use of the same or of such part of any lake,
river, stream, spring, or pond as is within the city, or any action in
relation thereto inconsistent with or detrimental to the public health
or calculated to render the water of the same or any part thereof
impure or offensive; or tending in any degree to fill up and obstruct
the same; prohibit and punish the casting or depositing therein of
any earth, dead animals, ashes, or other substance, or filth, logs, or
floating matter. * * *
PRESERVATION OF PUBIJC HEALTH.
[Idem, p. 1005.]
Slaitghterhouses. Sec 1418. No person shall erect, maintain, or
keep any slaughterhouse upon the bank of any river, running stream,
or creek, or throw or deposit therein any dead animal or any part
thereof or any of the carcass or offal therefrom, nor throw or deposit
the same into or upon the banks of any river, stream, or creek which
44 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152
shall flow through any city, village, or organized town containing two
hundred or more inhabitants, or erect, maintain, or use any biiildiu^^
for a slaughterhouse within the limits of any village, incorporated <»r
unincorporated, or at any place within one-eighth of a mile of any
dwelling house or a building occupied as a place of business; and
every person who shall violate any of the provisions of this sc»oti<ni
shall forfeit for each such violation not less than ten dollars nor more
than one hundred dollars; and the mayor of the city, president of ihe
village, and the chairman of the town in which any such slaughter-
house is located shall have the power to and shall cause the same to l»e
immediately removed; and every such officer who shall knowingly
permit any such slaughterhouse to be used or. maintained contrary to
the provisions of this section shall forfeit not less than fifteen dollar>
nor more than fifty dollars. In any county containing a population
of one hundred thousand or over all the provisions of this section
relating to slaughterhouses shall apply to all establishments and
manufactories in which dead animals or any part thereof or any of
the carcasses or offal therefrom are collected and converted into mar-
ketable products.
OFFENSES AGAINST LIVES AND PERSONS.
[Idem, p. 2669.]
Sec. 4384. Poisoning food^ drink^ etc. — Any person who shall
mingle any poison with any food, drink, or medicine, with intent to
kill or injure any other person, or who shall wilfidly poison any
spring, well, or reservoir of water with such intent, shall be punislu^l
by imprisonment in the State prison not more than ten years nor It^-
than one year.
[Laws of Wisconsin, 1905, chap. 402.]
AN ACT to amend section 4507 of the statutes of 1808, as amended by eliai»i»'r
325, liiws of 11K)3, prohibiting depositing of deleterious substances in water-
and providing a penalty.
Sec. 1. Section 4567 of the statutes of 1898, as amended by chapter
325, laws of 1903, is hereby amended by adding after the wonK.
" decayed wood," where they occur in line 14 of chapter 325, laws <»f
1903, the words: ''Sawdust, sawmill oflfal, and planing mill shav-
ings; " also by adding after the word " paper " where it occurs in lin<
10 of chapter 325, laws of 1903, the words "beet sugar;'- furthtv
amend by striking out the word " or " in line 20, all of lines 21, 22, 2:^,
24, and 25, and the words " mill shavings " in line 26 of chapter ^VJ."*.
laws of 1903; also further amend by adding after the word '* moiithr
where it occurs in line 30 of chapter 325, laws of 1903, the wonl-
"nothing in this section shall apply to the following streams: Tlif
Kickai^oo River, the Pine River in Richland County, Balsam branch
G<K»DELL.l GENERAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS. 45
in Polk County, the Chippewa River from mouth of Thornapple
River to its mouth, Flambeau River from dam at Ladysmith to its
mouth, Black River from Falls Dam down, in Jackson County, and
the Wisconsin River from the north boundary line of the city of
Rhiiielander down to its mouth," so that said section 4567 when so
amended shall read as follows :
" Section 45G7. Any person who shall cast, deposit, or throw over-
board from any row% sail, or steam boat or other craft into any of the
inland waters of this State or into Green Bay, Sturgeon Bay, and
Chequamegon Bay, or deposit or leave upon the ice thereof until it
melts, any fish oflfal, which shall be construed to mean and include
tlie head, intestines, blood, and cleanings of fish and dead fish, or
throw or deposit or permit to be thrown or deposited any lime, tan-
bark, ship ballast, stone, sand, slabs, decayed wood, sawdust, saw-
mill offal, and planing-mill shavings, or any acids or chemicals or
waste or refuse arising from the manufacture of pulp, paper, or beet
sugar, or other substances deleterious to fish life (authorized drain-
age and sewage from municipalitie^s excepted), into any of the rivers,
lakes, or streams of this State, including Green Bay, Chequamegon
Bay, Sturgeon Bay, or into any streams wherein there have been
planted trout fry, or in which trout naturally abound, shall be pun-
ished by a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars nor more than one
hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail not levss than
thirty days nor more than four months. • (Nothing in this section
shall apply to the following streams : The Kickapoo River, the Pine
River in Richland County, Balsam branch in Polk County, the Chip-
pewa River from the mouth of Thornapple River to its mouth. Flam-
beau River from dam at Ladysmith to its mouth, the Black River
from the Falls Dam down in Jackson County, and the Wisconsin
River from the north Iwundary line of the city of Rhinelander down
to its mouth.) The fact of any fisherman coming to the shore with
dressed fish in his boat and without the offal produced by such dress-
ing shall be prima facie evidence of the violation of the first clause* of
this section."
Sec. 2. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent with or in conflict with
the provisions of this act are hereby repealed.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its
passage and publication.
Approved, June 17, 1905.
CLASS II. STATES WITH GENERAL RESTRICTIONS.
This group consists of those States and Territories in which the
importance of pure water for every inhabitant of the State or Terri-
tory for drinking and domestic purposes has received legislative
46 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. |N*.. ir^iL
recognition. It will be notod that the laws are general in their appH-
cation, varying much in the elaborateness of the wording and in tht*
emphasis laid upon the remedies and penalties provided for infrac-
tions of the law.
This class logically includes all States not included in Class I, !)i!t
inasmuch as certain States have recently adopted stringent and ehil>-
orate methods, novel and extraordinary in their character, to n*st(>n'
and protect the purity of their navigable and potable waters, the^-
States have been omitted from Class II and are treated in a clas> Im
themselves, forming Class III (see p. 57).
CALIFORNIA.
[I'enal code as In force at the close of the session of 1001.]
Sec. 374. Putting dead animals in Htreetn^ rirer,% etc. — Every jx^r-
son who puts the carcass of any dead animal, or the offal from any
slaughter pen, corral, or butcher shop into any river, creek. {K)nd. nv-
ervoir, stream, street, alley, public highway, or road in common u>f,
or who attempts to destroy the same by fire within one-fourth of a
mile of any city, town, or village, except it be in a crematory, tht'
construction and operation of which is satisfactory to the board ol
health of such city, town, or village; and every person who puts any
water-closet or privy, or the carcass of any dead animal, or any offal
of any kind in or upon the borders of any stream, pond, lake, or n^
ervoir from which water is drawn for the supply of the inhabitants of
any city, city and county, or any town in this State, so that the drain-
age for such water-closet, privy, or carcass, or offal may lx> taken up
by or in such stream, pond, lake, or reservoir: or who allows any
water-closet or privy, or carcass of any dead animal, or any offal <»f
any kind to remain in or upon the borders of any such stream, pond,
lake, or reservoir within the boundaries of any land owne<l or iH-cu-
pied by him, so that the drainage from such water-closet, privy, car-
cass, or offal may be taken up by or in such stream, pond, lake, or
reservoir, or who keeps any horses, mules, cattle, swine, sheej>, or
live stock of any kind penned, corralled, or housed on, over, or on iho
borders of any such stream, pond, lake, or reservoir, so that the wator>
thereof become polluted by reason thereof, or who bathes in any sufii
stream, pond, lake, or res(»rvoir, or who by any other means fouls or
pollutes the waters of any such stream, pond, lake, or reserA'oir i-
guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be pun-
ished as descrilx»d in section 877. (Commissioners' amendment^,
approved March 16, 1901 ; took effect July 1, 1901.)
Sec. 374}. Discharging coal tai'^ etc.^ into icatei's. — Every person,
firm, association, or corporation which shall discharge or deposit, or
GtK>DKLL.] GENERAL STATUTE RESTKICTIONS CALIF()R^MA. 47
'^hall cause or suffer to be discluirged or deposited, or to pass in or
into the waters of any navigable bay or river in this State any coal
lar or refuse or i-esiduary product Qf coal, petroleum, asphalt, bitu-
men, or other carbonaceous material or substance is guilty of a mis-
demeanor, and for each offense is punishable by imprisonment in the
county jail for not exceeding one year or by fine not exceeding $1,000
or by both such fine and imprisonment. (New section, approved
March 25, 1901; took effect immediately. Statutes, 1901, p. 813.)
[Statutes of Cnnfornia, 1905, chap. OXXXV, p. 138.1
AN ACT to ameiid the penal c-ode of the State of California hy addini? a new sec-
tion thereto, to be numbered section 3771). making it a misdemeanor to refuse or
neglect to t-onform to the rules, orders, and regulations of the State board of
health, eon<*erning the t)ollutiou of water, used or intendeil to be used for
human or animal consumption :
Sec. 1. A new section to W numbered section 377b is hereby added
to the penal code of the State of California, to read as follows:
377b. Any person who shall violate or refuse or neglect to conform
to any sanitary rule, order, or regulation prescril)ed by the State
board of health for the prevention of the pollution of springs,
streams, rivers, lakes, wells, or other waters used or intended to be
used for human or animal consumption shall be guilty of a mis-
demeanor. •
Sec. 2. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent or in conflict with this
act are hereby repealed.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect immediately. (Act of March 18,
1905.)
[Statutes of California, 1905, (^hap. CXXXVI, p. 138.1
AN ACT To amend the penal code of the State of California by adding a new
Hection thereto, to be numl>ered fiection 377c, making it a misdemeanor to
refn«e or neglect to conform to the rules, orders, and regulations of the State
board of health, concerning the pollution of ice used or intended for public
consumption.
Sec. 1. A new section, to be numbered 377c, is hereby added to the
penal code of the State of California, to read as follows:
377c. Any person who shall violate, or refuse or neglect to conform
lo any sanitary rule, order, or regulation prescribed by the State
board of health for the prevention of the pollution of ice or the sale
or disposition of polluted ice offered, kept, or intended for public use
or consumption, shall he guilty of a misdemeanor.
Sec;. 2. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent or in conflict with this
act are hereby repealed.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect immediately. (Act of March 18,
1905.)
48 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
COLORADO.
[Mills' Annotated Statutes. 1891. p. 940.]
Sec. 1376. Polluting streams — penalty. — If any person or persons
shall hereafter throw or discharge into any stream of running water
or into any ditch or flume in this State any obnoxious substanct\ >.iu'h
as refuse matter from slaughterhouse or privy, or slops from eating
houses or saloons, or ariy other fleshy or vegetable matter which is
subject to decay in the water, such person or persons shall, upon con-
viction thereof, be punished by a fine not less than one hundrtHl dol-
lars nor more than five hundred dollars for each and every offense s<>
committed.
Sec. 1357 provides a penalty not exceeding five hundred dollars for
anyone '' who shall in anywise pollute or obstruct any water cour^*,
lake, pond, marsh, or common sewer, or continue such obstruction or
pollution so as to render the same offensive or unwholesome/' &c.
Sec. 3330 (j). 1861). Emptying oil into the waters of 'the >Stati a
misdemeanor — penalty.
AN ACT To prohibit the emptying or running of oil or i>etroleum, or other ol*'-
nginous substance into any waters of this State, and to imiKwe a penalty for
the violation of this act.
[Laws, 1889, p. 287, approved March 7, 1880, in force June 7. 1889.]
If any person or persons, corporation or corporations shall hereafter
empty or cause to be emptied, or allow the emptying or flowing of
oil, petroleum, or other oleaginous substance into any of the watei*s
of this State, or deposit or cause the same to be deposited at such
distance that the same may be carried into such waters by natural
causes, such person or persons, corporation or corporations so offend-
ing shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction
thereof shall l^e punished by a fine not exceeding one thousand dol-
lars, or imprisonment in the county jail not exceeding six months, or
both such fine and imprisonment, for each such offense.
ILLINOIS.
[EIiird*8 Revised Statutes, 1001, sec. 202, p. 627.]
Whoever willfully and maliciously defiles, corrupts, or makes im-
pure any spring or other source of water or reservoir * * *
shall be fined not exceeding one thousand dollars or confined in a
county jail not exceeding one year.
Page 681, section 221, makes it a public nuisance —
1. To cause or suffer the carcass of any animal or any offal, filth,
or noisome substance to be collected or deposited or to remain in any
place to the prejudice of others.
GOODBLL.1 GENERAL STATUTE RESTBICTIONS — INDIANA, 49
2- To throw or deposit any offal or other offensive matter, or any
carcass of any dead animal, in any water course, lake, pond, spring,
well, or common sewer, street, or public highway.
3. To corrupt or render unwholesome or impure the water of any
spring, river, stream, pond, or lake to the injury or prejudice of
others.
INDIANA.
[Burns's Annotated Statutes, 1004.]
Sec. 2156. Nuisance by dead animals. — Whoever puts the carcass
of any dead animal or the offal from any slaughterhouse or butcher's
establishment, packing house, or fish house, or any spoiled meats or
spoiled fish, or any putrid animal substance, or the contents of any
privy vault upon or into any river, pond, canal, lake, public ground,
market place, common, field, meadow, lot, road, street, or alley, and
whoever, being the owner or occupant of any such place, knowingly
permits any such thing to remain therein to the annoyance and injury
of any of the citizens of the State, or neglects or refuses to remove or
abate the nuisance occasioned thereby within twenty-four hours after
knowledge of the existence of such nuisance upon any of the above
. described premises owned or occupied by him, or after notice thereof,
in writing, from any health officer of the city or the trustee of the
township in which such nuisance exists, shall be fined not more than
one hundred dollars nor less than one dollar.
Sec. 2169. Whoever maliciously or mischievously puts any dead
animal carcass or part thereof on, or any other putrid, nauseous,
noisome, or offensive substance into, * * * or in any manner
lx»fouls any well, cistern, spring, brook, canal, or stream of running
water, or any reservoir of waterworks of which any use is made or
may he made for domestic purposes shall be fined not more than one
hundred dollars nor less than five dollars, to which may be added
imprisonment in the county jail not more than sixty days nor less
than ten daj^s.
(The foregoing section is repealed by the act of 1905 hereafter
quoted.)
Sec. 3538. Streams and femes, — The common council shall have
exclusive power to keep open streams, and preserve, and, if necessary
and expedient, change the course of rivers passing through or border-
ing upon the corporate limits of such city ; to prevent encroachment
or injury to the banks thereof, or the casting into the same of offal,
dead animals, logs, or rubbish. * * *
IBB 152—05 M 4
50 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. lo2.
• [Acts of 1901, Chap. LXI, p. 96.]
AN ACT prohibiting the discharge of waste water and refuse of manufacturing
establishments into streams of water, conferring certain iiowers upon th.»
State board of liealth in such cases, providing i)enaltie8 for the violation
thereof, and declaring an emergency.
Section 1. Be it enacted hy the general amemhly of the State of
Indiana^ That it shall be unlawful for any person, firm, or corpora-
tion owning or operating any manufacturing establishment to dis-
charge or permit to be discharged into any stream of water any waste
water or refuse from said factory of such character as to pollute said
stream, except by and in pursuance to a written permission so to do,
first obtained from the State board of health as hereinafter provided.
Sec. 2. Whenever any person, firm, or corporation owning or
operating a manufacturing establishment shall file with the secre-
tary of the State board of health a verified application in writin<r,
asking permission to be allowed to discharge into any stream any
waste water or refuse from such establishment, and showing therein
that the water of said stream is at such stage as that such refuse or
waste water may be safely discharged into such stream without
injury to the public, it shall be the duty of such board to inspect th^
said stream at and below the poinf of such proposed discharge, and
if it is found that such refuse and waste water may be safely dis-
charged therein without injury as aforesaid, the said board may, in
its discretion, grant and issue a written permit allowing such dis-
charge into said stream for a time to be limited therein, which i>er-
mit shall be void and of no effect after the time so fixed, and may Ik*
revoked by said board at any time. The holder of any such permit
regularly issued by such board shall be authorized to discharge any
such refuse or waste water into such stream during the time fixed
and limited in such permit, and shall not be liable therefor in any
suit at law or in equity: Provided^ That nothing herein containeil
shall prevent any person specially damaged by any such di.scliarc^
from recovering the amount of such special damages so sustained in
an action at law brought for such purpose.
Sec. 3. Any person, firm, or corporation violating any of the pro-
visions of this act shall be fined in any sum not less than twenty-five
dollars nor more than five hundred dollars.
Sec. 4. Wliereas an emergency exists for the immediate takinir
effect of this act, the same shall be in force on and after its passage.
[Laws of 1905, chap. 1C9, p. 584.]
Sec 553. Befovling water, — 'NMioever maliciously or mischievous! •
puts any dead animal, carcass, or part thereof, or any other putri«l.
nauseous, noisome, or offensive substance into, or in any manner be-
<MH>DELL.] GENERAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS MAINE. 51
fouls any well, cistern, spring, brook, canal, or stream of running
water, or any reservoir of waterworks, of which any use is or may
be made for domestic purposes, shall, on conviction, be fined not less
than five dollars nor more than one hundred dollars, to which may
Ix* added imprisonment in the county jail not less than ten days nor
more than sixty days.
Sec. 689. Repeal. — All laws within the purview of this act are
hereby repealed; but this repeal shall not affect any prosecutions
pending or offenses heretofore committed under existing laws, and
such prosecutions and offenses shall lx» continued and prosecuted
to a final determination, as if this act had not passed; nor shall
this repeal affect the enforcement of any fine or penalty or other pun-
ishment provided as a punishment for the violation of any civil
statute; nor shall this act be construed to repeal any act passed at
this session of the general assembly.
(Approved March 9, 1005.)
MAINE.
[Laws of 1891, chap. 82, p. 67.]
AN ACT to protect waters used for domestic puiposes.
Sec. l.** Whoever knowingly and willfully poisons, defiles, or in
any way corrupts the waters of any well, spring, brook, lake, pond,
river, or reservoir used for domestic purposes for man or beast, or
knowingly corrupts the sources of the water supply of any water
company or of any city, town, or municipal corporation supplying
its inhabitants with water, or the tributaries of said sources of sup-
ply, in such manner as to affect the purity of the water so supplied,
or knowingly defiles such water in any manner, whether the same
l>e frozen or not, or puts the carcass of any dead animal or other
offensive material into said waters or upon the ice thereof, shall be
punished by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars or by impris-
onment not exceeding one year.
Sec. 2. Whoever shall wilfully injure any of the property of any
water company or of any city, town, or municipal corporation used by
it in supplying water to its inhabitants shall be punished by a fine not
exceeding one thousand dollars or by imprisonment not exceeding one
year, and such person shall also forfeit and pay to such water com-
pany, city, or town three times the amount of actual damages sus-
tained, to be recovered in an action of the case. (As amended by the
laws of 1905, Chap. 9eS, p. 97.)
Sec. 3. Inconsistent acts repealed.
• As amended by laws of 1905, chap. 97, p^ 100.
52 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
[Laws of 1903, Special Laws, chap. 94, p. 156.1
AN ACT to prevent the pollution of the waters of Sebago I^ke.
Sec. 1. No person or corporation shall use or occupy any structure
hereafter built upon or near the shoras of Sebago Lake, in the county
of Cumberland, or upon any of the islands of said lake for such pur-
poses or in such manner that the sewage or drainage therefrom shall
enter the waters of said lake or pollute the same.
Sec. 2. No sewage, drainage, refuse, or polluting matter of such
kind and amount as either by itself or in connection with other mat-
ter will corrupt or impair the quality of the water of said Sebagi>
Lake or render it injurious to health shall be discharged into said
lake, but nothing herein shall prohibit the cultivation and use of tht*
soil in the ordinary methods of agriculture if no human excrement i-
used thereon within three hundred feet of the shores of said lake.
Sec. 3. The supreme judicial court shall have jurisdiction in equity
to enjoin, prevent, or restrain any violation of the provisions of thi^
act.
Sec. 4. This act shall take effect when approved.
Approved February 26, 1903.
MARYLAND.
[Poe's Maryland Code, adopted March 14, 1888.]
RIVEBS. N
Sec. 240. If any ballast, ashes, filth, earth, soil, oysters, or oyster
shells be taken, unladen, or cast out of any ship, steamboat, scow,
pungy, or other vessel, on any pretense whatever, in the Chesapeake
Bay above " Sandy Point," or in the waters of Herring Bay, or in any
river, creek, or harbor within this State, below high-water mark, the
master or other person having charge of such vessel shall, upon con-
viction thereof, be fined.
Waters of Potomac River above the canal dam near the mouth of
AVills Creek are protected by section 242 against pollution calculated
to render the waters of said river '' impure or unfit for use.''
WATER 81TPPLY — POLLUTION OF SOURCES OF.
[Passed In 1886, chap. 6.]
Sec. 277. If any person shall put, or cause to be placed, any dead
animal or part of the carcass of any dead animal, or any decayed or
filthy animal or vegetable matter, into any stream, or the tributary
of any stream, well, spring, reservoir, pond, or other source from
which water or ice is drawn, taken, or used for drinking or domest it-
purposes, or shall knowingly suffer any sewage, washings, or other
COODELL.1 GENEBAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — MISSOURI. 53
offensive matters from any privy, cesspool, factory, trades establish-
ment, slaughterhouse, tannery, or other place over which he shall
have control, to flow therein, or into any drain or pipe coimnunicating
therewith, whereby the water supply of any city, town, village, com-
munity, or household is fouled or rendered unfit for drinking and
domestic purposes, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall,
upon conviction thereof in a court of competent jurisdiction, be fined
not more than two hundred dollai*s for every such offence ; and after
reasonable notice, not exceeding fifteen days, from the State board of
health, or any local sanitary authority, to discontinue the act whereby
such water supply is fouled, a further sum of not more than fifty
dollars for every day during which the offence is continued.
MISSOURI.
[ReTised StatuteB, 1809.]
CBIMES AND PUNISHMENTS.
Sec. 2284. Pntting dead animalH in welly c6c. — If any person or
persons shall put any dead animal, carcass, or part thereof, the offal,
or any other filth into any well, spring, brook, branch, creek, pond, or
lake, every person so offending shall, on conviction thereof, be fined
in any sum not less than ten nor more than one hundred dollars. If
aii}^ person shall remove, or cause to be removed and placed * * ♦
in any of the streams and water courses other than the Missouri or
Mississippi River, any dead animal, carcass, or part thereof, or other
nuisance, to the annoyance of the citizens of this State, or any of
them, every person so offending shall, upon conviction thereof, be
fined for every such offence any sum not less than ten dollars nor
more than fifty dollars, and if such nuisance be not removed within
tliree days thereafter, it shall be deemed a second offence against the
])ro visions of this section.
Sec. 2235. Corrupthig or diverting water supply. — ^Whoever will-
fully or maliciously poisons, defiles, or in any way corrupts the water
of a well, spring, brook, or reservoir used for domestic or municipal
purposes, or whoever willfully or maliciously diverts, dams up, and
holds back from its natural course and flow any spring, brook, or
other water supply for domestic or municipal purposes, after said
water supply shall have once been taken for use by any person or
I)ersons, corporations, town, or city for their use, shall be adjudged
guilty of a misdemeanor and punished by a fine not less than fifty
nor more than five hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county
jail n^t exceeding one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment,
and shall be liable to the party injured for three times the actual
damage sustained, to be recovered by suit at law.
54 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [Ni>. 152.
Sec. 1974. Injury to schoolhouses and church hmldings. — Ever>*
person * * * who shall in any manner polhite the water con-
tained in any well, cistern, or reservoir (in which water is gathere*!
OT* kept for the supply of a schoolhouse or those attending the same)
shall be guilty of a misdemeanor.
ISoctlon 28 of House bill No. 15, laws of 1905, p. 16.1.]
AN ACT relating to the preservation, propagation, and protection of gamo ani
mals, birds, and fish ; creating the office of game and fish warden ; creating :i
game protection fund, and appropriating money therefrom.
Sec. 28. It shall be unlawful for any person or persons, firm, or
corporation to suffer or permit any dyestuff, coal tar, oil, sawdust,
poison or deleterious substances to be thrown, run, or drained into
any of the waters of this State in quantities sufficient to injure,
stupefy, or kill fish which may inhabit the same at or below the point
where any such substances are discharged or permitted to flow or
thrown into such waters. Any person or persons, firm, or cori>orati(>n
offending against any of the provisions of this section shall be deemetl
guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be fined not le>-
than $200.00 nor more than $500.00 for each offense.
Approved March 10, 1905.
NEVADA.
[General Statutes of Nevada.]
Sec. 4617. (Crimes and punishments, sec. 54.) * * * Every
person who shall willfully poison any spring, well, or reservoir of
water shall, upon conviction thereof, be punished by imprisonment
in the State prison for a term not less than one nor more than ten
years.
Sawdust in Hrers. — It is made a misdemeanor to deposit sawdu>t
in or on the waters of any lake, river, or running stream by laws of
1889, page 24, Chapter XV.
[Laws of Nevada, 1903, Chap. CXXII, p. 214.]
AN ACT to prevent the iK)IIution or contamination of the waters of the lakes.
' rivers, streams, and ditches in tlie State of Nevada, prescrihlng iHMialtios, an<l
making an appropriation to carry out the provisions of this act. (Appn^vt^l
March 20, 1908.)
The people of the State of Nevada^ represented in senate and assem-
bly^ do enaH as follows:
Section 1. Unlawfid to pollute any body of water. — Any i)erson or
persons, firm, company, corporation, or association in this State, or
G*>oDKLi^3 GENERAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS NEVADA. 55
the managing agent of any person or persons, firm, company, corpo-
ration, or association in this State, or any duly elected, appointed, or
lawfully created State officer of this State, or any duly elected,
appointed, or lawfully created officer of any county, city, town,
municipality, or municipal government in this State, who shall de-
posit, or who shall permit or allow any person or persons in their
employ or under thfeir control, management, or direction to deposit
in any of the waters of the lakes, rivers, streams, and ditches in this
State any sawdust, rubbish, filth, or poisonous or deleterious sub-
stance or substances liable to affect the health of pei'sons, fish, or live
stock, or place or deposit any such deleterious substance or substances
in any place where the same may be washed or infiltered into any of
the waters herein named, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor,
and upon conviction thereof in any court of competent jurisdiction
shall be fined in any sum not less than fifty dollars nor more than
five hundred dollars, exclusive of court costs: Provided^ That in
cases of State institutions, municipalities, towns, incorporated towns
or cities, when, owing to the magnitude of the work, immediate cor-
rection of the evil is impracticable, then in such cases the authorities
shall adopt all new work, and as rapidly as possible reconstruct
the old systems of drainage, sewerage, and so as to conform with the
provisions of this act: And fromdcd further^ That all such new and
recopstructed systems shall be completed within four years from the
date of passage hereof: Provided^ That nothing in this act shall be so
construed as to permit mining or milling companies to dump tailings
directly into any stream in this State so as to prevent or impede the
natural flow of such stream. Nothing in this act shall be so construed
as to apply to any quartz mill or ore reduction works in this State.
Sec. 2. For the purposes of this act the word " ditcli " shall be con-
strued to mean any ditch, canal, channel, or artificial waterway used
for carrying or conducting water into any reservoir from which it
may be used or distributed for domestic purposes to any person in this
State, or to any person in any county, city, town, or municipality in
this State.
Sec. 3. The sum of three thousand dollars is hereby appropriated
out of any money in the State treasury, not otherwise appropriated,
subject to the disposal of the governor of this State, for the purpose
of enforcing the provisions of this act, either in the courts of this
State or in the courts of the United States, such expenditure to be
allowed and paid as other claims against the State are allowed and
paid.
Sec. 4. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after the
first day of July, A. D. nineteen hundred and four.
56 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
NEW 31EXICO.
[Compiled laws, act of March 16, 1897.]
STREAMS AND LAKES.
Sec. 54. It shall not be lawful for any person or persons to throw
or cast the dead body or carcass of any animal or fowl, or to run (»r
empty any sewers or other polluted or befouled' substances into any
river, stream, lake, pond, reservoir, ditch, or any water course, or to
in any manner or by any means pollute or befoul the waters thereof,
within this Territory, so as to render the same unwholesome or
offensive or dangerous to the health of the inhabitants of any com-
munity or of any person having the right to use and who uses the
same, for drinking or domestic purposes, or that may render such
waters unfit or dangerous for watering stock, or for agricultural or
horticultural purposes.
Sec. 55. That the polluting of waters in any of the manners alK)ve
specified is hereby declared to be a public nuisance, which shall \ye
immediately removed by the person or persons creating the j^ame.
upon the demand of any public officer or of any pei-son or |>ersons.
who may have a right to the use of said waters.
Sec. 56. That any person or persons violating any of the provision^
of sec. 54 may be tried therefor before any justice of the peace of the
county where the offence is committed, and upon conviction thereof
shall be punished by a fine in any sum not less than ten dollars nor
more than one hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail
for any period of time not less than ten days nor more than sixty
days, or by both fine and imprisonment. And in addition thereto the
justice of the peace shall direct the sheriff of the county or the con-
stable of the precinct to relieve such nuisance, at the expense of the
person or persons creating the same, which said expenses shall In*
taxed as other costs against the person or persons so offending, and
shall be collected in the manner provided by law for the collection of
costs in criminal cases.
[Laws of 1899, chap. 79, p. 175.]
AN ACT to amend section 54 of the compiled laws of 1897. (Approved Mareb
IGth, 1899.)
Be it enacted hy the legMatire assembly of the Ten^itory of Xitr
Mexico:
Section 1. That section 54 of the compiled laws of 1897 be, and
the same is hereby, amended to read as follows:
Sec. 54. It is hereby made unlawful for any person to cast the
dead body of any animal or fowl, or any refuse matter, such as tin
GooDKLL.] GENERAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW MEXICO. 57
cans, paper, ashes, bones, or other garbage into any running stream,
spring, lake, pond, reservoir, ditch, or water course, or to run or empty
any sewer or other foul substance into the same, or in any other man-
ner or means to polhite or foul the said water so as to render the same
offensive or dangerous to the health of the inhabitants of any com-
munity or of any person having the right to use the same for drink-
ing or domestic purposes, or that may render said waters unfit or
unhealthy for watering stock. But it shall be the duty of every
person, outside of incorporated towns, cities, or villages, to destroy all
ilomestic refuse and garbage by burning the same; any violation of
this section shall be considered a misdemeanor and punished as pro-
vided by law.
Sec. 2. All acts and parts of act.s in conflict herewith are hereby
repealed ; and this act shall take effect from and after its passage.
[LawB of 1903, chap. 21, p. 32.]
AN ACT to prevent injury to ditches, pipe lines, reservoirs, and the taking of
and befouling of water therefrom. (Approved March 10th, 1903.)
Be it enacted by the legislative assembly of the Territory of Neio
Mexico :
Section 1. Any person who shall wilfully and maliciously cut,
break, or injure, or who shall by shooting or by damming or obstruc-
ting the same cause to break any ditch, flume, pipe line, or reservoir, or
any of the attachments or fixtures used in connection therewith, shall
he. guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be punished by a fine of not
less than ten dollars nor more than fifty dollars, or by confinement
in the county jail for not more than sixty days, or by both such fine
and imprisonment, in the discretion of the court trying the case,
except in cases where such pipe line or reservoir is used for the pur-
pose of supplying water to any community, village, town, or city for
domestic purposes, in which event the person committing such offence
shall be punished by a fine of not less than fifty nor more than one
hundred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail not less than
thirty nor more than sixty days, or by both such fine and imprison-
ment in the discretion of the court trying the case.
Sec. 2. Any person who shall bathe in, or wilfully cast any filth in,
any reservoir or ditch used for supplying water for domestic use
shall l)e guilt\'^ of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be fined
not less than ten dollars or not more than twenty -five dollars.
Sec. 3. All acts and parts of acts in conflict herewith are hereby
repealed, and this act shall take effect from and after its passage.
58 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
NORTH CAROLINA.
[North Carolina Criminal Code and Digest (2d ed.), p. 436.]
Sec. 500. Putting poisonous substance in water for the purpose of
killing fish is forbidden.
Laws of 1903, chapter 245, page 321, forbids throwing sawdust into
the water courses of Yancey County.
[Laws of North Carolina, 1903, chap. 159. p. 182.]
AN ACT to iirotect water supplies.
Sections 1 to 10, inclusive, provide a thorough system of inspection
and forbid any person or corporation to supply water for the public
without taking the precautions therein prescribed.
Sections 11 to 17 are as follows :
Sec 11. ^^Tioever defiles, corrupts, pollutes any well, spring, drain^
branch, brook, or creek, or other source of public water supply used
for drinking purposes, in any manner, or deposits the body of any
dead animal on the watershed of any such water supply, or allows
the same to remain thereon unless the same is buried with at least
two feet cover, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and fined and im-
prisoned, in the discretion of the court.
Sec 12. WTioever shall collect and deposit human excreta on the
watei'shed of any public water supply shall be guilty of a misde-
meanor, and punished by fine and imprisonment, in the discretion of
the court.
Sec 13. No person, firm, corporation, or municipality shall flow or
discharge sewage into any drain, brook, creek, or river from which a
public drinking-water supply is taken, unless the same shall have
been passed through some well-known system of sewage purification
approved by the State board of health. Any person, firm, cor|X)ru-
tion, or the officer of any municipality having this work in charge,
who shall violate this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and
the continued flow and discharge of such sewage may be enjoined by
any j^erson.
Sec 14. That all schools, hamlets, villages, towns, or industrial
s(»ttlements which are now located or may be hereafter located on the
shed of any public water supply not provided with a sewerage sys-
tem, shall provide and maintain a tub system for collecting human
excrement, and provide for removal of the same from the watershed
at least twice each week. Every person, firm, corporation, or munici-
pality violating this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and
lined or imprisoned, in the discretion of the court.
Sec 15. No burying ground or cemetery shall be established on
the watershed of any public water supply nearer than five hundred
yards of the source of supply.
«4K»i>ELL.] GENERAL. STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NORTH CAROLINA. 59
Sec. 16. All water companies now operating under charters from
the State or municipalities, which may maintain public water sup-
plies, may acquire by condemnation such lands and rights in land
imd water as are necessary for the successful operation and protection
of their plants, said proceedings to be the same as pi^escribed by chap-
ter 49, volume 1, of the Code of North Carolina.
Sec. 17. For carrying out the provisions of this act the State board
of health is authorized and empowered to have the bacteriological
examination made as hereinbefore provided for, and to charge for the
same the sum of five dollars ($5.00) for each examination.
[lAWS of 1JK>5, chap. 4ir>.]
AN ACT to estabHsh a State laboratory of hygiene.
Section 1. That for the better protection of the public health and
to prevent the spread of communicable diseases there shall be estab-
lished a State laboratory of hygiene, the same to be under the control
and management of the State board of health.
Sec. 2. That it shall be the duty of the State board of health to
have made in such laboratory monthly examinations of samples
from all the public water supplies of the State. The board shall
also cause to l)e made examinations of well and spring waters when
in the opinion of any county superintendent of health or any reg-
istered physician there is reason to suspect such waters of being con-
taminated and dangerous to health. The board shall likewise have
made in this laboratory examinations of sputum in cases of suspected
tuberculosis, of throat exudates in cases of susjoected diphtheria, of
blood in cases of suspected typhoid and malarial fever, of fceces in
cases of suspected hook-worm diseases, and such other examinations
as the public health may require.
Sec. 3. For the support of the said laboratory the sum of twelve
hundred dollars is hereby appropriated and an annual tax of sixty
dollars, payable quarterly, by each and every water company, munici-
pal, corporate, and private, selling water to the people, said tax to
l)e collected by the sheriff as other taxes and paid by said slieriff
directly to the treasurer of the State board of health, and the print-
ing and stationery necessary for the laboratory to be furnished upon
requisition upon the State printer.
Sec. 4. Section seventeen of chapter one hundred and fifty-nine
of the laws of one thousand nine hundred and three is hereby
repealed.
Sec. 5. This act shall be in force from and after its ratification.
In the general assembly read three times, and ratified this 4th day
of March, 1905.
60 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. (Na 152.
OHIO.
[Bates's Annotated Revised Statutes of Ohio, p. 3343.]
Sec. 6921. Nuisance. — Wlioever * * * corrupts or renders un-
wholesome or impure any water course, stream, or wat^er * * ♦
shall be fined not more than five hundred dollars.
Sec. 6923. {Unlawful deposit of dead animals^ offal^ c(*r., into oi
upo^i land or water.) — Whoever puts the carcass of any dead animal,
or the offal from any slaughterhouse or butcher's establishment,
packing house, or fish house, or any spoiled meat or spoiled fish, or
any putrid substance, or the contents of any privy vaults, uj>on or
into any lake, river, bay, creek, pond, canal, road, street, alley, lot.
field, meadow, public ground, market place or common, and whoever,
being the owner or occupant of any such place, knowingly ix»rmits
any such thing to remain therein, to the annoyance of any of tlie citi-
zens of this State, neglects or refuses to remove or abate the nuisance
occasioned thereby, within twenty-four hours after knowledge of the
existence of such nuisance upon any of the above-described premise.-,
owned or occupied by him, or after notice thereof in writing from
any supervisor, constable, trustee, or health officer of any municipal
corporation or township in which such nuisance exists, or from a
county conmiissioner of such county, shall be fined not nioi-e than
fifty dollars nor less than ten dollars and pay the costs of prosecu-
tion, and in default of the payment of said fine and costs be impris-
oned not more than thirty days; but the provisions hereinbefore made
shall not prohibit the depositing of the contents of privy vaults and
catch-basins into trenches or pits not less than three feet deep, exca-
vated in any lot, field, or meadow, the owner thereof consenting, out-
side the limits of any municipal corporations, and not less than thirty
rods distant from any dwelling, well, or spring of water, lake, bay, or
pond, canal, run, creek, brook, or stream of water, public road or
highway : Pro'vided^ That said contents deposited in said trenches or
pits are immediately thereafter covered with dry earth to the deptli
of at least twelve inches; nor shall said provisions prohibit the
depositing of said contents into furrows situate and distinct, as speci-
fied for said trenches or pits, provided the same are immediately
thereafter wholly covered with dry earth by plowing or otherwise:
And pro ruled aho^ That the owner or occupant of the land in which
said furrows are plowed consents and is a party thereto: Proridtd
aho^ That the board of health of any municipal corporation may
allow said contents to l)e deposited within corporate limit.s into
trenches or pits or furrows, situate distant and to be covereil a>
aforesaid.
Sec. 6925. Emptying of coal dirt, petroleum^ <&c.^ into lakes^ rivers.
cJ&c, or pcnnitting same; penalty. — Whoever intentionally throws or
oooDBtu] GENERAL STATUTE BESTRICTIONS OHIO. 61
deposits, or'i>emiits to be thrown or deposited, any coal dirt, coal
slack, coal screenings, or coal refuse from coal mines, or any refuse or
filth from any coal-oil refinery or gas works, or any whey or filthy
drainage from a cheese factory, upon or into any of the rivers, lakas,
ponds, or streams of this State, or upon or into any place from Avhich
the same will wash into any such river, lake, pond, or stream; or
whoever shall, by himself, agent, or employe, cause, suffer, or permit
any j)etroleum, or crude oil, or refined oil, or any compound or mix-
ture or other product of such well, except fresh or salt water, or
residuum of oil or filth from oil well, or oil tank, or oil vat, or place
of deposit, of crude or refined oil, to run into, or be poured, or
emptied, or thrown into any river, or ditch, or drain, or water course,
or into any place from which said petroleum, or crude oil, or resid-
uum, or refined oil, or filth may run or wash, or does run or w^ash,
into any such river, or ditch, or drain, or water coui'se, upon indict-
ment and conviction in the county in which such coal mines, coal-oil
refinery, gas works, cheese factory, oil well, oil tank, oil vat, or place
of deposit of crude or refined oil are situated, shall he, fined in any
sum not more than one thousand dollars nor less than fifty dollars.
(Fine and coats a lien; execution,) — And such fine and costs of
prosecution shall be and remain a lien on said oil well, oil tank, oil re-
finery, oil vat, and place of deposit, and the contents of said oil well,
oil tank, oil refinery, oil vat, or place of deposit until said fine and
costs are paid ; and said oil w ell, oil tank, oil refinery, oil vat, or place
of deposit, and the contents thereof, may l)e sold for the payment of
such fine and costs upon execution duly issued for that purpose.
Sec. 6927. {Befouling well^ npring^ d:c,) — Whoever maliciously
puts any dead animal carcass, or part thereof, or any other putrid,
nauseous, noisome, or offensive substance into, or in any manner be-
fouls, any well, spring, brook, or branch of running w^ater, or any
i-eservoir of waterworks, of which use is or may be made for domestic
purposes, shall l)e fined not more than fifty nor less than five dollars,
or imprisoned not more than sixty days, or both.
[Laws of 1904. house bUl 277, p. 135.)
AN ACT to amend section 2433, Revised Statutes of Ohio, for t|ie purpose of
preventing the poUution of water and providing i>enalty therefore
Sec. 1. That section 2433, Revised Statutes of Ohio, l)e, and the
same is hereby, amended to read as follows :
''Sec. 2433. The jurisdiction of any municipal corporation to pre-
vent the pollution of its water supply and to provide penalty therefor
shall extend twenty miles beyond the corporation limits. Whoever
pollute any running stream, the water of which is used for domestic
purposes by any municipality by putting therein any putrid or offen-
62 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
sive substance (other than fresh or salt water) injurious to hcaltli
shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, which shall be punishable by a
fine of not less than five or more than five hundred dollars. It shall
be the duty of the board of public service or board of trustees of pub-
lic affairs of any municipal corporation to enforce the provisions of
this section."
Sec. 2. Original section 2433 is hereby repealed.
OREGON.
[Bellinger and Colton's Annotated Codes and Statutes of Oregon, vol. 1, p. 735.1
OF CRIMES AGAINST THE PUBLIC HEALTH.
Sec. 2128. PoUnting with sewage^ cfcr., water for clomeMic use tm-
lawful. — Any person who shall put any sewage, drainage, or refuse*,
or polluting matter, as either by itself or in connection with other
matter wull corrupt or impair the quality of any well, spring, brook,
creek, branch, or pond of water which is used or may be used for do-
mestic purposes, shall be deemed guilty of misdemeanor. (Law.^
1885, p. 110, sec. 1.) .
Sec. 2129. Animal cai'cass^ rfv., nnlartfid to place in water for do-
Tuestic use or near (levelling, — If any person shall put any dead ani-
mal carcass, or part thereof, excrement, putrid, nauseous, noisome,
decaying, deleterious, or offensive substance into, or in any other
manner not herein named befouls, pollutes, or impairs the quality of
any spring, brook, creek, branch, well, or pond of water, which is or
ma}^ be used for domestic purposes, or shall put any such dead ani-
mal carcass, or part thereof, excrement, putrid, nauseous, noisome,
decaying, deleterious, or offensive substance within one-half mile of
any dwelling house or public highway, and leave the same without
proper burial, or, being in the possession or control of any land, shall
known ngly permit or suffer any such dead animal carcass, or part
thereof, excrement, putrid, nauseous, noisome, decaying, deleterious,
or offensive substance to remain without proper burial upon su<h
premises, within one-half mile of any dwelling house or public high-
way, whereby the same becomes offensive to the occupants of such
dw^elling or*the traveling public, he shall be deemed guilty of a mis-
demeanor. (1885, p. 110, sec. 2.)
Sec. 2130. Penalty for riolating preceding provisions and jitri.sdi* -
tion to enforce, — Any person violating the provisions of this act shall,
upon conviction, be fined not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars,
or be imprisoned not less than five days nor more than twenty-fivt»
days, or by both fine and imj)ris(mment. Justices of the peace shall
have jurisdiction of offences conunitted against the provisions of this
act.
c«3<iDELL.] GENERAL STATUTE RESTBICTIONS — SOUTH DAKOTA. 63
Sec. 21*31. PoUuting water used for doinestic purposes^ or to which
lire stork hare a^-eess^ unlawful. — If any person or persons shall put
an}' dead animal's carcass, or part thereof, or any excrement, putrid,
nauseous, decaying, deletmous, or offensive substance in any well, or
into any spring, brook, or branch of running water, of which use is
made for domestic purposes, or to which any cattle, horses, or other
kind of stock have access, every j)erson so offending shall, on convic-
tion thereof, be fined in any sum not less than three nor more than
fifty dollars.
Sec. 2133. Animnl carcass^ viiJawful to put in rirer or elsewhere to
in/ury of health. — If any person or persons shall put any part of the
carcass of any dead animal into any river, creek, pond, road, street,
alley, lane, lot, field, meadow, or common, or if the owner or owners
thereof shall knowingly permit the same to remain in any of the
aforesaid places to the injury of the health or to the annoyance of the
citizens of this State, or any of them, every person so offending shall,
on conviction thereof, l)e fined in a sum not le.ss than two nor more
than twenty-five dollars, and every twenty-four hours during which
said owner may permit the same to remain thereafter shall be deemed
an additional offence against the provisions of this act.
SOUTH DAKOTA.
[Revised Codes of 1903, Penal Code, p. 1146.]
Sec. 445. Every person who throws or deposits any gas tar, or
refuse of any gas house or factory into any public waters, river, or
stream, or into any sewer or stream emptying into such public waters,
river, or stream, is guilty of a misdemeanor.
Sec. 446. It shall be unlawful for any person, persons, company, or
corporation to place or cause to be placed any manure, butcher's offal,
carcasses of animals, or other deleterious substances into any river,
stream, or lake, in the State of South Dakota, or upon the banks
thereof in such proximity that such substances may be washed into
said water or water courses.
Sec. 447. Any violation of the provisions of this chapter is a mis-
demeanor, and the person, persons, company, or corporation so vio-
lating are deemed guilty thereof, and upon conviction shall be liable
to a fine not less than ten dollai*s nor more than one hundred dollars,
and in addition thereto such offending person or persons shall be
subjected to imprisonment in the county jail for the period of thirty
days unleas he or they cause such deleterious substances to be removed.
Sec. 448. This act shall not be construed as to interfere with or
prevent any necessary or legitimate mining operation or sewerage
svstem.
62 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. ir»i
sive substance (other than fresh or salt water) injurious to health
shall he guilty of a misdemeanor, which shall be pimishable by a
fine of not less than five or more than five hundred dollars. It shall
be the duty of the board of public service or board of trustees of pub-
lic affairs of any nuniicipal corporation to enforce the provisioiLs <if
this section."
Sec. 2. Original section 2433 is hereby repealed.
OREGON.
[Bellinger and Colton's Annotated Codes and Statutes of Oregon, vol. 1, p. 735.]
OF CRIMES AGAINST THE PUBLIC HBLALTII.
Sec. 2128. Polluting with sewage, cCy*., watei' for domes fir use tm-
lawful. — Any i>erson who shall put any sewage, drainage, or refuse*,
or polluting matter, as either by itself or in connection w ith other
matter will corrupt or impair the quality of any well, spring, brook,
creek, branch, or pond of water which is used or may be used for do-
mestic purposes, shall be deemed guilty of misdemeanor. (Laws
1885, p. 110, sec. 1.) .
Sec. 2129. Animal carcass, rf'r., xinlawfnl to place in water for (h*-
mestic iise or near dwelling, — If any person shall put any dead ani-
mal carcass, or part thereof, excrement, putrid, nauseous, noisome,
decaying, deleterious, or offensive substance into, or in any other
manner not herein named befouls, pollutes, or impairs the quality of
any spring, brook, creek, branch, well, or pond of water, wiiich is or
may be used for domestic purposes, or shall put any such dead ani-
mal carcass, or part thereof, excrement, putrid, nauseous, noisome,
decaying, deleterious, or offensive substance within one-half mile of
any dw^elling house or public highway, and leave the same without
proper burial, or, being in the possession or control of any land, shall
knowingly permit or suffer any such dead animal carcass, or part
thereof, excrement, putrid, nauseous, noisome, decaying, deleterious,
or offensive substance to remain without proper burial upon siu^h
premises, wuthin one-half mile of any dwelling house or public hi^h-
w^ay, whereby the same becomes offensive to the occupants of surh
dwelling or'the traveling public, he shall be deemed guilty of a mis-
demeanor. (1885, p. 110, sec. 2.)
Sec. 2130. Penalty for riolating pi^eceding provisions and jurL^iJi* -
tion to enforce. — Any person violating the provisions of this act shall,
upon conviction, be fined not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars.
or be imprisoned not less than five days nor more than twenty -five
days, or by both fine and imprisonment. Justices of the peace shall
have jurisdiction of offences conunitted against the provisions of thi>
act.
GOiiDELL.] GENERAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS SOUTH DAKOTA. 63
Sec. 2131. Polluting water used for dofnestie pni'poHeH^ or to which
lire stock hare access^ unlawfuL — If any person or persons shall put
any dead animars carcass, or part thereof, or any excitement, putrid,
nauseous, decaying, deletwious, or offensive substance in any well, or
into any spring, brook, or branch of running water, of which use is
made for domestic purposes, or to which any cattle, horses, or other
kind of stock have access, every pei-son so offending shall, on convic-
tion thereof, be fined in any sum not less than three nor more than
fifty dollars.
Sec. 2133. Animcd carcasH^ vnlawful to put in rirer or ehewhere to
injury of health. — If any person or persons shall put any part of the
carcass of any dead animal into any river, creek, pond, road, street,
alley, lane, lot, field, meadow, or common, or if the owner or owners
thereof shall knowingly permit the same to remain in any of the
aforesaid places to the injury of the health or to the annoyance of the
citizens of this State, or any of them, every j)erson so offending shall,
on conviction thereof, l)e fined in a simi not less than two nor more
than twenty-five dollars, and every twenty-four hours during which
said owner may permit the same to remain thereafter shall be deemed
an additional offence against the provisions of this act.
SOUTH DAKOTA.
[Revised Codes of 1903, Penal Code, p. 1146.]
Sec. 445. Every person who throws or deposits any gas tar, or
refuse of any gas house or factory into any public watei*s, river, or
stream, or into any sewer or stream emptying into such public waters,
river, or stream, is guilty of a misdemeanor.
Sec. 446. It shall be unlawful for any person, persons, company, or
corporation to place or cause to be placed any manure, butcher's offal,
carcasses of animals, or other deleterious substances into any river,
hiream, or lake, in the State of South Dakota, or upon the banks
thereof in such proximity that such substances may be washed into
said water or water courses.
Sec. 447. Any violation of the provisions of this chapter is a mis-
demeanor, and the person, persons, company, or corporation so vio-
lating are deemed guilty thereof, and upon conviction shall be liable
to a fine not less than ten dollars nor more than one hundred dollars,
and in addition thereto such offending person or persons shall be
subjected to imprisonment in the county jail for the period of thirty
days unleas he or they cause such deleterious substances to l)e removed.
Sec. 448. This act shall not be construed as to interfere with or
prevent any necessary or legitimate mining operation or sewerage
system.
62 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
sive substance (other than fresh or salt water) injurious to health
shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, which shall be punishable by a
fine of not less than five or more than five hundred dollars. Tt shall
be the duty of the board of public service or board of trustees of pub-
lic affairs of any municipal corporation to enforce the provisions of
this section."
Sec. 2. Original section 2433 is hereby repealed.
OREGON.
[Bellinger and Col ton's Annotated Codes and Statutes of Oregon, vol. 1, p. 7.35.1
OF CRIMES AGAINST THE PUBLIC HEALTH.
Sec. 2128. Polluting with sewage^ cf?r., water fo?' clomesitir nsc vn-
lawful. — Any person who shall put any sewage, drainage, or refuse*,
or polluting matter, as either by itself or in connection with other
matter will corrupt or impair the quality of any w^ell, spring, brook,
creek, branch, or pond of water which is used or may be used for do-
mestic purposes, shall be deemed guilty of misdemeanor. (Laws
1885, p. 110, sec. 1.) .
Sec. 2129. Animal carcass^ d*c.^ vnlawfvl to place in icater for do-
mestic use or near dwelling. — If any person shall put any dead ani-
mal carcass, or part thereof, excrement, putrid, nauseous, noisome,
decay^ing, deleterious, or offensive substance into, or in any other
manner not herein named befouls, pollutes, or impairs the quality of
any spring, brook, creek, branch, well, or pond of water, which is or
may be used for domestic purposes, or shall put any such dead ani-
mal carcass, or part thereof, excrement, putrid, nauseous, noisonie.
decaj'ing, deleterious, or offensive substance within one-half mile of
any dwelling house or public highway, and leave the same without
proper burial, or, being in the possession or control of any land, shall
knowingly permit or suffer any such dead animal carcass, or part
thereof, excrement, putrid, nauseous, noisome, decaying, deleterious,
or offensive substance to remain without proper burial upon such
premises, within one-half mile of any dwelling house or public high-
way, w^hereby the same becomes offensive to the occupants of such
dwelling or^the traveling public, he shall be deemed guilty of a mis-
demeanor. (1885, p. 110, sec. 2.)
Sec. 2130. Penalty for violating preceding provisions and jari-sdi* -
tion to enforce, — Any person violating the provisions of this act shall,
upon conviction, l)e fined not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars,
or be imprisoned not less than five days nor more than twenty-five
days, or by both fine and imprisonment. Justices of the peace shall
have jurisdiction of offences committed against the provisions of thi>
act.
WNJDELL.] GENERAL. STATUTE RESTRICTIONS SOUTH DAKOTA. 63
Sec. 2131. Polluting water used for domestic purposes^ or to which
lire stock hare access^ unlawful, — If any person or jx^rsons shall put
any dead animars carcass, or part thereof, or any excrement, putrid,
nauseous, decaying, deleterious, or offensive substance in any well, or
into any spring, brook, or branch of running water, of which use is
made for domestic purposes, or to which any cattle, horses, or other
kind of stock have access, every perscm so offending shall, on convic-
tion thereof, be fined in any sum not less than three nor more than
fifty dollars.
Sec. 213»3. Animal carcass^ uidawful to put in rirer or elsewhere to
injury of health. — If any person or j^rsons shall put any part of the
carcass of any dead animal into any river, crwk, pond, road, street,
alley,, lane, lot, field, meadow, or common, or if the owner or owners
thereof shall knowingly permit tlie same to remain in any of the
aforesaid places to the injury of the health or to the annoyance of the
citizens of this State, or any of them, every person so offending shall,
on conviction thereof, be fined in a sum not less than two nor more
than twenty-five dollars, and every twenty-four hours during which
said owner may permit the same to remain thereafter shall be deemed
an additional offence against the provisions of this act.
SOUTH DAKOTA.
[Revised Codes of 1903, Penal Code, p. 114G.]
Sec. 445. Every person who throws or deposits any gas tar, or
refuse of any gas house or factory into any public waters, river, or
stream, or into any sewer or stream emptying into such public waters,
river, or stream, is guilty of a misdemeanor.
Sec. 446. It shall be unlawful for any person, persons, company, or
corporation to place or cause to be placed any manure, butcher's offal,
carcas.ses of animals, or other deleterious substances into any river,
stream, or lake, in the State of South Dakota, or upon the banks
thereof in such proximity that such substances may Ixi washed into
said water or w^ater courses.
Sec. 447. Any violation of the provisions of this chapter is a mis-
demeanor, and the person, persons, company, or corporation so vio-
lating are deemed guilty thereof, and upon conviction shall be liable
to a fine not less than ten dollars nor more than one hundred dollars,
and in addition thereto such offending person or persons shall be
subjected to imprisonment in the county jail for the period of thirty
days unless he or they cause such deleterious substances to be removed.
Sec. 448. This act shall not be construed as to interfere with or
prevent any necessary or legitimate mining operation or sewerage
system.
64 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
TENNESSEE.
[Code of Tennessee, 1896.1
Sec. 6869. It is a public nuisance — * ■ * *
3. To corrupt or render unwholesome or impure the water of any
river, stream, or pond to the injury or prejudice of othei-s.
Sec. 6520. If any person place or throw the dead body of any ani-
mal in any spring, well, cistern, or running stream of water he i>
guilty of a misdemeanor.
[1903. chap. 310, p. 905.]
Section 1 makes it a misdemeanor for ^' any person to in any 'way
wilfully * ♦ * disturb, pollute, contaminate, or injure the water
in the tanks, standpipes, or reservoirs "of any such waterworks by
bathing therein or by any other act or acts tending to injure the
water or to make it unpalatable, unwholesome, or unfit for domestic
or manufacturing purposes of any plant supplying water for domes-
tic or manufacturing purposes, however owned.''
Sec. 2. That it shall be a misdemeanor for any person to wilfully
corrupt or to permit anything to run or fall into any stream from
which water shall be taken for the purpose of supplying water to any
water plant such as is referred to in section 1 of this act, and any
person violating this section shall be punished as provided in section
1 hereof.
Act takes effect April 7, 1903, on its passage.
TEXAS.
[White's Annotated Penal Code of Texas, p. 256.]
OFFENCES AFFECTING PUBUC HEALTH.
Art. 424. If any person shall in any wise pollute of <» [or?] obstruct
any water course, lake, pond, marsh, or conmion sewer, or continue
such obstruction or pollution so as to render the same unwholesome
or offensive to the inhabitants of the county, city, town, or neighbor-
hood thereabout, he shall be fined in a sum not exceeding five hun-
dred dollars.
OFFENCES AGAINST THE PERSON.
Art. 647. If any person shall mingle or cause to bo mingled any
other noxious potion or substance witli any drink, f<K)d, or medicine,
with intent to kill or injure any other person, or shall wilfiilly pK>ison
or cause to be poisoned any spring, well, cistern, or reservoir of water
with such intent, he shall be punished by imprisonment in the peni-
tentiary not less than two nor more than ten years.
' So In original.
GooDBLUl GENERAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — VIRGINIA. (55
UTAH.
[Revised Statutes, p. 910, Penal Code: Public Health and Safety.]
Sec. 4274. Befovling itaters, — Any person who shall either:
1. Construct or maintain any corral, sheep pi»n, stable, pigpen,
chicken coop, or other offensive yard or outhouse, where the waste or
drainage therefrom shall flow directly into the waters of any stream,
well, or spring of water used for domestic purposes ; or
2. Deposit, pile, unload, or leave any manure heap, offensive rub-
bish, or the carcass of any dead animal where the w^aste or drainage
therefrom will flow directly into the waters of any stream, well, or
.spring of water used for domestic purposes; or
3. Dip or wash sheep in any stream, or construct, maintain, or use
any pool or dipping vat for dipping or washing sheep in such close
proximity to any stream used by the inhabitants of any city, town, or
village for domestic pusposes as to make the waters thereof impure
or unwholesome; or
4. Construct or maintain any corral, yard, or vat to be used for the
purpose of shearing or dipping sheep within twelve miles of any city,
town, or village, where the refuse or filth from said corral or yard
would naturally find its way into any stream of water used by the
inhabitants of any city, village, or town for domestic purposes; or
0. Establish and maintain any corral, camp, or bedding place for
the purpose of herding, holding, or keeping any cattle, horses, sheep,
or hogs within seven miles of any city, town, or village, where the
refuse or filth from said corral, camp, or bedding place will naturally
find its way into any stream of water used by the inhabitants of
any city, town, or village for domestic purposes, shall be guilty of
a misdemeanor.
[Laws of 1800, chap. 45, p. 60.1
Sec. 2. No house refuse, offal, garbage, dead animals, decaying
vegetable matter, or organic waste substance of any kind shall be
thrown on or allowed to remain upon any street, road, ditch, gutter,
public place, private premises, vacant lot, water course, lake, pond,
s])ring, or well.
VIRGINIA.
ri'ollard's General I^ws, 1887-1805, chap. 72, p. 44 (Acts 1887-88, p. 83). 1
AX ACTT to prevent the iX)IlutioQ of drinking water in this State. (Approved
February 3, 1888.)
1. Be It enacted hy the general assembly of Virginia^ That any per-
son or persons who shall knowingly and wilfully throw^ or cause to
be thrown into any reservoir or other receptacle of drinking water,
IBB 152—05 M 5
66 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. (No. l-'.^
or spring, or stream of running water ordinarily used for the supply
of drinking water or domestic purposes of any person or family.
town, or city in this Commonwealth the dead body of any aiiimaK or
shall drown and leave, or cause to be drowned and left any animal
therein shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof
shall be fined not exceeding one hundred dollars or imprisoned not
exceeding six months, or both, at the discretion of the court in which
such conviction is made.
[Idem, p. 115 (Acts 1801-92, p. 750 ).l
AN ACT to prevent the pollutiun of i)otabIe water used for the supply of cities
and towns. (Approved February 2t), 1802.)
1. Be it enacted hy the general assembly of Virginia^ That it shall
be unlawful, except as hereinafter provided, for any person to defile
or render impure, turbid, or offensive the water used for the supply
of any city or town of this State, or the sources or streams used for
furnishing such supply, or to endanger the purity thereof by the fol-
lowing means, or any of them, to wit, by washing or bathing thert*in,
or by casting into any spring, well, pond, lake, or reservoir from whi:*h
such supply is drawn, or into any stream so used, or the tributary
thereof above the point where such supply is taken out of such stream
or is impounded for the purposes of such supply, or into any canal,
aqueduct, or other channel or receptacle for water connected with
any works for furnishing a public water supply, any offal, dead fi>h,
or carcass of any animal, or any human or animal filth or other foul
or waste animal matter, or any waste vegetable or mineral substance,
or the refuse of any mine, manufactory, or manufacturing process,
or by discharging or permitting to flow into any such source, sprinir,
well, reservoir, pond, stream, or the tributary thereof, canal, aque-
duct, or other recept^acle for water, the contents of any sewer, privy,
stable, or barnyard, or the impure drainage of any mine, any crude
or refined petroleum, chemicals, or any foul, noxious, or offensive
drainage whatsoever, or by constructing or maintaining any privy
vault or ce.sspool, or by storing manure or other soluble fertilizer of
an offensive character, or by disposing of the carcass of any animal,
or any foul, noxious, or putrescible substance, whether solid or flui<l
and whether the same be buried or not, within two hundred ftnH of
any water course, canal, pond, or lake afore.said, which is liable ft*
contamination by the washing thereof or percolation therefrom : I*n*-
inded^ That nothing in this act contained shall Ik». const rue<l to
authorize the pollution of any of the watei"s of this State in any man-
ner now contrary to law: .1//^ prorided further^ That this act shall
not apply to streams the drainage area of which, al)ove the |K)int
where the water thereof is withdrawn for the supply of any city or
«j<N»DKLL.] GENERAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — WASHINGTON. 67
town, or is impounded for the purposes of such supply, shall exceed
fifty square miles.
2. That any i)ei-son knowingly or wilfully violating the terms of
this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be pun-
ished for each offence by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars or
by imprisonment not exceeding thirty days, or by both, at the discre-
tion of the court: Aful pro folded further^ That nothing herein con-
tained shall l)e so construed as to prevent the washing of ore or min-
erals in any of the sti'eams or waters of this Commonwealth other
than such-as may be used for the water supply of any city or town.
3. This act shall take effect fifteen days after its passage.
WASHINGTON.
[Balllnger's Annotated Codes and Statutes, Including acts of 1807.]
Nuisances. Sec. 3085. It is a public nuisance :
2. To throw or deposit any offal or other offensive matter, or the
carcass of any dead animal, in any water course, stream, lake, pond,
spring, well, or common sewer, street or public highway, or in any
manner to corrupt or I'ender unwholesome or impure the water of
any such spring, stream, pond, lake, or well, to the injury or preju-
dice of others.
Punishment provided in section 3097.
[Acts of 1899, Chap. LXX, p. 114: Proyiding for a pure water supply.]
AN AC?T to preserve from poUution the water supplied to the inhabitants of
cities and towns in the State of Washington ; to declare wliat are nuisances In
the vicinity ot the source of such water supply ; providing for the abatement
thereof, and for tlie punishment of the violations of this act.
Be it enacted hy the legidature of the State of Wofihington:
Section 1. That for the purpose of protecting the water furnished
to the inhabitants of towns and cities within this State from pollu-
tion, the said towns and cities are hereby given jurisdiction over all
property occupied by the works, rescu'voirs, systems, springs, branches,
and pijx?s by means of which, and of all sources of supply from
which, such cities or the companies or individuals furnishing water
to the inhabitants of such cities or towns obtain their supply of
water or store or conduct the same.
Sec. 2. That the establishment or maintenance of any slaughter
j)en, stock-feeding yards, hogpens, or the deposit or maintenance of
any uncleanly or unwholasome substance, or the conduct of any busi-
ness or occupation, or the allowing of any condition upon or suffi-
ciently near the sources from which the supply of water for the
68 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
inhabitants of any such city or town is obtained, or where such
water is stored, or the property or means through which the same
may be conducted or conveyed, so that such water would be polhited
or the purity of such water or any part thereof destroyed or endan-
gered, is hereby prohibited and declared to be unlawful, and i>
hereby declared to be and constitute a nuisance, and as such to be
abated as other nuisances are abated under the provisions of the
existing laws of the State of Washington, or under the laws which
may be hereafter enacted in relation to the abatement thereof; and
that any person or persons who shall do, establish, maintain, or
create any of the things hereby prohibited for the purpose of or
which shall have the effect of polluting any such sources of water
supply or water, or shall do any of the things hereby declared to \>o
unlawful, shall be deemed guilty of creating and maintaining a
nuisance, and may be prosecuted therefor, and upon conviction
thereof may be fined in any sum not exceeding five hundred dollar-.
Sec. 3. If upon the trial of any person or persons for the violation
of any of the provisions of this act such person or persons shall U»
found guilty of creating or maintaining a nuisance as hereby defined
or of violating any of the provisions of this act, it shall be the duty
of such person or persons to forthwith abate such nuisance, and in
the event of their failure so to do within one day after such convic-
tion, unless further time be granted by the court, a warrant shall \yo
issued by the court wherein such conviction was obtained directeil
to the sheriff of the county in which such nuisance exists, and the
sheriff shall forthwith proceed to abate the said nuisance, and tho
cost thereof shall be taxed against the party so convicted as a part of
the costs of such case.
Sec. 4. It is hereby made the duty of the city health officer, city
physician, board of public health, mayor of the city, or such other
officer as may have the sanitary condition of such city or town in
charge, to see that the provisions of this act are enforced, and, uiwn
complaint teing made to any such officer, to immediately investigate
the said complaint and see if the same shall api>ear to be well founded ;
and if the same shall appear to be well founded, it shall be, and is
hereby, declared to be the duty of such officer to proceed and file a
complaint against the person or persons violating any of the proA-i-
sions of this act and cause the arrest and prosecution of such person
or persons.
Sec. 5. That any city supplied with water from any source of sup-
ply as hereinbefore mentioned, or any corporation owning water-
works for the puri^ose of supplying any city or the inhabitants there<if
with water, in the event that any of the provisions of this act an^
being violated by any person, may, by civil action in the superior
cnoDKLL.] GENERAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — WEST VIRGINIA. 69
court of the proper county, have the maintenance of the nuisance
which pollutes or tends to pollute the said water, as provided for by
section 2 of this act, enjoined, and such injunction may be perpetual.
WEST VIRGINIA.
[Code of Wegt Virginia, 1891, p. 933.]
OFFE?7CE8 AGAINST PUBLIC HEALTH — MISDEMEANOR TO PUT DEAD ANIMALS, ETC.,
INTO WATER USED FOB DOMESTIC PURPOSES.
If any person or persons shall knowingly and willfully throw or
cause to be thrown into any well, cistern, spring, brook, or branch of
running Water which is used for domestic purposes, any dead animal,
carcass, or part thereof, or any putrid, nauseous, or offensive sub-
stance, he or they shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon con-
viction thereof shall be fined not less than five dollars nor more than
one hundred dollars, and may, at the discretion of the jury, be con-
fined in the jail of the county not exceeding ninety days, and shall
moreover be liable to the party injured in a civil action for damages.
(Acts 1872-73, ch. 176.)
PREVENT! NCf THE DEPOSIT OP THE CARCASSES OF DEAD ANIMALS AND OTHER NOXIOUS
MATTER IN CERTAIN WATERS OF THE STATE, ETC.
It shall be unlawful to put the carcass of any dead animal, or the
offal from any slaughterhouse, butcher's establishment, or packing
house, or slop or other refuse from any hotel or a tavern, or any
six)iled meats or spoiled fish, or any putrid animal substance, or the
contents of any privy vault, upon or into any river, creek, or other
h^tream within this State, or upon the surface of any road, street, alley,
city lot, public ground, market space, or common, or on the surface
within one hundred feet of any public road.
III. A justice of the peace shall have jurisdiction of any offence
against the provisions of this act, committed within his county. Any
such offence shall be punished by a fine of not less than five or more
than fifty dollars, and the proceedings in the case, as well as in all
other cases under this act, shall lx» in conformity with sections 221 to
•230, inclusive, or chapter 50 of the Code of West Virginia, which sec-
tions are hereby made applicable to such cases. Upon a conviction
for any such offence the accused nuist bury at least three feet under
the ground, or destroy by fire, any of the things named in the first
s^^ction which he has placed in any of the waters or places named in
such section, or which he has knowingly permitted to remain upon a
city lot, public gi'ound, market space, or common, contrary to the
provisions of the second section, within twenty-four hours after such
conviction, and if he shall fail to do so, the justice shall further fine
him not less than ten nor more than fifty dollars. (Acts 1887, ch. 25.)
70 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION. [Na 152.
WYOMING.
[Revised Statutes* 1899.]
CRIMES AGAINST THE PERSON.
Sec. 4966. Poisoning springs. — Whoever poisons any spring, well,
cistern, or reservoir of water with intent to injure or kill any human
being shall be imprisoned in the penitentiary not more than fourteen
years.
CRIMES AGAINST PUBLIC HEALTH AND SAFETY.
Sec. 5114. Putting offensive suhstanres in creek or highway declared
a nvisance. — If any person or persons, association of persons, com-
pany, or corporation shall deposit, place, or put, or cause to be depos-
ited, placed, or put upon or into any river, creek, bay, pond, canal,
ditch, lake, stream, railroad, public or private road, highway, street,
alley, lot, field, meadow, public place or public ground, common,
market place, or in any other and different locality in this State,
where the same may become a source of annoyance to any person or
detrimental to the public health, the carcass of any dead animal or
the offal or refuse matter from any slaughterhouse*, butcher's estab-
lishment, meat market, packing house, fish house, hogpen, stable, or
any spoiled meats, spoiled fish, or any animal or vegetable matter in
a putrid or decayed state, or liable to l)ecome putrid, decayed, or
offensive, or the contents of any privy vault, or any offensive matter
or substance whatever, or shall cause to lx» maintained any pri\'y,
slaughterhouse, meat market, or any other or different place, build-
ing, or establishment that shall directly or indirectly Iw the cause of
polluting the waters of any spring, reservoir, stream, lake, or water
supply used wholly or partly for domestic purposes, or if the owner
or owners, tenant or tenants, occupant or occupants of any lands or
tenements, dwellings, or places of business, or any other and different
places or localities, w^hether defined in this section or not, shall know-
ingly permit any of the said offensive matters or substances, or any
other and different offensive matter or substances, to remain in any
of the aforesaid j)laces or other and different places or localities, or
shall permit any of the aforesaid places to l)e maintained which shall
cause the jwllution of any stream, spring, reservoir, lake, or water
supply, either directly or indirectly, in any locality, place, or situa-
tion in this State, to the aiuioyance of the citizens or residents of this
State, or any of them, or to the detriment of the public health, or who
shall neglect or refuse to remove or abate the nuisance, offence, or
inconvenience occasioned or caused thereby within twenty-four hours
after knowledge of the existence of such nuisance, offence, or incon-
venience in or upon any of the above-described premises or placets.
GOI3DKLL.] GENERAL STATUTE RESTRICTIONS WYOMING. 71
or any other and different place or locality, owned or occupied by
him her, it, or they,* [them?] or after notice in writing from the
sheriff, deputy sheriff, or coroner of any county in this State, or the
constable of any precinct, or the marshal or any of the policemen of
any city, town, or village in which such nuisance shall exist, or from any
peace officer in this State of the locality wherein such nuisance shall
exist, every such person so offending shall be guilty of a misdemeanor,
and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than
ten dollars nor more than fifty dollars, and if such nuisance is not
abated within forty-eight hours after the same is created or exists to
the knowledge of such offender, or within forty-eight hours after
said written notice is given, such failure to abate such nuisance shall
be deemed a second offence against the provisions of this section,
and every like failure and neglect to abate such nuisance of each
twent3'-four hours thereafter shall be considered an additional offence,
and shall be subject to a like penalty as is herein provided.
Sec. 5115. Abatement of nuisance, — Provides that officer shall re-
move nuisance, on neglect of owners so to do, expenses collectible in
civil action.
Sec. 5116. Thronnng aawdnst into streams, — If any person or per-
sons who may own, run, or have charge of any sawmill in this State
shall throw or permit the sawdust therefrom to be thrown or placed
in any manner into any river, stream, creek, bay, pond, lake, canal,
ditch, or other water course in this State, such person or persons shall
be liable to a like penalty as is provided in section 5114.
riiAWB of WyomlriK, 1005, chap. 31, p. 25.]
FISH — POLLUTING WATEBS.
AX ACT To repeal section 1 of chapter 22 of the session laws of Wyoming of
the year A. 1). 1903, heing an act entitled "An act to amend and reenact sec-
tion 2146, revised statutes of Wyoming, IHIH). relating to the unlawful taking
or having in possession of certain kinds of fish," and to amend and reenact
section 2148, revised statutes of Wyoming, 181)9, relating to the unlawful
placing of deleterious substances, poisons, or explosives in the waters of the
State.
Sec. 1. That section 1, chapter 22, of the session laws of Wyoming,
1003, l)eing "An act to amend and reenact section 2146 of the revised
statutes of Wyoming, 1899, relating to the unlawful taking or having
in possession of certain kinds of fish," be and the same is hereby
rej>eAled.
Sec. 2. That section 2148 of the revised statutes of Wyoming, 1899,
be amended and reenacted so as to read as follows:
" Sec. 2148. Any owner or owners of any sawmill, reduction works,
smelter, refining or contraction works, or any of the employees
» So in original.
72 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
thereof, who shall throw, deposit, or in any way permit to pass iiito
any natural stream or lake wherein are living fish, any sawdust,
chemicals, or other matter or substance that will tend to drive away
from such waters any fish shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor
and shall be fined not less than twenty-five dollars nor more than one
hundred dollars, or shall be imprisoned in the county jail not le^s
than thirty days nor more than sixty days. Any person who shall
kill in any of the waters of this State, by use of any poison or iiele-
terious drug, or by the use of any explosive substance, or explode or
cause to be exploded any powder, giant powder, hercules powder,
dynamite, nitroglycerine, lime gas, or any other explosive substance
for the purpose of catching, killing, or destroying food fish in such
waters shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction
thereof shall be fined not less than fifty dollars nor more than two
hundred dollars, and shall be imprisoned in the county jail not less
than ninety days nor more than one year: Provided further^ That
nothing in this title contained shall prevent the owner or owners of
any quartz mill or reduction works in this State, now located or to
be hereafter located upon any natural stream or lake, from operating
or working said quartz mill or reduction works, where the said owner
or owners thereof shall build or cause to be built a suitable dam^ to
be used in connection with said quartz mill or reduction works, and
which dam shall be so constructed as to prevent any tailings or sub-
f)tance from passing into the stream or lake which will destroy or
drive away the fish or any number of them from said stream, lake,
or water."
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its
passage.
Approved February 15, A. D. 1905.
[Chapter 83, House bill No. 87.]
FIBH.
AN ACT to repeal section 1 of chapter 22 of the session laws of Wyoming of
the year A. D. 1903, being an act eutitleil "An act to amend and reenact sec-
tion 2146, revised statutes of Wyoming, 1899, relating to the unlawful taking
or having in possession of certain Ivinds of fish," and to amend and reenact
section 2148, revised statutes of Wyoming, 1899, relating to the unlawful
placing of deleterious substances, i)ois<)ns, or explosives in the waters of the
State.
Sec. 1. Repeat of sec. 7, chap, 22, lavs 1903, — That section 1, chap-
ter 22, of the session laws of Wyoming, 1903, being ''An act to amend
and reenact section 214() of the revised statutes of Wyoming, 1809,
relating to tlie unlawful taking or having in possession of certain
kinds of fish" be, and the same is hereby, repealed.
eooDELL.] SEVEBE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS. 78
Sec. 2. Use of explosives and poison. — That section 2148 of the
revissed statutes of Wyoming, 1899, be amended and reenacted so as
to read as follows :
" Sec. 2148. Any owner or owners of any sawmill, or any of the em-
ployees thereof, who shall throw, deposit, or in any way permit to
pass into any natural sti-eam or lake wherein are living fish any
saw^dust or other matter or substance that will tend to drive away
from such waters any fish, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor,
and shall be fined not less than twenty-five dollars nor more than one
hundred dollars, or shall be imprisoned in the county jail not less
than thirty days nor more than sixty days. Any pei-son who shall
kill in any of the waters of this State, by use of any poison or dele-
terious drug, or by use of any explosive substances, or explode or
cause to be exploded any powder, giant powder, hercules powder,
dynamite, nitroglycerine, lime gas, or any other explosive substance
for the purpose of catching, killing, or destroying the food fish in
such waters, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon con-
viction thereof shall be fined not less than fifty dollars nor more
than two hundred dollars, and shall be imprisoned in the county jail
not less than ninety days nor more than one year."
Sec 3. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its
passage.
Approved February 21, A. D. 1905.
CLASS III. STATES WITH SEVERE RESTRICTIONS.
This group consists of those States which have adopted unusual
and stringent methods to enforce the right of their citizens to unpol-
luted natural waters. The adoption of the legislation embodied in
the following pages under this group indicates that the inhabitants
of the States in which these laws have l>een adopted have begun to
realize the immense harm which the increased pollution of waters,
owing to increase of population, is doing to ixjrsons and property
within their borders. It is noticeable that in several of the States
stringent methods are adopted by which pollution by cities can be
regulated and controlled; while in at least one State (New Jersey) a
system has l)een instituted which, carried to its logical conclusion,
will result in conveying all sewage matter from cities and large towns
so far beyond the borders of the land as to i*ender it wholly inoffen-
sive or in some other way preventing its getting into any inland
waters in an offensive form.
74 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
CONNECTICUT.
[deneral Statutes, revision of 1902, sec. 1328, as amended by chap. 28, of the laws of
1905.1
Every person who shall wantonly and indecently expose his person,
or who shall bathe in any reservoir from which the inhabitants of
any town, city or borough are supplied with water, or in any lake,
pond or stream tributary to such reservoir, or who shall cast any
filthy or impure substance into said reservoir, or any of its tribu-
taries, or commit any nuisance in or about it or them, shall be fined
not more than one hundred dollars, or imprisoned not more than six
months, or both.
[General Stetutes, revision of 1902, p. 668.1
Sec. 2593. Pollutian of water from which ice is taken, — Every p>er-
son who shall put any substance into waters from which ice is pro-
cured for consumption which shall defile, pollute, or injure the
quality of said ice, or who shall throw anything into such waters or
upon the ice with intent to injure the quality of the ice or obstruct
the cutting or gathering of the same, shall l)e fined not more than
thirty dollars or imprisoned not more than thirty days. This section
shall not affect the rights of any manufacturing establishment now
existing or hereafter established to use any waters in carrying on it.^
business.
Sec. 2594. Pollution of waters, — Every person who shall put or
leave a dead animal or carcass in a pond, spring, or reservoir, the
water of which is conveyed to any building, or who shall wilfully put
and leave in any of the waters of this State a dead animal, shall Ik»
fined not more than fifty dollai-s or imprisoned not more than thirty
days.
Sec. 2595. Penalty for polluting drinking water. — Every person
who shall put anything into a well, spring, fountain, or cistern, or
other place from which water is procured for drinking or other
purposes, with the intent to injure the quality of said water, shall
l)e fined not more than five hundred dollars or imprisoned not moro
than six months.
Sec. 2590. Analysis of witter, — Town, borough, and city health
officers shall, when in their judgment health is menaced or impaired
through a water supply, send, subject to the approval of the county
health officer, samples of such water to the State l)oard of health for
examination and analysis, and the expense of such examination and
analysis shall Ik? paid out of the funds appropriated to said board to
investigate the pollution of streams.
Sec. 2598. Location of cemetei^ies, — No cemetery or place of sepul-
ture shall hereafter be located or established within one-half mile of
GOODRLL.1 SEVEKE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — CONNECTICUT. 75
any reservoir from which the inhabitants of a town, city, or borough
are supplied with water ; nor shall such reservoir be located or estab-
lished within one-half mile of a cemetery or place of sepulture unless
the superior court of the county wherein such cemetery or place of
sepulture or reservoir is located shall, upon application or notice find
that such cemetery or place of sepulture or such reservoir so proposed
to be located is of public convenience and necessity and will not be
detrimental to the public health.
Sec. 2602. Pollution of reservoirs — Penalty, — No person, after
notice shall have been posted that any reservoir, or any lake, pond, or
stream tributary thereto, is used for supplying the inhabitants of a
town, city, or borough with water, shall wash any animal, clothing,
or other article therein. No person shall throw any noxious or harm-
ful substance into such reservoir, lake, pond, or stream, nor shall any
person, after receipt of written notice from any county or town
health officer having jurisdiction that the same is detrimental to such
water supply, suiler any such substance to be placed upon land
ow-ned, occupied, or controlled by him, so that the same may be
carried by rains or freshets into the water of such reservoir, lake,
pond, stream, or drain, or allow to be drained any sewage from said
land into such water. Every person who shall violate any provision
of this section shall be fined not more than one hundred dollars or
imprisoned not more than thirty days, or both.
Sec. 2603. Appointment of special police. — The governor may, upon
the application of such town, borough, city, or company, commission
during his pleasure one or more persons who, having been sworn,
may act as policemen for the purpose of preventing and abating
nuisancas and protecting such water supply from contamination.
Such policemen shall arrest without previous complaint and warrant
any person for any offense under the provisions of any law for the
protection of wat^^'r supplies when the offender shall be taken or
apprehended in the act or on the speedy information of others, and
all persons so arrested shall be immediately presented before proper
authority. Every such policeman shall, when on duty, wear in plain
view a shield bearing the words " Special police " and the name of
the town, city, borough, or company for which he is commissioned.
[Acts of 1003, chap. 192, p. 148.1
AN ACT coiicerniug iujuuctions.
Be it enacted hy the senate and house of representatives in general
assembly convened.
Section 1. Section 2599 of the General Statutes is hereby amended
to read as follows: \\Tienever any land or building is so used, occu-
pied or suffered to remain, that it is a source of injury to the water
76 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
stored in a reservoir used for supplying a town, city, or borough with
water, or to any source of supply to such reservoir, or when such
water is liable to pollution in consequence of the use of the same,
either the authorities of such town, city, or borough, or the company
having charge of said water, may apply to the superior court, or any
judge thereof in vacation, in the county in which said town, citA,
borough, or company is located, for relief; and said court or judge
may order the removal of any building, enjoin any use or occupation
of any land or building or of said water which is detrimental to said
water, or make any other order, temporary or permanent, which in
its or his judgment may be necessary to preserve the purity of said
water. Said town, city, borough, or company may, by its officers or
agents, duly appointed for such purpose, at all reasonable times enter
upon and inspect any premises within the watershed tributary to such
water supply, and in ca.se any nuisance shall be found thereon which
pollutes or is likely to pollute such water, may abate such nuisance
at its own expense aft^r reasonable notice to the owner or occupant
of said premises and upon his neglect or refusal to abate the same:
but such town, city, borough, or company shall be liable for all unnec-
essary or unreasonable damage done to said premises.
Sec. 2. Section 2600 of the General Statutes is hereby amended to
read as follows: Any city, town, borough, or corporation authorized
by law to supply the inhabitants of any city, town, or borough with
pure wjvter for public or domestic use may take and use such lands,
springs, streams, or ponds, or such rights or interests therein as the
superior court or any judge thereof in vacation may, on application,
deem necessary for the purposes of such supply. For the purpose of
preserving the purity of such water and preventing any contamina-
tion thereof, such city, town, borough, or corporation may take such
lands or rights as the superior court or any judge thereof in vacation
may, on application, deem necessary therefor. Compensation shall
be made to all persons entitled thereto in the manner provided by
section 2601.
Sec. 3. Section 2601 of the General Statutes is hereby amended to
read as follows : In all cases where the law requires compensation to
\^ made to any person whose rights, interests, or property are injuri-
ously affected by said orders, such court or judge shall appoint a
committee of three disinterested freeholders of the county who shall
determine and award the amount to be paid by such authorities before
such order is carried into effect-
Approved June 18, 1903.
GOODELL.1 SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS MASSACHUSETTS. 77
MA88ACHI SETTS.
[Reviaed laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, enacted November 21, 1901, taking
effect January 1, 1902, chap. 75, p. 677.1
OF THE PRESEBVATION OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH.
Sec. 112. Supervision of inlund waters.— The^ State board of health
shall have the general oversight and care of all inland waters and of
all streams and ponds used by any city, town, or public institution,
or by an}^ water or ice company, in this Commonwealth as sources of
water supply, and of all springs, streams, and water courses tribu-
tary thereto. It shall be provided with maps, plans, and documents
suitable for such purposes and shall keep records of all its transac-
tions relative thereto.
Sec. 113. Examination of water suppli/. — Said lx)ard may cause
examinations of such waters to lx> made to ascertain their purity and
fitness for domestic use or their liability to impair the interests of the
public or of persons lawfully using them or to impair the public
health. It may make rules and regulations to prevent the pollution
and to secure the sanitary protection of all such waters as are used
as sources of water supply.
Sec. 114. Effect of publication of notice. — The publication of an
order, rule, or regulation made by the board under the provisions of
the preceding section, or section one hundred and eighteen, in a news-
paper of the city or town in which such order, rule, or regulation is
to take effect, or, if no newspaper is published in such city or town,
the posting of a copy of such order, rule, or regulation in a public
place in such city or town, shall be legal notice to all persons, and an
affidavit of such publication or posting by the person causing such
notice to be published or posted, filed and recorded with a copy of the
notice in the office of the clerk of such city or town, shall be admitted
as evidence of the time at which, and the place and manner in which,
the notice was given.
Sec. 115. Report and recommendations, — Said board shall annu-
ally, on or before the tenth day of January, make a report to the gen-
eral court of its doings for the preceding year, recommend measures
for the prevention of the pollution of such waters and for the removal
of polluting substances in order to protect and develop the rights and
property of the Commonwealth therein and to protect the public
health, and recommend any legislation or plans for systems of main
r-ewers necessary for the preservation of the public health and for the
purification and prevention of pollution of the ponds, streams, and
inland waters of the Commonwealth. It shall also give notice to the
attorney-general of any violation of law relative to the pollution of
water supplies and inland waters.
78 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152,
Sec. 116. Agents and assistants. — Said board may appoint, employ,
and fix the compensation of such agents, clerks, servants, engineers,
and expert assistants as it considers necessary. Such agents and
servants shall cause the provisions of law relative to the pollution of
water supply and of the rules and regulations of said board to l^e
enforced.
Sec. 117. Adrice as to methods. — Said board shall consult with and
advise the authorities of cities and towns and persons having, or about
to have, systems of water supply, drainage, or sewerage as to the most
appropriate source of water supply, and the best method of assuring
its purity or as to the best method of disposing of their drainage or
sewage with reference to the existing and future needs of other cities,
towns, or persons which may be affected thereby. It shall also con-
sult with and advise persons engaged or intending to engage in any
manufacturing or other business whose drainage or sewage may tend
to pollute any inland water as to the best method of preventing such
pollution, and it may conduct experiments to determine the best
methods of the purification or disposal of drainage or sewage. Xo
person shall be required to bear the expense of ^uch consultation,
advice, or experiments. Cities, towns, and persons shall submit to
said board, for its advice, their proposed system of water supply or of
the disposal of drainage or sewage, and all petitions to the general
court for authority to introduce a system of water supply, drainage,
or sewerage shall be accompanied by a copy of the recommendation
and advice of said board thereon. In this section the term *' drain-
age " means rainfall, surface, and subsoil water only, and '' sewage ''
means dome.stic and manufacturing filth and refuse.
Sec. 118. Removal of causes of pollntion, — Upon petition to said
board by the nuiyor of a city or the selectmen of a town, the manag-
ing board or officer of any public institution, or by a board of water
commissioners, or the president of a water or ice company, stating
that manure, excrement, garbage, sewage, or any other matter pol-
lutes or tends to pollute the waters of any stream, pond, spring, or
water course used by such city, town, institution, or company as a
source of water supply, the board shall appoint a time and place
within the county where the nuisance or pollution is alleged to exist
for a hearing, and after notice thereof to parties interested and a
liearing, if in its judgment the public health so requires, shall, by an
order served upon the party causing or permitting such pollution,
prohibit the deposit, keeping, or discharge of any such cause of ik)1-
lution, and shall order him to desist therefrom and to remove any
such cause of pollution; but the board shall not prohibit the cultiva-
tion and use of the soil in the ordinary methods of agriculture if no
human excrement is used thereon. Said board shall not prohibit the
G4x>i»ELL.l SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — MASSACHUSETTS. 79
use of any structui-e which was in existence on the eleventh day of
June, in the year eighteen hundred and ninetj-^-seven, upon a com-
plaint made by the board of water commissioners of any city or town
or by any water or ice company, unle^ss such board of water commis-
sioners or company files with the State board a vote of its city council,
s=electmen, or company, respectively, that such city, town, or company
will, at its own exi>ense, make such changes in said structure or its
location as said board shall deem expedient. Such vote shall be bind-
ing on such city, town, or company. All damages caused by such
changes shall be paid by such city, town, or company ; and if the par-
ties can not agree thereon, the damages shall, on petition of either
party, filed within one year after such changes are made, be assessed
by a jury in the superior court for the county w^here the structure is
located.
Sec. 119. Appeal from order. — Whoever is aggrieved by an order
passed under the provisions of the preceding section may appeal
therefrom in the manner provided in sections 95 and 97, but such
notice as the court shall order shall also be given to the board of
water conunissioners and mayor of the city or chairmen of the select-
men of the town or president or other officer of the w^ater or ice com-
pany interested in such order. WTiile the appeal is pending the order
of the board shall be complied with, imless otherwise authorized by
the board.
Sec. 120. Enforcement of law. — ^The supreme judicial court or the
superior court shall have jurisdiction in equity, upon the application
of the State l)oard of health or of any party interested, to enforce its
orders or the orders, rules, and regulations of said board of health,
and to restrain the use or occupation of the premises or such portion
thereof as said board may specify, on which said material is deposited
or kept, or such other cause of pollution exists, until the orders, rules,
and regulations of said board have been complied with.
Sec. 121. Entry on premise.^. — The agents and servants of said
board may enter any building, structure, or premises for the purpose
of asceilaining w^hether sources of pollution or danger to the w^ater
supply there exist, and whether the rules, regulations, and orders
aforesaid are obeyed. Their compensation for services rendered in
connection with proceedings under the provisions of section 118 shall
be fixed by the board and shall in the fii*st instanc^e be paid by the
Commonwealth; but the whole amount so paid shall, at the end of
each year, l>e justly and equitably apportioned by the tax commis-
sioner between such cities, to\vns, or companies as, during said year,
have instituted said proceedings, and may l)e recovered in an action
by the treasurer and receiver-general, with interest from date of the
demand.
80 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. ir.i>.
Sec. 122. Penalties, — Whoever violates any rule, regulation, or
order made under the provisions of section 113 or section 118 shall he
punished for each offence by a fine of not more than five hundred
dollars, to the use of the Commonwealth, or by imprisonment for not
more than one year, or by both such fine and imprisonment.
Sec. 123. Application of preceding sections, — The provisions of the
eleven preceding sections shall not apply to the Merrimac or Con-
necticut rivers, nor to so nmch of the Concord River as lies withiii
the limits of the city of Ijowell, nor to springs, streams, ponds, cir
water courses over which the metropolitan water board has control.
Sec. 124. Sources of water supply — a« to, — The provisions of the
refuse, or poHuting matter of such kind and amount as either by
itself or in connection with other matter will corrupt or impair tlie
quality of the water of any pond or stream used as a source of ice or
water supply by a city, town, public institution, or water company
for domestic use, or render it injurious to health, and no human
excrement shall be discharged into any such stream or pond, or upon
their banks if any filter basin so used is there situated, or into any
feeders of such pond or stream within twenty miles above the point
where such supply is taken.
Sec. 125. Prescriptire rights unaffected — application limited. — ^The
provisions of the preceding section shall not destroy or impair rights
acquired by legislative grant prior to the first day of July in the
year 1878, or destroy or impair prescriptive rights of drainage or
discharge, to the extent to which they lawfully exis-ted on that date;
nor shall it l>e applicable to the Merrimac or Connecticut rivers, or to
so much of the Concord River as lies within the limits of the city of
Lowell.
Sec. 126. Injunction against pollution of icater supply. — ^The
supreme judicial court or the superior court, upon application of the
mayor of a city, the selectmen of a town, managing board or officer of
a public institution, or a water or ice company interested, shall have
jurisdiction in equity to enjoin the violation of the provisions of
sec. 124.
Sec. 127. Penalty for corrupting spring^ etc, — Whoever willfully
and maliciously defiles or corrupts any spring or other source of
water, or reservoir, or destroys or injures any pipe, conductor of
water, or other property pertaining to an aqueduct, or aids or alx^ts
in any such trespass, shall be punished by a* fine of not more than
one thousand dollars or by imprisonment for not more than one 3^ear.
Sec. 128. Penalty for corrupting sources of water supply. — AVho-
ovov willfully deposits excrement or foul or decaying matter in water
which is used for the purpose of domestic water supply, or upon the
shore thereof within five rods of the water, shall be punished by a
GOODELL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS MINNESOTA. 81
fine of not more than fifty dollars or by imprisonment for not more
than thirty days ; and a police officer or constable of a city or town in
which such water is wholly or partly situated, acting within the limits
of his city or town, and any executive officer or agent of a water
board, lx)ard of water commissioners, public institution, or water
company furnishing water or ice for domestic purposes, acting upon
the premises of such board, institution, or company, and not more
than five rods from the water, may, without a warrant, arrest any
person found in the act of violating the provisions of this st»ction and
detain him until a complaint can be made against him therefor. But
the provisions of this section shall not interfere with4he sewage of a
city, town, or public institution, or prevent the enriching of land for
agricultural purposes by the owner or occupant thereof.
Sec. 129. Penalty for bathing in public pondn, — Whoever bathes in
a pond, stream, or reservoir the water of which is used for the pur-
ix)se of domestic water supply for a city or town, shall be punished
by a fine of not more than ten dollars.
Sec. 130. Penalty for driving on ice of pond used for vmter sup-
ply.— Whoever, not being engaged in cutting or harvesting ice, or in
hauling logs, wood, or lumber, drivers any animal on the ice of a pond
or stream which is used for the purpose of domestic water supply for a
city or town, shall be punished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars
or by imprisonment for not more than thirty days.
Note. — Sections 95 and 97, referred to in section 119, provide for
an appeal to the superior court of the county and a jury trial. The
verdict may alter, affirm, or annul the order, and shall be returned
to the court for acceptance, and, if accepted, shall have the authority
and eflFect of a valid order of the board.
MINNESOTA.
[General Statutes, p. 120.].
Sec. 430. Pollution of sources of water supply forbidden. — No sew-
age, drainage, or refuse, or polluting matter of such kind as, either
by itself or in connection with other matter, will corrupt or impair
the quality of the water of any spring, well, pond, lake, stream, or
river for domestic use, or render it injurious to health, and no human
or animal excrement shall be placed in or discharged into or placed
or deposited upon the ice of any pond, lake, stream, or river used as a
source of water supply by any town, village, or city; nor shall any
such sewage, drainage, refuse, or polluting matter or excrement be
placed upon the banks of any such pond, lake, stream, or river within
five miles above the point where such supply is taken, or into any
feeders or the banks thereof of any such pond, lake, stream, or river :
IBR 152—05 M <i
82 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. (No. 15-
Provided^ nothing in this section contained shall apply to Lake Supe-
rior. (1885. Chap. 225, sec. 1.)
Sec. 431. Supervision of sources of water supply — procedure if
cases of pollution, — The State board of health shall have the general
supervision of all springs, wells, ponds, lakes, streams, or rivers used
by any town, village, or city as a source of water supply, with refer-
ence to their purity, together with the waters feeding the same, and
shall examine the same from time to time, and inquire what, if any.
pollution exists and their causes. In case of a violation of any of the
provisions of section one of this act (sec. 430) said board may appoint
a time and place for hearing parties to be affected, and shall give due
notice thereof, as hereinafter provided, to such parties; and after
such hearing, if in its judgment the public health requires it, irmy
order any person or corporation, or municipal corporation, to desist
from the acts causing such pollution, and may direct any such person
or corporation to remedy the pollution, or to cleanse or purify the
polluting substances in such a manner and to such a degree as shall
be directed by said board, before being cast or allowed to flow into the
waters thereby polluted, or placed or deposited upon the ice or bank-
of any of the bodies of water in the first section of this act mentioned.
Upon the application of the proper officers of any town, village, or
city, or of not less than ten legal voters of any such town, village, or
city, to said State board, alleging the pollution of the water supply
of any such town, village, or city by the violation of any of the pro-
visions of this act, said State board shall investigate the alleged pol-
lution, and shall appoint a time and place when and where it will
hear and examine the matter, and shall give notice of such hearing
and examination to the complainant, and also to the pei-son or cor-
poration or municipal corporation alleged to have caused such pollu-
tion, and such notice shall be served not less than ten days prior to
the time so appointed, and shall be served in the same manner that
now is or hereafter may be by law provided for the service of a sum-
mons in a civil action in the district court. Said board, if in its
judgment any of the provisions of this act have been violated, shall
issue the order or orders already mentioned in this section. (1885.
Chap. 225, sec. 2.)
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
I Public statutes of New Hampshire and general laws In force Jan. 1, 1901, p. 337, chap
108. (Wm. M. and Arthur H. Chase.)]
Section 13, entitled, " The prevention and removal of nuisances," is
as follows : " If a person shall place, leave, or cause to be placed or left
in or near a lake, pond, reservoir, or stream tributary thereto, from
which the water supply for domestic purposes of a city, town, or vil-
lage is taken, in whole or in part, any substance or fluid that may
OOODELL.1 SEVERE STATUTE BESTRICTIONS — NEW HAMPSHIRE. 83
cause the water thereof to become impure or unfit for such purposes,
he shall be fined not exceeding twenty dollars or be imprisoned not
exceeding thirty days, or both.''
Sec. 14. The board of health of the town or the water commis-
sioners having charge of the water supply or the proprietors thereof
may remove such substance or fluid, and they may recover the
expense of removal from the person who placed the same or caused
it to be placed in or near the water as aforesaid in an action on the
case.
[Laws of 189r», chap. 76, p. 433.1
AN ACT to protect waters used for domestic inirposes.
Be it enacted by the netiate and house of representatlren in general
court convened:
Section 1. Wlioever knowingly and wilfully poisons, defiles, pol-
lutes, or in any way corrupt.s the waters or ice of any well, spring,
brook, lake, pond, river, or reservoir used as the source of a public
water or ice supply for domestic purposes, or knowingly corrupts the
sources of the water of any water company or of any city or town sup-
plying its inhabitants with water, or the tributaries of said sources of
supply, in such a manner as to affect the purity of the water or ice so
supplied at the point where the water or ice is taken for such domes-
tic use, or puts the carcass of any dead animal or other offensive
material into said waters or up<m the ice thereof, shall Ik? punished
by a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars or by imprisonment not
exceeding one year. The provisions of this st^ction shall not apply to
the deposit of any bark, sawdust, or any other waste of any kind
arising from the business of cutting, hauling, driving, or storing logs,
or the manufacture of luml)er; and the use of any stream for the
purposes of manufacturing and for the necessary drainage connected
therewith, if more than four miles distant from the point where the
water is taken for sucli domestic purposes, shall not be deemed a vio-
lation of this section.
Sec. 2. No person shall cut or take ice from any lake, pond, or res-
ervoir used as the source of a public water or ice supply for domestic
purposes for man, unless he first shall comply in all respects with
such reasonable rules and regulations in regard to the manner and
place of cutting and taking such ice on said lake, pond, or reservoir
as may be prescribed by the local board of control or officers of a
water company who may have charge of the works of any city or town
supplying its inhabitants with water from said lake, pond, or reser-
voir. The supreme court shall have power to issue injunctions
restraining any person from cutting or taking ice from such lakes,
ponds, or reservoirs imtil they have complied with the reasonable
regulations made as aforesaid.
84 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATEB POLLUTION. [No. 152.
Sec. 3. Said local boards and officers may also make all reasonable
rules and regulations in regard to fishing and the use of boats in and
upon any such lake, pond, or reservoir, and in regard to racing or
speeding horses upon the ice thereof, which they may deem expe-
dient. Any person who shall violate any of said rules and regula-
tions after notice thereof shall be fined not exceeding twenty dollars,
or imprisoned not exceeding six months.
Sec. 4. If any person shall bathe in such lake, pond, or reservoir
within one-fourth mile of the point where said water is taken, he
shall be fined not exceeding twenty dollars, or imprisoned not
exceeding six months.
Sec. 5. ^Mioever shall wilfully injure any of the property of any
water company or of any city or town, used by it in supplying water
to its inhabitants, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one
thousand dollars, or by imprisonment not exceeding one year; and
such person shall also forfeit and pay to such water company, city,
or town three times the amount of actual damages sustained, to be
recovered in an action on the case.
Sec. 0. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are
hereby repealed, but nothing in this act Shall be construed to repeal
any special act applying to cities and towns.
[Laws of 1897, chap. 85, p. 82.]
Section 1. It shall be the duty of lx)ards of health of the cities and
towns of the State to examine and inspect the sources from which ice
is cut, or is proposed to be cut, for domestic use in such cities and
towns, and to employ such means as may be necessary to determine
whether the waters of such sources of ice supply have been polluted,
or whether ice taken therefrom will be deleterious to the public
health.
Sec. 2. In each case where the waters of the sources of ice supplies
shall be found so polluted that the ice taken therefrom will lie
unhealthy or unsafe for domestic use, the board of health of the city
or town concerned in the same shall immediately notify such person
or persons as may have taken, or who propose to take ice from such
polluted source for their own domestic use or for sale for domestic
use, of the dangerous character of the waters inspected and that the
taking of such ice for domestic use must cease.
Sec. 3. Wh(K»ver knowingly or wilfully shall cut or take any ice for
domestic pur[)()ses from any waters which are polluted with sewage or
other substance deleterious or dangerous to life or health, or from
waters which a board of health has condemned, shall be fined not
exceeding two hundred and fifty dollars or imprisoned not exceeding
six months.
GooDELL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW HAMPSHIRE. 85
TActa of 1899, chap. 57.1
Section 1. WTienever any Ixianl of water commissioners, local
board of health, or ten or more citizens of any town or city have rea-
son to believe that a public water or ice supply is lyeing contaminated
or is in danger of contamination, and that the local regulations are
not sufficient or effective to prevent such pollution, they may petition
the State board of health to investigate the case and to establish such
regulations as the said board may deem necessary for the protection
of the said supply against any pollution that in its judgment would
endanger the public health.
Sec. 2. The State board of health shall, after due investigation,
make such regulations as it may deem best to protect the said supply
against any dangerous contamination, and the regulations % so made
shall be in force when a copy is filed with the town clerk and posted
in two or more public places in said town, or published in some news-
paper in the county, and it shall be the duty of the local board of
health to enforce said regidations.
Sec. 3. Any person violating any regidation established by the
State board of health shall l>e punished by a fine of twenty dollars
for each offense, and a certified copy under oath of such regidation,
made by the secretary of the State board of health or by the town
clerk where the regidations are filed, shall Ix^ received as prima facie
evidence of such regulations in any court of the State.
fLaws of 1905, chap. 12.]
.\N ACT to protect the waters of Alton Bay from iKiUiition by sawdust and other
waste.
Sec. 1. That no sawdust, shavings, or other waste product of saw-
mills, planing mills, or other manufactories shall be deposited,
dumped, or placed in that part of Lake Winnipesaukee known as
Alton Bay, nor shall any sawdust, shavings, or other waste products
be allowed to escape into, or be deposited, dumped, or placed in any
stream which runs or empties into said bay.
Sec. 2. Any person, or any officer of any corix)ration, violating the
provisions of this act shall be fined not exceeding twenty-five dollars
for each offense, and each day of a violation of the same shall be
deemed a separate offense.
Sec. 3. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are
hereby repealed.
Sec. 4. This act shall take effect on April 1, 1905.
Approved February 9, 1905.
86 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
[LawB of 1905. chap. 73.]
AN ACT to prohibit the deposit of sawdust and other sawmill refuse and other
waste in Swift River and ite tributaries in the town of Tarn worth.
Sec. 1. Any person who shall deposit, dump, plac«, or cause to be
deposited, dumped, or placed any sawdust or other sawmill refuse,
rubbish, or other waste in Swift River and its tributaries, in the
town of Tamworth, shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more
than fifty dollars.
Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage.
Approved March 9, 1905.
[Laws of 1905, chap. 74.]
AN ACT to protect Mink Brook from pollution by sawdust and other waste.
Sec. 1. No person or corporation shall put or place, or cause or
allow to bo put or placed, any sawdust, shavings, edgings, chip^.
bark, or other waste from woodwork establishments into Mink Brook
in the town of Hanover.
Sec. 2. Any person or corporation violating the provisions of this
act shall be punished by a fine not exceeding ten dollars for each
offense, and every day that they violate the same shall be deemed a
separate offense.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect June 1, 1905.
Approved March 9, 1905.
[Laws of 190ri, chap. 88.]
AN ACT to protect Union River and its tributaries from pollution by sawdust
and other waste.
Sec. 1. No person or corporation shall put or place, or cause to be
put or placed, any sawdust, shavings, edgings, chips, bark, or other
waste from sawmills or other woodwork establishments into Union
River, so called, or its tributaries, in the towns of Brookfield and
Wakefield in Carroll County, and the town of Milton in Strafford
County. Any person or corporation violating the provisions of this
act shall l)e punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars for
each offense.
Sec. 2. This act shall take effect on April 15, 1905.
Approved March 10, 1905.
NEW jersey.
[General Statutes, p. 1109.]
AN ACT to prevent the pollution of the waters of any of the creeks, ponds, or
brooks of this State. (Approved March 29, 1878.)
322. Section 1. That if any person or persons shall throw, cause or
permit to be thrown, into the waters of any creek, pond, or brook of
•iCMJOKLL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS NEW JERSEY. 87
this State, the waters of which may l)e used for the cutting or harvest-
ing of ice, any carcasses of any dead animal or any offal or offensive
matter whatsoever, calculated to render said waters impure or create
noxious or offensive smells, or shall connect any water-closet with any
s«?wer or other means whereby the contents thereof may be conveyed
to and into any such creek, pond, or brook, shall he deemed guilty of
a misdemeanor, and on conviction thereof shall lye punished by a fine
not exceeding one hundred dollars, or imprisonment not exceeding
thirty days, or both.
[2 General Statutes, p. 2215.]
AX ACT to enable towns and townships in this State to construct waterworks
for the extinguishment of fires and supplying the inhabitants thereof with
pure and wholesome water. (Approved March 1), 1808.)
419. Sec. 18. That if any person or persons shall willfully pollute
or adulterate the waters in any reservoir erected under the provisions
of this act, any person so offending shall be deemed guilty of a mis-
demeanor, and on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine not
exceeding five hundred dollars, or by imprisonment at hard labor not
exceeding three years, or both, at the discretion of the court before
whom such conviction shall lx» had.
fCJeneral Statutes, p. 1107.1
Supplement to an act to prevent the willful pollution of waters of any of the
creeks, ponds, or brooks of this State. (Approved February 27, 1880.)
Section 1. (As amended by. act passed March 14, 1893. General
Statutes, p. 1107, sec. 311.) That if any person or persons shall throw,
clause or permit to be thrown into any reservoir, or into the waters of
any creek, pond, or brook of this State which runs through or along
the border of any city, town, or borough of this State, or the waters of
which are used to supply any aqueduct or reservoir for distribution
for public use, any carcass of any dead animal, or any offal or offen-
.sive matter whatsoever calculated to render said waters impure, or to
create noxious or offensive smells, or shall connect any water-closet
with any sewer, or other means whereby the contents thereof may be
conveyed to and into any such creek, pond, or brook, or shall so de-
IK)sit or cause or permit to l)e dei)Osited any such carcass, offal, or
other offensive matter that the washing or waste therefrom shall or
may be conveyed to and into any such creek, pond, brook, or reservoir,
such person or persons shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and
on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one
thousand dollars, or by imprisonment not exceeding two years, or both.
309. Sec. 2. That it shall be the duty of the owner or owners, occu-
pant or occupants of any land whereon any such carcass, offal, or
other offensive matter may be to cause the same to l)e buried forth-
88 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152,
with, SO that all portions thereof shall be covered with solid earth to
a depth of at least two feet l)elow the surface of the ground, and not
within a distance of two hundred feet from such creek, pond, or
brook used as aforesaid; and any such owner or occupant who shall
refuse or neglect for the space of two days to remove and bury as
aforesaid, or cause* to be removed and buried, any such carcass, otfal.
or offensive matter shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and on
conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one thou-
sand dollars, or by imprisonment not exceeding two years, or both.
[Laws of 1808, chap. 136, p. 233.]
AN ACT authoriziDf? the appointment of commiBs! oners to oonsider the Bubjert
of the poHution of rivers and streams within this State, to provide a plan for
tlie prevention thereof, and for the reUef of the persons and property affe<.-ted
therel)y, and to provide for the expenses necessary for tliat purpose.
Be it enacted by the senatetand general assembly of the State of
New Jersey :
1. The governor of this State shall have power and authority to
appoint and commission not less than three suitable persons commis-
sioners to consider the subject of the pollution of any stream or river
within this State, whose duty it shall be, after having duly investi-
gated the cause, character, and extent of such pollution, if they shall
deem it necessary and expedient, to prepare and perfect a plan for
the prevention thereof and for the relief of the persons and property
affected thereby, and to report their conclusions and present their
plan to the legislature of this State, together with a bill providing
therefor and for the expenses thereof.
2. Such commissioners, when so appointed, shall organize by the
selection of one of their number as chairman and one to act as treas-
urer, and they are authorized to select a clerk and to employ such
other agents and assistants as may be necessary. The salary and
compensation of such commissioners shall be fixed by the governor,
and shall not exceed one thousand dollars each, and they shall have
power and authority to fix the compensation of their agents and
assistants.
8. Such commissioners are authorized to raise and expend for the
purposes of this act a sum not exceeding twenty-five thousand dollars,
which smn, or such part thereof as may be required and be necessar>\
they are hereby authorized to apportion among the several local
municipalities which the said commissioners shall deem to be affected
by such pollution, in proportion to the population of such municipali-
ties as shown by the last State or National census, and the sum or
sums so apportioned shall be certified by the said commissioners
under their hands to the assessors or other taxing officers of the said
several municipalities, and it shall be the duty of the proper taxing
cooDELL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 89
officer or officers in each of the said municipalities to whom such
apportionment is made to proceed to have the same levied and
assessed and collected in tlie same manner and at the same time as
other taxes are levied and collected therein, and it shall be the duty
of the collector or other equivalent officer of each of the said munici-
palities to pay over the said several sums of money, when so levied,
assessed, and collected, to the said commissioners or to such person
or {persons as they may appoint to receive the same, and the said
commissioners are authorized to use and disburse the same for the
purposes of this act.
4. The commissioners appointed- under the authority of this act
shall have the power and authority to anticipate the collection and
receipt of the sums of money hereby authorized to be raised by tax-
ation, and may issue from time to time certificates of indebtedness, or
other obligations, to be paid from the funds to be raised by taxation
in the manner herein provided; and they are authorized to use the
funds received from the sale or negotiation of such certificates or
obligations authoriz€»d to be issued by this act.
5. Said commissioners are hereby required, at any time, on the
order of the governor, to render to him a report and statement of
their receipts and ex[)enditures under the authority of this act.
6. Vacancies caused by the death or resignation of any commis-
sioner appointed under the authority of this act, or from other
cause, shall be filled by the governor, and the governor may remove
any of the persons so appointed and appoint another commissioner
in his place.
7. This act shall take effect immediately.
Approved April 2, 1898.
[Laws of 1890, chap. 41. p. 73.1
AN ACT to secure the purity of the puhllc suppUes of potable waters in this
State.
Be it enacted by the senate and general assembly of the State of
New Jersey :
1. No sewage, drainage, domestic or factory refuse, excremental or
other polluting matter of any kind whatsoever which, either by itself
or in connection with other matter, will corrupt or impair, or tend to
corrupt or impair, the quality of the water of any river, brook, stream,
or any tributary or branch thereof, or of any lake, pond, well, spring,
or other reservoir from which is taken, or may be taken, any public
supply of water for domestic use in any city, town, borough, town-
ship, or other municipality of this State, or which will render, or
tend to render, such water injurious to health, shall be placed in, or
discharged into, the waters, or placed or deposited upon the ice, of
90 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152,
any such river, brook, stream, or any tributary or branch thereof, or
of any lake, pond, well, spring, or other reservoir above the point
from which any city, town, borough, township, or other municipality
shall or may obtain its supply of water for domestic use, nor shall
any such sewage, drainage, domestic or factory refuse, excremental or
other polluting matter l^e placed or suffered to remain upon the banks
of any such river, brook, stream, or of any tributary or branch
thereof, or of any lake, pond, well, spring, or other reservoir above
the point from which any city, town, borough, township, or other
municipality shall or may obtain its supply of water for domestic use
as aforesaid ; and any person or persons, or private or public corpora-
tion, which shall offend against any of the provisions of this section
shall be liable to a penalty of one hundred dollars for each offense:
and each week's continuance, after notice by the State or local lx)ard
of health to abate or remove the same, shall constitute a separate
offense: Provided^ howere)\ That this section shall not he held to
apply to any city, town, borough, township, or other municipality of
this State which, at the date of the passage of this act, has a public
sewer or system of sewers, drain or system of drains, legally con-
structed under municipal or township authority, discharging its
drainage or sewage into any such river, brook, stream, lake, pond,
well, spring, or other reservoir: And provided further^ That nothing?
in4:his section contained shall be construed to repeal, modify, or other
wise affect any law or statute now conferring upon any local board of
health the power or authority to institute any proceedings in any
court of this State for the recovery of any penalty for, or obtaining
any injunction against, the pollution of any of the waters of this
State.
2. Any penalty incurri?d under any of the provisions of the first
section of this act may be recovered, with costs, in a summary pro-
ceeding, either in the name of the board of health of the State of New
Jersey or in the name of the local board of health of the township,
city, borough, town, or other local municipal government within
whose jurisdiction the penalty may have been incurred; it shall Ih»
the duty of any health inspector, or member of any local board of
health, w^io shall know or be informed of any violation of any of the
provisions of the first section of this act whereby any penalty may
have been incurred, to make, and any other person having such know 1-
edge may make, under oath or affirmation, a complaint against the
person or persons or private or public corporation incurring such pen-
«ilty, setting forth the facts of such violation, w^hich complaint shall
be filed in the office of the clerk of the district court, or with any
justice of the j^eace of the county within which the offense may have
been committed, or with any police justice or recorder of the town-
ship, city, or other municipality within which any local board bring-
uoiiDELL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 91
iug suit shall have jurisdiction; and tlie district court, justice of the
|)eaee, police justice, or recorder, with whom any complaint shall be
filed as aforesaid, setting forth facts sufficient to show that the penalty
pi-escribed by the first section of this act has been incurred, is hereby
authorized and required to issue process either in the nature of a sum-
mons or warrant, which process, when in the nature of a warrant,
shall l>e returnable forthwith, and when in the nature of a summons
shall be returnable in not less than five nor more than fifteen days.
On the return of such process, or at any time to which the trial shall
have been adjourned, the said court, justice of the peace, police jus-
tice, or recorder shall proceed to hear the testimony of witnesses and
the proofs in the case, and to determine and give judgment in the
matter without the filing of any pleadings, and, if judgment shall be
given in favor of the plaintiff, execution shall forthwith issue against
the goods and chattels of the defendant for the amount of the penalty,
with costs; and all judgments so rendered shall have the same force
and effect as other judgments in civil actions before civil courts and
officers, and may be docketed in like manner in the office of the clerk
of the couit of common pleas; the officers to serve and execute any
process or execution issued as aforesaid shall be the constables of the
counties, which service and execution, in tlie case of any execution
issued out of the district court, shall be made in the same manner and
under the same liabilities as other executions issued out of said court
are served and executed; the officers to serve and execute any process
or execution issued by a justice of the peace, police justice, or recorder,
shall be the constables of the county, which service and execution
shall be made in the same manner and under the same liabilities as
pre^scribed in cases of the service and execution of processes and exe-
cutions by the act entitled "An act constituting courts for the trial
of small causes," and the supplements thereto; all moneys recovered
in any such proceeding shall be paid to the plaintiff therein and
applied by such plaintiff to any purpose for which it may be legally
authoriised to expend money.
3. The State board of health shall have the general supervision,
with' reference to their purity, of all rivers, brooks, streams, lakes,
ponds, wells, springs, or other reservoirs in this State the waters of
which are or may be used as the source or sources of public water
supplies for domestic use, together with the waters feeding the same,
and shall have the authority from time to time, as they deem neces-
j^ary or proper, to examine the same and to inquire what, if any, pol-
lutions exist and their causes ; and the said State board of health, in
carrying out the provisions of this section, may from time to time, as
they deem it necessaiy or proper, address inquiries in printed or
written form to any local board of health, municipal or township
authority, corporation, or person or persons, which inquiries it shall
90 LAWS F«
OB p«-:L~r.'
any such river, brcn - mi^I to i-x.
of any lake, pond,
from which any cii
■ " "'Mb Mi"- 'I- J
any such sewage, d - . ji f ih, :r . ..
shall or may obt;
-^.^ nv to >- •■■-•
other polluting m:.
of any such rivi >
thereof, or of an\ ^ ..
the point from v . , .. ^^^ , , ^
jiLi< -nr ait* r^i^-
-:i z-ymvM-i^
municipality shal
as aforesaid; and
tion, which shall
shall l>e liable t(
and each week's
of health to ab. ~. ^. -^eh-
offense: Prorich
apply to any cit
this State whicl
sewer or systei
structed undei
drainage or sc
well, spring, o
in -this section
wise affect an\
health the pc _ ... - - j^ -::^::i^ and futl.
court of this . - •. -^-^
any injuncti< sni,,..i\
State.
2. Any pe
section of tl
ceeding, eitli
Jersey or ii
city, Iwrou
whose juri^
the duty o
health, wh
provisions
^l|gi> timr m
. -•_ ij— ^T^Dfii-: ■
z: .V uiii ^.^.
: ^ ~ r --- Sute. '<
^
-_ ...: -• n." In tS-
"
_-^z ^' rlie "^r-at-
... - • _.• vt-ar. a:.
'"■. - ■•.
. ' r-'-'-.r-r '.ht^ niHii.-
*
- : z '^' ^' '"'7 *'*^'''
- • '
- • . ..- L 'iiT^^ vt-ar-
^ . — - -'
KRE STATUTE EESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 98
**" ' *^ ' ■ luties of their office, shall make and subscribe an oath
■» (before some person authorized by the laws of this
^ -linister the same) to truly, faithfully, and impartially
\' ' ' _ J 'lischarge the duties of their office according to law and
"'** _^ *' with the secretary of state. The terms of office of the
said commission (except those appointed by the governor
.ties as aforesaid) shall commence on the finst Monday of
* * .icceeding their appointment by the governor and confir-
' "" he senate. On the first Monday of May next succeeding
*^ ^^ 1 appointment of said commission the members thereof
at the statehouse in the city of Trenton and organize by
^^■*, *" :i of one of their number to be chairman of said commis-
ne to be treasurer thereof, which officers shall hold office at
re of the commission. After having so met and organized
t meetings of the commission shall be held at such times
•s as the connnission may direct or as it may be called to
♦ he chairman.
I commission shall keep a record of all its proceedings and
*"*'•"■■• ons, also full and accurate account of its receipts, disburse-
xpenditures, assets, and liabilities, and shall annually report
gislature its operations, proceedings, and transactions for the
ig year, with a statement or abstract of such receipts, dis-
»nts, expenditures, assets, and liabilities.
'le members of said commission shall each receive an annual
of one thousand dollars, to be paid as other salaries of State
> are paid. Said commission may have a secretary (not a
t»r of the commission), to l)e appointed by the commission or a
ity thereof, who shall hold his office at the pleasure of the com-
on or a majority thereof, and receive such salary as the commis-
or a majority thereof, wnth the approval of the governor, may
said commission or a majority thereof may also from time to
' employ or appoint such experts, engineers, officers, agents,
)loyes, workmen, and servants as it may deem necessary or proper
3nable it to perform its duties and carry out the objects and pur-
ses of this act; and said commission or a majority thereof may
. and determine the duties and compensation of said experts, engi-
^ers, officers, agents, employes, workmen, and servants, and remove
V discharge the sf**^*^ ^r any of them at pleasure.
4. It sha" ' '^ f the secretary to keep a record of all the
)roceedin s of the commission, to prepare the annual
report tc d perform such other duties as the com-
mission lall be the duty of the treasurer to take
charge ^ed by the commission, to keep accurate
acoouT disbursement thereof, and to deposit and
92 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
be the duty of the persons or parties addressed to answer within such
time as the said State board of health may in such inquiries prescribe.
4. If any person or persons, corporation or corporations, city, town.
borough, township, or other municipality of this State, or any munici-
pal or township authority, shall violate any of the provisions of the
first section of this act, it shall be lawful for the said State board of
health, instead of proceeding in a summary way to recover the i>en-
alty prescribed in said section, to file a bill in the court of chancen\
in the name of the State, on the relation of such board, for an injunc-
tion to prohibit the further violation of the said section, and ever\'
such action shall proceed in the court of chancery according to the
rules and practice of bills filed in the name of the attorney-general
on the relation of individuals, and cases of emergency shall have
precedence over other litigation pending at the time in the court of
chancery, and may be heard on final hearing within such time and on
such notice as the chancellor shall direct.
5. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this
act are hereby repealed.
6. This act shall take effect immediately.
Approved March 17, 1899.
(Laws of 1899, chap. 210, p. 5.%.]
AN ACT to prevent the poHution of the waters of this State by the establishment
of a State sewerage commission, and authorizing the creation of sewenige
districts and district sewerage boards, and prescribing, defining, and regulating
tlie lowers and duties of such commission and such boards.
Be it enacted hy the senate and general assembly of the Stat-e of Xew
Jersey :
1. It shall be the duty of the governor, within thirty days next suc-
ceeding the approval or passage of this act, to appoint, by and with
the advice and consent of the senate, five citizens of this State., to
compose and be known as *' the State sewerage commission.'' In the
original nomination of the members of said commission to the senate
the governor shall designate one of them to serve for one year, and
two for two ye^rs, and two for three years, and thereafter the mem-
bers of said commission shall be appointed by the governor, by and
with the advice and consent of the senate, for the term of three years
and until their successors are duly appointed, confirmed, and quali-
fied. Any vacancy occurring in said commission when the legislature
is not in session shall be filled by appointment of the governor until
the next regular session of the legislature, when such vacancy shall
be filled in the manner hereinbefore provided, but any such last-
mentioned appointment and confirmation by the senate shall be for
the unexpired term only. Members of said conmiission, before enter-
GOODBLL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 93
ing upon the duties of their office, shall make and subscribe an oath
or affirmation (before some person authorized by the laws of this
State to administer the same) to truly, faithfully, and impartially
perform and discharge the duties of their office according to law and
file the same with the secretary of state. The terms of office of the
members of said commission (except those appointed by the governor
to fill vacancies as aforesaid) shall commence on the finst Monday of
May next succeeding their appointment by the governor and confir-
mation by the senate. On the first Monday of May next succeeding
the original appointment of said commission the members thereof
shall meet at the statehouse in the city of Trenton and organize by
the election of one of their number to be chairman of said commis-
sion and one to be treasurer thereof, which officers shall hold office at
the pleasure of the commission. After having so met and organized
subsequent meetings of the commission shall be held at such times
and places as the commission may direct or as it may be called to
meet by the chairman.
2. Said commission shall keep a record of all its proceedings and
transactions, also full and accurate account of its receipts, disburse-
ments, expenditures, assets, and liabilities, and shall annually report
to the legislature its operations, proceedings, and transactions for the
preceding year, with a statement or abstract of such receipts, dis-
Imrsements, expenditures, assets, and liabilities.
3. The members of said commission shall each receive an annual
salary of one thousand dollars, to be paid as other salaries of State
officers are paid. Said commission may have a secretary (not a
member of the commission), to be appointed by the commission or a
majority thereof, who shall hold his office at the pleasure of the com-
mission or a majority thereof, and receive such salary as the commis-
sion or a majority thereof, with the approval of the governor, may
fix; said commission or a majority thereof may also from time to
time employ or appoint such experts, engineers, officers, agents,
employes, workmen, and servants as it may deem necessary or proper
to enable it to perform its duties and carry out the objects and pur-
poses of this act; and said commission or a majority thereof may
fix and determine the duties and compensation of said experts, engi-
neers, officers, agents, employes, workmen, and servants, and remove
or discharge the same or any of them at pleasure.
4. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a record of all the
proceedings and transactions of the commission, to prepare the annual
report to the legislature, and perform such other duties as the com-
mission may require. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to take
charge of the moneys received by the commission, to keep accurate
accounts of the receipt and disbursement thereof, and to deposit and
92 LAWS FOEBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
be the duty of the persons or parties addressed to answer within sucli
time as the said State board of health may in such inquiries prescrilje.
4. If any person or persons, corporation or corporations, city, town.
l)orough, township, or other municipality of this State, or any munici-
pal or township authority, shall violate any of the provisions of the
first section of this act, it shall be lawful for the said State board of
health, instead of proceeding in a summary way to recover the pen-
alty prescribed in said section, to file a bill in the court of chancery.
in the name of the State, on the relation of such board, for an injunc-
tion to prohibit the further violation of the said section, and even-
such action shall proceed in the court of chancery according to the
rules and practice of bills filed in the name of the attorney-general
on the relation of individuals, and cases of emergency shall have
precedence over other litigation pending at the time in the court of
chancery, and may be heard on final hearing within such time and on
such notice as the chancellor shall direct.
5. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of thiN
act are hereby repealed.
6. This act shall take eifect immediately.
Approved March 17, 1899.
[Laws of 1899, chap. 210, p. 536.]
AN ACT to prevent tbe pollution of the waters of this State by the establishmeDt
of a State sewerage commission, and authorizing the creation of sewerage
districts and district sewerage boards, and prescribing, defining, and regulating
the powers and duties of such commission and sucli boards.
Be it enacted hy the senate and gerieral assemhly of the State of Xew
Jersey:
1. It shall be the duty of the governor, within thirty days next suc-
ceeding the approval or passage of this act, to appoint, by and with
the advice and consent of the senate, five citizens of this State, to
compose and be known as " the State sewerage commission." In the
original nomination of the members of said commission to the senate
the governor shall designate one of them to serve for one year, and
two for two ye^rs, and two for three years, and thereafter the mem-
bers of said commission shall be appointed by the governor, by and
with the advice and consent of the senate, for the term of three years
and until their successors are duly appointed, confirmed, and quali-
fied. Any vacancy occurring in said commission when the legislature
is not in session shall be filled by appointment of the governor until
the next regular session of the legislature, when such vacancy shall
be filled in the manner hereinbefore provided, but any such last-
mentioned appointment and confirmation by the senate shall be for
the unexpired term only. Members of said commission, before enter-
GOODBLL.] SBVEBB STATUTE EESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 93
ing upon the duties of their office, shall make and subscribe an oath
or affirmation (before some person authorized by the laws of this
State to administer the same) to truly, faithfully, and impartially
perform and discharge the duties of their office according to law and
file the same with the secretary of state. The terms of office of the
members of said commission (except those appointed by the governor
to fill vacancies as aforesaid) shall commence on the finst Monday of
May next succeeding their appointment by the governor and confir-
mation by the senate. On the first Monday of May next succeeding
the original appointment of said conmiission the members thereof
shall meet at the statehouse in the city of Trenton and organize by
the election of one of their number to be chairman of said commis-
sion and one to be treasurer thereof, which officers shall hold office at
the pleasure of the commission. After having so met and organized
subsequent meetings of the commission shall be held at such times
and places as the commission may direct or as it may be called to
meet by the chairman.
2. Said commission shall keep a record of all its proceedings and
transactions, also full and accurate account of its receipts, disburse-
ments, expenditures, assets, and liabilities, and shall annually report
to the legislature its operations, proceedings, and transactions for the
preceding year, with a statement or abstract of such receipts, dis-
bursements, expenditures, assets, and liabilities.
3. The members of said commission shall each receive an annual
salary of one thousand dollars, to be paid as other salaries of State
officers are paid. Said commission may have a secretary (not a
member of the commission), to be appointed by the commission or a
majority thereof, who shall hold his office at the pleasure of the com-
mission or a majority thereof, and receive such salary as the commis-
sion or a majority thereof, with the approval of the governor, may
fix; said commission or a majority thereof may also from time to
time employ or appoint such experts, engineers, officers, agents,
employes, workmen, and servants as it may deem necessary or proper
to enable it to perform its duties and carry out the objects and pur-
poses of this act; and said commission or a majority thereof may
fix and determine the duties and compensation of said experts, engi-
neers, officers, agents, employes, workmen, and servants, and femove
or discharge the same or any of them at pleasure.
4. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a record of all the
proceedings and transactions of the commission, to prepare the annual
report to the legislature, and perform such other duties as the com-
mission may require. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to take
charge of the moneys received by the commission, to keep accurate
accounts of the receipt and disbursement thereof, and to deposit and
92 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
l^ the duty of the persons or parties addressed to answer within such
time as the said State board of health may in such inquiries prescril>e.
4. If any person or persons, corporation or corix)rations, city, town.
lK)rough, township, or other municipality of this State, or any munici-
pal or township authority, shall violate any of the provisions of tlie
first section of this act, it shall be lawful for the said State board of
health, instead of proceeding in a summary way to recover the pen-
alty prescribed in said section, to file a bill in the court of chanceiy,
in the name of the State, on the relation of such board, for an injunc-
tion to prohibit the further violation of the said section, and even-
such action shall proceed in the court of chancery according to the
rules and practice of bills filed in the name of the attorney-general
on the relation of individuals, and cases of emergency shall have
precedence over other litigation pending at the time in the court of
chancery, and may be heard on final hearing within such time and on
such notice as the chancellor shall direct.
5. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of thiN
act are hereby repealed.
G. This act shall take effect immediately.
Approved March 17, 1899.
[Laws of 1899, ctiap. 210, p. 536.1
AN ACT to prevent the pollution of the waters of this State by the establishment
of a State sewerage conmilssion, and authorizing the creation of sewerage
(listriots and district sewerage l)oards, and prescribing, defining, and regulating
the iK)wer8 and duties of such commission and such boards.
Be it enacted by the senate and general OHsemhly of the State of Xeic
Jersey :
1. It shall be the duty of the governor, within thirty days next suc-
ceeding the approval or passage of this act, to appoint, by and with
the advice and consent of the senate, five citizens of this State, to
compose and be known as " the State sewerage commission." In the
original nomination of the members of said commission to the senate
the governor shall designate one of them to serve for one year, and
two for two yelirs, and two for three years, and thereafter the mem-
bers of said commission shall be appointed by the governor, by and
w ith the advice and consent of the senate, for the term of three years
and until their successors are duly appointed, confirmed, and quali-
fied. Any vacancy occurring in said commission when tlie legislature
is not in session shall be filled by appointment of the governor until
the next regular session of the legislature, when such vacancy shall
be filled in the manner hereinbefore provided, but any such last-
mentioned appointment and confirmation by the senate shall be for
the miexpired term only. Members of said commission, before enter-
GooDELL.] SEVEBE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 93
ing upon the duties of their oflSce, shall make and subscribe an oath
or aflirmation (before some person authorized by the laws of this
State to administer the same) to truly, faithfully, and impartially
perform and discharge the duties of their office according to law and
file the same with the secretary of state. The terms of office of the
members of said commission (except those appointed by the governor
to fill vacancies as aforesaid) shall commence on the finnt Monday of
May next succeeding their appointment by the governor and confir-
mation by the senate. On the first Monday of May next succeeding
the original appointment of said commission the members thereof
shall meet at the statehouse in the city of Trenton and organize by
the election of one of their number to be chairman of said commis-
sion and one to be treasurer thereof, which officers shall hold office at
the pleasure of the commission. After having so met and organized
subsequent meetings of the commission shall be held at such times
and places as the commission may direct or as it may be called to
meet by the chairman.
2. Said commission shall keep a record of all its proceedings and
transactions, also full and accurate account of its receipts, disburse-
ments, expenditures, assets, and liabilities, and shall annually report
to the legislature its operations, proceedings, and transactions for the
preceding year, with a statement or abstract of such receipts, dis-
bursements, expenditures, assets, and liabilities.
3. The members of said commission shall each receive an annual
salarj' of one thousand dollars, to l)e paid as other salaries of State
officers are paid. Said commission may have a secretary (not a
member of the commission), to be appointed by the commission or a
majority thereof, who shall hold his office at the pleasure of the com-
mission or a majority thereof, and receive such salary as the commis-
sion or a majority thereof, with the approval of the governor, may
fix; said commission or a majority thereof may also from time to
time employ or appoint such experts, engineers, officers, agents,
employes, workmen, and servants as it may deem necessary or proper
to enable it to perform its duties and carry out the objects and pur-
poses of this act; and said commission or a majority thereof may
fix and determine the duties and compensation of said experts, engi-
neers, officers, agents, employes, workmen, and servants, and femove
or discharge the same or any of them at pleasure.
4. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a record of all the
proceedings and transactions of the commission, to prepare the annual
report to the legislature, and perform such other duties as the com-
mission may require. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to take
charge of the moneys received by the commission, to keep accurate
accounts of the receipt and disbursement thereof, and to deposit and
92 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
be the duty of the persons or parties addressed to answer within such
time as the said State board of health may in such inquiries prescrilje.
4. If any person or persons, corporation or corporations, city, town.
borough, township, or other municipality of this State, or any munici-
pal or township authority, shall violate any of the provisions of the
first section of this act, it shall be lawful for the said State board of
health, instead of proceeding in a summary way to recover the pen-
alty prescribed in said section, to file a bill in the court of chanceiy,
in the name of the State, on the relation of such board, for an injunc-
tion to prohibit the further violation of the said section, and ever>-
such action shall proceed in the court of chancery according to the
rules and practice of bills filed in the name of the attorney-general
on the relation of individuals, and cases of emergency shall have
precedence over other litigation pending at the time in the court of
chancery, and may be heard on final hearing within such time and on
such notice as the chancellor shall direct.
5. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of thib
act are hereby repealed.
6. This act shall take effect immediately.
Approved March 17, 1899.
[Laws of 1899, chap. 210, p. 536.]
AX ACT to prevent the pollution of the waters of this State by the establishmeDt
of a State sewerage commission, and authorizing the creation of sewerage
districts and district sewerage boards, and prescribing, defining, and regulating
the powers and duties of such commission and such boards.
Be it enacted hy the senate and general assembly of the State of Xeir
Jersey:
1. It shall be the duty of the governor, within thirty days next suc-
ceeding the approval or passage of this act, to appoint, by and with
the advice and consent of the senate, five citizens of this State, to
compose and be known as " the State sewerage commission." In the
original nomination of the members of said commission to the senate
the governor shall designate one of them to serve for one year, and
two for two yeTirs, and two for three years, and thereafter the mem-
bers of said commission shall be appointed by the governor, by and
with the advice and consent of the senate, for the term of three years
and until their successors are duly appointed, confirmed, and quali-
fied. Any vacancy occurring in said commission when the legislatun^
is not in session shall be filled by appointment of the governor until
the next regular session of the legislature, when such vacancy shall
be filled in the manner hereinbefore provided, but any such last-
mentioned appointment and confirmation by the senate shall be for
the unexpired term only. Members of said commission, before enter-
GOODBLL.] SEVEBE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 93
ing upon the duties of their office, shall make and subscribe an oath
or affirmation (before some pei'son authorized by the laws of this
State to administer the same) to truly, faithfully, and impartially
perform and discharge the duties of their office according to law and
file the same with the secretary of state. The terms of office of the
members of said commission (except those appointed by the governor
to fill vacancies as aforesaid) shall commence on the finst Monday of
May next succeeding their appointment by the governor and confir-
mation by the senate. On the first Monday of May next succeeding
the original appointment of said commission the members thereof
shall meet at the statehouse in the city of Trenton and organize by
the election of one of their number to be chairman of said commis-
sion and one to be treasurer thereof, which officers shall hold office at
the pleasure of the commission. After having so met and organized
subsequent meetings of the conmiission shall be held at such times
and places as the commission may direct or as it may be called to
meet by the chairman.
2. Said commission shall keep a record of all its proceedings and
transactions, also full and accurate account of its receipts, disburse-
ments, expenditures, assets, and liabilities, and shall annually report
to the legislature its operations, proceedings, and transactions for the
preceding year, with a statement or abstract of such receipts, dis-
bursements, expenditures, assets, and liiibilities.
3. The members of said commission shall each receive an annual
salary of one thousand dollars, to be paid as other salaries of State
officers are paid. Said commission may have a secretary (not a
member of the commission), to be appointed by the commission or a
majority thereof, who shall hold his office at the pleasure of the com-
mission or a majority thereof, and receive such salary as the commis-
sion or a majority thereof, with the approval of the governor, may
fix; said commission or a majority thereof may also from time to
time employ or appoint such experts, engineers, officers, agents,
employes, workmen, and servants as it may deem necessary or proper
to enable it to perform its duties and carry out the objects and pur-
poses of this act; and said commission or a majority thereof may
fix and determine the duties and compensation of said experts, engi-
neers, officers, agents, employes, workmen, and servants, and remove
or discharge the same or any of them at pleasure.
4. It shall l>e the duty of the secretary to keep a record of all the
proceedings and transactions of the commission, to prepare the annual
report to the legislature, and perform such other duties as the com-
mission may require. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to take
charge of the moneys received by the commission, to keep accurate
accounts of the receipt and disbursement thereof, and to deposit and
92 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION. [No. 152.
be the duty of the persons or parties addressed to answer within such
time as the said State board of health may in such inquiries prescribe.
4. If any person or persons, corporation or corporations, city, town,
borough, township, or other municipality of this State, or any munici-
pal or township authority, shall violate any of the provisions of the
first section of this act, it shall be lawful for the said State lx>ard of
health, instead of proceeding in a summary way to recover the pen-
alty prescribed in said section, to file a bill in the court of chancery,
in the name of the State, on the I'elation of such board, for an injunc-
tion to prohibit the further violation of the said section, and ever^'
such action shall proceed in the court of chancery according to the
rules and practice of bills filed in the name of the attorney-general
on the relation of individuals, and cases of emergency shall have
precedence over other litigation pending at the time in the court of
chancery, and may be heard on final hearing within such time and on
such notice as the chancellor shall direct.
5. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this
act are hereby repealed.
6. This act shall take effect immediately.
Approved March 17, 1899.
[Laws of 1899, chap. 210, p. 536.]
AN ACT to prevent the poHutlon of the waters of this State by the establishment
of a State sewerage commission, and authorizing the creation of seweragt*
districts and district sewerage boards, and prescribing, defining, and regulating
the i)owers and duties of such commission and such boards.
Be H enacted hy the senate and general assembly of the State of Xc\c
Jersey:
1. It shall be the duty of the governor, within thirty days next suc-
ceeding the approval or passage of this act, to appoint, by and with
the advice and consent of the senate, five citizens of this State, to
compose and be known as *' the State sewerage commission." In the
original nomination of the members of said commission to the senate
the governor shall designate one of them to serve for one year, and
two for two ye^rs, and two for three years, and thereafter the mem-
bers of said commission shall be appointed by the governor, by and
with the advice and consent of the senate, for the term of three year>
and until their successors are duly appointed, confirmed, and quali-
fied. Any vacancy occurring in said commission when the legislature
is not in session shall be filled by appointment of the governor until
the next regular session of the legislature, when such vacancy shall
be filled in the manner hereinbefore provided, but any such last-
mentioned appointment and confirmation by the senate shall be for
the imexpired term only. Members of said commission, before enter-
GooDEix.] SBVEBB STATUTE BESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 93
ing upon the duties of their office, shall make and subscribe an oath
or affirmation (before some person authorized by the laws of this
State to administer the same) to truly, faithfully, and impartially
perform and discharge the duties of their office according to law and
file the same with the secretary of state. The terms of office of the
members of said commission (except those appointed by the governor
to fill vacancies as aforesaid) shall commence on the fiisst Monday of
May next succeeding their appointment by the governor and confir-
mation by the senate. On the first Monday of May next succeeding
the original appointment of said commission the members thereof
shall meet at the statehouse in the city of Trenton and organize by
the election of one of their number to be chairman of said commis-
sion and one to be treasurer thereof, which officers shall hold office at
the pleasure of the commission. After having so met and organized
subsequent meetings of the commission shall be held at such times
and places as the commission may direct or as it may bt» called to
meet by the chairman.
2. Said commission shall keep a record of all its proceedings and
transactions, also full and accurate account of its receipts, disburse-
ments, expenditures, assets, and liabilities, and shall annually report
to the legislature its operations, proceedings, and transactions for the
preceding year, with a statement or abstract of such receipts, dis-
bursements, expenditures, assets, and liabilities.
3. The members of said commission shall each receive an annual
salarj'^ of one thousand dollars, to be paid as other salaries of State
officers are paid. Said commission may have a secretary (not a
member of the commission), to be appointed by the commission or a
majority thereof, who shall hold his office at the pleasure of the com-
mission or a majority thereof, and receive such salary as the commis-
sion or a majority thereof, with the approval of the governor, may
fix; said commission or a majority thereof may also from time to
time employ or appoint such experts, engineers, officers, agents,
employes, workmen, and servants as it may deem necessary or proper
to enable it to perform its duties and carry out the ol)jects and pur-
poses of this act; and said commission or a majority thereof may
fix and determine the duties and compensation of said experts, engi-
neers, officers, agents, employes, workmen, and servants, and remove
or discharge the same or any of them at pleasure.
4. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a record of all the
proceedings and transactions of the commission, to j)repare the annual
report to the legislature, and perform such other duties as the com-
mission may require. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to take
charge of the moneys received by the conimission, to keep accurate
accounts of the receipt and disbursement thereof, and to deposit and
94 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
pay out said moneys as the commission may direct and under such
rules and regulations as it may from time to time establish. The
treasurer may be required to give bond to the commission for the due
and faithful performance of his duties as such treasurer, in such sum
and with such sureties as the commission or a majority thereof may
require and approve.
5. It shall be the duty of said commission to investigate the vari-
ous methods of sewage disposal, either in this country or elsewhere,
in order that they may be able to make proper recx)mmendations in
regard thereto. They shall investigate all complaints of pollution of
the waters of this State which shall be brought to their notice, and
shall advise as to the best methods of sewage disposal in order to
prevent such pollution.
6. It shall be unlawful for any person, corporation, or municipality
to build any sewer or drain or sewerage system from which it is
designed that any sewage or other harmful and deleterious matter,
solid or liquid, shall flow into any of the waters of this State so as to
pollute or render impure said waters, except under such conditions as
shall be approved by the State sewerage commission: Prorided^ThsLt
the provisions of this section shall not be deemed to prohibit the use
or extension of existing sewers, drains, or sewerage systems.
7. It shall be unlawful for any person, corporation, or municipality
to build or cause to be built any plant for the treatment of sewage or
other polluting substance from which the effluent is to flow into any
of the waters of this State, except under such conditions as shall be
approved by the State sewerage commission, to whom the plans shall
be submitted before building.
8. On or before the first day of January, one thousand nine hun-
dred, and thereafter whenever required by said commission, the mayor
of every municipality and the chairman of every township conimitt^H*
of every township now having, using, owning, leasing, or controlling
a sewerage plant or system shall furnish to said commission, on blanks
to be provided by said commission, a statement showing the disi>osi-
tion made of the sewage of their respective municipalities or town-
ships, and, as near as possible, the amount discharged each twenty-
four hours, and such other information and data as may be called for
by said blanks to be provided as aforesaid by said commission.
9. The words '' waters of this State," as used in this act, shall be
held and construed to mean and include any and all waters of any
pond, lake, creek, inlet, bay, estuary, river, or stream of this State.
10. To enable said commission to carry out and enforce the provi-
sions of this act, the said commission may expend a sum not exceeding
five thousand dollars, when duly appropriated.
11. And whereas, in order to prevent the pollution of the waters of
this State, it is deemed necessary to establish a proper system or sys-
aooDELL.J SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS NEW JERSEY. 95
teins of sewerage and drainage wherein may or may not be included
a system or systems of sewage-disposal works for the scientific treat-
ment and proper disposal of sewage and sewage matter and the efflu-
ent thereof, and the establishment of any such system or systems
may render proper or necessary the formation or creation of sewerage
districts embracing portions or the whole of the territory of two or
more of the municipalities of this State, within which districts such
system may be constructed, maintained, and operated, and such
municipalities may be unable, through lack of power and authority
or otherwise, to agree upon the establishment of any such system or
systems or upon the extent or limits of the territory of their respec-
tive municipalities to be included in any such district or districts and
devoted to the uses and purposes of any such system or systems as
aforesaid; therefore upon presentation to said the State sewerage
commission of a petition in writing, setting forth that in order to pre-
vent the pollution of the waters of this State, or any of them, it is
proper or necessary that portions or the whole of the territory of two
or more of the municipalities of this State should be erected into a
ir-ewerage district for the construction, maintaining, and operation
within such district of a system of sewerage and drainage or a system
of sewage-disposal works, or of both such systems, and naming each
municipality, the whole or any portion of the territory whereof it is
proposed shall be included in such district, and stating generally the
boundaries and outlines of such proposed district with sufficient
exactness to show approximately the quantity or extent of territory
of each municipality to be embraced in such proposed district, and
requesting said commission to create and establish such district for
either or both of the purposes aforesaid ; and if said petition be signed
by the mayors or other chief executive officers of all of the munici-
palities named in said petition, any of whose territory is proposed to
be included in said district, said signatures being respectively affixed
to said petition by authority or direction of the respective governing
bodies of such municipalities (full power and authority to authorize
and direct the signing of any such petition being hereby conferred
upon and vested in all such governing bodies), and the signing of
said petition by such authority or direction being made to appear by
affidavit or other due proof thereof, it shall be lawful for said the
State sewerage commission to appoint a time and place when and
where it will attend and give public hearing of the matters contained
in said petition to all persons and parties interested therein; said
commission shall cause at least twenty days' notice to be given of the
time and place of any such hearing by publishing the same in the
newspaper or newspapers, if any, published within said proposed dis-
trict, and if none be published therein, then in a newspaper or news-
papers published in the neighborhood of said proposed district and
96 LAWS FORBroDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. ir.2.
circulating therein; said notice may also, at the discretion of said
commission, be published in a newspaper or newspapers published
outside of said proposed district, whether or not any paper or paper?
be published within the same; said commission shall also, at least
ten days prior to the day fixed for such hearing, cause notice of the
time and place ^thereof to be mailed to or served upon the mayor or
other chief executive officer of any and all municipalities named in
said petition, any territory whereof is included in said proi>osed dis-
trict ; and said commission may, if it deem proper so to do, require a
copy of said petition to be mailed to or served upcm such mayors or
other chief executive officers such number of days prior to said hear-
ing as it may direct; said hearing may be adjourned from time to
time as said commission may decide ; the sessions of said commission
on said hearing, or any adjournment thereof, when sitting for the
taking of testimony or hearing argument of counsel, shall be open
and public, and witnesses may be examined under oath or affirmation,
which any member of said commission or the secretary thereof is
hereby authorized and empowered to administer; the secretary of said
commission shall attend at all such hearings and keep minutes of the
proceedings thereat; said commission may, if it deem proper so to do,
employ a stenographer to take and transcribe the testimony produced
before it at any such hearing; and said commission may require the
persons or parties presenting to it any such petition as aforesaid to
pay in advance or assume or guarantee to pay all or such part' of the
costs, charges, and expenses to be made or incurred by reason of the
filing of said petition and subsequent proceedings to be had there-
upon or thereunder, as said commission may think proper.
12. If, after such hearing, said commission, or a majoritj'^ thereof,
shall deem it advisable to comply with the request of said petition,
and that a district for the purpose or purposes, or either of them
therein stated, should lx> created and established, said commission
shall adopt a resolution to that effect, defining the limits and bountl-
aries of such district with certainty and declaring the territory
included within such limits and boundaries to be a sewerage district,
within which a system of sewerage and drainage, or a system of
sewage-disposal works, or both, may be constructed, maintained, and
operated under the provisions of this act ; the said districts shall be
called and known as " sewerage districts," and the boards to con-
struct, maintain, and operate the system or systems of sewerage or
sewage-disposal works within such districts shall be called and known
as " sewerage boards ; " in and by said resolution, said commission
shall assign to the district therein and thereby established a name
and number, thus, " Sewerage district number ," and shall also
specify the name by which the board thereafter to be elected in such
GooDBLU] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY, 97
district shall be called and designated, thus, " Sewerage board of dis-
trict number ," the number of any such district and that of the
sewerage board therein to be always the same. The first sewerage
district created and established under this act shall be " Sewerage
district number one," the second number two, and so on in regular
order as the same may be respectively created. Said conmussion
shall also cause a map to be prepared of said district so created and
established, whereon and whereby shall be shown with accuracy the
limits and boundaries of such district, of what municipalities the
lands included in said district form a part, and what extent or quan-
tity of territory of each municipality (whether the whole or a portion
thereof) is included in said district. The original of said map shall
be filed with said commission, and within ten days after the adoption
of said resolution a copy thereof and of said map shall be filed in
the office of the secretary of state and in the clerk's office of each
county in which any of the lands included in said district may be
situate; and from and after the filing of such resolution and maps as
aforesaid the territory included in said district as stated and shown
in and by said resolution and map shall be deemed to be and consti-
tute a sewerage district by the name and number and for the pur-
poses stated in said resolution.
13. The members of the several sewerage boards shall consist of
two members from each municipality, in whole or part, within the
hewerage district, to be appointed by the governing body of each of
such municipalities, and one member to be appointed by the State
sewerage commission, all of whom shall be residents of the district ;
provided that in case more than three municipalities shall be included
in whole or part in any sewerage district there shall be but one mem-
ber from each municipality in addition to the number appointed by
the State sewerage commission.
14. The members of any district sewerage board first appointed
shall meet at such time and place as the State sewerage commission
shall designate; each member of said board (and all members thereof
afterwards appointed thereto) shall take and subscribe an oath or
affirmation, before some person authorized to administer the same, to
faithfully and truly perform his duty as member of such board to the
best of his ability, and within two days after making thereof forward
the same to the secretary of state; said board when met as aforesaid
(the members thereof having each made and subscribed said oath or
affirmation) shall organize by the election of one of their number as
chairman, one as secretary, and one as treasurer ; the members of said
board shall serve for the term of three years each, and the terms of
such members shall commence on the date of their first meeting as
IBB 152—05 M 7
98 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
designated by the State sewerage commission; the chairman, secre-
tary, and treasurer of said board shall, respectively, serve for the
period of one year and until their successors are elected ; a certificate
or statement of such meeting and organization of said board shall, on
the day of such meeting, be prepared and mailed to the secretary of
state, to be filed in his office; meetings of said board subsequent to
such first meeting for organization shall be held at such times and
places as the board may decide or as it may be called to meet by the
chairman.
15. From and after such meeting and organization of said board
and the filing of such certificate as aforesaid, said board shall be
deemed to be and shall be a body politic and corporate, under the
same name and title as that designated and specified in the resolution
of the State sewerage commission creating and defining the said sew-
erage district, to wit, " Sewerage board of district number ," and
by such name and title said sewerage board shall have perpetual suc-
cession, with power to sue and be sued, and the right, power, and
authority to acquire, hold, use, and dispose of all such property, real
or personal, as may be proper or necessary for the objects, uses, and
purposes for which said sewerage board was created, and with all
other powers necessary or incident to bodies politic and corporate or
that may be necessary or proper to carry out and effectuate the objects
and purposes of this act and the objects and purposes for which said
sewerage board was created.
16. Any such board incorporated as aforesaid shall have full power
and authority within its respective district, under the supervision,
direction, and control of the State sewerage commission as hereinbe-
fore or hereinafter provided, to construct, maintain, and operate in
said district a system of sewerage and drainage, or of sewage-dis-
posal works, or both, with the necessary pipes, drains, conduits, fix-
tures, pumping works, and other appliances for the purpose of taking
up sewage and all other offensive and deleterious matter and con-
vey the same to some proper place or places of deposit or disposal to
be selected by the said board, there to be deposited, treated, disin-
fected, or disposed of as to the said board may seem proper and as
may be deemed most advantageous; and it shall be the duty of all
persons and all corporate bodies and municipalities owning or con-
trolling sewers or drains or having charge thereof within the limits
of the district wherein intercepting or main sewers have been or may
be constructed by the said board as herein provided, to cause the same
to be connected therewith ; and it shall be the duty of said board in
constructing such main or intercepting sewers to have them so con-
structed that such connection can be made therewith at all necessary
and proper points and places; all such connections shall be made in
•iuoDELL.1 SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 99
accordance with the rules and regulations from time to time adopted
by the said board in relation thereto, and under the direction and
supervision of its officers and agents.
17. The said board shall have power and authority to purchase and
acquire all lands, rights, or interest in lands which may be deemed
necessary for the construction of sewers, drains, disposal pumping,
and other works authorized by this act ; and if in any case the said
board shall be unable to agree with the owner or owners of any lands,
rights, or interests in lands deemed necessary by the said board in the
construction of the works herein authorized, or when, by reason of
the legal incapacity or absence of such owner or owners, no agree-
ment can be made for the purchase thereof, the lands or rights in
lands so desired shall be acquired in the manner provided by the
general laws of this State relating to the condemnation of lands for
public use.
18. Before determining upon the final plan or route for the build-
ing or construction of any work authorized by this act, the said board
may, by its officers, agents, servants, and employes, enter at all times
upon any lands or waters for the purpose of exploring, surveying,
leveling, and laying out the route of any drain or sewer, locating
any disposal, pumping, or other works, establishing grades and doing
all necessary preliminary work, doing, however, no unnecessary dam-
age or injury to private or other property.
19. The said board shall have power and authority to construct any
sewer or drain, by it to be made or constructed under or over any
water course, under, over, or across, or along any street, turnpike,
road, railroad, highway or other way, and in or upon private or pub-
lic lands under water, in such way and manner, however, as not
unnecessarily to obstruct or impede travel or navigation, and may
enter upon and dig up any road, street, highway, or private or public
land, for the purpose of laying down sewers and drains upon or
beneath the surface thereof, and for maintaining and repairing the
same, and in general may do all other acts and things necessary, con-
venient, and proper for the purposes of this act; and whenever the
said board shall dig up any road, street, or way, as aforesaid, it shall,
as far as practicable, restore the same to as good condition and order
as the same was when such digging commenced.
20. The said board shall have power and authority also to alter or
change the course or direction of any water course, and, with the con-
sent of the board or body having control of the streets and highways
in any city, town, or municipality, to alter or change the location or
grade of any highway, public street, or way crossed by any sewer or
drain constructed or to be constructed under the provisions of this
act, or in which such sewers or drains may be located.
100 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
21. The said board shall at all times keep full and accurate accounts
of its receipts, expenditures, disbursements, assets, and liabiliti^
and shall annually make a report of its operations and doings, in
which report it shall include an abstract of such receipts, expendi-
tures, disbursements, assets, and liabilities, and publish the same in
one or more newspapers, published in each of the counties in said
district.
22. To provide for the payment of the costs and expenses incurred
or to be incurred by the said board in making the constructions and
executing the work and performing the duties imposed upon it by
this act, it shall have power and authority from time to time to issue
bonds in its corporate name, not to exceed in amount such costs and
expenses, and not to exceed that part of such cost and expense
incurred in the work of constructing sewers, drains, disposal, and
other works, including the cost of lands, rights and interests in lands,
of which a separate account is to be kept by said board as hereinafter
provided ; such bonds shall be of the form and payable at such time,
not exceeding thirty years from the date thereof, and at such place,
either in currency or coin, as the said board may determine ; they shall
bear interest at a rate not exceeding five per centum per anniun ; in
issuing such bonds the said board may, in its discretion, make the
same or any part thereof, fall due at stated periods less than thirty
years, or may reserve therein an option to redeem and pay the same or
any part thereof at stated periods at any time between the date thereof
and the date at which they would otherwise fall due, and all such
bonds may be negotiated, sold, or disposed of at not less than their
par value, and the same or the proceeds thereof may be used by the
said board for the purpose aforesaid.
23. The said board shall keep the costs and expenses of the con-
struction of sewers, drains, disposal and other works, in which shall
be included the cost of lands, rights, and interests in lands, separate
from the costs and expenses of maintenance, operation, and repairs,
and shall, after having prepared and adopted plans (which, however,
the board or the State sewerage commission shall have the power to
change or modify, if such change or modification shall be found neces-
sary or desirable) , make a careful estimate of the cost and expense of
such construction, and shall divide and apportion the same, accord-
ing to their best judgment, to and between the several municipalities^
or parts thereof (if any) included within such sewerage districts rat-
ably and proportionally to the benefits received or to be received by
such municipalities or parts thereof from such construction, and shall
furnish to the governing body of each and every municipality the
whole or any part whereof is included in such sewerage district, a
statement of such estimated cost and expense and of the division and
GOODM.L.1 SEVERE STAtlTTE ftESfRTCtlOJTS — KEW ^EftSEV. 101
apportionment thereof as aforesaid, and service of said statement
upon the mayor or other chief executive officer or upon the clerk of
any such municipality shall be deemed to be a service upon the munici-
pality; if the governing body of any such municipality (whether a
whole or only a part thereof is included in such sewerage district)
shall be dissatisfied with such division and apportionment and shall
within twenty days after service thereof as aforesaid express such dis-
satisfaction by a resolution adopted by a majority of such body, then
it shall be lawful for such body, in the corporate name of such munic-
ipality, to make application to any justice of the supreme court of
this State for the appointment of three disinterested persons, residents
of 'this State, commission to review such division and apportion-
ment, and correct, amend, revise, alter, or confirm the same, as they
or a majority of them shall deem just and proper, and it shall be the
duty of said justice to make such appointment; the commissioners so
appointed (having respectively taken and subscribed an oath or affir-
mation before some person authorized to administer the same faith-
fully and impartially to perform the duties imposed upon them by «»),
shall forthwith, at such time and place as they or a majority of them
may appoint, and upon such notice as the said justice in the order
appointing said conmiissioners shall direct to be given, hear the par-
ties interested in said matter and such proofs and witnesses as may
be produced before them ; said conmiissioners may adjourn said hear-
ing from time to time as occasion may require ; on any such hearing
the parties, if they so choose, may be represented by counsel, and the
witnesses may be examined under dath or affirmation, which any of
said commissioners are hereby authorized to administer; said com-
missioners may designate one of their number to act as chairman and
one to act as clerk or secretary; at the conclusion of such hearing,
and withiii ten days thereafter, said commissioners, or a majority of
them, shall correct, amend, revise, alter, or confirm such division and
apportionment as they or a majority of them shall deem just and
proper under the evidence and proofs produced before them and shall
make and sign a statement or certificate thereof, which statement or
certificate shall be final and conclusive and binding upon all parties ;
the application for the appointment of such commissioners, the order
of the justice appointing them, the oath or affirmation of said com-
missioners, and their said statement or certificate shall, within two
days after the making of such statement or certificate, be filed with
the secretary of the sewerage board which made the division or appor-
tionment reviewed by said commissioners ;• and such sewerage board,
within five days after the filing of such statement or certificate as
aforesaid, shall cause a certified copy thereof to be served in manner
a So In original.
102 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
aforesaid upon each of the municipalities that the original division
and apportionment made by said sewerage board was served upon,
which certified copy so served shall be in lieu and stead of that orig-
inally served and (as aforesaid) be final and conclusive and binding
upon all parties; if, in any case, where only a part of a municipality
is included in a sewerage district, the governing body of such munic-
ipality shall not within said twenty days after service upon it of any
such original statement as aforesaid adopt a resolution expi?essing its
dissatisfaction as aforesaid provided, then, and in every such case, it
shall and may be lawful for one or more of the residents and tax-
payers, or residents and nonresident taxpayers of said sewerage dis-
trict, to join in such application as aforesaid to any justice of the
supreme court for the appointment of commissioners to review, as
aforesaid, the said division and apportionment, and thereupon the
said justice may, in his discretion, appoint such commissioners, and if
such appointment be made, said commissioners shall proceed in the
same manner, and the proceedings before them had shall be similar
to those hereinbefore provided, and the statement or certificate of
said commissioners made upon any such last-mentioned application
shall be final and conclusive and binding upon all parties.
24. The said sewerage board shall also, in the manner hereinbefore
directed, serve upon or furnish to each of said municipalities after
every issue and sale of bonds a statement of the amount of such
bonds and the date of interest thereon and the proportion thereof
allotted to each municipality (where such municipality is entirelj-
within the sewerage district) or (where only a part of the municipal-
ity is included in the sewerage district) of the proportion of such
division and apportionment allotted to the part of the municipality
in said sewerage district; and it shall be the duty of each of said
municipalities, and of its proper officers, in the next annual tax levy
made in such municipality and in each succeeding year thereafter to
include and raise by taxation the amount required to pay the inter-
est on the proportion of such bonded indebtedness allotted to such
municipality or part thereof, as the case may be, and if such munici-
pality be entirely within such sewerage district then it shall be the
duty of such municipalities to cause to be levied and assessed therein
a sum equal to the amount of interest so apportioned and allotted to
such municipality together with such additional sum, to be divided
and apportioned and allotted to and between said municipalities or
parts thereof as aforesaid as may be necessary to establish and main-
tain a sinking fund sufficient to pay the principal of the bonds issued
by the said sewerage board under authority of this act when the same
fall due. If only a part of the municipality be included in the sew-
erage district, then it shall be the duty of such municipality and its
GooDBLL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTBICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 103
proper officers, instead of levying and assessing the same upon the
whole municipality, to cause, in manner aforesaid, the sum or sums
that may, as aforesaid, be apportioned and allotted to such part of
the municipality as is included in the sewerage district to be levied
and assessed in and upon such part of the municipality as is included
in the sewerage district, in the same 'manner as other taxes may be
levied and assessed therein; and it shall be the duty of all taxing
officers and all collecting officers in the said municipalities to levy,
assess, and collect the said amount or sums so to be raised in such
municipalities or parts thereof, as the case may be; and it shall also
\ye the duty of the collector of taxes in each of the said municipali-
ties, or other proper officer, to pay to the sewerage board thereunto
entitled the money so levied, assessed, and collected. After each
census. State or national, a new allotment shall be made of the sink-
ing fund or redemption fund in the manner herein provided.
25. As soon as the work of construction by this act authorized (or
the cost and expense of which a preliminary estimate shall have been
made as herein provided) has been completed the said board shall
proceed at once to ascertain the actual cost and expense of such work,
and shall furnish to each of the said municipalities or municipal
divisions a statement of such cost and expense.
26. The cost of maintenance, operation, and repairs, together with
the cost of supervision, and all other expenses of every kind not
included in the cost and expense of construction, shall be annually
estimated by the said board and divided and apportioned between the
said several municipalities or parts thereof upon the same basis as
herein provided for the division of the cost and expense of construc-
tion; and that the same, when so divided and apportioned, shall be
levied, assessed, collected, and paid annually in the same manner pro-
vided for the levying, assessment, and collection of the cost and
expense of construction : Provided^ however^ That if at the end of any
year when such cost and expense shall have been accurately ascer-
tained such estimate shall be found to have been more or less than the
proper proportion of any such municipality, then the surplus or defi-
ciency, as the case may be, shall be deducted from or added to the
sum to be levied, assessed, and collected for the succeeding year.
27. The said board shall, immediately after receiving from the said
municipalities, or either of them, or from the collector or treasurer
of any such municipality, any moneys on account of the apportion-
ment made, as hereinbefore provided, or as soon thereafter as prac-
ticable, cause the same to be invested in securities, the character of
which shall be the same as required by law for savings banks of this
State, except so much thereof as may be required to pay interest due
or to fall due during the current year ; and all such funds, and the
104 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION. {Ko. 152.
securities in which the same or any part thereof shall be invested,
and the interest received therefrom, shall be held, used, and applied
by the said board as a sinking fund to meet and pay the interest and
principal on the bonds issued by the said board under the authority
of this act, and for no other purpose whatever, until all such bonds
and all arrears of interest thereon are fully paid. It shall be the
duty of said sewerage board to include in its annual report the amount
of money received by it for the purposes aforesaid, the sources from
which such money was received, and the investment of the same ; and
the said board shall keep a record and account of all bonds issued
by it, when the same fall due, the time and place of payment, and
the rate of interest thereon, and of the amount received on the sale
or disposition thereof, and shall also keep an account of all moneys
invested, held, and used as a sinking fund, and of the securities in
which the same may be invested. The books, records, accounts,
papers, and documents of the said board shall be open to the inspe<*-
tion of any person appointed by the governing body of any munici-
pality within said district to inspect the same: Provided^ howerer.
That in case the said board shall issue bonds which shall fall due and
become payable at stated periods less than thirty years, or shall retain
in any such issue the option to redeem bonds prior to the date at which
they would otherwise fall due as hereinbefore provided, then it shall
be lawful for the said board to make application of the moneys
received by it from the several municipalities and of the funds tem-
porarily invested by the said board so received for the purpose of pav-
ing off and discharging the said obligations according to their tenor
and effect.
28. During the year preceding the year in which the bonds issued
under the authority of this act shall fall due the said board shall
cause a careful computation to be made of the moneys that will be
available for the payment of the same, and if it shall be found that
any deficiency will exist in the fund that will be available therefor,
after the application of moneys received and the use of all securities
held, such deficiency shall be apportioned and allotted to the said
municipalities in the same manner and upon the same basis as the
original apportionment, and shall be added to the amount so levied,
assessed, collected, and paid by the said municipalities, respectively,
in the succeeding year; and if any excess shall be found to exist in
such fund the surplus shall be credited to each of the said munici-
palities in the same proportion and deducted from future estimates
of the respective shares or proportions of such municipalities of the
cost and expense of maintenance, operation, and repairs.
29. In and about the performance and discharge of the duties
imposed upon it by this act any such sewerage board as aforesaid,
C500DM.L,] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 105
or a majority thereof, may employ such experts, engineers, contract-
ors, officers, agents, employes, clerks, workmen, and servants as it
may deem necessary or proper to enable it to perform its duties and
carry out the objects and purposes of this act; and said board, or a
majority thereof, may fix and determine the duties and compensa-
tion of such experts, engineers, contractors, officers, agents, employees,
clerks, workmen, and servants, and remove or discharge the same,
or any of them, at pleasure.
30. The secretary of any such sewerage board shall keep a record
of all the proceedings and transactions of said board ; under the direc-
tion of said board he shall prepare the estimate, division, and appor-
tionment provided for in section twenty-six hereof; he shall prepare
the annual report of said board and perform such other duties as the
l)oard may from time to time require. The secretary shall receive an
annual salary, to be fixed by the board, or a majority thereof, but he
shall not receive any per diem allowance.
31. The treasurer of any such sewerage board shall have charge and
custody of all moneys and securities received or owned or held by said
board ; he shall keep accurate record and account of the receipt, dis-
bursement, and disposition of all such moneys and securities, and
invest, deposit, dispose of, disburse, and pay out the same at such
times and in such manner as the board may direct, and under such
rules and regulations as it may from time to time establish. The
treasurer shall give bond to such board for the due and faithful per-
formance of his duties as such treasurer in such sum and with such
sureties as the board, or a majority thereof, may require. The treas-
urer shall receive an annual salary, to be fixed and determined by the
board, or a majority thereof, but he shall not receive any per diem
allowance.
32. The members of any such board, except the secretary and treas-
urer thereof, when actually engaged in and about the business of said
board, shall receive a per diem compensation of five dollars; said per
diem compensation, and the salaries to be paid the secretary and treas-
urer, shall be included in said estimate hereinbefore mentioned.
33. Any such sewerage board is authorized and empowered to rent
an office or offices as may be required for the due transaction and
carrying out of its work and duties, and to properly equip and fur-
nish such office or offices, the expense thereof to be included in said
estimate mentioned in section twenty-six hereof.
34. This act shall take effect immediately.
Approved March 24, 1899.
106 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
[Laws of 1902, p. 195, chap. 49.]
AN ACT authorizing the appointment and defining the powera and duties of
commissioners in sewage and drainage districts created for the purpose of
relieving tlie streams and rivers therein from pollution, and to provide a plan
for the prevention thereof, and providing for the raising, expenditure, and
payment of moneys necessary for this purpose.
Be it enacted by the senate and general assembly of the State of
New Jersey:
1. Upon the creation and incorporation by the legislature of any
sewerage and drainage district for the purpose- mentioned in the title
of this act it shall be the duty of the governor of this State forthwith
to appoint therein and therefor five able and discreet men, residents
within such district (having regard in making such appointments to
locality, so that each section of the district may be represented, as
far as practicable), who, when so appointed, commissioned, and
sworn, shall constitute a board of commissioners, to be known as the
district sewerage and drainage commissioners (inserting in
each case in the blank space the name of the district designated in
the act of incorporation), and the persons so appointed shall receive
as compensation for their services an annual salary of twenty-five
hundred dollars, payable in equal monthly installments. In making
the first appointments under this act the members of the said board
shall be appointed as follows : One for a term of one year, one for a
term of two years, one for a term of three years, one for a term of
four years, and one for a term of five years, and thereafter one shall
be appointed each year for a term of five years. Any vacancy occur-
ring in the said board by death, resignation, or otherwise, shall be
filled in the same manner as the original appointment for the balance
of the term. Each of the said commissioners so appointed shall,
before they enter upon the duties of their office, take and subscribe an
oath that they will faithfully and impartially execute and perform
the duties imposed upon them by law, and cause the same to be filed in
the office of the secretary of state of this State. The governor of this
State shall have power to remove such commissioners from office for
cause during their term of office and, upon removal, to fill the vacancy
thus occasioned for the unexpired term in the manner herein pro-
vided for filling vacancies.
2. The said board shall, as soon as may be after appointment, and
annually thereafter on the first Tuesday in May in each year, organize
by the choice of one of its members as chairman, and may elect a
clerk, who may or may not be a member of the said board, and may
from time to time appoint such agents, officers, and servants and
employ such engineers and assistants as it may deem necessary to
<;ooi»KLL.l SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 107
carry out the purposes of this act, and may determine their duties
and compensation and remove the same at its pleasure.
3. The said board of commissioners, when duly organized, shall be
deemed to be and shall become a body corporate, with power to sue
and be sued and with the right to acquire, hold, use, and dispose of
all such property as may be necessary for the uses and purposes for
which the said board was created and with all other necessary powers
incident to corporate bodies.
4. When duly organized, the said commissioners shall at once, with
the aid and assistance of such engineers and other agents as they may
deem proper, proceed to investigate methods and plans for relieving
the streams and fivers within the said district from pollution and for
preventing the pollution of the same, and to determine the apportion-
ment of the capacity of sewer provided for each municipality in any
intercepting sewer, sewers, or disposal works: Provided^ That before
a final determination as to the plan or method to be adopted for the
purpose, an opportunity shall be given the governing body of each
municipality to be heard in relation thereto, and after said hearing,
as soon as the said commissioners have adopted a plan or method for
this purpose, they shall report the same to the respective municipal-
ities of the district and to the legislature of this State, together with
a bill providing therefor and for the expenses thereof.
5. Before determining upon the final plan or route for the building
or construction of any work investigated under this aqt the said
board may, by its officers, agents, servants, and employees, enter at all
times upon any lands or waters for the purpose of exploring, survey-
ing, leveling, and laying out the route of any drain or sewer, locating
any disposal, pumping, or other works, establishing grades, and doing
all necessary preliminary work in the way of designating locations,
doing, however, no unnecessary damage or injury to private or other
property.
6. The said board shall at all times keep full and accurate account
of its receipts and expenditures, disbursements, assets, and liabilities,
and shall annually cause a detailed statement thereof to be published
in one or more newspapers published or circulating in the respective
municipalities in said district.
