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HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


LIBRARY  OF  THE 

MINERALOGICAL 
LABORATORY 

UNIVERSITY  MUSEUM 


Waier-Sapplj  and  Irrigation  Paper  No.  150  Series  M,  General  Hydrographic  InvestigationB,  16 

DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

UNITED  STATES  GEOUKUCAL  SI  KVEY 

CHARLES  I).  WALCOTT,  Director 


WEIR  EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS, 
AND  FORMULAS 


BY 


ROBERT    K.   IIORTON 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMKNT     PRINTING    OFFICE 
190(> 


CONTENTS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Introduction 7 

Definitions  of  terms 7 

Notation 8 

Base  formulas 9 

Equivalent  coefficients 9 

Approximate  relative  dis(»harge  over  weirs 9 

References 10 

Theory  of  weir  measurements 10 

Development  of  the  weir 10 

Theorem  of  Torricelli " \ 10 

Elementary  deduction  of  the  weir  formula 11 

Application  of  the  parabolic  law  of  velocity  to  weirs 12 

General  formula  for  weirs  and  orifices 12 

Vertical  contraction 13 

Velocity  of  approach , 14 

Theoretical  formulas 14 

Distribution  of  velocity  in  channel  of  approach 16 

Distribution  of  energy  in  channel  of  approa<'h 17 

The  thin-edged  weir 20 

Earlier  experiments  and  formulas 20 

Castel 20 

Poucelet  and  Lesbros 21 

Boileau 21 

East  Indian  engineers'  formula 22 

Experiments  and  formula  of  James  B.  Francis 23 

Experiments  and  formula  of  Fteley  and  Stearns 26 

Bazin's  experiments 29 

Bazin's  formulas  for  thin-edged  weirs 31 

Derived  formulas  for  thin-edged  rectangular  weirs 34 

Fteley  and  Steams-Francis  formula 34 

Hamilton  Smith's  formula 34 

Smith-Francis  formula 37 

Parmley's  formula 37 

Extension  of  the  w^eir" formulas  to  higher  heads 39 

Comparison  of  weir  formulas 40 

Comparison  of  various  velocity  of  approach  corrections 40 

End  contractions — incomplete  contraction 44 

Compound  weir 46 

Triangular  weir 46 

General  formula 46 

Thomson's  experiments 46 

3 


4  CONTENTS, 

The  thin-edged  weir — Continued.  Page. 

Trapezoidal  weir 47 

The  Cippoletti  trapezoidal  weir 47 

Cippoletti's  formula 48 

Requirements  and  accuracy  of  weir  gagings 49 

Precautions  for  standard  weii*  gaging 49 

Plank  and  beam  weirs  of  sensible  crest  width 52 

Reduction  of  the  mean  of  several  observations  of  head 52 

Effect  of  error  in  determining  the  head  on  weirs 58 

Error  of  the  mean  where  the  head  varies 54 

Weir  not  level 57 

Convexity  of  water  surface  in  leading  channel 58 

Results  of  experiments  on  various  forms  of  weir  cross  sections 59 

The  use  of  weirs  of  irregular  section 59 

Modifications  of  the  nappe  form 60 

Experimental  data  for  weirs  of  irregular  cross  section 61 

Base  formula  for  discharge  over  weirs  of  irregular  cross  section 62 

Bazin's  experiments  on  weirs  of  irregular  cross  section 63 

Bazin's  correction  for  velocity  of  approach 63 

Recomputation  of  coefficients  in  Bazin's  experiments 66 

Cornell  University  hydraulic  laboratory 85 

Experiments  of  United  States  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep  Waterways.  86 
Experiments  at  Cornell  University  hydraulic  laboratory  on  models  of 

old  Croton  dam 90 

Experiments  of  United  States  Geological  Survey  at  Cornell  University 

hydraulic  laboratory 95 

Experiments  on  model  of  Merrimac  River  dam  at  Lawrence,  Mass. . .  107 

Flow  over  weirs  with  broad  crests 110 

Theoretical  formula  of  Unwin  and  Frizell 110 

BlackwelPs  experiments  on  discharge  over  broad-crested  weirs 112 

East  Indian  engineers'  formula  for  broad-crested  weirs 114 

Fteley  and  Steams  experiments  on  broad- crested  weirs 116 

Bazin's  formula  and  experiments  on  broad-crested  weirs 117 

Experiments  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  on  broad-crested 

weirs 119 

Table  of  disc^harge  over  broad-crested  weirs  with  stable  nappe 121 

Effect  of  rounding  upstream  crest  edge 122 

Experiments  on  weirs  with  downstream  slope  or  apron  of  varying  inclina- 
tion    124 

Triangular  weirs  with  vertical  upstream  face  and  sloping  aprons 124 

Triangular  weirs  with  upstream  batter  1:1  and  varying  slope  of  apron .  1 26 
Experiments  on  weirs  of  trapezoidal  section  with  upstream  slope  of 

i:l,  horizontal  crest,  and  varying  downstream  slopes 127 

Combination  of  coefficients  for  weirs  with  compound  slopes 127 

Weirs  with  varying  slope  of  upstream  face 128 

Dams  of  ogee  cross  section,  Plattsburg-(  -hambly  tyi)e 1 30 

Experiments  on  discharge  over  actual  dams 131 

Blackstone  River  at  Albion,  Mass 132 

Muskingum  River,  Ohio 132 

Ottawa  River  dam,  Canada 132 

Austin,  Tex. ,  dam 133 

Roughness  of  crest 133 

Fal  Is 1  :y) 

Weir  curved  in  plan 136 


CONTENTS    AND    ILLUSTRATIONS.  5 

Page. 

Snbmerged  weire 137 

Theoretical  formula 137 

Fteley  and  Steams  submerged-weir  formula 138 

Clemens  HerscheFs  formula 139 

The  Chanoine  and  Mary  formula 140 

R.  H.  Rhind's  formula 141 

Bazin's  formulas 141 

Increase  of  head  by  submerjred  weirs 142 

Rankine's  formulas 142 

Colonel  Dya8*s  formula 143 

Submerged  weirs  of  irregular  section 143 

Bazin's  experiments 143 

Data  concerning  East  Indian  weirs 144 

United  States  Deep  Waterways  experiments 146 

Weir  discharge  under  varying  head 146 

Priematic  reser\^oir,  no  inflow 147 

Approximate  time  of  lowering  prismatic  or  nonprismatic  reservoir 147 

Reservoir  prismatic,  with  uniform  inflow 148 

General  formulas 148 

Formulas  for  time  of  rise  to  any  head  H,  prismatic  reservoir  with  uni- 
form inflow 149 

Nonprismatic  reservoir,  uniform  inflow 153 

Variable  inflow,  nonprismatic  reservoir -  154 

Tables  for  calculations  of  weir  discharge 156 

Table  1.  Head  due  to  various  velocities 157 

Table  2.  Percentage  increafee  in  discharge  by  various  rates  of  velo<'ity  of 

approach 1 59 

Tables  3,  4.  Discharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir  by  the  Francis  formula 162 

Tables  5,  6.  Three-halves  powers 171 

Table  7.  Flow  over  broad-crest  weirs  with  stable  nappe 177 

Table  8.  Backwater  caused  by  a  dam  or  weir 180 

Index 187 


Platb  L  Bazin's  coefficients 32 

n.  £ffect  of  errors  in  weir  experiments 54 

m.  Modifications  of  nappe  form 60 

IV-XIL  Bazin's  experiments 66 

XTTT,  XIV.  Cornell  hydraulic  laboratory  experiments 86 

XV-X  VIII.  United  States  Deep  Waterways  experiments 90 

XIX-XXII.  Croton  dam  experiments 94 

XXIII-XXXII.  United  States  Geological  Survey  experiments 106 

XXXIII.  Merrimac  River  dam  experiments 108 

XXXIV-XXXV.  Cross  sections  of  ogee  dams 130 

XXXVI.  Coefficient  diagram  for  ogee  dams 130 

XXXVII.  Experiments  on  actual  dams 132 

XXXVIII.  Diagram  of  variable  discharge 150 

Fig.  1.  Torricellian  theorem  applied  to  a  weir 11 

2.  Rectangular  orifice 12 

3.  Distribution  of  velocities 16 

4.  Triangular  weir 46 

6.  Trapezoidal  weir 47 


6  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PafOu 

Fig.  6.  Sections  of  the  Francis  weir 51 

7.  Inclined  weir 57 

8.  Broad-crested  weir 110 

9.  CoeflScient  curve  for  triangular  weirs 125 

10.  Fall  : 135 

11.  Weir  curved  or  angular  in  plan 136 

12.  Submerged  weir 137 

13.  East  Indian  weir  section 145 

14.  East  Indian  weir  section 145 

15.  Concave  backwater  surface 180 

16.  Convex  backwater  surface 181 


WEIR  EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND 
FORMULAS. 