7. To provide for the payment of the cost and expense incurred or
to be incurred by the said board in investigating and performing the
duties imposed upon it by this act, one-half of said cost of ^ expense
shall be paid out of the State treasury on certificate of the governor
to. the comptroller, who shall draw his warrant on the State treasurer
in favor of the said board for the amount thereof, the same to be
•So in original.
108 LAWS IJ'ORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. fNo. 152.
ascertained on a duly verified statement of such expenses being filed
with the governor and in the office of the secretary of state; as to the
balance of the said costs and expense incurred or to be incurred
under this act, the said board shall have power and authority :
I. To issue from time to time, for the said one-half of the costs and
expenses, temporary certificates, to run for a period not to exceed
two years, the aggregate issue of said certificates not to exceed the
sum of twenty -five thousand dollars; such certificates, when issued,
shall be deemed and considered the indebtedness of the sewerage and
drainage district, and shall constitute a charge upon persons and
property therein, and shall be retired and paid in the manner herein-
after provided.
II. The said board shall have power and authority to order and
cause a tax to be levied, assessed, and collected upon persons and prop-
erty within the said sewerage and drainage district, the proceeds of
which to be used in payment of the said certificates and the interest
due and to grow thereon; the amount to be assessed and collected
in the respective municipalities composing such districts shall be
determined by the said board, and shall be apportioned according to
the taxable ratables of the last preceding year as returned by the
taxing officers in said district, and a certificate by the said board
shall be filed with the taxing officers of such municipalities compos-
ing the said* sewerage district, and it shall be the duty of the taxing
officers within the said municipalities included in the said sewerage
and drainage district, to levy, assess, and collect and pay over to the
said commissioners any tax ordered by them to be assessed by virtue
of the provisions of this act.
8. It shall be the duty of the said board annually to make and file
with the secretary of state of this State a report showing the amount
of money received by it for the purposes aforesaid, sources from
which money was received, and the expenditure of the same; and it
5?hall be the duty of the said board to keep an account of all certifi-
cates issued by it, when the same fall due, the time and place of pay-
ment, the rate of interest thereon, and of the amount received on the
sale or disposition thereof; and the books, records, accounts, papers,
and documents of the said board shall be open for the inspection of
the governor of this State, or any person or pei'sons whom he may
appoint to inspect the same.
9. For the purpose of carrying out the provisions of this act with
dispatch the sum of twenty-five thousand dollars is hereby appropri-
ated by the State out of any moneys now in the State treasury not
otherwise appropriated, and the governor is hereby authorized and
empowered to give an order on the comptroller for advanced pay-
ments to the said board on account of the State's share of such ex-
penses to be incurred. •
GooDESLU] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 109
10. When the said board of commissioners are appointed and
organized under this act it shall have absolute control of and supervi-
sion over the prevention of pollution throughout the said sewerage or
drainage district for which the said commissioners were appointed,
exclusive of any other body or board in this State now having control
of the same: Provided^ however^ That nothing herein contained shall
in any way affect or delay or interfere with any action or proceedings
which may have heretofore been taken by the State sewerage commis-
sion for the purpose of preventing pollution in said sewerage district,
or that may hereafter be taken by said State sewerage commission for
the enforcement thereof.
11. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent with the provisions of this
act be, and the same are hereby, repealed, and this act shall take effect
immediately.
Approved March 27, 1902.
[Act passed by the special session of the legislature convened April 21, 1903. Laws of
1903, p. 777.]
AN ACT to relieve from pollution the rivers and streams within the Passaic
Valley sewerage district, established and defined by an act of the legislature
entitled "An act to create a sewerage district to be called the Passaic Valley
sewerage district," approved March twentj'-seventh, one thousand nine hun-
dred and two, and for this purpose establishing therefor a district board of
conunissloners, defining its powers and duties, and providing for the appoint-
ment, terms of office, duties, and compensation of such commissioners, and
further providing for the raising, collecting, and expenditure of the necessary
moneys.
Whereas the legislature of this State has created and defined a sew-
erage district, embracing a large number of municipalities and parts
of municipalities, in the counties of Passaic, Bergen, Hudson, and
Essex, under the name of the Passaic Valley sewerage district ; and
Whereas the Passaic River and many streams flowing into it within
said sewerage district are polluted by sewage and other deleterious
matter to the extent that the health of the people residing in said
district is seriously endangered ; and
Whereas immediate relief therefrom is imperative ; and
Whereas the governor of this State, by sanction of the legislature,
has appointed five commissioners for said district with power, among
other things, to investigate methods and plans for relieving the
streams and rivers within said district from pollution, and for pre-
venting the pollution of the same ; and
Whereas said commissioners have adopted an effectual plan or
method for relieving the streams and rivers within said district from
pollution, and for preventing the pollution of the same, and have
reported said plan or method to the legislature ; and
Whereas in order to carry into effect such plan or method, with
110 LAWS FOBBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION. [No. 152.
such modifications or additions thereto as shall hereafter be approved
by said commissioners, it is necessary that further and greater power
be given to said conmiissioners :
Be it enacted by the senate and general assembly of the State of
New Jersey:
1. The commissioners heretofore appointed by the governor of this
State in and for the Passaic Valley sewerage district shall continue
in their respective offices for the terms for which they were severally
appointed, and said terms are hereby extended to the first Tuesday
of May succeeding the date when their terms under said appointments
would respectively expire; and hereafter one commissioner shall be
appointed by the governor, by and with the advice and consent of the
senate, in each year for a term of five years, beginning on the first
Tuesday of May next following the date of his appointment. Anj-
vacancy occurring in the office of commissioner by death, resignation,
or otherwise shall be filled by the governor, but for the unexpired
term only. Each of the said commissioners hereafter appointed^ be-
fore he enters upon the duties of his office, shall take and subscribe an
oath that he will faithfully and impartially execute and perform the
duties imposed upon him by law, and cause the same to be filed in
the office of the secretary of state of this State. The commissioners
shall each receive for services under this act an annual salary of
twenty-five hundred dollars, payable in equal monthly installments,
and the said commissioners shall henceforth receive no other com-
pensation than that provided under this act. The governor of this
State shall have power to remove any commissioner from office for
cause during his term of office, and upon removal to fill the vacancy
thus occasioned for the unexpired term. In making appointments,
either for full terms or to fill vacancies, regard shall be had by the
governor both to ability and fitness, and also to locality, so that each
section of the district may be represented as far as practicable. Xo
commissioner shall be directly or indirectly interested in any contract
awarded under the provisions of this act, nor in furnishing materials
or supplies therefor to any contractor, nor in furnishing security for
the performance of any contract. If at any time it shall appear to
the satisfaction of the governor of this State that any commissioner is
or has been so interested^ or is or has been a stockholder in any cor-
poration furnishing material or supplies to any contractor for work
done or to be done under the provisions of this act, or that he is the
owner of any lands or water or water rights taken or to be taken or
used in or for the construction of any work under the provisions of
this act, or a stockholder in any corporation owning or leasing any
such lands or waters or water rights, it shall be the duty of the gov-
ernor to remove such commissioner from office forthwith, and all con-
tracts made by such sewerage commissioners wherein any such
GooDELL.] SEVERE STATUTE BE8TBICTI0NS — NEW JEBSEY. Ill
commissioner shall have been interested, directly or indirectly, as
aforesaid, or otherwise, shall thereupon become and be null and void,
and no further payments on account thereof shall be made by said
sewerage commissioners.
2. The said commissioners shall, on the first Tuesday in May of
each year, at the hour of two o'clock in the afternoon, organize by
the choice of one of their members as chairman of the board, and
they may elect a treasurer, who may or may not be a member of the
board, and a clerk, who may or may not be a member of the board,
and may also from time to time appoint such other officers, attorneys,
agents, employees, and servants, and such engineers and assistants as
they may deem necessary to carry out the purposes of this act, and
may prescribe the duties and fix the compensation of all officers,
attorneys, agents, employees, servants, engineers, and assistants ; and
all appointees of said commissioners may be removed at their pleas-
ure. The organization of said board and the appointment of officers,
agents, clerks, servants, engineers, and assistants heretofore made by
the said board shall have the same effect as if made under this act.
3. The said commissioners heretofore appointed and their succes-
sors in office are and shall continue to be a body politic and corporate,
with perpetual succession under the name of " Passaic Valley sewer-
age commissioners," with power to sue and be sued, with power to
adopt and use a corporate seal, and the right, power, and authority
to" acquire, hold, use, and dispose of all such property, real and per-
sonal, as may be proper or necessary, and with all other powers proper
or necessary to carry out and effectuate the purposes for which said
board is created.
4. The board of Passaic Valley sewerage commissioners, incorpo-
rated as aforesaid, is hereby given full power and authority to make,
construct, maintain, and operate intercepting, main, trunk, and out-
let sewers with the necessary pipes, conduits, pumping works, and
other appliances for thfe purpose of taking up, within the said Pas-
saic Valley sewerage district, sewage and other offensive and dele-
terious matter which would or might otherwise pollute the streams
and rivers in said district and convey the same to some proper place
or places of deposit, discharge, or outfall in the New York Bay,
within the State of New Jersey, to be selected by the said sewerage
commissioners, there to be discharged, which place or places of
deposit, discharge, or outfall shall be at least one and one-quarter
miles, measured at right angles, in an easterly direction, from the
exterior line for solid filling in the New York Bay, as now established
by the riparian commissioners of this State, and in a tidal channel of
not less than forty feet in depth at mean low water; and the said
sewerage commissioners shall also have power to establish within said
sewerage district, when necessary, sewage disposal works and works
112 LAWS FOBBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION. [No. 152.
for the treatment, disinfecting, and disposal of sewage: Provided,
however^ That no sewage disposal work and works for the treatments
disinfecting, and disposal of sewage shall be erected, established, or
maintained within the distance of five miles from the outfall of said
trunk sewer herein provided for: Provided^ however^ That nothing
herein contained shall in any way be construed to allow or piennit
said sewerage commission to establish or build more than one sewage
disposal works or more than one plant or works for the treatment* dis-
infecting or disposal of sewage; no contract of any kind shall be
awarded at any one time for more than one million dollars: Provided,
however^ That this provision shall not apply to the sale of bonds. All
work done and materials purchased in the prosecution of said w^ork
or works, the cost of which shall exceed five thousand dollars, shall be
be by contract awarded, after due advertisement, to the lowest respon-
sible bidder, and all contractors shall be required to give bonds satis-
factory in security and amount to the said board; and no contract
involving an expenditure of more than twenty-five thousand dollars
shall be awarded until after the same shall have been submitted to
»nd approved by the governor: Provided^ That no contract for any
of the work herein required to be performed by contract shall be
awarded except on the express stipulation that so far as practicable
all said work shall be performed by union labor, and preference
shall be given to citizens of the State of New Jersey.
5. It shall be the duty of all persons, corporations, and municipali-
ties owning or controlling the sewers or drains within the limits of
said sewerage district, which discharge directly or indirectly into the
streams or rivers within the said sewerage district any sewage or
deleterious matter, to cause the same to be connected with and to be
discharged into the sewers constructed by the said sewerage commis-
sioners when the same shall have been constructed, and at the places
which shall have been designated for that purpose by the said sewer-
age commissioners; all sewers and drains hereafter constructed by
any person, corporation, or municipality within the said sewerage
district conveying or discharging sewage or other deleterious matter,
which might otherwise discharge into or be discharged into the streams
or rivers within the said sewerage district, directly or indirectly, shall
be so constructed that the outfall or discharge therefrom shall be de-
livered into the drains or sewers provided by the said sewerage com-
missioners at the points and places designated by the said commission-
ers; and it shall be the duty of the said sewerage commissioners, in
constructing said intercepting or main sewers, to have them so con-
structed that connection therewith can be made at necessary or proper
points; and all such connections shall be made in accordance with the
rules and regulations from time to time adopted by the said sewerage
GOODBLL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 113
commi&sioners in relation thereto, and under the direction and super-
vision of their officers and agents, and all such connections shall be
the property of such sewerage commissioners; the main, intercepting
or trunk sewer to be constructed by the said sewerage commissioners
shall commence at or near the Valley of Rocks, in the city of Pater-
son, and shall extend to the point of discharge or outfall in the New
York Bay, within the limits of the State of New Jersey ; before any
moneys expended or obligations are incurred for the construction of
any trunk or outlet sewer which shall discharge into New York Bay,
the said board shall carefully investigate whether said discharge is
likely to pollute the waters of said bay within the jurisdiction of the
State of New York to such an extent or in such a degree as to cause a
nuisance to persons or property within said State, and shall present
the result of their investigation to the governor with their opinion
thereon and their reasons for their opinion ; and thereupon the same
shall be considered by the governor and the attorney-general, and no
work shall be done or further proceedings taken unless the attorney-
general shall, in writing, advise that no cause of action either for
damages or an injunction will arise in favor of the State of New York
or any of its inhabitants by reason of such discharge of sewage into
the waters of New York Bay, and the governor shall, by order, in
writing, advise said board that, in his judgment, it is safe and prudent
to proceed with its work, due regard being had to all the risks and
dangers of injunctive litigation.
6. The said sewerage commissioners shall have power and authority
to purchase and acquire lands and rights or interests in lands within
and without the said sewerage district which may be deemed neces-
sary for the construction of sewers, drains, disposal, pumping or other
works authorized by this act, but no ventilating plant, sewage dis-
posal works, or works for the treatment, disinfecting, or disposal of
sewage shall be erected or maintained outside of said sewerage dis-
trict; and if in any case the said sewerage commissioners shall be
unable to agree with the owner or owners of any lands or rights or
interests in lands deemed necessary by said sewerage commissioners
in the construction and prosecution of the work hereby authorized,
or when by reason of legal incapacity or absence of such owner or
owners no agreement can be made for the purchase thereof, the lands
or rights or interests in lands so deemed necessary for the purposes of
this act shall be acquired by condemnation by the said sewerage com-
missioners in the manner provided by the general laws of this State
relating to the condemnation of lands for public uses : Provided^ That
no private property shall be taken for the purposes of this act without
compensation therefor shall have first been made or tendered to the
owner or owners thereof, or, in lieu thereof, paid to the clerk of the
IBB 162—06 M 8
114 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATEB POLLUTION. [No. 152.
county in which the lands taken are located for the use of the person
or persons entitled to receive the same ; and in case such payment or
tender to the owner or owners, or payment into court, is made by thf
said sewerage commissioners upon the award of commissioners, the
said sewerage commissioners shall be entitled to take immediate pos-
session of the property so condemned, notwithstanding anj' ap[>eal.
and the acceptance by the owner or owners of the lands or rights so
condemned of any award of commissioners shall not interfere with or
prevent the taking of any appeal provided by law.
7. The said board of sewerage commissioners shall have power to
construct any sewer or drain by it to be made or constructed under or
over an}'^ water course, under or over or across or along any street,
turnpike, railway, canal, highway, or other way, and in or upon pri-
vate or public lands, and in or upon lands of this State and under
waters of this State, in such manner, however, as not unnecessarily to
obstruct or impede travel or navigation, and may enter upon and dig
up any street, road, highway, or private or public lands either within
or without the said sewerage district for the purpose of constructing
or laying sewers or drains upon or beneath the surface thereof, and
for maintaining and operating the same, and in general may do all
other acts or things necessary, convenient, and proper to carry out
the purposes of this act; but no part of said sewer where laid under
the waters of this State beyond the exterior lines for solid filling, as
established by the riparian commissioners of this State, shall in said
Newark Bay be above an elevation of thirty feet below mean low
water, or shall in said New York Bay be above an elevation of thirty-
five feet below mean low water ; and the said board of sewerage com-
missioners shall have power, for the purpose of carrjnng such sewage
or other matter to the place of deposit or discharge in New York Bay.
to construct sewers within territory outside of the said sewerage dis-
trictf and with its sewers, pipes, and drains to pass through or partly
through the territory of municipalities outside of said sewerage dis-
trict; and whenever the said board shall dig up any road, street, or
highway as aforesaid, it shall, as far as possible, restore the same to
as good condition and order as the same was when such digging com-
menced: Provided^ however^ That when such streets, roads, or high-
ways lie outside of such sewerage district, the laying down of sewer?
or drains under or across said streets, roads, or highways shall be
subject to such police regulations of the governing bodies of such
municipalities as are applicable and enforceable in the construction
of sewers or drains for such municipality.
8. The said sewerage commissioners shall have power and authority
to alter or change the course or direction of any water course, and,
with the consent of the township committee of any township and of
the board or body having control of the streets or highways in any
GooDBLL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 115
city, town, or other municipality, to alter or change the grade or loca-
tion of any highway, public street, or way crossed by any sewer or
drain to be constructed under the provisions of this act.
9. The said board of sewerage commissioners may, by its officers,
agents, servants, and employees, enter at all times upon any lands or
waters within or without the said sewerage district for the purpose of
exploring, surveying, leveling, and laying out the route of any drain
or sewer, locating any disposal, pumping, or other works, establishing
grades, and doing aU necessary preliminary work ; doing, however, no
iinneoessary damage or injury to private property.
10. The said board of sewerage commissioners shall at all times
keep full and accurate accounts of its receipts, expenditures, disburse-
ments, and liabilities, and shall annually cause a detailed statement
thereof to be published and a copy thereof mailed to the secretary of
state of this State and to the clerk of each of the municipalities in the
district. The fiscal year of said sewerage commissioners shall end on
the first Tuesday of May in each year, and said report so to be pub-
lished shall be a report for the previous fiscal year, and shall be made
as soon after the end of each fiscal year as conveniently may be; and
the mayor or chief officer of any city or other municipality included
within said drainage district shall be given full access to all the
books, accounts, and vouchers of the said board, at all reasonable
times, for the purpose of examination and report in the interest of
such municipalities, respectively, and of the taxpayers therein.
11. To provide for the payment of costs and expenses incurred or
to be incurred by the said sewerage commissioners for the purchase
of lands, rights, or interests in lands or other property or rights, and
in the construction of said disposal works, pumping stations, sewers,
drains, and all other works by them to be constructed, and for engi-
neering, administrative, and other expenses connected therewith,
including interest during construction, said board of sewerage com-
missioners shall have power from time to time to issue its corporate
bonds in. an amount not to exceed nine million dollars and not to
exceed the total estimated cost and expenses of the whole work ; such
bonds shall be in the form and payable at a time not exceeding fifty
years from the date thereof and at such places, and either in cur-
rency or coin, as the said sewerage commissioners may determine;
.such bonds shall bear interest at a rate not exceeding four per centum
per annum, payable semiannually ; all such bonds shall be signed by
the chairman of the said board of sewerage commissioners and coun-
tersigned by the treasurer, and shall be sealed with its corporate seal,
attested by the clerk; in issuing such bonds the board of sewerage
commissioners may, in its discretion, make the same or any i)art
thereof fall due at stated periods less than fifty years from the date
of issue, and may reserve in said bonds an option to redeem or pay
116 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
the same or any part thereof at stated periods at any time between
the date thereof and the date at which they would otherwise fall due:
the said bonds may be either coupon or registered bonds or partly
coupon and partly registered bonds, and all such bonds may be
negotiated, sold, and disposed of at not less than their par value, and
the same or the proceeds thereof may be used by the said sewerage
commissioners for the purposes aforesaid ; the said board of sewerage
commissioners shall keep the cost and expenses of the construction of
its plant — in which shall be included the cost of lands, rights, or inter-
ests in lands, and the cost of all other property and rights, and the
cost of construction of all works, including engineering expenses,
administrative expenses, and legal expenses, and including interest
during the course of construction — separate from the cost and ex-
penses of maintenance, operation, and repairs; all sales of bonds shall
be made after public notice and advertisement calling for bids and
shall be made to the highest responsible bidders.
12. The said board of sewerage commissioners may, in anticipation
of the issuing of bonds, and from time to time as it may need money.
borrow such sum or sums of money, not exceeding at any one time
one-fifth of the estimated cost of the whole work, and may issue its
certificates of indebtedness, promissory notes, or other obligations
therefor, retiring the same from time to time as the bonds hereinbe-
fore authorized to be issued are sold. In order that the said bonds
issued for the purchase of land, rights in land, and for the construc-
tion of the works, plant and extensions, betterments and improve-
ments thereof may be paid and retired at maturity, the sewerage
commissioners shall provide a proper and suitable sinking fund not
exceeding in amount to be raised in any one year one per centum of
the face value of the bonds issued, which sum shall be raised annu-
ally, beginning with the fifth year after the issuing of said bonds, at
the time and in the manner herein provided for the raising of the
moneys necessary to pay the interest on said bonds. The money so
raised for sinking-fund purposes shall be kept in a separate account
by the treasurer of the board of sewerage commissionei-s, and shall,
under its direction, be used or invested from time to time in the pur-
chase or retirement of its own bonds, or in the purchase of securities
in which savings banks and savings institutions of this State are
authorized to invest.
13. All indebtedness of the said board of sewerage commissioners
incurred for the purchase of lands, rights, or interests in land or
other property, and in the construction of its works or plant, or
otherwise lawfully incurred, pursuant to the provisions of this act,
whether such indebtedness is represented by bonds, certificates of
indebtedness, promissory notes, or other form of indebtedness, with
interest accrued or to accrue thereon, shall be a charge upon all per-
OOODHLL.1 SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 117
sons and property in the municipal or taxing districts lying in whole
or in part within said sewerage district as fully as the legislature of
this State shall have power to authorize the same; and all bonds,
certificates of indebtedness, promissory notes, and other obligations
issued by the said board of sewerage commissioners shall be free
from all State, county, municipal, and other taxes, and the property,
real and personal, of the said board of sewerage commissioners held
by it under authority of this act, wherever situated, shall in like man-
ner be free from taxation.
14. The said sewerage commissioners shall, on or before the fif-
teenth day of June in each year, ascertain and determine the amount
of money necessary to be raised for the payment of interest upon
bonds and other indebtedness and for sinking-fund charges for the
current fiscal year, and shall apportion the same among the respective
municipalities and taxing districts lying in whole or in part within
said sewerage district, in such proportion as the taxable ratables
within so much of said municipality or taxing district as is embraced
within said sewerage district bears to the total amount of taxable
ratables within the whole of said sewerage district, as returned and
certified by the respective taxing boards and taxing oflBicers of the
said municipalities or taxing districts for the preceding year: Pro-
vided^ howevei*^ That all ratables in said district for this purpose be
assessed at their true value; and it shall be the-duty of each assessor,
taxing board, or taxing officer for the several municipalities and tax-
ing districts lying in whole or in part within said sewerage district
for this purpose, to examine, compute, determine, and certify to the
said sewerage board annually, and by the first day of April of each
year, the amount of taxable property or ratables assessed in the last
preceding year to or upon persons and property within so much of
the several municipalities and taxing districts as lie within the said
sewerage district, and the books of each of the said assessors, taxing
boards, and taxing officers shall at all times be open for examination
by the board of sewerage commissioners, its officers and agents, for
the purpose of examining, checking, and, if necessary, correcting
said certificates.
15. The said board of sewerage commissioners shall, on or before
the fifteenth day of June in each year, ascertain and determine as
near as may be the amount of money necessary to be raised for oper-
ating, maintaining, and repairing its works and plant for the current
fiscal year, and shall apportion the money so estimated to be neces-
sary among the several municipalities or taxing districts lying in
whole or in part within said sewerage district according to the
amount of sewage by them respectively delivered to or discharged
into any sewers or other receptacles provided or constructed by the
said sewerage commissioners for the reception thereof. Before such
apportionment is finally made and adopted by the sewerage commis-
118 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
sioners for any year and on the fourth Tuesday of May, at two o'clock
in the afternoon, the said sewerage commission shall sit at its prin-
cipal office for the purjwse of hearing such municipalities as desire
to be heard upon the apportionment of the estimated amount of
money required for the operation, maintenance, and repair of sai^J
works and plant, but the apportionment when made by the said sew-
erage commissioners shall be final and conclusive; in case, however,
the estimate of moneys necessary to be raised in any year for operat-
ing, maintaining, and repairing the works and plant of the sewern^
commissioners shall, at the end of the year, be found to have been too
low, the deficiency shall be made good by adding the same to the esti-
mated amount required for operating, maintaining, and repairing
the said works for the next succeeding year; and if said estimate
shall be found to have been excessive, then such excess shall be de-
ducted from the estimate for the next succeeding year.
16. The said board of sewerage commissioners shall, on or before
the twentieth day of June in each year, order and cause a tax to Ix*
levied and assessed upon all persons and property within each of the
municipal and taxing districts lying in whole or in part within said
sewerage district, for the purpose of raising the money necessary to
pay interest upon its bonds and other indebtedness and necessary
sinking-fund charges and for the sum or sums of money estimated as
necessary to provide for the proper maintenance and operation of its
works and plant, and for oil the other expenses of the said sewerage
commissioners, and to this end it shall, on or before the twentieth day
of June in each year, certify to the tax assessor, taxing board, or tax-
ing officer of each of said municipalities or taxing districts lying in
whole or -in part within said sewerage district, the amount of tax
required to be levied, assessed, and raised in each of their respective
municipalities and taxing districts for said purposes; and the said
assessors, taxing boards, and taxing officers shall assess said sums so
directed to be assessed (and certified to them) upon all the pei"sons
and property within their respective municipalities or taxing districts
liable to be assessed for State or county taxes, and the said tax shall
be levied, assessed, and collected by the same officers at the same
time and in the same manner and with the same effect as State or
county taxes are required to be levied, assessed, and collected within
said municipalities or taxing districts; and the taxes so levied upon
real estate in said municipalities and taxing districts shall be and
remain a first and paramount lien thereon until paid.
17. Out of the first moneys collected in any year in any munici-
pality or taxing district, and not required l)y law to be paid to the
county collector for State or county purposes, it shall be the duty of
the disbursing officer or officers of such municipality or taxing dis-
COODBLL.1 SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW JERSEY. 119
trict to pay to the treasurer of the sewerage commissioners the sum
or sums of money directed by said sewerage commissioners to be
assessed, levied, and collected in such municipality or taxing district.
18. The said board of sewerage commissioners may, from time to
time, in anticipation of the collection of moneys directed by it to be
assessed, levied, and collected within the municipalities or taxing
districts lying in whole or in part within its sewerage district, borrow
such sum or sums of money as may be necessary for the payment of
interest upon bonds or other indebtedness, and for the payment of
sinking-fund charges, and for the payment of its officers, agents,
employees, and for all other necessary or proper expenses in main-
taining and operating its works and plant, and the payment of the
moneys so borrowed shall be secured by a lien upon said taxes as
le\aed and assessed, or so directed to be levied and assessed, and said
taxes when collected shall be applied to the payment of the moneys
so borrowed; all loans made in pursuance of this section shall be
after public notice and advertisement, and shall be made or taken
from the person or persons offering the most favorable terms.
19. If in any case the streams and rivers within the said sewerage
district are or may be polluted by sewage or other deleterious matter
discharged therein, directly or indirectly, from any municipality or
any part of a mimicipality lying without the said sewerage district, it
shall and may be lawful for the said board of commissioners to enter
into contract with such municipality for the disposal of all such sew-
age and deleterious matter, and every such municipality is hereby
authorized to enter into such contract with the said board, and the
siiid board may, in the constructions made by it under the authority
of this act, make provisions for such disposal ; such contracts may be
made upon such terms and for such lengths of time and for such
annual or semiannual payments as shall be mutually agreed upon,
and the municipalities and taxing districts so contracting shall have
the power to raise annually, by taxation, the moneys necessary to
make the payments required to be made under such contracts, or to
use for this purpose any moneys not otherwise appropriated; and the
moneys received by the said commissioners under such contracts shall
l>e applied by them as follows : Two-thirds thereof to the payment of
interest upon bonds issued by the said board, and one-third thereof
to the payment of the expense -of operation, maintenance, and repair
of work.
20. The said sewerage commissioners shall have within said sew^er-
age district powers exclusive of all other boards to protect the rivers
and streams thereof from pollution and to prevent the pollution of
the same, and to this end the said sewerage commissioners may pro-
hibit the deposit or discharge into the rivers or streams within said
sewerage district of any sewage or other matter or thing which may
120 LAWS FOEBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
pollute the same; they may also in like maimer prohibit or prevent
the emptying into any tributary of said rivers or streams, by any
municipality or part of a municipality lying within the said sewerage
district, of any sewage or other matter or thing which will directly or
indirectly cause the rivers or streams within said sewerage district to
be polluted; and the said board of sewerage commissioners may at
any time, when it has reason to believe that any river or stream
within its district is being polluted by any such municipality or part
of a municipality by deposit or discharge into said rivers, streams^ or
their tributaries of any sewage or other matter or thing which will
pollute the same, or when such deposit or discharge is threatened, to
apply by bill or petition to the court of chancery of this State for
injunction to prevent the said pollution or threatened pollution of said
rivers or streams or their tributaries, and the court of chancery shall
have power to hear and dispose of said petition or bills in a summary
manner, and to grant any and all relief necessary to prevent said
pollution or threatened pollution or the continuation of any pollution
of said rivers, streams, or their tributaries.
21. The said board of sewerage conmiissioners shall have po'wer
from time to time to adopt all such reasonable rules and regulations
for its own government and the government of its officers and agents,
and also for the use, protection, and management of its works, prop-
erty, and plant, and for the protection of the rivers and streams
within its district from pollution, not inconsistent with the provi-
sions of this act and the laws of this State.
22. The chairman shall preside at all meetings of the sewerage
commissioners, and shall, with the treasurer, sign all bonds, promis-
sory notes, certificates of indebtedness, and other obligations of the
board; he shall also countersign all checks; in the absence of the
chairman, or in case he is incapacitated by illness or other cause, the
sewerage commissioners shall have power to elect an acting chair-
man, who for the time being shall have all the powers and perform
all the duties of the chairman ; the treasurer shall give bond in such
sum as the sewerage commissioners may determine, and shall be the
receiving and disbursing officer of the said sewerage commissioners,
and all moneys required by law to be paid to said sewerage commis-
sioners shall be paid to the treasurer thereof, and shall be by him
deposited in such bank or banks of deposit or trust company or trust
companies in this State as shall be determined upon by the said
sewerage commissioners; all disbursements shall be by check, sig^ned
by the treasurer and coimtersigned by the chairman; the clerk sliall
have charge of the seal of the corporation and shall affix it to such
instruments as he shall be directed by the said board, and he shall
attest the same ; he shall keep full minutes of all the meetings of the
board and of its committees and shall perform all such other duties
GooDBLL,! SEVEBE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW YORK. 121
as he may be directed by the said board of commissioners to perform ;
no deposit of moneys in the charge of the said board shall be made
in any bank or trust company except upon the condition that the
said board shall receive interest at the rate of not less than two per
centum per annum upon the said deposits.
23. In case for any reason any section or any provision of this act
jJiall be questioned in any court and shall be held to be unconstitu-
tional or invalid, the same shall not be held to affect any other sec-
tion or provision of this act.
24. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are hereby
repealed ; and this act shall take effect immediately .<>
Approved April 22, 1903.
NEW YORK.
[ReTlaed Statutes, 3d ed. (C. F. Eirdseye), vol. 2, pp. 2822 ff.. Article V: PubUc health
law.]
POTABLE WATEBS.
Sec. 70. Rules and regulations of State board. — The State board
of health may make rules and regulations for the protection from
contamination of any or all public supplies of potable waters and
■This act waa declared unconstitutional by the court of errors and appeals of New
Jersey in March, 1905. Van Cleve v. Passaic Valley Sewerage Commissioners, 60 Atlan-
tic Rep., 214. It is retained here, however, because the ground upon which it was held
unconstitutional affects only the mode of raising the necessary funds for carrying out
the work.
It was subjected to an attack by the city of Paterson and by a property owner who
had been assessed for public sewers in the city of Paterson. Argument was conducted
by several of the ablest counsel in the State on each side and the act was sustained
upon all grounds in the supreme court, but by a divided court. In the court of errors
and appeals the action of the supreme court was reversed, and the act declared to be
unconstitntional upon the ground that It contained an unlawful delegation to the sewer-
age commissioners of the power of taxation. The court says, per Garrison, J., "To
relieve a river from pollution and to construct and maintain for this purpose sewers to
the seaboard or to other point of output and to carry away through such sewers all
that would otherwise pollute such river is clearly within the power of the central legis-
lative body."
The act under examination authorized the commissioners to raise by taxation any
amount In their discretion, subject only to the limit of nine million dollars ($9,000,000 1
in the matter of construction, but without any limit in the matter of maintenance. The
taxation was laid upon a taxation area that was not coterminous with the sewerage dis-
trict established by the legislature; and neither the taxation area nor the sewerage dis-
trict is a political division of the State nor invested with any governmental function.
The court held that the fundamental law of New Jersey required, " that the district to
be taxed shall be coterminous with a district to which some right of local self-govern-
ment is given.** The act is, therefore, held invalid. The court then proceeds as follows :
" Having stated the considerations that lead me to the conclusion that the act before us
is Invalid, because of its fiscal provision, I shall, to avoid misapprehension, add that
nothing in this opinion is intended to imply a lack of power in the legislature to
effectuate the object expressed in this act by means that are in harmony with the funda-
mental principles of taxation illustrated by the decisions I have cited. If, for Instance,
as was suggested by the arguments before us, powers adequate to the execution of the
legislative scheme of drainage were conferred upon the entire area to be taxed and
duties respecting the exercise of such powers constitutionally imposed In such manner as
indicated and that their exercise was compulsory, a question not touched upon in this
opinion would be presented.'*
122 LAWS POBBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
their sources within the State. If any such rule or regulaticMi relates
to a temporary source or act of contamination, any person violating
such rule or regulation shall be liable to prosecution for misdemeanor
for every such violation, and on conviction shall be punished by a
fine not exceeding two hundred dollars, or imprisonment not exceed-
ing one year, or both. If any such rule or regulation relates to a
permanent source or act of contamination, said board may impose
penalties for the violation thereof or the noncompliance therewith
not exceeding two hundred dollars for every such violation or non-
compliance. Every such rule or regulation shall be published at least
once in each week for six consecutive weeks in at least one newspa-
per of the county where the waters to which it relates are located.
The cost of such publication shall be paid by the corporation or
municipality benefited by the protection of the water supply to which
the rule or regulation published relates. The affidavit of the printer,
publisher, or proprietor of the newspaper in which such rule or regu-
lation is published may be filed with the rule or regulation published
in the county clerk's office of such county, and such affidavit and rule
and regulation shall be conclusive evidence of such publication and
of all the facts therein stated in all courts and places.
Sec. 71. Inspection of water supply. — The officer or board having
by law the management and control of the potable water supply of
any municipality, or the corporation furnishing such supply, may
make such inspection of the sources of such water supply as such
officer, board, or corporation deems it advisable, and to ascertain
whether the rules or regulations of the State board are complied with.
If any such inspection discloses a violation of any such rule or regu-
lation relating to a permanent source or act of contamination, such
officer, board, or corporation shall cause a copy of the rule or regula-
tion violated to be served upon the person violating the same with a
notice of such violation. If the person served does not immediatelj-
comply with the rule or regulation violated, such officer, board, or
corporation shall notify the State board of the violation, which shall
immediately examine into such violation, and if such person is found
by the State board to have actually violated such rule or regulation,
the secretary of the State board shall order the local board of health
of such municipality to convene and enforce obedience to such rule
or regulation. If the local board fails to enforce such order within
ten days after its receipt, the corporation furnishing such water sup-
ply, or the municipality deriving its water supply from the waters to
which such rule or regulation relates, may maintain an action in a
court of record, which shall be tried in the county where the cause of
action arose against such person, for the recovery of the penalties
incurred by such violation, and for an injunction restraining him
from the continued violation of such rule or regulation.
GooDKLL.] SEVEBE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW YORK. 123
Sec. 71a. Rules and regulations legalized. — All rules and regula-
tions heretofore duly made and published for the sanitary protection
of public water supplies, pursuant to chap. 543 of the laws of 1885
and chap. 661 of the laws of 1893, as amended, are hereby legalized,
ratified, confirmed, and continued in force until new rules and regu-
lations become operative.
Sec. 71b. Construction of act — This act shall not be construed to
repeal or affect any of the provisions of chap. 378 of laws of 1897, or
its amendments.
Sec. 72. Sewerage. — When the State board of health shall, for the
protection of a water supply from contamination, make orders or reg-
ulations the execution of which will require or make necessary the
construction and maintenance of any system of sewerage, or a change
thereof, in or for any village or hamlet, whether incorporated or unin-
corporated, or the execution of which will require the providing of
some public means of removal or purification of sewage, the munici-
pality or corporation owning the waterworks benefited thereby shall,
at its own expense, construct and maintain such system of sewerage,
or change thereof, and provide such means of removal and purifica-
tion of sewage and such works or means of sewage disposal as shall be
approved by the State board of health. When the execution of any
such regulations of the State board of health will occasion or require
the removal of any building or buildings the municipality or corpora-
tion owning the waterworks benefited thereby shall, at its own ex-
pense, remove such buildings and pay to the owner thereof all the
damages occasioned by such removal.
When the execution of any such regulation will injuriously affect
any manufacturing or industrial enterprise which is not a public
nuisance, such municipality or corporation shall pay all damages
occasioned by the enforcement thereof. Until such construction or
change of such system or systems of sewerage, and the providing of
such means of removal or purification of sewage, and such works or
means or sewage disposal and the removal of any building, are so
made by the municipality or corporation owning the waterworks to
be benefited thereby at its own expense there shall be no action or
proceeding taken by such municipality or corporation against any
person or corporation for the violation of any regulation of the State
board of health under this article, and no person or corporation shall
be considered to have violated or refused to obey any such rule or
regulation. The owner of any building the removal of which is occa-
sioned or required, or which has been removed by any rule or regula-
tion of the State board of health made under the provisions of this
article, and all persons whose rights of property are injuriously af-
fected by the enforcement of any such rule or regulation, shall have a
cause of action against the municipality or corporation owning the
m
Ttfef-T.-75:E iPQpfnT-'. Tjf -u^gj I'M" II ic -%iiii rLt^ -jr rcgalAtioii
- *r ^ r- -tit: i: i. -c: ' - -T' -r 3»— ir-i n :Lit^ - iih^t l=. wLj«4i ih^
—1^ • r' " I-- *• 'iz^ * IT" -r iir^ -1*1111"' J. "v^*i^«*2. "-If* pn>ptrrty i-
..- jj-— •_ '— 1 'C'-^iiii ^-^»'*«»*>.::t jc- -iiiiil !•* ~.aimt*!iit»*i by prtitkiri
.. - •^ e- -^-"•-♦^ "-=■-* •''"ii-r in«iiL 11** Ji 'JL-'-^Zttl-rv or o^r-
,.— -- .. - :..* •asz-^ --t,-— ■>>■ fc- - r "Ui^ -iiiiim*in*'-^Lii*iic .f 'tin^iemna-
- , — ,-- ^.i^^. ^ .!! I. -z^ izj-Ir^ ir -.r^*.nn« iL iiht make and
^p.^-^ _ , >^ r' •: -^L-n :;-*^n n jc- ji — !n:i*aiaa.i« c po»T»«diiA2^.
i_.-^^ j_^ z_^ — ^ -,i, _^ .r ::^r -.firaiiiiiiiia ii'r ^aaLI t** applit'a-
^ Zi- - •*^' -tz "^ »-**»*► '^^:^ in^ii 11** ^♦•^-^•"a *i:*i aic-ww. if
^- £.-:_-r i-T"^ i-i'i -^z ?^ 1^ "^^^ — •— *^ "^-^ ^•*ci>XL 'yt an^wt-r.
.T ^>..r- - f-?- .. :..>.^ .r If t — T"*!-!! -^TTi- i^ij* ii: •n:*?^:? ^hall be
,.«—-. - .., - . .. -* -. — ijL^ jii-:r:»:ri:«?ti ritr or vil-
^^ , -^ ^.:- r •-^ T r£ ttui^ -Ufc- jsmit*^ r?i«!ii ir:'5i->:ci f«>r tlie
^ - -^ -^"^-j* £- I. r i» :• il in* ir ** nrit.-n -a-^ iber^wiih my
-r -^ .^^^■%^.-__ t.,-- r ..i^-r '• ." ■!: '^ii'Hr hat lii-r^ az.«i r'.^iniain an
^ . . ^^ _ r^zr * IT" "»• :r^^-^r ~it* i.^!iiijw .f any sewaffe or
,^__^ _ ^ ...-- -^ -:. i-T.li* ir -»^'Lj!!L siAr ZL;ir^ the potable
.,^^ --*.v.-riiiii' r ~^- -rCr^iiaL. iai*- c-r -rch-eT hoily of
"^^ ^ - ^_ i ^: 1 i:-- r7*rii"i^: 'r^ Jr t- ll^ -iial! take or
^ _^ ._ ^ ,,- -^. ' /* ':-T«»'-».e-L iiiic ^ri T---*^. ^T^Airu lake, or
"" _, .. - T _ -^ :^ T :. .- .r iL ^ain v-ii_il lit* ':• •iz-iaries of iht»
-1 . -, ^ - c '^ •. • •'■ — ^'^^i»«i*^'^'^ sL»c action >hall be
_ ~- ,!^ .. ".~^. »:^ -f '^>^ u:^ r rc*ill 'r«» :L«r .iutr of the
"* _[^.'*^ 7 ^, t' -1 ^i--'- "- ■^♦* *XiTC«D^*^ f fi^-^^ j-L^ifjrin^ the
"" ^ ^ , , _:.i-iaii»'- c --I' 'J- *"^' n. iztinr :i*f rc*^^Ls:oii> of ihi^
"'""f ;;;; "^ ,1 [^^ --i*-^- a ^i^'-^ -^^^^-^ ^^ m.-.cT^rirr.i a mandatorv
** ' ' _., ^ '^^ Tt-*^!!^ >ti^- ':».ar-L -^ CT*:«ai>'<i. munici-
^ / ™^ ,r 1MT^ '•••Jur A itf^^Lu:: :•: sii-i action which
"^ . - :-^ ^.vufT :c JJ-' x:**^ <.'^•ta^.^v Jel^erioiL^ to
, lak*'^ or otlier
J^., c nprsrr its waUT
M> »1J tw^ pfie»*TibeJ by ihir
r- or the di^^
GooDELL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW YORK. 125
jM^sal of such sewage or other substance into such waters, or the poUu-
lioii thereof, with such further directions in the premises as may be
proper and desirable to effect such purpose ; provided, that such river,
stream, lake, or other body of water is wholly or in part within the
lK>undaries of the county in which such plaintiff is located.
Sec. 72c. Examination hy State hoard of health, — But no such
action shalf be brought as provided for in section 2 (i. e., 72b) of this
act until the State board of health has examined and determined
whether the sewage does pollute or contaminate the river, sti-eam,
lake, or (rther body of water into which said sewage is discharged.
The expense of such examination by said board shall be a charge
u]K>n and paid by the municipality in whose interest and on whose
behalf such examination is made.
Sec. 72d. Approral of plans, — In case the State board of health
shall find upon examination that the discharge of said sewage does
polhite or contaminate said waters, or any of them, in such manner
as to be of menace or danger to the health of those using said waters,
the plans for the removal or disposal of the sewage ordered to be pre-
pared by the court as provided in section 2 (i. e., 72b) shall be sub-
mitted to the State board of health for its approval.
[Laws of 1001. vol. 3, p. 214, charter of New York City.]
Sec. 481. It shall not be lawful for any person to throw or deposit,
or cause to be thrown or deposited, in any lake, pond, or stream, or
ill any aqueduct from or through which any part of the water supply
of the city of New York shall be draw^n, or either of the reservoirs,
any dead animal or other offensive matter or anything whatever.
Any person offending against the provisions of this section shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall
be punished by fine or imprisonment, or both, in the discretion of the
court, such fine not to exceed the sum of one hundred dollars and
such imprisonment not to exceed a period of three months, such
imprisonment to be in the jail of the county in which the offense
s^hall have been committed.
Sec. 482. If any person shall willfully do or cause to be done any
act whereby any work, materials, or property whatever, erected or
used, or hereafter to be erected or used, within the city or elsewhere
by the said city, or by any person acting under their authority, for
the purpose of procuring or keeping a supply of water, shall in any
manner be injured, or shall erect or place any nuisance on the banks
of any river, lake, or stream from which the water supply of said city
shall be drawn, or shall throw anything into the aqueduct or into
any reservoir, or pipe, such person on conviction thereof shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor.
124 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
waterworks benefited by the enforcement of such rule or regulation
for all damages occasioned or sustained by such removal or enforce-
ment, and an action therefor may be brought against such municipal-
ity or corporation in any court of record in the county in which the
premises or property affected is situated and shall be tried therein ; or
such damages may be determined by a special proceeding in the su-
preme court or the county court of the county in which the property is
situated. Such special proceedings shall be commenced by petition
and notice to be served by such owner upon the municipality or cor-
poration in the same manner as for the commencement of condemna-
tion proceedings. Such municipality or corporation may make and
serve an answer to such petition as in condemnation proceedings.
The petition and answer shall set forth the claims of the respective
parties, and the provisions of the condemnation law shall be applica-
ble to the subsequent proceedings upon the petition and answer, if
any. Either party may, before the service of the petition or answer,
respectively, offer to take or pay a certain sum, and no costs shall be
awarded against either party unless the judgment is more unfavora-
ble to him than his offer.
Sec. 72a. Actions by municipalities. — ^Any incorporated city or vil-
lage in the State of New York which has made such provision for the
disposal of its sewage as not to pollute or contaminate therewith any
river, stream, lake, or other body of water may have and maintain an
action in the supreme court to prevent the discharge of any sewage or
substance deleterious to health, or which shall injure the potable
qualities of the water in any river, stream, lake, or other body of
water from which such incorporated city or village shall take or
receive its water supply; provided, that such river, stream, lake, or
other body of water is wholly or in part within the boundaries of the
county in which such plaintiff is located.
Sec. 72b. Duty of supreme court. — Whenever such action shall be
brought under the provisions of this act, it shall be the duty of the
supreme court, upon proof of the existence of facts justifying the
bringing and maintenance of such action under the provisions of this
act, to render a judgment in which shall be incorporated a mandatory
injunction requiring the person, body, board, corporation, munici-
pality, village, county, or town being a defendant to said action which
directly or indirectly, or by its servants, agents, or officers, shall dis-
charge or dispose of its sewage or any other substance deleterious to
health, which shall injure the potable qualities of the water in such
wise as that the same shall enter into any river, stream, lake, or other
body of water from which such plaintiff shall take or receive its water
supply, within such reasonable time as may be prescribed by the
court, to take such action as shall prevent such discharge, or the dis-
ooDELL.] SEVERE STATUTE BESTBICTIONS — NEW YOEK. 125
posal of such sewage or other substance into such waters, or the polhi-
tion thereof, with vsuch further directions in the premises as may be
proper and desirable to effect such purpose; provided, that such river,
strc^am, lake, or other body of water is wholly or in part within the
boundaries of the county in which such plaintiff is located.
Sec. 72c. Examination hy State hoard of health. — But no such
action shaU be brought as provided for in section 2 (i. e., 72b) of this
act until the State board of health has examined and determined
whether the sewage does pollute or contaminate the river, stream,
lake, or other body of water into which said sewage is discharged.
The expense of such examination by said board shall be a charge
upon and paid by the municipality in whose interest and on whose
behalf such examination is made.
Sec. 72d. Approval of plans. — In case the State board of health
shall find upon examination that the discharge of said sewage doi^s
pollute or contaminate said waters, or any of them, in such manner
as to be of menace or danger to the health of those using said waters,
the plans for the removal or disposal of the sewage ordered to be pre-
pared by the court as provided in section 2 (i. e., 72b) shall be sub-
mitted to the State board of health for its approval.
[Laws of 1001, vol. 3, p. 214, charter of New York City.]
Sec. 481. It shall not be lawful for any person to throw or deposit,
or cause to be thrown or deposited, in any lake, pond, or stream, or
in any aqueduct from or through which any part of the water supply
of the city of New York shall be drawn, or either of the reservoirs,
any dead animal or other offensive matter or anything whatever.
Any person offending against the provisions of this section shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall
l3e punished by fine or imprisonment, or both, in the discretion of the
court, such fine not to exceed the sum of one hundred dollars and
such imprisonment not to exceed a period of three months, such
imprisonment to be in the jail of the county in which the offense
shall have been committed.
Sec. 482. If any person shall willfully do or cause to be done any
act whereby any work, materials, or property whatever, erected or
used, or hereafter to be erected or used, within the city or elsewhere
by the said city, or by any person acting under their authority, for
the purpose of procuring or keeping a supply of water, shall in any
manner be injured, or shall erect or place any nuisance on the banks
of any river, lake, or stream from which the water supply of said city
shall be drawn, or shall throw anything into the aqueduct or into
any reservoir, or pipe, such person on conviction thereof shall be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor.
128 LAWS FOBBIDDING INLAND- WATEB POLLUTION. I No. 152,
matter from any shop, factory, mill, or industrial establishment not
constructed or in process of construction when this act takes effect
shall be put in or constructed for the purpose of discharging any
refuse or waste matter therefrom into any waters in this Stato, the
plan or plans therefor, together with a statement of the purpose for
which the same is to be used, shall be submitted to the commissioner.
If the same is not detrimental to the public health he shall issue a
permit therefor to the applicant. No such conduit, discharge pipe,
or other means of discharging or casting any refu^j^ or waste matter
from any such shop, factory, mill, or establishment into any of the
waters of this State shall be put in or constructed before such i>ermit
is granted, and if put in or constructed the person putting in or con-
structing or maintaining the same shall forfeit to the people of the
State five dollars a day for each day the same is used or maintained
for such purpose, to be collected in an action brought by the commis-
sioner. He may also maintain an action in the name of the people to
restrain a violation of this section.
Sec. 78. Re ideation of permit. — Every such permit for the dis-
charge of sewage from a sewer system or for the discharge of refuse
or waste matter from a shop, factory, mill, or industrial establish-
ment shall, when necessary to conserve the public health, be revocable
or subject to modification or change by the State commissioner of
health on due notice after an investigation and hearing and an oppor-
tunity for all interested therein to be heard thereon being served on
the public authorities of the municipality owning and maintaining
the sewage system, or on the proprietor, lessee, or tenant of the shop.
factory, mill, or industrial establishment. The length of the time
after receipt of the notice within which the discharge of sewage or
of refuse or waste matter shall be discontinued may be stated in the
permit, but in no case shall it exceed two years in the case of a sewer
system nor one year in the case of a shop, factory, mill, or industrial
establishment, and if the length of time is not specified in the permit
it shall be one year in the case of a s4wer system and six months in
the case of a shop, factory, mill, or industrial establishment. On
the expiration of the period of time prescribed after the service of a
notice of revocation, modification, or change from the State com-
missioner of health, the right to discharge sewage or refuse or waste
matter into any of the waters of the State shall cease and terminate,
and the prohibition of this act against such discharge shall be in full
force as though no permit had been granted, but a new permit may
thereafter again be granted as hereinbefore provided.
Sec. 79. Reports of municipal authorities to local boards of health. —
It shall be the duty of the public authorities having by law charge of
the sewer system of every municipality in the State, from which sewer
GooDELL.) SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW YORK. 129
system sewage was being discharged into any of the waters of the
State at the time of the passage of this act, to file with the board of
health of the municipality within which any sewer outlet of the said
sewer system is located and wuthin sixty days after the passage of
this act a report of each sewer system having an outlet w-ithin the
municipality, which report shall comprise such facts and information
as the State commissioner of health may require and on blanks or
forms to be furnished by him on application. The board of health
of each municipality being satisfied as to the correctness and com-
pleteness of each report submitted to it shall within thirty days after
its receipt certify the same and transmit it to the State commi&sioner
of health. Such report when satisfactory to the State commissioner
of health shall be filed by him in his office and shall constitute the
evidence of exemption from the prohibition of this act. No sewer
system shall be exempt from the prohibition of this act against the
discharge of sewage into the waters of the State for which a satis-
factory report shall not be filed in the office of the State conunissioner
of health in accordance with this section.
Sec. 79a. Reports of proprietors of mdxistrial establishments. — It
shall be the duty of the proprietor of every shop, factory, mill, and
industrial establishment in the State from which refuse or waste mat-
ter was being discharged into any of the w^aters of the State at the
time of the passage of this act to file with the State commissioner of
health within sixty days after the passage of this act a report of eacli
shop, factory, mill, and industrial establishment from which refuse
or waste matter was being discharged through an outlet within the
municipality at the time of the passage of this act, which report shall
comprise such facts and information in regard to the size, location,
and character of shop, factory, mill, or industrial establishment, the
machinery in use therein, and the character and quantity of goods
produced as the State commissioner of health may require and on
blanks or forms to be furnished by him on application. Suth report
shall be filed by him in his office, and shall constitute the evidence of
exemption of the shop, factory, mill, or industrial establishment from
the prohibition of this act. No shop, factory, mill, or industrial estab-
lishment shall be exempt from the prohibition of this act against the
discharge of refuse or waste matter into the waters of the State, for
which a report shall not be made as required by the State commis-
sioner of health in accordance with this section.
Sec. 79b. Record of permits; inspection of local hoards of health. —
Each board of health shall preserve in its office, and in a form to be
prescribed by the State commissioner of health, a permanent record
of each permit issued by the State commissioner of health granting
IBB 152--05 M ^9
i* LAWS FOBB.DDING U^LAND-WATEB POLLCTIOK [v ,-
™m.n..,ons of .„y pmn,». Wldix, . J».p. f.„„„. ^a. ind^,!,
Mablishment, process, or ^*wag^. sTr^t-m.
Sec. 79c. Vlohitiom: utrri^^, ,,f „,,?;, - „,./■,. - i j , ,
The local Ixjard of health <.f «,,i, n.uLKij«ilirr >hall promptly a^v
Uin every violatum of .^ ii.,u(v.i-j.]:a;„<e with anv of the proviM.iw
of this act or of th^ p^rn.n^ f..r iLe dwliam- of *wage or ref.w cr
waste material lU.- aiy ..f iV- Traiei- ..f xi.e Sute herein provide-i
whi.h may ,«rur ^r.L.i ma: iiiuu.- j^Iirr. The board of health
shall. ..!, liif .■:s"<.v<.T^ .,: ^v.-n- ri„]„n..L of ,«■ n.«compliance with
ai.\ ..f -.tK- jin-x-NKtit- .I-! -iLi- B'l (n i.f aLT jieniiit .July issued. j*rve a
«r;ii<n. urn in oi. tin i>"Xii n: ••iiri»(»raT)0L re-j«.i:-it»le for the viola-
ii.ii or ii.iiinmii.iiai.- U'jj^-v.rc ^ i t n.j.j ..f this act and of the
jwTii.n. .: :ii > ■>■'•::."■ " - •■u^pUe,i w::i. ^»^ifying the partici;-
hv. i,n.v>,.r «■ u. - !■ ■'•'='""n'P''«I "-fth.aud stipulating the
I'-..!'" . ■ - •'' ^T'^ation or nonainipliance miht
r-..-,^ ! ■ ~ - "■ ■•■•' -f-p'il^teil length of time the rio
,^.. - ~ ... < ... .•.T.tmue. the board of health sl.all
^ . ., . . : -:. c.-..o.phantv to the State roranii-
, : r ..- :rve s hearing- to and take the
- ~ • -*■• ' ' • ''■■'■^. '"'"'ation or noncompliai..v
= "'■•- ■" -''^ * "olation or noncmi
.. : :.- -nry the fact to the board ..f
— ^^ ■■■' '• -^'* —-'^'■aKv bring an actio..
, .. c<.i. > tnerl m the coiintv wheivir.
,^^ _->. .-< ■■>! rerv<t ..r a»rporation res,>.n
^ . . :. .:.'ii. ■ ac.v t'.>r the recoverv of the
:i. c . Q airiest the wntiniiatioii of
^^;.ii Hi" ill} .>t die waters of the State
ODBLL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTBICTIONS — NEW YORK. 131
ithout a duly issued permit for which a permit is required by this
ct shall be five himdred dollars, and a further penalty of fifty
ollars per day for each day the offence is maintained. The pen-
Uy for the discharge of sewage from any public sewer system
ito any of the waters of the State without filing a report for*which
report is required to be filed with the board of health of the mu-
icipality shall be fifty dollars. The penalty for the discharge of
efuse or waste matter from any shop, factory, mill, or industrial
stablishment for which a permit is required by this act without such
>ermit shall be one hundred dollars and ten dollars a day for each
lay the offence is maintained. The penalty for the discharge of
•efuse or waste matter from any shop, mill, factory, or industrial
'Stablishment without filing a report where a report is required by
his act to be filed shall be twenty-five dollars and five dollars per day
for each day the offence is maintained. The penalty for discharging
nto any of the waters of the State any other matter prohibited by
his act Ix^sides that specified above shall be twenty-five dollars and
five dollars per day for each day the offence is maintained.
Sec. 2. Common-law rights not ajfer-ted. — Nothing in this act shall
be construed to diminish or otherwise to modify the common-law
rights of riparian owners in the quality of waters of streams covered
by such rights, nor in the case of actions brought against the pollu-
tion of waters to limit their remedy to indemnities.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect immediately.
[Laws of 1905, chap. 454.1
AN ACT regulating the sanitary condition of bathing establishments, and amending
section two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five of the general public health
laws, ns amended by the laws of eighteen hundred and ninety-three : being renum-
bered by the laws of nineteen hundred, chapter six hundred and sixty-seven ; number
of section being originally two hundred and two.
Section 1. Section two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five
of the general public health laws, as amended by the laws of eighteen
hundred and ninety -three, is hereby amended so as to read as follows :
§ 212. Reg^dating the sanitary condition of bathing establishments
and the 'preservation of life at bathing places. — It shall be unlawful
for any person to maintain, either as owner or lessee, any bathing
♦establishment of any kind, in this state, for the accommodation of
persons, for pay, or any consideration, at a point less than five hun-
dred feet from any sewer connection emptying therein, or thereat, so
as to pollute in any way, the waters used by those using or hiring
bathing houses at such bathing establishments; it shall l)e the duty
of such owner or le^ssee to provide separate toilet rooms, with water-
closets properly provided with sanitary plumbing, constructed in a
manner approved by the local board of health and in such a way as
not to contaminate the waters used bv the bathers: it shall also be
130 LAWS FOEBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
the right to discharge sewage or refuse or waste matter into any of
the waters of the State within that municipality and of each revoca-
tion of a permit ; and also a permanent record of each report receive*!
by the board of health concerning each sewer system and each shop*
factory, mill, or industrial establishment which at the time of the pas-
sage of this act was discharging sewage or refuse or waste matter into
any of the waters of the State within that municipality. Each local
board of health shall make and maintain such inspection as will at all
times enable it to determine whether this act is being complied ^'ith
in respect to the discharge of sewage, refuse, or waste matter or other
materials prohibited by this act into any of the waters of the State
within that municipality. For the purpose of such inspection every
member of such board of health, or its health oflScers, or an\' person
duly authorized by it, shall have the right to make all necessary
examinations of any premises, building, shop, factory, mill, industrial
establishment, process, or sewage system.
Sec. 79c. Violations; service of notice; actions hy local hoards. —
The local board of health of each municipality shall promptly ascer-
tain every violation of or noncompliance with any of the provisions
of this act or of the permits for the discharge of sewage or refuse or
waste material into any of the waters of the State herein provided
which may occur within that municipality. The board of health
shall, on the discovery of every violation of or noncompliance with
any of the provisions of this act or of any permit duly issued, serve a
written notice on the person or corporation responsible for the viola-
tion or noncompliance, together with a copy of this act and of the
permit, if any, violated or noncomplied with, specifying the particu-
lar provision being violated or noncomplied with, and stipulating the
length of time within which the violation or noncompliance must
cease. If at the expiration of the stipulated length of time the \'io-
lation or noncompliance shall still continue, the board of health shall
at once report the violation and noncompliance to the State commis-
sioner of health, who shall at once give a hearing to and take the
proof of the persons charged with such violation or noncompliance
and investigate the matter, and if he finds a violation or noncom-
pliance to exist he shall at once certify the fact to the lK)ard of
health of the municipality, which shall immediately bring an action
in a court of record, which action shall l)e tried in the county wherein
the cause of action arose against the person or corporation resj>on-
sible for the violation or the noncompliance for the recovery of the
penalties incurred and for an injunction against the continuation of
the violation or the noncompliance.
Se(\ 79d. Penalties. — The penalty for the discharge of sewage
from any public sewer system into any of the waters of the State
«x>DKLL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW YORK. 131
without a duly issued permit for which a permit is required by this
act shall be five hundred dollars, and a further penalty of fifty
dollars per day for each day the offence is maintained. The pen-
alty for the discharge of sewage from any public sewer system
into any of the waters of the State without filing a report fomvhich
a report is required to be filed with the board of health of the mu-
nicipality shall be fifty dollars. The penalty for the discharge of
refuse or w^aste matter from any shop, factory, mill, or industrial
establishment for which a permit is required by this act without such
permit shall be one hundred dollars and ten dollars a day for each
day the offence is maintained. The penalty for the discharge of
refuse or waste matter from any shop, mill, factory, or industrial
establishment without filing a report where a report is required by
this act to l>e filed shall be twenty-five dollars and five dollars per day
for each day the offence is maintained. The penalty for discharging
into any of the waters of the State any other matter prohibited by
this act besides that specified above shall be twenty-five dollars and
five dollars per day for each day the offence is maintained.
Seg. 2. Common-law Hghts not affected, — Nothing in this act shall
bo construed to diminish or otherwise to modify the common-law
rights of riparian owners in the quality of waters of streams covered
by such rights, nor in the case of actions brought against the pollu-
tion of w^aters to limit their remedy to indemnities.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect immediately.
[Laws of 1905, chap. 454.]
AN ACT regulating the sanitary condition of bathing entablishments, and amending
Kectlon two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five of the general public health
lawH. nn amended by the laws of eighteen hundred and ninety-three : Tjelng renum-
bered by the laws of nineteen hundred, chapter six hundred and sixty-seven ; numlier
of section being originally two hundred and two.
SEcmoN 1. Section two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five
of the general public health laws, as amended by the laws of eighteen
hundred and ninety-three, is hereby amended so as to read as follows:
§ 212. Regulating the sanitary condition of bathing establishments
ami the preservation of life at bathing places. — It shall be unlawful
for any person to maintain, either as owner or lessee, any bathing
♦^tablishment of any kind, in this state, for the accommodation of
persons, for pay, or any consideration, at a point less than five hun-
dred feet from any sewer connection emptying therein, or thereat, so
as to i>ollute in any way, the waters used by those using or hiring
bathing houses at such bathing establishments; it shall be the duty
of such owmer or lessee to provide separate toilet rooms, with water-
closets properly provided with sanitary plumbing, constructed in a
manner approved by the local board of health and in such a way as
not to contaminate the waters used bv the bathers: it shall also be
130 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
the right to discharge sewage or refuse or waste matter into any of
the waters of the State within that municipality and of each revoca-
tion of a permit; and also a perananent record of each report receiveil
by the board of health concerning each sewer system and each shop,
factory, mill, or industrial establishment which at the time of the pas-
sage of this act was discharging sewage or refuse or waste matter into
any of the waters of the State within that municipality. Each local
board of health shall make and maintain such inspection as will at all
times enable it to determine whether this act is being complied with
in raspect to the discharge of sewage, refuse, or waste matter or other
materials prohibited by this act into any of the waters of the State
within that municipality. For the purpose of such inspection every
member of such board of health, or its health officers, or any person
duly authorized by it, shall have the right to make all necessary
examinations of any premise^s, building, shop, factory, mill, industrial
establishment, process, or sewage system.
Sec. 79c. Violations; serinee of notice; acti&n^ by local boards, —
The local board of health of each municipality shall promptly ascer-
tain every violation of or noncompliance with any of the provisions
of this act or of the permits for the discharge of sewage or refuse or
waste material into any of the waters of the State herein provided
which may occur within that municipality. The board of health
shall, on the discovery of every violation of or noncompliance with
any of the provisions of this act or of any permit duly issued, serve a
written notice on the person or corporation responsible for the viola-
tion or noncompliance, together with a copy of this act and of the
permit, if any, violated or noncomplied with, specifying the particu-
lar provision being violated or noncomplied with, and stipulating the
length of time within which the violation or noncompliance must
cease. If at the expiration of the stipulated length of time the vio-
lation or noncompliance shall still continue, the board of heiilth shall
at once report the violation and noncompliance to the State commis-
sioner of health, who shall at once give a hearing to and take the
proof of the persons charged with such violation or noncompliance
and investigate the matter, and if he finds a violation or noncom-
pliance to exist he shall at once certify the fact to the board of
health of the municipality, which shall immediately bring an action
in a court of record, which action shall be tried in the county wherein
the cause of action arose against the person or corporation respon-
sible for the violation or the noncompliance for the recovery of the
penalties incurred and for an injunction against the continuation of
the violation or the noncompliance.
Sec. 79d. Penalties. — The penalty for the discharge of sewage
from any })ublic sewer system into any of the waters of the State
G4iODELL.l SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW YORK. 131
without a duly issued permit for which a permit is required by this
act shall be five hundred dollars, and a further penalty of fifty
dollars per day for each day the offence is maintained. The pen-
alty for the discharge of sewage from any public sewer system
into any of the waters of the State without filing a report fornvhich
a report is required to be filed with the board of health of the mu-
nicipality shall be fifty dollars. The penalty for the discharge of
refuse or waste matter from any shop, factory, mill, or industrial
establishment for which a permit is required by this act without such
pennit shall be one hundred dollars and ten dollars a day for each
day the offence is maintained. The penalty for the discharge of
refuse or waste matter from any shop, mill, factory, or industrial
establishment without filing a report where a report is required by
this act to be filed shall be twenty-five dollars and five dollars per day
for each day the offence is maintained. The penalty for discharging
into any of the waters of the State any other matter prohibited by
this act besides that specified above shall be twenty-five dollars and
five dollars per day for each day the offence is maintained.
Sec. 2. Common-ldw rights not aflerted, — Nothing in this act shall
be construed to diminish or otherwise to modify the common-law
rights of riparian owners in the quality of waters of streams covered
by such rights, nor in the case of actions brought against the pollu-
tion of waters to limit their remedy to indemnities.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect immediately.
[Laws of 1905, chap. 454.]
AN ACT regulating the sanitary condition of bathing establishments, and amending
Keotlon two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five of the generai public health
law.s. as amended by the laws of eighteen hundred and ninety-three; being renum-
l)ered by the laws of nineteen hundred, chapter six hundred and sixty-seven ; number
of section being originally two hundred and two.
Section 1. Section two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five
of the general public health laws, as amended by the laws of eighteen
hundred and ninety-three, is hereby amended so as to read as follows:
§ 212. Regulating the sanitary condition of bathing establishments
and the preservation of life at bathing places. — It shall be unlawful
for any person to maintain, either as owner or lessee, any bathing
t^tablishment of any kind, in this state, for the accommodation of
persons, for pay, or any consideration, at a point less than five hun-
dred feet from any sewer connection emptying therein, or thereat, so
a.s to pollute in any w^ay, the waters used by those using or hiring
bathing houses at such bathing establishments; it shall be the duty
of such owner or lessee to provide separate toilet rooms, with wat^r-
rlosets properly provided with sanitary plumbing, constructed in a
manner approved by the local board of health and in such a way as
not to contaminate the waters used bv the bathers: it shall also be
130 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
the right to discharge sewage or refuse or waste matter into any of
the waters of the State within that municipality and of each revoca-
tion of a permit ; and also a permanent record of each report receivetl
by the board of health concerning each sewer system and each shop,
factory, mill, or industrial establishment which at the time of the pas-
sage of this act was discharging sewage or refuse or waste matter into
any of the waters of the State within that municipality. Each local
board of health shall make and maintain such inspection as will at all
times enable it to determine whether this act is being complied with
in respect to the discharge of sewage, refuse, or waste matter or other
materials prohibited by this act into any of the waters of the State
within that municipality. For the purpose of such inspection every
member of such board of health, or its health officers, or any person
duly authorized by it, shall have the right to make all necessary
examinations of any premises, building, shop, factory, mill, industrial
establishment, process, or sewage system.
Sec. 79c. Vwlations; service of notice; action's hy local hoards. —
The local board of health of each municipality shall promptly ascer-
tain every violation of or noncompliance with any of the provisions
of this act or of the permits for the discharge of sewage or refuse or
waste material into any of the waters of the State herein provided
which may occur within that municipality. The board of health
shall, on the discovery of every violation of or noncompliance ^ivith
an}' of the provisions of this act or of any permit duly issued, serve a
written notice on the person or corporation responsible for the viola-
tion or noncompliance, together with a copy of this act and of the
permit, if any, violated or noncomplied with, specifying the particu-
lar provision being violated or noncomplied with, and stipulating the
length of time within which the violation or noncompliance must
cease. If at the expiration of the stipulated length of time the vio-
lation or noncompliance shall still continue, the board of he«ilth shall
at once report the violation and noncompliance to the State con^mis-
sioner of health, who shall at once give a hearing to and take the
proof of the persons charged with such violation or noncompliance
and investigate the matter, and if he finds a ^^olation or noncom-
pliance to exist he shall at once certify the fact to the board of
health of the municipality, which shall immediately bring an action
in a court of record, which action shall be tried in the county wherein
the cause of action arose against the person or corporation respon-
sible for the violation or the noncompliance for the recovery of the
penalties incurred and for an injunction against the continuation of
the violation or the noncompliance.
Sec. 70d. Penalties. — The penalty for the discharge of se^*a^
from any public sewer system into any of the waters of the State
GOODELL.1 SEVERE STATUTE BESTRICTIONS — NEW YORK. 131
without a duly issued permit for which a permit is required by this
act shall be five hundred dollars, and a further penalty of fifty
dollars per day for each day the offence is maintained. The pen-
ahy for the discharge of sewage from any public sewer system
into any of the waters of the State without filing a report for*which
a report is required to be filed with the board of health of the mu-
nicipality shall be fifty dollars. The penalty for the discharge of
refuse or waste matter from any shop, factory, mill, or industrial
establishment for which a permit is required by this act without such
permit shall be one hundred dollars and ten dollars a day for each
day the offence is maintained. The penalty for the discharge of
refuse or waste matter from any shop, mill, factory, or industrial
establishment without filing a report where a report is required by
this act to be filed shall be twenty-five dollars and five dollars per day
for each day the offence is maintained. The penalty for discharging
into any of the waters of the State B,ny other matter prohibited by
this act besides that specified above shall be twenty-five dollars and
five dollars per day for each daj'- the offence is maintained.
Seg. 2. Common-law rights not affected, — Nothing in this act shall
bo construed to diminish or otherwise to modify the common-law
rights of riparian owners in the quality of w^aters of sti'eams covered
by such rights, nor in the case of actions brought against the pollu-
tion of waters to limit their remedy to indemnities.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect immediately.
[Laws of 1905, chap. 4r)4.1
AN ACT regulating the sanitary condition of bathing establishments, and amending
section two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five of the general public health
laws, as amended by the laws of eighteen hundred and ninety-three ; being renum-
bered by the laws of nineteen hundred, chapter six hundred and sixty-seven ; number
of section being originally two hundred and two.
Section 1. Section two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five
of the general public health laws, as amended by the law^s of eighteen
hundred and ninety-three, is hereby amended so as to read as follows :
§ 212. Regvlating the mnitary condition of bathing establishments
and the preservation of life at bathing places. — It shall be unlawful
for any person to maintain, either as owner or lessee, any bathing
establishment of any kind, in this state, for the accommodation of
persons, for pay, or any consideration, at a point less than five hun-
dred feet from any sewer connection emptying therein, or thereat, so
as to pollute in any way, the w^aters used by those using or hiring
bathing houses at such bathing establishments; it shall be the duty
of such ow^ner or lessee to provide separate toilet rooms, w ith water-
closets properly provided with sanitary plumbing, constructed in a
manner approved by the local board of health and in such a way as
not to contaminate the waters used bv the bathers: it shall also be
130 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. I No. 152.
the right to discharge sewage or refuse or waste matter into any of
the waters of the State within that municipality and of each revoca-
tion of a permit; and also a perjnanent record of each report receive<l
by the board of health concerning each sewer system and each shop,
factory, mill, or industrial establishment which at the time of the pas-
sage of this act was discharging sewage or refuse or waste matter into
any of the waters of the State within that municipality. Each local
board of health shall make and maintain such inspection as will at all
times enable it to determine whether this act is being complied with
in respect to the discharge of sewage, refuse, or waste matter or other
materials prohibited by this act into any of the waters of the State
within that municipality. For the purpose of such inspection every
member of such board of health, or its health oflBcers, or any person
duly authorized by it, shall have the right to make all necessary
examinations of any premises, building, shop, factory, mill, industrial
establishment, process, or sewage system.
Sec. 79c. Violations; sennce of notice; actions hy local hoards, —
The local board of health of each municipality shall promptly ascer-
tain every violation of or noncompliance with any of the provisions
of this act or of the permits for the discharge of sewage or refuse or
waste material into any of the waters of the State herein provided
which may occur within that municipality. The board of health
shall, on the discovery of every violation of or noncompliance with
any of the provisions of this act or of any permit duly issued, serve a
written notice on the person or corporation responsible for the viola-
tion or noncompliance, together with a copy of this act and of the
permit, if an}^, violated or noncomplied with, specifying the particu-
lar provision being violated or noncomplied with, and stipulating the
length of time within which the violation or noncompliance must
cease. If at the expiration of the stipulated length of time the \Tio-
lation or noncompliance shall still continue, the board of health shall
at once report the violation and noncompliance to the State commis-
sioner of health, who shall at once give a hearing to and take the
proof of the persons charged with such violation or noncompliance
and investigate the matter, and if he finds a violation or noncom-
pliance to exist he shall at once certify the fact to the board of
health of the municipality, which shall immediately bring an action
in a court of record, which action shall be tried in the county wherein
the cause of action arose against the person or corporation respon-
sible for the violation or the noncompliance for the recovery of the
penalties incurred and for an injunction against the continuation of
the violation or the noncompliance.
Sec. 79d. Penalties. — The penalty for the discharge of sewag*^
from any i)ublic sewer system into any of the waters of the State
rHiODELL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — NEW YORK. 131
without a duly issued permit for which a permit is required by this
act shall be five hundred dollars, and a further penalty of fifty
dollars per day for each day the offence is maintained. The pen-
alty for the discharge of sewage from any public sewer system
into any of the waters of the State without filing a report for-which
a report is required to be filed with the board of health of the mu-
nicipality shall be fifty dollars. The penalty for the discharge of
refuse or waste matter from any shop, factory, mill, or industrial
establishment for which a permit is required by this act without such
permit shall be one hundred dollars and ten dollars a day for each
day the offence is maintained. The penalty for the discharge of
refuse or waste matter from any shop, mill, factory, or industrial
establishment without filing a report where a report is required by
this act to l)e filed shall be twenty-five dollars and five dollars per day
for each day the offence is maintained. The penalty for discharging
into any of the waters of the State any other matter prohibited by
this act besides that specified above shall be twenty-five dollars and
five dollars per day for each day the offence is maintained.
Sec. 2. Common-law 7*i(jht8 not affected, — Nothing in this act shall
be construed to diminish or otherwise to modify the common-law
rights of riparian owners in the quality of waters of streams covered
by such rights, nor in the case of actions brought against the pollu-
tion of waters to limit their remedy to indemnities.
Sec. 3. This act shall take effect immediately.
[Laws of 1905, chap. 454.]
AN ACT regulating the sanitary condition of bathing establishments, and amending
Hection two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five of the general public health
laws, ns amended by the laws of eighteen hundred and ninety-three ; being renum-
bered by the laws of nineteen hundred, chapter six hundred and sixty-seven ; number
of section being originally two hundred and two.
Section 1. Section two hundred and twelve of chapter twenty-five
of the general public health laws, as amended by the laws of eighteen
hundred and ninety-three, is hereby amended so as to read as follows :
§ 212. Regulating the sanitary condition of bathing eHtahlishments
and the preservation of life at bathitig places. — It shall be unlawful
for any person to maintain, either as owner or lessee, any bathing
establishment of any kind, in this state, for the accommodation of
persons, for pay, or any consideration, at a point less than five hun-
dred feet from any sewer connection emptying therein, or thereat, so
as to pollute in any way, the w^aters used by those using or hiring
bathing houses at such bathing establishments; it shall be the duty
of such owner or lessee to provide separate toilet rooms, with water-
closets properly provided with sanitary plumbing, constructed in a
manner approved by the local board of health and in such a way as
not to contaminate the waters used by the bathers: it shall also be
132 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 132.
the duty of such owner or lessee to thoroughly wash and disinfect, or
cause to be thoroughly washed and disinfected, in a manner approver!
by the local board of health, all bathing suits that have been hired or
used, before rehiring or permitting the use of the same again. Any
persoi^or persons violating any of the provisions of this section shall
forfeit and pay a penalty of not less than fifty dollars nor inor*»
than two hundred dollars to be recovered by the sheriff of the
county in which such violation is committed, except in the city of
New York, when the penalty shall be sued for in the name of the
department of health of the city of New York and collected by it.
It shall be the duty of the sheriffs and constables of the several coun-
ties of this State abutting upon the seashore, to see that in their
respective counties the provisions of this section are enforced, and to
bring suit for the recovery of the penalty therein provided, unle>>
some other person had already -brought suit for the same. A sepa-
rate penalty may be rec^overed for each day that any person subject
to the provisions of this section may violate any of the provisions t>f
the same; but no penalty shall be recovered for any other violation
thereof than shall have occurred during the days when the owner or
lessee, or other person or persons, maintaining the said bathing estal>-
lishments, shall have kept the same open for the use of the public, or
for such persons as may be the guests of any hotel that such bathing
establishments may be connected with. The owner of a bathing
house shall not be subject to the provisions of this section when it is
used, occupied or maintained by a lessee for hire, but such le^^sot*
shall be deemed the keeper or proprietor or person or persons main-
taining such bathing establishment thereof. Nothing in this section
shall be construed, in any to affect any bathing establishments, in any
city or municipality, at which there is maintained at public expense a
life-saving guard.
§ 2. This act shall take effect the first day of June, nineteen hun-
dred and five.
Approved, May IG, 1005.
PENNSYLVANIA.
[Pepper ami Ijewls Diju^est, Supplement, p. 98.]
Burial. Sec. 7. — Pollution of water by use of land for burial pur-
poses prohibited. — That it shall be unlawful to use for the burial of
the dead any land the drainage from which passes into any stream
furnishing the whole or any portion of the water supply of any city,
except beyond the distance of one mile from such city : Provided ^ hotr-
erery That the prohibitions of this act shall not be enforceable against
any land now devoted to burial purposes in which there shall have
heretofore been burials and sales of burial lots.
NiTisANCES. Same, col. 253.
oooDELL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — PENNSYLVANIA. 133
Sec. 27. — Penalty for pollution of water used for drinking pur-
poses,— Any person who shall wilfully enter upon the enelcsed land
of any company incorporated under the laws of this Commonwealth
for the purpose of supplying water to the public for drinking pur-
poses, oii which land is erected any dam, reservoir, [X)nd, or other
artificial means for storing water, and pollute or attempt to pollute
the water on such land, shall l)e deemed, and the same is hereby
declared to be, a misdemeanor, and may be prosecuted and convicted
as such under the laws of this Connnonwealth, and (m conviction
thereof in the court of quarter sessions of the proj^er county shall Ijfe
fined not exceeding fifty dollars, and imprisoned not exceeding sixty
days.
Sec. 28. — Offender to he arrested on rien\ — That any duly consti-
tuted watchman of any such water company, or any constable or
policeman, is hereby authorized and empowered, upon his own view
of any such trespass, to make arrests and bring before any alderman
or magistrate of the proper county offenders found violating the pro-
visions of this act.
[I.ftWB of 1905, No. 182.1
AX ACT to preserve the purity of the waterH of tho State, for the i>rotection
of the publh- health.
Sec. 1. Be it enacted, rfv'., That the term " waters of the State,"
wherever used in this act, shall include all streams and springs, and
all bodies of surface and of ground water, whether natural or arti-
ficial, within the boundaries of the State.
Sec. 2. Every municipal corporation, private corporation, com-
pany, and individual supplying or authorized to supply water to the
public, within the State, shall, within sixty days after the passage of
this act, file with the commissioner of health a certified copy of the
plans and surveys of the waterworks, with a description of the
source from which the supply of water is derived ; and no additional
source of supply shall thereafter l)e used without a written permit
from the commissioner of health, as hereinafter provided.
Sec.' 3. No municipal corjjoration, private corporation, company,
or individual shall construct w^aterworks for the supply of water to
the public within the State, or extend the same, without a w^ritten
permit, to be obtained from the commissioner of health, if, in his
judgment, the proposed source of supply api)ears to be not prejudicial
to the public health. The application for such permit must be ac-
companied by a certified copy of the plans and surveys for such water-
works, or extension thereof, with a description of the source from
which it is proposed to derive the supply; and no additional source
of supply shall subsequently be us<h1 for any such waterworks with-
134 LAWS FORBIDDING INI^AND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.
out a similar permit from the commissioner of health. '\Mien applica-
tion shall be made for a permit uitder either of the above provision^
of this section, it shall be the duty of the commissioner to proceed to
examine the application without delay, and, as soon as possible, h<*
shall make a decision, in writing; and, within thirty days after such
decision, the corporation, company, or individual making such appli-
cation may appeal to any court of common pleas of the county, and
said court shall, without delay, hear the. appeal, and shall make an
order approving, setting aside, or modifying such decision, or fixing
the terms upon which said permit shall be granted. The penalty for
failure to file copies of plans, surve3's, and descriptions of existing
waterworks within the time hereinbefore fixed, and for the construc-
tion or extension of waterworks, or the use of an additional source
of supply without a permit from the commissioner of health, shall
be five hundred dollars, and further penalty of fifty dollars per day
for each day that the works are in operation contrary to the pro-
visions of this act, recoverable by the Commonwealth, at the suit of
the commissioner of health, as debts of like amount are recoverable
by law.
Sec. 4. No person, corporation, or municipality shall place, or j^er-
mit to be placed, or discharge, or permit to flow into any of the
waters of the State, any sewage, except as hereinafter provided. But
this act shall not apply to waters pumped or flowing from coal mines
or tanneries, nor prevent the discharge of sewage from any public
sewer system, owned and maintained by a municipality-, provided
such sewer system was in operation and was discharging sewage into
any waters of the State at the time of the passage of this act. But
this exception shall not permit the discharge of sewage from the
sewer system which shall be extended subsequent to the passage uf
this act.
For the purpose of tliis act, stowage shall be defined as any substanw
that contains any of the waste products, or excrementitious or other
discharges from the bodies of human beings or animals.
Sec. 5. Upon application duly made to the commissioner of health,
by the public authorities having by law the charge of the sewer sys-
tem of any municipality, the governor of the State, the attorney -gen-
eral, and the commissioner of health shall consider the case of such
a sewer system, otherwise prohibited by this act from discharging
sewage into any of the waters of the State, and, whenever it is their
unanimous opinion that the general interests of the public health
would be subserved thereby, the commissioner of health may issue
a permit for the discharge of sewage from any such sewer system
into any of the waters of the State, and may stipulate in the permit
the conditions on which such discharge may be permitted. Such per-
«ooDELL.] SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — PENNSYLVANIA. 135
mit, before being operative, shall be recorded in the office of the re-
corder of deeds for the county wherein the outlet of the said sewer
j^ystem is located. Every such permit for the discharge of sewage
from a sewer system shall be revokable, or subject to modification and
change, by the commissioner of health, on due notice, after an inves-
tigation and hearing, and an opportunity for all interested therein to
be heard thereon being served on the public authorities of the munic-
ipality owning, maintaining, or using the sewage system. The length
of time after receipt of the notice within which the discharge of
sewage shall be discontinued may be stated in the permit, but in no
case shall it be less than one year or exceed two years, and if the
length of time is not specified in the permit it shall be one year. On
the expiration of the period of time prescribed, after the service of a
notice of revocation, modification, or change, from the commissioner
of health, the right to discharge sewage into any of the waters of the
State shall cease and terminate; and the prohibition of this act
against such discharge shall be in full force, as though no permit had
been granted, but a new permit may thereafter again be granted, as
hereinbefore provided.
Sec. 6. It shall be the duty of the public authorities having by
law charge of the sewer system of every municipality in the State
from which sewage was being discharged into any of the waters of
the State at the time of the passage of this act, to file with the
commissioner of health, within four months after the passage of
this act, a report of such sewer system, which shall comprise such
facts and information as the commissioner of health may require.
No sewer system shall be exempt from the provisions of this act
against the discharge of sewage into the waters of the State for
which a satisfactory report shall not be filed with the commissioner
of health in accordance with this section.
Sec. 7. The penalty for the discharge of sewage from any public
sewer system into any of the waters of the State without a duly
issued permit in any case in which a permit is required by this act
shall be five hundred dollars, and a further penalty of fifty dollars
per day for each day the offense is maintained, recoverable by the
Commonwealth at the suit of the commissioner of health as debts of
like amount are recoverable by law. The penalty for the discharge
of sewage from any public sewer system into any of the waters of
the State without filing a report, in any case in which a report is
required to be filed, shall be fifty dollars, recoverable by a like suit.
Sec. 8. All individuals, private corporations, and companies that,
at the time of the passage of this act, are discharging sewage into
any of the waters of the State may continue to discharge such sew-
age imless, in the opinion of the commissioner of health, the discharge
136 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [No. 15i
of such sewage may become injurious to the public health. If at
any time the commissioner of health considers that the discharge of
such sewage into any of the waters of the State may become injurious
to the public health he may order the discharge of such sewa*re
discontinued.
Seg. 9. Every individual, private corporation, or company shall
discontinue the discharge of sewage into any of the waters of the
State within ten days after having been so ordered by the commis-
sioner of health.
Sec. 10. Any individual, private corporation, or company that
shall discharge sewage, or permit the same to flow, into the waters
of the State contrary to the provisions of this act shall be deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall upon conviction be punished by
a fine of twenty-five dollars for each offense and a furtlier fine of
five dollars per day for each day the offense is maintained, or by
imprisonment not exceeding one month, or l>oth, at the discretion of
the court.
Seg. 11. Any order or decision, under this act, of the commissioner
of health, or that of the governor, attorney-general, and commis-
sioner of health, shall be subject to an appeal to any court of com-
mon pleas of the county wherein the outlet of such sewer or sewer
system, otherwise prohibited by this act, is situated; and said court
shall have power to hear said appeal, and may afKrm or set aside
said order or decision, or modify the same, or otherwise fix the terms
upon which permission shall be granted. But the order or decision
appealed from shall not be superseded by the appeal, but shall stand
until the order of the court, as above.
Approved the 22d day of April, A. D. 1905*
[Laws of 1905. No. 223.]
AN ACT authorizing and empowering cities, owning and operating waterworks
systems, to enter, by any of its employes, uyyon private lands through which
may pass any stream or streams of water supplying such cities, for the pur-
pose of patrolling the drainage area, and making investigations or inquiries
pertaining to the condition of the stream or streams, sanitary or otherwise.
Sec. 1. Be it enacted^ cf^*.. That any city owning and operating a
waterworks system is hereby authorized and empowered to enter, by
any of its employes, upon private lands through which may pas^
any stream or streams of water supplying such city, for the purpose^
of patrolling the drainage area of such stream or streams, and making
investigations or inquiries pertaining to the condition of the stream or
streams, sanitary or otherwise; Provided, however. That any injury
or damage done to the property so entered upon shall be paid by such
city.
Approved the 2d day of May, A. D. 1905.
GOODELL.1 SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — VERMONT. 137
VERMONT.
[Statutes, 1804, p. 842, Preservation of public health.]
Sec. 4695. If any person puts or causes to be put a dead animal or
animal substance into or upon the bank of a lake, pond, running
stream, or spring of water so that it is drawn or washed into the same,
and suffers it to remain therein, he shall be fined not more than twenty
dollars and not less than five dollars.
[Laws of 1898, No. 150, p. 115.]
AX ACT In amendment of act No. 137 of the acts of 1804, relating to iK)Hut!on of
the waters of Mlssisquol River.
It «r herehy enacted hy the general assemhly of the /State of Ver-
mont:
Section 1, number 137, of the public acts of 1894, is hereby
amended so as to read as follows: "A person owning or operating a
mill who shall by himself or his agent deposit or suffer to be deposited
any sawdust, shavings, or any mill refuse in the waters of the Missis-
quoi River above Enosburgh Falls, or in any of the tributaries of said
Missisquoi River above Enosburgh Falls, shall be fined not less than
twenty dollars nor more than one hundred dollars, in the discretion
of the court, for each offence."
Sec. 2. This act shall take effect from March 1st, 1899. Approved
November 16th, 1898.
rLftwfi of 1902, No. 115. p. 144.1
AN ACT to prevent the poUution of the sources of water supply, as amended by
No. 141, Laws of 1904.
It is hereby enacted hy the general assembly of the State of Ver-
mont:
Section 1. The State board of health shall have the general over-
sight and care of all waters, streams, and ponds used by any cities,
towns, villages, or public institutions, or by any w^ater or ice compa-
nies in this State as sources of water supply, and of all springs,
streams, and water courses, tributary thereto. It shall Iiave power to
call for, and when it calls for it shall be provided with maps, plans,
and documents suitable for such purposes, at the expense of such city,
town, village, public in.stitution, water or ice company, and shall keep
records of all its transactions relative thereto.
Said board shall have authority to prohibit any town, city, village,
public institution, individual or water or ice company from using
water or ice from any given source wh-.^never in its opinion the same
is so contaminated, unwholesome and impure that the use thereof
endangers the public health. And the court of dianc^ery shall have
138 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLUTION. [So. 152.
jurisdiction and power, upon application therefor by the State boani
of health, to enforce by proper order and decree any order, rule or
regulation which said board may make under and by virtue of thi-
section.
Sec. 2. Said board may cause examinations of such waters to he
made to ascertain the purity and fitness for domestic use, or their
liability to impair the interests of the public or of persons lawfully
using them or to imperil the public health. It may make rules and
regulations to prevent the pollution and to secure the sanitary pro-
tection of all such waters as are used as sources of water supply.
Sec. 3. The publication of an order, rule, or regulation made by
the board under the provisions of sec. 2 or sec. 6 hereof, in the news-
paper of any town or village in which such order, rule, or regulation
is to take effect, or if no newspaper is published in such city, town,
or village, the posting of a copy of such order, rule, or regulation in
three public places in such city, town, or village, shall be legal notice
to all persons, and an affidavit of such publication or posting by the
pei-sons causing such to be published or posted, filed, and recorded
with a copy of the notice in the office of the clerk of such city, town,
or village shall lx» admitted as evidence of the time at which and the
place and manner in which the notice was given.
Sec. 4. Said board shall include in its biennial report to the gen-
eral assembly its doings for the preceding biennial term, and shall
recommend measures for the prevention of the pollution of such
waters and for the removal of polluting substances in order to pn)-
tect and develop the rights and property of the State therein, and to
l^rotect the public health, and shall recommend any legislation or
plans for systems of main sewers necessary for the preservation of
the public health and for the purification and prevention of ix)llution
of the ponds, streams, and waters of the State. It shall 'also giv»»
notice to the State's attorney for the county wherein any violation of
the law relative to the pollution of the water supplies occurs. It
shall have the power to employ such expert assistants as it considor>
necessary.
Sec. 5. Cities, towns, villages, and persons shall submit to sjiid
board for its advice their proposed systems of public water supply or
for the disposal of drainage or sewage. Said board shall consult
with and advise the authorities of the cities, towns, villages, and
persons having or about to have systems of public water supply,
drainage, or sewage, as to the most appropriate sources of water
supply, and the Ix^st methods of assuring its purity or as to the Ix^st
methods of disposing of their drainage or sewage, with reference
to the existing and future needs of other cities, towns, villages, or
persons which may be affected thereby. It shall also consult with
and advise persons engaged or intending to engage in any manu-
GOODELL.J SEVERE STATUTE RESTRICTIONS — VERMONT. 189
facturing or other business whose drainage or sewage may tend to
pollute any water or source of water supply as to the l)est method
of preventing such pollution, and it may conduct experiments to
determine the best methods of purification or disposal of drainage
or sewage. No person shall be required to bear the expense of such
consultation, advice, or experiments. In this section the term
'*. drainage " means the rainfall, surface, and subsoil water only, and
" sewage " means domestic and manufacturing filth and refuse.
Sec. 6. Upon petition to said board by the mayor of a city, the
selectmen of a town, the trustee or bailiff of a village, the managing
board or officer of any public institution, or by a board of water com-
missioners, or the president of a water or ice company, stating that
manure, excrement, garbage, or any other matter is polluting or tend-
ing to pollute the water of any stream, pond, spring, or water course
used by such city, town, village, institution, or company as a source
of water supply, the board shall appoint a time and place within the
county where the nuisance or pollution is alleged to exist, for hear-
ing, and after notice thereof to parties interested and a hearing, if in
its judgment the public health so requires, shall, by an order served
upon the party, company, or premises so polluted, prohibit the deposit,
keeping, or discharge of any such cause of pollution, and shall order
him to desist therefrom and to remove any such cause of pollution;
but the board shall not prohibit the cultivation or use of soil in the
ordinary methods of agriculture if no human excrement is used
therefor.
Said board shall not prohibit the use of any structure which was in
*-xistence at the time of the passage of this act upon a complaint
made by the board of water commissioners of any city, town, or vil-
lage, or, by any water or ice company, unless such board of water
commissioners or company files with the State board a vote of its city
council, selectmen, trustees, or bailiffs, or company, respectively.
that such city, town, village, or company will, at its own expense,
make such change in said structure or its location as said board shall
deem expedient. Such vote shall be binding on such city, town,
village, or company. All damages caused by such change shall be
paid by such city, town, village, or company, and if the parties can
not agree thereon sucli city, town, village, or company shall tender
to the parties sustaining damages such a sum of money as in their
judgment is a reasonable compensation for the damages sustained.
Whoever is aggrieved by an order under the provisions of the pre-
ceding section, or with the sum so tendered as damages, may appeal
therefrom in the manner provided in Vermont statutes, sec. 3314 to
3317, inclusive, relating to highways. But the notice therein pro-
vided for shall be served on the party or parties who are petitioners
in fact under section 6 of this act, and also upon the State board of
140 JiAWS FORBIDDING INLAND-WATER POLLVTION. {Xo. 15-
health. If the appeal be only from the compensation for damage^,
the order of the board shall be complied with during the pendenc3' of
huch appeal unless otherwise authorized by said lx)ard.
Sec. 7. The court of chancery shall liave jurisdiction and power.
upoii application thereto by the State board of health or any party
interested, to enforce its orders, or the orders, rules, and regulation^
of said board of health, and to restrain the use or occupation of the
preniise^s or such portion thereof as said board may specify, on which
said material is deposited or kept or such other cause of pollution ex-
ists, until the orders, rules, and regulations of said board have been
complied with.
Seo. 8. Said board of health may by itself, its servants and agents.
(liter any building, structure, or premises for the purpose of ascer-
taining whether sources of pollution or danger to the water supply
tliere exist and whether the rules, regulations, and orders aforesaid
sire obeyed.
Sec. 9. Whoever violates any rule, regulation, or order made under
the provisions of section 2 or section 6 of this act shall be punislied
for each oflFense by a fine of not more than five hundred dollars to
the use of the State, or by imprisonment for not moi'e than one year,
or by both such fine and imprisonment.
Sec. 10. No sewage, drainage, refuse, or polluting matter of such
i^ind and amount as either by itself or in connection with other matter
will corrupt or impair the quality of the water of any pond or stream
used as a vsource of ice or water supply by a city, town, village, public
institution, or water company for domestic use, or render it injurious
to health, shall be^ discharged into any such streams, ponds, or upon
their banks.
Sec. 12.« The court of chancery, upon the application of a mayor of
a city, the selectmen of a town, the trustees or bailiffs of an incor-
porated village, the managing lx)ard or officer of a public institution,
or a water or ice company interested, shall have jurisdiction in equity
to enjoin the violation of the provisions of section 10.
Sec 18. Whoever wilfully deposits excrement or foul or decaying
matter in water which is used for the purpose of domestic water sup-
ply or on the shore thereof within five rods of the water shall be pun-
ished by a fine of not more than fifty dollars or by imprisonment for
not more than thirty days; and a constable of a town or police officer
of a city or village in which such water is wholly or partially situated
may act within the limits of his city or town, and any executive officer
or agent of a water board, lx)ard of water commissioners, public insti-
tution, or water company furnishing water or ice for domestic pur-
poses, acting upon the premises of such board, institution, or company,
° Section 1 1 repealed.
«.o.»DELL.] RIGHTS OF RIPARIAN OWNERS. 141
and not more than five rods from the water, may without a warrant
arrest any person found in the act of violating the provisions of this
secti<Mi and detain him until complaint may be made against him
therefor. But the provisions of this section shall not interfere with
the sewerage of a city, town, village, or public institution, or prevent
the enriching of land for agriculture by the owner or occupant thereof.
Sec;. 14. Each member of the State board of health shall receive
four dollars per day and actual expenses while in tlie discharge of the
duties imposed by this act. The State auditor is directed to draw his
order on the State treasurer every six months for such sums as are
necessary to meet the exj^enses of said board under the provisions of
(his act.
Approved December 12, 1902.
GENERAL UUJLE8.
The foregoing compendium of common and statute law may be
summarized and stated in a few general rules, which wiJl perhaps be
useful to property owners and also to officers charged with the duty
o{ protecting health and property rights in watei-s.
In the nature of the case these rules can be only general, and many
exigencies will appear in which more particular instructions must be
obtained from the consuhation of text-books and decisions or from
the advice of counsel.
I. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF RIPARIAN OWNERS.
Every riparian owner has the right —
1. To use the waters of streams, navigable or otherwise, which flow
across or along his property for the ordinary purposes incidental to
domestic life and agriculture, including grazing.
2. To use such watere for water power and for all kinds of manu-
facturing purposes which do not sensibly diminish the quantity which
flows on for the use of lower proprietors nor change the quality of
the waters to any appreciable extent, nor interfere with the use of
the stream, if navigable by the public.
3. To have such waters flow to him from the premises of higher
proprietors not unreasonably diminished nor diverted nor rendered
impure by the farming or domestic uses to which the waters are sub-
jected by higher proprietors.
4. To have such waters flow to him not sensibly changed in quality
by any manufacturing or other uses to which they may have been
])ut by higher proprietors.
5. To have such waters flow to him in their natural bed, unpolluted
by any deposits of filth or any other substance in the bed or channel
142 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. [No. 152.'
previously traversed by them. But 3, 4, and 5 do not apply to
riparian owners in those States in which the doctrine of prior appro-
priation is the law. (See pp. 21-23.)
Convei'sely, it is the duty of every riparian owner —
1. To so guard his use of the waters of streams which flow across
or along his property for domestic and agricultural purposes as not
unreasonably to divert nor diminish nor render impure such waters.
2. To refrain from every use in manufacturing which will divert or
sensibly diminish the quantity of the waters which flow onward to
the lower proprietors or render them appreciably different in quality.
3. To refrain from depositing any filth or other substance in the
l)ed of such streams in such a manner or to such an extent as will
cause the waters to flow to the lower proprietors out of their natural
bed or will in anywise pollute them or render them impure.
Wliere the doctrine of prior appropriation is in forc*e the appro-
priator must confine his use of the appropriated water to the use for
Avhich he has appropriated it and take only so much as is reasonably
necessary to accomplish that purpose. He may not pollute the stream
wantonly, nor by using it for purposes not included in his appropria-
lion. Subject to these restrictions, the prior appropriator has the
right to divert from the stream and use as much of the water as is
necessary to accomplish the purpos<^ for which it was appropriated.
II. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS.
Considered as corporate entities, municipal corporations have such
I'ights and powers only as are conferred upon them by statute, either
expressly or by necessary implication.
When, uniler due authority, they l)ecome the owners of lakes, reser-
voirs, and natural streams, they have the same rights to pure water,
and are charged with the same duties as are other riparian pro-
prietors.
If authorized to construct a system of sewers draining into a
stream, such authority d(K»s not exempt them (exc*ept in the State of
Indiana) from the duty not to pollute the stream to the damage of
h)wer proprietors.
The rights of property owners, specified in 3, 4, and 5 alwve are
property rights and can not be taken away from owners for public
use excej)t upoii payment therefor of an amount determined by con-
stitutional coudenmation proceedings authorized by statute.
Therefore, until municipal corporations have, by such proceedings,
jicqiiired the rights of all lower pr()i)rietoi'S and paid for them, they
are recfuired in all cases to refrain from the pollution of streams to
the same extent as private owners.
c,<K>DELL.l PROGRESS OF LEGISLATION. 148
III. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF THE PUBLIC.
By " the public " is meant that indefinite numl>er of individuals,
whether larger or smaller, who occupy as a common habitation a
neighborhood, village, town. State, or country. Rights and duties
which affect inhabitants of the neighborhood, village, town. State, or
country as a whole, or a considerable but indefinite number of them,
are called " public '' rights and duties.
The public, in this sense, aside from the right to use navigable
waters for conmierce, has the right to enjoy the natural waters and
the air which passes over them, so far as life and health are affected
by these elements, in a condition so near that in which nature left
them that their use will not destroy nor threaten life nor injure
heiilth.
And, reciprocally, the public, and each member of it, is charged
with the duty not to pollute the natural waters upon which the com-
munity depends for life and health in any manner that will render
the continued use of the %vaters, or of the air wh\ph passes over them,
destructive of or injurious to the life or health of the community.
PUBLIC RIGHTS AND DUTIES ENFORCED BY STATUTE.
The rights and duties attempted to be expressed under III have
received some recognition by the courts apart from statutory enact-
ments. They have been enforced chiefly, however, through legisla-
tion. These rights and duties have received full recognition, and an
active effort has been made to provide an efficient sanction for their
enforcement by the legislatures of all the States included in Class II
and Class III, as hereinbefore stated. These classes inchide thirty-
eight of the States and Territories.
These st;atutes, not being in derogation of common-law rights, have
been construed as remedial statutes and not unconstitutional, although
in some ca^es they may seem to interfere with prescriptive rights.
No one can acquire by prescription a right to do an act which men-
aces public health or destroys public comfort.
PROGRESS OF LEGISLATION.
It will have been noticed that public opinion, as expressed in public
laws, is steadil}' progressing in the direction of a full, complete, and
comprehensive enforcement of all the rights and duties of riparian
owners, of municipal corporations, and of the public, as summarized
above. Each advance in statutory regulation is an advance in that
direction, and more especially in the direction of regulating and
enforcing public rights and municipal rights and duties.
144 LAWS FORBIDDING INLAND- WATER POLLUTION. f No. 152.
Private owners, from time immemorial, have been active in pro-
tecting their riparian rights as against other private owners. But the
effect of poUution upon public health has not, until a comparatively
recent period, been brought prominently into notice. The pollutioii
of streams by cities and private persons has, accordingly, not received
the attention which it deserved. This state of affairs is now rapidh
passing away. Courts have shown themselves fully alive to the
existence and validity of public rights in that respect, and the legis-
latures in Class III, comprising the States of Connecticut, ^Ias>a-
chusetts, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Minnesota, Ver-
mont, and Pennsylvania, which has come into this class by legislation
enacted in 1905, have made enactments calculated so to control such
pollution as eventually to prevent all danger to public health.
INDEX
21
21
34
57 I
17 I
16
A.
Piige.
Ac-quackanonk Water Co. r. WatHon, cited
on mine contamination 15 I
reference to 18 |
Alabama, common-law cases in 9, 26, 29 ,
statute laws of 33-34 ,
AItcK>na, Good r.. decision in 26
AiulrewM. Chief Justice, (pinion of, quoted
on sewage pollution . .' 27-28
Angel, Pennsylvania Railroad Co. r., opin- j
ion in, quoted on Interference
wi th private property 18
Appropriation, prior, doctrine of, in arid
and mininR BUtes 21-23 |
Arid and mining States, liparian rights in . . 21-23
Arizona, common-law case in
doctrine of prior appropriation in
Arkansas, common-law case in
statute laws of
A<he8, depofdtion of, in streams, etc., prohi-
bition of and penalty for
Attorney -General r. I^eeds, opinion in,
quoted on previous pollution . .
Aiiorney-General r. Steward, opinion in,
quoted on previous pollution. . .
B.
BHldwin, Judge, opinion of, quoted on sew-
age pollution 2H-29 ]
Bankier, Young v., cited on mine contami-
nation 15
Barnyarrl refuse, contamination by, prohi-
bition of and penalty for 87, I
46,65,66,67-68,70 .
Bathing In stream, etc.. used for water sup- i
ply, prohibition of and penalty
for 46,67,64,66-67,74,81,84 j
Bathing establishments, law regulating.. 181-132
Beach r. Sterling Iron and Zinc Co., deci-
sion in 11-20
reference to 31 '
Birmingham, Mayor, etc., of, r. Land, opin-
ion in 29 ,
Blixzard r. The Borough of Danville, deci-
sion in 27
Boards of health. See Health, boards of.
Boiling Spring Co., Holsman r. See Hols-
man r. Boiling Spring Co.
Bones, depoKition of, in streams, etc., pro-
hibition of and penalty for 57
Borough of Danville. The, Blizzard r., de-
cision In 27 I
Rrinsop Coal Co., Pennington r.. cited on
mine conumination 15
IRR 152—05 M-
-10
Page.
Butcher's Ice and Coal Co. t*. Philadelphia,
decision in 26
Butler V. Village of White Plains, decision
in 29-30
C.
Cairns, Iy»rd, cited on mine contamina-
tion 16
California, common-law cases in 9, 22, 23, 25
doctrine of prior appropriation in 22, 28
statute laws of 46-47
Cases on discharge of sewage 24-31
on public nuisances 23
on rights of public 28
municipalities 24, 25-81
riparian owners 9-28
Cemetery, maintenance of, near streams,
etc., prohibition of and penalty
for 39,58,74-76,182
Chadwick, Magor r., cited ou mine con-
tamination 15
Chelmsford, Lord, opinion of, quoted on
previous pollution 17
Chemicals, deposition of. in streams, etc.,
prohibition of and penalty for . 72
Chicago, sewage from, suit concerning dis-
posal of 20-21
City, Harris t'., decision in 26
City of Danbury, Morgan v., opinion in,
quoted on sewage pollution 28-29
City of Gloversville, Sammons r., decision
in 29
Clowes r. Staffordshire Waterworks, cited
on right to give damages 15
Coal mines, contamination from. See Mines.
Coal tar, etc., contamination by, prohibi-
tion of and penalty for . . . 46-47, 54, 61
Colorado, common-law cases in 9, 21, 28
doctrine of prior appropriation in 21, 23
statute laws of 48
Columbus, The, etc., Co. r. Tucker, deci-
sion in, cited 14
Columbus Co. t'. Taylor, cited on natural
use 16
Commissioners on stream pollution. New
Jersey, powers, etc., of . . 88-89, 106-121
Common law. See Law, common.
Connecticut, common-law ca»ses in 9, 26, 27-29
statute laws of 74-76
Contamination of water. See Water, pollu-
tion of.
Council, city or village, powers of 37, 43, 49
Crowley r. Lightowler, opinion in, quoted
on previous pollution 17
145
146
INDEX.
Pa«e.
D.
Damages, right to sue for 8
Danbury, Morgan r., opinion in 28-29
Danville, Borough of, Blizzard r., decision
in 27
Decisions. See Cases.
Delaware, statute Jaws of 35
Diversion of water supply, prohibition of
and penalty for 53
Dixon, Judge, opinion of, quoted on intei:
ference with pnvate property. . 18
Dodge, Judge, opinion of, quoted on sewage
pollution 31
Domestic purposes, right of reasonable use
ofwaterfor 8
E.
England, common-law cases in . . . 10, 15-16, 17, 25
Ennor, Hodgkinson v., cited ou mine con-
tamination 15
Excrement, contamination by, prohibition
of and penalty for 58,
62, 63, 65, 66-67, 69, 70, 80, 81, 89-90, 140
Explosives, deposition of, in streams, etc..
restriction of 36. 72, 73
F.
Factory refuse, contamination by, prohibi-
tion of and penalty for 37,
38, 45, 50, 53, 54, 61, 66-67. 89-90
discharge of, in streams, etc., when al-
lowed 126-128
Farming, right of reasonable use of water
for 8
Fish, etc., poisoning of. pnihibltion of and
penalty for 36,
38,40.45,54,55,58,72,73
Fletcher v. Rylands, cited on mine contam-
ination 16
Florida, statute laws of 35
Fond du Lac, Hughes v., opinion in, quoted
on rights of municipal corpora-
tion 31
G.
Garbage, etc. . burning of 57, 69
Gardner v. Newburgh, decision in, quota-
tion from 14
Garrison, Judge, opinion of, quoted on sew-
erage commission 121
Gas tar, etc., contamination by, prohibition
of 39,40,61,63
Georgia, common-law caj«es in 9, 25
statute laws of 35
Gloversville, Sammons r., decision in 29
Goldsmid v. Tunbridge Wells Commission-
ers, opinion in, quoted on effect
of nuisance 19-20
Good r. Altoona, decision in 26
Great Britain, common-law cases in. 10, 15-16,17,25
Grey. Attoniey-General, r. Paterson, discus-
sion of 30-31
opinion in, quoted on sewage dL<;po6al . . 30
H.
Hagen, Valparaiso i\, decision in 25, 26, 31
Harper r. Milwaultee, opinion in, quoted on
rights of municipal corporation. 31
] Harris V. City, decision in a
I Health, boards of, powers of M,
1 42-43, 47, 50, 58, 59, 68. 74. 77-79. *t». 88, M
I 85, 90, 91-92, 121-126, 129-130, 132, 137-1 4i
I Higgins P. The Water Co., cited 1-
Hodgkinson r. Ennor, cited on mine con-
tamination l'<
I Holsman v. Bol ling Spring Co. , cited on mine
contamination 14
opinion in, quoted on protection of ripn-
rianright 17
I reference to 1-
Hughes V. Fond du Lac, opinion In, quoted
I on rights of municipal corpora-
tion 31
; I.
Ice, cutting of, restriction of ?sJ.^4
Ice pond, driving on, restriction of •»!
I Idaho, common-law cases in .!l
doctrine of prior appropriation in J J
sUtutelawsof So
Illinois, common-law cases in :^*)
statute laws of 45-1^
I Illinois et al., Missouri r., case of 20-Jl
Indiana, common-law cases in 9, 2.'>. ;>]
statute laws of 49- '.i
Indictment as remedy for injury *
' Injunction as remedy for in jury 8, 1*<,76,n»
cases bearing on 15-16, 18. '.S-^:!
Iowa, common-law cases in i*.-'»
statute laws of ;>'.
I J-
' Jurisdictions of act and its results, different. 9.lu
I K.
' Kansas, common-law cases in 3^
' statute laws of Jr.
I Kent, Chancellor, opinion of, quoted on
riparian rights 14
Kentucky, statute laws of *•
L.
I Lancaster City, Owens v., decision in 2».. -r
Land, Mayor, etc., of Birmingham r., opin-
ion in, quoted on sewage pollu-
tion Ji*
Law, common, decisions at 7-ol
decisions at, classification of 7-»
' principles of 7-o:
classification of 7-^
remedies at **
Laws, statute, classes of :'.
lack of uniformity in C
restrictions of, general 4.S-7 ;
partial 33-4'»
severe T^-U\
text of, by classes and by States Z:\-l i 1
See a/so und/r State names.
Leeds, Attorney-General v., opinion In,
quoted on previous poll Jtion . . IT
Lightowler, Crossley r., opinion in, quoted
on previous pollution IT
Lister, Meigs i'., opinion in, quoted on pre-
vious pollution 16-17
Ixirds. Hou.se of, decision of 1 "»
I LouL<<iana, statute laws of :-j
INDEX.
147
Paje.
L.r>woll. Middlesex Co. r., declsioii In 29
Lumbering waste, depoeition of, in streams,
etc., when allowed 83
M.
McClellan, Chief Justice, opinion of, quoted
on sewage pollution 29
Maena^hten, Lord, opinion of, quoted on
mine contamination 16-16
Magor r. Cliad wick, cited on mine contami-
nation 15
Maine, common-law case in 9
sta tute la ws of 61-52
Maryland, common-law cases in 9
statute laws of 62-53
MasMachusctts, common-law cases In 9, 26, 29
statute laws of 77-81
Mayor, etc., of Birmingham r. Land, opinion
in,quoted on sewage poll utlon . . 29
MeigK r. Lister, opinion in, quoted on pre-
vious pollution 16-17
Merrifield r. Worcester, cited on natural use . 16
decision in 26,29
Michigan, statute laws of 36-38
Middlesex Co. r. Lowell, decision in 29
Milling refuse, contamination hy, prohibi-
tion of and penalty for 44.
45,85,86,137
Milwaukee, Harper v ., opinion in, quoted
on rights of municipal corpora-
tion 31
Mines, contamination of streams by, deci-
sions on 10-20
Mining refuse, pollution by 9, 10-20, 55, 66
Minnesota, common-law case in 10
statute laws of 81-82
Missi^ppi. common-law case in 10
statute laws of 38
MisHourl. common-law case in 10
statute laws of 53-64
Missouri v. Illinois et al., case of 20-21
Montana, common-law cases in 21
doctrin e of prior appropriation in 21
Morgan v. City of Danbury, opinion in,
quoted on sewage pollution 28-29
Municipalities, as riparian owners 24-142
righ ts of 8 ,
24-81,34,88.39,65,61,81,90,94,112-
113, 124, 126, 127, 134, 141, 142-143
N.
Nason, I*rofe8sor, testimony of, on mine
water 19
Natural use. See Use, natural.
Nebraska, statute laws of 38-39
Nevada, common-law cases in 21
doctrine of prior appropriation in 21
.Ktatute la ws of 54-55
New Britain, Nolan r., opinion in, quoted on
sewage pollution 27-28
New Hampshire, common-law case in 10, 26
statute lawsof 82-8rt
New Jersey, commissioners on stream pollu-
tion in 88-89,106-121
common-law cases in 10, 11-20, 26, 30-31
sewerage commission in 92-105
statute lawsof H(>-121
I Page.
New Mexico, common-law cases in 22
doctrine of prior appropriation in 22
statute lawsof 66-57
I New York, common-law cases in 26, 29-30
statuU* lawsof 121-132
' Newburgh, (Jardner v., decision in, (|Uota-
tion from 14
Nolan r. New Britain, opinion in, quoted
on sewage pollution 27-28
I North Carolina, statute laws of 58-59
North Dakota, common-law ca^e-J in 22
doctrine of prior appropriation in 22
statute laws of 39
Nuisance, commission of, near waterworks,
, piohibition of and penalty for. . 34, 74
public, from water pollution 23, 27
O.
JjUjstructlons to navigation, depot^it ion of, in
streams, etc., prohibition of 36, 38
Ohio, common-law cases in 10, 14, 16
statute laws of 60-62
Oil, etc., contamination by, prohibition of
and penalty for 48, 54, 61 , 66-67
Oklahoma, st^itute laws of 39-40
Oregon, common-law cases in 22, 23
doctrine of prior appmpriation in 22, 23
statute laws of 62-63
Owens r. Lanca.ster City, decision in 26. 27
Owners, riparian, rights of.... 8-23,30-31,141-142
below tide water, rights of 30
Oysters, etc., deposition of, in streams, etc.,
prohibition of and penalty for. . 52
P.
Paper, dej)Osilion of, in streams, etc.. prohi-
bition of and penalty for 57
Parliament, powers of is
Passaic Valley Sewerage Commissioners,
Van Cleve r., decision in. refer-
ence to 121
Paterson. (Jrey, Attorney-General, r. Stc
Grey, Attomey-(}eneral, r. Pater-
son.
Pennington v. Brinsop Coal Co.. cited on
mine contamination 16
Pennsylvania, common-law cases in 10,
11. 14, 17, IM, 26, 27-28
statute laws of 132-136
Pennsylvania Coal Co., Sanderson r. .^>a
' Sanderson r. Pennsylvania Coal
Co.
Pennsylvania Railroad Co. v. AnKcl. opin-
; ion in, quoted on interference
with private property 18
Philadelphia, Butcher's Ice and Coal ro. r..
decision in 26
, Pitney, Vice-Charicellor, opinion of 1 1 -20
' Poison, deposition of, in streams, ete., pro-
' hibition of and penalty for. ... 35,
36, 40, 44, 51 , 54, 55, 58, 64, 70, 83
' Polluting articles, deposition of. in streams,
etc., statutorj' restrictions of . . 32-141
for npfcial articles not univertally pro-
hibited, Ke under their nnmff.
Pollution, right of. impossibility of pre-
.scribing 9
148
INDKX.
FViUutlon of water. See Water, poll ution rif .
Prior Appropriation. See Approprl a tion .
Privy vaults, laws concerning 39,
46, 48, 49, 53, 60, 66-67. 69, 70. H7
Property, private, interference with, provi-
sion of Constitution conceniing. IH
Public, as riparian owner 23
rights of M. 23.143
R.
Refuse. >!ce Factory refuse; Milling refuse;
Mining refuse.
Remedies at common law for water jiollu- |
tion H
R^trictions, statutory, claasifioation of ;vj
general, by States 4.V73
partial, by States 3:}-45
severe, by States 7:J-l II
Rhode Island, common -law cases in 10
statute laws of 4(>-l3
" Rights of municipal corporations to drain
sewers," etc., cited 29
Rights prescriptive, cases bearing on.
cited 16.27-28
discussion of .• 16. 141-143
Riparian owners. See Owners, riparian.
Rylauds, Fletcher v., cited on mine con-
tamination 16
8.
St. Helen's Smelting Co. v. Tipping, cited
on previous pollution 17
Stimmons v. City of Gloversville, decision in , 29 ;
Sanderson v. Pennsylvania Coal Co.. de-
cision In 10-11
discussion of 14
reference to 1 1. lo. 17
Sawdust, etc., deposition of, in stream.s,
etc., prohibition of and penalty
for 44, 45, 54, 55, 71. 72, 73. H5. »;. i;J7
Sewage, definition of 2h ,
discharge of, cases on 24-31 '
decisions concerning 1 7, 25, 26-31
limitation of statutory authority
for 24
restrictions on 42. 52. 5.s. 62.
66. 75, 81. 89-90, W, 112-113, 126. 134. 140
rights of municipalities 24-31.
38, 39, 55. 81, 90.94. 112-1 1:{.
124, 126, 127. 134, 141. 142-1 43
Sewerage commission, New Jersey, powers, ,
etc., of 92-105
Sheep washing, contamination by, pro- j
hibition of and penalty for 6.1
Slaughterhouse, maintenance of. near
streams, etc., prohibition of and
penalty for 39. 43, 44. 67-6M, 70 t
South Carolina, common-law case in 10
South Dakota, statute laws of ♦« ,
Sta>)lc. etc., maintenance of, near streaniH, 1
etc.. prohibition of and penalty
for 39, 46. ♦>.). 67-68 ■
Staffordshire Waterworks, Clowes r.. cited
on right to give damages ir>
States, control of water pollution coiiliii*''!
to 3J
States, law» of, classification of
laws of, lack of uniformity in .t-
textof 33-141
See alfto under State names.
Statutory restrictions. See Restrictions.
Sterling Iron and Zinc Co., Beach r. S*f
Beach r. Sterling Iron and Zinc
Co.
Steward. Attornej-General r., opinion in.
quoted on previous pollution ... 1^
Streams, ijanks of. deposition of offen«ivf
matter on, prohibition of and
penaltyfor :ft*.
43, 46. 58. 6&-67. 80. M . 1 «i
iLMC (»f, as sewers, rights of municipali-
ties in 24-31, --6^. 19
Suit, private, as remedy for injury -*
Supreme Court of the United States, com-
mon-law case in 2i'-21
T.
Taylor, Columbus Co. r.. cited on natural
use 1^
Ten nes.see. statute laws of *A
Texas. ca«es bearing on prior appropriation
in if
statute laws of t-\
Tin cans, deposition of, in streams. et«'..
prohibition of and penalty for. . u
Tipping. St. Helen's Smelting Co. r., cited
on previous pollution 1 :
Tucker, Columbus, etc., Co. r., de<*ision in.
cited 14
Tunbridge Wells Commissioners. Goldsmid
f., opinion in, quoted on effect
of nuisance 19-JO
Turner. Ix>rd Justice, opinion of, quoted
on effect of nuisance 1 v-*3i
r.
Cse. natural, discussion of v
reasonable, right of n, •."_
rcascmableneaii of, determination of h
Utah, statute laws of i*=»
V.
Valparaiso r. Hagen, decision in 2.'>. jr*. u
Van Cleve »'. Passaic Valley Sewerage Com-
missioners, decision in. refer-
ence to \l\
Vermont, common-law cases in n
sUtutelawsof 137-141
Village of White Plains. Butler t., decision
in J".' .«
Virginia, statute laws of fVv-»,7
W.
Washington, common-law cases in Ji;
doctrine of prior appropriation in ^
statute laws of t.T ♦>*
Water, appropriation of, limitation of ripa-
rian owner's right of »'. n J
total, prohibition of... •»
ownership of, qualification of *
pollution of, by drainage from mines. . liv^i
causing public nuisance ». 23
INDEX.
149
Page
Water, pollution of, from sewage 24-31
pollution of, jurifldiction over 32
liability of municipality for 24-51
liability of riparian owner for «, 142
relation of prior appropriation
to 22-23
statutory restrictions on 32-141
prior appropriation of, doctrine of 21-23
reasonable use of, determination of 8
righte of public in 23
rights of riparian owners to 7. 8, 141-142
limitations on 8,21.142
rule of law concerning 8
Kupply of, inspection of 122
u»e of, for farming and domestic pur-
poses 8,141
for other than fanning or domestic
purposes, limitationH on ... . 8, 141-142
riparian owner's right to 7, 8, 141
Water Co. , The, Higgins r. , cited 18
Water companies, laws concerning 59. 83-84
] Page.
Watflon, Aequackanonk Water Co. r. See
I Aequackanonk Water Co. v.
^ Watson.
I Waukenha, Winchell v., opinion in, quoted
, . on sewage pollution 31
West Virginia, statute laws of 69
' White Plains, Village of, Butler v., deci-
I slonin 29-30
Winehell r. Waukesha, opinion in, quoted
I on sewage pollution 31
I Wi-sconsin, common-law cases in 10, 31
Ntatutelawsof 48-45
I Worcester, Merrifield v. See Merrifleld r.
Worcester.
I Wyoming, common-law cases in 10, 22
doctrine of prior appropriation In 22
statute laws of 70-73
i
I Young V. Bankier, cited on mine eontaml-
' nation 15
O
PrBLICATIONS OF UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
[Water-supply Paper No. 152.]
The serial pablications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1)
Annua] Reports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (6)
Mineral Resources, (6) \> ater-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas
of United States— folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of United
States — folios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publica-
tion ; the others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists may be had
on application.
Most of the above publications may be obtaineil or consulted in the following ways:
1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they
may be obtained, free of chaise (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application.
2. A certain number are allotted to every member of Congress, from whom they
may be obtained, free of charge, on application.
3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D. C, from whom they may be had at practically cost.
4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public
libraries in the large cities throughout the United States, where they may be con-
sulted by thoee interested.
The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of
subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified
into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, System-
atfc geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and
physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water
storage; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investi-
gations; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports.
This paper is the twelfth in Series L, the complete lists of which follow. (PP=
Professional Paper, B=Bulletin, WS=Water-Supply Paper. )
Series L— Quality op Watbr.
WS 3. Sewage irrigation, by G. W. Rafter. ^ 1897. 100 pp., 4 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 22, Sewagre Irrigation, Pt. II, by G. W, Rafter. 1899. 100 pp., 7 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 72. Sewage pollution near New York City, by M. O. Leighton. 1902. 75 pp., 8 pis.
WS 76. Flow of rivers near New York City, by H. A. Pressey. 1903. 108 pp.. 13 pis.
WS 79. Normal and polluted waters in northeastern United States, by M. O. Leighton. 1903. 192 pp.,
15 pis.
WS 103. Review of the laws forbidding pollution of inland waters in the United States, by E. B.
Goodell. 1904. 120 pp.
WS 106. Quality of water in the Susquehanna River drainage basin, by M. O. Leighton, with an
introductory chapter on physiographic features, by G. B. Hollister. 1904. 76 pp., 4 pis.
WS 113. Strawboard and oil wastes, by R. L. Sackett and Isaiah Bowman. 1905. 52 pp., 4 pis.
WS 121. Preliminary report on the pollution of Lake Champlaln, by M. O. Leighton. 1905. 119 pp.,
13 pis.
WS 144. The normal distribution of chlorine in the natuni waters of New York and New England,
by D. D. Jackson. 1905. 31 pp., § pis.
WS 151. Field assay of water, by M. O. Leighton. 1905. 77 pp., 4 pis.
WS 152. A review of the laws forbidding pollution of inland waters in the United States, second
edition, by E. B. Goodell. 1905. 149 pp.
Correspondence should be addressed to
The Director,
United States Geological Survey,
Washington, D. G.
Octobeb, 1905.
9
LIBEABT CATALOGUE 8LIP8.
[Moaiit each slip upon a 8e{)arate card, pLacing the subject at the top of the
second slip. The name of the series should not be repeated on the series
card, but the additional numbers should be added, aH received, to the
fi rnt entry.]
Goodell, Edwin B[urpee] 1850-
... A review of the laws forbidding pollution of
I inland waters in the United States. 2d ed. By Edwin
B. Goodell. Washington, Gov't print, off., 1905.
149, iii p. 23®". (U. S. (ireological survey. Water-supply and irrigation
paper no. 152)
Subject series: L, Quality of water, 12.
First ed. published as Water-supply and irrigation paper no. 103.
1. Water, Pollution of. 2. Water — T^aws and legislation.
Goodell, Edwin B[urpee] 1850-
... A review of the laws forbidding pollution of
inland waters in the United States. 2d ed. By Edwin
B. Goodell. Washington, Gov't print, off., 1905.
149, iii p. 23'"". (U. S. ( Geological survey. Water-supply and irrigation
paper no. 152)
Subject series: L, Quality of water, 12.
First ed. published as Water-supply and irrigation pa|)er no. 103.
1. Water, Pollution of. 2. Water — Iaws and legislation.
U. S. Geological survey.
Water-supply and irrigation papers .
no. 152. Goodell, E. B. A review of the laws forbidding
pollution of inland waters. 2d ed. 1905.
U.S. Dept. of the Interior.
I see also
* U. S. Geological survey.
Wai^^pply «d legation Paper No. 168 8«i« jj ^J^til
Waier8,50
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
CHARLES I). WALCOTT, DiRSCTOB
THE UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY
IN WESTERN KANSAS
BY
CHARLES S. SLIGHTER
WASHINGTON
GOVKRNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1906
CONTENTS.
PBffe.
Introdnctioii 5
Chapter I. Measurements of the underflow of Arkansas River 7
(Teneral statement 7
Measurements 2 miles west of Garden, Kans. (camp 1 ) 7
Measurements at Sherlock, Kans. (camp 2) 13
Measurements at Deerfield, Kans. (camp 3) 16
Measurements at Clear Lake, near Hartland, Kans. (camp 4) 18
Measurements of the underflow at Narrows of Arkansas River, near Hart-
land, Kans. (camp 6) 22
Chapter II. Fluctuations of ground- water level 25
Influence of the rainfall and of height of water in Arkansas River on
ground- water level 25
Fluctuation of ground- water level at Sherlock, Kans 35
Fluctuation of ground- water level at Deerfield, Kans 42
Evaporation experiments near Deerfield 43
Chapter III. Chemical composition of the waters of the underflow 45
Chapter IV. Origin and extent of the underflow 51
Origin 51
North and south limitations ^. 54
Chapter V^. Summary of tests of small pumping plants in Arkansas Valley ... 55
General results .• 55
Specific capacity 56
Cost of pumping 57
Chapter VI. Details of tests of pumping plants 59
Test of pumping plant of D. H. Logan, Garden, Kans 59
Test of the Richter pumping plant, near Garden, Kans 62
Test of pumping plant of C. E. Sexton, near Garden, Kans 65
Test of pumping plant of N. Fulmer, Lakin, Kans 67
Test of pumping plant of J. M. Root, Lakin, Kans 70
Test of well at King Brothers' ranch. Garden, Kans 73
Test of city waterworks well, Garden, Kans ■. 76
Test of Holcomb's pumping plant, 7 miles west of Garden, Kans 80
Test of producer-gas pumping plant near Rocky Ford, Colo 82
Index 89
3
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plate I. Cardboard model of changes in water plane near camp 1 '*^2
II. Cardboard model of changes in water plane near Sherlock, Kann. - -^
III. Cardboanl model of changes in water plane near Sherlock, Kans. . 40
Fkj. 1. Map of water plane between Garden and Deeriield, KanH ^
2. Map showing location of underflow stations and test wells at i^mp 1,
2 miles west of Garden, Kans 9
3. Cross section near camp 1, 2 miles west of Garden, Kans II
4. Map showing location of underflow stations and test wells at Sher-
lock, Kans -. 14
5. Cross section at camp 2, near Sherlock, Kans I "i
6. Map showing location of underflow stations and test wells at i*amp 3.
near Deerfield, Kans 17
7. Map showing location of underflow stations and test wells at Clear
Lake, Kansas li»
8. Map showing location of underflow stations and test wells near Hart-
land, Kans 2r2
9. Cross section at the Narrows of Arkansas River, west of Hartland,
Kans ^ - 1*3
10. Elevation of water in Arkansas River and test wells, Garden, Kans.,
from June 16 to July 11, 1904 iN
11. Curves of barometric pressure and height of water plane "W
12. Elevation of water in test wells and in Arkansas River, at Sherlock,
Kans., between July 15 and August 3, 1904 Uh
13. Elevation of water in Arkansas River and in test wells near Sherlock,
Kans., during flood of July 27, 1904 4<)
14. Elevation of water in Arkansas River and test wells at Deerfield,
Kans., August 4 to 14, 1904 48
15. Curve for Whitney electrolytic bridge used in converting resistance in
ohms into total solids for ground waters of Arkansas Valley 47
16. Elevation of water surface of Arkansas River at Sherlock and rainfall
at (larden, Kans 52
17. Elevation of water surface of Arkansas River at Deerfiehl and rainfall
at Garden, Kans 1 oii
18. Rising curves for Logan well t>l
19. Rising curve for Richter well 64
20. Rising curve for Fulmer wel I HM
21 . Rising curves for R(x)t well 72
22. Rising curves for main well and test well. King Brothers' well 7.t
23. Rising curves for city waterworks well, Garden, Kans 77
24. Elevation of water in city waterworks well and engine cycles. Garden,
Kans 78
4
THE UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY IN
WESTERN KANSAS.
Bv Charles S. Slighter.
INTRODUCTION.
The investigation of the underflow of Arkanstis River, described in
this paper, was made during the summer of 1904. The field party was
under the general supervision of the writer. Mr. Henry C. Wolff had
charge of the measurements of the rate of movement of the ground
waters. He also made careful determinations of the fluctuation of the
position of the water plane, and the success of the field work was
largel)'^ due to his skill and hard work. Mr. Ray Owen had charge of
level and plane-table work, and made a contour map of the water plane.
A few of the principal conclusions may be summarized as follows:
1. The underflow of Arkansas River moves at an average rate of 8
feet per twenty-four hours, in the geneml direction of the valle\\
2. The water plane slopes to the east at the rate of 7.5 feet per mile,
and toward the river at the rate of 2 to 3 feet per mile.
3. The moving ground water extends several miles north from the
river valley. No north or south limit was found.
4. The rate of movement is very uniform.
5. The underflow has its origin in the rainfall on the sand hills south
of the river and on the bottom lands and plains north of the river.
6. The sand hills constitute an essential part of the catchment area.
7. The influence of the floods in the river upon the ground- water
level does not extend one-half mile north or south of the channel.
8. A heavy rain contributes more water to the underflow than a
flood.
9. On the sandy bottom lands 60 per cent of an ordinary rain reaches
the water plane as a permanent contribution.
10. The amount of dissolved solids in the underflow grows less with
the depth and with the distance from the river channel.
5
6 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
11. There is no appreciable nin-oflf in the vicinity of Garden, Kans.
Practically all of the drainage is underground through the thick
deposits of gravels.
12. Carefully constructed wells in Arkansas Valley are capable of
yielding very large amounts of water. Ekich square foot of percolat-
ing surface of the well strainers can be relied upon to yield more than
0.25 gallon of water per minute under 1 foot head.
13. There is no indication of a decrease in the underflow at Gar-
den in the last five years. The city well showed the same spetMiic
capacity in 1904 that it had in 1899.
14. Private pumping plants in the bottom lands will be profitable
for irrigation if proper kind of power be used. There should be a
large field of usefulness for suction gas-producer power plants of from
20 to 100 horsepower, with Colorado hard coal or coke as fuel. Kan-
sas crude oil in gas generators should prove profitable for use in the
smaller plants. The present cost of pumping with gasoline for fuel L^
not encouraging.
CHAPTKR I.
MKASITREMKXTS OF THE UNDF;RFrX>W OF ARKAXSA8
RIVER.
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Investigations of the underflow of Arkansas River were begun June
11, 1904. The work consisted of the mapping of the water plane or
ground-water level within a distance of 6 to 12 miles from the river
channel, and of observations by the electrical method of the rate of
movement of the underflow. The ground-water levels were obtained
by observing the water levels in private wells in the neighborhood of
the river and in a few wells which were sunk especially for this purpose.
The slope of the water plane was found to l)e between 7 and 8 feet to
a mile in a general easterly direction, and from 2 to 3 feet to a mile
toward the river channel from the country immediately to the north
and south. The southern margin of the river valley is bordered for 5
Uy 10 miles to the south by sand hills, which are only partially covered
with natural vegetation. These sand hills extend from east of Dodge,
Kans., to beyond the Colorado line. The river valley proper varies in
width from 1 to 5 miles. Near the river channel there is a strip known
as ''first bottoms," which is only a few feet above the river level.
The principal cultivated portion of the valley lies from 3 to 8 feet
higher than first bottoms, and is locally known as ''second bottoms."
North of the river valley the ground rises rather abruptly to the high
plains with their well-known level topography and compact sod of
native grasses. The slope of the water plane toward the channel of
the river from the north is, as has been stated, about 2^ feet to a mile,
but 10 to 14 miles to the north of the valley the slope of the water
plane changes from southerly to northerly, and the land at the same
time gently dips to the north toward the valley of White Woman
Creek. The easterly slope of 7^ to 8 feet to the mile is maintained,
however, quite constantly throughout all of this region. Fig. 1 shows
the results of the determination of the water plane.
MEASUREMENTS 2 MILES WEST OF GARDEN, KANS. (CAMP i).
The measurements showed a rate of movement much greater than
had been anticipated. The first set of underflow stations were estab-
lished at a point about 2 miles west of Garden (camp 1), as shown on
the map (fig. 1). The stations were in a north-south line, which was
7
8
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTEilN KANSAS.
about li miles in length. At this point the river flows in an ea^^t bv
south direction, and borders closely on the north margin of the sand
T.22S T 23 S. T24 5,
SZS i.
S€2 X
S ¥2 J.
hills, leaving but little bottom land on the south side of the river. The
channel of the river where the observations were made is about l,OiK)
feet wide. On the north side is a strip of low land, or first bottoms.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNDERFLOW.
9
about 1,100 feet wide, which is onl}' a few inches above the general
bottom of the river bed. This low bottom has several sloughs run-
ning through it approximately parallel to the river. North of this
low strip of bottom the land abruptly rises several feet and continues
Kii;. 2.— Miip showing location of underflow stations and test wells at camp 1, 2 milcH west of Ganlen,
Kans. Tiie velocity and dire<>tion of flow is nhownby the length and direction of the arrow** at the
various stations. The depth is indicated in figures at each location.
to rise gradually for several miles farther north, this slope constituting
the cultivated portion of the valley — the so-called second bottoms.
The measurements at this point were made at stations that lay, in
general, in a straight line across the valley (fig. 2). Most of the meas-
urements were made in the river channel itself, or on the low ground
10
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
to the north. One test was made on the south side of the river at the
foot of the sand hills and another 1 mile to the north. The velocities
were determined at depths ranging from 11 to 65 feet. The results of
the measurements at this location are given in Table 1.
Table 1. — Underflow meamirements at camp 1, -2 milea weM, of Garden, Kans.
Date of test.
1904.
June 30
June 22.
Do
June 21
June 24
June 2()
June 25
JulyC
July 4
July9
Sej^tember 6
September 8
Average . . .
No. of
station.
9
1
• 2
5
5
4
8
40
12
6
40
Depth
of well.
Ffet.
16
14
31
15
31
29
17
28
17
11
65
26
Velotdty | Direction j
of ground offiow.east
water, i of north. !
Location and remarks.
Ft.jtfrday.
o
5.3
90
4.8
101
10.3
71
9.r.
103
8.0
Go
8.0
77
9.0
55
9.6
121
8.2
121
4.0
120
1.75
101
1.3
104
6.6
94
1 mile north of river.
1.100 feet north of river.
Do.
430 feet north of river.
Do.
Do.
In channel, 260 feet north of center.
In channel, 150 feet south of center.
Do.
250 feet south of river.
1,100 feet north of river.
NW. comer SW. * se<-. 2. T. 23 S , R.
33 W., 84 miles north of river.
Moan direction of river channel, 100° east of north.
Of the. stations for which data are given in this table, No. 9 was
located on the second bottoms 1 mile north of the river, No. 4() wa.-*
located on the uplands 8^ miles north of the river, and No. 12 was in
the sand hills south of the river. The other stations were either in
the first bottoms or in the channel. Station No. 6 reached so-called
''second water," or the water beneath a layer of silt which seemed
(juite impervious to the flow of water. The mean of all of the observed
velocities was 6.6 feet a day. The average direction of the motion
was 94° east of north, which may be compared to the average direction
of the river valley at this point, which we have estimated to be approx-
imately 100 - east of north. On the cross section through the river
channel and the first bottoms (fig. 3) are shown the depth of a nunil)er
of the test wells near the river channel andlhe velocity of the under-
flow.
Except for occasional layers of silt, the gravels were ver}- uniform
in size and character of grain ; a large percentage of an}' one sample
consisted of grains larger than grains of wheat. The gi-avel was also
found to be very uTiiform in lateral extent, but showed a tendency to
become coarser with the depth until 32 feet was reached. At about
32 feet fine sand and silt was encountered, which seemed, as nearly u>
could ])e determined from the wells sunk in a comparatively small
radius, to be horizontal in extent. Fine material was encountered at
a higher level at only one place, which was near the center of the river
at a depth of about 18 feet, but 50 feet upstream it was entirely absent.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNDERFLOW.
11
A well was put down at station No. 11 in order to secure a sample of
this fine material. It was found at the same level as at stations No. 6
and No. 8, and consisted of about the same kind pf material, except
that it contained a considerable amount of gypsum mixed with sand.
This fine sand must be more or less impervious, for no water could be
di-awn by means of a hand pump from a well driven in the sand, and
a hole washed out 8 feet below the casing remained for a considerable
time unfilled with sand.
fine santf OMfSf/f
(^
<^ Vt/ocify ofuncferfhw m feet per e&ty
SS Totaf 50/icfs in parts per waooo
(2) Chtorine m parts per /oaooo
Horizontal scale
Vertical scale
0 2 4 6 8 to feet
@|C11<@> ^ '
Fi«. 3.— Croes section near camp 1, 2 miles west of Garden, Kans. The total solids dissolved In the
ground water at various depths are shown, in parts per 100,000. by the numbers inclosed in rectan-
gles. The numbers Inclosed in circles express the amount, in parts per 100,000, of chlorine found
at the position at which the circles are placed.
The velocities above this layer of silt are very uniform, ranging
from 4.8 feet a day to 10.3 feet a day, with an average for ten tests of
7.68 feet a day, with the direction varying from 55^ east of north to
121^ east of north.
The direction of motion at these various stations, as has been stated,
was in general toward the east, but several exceptions were noted from
time to time. At the time field work was begun the channel of the
Arkansas River was dry, as is very usual in the months from June to
October. The summer of 1904, however, proved to be an exceptional
one, and high floods were of constant occurrence throughout the sea-
son. One of these floods came down the river soon after the first
undei-flow stations were established near the bank of the river. This
offered an excellent opportunity of determining the influence of the
12 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
river waters upon the underflow. At one underflow station, situated
near the north bank of the channel of the river, 2 miles west of Gar-
den, the direction of the flow of the ground waters was very greatly
changed b}' the flood in the river. It was therefore possible to niea>-
ure the rate at which the river contributed to the ground watei-s at
this point. It was found that the water during the early stages of tlie
flood flowed away from the river at the rate of 6 to 8 feet per twenty-
four hours. This point can be established by consulting the recoi-d for
stations No. 2 and No. 5, as given in Table 1. These stations ai-e
located at the same point. The velocit}' at station No. 2 on June 21,
1904, before a rain on the night of June 21, and before a flood which
came down the river at 3 p. m. June 22, was 9.6 feet per twenty-four
hours in a direction 103^ east of north, which is substantially the dire< -
tion of the river channel. After the flood the velocity^ at the same pla<*e
(at a greater depth, however) was found to be 8 feet per twenty-four
hours, in a direction 65^ east of north, or at an angle of 35 - away from
the river channel, the flood having therefore changed the former
direction of flow by about 38^. On June 26, when the flood had still
further receded, a second determination of velocity showed the same
rate as before, but the direction had shifted to 77^ east of north, or at
an angle of about 23- with the river channel.
It was not only possible to actually determine this rate of loss of
water from the river by the use of the electric underflow meter, hut
the northerly progress of the water from the river into the gnivels
could be noted by observation of the changes in the temperature of the
ground water as it flowed north. The river water was much warmer
than the natural ground water, and the increased temperature could
be followed away from the river bank. These facts are shown by the
temperatures of the water recorded in Table 11. In that table will l)e
found the following entries:
Tfmj[}erature of water of river and test ivelUy June ^, 1904^
River ., 71
Test well No. 3, .3H0 feet north of river 62.5
Test well No. 1, 1,100 feet north of river 59
The water taken from the other wells had a somewhat more uniform
temperature, excepting in two cases — that taken from the wells at sta-
tion No. 10 and station No. 8. At station No. 10, at a depth of Ls
feet, the temperature was 51; at station No. 8, 28 feet below the
bottom of the river, the tempemture was 48^, which was the colde>t
water found at any point. At these two stations the direction of the
underflow was the most southerly of any found, being in each ca.so
121° ea.st of north.
It was also possible to partially trace inward moving ground water
originating in the river by the change in the chemical com|x)sition of
the water. Apparatus was at hand for detei-mining the alkalinity,
MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNDERFLOW. 13
hardness, chlorine, and the total solids dissolved in the water; and this
apparatus was used to secure the results just stated. A further veri-
fication of the inwardly moving ground water was found in thechangeil
slope of the water plane during the flood periods in the river. The
water plane sloped away from the river about 8 feet to the mile during
the first stages of high water, and corresponded quite accurately with
the observed velocities of the water. Fig. 3 shows the slope of the
water plane on June 23 and July 3. Several gradients corresponding
to other dates are given in Table 1.
MEASUREMENTS AT SHERLOCK, KANS. (CAMP 2).
Several underflow measurements were taken at camp 2, which was
situated at Sherlock, Kans., 7 miles west of Garden. The results
differed little from those found at the first set of stations at camp 1,
except that more sorting of the gravels had taken place at the latter
point, giving greater variety to the rate of movement. The location
of the various test wells and underflow stations is marked in fig. 4.
The same stations are shown in cross section in fig. 5. The details of
the results are printed in Table 2. From this table it will be observed
that the average velocity of the underflow for all of the stations was
SA) feet per twent\'-four hours. The mean direction of the motion was
J>3.5'^ east of north, which may be compared with the mean direction of
the river valley at this point, which was computed to be 105^ east of
north. There was some water in the river throughout all of the time
during which the tests were made, and on July 27 a heavy flood swept
down the river.
Tablr 2. — Underflow measurements at camp 2, Sherlock^ Kans.
Velocity I Dlre<;tion I
I>Mte of toit. ' sLtinn I **^ I ofgrroiiiul |Offlow,ea.st lxx;alion and remarks.
water. ' of north.
19(H.
July 16
July 30
July 31
July 17
July 23
July 22
July 18
July 29
July 22
No. of
station.
i^epiii
of
wells.
•
Feei.
13
18
21
28
22
28
14
•22
18
21
17
36
15
22
•20
•26
16
18
Ft. ]>cr day.
6. 7 I 01. 0 i 700 feet north of river.
•22.9 64.0 i Do.
2. 8 101. 0 I 1,700 feet north of river.
9. 1 75. 0 : In channel, 500 feet north of center.
16.0 101.0 ! In channel, 20 feet north of cenler.
3. 0 I 103. 0 In channel, '210 feet aouth of center.
16.7 13'2.0 Do.
2. 2 j 1 £2. 0 -200 feet south of ri ver.
•2.0 79.0 j 2,100 feet south of river.
Average 8.9 1 93.5
31ean direction of river channel, 105° etist of north.
By studying the results of the measurements it will be observed
that station No. 22 was on the border of the second bottoms, 1,700
feet north of the north bank of the river. The velocity at this station
was 2.8 feet per day, and the direction of flow was substantially
14
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
the same as the direction of the river valley. This resuJt is impor-
tant, as the measurement was made on July 31, at a time when the
SEC/3.Te4S..
T0stwe/fNe.6
Scale
300
looo feet
^^
Sta f6
Fig. 4. — Map showinK location of underflow stations and te.si welia at bherluck, Kaii»., 7 iuiicv %«*eHi <«!
Ganlen. The velocity and direction of flow of the ground water are shown by the length and direi*-
tion of the arrows at the various stations. The depth is indicated in flgures at each station.
flood of July ^lA should have shown some influence upon the direction
of flow, if it had any at all. The direction of motion at this station
was in marked contrast to the direction of flow observed at stations
MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNDERFLOW.
15
No. 13 and No. 21, located in the first bottoms, 700 feet north of the
river. At both of the latter stations the direction of flow was 64^
east of north, or in a direction making an angle of 41^ northeast of
the general direction of the river valley. These stations were within
the immediate influence of the fluctuations of the height of the water
in the river. **
Of the stations established in the channel of the river itself, it is
interesting to note that a station located north of the center of the
Sandhills
<^ ^ioC'tyofundernowinfeetpercfay
H] Tsisi solids j parts per fOdOOO
@ Otiof/ne , parts per tOO. 000
Tht w^nation of total solids is shown by thecootourfines
Horizontal scale
&00 1000 1500
^ooofeet
Vertical seal*
. . . S to t? feet
Fi(i. 5. — Cross section at camp 2, near Sherlock, Kans. The total solids dissolved in the ground water
at various depths are shown in parts per 100,000 by the numbers inclosed in rectangles. The
numbers inclosed In circles express the amount, in parts per 100,000, of chlorine found at the
position where the circles are placed. The contour lines show the position of water of the same
strength. The contribution of soft water from the sand hills is very apparent.
channel (station 18) showed a component of velocity northerly to the
general trend of the valle\ , while a station south of the channel (sta-
tion 15) showed a component of velocity southerly to the direction of
the valley. At station No. 17, in the channel at the same point as sta-
tion No. 15, but at a greater depth, the direction of the flow corre-
sj)onded closely with the direction of the valley, indicating that the
influence of flowing water in the river did not extend so deep. Station
No. 20 was located on the first bottoms, 200 feet .south of tlie south
bank of the river. The motion at this point showed a southerly com-
ponent, the direction of flow making an angle of 17 with the direction
of the vallev. The measurement was taken while tiic river was in
aThis fact will be further illustrate<i at a later place in this report.
16
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
flood. Station No. 16 was located in the boi-der of the sand hillj?,
nearly a half mile south of the river. The direction of flow was toward
the river and away from the sand hills, as should be expected on
account of the excellent collecting area offered by the sand hills to the
i-ainfall.
The fac^t that the influence of the river only extends to very shallow
depths and that a considerable portion of the ground water origi-
nates in the sand hills is shown by the cross section (fig. 5). The con-
tour lines in this figure correspond to equal amounts of total solid?<
dissolved in the ground water. The soft water from the sand hills can
be observed to be crowding the strong water of the underflow to the
north of the valley.
MEASUREMENTS AT DEERFIELD, KANS. (CAMP 3).
Camp 3 was established near the Deerfield bridge, 14 miles west of
Garden. The valley at this point lies mostly south of the channel.
All of the south-side lands, -to the edge of the sand hills, would proba-
bly be classed as '* first bottoms." The surface of the ground on the>c
lands is onlj' a few feet above the river bed and the soil is unusually
sandy. The topogmphy of the sand hills south of the bottom lands is
unusually well adapted for collecting the rainfall, there being several
level stretches inclosed or hemmed in b)^ the hills. A short distanc-e
south of station No. 23 there are found the remains of a former river
bank, indicating that an ancient channel extended a.s far south its sta-
tion No. 23 (see fig. 6).
On the north side of the channel the river sweeps a high bank from
6 to 10 feet above the river bed for a distance of about 3 miles. The
uplands begin not more than 1 mile north of the river.
Since the channel here borders the extreme north margin of the
valley the underflow measurements were made south of the river or
in the channel. The results are printed in Table 3.
Table 3. — Underflow measurements at camp S, DeerfiM^ Kans,
Date of lest.
, No. of
[ station.
Depth Velo<'ityof| Direction
of ground of flow east
wells. water. I of north.
Location and remarks.
1901.
August 6
Do
Augu.st5
Augu.st 8
Augusts
August 12
September '2:2 ..
August 17
Average.
Fed.
Ft. Iter day.
o
25
16
6.3
66.0
In channel at center.
24
21
12.5
67.0
In channel 400 feet south of center
23
24
19.2
111.0
500 leet south of river.
26
36
9.2
111.0
Do.
27
24
14.8
129.0
1,050 feet south of river
28
21
1.25
74.0
1,800 feet south of river.
29
17
1.6
56.0
1.8 miles .south of river.
32
31
2.2
63.0
1,800 feet .Month of river.
8.4
84.6
Mean direction of river channel, 70° east of north.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNDERFLOW.
17
The average velocity of the ground water, 8.4 feet per twenty-four
hours, compares accurately with the average velocities found for
.stations similarly located at previous camps. The mean direction does
not correspond as accurately with the general trend of the river
.^r.^'^-:^r
^^'^ '^i-"^- ^^■■■^'^«^ -^^-i^^^^
^
^^
Fig. 6.— Map ahowing the location of underflow stations at camp 3, near Dcerfleld, Kaus. The
velocity and direction of flow of the ground water is shown by the length and direction of the
arrows. The depth is indicated in flgures at each station.
channel as at other stations, probably in part owing to the fact that
the river has at this point a ver}'' northerly course.
It will \ye observed that the direction of flow at stations Nos. 23, 26,
and 27, which are, respectively, 500, 500, and 1,050 feet south of the
river, had a strong southerly component, the resultant direction of
IKE 153—06 2
1
18 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
motion making angles in the three cases of 41^, 41^, and 59^, reepec-
tiveh% awa}^ from the river. These are to be contrasted with the
direction of motion nearer the sand hills, at stations Nos. 29 and 82,
where the direction of flow was away from the sand hills and toward
the river, the direction of flow in the two cases making angles of 1^-
and 7^, respe^jtivel}^ toward the channel of the river.
MEASUREMENTS AT CLEAR LAKE, NEAR HARTLAND, KANS.
(CAMP 4).
About 2i miles southeast of Hartland, Kans., in section 13, T. 25 S.,
R. 37 W. , there is situated a small bod}' of water called Clear Lake.
This pond is nearly circular, 320 feet in length and 280 feet across at
the narrowest point. The pond is located within 500 feet of the south-
side ditch, and the owners of the canal have had under serious con>id-
eration the erection of a pumping plant to take water from the pond
to suppl}^ the ditch with water for irrigation. It was expected hv
the promoters of this scheme that the lake would act as an enormou>
well and would furnish a large amount of water when its level was
lowered by means of large centrifugal pumps.
There have been the usual rumors current among the settlers to the
eflfect that the pond was very deep, and that its elevation was independ-
ent of the amount of rainfall or the fluctuations in the river, which at
this point is about 1 mile northwest of the pond. Investigations
showed that the water in the lake was 11 feet below the water in south-
side ditch. The location of the lake with reference to the ditch and
the topography near it is shown on the map, fig. 7. This is a 5-f(x>t
contour map of the district surrounding the lake, made from the level
of the water in the pond as datum. Mr. H. E. Hedge, engineer of
the south-side dit(*h, furnished the field party much assistance, and
especially aided them in the construction of a raft from which to take
soundings, so as to make a hydrographic map of the bottom of the
lake. The shores slope at an angle of about 35^ to a depth of 1^>
feet, where there is practically a flat level floor of mud. At this depth
the diameter of the lake is about 100 feet. From this it can be com-
puted that the total volume of the lake is 483,000 cubic feet, or that
the lake contains about 11 acre-feet of water. The bottom of the lake
consists of an accumulation of black muck, w^hich is ver}' soft. A test
well was sunk in the center of the lake from the raft for the purpose
of determining the character of the material at the bottom, so as to
settle, as far as practicable, the question of whether the lake could l>e
used as a large well from which to secure a supply of water. In sink-
ing a 2-inch pipe for this purpose it was found that it would sink of
its own weight to a depth of 30 feet. The pipe was then forcHnl
dow^n w^ithout driving to a depth of 40 feet, after which it was easily
jetted and driven to a depth of 62 feet below the water, or 46 feet
under the bottom of the lake. In clearing the material from the 2-incb
MEASUEEMBNTS OF THE UNDEBFLOW.
19
pipe 75 feet of wash pipe was used, so that samples were washed up
from a depth of about 12 feet below the bottom of the 2-inch well.
The material washed out consisted of black mud and clay, with some
quicksand.
Fio. 7.— Map showing location of underflow stations and test wells near Clear Lake, Kansa.s.
A line of levels was run from Clear Lake to Arkansas River as
nearly as practicable at right angles to the direction of the river
channel. The result of this leveling showed that the river was at
least 8 feet higher than the lake.«
a Field notes show that the river was quite high at the time of the observation on August 20, 1904.
20 UNDEBFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
This result was somewhat surprising, so that a second line of leveU
was run to the river along the ea«t line of section 13 until this line
intersected the river. This line of levels intersected the river at a
point three-fourths of a mile below the former point. The river at
this point was found to be 3 feet higher than the surface of Clear
Lake. Since the river slopes about 7k feet to the mile, this checks
the former measurement that the river opposite the pond is 8 feet
higher than the water in the latter.
The above observations seem to indicate that the small pond known
as Clear Lake is one of the many circular depressions which are found
throughout the western plains, and which have been fully described
by Mr. Willard D. Johnson. «
This small pond is of especial interest beca,use it is in line with the
dry channel of a plains stream called Bear Creek. This stream rises in
Colorado, and near the western border of Kansas has a well-marked
valley, eroded to a depth of nearly 100 feet, but as it approaches
Arkansas River, near the north edge of Grant Count}', it loses thk,
and its waters spread out on the plains and sink. The ordinary flow
of this stream is very small, but during times of heavy rain in eastern
Colorado and western Kansas it may carry a large quantity of water*
which it pours out upon the high plaint of northern Grant County and
into the sand hills along the south side of Arkansas River. On some
occasions the freshets in this stream have been so severe that the
waters have nearly reached the Arkansas. There is a slight elongated
depression extending through the sand hills in line with Clear Lake,
which makes it possible to believe that the waters of Bear Creek have
on some occasions in the past extended to the Arkansas, but so far as
known there is no settler who can testify to having actually observed
such an event.
It can easily be believed, from the rather remarkable character of
Bear Creek, that settlers would naturally associate Clear Lake with the
disappearing waters of Bear Creek, so that the story would become
current that Clear Lake was merely an evidence or indication of the
existence of an underground stream extending from the sand hills to
Arkansas Valley itself. On this account belief in the adaptability of
the lake for a supply of a large quantity of water for irrigation has
been prevalent, so that an investigation of the conditions surrounding
the lake has importance. There are several streams of the same type
as Bear Creek in western Kansas.
Underflow stations Nos. 33, 35, and 36 were established, as shown on
the map (fig. 7), for the purpose of determining the direction and mag-
nitude of the velocity of the underground water. It was hoped to
determine in this way whether or not there was any seepage at this
point from the direction of Bear Creek toward Arkansas Valley. The
a The High Plains and their utilization: Twenty-lirat Ann. Rept.U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4, 1900, pp.
609. 693-715.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNDERFLOW.
21
direction and velocity of movement are indicated b}^ the arrows shown
in fig. 7, and the details of the measuremiMit are given in Table 4.
Station No. 33, 25 feet south of Clear Lake, gave a velocity of 5 feet
a day ; the direction was almost exactly across the dry channel of Bear
Creek and in the general direction of Arkansas Valley. Station No.
J^O, located at the same place, but at a depth of 38 feet, showed a
velocity of 4.3 feet in the same direction. Station No. 35, 150 feet north-
west of Clear Lake, showed a velocity of 5 feet a day at a depth of 30
feet. The velocities observed at this point may have been due in part
to seepage from the south-side ditch, as the direction was almost
directly away from this ditch and in the general direction of the slope
of the ground. Even if this be the case, it nevertheless proves that
there is no seepage nor movement of ground water extending down the
so-called channel of Bear Creek, for if there had been such motion the
resultant velocity found would at least have shown a component of
motion in the direction of the flow in the channel of Bear Creek. It
would be impossible for the seepage from south side ditch to disguise
completely a ground-water movement in another direction.
Table 4. — Vnd^rflow measurements at camp 4i Clear Ijake^ near Ilartland, Kans.
Date of test.
No. of
I Btation.
1904.
August 19 ..
August 20 . .
August 21 ..
35
Depth
of
wells.
Velocity of
gmiind
water.
Direction
of flow, cemt
of north.
Fed.
n. per day.
o
30
5.0
74
15
8.1
101
3S
4.3
74
Location and remarks.
26 feet Houthwest of Clear Lake.
150 feet northwest of Clear Lake.
25 feet southwest of Clear Lake.
An attempt was made to sink a set of wells at station No. 34, 230
feet south of Clear Lake. At this point wells were driven to a depth
of 40 feet, but the material was so fine that no water could be pumped
from the wells, except a very little at a depth of 16 feet. On this
account no test was made.
It can easily be concluded from the tests made above that it is not
feasible to use Clear Lake as a well from which a large quantity of
water can be pumped for irrigation purposes. While Clear Lake
undoubtedl}' has direct connection with the surrounding ground water
and shows the level of the ground water in its neighborhood, the evi-
dence from the character of the material encountered in stations Nos.
33, 35, and 36, and the evidence from direct observation of the flow of
the water and the material encountered in the deep well sunk in the
middle of the lake, show that the ix)nd is not favorably situated for
use as a source of a large supply of water for the south-side ditch.
These observations also show that no ground water reaches either
Clear Lake or Arkansas River from the lost waters of Bear Creek.
Any seepage water approaching Arkansas Valley from Bear Creek
must take up a generally easterly movement almost immediately upon
entering the sand hills.
22
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
MEASUREMENTS OP THE UNDERFLOW AT THE NARROWS OF
ARKANSAS RIVER, NEAR HARTLAND, KANS. (CAMP 5).
Two miles west of Hartland, Kans., Arkansas. River flows between
rock bluffs, the distance between which at the narrowest poilion is
2,250 feet. The river channel occupies 900 feet of this distance, only
a portion of which was utilized by flowing water on August 24, ltR)4.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE UNDERFLOW.
23
Test wells A, B, and C were driven to shallow depths for the pur-
pose of determining the slope of the water plane through the Narrows.
3 U9M IS91 \
V"
fUf/ //*4» iti^
^ ^V //*•* JMJ
^ II9M I9il \
¥119^^9^
4| 9
^1
.
//»4» ^U9^UtfUJSQ I
I
5
1
I
I,
Eh -O
08 o
I
In addition to these test wells, the elevation of the water was taken
at Demlinger's well and in the wells of station No. 38, and in test wells
24 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
driven for the purpose of testing for rock. These wells form a lint'
about a mile long, as indicated on the map (fig. 8). The gradient of
the water plane in the first portion of this line was 7.5 feet per mie:
in the next portion it was 6.4 feet per mile, and in the next 9. 2 feet
per mile. Just above the Narrows the gradient was found to be 11.4
feet per mile, and in the last portion, in the Narrows itself, the slop*-
of the water plane was 8.5 feet per mile. A profile showing the-M-
gradients is given at the bottom of fig. 9.
Test wells Nos. 1 and 2 (shown in fig. 8) were driven for the pur-
pose of testing for bed rock. What is believed to be rock was
struck at test well No. 1, at elevation 3,011.7, or 37 feet below th(»
water plane, and at test well No. 2 rock was reached at elevation
3,009.8, or 39.3 feet below the water plane. Rock was also struck at
station No. 38 at 38.75 feet below the water plane. As a diamond
drill was not at hand, the evidence that bed rock was reached is, of
course, not conclusive. The only test that could be applied was the
evidence supplied by the drill on the wash pipe and by the wa\' in
which the 2-inch casing acted when an attempt was made to drive it.
Two measurements were made of the rate of movement of the
undei'flow near the center of the Narrows at stations Nos. 37 and 3S.
The velocities determined were 9.6 feet per twenty -four hours at a
depth of 16 feet and 3.4 feet per twenty -four hours at a depth of
25 feet.
Table 5. — Underflow measurements al camp J, Narrows of Arkafisas River y near Har*-
landj Kans.
Date of test. I No. o^
I
1904. I
AugUKt 23 : 37
Depth
of
wells.
IVet.
16
Augimt26 1 38 , 25
ground 'of flow, casti Location and remarks,
water, i of north, j
Ft. ]*er day.
9.6
3.4
Center of channel.
Do.
From the cross section of the Narrow^s (shown in fig. 9) an estimate
can be made of the amount of water which flows through the Narrows.
The total cross section of the sands, assuming the above test borings
as indicating the true position of bed rock, is 75,000 square feet.
Assuming one-third as the porosit}^ of the sands and 10 feet per day
as the average velocity of the groundwater, the total flow through the
Narrows would be 250,000 cubic feet per day, or 2.9 cubic feet per
second. The actual average velocity of the underflow is undoubtedly
much less than 10 feet per day, so that the above result represents the
maximum that can be claimed in a high estimate.
CHAPTER II.
FliUCTlTATIONS OF GROUND- WATER liEAT^Ii.
INFLUENCE OF RAINFALL AND OF HEIGHT OF WATER IN
ARKANSAS RIVER ON THE GROUND- WATER LEVEL.,
During the field work of the summer several opportunities were
found to observe the influence of a change of level of the water in the
river upon the water plane in the adjacent bottom lands. The summer
of 1904 was especially favorable for observations of this kind, as the
season was an exceptional one, both in respect to the rainfall and as to
the quantity of water flowing in the river. There was water in Arkansas
River, in western Kansas, during nearly all of the time from the mid-
dle of June to the middle of September, and on seveml occasions floods
of marked suddenness and great severity passed down the river. The
i*ainfall during the same period was above the average. The record
of rainfall from May 1 to October 1, as observed by the volunteer sta-
tion of the United States Weather Bureau at Garden, Kans., is given
in Table 6.
Table 6. — Daily precipitaiianj Garden, Kans., May 1 to September SO, 1904.
Date.
May.
1
0.58
2
Trace.
3
1.82
4
.75
5 •.
.0
6
.0
.0
8
.20
9
.0
10
.0
11
.0
12
Trace.
13
.0
14
.0
15
Trace.
16
.0
17
.0
18
.0
19
.0
20
,0
21
.08
22
.85
23
.0
24
.0
25
.0
26
.0
June. : July.
August.
September.
0.0
0.0
0.08
0.0
.25
.0
.0
.24
.04
.0
.0
.0
.0
.95
.28
.0
.0
Trace.
.0
.0
.0
.12
.45
.0
.0
.55
.0
.0
.0
1.10
.0
.0
.71
.0
Trace.
.0
.0
.05
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.32
.0
.0
.30
.08
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
Trace.
.0
.0
.0
.19
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.W
.0
.0
.0 ^
.32
.0
.0
Trace.
.0
.0
Trace.
Trace.
.0
.0
.W
«1.42
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.06
.11
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
((Much leKi lit Sherlcx;k, Kan.s.
25
26 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
Table 6. — i)aily precipUationj Garden, A'arw., May 1 to September SO, 1904 — Continued.
I>ate.
27.
28.,
29.
Total.
May.
June.
July.
August.
September.
0.03
0.0 ■
0.0
0.0
0.10
.04
.20
.0
.0
1.S5
.0
.0 '
.0
.0
1.10
.0
.0 j
.0
.09
.10
.0
Trace.
Trace.
4.30
.«:
5.65
1.32
3.J9
Total for five months, 17.30.
Observations of the water plane were made very systeniaticallv
during the various stages of the water in the river by Mr. Wolff,
who was in charge of the part}'^ making the field observations- The
results of these observations are given in the acxuompanying diagrams,
which Mr. Wolff has constructed from the field notes. The first
underflow determinations were made at the camp located about 2 miles
west of Garden, Kans., on the ranch of Mrs. M. Richter, which L^
referred to in the text as camp 1. At this camp a number of shallow
test wells were put in place for the special purpose of observing the
position of the water plane. These test wells are shown on the map
(fig. 2), from which it will be observed that test wells Nos. 1 and '2
were located north of the river bank at a distance of about 1,070 feet;
test well No. 3 was closer to the river, at a distance of about 360 feet
from the north bank. A large well located on the ranch of Mi-s.
Richter, and used for irrigation, was also used for the purpose of
keeping track of the fluctuations of the water plane. The location of
this well is shown on the map (fig. 2) near the quarter- section comer
in the upper I'ight-hand corner of the map. As will be observed, thk
well is situated a considei*able distance upstream from test wells Nos.
1, 2, and 3; hence the water in it stood much higher than that in the
test wells, since the water plane slopes eastward at the rate of about
7i feet per mile. The land in which test wells Nos. 1, 2, and 3 are
situated is what is commonly called in that locality ''firet bottoms."
Immediately north of test wells Nos. 1 and 2 the ''second bottoms''
begin, the land here being some 3 to 5 feet higher than in the '"first
bottoms." Two sloughs shown on the map were grass covered, hut
contained more or less water either during high stages of the river
or after heavy rains. In fig. 10 the elevations of water in Arkansas
River from June 16 to July 11, 1904, and the elevations in test wells
Nos. 1, 2, and 3 and in Mrs. Richter's well are represented graphic-
ally. The elevations are expressed in feet above mean sea level, as
determined from the United States Geological Survey permanent
bench marks in the valley. The detailed observations at these stations
are printed in Table 7, in which the elevations are given in feet above
mean sc^a level. The observation of the height of the river was made
from a gage rod set up in the river and observed from the bank with
FLUCTUATIONS OP GROUND-WATER LEVEL.
27
a level. Observations were made morning and evening, during the
period covered by the table. Th<^re were occasional omissions of
observation of river height, due to the absence of the level from
camp.
Table 7. — Elet^atton of ground water in the Arkansas River and in test wells near camp
ly 2 miles west of Garden, Kans.
[Wells Nob. 1 and 2 are 1,070 feet north of river;* well No. 3 is 860 feet north of river. Datum is 2,800
feet above mean sea level.]
Date.
Time.
Eleva-
tion of
water in
well No.l.
Feet,
33.97
38.86
33.90
83.87
Hydrau-
lic gradi-
ent per
mile from
well No. 2
to well
No.l.
FeeL
Eleva-
tion of
water in
well
No. 2.
Fffl.
Hydrau-
lic gradi-
ent per
mile from
well No.
1 to well
No. 3.
Elevation
of water
in well
No. 8.
Eleva-
tion of
water in
river.
Barometric
pressure in
inches of
mercury.
1904.
June 16
12m
6p. m
6a. m
12 m
Feet.
Fed.
Feet. .
86.7
Inches.
28 60*
Do
1 '
26.54
June 17
26 62
Do
■
26.65
Do ..
6 p. m
1
June 18
6 a. m
6p. m
6p. m
6a.m '.
6 p. m
33.98
38.76
33.75
33.89
26.63
Do
June 19. .
6.4
4.7
8.1
33.53
33.58
83.60
6.3
6.9
1 "
34.61
34.55
34.61
34.41
34.47
3^1.38
31.88
35.02
36.2
26.60
26.46
June 20
36.1
36.0
36.0
Do
June 21
6n. m
12 m
33.82
88.69
83.77
84.45
4.5
4.2
26.47
Do .
6.4
7.2
8.9
33.86
33.51
34.13
Do ...
6p. m
6a.m
12m
June 22
Do
Do
6p.m
6 a. m
6p. m
6a.m
6p. m
6 a. m
83.94
34.05
33.87
34.00
33.77
33.93
33.93
33.77
33.93
8.8
7.6
8.0
7.1
6.8
5.1
3.6
35.12
35.07
34.95
34.95
34.69
34.61
34.42
37.7
36.9
36.9
36.5
36.3
36.2
35.9
June 28
Do
6.7
33.81
26.27
June 24
6.9
6.7
8.1
33.75
33.63
33.64
Do
June 25
26.35
June 26 ....
6a.m
12m
Do
6.1
7.7
33.56
33.67
June 27 ....
6 a.m
3.9
34.45
a5.9
35.9
35.9
35.8
35.8
85.7
35.7
35.7
35.7
35.6
35.6
35.6
35.6
35.6
a5.6
3.').7
35.7
35. (i
;15.8
Do
6p. m
June 28
6 p.m
1
June 29 ....
6a.m
Do
6p.m... .
!
July 1
Do
6 a. m
6 p. m
July 2
Do
6 a.m
6 D. m
Julys
Do
6 a.m
1
C p.m
33.19
6.7
32.96
7.2
34.16
July 4
Julys
July6
July 7
Do
6 At m
6 a. m
6 a.m
:::::::::r:::::::
6 a.m
33.99
7.2
33.73
2.72
34.35
6 p. m
Julys
Julv9
6 a. m
34.53
33.88
7.-2
8.1
34.27
33.59
3.64
1.71
35.02
34.11
6a.m
July 10
July 11
6 a.m
G a. m
33.68
8.1
33.39
3.15
81.10
. _ . .
28 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
From the morning of June 21 until noon of June 22, which are left
blank in the table, there was no material change in the height of the
river. The water in the river slowly sank during the period covered
from noon of June 16 to noon of June 22. The record shown in fig. 10
begins on June 16. The levels in the various wells remained substan-
tially stationary from that date until June 22. During the night of
June 21 a heavy rain fell, which is given on the official record at
Garden as 0.94 of an inch. The test wells on the morning of June 22
showed marked changes in the elevation of the ground water, due to
the rain of the previous night. Well No. 1 rose 0.68 of a foot; well
No. 2 rose 0.62 of a foot; well No. 3 rose 0.64 of a foot, while the
Richter well rose 0.05 of a foot before noon of June 22, and by the
morning of June 24 had risen 0.10 of a foot. The river remained sta-
tionary until 3 p. m. of June 22, when a flood consisting of an abrupt
wave swept down the river, causing a rise of 1.7 feet. Notwith-
standing this rise in the river, the water in test wells Nos. 1 and 2,
1,070 feet from the river, fell during the interval between the morn-
ing and evening of June 22, while test well No. 3, which was situated
within 360 feet of the river bank, was only 0.1 higher at 6 p. m. of
June 22 than it was at 6 a. m. on the same day. These results show
that the heavy rain of the night of June 21 raised the water in all of
the test wells, but that the flood of the afternoon of June 22 raissed
the water only in the well nearest the river. The river gradually
receded from the high-water mark reached on the afternoon of June
22, and all of the test wells gradually fell. There was no i-ain until
July 4, except a slight shower on June 28. Test wells Nos. 1, 2, and
3 showed a tendency to fall, although the water in the river was from
2 to 3 feet higher than the water in the wells during all of this period.
The rise in the water plane from 6 p. m. of June 21 to 6 a. m. of June
22, amounting to a rise of 0.68 foot in test well No. 1 and 0.62 foot in
test well No. 2, was due, as stated above, to a heavy rain which fell dur-
ing the night. From the data at hand it is possible to express the
magnitude of the contribution to the underflow as so man}' cubic feet
of water for each mile of the river valley. If this contribution be sup-
posed to extend uniformly over a given period of time, then the addi-
tion to the ground water may be expressed as a continuous flow of so
many cubic feet of water per second for each linear mile of the river
valley. Thus, in the present case, if we suppose that the rainfall of the
night of June 21 fell uniformly during the twelve hours from 6 p. m.
to 6 a. m., we can readily compute that the observed increased amount
of ground water was equivalent for each mile of valley along the river
to a continuous flow of water amounting to 23.8 cubic feet per second.
To put this in other words, we can say that if the sands of the valley
had contributed to the river by seepage all of the water which the niin
added to these same sands, the seepage w^ould amount to a continuous
FLUCTUATIONS OF GROUND-WATER LEVEL.