By  Robert  E.  Hobton. 


INTRODUCTION. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  TERMS. 

The  word  ''weir"  will  be  used  to  describe  any  structure  used  to 
determine  the  volume  of  flow  of  water  from  measurements  of  its 
depth  on  a  crest  or  sill  of  known  length  and  form.  In  this  general 
sense  timber  and  masonry  dams  having  various  shapes  of  section, 
reservoir  overflows,  and  the  like  may  be  weirs.  Terms,  more  or  less 
synonymous,  used  to  describe  such  weirs  are  ''comb,"  ''wasteway," 
''spillway,"  ''overwash,"  "roUway,"  and  ''overfall." 

The  French  term  "  nappe,"  suggesting  the  curved  surface  of  a  cloth 
hanging  over  the  edge  of  a  table,  has  been  fittingly  used  to  designate 
the  overfalling  sheet  of  water. 

The  expression  "wetted  underneath"  has  been  used  to  describe  the 
condition  of  the  nappe  designated  by  Bazin  as  "noy^es  en  dessous," 
signifying  that  the  water  level  between  the  nappe  and  the  toe  of  the 
weir  is  raised  by  vacuum  above  the  general  water  level  below  the 
weir. 

"Thin-edged  weir"  and  "sharp-crested  weir"  are  used  to  designate 
a  weir  in  which  the  nappe,  or  overfalling  sheet,  touches  only  the 
smooth,  sharp  upstream  corner  or  edge  of  the  crest,  the  thickness  of 
which  is  probably  immaterial  so  long  as  this  condition  is  fulfilled. 

A  "suppressed  weir"  has  a  channel  of  approach  whose  width  is  the 
length  of  the  weir  crest. 

A  "contracted  weir"  has  a  crest  length  that  is  less  than  the  width 
of  the  channel  of  approach. 

The  term  "channel  of  approach,"  or  "leading  channel,"  defines  the 
body  of  water  immediately  upstream  from  the  weir,  in  which  is 
located  the  gage  by  which  the  depth  of  overflow  is  measured. 

"Section  of  approach"  may  refer  to  the  cross  section  of  the  leading 
channel,  if  the  depth  and  width  of  the  leading  channel  are  uniform; 
otherwise  it  will,  in  general,  apply  to  the  cross  section  of  the  channel 
of  approach  in  which  the  gage  is  located. 

7 


8  WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

"  Weir  section'"  refers  to  the  cross  section  of  the  overflowing  stream 
in  the  plane  of  the  weir  crest. 

''Crest  contraction"  refers  to  the  diminished  cross  section  of  the 
overflowing  stream  resulting  from  the  upward  curvature  of  the  lower 
water  filaments  in  passing  the  crest  edge.  It  does  not  include  the 
downward  curvature  of  the  water  surface  near  the  weir  crest. 

The  ''vertical  contraction  of  the  nappe"  includes  both  the  crest 
contraction  ahd  the  surface  contraction. 

"Incomplete  contraction"  may  take  place  either  at  the  crest  or  at 
the  ends  of  a  weir,  and  will  occur  when  the  bottom  or  side  walls  of 
the  channel  of  approach  are  so  near  the  weir  as  to  prevent  the  com- 
plete curvature  of  the  water  tilament-s  as  they  pass  the  contracting 
edge. 

Dimensions  are  uniformly  expressed  in  feet  and  decimals,  velocities 
in  feet  per  second,  and  quantities  of  flow  in  cubic  feet  per  second, 
unless  otherwise  stated  in  the  text. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  paper  much  computation  has  been  involved 
and  it  is  expected  that  errors  will  appear,  which,  if  attention  is  called 
to  them,  may  be  corrected  in  the  future.  Information  concerning 
such  errors  will  be  gratefully  received. 

NOTATION. 

The  symbols  given  below  are  used  in  the  values  indicated.  The 
meaning  of  additional  symbols  as  used  and  special  uses  of  those  that 
follow  are  given  in  the  text: 

Z)=Measured  or  actual  depth  on  the  creet  of  weir,  usually  dcjtenuined  as  the  differ- 
ence of  elevation  of  the  weir  crest  and  the  water  level,  taken  at  a  point 
sufficiently  far  upstream  from  the  weir  to  avoid  the  surface  curve. 

-ff=The  head  corrected  for  the  effect  of  velocity  of  approach,  or  the  observed  head 
where  there  is  no  velocity  of  approach.  As  will  he  explained,  D  is  applied 
in  formulas  like  Bazin's,  in  which  the  correction  for  velocity  of  approach  is 
included  in  the  coefficient,  ^is  applied  in  formulas  where  it  is  eliminated. 
v=Mean  velocity  of  approach  in  the  leading  channel,  usually  taken  in  a  cross  sec- 
tion opposite  which  D  is  determined. 

r« 
/i= Velocity  head = a,,-. 

^= Acceleration  by  gravity.     Value  here  used  32.16. 

P=  Height  of  weir  crest  above  bottom  of  channel  of  approach,  where  channel  is 

rectangular. 
H^=Width  of  channel  of  approach  Avhere  D  is  measured. 
.4= Area  of  cross  section  of  channel  of  approach. 

(7= Area  of  channel  section  where  D  is  measured,  per  unit  length  of  crest. 
a=Area  of  weir  section  of  di8charge=Z>  L, 
i= Actual  length  of  weir  crest  for  a  suppressed  weir,  or  length  corrected  for  end 

contractions,  if  any. 
2/= Actual  length  of  crest  of  a  weir  with  end  contractions. 
-^''=  Number  of  complete  end  contractionn. 
/?= Breadth  of  crest  of  a  broad-crested  weir. 
/S'=  Batter  or  slope  of  crest,  feet  horizontal  to  one  vertical. 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

d= Depth  of  crest  submergence  in  a  drowned  or  submeiiged  weir. 
^= Volume  of  discharge  per  unit  of  time. 
C,  M,  m,  ^,  a,/  etc.,  empirical  coefficients. 

BASE  FORMULAS. 

The  following  formulas  have  been  adopted  by  the  engineers  named: 

Q~  MLI/^]2gB.  Hamilton  Smith  (theoretical). 

=^LII^]2(/iI,  Bazin,  with  no  velocity  of  approach. 

=mLD4'^^D.  Bazin,  with  velocity  of  approach. 

=  CLin.  Francis  «  (used  here). 

=  CLH^+fL.  Fteley  and  Steams. 

EQUIVALENT   COEFFICIENTS. 

The  relations  between  the  several  coefficients,  so  far  as  they  can  be 
^ven  here,  are  as  follows: 

M  is  a  direct  measure  of  the  relation  of  the  actual  to  the  theoret- 
ical weir  discharge. 

APPROXIMATE  RELATIVE  DISCHARGE  OVER  WEIRS. 

For  a  thin-edged  weir,  the  coefficient  C  in  the  Francis  formula  is 
3.33=-o-.  Let  C  be  the  coefficient  for  any  other  weir,  and  x  the 
relative  discharge  as  compared  with  the  thin-edged  weir,  then 

V»:C".:l:« 


or,  as  a  percentage, 


aji=100i»=30r. 


a  The  coefflciont  C  of  Fiancii)  includes  all  the  constant  or  empirical  factors  appearing  in  the 
formnUt,  which  is  thus  thrown  into  the  simplest  form  for  computation. 


10  WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

This  expresaion  will  be  found  convenient  in  comparing  the  effect  on 
discharge  of  various  modifications  of  the  weir  cross  section.  For  a 
broad-crested  weir  with  stable  nappe,  C^i=2.64,  see  p.  121.  The  dis- 
charge over  such  a  weir  is  thus  seen  to  be  79.2  per  cent  of  that  for  a 
thin-edged  weir  by  the  Francis  formula. 

REFERENCES. 

The  following  authorities  are  referi'ed  to  by  page  wherever  cited 
in  the  text: 

Bazin,  H.,  Recent  experiments  on  flow  of  water  over  weirs.  Translated  by  Arthur 
Marichal  and  J.  C.  Trautwine,  jr.  Proc.  Engineers'  Club  Philadelphia,  vol.  7, 
No.  5,  January,  1890,  pp.  259-^10;  vol.  9,  No.  3,  July,  1892,  pp.  231-244;  No.  4, 
October,  1892,  pp.  287-319;  vol.  10,  No.  2,  April,  1893,  pp.  121-164. 