29
flow into each mile of the river of 23.8 cubic feet per second, main-
tained for twelve hours.
3
c
8>
O '^
•0 ft
I?
S B
3. o
« -
l.i
I?
^ 1
i
«
I .... .... ....
?
I
*
I
i
f- ^^^„^
jL 5: ir^^
^5 » *
C ?fi ^5! iz:
-, ? EL §.|L 3
* A 21 ^5
5
i A 7 XZ lA
-4 \ XI i
^
?s_ tt f •
*L V ^ 1 ^ I
^
SI ^ v_j^. ,h I :
t-^-t[^r^
*•
r-
« ^^"^F^^"^2 \
V
*^ '^>'^° "^i —■
" J^'^ i ^ "~^ ^
•i
*■ / ^ r"^"
-X A t J ~
1
H /> ) A \ /''p.mpiHt
S-\ J- ^J. ^
^
a '\ J^ ^
"
i7- ^
7
£ ' ' I
^^ . SI
:•
r\ V I
J
»
/_ '^
5
i -J i
P'
« -J t
t
- s- I
J-A SI ■ ^)_
"* 4 '^
'i-i t " t
.i.t t V
-
<^r .w ^-
'-^ ^ 1
^ S V ^ /~
vx --t . £ YTT
.. ^ V 4 ^ ^ I^UiL
^
I-
-
X
^S^S^>^ "
N^s^^ ^ dt
y>>" X ' \ '
^^^^^
^ f
' ,i ' -^- ' t " L'^
i- *T i -
' / - \
^_
V
* - ^^
^_
\
d
1
: --L
In a similar way, if the water contributed to the ji^round by the flood
in the river from 3 p. m. to 6 p. m. of June 22 be considered as spread
uniformly over twelve hours, it can readily be computed that the gain
by the ground due to this cause represents a seepage loss for each mile
30
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
of the river of 6.4 cubic feet of water per second. It can readily he
8een, therefore, that the rainfall contributed a much greater volume of
water to the underflow than was contributed by the flbod in the river.
The average rise of the ground water during the night of June 21
was such that it would require a rainfall, without run-oflf, of 2.2 inches
to fully account for it. The rainfall recorded at Gurden for the night
of June 21 was 0.94 inch. The dillerence between the measured rise of
the ground water and the rainfall is explained by the fact that there i;?
almost no run-off from the level lands of the river valley, so that nearly
all of the drainage is underground by means of the deposits of sand*'
and gravels. The seepage of this drainage is in part toward the low-
water plane along and near the river channel. At such a place the
amount of rise in the ground water would naturally be higher than
could be accounted for by the localized rainfall.
After the high water of June. 22 the river gradually fell until, on
the morning of June 27, it had reached an elevation of 2,835.9 feet,
which was 0.1 foot lower than its elevation on the morning of June 22.
The water in the test wells gradually fell during the same period, the
corresponding loss of gi'ound water being given in Table 8 as a con-
tinuous flow of water expressed in cubic feet per second for 1 mile of
river valley. Bj^ the morning of June 27 nearlj^ all of the water con-
tributed to the sands of the valley by the rain of June 21 and the flood
of June 22 had disappeared. The gain and loss can be expressed as
follows, in the form of a balance sheet:
Table 8. — Lose and gain of ground water per mile of river valley, 1904,
I.— FROM RIVER TO WELL NO. 1, 1,070 FEET NORTH OF RIVER, GARDEN, KAX8.
Time.
June 18, 6 p. m., to June
June 21,
June 22,
June 22,
June 23,
June 24,
July 3, 6
6 p. m,
6 a. m.
6 p. m,
6 a. m.
6 a. m.
p. m.,
July 7. 6 a. m.,
July S, 6 a. m.,
., to June
,, to June
., to June
,, to June
,, to June
to July 7,
to July 8,
to July 9.
July 9, »i a. ra.. to July 11
21, 6 p. m
22. 6a.m
22, 6 p. m
23, Ga. m
24, 6 a. m
27, 6 a. m
6a. m...
6 a. m
6 a. m
, 6 a. m..
Gain in
ground
water per
mile of
river val-
ley.
Sec. feet.
- 0.98
2S.8
7.3
- 5.4
- 3.1
- 2.7
2.3
22.4
-14.6
1.0
Remarks.
Nq change in elevation of river water,
and omy slight change in elevation
of water in well No. 1 until June if.
Due to rainfall of 0.94 inch.
Due to rise in river.
Due to rain. No change in elevation
of river water.
Due to rain night of July 7. Nu
change in elevation of river water.
Rate of loss during 24 hours after pr<^
cipitation of 1.2 inches of night of
July 7.
FLUCTUATIONS OF GROUND- WATER LEVEL.
31
Tablb 8, — Low and gain of ground UKiter }ht mile of river vaUey^ 1904 — Continued.
II.— FROM RIVER TO WELL NO. 2, 900 FEET NORTIJ OF RIVER, SHERLOCK, KANS.
•
Time.
Gain in
ground
water per
mile of
river val-
ley.
Remarks.
July 15, 9 a. m., to July 20, 7.30 a. ra
Hec. feet.
- 2.0
- 1.0
M.O
?i.O
66.0
87.0
1.5
- l.H
July 20, 7.80a. m., toJuly 25, 6a. m
July 27, 11 a. m., to July 27, 1 p. m
July 27, 1 p. m., to July 27, 8 p. m
Julv 27, 3 p. m., to July 27, 5 p. m
Julv 27, 5 p. m., to July 27, 7 p. m
July 27, 7 p. m., to July 28, 6 a. m
Julv 2H, 6 a. m., to August 1, 6 a. m
III.— FROM RIVER TO WELL NO. 5. 550 FEET SOUTH OF RIVER, SHERU)CK. KANS.
July 18, 7 a. m., to July 20, 7 a. m. ..
July 20, 7 a. m., to July 25, 7 p. m. . .
July 2^), 7 p. m., to July 27, 11 a. m. .
July 27, 11 a. m., to July 27, 1 p. m..
July 27, 1 p. m., to July 27, 3 p. m . . .
July 27, 3 p. m., to July 27, 5 p. m. . .
July 27, 5 p. m., to July 27, 7 p. m...
July 27, 7 p. m., to July 29, 8 a. m. . .
July 29. 8 a. m., to August 1. 8 a. m .
- 1.36
- .54
- .20
63.8
28.9
13.4
L34
- .22
- .92
IV.— FROM WELL NO. 5 TO WELL NO. 6, 2,600 FEET SOfTH OF RIVER, SHERLOCK, KAN8.
July 18, 7 a. m., to July 20, 12 m
July 20, 12 m., to July 25, 8 a. m
July 25, 8 a. m., to August 1, 8 a. m.
2.6
1.5
.•6
v.— FROM RIVER TO WELL NO. 2, 1,780 FEET SOUTH OF RIVER, DEER FIELD, KANS.
Au{?ust 4. 9 a. m., to August 9. a. m
August 6. 9 a. m., to August 8, 7.30 a. m. .
August 8, 7.80 a. m., to August 9, 9 a. m. .
August 9, 9 a. m., to Augtmt 10. 7.30 a. m.
0.51
5.26
L82 .
.61
Summary of lofu* and gain of ground water per mile of rirer valley.
\ Cubic feet, i
Acre-
feet.
Rain of night of June 21. From 6 p. m.. June 21, to 6 a. m., June 22. 12 hours,
at 23.8 cubic feet per second
Flood of afternoon of Juno 22. From 6 a. m., June 22, to 6 p. m, June 22, 12
hours, at 7.8 cubic feet per second
Total gain ,
6 p. m„ June 22, to 6 a. m., June 23, 12 hours, at 5.4 cubic feet per second.
6 a. m., June 23, to 6 a. m., June 24, 24 hours, at 3.1 cubic feet per second.
6 a, m., June 24, to 6 a, m., June 27, 72 hours, at 2.7 cubic feet per se<'ond.
Total loss
Xetgain
1,030,000
315,000
l,:il5.000
233,000
2fW.0OO
700,000
l,2l)l.(KX)
144,000
23.6
30.8
5.4
6.1
16.1
27.6
32 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
In PL I there is shown a view of a model designed to illustrate
the changes in ground-water levels which have just been discussed.
This model shows, b}^ cardboard cross sections, the level of the water
in Arkansa.s River and in three wells north of the river on variou>
dates in June and July, 1904. These are the same wells and the tame
data given in Table 8 and represented graphically in fig. 10. The
height of the river , is represented at the left end of each cardboard
section and the position of the surface of the gi-ound water in the three
wells appears at the appropriate distances to the right, the wells bein^
indicated by vertical lines and by the right end of the caixi. The well
represented by the right end of each cardboard section is located about
2,500 feet north of the north bank of the river.
The surface of the ground water is represented in the model by the
straight lines forming the top of each piece of cardboard. Of cour>e
the actual surface did not consist of a broken line, as shown, but of a
curved line passing smoothly through the angles of the broken line.
The representation of the ground-water surface as straight lines
between the various wells introduces no substantial error in the
results, and it illustrates the characteristic changes with greater fidel-
ity than curved lines, whose forms, in any case, could be known only
approximately.
It can readily be observed from this diagram that the river and
water plane remained substantially stationary from June 18 to June 21.
The influence of the heavy rain of the night of June 21 is shown on
the third cardboard section by the more elevated water plane of iho
next morning, the river remaining stationary during this interval.
The fourth cardboard cross section (6 p. m., June 22) shows the river
flood, which began at 3 p. m. June 22. This cross section shows that the
water plane sank, notwithstanding this heavy flood, except at the well
nearest the river. The river gradually fell, the water plane also fall-
ing at the same time. The model shows the water plane at its lowest
observed position on July 3. The section shown in the model for
July 7 illustrates the influence of the rains falling from Juh' 3 to
Jul}" 7 in raising the water plane. The greatest rise in the water plane
observed at an\' time is shown in the model by the third section from
the end, tha^t corresponding to the morning of July 8. This rise wa>
due to a rain of more than 1 inch on the night before. As in the pre-
vious instances, the water plane rapidly fell away after the rise. It
is important to bear in mind that the height of the river remained
almost constant from July 3 to 9.
These same changes are also shown in fig. 10, where a curve is given
for the changing height of water in each well and the river. In using
this diagram or the table it is important to know that it is usually
necessary to compare evening observations with evening observationN
and not with morning observations. Owing to changes in tempera-
FLUCTUATIONS OF GROUND-WATER LEVEL.
38
ture and barometer there are diurnal periodic changes in the position
of the water plane, and these fluctuations are such that it is always
more satisfactory to compare observations taken at corresponding
times of the daj', unless the intermediate changes are very violent.
The morning level of the ground water is normally higher than the
Fefrt
26.33
2366.0
Fig. 11. — Curves of barometric preissure and height of water plane, showing correspondence between
the flactuations of the barometer and the water plane &» oljKer\-ed on several dates at Sherlock,
Kans. The dotted lines give the diurnal variations in the barometric pressure; the full lines
show the elevations of the water in test well No. 1.
evening level, the fluctuations in the wells discussed above being indi-
cated very clearly by some of the lines in fig. 10, especially those show-
ing the June fluctuations in test wells Nos. 1, 2, and 3.
Some results showing the correspondence between the barometric
pressure and the ground- water elevation were sought for at camp 1,
IBB 163—06 3
84 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
near Sherlock, Kans. The data oblnined are depicted graphically in
fig. 11. The results were not what were expected, as the influence
of the barometric pressure should be to raise the ground water as the
barometer falls. ** This indicates that the low position of the ground
water in the afternoon of each day^ is probably a temperature effect,
due to the decrease in the capillarity of the water with the tempiera-
ture. The ground water at test well No. 1, Sherlock, and in test welk
Nos. 1, 2, and 3, Garden, was within 3 feet of the surface of the
ground and the diflference in temperature of day and night was very
great.
In fig. 10 the level of water in the Richter well, 2,500 feet north of
the river, is compared for a period of about thirty days with the ele-
vation of the water in Arkansas River. The total variation of the
water plane, as shown by the levels observed in the well twice daily
during the thirty -day interval, did not exceed 2 inches. This shows
that the influence of the river upon the ground water dies out to prac-
tically nothing in a distance of one-half mile. The influence of the
rainfall upon the water in the well is traceable by a comparison of the
rainfall record and the well curve, but it is uncertain whether any
connection can be detected between the elevation of the river and the
well curve. The influence of occasional pumping upon the ground-
water level is quite pronounced.
The observations given above indicate the following conclusions:
1. The level of the ground water shows a marked tendency to remain
at a level lower than the channel of the river at a point about one-
fourth mile north of the river channel.
2. The elevation of the water plane is very sensitive to the amount
of rainfall, the rise in the water plane (due to a rain) in the first bot-
toms being greater than can be accounted for by the localized pre-
cipitation.
3. High water in the river has much less effecf upon the level of the
ground water than the rainfall, its influence being confined to a dis-
tance of a few hundred feet from the river channel.
4. The water plane falls at a very rapid rate after its elevation has
been increased by rainfall or b}^ a flood in the river.
5. The fact that the water plane lies for a considerable distance at a
level lower than the river channel, even when there is water in the
river for an extended length of time, and the i*apid way in which the
ground water sinks after its rise due to heavy rain, establishes the fact
that the underground drainage through the sands and gravels beneath
the river valley is more than sufficient to carry off all of the rainfall
without run-off into the river channel.
a Slichter, C. S., Motionaof underground waters: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 67, U. S. GcoL SorreT
1902, p. 73. f
FLUCTUATIONS OF GKOUND-WATEE LEVEL. 85
FLUCTUATION OF GROUND-WATER LEVEL AT SHERLOCK, KANS.
Observations of changes of level of ground water near Sherlock,
Kans., were made during the period extending from July 15 to August
3, 1904. For this purpose a number of test wells were driven, the
location of which is shown in tig. 4. Of these test wells, No. 2 was
900 feet and No. 3 was 400 feet north of the river; No. 6 was 660
feet and No. 6 was 2,600 feet south of the river. The complete record
of observations taken in the field is given in Table 9. The principal
results presented l^y this table are shown graphically in fig. 12. As
shown by this diagram, Arkansas River gradually fell from July 16
until July 27. At this time the water in the river had reached a very
low stage, the flowing water occupying a width in the channel .of
about a rod and a depth of about 6 inches.
36
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KA.NSAS.
||s|i|r
.u-^doS--
t* a ^, ^^Qh
I
fc
S
•d fee*- a>— 5^ o
.^fldo-5»;
I 8
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S'SSSSdS
i^f'^'S.
r
^' ^ ^ ^' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^' S §^ S' ^' ^ ^' §^ IS !S ^' S'
r^ '^
1
Eleva-
tion of
water In
well No.
2; 900 feet
north of
river.
n
e5
Hydrau-
lic gradi-
ent per
mile irom
well No. 2
to well
1 No. 1.
I "i;
V iff
t>- I" • i" r« t*
g s
4 4
4 4 4
s s s
«2 S «S
s s s
^ « CO CO c^ ^ .--
lO ^ ■^ ■* ■v -r T
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
C^ <-< Iff ^ t« 90 tt
c4 CI ri c4 CH c>i c4
i-i X 0» OC O 'T tC
rj^ ^ ^ to C^ ^ C^
iff « X t' OC Si <o
O) 0> O) Ok Ok 0& 0>
s
a! O -^ ^ ^
H
9a.m
5 a. m
9.30 a. m
10.30 a. m
12m
1.30 p. m
3.30 p. m
7 p. m
8a.m
11.30 a. m
7a.m
10.45 a. m
12m
1.30 p. m
8.30 p. m
5.80 p. m
6 a. m
8 a. m
10 a. m
3.40 p. m
fi.lSp. m
7.15 p. m
9.!/\p. m
n.iAp. Ill
r-l
3 3 3 3 3
« s -^ s
8 -^ 15 S
S
S'
oc r* f
^2 4 S
^
S
FLUCTUATIONS OF GROUND-WATER LEVEL.
S 8
<E en 00 00
3 « @ 3
•^ S @ «
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I"** 00 QO CO
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S S s
3 S $ S;
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s s s s s s
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s s s s
eo C4 lO ic
^ § 88 g|
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t« to o 00 ac CO ic iC
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r- •^ ■* 00 CO 1-1 r-t
i-J -^ «o «o lO lO ec
'.? f2 £ S S i$ ^ R
00 O lO o o o
0> 00 00* 00 oi 9>
0> O C^l CJ rH
cQ to 95 95 25 95
a::::::::':6
e- 1-1 "* r* c< lO CO
« «o i^ o X a X oc '>© I-
3 s 9 93a 9 9 9999^ = =
37
38
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
During this same period of fall in the river there was no rainfall
except on July 22 and a very light rain on July 25. The rain of July
Iff
^
:::::::: ::: ::;
g=::=::=:: = :4
f 5
Bfr
J -L-\- ^
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HWni'
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p -"^ ' ~ ^
j-( — i"-- I--U — --
=ffii--ii
|E:i:::::|!
_J \ ^-1 — ^-p^L
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:±i;S .::::::::,
A ^iJ - -^ ,
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:::::::::::j^i:
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Sj::|:::|:::,
'"s: : :s:::!^:::
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1l.^ - --l-r-
» a a ^ £ 1 £ '
J3 9
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yf §
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- - - , 5*5 So
22 was measured at Garden by the volunteer observer of the United
States Weather Bureau as 1.42 inches, but the rainfall at Sherlock
was very much less. During this period of fall of level of the water
FLUCTUATIONS OF GBOUND-WATER LEVEL. 39
in the river the test wells north of the river fell at corresponding
rates. The total fall in the river amounted to 0.95 of a foot; the fall
in test well No. 3, 400 feet north of the river, during the same period
was 0.9 of a foot; in test well No. 2, 900 feet north of the river, 0.77
of a foot; in test well No. 5, 560 feet south of the river, 0.5 of a foot;
and in test well No. 6, 2,500 feet south of the river, 0.8 of a foot.
On July 27, between 11 a. m. and 5 p. m., the river rose 1.6 of a foot,
restoring the level of water in the river to the height of July 15 plus
0.6 of a foot. This sudden rise in the river was not accompanied by
rainfall in the neighborhood of Sherlock. Its influence upon the
various test wells is shown by fig. 12. The immediate effect upon test
wells Nos. 2 and 3, north of the river, was very apparent. Between 11
a. m, and 7 p. m. test well No. 3, 400 feet north of the river, rose 1.05
feet, and test well No. 2, 900 feet north of the river, rose 0.49 of a
foot. By the next morning at 6 a. m. the river had fallen 0.25 of a
foot; test well No. 3, 400 feet north of the river, had risen about 0.1
of a foot, and test well No. 2, 900 feet north of the river, had risen
0.23 of a foot. The river continued to fall very slowly, on the morn-
ing of July 29 having fallen only about one-half of 0.1 of a foot from
its elevation on July 28; the water in test wells Nos. 2 and 3 had
dropped about the same amount, and on August 1, at 8 a. m., when
the river had fallen 0.6 of a foot below its elevation of July 29, test
wells Nos. 3 and 2 had dropped 3.6 and 1.8 feet, respectively. During
this same period of time the water plane south of the river acted very
differently from that observed on the north side of the river. The water
in test well No. 6, 2,500 feet south of the river, fell continuously from
July 18 to August 1, notwithstanding the flood of July 27; and that
in test well No. 5, 550 feet south of the river, fell from July 18 until
July 27, the total fall amounting to 0.47 of a foot. No observation
was made at this test well on July 28, but by the morning of July 29
the water had risen 0.45 of a foot. On August 1 it had fallen 0.2 of a
foot below its level on the morning of July 29, in sympathy with the
general fall of the water in the river. It can be seen from this that
the elevation of the water in the various test wells showed all varieties
of change during the flood in the river. The wells within 900 feet of
the river fluctuated quite accurately with the changing level in the
river itself, while the water in the test well one-half mile from the
river seemed to show no effect of the flood in the river during the
period of observation.
In explanation of the gradual fall in the test wells from July 18 to
July 27, it must be remembered that the position of the water, as
found on «Tuly 18, was high on account of the heavy rains which fell
during the first twelve days of July. From July 4 to July 13, inclu-
sive, 3.27 inches of rain were caught at the i*ain gage at Garden, Kans. ;
the rainfall at Sherlock, Kans., was probably as great, so it is very
likely that the level of the water found in the test wells on July 15
40
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
and 18 was high owing to the previous rains. In fig. 13 the result*
of the flood of July 27 are shown in greater detail than in the previous
diagram.
A photograph of a cardboard model showing the changing* f)osition>
of the water plane at Sherlock is reproduced in Pis. II and III- The
top of each cardboard corresponds to a cross section of the water plane
taken across the valley on a certain date, the right side of each can!
corresponding with the north side of the valley, the left side corre-
FiG. 18.— Elevation of water in Arkansas River and in two test wells near Sherlock, Kaus., for various
hours during the flood of July 27, 1904. The vanishing influence of the flood with increasing
distance from the river is clearly brought out by the diagram. Test well No. 2 is 900 feet north
of north bank of river; test well No. 3 is 400 feet north of north bank of river.
sponding with the south side of the valley. The location of each test
well is shown by a vertical line, and the position of the channel of the
Arkansas is indicated by the level segment of each card near the mid-
dle of each section. The model shows to the eye the way in which
the river and the water in all of the test wells gradually fell from July
13 to July 27, and it also illustrates the influence of the flood of July
27 upon the wells near the river. It also shows that the level of water
in well No. 6, one-half mile south of the river, was not influenced by
the flood in the river, but continued to fall during the entire period.
The decreasing influence of the river on the water plane with the dis-
tance from the river is brought out clearly by the diagram (fig. 13).
It is apparent from this model, as well as from the one shown for
camp 1, that there is a marked tendency for the ground water near
the river, especially on the north side, to remain at a lower level than
C3
Z
I
o
FLUCTUATIONS OF GROUND-WATER LEVEL, 41
the water in the river itself. At the time the data presented by the
model were obtained, there had l)een water in the river for six or seven
weeks and the amount of rainfall had been above the average. These
facts indicate that the underground drainage through the sands and
gravels is more than suflScient to drain off the precipitation, without
return seepage into surface streams and without run-off from the sur-
face of the ground.
The various amounts of ground water gained or lost by each mile
of the valley along the river at Sherlock from July 16 to August 1,
1904, is expressed in Sections II, III, and IV of Table 8 (p. 81). For the
pui-pose of making the results as definite as possible the gain or loss
for each mile of valley is given as a continuous flow of water expressed
in cubic feet per second. Thus, according to the table, the strip of
ground between the river bank and test well No. 2, 900 feet north of
the river, extending along the stream for a distance of a mile, lost
water from July 15 to to July 20 at a rate equivalent to a steady flow
of water equal to 2 cubic feet per second. During the flood on July
27 this same strip of country absorbed water from the river during
the first two hours of flood at the rate of 64 cubic feet per second.
The rate of gain during the three following periods of two houi*s each
was 72, 65, and 32.4 second-feet, respectively. During the eleven
hours from 7 p. m., July 27, to 6 a. m., July 28, the rate of gain fell
to 1.5 second-feet, after which the ground lost water. These results,
and similar results for the south side of the river, are given in the
table. Putting all of these results together we can compute the
amount of water furnished to the sands by the flood in the river as
follows, the computation applying to 1 mile of the river valley only:
Water fumuhed to mndu near Sherlock^ Kans.y bp flood of Arkansas River.
North of river: cubic feet.
July 27, 11 a. m. to 1 p. m., 2 hours, at 54 cubic feet per second . . . 389, 000
July 27, 1 p. m. to 3 p. m., 2 'hours, at 72 cubic feet per second 526, 000
July 27, 3 p. m. to 5 p. m., 2 hours, at 65 cubic feet per second 467, 000
July 27, 5 p. m. to 7 p. m., 2 hours, at 32.4 cubic feet per second . . 234, 000
July 27, 7 p. m. to 6 a. m. July 28, 11 hours, at 1.5 cubic feet per
second 59, 500
Total gain *< 1,674, 500
South of river:
July 27, 11 a. m. to 1 p. m., 2 hours, at 63.8 c bic feet j)er second . 459, 000
July 27, 1 p. m. to 3 p. m., 2 hours, at 28.9 cubic feet per second . . 208, 000
July 27, 3 p. m. to 5 p. m., 2 hours, at 13.4 cubic leoi per second . . 96, 500
July 27, 5 p. m. to 7 p. m., 2 hours, at 1.34 cubic feet per second . . 9, 650
Total gain 773,150
July 27, 7 p. m. to 8 a. m. July 28, loss at 0.22 cubic foot per second. 10, 296
Net gain 6762, 854
Total gain both sides of river '2, 437, 354
a Equals 38.4 acre-feet. b Equals 17.6 aere-feet. <* Equals 56 acre- feet.
42
UNDEBFLOW IN ABKANSAS VALLEY, WESTEBN KANSAS.
The gain of 56 acre-feet took place on land having an area of 17d
acres.
The above results show the gain between test well No. 2, 900 feet
north of the river, and test well No. 5, 550 feet south of the river.
There was some gain in ground water in the lands north and south of
these boundaries, but the data are not at hand for the computation.
The susceptibility of the adjoining lands in receiving seepa^ water
from the river was greater on the north side than on the south side of
the river,
FLUCTUATION OF GROUND-WATER LEVEL AT DBBRFIBLD,
KANS.
Observation of the ground- water level was made at camp 3, near
Deerfield, in three test wells. The location of these test wells appears
on the map, fig. 6. The water in the river occupied but a soiall part
of the river channel during most of the time during which these obser-
vations were made, and therefore the distances of the test wells from
the edge of the flowing water are given in fig. 19, in preference to the
distances from the river bank. Test well No. 1 was 1,100 feet, and
well No. 2, 1,730 feet south of water in the river. Test well No. :^
was 1,100 feet south of the river, but 1,000 feet upstream from test
well No. 2.
Table 10. — ElevaLion of water in river and test wells at Deerfield, Kans.
Date.
1904.
August 4..
August 5..
August 6. .
Time.
,. m.,
.do .
•do ,
Augusts j 7.30 a. m .
Do 10 a.m...
I .
Do ' r2m
Do ' 4.30 p. m.
August 9 1 9 a. m
Do j 2.30 p. m .
August 10 ; 7.30 a. m .
£levation
of water in
well No.l,
1,100 feet
from river.
Feet.
2,923.02
2,923.14
2,9'23.21
2,923.23
2,923.23
2,923.23
2,923.23
2,923.27
2,923.29
2,923.32
Hy
draulic
gradl
ent, per
mile,
from
well
No.l
to well
No. 2.
Feci.
0.26
.17
.60
.60
.34
.42
.25
.17
.08
.00
Elevation
I H>- I
' draulic,
gradi-
Hy-
' drauUc
Elevation | gradi
of water in " li^ , of water in ent, per
well No. 2. 1 P;*®' ' well No. 3, mile.
1.730 feet ^^*J} I 1,100 feet
from river. I jJq 2 i^^m river.
j to well I
No. 3. I
Feet.
2,922.
2,923.
'2,923.
2,923.
2,923.
2,923.
2,923.
2,923.
2,923.
2.923.
I
99 {
12 j
27
29
27
28
»|
29
28 '.
32I
8.7
9.0
8.8
8.4
8.5
8.5
8.7
8.8
8.7
from
river
to well
No. 3.
JElevatioii
of water 11
river.
2,924.57
2,924.75
2,924.87
2,924.82
2.924.83 I
2.924.83 '
2.924.84 I
2,924.89 !
Feet.
/W.
-1.10
2,9Hm
1.44
2,924.45
2.96
2,924©
-1.58
2,926.10
-1.49
2,924.91 j 1.78 I
2,925.2U
2,924.5.='
The chart given in fig. 14 shows that a flood on August 7 in the
river had no influence upon the water level in any of the wells,
although frequent observations were made to detect such influence.
The diagram likewise shows the effect of the rain in raising the ground
water an shown by all of the wells from August 4 to August 7. Dur-
FLUCTUATIONS OF GBOUND-WATER LEVEL.
43
ing this same interval the river was falling, while the ground water
was rising. The i*ainfall was measured at camp by catching rain in
a tin bucket and correcting for difference in area between top and bot-
tom of bucket. The observed rainfall on August 4 and August 5
amounted to about 1.75 inches. The water in the various teat wells
rose by the following amounts between August 4 and August 6: Test
well No. 1, 0.17 foot, or 2.02 inches; test well No. 2, 0.29 foot, or 3. 48
inches; and test well No. 3, 0.30 foot, or 3.60 inches. If we assume
that the soil had a porosity of 33i per cent, these observed changes
in the level of the water plane are equivalent to actual increments of
0.7, 1.16, and 1.2 inches, respectively. These amounts will average
^
■
2aesLo
.0
1 '
r
^
A
^
•"•r
^
' — j
f-
-r^
\-
-^
\
><
"
\
v
^
\,
\
1 .
s
s.
^.
/
\
>
V
J
V
^0^
■ (/
/^
■^
N>.
■*o
^
^
^
__
—
■3a
tes
s:©*
-c
Jl
^
sd
it
utch
4.
m
\ i
r J
4
aU
to II li a A#
c/5r
tor/9
1
1
^ 4
^
A
'
i
AUC
Msr
h
0
f
/
t
K
I
A
'
Fio. 14.— Eleyation of water in Arkanaas River and teHt wells at Deerfleld, Kans., August 4 to 14,
1904. Test well No. 1 is 1,100 feet south of stream. Test well No. 2 is 1,730 feet south of stream.
Test well No. 3 is 1,100 feet from stream and 1,000 feet from test well No. 2.
almost exactly 60 per cent of the i*ainfall for the two days, August 4
and August 5, 1904. This result gives very direct proof of the excel-
lent quality of the catchment area furnished by the sandy bottom lands
on the south side of the river at Deerfield.
EVAPORATION EXPERIMENTS NEAR DEERFIELD.
The table of meteorological data below has value in showing that a
considerable amount of stored ground water is lost in the first bottoms
of Arkansas River b\' evaporation. Although these measurements
extend over only a very brief period, they are sufficient to establish
44
UNDEBFLOW IN ABKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
the fact that the loss of ground water by evaporation is about ten
times as great where the water is within 1 foot of the surface of tht-
ground as it is where the water lies at a depth of 3 feet. The pump-
ing plants that materially lower the ground water in the bottom land>
will thus save a considerable amount of water that now goes to waste
in evaporation and in supplying the rank growth of wild grasses that
flourish in the first bottom lands. It is safe to say that this savable
loss amounts on the average to a foot of water for each acre of fir>t
bottoms for the months of July and August alone.
The following is a record of observations of evaporation from three
tanks filled with natural soil in which the water plane was kept at a
constant depth, compared with the evaporation from a tank of open
water. The tanks were located in the bottom lands of Arkansia>
Valley, near the head gates of the Farmers' ditch. The soil is a sandy
loam changing to coarse sand at a depth of about 3 feet.
Meteorological records at Deerfieldy Kans.^ from July S to September 8^ 1905.
Week of—
July8-9a 0.11
July ^16 0.0
July 16-23 0.08
July 23-30 1.24
July30-Aug. 6 1.50
Aug.6-13 1 0.88
Aug. 13-20 0.05
Aug. 20-27 0.0
Aug. 27-Sept. a 0.03
Sept. 3-8a 0.71
Rain-
fall in
inchefi.
Vapor
pres-
sure.
Per cent
of
reUtive
humid-
ity.
.440
47.3
.482
50.2
.660
61.2
.668
68.9
.478
54.8
.680
57.3
.620
49.3
.395
41.4
.489
60.4
Evaporation in inches.
Velocity
of wind
in Open
miles. water.
16.60 .
15.89 .
16.13
19.78
12.05
13 62 I
13.26
19.58 '
17. 19 !
14.54
2.53
2.39
1.80
2.45
2.-22
3.04
8 19
1.21
1 loot to I 1 foot to
water. ' water;
soil I soil
culti- I unculti-
vated. ' vated.
2 feet to 3 feet t.>
water, water.
1.48
1.34
1.14
0.92
0.70
I
1.78
1.21
1.38
1.51
0.87
0.65
0.60
0.49
0.49
0.60
0.13
0. :3
0.25
I.-IO
ti.On
C 43
o.i:
0.12
a Week incomplete.
CHAPTER III.
CHEMICAIi COMPOSITION OF THE WATERS OF THE
UNBERFLrOW.
Chemical tests of the ground waters were made wherever possible
during the process of the work. Portable fi^ld apparatus was at hand
which could be used in making a few simple tests. The determina-
tions made included titrations for chlorine, alkalinity, and hardness.
Total solids were determined by means of the Whitney electrolytic
bridge. The curve of total solids used in this case was obtained by
evaporating a sample of water containing 95.9 parts per 100,000 total
solids. The results of the test are brought together in Table 11, and
the curve used for the determination of the total solids is printed as
fig. 15 (p. 47).
Table 11. — Analyses of ground water in the Arkajims Valley ^ western Kansas.
WEST OF GARDEN, KANS.
Jjocation.
33.5
38.8
63.5
106
114
.^5.0
62.0
47.9
48.0
1
48.0
59.0
62.5
60.0
52.0
86.0
39.1
39.5
121
126
28
17
17
16
15
32
32
58
48
56
30
16
5
5
3-4
3-4
3-4
8-4
12
River water.
Do.
Do.
Do. .
Windmill south of river.
Station 12.
Station 8.
Station 10.
Station 4.
Station 2.
Station 1.
Station S.
Station 6, well A.
Do.
Station 6, well B.
Do.
Station 11.
Mrs. Richter'8 well at
camp.
Do.
Do.
Test well No. 1.
Do.
Test well No. 8.
Do.
New well (camp).
45
46
UNDBBFLOW IN ABKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
Table 11. — Analyses of ground tvaier in the Arkansas Valley y vjestem Kansag — Cont'd
WEST OF GARDEN, KANS.— Continued.
Date.
Chlorine |
(parts peri
100.000). '
1904.
June 16
Do
July 7
Do
September 22
1905.
January 24 . .
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
Do
1904.
September 22.. I
Do !
Alkalin-
ity as
CaCOs
(parts per;
100,000).
10.62 I
.78 I
1
.67
2.06
4.2
2.1
5.1
4.1
3.4
11.4
17.6
1.2
19.5
22.5
13.1
13.6
19.9
19.2
11.4
18.0
20.5
18.1
19.2
22.7
18.6
Degree
of hard-
ness
(parts per
100.000).
39.9
43.7
10.7
11.2
25.6
53.3
31.1
82.0
31.2
27.9
39.3
45.9
21.8
Total
solids
6
35
86
57
119
102
68
76
150
26
''lS?l.'r3'e'.'j.'"l !—«"»•
/Wrf.
65.0
57.0
12 New well (camp).
14 i Station 1.
. . . . , Sand hills, sec 36, T. 21
] S., R, 34 W.
Do.
16 I Sec. 2, T. 23 S.. K. 83 W.
25
20
40
36
«18
116
86
a30
Poor fann.
ShulU.
L. C. Working.
A. Robinson.
Foronan.
Faye.
M. McClurken.
Frank Kolbius.
GARDEN, KANS.
Do I
1905. I
January 24
.85
3.96 '
15.9
20.3
18.8
2^.6
30.0
69.2
29.5
16
80
130 I Atchison, Topeka and
I Santa Fe R. R. well.
110
ie-f-40
78
Carter's well.
City waterworks well.
S. L. Leonard.
SHERLOCK, KANS.
1904.
Julyie
July22
July 16
July 19
July 16
July26
July 18 ...
July21
July30
July 22
Do
July23
July 16
Do
July 16
July27
Do
July 19
Do
September 22..
4.04
3.85
.89
.50
..58 I
1.10 I
3.62 I
2.46 '
4.61 '
4.58 I
4.W> I
5.20 I
3.47 I
5.10 '
5. IK I
4.97 I
4.90
,96
.17 i
2.24 !
13.20
13.90
21.20
17.50 '
21.50
17. H5 '
16.75 j
21.30 I
19.45 I
15.90 '
15.90 I
17.45
14.6.S
15.75
15.50 '
15.25 '
16.25 I
16. H5 1
19.00 I
21.30 I
27.70
37,90
13.09
4.64
2.38
26.20 I
27.80 I
28.10 I
44.70 i
40.60 '
42.90 I
16.30 I
30,00 ,
31.10 I
48.5
50.6
20.0
25.9
29.9
78.0
74.0
27.0
30.0
66.0
42.0
35.0
55.0
83.0
80.0
78.0
104.0
93.0
97.0
107.0
96.0
97.0
21.0
37,0
44.0
71.0
78.0
63.0
58.5
60.0
56.0
67.0
56.2
66.0
56.0
67.0
63.0
57.7
56.0
64.0
65.5
57.6
40
River water.
Do.
Test well No. 6.
Station 16.
Test well No. 4.
Station 20.
Station 15.
Station 17.
Near station 17.
Station 18.
Do.
Station 19.
Station 14.
Do.
Station 13.
Station 21.
Station 22.
Sec.30,T.24S..R.34 W.
Sec.20,T.24S.,R,M W.
Sec. 80, T. 22 8., R. 88 W.
a To water.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE WATEBS.
47
Table 11. — Anahj^es of ground tmUr in the Arkansas Valley, western Kansas — Cont'd.
DEERFIELD, KANS.
Date.
I I Alkalin
Chlorine ity an
(parts peri CaCO^
100,000). (parts per
1901.
September 22 . . 1.49 I
Augusts I 2.60
Aui;iistlD 2.45
Aii|Oist9 5.00
Aufl:iut4 7.60
Do 6.64 I
Augusts j 5.11 I
Ausiist4 8.61
Au«iiBt5 5,:
Auf^i^ 6 5. !
Temper- Depth of i
atnre. well.
Location.
Feet.
NE. quarter sec. 26, T. 24
S.,R. 85W.
SW. quarter sec. 24, T. 24
S.. R. 36 W.
Near station 28.
Station 27.
Well at camp.
Station 23.
Station 26.
Teat well No. 1.
Station 24.
Station 16.
*4C
JS3C
.
'"■■■"
fM0
HO
4
W
MO
\
i\\
r
1:
\\
A
V
\\
»^.
u
v^
\
L
L\
v\
^^
\>
\
^
\
s>
s
^
.
•JV
N
i
$
V
^
M
X
^
:::::::
^
g
^
irr:
=
=:=
0
\ jI
9 A
b A
^ di
•
W^
vlJfO
i
0 Ji
* 41
«l w
0 00
c 'ia
0 /M
*0 //
f r0S
w /*
*C0
90 m
90 *S
OO Hi
W /A
iclk
Fio. 15.— Curve for Whitney electrolytic bridge used in converting resistance in ohms into total
solids for ground wate;T» of Arkansas Valley.
A comparison of the results of the tests at various stations shows a
marked decrease in the quantity of dissolved solids in the water with
the depth at which the sample was taken. In forcing down test wells
at almost any point in the bottom lands of Arkansas River the increas
ing softness of the water can be noted almost from foot to foot. At a
considerable depth, say from 60 to 100 feet or more, there are found
waters which are popularly called in this region ''second"* or ''third"
waters, which are very much softer than the water obtained from
48 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
shallow wells. At points located in the sand hills south of the rirei
there are places where shallow wells furnish water much softer than
the so-called second or third waters found in the vicinity of Garden.
The total solids in the ground water determined at wells in the first
camp, 2 miles west of Garden, varied from 121 part^^ per 100,000 for
water taken 4 feet below the water plane to 103 parts per 100,000 for
water taken at 6 feet, and 80 parts per 100,000 for water taken at 14
feet. Water taken from the railroad well, 130 feet deep, at Grarden,
showed total solids of 16 parts per 100,000. Water in the sand hills
south of the river at a depth of 9 feet showed 33 parts per 100,0 1>
total solids, and another well, deeper, but of unknown depth, showe<i
6 parts per 100,000 total solids. The tendency of the ground water
near the surface in the bottom lands of the river to run high in solid-
seems to indicate that this increased hardness is due to the loss of the
ground water by evaporation. The water plane in these bottom lami^
lies close to the surface of the ground and is subject to frequent fluc-
tuations due to rain and changes of conditions in the river itself.
These changes are sufficient to accx)unt for a large excess of dissolved
solids in the surface waters, and it is believed that no other explana-
tion is necessary. As the ground water moves downstream, the vari-
ous filaments of moving water must thread themselves around the
grains of sand and gravel, continually dividing and subdividing the
water as it moves through the capillary pores. The effect of this action
is to slowly work the concentrated water near the surface down to
greater depths, forming a ground water of gnuluated strength.
Every layer of silt, clay, or other impervious material which possesses
a considerable area acts as a partition, separating the moving ground
water into layers which do not mix, except where the impervious
strata give out. This results in layers of water of distinct difference
in total solids, which are locally known as '* first," ''second,'' and
''third'' water, etc.
In the following table (Table 12) the various samples of ground
water are classified by depth of the wells, and the averages of the dif-
ferent determinations are tabulated. From this arrangement a com-
parison is possible between the waters of different depths, in which
the errors due to special peculiarities of particular wells are partly
eliminated. Some of the well water taken from stock or domestie
wells showed marked pollution, but all such samples have been
included in the table.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE WATEB8.
49
Table 12. — Quality of ground tvater in Arkansas River Valley ^ as determined from the
averages of classified samples.
Classification.
Wells under 10 feet deep:
Average of II samples
Probable error
Error percent..
Wells 10 to 20 feet deep:
Ayerage of 18 samples
Probable error
Error per cent . .
Wells 20 to 30 feet deep:
Average of 14 samples
Probable error
Error per cent. .
Wells 30 to 40 feet deep:
Average of 10 samples
Probable error
Error percent..
Wella 40 to 70 feet deep:
Ayerage of 6 samples
Probable error
Error per cent. .
Wells over 70 feet deep:
Average of 4 samples
Probable error
Error per cent. .
Sand hills wells:
Ayerage of 9 samples
Probable error
Error per cent- .
Chlorine
Alkalinity
CaCOs
(parts per
100,000).
10.82
20.84
1.45
.434
14.05
2.08
7.77
18.55
.829
.520
10.66
2.80
4.96
16.28
.336
.251
6.76
1.64
4.62
17.62
.397
.862
8.60
4.89
2.47
12.07
.28
.298
11.33
2.47
1.12
16.27
.160
.924
14.29
6.67
1.24
16.41
.222
.587
17.9
3.57
Degree
of hard-
ness
Total
.solids
^&^!'^^^-
Tempera-
ture.
38.58
3.76
9.77
40.13
1.321
3.30
40.95
1.989
4.85
88.00
2.812
6.08
16.70
1.659
28.37
.939
8.81
18.21
2.32
12.78
76.80
10.47
18.83
96.73
4.87
5.04
91.00
5.162
5.68
92.75
9.5
10.28
85.00
1.081
2.95
24.67
5.864
28.7
26.86
4.06
15.06
op
60.60
.735
1.21
56.16
.795
1.42
55.50
.552
.995
65.05
.74
1.84
63.33
.596
1.12
61.25
1.07
1.76
The above table is not free from objection, since the waters of the
first bottoms, second bottoms, etc., have all been grouped together.
The water in the first bottoms is softer than that in the second bottoms,
owing to the ease with which bpth the rainfall and the softer water
from the river contribute to its supply. In Table 13 all wells north of
the river, less than 40 feet in depth, have been classified as first-bot-
tom, second-bottom, and upland wells, and the averages of the various
groups have been taken.
IRK 15a-06 1
50
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
Table 13. — Quality of ground water in ivells north of Arkansas River Valley and lest than
40 feet in depth j as determined from the averages of classified samples.
Classification.
1 Chlorine
First-bottom wells: '
Average of 38 samples
Probable error
Error percent..
Second-bottom wells:
Average of 7 samples
Probable error
Error per cen t . .
Upland wells:
Average of 3 samples
Probable error
Error per cent. .
Alkalinity Degree of Total
CaCOg
(parts per
100.000).
18.18
hardness | solids Tempen-
(parU per ( parts per tore.
100,000). I 100,000). -
.447
.809
6.52
1.7
4.04
18.27
.280
.819
6.96
4.48
1.88
19.90
.216
.546
11.8
2.74
42.81
1.672
8.91
47.64
5.40
11,8
76.80
1.678
2.18
93.75
8.818
3.54
89.43
5.938
35.0
3.5
10.0
.387
52.0
oOne observation.
CHAPTER IV.
ORIGIX AND EXTKNT OF THE UNDERFLOW.
ORIGIN.
The investigations which have been explained in the preceding pages
of this report indicate that the water of the Arkansas underflow has
its main source in the rainfall upon the sand hills south of the river
and upon the bottom lands and uplands north of the river.
The average annual rainfall in the vicinity of Garden is about 20
inches. A very large portion of this passes into the level and porous
soil, so that the actual contribution to the underflow must be consid-
erable. As previously stated in this paper there is a ground water
district along the river that remains lower than the river, whether the
same be flowing or not, in which region the rise in the ground water
after a rain is more than can be accounted for by the localized pre-
cipitation. This fact indicates not only that the underground drain-
age at this point is contributed to by rainfall on distant catchment
areas, but that the underflow constitutes a separate drainage system
which is more than suflScient to take care of the rainfall. Determina-
tions made in the sandy flats south of the river at Deerfield (see Chap.
II) show that the rise in the water plane, observed after a rain
storm, amounts to as much as 60 per cent of the water that fell. This
fact verities what is quite obvious to a careful observer, that there is
no run-oflf from the lands adjacent to Arkansas River in the region
under discussion.
The total depths of the deposits of sand and gi'avels at Garden is
not known very exactly. A deep well was sunk at Garden in 1888,
which, according to a partial log printed in the local newspaper,
showed that rock was reached at a depth of 311 feet. Every indica-
tion drawn from the behavior of the ground water shows that the
gravels must extend to a considerable depth, so that it is safe to assume
that the well log just referred to gives a correct notion of the depth to
rock. However, as one approaches the western boundary of Kansas,
bed rock comes near the surface, which fact, even if no other evidence
were at hand, would show that no portion of the ground water could
originate in Colorado. The former popular belief in a Colorado source
of the ground water has practically disappeared, although a few settlers
still adhere to it. During the summer of 1904 one resident of Finney
County informed the writer that the water in his well was invariably
roily after a rain storm during the preceding night in Colorado. This
corresponds to nearly passenger-train speed for the flow of ground
61
52
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VAL.LEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
water. The story may be regfarded as about the sole surviving ghotjt
of the numerous extravagant beliefs which were formerlj' current
among the settlers.
The region near Garden, Kins., is peculiarly the area properly
called the High Plains. The land is level and completely covered in
its natural condition with a short compact sod of buffalo grass. John-
son and other writers on this region have remarked the complete lat^k
of run-oflf from this portion of the plains area. The precipitation
falls mostly during the summer months and is sufficient in amount to
maintain a luxuriant sod, which not only protects the soil against ero-
sion, but prevents, by the obstruction offered by the grass, the esca[^
t9e€.o
H£
GHT
Of At
KANS
\S 1*1
'ERA
hut
?iOC/
BKii
G/
p
r\
\
V
\
^
N^
httk
>Cun
vnt-
cMaf
»^»U
^
^
\
5 /6 17 la 19 to Zl Z
^ 23 2< IS Ze Z7 Z8 z
9 30 M
'^' 1
tnck
z
/
0
es
11"
tNfA
U A'
OAR
0£M
5 16 i7 19 n zo zi ^^ 23 «« zs ze Z7 za z
U — . ttftr
• " * 1 ' '_•' 1
Fig. 16.— Elevation of water surface of Arkansas River at Sherlock Bridge, compared with rain fa' i
record at Qarden, Kans.
of the water in flowing torrents. In consequence the rainfall is com-
pletely taken care of b}^ absorption into the ground and by evaporation
and use b}'^ the vegetation. Eastward from the High Plains region
rainfall is greater, and the sod is not able to prevent the formation of
rills and eroded channels, so that nmch of the water runs off into sur-
face streams. Westward from the High Plains district, as Colorado i<
approached, the rainfall decreases and in consequence vegetation
becomes so scant that it is not able to protect the surface of the
ground from erosion even from a diminished rainfall. Hence it i>
that both to the east and west of the High Plains there is a marked
run-off, but in the plains district pro^r the rains are disposed of by
absorption.
ORIGIN AND EXTENT OF UNDERFLOW.
53
The above facts are well shown b}: the results previously discussed
in this paper. The summer of 1904 was one of unusually ample rain-
fall in the plains, and many flooils came down the river. The river
ivas carefully watched by the field party and its elevation noted.
Figfs. 16 and 17 show the elevation of the river at Sherlock and Deer-
iield bridges, respectivel}^ compared with the rainfall at Garden. A
similar diagram for cimp 1, near Garden, is given in fig. 10. A study
of these diagrams shows practically no influenci^ of the rainfall upon
Z9Z&0
^
^
5
Z9ZSO
j
19Z*.S
\
1
^!
\
\
\
V
\^
\
\
>
\
"^
r
V
M
■^
i ^ s
•
i
6
► /
7 // /Z /3 /-*» // /^ h
l\ —
i
fO it
AUGUST
tS /6
Fig. 17. — Elevation of water surface of Arkansas River at Deerfleld Bridge, eom]>ared with rainfall
, record at Oarden, Kans.
the stream. Many of these rains extended into Colorado, where they
were the cause of floods that showed themselves at the camps in
Kansas many hours after the rain. Thus we have ample evidence of
no run-off from the countr}' between Garden and Deerfield, and at the
same time have proof of a considerable run-off from the watershed
toward the western limit of Kansas and in Colorado.
The few instances in which small surface streams are formed near
the Colorado line — like the plains streams known as Bear Creek and
White Woman Creek — are no exception to the statement above that
54
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
there is no run-off into the Arkansas in the High Plains district, for
these streams entirely disappear as surface streams before the Arkansas
is reached. Their waters, less the evaporation, are ultimately joined
to the underflow. The situation may be sumriiarized in the following
words: The underground drainage in this region is so enormous, and
the water passes through the gravel so freely, that there is no surplu.--
water left to form surface streams, or to form a perennial supply for
Arkansas River. If the gravels of the plains near Garden were le<>
deep, it is entirely conceivable that the Arkansas River would be a
perennial spring-fed stream at this point.
The large contribution to the underflow, which is made b^- the
rainfall upon the sand hills south of the river, is clearly demonstrated
by the course of the contours in fig. 5. In this diagram the soft water
from the south side of the river can be observed to be pressing the
hard water of the first bottoms northward toward the left side of the
river valley.
Annual predpitalion at Dodge and Garden , Kans.
Year.
18V5.,
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.,
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.,
1886.
1887.
Dodge.
Garden.
Year.
i Dodge.
GmxdfO.
10.78
16.40
• ••
1890...
1891...
1892...
1893...
1894...
1895 .. .
1896...
! 11.72
' S2.S4
19.66
10.12
12.60
30.S1
19.87
27.2:
27.89
17.96
15.43
.
1L45
18.12
33.55
13.14
28.60
30.86
23.71
19.35
16.71
22.94
19.17
1897...
1898...
1899...
21.58
31.46
28.46
•> T
30 >
1900...
1901...
1902...
1908...
1904...
20.76
16.06
! 17.70
16.27
1 17.19
l!* Ji-
18. *t
19. i!>
20. &i
1
•.a.a-.
NORTH AND SOUTH LIMITATIONS.
A noteworthy feature of the underflow is the lack of any natural
north or south limitation to the easterly moving stream. There are
important changes from place to place in the north and south slope of
the water plane, but none are of sufficient consequence to materially
modify the dominant influence of the easterly gradient of 7 to 8 feet ti*
the mile. The velocities found at the edge of the sand hills to the
south of the river, and at a distance as high as 9 miles from the chan-
nel of the river, are about the same as those found near the bed of the
river in similar material. There is nothing surprising in this except
that the stratification of the sand and gravel on the High Plains is such
that there is no natural north or south limitation to the eastward-
moving ground waters.
CHAPTER V.
SUMMARY OF TESTS OF SMALI^ PUMPING PliANTS IN THE
ARKANSAS VAT^IiEY.
GENERAL RESULTS.
Table 14 shows the results of tests of a number of pumping plants
used for irrigation in Arkansas Valley between Garden and Lakin,
Kans. Most of the entries in the table explain themselves.
The fuel used in most of the plants is gasoline, the current price of
^hich during the summer of 1904 was 22 cents a gallon, a cost that is
almost prohibitive, even when pumping water from the most excellent
wells found in the valley.
Table 14. — Testa of smaU pumping plants^ Arkansas VcUteyj Kansas,
1
2
8
4
5
6
7
Owner of plant.
Location.
Kind of pump.
Horse-
power
of en-
gine.
Fuel used.
Price of
fuel per
gallon.
Total
lift.
D. H. Logan
Garden, Kans.
do
No. 3 centrifugal
Menre
6
10
7
14
Gasoline..
do..-.
do....
do....
do....
1 F^t.
•0. 22 22. 1
Mre. M. Richter
.20 15. 5
C. E. Sexton
do
2 vertical 6 by 16 cyl-
inder.
Chain and bucket ....
do
.22 15.06
Lakin, Kans . .
do
i
.21 1 17.0
J.M.Root
.22 1R.8
King Bros
Qardeu, Kans.
do
No. 4 centrifugal
2 duplex steam
63.0
Waterworks
I. L. Diesem
do
No. 4 centrifugal
No. 3 centrifugal
No. 14 centrifugal....
2 horizontal 5 by 5
cylinders.
No. 4 centrifugal
10
6
80
84
6
Gasoline..
do....
Coal
Gasoline..
do....
1
.12J 22.13
L. E. Smith
do
.12i! 17.60
a4.00 1 23.0
H. B. Holcomb
Sherlock, Kans
Garden, Kans.
do
H.B. Kipp
.124 21.7
1
.124' 21.47
J. RMcKinney
a Price per ton.
66
56 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
Table 14. — Tests of small pumping plants, Arkansas Valley, Kansas — Continaed.
Owner of plant.
D. H. Logan
Mrs. M.Rlchter..
C. E. Sexton
Nathan Fulmer. .
J.M.Root
King Bros
Waterworks
I, L. Diesem
L. E. Smith
H. B. Holcomb . .
H. S. Klpp
J. R. McKinney .
Distance Yield of
water is well per
lowered minute.
10
12
13
cr^iw^iA/. Specific I i
S™S?Lv Area of per- capacity Coat of fuel ' Coet of
7?/«.^ii colatlng or per Miuare per acre- fuel y^
ivprmin Strainer foot of foot of l.O0o/<vt
«♦« .surface. Istrainerper water. galloniL
^^- minute. ; • ,
^eet
GaUons.
Qallont.
Sq.feet. >
CfaUons. \
1
OntU.
6.85 ;
272
42.2
107.0 1
0.394 :
«2.9S
^
5.3 1
394
73.0
266.5 ,
.27 ,
2.90 ;
iV
3.0 '
91
30.3 '
67.2 1
.53
3,75
i\
6.35
540
85.0 1
834.0 ,
.264
1.37
^
4.16
215
51.7 ,
210.0 1
.246'
2.78 1
(V
20.3
183
9.0
86.0
.106 ..
5.48
290
363
77.0
M.0
247.0 1
151.0 '
.31 ...
6.72
.856
2.10 .
A
2.16
198
91.6 1
70.7'
1.290 '
1.67
A
9.60
2,300
240.0
1,876.0 ,
.128'
-.85'
i^
2.83
96
34.0 1
45.3 !
.75 1
1.09
h
8.89
420
50.0 1
116.0 1
.42 1
1
i.»
^
a Including cost of labor and lubricating oil.
SPECIFIC CAPACITY.
The numbers in column 10 express the readiness with which the well
furnishes water to the pump. The numbers in each case were found
by dividing the numbers in column 9 by the corresponding numbers in
column 8; these numbers, therefore, express the amount of water the
well would furnish if the water lev^l was lowered but 1 foot. These
numbers constitute what the writer has called the "specific capacity"
of the well, and are large in the case of a good well and small in the
case of a poor well.
The water-bearing gravels are usually from 9 to 15 feet below the
surface of the ground, and good wells can be ver}- cheaply constructed.
There is no quicksand or hardpan or other troublesome material above
the water-bearing gravels. The well tubes or strainers are usually 12
to 20 inches in diameter, and are made of slotted galvanized iron.
For the most part the wells are of the very best design and possess a
remarkably high specific capacity; the writer knows of few places
where better ones can be constructed.
The usual construction consists of a dug well, 6 to 10 feet in diame-
ter, excavated several feet below the level of ground water, with a num-
ber of "feeders" or tubular wells penetrating the bottom of the well.
No better construction can be suggested for small plants. The only
modification in detail that seems likely to better the present excellent
results would be the use of galvanized-iron strainers with larger slots
than are at present in use. This would be practicable at some of the
wells. Heavy pumping would remove much of the fine material that
now remains in contact with the present well strainers.
TESTS OF SMALL PUMPING PLANTS. 57
In column 12 there are given the same magnitudes as are expressed
in column 10, reduced in each case to 1 square foot of well strainer.
The numbers in this column express, therefore, the amount of water
in gallons per minute furnished l>y 1 square foot of well strainer under
a head of 1 foot of water. They are a numerical expression of the
degree of coarseness of the material in which the well is placed.
These numbers are almost the same for all of the well plants, when
proper allowance is made for diflference in construction. At the
Riehter, Fulmer, and Root plants, there are large dug wells with sev-
eral feeders in the bottom. The numerous feeders interfere with eac*h
other somewhat, keeping the specific capacity lower than it would
otherwise be. At the Logan and Sexton plants the construction is
different. The Logan w^ell is constructed of 20-inch casing, through
the bottom of which are two 4-inch feeders extending 26 feet below
the bottom of the 20-inch casing. The 20-inch casing is perforated
for 10 feet at the bottom. At the Sexton plant there is a 12-inch
well 22 feet deep, and a 10-inch well 31 feet deep, both perforated
10 feet from the bottom.
COST OF PUMPING.
While the cost of water at these various pumping plants may at
first glance seem high, and the results not especially encouraging, yet
a more careful inspection shows that the facts are real)}' highly favor-
able. It nmst be remembered that the cost of ])umping is based upon
a 22-cent price of gasoline. This price is almost prohibitive, but for-
tunately there exist several possible ways of cutting down very mate-
rially the cost of power, and on this point the following suggestions
are offered:
In the first place, the cost of pumping can be reduced by the use
of crude oil in place of the gasoline. Crude oil from Kansas fields
should be laid down at Garden at from 3 to 4 cents a gallon. The
crude oil re(|uires a special device, which must })e used in connec-
tion with the gasoline engine, called a generator, in which the crude
oil, or part of it, is converted into a gas }>efore it is led into the engine
cylinder. By the use of such a generator the cost of fuel can be
lowered to a point about equivalent to a 5 cents a gallon price for gas-
oline. The crude-oil generators will work best on engines of 12 to 30
horsepower.
If plants of from 20 to 50 horsepower are constructed, as I believe
will inevitably be the case in the near future, the cheapest power will
probably be found in the use of coal in small gas-producer plants in
connection with gas engines. ** These small gas-producer plants are
largely automatic in action and can be operated by an3^one. With hard
coal or coke or charcoal at $8 per ton, the cost of power would be less
a See test of produce r-gfts plant, Chapter VI.
58 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
than one-half cent per horsepower for one hour, or only one-fifth of
the cost of power from gasoline at 22 cents a gallon. The writer antici-
pates no difficulty, therefore, in keeping the cost of water below 60 to
75 cents an acre-foot for fuel, or below $1.25 to $1.50 per acre-foot for
total expense. Hundreds of such plants have been put in use in Eng-
land during the past ten or more years, and they are in charge of
unskilled labor. These gas-producer plants are used in England for a
great variety of purposes, such as power for agricultural machinerv.
and for small electric-light plants for country estates, etc. They are
used in as small units as 5 horsepower.
In this country the producer-gas plants have been in use for several
years, and at the present moment they are fast taking the place of
steam power in new plants. The cost of a producer plant and ga>
engine is about the same as the cost of a steam engine and boiler of
same size when everything is included, but the cost of power from
the producer-gas plant is very much less than that obtained from small
steam engines.
In producer plants, ranging upward from 100 horsepower, a style of
plant may be installed in which soft coal or lignite may be successfully
used. This still further cuts down the cost of power. In fact, lar^
plants of this type furnish the cheapest artificial power that has yet
been devised. The saving is not only in fuel, but also in labor, as one
man is capable of running a 300-horsepower plant.
That part of the operating expense which is properly chargeable to
fuel cost can be accurately determined. Column 13, Table 14, expresJ^e^
the cost per acre-foot of water recovered. In column 14 is given the
cost of fuel for lifting 1,000 gallons of water 1 foot. For the purpose
of comparison, these results are expressed in fractional parts of a cent-
It should be noted that the cost given in the table is based upon a
22-cent price for gasoline. There is no doubt but that producer-ga<
plants in moderate-sized units would enable irrigation by pumping in
the bottom lands of Arkansas River to be highly profitable.
No allowance has been made for interest, depreciation, and labor.
These expenses, if included, would about double the cost per acre-foot
CHAPTER VI.
DETAIliS OF TE8TH OF PUMPIISTG PliANTS.
TEST OF PUMPING PLANT OF D. H. LOGAN, GARDEN, KANS.
This plant is located in the northeast corner of sec. 13, R. 38 W.,
T. 24 S. , and is in the northwest corner of the city of Garden. The
outfit consists of a 6-horsepower Fairbanks, Morse & Co. horizontal
gasoline engine connected by a belt to a No. 3 centrifugal pump. The
well is constructed of 20-inch galvanized-iron casing 32 feet long, per-
forated 10 feet up from the bottom, inside of which are two 4-inch
feeders 28 feet long, perforated their entire length, and extending 26
feet below the bottom of the 20-inch casing, making a total depth of
58 feet. The pump has been in operation since April, 1902, and the
engine since April, 1903. The water was measured by the use of a
fully contracted weir with a length of crest of 0.66 foot.
The engine was started at 9 o'clock and the weir was ready for water
at about 10.30. The water was turned on weir and the head read until
it became constant at 1 p. m. In order to determine the expense of
pumping, all of the gasoline was used out of the reservoir, then 1 gal-
lon was poured in and the length of the run noted to be one hour and
thirty-two minutes, or two-thirds gallon per hour. As the engine is
a 6-horsepower one, this equals 0.111 gallon, or 0.445 quart of gasoline
per horsepower hour.
The average corrected head on the weir was found to be 0.440 foot.
Using weir formula
?=(? f V27 * HI,
where J=0.66, whence c= 0.592, the discharge is found to be
^=0.6045 second-foot =272 gallons per minute.
Data of Logan pumping plants Garden, Kans.
Feet.
Average depth to water while pumping 18. 6
Normal depth to water 11. 75
Amoont lowered by pumping 6. 85
Elevation of well platform 2,835.28
Distance water was raised above platform 3. 5
Lift, or total distance water was raised 22. 1
Total area of well strainer, 107 square feet.
69
60
UNDEBFLOW IN ABKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
The fuel cost of pumping was, therefore, 0.9 cent per 1,000 gallons
of water recovered, or $2.93 per acre-foot. The cost of 1,000 foot-
gallons (1,000 gallons raised 1 foot) was, therefore, 0.0406 cent, or
one twenty-fifth cent.
The specific capacity of the well is 42.2 gallons a minute, or 0.391
gallon for each square foot of well strainer.
The engine ran at a speed of 350 revolutions a minute, exploding
143 times a minute. The diameter of engine pulley is 16 inches and
of pump pulley 10 inches. This gives a speed of 560 revolutions a
minute to the pump.
The size of the pond was 40 feet by 60 feet, mostly covered with a
green scum, which would prevent evaporation. As to seepage, the
pond falls 8 inches in twelve hours at night. The pond being 2,4c>'»
square feet in area, the observed seepage represents a loss of 16.68
gallons per minute, which should be added to the capacity of pump
and well, but not to the effective capacity for Mr. Logan.
There is a windmill at a well 20 feet north of the one pumped by
the gasoline engine — a 12-foot airometer connected to a 10-inch pump
of 12-inch stroke. After the weir measurements were completed the
windmill was thrown into gear. There was a brisk wind from the
south and the pump threw a good quantity of water, but no appreciable
lowering of the water in the gasoline-engine well 20 feet away was
detected. The rise of the water in the well was obtained twice.
Below are the two sets of observations:
Rise of ivaier after cessation of pumping in Logan weU^ Garden^ Aofu.
FIRST TRIAL-WINDMILL NOT RUNNING.
Time.
55 seconds
1 minute and 5 seconds . .
I minute and 20 seconds .
1 minute and 37 seconds .
1 minute and 55 seconds .
Depth to
water.
Feet.
a 18. 60
16.05
14.55
12.95
12.50
Time.
2 minutes and 8 seconds. . .
2 minutes and 22 seconds. ,
2 minutes and S3 seconds. .
2 minutes and 48 seconds. .
1
Depth to
water.
Feet.
12. S5
1135
12.25
12.15
SECOND TRIAL-WINDMILL RUNNING.
24 minutes and 30 seconds .
24 minutes and 35 Beconds .
24 minutes and 45 seconds .
24 minutes and 48 seconds .
25 minutes and 10 seconds .
25 minutes and 26 seconds .
25 minutes and 38 seconds .
(a) j 25 minutes and 48 seconds.
18.0 'i 26minutes
16. 5 , { 26 minutes and 23 seconds.
14.85 1 1 26 minutes and 58 seconds.
13. 10 i' 27 minutes and 15 seconds.
12. 90 I' 27 minutes and 80 seconds.
12.55 !'
12.55
12.45
12.25
12. 2»
12.25
12.25
a Stopped pumping.
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS.
61
The curves showing the rate of rise of water in the Logan well after
ptimping ceased are given as curves 1 and 2 in fig. 18. Curve 2 is
the one which was produced when the windmill was pumping from a
well 20 feet away. The comparison of this curve with curve 1, which
was produced when the neighboring well was not used, is very inter-
esting, showing, as it does, a less rapid rise when the neighboring well
was in use. To find the specific capacity for the Logan well from these
curves we must substitute the values of the various constants in the
formula
A H
c=l7.26 -T log -T- ga^aons per minute.
^Q^/w^/i /ggsr
ilSO^At y^^ifK/mtif t wfftt/^
~3o "jfoO IWo'
r»mm tn seconds
"SZfe
Fig. 18.— Rising curves for Logan well. Curre 2 taken when neighboring well wa.H being pumped by
windmill. Curve 1 taken when windmill was shut off.
The value of the area,^A, of cross section of the well casing is 2.17
square feet, and H, the amount the water is lowered b}- the pump, is
t>.85 feet. The amount of depression, A, of the water level below the
natural level at any time can then be selected from the curve, and the
specific capacity readily computed. If t be taken to be 40 seconds,
or f of a minute, h will be found from the curve to be equal to
6.85—5.5=1.35 feet, hence
c =i7.25 X I X 2.17 X log { pov ) gallons per minute = 39.5 gallons
per minute.
The yield of the well for the maximum depression, 6.85 feet, must
then be
6.85 X 39.5 = 270 gallons per minute.
62 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
The curve of rise of water forms one of the best methods of deter-
mining the yield of a well. Such curves can readily be obtained. Well
data should always include measurements of the amount of loTrering
of the water surface by the pumps, and it is only necessary to continue
these measurements after the pumps have stopped to secure sufficient
data to estimate the specific capacity and total yield of the well. Thi.-i
avoids the necessity of constructing a weir or other method of meas-
uring the water discharge. The accui'acj'' is sufficiently great for the
purpose for which such data are used. The method can be used only
in cases where an internal suction pipe extends into the well casing
with sufficient room around it to permit a sounder to be lowered to the
water surface. If there is no foot valve or other means for prevent-
ing the water from returning to the well after pumping ceases, the
rising curve may still be used for the determination of the specific
capacity, provided that only the portion of the curve be used which
was formed after the water had completely returned to the well from
the pump.
TEST OF THE RICHTER PUMPING PLANT, NEAR GARDEN, KANS.
This plant is located in the northwest corner of SW. i sec. 14, R.
33 W., T. 24 S. The upper part of this well is cased with part of the
old standpipe from Garden. The casing is 10 feet in diameter and
extends down 20 feet. In the bottom of this part of the well are
placed four 8-inch galvanized-iron feeders, arranged symmetrically
about the center; each feeder is 25 feet long, perforated its entire
length, and extends about 2i feet above the bottom of the large part
of the well.
The pump used is a Menge pump, which operates on the principle
of a screw propeller of a steamship. It bores the water out and up a
square wooden penstock or pump shaft. There are two of these pro-
pellers mounted one above the other on vertical iron shaft inside the
penstock. The top of the iron shaft carries the belt pulley and has a
shoulder bearing which takes the thrust of the pump as a pull above.
This pump is made in New Orleans.
The pump is run by a 10-horsepower Otto gasoline engine, which
runs at a speed of 300 revolutions per minute. The circumference of
the drive pulley is 5.25 feet, and of the driven pulley 2.65 feet, mak-
ing the pump run at 595 revolutions per minute. The screws are
boxed up and under water when the pump is not in operation. A
small pond was constructed at the end of the discharge trough and a
fully contracted rectangular weir of length of crest of 1.2 feet was
used to measure the discharge. The measurements for head were
taken 6 feet away from the weir, and boards were interposed between
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS. 63
the discharge trough and weir to cut down the velocity, which might
tend to give erroneous results. The average corrected head on the
weir was 0.371 foot. Using the weir formula
and taking c from Merriman's tables as 0.603,
^=0.876 second-foot =394 gallons per minute.
Using a small Price acoustic water meter in the discharge trough,
>)y measuring the velocity at diflferent places and also by integrating,
the discharge was found to be 0.76 second-foot, or 342 gallons per
minute. The water in the flume was so shallow that this determina-
tion is of little value. By putting chips in the discharge trough and
catching the time with a stop watch, the surface velocity was found
to be 1.565 feet per second. This number multiplied by 0.8 gives an
average velocity of 1.25 feet per second and a discharge of 0.884
.second-foot, or 397 gallons per minute.
An attempt was made to determine the amount of gasoline used.
The reservoir was filled full and the engine run for 1 hour and 36 min-
utes, or 1.6 hours. All the gasoline we had, 9i quarts, did not then
fill the tank. This was at noon, July 6. On the morning of July 7,
l^i quarts were required to completely fill the reservoir, a total of 18f
quarts or 37i pints for the run of 1.6 hours for a 10-horsepower
engine. The makers claim their engines use one pint per horse-
power hour. This would require in this case 16 pints, or less than
half of what was actually measured, if the engine developed its full
horsepower. A leak in the tank or feed pipe is clearly indicated, so
this amount, while being of value to the owner of the plant, is value-
lovss so far as comparative cost of pumping is concerned.
Two observations of the rising curve were obtained which plot well
together. The lower part of the curve is not accurate, because of the
water in the penstock dropping back into the well when pumping
ceases.
Data of Richter pumping plant, near Garden^ Kans.
Feet.
Elevation of the ground at well 2, 846. 0
Average elevation of water in well 2, 836. 8
Average elevation of water in well when pumping 2, 831. 5
Elevation of discharge from penstock 2, 847. 0
Lift 15.5
Average amount water is lowered by the pump 5. 3
Number of exploeions of engine, 126.5 per minute.
Total area of surface of well strainers and all percolating surfaces, 226.5 square feet.
64
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
The curves of rise for this well were obtained on two different
occasions and are shown as curves 1 and 2 in fig. 19. Thev plot
together very well. To find the specific capacity of the well from the
curve, we note the following values of the constants in the formula
for specific capacity:
A H
6 = 17.25 r lo^ J- gallons per minute.
The area, A, of cross section of the well casing, less the amount
occupied by obstructions, is 76.79 square feet. The amount, H, that
the water is lowered by the pump is 5.3 feet. The amount of depres-
sion, A, of ihe water surface below the natural level at any time can
be selected from the curve. From the curve, at the close of ten
minutes, h equals 5.3 less 4, or 1.3 feet.
r/me in seconds
Fiu. 19.— Rising curves for Richter well, near Garden, Kans.
Hence the specific capacity
,^ ,. 7().79, 5.3 ^. ,. . ,
<:'=1(.25X j^T— log |-y = 81 gallons per minute.
Multiplying by 5.3, tlie head under which pumping took place, the
total yield of the well is Six 5.3=430 gallons per minute.
The above determination of the specific capacity is inaccurate, since
the first portion of the rising curve does not show the true rate of
rise of water in the well. The penstock of the propeller pump hold>
37.7 cubic feet of water, which immediately returns to the well when
the pump is stopped. This amount of water is suflicient of itself to
raise the level in the well by \)A\\h foot. For this reason, only that
portion of the rising curve should ))e used which is not influenced hv
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS. 65
the returning water from the penstock. Thus, if we use that part of
the curve from ^—100 seconds to t=600 seconds, we will eliminate
the inaccurate portion. Making this modification, the data are
changed to
H=8.76feet; A =1.30 feet; ^=8i minutes.
Computing the specific capacity on this basis, we obtain
6'= 73 gallons a minute.
-Multiplying this by 5.3, the total estimated yield is 388 gallons a min-
ute, which checks remarkably with 394 gallons a minute obtained.
The area of the strainer and bottom of the well is 266.6 square feet.
The above specific capacity divided by 266.5 gives 0.341 gallon per
minute as the specific capacity per square foot of percolating surface.
The engine ran at a speed of 300 revolutions and exploded 125 times
j>er minute. This would indicate that it was working at about 83 per
cent of its rated capacity. Assuming that such was the case, and that
it would then use 83 per cent of the fuel necessary to run it at its full
rated power (10 horsepower), we have 8.3 pints as the probable amount
of gasoline used per hour b}^ the engine during the test. This, at 20
cents per gallon, would make a cost of 21 cents per hour. This
assumption makes the cost of water 0.89 cent per 1,000 gallons, J2.90
l>er acre-foot, and one- seventeenth cent per 1,(X)0 foot-gallons.
TEST OF PUMPING PLANT OF C. E. SEXTON. NEAR GARDEN,
KANS.
This plant is located at about the center of sec. 13, R. 33 W.,
T. 24 S., and is 1 mile west of Garden. It consists of two pumps of
16-inch stroke, with 6-inch pistons, connected to a walking beam and
driven by li^-horsepower Fairbanks, Morse & Co. vertical gasoline
engine. The east well has a 12-inch casing 22 feet deep, and the west
well a 10-inch casing 31 feet deep, both casings being perforated for a
distance of 10 feet up from the bottom. The pump rods are 2 by 4
timbers.
The two pumps discharge into an artificial pond or reservoir, and
the flow was measured with a weir at the outlet of the reservoir.
The weir was fully contracted with a length of crest of 0.66 foot.
The height of water on the weir was measured by placing a stick
on the head of the nail and marking the water line on the stick with
a pencil, then measuring with a pocket tape ; in the absence of a hook
gage this was the best method that suggested itself.
The weir heights taken as a measure of the discharge of the pump
are those obtained after the water level in the reservoir had become
stationary, as indicated by an absence of systematic variation of the
IKE 153—06—6
66 UNDEBFLOW IN ABKANSAS VAIXEY, WESTEBN KANSAS.
weir heights. As evaponition would make the results too smalls th^
foHowing data are important:
The size of reservoir is 50 feet by 90 feet, or 4,500 square feet:
trees border the north and south sides, with high grass along thi-
banks; brisk wind was blowing from southwest; temperature of air
was. 80^, temperature of water, 52"; there was sunshine until about **.
p. m., when it became cloudy and the wind moderated.
The east well threw a much smaller stream than the west ^weli, prob-
ably due to a leak in the suction pipe, and consequent pumping- of air.
No air was pumped by the west pump.
Measurements to the water surface in the east well were made at
five-minute intervals, but no soundings were obtained in the west
well. The number of strokes of each pump averaged 24.5 per
minute during the test; the nunaber of explosions of the gasoline en-
gine averaged 106.2 per minute. The battery used with the engine
not working satisfactorily, a gasoline torch was used for ig-nitioo.
Gage readings of distance to water in well were made downward from
a point on the well platform whose elevation above sea level wa>
2,836.69.
Data of Sexton pumping plant, near Garden, Kan»,
Feet.
Distance to water when level is normal S. '^
Distance to water when pumping II. V)
Amount water level was lowered 3.06
Elevation 2,827.9
Distance water was raised above point on platform 3. 2
Total distance water was raised (11.86-f3.2) 15.06
Total area of well etrainers, 57.2 square feet.
The reservoir has been in use for some time and the seepag-e was
probably quite small, a small enough per cent to be negligible. There
was no leakage around the weir, or elsewhere.
The gasoline tank was filled at the start, and when the nm wa^ com-
pleted the amount needed to refill was measured, thus getting- the
amount used by the engine, which was 11 quarts for a run of 9 hours
and 37 minutes, or 1.14 quarts per hour, making a trifle over three-
fourths quart per horsepower hour. The average corrected weir
height was 0.206 foot.
Using the formula for a contracted weir
and taking from Merriman's Hydraulics the value of the constant
c for J =0.66 and H= 0.206 as 0.611, we have for the discharge
y= 0.202 second-foot, =91 gallons per minute.
With gasoline at 22 cents per gallon, or 5^ cents per quart, the exjjense
of an hour's run, not counting gasoline used for ignition tube, is
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS. 67
^.0626 per hour, or ^.0115 per thousand gallons of water pumped,
or $3.76 per acre-foot. The lift being 15.06 feet, the cost per 1,000
foot-gallons is 0.076 cent, or about one-thirteenth cent per 1,000 gal-
lons raised one foot.
On Jul}^ 8 the rise of water in the east well was taken by means of
a thin pine board stuck down between the casing and pump. The
intervals of time were measured with a stop watch. The pine strip
-wsLS lowered into the well until the water was reached, after which the
board was drawn up, the wet line marked, the time recorded, and the
board replaced, the observations being repeated as fast as possible.
The distances marked on the strip were measured later.
Rise ofwcUer after cessation of pumping in Sexton welly near Garden^ Kans,
Time.
8 seconds .
Rise.
Feet,
0.46
20.5 seconds 2.44
56.6 seconds..,
82 seconds
104.6 seconds..
134.6 seconds.
2.92
3.01
3.02
8.03
The rising curve plotted from these data was of little use in deter-
mining the specific capacity of the wells, both on account of an
unknown amount of water returned to the well by leakage of the
pump, and because of the unknown amount of lowering of the water
in the west well.
TEST OF PUMPING PLANT OF NATHAN FULMER, LAKIN. KANS.
This plant is in the center of NE. i sec. 10, R. 36 W., T. 25 S.,
Kearney County, 3 miles south of Lakin, Kans. The well consists of
a wooden casing, 6 feet in diameter and 10 feet deep, sunk with the
top flush with the surface of the ground. Inside of this cylindrical
casing and extending 9i feet below the bottom of it is a tapered wooden
curbing 10 feet long, 4 feet in diameter at the top, and 5 feet in
diameter at the bottom. This curb was given the tapering form in
order to lessen the friction on the sides in sinking the well. The total
depth of the two large curbs is 19i feet. Arranged in a circle in the
bottom of the main well, about 5 inches from the edge, are 7 feeders.
Four of these feeders are 7 inches and 3 are 8 inches in diameter. The
length of each feeder is 23 feet 4 inches. The feeders extend down to
within 3 or 4 inches of an underlying clay or silt and 8 inches above
the bottom of the large well. The total depth of the well is 42 feet.
The feeders are made of No. 20 galvanized sheet iron with three-eighths-
inch perforations arranged in circles from three- fourths of an inch
to 2 inches apart.
68 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS-
The material encountered in sinking the well, according: to Mr.
Fulmer, was, first, 4 feet of clay, then sand, which became coarser
with the depth. The bottom stratum consists of a mixture of fine
sand and gravel, some of the latter being the size of a hen's egg.
Water was found at a depth of 8 feet.
A local make of chain and bucket pump, known as the Pittman
pump, is used in this well. It consists of an upper shaft and sub-
merged lower shaft around which run the two sprocket chains to
which are attached the galv^anized iron buckets, each with a capacity
of 12.5 gallons. The buckets, 33 in number, are hung between the
chains and are of such shape that when they come over at the top of
the circuit they discharge the water readily into the discharge trough,
allowing very little to run back into the well. To aid in starting the
water down the trough a number of horizontal guide vanes are placed
therein with a slope away from the descending buckets in such a way
that the water is started down the trough with very little splashing
back into the well. These pumps are of a recent design, and are made
in Kearney County. There are three such pumps in operation, one
run by a windmill near Garden, and one owned by Mr. Root, a test of
which is described in this report (pp. 70-73).
The power is supplied through the proper gearing by a Howe
gasoline engine, built by the Middletown Machine Company, which
develops about 7 horsepower at 285 revolutions per minute. The
engine is cooled by water taken from the discharge trough. The
supply of gasoline is put in a rectangular sheet-iron tank, 2.4 feet by
2.6 feet by 1 foot high, which is placed in the ground outside the engine
house. The ratio of the gearing between the engine and bucket chain
is such that 175^ revolutions of the engine produce 1 revolution of
the bucket chain, or 5i revolutions of the engine to each bucket
discharge.
The discharge trough empties into a reservoir from which the seep-
age is quite rapid. As there was no chance to put a weir between
the pump and the reservoir, and since one placed at the outfall of the
reservoir would measure only a portion of the water entering the
reservoir, the amount of water pumped was measured by counting
the number of revolutions of the bucket chain and computing the
capacity of several buckets to secure an average value. The average
capacity was found to be 12.52 gallons. The computed discharge,
obtained by counting the revolutions of the bucket chain and noting
the time, was 561 gallons per minute. It was estimated that the
buckets lacked about 0.05 foot of being full, this being about 4 per
cent of the measured capacity of the buckets. Also, during the run,
22 buckets came up empty, caused by the failure of the valve in the
bottom to work, which amounts to a loss of one-fourth of 1 per cent
of the total discharge. Reducing the observed 561 gallons by 4 per
DETAILS OP TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS.
69
cent gives 540 gallons per minute as the corrected discharge of the
well. The water level was lowered 6^36 feet below the normal. The
lift to the discharge trough was 17 feet. The engine ran at 240 revo-
lutions and averaged 64 explosions per minute.
The amount of gasoline used was determined by measuring the
depth of gasoline in the tank at intervals and noting the time at each
measurement; then by plotting a curve the average rate per hour of
lowering of the gasoline in the tank was obtained, and, the horizontal
cross section of the tank being known, the amount of gasoline used
per hour was computed to be 0.65 gallon. The cost of gasoline was
21 cents per gallon in barrel lots, making the expense of running the
7
f^ormm/
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. •
£AMn^SJ\
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Fig. 20.— Rifling curve for the Fulmer well, Lakin, KanB.
engine 13.65 cents per hour. The cost of water per acre-foot was
therefore $1.37. The cost of water per 1,000 gallons was 0.42 cent,
and the cost per 1,000 foot-gallons was one-fortieth of a cent.
A reservoir 100 feet wide by 240 feet long is used in connection with
the plant. This reservoir was made by digging out the inside and
using the material to form the banks. This produced a very porous
bottom and much trouble has been experienced from seepage. To
remedy this the bottom was puddled thoroughly by plowing and har-
rowing, then putting in chatf and straw and herding cattle and horses
in the bottom for several days, but the surface of the water still drops
about 6 inches per day.
One observation of the rising curve of this well was made (fig. 20).
It will be noticed that there is an irregularity in the curve correspond-
ing to a depth of about li feet below the normal water level, caused
70
UNDERFLOW IN ABKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
by the sudden change in cross section from 12i square feet to 28i
square feet at the top of the lower casing. From the rising curve the
specific capacity may be obtained from the following formula:
6=17.25 4 log 5
t ^ h
At a point 4 feet above lowest position of water level the average
area A of the well from 0 to this point is 17 square feet. ^=1.6 min-
utes; H=6.35 feet; A=2.35 feet.
Then <?= 80 gallons per minute. This, multiplied by 6.35, the amount
the water was lowered by pumping, gives 508 gallons, which is within
6 per cent of the observed discharge.
The total area of percolating surface, 7 feeders, and the bottom of
the well, is 334 square feet. The above specific capacit}^ divided by 334
gives 0.24 gallon per minute per square foot of percolating area.
The amount of water recovered can not be increased without lower-
ing the pump, as a glance at the dJa^EcaOb^ll show, the water level
being now lowered slightly below the lower shaft.
The Fulmer plant was installed in the spring of 1903 and has been
in operation since April of that year. The cost of the entire plant is
as follows:
Cost of Fulnier plard, Lakin^ Kans.
Well:
Material and lumber
Digging
Seven feeders at 18.40 (24 feet each, at 35 cents a foot) .
Reservoir, man and team, at S3.50 a day
Pump, made by Mr. Fnlmer, market price about
Engine:
Cost in Kansa8Clty
Freight
Shed, 8 by 22 by 7 feet
Incidentals
Cost of
material.
SIS. 60
260.00
328.50
18.62
86.00
Total cost .
719.42
Labor.
Time, in
days.
as
a 45
Cost.
«6.00
90.00
40 140.00
10.00
246.00
ToUl
cost.
S24.5C
90.00
140.00
'2G0.0U
«7.12
45l00
34. »
1, 000. 00
a Labor, $2 a day.
Mr. Fulmer uses water from the south-side ditch, and only about 15
acres of cantaloupes and fruit trees are irrigated. The capacity of the
plant is about ICH) acres.
TEST OF PUMPING PLANT OF J. M. ROOT. LAKIN, KAN8.
This plant is located at the southeast corner of northwest i sec. 4,
R, 36 W., T. 25 S., Kearne}'^ Count}^ 3 miles southwest of Lakin, Kan^ii.
The well consists of a wooden casing, 6 feet in diameter and 12 feet
long, sunk with the top flush with the ground. Inside of and below
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS. 71
this is a 10-foot casing, 4i feet in diameter at the top and 5i feet at
the bottom, sunk until the top is 2 feet above the bottom of the upper
casing, making the total depth of the main well 20 feet. In the bot-
tom of this main well are sunk 5 feeders in a circle about 10 inches
from the edge of the lower casing. The feeders are 8 inches in diam-
eter; two of them are 24 feet long and three are 18 feet long. The
24-foot feeders project 2 feet above the bottom, while the 18-foot
f eedei*8 project only 1 foot. These feeders are made of No. 20 gal-
vanized iron, and the perforations are the same as in Fuhner's well,
previously described.
The material encountered in sinking the well was, first, about 1 foot
of sand, then about 17 feet of black dirt, followed by 1 foot of yellow
clay and 2 feet of sandy clay. There is no record of the material
encountered in sinking the feeders.
The Pittman pump is used in this well and is of the same pattern as
that described in connection with the Fulmer plant. The buckets are
smaller, having a capacity of 6.3 gallons, and the bucket chain has
places for 40 buckets, 24 of which were in place at the time of the
test. The vacant places were left at regular intervals around the
chain, but the effect was to give the chain a swinging motion, which
caused the slopping out of a great deal of water. The valves in the
bottoms of the buckets also leaked excessively.
Power is furnished by a vertical 2i- horsepower two-cycle Weber
gasoline engine with throttle governor, built by the Weber Gras and
Gasoline Engine Company, Kansas City, Mo. The engine is cooled
by a small tank and exploded by an autosparker. The ratio of the
g'earing between the engine and the bucket chain is such that 257
revolutions of the drive wheel produce 1 revolution of the bucket
chain, or 6.4 revolutions of the engine to each bucket raised, if the
buckets are all on the chain.
There is no reservoir used with this plant. The discharge was
measured with a fully contracted weir, with a length of crest of 1
foot. The average head observed was 0.2805 foot, giving the follow-
ing discharge by the Francis formula:
q = 3.33 (J - 0.2 H) Hi
= 3.33 (1.0 - 0.056) 0.2805*
= 3.33 X 0.944 X 0.1485
= 0.4675 second-foot
= 210 gallons per minute.
By the formula given by Merriman for fully contracted weir of
length of crest of 1 foot the discharge is computed to be 218 gallons per
minute. The following computations are based on a discharge of 215
gallons per minute: As the water level was lowered 4.16 feet the specific
capacity is 51.7 gallons per minute. The lift was 16.8 feet. The
72
UNDEBFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS-
engine averaged 488 revolutions per minute, exploding at every revo-
lution.
The amount of gasoline used for a three-hour run was exactjy *'*
quarts, or at the rate of 0.5 gallon per hour. This gasoline cost '2'2
cents per gallon, making the cost of fuel 11 cents per hour. The eci>t
of water is 0.856 cent per 1,000 gallons, $2.78 per acre-foot, and one-
nineteenth cent per 1,000 foot-gallons. The lack of economy in thi>
plant is in the engine, which is old and in poor condition, and in the
buckets, the valves of which leak l>adh\ Also the water was low-
ered so far that the buckets did not start up full, and the swinging
motion of the chain spilled a great deal. The owner has never betn
able to keep the plant running for more than half an hour at a time,
and it took as long to put the plant in order as it did to make the test.
"f
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FiQ. 21.— Two rising curves for the Root well: Curve A, after four or five hourn of pumping; cur\'e B.
after only twenty minutes of pumping.
Two lising curves of this well were obtained, which make an inter-
esting comparison (see fig. 21).
Curve A was taken late in the afternoon, after about four or five
hours' pumping, and curve B was taken after about twenty minutes*
pumping, when the water was lowered to the same depth as durinir
the preceding afternoon.
Curve B is much steeper than curve A, showing that the water
flowed into the well faster. This can be explained by the fact that
during the short period of pumping (twenty minutes) the cone of influ-
ence had not extended as far ax in the first case, and there was there-
fore less unsaturated soil to fill with water and a steeper slope of the
ground-water surface.
The specific capacity of the well, determined from these curves,
using the method described heretofoi*e, is 62.5 gallons per minute.
This multiplied by 4.16, the amount of lowering of the well by the
pump, gives 260 gallons per minute, which is 19 per cent above the
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS. 73
o>>served discharge. The percolating surface — area of feeders plus
Ixittom of well — is 210 square feet, and dividing the specific capacity
determined from the discharge by 210 we get 0.246 gallon per minute
as the specific capacity per square foot of percolating area. This
large error is probably caused by the steep slope given to the rising
curve by the leakage of the water from the buckets. The pump must
))e lowered before a greater quantity of water can be re<*overed, as
the water at present is lowered to the level of the lower shaft.
This plant has not been utilized for irrigation as yet, but its
use is contemplated for irrigating about 20 acres of beets, cantaloupes,
melons, and garden truck.
The Root plant was installed in the spring of 1904, being completed
in the latter part of May. Its total cost was as follows.
Co9t of Root pumpinf^ plant near Lakiiif Kans.
Labor.
L
I I days.
Coat of
! material. Time in
Total
cost.
Well:
Lumber I «27 ' 127
Feeders ' 42 1 42
Labor— I
Prospecting for location, digging big hole 2 %i 4
Making big curb 9, 18 18
Sinking big curb ' 12 | 24 24
Sinking feeders 17; 84 34
Pump 100 1 100
Engine j 100 ' j 100
Installing I ' ! 6 6
III,
2
«4
9
18
12
24
17
84
Shed:
I ' i
Lumber, nails, and window 33 ' ' 33
Paint and painting | 4 I | 4
Labor ' 1 ' 10 ' 10
Total I 306 I i 96 1 402
('Labor, 92 a day.
TEST OF WELL AT KING BROTHERS' RANCH. GARDEN, KANS.
This well is located near the west side of sec. 30, R. 33 W., T. 22 S.,
al>out 12 miles northwest of Garden. Kans.
The well consists of a shaft, about 5 feet square, sunk 41.4 feet, to
within 1.2 feet of the water level. From the bottom of this shaft a
15-inch, perforated, galvanized-iron casing extends down to a depth of
40.5 feet from the normal surface of the ground water.
It was put down by King Brothers to determine the amount of
ground water which could be recovered at this point from a single well
and its influence on other wells.
74 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
Fifteen feet from the first well a second well was sunk to a depth of
91 feet, 7.9 feet lower than the first well. This second well was put
down for the purpose of determining the effect on the water plane of
lowering the water in the first well by pumping.
A No. 4 Byron-Jackson centrifugal pump was placed at the bottom
of the shaft of the first well -and connected by a long belt running over
2 idle wheels to a 14-horsepower thresher engine on the surface of the
ground. The discharge was measured by a fully contracted weir with
a crest of 1 foot. The head at the time of maximum discharge, when
the water in the well was as far down as the pump could lower it,
was 0.25 foot, corresponding to a flow of 183 gallons per minute.
This maximum rate was very diflBcult to maintain for any length of
time, because of the temporary manner in which the machinery wa*i
installed. The belt was liable to slip and allow the water to rise sev-
eral feet; also the idle wheels at the top of the shaft over which the
belt ran were poorly mounted, and at times a stop was necessary to
cool off a hot box at that place.
The above discharge was measured when the water level in the well
was lowered 20.3 feet by the pump. Dividing the discharge by the
distance gives the specific capacity of the well, or the amount of water
furnished for 1 foot of lowering, as 9 gallons per minute. The total
percolating area of well strainer exposed to the water was 85 sc^uare
feet. From this it appears that the specific capacity of the well
strainer is 0.106 gallon per square foot per minute.
As this was a test of the eapacity of the well only, and not of the
pumping plant, no indicator cards nor other device was used to get
the efficiency of the plant, and no measure was made of the coal burned.
The mechanical efficiency" would undoubtedly have been low, as there
was a constant slipping of the belt, and the idle wheels were home-
made, running in wooden bearings, which were smoking constantly.
The maximum lowering of the water in the main well was 20.2 feet,
and the corresponding depression of the water plane, 15 feet away, as
indicated by the test well, was 3.5 feet. This shows the steep slope of
the water plane and the comparativel}" small radius of the base of the
cone of influence.
Readings were taken of the water level in the main well and the test
well, and the discharge was noted at intervals. The accompanying
curve, fig. 22, shows rising curves for the main well and the test well
plotted together. A study of the curve brings out several facts that
might well be expected. The rise of the test well lags slightly behind
that of the main well. The curve of the main well shows an irregu-
larity due to the caving in of material around the strainer.
King Brothers contemplate sinking 20 of these wells in a north
and south line. They propose to connect them all with a tunnel just
above the water plane and lay a main suction pipe in this tunnel, with
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPINO PLANTS.
75
branches tapping all the wells. The pumps will be located in the shaft
already dug, and connected by a belt to the power plant on the surface.
The owners paid 40 cents a foot for sinking the wells and furnished
one man. The price paid for the 16-inch, No. 16, iron casing was 1^1
a foot. They contemplate using wooden casing in the remainder of
reef
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Fio. 22.— Rising curves for main well and test well, King Brothers' plant, Oai-den, Kans.
the wells. This will be made of pine lumber 1 inch by 3 inches. It
will take 16 such boards to make the circular casing, at a cost of $3.50
per hundred linear feet of lumber. One man, at $1.50, can make and
perforate about 25 feet of this casing in a day. This would make the
cost of wooden casing 62 cents pei' foot.
76 UNDEBFLOW in ABKAKSAS valley, western KANSAS.
After the tunnels and wells are dug King Brothers purpose to con-
tract for the installation of a compound Corliss engine and centrifugal
pump at about $9,600. They expect the plant to raise 4,000 gallon^
of water per minute, with a 60-foot lift, this being at the rate of
2,000,000 foot-pounds per minute on 4,800 pounds of coal per twenty-
four hours. If the coal contain 12,500 British thermal units, and if
the boiler eflSciency be assumed at 75 per cent, engine 13 per cent, and
belt 90 per cent, the pump would be required to have an efficiency of
70 per cent to realize the above expectation. These figures require
that the plant turn out 5.9 per cent of the energy in the fuel in the
form of useful work.
TEST OF CITY WATERWORKS WELL, GARDEN, KANS.
The first test began at 4.25 a. m. June 28, 1904, when one pump
was started. The second pump was started at 5.50 a. m. The hydrant^
used in flushing the sewers were opened at about 7.30 a. m. and closed
at 10.35 a. m. The east pump was stopped at 11.15 a. m.; the we?>t
pump was operated constantly all day. On account of the flushing of
the sewers an exceptionall}' large amount of water was pumped during
this test.
Gage heights in the well were read every five minutes, and the num-
ber of cycles of each pump was recorded every tenth minute for the
ten preceding minutes. The pumping machinery consists of two
compound steam duplex pumps, with cylinders 8 inches by 12 inches,
which are very old and worn. The test was continued until 12.40
p. m. At 8 p. m. the test was again taken up, this being the time
when the sprinkling of lawns is stopped. The cycles of the engine
were counted and well heights taken as before.
Pumping is stopped at 9 p. m. Sprinkling of lawns is allowed from
7 to 11 a. m. and from 4 to 8 p. m. Most of the rise of water in the
well occurs before 9 p. m., when the pump is stopped. A plug was
made for the feeder and inserted July 7, but it did not fit tight enough
to stop the flow. The rising curve was taken July 7 in the evening
and also July 8, when the plug was driven down so as to be water-
tight. July il the rising curve was again taken when the water w&i
lower.
The well is 16.2 feet inside diameter and 20 feet deep. The bottom
is about 8.9 feet below the normal level of the ground water. There
is a 10-inch feeder in the bottom of the well, which extends to a depth
of 42 feet below the ground and about 3 feet above the bottom of the
large well. It is open at the bottom and perforated 10 inches up
from the bottom. The water level is about 1 1 feet below the ground
level.
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS.
77
Data of city waterworks well^ (larderi, Kans.
Feet.
Klevationof top of well roof 2,837.26
Distance to top of gage.
Distance, top to 0
10.36
13.26
23.60
Elevation, water normal 8. 72
Xormal elevation of water 2, 822. 38
Ground level 2,832.00
Elevation of l)ottoin of well 2,813.66=0 of ga^e.
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Time ofdsy P.M.
Fio. 28.— Rising curves for city waterworks well, Garden, Kans.
The rising curves obtained for this well on June 28, July 7, 8, and
11 are reproduced in fig. 23. Fig. 24 gives the engine cycles and ele-
vation of water in the well for several hours of heavy pumping on
June 28, 1904, while the sewers were being flushed. The displace-
ment in the two cylinders of one of the pumps amounts to 1.362 cubic
feet. The curve in fig. 24 enumerates the cycles of pumps, so that
the total discharge of the pumps can be obtained, if no allowance be
78
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
made for slip, by multiplying the number of cycles by 1.362. The
discharge, computed in this way, amounts to 685 gallons a minute.
The amount of slip is enormous. Using the rising curve for June
28, we may place H=0.66, A =0.46, and A =204. 6 square feet in the
formula for specific capacity". This gives a specific capacity
c=53 gallons a minute.
This result is much below the normal on account of the excessive
amount of pumping on that day, due to the flushing of sewers. The
maximum amount of lowering of the water in the well was 5.4S feet.
Fio. 24.— Elevation of water in city well, Garden, Kans., and engine cycles of steam pump during
heavy pumping while flushing sewers, June 28, 1904. -
which occurred at 10.30 a. m., when the pump cycles numbered 67 per
minute. Multiplying 5.48 by 63, the total discharge at that time is
found to be 290 gallons a minute. The slip of the pump must there-
fore have amounted to 57 per cent at this time.
Using the rising curve of July 7, the specific capacity of the well is
found to be 67 gallons a minute. The following table shows the
specific capacities computed for the several dates:
Specific capacity of city UHilerworks wellf Garderiy Kaiis., 1904.
Rising curve.
Specific ra-
pacity per
minute.
OalUm*.
June 28, 8.55 to 9.05 p. m.
July 7, 9 to 9.10 p. m
Julys, 9 to 9.10 p. m
July 11, 9.05 to 9.15 p. m .
53
67
78
«0
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS. 79
These results furnish interesting comparisons. The low specific
capacity on June 28 was obtained after the prolonged and excessive
pumping for flushing of the sewers. There was a light rain on the
night of July 6, and a heavy rain on the night of July 7, which influ-
enced both the consumption of water in the city, and in a slight degree
the amount of ground water available.
On July 8 and 11 the feeder in the bottom of the well was plugged.
The plug did not leak, but the casing of the feeder must have leaked
badly since no influence upon the specific capacity of the well can be
detected.
In Water-Supply Paper No. 67,^ a rising curve for this same well is
given, as observed by Johnson in 1900. From that curve it is possi-
ble to compute the specific capacity of the well in 1900. The follow-
ing determinations are based upon various intervals after pumping has
stopped, as indicated in the table. The specific capacity of a well
always appears to be lower than its true value, if the very last portion
of the rising curve be used, since at this period a large f luction of the
water is being utilized in filling up the ground around the well.
Specific capacity of city watemvorks weU^ Garden^ Kans. , 1900.
IntervalB.
Specific ca-
pacity per
minute.
0-10 minutes.
0-20 minutes.,
0-30 minutes.
O-oO minutes.'
20-40 minutes. ,
QaUons.
73.0
71.0
66.4
63.0
d9.0
40-60 minutes | 55.0
These results seem to be identical with those obtained in 1904.
The average specific capacity (77 gallons a minute) as determined in
1904 indicates that the maximum \'ield of the well, if the water in Iho
well be lowered 8 feet, is 615 gallons a minute. The pumps in use ut
present can not pump much more than half of this amount of water on
account of the worn condition of pistons and cylinders.
The total percolating surface of the well bottom and strainer of the
feeder is 247 square feet. From this it can be deduced that the spe-
cific capacity of the well is 0.31 gallon a minute per square foot of
percolating surface.
a Slichter, C. S., The motions of underground waters: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 67, U. S, Geol.
Survey, 1902, p. 68,
80 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
TEST OF HOLCOMB'S PUMPING PLANT.
A very important attempt to recover water from the underflow wa^
begun in the 1904 season by the owners of the Riverside stock ranch,
about 7 miles west of Garden, Kans. A well 200 feet long and 5 feet
wide, excavated to a depth of 9 to 10 feet below the water plane wa^
constructed of sheet piling, and 11 galvanized-iron feeders were inserted
in the bottom of the wells to a depth of about 20 feet. A 75-hoise-
power Corliss engine with condenser, a 90- horsepower boiler, and a
No. 16 Bj^ron-Jackson centrifugal pump were put in position at the
north end of the well. Foundations for the engine and pump and
buildings to cover the machinery were constructed in a very substan-
tial manner. As soon as the engine and pump are in satisfactory
working order it is purposed to sink a large number of additional
feeders in the bottom of the well in the expectation of increasing it-*
capacity to 6,000 gallons per minute. The approximate cost of the
plant is about $8,000 for machinery and $4:,000 for the well. Trinidad
slack coal is used for fuel at a cost of $4 to $4.50 per ton.
The construction of this pumping plant has attracted very wide
attention and if it proves to be a Success it will mean a great deal for
the progress of irrigation in the bottom lands of Arkansas Valley.
There is some question whether 6,000 gallons per minute can })e
obtained from the present well, even with a very large number of addi-
tional feeders, but it will be entirely practicable to increase the length
of the well without very nmch additional expense. The present well,
with ten 20-foot feeders, 16 inches in diameter, would furnish about
6,000 gallons per minute, if we can rely upon a specific capacity of
one-third gallon per minute for each square foot of strainer. Thi>
would require, however, the lowering of the natural level of the water
to a distance of 10 feet, which is somewhat more than would be l>est
for the most economical running of the plant. ^
Both suction and discharge pipe of the centrifugal pump are made
of No. 16 galvanized iron, riveted and soldered. A 20-inch flap valve
is placed at the upper end of the discharge pipe, dispensing with the
use of a foot valve. The pump is primed before starting by opening
a 1-inch valve in a lead pipe from the main pump to the air pump.
When the proper vacuum is shown by the gage the 1-inch valve is
closed and the engine started.
A test run of the plant was made for five days, from July 18 to 23,
1905. The engine was started at the lowest speed at which it would
work the pump satisfactorily. After running at this rate for forty-
eight hours the speed was increased until nearly the full capacity of
the well had been reached.
The amount of water pumped during the test averaged about 2,3(m>
gallons a minute, or 5 cubic feet of water a second. This is equivalent
a Actual test of \he plantshowa thftt this amount of water can not be recovered without eattending
the well.
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS. 81
to a d^ily discharge of 10 acre-feet, or a sufficient amount of water to
cover 10 acres of land 1 foot deep. As is well known, the present well
is not sufficient!}' large to supply the pump and engine with all of the
water that they are designed to handle; in fact, the pump and engine
are capable of handling three times the amount of water at present
available for long-continued runs. It is expected that by clearing out
the feeders at present in the well, and by enlarging the well, the
capacity of the plant will be greatly increased; but even at the present
low rate of delivery, and consequent rather low efficiency of the
machinery, the cost of water delivered is comparatively low.
The average amount of coal consumed was 2,460 pounds per twenty-
four hours, or about li tons per day. At $1 a ton the daily cost, of
coal was $5 per twenty -four hours. The cost of labor for the day and
night man, each at $1.25 per day, makes the cost for coal and labor
$7.50 per twenty-four hours. The cost of lubricating oil and miscel-
laneous supplies may be estimated at $1 a day, making a total cost of
§8.50 per twenty -four hours. At this rate the cost of water was 85
cents per acre-foot, not including interest on the plant nor any allow-
ance for depreciation and repairs on the machinery and well. If these
latter items be included, the cost of water would be very materially
increased.
It seems, however, unfair to estimate these charges at the present
time, as the expense of erecting the plant was incurred on the basis of
securing a very considerably larger amount of water than is at present
delivered; for that reason the interest charges would be very high, if
charged against the present amount. It seems very probable that if
the supply of water from the well is sufficiently increased the plant
will ultimately be capable of delivering water into the ditch at a cost
not to exceed $1 per acre-foot, including a moderate charge for interest
and depreciation on machinery, but not including any profit.
The following tables show the fuel consumed and the data obtained
during the test. The well was not of sufficient size to supply the
pump with water, and toward the end of the run difficulty was expe-
rienced in operating the plant. Occasionall}^ the water became so low
that air would be taken into the suction pipe, and the plant would
have to be stopped to prime the pump. In order to secure proper
returns, it will be necessary to enlarge the well to about three times
its present capacity, otherwise the engine and pump will be entirely
too large for the well.
iRR 163—06 6
82
UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
Consumption of coal at test of Holcomb pumping plant.
Vti-
July 20, 6 a. m. to 6.30 p. m 1. >
July 20, 6.30 p. m. to July 21, 6.20 a. m !.:>.
July 21, 6.20 a. m. to 6 p. m : 1.]^^
July 21, 6 p. m. to July 22, 6 a. m.a l.iS'
July 22, 6a. ru. to 6.30 p. m 1.1-
July 22, 6.30 p. m. to July 23, 6.30 a. m. ^ 1,:'^
July 23, 6.30 a. m. to 2.40 p. m ^S
Date.
July 18..
July 18..
July 18..
July 18..
July 18..
July 18..
July 18..
July 18..
July 19..
7.54 a. m...
8 a. m
8.45 a. m..
9.30 a.m..
11.20 a.m.
2.25 p.m..
4.25 p.m..
5 p. m
7.15 a.m..
July 19.- 9.30 a.m.
July20..| 7a.m.-.
July 20.. I 7.45a.m.
July 21.. 6a. m...,
July 21.. I 8a. m...
July 21.. I 8.20a.m.
July 22.. 7a. m...
July23.. do...
8.:^*;
Data of test of Holcomb pumping plant,
[From 7.54 a. m., July 18, to 2.40 p. m., July 23.]
Hour.
Dischaige of flume.' Depth of
water
below its
initial
position.
Cubic
feet per
second.
Gallons
per min-
ute.
Sp>eedinr€'.'! 3
tionspermin T'
Engine. Pnir j
0
13.88
7.42
7.38
6.29
6.87
5.82
4.89
4.67
4.72
5.30
4.67 '
5.82 I
5.68
5.30
5.03
5.15
0
5,980
3.830
3,310
2,820
2,630
2,380
2,190
2,090
2.110
2.380
2,090
2,610
2, .540
2,880
2,250
2.310
Fr€t.
0
4.40
7.25
7.27
7.44
7.61
7.61
7.62
7.80
7.74
7.87
8.40
8.50
9.50
9.53
9.80
9.60
0
73
78
73
73
7S
73
T3
77
71*
TEST OF PRODUCER-GAS PUMPING PLANT NEAR ROCKY FORD,
COLO.
The future of irrigation in the bottom lands of Arkansas Vh11».v
will be greatly influenced by the cost of power for pumping nattM.
One of the possible wa^^s of cutting down this cost is by the uj*e of
producer-gas in gas engines, as mentioned in Chapter V,
A 35-horsepower producer-gas plant has been installed by Mr. A. W.
Shelton, about 6 miles northeast of Rocky Ford, Cx)lo. It consists d
a 40-horsepower Pintsch suction gas producer, a 35-horsepower single
cylinder gas engine, and a 12-inch Byron-Jackson vertical -shaft cen
trif ugal pump. The water is pumped from a canal through 15-inrh
concrete tile (200 feet of intake and 300 feet of discharge) to an eleva
a stopped 35 minutes.
b Stopped 36 mlnutea.
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS.
83
tion of 16 feet above the level of the water in the canal, called the first
discharge, and at another point to an elevation of 28 feet above the
level of the water in the canal, called the second discharge.
A test was made of this plant, extending from December 2 to 6,
1905. The results of the test of the engine and producer-gas appara-
tus are given herewith. Unfortunately the cement-discharge pipe
^ve out when the plant was first started, so that water could not be
pumped during the test, and the hydraulic data for this plant are
therefore not available.
In connection with the generation of the gas a vaporizer, scrubber,
and purifier are used. Water is evaporated at atnK>spheric pressure
to generate the steam required in the producer. The vaporizer is
located directly on top of the producer. The scrubber is of the form
in which a spray of water trickles down through coke, the water run-
ning out at the bottom of the scrubber. After being scrubbed the
gas passes through a purifier box, next through a gas governor, and
then to the engine.
The engine used was one of the Olds gasoline type, somewhat modi-
fied for the use of producer-gas. The engine governor was not the
one belonging to the engine.
A belt was connected from a 30-inch pulley on the engine to a pulley
on the vertical shaft of the centrifugal pump. A clutch at the engine
shaft allowed the pump to be disconnected at will.
A small pulley, fastened to the shaft opposite the pulley end, carried
a belt which drove a 3 by 5 inch ''Baker" feed- water pump. This
pump, making about 46 revolutions a minute, drew water from the
well and discharged it into a 3 by 8 feet by 30 inches storage tank
near the roof of the building and above the producer. A pipe leading
from the bottom of this tank furnished all the water used to operate
the plant, viz, water for the engine jacket, steam, and scrubber.
During the brake tests it also supplied cooling water for the brake.
The water, after being used, passed through the seals and then into
the well from which it was drawn.
Preliminary brake tests of gas engine at pumping platU ofA.W. SheUony near Rocky Ford,
Colo.f December 4y 1905.
1
1
1
Maxi-
Maxi-
iMeanef-
mum
mum
ia.,u».»^ 1..
fectlve
Mechan-
pressure
pressure
Net
revolu-
tions per
minute
Ezplo-
pressure,
Brake
Indicat-
ical effi-
ofexplo-' ofcom-
' Test.
load, In
slons per
in pounds
horse-
ed horse-
ciency
slon, in | pression.
pounds
minute.
per
power.
power.
(per
pounds
in pounds
square
cent).
per
per
inch.
square
square
inch.
inch.
1
151
199
99.6
44.0
26.7
34.0
78.5
225
140
2
lfi9
20O
100.0
45.6
30.0
85.4
84.9
285
133
3
174
199
99. 5 ^. 0
80.7
38.7
79.4
235
148
84 UNDERFLOW IN ARKANSAS VALLEY, WESTERN KANSAS.
Diameter of piston 14 inches.
Length of stroke 20 inches.
Length of brake arm 56 inches.
T> u * * 2X^X66 ^^-_^^
Brake con8tant= 1 2^33000 ~ uOtRSv
__ . ^ ^ 20XJO<14X14 .__
ifingine con8tant= TonTJsTqqooo ^^ - •-• * ^^* * ^
Brake hor8epower= Net load X Speed X .O0088^
Indicated horsepower = Mean effective pressure X Explosions X . 00778
,, , . , «, . Brake horsepower
Mechanical efficiency =1^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^.
Indicator spring, pounds per square inch, =160 for Test No. 1, 250 for Test No. 2, and
250 for Test No. 3.
Of the gas producer a test of three hours' duration was made. The
gas governor was not in operation. The producer was filled with coal
at the beginning, as well as at the end of the run. As the engine was
not operating well the load had to be taken off for a time.
Test of gas producer cU pumping plant of A, W, SheUoUf near Bocky fbrd, Colo.,
December 4, 1906,
Time.
Net
brake
load.
Pound*.
181
181
181
181
181
181
] Load
partly
off.
181
181
181
Revolu-
tions
per min-
ute.
204
208
Explo-
sions per
minute.
Temperature ^F.
Jacket water.
Engine
room.
Out-
side
air.
CoaL
Enter-
ing.
Leav-
ing.
Range.
P.m.
1.86
1.50
2.05
2.20
2.85
2.50
8.05
8.20
8.35
8.60
4.05
4.20
4.85
Av
Total . .
102
104
45
45
154
160
166
165
165
208
206
109
115
120
120
168
168
60
60
60
64
64
64
^ Pound*.
60
50
49 1
48
48 21 ■
47 -24
46 '
46
206
206
206
204
202
108
108
108
102
101
45
45
45
45
45
1
45 i
1
44 17 '
218 1 117
220 110
45
45
43 1^ 1
42
41
*n
45
1
125
207 1 105
46
175
182
62
46
"ioi**
1
Summary of test of gas producer at pumping plant of A. W, SheUon, near Rocky Fhrd,
Colo., December 4y 1906,
Duration of test 3 hours.
Net brake load (maximum) 181 pounds.
Net brake load (average) 125 pounds.
Revolutions per minute (average) 207.
Explosions per minute (average) 105.
Temperature of water entering jacket (average) 45® F.
Temperature of water leaving jacket (average) 175® F.
Range of jacket-water temperature 132® F.
DETAILS OF TESTS OF PUMPING PLANTS. 85
Temperature of engine room (average) 62** F.
Temperature of outside air (average) .46® F.
Total coal consumed 104 pounds.
Pressure maximum explosion 258 pounds per square inch.
Pressure maximum compression 145 pounds per square inch.
Preesure, suction at exit of producer 2 inches water.
Pressure, suction at exit of scrubber 2.125 inches water.
Pressure, suction at exit of purifier 2.25 inches water.
Pressure, mean effective 51.6 pounds per square inch.
Indicated horsepower (51.6X 105 X. 00778)= 42.2.
Brake horsepower (maximum) = (181 X207X. 000888) = ...33.2.
Brake horsepower (average) = (125X207X. 000888)= 22.9. '
33.2
Mechanical efficiency (maximum) ^2~2 ^^'^ P®*" ^"*'
22.9
Mechanical efficiency (average) js-o ^-2 per cent.
Pounds of coal per brake horsepower per hour, based on
maximum brake horsepower ( 3^330 J ^'^'
Pounds of coal per brake horsepower per hour, based on
(104 N
3x22 9) ^'^^'
TeM of ffos engine at pumping plant of A. W. ShelUmy near Rocky Ford, Colo.y as shown
by sample indicator card.
Duration of test (10 a. m. to 5 p. m. ) 7 hours.
Rated horsepower of engine 35.
Weight of engine '. '. 11,000 pounds.
Mean effective pressure (average of 54 cards) « 43.7 pounds per square inch.
Indicator spring 160 pounds per square inch.
I^ad on brake 175 pounds.
Revolutions per minute 201.6.
Explosions per minute 100.8.
Brake horsepower (175X201.6X.000888) 31.4.
Indicated horsepower (43. 7 X 100.8 X. 00778) 34.3.
Mechanical efficiencyf 5x3 )" ^^-^ P®*" ^®^^
Kind of producer .* Pintsch.
Producer rated horsepower 40.
Temperature of water entering jacket 49. 8° F.
Temperature of water leaving jacket 165.8® F.
Range of jacket-water temixjrature 116° F.^
Temperature of outside air 46.8° F.
Temperature of engine room 72.0° F.
Pressure of maximum' explosion 260 pounds per square inch.
Pressure of maximum compression 150 pounds per square inch.
Pressure of maximum steam Atmospheric.
Pressure of maximum suction at producer exit 2.2 inches water.
Pressure of maximum suction at scrubber exit 2.2 inches water.
Pressure of maximum suction at purifier exit 2.4 inches water.
aThe high mechanical efficiency Is probably due to an error in the indicated honiepower. The
mean effective prewure appeant to be too low. The reducing motion used was made of wood and had
become considerably worn when this test was made.
86
UNDERFLOW IN ABKANSAS VALLEY, WESTEBN KANSAS.
Data concerning coed used in ted of producer-gas pumping plant of A. W, SheUon^ :
liocky Ford, Colo.
Kind CJolorado anthracite, Floresta mine.
Cost at plant per ton $6.
Size Pea.
Total quantity fired 325 pounds.
Total refuse (clinkers, ash, and unburned coal) . 66 pounds.
Total clinkers 5 pounds.
Total ynburned coal 43 pounds.
Total ash (siftings) 18 pounds.
Calorific value of coal per pound 13,850 B. T. U.
Pounds of coal per brake horsepower per hour,
as fired and uncorrected for unburned coal in
(325 "\
txsTa) ^■'^-
Pounds of coal per brake horsepower per hour
(corrected for unburned coal in refuse) 1. 24.
Approximate analysis of coal used at producer-gas pumping plant of A, W. Shelton, nasr
Rocky Fordy Colo,
Percent
Moisture 2. 2
Volatile matter 7. 6
Fixed carbon 83.8
Ash 6.4
Water used per hour in producer-gas pumping plant of A. W. Shdtony near Rocky Ford,
Colo.
Pounds.
By jacket 1,200
By brake 930
By scrubber (approximately) 1, 300
By vaporizer 16
Efficiencies at iHirious loads of producer gas pumping plant of A. W. Sheltony near Rocky
Ford, Colo,; test of December 6, 1905,
Time.
Net
brake
load
(lbs.).
Revo-
lutions
per
min-
ute.
Explo-
sions
per
min-
ute.
Jacket water.
Mean
effective
pressure
(pounds
per
square
inch).
Indi-
cated
horse-
power.
Brake
horse-
power.
Mechan-
Temperatures.
Pounds
per
hour.
ical effi-
ciency
Inlet.
Out-
let.
Range.
(per
cent).
9.50
27
205
45.0
44
104
60
1,260
44.1
15.4
4.9
90.0
10.13
. 50
203
52.2
44
107
68
1,570
41.1
17.9
9.0
50.2 1
10.42
75
203
59.4
42
112
70
1,900
44.9
20.7
18.5
65.2
11.06
100
203
69.8
42
117
76
1,340
44.1
28.8
18.0
75.6
11.30
126
203
83.0
42
126
84
1.340
43.7
28.2
22.5
79. «
12.25
160
199
96.0
42
136
94
1,570
42.4
31.6
26.5
83.8
1.18
175
201
100.5
42
146
108
1,570
39.9
81.2
31.2
1.40
200
189
95.0
42
140
98
1,670
89.9
29.5
33.6
2.00
215
a225
178
89.0
42
148
106
41.3
28.6
83.9
1
f
a £nKlne would not carry load.
DETAILS OF TESTS OP PUMPING PLANTS.
87
Analysis of gas from gas producer at pumping plant of A. W. Shelion^ near Rocky Fhrd,
Colo.
B.T.U.per
pprppnt 100 cubic
Percent feetofgiw
1 ' at60°F.
COj , 6.3 '
0 ' 1.0 '
CO 23.2 7,613
CH4 ' 0.0 1
H 18.6 6,107
N 60.9
1
100 ! i3,ffiao
It will be o})served from the results obtained in the test that 1.24
pounds of coal per hour produced 1 brnke horsepower. At $6 a ton
the cost of fuel was therefore three-eighths of a' cent per brake-horse-
power hour. At this rate power was obtained at a cost for fuel
equivalent to gasoline at 3 cents per gallon. One-half cent per brake-
hoi-sepower hour for labor and five-eighths cent per bi^ake-horse-
power hour for supplies, depreciation, and repairs should cover all
other charges. The total cost of power should not exceed, there-
fore, li cents per brake-horsepower hour, or about $4.50 per day of
ten hours, for the present plant. In this length of time the plant
should furnish about 8 acre-feet of water on the 16-foot lift, or at a
cost of about 58 cents per acre-foot.
The first cost of the pumping plant in round numbers, was $3,300
for the producer, engine, and pump; $200 for the building, and $1,500
for the intake and discharge pipe and flumes.
INDEX
Page.
Alkalinity, measurements of 45-47
Analyses of ground water 45-47, 49^50
Arkansas River, cross section of, figure
staowtng .^ 23
narrows of, measurements at 22-24
valley of, topography of 7
wells in, water of, quality of 4&-50
water of, gain and loss of 31, 41-42
height of...; .^. 28-43
figures showing 29,32,38,43,52
water of, temperature of 12
Barometric pressure, relations of water
table and 32-^
relations of water table and, figure
showing 33
• Bear Creek, character of 20
water from 21. 53^54
Catchment area, location of 5
Cle^ir Lake, Kans., character of 18-19
location of 18
map of vicinity of 19
underflow stations at, measurements at. 20-21
water supply from 18, 21
Colorado, coal from, use of, for fuel 6
origin of ground water in 51
Deerfleld, Kans., evaporation at 43-14
ground water at, fluctuations of. . . 31 , 42-44, 54
rainfall at 44
river at, height of, figure showing 53
underflow at, analyses oL 47
underflow stations at, location of, map
showing 17
measurements at 16
Diesem, I. L., pumping plant of, data on. . . 55-05
Dodge, Kans., rainfall at 54
sand hills near 7
Evaporation, measurements of 43-44
Field work, character and extent of 5, 7
Floods, influence of, on ground water . . . 5, 11-12,
14,28-34,3^40
source of 53
Fulmer, Nathan, pumping plant of, cost
of 70
pumping plant of, data on 55-56. 68
tests of 67-70
well of, character of 57,67-68
rise of water in, figure showing 69
Garden, Kans., cross section near, figure
showing 11
gravel near, character of 10-11
ground water at, fluctuations of 26-^)0, 54
rainfall at 30,38-39,54
figures showing 52,53
Page.
Garden, Kans., rock under, depth to 51
run-off at 6
underflow near 6
analyses of 45-46
solids in, figure showing 11.
underflow stations near, location of,
map showing 9
measurements at 7-13
waterworks of, pumping plant of, data
on 55-56,76
pumping plant of, tests of 76-70
well of, character of 76, 79
rise of water in, figures lihowing 77, 78
Gasoline, use of, for fuel ... 6, 55, 57, 63, 65-67, 69, 72
Gas-producer plant, test of 84-87
use of 6,57-^
Gravels, character of . ; 10-11, 13
depth of 51,56
Ground water. See Underflow,
Hartland, Kans., underflow stations near,
location of, map showing 22
underflow stations near, measurements
at 20-21,24
Hedge, 11. E., aid of 18
Fligh Plains, character of 52
Holoomb, n. D., pumping plant of, cost of.. . 80-81
pumping plant of, data on 55-.'>6. 80
tests of 80-82
well of, character of 80
Johnson, W. D., on ponds on High Plains. . 20
Kansas oil, use of, for fuel 6, 57
King Brothers, pumping plant of, cost of . . 76
pumping plant of, data on 55-56, 73
tests of 73-76
well of, character of 73-74
rise of water in, figure showing 75
Klpp, H. S., pumping plant of, data on 55-56
Lakin, Ejins., pumping plant near 70
Logan, D. H., pumping plant of, data
on 55-56,59-^
pumping plant of, tests of 59-62
well of, character of 57,61-62
rise of water in, figure showing .... 61
McKinney, J. R., pumping plant of, data on . 55-56
Owen, Ray, work of 5
Producer gas. See Gas-producing engines.
Pumping, coat of 57-58,80,63,65-67,09,72,87
Pumping plants, power for » . . 6
tests <rf. details of 59-87
summary of 55-58
See (Uao individual plants.
Rainfall, amount of 25-26,54
effect of 5,28-30,34
90
INDEX.
Page.
Rlchter, Mrs. M., pumping plant of, data
on 56-56,62,65
pumping plant ol, testa of 62-65
well of, character of 57-62
fluctuations In 26, 34
rise of water in, figure showing 64
Rocky Ford, Colo., producer-gas pumping
plant near. See Shelton, A. W.,
pumping plant of.
Root, J. N., pumping plant of, cost of 73
pumping plant of , data on 55-56, 70
tests of 70-73
well of, character of ". 57, 70-71
rise of water in, figure showing 72
Run-off, absence of 6, 64
Sand hills, catchment area in 5, 16, 51, 54
location of 7
weUs on, water of, quality of 49
Sexton, C. E., pumping plant of, data on. 55, 56, 65
pumping plant ol, tests ot 65-67
wen of, character ol 57, 65-67
Shelton, A. W., pumping plant of, data
on 82-84
pumping plant dl, gas from, analysis
of 87
t«sts of " 82-87
Sherlock, Kans., cross section near, figure
showing 15
ground water at, fluctuations of. . 31,33,35-42
fluctuations of, figures showing .... 38, 40
rai nf all a t 3»-39
underflow at, analyses of 46
underflow stations at, location of, map
showing 14
measurements at 13
Papp.
Sherlock Bridge, water at, height of, figure
showing ' hi
Silt, occurrence of lo
Smith, L. £., pumping plant of, data on . . . nb~:A
Specific capacity of wells 56-57
Temperatures, relative, of ground and river
water 12
Underflow, analyses of 45-47, 4d-»
chemical composition of 45-.*)
variations in 5, 12-13, 16
conclusions concerning 5-6
direction of 10, 11, 13, 15-18, 21.24
extent of ^ 5,54
influence of floods on. . . 5, 1 1-12, 14, 28-34. 39-40
influence of rains on 5, 2ft-30, 34
level of, figure showing 29
fluctuations of 25-44
solids in, amount of 5,45-5ii
variation in 5,47-18
figure showing 47
source of 5l-*i
temperature of 12
velocity of 5,10,13,16-17.21.24.54
Water plane, map of, figure showing >«
slope of 5-7
figure showing ". II
Wells, character of 56-.57
specific capacity of 56-57
water of, quality of 49-50
yield of 6
See also individual pumping plants.
White Woman Creek, fiow of 5.V54
Whitney electrolytic bridge, use of 45
use of, results of, figure showing 47
Wolff, H. C, work of 5,26
CLASSIFICATION OP THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY.
[Water-Supply Paper No. 158.]
The serial publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1 ) Annual
Reports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (6) Mineral
Resources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas of United
States — folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of the United States —
folioe thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publication; the
others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists may be had on application.
Most of the above publications may be obtained or consulted in the following ways:
1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they
may be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application.
2. A certain number are delivered to Senators and Representatives in Congress
for distribution.
3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D. C, from whom they may be had at prices slightly above cost
4. Ck>pie8 of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public
libraries in the large cities throughout the United States, where they may be con-
sulted by those interested.
The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of
subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified
into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, System-
atic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and
physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water stor-
age; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investiga-
tions; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports.
This paper is the twelfth in Series K and the fiftieth in Series O, the complete lists
of which follow (PP=Professional Paper; B=Bulletin; WS=Water-Supply Paper):
SERIES K, PUMPING WATER.
WS 1. Pumping water for Irrigation, by H. M. Wilson. 1896. 67 pp., 9 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 8. Windmills for irrigation, by £. C. Murphy. 1897. 49 pp., 8 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 14. New tests of certain pumps and water lifts used in irrigation, by O. P. Hood. 1896. 91 pp.,
Ipl. (Out of stock.)
WS 20. Experiments with windmills, by T. O. Perry. 1899. 97 pp., 12 pis. (Out of stock.)
WB 29. Wells and windmills in Nebraska, by £. H. Barbour. 1899. 85 pp., 27 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 41. The windmill: its efficiency and economic use, Pt. I, by E. C. Murphy. 1901. 72 pp., 14 pis.
(Out of stock.) /
WS 42. The windmill, Pt. II (continuation of No. 41). 1901. 78-147 pp., 15-16 pis. (Out of s^xsk. )
WS 91. Natural features and economic development of Sandusky, Maumee, Muskingum, and Miami •
drainage areas in Ohio, by B. H. Flynn and M. S. Flynn. 1904. 130 pp.
WB 117. The lignite of North Dakota and its relation to irrigation, by F. A. Wilder., 1906. ^pp., /
8 pis.
WS 136. Underground waters of Salt River Valley, Arizona, by W. T. Lee. 1905. 196 pp.. 23 pis. >
WS 141. Observations on the ground waters of the Rio Grande Valley, 1904, by C. S. Slichter. 1906. •
83 pp., 5 pis.
WS 158. The underflow in Arkansas Valley in western Kansas, by C. S. Slichter. 1906. 90.pp., 3 pis. .
•SERIES O, UNDERGROUND WATERS.
WS 4. A reconnaiflsance in southeastern Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1897. 96 pp., 7 pis. (Out -
of stock.)
WS 6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 1897. 65 pp., 12 pis.
(Out of stock.)
WS 7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. 50 pp., 3 pis. (Out of stock.)
II SEBIES LIST.
WS 12. Underground waters of southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Darton. 1898. 56 pp., 21 pit. (Oat
of stock.)
WS 21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. 1899. 82 pp., 2 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 26. Wells of southern Indiana (continuation of No. 21), by Frank Leverett. 1899. 61 pp. (Out
of stock.)
WS SO. Water resources of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 7 pis.
(Out of stock.)
WS 81. Lower Michigan mineral waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 4 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 34. Geology and water resources of a portion of southeastern South Dakota, by J. E. Todd. 19U.<.
84 pp., 19 pis.
WS 63. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. I, by I. C. Ruwell. 1901. •«
pp., 10 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 64. Geology and water resources of Ne^ Perces County, Idaho, PL II, by I. C. Russell. 19ui.
87-141 pp. (Out of stock. )
WS 55. Geology and water resources of a portion of Yakima County. Wash., by G. O. Smith. 1901.
68 pp., 7 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 67. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. I, by N. H. Darton. 1902. GO pp.
(Out of stock.)
WS 69. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. I, by J. B. Lippincott.
1902. 96 pp., 11 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 60. Development and application of water in southern California. Pt. II, by J. B. Lippinoott,
1902. 96-140 pp. (Out of stock.)
WS 61. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt II, by N. H. Darton. 1902. 67 pp.
(Out of stock.)
WS 67. The motions of underground waters, by C. 8. Slichter. 1902. 106 pp., 8 pis. (Out of stock. >
B 199. Geology and water resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho, by I. C. Russell. 1902. 192
pp., 25 pis.
WS 77. Water resources of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, by W. LIndgren. 1908. 62 pp., 4 pis.
WS 78. Preliminary report on artesian basins in southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon, by I. C
RuaseU. 1908. 58 pp., 2 pis.
PP 17. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundnid
and third meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. 69 pp., 43 pis.
WS 90. Geology and water resources of a part of the lower James River Valley. South Dakota, by J. £.
Todd and C. M. Hall. 1904. 47 pp., 23 pis.
WS 101. Underground waters of southern Louisiana, by G. D. Harris, with discussions of their uses for
water supplies and for rice irrigation, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 98 pp., 11 pis.
WS 102. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1903, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. Sc22 pp.
WS 104. Underground waters of Gila Valley, Arizona, by W. T. Lee. 1904. 71 pp., 6 pis.
WS 106. Water resources of the Philadelphia district, by Florence Bascom. 1904. 76 pp., 4 pis.
WS 110. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1904; M. L. Fuller, geologist in
charge. 1904. 211 pp., 6 pis.
PP 32. Geology and underground water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Darton. 190n.
488 pp., 72 pis (Out of stock.)
WS 111. Preliminaiy report on underground waters of Washington, by Henrj' Landes. 1904. 83 pp.,
ipl.
WS112. Underflow tests in the drainage basin of Los Angeles River, by Homer Hamlin. 19M.
65 pp., 7 pis.
WS114. Underground waters of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 190L
286 pp., 18 pis.
WS 118. Geology and water resources of east-central Washington, by F. C. Calkins. 1905. 96 pp.,
4 pis.
B 252. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of central Oregon, by I. C. RuMell.
1905. 188 pp., 24 pis.
WS 120. Bibliographic review and index of papers relating to underground waters published by the
United States Geological Survey, 1879-1904, by M. L. Fuller. 1906. 128 pp.
WS 122. Relation of the law to underground waters, by D. W. Johnson. 1906. 65 pp.
WS 123. Geology and underground water conditions of the Jornada del Muerto, New Mexico, by C. R.
Keyes. 1905. 42 pp., 9 pis.
WS 186. Underground waters of Salt River Valley, Arizona, by W. T. Lee. 1906. 196 pp., 24 pis.
B. 264. Record of deep-well drilling for 1904, by M. L. Fuller, £. F. Lines, and A. C. Veatcb. 1906.
106 pp.
PP 44. Underground water resources of Long Island, New York, by A. C. Veatch, C. S. Slichter,
Isaiah Bowman, W. O. Crosby, and R. £. Horton. 1906. 394 pp., 31 pis.
WS 187. Development of underground waters in the eastern coMtal plain region of southern Cali-
fornia, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1906. 140 pp., 7 pis.
WS 138. Development of underground waters in the central eoa.stal plain region of southern C^i-
fomia. by W. C. Mendenhall. 1906. 162 pp., 5 pis.
SERIES LIST. Ill
WS 139. Development of underground waters in the western coastal plain region uf southern Cali-
fornia, by W. C. MendenhaU. 1905. 105 pp., 7 plR.
Wd 140. Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground waters, by G. S. SUchter. 1905.
122 pp., 15 pis.
VfB 141. Observations on the ground waters of the Rio Grande Valley, 1904, by 0. 8. SHchter. 1905.
82 pp., 5 pis.
WS 142. Hydrology of San Bernardino Valley, California, by W. C. MendenhaU. 1905. 124 pp., IS pis.
WS 145. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge.
1906. 220 pp., 6 pis.
WS 148. Gtelogy and water resources of Oklahoma, by C. N. Gould. 1905. 178 pp., 22 pis.
WS 149. FxnHminary list of deep borings in the United States. Second edition, with additions, by
N. H. Darton. 1905. 175 pp.
PP 46. Geology and underground water resources of northern Louisiana and southern Arkansas, by
A. C. Veatch. 1906. — pp., 61 pis.
WS 153. The underflow in Arkansas Valley in western Kansas, by C. 8. Slichter. 1906. 90 pp., 8 pis.
The following papers also relate to this subject: Underground waters of Arkansas Valley in eastern
Colorado, by G. K. Gilbert, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt II; Preliminary report on artesian waters of a
portion of the Dakotas, by N. H. Darto^, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Illinois,
by Frank Leverett, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Indiana and Ohio, by Frank
Leverett, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; New developments in well boring and irrigation in eastern
South Dakou, by N. H. Darton, in Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Rock waters of Ohio, by Edward
Urton, in Nineteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Artesian well prospects in the Atlantic coastal plain region, by
N. H. Darton, BulleUn No. 188.
Correspondence should be addressed to
The Director,
United States Geological Survey,
Washington, Di C.
May, 1906.
o
oi^H Congress, | HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. ( Document
lift Session. \ \ No. 552.
(B, Descnptive Geology, .81
Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 154 Series -j I, Irrigation, 20
"" y 0, Underground Waters, 61
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES GEOLOCilCAL SURVEY
CHARLES 1). WALCOTT, DIRECTOR
THE
GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES
EASTERN PORTION OF THE PANHANDLE
OF TEXAS
BY
CIIARLKS ISr. G^OULD
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1906
CONTENTS.
Pace.
Introdaction 7
Area covered 7
Sources of data _ _ 7
Topography : 8
General featares 8
HighPlainfi 8
Surface features 8
Valleys and canyons _ _ 9
Escarpment 9
Eroded plains 10
Interstream highlands 10
Valleys and canyons 10
Sandhills 11
BiTer plains 11
Canadian River Valley 11
Wolf Creek Valley... 12
Washita River Valley 12
North Fork of Red River Valley 12
Elm Fork of Red River Valley 12
Salt Fork of Red River Valley 12
Prairie Dog Fork of Red River Valley _ 12
Minor stream valleys 18
Geology 18
General relations 18
Permian red beds 15
General statement 15
Permian in the Panhandle region 18
Greer formation 18
Quartermaster formation 21
Triassic red beds _ 28
Dockum formation _ 28
Tertiary and Quaternary formations 24
Reference list of publications 24
Stratigraphy 25
G^eral statement 25
Loup Fork formation 25
Gkx>dmght formation 26
Blanco formation 26
Tule formation 26
Ageofbeds 27
Origin 27
General character 28
Sandhills 80
Alluvium 80
3
CONTENTS.
Water reBonrcefl 31
Undergrotind waters 3:
General conditions HI
Water from the red beds _ . 31
Character. 31
Occnrrence S:'
Water from Tertiary rocks tr
Character -12
Occurrence .-. 33
Source _ . . '-^i
The water table »
Use of windmills 36
Deep-seated waters ST
Springs **
Bed-beds springs 3>?
Salt springs 38
Gypsum springs 39
Fresh-water springs 39
Tertiary springs 4(j
Streams 40
Classification of drainage 40
North Fork of Canadian drainage 41
Canadian drainage _ . 41
Red River drainage. - _ . . 41
Streams in detail _ 41
Coldwater Creek 41
Palo Dnro Creek 41
Wolf Creek 42
Canadian River 42
Washita River _ 43
North Fork of Red River 43
Elm Fork of Red River 44
Salt Fork of Red River _.. -W
Prairie Dog Fork of Red Ri.er. 44
Drainage of the High Plains 45
Irrigation . 46
Need of irrigation 46
Possible methods of irrigation 46
Irrigation from streams _ . . . 46
Irrigation from springs . - 47
Irrigation from storm waters 48
Irrigation from wells 48
Future of irrigation 49
Water conditions by counties , 4©
Lipscomb County 49
Topography 49
G^eology 49
Water supply 50
Ochiltree County 60
Toi)ography .- - . 50
Geology 50
Water supply.. 51
CONTKNT8. 5
Water resources — Continned. * Pag©.
Water conditions by connties — Continned.
Hansford CJonnty - . . - . 51
Topography . 51
Geology 51
Water snpply - .. 51
Hntchinson C onnty 52
Topography 52
Gleology - - 52
Water snpply. . . 52
Roberts Connty 58
Topography _ 53
Geology - 58
Water snpply 58
Hemphll Connty 58
Topography 53
Geology 58
Water snpply. 54
Wheeler Connty 54
Topography 54
G^eology - H
Water snpply - - ^ — 55
Gray Connty - 55
Topography . . . . 55
Geology ^ 55
Water snpply 56
Carson Connty - - 56
Topography 56
Geology — 56
Water snpply. - 56
Armstrong Co nty - 57
Topography _ 57
Geology - - 57
Water supply 57
DonleyConnty 58
Topography 58
G^eology - - . 58
Water snpply - 58
Collingsworth Connty 59
Topography 59
Geology , - 59
Water snpply 59
Index 61
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plate I. Map of the Texas Panhandle and adjacent regions, showing
area treated in this rejKjrt T
II. Geologic sections across a i>ortion of northwestern Texas ^
III. The High Plains !<•
lY. A, Sand hills blown from Canadian River; B, Gypsum ledge,
showing banded structure , !•
V. Geologic map of the eastern portion of the Panhandle of Texas. 14
VI. A, G3rpsum cave; B, Spring issuing from a cave in Greer
gypsum 1^
VII. A, Undermining of gypsum ledges; B, Erosion in the Quarter-
master sandstone in Palo Duro Canyon i"
VIII. A, Rocking Chair Mountains; B, Sandstone member of the
Dockum formation in Palo Duro Canyon 22
IX. ^, Erosion forms in the Dockum sandstone in Tule Canyon; B,
Sandstone and shale member of the Eockimi formation '^4
X. A, Edge of Tertiary escarpment; B. Peculiar weathering of
Tertiary clay in Palo Duro Canyon "5
XI. A, Windmill and tank at Ochiltree, Tex. ; B, Typical windmill
and tank 36
XII. A, By Freshet on Red Deer Creek at Miami, Tex 42
XTTT. .4, Buffalo wallow; B, Lake on High Plains 44
XIV. A^ Orchard and garden at Claude, Tex.; B, Jacob's well, in a
deep basin near edge of High Plains - 4^'
XV. Map showing locations of lakes on a portion of the High
Plains. 4!!
Fio. 1. Generalized section of Oklahoma red beds 16
2. Section showing members of Greer formation on Elm Fork of
Red River, Salton,Okla.. 1^
3. Ideal section of Tertiary, showing first and second sheet water. ^
4. East- west section of High Plains, showing ground-water level. . ^
6
= ? 3
GEOLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES OF THE EASTERN
PORTION OF THE PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
By Charles N. Gould.
INTRODUCTION.
Area covered. — The area described in this report lies in the north-
eastern part of the Texas Panhandle, and includes the following 12
counties: Lipscomb, Ochiltree, Hansford, Hutchinson, Roberts,
Hemphill, Wheeler, Gray, Carson, Armstrong, Donley, and Collings-
worth, each of which is approximately 30 miles square. It is an area
90 miles east and west and 120 miles north and south, situated south
of the center of the Great Plains. The total area is approximately
10,800 square miles. It extends from 100° to 101° 35' west longitude
and from 34° 45' to 36° 30' north latitude. On the north and east
it is adjoined by Oklahoma.
Sources of data. — ^The field work upon which this report is based
was done during the years 1903 and 1904. During the former season
little more was accomplished than a general reconnaissance in the
region adjacent to Canadian River, through Carson, Hutchinson,
Roberts, and Hemphill counties to the Oklahoma line, thence south
through Hemphill, ^Mieeler, and Collingsworth counties as far as
^Im Fork of Red River. On this trip the writer was assisted by
Messrs. Charles T. Kirk, Chester A. Reeds, Charles A. Long, and
Pierce Larkin, students in the University of Oklahoma. During the
field season of 1904 the writer made an examination of the area to
which this report relates, assisted by Prof. E. G. Woodruff. Most of
the counties were studied in detail, excepting on the broader plains
areas, of which only a reconnaissance was made. The well records
were mostly secured from farmers and ranchmen by correspondence.
Professor Woodruff has assisted in the preparation of the manu-
script, " Topography '' and " Water conditions by counties " being
principally his work.
EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
TOPOGRAPHY.
The region here described lies in the southern part of the Great
Plains. Its general slope is to the east, with only a slight gradieiii
to the south. The topography is properly divisible into two claKse>—
the High Plains and the eroded plains — with local modifications pn>-
duced by dune sands. A third and more local phase is found in the
river flood plains. The location is shown on PL I, and the general
features are indicated in the two general cross sections of the Grea:
Plains shown on PI. II, and on PI. Ill, which includes the general
region of the High Plains.
HIGH PLAINS.
Surface features. — The region here treated as the High Plains in-
cludes not only the northern portion of the Llano Estacado or Staked
Plains of Texas and New Mexico, but also the high, level plains in ihf
region north of Canadian River. It seems probable that this area
was once a great plain extending far to the east, with moderate slope
covered by the deposits of the meandering rivers which were flow-
ing from the mountains and depositing their load of sediment. By
this deposition of material the stream beds were filled and the water
forced to a new channel. By continued shifting of streams, irregular
layers were deposited with much less uniform bedding than those of
marine deposition. It is thought that the material composing the
High Plains was laid down in this way upon the red beds, the basal
formation in this region.
In later times the High Plains have been extensively cut into by
stream erosion, until at present, in the region under discussion^ the
original level surface remains only in those localities more remotv
from the larger valleys. From a geological standpoint the erosion of
the High Plains has been rapid and is still vigorously in progre>>-
In the region comprised in this report High Plains constitute por-
tions of the following counties: Western Lipscomb, most of Ochiltree
and Hansford, southwestern Hemphill, southern Roberts, northwest-
ern Hutchinson, western Gray, nearly all of Carson, and portions of
Donley and Armstrong, including the greater part of the regioL
mapped as Tertiary on PI. V, an area of approximately 4,000 squan'
miles.
In general the surface of the High Plains is so nearly level that
railroads require little or no grading, and wagon roads go directly
from point to point. With a surface so nearly level drainage i-
wholly undeveloped. Rain water can not run off, but either evap^*-
rates or collects in broad, shallow depressions, known in some locali-
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10 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
have a sparse vegetation, since the very rapid erosion prevents most
kinds of plants &om obtaining a foothold. Bunch grass, yucca, and
dwarf mesquite are often present. Such a region is most difficult to
traverse, and in localities where the breaks are conspicuous it can be
crossed with a wagon only at infrequent intervals over specially
selected routes. This escarpment is most typical along the Canadian
und in Palo Duro Canyon, in Armstrong County.
ERODED PLAINS.
Interatream highlands. — From the High Plains the escarpment
forms a descent to the lower level of the eroded plains, which occupy
the entire eastern part of the region to which this report relates.
From the eroded plains the Tertiary and Pleistocene rocks, which
compose the High Plains, have been entirely removed, and the
streams, both large and small, are now cutting deep valleys into the
subjacent red beds. This part of the Panhandle is a rolling plain,
which is now being eroded rapidly, yet without the conspicuous bad-
land forms that mark the escarpment. The streams are confined
almost entirely to rather deep, steep-sided valleys; the plains between
are rolling an(} well drained.
Standing on this plain not far from the escarpment are outlying
hills, generally conical, but often elongated, and joined into irregular
ridges. They sometimes attain a height of 100 to 200 feet. These
hills have resulted from the thickening and hardening of certain of
the upper members of the red beds, usually ledges of sandstone,
gypsum, or dolomite, which resisted erosion and protected the rela-
tively softer clays and shales beneath. A line of such hills extends
from near Shamrock, in Wheeler County, southwest to beyond Mem-
phis, the county seat of Hall County. South from Shamrock the
ridge reaches its maximum width near the post-office of Dozier, at
which place the range is 10 miles wide. Here it consists of a number
of isolated mesa-like hills rising 100 feet above the eroded plains and
capped by a ledge of sandstone, described under " Gteology," 6 to 14
feet thick. The most typical of these hills are Rocking Chair Moun-
tain, north of Elm Fork; Antelope Hills, northeast of Dozier; the
Dozier Mounds, southeast of Dozier, and Flat Top, northwest of
Dozier. The range is interrupted in northern Collingsworth County
by Salt Fork of Red River, but again becomes conspicuous in the south-
western portion of the county, where the creeks are rapidly trenching
the valleys between the mesas and bringing the hills into strong
relief.
Valleys and canyons. — Crossing the eroded plains at intervals are a
number of streams which have their rise on the High Plains, and,
after cutting through the escarpment, find their way into the larger
U. a. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 154 PL. Ul
f^v^ (jiwi I SiTf^
^ -N N
f^*^-«^4** J""^:
THE HIGH PLAINS.
TOPOGRAPHY. 11
rivers which receive the drainage of the Panhandle. For the most
part these streams have carved valleys averaging 3 miles wide and
100 to 200 feet deep in the eroded plains. These streams have
already been mentioned, and they will be discussed in more or less
detail under " River plains."
SAND HILLS.
The sand hills form an important topographical feature of the
Panhandle. In size the hills range from small mounds to ridges 30
to 40 feet high; in shape they are oval, crescent, or elongated, but
when parallel they are separated by trough-like depressions. The
hills extend in various directions, although, in certain localities, those
ranging S* 15® E. appear to predominate. Within the sand-dune
regions are broad, shallow, basin-like depressions which are probably
large blow-outs covering 1 to 10 acres. There are a few localities
containing migratory dunes. One such is on the south side of
Canadian River, in western Roberts County, where the dunes are ap-
proaching the river. Another is north of Prairie Dog Fork of Red
River, in southwestern Donley County.
The sand composing these dunes is derived from two sources,
chiefly from the sandstone ledges of either the red beds or the Ter-
tiary disintegrating in place, or from the river sand which in times
past has been transported from farther west. These make two classes
of sand hills, both of which are frequently found in the same region.
The subject is treated more fully under " Geology."
Sand hills occur chiefly in the escarpment region or along the
streams, as in western Lipscomb and northern Roberts and Hemp-
hill counties, in Wheeler County south of Mobeetie, and in Donley
and Collingsworth counties along the south side of Prairie Dog Fork.
A typical sand hill is shown in PI. IV, A,
RIVER PLAINS.
Canadian Y alley, — The north central part of the Panhandle of
Texas is traversed by Canadian River, which rises in the mountains
of New Mexico and in its eastward course crosses the region under
discussion in a valley 5 to 20 miles wide cut deeply into the High
Plains. The sides of this gorge constitute a portion of the escarp-
ment, with its bad-lands structure of short, sharp ridges, often desti-
tute of vegetation, separated by V-shaped valleys. The flood plan, 1
to 5 miles wide, occupies the bottom of the gorge, 600 feet below the
level of the High Plains. The river runs over a sandy bed varying
in width from a half mile to more than a mile. It is constantly shift-
ing, excavating sand in one place and depositing it in another.
12 EASTEBN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
Wolf Creek Valley, — ^Wolf Creek has cut a wide valley in the High
Plains in the northeastern portion of this region. It rises in western
Ochiltree County, at an elevation of 3,300 feet, and descends to 2,350
feet at the Oklahoma line, 45 miles east — ^a gradient of 21 feet per
mile. The width of the valley varies from 1 to 4 miles, and the breaks
which adjoin it are less rugged than those along the Canadian. Sand
hills occur along this creek and its tributaries.
Washita River Valley. — ^The headwaters of the Washita, which in
Oklahoma becomes a river of considerable size, rise in Gray County.
Tex., in a small creek not differing from many others in this part of
the plains. It flows eastward in a valley 1 to 3 miles wide acrobs
northern Wheeler County and finally passes from Texas into Roger
Mills County, Okla.
North Fork of Red River Valley, — North Fork of Red River rises
among the High "Plains in the southeastern part of Carson County,
and flows east in a broad bend to the north, passing from the State
almost directly east of its starting place. It flows in a narrow, sand-
choked valley, with sand dunes flanking its south side and with red-
beds bluffs guarding it on the north for a considerable part of it>
course. This river descends from an elevation of 3,000 feet on the
plains to 2,050 feet at the State line, making a descent of 950 feet
in a passage of 60 miles, or 16 feet per mile.
Elm Fork of Red River Valley. — Elm Fork of Red River, which
becomes a stream of considerable importance in Greer County, Okla..
is in the Panhandle a mere creek, the greater portion of whose bed
is entirely dry during the summer. It rises in the escarpment in
northwest Collingsworth County and, flowing southeast in a deep
valley cut in the eroded plains, makes its exit from the State 35 miles
from its source.
Salt Fork of Red River Valley, — Salt Fork of Red River rises on
the High Plains in northern Armstrong County at an elevation of
3,250 feet, crosses the escarpment, cuts a valley in the eroded plains,
and after a tortuous course passes from the State in the southeastern
part of Collingsworth County at an elevation of 1,900 feet, a descent
of 15 feet per mile. It flows in a sand-filled valley, and at times of
low water the river is a narrow ribbon upon a sand bed half a mile
wide.
Prairie Dog Fork of Red River Valley, — Prairie Dog Fork of Red
River crosses Armstrong County in Palo Duro Canyon (not to be
confused with Palo Duro Creek, in Hansford County), which is 5
miles wide and which has been cut 875 feet through the Tertiary and
the red-beds rocks. The river flows in a narrow valley at the bottom
of this gorge, the sides of which present an alternate precipitous and
terraced structure according to the nature of the beds. In Armstrong
County there are 20 miles of this canyon.
U. ft. QEOLOGICAL 8URVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 164 PU IV
A. SAND HILLS BLOWN FROM CANADIAN RIVER.
B GYPSUM LEDGE. SHOWING BANDED STRUCTURE.
GEOLOGY.
13
Minor ntream ralUys, — Sweetwater Creek, in northern Wheeler
County; Spillers Creek, in Collingsworth; Mulberry Creek, in Arm-
strong; Mammoth Creek, in Lipscomb; Palo Duro and Coldwater
creeks, in Hansford ; Kit Carson and White Deer creeks, in Hutchin-
son: Red Deer Creek, in Hemphill, and McClellan Creek, in Gray
County, are the largest streams of secondary importance. These
Miialler streams all form a part of the three major drainage systems,
the North Fork of Canadian, the Canadian, and the Red River. Most
of these minor streams are periodic, although numerous springs at the
base of the Tertiary feed many of the smaller creeks, thus rendering
them perennial.
GEOIiOGY.
GENERAL RELATIONS.
The general geologic features of the Texas Panhandle are not
complex. Most of the rocks belong to two gi*eat systems — the Per
mian and the Tertiary — and there are small amounts of Quaternary
deposits, all of which lie nearly level. The lowest formations ex-
posed consist of extensive deposits of red clays and shales known as
the red beds, most of which are of Permian age. The greater part
of the upper formations are made up of sands, clays, and conglomer-
ates belonging to the Tertiary system. Covering these two members
in many places are beds of sand, gravel, and alluvium of Quaternary
age. On the geologic map (PI. V) the distribution of these forma-
tions is shown. The relative age and general character of the vari-
ous deposits are given in the following table :
Qeologic formation^i of the Texas Panhandle.
System.
Name.
Predominant characters.
IAUuvitun Loam, sand, and gravel,
Sand hills | Sand, chiefly in dunes.
Tnle formation Sand, clay, and gravel.
I Blanco formation
Goodnight formation
Lonp Fork formation
Triassic Dockum formation . .
Carboniferons
mian).
(Per-
Clay, sands, and conglom-
erates.
Clays, sandstones, and con-
glomerates.
Quartermaster forma- Red sandy clay and soft sand-
tion. stone.
Greer formation J Red clay, with gypsum and
i
dolomite.
IRR 154 — 06 M-
14
EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
A typical section of the Permian,. Triassic, and Cenozoic strata in
Palo Duro Canyon, 16 miles south of Claude, Armstrong County.
Texas, is as follows :
Typical section in Palo Duro Canyon, Texan.
ByBtem.
Tertiary .
Unconformity.
Triassic.
Formation.
Docknm.
Unconformity.
CarboniferoTis
(Permian).
Character.
Thirk
feet-
Tertiary clays, varying in color from 2u0
almost white to pink: osnally with
calcite concretions and a few pebbles:
occasional harder bands forming ter- i
races.
Gray to brown or reddish sandstone.
Soft and friable, cross bedded; often
changing into conglomerate with
lenses of bine and red clay.
Variegated clays, maroon, wine-col- [ 27u
ored, drab, grav, blnish, and red. witib
ledges of sandstone, sometimes be-
coming hard enongh to form an es-
carpment; often simply a gray arena-
ceous shule.
Qnartermaster-I Red clay shale, with bands of harder *,*?".
clays, sometimes forming a sand-
stone, and occasional bands of white
or gray clay or sandstone, weathering
into characteristic bnttes or mounds.
Seams of satin spar in the lower part.
Greer _ . *.• i Red clay shale, with ledges of massive I'^O
white or purple gypsum, interstratified
with bands of clay and sandstone.
I Total 935
f
1 ^
K — S
i ^
L —:
PERMIAN RED BEDS.
15
The following sections made on Palo Duro, Tule, and Mulberry
i-aiiyons in the southwestern part of the region here discussed, where
all formations are best exposed, indicate the relative thickness (in
feet) of the various beds:
(ieologie sections in Palo Dura, Tule, and Mulberry canyons, 1 xas Panhandle.
Palo Dnro Canyon.
System.
Formation.
Silver
ton-Clar-
endon
road.
Silverton-Clande
road.
Tule Canyon.
Silverton-
Clande road.
Bontb
side.
Tertiary and
Qnatemary.
Triassic Dockam . .
^ - .. (Quarter-
Carboniferons I master.
(Permian). 1_
I Greer
Total
Feet.
380 I
110
805
175
970 I
Feet.
220
175
280
1»5
870
North
side.
Feet.
200
Feet.
260
210 I
180
165
50
190 I Not exposed.
860 i 895
Mulberry
Ckinyon.
Silverton-
Clarendon
road.
Feet.
240
Eroded.
160
100
500
PERMIAN RED BEDS.
GENERAL STATEMENTS.
The oldest rocks found on the surface in the Panhandle of Texas
are the Permian red beds. These rocks occupy a considerable part
of the Great Plains from southern Kansas aqross Oklahoma and
Texas as far as New Mexico and Arizona, and outcrop along the
eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains as far north as the Black Hills
of South Dakota.
In Oklahoma, where the Permian red l>eds are typically exposed,
they have been divided by the writer into five formations, as follows : «
Quartermaster.
Greer.
f Permian Woodward.
Blaine.
Enid.
Pennsylvanlan.
CarboniferouH--
The rocks typically exposed around Chandler, now known to Ix* Peiin-
sylvanian, consist of red shales and red or gray sandstones. The Enid
formation is composed largely of red clay shales, with an occasional
ledge of soft sandstone. The Blaine is characterized by massive
■ (jould, Chas. N., (jcneral geolojfy of Oklahoma . Second Bien. Rept. Oklahoma Geol.
Survey. 1902, pp. 42-58. Revised In Water-Sup. and Irr. I'aper No. 148. V. S. Oool.
Survey, 1905, p. 39.
16
EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
Tertiary
Quartermaster 300
Greer 275
Woodward 425
Blaine 100
Delhi (dolomite; (
Collingiworth (gypaum)(
Cedar Top (gypsum)
Haystack (gypsum)
Kiser (gypsum)
Chaney (gypsum)
Day Creek (dolomite)
Bed Bluff (sandstoue)
Dog Creak sliales
^Shlmer (.8yP*uni)
Medicine Lodge n
^Pergasou ' >;
Enid 1500 '<
Coarse sandstoue and
shale
FIG 1 — (leneralized section of Oklahoma red beds. In the above legend " Delhi " should
read Man^um, and '* Red HlufT ' should read Whitehorse.
PERMIAN RED BEDS.
17
ledges of white g>'psuni iiiterl)e(kle(l with red shales. The Wood-
ward is made up of red shales and sandstones and a ledge of white
dolomite. The (Jreer is also a gypsum fonnation, in which the ledges
are interstratified with red shales. In the Quartermaster the rocks
consist chiefly of red shales and clays, with ledges of soft sandstone.
Fig. 1 shows the general character and relative thickness of the red
l)eds as exposed in Oklahoma.
Professor Cragin classified the red l)eds in Kansas and northern
Oklahoma, but he did not examine the lower nor the upper members.
He divided the portion that he studied into the Salt Fork and Kiger
divisions, each consisting of a number of formations.''
In comparing this author's classification with the one used by
Professor Cragin it may be said that, in general, the Enid, Blaine, and
Woodward formations correspond to his Salt Fork and Kiger.
Neither the rocks near Chandler nor the Greer nor the Quartermaster
formations, as they are now known, were described by Professor
Cragin.
Profe«ssor Cummins divided the red beds into the Wichita, Clear
Fork, and Double Mountain formations, without, however, sharply
differentiating them.* Doctor Adams, who studied the lower mem-
lx»rs of the Texas red beds, found that the divisions made.b}^ Profes-
sor Cummins were unsatisfactory and recommended that they should
not be retained.'^ He has also shown that the Wichita beds in Texas,
like those near Clunidler, in Oklahoma, are Pennsylvanian in age.*'
From the best available information it seems probable that the
Wichita beds are approximately the equivalent of those near Chand-
ler, the Clear Fork beds include about the same rocks as the Enid,
Blaine, and Woodward formations, and that the Double Mountain
beds are practically the same as the (Jreer and Quartermaster forma-
tions. The following table expresses the conditions :
Relationship of fonnation classifications.
Cnmmins's ckMsiflcatlon.
Double Mountain beds
Clear Fork beds
Wichita beds.
ClaHsiflcation of the writer. Cra^in's classiflcation.
f Quartermaster
IQreer _
i Woodward
Blaine
Enid
1 Kiger division.
Salt Fork division.
- Cragin, F. W., Permian system of Kansas : Colorado Coll. Studies, vol. 6, 1896, p. li.
* Cummins, W. F., Kept, on the geolopy of northwestern Texas : Second Ann. Rept.
Texas Geol. Survey, 1890, pp. 400-402.
*" Adams, George I.. Stratlgraphic relations of the red beds to the Carboniferous and
IVrmlan in northern Texns : Bull. (Jeol. Soo. America, vol. 14, 1903, pp. 191-200.
* Ibid., pp. 195-199.
18 EASTERN PANHANDLE OP TEXAS.
THE PERMIAN IN THE PANHANDLE REGION.
Of the formations of tlie Permian red beds discussed alxjA'e, <inl>
the (ireer and Quartermaster are exposc^d in the Panhandle of Texaji.
(Ireer formation. — The Greer formation, the lowest member of
the red beds found in the Panhandle, has it^i type exposure in Greer
County, Okla., along Elm Fork of Red River, a few miles east of
the Texas line. It is here composed of 150 to 200 feet of brick-nnl
clays and shales interstratified with ledges of white, bluish, ami
pinkish gypsum, with an occasional ledge of magnesian limestone
and dolomite. In many places, however, the gypsum beds are en-
tirely wanting or occur as single ledges, while in other localitie>
there are six or more w- ell-marked beds, ranging from 1 to 30 feet in
thickness, besides one or two ledges of irregular gray, honeyconabetl,
magnesian limestone, 1 to 3 feet thick. A number of localities in
Collingsworth County, Tex., may be cited where these definite g^'p-
sum layers occur, but extensive study in the region has shown that
all of them are more or less lenticular and do not persist for any con-
siderable distance. Indeed it is not an uncommon occurrence for
two or more of these ledges to merge locally by the thinning out of
the intervening clays, while at a short distance beyond the gypsum>
themselves become thin and disappear. In very few parts of the
red Ix^ds is the tendency to form lenses better exemplified than in
the (ireer formation. Along North Fork of Red River, just east of
the Panhandle line, the writer has named the following members of
the Greer: Chaney, Kiser, Haystack, Cedartop, and Collingsworth
gypsums and Mangum dolomite." The sequence of the beds is shown
in fig. 2.
In view of the facts as presented above, it appears better not to
indicate by name those lenses which persist only for a short distantv
and w^iich can not be correlated in adjoining regions; henve in the
present paper no attempt will be made to subdivide the Greer
formation.
Because of the lenticular nature of the beds it is not always pos-
sible to locate the exact limits of the various subdivisions of the nnl
beds. In general, however, the upper limit of the (Jreer is placeil
either at the top of the highest prominent gypsum ledge or at the
top of the ledge of magnesian limestone or dolomite, which appears
10 to 20 feet above the highest ledge of solid gj^^sum.
The gypsum members of the Greer fonnation abound in caves
and sink holes. In PI. VI, .1, is reproduced a photograph of an
opening on the surface of a gypsum cave in western Oklahoma.
The soft shales which underlie the ledges are easily eroded, and the
« (Jmild, ('has. N.. (teneral jfeology of Oklahoma : Second Blen. Rept. Okla. <ieol. Sur-
vey, loo'j, pp. r.ri-r»(5.
U. R. OEOLOQICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 154 PL. VI
.1. GYPSUM CAVE.
B. SPRING ISSUING FROM A CAVE IN GREER GYPSUM.
PERMIAN RED BEDS.
19
gypsum is gradually dissolved by water. It is not uncommon to find
a prairie stream of considerable size which disappears in a sink
hole. In such case, however, it usually comes again to the surface at
no gi-eat distance as a spring issuing from a cave (PL VI, B).
These sink holes are of various shapes, with the oblong and circular
forms predominating. The oblong sink holes often terminate
Dolomite, hon«yconib«d
Red cley
Massive white gypsam
Red and blue clay
M aeaive white fypsDin
White aud greeo and red clay
Uaaalve white fypanm
Red and freenlah clay
Greenish selenitic gypsam
Red clay
Hard stratified cypsain
Blnlsh and red clay
Hard gypsom
CollJiiKxvrosth
C^dju' Top
Bed and blnish shale, banded
KiKT
Fig. 2. — Section showing members of Greer formation on Elm Fork of Red River at
Salton, Okla. In above legend ** Delhi " should read Mnngum.
abruptly in caves at one end, while the circular ones exhibit a
conical hole in the center, through which the water escapes most
freely. These sink holes vary in depth from a few inches to 20 feet
or more and are 10 to 100 feet in diameter. In general they are
irregularly distributed; in some cases, how'ever, they seem to occur
in chains, evidently connected by an underground passage, thus
20 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
marking the beginning of a drainage channel. These sink holes an-
probably formed by the subterranean drainage which dissolvcr* th»^
gypsum and clay below the surface, forming caves which eventually
collapse and become stream beds. North of Shamrock, 2 miles from
North Fork of Red River, there is a typical sink-hole region in which
hundreds of these openings occur in an area of a few square mile-.
In various places the members of the Greer exhibit a markt^l
peculiarity of stratification not usually found in the rocks of the
plains. The gypsum ledges are here often distinctly laminated, a-
shown on PI. IV, B, Steep local dips, both anticlines and syncline-.
are often observed along the sides of a cliff.
A striking peculiarity of the Greer formation is the erratic dip
of the gypsum. Frequently in tracing a ledge along a small streau
it is found that within a distance of perhaps half a mile the streaci
descends 50 feet, while the gypsum along the bluff still retains the
same height above the water channel. On the opposite side of the
stream the same ledge may be traced along another branch until le-^
than a mile away it is 75 feet higher than at the main stream. Ii.
other w^ords, the dip of the ledge is toward the stream on both side>.
though the ledge is continuous. This peculiarity of dip gives tht
appearance of irregularly folded strata, yet there has been no gen
eral folding whatever. The phenomenon is not easy to understand.
Perhaps the most plausible explanation is that the shales have been
removed from beneath the gypsum ledges, permitting the latter tn
sink along the streams into the semblance of a local dip. This fart
is exemplified on PI. VTI, A,
The Greer formation being the lowevSt member of the red bezels in
the Panhandle naturally outcrops low in the stream valleys. It i>
well exposed along the branches of Red River, particularly on Kim,
Salt, and Prairie Dog forks. On Elm Fork it outcrops along the
valley of the stream from the Oklahoma line as far west as Sham-
rock, in southern AVheeler County. Between Elm Fork and Salt
Fork the Greer forms the plain as far Avest as the post-office of Dozier.
while along the north side of Salt Fork gypsum ledges appear in the
bluffs at intervals, finally disappearing in Donley County a few
miles east of the center. South of Salt Fork a strip of sand hills
covers the red beds, so that the (ireer formation is not exposed north
of the divide betw^een Salt and Prairie Dog forks of Red River-
It is in the valley of Prairie Dog Fork of Red River and its tribu-
taries, Spillers and Mull>erry creeks, and in Palo Duro Canyon, in
Collingsworth, Donley, and Armstrong counties, that the Greer forma-
tion attains its typical development in the Panhandle. In this locality
it is expost^d along the bluffs of the main creeks and caps the slopes of
the smaller side canyons that are dissecting the red-beds plain. In
Palo Duro Canyon, in particular, the gypsums of the Greer are con-
U. 8. OCOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 154 PL. VII
A UNDERMINING OF GYPSUM LEDGES.
B. EROSION IN THE QUARTERMASTER SANDSTONE IN PALO DURO CANYON.
Tertiary cliffs in the distance.
"""■king Jhe f„
i>'t>J,al./v f<„,„
«?;i»siii„ and ,'
"P^ and I,
<oJ|
"""•Jrcds of ,
^" various
I^fiiliaritv o(
plains, ffjp
•"''"WJi on PI
"^ often ofjj.
^•^ "^trikin.r
"//''^ ff>p.m
" "< found tl
<'«'sfends r)0
^»»e lieight
^freani the s.
«Jian a mi),,
ot'ior «or(|v.
though thf
appearand.
^P»l folding
Perhaps tl„
•^''fiovwl ft
fi'ik alon/;
'^ exempli I
The (Jr,
*'»e PanJ,,,
^yelj exp„.
'■^alt, and
vaJJev of
'■o<Jc, in
* oj-ic th(. .
''■hih aJ„
f« is
PEBMIAN BED BEDS.
21
1^
'miber of narrow ravines have lx?en cut out. In
jometinies pass into caves and sink holes, and after
Id for half a mile or more reappear in a deep can-
pite ^ypsnm cap the bluffs and wind in sinuous
(le streams.
formation, — Resting conformably upon the Greer
f of rocks, consisting for the most part of soft, red
lldy clays and shales. To this formation the name
been applied, the name being derived from a
Custer counties of Oklahoma, along which the
exposed. In the lower part of the formation the
shales, usually red, but sometimes containing green-
ers of clay and often (particularly near the base) a
liount of gypsum, which is usually in the form of
fsatinspar or of rounded concretions. At a higher
lales become more arenaceous and not infrequently
idated sandstone, which is rather thin bedded and
into small rectangular blocks. These harder members
ermaster formation often weather into long, narrow
more or less conical mounds, varying in height from
Bt, as shown in PI. VII, B, These conical mounds some-
alone, but more often they appear in groups; occasion-
ire hundreds of them on a single quarter section.
Istone members are further characterized by marked and
iar irregular dips and folds. Strata are often seen dipping
^le of 20 to 40 degrees, but the dip is irregular, varying in
I to all points of the compass, even on a small area. These
often produce slopes w^hich have the character of those
l)y normal faults or by general folding. The cause of this
enon is not well understood, but apparently the erratic dips
ed by the erosion of some of the subjacent gypsum members
fGreer formation.
ertain parts of the Quartermaster formation there occur beds
1, white, or pinkish dolomite. One such outcrops on Mulberry
10 miles southwest of Clarendon, as a ledge 5 feet thick,
ther, which caps the bluff at the crossing of KSalt Fork of Red
^er, 3 miles north of Clarendon, is 8 to 5 feet thick, white or
dsh in color, hard or even cherty, with characteristic dendritic
irkinffs. When traced east for several miles this ledge is found to
'^ng into sandstone and sandy shale. Another locality
occurs is on Antelope Creek, in northwestern Carson
»g the bluffs north of Canadian River, near Plemons,
* Hutchinson County. The red beds in this locality
Massed as Quartermaster.
PERMIAN RED BEDS. 21
spiciious; here a numl)er of narrow ravines have l)een cut out. In
tliis locality creeks sometimes pass into eaves and sink hoh^s, and after
flowing underground for lialf a mile or more reapj)ear in a deep can-
yon. Ledges of white gypsum cap the bluffs and wind in sinuous
white lines along the streams.
. Quartermaster formation, — Resting conformably upon the (xreer
are 250 to 300 feet of rocks, consisting for the most part of soft, red
sandstones and sandy clays and shales. To this formation the name
Quartermaster has been applied, the name l)eing derived from a
creek in Day and Custer counties of Oklahoma, along which the
rooks are typically exposed. In the lower part of the formation the
rocks are chiefly shales, usually red, but sometimes containing green-
ish bands or layers of clay and often (particularly near the base) a
considerable amount of gypsum, which is usually in the form of
white or pink satinspar or of rounded concretions. At a higher
level the red shales become more arenaceous and not infrequently
form a consolidated sandstone, which is rather thin bedded and
prone to break into small rectangular blocks. These harder members
of the Quartermaster formation often weather into long, narrow
buttre^sses and more or less conical mounds, varying in height from
10 to 50 feet, as shown in PI. VII, B. These conical mounds some-
times occur alone, but more often they appear in groups; occasion-
ally there are hundreds of them on a single quarter section.
The sandstone members are further characterized by marked and
very peculiar irregular dips and folds. Strata are often seen dipping
at an angle of 20 to 40 degrees, but the dip is irregular, varying in
direction to all points of the compass, even on a small area. These
local dips often produce slopes which have the character of those
formed by normal faults or by general folding. The cause of this
phenomenon is not well understood, but apparently the erratic dips
are caused by the erosion of some of the subjacent gypsum members
of the Greer formation.
In certain parts of the Quartermaster formation there occur beds
of hard, white, or pinkish dolomite. One such outcrops on Mulberry
Creek, 10 miles southwest of Clarendon, as a ledge 5 feet thick.
Another, which caps the bluff at the crossing of Salt Fork of Red
River, 3 miles north of Clarendon, is 3 to 5 feet thick, white or
pinkish in color, hard or even cherty, with characteristic dendritic
markings. WTien traced east for several miles this ledge is found to
be a lens changing into sandstone and sandy shale. Another locality
where dolomite occurs is on Antelope Creek, in northwestern Carson
County, and along the bluffs north of Canadian River, near Plemons,
the county seat of Hutchinson County. The red beds in this locality
are provisionally claSvSed as Quartermaster.
I
PERMIAN RED BEDS. 21
spicuous; here a niinil)cr of narrow ravines have been cut out. In |
this locality creeks sometimes pass into raves and sink hoh*s, and after
flowing underground for half a mile or more reappear in a deep can-
yon. Ledges of white gypsimi cap the bluffs and wind in sinuous
white lines along the streams.
. Quartermaster formation. — Resting conformably upon the Greer
are 250 to 300 feet of rocks, consisting for the most part of soft, red
sandstones and sandy clays and shales. To this formation the name
Quartermaster has been applied, the name being derived from a
creek in Day and Custer counties of Oklahoma, along which the
rocks are typically exposed. In the lower part of the formation the
rocks are chiefly shales, usually red, but sometimes containing green-
ish bands or layers of clay and often (particularly near the base) a
considerable amount of gypsum, which is usually in the form of
W'hite or pink satinspar or of rounded concretions. At a higher
level the red shales become more arenaceous and not infrequently
form a consolidated sandstone, which is rather thin bedded and
prone to break into small rectangular blocks. These harder members
of the Quartermaster formation often weather into long, narrow
buttresses and more or less conical mounds, varying in height from
10 to 50 feet, as shown in PL VII, B. These conical mounds some-
times occur alone, but more often they appear in groups; occasion-
ally there are hundreds of them on a single quarter section.
The sandstone members are further characterized by marked and
very peculiar irregular dips and folds. Strata are often seen dipping
at an angle of 20 to 40 degrees, but the dip is irregular, varying in
direction to all points of the compass, even on a small area. These
IcK^al dips often produce slopes wiiich have the character of those
formed by normal faults or by general folding. The cause of this
phenomenon is not well understood, but apparently the erratic dips
are caused by the erosion of some of the subjacent gypsum members
of the Greer formation.
In certain parts of the Quartermaster formation there occur beds
of hard, white, or pinkish dolomite. One such outcrops on Mulberry
Creek, 10 miles southwest of Clarendon, as a ledge 5 feet thick.
Another, which caps the bluff at the crossing of Salt Fork of Red
River, 3 miles north of Clarendon, is 8 to 5 feet thick, white or
pinkish in color, hard or even cherty, with characteristic dendritic
markings. WTien traced east for several miles this ledge is found to
be a lens changing into sandstone and sandy shale. Another locality
where dolomite occurs is on Antelope Creek, in northwestern Carson
County, and along the bluffs north of Canadian River, near Plemons,
the county seat of Hutchinson County. The red beds in this locality
are provisionally classed as Quartermaster.
PERMTAN RED BEDS. 21
spicuous; hei-e a niimlwr of narrow raviiu»s have l)een cut out. In
this locaUty creeks sometimes pass into eaves and sink hok»s, and after
flowing underground for half a mile or more reapi)ear in a deep can-
yon. Ledges of white gypsum cap the bluffs and wind in sinuous
white lines along the streams.
. Quartermaster format ion. — Resting conformably upon the (ireer
are 250 to 300 feet of rocks, consisting for the most part of soft, red
sandstones and sandy clays and shales. To this formation the name
Quartermaster has been applied, the name being derived from a
creek in Day and Custer counties of Oklahoma, along which the
rocks are typically exposed. In the lower part of the formation the
rocks are chiefly shales, usually red, but sometimes containing green-
ish bands or layers of clay and often (particularly near the base) a
considerable amount of gypsum, which is usually in the form of
white or pink satinspar or of rounded concretions. At a higher
level the red shales become more arenaceous and not infrequently
form a consolidated sandstone, w^hich is rather thin bedded and
prone to break into small rectangular blocks. These harder members
of the Quartermaster formation often weather into long, narrow
buttresses and more or less conical mounds, varying in height from
10 to 50 feet, as shown in PI. VII, B. These conical mounds some-
times occur alone, but more often they appear in groups; occasion-
ally there are hundreds of them on a single quarter section.
The sandstone members are further characterized by marked and
very peculiar irregular dips and folds. Strata are often seen dipping
at an angle of 20 to 40 degrees, but the dip is irregular, varying in
direction to all points of the compass, even on a small area. These
IfKnil dips often produce slopes which have the character of those
formed by normal faults or by general folding. The cause of this
phenomenon is not well understood, but apparently the erratic dips
are caused by the erosion of some of the subjacent gypsum members
of the Greer formation.
In certain parts of the Quartermaster formation there occur beds
of hard, white, or pinkish dolomite. One such outcrops on Mulberry
Creek, 10 miles southwest of Clarendon, as a ledge 5 feet thick.
Another, which caps the bluff at the crossing of Salt Fork of Red
River, 3 miles north of Clarendon, is 3 to 5 feet thick, white or
pinkish in color, hard or even cherty, with characteristic dendritic
markings. WTien traced east for several miles this ledge is found to
be a lens changing into sandstone and sandy shale. Another locality
where dolomite occurs is on Antelope Creek, in northwestern Carson
County, and along the bluffs north of Canadian River, near Plemons,
the county seat of Hutchinson County. The red beds in this locality
are provisionally classed as Quartermaster.
PERMIAN RED BEDS. 21
spicuous; heiv a number of narrow ravines have Ix^en cut out. In
this locality creeks sometimes pass into caves and sink holes, and after
flowing underground for half a mile or more reapj^ear in a deep can-
yon. Ledges of white gypsum cap the bluffs and wind in sinuous
white lines along the streams.
. Quartermaster formation. — Resting conformably upon the (ireer
are 250 to 300 feet of rocks, consisting for the most part of soft, red
sandstones and sandy clays and shales. To this formation the name
Quartermaster has been applied, the name being derived from a
creek in Day and Custer counties of Oklahoma, along which the
rocks are typically exposed. In the lower part of the formation the
rocks are chiefly shales, usually red, but sometimes containing green-
ish bands or layers of clay and often (particularly near the base) a
considerable amount of gypsum, which is usually in the form of
white or pink satinspar or of rounded concretions. At a higher
level the red shales become more arenaceous and not infrequently
form a consolidated sandstone, which is rather thin bedded and
prone to break into small rectangular blocks. These harder members
of the Quartermaster formation often weather into long, narrow
buttresses and more or less conical mounds, varying in height from
10 to 50 feet, as shown in PI. VII, B. These conical mounds some-
times occur alone, but more often they appear in groups; occasion-
ally there are hundreds of them on a single quarter section.
The sandstone members are further characterized by marked and
very peculiar irregular dips and folds. Strata are often seen dipping
at an angle of 20 to 40 degrees, but the dip is irregular, varying in
direction to all points of the compass, even on a small area. These
Wal dips often produce slopes which have the character of those
formed by normal faults or by general folding. The cause of this
phenomenon is not well understood, but apparently the erratic dips
are caused by the erosion of some of the subjacent gypsum members
of the Greer formation.
In certain parts of the Quartermaster formation there occur l)eds
of hard, white, or pinkish dolomite. One such outcrops on Mulberry
Creek, 10 miles southwest of Clarendon, as a ledge 5 feet thick.
Another, which caps the bluff at the crossing of Salt Fork of Red
River, 3 miles north of Clarendon, is 3 to 5 feet thick, white or
pinkish in color, hard or even cherty, with characteristic dendritic
markings. WTien traced east for several miles this ledge is found to
be a lens changing into sandstone and sandy shale. Another locality
where dolomite occurs is on Antelope Creek, in northwestern Carson
County, and along the bluffs north of Canadian River, near Plemons,
the county seat of Hutchinson County. The red beds in this locality
are provisionally classed as Quartermaster.
22 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
Throughout the greater part of this region the Quartermaster for
niation is overlain unconformably by the Tertiary or Quatemarv
deposits. In the localities where the Dockuni l)eds are i)resent the
upper limit of the formaticm is located at the line where the color of
the shales changes from brick red to mar(X)n or wine color.
In general the Quartermaster formation outcrops in a belt 1 to :>
miles wide at the base of the High Plains. It appears in the southmi
part of Wheeler County, between Shamrock and Dozier, (x^cupies tin
northwestern part of Collingsworth County, and follows along tLi
north side of Salt Fork as far wast as Clarendon. In the southen
part of Collingsworth County the Quartermaster is exposed soiit!
and west of Wellington, the county seat. It forms the dissal»'<i
plain between Memphis and Giles in southern Donley and ea<tm
Armstrong counties. Along Palo Duro Canyon, in southwt*steri.
Armstrong County, it exhibits a maximum thickness of 800 feet aii-:
forms the top of the intracanyon terrace, just above the Greer gypsim
ledges.
The red beds are exposed along Canadian River in northern Caixn
and southern Hutchinson counties. The most typical exposures ar»
along Dixon and Antelope creeks, in Carson C'Ounty, where 250 ftvi
appear in vertical section. They contain some beds of dolomite ai:<i
gypsum. These beds do not seem suflSciently uniform and persi>tt'ii(
to warrant giving them definite names, yet they are more exteiisiv.
than similar beds that occur in other portions of the formation. Ii
is probable that a detailed study will reveal that these l)eds extei.!
farther to the Ayest along Canadian River. Plicated structure, iioit i
elsewhere, is exemplified in this region. The following section wa-
made in southwestern Hutchinson County, 2 miles from the niouih
of Antelope Creek :
Srction of red beds on Antelope Creek, Carson County, Tex. i
Red clays, with sandy shale : I
Gray sandstone : J
Red clay ^
dray dolomite, weathers out In hlooks which are scattered over talus sloi)e j
(this le<ltjc forms a terrace) J
Red day 1*
ilypsum, l)hilsh in places; a fairly i)ersistent uniform ledjje I
Red clay, lower iwrtion covered i
I
For lithological reasons these beds as a whole are considered ^
belonging to the Quartermaster formation. J
Near the middle of the Quartermaster formation, as exposed J
Collingsworth and Hall counties, there is a ledge of rather hard, n
or pinkish, more or less oolitic sandstone, which on weathering p^
rise to a numbi»r of flat-topped buttes and ridges. Of the.se the infl
typical are Rocking Chair Mountains (PL VIII, ^4), southwest
U. 6. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 154 PL. VIII
A. ROCKING CHAIR MOUNTAINS.
A hill capped by the Dozier sandstone.
h. SANDSTONE MEMBER OF THE DOCKUM FORMATION IN PALO DURO CANYON.
TRTASSIC RED BEDS. 23
Shamrock ; Antelope Butte, near the head of Elm Fork of Red River ;
Dozier Mounds, near Dozier post-office, and 'Possum Peaks, Twin
Mounds, and Ragged Top, a few miles farther west of Dozier. Be-
tw(»eii Salt and Prairie Dog forks of Red River, in the vicinity of
MtMiiphis, in Hall County, these buttes are conspicuous. Hogback
Butte, 8 milei? south of Memphis, is a noted landmark. These buttes
persist for an unknown distance south of Salt Fork of Red River.
From the sandstone on Antelope and Dozier mounds. Dr. J. W.
Beede identifies fossils belonging to the following genersLi Dielasma^
Srhizodus^ AUorisma^ Pleurophorus^ Edmorulia^ Aviciilopecten^ l^ei-
opteria,^ Capulusf {Lepetopsiaf)^ Loxonema^Strophostylus^ Murchi-
t^onia^ Pleurotomaria^ and W orthenop^is ; indicating the Permian age
of the sandstone.
TRIASSIC RED BEDS.
Donkum fm^iation. — The upper part of the Texas red beds was
described by Professor Cummins under the name of Dockum beds,«
and afterwards by Drake.'' This formation, which is composed
largely of clays, sandstones, and conglomerates, underlies practically
all of the Staked Plains of Texas and southeastern New Mexico.
According to Drake,*^ the Dockum beds average 200 feet in thickness,
and may be divided into three members, as follows : (1) A lower bed of
sandy clay 0 to' 150 feet thick, (2) a central bed or beds of sandstone,
conglomerate, and some sandy clay 0 to 235 feet thick, and (3) an
upper bed of sandy clay and sandstone 0 to 300 feet thick.
Along Palo Duro Canyon in Armstrong and Briscoe counties,
where this formation was studied by the- writer, it is difficult to
divide it into recognizable members. The formation abounds in local
unconformities with clay, sandstone, and conglomerate lentils, with
cross-bedded structure, and other features indicative of shallow-water
deposition. In places the lower portion is made up of red, maroon,
or wine-colored clays, while at higher horizons there are more or
less lenticular sandstones and conglomerates, as shown in PI. IX, B.
On weathering, the sandstones of the Dockum beds give rise to unique
erosion forms; the harder members protect the softer shales beneath
and produces pillars, chimneys, toadstools, and other unusual figures,
some types of which, exposed in Tule Canycm, (> miles northwest of
Silverton, are shown in PL IX, .1.
The lithologic character's which justify the separation of the
Dockum beds from the Permian are, (1) the gray and brown color
of the sandstones and conglomerates and the abundance of the latter ;
•Cummins, W. F., First Ann. Kept. Texas Geol. Survey, 1800, pp. 189-100; Second
Ann. Kept., 1900, pp. 424-428.
* Drake, N. F.; Stratigraphy of the Triasalo formations of northwest Texas ; Third
Ann. Rept. Texas (leol. Survey, 1001, pp. 227-247.
• Ibid., pp. 229-233.
24 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
(2) the maroon, wine-colored, and yellow shales and clays, and c'
Ihe extensive cross-bedding and local unconformities of the varinih
memlx^rs. AMiether or not the Dockuni formation is confonnab.*
throughout with the subjacent Quartermaster formation is still i\u
open question. There is often local imconformity between the tw..
formations, but on the other hand there are localities in which ih»
brick-red shales and argillaceous sandstone of the QuartemmMtr
grade so imperceptibly into the wine-colored shales and gray-bnnvi,
conglomerates of the Dockum that the closest search fails to reveal lii-
line of separation l)etween them."
Concerning the age of the Dockum formation it may be said that
vertebrate fossils, found in these rocks and described by Cope,'' a-
well as certain new forms of Union named by Simpson,'' indicate tl.;.i
the beds belong to the Triassic. In all, seven species of vertebnitt-
and fokr of pelecypods have been secured from this formation.
TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY FORMATIONS.
REFERENCE LIST OF PUBLICATIONS.
For extended discussions of the Tertiary rocks of various parts of
the Great Plains the reader is referred to the following publication-:
Ciimniins, W. F.. Notes on the geology of northwest Texas: Fourth Aiil.
Kept. Texas Geol. Survey, 1S93, i>p. D)0-208.
Dunible, E. T., Cenozolc deiK)sits of Texas : Jour. Geol., vol. 2, Xo. t». ImM.
r)p. 54S>-r>(W.
Hay, Robert, Water resources of a portion of the Great Plains: Sixttvr.tb
Ann. Kept. U. S. Goal. Surv(\v, pt. 2, 1895, pp. r»<{9 et seq.
llaworth. ^]., Pliysicnl proiHM'ties of the Tertiary: Univ. Geol. Surv€*y K.\n-
sas, vol. 2, 1S97, ijp. 247-2S4. Underground waters of southwestern Kan??;!'?:
Water-Sup. and Irr. Pai)er U. S. Geol. Survey No. <i, 1897.
Darton, N. II., HeiK)rt on the geology and water resources of Nebraskn west
of 103d Mer. : Nlnett^enth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt 4, 1899, pp. 71S^7.V.
Also in Prof. Paper U. S. (;eol. Survey No. 17, U)0:\.
Darton, N. H., Kept, on the geology of the central Great Plains : Prof. Paper
IT. S. Geol. Survey No. 32, lSK)r».
Johnson, Willard I)., The High Plains and their utilization: Twenty-fir<
■ Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4, 1901, pp. (501-741. Twentj'-tjeoond Ann,
Kept. U. S. (Jeol. Survey, pt. 4, 19()2, pp. 631-669.
« Since the above was written opportunity has been afforded for studying these beds iu
the western part of the Tanhaudle of Texas, both on upper Palo I hire Canyon and alouj
the valley of Canadian River. The writer finds that in this region the Triassic- i-
everywhere Hejiarated l)y a pronounced unconformity fro)n the subjacent Permian red l-^i"
and that it is clearly divisiljle into two formations, each consisting of well-markt^t
mem1)ers. These formations and meml^ers will be described in a forthcoming water
supply and irrigation paper.
* Cope. K. I>., Vertebrate remains from the Dockum Terrane of the Trassic system:
Fourth Ann. Kept. Texas (leol. Survey. 1903, pp. 11-17.
*• Simpson, ('. T., I)es(rii)iions of four new Triassic Unios from the Staked Plains of
Texas: I»roc. U. S. National Mus., vol. 18, No. 1072, 1896, pp. 381-385.
U. B. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER Na 164 PU DC
A EROSION FORMS IN THE DOCKUM SANDSTONE IN TULE CANYON.
B. SANDSTONE AND SHALE MEMBER OF THE DOCKUM FORMATION.
Showing lenticular nature of the strata.
TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY FORMATIONS.
25
STRATIGRAPHY.
GeneTal statement, — After the deposition of the Permian and
friassic red beds in the Panhandle region the area was elevated and
'or a long period of time the land was extensively eroded. Farther
loiith and west extensive deposits of Cretaceous rocks rest on the
'ed l)ecls, but in the part of the Panhandle under discussion Cre-
aceous formations are absent.
Resting uncomformably upon the eroded surface of the red beds
liroiighout the region described in this paper are extensive deposits
)f the Cenozoic age — Tertiary or Quaternary — which make up the
rocks of the High Plains. These formations, which consist largely
i)f loosely consolidated clays, sands, and conglomerates, typically
white, but varying locally into gray, buff, brown, or other colors,
constitute the " Tertiary grit " and the " Tertiary marl " or " mortar
l)eds" of the Kansas geologists. In Nebraska, Mr. Darton sub-
divides the beds of approximately this age into the Arikaree and the
Ogalalla. In the Panhandle of Texas Professor Cummins has dis-
tinguished four horizons, basing his classification upon the evidence
afforded by vertebrate fossils obtained in the diffei-ent beds and
identified by Professor Cope."
The following table sets forth the names of tlie members as used by
Professor Cummins, the geologic age, and the number of species Pro-
fessor Cope found in each :
ycrtchrafc foHHiln disthiijuinhinfj four horizons in the Panhandle of Texas,
Period.
Epoch.
Formation.
Number of
Hpecies.
Quaternary
Pleistocene
fPliocene.
Tnle (EqmiH beds)
Blanco
10
16
Tertiary
(Transition)
Goodnight . _
8
iMiocene
Loup Fork
17
Loup Fork formntiori. — The term " Loup Fork " has long been used
to include a series of rocks, usually considered later Miocene in age,
which are extensively exposed on the Great Phiins, particularly in
Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico.
The rocks consist largely of sands, days, and conglomerates, the lat-
ter made chiefly of smooth water-worn pebbles presumably derived
from the Rocky Mountains. The thickness of the deposits %^aries,
but the maximum is several hundred feet. The Loup Fork beds con-
J^titute the lowest Tertiary formation known to exist in the Pan-
handle. According to Professor Cummins these beds do not extend
• Fourth Ann. Rept. Texas Geol. Survey, pt. 8, 1S93, pp. 18-86.
2H EASTEKN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
farther soutli along tlie eastern edge of tlie Llano Estacado tL;
the Prairie Dog Fork of Red River." On Mulberry Creek, 12 mid-
west of Clarendon, where Cummins and Cope obtained the fo^-i^
identified by the latter, the Ijoup Fork beds are 30 feet thick -a: .
'' composed of alternating beds of bluish and almost pure wh.i •
sand.'' ^
Goodnight formation, — This division, named by Professor Cum
mins from the town in x\rmstrong County, Tex., consists of calcan^n «
and arenaceous clays, sands, and heavy conglomerates. Litholi^
ally, it is practically impossible to differentiate these lieds from tli^*^
of the Ijouj) Fork or Blanco, and it is only by means of fossil> co. j
tained in them that the beds are known to be of different age. Pn j
fessor Cope identified eipfht vertebrates from these lx»ds and assipi^
them to an age intermediate between the Loup Fork and the BlaD(i>.
Professor Cummins states that the Goodnight l)eds have exten-i\
develo[)ment south of Mulberry Creek. The maximum thickness t-
given by him is approximately 150 feet.**
Dall, on the authority of Dumble, has called these beds Palo l>ur«t
He classes them as transitional between the Miocene and Plioceim
and says : *' These beds, identified in western Texas by Scott 85 tran
sitional, also had the absurd name of Goodnight applied to theni."
Certainly no one who has ever been in that portion of the Panhandl*
would consider the name of Goodnight as absurd, for it is the nam*
of one of the largest of the old-time cattle ranches, as well as of n
good-sized town, the seat of a flourishing college.
Blanco formation, — Professor Cummins gave the name Blanco U^l^
to those Tertiary rocks which rest unconformably upon the Dockiiii.
conglomerate at the type locality of the latter — i. e., at Dockum, Dirk
ens County, Tex. Vertebrate, fossils from that region have \^'\\
identified by Professor Cope, who states that '* the horizon is moi>
strictly and nearly Pliocene than any of the lacustrine terram*-
hitherto found in the interior of the ccmtinent." ' The rocks consi^i
of alternating layers of sand, clay, and diatomaceous earth, appn)xi
mately 1()0 feet in thickness.
Tule formation, — These beds, described by Professor Cunuuiii>
and by Professor Cope, were assigned by the latter to the EqmuK-UA
" Cunimlns, W. F., Notes on the jfeolo^y of northwest Texas: Foarth Ann. Rept. Tm. •«
(Jeol. Survey. 18S».S, p. L>(K{.
» Ibid., p. 204.
•■('ope, K. !>.. Vertebrate fauna of the Loup Fork lieds : Fourth Ann. Rept. Texas <i«'l
Survey, j^t. 8. 1«0.'{, p. 40.
•< rumralns. op. clt. pp. 201-202.
*■ Dall, Wm. FI.. Table of North American Tertiary horizons, etc. : FM^btt^euth Ann. K**!'*
r. S. (Jeol. Survey, pt. 2, 1898, p. 3.'?8.
^ (~'ope. K. 1).. Vertebrate fauna of the HIanco l)edH : Fourth Ann. Rept. Texas <;^♦
Survey, ]80;i, p. 47.
t Cummins, op. clt. pp. 199-200.
tt-:rtiary and quaternary formations. 27
hi>rizoii of the e.arly Pleistocene, on account of vertebrates from Tule
Cany on in Swisher County. In general, the statement made by Pro-
fessor Cope that " Equus beds form the superficial formation of the
counti-y at various points on the Staked Plains and about its eastern
osearpinent," * may be considered as accurate. However, the EqmiH
be<is are by no means confined to the top of the Llano Estacado, but
(K*cur in other localities as well, notably north of Canadian River.
These rocks consist of coarse sand, clay, and gravel, with variable
thickness.
Age of hah, — It is the experience of the writer, after ten seasons
spent in studying these deposits in Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and
New Mexico, that it is practically impossible to separate either the
Tertiary or Pleistocene deposits of the plains into mappable forma-
tions- From the bottom of the Loup Fork to the top of the EquvJi
l)eds the general character of the rocks changes so constantly and
with such extreme irregularity that they can not for the most part be
dilFerentiated in the field. Sections made at about twelve points in
eastern Colorado, western Kansas, western Oklahoma, and in the
Panhandle of Texas show such a marked similarity of structure that
without the evidence of fossils it is impossible to determine w^hether
the rocks belong to the Miocene, the Pliocene, or the Equm beds.
Even Professor Hay, who studied these rocks in Kansas and applied
to them the descriptive terms " Mortar beds," " Tertiary grit," " Ter-
tiary marl," etc., did not succeed in differentiating them into definite
horizons. If it were possible to distinguish formations stratigraph-
ically, the matter of classification would be greatly simplified, but in
the light of present knowledge, it seems not only inexpedient but even
impossible to differentiate them structurally. In view of these facts,
therefore, the general term Tertiary will be used to include the
Loup Fork, the Goodnight, the Blanco, and in most cases also the
Tule or Equu^ beds. The Equus beds are classed with Tertiary
chiefly, as stated above, becajise these beds can not be distinguished
in the field, nor, indeed, by any other means than that of vertebrate
fossils, which are present only in scattered localities.
origin of the tertiary deposits.
With regard to the origin of the Tertiary deposits of the (ireat
Plains two general theories have been advanced. The earlier geolo-
gists who studied these rocks considered them lacustrine in origin;
Professor Marsh, for instance, described a great Pliocene lake cover-
ing practically the entire Great Plains area, in which deposits 1,500
feet thick were laid down.'^ Professor Cummins, in speaking of the
"Cope, E. D., Vertebrate fauna of the Blanco beds: Fourth Ann. Rept. Texas Geol.
Survey, 1893, p. 75.
* Marsh, O. C, Amer. Jour. Sc!., vol. 9, Jan., 1875, p. 52.
28 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
Goodnight beds, says, " They seem to have been deposited in a lak<*
much more extensive to the south than the Loup Fork, which lattrr
seems to have had its southern termination here'' (at Mulberry
Canyon)." Professor Cope has already been quoted regarding " La
custrine terranes." Professor Hay accepted the lake theory, althougli
he did not account for the formation of these supposed bcxlies of
water.'' Later investigations, however, have led to the opinion that
it is to fluviatile rather than to lacustrine agencies that we must look
for the origin of the Tertiary deposits.
Professor Ha worth, in discussing the Kansas Tertiary,*^ observe^:
" The relative positions of the sand, the gravel, and the clay of thr
Tertiary over the whole of Kansas * * * corre.spond much liei-
ter to river deposits than to lake deposits. The irregularity of
formation succession, the limited lateral extent of the beds of gravel.
sand, and clay, and the frequent steepness of the cross-bedding: plane<,
all correspond to river deposits. * * * The materials themselve>
have many indications of river deposits and a very few of lake de-
posits."
Mr. Johnson, in his report on '' The High Plains and Their TTtiliza-
tion,'- expresses the opinion that " The structure, an uneven network
of gravel courses and elongated beds of sand penetrating a mas> of
silt and sand -streaked clay, is the normal product of desert -stream
work under constant desert conditions. The coarse material is no!
regarded as the product of necessarily strong-running streams an<l
the fine material of sluggish streams, in alternating epochs of humii)
and dry climate or of high and low inclination of slope, but as the
simultaneous product of branching streams of the desert habit, here
running in a channel and there spreading thinly." **
The only point at issue among these writers seems to be whether
the cause of the deposition of the material by the streams is to lie
sought in climatic changes which produced alternate periods of arid-
ity and humidity, or in deformation movements of the earth's crust
by which the eastern part of the Great Plains was elevated and the
gradient of the streams lessened. With regard to this matter tlie
writer does not express an opinion. The subject has been discussed
by Johnson, to whose article the reader is referred.''
(JENERAL CHARACTER OF THE TERTIARY DEPOSITS.
It has been stated already that the greater part of the rocks vau-
sists of clays, sandstones, and conglomerates with clays predoniinat-
» Cummins, W. F., Notes on the geology of northwest Texas : Fourth Ann. Kept. Terns
(ieol. Survey. 1893, p. 201.
* Hay. Robert, Water resources of a portion of the (ireat Plains : Sixteenth Ann. Rept.
U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1895, p. 571.
'^ Haworth, E., Physical properties of the Tertiary : TTniv. (teol. Survey Kansas, vol. 2.
1897, p. 28.3.
^ Twenty-first Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 4, 1901, 655.
' Ibid., chap. 2, p. 612-650.
1
U. 8. OEOLOQICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 184 PL. X
A. EDGE OF TERTIARY ESCARPMENT.
Showing alternation of hard and soft beds.
B. PECULIAR .vEATHERING OF TERTIARY CLAY IN PALO DURO CANYON.
TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY FORMATIONS. 29
ing. In color the clays are normally white, so white that when ex-
j)osed they are frequently spoken of as *' gyp " cliffs or " chalk ■'
cliffs, although they contain neither gypsum nor chalk. However,
the color of the clays is not invariably white; it often grades into
the various other light tints. In structure the clay is usually so
soft that it may be crushed with the fingers; but, on the other hand,
the more calcareous members are frequently indurated and make a
fair quality of limestone. Occasionally beds are found full of white
calcareous lumps or concretions, which give to the rock a mottled ap-
pearance. The lime often cements the clay together in the form of
elongated concretions, which, on weathering, have a resemblance to
stalactites, as shown in PI. X, J?, and form what one author calls
" pipy '' concretions.**
Sand beds and ledges of conglomerate also constitute a considerable
part of the Tertiary and Quaternary. The sand is usually in smooth,
rounded, w'hite or yellowish grains and the material is of quartz.
The conglomerate is made up typically of smooth water-worn
pebbles, usually composed of quartz, granite, porphyry, and other
igneous rocks, varying in size from sand grains to bow^lders as
large as a peck measure. These pebbles most commonly occur in beds
or layers sometimes as much as 25 feet thick, but often they are inter-
mingled with fine sand and sometimes sprinkled through the clay
members.
In a number of localities the gravel beds at the immediate base of
the Tertiary contain considerable numbers of water- w^orn Gryphrva
shells of lower Cretaceous age. It has been stated that at the present
time there are no Cretaceous rocks exposed l>etween the red beds and
the Tertiary deposits in this part of the Panhandle, but that extensive
Cretaceous deposits are found along the southern and western edges
of the Llano Estacado. Whether these sheik were derived from the
lower Cretaceous rocks in place, or were transported by streams from
l)eds farther west, it is impossible to determine, but in the light of
available data the latter supposition seems probable.
The relative proportion of the different rocks enumerated above
varies with the locality, but it is probable that three-fourths of the
Tertiary and Pleistocene material exposed along the eastern edge of
the Staked Plains is some form of clay, silt, or marl, tlie other one-
fourth being sand or conglomerate. Farther north, in Kansas and
Nebraska, the proportion of coarser material is relatively larger,
often being more than cme-half.
In all places on the plains, so far as known, these materials are ar-
ranged in a heterogeneous manner — the clays, sand, pebbles, silt,
conglomerate, and other forms of rock occurring indiscriminately
iind without similarity of position. In one place a sc^ction of a hill
* Darton, Nelson H., Report on the geology und water resources of Nebraska west of
I03d Mer. : Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 17, 19U3, 1>. lio.
IRB 154 — 06 M 3
30 EASTEKN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
shows nothing but clay and silt ; half a mile away beds of sandstone
and gravel occur; and still farther away the section reveals little
besides sand and conglomerate. (PI. X, J., 5, exhibits typical Ter-
tiary structure.)
SAND HILLS.
There are two general classes of sand hills in the Panhandle, th(p^
derived from the disintegration of rocks* in place and those blown bv
the winds from some stream channel. The sand hills of disintegra-
tion occur usually either along the base of the escarpment at the fcKit
of the High Plains or along the divide between two river systeni.v
The material of which these sand hills are composed has l>een largely
derived in place by the disintegration of Tertiary rocks. As the day
and silt which make up a considerable part of the Tertiarv depoMt^
were removed by the action of water the sand and gravel reinaine«l
behind and the finer materials have been shaped by the wind. In
each of the four eastern counties of the Panhandle there are con-
siderable areas of sand hills which have been formed in this manner
In Lipscomb and Hemphill counties sand hills occur along Wolf Creek
and on the divide between that stream and Canadian River. Much
of Wheeler County is covered with sand hills, particularly in the
region between Sweetwater Creek and North Fork of Red River. In
Collingsworth County there is a region 10 to 15 miles wide sotitii of
Salt Fork, extending entirely across the county, composed wholly- of
these sand hills, and in southeastern Donley County there are largf
areas covered with sand hills.
In the second class of sand hills are those formed of wind-blown
sand derived from the stream channels. In the Panhandle region
they seem to occur indiscriminately on both the north and south sidt-
of the various rivers, usually along the flood plain between the chan-
nel of the stream and the bluffs. Hills of this character, which an-
composed of fine white or yellowish quartz grains, are usually barnui
of vegetation, as shown in PL IV, .1. They are present alon|r
practically all the larger streams, particularly along Canadian River
and Salt Fork of Red River. Migrating dunes are not uncommon.
ALLUVIUM.
Along all the large streams in this region there have been deposite<l
materials of greater or less thickness that have l)een broVight by the
streams from higher levels. In the valley of Canadian River is a
broad belt of bottom land made up largely of alluvium, which hen*
consists chiefly of fine sand and clay mixed with decayed organic
matter and occasional coarser gravels, the whole constituting a sandy
loam. As much of the clay is derived from the red beds, the loaui
often partakes of a reddish color. Along all the small stream-
WATER RESOURCES. 31
emptying into Canadian River are bottom lands or flood plains com-
posed of practically the same material, and there are deposits along
the various tributaries of Red River. Along. North Fork and Salt
Kork the bottom lands are from half a mile to a mile wide.
WATER RESOITRCES.
UNDERGROUND WATERS.
GENERAL CONDITIONS.
The underground waters of the Panhandle of Texas may be dis-
cussed under two general heads — red-beds waters and Tertiary waters.
ITnder the latter head is included water from the sand hills. The
water of the red beds occurs chiefly on the eroded plains at the foot
of the escarpment in the southern and eastern part of the region.
The water of the Tertiary is found on the High Plains and in the
escarpment regions — that is, on the greater part of the area under
discussion. The water of the red beds is limited in amount and
usually impregnated with mineral salts, particularly gypsum (CaCO^)
mid common salt (NaCl), so that it is often unfit for general use,
while the Tertiary water is uniformly abundant and almost always
pure and wholesome. So diflFerent both in quality and quantity are
the waters from these two horizons that it seems best to discuss them
separately.
WATER FROM THE RED BEDS.
Character, — WTierever the Permian red beds are exposed the water
is unsatisfactory in quality, although it ordinarily is plentiful.
Water from the red Ijeds generally contains appreciable amounts of
mineral salts, which in many cases are so abundant as to render it
unfit for general use. To all this salt-impregnated water the com-
mon term " gyp " water is applied. In point of fact, however, much
of the water does not contain any considerable per cent of calcium
sulphate. A number of other mineral salts are found in the red
beds, the most abundant of which are sodium chloride, sodium sul-
phate, sodium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, magnesium sulphate,
calcium chloride, and sodium borate, in about the order named. In
some instances all of these salts are found in the water of a single
well, but in most cases only two or three of them appear in appre-
ciable quantities.
It must not be understood, how^ever, that all the water from the
red beds is bad, for there are numerous localities where soft and
pure water is found. Especially is this true of the localities where
the water is obtained in the Quartermaster formation, Avhich, as has
l)een stated, consists largely of soft sandstones and sandy shales. In
32 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
this formation but little gypsum occurs, and the proportion of the
other mineral salts enumerated above is not as great as in the rock-
of the Greer formation. The general statement may be made, how-
ever, that water from the red beds is not good water.
Occurrence. — Water in the red beds is usually found under one <if
two conditions : first, in sandstones or sandy clay beds, and secoml.
in underground veins, either joints in the clay or in gypsum cavt»>.
As has been stated, the red beds consist largely of red clay shal**
with occasionally interbedded members of sandstone and gj'psuin.
In part the clays are composed of very fine-grained material which
is practically impervious to water. Frequently they contain a hijrh
proportion of sand, in which case the intei'stices l^tween the >aii<i
and clay particles are sufficiently wide for the seepage of water, and
it is from beds of this character that perhaps the greater part of tlie
wells obtain their permanent supply. In many parts of the red l)ed>,
especially in the Quartermaster formation, the arenaceous clay bed-
become a true sandstone and the relatively large spaces between the
sand grains afford ready passage for water.
Many of the wells, however, find their supply not in sand nor even
in sandy shales, but, if the testimony of drillers is given credence, in
joints in the red clay. Those who have had experience in drillin?
wells agree in stating that while the greater part of the water in the
red beds is found in sand, many of the wells penetrate notliing but
the red clay. It is not uncommon for the drill to strike a so-called
vein in the clay, in which the flow is so strong that the water ri>e-
many feet before the tools can be lifted. It has been said that the
red beds abound in sink holes and caves, and that from many of the
caves springs issue. In a numl)er of castas the drill has been known
to penetrate these caverns, which thus Ix^come reservoirs for the well>.
The depth of wells in the red beds varies from 20 to 190 feet, averaging
60 feet.
WATER FROM TERTIARY ROCKS.
Character. — Almost without exception the water obtained in the
Tertiary and sand-hills deposits of the (Ireat Plains is good. .Anal-
yses of water from a numl)er of wells and springs in these forma-
tions in Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas have almost inva-
riably showni that the water contains little or no harmful mineral
salts. There are to be found small amounts of calcium sulphate, cal-
cium chloride, calcium carbonate, magnesium carbonate, and sodium
bicarbonate in the water of some of the wells, but the average amount
of mineral salts in 7 samples was but 15 grains per gallon. The water
on the plains is almost universally soft, pure, and wholesome, suitable
for household and stock use.
UNDERGROUND WATERS. 33
Oecunmre, — In order to appreciate the underground-water con-
ditions of the High Plains, an understanding of the rocks from which
the water is obtained is necessary. As has been shown under " Geol-
ocry," pages 25-31, the Tertiary deposits, several hundred feet thick,
which cover this region, consist chiefly of alternating layers of clay,
sand, and gravel. It is generally believed by geologists that the ma-
terial w^hich comprises these rocks was derived largely from the Rocky
Aloiintains, and that it was spread out in the beds of streams which
ill time past flow^ed from the mountains and were lost on the plains.
These streams left deposits, now of sand, now of gravel or clay, and
now of pebbles, which, in time, were covered by other deposits, some-
times of the same, but more often of other material. This process
was continued until several hundred feet of alternating beds of the
various kinds of rocks were deposited. From this it will be under-
stood that the greater part of the beds must necessarily be irregu-
larly lens-shaped in cross section, and in most cases will not be found
continuous over large areas. In some places the greater part of the
thickness consists of clay or silt, w^hile in other localities sand and
gravel predominate. In general, it is observed that the deposits near
the base of the Tertiary have a greater proportion of the coarser
material, consisting of sand and gravel beds, and that at a higher
level they have clays and silts in greater abundance.
Most of the water of the High Plains is known as " sheet water."
This is a term almost universally used in the western part of the
United States to indicate any fairly constant supply of water at a
more or less uniform depth beneath the surface. The term " under-
flow ■' is sometimes used to indicate practically the same phenomenon.
The general impression seems to be that at some depth beneath the
surface there is a regular " sheet " or " lake " of water, which if
tapped by a well will yield a constant supply. In some places two
or even three " sheets " are supposed to exist, and the expression
''first sheet" and "second sheet," or "first w^ater " and "second
water " are common. Another prevalent notion is that the water in
these " sheets " is constantly flowing, stream-like, beneath the surface,
an idea disclosed by the expression " the underflow is to the south,"
or " the underflow is east." Much of this theory, however, is errone-
ous and not based on valid conceptions of the conditions found in
the nature and relations of the water-bearing beds. Rounded grains
of sand and gravel do not lie close enough together to fill all of the
space, but have interstices between them. These pores or spaces
are minute reservoirs for the water which, in its passage through
such materials, seeps from one of these minute reservoirs to the next,
and thus very slowly flows along underground. This movement is
called " underflow," but it is not nearly so rapid as popularly sup-
84
EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
posed. Experiment lias shown that even along^ stream be<l>, mkIi
as the Arkansas River in western Kansas, the rate of nnderflow (1(»h^
not average more than 10 feet a day." On the High Plains, wlun
the gradient is exceedingly low, it is doubtfnl if the water niov.^
more than this distance in a year. This is a point, however, upi
which there are practically no data, and estimates may be misle^diuff
Dry ground, according to the theory just advanced, is ground th^
pores of which contain no water, while wet or saturated ground i-
that in which the pores are filled. Since water tends to sink to th'
lowest levels, there is in most regions a certain, but variable, thick
ness of beds filled with water in what is technically known as the
'' zone of saturation." The upper surface of this zone of saturation
is called the " water table," and this is often identical with the popii
lar phrase '' sheet water.'' Since water moves so slowly undergrouml.
this w-ater table often becomes approximately similar in contoup h<
Impervious beds Tertiary marla^ sandstones
9nd conglomerslee
Water tables
Fio. 3. — Idenl section of Tertiary. Bhowln^ first and second stieet water.
the surface of the ground, being high on the divides and low ne^r the
streams where the water may escape in springs.
Attention has been called to the conditions under which these he^h
were laid down. As originally deposited they must have had an
irregular outline and surface, especially when laid down in swamp-
or lakelets. Where the material is clay or very fine sand its inter
sticas are very minute and practically impervious to water. Such
fine deposits are often overlain by sand and gravel in basins or chan-
nels, and these in turn by other fine-grained deposits in var>'ing suc-
cession, so that the alternation in water-bearing and impervious M^
is most irregular, as shown in fig. 3. If such deposits are penetrate<l
by a well the first sand encountered will supply water, the quantity
of w^hich depends upon the size of the water-bearing deposit, it>
coarseness of grain, the height of its edges, etc.; in the next coarse
sand bed a second water stratum is found, and so on until finally th<
main water table is penetrated. This may be considered a probahlf
*• Slichter, Charles S., The motions of iinderRroiind waters: Water-Sup. and Irr. Pap^r
No. 67, U. S. (Jeol. Survey, 1902, pp. 41-4.3.
UNDERGROUND WATERS. 35
oxplanation of the '' first and second water," " first and second sheet,"
viv. It also possibly accounts for conditions similar to the one found
near Groom, (Jray County, whiere records obtained from a relatively
small area show well depths ranging from 300 to 360 feet, except in
one well where water is obtained at 228 fe«t. This shallower well
probably finds its source of supply in one of these buried basins.
Wells throughout the Tertiary area usually secure water at depths
varying from 20 to 500 feet. On the High Plains the average of
twenty wells, taken at random from half a dozen counties, was 258
feet. The deepest wells are found along the line of the Santa Fe
Railroad on the high divide south of Canadian River, in Caisson and
Gray counties, where the wells are from 350 to 500 feet deep. On
the High Plains in Hansford, Ochiltree, and Lipscomb counties,
north of Canadian River, the average depth is 240 feet. In Arm-
strong County, alcmg Prairie Dog Fork of Red River, the average
depth is less than 200 feet. In certain parts of the region, notably in
Hansford and Carson counties, the driller sometimes fails to obtain
a water supply, and instances are reported where the entire thickness
of the Tertiary has been penetrated without finding an adequate
amount. It is the experience of drillers that if the '' red clay "
(evidently red-beds clay) is encountered without finding a sufficient
:i mount of water, it is useless to go deeper.
SOITRCE OF THE UNDERGROUND WATER.
Ijocal precipitation is the source of the underground water of the
High Plains. The rainfall at Amarillo, Tex., a few miles west of
the region here discussed, averaged 21.94 inches annually for a period
of twenty years.
Rainfall on the surface of the earth is disposed of chiefly by evap-
oration, run-off, and sinking, or seepage into the ground. It is esti-
mated that in general the amount of water disposed of in each of the
three ways is about equal, but the relative amounts in different regions
depend upon several local conditions. For instance, on a steep slope
the greater part runs off; in a warm, arid climate the greater part
evaporates, while in loose soil the greater part soaks in.
On a considerable part of the Great Plains, where the surface is
level and the drainage systems undeveloped, there is no run-off, and
the rainfall is either absorbed by the ground or evaporates. After a
rain the water which does not evaporate immediately or is not ab-
sorbed by the ground accumulates in broad, shallow depressions on
the surface, known as ''buffalo wallows," or "lakes," and there re-
mains until it evaporates. Johnson estimates that not more than 3
or 4 inches annually soak into the ground, an amount which would
not saturate more than about 1 foot of sandy strata." This estimate
• Johnson. Willard I>., The High Plains and their utilization : Twenty-second Ann.
Rept. V. 8. Geol. Survey, pt. 4, 1902, p. 646.
36
EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
of the amount of water absorbed seems rather small.
but in all probability not more than (> inches (»f
rainfall are added to the ground water each year.
^Mrttm i
\iS^'
■Hm^
tion of Uigh Plains,
showing position of
water table.
THE WATER TABLE.
As stated on page 34, the " water table *' or " water
plane '' is the subsurface plane beneath which the
ground is saturated with water; in other words, the
level at which the top of the ground water stAnd>.
It varies constantly from place to place, from year
to year, and even from day to day. It is supplied
chiefly from rainfall and is lowered when the water
is removed, as, for instance, in the case of springs,
by artesian wells, or by heavy pumping. Ordinarily
it is at a considerable distance below the surface,
but occasionally it reaches the surface level, as in
springs, swamps, or marshes.
On the High Plains the water table is located ai
the upper point of saturation of the pervious beds
AYell records show that this water level for the High
Plains, as a whole, averages approximately 250 feet
below the surface. So far as known, this level i>
fairly constant, the amount of water taken away by
springs and wells being approximately equaled by
the amount added each year by precipitation. Fig. 4
shows an east-west section of the plains and the posi-
tion of the water table.
USE OF WINDMH^S.
As the Panhandle is chiefly a grazing country,
most of the wells have been put down for the pur-
pose of furnishing water for cattle. On the greater
number of the larger ranches wells are located 2| to
3 miles apart, and windmills are almost universally
used to bring the water to the surface.
Often upon the prairie the only object in view to
indicate that the locality is inhabited is a solitari-
Avindmill. These mills are placed upon towers 2<>
to 30 feet high, constructed of wood or steel. .VII
types of factory-made turbines are used, but the
steel mill with a wheel 8 to 10 feet in diameter
seems to be most effective for general purpose>.
Larger wheels, some even 20 feet in diameter, an*
employed to elevate the water for the entire sup-
ply of some of the larger towns, as, for instance.
Panhandle and Ochiltree. (PI. XI, .4.) On the
U. S. QEOtOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 164 PL. XI
A. WINDMILL AND TANK AT OCHILTREE. TEX.
Jf. TYPICAL WINDMILL AND TANK.
UNDERGROUND WATERS. 37
niDtfe the water is pumped into large steel or wooden vats or into
shallow basins (locally called ''tanks"') excavated in the ground or
formed hv dannning a shallow draw. These tanks are of various
sizes, but ordinarily they have a capacity of sev'eral thousjiiul bar-
rels and are very serviceable, since the soil is of such nature that when
thoroughly compact and saturated it permits but little seepage.
Typical views of windmills and tanks are shown in PI. XI, Aj B.
The mill is allowed to operate continuously, and is visited occasionally
by a rider for purposes of repairs or oiling. Wind is such a con-
stant factor on the plains that little concern is felt regarding the
power to raise the water, and in very few instances are provisions
made, or are other means necessary, for lifting it. In a few in-
stances gasoline engines are installed for use in case of emergency.
In the Panhandle a week seldom passes without wind to drive the
mills so that they will supply sufficient water for the stock.
DEEP-SEATED WATERS.
The project of obtaining artesian water in various parts of the
Panhandle, particularly in the red-l)eds areas at the foot of the High
Plains, is often considered. In general, the arguments advanced in
favor of the project are based on the mistaken idea that there is an
underground source of supply from the High Plains or the Rocky
Mountains.
From what has been stated already it will be understood that the
water supply of the High Plains is derived wholly from the rainfall,
and while the part which sinks into the ground and is added to the
provmd water may amount to 5 or 6 inches a year, the geologic struc-
ture is not favorable for artesian conditions. Between the Tertiary
and the underlying red l)eds there is everywhere a pronounced uncon-
formity, and the rocks of the red beds beneath this unconformity are
composed chiefly of impervious clays and shales, through which the
water can not pass readily. These conditions, then, preclude the
probability of artesian water supply having its source on the High
Plains.
That the Rocky Mountains are a source for an artesian supply
through the red beds is also improbable. These red bf»ds, which are
covered by the Tertiary of the High Plains, reappear in New Mexico
beyond the western escarpment of the plains, and are exposed along
the eastern base of the mountains at a higher altitude than in the
region east of the plains escarpment. Some of these beds are coarse-
grained, and doubtless they contain water in some places, but whether
they could be reached by deep wells and would yield water in the
Panhandle region remains to be determined. Their general relations
are shown in PI. II and fig. 3. In the e^istern part of the Panhandle
38 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
these lieds must Iw very deep seated, probably more than 2,000 f*^t.
and the drill has never reached this depth in the red l)eds anywh^T-
in this part of the plains. The only ])laee where the red l^eds h:i\«
been well explored is along their eastern margin in eastern Oklahoma,
where, however, artesian water was not found.
At Childress, Tex., 20 miles south of the southeastern comer of tin
region discussed, the Fort Worth and Denver City Railroad ha-
drilled a w^ell to a depth of 1,800 feet in search of water for engin*^
and shops. From the surface to the bottom of the well the dril!
passed through nothing but red clay shales containing a few le^lgv-
of sandstone and gypsum. Several horizons of salt water weiv en- 1
countered, but no fresh water was obtained.
At a numlnu' of points in Oklahoma wells have been drilled :ii I
search of coal, oil, gas, and water, but so far artesian supplies lia\f |
nev(»r been found. At Fort Reno the (lovernment sunk a well to tlit j
depth of 1,400 feet in search of water for the post, but none wa- |
secured. Near Oklahonui City a well 2,050 feet deep passetl out uf
the red l)eds at 1,550 feet. No artesian water was found.
From all data at hand the conclusion must lx» drawn that tl.»
chances are very poor for finding artesian water in the red l>eds under
the plains. The red beds present difficulties to very deep drilling' |
which usually have l>een insurmountable, and if artesian water d<»t-
exist in the lower members of this series it is doubtful if it can U-
reached at a cost which would I)e generally profitable. However, ii
is to be hoped that at some time the experiment will be tried of te-i
ing all of the red-lKul strata.
SPRINGS.
There are in the region under discussion two general classes of
springs — those from the red beds and those from the Tertiary ami
sand hills. Both in amount of flow and in character of water tht^
springs differ considerably, and for that reas(m it is thought 1k*si to
(U»scril)e the two classes separately.
RED- BEDS SPRINGS.
Springs in the red beds are of infrequent occurrence, and those
present are rarely strong. They may be classified, according to the
character of their water, as salt springs, gypsum springs, and fn^sh-
water springs.
AS(f?f sprhu/H, — Along the branches of Red River, Prairie Dog.
Salt, and Elm forks, there are a number of weak salt-water springs,
often little more than seeps. The horizon from which the water conu*^
is usually near the base of the Greer formation. On Elm Fork of Rod
River in western Greer County, Okla., 5 miles east of the Texas line.
SPRINGS. 39
then* «iv two salt plains of considerable size, fed by a number of
j^trong salt springs, the combined flow of which approximat.vi hun-
dreds of thousands of galhms of sah water a day. No springs as
strong as these arc found in any j)art of the Panhandle. Some salt
^<p^ings occur, however, but so far as knowni the salt brine of Texas
springs is not used, and it is not probable that the salt water of the
l*anhandle Avill ever bi* utilized, on account of the much larger
amounts near at hand in Oklahoma.
Gypsu?n HfningH, — I*ractically all the gypsum springs in the Pan-
handle issue either from beneath or in close proximity to the massive
gypsum ledges that make up a considerable part of the (ireer forma-
tion. Such springs occur along Elm Fork of Red River in Collings-
Avorth Coimty and on the branches of Prairie Dog Fork in Col-
lingsworth, Donley, and Armstrong counties. Sometimes these
springs are mere wet -weather seeps, but in a number of cases they
are strong, boiling, perennial springs derived from underground
streams, flowing from beneath ledges of white gypsum.
Fre8h-water nprhigs, — The greater number of the fresh-w^ater
springs of the red beds issue from the Quartermaster formation,
which, as has l)een stated, consists largely of sandstone and sandy
shale, with but little gypsum or other mineral salts. The conditions
are ideal for springs, provided there is a source of supply, and in a
region of greater rainfall a large number might be expected to exist.
In the Panhandle, however, the number is small. In the Quarter-
master formation there are very few bold flowing springs. This is
due to the peculiar lithologic character of the rocks, mostly soft sand-
stones and sandy clays, which, as stated (m page 21, usually weather
into peculiar rounded knobs and buttresses and into narrow^ canyons.
It is in the latter that the springs occur, and it is not uncommon
to find at the head of a little canyon an outcropping ledge of sand-
.-tone, beneath which the water seeps out of the bank. The flow is
rarely strong, but it is often very persistent, and the w^ater usually
accumulates to form a tiny rill in the bottom of the canyon. Ranch-
men and farmers frequently take advantage of the soft rock to hollow
out a small basin, in which the water collects, often in quantities
sufficient to supply a farmhouse, or even to furnish water for a num-
ber of cattle.
Springs are occasionally found in the Dockum beds, issuing from
beneath ledges of sandstone or from undei* the conglomerate mem-
Ikji-s. These springs are usually weak and unimportant and so far
as noticed not utilized. This latter fact may be attributed chiefly to
their inaccessibility, for the Dockum is exposed only along the steep
escarpment at the foot of the High Plains.
40 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
TERTIARY SPRINGS.
Throughout tlie High Phiins region the Tertiary deposits yie!il
numerous springs, which are always of good water and have lung
bc^en most advantageous to the settlers and travelers. Camps, forts,
farms, and even cities have been located with reference to the prox-
imity of a Tertiary spring or spring-fed creek. In the Texas Pan-
handle there are thousands of such springs. They are found, usually
in great numbers, in every one of the twelve counties descrilicd in
this report.
The source of supply of the Tertiary springs is chiefly in the
ground water, otherwise called the " sheet water," or "' underflow.'"
of the High Plains, and they are usually found where deep canyons
have been cut into the highlands.
Not infrequently springs occur at the line of contact between the
Tertiary deposits and the clay strata of the upper part of the red lieds.
This condition is due to the ready seepage of water through tlie
Tertiary sands to the top of the impervious red beds, where it flow>
laterally until it reaches the surface. Many of these contact springs
do not issue from a single opening, but the water finds its escape
along a zone of seepage extending sometimes for hundreds of yards
nlong the side of a cliff. In such cases the amount of water dis-
charged at any one place is not large, but the aggregate is often
considerable.
Excellent springs frequently occur in the sand hills at the con-
tact of the sand and the relatively impervious underlying strata.
The flow^ from these sand-hill springs is seldom strong, but the water
is pure and wholesome. Springs of this type occur chiefly in the
sand-hill regions of the four eastern counties.
In a region %vhere the underground supply is scanty the water
that issues from springs is necessarily limited in amount. Very few
of the springs discharge half a second-foot of water, and perhaps the
greater number of them will not average one-tenth of that amount.
Tlie water usually flows but a short distance and then disappears in
the sand. AMiere there are a numl)er of strong springs in a locality
the water unites to form a small creek, which is sometimes perennial,
but usually intermittent.
STREAMS.
CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINAGE.
The drainage of this region flows into Mississippi River. The
water from the northern part of the area flows into either the Cana-
dian or the Xorth Fork of the Canadian, tributaries of Arkansas
River, while the water from the southern part reaches Red River.
The drainage may be classified as follows:
STREAMS. 41
North Fork of Cfinadian draiiuige. — Cold water, Palo Duro, and
Wolf creeks are tributary to North Fork of Canadian River.
Canadian drainage, — Canadian River flows northeast across this
region into Oklahoma, traversing Hutchinson, Roberts, and Hemphill
counties. It receives as tributaries a number of small creeks which
rise on the plains both north and south of the river, cutting their way
through the escarpment and entering the river nearly at right angles.
The width of the basin from watershed to w^atershed averages not
more than 85 miles.
Red Ricer drainage, — Five main branches of Red River either
rise in or pass through this part of the Panhandle. Beginning on
the north they are as follows: (1) Washita River, which in Oklahoma
and Indian Territory becomes a stream of considerable size, rises in
southwestern Hemphill County and flows east; (2) North Fork has
its source in (xray County and flows east across Wheeler County into
Oklahoma; (S) Elm Fork has its origin in northwestern Collings-
worth County and flows southeast; (4) Salt Fork rises in northern
Armstrong County and flows east across Collingsworth County
before reaching Oklahoma; (5) Prairie Dog Fork rises on the High
Plains far to the west, and in this region flows through Palo Duro
Canyon across the southwest corner of Armstrong County. These
four branches, North, Elm, Salt, and Prairie Dog forks join at the
southeast comer of Greer County, Okla., forming Red River, a
tributary of Mississippi River.
STREAMS IN DETAIL.
Cold water Cree/i. — In its upper course this stream is known as
Rabbit Ear Creek, from the fact that it rises near the Rabbit Ear
Mountains, two volcanic peaks in northeastern New Mexico. It flows
southeast across Dallam and Sherman counties, then turning north-
east crosses the northwest corner of Hansford County, passes into
Beaver County, Okla., and empties into Beaver Creek at the town of
Hardesty. In its course through Hansford County it has cut a
canyon 1 to 3 miles wide and approximately 100 feet deep into the
Tertiary rocks of the High Plains. The stream is fed by Tertiary
springs. Consequently its water is fresh.
Palo Dui'o Creek. — This stream flows diagonally across Hansford
County from southwest to northeast. It is a typical High Plains
stream. Rising on the level prairie, it soon begins to cut a trench,
which becomes deeper and wider until in Hansford County it is a
canyon 1 to 3 miles wide and 100 feet below the level of the plains.
Only in parts of its course is there water the year ai-ound. At Hans-
ford, the county seat, the stream is dry except after heavy rains, but
42 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
15 miles downstream running water appears. This stream also
empties into Beaver Creek in Beaver County, Okla.
Wolf Creek. — Wolf Creek rises on the High Plains a few mile>
southw^est of Ochiltree, the county seat of Ochiltree County, aiul flow^
east across Ochiltree and Lipscomb counties into Woodward County.
Okla. At old Fort Supply it joins Beaver Creek, forming North
Fork of Canadian River. In its upper course it has cut a narrow <-an-
yon with precipitous bluifs. Farther down it passes out of the High
Plains and enters the sand-hills region, where the bed is wide and
sandy. The creek is fed by small branches — Camp, Willow, Cotton-
wood, Plum, Mammoth, and others — the water of which comes from
Tertiary springs among the sand hills. Wolf Creek has the reputa-
tion among the cattlemen of being the most constant stream in the
Panhandle.
Canadian River. — The largest stream in the Panhandle of Texa.^,
Canadian River, has its headwaters among the high peaks of tht
Rocky Mountains in northern New Mexico. In its upper course it
receives a number of tributaries which are fed by mountain springs.
After leaving the mountains it flows southeast first across a plain
composed of upper Cretaceous rocks, then for nearly 100 niile>
through a canyon 500 to 800 feet deep in the Dakota sandstone,
finally reaching the red-beds plain in the region north of TucunK'ari,
N. Mex. At this point it changes its direction to the northeast and
so flows out of New Mexico and across the Panhandle of Texas into
Oklahoma, where it again turns southeast, finally joining Arkansa-s
River in the eastern part of Indian Territory. Of the 700 miles of
its course only about 100 miles are included in the part of the Pan-
handle under discussion. Across this region it flows in a broad curve.
convex to the north, crossing southeastern Hutchinson, northern
Roberts, and middle Hemphill counties l)efore pas.sing into Okla-
homa. Throughout this distance the river has cut a broad cany<>n in
the High Plains. In places the headlands between the tributary-
creeks approach almost to the river, but at most points the fl(x>d plain.
usually a sandy flat, is 2 to 4 miles wide. The channel of the river
itself is a sand bed averaging three-quarters of a mile in width.
Canadian River is perhaps more treacherous than any t>tlier
stream of the plains. The stream is either dry or a raging tomMit.
Th(* river may have been dry for weeks at a time, when suddenlv.
without warning, a wall of water several feet high rushes down X\w
channel, sweeping everything before it, and for a number of days
the river continues high, then gradually subsides, following thi^
period of abnormal flow the sand in the stream becomes " quicksand."
oi' loose sand which appears firm but gives way suddenly under foot.
rendering the stream extremely dangerous to cross. Many a henl of
U. 6. OEOLOOICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 154 PU XII
FRESHET ON RED DEER CREEK AT MIAMI, TEX.
STREAMS. 43
<nittle has been mired in Canadian River, and every year loaded
wagons and even teams are abandoned. The cause of the sudden
and rapid rises is not yet fully understood, but most of them are
caused by heavy rains near the head of the stream.
Such sudden rises are not confined to the Canadian River, or to tlie
larger streams, for the small streams exhibt the same phenomena,
ihough on a much diminished scale. PI. XII, ^4, 5, shows a rise
which occurred on Red Deer Creek, a tributary of the Canadian,
at Miami, Roberts County, August 16, 1904. The town lies in
a rather narrow valley cut by the stream into the High Plains.
Thete had been no rain at Miami for several weeks and the bed
of the creek was a dry sand flat. A heavy rain occurred at the
head of the creek a few miles southwest, and two hours later the
water came down the stream channel, a narrow tongue of white
foam, as shown in PI. XII, A. This was followed by a wall of
turbid, yellow water that filled the banks of tho stream. In half an
hour the flood was at its highest, a seething, foam-capped torrent.
By next morning the water had disappeared except from a few pools
in the channel, as shown in PI. XII, J?, and by noon even these were
dry.
Canadian River does not receive any large tributaries in its (course
across the plains. In three counties which it crosses in the region
to which this report relates there are a number of small creeks, none
more than 25 miles long, emptying into the river. Of these the most
important are Spring, Kit Carson, Dixon, Antelope, Blue Bear, Wal-
nut, Buffalo, WTiite Deer, and Red Deer, all of which rise on the High
Plains and cut their way through the escarpment before reaching the
river.
Washita liircr. — Only the upper course of Washita River is in
Texas, whore it is a small creek, not differing from scores of others
which take their rise in the escarpment and sand-hill regions. It
flows east across the southern part of Hemphill County. Farther
east in Oklahoma the valley of the Washita lies almost entirely in
the red l)eds, and it is there known as the muddiest stream of the
plains. In Hemphill County, Tex., however, it has not yet cut
through the Tertiary, and is here a clear, fresh-water stream.
North Fork of Red Rirer, — This, the northernmost of the four
l)ranches which make up the Red River, rises on the High Plains, in
Carson County, breaks tlirough the escarpment in (Jray County, and
flows northeast into A\Tieeler County, then southeast into Oklahoma.
East of the Gray- Wheeler county line the stream has cut through the
Tertiary deposits and into red beds, which are here exposed along its
north bank, while on the south side sand hills occur. Across Gray
and Wheeler counties the bed of North Fork is sand choked and has
44 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
a surface flow only part of the year. The chief tributaries of Xortl.
Fork are McClellan Creek, which drains southern Gray County.
emptying near the AVheeler County line, and Sweetwater Creek.
which drains northern AVheeler County and passes into Oklahonia
before joining the main stream. All of these streams are fed hy
Tertiary springs, and even where the surface sand is dry water nia\
usually bt^ obtained by digging a few feet.
Elm Fork of Red River, — Northern Collingsworth and southenj
WTieeler counties are drained by Elm Fork, which rises along the
escarpment, but soon reaches the red beds, across which it flows^ iax
the greater part of its course in Texas. The water of the upp^r
branches is derived from the Tertiary springs in the sand hills alou<;
the escarpment, but as soon as the river enters the red-beds forma-
tions, gA'psum and salt water flow into it, until by the time it reaoh<->
the Oklahoma line the water has lost its purity. Shortly after
entering Greer County it receives water from a number of >alt
springs, and from that point is considered to contain the saltie>t
water of any stream of the plains.
Salt Fork of Red River. — Salt Fork is a typical stream of \\\^
plains. It rises far out on the Llano Estacado in southern Car^ou
County, crosses northeastern Armstrong County, and flows entirely
across Donley and Collingsworth counties before reaching the Okla-
homa line. In its upper course it is but a shallow draw in the lev(*I
prairie, but eastward it soon flows in a trench, and 10 miles from it-
source this deepens into a canyon with cliffs of white Tertiary- l)e<l^
Up to this point the stream receives no water except the run-off, but
a few miles lower in its course it reaches the Tertiary springs level
and has a surface flow the greater part of the year. Ka.stwartl the
lx»d widens and becomes sand choked, until in central Donley County,
north of Clarendon, it cuts through the lower members of the Tertiary
and enters the red l)eds. From that point almost to Mangiini, in
Greer County, Okla., it flows between red-beds bluffs on the north j=i<l(»
and sand hills on the south side. It is a sandy, treacherous stream,
dangerous to cross ex(*ept when low.
Prairie Dog Fork of Red River, — This stream flows southwest-
ward across Armstrong County in Palo Duro Canyon, which has
been discuss(»d under " Topography," page 12. This canyon is jmm-
haps the most notal)le canyon in the High Plains. Near its mouth
the walls are approximately 1,000 feet high, composed of red U*<K
in the lower part and of Tertiary deposits above. Several crtH»k>
are tributary to this stream, the chief of which, Spillers and Mnl-
Ix^rry creeks, drain parts of southern Collingsworth and Donley
counties. These streams do not differ materially from others in this
region. Spillers Creek rises in the sand hills of Collingsworth
County and flows southeast across the I'ed beds into Childi-ess County
U. S, GEOLOGICAL SURVFV
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 154 PL. XIII
A. BUFFALO WALLOW.
B. LAKE ON HIGH PLAINS.
DRAINAGE. 45
l>ef ore joining Prairie Dog Fork. Mulberry Creek rises on the High
1^1 a ins and has cut a deep canyon entirely through the Tertiary to a
cleiDth of several hundred feet into the red beds.
DRAINAGE OF THE HIGH PLAINS.
From what has been said it will be understood that there is a con-
si derable portion of the Panhandle which has no developed drainage;
i II other words, from a great part of the High Plains there is no run-
off. The headwaters of the various small streams tributary to Cana-
clian or Red rivers have cut into the slope of the escarpment, but so
far, except in a few isolated localities, the flat upland has not yet
l>een invaded and remains still uneroded. It is graphically described
by Johnson," who says the plains are the remnants of an old debris
apron, unscored by drainage, yet standing in relief.
Scattered at irregular intervals on this flat surface are saucer-
>>haped depressions, in which water collects. In size these depres-
i^ions vary from the ordinary " buffalo wallow," a few" feet across
(PL XIII, ^), to lakes hundreds of rods in diameter (PI. XIII, B).
In a few instances, particularly in localities near the edge of the
plain, the basins are deep and bowl shaped, as shown on PL XIV, B.
Often the lakes are perennial and afford an abundant supply of stock
water the year round ; others are ephemeral, being filled by rains but
soon becoming dry, while still others contain \yater part of the year.
These lakes occur with no regularity. In some localities on the High
Plains there are none of these basins for miles, while in other sections
there are scores of them in a single township. PL XV represents the
conditions on the High Plains in parts of Carson and (Iray counties.
Many of the larger depressions have extensive drainage basins,
which sometimes collect the water from a number of square miles.
Small prairie streams receive the run-off from the outer part of the
basin and lead to the lake. It is not infrequent in traversing the
High Plains to encounter a sag in the surface along which storm
water is carried to a near-by lake. The.se small stream beds, how-
ever, rarely exceed a mile or two in length. In view of the admirable
treatment of the subject by Johnson,'' there seems no need to enter
upon a discussion of the origin of these lakes. The writer agrees
that the " innumerable hollows in the High Plains surface, large and
small alike, are due to ground settlement rather than to some process
either of original construction or of subsequent erosion."''
The influence of these lakes upon the settlement of the country has
i)een important, for on the High Plains the matter of water supply is
• Johnson, W. D., The Hl^h Plains and their utilization : Twentj-flrst Ann. Rept. U. 8.
Geol. Survey, pt. 4, 1901, p. 626.
•Ibid., pp. 695-711.
* Ibid., p. T02.
IBB 154— -06 M -4
46 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
vital. In the early history of the Panhandle, before wells had be.-.:
sunk, these lakes constituted the only source of supply, and thu> ir
happened that the early cow camps were located beside some per-
manent body of water. In a number of instances a town g:rew up a:
the site of the cow camp, and to-day some of the largest county seats—
for example, Clarendon, Claude, and Panhandle — owe their locatiurj
to the presence of such basins. Although windmills are now used to
draw water for household use, as shown in PI. XI, -4, 5, a great part
of the stock water still comes from the lakes.
IRRIGATION.
nep:d of irrigation.
The Panhandle of Texas is located in the semiarid belt of the (irvat
Plains. The annual rainfall averages approximately 20 inches, hut
the greater part of this amount is from dashing rains. During ot-
tain seasons there is little or no rain. The soil is extremely fertile,
and if water were prevsent it is capable of producing abundant croj.»>.
At various times on the High Plains farming has been attempted,
and often with success for a few years, but usually seasons of drought
have ensued and the effort has been abandoned. In general, practi-
cally all the crops that have been raised successfully on the High
Plains are such forage plants as kaffir corn, sorghum, and milo maiz^.
which are able to mature with a mijiimum of moisture. At the f<>>t
of the plains, particularly along some of the stream valleys, the
culture of corn, oats, cotton, and alfalfa is now being attempted with
considerable success. Crops are frequently abundant for several
successive years, but occasionally fail during periods of drought.
It will be readily understood that in a region with climatic con-
ditions such as those in the Panhandle, irrigation is necessarj' for
successful farming. This fact has long been recognijsed and a num-
ber of desultory attempts have been made to irrigate small tracts,
but nothing approaching a large system has ever been projected.
POSSIBLE METHODS OF IRRIGATION.
It is proposed in the following pages to discuss four possible modes
of irrigation which might be put into operation in the Panhandle of
Texas, viz, (1) irrigation from streams, (2) springs, (3) storm
water, and (4) wells.
Imgation from streams, — It has l)een shown above that the larger
streams of this region practically all flow in broad, shifting, sand-
choked channels, contained between low, sandy banks, and that the
water varies constantly, the stream l>eing at one time a rushing tor-
rent, at another nothing but a dry sand bed. Only one of the^
I'ivers — the Canadian — ^has its headwaters in the mountains; all the
U. 8. OEOLOOlCAL 8URVFV
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 1S4 PL. XIV
A. ORCHARD AND GARDEN AT CLAUDE. TEX.
B. JACOB'S WELL. IN A DEEP BASIN NEAR EDGE OF HIGH PLAINS.
mRIGATTON. 47
others take their rise on the High Plains and are fed by local rains
or by springs.
There are no Government gaging stations in the Panhandle of
Texas, and no accurate data are available regarding the amount of
flow in the various rivers. It is known, however, that enough water
passes down the streams each year, particularly during times of
flood, to irrigate considerable are^s of valuable land. In most cases,
however, there would he great difficulty in storing these flood waters.
Ill the first place, so far as known, there are no available dam sites
along the larger streams. The broad, shallow channel, sometimes
filled to a depth of 100 feet with fine sand, precludes the construction
of masonry dams. Besides this, in most cases material for dams is
rare, or, indeed, entirely wanting. There are few hard rocks in this
region except an occasional local ledge of sandstone or dolomite in
the red beds and some indurated Tertiary limestone along the bluffs.
Again, the sandy nature of the soil along the streams presents diffi-
ciiltias in the way of the construction of ditches.
Along some of the smaller streams irrigation has been carried on
with more or less success. Along Palo Duro Creek, near the post-
office of Mulock, in northeastern Hansford County, Robinson
I^rothers have a plant in operation from which 35 acres are irrigated.
The difficulty at this place has been in securing a suitable site for the
dam, and the scarcity of material with which to construct it. In
former years several dams here have been washed out during times of
high water. Other similar plants are projected farther down Palo
Duro Creek; one at Range, Okla., 12 miles below Mulock, has been
in successful operation for a number of years. In eastern A'Mieeler
County the water of Sweetwater Creek was formerly utilized to irri-
♦2:ate a tract of 60 acres, but in the last few years the project has been
abandoned. There are a number of smaller streams where small
plants sufficient to irrigate 10 to 25 acres might be successfully in-
stalled. Particularly are there opportunities for such projects along
Mammoth, Wolf, and Sweetwater creeks, the upper branches of the
various forks of Red River, and some of the short tributaries of
Canadian River.
Inngatian frojin spinngs. — Since only springs that have a consider-
able flow can be utilized for this purpose, irrigation from springs
must, at best, be confined to limited areas. In the Panhandle it is
rather an unusual occurrence for a spring to be located where the
water may be led off to irrigate a tract of land, but in a few cases
there are springs which are so located that they might be thus util-
ized. So far as known there is no irrigation directly from a single
spring in this region, but there are localities in which a small creek,
formed by a number of springs uniting, might be deflected from its
channel and carried by a ditch over a tract of land. Examples of
48 EASTEBN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
this condition might be cited along the smaller tributaries of Wolf
and Sweetwater creeks and Canadian River.
Irrigation from storm waters, — Much of the rainfall of the Pan
handle occurs as dashing showers at irregular intervals, chiefly dur
ing the spring and summer months. After a shower the water ««i.
the High Plains accumulates in shallow sags which empty into bnia<l.
shallow "lakes;" while among the breaks and at the foot of th*-
plains it passes into the streams. In numerous places the sags on tli«
High Plains or the dry channels among the breaks have been dammeil
forming reservoirs, known locally as "tanks," to hold stock water,
and in a few instances a ditch has been led out from one of the-
artificial ponds to irrigate a few square rods of garden or orchani.
While it is obvious that irrigation of this character can never i'-
practiced on a large scale, it is nevertheless possible for hundred> ^i
families in the region to be provided with home-grown vegetahl*'^
and fruit by irrigation from stonn waters.
Irrigation from wells. — In the discussion of the subject of ant-
sian water in another part of this report, the conclusion was readnil
that the probabilities for artesian supply in the Panhandle are not
good. On the other hand, however, ordinary wells, which are com-
mon in all parts of the region, usually supply considerable amount^
of water, often more than is needed for stock water and domestic usi,
and the surplus might well be used for irrigation. The chief diffi-
culty in the way of the utilization of well water for these purpose> i<
the matter of expense in lifting the water to the surface. In thi-
region wind power is almost univei*sally used for this purpose. In
localities where wells are shallow, as, for instance, along stream valley^
or among the sand hills, it has been found profitable to use water from
wells for irrigating areas of considerable size. In the greater pan
of the Panhandle, however, the water is too deep to be. used in thi<
way. As has been stated, the average depth of the wells on the Hi^h
Plains is over 200 feet, while on the eroded plains the wells average
nearly 100 feet in depth. It is obvious that under such condition-
little more can be done than to irrigate a garden or an orchard, and
so far as has been observed this is all that is ever attempted. PI.
XIV, .4, page 46, shows an orchard and garden at Claude, which i?
irrigated from a well over 250 feet deep. Examples similar to thi>
are not uncommon.
In the sand-hill regions, where the water is not so deep, there are a
number of instances of small plots irrigated with water obtaineil
from a well. On the red-beds plain there is less irrigation by thi?
means, partly because the gypsum water is not suitable for irrigation,
but chiefly because the need of irrigation is not realized.
I
z
o
z
o
-J
z
o
o
o
o
X
(A
WATER CONDITIONS. 49
FUTURE OF IRRIGATION.
Taking into account the local facts it seems very doubtful if there
will ever be any extensive irrigation in the region under discussion.
The supply of water is not sufficient for this purpose except along
the larger streams, where the conditions are such that dams can not
be constructed. Small streams, springs, artificial ponds, and wells
supply water for limited irrigation, sufficient often to raise vegetables
and fruit for a family, but not more. As time goes on and the region
is more thickly settled, these small plants will increase in number.
There is little to warrant the hope that the water supply in the Pan-
handle will ever increase, and unless some more efficient means than
the ordinary windmill be secured to lift the water from deep wells
to the surface it is extremely improbable that anything like extensive
works can ever be installed. On the other hand, it is obvious that
only a very small part of the available water is now being utilized.
It is possible that the future will witness in this region thousands of
small pumping plants, each capable of supplying sufficient water to
irrigate a garden and an orchard.
WATER CONDITIONS BY COUNTIES, a
LIPSCOMB COUNTY.
Topography. — ^Lipscomb County is in the northeastern corner of
the Panhandle. Its surface is a level plain trenched from west to
east through the middle by the valley of Wolf Creek. This valley
is like a great sloping groove, 250 feet below the level of the High
Plains at the west line of the county and 500 feet below at the east
line. The High Plain along the northern line of the county is being
cut into by branches of Beaver Creek. Wolf Creek Valley separates
the county into two areas of plains, one forming the table-land be-
tween Wolf Creek and Beaver Creek drainage basins, the other lying
between Wolf Creek and Canadian River. Sand hills are present in
the northeastern part of the county and between Wolf Creek and the
southern line.
Geology. — The rocks of the surface in Lipscomb County are en-
« There are no Federal public lands In Texas. This State, when it came into the
Union by annexation, retained Its public lands, nnd the general system of township and
range lines, by which the lands of the greater part of the ITnited States are surveyed, Is
not employed. No regular section lines exist, but various-sized tracts are laid off,
usually In blocks of square miles as they were selected by the land-grant railroads or
purchased by individuals. Some of the earliest surveys employed the Spanish vara,
which equals 33.38o inches (1,897.7-1- varas equal 1 mile). With such a system of sur-
vey the roads are irregularly distributed, no correction Hues exist, and the location of
points by township and range is Impossible. In the eastern part of the Panhandle, how-
ever, the counties are uniformly 30 miles square, each containing 900 square miles, a
condition which tends to obviate much of the difficulty otherwise encountered in attempt-
ing to map the region.
50 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
tirely of Tertiary and Quaternary age. Gray sandstones and cla\>
predominate and form conspicuous bluffs along the larger stream?.
Wat€7' supply. — The two largest streams in the county are Wolf
Creek and its tributary Mammoth Creek. Wolf Creek enters from
Ochiltree County near the center of the west line of the county anil
flows directly east; Mammoth Creek rises in the northwest part of
the county and flows southeast, joining Wolf Creek in Oklahoma a
few miles east of the Stat« line. These creeks, as well as a niimWr
of other smaller tributaries of Wolf Creek, are spring fed. but ii.
their lower courses flow through sand-choked beds. Ordinarily the
amount of water is small, flowing but 1 or 2 second-feet, and at pla<e>
entirely disappearing under the sand. The streams are subject lo
sudden rises of a few hours' duration, at which time the creeks flow
several hundred second-feet. In this county the drainage is so well
developed that few lakes exist on the High Plains. Lipscomb ha>
the reputation among cattle men of being the best watered county in
the Panhandle. The sand strata, both that of the Tertiary and in
the sand-hill regions, furnishes an abundance of good water, issuing
in the form of numerous springs, w^hich reach the surface along th*^
streams. Although their flow is seldom large, these springs are con
stant in volume and usually perennial in their character. The mvlUt
is pure and wholesome and almost always free from notable amount<
of salts. It is these springs which feed the numerous tributaries <>f
Wolf Creek and render the water so abundant in the county.
Wells on the uplands in the county range from 130 to 333 feet in
depth, wnth an average of 150 feet. In the valleys a maximum
depth of 50 feet usually secures an abundance of water, but along
Wolf Creek and some of the smaller streams many of the best wellb
are not more than 20 feet deep. * Of the well records seciu^d in Lip>-
comb County, the average depth was 121 feet.
OCHILTREE COUNTY.
Topography, — Ochiltree County is in the northern part of this
region, lying almost wholly on the High Plains and having uniform
plains topography. Near the center it is trenched by the head
branches of Wolf Creek, in a valley which gradually deepens to the
east. Some of the small side branches of Canadian River which head
in the southern part of this region are actively eroding the plains,
forming rugged breaks. A few of the small branches of Beaver
Creek, which head in extreme northern Ochiltree County, have caustnl
but little erosion.
Geology, — The rocks are entirely Tertiary and Quaternary, and.
with the exception of the regions of the breaks near the streams, the
surface is flat. Along the bluffs there are ledges of Tertiary clay and
?and.
WATER CONDITIONS. 51
Water supply, — ^There are two drainage systems in this county.
The eastern portion is drained by Wolf Creek, which has its source
in the central part of the county, where it is a small fresh-water
s^tream, fed by perennial springs, and flows through a wide gorge
in the Tertiary rocks. Canadian River drains the southern portion,
iiTid branches of this stream, which have their origin in Tertiary
jsprings along the breaks, flow south into Roberts County. A few
minor branches of Beaver Creek drain the northern part.
The High Plains surface is entirely without drainage, and shallow
lakes are abundant and often of relatively large size, sometimes cov-
ei-ing 100 acres or more. Ochiltree County has an abundance of good
well water, but ordinarily it is found at a considerable depth. In
t he southern part of the county, near the breaks, the depth to water
exceeds 400 feet, while farther north water is obtained in abundance
from 150 to 300 feet. In the Wolf Creek Valley the wells are shal-
low, many of them finding good water at 50 to 100 feet. The average
depth of twenty-four wells in Ochiltree County is 245 feet.
HANSFORD COUNTY.
Topography. — Hansford County is in the northwestern part of the
region to which this report relates. It includes a portion of the
High Plains, trenched by two streams, Palo Duro Creek, which rises
in the extreme southwestern portion of the county and passes into
Oklahoma near the northeast corner, and Coldwater Creek, also
known as Rabbit Ear Creek, which enters the county near the center
of the west line and flows across the northwest corner, passing into
Beaver County, Okla. The greater portion of the county retains its
original plains features, while a lesser part consists of valleys and
breaks. The entire county presents a gradual slope to the east. The
highest point in this part of the Panhandle is attained in this county,
just south of the center, along the west line — an altitude of 3,750 feet.
Geology. — Nearly all of the surface rocks of Hansford County are
of Tertiary and Quaternary age. In the extreme northeast corner
Palo Duro Creek has cut through the Tertiary and exposes the under-
lying red beds. Along Coldwater and Palo Duro creeks bluffs of
hard Tertiary rocks occur, but for the most part nothing appears on
the surface except ledges of soft Tertiary marl exposed along prairie
draws.
Water supply. — With the exception of a small portion at the
south which drains into Canadian River, all the waters of this county
find their way into the Beaver Creek drainage system. Palo Duro
Creek is a small stream which rises in the southwestern part of the
county, and gi'adually deepens its valley in its passage northeast
until at the county line it has attained a depth of approximately
300 feet below the level of the High Plains. Its numerous lateral
52 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
branches receive the drainage from a considerable area, and at time-
of heavy rains these discharge their waters into a main trunk, which
for a short time becomes a torrent. In its central and lower course
there are fertile valleys which afford good farming land^ especially
adapted to alfalfa culture. Several small irrigation works havo
been constructed along the lower part of Palo Duro Creek. Th*-
difficulty in maintaining these plants is that the dams, built nf
rough stone uncemented, wash out in times of freshets. Coldwat^r
Creek crosses the northwest corner of the county, entering fron-
Sherman County, Tex., and passing northeast into Beaver Countv.
Okla. It is a small stream flowing through a well-developed gorgy.
Lakes similar to those in other parts of the region occur upon the
High Plains. Hansford County has an abundance of good well
water at depths varying on the High Plains from 190 to 300 feet, and
rarely does a well fail to encounter an ample supply. In the valley-
springs occur, the water from which is like water from the Tertiary
beds, pure and wholesome. The average depth of thirteen wells in
this county is 235 feet.
HUTCHINSON CX)UNTY.
Topography. — Hutchinson County lies in the western part of the
region to which this report relates. The surface of its northern part
is High Plains. The central and southern part is occupied by the
canyon of Canadian River and the breaks on either side formed by
short tributary creeks.
Geology. — Along Canadian River and along the small streams
flowing into it in the central and southwestern part of the county
there are extensive exposures of Permian red beds, consisting of
red clays and shales with interbedded dolomite and gypsum members.
These rocks have been provisionally referred to the Quartermaster
formation. The remainder of the county is composed of typical
Tertiary and Quaternary deposits, the former being exposed a^
bluffs along the streams and the latter as sand hills and alluvium.
Watrr supply. — The entire drainage of this county flows into
Canadian River, which crosses the county from southwest to north-
east. On the north side there are several small streams, the chief
of which are Kit Carson and Coldwater creeks, while from the south
flow AMiite Deer, Spring, Bear, Dixon, and Antelope creeks. Thu^
the greater part of Hutchinson County is well drained. It has an
abundance of good water, and, wuth the exception of some wells in
the Canadian Valley and in its tributary creeks, which find their
supply in the red beds, the water is wholesome and free from injurious
salts. West from Plemons a number of strong springs occur at the
line of contact between the red beds and the Tertiary. On the
WATER CONDITIONS. 58
High Plains water is obtained at depths ranging from 136 to 320
feet, and in the valleys at less than 20 feet. The well records col-
lected show an average depth of 243 feet.
ROBERTS COUNTY.
Topography. — Roberts County lies in the north central part of the
I'egion embraced in this report. The surface of the southern portion
is High Plains trenched to the east by the gorge of Red Deer Creek.
The northern portion is occupied by the valley of Canadian River,
with its broad flood plain bordered by a region of breaks on either
side. The breaks are so extensively dissected by the smaller stream
canyons that the northern portion of Roberts County is one of the
most rugged localities in the Panhandle.
Geology, — The surface rocks are mostly of Tertiary age, with the
usual sand hills along the streams. In the northwestern portion of
the county Canadian River has cut down into the red beds which
are exposed in the bluffs along the north bank. Alluvium deposits
occur along this river and its tributaries.
Water supply. — The drainage belongs entirely to the Canadian
River system. This river flows through a broad flood plain occu-
pied occasionally by low sandy marshes. The waters of a consider-
able portion of this country reach the river by parallel streams
rising in the south central part and flowing north. Few streams
enter from the north side, and those which do are short, steep, and
intermittent. Red Deer Creek, a tributary of Canadian River, rises
In the southern portion of the county and flows northeast into
Hemphill County. Ordinarily this stream has no surface flow, but
it becomes a raging torrent when there are sudden storms about its
head. Tertiary springs occur along the breaks and canyons and sup-
ply a number of small creeks. Wells in the High Plains area are
150 to 350 feet deep, and in the valleys water is obtained at from 0 to
20 feet.
HEMPHILL COUNTY.
Topography. — ^Hemphill County is in the eastern portion of the
Panhandle. Its topography is varied, for Washita River rises in the
southwestern comer and its northern portion is crossed by Cana-
dian River. These two river systems have removed practically all
of the original High Plains level and reduced the region to broad
valleys with undulating surfaces between. Along Canadian River is
a wide, sandy flood plain, occupied by sand hills in scattered areas.
Sand hills also occur in the north, central, and eastern parts of the
county.
Geology. — The rocks are chiefly Tertiary deposits, sand hills, and
wash. Small areas of red beds are exposed along the Canadian and
54 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
Washita rivers in the eastern portion of tlie county. Along th»-
streams there are bluffs and outliers of white Tertiary rockj>, hut
the greater part of the county consists of rugged breaks and undu-
lating sand hills.
Wafe?* supply. — The drainage system is well developed. The water
from more than half of this county finds its way into Canadian
River through a number of short, swift streams, many of which an*
j3erennial, having their source in Tertiary springs. The southern
portion of the county is drained by Washita River, a stream which
In^comes a prominent river in Oklahoma, but is onl}- a small creek ifi
ihe Panhandle. Its w^ater, being derived from the Tertiary springs.
is fresh and free from the injurious salts so common in the large
rivers. Springs are not uncommon in this county, and the water
obtained from lK)th springs and wells is almost uniformly soft. an<l
pure. The depth at which water is found in Hemphill County varie-
greatly. In the north, south, and southwest the Tertiary beds of the
High Plains furnish fresh water at depths ranging from 100 to 335
feet. In the northern sand-hill regions water occurs at depths of 7r>
to 150 feet. In Canadian and Washita valleys wells are less than :^<)
fcfet deep. Records of nineteen wells at various places in this county
show an average depth of 94 feet.
WHEELER COUNTY,
Topography, — Wheeler County lies in the eastern part of the Pan-
handle. The surface is a part of the eroded plains, except small
areas in the northwest and southwest. The region is a rolling plain
dissected by two principal streams — Sweetwater Creek and Xorth
Fork of Red River — with their tributaries. There are extensive
sand-hill regions, one of which, 5 to 10 miles in width, and being
widest near the center of the county, extends along the south side of
Sweetwater Creek almost the entire length of the county. An area
of very prominent sand dunes occupies part of the northeastern cor-
ner of the county. The hills are mostly low ridges from one-eighth
of a mile to 1 mile long and 10 to 20 feet high. Broken ridges and
knolls occur everywhere and blow-outs are common. A third sand-
hill region is found in the southwestern part of the county, between
North Fork and the headwaters of Elm Fork, and a fourth region i^
in the extreme southeastern part.
Geohxjy, — Red beds belonging to the Greer and Quartermaster
formations appear along North Fork of Red River and the branches
of Elm Fork in the southern part of the county. Gypsum, dolomite,
and red shales of the Greer formation and the red sandy shales and
thin sandstones of the Quartermaster formation may be seen in the
vicinity of Shamrock, and red bluffs outcrop along the north side
of North Fork entirely across the county. The greater part of the
WATER CONDITIONS. 55
i^urfpce rocks, however, consist of sand derived from the Tertiary
dcpenits and of alluvium along the valleys.
Water nupply. — The drainage of this county is through three
streams, Sweetwater Creek and North Fork and ¥Am Fork of Red
River. The first named, farthest to the north, is a small perennial
stream which rises just beyond the limits of the county and in the
eastern part was formerly used to some small extent for irrigation.
North Fork of Red River crosses this county from west to east a
little south of the center. Ordinarily it is a small stream flowing
ill a sand-choked bed and receives no important tributaries in this
county. The waters of tbis river are highly impregnated with cal-
cium sulphate and sodium chloride. The extreme southern part of
the county drains to Elm Fork of Red River. As might be ex-
pected in a region of sand hills, there are in A^Tieeler Coimty a num-
ber of fine springs. Six miles southwest of Mobeetie is Anderson's
si>ring, which boils up out of the sand and runs off down a little
canyon. It is one of the strongest springs in the Panhandle and
flows perhaps 1 second-foot. It is said to be artesian in character
and the water if confined will rise 15 feet. Other noted springs in
the county are Nasby Spring (which fills a 3-inch pipe), Broncho
Spring, and Stanley Spring (both of which have a very strong flow).
Well water from the Tertiary and sand hills is obtained through the
greater part of the county at depths of 80 to 200 feet. In the red-
beds region, in the southern part, wells are not so deep, rarely ex-
(!eeding 50 feet, and the water is usually not good, containing a
considerable percentage of mineral salts. Records of nineteen wells
in this county show an average of 71 feet.
GRAY COUNTY.
Topography, — ^Gray County occupies the south central part of the
region here discussed. The surface is a portion of the High Plains
cut into by two streams — North Fork of Red River, which flows
through a gorge crossing the county from west to east, and Mc-
Clellan Creek, flowing in a similar gorge from southwest to north-
east, joining North Fork near the eastern line of the county. Wide
breaks border the gorge of these two principal streams.
• Geology. — With the exception of a small area of red beds near the
mouth of McCellan Creek along the eastern line, the rocks of Gray
County are entirely Tertiary and Quaternary. High white cliffs
are exposed along the edges of the High Plains, and along the breaks
and streams there are alluvial deposits and sand hills.
Water supply, — The greater part of the drainage is through North
Fork of Red River and McClellan Creek. The former stream, which
rises in Carson County just west of the Gray County line and flows
east, drains only a limited region at the south through a few short
56 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
tributaries, none of which are more than 5 miles in length. Thp
southern portion of the county is drained by McClellan Creek, •
branch of North Fork, which rises west of the south central part .f
the county. Springs from the Tertiary and sand hills occur in i
number of places along the streams. Many are from small se**i-,
but several have an estimated flow of 40 gallons per minute. On ih*-
plains good water is obtained at depths ranging from 100 to 280 ft- 1.
In the valleys depths to water do not exceed 35 feet. Along North
Fork in the eastern part of the county a few wells afford g^'psiini
water; otherwise the supply in this county is pure and wholessoni^*.
Records of eleven wells show an average depth of 166 feet.
OABSON COUNTY.
Topography. — Carson County lies in the western part of X\\v
region. With the exception of Ochiltree County, Carson contain^
a larger proportion of the High Plains than any other county herp
described. The northern part is dissected by tributaries of Cana-
dian River and a very small portion of the eastern part is occupied bv
the headwaters of Salt Fork of Red River. With these exception>
its surface is the uniform level of the High Plains, dotted at interval
by shallow lakes.
Geology. — In the extreme northwestern portion of the county alon^j
the canyons of Antelope and Dixon creeks, tributaries of Canadian
River, there are exposures of the red beds, consisting of red clays ani-
shales with ledges of gypsimi and dolomite. With this minor excep-
tion, the rocks are Tertiary and Quaternary. Along the breaks high
Tertiary cliffs are present, but the flat, upland Tertiary constitutes
the greater part of the rocks of the county.
Water supply. — The drainage of Carson County is into two sys-
tems, Canadian River and Red River, between which is a great flat
table-land divide. The former stream receives the water fi-om the
northern part of the county through a number of creeks — ^the most
important being White Deer, Spring, Dixon, and Antelope — ^all of
which have their rise near the central line of the county and flo\^
north. The headwaters of Salt Fork of Red River occupy a few
square miles in the southwestern part of the county. Most of thi>
county, however, has no drainage other than that which finds its way
into the shallow lakes on the level upland and disappears by seepage
and evaporation.
In the southern part of Carson County the water table seems to be
very deep, for while a few wells secure permanent flows at depths of
less than 250 feet, many of them are obliged to penetrate 400 to 4.>0
feet for an adequate supply ; but water when found is both abundant
and pure. Among the breaks and along the creeks in the northern
WATER CONDITIONS. 57
part of the county the wells range from 50 to 200 feet. Few springs
occur, those which are found being near the base of the Tertiary
in the northwestern part of the county.
ARMSTRONG COUNTY.
Topography. — Armstrong county is in the southwestern part of the
region. It is a level plain cut by three canyons trending southeast.
The central and northwestern part of the county has the uniform
5^iirface of the High Plains. The northeastern portion is trenched by
the upper course of Salt Fork of Red River, which has its source near
the center of the north line of the county. Mulberry Creek Canyon
crosses the county from northwest to southeast. In the southwestern
portion is Palo Duro Canyon, through which flows Prairie Dog Fork
of Red River. Twenty-five miles of this gorge, 875 feet deep and
5 miles wide, lies in Armstrong County. The sides of the canyon
are frequently precipitous and exhibit typical banded structure so
rough that the canyon is passable by wagon only along selected routes.
Geology. — The best geological sections obtainable in the Panhandle
are found along Palo Duro Canyon in Armstrong County, where all
the formations discussed in this report are exposed. The Greer
and Quartermaster formations of the Permian red beds are particu-
larly well exposed in this canyon. The Dockum formation outcrops
halfway up the escarpment, and Tertiary clays, sand, and conglomer-
ate lie along the upper part of the bluffs. The level upland in other
parts of the county exhibits the ordinary Tertiary and Quaternary
rocks.
Water supply. — Northeastern Armstrong County is drained by the
lieadwaters of Salt Fork of Red River, and Mulberry Creek receives
the drainage from the central and southeastern parts of the county.
Prairie Dog Fork of Red River in Palo Duro Canyon, in the
southwestern part, has no large tributaries in the county, and al-
though it flows through a great canyon the stream itself ordinarily
has little or no surface flow, but, like other streams of the plains, is
^ubject to rapid rises after heavy rains near its head. The drainage
of a large portion of the county is undeveloped, and the shallow lakes
which occur at frequent intervals often reach considerable size.
Springs are not common, but a few are found at the base of the Ter-
tiary and among the red beds. On the High Plains water is obtained
in abundance in wells ranging in depth from 120 to 320 feet. Few
wells have been sunk in the red beds, but those that have been dug
usually find water of rather poor quality at depths ranging from 20
to 100 feet. Records of eighteen wells in Armstrong County show
an average depth of 207 feet.
58 EASTERN PANHANDLE OF TEXAS.
DONLEY COUNTY.
Topography, — Donley County lies in the southern part of tip
region. The northern and western portions are level High Plain-.
On the eroded plains which occupy the eastern and southern part? of
the county the surface is rolling and dissected by many streams.
Even on the High Plains the streams occupy well-marked courses ixiw
have so dissected the surface that only in a few instances is the uf>-
land sufficiently level to i)erniit the water to collect in lakes. 7Ti»^
western extension of the sand-hill region, which crosses Collingsworth
County south of Salt Fork of Red River, finds its terminus in the es-
carpment at the base of the High Plains in Donley County.
Geology. — Both red beds and Tertiary rocks are exposed in Donler
County. The red beds, including both the Greer and Quartermaj-ter
formations, outcrop along the streams, particularly along North
Fork of Red River in the region northeast of the center of the
county and along Mulberry Creek in the southwestern part. Alon^
the latter stream the Dockum beds occur. Tertiary rocks c*onsti-
tute the High Plains in the northern and western parts of the county;
while the sand hills derived largely from Tertiary deposits occupy
considerable areas in the central and southern portions. AUuWun.
is found along the stream valleys.
Water supply, — The drainage of the county is through two branclu-^
of Red River — Salt Fork, which crosses the county, and several
smaller branches of Prairie Dog Fork, which rise in the county
and flow south. Salt Fork flows almost due east across the center of
the county. It is a small stream with a sand-choked bed and a flow
of but a few second-feet, the water l)eing free from disagreeable salt>.
The southern part of Donley County is drained by the branches of
Salt Fork, the chief of which is Mull)erry Creek, rising in Armstroiiir
County and flowing across the southwest corner of Donley County.
It is an ordinary stream of the plains, with a wide, sand-choke<l
channel and ordinarily little water, but at times of heavy rainfall it
assumes the proportions of a river. Springs are found in both tlu'
sand-hill regions and among the red beds. On the High Plains ami
in the escarpment region wells are from 40 to 250 feet deep. In th«*
valleys and lower portions of the county water is obtained at 20 to 1»m
feet. The Tertiary and sand-hill water is good, while that foimd in
the red beds is usually bad. Records from thirty wells show an aver-
age depth of 152 feet.
WATER CONDITIONS. 59
COLLINGSWORTH COUNTY.
Topography, — Collingsworth County forms the southeastern por-
t ion of the region here discussed. This county, which is almost
^v" holly in the eroded plains, presents the most diverse topography of
sxll here described. It is trenched from northwest to southeast by
1 liree stream systems — Elm and Salt forks of Red River, and Spillers
CT'reek, a branch of Prairie Dog Fork. Just west of the center and
c*xtending entirely across the county, trending slightly west of south,
ai re the Dozier Mounds, composed of hard ledges of sandstone under-
lain by stratified clays, shales, and sandstones. In the southwestern
c-orner of the county these hills are deeply dissected by streams, ren-
<lering the region very rugged. On the south side of Salt Fork is a
^^and-hill region ranging from 2 to 9 miles in width, extending from
northwest to southeast entirely across the county.
Geology, — The greater part of the rocks of Collingsworth County
l>elong to the Greer and Quartermaster formations of the red beds.
Along the various streams ledges of gypsum and dolomite outcrop,
while at a higher level soft sandstones occur. The extreme north-
western part of the county is in the escarpment region, and Tertiary
and Quaternary sand hills appear south of Salt Fork of Red River.
^Vater supply. — Elm Fork of Red River rises in the northwestern
portion of the county and flows southeast, leaving the county 9 miles
from the northern limit, thus draining the entire northern portion.
Salt Fork of Red River crosses the county from west to east in a tor-
tuous course near its center and drains the middle portion of the
t'ounty. Spillers Creek, a branch of Prairie Dog Fork of Red River,
lias its source in Donley County and flows southeast across Collings-
worth, draining the southwestern part. Except in the sand-hill
regions south of Salt Fork, good water is difficult* to obtain for the
reason that the county is underlain by red beds, which contain large
quantities of gypsum and other mineral salts. There are a number of
springs of good water among the sand hills. Springs occur in the
red beds also, but the water often contains salt or gypsum and is not
suitable for general domestic use. Wells in the sand hills are 10 to
220 feet in depth and in the red Iwds 40 to 190 feet. Records from
twenty wells in Collingsworth County show an average depth of 105
feet.
iRR 154—06 5
INDEX.
A, Fage.
Adams, G. I., on red beds 17
AUorifima sp., occurrence of 23
Alluvium 1
occurrence and character of 12), 30-31
Anderson's spring, location of 55
Antelope Butte, location of 23
Antelope Creek, rocks on 21-22, 56
sectionon 22
Antelope Hills, location of 10
Arikaree formation, equivalente of 25
Arkansas River, underflow on 34
Armstrong County, area and location of . . . 7
lakes in 57
rocks in 20,22-23,57
section In H
springs in 39
topogrephy of 8. 10, 12-13, 57
water resources of 57
wells of, depth of •. 35, 57
Aviculopecten sp., occurrence of 28
B.
Banded gypsum structure, view showing. . . 12
Beaver Creek, drainage of 49-52
Beede, J. W., fossils identified by 23
Bibliography of Tertiary and Quatemar>'
formations 24
Blaine formation, occurrence and charac-
ter of 1&-16
Blanco formation, fossils from 26
occurrence and character of 13, 25-26
Breaks, The. See Escarpment.
Briscoe County, rocks in 23
Broncho Spring, location of 55
Buffalo wallows, occurrence of 35
view of 44
C.
Canadian River, alluvium on 31 '
character and course of 9-11,42-43 I
drainageot 52-53,56 ,
reconnaissance on 7 ,
rocks on 21-22
sand hills on, view of 12 i
tributaries of 41-43
irrlgalion from 47-48 |
valley of, character of 1 1, 42-43
wells along, depth of 36, M I
Capulus (Lepetopsis) sp., occurrence of 23 l
Carboniferous rocks. See Permian rocks. |
Carson County, area and location of 7
rocksln 21-22,66 |
topography of 8, 12, 66 i
water supply of 56-57 '
wells In, depth of 35,57 i
Cedartop gypsum member, segregation of . . is '
Page.
Chandler, rocks near 15
Chaney gypsum member, segregation of . . . 18
Childress, well at 38
Clarendon, rocks near 21-22
Claude, orchard and garden at, view of 46
section near 14
Clay, water from 82
Clear Fork beds, equivalents of 17
Coldwater Creek, character and course of . . 13,
41,51-^2
erosion by 9
Collingsworth County, area and location of. 7
rocks in *. 18,20,22,59
sand hills in 30
springNin 89
topography of 10-13, f»9
water resources of 59
wells of, depth of 59
Collingsworth gypsum member, segrega-
tion of 18
Cope, E. D., fossils found by 24, 27
on Tule formation 27
Counties in area discussed. list of 7
Cragin, F. W., on red beds 17
Cretaceous fossi Ig, occurrence of 29
Crops, character of 46
Cummins, W. F., on Goodnight formation. '26-28
on Loup Fork formation 25-26
on red beds 17, 23
on Tertiary and Quaternary rocks 25
on Tule formation 26
D.
Dall, W. D., on Goodnight formation 26
Darton, N. H., on High Plains rocks 25
Dielasma sp., occurrence of ., 23
Dixon Creek, rocks on 22, 56
Dockum formation, divisions of 2:{
erosion of, view of 24
fossils of 21
occurrence and characterof . 13-16, 23-24, 57-58
relations of Quartermaster and 23-24
sandstone member of, view of 22, 24
springs Irom 39
Donley County, area and location of 7
rocksm '20,-22,58
sand hills of 30
springs in 39
topography of 8, 1 1 . .18
water resources of 58
wel Is in, depth of 58
Double Mountain beds, equi valentM of 17
Dozier, rocks near 20, 22-2:1
Dozier Mounds, location of 10, 23. 59
Drainage, of eroded plains 40-45
of High Plains 8-9,46-46
See also individual rouulirs.
Drake, N. F., on red beds 23
61
62
INDEX.
!•:.
Page.
23
Edmonia sp., occurrence of
Elm Fork of Red River, drainage of 41, 69
erosion by 9
rocks on 20
section on, diagram showing 19
springs along 38
valley of, character of 12
Enid formation, occurrence and character
of 15
Equus beds. See Tule formation.
Eroded plains, character of 10-11
drainage of 41-45
Escarpment, character of 9-10
view of 28
Evaporation, extent of 9
F.
Field work, character of 7
Flat Top, location of 10
Fluvlatile theory of origin of Great Plains
Tertiary 28,33
Fort Reno, Okla., well at 38
Fossils, occurrence of 23-24. 27, 29
G.
Geology of area discussed 13-31
See also individual counties.
Goodnight formation, fossils from 26
name of 26
occurrence and character of 13, 25-26
Gray Ctounty, area and location of 7
rocks of 55
springs in 56
topography of 8,12-13,65
water resources of 55-56
wells in, depth of 36,56
Greer formation, cave in, spring from, view
of 18
members of i . 18
occurrence and character of . 13-21,57-59
section of, diagram showing 19
sink holes In 18-20
springs from 39
water from 32
Groom, well at 35
Gry phcea sp., occurrence of 29
" Gyp " water, occurrence of 31
Gypsum, occurrence of. In red-beds waters. 31-32
Gypsum caves, view of 18
Gypsum ledges, view of 12
undermining of, view of 20
Gypsum springs, occurrence and character
of 32
H.
Hall County, top<»graphy of..
Hansford County, altitudes in
area and location of
irrigation in
lakes in
rocks in
topography of
water supply of
wells in, depth of
Haworth, E., on Kan.siis Tertiary
Hay, Robert, on Kansas geology
... 8,13,
10
51
7
47,52
52
51
41,51
51-52
ai. 52
28
27-2S
Hayistack gypsum member, segregation of. !•
Hemphill County, area and location of 7
rocks of vj-'4
sand hills of ,*»
topography of K 11,13.:*"?
water resources of M
wellsof, depth of >i
High Plains, artesian water of 37->
character of S-lO.si--
drainage on Jv-S.I'i-i-.
erosion on ••-!?
evaporation on ivV.-
lakes on ILx 4->-i^
location of, map showing i**
view of U
map of 10
precipitation on v.
rocks of r*
section of, showing water level Si
streams on 9
topograph y of ^ I '■>
modification of
water of 33-M
water table of, depth of S*.
wells on, depth of SS.*^
Hills, location and character of y
Hogback Butte, location of 23
Hhtchiuson County, area and location of . . 7
rocks in •2l-*l.'-*l
topography of 5*. n. vj
water supply of .vj-iS
wellsof, depth of v;
I.
Irrigation, need of «
possibilities of ¥y-i)
J.
Jacob's well, view of *•.
Johnson, W. D., on High Plains 2>, 3r*-3^, i5
K.
Kiger division, equivalents of it
Kirk, C. T.. work of 7
Kiser gypsum member, segregation of l *
Kit Carson Creek, character of 13
L.
Lacustrine theory of Great Plains Tertiarj-. 27->
Lakes, formation and character of 35, 4.>-4<^
influence of, on settlement 4».
location of, map showing i>
view of 44
Lakes, playa, formation of *w9
Land subdivision in Texas, character of . . . 49
Larkin, Pierce, work of 7
Leiopteria sp., occurrence of 'Z>
I^pctopsis sp. , occurrence of
Lipscomb County, area and lo(>ation of
rocks of 4»-'<»
sand hills of A"
springs of bi>
topography of 8-9.11. 13.4V
water supply of -t")
wellsof, depth of 3^*1. V)
Llano Estacado. See Staked Plain.
Umg, C. A., work of 7
INDEX.
63
Page.
Loup Fork formation, occurrence and
character of l:?. 25-26
Loxonema sp., occurrence of 23
M.
McCIellan Crock, character of 13
drainage of 44,5.^-56
Mammoth Creek, character and coumo of. . 13, 50
irrigation from 47
Mangum dolomite member, segregation of. 18
Map of High Plains 10
of High Plains, showing location of
lakes 48
of Texas Panhandle and vicinity 7
Map, geologic, of area discussed 14
Marsli, O. C, on Great Plains Tertiary 27
Memphis, rocks near 22-23
Miami, freshet at, view of 42
Mobeetie, springs near 65
Mortar beds, equivalents of 25
Mulberry Creek, canyon of, character of . . . 67
character of 13
drainage of 44-45, 57-58
erosion by 9
rocks on 20-21, 26
section on 15
Mulock, irrigation near 47
Murchisonia sp., occurrence of 23
N.
Nasby Spring, location of 55
North Fork of Canadian River, tributaries
of 41
North Fork of Red River, alluvium on 31
character and course of 43-44
drainage of , 41,54-56
erosion by 9
tributaries of 43
valley of, character of 12
O.
Ochiltree, windmill and tank at. view of . . 36
Ochiltree County, area and location of 7
rocks of 50
topography of 8, 12, 50
water resources of 51
wells of, depth of :i6, 51
Ogalalla formation, equivalents of 25
Oklahoma, Greer County, rocks in 18
Greer County, springs in 38-39
topography of 12
red beds in, divisions of 15-17
section of, diagram showing 16
Roger Mills County—
topographyof 12
wells in :«
Oklahoma City, Okla., well at 38
P.
Palo Duro beds, equivalent of 26
Palo Duro Canyon, character of d-10, 12, 44-45
erosion In, view of 20
rocks In 20-23,57
sections in 14-15, 57
views in 20, 22, 28
weathering in, view of 28
Palo Duro Creek, character and course of . . 13,
41-42,51-52
Page.
Palo Duro Creek, erosion by 9,52
irrigation on 47,62
Panhandle, mapof 7
portion of discussed, area and k)cation
of 7-8
geologic map of 14
geology of 13-31
topography of 8-13
water resources of 31-59
Permian rocks, divisions of 15,17
occurrence and character of 13-23
See cUso Red beds.
Pleistocene rocks; erosion of 10
Plemons, rocks near 21
springs near 62
Pleurophorus sp., occurrence of 23
Pleurptomarla sp., occurrence of 23
Poesum Peaks, location of 23
Prairie Dog Fork of Red River, character
and course of 44-45
drainage of 41,67
rocks on 20
springs along 38-39
valley of, character of 12
wells along, depth of 35
Precipitation, amount of 85.46
Public lands, nonexistence of, in Texas 49
Q.
Quartermaster formation, erosion of, view
of 20
fossils in 23
hills due to 22-23
name of 21
occurrence and character of 13-17, 21-23,
57^9
relations of Dockum and 22-23
springs in 39
water from 31-32
Quaternary rocks, bibliography of 24
character of 29
formation of, divisions of 27
occurrence and character of 13, 22, 25-31
stratigraphy of 24-27
R.
Rabbit Ear Creek. See Coldwater Creek.
Rabbit Ear Mountains, location of 41
Ragged Top, locationof 23
Range, Okla., irrigation at 47
Red beds, occurrence and character of 13
sand from '. U
water from ; 31 -;«, 38
See also Permian rocks.
Red Deer Creek, character and course of. 13, 43,58
flood on 43
views of 42
Red River, branches of, character of 9, 41
branches of, irrigation from 47
Reeds, C. A., work of 7
River plains, character of 11-18
Roberts County, area and location of 7
rocks of 53
topography of 8, 1 1, 63
water supply of 63
wells of, depth of 63
Rocking Chair Mountains, location of . . . 10, 22-23
view of 22
64
INDEX.
Page.
Rocks, hard, scarcity of 47
Rocky MountainB, fwurce of artesian water
in 87-88
S.
Salt Fork divisioD, equivalents of 17
Salt Fork of Red River, alluvium on 81
character and course of 44
drainage of 41,56-57
erosion by 9
rocks on 20-22
springs on 38
valley of, character of 12
Salt springs, occurrence and character of. . 38-39
Salton, Okla., section at, diagram showing . 19
Salts, prevalence of, in red-beds water 31
scarcity of, in Tertiary rocks water — 32
Sand, source of 11
Sand hills, classes of 30
migration of
occurrence and character of . 11, 13, 30, 58-^5, 59
springs from 40
view of .- — 12
water from 81
Saturation, zone of, character of 34
Schizodussp., occurrence of 23
Section, geologic, across northwestern
Texas, figure showing 8
in Palo Duro Canyon 14
Shamrock, rocks near 22-23
Sheet water, character of 83-34
Simpson, C. T., fossils found by 24
Sink holes, occurrence of 18-20
Spillers Creek, character of 18
drainage of 44-45, 59
erosion by 9
rocks on 20
Spring issuing from cave, view of 18
Springs, character and occurrence of 13,
38-40,55-56
irrigation from 47-48
Staked Plains, part of High Plains on 8
rocks of 27
Stanley Spring, location of 55
Storms, water of, storage of 48
Streams, drainage basins of : 40^16
irrigation from 46-47
location and character of 9-11, 41-45
run-oflf of 47
Strophostylus «p. . occurrence of 23
Sweetwater Creek, character and course of. IS, 55
drainage of 44, 54-55
irrigation from 47-18
T.
Tertiary grit, equivalents of 25
Tertiary marl, equivalents of 25
Tertiary rocks, bibliography of 24
character of 13-15,28-30,33
deposition of 27-28, 34
erosion of 10
formations of, divisions of 27
occurrence of 25-31
sand from 11.80
section of. showing water beds 34
springs from 40-41. 53
stratigraphy of 24-27
Phg*.
Tertiary rocks, water from 31-^»
wellsin .>'
Texas, northwestern, sections across, dia-
gram showing "
Topography, character of ^1 .
jSe« alto huiividual counties.
Triaasic rocks, occurrence and character
of l3-15.2S-:-l
Tule Canyon, erosion in, view of -4
fossils from r
rocks in 23
sec tion on !.=>
Tule formation, fossils from T
occurrence and character of IS. 2^-27
Twin Mounds, location of 25
r.
Underflow, character of "o
Unios, occurrence of '^4
W.
Washita River, character of c
dral nage of 41 , :i3-:^
valley of, character of u
wells in >«
Water, artesian, occurrence of JT-J^
Water, underground, annual addition to... ZS-T
movement of St^M
source of S.V3S
Water beds, section of Tertian' showing. . . M
Water resources of area Sl-v»
by counties 4&-''j
Water storage, difficulty of i'
instances of 4n
Water table, position of •
position of, section showing :j'
Weathering. In Palo Duro Canyon, view of. >
Wellington, rocks near r
Wells in red beds, depth of
in Tertiary rocks, depth of av *•»
Wells, irrigation from 4^
records of, source of T
See also individual counties.
Wheeler County, area and location of '
irrigation in 4*
rocks in 22, >*-^'^
sand hills of »
springs in »
topography of lO-l-vM
water resources of v>
wells in, depth of Vi
White Deer Creek, character of l.>
Wichita beds, equivalents of IT
Windmills, character of 36-37
use of :*
views of *'
Wolf Creek, character and course of 42, H>si
erosion by »
irrigation from i'-i'^
tributariesof iJ
valley of. character of 114^
wel Is in •>!
Woodruff, E. G., work of "
Woodward formation, occurrence and char-
acter of 1 >- '"
Worth enopsis sp., occurrence of S
CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY.
[Water-supply Paper No. 154.]
The serial publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1) Annual
Tie ports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5) Mineral
Resources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas of
X'nited States — folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of the United
States — folios thereof. The classes numl^ered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publica-
tion; the others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists may be had
on application.
Most of the above publication.s may be obtained or consulted in the following
Airaya:
1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they
may be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application.
2. A certain number are delivered to Senators and Representatives in Congress, for
distribution.
3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington!,
D. C, from whom they may be had at prices slightly above cost.
4. CJopies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public
libraries in the large cities throughout the United States, where they may be con-
Hulted by those interested.
The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety i)f
sabjectfl, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified
into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, System-
atic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and
physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water stor-
age; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investiga-
tions; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports.
This paper is the eighty-first" in Series B, the twentieth in Series I, and the fifty-first
in Series O, the compete lists of which follow (PP= Professional Paper; B=Bulletin;
WS= Water-Supply Paper) :
SERIES B, DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGY.
B 28. Observations on the junction between the Eastern sandstone and the Keweenaw series on
Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior, by R. D. Irving and T. C. Chamberlln. 188ft. 124 pp.,
17 pis.
B 33. Notes on geology of northern California, by J. S. Diller. 1886. 23 pp. (Out of sUK'k.)
B 39. The upper beaches and deltas of Glacial Lake Agasslz, by Warren Upham. 1887. 84 pp.. 1 pi.
(Out of stock.)
B40. Changes In river courses in Washington Territory due to glaciation, l»y Bailey Willis. 1887.
10 pp., 4 pis. (Out of stock.)
B 45. The present condition of knowledge of the geology of Texas, by R. T. Hill. 1887. 94 pp. (Out
of stock.)
B 53. The geology of Nantucket, by N. S. Shaler. 1889. 55 pp., 10 pis. (Out of stock.) •
B 57. A geological reconnaissance in southwestern Kansas, by Robert Hay. 1890. 49 pp., 2 pis.
B58. The glacial boundary in western Pennsj-lvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana, and Illinois, by G. F.
Wright, with introduction by T. C. Chamberi in. 1890. 112 pp., 8 pis. (Out of stock.)
B 67. The relations of the traps of the Newark system in the New Jersey region, by N. H. Darton.
1890. 82 pp. (Out of stock.)
B IW. Gladation of the Yellowstone Valley north of the Park, by W. H. Weed. 1893. 41 pp., 4 pis.
II SERIES LIST.
B 106. A geological reconnaissance in central Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1893. 1« p|»., l:^ ] •
(Out of stock.)
B 119. A geological reconnaissance in northwest Wyoming, by Q. H. Eldridge. 18M. 72 pp.. 4 ;
B187. The geology of the Fort Riley Military Reservation and vicinity, Kansas, by Robert n-
1896. 36 pp.. 8 pis.
B 144. The moraines of the Missouri Coteau and their attendant deposits, by J. £. Todd. 1".^.. '
pp., 21 pis.
B 158. The moraines of southeastern South Dakota and their attendant depostts, by J. £. Tf
1899. 171 pp., 27 pis.
B 159. The geology of eastern Berkshire County, Massachusetts, by B. K. Emenion. 1899. 139 :•!
9 pis.
B 165. Contributions to the geology of Maine, by H. S. Williams and H. E. Gregory. 1900. T^l p-
14 pis.
WS 70. Geology and water resources of the Patrick and Goshen Hole quadrangles in fc^«n--
Wyoming and western Nebraska, by G. I. Adams. 1902. 50 pp., 11 pis.
B 199. Geology and water resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho, by I. C. Ru.«»?Il. 19inL l/.
pp., 25 pis.
PP 1. Preliminary report on the Ketchikan mining district, Alaska, with an introductory jirt'-hi .:
the geology of southeastern Alaska, by A. H. Brooks. 1902. 120 pp., 2 pis.
PP2. Reconnaissance of the northwestern portion of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, by A. J. i«jl,i-r
1902. 70 pp., 11 pis.
PP3. Geology and petrography of Crater Lake National Park, by J. S. Diller and H. B. PaJuc
1902. 167 pp., 19 pis.
PP 10. Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, .\laska, by way of Dall, KanutI, .\lk^
and Kowak rivers, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1902. 68 pp., 10 pis.
PP 11. Clays of the United States east of the Mississippi River, by Heinrlch Ries. 1903. 298 pp,. 9 pC-.
PP 12. Geology of the Globe copper district, Arizona, by F. L. Ransome. 1903. 168 pp.. 27 pis.
PP13. Drainage modifications in southeastern Ohio and adjacent parts of West Virginia and K-l
tucky, by W. G. Tight. 1908. Ill pp., 17 pis.
B 208. Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel and adjacent portions of C> J-
fornia, byJ. E. Spurr. 1903. 229 pp., 8 pis.
B 209. Geology of Ascutney Mountain, Vermont, by R. A. Daly. 1908. 122 pp., 7 pis.
WS 78. Preliminary report on artesian basins in southwestern Idaho and southeastern Orpcroo, Kt
I.C.Russell. 1903. 51pp. 2 pis.
PP 15. Mineral resources of the Mount Wrangell district, Alaska, by W. C. Mendenhall and f. <
Sehrader. 1908. 71 pp., 10 pis.
PP 17. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hun«ir-J
and third meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. 69 pp., 43 pis.
B 217. Notes on the geology of southwestern Idaho and southeastern Oregon, by I. C. Rna^l. l**i
83 pp., 18 pis.
B 219. The ore deposits of Tonopab, Nevada (preliminary report), by J. E. Spurr. 1908. SI pp.. 1 1 ^
PP 20. A reconnaissance in northern Alaska in 1901, by F. C. Sehrader. 1904. 139 pp., 16 pfe.
PP 21. The geology and ore deposits of the Bisbee quadrangle, Arizona, by F. L. Ransome. l^*i.
168 pp., 29 pis.
WS 90. Geolojry and water resources of part of the lower James River Valley, South Dakota, by J. ¥-
Todd and C. M. Hall. 1904. 47 pp., 23 pla.
PP25. The copper deposits of the Encampment district, Wyoming, by A. C.Spencer. 1904. 107pp.,2f.>
PP 26. Economic resources of northern Black Hills, by J. D. Irving, with chapters by S. F. Emitn-A»
and T. A. Jaggar, jr. 1904. 222 pp., 20 pis.
PP 27. Geological reconnaissance across the Bitterroot Range and the Clearwater Mountains in M^ n
tana and Idaho, by Waldemar Lindgren. 1904. 122 pp., 15 pis.
PP31. Preliminary report on the geology of the Arbuckle and Wichita mountains in Indian Terri-
tory and Oklahoma, by J. A. Taflf, with an appendix on reported ore deposits in the Wit hi:*
Mountains, by H. F. Bain. 1904. 97 pp., 8 pis.
B 235. A geological reconnaissance across the Cascade Range near the forty-ninth parallel, by G. ' '.
Smith and F. C. Calkins. 1904. 103 pp., 4 pis.
B 236. The Porcupine placer district, Alaska, by C. W. Wright. 1904. 35 pp., 10 pis,
B 237. Igneous rocks of the High wood Mountains, Montana, by L. V. Hrsson. 1904. 208 pp., 7 pK
B 2:iM. Economic geology of the lola quadrangle, Kansas, by G. I. Adams, Erasmus Haworth. i^vA
W. R. Crane. 1904. 83 pp., 1 pi.
IT 32. Geology and underground water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Darton. 1**^
433 pp., 72 pis.
WS 110. Contributions to hydrology of etuMtern United States, 1904; M. G. Fuller, geologist in ehatT'
190"). 211 pp., 5 pis.
B 242. Geology of the Hudson Valley between the Hoosic and the Kinderhook, by T. Nelsnn I>»!t
1904. 63 pp.. 3 pis.
PP 34. The Dclavan lobe of the Lake Michigan glacier of the Wisconsin stage of glaciatiun ai 1
aasociatA'd phenomena, by W. C. Alden. 1904. lt>6 pp., 15 pis.
SERIES LIST. Ill
I*F» 36. Geology of the Perry Baaln in Bouthenstern Maine, by G. O. Smith and David White. 1906.
107 pp., 6 pis.
M 248. Cement materials and industry of the United States, by E. C. Eckel. 1905. 396 pp., 15 pis.
li '246. Zinc and lead deposits of northwestern Illinois, by H. *F. Bain. 1904. 56 pp., 5 pis.
» 247. The Fairhaven gold placers of Seward Peninsula, Alaska, by F. H. Mofflt. 1906. 85 pp., 14 pis.
K 249. Limestones of southwestern Pennsylvania, by F. G. Clapp. 1906. 52 pp., 7 pis.
R 2ftO. The petroleum fields of the Pacific coast of Alaska, with an account of the Bering River coal
deposit, by Q. C. Martin. 1906. 64 pp., 7 pis.
H 241. The gold placers of the Fort>inile, Birch Creek, and Fairbanks regions, Alaska, by L. M.
Prindle. 1905. 89 pp., 16 pis.
^VS 1 18. Geology and water resources of a portion of east central Washington, by F. C. Calkins. 1905.
96 pp., 4 pis.
B 252. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of central Oregon, by I. C. Russell.
1905. 138 pp., 24 pis.
F»P 36. The lead, zinc, and fluorspar deposits of western Kentucky, by E. O. Ulrich and W. 8. Tangier
Smith. 1905. 218 pp., 15 pis.
I'P 38. Economic geology of the Bingham mining district of Utah, by J. M. Boutwell, with a chapter
on areal geology, by Arthur Keith, and an introduction on general geology, by S. F. Emmons.
1905. 418 pp., 49 pis.
PP 41. The geology of the central Copper River region, Alaska, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1906. i:33 pp.,
20 pis.
S 254. Report of progress in the geological resurvey of the Cripple Creek district, Colorado, by Walde-
mar Lindgrcn and F. L. Ransome. 1904. 36 pp.
l^ 256. The fluorspar deposits of southern Illinois, by H. Foster Bain. 1905. 75 pp., 6 pis.
B 256. Mineral resources of the Elders Ridge quadrangle, Pennsylvania, by R. W. Stone. 1906.
86 pp., 12 pis.
B 257. Geology and paleontology of the Judith River beds, by T. W. Stianton and J. B. Hatcher, with
a chapter on fossil plants, by F. H. Kuowlton. 1906. 174 pp., 19 pis.
PP 42. Geology of the Tonopah mining district, Nevada, by J. E. Spurr. 1906. 295 pp., 23 pis.
'WS 123. Geology and underground water conditions of the Jornada del Muerto, New Mexico^ by
C. R. Keyes. 1905. 42 pp., 9 pis.
WS 136. Underground waters of Salt River Valley, Arizona, by W. T. Lee. 1905. 194 pp., 24 pis.
PP 43. The copper deposits of CUfton-Morenoi, Arizona, by Waldemar Llndgren. 1906. 375 pp.,
25 pis.
B 265. Geology of the Boulder district, Colorado, by N. M. Fenneman. 1905. 101 pp., 5 pis.
B 21)7. The copper deposits of Missouri, by H. F. Bain and E. O. Ulrich. 1905. 52 pp., 1 pi.
PP 44. Undeiground water resources of Long Island, New York, by A. C. Veatch and others. 1905.
WS 148. Geology and water resources of Oklahoma, by C. N. Gould. 1905. 178 pp., 22 pis.
B 270. The configuration of the rock floor of Greater New York, by W. H. Hobbs. 1906. 96 pp., 5 pis.
B 272. Taconic physiography, by T. M. Dale. 1905. 52 pp., 14 pis.
PP 45. The geography and geology of Alaska, a summary of existing knowledge, by A. H. Brooks,
with a section on climate, by Cleveland Abbe, jr., and a topographic map and description
thereof, by R. M. Goode. 1906.
B 273. The drumlins of southeastern Wisconsin (preliminary paper), by W. C. Alden. 1905. 46 pp.,
9 pis.
PP 46. Geology and underground water resources of northern Louisiana and southern Arkanm-s, by
A. C. Veatch, 1906.
PP 49. Geology and mineral resources of part of the Cumberland Gap coal field, Kentucky, by G. H.
Ashley and L. C. Glenn, in cooperation with the State Geological Department of Kentucky,
C. J. Norwood, curator. 1906.
PP 50. The Montana lobe of the Kewatln ice sheet, by F. H. H. Calhoun. 1906.
B 277. Mineral resources of Kenal Peninsula, Alaska: Gold fields of the Tumagaln Arm region, by
F. H. Moffit, and the coal fields of Kachemak Bay region, by R. W\ Stone. 1906.
WS 154. The geology and water resources of the eastern portion of the Panhandle of Texas, by C. N.
Gould. 1906. 64 pp., 15 pis.
SERIES I— IRRIGATION.
WS 2. Irrigation near Phoenix, Ariz., by A. P. Davis. 1897. 98 pp., 31 pis. and maps. (Out of stock. )
WS 5. Irrigation practice on the Great Plains, by E. B. CowglU. 1897. 89 pp., 11 pis. (Out of stock.)
W8 9. Irrigation near Greeley, Colo., by David Boyd. 1897. 90 pp., 21 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 10. Irrigation in Mesilla Valley, New Mexico, by F. C. Barker 1898. 51 pp., 11 pis. (Outof
stock.)
WS 13. Irrigation systems in Texas, by W. F. Huteon. 1898. 68 pp.. 10 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 17. Irrigation near Bakersfield, Cal., by C. E. Grunsky. 1S98. 96 pp., 16 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 18. Irrigation near Fresno, Cal., by C. E. Grunsky. 1898. 94 pp.. 14 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 19. Irrigation near Merced, Cal., by C. E. Grunsky. 1899. 69 pp., 11 pis. (Out of stock.)
IV SERIES LIST.
WS 23. Water-right problems of Bighorn Mountains, by Elwood Mead. 1899. G2 pp., 7 pis. (Out .<
rtock.)
WS 32. Water resources of Porto Rico, by H. M. Wilson. 1899. 48 pp., 17 pis. and maps. {(Jut *4
stock.)
W8 43. Conveyance of water in irrigation canals, flumes, and pipes, by Samuel Fortier. 1»"H.
86 pp., 15 pis. (Out of stock. )
WS 70. Geology and water resources of the Patrick and Qoehen Hole quadrangles, Wyoming, by 4i. 1.
Adams. 1902. 60 pp., 11 pis.
WS 71. Irrigation systems of Texas, by T. U. Taylor. 1902. 137 pp., 9 pis,
WS 74. Water resources of the State of Colorado, by A. L. Fellows. 1992. 151 pp.. 14 pis.
WS 87. Irrigation in India (second cdiUon), by H. M. Wilson. 1908. 238 pp., 27 pis.
WS 98. Proceedings of first conference of engineers of the reclamation service, with aecctDp^nyizx^
papers, compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. 1904. 361 pp.
WS 117. The lignite of North Dakota and its relation to irrigation, by F. A. Wilder. 19W. .=» pp.
8 pis.
WS 143. Experiments on steel-concrete pipes on a working scale, by J. H. Quinton. 1905. 61 pp., 4 fi^.
WS 146. Proceedings of second conference of engineers of the reclamation service, with accompan; -
ing papers, compiled by F. H. Newell, chief engineer. 1905. 267 pp.
WS 154. The geology and water resources of the eastern portion of the Panhandle of Texas, by C. N
Gould. 1906. 64 pp., 15 pis.
The following papers also relate especially to irrigation: Irrigation in India, by H. M. Wilsm. m
Twelfth Annual, Part II; two papers on irrigation engineering, by H. M. Wilson, in Thirteenih
Annual, Part III.
SERIES O— UNDERGROUND WATERS.
WS 4. A reconnaissance in southeastern Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1897. 96 pp., 7 pK
WS 6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 1887. 65 pp., 12 pltL
WS 7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. 60 pp., 8 pis.
WS 12. Underground waters of southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Darton. 1898. 66 pp., 21 pis.
WS 21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. 1899. 82 pp., 2 pis.
WS 26. Wells of southern Indiana (continuation of No. 21). by Frank Leverett. 1899. M pp.
WS 30. Water resources of the lower peninsula of Michigan, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp.. 7 pis.
WS 31. Lower Michigan mineral waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 4 pis.
WS 34. Geology and water resources of a portion of southeastern South Dakota, by J. E. Todd. I90u.
34 pp., 19 pis.
WS 63. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt I, by I. C. Rus^ll. 1901. **■
pp., 10 pis.
WS 64. Geology and water resources of Nes Perces County, Idaho, Pt. II, by I. C. RueiieU. 1901.
87-141 pp.
WS 55. Geology and water resources of a portion of Yakima County, Wash., by G. O. Smith. iviOl.
68 pp., 7 pis.
WS 57. Preliminary list of deep*lx)ring8 in the United States, Pt. I. by N. H. Darton. 1902. 60 pp.
WS 59. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. I, by J. B. Lippinoott.
1902. 95 pp.. 11 pis.
WS 60. Development and application of water in southern California, Pt. II, by J. B. LJppinci^tt.
1902. 96-140 pp.
WS 61. Preliminary list of deep borings in the United States, Pt. II, by N. B. Darton. 1902. ($7 pp.
WS 67. The motions of underground waters, by C. S. Slichter. 1902. 106 pp., 8 pis.
B 199, Geology and water resources of the Snake River Plains of Idaho, by I. C. Russell. 1902. l*xl
pp., 25 pis.
W8 77. Water resources of Molokal, Hawaiian Islands, by W. Lindgren. 1908. 62 pp.. 4 pis.
WS 78. Preliminary report on artesian basin in southwestern Idahoand southeastern Oregon, by I. c.
Russell. 1903. 53 pp., 2 pis.
PP 17. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of Nebraska west of the one hundivd
and third meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. 69 pp., 43 pis.
WS 90. Geology and water resources of a part of the lower James River Valley. South Dakota. h\
J. E. Todd and C. M. Hall. 1904. 47 pp., 28 pis.
WS 101. Underground waters of southern Louisiana, by G. D. Harris, with discussions of their toes for
water supplies and for rice irrigation, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 98 pp., 11 pis.
WS 102. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States, 1903, by M. L. Fuller. 1904. 522 pp.
WS 104. Underground waters of Gila Valley, Arizona, by W. T, Lee. 1904. 71 pp., 5 pis,
WSllO. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States. 1904; M. L. Fuller, geologist io
charge. 1904. 211 pp., 5 pis.
PP 32. Geology and underground water resources of the central Great Plains, by N. H. Darton. 19W.
433 pp., 72 pis.
WS 111. Preliminary rejHJrl on underground waters of Washington, by Henry Landes. 1904. HS pf*.
ipl.
SERIES LIST. V
AVS 112. Underflow tests in the drainage basin of Los Angeles River, by Homer Hamlin. 1904.
55 pp., 7 pis.
\VS 114. Underground waters of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. ]904.
285 pp., 18 pis.
AVB 118. Geology and water resources of east-central Washington, by F. C. Calkins. 1905. 96 pp.,
4 pis.
B 252. Preliminary report on the geology and water resources of central Oregon, by I. C. Russell.
1905. 138 pp., 24 pis.
\VS 120. Bibliographic review and index of papers relating tu underground waters published by the
United States Geological Survey, 1879-1904, by M. L. Fuller. 1905. 128 pp.
WS 122. Relation of the law to underground waters, by D. W. Johnson. 1905. 55 pp.
WS 128. Geology and underground water conditions of the Jornada del Muerto. New Mexico, by C. R.
Keyes. 1905. 42 pp., 9 pis.
WS 136. Underground waters of the Salt River Valley, by W. T. Lee. 1905. 194 pp., 24 pl«.
B 264. Record of deep-well drilling for 1904, by M. L. Fuller, E. F. Lines, and A. 0. Veateh. 1905
106 pp.
PP 44. Underground water resources of Long Island, New York, by A. C. Veateh and others. 1905.
WS 137. Developmentof undeiground watersin the eastern coastal plain region of s<jnthem Calilornia,
by W. C. Mendenball. 1906. 140 pp., 7 pis.
WS 188. Development of underground waters in the central coastal plain region of southern Califor-
nia, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 162 pp., 5 pis.
WS 139. Development of underground waters In the western coastal plain rt>gion of .southern Cali-
fornia, by W. 0. Mendenball. 1^05. 105 pp., 7 pis.
WS 140. Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground waters, by C. S. Sllchtor. 1905.
122 pp., 15 pis.
WS 141. Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande Valley, by C. .<=!. siichier. 1905. 83 pp.,
5pla
WS 142. Hydrology of San Bernardino Valley, California, by W. C. Mendenhall. 1905. 124 pp.. 13 pis.
WS140. Contributions to the hydrology of eastern United States; M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge.
1906. 220 pp., 6 pis.
WS 148. Geology and water resources of Oklahoma, by C. N. Gould. 1905. 178 pp., 22 pis.
WS 149. Preliminary list of deep borings In the United States. Second edition, with additions, by
N. H. Darton. 1906. 175 pp.
i'P 46. Geology and underground water resources of northern Louisiana and southern Arkansas, by
A. C. Veateh. 1906.
WS 153. The underflow in Arkansas Valley in western Kansas, by C. S. Slichter. 1906.
WS 154. The geology and water resources of the eastern portion of the Panhandle of Texas, by C. N.
Gould. 1906. 64 pp., 15 pis.
The following papers also relate to this subject: Underground waters of Arkansas Valley in eaKtcni
Colorado, by Q. E. Gilbert, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Preliminary report on artesian waters of a
portion of the Dakotas, by N. H. Darton, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II: Water resources of Illinois,
by Prank Leverett, in Seventeenth Annual, Pt. II; Water resources of Indiana and Ohio, by Frank
Leverett, In Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; New developments in well boring and irrigation in eastern
South Dakota, by N. H. Darton, In Eighteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Rock waters of Ohio, by Edward
Orton, in Nineteenth Annual, Pt. IV; Artesian well prospects in the Atlantic coa«3tal plain region, by
N. H. Darton, Bulletin No. 188.
Correspondence should be addressed to
The Director,
United States Geoixxhcal Survey,
FEBRrARV, 190(5. Washington, D. 0.
o
W&tor-Sapply and Irrigation Paper No. 155
Series 0, Undergroand Waters, 52
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Dirrctor
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN
WELLS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK
BY
A.. C. VE^TCH
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1006
CONTENTS.
Page.
"introduction and summary 7
I*ART I. Long Island observations 9
Introductory outline of hydrologic conditions 9
Observations of the United States Geological Survey 10
Observations with direct-reading gages 10
At Huntington, N. Y 10
At Oyster Bay, N. Y 13
Observations with self-recording gages 17
Instrument used 17
At Queens County Water Company pumping station near Hew-
lett, N. Y 18
AtLong Beach, N. Y 19
NearMillbum, N. Y 22
AtLynbrook, N. Y 23
At Douglaston, N. Y 25
Observations of the New York City commission on additional water supply . 27
Part II. General discussion of the fluctuations of water in wells 28
Classification of causes 28
Fluctuations produced by natural causes 29
Rainfall and evaporation 29
Regular annual fluctuations 29
General character and cause 29
Effect of depth of soil above the zone of complete saturation
on time of occurrence of yearly maximum and minimum. . 34
' Irregular secular fluctuations 37
Amount of annual and secular fluctuation 38
Fluctuations due to single showers 42
By transmitted pressure without any increase in the ground
water 42
By the actual addition of water to the ground water through
percolation 44
Percentage of rainfall contributed to the ground water 44
Methods of estimation 44
By lysimeters 44
By stream discharge 49
By changes in level of ground- water table 50
References relating to well fluctuations due to rainfall 51
Fluctuations due to barometric changes 52
Character and cause 52
References relating to w^ell fl uctuations due to barometric changes . 53
Fluctuations due to temperature changes 54
Observations at Madison, Wis. ; fluctuations varying directly with
the temperature 54
3
CONTENTS.
Part II. General discussion of the flactuations of water in wells — Cont'd.
Fluctnations produced by natural causes — Continued.
Fluctuations due to temperature changes— Continued.
Observations at Lynbrook, N. Y. ; fluctuations in vereely related to
the temperature : , b7
Observations at Sherlock, Kans 5<»
Diurnal fluctuations of Cache la Poudre River, Colorado 59
References relating to fluctuations produced by temperatare
changes .50
Fluctuations produced by rivers * 55
By change in rate of ground- water discharge 60
By irregular infiltration from rivers with normally impervioos
beds 61
By plastic deformation 62
References relating to fluctuations produced by rivers 62
Fluctuations produced by changes in lake levels 63
Fluctuations produced by changes in the ocean level— tidal wells 63
By changes in rate of oatflow of ground water 64
By plastic deformation 65
References relating to tidal fluctuations in wells 67
Possibility of tides in the ground water produced by direct solar and
lunar attraction 69
Fluctuations due to geologic causes 69
Fluctuations produced by human agencies 70
Effect of settlement, deforestation, and cultivation 70
Effect of irrigation 72
Effect of dams 72
Effect of underground water-supply developments 72
Subsurface dams 72
Infiltration galleries 72
Pumping 73
Artesian- well developments 74
Effect of large cities on the ground-water level 74
Loaded freight trains 75
Fluctuations due to indeterminate causes 75
Small fluctuations 75
Fluctuations at Millbum, N. Y 76
Fluctuations at Urisino Station, New South Wales 76
Index 77
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plate I. Sketch map of western Long Island, New York, showing localities
discussed 9
II. Map of a portion of southern Long Island, New York, showing loca-
tion of Hewlett, Long Beach, Millbum, and Lynbrook wells 16
III. Partial record of fluctuations of water level in a 181-foot well near
Hewlett, N. Y 18
IV. Partial record of fluctuations in a 386-foot well at Long Beach, N. Y. 20
ILLU8TBA.TI0NS. 5
Pace.
Pi^jLTB V. Partial record of fluctoationB of water level in a 289-foot well near
Millbum,N. Y ' 22
VI. Partial record of fluctuationfl of water level in wells at Lynbrook,
N.Y 24
VII. Sketch map showing location and topographic surroundings of wells
of the Citizens' Water Supply Company near Douglaston, N. Y. . . 26
VIII. Partial record of fluctuations of water level in wells near Douglaston,
N.Y 28
IX. Fluctuations of water level in wells near Wiener Neustadt, Austria. 32
Fio. 1. Diagrammatic cross section of Long Island, showing principal topo-
graphic and geologic factors influencing the underground water con-
ditions 9
2. Sketch map showing location of well of Huntington Light and Power
Company at Huntington Harbor, N. Y 11
3. Detail of well and tide curves at Huntington Harbor, N. Y., show-
ing lag between well and tide L 12
4. Sketch-map showing location of wells observed at Oyster Bay, N. Y.. 13
5. Sketch map showing topographic surroundings of wells shown in fig.
4 and location of sections shown in figs. 6 and 7 14
6. Section at Oyster Bay, N. Y., along line B-B, fig. 5, showing geologic
relations of wells observed 14
7. Section at Oyster Bay, N. Y., along line A-A, fig. 5, showing geologic
relation of the artesian wells at Oyster Bay and on Center Island . . 15
8. Welland tide curves at Oyster Bay, N. Y 17
9. Yearly rainfall and water-level curves in shallow wells in middle
Europe 29
10. Yearly rainfall and water-level curves in shallow wells in the United
States 30
11. Mean annual ground-water curve at Bryn Mawr, Pa., and rainfall and
temperature curves at Philadelphia, Pa 31
12. Results of English percolation experiments 32
13. Fluctuations of water level in wells -on Long Island, N. Y., from obser-
vations of New York City commission on additional water supply. . 36
14. Residual-mass curves of rainfall for Long Island, N. Y., Newark, N. J.,
and Philadelphia, Pa 37
15. Annual and secular changes of the ground- water level and fluctuations
due to single showers in a shallow well at Millbum, N. Y 39
16. Fluctuations of water level in a well at Madison, Wis., showing non-
transmission of diurnal fluctuations produced by changes in capil-
lary attraction 57
17. Diagram showing production of fluctuations of ground-water level by
temperature changes affecting rate of flow 58
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS,
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO LONG ISLAND.
NEW YORK.
By A. C. Veatch.
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY.
In coDnection with the investigation of the geology of Long Island by the United
States Geological Survey in the summer of 1903, a few observations were made on
the fluctuation of the water level in wells, both with direct-reading and self-recording
gages. In the consideration of these data, as well as those collected at the same
time by the New York City commission on additional water supply, it has seemed
desirable to enter into a general discussion of the fluctuation of water in wells.
Some of the results of this study may be briefly summarized as follows:
1 . The most important and characteristic of the natural ground-water fluctuations
Ih the regular annual period. This is a relatively uniform curve, with a single maxi-
mum and minimum, on which the fluctuations of shorter periods, as a rule, form
but minor irregularities. This curve does not generally resemble the rainfall curve.
Were the rainfall uniform throughout the year, the ground water would still show a
regular yearly period and the maximum would occur early in the year in the North
Temperate Zone. The effect of irregularities in the rainfall is to move the time of
occurrence of this maximum either forward or back.
2. The water from single showers is generally delivered gradually to the ground-
water table, and even where noticeable fluctuations are produced, these do not com-
monly make important irregularities in the regular annual ground-water curve.
3. Single showers may, by transmitted pressure through the soil air, produce instan-
taneous and noticeable rises in the water in wells and notably increase the stream
discrharge without contributing either to the ground water or directly to the surface
flow.
4. The amount contributed to the ground water can not be satisfactorily estimated
by the rise and fall of the water in wells, because the same amount of rainfall under
the same geologic and climatic conditions, in be^ls of the same porosity, will pro-
duce fluctuations of very different values. Near the ground- water outlet the total
yearly range may be but a few inches, while near the ground-water divide it may be
50 or 100 feet. When an attempt is made to calculate the amount of water received
from single rains, the results are not reliable, because in the cases which are usually
taken, such as sharp, quick rises, it is impossible to tell how much of the rise is due
to transmitted pressure and how much to direct inflltration.
5. Because of the increase in stream flow due (1) to transmittal pressure from
rains, (2) to changes in barometric pressure, and (3) to increase in area of ground-
water discharge, with the elevation of the ground-water table, it is not possible to
7
8 FLU01UATION8 OF THE WATKK LEVEL IK WELLS.
correctly separate the quantity of water in the stream discharge contributed by spring
flow from that contributed by direct surface run-off. There are many reasons for
believing that in humid regions **fiood flows" contain large percentages of ground
water.
6. Tidal fluctuations in wells are very often produced by a plastic deformation doe
to the loading of the tides, and the occurrence of such* fluctuations in wells does not
in itself indicate a connection between the water-bearing strata and the sea.
7. Temperature changes may produce marked fluctuations ( 1 ) by changes in capillary
attraction — such fluctuations are perceptible only at the surface of the zone of cc»m-
plete saturation, are not transmitted to deeper levels, and vary directly with tbi^
temperature; (2) by changes in viscosity or rate of flow — fluctuations due to thi?
cause vary inversely with the temperature, and show in deep wells by transmitttrd
pressure.
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PART I.
LONG ISLAND OBSERVATIONS.
INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE OF THE HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS.
The geologic and topographic conditions are
'9
The conditions on Long Island, New York, are particularly favorable for the study
of the fluctuations of water in wells,
such that it may be affirmed that
the underground water is derived
wholly from the rain which falls
on the surface of the island, and
the problems involved are, there-
fore, not unduly complicated, as
they are in many regions, by the
possibility of the influx of water
from other areas. In addition
to this comparatively complete
ground-water isolation, the is-
land is of such a size — 120 miles
long and 20 miles wide — that
ground -water phenomena can
attain a relatively complete de-
velopment, and the geologic
structure of the water-bearing
beds, while not complicated, is
sufficiently varied to produce
several differing conditions.
Topographically the western
part of Long Island — the portion
involved directly in this paper-
may be said to consist of a single
range of rolling hills, usually 150
to 250 feet high, though in one
place attaining an elevation of
over 400 feet. This hill range
descends somewhat abruptly to
the north shore, where it is cut
by several reentrant bays occu-
pying old valleys. On the south
side is a very flat gravel plain,
sloping gently to the ocean, along
which a series of barrier beaches
inclosing long marshes has been
developed. To the east the hill
range divides and produces two
hilly peninsulas, each with a
single ridge on the northern side.
Geologically the island may be regarded as a series of relatively porous gravel and
sand beds, containing irregular and discontinuous clay masses, the whole limite<l
9
Bprlngi w^hlch aupptj Brooklyn
^ Wmttt
"Spojir (Rept. New York City Commission on Additional Water Supply, 1904. p. 829) has eKtimatei!
thftt 4:$ per cent of the toUil stream flow (or 14 per cent of the minfall) can be connldered a^ flood il»»«
or an not having passed tlirmigh the ground. He bases this judgment on the relative heighU^ of the
stream and gnmnd-water levels near the south shore, where, as explained on page 61, a correct jud*:-
ment can not be formed. The average flood flow is believed to be much less than 6 per cent of iht-
precipitation.
t> For details of the slope of the ground-water table see Prof. Paper U. S. Qeol. Survey No. 44, !««.
Pis. XI, XII.
10 FLUOTUATIOHB OF THE WATER LEVEL TJX WELLB.
below by the peneplained surface of a mass of highly distarbed ana metamorpbne^:
Paleozoic and pre-Paleozoic rocks, which have little water value except as a mor^ xr
less compl ete barrier to downward percolation ( fig. 1 ) . W hile these unconsolidateii hn^ii
represent, in the geologic time scale, several of the divisions of the Upper Cretace«rfL-
and as many as five Pleistocene or glacial stages, and as a whole are stratified depi«>itK
dipping at very low angles south and southeastward, they are, under the L«lani
essentially continuous from a water standpoint, and the rain falling on the f>nria(-^ i>
relatively free to yiaas to any part of the mass. The Pleistocene beds which form the
surface are, however, as a rule, coarse and more porous than the underlying Creta-
ceous and tend to increase the absorbing power of the island. As a resnlt, the per-
centage of rainfall which passes into the streams w^ithout first going through tht
ground is extremely small. <^ ThLs percolating water has entirely saturated the p?n>a?
strata above the bed rock, except a limited portion at the surface, and has drivea
out the salt water which filled these beds when they were first deposited and whi<b I
reoccupied them, at least in part, during the several submergences to which tht* i
region has been subjected. The surface of this zone of complete saturation, or the ,
main ground- water table, is coincident with the sea level at the shores and l)ecom?s>
more and more elevated in passing inland, though the rate of increase of elevation is '
less than that of the surface, of which it is but a subdued reflection (fig. 1). &
This slope of the ground-water table permits the development of artesian welL^ at
many points on the coast, at elevations w^hich are commonly lees than 10 feet above
high tide. The head is, in all cases, due to the greater height of the ground wat4*r
in the adjacent hill mass. In order that such a differential head may he develoi)e«l. it
is merely necessary that the water-bearing bed in question be coarser than the ovir-
lying beds. A clay or other impervious cover is not essential and, indeed, is oft^^n
absent.
OBSERVATIONvS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
Observations on the fiuctuations of the water level in wells were made by the G^y
logical Survey near Himtington, Oyster Bay, Valley Stream, Millbum, Long Beach,
and Douglaston, all villages on Long Island west of longitude 73® W., and between
latitudes 40° 35' and 40° 55' N. (PI. I. )
OBSERVATIONS ^TITH DIRECT-READING GAGES.
OBSERVATIONS AT HUNTINGTON, N. Y.
The Huntington observations, from which the other Survey observations developeil,
were undertaken to test the common report that the discharge of most of the artesian
wells along the northern shore of Long Island fiuctuated with the tide; in some cases'
the flow ranging from 0 at low tide to over 100 gallons per minute at high tide.
Nearly all of the^e wells were being pumped, or were utilized to run rams, but i»er-
mission was obtained to gage a newly completed well l)elonging to the Huntington
Light and Power Company, at Huntington Harbor, until it should be conne<*ted with
the pumps — a period of three or four days.
A direct-reading float gage of simple type was quickly constructed by Baker dfe Fox,
Brooklyn, N. Y. This consisted of a 2-inch cylinder of brass carrying a J-inch alu-
minum rod 6 feet long and graduated to hundredths of a foot, with the zero point ja«.t
OBBEBYATIOITS WITH DIBSOT-BEADIKO GAOBS.
11
si.'bove the cylinder. For convenience in carrying, as well as to avoid the use of so
lon^ a rod except where absolutely necessary, the rod was divided into three parts
SLn<i jointed. The cylinder was so constructed that it would just carry the total length
o»t 6 feet, and when used with only 2 or 4 feet of rod, weights, balancing the effect of
"the part removed, were added to the bottom of the cylinder.
Some trouble was experienced by the float tending to approach the side of the well
^nd develop a thin capillary film between it and the pipe, which decreased the sen-
ssitiveness of the gage. It is suggested that when direct-reading floats are used in
^wells of small diameter they be kept away from the walls of the well by means of
Fio. 2.~8ketcli map gbowlng location of well of Hantlngton Light and Power Gompany at Hunt-
ington Harbor, N. Y.
slightly arched wires, as in the float devieed by Professor King for the self-recording
gages used in the Madison experiments and later on Long Island.
The well of the Huntington Light and Power Company is situated on a dock at
Huntington Harbor, near Halesite post-office (PI. I, fig. 2. ) The natural level of the
surface at the point where the well is sunk is between high- and low-tide mark, but
the ground has been built up by filling alx)ut 5 feet higher. The well is 75 feet deep
and 4 inches in diameter, and the water rises in the pipe from 1 to 3 feet above the
surface of the made ground. The well was piped above the limit of flow, so that all
the fluctuations could be measured directly, rather than inferred from variations in
the rate of discharge.
14
FLUCTUATIONS OP THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
from below the blue-clay layer (fig. 6). Thici blae clay thins rapidly southward an«l
entirely disappears half a mile south of the wells (fig. 7). It extends under OvsUt
Bay Harbor and is exposed in the clay pits on the south end of Center Island. «
LONG
ISLAND SOUND
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Pig. 5.~Sketch map showing topogiaphic BUiroundings of wells
shown in flg. 4 and location of sections shown in figs. 6 and 7.
All these wells were flowing, and in each case, before observations were coinmeiice<l,
lengths of pipe were added until the wells no longer flowed, even at high tide, Fl«*at
gages similar to those used at Huntington were then inserted and the wells covered
Feet
o Sm level
ZOC/'
• mile
Fig. 6.— Section at Oyster Bay, N. Y., along line B-B, fig. 6, show-
ing geologic relations of wells observed.
with flat-topped caps, each containing a smooth beveled hole through which the
gage rod extended. ^
a The folding of the beds here shown is due to ice shove. See Prof. Paper U. 8. Geol. Survey Xo. 44,
1906, pp. 3VM3.
ftTht* general conditions of observation are well shown in Prof. Paper U. S. Gool. Survey No, 44, 1906.
PI. XIII, A. This view Indicates, in a very graphic manner, the relation of the wells to the water of
the bay and the considerable head developed by these fresh-water artesian wells on the seashore.
OBSERVATIONS WITH DIRECT-READING GAGES.
15
In order to obtain more refined results than were possible with the board gage at
I-IviTitington, a 3-inch pipe, i>erforated at a point several feet above the bottom, was
driven in the harbor at the end of a row of piles and at a distance of about 200 feet
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from the shore (fig. 4). This still box or tide well was fitted with a direct-reading
float gage like those used in the artesian wells. This arrangement is not to be rec-
ommended during stormy weather, but fortunately during the whole time of obser-
vation at this place no trouble was experienced from that cause.
16
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELL8.
Obeervations were commenced on the Cas'no, Underbill, and Burgess wells on tb^^
evening of May 30, by a party in cbarge of Mr. Isaiah Bowman, and continued, with
interruptions on the nights of May 30 and 31 and June 1, to 10 p. m. on June 4.
On June 10 and 11 observations were made on the Lee (or Hill) well, covering twi
high and two low tides, and for the purpose of comparison the Casino and tide well-
were also observed. Observations were generally made every minute for thirty
minutes preceding and following the times of high and low water, and from these
values the curves shown in fig. 8 were drawn. Times of high and low water werv
found by plotting the observations near high- and low-tide marks on a much lar^^r
scale, in the manner shown in fig. 3. The values so obtained are indicated on Qg. K
and are given in the following table:
Difference in time between high- and low-waler stages in four artesian wells at Oyster Bnv,
N. Y.y and the tide in Oyster Bay Harbor.
[Time expressed in hours and minutes of 24-hour clock.]
HIGH TIDES.
1908.
Casino well.
Tide
Difference (lag) ...
Burgess well
Tide
Difference (lag) .
Lee well.
Tide
Difference (lag) .
Underbill well
Tide
Difference (lag) .
May
ao.
May 81.
14.62
14.43
.09
June
1.
15.13
14.43
14.43
1.19
16.05
15.44
.21
16.02 17.02
15.44
1.18
June 2.
17.05
16.54
17.15
16.54
18.00
16.54
1.06
Junes. ,JT« ''^o'l^i-^yrry^'
5.19
5.12
.07
5.38
6.12
.26
6.20
6.12
18. 11|
18.02
6.38
6.2»,
.09'"
12.22
12.20;
tttfS.
.02
I8.25I 6.66|.
18.02! 6.29'.
.23, .271.
a0.20|
23.48
13.12!
12.20!
.32
19.10 7. 41..
18.02 6.29.
1.08 1.12|.
:^
LOW TIDES.
Casino well
20.28
20.10
9.21
9.04
i
23.46
19 OR
0.47
17.42
A X*
Tide
23.36 n.55
.38
.09
17.331 6.20
1
.09. .12
Difference (lag) ...
.18
.17
.10, .13
12 ft
Burgess well
10.41
10.00
741
11.26
10.53
aO.lO
23.36
12.28
1 04
Tide
11.55' .38
i
i
Difference (lag) ...
.33
.84
.33 .26
!
sa4
Lee well
18.23 7.26
17.83 « 90.
Tide
.^*
Difference (lag) . . .
.60
1.06
Underbill well.....
21.26
20.10
10.17
9.04
11.22
10.00
12.06
10.53
aO.65
23.36
18. U
11.56
1.49
.38
Tide
Difference (lag) ...
1.15
1.13
1.22
1.13
1.19
L16
1.11
75.6
a Morning of following day.
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<
LONG ISLAND OBSERVATIONS.
17
OBSERVATIONS ^VITH S£LF-R£CORI>ING GAGBS.
INSTRUMENTS USED.
The continuation of the observations by means of self-recording
ttie timely interest of Mr. F. H. Newell and Prof. Charles S. Slichter.
was due to
Mr. Newell
Feet aoove low tide
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visited the island when the observations at Oyster Bay were in progress, and at once
airected that three Friez water-stage registers be purchased. These were supple-
IRR 155—06 2
18 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
mented ))y a ga^e constructed at Purtiue University from the designs of Mr. HIl ^-*
Mead.
Shortly after Mr. Newell' s visit, and before the Friez gages had been ne*-*?-i>
Prof. Charles S. Slichter arrived to take charge of the measurement of the rsir^
underflow. He kindly obtained the loan of five of the gages used by Kin^ in 1 j
experiments at Madison, Wis.;« of these, four were week gages and one a one— ':j
gage. The King gages were constructed by H. Green, Brooklyn, from barc«:rai
stands; they consist of an ordinary barograph cylinder, driven by a double-^|»riij
marine clock, the recording device being a simple lever on a cone bearing with a j- |
on one end and a place for attaching the float on the other. At the jwint whert* ilJ
clock motion is transmitted to the drum there was a slight amount of play y^'}j}''A
King found would introduce into the records an error of one to two honra. A fri« i
tion brake was, however, subsequently added to overcome this defect. The gau?*-'
as received on Long Island were adjusted to magnify the fluctuations two or ni««n
times; and ^ this scale was entirely too great for the wells observed, the ami wa>
extended until the ratio was 1:2 and. a reduction of one-half thereby obtaint^/.
These gages were found to be more sensitive and reliable than any others used. By
means of the simple lever with its cone bearing, the friction in this instmispn/ i»
reduced to a minimum ; the pens respond to the slightest movement of the water,
and for the faithful reproduction of small fluctuations this simple type of ga^ in t«
be highly recommended.
In the Mead gage the recording drum is vertical and the pen is carried by a carria^
working between two upright guides. The wire supporting the carriage windsaN'fit
a wheel connected with the wHeel around which a wire from the float passee^and i*
lifted and lowered as the float descends and rises. The float and the wheel to which
the pen is attached are so related in diameter that the curve traced is 10/42 of the true
scale. There is with this gage, as with most gages where the recording cylinder 15
driven by the clock, some lost motion at the point of connection. This is particu-
larly bad in this instrument On the Long Beach records great care was used in set-
ting the gage and the trouble was avoided, but some of the curves from well No. 8, af
Douglaston, are clearly in error two to three hours.
In the Friez gage ^ the recording drum is horizontal and is moved by the flfat,
while the pen is moved by the clockwork. It was found that with the size of fl<iat
that must be used in wells of small diameter the inertia of the drum in this instru-
ment was such that it would not move until considerable head was developed an<i
that small fluctuations were often not recorded. There was also a considerable
amount of lost motion in the cogs used in the reducing device; and while an ecct?n-
tric was provided for engaging the cogs closer, this could not be done without h>
increasing the friction that the instrument was useless. As a whole, this gSLgeisDitt
sufficiently sensitive for this kind of work, and the time element is entirely too small.
A water-stage register manufactured by a western house was also used, but the
results obtained were not satisfactory because of the poor mechanical construction of
the gage.
OBSERVATIONS ON WELL OF QUEENS COUNTY WATER COMPANY, 1 MILE WEfff OF
HEWLETT, N. Y.
Through the kindness of the chief engineer of the Queens County Water Companv.
Mr. Charles R. Bettes, an artesian well 181 feet deep and 3,300 feet south of the
company's pumping station (PI. II) was covered with a shelter for the protection of
the gages and placed at the disposal of the Survey. This well, as is common with
the wells of about the same depth sunk near the pumping station, passes through a
layer of surface sand and gravel, then through beds of clay and other fine material
a Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau No. 5, 1892.
bManu'.actured by Julian P. Friez, Baltimore, Md.
I.I
1 JULY 7
-1 M ^ 12 .
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lEWLETT, N. Y.
i^e is inverted.
18 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IK WEX-H-S.
mented by a ga^e constructed at Purdue University from the designs of JVf r. K!
Mead.
Shortly after Mr. Newell's visit, and before the Friez gages had l>eoo re--**.
Prof. Charles S. Slichter arrived to take charge of the measurement of the n.
underflow. He kindly obtained the loan of five of the gages used by JCixifr ii
experiments at Madison, Wi8.;<» of these, four were week gages and one a. one-
gage. The King gages were constructed by H. Green, Brooklyn, from IxLnyisr
stands; they consist of an ordinary barograph cylinder, driven by a ciouWe-j-;*
marine clock, the recording device being a simple lever on a cone bearing' 'witb a
on one end and a place for attaching the float on the other. At the point ^'lien-
clock motion is transmitted to the drum there was a slight amount of l>la.y^ * -'i
King found would introduce into the records an error of one to two honire. A i
tion brake was, however, subsequently added to overcome this defect- Xbe eoi
as received on Long Island were adjusted to magnify the fluctuations t'wo or rii
times; and as this scale was entirely too great for the wells observed, tbe arm ^h
extended until the ratio was 1:2 and a reduction of one-half thereby obtain
These gages were found to be more sensitive and reliable than any others used, J
means of the simple lever with its cone bearing, the friction in this instrument
reduced to a minimum ; the pens respond to the slightest movement of the war.-
and for the faithful reproduction of small fluctuations this simple type of ^^a^Bre A** ^
be highly recommended.
In the Mead gage the recording drum is vertical and the pen is carried by a carria^^
working between two upright guides. The wire supporting the carriage winds al^ .1;
a wheel connected with the wHeel around which a wire from the float passee, and i
lifted and lowereil as the float descends and rises. The float and the wheel to whUt
the pen is attached are so related in diameter that the curve traced is 10/42 of the tnk
scale. There is with this gage, as with most gages where the recording cylinder iy
driven by the clock, some lost motion at the point of connection. ThiB ia partite-
larly bad in this instrument On the Long Beach records great care was used in i«et-
ting the gage and the trouble was avoided, but some of the curves from well No, h, at
Douglaston, are clearly in error two to three hours.
In the Friez gage ^ the recording drum is horizontal and is moved by the flr^ac
while the pen is moved by the clockwork. It was found that with the size uf flnat
that nmst be used in wells of small diameter the inertia of the drum in this instru-
ment was such that it would not move until considerable head was developeil ami
that small fluctuations were often not recorded. There was also a considerable
amount of lost motion in the cogs used in the reducing device; and while an eccen-
tric was provided for engaging the cogs closer, this could not be done without l^•)
increasing the friction that the instrument was useless. As a whole, this gage is vot
suflBciently sensitive for this kind of work, and the time element is entirely too small.
A water-stage register manufactured by a western house was also useil, but tbe
results obtained were not satisfactory because of the poor mechanical oonstroction of
the gage.
OBSERVATIONS ON WELL OF QUEENS COUNTY WATER COMPANY, 1 MILE WEST OF
HEWLETT, N. Y.
Through the kindness of the chief engineer of the Queens County Water Company,
Mr. Charles R. Bettes, an artesian well 181 feet deep and 3,300 feet south of tbe
company's pumping station (PI. II) was covered with a shelter for the protection of
the gages and placed at the disposal of the Survey. This well, as is common \nith
the wells of about the same depth sunk near the pumping station, passes through a
hiyer of surface sand and gravel, then through beds of clay and other fine material
a Bull. U. 8. Weather Bureau No. 5, 1892.
6 Manufactured by Julian P. Friez, Baltimore, Md.
■\
1 1 JULY 7
_J M . 12
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lEWLETT, N. Y.
I^e is inverted.
18 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATEB LEVEL IN WEr-H-S-
mente<l by a gage construrted at Punlue University from the designs of >fr. Kl
Mead.
Shortly after Mr. NewelPs visit, and before the Friez gages had t>€30ii i>-»«
Prof. Charles S. Slichter arrived to take charge of the measurement of tKe r,^
underflow. He kindly obtained the loan of five of the gages used \>y ICixi^r ii
experiments at Madison, Wis.;<» of these, four were week gages and ono a <»rj«?
gage. The King gages were constructed by H. Green, Brooklyn, from iMirtf^
stands; they consist of an ordinary barograph cylinder, driven by a <ioul>l«.^!^p
marine clock, the recording device being a simple lever on a cone bearini^' 'writli a
on one end and a place for attaching the float on the other. At the poifit -wlit-r*
clock motion is transmitted to the drum there was a slight amount of ]>Iay %% f i
King found would introduce into the records an error of one to two hoar*?- A i
tion brake was, however, subsequently added to overcome this defect, Xbe ^:^
as receive<l on Long Island were adjusted to magnify the fluctuations two or ni*
times; and jis this scale was entirely too great for the wells observed, the arm v
extended until the ratio was 1:2 and a reduction of one-half thereby obtain*:
These gages were found to be more sensitive and reliable than any others laeeci. 1
means of the simple lever with its cone bearing, the friction in this instniznenf
reduced to a minimum; the pens respond to the slightest movement of the warn
and for the faithful reproduction of small fluctuations this simple type of fSBfg^ i.-
be highly recommended.
In the Mead gage the recording drum is vertical and the pen is carried by a carriaj
working between two upright guides. The wire supporting the carriage windi^ alx i.l
a wheel connected with the wheel around which a wire from the float passes, and ii
lifted and lowered as the float descends and rises. The float an<l the wheel to whk:
the pen is attached are so related in diameter that the curve traced is 10/42 of the tnit
scale. There is with this gage, as with most gages where the recording cylinder iy
driven by the clock, some lost motion at the point of connection. This is particc-
larly bad in this instrument On the Long Beach records great care was used in f«et-
ting the gage and the trouble was avoided, but some of the curves from well No, ^, at
Douglaston, are clearly in error two to three hours.
In the Friez gage & the recording drum is horizontal and is moved by the AtfiC
while the i)en is moved by the clockwork. It was found that with the size of fl«'at
that must be used in wells of small diameter the inertia of the drum in this instru-
ment was such that it would not move until considerable head was developed anil
that small fluctuations were often not recorded. There was also a considerable
amount of lost motion in the cogs used in the reducing device; and while an etn-en-
trie was provided for engaging the cogs closer, this could not be done without !^>
increasing the friction that the instrument was useless. As a whole, this ^rage is no:
sufficiently sensitive for this kind of work, and the time element is entirely too small.
A water-stage register manufactured by a western house Mas also use<l, but tbf
results obtained were not satisfactory because of the poor mechanical construction vi
the gage.
OBSERVATIONS ON WELL OF QUEENS COUNTY WATER COMPANY, 1 MILE WRST OF
HEWLETT, N. Y.
Through the kindness of the chief engineer of the Queens County Water CompanT,
Mr. Charles R. Bettes, an artesian well 181 feet deep and 3,300 feet south of ti)f
company's pumping station (PI. II) was covered with a shelter for the protection of
the gagen and placed at the disposal of the Survey. This well, as is common m\\\\
the wells of about the same depth sunk near the pumping station, passes through a
layer of surface sand and gravel, then through l^eds of clay and other fine material
nBull. V. 8. Woather Bureau No. 5, 1892.
fc Manufactured by Julian P. Friez, Baltimore, Md.
■J
1 1 JULY 7
J M 12
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lEWLETT, N. Y.
<fe is inverted.
18 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
merited by a gage constructed at Purdue University from the designs of Mr. Elin ^
Mead.
Shortly after Mr. Newell' s visit, and before the Friez gages had been re<«"%
Prof. Charles S. Slichter arrived to take charge of the measurement of the rat*
underflow. He kindly obtained the loan of five of the gages used by King* in
experiments at Madison, Wis.;« of these, four were week gages and one a one-ti
gage. The King gages were constructed by H. Green, Brooklyn, from baro^ra|
stands; they consist of an ordinary barograph cylinder, driven by a double-FpHi
marine clock, the recording device being a simple lever on a cone bearing with a i"^'
on one end and a place for attaching the fioat on the other. At the point where th
clock motion is transmitted to the drum there was a slight amount of play wh iol
King found would introduce into the records an error of one to two hours. A. f ric
tion brake was, however, subsequently added to overcome this defect. The i^B^ret
as received on J^ng Island were adjusted to magnify the fluctuations two or more
times; and ^s this scale was entirely too great for the wells observed, the arm 'was
extended until the ratio was 1:2 and a reduction of one-half thereby obtaineii.
These gages were found to be more sensitive and reliable than any others used. By
means of the simple lever with its cone bearing, the friction in this instrument i^
reduced to a minimum ; the pens respond to the slightest movement of the water,
and for the faithful reproduction of small fluctuations this simple type of gage in to
be highly recommended.
In the Mead gage the recording drum is vertical and the pen is carried by a carria^
working between two upright guides. The wire supporting the carriage winds abrmt
a wheel connected with the wheel around which a wire from the float passes, and is«
lifted and lowered as the float descends and rises. The float and the wheel to whi<»h
the pen is attached are so related in diameter that the curve traced is 10/42 of the true
scale. There is with this gage, as with most gages where the recording cylinder is
driven by the clock, some lost motion at the point of connection. This is particu-
. larly bad in this instrument. On the Long Beach records great care was used in pet-
ting the gage and the trouble was avoided, but some of the curves from well No. 8, at
Douglaston, are clearly in error two to three hours.
In the Friez gage & the recording drum is horizontal and is moved by the float,
while the pen is moved by the clockwork. It was found that with the size of float
that must be used in wells of small diameter the inertia of the drum in this ingtni-
ment was such that it would not move until considerable head was developed and
that small fluctuations were often not recorded. There was also a considerable
amount of lost motion in the cogs used in the reducing device; and while an eccen-
tric was provided for engaging the cogs closer, this could not be done without so
increasing the friction that the instrument was useless. As a w^hole, this gage is not
sufiiciently sensitive for this kind of work, and the time element is entirely too small.
A water-stage register manufactured by a western house was also use<l, but the
results obtained were not satisfactory because of the poor mechanical construction of
the gage.
OBSERVATIONS ON WELL OF QUEENS COUNTY WATER COMPANY, 1 MILK WEST OF
HEWLETT, N. Y.
Through the kindness of the chief engineer of the Queens County Water Company,
Mr. Cliarles R. Bettes, an artesian well 181 feet deep and 3,300 feet south of the
company's pumping station (PI. II) was covered with a shelter for the protection of
the gages and placed at the dispo^'al of the Survey. This well, as is common with
the wells of about the same depth sunk near the pumping station, passes through a
layer of surface sand and gravel, then through beds of clay and other fine material
a Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau No. 5, 1892.
<> Manufactured by Julian P. Friez, Baltimore, Md.
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0PSEBVATI0K8 WITH SELB'-BEOORDING GAGES. 19
into a rather coarse gravel, which yields an abundant supply of flowing water. «
Ttie whole section is of Pleistocene age. There are in the immediate vicinity of the
pumping station thirty-two 5-inch w^ells, 33 feet deep, and nineteen 6-inch wells, 150
to 190 feet deep. These are arranged along two lines, one extending northwest and
the other southwest from the pumping station. The extreme end of the south line
IS aboat 1,000 feet from the pumping station, and the well observed is therefore over
2,000 feet from the nearest pumped well and but slightly to one side of the probable
<lirection of flow. (PI. II. ) It was the opinion of Mr. Bettes that this well was not
affected by pumping, and through a misinterpretation of the first records it was
believed that this surmise was correct. Considerable discussion was therefore caused
^'lien it was found that the well fluctuations simulated the thermograph curve in a
remarkable manner, that these fluctuations were inversely related to the tempera-
ture (a rise in temperature causing a fall in water), and that the changes manifested
themselves with a lag of but one or two hours behind apparently similar temperature
fluctuations. (PI. III.)
The hourly pumpage was kindly furnished by Chief Engineer Bettes, and this
record, when plotted with the well curves, conclusively demonstrated that the
rhythmical fluctuations were due more to pumpage than to temperature (PI. III).
Fluctuations of a somewhat similar character are produced by temperature changes
(see p. 54), and this element is doubtless present in this curve. On PI. Ill the effect
of pumpage is clearly shown in the double cusps of the well curves on the night of
July 5-6. The temperature curve shows no such variations. Similarly, the records
on June 21, 25, and 26 show important differences between the well and temperature
curves, which are largely due to pumping. These results are important because of
the ra])id rate of transmission. The effect of this pumping is felt at a distance of 2,000
feet or more, with a time lag of but one or two hours. This contrasts sharply with
the very slow transmission noted in the pressure changes due to tidal loading and to
the inflow and outflow along rivers (see pp. 60, 65). It conclusively proves that the
supply here is lai^ge; that the beds are quite porous, and that the normal water flow
is rapid.
In the records from the day gage, which was maintained here for the first ten
days, the lai^ger time scale brought out very clearly a series of regular minor fluctua-
tions which were not clearly defined with the smaller scale of the week records.
The most pronounced of this series recurs day after day and has a period of very
nearly twenty minutes and a range of 0.06 to 0.08 inch.
Besides these vibrations, with a period of twenty minutes, there are several fluctu-
ations of smaller amplitude and period. One series has a period of about flve or six
minutes, but it is so involved that little can be definitely state^l regarding it. An
instrument with a large time scale, 1 or 2 inches to the hour, and a vertical scale of
once or twice the normal would record, at this place, a very complicated series of
small recurrent vibrations.