Bazin,  H.,  Experiences  nouvelles  sur  r^coulement  en  d^versoir,  6°"*  art.,  Annales 
des  Ponts  et  Chauss^es,  M^inoires  et  Documents,  1898,  2»«  trimestre,  pp.  121-264. 
This  paper  gives  the  results  of  experiments  on  weirs  of  irregular  section. 
Bazin's  earlier  papers,  published  in  Annales  des  Ponts  et  Chauss^s,  1888,  1890, 
1891,  1894,  and  1896,  giving  results  of  experiments  chiefly  relating  to  thin-edged 
weirs  and  velocity  of  approach,  have  been  translated  by  Marichal  and  Trautwine. 

Bellasis,  E.  S.,  Hydraulics. 

BovEY,  H.  T.,  Hydraulics. 

Francis,  James  B.,  Lowell  hydraulic  experiments. 

Frizell,  James  P.,  Water  power. 

Fteley,  a.,  and  Stearns,  F.  P.,  Experiments  on  the  flow  of  water,  etc.  Trans.  Am. 
Soc.  Civil  Engineers,  January,  February,  March,  1883,  vol.  12,  pp.  1-118. 

Merriman,  Mansfield,  Hydraulics. 

Rafter,  George  W.,  On  the  flow  of  water  over  dams.  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  Civil  Engi- 
neers, vol.  44,  pp.  220-398,  including  discussion. 

Smith,  Hamilton,  Hydraulics. 

THEORY  OF  WEIR  MEASUREMENTS. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   THE   WEIR. 

The  weir  as  applied  to  stream  gaging^  is  a  special  adaptation  of  mill 
dam,  to  which  the  term  weir,  meaning  a  hindrance  or  obstruction,  has 
been  applied  from  early  times.  The  knowledge  of  a  definite  relation 
between  the  length  and  depth  of  overflow  and  the  quantity  also  proba- 
bly antedates  considerably  the  scientific  determination  of  the  relation 
between  these  elements. 

In  theory  a  weir  or  notch  ^'  is  closely  related  to  the  orifice;  in  fact, 
an  orifice  becomes  a  notch  when  the  water  level  falls  below  its  upper 
boundary. 

THEOREM    OF   TORRICELLI. 

The  theorem  of  Torricelli,  enunciated  in  his  De  Motu  Gravium 
Naturaliter  Accelerato,  lt)4:8,  states  that  tlw  velocity  of  a  fluid  poMing 
through  an  oriflce  in  the  side  of  a  i^eui^volr  is  the  same  as  that  which 
mould  he  acquired  by  a  heary  body  falling  freely  through  the  vertical 

a  Commonly  applied  to  a  deep,  narrow  weir. 


THEORY    OF    WKIR   MEASUREMENTS.  11 

height  measured  from  the  surface  of  the  fluid  In  the  rei<eriy)!r  to  the 
ctmter  of  the  orifice. 

This  theorem  forms  the  basis  of  hydrokinetics  and  renders  the  weir 
and  orifice  applicable  to  stream  measurement.  The  truth  of  this  prop- 
osition was  confirmed  by  the  experiments  of  Mariotte,  published  in 
1685.  It  can  also  be  demonstrated  from  the  laws  of  dynamics  and  the 
principles  of  energy." 

ELEMENTARY  DEDUCTION  OF  THE  WEIR  FORMULA. 

In  deducing  a  theoretical  expression  for  flow  over  a  weir  it  is 
assumed  that  each  filament  or  horizontal  lamina  of  the  nappe  is  actu- 
ated by  gravity  acting  through  the  head  above  it  as  if  it  were  flowing 
through  an  independent  orifice.  In  fig.  1  the  head  on  the  successive 
orifices  being  7/i,  //j,  Z?^,  etc.,  and  their  respective  areas  .!„  A^^  Jg, 
etc.,  the  total  discharge  would  be 

Q=C-^gS^A,u}^A,H^\^^AJiy\.    ...    (2) 


Fig.  1.— Torricellian  theorem  applied  to  a  weir. 

If  the  small  orifices  A  be  considered  as  successive  increments  of  head 
H^  the  weir  formula  may  be  derived  by  the  summation  of  the  quantities 
in  parentheses.     jET  comprises  ii  elementary  strips,  the  breadth  of  each 

is  — .     The  heads  on  successive  strips  are     ,     — ,  etc.,  and  the  total 
becomes 

T  TT 

where =  J+^i,  etc.,  for  a  rectangular  weir.     The  sum  of  the 

-       -       -  -     2    4 

series  Vl+V2+V3+  to  V^=3  n^. 

Hence  the  discharge  is 

The  above  summation  is  more  readily  accomplished  by  calculus. 

a  See  Wood,  Elementary  Mechanics,  p.  167,  al.so  p.  291. 


12 


WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  PARABOLIC  LAW  OF  VELOCITY  TO  WEIRS. 

The  following  elementary  demonstration  clearly  illustrates  the  char- 
acter of  the  weir: 

According  to  Torricelli's  theorem  {see  fig.  1),  the  velocity  (v)  of  a 
filament  at  any  depth  (x)  below  surface  will  be  v=^^]'2gx.  This  is  the 
equation  of  a  parabola  having  its  axis  t>X  vertical  and  its  origin  O 
at  water  surface.  Replacing  the  series  of  jets  by  a  weir  with  crest  at 
X,  the  mean  velocity  of  all  the  filaments  will  be  the  average  ordinate 
of  the  parabola  OPQ.  The  average  ordinate  is  the  area  divided  by 
the  height,  but  the  area  of  a  parabola  is  two-thirds  that  of  the  circum- 
scribed rectangle;  hence  the  mean  velocity  of  flow  through  the  weir 
is  two-thirds  the  velocity  at  the  crest,  i.  e.,  two-thirds  the  velocity 
due  to  the  total  head  ^on  the  crest.  The  discharge  for  unit  length 
of  crest  is  the  head  JI^  or  area  of  opening  per  unit  length,  multiplied 
by  the  mean  velocity.  This  quantity  also  represents  the  area  of  the 
parabolic  velocity  curve  OPQX,  The  mean  velocity  of  flow  in  the 
nappe  occurs,  theoretically,  at  two-thirds  the  depth  on  the  crest. 

The  modification  of  the  theoretical  discharge  by  velocity  of  approach, 
the  surface  curve,  the  vertical  contraction  at  the  crest,  and  the  various 
forms  that  the  nappe  may  assume  under  different  conditions  of  aera- 
tion, form  of  weir  section,  and  head  control  the  practical  utility  of  the 
weir  as  a  device  for  gaging  streams. 

GENERAL  FORMULA  FOR  WEIRS  AND  ORIFICES.a 

Consider  first  a  rectangular  opening  in  the  side  of  a  retaining  vessel. 
The  velocity  of  flow  through  an  elementary  layer  whose  area  is  Ldy 
will  be  from  Torricelli's  theorem: 


^ 


y  H.  H. 


y»<K 


W-  L    -^ 


FiQ.  2.— Rectangular  orifice. 


The  discharge  through  the  entire  opening  will  be,  per  unit  of  time, 
neglecting  contractions, 

4^.  Ldy (4) 


a  The  correlation  of  the  weir  and  orifice  has  been  given  by  Merriman.    See  Hydraulics,  pp.  42-43. 


VERTICAL    CONTRACTION.  13 

This  is  a  general  equation  for  the  flow  through  any  weir  or  orifice, 
rectangular  or  otherwise,  Q  being  expressed  as  a  function  of  y.  In 
the  present  instance  L  is  constant.     Integrating, 

<2=|ZV^(^.*-//.*) (5) 

For  a  weir  or  notch,  the  upper  edge  will  be  at  surface,  H^=  t>,  and 
calling  //,=  //"  in  equation  (5), 

^=|ZV^//* (6) 

In  the  common  formula  for  orifices,  only  the  head  on  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  opening  is  considered. 

Eicpressing  IT^  and  //j  in  terms  of  the  depth  H  on  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  opening  and  the  height  of  opening  d^  Merriman  obtains, 
after  substituting  these  values  in  and  expanding  equation  (5)  by  the 
binomial  theorem,  the  equivalent  formula. 

The  sum  of  the  infinite  series  in  brackets  expresses  the  error  of  the 
ordinary  formula  for  orifices  as  given  by  the  remainder  of  the  equa- 
tion. This  error  varies  from  1.1  per  cent  when  h=d  to  0.1  per  cent 
when  h=Sd. 

VERTICAL  CONTRACTION. 