OBSERVATIONS AT LONG BEACH, N. V.
The deep flowing well of the Long Beach Association at Long Beach, N. Y. (PI.
II), offered a most excellent opportunity for the observations of tidal fluctuations.
It is situated on a narrow, sandy barrier beach, separated from the main island by
a sea marsh 2 to 3 miles wide, cut by narrow tidal channels, and is entirely removed
from the influence of any pumping station.
This well is 3 inches in diameter and 386 feet deep. The water is obtained in
sands of Cretaceous age and rises 2 to 4 feet alK)ve the surface of the ground or 10 to
12 feet above sea level. The general geologic relations may be inferred from the
diagrammatic cross section given in fig. 1 (p. 9) .
a For detailed record of strata in near-by wells see Prof. Paper U. 8. Geol. Survey No. 44, 1908, p. 225.
fig. 66.
20 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS
The section reported by the driller, Mr. W. C. Jaegle, is as follows:
Section of weU of Long Beach As9ociationj at Long Beach, N. Y.
1. Whitesand 0- 36
2. Dark sand and creek mad 36- 40
3. White gravel, containing saltwater 40- 51
4. Whitesand 51- 55
5. Darksand 55- 65
6. Whitesand 65- 70
7. Whitegravel 70- 73
8. Yellowsand 73- 76
9. Blueclay 76- 82
10. Yellowgravel 82- 90
11. Creek mud 90- 99
12. Dark fine sand, containing lignite 99-101
13. Whitesand 101-111
14. Darksand 111-119
15. Whitesand, with lignite 119-121
16.. Blue clay 121-1^5
17. Fine white sand 135-143
18. Gravel, with saltwater 143-145
19. Darksand 145-156
20. Gravel, with salt water 156-158
21. Clay 158-174
22. White sand, containing at 190 feet a log of lignitized wood 174-192
23. White gravel and saltwater 192-196
24. Clay 196-200
25. Fine sand 200-220
26. Solid blueclay 220-270
27. White sand and wood, containing fresh water, sweet and chalybeate... 270-276
28. Clay 276-282
29. Whitesand and wood 282-297
30. Blueclay 297-305
31. Whitesand, wood, and water 305-308
32. Blueclay 308-317
33. White sand, containing wood and artesian water 317-325
34. Blueclay 325-340
35. White sand and mineral water; has considerable CO,, sparkling and
effervescent 340-356
36. Blueclay 356-360
37. Whitesand and purewater 360-378
38. Blueclay 378-380
39. Whitesand 380-381
40. White clay 381-383
41. Fine sand, with artesian water 383-386
Mr. F. D. Rath bun was placed in charge of these observations and by a careful
readjustment of the Mea<l gage obtained very excellent curves (PI. IV^). Indee«i.
for this character of work the results from the Mead gage, as set up by Mr. Rath-
bun, are better than from the Friez gage.
It was impos.sible to make tide observations at this point, and the values plotted
on the curve are taken from those predicted by the Coast and Geodetic Sur\'ey«
for East Rockaway Inlet, which is 2.8 miles west of the well. The difference in time
aU. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey Tide Tables for 1908, p. 346.
U. •. OEOLOOKAL BURVEV
2
1
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ft
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z ut
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COAST AND
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o Q -1.
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111
5-1.6
-2.
-2.5
Mill
Mill
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JJJ
PAl
2*2 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WEI-LS.
Table shatoing difference in time between high and law neater in a SSS-foot vreU at L-
Beach J N. K., and tide at EaM Rockaway Intel — Gontinaed.
Date.
High water.
Well.
Tide.
Differ-
ence.
Low water.
Well.
Tide.
tztrr
1903.
July 13 .
July 14 .
July 15.
July 16.
July 17.
Time.
11.50
23.00
11.40
23.45
Time.
9.44
21.54
10.21
22.28
Hmirt
and min-
utet,
2.06
1.06
1.19
1.17
ftw'.
12.20
0.30
11.08
23.09
1.07
1.21
1.10
23.56
1.14
Average.
Time.
4.50
16.55
5.10
17.10
5.55
18.00
6.20
19.20
7.20
8.44 I
15l44!
4.19,
16.21
4.56
17.04
5.S4
17..V>|
6. 27 I
1*
II'
Cf
19
ti
6 5.
0.'.
I
■|
It will be noted that the lag at high water is greater than at low, whirh is jn^*.
the reverse of what occurs in tidal rivers, where the water rises much more rapi>iiy
than it falls and the low- water lag is long and the high- water lag short. Thi« i^ jlo
important result bearing on the relation between the fluctuations of the water in
wells and the oceanic tide and clearly refutes the doctrine that the tidal fluctuatimt^
here are due to leakage and that the fluctuations are analogous to thoee of tidAl
rivers. (See pp. 63-67.)
OBSERVATIONS ON THE 8CHRBIBEB WELL NEAR MTLLBURN. N. Y.
This well is located on the very edge of the sea marsh, about 2 miles south of fiaiJ-
win station on the Long Island Railroad (PI. II). It is 8 inches in diameter and
the total depth determined by sounding is 288.6 feet. The water will, when pijiei
up, rise about a foot above the surface of the ground. After an unsucc-es^ful attenijit
to record the fluctuations here with a Friez gage, which gave no results beaiuft> of
the small amplitude of the fluctuations, the King gage used on the Queens County
Water Company well near Hewlett was set up and the record obtained from July 17
to August 5. This record shows the most erratic fluctuations obtaine<l on U>n^
Island' (PI. V).
In all the other records, while there are always many factors present, certain fluc-
tuations can be definitely ascribed to temperature, atmospheric pressure, rainfall,
pumping, or transmitted tides, but here either the curves product by j»evt*r*I of
these factors have been so superposed that the character of eai-h is thoroughly
maf»ke<l or new factors have been introduced. The most evident characterirticf
these curves is the greater rapidity and abruptness in the fall of the water than in
its rise. Abrupt drops of this character are known to be produce<l by chanp^ in
barometric pressure and by pumping. It will be noted in this case thai lheeetiu<*-
• tuations are not represented in the barograph curve, and a comparison with the
record from the 504-foot well at Lyn brook (PI. VI), in which tiie geologic o»n<li-
tions are very similar, shows no correspondence, although the Lyn brook wfl/ »
clearly greatly affected by barometric changes.
The nearest pumping stations are at Rockville Center and Freeport, and these an*
small village plants. At Rockville Center there were at this time four 8-inch welK
about 50 feet deep, and at Freei^rt 4 wells, about 35 feet deep. At RtK^kville CVntt-r
about 150,000 gallons per day were i)umi)e<l, and at Freeport about 100,000. The«
^=i
;= r\)
!= CJ
— I *
-1 — o, ro
= ON
= 00
CO
— so
XN
p
I/)
c
w
Q.
CD
o
Ul
Ch
ioo
0)
en
p
I
OBSERVATION^ WITH SELF-RECORDING GAGES. 23
stations are, respectively, 1.9 and 2.4 miles from the Schreiber well (PI. II). The
R<jckville Center pumping station is, moreover, nearer the deep Lynbrook well than
the Schreiber well, and the Lynbrook well shows no such fluctuations. It is there-
fore believed that these fluctuations are not due to pumping.
A third hypothesis is that the fluctuations are largely tidal, and that they represent
the complicated stresses resulting from the culmination of the tides at different times
in the neighV)oring network of creeks and channels. The conditions near this well
are regarded as quite favorable for complex tides, but the resultant of these would
})e represented by a sm(X)th curve, as ia shown by the Long Beach well. The normal
ti<lal curve in such narrow channels would, moreover, show a rapid rise and a gradual
fall, while the well curve is just the reverse.
The fluctuations in this well are, so far as known, unique. The geologic condi-
tions are believed to correspond in a general way with those in the 368-foot well at
Long Beach and the 504-foot well at Lynbrook, both in the same region, but the
characteristics of the curves are entirely different and apparently not related to either.
OBSERVATIONS AT LYNBROOK, N. Y.
A station was established one-half mile west of Lynbrook (PI. 11). At this point
there were two test wells, one 604 feet deep and the other 72 feet, belonging to the
Queens County Water Company. Through the kindness of Mr. Franklin B. Lord,
president, and Mr. Charles R. Bettes, chief engineer, these wells were covereil with
a shelter, and a third well, 14 feet deep, driven about 6 feet from the other two.
This gave a shallow surface well, a **deep well" (comparable to many of those used
at the Brooklyn waterworks pumping stations west of this point) which flowed at
the surface for about half the time, and a very deep artesian well, all within a few
feet of each other and away from the zone of influence of any pumping station.
About 15 feet from the wells there is a small ground-water fed brook, the bottom of
which has an elevation of about 10 feet above sea level; the ground at the wells is
11.3 feet above sea level, and the crest of the low swell, 1,000 feet to the west, about
20 feet (PL II, p. 16). The surface material is yellow loam, ranging from a few
inches to 3 feet thick, then rather coarse sand and gravel. No record was preserved
of the strata penetrated in the 72- and 504-foot wells, but a new well sunk during the
summer of 1904, about 300 feet west of this group of wells, gave the following section:
Section of well of Queens County Water Company^ one-half mile toest of Lynhrook, N. Y.
Tiabury : Feet.
1. Coarse yellow quartz sand ; no erratic material 0-29
2. Light-gray sand 29-31
3. Same as No. 1 31-73
Cretaceous?:
4. Light-gray silty clay 73-89
5. Light-yellow medium sand ; no erratic material 89-150
Cretaceous:
6. Fine to medium gray lignitic sand 150-158
7. Very fine black micaceous lignitiferous silt 158-200
8-9. Very fine dark-colored lignitiferous sand 200-228
10. Medium light-gray sand, with small amount of lignite 228-340
11. Dark-colored lignitiferous silty clay 340-363
12. Medium dirty-yellow sand, lignitic 363-403
13. Medium to coarse gray sand 403-536
The water in the 504-foot well, during the time of observation, stood from 0.8 foot
to 2.2 feet above the surface; in the 72-foot well from 0.6 foot below to 0.5 foot above
the surface, and in the 14-foot well from 0.6 foot below to 0.2 foot above the sur^
24 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATEB LEVEL IN WEIiLS.
face. The water in the 14-foot well rose above the sarface three or four times lf»r
j^riods of a few hours. The elevation of the water table under the low swell to tht
west was probably about 13 feet.
Mr. Francis L. Whitney w^as placed in charge of the observations at this point oi
King gages were installed on supports clamped to the well casings. The gages wea
maintained from June 25 to September 15, and some of the results are given in
PI. VI. These give a large amount of important material bearing not only on pan])
scientific problems, but on some of the live economic problems of the region. It yIII
be noticed that as a whole the curves of these wells are parallel. This beare rry
directly on the old question of the source of the water in the deep wells on L/^a^
Island. It has long been a favorite hypothesis that in some mysterious way lu^
quantities of water were introduced by great underground streams from the New
England States, and this 504 foot well was one of the wells which were supposed to
strike one of these streams. It has already been shown « that the source of the wiler
in the deep wells on Long Island is from the rain that falls on the surface (see p. Km,
and the really remarkable agreement of the general shape of these curves fumisbes
additional confirmation, pointing as it does to close interrelation and a common
source.
The behavior of these wells during rain storms shows that rain may affect the
water level in wells in two ways, (1) without the water reaching the ground-waier
table, and (2) by actual infiltration and addition to the ground water. In both
cases the effect is greatest in the shallow well. In the first case all wells commeoct;
to rise as soon as the rain begins, and rise abruptly, sometimes several inches. That
this can not be due to actual infiltration is shown by its instantaneous character and
by the fact that the water in the shallow 14-foot well, driven entirely in sand, ne«
above the surface of the ground four times under such circumstances. Such ri9et>,
moreover, produce no permanent deflection of the well curve. (See record for Ang.
18-22, PL VI.)
This sudden rise is due to a number of factors. In the first place, when the soil
above the water table is filled with air the addition of water to the surface practi-
cally seals the outlets for the air and the weight of the rain is transmitted by thi!!
confined air to the water table. The effect of such a transmission is to hasten the
discharge of the water at the ground- water outlet, and so produce an immediate rise
in the streams. In this manner rains which never reach the ground-water table
and which do not contribute directly to stream flow may immediately prodm^ a
greatly increased stream discharge. It should be noted in this connection that the
well always rose before the adjacent brook, although the brook might later reach a
higher elevation.
In the second case, when the water in the wells is elevated by the actual perwla-
tion of water, the water rises gradually and reaches its highest point several day* or
weeks after the rain, rather than in several minutes. In the case of the heavy niiite
which occurred on August 28, the 14-foot well reached its highest point before no(m
on the 29th, the 72-foot well at about 6 o'clock on the 29th, and the 504-foot well at
noon on the 30th. There are three factors concerned in this last rise: (1] The
instantaneous transmission of pressure due to weight of rain on the surface in the
vicinity of the well; (2) actual percolation in the vicinity of the well, and (3) pn>-
gressive detormations resulting from the weight of the rain at more distant poinL^
The rise in the deeper wells is wholly due to the first and third causes. The cun»;
in this case is actually displaced and returns to its former position only gradually,
instead of at once, as in the case described atJove.
Barometric changes affect the 504-foot well most, but are occasionally perceptible
in the 72-foot well. Temperature changes produce rhythmical daily fluctuatioiu in
the 14- and 72-foot wells; in the first the changes are very pronounced, amounting
a Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 44, 1906, pp. 67-09.
jKiMPw— >aa»juiiMi< mmmmnt - mm-
OBSERVATIONS WITH SELF-RKOORDINO OAOES.
25
to as much as 1} inches a day. The 504-foot well showed a regular fluctuation with
two high and two low waters a day. The fluctuation, however, is not progressive,
and so is not tidal.
The curve from the 504-foot well shows a great number of minor periodic oscilla-
tions, but the time scale is not sufficiently great to study them satisfactorily. The
most pronounced of the series has a period of about forty minutes. The 72-foot well
occasionally shows well-marked secondary oscillations, with a period of approxi-
mately eighty minutes. For a careful study of these, however, a much larger gage
with a large time scale is demanded.
OBSERVATIONS AT DOUGLA8TON, N. Y.
In the winter of 1902 and 1903 a number of shallow wells were sunk along the base
of hills, east of Alley Creek, and near ''The Alley," an old settlement just south of
Douglaston, N. Y. (PI. VII), for the Citizens' Water Supply Company. Six of these
are flowing wells, and in the other two the water comes very near the surface. Through
the kindness of Mr. Cord Meyer and his son, Mn J. Edward Meyer, president and
superintendent, respectively, of the Citizens* Water Supply Company, the flowing
wells were piped up beyond the limit of flow and thus prepared for gaging.
The relative elevation, depth, and head in these wells are shown in the following
table:
Elevatiom in weUs of Citizen^ Water Supply Company , at Douglasiony N. Y.
Elevation
of surface
above sea
level.
Depth of
bottom of
pipe below
sea level.
Average
height
above sea
level to
which
water will
rise if
piped up.
Alley Pond
Feel.
17.2
20.2
10.2
6
5
10.8
10.1
9.8
10.6
JPtscI.
Feet.
17.2
Well No. 1
20.6
25
28
25
89
35
80
17
19
Well No. 2 '.
9
Well No. 3
8.5
Well No. 4
18
WellNo.6
18
Well No. 6
19
Well No. 7
17
Well No. 8
16
The strata encountered vary considerably; some of the wells penetrate nothing
but sand and gravel, and in others clay beds of greater or less thickness are found.
The water is derived from the adjacent hill mass, the height of the ground water in
which determines the head in these wells.
The tidal marsh to the west is a mass of soft black mud largely covered with a mat
of growing vegetable matter, which is sufficiently Arm to walk on, but which gives at
every step. This surface mat of roots is often sufficiently tenacious to hold up when
undermined by the small streams formed by the many springs that occur at the base
of the hills, and these streams oft«n flow through underground passages beneath the
turf. The underlying mud or black ooze is over 10 feet thick in the upper end of
the mud flat, and Mr. D. L. Van Nostrand states that, in driving piles for a dock
at the bridge, the depth to ** solid ground" was found to be 65 or 70 feet. The arte-
sian pressure beneath this mud has caused the ground to rise in several places, with
the resultant production of many small rapids (PI. VII). At a number of points
near the upper end of the basin, where the mud is thin, the water haa broken
26 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
through and produced low mud conee or mud volcanoes. « The drilling of tlie ar
sian wells and the fact that they were allowed to flow freely have perhaps in \ ,.'
relieved the pressure here, and during the three months the cones were ol>sen -
they did not change materially, although on several occasions mud w^as seen ri-i .
from the craters and flowing down the sides. Three hundred feet north of the r; n
flat and on the east bank of Alley Creek there is a lesser area of mud which i.^ u
covered at low tide. In this there is a marked mud flow, which is likewise. prc>l»a'
connected with the artesian waters under discussion.
Mr. Francis L. Whitney was placed in charge of the work here, and he prepan-
wooden shelter boxes covered with tarred paper. These were securely clanipei *
the top of the well pipes, which were steadied by means of guy lines. * A tide ^^j-
was established on the end of the crib of the drawbridge on the main tunlpi^^
(PI. VII.). The crib furnished a very good still box, and the locality is as near x\
wells as it was possible to get, for to the south the creek bed is uncovered at low ti'l^
The equipment consisted of 3 Friez gages and 1 Mead gage. The Mesul jrij-
was placed on well No. 8 and furnished the only record running thrt>ogh li-
whole of the time of observation. One of the Friez gages was placed at the drae
bridge during the whole period, but from one cause and another no reconi » :-
obtained before August 6, and after that time the record was not completr
By shifting the remaining gages records were obtained for a time from all r>
wells but No. 3. Some of the curves obtained from these observations are shown u
PI. VIII.
All these wells are clearly tidal, but when the question of the rate of propagatJ -
of tidal effect is considered many difficulties are encountered and the extreme r< > - -
plexity of the problem at once becomes evident. The curves, while broadly resen -
bling each other, show many minor points of difference, which must be attribute,
to the varying shape of the tidal wave in the mud flat near the wells and the ctit»-
quent complexity and variation of the stresses involved. Thus the records fn-L
wells 2 and 8 show that, while the relative amplitudes of the high tides a^m^
perfectly and both show a tendency toward a double cusp at high tide, in well X<». i
the second cusp is characteristically greater, while in well No. 8 the first cusp is ofieti
the greater; compare curves from July 27 to 29. The low-tide curves also show markni
differences; thus, in well No. 2 there is a continued fall until the tide turns, wliith
it does sharply; in No. 8 there is a long period of stagnation and the curve is roun<it':
when the rise begins. Evidently these curves are not readily comparable with thr
tide gage at the bridge nor with each other, for each represents the resultant of a
different set of forces. The conditions for the production of such differences are vm
favorable. The semiliquid marsh mud yields readily to all pressure changes, how-
ever slight; the liquidity of the mu<l varies greatly from point to point, and whilf
the artesian water does not commonly escape through the mud covering it may. a?
shown by the mud cones, do so at any time, and such a point of relief would afect
adjacent wells differently.
Another factor making exact time comparisons difficult is the small scale of tl.t-
records and the great amount of lost motion in the Mead gage. The Mead rectml.'.
show unquestionable time errors of one to two hours, and for this reason the en<l
values are more important than the initial ones of each record. Where evidrt^t
errors occur in the record of the Mead gage for well No. 8 they have been c^>r-
reeled as far as possible, and an attempt has been made to indicate on the diaf^nun
the various details affecting the time values so far as known. For this purpose the
end of each of the original record sheets has been indicated on PI. VIII.
a See Prof. F»aper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 46. 1906. PI. XXVII, C.
6 An illustration of the gage box on well No. 4 will be found in Prof. I^per U.S. Geol. Survey Na m.
1906, PI. XIV.
U. 6. GEOLOOICAL SURVEY
WATER-aUPPLY PAPER NO. 166 K. Vt
Scalo
SKETCH MAP SHOWING LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHIC SURROUNDINGS OF WELLS OF
CITIZENS' WATER SUPPLY COMPANY NEAR DOUGLASTON, N. Y.
Black dots indicate location of mud volcanoes.
By A. C. Veatch, 1903.
LONG I8LAKD OBSERVATIONS. 27
OBSERVATIONS OF THE NEW YORK CITY COMMISSION ON
ADDITIONAL WATER SUPPLY.a
The Long Island division of the commission on additional water supply under the
direction of Mr. W. E. Spear, division engineer, during the perio<l from the middle
of April to the last of October, 1903, made many observations on the water level in
wells on Long Island. In all about 1,200 wells were observed at intervals of from
one to three days by means of steel tapes fitted with cup sounders. From these
observations Mr. Spear endeavored to obtain the velocity of the downward capillary
flow of the water on Long Island.
Meteorological stations, equipped with self-recording instruments, were established
at Brentwood and Floral Park (PI. I, p. 9). It was from these records that the
thermograph, barograph, and rainfall curves shown on Pis. Ill, V, and VI were
obtained.
Mr. Spear likewise obtained from the records of the Brooklyn waterworks data
regarding the fluctuations of the water in shallow wells on the south shore and the
effect of pumping at Merrick and Agawam.
a Spear, Walter £., Long Island sources: Kept. Commission on Additional Water Supply for the City
of New York, Nov. 30, 1903, New York, 1901, appendix 7, pp. 617-806
PART 11.
GENERAL DISCUSSION OF THE FLUCTUATIONS OF WATER
LEVEL IN WELLS.
CLASSIFICATION OF CAUSES.
The vertical fluctuations of the ground-water table or the changes in the level .;
the water in wells may l)e grouped as follows:
A. Fluctuations due to natural causes.
1. Rainfall and evaporation.
1. Fluctuations not depending on single show^a.
a. Regular annual fluctuations,
b^ Irregular secular changes.
2. Fluctuations produced by single showers.
a. By transmission of pressure without any actual addition to the ground water.
b. By the actual addition of rain to the ground water.
II. Barometric changes.
III. Thermometric changes.
1. Fluctuation directly related to temperature.
2. Fluctuation inversely related to temperature.
a. At the surface of the ground-water table, directly through temperature changes.
b. In deeper zones, by pressure changes produced by fluctuations of the preoe«lc;
class.
IV. Fluctuations produced by adjacent bodies of surface water: Rivers, lakes, the ocean.
1. By changes in rate of ground-water discharge.
2. By seepage.
3. By plastic deformation due to varying loads.
V. Fluctuations due to geologic changes.
B. Fluctuations due to human agencies.
1. Settlement, deforestation, cultivation, drainage.
2. Irrigation.
3. Dams.
4. Underground water-supply developments.
5. Unequal loading.
C. Fluctuations due to indeterminate causes.
The relation between the fluctuations due to natural causes may be stated in thi»
way: On the broad and irregular curves produced by the secular climatic and g<t>.
logic changes are superposed the regular annual fluctuations, which are perhaps iht
most characteristic and important of the ground-water fluctuations due to natural
causes; and on these, in turn, are superposed the simple ramfall, barometric, ther-
mometric, tidal, and flood fluctuations. This complex curve, made up of many rega-
lar and irregular elements, is further modified by human agencies. The camulativ^e
effect of these human agencies is irregular and the result is to modify — indeed, often
to largely alter — the character of the broad irregular curves produced by secular cli-
matic and geologic changes. Yet some of these human modifications have a penodio
value which, in the case of cultivation, for example, may greatly change the ampli-
tude of the annual fluctuations, or, in the case of pumping or the change of water
level behind a milldam, may give rise to rather regular daily fluctoatioiis.
28
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ges. At point marked * on well curve No. 8 lost motion is evident
original record sheets.
FLUCTUATIONS OF WATER IN WELLS,
29
FLUCTUATIONS PRODUCED BY NATURAL CAUSES.
RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION.
BEOULAB AinnrAL FLVOTTTATIOVS.
GENERAL CHARACTER AND CAUSE.
Woldrich, from a study of nine years' observations on a 19-foot well at Salzbnrg, con-
;1ude<I that the rise and fall of the ground water stands in no relation whatever to the
FiQ. 9.'~Yearly rainfall and water-level curves in shallow wells In middle Europe (after Soyka).
The curves are duplicated for a second year to facilitate comparisons.
amount of rain, since with the same quantity of precipitation it at times rises, and again
falls, and even with considerably increasing quantities of rain it often falls constantly.^
aWoldHch. Johann Nepomuk. Mitt. d. Techn. Klubs zu Salzburg, 1869, Heft 1, Zeltschrift d.
Osterreicbischen Geselischaft liir Meteorolorie, Bd. 4, 1869, pp. 273-279 Penck's Qeograpnlsche
AbhaDdlungen, Bd. 2, Heft 3. Wlen, 1^. p. 23.
80
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
While BO broad a statement is not entirely trae for all localities in the North T^
perate Zone, yet it properly emphasizes the fact that the relation betwe«fn r
ground- water fluctuations and the rainfall is not the simple one which znigijt
inferred from the statement that the rainfall is the source of the fnt)uii<i wa-*
Observations at many points in the North Temperate Zone have shown that *'•
Miflburn,
Long hhnd.nr,
LansmA Mich.
Fi(}. 10.— Yearly rainfall and water-level curves in shallow wells in the United States. The cnnt*
are duplicated for a second year to facilitate comparisons.
ground water fluctuates in a yearly period with a single maximum and minimmu.
and that this curve generally doea not correspond with the rainfall curve (figs, 9, 10 .
Indeed, at Frankfurt, Bremen, Berlin, and Briinn, the highest point of the ground
water is in the ppring months at the time of least rainfall (fig. 9). The yeariy
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO RAINFALL AND KVAPOBATION.
81
curves of the ground water are much more regular than the rainfall curve, and on
"the whole in general shape they most resemble the annual temperature curve (fig.
H). The reason for this difference is the simple one that the fluctuations of the
ground water depend not only on the absolute amount of the rainfall, but on the
ciuantity that reaches the zone of complete saturation, or the ground-water table,
jand the time consumed in so doing. The quantity is affected by many factors,
among which are the evaporation from the surface of the ground, the evaporation
or transpiration from plants, the quantity retained in the soil above the zone of satu-
ration, and the amount that runs directly off the surface without ever penetrating
the ground. The time element is affected by the porosity and moisture content of
the soil, the character of the covering, and to a greater or less extent by the height
of the soil column. The general result is that the water is delivered gradually to
thc^ zone of complete saturation, and as the effects of single rains are thus generally
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Fia. 11.— Annual curves baned upon mean monthly averages of ground-water level at Bryn
MawT, Pa.,a and temperature and rainfall at Philadelphia, Pa.,b for the period 1886-1895,
showing the general resemblance of the ground- water and temperature curves. The
exact agreement of the maximum ground-water level and the maximum temperature Is
unusual.
minified and often entirely blotted out, a relatively smooth cur\'e results (PI. IX).
This yearly period of the ground water is largely due to the periodic character of the
evaporation, including plant transpiration. This depends on the temperature, and
the net result for the year is a simple curve of the same shape as the mean tempera-
ture curve, although inversely related to it, hence the general resemblance of the
yearly well curve to the temperature curve. Were the rain uniform throughout the
year, and were there no lag due to transmission or unmelted snow, the maximum
ground-water level would occur at the time of the minimum temperature and satu-
ration deficit of the atmosphere, or, in the North Temperate Zone, in January. The
effect of the irregular distribution of the rainfall is to change the time of the occur-
rence of this maximum. A moderate excess of rain in the summer, such as occurs
a Observations of W. 8. Auchlnc]o»«; Waters within the Earth and Laws of Rainflow, 1897.
^Observations of U. S. Weather Bureau; Annual Summary Pennsylvania Climate and Crop Service.
32
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
at Frankfurt-am-Main, causes the maximum to advance to March, while at Bnenif:-
Berlin, and Briinn, where the difference between the summer and winter rainlai/ •
progressively greater, in the order named, the maxima occur respectively in Mar.
April, and May (fig. 9). The extremely great summer precipitation at Munich a-
Salzburg, together with the low rainfall in January, causes the maximum at th-^
places to advance to July and August.
In this connection the observations of (1) Dickinson and Evans, (2) Greave^^ ai
(3) Lawes and Gilbert, near London, are of great interest. All of these ohp«ervt--
endeavored to determine the amount of rain actually contributed to the gn »fi^.:
Fig. 12.— Results of English percolation experiments. In the Dickinson and Evans experiments tU
gages were buried in the ground; one was filled with ordinary Hertfordshire soil (aaandy. Kn^-
elly loam) and covered with sod; the other was filled with challc and covered with a thin Uvt
of soil and sod. In the Lawes and Gilbert observations columns of a rather hcavr loam v.tK
clay subsoil in their natural state of consolidation were built in with brick and cement; no vr.:
elation wa.s allowed to grow on the gages, which were surrounded by meadow land. Curres art
based on the monthly averages from September 1, 1870, to August SI, 1902.
water. Each used vessels with impervious sides and pervious bottoms, sunk 1h>}
with the surface of the ground. The water percolating through the soil columns »&=
collected and compared with the yield of the adjacent rain gages. In the case of the
Dickinson and Evans and the Greaves experiments the boxes were filled with mate-
rial supposed to represent the average soil of the region, in both cases a sandy !*Kii»
In the Lawes and Gilbert experiments actual blocks of soil were undermined and the
results represent the amount of rainfall passing through a heavy loam with a flsy
subsoil in its natural condition of consolidation, but not covered with vegetation. The
average results obtained are given in the following table and are partially shown in
a graphic manner in fig. 12.
u. a. acouMicAL tunvcv
WATtA-SUPPLY PAPfeR NO. 186 PU IX
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and minimum. (From Bericht dea Ausschusaea fOr dii""* ^ <>«<="''•"«• ^ <»»• /•«•/ nMwimum
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION.
33
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84 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATEB LEVEL IN WELLS.
Of these the Lawes and Gilbert results are perhaps of the greatest ^'alae, becxn^
they more nearly represent the normal conditions, and they extend throogh a squ:-
ciently long period to obliterate temporary variations. While the quantitative \ ai >-
obtained from these experiments differ, the qualitative results, as shown by tig. 1,
are essentially the same. All except the bare sand give curves of the same ciumhr.'^
as those obtained from the actual observation of ground-water fluctuations. The i< >
percentage of water which passes through the soil in summer is emphasized by i
as is also the greater contribution during the winter months. Even in the bare iaii !
where the water sinks at once and so loses little by evaporation, a downward tfrt:-
ency of the curve during the summer months is evident. The effect of the fat^^
precipitation in the fall is particularly evident in the Lawes and Gilbert resnltE '^
12), where it clearly hastened the time of occurrence of the maximum groaiid-wkt -
percolation by about two months.
EFFSCT OF DEPTH OF SOIL ABOVE ZONE OF COMPLKFE SATURATION ON TIME OF OCXTl-
BSNCE OF YEARLY MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM OF GROUND-WATER LEVEL.
It has been suggested that the soil above the ground- water table tends to dt¥m>7
the effect of single rains by causing the water to be delivered gradually to the z«r.^
of complete saturation, whose upper surface is the water table. In the case of :^^
English experiments at Kothamsted (Lawes and Gilbert) and Heniel Hemf«t«»:
(Dickinson and Evans) the maximum percolation occurs from November to Januan.
yet the water in the wells in that region, while commencing to rise about Decern l^r
did not reach its maximum elevation udtil March, « a delay of about three month*.
Yet in any attempt to calculate the rate of percolation from* these data two dilfcr il-
ties are encountered. In the first place the yearly maximum occurretl at about tV*
same time in this region in wells of all depths, and, furthermore, the Rothanfi-t*"!
results (fig. 12) show no very important difference in the time in which the watK
is discharged through 20, 40, and 60 inches of soil so far a£ it relates to the timt- *i
occurrence of the yearly maximum. In the second place the undei^grotrnd water it
in motion, a certain amount is discliafged at all times, and the amount incr^«^
with the head. The case is not, therefore, the simple one where water is caught in a
measuring tube, as in the percx)lation experiments above described, but the «at*r
must reach the ground- water table at a rate greater than the rate of the outflow, eb^
no rise will take place.
At Wiener Neustadt, Austria, a similar relation has been demonstrated by tK
observations made between 1883 and 1895, in connection with the Wiener Neusteiii
deep- well project for the supply of Vienna.^ These wells are in a valley filling « if
fiuvio-glacial material, somewhat irregular in character, which Suess describes a> &
series of old deltas, c The wells extend from Fisha River, a spring-fed stream, south-
westerly along the Southern Railway. The land and the ground-water table beneatL
lx)th rise gradually in this direction, but while the water table is at the surface »:
the ground at Fisha River, 6} miles south, at St. Agyden, it is from 140 to 170 fwt
from the surface, the exact depth depending on the time of year. (See section at
top of PI. IX. ) The curves obtained from this series of wells, extending roughly
at right angles to the slope of the water plane, are entirely concentric, and the maxi-
mum and minimum occur at the same time, irrespective of depth of Boil above the
ground-water table. It would seem to follow from these data that no very satissiai-
tory determination of tlie rate of downward percolation can be made from the rvh-
tion of the time of greatest precipitation, or percolation, to the time of maximuiL
aClutterbnck, James. Min. Proo. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 2, 1842, p. IM.
bBerieht des Aiisachussea fiir die Wasservereorgung Wiens: Osterreichiacher Ingenienr- nw3
Archit<ikten-Verein. 1895.
clbid.. p. 32: see also Bericht ilber die Erfolgeder Wiener WaaBerleituDgs-CommiaBlon, 1864: Kanw,
F., Geologic der Franz Josephs-Qiiellcnleitung: Abhandlungen 4er K.-k. geologlechen ReiclMii-
sialt, 1877.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION. 35
^pround-water level. The rise of the water is not determined by the simple delivery
of water to the zone of complete saturation, but by the relation of the water so
<3elivered to the rate of outflow. If the water is lowering, a certain amount is con-
snmed in checking that tendency, and only the excess over the outflow is available
for raising the ground-water level. Moreover, in several carefully observed instances,
"the depth of the soil above the ground water has been shown to have no effect on
1:he time of occurrence of the yearly maximum.
The short-period observations on Long Island, New York, during the summer of
1903, however, gave quite different results from those obtained at Wiener Neustadt
The conditions do not appear to be essentially different; the glacial sands and gravels
of the south plain of Long Island slope gradually to the. ocean and in a similar way
the valley glacial gravels of Wiener Neustadt slope to Fisha River, and there is
apparently no great difference in the irregularity and complexity of the bedding.
The Wiener Neustadt or Steinfeld Valley, it is true, is traversed by a large river, the
L«itha, whose stages depend on the conditions affecting its headwaters in the moun-
tains, but observations have shown that this stream, because of the silted character
of its bed, affects only a few wells in its immediate vicinity, and is not to be regarded
as a disturbing factor. (Compare the river stages with well curves on PI. IX. ) On
Long Island the measurements in charge of Mr. Walter E. Spear, department engi-
neer of the commission on additional water supply, « showed that, during the summer
of 1903, the highest stage of the ground water occurred, as a nile, earlier in the shal-
low than in the deeper wells (fig. 13). Where the water level was less than 20 feet
from the surface the highest stage af the ground water occurred in April, while where
the water level was 60 to 75 feet below the surface it did not occur until August
The increase of the retardation was not always uniform. Thus the highest water in
a 3o-foot well near Jamaica (No. 551) occurred in May, while in a well of the same
depth near Deer Park (No. 388) it did not occur until August, although in a well
near Hicksville (No. 237), of about the same depth, the maximum occurred in May.
Whether this irregularity is typical or is only a result of the rather peculiar season
- in which the measurements were made could be determined only by observations
covering a period of years, instead of months. It should, however, be stated in this
connection that along the south shore, where the Brooklyn water department has
observed shallow wells for several years, the curve for 1903 is not greatly different
from that of preceding years, indicating, so far as the shallow wells are concerned,
that the year is not to be regarded as an abnormal one (fig. 15, p. 39). On the other
hand, the results are so at variance with the thirteen years' observations at Wiener
Neustadt, which apparently cover similar conditions, that further confirmation of
these Long Island results, by additional observ^ations, is needed before any conclu-
sions can be drawn. Certainly the Wiener Neustadt data indicate that the depth of
the soil above the ground- water table is of no importance in determining the time of
occurrence of the maximum ground-water level. On the other hand, the Long
Island observations suggest that a difference in thickness of 60 feet may delay the
time of the occurrence of the maximum level four months.
The curves showing the result of the Long Island work indicate further that, in
the soil in question, single showers frequently produce very definite effects in shallow
wells, and that such effects become less as the depth of unsaturated material above
the water table increases. Indeed, in the wells where the water is 30 or 40 feet
below the ground, the curves are relatively smooth or the variations bear no evident
relation to the rainfall. & Spear has attempted to trace the time of rise, due to given
showers, from the shallow through the deeper wells, and so determine the rate of
a Long Island sources: Kept. New York City Commission on Additional Water Supply, 1904, appen-
dix 7, Pi. IV, Incorrectly numbered PI. VI, p. 792.
frMany of the wells observed by the commission were open, dug wells, which were In use, and the
minor fluctuations are partially due to this cause, as well as to barometric and thermometric changes,
86
FI.U0TUAT10N8 OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION.
37
downward percolation or downward capillary flow. There are certain difficulties in
the way of determining the value sought in this manner. In the first place, the
fluctuations in the shallow wells can not l)e satisfactorily correlated with those in the
deep ones, and the only line which can be followed through the diagram prepared by
S]>ear is the time of maximum ground water, which, as indicated above, in this
region during the time of observation, in general lags proportionally to the depth.
This gives a fairly regular curve and the remaining curves have been inferred on
either side of this one. The yearly maximum, however, can scarcely be attributed
to a single rain, but represents rather the culmination of a whole series of events,
and hence can not be used as a basis of such a calculation.
In the case of regions like Wiener Neustadt it is clear that the results from calcu-
lations of this character would have no meaning, and, indeed, what do the values
really represent on Long Island?
ntREGULAA SSOULAB FLTFOTTTATIOVS.
The observations of Dickinson and Evans and of Lawes and Gilbert with percola-
tion gages developed the fact that, as a rule, not only did more water percolate in
wet than in dry years, but that the percentage of rain water which passed through
the soil columns was usually much greater in wet years than in dry ones. Thus
while the average yearly percolation of 1870-1902 at Rothamsted (Lawes and Gil-
bert) was 49 per cent of the
yearly rainfall of 28 inches, in
the year 1878-79, when 40.2
inches of rain fell, 61 per cent
of the rain water passed
through a soil column 60
inches high, and in the year
1877-78, with a rainfall of 18.2
inches, the percolation was
but 36 per cent (see p. 47.)
The general tendency — al-
though there are exceptional
cases, such as recorded at
Hemel Uem|)6tead (Dickinson
and Evans) in 1868-69, when,
with a rainfall of 28 inches, 2
inches more than the annual
average, the percolation was
but one-third of 1 per cent
instead of the usual 27 per
cent — is for the small differ-
ences in the annual rainfall to
have a rather magnified value
in the ground- water fluctua-
tions.
The yearly variations of the
rainfall are generally pro-
gressive over rather long periods (fig. 14), and corresywnding broad, irregular vari-
ations of the ground- water level are produced. On Long Island the shallow wells
observed by the Brooklyn waterworks show, besides the annual fluctuations, secular
variations corresponding in general with those of the rainfall (fig. 16). Thus the
lowest point in both curves is in 1901 and the highest in 1899. Many differences
are, however, to be noted between the two curves. The annual curve, though it
may be slightly modified, .persistently recurs, whatever the rainfall. Note in this
connection the regular downwani course of the ground water in the latter part of
1 \
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Fio. 11.— ReHidual-ma.ss curves of rainfall for Long Island,
N.y., Newark, N. J., and Philadelphia, Pa. (After Spear,
1904. ) These curves show the cumulative excess or defi-
ciency of the total actual rainfall over the total mean
rainfall for the periods under confllderation, and as these
excess or deficiency values are those which determine
the long-period rise and fall of the ground water they
indicate the general character of the secular fluctuation
of the ground water occurring at these points.
38 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
1898 and 1903, when the rainfall curve is rising, and the appearance in 1900 of a
typical yearly curve when the rainfall curve falls rather regularly from the ^pri^
of 1899 to 1901.
Similarly, in the Wiener Neustadt observations (PI. IX, p. 62) the seculiir var-
ations of the ground-water level broadly follow the variations of the rainfalL
The observations of Auchincloss" on a well at Bryn Mawr, Pa., which have beei
plotted by Spear & in connection with the yearly rainfall and temperature curves, lik*^
wise show pronounced annual and secular fluctuations. Here, however, the seeoUr
fluctuations of the ground water, while broadly resembling the rainfall variation-.
show some points of difference. Thus, the minimum of the secular curve of the
ground water is in 1885-86, while the minimum rainfall is in 1887, and the gener£
shape of the two curves for 1886-87 and 1888 is by no means parallel. The poatictf
of the maxima, however, agree closely, and there is a general falling off in hiA^\
curves from 1 889 to 1 893-94. Though the extreme rains of the latter part of 1889 ttn -
porarily obliterated the annual curve, it quickly reasserted itself.
In general it may be said that irregularities in the yearly curve are due to im^-
larities in the rainfall occurring in the same year.
AXOTJirr OF AHITTTAL AHD SECULAR FLTFOnTATIOH.
The size of the annual fluctuations depends principally upon (1) the percentag*- r.f
rainfall reaching the ground water; (2) the amount of free pore space of theFtrata in
the zone affected by the fluctuations, and (3) the relation of the ground-water table
to the topography of the region involved.
It is relatively self-evident that, where a single well is considered, the range of the
yearly fluctuations will vary with the first factor, and that in general the s>uw
amount of infiltration will prcnluce a greater fluctuation where the pore 8|iace is anal]
than where it is large. It does not, however, follow that in a given region, in U"»'>
of the Rame porosity, the same annual rainfall under the same climatic conditiori^
will produce the same results. Obt?ervations have shown that whatever the rainfall
or porosity, provided the latter be reasonably constant in the art»a under considen-
tion, the annual fluctuations approach zero at the point of discharge and tend to n-i-
ularly increase in magnitude from that point to the ground-water divide. <^ Tha»i ;U
Wiener Neustadt (PI. IX, p. 62), near the ground- water discharge into Fisha River,
where the depth to the ground-water table is about 5 feet, the yearly fluctuation L*- 3
to 4 feet, while at St. Agyden station, where the water plane is about 150 feet frum
the surface, the fluctuation is 25 to 30 feet, and the fluctuations in the intervening
wells are proportional to their position between these two points. On Long Islaod
the annual fluctuation 2 miles from the shore, at Millburn (figs. 13, 15), is 22inchf>,
while at the ground-water divide, 8 to 9 miles from the south shore, the fluctuation
is about 10 feet. A few observations regarding the amount of the yearly fluctuation
at different points have l)een collected in the table following. Many of these points
of ol>Hervation are located near the points of discharge, and the values as a whole
are to be regarded as low.
In records for but a few years it is evidently impossible to separate the annual from
the secular fluctuations. When, however, the ol)8ervations cover a conaideraltle
period, it is possible to obtain a value for the secular fluctuation. This equals the
total range less the average yearly fluctuation. A few such values are given in the
table on page 40.
a Auchincloss, W. S.. Waters within the Earth and Laws of Rainflow, Philadelphia. 1897. p. 9.
^ Spear, Walter E., Kept. Commission on Additional Water Supply for the City of Kew York, 19W.
appendix 7, fig. 45, p. 822.
<'Tiie crosM section irom Wailord to the Chlltern Hills midway between Colne and Gade rivers, whkh
accompanies Clutlerbuck's di.scu«iion of the '* Periodic Alternations of the Chalk Water I^vel umlrf
London" (Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 9, 18dU, Pi. V1),i.m a most excellent diagram matlcUlustriUt'Q
of this pnnciple.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO RAIITFALL AND EVAPORATION.
39
a
s
§
I
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E5
I s
St
-* OB
cjQ or
/?ep/A 6e/oiv. surface
of ground in f^et.
fxcess rain&J/ h inches
0)/ermear7 /ff97'/9QJ.
40
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
I
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FLITCTUATION8 DUK TO EAINKALL AND EVAPORATION.
41
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, . . . - i i .- u . r5
42 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
FLUOnrATIOVB SUE TO 8ZVGLE 8H0WER8.
In the foregoing consideration of the relation of the rainfall to secular and ann ..
fluctuations, the most imiwrtant factor was clearly the amount of water s/cinA -
contribute<l to the zone of complete saturation, or the ground water. « In thejse ra.-*-
the water table rises or falls because the amount of water receive<l is greater or .r^-
than the outflow.
In the consideration of single showers, however, it is found that another fact* .r •
of as great or even greater importance. Single showers may affect the water Ievt-1 \
a well in two ways: (1) By transmission of pressure without any actual additi< ^n *
the ground water — indeed, in many cases the elevation of the water in the w^Il >
accompanied by an actual depression of the ground- water table; (2) by an aitn^
contribution to the ground water whereby the level of the water table is raised.
FLUCTUATIONS PRODUCED BY SHOWERS BY TRANSMITTED PRESSURE WITHOUT ANT
INCREASE IN THE GROUND WATER.
King observed at Madison, Wis.,* that the water often rose in wells very sudden 1;
and sharply during summer rains, when an investigation of the soil showed tlia: i*
was dry beneath the surface covering wet by the showers. Similar oocurrvno-?
were recorded at Lynbrook, N. Y., where in a 2-inch well 14 feet deep every rain—
during the period of ol)8ervation, July 17 tt^ September 10 — was reconled and (*•
duration and complexity indicated. Many of these fluctuations pro<luce no fitru a-
nent deflection of the ground-water curve and the evidence that no water in-u
several of these rains reached the ground water is regardeil as conclusive (PL VI:
also note particularly the l)ehavior of the shallow well August lft-21 and the florta-
ations produce<l by rains of July 20, 22, 30, and August 6; the two successive pliowt-r^
of August 6-7 are jwirticularly noteworthy).
In the case- of wells which are not separated from the main water table by iinp^^r-
vious layers and in which the water is not under artesian pressure, this is due larsj^-ly
to the hydrostatic transmission of pressure by means of the soil air. When the raiu
strikes the surface it closes the superficial soil pores or interstices and thus confin»^l
and compresses the air in the soil between the surface and the ground- water tal>if.
The weight of the rain is thus transmitted to the ground- water table, and the extra
head so developed raises the water in wells and increases the discharge at tie
ground-water outlets. The effect on the stream flow is very analogous to the increaiA'
produced by a lowering of the barometric pressure. It is thus possible for a rain i*-
produce instantly a change in the water level in wells and an increase in the groiiD^i-
water outflow without contributing a drop to the ground water. This has an impor-
tant l)earing on the calculation of "flood flows '* from ground- water-fed streams, f^r
it is evident that in this manner a decided rise in the stream may be prodaced by a
rain from which there is no diret^t run-off and which does not reach the ground- wat*^
table.
Two other factors may be involved in the production of the change in level dorinj:
rains: (1) An actual elastic compression or plastic deformation of the soil, and (l? s
change in the capillary conditions. King olwerved in a shallow well near a railn*l
track that the passage of a freight train caused a quick ri.<^ and fall of the water in tht-
well ( p. 75). Apparently the weight of the train compressed the earth and by decrea.*-
ing the pore space caused the water to rise. The weight of the rain might have a
similar effect. Under this hypothesis the water would rise on the addition of the
rain and gradually fall on its removal by evaporation.
n Ground water as here used does not include the hygroscopic and capillary water above the w:itrr
table, or zone of complete saturation. For the purpose of this discuasion, water is not cunsiderc*!
"ground water" until It roaches the water table.
fcBull. U. 8. Weather Bureau No. 5, 1892, pp. 20, 72-78.
PLU0TUATION8 DUE TO KAINFALL AOT) EVAPORATION. 48
IRegarding the second hypothesis it is well known that changes in the surface con-
ditions greatly affect the capillary action of the soil. At Purdue University it was
found that the addition of a thin layer of soil to the surface of a lysimeter caused an
Immediate discharge of water. ^ This was attributed to a change in the capillary
c^onditions, and it has been suggested that the wetting of the ground surface would
produce a similar effect. King, however, observed * that a moderate wetting of the
Hurface tended to increiase the upward percolation, and the effect of wetting the sur-
face at Lynbrook would therefore be to diminish rather than increase the rise due to
rains which do not contribute to the ground water:
At the Colorado experiment station Headden has observed <? that light rains during
dry periods produce a comparatively great increase in the height of the water plane,
while in intervals of abundant moisture, when the soil is wet, rains of this character
<Io not produce such an increase; moderate rains are here sometimes accompanied
l>y temporary depressions of the water plane. These observations may be explained
on the basis that the soil air is the principal factor and that when the soil is very
moist there is so little soil air that no effect is possible with slight showers. The
cause of the temporary depression after moderate rains is not evident unless the con-
ditions are unfavorable for the transmission of pressure by the soil air, but are such
that the increased upward capillary action resulting from the moistening of the sur-
face is sufficient to perceptibly decrease the ground water.
Where there is an impervious layer between the water-bearing strata and the
local ground-water surface, and where there is artesian pressure, the adde<l weight
due to the rainfall in all cases acts directly. In case the rain is imiform over a con-
siderable area this pressure may be regarded as acting on an elastic Ixxly and the
same character of results is to be expected in both deep and shallow wells. Thus in
the Lynbrook wells on July 22 and August 25 all wells show a sharp vertical rise
(PI. VI). On July 22 the rise started in the 14-foot well at 10 p. m., in the 72-foot
well at 10.25, and in the 504-foot well at 10.34; on August 25 a somewhat similar lag
i.M noted, the 14-foot well rising at 4.10 p. m., the 72-foot well at 4.20, and the 504-
foot well at 4.24. The cause of this lag is not fully apparent. With a direct trans-
mission of pressure such as the curve indicates no lag is to be expected. It may be
that in this case the soil is to be regarded as having some of the plastic characters
shown in other cases.
On the other hand, when the rainfall is unequally distributed in time and amount
a plastic deformation may result, due to unequal loading, which will give rise to
different results in wells of different deptbs. In the shallow well the zone of influ-
ence is relatively limited and the condition in this area may be regarded as fairly
uniform. The result is therefore immediate and abrupt, as in the first case. In the
deeper wells, however, the increasing zones of influence bring in more factors, which,
arriving progressively from different sources, tend to produce a more and more
gradual change. Thus, in the Lynbrook wells there were on August d-7, 11, and 20
abrupt changes in the 14-foot well and a more gradual one in the 72- and 504-foot
wells.
This plastic deformation in the surflcial beds, produced by varying load and the
response of the water to it, throws some light on the extreme complexity of the
fluctuation recorded in the wells, for it suggests that variation in load, from whatever
cause, will produce corresponding fluctuations. The water level in deep wells where
an artesian head is developed may thus be very sensitive to local conditions, the
effect of local rainfall and of the yearly fluctuations of the local ground- water level
being felt to a greater or less degree by transmitted pressure in the deeper zones.
aSecond Ann. Rept. Indiana Expt. Station, 1889-90, pp. 32-38.
6 Seventh Ann. Rept. Wisconsin Arric. Expt. Station. 1890, p. 135.
c Headden, WiUUim P., A soil study, pt. 4, The ground water: Bull. Golonulo Agric. Expt Station
No. 72, 1902.
44 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WEI-I-S.
FLUCTUATION OF THE GROUND-WATKB LEVEL RESULTING FROM SINGLE 8HOWER8, IT
ACTUAL PERCOLATION.
The fluctuations produced by direct percolation are of a much less abrupt eL&*-
acter than those just described; indeed, it is usually the case that the vi'^ter is dt-ii.-
ered so gradually to the water table that no change is noticed. Only in the shall •«
wells in coarse material can these fluctuations be identified, except in the case- >
extraordinary rains, when the result is an irregularity of greater or leee impoprtuiv
on the regular annual ground-water curve.
On Long Island the shallow wells near the south shore are affected by most of th-
important rains, although part of the fluctuations recorded are of the character jiM
described. (See figs. 13, 15.) This is due to the coarseness of the sorficial in»
rial and to the nearness of the water table to the surface. In the wells in whidi tbr
ground water is farther from the surface the effect of any rain can not be positiTrl}
identified. In the Wiener Neustadt records the effect of single rains ia entirel;
obliterated (PI. IX), and in long observations of the chalk waters of England tht
general rule, to which, of course, there are exceptions where large undeigr&iu>l
caverns are concerned, is that the water is delivered very gradually to the groimd'
water table.
PEEOXIITAOI OF RADnTALL OOHTSIBTJTED TO THE OBOUHI) WAT3KB.
METHODS OF EOTIKATION.
In connection with this discussion of the fluctuation of the water level it may not
be inappropriate to take up the allied question, to which reference has been madt- at
several points, of the percentage of rain contributed to the ground water.
Estimates of this character have been made by three methods — (1) by means o:
the lysimeter, (2) by stream dischai^, and (3) by changes in the level of the
ground water.
ESTIMATION OF PBRCOLATION BT MEANB OF LYBimTERS.
By the lysimeter method the rain water passing through a column of soil in fiel«i
conditions is measured directly. The gage used for this purpose comdsts of a
vessel with impervious sides and a pervious bottom, filled with the soil to be t&^,
and buried so that the surface of the soil in the gage is at the same level as the sir-
rounding ground. The discharge through the pervious bottom of the vensel is M-
lected by a cone and conducted by a small tube to the measuring gages. In the eariy
forms of the apparatus used by Dal ton, 1796, and Dickinson, 1835, surfiu*e ootl^
were provided to discharge the excess rainfall, but these were abandoned when it
was found that on the level surface of the gage there was no surface run-ofL
Many observations have been made along this line, and while the results for long
periods clearly have a greater value than those for short periods, some of these short-
period values have been included in the table on the following page for the pnrpoHS
of comparison.
Lysimeter results have been subjected to considerable criticism, and very difieriof
views expressed regarding their value. It has been suggested (1) that the material
in the gage is not in the natural condition of consolidation, and that, therefore, the
results are too high; (2) that the underdrainage necessary to collect and carry the
water from the base of the soil column to the measuring tube introduces an unnatonl
condition whereby the results are too low; (3) that the Burface run-off factor is
surpressed and the results are too high.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION.
45
^
i
'1
I
tmrni
46
PLU0TUATIOK8 OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WSIJJB.
§1-
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FLUOTUATIONS DUE TO RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION.
47
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48 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
The objection regarding consolidation is well taken, thongh it clearly doe- :
apply to the results at Rothamsted, where natural soil columns were used, and wb-r
very high results were obtained, or to other gages after the first few years, drru
which the soil has settled. In the Hemel Hempstead experiments the i>ein>L:. :
between 1835 and 1843 was 42.5 per cent of the rainfall, while in the period IK^^ '
1853 it was but 35 per cent, a decrease which is perhaps due in part to the gr3>. .
compacting of the soil, though it is also affected by the varying rate of percolar-
for it must be remembered that^he amount of percolation depends more on the t '.-
at which the rain falls and the manner in which it is distributed than on the &' .
amount.
Regarding the unnatural condition introduced by the method of drainage, it :i>
been suggested on the one hand that the lower part of the soil column is thos exp* -- :
to evaporation, and that not only is there a loss in this manner not accounted f >r
the measuring gage, but that the dry condition of the basal layer would retan; r>
percolation to a measureable extent and increase the loss by evaporation from ti-
surface of the ground. Ebermeyer has shown, however, that with small lysimr>-s
the lower portion of the soil column is damper than normal, « and he propo^ii t
remedy this by constructing larger gages. These defects are clearly ones of con-
struction which it is possible to remedy. At Rothamsted essentially the same rt^:i'^
were obtained from soil columns 20, 40, and 60 inches high (fig. 12), showing r l
clusively that in this case the natural conditions were not essentially distnrbed.
Indeed, it is believed that carefully conducted lysimeter observations, extentiir;
over long periods, such as are represented by the Dickinson and Evans* aii«i :rt
Lawes and Gilbert experiments, give very important values bearing on this qnerfi r.
the Lawes and Gilbert results being particularly important and trustwortbT. Thr.
indicate that in the climatic condition of middle England, with 28 inches of rainL .
half of the rainfall is contributed to the ground water through a rather heavy <•■ i
not covered with vegetation, and half of it evaporated. If the rainfall is greater, :.v
percentage increases, if less, it decreases. Had the ground been covered with \e&\^.
straw, or similar matter the percolation would have been greater; if covered w:r:.
growing vegetation, less. Lawes and Gilbert estimate, from their observatioD!^ • c
plant transpiration, that in this region 2 inches per year would represent the jlirt
transpiration in the area of downs and waste land, where there was very little veji^
tation, while with a heavy grass or mangel crop it would amount to 7 inches or nurv.
The average for the whole region was estimated at 3 to 4 inches. This would niait
the percolation for soil of this character, in the case of downs and wa^te land, 4:^ \^
cent; for the average mid-England district, 39 per cent, and for land covered wi'h
heavy grass or mangel crop, 25 per cent or less.
It should be noted in this connection that while the most of these obeer\'ati(tn.<.
including those at Rothamsted, were made in connection with agncultural investi-
gations, the Hemel Hempstead and Lee Bridge (Greaves) experiments were mtie
for engineering purposes. The Hemel Hempstead observations were undertaken f»r
a paper manufacturer, dependent on the water power of a spring-fed stream. He
argued that stream flow depended on the amount of water which percolated tliruucJi
the soil; that measurements of this quantity would indicate the stream flow to l<?
expected during the following summer. It is stated that he found that the indica-
tions of the gage during the winter enabled him to calculate the supply of water irom
the stream during the ensuing season, that he had always found the indication p^'r-
fectly reliable,'' and that he was accustomed to regulate the volume of the order'
accepted for the summer season by the indication of the gage for the preceding
winter.^ Ciutterbuck adds, though the relation is clearly more of a qualitative than
a Reported by R, H. Scoct, Jour. Royal Agnc. Soc , 2d ser.. vol. 17, 1881. pp. 66-67.
tMin. Proc. \im. Ciyil Emt.. vol. 2, 1842, p. 168.
« Ibid., p. 157. • ' "^
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION.. 49
a quantitative one, that the rise in level of the water in the wells in that region is
found to coincide with the readings of the Dickinson gages. <<
The lysimeter certainly furnishes a very direct and exact means of determining the
stmonnt of water contributed to the ground water at any given point. The principal
olDJection to it is that the block of soil tested is not necessarily representative of the ■
iwhole area under investigation. ^''f
Somewhat similar experiments, having for their object the determination of the
evaporation from plants, have been conducted by many agriculturists in this country,
notably by King, f> by means of tanks which can be lifted from the ground and
^^eighed. This method is not so applicable to the amount of water contributed to
the ground water as is the lysimeter type used above, for the results are leas direct,
the percolation being inferred from the evaporation generally under more artificial
conditions than with the lysimeter.
iSTIHATION OP PERCOLATION FROM THE 8TBBAM OI8CHARGB.
The favorite method of estimating the evaporation of a given drainage basin is to
subtract the stream discharge expressed in inches of rainfall over the d|^inage basin
from the average rainfall. Thus it is assumed that —
Rainfall— Stream discharge ^ Evaporation.
The stream discharge is composed of ( I ) the rain water which flows into the drain-
age channels without penetrating the soil— this is, strictly speaking, the run-off, but
as this word is now by common consent used for the whole quantity of water dis-
charged by the river, this contribution may be somewhat arbitrarily referred to as
the flood flow; and (2) the water which after a greater or less journey through the earth
returns to the surface — this may be called the spring or ground-water flow oi the river.
It has been assumed that the ground- water flow of a river is its low -water flow and
that any excess of this quantity can be regarded as flood flow. This is far from being
a general fact. As the height of the ground-water table increases the stream dis-
charge also increases, and it is possible to have high and low waters dependent
entirely on the fluctuation of the ground -water discharge. In streams which cut the
ground-water table and are clearly ground-water-ted streams, such as those on Long
Island, a rise in the ground-water table changes the position of the head of the stream,
and by thus increasing both the head and the area of discharge greatly increases the
stream flow. The total range of the ground-water table near the coast is much less
than near the ground-water divide, and the discharge during periods of high ground-
water level may therefore be disproportionate to the changes in level recorded by the
wells near the coast. Because of these great changes in the area of the discharge and
the relatively free flow of the surface water, it otten happens that the fluctuations of
the stream height in the lower part of the stream are greater than the changes in thie
level in wells in the same region.
fleavy rains, with no surface run-off, may likewise produce sudden and considejc-
able rises by increasing the spring flow by transmitted pressure in the manner
described above (p. 42). In the 14-foot well at Lynbrook (p. 23), besides the sud-
den rises recorded for every rain, the water four times during the period of observa-
tion rose above the surface. In the flrst instance the water, much to the amazement
of the observer, gushed over the top ol the pipe a few minutes after the showerib<^n,
and, while after the pipe was raised this did not occur again, the records show>ibaA
on several occasions the water rose higher than the ground surface. There appear,
then, to be great and almost insurmountable difficulties in the way of the satisfactory
separation of the stream discharge into spring or ground- water flow and flood 'Aow.
r ••••«
a Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 9, pp. 153, 156.
OAnn. Repts. Wisconsin Agric. Expt. Station, 1892, pp. 94-100, lt)93, pp. 162-159, 1894. pp. 240-280;
1897, pp. 228-231.
IBB 155—06 4
50
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL Ilf WELLS.
It is the belief of the writer that in the eastern United States the portion of the fau
stream flow attributed to ground- water contributions is commonly greatly ua«.r!
estimated.
On Long Island Spear, from a comparison of the hydrographs of sevenil erf t
streams near the south shore with the fluctuation in neighboring wells, ha? c
eluded that of the total stream discharge but 57 per cent is springy or groimd-Ta^'
flow.« This is an extremely low value, and from a consideration of the various fact -^
involved it is believed that 90 per cent is much nearer the true value. On this l«ar--
the Hood flow is but 3 or 4 per cent of the yearly rainfall.
In the simple equation, Rainfall— Stream flow = Evaporation, no aoooont is takes ••:
the underflow, it being assumed that all the ground water is returned to the strvtz.
above the point at which the measurement is made, an assumption which is far frcL
correct. The result of this is to give to the evaporation a value just as much in ex< v*
of its true value as there is loss by underflow. Thus on Long Island, where the pm-
lation is perhaps 60 per cent of the rainfall, the estimate of Spear * gives the total ta-r-
mal stream dischai^e as 33 per cent of the rainfall, and the estimates of the Bruc>kl}x
water department are still lower. This, according to the above formula, would gi'^'^
a loss by evaporation of 67 per cent, when it is actually about 40 per cent. It tua}
be assumed, however, except in regions deeply covered with loose superficial mai'~
rial, such as Long Island, that the loss by underflow is less than the excess bytl •<.
flow, and that the total stream flow represents a quantity slightly laiiger than ihf
percolation. With thi^ in mind, some idea of the amoimt of percolation can 'nt
obtained from the following values:
Rainfall and run-off of drainage basins in the United SUUes,
Drainage basin.
Watershed of southern Long Island
Muskingum River, Ohio
Genesee River, N. Y
Lalce Coehituate, Mass
Mystic Lake, Mass
Croton River, N.Y
Neshamlny Creek, Pa
Sudbury River, Mass
Sudbury River, Mass
Years of
record.
Perkiomen Creek, Pa
Connecticut River, Conn
Hudson River, N.Y
Nashua River, South Braucli, Mass.
Pequannock River, Conn .
188H-1895
1890-1898
1863-1900
1878-1896
1868-1899
1884-1899
1876-1900
1875-1902
1884-1899
1872-1885
1888-1901
1897-1902
1891-1899
Average
Average
isr,.;«
Percent-
age:
Stream
flow of
rainfall.
Inches of
depth.
42.66
S9.7
40.3
47.1
44.1
48.07
47.6
46.1
46.38
48.0
43.0
44.2
51.32
44.2
Inches qf
dejMi.
14,0
13.1
14.2
20.3
20. 0
22.83
23.1
22.6
22.75
22.0
23.3
27.66
26.8
83.0
83.0
35.0
43.0
45.3
46.5
48.5
49.0
49.0
49.0
51.0
52.7
58.7
60.6
AuthoritT.
Spear.
Rafter.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Freeman.
Rafter.
Do.
Metropolitan wfttt)
works.
Rafter.
Do.
Do.
^etitipcditan wsir:
^^orks.
Ra er.
In this table the large loss by underflow in the Muskingum and Gensee dnunaet'
basins is evident.
ESTIMATION OF PERCOLATION FROM CHANGES IN LEVEL OF THE GBOUND-WATKI "TABLE.
The broader and more imi)ortant fluctuations of the ground-water tab e are clrtr^
due to the infiltration of water, and attempts have been made repeated! • toestiinafc
a ReF>t. New York City Commission on Additional Water Supply, 1904, p.
6 Ibid., p. 795.
f
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION. 51
tlie amount of infiltration by the rise in the ground water. After having determined
the available pore apace, which' is by no means a simple matter, it appears very easy
t< * (^Iculate the amount of water which will cause the water level to rise a few inches
or a few feet. The method is an attractive one, with an appearance of exactness and
Hiiiiplicity, and has often been tried. The results have very little meaning, however,
for the very important reason that the same rainfall under the same climatic condi-
tions will produce very different rises in material of the same porosity; for, as pointed
out previously (p. 38), the amplitude of the fluctuation increases with the distance
from the groimd- water discharge. Thus, with material of the same porosity, an
annual rainfall of 25 inches produces at Wiener Neustadt a fluctuation in one well of
1 foot, and in another a fluctuation of 25 feet (PI. IX). It is evident that a calcu-
Latiun of infiltration based on the rise of water produced in well No. 1, will give very
different values from that of No. 2, and yet it may be confidently asserted that the
same amount of percolation is received in both. Similarly, in the chalk region of
Kii>;land, the fluctuation in the same region ranges from a few inches to 50 or 100
feet. The impossibility of accurately calculating the amount of percolation from the
rise of the ground- water table is evident.
RE7SRSK0E8 BBLATINQ TO WELL FLVOTITATIONS DUE TO BAHTFALL AVS BYAPORATIOH.
The bibliography relating to flut^tuations of water in wells due to rainfall is natu-
rally very extensive, and an attempt has been made to collect a few only of these
titles, important either for their general bearing or their special reference to the
United States:
ArciiiNCLOfiB, W. S. WnterM within the Earth and Laws of Rainflow, Philadelphia, 1897.
Gives record of fluctuations in well at Bryn Mawr, Pa., 18S6-1895, showing annual and secular
fluctuations.
Barbour, Erwin Hinckley. Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 29, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, p. 28;
Nebraska Geol. Survey, Rept. of State Geologist, vol. 1, 1903, p. 106.
States that wells in Nebraska show an annual fluctuation independent of the rainfall, with the
maximum occurring in February.
Cli'TTERBUck, James. Observations on the periodic drainage and replenishment of the sub-
terraneous reservoir in the chalk ba.sin of London: Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. [vol. 2J, 1842,
pp. 155-165; 1843. pp. 156-159.
On the periodic alternations and progressive permanent dcprcsnion of the chalk-water level
under London: Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 9, 1850, pp. 151-180, PI. VI.
Emery, Frank E. Notes on fluctuations in height of water In un unused well: Eighth Ann. Rept.
. New York Agric. Expt. Station for 1889, 1890, pp. 374-376, fig.
Records monthly observations from December, 1886, to December, 1889, on a 40-foot well at
(fcneva, N. Y., which shows a single yearly period independent of the rainfall.
FoRTiBR, Samuel. A preliminary report on seepage water and the underflow of rivers: Bull. Utah
Expt. SUtion No 38,1895.
On p. 30, under heading " Effect of subsurface temperature on rate of flow," are given dis-
charge, temperature, and rainfall at Denver Water Company's plant at Cherry Creek, from 1888 to
1891. This is an inflltration gallery in flne sand 15 feet below the surface, and the dischafge
shows a rather regular yearly fluctuation with a minimum in February-March and a maximum,
normally, in August-November. This fluctuation is ascribed by Fortier to changes In soil tem-
pemture. It should be pointetl out, however, that, while the annual changes in soil temperature
do affect the rate of flow (see p. 59), the yearly maximum is independent of this fluctuation and
the agreement here is merely a coincidence.
FRErND, Adolph (secretary). Bericht des Ausschusscs fiir die Wasserversorgung Wiens, Osterreich-
i>*»hen Ingenieur- und Archit^kten-Vercin, 1895.
PI. V, Graphische Darstellung der Was^erstiinde im Stelnfelde, l.s«;i-1888.
Gerhardt, p. I. Handbuch der Ingenieurwi-Hsenwhaften, vol. 3, Der Waswerbau, pt. 1, 1892, pp. 46-51.
Under heading " Schwankungen des Gmiidwas ers," gives a summary based largely on the
reports of Soyka.
Headden, Wiluelm p. a soil study, pt. 4, The ground water: Bull. ( 'olorado Agric. Expt. Station
No. 72, 1902.
Gives data regarding effect of single showers.
Kino, Franklin H. Fluctuations in level and rtite of movement of ground water: Bull. U. S.
Weather Bureau No. 5. 1892, pp. 72-74.
Discusses instantaneous percolation after rains.
52 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IK WELLS.
KiNQ. Franklin H. Principles and conditions of the movement of ground water: Ninetevr'^
Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sur\'ey, pt. 2. 1899, pp. 100-106.
Discusses " Elevation of ground-water surface due to precipitation and percolation/* l&rp- :
from standpoint of porosity.
LiZNAR, Josef. Ueber die periodische Anderung des Grundwasserstandes, ein Beltra^r znr Qik ki
theorie: 6«ea, vol. 17, 1881, p. 390: Meteorol. Zeitschr., Wien, vol. 17. 1882, pp. 36»-371.
LUEGER, Otto. Die Schwankungen des Grundwassers: Gsea, vol. 24, 1888, p. 630.
Michigan State Board of Health. Annual reports, 1878-1903.
Contain monthly observations of water level at many points in Michigan.
SoYKA, IBIDOR. Expcrimentelles zur Theorie des Grundwasserschwankungcn: ViertelJahiaBctr.
fOr off. Gesundheitspflege, vol. 4, 1885, p. 692.
Der Bodcn (Uandbuch des Hygiene uud der Gewerbekrankheiten, vol. 2, pt. 3). Lciji*-
1887, pp. 251-351.
Contains much of the material Incorporated in the following report.
Die Schwankungen des Grundwassers mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der mitteWur ; t
ischen Verhaltnisse: Penck's Geographische Abhandlungen, vol. 2, pt. 3, Wien, 1M8S.
Spear, Walter £. Long Island sources: Rept. New York City Commission on Additional Wu**
Supply, appendix 7, 1904, pp. 816-826.^
Discusses fluctuation in elevation of ground- water surface.
Todd, James E. Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 34, U. S. Geol. Survey. 1900, p. 29.
The normal yearly maximum is here tentatively referred to the melting of snows or floc«l<«.
Tribus, L. L. Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 31, 1894, pp. 170. 891-395.
Reports (p. 170) that in driven wells in New Jereey, 50 feet deep, the effect of rain was nirt:-
felt in less than thirty hours; gives curve (pp. 391-396) showing fluctuation of water level in :-*^ !• •
well at Plainfleld, N. J., waterworks, 1891-1894. This shows normal annual curves slightJ y affe* :<-:
by pumping.
WoLDRicH, JoHANN Nepomuk. VebcT den Einfluss der atmosphiirischen Niederschlage aiu i^*
Grundwasser: Zeitschr. Meteorol., Wien, vol. 4, 1869, pp. 273-279.
Ueber die Beziehungeu dor atmosphiirischen Nicderschlage zum Fluss- und Qrandwa-wr
stand: Mitt. d. Techn. Klubw zu Salzburg, pt. 1, 1869.
FLUCTUATIONS 1>UE TO IJAUOMETRIC CHANGES-
CHA&ACTER AND CAUSE.
Chauges in air pressure have been observed to affect wells in two waya; in A»nh
there is an inflow and oiitflow of air, alid in others a rising and lowering of thenaUr
level. <* The rise or outflow occurs with a falling barometer, and the depreg&don '-r
inflow with a rising barometer. In the case of flowing wells, when the external -si:
pressure decreases, the air within the earth expands, and, as the escape through t'l'
soil is greatly retarded by friction and as the well offers a free eecape, it find^ nl.ir:
through the well tubing. The power of this blast evidently depends on the aiva
tributary to the well, the loss by friction, and the rate of lowering of the out>jit
pressure. On the other hand, with a rising barometer the ext^imal air flows int*' tli*
pijH? to supply the volume lost by the compression of the soil air or earth air. 1:
water is interposed between this included air and the well, the well becomes a n>u^ii
differential-pressure gage in which the maximum change possible is about 12 inch**
of water for each mercurial inch of variation in the barometric pressure.
Where there is no soil air suitably confined to produce the result just descril«ei
the air and other gases in the water so increase its compressibility that a ffliia.l,
though measurable ressult may be produced by the direct comprc^ion and expansi :
of the water. In tiie latter case the depth of water involve<l is an important !act««r.
and it is prol)ably for this reason that on Long Island, where the earth air otrur^
only in the porous surflcial soil, from which it is relatively free to escape^ in v>v
wells at l^ynbrook fluctuations due to barometric changes are clearly noticeable or:. >
in the 504-foot well, and these are relatively small. An examination of PI, VI ?ho*?
that there aie no indications of l)arometric influence on the curves from the 7--tt« :
well, but that in the r)04-foot well there is a striking resemblance. The simiiarit} b.
however, in some places due in part to other causes. Thus the elevations of the watt •
on July 18-11), August 5, and September 16, while closely following the IJarometn
a See in this connection Nineteenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2. 1899, Egs. 3, 4, 5: Wair:
Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 67, U. S. (ieol. Survey. 1902, tig. .39, p. 73.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO BAROMETRIC CHANC4E8. 53
curve, are partly (hie to rainfall. This is indicated hy the fact that somewhat similar
abrupt barometric depressions on July 26, August 20, and September 4-5, when there
were no important rains, did not produce similar elevations of the water in the well.
There is a further point of resemblance and dissimilarity between the curve for the
504-foot w^ell and the barometric curve. The well curve shows a very marked semi-
. diurnal fluctuation, the two parts of which are generally of about the same value,
although they sometimes merge into a pronounced diurnal wave, as on August 1, 2,
and 3. In the barometric curve, although there is a tendency toward a semidiurnal
well wave, it is nowhere well marked. The semidiurnal well w-ave is clearly not tidal.
Its resemblance to the barometer curve is, however, sufliciently close to lead to the
belief that it is largely barometric, but modified by some other element, perhaps the
diurnal temperature wave which shows in the 14- and 72-foot wells (pp. 24-25).
KE7EBSHCES KELATIKO TO WELL FLUOTTTATIOKB BITE TO BAEOKETBIO GHANOES.
BLOWING WELI^.
Barbour, Erwin Hincklky. [Blowing wells in Nebraska] : Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 29, U. S.
Geol. Survey, 1889, pp. 78-82; Nebraska Geol. Survey, Rept. of State Geologist, vol. 1, 1903, pp. 9&-97.
Farrley, T. On the blowing wells near North Allerton: Proc. Yorkshire Oeol. and Poly t. Soc., n. s.,
vol. 7, pt. 8, 1880, pp. 409-421, PI. VII.
Harris, Gilbert Dennison. [Blowing wells in Rapides Parish, La.]: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper
No. 101, U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1904, pp. 60-61: Louisiana Geol. Survey. Bull. No. 1, 1906, pp. 50-60.
Lane, Alfred C. Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 80, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, pp. 66-^56.
Records shallow blowing well in Michigan.
V BATCH, A. C. Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 44, 1906, p. 74.
Records reported occurrence of blowing wells on Long Island, New York.
CHANGES IN WATER LEVEL.
Atwell, Joseph. Conjectures on the nature of intermitting and reciprocating springs: Trans. Phil.
Soc. London, No. 424, vol. 37, 1732, p. 301; Trans. Phil. Soc. London from 1665-1800 (abridged), vol.
7, 1809, pp. M4-550.
Describes irregular fluctuations of short interval in springs at Brixam, near Torbay, in Devon-
shire called "l^y well." These, he suppose.^, are produced by the action of natural siphons.
Perhaps they are barometric fluctuations.
Denizet. Sources sujett^es h de« variations qui paratsscnt lifiea & r<5tat du barom^tre: Compt«s
rend us. vol. 7, 1839, p. 799.
Reports that springs at Voize are affected by changes in barometric pressure, and that the dis-
charge is directly relate<l to the pressure, instead of inversely, as has been proved by more recent
work.
(ioi'GH, John. Observations on the ebbing and flowing well at Giggleswick, in the West Riding of
Yorkshire, with a theory of reciprociiting fountains: Jour. Nai. Phil. Chem. Arts, ser. 2, vol. 36,
1813, pp. 178-198; Mem. Phil. Soo. Manchester, n. s., vol. 2, 1813, pp. 3W-363.
The water level in this well fluctuates irregularly at short intervals, and Mr. Gough suggests
that the fluctuations are produced by the obstruction resulting from the natural accumulation
of air bubbles in the outlet and the relief resulting from their irregular escape. He cities the irreg-
gular fluctuations of the Weeding well in Derbyshire and the Ljiy well near Torbiiy, as proving
tliat the prevailing idea of the produ(Jtion of these phenomena by natural siphons is erroneous.
He concludes, very correctly, that too little is known of the fountain of Jupiter in Dodona and
Pliny's well in Como to judge of the true cause of the fluctuations mentioned by Pliny.
King, Franklin H. [Influence of barometric changes on discharge and water level in wells and
springs at Madison and Whitewater, Wis.]: Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau No. 6, 1892, pp. 41-53;
Nineteenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1H99, pp. 73-77.
Latham, Baldwin. On the Influence of barometric pressure on the discharge of water from springs:
Brit. Assoc. Rept. for 1881, 1882, p. 614; Brit. Ah.soc. Rept. for imi, 1884, pp. 495-496.
The fluctuation of the Croydon Bourne, due to barometric pressure, on one occasion exceeded
half a million gallons per day. Observations in deep wells are alw) recorded, showing that fluctu-
ations are inversely related to the pressure. The fluctuations are attributed to the expansion and
contraction of the air and gases in the water.
Knightley, T. E. Ebbing and flowing wells [in Derby.shire, England]: Geol. Mag., n. s., decade 4,
vol. 5. 1898. pp. 333-334.
Suggests that irregularities in flow are due to cavernous limestone, which, by means of
natural siphons, gives rise to " intenniitent spring phenomena." The possibility of these fluctu-
ations being due to barometric changes Ls not considered.
64 FLUCTUATIONS OP THE WATER LEVEL IN WKL.I-S.
LUBOBR, Otto. Einfluss der Atmoepharondniekes aiif die ErgiebiKkeit von Brunnen uiwi <ir>\
Ccntralblatt d. Bauverwaltung, 1882, p. 8.
Milne, John. Seismology. London, 1898, p. 243.
Reports two sinkingH and two risings of alx>ut 5 millimeterH in a shallow well near Toki^. T
sinkings took place between 2 and 6 p. to. and 2 and 5a. m. Note: The?*,* fluotii&tions wiicr~"
diurnal barometric wave, but they can be referred to it only if the time given is taken u c •
the time at which the water commenced to sink and not the time of the low- water Mafre.
Oliver, Dr. William. Of a well tliat ebbs and flows . ^ . : Trans. Phil. Soc. London. No, 'J» -
17, 1698, p. 908; Trans. Phil. Soc. London from 16G5-1800 (abridged), vol. 3, 1809. pp. fi85--V«.
Describes w^ell near Torbay called " Lay well," that ebbs and flows from 16 to 20 times per ':, • "
See Atweli, above, and discussion of minor periodic fluctuations on p. 76.
Puny the Younger (Caius Plinius Ceecilius Secundus). Epistols;, lib. 4, epist. ult.
In his letter to Licinius Pliny describes the fluctuations in the discharge of a flprinf? r.wr i •
villa in Como, Italy, which he states ebbs and flows thrice a day. He suggests that the fie- .
tions may be due to " the obstruction of air," tidal action, or some secret and unknown c>>^ -
ance in the nature of a valve. Pliny the elder, in his Historia Naturalis. lib. 2, cap. lOG. n-f -
the same spring, but states that it ebbs and flows every hour— a statement ^rhich i*i verifs".
Catanseus, the learned commentator on the Epistles. From the meager and c^ontntdictikty j..
given it is unsafe to venture a decided opinion on the cause of these fluctuations, bot thry 1. 1 -
be tentatively regarded as barometric.
Roberts, Isaac. On . . . the variation in atmospheric pressure . . . causing o«ci]la::"t> ir
the underground water in porous strata: Rept. Brit. Assoc, for 1883, p. 405.
States that autographic records from a well at Maghill, near Liverpool, show such flucinat: c^
Slighter, Charli-s S. Water-Sup. andlrr. Paper No. 67, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1902, pp. 71-72,
Refers to reports of Latham, King, and Lueger.
ToDD, James E. Bull. Geol. Survey, South Dakota, No. 2, 1898, p. 116; Water-Sup. and In. Paper v..
84, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900, p. 29.
Reports that well discharge varies inversely with barometic pressure.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO TEMPERATURE CHANGES.
OBSERVATIONS AT KADISON, WIS.— FLUCTUATI0K8 VARTIHO DIRECTLY WITH THE TSl
FERATURE.
In 1888 King observed in certain shallow wells at Madison, Wis., that the waii -
regularly for a portion of the summer months stood higher in the morning than a:
night. « Further observations during the period 1888 to 1892 showed that there wa.-
in many wells a diurnal wave, distinctly marked during the summer and d^-inj? or.:
in winter, which was clearly not barometric in character, and was not pn>ini^-i
by the unetiual plant transpiration during the day and night Suspecting that th»-^
changes were intimately related to temperature, King tried the following experinj»-i *
A galvanized-iron cylinder, 6 feet deep and 80 inches in diameter, provided with a bottciD. &' *
water-tight, was filled with soil, standing its full height above the ground in the open field. Ir ;^.
center of this cylinder and extending to the bottom a column of 6-inch drain tile was placed ajf". r*^
soil filled in about it and packed as thoroughly as practicable. Water was poured intr> the ra^ '3
formed by the tile until it was full, and allowed to percolate into the soil so a.s to saturate it and le»i>
the water standing nearly a foot deep in the well. When the water in this artificial well had be. •:.?■
nearly stationary one of the self- registering instruments was placed up<m it.fe In order lo avoid :i'.j
complications due to percolation, the appjinitus was provided with a cover which could be pat *-»ii r
times of rain and removed again during fair weather. The first records showed a small diurnal <>«< I
lation, and as the season advanced these increased in amplitude until finally the water rof* m i. .
well during the day of July 8, 1.8 inches and fell during the following night 1.84 inches. After iht^
diurnal oscillations had become so pronounced and so constant, a series of thermometers were intr-
duced into the side of the cylinder, extending to different distances from the surface, and a n-c- r
kept of the changes in the soil temperature; and the result of these observations wafi to .^how tha: " >-
turning points m the water curve fell exactly upon the turning points of the temperature ol ttit «*
In the cylinder. When this fact was ascertained, to show whether the correspondence in the un^ < *
the two curves was due to a diurnal cause, other than temperature, which had Ita turning pom*"*'
related to those of the temperature as to cau.se the two to accidentally fall together, cold water w-*
aKIng, Franklni H., Observations and experiments on the fluctuations in the level and r;.i'
movement of ground water on the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station Farm and at \^ -
water. Wis.: Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau No. 5, 1892; also Ann. Repts. Wisconsin Agric. Expt. St»i.
1889-1893.
t> For a figure of this apparatus see Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau No. 5.
FLU0TTTATION8 DUE TO TEMPER ATURE CHANGES. 55
brought from the well and, with a spray pump, applied to the mitface of the cylinder all around.
Tlie water was applied on a hot sunny day, just after dinner, when the water was rising in the well,
a.Tid the result was an Immediate change in the curve, the water beginning to fall In the well. The
%vater was then turned off, and the result of this change was to stop the fall of the water in the well,
CLS shown by a change in the direction of the curve.
This led to the conchision that there was a very positive connection between the
ohanges in the soil temperature and changes in the level of the water in the wells,
and that the fluctuation varied directly with the temperature; that is, the water in
thie wells rose with increasing temperature and fell when the temperature lowered.
A. specially constructed self-recording soil thermometer showed that at a depth of
18 inches the minimum temperature occurred at noon, and the the maximum a little
&f ter midnight. It was therefore argued that at a depth of 3 feet, or the level at
which the wells were fluctuating, the maximum and minimum temperature would
occur still later, and that the high water which occurred in the wells at 8 o'clock in
tlie morning was due to the maximum temperature falling at that time at that depth.
The autographic records, moreover, show that the well curves have the same charac-
teristic as the temperature curve — there is in both a comparatively sudden rise and a
long fall. King at first believed that these fluctuations were produced by a variation
in the capillary action of the soil resulting from the change in temperature,^ but
afterwards concluded that the fluctuations were due not so much to "a change in the
viscosity of the ground water as to variations in pressure due to the expansion and
contraction of the gas confined in the soil within and above the water. "^
Changes in capillary attraction and surface tension, due to temperature changes,
are quite competent to produce fluctuations which are related to the temperature in
the way observed. A rise in temperature, by decreasing the capillary attraction,
causes some of the capillary water al>ove the water table to be added to the zone of
complete saturation, and so increases the level of the water in wells. Conversely, a
decrease of temperature, by increasing the surface tension and capillary attraction,
clauses water to be transferred from the ground water to the partially saturated zone
alwve it, and so lowers the water in wells. There is, then, a continual interchange,
a flux and reflux, between the ground water and the water in the partially saturated
zone above it The amount of water involved in this change is probably small, but,
he<»U8e of the very small amount of unoccupied pore space existing immediately above
the zone of saturation, a very slight shifting of water can produce a fluctuation of sev-
eral inches in the surface of the zone of saturation or the water level in a well. This
effect is marked only when the bottom of the well (supposing the well tube to be
impervious) is very near the top of the ground- water table; it is not shown in deep
wells because, while the position of the ground-water table is constantly changing in
this way, there is, so far as deeper points are concerned, no important change in
pressure. The total pressure at a given point below the gn)und-water table is essen-
tially the same whether the water involve<l is in the saturated zone or 2 or 3 inches
above it in an almost satnrat-ed layer. To this, more than to the fact that the vari-
ations in soil temperature at a given depth are less in winter than in summer, is due
the fact that these fluctuations at Madison, Wis., were not yhovvn by the twice-<laily
ol^servations, made morning and evening b€;tween 1888 and 1892, until past or near
the middle of July (when the water was nearing its yearly minimum), and from that
time increased toward a maximum, o(!turring wnietinie in August (probably corre-
sponding with the ground-water minimum), and then die<l away until the middle
of October, when they became inconspicuous. It likewise explains the fact that not
all the wells obeerve<l, though they were in a limite<l area, show the?e fluctuations,
and why they begin at different times in adjacent wells of different depths.
a Bull. U. 8. Weather Bureau No. 6. 1892. pp. 03, 67.
t>Bul\. U. 8. Weather Bureau No. 5. 1892, p. 72; Nineteenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Qeol. Survey, pt. 2,
1899, pp. 76, 77.
5G FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATKR LEVEL IN WELLS.
To this relation are due the apparently anomaloas phenomena observed in "'w-
No. 5/' which King records as follows:
The ground-water level had fallen nntU well 5 was likely to become dry. In ord<?r not to !••*-- •
records It waM deepened by boring a.hole in the center and curbing it with sections of S-inrh ti-\
tile in the manner represented in the figure,n which shows the two water surfaces whcwe flurtiaaT
are recorded in fig. 16. The original well, having an inside diameter of 1 foot and a depth of .=• ^^ : -
was bricked up to within 2 feet of the surface and then finished with a section of wwcr j-if .-
shown in the cut,a where the character and arrangement of the soil through which the well f»--
trated may also be seen, h
The factb are, strange as it does appear, that under these conditons and in such close juxtaponi
oscillations so unlike in their character as the two under consideration were produced 8iinaltazKv> i-
The level of the water in the outer well oscillated so as to stand in the morning from 0.1 to O.i. . ~
above the level of the water in the inner one, and at night from 0.5 inch to 1.2 inches below r ^
surface, and these differences were maintained with only the unglazed section of drain tile sep«re' .^
them. The large oscillations in this well became very pronounced and constant only & short tin
before it became dry, and the inner well did not take up the marked changes in level after tlje vi".
fell below the bottom of the original well. No other well of this series, although constructed in -
same manner, showed such marked oscillations.
The second suggestion, that the fluctuations are produced hy the expansion aL>:
contraction of the air due to temperature changes, is not supported by the ot*servt^i
facts. The daily temperature fluctuation at the depths observed amounts to bi:: a
fraction of a degree, and the change in volume or vapor tension of the air resniltiLj
from this is quite incompetent to produce the fluctuations observed. Moreover, th?
involves an elevation in the well due to pressure of much the same character as( tb^r
producing the fluctuations due to barometric clianges. The effects of such preft>n>
changes are felt not only at the surface of the zone of complete saturation, or ::;^
water table, but are transmitted for many feet below it, and in the case of well No. \
described above, the fluctuations under such conditions would be shown in U\i
wells, though in the deep one the amplitude would be slightly leas.
On the whole there seems to be no other alternative than to regard these Maiii-src
fluctuations as the result of variations in the capillary attraction and surface ten«i< -a.
of the water above the zone of complete saturation, produced by variations ia
temperature.
In fluctuations of this character a limiting factor is clearly the range of tranpera-
ture, which decreases very rapidly with depth, so that at a relatively shallow dej-trj.
much less than the limit of no annual change, the fluctuations become impercej»ti-
ble. The amplitude will, moreover, be affected by the size of the jxjre spaces, beinj
greater in fine than in coarse material.
0B8ERYATI0K8 AT LYNBBOOK, H. Y.— TIUOTTrATIOITS IHYER8BLT RELATED TO
Two of the wells at Lynbrook show pronounced fluctuations which are clearly dne
to temperature changes. These fluctuations, while they resemble those ob8er\'eil at
Madison in the fact that the water is higher in the morning than at night difrVr
from them in two important respects. There is no connection between their o<-cur-
rence and the relation of the ground-water table to the bottom of the well; they ai>»
best developed in a 2-in('h well, 14 feet deep, whose bottom is about 13,75 feet beluv
the ground- water level; they are distinctly developed in a w^ell 72 feet deep, and are
believed to form one of the elements in a compound curve obtained from the .VH-
foot well (PI. VI, p. 24). There is also the further difference that, while thes^eare
clearly temperature fluctuations, they are inversely related to the temperature— thst
is, the water is high when the temperature is low. Avoiding all di:aicu8sion of the
a Omitted in this report.
<>Thc stratitication, as shown in the original cut, is as follows:
Section of well at Madison, Wis., which /umishcd fluctuations shown in fig. 16. Fe^-t
1 . Loam ( ••
2. (Mav So
3. Sand v.
4. Clay S
5. Sand 2.C
FLUCTUATIONS DUK TO TEMPKRATIIRK 0HANOE8.
57
liiostion of la*?, this relation ia
r< Jiichiflively shown by the
« hape of the curves. The char-
it ^teristic of the air temperature
. nirve is a quick rise and slower
fall; well fluctuations directly
related to the temperature, as
ttiose at Madison, therefore
Kiiiist show a quick rise and a
slower fall, but in the Lyn-
l>rook wells there is a quick
fall and slower rise (see PL VI,
Aug. 1-3). These evidently
l>elong in quite a different class
from the temperature fluctua-
tions observed at Madison, and
involve quite a different rela-
tion between the soil tempera-
ture and the ground water.
The soil is a very poor trans-
mitter of heat, and there is not
only a very rapid diminution
t>f the temperature range with
depth, but a very considerable
time lag. Swezey's observa-
tions « at Lincoln, Nebr., for a
p<»riod of fourteen years show
that while in winter the maxi-
nnini temperature occurs in the
air at about the middle of the
afternoon, at a depth of 3 to 6
inches it occurs in the evening,
and at 1 foot it is delayed until
the following morning; below
1 foot it is scarcely appre<'iable.
In summer the daily range is
considerably greater at all
depths, the changes are ai)pre-
ciable to a depth of at least 2
feet, and are retarded to about
the same extent as in winter.
At Bronx Park, New York
City, the record obtained by
MacDougal ^ with a Hallock
thermograph showed that at 1
foot below the surface the max-
imum daily temperature oc-
(•arre<l between 8 and lip. m.,
and the minimum between 8
II
II
3 ^
2.i3 S
OQ £,
el-
ls
3 £.
X
flSwezey, G. D., Soil temperature
at Lincoln, Nebr., 18.S8 to 1902: Six-
teenth Ann. Rept. Nebraska Agnc.
Expt. Station for 1W2, 1903, pp. 95-1*29;
Expt. Station Record, vol. 16, 1904,
pp. 460-161.
h MacDougal, Daniel Trembly, Soil
temperatures and vegetation: Month-
ly Weather Review, vol, 31, August,
1908, pp. 375-S79.
0, I
a 90
O OD
ca iZ.
w.. O
p a
JL B
I 3
.-. to
P -o
^ re
O so
Oapth ot water Injni
i ? i\? '?l
p ?1? rl? ?? rl? s:
^
? s-
? ff
\^^f
' '
1 1 1 1
n n
III I
1 1 1 1
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58
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WKLI^.
62= = .'
and 10 a. m.; and the maximum daily ranj?e waa but 2° C. (3.6° F.), which if^-
reat-hed on but two .in-.
sioiiH. The total anri-«
variation from Jane 9, l^*i
U) May 31, 1903, was l^.J (
(29.4° P.). Similar!^!: ^
have been obtaine<l Yty C a
lender at Montreal. «
As a result of this? A- a
transmis8ion of temj«tr3-
ture, the temperaturv at th-
ground- water outlet njai\ "r
at its maximum whilf .
short distance away ; w I ei^
the water table is hut a f • '
or two from the sfurfac**, i\>^
ground temperature may ' »-
at its minimum. Now, th.^
rate of flow of wat*T i-
greatly affected by temf.^r-
ature. Poiseu i 1 1 e f o 1 1 r i i
that watt^r at a teiuj-eni-
ture of 45° C. flowe<i L*.'>
times as fast under other-
wise like condition.-* jl-
water at 5° C. ^ This giv»-
rise to the phenonieiia
shown in fig. 17.
There is thus producv<i a
distinct and periodic fluc-
tuation of the gn»unl
water, which is great nt-ar
the ground-water outlTrt
and decreases rapidly in
amplitude as the distance
from the outcrop Lncresfezs.
The fluctuation is produced
by an actual shifting of the
water whereby the pre:«ire
conditions are constantly
changed, and in this re-
spect it differs from the
Madison fluctuations p
54). It is this change in
pressure that causes tht>e
fluctuations to show in the
other wells, even to a dfpth
of 500 feet The same phe-
nomenon of response to
loading and relief fron)
load is exhibited in sornv
of the rainfall fluctuations:
de8cribe<l above (p. 42) and in the sympathetic tidal fluctuations (p. 65).
nCalleiider, Hugh L., I»roc. and Trans. Royal Soc. Canada for 1895, 2d ser., vol. 1, sec. 3, p. 79. rnr i
^Quok^d by King. Nineteenth Ann. Kept. U. S. Geol. Survev. pt. 2, 1899. p. 82: i»ee also Carpenter
L. C, .Seepage and return waters from irrigation: Bull. Colorado Agric. Expt. StaUoii No. 33, IvS*
pp. 42-44.
S-^t-f
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5=^i^^
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et
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1- K tJ ? S $•
3t}
s
e
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO TEMPERATURE CHANGES. 59
These data sugjpest that the annual (changes of the soil temperature may proauce a
somewhat analogous effect, the warm Hummer temperature asRisting in the depletion
or lowering of the water near the ground- water outlets, and the cold winter tempera-
t^ure, hy rendering the water more visc'ous, retarding the outflow. In one respect
t^he result would be in the same direction as the annual ground-water fluctuations,
and this is perhaps to be considered one of the minor factors. It would also tend to
xnake the time of occurrence of the maximum and minimum of the yearly fluctua-
tion earlier near the ground- water outlets than on the divides — or just the condi-
tion observed on Long Island (p. 35).
OBBEEYATIOHB AT 8ESBL00K, KAKS.
Diurnal fluctuations due to temperature changes were observed by Mr. Henry 0.
Wolff, at Sherlock, Kans., in 1904, while working under the direction of Prof. C. S.
Slichter.o Mr. Wolff reports that the wells are low in the evening and high in the
morning, and that there is no iin()ortant time lag l)etween wells where the water line
is 6 inches below the surface and those whore it is 3 feet below. In a few wells
where the water level was alwut 3 feet from the surface, which were observed long
enough to show the shape of the curve, the characteristics of the Madison curve are
shown — that is, there is a long fall and sudden rise.
BIUBITAL nUOTUATIOHB 07 CACHE LA POUDKB RIYEK, OOLOKASO.
Carpenter has observed very regular diurnal changes in the height of Cache la
Poudre River near Fort Collins, Colo. * Here the high water occurs at from 4 to 6
e. m., the low water at 8 p. m., and the extreme range of the daily change in river
level noted was about . 1 foot. The curves show the same characteristics as those
observed by Wolff at Sherlock, Kans. ; there is a long fall and a sudden ripe, and
they are therefore directly related to the temperature. Carpenter concludes that
these fluctuations are due to differences in daily melting in the snow fields, and that
the occurrence of the high water in the morning is<Uie to the distance from the snow
fields. While this is a very possible explanation, and in the writer's opinion it is
probably the correct one, it is desirable to have the matter checked by other obser-
vations. If the fluctuations are purely due to daily waves moving down the river,
due to melting snow, gages at other points should show the maximum and minimum
at different times; if the fluctuations are due to variation in rate of ground-water
discharge and are analogous to those described above, the time will be the same at
different points.
RSFEKSVCSS KELATDTC TO nTTCTUATIOirB nLODlTCSB BY TEKPSKATinLE CHAVGSB.
Besides the references given above to the discussions of King, Slichter, and Wolff,
it is desirable to add here the early reference of Pliny to fluctuating wells l)elonging
to this class:
Flint thk Eldeb (Caiiu Pllnius Secundns). Historia Natnralis, lib. 2, cap. 106 [Pliny's Natural
History, Bostock and Riley's translation, Bobn's Libraries, vol. 1, 1887, pp. 138-134].
" In the island of Tenedos there is a spring which, after the summer solstice, is full of water
from the third hour of the night to the sixth." "The fountain of Jupiter in Dodona . . .
always becomes dry at noon, from which circumstance it is called 'The Loiterer.' It then
Increases and becomes full at midnight, after which it again visibly decreases." Hardouin notes
that there Is a similar kind of fountain in Provence called "Collis Martiensifi." These fluctua-
tions clearly belong to the class produced by temperature changes.
FL.UCTUATIONS PRODUCED BY RIVKKS.
Rivers may produce fluctuations of the water level in wells in three ways: (1) By
changing the height of the ground- water discharge; (2) by seepage or actual con-
tributions to the ground water, and (3) by transmitted pressure or plastic deformation.
oThe underflow of the Arkansas Valley in western Kansas: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 163, U. 8.
Oeol. Survey,
b Carpenter, L. O., Bull. Colorado Agric. Expt. Station No. 66, 1901, figs. 2-d.
GO
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELI-S.
FLTrcrnrAT];oHs frosuoed bt ghavoes nr rate of oBOUim-WATEE dibcskasoz.
In regions where the sides of the channels are pervious and the ground water <'on-
tri bates to the stream flow, the water table, after a period of long drought, t»lope5
regularly down to the water surface. If the stream rises through cauneH not ai^f
ciated with local ground- water conditions, the ground- water table is found like^-ia*
to rise to a greater or less extent. This is accomplished in part by an outflow from
the river and in part by the accumulation of the ground-water flow, which can nox
so readily escape under the new conditions as under the old. If this new level werp
permanently maintained a complete readjustment would take place, and a line
roughly parallel to the initial position of the ground-water table would be developed:
and if there were no new outlets developed by this elevation of the ground water,
wells at all distances would be similarly affected. Actually, however, the river is con-
stantly changing; a series of waves of unequal height and duration, representing the
high and low waters, are constantly traveling down every stream, and no stage la8t.«
long enough for the establishment of a perfectly graded ground-water table, even
were there no other factors involved. The result of this unceasing change L< that
the fluctuations are greatest near the river and become imperceptible at very short
distances. This is due not only to the rapidity of the fluctuations in the river, bat
to the slow rate of outflow and accumulation.
Observations made by Hess « along Aller River, near Celle, Germany, in 1866, give
the values expressed in the table below:
Table tihowing lag of hi^h- and UyuMvaler stages in wells along Aller River, behind high- axid
lovMvaier stages in the river.
Distance
from
river.
High water. Feb.-
Mar., 1866.
Low water, Mar. 7,
1866.
High water. Apr. 1,
1886.
Test well No.—
High war
ter in
well be-
hind high
water in
river.
Rate per
day.
Low water
in well be-
hind low
water In
river.
Rate per
day.
High water
in well be-
hind high
water in
river.
Rate per
day.
1
Meters.
47
140
851
468
584
Days.
h
5
17
19
21
Meters.
10
28
21
24
28
Days.
2
3
4
.7
Meters.
23.5
47.0
88.0
67.0
Days.
4
5
10
Mdm.
1*15
2
2!l0
3
S&.0
4
5
Observations made by Slichter in very porous gravels in western Kansas, at Ga^
den, Sherlock, and Beerfield, while showing a more rapid transmission than thoee
just indicated, give very marked time lags. The conditions here are different in the
respect that the ground water does not materially add to the stream flow, and the
rise of the water in the wells is due wholly to seepage. The slope of the water phine
is not toward the river, but downstream, at a rate very nearly the same as tliat of
the stream. At Sherlock the water plane on July 27, 1904, sloped gently to the river
from test well No. 5, but the water in tost wells Nos. 2, 3, and 6 was lower than the
river. Between 11 and 4 o'clock the river rose 1.6 feet, and then fell gradually. The
beginning of the rise was felt in well No. 3, 400 feet north of the river, in less than
two hours; in wells No. 2, 900 feet north of the river, and No. 5, 550 feet south of
the river, in between three and four hours; in well No. 4, 1,000 feet south of the
a He.H8, Beobachtiingeii viber das GrundwasHcrs der norddeulsehen Ebene. Zeitschr. des Arrhitekten
nnd Ingenieurvereins in Hannover, vol. 16, 1870, quoted by Soyka, Der Boden, Leipzig. lt*7, pp. 2fi2-
267, figs. •2;J-25: and Gerhardt, Der Wasserbau, Leipzig, 1«92, pp. 49-50, PI. I, ligs. 7, 8. The diagTwns
given by Soyka and Gerhardt do not check with the values given in the text, and aa the figures uv
clearly carelessly drawn the text values are reproduced here.
FLUCTUATIONS PRODUCED BY RIVERS.
61
river, in four hours. Well No. 6, 2,500 feet from the river, fell during the whole
period of observation. The difference in time in the occurrence of the maximum is
expressed in the following table:
Difference in Hme between high vxUer in Arkanms River and wdU on Us banks, near Sher-
hckf Kans.y Jvly, 1904.
No. of
well.
Distance
from
river.
La«r.
JPeet.
JIOUTK.
3
a 400
3-6
2
agoo
12
1
0600
36
5
5650
108+ (?)
4
M,000
lOH-l-
6
l»2,500 (c)
a North.
«» South.
o No rise In Hve days.
It will be noted that the most rapid transmission was toward the north, where the
water plane sloped away from the river, while the slight rise of the water plane
toward wells Nos. 4 and 5 produced a very marked retardation.
These observations seem to indicate that the rate of transmission is greater when
the water plane slopes from the river than when it slopes toward it and help to
explain the great retardation observed at Celle. In no instance in this Kansas work
were the effects of floods observed in wells at distances of more than one-fourth of
a mile from the river.
In case there is open connection between the river and the well, such as might be
afforded by limestone caves, changes in level may be felt at considerable distances
with but very little time lag. Very rapid fluctuations would, however, be obliter-
ated here, for the well would act very much as the still box used in tidal work,
which consists of a lai^e well connected with the ocean by means of a relatively
small passage opening at some distance below the water suHace. The wave action
is entirely obliterated, because the water does not have time to flow in and out of
the well in tlie period between fluctuations. The gradual changes of the tide are,
however, exactly recorded. But direct cavernous connections between wells and
waterways are rare, and generally river changes act through the interstices of the
soil in the way observed at Gelle and Sherlock or by transmitted pressure as described
below.
FLXronrATIOVB PBOBITOEB by IBKBOTTLAB XNTILTRATIOV raOM RIVEBS WITH HORKALLT
IXPBBVIOtrB BESS.
Besides rivers which have pervious sides and into which the ground water is
always free to flow or out of which the water flows whenever the river level exceeds
that of the ground water, there are many rivers which, under normal conditions, so
plaster their beds with fine silt that water is unable to flow either in or out. Nearly
all rivers carrying large amounts of fine silt ^ are normally in this condition, and
it is thus that the water in many delta regions is able to flow at heights above the
surrounding land, and rivers in other regions flow at heights much above the normal
ground-water level.
Thus the Leitha at Katzelsdori, near AViener Neustadt, flows at a height of 10 to
70 feet above the level of the ground water at that place, the height depending on
a For au example of the silting power of a clear stream see Freeman, John R., Percolation through
dmbankmentii and the Natural Closing of I^akn, Boston Soc. Civil £ng., June 20, 1888.
62 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
the stage of the ground water, although there ia at all times considerable B&epBge.
(PI. IX.)
The Rio Grande in a similar way flows from central New Mexico to the sea, alwav-
above the ground- water level.
When the rivers silt up their beds, where the water plane slopes down to the river
and there is a tendency to discharge into the river, the silting develops an artesian
head which causes the water to rise above the level of the river in wells sunk within
the channel. Such occurrences have been reported by Salbach in the Elbe. « Thi?
Elbe occurrence may, however, be due to a sheet of clay not connected with the
river-silt deposits of the present regime. During floods such rivers frequently stour
out their beds and establish a connection between the surface and the under;pn>und
waters. When the river is above the ground- water table, this leakage will raise tht-
water level; when the reverse is the case, it may, by permitting a discharge of the
artesian water, cause the water level in a near-by well to lower.
Slichter has found at Mesilla Park, N. Mex., that the greater part of theuuderflc»w
in the valley is derived in this way from the flood waters of the Rio Grande. ^ Pn-
ceding the flood of October 5, 1904, the ground-water level was several feet below the
river channel, although the river contained considerable water. The effect of the
flood was well marked at well No. 7, three-fourths of a mile from the river, but did
not affect well No. 6, 1.3 miles from the river, in seventeen days. The rate of trans-
mission is evidently quite similar in this case to those given above.
Quite different from these slow rates of change in the ground- water level due to river
changes are the changes in the London wells ascribed by Clutterbuck and Buckland <*
to floods in Colne River at Watford, Hertfordshire. According to these obaerven* a
rise in the Colne produces a rise in the London wells, 15 miles distant, in a few houn<.
These floods are due to heavy rains and it seems much more probable that the
observed rise is due to the weight of the rain on the local London area than to the
transmitted pressure from a flood 15 miles distant. Fluctuations of this character
due to rainfall have been observed at Lynbrook, N. Y. (p. 42), and no such rates of
lateral transmission have been observed either from the river flood or tides, with the
possible exception of the tidal wells at Lille, France (p. 64.) Certainly there is no
evidence of such great underground caverns between Lille and the sea as this rate of
transmission would require, though its very occurrence, if conclusively proven, wouiO
indicate some such connection.
FLUCTTTATIOKB DUE TO A PLASTIC DEFOKHATIOK PRODTTOEI) BT YAXTIXQ YOLXmS OF
WATER CARRIED BY RIVERB.
The alternations of load due to the irregular waves, whose crests are the high- an<l
low-water stages, which are constantly passing down every river, produce fluctua-
tions anagalous to those produced by tides, though lacking their periodic character.
They resemble also the sympathetic fluctuations produced in the 72- and 504-f«>*»t
wells at Lynbrook due to variations in load produced by rainfall and thermometrir
changes (pp. 43, 58). The zone in which these fluctuations will be distinctly recogniz-
able will be limited to a mile or two in the immediate vicinity of the river.
REFEREKCES RELATING TO FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER IN WELLS PRODVCSP BT
RIVERS.
Buckland, Dr. Min. Prw. Inst. Civil Eiik- Ivol. 2). 1842, p. 159.
Reports that wells in London rise In ii low hours alter floods at Watford, 15 miles distant.
Ci.inTKRBUCK, Jamks. Observations on the periodical drainage and replenishment of the subterm-
neous reservoir in the challc baMn of London: Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. [vol. 2j, 1842, pp. KV.
158; 1843, p. 162.
Same a.>s under Buckland.
"Sftlbach (Bauralhat Dresden. Saxony), Experiences had during' the Ia«t twenty-five >e«rs •viih
waterworks having an undtTgiound source of supply. Trans. Am. Skx". Civil Eng., vol. 30. if^SW. p SU
'•Shchler, Charles S., Otiservalions on the ground waters of Rio Grande Valley: Water-Sup. and Irr.
Paper No. 141, V. S. (Jeol. Survev. 19()5, p 27.
t-Min. Pioc. Insl. Civil Eng., 1812. pp. 158, 159. lH-13, p. 162.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO LAKE AND OCEAN LEVELS. 63
FuLLKB, Myron L. Notes on the hydrology of Cuba: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 110, U.S.Geol.
Survey, 1906.
Records, on p. 189, fluctuations of spring level at Vento, Cuba, due to changes in level of
Almendares River, evidently acting through a free connection of large size in the limestone.
Harris, Gilbert D. Underground waters of south Louisiana: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 101, U. 8.
Geol. Survey, 1904, p. 14; Bull. Louisiana Geol. Survey No. 1, 1906, p. 4.
Discusses effect of Missi^ippi River on level of wells along its banks.
Gkrhardt, p. Der Wasserbau. vol. 1, pt. 1, 3d ed., 1892, pp. 48-49.
Gives Bess's observations on Aller River.
Slighter, Charles S. Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grand Valley: Water-Sup. and
Irr. Paper No. 141, U.S.Geol. Survey, 1905, pp. 18,25-28,80.
Gives observations on effect of outflow from river on ground-water level at El Paso, Mesilla
Park, and Berino.
The underflow of the Arkansas Valley in western Kansas: Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 168,
U.S. Geol. Survey.
Gives results of observations on the influence of floods in Arkansas River on the water level in
wells at Garden, Sherlock, and Deerlield, Kans.. in the summer of 1901.
SoYKA, IsiDOR. Die Schwankungen des Grundwassers: Penck's Geographische Abhandlungen, vol.
2, pt. 3, 1888.
Chapter 3, " Die Beziehungcn des Grundwassers zu den oberirdischen WasserlHufen," contains
an excellent discuwion of middle European conditions.
Thomassay, Raymond. Gdologie pratique de la Louisiane, 1860.
Contains an entirely fanciful discussion of the seepage of the water from Mississippi River.
Toi>i>, James E. Geology and water resources of a portion of southeastern South Dakota: Water-Sup.
and Irr. Paper No. 34, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1900, p. 29; Bull. South Dakota Geol. Survey No. 2, 1898,
p. 116.
Records that many deep wells have a greater discharge when Missouri River is high, and sug-
gests that the increased hydrostatic pressure checks the leakage.
Veatch, a. C. Geology and underground water resources of northern Louisiana and southern
Arkansas: Prof. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 46.
Records fluctuations of water level in artesian wells at Fulton, Ark., agreeing with stages of
Red River. These are ascribed to pressure of river water acting at the outcrop of the water-
bearing sands in river bed several miles from the town. This probably is a case of transmitted
pressure, the blue clay over the water-bearing layer acting as a diaphragm and producing fluctu-
ations in wells near the river.
FLUCTUATIONS PRODUCED BY CHANGES IN LAKE LEVEL.
Variations in lake levels of whatever cause produce fluctuations of the level in wells
along tlieir shores ( 1 ) by checking the rate of outflow when the ground wat^r is
draining freely into the lake and (2) by transmitted pressure and deformation as in
ocean tides described below. The pressure of deep-seated waters might also be slowly
affected by the weight of the sediment deposited in the lake beds. This would tend
to equalize itself by back flow, and is perhaps a factor of no great importance, except
when considered for very long periods. King has, however, obtained a flow artifi-
cially by ordinary sedimentation in a tank.«
FLUCTUATIONS PRODUCED BY VARIATIONS IN THE OCEAN LEVEL-
TIDAL WELLS.
As partially indicated in the references on page 67, wells and springs which fluctuate
witli the tide have been observed on nearly all coasts and under many different geo-
logic conditions. These fluctuations are produced in three ways: (1) By transmis-
sion of pressure through open cavities or passageways affording a free communication
between the wells and the ocean; (2) by a checking of the rate of discharge of the
normal ground-water flow through porous beds freely connecting with theo(!ean;
and (3) by a deformation of the strata due to the alternate loading and unloading of
the tides, in this last case, instead of leakage being an important factor, as it is in
the first two, the fluctuations are greater the more nearly complete the separation of
the oceanic and ground waters.
a Nineteenth Ann. Kept. U. >?. Ueol. Survey, pt. 2, 1^99, pp. 79-«0.
64 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATEB LEVEL IN WELLS.
FLTTOTITATIOHS PKODUGED BY 0HAHGE8 IV BATE OF OUTFLOW.
The first two classes differ more in the rate at which the change takee place ami \Ia
character of the zone of influence than in the manner in which it is produced. If iL*-
ocean level is raised the first effect is to check the velocity of outflow; but before aL>
change occurs in the level of near-by wells it is necessary that water accumul&te at tl r
point of observation by actually flowing in. This change, then, is clearly depemiri::
on the same factors which influence the rate of flow, and in underground caven*
where the velocity is a question of miles per day this accumulation will be rai»i 1
there will be a relatively short lag, and the distance from the shore to which the ri--
can be propagated before the water begins to fall will be comparatively great- II*
influence will, however, be restricted to wells along limited lines, following th-e
course of the underground passageway. On the other hand, when the water is fl« •»-
ing through the interstices of porous strata, where the motion is one of feet jjer <L*y
instead of miles, the accumulation will be slow, the lag proportionately greater, at*!
the zone of influence, while not extending so far from the ocean, will perhaps ot-mpy
a larger area, because of its uniform distribution along the coast. When the o«vati
level falls the reverse will occur.
Where there is considerable velocity, as in a cavernous opening, the velocity oi
outflow retards the effect of the rising tide and hastens that of the falling title ai] i
there is then, as in tidal rivers, a greater lag at low than at high water. Wheu tht-
outflow is slow, as from porous beds, the velocity is not sufficient to exert a very
great retarding influence.
The fluctuations in porous materials along the seashore are clearly the same ir.
character and cause as those occurring under similar conditions along river coun^
(see p. 60), and the same great time lag is to l)e expected. The difference is only in
the very regular periodic nature of the oceanic fluctuations. Nearly all the ehaliuw
tidal wells noticed along the seacoas^ts belong to this class. Such are clearly tlie
tidal wells « reported near Bombay and along the Malabar coast; at Barren Isianil.
in the Andaman Sea; at Perim Island, in the Red Sea; at South Foreland light-hou?^.
Kent; the shallow wells at Seagirt, N. J.; and perhaps the wells at Newton Notxa^.
Glamoiganshire, Wales, and Chepstow, Monmouth, England. At Perim Island, in
shallow pits at a distance of GO to 300 feet from the shore, the lag is such that lh«'
high water in the wells appears to agree with the low water in the (x^ean. A similar
lag is reported in a well 14 feet deep and 400 feet from the river at Chepstow. M
Newton Nottage, where a shallow well 500 feet from the ocean was obeer\'ed by Man-
dan, the lag is but three hours.
Experience has shown that wells which are sunk entirely in porous beds near the
seacoast should have their lx>ttoms about midway between high and low tide; if they
are deeper there is generally an infiltration of salt water. Such wells are comriKmiy
dry at low tide, but frequently furnish good supplies of fresh water at high tide, at
which time it is necessary to obtain all the water used for domestic and other pur-
poses.
Wells deiHjndent on underground cavernous openings, such asretiaired by the first
case, are quite rare. The fluctuations of the Iceland springs, reported by Hallan tlv
Roucroy, are perhaps connected with such ojien fissures, though any opinion fnun
the data presented is but a hazanl. Perhaps the most remarkable occurrence <•!
tidal fluctuation is that reported at Lille in an artesian well at the citadel. These
fluctuations, which amount to 0.415 meter, are referre<l by Bailly ^ to the tides of the
English ( hannel, ISO miles away, with a time lag of but eight hours. The only hatiis
on which these fluctuations can now be explained is a supposition of a relatively
open connection between the well and the ocean, which, it must be admitted, is* a
very unsatisfactory hypothesis.
a See references, pp. 67-60. frComptes rendus, vol. 14, 1W2, pp. 310^814.
TIDAL WELLS. 65
TZSAL TLUOnrATIOHB DT WELI8 PBOSVOBD BY PIUIBTIO SEFOItXATIOV.
Besides the shallow wells, depending on ordinary porous surficial heds, there are,
along and near the seacoast, many deep artesian wells which show tidal fluctuations.
In many of these wells there are clearly no underground caverns involved, the
water-bearing beds being onlinary porous strata in which the water flows through
the small interstices at a rate to be expressed in feet rather than miles per day, and
in which accumulation or depletion by simple flowage will be correspondingly slow.
There is, moreover, every reason to believe, in some cases where there are thick clay
be<i8 above the water-bearing strata, which are known to be continuous for many
miles, that there are no near suboceanic outlets of importance. In case there is
some distant outlet it is evident from the slow rate of change shown in the examples
given above, where there was a sudden increase or decrease in the volume of river
water (pp. 60, 61), that the fluctuation produced by a simple checking or hastening of
the rate of outflow could be propagated but a short distance, and that a long period
of time would be necessary for even that.
There is, however, in the case of waters under artesian head a new factor intro-
duced which is of very great importance. The pressure of the artesian water exerted
against the retaining cover, which may be assumed at present to be clay, tends
to elevate it, thus placing the clay under an upward stress. The addition of any
weight on the surface tends to disturb the equilibrium. If there is no outlet and the
weight is applied uniformly, the additional weight can not change the position of
any portion of the mass, except to the very slight degree of the elastic compressibility
of the water and the soil. If, however, there is any escape for the confined water,
such as would be afforded by a well tube, the mass will yield and the water be forced
up in the tube. Were the clay layer perfectly elastic, or in the condition of a
stretched elastic membrane above a perfectly mobile body, there would be no time lag,
and the water in the well would exactly follow the fluctuations of the ocean waters;
but the clay is not to be regarded as an elastic diaphragm, and the water-bearing
sand is not a perfectly mobile body; moreover, for such a deformation to be felt in
a well water must be transferred from one point to another, and this involves a time
element. The deformation is essentially a plastic one; the clay yields to the super-
posed weight and the water is lifted in the well, but if there were no pressure from
below the clay could not return to its original position. In the case of tides along
the coast only the portion of the clay layer under the ocean is loaded, and that load-
ing is a progressive one from a distant point toward the shore. The effect is a defor-
mation in which the clay layer is depressed under the ocean and elevated under the
land. When the weight is removed the artesian pressure tends to reestablish the
old conditions of equilibrum, and the clay layer is lifted under the ocean and sinks
under the land.
If the artesian pressare is high, compared with the tide when the ocean water com-
mences to fall after high tide, this pressure lifts the clay quickly and thus tends to
shorten the high-tide lag in a near-by well; as the.tide falls the high pressure enables
the clay to follow the tide closely; at low tide the artesian pressure is clearly in the
ascendancy and the clay still rising in the ocean area. As the tide begins to rise it
must overcome this artesian pressure before any deformation occurs, and the rising
curve in the well therefore lags more behind the tide than the falling curve. Under
such conditions the high-tide lag is less than the low-tide lag. Conversely, when the
artesian pressare is low compared with the tide, at high tide the feeble artesian pres-
sure but slowly lifts the clay weight and the lag is long; at low tide, when the clay
diaphragm is high, the greater tidal weight quickly overcomes the feeble resistance of
the artesian water and the lag is short; it may then happen that the low-tide lag will
be less than the high-tide lag.« It is evident that between the two extremes thus
a This plastic deformation should not be confused with the elastic deformation of the earth which
Darwin has considered in his calculations of the effect of tides on seacoasts. He assumes that tlie
IRB 165—06 5
66
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELI^.
indicated there are all possible variations, and that the thickness and plasticity of tb-?
beds above the water-bearing layers are important modifying factors. The flncica-
tion in a well in such cases does not furnish an exact measure of the amount A
deformation; it furnishes only a fair indication of the variation in pressare at the
particular point at which the well is sunk.
The maximum effect is felt at the seacoast near low-tide mark and graduallT
decreases inward, disappearing in a few miles. It is less if there is leakage from s»i'f:i-
ocean springs, for in such cases the escape of the water decreases that available for
the elevation of the water in the tube.
On Long Island the tidal fluctuations observed in the wells at Hantington, Oyster
Bay, Long Beach, and Douglaston are clearly of this character, all depending incTt?
on the deformation of the overlying layer through tidal load than on changes of dis-
charge in leakage. At Huntington (p. 10), Oyster Bay (p. 13), and Douglaston
(p. 25) the lag is greater at low than at high tide, as would be expected from the
great head and shallow depths, while at Long Beach, where the head is low, the
water-bearing sand fine, and the thickness of overlying strata great, the reverse is
true (p. 19). The Oyster Bay observations give the following values:
Summary of observations on tidal welU at Oysier Bay, N. Y.
Well.
Casino ...
Burgess . .
Lee
Underbill
Depth.
93
155
188
114
Distance
from ordi-
nary high
tide.
Lo«r- water
lag-
Feft.
In water.
50
100
500
Minuteg.
12.6
33.4
58.0
75.6
Higb-v&ter
l«<f.
Minute*
It will be noticed that the lag here increased with the distance from the shore,
and that the low-water lag increased more rapidly with depth than the high-water
lag. The cause of the very small difference between the high- and low-water lags in
the Underbill well, the one farthest from the shore, is not clear, but it is apparently
related to the lessening of the tidal injQiuence with the increasing distance.
The Long Beach well is affected both by the tide in the ocean and in the channel*
behind it, the curve being, as would be expected, a simple resultant of the iw«»
stresses. Because of the shallow bars at the openings the irregularity in the height
of the inner low tide is less than in the ocean, and the effect of this difference id
shown in the greater regularity of the low-tide heights in the well than in the ocean
(PI. IV, p. 20). Here the high-tide lag is one hour and nineteen minutes and the
low-tide lag forty minutes, when compared with the ocean, while compared with the
tide behind the bar the high-tide lag is practically nothing and the low-tide la^ i^^
nearly two hours.
To this same class belong nearly all the deep artesian wells along the seacoast
which fluctuate with the tide. The phenomenon observed is the result of actual
deformation, and the occurrence of tidal fluctuations in deep wells does not, as* ha.«
been commonly supposed, prove a connection between the water-bearing strata and
the ocean. Examples of this type are afforded by the deep wells along the New Jer-
enrth has an elaslTcity equal to twice that of the stlffest glass, and the elastic compression pnwImT-l
by loadinu a sphere of such material ol the same size as the earth with a tide ol 5 feet is calculaii--
on the supposiDon iliat the ocean is in the sliape of a narrow canal. According to this the lidt-^of
the Atlantic coast may cause the land to rise and fail as much as 5 inches.' See Darwin, G. H. i»p
variations in the vertical due to elasticitv of the earth's snriace: Brtl. Assoc. Rept,. 1W2. p. 388. I'li::.
Mas . 5ih ser.. vol. 14, \HS2, pp. 409-427. The Tides, Boston and New York 1898, pp. 139-143. quoit-d
by Milne, J., Nature, vol. 38, 1883, p. 367. Seismology, Loudon, 1898. pp. 236-237.
TIDAL WELLS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 67
r
sey coast, the wells at Pensaeola, Fla,, the deep wells at Greenwich Hospital, Lon-
don, and the wells along the Lincolnshire and Yorkshire coasts.
Shelford « has presenteil a very clear diagram of the conditions on the Lincolnshire
coast. This shows overflow springs occurring at the top of a porous layer and the
base of an impervious one, and the relation between ordinary overflowing and tidal
wells, all depending on the same strata. Here, as is almost universally the case, the
tidal wells occur only on the shore, and the wells 2 and 3 miles inland are not
affected. In explaining the phenomenon Shelford supix>sed that the water found
an outlet in Silver Pit, a deep hole in the ocean bed about 18 miles from the coast,
which he has represented in his drawing as the ground-water outlet, and that changes
in level in the discharge produced the tidal fluctuations. Such a simple change in
the rate of discharge could affect the wells 18 miles distant only if there were a large
open cavernous connection. That there is no such cavern is shown by the fact that
the effect diminishes very rapidly in passing inland, entirely dying out in 2 miles.
There is no reason why the effect should be propagated 18 miles to the coast and then
suddenly cea«5e, when tidal wells of the same character penetrating a thick clay bed
and obtaining water in the upper porous layer of the chalk occur along the whole
Lincolnshire and Yorkshire coast. In many cases springs near the coast, deriving
their supply from the water beneath the clay, are likewise tidal. The cause of this
phenomenon in the Bridlington Quay wells, Yorkshire, was correctly given by Inglis
in 1817. He recognized in the clay layer a moving diaphragm affected by the tidal
pressure from above and the artesian pressure from below.
REFEKEKCES RELATDro TO TIDAL FLTTOTUATIOKS IV WELLB AND 8FBIKG8.
Anonymous. London Athenseum, August, 1860; Jour. Franklin Inst., vol. 72, 1861, pp. 309-310.
States that tides in wells near the sea are univenial, and records their occurrence about Bom-
bay and along the Malabar coast wherever the material dug through Is porous. Wells dug in
trap rock are not tidal. '
Baili.y. Rapport sur les variations observ^es dans la d^pense du puits art^sien de I'hdpital militaire
de Lille et dans les hauteurs de la colonne d'eau qnand on a interrompu I'^coulement: Comptes
renuus, vol. 14, 1842, pp. 810-314.
Gives observations showing that fluctuations, having a range of 0.415 meter, are clearly tidal
and occur eight hours behind the tide on the adjacent coast between Dunkerque and Calais.
Reports that tidal wells also occur at Noyelle-sur-Mer, D^partement de la Somme, and at Pul-
ham, London, England.
Bbaithwaite, Fredrick. Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 9, 1850, p. 168; vol. 14, 1855, pp. 507-522.
"At Greenwich Hospital, London, the land springs ebb and flow 2 feet 6 inches, the sand
springs, 3 feet, and the chalk springs, 4 feet 6 inches every tide." The total depth of the chalk
well referred to is 149 feet.
Christie, James. Jour. Franklin Institute, vol. 101, 1901, p. 193.
Reports fresh- water well near shore which fluctuates with the tide.
Clutterbuck, James. Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 9, 1850, p. 170.
Explains tidal fluctuation in wells on basis of leakage between high- and low-tide marks.
Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 14, 1855, pp. 510-511.
Wells at Ramsgate, England, are sunk to half-tide level. These begin to fall at half tide, are
dry at low tide, and begin to rise at half tide on the flood.
Mm. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 19, 1860, p. 33.
Reports that wells at Portsmouth, England, are tidal, and concludes that this proves a firee
connection with the sea.
DESAGITLIER.S, Rcv. J. T. An attempt to account for the rising and falling of the water of so:ine
ponds near the sea, etc. Trans. Phil. Soc. London, No. 384, vol. 33, 1724, p. 132; Trans. Phil. Soc.
London from 1665-1800 (abridged), vol. 7, 1809, pp. 39-41.
Reports well at Grecnhlthe in Kent, between London and Gravesend, which appears to fluctu-
ate inversely wiih the tide. This he explains by imagining a natural siphon.
Douglas, James Nichols. Mm. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 47, 1879, p. 88.
Chalk well at South Foreland light-house, Kent, England, 283 feet from face of cliff, 280 feet
deep, with bottom level with half tide, has a peculiarity common to many wells of this region In
that It Is dry at low tide and fllled w^ith pure spring water at high tide.
aShelford. W., Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 90, 1887. p. 69.
68 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
Frazbr, Pbbsifor. Notes on fresh- water wells of the Atlantic beach: Jonr. Franklin Inst., 1890, roL
130. p. 231.
Reports well at Sea Girt, N. J., 20 feet deep, which rises and falls with tide in ocean 150 feri
distant.
Hallan db Roucboy. Comptes rendus, yol. 12. 1841, pp. 1000-1001.
States that well at Lille. France, shows tidal fluctuations.
HUTTON, Capt. F. W. Trans, and Proc. New Zealand Inst., 1895, vol. 28, 1806. p. 665.
States that artesian wells at New Brighton are affected by the tide.
iNGLis, Gavin. On the cause of ebbing and flowing springs [at Bridlington, Yorkshire] : PblL Mag.,
vol. 60, 1817, pp. 81-83.
" When the recess of the ocean lessens the pressure upon the upper surface, the hydraulic pret-
sure on the under stratum must raise the whole mass in proportion as the force is snpeilofr to thr
resistance. The return of the tide brings with it the weight and altitude of its mass of water and
acts on the flexibility of the clay as a pressure would on a hydraulic blowpipe."
Kino. Fbanklin H. Fluctuations in the lerel and rate of moTement of ground waten Bull. r. S.
Weather Bureau No. 5, 1892, pp. 52-^.
Suggests that tidal fluctuations may be produced in wells by coastal deformation.
Mandan, H. G. Note on ebbing and flowing well at Newton Nottage [Glamorganshire, Wales] : Ataa.
Proc. Geol. Soc. London, 1898, pp. 85-86; Nature, vol. 68, 1898, pp. 45-16.
Shallow well 500 yards from shore ebbs and flows with the tide; lag about three hours.
If ALLBT, F. R. Ebbing and flowing wells: Nature, vol. 58, 1898, p. 104.
Shallow wells in volcanic ash on Barren Island, Andaman Sea, show tidal fluctuations clearty
due to retardation of leakage.
KcCallib. S. W. a preliminary report on the artesian-well systems of Georgia: Bull. Geol. Sorrer
Georgia No. 7, 1898, p. 112.
Reports three artesian wells at Tybee Island, near Savannah. Ga., 240 feet deep, one of which is
affected by the tide.
MooRB. H. C. A well intermitting inversely with the ebb and flow of the tide: Trans. Woolhope Nat-
uralists Field Club, 1892. pp. 2S-24; Jour. Manchester Geol. Soc., vol. 10, 1884. pp. 22»-224.
Well at Chepstow. Monmouth, fluctuates inversely with the tide. Shallow pits on Perim Island,
Straits of Bab el Mandeb, Red Sea, 20 to 100 yards from shore, are full of fresh water at low tide,
empty at high tide; explained on basis of time required for filtration.
Pearson, Rev. W. Observations on some remarkable wells near the seacoest at Brigbthelmstcms
and other places contiguous. Jour. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts, vol. 8, 1802. pp. 65-69.
States that shallow wells at Brighton fluctuate with the tide, but with a lag of two hoan. He
ascribes the fluctuation to retardation of leakage.
Pliny thb Elder. (Caius Pllnius Secundus.) Historia Naturalls, lib. 2. cap. 106: (Pliny^s Katnral
History, Bostock and Riley's translation, vol. 1, 1887, pp. 134-186).
" There is a small island in the sea opposite the river Timavus, containing warm springs wiiidi
increase and decrease at the same time with the tide of the sea."
BivikRB. Comptes rendus, vol. 9, 1839, p. 653.
Spring at Givre, canton Montiers-les-Maux, fluctuates with tide.
Robert, £. Comptes rendus, vol. 14, 1842, pp. 417-418.
Reports that springs near Buder, Olafsen. and Paulsen, Iceland, ebb and flow with the tide.
Roberts, Isaac. On the attractive influence of the sun and moon causing tides ... in the ^nde^
ground water in porous strata: Rept. Brit. Assoc., 1888. p. 405; see also Proc. Liverpool Geol. Sofr,
vol. 4. pt. 8. 1881, pp. 23a-286.
Reports that in a well sunk in Triassic sandstone in which the water rose 60 feet above sea level,
autographic records showed solar and lunar tides. (See p. 69.)
Shelpord, W. Min. Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., vol. 90, 1887, p. 68.
Describes wells 200 feet deep, on the North Sea, near Louth, Ldnoolnshire, which flnctoate t
feet with spring tides.
Sinclair, W. F. Ebbing and flowing wells: Nature, vol. 58, 1898, p. 52.
Describes well at Alibag, near Bombay, in sand dunes about 25 yards from high-tide nark,
which fluctuated with the tide after heavy rains when the ground water level was high. Tide
in well occurred later than that in ocean.
Storer. Dr. John. On an ebbing and flowing stream discctvered by boring in the harbor of Brid-
lington [Yorkshire]: Phil. Trans., vol. 105. pt. 1. 1815, pp. 54-59; Phil. Mag., vol. 45, 1815. pp. 4S3-
436.
8., W. On ebbing and flowing springs: Phil. Mag., vol. 50, 1817, p. 267.
States that wells near Hull under conditions similar to those at Bridlington are not tidal.
Tbautwine, J. C, Jr. Jour. Franklin Inst., vol. 51, 1901, pp. 198-194.
Explains tidal wells on basis of free discharge in ocean, as from an open tube; changes in pres-
sure at discharge change water level in wells as if they were piezometers along a oondnit.
Tribus, L. L. Trans. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol, 30. 1893, p. 695.
Mentions tidal fluctuations in wells at Pensacola, Fla., U miles from the shore front. 4 to 4
inches in diameter, and from 60 to 280 feet deep. Water rises 16 to 17 feet above sea level and
GROUND-WATER TIDES GEOLOGIC CAUSES. 69
fluctuaten 6 to 10 inches daily with the tide. He suppoees, therefore, that they tap gubtemnean
rivers which have free connection with the ocean. Note: The tides at Pensacola are rather
irregular, with a small semidiurnal and large diurnal value, and it is quite possible that a portion
of the fluctuation observed is due to barometric and thermometric changes.
Vermbuli, a a Water supply tot wells: Ann. Kept. New Jersey Geol. Survey for 1896, 1899, p. 1«8.
States that many wells along the coast of New Jersey show tides corresponding in period^ but not
in time of occurrence, with the tides of the ocean, and with a smaller range.
Wood, James G. Jour. Manchester Oeog. Soc., vol. 10, 1894, pp. 287-239: Abs. Proc. Geol. Soc. London,
1898, p. 86.
Reports well near that described by H. C. Moore (see above), and suggests that well is fed by
water coming along fault, which passes under the river; that at high tide this fault is closed,
cutting olT supply, and at low tide opens again, allowing an influx; and that therefore well fluctn-
ates inversely with tide. (Note: A simple leakage would, on account of slow propagation of
change, explain the phenomena quite as well, and more naturally.)
WooLMAN, Lewis. Artesian wells in New Jersey: Ann. Kept. New Jersey Geol. Survey for 1898, 1809,
pp. 76, 78, 79.
Records that the height of water in many artesian wells along the New Jersey coast fluctuates
with the tide. At Ventor fluctuations were noted in a well 813 feet deep, which had a range of
7| to 14ft Inches, and a lag of approximately forty-five minutes. Similarly at Avalon, in a well 925
feet deep, the fluctuation observed had a range of from 10ft to 15| inches.
YouNO, Rev. G. and J. Bird. A Geological Survey of the Yorkshire Coast. 4<>. Whitby, 1822; 2d ed.,
1828.
Ebbing and flowing springs, Bridlington, pp. 22-24; intermittent springs, pp. 27-28.
TII>SS IN THE GROUND WATER PRODUCED BY DIRECT SOLAR AND
LUNAR ATTRACTION.
The ground water has not an extended level surface like the ocean, where the
tides range from nothing to 50 feet, or even the Great Lakes, where the tidal fluctua-
tion is but a few inches. The ground-water table is comparatively level only over
areas which are but a fraction of the size of the Great Lakes, and direct ground-
water tides would be of extremely small size. It seems quite unlikely, therefore,
that the fluctuations in the Maghull (Liverpool) well are due to direct solar and
lunar attraction, as Roberts ^ suggests, but, as King ^ has already pointed out, are
rather to be ascribed to the action of the ocean tides on the near-by coast.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO GEOLOGIC CAUSES.
In regions of abundant rainfall the ground-water table is but a subdued reflectioii
of the surface topography, and any changes in the topography will therefore change
the position of the ground-water table. If a stream valley is flUed by sedimentation,
the ground water is raised over the whole tributary area up to the ground- water
divide; if the stream valley is eroded, the water level is in like manner lowered.
Similarly, if a lake is produced by a landslip or destroyed by the erosion of its outlet,
or the ocean level is changed by orographic movements, the ground-water table like-
wise is changed. To these broad generalizations certain exceptions are to be men-
tioned. If a river is intrenched in an impervious layer overlain by porous strata, it
is evident that the position of the impervious bed in the bank, when the water level
in the river is below it, is the factor ^hich determines the position of the ground-
water table. A stream may thus lower its bed without affecting the adjacent ground
water. Examples of this kind are found in the Isar at Munich and the Salzach at
Salzburg, both of which have deepened their beds in recent times, due to regulating
works, without lowering the adjacent ground water, because the deepening was
entirely in impervious material, c
Solution and deposition by percolating waters may cause a gradual depression or
elevation of the water level; solution, by increasing the porosity and consequent rate
of flow, will enable quite a quantity of water to escape along certain lines and so lower
the water level; deposition, in an opposite way, will raise it.
a Roberts, Isaac, Kept. Brit. Araoc. 1HK3. 1884. p 405.
6 King. Franlclin H.. Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau No. 5, 1892, p. 54.
«8oykE, Penck's Geograpfaische Abhandluugen, vol. 2, pt. 8, Wien, 1888, pp. 60, 63.
70 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS.
In regions where the ramfall is low and the ground-water table is below the level
of the rivers changes in topography naturally have little effect, except where the
erosion is sufficient to cut the ground- water table. Generally in such regions tbt-
rivers contribute to the ground water by seepage, and the amount so contributet;
becomes small when the conditions are favorable for the deposition of silt with whirh
the rivers plaster up their beds. During flood periods the rivers scour out the rilt
and again allow the percolation of water.
Earthquakes may produce fluctuations due to several causes: Small fiuctuatioa.^
may result directly from the earth's tremors; a deformation without faulting niaj
produce changes in pressure; and faulting may make new ground-water outlets whiih
will cause the water in neighboring wells to rise or fall according to their relation to
the faulting.
Geyser phenomena may produce both periodic and irregular fluctuations of the
water level, and Slichter has suggested that the peculiar periodic fluctuations at Uri-
sino Station, New South Wales (p. 76), may be due to such a cause.
In this connection it may be well to refer to the hypothetical siphon, or Tantalua-
cup arrangement, which the old philosophers gave as an explanation of intermittent
springs, fl a theory which has sur\ived in Houston's Physical Geography, a work still
used in the high schools in some parts of this country. ^ From a geologic stand-
point the existence of such a siphon arrangement as this theory postulates may be
regarded as almost impossible becauseof the difficulty of finding an air-tight passage.
The fluctuations are now known to be due in many cases to causes not understood at the
time this hypothesis was advanced, and in the light of our present knowledge an
intermittent spring depending on a natural siphon for its action would l^e regardeil
.as a most exceptional phenomenon. It would l)e necessary to do more than prove
that a spring or well ebbs and flows to esta))li8h the existence of such a siphon.
FLUCTUATIONS PRODUCED BY HUMAN AGENCIES.
:EFFECT of SETTLEMENT, DEFORESTATION, AND CULTIVATION OX
THE LEVEL. OF WATER IN WELLS.
It is well known that many hillside springs throughout the entire eastern United
States which furnished water when the country was first settleii are now dry, that
large areas of former marsh land are now in cultivation, and that streams on which
boats plied in the early days are no longer navigable. The rainfall records do not
indicate that there have l)een any radical climatic changes, and the changes are clearh
the result of human occupation. ^
Part of this is due to the fact that large areas have been artificially drained by
tiles, ditches, or absorption pits; beaver dams and other stream obstructions, such as
tlie Great Red River Raft, have been removed, with the consesquent drainage of greater
or less areas. '^ Some of the hillside springs have merely been buried as the soil
washed in from the surrounding lands, while others have been affected by the drainage
of the lower lands.
Different kinds of vegetation use different amounts of water ♦? and affect the surfai'e
a See Regiiault, P«^re, Phil. Conversations, vol. 2. conversation 6: Dechales, Tract. 17 de Fontibu?
NaturalibuM, etc.; Desiiguliers, Rev. J. T., Trans. Phil. Soc. London, No. 384, vol. 33, 1724 (abridgi^
edition Trans. 1665-lSUO. vol. 7, pp. 89-41); Atwell, JoMcph, Trans. Phil. Soc. London, No. 424, vol. 37.
1732 (abridged edition Trans. lfidVl800, vol. 7, pp. 544-555).
b For a more recent suggestion of the same theorv, see Knightly, T. E., G«ol. Mag., n. s., decade 1.
vol. 5. 1898, pp. 333-334.
cSoe, in this connection. King, Franklin H., Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau No. 6, 1892, p. 42; Lane,
Alfred C, Water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 30, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1899, pp. 54-d6.
dPn)f. Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 46, 1906.
«The literature on the amount of water transpired from plants and evaporated from the earth
under different conditions in very e.xten«*ive. but the results are neither readily comparable nor
readily applicable to natural conditions, because of the differing and in many cases unnatural condi-
tions under which the«o experiments have been tried. For a review of the literature, see Harrington.
M. W., lieview <tf forest-meteorology observations, and Fernow, B. E., Relation of forest to water
8upi)ly; Bull. Bureau of Forestry, V. S. Dept. .Agric. No. 7, 1873; Lueger, Otto, Die Waa9erver>*f>TRnn^
der Stiidte: Der stiidtische Tiefbau, Bfl. 11. pp. 176-177, 196-205, bibliography, pp. I4S-161: Wollnr.
Ewald, Kxpt. Station Record, vol. 4, ]89;i, pp. 531-633; King, F. H., The Soil, New York. 1895, Drainaiv
and Irrigation, New York, 1899.
FLUCTUATIONS PBODUCED BY HUMAN AGENCIES. .71
evaporation in different ways, and a change in the plant covering or crop over large
areas may clearly result in a broad elevation or lowering of the water level. Simi-
larly, certain methods of cultivation conserve more moisture than w^ould find its way
into the ground under certain natural conditions, while others allow large quantities
to flow off the surface. Fertilizers and manures affect the rate of percolation in dif-
ferent ways; some greatly hasten and others retard the percolation of the soil water.
The relation of cultivation to the position of the ground water is therefore very com-
plex, and it is clearly possible to have different results on adjacent fields. In regard
to the effect of forested areas on percolation it should be pointed out, on the one
hand, that (1) a portion of the rain water, varying from 8.5 to 59 per cent« of the
yearly rainfall, is caught in the crow^ns of the trees and is evaporated without reach-
ing the ground; (2) the absorption capacity of the forest litter and moss is great, and
water can be contributed to the ground water only after this is saturated; while the
evaporation from this surface is slow, it is to be considered evaporation from a satu-
rated surface, and the net result may be greater than from a region where the water
sinks rapidly into the ground; (3) the old litter or humus is, according to the experi-
ments by Riegler, Ebermeyer, and Wollny, practically imper\'ious, and, while the
fresh litter may absorb large quantities of water, the impervious humus or rotted lit-
ter prevents the water from reaching the ground water; (4) the roots of the trees in
some cases draw from ground water that is entirely out of the reach of ordinary field
plants. Moreover, the direct observations of Ototzky f> and Henry and Tolsky <? yield
the positive result that in Russia and France the level of the ground water is decidedly
lower under forests than under cleared land. The results of Ototzky' s observations
are summarized in the Experiment Station Record in the following wordg:
This is a translation from the Russian giving the results of a hydrologlcal survey in the steppefl
reg^ion. The conclusion is reached that, physico-geographical conditions being the same, the level
of ground water is lower in forests than in adjacent steppes or in general in neighboring open spaces.
The level falls as forests are approached, the fall sometimes being very sudden, and it is more marked
in case of old forests than new.
On the other hand, it should be pointed out that the stream flow from forested
regions is more constant than from unforested oneSj^* and as this is to be considered
as due to ground-water phenomena it indicates a greater percolation.
On the plains, groves and hedgerows by acting as wind breaks tend to elevate the
w^ater level by decreasing the surface evaporation.
It is well known to agriculturists that it is possible to cultivate the soil so that the
evaporation will be greater than under natural conditions or so that the moisture
will be conserved. It is thus possible to either increase or decrease the ground water
by cultivation. In the semiarid region of the Middle West, where the rainfall is
light, the secret of the so-called " dry or arid farming" is to so prepare the soil as to
insure the percolation of all the rain water or of a very large i)ercentage of it, and to
prevent its escape by evaporation. To accomplish this various methods of subsoil-
ing, subsurface rolling, and surface mulching, either by pulverizing the soil or by the
addition of straw or manure, have been employed, in some cases with marked suc-
cess. I am informed by Prof. Charles S. Slichter that in western Kansas, where the
Campbell system is employed, the ground water has in places been raised several
feet by the increased percolation.
oSee Bull. Division of Forest^-y, U. 8. Dept. Agrlc. No. 7, 1893. pp, 100-101, 130-131, and refeifences
therein given; also Lueger, Wasnerversorgimg der Stadie. p. 197.
ft Ototzky, P., Ann. Sci. Agron. 1897, vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 455-477, pis, 2; review, Expt. Station Record,
vol. 9, 1898, p. 1041.
c- Henry, E., and Tolsky, A., Ann. Soc. Agron. 1902. vol. 3. No. 3, pp. 396-422; review, Expt. Station
Record, vol. 15, 1903. p. 125.
dSee Bull. Division of Forestry, U. S. Dept. Agric. No. 7, 1892, pp. 158-170; Manson, Marsden, Com-
parison of low-water discharge from a timbere<l with that from a comparatively timberless area:
water-Sup. and Irr. Paper No. 46, r. a. Qeol. Survey, 1901, pp. 46-47.
72 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATEB LEVEL IK WSLUB.
EFFECT OF IBKIGATEOIT.
Irrigation, almost without exception, raises the grcmnd-water level, andi in refiooa
where there is no natural ground-water outlet so placed that it fumiBhee a flmffideoi
natural escape for the underflow, elaborate systems of tiliflg and pcreapln^ are neces-
sary to keep the water level from reaching the surface in the low places an<l ad-
verting them into marshes or alkali flats. Carpenter reports that in the Cache b
Poudre Valley, Colorado, the water level has been raised 20 to 40 feet.« The effecte
of irrigation in the King River Valley, California, are shown in Water-Supply and
Irrigation Paper No. 58, PI. XXVI.
On Long Island only limited areas have so far been irrigated, but these bid fair to
rapidly increase. On account of the very porous character of the soil and the iict
that all the water used must be obtained from the ground water of the regrinn
involved, there is no danger of serious raising of the ground- water level; indeed, tb«
net result here of extreme irrigation, which would have to be done by pumping,
would be a lowering of the ground-water level to the extent of the added loas by
evaporation and plant transpiration. When the water for irrigation is supplied
wholly from springs, as it is at one or two points near Flushing, or w^here supplied
from the city waterworks, as at Elmhurst, ^ the result is a local raising of the ground-
water level
EFFECT OF BAMS.
In regions where the ground water is tributary to the stream channels the effect
of the ponding of streams, except where the material of the l)ed of the resen-oir
is entirely impervious, is to raise the ground-water level. As the pond or reservoir
is relatively permanent, the ground water generally has time to adjust itself to the
new conditions, and an elevation is produced which is persistent as long as the reser-
voir lasts. Thus on Long Island, where dams were built in all the little streams at
an early day, the effect has been to abnormally raise the ground-water level over
considerable areas.
In mill ponds of this character the use of the water during the day and the accumu-
lation during the night give rise to a periodic fluctuation of the water in the welL*
along their banks which tends to accentuate the temperature effect
In regions where the ground- water table is below the stream, ponding will increase
the leakage, though this may naturally check itself in time by the deposition of silt
and colloidal material.
EFFECT OF UNDERGROUND TVATER-SUPPI.Y DEVELOPMENTS.
Underground water is developed for water supply in one of four general ways:
(1) By subsurface dams, (2) by infiltration galleries, (3) by pumping from single
wells or groups of wells, and (4) by flowing wells.
EFFECT OF 8UB8TJBFA0E DAKS.
In regions where there are valleys with impervious sides filled with porous mate-
rial a dam across the valley will pond this underflow and force it to the surface.
This has been employ 'mI in many regions of the West where dry stream beds with
considerable underflow abound. The effect of such a structure on the ground-water
level is shown in Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 67, Pis. V, VII.
EFFECT OF IHFILTBATIOV 0ALLEBIB8.
Infiltration galleries may either raise or lower the ground-water level. , When cod-
structed along the line of contact of a pervious and impervious bed they may act in
a Carpenter, L. G., Seepage or return waters from irrigation: Bull. Colorado Expt. Station, No. S3,
1896. p. 4.
6 Bull. Office Expt. Stations, U. S. Dept. Agric. No. 148, 1904.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO PUMPING.
73
a way analogous to a subeurface dam. Where deep in pervious layers they offi^ a
new outlet at a lower level than the natural one, and so depress the water plane.
This effect is the same as that in a pumped well, except that here the cone of deprech
sion is greatly lengthened in one direction.
siTBOT 07 FUHPnro.
Tae first effect of pumping is to develop a more or less symmetrical cone of depres-
sion, of which the well is the center. The steepness and slope of the cone c'epend
on such factors as the porosity, rate of flow, rate of pumping, and imiformity of soil.
The effect of such a depression in the porous material on Long Island is to lower the
water in adjacent wells and drain the near-by ponds and marsh areas. <>
The effect of this lowering of the water table has a marked effect on the stream
flow on Long Island, as is shown by the following table, compiled by L. B. Ward:
Effect of graundrwater pumping in di7ninishing stream flow^ from 187 S to 1899 j in the old
watershed of the Brooklyn yxUerworis, comparing five-year periods, f^
Driven-well supply.
Period.
Period.
Ig7a-1877
187»-1882
1885-1887
1889-1893
1896-1899
Other pumped
sources of
supply.
Ex
pressed
as rain-
fall.
Inches.
0.18
.99
2.30
4.17
•2.74
Daily per
square
mile.
Dally
total per
square
mile
derived
from all
soureesin
the wa-
tershed
Water collected as stream
flow, referred to 50 square
miles of watershed.
Daily per
square
mile.
Expressed as rain-
fall.
Galloru.
GaUons.
8.669
517,206
47.063
586,978
109,041
651,506
198.606
824,196
130.224
745.988
Gallons.
a Merchants' Association of New York, The Water Supply of the City of New York. 1900. p. 186.
5Beganinl883.
While all pumped wells cause a cone of depression, in regions where the ground
water moves rapidly and where the demand does not exceed the supply the recovery
is very rapid, as is shown by the figures prepared by W. E. Spear from the records
of the Brooklyn water department. ^
Several i)oints are noteworthy about these diagrams. The water-bearing strata,
in the deep and shallow wells, in each case are separated by rather fine material
which may usually be called a clay. There is a distinct flow below the clay layer
with a velocity, as shown by Slichter, of 6 feet per day, while that immediately above
aSee discussion in Prof. Paper U. 8. Geol. Survey No. 44. 1906, pp. 78-79.
frRept. New York City Commission on Additional Water Supply, 1904, appendix 7, Pis. XI, XII.
74 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELI^.
tl#clay layer is but 18 inches. Near the surface the velocity is 3 to 15 feet per day.
It is therefore interesting to notice at Agawam, which is essentially a deei>-wtil
station, the sympathetic effect of pumping in the lower layer on the water in :b^
upper. There is also an important difference in the depression produced in urii
No. 11 and well No. 16. This indicates local irregularities in porosity. At Mern«i
the wells connected to the suction are all shallow but one; the effect of panipinj; i-
therefore more marked in the shallow than the deep wells. It is here quite normally
greatest in the center well. The recovery after pumping is very rapid in both ca?«",
indicating that the supply is a free one and that the plants have not overdrawn it.
The records for a 181-foot well at the Queens County Water Company pumping
station, near Hewlett, N. Y., show regular fluctuations due to pumping (PL III,
■p. 18). This well is 3,000 feet from the pumping station and 2,000 feet from tli^
nearest pumped well, and the records showed fluctuations of such a regular rhy thniii^il
character that they were at first thought to represent fluctuations due entirely tr-
temperature changes. Further consideration in connection with the record of pcn-jj-
ing from the station shows that the fluctuations are almost wholly due to pumping,
although there is perhaixs a slight temperature effect involved.
The response of the water level in the deeper wells to changes of pressure at iht-
surface, due to rainfall, tidal, barometric, and thermometric fluctuations, suggests tliat
the removal by pumping of the surface ground water over an artesian stratum will.
by relief from load, produce sympathetic fluctuations in deep wells where there ia
absolutely no connection between the water-bearing strata.
SFFEOT or ASTE8IAK-WSLL DETSLOFMEHTS.
The universal experience in artesian basins has been that after a time the heaii
decreases. This is due to many causes. When the whole basin is affected, it indicate?
that the outflow or pumping from the wells exceeds the inflow from the porous strata,
and a gradual decrease is to be ex()ected until these factors are t>alanced. A well or
group of wells may be influenced by interference from a single well favorably situate 1.
Thus the drilling of a well in which the outflow is many feet below that of near-l«y
wells quickly affects the head of the higher wells. Very often where but a few wt-U?
here and there are affected the decrease in head is to be regarded as wholly due t"
leakage, either on the outside of the casing or by the failure of the casing thnragL
corrosion.
All artci^ian wells are sooner or later pumped, and the effect of the pumping is uiVl
to lower the head over wide areas. The diminution of the head in the chalk we..s
in London during the early part of the nineteenth century is well shown hy
Clutterbuc^.«
EFFECT OF LARGE CITIES ON THE WATER LEVEL.
Aside from the general lowering of the water level in cities due to pumpa^,
another factor tending in the same direction is a decrease of the inflow of ram watt- rv.
The mat's of buildings, paved street.^, and drainage systems absolutely prevent the
infiltration of rain water over wide areas. This loss is, however, in part replace<l t y
leakage from the water and sewer systems.
The loading resulting from the placmg of large and heavy buildings on small area.*
will have the same effect as loading due to any natural causes, except that the formtr
is so gradual that in most cases the water has time to escape laterally. It is conceiv-
able, however, that the loading may exceed the rate of outflow and a temporary
measurable increase in the artesian head be produced, but this is of such slight value
as to be of theoretical rather than practical importance. The effect is practically
nothing when the building rests on bed rock, as at New York, and reaches its maxi-
aMin. PrtKi. Inst. CivU Eng., vol. 9, 1850, pi. vl, p. 180.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO INDETERMINATE CAUSES. 75
mam at points like New Orleans, Galveston, and other coast towns underlain by
unconsolidated Tertiary and Quaternary beds. A much more readily measurable
effect would be produced by large fires, which in a short time would remove a large
weight from a limited area. These pressure effects would be noticeable only in wells
in w^hich the water is already under artesian head and when the overlying beds have
considerable plasticity. They would clearly be greatest in unconsolidated materials
and would decrease with the thickness of the strata above the water-bearing layer.
EFFECT PRODUCED BY LOADED FREIGHT TRAINS.
The sensitiveness of the water in wells to any change in load at the surface is
strikingly illustrated by the oscillation produtred by slowly moving freight trains at
Madison, Wis. This is described by King as follows: ^
WhiJe the self-registering instrument was upon well No. 48, It was ob.Herved that there were frequent
records of sharp short-period curves shown upon the sheet, which at first were supposed to be the
result of accidental jars which the instrument sustained; but the frequency of their occurrence and
the fact that they always indicated elevations of the water led to a closer scrutiny and their final
association with the movement of trains past the well. On the eight-day instrument these fluctua-
tions are shown as single dashes, but with the one-day form the curve was open. The well In which
these disturbances occur is situated about 140 feet from the railroad track and has a depth of 40 feet.
It is tubed up with 6-inch Iron pipe to the sandstone, 37 feet below the surface, and the water has a
mean depth of about 20 feet in it.
The strongest rises in the level of the water are produced by the heavily loaded trains, which move
rather slowly. A single engine has never been observed to leave a record, and the rapidly moving
passenger tains produce only a slight movement, or none at all, which is recorded by the instrument.
The figure shows the curve to t>e produced by a rapid but gradual rise of th6 water, which is followed
by only a slightly leas rapid fall to the normal level, there being nothing oscillatory in character
indicated by any of the tracings tior ot>servable to the eye when watching the pen while in motion.
The downward movement ot the pen usually begins when the engine has parsed the well by four or
five lengths, and when the pen is watched, it may be seen to start and to descend quite gradually,
occupying some seconds in the descent.
This is very similar to the various pressure effects noted above, due to tidal, baro-
metric, and rainfall loading, and to transmitted fluctuations due to variations in local
load produced by temperature changes, except that the time of lateral transmission
is rather shorter, and it is not clear that the water is under artesian head.
FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO INDETERMINATE CAUSES.
SMALL. FLUCTUATIONS.
The extreme susceptibility of the water level in wells to pressure changes would
lead one to expect many minute fluctuations; and, indeed, all the well curves show
a great number of such fluctuations superposed on the larger fluctuations produced
by the dominant element at that point. Many are clearly compound waves of very
complex character and represent the resultant of many forces. They emphasize the
continued state of unrest of the earth's surface. These fluctuations can be properly
studied only with instruments having both a large vertical and time scale, and
their elucidation would necessitate corresponding meteorologic instruments of great
delicacy.
On the day gages at Hewlett (p. 18) there is a distinct series of minor fluctuations
with a well-defined period of about twenty minutes. These greatly resemble the
minor oscillations in the tidal curves at many points. ^
a Bull. U. S. Weather Bureau No. 6, 1892, pp. 67-68.
bSee Airy, Sir G. B., On. the seiches or nontidal undulations of short period at Malta: Phil. Trans.
Royal Soc., 1878, pp. 123-138 Dawson, W. Bell Notes on secondary undulations recorded by self-
registering tide gages. Trans. Royal Soc. Canada, soc. 3, 1896, pp. 26-26; Illustrations of remarkable
secondary tidal undulations m Nova Scotia, Trans. Roval Soc. Canada, sec. 3, 1899, pp. 23-26. Duff,
A. W., Secondary undulations shown by recording tide gages; Trans. Nat. Hi.st. Soc. New Bruns-
wick, 1897; Am. Jour. Sci.. 4th ser., vol. 3, 1897, pp. 406-^12; Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 12, 1901, pp.
123-139. Denison, F. Napier, The Great Lakes as a sensitive barometer: Canadian Eng., Oct.-Nov.,
1897: Secondary undulations oi tide gages, Proc. Can. Inst., n. s., vol. 1, 1897, pp. 28-31; The Great
Lakes as a sensitive barometer: Proc. Can. Inst., n. s.. vol. 1. 1897, pp. 56-63; The origin of ocean tidal
secondary undulations: Proc. Can. Inst., n. s., vol. 1, 1897, pp. 134-135.
76 FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER LEVEL IN WELLS,
The seco&dary oscillations in the tide curve at Swansea, England, have a tbr^
interval of fifteen to twenty minutes; at Malta, twenty-one minutes; and at Sydner.
twenty-six minutes; while Benison has observed on Lake Huron oscillations nith
periods of fourteen, eighteen, twenty-two, and forty-five minutes. As no f^a^h
secondary tidal oscillations have been observed near Long Island, and as the HerWn
well is at such a distance from the coast that it is not affected by tides 4 feet hij^k
these oscillations are clearly not of transmitted ocean origin. Denison's obeenrat^ is
led him to the conclusion that many of the secondary oscillations are dne to baro-
metric fluctuations, and the occurrence of these fluctuations in wells must be regarded
as strong confirmatory evidence of his conclusion.
Besides these fluctuations with a period of twenty minutes, there are ee-veral other
minor vibrations with smaller amplitudes and periods; one series seems to \axti
period of five or six minutes, but is not very sharply defined.
In the wells at L}mbrook (p. 28) minor fluctuations with periods of forty and eighty
minutes have been clearly recognized in a mass of still smaller fluctuations.
FLUCTUATIONS AT MILL.BURN, N. T.
Extremely irregular fluctuations with a range of as much as 1 inch were obtaiiwd
from a well at Millbum, N. Y. (PL V, p. 22). These are quite different from any
of the other curves obtained and no cause can be assigned for these irregularities.
Not the least strange part of the curve is that its general character changes sharply
on July 29. (See discussion, pp. 22-23.)
FLUCTUATIONS AT URI8INO STATION, NEW 80LTTH WALES.
The fluctuations reported by Professor David « at Urisino Station, between Wanaar-
ing and Milparinka, in the northwest comer of New South Wales, 200 miles from t.he
ocean, are unique. Two subartesian wells, one 1,680 and the other 2,000 feet deep,
in which the water rises to within 15 or 20 feet of the surface, show regular rhvth-
mical pulsations with a range of 4 to 6 feet every two hours. That is, there are here
six almost equal ** tides" of large size every twenty-four hours. Prof. Charle?S.
Slichter has suggested the very probable explanation that the fluctuataona are doe
to a sort of periodic geyser phenomena. This is quite competent to produce the fiuc-
tuations observed and the high temperature of the water in this basin lends congider-
able color to the suggestion.
a David, T. W. E., Notes on artesian water iu New South Wales and Queensland: Jour, and Pr&e.
Royal Soc. New South Wales for 18d3, vol. 27, pp. 429-430.
INDEX.
A.
Page.
74
A^awam, N. Y., pumpiDg at, effect of
Afpram, Hungary, annual fluctuations in
well at 41
Air. fluctuations produced by pressure trans-
mitted through 7-8, 24, 42-43
Airy, G. B., on minor tidal fluctuations at
Malta 76
AHriston, England, annual fluctuations in
well at 41
Almenderes River, Cuba, fluctuations in
springs produced by 63
A Her River, Germany, well fluctuations
produced by 60
Ann Arbor, Mich., annual and secular fluc-
tuations in well at 40
Annual fluctuations, character and cause
of 2ft-84
dates of maximum and minimum, fac-
tors affecting 34-37
diagrams showing 30,31,32 (PI. IX), 39
Arkansas, well fluctuations produced by
RedRivcrin 63
Artesian well developments, effect of, on
water level 74
Atwell, Joseph, on fluctuating springs in
Devonshire 53
Auchincloss, W. S., on annual and secular
fluctuations at Bryn Mawr 38, 51
Avalon, N. J., tidal fluctuations in well at. 69
B.
Baden, Austria, annual fluctuations in well
at 41
BalUy, . on tidal well at Lille. Ffance.. 64,67
Barbour, £. H., on blowing wells In Ne-
braska 58
on annual well fluctuations in Ne-
braska 51
Barometric changes, effects of. 7-8, 24-25, 52-54, 76
effects of, bibliography of 53-54
diagram showing 24 (PI. VI)
Barren Island (Andaman Sea), tidal wells
on 64,68
Berlin, Germany, annual fluctuations in
well at 40
annual rainfall and water-level curves
at, figure showing 29
Bettes, C. R., aid of 18-19
Bibliography of fluctuations, due to baro-
metric changes 68-54
due to ocean tides 67-69
due to rainfall 51-52
due to rivers 62-63
due to temperature 59
Page.
Blowing wells, occurrence aud bibliogra-
phy of 63
Bombay, India, tidal wells near 64, 67-68
Bowman, Isaiah, well observations by 13,16
Bralthwaite, Frederick, on tidal -well fluctu-
ations at London 67
Bremen, Germany, annual fluctuations in
well at 40
annual rainfall and water-level curves
at, figure showing 29
Brentwood, N. Y., barograph record at, fig-
ure showing 18 (PI. Ill),
22(P1. V),24(F1.VI)
observations at 27
rainfall record at, figure showing. 18 (PI. Ill),
22(P1. V),24(P1. VI)
Bronx Park, N. Y., soil temperatures at,
observations on 57, 68
Brooklyn waterworks, effect of pumping at,
onstreamflow 73
BrUnn, Austria, annual fluctuations in well
at 40
annual rainfall and water-level curves
at, figure showing 29
Bryn Mawr, Pa., annual and secular fluc-
tuations in well at 40, 61
annual rainfall and water-level curves
at, flgure showing 30
ground-water curves at 38
figures showing 30,31
Buckland, Doctor., on London well fluctua-
Uons 62
C.
Cache la Poudre River, Colo., diurnal fluc-
tuations of 69
rise of ground wateralong 72
Caleves, Switzerland, percolation experi-
ments at 46
Callender, H. L., on soil temperatures 58
Capillarity, effect of, In producing well
fluctuations 8,42-43,57
effect of surface changes on 43
Carpenter, L. G., on fluctuations In Cache
la Poudre River, Colo 59
on rise in ground water along Cache la
Poudre River, Colo 72
Caterham, England, annual fluctuations in
wellat 41
Caverns, tidal fluctuations transmitted
through 62-64
Celle, Germany, well fluctuations produced
by Aller River at 60-61
Charnock, Charles, lysiroeter experiments
at Ferrybridge by 46
77
78
INDEX.
ChelgTove, England, annual fluctuations in
well at 41
Cheshire,. England, annual fluctuations in
well at 41
Christie, James, on tidal fluctuations in
wells 67
Cities, effect of, on water table 74-75
Citizens Water Supply Co., wells of, fluctua-
tions in, plate showing .. 26 (PI. VII)
wellsof, location of, map showing. 26 (PI. VII)
observations on 25-26
. Clutterbuck, James, on lysimeters 48-49
on tidal wells in England 67
on well fluctuations at London 51, 62, 74
Cochituate, Lake, Mass., basin of, rainfall
and run-off in 50
Colne River, England, well fluctuations at
.London due to 62
Colorado, annual fluctuations in infiltration
gallery in 61
annual rainfall and water-level curves
in, relations of 43
ground- water fluctuations in 48, 60
Connecticut River, Conn., basin of, rainfall
and run-off in 60
Consolidated Ice Co., Huntington, N. Y.,
observations on well of 13
Cretaceous clays, lack of continuity of, on
Long Island 10
figureshowing 9
Cretaceous sands, figure showing 9
water In 10, 19
Croton River, N. Y., basin of, rainfall and
run-off in 50
Cuba, spring fluctuations produced by Al-
menderes River in ■ 63
Cultivation, changes in ground-water level
due to 70-71
Csernowitz, Austria, annual fluctuations in
wellat 41
Dalton, John, Ij'^imeter experiments of 44-45
Dams, changes in grt)und-water level due
to 72
Darwin, G. H., on elastic deformation of the
earth ." 65-66
David, T. W. E., on well fluctuations In New
South Wales.... 76
Dawson, W. Bell, on secondary tidal fluctua-
tions 75
Debreczin, Hungary, annual fluctuations in
wellat 41
Deformation, elastic, of earth, G. H. Dar-
win on 65-66
Deformation, plastic, of earth, well fluctua-
tionsdue to 8,28,
42-13, 62-03, 65-08, 74-75
Denizet, , on spring fluctuations at
Voize, France, due to baromet-
ric changes 53
Denison, F. Napier, on secondary fluctua-
tions of Lake Huron 75-76
Denver Water Co., infiltration gallery of,
fluctuations in 61
Desaguliers, J. T., on tidal fluctuations in
England 6"
Dickinson, John, lysimeter of 44-^'»
Dickinson, John, and Evans, John, perc«^la-
tion experiments of. 32-34, 37, 4-3-4r'< *<•
percolation experiments of, djagrram
showing tl
Discharge, point of, distance from, relations
of fluctuations and »<, 4S*. •:
rate of, fluctuations due to .S7, 61. 63-64
Douglas, J. N., on tidal well in Kent, Eng-
land C
Douglaston, N. Y., manh near, descripticm
of 25-35
marsh near, map showing 26 ( PL VII
mud volcanoes near 2?--*
wells at, description of
fluctuations In y>
figure showing 28 ( PI. VIII i
lag in 25.66
location of, map showing 26 ( PI. Vll •
observations on 10, 25-aFi. **
errors in !»» A
Drainage, changes in water table due to. . . T<>
Dubois, H. J., well record by 12
Duff, A. W., on secondary tidal fluctuatians
in New Brunswick 75
E.
Earthquakes, changes in water table due
to 70
East Rockaway Inlet, tide curves at, figure
showing 20(PLIV
Eastdean, England, annual fluetuationn in
wellat 41
Ebermeyer, Dr. E., on forest litter 71
on lysimeters 4^
Elbe River, Germany, artesian wells in bed
of iil
Emery, F. E., on annual fluctuations in well
at Geneva, N. Y" ."^1
England, annual fluctuations in wells in... ll.Sl
barometric fluctuations in springs and
wells in 53-54
blowing well in .t3
decrease of head in artesian wells in. .. 74
fluctuations due to rivers in 62
percolation experiments in 32-d4. 44-47
tidal fluctuations in wells in 64, 67- to
Erosion, changes in water table due to (S^
Europe, annual and secular fluctuations in
wells in 34-35,88.40-41,51.61-62
annual rainfall and water-level curves
in, figures showing. 29,82 (PI. 1X^.62
Evans and Dickinson. See Dickinson and
Evans.
Evaporation, loss by SO
Evaporation and rainfall, fluctuations dne
to 2W2
I Farrley, T., on blowing well in England... S3
Fenhurst, N. Y. See Hewlett, N. Y.
1 Fires, effect of, on water level 75
INDEX.
79
Page.
Flood flows, contribution by ground water
to 8.42.49
definition of 49
effect of showers on 42
Sft aUtt Stream flow.
Floral Park, N. Y.. observations at 27
rainfall records at, figures showing... W (PI.
Ill), 22 (PI. V), 24 (PI. VI)
thermograph records nt, figures show-
ing.. 18 ( PI. in ). 22 r PI. V), 24 (PI. VI)
Fluctuations in ground-water level, amount
of 7.38-41.51
causes of 7, 28-76
claasification of 28
See also Annual fluctuations; Artesian
wells; Bibliography: Capillarity;
Cities; Dams; Deformation; For-
ests; Geysers; Geologic changes;
Irrigation; Pumping: Rainfall;
Secular fluctuations; Showers;
Soil; Streams; Tides.
Forest, effect of, on ground-water level 71
Fortier, Samuel, on underflow 51
France, barometric fluctuations in springs
in 63
forests In, effect of, on ground- water
level 71
percolation experiments in 45
tidal fluctuations in wells in 62, &4, 67-69
Frankfurt, Germany, annual fluctuations in
well at 40
annual rainfall and water-level curves
in wells at, figures showing 29
Freund, Adolf, report of, on Vienna water-
works 51
Frazer, Persiflor, on tidal well at Seagirt,
N.J 68
Friez gage, description of 18
Fuller, M. L., on spring fluctuations in
Cuba, due to river changes 63
Fulton, Ark., fluctuations due to stream
flow in well in 63
G.
Gages, directrreading, description of 10-11
observations with 10-17
self-recording, descHntion of 17-18
observations with 18-26
Galleries, infiltration, changes in water
table due to 72-73
Ga^parln, Doctor, lysimeler experiments
of 46
Genesee River, N. Y., basin of, rainfall and
run-off in 50
Geneva, N. Y., annual fluctuations in well
at 40,61
annual rainfall and water-level curves
in well at, flgure showing 30
Geneva, Switzerland, percolation experi-
ments at 46
Geologic causes, changes in ground-water
level due to 69-70
Geological Survey, U. S., observations by . . . 10-27
Georgia, tidal fluctuations in wells in 68
Gerhardt, P., on annual fluctuations 51
on fluctuations d ue to stream flow 63
Page,
Germany, annual and secular fluctuations
in wells in 40
percolation experiments in 46-47
well fluctuations due to streams In 60-62
Geysers, well fluctuations due t*) 70, 76
Gilbert and Lawes. ^e Lawes and Gilbert.
Gorlitz, Germany, percolation experimentn
at 46
Gough, John, on barometric fluctuations in
Yorkshire wells fS
Graz, Austria, annual fluctuations in well
at 40
Greaves, Charles, percolation experiments
of 32-38,46,48
Green. H., gages of, description of 18
Ground water, deflnition of 42
topography and, relations of 3h, 69-70
Sf^ (U«o Bibliography ; Capillarity ; Citios;
Dams; Deformation; Forests;
Flood flow; Geysers; Geologic
changes; Human agencies; Irri-
gation; Pumping; Rainfall;
Showers; Streams; Stream flow;
Temperatures; Tides.
Ground-water curves, relation of rainfall
cur>'es and, figures showing 18
(PI. Ill), 22 (P1.V),24 (Pl.VI),
29, 30, 31, 32 (PI. IX), 36, 39
Ground-water divide, distance from, effect
of, on fluctuations 38,49
figure showing 9
H.
64
68
53
63
Hallan de Roucroy, on si)rlng fluctuations
in Iceland
tidal fluctuations at Lille, France...