Practical  weir  formulas  differ  from  the  theoretical  formula  (6)  in 
that  velocity  of  approach  must  be  considered  and  the  discharge  must 
be  modified  by  a  contraction  coeflicient  to  allow  for  diminished  sec- 
tion of  the  nappe  as  it  passes  ov^er  the  crest  lip.  Velocity  of  approach 
is  considered  on  pages  14  to  20.  Experiments  to  determine  the  weir 
coefficient  occupy  most  of  the  remainder  of  the  paper.  The  nature  of 
the  contraction  coefficient  is  here  described. 

Vertical  contraction  expresses  the  relation  of  the  thickness  of  nappe, 
«,  in  the  plane  of  the  weir  crest,  to  the  depth  on  the  crest,  //.  If  the 
ratio  X  //were  unity,  the  discharge  would  conform  closely  with  the 
expression 

The  usual  coefficient  in  the  weir  formula  expresses  nearly  the  ratio 

The  vertical  contraction  comprises  two  factors,  the  surface  curve  or 
depression  of  the  surface  of  the  nappe  and  the  contraction  of  the 
under  surface  of  the  nappe  at  the  crest  edge.     The  latter  factor  in 


14         WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

particular  will  vary  with  form  of  the  weir  cross  section,  and  in  gen- 
eral variation  in  the  vertical  contraction  is  the  principal  source  of 
variation  in  the  discharge  coefficient  for  various  forms  of  weirs. 

The  usual  base  weir  formula,  Q=2  3  LHTlgll^  is  elsewhere  given 
for  an  orifice  in  which  the  upper  edge  is  a  free  surface.  If  instead 
the  depth  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  orifice  is  d^  the  surface  contraction, 
there  results  the  formula 

$=|jfZV^(//*-rfi) (8) 

This  is  considered  as  the  true  weir  formula  by  Merriman."  In  this 
formula  only  the  crest-lip  contraction  modifies  the  discharge,  necessi- 
tating the  introduction  of  the  coefficient.  The  practical  difficulties  of 
measuring  d  prevent  the  use  of  this  as  a  working  formula. 

Similarly  a  formula  may  be  derived  in  which  only  the  effective 

cross  section  s  is  considered,  but  even  this  will  require  some  correction 

of  the  velocitv.     Such  formulas  are  complicated  by  the  variation  of  8 

and  d  with  velocity  of  approach.*    Hence,  practical  considerations 

included,  it  has  commonly  been  preferred  to  adopt  the  convenient 

2 
base  formula  for  weirs,  Q=^^  MLII^l^gll^  or  an  equivalent,  and  throw 

all  the  burden  of  corrections  for  contraction  into  the  coefficient  M, 

VEIiOCITY  OF  APPROACH. 

THEORETICAL  FORMULAS. 

Before  considering  the  various  practical  weir  formulas  in  use  some 
general  considerations  regarding  velocit}'  of  approach  and  its  effect  on 
the  head  and  discharge  may  be  presented. 

In  the  general  formula  (4)  for  the  efflux  of  water  when  the  water 
approaches  the  orifice  or  notch  with  a  velocity  r,  then  with  free  dis- 
charge, writing  D-^h  in  place  of  //,  for  a  rectangular  orifice,  we  have 

Q=    /   V2r/y   .My (9) 

i>i  and  />g  being  the  measured  depth  on  upper  and  lower  edges  of  the 
orifice,  and  h=    ^  the  velocity  head. 
To  assume  that  D-\-h  equals  //  is  to  assume  that  the  water  level  is 

a  Hydraullf'H,  p.  123. 

&See  Traiitwiue  and  Marichal's  translation  of  Bazln's  Kxperimentfi,  pp.  231-307,  where  may  also  be 
found  other  data,  including  a  r^Hum<:'  of  M.  Boussinosq's  (.•labonitc  studii*H  of  the  vertical  contrac- 
tion of  the  nappe,  which  appeared  in  Comptes  Rendus  de  1' Aeadeniie  den  8(Meuces  for  October  24, 1887. 


VELOCITY    OF    APPROACH.  15 

increased  by  the  amount  h^  or,  as  is  often  stated,  that  ^ is  ''measured 
to  the  surface  of  still  water."    This  is  not  strictlj'^  correct,  how- 
ever, l)ecause  of  friction  and  unequal  velocities,  which  tend  to  make 
H—D>h^  as  explained  below. 
For  a  weir,  Dj  equals  zero;  integrating, 

Since  Q  =  ^Z^]2gff^^  we  have 

^=|(i>+A)*— aH* {9a) 

This  is  the  velocity'  correction  formula  used  by  James  B.  Francis." 
Since  h  appears  in  both  the  superior  and  inferior  limits  of  integra- 
tion, it  is  evident  that  h  increases  the  velocity  only,  and  not  the  sec- 
tion of  discharge.  The  criticism  is  sometimes  made  that  Francis's 
equation  has  the  form  of  an  increase  of  the  height  of  the  section  of 
discharge  as  well  as  the  velocity. 

The  second  general  method  of  correcting  for  velocity  of  approach 
consists  of  adding  directly  to  the  measured  head  some  function  of  the 
velocity  head,  making 


JI=D+ah 


in  the  formula 


Q^CLII^'lgH 


or 


Q=aL{D+ah)^'lg{D+ah) 9J 

This  is  the  method  employed  by  Boiieau,  Fteley  and  Stearns,  and 
Bazin.  No  attempt  is  made  to  follow  theory,  but  an  empirical  correc- 
tion is  applied,  affecting  both  the  velocity  and  area  of  section. 

By  either  method  v  must  be  determined  by  successive  approxima- 
tions unless  itiias  been  directly  measured. 

Boiieau  and  Bazin  modify  (95)  so  as  to  include  the  area  of  section  of 
channel  of  approach,  and  since  the  velocity  of  approach  equals  Q  A^ 
a  separate  determination  of  v  is  unnecessary.  Bazin  also  combines 
the  factor  for  velocity  of  approach  with  the  weir  coefficient. 

The  various  modifications  of  the  velocity  correction  formulas  are 
given  in  conjunction  with  the  weir  formulas  of  the  several  experi- 
menters. 


oBorey  gives  similar  proof  of  this  formula  for  the  additional  oam>H  of  (1)  an  oriflco  with  free  din- 
rhafge,  (2)  a  submerged  orifice,  (3)  a  partially  submerged  orifice  or  drowned  weir,  thus  establishing 
itM  generality. 


16  WEIB   EXPEBIMENT8,   COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  VELOCITY  IN  CHANNEL  OF  APPROACH. 

The  discharge  over  a  weir  takes  place  by  virtue  of  the  potential 
energy  of  the  layer  of  water  l}nng  above  the  level  of  the  weir  crest, 
which  is  rendered  kinetic  by  the  act  of  falling  over  the  weir.  If  the 
water  approaches  the  weir  with  an  initial  velocity,  it  is  evident  that 
some  part  of  the  concurrent  energy  will  facilitate  the  discharge. 

The  theoretical  correction  formulas  may  not  truly  represent  the 
effect  of  velocity  of  approach  for  various  reasons: 

1.  The  fall  in  the  leading  channel  adjacent  to  the  measuring  section 
is  the  source  of  the  velocity  of  approach,  and  this  fall  will  always  be 
greater  than  that  requirexl  to  produce  the  existing  velocities,  because 
some  fall  will  be  utilized  in  overcoming  friction. 

2.  The  velocity  is  seldom  uniform  at  all  parts  of  the  leading  chan- 
nel and  the  energy  of  the  water  varies  accordingly.  This  effect  is 
discussed  later  (p.  17). 

3.  It  is  not  certain  just  what  portion  of  the  energy  of  the  water  in 
the  section  of  the  leading  channel  goes  to  increase  the  discharge. 


Fig.  8.— Difltributioii  of  velocltlee. 

In  general  the  threads  of  the  water  in  the  cross  section  of  the  chan- 
nel of  approach  to  a  weir  have  varying  velocities.  It  follows  that,  as 
will  be  shown,  the  ratio  of  the  actual  energy  of  the  approaching  water 
to  the  energy  due  to  the  mean  velocity  will  be  greater  than  unit}^  and 
for  this  reason  the  correction  for  velocity  of  approach  will  be  greater 
than  if  the  energy  were  that  due  to  a  fall  through  a  head  produced  by 
the  mean  velocity  v.  The  more  nearly  uniform  is  the  velocity  of  the 
water  in  the  leading  channel  the  smaller  will  be  the  necessarj^  coeffi- 
cient a  in  the  velocity  head  formula.  The  velocity  may  be  rendered 
very  nearlj'  uniform  by  the  use  of  stilling  racks  or  baffles.  Where 
this  was  done  in  the  experiments  on  which  a  formula  was  based  (that 
of  Francis,  for  example)  a  larger  velocity  of  approach  correction  than 
that  obtained  by  the  author  may  be  necessary  in  applying  the  formula 
to  cases  where  there  is  wide  variation  in  the  velocity  in  the  leading 
channel.  To  avoid  such  a  contingency  it  is  desimble,  when  practi- 
cable, to  measure  head  to  surface  of  still  water,  because  more  accurate 
results  can  be  obtained  and  wash  against  instruments  prevented. 