Harris, G. D., on blowing wells in Louisi-
ana
on relations of Mississippi River to well
fluctuations
Hcaddon, W. P., on effect of showers on
ground water 43, 61
Hemel Hempstead, England, annual per-
colation ond rainfall curves at,
figure showing 32
percolation experiments at 32-31, 45-46, 48
Henry, E., and ToL^ky, A., on relations of
forests and ground water
Hess, pon fluctuations due to stream
flow
Hertfordshire, England, annual fluctuations
in well in
Hewlett, N. Y., wells at. description of lH-19
wells at, location of. maps showing 9
(PI. I), 16 (PI, II)
observations on 18-19, 75-76
pumping of, effect of 74
effect of, figure showing.. 18 (PI. Ill)
tidal fluctuation in, flgure showing. 18
(PI. Ill;
I Hicksville, N. Y., annual fluctuations in
wells at
Hudson River, N. Y., basin of, rainfall and
run-off in
I Human agencies, gnjund-water fluctua-
71
60
41
40
50
tlonsdue to 70-75
80
INDEX.
Page.
Humus, abflorptive capacity of 71
Huntington, N. Y., wells at, deeeription of. 10-18
welleat, location of 11
location of , figure showing 11
observations on 10-13
tidal fluctuation in,*flgure showing. 12
lag In 10,66
Huntington Light and Power Co., well of,
location of, figure showing 11
well of, observations on '. 10-13
record of 12
Huron, Lake, secondary tidal oscillations
on 76
Hutton, F. W., on tidal fluctuations at New
Brighton, England 68
I.
Iceland, springs in, tidal fluctuations of .. . 64,68
Infiltration from rivers, fluctuations due to. 60-^1
Infiltration galleries, changes in water Uble
due to 61,72-73
Inglis, Gavin, on tidal fluctuations in springs
in Yorkshire 68
InnsbrQck, Austria, annual fluctuations in
well at ,. 40
Irrigation, changes in water table due to . . 72
J.
Jaegle, W. C, well record by 20
Japan, barometric fluctuations in well in. . 54
Jevington, England, annual fluctuations in
well at 41
Josephstadt, Austria, annual fluctuations
in well at 40
K.
King, F. H., cltaUonsof.. 42-43, 61^66, 63, 68-«9, 75
evaporation experiments by 49
Klagenfurt, Austria, annual fluctuations in
well at 40
Knightly. T. K., on barometric fluctuations
in Derbyshire wells 53
Krakau, Austria, annual fluctuations in
well at 40
L.
Lag in well fluctuations 18,
17, 19, 21-22, 24, 34-36, |i0-62, 64-66
Lake level, changes in, effect of, on warer
table 63,69
Lane, A. C, on blowing well in Michigan. . 53
Lansing, Mich., annual fluctuations in well
at 40
annual rainfall and water-level curves
at, figure showing 80
Latham, Baldwin, on barometric fluctua-
tions in springs in England 58
Lawes, John, and Gilbert, J. H., percolation
experiments of 82-34, 37, 47-48
percolation experiments of, figure show-
ing 32
Leakage from rivers, effect of, on water
level 61-63
Leitha River, Austria, effect of, on ground
water 35,61-62
LUle, France, tidal wells at dS.64,€7-«
Lincoln, Nebc-tSoil temperatures at, obeerra-
tionson ''
Liverpool, England, barometric and tidal
fluctuations in well near bt, &-«s
Liznar, Joseph, on periodic fluctuationa in
wells £
London, England, annual and secular fluc-
tuations in wells at 41. '4
barometric fluctuations in wells at ^
diminution of artesian head at U
fluctuations due to rivers at £
percolation experiments near ^.
tidal fluctuations in wells at C
Long Beach, N. Y., well at. description
of 1*-2L
well at, location of, maps showing. . 9 i.P:. I ■
16 (pt i:
observations on 10,19-i::
errors in :*
record of »
tidal fluctuations In IS, 21-22 •«
figure showing 20(Pl,lVi
lag In isf.f*
Long Island, blowing wells on ^
ground water on. source of Ifl
hydrologic conditions on 9-1'.
figure showing s
similarity of, to thoee at Wiener
Neustadt :c:
i rrigation on 7;
map of southern part of 16 (PLI1>
map of western end of 9(PLI,i
observations on K^-J
pondson, effectof 72
pumping on, effect of 71
rainfall curves on,figures showing. 1$< PL III .
22 (P1.V),24 ( PI. VI), 30, 36, 37. 19
section of 9
secular fluctuations on ST-S*
south side of, rainfall and run-off on . . . 4
stream flow on 10.50
topography of i
underflow on 7J-74
wells on, fluctuations in 10-27,
35. 37-38, 40, 42-44, 49, 52-53, 57~».
62,66.74-76.
fluctuations in, figures showing IZ
16,18 (PI. Ill), 20 (PI. IV). 22 iPL
V),24(Pl.VI).26(Pl.Vn).»* PL
VIII), 30, 86, 39.
observations on ^5
Louisiana, blowing wells In 53
fluctuations of wells in, due toMissisBippi
River 63
Lueger, Otto, on annual fluctuations in
wells 52
on barometric fluctuations in weUs and
springs bi
Lynbrook, N. Y., wells at, description of . .. 3
wells at, fluctuations in ^
42-43, 49, 52, 57-59. fti7«
location of, map showing 9 ^ PI. I ■
16 (PI. II I
observations on 23-2&.97-a?
record of 2J
INDEX.
81
Page.
Ly si meters, deicriptioiu of 32, 44-^7
objections to 44, 48-49
obaervations with 82,84,44-49
results of, figure showing 32
McCallie, S. W.. on tidal well fluctuaUons
InGeorgia 68
McDougal. D. T., on soil temperatures 67-58
Madi.Hon, Wis., temperature and well fluc-
tuations at 54-67
well at, fluctuations in, due to showers. 42
fluctuations In, figure showing 56
record of 56
Maghull, England, tidal and barometric
fluctuations in well at 54,68-69
Malabar coast, tidal wells on 64,67
Mallet, F. R., on tidal fluctuations in wells
In Wales 68
M a1 ta , secondary tidal oscillations at 76
Manchester, England, percolation experi-
ments at : 45
Mandan, H. G.. on tidal wells 64,68
Map of Douglaston and vicinity 26
of Oyster Bay and vicinity 13, 14
of property of Huntington Light and
Power Company and vicinity . . 11
of southern Long Island 16 (PI. II )
of western Long Island 9 ( PI. I)
Maurice, . lysimeter experiments of — 45
Mead, Elwood, gage of, description of 18
Merrick, N. Y., pumping at, effect of 74
Mesilla Park, N. Mex., underflow at 13. 62
Meyer, Cord, aid of 25
Meyer, J. E., aid of 25
Michigan, annual and secular flnctations
in wells in 40
blowing well in 53
rainfall and water-level curves in, flg-
ures showing 80
water level in, observations on 52
Mill ponds, effect of, on ground-water
level "2
Millbum, N. Y., well at, fluctuations in. . . . 22-
23,38,40,76
well at, fluctuations in, figures show-
ing 22 (PI. V) 30,89
location of , map showing 9 (PI. I),
16 (PI. II)
observations on 10, 22-23
rainfall and water-level curves in,
figures showing 30,89
Milne, John, on barometric fluctuations in
well in Japan 54
Moore, H. C, on tidal fluctuations in wells. 68
Mud volcanoes, location of, near Douglas-
ton, map showing 26 (PI. VII)
occurrence of, near Douglaston 25-26
Munich, Germany, annual fluctuations in
well at 40
annual rainfall and water-level curves
in well at, figure showing 29
percolation experiments at 47
Muskingum River, Ohio, basin of, rainfall
and run-off in 50
IRR 156—06 6
Page.
Muskingum River, Ohio— Continued.
basin of, underflow in 50
Mystic Lake, Mass., basin of, rainfall and
run-offin 60
N.
Nashua River, Mass., basin of, rainfall and
run-offin 50
Nebraska, annual fluctuations in wells in. . 51
blowing wells in 63
soil temperatures at, observations on . . 57
Neshaminy Creek, Pa., basin of, rainfall
and run-off in 60
New Inlet, N. Y., tide curve at 22 (PI. V)
New Jersey, annual fluctuations In wells in. 52
artesian wells In. fluctuations in 69
tidal fluctuations in 66-69
New York, annual fluctuations in well at
Geneva 51
soil temperatures at Bronx Park, obser-
vations on 57-58
See aUo Long Island.
New York City commission on additional
water supply, observations of,
on Long Island 27
observations of, results of, figure show-
ing 18 (PI. Ill),
22(P1. IV), 26 (PI. VII), 36
Newark, N. J., residual-mass curves of rain-
fall at 87
Newell, F. H., aidof 17-18
North Allerton, England, blowing well at . 68
O.
Oliver, William, on minor periodic fluctua-
tions of well in England ,54
Orange, France percolation experiments at. 45
Ototsky, P., on forests and ground water . . 71
Oyster Bay, N. Y., sections at, figures show-
ing 14,15
wells at, location of, figures showing. . . 18, 14
observations on 15-17,66
tidal fluctuations in 17
figure showing 17
P.
Paleozoic rocks, occurrence of 10
occurrence of, figure showing 9
Pearson, W., on tidal-well fluctuations in
England 68
Pennsylvania, annual fluctuations in well
in >. 61
Pensacola, Fla., fluctuations in wells at 67-69
Pequanock River, Conn., basin of, rainfall
and run-off in 50
Percolation, amount of, estimation of. 82-37, 44-51
rainfall and, relations of, figure show-
ing 32
stream flow and, relations of 49-60
Perim Island (Red Sea), tidal wells on .... 64,68
Perkiomen Creek, Pa., basin of, rainfall and
run-offin 50
Philadelphia, Pa., rainfall curve at 31,87
82
INDEX.
Page.
Plastic deformation. See Deformation, plas-
tic.
Pleistocene gravels, of Long Island, occur-
rence of 10
Pliny the Elder, on barometric fluctuations
in wells in Italy 54
on temperature fluctuations in wells in
Italy 69
on tidal fluctuations in wells in Italy . . 68
Pliny the Younger, on barometric fluctua-
tions in wells in Italy M
Point of discharge. See Discharge.
Poisenllle, — , on temperature and viscosity . 58
Prag, Hungary, annual fluctuations in well
at 40
Pressure, transmitted, fluctuations pro-
duced by 7-8,
•24, 28, 42-43, 62-63, 65-«8, 74-75
Pumping, effect of, on ground water 52, 73
effect of, on ground water, plate show-
ing 18(P1. Ill)
on stream flow 73
Purdue University, lysimeter experiments
at 43
Q.
Queens County Water Co., wells of .. . 18-19.23-25
wells of, fluctuations in, flgures show-
ing 18 (PI. Ill), 24 (PI. VI)
R.
Railway trains, effect of. on water table ... 42, 75
Rainfall, contribution to ground water by. 44-51
effect of, on ground water 7, 24, 29-52
excess of, effect of 37-38
effect of, figure showing 34, 36, 37
figures showing 18 (PI. Ill),
22(P1. V),24(P1. VI).
29, 30, 81, 32, 36, 37, 89
fluctuations due to 7, 24, 29-62
bibliography of 51-52
percolation of, amount of 38
effect of 44
observations on 32-34
residual-mass curves of, figures show-
ing 32,36.37,39
statisticsof 40-41,45-47,50
Btrcam flow and, relations of. 7-8, 10, 24, 49-61
ike also Showers.
Rainfall curves, relation of ground- water
curves and, figures showing.. 18 (PI.
Ill), 22 (PI. V),24 (PI.
VI), 29, 80, 31,32,36,89
Rathbun, F. D.. work of 18 (PI. III).
20 (PI. IV), 22 (PI. V)
Red River, Ark., fluctuations in wells along. 63
Residual mass rainfall curves, figures show-
ing 32,36,37,39
Riegler, , on forest litter 71
Rio Grande, relation between water table
and bed of 62
I^isler, . lysimeter exi>eriments by 46
Rivers. Atee Streams.
Riviere, , on tidal fluctuations in spring
at Gi vre 6S
Robert, E., on tidal fluctuations In Iceland
springs 68
P^.
Roberts, Isaac, on barometric fluctuations
in well at Maghull '4
on tidal fluctuations in well at M a^hol! . d^ *
Rothamsted, England, percolation experi-
ments at 32-54. *•
percolation and rainfall curves at, fiig-
ureshowing J
Run-off, statisticsof '^
See alto Stream flow; Flood flow.
S.
Salbach, B., on artesian wells in Elbe River. <kj
Salt water, expulsion of, from formati<».«
ofLonglsland
infiltration of, prevention of •m
Salzburg, Austria, annual 2uctuations at .. *-
annual rainfall and water-level cur^'es*
at, figure showing 25
observations at i
Saturation, zone of, depth of soil above,
effect of, on ground-water fluc-
tuations' »4-X
Schrieber, Adolf, well of, observations on.. ±;-.r
Seagirt, N. J., tidal wells at M *i^
Secular fluctuations, amount of ♦-■
diagrams showing 32 -*
occurrence of ?7->>
rangeof *.
Sedimentation, changes in water table due
to «i.irt»
Seepage, effects of 61-6j
Shelford, W., on tidal fluctuations in Lin-
colnshire wells 6T-i^
Sherlock, Kans., fluctuation due to temper-
ature change at r?
ground- water movement at f**^\
Showers, effect of, on wells 35-37, 42-H I
effect of, on wells, diagrams showing. . . .4
(PI. vn.y. r
Sidney, secondary tidal oscillations at >
Silt in rivers, effect of, on ground water o1. : ■
Sinclair, W. F.. on tidal fluctuation^in Bom-
bay wells t^^''
Siphons, natural, hypothetical, question of. ^3.7<
Slichter, C. S., aidof !%:>
on fluctuations in ground water due to
stream flow ti'-'."
on ground- water movements in Kansait. •<
on rise of ground water 1 n Kansas 7".
on underflow on Long Island 7
on well fluctuations '*i
on well fluctuation.s in New South Wales. >
Soil, air in, pressure transmitt«d to ground
wa ter by 7-6. 24, i2-i ■
depth of. effect of, on ground-water fluc-
tuations 3i-r
temperature of, relations of well fluctu-
ations and M-'*
Solution, changes in water table due to t?
Soyka, Isidor, flgures by 3
on annual fluctuations '^
on fluctuations due to rivers S
Spear, W. E., figures by » .'
observations by 27.*\ ^*
on flood flow :i
INDEX.
83
72
60
Spear, W. £.— ContlDued.
on fluctuations on Long Island 52
due to pumping 78
Springs, intermitting, occurrence of 53, 70
Still box, useof 61
Storer, John, on tidal fluctuations in wells
in Yorkshire 68
Stream flow, effect of pumping on 73
estimation of percolation from 49-fiO
ground water and, relations of 7-8, 49-^
rainfall and, relations of 7-8, 24, 49-^
See alto Flood flow.
Streams, fluctuations in wells due to 59-63
fluctuations in wel Is due to, bibliography
of - 62-63
infiltration from 61-62
silt in, effect of 61-€2
fluctuations in springs due to 63
plastic deformation due to 62
Streams, silted, relation of ground-water
level and 61-62
Subsurface dams, effect of, on ground-water
level
Sudbury River, Mass., basin of, rainfall and
rtm-off in
Sussex, England, annual fluctuations in
wells In 41
Swansea, secondary tidal oscillations at ... 76
Swezey, G. D., on soil temperatures In Ne-
braska 57
Switzerland, percolation experiments in.. 45-46
Szegedin, Hungary, annual fluctuations In
well at 41
T.
Temperature changes, depth and, relation
of
effect of, on well.fluctuations. 8, 24-25, 61
bibliography of
figure showing
nontransmission of , figure showing.
Tharoud, Germany, percolation experi-
ments at
Thomassey, Raymond, on seepage from
Mississippi River
Tides, effect of, on still box
effect of, on well fluctuations.. 8, 10-26,
bibliography of
observations on
Todd, J. £., on annual fluctuations
on barometric fluctuations
on fluctuations In South Dakota wells
due to Missouri River
Tolsky and Henry. See Henry and Tolsky.
Topography, relations of ground- water table
and
Trautwlne, J. C, Jr., on tidal fluctuations
In wells
Tribus, L. L., on fluctuations In New Jersey
wells due to rainfall
on tidal fluctuations in Florida
Trieste, Austria, annual fluctuations In
wells at
Tybee Island, Georgia, tidal fluctuations in
well at
57-68
,54-59
59
58
56
46
61
67-69
10-26
52
54
52
68-69
40
V. '''^
Underflow, loss by 60
United States, rainfall and ground-water
curves in. figures showing 80, 81
Urusino station, New South Wales, well
fluctuations at 76
V.
Valley Stream, N. Y., observations on well
fluctuation at 10
See aUo Lynbrook and Hewlett.
Van Nostrand, D. L., on depth of mud near
Douglaston 25
Veatch, A. C, on Arkansas and Louisiana
fluctuations due to streams.... 68
on Long Island blowing well8 63
Vento, Cuba, spring fluctuations at, due to
Almenderes River 68
Ventor, M. J., on tidal fluctuations in well
at 69
Vermeule, C. C, on tidal fluctuations in
wells in New Jersey 69
Von Mollendorf, G., lysimeter experiments
by , 46
W.
I Wales, tidal fluctuations in 68
Ward, L. B., on pumping on Long Island.. 78
Wells. See Annual fluctuations; Artesian
wells; Bibliography; Capillar-
ity; Cities: Dams: Deforma-
tion; Forests; Geysers; Geologic
changes; Irrigation; Pumping;
Rainfall: Secular fluctuations;
Showers; Soil; Streams; Tides.
Wells, blowing, occurrence and bibliogra-
phy of 58
Wells, sea-coast, peculiarities of 64,67-^
Whitney, F. L., work of 18 (Fl. III).
22 (PI. V),24 (PI. VI). 26,28 (PI. VIII)
Wiener Neustadt, Austria, wuter level at,
compared with that on Long
Island 35
water level at, fluctuations of 38,41,51
fluctuations of, figure showing 32,
(PI. IX)
observations on 34-86,38
percolation and, relations of 44
Wisconsin, barometric fluctuations in wells
in 53-67
Woldrlch, J. N., on effect of rainfall on
ground water 29,62
Wolff, H. C, observations by 69
Wollny, E., lysimeter experiments by 47
on forest litter 71
Wood, J. G., on tidal fluctuations 69
Woolman, Lewis, on tidal fluctuations in
New Jersey wells 09
Y.
Yorkshire, England, percolation experi-
ments In 46
Young, G. and J. Bird, on iidal fluctuations
In Yorkshire wells 69
CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLICATIONS OP THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY.
[Water-Supply Paper No. 156.]
The serial pablications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1 ) Annual
Reports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5) Mineral
Resources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas of United
States — folios and separate sheets thereof, [8) Geologic Atlas of the United States —
folios thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publication; the
others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists may be had on application.
Most of the above publications may be obtained or consulted in the following ways:
1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they
may be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application.
2. A certain number are delivered to Senators and Representatives in Congress for
distribution.
3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D. C, from whom they may be had at prices slightly above cost.
4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public
libraries in the large cities throughout the United States, where they may be con-
sulted by those interested.
The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of
subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified
into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, System-
atic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and
physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water stor-
age; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investiga-
tions; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports.
This paper is the fifty-second in Series O, the complete list of which follows (PP==Pro-
fessional Paper; B= Bulletin; AVS=W^ater-Supply Paper) :
SERIES O, UNDERGROUND WATERS.
WS 4. A reconnaissance in 8oiithea.stern Washington, by I. C. RuHsell. 1897. 96 pp., 7 pis. (Out of
stock.)
WS 6. Underground waters of southwestern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 1897. 65 pp., 12 pis.
(Out of stock.)
WS 7. Seepage waters of northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. 50 pp., 3 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 12. Underground waters of southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Darton. 1898. 56 pp.. 21 pis. (Out
of stock.)
WS 21. Wells of northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. 1899. 82 pp.. 2 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 26. Wells of southern Indiana (continuation of No. 21), by Frank Leverett. 1899. 64 pp. (Out
of stock.)
WS 30. Water resources of the lower peninsula of Michigan, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 7 pis. (Out
of stock. )
WS 81. Lower Michigan mineral waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 97 pp., 4 pis. (Out of stock.)
WS 84. Geology ami water resources of a portion of .southeastern South Dakota, by J. E. Todd. 1900.
34 pp., 19 pis.
WS 53. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idah5, Pt. I, by I. C. Russell. 1901. 86
pp., 10 pis. (Out of stock. )
WS 54. Geology and water resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. II, by I. C. Russell. 1901.
87-141 pp. ( Out of stock . )
I
Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 156
Series N, Water Power, 11
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
CHARLES D. WALCOTT, DIRECTOR
ISCONSII
BT
LEONARD S. SMITH
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1906
CONTENTS,
Introduction 9
Significance and extent of watei^power resources 9
Sources of information 9
Physical geography of northern Wisconsin 10
Geology 10
Pre-Cambrian rocks 10
Paleozoic rocks 10
Glacial drift 11
Topography 12
Hydrography 12
Soils 13
Forest conditions 14
Climatic conditions 15
Temperature 15
Precipitation 15
Fox River system 19
Drainage 19
Upper Fox 20
Lower Fox 21
Geology and topography 21
Profile 22
Rainfall and run-off 22
Water powers 32
General statement 32
Legal status 32
Neenah 34
Menasha 34
Appleton 35
Fall 35
Upper dam 35
Middle dam 36
Lower dam 37
Cedars dam 37
Littlechute 38
Combined Locks dam 38
Grand Eaukauna dam 38
Rapide Croche dam ^ 40
Little Eaukauna dam. 40
Depere dam 41
Railroads 42
3
4 coNTEirrs.
Menominee River system 42
Drainage 42
Profile 42
Geology 43
Rainfall and run-off • 44
Water powers 51
General conditions 51
Bad Water rapids 51
Twin Falls 51
Pine River rapids 51
Horse Race rapids 52
Big Quinnesec Falls 52
Little Quinnesec Falls S
Sand Portage rapids. 52
Sturgeon Falls 53
Pemena dam and rapids 53
Chalk Hill rapids 53
White rapids 54
Twin I^and rapids 54
Schappies rapids 54
Marinette dams 54
Tributaries : 55
Dams on main river and tributaries 56
Peshtigo River : 56
Oconto River 57
General conditions 57
Water powers 57
Stiles 57
Oconto Falls 5S
Pulcifer dam 58
Miscellaneous 58
Wolf River system 59
General conditions 59
Run-off 60
Tributaries 62
Water powers 62
Wisconsin River system 63
Topography and drainage 63
Lake elevations and reservoir sit«s 64
Profile 65
Geology 67
Rainfall and run-off 67
Railroads 76
W^ater powers. 76
Kilboum 77
Nekoosa 77
Port Edwards 77
Grand Rapids 78
Stevens Point 78
Battle Island 78
Mosinee 79
Rothchilds 79
Wausau 79
CONTENTS. 5
Page.
Wisconsin River system — Continued.
Water powers — Continued.
Brokaw 80
Trapp rapids 80
Merrill 80
Bill Cross rapids 80
Grandfather rapids 81
Grandmother rapids -. 81
Tomahawk dam 81
Pine Creek rapids 81
Whirlpool rapids 81
Hat rapids 82
Rhinelander dam 82
Rainbow rapids 82
Otter rapids 82
Tributaries 82
General statement 82
St. Germain River 83
Tomahawk River 83
Pelican River 83
Prairie River 84
Rib River 84
Eau Claire River. 84
Eau Pleine River 85
Black River 85
Topography and drainage 85
Water powers *> 89
Black River Falls 89
Black River Falls to Neillsville 89
Neillsville 90
Hemlock dam 90
Railroads : 90
Chippewa River system , 90
Topography and drainage 90
Geology 91
Proposed reservoir sites 91
Railroads 92
Rainfall and run-off 93
Water powers 98
Below junction of Flambeau River 98
Topography and drainage 98
Eau Claire 100
Chippewa Falls 101
Jim Falls 101
BrunettFaUs 102
Holcombe dam 103
Mouth of Flambeau 103
Branches and upper waters 103
Topography and drainage 103
EJast Branch of Chippewa River 104
West Branch of Chippewa River 104
Court Oreilles River 104
Upper powers 105
6 CONTENTS.
Chippewa River system — Continued. Pa.pe.
Tributaries 105
Flambeau River 105
Drainage and water powers 1(K
Profile 105
Rainfall and run-off ICC
Tributaries 113
Red Cedar River 113
Drainage 113
Profile 113
Water powers and dams 1 U
Railroads '. 115
Eau Claire River 115
Jump River 115
Yellow River 116
Smaller tributaries 116
St. Croix River system 117
Topography and drainage 117
Profile 118
Geology 119
Rainfall and run-off .^ 119
Water powers 123
Fall : 123
St. Croix rapids 124
Kettle River rapids 124
Tributaries 125
Length and drainage 125
Yellow River 125
Eau Claire River 126
Apple River 12r3
Willow River 128
Clam River 128
Namekagon and Totogatic rivers 129
Minor streams 131
Osceola Creek 131
Einnikinnic River 131
Lake Superior system 132
Topography 132
Water powers •. 132
Character 132
St. Louis River 133
Nemadji and Black rivers ". 134
Bois Brule River 134
Montreal and Gogoshungun rivers 135
Bad River 135
Main river 135
Tributaries 136
White River 136
Maringouin River 136
Tylers Fork 137
Potato River 137
Minor rivers 137
Railroads 137
Index 139
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Paire.
Plate I. Drainage map of Wisconsin 12
II. A, Dam on lower Fox River at Depere, Wis., looking east; fi, Combined
Locks dam, Littlechute, Wis., lower Fox River 38
III. A J Grandfather rapids, Wisconsin River; B, Brunett Falls, Chippewa
River 80
IV. Profile of Chippewa River from Reeds Landing, Minn., to Flambeau, Wis. 100
V. -4, Lower pitch of Big Falls, Flambeau River; By Copper Falls, Bad
River 106
Fio. 1. Rainfall map of Wisconsin . 16
2. Chart showing; rainfall at Milwaukee, 1837-1904 18
3. Plan of water-power development at Little Kaukauna, Wis 41
4. Plan of proposed water-power development at Jim Falls 102
5. Plan of canal of Great Northern Power Company on St. Louis Rivpr. . 133
7
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
By L. S. Smith.
INTRODUCTION.
Signifieanee and extent of vxUer^power resources. — Unlike other great natural resources of
the State, such as the forest and mineral wealth, the utilization of which means the final
destruction of the source of supply, the water-power resources are as certain and eternal
as the sunshine. The importance of water powers to a State so remote from coal mines as
is Wisconsin is not likely to be overestimated. Unquestionably these powers are destined
to exercise a wide influence on the development of the State. So far as known, not a single
important river in the State has as yet been made to fully produce its available power.
The lower Fox may be said to come the nearest to this, with a total of 31,898 actual horse-
power,a all produced in the 35 miles between Lake Winnebago and Green Bay. This large
water power has caused the district to take high rank as a paper and pulp manufacturing
center. Wisconsin, Chippewa, and St. Croix rivers can each be made to produce power
equaling and even exceeding that of the lower Fox. Growth in the development of Wis-
consin water powers has been very rapid. During the ten years ending in 1900 the gain
was 75 per cent. The foUowing figures show the g^wth during the last thirty years:
Wisconsin water powers developed.
Horsepower.
1870 33,700
1880 45,300
1890 56,700
1900 99,000
The annual saving represented by this power over the cost of an equivalent amount of
steam power, computed at S20 per horsepower, reaches the sum of nearly $2,000,000.
Sources of information. — Judging from the scant literature descriptive of Wisconsin water
powers, but little attention has been directed in the past to this great natural resource of
the State. The longest and most accurate description is contained in the Tenth Census
of the United States. In Geology of Wisconsin, volume 3, 1880, will be found good detailed
descriptions of the Lake Superior rivers from the standpoint of a geologist. Very reliable
information regarding the upper headwaters of the lai^r rivers is given in the reports of
the Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army, for the years 1879-1883, Jpclusive, to which frequent
reference is herein made. This work of surveying reservoir sites involved the running of
many hundred miles of levels, thus securing numerous water levels on lakes and rivers.
The maps of these surveys were never published, but copies of the originals have been
obtained, and no pains or expense has been spared to preserve and present these data-
A fourth source of information, and a most welcome one, both because of its intrinsic value
and because it marks the beginning of a rational and systematic study of Wisconsin water
powers, is the detailed survey of part of Chippewa River and the daily discharge records of
a Rept. Chief Eng. U. S. Army, 1897, p. 2737.
0
10 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
many important water-power rivers carried on by the United States Geological Surver
during the years 1903, 1904, and 1905. a
Finally, the data here presented would have lacked much of whatever value and ccu.-
pleteness they may have had it not been for the generous support of hydraulic enginer r«
and mill owners.
After exhausting all possible sources of information by correspondence, however, it »«:;
found that many points of importance could be cleared up only by a personal visit to iV*
field. In this manner visits were made to St. Croix River at Taylors Falls; to Apple arc
Willow rivers; to Eau Claire and Chippewa Falls, on Chippewa River; to Black River Fal-
and Neillsville, on Black River; to Grand Rapids, Stevens Point, Tomahawk, and Rhir-.-
lander, on Wisconsin River, and to Oshkosh, Appleton, Menasha, Kaukauna, and Deppn*.
on Fox River.
The importance of these water-power resources to the development of the Stato wou^d
certainly justify it in cooperating financially with the United States Geological Survey h\
extending the investigation to include hypsometric surveys of the important rivers, espe-
cially in the region now undeveloped.
PHYSICAL GEOQRAPHY OP NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
GEOLOGY, b
The rock formations of northern Wisconsin readily fall into three classes — the pre-C^am-
brian crystalline rocks, the Paleozoic rocks, and the Glacial drift. The pre-Cambrian and
Paleozoic formations are adjacent to one another, but the loose Glacial drift is distributed
irregularly over all the hard-rock formations of the region.
PBK-C-\MBRIAN ROCKS. .
The pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks consist of various kinds of igneous rocks, such a?
greenstone or trap rocks, granite, diorite, rhyolite, schists, and gneisses, and varieties i4
mctamorphased sedimentary rocks, such as quartzite, slate, limestone, conglomerate ferru-
ginous rocks, slate, and schists. Tlic rocks here classed as pre-Cambrian include all thus*'
often referred to as the Laure/itian (Archean), Huronian, and Kewcenawan series, '^^e
various kinds of crystalline rocks generally stand on edge, trend in various directions, and
form irregular belts and areas throughout the region.
The area of crj-stalline rocks covers the principal part of northern Wisconsin. Its north-
em boundary is approximately parallel to and ver}^ near the adjac<»nt shore of Lake Sup(»rii^r
on the west it projects irregularly into Minnesota; on the south it extends to the central par.
of the State, and on the east it reaches within 25 to 40 miles of Green Bay.
The pre-Cambrian region is the highest portion of the State, and in these crystalhn--
highlands the large rivers have their source and flow outward in all directions. The cnsta.-
line ro<'ks are generally hard. They do not everywhere have this character, however, and
the la<^k of uniformity causes much irregularity in the surface features. Higli, ri>und*'(i
knolks of hard granite and quartzite dot the surface of the region, and the abrupt variation^
in the character of the rock along the river valleys have caused the formation of numen>2>
rapids and waterfalls. The slope of the pre-Cambrian region is relatively steep on the L^kt
Superior side and comparatively gentle toward the east, south, and west.
PALEOZOIC ROCKS.
The Paleozoic rocks consist of alternating formations of comparatively incoherent,
friable sandstone and hard, compact limestone lying unconformably upon the upturned
edges of the crystalline rocks and dipping slightly toward the north, east, south, and
a The Wisconsin lopislHturo of I'JO.') appropriated 32.500 for the purpose of surveying the w»tir
powers of the SUite in ('oop<>rution with the Unit<^d States Geological Survey, which has set aaci .n
equal amount for this purpose. In the fall of 1905 Wisconsin, Block, and Flambeau rivers w« i>
surveyed. This work is in oharpe of Leonard S. Smith.
& Prepared by S Weidman, State geologist of Wisconsin.
GEOLOGY. 11
'west — the dip thus being away from the broad central core of the pre-Cambrian region.
The Paleozoic rocks of northern Wisconsin include the following formations, named from
the base upward: (1) Cambrian ("Potsdam") sandstone, (2) "Lower Magnesian" lime*
stone, (3) St. Peter sandstone, and (4) "Trenton" limestone.
The Cambrian sandstone is by far the most abundant Paleozoic rock of the region. Along
the shore of Lake Superior, where it is generally called the Lake Superior sandstone, it forms
& strip less than a mile in width at the Michigan boundary, increasing to 15 miles in width at
the Minnesota boundary. For variable distances of 15 to 40 miles about the broad central
area of the pre-Cambrian to the west, south, and east, the Cambrian is the principal surface
rcK'rk. It is only adjacent to the shore of Green Bay on the east and in St. Croix and Pierce
counties on the west that limestone and sandstone later than the Cambrian oc<!ur to any
notable extent.
The surface features of the Cambrian sandstone district are mainly broad valley bottoms,
dotted here and there with a few pinnacles of hard sand rock. In the region of the limestone,
however, the valleys are generally sharp and narrow, and the uplands constitute the main
portion of the landscape. The hills and sharp ravines in the limestone district are in sharp
contrast with the broad, graded valley bottoms of the sandstone district.
GLACIAL DRIFT.
The Glacial drift consists of a loose, incoherent mass of bowlders, gravel, sand, and clay.
In some places the coarse drift is abundant, while in other places clays and sand prevail.
The drift has a very irregular thickness throughout the area. It was deposited upon the
older crystalline and Paleozoic rocks during the several successive glaciations in Wisconsin
and the adjacent region.
Drift in variable quantity occurs throughout northern Wisconsin, being ver}'' abundant
in the northeastern, northern, and northwestern parts of the region, while in a very irregular
but considerable area in the southwestern part the drift is very thin.
The surface of a large part of the drift-covered region is ver\' irregular and uneven, and
consists of hiUs and ridges alternating with basins, swamps, and lakes. In some places
the drift covering, completely obliterates the topographic features of the crystalline and
Paleozoic rocks; in other places it only modifies the older topography. On the whole,
however, the glaciation of the region exerted a considerable influence on the distribu-
tion of the drainage lines and in shaping the minor inequalities of the land surface..
The drift region, from the topographic point of view, may be divided into two general
districts — one covered by the older drift series and the other by the later drift. In the
district of the older drift, the southwestern part of northern Wisconsin, there are no lakes
or ponds, and swamps are very rare. Here the topography is mature and the land has
good surface drainage. In the district of the later drift, however, which includes the
main portion of northern Wisconsin, the glacial deposits are abundant; ridges and hills
of bowldery material occur, and lakes, swamps, and sags are common. In this district,
therefore, the surface drainage is often very poor and large amounts of water are held in
swamps and ponds. Here, also, there are marked differences in the surface features pre-
vailing over large parts of the district. Along its border is the terminal moraine, often
called the "kettle moraine," having a width ranging from 3 or 4 to 20 miles and consisting
of numerous drift hills and ridges closely associated with sags, lakes, and ponds. This
terminal moraine extends across the entire continent. In crossing this portion of the
State it turns north a few miles east of Grand Rapids, thence extends to Antigo, thence
in a sinuous belt westward to Barron County, and thence southwest into Minnesota.
Back of this terminal moraine — that is, to the east and north — are similar belts known as
''recessional moraines," separated one from another by broad areas having the general features
of the hard rocks beneath. Between the moraine belts are broad tracts of sandy land,
called "barrens," which cover considerable portions of the northwestern part of the State.
Along Lake Superior is a broad belt of nearly flat clay land which may Ikj mentioned,
though it has no influence on the distribution of the water powers of the region.
12 WATEB POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
TOPOGRAPHY.
The abundant water-power resources of Wisconsin are the result of its unique topqgr^ j.
A wide and comparatively flat highland crosses the northern part of the State. Tbt»
divide varies in elevation from 1,900 feet in the eastern part to 1,000 feet in the we^^n
part, and extends to within 30 miles of Lake Superior. From it the rivers descend imdiaLj
in all directions except eastward. Owing to the fact that Lakes Superior and Mich^^u
bound the State on the north and east, while Mississippi River forms the 8outhwest«ni
and the larger part of the western boundary, all the rivers must needs find a low tioogii
into which to dischai^e, and that at a short distance from their source. This conditxA
results in a rapid fall and large water powers.
About 9 per cent of the total area considered belongs to the abrupt Lake Superior water-
shed and the remainder to the broad southeast, south, and southwest slopes. Tlie divides
between the rivers which drain this southern slope are almost imperceptible, in some ca?«4
being entirely lost in labyrinths of lakes and swamps.
Hills over 300 feet in height are rare. A few * * mounds," or isolated steep hills with extremely nMxrct
bases, rise out of the sandy plains of Jackson and Clark counties, and a few larger, more msnaJTr- M.*
one 1,940 feet above the sea, occur in the valleys of the larger rivers, besides the low, broad hiUa wYu-l
form the crests of the Penokee and Copper ranges. These hilly tracts do not cover over 5 per cect A
the total area, while about 45 per cent is level upland and about 50 per cent is rolling country, of vh^ci
a considerable portion is steeply rolling "kettle" or *' pot-hole" land.a
The surface features are discussed elsewhere, under the head of '' Geology," and abo in
connection with the drainage of each river.
mrOROGRAPHY.
St. Croix, Chippewa, Black, and Wisconsin rivers drain 70 per cent of the northern half
of the State, an area nearly equal to that of the State of Maine. The Lake Superior liym
drain only 9.3 per cent and those flowing into Green Bay the remaining 20.7 per cent.
In general, each of the important rivers may be divided into three divisions, differiog:
widely in physical characteristics. First, the headwaters, marked by sluggish streams
with low divides, fed by numerous and extensive swamps and lakes, frequently so mter-
laced that it is impossible to trace out the river divides. Here many of the lakes have dam
sites forming natural reservoirs for the river below. Bowlder rapids are here of frequent
occurrence. Second, a stretch of maximum descent along the center reach of the rivfr.
abounding in numerous falls and long stretches of rapids. This part of the river is ahriT^
in the region of the pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks, the southern border of which niark>
the lower limit of the rapids. ^ Third, the lower portion of the course, where for a distance
of about 50 miles the river flows through sandstone and limestone, the descent being verr
slight. This region is, therefore, devoid of water power. In fact, the United States Gov-
ernment has improved the larger rivers along this reach for the purpose of navigati<m wit it-
out the use of locks.
As compared with the upper Mississippi basin in Minnesota, the area under discission
may be said to have a steeper grade, the middle portion, containing the main water powprs,
having an average fall of 3 to 8 feet to the mile. Because of the storage effect of tbe laket:
and swamps, the low-water run-off is as high as from 0.3 to 0.8 second-foot per square mue
of drainage area. Probably about a third of the total rainfall finds its way into the streams.
The general use and control of these northern rivers for logging purposes in the past
tended to decrease the value of the water powers by withholding the water at times whet
most needed. All logging on rivers is fast disappearing. Indeed, on many rivers, like
the Wisconsin, it has practically given way entirely to railroad transportation. This
leaves the rivers free for the permanent development of their water powers. The effect oo
aRoth^ Filibert, Forestry Conditions of Northern Wisconsin: Bull. Wis. Ceol. and Nat. Hist. Sur-
v«v, No. 1, 1898, pp. 2-3.
6 The only important exception to this rule is on Wisconsin River at Kilboum, where the ri\«
descends rapidly about 16 feet in the dalles of the Potsdam sandstone.
II.
o
a.
III
5
Z
HTDBOGBAPHT — SOILS.
18
the stage of water which these dams have had in the past suggests their enlargement,
extension, and systematic operation for the sole purpose of increasing the low-water flow.
The United States engineers have surveyed 32 large reservoirs in Wisconsin and have
constructed Bve such reservoirs in Minnesota. The total capacities of the proposed Wis-
consin reservoirs are as follows :a
Storage capacity of proposed reservoirs in Wiscongin.
River.
Area of
overflowed
lands.
Storage
capacity.
St. Croix .'
Acres.
b 102, 092
Not given.
25,832
Cubic feet.
34,334,000,000
25,239,000,000
10,557,000,000
Chi pypewa
Wisconain
79,130,000,000
The intelligent operation of even a part of these reservoirs would have a marked effect
in steadying the river discharge. This point will be separately discussed in connection
with the several rivers. It may be remarked here that nature, by providing numerous
swamps and upward of 1,400 lakes for this region, has accomplished unaided a decided
rv^lation of the water supply.
The availability of these water powers varies greatly on the different rivers, or even on
parts of the same river. Those on Wisconsin River, for example, are all reached by the
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway, which parallels the river for 100 miles, and by
other railroads at certain points. The powers on the lower Chippewa are likewise available;
but as yet, because of the small population, the railroads have not built generally into
the upper part of the region. The rapid opening up of farms now in progress will soon
bring a demand for better transportation.
The present bulletin discusses the water powers of the northern rivers, for the reason
that these powers are the least known and least developed.
SOILS, c
The soils of northern Wisconsin may be grouped into seven readily recognized classes.
Sandy soils are found in regions known as flood plains, and owe their origin to the sorting
action of flowing water as it issued from the melting ice. The two largest areas of this
type are found in central Wisconsin east of Black River and in the northwestern part of
the State. These soils are so coarse and open that nearly all the rain soaks into the ground,
reappearing later at lower levels as springs.
Sandy loams cover a much broader area than the sandy soils, being roughly coincident
in distribution with the Potsdam sandstone, from which they have in large part been
derived.
Prairie loam is a light, open soil, more closely aUied to those described above than to
the following ones. It is usually underlain by from 3 to 5 feet of coarse, open gravel. In
northern Wisconsin the largest area of this type is found in St. Croix County.
Gayey loam is finer"'and contains more clay than the soils already described. Such a
soil has a great capacity for holding water. "The area of northern Wisconsin covered
by this type of soil is lai^r than that oc<;upied by any other variety."
Loamy clay is still heavier and more clayey than the last, with smaller particles. There
are three considerable areas of the soil in this region.
Red cUy soil is the most peculiar, the finest grained, and heaviest in the State. It is
practically impervious to water. Its areas border Lakes Superior and Michigan.
aRept. Chief. Eng. U. S. Army, 1880.
t> Including 27,406 acres In Minnesota,
c Condensed from F. H. King's description in Northern Wisconsin Handbook.
14 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WIROONSIN.
Swamp soil includes all swamp and marsh land soils. While few very lai^ atngie ar^a.-
are covered by these soils, the aggregate amount is probably not less than 1,000,001 » :•.
1 ,.'500,000 acres. Some of these lands are now covered by a growth of white cedar, othr r-
with tamarack and spruce, the latter being usually found on the borders of both tamani t
and cedar swamps, while still others are simply sedge marshes, some of which are yearly
cut for hay. In many other swamp areas fires have killed the trees, causing all the >mi.l
anchoring roots to die and decay, so that the winds have overturned nearly every trer-.
Many of the northern swamps are underlain by vast beds of peat, while all have a thi* .-:
covering of moss and humus. Both these factors play an important part in delm^'ing the
water in its journey to the streams.
FOREST CO>'I>ITION.S.
"Northern Wisconsin in its primeval state was a vast forest of magnificent timh»»r. '
This could be said to-day of large areas. The central portion of this region includes^ mix<TJ
forest in which, though the pine has nearly all been cut, there still remain over 5,000 fet-i
of hard wood and hemlock per acre, besides other timber equally valuable. The total
area covered by forests of this grade amounts to 8,000 square miles, about the same as that
of the State of Massachusetts.
Mr. E. T. Sweet o enumerates 34 different kinds of trees which he found on the Lake
Superior slope alone. Additional species found on the southern slope would increase tliix
numlx^r considerably.
The lumberman's lalx)rs were first directed to getting out the pine, both because of its
high value and l)ecau.se of the fact that he could float it downstream to market. Tin-!
industry, including the manufacture into lumber, had an invested capital in 1900 of $lCif).-
1(58,000 and turned out a product valued at J81 ,983,000. 6 This easily places it as t In-
most important industry of the State. Only two other States exceeded this in 1900. In
the same year, according to the l^nit^d States Census report, Wisconsin was the leadiior
State of the Union in lumber and timber product^?, their total value being $58,000,001).
The amount of pine timl)er is limited and already its production is waning. Its place i>
being taken, to a large extent, by hard-wood timber, by cedar posts and poles, and by hem-
lock lumber and bftrk. The changes wrought annually by the lumberman's ax and the
succecding forest fires are very considerable. The recent appointment of a State fores'trT
commission promises much for the protection and fostering care of these great intere<t>.
The once popular belief that this northern area was worthless after the loss of its timl>er
has given way in the past ten years to a general confidence in its agricultural possibilitie>.
This is amply evidenced by the rapidity with which these lands are being opened up by
farmers and by their rapid appreciation in market value. In 1895 only 7 per cent of the
18,000,000 acres of the northern half of Wisconsin was cultivated. This re^non has fur-
nished 85,000,000,000 feet B. M. of pine lumber alone in the past sixty years. The grad-
ual clearing of the timber has doubtless had an effect on the run-off of the rivers. Under
the changing conditions the rainfall will he less absorbed by the soil and will get to ibf
streams in a shorter period. This is especially true of the swamps, where the fires have
burned the thick humus and moss which formerly delayed the passage of the water to ihf
lakes and rivers. It is only fair, however, to call attention to the fact that lar^e areas of
the original timber consumed by forest fires have been replaced by a second growth of
both hard and soft timber, much of it in the form of dense thickets, which shade and pnv
tect the ground more effectually even than the original forest.
o Geol. Wisconsin, vol. 3, 18S0, p. 328. b u. S. Census, 1900, pt. 1, p. 293.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
15
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.
TEMPERATURE.
The climate of this region is characterized hy a large amount of sunshine, with high
ttMnperatures in summer and^ extreme cold, deep snows, and clear skies in winter. The
fiumnier heat and wint<?r cold are generally tempered by the influence of the bordering
l^es. Lakes Superior and Michigan cover an area of over 54,000 square miles and never
freeze over in winter. Although the prevailing wind is from some westerly quarter, this
is so frequently broken up by the passing of storm centers from the lakes that both the
temperature and the humidity of the air are affected by these great bodies 'of water. Wis-
consin rivers are generally frozen over between December 1 and March 30. The following
tabic gives the highest and lowest temperatures for each month of the year for the
twelve years ending 1883 at places in or adjacent to this region:
Highest and lowest iemperahirefi for each month of the year for the twelve years ending 1883. a
Locality.
' ' I ! i
Jau. , Feb. | Mar. Apr. May. June. July.
I
51
.57
02 75 91 92
I
-38 -34 , -26
26 36
69
-27 I
70 ; 81 '
-14 , 3
Duluth:
Maximum
Minimum
Marquette: I
Maximum 56
Minimum ' —26
Escanaba: , ' i
Maximum ....' 45 52' 57 65 i 83 I 88 ' 92 | 89 [ 84
93 90
45 30
I
92 95 ' 100 96 , 97
22 31 ' 40. 3, 39. 7' 28
Aug. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec.
78 I 65 I
8 ' -29
87 ' 66 !
18 I - 9
Minimum..
Alpena:
Maximum.
Minimum..
St. Paul:
Maximum.
Minimum. .
La Crosse:
Maximum.
Minimum . .
-20 -32
-20 I
20 34 42 38
26 I
75 ! 61
17 9
52
58
66
72
27
-27
-14
2
49
59
(>S '
82
31
-32
-22 1
7
59,
05
72!
83
43
-34
23
10
91 97 j 97 I 92 I 92 83 63 ;
22 , 33.5 45 40 j 29. 3 22 , - 4 ,
' ' ' ' !
87-2
15 -24 I
94 I 94 100 98
24 39
46 43
101 1 96
29 40 52 I 44
94 I
30
I
92
31
84 I 70
18 I -21
51
-34
-20
I 48
-23
56
-15
56
-30
60
-37
a King, F. H., Northern Wisconsin Handbook, 1890.
In connection with the sudden lowering of the winter temperature, a most interesting
phenomenon was observed on St. Croix River by United States engineers in the early
winter of 1882 :«
This was the apparently close relation between the temperature and the mean velocity and discbarge
of the stream, the stand of the water being at the «ime time nearly constant. In the early winter it
was found that each cold wave which increased the thickness of the ice about one-tenth of a foot at a
time was accompanied by a great falling off of the discharge, to be followed l)y a partial recovery dur-
ing the next few days, the same phenomenon recurnng with great regularity at each cold wave. The
recovery of discharge being in each case only partial, the gradual tendency was downward until the
apparent minimum was reached, when there was no appreciable change for several weeks.
PRECIPITATION.
The average rainfall for twenty-five years over the entire State is close to 32.3 inches,
di.stributed by seasons as follows: Winter, 4.7 inches; spring, 7.6 inches; summer, 11.7
inches; autumn, 8.3 inches. If the rainfall of the northern half alone be considered, these
figures would probably need to be slightly increased. It is worthy of note that 60 per
aRept. Chief Eng. U. S. Army, 1883, p. 1470.
16
WATEB POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
cent of the rainfall comes in the supimer and autumn months, while the least fall is during^
the winter months. December, January, and February are the months of minimum run-
off, both because of smaller precipitation and because of low temperatures and resulting
deep frosts.
In general, it may be said that the precipitation in Wisconsin exc€«ds that of Minnesou
and Michigan and about equals that of Iowa.
Fig. 1.— Rainfall map of Wisconsin.
Because of its bearing on the run-off of the various river systems, whose discharge meas-
urements for 1903 and 1904 are herein given, the precipitation map shown in fig. 1 has
been prepared. It will be noted that the heaviest rainfall occurred in the northern part
of the State, averaging about 40 inches.
PRECIPITATION.
17
The following table shows some details of the distribution of rainfall by months:
Average preeipUaiion aijive stations in Wisconsin for twenty years,a
Detail.
PEBCKNTAGBS.
Distribution
ClaMiflcation of days:
On which rain fell-
Mean
Maximum
Minimum
Without rain
Trace to 0.26'
0.25'to0.fi(K
0.50' to 1.00'
1.00' to 2.00'
2.00' to 3.00'
3.00' to 6.00'
Overy
NUMSEB or DATS.
Greatest consecutive—
With rain
Without rain
INCHES or BAIN.
Heaviest In 1 day
100
41.2
66.6
27.0
6&7
31.4
S.0
3.4
1.4
.2
.1
.2
4.9
43.0
77.4
4.3
41.9
79,2
1&7| 11.3
57.9; 68.1
41. l! 36.8
3.3, 3.4
6.1
4a4
60.4
19.3
60.2
7.2, 10.6
4a 6| 43.7
60. 3! 67. 6
21.91 20.7
50. 6[ 56. 3
32. 4- 3a 6 3a 6
1.4
.3
.2
1.5
.3
4.1
2.8
.4
.1
5.8
aol
1.2'
.3'
1.8 2.1
]3|
8
2.9; 3.1
1
9
<
1
1
1
1
13.8
12.1
11.0 12.0
7.9
6.5
4.9
4&1
41.1
3&2
41.7
36.1
30.3
43.5
7a 0
66.2
6a6
70.0
60.8
71. Oj 79.6
30.6
17.4
21.3
16.9
12.8
14.91 19.3
51.9
58.9
61.8
67.6
63.9
6a 7! 56.5
3a9
27.6
25.7
2&4
26.2
32.1
37.7
7.6
&8
6.3
6.3
4.8
a9
3.7
5.7
4.9
4.6
4.6
3.6
2.5
1.7
S.2
2.0
1.9
2.6
1.6
.7
.4
7
.7
.2
::
.3
.2
.2
11
13
16
13
19
14
14
13
8
8
8
8
9
13
2.9
4.5
a9
5.6
7.23
1.8
1.5
aMooTO, W. L., Rainfall of the United States: Bull. D, U. S. Depi. Agriculture.
The amount of precipitation is fairly constant for the winter and a portion of the fall and
spring months, but varies considerably in the summer months.
Exceptionally dry periods occur about once In fifty years, when the average for three consecutive
years is 22 Inches and the least for one year Is 13.5 to 20.5 Inches. Dry periods occur once in twenty-
five years, when the average for three consecutive years Is 24.2 Inches and the least for one year is 20.3
Inches. Moderately dry periods occur once in ten years. T>.<i exceptionally dry periods are preceoed
by an exceptionally wet period, when the annual precipitation has been as high as 50 Inches. This Is
followed by a period of moderately heavy rainfall, with a maximum of 45 inches. The last exception-
ally dry period occurred In 1884 to 1896.a
The year 1903 had a moderately heavy rainfall. If the above cycle can be depended on,
the next period of maximum rainfall may be expected about the year 1908.
Fig. 2 shows the progressive averages of the precipitation at Milwaukee for the past sev-
enty years, computed by the formula — ft
a-|-46-h6c-f 4rf+€_ /
16
where c represents the rainfall of the year in question and b and a stand for the rainfall
in the two years preceding, while d and e represent the rainfall of the following two years.
a Kirohoffer, W. Q., master's thesis.
b After Blandford. See Bull. D, U. S. Weather Bureau.
IRR 156—06 2
18
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
This curve makes clearer the nature of the rainfall cycle.
In the following table are shown the long-t^rm precipitation records of four tvpir-ji'
I 1 ^ >
^ Oi ^ ^ ^
fQJS
36
J/
*^
■**
^«
■4^
^
s
s
n
t
5
X.
r
/
^
'
•-'
^
^
\
\
fv
*^
k
i
\
y
■^
L
■"
M
^
. *9
. St
. SJ
. S'0
. J3
. J6
. J7
. ^tf
. ^SS
. /S60
- 5^
6J
_ 6*
. tfJ
, 66
67
. 6B
. 69
./B70
rt
. 73,
. ^
77
^
y
-
r
1
\
s
L
>
\
i
f-^
,e^
'S.
.
^
'
jK^
'
^
L
;
^
^
s
'
^
/
/
\
V
-'
_
_
__
_,_
1
,_
--S =
*T--
-
-
--
-
-
r
^
, 7S
_ a/
. Si?
^
w
A
. 33
h
/
L
9f
•^
h,l
r'
.^
f
-
\
1
■"i'i :\
'
■ 1
H.u
1
T
; ; 1
1
J
^''
. ^
' ^ -
. 55
- ^
"f+^"
V
9a
1 -^
^^
. 99
. as
)/
"\-
■
K
T ^
,
I'lG. 2.— Chart showing rainfall at Milwaukee, 1837-1904.
stations in this general region. The rainfall at Milwaukee appears to l)e considerail
loss than the average of the State.
PRECIPITATION.
19
Precipitation at Milwaukee and Embarrass^ Wis., and Duluih and St. Paid, Minn.
Year.
Mil- Em-
wan- bar-
kec. ' ras8.
Du-
luth.
1845
20.5
1846
25.3
1847
. 22.4
1848
33.5
1849
31 1
1850
26.4
1851
30.4
1852...
20.3
1853
30.0
1854
3.7
1855
36.0
1856
29.0
1857
30.0
1858
44.0
1859
?89
I860
24.0
1861
31.0
1862
38.3
1863
31.8
1864
27.8
1865
30.1
1^66
34.0
1867
24.6
I8«i8
20.4
1S69
37.8
1870
26.6
1871
32.0
1872
26.2
1873
30.6
1874
30.8
280
36.3
34.5
20.0
.38.8
30.3
41.0
37.7
286
35.0
31.0
St.
Paul.
27.7
35.4
22.8
17.8
200
30.6
25.7
31.2 '
30.1 I
388
36.5 I
34.2
30.5
34.5
15.7
14.0
38.1
27.0
33.6
30.7
32.2
32.1
30.7
20.6
34.6
35.5
Year.
1
1
20.1
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1870.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1880.
1800.
1801.
1802.
1893.
1804.
1895.
1806.
1807.
1808..
1800.
1000.
1001.
1902.
1903.
1904..
Mil- Em-
wau- bar-
kee. rasR.
35.6
£0.4
46.2
383
24.9
30.0
39.1
284
29.5
3a6
32.6
31.5
30.5
23.5
31.7
30.1
29.8
35.0
32.9
27.8
24.9
29.0
31.0
32.4
22.8
30.1
181
286
23.4
29.9
43.9
489
34.4
37.6
41.6
49.8
57.4
40.0
42.2
62.1
42.6
45.4
43.6
43.9
33.8
44.0
41.2
44.0
23.1
16.7
32.4
25.3
281
27.8
Du-
luth.
St.
Paul.
27.0
30.7
32.3
23.6
34.3
287
281
22.6
45.3
382
37.6
380
2a 2
35.8
20.0
3a3
285
27.3
32.0
24.1
20.5
285
23.3
31.7
22.3
27.1
30.0
10.7
30.5
23.1
26.7
26.1
280
24.5
32.5
20.8
30.2
23.1
26.5
26.1
25.3
22.0
25.0
25.8
17.1
23.5
21.8
32.6
26.0
25.8
24.3
34.7
30.5
25.3
27.5
34.2
25.8
31.8
37.0
34.1
FOX RIVER SYSTEM.
DRAINAGE.
Lake Winnebago, the largest inland lake in Wisconsin, divides Fox River into two rad-
ically different sections, the upper and the lower Fox. The upper river approaches from
the southea.st to within about a mile of Wisconsin River at Portage, then turns to the north-
east on its course to Lake Winnebago. It winds, with low banks, through broad savannas
having only a gentle slope, passing a total distance of 25 miles through three long lakes
before reaching Lake Winnebago.
Mud Lake. Buffalo Lake, and Lake Pucka way have been caused by the deposits of affluents which
the main stream has not been able to wash away, plainly indicating that the present upper Fox did not
erode its course, for it has not even the power to keep itself free, but instead Is filling up. Lake Butte
des Morts and Lake Winnebago are depressions which the present tendency is to fill up.a
Major Warren's hypotheses for these peculiar conditions have been widely accepted, and
are so interesting that they are here given:
We have only to suppose that all the waters of Lake Winnebago basin (including that of the upper
Fox) formerly drained to Wisconsin River; that a slow change of level in this region elevated the south-
western part and depressed the northeastern part till a large lake was formed, which finally overflowed,
forming the course of the lower Fox. This explains the present doubling back In the course of the
a Warren, G. K., Rept. on Wisconsin and Fox rivers. 1876.
20
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
upper Fox and tributaries, and it accounts for the dose relation and yet opposite coonet of Fox aad
Wisconsin rivers. As the level changed the erosion at the outlet could not keep pace with it asd **
prevent a lake forming, because a granite ridge lies near the surface between the Wisconsin and BiiiZai*->
Lake. When the lower Fox outlet formed the loose material covering the rocks rapidly gare way aad
lowered the lake level down to the rock, which now (1875) keeps it to its present levd. Tlie period r<
this change was post-Glacial, because this alluvial terrace is free from Glacial drift, whicfa it could n-i
have been if formed before in a region like this, surrounded by Glacial drift deposit.
UPPER FOX.
Fox River descends only 40.4 feet in the 95.5 miles between Portage and Lake Winn^
bago — an average fall of less than 0.5 foot to the mile.
The following table shows the river profile in detail as given by United States engmeefv.
Profile of Fox River from Lake Winnebago (Oshkosh) to Portage lock (Fort Winnebago).
Station.
Descent bet «v^m
points.
Distance—
' Eleva-
^^ I Be- ' ab2?e ;
Winne- *^®®" ' ""^ ^^'^^' ' Total. Per raik
bago. iPO»nt«|
Milet. Miles. '
Feet.
Feet.
FeeL
Lake Winnebago .* | 0
Eureka lock, crest 24. 6
Berlin lock, crest \ 32.9 '
White River lock, crest , 33.9 |
Princeton lock, crest (Lake Puckawa) ! 43. 3 ,
Grand River lock, crest 64. 0 i
Montello lock, crest (Lake Buffalo) ' 67. 3
Governor Bend lock, crest I 91. 4 |
Fort Winnebago lock (Portage) ' 95.5
746.1 .
24.6
748.8
2.7
&3
75a 6
1.8
10.0
755.7 ,
5.1
9.4 1
7ea2 1
9L4
2a7 1
763.9 '
3L7
3.3
768.9
5.0
241
774.7
5.8
4.1
781.6 ,
6l9
ac
Fox River has been improved for navigation by the Federal Government along this entire
distance by the building of 10 locks, but the slight fall gives few opportunities for water
power.
The first dam on the Fox \s at Pardeeville. where a head of 14 feet is available. Wisconsdn
River is about 10 feet above Fox River at Portage, and this fall could be utilized bj a dam
near the Fort Winnebago lock. A considerable quantity of water could be dischar]ged
through the canal with safety.
At Montello, 28 miles below, a turbine is installed under a head of 3 feet, deTek>pinir
power for a gristmill. No developed power is in use on the river below this point.
The three principal tributaries of the upper Fox have a fall of about 250 feet — much
greater than that of the main river; they are all found on the north side. These branches,
Montello, Mecan, and White rivers, start as clear, steady springs, running from the sand
ridges of the drift covering that portion of the basin. They are each about 20 miles lon^ .
and would be unimportant except for the fact that their fall, combined with their st«adiD<^
of flow, makes them of considerable value.
Montello River joins the upper Fox at Montello. A dam at this point has a head of 11
foet, furnishing power for a flouring mill and a woolen mill. This head could be easily
increased to 16 feet.
POX BIVER Si'STEM.
21
The foUowing table shows the principal developed powers on the tributaries of the
upper Fox.
Developed water jxiwers on trilnUaries of upper Fox River.
Location and stream.
IlattoD, Little River
Lawrence, Duck Creek
Manchester, Qrand River
Marblehead, De Nevue Creek
Marke«an, Grand River
Oxford, Neenah Creek
Do •.
Pine River, Pine Creek
Poysippe, Pine Creek
Princeton, ditch from Mecan River.
Ripen, Silver Creek
SaxevlUe, Pine Creek
Owner and use.
C. F. Stollyman, flour and feed
C. E. Pierce, flour and feed
Cm. Pfeiffer, flour
D. I. Williams, flour and feed
P. Wiealci, flour and feed
H. Larmer, flour and feed
H. E. McNutt, flour and feed
Skinner & Johnson, flour and feed
W. H. Paulsen, flour and feed
Teske & Zlerka, flour, feed, and electric light.
Nohr Milling Co. , flour and feed
B . W. Heald , flour and feed
A. 0. Ochsner, flour
Head. H. P.
Waumander, Waumander Creek. .
Wautoma, Mecan River WiUiam Henke, flour and feed
Westfield, MonteUo River Cochran & Nettinger, flour and feed
10
33
11.
70
12
45
30
30
11
30
9
70
14
190
14
GO
0
70
19
180
12
120
10
54
15
27
8
36
10
85
LOWER FOX.
GEOLOGY AXD TOPOGRAPHY.
East of Wolf River Valley is the more prominent though sfmilar valley of Green Bay and
Lake Winnebago. In pre-Olacial time it must have been much smaller in size, having been
excavated to its present great size by the glacier. Lake Winnebago alone covers about 200
square miles, while the area of the connecting valley below (lower Fox River) is 400 square
miles. y
The western slope of both valleys is gradual, but the eastern slope is precipitous, being cut
out of the soft Cincinnati shales overlain by the hard ''Niagara" limestone. The bed is
the hard "Galena" limestone of the "Trenton" series. Th6 eastern side of the lower Fox
River drainage basin rises abruptly 100 to 200 feet above the water in Green Bay, and
continues as a line of cUiTs along the eastern shore of the present Lake Winnebago, and
thence southward, though largely covered with drift in the southern part of the State. The
glacial action sent down an immense ice sheet, cutting out the valley of Lake Michigan,
while a branch tongue gouged out Green Bay Valley to its present size. On the peninsula
between Green Bay and Lake Michigan was formed the prominent Kettle Range, a medial
moraine.
The floor of Green Bay Valley has a rapid rise. Lake Winnebago being 166 feet above
Green Bay. The portion of the old valley now occupied by the upper Fox was largely
filled with drift, and it seems probable that to the action of the glacier in cutting down
the intervening "Lower Magnesian" rampart and in partially filling the upper valley of Fox
River ia due the change in the flow of upper Fox and Wolf rivers through the new^ly
enlarged Green Bay Valley to the lake. It is also likely that the change in flow is partly
due to a depression toward the north, which occurred during or after the recession of the
glacier, as suggested by Major Warren. This depression caused an advance of Lake Michi-
gan, which rearranged the drift and deposited the red clays. By means of the latter this
ancient shore of the lake can now be traced northward beyond Shawano, on Wolf River,
westward up Fox River above Berlin, and southward to a few miles north of Fond du Lac.
Lake Winnebago is a comparatively modem reservoir, formed in the valley by the deposi-
tbn of glacial drift.
22
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
PROFILE.
The table below gives in detail the profile of the river to-day, after the extensive navi^A-
tion improvements by the United States Government:
Profile of Fox River from Lake Winneboffo (Meruuha) to Green Bay.**.
Station.
Menasha dam, crest
Appleton upper lock, crest .
Apple ton locks, foot
Cedars lock, crest
Littlechute locks:
Crest
Foot
Grand Kaukauna locks:
Crest
Foot
Rapide Croche lock:
Crest
Foot
Little Kaukauna lock:
Crest
Foot
Depere lock:
Crest
Foot
Qreen Bay
Distance.
Eleva-
tion
above
sea level.
Des«-
tween
TotAl.
nt U-
p*,^^t-
From
Menasha.
Between
points.
Hi 1- -
MiUs.
Mile:
Feet.
Feet.
htf^
ao
74a 1
736.^
5.1
5.1
9.6
1
&3
1.2
609.7
3&.S
-i
9.6
Z.Z
699.7
-0
10.6
1.0
e9ao
47
.-»
11.6
1.0
653.8
3ti2
v.
13.3
1.7
653.8
.0
14 2
.9
603.3
5a5
>
17.9
3.7
603.3
.0
17.9
.25
583.9
9.4
37
23.9
6.0
593.9
.0
23.9
.2
587.7
6.2
31
29.8
.9
587,7
.0
29.8
.0
58ao
7.7
35.2
&4
58ao
.0
J ' I
o From United States engineer's profile of the river.
These improvements have change<l the river into long stretches of slack water, ^nxh p^-r-
haps short rapids at the foot of a dam, except at Grand Kaukauna and Grand Chute, th-
site of the city of Appleton, where the rapids are passed by canals, while the river flows over
its original steep bed.
RAINFALL AND RUN-OFF.
The United States engineers have maintained a gaging station at Rapide Croche dam ever
since March, 1896. The assistant engineer in charge, L. M. Mann, states that the crest of
the dam at this point is well suited for a weir. Care is taken to read the gage three tiitit-^
daily, the mean reading being used to calculate the daily discharge.
According to these records the mean low-water dischai^- for the past eight years wil^
1,409 second-feet and the average discharge 3,007 second-feet; 2,660 second-f«vt may I*-
regarded as the ordinary flow of the river. Because of the steadying effect of Lake Winr*^
bago and the lakes above, formed by the expansion of upper Fox and Wolf rivers, tho <il--
charge of the river is remarkably uniform. At Appleton the ordinary variation from J«m
to high water is scarcely more than 2 or 3 feet throughout the year.
The following table gives the maximum, the minimum, and the average flow for cu. h
month for nearly nine years, ending December, 1904, as measured at Rapide Croche daoi.
and also the rainfall and run-off for the same period:
FOX EIVEB SYSTEM.
23
Estimated numtMy discharge of lower Fox River at Rapide Crocks dam.
[Drainage area, 6,200 square miles.]
Discharge in second-feet.
Run-off. ! Rainfall. '
Second-
feet per Depth in
square I inches.,
mile.
, Per cent
I of rain-
Inches, fall.
1896.
March
April
May
Juno
July
August
September.
October
November.,
Pecember..
The year.
1897.
January
February..
March
April
May
Juno
July
August
Septem!)er.
October
November.
December. .
The year.
i8e«.
January
Februar>' . .
March
.\pril
May
June
July
August
September.
October
0.731
.726
.734
1.53
1.04
2.30
1.42
.823
.717
.635
1,739 I
1,766 I
4,246'
4,605 I
3,863 ,
2.607
390 I
1,888 I
2,882
3,558 !
697 1
1,284
.207
.239
1.14'
21.0
406
9401
.152
.170
4.39'
3.87
1.563'
3,140 1
.506
.583
5.23
11.1
2, 173 1
3,726
.601
.670
2.75!
24.4
880 1
2,787 ,
.450 t
.519
3.09
16.8
123 ;
1,470
.237
.273
3.09
8.83
9
146'
.024
.027
3.23 I
.84
145
1,065
.172
.198
2.55 '
7.76
985 ,
2,007
.324
.362
3.06
11.8
838
2,367
.382
.440
1.04 1
42.3
29.57
3,795
1.512 !
2,762
3.522
1.297 ,
2,765
6,344
1,160
2.711
8,728
3.296 1
6,132
5.344
2,519 1
4.01«
4.749 '
2.a32 j
3.246
4,071 1
1.297
3,200
3,2;»
116
1.881
1,588
272
833
2,(508
299 1
1,424
2.«i4
m\
l,«i2
3,770 1
8tti '
2.314
158
196
872
(i92
862
553
SOS
795 ■
368 '
1.425 j
1.494 I
1.782
2,568 '
2,204
1,604 ,
438
8<-4'.
442
383
2.762
2,559
2,3.59
2,968
4.079
4.743
3,216
1,571
1,817
1,088
1,201
.445
.446
.437
.969
.648
.524
.516
.303
.134
.230
..%0
.373 '
.445
.413
..380
.479
.658
.765
.519
.253
.293
.176
.194 '
.513
1.37
37.5
.464
1.17
39.6
.504
2.19
23.1
1.10
2.00
55.0
' .747
1.74
42.9
.585
5.06
11.6
.595
3.51
16.9
.349
2.00
17.4
.150
2.53
5l9
.265
2.15
12.3
.335
1.60
22.3
.430
.86
50.0
6. 04
.476
..397
.552
.734
.882
.579
.292
.338
.195
.224
.71
1.21
2.18
2.02
2.75
3.84
3.00
3.00
2.36
a 15
23.2
67.1
32.8
25.3
36.4
32.1
15.1
9.45
11,3
8.25
7.10
24
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Estimated monthly dUcKarge oflcfwer Fox River <U Rajride CrocKe dam — Cootinued.
Month.
1806.
November.
December. .
The year.
January
Febniary...
liaroh
April
May
June ,
July
August
September.
October
November. .
December. .
1800.
'The year.
1900.
January
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.,
December..
The year.
January . . .
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.,
December..
1901.
Discharge in seoond-feet.
Maxi-
mum.
2,726
2,805
6,852
2,417
2,810
3,435
6,707
8,767
8,571
6,171
3,505
1,437
2,079
2,648
2,672
Mini-
mum.
8,767
2,684
3,024
3,677
4,355
4,054
2,206
2,413
2,646
3,518 I
8,036 !
9,597'!
8,222
9,507 j
1,234
994
Mean.
2,213
2,175
2,499
771
1,014
995
1,447
3,787
4,018
1,741
791
707
308
613
105
I
1,906
2,075
2,253
3,667
6,209
0,296
3,786
1,836
968
1,144
2,119
2,042
Run-off.
Second- j
feet per , Depth in
square
mUe.
a 357
.351
.403
.307
.335
.363
.600
1.00
1.02
.611
.206
.159
.185
.342
.329
inches.
a306
.405
5.47
105 '
2,850 I
.461
Indies.
1.4D ,
.35
Perooit
of ralD-
11£.0
26.15
.364
.340
.418
.656
L15
1.14 ;
.7041
.3411
.177
.213
.382
.370
6l26
I
841
1,044
1,110 >
1,107 !
1,383
258
131
1,057
1,107
1,734
4,948
1,668
2,174
2,247
2,566
3,414
2,076
873
958
1,831
2,021
5,230
8,062
4,353
.361
.362
.412
.561
.480
.141
.164
.205
.326
.844
1.30
.702
.406
.377
.475
.615
.553
.157
.178
.340
.364
.973
1.45
.809
1.12
.90
2.31
3.00
X06
5.40
3.20
2.73
2. 06
X02
.74
L47
29.74
.74
1.56
1.09
2.82
1.61
2.66
&45
4.30
6.17
7.06
1.57
.60
131 I
3,058
.493 ,
6.70
36.76
31. e
3&8
ia3
2L»
37.3
2L2
2L4
12.5
6.6G
7. OS
sie
25.4
21 1
54.7
24.2
416
21.8
34.5
5.K
IT*
7.91
S.»
13.7
0S.4
117-0
18.2
4,349
1,930 '
3,526
.560
.656 :
.00
r2-9
4,634
1,825
3,773
.609
.634 I
.46
138.0
6,431
• 1,742 '
3,839
.619
.714
304
ZLh
12,033
2.460
8,960
1.45
1.62
.70
20&0
6,905
3,453 I
4,994
.805
.928
272
34.1
5.087
1,741
3,723
.600
.660
4.62
14. i
4,557
2,045 '
3,501
.665
.651,
6.41 .
la;
3,846
1,130
2,176
.351
.405
238 ,
17 2
1,687
675
1,221
.19Zh
^ .220 '
306
556
3,873
9,910
2,551
.411
.474
203
lb. 2
3,873
1,640
3,256
.526
.586
1.25 1
4fi.9
3,672
1,464
2,768
.446
.514
.81 !
635
The year.
12,033 I
3,601
.506,
8.07
30.27 ,
FOX RIVER SYSTEM.
25
Estimated monthly dueharge of lower Fox River at Rapide Croche dam — Continued.
Month.
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
I9Q2. I
January ' 3, 136
February ' 3,480
March 4,019
April ' 3,252
May I 12,317
June ' 11,868
July I 5,703
August 4.086
September 1,865
October ' 3,024
November 3, 184
December 3,100
Theyear 12,317
1903. !
January 3, 756
February 3,652
March 8,437
April 9,297
May 7,378
June 6, 791
July 5,571
August 4,449
September 5, 519
October 5,826
November 5, 077
December 3,702
Theyear 9,297
1904.
January 3,860
February ' 4,134
March 7,425
April. 9,637
May * 11,682
June 9, 793
July 4.111
August 4,043
September ' 2, 631
October ' 6, 434
November I 0, 935
December I 4,504
Theyear 1^ 11,682
OlfO I
1,135
947
1,471
3.401
1,647
1.311 I
515
435
756
892
nd-feet.
Run-off.
Rainfall
Mean.
fpct per
square.
mile.
Depth in
inches.
Inches.
Percent
of rain-
fall.
2,263
0.365
0.421
0.60
61.1
2,142
.345
.350
1.53
23.5
2.892
.466
.537
1.50
3&8
2.335
.377
.421
2.42
17.4
4,035
.796
.918
402
22.8
6,930
1.12
1.25
3.80
32.1
4,304
.604
.800
&47
14.6
2,896
.467
.538
1.40
38.4
1,266
.204
.228
2.81
8.11
1,818
.293
.338
1.94
17.4
2,394
.386
.431
2.90
14.9
2,274
.367
.423
1.93
21.9
435
3,037
.490
6.66
30.50 ,
1,206
1,675
1,780
3,886
3,043
2,656
1,856
1,438
1,829
2,500
1,733 j
1,319
1.2
.1
2,760
2,949 !
3,827 i
6,500
5,532
5,061
4.124
3,446
4,321
4,686
3,686
2.885
4,148 I
.445
.476
.617
1.05
.892
.816
.665
.556
.607'
.756
.505
.465 I
.660
.513 ,
.496 '
.711 I
1.17 '
1.03
.910 '
.767
.641 i
.778
.872 j
.664
.536
9.09
1,185
1,565
1.724
1,612
4,456
2,336 I
1,41G
1.561,
988
1,324
1,667 I
1.812
988
3.074
3,128
3,398
6,669
8.707 j
6,682
3,105 I
2.965 I
1.854
3,457 I
4,056
3,618
4,228
.496
.571
.505
.545
.548
.632
1.06
1.20
1.40
1.61
1.08
1.20
.501
.578
.481
.554
.299
.334
.558
.643
.654
.730
.584
.673
.47
.80
3.12
3.14
5.87
2.14
5.47
6.23
5.91
2.75
1.14
.71
37.75
.38!
1.45 '
1.80 I
1.86 '
5.93 I
3.99 I
3.98 I
3.01 I
5.75
4.73 I
.30 '
2.13 I
21.8
109.5
62.0
22.8
37.3
17.5
42.5
14.0
10.3
13.2
31.7
58.3
75.5
24L1
150.0
37.6
3&1
64.5
27.1
30.1
14.5
1&4
5.81
13.6
243.5
31.6
9.270 I
3&31
26.2
26
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily discharge y in second-feet ^ of lower Fox River at Rapide Croche dam.
I I
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. I May
lSii5.
1 3.012
2 ' 2,2G2
3 I 3,350
4 3,7S1
5 ! 4,447
0 4,2<i0
7 i 4,2S5
8 1 3 024
9 ' 2,9<)7
10 4,244
11 4.422
I 4,594
1 4,559
4,102
3.112|
I 2.497'
17 3,916
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
4,672
4,328
4,766
5,164
3,765
2,(«9
4.785
4,973
5,063
5,009
5,173
4,061
2.892'
4,8;«)
5,20l'
4,785
4,72;}'
18
4,244
4,6:^7
19
4,(i02
3,309
2,545
20..
4,6.54
4,619
3,027
2,963
21
4,839
22
4,910
4.847
23
24
4,742
4,777
25.
4,829
4,356
3,05.'>
26.. ..
4,5-0
4,972
27
2,575
28
4,653
4,186
29
3,413
30
3 137
31
4,576
Total . . .
121,850|l20,975
1896.
1
2
4,097|
4,438
4,285|
4,260
2.846,
2,611
3,982
3.9i*8
4,021 1
4,419'
4,214,
2,704,
2,2(>4
2,062
3,892
3,685 11
3,876! 11
4,313' 11
2,529',
2,098
4.22k'
4,490,
5,79()
5,757|
5,026'
4,508
^,546'
4,.y>3
4,2(i8|
4.395|
4,I8.>
798
185'
076
064
,595
998
804
a52
SO?
422
435
354
,706
,187
033,
,063
,110
,637
,277,
,879
,336
,6;J9
,406,
,032'
,208
,661
,862,
,164
,144
,362
June. ' July. Aug. Sopt. Oct. Nov. iv-i
I
4,373
5,852
5,880
5,910
5,949
6,135|
4,493!
4,23.3|
5,546'
6,38(ij
6, 15.5!
6,037
6,0(Mil
4,642;
4,399!
6.179
6,ia'j
6,274
5,891
6.115
4,803
4,386
5,804
6,047
5,880'
5,880
5,841
4,5(i()
5,129
6,597
6,312
6,628
7,339
6,935
7,225
8.277
15,416
14,244
14.178
15,132
14,286
14, 122'
14,060
14,, 559
14,585
14,219
14,365^
14,588
13.981
14,277
14,279
14,19l|
13,419
13,674,
13,513
12.524
11,8921
14,021
12,265'
12,509,
12.251
11,982
10,639
10,433
10,585
10,664
10,639
9.415
9,206
7,865
7,416
8,803.
9,124
9,066
8.769
8,521
7,165
6,699
8,860
7,87.}
6,597
6.577
5,804
4,. 583
3.451
5,498
5,545
5,192
3,562
3,480
884
963
964
936
173
4UI
385
382
847
S98'
242
847
577|
383
849
937,
937^
027
785
047
526,
794'
892
036,
019'
804'
593
518|
1451
086
2() .
4,698
5,072
3,387
3,048
3,788
4,102
4,487
4,395
4,4.10
3.969
3,10«j
4,372!
4,144
4.327
4,447
4,243
2,JvVJ
2,821.
4,23<i|
4,4a5
4,44:
4,294
4.337
2,974
2 242"
4.0J(}
4.421
4,162
4,2>v.^
4.1;
2.071 .
2.132 .
3.546 .
3,5M .
3.3«i*i .
3.5.S4 .
3,9:« .
3,057 -
2.504 .
3.899 .
3.971 .
4,022 .
3,8S4 .
3,7t>4 .
2.774 .
2 227
4.av. .
3,939 .
3,95*i .
2,0NS .
2.173.
3,917 .
4,021 .
4,069.
4,0S1 .
4.160.
2,710 .
2,2t« .
4.185 .
122,346 255,292 173,925 382.954 235,989 137,156 119,657 105,942 .
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
888
«97'
1,386
1,226
1,3951
1,.338|
1,430
1,1 l.T
919|
1,271
I.479I
1,«7,
1,407
1,271
981
837
1.4.37
1.24S
1,4811
1,366,
1,272
1,027'
922
760
1,048
780
761
922
8.-)9
9(>4
859
406
644
8.59
922
98,5
1.04H
98,5
644'
608,
2,400i
2,088
1,563;
1,639
3,493
3,166
3,312
2,9i13
3,230
2,032
1,575
3,361
3,427,
.3,476
3.. 5.58
3,396
2,6%
2,460
3.. 591
3,897
2,789
4,246l
4,246J
4,141
4,2821
3,9(>7
3,897|
3,1.3.5
4,461
4,282
4.605
4,389
4.106
3,296
2.913
4,0,37
3,796
3.897
3,897
3,897
3,694
3,728
3,761;
2,032
880
1.82o'
3.592
3,394'
3,863
3,728,
3,761
2,201
l,i»52!
3,592|
3,525
3,525
3,694
3.290,
1,872
1,6;
ro!
912
1,0481
1,512'
2,314
2,461,
2,578
2,607
2,490
1.2.50
1,392,
1.818
1.818
1,T«
1.723J
2,006
985|
1,352
2,006
2,032
2,061|
2.59,
179]
78
»i 1,
179
32S' 1
390
122 1
192!
136
48 1.1
t
2a5'
145' 1
192j 1
134
78,
I95I
145
608
838
608
6»3
,440
880
,070
880
.Oft}
60fS
779
093
964
922
.093,
,13?*
608
722
1,3
2.72
9«
,01H
.512
.537
,S7'J
.872
.792
.0[*3
.201
.229
.U58
,72!»
.729
.115
.4<i0
, 729
,«*
2.'*wl
A : L'
3 -^•
^^ v.*
.. I .-.
2 ¥V
2 '*~
FOX RIVER SYSTEM. 27
Mean daily discharge ^ in second-feet, of lower Fox Ritrr at Rapide Croche dam — C-ontinued.
Day. Jan. Fob. Mar. I Apr. Uay. , Juno. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dw.
isni-.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27-
28.
29.
30.
31.
1.414J
1,024
1,024
1,739|
I,461{
l,224i
1,1791
l.(X)5
1,337'
1,522|
1,7071.
943
943
901
9S5
1,273
,V>6
7S0
1,0271
1,765
1,7»35
3,897
3,897
4,071
2,729
2,38:
3,932
4,246
4,071
4,161
4,071
2,519
2,431
2,461
3,967
4,211
3,932
4,141
3,897i
2,606
2,173
3,693
2,913
2,607
2,314
2,607
2,607
1,563'
1,563
2,913
2,609'
2,490
2,578
2,00(>
1,899;
2,454
838
327j
123,
259
3751
406'
453'
312,.
17
145
134
36
112'
122.
",'
374
134
1,647
1,440'
1,563
1.613;
543
1,440
1,272'
1,845
1,888
1.672'.
2,882
1,639-
1,440
2, COS
2,789
2,82l'
2,669
1,818
1,205
1,672
1,613
2,519
2,460
2,431
838
1,160
838
1,792
2,913
2.607
2,229
Total ' 39,818 28.213 97, ;J30 111,793 Wi,406 45,582 4,388 i3,013 60,204 73,302
1897.
1 2,201
2 2.173
3 1.512
4 2.088
5 2,789
0 3,104
7 ,3.394
8 3.008,
9 2.759
10 1 2,(307
11 2,286
12 3,072
13 3,198
14 3,072
15 3,040
16 2,788
17 1,644
18 1,872
19 3.230
20 ' 3.795
21 3.459
22 j 3,198
23 j 3,394
24 2.759'
25 1 1,899
26 2.945|
27 ' 2,94.')
28 3.103
29 3,3()1 .
30 3,103.
31 , 1,818.
1,563
3,040
3.3(>1
3.ia3
3,072
3,20;*
1,440
1,563'
3,008
3,3(il,
3.040
3,198'
3,198
2, 1S9
1,29:
3,103
3,072
3,230
3,U)8
3,361
l,(i39
1,723
3. 135
3.522
3,. 378'
3,4:)8|
3,i;i')
1,7««'
I
1,472!
3,2«;'i
3,263
3, 135
3.395
2,608|
1,183
1,393'
2,431|
2,490|
2.461
2,.')78
2,4fil'
1.512
17 1,160
2.490'
2.3141
2.619,
3.460
5,344
2,821
2,4611
3,694
3,62()
3,. 328
3,394
3, 135
1,512
1.9(52
3,394
3,604 .
3.72S
4,037
4.966'
3,296'
4,037
5,624'
6.329
6..j29|
6,533
6,.s:«'
5,231
4,789|
6,6I4|
6,410
6,533!
6,329,
6,779
7,072J
5,419,
7,114
7,582j
7,32<V
8,728'
8,549|
6,946
6.329
7,.539l
6,329,
5,4.59
5,459
5.344'
I
4,071|
4,002
4.886'
5.079
4,713
4,6a5|
4,354
3,198
2.759|
4,354
4,497'
4,461;
4,141
4,425
3,329
2,913
4,106
4,282
4,425
4,318
4,461
3,072
2,7.59
4,141
4,246
4,246
4.071
4.071
2,63H
2,519
3,26:i
3,659
3,727
3,727
3,761
2,201
2,402
3,361
3,230
3,329
3.459
3,659
2,229
2,229
3,394
4,749
4,037
3,727
3,727,
2,286
2.314
3,52,51
3.52.5'
3,. 592
3,263
3,528
2,343
2.032'
3.932
3,727
3,761
3,863
4,0371
2,490
1,2971
2,173|
4.002'
4.07l|
3,932
3,932
2, 4021
2,402
3,459|
3,,558j
3,694
3.897I
3.604
2.2291
2,000'
3,394
3.558|
3.761,
3,694
3,525
1.926
2,117
3,008'
3.1(«
3,394'
3.394|
3.329
2.314I
1,765,
3,103i
3, 103,
3,230
3.O72I
3,040
1,926
1,416
2,760
2,608
2,490
2,490
2, 60S
1,440
1,3451
3,431
2,(^38
2,431
1,7651
1,093
1,04S
1,352
1,27,3|
1,273
901
i,\m\
343
374
116
403
46S'
621 !
343
328
328
300
272'
539'
702|
5.56
664
390
390
819
1,416
1,588
1,440
1.2a5
761
702
943
1,205
1,393
1,369'
1,160,
(>44
83s'
1.138,
1.183
1,183
1.160
1.070
702,
556
1,138
1,115,
1,160
1,183'
985'
741'
556'
1,345'
l,512j
1,512.
1.897'
1,952
1,048|
722'
1,807
2,061,
1,897!
1,897'
299,
1,115
1,239
2,..7|
2,490
2,373
2.608|
2,2861
1.512"
1,160
1,983
2,209
2,615
2,642
2,664'
1,973,
1,390
1,861,
1,964
1,912
1,964
2.183,
1,481'
1,092
1,833
1,912'
1,964
2.432
2,412
1,387
861
2,045
1,207
2,476
2,107
2,148
1.281
1,097
1,602
1,820
1.832
2,128
2.226
1,638
1,196
2,401
2,474
2,497
2,748
2,568
1,905
1,102
2.512
3,409
3,439
3,770
1,880
2,213
1,559
2,424
2,6()5
2,642
2.732
1,878
806
1.657
2.900
2,808
2,923
2,969
ToUl.
1896. I
1 ' 3,063
2 2,099'
3 1,425
4 2,5351
5 3,000]
85.616 77.415 84.05.3 18:^.948 124.486 97.. 397 99. 197; 58,311 24.978 44.145 .55.R57 71,721
2,793
2,762
2,931
3,19()
3,062
2.676
2,698
2,753
2,908
2,7.52
4,05<i
4. 176
2.846
2.5(W
3.890'
3,776
3.799
5.. 508
5,016
6.6<3.S
4,9tl9
4,. 522
4,579
4.. 397
3.578
2,.V.3
2,49<ii
43S
l.WvS
6 1 3,039, 2,038, 1,699; 4,072. 6,852, 2,388; 1,865
876
l,.i46
l.('>49
1,670
1,585
1,652
1,795
1,6.39
1,317!
726'
602
5.54
517
857
595,
2.609
2.351
2.2.37
2,134
2,1871
2,805
2,766
2,714
1,789
1,647
l,667j 1,4541 771. l,467j 2,479
28
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily dueharge, in second-feety of lower Fox River at Rapide Croche dam — ContmiKd
Day.
1806.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Jan.
2,9461
2,977
1,873
1,396
2,953
2,96o|
2,90i;
2,946
3,079'
1,864'
1,56U'
2,908!
2,799'
3,078'
2,859
2,915'
l,a25j
1,741
2,962'
2,965
3,077
3,158|
2,964.
1,851.
l,46l'.
Feb. Mar. Apr. ' May. June.
1,766
2,504'
2,665!
2,5831
2,701
2,679
1,723
1,578
2,331
2,549
2,490
2,468
2,497
1,528
1,587
2,403
2,409|
2,505
2,403"
2,505'
1,494<
1,914'
1,7821
3,064*
3,669
3,761
3,192
1,902
3,224
3,288
3,111
3,135
3,435
2,235
3,280
3,200
3,122
0,643
3,361
2,565
3,035
3,872
3,728
3,736
Total... 79,317, 66,0(M 92,026122.360147,045' 96,483 48,707, 56,326
1899.
1 1 1,533|
2 1 1,488
3 1 2,366 2,275|
4 1 2,417'
5 ; 2,187|
6 ' 2,303|
7 ] 2,1731
8 ' 1,466
9 1 1,465^
10 ' 2,316
11 1 2,329
12 1 2,316'
2,111
2,174
2, 261 1
1,453
2,4581
2,175|
1,303
2,68l'
2,572'
13 1 2,106'
14 1 2,406
15 ' 1,514
16 ! 1,604'
17 1 2,254
18 1 2,379|
19 1 2,352
20 2,347'
21 1 2,330
22.
23.
24.
25.
36.
1,409
1,506'
1,729!
1.562
1,690,
2,810
2,047'
l,7ll|
2,588i
2,646
2,534!
2,619!
2,453
1,243|
1,291
1,902
2,117!
2,152!
1,995|
2,104
l|d95|
1,931
2,113
2,134
2,113
1,352
1,279
1,976
1,932
2,027
2,062
2,034
2,355
1,^36
1,913
2,289
2,692
2,612
2,553
1,553
995
2,731
3,001
2,756
2,832
2,829
1,910
4,159
4,115
4,150
2,925
2,837
4,291
4,273
4,054
4,189
4,301
2,924
3,025
4,372
4,650
4,776
5,602
4,894
3,176
3,462
4,656
5,089
5,136
4,767
4,839
6,098
4,921.
4,333]
5, 8891
5,904!
5,683
5,487
5,432
4,018'
3,457
4,551
5,088
4,758
4,647
4,739
3,577
3,157
4,338
4,594
4,471
4,739
4,612|
3,857
2,2041
4,872
4,018
4,408
4,276
4,175
4,364
3,215
2,524
3,690
3,703
3,723
3,167
3,1
2,343
2,076
2,453
2,623
2,603
2,624
2,488
1,623
1,604
1,863
2,230
2,567
3,279
1,837
1,447
3,756
4,249
4,641
4,839
4,425
2,823
2.249
3,741
3,821
3,812
3,976
3,721
2,199
2,004
3,461
3,946
3,778
3,955
4, 154
2,798
2,813
4,336
4,624
July. Aug.
Sept.
1,760
l,63o|
1,466
1,096J
1,042'
1,535|
1,757|
1,798
1,842
1,792
1,074
1,245
1,
1,
1,616!
1,664
1,685
1,088'
989
1,557
1,641
1,618
1,687
1,661
1,117
973
1,074
1,653|
1,685
1,695
1,660
1,835
1.213
1,226
1,765
2,273
2,460
2,805
2,752
2,024
866*
2,571
2,579
2,482
2,468
2,572
1,942
1,195
1,848
1,717
1,532
1,629
1,735
1,714
1,133
750
1,288.
1,115|
1,11
Oct. , Nov. Dec
801
1,024'
383*
I
638i
1,056
1,092
1,246
1,155
1,156
1,060|
1,17
778
442
760
818
959
906
933
676
491
681
693
877
«0| 745.
,77 755
1,300;
1,178
1,304
3,787j
5,020!
5,12l|
5,417
5,395!
5,500
4,4461
4,145|
5,924'
6,192.
6,618
7,601
8,050
7,301'
7,763|
8,562,
8,767
7,838|
8,421
8,43ll
7,046|
6,272l
5,263]
5,333j
5,451
6,2631
5,209
5,238
5,432
4,733
4,018
5.518
5,633
5,565
5,062
5,369
4,406|
4,334
5,878
7,09l!
7,080]
7,68l!
7,408]
6,702'
0,853]
8,123
8,095!
8,57ll
8,515|
8,277'
7,338'
6,504,
5,042|
4,031
3,133'
3,678
3,36l|
4,923
5,171
4,726'
3,942.
3,019'
4,592^
4,715'
4,882]
4,852!
4.974
3,773,
3,021
4,516]
4,511,
4,186l
3,8811
3,701'
2,450|
1,741!
3,103
3,336
3,345
3,505
3,121
2,396
2,4I8j
1,745
056
2,043'
2,585'
2,394
2,343
2,357
1,547
1,250
1,852
1.812
1,829'
l,946j
1,973!
1,026
1,163
1,578
1,609
1,772
1,317
1,;I39
1.802
1,865
1.136
760
2,043
1,815
1,845|
2,064|
2,2331
1,489
2,368
2,ftl7
2,475
2,48S
2,497
2,542
>.«»;
1,451
2,438.
2,453
2,552
2,563
2,482
1,747
1,281
2,704
2,549
2,499
2,725
2,572
1,486
l,«l2j
2,006:
2,519
2,a»
2, fin
2,5:^
1,37S
2,153
1.539
2,345
2.637
2.7»1
2,7U
2.215
1,343
1,4s:
2,4»
2,409
2,3»
2,341
2,3D3
994
1,017
1,544
2,41:2
2,44B
2.3L5
2,244
629 37,239, 66,397 67,435
1,
1,437
842
1.003
1,411
1,121
991
953
996
792
678
945
825
891
889
831
831
1,001
1,
996
1,039
991
855
707
719
831
764
1,560|
1,037'
996
1,193
i.ioo"
928'
774
964
922:
1,056]
1,144
962
779
398
969'
1,039
1,179
1,3041
1,327,
885
685
1,480
1,651
1,
2,104;
2,648
2,5«
2,446j
1,742]
1,261|
2,579'
2,622
2,523
2,635,
2,6I9J
1.890;
1,143!
2.187
2.381
2,351
2,352
2,261
1,774|
613!
2,301
2,205'
2,237]
2.209*
2,352
2,303
2,455
1,667
2,549
2,411
2,475
2,572
2.53r»
1.77.S
i.oai
2,3r«j
2.49b
2..%i2
2,395
2,33?
1.7!0
l,2j»
2,576
2.au
2,3!»
2,417
2,4^7
I,7S2
105
FOX KIVER 8Y8TEM.
29
Mean daily disckargef in second-feet, of lower Fox River at Rapide Croehe dam — Continued.
Mar.
Day. ' Jan. | Feb.
1880.
27.
28.
1,W1
I 771
29 1 l,fi06
30 j 1,346J
31
1,014
2,007i
1,8
I
1,243
3,192
3,297
3,325
3,435
Total... 59,044 58,0911 69,802
1900.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
841
2,352
2,391
2,406
2,479J
2,568'
1,576.
1,213!
2,406
2,669
2,684
12 1 2,646'
13 2,677
14 j 1,736!
15 1,2361
16 2,527
17 1 2,424!
18 ' 2,639'
19 ' 2,534!
20 2,657
21 1 1,719|
22 ' 1,043'
23 ! 2,632!
24 2,649
25 1 2,46l|
26 2,579'
27 1 2,420|
28 1,608
29 1 1,219|.
30 2,160!,
31 ] 2,430|
2,395
2,366
2,446
1,641
1,044
2,366
2,381
3,024
2,420
2,396
1,675
1,071
2,316j
2,654!
2,707|
2,729
2,6621
1,895'
1,314|
2,861
2,840
2,606
2,687
2,646
1,434
1,296
2,411
2,624
Apr.
4,565
6,707
4,913
3,947
May. June.
100,716
2,432
2,468
2,490
1,70:
1,110,
1,342
2,576
2,639J
2,614;
2,636|
1,921
1,352:
2,666l
2,973|
3,036
2,961|
2,935
2,069*
1,354,
2,710J
2,832,
2,904
2,954
3,296|
2,259,
1,300
3,159,
3,6441
3,677|
3,560
3,652
2,454
1,107
3,554
3,846
3,967
4,063
3,791
2,903
1,751
3,510
3,770
4,067
4,006
4,1
2,560
2,237
3,942
4,355
4,(
4,137
4,072
2,932
1,977
3,856
4,089
4,106
4,063
4,225
2,862
2,064
5,525
5,898
5,160
5,466
5,513
192,489
July.
7,372 3,364
6,029j 3,395
5,797 3,232
5,007
2,051
1,982
188,928117,383
Total . . .1 67,396, 62,909, 79.228 102,435
3,636
3,882
4,028
4,010
4,054
2,779
1,674
2,461
2,283
2,275
2,240,
2,285
1,784
1,753]
3,741
3,989
3,799
3,885
3,791
2,665
2,105
3,729
3,937
3,872
3, J
3,694
2,539
1,;
2,103
2,149
1.859
1,4821
1,574
1,375
1,102
1,929
2,208
2,085
1,467
1,302
969
1,013
1,217
1,189
756i
353
497
394
437
573
523
569
585
264
262
396
258
360
298
386
341
Aug. Sept.
944 1,138
791 1,099
1,307 1,206
1,351 1,166
1,299;
92,273
1901. : I
1 1 3,822
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
4,000
4,215,
4,202|
4,253!
3,016|
2,043
3,939|
4,279{
4,349,
11 1 4,159;
12 1 4,009
3,475|
3,734
2,659
1,825
3,723
4,096
•4,352
4,515
4,541
2,796
2,045
4,164
4,362'
4,262,
2,741
2,109
4,073
4,481:
4,262
4,262|
4,210
2,908
1,793
2,469
4,664
5,086J
5,209,
5,385j
6,081
6,777,
7,075
10,675|
10,986
11,579
2,206 12,033i
6,328
6,905
5,9U0
6,032
4,769
3,799
5,707|
5,53t>
5,498|
5,574|
5,428|
4,183|
276
511
319
131
820!
352
345
294
365{
473
353
333
394|
382
538
979
1,176
1,067
907,
1,192
1,152
799|
1.170|
1,846
2,047
1,9821
1,979'
1,905|
1,536
1,672'
2,413'
2,646{
2,106
1,946|
1,966!
1,638|
1,287
1,9561
1,912
2,075
1,973
2,043|
1,498|
1,057J
1,825
1,905|
1,889'
2,039!
2,002'
1,4341
1,120
2,120
2,007J
1,875
1,966
1,924
1,440
1,115
1,912
1,928
2,127
2,023
Oct. Nov.
1,829 905
2,029' 2,329
1,493| 2,159
769 2,330
2,079'....
56,913 29,6o3 35,450 63,573
29,708 56,754
4,803
3,802,
3,473|
4,913
5,087,
4,905!
4,647
4,846:
2,834
2,654
3,873'
3,916
2,046
3,496
3,740
2,618
3,1941
4,097
2,945|
2,722;
4.185
4,557!
4,08o|
4,154i
3,834
3,846
3,787
2,648
1,713
2,653
2,605
2,321|
2,406!
2,336|
1,503'
1,607|
1,976
1,640
1,421
1,962
2,141
1,894:
2,050
2,113
1,333
1,143
1,973;
2,071
2, 187
2,075
2,184'
1,163
1,167
1,949
1,899
2,062
2,020
2,169|
1,433
1,107|
2,329
2,8911
2,810
3,39l'
3,518
2,561
1,734
4,007
6,185'
5,479,
4,846j
4,758
3,657
2,848'
4,827
6,166|
5,117
4,813!
4,668
3,559|
3,028
4,46l'
4,885
Dec.
2,123
2,185
2,417
2,241
1,659
63,299
9,535
9,397
9,597
8,225
7,650J
8,989
9,039
8,418
8,658!
9,260'
7,830'
7,567
8,775'
8,456'
8,076
6,611
6,909
5,285| 5,654|
5,254| 4,948
5,703j
4,5991
4,22.5
6,610
6,270
7,427
7,672
7,624
6,393
6,336
7,865
8,036|
7,536|
7,875
8,249|
8,189,
8,792'
7,100;
6,917|
8,416'
8,632!
8,328
8,239!
6,C08
4,372
3,612
6,674
5,943
5,807
5,683
5,439
8,222
3,586
6,245
6,052
6,076
5,301
4,099
2,725
2,240
4,118
4,292
4,314
4,378
4,457
4,035
1,668
3,224
2,621
4,068
4,147
4,111
3,191
1,728
60,632 162, 1261241,866 134,935
l,ltt7
1,161|
1,636
1,682,
1,687
1,682
1,649
1,106;
893j
1,449
964
1,199
1,161
1,782
1,748J
1,713'
1,228
991
2,067
2,145
2,265
2,468
2,314
3,664;
3,804,
2,674,
1,789
3,699,
3,728!
3,71ll
3,728!
3,684*
2,585J
1,654
3,447!
2,686
1,685
2,653
3,620
3,497
3,469
3,648
2,329
1,608
3,257
3,585
3,660
30
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily discharge, in second-feet, of lower Fox River at Rapide Crochc r^cwi— Continurd.
Day.
Jan. I Fol). Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dk:.
1001. ,
13..' 3,04C|
14 2,235
15 3,914
16 3,929
17 2,480
la. 3,542
19 3.981
20 2,9(y)
21 2,835
22 3,521
23 3,88.')
24 3,885
25 3,898
26 3,813
27 2.5<i:{
28 ' 1,939
29 3,286
30 ' 3,668
31 3,643
4,181
4,434
4,262
4,292
3,0(58
2,227
4,309
4,47o!
4,302
4,500
4,393
3,086
2,489'
4,402
4,634'
4.577
I
4,000
4,121
4,05e'
4,160,
2,818'
1,742'
3,9()7
4,030
4,554
4,143
4,109
3,433
4,615
6.431
4,994
4,084
4,36:
4,245
3,
11,573
11,088'
10.728
11.869
11.935
11,614
11,467
11,334
9,926
9,302
11,103
9,826
9,467
9,240
8,395
7,401
7,244
7,271
754
012
564
428
371
Oil
099
715
000
2t)l
312
686
938
884
759
875!
453
010
920.
4,443
4,273
3,911
2,. 586
1,741-
3,475
4,087'
4,148
3.948
3,956
3,137
2,493
3,336
3,506
3,474
3,554
3,506!
2,354
4,041
3,131
2.909
3,996
4,089
4,002
3,8981
4,067
2,912
2,230
3,623
3.899
3.93(>
3,833
3,791
2,668j
2,1381
3,724'
3,921
2,579
2,512
2.497
2.642
2,575
1,617
1,404,
1,737'
1,607
1,764
1,885
1,795
1,542
1,130
1,849
1,892'
1,932
1,622
1,725.
1,051
1.194
706
1,146
1,009
1,039,
1.004
1.090
1,056
675
1,020
1,276
1,449
1,513
1,449
1,437
1,073
1,124
1,740
1,260
3,63a!
3,a57
3,232
3,366
3.].%
2.099
1,574
3.5311
3.72>
3,622
3,664
3,749
2,719
1,646
3,597
3,873
3,791 .
3,766
3,766
3,771
3,856
2,697
1,661
3.644
3.S73
3, 7 A
3.S*33
3,717
2,4S5
1.640
3.212
3, 5^5
3,476
3.432
3,4.V>
3.1 5-
1' VI
I . V.-
?^.?^'
3.. 11^
2.t^
1.>.T
2.<iVi
2.rs.'
i.p'i
3,UV
2,177
1.4r4
Total... 109, 314 105,640 119,019 268,802 154. 807 111, (i81108,54i; 67,465 36,635 79.090 97.655 JviML'
1902.
1
2
3
4
5
6
.1 3,0«i
. 3, 104
. 2,938
. 3.0t)0
1,058
1,676
7 2,776
8 2,860
j 3,13(i
2,993
2,915
765
I 1,285
, 2,494
15 2,344
16 2,461
17 2.514
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
2.59.5
917
l,488l
2,446
2.513
2,609
2,609
2,408
696
18...
19...
20...
21...
2.3.
24.
.... 2,505
....I 1,139
....' 1,099
.... 2,422
.... 2,113
.... 2.450
.... 2,422
2o 2,429
26 1 927
27 1.389
28 2,42.'->
29 2..V>8
3i) 2.42.'-.
31 2.373
1,427|
2.389
2,595
2, .587
2.477
2,455
1.063
1,421:
2,492
2,413
2,587
2, mi
2,48<>
1.085
1,377
2.210
2,424'
2. 'My
3,48()
3,368,
1,190,
l.(i32|
2. -497
2,632
2,7.58
2.8271
2,754
1,135
1,575
3,866',
3.274
3,608
3,690
3,567
1,603,
1,765
3,707,
3,841
3,841
3,994
3.9(K»
1,8.V2
1,723
3,777i
3,925
4,019
3.84l'
3,ir26
1 . im
i.7:r. .
2,765
2,964
3,011
3,106
3,2.52
1,603
1,706
3,134
3,102
3, 147'
3,102
3,119
1,459
1,759
2,108
2,3(56
2,449
2,26.5'
2,376
1,086'
2,0(59
2.267
2.0(59
2.314
1,986
2,247
947
1,.')71
2,.^S1
2.312
2,393
2,469
2,423
1,471
2,079
2,845
3.537
4,079
3,131
4,018
2,076
2,743
4,6.37
4,917
5,056
4,917
4,615
2,484
2.692
4,682
5.08.')
4,8(52
4,72.5
4,949
5,719
7.422
9,941|
11.227
12,317
9.8(59
9,599 .
9,.573|
10,488,
11.868'
11,462
11,050,
10.407'
9.886
7,31^1
7,886
8,343
8,209
6,222
{5.431
3,998
5,840|
4,169
6,156i
6,282l
5.439^
5,992
6,088
3.852
4,215
5.866
6,089
6,001'
5,707
5.740
3.491
3.K-)2
r
5,703
5.6OI:
I
5,447
3,372
3,453
3.010
3,349
5,534'
5,633,
6,326
6,280
5,136
4,639
3,264'
5,125
5,142
6,266
5,28l'
5,163
2,896
3,150
4,248
4,209
4,325
4,6(M)
4,287
1.647'
2,2(i5
3,441
3,733
4,024'
3,r27
3,276
1.544
2,532
3.692
3,912
4,086
3,999
3,894
1,532
2,362
3,666
4,047|
4,031
3,863
3,968^
1,600
2,0971
2,539!
2,733
2,913
2,927
2,869
1.311
1,773
2,763
2,8911
2,879
2,789|
2,158
1,529.
910
1,111'
1,682
1.680
1.723
1,863
704
1,244
1,709
1,750
1,653
1,550'
1,669-
821
1,083
965
1,203,
1,2081
1,317
1,174
652
887
1,473
1,462
1,174
1,369
1,336
615
851
1,222'
1,286
1.490
1.596
1.498
435
736
1,576
1,751
1,613
1,613
1,526
651
1,042
2,116
2.301
2,250
2,219
2.716
715
1,455!
2.120
2.646
2,634
2.676
2,681
1,086
1.286
1,785
2,9(^3
3,024
2,875 .
2,962
1.004
1.314
2,71t»
2,931
2.854
2.073
3,012^
014
1,273
2.077!
3,02s
2,046
2.891.
2,891
7d*»
1,30S
2.841;
2,S32'
2,<W2
2,954
2,915
1.349
2,077
3,1M
2.860
2,962
3,123
1,13>
2. ♦'4.3*
2.'««y
3.t»
2.9iC
3.'rj::
2.7V^«
2.M'.
3.:w
3.04-
2.'.^«.
l.IV.
1 -vV
2.U4
2.W/
2.tl"
2.»5i»'
2.nNs
I."-.-
2.'<-
2 t-L
l.^M
2.N.4
1.14J
I r^TA
2.>~
Total .
70,151 .59,9.S1 89,(5(50
70,042 1.52,978 207.913 K«,414j 89,782 37,97]
56.360 71.805 70.47^
FOX RIVER 8YSTEM.
31
jlfean daily dMiarge, in secofid-feet , of lower Fox River at Rapide Oroche dam — Continued.
Day.
Jan. I Feb. ; Mar. I Apr. May. Juiio. ! July.
■Aug. Sept. ' Oct. Nov.
190.J.
1 ' 2,587i
2 2,63l!
3 2,587;
■^ l,206j
o 1,479
6 2,662
7 2,818
8 ."... 2,767|
9 ' 2,832
10 2,409
11 ..' 1,5591
12 1.522
13 ' 2,954
14 3,187
16 3,610
16 3,&55
17
18
19
20
21
3,493
1;295
, 1,953
.... 3jm
■ 3,476j
I 3,664
3,436j
....' 3,543
.... 1,2«3|
, 1,935
.... 3,289|
' 3,4.35!
29 3,527
23...
24...
25...
26...
27...
2S...
1,675|
2,102
3,t)0Si
3,063
3,097
3,304
3,387J
1,825
1,837
3,300
3,581
3,503!
3,(>52
3,50l'
2,005,
2,042
3,368;
3,269^
3,2Sr>
3,431.
3,468'
2,379
1,749
3,232
3,107'
3,068
3,457'
3,627
30.
31.
I-
3.514 .
3,7561.
1,829
1,780
3, 191 1
3,197|
J, 453
3,318|
3,665j
2,301
2,070
3,560
3,981
4,199'
4,064|
3,9()2'
2,550
2,207'
4,178
4,&50
8,437
6,454'
3,H87
1,H15
2,340
5,086
5,055
4,838|
4,8:19
4,967
3,979
3,337
5,454 .
6,192
6.597
6.S06
7.649
9,297
7,729
7,661,
6,379
6,. 342
6,78.3
8,283
7,807
7,402
8,394
8,517'
6,2.%
6,216
6,339
4.188
4.518
6,429
6,246
6,f>57
5,784
4,796
3.SX6
4,376
6,207'
6,011
5,288
,009 5
,306 6,
,145 6,
,275 5,
.118 5
,989, 5
,237
,078
677
791
009
429'
386
3.7
4,0
,911 5,
,629' 5,
,964
,(i98
,467,
,771
,467,
,8411
5
3,
3
5
,42l| 5
,869: 5,
,088
,127|
,127 3,
,933'
..|
,043|
,824 5,
,216' 5
,378| 5,
,421 2,
,138, 3,
,(157' 5,
056
084
5,571|
5,4191
5,278
3,5091
2,055
2,721'
3,943|
.3,746
4,093!
3,796
4,0O9j
1,8.56,
3,370
4,992
4.684
5.15:
5,149
5,139|
2,700
3,174'
5.047!
4.945]
5,102'
5,176!
4,918
2,5;«[
2,189j
4,442
4,555'
4,254
4,, 321'
4,393
2,827
3,011'
3,845
4,136
3,756
3,707
3,787
2,206
2,875
3,671
4,021
4,134
4,03o'
4,134
1,438
2.003
4,064
4,099
4,047
4,021
1,874
3,869
1,9{>5
3,794
4,291
4,449,
4,244
4,099
1,781
2,257 .
4,195
4,28l'
4,298
4,325
4,324
1,829'
1,936
3,9«J5
4,708,
4,809
5,077
5,086
2,734
2,731
5,199!
5,312
5,293'
5,387|
4,442
3,75l|
2,489;
5,106|
5,369
5,481
5,415,
5.519
3,481 1
2,991
5,013|
5,059
5,. 312
5,293!
2,805|
2,618
5,32l|
4,993
5,826'
5,595
5,339,
5,339
2,845
2,577
5,340'
5,509|
5,482
5,51ol
5,434|
2,760
2,957|
5,.599|
5,134
5.3681
5,293
5,28.3
2,590,
2,666
5,133
5,302
5,264
5,217
5,264
2,664
2,102
4,674
4,772
4,769
4,965'
4,929
1,975
2.09S
4,230'
4,957!
5,077
.4,731'
4,846'
2,226<
1,859
4,219
4,466
4,888'
4,504
4,282
1,733'
2,307
4,422
4,484
3,874
3,310
3,378,
1,977
1,873'
Dec.*
2,819
3,385
1,916
3,669
3,628
1,653
1,973
3,507
3,621
3,702
3,505
3,644
1,623
1,827
2,964
3,516
3,694
3,702
3,677
2,000
1,916
3,328
3,424
1,908
3,353
1,584
1,319
2,162
3,134
3,619
3,587
Totnl . . . 85,577' 82„582 118,643 195,015 171,503 151,841 127,848 106,828 129,635 145,268 110,591 89,448
1904.
1.
3,497;
2 3,59.5'
3 I,8y8
4 2,221
5 3,189
6 3,.'K)7
7 3,869'
8 3,861
9 3,752
1,762
2,027
3,719
3,62S
10
11
12
13
14 3,405
15 3,.572'
16 :.... 3,-587
17 1,481
18 2,018
19 , 3,166]
2,371
3,. 586
3,545
3.5.38
3,306
.1,.'505
1,664
2,073
3,.'>30
3,.'J95
3,(536
3,710
3,663
1,.5(>5
1.904
3„V)4
3,400
3,662
3,628!
3,408
,3,457'
3,, 545
3,. 522
3,505
1,724
1,7(19
3,392
3,147
3,545
3.6ti8
3,465
1,818
1,988
3.289
3,r>44'
3,424
3,481
3,130
4,127i
3,878
1,612
4,091
4,317
4„507
4,410
4,879
5,. 3.34
2,. 564
3. 887
5,7.37
6,ias
7, ir)8
7,40,5
8,015
7,647
8.2:«
9,637,
6,742
7,316|
5,794
5,477
5,804
5,784*
5,813,
4.45()'
5,417|
7,. 548
10,052
10,960
inm
11,183
9,81o'
\o,m
ll,022j
10,9(i0
10,604!
I
9,539
9,411]
9,283
9,793
8,253
8,404
8,799
8,248
6,9(58
8, 179^
8,483
8,139
8,027
8,527
8,12,5
8,315
8,28l'
7,a5(>j
5,999i
3,428;
3,282'
2,082
2,243
3,578;
1,4161
3,. 578
3,483|
2,603
2,709'
3,4.59,
3,4.52,
3,(5.58
3,475
3,428
2, 4661
•S,8,'e
3,459!
2,745
3,489
3,617(
3,636
3,546
3,676
2,575,
2,833
3.8.33
3.754
3.987
3,924
4,043
2,()98
3,0^7
3.226
3,098
3,217'
3,197
2,031
2,399'
2,231
1,327
1,622
1,949
2,000
2,013
1,863
2,096
1,.312'
1,545
1,907
2, 103
2, 1(52
2,124
2,0911
J, 5(58'
1,361,
2,124
1,35.5!
1,324|
2,499'
3,385[
3,480
3,678'
3,628
2,412
3,5t»
3,797|
3,. 354
3., 592
3,(509
3,717
2,. 345'
1,894'
3,4.53
3,379|
4,245
4,767
4,785
4,750
4,829'
4,423
2,611
4,346
4,742
4,794
4,847
5,137
3,280
2,(5(53,
4,52,5
4,(537
4,576
4,48r
4,499,
3,869
4,406
4,354
3,006
2,527
4,077
4,379
4,413
4,2(59
4,277
2,881
2,452
3,069
3,638
3,(599
3,757
3,721
2,871
2,299
82 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily discharge j in second-feet, of lower Fox River at Rapide Croche dam — Continoed
Day.
Jan. Feb
1904. !
20 : 3,3S2
21 j 3,329
22 • 3,408'
Mar.
23.
24.
3,302
1,185;
25 ; 2,096;
26
27
.,J
3,727
28 1 3,869
29 1 3,752'
30 3,848
31 1,885!,
3,710.
1,68b{
2,237,
3,7eoj
3,9621
4,082'
4,134!
3,810
1,843
2,091
Apr. May. June.
1,739
2,036
9,434 10,168
9,309| 9,574
3,913' 9,190^ 8,571
4,335, 9,018! 9,099
7,4361 9,845,
5,185]
7,425
5,429|
2,354^
2,504
3,359
3,748'
4,385,
July.
7,126| 10,168j
8,823 10,812!
9,075'
9,028l
9,017
8,868{
9,389
9,6271
8,72o|
8,471
5,776
6,167
5,241
3,758
3,617
2,336
2,336!
2,585^
3,474'
3,538
3,4911
Aug.
3,206.
3,420
3,359
2,345'
Sept.
Oct. Nov. D-c.
3,240
2,214
1,722'
2,443
2,531'
2,585| 2,396|
2,909| 1,551!
3,146 2,503i
3,498J 2,505j
3,584] 2,115
4,111! 2,389|
8,0891 2,659 2,645:
1,762
1,825
988
1,968
1.888
1,276
l,38l|
1,975
1,925
2,267
2,052
Totol.
95,307
90,703105,333, 20,06o|260,925!200,448; 96,
I
253, 92,
525 55,631
4,488
2,^
3,n:
4,470
2,28»
4.4»!.
4,248
4,102
4.«4
3,018
4.421
4.III
2,915
3.264
4,«~
4,336
3,379}
2,2S3
4, CM
4,2^
1.M2
4,542
2.748
3.i?>a
4,575
1.667
3,703
6,434
3,127
3,677
3,690
6.93S
4,5M
3,158
4.311
107,156121.68»112.163
Unlike many other northern rivers the lower Fox is rarely troubled with toe gorges,
because the ice on Lake Winnebago melts gradually. It is stated that trouble is someiinies
experienced from anchor ice forming on the rapids in exceptionally cold weather, but thk
is lai^gely prevented by the system of slack-water navigation.
The absence of great freshets prevents backwater and allows the construction of the
mills out into the stream, as well as connecting sidetracks on short trestles only a few foet
above the water, with perfect safety.
The bed of the river in nearly all cases is in hard limestone. Excellent quarries of fine
building stone have been opened for use in both the Government and private improvements
of the river.
W^ATKR POWERS.
GENERAL STATEMENT.
No other river system in the State has so lai^e a proportion of its total descent ooDcen-
trated in its lower reaches as has the Fox. Between Lake Winnebago and Green Bar
the river descends a total of 166 feet in a series of eight rapids. 'Hie total drainage area ol
the river is 6,449 square miles, of which area 6,046 square miles, or 94 per cent, are included
above the outlet of Lake Winnebago. These two facts — the laige concentration of fall in
the lower river and the location of 94 per cent of its drainage area above this conoentmtion —
have the effect of producing extensive and valuable water powers.
Before any improvements had been made the river flowed between wooded clay bluffs from 10 to 7n
(eet or more in height, in some places rising abruptly from the river's edge on each side. Throngfa this
channel ran the clear, dashing river over its limestone bed from 300 to 1,000 feet wide. Great chaojc*^
have since been made, a
a Tenth Censos.
FOX RIVER SYSTEM.
88
The following table gives the location and amount of fall at each of these rapids before
improvement, according to surveys of Major Suter in 1866:
Rapids on lower Fox River in 1866 {before improvement). a
Name.
I>epere
Little Kaukauna
Raplde Croche
Orand Kaukauna
Littlechute
Cedar rapids
Grand Chute
Winnebago rapids
Qieen Bay to Lake Winnebago
Descent.
' Distance
1
jipart.
eet. 1
MUes.
8'
8
6.0
8
fi.0
50
4.5
10
10 I
2.5
.75
10
4.25
170 I
28.0
a Warren, O.K., Report, 1876, p. 29.
LEGAL STATUS.
^ 1846 Congress passed an act granting a large amount of land to the State of Wisconsin
for the purpose of making a navigable route from Lake Michigan along Fox River to Wis-
consin River. In 1853 the State, after expending $400,000 upon the improvements, passed
the whole matter, including the land, into the hands of the Fox and Wisconsin Improvement
Company. This company issued bonds, completed the improvement, and in 1856 the first
steamer passed through from Mississippi River to Qreen Bay. On the advent of railroads
soon after the route fell into disuse, and the company was unable to pay interest on its bonds.
Suit was brought by the holders of these bonds, and the franchises, property, and land grants
of the company were sold to a corporation organized in 1866 as the Green Bay and Mississippi
Canal Company. In 1870 the United States appraised the value of the locks and canals at
$145,000, took possession of them on the payment of this sum, and has since exercised
control in the interests of navigation.
The Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company still exists and retains its land grants,
wateivpower franchises, and other property. The company claims the right to all surplus
water after the needs of navigation are supplied. This claim includes the right to tap the
canals at any point and draw off the water, provided navigation is not interfered with, as
well as the right to take all the surplus flow of the river at the head of each rapids and use
it at that level. This claim has been confirmed by the United States Supreme Court. The
company does not claim ownership of power which is devclop3d at a Ipvel below the head of
a rapids by persons owning the land and using water which has passed the tailraces of the
company.
In some cases this company owns the power, while others own the land. These interests
have in some instances been mutualized in a joint company; in others protracted lawsuits
have resulted in preventing the development and use of the water power up to the present
time. The water powers at Rapide Croche and Little Kaukauna dams have not been
improved for this reason.
As the low-water flow of the river falls far short of being sufficient for the turbines now
installed, frequent controversies and lawsuits concerning the ownership of the water have
resulted. Finally a few years ago the Neenah and Menasha Water Power Company,
composed of practically all the users of water for power purposes on the river, was formed
to regulate the use of the surplus water not required for navigation. Under the rules of the
Secretary of War water may not be drawn below the crest of the Menasha dam except by
IBR 156—06 3
84
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
his special permit. Such permission is frequently given, however, to help out Um grfAi
manufacturing interests concerned.
Fox River dischai^ges from Lake Winneliago in two nearly parallel chanDels, distADt
about three-fourths of a mile from each other. Tliese branches join in less than 2 miks in
Lake Butte des Mort«, an expansion of the river 3 miles long and extending at right angles to
the general direction of the river.
Menasha and Ncenah are located at the lower end of the two channels, Menasha on the
north side of the northern channel and Neenah on the south side of the southern chann^i
These cities are about 1 mile apart and have a total population of about 12,000.
The river banks are here only 10 feet or less high. There is a dam in each channel, with
an average head of 8 feet, the two maintaining the level of Lake Winnebago. The;se dams
would develop 2,400 theoretical horsepower, a
The riparian owners on the Neenah channel improved the water powers before the ship
canal was begun, and thus obtained a prior right under a State charter. Most of the manu-
factories are located on the strip of land, averaging 125 feet wide, between the riTer and the
race.
The Kimberly Clark Paper Company is the most extensive user of water power at
Neenah, having installed 20 turbines under a head of 7} feet, rated at 1,560 horsepower.
In addition, this firm has 550 steam horsepower, all used in the manufacture of sulphite and
ground wood pulp. The Neenah Paper Company has installed 11 turbines under a head of
7 feet, rated at 838 horsepower, and reports an additional 750 steam horsepower, all used in
the manufacture of paper. The Winnebago Paper Mills have installed turbines under a
9-foot head, rated at 854 horsepower, which is supplemented with 450 steam horeepower.
Other power users in Neenah are included in the following table:
Additional water pmvers at Neenah.
Turbines.
•Owner find use.
I Head. ' H. P
I Feet.
Kreuger & Lochmann, flour 8.0
Neenah Boot and Shoe Manufacturing Co \ 8. 0
Neenah and Menasha Gas and Elettric Light Co . ' 7. 5
Robert Jamison, machine shop ". I 8.0
Wulff, Clausea & Co., flour I 8.0
I
Steam
H. P.
460
39
199
.»4l
123 I
125
12
125
10
60
Remarks.
Use steam when water is cut
off.
Burned.
MENASHA.
The Government canal is located at Menasha. This canal has a total length of about
4,320 feet, its single lock l)eing located at the lower end, near Lake Butte des Morts. TTii?
dam develops 2,487 theoretical horsepower at ordinary flow. The Federal Government
entered into an agreement with certain persons under which they constructed the navigation
improvements and received in return the ownership of the resulting water powers. As a
consequence the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company has no interest in these wattf
powers.
A dam 475 feet long at the head of the canal develops a head of 8.2 feet, though some of
the turbines work under heads of 6 to 8 feet. The strip of land between the canal and river
is used for the location of numerous manufacturing plants, all the power, except that of the
Howard Paper Mill, being taken from the canal.
a This estimate is based on an ordinary discharge of 2,660 second-feet, equal to a run-ofl of at>out O.-C
■econd-fect per square mile.
FOX RIVER 8T8TEM.
85
The largest water-power user at Menasha is the George A. Whiting Company, which
owns the right to "first-class water.'' Its 6 turbines work under an average head of 8 feet
and are rated at 503 horsepower. The company, which is engaged in the manufacture of
paper, has also installed 265 steam horsepower.
Another large concern is the Menasha Wooden Ware Company, whose turbines work
under an average head of 5 feet and are rated at 414 horsepower. This is supplemented by
1,090 steam horsepower.
The other important water-power users in Menasha are included in the following table:
Additional water powers at Menoftha. a
Owner and use.
Gilbert Paper Co
Howard Paper Co
John Strange Paper Co
Banner Flouring MillB
MacKinnon Excelsior Co
MacKinnon Pulley Co
John Schneider, planing mill
Valley Knitting Co., hose, mittens, etc
Menasha Woolen Mills
Turbines.
Head. , H. P.
Feet.
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
4
5
Steam
H. P.
Remarks.
I
243
321
15«
90
124
25
124
38
35 Small en-
gines.
800-1,000
200
250
50
225
25
Leased.
When water is low.
o Authority, L. M. Mann, United States assistant engineer.
For the entire distance of 5 miles between Menasha and the Appleton upper dam the
river affords slack-water navigation; indeed, it has been claimed that later improve-
ments on the Appleton dam have caused the water at Menasha to back up a foot or more
above its original level. As Appleton b approached the clay banks rise to a height of 50 or
60 feet.
APPLETON.
Fall. — Because of their intrinsic value, as well as on account of their early develops
menti the Appleton powers are not excelled on the lower Fox. According to the Govern-
ment profile the river has a total fall of 36.7 feet in a distance of 1.2 miles. This head is
developed by three dams, which divide the river into upper, middle, and lower levels,
with estimated theoretical horsepowers at ordinary floj^ of 4,238, 2,225, and 2,558,
respeetively.
At Appleton the river by a gradual bend changes its course from northeast to southeast,
again turning to the northeast just above the lower da'm. On the left bank the clay bluffs
rise steeply 50 to 70 feet, while on the opposite bank is a flat extending for 3,500 feet, and
perhaps 1 ,300 fedt wide, beyond which rise high bluffs, as on the left bank. For the purposes
of navigation the Government has constructed two dams, dividing the descent into two
levels. The second or middle dam was constructed by private enterprise and is used
exclusively for Water power.
Upper dam. — ^The upper dam is a substantial stone structure. It extends from the foot
of State street on the left bank normal to the shore for 250 feet, thence diagonally down-
stream for 700 feet to a point 400 feet from the right bank. From this latter point a retain-
ing wall or long pier extends downstream 800 feet to the right bank. The head varies from
about 10 feet at the upper end of the dam to 18 feet at the lower end, the average, as given
by the Government engineers, being 14 feet. Its available water power is taken from a race
along the left bank, from the ship canal on the right bank, and from the adjacent retaining
wall.
a Estimated by U. 8. Asst. Engr. L. M. Mann, on flow ol 170,000 minute-feet, at 4,508, 2,367, and 2,721,
36 • WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
The extreme variation of head is stated at 2 feet, but the ordinary variatioo » ooIt
half that amount. It is due to the manner of using water by the Neenah mills, and to the
prevalence of strong winds blowing continuously on Liake Winnebago and changing its
volume of discharge.
The race on the left bank is 600 feet long, several extensive paper, pulp, and flouring mills
occupying the strip of land between it and the river. Here are located the Appleton Paper
and Pulp Company, with installed turbines under 11-foot head, rated at 550 horeepowpr:
the Kimberly & Clark Company; the Vulcan and Tioga mills, with about 710 and 770 tur-
bine horsepower, respectively; and the Atlas paper mill, with 766 turbine horsepower. Tl*
Appleton Waterworks Company, 1,400 feet below, receives power from this canal through &
flume which affords a head of 18 feet. The above powers by long-established usage ait
recognized as belonging to the respective companies, and not to the Green Bay and Miad^
sippi Canal Company.
Of the power developed on the right bank, nearly all is taken from the long pier. The
Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company owns the land on this side of the river and leases
power to users.
The head here varies from 12 feet near the upper end of the pier to 16 feet at the lover
end. The water is taken through ten arched openings in the stone pier from the laige hay
above. This power is fully developed by the Wisconsin Traction, Heat, Light, and Power
Company, with turbines under 16-foot head, rated at 2,250 porsepower (besides 2,000 steam
horsepower).
Of the few unused power sites on this dam the greater number are located on the ship
canal, and, as heretofore stated, are owned by the Green Bay and Mtssissippi Canal
Company. The following table gives the developed powers:
Water powers on the United Stales canal at Appleton .
Owner and use.
Water power.
Average ! Rated
head.
H. P.
Entitled
to-
Steam
H. P,
Riverside Paper and Fiber Co
Appleton Chair Co., furniture,
Union Toy and Furniture Co .
Feet.
14.0 '
7.5 I
8.0
383
26 I
50
300
35
3S
30
Middle dam. — The middle dam also is independent of both the Government work and the
Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company. It was built by pri^at-e capital for water-power
purposes only. It is 2,400 feet below the upper dam and is about 450 feet long. The dam
was constructed of timber in 1877 and has its foundation in lime:)tone. A canal leads down
the north (left) bank. The south end of the dam abuts on Grand Chute Island, Wos«'s
hydraulic canal being supplied from the adjacent basin.
Previous to 1877 power had l^een developed by wing dams passing upstream from both
banks for several hundred feet. The present dam is reported to have an average head of 7^
feet, developing at ordinary flow (2,660 second-feet) 2,190 theoretical horsepower. The
head at the various factories and mills varies from 7 to 14 feet, depending on their location,
the variation being similar to that at the upper dam. The water level is remarkable for
uniformity.
The north-shore race is 800 feet long, supplying a head varying from 9 feet at the upper
end to 12 feet at the lower.
West's canal starts at the right abutment of the dam and extends down Grand Chute
Island for about 1,700 feet, nearly parallel to the river. It has a width of about 130 ^
feet, with earth and stone embankment about 3 feet above the water surface. The head
averages 10 feet. Several fine powci- sites still unoccupied on this canal are especially
desirable because of excellent transportation facilities.
FOX BIVER SYSTEM.
37
The following table gives the important users of water power from the middle dam:
Water powers on the middle <2am, Apjjleton.a
Owner and use.
Fox River Paper Co.:*
Ravine mill
Lincoln mill
Fox River mill
Patton Paper Co
Patton Pulp Co
Telulah paper mill, pulp
Appleton Mac))ine Co
Appleton woolen mill, paper, knitting, etc
Fourth Ward planing mill, lumber
liarston & Beveridge, hubs and spokes
Valley iron works
Water i>ower.
Average Rated
head. H. P.
Feet.
11.0
8.0
8.5
14.0
5.0
5.0
8.0
8.0
7.0
Entitled to—
f flow of
River lea
HP.
Fox
I 25
814
465
903
14
47
28
77
47
1,250 H.P .
h
,000sq. in.
I 500sq. in...
I 90 H.
P.
30 H. P.
75 H. P.
40 H. P.
Steam
H. P.
1,050
500
a Authority, L. IC. Mann, U. S. assistant engineer.
6 Power used by Fox River Paper Co. (three mills) are located -on West's canal; Uie other powers are
on the left bank. .
Lower dam. — ^The lower or Government dam is located about three-fourths of a mile
below the middle dam and just below the lower bend of the river, at a point where the river
is 485 feet wide. The dam extends downstream from the left bank 417 feet, at an angle of
about 45^ with the channel, to an embankment which extends 600 feet farther downstream.
The lower-level ship canal is back of this embankment. The river runs close to the left bank,
which is high and steep, while on the right bank a flat 200 to 300 feet wide intervenes between
the shore and the bluffs. There are four methods of utilizing the power — viz, from the
abutment of the dam, from the race on the left bank, from the ship canal, and from the
Telulah Water Power Company's canal on the right shore. The average head of this dam
M stated at 8.5 feet, which at ordinary flow gives 2,550 theoretical horsepower. The report
of Capt. L. M. Mann, on whose authority the above statement is made, shows that about 850
horsepower remain to be installed. There is said to be a fall of 3 feet in the 1,500 feet
below the dam. This water power Ls owned by the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal
Company.
The left or west-shore race starts at a point 450 feet above the dam and extends nearly
parallel to the channel a distance of 1 ,2Q0 feet below the dam. The bluffs rise steeply from
the water, so that mills must extend out over the river. It is claimed that this race is entitled
to one-fourth of the stream flow.
The right or east canal, known as the Hyde & Harriman canal, has several good locations
for mills. The land adjacent was owned by Mr. W. Hyde and Judge J. E. Harriman, while
the power belonged to the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company. These interests were
united and the canal completed in 1880. It starts at the head of the ship canal and skirts
the bluffs for its entire length of 2,250 feet, leaving a wide .strip of flat land between it and
the river. An earth embankment forms the river side. The cross section of the canal at its
upper end is 120 by 7 feet, but it gradually decrease.s. Its head varies but slightly and
is said to average 10 feet. The most important mill on this canal is that of the Telulah
Paper Company, with a total of 11 turbines, rat«d at 1,368 actual horsepower.
CEDARS DAM.
This dam backs up the water for the entire distance of 3.3 miles to the lower Appleton
dam, affording slack-water navigation. Fox River in this stretch is hemmed in by
88 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
high clay banks and has an average width of 600 feet. At a short distance below the dam
however, a small creek enters from the north, causing the bluffs to recede from the river and
follow up the creek, leaving a flat area of perhaps 35 acres. The dam is situated about 1 fiOO
feet below the point where the bluffs leave the river. It crosses the river in a nomiA] dk-
tance of 810 feet. It has an average head of 9.7 feet, which at an ordinary flow of 2JGCO
second-feet gives 2,910 theoretical horsepower. This power is owned by the Green Bay and
Mississippi Canal Company, but the entire power is leased to the Kimberly & Clark Paper
Company for a paper mill. This firm reports an installation of 33 turbines, under a head of
11 feet, rated at 4,217 actual horsepower.
LITTLEOHUTE.
The next Government dam is located 4,000 feet below the Cedars dam at a small village
called Littlechute. The river has extensive rapids at this point, there being a total descent .
according, to the Government profile, of 36.2 feet in the 2 miles between the foot of the
Cedars lock and the backwater of the Eaukauna dam below. These rapids are pasaed by
a canal 6,500 feet long on the left bank of the river. One lockj?f 16-foot lift is located
about 1,000 feet from the head of the canal, and a composite lock of about 20-foot bead
is located at the lower end of the canaL
The river is about 840 feet wide at the dam site. On the left bank the bluffs rptreat
from the river slightly, leaving a narrow flat and some small islands. On the ri^t bank
there is a break of perhaps 1,500 feet in the bluffs. This power and the adjacent land
belong to the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company. The dam has a head of 12 feet,
but the total available head, because of the adjacent rapids in the 7,000 feet below the dam.
is stated to be 34 feet. This descent, with a flow of 2,660 second-feet, gives 10,200 theoret-
ical horsepower. It is certain that to develop more than half this amount would require
a large expenditure of money. At the present time 20 feet of fall have been developed.
The Littlechute Pulp Company has installed 24 (mostly 54-inch) turbines under a head
of 12 feet, rated at 3,000 actual horsepower. The power next in importance on this dam.
and the only power not leased from the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company, is that
of a flouring mill owned by Arnold Verstigen, run by 6 turbines rated at 100 horsepower.
COMBINED LOOKS DAM.
About a mile below the Littlechute dam is the Combined Locks dam, owned bv the
Combined Lojcks Paper Company. A view of this dam, together with part of the company's
plant, is shown in PI. II, B. The company has 49 turbines installed, rated at 4,438 prac-
tical horsepower, leased from the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company.
GRAND KAUKAUNA DAM.
A descent of 50.3 feet in a distance of less than a mile entitles the Grand Kaukauna
rapids to first place in all the water powers of the lower Fox River. Both topographic
and transportation conditions are very favorable for improvement. The Kaukauna
dam is distant 2.5 miles from the Littlechute dam and producer slack water to the end of
the Littlechute canal. The rapids are passed by a ship canal 7,400 feet long, extending
from the dam and including 5 locks with an aggregate lift of 50.3 feet, all located on
the left bank of the river. At its middle point this canal is distant 1,000 feet from the
river. The river is about 700 feet wide at the dam, but a quarter of a mile below broadens
out between several i.slands to a maximum width in the middle of the rapids of over 2.000
feet. The islands are low, but all have the limestone base. These islands, together with
the flats on both sides of the river, give fine facilities for water-power development. The
distance across the valley from bluff to bluff is about 3,500 feet.
The water powers are made available in three or more ways, viz, from the ship canal.
from the Kaukauna Water Power canal, and from the Eklwards & Mead canal. There is
U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 156 PL. II
.^-
iV— «^ -^ "li
^^^^C^ i^?«i^jga vjESfafcf
^—^SS
A. DAM ON LOWER FOX RIVER AT DEPERE.
Looking east.
B. COMBINED LOCKS DAM ON LOWER FOX RIVER AT LITTLECHUTE.
Private dam; plant cost $1,250,000.
FOX BIVER SYSTEM. 39
a frontage of 900 feet or more on the upper level of the ship canal suitable for power
development and furnishing an average head of about 16 feet. The Kaukauna Water
Power canal starts 400 feet above the dam, thence runs 400 feet at an angle from the shore
of about 45°. At a point' about 200 feet from the river it turns and runs parallel to the
south channel of the river for 2,000 feet. Its greatest width, 150 feet, is at the bulkhead.
Its minimum width is 86 feet and its depth is 11 feet. There is said to be a descent of 2
feet in the total length of 2,400 feet, and the average head furnished is 18 feet. Along
the side and end of the canal there is a total frontage of 2,100 feet available for power
sites and mills.
The Kaukauna Water Power Company's claims to one-half the flow of the river were
denied by the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company at*the time of the construction
of these improvements, and the matter was taken into the courts for adjudication. After
successive trials in the State courts the question was finally settled by the United States
Supreme Court October, 1898, in favor of the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company,
which thereupon purchased the entire plant and canal of the Kaukauna Water Power
Company. ^
In this decision the Supreme Court held broadly that the use of the surplus waters cre-
ated by the Government dam and canal at Kaukauna belonged to the Green Bay and
Mississippi Canal Company, but that "after such waters had passed over the dam and
through the sluices and had found their way into the unimproved bed of the stream, the
rights and disputes of the riparian owners must be determined by the State court."
The Edwards & Mead canal was built under the direction of Capt. N. M. Eklwards, engi-
neer for the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company. Advantage was taken of a branch
of the main north channel running between two large islands ; this was formed into a pocket
by damming the ends and sides. This channel starts 600 feet below the bridge, and the
dam was placed 1,000 feet below its head. As the water is taken from b«low the first
level of the rapids the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company could make no legal
claim to it, but subsequent to its development bought the power. The sides of the
channel are substantially built of earth on the south side and dry rubble masonry on the
north side.
Recently very comprehensive plans have been prepared for the improvement of the lower
level at Kaukauna, which will produce 6,500 theoretical horsepower. These plans include
the blasting out of the tailrace so as to develop a 21-foot head at the present Government
dam, and also the construction of a new masonsy dam below which will develop 27 feet
additional. As this dam would render useless some of the present improvements below
the Government dam, it will be necessary to purchase such property before the new dam
can be constructed. These developments will be made as soon as a suitable tenant is
found.
At the present time the Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Company offers for rent 3,000
theoretical horsepower already developed at the headrace of the Kaukauna WaterPower
Company's canal, recently purchased. Large store buildings at this point, though par-
tially destroyed by 6re, could readily be converted into a large manufacturing plant.
The city of Kaukauna has 5,000 inhabitants and is on the main line of the Chicago
and Northwestern Railway, being also reached by the Fox River Valley Electric Railway.
40 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
The following table gives a list of the power users at Kaukauna and the installed turbine
power:
Water powers on Fox River at Kaukauna. a
Owner.
Water power.
Average Rated
head. I H. P.
Steam
Entitled H. P.
to—
! Feet.
Badger Paper Co 16 1.230 " 4St)
Chicago and Northwestern Rwy« shops 7i 47 I 75 110
Kaukauna Fiber Co , ' 14 194 100 300
Kaukauna Machine Co .* 14 250 75 15
Kaukauna Electric Light Co 14, 194 1«jO
Thilmany Pulp and Paper Co 14' 389' 275 i 175
Western Paper Bag Co 15' 1,400 I 400 310
Outagamie Paper Co I 21 ! 816 j 1.300
Lindauer Pulp C^ 12
ReeaePulpCo 12 1 440 150
Thilmany Pulp and Paper C^ '. 12 709 1 5^7
o Nos. 1-4 are owned jointly by the Oreen Bay and Mississippi Canal Company: Nos. 5-0 are leased
from the same company; Nos. 10 and 11 are leased from same company and Edwards.
Below Kaukauna Rapids the river is from 1,200 to 2,200 feet wide for nearly 2 miles, but
it gradually contracts to a width of about 500 feet for the lower half of its course between
Kaukauna and Rapide Croche. Almost without exception the bluffs rise directly from
the river for the entire distance. Navigation is also by slack water from the Grand Kau-
kauna Canal to the Rapide Croche dam.
RAPIDE CROCHE DAM.
The Rapide Croche dam is located 4.5 miles below the Grand Kaukauna dam and was
built by the Government for navigation purposes. It is about 450 feet long and has an
average head of 8.5 feet. The bluffs rise on either side close to the river, except on the
left bank at the site of the ship canal. This canal starts just above the dam and exten«k
downstream for a distance of 1,760 feet to the lock. This forms a strip of land well suited
for power or mill sites, being 900 feet long and varying in width from 20 feet at the ends
to 200 feet at the middle. This ground and 120 acres adjacent is owned by the Green
Bay and Mississippi Canal Company.
The Rapide Croche dam develops 2,400 theoretical horsepower, which may be leased on
extremely favorable terms. At the present time this power is not utilized. Its location,
nearly midway between Green Bay and Appleton, is convenient for the development of
electric power for railroad or other purposes. The Chicago and Northwestern Railway
and the Fox River Valley Electric Railway are close at hand on the left bank.
LITTLE KAUKAUNA DAM.
Six miles below the Rapide Croche dam is located another Government dam which fur-
nishes slack-water navigation in this stretch of the river. This dam is about 550 feet long
and furnishes a head of 8 feet. The bluffs rise close to the right bank, but on the left bank
recede for several hundred feet. Advantage is taken of this fact to locate the Govern-
ment canal here. This canal is 950 feet long and has a single lock at its lower end.
The power here, like that at Rapide Croche, is owned by the Green Bay and Miasissippi
Canal Company, while the riparian rights are owned by other parties. This fact has led
to a protracted legal struggle, which has resulted in preventing the utilization of the valu-
able water powers. It is stated on good authority that these suits have recently been
settled and that improvements will soon be made.
FOX KIVER SYSTEM.
41
A large number of water-power lots would be made available by the construction of a
tailface parallel to the canal about as shown in fig. 3. An 8-foot head with a flow of 2,660
second-feet, gives 2,400 theoretical horsepower.
DEPERE DAM.
This dam at Depere, a city of over 4,000 inhabitants, about 7 miles from the mouth of
Fox River, is the last dam and lock on the river. A view of it is shown in PI. II, A. The
dam is of crib construction, about 2,000 feet long, and furnishes an average head of 7 feet,
which, at an ordinary flow of 2,660 second-feet, gives 2,100 theoretical horsepower. A
modem steel bridge is located just below the dam.
A -X
Vl^^^*^
Scale
«f0 4fos^»9oifo f tifo topofeet
Fig. 3.- Plan of water-power development at Little Kaukauna, Wis.
This power does not belong to the Green Bay and Misssisippi Canal Company, for it was
built under a contract whereby the riparian owners were to have the use of the power in
return for the maintenance of navigation improvements.
The American Writing Paper Company, which has one of the largest and most modern
paper mills on the river, has installed 16 large turbines, with a rating of 1,565 practical
horsepower. In addition the company uses 1,300 steam horsepower. It is entitled to
the total power of the river loss 290 horsepower. The value of its annual product is stated
at $600,000.
On the right bank, taking water from the ship canal, are located the J, P. Dousman
Company's flouring mill, with 175 actual turbine horsepower, and the Depere Electric Light
and Power Company's plant, with 100 actual turbine horsepower. The flouring mill has
a capacity of 300 barrels a day. These are the last powers on the river.
42 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
RAILROADS.
Attention has elsewhere been called to the fact that the freedom from freshets which k>^rr
Fox River enjoys allows the building of railroad side tracks over or across the river so as to
reach any mill no matter how situated. The river thus enjoys excellent railroad facilit:p».
The Chicago and Northwestern Railway closely follows the left bank of the river betwer-i:
Neenah and Green Bay, and a branch performs a similar service for all the mills betwt-=ti
Menasha and Eaukauna on the right bank. The Cliicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ral-
way reaches Neenah, Menasha, and Appleton, while another branch parallels the rivr-r
between Green Bay and Depere. The Wisconsin Central line reaches Neenah and Mena.-ha-
Besides the steam lines, the river's entire length is closely followed by an electric intrr-
urban railroad, which provides a train every hour at reduced rates.
The navigation improvements maintained by the Federal Grovcmment provide U^ a
6-foot channel between Oshkosh and Green Bay. While this channel is insufficient for ti^
larger freight boats navigating the Great Lakes, the commerce on lower Fox River has herz
sufficient to reduce the railroad freight rates to an exceedingly reasonable basis. This pvt-
the numerous factories on this river a very marked advantage in shipping both raw mater.al^
and finished products. This advantage, together with the extremely low rates at whir',
water power may be rented ($5 to $10 per annum per horsepower), has already made ti.>
one of the largest manufacturing districts in the State.
MENOMINEE: RIVER SYSTEM.
This nver is formed by the junction of Michigamme and Brule rivers, and for its entire
length of about 104 miles forms the boundary between Wisconsin and Michigan. It flov.-
in a general southeasterly direction, entering Green Bay at Marinette.
DRAINAGE.
The Menominee drainage basin is narrow in its lower portion, but widens as the strean
is ascended, the river receiving important branches near its source. Its total drainage a.-va
is about 4,000 square miles, of which 1,430 square miles is in Wisconsin.
Like Chippewa River, it has a main arm to the north, Michigamme River, which is npar y
as long as the main river, its source, in fact, being within 12 miles of Lake Superior. Thi^
has an important bearing on the discharge of the Menominee, because it secures the Unrr-
run-oflf due to the heavy precipitation of that region as well as the steadying effect of ilrf
enlarged drainage. The combined drainage area of Brule and Michigamme rivers amount «
to 1,769 square miles a — nearly one-half that of the entire river system.
PROFILE.
From its head, at the junction of Brule and Michigamme rivers, to its mouth, a distant*
of about 104 miles, the river descends about 700 feet. In addition to this its Wis(xio>ir
tributaries descend j,bout 300 feet, and those in Michigan 470 feet. The opportunities ft"
water power are numerous, because of the frequent cx)ncentrations of descent in rapid-
along the entire course of the river. The following descriptions of the most importacr
water powers are taken from data furnished by Messrs. O'Keef & Orbison, hydraulic en^-
neers, of Appleton, Wis., who also loaned maps and profiles of the river, and from the ven
full descriptions by James L. Greenleaf , C. E., in the census report.*
Quoting from the latter:
It will be evident from the following account that there is an immense amount of water power ixi *.t-
Menominee awaiting development, the concentrations of the descent in numerous rapids and falls <^-
plying remarkably fine opportunities for improvements. Any worlcs for the uti!i*aUoa of th« p«>tt *
would have to be so constructed as not to interfere with the manufacturing company in the dfiviug . '
logs; but dams, etc., could be built so as to be no hindrance to the passage of logs.
a Tenth Census, vol. 17. p. 57.
* VVatar powers of the Northwest; Tenth Census, vol. 17, pp. 59-60.
MENOMINEE RIVEB SYSTEM.
43
In the table that follows will be found a statement in detail of the descent of Menominee
River, together with other valuable data:
Profile of Menominee River from its mouth to head of upper rapids ^ Twin FalU.a
station.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Mouth of river
Dam No. 1, foot
Dam No. 2, foot
Dam No. 3, foot
Schappies rapids, foot
Schappies rapida, head
Grand rapids, foot (mouth of Little C«dar River)
Grand rapids, head (NW. } sec. 32, T. 34 N., R. 23 E.) .
Railroad crossing, Ross
White rapids, foot (lot 1, sec. 30, T. 35 N., R. 21 E.) ..
White rapids, head (south line sec. 7, T. 35 N. , R. 22. E.)
Pemena rapids, foot (mouth Pemena ('reek)
Pemena rapids, head (south line sec. 5, T. 36 N., R.
22 E.)
Pemena dam, foot
Pemena dam, crest ,
Sturgeon Falls, foot
Sturgeon Falls, head
Sturgeon River, mouth
Norway, Mich, (where public road joins river)
Iron Mountain, Mich. (500 feet aiK>ve old ferry)
Little Quinnesoo Falls, foot
Little Quinnesec Falls, head
Big Quinnesec Falls, foot
Railroad bridge south of Iron Mountain
Highway bridge south of Iron Mountain
Railroad bridge, river siding
Twin Falls (500 feet below lower rapids)
Twin Falls (head of upper rapids)
Distance—
From
mouth.
Be-
tween
points.
Milet.
MiU9.
2.0
2.0
2.5
.5
2.75
.25
7.7
5.0
&7
1.0
22.0
13.3
24.5
2.5
2a5
2.0
SO. 7
24.2
53.7
3.0
6L5
7.8
63.0
1.5
67.0
4.0
67.5
.5
77.0
9.6
77.5
.5
7&1
.6
80.1
2.0
84.1
4.0
85.4
1.3
85.65
.25
89.9
4.25
9L15
L25
92.4
L25
100.4
8.0
101.4
1.0
102.1
.7 j
Eleva-
tion
above
sea level. Total
Descent be-
tween points.
Feet.
580.0
580.0
587.0
594.0
612.0
622. Oi
649. 0±
660. Oi:
671.8
683.4
714.4
74a 3
767.1
773.1
786.2
803.0
81&8
818.0
824.0
851.0
878.0
042.0
966.0
1,020.0
1,045.0
1,065.3
1,072. 5
1,099.8
Per
mile.
Feet, i Feet.
7.0
7.0
18.0
10.0
27.0
20.0
2.8
n.6
31.0
30.3
18.8
6.0 ;
13.1 I
17.7
12.9 I
L2
6.0
27.0
27.0
64.0
24.0
54.0
25.0
20.3
7.2
27.3
14.0
28.0
3.6
10. 0±
2.0±
8.0
L4
48.0
103.0
3.9
12.5
15.0
26.2
L9
25.8
2.0
3.0
6.7
20.7
256.0
5.6
43.3
20.0
2.5
7.2
3.9
a Authority: No. 1, U. S. Lake Survey; Nos. 2-6, Menominee River Boom Company; Nos. 7, 8, and
10-18, T. W. Orbison; No. 9, Wisconsin and Michigan Railway; Nos. 19-27, U. S. Geol. Survey; No. 28,
Chicago and Northwestern Railway.
GEOLOGY.
While the surface is largely covered, generally deeply, by glacial drift, the Menominee
and all its tributaries flow over hard, pre-Oambrian crystalline rocks as far south as the
mouth of Pike River, or fully two-thirds its length. In this region important iron mines are
found. Below the mouth of Pike River the Menominee flows 10 miles across the Cambrian
sandstone, then for 18 miles across the next higher layer, the "Lower Magnesian" lime-
stone, and for the last 8 miles to its mouth across the "Trenton" group of limestones.a
The crossing of the Cambrian sandstone results in no rapids of importance, but two rapids
occur in passing the "Lower Magnesian" and the "Trenton" limestones. Most of the
rapids, of course, are in the harder crystalline rocks above the mouth of Pike River .
Tlie topography of the country through which Menominee River flows can not be de-
scribed as mountainous, but many high ridges give diversity to the surface. The Wisconsin
branches, Pine and Brule rivers, rise side by side with the Flambeau and the Wisconsin in
a Geol. Wisconsin, p.
44
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
a high, flat plateau, abounding in lakes and swamps. In many cases the rivers b»d is
lakes but a few rods apart, or even in the same swamp. These lakes and swamps have &o
elevation of nearly 1,600 feet above sea level, or 1,000 feet above Lake Michigan. Tb*
Michigan branches flow from a similar though even hi^er region, and it is certain tb&i
these swampe and lake reservoirs exert a marked influence in steadying the diwciiaiy of
the river.
RAINFALL. AND RUN-OFF.
Because of the paucity of data concerning the discharge of rivers in this regioo, it i^
exceedingly difficult to estimate the ordinary discharge. The dLscharge measurement ir.
this district have been made since 1901, and most of them since 1908.
The rivers mentioned below are similarly situated with respect to Lake Superior, whici
is perhaps the governing factor in determining the rainfall. In 1903 Racaaaba Rivc:
yielded a minimum of 700 second-feet from 891 square miles. Measurements made bj
the I. Stevenson Company indicate a minimum flow of this river, in a dry year, of 400 secfmd-
feet. Measurements of Iron River^ continuing from November, 1901, to April, 1904, sfaov
a minimum flow of 0.8 second-foot per square mile for two months in 1902, and the same
for February, 1903. It seems reasonably certain that except in unusually dry years tbr
ordinary low-water discharge of these rivers is not far from 0.6 second-foot per square milt.
In 1904, a year of average rainfall, the minimum run-off occurred in the month of Decemli^r.
when it averaged 0.77 second-foot per square mile.
In the following tables will be found the maximum, minimum, and mean dschargie in
second-feet of Menominee River at Little Quinnesec Falls during twelve months of IS^
and 1899 :
EstinuUed monthly discharge of Menominee River at Little Quinnesec FaUSf Wis.a^ May, is:*d.
to August, 1899,^
[Drainage area, 2,432 square miles.]
Date.
18d8.
May
June
July
August
September..
October
November. ,
1899.
April...
May....
June
July....
August .
Discharge
Run-off.
Mazi>
mum.
Mini-
mum.
Mean.
Per
square
mile.
Deptk
Sec-feet.
Sec-feet,
Sec-feet.
Sec-feet.
Ifuhfr
3,802
2,443
3,086
1.26 '
L4^i
3,«16
1,447
2,459
1.01
1 ."
2,740
«55
1,439
.50
*>
4,968
498
2,282
.M.
Li*?
3,544
797
2,566
1.06
Li:
5,735
1,947
3,248
1.34
1 ,A
3,001
1,484
2,766
1.14
ir
4,642
3,083
4,011
1.65
1*1
4,485
3,744
4,112
Leo
! s».
4,624
2,017
3,476
1.43;
1 '•
2,521
804
1,819
.75
.v
1,789
I,«8
1,573
.65
.::
a For the daily discharge for this time see Water-Supplv Paper No. 83, pp. 256-257. Meftaurvmrr t>
were made by J. H. Wallace, C. £., and furnished by KJmberly & Clark, of Niagara, Wis.
MENOMINEB RIVER SYSTEM.
45
It will be seen that the smallest monthly average during this time was 0.50 second-foot
per square mile of drainage. Lumbering operations on Menominee River, though declin-
ing since 1892; are still active. The operation of the many logging dams must have a great
effect on the regimen of the river. In a few years the lumber will be so nearly removed
that it will be cheaper to carry logs by railroad. Then the dams can be used to augment
the low-water flow. This will greatly enhance the value of the water powers.
The average annual rainfall of this region is estimated by the Tenth Census at 35 inches,
or 10 per cent in excess of the average of the State.
The following table gives the annual precipitation in the valleys of Wolf, Oconto, Pesh-
tigo, and Menominee rivers for the eleven years ending in 1904:
Annual precipiiationf with averages ^ at seven stations in Wisconsin covering eleven years.
Station.
Il894.
1
1805.
1806.
1897.
1806.
1809.
1900.
1901.
In.
33.0
32.7
28.1
28.1
1902.
1903. ' 1904.
Average.
In. 1 In.
In.
35.1
32.2
29.2
36.0
In.
30.2
25.5
25.7
28.1
27.4
25.3
26.5
In. In.
28.7 30.2
28.1 1 31.3
27.5 34.3
29.7 1 26.4
29.0
In.
37.6
46.6
37.9
38.0
35.6
In. In. In.
32.1 30.2
Inches.
34.7
Koepenick
Florence ,....
Occmto
New LoDdon
...J 23.8 ' 24.9
....27.6 27.2
....29.8 29.9
I 1
27.7
29.3
34.3
42.9 43.0
«-3
34.1 34.7
28.8 31.1
32.6
31.7
31.3
30.8
Shawano
.... 27.9 '
32.8
33.6
36.3
25.3 27.9 39.3
24.3 1 32.4
29.8
Waupaca
28.0
:io.R
32.0 1 32.0
29.7
... 27.3
27.3
1
Average
27.0
27.5
30.8
39.1
20.6
30.8
36.2 34.2
31.5
The summary given above, embodying observations of the yearly rainfall from 1894 to
1904, inclusive, at seven near-by stations, shows the average rainfall of this section for the
above period to be 31.5 inches. This is very conservative, for earlier observations for
longer periods show larger averages, as will be seen from the following:
Record of precipitation at two stations in Wisconsin prior to 189 J^.
[From the Smithsonian tables.]
Station.
Precipi-
tation.
Embarrass..
WeyauwQga.
There is reason to believe that the rainfall at the headwaters of these rivers is in excess
of that on the lower part of the drainage area, where most of the observation stations
are located.
The following table compiled from Bulletin C, United States Weather Bureau, shows
46
WATEK POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
the result of observations of precipitation and temperature in the basins of Fox« Oracti.
Menominee, and Wolf rivers for the years stated prior to 1876:
Record of precipitation and temperature cU nine statioiut in Wisconsin prior to 1S76.
Station.
Period of
observa-
tion.
Wautoma 1S71-1874
PorUge ' 1836-1845
Weyauwega 1881-1873
Waupaca ' 1867-1874
Menasha I 1857-1858
Appleton 1856-1871
Green Bay ' 1858-1865
Embarrass I 1864-1874
Escanaba ' 1872-1876
Precipitation.
Temperat-jT
Qt^wm^ Bum- I Au- Win- v«-- I Sum- Wj?-
Inches
5.50
5.58
6.74
5.50
6.83
7.65
6.18
8.14
8.52
Inches.
6.25
11.46
17.85
14.50
10.73
10.24
9.35
12.49
13.72
Inches.
1.98
7.63
14.23
6.92
7.06
6.92
10.43
a21
10.57
Incites. Inchon.
3.16
25.92
2.83
27.50
5.31
44.13
3.93
25.92
5.14
29.76
3.70
28.51
4.46
32.42
5.73
34,57
68.2!
68.20
7a 17
65.30
67.48
68.10
66.82
i :
I" -
3.28 36.09
It will be noted that the upper portion of this drainage area is scarcely reprpsenti^ :2
the above tables, the stations where rainfall observations were made being groups i
the lower portion of the river valleys. There is reason to believe that the average rainfa.
would be found to be sensibly larger for a series of stations more evenly distributed su »?
to include the northern portion.
The following discharge measurements, gage heights, and rating table are tiie resd' < '
observations b}'^ hydrographers of the United States Geological Survey on Meoomiaf^
River, near Iron Mountain, Mich. :
Discharge measurements of Menominee River at Homestead hridgey near Iron Mouniain, Mi'^
1902 to 1906,
Date.
1902.
September 4 . .
November 4. . .
Hydrograplier.
Horton and Gregory .
W.V. Savicki
do.
do.
1903.
April 9«
AprU19
July 22
August 25
September 16 ' do
October 27 do
1904.
May 18
June 1
August 10
Septembers
October 11
November 18
L. R. Stockman .
....do
E. Johnson, jr.
....do
do
....do
F. W. Hanna..
E. Johnson, Jr.
1905.
AprII12.
May 22..
June 15 . .
July 13..
S. K.Clapp....
do
M. S. Brennon.
do
August 13 do.
Width.
Feet.
202
208
208
212
205
210
210
205
210
225
210
220
215
208
225
207
Area of
section.
Sq.feet.
1,532
2,000
1,455
1,4M2
2,875
1,477
2,312
2,522
1,101
1,571
2,406
1,511
2,271
2,036
1,421
2,100
1,346
Mean Ga«e Di^
velocity, height, r^rzi*.
Ft.pr.sec)
2.22
2.78
2.17
1.76
ft 3. 41
1.93
2,68
3.01
1.42
2.02
3.20
1.94
2.90
2.32
1.78
2.50
1.83
Feet.
Sf'-fff
1.90
l.Al
2.67
!.>«
5.40 ;
5**
3
4.20
3.60
ia38 9*»
3.99 2 A'
7.95
8.97
2.06
4. 34
8.25
4.02
7.43
6.85
3.67
6.58
3.24
4r-
a Stream full of logs; probably log jam.
& Mean velocity=85 per cent of surface vekr*:;
MENOMINEE RIVER SYSTEM.
47
Mean daily gage height^ in feet, of Menominee Riwr near Iron Mountain j Mich., September
4y 1902, to December 31, 1906.
Day.
1902.
I
I Sept. Oct. I Nov.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14-
l.j.
16.
Day.
i.go
1.60
2.00
2.25
2.35
2.05
1.92
l.«7
1.95
1.65
1.53
1.45
1.40
1.67
1.53
l.,55
1.45
1.55
1.58
1.60
1.67
1.77
1.30
1.50
1.55
2.85
2.05
2.47
1.82
2,62
2.80
2.95
2.72
2.85
2.95
2.50
2.60
2.50
2.40
2.45
3.27
4.85
6.07
6.88
6.57
Dec.
Day.
I Sept. Oct.
I
1902.
1.60
2.22
2.80
2.25
1.85
1.95
2.25
2.70
3.45
3.35
3.60
3.35
3.05
2.90
2.85
2.90
1.40
1.45
1.35
1.35
1.20
1.45
1.52
1.48
1.47
1,40
1.40
1,35
1.38
1.55
Nov.
Dec.
1,65
6.45
2.55
1.92
5.65 !
2.70
1.60
5.35 i
2.63
1.65
5.00 '
2.75
1.57
4.47
2.75
1.65
4.45
2.57
1.67
3.90
2.40
2.42
3.92
2.32
2.80
3.45
2.35
3.22
3.30
2,20
2.95
3,00
2.10
3.57
2.62
2.00
3.07
2.55
2.15
2.83
2.62 -
2.20
2.75
1
2.10
Jan.
1903.
1 1 255
2 2.52
3 2.42
4 2.48
5 ! 2.50
6 2.30
7 * 2.25
8 1 2.40
9 j 2.35
10 2.30
11 j 2.35
12 1 2.30
13 ' 2.20
14 2.10
15 :. 2.18
16 1 2.22
17 ' 2.25
18 i 2.25
19 ' 2.32
20 ' 2.25
21 1 2.10
!22 2.20
23 2.22
24 1 2.15
25 1 2.12
26 ' 2.25
27 2.35
28 ' 2.25
29 j 2.35
30 1 2.35
31 ! 2.20
Feb. Mar. Apr. I May. 1 June. July. Aug, Sept, I Oct. ' Nov. Dec.
2,35
2.30
2.20
2,15
2.15
2.28
2.25
2.22
2.20
2.28
2.40
2.28
2.22
2.25
2.20
2.25
2.22
2.18
2.20
2.18
2.10
2.00
1.95
2.20
2.25
2.32
2.45
2.38
2.38
2.38
2.42
2.40
2.35
2.48
2.55
2.68
2.72
2.72
2.75
300
332
3.55
350
3.48
3.55
4.25
6.25
8.38
8.85
7.60
6.20
5.95
5.80
6.15
5.42
5.50
6.15
4.65
4.30
4.68
5.15
5.65
&35
2.25
4.75
&30
5.50
5.50
0.06
6.25
7.25
7.15
&70
7.45
7.52 I
7.55 I
7.80
&30
7.. 45 i
7.58 I
7.05
6.90 I
7.65 I
7.60
7.75
7.00
6.45
6.82
7.45
7.95
7.85
9.55
8.80
9.45
9.48
9.72
9.60
9.32 :
7.90
8.98
8.10
9.90
9.45
9.18
8.65
7.60
a22
7.55
8.72
9.05
7.40
9.40
6.80
7.80
7.15
&45
10.40
11.85
10,10
10.75
9.30
8.05
&30
7.60
7.05
6.50
340
4.85
4.86
4.46
3.90
3.50
4.40
6.75
4.50
4.45
4.55
4.80
3.75
4.80
2.30
a 10
2.70
3.10
2.80
2.00
3 80
2.70
2.45
2.00
a 70
4.80
6.50
3.85
3.50
7.40
&30
6.95
6.45
6.26
5.20
&00
4.65
4.60 I
4.00
340
305
2.75
2.85
2.40
310
4.20
315
i.10
325
4.80
5.30
5.70
a&5
8.20
7.10
6.25
6.20
4.55
5.60
&60
8.00
9.00
&90
7.20
6.70
6.75
&60
6.50
5.40
6.60
5.60
3.70
4.05
4.25
4.05
3.75
3 70
0.75
3.75
3.35
4.05
4.65
3.85
390
4.00
4.56
4.46
4.06
3 70
3.50
3.65
4.00
4 65
5.70
&65
6.90
5.80
5.50
7.60
8.10
9.00
10.50
11.20
10.40
9.46
8.70
aoo
6.85
6.95
6.35
6.90
4.45
6.50
4 80
4.40
4.00
4.30
380
3.60
4.40
3.80
3.65
5.20
3.75
3.56
6.60
4.10
3.56
7.70
4.00
3.70
7.50
380
3.60
7.65
3.60
3.40
7.55
3.65
3.36
7.10
3.60
335
6.85
3.40
ao6
6.70
4.10
2.90
&50
4.95
2.60
6.26
3.50
2.50
6.75
3.20
2.40
5.50
a25
2.46
5.40
3 55
2.40
485
325
2.40
4.90
2.85
2.35
4.90
2.a5
2.65
4.90
2.85
2.35
6.20
2.50
2.30
6.30
3 2.5
2,25
4.35
300
2.36
4.20
310
2.30
4.a5
2.90
2.36
3 80
aoo
2.65
390
2.&5
3.16
385
300
325
380
310
3.10
3 75
3 60
3.06
3.70
315
48
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily g€ige height^ in feet, of Menominee River near Iron Mountain, Midi., Septemh^
4f 1902, to December 31, i905— Continued.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
16.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
20.
30.
31.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Day.
1904.
1905.
Jan.
Feb. t Mar.
2
a2o
2^00
5 1 2.70
' 2.75
1 2.75
8
! a20
3.60
aso
3.45
3.20
3.10
3.40
4.25
4.30
4.30
4.35
4.35
4.40
4.15
4.10
4.25
4.25
4.20
4.20
4.25
4.20
4.50
4.45
4.35
2.60
2.58
2.35
2.60
2.60
2.80
2.82
10
2.60
11 1
12 .. .
13
2.40
14 1
15 1 --.
2.38
16
17
3.20
2.30
2.22
18
19
2.90
; 2.92
2.55
2.25
2.35
I
4.75
4.70
4.55
4.10
3.90
4.50
4.90
4.80
4.70
a95
a50
3.00
a 15
a3o
a25
aoo
ao5
&35
3.45
a 15
a 15
a4o
a45
a 75
4.55
4.60
4.35
4.40
4.30
4.55
4.60
2.35 7.40
2.38 ^80
2. 45 6. 70
7.00
7.90
8.00
7.45
6.80
6.80
6.60
7.00
7.30
7.40
7.40
6.70
6.40
6.10
6.20
5.80
o Gage under water.
4.30
4.25
4.30
4.50
4.30
4.25
4.20
4.20
4.25
4.00
a 90
a 95
a90
a85
a95
a8o
a 75
a 76
a 70
ago
a 75
a6o
aeo
a55
a65
a55
a 75
4.55
4.90
2.70
Apr.
2.60
2.62
4.65
4.55
4.35
4.60
5.10
4.85
4.70
4.65
6.05
6.20
4.10
aso
a 65
a 70
a 75
4.10
a95
4.25
4.40
4.30
4.35
4.40
5.45
6.05
7.35
7.25
7.46
8.35
7.75
7.40
May.
7.90
7.95
8.70
9.70
8.15
9.70
&50
10.40
11.95
(«)
11.80
11.10
10.70
10.55
9.65
9.05
8.10
8.15
8.15
6.25
4.90
6.15
&10
7.05
8.25
9.60
(«)
10.90
10.00
8.70
8.00
8.60
8.40
8.50
9.10
9.20
9.20
9.30
9.20
June, j July. ' Aug. I S:"pt. Oct. Nor. Iw*
8.45 I
6.95 I
5.65
6.30 '
9.60
7.30
8.80 ;
7.50
8.55
8.50
7.50 )
6w70 I
6u70 t
5.90
5.40
4.95
4.60
4.50
a 70
a50
a50
4.40
a7o
a 70
5.45
7.20
6.75
5.60
6.70
6.70
a60 I
5.60 I
2.40 \
2.40
a50 ;
6.30 ,
6.90 I
7.30
4.60
Z35
2.20
2.90
2.80
a 70
aeo
aeo
4.20
O.30
4.10
4.20
1.80
4.30
a 75
4.30
1.65
a 25
ao5
2.50
4.30
2.70
2.30
1.30
2.75
1.40
2.70
1.50
a 10
1.45
1.30
5.50
8.60
6.40
7.10
8.00
8.00
7.60
7.60
9.80
6.30
5.80
9.60
7.10
4.20
9.10
5.20
5.20
9.00
5.80
4.90
9.10
5.70
5.40
8.30
5.70
5.20
7.40
5.80
5.60
8.60
6.40
4.30
9.70
7.30
4.40
10.10
7.30
6.10
10.20.
10.20
a90
2.35
a30
2.90
aoo
1.30
2.70
1.30
1.20
1.45
a20
aso
4.40
4.00
1.90
2.05
a 70
aeo
4.00
a 10
a 15
Z40
a65
a45
a9o
a^io
a40
2.70
2.30
1.90
2.05
1.95
1.80
a 15
a 70
4.95
4.30
4.00
4.10
4.10
a70
a 15
2.90
a 10
2.55
2.85
a50
a40
2.80
a 15
2.60
2.70
2.95
2.30
2.55
aso
a90
a95
4.15
4.00
a5o
a 37
I
4.20 I
a7o
a40
aso <
a40 ;
a 45
a30
a25
a40 ,
a3o j
a 40
a 20
a20
aso
aso
2.80
2.50
2.65
2,50
b River
aoo
2.75
2.65
2,45
2.75
2.85
2.55 .
2.90
aw
arc
7.eo
8.25
7.80
7.35
6.40 I
5.90
5.55
5.30
5.20
5l00
5.00
5.05
5.05
5.15
5.05
5.15
5.05 i
4.85 =
4.35
4.30 '
2.80
a90
7.20
8.00
7.80 j
7.00
a30 .
5.30
4.60
4.40
4.10
a 70
a 35
aoo
2.95
aeo
4.33
4.40 ,
4.80 I
frozen.
X90
2.82
2.80
2.50
2.42
2.42
2.35
2.40
2.42
2.40
2.35
2.40
2.45
2.50
2.55
2.80
2.90
2.82
2L96
a 10
a 10
a65
4.10
a 75
a25
a3o
a«o
4.83
4.10
a 10
a3D
3.30
3.25
ao5
2.96
aos
2.90
a85
aio
2.92
2.90
2.67
2.77
2.S5
2. 75
2.42
1.92
1.75
2.00
2.07
3l30
3L30
3.30
aoo
aoo
xoo
2>«k5
2.88
2.92
aoo
aoo
aoo
2.90
2.»s
a 10
a 15
ao5
2.90
2.88
1 >
.\Jk
5 4'
.1 *
iTEiroMnrEE kiver ststem.
49
Mean daUy gage height, in feet, of Menominee River near Iron Mountain, Mich., September
4, 19(>^, to December SI, 1905— Continued.
Day.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr. 1 May.
June.
July.
Aug.
I
Sept. Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
]
1906
1
20
2.95
2.78
2..^'i
2.50
2.40
2.45
5.80 ! 9.30
5.70 ' 10.20
6.00 1 7.40
9.30 1 a 40
2.70
4.90
4.80
4.40
a8o
a30
aso
a5o
2.90
a 05
a 05
a 10
a 05
a 15
a 20
a 05
2.90
2.50
1.80
2.95
21
1 6.70 2.20 2.72
2.86
22
2.75
2,50
1
j 8.40 2.05
1 6.50 2.95
, 6. 50 a 90
2.25
2.00
2.22
2.28
2.20
2.28
2.10
2.12
2.70
2.50 6.20, 7.40
2.65 6.00 , 7.40
2.98 5.80 6.00
3,40 6.40 ' 5.20
3.80 6.80 1 7.60
4.60 j 7.60 , 5.60
6.00 1 &00 4.80
7.60 ' 8.60 ! 5.80
7.40 1 a 40
2.60
a50 1 aso
a 45 ! a 55
a 15 1 a50
2.95 1 3.40
2.60
2.35
2.40
2.40
2.45
5.80
1 6.60
' 7.80
1 7.60
a 70
a 70
• a 40
a95
2.62
2.65
2.70
ao5
2.85
a2o
a 20
2.65
3.00
1 aOO 4.60
2.40
■^y
1
aOO 4.70 2.07
4.60 2.00
2.80 1 a20
1 ^"
2.40
1
2.48
Ixatir
tg iabiefo
Gage
height.
rMem
iminee
irgB '
i?tver
Oage
height.
near Iron Mountain, Mich., September 4, 1902, to December
SI, 1906.
DiMhf
Discharge.
j he'lght.
Discharge.
1
m^i. D'-'h-n^e.
Feel.
Second-feet. ^
Feet. Second-feet.
Feet.
Second-feet. \
Feet,
Secondnfeet.
1.2
1,032
' 2.8 2,080
4.4
3,242
6.8
5,230
1.3
1,094
2.9 2,150
4.5
3,319
7.0
5,420
1.4
1,156 1,
3.0 2,220
4.6
3,396
7.2
5,615
1.5
1,219
3. 1 2,290
4.7
3,474
7.4 5,815
1.6
1,282
3.2 1 2, .61
4.8
3,562
7.6
6,025
1.7
1,346
a 3 2,432
1 4.9
3,630 1
7.8
6,235
1.8
1,410
3.4 1 2,603
5.0
3,708 1
8.0
6,450
1.9
1,475 l|
3.6 2,575
! '5.2
3,865
a5
7,020
2.0
1,540 ,|
Z.6 2,647
5.4
4,023 1
9.0
7,630
2.1
1,606
3.7 2,719
5.6
4,183 !
9.5
8,280
2.2
1,672 ll
as ' 2,792
' 5.8
4,345
10.0
8,970
2.3
1,739 ',
a9 1 2,866
6.0
4,510 1
10.5
9,670
2.4
1,806
1,874 1!
4.0
2,940
1 6.2
4,680 1
11.0
10,370
2.5
4.1
3,015
6.4 4,860
11.5
11,070
2.6
1,942
4.2 '' 3,090
6.6 5,040
12.0
11,710
2.7
2,011 ;
4.3 I 3,166
1 1 1
!
IRR 15
6— Oti-
4
50
WATER POWEB8 OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Estimated monthly discharge of Menominee River near Iron Mountain, Mick., September, 19^'2,
to December 31, 1905.
[Drainage area, 2,415 aquare miles.]
Date.
100 .
September (i-30) .
October
November
December
1903.
April
May
June
July
August
September. ,
October
November.
December..
1904.0
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
December..
ig05.a
April.
May
June
July
August
September.
October
Novem])er.
December..
Discharge.
Maxi-
mum.
8ec.-feet.
1,772
2,625
5,306
2,647
6,780
11,560
8,020
6,670
7,630
10,660
6,130
3,660
2,719
8,150
11,770
8,410
S,396
3,242
3,669
6,725
3,591
2,199
Mini-
mum.
Mean.
Rim-oS.
Per
Sec-feet.
1,032
1,094
1,806
1,282
1,705
4,698
1,540
1,806
2,467
2,575
2,719
1,874
1,705
2,683
3,630
2,575
1,094
1,032
1,410
1,840
1,378
1,672
1,295
1,596
2,829
1,909
5,175
7,496
3,417
3,553
4,049
5,091
4,057
2,505
2,150
3,995
7,879
4,791
2,196
2,125 '
2,488 i
3,650
2,293
1,838 I
square
mile.
Dn^tl-
Sec-feel.
fnchet.
0.536
e.S3R
.661
-7^2
1.17
1.3P
.790
.911
2.39
2.14
3.57
ilO
1.57
141
1.70
l.C
7,140
4,265
5,282
9,250
2,503
6,810
9,250
1,806
5,011
7,140
1,573
3,850
3,090
1,540
2.130
6,450
2,080
3.284
2,611
1,772
2,163
2,432
1,410
2,204
2,539
1,378
2.065
1.94
2.35
1.94
1.16
1.03
1.84
3.76
3.21
1.05
1.01
1.15
1.74
1.06
.877
Z19
2.82
2.07
1.59
.882
1.36
.896
.913
.S63
2.11
l.^
l.M
.890
xy
.^
1.03
1.51
2.44
X2o
iil
L«
i.oe
1.2
1.01
1.02
.96C
a Ice conditions January, February, and March. No estimate made.
The following table of drainage areas of Menominee River at various points is coropilfd
from Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 83:
Menominee River drainage areas.
Square mile?
Brule River above Iron River 170. 0
Iron River above mouth W. 7
Brule River, including Iron River 264. 7
Brale River above Paint River 305. 0
Paint River at mouth 73S. o
Brule River at junction with Michigamme River 1 , 044. U
MENOMINEE RIVEB SYSTEM. 51
Square miles.
Michigamme River at mouth 723. 7
Menominee River at junction of Brule and Michigamme rivers 1, 767. 7
Menominee River above junction with Pine River 1, 833. 0
Pine River 586.0
Menominee River, including Pine River 2, 419. 0
Menominee River above Sturgeon River 2, 538. 0
Sturgeon River at mouth 396. 0
Menominee River, including Sturgeon River 2, 934. 0
Menominee River above junction with Pemcbonwon River 2, 993. 0
Feme Bon Won River 163. 0
Menominee River, including Pemebonwon River 1 . . . 3, 156. 0
Menominee River above junction with Pike River 3, 274. 0
Pike River 292.0
Menominee River, including Pike River 3, 566. 0
Menominee River above Little Cedar River 3, 792. 0
Little Cedar River 149.0
Menominee River, including Little Cedar River 3, 941. 0
Menominee River at mouth 4, 1 13. 0
WATER POWERS.
GENERAL CONDITIONS.
Principally because of the opening up of the many rich and valuable iron mines of this
region, and the resulting extensive railroad building, the valley of Menominee River has
ha<l a rapid development. The following railroads at present have extensions in this
territory: Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago and Northwestern; Minneapolis, St.
Paul and Sault Ste. Marie; and Wisconsin and Michigan. All of them cross the Menomi-
nee one or more times, and several are near enough to run short spurs to the important
water-power sites. . The developed water power is at present used for the most part in
mining and for the operation of lumber, paper, and pulp mills.
Menominee River varies in width from 200 to 600 or 700 feet far up toward the head-
waters. For the first 7 miles from the junction of the Brule and Michigamme there are
no heavy rapids, but, in the language of the lumberman, there is "strong water" all the
way and probably many good water-power sites.
BAD WATER RAPIDS.
The first notable rapids, known as the Bad Water rapids, occur 7 miles below the head
of the river, in sec. 27, T. 40 N., R. 19 E., at a point where the river, 100 feet wide, descends
5 feet over a ledge of rock. While definite information is lacking, it is likely that a dam
could be built here, giving a head of 10 feet.
TW^IN PALLS.
About 3i miles below Bad Water rapids, in sec. 2, T. 39 N., R. 19 E., are the Twin
Fails, about one-half mile apart. The vertical fall in each case is 12 feet, but the adja-
cent rapids are sufficient to increase the total descent to 28 feet.
PINE RIVER RAPIDS.
For 6 miles below the foot of Twin Falls the total descent of the river is but 20 feet,
and the only rapids worthy of note are those extending for about five-eighths of a mile
on both sides of the mouth of Pine River. Here an island divides the river into two chan-
nels with rocky bed. The descent of the rapids at this point is said to be 6 feet, but as
the banks are high a dam could develop more than this. Pine River increases the drain-
age area by 586 square miles.
52 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
HOBSE RACE RAPIDS.
The most important rapids between Twin Falls and Big Quinnesec Fails, called tbe
Horse Race, are found in sec. 7, T. 38 N., R. 20 E., both above and below the Chirac-
Milwaukee and St. Paul Railroad bridge. These rapids consist of two pitches, the u^r:
of about 20 and the lower of 8 feet descent, separated by about 2,000 feet of le«s fw^f'.
water. As the banks are high and the river narrow, it seems likely that a dam could >»
economically constructed here to develop about 40 feet of head. This site ia only 3 mi.!--
from Iron Mountain, Mich.
Bia QUINNESKC FALLS.
A little over 7 miles below the mouth of Pine River, and 4 miles from QiiinDesar. t-r
the Big (Upper) Quinnesec Falls. These are located in sec. 6, T. 38 N., R. 20 E.
At Upper Quinnesec Falls the river narrows to hardly more than 50 feet wide (map mea^iar^'m' at
between rocky banks of igneous origin. Immediately at the foot of the falls the river wid<^» "> >
and about 800 feet below is 700 feet across. On the Wisconsin side the banks are 80 to 100 fept ^i'
and on the Michigan side 30 to 40 feet. a
Below the falls the river descends only 2 feet to the mile for a distance of about 3 mi!f^.
At present only 54 feet of the total head is improved, one-half of the power beii^ u««d t^
compress air for the supply of the Chapin Iron Mines at Iron Mountain, SJ miles di^ar.t
The remaining portion is to be harnessed in 1905 and used for operating mines at Norway
9 miles away. On account of the local conditions it is unlikely that much more than rb»
present head can be economically developed.
LITTLE QUINNESEC FALLS.
Four miles below in sec. 10, T. 38 N., R. 20 E.. are the Little (lower) Quinnesec Falk
which, together with the upper falls, descrfced above, form the most important powers*!:
the river. For the greater portion of the distance between the upper and lower Quinn*^-
Falls there is comparatively quiet water. The greater part of the descent of 24 feet ir.
this distance occurs in the lower 2 miles. Above the upper and below the lower falb : r*'
banks are generally high near the river, but between these falls the hills recede from tir^
river an average distance of about one-half mile and are separated from it bj a flat and in
some places swampy area.
Maj. T. B. Brooks, who reported on the geology of this district, considered that the sLt^tv
deposits indicated the presenoe of a lake at a comparatively recent date.
Above Little Quinnesec Falls the river runs southwest, but at the foot of the falb it sud-
denly turns at right angles and runs southeast, the w^ater surging down an incline of a^xrjt
45° and then plunging into the comparatively still water of the basin below. The i«»:h^
fall is 62 feet. A short distance above the falls the river is 250 feet wide, but nam«-
down at the pitch to about 50 feet. The falls are hemmed in by great ma^jses of grren-
stone and schist rock. Along the Michigan side a steep cliff of greenstone at least 140 fet:
high forms the bank for a distance of a mile or more. A smaller, but similar, rib of rvi i
forms the Wisconsin bank for About 700 feet.
Formerly Little Quinnesec Falls were partially developed under 25 feet head for w<x»i-
pulp grinding; but in 1898 they were redeveloped by the Eimberly & Clark Company f«:
wood-pulp and paper manufacturing. A ledge of rock, wliich is used for a bridge pit-
divides the falls into two channels. The present development gives a net head of 62 fet:.
equivalent to 8,370 theoretical horsepower. An actual installation of turbines, generation
5,800 horsepower, consumes all the available power.
SAND PORTAGE RAPIDS.
These rapids lie between Little Quinnesec Falls and the mouth of Stui^gcon Piver. They
receive this name because the Indians, in making their "carry" around part of tlh*ai.
o Tenth Census, vol. 17.
MENOMINEE RIVER SYSTEM. 58
passed over a lai^e amount of sand. The rapids are scattered along a distance of -6 miles,
in which space there is a descent of 60 feet. About half of this amount is concentrated in
the 1 J miles between the falls and the old cable bridge or ferry below. As the topographic
map shows very high banks, fairly close together, a head of 25 feet or more may some day
l)e developed here. The Chicago and Northwestern Railway is distant only 1.5 miles.
Between the above-described dam site and a point 2.5 miles below, the river descends
27 feet. A point due south of Norway, Mich., and on the road leading from that city is
probably the l)est location for the dam to develop this fall, but even here a dam not less
than 700 feet long would probably he required.
Menominee River descends but 6 feet between this point and the mouth of Sturgeon
River. This may be considered a part of the Sturgeon Falls power.
STURGEON FALLS.
From below the mouth of Sturgeon River to a point just above Pemebonwon River, a
distance of 10 miles, the drainage area increases from 2,934 square miles to 2,993 square
miles. In this stretch are Sturgeon Falls, one-half mile below the mouth of Sturgeon
River, in sec. 22, T. 38 N., R. 21 E., Wisconsin. These falls have high rock-ledge banks,
with t¥ro pitches aggregating 13 feet. By backing the water a distance of about 3 miles
this head could be increased to 15 feet. At the head of the falls the river narrows to about
200 feet, but at the foot it spreads out into a broad basin. In order to use the power it will
probably be necessary to blast out a race in the rocks or build a flume and locate the mill
at or near the foot of the rapids.
In the next 10 miles the river descends only 17 feet, with a fairly even grade, except for
two or three small rapids. The largest of these, Nose Peak rapids, is about 1,000 feet
long and descends about 4 feet.
PEMBNA DAM AND RAPIDS.
A logging dam which, together with the adjacent rapids, gives a fall of 14 feet in a dis-
tance of a quarter of a mile is located in sec. 24, T. 37 N., R. 21 E. The Minneapolis, St.
Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railway crosses the river 2^ miles above the dam and passes
within a fraction of a mile from it. The operation of a dam at this point for lumbering
purposes greatly lessens the amount of available power. At the present rate of progress,
however, this dam will be needed for logging only a few more years. It has been found
elsewhere in the State that river logging, except for pine, can not compete with railroad
transportation.
From below Pemebonwon River to a point just below Pike River, a distance of 18 miles,
the drainage area increases from 3,156 square miles to 3,566 square miles. Pemena, Chalk
Hill, and White rapids occur in this distance.
About a mile above the mouth of Pemebonwon River, in sec. 8, T. 36 N., R. 21 E., the
Pemena rapids begin. They extend for a distance of about 2 miles, with a total descent
of 20.2 feet.a The river bed here is a metamorphic slaty schist, and the location is said
to be favorable for a dam site. The Wisconsin and Michigan Railway runs parallel to the
river at this point and is only 2 miles distant, and the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste.
Marie Railway crosses the river a few miles above.
CHALK HILL RAPIDS.
In the 11 miles between the foot of Pemena rapids and the head of White rapids the river
descends 38 feet, the grade being even except for three small rapids of from 3 to 6 feet each.
Chalk Hill rapids, the most important of these three, are located in sec. 6, T .35 N., R. 21 E.
They run over a slaty rock at a point said to be suitable for a dam, and if developed in con-
nection with other falls about half a mile above would give a total head of 8 feet or more.
oThia Btatement is based on an accurate profile of the river, prepared by Mr. T. W. Orbiaon. C. E..
from hia actual surveys. The statement made in the Tenth Census, vol. 17, p. 61, that the total fall
li 70 teati ia ttvidft&tljr an error.
54 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
WHITE RAPI06.
Four miles above the mouth of Pike River, in sec. 19, T. 35 N., R. 21 E., are the Whit-
rapids. The bed of the river is said to be gravel and bowlders, and the banks bit hi|^
enough to give a head of 30 feet, thus developing the fall for 3 miles. Even above tii^
limit the river descends 10 feet in 1| miles, as will be seen from the profile (p. 51). A hnc
of 30 feet at ordinary low water would develop 5,350 theoretical horsepower.
From below Pike River to a point just above Little Cedar River, a distance of 25 miW.
the drainage area increases from 3,566 to 3,792 square miles.
All the rapids thus far described have been over the pre-Cambrian ciystalline rockis. In
the next 28 miles the river crosses the Cambrian sandstone and ''Lower Magnesian'* i^rr-
stone. No falls or rapids worthy of note oc^ur until Grand rapids are reached, immediatrl;.
above the mouth of Little Cedar River, in sec. 5, T. 33 N., R. 22 E. These rapids are rtut^ri
by a descent over hard "Trenton'' limestone, underlain by softer strata. They hrnvt- a
fall stated at 25 feet in a length of 3 miles, but of this fall only that in the lower 2 niiW^
amounting to 18 feet, can be cheaply developed. Both the Wisconsin and Michigan &rK2
the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railways pass within 2 or 3 miles of this site.
From below the mouth of Little Cedar River to the mouth of the Menominee, 23 mil^
the drainage increases from 3,941 to 4,113 square miles.
TWIN ISLAND RAPIDS.
These rapids are situated about 7 miles below the Grand rapids and 16 miles from thf
mouth of the river. They extend for three-fourths of a mile and are said to descend U'
feet. The two islands lie one below the other, dividing the river into east and west rhAr>-
nels. The bed of the river is limestone, the banks are steep, and a dam could be huij
across each channel to the islands. The total length of such dams is estimated at abou'
700 feet. A sawmill with a 6-foot head once occupied the east channel.
8CHAPPIES RAPIDS.
Located about 5 miles from the mouth of Menominee River, in T. 31 N. and betwp«B
Rs. 22 and 23 E., Scliappies rapids extend for a distance of about a mile. Duriof; ibe
winter of 1897 a survey was made of these rapids by a competent engineer, Mr. C. B. Pridr.
at a time of extreme low water. He found a dischai^e of 2,370 second-feet and determiurd
that a head of 18 feet could be economically obtained. This power belongs to the Menom-
inee River Boom Company. The Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway is loctted
about 3 miles distant.
MARINETTE DAMS.
The last series of rapids is found at Marinette, Wis., near the mouth of the MenomiD^-
The natural channel probably had about 12 feet descent here, but the Menominee Rirr:
Boom Company built three dams, one above another, the upper one backing the water u>
the foot of Schappies rapids. The first of these dams, 850 feet long, located about 3 milRs
from the mouth of the river, in T. 30 N. and near the line between Rs. 23 and 24 E., de-
velops a head of 7 feet. a Power is applied to two paper and pulp mills owned by tbr
Marinette and Menominee Paper Company and also to a flouring mill. No statemeot d
the turbine installation at the paper mills is made, but that at the flouring mill is 95 hone-
power.
The third dam from the mouth is located on the west line of sec. 1, T. 30 N., R. 23 L
This dam is 940 feet long and has a head of 18 feet. The middle or second dam is located
about a quarter of a mile below the third dam and is 700 feet long, with a head of 7 feet
It is used for boom purposes only. The Marinette and Menominee Paper Company iniD
a Data regarding the Marinette dams fumiabed by the owners.
MEI70MINER BIVEB SYSTEM.
65
18 located just below this dam, but it takes power through a canal from the third dam. Its
turbines therefore work under a total head of about 24 feet.
The owners of these three dams state that each could be raised from 5 to 10 feet higher
than at present.
TBIBUTARTES OF MENOMTNBE RI\rEB.
The notable Wisconsin tributaries of Menominee River are Brule, Pine, Pemebonwon,
and Pike rivers.
Brule River courses in a bed composed mostly of gravel and bowlders of the drift, and
for this reason has few vertical falls, one of 10 feet being said to exist at its mouth. It is
described ss having a series of rapids or ''strong water" for its entire length of 42 miles.
Its total drainage area, including that of Paint River, is 1 ,044 square miles.
The following table gives a fairly complete profile of Brule River:
ProJUe of Brule River, Wisconsin Jrom its mouth to sec. 23, T. 41 N., R. U E.a
No.
StotioD.
Brule, Wis. (C. & N. W. bridge)
) mile below section line 22-23, T. 41 N., R. 15 E . .
Center of bend E. \ stake, sec. 31, T. 41 N., R.
15 E
i mile west of east line, sec. 24, T. 41 N.,R. 14 E
0.4 mile below dam. Noted below
Distance-
From I
mouth. <
Be-
tween
points.
Eleva-
tion
above I
lea level Total.
Descent be-
tween points.
Above dam 800 feet east of \ post, sec. 22-Z), T. 41
N., R. 14E
7 ' 1 mile last of section line 22-23, T. 41 N.,R. ME.
Miles.
7.0 I
24.0 I
29.5 I
31.6
33.1
33.5 !
35.5 I
Miles.
±17.0
5.4
2.1
1.5
.4
2.0
I
Feet.
1,260
1,411
Feet.
1,431
1,46S '
1,400 I
1,507 \
1,520
20
37
22
17 I
13 '
Per
mile.
Feet.
8.8
3.7
18.0
14.6
42. &
6.5
a Authority: No. 1, Chicago and Northwestern Railway; Nos. 2-7, U. S. Oeol. Survey.
Pine River, the largest tributary lying wholly in Wisconsin, has a total length of 53 miles
and drains an area of 586 square miles.
In the first half mile from Its mouth the current is very rapid t>; in the next 12 or 13 miles the fall is
comparatively slight, and in the next 3 miles there are two falls of 8 feet each 1,000 fwt apart, half a
mile of strong water, succeeded by another fall of 12 feet, then, half a mile above, a fall of 40 feet.
Sixty feet above this is a logging dam belonging to the Menominee River Improvement Company.^
The length of Pike River is 48 miles.
t Tenth Census.
56
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
DAMS <>X MENOMINEE RIVER AND TRIBUTARIES.
The location and height of dams on Menominee River and trihutarien in \Vu9coi»iii art-
shown in the following table:
Dams on Menominee River and tributaries in Wisconsin,
Dam.
Menominee River: i
1
2
3 ,
Pemena dam I
Pike River:
1 1
2
North Branch of North Branch Pike River
North Branch Pike River:
South Branch Pike River:
1
2 1
3 '
4
5 :
Pine River:
1 „
2 '.
3
4
Brule River:
1
2
3
"WTieeler dam
Sec-
tion.
Town-
ship.
Ran^.
of dA-Tl
Fefi.
6
30
24
7
1
30
23
7
32
31
22
14
24
37
21
12
8
35
21
9
16
35
20
13
28
37
13
13
32
36
20
»
20
36
30
13
19
35
20
13
31
36
1»
9
35
36
isj
n
29
36
18 1
10
17
36'
IS
6
30
39|
IS
9
11
39
15
10
10
39
14 ;
lU
36
40
13 1
1
9
5
40 I
^' 1
7
19
41
16
3
15
42
13
3
23
"i
"1
10
PESHTIGO RIVER.
In length, grade, shape, and size of drainage area Peshtigo River closely resembles its
neighbor, the Oconto. It descends an average of nearly 10 feet to the mile, but few of
its powers have as yet been developed, because this region is very thinly populated. The
only powers reported are two at Peshtigo. A dam with a 10-foot head, owned by the Pesh-
tigo Lumber Company, supplies the power for a sawmill, which has turbines of 1,390 horse-
power installed. A flouring mill of 50 horsepower is also located at Peshtigo.
The next important development is a power known as '* High Falls " in sec. 1, T. 32 N..
R. 18 E. In a distano« of 165 feet the river descends 46 feet. A dam 1,000 feet long would
increase this to 55 feet. In a recent report on this power by a competent engineer, it is
stated that a dam 200 feet long 1} miles above this point would create an immense reser-
voir. Both dam sites are on the pre-Oambrian rock, and the banks are of clay and sand.
A few miles below, in sec. 9, T. 32 N., R. 19 E., are the Grindstone Rapids, with a fall of
25 feet. The banks at this point are said to be high and steep. The Wisconsin Geological
Survey map shows a descent of 35 feet in sec. 10, T. 33 N., R. 18 E. A dam at Ellis Junction
creates a large pond and furnishes a head of 12 feet, which was formerly used to run a saw-
mill. It is now proposed to increase this head to 24 feet and to use the power for a new
pulp mill.
PE8HTIGO AND OCONTO BIVEB8.
57
Between Ellis ^Lunction and the mouth the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul and the
Chicago and Northwestern railways are adjacent to the river, which is still being used for
lumbering purposes. Besides the above-described dams, logging dams are located in sec.
10, T. 33 N., R. 18 E., and in sec. 22, T. 34 N., R. 18 E., with heads of 10 and 8 feet,
respectively. The following table shows the profile of the river:
Profile ofPeshtigo River from its motUh to near North Crandon.
station.
Mouth of river
Peshtigo
Do
West of Ellis Junction.
Near North Crandon. . .
Authority.
United States engineers.
Wisconsin and Michigan Rwy.
Chicago and Northwestern Rwy.
Do.
Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste.
Marie Rwy.
OCONTO RIVER.
OENERAI^ CONDITIONS.
Oconto River rises in a number of small lakes and swamps in the plateau region, at an
elevation of about 1,530 feet above the sea. In its length of 87 miles it descends 945 feet.
In the uppe^ 35 miles of its course the river flows over the crystalline rocks, and here is
found about two-thirds of its total fall. Upon leaving the crystalline rocks the river flows
nearly due south for 20 miles over the Cambrian sandstones. At Underbill it turns abruptly
and flows nearly due east, crossing the " Lower Magnesian '' and ** Trenton '' limestones and
joining Lake Michigan near Oconto. The profile of the river is shown in the following table:
PrqfSe of Oconto River , Wisconsin, from its mouth to Wabena.a
No.
Station.
Chicago and Northwestern Railway bridge,
Oconto
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway bridge,
Oconto
Distance. Eleva-
tlon
^taS." ««^*'^«^^«1- Total
Descent be-
tween points.
From
mouth.
Stiles
Underbill
Surings
One mile south of mountain. .
Two miles north of mountain.
Wabena
MUe9.
Miles.
Per
mile.
Feet.
500
614
770
791
916
941,
1,526
Feet. I Feet.
9
24
156
21
125
25
585
1.8
4.0
7.8
1.9
7.8
8.3
24.3
The most important powers are found in the last 33 miles of its course, in which distance
the river descends 190 feet.
lYATER POWBRS.
The first dam above the mouth of the Oconto River is located at Stiles, in sec. 34,T. 28 N.
R. 20 £., where a dam 400 feet long, with 11-foot head, furnishes power for saw and pulp
miUa owned by the Anson Eldred Company. This company has installed turbines of 500
a Authority: Nos. 1 and 4-8, Chicago and Northwestern Railway; Nos. 2 and 3, Chicago, Milwaukee
and St. Paul Railway.
58
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
horsepower. It is reported that by conslructing a dike about 450 feet long the head could
be increased to 18 feet.
OOONTO FALLS.
The most important concentration of fall on the river, about 100 feet, occurs in the ''Lower
Magnesian" limestone at Oconto Falls, in sec. 25,*T. 28 N., R. 19 E. A dam owned hv
the Falls Manufacturing Company has a head of 37 feet and supplies power for a larige paprr
and pulp mill. The company has installed turbines rated at 1,370 horsepower, besidr^^
400 steam horsepower. About a quarter of a mile farther up is located a dam of 19-foot
head, which furnishes power for a large pulp mill, belonging to the Union Manufacturing
Company. Seven turbines rated at 940 horsepower are installed. These run twenty-four
hours every day except Sunday. Only half a mile below the Falls Manufacturing Com-
pany's dam are some important rapids, where an excellent power is available. It is ei^ti-
mated that a dam 250 feet long would develop a head of nearly 40 feet. This power is
owned by E. A. Edmonds, who has a charter for a dam at this point with a head of 27.5
feet. The Chicago and Northwestern railway furnishes excellent shipping facilities at all
the Oconto Falls powers described above.
PULCIFER DAM.
The last dam used for power purposes is located in sec. 6, T. 27 N., R. 18 E., and fumisfaes
power for a gristmill. It is also used for logging purposes.
MISCELLANEOUS POWERS
The following table. gives the location and extent of the most important developed uid
undeveloped water powers on the Oconto River:
Water 'powern on Oconto River.
No.
Location.
Estimated
head.a
H. P. in-
sUUed.
Feet.
11
500
37
1,370
19
940
12
45
12
10
DEVELOPED POWERS.
Stiles, aec. 34, T. 28 N.,R.20E
Oconto Falls, sec. 25, T. 28 N., R. 19E..
Oconto Falls, sec. 26, T. 28 N., R. 19 E. .
Puloifer, sec. 6, T. 27 N., R. 18 E
Sec. 25, T. 31 N., R. 16 E
Sec. 4, T. 31 N., R. 16 E
Sec. 23, T. 32N., R. 16E.
Sec. 30, T. 33 N., R. 17 E
Sec. 5, T. 33 N., R. 16 E
Sec. 1, T. 33 N., R. 15 E
Sec. 11, T. 32 N., R. 16 E
Sec. 34, T. 33 N., R. 16 E
Sec. 30, T. 33 N., R. 16 E
Sec. 27, T. 33 N., R. 15 E
Sec. 18, T. 31 N., R. 17 E
Sec. 33, T. 32 N., R. 17 E
Sec. 21, T. 32 N., R. 17 E
Sec. 23, T. 30 N., R. 16 E
Sec. 16, T. 30 N., R. 16 E
UNDEVELOPED POWERS.
Oconto, sec. 23, T. 28 N., R. 21 E
Oconto Falls, sec. 31, T. 28 N., R. 20 E
Sec. 34, T. 28 N., R. 18 E
Sec. 23, T. 31 N., R. 16 E
Saw and pulp mill.
Paper and pulp mill.
Pulp mill.
Flouring mill and driving.
Driving only.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
Do.
a The first four heads are reported by owners; the remainder are estimated by Mr. W. A. Holt, of tht
Bolt Lumber Co., Oconto.
WATER POWERS OF NORTHEBK WISCONSIN.
WOLF RIVER SYSTEM.
GENERAL. CONDITIONS.
59
Wolf River rises in a number of lakes about 25 miles south of the Michigan boundary and
flows in a general southerly direction, entering upper Fox River at a point about 10 miles
west of Lake Winnebago. Though nominally a branch of Fox River, it is in reality the
master stream, having over three times the discharge. Wolf River receives all its important
tributaries from the west and at points relatively near its mouth. It has been elsewhere
noted (p. 64) that there is much evidence that the river formerly ran west and joined Missis-
sippi River through the present Wisconsin River Valley between Portage and Prairie du
Chien.
In the upper half of its course Wolf River has formed its bed in the pre-Cambrian crys-
talline rocks, and in this distance the descent of the river is very rapid. At the Chicago and
Northwestern railway crossing, 2 miles west of Lenox, the river has an elevation of 1,562
feet above the sea. In the 80 miles between this point and Shawano the river descends 774
feet, or 9.7 feet per mile. This steep gradient causes many rapids and falls. Lumber-
ing dams have been maintained on the upper river at the following points :« Sec. 9, T. 33 N*,
R. 12E.;Lillydam,8ec. 34,T.33N.,R. 13 E.; sec. 10,T.31N.,R. 14E.; sec. 25, T. 31 N.,
R. 14 E., and at several other places lower down. In the 40 miles above Shawano small
undeveloped powers of 10 to 15 feet head are of frequent occurrence.
Shawano, the head of navigation 6n the river, and county seat of Shawano County, has a
population of 2,000. A dam is located at this point, with a head of 12 feet. It is used to
grind wood pulp. Shawano also marks the point of transition from the pre-Cambrian to
the Cambrian sandstone. It is at this point that the river crosses the old coast line of Lake
Michigan and enters the region of red clay. Below Shawano the stream is sluggish, its
descent being only about 42 feet to Lake Winnebago, a distance of about 80 miles. The
banks are low, and in high water the surrounding flats are all covered, the river sometimes
expanding at time of heavy freshets to several miles in width. For obvious reasons there
can be no water powers in this lower region.
The profile of Wolf River for 160 miles of its course is shown in the following table:
Profile of Wolf River f Wisconsin, from mouth, to near Lenox.
SUtion.
Distonce
Iroiii
mouth.
Eleva-
tion
above
sea level.
Feet.
746.4
749.5
78S.0
1,562.5
Authority.
Wlnn«onT»nP._
Miles.
United States Engineers.
New London
33
80
160
Chicago and Northwestern Railway.
Do.
Shawano
Lenox
Do.
a Wlaoonain Geological Survey maps.
60
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
RUN-OFF.
The following tables showing gage-height observations an4 discharge meaflurements at
Winneconnc and near Northport, on Wolf River, are from dat-a published by the United
States Geological Survey:
Discharge measurements of Wolf River at Winneeonnej Wis., in 1903.
Date.
Hydrographer.
h^el^t. I>i«**'K-
January 5 a L. R. Stockman .
January 24 a do
February 20 do
Maroh24 ' do
April 15 1 do
May 11 1 do
June 20 do
Feet.
Second-jtet.
5.50
<<I.H
5.30
I,4>.
5.00
!.>:.
6.60
9.9»^
6.90
3.«*i^
6.70
3.:*r
6.40
3,1M
a River frozen.
Mean daUy gage heightf in feet, of Wolf River at Winneconju, Wis,, January 1 to July 2't,
190S,
Day.
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
81.
Jan.
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.40
5.40
5.40
5.40
5.40
5.40
5.40
5.40
6.40
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.30
Feb.
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.20
5.20
5.20
5.20
5.20
5.20
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.90
4.90
4.90
4.90
4.90
4.80
4.80
4.80
Mar.
Apr. I May. ; June. ' July.
I
4.80
4.80
4.80
4.80
4.80
4.90
4.90
4.90
4.90
5.00
5.00
5.10
5.25
5.30 !
5.60 I
5.70
5.80
5.90
6.00
6.20
6.30
6.40
6.50
6.60
6.70
6.80
6.90
6.90
6.90
7.00
7.10
I
7.10
7.20
7.20
7.10
7.10
7.10
7.05
6.90
6.80
6.95
7.10
7.00
7.00
6.90
6.80
6.85
6.90
6.80
6.80
6.75
6.70
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.70
6.70
6.65
6.60
6.60
6.65
6.70
6.65
6.60
6.65
6.70
6.70
6.70
6.70
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.80
6.85
6.90
6.90
7.05
6.90
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
7.00
6.90
6.80
6.80
6.85
6.80
6.80
6.80
6,70
6.70
6.60
6.60
6.60
6.50
6.50
6.45
6.45
6.40
6.40
6.40
6.30
6.30
6.20
6.»
6.10
6.10
6.10
6.10
6.10
f..IU
6.10
6.10
6.10
6-10
6.20
6,30
6.2U
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.30
6.40
6.40
6.40
6,30
6.30
6.20
6.30
6.10
WOLF RIVER SYSTEM.
61
■ Discharge meaJturemenis of Wolf River near Northportf Wia.f in 1905.
Date.
Aprils..
May 27.
Hydrographer.
F. W.Hanna..
S. K. Clapp
June 17 1 M. 8. Brennan.
July 15 do
August lir. ' do
Bept«inber 22. .i F. W. Hanna. .
Width.
Feet.
182
171
151
176
176
172
Area of
section.
Smutre
feet.
2,642
2,198
2,553
2,300
2,053
1,978
Mean
velocity.
Feet per
second.
2.64
1.8
1.97
1.60
1.26
1.41
Gage
height.
Feet.
7.03
4.65
6.42
5.06
3.01
3w6
Dis-
chaige.
Second-
feet.
6,965
3,964
5,032
3,885
2,594-
2,781
Mean daily gage height ^ in feet^ of Wolf River near Northporty Wis., April 6 to DecenUmt
SO, 1905.
Day.
1
Apr.
May.
3.40
2...
3.60
3
3.80
4 '
4.00
fi
4.20
6.
6.90
6.80
6.70
6.60
6.60
6.40
6.30
6.10
6.00
5.80
&60
5.60
5.20
5.20
4.90
4.80
4.80
4.30
4.10
4.0)
3.80
3.60
3.60
3.50
3.40
4.40
7
4.60
8
4.80
9
4.80
10
5.00
11
5.00
12
5.20
13
5.60
14
6l80
15
5.60
16
5.50
17
5.30
18
5.30
19
5.20
20
5.00
21
4.80
22
4.60
23
4.60
24
4.80
25 ".
5.00
26
5.00
27
4.60
28
4.30
29
5.40
30
5.60
31
5.80
June.
6.00
5.00
5.00
4.90
4.60
5.60
5.40
5.30
5.80
5.80
5.80
5.90
6.10
6.40
6.40
6.60
6.50
6.40
6.40
6.20
6.00
5.80
5.60
5.30
5wlO
4.70
4.40
4.00
3.80
3.50
July.
Aug.
3.30
3.00
3.40
3.60
3.80
3.30
4.30
4.60
4.60
4.90
5.00 I
5.20 !
5.10 '
5.10 I
4.90
4.20 I
4.60
4.30
4.80
4.60
4.45
4.20
4.10
4.00
a30
3.60
2.80
2.50
2.30
2.20
2.00
Sept.
.2.00
2.30
2.20
2.10
2.30
2.20
2.40
2.90
3.30
4.00
3.50
3.60
3.60
3.00
3.00
3.50
3.50
3.30
3.20
3.00
2.80
2.40
2.60
2.30
2.00
1.80 !
1.60 i
1.40 I
Oct.
1.60
2.40
2.60
2.20
3.10
3.40
3.60
3.30
3.40
3.60
3.80
3.50
2.80
2.50
2.70 I
2.90
2.80
3.00 I
3.40 I
1.20
l.ip I
i.ob
2.90
2.80
a 70
3.60
3.40
3.25
3.10
2.90
2.75
2.35
1.55
1.40
1.35
1.30
1.15
1.10
.90
.85
.70
.65
.60
.50
.35
.10
.25
.40
.75
.90
1.15
1.60
2.20
2.60
2.90
3.20
3.40
3.30
3.20
3.00
2.10
2.30
2.00
Nov.
1.30
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.70
1.95
2.10
2.30
2.50
2.70
2.60
2.40
2.30
2.20
2.10
1.80
1.50
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
.90
.80
.60
.40
.20
.60
.80
1.90
Dec.
1.70
1.60
1.40
1.50
1.60
1.76
1.80
1.90
2.10
2.00
1.90
1.96
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.20
1.10
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
.90
.90
.75
.60
.50
.50
.40
.40
62
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
TRIBUTARIES OF WOLF RIVER.
The lower part of the Wolf River drainage area is more thickly settled than the upper,
and as a result the tributaries which occupy this lower portion are rather fully developed. Tlds
is especially true of Embarrass, Little Wolf, and Waupaca rivets.
WATER POW^ERS.
The following table shows the water powers on Wolf River and its tributaries:
Water powers on Wolf River and its tributaries.
Location and stream.
Owner and use.
Hcsad. H. P.
Manowa, sec. 15, T. 23 N., R. 13 E., Little Wolf
River.
Littlewolf, sec. 34. T. 23 N., R. 13 K., Little
WoM River.
Scandinavia, south branch Little Wolf River . .
Sec. 22, T. 23 N. . R. 1 1 £., south branch of Little
Wolf River.
Phlox, sec. 26, T. 30N., R. 12 E., Red River
Mount Morris, sec. 16, T. 19 N., R. 11 E., Rattle-
snake Creek.
Wittenberg, 8ec.lO,T. 27 N.,R.ll E., Embar-
rass River.
North branch of Embarrass River
Sec. 7, T. 26 N., R. 13 E., Embarrass River . . .
Embarrass, sec. 5,T. 25 N., R. 15 E., Embarrass
River
Sec. 23, T. 26 N., R. 13 E., middle branch of Em-
barrass River.
Sec. 15,T.27 N., R. 15 E, north branch of Em-
barrass River.
Sec. 23, T. 28 N., R. 12 E., north branch of Em-
barrass River.
Pllla, sec. 9, T. 26 N., R. 14 E., Embarrass
River.
See. 9, T. 27 N., R. 12 E., middle branch of Em-
barrass River.
Waupaca, sec.
River.
, T. 22 N., R. 12 E., Crystal
Waupaca, sec. 20, T. 22 N., R. 12 E., Waupaca
River.
City of Waupaca, Waupaca River
Do
Sherman, sec. 18, T.22 N.,R.ll E., Waupaca
River.
Weyauwoga, sec. 4, T. 21 N., R. 13 E., Waupaca
River.
Waupaca, Waupaca River
Amherst, Spring Creek
Rural, sec. 10, T. 21 N., R. 11 E., -\rbor Creek...
Gresham, sec. 3, T. 27 N., R. 14 E., Red River. . .
Sec. 6, T. 27 N., R. 15 E, Red River
Sec. 19, T. 27 N., R. 14 E., Red River
Sec. 18, T. 28N., R. 14 E., Red River
Sec. 16, T. 26 N., R. 10 E., Little Wolf River . .
Sec. 7, T. 2.5 N., R. 11 E., Little Wolf River .. .
Sec. 5, T. 24 N., R. 13 E., Little Wolf River . . .
Sec. 9, T. 33 N., R. 12 E., Wolf River
Sec. 34, T. 33 N., R. 13 E., Wolf River '
Sec. 10, T. 31 N., R. 14 E., Wolf River '<
Sec. 25, T. 31 N., R. 14 E., Wolf River '
Little Wolf River Lumber Co., grist, I
lumber, electric light.
Booth & Smith, grist, lumber, electric
light.
Henry Peterson, feed mill
J. I. W^alstatt, feed mUl
J. Kaufman, saw and planing mill . .
Wm. Kemp, grist mill
Viking Lumber Co., sawmill .
N. M. Edwards, sawmill
N, M. Edwards, undeveloped.
Decker & Beedle, Imnber and planing ,
mill.
Theo. Boettncr, flouring mill ,
Seiber & Dumke, sawmill
L. A. Weikel, saw, planing, and feed
mill.
Grosskopt, saw and planing mill
BuckstafT Lumber Co., power house I
burned. '
Waupaca woolen mills
A. G. Nelson, planing and grist mill. . .
Electric Light Co
Undeveloped
Brooks & Root, flouring mill.
Weed Gunnard, flour, planing, and
electric light.
C. Gurlnes, brick manufacture
N. Howard, feed mill
J. Ashmun, flouring and saw mill
A. G. Schmidt, sawmill
Undeveloped
....do
.do.
Little Wolf River Lumber Co.
....do :
....do
Used for logging. .
....do
.do...
.do...
/>rt.
10
390
9
eo
8
2s
0
.10
14
73S
12
44
12
75
13
50
ao
8
IL'i
9
300
13
192
16
116
13
»
10
.
8
35
64
65
18
300
15
8
10 I
9
11
96
MO
WATER' POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
63
WISCONSIN RIVER SYSTEM.
TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE.
Because of its length, its great drainage area, and its central location Wisconsin River is
preeminently the main river of the State.
Like the Flambeau, the headwaters of Wisconsin River are found in an intricate network
of lakes and swamps occupying the flat plateau region near the northern boundary. Its
extreme source is found in Lake Vieux Desert, a body of water about 10 square miles on the
line separating the northern peninsula of Michigan from Wisconsin, at about 1,650 feet
above sea level. The general course of the river for the first 300 miles is south. At a point
near Portage it turns abruptly westward, and in the next 100 miles flows nearly west, joining
Mississippi River at Prairie du Chien, only 40 miles from the southern boundary of the State.
The drainage basin includes 12,280 square miles, with an average width of 50 miles and a
length of about 225 miles. The apportionment of this drainage area among the several
tributaries of Wisconsin River is shown in the following table :
Distances and drainage areas of Wisconsin River.
River.a
Distance.
From
source.
Drainage
— area
Between above
stations, station.
MiUs.
Pelican, above mouth
Pelican, mouth
Tomahawk
Prairie
Rib, above mouth
Rib, mouth.
Eau Claire
Kau Pleine, above mouth .
Eau Plelne, mouth
Little Eau Plelne
Plover
Yellow, above mouth
Yellow, mouth
Lemonweir.
Baraboo
Wisconsin
60 I
113
158
166
184
I
248
259
292
407
M.
Sq. miUt.
60
940
0
1,202
25
2,111
28
2,697
23
3,192
0
3,690
2
4,114
20
4,268
0
4,646
8
5.005
18
5,300
64
6,448
0
7,394
11
8, 172
33
9,095
115
12,280
a Station is at mouth of river unless otherwise stated.
Because of its long traverse from the extreme northern to the extreme southwestern part
of Wisconsin the topography of the basin includes nearly every fonn found in the State.
Like the upper Chippewa Valley, the northern half is a densely wooded region of hard and
soft timber except whei* cleared for farming. The woods gradually give way to a semi-
prairie region with a gently undulating surface, but with occasional decided ridges both of
rock and glacial origin. A very striking surface feature toward the southern part is found
in the *' Baraboo quartzite" ranges, which have an elevation of from 400 to 700 feet above the
surrounding country. These ranges comprise two main ridges from 4 to 6 miles apart,
extending nearly cast and west in the section of country west of Portage for about 25 miles,
but uniting and ending abruptly on the west side of the valley, near Portage. The angle of
the river at this point seems due to its effort to secure a pjissage around this rock barrier.
Through a portion of the city of Portage and southward, the river can hardly be said to
have an eastern divide. Fox River approaches within 1 J miles of the Wisconsin at this point,
only a low marsh intervening. Even this marsh has a slope of about 3 feet toward Fox
River. At the present time levees at this and other points prevent the Wisconsin at times
of high water from overflowing into Fox River. These levees for a distance of several miles
compel the river to flow along the contour instead of in the direction of maximum slope.
64 WATER POWERS OP NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
The reasons for this and other peculiarities of its valley are interestingly discuased in Gec4o^
of Wisconsin, (vol. 3):
It is evident that such an uncertain divide as this can not have formed one of the original penoAwnft
features of the drainage of the region, but as the disposition of the surface soil is due to glacial mcticm,
modified by subsequent erosion and transportation, this may be fairly attributed to such a cause. Tt «■
rampart of limestone which compels the lower Wisconsin to flow west does not stop south of Port«^.
but continues east and north, although less prominent, forming an eastern barrier to the flow of rt <>
Wolf River. The course of the upper Fox to Lake Winnebago is sluggish, consisting largely of ma r*!i»5
and lake-like expansions. On account of the depression of the divide at Portage, the continuacion of tb^
southern barrier northeast, the small slope of the upper Fox, the large trough of the Wiaconsin below
Portage, which it is unable to occupy, while above the river is more nearly in proportion to its ehacn^'
of drainage, and finally the evidently modem outlet for the Wolf and the upper Fox through the k»wn
Fox— the conclusion is reasonable, if not inevitable, that at one time the Lake Winnebago vy^irzr
drained southwest into the Mississippi and the Wolf was the true continuation of the Wisconsin a^Miv
Portage, while the present upper Wisconsin was merely a tributary of the main stream.
I^KE ELEVATIONS AND RESERVOIR SITES.
Attention has elsewhere been called (p. 15) to the opportunity of increasing the low-
water flow of the northern rivers by the construction of dams near the headwaters for ii5«e a-
re^rvoirs. The opportunity for such a system on Wisconsin River is especdally goiid.
because the ownership of the lands to be flooded is in the hands of a comparatively t<pw
corporations and a beginning has already been made. For example, a well-built dam at th*^
foot of the Tomahawk chain of lakes, which impounds water covering many square miles of
reservoir, has been used for several years to regulate the stage of the river for the nvAis
below the mouth of the Tomahawk. In scores of cases the dams are already const ruct4^
for logging purposes and need only to be kept in repair to be of service for power regulation
when they are no longer needed for their original purpose, as will soon be the case.
It has been proposed to build or maintain dams at the following points: Lake VieuT
Desert, sec. 17, T. 42 N., R. 11 E.; Twin Lakes, sec. 19, T. 41 N., R. 11 E.; Eagle Lakf^.
sec.31,T.40N.,R. lOE.; SugarcampLake8,sec. 17,T. 39N.,R. 9E.; Buckataban Lidc»s,
sec. 24, T. 41 N., R. 9 E. ; Little St. Germain Lake, sec. 2, T. 39 N., R. 8 E. ; Big St. Germain
Lake, sec. 18, T. 39 N., R. 8 E.
At many if not most of the larger lakes near the headwaters, logging companies have long
maintained dams, which some day will serve the double purpose of reservoirs and sources of
power. A list of some of these lakes, together with their elevation above the sea, as deter-
mined by United States engineers, is given in the following table:
Lakes at headvxUers tributary to Wisconsiji River.
Name of lake.
Elevation
At headwaters of— al>ov«»
E agle E agle R Ivor 1 , 582. n
Catfish do 1 , 5S3. 0
Cranberry do 1 , 583. 5
Long do 1. 592. J
Planting Ground do 1 , .t92. 2
Fish do l.o82,J
Medicine I do 1 . 592. 2
Stone I do 1,«2.2
Dog do I 1.592,2
Big do I 1,592-2
Pelican Pelican River ' l,i590. 0
Tomahawk Tomahawk River 1.5<e.2
Island do ' l,5&).i
Keawasogan. do ' 1,56D^4
Mud do i 1 , .'i53. 4
Squirrel do 1,5C9
WOLF BIVEB 8Y8TEK.
65
Tho following table a gives dimensions and other data of eight reservoir sites surveyed by
United Statrs engineers as an aid to navigation on Mississippi River:
PrapoHcd United States Government reservoirs on Wisconsin River.
1
Location.
-'1
I
Feet.
1,520.83
1,562.00
1,578.07
1,554.67
1,521.78
Max]
Dai
mum
i
H
Feet.
28
12.5
22
12
17
14
dimensions.
Dike.
lit
Feet. Feet.
3,625 15
260 4
700 5.
Reservoir.
1
Name.
' ' , 1
. ' 1 ^
'1 S 1 §i
|~ I
1 6 ' 36N.! 9K_,
17 39N. 9E..
1 36 40N. 9E..
1 7 1 39N. 6E ..
1 38N . 5E..
1
! ^
i ' 1
Sq.mi\ Cutncfeet.
13.45 5,153,180,627
5.00 1,356,284,160
30.74 1 7,389,727,488
13.46 1 2,226,113,036
5.30 1,338,163,200
6.00 1 1,043,516,880
7.00 j 400,000,000
6.50 1 650,000,000
1
<
i
A
Feet.
800
235
1,300
190
315
1,100
Pelican
Sugarcamp...
Otter rapids. .
Tomahawk . . .
Sq. mi.
301.0
60.0
447.0
101.5
Squirrel
56.0
Rice
! 9
1 17
35 N.
49 N
6E ..
396.0
Vieiix Desert
11 E .
19.0
Twin Lakes . .
. 19 1 41 N .
1
HE.
30.0
1
87.45
19,556,985,291
1,410.5
Subsequent to this report two of these dams, at Rhinelander (Pelican) and Tomahawk,
have been constructed by private enterprise for power purposes; several others have be«n
constructed with reduced heads. It will be noted that the proposed Government reser-
voirs have a total area of 87.45 square miles and a drainage area of 1,410} square miles.
It was proposed to fill the reserv^oirs during the .spring freshets and then allow the water to
escape at times of low water. The United States engineers estimated that these reser\'oirs
would maintain a flow of 3,000 second-fe«t for three months of the year. Such a flow would
nearly double the present low-water flow of the river and its resulting wat«r power. Inci-
dentally the use of such reservoirs would to a large extent serve to reduce the dangers of
high iloods, both to dams and to overflowed lands. It would, in fact, tend to restore the
r(»gimen of the river to that which it possessed before deforesting and cultivation began
to transform a great primeval forest region into cleared and well-cultivated fields.
PROFILE.
According to the United States engineers, the elevation of Lake Vieux Desert is about
1,650 feet, while the elevation of the mouth of Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien is 604
feet at low water or 625 feet at high water. This gives a total descent of about 1,046 feet
in an estimated length of 429 miles, or about 2} feet per mile. About 634 feet of this fall
occur in the 150 miles between Rhinelander and Nekoosa, an average of 4.23 feet per mile.
This descent is concentrated at many places, producing a large number of valuable water
powers, many of which have been improved and used by important industries.
The fall in the main tributaries is even greater in many cases than that in tho parent
stream, and owing to this fact, and also to the absence of lakes and swamps, it is likely
that their discharge is subject to great extremes.
IBR 156—06 5
o Rept. Chief Eng. U. S. Army, 1880, p. 1655,
66
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
A statement in detail of the profile of Wisconsin River is given in the following table:
Profile of Wisconsin River Jrom its mouth to Lake Vieux Deserl.a
No.
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
SUtion.
Mouth of river
Sauk City
Merrimac
Portage
Kllboum, railroad bridge
Sec. 36, T. 15N., R. 5 E., north line
Peterwell bridge, opposite Necedah
Nekoosa dam:
Below
Above
Port Edwards dam:
Below
Above
South Centralia dam:
Below
Above
Grand Rapids dam:
Below
Above
Biron dam:
Below '.
Above
Lower paper mill south of Stevens Point:
Below
Above
Upper paper mill south of Stevens Point:
Below
Above
Stevens Point, Wisconsin Central bridge
Sec. 23, T. 24N., R. 7E
Knowlton bridge, Chicago, Milwaukee and St.
Paul Rwy
Sec. 8, T. 26N., R.7 E
Sec. 31, T. 27 N., R.7 E., south line
Mosinee rapids, foot, sec. 29, T. 27 N., R. 7 E.,
south line
Mosinee dam, alwve
Black Creek, mouth of
Cedar Creek, mouth of
Eau Claire River, mouth of
Rib River, mouth of
Lower Wausau bridge
Wausau dam:
Below
Above
Brokawdam:
Foot
Crest
Distance.
From
mouth,
1 Between
points.
MiUg. ! Miles.
90.0
102.0
118.0
138.0
147.0
174.0
208.0
212.5
214.0
216.5
220.5
233.0
233.5
236.0
240.0
257.0
260.5
264.5
206. 0
266.5
270.5
274.0
279.0
280.5
283.0
283.5
9.0
90.0
12.0
16.0
20.0
9.0
27.0
34.0
2.5
4.0
12.5
2.5
4.0
17.0
3.5
4.0
2.0
.5
4.0
3,5
5.0
1.5
2.5
5.5
Eleva-
tion
above
jea level.
Descent be-
tween points.
Total,
t Per
Feet.
604.0
746,0
764.0
790.0
814.0
833.0
875.3
918.9
936.6
938.5
955.5
957.3
969.3
979.8
1,002.0
1,005.5
1,016.3
1,032.4
1,044.0
1,045.5
1,058.8
1,063.8
1,075.8
1,092.2 !
1,097.4 j
1,104.0 '
1,105.8
1.124.6
1.125.9
1,130.6
1,138.6
1.142.8
1.151.0
1.171.0
1.177.7
1,182.7 ,
1.194.7 i
Feet. Frrt.
142.0
18.0
26.0
24.0
19.0
42. C
43.6
17.7
1.9
17.0
l.S
I
1.5
13.3
4.0
13.0
16.4
5.2
6.6
1.8
18,8
1.3
4.7
8.0
4.2
8.2
20.0
6.7
5.0
12.0
I.',
l.'t
1.K3
1.2
10.5
4.2
22.2
3.5
.9
10.8
16.1
1.3
11.6
3 -2
1.5
l.<i5
.9
37,6
.3
l.M
1.6
2.*
3.3
o Authority: Nos. 1 (low-water elevation) and 53-57, United States engineers: 2and3. Major Warren:
4-35, Wisconsin water-power survey by the U. S. G. S. and State authorities: 36-52, levels run by C B.
Pride in 19(X) for the Wisconsin River Valley Advancement Association; 56, Chicago and North-
western Ry.
WOLF BlVER 8Y8TBM.
67
Profile cf Wisconsin River from its mouth to Lake Vieux Desert — Continued.
No.
38
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
51?
57
Station.
Pine Rirer, mouth
MerriU:
Lindore dam, foot
LIndore dam, crest
Upper dam, crest
BUI Cross rapids, foot
Orandfather rapids, foot. .
1.5 miles above, head . .
Grandmother rapids, foot.
GUbert Station
Tomahawk dam:
Foot '.
Crest
Nigger Island
Whirlpool rapids, head
Hat rapids, foot
Rliinelander dam:
Foot
Crest
Otter rapids, head
Sec. 30, T. 41 N., R. lOE...
Sec. 6, T. 41 N., R. 10 E....
Lake Vieux Desert
Distance.
From
mouth.
Miles.
298.0
304.0
305.0
314.0
318.0
319.5
%2l.2
326.7
328.7
344.7
346.7
3il.7
357.7
392.7
402.7
416.7
429.0
Between
points.
Miles.
9.0
6.0
Elevar
tlon
above
sea level.
1.0
9.0
4.0
1.5
1.7
5.5
2.0
16.0
2.0
5.0
6.0
35.0
10.0
14.0
12.3
Feet.
1,212.7
1,214.7
1,227.7
1,233.7
1,245.7
1,272.2
1,381.7
1,370.7
1,409.7
1,412.7
1,425.7
1,448.4
1,464.8
1,477.4
1,523.2
1,553.2
1,570.7
1,592.7
1,644.0
1,650.0
Descent be-
tween points.
Total.
Feet.
18.0
2.0
13.0
6.0
12.0
26.5
89.5
9.0
39.0
3.0
13.0
23.7
15.4
12.6
45.8
30.0
17.5
22.0
51.3
4: 6.0
Per
mile.
Feet.
2.0
6.0
1.3
6.6
6.0
5.3
7.1
1.5
1.48
7.7
2:5
7.6
.5
2.2
3.66
.5
GEOLOGY.
All that part of the Wisconsin River basin above Nckoosa, including over half the entire
drainage, is underlain by pre-Cambrian rocks. North of Merrill this region has been
covered so deeply by drift that the rock rarely outcrops except in the river bed. These
rocks, by presenting a barrier to further erosion, cause numerous rapids; in fact, all the
water powers, with but a single exception,o are found in the pre-Cambrian area. Below
Nekoosa the pre-Cambrian rocks give way to the softer Cambrian sandstone, the disintegra-
tion of which has made the bed of the river one succession of shifting sandbars, almost with-
out interruption, to its mouth. North of Nckoosa this sandy belt rapidly narrows and,
at Merrill, 90 miles above, almost entirely disappears, being replaced by the clayey loams
and loamy clays. North of Tomahawk the clays are replaced again by sandy soils contain-
ing gravel and by bowlders and glacial drift.** In the 60 miles below the city of Tomahawk
the tributaries of Wisconsin River flow mainly through a clayey-loam soil, excepts for a
narrow strip adjacent to the main stream, where, as before stated, the sandy soil pre-
dominates.
RAINFALT^ AND IIU^-OFF.
The United States Geological Survey has maintained regular gaging stations at Necedah
and Merrill since November, 1902. As the rainfall during 1904 was very close to the average
rainfall for the pa.st thirty years, the run-off data for this year are especially valuable.
oKIlboiim, in the Cambrian sflnd.stone.
bWeidman, Samuel, Wis. Oeol. Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. 11, pi. 1.
68
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Rainfall records for this drainage area are given elsewhere in this report. The folkwrii^
tables give the run-off data:
Discharqe measurements of Wisconsin River near Necedah, Wis.j in 1902, 1903^ 190^, and if-^l?.
Date.
1902.
Decern l)er 2..
Decern l)er 23.
do.
do.
do.
1903.
January 13<».
Februarys'*
March 5 a —
March 26
April 2
April 28 J do
June 12 do
Hydrographer.
L. R. Stockman .
....do
Width.
I Gacie
y. hei^t.
chare*'.
Feet.
Area of [ Mean
section. ' velocity.
Square ; Fe^per Srrwid-
feet. second. Feet. /e^d.
4.90 3>T;;
280
284 j
284 '
Johnson and Stockman.
1j. R. Stockman
I
I
July7
August 19....
Septeml>er 4.
October 12...
1904.
January 12 «
May 11
.do.
.do.
.do.
.do.
E.Johnson, jr.
....do
May 23 Johnson and Hanna.
July 16 ' K.Johnson, Jr
September 21 do
Octolier 14 | F. W. Hanna
1905. I
Aprll4 S. K.Clapp
May 25 ; do
June 12. , M. L. Brennon
August 9 do
220
309
281
316
302
276
314
288
317
314
294
294
449
317
437
314
2,617
2,360
2,411
5,405
4,206
3,860
3,282
4,708
2,832
2,463
3,871
2,031
4,685
3,717
3,525
1,823
6,216
5,777
4,437
6,017
3,846
I
1.18
1.26
1.09
3.94
2.42 '
1.84
1.79
4.43
2.46
2.05 '
3.23
1.33
3.65
2.67
1.66
2.08
5.71
5.07
3.23
4.99
2.4
5.40
5.65
5.80
5.80
11.05
7.65
6.50
6.00
10.50
6.20
5.30
9.43
4.60
9.60
7.(B
5.80
4.92
13.35
12.33
7.65
12.9
6.S5
X5»
2.C2
21, 2«
10. 19«t
7.123
5 ^Jv^
5.047
12.5a«
3. lift-.
17. IIH
9 iCl
5..S4S
1^34. C30
29,29f
13.5.VI
39.(tV»
9 >*
Note.— Width is the actual width of water surface, not including piers. Area of section is ibe
total area of the measured section, including both moving and still water.
a Frozen. b Add to this discharge 3,000 second-feet overflow.
Mean daily gage height j in feet, of Wisconsin River near Neeedahf Wt«., December 2, 190i. to
December 31, 1905.
Day
1902.
Dec.
1
1
2
' 4.90
3
4.95
4
1 5.10
5
4. 85
6
1 4,75
4.70
8
I4.3O
9
4. -Vi
10
1 5 2.",
11 . ...
5.20
12
5.40
13
1 5.25
14
' 5.30
1903.
I Jan. 1
5.90
5.90
5.80
5. 75
5.60
5.70
5. a')
5. 45
5. fiO
5. no
5.45
5.50
5.65
5.75
Feb.
5.75
5.70
5.90
5.80
5.75
5.90
5.80
5. 70
5.60
5.80
5. 75
5.65
5.90 i
5.80 I
Mar. ! Apr. May. 1 June.
5.75
5.60
5.85
5.80
5.75
7.70
7.55
7.35
7.50
7.40
I r
5.80 I 7.25
5. 90 I 7. 15
5..')0 7.20
5.50 I 7.10
6.2,') ' 7.25
a 40 I 7.05
05 I &90
7.65 I a 80
6. 75 ' a 75
6.65
8.30
9.35
9.75
9.95
10. 15
10. a5
9.70
9.30
8.80
8.25
8.15
&45
9.05
July. I Aug.
10.55
9.85 I
8.85
8.15 I
7.60 I
7.40
7.15 I
6.85
6.55 I
&20 I
aoo I
615 I
5.85 I
4.70
4.00
7.70
8.90
10.10
10.00
U0.6O
10.60
9.70
&40
7.80
I
4.80
4.95
4.75
4.80
4.85
5.65
6.65
7.75
8.00
7.70
7.50
Sept. Oct. Nov. D«.
7.50 I 7.20
7. 10 6 90
a 70 I a 70
'I'
5.20
5.50
540
530
530
540
560
a 10
a 10
aso
7.30
7.30
7.20
8.60
7.10
aeo
aso
aso
7.05
&30
9.05
&95
9.15
9.80
9.80
9.35
&90
&30
5.70
5.55
5w70
5.75
&55
5.45
530
550
5l35
5u30
5.25
5.30
530
5.30
5. 'fl
f. JO
ft. 90
7.10
K.Kf
dm
&50
a 40
aar
aor
• 4.11;
4.40
a River frozen December 13 to 31.
WOLF BIVEB SYSTEM.
69
Mean daily gage height, in feet, of Wisconsin River near Necedah, Wis., December 2, 1902,
to December 31, i905— Continued.
Day.
15.
16.,
17.
18..
Id.
20-
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Dec.
I 5.35
j 5.G6
5.65
' 5.30 ' 5.55
Jan. Feb,
Mar.
&45
5. SO
5.65
Day.
5.50
5.45
5.30
5.30
5.40
5.60
6.40
6.30
&60
6.15
&05
5.45
5.75
5.65
5.55
5.85
5.80
5.80
5.65
5.85
5.80
5.70
6.20 5.80
6.00 5.80
5.75
5.65
5.65
5.55
5.75
5.70 '
5.70 '
5.65 I
5.55 '
5.70
5.65 i
5.65
5.70 '
5.85 I
I
7.30
7.75
8.35
Apr.
&80
6.g5
7.10
& 70 7. 25
& 85 ' 7. 10
10.00 &90
11.40 I & 50
12.70 ' a 55
May. Juno. I July. Aug. Sept.
ia55 I
12. &5 I
11.80 I
10.90
10.05
9.35 I
8.95 I
&30
6.20
&05
&10
6.35
&50
&85
8.50 I 6.60
8.00 ,
9.80
10.10
9.90
9.35
&70
8.30
7.95
7.90
7.75
7.45
7.35
7.60
&00
8L70
9.55
10.55
11.00
I 5.70
I 5.45
I 5.35
' 5.60
I 5.45
I 5.25
I 5.15
' 4.90
' 5.20
I 4.95
I 4.70
I 4.80
4.75
' 4.80
I 4.70
I 4.85
6.55 I
6.25
&00
6.10 I
5.90 I
6.00 i
5.90 j
5.60
5.40 I
5.20 I
5.30 I
5.30 I
5.00
5.10
5.00
4.90
4.80
6.70
6.40
&20
&40
6.10
5.70
5.90
5.40
5.10
5.10
5.40
5.20
5.30
5.30
5.20
5.00
5.00
10.90
12.50
13.40
14.60
14.60
14.60
13.80
12.70
11.40
10.60
9.90
a 70
8.15
7.95
7.65
7.65
Oct. Nov. i Dec.
i..«l
7.90 5.35
7.65 I 5.25
7.55 I 5.35
7.25 I 4.90
6.95
7.00
6.05
6l55
6.40
6.40
&30
&10
6.05
5.95
&00
4.90
5.00
5.10
5.05
4.96
6.20
5.20
5.05
5.00
5.15
5.00
5. 80 I 5. 40
5.70
4.50
4.40
4.00
4.40
4.30
5.00
4.80
4.90
4.90
4.80
4.70
4.70
4.90
4.80
4.90
4.90
4.90
Jan. I
Feb. I Mar. Apr. May,
V.M. ' ;
1 '«aoo I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28 ,
29
30 ,
31
I
5.70 '
5.90 '
5.60 I
aoo ;
&00
5.90
a 10 '
6.10 I
aoo I
5.90 I
5.10
5.10
5.20 I
5.20 I
5.30 I
5.20 !
5.10 '
5.30
5.00
5.20
5.20
5.20
5.10
5.00
5.10
5.00
5.10
5.20
5.20
5wl0
5.10
5.20 I
5.10 I
5.00 I
5.20
5.20
5.20
5.00
5.20
4.90
5.10
5.20
5.10
5.20
5.10
5.20
5.20
6.10
5.10
5.00
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.20
6.30
5.40
5.20
5.10
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.40
5.40
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.30
5.20
5.30
5.20
5.20
5.20
5.10
6.00
4.90
6.00
6.00
4.80
6.00
6.00
6.20
5.20
5.20
5.60
5.80
0 6.60
6l30
6.50
&90
6.60
a80
7.00
7.20
7.50
7.90
8.80
9.80
9.80 '
9.40 I
8.70 I
8.30 I
7.70 I
7.30
7.50 '
7.50 '
7.70 I
7.70 I
7.50 '
7.60 I
8.00 ;
9.30 j
10.30
10.90
10.70
10.50
9. SO
9.20
&90
8.40
&00
7.80
7.40
June. I July.
7.40
7.90
10.50 '
10.50 I
9.90 ;
9.40
9.20 !
9.00 I
&.50 I
8.00 I
7.70 ,
7.40 '
7.20 '
7.10 I
7.00 I
7.50 I
8.10 I
9.40 '
10.60 I
11.90 !
12.60 I
12.30 I
11.20
10.00
9.10
8.60
&40
9.0d
9.90
10.50
10.50
9.80
9.00
8.30
7.80
7.50
7.20 I
6.80 I
Aug. I Sept.
I
6.30
a6o I
a 60 I
aso
a2o I
a3o I
aoo j
5.90
a 10
a30 I
a40 I
a80 I
7. 10
7.00
a6o I
5.90 I
ago I 5.80 I
a 70
a 50
a2o
5.90
5.80
a2o
6.70
aoo
6.70
a 10
5.80
a 10
aoo
5.50
6.80
5.50
6.60
5.30
6.00
4.80
4.50
4.80
4.90
4.80
4.70
4.80
4.70
4.50 I
4.70
4.90
4.80 I
4.70 1
4.70 '
4.30 !
4.40 '
4.80 j
"4.90
5.30 ]
5.30 I
5.40 I
5.30 I
6.30
5.70 I
5.00 I
5.10 I
5.00
5.00 I
5.00 I
4.70 I
5. 10 j
4.80
4.90
4.90
6.00
6.90
4.60
5.00
4.70
I
Oct. Nov. , Dec.
4.80
4.80
4.80
4.80
4.30
5.80
a30
6.90
5.70
5.70
5.30
5.70
6.30
6.50
5.60
4.90
5.20
5.30
5.90
5.70
4.80
4.90 I
4.80
4.70
4.85 I
4.80 I
a 70 J
7.40 j
7.40 !
7.00 I
a60
a45
a2o
a 10
7.00
aoo
5.90
a3o
a 42
a 70
8.40
10.10
12.00
13.20
13.00
11.90
10.30
9.40
9.00
8.40
7.90
8.00
8.50
8.50
8.30
8.30
7.90
7.60
7.50
7.40
7.00
|. 7.10 I
4.80
4.80
4.80
7.10 I
a90 I
aeo I
a 70 '
a50 '...:..
xa40 I
aio j
aio
aeo j
a 10 I 6. 10
5.90 \
5.20 i
5.60 I
5.60
6.60
6.80 '
6.50 j 5.50
5.30 f
4.S
5.00
5.00
5.30
6.40
6.30
4.90
5..%
5.10
4.£
5.00
6.00
aoo
aoo
« River frozen January 1 to March 31. Ice, average thicknrss, 10 inches.
ft Ice conditions April 1 to 12.
c River frozen December 4 to 31. Ice 1 foot to 2 feet thick.
70
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily gage height , in feet , of Wiaconsin River near Neeedah, Wis., Decefnher ^, 190£, to
December 31 , 1905 — Continued.
Day.
Jan. Feb. I Mar.
(«)
(«)
(«)
6.00 5.70
Apr.
6.00 I
I
6.00
6.00
laao
13.30
12.80
12.40
11.90
11.60
11.80
11.90
9 ] I 11.40
10 1 1 ' i 10.60
11 ' ' I 6.15 I 9.90
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
6.10
9.30
9.00
8.60
8.40
8.00
7.80
7.50
7.10
May. June.
6.00
6.00
5.00
5.00
5.00 j
5.30 '
5.60 I
6.80 !
7.10 I
8.30
9.30 I
10. 70 ,
S.95
&10
6.10
6.00
6.00
6.50
6.60
6.70
&90
7.00
7.00
7.50
8.30
8.50
8.30
8.60
9.30
9.80
9.80
6. 70 ' 9. 70
6.60'i 9.30
6.60
6.50
6.40
6.30
6.00
6.15
6.00
5.95
5.90
6.50
6.40
6.40
6.30
7.70
8.30
11.00
12.50
15.00
17.00
16.00
13.00
11.90
11.50
11.20
10.40
9.70
9.50
9.60
11.20
12.40
July.
7.30
7.30
7.50
7.50
7.50
8.10
&60
9.10
8.70
8.30
7.00
7.40
7.00
6.60
6.70
6.50
6.30
6.50
6.30
6.30
6.30
8.80
12.30
6.10
8.30
11.00
5.90
8.00
9.80
5.70
7.70
8.80
5.75
7.20
8.30
6.00
7.10
8.00
5.50
7.00
7.80
5.10
6.70
7.40
5.30
6.80
7.00
5.10
6.60
5.30
Aug. Sept. Oct. Not. D-^
I
5.50
5.30
5.20
5.20
5.60
5.30
5.40
6.60
6.90
7.10
a 70
6.50
6.70
6.40
6.20
5.90
6.00
5.90
5.80
5.60
5.50
5.70
5.70
5.50
5.70
5.90
5.30
5.00
5.80
5.70
5,70
5.90
6.00
6.20
6.00
&10
&10 I
6.55
&20
5.70 !
5.60 I
5lS0 I
5.30 '
&40
5.50
5.50
5.30
5.40
5.50
6.90
7.40
8.20
8.40
8.40
7.80
7.20
&80
.6.50
6.00
5.90
&00
6.00
5l70
5.60
5.50
5.40
&40
5l40
5.40
5.20
a30
5lOO
4.90
4.70
4.70
5.10
5.10
5.30
5.30
5.60
5.60
5.80
6.30
6.70
7.00
6.80
6.70
6. CO
6.40
6.20
6.30
6.00
5.80
5.50
5.30
5i40
5.50
5.40
5.40
5l40
5l50
5.S0
5l60
5l50
5.50
5.50
5.30
5.30
5.10
5.20
5.20
5.30
5.20
4.90
4.90
4.90
4.80
5l10
5.10
5.50
&ao
5.40
A.6U
6.*
tL«C
6 JL
.V n?
7.70
1.70
;.•«
7. ft'
T.-l
7. /»:•
7. a
7..D
7.3)
T.m
7. iO
6.*
tl t
6. ji
7.1m
6 V
r. «J
6 3D
f-.. 10
a Rivor frozen over January 1 to March 20.
Thicknoss of Ice, 2 to 2.5 feet,
fr No ice r3cord for December.
Gage heights are to water surface in a hole in the kv.
WOLF RIVER 8Y8TEM.
71
Rating taUefor Wiaeonsin River near Necedahf Wis., from March 10 to Jvly 5, 1903. a
,X. I Discharge.'!
G
heigiit.
Feet.
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
. 5.0
5.2
5l3
5u4
5.5
5.6
5w7
5.8
^Second-feei.
' 3.400 '
I 3,540 I
3.690 '
3.840
I 4,000 I
' 4,160
4,320 I
I 4,490 I
I 4,670 '
4.860 j
5,060 I
5.260
6.470 I
Gage
height.
Feet.
&9
&0
&1
6.2
6.3
6.4
&5
6.6
8.7
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.1
Discharge.
Second-feet.
5.680
5.900
6.130
6,370
6,620
6,880
7.150
7,430
7,710
8,000
8,290
8.580
8,870
Gage
height.
Feet.
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.2
8.4
8.6
Discharge. '
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Second-feet.
Feet.
Second-feet.
9.160 '
8.8
14,160
9.460
9.0
14.800
9,760
9.2
15,440
10,060
9.4
16.080
10.360
9.6
16,720
10,670
9.8
17.360
10,980
10.0
18.000
11,290
10.5
19.600
11.600 1
11.0
21.200
12.240
11.5
22,920
12,880
12.0
24,670
13,520
13.0
28,360
a Flood in July changed channel.
Rating table for Wisconsin River near Necedah, Wis., from Jvly 6 to December 12, 1903.
I
.SX. I>i«harge.
heigl
Feet.
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6.0
^Second-feet.
I 4.200 '
I 4.350
I 4,510 I
4,680
' 4,860 I
I 5.040
I 5.230
5.430 I
I 5,630 '
5,840
6.050 I
I 6,270 I
i 6,500
Gage
height.
Feet.
6.1
6.2
&3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
Discharge. ^^X. Discharge.
J.
^Second-feet. I
, 6.730
6,970 I
7.220
7.480
7.750
8,030
8,320
8,620
8.920
9,220
9,520
9,820
10,130
Feet.
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.2
8.4
8.6
8.8
9.0
^Second-feet.
I 10,440
I 10.760
I 11.080
I 11.410
11,740
12,070
I 12,400
I 13,060
13,760
14.440
15.120
15.800
heiS^t.
Discharge.
Feet
Second-feet.
9.2
16,480
9.4
17,160
9.6
17,840
9.8
18.620
10.0
19,200
10.5
20.900
11.0
22,600
11 5
24.300
12.0
26,000
12.5
27.700
13.0
29.400
14.0
32.800
Rating taUefor Wisconsin River near Necedah, Wis., from January 1 to December 31, 190^,
Gage
height.
1
Discharge, i
Second-feet.
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Second-feet i
height.
Discharge.
Feet.
Feet.
Feet.
Second-feet.
4.0
1.800
5.4
4.880 1
6.7
8.500
4.1
2.000
5.5
5.130 ,
6.8
8,800
4.2
2,200
5.6
5.380 ;
6.9
9.100
4.3
2,400
5.7
5.640
7.0
9,400
4.4
2,600
5.8
6,900
7.2
10,000
4.6
2,810
5.9
6,170
7.4
10,600
4.6
3,020
6.0
6,440
7.6
11.200
4.7
3.240
6.1
6.720
7.8
11,800
4.8
3,460
6.2
7,010
8.0
12,400
4.9
3,690
6.3
7,300 1
8.2
13,000
&0
3,930
6.4
7.600 ,
8.4
13.600
&1
4,150 1
6.5
7,900
8,200 '
1
1
8.6
14,200
6.2
4,390
6.6
8.8
14.800
5u3
4,630
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Feet.
Second-feet.
9.0
15.400
9.2
16.000
9.4
16,600
9.6
17,200 ■
9.8
17.800
10.0
18,400
10.5
19,900
11.0
21.400
11.5
23,610
12.0
25.860
12.5
28,230
13.0
30,750
13.5
38.450
72
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Rating table for Wisconsin River near Necedah, Wis., from January 1 to December Jl, 19i^'*.
Gaflc
height.
Discharge.
Gage
height.
Feet.
Discharge.
Gage
height.
Feet.
Discharge.
Second-feet.
Gage
height.
Feet.
Di9ehai]ge.
Feet.
Second-feet.
Second-feet. '
Second-fe4t.
4.00
1,800
5.50
5,130
7.00
9,400
9.80
17,800
4.10
2,000
5.60
5,380
7.20
10,000
10.00
18,400
4.20
2,200
5.70
5,640 ;
7.40
10,600
10,50
19,900
4.30
2,400
5.80
5,900
7.60
11,200
11.00
21, «»
4.40
2,600
5.90
6,170
7.80
11,800
11.50
23.610
4.50
2,810
6.00
6,440
8.00
12,400
12.00
25.J«0
4.60
3,020
6.10
6,720
8.20
13,000
12.50
28.230
4.70
3,240
6.20
7,010 i
8.40
13,600
13.00
30.730
4.80
3,460
6.30
7,300
8.60
14,200
13.50
38,430
4.90
3,690
6.40
7,600
8.80
14,800
14.00
4G.200
5.00
3,920
6.50
7,900
9.00
15,400
15.00
61,800
5.10
4,150
6.60
8,200
9.20
16,000 ,
16.00
77,500
5.20
4,390
6.70
8,500
9.40
16,600 '
17.00
93,300 1
5.30
4,630
6.80
8.800 ,i
9.60
17,200
18.00
109,200
5.40
4,880
6.90
9,100 '
!
The last table is applicable only for open-channel conditions. It is based on 23 diacharge me&san^
ments made during 1902-1905. It is well defined between gage heights 4.5 feet and 10.5 feet. Th<» tiil>
has been extended beyond these limits. From gage height 6.3 feet to 11 feet the rating curve Is a Uini^Dt .
the difference being 300 per tenth. Above 11 feet the bank overflows, which causes the diflcfaargc t*
increase at a greater rate per foot.
Estimated monthly discharge of Wisconsin River near Necedah, TFi*., 190S to J90.5.
[Drainage are^i, 5,800 square miles.]
Date.
1903.
Maxi-
mum.
Discharge.
1 "
Mini-
mum.
Sec-feet. Sec-feet.
January
February i I
March e 30,450
April 10,670 |
May ' 21,200
June 1 19,760 '
July 21,240 I
August ' 12,400 I
September | 34,840 i
18,520 I
5,945
9,520 i
Mean.
Run-off.
Per
I square
mile.
October
November
Decemljer 1-12 d.
1904.
January..
February.
March . .
April....
May....
June
July....
August.
I
6,015
7,570
3,540
3,400
4,125
4,860
5,840
4,350
*5,630
Sec-feet.
I> 2,600
b2,550
11,859
8,322
14,492
6,897
9,022
6,648
15,832
10,586
5,007
r7,798
Sec-feet.
0.45
.44
2.04
1.43
2.50
1.19
1.56
1.15
2,73
1.83
.86
'1.34
Depth.
Inches.
0.52
.46
2.35
1.60
2.88
1.33
1.80
1.33
3.05
2.11
.96
'.60
KainfA.l ^
Invkes.
av.
2- ,i=>
4m»
»■ II
Iff'
I
21,100
7,300
12,830
2.21
2.47
2-H
28,720
9,400
15,250
2.63
3.03
P .\'
22,280
5,640
11,350
1.96
2.19
4.S:
9,700
2,810
5,926
1.02
1.18 .
.X.S
6,170
2,400
3,845
.663
.7641
X2\
a Rainfall for 1903 is the average of the recorded precipitation at the following stations: Antic^.
Koepenick, Stevens Point. Wausau, Amherst, Grand Rapids, and Medford. That Tor 1904 includes ibo
same stations, except Medford and adding Miuocqua and Prentice.
b Estimated.
* March 1 to 9, inclusive, estimated.
d River frozen Decemljer 13 to 31.
« Twelve-day period.
WOLF BIVER SYSTEM.
73
Estimated monthly discharge of Wiseormn River near Necedah, Wis.^ for 1903 to 1906 —
ContiDued.
Date.
1904.
September.
October
November.
I>ecember..
Maxi-
mum-
Discharge.
r
Mini- ;
mum. I
Run-ofr.
Sec-feet.
10,600
33,830
9,700
I
Mean.
Per
Miuare
mile.
Sec-feet. Sec-feet.
2,400 5,227
6,170 13,500
3,460 , 5,608
I
.1.
Sec-feet.
.001
2.34 I
.082 '
Depth.
Inchea.
1.01
2.70
1.10
1905.a
March 21-30 ' I 20,500
April 1 35,370
May ' 17,800
June I ■ 03,300
July ' 15,700
August , 9,700
Si'ptoraber ! ' 13, 600
October ' 9,400
November | 6,900
December ' ' 14,800
The year
I
3,920
6,170
6,305
7,300
4,150
3,920
4,630
3,240
3,460
4,150
9,037
15,700
11,060
23,320
8,711
6,099
7,419
5,748
4,667
8,888
1.56
2.72
1.91
4.02
1.50
1.05
1.28
.991
.805
1.53
I
Rainfall.
I Inche*.
4.53
I 5.70
I -25
1.86
0.58
3.04
2.20
■ 4.48
1.73
1.21
1.43
1.14
.886
1.76
34.87
a No estimate for ice period.
Discharge measurements of Wisconsin River at Merrill ^ Wis.^ in 1902 ^ 1903 ^ 190 J^^ and 1906.
Date.
Hydrographer.
1902. I
November 17 ' L. R. Stockman.
December 10 do
Width.l
I
Area of Mean Gage
section, velocity, height.
Feet.
Square
feet.
Feet per
t>econd.
lOai. I
January 20 o do
February 16<» ' do
March 20 ! do
May7* do
June 17 «► ' do
July 13 ' do
August 22 6 1 do
September 11 | E. C. Murphy.. .
October 24 ' L. R. Stoclcman .
1904.
May 126 E. Johnson, jr...
Junes do
July 15 6 do
September 21 do
Octotjer 14
November 30 o.
19a5.
April 10
May26
June 10
July 10
F.W. Hanna....
E. Johnson, jr...
S. K. Clapp
do
M. S. Brennan...
do
a Partly frozen.
310
310
344
332
308
305
283
343
334 I
334 I
334 I
334
312 j
327
306 i
718 I
660 '
2,639 I
2,232 I
1,269 I
1,424 !
1,115 I
1,759 I
1,594 I
2,220 I
2,286 '
1,366 I
1,210 I
2,333 '
1,237 I
334
2,189
324
1,679
334
2,334
332
.,««
1.91
1.86
3.78
3.54
1.78
2.10
2.36
3.19
2.61
3.71
4.19
1.98
1.91
4.42 I
1.85 ,
3.84 '
2.69 I
4.06
2.73 '
Feet.
7.6
3.8
4.05
3.70
8.90
6.&5
4.72
5.70
5.00
6.66
6.06
7.85
8.25
5.30
5.01
8.25
4.97
Dis-
charge.
Second
feet.
9,015
1,394
1,376
1,250
9,905
7,893
2,258
2,993
2,638
-5,614
4,159
8,242
9,587
3,107
2,312
10,323
2,294
7.8
' 8,396
6.25 I 4,519
8.17 I 9,478
6.48 , 4,357
I
b Affected by log Jam.
74
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily gage height, in feet, of Wiseangin River at MernU, Wis., November 16, 1902, h
December 31, 1906,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
16.
16.
17v
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.,
29.
30.
31..
Day.
Day.
1902.
Nov. Dec.
3.60 '
3.80 '
2.50
2.05 I
1.90
1.90
1.55 j
1.05 '
.90 I
1.05
:Si
.Oi I
.10,
4.00
3.95
4.00
4.00
3.85
3.65
3.85
3.85
3.90
3.85
4.05
3.80
3.80
3.75
3.&5
4.a5
3.95
3.90
3.80
3.70
3.70
3.70
Jan. j Feb. Mar. Apr.
3.65
3.80
3.70
3.80
3.85
3.85
3.80
3.80
3.75
3.85
3.70
3.85
3.75
3.90
3.70
3.80
3.65
, 3.90
3.65
1 3.85
3.70
' 3.55
3.70
3.85
3.80
3.75
3.75
3.70
3.65
3.75
3.50
3.80
3.70
3.90
3.70
3.76
4.20
3.55
4.00
3.70
3.a5
3.65
4.00
3.85
4.00
3.45
4.00
3.65
4.10
3.70
4.05
3.70
4.00
3.(iO
3.85
3.65
3.95
1
3.90
3.85
3.70
3.70
, 3.80
I 3.75
3.80
I 3.70
I 3.80
3.75
I 3. 75
I 3.90
4.a'>
i 4.20
j 4.75
I 5.00
I 5.05
I 5.0)
5.50
I 5.55
I 7.90
8.35
I 8.30
8.00
I 8.25
7.50
I 7.35
7.00
6.65
6.05
6.80
6.45
6.70
6.75
6.70
6.55
6.65
6.75
6.70
6.80
6.90
6.75
6.70
6.75
6.55
6. OS
6.70
6.75
6.80
6.85
6.75
7.10
7.20
7.10
6.80
6.75
6.80
7.05
6.10
6.35
6.50
6.85
6.f.0
May. June.l July. | Xug. \ Sept. ! Oct. I Nov. I**t.
6.65 I
8.30 '
5.15
5.20
5.55
5.60
6.00
6.45
6.40
5.85
5.35
5.a5
6.30
6.75
7.05
7.65
7.65
8.70
8.80
8.70
8.30
8.10
7.70
7.60
7.50
7.30
6.30
5.50
6.00
5.40
5.50
5.40
5.15
5.55
4.65
4.90
5.40
5.10
4.65
5.10
4.10
4.50
5.60
4.50
4.30
4.30
4.30
4.90
5.60
6.55
7.45
7.35
7.25
(«)
I
5.50
5.70
5.80
6.00
6.10
6.10
6.50
6.60
6.80
6.90
9.10
9.40
10.00
11.10
11.50
10.80
10.10
9.40
&go
&50
8.10
7.90
7.70
7.10
7.20
7.20
7.05
5.40
6.a5
6.50 5.S5
5.90 > 5.60
6.90 j 5.30
7.85 [ 5.30
8.00 , 5.30
7.80 ■ 5-75
8.85 ' 5.30
8. 55 I 5. 10
8.35
5-20
&20
5.10
7.70
5.30
7.25
5.25
7.35
5.25
7.10
5.25
7.10
ol05
6.75
5.50
6. CO
5.35
6.60
4.65
6.60
4.75
6.35
4.85
6.35 1
4-75
6.35
4.55
6.40,
4.60
6.15 '
4-70
6.05
4.90
6.00
5.35
5.85 j
.5.25
5.75
4.83
5-85
4.85
5.*>
5.03
5,60
.X r.
•xflTi
4«>
4-n^
<-«
4*«J
5..V
4 v.
all"'
:. I'l
-j. iJ
.\3>
XXi
4.W
4 HI
A. "II
xOO
5. J
S. -V"
.-I '0
.'l.5(I
;■ Nl
Jan. I Feb. j Mar. Apr. May
I I
1904. , I
1 1 5.90 5.65 I
2 1 6.00 ' 5.65 I
3 6.05 I 5.(»0 '
4 1 6.10 ' 5.55 I
5 1 6.10 I 5.70
6.. I 6.00 I 5.70 I
7 , 5.75 ! 5.60 I
8 1 5.80 ] 5.80
9 5.50 ' 5.80
10 1 5.85 ' 5.75 I
11 1 5.55 I 5.85
12 5.70 , 5.75
13 ' 5.75 6.10 I
14 j 5.70 I 5..'>5
15 1 5.55 I 5.60 I
5.90 I
5.95 j
5.90 I
5.90 '
5.90 I
5.85
5.95 I
5.85 I
5.90
5.90 I
5.90 I
5.90 '
5.80 I
5.80
5.90 I
5.90
5.»)
5.90
5.85
5.90
6.40
6.35
6.65
7.20
7.15
7.15
6.75
6.80
0. 65
6.35
7.55
7.10
6.80
7.05
7.30
6.75
6.75
7.05
8.40
8.20
7.90
7.95
7.70
7.95
7.70
June. July.
7.55
7.25
7.30
7.70
8.05
8.30
7.80
7.55
7.35
7.00
7.55
7.25
6.50
6.20
Chain gage stolen.
6.75
6.80
6.60
6.20
6.25
6.20
6.20
6.35
6.70
6.95
7.20
6.55
5.45
6.00
5.75
Aug. I Sept.
5.15
5.20
5.10
5.00
5.05
5.25
5.20
6.65
5.10
5.20
5.30
6.20
7.15
5.50
5.30
5.a'»
4.90
5.95
7.80
6.90
6.25
/.W
7.00
6.75
5.90
6.15
6.60
6.15
5.ft5
5.95
Oct.
6.15
6.25
6.70
5.85
6.40
5.90
5.60
6.70
7.75
10.10
10.40
iai5
9.05
8.30
7.55
Nor. I JVC
6. TO
6.60
6.25
5.90
5.75
5.70
5.55
5.15
4-70 ,
4.55
4.40
4.75
5.90
rXOO
4.60
4.«
5. J I
4.K"
4.M
4-7.'
4.5Li
4.'«
5. I*
.uU
-xik
4. C'
4.45
4.H»
ill"
5.30
WOLF RIVER SYSTEM.
75
Mean daUy goge height ^ in feet, of Winconsin River at Merrill j Wis., November 16, 1902, to
December SI, 1905 — Continued.
Day.
' 1
Feb.
Mar.
Vpr.
May.
June.
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
1904.
l»t
.. 5.60 1
5.65
5.85
5.85
7.90
6.10
5.60
5.70
5.90
7.15
4.50
5.30
17
..' 5.60
5.95
5.90
6.45
7.40
6.05
5.80
6.65
5.90
6.90
4.55
5.20
IJS
.. 5.55
.. 5.65 '
..! 5.60
5.90
5.90
6.15
5.75
5.65
5.70
6.30
6.35
6.15
6.55
6.75
6.75
6.10
6.50
6.20
6.a5
4.50
4.60
5.90
5.75
6.40
5.95
5.90
5.20
6.90
6.95
6.25
4.55
4.75
5.05
5.20
r.j
5.10
:»)
5.05
21
.. 5.70 1
5.&>
5.75
6.05
6.&5
6.05
5.10
6.10
5.35
6.35
5.10
5.20
22
.., 5.65 ,
5.95
5.80
6.05
7.05
6.10
5.20
6.20
5.05
6.80
5.25
5.70
isj
.. 5.60
5.90
5.35
6.10
7.05
6.05
5.30
6.15
5.50
6.65
5.10
5.25
•24
.. 5-50 '
5.90
5.75
7.00
7.05
7.25
4.90
5.&5
6.80
6.55
4.95
i.20
o-
.. 5.85
.. 5.55
.. 5..V) ;
..' 5.55
5.90
5.90
5.90
5.90
6.00
5.85
5.55
5.70
8.10
8.35
8.45
8. .50
8.10
10.10
10.60
9.80
5.60
6.00
6.25
7.25
4. .50
4.60
5.40
5.10
5.80
5.70
6.00
5.50
7.10
7.75
7.15
7.20
7.10
7.20
6.90
6.75
4.75
4.95
.5.45
5.15
5 45
•> -
5 05
•>7
5.60
2,S
5.95
■Jt*
.. 5..x> j
5.95
5.80
8.20
9.05
6.80
5.50
5.90
6.40
6.85
5.15
5.60
3f)
-. 5.55 ,
5.70
7.75
8.60
6.30
5.70
6.35
6.10
6.65
4.85
5.60
31
.. 5.50 i
.»
7.95
5.50
5.05
6.25
6.16
1{«5.
1
I
..' &20
5.2,5
5.35
8.90
5.15
5.80
7.40
5.05
6.10
6.20
6.20
6.20
2
..I 4.95 1
.. 5.20|
.., 5.70
5.00
4.90
5.15
5 35
5.20
5.40
8.80
9.20
8.90
5.70
6.20
6.10
5.70
5.90
5.50
7.30
7.50
7.60
5.45
5.35
5.35
6.20
6.15
6.70
6.00
6.20
6.00
6.30
5.60
5.25
5.70
3
5.00
4
5.80
5
..' 5.35 1
5.50
5.25
8.80
6.25
7.60
8.00
5.95
6.70
6.05
5.80
5.40
f>
.J 5.40 '
5.3.5
5. 35
8.80
6.40
10.40
8.20
6.10
6.25
6.00
5.35
5.25
•J
..| 5.20
.. 5.45
5.15
5, 25
5.55
5.15
8.80
8.20
6.45
7.20
10.00
9.00
7.70
7.80
&85
6.00
6.00
6.25
5.30
5..-W
5.10
5.55
6.66
8
5.55
0
.. 5.15 1
5.10
.5.20
8.ro
6.70
9.00
8.00
6.25
6.10
4.30
5.45
6.36
10
.. 5.05
5.40
.5. 65
7.80
6. 45
8.40
7.20
6.40
6.30
4.90
5.90
6.76
11
.. 5.3,5
5.20
,5. 45
7.40
6. 95
8. ,50
6. 85
6.a5
6.15
6.15
5.80
6.70
J2 .
..1 5..% 1
4. 05
5.05
7.20
7.20
8.40
7.05
.5.75
6.30
6.80
5.15
5.65
13
. . 5. 50
.._ 5.90
..' fi.OO
.. 5.95
.5.20
5. 2,5
5.15
5.50
5. 45
4.70
4.70
4. 95
7.40
7.00
6.90
7.20
6.90
7.40
7.60
7.60
7.80
7.80
7.60
8.10
6.20
6.30
0.80
6.50
6.00
6.15
5.90
6.05
6.65
6.40
0.05
6.40
6.45
6.55
5.90
6.15
5..%
5.00
5.20
5.65
5.6o
5.60
14
15
6.-35
If.
6.70
17
.J 5.75
5.70
,5.05
7.40
7.80
10.40
6.30
5.90
6. GO
5.85
5.70
6.16
18
.. 5.85
5.65
,5.25
7.00
7.80
10.60
6.55
6.40
6.45
6.25
5.75
6.50
19
.. 5.65
.J 5.15
5.55
5. a5
5.25
5.25
6. 45
6.45
7.50
7.30
10.60
9.60
5.05
5,05
6.25
6.20
6.90
7.35
6.05
6.85
5.85
5.45
6.60
20
6.66
21
..' 5.15
4.30
5. .50
6.45
7.00
9.20
6.45
5.90
6.70
0.70
5.75
6.76
22
..( 5.60
5.20
4.95
6.05
6.75
8.60
6.00
6.80
7.,%
6.70
5.75
5.75
2.J
..1 5.80 1
..' 6.05,
5.75
5.80
4.95
5.35
5.95
5.60
6.80
6.40
8.50
8.00
5.50
5.40
0.50
4.80
6.90
6.80
6.80
6.15
5.75
5.60
5 45
24
5.56
2.')....
.. fl. 15
5.60
4.65
5.75
6. 45
7.60
5.20
5.55
6.50
6.30
5.70
5.90
20
. . 5. 85 '
5.15
5.75
G.20
6.30
6.90
5.10
6.35
6.25
6.70
5.20
6.26
27
. . 5. 85
5. 6,5
6.a5
5.90
6.35
7.60
5.6,5
6.40
6.55
6.55
4.80
5.90
2S
.J 5.25,
5.35
7.40
.5. 65
6.35
7.50
5. 80
6.25
6.15
6.90
.5.15
1 6.60
29
. . 5. 10
8.00
5. 95
6.25
6. 75
5.60
5.75
5.95
6.50
5.65
.5.85
30
.. 5.05
8.60
5.45
6. 25
7.05
5.75
6.00
6. 45
5.70
5.50
, 5.70
31
..' 5.15
8. .50
6.00
4. .30
6.80
5.80
6.40
Note.— No ice HBCord at this station.
76
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Rating table for Wisconsin River at highway bridge near Merrill, Wis., from June 17, IS^H, to
December 31, 190^.
Qage
height.
Discharge.
Second-ft.
Oagc
height.
Feet.
Dischaiige.
Second-ft.
heiS^t.
Discharge.
Second'/t.
Gaf« •
height.
IMschai^.
Feet.
Feet.
Feet.
S^cond-ft. ,
4.5
1,485
5.5
3,225
6.5
5,485
8.0
9,565
4.6
1,645
5.6
3,425
6.6
5,725
8.2
10,225
4.7
1,805
5.7
3,635
6.7
5,975
8.4
10,885
4.8
1,970
5.8
3,855
6.8
6,225
&6
11,545 1
4.9
2,140
5.9
4,075
6.9
6,475
8.8
12,203
5.0
2,310
6.0
4,305 1
7.0
6,725
9.0
12,865 1
5.1
2,485
6.1
4,535
7.2
7,245
9.5
14,515 1
5.2
2,665
6.2
1 4,765
7.4
7,785
lao
16,165
5.3
2,845
6.3
5,005
7.6
8,345
las
17,S15
5.4
3,a'i5
6.4
5,245 1
7.8
8,935
11.0
19,465
Estimated monthly discharge of Wisconsin River at Merrill, Wis., for 190^
[Drainage area, 2,6.10 square mile^.]
Date.
1904.
Discharge.
Ran-off.
Maxi-
mum.
Sec. ft.
January 4,535
February | 4,655
March ' 4,305
April 11,220
May ' 18,140
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
Deceml)or..
The year.
10,560
7,245
7,110
8,935
17,480
5,975
4,195
18,140
Mini-
mum.
Sec. ft.
3,225
3,330
2,945
3,970
5,610
3,425
1,485
2,310
2,140
3,425
1,410
1,490
Mean.
Sec. ft
d,664
3,749
3,880
6,242
8,935
6,472
3,957
3,766
5,000
7,343
2,800
2.566
Per
square
mile.
1,410
4,865
Sec. ft.
1.39
1.43
1.48
2.37
3.40
2.46
1.51
1.43
1.90
2.79
1.06
.976
1.85
Depth.
Inches.
1.60
1.54
1.71
2.64
3.92
2.74
1.74
1.65
2.12
S.22
1.18
1-12
, Rainfall.
fnch/.f.
e.33
1.30
1.4i
2-01
6. A'
4.M
3 >
4. -k]
RAII^ROADS.
The railway facilitie.s will be discuwwd in connection with each power, but in genenl
it may be said that they are excellent. The willingness of the railroads to go where therv
is an assured traffic is seen at Nekoosa. Since the construction of the paper and pulp
mill at this point three different railroads have extended their lines to the mill.
The land is being rapidly cleaned and made into farms, especiall}- during the past fiv^
years. This fact insures the certain and steady exU^nsion of the railroads in this region.
AVATER l»OWERS.
In the first 138 miles above its mouth Wisconsin River occupies a wide, sandy vaUej,
entii-ply devoid of any falls or rapids, and showing a very uniform descent of only IJ
feet per mile.
WOLF RIVER SYSTEM. 77
The first water power is found at Kilbourn, where the river flows across the Cambrian
sandstone in a narrow, deep gorge known as "The Dell/' 100 to 600 feet wide and 40 to
70 feet deep. The drainage area of Wisconsin River at Kilbourn is about 8,200 square
miles. Accordiiig to discharge measurements made by United States engineers, the low-
"water discharge is 3,000 second-feet. A dam with a crest 3 feet above low water was for
many yeara operated here, under an old charter, the power being used for a flouring mill.
Tliis was burned down over thirty years ago and since that time no use has been made of
the power.
The Madison Traction Company, of Madison, Wis., has a charter for a 15-foot dam
above the^ ordinary low-water level, with the privilege of 2 feet of flashboards, giving a
head of 17 feet or more. It has been proposed to build an electric railroad from Madison
northward via Kilbourn, as an extension of the present Madison street railway system,
and the plans contemplate using this water power to drive the dynamos.
The river continues to flow in the Cambrian sandstone for the next 70 miles, until Nekoosa
is reached. Although the river descends over 105 feet in this distance the fall is so evenly
distributed that good water-power sites are lacking. At Nekoosa, however, for the first
time, we find the river flowing in the hard pre-Cambrian crystalline rock. In the next
8i miles above, the river has a descent of 83 feet, nearly all of which is improved by 5
dams. These dams furnish power for 5 lai^e modern paper and pulp mills and will be
described in order, beginning below.
NEKOOSA.
A rock crib dam at Nekoosa develops a head of nearly 20 feet. This power is used
to operate a modern paper and sulphite mill, one of the largest on the river, owned by
the Nekoosa Paper Company. An installation of 37 turbines is reported, developing a
total of 4,560 actual horsepower for twenty-four hours per day. The drainage area of
the river at this point is about 5,700 square miles.
PORT EDWARDS.
About 4 J miles farther upstn^am is another fully developed power owned by the John
Edwards Manufacturing Company. A head of 18 feet is here available. Turbine wheels,
to the number of 28, develop 3,860 actual horsepower, which is used to run a lai^ paper
and pulp mill. Two miles farther upstream is the Centralia Pulp and Water Power Com-
pany's dam, with an average head of 13 feet. Turbines of 1,460 horsepower are here
installed, according to the company's report, all used in the manufacture of paper and
pulp.
GRAND RAPIDS.
One of the lai^st and most complete paper and pulp mills in the entire State, owned by
the Consolidated Paper and Power Company, is located on the west side of the river,
within the city limits of Grand Rapids. This mill was erected in 1902 and its instal-
lation of paper-making machinery has all the recent important improvements. Before
this mill was constructed there was a total descent of 30.8 feet between the foot of Biron
dam, 4 miles above, and the Grand Rapids bridge. Of this amount the new masonry
and concrete dam of the Consolidated Paper and Power Company develops a head of
about 25 feet. Turbines of 6,500 horsepower are already installed, flume space being also
provided for the development of an additional 1,000 horsepower for future expansion.
Prior rights to 500 horsepower developed by this dam are owned by the Grand Rapids •
Mining Company, which uses it in the manufacture of flour.
The Pioneer Wood and Pulp Company has certain rights to alx)iit 600 or 800 horse-
power "when the stage of the river will permit," which has meant about ten months each
year. This power is used by the company for grinding wood pulp. The Grand Rapids
foundry also has rights to about 40 horsepower from the same dam. The milling company
78 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
and the foundry both receive their power from the ConsoHdat^^d Company in consideratioD
for power* previously owned by them and displaced by the present dam.
The above-described four paper mills have the advantage of competition in freight rat*^
incident to being served by each of the following railways: The Chicago and Northwesteni:
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Green Bay and Western; and Wisconsin Central.
About 4 miles above Grand Rapids is located the dam of the Grand Rapids Paper and
Pulp Company. A head of from 10 to 12 feet, depending on the stage of the water. i>
reported with turbines already installed of 3,063 hoi^sepower. This company Is serred
by the Green Bay and Western Railroad. In the 13 miles between the crest of the Bin.m
dam and the foot of the next one above, near Stevens Point, Wisconsin River desreiKt
16 feet. The only rapids in this distance is one of 3i feet called "Crocked Rift," about
4 miles above the Biron dam. iThe greater part of this fall properly belongs to the Binic
power and is largely developed by the splash boards of that dam.
STEVENS POINT.
Owing to the peculiar top>ography of the river valley between Neko<>«a and Steven*
Point, whereby the adjacent tributaries flow for long distances parallel to the main riv» r,
and to the decided narrowing of the river valley between these points, the dischai^pp ol
Wisconsin River at Stevens Point does not differ greatly from that at Nekousa. The
drainage area at Stevens Point is about 5,600 square miles.
In the city of Stevens Point and immediately south of it are found three develop*^
powers and one undeveloped. Of the fonner, the lower two are owned and operated hy
the Wisconsin River Paper and Pulp Company. One of its dams is "located in the NE
i sec. 17, T. 23 N., R. 8 E., just below the mouth of Plover River, and supplies a head
of 9 feet. At this point a lai^ge island occupies the middle of the river and is made u«*
of in the construction of the dam. The company has installed turbines rated at 1J370
horsepower. One-half mile above this dam, at a point where the river is much narrower.
is located the second dam belonging to this corppany, giving an average head of 16 fet'i.
Here are installed 18 turbines rated at 4,660 horsepower. This power, as well as tlml
derived from the dam below, is used in the manufacture of pulp and papier. Both niilb
are located on the east or right bank and have good shipping facilities. Al>ove the Llm-
described power and about a mile below the dam next above is an undeveloped power »»r
about 7-foot head belonging to the same company. As the river is wide at this point, a
very long dam would be required to develop this power, but its loc^ation in the city wimlci
make it very valuable."
The third dam is located within the limits of the city of Stevens Point and is owned
by the Jackson Milling Company. This dam develops an average head of 7 fet»t. Thf
owners have installed only 3 turbines, rated at 140 horsepower, which is used to run a flour
and feed mill. By building a new dam 1,000 feet below the present one, with a crest of in
feet, a 12-foot head could easily be obtained without flooding. On account of its local lor.
in a growing city of 10,000 people^ it would seem that all this power could easily find takcry^
at remunerative rates.
BATTLE ISLAND.
In the 19 miles between the head of the upper dam at Stevens Point and the bridge «»f
the Chicago, Milwaukee and ^t. Paul Railway near Knowlton, according to railroad levels,
the river descends 30 feet. In this distance there is only one opportunity for the develop-
ment of water power, namely, at Battle Island, in sec. 28, T. 26 N., R. 7 E. From ih<»
loot of the rapids at Mosinee to Battle Island, according to a surve)-, there is a fall of 2il
feet. The banks at this point arc said to be high, so that a dam could be economically
built with a head of 20 feet. The Wisconsin Valley division of the Chicago, Milwaukee
WQLF RIVER SYSTEM. 79
and St. Paul Railway is distant less than a mile from this site, and rock and timber are
very abundant and near at hand; in fact, the bed and banks of the river are in rock.
An easily developed power, one of the best on the river, is found at Mosinee, in sec. 31,
T. 27 N., R. 7 E. It is owned by the Joseph Dessert Lumber Company. About forty
years ago a flooding dam with a head of 5 or 6 feet was built here, and it has since been
rebuilt several times. The dam was located near the head of the rapids, probably because
of the ease of construction due to a large island in the river at this point. Later a sawmill
was built OL' (he right bank, thereby securing a head of about 12 feet. At the present time
Ihi^ milJ is nm by steam power, and no use is made of the water power. An effort is now
being made tc interest capital to develop this power to its maximum amount for a pro-
posed paper and pulp mill. This will require a new dam. Such a dam could be made to
develop a head of 20.7 feet by flooding a small marsh above. Tlie high banks and the bed
of the river are in the hard crystalline rock.
ROTHCHILDS.
In thfe 18 miles between the east quarter stake of sec. 35, T. 29 N., R. 7 E., below the
mills at Wausau, and the crest of the Mosinee dam, Wisconsin River descends 28 feet.a
A considerable portion of this fall is concentrated in rapids in sec. 24, T. 28 N., R. 7 E.
at a place called Rothchilds. The right bank is steep, but the left bank is much less so.
A dam could be built here which would develop a head of nearly 20 feet, but it would
nerd to he long. Rib and Eau Claire rivers, with dramage areas of 500 and 423 square
miles, respectively, enter Wisconsin River from opposite sides but a short distance above
Uuthchilds. This place is 7 miles from Wausau and is reached by the Chicago, Milwaukee
and St. Paul Railway. During the year 1903 Wausau capitalists made earnest efforts to
accjuire the necessary flowage rights for the improvement of this power, but the owners
of the land were unwilling to sell at the rates offered and the project was dropped.
Only a portion of the valuable water power located in the city of Wausau has been
developed. A high granite island, nearly a quarter of a mile long, occupies the middle
third of the river at this place, the main dam l)eing built from the head of this island to
the right bank, a distance of about 350 feet. The guard lock is located on the opposite
channel, at the site of the Scott Street Bridge, and is about 300 feet long.
Near the head of the island is located the McEchroy roller mill. Three turbines, installed
under an average head of only 7 J feet, develop 296 actual horsepower, which is ample for
this mill as at present equipped.
Aboit 1,000 feet below the guard lock are situated the Alexander Stewart Lumber Com-
pany's planing and saw mills, working under heads of 9 and 11 feet, respectively. Four
turbines, rated at 200 horsepower, are installed. The planing mill runs ten and the saw-
mill twenty hours a day. The company also has 350 steam horsepower.
About 1,300 feet below the guard lock is located the plant of the Wausau Paper Mills
Company, which takes its power from the old dam, but because of the location so far
below has the advantage of the additional fall in the river. This gives an average head
of 14 feet. The company has installed 12 turbines, rated at alK)ut 3,600 actual horsepower,
and in addition has 500 steam horsepower. This mill runs twenty-four hours a day.
During the past year the Wausau Electric Company has acquired rights to two-ninths
of the total flow of the stream, and has blasted a new tail race out of the solid rock for a
distance of 300 or 400 feet, thereby incrca^ng the head to 22J feet. This company has
as yet installed only one pair of turbines, rated at 700 horsepower, but intends to double
oU. S. Geol. Survey topographic map.
80 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
this in two years. The Stewart Lumber Company owns three-ninths and D. L. Plum*-:
four-ninths of the total flow of the river.
Wausau b a city of about 13,000 inhabitants and is the county seat of Marathon Count y
The Marshfield branch of the Chicago and Northwestern Railway crosses WiacoDsiD Riv> r
at this point, and the city is served also by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Rai]wa\.
In the 20 miles (by river) between the foot of the lower dam at Merrill and the head <•(
the Wausau dam Wisconsin River descends about 55 feet, 35 feet of this being betwei-f.
Wausau and the mouth of Pine River. a The only portion of this fall at present devekip<Hi
is at Brokaw, where a dam with a head of 12 feet furnishes power for a large paper and
pulp miU. Twelve turbines, rated at 3,964 horsepower, are installed. Brokaw is ab<)jT
6 miles above Wausau, in sec. 3, T. 29 N., R. 6 E., and is reached by the Chicago, Milwaukiv
and St. Paul Railway.
TRAPP RAPIDS.
About 4 miles above Brokaw, near the mouth of Trapp River, are the Trapp rapids. ^
The bed of the river is in the hard crystalline rocks, and, according to the topograpliir
map, both banks are about 30 or 35 feet high and the river 600 feet wide. A head of l-S or
20 feet could probably be developed here by a dam. The nearest city is Merrill, a plar»-
of over 9,000 inhabitants, distant only 8 miles by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul
Railway.
MERRILL.
In the city of Merrill are two dams. The lower one, which has recently been repaind
and partially rebuilt, is located between lots 1 and 3, sec. 12, T. 31 N., R. 6 E.. and givtx
an average head of 14 feet. This power is owned by the Merrill Electric Light Company,
which has installed and uses 600 horsepower. The remainder of the power is leased i>>
the Lindore Paper Company, which in 1904 blasted out a new tailrace about 600 ft-e:
below the dam and has here installed 23 turbines under a 14-foot head, rated at 2;^ J
horsepower.
The second dam within the city limits of Merrill is located in sec. 10, T. 31 X., R. 6 E .
about 2 J miles above the paper mill, and is used for boom purposes only. It has a len^h
of about 475 feet and develops an average head of 8 feet. A similar dam with an 8-fi¥»:
head is located about 2 miles above, between sees. 8 and 9, T. 31 N., R. 6 E., and is .^:^>
used only for boom purposes. Both dams are owned by the Wisconsin River Dri\*ing Av^)-
ciation. As these dams are of little use at present, owing to the decline of the lumU^r
interests, a company is now being formed to greatly improve the two powers by the con-
struction of a new dam, to be located between sees. 9 and 16, T. 31 N., R. 6 E. It is stat4>d
that a head of 24 feet can be obtained here to run a new paper mill.
Wisconsin River is joined at Merrill by Prairie River. Between Merrill and Rhinelandtr
Tomahawk and Pelican rivers add their waters from an aggregate drainage area of 3,.'^*^
square miles.
BIU. CROSS RAPIDS.
The next power in order above Merrill is found at Bill Cross Rapids, in sec. 13, T. 32 N..
R. 5 E., not far from the east quarter stake. Between this point and the foot of Grand-
father Rapids the river descends 26J feet. As the banks are reported high at this poiM
it is probable that a head of 20 to 24 feet could be obtained. This dam site is distant .'i
miles from the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway.
aV. S. Geol. Survny topographic map.
f> The i>ower and nnarian rights at those rapids are owned by G. D. Jones, Neal Brown* and (
Mathie, of Wausau, wis.
U. S. CFOLOCICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 156 PL. Ill
A. GRANDFATHER RAPIDS. WISCONSIN RIVER.
Ninety feet fall in IJ miles.
It. BRUNETT FALLS, CHIPPEWA RIVER.
/. WOLF RIVER SYSTEM. 81
GRANDFATHER RAPIDS.
In the 53 miles between the foot of the upper dam at Merrill and the foot of the Rhine-
lander dam the river has a natural descent of 277 feet, an average of 5.2 feet per mitpf
In this stretch, besides several other fine powers, are included Grandfather Rapids, the
laiigest water power on the river, developed or undeveloped. These rapids begin in the
NE. } sec. 30, T. 33 N., R. 6 E., and extend to the SW. i sec. 31, a distance of li miles,
and are the most noted rapids on the river. A view of them is shown in PI. Ill, A, The
descent in this distance is 89} feet. The high bank and the bed of the river are in the hard
pre-Cambrian rock. For nearly thirty years the Wisconsin River Logging Association has
maintained three logging dams on these rapids. It is probable that the cheapest method
of developing this power would be to construct three dams of 30 feet head each, and that
the power could be best employed by paper mills. The site is about midway in the 20 mile
stretch from Merrill to Tomahawk.
About 1.5 miles above Grandfather Rapids are some small rapids where a 8.9-foot dam
would back the water to the foot of Grandmother Rapids.
GRANDMOTHER RAPIDS.
From the foot of the present Tomahawk dam to the foot of Grandmother Rapids, Wi-
cx)nsin River descends 41 feet, 6J feet of which are concentrated at these rapids in a dis-
tance of 40 rods. According to a survey, 39 feet can be developed here. One dam site
should be near the south line of sec. 10, T. 33 N., R. 6 E., which is distant only 2\ miles
from the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway at Irma.
TOMAHAWK DAM.
This dam, which has a head of 13.2 feet, is located in the SW. \ sec. 10, T. 34, N., R. 6 E.
It has a total pondage of over 4 square miles, the largest on the river, backing up the water
in the main river for about 6 miles, as well as in the tributaries. The steadying effect
which this dam exerts, together with that of several dams on adjoining lakes, must be very
beneficial. This power has been used for several years for running a lai^e paper mill
located on the left bank and reached by spur tracks of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul
Railway. The installation is 650 horsepower. During the summer of 1904 another paper
mill was erected on the opposite bank, taking its power from the same dam.
PINE CREEK RAPIDS.
From the foot of Whirlpool Rapids to the backwater of the Tomahawk dam, a distance
of 10 miles, the river has b nearly even descent of 23J feet, 20 feet of which could be devel-
oped by one or possibly two dams. A 20-foot dam located about a mile east of the city
of Tomahawk, in the SE. J sec. 25, T. 35 N., R. 6 E., would back the water up into Pine
River. Most of the land thus to be overflowed belongs to lumbering companies or to the
Bradley Company, of Tomahawk, Wis. This dam site is less than half a mile from the
Marinette, Tomahawk and Western Railway.
WHIRLPOOL RAPIDS.
These rapids extend from the west line of sec. 12, T. 35 N., R. 7 E., to the north line of
Lincoln County, a distance of about 2 miles, in which the river descends 15.4 feet. Between
the head of Whirlpool Rapids and the foot of Hat Rapids there is a descent of 12.63 feet.
A suitable dam at the foot of Nigger Island, in sec. 12, T. 35 N., R. 7 E., would develop a
head of 28 feet. The banks are said to be high, with an abundance of rock and timber
adjacent to the dam site. The drainage area at this point is 1,300 square miles. Three
different railroad lines are located within 3 or 4 miles of this site, and Tomahawk, a city of
2,500 population, is 7 miles west.
IRR 156—06 6
82 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
HAT RAPIDS.
Between the mouth of Pelican River and the foot of Hat rapids, in sec. 27, T. 36 N.,
*R. 8 E., the WisQonsin descends ahout 22 feet. As the hanks are high, a dam in spc.
27 between lots 4 and 5 could he made to develop about 20 feet of head. The drainage
area at this poin^ is 1,220 square miles. The Rhinelander Power Company has been
formed to develop this power, and from Mr. A. W. Sheldon, Rhinelander, Wis., its attor-
ney, the following facts were learned. A recent survey shows that the concrete dam
should be located 13 rods north of the south line of sec. 27, T. 36 N., R. 8 E. It will be
264 feet long, with earthen dikes, in addition, of 80 and 2^ feet. Such a dam would cnv
ate a head of 20.3 feet. The site is only 5 miles from Rhinelander, a city of over 5.000
inhabitants, reached by both the Chicago and Northwestern and the Minneapolis, St.
Paul and Sault Ste. Marie raii'^ays. The power could be either used at the site for a
paper mill or electrically transmitted to Rhinelander for lighting and power purposes. The
latter is stated as the present intention of the owners. An officer of the company states
that all the contracts for construction and machinery have been let, and that the plant
is expected to be in operation by September, 1905.
RHINELANDER DAM.
Between the foot of the present dam of the Rhinelander Paper and Pulp Company,
in the city of Rhinelander, and the foot of Otter rapids, in sec. 36, T. 40 N., R. 9 E.. a
distance of about 35 miles, the river descends 79.2 feet. The dam develops 30 feet of this
descent, and the power is used to run one of the largest paper and pulp mills on the river.
Tlie company has installed turbines rated at a total of 3,000 actual horsepower and has
also 1,200 steam horsepower. The daily capacity of this mill is 45 tons of finished
paper, 40 tons of pulp, and 40 tons of sulphite pulp.
The river above this point has a drainage area of about 940 square miles. Above Rhine-
lander the river banks are lower and the opportunities for developing large powers few.
In the 35 miles between Rhinelander and the source there are two rapids, called Rainl»ow
rapids and Otter rapids. In this distance, according to the United States engineers.^
between the head of Otter rapids and a point about a mile above the mouth of Pelican
River, the descent of Wisconsin River is only 57 feet, or about 1.62 feet per mile.
RAINBOW RAPIDS.
These rapids are of small extent. They are located in sec. 6, T. 38 N., R. 8 E., and a
head of 6 to 10 feet could be secured.
OTTER RAPIDS.
The most important power above Rhinelander is at Otter rapids, where a logging
dam with a head of about 10 feet was early constructed. The rapids proper descend
16 feet, a so that a head of this amount or more could be developed. The dam site i>
between lots 6 and 8, sec. 36, T. 40 N., R. 9 E. The drainage area above this point is
about 500 square miles.
According to the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, the Wisconsin River at Conovrr,
in sec. 9, T. 41 N., R. 10 E., has an elevation of 1,644 feet above the sea. This would
give a fall of 66 feet in the 24 miles between Conover and the head of Otter rapids.
TRIBUTARIES OP Wl8C:ONSIN RIVER.
OENERAL STATEMENT.
The watershed line on each side of the W^isconsin Valley is between 300 and 400 feet
above the main river, and as the tributaries have to descend this distance in a length
of 50 or 60 miles they have many rapids and available powers. In the upper portion of
a Rcpt. Chief Eng., U. S. Army, 1881, p. 1824.
WOLI" BIVEB BTfSTEM.
8S
their coursee the tributaries flow over the hard pre-Cambrian rock, giving many hipids.
The lower valleys, however, are filled by continued eroHion, so that with feW exceptions^ no
powers are found here.
The length and drainage area of certain streams tributary to Wisconsin River are ishowu
in the following table:
PriTwipal tribiUcunes of Wiitconsin River.
River.
Pelican....
Tomahawk
Rib
Eau Clain?.
Eau Pleijie.
Yellow
Lemon weir
Baraboo...
Kickapoo..
length.
Drainage
area.
MiUt.
Sq. miles.
25
262
SO
714
50
408
50
423
50,
377
70 '
946
. 50'
588
70 1
656
75'
1
760
Only Kickapoo, Baraboo, and Lemonweir rivers and their branches have been as yet
fully or even largely developed, but the present rapid settlement of this northern region
is fast bringing a demand for the utilization of these valuable water-power resources.
While these powers are small as compared with those on the main river, in the aggregate
they are large, and their wide distribution makes them of still greater value. In some
cases, because of the ease with which they can be developed and controlled, manufactur-
ers seem to prefer them to the larger but more expensive powers on the parent river. An
example of this is seen in the present power developments on Prairie River.
trr. GERMAIN RIVER.
Although but 20 miles long, St. Germain River has at least three good dam sites
located as follows: (1) SW. } sec. 31, T. 41 N., R. 8 E.; (2) near the outlet of Big St.
Germain Lake, sec. 32, T. 40 N., R. 8 E.; and (3) near the northeast comer of sec. 18,
T. 39 N., R. 8 E. At the second dam site a head of 20 feet and at the third site a head
of 26 feet are reported as feasible.
TOMAHAWK RIVER.
This river rises in about 40 lakes with elevatioDs of from 1,540 to 1,575 feet above the
sea, the largest of which is Tomahawk Lake, with an area of 7 square miles. The river
joins the Wisconsin at Tomahawk after a course of alx)ut 50 miles.
The dam in Wisconsin River at Tomahawk backs the water in Tomahawk River to
an elevation of 1,442 feet, so that the remaining descent is about 120 feet, or 2.4 feet per
mile, nearly half of which is concentrated in four rapids. Only one of these has been
developed for power purposes, the dam being located al)out 2 miles above the mouth of
the river, where a head of al>out 18 feet is obtained. At present only 300 horsepower
are here utilized, in a tannery belonging to the United States Leather Company.
Eight miles above this dam, in lots 5 and 6, sec. 21, T. 36 N., R. 6 E., are the Prairie
rapids, with a descent of 20 feet; 10 miles above, in lots 1 and 4, sec. 17, T. 37 N., R. 6
E., are the Halfbreed rapids, with descent of 8 feet ; and 12 miles still farther upstream,
in sec. 27, T. 38 N., R. 5 E., are the Cedar rapids, with descent of 12 feet.
PELICAN RIVER.
This river rises in a series of lakes, the largest l)eing known by the same name, at an
elevation of 1,590 feet above the sea. The river flows west and joins the Wisconsin near
84
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Rhinelander, aft^r dc>scending about 50 feet in its length of 25 miles. The following table
shows the location of promising dam sites, none of which are as yet developed:
Dam-eiie locations on Pelican River.
Possible
bead (fcrt !.
Between lots 4 and 6, sec. 4, T. 36 N., R. 10 E 6 to 8
SW. i sec. 17, T. 36 N., R. 10 E 6
Between lot« 3 and 4, sec. 26, T. 36 N., R. 9 E 10
Between lot 1, sec. 21, and lot 1, sec. 22, T. 36 N., R. 9 E 12
PRAIBIE RIV£R.
Although Prairie River has a drainage area of only 214 square miles and is without
lakes at its upper headwaters, its water powers are of sufficient importance to have already
attracted capital for their development. At the eastern limit^s of the city of Merrill a
dam 200 feet long is being rebuilt so as to give a head of 21 feet. This dam is owned by
the Prairie River Power and Boom Corgpany. Nine miles northeast, in sec. 13, T. 32 N.,
R. 7 E., at a point where the river has worn a deep channel in the rocks, forming dalles,
a masonry dam to furnish a head of 72 feet is now being built by the same company.
This power will be transmitted electrically to the lower dam for use in a paper mill now
under construction.
Ixi sec. 14, T. 33 N., R. 8 E., are smaller dalles, where a head of 20 feet may be obtained.
RIB RIVER.
Rib River rises in two small lakes, the lai^r of which. Rib Lake, has an elevation
of about 1,556 feet. After a course of about 50 miles, the Rib joins Wisconsin River
a mile below the city of Wausau. Its total descent is 400 feet, an average of 8 feet lo
the mile. A considerable part of this descent is concentrated in the middle third of it*
length.
The first power is found at Marathon, 10 miles from its mouth, where a dam about NO
feet long develops a head of 18 feet. About 5 miles above, in the city of Rib Fails, a
dam 100 feet long develops a head of 20 feet. In sec. 24, T. 30 N., R. 4 E., therv is an
undeveloped power with a head of 18 feet.
EAU CLAIRE RIVER.
The Eau Claire enters Wisconsin Rivei* 2 miles below the mouth of Rib River, and
from the opposite (eastern) side. It has a smaller drainage area than that of the Rib,
and a much larger proportion of its descent is distributed in its lower part.
A total of 148 feet is concentrated at the following points, given in order from tbe mouth
of the river.o
Dam-site locaiimis on Eau Claire River.
Location.
Schonold, sec. 12, T. 28 N., R. 7 E
MaiiHor's, sec. 10, T. 2«N., R.8E
Old Kciloy , S6C. 13, T. 28 N., R. 8 E
Baniards rapids, sec. 23, T. 29 N., R. 9 E
The Dalles, sec. 7, T. 29N., R. lOE
Three Rolls, sec. 34, T. 30 N., R. 10 E . . . .
Little rapids, sec. 22, T. 30 N., R. 10 E...
Head.
Feet.
12
25
25
22
40
12
12
Remarks.
Developed (old mill abandonedj .
Developed, but only part used.
Developed for logging.
Undeveloped.
Do.
Do.
Do.
The first three powers are adjacent to the Chicago and Northwestern Railway, and are
used chiefly for boom purposes.
o Authority: D. L. Plummer, C. E.
EATT PLEINE AND BLACK KIVEK8.
85
EAU PLEINE RITER.
This river has a narrower and smaller drainage area than either the Rib or the Eau
Claire and is entirely devoid of lakes. Like the latter, it has considerable descent con-
centrated in its lower reaches, one power with a 15-foot head being located within 2
miles of its mouth. Following is a summary of its powers:
Dam-site locations on Eau Pleine River.
Location.
Sec. 18, T.26N., R. 6E.
Sec. 24, T. 26 N., R. 6E.
Sec. 13, T. 27 N., R.3E.
Sec. 4, T.27N.,R.3E..
Sec.24, T.28N., R.2E.
Head.
Remarks.
Feel.
15
Undeveloped.
15
Do.
15
Do.
10±
Developed.
10±
BLACK RIVER.
TOPOGRAPHY AXD DRAIXAGE.
Black River, hemmed in by the Chippewa on the west and the Wisconsin on the east, is
restricted to a long and narrow watershed of about 2,270 square miles, a with an average
width of only 20 miles. At one point the branches of Chippewa River extend to within a
quarter of a mile of Black River. Unlike that of the Chippewa, about a third of the Black
River drainage area is in the comparatively level sandstone region, so that the maximum
watershed available for water powers, namely, at Black River Falls, is only 1,570 square
miles.a The watershed narrows rapidly as the river is ascended, and at NeilLsville, 22
miles in an air line from Black River Falls, the drainage area is reduced to only 729 square
miles, a Were it not for this small watershed, the steep gradient of the river and its high,
rocky banks would insure large water powers. Black River rises at an elevation of about
1,400 feet above sea level, and after a sinuous course of over -140 miles joins Mississippi
River at La Crosse. Tlie total descent in this distance is 772 feet, with details as shown in
the following table:
Profile of Black River from its mouth near La Crosse to near Withee.b
La Crosse (near) .
Black River Falls:
Below dam .
Above dam .
Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Rail-
road bridge.
Halls Creek, mouth of.
Halcyon
Hatfield railroad bridge .
East Forks, mouth of.
Dells dam, below
a Census report, vol. 17, 1880, p. 87.
b Authority: No. 1 (low-water elevation), Mississippi River Commission; 2 to 22, Joint Survey of
Wis. Qeol. and Nat. Hist. Survey and United States Geological Survey.
§6
Water powers of northerk wisooN^rK.
Profile of Black River from its morulh near La Crosse to near Withee—Continutd,
No.
Station.
Wedges Creek, mouth of
Cunningham Creek, mouth of
Center sec. 22, T. 24 N., R. 2 W
O'Neill Creek, Neillsville
Bridge, sees. 9 and 16, T. 25 N., R. 2 W
Bridge, sees. 21 and 28, T. 27 N., R. 2 W
Bridge, Fairchild and Northeastern Rwy
Site New Greenwood dam
Between sees. 27 and 28, T. 27 N. , R. 2 W
Hemlock dam, 600 feet below
Hemlock dam, above
Bridge, sees. 20 and 29, T. 29 N. , R. 2 W
Bridge, Wisconsin Central Rwy., west of Withee
Distance.
From
mouth.
MiUs.
78.5
84.8
86.8
0.8
103.
107.
109.
110.
113.
113.
119.
12.5.
Between
points.
Miles.
1.0
6.3
2.0
4.0
8.0
4.7
4.3
1.5
1.0
3.2
.1
6.0
5.5
Eleva-
tion
above
sea leveL ' Total
I I>esent be-
tween points.
Feet.
93
909
929
9H9
1.034
1.070
1.094
1,105
1,107
1.132
1.151
1,167
1,187
reet.
19
20
60
45 '
36
24
11
2
25
19
16
20
Per
Fret.
10.0
no
oh
7.9
5.6
T.3
2.0
R.O
In the 55 miles below the city of Black River Falls the river flows through the sandstoDe
country in a wide valley with low banks, making dam construction very expensive, if not
entirely impracticable. In the 40 miles next above Black River Falls the river has worn
its bed into the hard, crystalline rocks, which rise from 10 to 60 feet or more from the water,
frequently in nearly vertical walls. The descent in this distance is 337 feet, nearly 9 feet to
the mile. It is only in this stretch that important water powers occur. In the upper third
of the valley the crystalline rocks frequently outcrop, but the resulting rapids are of ies$i
importance. The United States Geological Survey maintained a gaging station on Blark
River at Melrose for nine months in 1903, but as the station proved unsatisfactory it was
abandoned August 1, 1903. Such measurements and observations as were taken are given
below:
Discharge measurements of Black River near Melrose^ Wis.j in 190S.
Date.
January 15.
February 7.
April 4
May 1
June 13
Hydrographer.
L. R. Stockman.
do
do
do
....do
hS^t. IniBTh.r^.
Feci.
Sectntd^eri.
4.30
a-^
4.30
a5its
5.90
2,9v
11.00
1 10,931
3.90
M2
a Frozen.
BLACK BIVER.
87
Mean daHy gage height, in feet, of Black River near Melrose, Wis., December 4, 1902, to August
1, 1903.
1..
2..
3..
4..
5..
6..
7..
8..
9..
10..
11..
12..
13..
14..
15..
16..
17..
18..
19..
20..
21..
22..
23..
24..
25..
26..
27..
28..
29..
30..
31..
Day.
1902. i
Dw. I Jan.
3.75
3.95
4.00
3.80
4.35
4.35
4.30
4.35
4.20
4.20
4.10
4.15
4.10
4.00
4.00
4.05
4.25
4.60
4.95
5.80
6.05
5.85
5.80
5.65
5.50
5.35
5.20
5.05
5.00
4.90
4.75
4.60
4.60
4.50
4.50
(°)
4.40
4.40
4.40
4.40
4.40
(°)
4.30
4.30
4.30
4.30
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.10
1903.
Feb. ' Mar. i Apr.
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.10
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.30
4.25
4.20
4.20
4.20
4.10
4.15
4.00
3.95
3.90
3.90
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.05
4.10
4.20
4.35
4.30
4.35
4.40
4.45
4.60
4.75
(°)
6.25
8.20
9.30
9.70
10.75
12.05
12.55
11.55
9.85
9.40
10.35
11.95
13.40
12.90
11.40
9.65
8.05
7.65
6.65
6.02
6.55
5.70
6.55
5.30
5. 10
4.85
5.30
5.65
5.90
6.50
6.65
6.50
6.20
5.50
5.60
5.45
5.60
5.95
5.85
6.05
5.60
5.00 I
5.15 ,
4.50,
4.65
4.30
4.30 j
4.35'
4.65,
.85
5.00
5.&5 I
6.80 '
May.
June.
11.00
7.60
10.00
10.25
10.50
9.65
6.00
9.05
4.70
8.15
4.40
7.00
4.30
6.9.5
4.25
6.55
4.00
6.10
4.00
6.65
3.95
10.60
3.95
12.00
3.80
10.90
3.80
9.15
3.80
7.80
3.70
6.55
3.70
6.50
3.70
6.40
3.70
6.30
3.70
I
1
5.90
6.50
5.70
5.80
5.95
8.40
11.85
12.60
10.95
9.50
3.70
3.70
3.60
3.60
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
3.50
July. Aug.
3.00 3.75
6.70 1
11.20
10.90 i
13.00 ,
12.30 1
10.20 1
7.90
6.90 '
7.40 '
8.70 !
7.20 1
6.70
6.20
5.80
5.30 '
4.50
4.20
4.10 '
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.90
3.90
3.90 '
3.75 1
3.90 1
4.20 1
4.00
3.80,
3.75
o Observer absent.
A gaging station was established by the United States Geological Survey at Neillsville
April 7, 1905, and the following data have been collected:
Discharge measurements of Black River at NeHlsville, Wis., in 1905.
Date.
April 7
May 24
June 13
July 11
.\ugust 11
September 25.
Hydrographer.
Hanna and Clapp.
S. K. Clapp
M. S. Bronnon
do
....do
F. W. Ilanna
I
Width.'
Feet.
192
1&5
192
161
151
163
Area of
section.
feet.
1,021
471
945
392
242
419
Mean
velocity.
Gaffe
height.
Feet.
Feet per
second.
3. 5
7.7
2.18
4.a5
3.15
7.26
1.56
4.25
.93
3.3
1.86
4.35
Dis-
charge.
Second-
feet.
3,279
1,024
2,978
612
225
780
Note.— Width is the actual width of water surface, not including piers. Area of section is the total
area of the measured section, including both moving and still water.
88
WATER POWERS OP NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily gage Tieighi, in feet ^ of Black River at NeiUsvUlej Wis., for 1905.
May. ! June. July. | Aug. ' Sept. Oct. Nov. ' ixer.
Day
' Apr.
May.
1
3.4
2
3.4
3
4.1
4
6.3
5. - - _
5.2
6
8.2
4.9
7
7. 7
5.0 1
8
, 6.9
46'
9
1 6.2
46'
10
1 6.0
59!
11
' 5.7
6.6 '
12
1 &6
6.7
13
1 &1
6.2
14. *
4.8
10.7
15
4.6
10.1
16
4.3
9.2 '
17
19
1
8.7 ■
18
3.8
8.2
19
4.2
6.6
20
3.9
6.0
21 :...
3.2
5.3 ,
22
i 3.1
1
5.1
23.
24.
25.,
26.
27.,
28.
3.1
3.5
3.4
3.4
a4
Z.A
3.4
3.4
4.9'
4.7
4.3
4.2
4.1 I
3.9 '
3.9
3.8
3.8
3.7
3.3
3.2
7.7
14.2
19.8
16.5
11.5
&8
7.6
8.6
8.0
7.1
6.2
5.5
5.8
11.2
10.7
8.6
7.0
6.0
5.2
4.5
4.1
3.9
3.7
3.5
3.3
3.3
3.5
30 3.4 3.8 I 3.5
31 ' 3.8 I
Note.— No Ice record at thia station.
Rating table for Black River at NeiUsviJUf 1
4.4!
4.9 I
6.5 I
a4 ,
8.0 I
6.8 *
5.9
5.3
4.7
4.2
3.8
3.9
4.0
4.8
4.5
4.0
3.8
4.2
4.3
4.0
3.8
3.3
3.1
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.9
2.7
4.2
4.0
4.0;
3.5
3.3
3.3
3.3
13
3.2
3.0
2.9 '
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.4 ,
3.6
3.4
3,3
3.2
3.0 !
3.4
3.5
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.5
3.4
3.6
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.7
2.8
2.7
2.7
4.3
6.0
6.0
6l1
6.6
8.3
7.5
6.3
5.8
4.7
4.2
3.9
18
17
16
18
3.0
15
14
14
10
10
11
2.7 I
2.4
11
10
10
10
10
4.0
4.9
5.4
5l5
5l6
6.6
6.9
6.5
5.9
5.5
SlO
4.6
4.4
4.1
19
17
16 .
3.7
15
3.0
3.5
3.5
17
4.1
4.1
3.9
18
17
3.7
3L6
3.5
3L4
X4
1.4
3.4
3.4
3L3
3.2
3.2
3.2
3.5
4.2
4.6
4.5
4.3
3.9
a7
4.U
4.2
1«^
17
3.S
a 5
.1 J
.14
i:>
.1 4
14
1.1
a 4
a 4
3.5
14
A 'i
•in
12
11
3 I
.13
15
1 :
1.1
14
d4
14
1.:
Wis. y from April 6 to December 31, 1905.
helgll J5i«^harge.' ^^^, Discharge. | ^^, Discharge.' £^^ Discharge.
The above table is applicable only for open-channel conditions. 1 1 is based on six .
m<!nts made during liKW. It is well defined between gage heights 3.3 feet and 7.7
limits of the table the discharge is only approximate.
diseharae measure
feet. Beyond the
BLACK BIVEB.
89
Estimated morMy discharge of Black River at NeUlsviUef Wis. , for 1905.
April (6-30) .
May
June
July
August
September. .
October
November. .
December...
Month.
Discharge in second-feet.
I Maximum. | Minimum. I Mean.
3,900
177
1,036
6,910
267
1,768
23,060
205
3,840
4,120
80
884
635
60
229
4,340
80
918
2,670
20
750
870
205
302
635
150
292
'WATER POWERS.
It is many years since Black River was used for lumbering, and as the surrounding coimtry
is well settled, it seems likely that the near future will see a demand for the available water
powers. These powers, while not of the lai^est, are so situated as to be cheaply developed.
The river has no large tributaries, but nearly all its numerous small feeders are now developed
and used to run grist and saw mills. At the present time several projects are being exploited
which look to the employment of these powers by interurban electric railroads and other
enterprises in near-by cities.
BLACK RIVEB FALLS.
The first dam in the river is at Black River Falls and is of timber construction. The
power developed is owned by the city of Black River Falls, with turbines working under a
head of 13 feet, and by J. J. McGillivray, with turbines under a head of 16 feet. The present
tailrace could be lowered 3 or 4 feet, and the crest of the dam could be raised the same
amoimt without flooding. This improvement would give a total head of 20 feet. The
turbines now installed develop about 345 horsepower, which is used to run an electric-light
plant, a sash and door mill, a wagon shop, and a gristmill.
About 1} miles below the above-described dam is the site of an old sawmill dam, 300 feet
long, which at one time was made to develop a head of 7 feet.
BLACK RIVER FALLS TO NEILLSVILLE.
Because of the high, rocky banks and high gradient of this river, dams of 15 to 20 feet
head could be installed nearly every 2 or 3 miles between Black River Falls and Neillsville,
but only a few of the largest undeveloped powers will l)e described.
The first dam site above Black River Falls is located near the east line of sec. 2, T. 21 N.,
R. 4 W., just below tho. Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway bridge. At
this point the rocky banks form a narrow gorge and are high enough to furnish a head of 30
feet or more. By the use of a short canal this head could probably be increased. This site
belongs to the Black River Improvement Company, of La Crosse, Wis. Another unde-
veloped power, similar in all respects, for which a charter has been granted, is at Halcyon, in
sec. 16, T. 22 N., R. 3 W. A 30-foot dam here would back the water nearly to Hatfield, 3
miles above. A still more important dam site is located at Hatfield, just above the bridge
of the Green Bay and Western Railroad. According to surveys made recently it is
possible to obtain here a head of 50 feet, which could be increased to about 85 feet by means
of a long canal. Such a dam would create a large pondage by backing up the water for 7
miles. This would cover up dam sites in sec. 35, T. 23 N., R. 3 W., and also the "Dells
dam" in sec. 18, T. 23 N., R. 2 W., near the mouth of Wedges Creek. At the latter site a
head of 25 feet could be easily secured.
90 WATER POWEKS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
In the 6 miles below Neillsville, between the mouths of O'Neill &nd Cunningham creeks,
the river descends 80 feet, 42 feet of which can be easily developed at Ross Ekldy rapids,
where a large part of this gradient is concentrated. It has been proposed to build a crib
dam 250 feet long, with a crest of 18 feet, at the head of these rapids, and then conduct the
water through a canal 95 rods long (in earth), thereby cutting off a long bend of the river
and giving a total fall of 42 feet. a The outlet of such a canal would provide a favorable
power sit^, free from any injury from ic^ jams.
NEnXSVILLE.
The last important undeveloped water power, known as Westons Rapids and ofwned by
V. Iluntzicker, of Neillsville, Wis., is located in sec. 2, T. 24 N., R. 2 W., about 1 J mil«
above Neillsville. From the head of these rapids near the north line of the NW. J sec. 2, to
the south line of same section, a distance of about a mile, the river descendbs 21^ feet, a
The owner proposes to locate a crib dam 250 feet long, w^ith a crest of 18 feet, near the centA-
of the section, and by making use of a canal in earth 600 feet long to obtain a head of 24
feet. A franchise has recently been obtained from the city of Neillsville for the employ-
ment of this power in lighting the city and for other purposes.
HEMIX>CK DAM.
The most important developed power on the upper river is in sec. 15, T. 27 N., R. 2 W.
This dam, called the Hemlock dam, has a head which averages 12 feet. Four turbines are
installed here, with a total of 175 horsepower, used to run a roller flouring mill. The dam
was originally erected for lumbering purposes.
Because of the unusually steep gradient in the branches of Black River a water power of
from 10 to 20 feet can be located at frequent intervals on these streams. Several of the
many mills in such locations report an available head of from 35 to 40 feet. In nearly every
case timlier and rock are found near the dam sites.
RAILROADS.
That portion of Black River containing the important powers is fairly well served by
railroads. The river is crossed by the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway
four times, and once each by the Wisconsin Central Railway and the Green Bay and West-
ern Railroad.
CHIPPEWA RIVER SYSTEM.
TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE.
The Chippewa drainage system has its source in over a hundred lakes, large and amall.
with many connecting swamps, near the Michigan boundary and only 20 miles from Lake
Superior. The drainage area has a length of 180 miles, a maximum width of 90 mik>s.
and an average width of nearly 60 miles. The general direction of the drainage, exceot in
the extreme western part, is toward the southwest. Chippewa River unites with the
Mississippi at the foot of Lake Pepin, after a course of 267 miles. * The total area drained
by the river is 9,573 square miles, of which about 6,000 include the most unsettled region
of northern Wisconsin. This area includes the richest forests of the State, of both soft and
hard timlxr. Although lumbering operations have been very active here for many years,
considerable pine timber still remains, chiefly at the upper headwaters, but it is fast disap-
pearing. Most of the large tracts of pine lands are owned by lai^ corporations, and many
of them are reached by long lines of logging railroads, which in many cases have been
purcha.sod by the trunk-line railroads and made a part of their systems. The exten5iTe
use of such railroads has greatly relieved the rivers of the burden of transporting logs, and
correspondingly added to the value of the rivers for water-power purposes.
The main line of drainage runs very nearly along the central line of the basin, Imt the
name of Chippewa River is not given to this continuation of the principal stream. Tbe
a Authority: C. Stockwell, county surveyor.
CHIPPEWA RIVKR STSTEM.
91
river divides 1 12 miles from the mouth ; one branch, the prolongation of the line of drainage;
called the Flaml)eaii, rises in the lakes near the Michigan line, at an elevation of a little over
1,600 feet above the sea; the other branch, rising farther west and flowing more directly
south, receives the name Chippewa. The Flambeau drains 1,983 square miles, while
Chippewa River, above their junction, drains only 1,777 square miles. About 56 miles
above this junction the Chippewa again divides into East and West branches, the one flowing
from the northeast, the other fmm the north, draining, respectively, 278 and 480 square
milefl.
The lakes of this region are situated in two widely separated groups, one in the extreme
northeastern part, at the headwaters of Flambeau River, and the other in the northwestern
part, at the headwaters of what is known as the main stream and of Red Cedar River.
The remainder of the area is almost devoid of lakes. The wooded regions, however,
include very large areas of cedar and tamarack swamps.
GKOI-.OGY.
The pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks form the underlying strata in the area above Chippewa
Falls, while below that point they are replaced by the Cambrian sandstone. The entire
area above Chippewa Falls is covered with glacial drift, so that the rock appears only in
the river bed. The country is level or rolling. In the southern part of the area the rivers
have eroded deeply into the drift and rock, but in the northern portion they have not cut
much below the surface.
With only a few exceptions (the most notable one at Eau Claire) all the many and
important water powers on Chippewa River are found in the region of the pre-Cambrian
crystalline rocks, but Ix'cause of the deep drift the powers on the upper streams occur as
l>owlder rapids.
PROPOSED RK.SERVOIR SITEvS.
According to detailed surveys made by United Staters enjjineers, this drainage area is
favored with an unusual numl>er of excellent sites for reservoirs. A list of /hese sites, with
valuable data concerning them, is given in the following table:
Proposed United States Gm^rnment dams on Chippeuxi River, a
Length.
Maxlmui
Dam above
low water.
m height.
Dike.
Fee,
8.5
Drainage
Location and name.
Dam.
Dike.
area above
reservoir.
East Branch Chipppwa Rivor:
Bear Lake
Ffft,
l.Ol.'i
710
1,23.-)
900
■ fi20
aw
2, .wo
170
zw
297
Fret.
200
IfiO
100
460
7.5
2,000
2.W
1
Fert.
19..")
24.0
2.'). 7
6.5
22.0
—
10.0
15.0
l.-i-O
10.0
9.0
15.0
Sq. miles.
244.5
I,ittle Chief Lake
57.6
West Branch Chippewa River:
Moose Lake . . .
1.5
214.3
Pakwawang Lake
257.2
Court Oreilies
5.0
114.0
Chippewa River, Paint Creek
3,943.1
Total
4,830.7
Butternut Creek, Butternut Lake
40.0
Manitouish River, Rest Lake.. .
2.5
10.5
10.0
211.6
North Fork Flambeau, Bear Creek
Dore Flambeau:
Round Lake
1.54.5
63.0
SqOaw Lake
39.0
Turtle River, Park Lake
174.0
Grand total
R.-'i^
2. 78.-)
5,512.8
a Rept. Chief £ng. U. S. Army, 1880, p. 1G48.
92
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Proposed United States Oovernment dams on Chippevxi River — Continaed.
Location and name.
Supply (one-
thirdf of 30
inches rain-
fall).
East Branch Chippewa River: Cubic feet.
Bear Lake ' 5,677,951,910
Little Chief Lake 1, 337, 627, 935
West Branch Chippewa River:
Moos© Lake 4,976,626, 153
Pakwawang Lake 6,972,880,292
Court OrelUes 2,647,388,621
Chippewa River, Paint Creek 91 , 560, 456, 760
Capacity of
reservoir.
Cubic feet.
1.113,148,856
771,332,009
2,-01,783,402
7,692,997,229
2,647,388,621
505,336,720
Total 112,181,931,671 14,751,986,837
Butternut Creek, Butternut Lake ; 928, 906, 288
Manltoulsh River, Rest Lake i 4, 897, 100, 264
North Fork Flambeau, Bear Creek' 3, 107, 280, 000
Dore Flambeau:
Round Lake 1,382,304,000
Squaw Lake 864,230,400 j
Turtle River, Park Lake 4. 026, 198, 428 '
585,446.400
1,840,000,000
5,406,567,152
1,303,036,416
731,808,000
620,782,720
90 days.
CoAof
dam ttod
dikp.
Cubic feet.
4.564,803,054
566,295,926
1.234.725,814
91,064,120,040
Sec-feet.
143.1
99.2
[ 260.0
I 969.3
340.4
65.0
125. *»2.'.
4D,T»C
45. 'M>
66,40
2.462
eD.<«i
97,429,944,834
343,461,888
757,813,112
79,267,584
132,422,400 '
3,405.415.708 ,
1.897.0
75.3
236.6
695.3
I
167.6
94.1
79.8
340. fM*
5,2:fi
47, Mi
10. jatt
4.001
9.941
Grand total 127,387,953,051 25,239,627,525 102,148,325.526 | 3.245.7
325.. Vi'
It will be seen from the above table that the systematic operation of these propo?#d
reservoirs for this purpose would increase the ordinary low-water flow of the river by 3,2+5
second-feet for ninety days a year, thus about doubling the present available water power
of the river. Estimated upon a run-off of one-fourth of the annual rainfall, assumed ai
30 inches, this increase would be 2,800 second-feet for ninety days.
Experiments now being carried on by the Government in Minnesota on five similarly
constructed dams will doubtless determine whether the reservoir system at the headwaters
of the Mississippi will Ix) extended to include any of the above proposed dams. Probably
the main obstacle to building such reservoirs at the present time by the Govemmeot Is the
fact that, owing to the settling up of this region, the land has now become very valuable
The total cost would seem to be prohibitive. That the owners of wat^r powers are in
favor of such Governmental control is certain. Be.sides adding to the amount of power,
such a system would prevent, in large measure, the danger to dams by floods. The building
of even a part of these dams would have marked economic value. Alreadj'^ private enter-
prise has developed some of the smaller of these reservoirs.
RAILROADS.
The logging interests of the river are controlled by the Chippewa Falls Lumber and
Boom Company, with headquarters at Chippewa Falls, a thriving city of about lOiXHO
population. The largest city of this region is Eau Claire, population 17.517. situated at
the junction of Eau Claire and Chippewa rivers. This city has numerous manufactone?
and sawmills, and is quite a railroad center. From its mouth to Chippewa Falls, Chippeira
River is paralleled by the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway, and between Eau
Claire and Chippewa Falls by the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha and the
Wisconsin Central railways, besides an electric line. Chippewa River, above Chippewa
Falls, is reached by the Chicago, St, Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway for a Jistance
of about 25 miles. In addition, the drainage area is crossed east and west by the Minne-
apolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie Railway and north and south by the Wisconsin Central
Railway.
Several railroad lines are projected or l)eing built in this section, and the agricultural
and manufacturing interests are fast supplanting that of lumber. Where the timber has
CHIPPEWA RIVER SYSTEM.
08
been cut the land is being taken up by settlers, so that there is but little second-growth
timber. The people seem prosperous, and numerous companies are on the point of investing
lai^ sums in the manufacturing interests of the neighborhood, thereby utilizing the
undeveloped water powers.
RAINFALL. AND RUN-OFF.
The extensive forests of this area combine with the numerous lakes and swamps to give
a naturally uniform flow^ by preventing the rapid escape of the rainfall into the streams.
Since 1903 the United States Geological Survey has maintained gaging stations near
£au Claire, on Chippewa River, and at Ladysmith, on the Flambeau. As a result of the
operation of logging dams, the minimum discharge is found to be only 1.6 per cent of its-
maximum discharge for the year. The following tables give discharge data of Chippewa
River at Eau Claire, covering the period from November 14, 1902, to August 12,1905,
and also a monthly summary of the same.
Discharge measurements of Chippewa River at highway bridge, Shaxvtowrif near Eau Claire,
Wis.. 1902 to 19()5.
Date.
Ilydrographer.
19Q2. I
November 13 L. R. Stockman .
December 6 do
December 28 do
1903.
January 17..
February 10.
March 9
April 6
Mays
L. R. Stockman. .
....do
..do.
..do.
..do.
June 15 ! do.
July 10 ' do
August 20 ! do
September 5 do
October 13 1 do
November 24 | do
1904. I
January 1 la ' E.Johnson, Jr.
May 14
May 24
June 7
July 13
August 28
Septeml^ 19.
October 12. . . .
October 13
November 29.,
1905.
May 22
June 14
July 12
August 12
.do.
Johnson and Hanna.
E. Johnson Jr
do
....do
....do
F.W.Hanna
....do
E. Johnson, jr
S.K.Clapp....
M. S. Brennan .
do
Width.
Feei.
Area of ' Mean Gage Dis-
section. , velocity. , height, charge.
Square ' Feet per
feet. I seamd.
310
385
370
426
354
322
329
495
457
324
200
427
3.W
335
2,809
2,793
2,509
2,315
2,877
5,726
3,105
4,761
2,372
3,626
4,637
2,281
2,429
4,272
4,074
6,815
3,770
2,766
3,122
7,118
6, 137
2,847
4,004
5,131
3,585
3,062
1.03
1.09
.79
.77
1.32
4.62
1.64
3.61
1.83
2.21
3.25
1.54
3.42
3.10
4.52
2.10
.82
1.47
5.43
4.76
.80
3.83
2.09
1.29
Feet.
8.70
4.45
4.60
4.15
3.80
4.85
7.40
11.85
4.70
9.25
5.13
6.20
8.77
4.90
3.80
8.40
7.60
11.25
6.55
4.20
5.25
14.80
13.10
4.44
aso
10.72
6.55
5.00
SecoTid-
feet.
11,134
2,871
3,063
o 1,979
o 1,778
53,818
10,688
26,458
4,107
17,167
4,336
8,032
15,087
3,511
2,454
14,610
12,630
26,270
7,918
2,274
4,581
38,680
29,200
2,281
16,110
19,665
7,489
3,948
a Frozen. 6 Partly frozen.
Note.— Width is the actual width of waU»r surface, not including piers. Area of section is the total
area of the measured section, including both moving and still water.
94
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily gage height^ in feet j of Chippewa River near Eau Claire^ Wis., Novembtr 7^,
1902, to becember 31, 1905.
1902.
1903.
Day.
Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb.
1....
2
i
3
4
5.
. . . 4.50
6
4. 45
7 '.
' 4.00
8...J.
4.05
14
13.70
15
10.20
18
12.40
17
13.05
18
12.60
19
11.35
20
9.60
21
8.50
22
7.55
23
7.40
24
7.15
25
7.00
26
6.45
27
6.20
28
6.00
29
5.75
30
31
5.55
4.05
4.10
4.25
4.20
4.45
4.25
4.55
4.25
4.30
4.10
4.30
4.25
4.30
4.25
4.50
4.70
4.30
4.90
5.10
4.60
4.50
4.8.5
4.50
4.30
4.35
4.15
4.20
4.40
3.90
4.15
4.40
4.20
4.40
4.80
4.65
4.75
4.60
4.85
4.30
4.20
4.30
4.65
4.40
4.50
4.35
4.35
4.45
3.50
4.20
4.10
4.10
3.85
4.15
4.25
I
3.70
4.25
4.10
4.05
4.10
4.05
4.15
4.15
4.00
3.85
3.80
3.85
3.90
3.90
3.90
4.50
4.10
4.15
4.30
4.25
4.20
3.35
3.80
4.15
4.05
3.90
3.95
3.85
Mar. Apr. ■ May. ' June.' July. Aug. - Sept. Oct. Nov. IKt
3.20
3.75
3.85
3.90
3.75
3.75
3.85
4.10
4.60
5.05
5.80
6.00
7.05
&20
8.05
7.00
7.00
7.55
11.80
13.95
13.65
12.65
11.70
10.45
9.40
8.75
8.40
7.75
7.60
7.15
6.80
1
6.85
12.80
(«)
7.15
13.10
(«)
7.45
12.15
(«)
7.95
11.85
(«)
7.85
11.55
(a)
7.40
10.90
(«)
7.50
10.30
6.85
7.90
9.20
5.45
8.55
9.15
6.45
8.00
7.65
5.95
7.60
8.95
6.50
8.15
12.00
5.90
7.70
13.25
9.25
7.65
13.40
3.75
7.80
13.25
4.65
7.80
11.85
4.95
7.50
10. 45
4. 95
6.75
9.90
4.90
6.65
9.15
4.20
6.85
9.15
.5.15
6.80
9.30
4.70
6.65
9.50
4.20
6.40
9.a'>
4.20
6.40
9.10
4.15
8.60
9.85
4.2.',
6.55
10.20
4. 15
7.15
12.50
6. 75
7.00
15.15
4.20
7.30
16. 70
4.(iO
11.70
16.10
4.95
7.65
8.05
10.60
13.50
15.30
15.20
13.75
11.30
10.30
9.40
10.10
9.95
8.90
8.10
7.80
7.20
6.50
8.80
5.95
6.70
6.15
5.70
5.eo
6.00
9.20
5.25
5.05
5.20
5.15
5.15
5.10
5.05
5.20
5.85
6.85
7.50
9.10
9.00
11.0>
6.70
7.55
7.25
6.75
6.85
6.90
9.65
5.10
6.80
6.65
6.00
5.10
5.15
7.50
5.60
5.10
5.15
5.25
4.70
5.45
5.60
5.20
5.60
5.90
6.45
5.65
5.85
5.75
6.45
5.85
6.30
&00
8.0*
9.15
12.85
14.00
16.75
17.85
18.50
17.45
15.50
13.45
11.80
10,50
9.15
7.80
7.60
7.00
7.65
7.05
7.05
7.05
I
6.90 '
7.00
7.35 1
9.90
11.25
11. 1^
11. eo
11.15
11.35
10.96
9.95
9.45
9.00
8.80
8.45
7- 75
7.70
7.40
7.S5
7.05
7.05
6.75
6w70
6.55
6.30
6.15
5.95
6.10
6.10
6.10
5.90
I :
.S.55
5.55
ow4r>
5.50
S.2.J
5.20
5.15
5. 10 I
5.03 '
5.00 I
5.00
5.0I> I
5-a>
5.30
5.40
4.95
4.9r>
4.25
4.40
4.15
4-JLi
4.a>
4.85
4.95
4.95
4. Sit
4.85
4.60
4 a
4.K--
4 -
4.'»»
4 :\i
4 .V,
4 V
4 70
4.N5
4"'
4 7t
4 -.J
4.ro
4.C
4 tt<
4 ' J
4.N.'
iri'
4-<
4 ••<
4.«>
3.4J
3 7<
:<. '%)
X46
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.,
9.
10.,
11.
12.
13.
14.
Day.
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. I July. Aug. , Sept. Oct. Nov. rvc.
1904.&
e4.90
c5. 15
«4.80
d4.80
6.25
6.72
6.50
6.52
6.60
7.17
7.60
9.10
9.67
9.72
9.70
9.32
9.05
8. 82
9.00 I
8.65
8.63
8.28
8.10
8.03
10.13
8.50
8.83
9.35
9.25
8.85
8.78
10.20
8.45
7.65
7.65
8.85
9.00
10.95
11.30
10. 85
9.85
8.92
7.95
7.80
7.80
7.45
8.10
a 52
8.28
8.02
10.32
10.12
9.63
8.93
7.22
7.10
7.20
6.72
6.60
5.88
4.42
4.80
4.38
4.78
4.:<2
4.12
3.45
4.62
5.10
5.42
5.35 i
4.38
4.12
3. .50 i
4.58
5.a5
8.18
7.52 ■
8.30
7.30,
7..'i2 I
7.12
6.?2
7.95
5.03
5.28 i
5.42 '
5.35
6.31
5.24
a 27 i
5.65 j
5.30^
5.27
4.82 ;
9.12
7.86
13.35
15.07
14.93
13. 15
11.38
6.79
6.84
6.80
6.61
5.91
6l4!
6.0S ,
5.35 [
5,35
5.60
5.36
5.a>
6,27
4-82
3.M.
3 4-
4 V
4>
4.1V.
4.>
4. .'7
4. -
4 Jr.
4.34
4..^
4.?.
a Observer absent.
ftRiver frozen over January 1 to March 18, 1904, but open about 200 to 300 feet alx)ve and one-fouril:
mile below bridge.
c Ice 2.0 feet thick at gag«»; 1.0 foot in middle of channel,
rf Ice 2.5 feet thick at gage; 2.5 feet in middle of channel.
« Ice 2.0 feet thick at gage; 2.0 feet in middle of cluumel.
CHIPPEWA BIVEB SYSTEM.
95
Mean daily gage heighty in feet, of Chippewa River near Eau Claire, Wis., November IJ^,
190:2,toD€cemier 31,1906— Continued.
Day.
Jan.
Feb. Mar.
1904.
15
1
1
16
a5.00
17
1
,8 1
1
19 . .-.|
^ 5. 10 4. ATi
20
4.07
4.45
4.37
4.32
5.62
21
22
23
24
«5.00
25
•
5.95
1
26 i
6.45
27 1 . . .
65.30
6.10
28 ---
5.72
29
30
d4.70
5.05
5.10
6.32
31
19a5.
1
4.36
2
3
4
.....................|
5
4.80 1 4.20
6
.......1 1
7 .
' 1
8
1
9
4.40
1 4.50 1
10
11
1
12
4.30 '
13
5.30
4.30
14 ,...
4.25
15
,4.80
4.10
16
4.50
17
4.50
18
. 5.36
4.65
4.40
4.45
19
20
21
4.55
22
4.67
5.50
23
6.20
24
7.10
25
4.95
7.80
26
8.90
27
10.40
28
11.80
29
5.I7I
13.20
30
13.00
12.90
11
1
i
May. June.
I
8.50
7.5.5
7.25
7.50
8.38
8.20
8.13
7.45
8.05
8.50
9.65
10.63
10.45
9.18
9.55
9.03
00
20!
20 I
50 I
40 I
80
20 I
80 I
20
90,
70
40 1
75
65 I
10 ■
75 '
20 I
00.
60 I
45
40
40
05
30
30
30
50
80
a5
85
8.00
&20
7.55
7.22
7.55
6.93
10.30
6.30
6.83
7.33
9.20
12.00
13.48
13.63
12.02
10.67
9.20
6.80
5.80
5.90
6.50
7.50
6.60
7.;«
7.60
7.30
8.80
7.80
7.90
7.50
9.50
10.70
12.20
12.90
12.00
10.60
10. 20
9.20
8.60
8.60
8,00
8.10
7.50
7.70
7.00
7.10
7.20
6.90
7.80
8.35
6.25
5.50
5.10
6.20
6.50
5.90
5.80
5.£^
8.95
5.55
7.75
7.60
7.75
7.50
July. I Aug. Sept. | Oct.
75 I
6.30
I 6.80
' 6.50
\ 8.20
12.10
I 19.20
I •'•
19.60
i 17.30
I 14.50
13.00
I 12.60
11.50
10.00 I
9.40
8.80 '
8.70
10.20 '
12.20
11.30
10.50
9.10
9.00
8.80
8.20
7.30
7.50
8.70
7.80 I
5.75
5.07
5.55
5.35 <
5,60 '
5,50 '
5.10
5.47 '
5.05 j
4.75 I
3.93 I
4.07 :
4.90 '
4.80
5.00 I
4.88 I
6.45 <
5.00 I
6.80
7.40
6.90 I
6.20 I
6.90
10.40 I
10.60
11.30
10.10
7.00
8.10
6.90
6.90
7. '20
7.10
7.60
6.80
6.50
6.60
6.70
6.00
6.40
5.70
6.10
5.75
5.55
4.90
4.45
5.30
4.45
4.35
3.80
.4.55
4.82
4.65
4.78
7.20
5.25
4.75
4.68
4.60
5.00
5.40
8. 15
3.58 '
5.55 I
4.92 j
4.52 I
6.80
5.75 I
4.35 [
4.35 I
5.10 !
5.25
5.05
5.30 I
5.90 '
4.90
5.45 j
5.10
5.35 '
5.70 I
4.45 '
4.45 I
6. (50 '
5.25 I
7.40 I
7.30 I
8.90 I
5,85
6.20 I
6.40 '
8.30
5,30
5.00
7.80
6.20
6.20
5.38
5.42
7.10
4.80
4.89
4.27
4.30
4.35
5.10
4.24
5.76
8.18
7.61
6.93
9.81
6.65
6,50
6.20
5.30
6.10
6.80
6.50
6.10
5.65
5.75
5.10
4.90
5.35
6.90
5.85
5.40
5.55
7.70
10.70
7.00
10. 10
10.80
10.30
9.20
8.40
6.50
8.50
6.00
6.00
7.90
6.20
I
10.30
9.17
8.10
8.00
7.08
6.85
8.35
9.25
9.42
9.00
8.78 I
7.81
8.02 I
7.22
7.55
7.30
6.85
I
5.15
5.55 I
7.80 '
5.55 '
4.90 I
4.90 '
7.50 I
5.00 >
4.85 I
4.80 '
5.50 I
7.90 '
6.20 I
5.90
5,25 I
6.40 ,
7.35 I
7.80
7.90
8.95 I
8.50
8.65
8.35
7.90
7.55'
7.20
7. 10
7.00 j
6.60 I
6.50
6.40 I
Nov.
6.26
5.42
5.30
5.47
5.20
4.98
5.28
5.23
5.74
4.77
4.94
5.10
4.85
4.55
4.54
4.46
Dec.
4.34
4.32
4.15
4.19
4.53
4.29
4.34
4.37
4.55
4.38
3.31
4.19
4.55
(0
5.70 ,
6.15
5.45 I
5.75 I
5.65 I
5.75 I
6.10 I
6.30 I
6.05 I
6.10 I
6.60
5.50 I
5.70
5.80 '
5.20
6.20 '
5.50
6.00
5.50 I
5,45
5,40
4.60
5.20
5.00
5.20
6.70 I
6.05 .
5.70 I
5.70
5.00 ■
4.75
5.15
4.85
5,65
4.40
5.40
5.40
5.90
5.85
5.35
6.30
5.30
5.30
5.26
5.00
4.60
4.70
4.80
4.70
4.70
4.65
4.85
4.55
4.60
4.10
4.80
4.60
4.65
4.55
4.70
4.70
olce 2.0 feet thicker at F^agc; 1.0 foot in middle of chtmnci.
b Ice 2.6 feet thick at gage: 2.5 feet in middle of channel.
c River frozen Decembc5r 28 to ;U.
dice 2.0 feet thick at gage: 2.0 feet \t. -niddle of channel.
< River frozen entirely across at gage January 1 to February 28; March 1 to 17, loo gradually disap-
peared. Thickness of ice, 2 to 9.6 foct. Gage heights are to water surface In a hole In the ice.
96
WATER POWEB8 OF NOBTHEBK WISCONSIN.
Rating table for Chipjmwa River near Eau Claire, Wis., from November 30, 190g, to Monk
12, 190SA
Gaee
height.
Discharge.
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Gage
height.
1
Discharge.
Gage
height.
' Discharge.
Feet,
Second-feet.
Feel.
Second-feet}
Feet.
Second-feet.
Feet.
\seamd^ert.
3.2
840
4.0
1.985 ,
A.1
I 3,370
' 5.4
5.150
3.3
940
4.1
2,165
4.8
J 3,610
5.5
1 5. 410
3.4
1,055
4.2
2,345
4.9
3,850
6-6
1 5,670
3.6
1,190
4.3
2,535
6.0
4,110
5.7
5.930
3.6
1,335
4.4
2,735
5.1
4,370
5.8
6,190
3.7
1.490
4.5
2,940
5.2
4.630
i 5.9
6.450
3.8
1,655
4.6
3,150
5.3
1 4,890
6.0
, 6,710
3.9
1,825
;
»To be used only when river is frozen.
Rating table for Chippewa River near Eau Claire, Wis., from March lii, 1903, to December
1, 19m,
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Gage
heiglit.
Discharge.
Gaee
heiglit.
Feet.
Disctiarge. |
Feti.
Second-feet:
Feet.
Second-feet.
Feet.
Second^eet}
Second-feet:^
3.8
2,160
5.7
6,290
7.6
11,310
11.0
23.310 -
3.9
2,340
5.8
6,530
7.7
11,610
11.2
24,07D 1
4.0
2,530
5.9
6,770
7.8
11,910
11.4
34,830
4.1
2,730
6.0
7,010
7.9
12.210 ,
11.6
25.500
4.2
2.930
6.1
7,270
8.0
12,510
11.8
26.350
4.3
3,130
6.2
7,530
8.2
13,150
12.0
27.110
4.4
3,330
6.3
7,790
&4
13,790
12.5
39.010
4.5
3,540
6.4
8,050
8.6
14,450
13.0
30.910
4.6
3,760
6.5
8,310
&8
15,130
13.5
32,810 1
4.7
3,980
6.6
8,570
9.0
15,810
14.0
34.710 1
4.8
4,200
1 6.7
8,830
9.2
16,530
14.5
36,610
4.9
4,420
6.8
9,090
9.4
17,250
1 15.0
3S.510
5.0
4,640
6.9
9,350
9.6
17,990
15.5
40,410
5l1
4,860
7.0
9,610
9.8
18,750
16.0
42.310
5.2
5,090
7.1
9,890
lao
19,510
16.5
44,210
5.3
5,330
7.2
10,170
10.2
20,270
17.0
46,110
5.4
5,570
7.3
10,450
1 10.4
21,030
17.5
48,010
5.5
5,810
7.4
10,730
10.6
21,790
18.0
49,910 j
5.6
6.050
7.5
11,010
10.8
22,550
Rating table for Chippewa River near Eau Claire, Wis., from January 1 to December 31, 190^
Gaee
height.
Discharge.
Gage
height.
Discharge.
' Gage
height.
!
Discharge.
Gage
height.
Discharge,
Feet.
Secondrfeet.
Feet.
Second-feet.
Feet.
Second-feet.
Feet.
Second-feet.
4.0
1,780
I 5.1
4,390
6.4
8,100 1
9.0
16,680
4.1
1,980
i 5.2
4,660
&6
8,720
9.5
18,380 j
4.2
2,180
5.3
4,93U
&8
9,350
10.0
20,080
4.3
2,390
5.4
5,200
; 7.0
9,990
10.5
21,780 ,
4.4
2,610
5.5
5,480
1 7.2
10,650 1
11.0
23,480 !
4.5
2,840
5.6
5,760
1 7.4
11,310
11.5
25,210
4.6
3,080
5.7
6,040
' 7.6
11,970 !
12.0
26,960
4.7
3,330
j 5.8
6,320
7.8
12,630
13.0
30.500
4.8
3,590
5.9
•6,610
8.0
13,290
14.0
34,480
4.9
3,850
1 6,0
6,900
8.5
14,980 '
15.0
40,000 I
5.0
4,120
6.2
7,490
1
1
1
CHIPPEWA BIVKR SYSTEM.
97
Rating table for Chippewa River near Eau Claire^ Wis.ffrom January 1 to December SI, 190$,
. dace
height.
Discharge.
Gago
height.
Discharge, i
height.
Discharge. |
Gage
height.
Discharge
Feet.
Secand-feet.
Feet.
1
Second-feet.
Feet.
Second-feet.
Feel.
Second-feet.
a. 50
\ 750 1
5.40
4,830 1
5,050
5,280 1
6,610 1
7.60
10,290 '
11.40
22,410
3.60
1 960
5.50
7.80
10,870 '
11.60
23,160
3.70
1 1,170
&60
8.00
11,450 1
11.80
23,950
3.80
1,380
5.70
8.20
12,030
12.00
24,750
3.90
1,590 1
5.m
5,740 '
8.40
12,610
12,20
25,650
4.00
, 1,800 1
5.90
5,970
8.60
13,200
12.40
26,350
4.10
2,010 1
6.00
6,200
8.80
13,800 '
12.60
27,150
4.20
' 2,220
6.10
6,430
9.00
14,400 1
12.80
27,950
4.30
' 2,430 1
6.20
0,660
9.20
15,000 ,
13.00
28,750
4.40
1 2,040 !
6.30
6,900
9.40
15,620 ,
13.20
29,560
4.50
2,850 ,
6.40
7,140
9.60
16,260
ia40
30,e90
4.60
1 3,070 1
6.50
7,380
9.80
16.920
13.60
31,240
4.70
3,290
6.60
7,630
10.00
17,600
13.80
32,110
4.80
3,510 !
6.70
7,880
10.20
18,280
14.00
33,000
4.90
' 3,730 1
6.80
8,130
10.40
18,960 ,
14.20
33,900
5.00
3,950 1
6.90
8,390
10.60
10,640
14.40
34,800
5.10
1 4,170 1
7.00
8,650
10.80
20,320
21,000 '
14.60
35,700
5.20
4.390 ,
7.20
9,180
11.00
14.80
36,600
5.30
4,610 1
7.40
9,720 1
11.20
21,690 '
1
The above table is applicable only for open-clmnnel conditions. It is based on 15 discharge measure-
ments made during 1904-.5. It is well denned between gage heights 5 feet and 13 feet. The table has
been extended beyond these limits.