VELOCITY    OF    APPROACH.  17 

The  vertical  and  horizontal  velocity  curves  in  an  open  channel  iisii- 
all\^  closely  resemble  parabolas.  A  weir  interi>oses  an  obstruction  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  channel,  checking  the  Ijottoin  velocities.  The 
velocity  is  not,  however,  confined  to  the  filaments  in  line  with  the  sec- 
tion of  the  discharge  opening  of  the  weir.  As  a  result  of  viscosity  of 
the  liquid,  the  upper  rapidly  moving  layers  drag  the  filaments  under- 
neath, and  the  velocity  ma}'  extend  nearly  or  (juite  to  the  channel  bot- 
tom. There  will  usually,  however,  be  a  line  (A  B  C,  fig.  3),  rising 
as  the  weir  is  approached,  below  which  there  is  no  forward  velocity. 

The  line  A  B  C  is  the  envelopt^.  of  the  curves  of  vertical  velocity 
in  the  channel  of  approach. 

There  will  be  a  similar  area  of  low  velocity  at  each  side  of  the  chan- 
nel for  a  contracted  weir.  The  inequality  of  velocities  for  such  weirs 
being  usually  greater  than  for  suppressed  weirs,  it  follows  that  a 
larger  coefficient  in  the  formula  for  velocity  of  approach  may  be 
required.     This  is  confirmed  by  experiment. 

Various  assumptions  have  been  made  as  to  what  portion  of  the 
energy  of  the  approaching  stream  goes  to  increase  the  discharge,  (a) 
that  resulting  from  the  mean  velocity  deduced  from  the  discharge 
divided  b}^  the  area  of  the  entire  section  of  the  channel  of  approach; 
(b)  that  of  the  mean  velocity  obtained  liy  using  the  sectional  area  of 
the  moving  water,  above  the  line  ABC,  fig.  3;  (c)  that  of  the  fila- 
ments lying  in  line  with  or  nearest  to  the  section  of  the  weir  opening, 
determined  approximately  b}'  the  surface  velocit\\'' 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  ENERGY  IN  CHANNEL  OF  APPROACH. 

Consider  unit  width  of  the  chaimel  of  approach: 
Let  Vg  =  Surface  velocity. 

/'^=Mean  velocity. 

/'ft  =  Bottom  velocity. 

V  =  Velocit}'^  at  a  height  x  above  bottom. 

X=  Depth  of  water  in  channel  of  approach. 

tc  =  Weight  of  unit  volume. 
The  general  formula  for  kinetic  energy  is 

K.  E.=-|^ (10) 

where  Pr=  weight  of  the  moving  mass. 

If  the  velocit}^  increases  uniformly  from  bottom  to  surface,  the 
velocity  at  height  x  will  Ix* 


a  Smith,  Hamilton,  Hydraalics,  p.  68. 
IBR  160-06 2 


18  WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,    AND    FORMULAS. 

I^t  dx  be  the  thickness  of  a  lamina  one  unit  wide  at  height  a*.     The 
total  kinetic  energy  for  the  depth  ^Y'will  be 


(^''^6+x('>~^''')y^^^^'   ....    (11) 


If  the  velocity  is  uniform,  the  total  kinetic  energy  per  unit  width 
is  found  by  integmtion  to  be 

K.E.=^'f-     .......     (1.) 

Integrating  for  the  simple  case  where  Vi^—0  and  the  velocit}-  increases 
uniformly  from  the  bottom  to  the  surface  so  that  v„=\^^  we  have 

K.  ¥..  =  -'''^-'' (13) 

g 

Comparing  this  with  the  expression  for  kinetic  energy  of  a  stream 
flowing  with  the  uniform  velocity  v  (formula  12),  we  find  the  mass 
energy  of  the  stream  with  uniformly  varying  velocity  to  be  twice  as 
great  as  for  the  uniform  velocity. 

By  a  similar  integration  the  ratio  of  the  total  kinetic  energy  to  the 
kinetic  energy  corresponding  to  the  mean  velocity  in  the  channel  of 
approach  can  be  obtained  for  any  assumption  as  to  the  distribution  of 
velocities  in  the  leading  charmel.  The  resulting  ratio  will  depend 
upon  the  relative  areas  of  section  with  low  and  high  velocities  which 
go  to  make  up  the  mean,  and  in  practice  it  will  generally  exceed  unit}'. 

The  lowering  of  the  water  surface  from  the  level  of  a  still  pond  will 
also  be  greater  in  the  case  of  unequal  velocities  than  in  the  case  of  a 
uniform  velocity  equal  to  their  mean.  The  theoretical  weir  formula 
indicates  the  same  discharge  in  case  of  a  uniform  velocity  of  approach 
V  as  in  case  of  varying  velocities  whose  mean  is  equal  to  v^  although 
in  the  former  case  the  actual  drawing  down  of  the  head  if  it  were 
measured  would  be  found  greater.  If  h  were  the  velocity  head 
corresponding  to  the  mean  velocity,  and  if  7;,,  i\,  v^^  etc.,  7\  were  the 
actual  velocities  in  the  n  unit  areas  of  cross  section,  the  actual  velocity 
head  h!  will  be  such  that 

^"-(^'i*+''/+etc.  V)=7r(>A'  =  IntegralK.  ¥.. 
Now, 

9     ?'*  =  'A'4:^/f  =  K.  E.  of  average  velocity. 

As  shown  above,  tlie  integral  K.  E.  is  the  greater. 


VELOCITY    OF    APPROACH.  19 

It  follows  that  A'>A. 

If  a=f(. 

Then 

A'=aA. 

Introducing  veloi*ity  of  approach  in  the  discharge  formula  we  sub- 
istitute  D-\-h  for  H^  and  integrate  between  the  limits  zero  and  D, 
Hence,  for  the  same  discharge,  the  area  of  weir  section  is  greater 
without  velocity  of  approach  by  nearly  the  amount  KL. 

For  a  given  measured  head  2>,  the  effect  of  velocity  of  approach, 
whatever  it  may  be,  appears  as  an  increase  in  the  mean  velocity  of 
discharge  in  the  plane  of  the  weir.  The  relation  of  the  mean  velocity 
of  discharge  for  a  weir  with  velocity  of  approach  to  that  for  a  weir 
without  such  velocit}'  is  shown  by  the  following  expression,  the  mean 
head  being  the  same  in  both  cases: 

Mean  velocity  in  the  plane  of  the  ^^\x—^-. 
then  ^\^\\D^\  (/>+A)*-Ai 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  discharge  over  a  weir  with  velocity  of 
approach  is  less  than  that  for  the  same  total  head  and  greater  than 
that  for  the  same  measured  head  without  velocity  of  approach,  and 
that  with  a  given  measured  head  the  greater  the  velocity  of  approach 
the  greater  will  be  the  discharge. 

In  a  weir  section  opening  out  of  still  water  there  is  always  a  con- 
siderable surface  velocity,  the  parabolic  law  (see  fig.  3)  being  modified 
by  fluid  friction,  which  tends  to  equalize  the  velocities.  Velocity  of 
approach,  being  usually  greater  at  the  surface,  furthers  this  equaliza- 
tion. Some  of  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  swifter-moving  filaments  is 
transferred  to  their  slower-moving  neighbor's,  the  result  being  that 
while  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  whole  mass  Q  passing  the  weir  per 
second  remains  constant,  yet  the  avef'oge  velocity  is  accelerated  and 
the  discharge  rate  is  increased  as  compared  with  the  theoretical  quan- 
tities. This  will  be  clearer  if  we  consider  two  contiguous  filaments, 
each  having  unit  section  a,  one  with  a  velocity  of  1,  the  other  of  2  feet 
per  second.  The  two  will  discharge  2+1  units  flow  per  second,  hav- 
ing the  total  kinetic  energy  indicated  below: 

TT   IT      IXl'        .  2X2'         .aw 


20  WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

If,  now,  the  velocities  are  equalized,  9  units  of  kinetic  energy  will 
be  equally  divided  between  the  two  filaments,  so  that,  the  new  velocity 
being  v, 

^awv  X  '?•*  _  ^aw 

^g     ~~^g 

The  average  velocity  before  equalization  was  1.5. 