Estimated monthly discharge ofChippevxi River at Eau Claire y Wis., 1902 to 1906,
[Drainage area, 6,740 square miles.]
Date.
1902.
Noveml)er 14-29.
December 5-31' . .
1903.
January...
February . .
March
April
May6
June c
July
August
September,
Oc toiler
Maxi-
mum.
Discharge.
i Mini- '
mum. I
Sec-feet. Sec-feet, i Sec-feet
I
I
3,730
2,940
34,520
25,970
44,970
36,990
39.f>.'J0
2:J,500
51,810
25,780
1,190 I
995 '
840 '
8,050 I
11,460 '
2,070 I
4,750 !
3,980 I
6,170 I
6,770
Run-off.
Per
Rainlall.a
Mean.
square
mile.
Depth.
lec-feet.
_ _ _ _
Sec-feet.
Inches.
Inches.
14,836
2.20
1.39
5.82
2,789
.41
.41
1.92
2,593
.38
.44
.45
2,023
.30
.31
.86
ll,5r3
1.72
1.98
2.28
11,240
1.67
1.86
3.07
24, 761
3.67
4.23
6.45
8,720
1.29
1.44
1.95
14,698
2.18
2.51
7.70
8,602
1.28
1.48
5.35
19,584
2.90
3.24
7.58
13,524
2.01
2.32
3.57
a Rainfall for 1902 and 1903 Is the avoragr of tho recorded precipitation at the following stations:
Butternut, Hay ward, Medford, Barron, and Eau Claire; that for 1904 includes the same stations with
the addition of Stanley and Trentice.
b May 31 estimated.
cl to 6, inclusive, estimated.
IRR 15(
98
WATER POWEBS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Estimated monthly ducharge of Chippewa River at Eau Claire j Wis. , 1903i to 1905— CootimieA
Date.
1903.
November.
December..
The year.
1904.
January
February
March 19^1....
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November
December 1-27.,
The year.
1005.
March 18-31.
April
May
June
July
August
September. .
October
November..,
December. . .
Discharge.
Run-off.
Maxi-
mum.
Sec-feet.
5,930
3,980
Mini-
mum.
51,810
8ec.-feet.
2,830
1,055
840
8,255
1,920
22,220
7,640
32.900
7,790
24,510
4,390
21,170
1,647
13,790
660
19,430
2,264
40,400
3,642
9,478
2,748
2,960
380
Mean.
Per I
square Depth,
inch.
.Rainfaa
8ec.-feet. Sec.-feeL Inches. Inches.
4,562 0.68 0.76 0.96
2,855 .42 , .48 ! .M
10,305
1.54
21.06
4.622
14,550
16,960
12,600
8,525
3,778
7,801
15,170
5,576
2,230
.686
2.16
2.52
1.87
1.26
.561
1.16
2.25
.827
.331
.332
2.41
2.90
2.09
1.45
.647
1.29
2.59
.923
.332
41.77
.51
1.06
1.56
2.01
4.33
6.14
3.13
4.27
4.86
5. 59
.17
1.79
31,240
24,750
28,350
60,520
22,050
14,100
20,320
14,250
7,380
5,970
2,640
3,510
5,740
5,625
2,535
2,535
3,730
3,510
3,070
2,010
13,510
10,184
12,666
20,368
8,626
5,867
8,970
8,041
5,437
3,821
2.00
1.51
1.88
3.02
4«28
.870
1.33
1.19
.807
.567
35.41
1.01
L6ft
2.17
3.26
1.48
1.00
1.48
1.37
.900
.654
WATER POWERS.
CHIPPEWA BELOW JUNCTION OF FI.AMBEAU RIVER.
Topography and drainage. — The folIowiDg descriptions of the water powers on Chippewa
River between its mouth and the junction with Flambeau River were largely obtained fnran
a manuscript report of a hjrpsometric survey of this part of the river made by the Umt<*d
States Geological Survey during the summer of 1903.o Between the mouth of the river
and Chippewa Falls a very careful primary level was run, while between Chippewa Falls and
the mouth of the Flambeau, in addition to taking levels, a topographic survey was made of
the river bank and the area immediately adjacent. Between the mouth of the Chippewa
and that of the Eau Claire, a distance of 48.4 miles, this survey showed that there was a
descent at low water of about 106 feet, or about 2.3 feet per mile. Because of the uniformity
of this low gradient, and also because of the width of the stream and of the adjacent bottom
lands, there are no opportunities for water powers until Eau Claire is reached. Details of
descent and apportionment of drainage areas are shown in the following tables:
a The survey of that portion of the river between Watkins Landing. Minnesota, and Chlppewm Fan*.
Wis., was under the charge of Geographer J, P, Ren^baw. Above Chippewa Falls tl|e wprk was ia
charge of Geogrrapher H. M. Wilson. •- ■ "
CHIPPEWA RIVEB SYSTEM. 99
Projile of Chippewa River from its moulh to aoturees of East and West branches. a^
No.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Station.
Difitanoo.
From I B€tween
mouth., points.
Reedfl Landing
Shawtown
Eau Claire River, mouth
Dallea paper mills:
Foot of dam
Head of dam
Chippewa Falls:
Foot of dam
Head of dam
Yellow River, mouth
Eagle rapids:
Foot
Head
Water level
Rapids, foot
Jim Falls:
Foot
Head
Colton rapids:
Foot
Head
Bob Creek
Chevalley rapids:
Foot
Head
Brunett Falls:
Foot
Head
Fisher River, month
Holcombe rapids:
Foot
Foot of dam
Head of dam, water level
Deertail Creek, mouth
Flambeau Hiver Junction
Bruce, sec. 28, T. 32 N., R. 6 W . . . .
East and West branches junction.
MUe$. I Milet,
0
EAST BRANCH.
45.5
48.8
49.4
49.4
64.4
64.4 I
69.9 I
72.4 I
73.6 '
75.1 I
77.4 i
i
80.1 ,
81.0
82.3
83.6
87.3
00.1 I
91.3 I
91.4 I
92.4
93.9 I
97.1
97.6
97.6
104.1
107.7
124.2
162.7
1
30 I Goose Eye rapids head (foot Little Chief Lake) { 164. 7
Snaptail rapids (Hunters Lake) : I
31 , Foot ; 166.7
32 Head ' 168.2
33 Blaisdells Lake ] 170.7
C^dar rapids: ;
34 j Foot : 173.2
35 I Head J 175.7
36 I Bear Lake 178.2
a Authority: Nos. 1, Mississippi River Commission; 2-27, U. S.
U. S. engineers,
ft High water,
c Low water.
45.5
3.3
.6
10.0
14.5
50.0
5.5
2.5
1.2
1.5
2.3
2.7
.9
1.3
1.3
3.7
2.8
1.2
.1
1.0
L5
3.2
.5
.0
6.5
3.6
16.5
38.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.6
Descent
fileva- between points.
tion I :
above
sea-level.' Total.
Per
mile.
Feet.
Feet. I Feet.
f »680.0 l|
I '664.0 ij"
770.0
770.0
772.0
793.0
806.0
839.0
862.0
854.0
867.0
871.0
881.0
90L0
936.0
942.0
945.0
964.0
961.0
966.0
967.0
993.0
995.0
1,004.0
1,020.0
1,036.0
1,036.0
1,050.0
1,060.0
1,280.0
1,323.4
1,325.2
1,368.8
1,374.5
1,404.0
1,420.0 I
1,432.9 I
106.0
2.3
.0
.0
2.0
3.3
21.0
14..0
1.0
33.0
13.0
2.4
2.0
.8
13.0
4.0
10.0
20.0
35.0
6.0
3.0
9.0
7.0
6.0 I
1.0
26.0
2.0 !
5.7 1
I
I
29.5
16.0 I
12.9 1
10.8
2.7
4.3
7.4
39.0
4.6
2.3
2.4
2.5
4.2
10.0
26.0
1.3
9.0
2.7
16.0
32.0
16.0
.0
.0
14.0
4.0
9.0
.5
221.0
5.6
43.4
21.7
1.8
.9
43.6
29.0
2.3
11.8
6.4
5.1
Geol. Survey; 28, David Kirk; 2{M7
100 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Profile of Chippewa River from its mouth to saurcee of East and West branches. — Continued.
No
Distance.
Station.
I Prom
mouth.
EAST BRANCH.— Continued. Miles.
River, water level 181. 7
Pelican Lake 186. 7
River, water level, sec. 19, T. 42 N., R. 2 W 190. 2
Glidden Station 201. 7
Source of river i 223. 7
WEST BRANCH.
Proposed U. S. dam
Pakwawang Lake
Moose Lake:
Proposed U. S. dam .
Water level
Partridge Crop Lake
Source of river
164.5
168.7
178.7
178.7
185.7
205.7
Between
points.
Descent
Eleva- I beiwetm point*.
tion ' ,
above
aea-levpl.| Total.
Miles.
3.5
5.0
3.5
n.5
22. 0±
Feet.
1,442.0
1,462.0
1,463.8 I
1.509.3 ;
Feet.
20.0 I
,.8 I
45.5 '
I
Per
mile.
Feet.
AM
. 5
4.«"'
L8
1,286.0 1
6.0
3.3
6.0 1
1,287.2 '
1.2
*»
10.0
1,358.8
71.6
7.2
.0
1,361.9
3.1
7.0
1,384.4
22,5
X 2
20. 0±
1
Distances and drainage areas of Chippewa River,
River.»
East and West brandies (junction) .
Court Oreillcs
Thomapple (above mouth)
Flamljeau:
Above mouth
Mouth
Yellow:
Above mouth
Mouth
Eau Claire:
Above mouth
Mouth
Red Cedar:
Above mouth
Mouth
Chippewa
Distance
from the
Junction of
East and
West
branches,
map I
measure.
DraiTia^
aroa ab<>v«
station.
-I ■
Miles. _ Sq. miles.
0
Hi
36
53
»*
!.».>
3.7b:
90
4.92'
90
5,>4
113
5.7r.-
113
6.^Je?
142
7.0W
143
^••1
165
9,:n
- - - .
a Station ia at mouth of rivor, unless otherwise statiKl.
Eau Claire. — The first dam site is located about 2i miles below the mouth of Eau Claire
River. According to a recent survey by the city engineer, a head of 7 feet could be obtftined
here. On accoimt of its proximity to the city of Eau Claire, this power would have especial
value. Before improvement there were two rapids in the river between Eau Claire and
Chippewa Falls, one 1.25 miles above the Eau Claire, called the Lower Dalles, ^lith a desrecC
of lOi feet in a little over 2 miles; the other about 4 miles below Chippewa Fails, called the
Upper Dalles, with a descent of 9 feet in about 2 miles.
\BA9\ B^s iinaoi 3Aoqv ;daj
z
^ 5:
' CHIPI'EWA RIVER SYSTEM. 101
The dam 2 miles above Eau Claire, owned by the Dells Paper and Pulp Company, is of
the square-timber, crib type on a sandstone foundation. It is about 600 feet long, 19 feet
high, 3 feet wide at the top, and with a base of about 8 feet. Eight splash boards are used
on the crest when necessary, giving a head of 26 feet. It would be possible to increase the
height of the dam so as to develop 32 feet, and a bill authorizing this increase is now (March,
1905) pending before the State legislature. Such a dam would back the water nearly to
Chippewa Falls, 15 miles above, greatly adding to an already very large pondage. This is
the most important manufacturing plant on the river. The turbine installation is
reported as follows:
DeUs Paper and Pidp Company^a turhiju instaUation, 2 miles above Eau Claire.
Purpose. Horsepower.
Paper mill 1,396
Pulp mill 4,918
Electric light and power 1, 632
Waterwoitoj 300
8,246
Chippewa Falls. — In the 141 miles between the Dells dam and Chippewa Falls no power
sites arc found, the river having a nearly uniform slope of 1 foot to the mile. At the latter
place, however, is a wooden dam 800 feet long, with a head of 30 feet, owned by the Chip-
pewa Falls Lumber and Boom Company. This dam supplies power for a large sawmill
and also a plant furnishing the city of Chippewa Falls with water and electric light. The
dam could be made several feet higher, as Ihe local conditions arc favorable, but this
would interfere with a proposed plant at Paint Creek rapids, 2i miles upstream, to which
point the water now backs. The owners have developed only about 20 feet of head, but
this could be increased to the full head of 30 feet by blasting and cleaning out the river to
the wagon bridge below. The power and light company leases 1,000 horsepower, using a
head of 29 feet.
The next rapids, known as Paint Crcek rapids, are 2} miles above the Chippewa Falls
dam. A flooding dam 526 feet long, with a crest lOi feet above low water, was fonnerly
maintained hero. A dam about 800 feet long, with a head of 14 feet, could be constructed
at the foot of the rapids at this point. The banks and bed appear to be sand^ intermingled
with large bowlders. Stone for construction is abundant and near at hand, and it is
likely that a rock foundation could be easily obtained.
Eagle rapids, 4i miles farther upstream, in lot 3, sec. 16, T. 29 N., R. 8 W., is a good
site for a dam, owned by F. G. & C. A. Stanley, of Chippewa Falls. A dam 60 feet long
and 20 feet high would back the water three fourtlis of a mile above the city of Chippewa
Falls, where O'Neils Creek enters from the west. One mile above the mouth of O'Neils
Creek, in sec. 10, T. 29 N., R. 8 W., is a gorge 700 feet wide, where a 25-foot dam would
have solid sandstone for foundations and abutments and would back the water almost
to the foot of Jim Falls, 3 miles above. Such a dam would develop 5,000 theoretical
horsepower.
Jim Falls. — Near the small station of Jim Falls, on the Chicago and Northwestern Rail-
way, occurs the best opportunity for water-power development on Chippewa River. It is
owned by W. L. Davis, of Eau Claire. Formerly an old flooding dam was located here.
The river flows over a series of granite ledges 1 to 4 feet high, while the banks seem to be
of the same rock, covered by a few feet of sandy soil. This power is now under develop-
ment, a company having purchased all the land needed. The proposed dam, 28 feet high,
will be located at the head of the rapids. It is designed to furnish power for a pulp mill
near the foot. The t<>tal head obtained by this plant will be 55 feet. Fig. 4 shows the plan
of the proposed development. Water is to be conducted from the dam by a canal extend-
ing on the left bank for a distance of about 5,000 feet to high bluffs 100 feet from the river
bank. The power house will be on the river bank immediately below. The dam will back
102
WATER P0WEB8 OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
the water nearly to Bnrnett Falls, 9} mUes above, and will cover the Colton and Chevallpj
rapids.
Brunett FdUs. — One of the best powers on Chippewa River, and one most cheaply devel-
oped, is found at Brunett Falls (PL III, S), located in sec. 18, T. 31 N., R. 6 W. It belongs
Fig. 4.— Plan of proposed water-power development at Jim Falls (Davis Falls).
to Cornell University, which also owns the adjacent land as well as the water rights. The
best location for the dam would be about 650 feet above the foot of the rapids, where a
35-foot dam would back the water up to the rapids at Holcombe, 5i miles above. The
river at the dam sit* is narrow (70 or 80 feet), while the banks are high, granite le<lges.
CHIPPEWA RIVER SYSTEM. 103
A dam here would create a large reservoir. It is stated that the plans contemplate a dam
200 feet long. A steel wagon bridge has recently been built across the river immediately
below the dam site.
Holeombe dam. — ^The next power is at Holcombe, about 3 miles below the mouth of Jump
River, where the Chippewa Falls Lumber and Boom Company maintains a timber dam, with
a head of about 17 feet. This is the third dam that has been built here, the others having
been washed out by freshets. As the lumber interests are fast declining, the present dam is
being allowed to decay. For power piuposes it should be replaced by a more substantial
structure. The river here has a rock bottom, with rather low clay sides, but an 18-foot
dam could be. constructed on the site of the present structure, which, together with a
15-foot dam at the foot of the rapids just below (sometimes called Little Falls), would
develop about all the head at this point and would not flood any more valuable lands above.
This would back the water above Deertail Creek and furnish considerable storage.
Mouth ofFlamheau. — Of the 14 feet of descent in Chippewa River between Holeombe
and the mouth of the Flambeau 10 feet are concentrated in the first mile below the latter
point. It is very Ukely that a dam on this reach would easily develop 15 feet of head.
It is worthy of note that all the water poweis on Chippewa River thus far described
are reached by one or more railroads. Because of their availability many of the above
powers are likely to be developed in the near future. Their importance is emphasized
by the following statement: Of the 244 feet descent in the Chippewa between Chippewa
Falls and the mouth of the Flambeau, 116 feet are concentrated in 5 falls and rapids.
The building of 10 dams would economically develop a total of 213 feet head in this dis-
tance of 43 miles. When fully developed these powers will rival in importance the extensive
developments on lower Fox River between Appleton and Green Bay.
BRANCHES AND UPPER WATERS.
Topography and drainage. — The following statements in regard to the water powers of
upper Chippewa River, not being based on a hydrographic survey, are necessarily incom-
plete. Statements concerning profile, etc., are based on the survey and maps of this
region made in 1880 by United States engineers in connection with the- reservoir surveys*
Distance and drainage area data are shown in the following table:
Length and drainage area of the upper tributaries of Chippewa River.
River.
Length
(map
measure).
Drainage
area.
West Branch of Chippewa
East Branch of Chippewa. ..^.
Court Oreilles
Flambeau
Jump
Yellow
Eau naire
Red Cedar
Miles.
35
Sq. miUt.
480
60 278
20 176
155 1,983
65 721
458
809
1,957
In the 16^ miles between the mouth of the Flambeau and Bruce Chippewa River descends
only 0.8 foot per mile, but in the 38^ miles between Bruce and the confluence of East
and West branches of the Chippewa, in sec. 2, T. 39 N., R. 6 W., the river descends 216
feet, an average of 5.6 feet per mile. This steep gradient is certain to produce many
good powers. This reach is, however, devoid of railroads except a few logging roads.
One of these undeveloped powers, called Belills Falls, is located in sec. 26, T. 38 N.,
R. 7 W. Its owner, the John Arpin Lumber Company, reports that this power is capable
104 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
of producing a head of about 30 feet. It is near Radison^ on the Cliicago, St. Paul, yTm-
neapolis and Omaha Railway.
East Branch of Chippeuxi. — Three important rapids occur in East Branch of Chippewa
River. Between Little Chief Lake and the confluence of East and West branches, a dis-
tance of 2.7 miles, there is a descent of 43 feet. Between these points there is a series of
rapids, "the bed of the riyer being literally paved with bowlders. The banks are from
10 to 20 feet high and the drift a reddish clay." These are known as the Goose Eye rapidN.
Two or three dams could develop a head of about 40 feet.
Above Hunters Lake, in sees. 22 and 23, T. 40 N., R 5 E., oc^-ur the Snaptail rapids,
with an aggregate descent of 43.6 feet.
Cedar rapids, the last of importance on this branch, with a descent of 16 feet, are located
in sec. 9, T. 40 N., R. 4 W., and in the 2 miles above. The total descent l>etweon Blaii«-
dell and Bear lakes is[about 58 feet, all in a^distance of 7 J miles. Between Bear and little
Chief lakes the banks vary from 4 to 50 feet in height. A logging dam has been maintained
at the head of the rapids, in sec. 26, T. 41 N., R. 4 W., which had a height of 10 feet. Mi»a.-
urements made here by United States engineers on June 20 and July 12, 1879, with the
river respectively 0.6 and 2.1 feet above low-water mark, showed a discharge of 381 and
472 second-feet. The river at this point is 153 feet wide.
West Branch of Chippewa. — West Branch of the Chippewa River has a drainage area
of 480 square miles, or 200 square miles more than East Branch, but its descent is con^d-
erably less rapid. The river has its source in several lai^Bje lakes at about 1^380 feet above
sea level. The first undeveloped power is located about IJ miles above the confluence
of the two branches, in sec. 34, T. 40 N., R. 6 W., where the hills approach within 90(>
feet. The river at this point has a width of 121 feet, and here United States engineers
made surveys for a dam with a head of 25i feet, which gave a very laiige reservoir arra.
A 15-foot head could probably be obtained at reasonable expense. Four measuremen*-
made by United States engineers on August 6, 1879, at a stage only 0.2 foot above k)w
water gave a mean dischaige of 360 second-fe<»t, or 0.-75 second-feet per square mile of
drainage area. This laige low-water run-off is double that estimated for this drainage area
The excess may be explained by the steadying action of the laige lakes near the head-
waters of this river.
In the 10 miles between Moose and Pakwawang lakes West Branch descends 71.6 fivt,
including a series of rapids with sluggish water between. Tlie banks are generally from
20 to 30 feet high, with clay soil.o
Court OreiUes River. — Court Oreilles River has its source at an elevation of 1,287 feet in a
lake of the same name. The group of lakes forming its headwaters have a total area of almut
16 square miles. A dam at this outlet would need to have a length of 260 feet to secure a
head of 5 feet, and would store a supply sufficient to deliver 255 second-feet for ninety days
at times of low water. The river is from 50 to 60 feet wide, and in the first 3 miles of its
course is sluggish. Thence to its mouth it furnishes a series of rapids, with still reaches
between. The most important rapids, known as the Court Oreilles, are situated within 3
miles from the mouth of the river, which at this point flows over ledges of the pre-Oamhrian
rocks. The river is crossed at its middle point by the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and
Omaha Railway, where the water surface has an elevation of 1,240 feet. This shows a
descent of 47 feet in 10 miles between this point and the lake. The lower half of the river is
reached by the above railway. Unlike either East Branch, West Branch, or any other
neighboring branches of the Chippewa, Court Oreilles River drains a region with a very open
sandy soil. A measurement made by United States engineers, October 25, 1879, at a stage
0.3 foot above low ivater, showed a discharge at the mouth of Lake Court Oreilles of only 2^
second-feet from a drainage area of 114 square miles. It seems likely that, because of the
character of the soil, part of the run-off escapes underground to the west into Namekagon
Rii'er.
a Kept. Chief Eng. U. S. Army, 1880, p. 1562.
CHIPPEWA RIVER SYSTEM.
105
Upper powers. — Because of their present isolation from railroads, the chief use of dams
which have been maintained on the upper headwaters of Chippewa River would lie in their
operation as reservoirs to improve the powers below. Their location is shown in the
following table:
Dams on "upper vxUers of Chippewa River A
Location.
Chippewa River:
NW. }aec. 28, T. 32 N., K. 6 W
Sec. 22, T.3.3N., R. 8 W
Sec. 28, T. 32 N., R. 6 W
West Branch:
S W. i S W. i sec. 32, T. 42 N., R. 5 W
Sec. 12 1 . 42 N., R. 5 W
NE jSFI.iaec. 14, T. 41 N., R. 6 W
Outlet to Pokegama Lake, N W. J N W. \ see. 32, T. 40 N., R. 6 \V .
Little Chief River, N E. i N E. 1 sec. 26, T. 40 N., R. 7 W
i:a8t Branch, NW. J SE. i sec. 2«, T. 41 N., R. 4 W
Thornapple River:
Sec. 10, T. 35 N., R. 6 W
Sec . 4, T . 36 N . , R. 5 W
Sec. 20, T.38N., R. 4 W
Sec . 4, T . 38 N . , R . 4 W
Bnmett River, sec. 17, T. 38N., R. 5 W
Torch River, sec. 16, T. 42 N., R. 4 W
Dimensions, b
Height. ' length.
Reservoir
capacity.
Ffft. I
21
8
♦20
7
8
6
10
♦18
♦18
♦12
♦15
♦15
*20
Feet. I Cubic feet.
62ri ' 133,333,000
' 153,331,000
334,536,000
123
*300
347
108
430,000,000
142
564
*800
300,000,000
*400
*250
♦250
*325
*300
a Authority: Nos. 1-4 and 6-9, United States engineers; 5 and 10-15, Chippewa Lumber and Boom
!)ompany.
b Dimensions m
Boom Company.
Company.
A Dimensions marked with an asterisk (♦) were estimated by the owner, The Chippewa Lumlier and
TRIBUTARIES OF CHIPPEWA RIVER.
FLAMBEAU RIVER.
Drainage and water pouters. — In size of drainage area Flambeau River ranks first among
the tributaries of the Chippewa. Indeed, because of its central location in the drainage
basin, it might properly be regarded as the prolongation of the main stream itself. Regard-
less of its size, however, its water power must, in large part, continue for some time unused,
because of its forested location and its lack of railroad facilities. The settling of this area
will eventually justify the extension of present railroads and the building of new ones.
Flambeau River is crossed near its mouth (at Ladysmith) by the Minneapolis, St. Paul and
Sault Ste. Marie Railway, near its center (at Park Falls) by the Wisconsin Central Railway,
and at its upper headwaters by the Chicago and Northwestern Railway. Between Park
Falls and Ladysmith is a reach of 70 miles unserved by railroad, and yet with no point at a
greater distance than 15 miles from the present railroads. It is significant that the two
points with transportation facilities, Ladysmith and Park Falls, have established large paper
and pulp mills and other manufactories. The unusually steady flow, the soft water, and the
proximity of almost unlimited quantities of pulp wood should make this river a center of the
paper and pulp industry. Transportation alone is lacking.
Flambeau Jliver has its source in the largest number of lakes and coni^ecting swamps
with the greatest aggregate storage capacity of any river in the State. This storage capacity
has been increased in many cases by lumbering dams built at the lake outlets, but as yet
many opportunities for the storing of surplus waters remain unimproved. These lakes lie
in the highest portion of the State, at elevations varying from 1,560 to 1,650 feet or more
above the sea. The levels show that the river descends 570 feet in a distance of 150 miles,
106
WATER POWERS OP NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
or about 3.8 feet per mile. A large part of this fall is known to be concentrated at numerous
falls and rapids. In the 19 miles between the mouth of the river and Ladysmith the descent
is 42 feet. A company has recently been formed to construct a dam with a head of 20 fe<»t
at a point 6 miles below Ladysmith, in sec. 18, T. 34 N., R. 6 W., and the work of constnic-
tion is already begun. The next developed power above the mouth is found at Ladysmith,
where a timber dam 350 feet long develops a head of 16 feet. This power is used to run a
paper and pulp mill &nd also for the manufacture of wooden ware.
There are no developed powers on Flambeau River for 70 miles above Ladysmith, but a
fall of 353 feet in this distance insures many undeveloped powers. Two of these. Little Falls
and Big Falls, are of special importance. The former is located in the NW. } sec. 21 , T. 35
N., R. 5 W., and is owned by A. J. McGilvary and B. D. Viles, of Chippewa Falls. A 15-fix>t
dam at the head of the first rapids would give a head of about 25 feet at the foot of tht'
rapids a short disl-ance below. Big Falls, owned by the John Heim Company, of Tony,
Wis., is located 6 miles above Little Falls, in sec. 35, T. 36 N., R. 5 W. There is a deso^nt
of 25 feet here in a short distance, concentrated in three pitches. A view of one is shown
in PI. V, ^. No accurate survey has been made of either fall, but the owner of Big Falb
estimates that a 25-foot dam at the head of the rapids and a canal about five-eighths of a
mile to the end of the rapids would -give a 6Q-foot head. Both falls occur over ledges of
pre-Cambrian crystalline rock.
At Park Falls the Flambeau Paper Company has constructed two dams; one, half a mik^
above the railroad crossing, in sec. 13, T. 40 N., R. 1 W., and one about a mile below, in
sec. 25, T. 40 N., R. 1 W^. Each dam furnishes an average head of 16 feet. The upper
plant has installed 13 turbines, rated at 1,300 horsepower, while at the lower plant about
1,100 horsepower has been installed.
There are other rapids in sees. 28, 32, and 33, T. 41 N., R. 1 E., and levels taken by Unitt'd
States engineers showed a fall here of 24 feet in 2 miles. Again, in sees. 3 and 4, T. 41 N..
R. 2 E., below the junction of Turtle and Flaorbeau rivers, is a similar fall of 25 feet. Above
this point the river is much smaller and has lower gradient, though bowlder rapids are of
frequent occurrence.
The lack of railroad transportation on this watershed will postpone the utilization of
its many large water powers uiltil the region is more thickly settled and better served by
railroads.
Profile. — No Government surveys have been made in the 46 miles above Big Faik,
so that reliable data regarding water powers along this portion of the river are almoet
entirely lacking. Al>ove Park Falls United States engineers have run levck in connection
with the reservoir surveys, thus furnishing valuable hypsometric data. Information con-
cerning the river profile from mouth to headwat«rs, with the exception noted above, is
fairly complete, and is summarized in the following table:
Profile of Flambeau Riverfront its mouth to Boulder Lake.a
No.
Station.
Mouth of river
SW. i sec. 34, T. 34N., R. 7 W
Ducomon rapids, N W. i sec. 23, T. 34 N., R. 7 W . .
New dam, foot of rapids
SVV. Jaec. 1, T. 34N., R. 6 W
Ladysmith, l)elow dam
Distance.
From
mouth.
Between
points.
Mile*.
MiUs.
0.0
7.0
7.0
11.0
4.0
15.0
4.0
15.75
.75
24.25
8.5
Elevar
tion
above set
level.
Feet.
1,050.0
l.OM.O
1,070.0
1,061.0
1,0S8.4
1,099.0
Deaoent b^
tweeo potnU.
Total.
Per
mile.
Feet. I Fert.
a Authority: No. 1-26, U. R. Geol. Survey; 27-30. U. 8. engineers. Because of
assigned eievHtion of the initial bench mark, 15 feet is added to the U. 8. eng^eer
rect to sea-level datum.
U.0
6.0 I
11.0 .
7.4 i
. 10-6 i
an error
elevation
2.0
1.5
10.0
l.X»
in the
to cor-
U. 8. OEOLOOICAL SURVEY
WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 156 PL. V
A. LOWER PITCH OF BIG FALLS. FLAMBEAU RIVER.
B. COPPER FALLS, BAD RIVER.
CHIPPEWA BIVER SYSTEM.
107
Profile of Flambeau River from Us mouth to Boulder Lake — Oontinued.
Ko
Station.
Difltanoe.
From Between
mouth, ooints.
Eleva-
tion
above set
level.
Defloeht be-
tween points.
I Total
Per
mile.
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
10
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Ladysmlth, above dam
NW. i8eo.25, T.35N., R.6W
Little FalU, foot of
Little Falls, head of (sec. 21, T. 35 N., R. 5 W.)
NE. J sec. 16, T. 35 N., R. 5 W
Big Falls, foot of (N W. J sec. 2, T. 35 N., R. 5 W.) .
NW. I sec. 8, T. 39 N.. R. 1 W
South line see. 33, T.40N., R.l W
Sec. 35, T. 40 N.. R. 1 W., west line of
Below dam, sec. 25, T. 40 N., R. 1 W., west line of. .
A bovB dam
Park Falls railroad bridge, west line sec. 24, T. 40
N., R.1 W
Below tail race upper dam, Parle Falls
Above upper dam. Park Falls
Backwater, upper dam
Center sec. 28, T. 41 N.. R. 1 E
Sec. 12, T. 41 N., R. 1 E., W. J stake
Sec. 4, T. 41 N., R. 2 E., W. J stake
Turtle River, mouth
Manitowish River, junction of Bear Creek
Rest Lake, mouth of (sec. 8, T. 42 N., R. 5 E.)
Island Lake, inlet of
Boulder Lake
MUe».
24.25
28.0
32.0
32.8
36.8
40.3
86.2
9L2
04.2
05.0
05.0
06.6
96.3
96.5
104.3
107.1
112.5
115.8
110.0
134.0
146.0
153.5
163.0
0.0
3.75
4.0
.8
4.0
3.5
45l0
5.0
3.0
54.7
0.0
1.6
.5
.2
5.8
2.8
6.4
3.3
3.2
15.0
12.0
7.5
0.5
Feet.
1,115.3
1,115.4
1,131.4
1,U7.4
1,166.7
1,177.0
1,421.8
1,429.6
1,438.0
1,454.0+
1,470.0+
470.0
466.8
481.0
482.5
490.2
5ia8
516.0
541.4
568.0
587.0
502.0
625.0
Feet.
16.3
.1
16.0
16.0
10.3
10.3
244.8
7.8
8.4
2.8
14.2
1.5
16l7
n.6
6.2
25.4
26.6
10.0
5.0
33.0
Feet.
4.0
20.0
4.8
03.0
5.3
1.5
28
5.6
.2
6.0
2.0
1.8
7.6
1.8
1.6
.66
3.5
RainfaU and run-off. — ^Like all the northern rivers of the State the minimum flow of
Flambeau River occurs in severe midwinter weather, or during very dry summers in the
months of July and August. At present there are not sufficient discharge data covering
periods when the river is frozen to construct an accurate rating curve for such periods.
Because of the extensive forest and the numerous lakes and swamps, an ordinary flow of
0.8 second-foot per square mile of drainage area would seem conservative. By the proper
regulation of present dams at the headwaters it is likely that this dischai^ge could be con-
siderably increased.
In February, 1903, the United States Geological Survey established an observing station
at the Ladysmith dam, and has^taken daily gage readings since. Discharge measurements
are taken by current meters and are being continued so that in time an accurate estimate of
the river's dischargOb^will be available. The following tables give such daily observations:
108
WATER POWEKS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
discharge measurements, and computations as have become available since the eBtablisfa-
ment of the station, and also a record of rainfall for the corresponding period:
Diachajfe measurements of Flambeau River near Laiysmith, Wis. ^ for 1903, 1904, and IdOo.
Date.
1903.
February 13 «.
March 19b
Aprils
May 6
June 16
July 11
iugust 21
September 10.
October 23....
1904.
May 16
Junes
August 29
September 20.
October 12
1905.
Hydrographer.
L. R. Stockman.
do
....do
....do
do
....do
do
E.C. Murphy....
L. R. Stockman.
E. Johnson, Jr.
....do
....do
....do
F. W.Hanna..
April 8 S. K. Clapp
May 23 do .....
June 14 M. S. Brennan.
July 12 ' do
August 12 ! do
September 23 ' F. W. Hanoa. .
Width.
Feet.
325
366
349
361
342
342
342
364
348
350
350
349
343
364
129
357
354
353
345
353
Area of
section.
Square
feet.
472
1,871
1,330
1,927
703
1,430
995
1,579
1,271
1,333
1,448
733
702
1,653
1,537
1,292
1,232
1,015
623
1,404
Mean Gage . I Dis-
veloeity. I height ! cfaaigp.
I
Feel per j
second. |
1.64
1.77
2.80
3.70
1.91
2.»S
2.60
3.36
3.07
3.15
2.99
2.07
2.21
3.37
3.49
2.60
2.67
2.54
1.84
3.02
Feet.
16.20
18.95
17. «
1&97
l&OD
18.10
16.85
laos
17.21
Sefond-
feei.
773
3. .112
3,727
7,113
l.x^45
4 ^22
2,681
5.3Q8
17.88 ' 4.203
17.45 I 4.321
16l06 ' 1.517
16l01 I 1,554
IS. SS
. i
18.27
17.60 I
17.35
16.80 '
15.66
17.75
I
5,S8S
5.367
3,474
3.2S8
2.576
1,144
4,23^
aFroren.
b Log Jam below.
Mean daily gage height, in feet, of Flambeau River near Ladysmith, Wis., February I'l,
190S, to December SI, 1905.
Day.
Feb. Mar.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
1903.
16.15
I 16.60
! 16.50
' 16.10
16.30
16.50
16.60
16.10
16. 50 17. 25
16.05 , 17.25
16.45 17.30
16.35 17.25
14 ■ 16.35 17.60
16.60 17.40
Apr. May. June, i July.
Aug. Sept. Oct, ' Not. Dpv.
~r
17.00 18.30
16.80 18.40
16.90 18.60
16.90 19.05
17.05 19.10
16.40 I 19.10
1&90 \ 19.10
17.45 i 18.80
16.50 ' 17.35 ! 18.70
15 ' 16.00
16 16.10
17 1 16.05
18 1 16.00
19 T i 16.90
16.15
16.20
17.20
laos
10.30 17.00
18.25 j 16.90
17. 95
18.25
18.80
19.55
19.80
19.65
19.55
19.40
19.45
19.05
19.80
19.65
18.95
18.60
18.10
17.55
17.55
17.30
16.95
1&60
16.75
16.80
16.30
1&15
16.35
16.50
16.05
16.05
15.85
15.65 ' ,
16.15 I ,
17.25 '
18.10 '
18.90
19.05 I
19.20
18.85
18.70 j
18.60 ! 18.20
18.75 18.00
18.55 I 17.90
1&30 ' 17.80
17.85 17.70
17.70 \ 17.50
17.65 ■ 17.30
IT. 60 17. 30
17.35 17.20
17.35 I 17.00
17.00
16.70
I 16.80
16.30
16.80
1&90
16.90
17.30
18.20
18.20
18.00
18.40
19.00
19.80
20.40
20.50
20.50
20.30
20.00
17.20
17.30
17.60
19.65
19.70
19.35
19.25
19.25 I
19.30 .
19.35 I
18.95 ,
18.65 j
18.45 j
18.25 I
17.90
17.85 I
17.80
17.50
17.35
16.00
1&25
15.85
15l85
1&85
1&85
15.90
1&65 .
l&TO
1&.85
16. 00
15.85
15l85
15l80
1ol80
15.75
15l80
15lQ0
15.50
li»
1S.T5
15 9k3
15. KV
15. Ml
IClSS
1ol81)
14.7t>
16LaO
16.,T3
i&a>
16. ,%
Id 45
16.55
ltv35
16. «i
16l:.'
16. K)
CHIPPEWA BIVER 8Y8TKM.
109
Mean daily gage height , in feet ^ of Flambeau River near Ladysmiihf Wis., February 15 y 1903 ^
to December 31 , i905— Continued.
Day.
Feb. I Mar. | Apr.
1903.
20 \ l&OO
21 j 15.90
22 ' 16.06
23 1 16.00
24 16.25
28 J 16.00
as ; 15.96
27 16.40
28 ' 16.25
29
30 1
31 1
20.35
19.30
18.50
18.45
17.30
17.60
17.25
17.00
17.10
17.00
16.85
16.90
1&65
16.65
17.30
17.30
17.25
17.15
17.20
17.40
16. 76 i 18 45
16.60 I
Day.
1904.
1 16.75
2 16.96
3 16.75
4 16.85
5 17.00
6 16.50
7 16.50
8 16.66
9 16.65
10 16.70
11 laeo
12 16.55
13 16.50
14 16.70
15 16.70
16 ia75
17 laeo
18 16.60
19 16.66
20 16.30
21 1 16.75
22 1 16.75
23 1 16.75
24 ' 16.65
25 j 16.70
26 16.70
27 ' 16.45
28 1 16.65
29 1 16.60
30 ;...| 16.75
31 1 16.65
I
Jan.ft Feb.c
16.75
16.75
16.10
16.80
1&90
16.70
16.80
16.75
16.75
16.65
1«.70
16.95
17.00
16,70
16.90
16.95
16.55 I
17. 10 I
16.95 I
1&95 I
17.55
16.90
17.00
16.60
17.00
16.90
17.00
16.96
16.95
Mar.b
17.00
17.06
17.00
17.05
17.15
16.95
16.90
17.15
16.90
17.50
17.40
17.05
17.30
17.20
17.20
17.00
17.16
17.20
17.15
17.05
17.06
17.15
16.85
17.15
16.96
16.95
16.95
17.15
17.05
16.45
17.20
Apr.e
16.90
17.20
16.80
16.90
16.85
16.80
17.10
17.25
17.05
17.00
17.10
17.10
17.15
17.05
17.25
17.20
17.10
17.05
17.00
16.85
16.86
16.65
17.20
17.20
1800
18 40
18 45
18 50
18 50
18 90
May.
June.
July.
19.20
15.80
17.20
19.25
15.85
17.15
1886
15.96
16.70
19.15
1&65
16.70
18.90
15.90
16.70
19.00
15.60
16.80
19.55
15.86
(«)
20.60
15.60
(«)
21.45
15.70
(«)
21.45
15.95
(«)
21.20
15.80
(»)
21.45
(«)
Aug. Sept. Oct.
17.00
17.10
16.90
16.70 I
16.80 I
17. 10 I
1&80 I
17.00 I
16.90 !
16.80 I
16.70 I
16.80 ,
Nov. I Dec.
19.70
17.25
15.60
16.67
19.30
17.25
15.45
16.67
18.90
17.15
15.25
16.67
18 50
17.05
15.40 1 1&66
18.20
17,00
15.66
17.00
1800
16.80
16.46
16169
17.70
17.00
1&56
16.66
17.85
16.80
16l86
16.50
17.50
l&M
i&aB
16.10
17.30
16.66
16.80
16.80
17.20
16.05
15.85
16.80
16.20
16.70
May.
18.70
18 56
18.60
18.35
18 45
18.60
18.60
18.86
19.20
19.15
18.90
1880
18 36
18.15
laoi
17.96
1801
18 01
1&03
17.05
17.03
17.01
17.04
17.06
18 40
19.00
19.40
19.30
1880
18 40
17.80
Juno. July. Aug. ' Sept. I Oct.
17.60
17.40
17.42
17.43
18.00
18.02
18.25
18 27
17.90
17.22
17.10
17.25
17.16
17.12
16.60
16.65
16.35
16.25
16.32
15.95 I
15.88 I
16.15 I
15.95 I
16.35 I
16.65 I
1&70
16.95 I
17.05 i
17.06
17.20
17.58
17.77
17.70
19.90
18.82
18.88
18.75
ia75
1805 ;
17.96 I
17.70 I
17.25 I
16.40 i
16.30
16.12
16.16
16.03
16.00
15.60
16.80
15.95
15.85
15.80
15.70
15.85
16.16
ia76
16.75
15.70
15.25
15.55
15.15
15.40
(/)
(/)
16.60
16.72
15.13
16.40
15.75
15.92
15.85
16.00
15.90
15.90
15.85
16.02
15.90
16.85
15.96
15.75
16.00
16.20
16.36
16.45
16.65
16.45
16.45
16.20
16.10
16.27
16.15
I
16.26
16.30
16.38
17.78
17.65
17.20
17.28
17.30
17.03
16.00
16.40
16.32
16.46
16.30
iai6
16.05
16.05
16.13
16.15
16.00
I 16.00
I 15.90
I 15.95
15.95
I
16.40
I 16.40
I 16.40
16.45
16.40
16.45
(*)
(«)
(*)
(')
16.05
16.05
16.10
16.10
17.05
18.70
18.65
18 60
18 50
1&43
18 30
17.86
17.20
16.95
17.15
17.25
17.60
17.80
17.75
17.76
17.85
17.76
17.65
17.55
17.65
17.70
17.22
Nov.
17.26
17.30
17.20
16.90
16.70
16.80
16.30
16.20
16.17
16.15
16.05
15.55
15.60
15.45
15.82
15.28
15.66
15.72
16.70
15.60
15.46
15.82 I
15.27 I
15.55 I
15.72 I
16.70 I
15.55 I
15.40 I
14.95
15.55
Dec.d
15.65
15.05
15.95
14.50
15.15
15.30
14.87
15.78
16.67
16.55
15.25
16.77
16.55
16.30
15.35
15.45
15.35
15.30
15.50
15.67
15.70
15.72
16.68
15.60
15.65
15.70
16.10
15.76
15.60
16.30
16.40
a Chain gage stolen.
^Frozen from January 1 to March 30, when ice l)egins to break. Ice varied from 6 to 18 inches in
thickness.
f: Ice conditions March 31 to about April 10.
d Ice conditions during December.
< Weight gone.
/Key lost; no gage height taken on August 3 and 4.
110 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Mean daily gage heighlf in feet, of Flambeau River ntar Ladysmiih, Wis., etc. — Omtinued.
Day.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
1905.
1
(«)
2
3
4
16.4
16.80
5 ;>....
« L...
7
16.3
8
9
10
f
11
16.5
16.00
12
13
14
16.6
-'i
15
1
16
17
18
16.7
16.90
19
20
1
21
16.7
i
22
1
23
1
24
16.80
16.45
16.35
25 1
16.6
26 1
27 .
16.25
^::::::::::::::
16.6
17.10
17.90
30 '
18.20
31
18.60
Apr. I May,
18.80
1&40
19.00
19.20
18.90
18.40
1&40
ia20
18.10
17.80
17.40
17.20
17.20
ia20
I 18.10
17.60
17.20
16.55
16.55
16.45
1&55
17.00
16.30
16.35
16.15
16.05
17.40
17.40
17.00
1&80
June.
16.8
16.8
1&8
17.0
17.3
17.6
17.6
17.4
17.1
17.4
17.6
17.8
17.8
18.0
18.3
18.2
18.4
18.6
18.6
18.4
18.0
18.0
17.4
18.0
17.6
17:4
17.2
18.0
17.8
17.6
17.4
17.40
16.25
16.40
16.80
17.80
18.70
19.60
19.30
18.90
18.70
18.60
18.60
17.60
17.50
17.60
17.70
l&OO
19.70
19.60
19.40
19.10
18.90
18.60
18.40
18.00
l&OO
l&OO
17.70
17.70
17.70
July.
Aug.
Sept. ' Oct. Nov^ , Dec.
17.70
17.60
17.50
17.60
1&60
19.00
19.20
1&80
1&50
1&20
17.40
17.00
17.00
17.00
16.70
16.60
16.35
16.35
16.40
15l80
15.90
1&80
15l70
15.75
1&35
15.35
15.30
15.50
15u30
15.40
15.55
15.40
15.32
15.45
15.60
15u55
15.90
16.80
1&15 I 16.90
16.10
16.20
15.90
15.50
15.90
15.75
15.80
15.80
15.75
15.70
15.55
17. 10 j
16u90
16.00 I
16.45
16.80 I
16.35 I
16.25 I
16.80
17.00
17.20
17.00
16.90
16.60 '
16.90
17.00 i
17.00 '
16.90 !
16.60
ia70
16.50
^40,
16.20 I
16.20
1&25 I
16.25
16.45
16.80
17.10
17.05
17.70
17.80
1&20
1&40
17.80
17.60
17.30
17.20
16.80
16.80
16.70
16.20
16.55
16.55
16.35
16l25
16l20
16iI5
15.80
15.96
15.80 I 16.05
15.95 15.96
16l40
16.25
16l15
16l05
1&28
1«lU
i&ao
1&I5
15.55
16.20
16.15
16.10
16.40
16.75
ia75
17.00
17.65
17.20
17.65
17.35
17.45
17.30
17.10
16.85
16.85
1&05
16.30
16.30
16.20
16L10
16.35
16.05
l&QO
15.90
15.85
15.90
15.70
15.75
15.60
l&QO
16.60
16.10
1680 I I&60
16 70 I iai5
1655 I 15u90
1630
16uI5
15.90
15.83
Ml 2D
1&9S
I&IO
1&45
16.15
16.25
16l2S
15.90
15. NO
, 15.90
15.70
15.7X1
; 16l20
16, 40
I ii:x>
15.95
' 15u45
15l65
lifiO
15.65
15.70
16.75
16.10
15.60
16.00
1&90
, 16.15
I
16.10
o River frozen entirely across January 1 to March 23. March 1 1-23 there was water on the ice.
heights are to water surface in a hole in the ice. The following comparative readings were al4K>
Date.
January 7..
January 14.,
January 21 . ,
January 28..
February 4.
February 11
February 18
February 25
March 4....
Water
surface.
FecL
163
16 6
16 7
166
16 4
16 5
167
166
16.8
Top of , Thick-
Ice.
Feet.
16 4
16 8
16.9
16 9
16 9
16 9
17.1
16 9
17.8
F'eet.
a7
1.3
1.4
1.:.
L7
1.7
2.0
LS
CHIPPEWA RIVER SYSTEM.
Ill
BaHng tahUfor Flambeau River near LadysmUh^ Wis. , from March 19, 1903, to December 1,
1903. a
he^t.
Discharge, i
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Gage
hei^t.
Feet.
r
Discharge, i
Second-feet.,
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Second-feet.
Feet,
Second-feet.l
Feet,
Second-feet.
Feet.
15.0
530 1
16.3
1,765
17.6
4,280 J
1&8
6,920
15.1
666 1
1&4
1,925
17.7
4,500 1
18.9
7,140
1&2
600 1
16.5
2,085
17.8
4,720 '
19.0
7,380
15.3
665
16.6
2,245
17.9
4,940 1
19.2
7,800
1&4
746 1
16.7
2,406
lao
5,160 1
19.4
8,240
16.6
825
16.8
2,575
18.1
5,380 I
19.6
8,680
15.6
015 '
16.9
2,756
1&2
5,600 1
19.8
9,120
1&7
1,010 1
17.0
2,960
1&3
5,820
20.0
9,660
15l8
1,110 \
17.1
3,U0
1&4
6,040 '
20.2
10,000
U9
1,220 1
17.2
3,400
ia5
6,260 1
2a4
10,440
16.0
1,340 1
17.3
3,620
18.6
6,480 1
2a6
10,880
16.1
1,465 '
17.4
3,840
18.7
6,700 ,1
21.0
11,760
16.2
1,610
17.5
4,060
i;
a Made from measurements between gage heights 16 and 18.9.5 feet. Curve above and below these
points is approximate. To be used only for open river.
BatiTig table for Flambeau River near Ladysmithf Wis., from January 1, 1904, to December
31, 1904.
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Gage
hei^t.
j Feet.
Discharge.
Feet.
Second-feet.
Second-feet.
15.0
567
1 16.0
1,399
15.1
506
16.1
1,542
15.2
637
I 16.2
1,686
15.3
600
' 16.3
1,830
15.4
755
1 16.4
1,974
15.5
832
1&5
2,118
15.6
921
16.6
2,262
1&7
1,022
1 16.7
2,406
15.8
1,135
; 16.8
2,550
1&9
1,260
1 lao
2,695
Gage
beiSt.
Feet.
17.0
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.8
18.0
18.2
Dischaige.
Gage
hei^it.
Discharge.
Second-feet.
Feet.
Second-feet.
2,841
18.4
5,291
2,990
18.6
6,704
I 3,143
1&8
6,120
3,300
19.0
6,539
1 3,461
19.2
6,959
3,626
19.4
7,379
! 3,795
19.6
7,799
1 ^A^
19.8
8,219
4,611
20.0
8,639
I 4,893
Rating table for Flambeau River near Lady smith, Wis., from January 1 to December 31, 1905,
hei^t.
Discharge.
Gage
height.
Discharge.
Second-feet.
Gage
height.
Discharge.
1
Gage
height.
Discharge
Feet.
Second-feet.
Feet.
Feet.
Second-feet.
Feet.
Secondr-feet.
15.00
600
16.20
1,735
17.40
3,510 '1
3,700 1
3,890
18.50
5,770
15.10
670
16.30
1,855
17.50
18.60
5,960
15.20
745
16.40
1,980
17.60
18.70
6,190
15.30
825
16.50
2,110
17.70
4.090 li
4,300 1
18.80
6,400
15.40
910
16.60
2,245
1 17.80
ia90
6,610
15.50
1,000 1
16.70
2,385
1 17.90
4,510 {'
19.00
6,820
1&60
1,090 I
16.80
2,630
18.00
4,720 1
19.20
7,240
15.70
1,185 1
16.90
2,680
' 18.10
4,930 1
19.40
7,680
15u80
1,285
17.00
2,835
1 18.20
5,140 1;
19. eo
8,120
15.90
1,300
17.10
2,995
18.30
5,350
19.80
8,560
16.00
1,500
17.20
3,160
18.40
5,560
20.00
9,000
16.10
1,615
17.30
3,330
1
The above table is applicable only for open-channel conditions. It to bM^d on discharge measure-
pieats made dprtn^ 19<^1905. It is not very well defined.
112
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Estimated monOdy discharge of Flambeau River near Ladysmiihf TTu. , for 1 90Sy 190^^ and 19*'>o .
[Drainage area, 2,120 square miles.]
Discharge. Run-off.
Date.
January
February !».,
March
April
May
June
July c
1903.
Augusts...
Septeniljer..
Octoter
Novenilxjr..
December..
The year.
1904.
January...
February..
March
April <
May
June
July
August /
Septeml)er...
Octolier /....
November...
December «..
The year.
1905. ff
March 24-31 ,
April '. .
May
June
July
August
September . .
Octolx^r
Novemljer . .
December . . .
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
Sec.-fl. j Sec.-ft.
10,330
6,150
12,750
9,120
833
1.925
5,050
915
10,660
8,900
1,685
1,765
1,400
530
7,379
6,034
8,429
2,334
4,109
5,912
3,300
1,974
2,334
2,856
1,234
662
607
1,260
1,470
555
390
Mean.
Per
square
mile.
-I
Depth.
Sec.'ft. I Sec.-ft. ' Inches.
860
2,-736
3.266
8.187
2,749
4,596
3,431
5,777
4,807
1,054
0.41
1.29
1.54
3.86
1.30
2.17
1.62
2,72
2.27
.50
3,
5,183
2,890
2,834
1,336
2,056
3,517
1,416
951
-h
1.60
2.44
1.36
1.34
.636
.970
1.66
.668
.449
5,980
7,240
5,980
8,340
7,240
3,160
5,560 ,
3.990 \
2,245 ;
2,045 I
1,795
1,558
2,530
1,795
1,000
825
1,735
1,045 '
1,090
955 i
I
3,384
3,867
4,090
5,223
2,950
1,669
2,839
2,305
1,616
1,449
0.21
1.49
1.72
4.45
1.45
2.02
1.33
3.03
2.62
.56
1.60
1.82
1.93
2.46
1.39
.787
1.34
1.09
.762
.683
Rain-
fall a
InchfM.
0 46
.9P
2. r7
\m
t\ M
l.M
^■:k\
.\r*
S.o3
Z.XS
."H
1.78
2.81
1.52
1.54
.726 1
1.08
1.91 I
.745 I
.518
1
.4.*
1.11
1.76
1.77
4.M
5.64
2.U
S-lil
5l(I
.W
2.39
35.43
.47h
2.<«
2.J2
2.74
l.N)
.1«7
1.50
1.2»
a Rainfall for 19a3 is the average of the recorded rainfall at Butternut, Medford, and Eau Claire
that for 1904 omits F:au Claire and adds Prentice and Minocqua.
h February 15 to 2X, inchisive.
e July 1 to 25, inclusive.
d August 10 to 31, inclusive.
< Estimates April and December made as if open channel.
/ Discharge estimated for August 3 and 4 and October 1 to 4.
9 No estimate for ice period.
CHIPPEWA BIVER SYSTEM.
113
Tributariea of Flambeau River. — Dore Flambeau River, the south branch of the Flambeau,
risen at an elevation of 1,582 feet above the sea, in a group of a dozen lakes, the largest being
Long Lake. Its total drainage area is 742 square miles. After a very rapid course of about
60 miles it joins the main stream in sec. 31 , T. 37 N ., R. 3 W. In the 27 miles between Long
Ldike and Fifield the river descends 146 feet, or 5.4 feet to the mile. Its gradient below
Fiiield has not been determined, but it is known to have many important falls and rapids.
One of the largest of these, located in sec. 33, T. 37 N., R. 3 W., has a total fall of 35 feet.
Owing to its lakes and swamps this river has a much more uniform flow than any of the
Chippewa tributaries farther south. Dams are maintained by the Chippewa River Improve-
ment Company at the outlet of Long Lake and at Fiiield. The same company maintains
h)gging dams on Elk River in sec. 11, T. 37 N., R. 2 W., and also in sec. 14, T. 37 N., R. 1
W., with flowage of li and 21 square miles, respectively. These and other logging dams
within this drainage area are listed in the following table:
Lwjging darns maintained on tributaries of Flambeau River, a
No.
Dam.
Location.
Doro Flambeau River:
See. 7, T. 39 N., R. 1 E; sec. 24, T. 40 N., R. 1 E..
Sec. 16, T. 38 N., R. 1 W
Sees. 23-26, T. 40 N., R. 3 E
Flambeau Lake, sec. 2, t: 40 N., R. 4 E
Manitowish River:
Sec. 9, T. 42 N., R. 5 E
Sec. 24, T. 42 N., R. 6 E
Sec.lS, T. 42N., R.7E.,
Elk River:
Sec. 11, T. 37 N., R. 2 W
Sec. 14, T. 37N., R. 1 W
Trout River, sec. 14, T. 41 N., R. 6 E
Bear Creek, sec. 2, T. 40 N., R. 4 E
Height.
Length.
Ftet.
Feet,
16
350
15
400
6
24
13
400
17
300
15
250
10
450
10
4
a Authority: Nos. 1 aud 3, Wm. Irving, manager, Chippewa Lumber and Boom Co.; 4-8. Flambeau
Lumber Co.; 9, J. R. Davis Lumber Co.; lOand 11, E. S. Shcpard. Owners: Nos. 1, 3, and 5-7, Chippewa
Lumber and Boom Co.; 2, Lugar Lumber Co.; 4, Flambeau Lumber Co.; 8 and 9, Chippewa Klver
Improvement Co.
RED CEDAR RIVER.
Drainage. — An area of 1,9.57 square miles in the extreme western part of Chippewa Vallay
is drained by Red Cedar River (sometimes called the Menomonie), which, unlike the other
large tributaries of Chippewa River, does not reach the main stream until within a few miles
from its mouth. Except at its headwaters. Red Cedar River drains a region underlain by the
Cambrian sandstone. As a result, the greater part of the area has a sandy soil. A narrow
belt of clayey loam, increasing in width southward, extends along the western limit of this
an'a. The drainage an^a occupies the U-shaped region included between two terminal
moraines, one near the eastern and one near the westc^rn border, which unite at the upper
headwaters, giving rise to numerous lakes. Four of the largest of these have an area of about
20 square miles.
Profile. — A study of the profile of Red Cedar River shows that its total descent in the 90
miles above its mouth is 470 feet, or 5.2 feet per mile. This gives opportunity for a large num-
ber of water powers. There are about 25 old logging dams on the river, besides about an equal
iRR 156—06 8
114
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
number of sawmills and flouring mills. The following table has been compiled from actual
surveys by competent engineers and from checked railroad levels:
Profile of Red Cellar River from its mouth to Red Cedar Lake A
No.!
Station.
Mouth of river
Dunn vilie
Downs\iIle dam:
Foot
Crest V
Ir\ing
Menomonie dam:
Foot
Crest
' ' Omaha ' ' b ridge
Cedar rapids dam:
Foot .^.
C rest
Hay River, mouth
Colfax
Cameron (2 miles west)
Railroad crossing
Cedar Lake dam, sec. 22, T. 37 N., R. 10 W..
Dam in sec. 25, T. 37 N., R. 10 W
Distance.
From Between
mouth, points.
Eleva-
tion
al>ove
lea level.
Miles. \ MUes. I
0
2.0 2.0
7.8 I
7.8 !
13.0
I
1&6 .
16.6 I
18.9 '
I
I
23.4 I
23.4
30.2 '
3&0
70.0 I
74.0 I
9ao
96.0 I
5.8
.0
5.2
3.6
.0
2.3
4.5 I
.0
6.8 i
4.8 '
35.0 I
4.0
16.0 I
6.0 '
Descent b^
tweea points.
ToUl.
Per
Feet.
705.0
723.4
739.0
758. 2
766.4 ,
788.3
803.9
806.7
823.3 I
842.0 '
8S9.3
895lO
1,068.0
1,116.0
1,191.0
mik.
FeeL Fttt.
18.4 ' 9.:
.15.6 2.
19.2
&2
21.9
15.6 ,\
2.8 i
16.6
18.7 I
17.3 J
35.7
173.0
48.0
7a 0
&.0
3.7
5.3
7.4
5-0
12.0
4.7
o Authority: No. 1. Chicago. Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway: 2-11, O'Kwf 6i Orbison. Appletoc
Wis.; 12, Wisconsin Central Railway; 13, Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Sault Ste. Marie Railway: 14 and
15, Chica^, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway.
A study of this table shows that Red Cedar River has a high gradient, averaging 54 feet per
mile in the last 74 milej$, with frequent concentrations of descent. No gagings of the river
have been made. Tributaries entering the river from the west flow through a clayev-loam
soil, but the upper and eastern portions of the drainage area have a sandy-loam soil. It is
therefore likely that this river has a fairly uniform flow. The decline of the lumbpring inter-
ests greatly increases the value of the Red Cedar River as a power producer.
Waier powers and dams. — In the 30 miles below Hay River the Red Cedar descends 154.3
feet, and as this region borders the prairie region and is thickly settled, the six powers here
included will probably be developed to the full extent in the near future. This develop-
ment includes: (1) The construction of a dam at Punnville, 2 miles above the mouth of the
river, giving a head of 15.6 feet and an estimated 1,685 horsepower; (2) the raising of the
present dam at Downsvilie 4 feet, giving a total head of 23.2 feet and an estimated 2,480
horsepower; (3) the construction of a dam at Irving, with a total head of 21 .9 feet, giving an
estimated 2,260 horsepower; (4) the raising of the present dam at Menomonie 2^ feet, thus
obtaining a total head of 18.4 feet and an estimated 1,800 horsepower; (5) the building of a
new dam near the "Omaha'' bridge, 2.8 miles above Menomonie, with a head of 16.6 feet and
an estimated 1,700 horsepower; (6) the raising of the present dam at Cedar rapids 21.3 feet,
giving a total head of 40 feet and an estimated 3,800 horsepower.a Recently all the powers
owned by Knapp, Stout & Co., including many of the most valuable on the river, have been
« This statement is based on a careful survey for the owners made by O'Keef & Orbison, hjdimuhe
engineera, ot Appieton, Wis., ana an estimated run-off of 0.461 seoond-foot per square mile.
CHIPPEWA KIVER SYSTEM. 115
acquired by the Wisconsin Power Company, of Chicago, III. The location of 10 dams owned
by this company is shown in the following table :
Dam3 on Red Cedar River owned by the WiscoTisin Power Company.
Location.
Sec. 25, T. 37 N., R. lOW.
Sec. 2, T. 36N., R. 10 W..
Sec.25, T. 36N., R. lOW.
Sw. 30, T. 36 N., R.OW..
Sec. 29, T. 36N., R.9 W..
Sec. 13, T. 34N., R. 10 W - 12.0
Sec. 30, T. 33 N., R. 10 W '
Downsville '.
Menomoni'e
C«dar Falls
Head.
Amount of
flowa«e.
Authority.
Feet.
Cubic feet.
14.0
1,674,000,000
U.S. engineers.
7.0 1
405,000,000
Do.
12.0
10.0
136,000,000
Do.
10.0
12.0
40,500,000
Do.
10.0
810,000,000
Do.
19.0
J. W. Orbison.
15.5 !
Do
18.7
Do.
Railroads. — Between the mouth of Red Cedar River and Menomonie the Chicago, Milwau-
kee and St. Paul Railway clearly parallels the river. In this stretch of 17 miles are situated
the most important powers. Above Menomonie the drainage is crossed by the Chicago,
Milwaukee and St, Paul, the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, the Wisconsin
Central, and the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie railways.
EAU CLAIRE RIVEB.
Ranked in order of its drainage area (900 square miles), Eau Gaire River is third among
the tributaries of the Chippewa. The greater part of this area is underlain by the Cam-
brian sandstone, and all except the upper headwaters drain a sandy-loam soil, as will be
seen from PI. II. Like most of the neighboring rivers, the Eau Claire has been an impor-
tant lumbering stream, with many flooding dams. Very few water powers have been
ntilized. The first developed water power is about 500 feet from the mouth of the river,
where a dam 300 feet long develops a head of 11 feet to run a linen mill, which uses only
part of the power thus furnished. About 3,000 feet farther upstream is a second dam,
with an average head of 13J feet, owned by the Northwestern Lumber Company. An
installation of turbines of 420 horsepower is reported. This is used in running a sawmill,
a machine shop, and dynamos. The same company reports the three following lumbering
dams on this river, but none of the resulting water power is utilized at the present time.
In the NW. J NE. } sec. 14, T. 27 N., R. 9 W., is a dam with a 7-foot head, capable at ordi-
nary low water of furnishing 210 theoretical horsepower. In the SW. J NE. \ seo. 13,
T. 27 N., R. 8 W., is a timber dam with a head of 8 feet, which could easily and cheaply
be increased to 20 feet, thus producing at ordinary low water 540 theoretical horsepower.
The third dam, with a present head of 20 feet, is reported in the SW. J SW.- J sec. 5, T. 26
N., R. 6 W. This dam has not been used for many years and is much in need of repairs.
There are many other opportunities for developing water powers on the Eau Claire River,
as well as on its tributaries.
JVUF RIVER.
As its name would imply. Jump River is a very rapid stream, with numerous falls and
rapids, making a descent of nearly 500 feet in its entire length of 65 miles. Its drainage
area of 720 square miles is a long and narrow one, and with only a few unimportant excep-
tions is devoid of lakes and swamps. As a result the river has a very uneven flow as com-
pared with the Flambeau, which stream it resembles in flowing through a valley whose
soil is a clayey loam. The main portion of the Jump River valley has no railroads and is
116
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
sparsely settled. A branch of the Wisconsin Central is now being built across this drain-
age. The most important falls on the river, 35 feet in height, are in sec. 20, T. 34 X.,
R. 2 W., about 1 mile east of the junction of North and South forks, but there are numer-
ous other dam sites of 15 to 20 foot head, which will doubtless be utilized when this
section is settled.
YELLOW R1YER.
The drainage area of Yellow River is- 460 square miles, distributed in a long, narrow
vaUey. The lower half of the valley has a sandy soil, the upper part a clayey loam.
While the gradient of Yellow River is not so great as that of its neighbor, Jimip River,
it has a rapid current. As in the case of other rivers in this region the only dams built
were for logging purposes. The Miller dam is said to be the only oiie remaining. Thrw»
other dams, one at Colbum, one in sec. 7, T. 29 N., R.5 W., and ona at Cadott, have all
been carried away by floods. The river is crossed by three railroads.
SMALLEIR TRIBUTARIES.
Chippewa River has a host of smaller tributaries, nearly all of which, because of their
rapid currents and high, rocky banks, can be cheaply developed. Duncan Creek is a good
example of what can be done with this class of tributaries. Although only 25 mUes long,
it has five dams with an aggregate head of 68 feet. Four gristmills, with a total turbine
capacity of over 500 horsepower, take their power from this creek. Below the •'Star
mills," in the city of Chippewa Falls, is an unimproved pwwer of 14-foot head; and imme-
diately below this site is a dam with a 9-foot head, belonging to the Gatzian Shoe Manu-
facturing Company. The significant point regarding powers of this class is that they are
cheaply improved and very widely distributed. The locations of some of them are shown
in the following table:
Dams on smaller tributaries of Chippeiva River.
Location.
Arkansaw Creek, Arkansaw.
Bass Creek, Afton
Bear Creek, Durand.
Bridge Creek:
Augusta
Sec. 18, T. 26, R. 6 VV
Duncan Creek:
Chippewa Falls
Do
Do
Soc. 31, T. 29N.,R. 8W..
Sec. 24, T. 29N., R. 9W..
Sec. 8,T. 30N.,R.9 W..
Kighteenmile Creek, Colfax.
Hay River, Prairie farm
Jump River:
Sec. 20, T. 34 N., R. 2 W
Westboro
Lowes Creek, sec. 4, T. 26 N., R. 9 W.
Owner and use.
Mills & Son, gristmill
Wm. Denoger, flouring mill.
Durand roller mill, flour
Dells Milling Co., flour..
J.P. Waddell
Gotzian Shoe Co
Leinenkugel Brewing Co. ..
Leinenkugel Co., flour
Glen mills, flour
G. W. Lockin, Tllden flour-
ing mills.
Bloomer mills, flour
J. A. Anderson & Son, grist
and saw mill.
P. F. Milling Co., grist
Head.
Fert. '
12
9
18 I
I
20
»|
9 '
14 i
16,
ao
10
12
14
InsUl-
. lation.
H.P.
a Vndoveloped.
i» Unused.
W.J.Davis
e Could be raised 8
CM
feet.
40
73
1*)
31
(«)
ST. CBOIX BIVER SYSTEM.
117
Datna on smaller tributaries »/ Chippewa River — Continued.
Location.
Owner and use.
Head.
O'Neals Creek, west branch: |
Sec. 26, T. 31 N., U. 9 W , Wm. Durch, Rriat and saw
I mill.
Near mouth i F. 0. & C. A. Stanley, saw-
I mill.
Eagle Point : M. RosmuB, electric light
Feet. I
8 ,
' Instal-
lation.
H.P.
I
Otter Creek, Fan Claire R. Clark, flour.
Pine Creek:
Lucas
Sand Creek.
Dalles
Plover River:
Shantytown
Jordan
Bevent
Rock Creek, sec. 22, T. 27 N., R. 11 \V
Tiffany Creek, Boywville A. A. Hoyr &. Bro., grist.
T. Teegarden, grist and saw
mill.
A. F. Johnson, grist and
saw mill. I
J. A. Anderson, grist and |
saw mill.
S. Y. Bentley. sawmill.
A. Van Orden
I ••»
D. W. Andrews, flour. .
30
50
150
95
96
50
40
100
(«)
75
30
a Undeveloped.
ST. CROIX RIVER SYSTEM.
TOPOGRAPHY AND DRAIXAGE.
St. Croix River rises at an elevation of 1,010 a feet, in St. Croix Lake, on the Lake Supe-
rior divide, only 20 miles from Lake Superior. The lower two-thirds of its length forms a
part of the Minnesota boundary. In its total length of 168 miles it descends 344 feet, all
but 20 feet of which is in the upper 116 miles, making the average for this upper portion
nearly 3 feet per mile. This slope is fully six times the slope of Mississippi River above
Minneapolis, and, according to United States engineers, has an important bearing on the
relatively large mn-off as compared with Mississippi Valley above. Another important
feature of this region is its relatively small number of lakes, these forming only 3 per cent of
the total drainage area as compared with 11 per cent in Mississippi Valley above Minne-
apolis.a Evaporation on lake surfaces is probably nearly equal to the precipitation for
the corresponding period. The total drainage area comprises 7,576 sqaare miles, the
greater part of which is in Wisconsin. The Wisconsin portion has a width of 50 miles on
its northern margin and extends southwesterly toward Mississippi River, a distance of about
150 miles.
The topography may be described under three heads— (1) the level area, (2) the rolling and swelling
hill districts, and (3) the knoll and basin combination. The first Includes the so-called "barrens"
which border the streams and some elevated plateaus, together with smaller scattered areas. The
third class may be described as a belt lying near the southeastem watershed and stretahing from the
vicinity of Lake Namekugon southwestward to the St. Croix. The second class includes most of the
territory which remains. i>
Marshes are quite as infrequent as the lakes and occur only on the river bottoms. Not
half of the lakes are visibly connected with the rivers, but because of the open soil they are
likely to have underground connection. There are usually lumbering dams on such lakes
as have outlets, and these lakes, together with the numerous smaller depressions, play an
important part in the preventing of freshets. The lakes of this region arrange themselves
into two groups — one, lying mostly in the " barrens," adjacent and parallel to the upper St.
oRppts. Chief Eng. U. S. Army, 1881, 1883.
b Qeol. Wisconsin, vol 3, 18S0, p. 370.
118
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Croix and extending southwest from its source to the point where the stream turns south-
ward, and a second group in the extreme southeastern portion of this region, occurring in
the depressions of the ''Kettle moraine.'* As the water of this region flows ahnost exclu-
sively over the crystalline rocks and sandstones, or the drift derived from them, it is in
general soft, though usually amber colored. Springs are very common, many of the kk«
being fed almost entirely by them. They are especially frequent in the Cambrian sand-
stone and tend to equalize the flow of all the streams.
The apportionment of drainage areas is shown in the following table:
Distance and drainage areaa of St. Croix River.
River.a
Distance tx— irwi—
from I>«»'»K*
aouioe
(map
meaaore).
above
fltatioQ.
MiUs. 'Sq. miUt.
St. Croix, source
Eau Claire:
Above mouth
Mouth
Namekagon
Yellow
Clam:
Above mouth
Mouth
Kettle:
Above mouth
Mouth
Snake
Wood
Sumlse
St. Croix, St. Croix rapids.
Apple
Willow
St. Croix, mouth
6.5
117
&5'
234
38.0
1,451
5Q.0
2.084
64.0 '
2,428
64.0
2.S44
75.0 ^
3.046
75. 0
4,139
79.0
5,097
84.0
5,281
loao
i.85:
iao.0
6,202
138.0
6,951
151.0
7,301
168.0
7.576
a Station is at mouth of river, unless otherwise stated.
PROFILB.
The following table gives, upon the authority of United States engineers, eleTations
above the sea and gradients per mile of St. Croix River at twenty points between its mouth
and its source:
ST. CROIX RIVER SYSTEM.
119
ProJUe of St. Croix River from itx mouth to St Croix Lake.
Station.
Prescott. mouth of river
KiimiUnnlc River, mouth
Apple River, mouth
Osceola
St. Croix Falls (head of navigation) .
Trade River, mouth
Sunrise River, mouth
Rush City, ferry
8ec.36,T.38N.,R.20 W
Snake River, mouth
Kettle River rapids, foot
Kettle River, mouth
Kettle River rapids, head (proposed U. S. dam, sec. 2.
T. 39 N., R. 19 W)
Clam River, mouth
Sec. 1. T. 40N.. R. 18 W....
Yellow River, mouth
Nameka^on River, mouth .
Moose River, mouth
Sec. 36. T. 44N., R. 13W.:
Below dam
Above dam
St. Croix Lake
DisUnce.
Eleva-
tion
Descent be-
tween points.
From
mouth.
Between
points.
above sea
level.
Total.
Per
mile.
MiU». 1
MiUs.
Feet. 1
feet.
Feet.
0.0
«667.0
668.0
5.0
5.0
1.0
0.2
•iS.O
23.0
672.0
4.0
.2
42.0
14.0
(i83.0
11.0
.8
4K.0 ,
(hO
ii87.0
4.0
-
G0.0 1
12.0
753.0
6.6
5.5
G5.0 1
5.0
758.5
&5
1.1
75.0
10.0
773.0
14.5
1.4
79.0
4.0
±782.0
9.0
2.2
86.0
7.0
±79ao
8.0
1.1
89.0
3.0
±801.0
11.0
3.7
90.0
1.0
±81&0
15.0
15.0
93.0
3.0
±850.0
34.0
11.3
101.0
ao'
4:868.0
18.0
2.2
103.5
2.5
874.0
6.0
2.4
115.0 1
11.5
888.0
14.0
1.2
127.0
12.0
908.0
^.0
1.7
139.0
12.0
1.001.0
93.0
7.7
144.0
5.0
1,001.5
.5
.1
144.0
.0
1,005.3
3.8
1
160.0
l&O
1,010.0
4.7
.3
«* Low-water elevation.
<SKOLOGY.
Almost the entire watershed has been glaciated to such an extent that outcrops, except
near the rivers, are very infrequent. According to the reports of the Wisconsin Geological
Survey, the central and by far the greater portion of this area is underlain by the pre-Cam-
brian crystalline rocks known as the ''Keweenawan." This belt narrows toward the south,
giving way both on the east and west to the Cambrian sandstones. These pre-Oambrian
crystalline rocks intersect St. Croix River at St. Croix Falls, and because of their greater
hardness have caused the falls and rapids — the most important on the entire river — which
extend for 6 or 7 miles above the city of Taylors Falls, Minn.
RAINFALL, AN1> UUN-OFF.
The United States Geological Survey has maintained a gaging station 3} miles above St.
Croix Falls, Wis., since 1903. The gage heights are referred to four iron pins on the right
bank just below the gaging station, the elevations of which are referred to the datum of the
bench marks of the St. Croix River survey. Their elevations are as follows.
Feet.
Pin No. I , 732.08
Pin No, 2 •. 734.54
Pin No. 3 736.10
Pin No. 4 737.57
A large number of measurements were obtained during 1903, and the gage was read daily
by V. H. Caneday. Discharga measurements were made from a boat held in place by a wire
cable stretched across the river between two trees. The initial point for soundings is a ver-
120
WATEB POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
tical rod on the left bank. The channel is straight for about 800 feet above and 1.000 feet
below the station, while the banks are high and can not overflow. The section is regular,
smooth, and permanent, and the velocity is never sluggish, making this on the whole a sta-
tion at which good results are obtainable. Tlie drainage area at this point is 6,370 square
miles.
Discharge measurements of St. Croix River near St. Croix Falls ^ Wis., in 190S.
Date.
1903.
Hydrographer.
I h^t. 'd»'*«'K'-
May 22 E. Johnson, jr...
August 11 W. R. Hoag
October 9 L R. Stockman.
Feet. Sfcond'ffrt.
4.00 10.747
2.70 7,470
3. 84 10.244
Discharge data relating to St. Croix River near St. Croix Falls, Wis., obtained through the
United States Geological Survey, have been supplemented by data supplied by Loweth Jt
Wolf, civil engineers, of St. Paul, Minn. The results are embodied in the following tiible:
Daily discharge, in second-feet j of St Croix River near St. Croix Fallsy Wis., January 10, 19^2,
to December 31, 190J^.
Day.
1902.
1...
2...
3...
4...
5...
6...
7...
8...
9...
10...
11...
12...
13...
14...
15...
16...
17...
18...
19...
20...
21...
22...
23...
24...
25...
26...
27...
28...
2i...
30...
31...
Jan. ' Feb. i Mar.
1,895
1,910
1,860
1.850
1,685
1,765
1,775
1.795
1.880
1,860
1,920
1.875
1,930
1,8(»
1,950
1,985
1,975
1,950
1,930
1,920
1,905
1,890
1,820
1,875
1,930
1,700
1,760
1,755
1,750
1,770
1,7()5
1,760
1,750
1,7.50
1,815
1,870
1.990
1,990
1.990
1,990
1,990
1,990
1,990
1.990
2,027
2.065
2.110
2,180
2.260
2.480
2.425
2.442
2,460
2.300
2,370
2,420
2,270
Apr. I May. June July.
I
4.650
4,995
4,650
4,600
4.035
3,470
3,110
3,117
3,125
3,125
3,125
3,037
2,950
2,910
2,840
300
400
2,750
2,515
2.280
2.280
2.190
2.110
1,990
1,870
1,468
2,065
2,020
2,170
2,070
5.190
1,510
1,005
500
5.540
440
510
1,050
2,760
3.025
3,290
3,480
3.750
3,930
4,090
3,910
3,920
3,935
4,900
3.980
4.880
4.560
4.590
4.450 j
5.850 I
6,150
5,250
4,780
4,875
4,820 '
4.940
5.065 ;
5.300 '■
5.870 I
7,080 I
9,600 I
7,250 I
6.420 I
5,585 '
5,760
5,090 '
6,070 I
4,930
5,290
5,150
5,010
4,480
9,798
11.871
10,956
10,610
9,261
10,468
6.810
7,600
8.280
4,780
6,350
4,220
3,420
3,580
6,350
3,780
960
3,300
3,400
6,000
3,560
4.145
4.380
4,200
2,550
4,690
Aug. Sept. I Oct. I Nov. D«r,
6,690
4.490
4.830
4,700
7.350
5.200
12,106
11.603
11,137
12,947
8,978
7,980
6,700
6,060
5.780
4,860
4,380
3,800
5,210
2,850 I
3,405 I
3,530 '
3,600
3,185 I
2,560
7,250 I
850 '
750
2,515
2,515
2,610
2,270
1,740
1,790
1,825
1,870
2,035
2,260
1,980
1,060
1,990
3,970
1,680
1,120
1,015
1,570
1,590
1,560
1,500
1,510
1.500
1,480
1,480
1,575
1,405
1,405
3,850
1,860
1,740
1,465
5,995
1,795
1,725
1,730
1,680
1,840
1,700
2,560
2,550
2,220
4,110
3,500
1,720
1,500
1,640
1,550
1,355
1,355
1.540
1,480
1,120
510
2,800
2,070
2.540
2,365
1.065
1,135
1.120
3,050
2.210
2.310
I
2,330
2.390
2.395
1,685
2.150
2,445
2,390
2.290
2.050
930
2.9S0
1.950
2.040
2.000
1,915
800
845
3,600
1.940
1.925
2,040
1,960
2.040
850 I
1,100 I
2,300
2.310 i
2,660
2.890 I
1.875
2,840 I
5.190 2.4*1
3,aS0 2.555
3.290
4,740
3,910
4.180
4.030
4.740
4.500 '
3.290 ;
2.960
3.195 '
4.300 2.Srf.
4, 530 2, 2i*)
4.900 2,15n
4.e00 2. CM
4,700 2. on
4.580 2.110
5. leo 2, Ir^
3. 090 2.iKi
4.6fio 2.040
4.ieo ' 2.0ir'
4.250 2,ili«
4.060
3.720
3,555
.3.680
3,000
3,050 2. ON)
2,050 2,0r»
2.045
9T. CROIX RIVER SYSTEM.
121
DaUy discharge, in second-feet, of St. Croix. River near St. Croix Falls, Wis., January 10, 1902,
to December 31. 1904 — Continued.
Day. ' Jan. I Feb. j Mar. ' Apr. May. ! June. I July. ! Aug. I Sept. i Oct. I Nov.
1903.
1....
2....
3....
4....
5....
6....
7
8....
9...
10....
II....
12....
13....
14....
15....
16....
17....
18....
19....
20....
21....
22....
23....
24....
25....
26....
27....
28....
29....
30....
31 ... .
1904.
1....
2....
3....
4....
5....
6
7....
8....
9....
10....
11....
12....
13....
14....
15....
16*. . . .
17....
18....
19....
20....
2,055
1,940
1,940
1,910
1,880
, 1,930
I 1,945
, 2,010
1,930
1.850
I 1.875
1.900
> 1.930
1.950
\ 1.980
\ 1.870
' 1,770
1,815
' 1,870
1,780
' 1,980
1,730
I 1,820
1,800
• 1,865
1,930
I 1.990
' 2,050
I 1,980
I 1.835
I 1,970
I 1,935 I
I 1,760 I
! 1,830 I
I 1,900
2,015 I
I 1,930 '
I 1.915 I
I 1.895 '
' 1,945 I.
I 1.950
1,880
I 1.975 I,
1.9% '
1,870 I
1,840 '
1,870 [
1,970
1,850 I
1,700
' 1,745 I
1.830
f 1,910 I
1,950
' 1,945 I
1.820 '
I 1,880 I
1,970
-L
1,940
1,920
1,920
1,960
1,965
1,885
1,990
2,050
2,110
I
I
4,030
4.530
6,480
9,890
11.440
11.40)
11.480
10.740
9,660
10.100
9.5.')0
8.725
8,590
8.445
8.160
6,770 I 8,920 j 7,680 '
9.800 I 9,555 \ 10,420 |
10,750 \ (9,490)]
12,220 I I 8,560 '
15.200 7,910 I
10,350 I 15,611 7,340 !
8.850 1^,176 (6,805),
11,045 I 13,835 i 6,270 j
17,975 I 12.150 6.010
16.438 5.760
18,272 9.245 5. 160 '
20,166 16,157 6,190
I , 7,320
' 1 (6.910)
15,382 ! ". 6,500
14,080 1 5,825
12,800 ' 5.130
5.755
12.540 ' ! 4.300
10.260 I 1.3,830 1 5,150
13,790 I I 4.540
I 10,580 1,542 I 4.375
' 11,230 I 2,700
11,605 I 2,710
12,100 I
9.580 '
12,020 I (2.475)
12.640 - (2.420)
11.420
10.640
(9. 160)
251
3.030
8,640
8,880
10, 155
10,870
11,630
(10,437)
9,245
7,250
7,200
0.915
6.790
6,035
(5.502)
6.800
9,740
9.265
8.790
10,460
10.080
8,925
4,570
4,800
5,050
6,170
6,710
1,600
7,900
(7,600)
(7,280)
7,170
4,830
5,510
5,340
5,350
(4.792)
4.235
4.150
3.460 '
3.580
4.360
4,740
Dec.
2.640
2,545
2,360
907
3,990
1,830
5,590
(4.670)
3,750
4.770
4.730
4,485
4.570
3,220
' 2,390
2.390
^1=
I
I
3,660
3.140
2.810
(2,820)
2,840
2,600
2,340 I 2
2,660 (2
2,680
2,630
(2,410)
2,200
2,480
2,460
110
090 (
060 ,
040 I
080 I
070 I
040)
020
160
110
000 I
160 I
000 I
140)
280)
4.'»
430 ,
460
410 I
450 I
2,580
2,570
2,520
2.390
2,290
2,390
2,490
2,600
2,500
2,560
2,500
2,640
2,650
2,660
2,700
2,740
2,690
2.700
2.750
(°)
I
5.560
6,130
(7,000)
8,080 I
9,873 I
12,390 I
15.930 I
8,400 , 6,340 I 6,170
7,500 ! 5.520 I 5.850
7,640 I 6,050 (.3,630)
7,480 I 7,950 | 1,410
7,380 (12, 5*30)' (3,010)
8,290 ' 17,180 I 4.610
8,790 ! 17,920 '
16,900 '(10,320) 17,460 |
18,300 (11,850) 15,660 |
aO.OOO) 13,370 < 12,940
16,060 11,300 12,610
14,010 9,490 (12,070)
10,590 8,550 11,530 '
7,910 8,980
12,560 I 8,650
10.010 8,310
(9.400)
(8,920)
8.380
7,850 ,
7,280
7,820
6,860
5.250
11,320
7,880
8.540
7.628
8,140
8.710
9.280
4,780
4,610
4.970
2.960
950
3,480
3.860
3,750
3.890
3.990
(2.530>
1.080
1,140
3.760
a March 20 to 2.'), ice going
840
1.080
1,480
3,460
2,250
1 1,990
I 2,040
' 2.100
I 2,210
2,100
! 2,000 j
I 2,300 I
; 2.340 I
I (1,750)1
; 1.150 I
I 960
' 1.430 I
I 3,370 ■
I 1.920 I
' 2,240 I
out.
4,530
4,610
(4,750)
4,900
4,870
5,040
4,690
4.600
(4.030)
(3.460)
2,820 I
(2,380)
1,940
2,150 ,
3.480
3.190
(3.160)^
3,140 I
2,890 I
3,960
(3,840)
3,720
3,360
11,310
1,240
(2,800)
4,090
(3,400)
2,120
10,430
15,020
14,270
13,800
12.560
10,060
10,760
10,310
12,710
8,780
8,040
7,590
6,780
3,280
(4,230)
5.230
5,440
5,700
4,900
5,330
5,600
(5,640)
5,470
5,250
4,970
4.770
4,670
4.480
(4,340)
1,600
1,760
2,210
(2,400)
2,620
2,740
2,890
2,970
2,770
2,820
(2,820)
2,830
2,500
2,420
! 2,220
2,380
[ 2,330
2,320
2,300
I 2,380
122
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
Daily discharge, in second-feet, of St. Croix River near St. Croix Falls, Wis., January 10,
to December 31, 1904 — Continued.
1902.
Day. I Jan
Feb. Mar. Apr.
1904.
21...
22...
23...
24...
26...
26...
27...
28...
29...
30.
31.
2,440
2,630
2,620
(2,570)
2.520
2,330
.. 2,390
..; 2,280
..; 2,270
..j 2,250
(2,370)
2,290
2,330
2,230
2,280
2,410
2,400
2,480
2,520
I
3,090
(3,370)
3,660
3,300
3,770
4,510
7,490
7,530
11,260
(10.810)
10.360
11.170
11,230
10,760 I
10,850 I
9,490 I
May. , June. , July.
I I
6,390
(6, 900) I
(7,500)1
8,000 '
7,790
8,760 ;
8.030
7,390 I
(6,700)1
6,060 I
6,440 '.
Aug. I Sept. Oct. I Nov. Doc,
6,730
5,630
5,820
4,960
5,190 i
(3.380).
1,570
4,850
5,330
5,320
3,420
3,170
3,270 '
(2,240>;
1.210 '
1,050 I
2,580 I
2,780
2.720
2.810 I
(3,760)
5,290
4,390
2,520
2.970
2,510'
2,480
(2,230)
1,960
2,260
(3.000)
2,750
2,380
2,490
2,700
(3,240)
3,790
3,330
3,500
3.580
(3,880)
(15, 700 1
18,700
(18,010>
17.330
16.180
15.540
12.710
12,910
10.590
(10,410)
10.230
4,190
4,020
4,000
4.120
3.730
3,710
(3,300>
2,800
2.800
(2. 230)
2.1*
2.440
2,340
2.»..
(2- 4J»
3.450
2.4H.
(2.44C
(2,430 =
(2.4U)
2,380
Estimated monthly discharge of St. Croix River at St. Croix Falls, Wis., for 1902, 1903, and
190M.
[Drainage area, 6,370 square miles.]
Discharge.
Date.
January . . .
February..
March
April
May
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
December . .
Run-off.
Maxl- I Mini-
mum, mum.
Per Rainiaii.-i
Mean. square Depth,
mile.
Sec-feet. \ Sec. -feet, Sec.-feet.
The year.
1903.
1,980
2,480
5,000
5,560
9,000
11,870
12,106
6,000
4,100
3,600
5,200
2,550
,680
,700
1,380 I
MO,:
1,100 !
960
760
,020 !
400 ,
800 I
1.550 I
!,020
1,880
1,880
3,300
2,220
2,020
5,950
5,.%0
1.860
1,860
2,000
4,080
2.100
Sec.-feet.
0.31
.31
.eo
.37
.33
.99
.92
.31
.31
I
.33
.68 I
.35 '
Inches.
0.36
1.14 ,
1.06 I
.36
.36
.40 I
Inches.
O.H)
.34
.(fa*
2.08
J :*
2.S2
X2t
1.5»
2.7i
2 H
12,106
200 I
2.912
.48
January 2,040
February 2,020
March 11, 480
April 20, 185
May ' 16,167
J une 7, 900
July 11,6M
August 7, 900
September 14,918
October 29,611
November 7,000
December 3, 440
The year 29, 61 1
,,740
,700 I
,960 I
1,800
1,920 I
906
251 I
,600
i,960
i,740 ;
850
!,340 I
1.920 ,
1,880 '
5,500 I
12,000 I
12,700
5,050 ,
6,360 I
4,850
11,750
12,780
4,270
2,740
6,816
I
.32 I
.31
.92,
2.00
2.12
.84 '
1.06
.81 I
1.96 I
2.13
'71
.46 '
.37
.36 ,
1.06
2.30 f
2.43 .
.96 j
1.21 I
.92
2.26 j
2.44 !
.81 I
.52 1
2-7«i
4-r:
4.11
1.14
15.63
».-
o This is the average of the recorded precipitation at Barron, DuVuth, Grantsburg, Hay ward. Oir*^ .".
and St. Paul.
0 Low water due to the manipulation of a lumbering dam a few miles above.
ST. CROIX RIVKR SYSTEM.
123
EsHmaied ThorUfUy discharge of St Cwix River at St. Croir Falls, Wis., for 1902, 1903, and
1904— Contmmd.
IMscharge.
Date.
IMM.
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
Mean.
I
Sec.-fett. Sec-feet.
January . .
February .
March ....
April
' 2.840
2.480 '
4.510
18.300
May 13,370 \
June
July
August
September.
October
November.
December..
•I
17,930 !
The year.
5,850
3,460
5,040
18,700
8,780
2,970
18,700
2.200
2.000
2.290
.5,560
5,250
4.850
950
840
1.940
1,240
2,800
1,600
Sec-feet.
2.600
2.238
2,832
10,748
8,176
8,868
3,145
2,334
3,544
10,560
4,843
2,441
Run-off.
Per
square
mile.
Sec-feei.
.43
.37
.47
1.79
1.36
1.48
.52
.39
.59
1.76
.80
.40
840
5,194 {
Depth.
Inclui.
.48
.42
.53
2.01
1.53
1.66
.58
.44
.66
1.96
.90
.45
10.36 I
I Rainfall.
Jnchett.
.64
1.18
1.19
1.65
3.78
5.58
4.64
3.84
5.76
5.47
.05
.99
11.65
34.77
WATER POWDERS.
TALL.
In the lower 48 miles of its course the St. Croix River has its bed in the Cambrian sand-
stone or "Lower Magnesian'' limestone, principally the former, which it has succeeded in
wearing down nearly to base level, giving steamboat navigation from Taylors Falls, Minn.,
to Mississippi River. Its descent in this distance of 48 miles is only 20 feet at low stages,
nearly all of which is found in the upper half between Stillwater and Taylors Falls. At Still-
water, 223 miles above the mouth of the river, the sandstone bluffs rise steeply on either side
to a height of 150 to 200 feet, and the river rapidly narrows. The bluffs continue, generally
with a flat on one side, between Taylors Falls and Stillwater. In the 24 miles below Still-
water the river averages about half a mile in width, with a maximum of 7,000 feet at the
expansion of the river known as St. Croix Lake, below Stillwater. For several miles here,
according to reports of United States engineers, the river is almost without gradient.
The portion of the St. Croix above Taylors Falls abounds in undeveloped powers. Except
near the headwaters of St. Croix, Totogatic, and Namekagon rivers and a small area served
by a branch line of the Northern Pacific, running to Grantsbi;rg, this region is without rail-
road facilities. The following detailed description of the main river above St. Croix rapids,
taken from the Tenth Census, 1880, gives the most trustworthy information of the region
obtainable:
From the mouth of the Rau Claire to that of the Namekagon River there is a descent of 100 feet, or 4
feet per mile, and many rapids occur, among which Copper Mine rapids may be mentioned. Above the
mouth of the Namekagon the ordinary low-water power under a head of 10 feet would be 150 horsepower.
The Namekagon River increases this to 600 horsepower.
In the 12 miles from the mouth of the Namekagon to the Yellow River the total fall is 20 feet, Including
Big Island rapids, State Line rapids, and Bishops rapids. Each of the first two Is described as afford-
ing fine opportunities for developing water powers. At Big Island rapids the river runs close to the
bluffs on the left bank, but a dam would need to extend some distance across the flat on the right.
From the mouth of the Yellow River to the head of Kettle rapids, a distance of 21 miles, the average
slope is I A feet per mile, there being no rapids of s^peclal importance. It is very probable that available
water-power sites can be found in this section.
124 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
ST. CBOIX RAPIDS.
The St. Croix rapids oiler fine opportunities for water power, and were used at onelinie, bat now the
river flows unemployed. There is a total descent of 55 feet in the 6 miles which may be included uDa<?
the name of St. Croix rapids. Several local names are indefinitely applied at different points. At th^-
foot are Taylors Falls, about three-quarters of a mile above are St. Croix Falls, then Turtle TaUf.p'.c.
Strictly speaking, there are no falls in the entire distance, only a more rapid decline in f&e bed at certicn
places.
The village of Taylors Falls is situated in Minnesota, at the foot of the rapids, about 50 miles aU'x-
the mouth of the river, at the head of navigation. St. Croix Falls, a village of Wiaconsixi, is situjit»^i
upon the slope overlooking the river from that side, nearly opposite Taylors Falls. Directly below : ht
rapids the river enters the Dalles of the St. Croix, where for half a mile or more it passes between vert JcjL
cliffs of trap rock with sharp edges and bold angles. Just above the entrance into the Dalles the « «T-r
way is so contracted that when the river is high the water forms a fall of nearly 5 feet before it can ort^r-
come the resistance, but there is no very rapid descent there in low water. It is to this portion of tt^
river that the name of Taylors Falls is given.
Above the Dalles the rock continues in the bed, and to a certain extent in the banks of the river, hut
the valley spreads considerably. On the Minnesota side the bank rises steep from the river for 30 r4- «•
feet at the lower part of the rapids. Back from this for several hundred feet is a nearly level pl&i-n
swampy in places; and bounding this are the bluffs, rising fully 100 feet higher. At the foot of tt<>
rapids the plain narrows and is lost in the Dalles. On the Wisconsin side, in the vicinity of St. Cn^ix.
Falls, the slope Is rather more uniform up to the general level of the country. At the enhance into
the Dalles the river is scarcely more than 100 feet wide. At St. Croix Falls, three-quarters of a niiK
above Taylors Falls, it is between 200 and 300 feet wide, the average width of the river in this p«rt
of its course.
The portion of the rapids known as St. Croix Falls presents the most favorable site for Improvemcat
of the power, and here a dam was once built and sawmiUs were run. The bed is solid rock, and th-*
banks rise abruptly from the river on both sides. On the Minnesota side a large, high mass of trap n Tk
stands out in the channel and forms a natural abutment for a dam; on the Wisconsin side the ruck
bank rises to a considerable height above the water in a rib, and back of it is a depression which k-iKlF
to the slope upon which the village of St. Croix Falls is situated. The improvement, long; «nce poDt> t4
ruin, consisted of a dam built across the river at the point described, and a race blasted through th<>
rock in the line of the depression on the Wisconsin side and then carried down the slope along the rirrr
front, giving a head of 25 or 30 feet. The dam was a very extensive structure, raising the water to a
height of 25 feet when in good condition. It was 300 feet long, 24 feet wide at the top, and only tu U-^.t
wide at the base. . . . The same natural facilities exist for developing the water power as formerh .
... If the dam were built so as to give a head of about 40 feet, which is practicable, a race could tje
carried down the plain on the Minnesota side for a long distance as readily as on the Wisconsin shcir
The pond would probably back the water 4 or 5 miles, and would not overflow much land. With tb*-
ordinary low flow the power under a head of 30 feet is 7,811 theoretical horsepowt^r, and under a bea&d * t
40 feet, 10,415 theoretical horsepower. With the yearly average flow it is 17,266 theoretical hor8epi>w» r
under a head of 30 feet, and 23,021 theoretical horsepower under 40 feet. There is about 5 f«M»t of fall .r
the river from the site of the dam to Taylors Falls. Here is an excellent site for the construction o.' a
dam, which would scarcely be more than 100 feet long, but the vertical cliffs come close to the river ju^t
below, leaving only room for a small steamboat landing, without space to erect extensive manuf acti^t-*.
KETTLE RIVER RAPIDS.
The Kettle River rapids are, next to the St. Croix rapids, the most prominent on the river. Tb«^T
start 2 J miles above the mouth of the Kettle River, which enters from the west, and end IJ miles belo*
it. In this length of 4 miles the total fall is 49 feet, of which 34 feet is above the mouth of the Kf-tth'
River. Two islands from 1 mile to 2 miles long divide the river into two channels. The bed of th«=
river is solid rock and it is practical to build several dams. Above the mouth of the Kettle Riv<>r s
head of 10 feet would afford 1,280 theoretical horsepower, with the ordinary low-water flow, and l^-li.ir
the entrance of the Kettle River 1,737 theoretical horsepower, under the same conditions of flow, a«x>rJ-
ing to the estimates previously given.
Above the mouth of the Snake River, which enters 4) miles below the Kettle River, there is II f»*t
of fall from the foot of the rapids. Between Snake River and St. Croix rapids are the following nip}<:<-
The Otter Slide, just l)elow the mouth of the Snake, the ordinary low-water power of which, undt^r .t
head of 10 feet, is 2,140 theoretical horsepower; the Horse Race, 1 mile below; the Baltimore rapids h
mile below the mouth of the Wood River, the ordinary low-water power of which, under a bead «•( :♦'
f«»t, is 2,220 theoretical horsepower; the Upper Big Rock rapids, about 1 mile below them; and IN.
Yellow Pine rapids, about 3 miles above the mouth of the Sunrise River. The amount of fall at t-^ac \
of these rapids can not lie determined from the data at hand. The total fall from the mouth of Srukr
River to St. Croix rapids is 111 feet and the average slope is 2.64 feet per mile. This must furnish oppor-
tunities to develop power with what will be a reasonable expense at some time m the future.
ST. CROIX RIVEB SYSTEM.
125
TBIBUTARIES OF ST. CROIX RIVER.
LENGTH AND DRAINAGE.
The length and drainage area of the principal tributaries of St. Croix River, including
those entering from the western (Minnesota) side, are shown in the following table:
Principal tributaries of St. Croix fiiver.
River;
Eau Claire
Namekagon
Yellow
Clam
Kettle (Minnesota)
Snake (Minnesota) ,
Wood
Apple
Willow..#.
Length
(map
meas-
ure).
Drainage
area.
MUea.
Sq. miles.
25
107
85
1,002
50
310
50
416
70
1,093
78
937
30
168
55
427
35
246
YELLOW RIVER.
Yellow River rises in a large lake called Mud Lake, at an elevation of 1,085 feet,a and
after a sinuous course of 50 miles joins the St. Croix at a point only half this distance
from the source and at an elevation of 888 feet. This gives a descent of 197 feet, an aver-
age of nearly 4 feet per mile. This high gradient results in rapids at frequent intervals
throughout its entire course. The slope in the upper third of its length is about 120 feet.
Here springs and creeks are numerous. The river is known to have a remarkably con-
stant stage, the natural rise and fall during the year varying only from 1^ to 3^ feet.
This fact may be attributed to the springs and to the regulating eflfect of the large lakes,
especially Yellow Lake, through which it flows. "Its valley is generally narrow, being
from 200 to 800 feet in width, although in some places it widens into tamarack marshes
of considerable extent. The first banks have a general elevation of 15 feet above low
water, running back into high, broken ridges, covered with white Norway and jack pine.
Little stone and few bowlders are found until reaching the rapids below Yellow Lake,
which are almost continuous to the mouth of the stream. "o
Near the mouth of the river the banks are high. A dam could be built in sec. 27, T.
41 N., R. 16, which would develop a head of 25 feet or more and still not back the water
up to the Yellow Lake dam. This power could be combined in the same plant with that
furnished by Loon Creek, which enters Yellow River near the proposed dam. Loon
Creek is said to descend 50 to 75 feet in a distance of 1} miles, and is therefore of considerable
importance. A dam could also be located in Yellow River about a mile above Yellow
Lake, which would develop a head of 20 feet by overflowing some good meadow lands
between Yellow and Devils lakes.
o Kept. Chief Eng. U. S. Army, 1880.
126
WATER P0WEB8 OF NOETHEBN WISCONSIN.
The following profile of Yellow River suggests the possibility of developing other powers
on this river because of its high gradient in ranges 14 and 13:
Profile of Yellow River from its month to Mud Lake dam. a
I Distanre.
No.
Station.
I Eleva-
• tion
From Between above I
mouth, points, sea level. ' Total
• Miles. Miles. Feet.
Mouth of river 888.0
Yellow Lake dam 7.0 7.0 928L0
SW. t sec. 2. T. 30 N., R. 16 W 15.0 8.0 938.4
RiccLakedam(SW.j8€C. 16,T.30, N.,R. HW). 34.0 19.0 909.4
8E. t sec. 25, T. 30 N., R. 14 W 39.5 5.5, 994.4
Sec. 31 (near north i stake), T. 30 N.,R. 13 W.... 40.5 I.O 1,004.8
SW. 1 sec. 32, T. 39 N.. R. 13 W 41.5! 10 1,011.6
Harts (SE.i 860.5, T. 38 N.,R. 13) 42.5' . 1.0 1,019.0
Sec. 36 (near north-south \ line), T. 30 N.. R.
13W 47.6 5.0 1,046.8
Spooner 49.0 1.5 1,058.0
Mud Lake dam (above) 52.0 3.0 1,085.0
Descent be-
tween
points.
Total.
Per
Feet.
Feet.
4O.0
i"
10.4
1.3
31.0
1 6
2ao
4.5
10.4
10.4
6.8
6.^
&4
8.4
27.8
56
11.2
7.5
27.0
9-0
a Authority: Nos. 1-9 and 11, U. S. engineers; 10, Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Rwy.
Important logging dams are described by United States engineers as follows:
Logging dams on YeUow River.
Name.
Location.
Head. Capacity.
I
Remarks.
Mud Lake dam . . .
Hector dam
Rice Lake dam...
YeUow Lake dam.
Sec. 27, T. 39N., R. 12 W..
Sec. 10. T. 38N.,R. 13W...
Sec. 20. T. 39N., R. 14 W..
Sec. 7, T. 40 N., R. 16 W...
I
Feet. I Cubic feet.
7.5 I 475,000,000
7.5 ' Small capacity.
10.0 I 700,000,000 Head could be in-
creased to 15 feet.
18.0
I
1,400,000,000 Raises water in Yel-
low Lake 3 feet.
EAU CLAIRE RIVER.
£au Claire River has its source in lakes of the same name at an elevation of 1,122 feet a
above sea level. These lakes are surrounded by high banks, so that at small expense a
dam could be constructed at their outlet and made to store surplus waters, thus adding
greatly to all water power on the river. In ite short length of 25 miles this river descends
118 feet, including several rapids, 46 feet of this descent being concentrated in the first
6 miles below Eau Claire Lakes. The total drainage area of the river is 107 square miles.
APPLE RIVER.
Apple River, like the Willow, occupies a comparatively well-«ettled valley. It drains
an area of 427 square miles. The Wisconsin Central, the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis
and Omaha, and the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie railways are distant 1 to
5 miles from the river, the last-named road crossing it near Amery. The river has its
source in 20 or more lakes, the largest 6 miles long and one-half to three-fourths of a mile
wide. These lakes tend to equalize and increase the summer flow. The long and severe
winters cause the minimum flow during the months of January and February.
Formerly most of the dams on Apple River were used in connection with logging opera-
tions, but the timber is now practically all cut. Flouring mills have been maintained at
« Rept. Chief Eng. U. S. Army, 1883.
ST. CROIX RIVER SYSTEM. 127
a number of points, and at others the power is used for electric lighting. There are several
projects at the present time which look to large improvements of some of these powers.
The river in the first and last thirds of its course runs through the Cambrian sandstone,
while its middle third is through the ''Lower Magnesian" limestone. In the lower third
of its course the river flows over a rocky bed lietween rocky banks, giving ideal conditions
for dams. Most of the larger powers occur in this stretch, and some of these, developed
and undeveloped, are described below:
1. The first power on the river is an undeveloped one located about IJ miles from its
mouth. A dam at this point would give a head of 15 feet.
2. The second power, owned by the St. Croix Power Company, is located about 2 miles
from the mouth. Here a concrete dam of the arch type, 250 feet long lyid 47 feet high,
develops a head of 82 feet.
3. Four miles from the mouth is a gristmill with a head of 11 feet, owned by E. E. Mason.
4. The next dam, located in sec. 35, T. 31 N., R. 19 W., develops a head of 18 feet.
5. Another dam, located in sec. 31, T. 31 N., R. 18 W., with a head of 22 feet, is owned,
under the name of the Apple River Power Company, by the Western Gas and Investment
Company of Chicago, which also owns No. 4, described above.
6. A dam 12 miles above the mouth of Apple River gives a head of 29 feet. The dis-
charge at this point is about 80 per cent of the total flow measured at the mouth. This
power is transmitted electrically to New Richmond, where it is used by mills and elevators.
The powers on Apple River of less importance are described in the following table:
Minor water powers on Apple River.
Location. Owner and use. ' Head. Remarks.
Above mouth: ' | Feet.
13 miles ' H. L..Blxby, flour ■ 11 j Developed.
13) miles M. C. Duggies tSc Jewett ' 8 | Undeveloped.
15J miles (Star Prairie; I II. L. Blxby , Do.
25i miles \ J. C. Schnyder, flour ' 12 | Developed.
Sec. 17, T.12.N, R. 13 W | Winger & Winger ] 2 ' Do.
One-half mile above last site 1 J. St ucky, gristmill 12
Amery j Northern Supply Co., ele-
vators.
BlakesLake ■ Blake.
12
Do.
One-half total dis-
charge devel-
oped.
Developed; can be
made 18 feet.
There are many other powers above Bfakes Lake, with heads of from 6 to 20 feet, mostly
old logging dams in poor condition. When the region becomes more settled some of these
powers will be improved.
The foUowing data on the discharge of Apple River for the year 1903 are furnished by
John Pearson, superintendent of the St. Croix Power Company, Somerset, Wis. The
computations are based on the capacity of turbines located at a point 2 miles from the
mouth of Apple River. The average daily dischai^e for each month is as follows:
Estimated daily discharge of Apple River near Somerset, Wis., for 1903.
Month. ^^'«-,. , Month. ^^^^^ ; Month.
Dis-
charge.
' ' I h I
Sec-feet, i ' Sec-feet. ,, | Sec-feet.
January 258 ' May ' 860 |p8eptember ■ 690
February ' 230 I June I 468 ij October 660
March | 600 | July I «2 |i November 362
April ^ 655 '' Au^st I 380 l| December.
\ ! ii
324
128 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISOONBIN.
WILLOW RIVER.
Willow River, one of the smaller tributaries of the St. Croix, has a high gradient, due to
the fact that its bed lies in the "Lower Magnesian" limestone for its entire length. It
drains an area of only 246 square miles and has a length of about 35 miles. In the lower
two-thirds of this distance, between Hudson and Jewett Mills, it descends 213 feet, giving
many opportunities for water power. Many of these powers are improved, as the river
traverses a fairly rich and well-settled country and is paralleled for a considerable distance
either by the Wisconsin Central or the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha Railway.
Tlie powers are here briefly described in order, beginning at the mouth:
1. A timber dam at Hudson 100 feet long gives a head of 16 feet, and with improved
machinery would develop 117 horsepower at ordinary low water. A part of this power ia
used occasionally for electric light when the power described as No. 3 is short of water.
2. Two miles from the mouth of Willow River a dam formerly developed a 9-foot head
and was used for driving a flouring mill. At present this dam is washed out.
3. The 130-foot dam of the Willow River Electric Light and Power plant, 3^ miles from
the mouth of the river, gives a head of 22 feet, sufficient to develop 200 theoretical horse-
power at ordinary low-water flow. The power is used to generate electricity for lighting
the city of Hudson, Wis., and for pumping its water supply.
4. A timber dam 100 feet long, 5^ miles from the mouth of Willow River, gives a head
of 24 feet, sufficient to develop about 125 horsepower. This power is used for a flouring
mill. About 1,200 feet below this dam there is a fall of about 47 feet, and at this point
a new dam could be erected, which could be made to include the 24-foot dam above, giving
a total head of 71 feet. Such a dam would need to be about 26 feet high and about 70 or
80 feet long. By carrying the water a short distance below in a penstock, a total head
of 105 feet could be secured, sufficient to develop about 600 horsepower at ordinary flow
of water. This site, being where the river bed changes from the "Lower Magnesian"
limestone to the Cambrian sandstone, affords ideal conditions for a dam. The town of
Burkhardt, on the Chicago, St. Paul, Miimeapolis and Omaha Railway, b located about
a mile distant.
5. Seven miles from the mouth of Willow River a 100-foot timber dam gives a head of
16 feet. This power is used to run dynamos.
6. Rapids occur SJ miles from the mouth of Willow River. A dam 125 feet long at this
point, located at comparatively small expense in a narrow limestone goige, could be made
to develop a head of 22 feet.
7. At a point about 11 miles from the mouth of Willow River the Boardman flouring
mills were formerly located. The 80-foot timber dam at this point was washed out some
time ago, but the mill still stands. If the dam were replaced, a head of 16 feet or more
could be easily developed. All the above powers on Willow Riyer are owned by C. Burk-
hardt, who has the right of flowage wherever needed along this stretch of 11 miles, giving
an aggregate descent of nearly 200 feet.
8. The next power on Willow River is located at New Richmond. A timl^er dam 40
feet long, owned by the New Richmond roller mills, develops a head of 18 feet.
9. The last dam on this stream is located at Jewett, 5 miles east of New Richmond.
Power afforded by a 10-foot head is owned by P. Newell & Hennesey and used in a feed
mill and sawmill. Above this point Willow River is too small for water-power use.
CLAM RIVER.
Clam River drains an area of 416 square miles. It is formed by two branches — North
Fork and South Fork — which unite near the center of the drainage area just above Clam
Lake. The river descends about 350 feet in a total length of 50 miles, and, as much of
this high gradient is concentrated at rapids, several good opportunities are offered for
development. The river flows through a comparatively thinly settled region, which as
yet has no railroads. Several railroads, however, cross the margins of the drainage. The
ST. CROIX BIVER SYSTEM.
129
following statements regarding its principal water powers are based on information given
the writer by Edward L. Peet, editor of the Journal, Grantsburg, Burnett County.
A large, unimproved water power exists in T. 40 N., near the line between Rs. 17 and 18
W. At this point the banks of Clam River are 80 to 150 feet high, and the land which
would be flooded is low and of little value. Above the proposed dam the valley bottom
will average half a mile wide, with a few expansions to 1^ miles. Tlie bed of the river is
clay and bowlders, mixed with sand. Plenty of timber for the construction of a dam grows
in the swamps close at hand. Bowlders are also abundant at the dam site. The levels
taken on a recent survey show that this power could be improved in the following ways:
A dam 6 rods long at the range line would give a head of 20 feet. A dam 10 rods long
built farther downstream would produce a head of 35 feet. By adding a 6-foot embankment
for a distance of 20 rods this head could be increased to 28 feet ; or a dam 60 rods long
could be built across the valley with an average height of 40 feet and a maximum height
of 85 feet. If the water were conducted by canal a distance of about a mile to the low-
lands adjacent to St. Croix River, turbines could be installed with a head of 100 feet. This
dam site is distant only 3 miles from other large, undeveloped powers on St. Croix and Yel-
low rivers, with which it could be easily and cheaply connected by electric transmission.
About half a mile below Clam Lake there is now a logging dam with a head of alx)ut 20 feet
whirh raises the water in the lake 3 or 4 feet. This dam impounds the water from a drain-
age area of 283 square miles. United States engineers reported that a dam would need to
be 560 feet long at this point to produce a head of 25 feet. Such a dam would have a
capacity of 4,670,786,000 cubic feet, a and if properly regulated could be made to greatly
increase the amount and value of the powers below. The engineers found that the bed
of the river consisted of sand from 3 to 20 feet, at which depths soundings indicated hard
materials, supposed to be clay and gravel.
Another large water power is found at Clam FaUs, in sec. 13, T. 37 N., R. 16 W., where
the river falls over a wide ledge of the '* Keweenawan " rocks. A dam at this point impounds
the drainage from an area of 45 square miles and develops a head of 34 feet. Between
Clam FaUs and Clam Lake the slope is small and the river valley half a mile to 1^ miles
wide. The river profile is shown in the following table, compiled from surveys made by
United States engineers :
Profile of Clam River from its month to Clam Fails.
Station.
Mouth of river
St. Croix, road crossing
Clam Lake, mouth
Sec. 35, T. 38 N., R. 16 W., south line.
Clam Falls
Distance.
From Between
mouth. I points.
6.0
19,0
29.0
32.5
Eleva-
tion
above
sea level.
Miles. Miles.
6.0
13.0 I
10.0 I
3.5 ,.
Feet.
868
881
947
967
Descent be-
tween points.
Total. I
Per
mile.
Feet. \ Feet.
2.2
5.1
2.0
NAMEKAGON AND TOTOOATIG RIVERS.
Namekagon River rises in a large lake of the same name near the divide in the water-
sheds of Chippewa and Bad rivers. Its drainage area is second in extent of all the St.
Croix tributaries. Namekagon Lake is formed by six or more connected lakes, occupying
parts of 14 sections and surrounded by extensive cedar and tamarack marshes. In the
upper 60 miles of its courae the river is generally narrow and swift, stretches of rapids over
oRept. Chief Eng. U. S. Army 1880, p. 1619.
IRR 1
130
WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
pre-Cambrian cn'stalline rock being frequent. o There are also several vertical falls of
2 to 4 feet, which, together with the rapids, furnish good opportunities for water powers.
Tlie banks are high on either side, stretching away into high, broken ridges and sand barrens
covered with timlx'r. In the remaining 25 miles of its length the river is from 100 to 200
feet wide. In this reach it descends 130 feet, including several sharp pitchers and rapids,
tho principal of which are Little and Big Bull rapids and Dupee flats. The averagie slope
of tlie river is 5.3 feet per mile.
A good location for a dam is found 4 miles above the mouth of the river, where the high
gravel banks approach ^vithin 600 feet. A head of 20 feet or more could be obtained ht-re
without overflowing much land, impounding the drainage from 1,000 square miles. With
the ordinarj' low-water flow estimated at one-third of a second-foot per square mile, ihis
would produce 740 theoretical horsepower. Because of the storage efl"ect of the present
dams alx)ve this point, the river at this site might be made to produce nearly 1,000 horee-
power. Another good location for a dam is found at Veazie, on the Chicago. St. Paul,
Minneapolis and Omaha Railway. By overflowing 6,000 acres, mostly railroad and
Government land, a head of 30 feet could be obtained, according to United States engi-
neers. A dam of 15 feet head would cause little overflow. Such a dam would have the
run-off from about 800 square miles and at ordinary low water would produce 275 theo-
retical horsepower. Small dams are located at Stinnett and at the outlet of Lake Xanie-
kugon. A dam owned by the Hayward Electric Light and Power Company, located ni*ar
Hayward, develops 200 horsepower and is used for light and power purposes in that city.
Additional information regarding undeveloped powers is given in the following prafJe:
Profile of Namekagon River from its month to Cabie, Wis. a
Station.
Mouth of river
Sec. 33, T. 43 N., R. 14 W., east side
Totogatic River, mouth
McKinzie Creek, mouth, sec. 28, T. 42 N., R. 13 W .
Stuntz Brook, mouth, sec. 27, T. 42 N., R. 13 W..
N. E. J sec. 34, T. 41 N.,R. 13W
NW. J 8ec.fi,T.40N..R. 12 W
Sec. 18. T. 40 N., R. 12 W., near center
Sec. 30, T. 40 N., R. 12 W., near center
SW. i sec. 27. T. 40 N., R. 12 W
Veazie, sec. 36, T. 40 N., R. 12 W
River Jordan, mouth, sec. 21, T. 40 N., R. 11 W...
Spring Brook, mouth, sec. 15, T. 40 N., R. 11 \V ..
Chipiienacia Creek, mouth, sec. 33, T. 40 N., R. 10 W
Stinnett
T-ittlo Puckanance
Cable, Bayfield County
Distance.
From
mouth.
sMiles.
Between
points.
Miles.
Descent l>t«-
bleva- t ween point 9
tion I ^
above
sea level. Total
Py.»r
mile.
4.0
5.0
13.0
15.0
16.0
19.5
21.5
24.0
25.5
28.5
3.5.5
37.0
43.0
45.0
50.0
70.0
4.0 I
1.0
8.0 I
2.0
1.0 i
3.5
2.0 I
2.5
1.5 i
3.0 I
7.0
1.5 '
6.0
12.0
14.0
11.0
Feft.
±908.0
917.8
918.0
M4.0
952,0
958.0
990.0
1,004.5
1,024.2
1,025.2 ■
1,039.0
1,058.0
1,068.0 '
1.115.0 '
1.136.0
1,218.0
1,303.0
Feet. Feet.
9.8
2
2t>.0
ao
6.0
32.0
14.5
19-7 ;
1.0
13.8
19-0
10.0
47.0
21.0
82.0
85.0
2.4
.2
3-2
4.0
6.0
9-0
7 2
7.9
4.fi
2 7
6.6
7.R
10.5
5-9
a Authority: Nos. 1-14, and 16, C S. engineers: 15 and 17, Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha
Railway.
In its length of 55 miles, Totogatic River, the principal tributary of the Namekagon.
descends 350 feet. It enters the main stream only 5 miles above its mouth. The region
is high and precipitous, with frequent ledges of pre-Cambrian crystalline rock and bowl-
ders. As a result, the stream forms for miles a series of rapids with many vertical falls of
10 feet or more. Many logging dams already exist, the most important being located
oSimar, V. B., Asst. U. S. Engineer: Rept. Chief Eng. V. S. Army, 1880. p. 1616.
ST. CROIX RIVER SYSTEM.
131
as follows: Sec. 13, T. 42 N., R. 10 W.; sec. 6, T. 42 N., R. 10 W.; and sec. 12, T. 43 N.,
R.^ 10 W. A good site for a dam is near the outlet of Gilmore Lake, in sec. 9, T. 42 N., R.
12 W.; and another in sec. 12, T. 42 N., R. 12 W. The following profile of Totogatic
River is compiled from surveys made by United States engineers:
Profile of Totogatic River from its mouth to NE. 1 sec. 15, T. 4£ N., R. 9 W.
Station.
Distance.
Elevft-
; 1 tion
From Between above
mouth. I points, sea level.
Descent be-
tween points.
Total. ,
Per
mile.
Milet!. MiUn.
Mouth of river
Sec. 13, T. 42 N., R. 13 W., dam
NE. J sec. 10, T. 42 N., R. 12 W .
NE. i sec. 3. T. 42 N., R. 10 W . .
NE. i sec. 13, T. 42 N., R. 10 W .
NE. 4 sec. 15, T. 42 N., R. 9 W . .
11.5
20.0
37.0
40.0
60.0
11.5 '
8.5 I
17.0 I
3.0
10.0
Feet.
918.0
975.5
1,008.8
1,1(^4
1,241.6
1,251.6
Feet. Feet.
57.5 ,
23.3
159.6 I
73.2 I
10.0 ,
5.0
2.7
9.4
24.4
1.0
MINOR STREAMS.
Osceola CreeJc. — Emptying into St. Croix River a few miles south of Willow River is a
small stream known as Osceola Creek. In the city of Osceola, near its mouth, is a water
power with a head of 90 feet, owned by the Osceola Mill and Elevator Company. This
dam furnishes the power to nin a mill with a capacity of 175 barrels per day. One-fourth
of a mile above is another dam with a he^ of 26 feet.
Kinnikinnic River. — A small river emptying into St. Croix River only 5 miles above its
mouth bears this name« Its gradient is so high that there are a number of good sites for
water powers. The descent in 10 miles is 190 feet. The following l^ a tabulated statement
of its water power:
Water pou^rs on Kinnikinnic Riv^r. a
\
No.'
I
Location.
O .vner and use.
I Head.
I
1 2 miles from mouth ... N. Kohl . flouring mill
2 5 miles from mouth.. .
3 I 7 miles from mouth...
I River Falls: i j
4 ' 3 miles l)elow ,
5 1 ihile below City water^'orks
6 ! River Falls | do \
7 do 1 Geo. Fortune, mill and elevator i
8 I do Prairie mill and elevator
9 7 miles above River | Clapp's mill '
Falls. i I
10 South Branch, sec. 1 , I W. 11. Putnam, feed and flour . .
' T. 27 N., R. 19 W. I
11 I 1 mile above No. 10. . ., Glass Bros., manufacturers . . .
12 Balsom Lake J. \V. Park, lumber and flour. . . .
Feet
10
20
Esti-
mated
horse-
power.
Remarks.
14 '
15 I
39 I
8
14 i
10 I
I
H I
I
Timber dam.
Good dam location.
(jO Tiral)erdam,9byl20.
140 Timber dam.
40 I Timberdam,4by210.
eo I Timljer dam, 12 by 180.
Dam out.
30
Timljer dam, 2(i by 114.
180
o Figures are low-water estimates. Nos. 1 and 5-12 developed; 2-4, undeveloped.
132 WATEB POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
LAKE SUPERIOR DRAINAGE SYSTEM.
TOPOGRAPHY.
The watershed which limits the area of Lake Superior drainage in Wisconsin varies in
elevation (above the level of Lake Superior) from 600 feet near the Minnesota line to over
1,000 feet near the Michigan line. Its average distance from Lake Superior is only 30
miles. For this reason the rivers are comparatively small; but owing to the fact that
their high gradient, 600 to 1,000 feet, is largely concentrated at a few points, they offer
many opportunities for water-power development. From a point near the center of the
watershed a wide and nearly flat table-land, of which Bayfield Peninsula and the Apostle
Islands form the northern prolongation, separates the drainage into eastern and western
sections of nearly equal area. In both of these sections three distinct belts of topography
are usually distinguished. The southernmost belt consists of a plateau in large part covered
wi.h swamps and lakes and is so flat that in mafty cases the water from the same swamps
and lakes may flow either north to Lake Superior or south to the Mississippi.
From this flat watershed the descent northward is gradual until a range of mountains
from 600 to 900 feet above the level of Lake Superior is reached. The northern slope of
these mountains is much steeper than their southern slope, forming a marked though not
continuous escarpment.
In the western section these mountains, known as Douglas Copper Range, reach a height
of 400 to 600 feet above the lake and have a width of 1 to 4 miles. They extend in an east-
northeast direction, gradually merging into the Bayfield moraine. From the crest of the
mountains there is a sudden descent of 300 to 400 feet, caused by a faulting of the rocks.
The Lake Superior rivers break through the ridges at this point, and here the greatest
opportunities for water-power development are to be found.
In the eastern section the mountains, called the Penokec Iron Range, extend from a
point on the Michigan l>oundary, 12 miles from Lake Superior, in a southwesterly direction
for about 35 miles, gradually merging into the plateau. As in the western section, many
falls and rapids occur in breaking through the hard "Huronian" rocks of which the range
is composed. Smaller falls continue for a distance of 5 to 6 miles after crossing the Penokee
Range, or until the Copper Range has been crossed.
To the north of the highlands and extending with a gradual slope northward to the shores
of Lake Superior lies a plain with a width of 5 to 15 miles. Its northern portion reaches an
elevation of 100 to 200 feet above Lake Superior or 700 to 800 feet above the sea. The
entire belt Is underlain by till and deep layers of red clays sometimes mixed with sand. The
rivers, both large and small, have cut deep and narrow banks in the clay soil. As a result
the surface is carved in every direction by narrow water courses whose steep sides have a
height of 25 to 100 feet, making railroad and highway construction expensive. Very few
swamps are found in this lowland area. Because of the gradual slope of the shallow rivers
opportunities for water-power development in this belt are rare. In many cases, however,
there are important falls at the immediat'O mouths of the rivers and over the red sandstone.
>VATER POWERS.
CHABACTER.
Owing to the fact that the rivers of the Lake Superior system in Wisconsin have a total
fall of 400 to 1,000 feet in the narrow belt of 30 miles separating the plateau region in
which they rise from Lake Superior, their currents are characteristically rapid. As a result
the rainfall is quickly discharged, the streams alternating between small creeks and torren-
tial rivers. ^Vhile the storage of surplus waters is important everywhere in the State for
the economical development of water power, it is here doubly so. The fact that the most
important falls and rapids are in the upper half of the drainage area increases the difficulty
of storing a large proportion of the rainfall. With a storage of less than 5 to 15 per cent
of the rainfall most of the rivers would furnish at low water an insignificant flow.
LAKE SUPERIOR DRAINAGE SYSTEM.
133
Rainfall data regarding this drainage area are scanty, but sufficient to show that the rain-
fall increases from the lake to the highlands. This fact is strikingly shown bj' the precipi-
tation rpap published by the United States Weather Bureau and shown in fig. 1 (p. 16). I^t
is here seen that the rainfall increases southward at the avei-age rate of about 5 inches every
25 miles, the maximum not being reached until after the highlands are passed. This fact
has an important bearing on the value of the water powers, because, a.s already stated, it
necessitates the location of reservoirs to a large extent in this region of greatest rainfall.
The most important water powers occur near the Copper ranges and the Penokee Iron
Range, where future mining operations may render them of much economic importance.
ST. IX^lJIS RIVER.
Although the w^afer powers of St. Louis River lie outside the State, they are located so
near the Wisconsin boundary that development contemplates their extensive use in Supe-
T. 48 - R. 16
1100.
^iom'-
|ioooi
- 980'.
H.W.L. WEStWvOIR
_ MtAO OF PtPt UNI
J»QW£RV[M00ag
Fig. 5.— Plan of canal of Grpat North«rn Power Company. St. Louis River.
rior and other Wisconsin cities. An important feature of St. Louis River is the concentra-
tion of its descent in the lower reaches, where its volume i.s greatest. This provides oppor-
tunities for water power which if distributed among its smaller tributaries would \ye in large
part wasted. The upper portions of St. Louis River are sluggish, flowing through many
lakes and swamps, but as the waters near the lake their speed is increased until at a point
about 22 miles from Lake Superior, just above Fond du Lac, there is a series of falls and
rapids extending 6 miles upstream from a point 2 miles from the Wisconsin boundary. In
this di.stance of 6 miles the river descends 456 feet in a series of wild leaps over the upturned
ledges of slate rock, forming a water power which has few superiors in the West. This
power and the riparian rights are owned by the Great Northern Power Company. Mr.
134 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
F. A. Cokefair, chief engineer of the company, furnishes the following statement under date
of January 23, 1904:
One steel gravity dam 36 feet high and 620 feet long has already been constructed near the village r»f
Thompson. This dam conserves the water in a reservior of about 1 square mile of area, from which
the water is led through a canal 2} miles long. 62 feet wide, and 15 feet deep. (Fig. 5.) From the tir-
minus of the canal the water is taken by iron pipes for a distance of about a mile and delivered under a
head of 365 feet at the power house midway between Thompson and Fond du Lac. The capacity of
this canal is sufBcient to develop 100,000 horsepower. Final plans and designs are now completed, and
work on the first station for the ultimate development of 100,000 horsepower will begin in the early
spring. Bids have been asked from leading manufacturers for the first threes wheels of 12^500 horse-
power capacity each, the largest units ever yet built and similar to those in use at Niagara Falls. Trans-
mission lines will carry the power to the neighboring cities of Duluth and Superior, and even farther
to the Mesabi and other iron ranges, where it will augment or displace steam power.
NEMADJI AND BLACK RIVEBS. a
Unlike other rivers of the Lake Superior watershed, Nemadji River flows northeast
instead of north and does not rise in an elevated region. As a result it is devoid of impor-
tant rapids or falls suitable for water power.
Black River, the most important tributary of the Nemadji, rises in an elevated country,
its source being in a lake on the Minnesota boundary. It flows north and empties into
Nemadji River about 10 miles from Lake Superior at an elevation of only 20 feet above the
lake. In the upper two-thirds of its length Black River flows through many tamarack and
cedar swamps, wliich give to its waters a distinct color and taste. Up to about 4 miles
from the Douglas Copper Range it occupies a wide valley with small descent. As this
range is approached the valley narrows and its gradient increases. In the SE. \ sec. 28, T.
47 N., R. 14 W. the hard layers of the "Keweenawan" rocks cross the river, producing a
vertical fall of 31 feet. A total head of 160 feet 2> could easil}"^ be obtained here for a dam
site. As Black River has a drainage area of 80 square miles above these falls, an assvuned
run-off of 0.4 second-foot per square mile gives 560 theoretical horsepower. A company
was formed some time ago to improve this power, and a franchise was secured from the city
of Superior for lighting by electricity, but no construction has yet been done. The water
at the head of the upper rapids is 387 feet above Lake Superior; at their foot, 50 yards
beyond, the elevation is 227 feet. From this point the river passes for nearly a mile through
a gorge 100 to 170 feet deep, below which the walls of the goi^e are less elevated above the
stream, but the current is very rapid until it joins Nemadji River 4 miles below. From the
foot of Black River Falls to the junction with the Nemadji the total descent is 200 feel, an
average of 50 feet to the mile.
BOIS BRULE RIVER.
Though over 33 miles long, Bois Brule River has a drainage area of only 200 square
miles, practically all of which is in the highland district. It rises in a swamp, near St.
Croix Lake, at an elevation of 420 feet above the level of Lake Superior. In sec. 15, T.
46 N., R. 10 W., at the Dalles, Bois Brule River is only 25 feet wide, with banks of clay and
bowlders averaging 8 feet in height. Near this point there are swift rap ds, with a total
descent of about 15 feet in 200 yards. Similar rapids about 3 miles farther north, near the
township line, continue as far as the mouth of Nebagemain River, the most important
tributary of the Bois Brule, in sec. 27, T. 47 N., R. 10 W. For the next 10 or 12 miles
the current is very sluggish until the head of the lower rapids is reached, in sec. 26, T. 4S
N., R. 10 W. From this point to within IJ miles of Lake Superior rapids and small falls
(the largest being 4 or 5 feet in height) occur almost continuously. These descend an
aggregate of 200 feet over *'Kcweenawan" eruptives and sandstones. By constructing
dams at the outlets of Lakes Nebagemain and Minnesung the surplus water could be held
a The authority for most of the statements concerning the Lake Superior rivers is Prof. R. D.
■ving: Geology of Wlsconsfn, vol. 3, ISK).
b Sweet, E. T.. Geol. Wisconsin, vol. 3, 1880, p. 319.
LAKE SUPERIOR DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 135
back and used at times of low water, thus adding greatly tx> the value of the water powers
on the river. At present there are no dams. Mr. Howard Thomas, city engineer of Supe-
rior, Wis., states that the normal discharge of this river is 100 second-feet, and that at sev-
eral points heads of 40 feet could be obtained by dams between bluffs or with dams and
flumes along the banks. Such a head would give 450 theoretical horsepower. Because of
its comparatively small watershed and the fact that the river is fed very largely by springs
it is not subject to freshets.
MONTREAL AND GOOOSHUNGUN RIVERS.
For nearly its entire length Montreal River forms a part of the Michigan-Wisconsin bound-
ary. It rises in 'a tangle of lakes and tamarack swamps near the boundary line at an ele-
vation of about 1,600 feet above sea level, or 1,000 feet above Lake Superior. Its length
is 50 miles, the highest gradient being concentrated in the last quarter of this distance.
This exception to the general rule of the Lake Superior drainage area is due to the fact
that here the Penokee Iron Range and its associated highlands of the " Keweenawan " series
approach Lake Superior within a distance of only 3 miles, leaving no lowland region.
About 1,300 feet from its mouth, on the north line of sec. 7, T. 47 N., R. 1 E., is a verti-
cal fall of 35 feet over sandstone. It is stated by an oflBcer of the Duluth, South Shore
and Atlantic Railway that a head of 55 feet could be developed here by constructing a
flume 100 feet long. Because of the lakes and swamps at the headwaters of this river it is
likely that at least 5 per cent of the annual rainfall could be stored in reservoirs. This
would give, from its 280 square miles of drainage area, an ordinary flow of 140 second-feet,
equivalent, with a head of 55 feet, to 868 theoretical horsepower. In the last five-eighths
of a mile of its course Montreal River descends 90 feet. The railway ofiicial mentioned
above also states that another power site is located in the NW. J SW. { sec. 21, T. 47 N.,
R. 1 E., at falls of 60 feet over the crystalline rocks. As the banks are high, a 20-foot
dam, with a flume 250 feet long, would develop a head of 80 feet. Both of the above pow-
ers are within 4 miles of the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railway. At Iron wood,
about 2 miles above these falls, the river has an elevation of 880 feet. In the 5 miles above
Ironwood the river descends only 30 feet, and for the remainder of its upper reaches its
current is slow. At all the rapids on this river the conditions are favorable for the build-
ing of dams. \
The Gogoshungun, a branch of the Montreal, is nearly as large us the upper Montreal,
being about 30 miles long. Its total descent is 500 feet. Until the river reaches the Peno-
kee Range its current is sluggish, being bordered by swamps. In its passage through the
mountains, in sec. 27, T. 46 N., R. 2 E., a number of rapids and falls occur.
BAD RIVER.
MAIN RIVER.
The sources of Bad River lie in large swamps 8 miles south of the Penokee Iron Range,
at an elevation of 900 feet above the level of Lake Superior. In this distance of 8 miles its
descent is 110 feet, but its course is sinuous, as may be inferred from the fact that the Wis-
consin Central Railway is forced to cross it eight times. About li miles above Mellen are
rapids called Copper Falls, which have a total descent of about 60 feet. (PI. V, B.) The
river at this point has a drainage area of about 144 square miles. According to a survey,
5 per cent of the annual rainfall could be easily stored in dams near the headwaters, which
should provide an ordinary flow of 68 second-feet, equivalent to 460 theoretical horse-
power.
Near the Penokee Range Bad River enters a gorge of pinkish granite, narrowing in places
to a width of 10 feet and descending 20 feet in 30 rods, with a total descent of 50 feet in
three-fourths of a mile. The river then widens and continues with reduced grade until
Penokee Gap is reached, when it again contracts. Coming into contact with the "Iluro-
nian'' rocks, it flows along their strike. In the next 4 miles occur many rapids and several
136 WATER POWERS OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.
falls, including one of 35 feet. In the next 1,000 feet, in which the river descends 40 ffet.
Tylers Fork, the most important tributary, is reached. Directly at the junction TVlers
Fork has a fall of 45 feet over the wall of a gorge 65 feet deep. This is in .sec. 17, T. 45 X.,
R. 2 W. A competent engineer, reporting on this water power, states that dams c<Hi]d
develop here a head of about 120 feet. The tributary drainage area is given at 234 square
miles. On the assumption that the rainfall is only 32 inches and that reservoirs can lie
made to store 15 per cent of the rainfall, it was estimated that the river would fumif^h a
continuous flow of 206 second-feet, equivalent to about 3,000 theoretical horsepower. Il
was proposed to conduct this power electrically to Ashland.
In the next 1,000 feet l^elow Tylers Fork the river flows through a rocky goi^ 100 feel
deep, beyond which the rocks disappear and the stream flows between higli hanks of red
clay, the g^uud rising rapidly on both sides. The total descent in sec. 17 is probably 135
feet. In the next 6 miles of its sinuous course, to the mouth of Maringouin River, the
river descends about 3C feet to the mile. Both ri%'ers at their confluence are broad and
deep, with slow-moving, muddy currents and wide bottom lands — conditions which con-
tinue to the mouth of Bad River.
Farther north, 2J miles from this junction, Bad River receives the waters of Potato
River. At this point its elevation is 80 feet above the level of Lake Superior. In sec. 25,
T. 47 N., R. 3 W., occur some small falls, of 1 or 2 feet, over red sandstone and shale, which
continue for perhaps 2 miles. Below these falls Bad River continues sluggish, deep, and
tortuous, with bold and high clay banks, until White River is reached. For the remain-
der of its course the river finds it-s way to Lake Superior through swamps.
TRI RUT ABIES.
The principal tributaries of Bad River, named in order from its mouth, are as follows:
White River entering from the west; Potato River from the east; Maringouin or Moequito
River from the west, and Tylers Fork from the east.
White /?tiY/-.— This river, the largest tributary of Bad River, has a total length of about
45 miles, and drains an area of 400 square miles. It rises in Long Lake, at about 700 feel
above the level of Lake Superior. Most of its descent is concentrates! in its upper waters^
where its discharge is least. It pursues a general northeasterly course, with many wind-
ings through high and steep clay banks, like those described on Bad River. Its only
considerable falls are in sec. 6, T. 46 N., R. 4 W., where the river was originally obstructed
by the edges of southward-dipping rocks. A dam with a 20-foot head has been maintained
here for several years, and until October, 1903, furnished the power to run a paper mill.
At t4iat time the mill burned, and it has not been rebuilt. It had turbines rated at 710
horsepower. The owner, George Davidson, reports that he has a charter for a dam with
30-foot head, to be located about 1,300 feet upstream. The main dam as planned would
be 125 feet long, with an embankment 10 to 12 feet high and 900 feet long. Mr. David:^»n
also states that about 500 feet below the present dam there is a location for a dam with
a 9-foot head. At three dam sites the bed of the river is in sandstone which extends 10
feet above the water surface. The rock is overlain with red clay.
Maringouin River. — Maringouin River, sometimes also called Maringo (Mosquito) River,
has a total length of about 40 miles and drains an area of 231 square miles. Four milfs
from its source it crosses the Penokee Range. Here, in the NW. } sec. 23, T. 44 N., R.
5 W., the river descends, in a series of three falls, a total distance of 65 feet within a few
rods. The two upper falls, of 15 and 25 feet, respectively, are onh' 50 feet apart. Nothing
but the limited amount of water prevents this from being a valuable water power. For
the remainder of its course the river is devoid of falls or rapids, flowing between high clay
banks.
Within 6 miles of its junction with Bad River, the Maringouin receives several ra^Md
tributaries, the most important of which is Brunsweiler Creek. This creek rises in the
same swamp with Maringouin River, but, unlike it, has important falls north of the
"lluromau" hills. Until Bladder Lake is passed in sec. 11, T. 44 N., R. 4 W., the cur-
LAKE SUPERIOR DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 137
rent is sluggish. The outlet of this lake is only 6 feet wide, with rwk walls on either side.
A dam which would greatly raise the water in the lake could l)e constructed here at slight
expense. At the outlet of the lake there is a long series of chutes and rapids for a dis-
tance of over 6 miles. In this stretch the creek flows through a narrow valley with steep,
rocky hills. The last important descent occurs near the north line of sec. 22, T. 45 N.,
R. 4 E., where the stream leaves the Copper Range, the slope being 30 feet in a distance
of 130 feet.
Tylers Fori. — ^This tributary is the only one which joins Bad River l)efore the lowlands
are reached. Tylers Fork, nevertheless, has a length of 30 miles and a total descent of
700 feet. Until it reaches the I-enokee Range its current is sluggish. In the NE. J sec.
33, T. 45 N., R. 1 W., the river falls 20 feet over the hard "Huronian" rock. Less than a
mile farther on, in sec. 28, occurs a series of low falls over black slate, the descent being 20
feet in a distance of 500 feet. On the north line of sec. 20 the river surface is 760 feet
above the level of Lake Superior. In the next 10 miles of its course it descends 260 feet,
but without any considerable rapids. On the west line of sec. 15, T. 45 N., R. 2 W., the
elevation of the water is 485 feet. The current now becomrs s\\ifter and about a quarter
of a mile l:)elow the east line of sec. 16 is a series of rapids which continues to its junction
with Bad River, ending in the 45-foot fall already described (p. — ). As these falls and
rapids are within a mile of the Wisconsin Central Railway, they seem destined to become
of some economic importance.
Potato River. — In its course of only 30 miles, Potato River has a total descent of over
900 feet. The river is small until it is joined in sec. 15, T. 46 N., R. 1 W., by Little Potato
River. From this confluence a course nearly due west for 12 miles takes it to Bad River.
Near the east line of sec. 17, T. 46 N., R. 1 W., at 428 feet above the level of Lake Superior,
is a series of rapids followed by a series of cataracts. These rapids begin on the east line
SE. 1 SW. } sec. 17, T. 46 N., R. 1 W., and are in the trap rock. In the next quarter mile
abrupt descents of 10, 4, and 40 feet occur, with swift water between. A still larger fall
of 60 feet or more is located near the west line of sec. 17, and as the banks are high and
precipitous, a suitable dam would develop a head of nearly or quite 100 feet. On both
sides of the west line of sec. 17, about 2,000 feet north of the southwest comer, is a series
of bold falls having a total descent of 80 feet in a distance of 500 feet, with two leaps of
25 feet and 32 feet, respectively. The total fall in sees. 17 and 18 is 170 feet. These
falls, being over solid rock of conglomerate and sandstone, furnish. ideal conditions for
dams. Below sec. 18 the river course is tortuous and slow.
MINOR RIVERS.
Aminicon, Middle, Poplar, and Iron rivers are small streams in Douglas County They
are all swift streams with many small falls, but are subject to great variations of flow,
being insignificant at low water. A corporation known as the Iron River Water, Light
and Power Company has recently constructed a dam 135 feet long, with a head of 32 feet,
on Iron River, in sec. 22, T. 47 N., R. 10 W., the intention being to install turbines of 1,000
horsepower, which will be transmitted to near-by towns.
RAIL.ROAI>S.
All the falls which ocxrur near the Penokee Range on Bad River and Tylers Fork are
near the Wisconsin Central Railway. Montreal and Wliite rivers are crossed by the
Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic, the Chicago and Northwestern, and the Wisconsin
Central railways. The western half of the Lake Superior watershed has good transpoVta-
tion facilities. Branches of the Great Northern Railway cross the valley of Black River
and follow the valley of Nemadji River. Besides these the drainage is crossed by the
Northern Pacific, the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha, and the Minneapolis,
St. Paul, and Sault Ste. Marie railways, and by minor logging roads.
INDEX.
A. Page.
Af ton, power development at 116
AKiicultiire, development of 14, 92-93
Alpena, Mich., temperature at 15
Araery, power development at 127
Amherst, power development at 62
precipitation at 45
Am in icon River, description of 137
Apple River, drainage area of 118, 125-126
fall at mouth of 119
I»ower development and sites on 126-127
run-off of 127
Appleton, fall at ! .... 22, 35
flow at 22
power development at 35-37
precipitation at ' 46
A rljor Creek, j»ower development at 62
Arkunnas, power development at 116
Arkan»a.s Creek, power development on 116
Augusta, power development at 116
B.
Bud River, tributaries of 136-137
water powers on 135-136
Bad Water rapids, water power at 51
Balsom Lake, water power on 1 31
Bal timore rapids, water power at 124
Baraboo quartzite, occurrence of 63
Baraboo Riiwr, drainage area of 63, 83
Barnards rapids, dam site at M
Ba.«« Creek, power development on 116
Battle Island, fall at 78
I)ower site at 78-79
Bear Creek, logging dam on 113
Bear Lake, faU at 99
reservoir site at 91-92
BelilLs Falls, water power at ia3-l(>4
Be vent, power development at 117
Big Falls, fall at 107
view of 106
water i>ower at 106
Big Lake, elevation of 64
Big Quinnesec Falls, fall at 43
water power at 52
Big Rock rapids, water power at 124
Bill Cross rapids, fall at 67
water power at 80
Biron dam, fall at 66
BlackCreek, fallatmouthof 66
I Page.
Black River (Lake Superior drainage), wa-
I ter power on 134
I Black River (Mississippi River drainage),
' character of 85
I drainage area of 12
flowof 8&-SQ
profileof 85-86
I rocks on 86
I water powers on 89-90
I Black River Falls, fall at 85
power development at 89
I Blaisdells Lake, fall at 99
I Blakes Lake, power development at 127
I Bob Creek, fall at 99
I Bois Brule River, drainage of 134
I water power on 134-135
I Boulder Lake, fall at 107
I Boyceville, power development at 117
I Bridge Creek, power development on 116
Brokaw, fall at 66
power development at 80
Brooks. T. B., on Little Quinnesec Falls . . . 52
Bruce, fall at 99
Brule, fall at 55
Hrule River, character of 55
dams on 56
drainage area of 42, 50, 55
profile of 55
source of 43-44
Bnmctt Falls, fall at 99
view of 80
water power at 102-103
Brunett River, dam on 105
Uuckatal>an Lakes, proposed dam at 64
Buffalo Lake, origin of 19
Bull Rapids, location of 130
Burkhardt, water power near 128
Butte des Morts, Lake, chamcter of 19, 34
Butternut Creek, reserv«>ir site on 91-92
Butternut Lake, reservoir site at 91-92
Cable, fallat 130
Cambrian sandstone, occurrence of 11,
43,54,57,67,77,91,113,123
Cameron, fall at 114
Catfish Lake, elevation of 64
I Cedar Creek, fallatmouthof 66
I Cedar Lake dam, fall at 114
139
140
INDEX.
Cedar rapids (Chippewa River), fall at 99 1
water power at IW |
Cedar rapids (Tomahawk River), location j
of 83 I
Cedar rapids dam, fall at 114
waterpowerai 114-115 I
Cedars dam, fall at 22,33 |
power development at 87-38
Chal k Hill rapids, water power at 63 ,
Chevalley rapids, fall at 99 ■
Chicago and Northwestern Railway, access
to water powers by .42, 51, 57-58, 105, 137
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway,
acresH to water powers by 13,
42,51,57,92,116
ChioAK^. St. Paul. Minneapolis and Omaha
Railway, access to water pow-
ers by 90, 92, 116, 126, 12H, 130. 137
Chippenacia Creek, fall at month of 130
Chippewa Falls, fall at 99
power developments at 1 01, 116
Chippewa River, dams on 105
drainage area of 12, 90-91 , 98-100, 103
fall of 98,108
power sites and developments on . . . 9, 98-105
profile of 9»-100
plate showing 100
rapids on, view of 80
reservoir sites on 13, 91-92
rocks on 91
run-off of 93-98
timber on 90
topography of 90-91,98-100
tributaries of 91, 105-117
Sec aluo Etist Branch Chippewa: West
Branch Chippewa.
Cincinnati shales, occurrence of 21
Clam Falls, water power at 129
Clam Lake, fall at 129
Clam River, description of 128-129
drainage area of 118, 125, 128
fall at 119
iroflleof 129
water-power development at 129
Clays, occurrence and character of 13
Climate, character of 15-19
Cokefair, F. A., on St. Louis River power
development 134
Colfax, fail at 114
power development at 1 16
Colton rapids, fall at 99
Combined Locks dam, iK)wer development at 38
view of 38
Conovor, elevation at 82
Copper Falls, fall at 135
view of 106
Court Oreillcs Lake and rapids, water
power at 104
Court Oreilles River, drainage area of 100,103
rcMTvoirsites on 91-92
water power on 104
Cranbrrry Lake, elevation of 64
Crooked Rift nipids. location of 78
Crystal River, jM^wer dovclopmont on 62
Crystalline rocks, occurrence of 10
Cunningham Creek, fall at mouth of 56
D. Pa«*.
Dalles (Chippewa River), power develop-
ment at 117
Dalles (Eau Claire River), dam site at ... . M
fallat 9^.'
Dams. See particular rivers, places, etc.
Davis Falls. Sec Jim Falls.
Dc Nevue Creek, power development on . . . 21
Deertail Creek, fall at mouth of »
Dellsdam, fallat •*«>
water power at *^v
Depere, dam at, plan of. figure showing ... 41
dam at, view of >
fallat ilSi
power development at 41
Dog Lake, elevation of ^
Dorc Flambeau River, character of 115
dams on 11-
reservoir sites on 91-9B
Douglas Copper Range, location and char-
acter of ic'
Downsville. fal 1 at ill
power development at 1 H-l 1 '
Drainage, character of 12-! >
map showing...' 12
Duck Creek, power development on *l
Ducomon rapids, fall at :<t^
Duluth, Minn., rainfall at 19
temperatures at l'-*
Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railway.
access to water powew by l$>, KS"
Duncan Creek , power developmen t on y(
Dunnville, fallat ni
water power at 114
Dupee flats, location of IJO
Durand, power development at it*.
E.
Eagle Lakes, elevation of *a
proposed dam at •►i
Eagle Point, power development at ilT
Eagle Rapids, fallat »
waterpowerat : »:
Eagle River, lakes on M
East Branch of Chippewa River, drainage
area of ]0u.M»
proflleof »-lti'
reser\-oir sites on 91 -y_
water power on I'H
East Forks, fall at mouth of >s
Eau Claire, flow near iti-y
gaging station near y .
power development at 1 1:
Eau Claire Rirer (Chippewa River drain-
age), drainage area of lOClor.. r*
fall at mouth of yy
power development on 1<jO-iul;
Eau Claire River (St. Croix River drainaj?e j ,
description of ]_•.
drainage area of i\n, vs*-\ >
Eau Claire River (Wisconsin River drain-
age), dam sites on ^\
drainage area of ii* v.
fall at mouth of tf
Eau Pleine River, dam sites on x-.
drainage area of u*. n.
INDEX.
141
Pape.
Eighteen-mile Creek, power development
on 116
Elk River, logging dams on 118
Em barrass, po wer developm en t at 62
rainfall at 19.45^6
Embarrass River, power development on . . 62
Engineers, army, reports of, on Wisconsin
rivers 9,15
Escanaba, precipitation at 46
temperature at 15
Escanaba River, flow of 44
F.
Fish Lake, elevation of 64
Fisher River, fall at mouth of 99
Flambeau Lake, logging dam on 113
Flambeau River, character of 105-106
drainage area of 91, 100, 103, 105
fall of 106
fall at mouth of 99
water power at 103
falls on, view of .-. _. 106
power development on 106
profileof 106-107
run-ofT of '. 107-112
source of 43-44,91
tributaries of 118
Florence, precipitation at 45
Forest condi tiona, d iscussion of 14
Fox and Wisconsin Improvement Com-
pany, development by 33-3-i
Fox River, drainage of 19-20
precipitation on 46
water powers on, development of 9
Fox River, Lower, character of * 32
damson, views of ^. 88
drainage area of 32
fall of 22,32
floods on 82,42
ice on .- 32
legal status of water powers on 83-34
navigation of 42
profileof 22
rock-j on 21, 82
run-off of 22-32
topograph yon 21
water i)Owers on 32-41
Fox River, Upper, profile of 20
water powers on 20-21
Fox- Wisconsin divide, character of 63-64
G.
Galena limestone, occurrence of 21
Geography.physical, of northern Wisconsin. 10-19
Geological Survey, U. 9., on Wisconsin
rivers 9-10
Geology, account of 10-11
Gilbert, fall at 67
Gilmore Lake, dam site at 131
Glacial drift, occurrence and character
of 11,21,91
Glidden Station, fall at 100
GoRoshungun River, water power on 135
Goose Eye rapids, fall at 99
waterpower at 104
(irand Chute, fall at.
Page.
.. '33
Grand Kaukauna, fall at 22, 33. 38
power development at 38-40
' Grand rapids, fall at 4:
I Grand Rapids, fall at 66
I power development at 77-78
I Grand River, power development on 21
I Grandfather rapids, fall at 67
I view of 80
water power at Hi
I Grandmother rapids, fall at 67
1 water power at 81
Great Northern Power Co., power develop-
ment of, figure showing 133
Great Northern Railway, access to water
power by 137
Green Bay, elevation at 22
precipitation ot % 46
Green Bay and Mississippi Canal Co., devel-
opment by 33
water power owned by 33, 36-40
Green Bay and Wes em Railroad, access to
waterpowerby 90
Green Bay Valley, topography of 21
Greenleaf. J. L., on Menominee River 42
Gresham, power developmen t at 62
Grindstone rapids, power development at. . 56
Halcyon, fall at 85
water power at 89
Halfbreed rapids, location of 83
Halls Creek, fall at mouth of 85
Harts,fall at 126
Hat rapids, fall at 67
water power 82
Hatfield, fall at 85
water power at 89
Uatton, power development at 21
Hay River, dam on 116
fall at 114
Hector, logging dam at 126
Hemlockdam, fallnear 86
power development at 90
High Falls, water power at 56
Holcombe rapids, fall at 99
jiower development at 103
Homestead bridge, flow at 46
Horse Race rapids (Menominee River),
water power at 62
Horse Race rapids (St. Croix Rivera, water
power at 124
Hudson, water power near 128
Hunters Lake, fall at 99
Huronian rocks, occurrence of 10, 135-137
Hydrography, account of 12-18
See alfo Drainage.
I ^'
i Igneous rocks, occurrence of 10
' Iron mines, location of 43, 51
I Iron Mountain, Mich., fall at 43
flowat 46-50
' water power near 52
Iron River (Menominee River drainage),
drainage area of 50
flow of 44
142
INDEX.
Page.
Iron River (Lake Superior drainage), power
development on 136
Ironwood, fall at 136
Irving, fall at 114
water power at 114
Island I^ke, elevation of 64
fall at 107
J.
Jewctt. water power at I2f<
Jim FalK fall at 99
power development at 101-102
figure showing 102
Jordan, power development at 117
Jordan Ri ver, fall at mouth of 130
Jump River, dams on 116
drainage area of 103, 115
water power on lliS-116
#
K.
Kaukauna. See Grand Kaukauna; Little
Kaukauna.
Keawasogon Lake, elevation of 64
Kettle River, drainage area of 118, 125
Kettle River rapids, fall at 119
water power on 124
Keweenawan rocks, ot'currenee of. 10, 129, 134-135
Kickapoo River, drainage area of 83
jM)wer development on 83
Kilbourn, fall at 66
power development at 77
Kinnikinnic River, description of 131
fall at mouth of 119
water power on 131
Knowlton bridge, fall at 66
Koepenick. precipitation at 45
L.
La Crosse, fall at 85
temperature at 15
Ladysmith, fall at 106-107
flow near 108-112
gaging station near 93, 107
Lake Superior drainage, description of 132
drainage to 12
rainfall of 133
t()iK)graph y of 132
water powcr?J of 132-137
Lake Vieux Desert, dam at *64
fttllat 67
hK'Htlon of 63
reservoir site at 65
Lak&N, oi'currence of 12-13, 117-118
La u ren t ian roc ks, occu rrence of 10
Lawrence, i»ower development at 21
Lemonweir River, drainage area of 03, 83
power development on 8:5
Lindore dam, fall at 67
Little Cedar River, drainage area of 51
Little Ciiicf I>ake, fall at 99
reservoir site at 91-92
Little Chief River, dam on 105
Little Eau Pleine River, drainage area of. . 63
Little Falls, fall at 107
water iH>wer at 106
Little Kaukauna, fall at 22, 33
I>ower development at 40
fi^nre showing 41
legal troubles of 33, 40
.. I
P*g-
Little Puckanance, fall at :-^>
Little Quinnesec Falls, fall at 43
flow at 44-1?
power development at '•-
Little rapids, dam site at M
Little River, power development on 21
Little Wolf River, power development on . ».-'
Littlechute, dam at, view of >
fall at 22,S:\.>
power development at
Littlewolf, power development at _
Loams, occurrence and character of 1
Logging, cessation of U
Long Lake, elevation of 'A
Lower Fox River. S^e Fox River. Lower.
Lower Magnesian limestone, <»ccurrence of. 1 i
21,43,54.57. 1-.::V1J*
Lowes Creek, dam on 1 »
Loweth& Wolf, gaging by U
Lucas, dam at 117
Lumbering indiistr>', extent of 14
M.
McKinzie Creek, fall at mouth of l.a*
Manchester, power development at Jl
Manitouish River, fall on ImT
logging dams on w:.
reservoir site on si -•/_•
Mann, L. M., flow measurements by i-
Manowa, power development at
Manser's, dam site at m
Marblehead, power development at IM
Marinette rapids, power development at. . . r>4-Vj
Maringo River. See Maringonin River.
Maringouin River, description of !.*
* water i>ower on l.>v-i. ■
Markesan, power development at j:
Marquette, temperature at : '
Mecan River, character of j"
water powers on ji
Medicine Lake, elevation of M
Melrose, flow^ at •*
Menasha, fallal jj
power development at ;;i-.v
precipitation at t^-
Menomoniedam (Red Cedar River), fall at. m
water power at li 4-:i'»
Menominee River, character of '>:
dams on v
drainage area of 4*-*. "ii» '»!
fallof 2
origin of II
power development on ^i- v.
precipitation on 44 i^
profile of 42-ti
rocks on 13-14
run -off of 4*-.'» ■
tributaries of vV-nr
Merrill, fall at »-
flow at 7;>-T'
power development at "•'
Michigamme River, drainage area of 4J, =•:
source and character of u
Middle River, descriptirnof ].C
Milwaukee, rainfall at ij
rainfall at, chart showings i*
Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie
Railway, access to water powers
by 61.106.115,12H.ir
INDEX.
143
M innesun^r Lake, water power at 134
Montello, power development at 20
Moiitello River, character of 20
water powers on 20-21 i
Montreal River, water power on 135
M<x)MJ Lake, fall at 100 ,
i-eservoir site at 91-92
Mcxme River, fall at mouth of 119
Moraines, location and character of 11,21
Mosinee, fall at 66
I.K)wer »{te at 79
Mount Morris, power development at 62
Mud Lake ( Fox River) , origin of 19
Mud Ljike (Wi»conMin River), elevation of 64
Mud Lake (Yellow River), dam at 126
fallat 126
N.
Niimekugon River, description of 129-130
drainage area <»f lis, 125
drainage to 104
fall at mouth of 119
Nebagemain Uike, water iK)wer at 134-135
Nebagemain River, rapids at mouth of 134
Necedah, fallat 66
flowat 6H-73
Ncenah, location of 34
power development at 34
Ncenah and Menasha Water Power (?om- '
puny, organization of 33
Neenah (!reek, jwwer development on 21 I
Neillsville. f^ow at 87-89 '
water power at 90 I
Neko<^)sa, fall at 66
power development at 77 i
Nemadji River, character of 134
New Greenwood dam, fall at ^ ,
New London, precipitation at 45 ,
New Richmond, water power at 128 ,
Niagara limestone, occurrence of 21
Nigger Inland, fall at 67
North Fork of FlamlK*au River, reservoir '
site on 91-92 '
Northern Pacific Railroad, access to water i
powers by 126,137 '
Northport, flow at 61
Norway, Mich., fallat 43
Nose Peak rapids, fall at 53
O.
Oconto, precipitation at 45
C)cont(» Falls, power development at 58 i
(Honto Kiver, character of 67
prc<'ij)itation on 43-46 ,
profile of 57 ,
water i)owcrs on 57-58 ^
O' Keef & OrbLMou, on Menominee River ... 42
Omaha Imdge. fall at 114
water power at 114
( )■ Nfjil.s Creek, i>ower developnients on 117
O'Neill Creek, mouth of, fallat 86 '
( )s<'eola, fall at 1 19
( )s('eola Creek, water power on 131 I
oitor Creek, power development on 117 '
otter rapids, fall at 67
IM)wer development at 82
ieHer\oir.siteat 65 I
Page
Otter Slide rapids, water power at 124
Oxford , power development at 21
P.
Paint Creek, reser\'oir site on 91-92
Paint Creek rapids, water power at 101
Paint River, drainage a rea of 60
Pak wawang Lake, fall at 100
reservoir site at 91-92
Paleozoic rocks, occurrence and character
of 10-11
Pardeeville, water power at 20
Park Falls, fall at 107
power development at 106
Partridge Crop Lake, fall at 100
Peat, occurrence of -.. 14
Peet, E. L., on Clam River 129
Pelican Lake, dam proposed at 65
elevation of 64
fallat 100
Pelican River, dam sites on 83-84
dminage area of 63, 83
lakes on 64
Pemebon won River, drainage area of 51
Pemena dam and rapids, fall at 43
pK)wer site and dam at 53
Penokee Iron Rango, location and charac-
ter of 132
Peshtigo River, characterof 56
power skes and dams on 5(>-57
precipitation on 45
profile of 57
Phlox, power development at 62
Pike River, djimson 56
drainage area of 61
Pilla, power development at 62
Pine Creek (Chippewa River dra nage)^
power developments on 117
Pine Creek (Fox River drainage), power de-
velopment on 21
Pine Creek rapids, fall at 81
water power at 81
Pine River, power development at 21
Pine River, character of 65
dams on 56
drainage an'a of 51 , 55
mouth of, fall at 67
source of 43-44
water powers on 55
Pine River rapids, water power at 51
Planting (} round Lake, elevation of 64
l*lover River (Chippewa River drainage),
power development on 117
Plover River (Wisconsin River drainage).
drainage area of 63
Pokegama Lake, dam at 105
Poplar River, description of 136
Port Edwards, fall at 66
power development at 77
Portage, fall at 43
predpitiition at 46
Potato River, water power on 137
Potsdam sandstone, occurrence of 11
soil from 13
Poysippe, power developmen tat 21
Prairie rapids, fall at 83
144
IKDEX.
Page.
Prairie River, drainage area of 63,84
power development on 84
l*recipitation, discussion of 15, 46-16, 76 .
map showing 16
variations in, at Milwaukee, chart show-
ing 18
Prescott, fallal 119
Pride, C. B., sur>'ey by M
Princeton, power development at 21
Puckaway, Lak«, origin of 19 i
Pulcifer dam, water power at 58
Q- I
Ciuinnesec Falls. Set Big Quinnesec; Little
Quinnosec. i
R.
Railroads, access to water powers by 13 ,
42, 51, 76, 90, 92, 105, 116, 126, 128, 1S5-187 I
Rainbow rapids, water power at 82
Rainfall. .Srr Precipitation.
Rapide Croche dam, fall at 22,33
flow of Fox River at 22-32
gaging station at 22 |
power development at 40
legal complications of 33, 40
Rattlesnake Creek, power development on. 62
Red Cedar River, dams on 115
drainage area of 100,103,113
fall of 113-114 !
l(K.>aiion of 91
power development on 1] 4-115
profile of 113-114
Red River, i>ower development on 62
Reeds LAnding. fall at 99
Reservoirs, capacity of proposed sites for. . . 13
Rest Lrfike, fall at 107
Rhinelander, dam at 65
dam at, fallal 67
power development at 82
Rib River, drainage areii of 63, 83
fall at mouth of 66
power development on 83
Rice, reservoir site nt 66 '
Rice Lake.fallat 126
logging dam at VX
Rijwn . power developmen tat 21
River Falls, water powers at 131
RcK'k Creek, power development on 117
RfK'ks. pre-Cambrian, occurrence of 10,
51, 5C., 59, 67, 77, 91, 130
Ross Eddy rapids, water power at 90
Rothchilds, fall at 79 ,
water iM)wer at 79
Round Lake, reservoir site at 91-92
liural, power development at 62
Rush City, fall at 119
S.
St. Croix County, soils in 18
St. Croix Falls, fall at 119
St. Croix Liike, fall to 119
flow at 120-123
St. Croix mpids, water power at 124 ;
St. Croiic River, character of 123-124
draiiijtge area of V2, 117-118
fall of . .• 123
profile of n.s-119
St. Croix River, reservoir sites on 15
rocks on 119
run-ofT of llS-125
temx>erature on, and velocity of. rela-
tions of 1?>
topt^raphy on 117-^15
tributaries of 125-131
water powers on 9, 123-124
St. Germain I.Akes, dam sites at fA *d
St. Louis River, character of 133
water power of 1 3:^ 1 M
development of, figure showing I :r>
St. Paul, Minn., rainfall at V.»
temperature at 1%
St. Peter sandstone, occurrence of 11
Sand Creek, power development at 1 17
Sand Portage rapids, water power at 53->4
Sandy soils and loams, occurrence and char-
acter of 1 ..
SaukClty. fall at •*
Saxeville, power development at n
Scandinavia, power development at » "J
Schappies rapids, fall at 4o
water power at .S4
Schofield, dam site at »^
Shantytown, dam at 117
Shawano, precipitation at 4a
power development at ?^
Shawtown, fall at w
flow at -C
Sherman, power development at 'w
Silver Creek, power development on
Snake River, drainage area of 11»». li'i
Snaptail rapids, fall at w
water power at IM
Soils, character of i:^i l
South Centralia dam, fall at 'li^
Spooner, fall at 1*
Spring Brook, mouth of. fall at VK*
Spring Creek, power development at »ij
Sfiuaw Lake, reaervoir site at 91 -V-'
Squirrel Lake, elevation of ''i
reservoir site at '•>
Stevens Point, fall at •*■
power development at 7*
Stil es, f all at ■^~
power development at .%7- '^^
Stinnett, fall at I *•
Stone Lake, elevation of M
Stuntz Brook, fall at mouth of : j»
Sturgeon Falls, fall at 4.'.
water power at V
Stuigeon River, drainage area of
fallat c.
Sugarcamp Lakes, reservoir site at »>4-*;'
Sunrise River, drainage area of : 1^
fallat mouth of US'
Surings, fall at C
Swamp soila, occurrence and charHCt*»r of . . 1 4
Swamps, occurrence of l-*-l '
Sweet, E. T. , on Wisconsin timber : 4
T.
Temperature, range of :"^
Thomas, Howard, on Bois Brule River k .
Thornapple River, dam on 1-6
drainage area of Uv
INDEX.
145
ThrtH) Rolls. d»im site ttt H4
Tiffany Creek, power clevelopment on 117
Timber, occurrence and character of 14
Tomahawk dam, fall at 67
water power at SI, 83
Tomahawk Lake, dam at 65,83
64
.. GA,m
CA
83
12
.. 105
elevation of
Tomahawk River, drainage area of. .
lakes on
power development on
Topography, character of
Torch River, dam on
Totogatic River, description of 130-131
fall at mouth of ." 180 ,
profileof 181 '
Trade River, fall ut month of 119
Trapp Rapids, water pow€»r at 80 |
Trenton limestone, occurrence of . Jl, 21, 43. 54, 57
Trout River, dam on 113
Turtle River, fall at mouth of 107 ;
reservoir site on 91-92 !
Twin Falls, fall at 43
waterpowerat 51
Twin Island Rapids, water power at 54 i
Twin Lakes, reservoir site at 64-65
Tylers Fork, water power on 136-137 i
U.
I'nderhill. fall at 57
Tnited States Government, dams of 34-35,
38,40,91-92
Upper Fox River. ,^€ Fox River, Tpper.
Veazie, water power at 130
W.
Wabena, fall at 57
Warren, G. K., on Fox River 19-20
Water powers, availabil ily of 9
capacity of 9
development of 9
information on, sources of 9-10
permanence of 9
Waumander, power development at 21
Waumander Creek, power development on. 21
Waupaca, power development at 02
precipitation at 45-16
Waupaca River, power developmen t on 62
Wausau, fall at 66
power development at 79-80
Wautoma, power development at 21
precipitation at 46
Wedges Creek, fall at mouth of 86
West Branch of Chippewa River, dams on. 105
drainage area of 100, 103, 104
profileof 100
resers'oir sites on 91-92
water power on 104
Westboro, dam at 116
Westlleld. power development at 21
Weyauwega, precipitation at 46-46
power development at 62
Whirlpool rapids, fall at 67
water power at 81
Page.
White rapids, fall at 43
location of 53
water power at 54
White Rfver (Fox River drainage), di*scrip-
tlon of 136
power development on 136
White River (Ijike Superior drainage),
characterof 20
Willow River, drainage area of 118, 125, 128
pow er development on 128
Winnebago Lake, character of 21
location of 19
origin of 19-21
Winnebago rapids, fall at 38
Winneconne, flow at 60
Wisconsin, State of, power development by. 33
Wisconsin and Michigan Railroad, access
to railroads by : 51
Wisconsin Central Railway, acctnw to water
powers by 42,
90, 92, 105, 1 15, 126, 128, 136-137
Wisconsin-Fox divide, character of 63-64
Wisconsin River, character of 63
dams on 64-65
drainage area of 12, 63
levees on 63-64
profileof 65-67
rainfall oi 67
rapids on, view of 80
reservoir sites on 13, 65
rocks on 67
run-oflf of 67-76
sourceof 43-44
tributaries of 82-85
water powers on 76-86
access to 13
value of 9
Wittenberg, power development at 62
Wolf River, character of 59
flow of 59
precipitation on 45-46
profileof .• 69
run-off of (UMJl
tributaries of 62
water powers on 02
Wood River, drainage area of 1 IH, 125
Y.
Yellow Lake, dam at, fall at 1-6
Yel low Pine rapids, water power at 1 24
Yellow River (Chippewa River drainage),
drainage area of 100, i;)3, 116
fall at mouth of 9e, 1 16
Yellow River (St. Croix River drainage),
chanicter of 125
drainage area of 118, 125
fall at mouth of 119
logging dams on 126
profileof 120
water power on 125
Yellow River (Wisconsin River drainage),
drainage area of 63, 88
fall at mouth of 99
water iK)wer on 116
IRR 156—06-
-10
CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL
SURVEY.
[Water-Supply Paper No. 156.]
The publications of the United States (teological Survey consist of (1) Annual
Reporte, (2) Monographs, (8) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5) Mineral Re-
sources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Pajxirs, (7) Topographic Atlas of United
States, folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of United States, folios
thereof. The classes numbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publication; the others
are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists may be had on application.
Most of the above publications maybe obtaine<l or consulted in the following ways:
1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they
may be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application.
2. A certain number are delivered to Senators and Representatives in Congress,
for dLstribution.
3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D. C, from whom they may l)e had at practically cost.
4. Copies of all (Tovernment publications are furnished to the principal public
libraries in the large cities throughout the United States, where they may be con-
sulted by those interested.
The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Pai)ers treat of a variety of
subjects, and the total numl)er issued is large. They have therefore been classified
into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, System-
atic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; P2, Chemistry and
physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water stor-
age; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investiga-
tions; N, Water power; O, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports.
This paper is the eleventh in Series N, the complete list of which follows
(WS=Water-Supply Paper):
Serieh N— Water Powe:r.
WS 24. Water resources of the State of New York, Pt. I, by G. W. Rafter. 1.S99. 92 pp., 13 pis.
WS 25. Water resources of the State of New York, Pt. 11, by G. W. Rafter. 1899. 100-200 pp., 12 pis.
WS 44. ProfileM of rivers, by Henry Gannett. 1901. 100 pp., 11 pis.
WS 62. Hydrography of the Southern Appalachian Mountain region, Pt. I, by H. A. Prewcy. 1902.
95 pp., 25 pis.
WS 63. Hydrography of the Southern Appalachian Mountain region, Pt. II, by H. A. I'reRsey. 1902.
96-190 pp., 26-44 pis.
WS 69. Water powers of the SUite of Maine, by H. A. Pressey. 1902. 124 pp., U pis.
WS 105. Water i)owerH of Texas, by T. U. Taylor. 1904. 116 pp., 17 pis.
WS 107. Water powers of Alabama with an appendix on stream measurements in Mississippi, by B. M.
Hall. 1904. 253 pp., 9 pis.
WS 109. Hydrography of Susquehanna River drainage ba.sin, by J. C. Hoyt and K. H. Andersen.
1905. 215 pp. 29 pis.
WS 115. River surveys and profiles made in 1903, by W. C. Hall and J. C. Hoyt. 1905. 115 pp., 4 pis.
WS 156. Water powers of northern Wisconsin, by L. S. Smith. 1906. 145 pp., 5 pis.
Correspondence should be addressed to
The Director,
United States Geological Survey,
Washington^ D. C.
June, 1906.
I
o