The  discharge  from  two  filaments  having  equal  velocities  will  l>e 
3.802  units,  as  compared  with  8.00  for  two  filaments  having  unequal 
velocities. 

TUK  thix-i:dged  weir. 

EARLIER  EXPERIMENTS  AND  FORMULAS. 

Prior  to  1860  the  practice  of  weir  measurement  was  in  a  somewhat 
chaotic  condition,  especially  in  England,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States.  There  were  manj'  experimental  results,  but  the  experiments 
were  made.on  so  small  a  scale  that  the  various  influences  affecting  the 
measurements  and  the  lack  of  proper  standards  made  the  results 
erratic  and  untrustworthy  in  detail.  Greater  advancement  had  been 
made  in  France  by  such  savants  as  Dubuat,  Eytelwein,  lyAubuisson, 
Castel,  Poncelet,  Lesbros,  and  Boileau.  Some  of  the  work  of  the 
early  French  experimenters  has  proved,  in  the  light  of  wider  experi- 
ence, to  be  of  considerable  value. 

EXPERIMENTS   OF   CASTEL. 

The  first  experiments  deserving  consideration  are  of  those  of  M. 
Castel,  conducted  at  the  waterworks  of  Toulouse  in  1835  and  1836." 
Castel  erected  his  apparatus  on  a  terrace  in  conjunction  with  the  water 
tower,  which  received  a  continuous  supply  of  1.32  cubic  feet  per 
second,  capable  of  being  increased  to  1.77  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
weir  consisted  of  a  wooden  dam,  surmounted  by  a  crest  of  copper 
0.001  foot  in  thickness,  situated  in  the  lower  end  of  a  leading  channel, 
19.5  feet  long,  2.428  feet  wide,  and  1.772  feet  deep.  Screens  were 
placed  across  the  upper  end  of  the  channel  to  reduce  oscillations. 
The  head  was  measured  at  a  point  1.60  feet  upstream  from  the  weir  by 
means  of  a  point  gage.  The  overflow  was  measured  in  a  zinc-lined 
tank  having  a  capacity  of  113.024  cubic  feet.  The  length  of  the  crest 
for  weirs  with  suppressed  contractions  varied  from  2.393  to  2.438 
feet.     Heights  of  weirs  varying  from  0.105  to  0.7382  were  used,  and 

a  Originally  published  in  MC'moires  Acad,  Sci.  Toulouse,  IKi?.  Sec  D'Aubuisson's  Hydraulics,  Ben- 
nett's translation,  pp.  74-77.  Data  recomputed  by  Hamilton  Smith  in  his  Hydraulics,  pp.  80-82  and 
13H-l4r).  The  recomputed  coefflcienta  will  be  found  valuable  in  calculating  dlschaige  for  verj'  small 
and  very  low  weizs. 


THIN-EDO p:d  weirs.  21 

a  similar  scries  of  experiments  was  performed  on  suppressed  weirs 
1. 1844  feet  long.  The  head  varied  for  the  longer  weirs  from  about 
0.1  to  0.25  foot.  Additional  experiments  were  made  on  contracted 
weirs  having  various  lengths,  from  0.0328  to  1.6483  feet,  in  a  channel 
2.428  feet  wide,  and  for  lengths  from  0.0328  to  0.6542  foot  in  a  chan- 
nel 1.148  feet  wide.  The  experiments  on  these  narrow  slit  weirs 
included  depths  varying  from  0.1  or  0.2  foot  to  a  maxuuum  of  about 
0.8  foot. 

D'AubuivSson  gives  the  following  formula,  derived  from  the  experi- 
ments of  Castel  for  a  suppressed  weir: 

Q=SAS72LDylI)+O.OSfW' (14) 

where  W  is  the  measured  central  surface  velocity  of  approach,  ordi- 
narily^  about  1.2i'. 

EXPERIMENTS  OF  PONCELET  AND  LESBR08. 

The  experiments  made  by  Poncelet  and  Lesbros,  at  Metz,  in  1827 
and  1828,  under  the  auspices  of  the  French  Government,  were  contin- 
ued by  Lesbros  in  1836.  The  final  results  were  not  published,  how- 
ever, until  some  years  later.  ^ 

The  experiments  of  Poncelet  and  Lesbros  and  of  Lesbros  were  per- 
formed chiefly  on  a  weir  in  a  fixed  copper  plate,  length  5.562  feet. 
The  head  was  measured  in  all  cases  in  a  reservoir  11.48  feet  upstream, 
beyond  the  influence  of  velocity  of  approach.  The  crest  depth  varied 
from  about  0.05  to  0.60  or  0.80  foot.  The  experiments  of  Lesbros 
are  notable  from  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  forms  of  channel  of 
approach  were  employed,  including  those  with  contracted  and  con- 
vergent sides,  elevated  bottoms,  etc.  The  experiments  of  Lesbros  on 
these  special  forms  of  weirs  have  been  carefully  recomputed  by  Ham- 
ilton Smith,  and  may  be  useful  in  determining  the  discharge  through 
weirs  having  similar  modifications.* 

EXPERIMENTS  OF  BOILEAU. 

The  experiments  of  Boileau^  at  Metz,  in  1846,  included  3  suppressed 
weirs,  having  lengths  and  heights  as  follows: 

(1)  Length  5.30  feet,  height  1.54  feet. 

(2)  Length  2.94  feet,  height  1.12  feet 

(3)  Length  2.94  feet,  height  1.60  feet. 

The  depth  of  overflow  varied  from  0.19  to  0.72  foot.  Boileau 
obtained  the  following  formula  for  a  suppressed  weir: 

(>=3.3455^^|^^— ^Zi?^     ....     (1.5) 


a  Experiences  hydrauliques  sur  lea  lois  de  r^coulement  de  I'eau,  Paris,  1852. 
b  Smith,  Hamilton,  Hydraulics,  pp.  96  and  97  and  101-107.    Also  plates  1-2  and  8. 
cGa.\igeage  de  cours  d'eau,  etc.,  Paris,  1850. 


22         WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

This  formula  includes  the  correction  for  velocity  of  approach.  The 
coefficient  C^  it  will  be  noticed,  is  given  as  a  constant.  Boileau  after- 
wards gave  a  table  of  corrections  varying  with  the  depth,  indicating  a 
discharge  from  96  to  lOT  per  cent  of  that  obtained  with  the  constant 
coefficient.  Additional  experiments  by  Boileau  on  suppressed  weirs 
having  a  crest  length  of  about  0.95  foot  have  been  recomputed  by 
Hamilton  Smith. ^  The  heights  of  weirs  were,  respectively,  2.028, 
2.690,  2.018,  and  2.638  feet.  In  these  experiments  the  discharge  was 
determined  by  measurement  through  orifices. 

EAST   INDIAN    ENGINEERS'    FORMULA.* 

The  East  Indian  engineers'  formula  for  thin-edged  weirs  is 


where 


Reducing, 


Q^\  ML  ^2(jJP=  CLH^ 
C=\4^j  M=^.ZbM 


Jf=:l-(M^i^/  +  ^3) 


(16) 


J/=:0.654  -0.01  // 
C/=3.4989-0.0635  IF 


\ 


(17) 


This  formula  applies  to  a  suppressed  weir.  Method  of  correction 
for  velocity  of  approach  is  not  stated.  Coefficient  M  has  a  maximum 
value  0.654,  and  decreases  slowly  as  the  head  increases.  Limits  of 
applicability  of  formula  are  not  stated.     Values  of  C  are  given  below : 

CcH'fficieiit  ('for  thin-edged  vrirSj  East  Indian  eruiinetn's*  formula.  <" 


Hln 

feet. 

1 

0.0 

0.1 

0.2 

0.3 

1 
0.4 

1 

0.5 

0.6      1 

0.7 

0.8 

0.9 

0 

3.499 

3.494 

3.488 

3.483 

3.478 

3. 472 

3.467 

3. 462 

3.456 

3.451 

1 

3.445 

8.440 

3.4a5 

3. 429 

3. 424 

3.419 

3.413 

3.4a*< 

3.403 

3.397 

•2 

1    3.392 

3.386 

3.381 

3. 376 

3.370 

3.365 

3.;J60 

3.354 

3.349 

3.»14 

3 

3.338 

3.333 

3.328 

3.322 

3.317  1 

3.312 

3.306 

3.301 

3.296 

3.290 

•1 

1    3.285 

3.280 

3.274 

3. 269 

3.2<>4 

3.2;)8 

8.253 

3. 24S 

3. 242 

3.237 

5 

3.221 

3.226 

3.221 

3.215 

3.210 

3.20.') 

3.199  1 

3.191 

3.189 

3.1.S3 

6 

3.178 

3.172 

3.167 

3. 162 

3. 156 

3. 151 

3.146  ; 

3.140 

3.135 

3.130 

7 

'    3.121 

3.119 

3.114 

3.108 

3.103 

3.098 

3.092 

3.087 

3. 082 

3.076 

8 

3.071 

3.066 

3.060 

3.a'>5 

3.050 

8.044 

3.039  ' 

3.034 

3.028 

3.023 

9 

3.017 

3.012 

3.007 

3.001 

2. 996 

2.991 

2.985  1 

2.980 

2.975 

2.969 

«  Hydraulic."^,  pp.  133-135. 

''Given  in  J.  Mullins's  Irrigation  Manual,  Introduced  in 
region  of  upper  Hud.son  River.    Not  ^iven  in  BellasLs'.s  re( 

r  For  East  Indian  engineers'  Imiad-crested  weir  formula, 
Kee  p.  114. 


United  States  by  G.  W.  liafter  and  used  in 
ent  East  Indian  work  on  hydraulics, 
u.sing  eoeflk'ients  derived  from  -the  above, 


THIN-EDGED    WEIRS.  23 

« 

EXPERIMENTS  AND  FORMULA  OF  JAMES  B.  FRANCIS. 

The  experiments  on  discharge  over  thin-edged  weirs,"  upon  which 
the  Francis  formula  is  based,  were  made  in  October  and  November, 
1852,  at  the  lower  locks  of  the  Pawtucket  canal,  leading  from  Con- 
cord River  past  the  Lowell  dam  to  slack  water  of  Merrimac  River. 
Additional  experiments  were  made  by  Francis  in  1848  *  at  the  center 
vent  water  wheel  at  the  Boott  Cotton  Mills  in  Lowell,  with  gates 
blocked  open  and  with  constant  head.  A  uniform  but  unknown  vol- 
ume of  water  was  thus  passed  through  the  turbine  and  over  a  weir 
having  various  numbers  of  end  contractions,  the  effect  of  which  was 
thus  detennined.  Similar  experiments  were  made  in  1851  at  the  Tre- 
mont  turbine,*"  where  a  constant  volume  of  water  was  passed  over 
weirs  of  lengths  ranging  from  3.5  to  16.98  feet  and  with  from  two  to 
eight  end  contractions.  These  experiments  were  made  to  determine 
the  exponent  n  in  the  weir  formula 

Francis  here  found  n=1.47,  but  adopted  the  value  7i=1.5=3  2,  in 
the  experiments  of  1852. 

The  Pawtucket  canal  lock  was  not  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  Lowell 
experiments  in  1852  and  the  miter  gates  at  the  upper  lock  chamber 
were  removed  and  the  weir  was  erected  in  the  lower  hollow  quoin  of 
the  gate  chamber.  The  middle  gates  at  the  foot  of  the  upper  cham- 
ber were  replaced  by  a  bulkhead  having  a  sluice  for  drawing  off  the 
water.  A  timber  flume  in  the  lower  chamber  of  the  lock  was  ased  as 
a  measiiring  basin  to  determine  the  flow  over  the  weir.  Its  length 
was  102  feet  and  its  width  about  11.6  feet.  A  swinging  apron  gate 
was  so  arranged  over  the  crest  of  the  weir  that,  when  opened,  the 
water  flowed  freely  into  the  measuring  basin  below,  and  when  closed, 
with  its  upper  edge  against  the  weir,  the  overflow  passed  into  a 
wooden  diverting  channel,  placed  across  the  top  of  the  lock  chamber, 
and  flowed  into  Concord  River.  An  electric  sounder  was  attached 
to  the  gate  framework,  by  which  a  signal  was  given  when  the  edge  of 
the  swinging  gate  was  at  the  center  of  the  nappe,  when  either  opening 
or  closing.  By  this  means  the  time  of  starting  and  stopping  of  each 
experimental  period  was  observed  on  a  marine  chronometer.  The 
depth  on  the  weir  was  observed  b}^  hook  gages.  The  readings  were 
taken  in  wooden  stilling  boxes,  11  by  18  inches  square,  open  at  the 
top,  and  having  a  1-inch  round  hole  through  the  bottom,  which  was 
about  4  inches  below  the  weir  crest.  The  weir  was  in  the  lower  quoin 
of  the  gate  recess,  and  the  hook  gage  boxes  were  in  the  upper  quoin, 
projecting  slightly  beyond  the  main  lock  walls.     In  weirs  with  end 

aFranciK,  J.  B.,  Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments,  pp.  103-135.      6  Idem,  pp.  96-102.      oldem,  pp.  76-96. 


24 


WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 


contractions  the  full  width  of  the  channel  was  used.  For  suppressed 
weirs,  a  leading  channel  having  a  width  equal  to  the  length  of  the 
weir  crest  was  formed  by  constructing  vertical  timber  walls  within 
the  main  canal,  extending  20  feet  upstream  from  the  weir  and  having 
their  upper  ends  flaring  about  1  foot  toward  the  canal  walls.  Water 
was  freely  admitted  on  both  side^  of  these  timber  walls.  The  hook 
gage  boxes  were  outside  of  this  channel.  The  holes  in  the  bottom 
were  plugged,  and  flush  piezometer  pipes  were  used  to  connect  the 
hook-gage  boxes  with  the  inner  face  of  the  side  walls  of  the  channel 
of  approach.  Observations  of  the  head  by  hook  gage  were  taken  at 
intervals  of  about  15  seconds.  Each  experimental  period  covered 
from  190  to  900  seconds.  The  hook-gage  readings  were  reduced  to 
weir  cresf  level  as  a  datum  and  arranged  in  groups  of  two  or  three, 
which  agreed  closely.  The  mean  head  was  determined  by  the  correc- 
tion formula  (48).  In  one  period,  18  observations  of  heads  ranged 
from  0.6310  to  0.0605  foot;  their  arithmetical  mean  was  0.6428; 
the  computed  correction  was  minus  0.0008. 

The  measured  head  was  corrected  for  velocity  of  approach  by  using 
the  theoretical  formula  given  below.  The  range  and  character  of  the 
experiments,  together  with  the  general  results,  are  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table: 

Thin-edged  weir  e.rperiments  of  J.  B.  Francis  at  tlie  Imrer  lockny  Lowell,  Mass.f  1852. 


Serial 

3 

Range  of  ve- 

c 

i 

o** 

num- 
bers of 

"^l 

Range  of  ob- 
served head. 

locity  of 

approach,  in 

leet  per 

1 

^0 

Discharge  coeflicient 

experi- 

-s^ 

"oJ  sS 

in  feet. 

u 

2 

$B 

v. 

ments. 

fs 

'  C3 

second. 

1 

Sfc; 

1 

1 

C 
C    1 

II 

0  5*  ^ 

7—    — 

1 

t^- 

" 

■ — 

lii 

2* 

1 

1 

1      ' 

1 

3 

11 

j 

.2     ,     2 

_H_i 

i? 

l« 

u* 

H 

fc            H 

'A 

< 

S 

1 

ii  4I 

4I 

13.96 

;  5.048 

1.52480 

1.56910 

0.7<W2  l0.7889 

9.997 

'^ 

i.:i6 

3.3318 

1 

3.3002     3.3181 

5     10 

6 

13.96 

5.048 

1.23690 

1.25490 

.5904      .6000 

9.997 

2 

1.16 

3.3412 

3.3159  ,  3.3338 

n  '  33 

23 

13.96 

i  5. 018 

. 91570 

,1.06920 

.3951   !  .48(W 

9.997 

2 

1.00 

3.3383 

3.3110  !  3.3223 

34  '  3ft 

2 

13.9f5 

5.048 

1.01025 

1.02625 

.  mn     .  359<5 

7.997 

4 

1.02 

3.3617 

3.8586     3.3601 

36     43  , 

8 

13.96 

2. 014 

1.02805 

|1. 07945 

.9496  '1.0049 

9.997 

2 

1.0.', 

3.3567 

3.8498  1  8.3627 

44  1  fAi 

7 

9.992 

5.048 

.974r30 

,  .98675 

.  5376     .  5455 

9. 995 

0 

0.98 

3.3437 

3.33Q6  i  3.3409 

51  '  55 

5  1 

9.992 

5.048 

.99240 

1.00600 

.  5477      .  5589 

9.995 

0 

1.00 

3.3349 

3.3243  1  3.3270 

56  1  61 

6 

13.96 

'  5.W8 

.77690 

.81860 

.3170  1  .:«05 

9.997 

2 

0.80 

3. 3287 

3.3188  j  3.3246 

6'2     66 

5 

13.96 

2. 014 

. 77115 

1  .88865 

.6694  '  .7963 

9.997 

2 

0.83 

3.3435 

3.3376     3.3403 

67     71 

v 

9.992 

5.048 

.  7362 

. 81495 

.:^TO  j  .4213 

9. 995 

0 

0.80 

3.3424 

3.3341  '  3.3393 

72  '  78 

7 

13.96 

5.048 

..59190 

.  ^rvvi.-) 

.2182  1  .2509 

9.997 

2 

0.62 

3.3806 

3.3237  '  3.3275 

79     84 

6 

13.96 

'  2.014 

. 63135 

.  \  6  J85 

.5193  ,  .r>196 

9.i>97 

2 

0.65 

3.3278 

3.3244  1  3.3262 

85  '  88 

4 

13.96 

2. 01 1 

.66940 

.68815 

.4:i82  1  .4526 

7.997 

4 

0.<V8 

3.&S82 

3.3333  1  8.3368 

FRANCIS    EXPERIMENTO.  '  25 

From  a  discussion  of  these  experiments  Francis  presents  the  final 
formula — 

Q=S.SSZJI^. 
If  there  are  end  contractions, 

Z=Z'-0.1iY//:  [    .     .     (18) 

If  there  is  velocity  of  approach, 

The  mean  velocity  v  was  determined  by  successive  approximations; 
h  was  determined  by  the  usual  formula — 

'=h    ■ 

The  Francis  formula  for  velocity  of  approach  correction  is  cumber- 
some, and  several  substitutes  have  been  devised,  some  of  which  are 
described  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

(1)  Determine  the  approximate  velocity  of  approach  v^^  by  a  single 
trial  computation  of  Q^  using  D=Il, 

Then  use 

to  determine  the  final  value  of  Q.  For  a  given  value  of  v  this  gives 
too  large  a  value  of  ZT,  but  the  approximate  value  of  t\  is  somewhat 
too  small,  partially  counterbalancing  the  error  and  usually  giving  a 
final  value  of  Q  sufficiently  precise. 

(2)  By  developing  into  series  and  omitting  the  powers  h!D  above 
the  first,  A  being  always  relatively  small,  the  following  closely  approxi- 
mate equivalent  of  the  Francis  correction  formula,  given  by  Emerson,* 
is  obtained: 

//=i?+A-g75 (1^) 

(3)  Hunking  and  Hart*  derive  from  the  Francis  correction  formula 
the  following  equivalent  expression: 

KI)^=II^=(D+h)^-h^ (20) 

-=[^+S(i>'"]'-[-S©"-t  ■  •  <^'> 

where  G  is  the  area  of  channel  section  in  which  D  is  measured,  per 
unit  length  of  crest. 

a  Hydrodynamics,  p.  286.  t»  Jour.  Franklin  Inst ,  Phlla.,  August.  18S4,  pp.  121-126. 


26 


WEIB    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


For  a  suppressed  weir, 
For  a  contracted  weir. 


r-   _  ^- 


(22) 


Hunking  and  Hart  have  computed  values  of  K  by  the  sohition  of 
the  above  formula  for  each  0.005  increment  in  D  G  to  0.36.  The 
results  extended  by  formula  (23)  are  given  below. 


VelocUt/  of  approach  correction,  fcuAor  K 

Hunking 

0.3 
1.022359 

and  HartformuJny 

H^=KD^' 

• 

DIG 
.000 

0.0 
1.00000 

1 
0.1 

0.2 
1.009980 

0.4 

0.5 
1.062250 

0.6 

1.002628 

1.039840 

1.08964 

.005 

1.000006 

1.002785 

1.010480  1 

1.023110 

1.040836 

1.063495 

1.091134 

.010 

1.000026 

1.003053 

1.010994 

1.023875 

1.041832 

1.064740 

1.092628 

.015 

1.000058 

1.003335 

1.011519  : 

1.024653  I 

1. 042828 

1.065985 

1.094122 

.020 

1.006103 

1.003628  1 

1.012057  ' 

1.026444 

1.043824 

1.067230 

1.095616 

.025 

1.000161 

1.003933 

1. 012607 

1.026248 

1.045069 

1.068724 

1.097359 

.030 

1.000231. 

1.004251  , 

1.013169 

1.027065  , 

1.046065 

1.069969 

1.098853 

.oa5 

1.000314 

1.004581  1 

1.013744  ' 

1.027895 

1.047061 

1.071214 

1.100347 

.010 

1.000409 

1.004923 

1.014331 

1.028739 

1.048306 

1.072708 

1.102090 

.045 

1.000518 

1.005278 

1.014931 

1.029596  j 

1.049302 

1.073953 

1.103584 

.a5o 

1.000638 

1.005644  ' 

1.015M3 

1.030467  1 

1.060298 

1.075198 

1.105078 

.{m 

1.000'/V2 

1.006023 

l.*016167  , 

1.031350  , 

1.051543 

1.076692 

1.106821 

.060 

1.000917 

1.006414 

1.016805 

1.032248 

1.052788 

1.078186 

1.108564 

.065 

1.001075 

1.006817  1 

1.017455  1 

i.os^n 

1.053784 

1.079431 

1.110058    1 

.070 

1.001246 

1.007232 

1.018107 

1.034113 

1.055029 

1.080925 

1.111801 

.075 

1.001429 

1.007659  1 

1.018792 

1.035109 

1.056274 

1.082419 

1.113544    , 

.080 

1.001624 

1.008099  ' 

1.019480  , 

1.03.5856  1 

1. 057270 

1.083664 

1. 115038 

.085 

1.001832 

1.008551 

1.020180 

1. 03(3852  i 

1.058515 

1.085158 

1.116781 

.090 

'1.002051 

1.009016 

1.020893 

1.037848  I 

1.059760 

1.086652 

1. 118524 

.095 

1.002284 

1.009491 

1.021620 

1.038844 

1.061005 

1.088146 

1.120267 

The  general  formula  for  K  is  too  complex  for  common  use.     The 
expressions 

^=1+0.2489^2^        (23) 


and 


^-+(^)- 


m) 


are  stated  to  give  results  correct  within  one-hundredth  and  one-fiftieth 
of  I  per  cent,  respectively,  for  values  of  /i  less  than  0.36. 

EXPERIMENTS  AND  FORMULAS  OF  FTELEY  AND  STEARNS. 

The  first  series  of  experiments  by  Fteley  and  Stearns  on  thin-edged 
weir  discharge^. were  made  in  March  and  April,  1877,  on  a  suppres.sed 
weir,  with  crest  5  feet  in  length,  erected  in  Sudbury  conduit  below 
Farm  Pond,  Metropolitan  waterworks  of  Boston. 

Water  from  Farm  Pond  was  let  into  the  leading  channel  through 


"Fteley,  A.,  and  Steams,  F.  P.,  Experiment,**  on  the  flow  of  wnter,  ct«.:  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E., 
vol.  12,  Jan..  Feb.,  Mar.,  1883.  pp.  1-118. 


EXPERIMENTS    OF   FTELEY    AND   STEARNS.  27 

hoad-j^tps  until  the  desired  level  for  the  experiment,  as  found  by 
previous  trial,  was  reached.  A  swinging  gate  was  then  raised  from 
the  crest  of  the  weir  and  the  water  was  allowed  to  flow  over.  The 
maintenance  of  a  uniform  reghiien  was  facilitated  by  the  large  area 
and  the  consequent  small  variation  of  level  in  Farm  Pond,  so  that  the 
outflow  from  the  gates  was  sensibly  proportional  to  the  height  they 
were  raised.  The  water  flowed  from  the  weir  into  the  conduit  chan- 
nel below,  and  was  measured  volumetrically.  For  the  smaller  heads 
the  length  of  the  measuring  basin  was  22  feet,  and  for  the  larger 
heads  S^  feet. 

The  crest  depth  was  observed  by  hook  gage  in  a  pail  below  the  weir, 
connected  to  the  channel  of  approach  by  a  rubber  tube  entering  the 
top  of  the  side  wall,  6  feet  upstream  from  the  weir  crest.  Hook-gage 
readings  of  head  were  taken  every  half  minute  until  uniform  regimen 
was  established,  and  every  minute  thereafter.  The  depths  in  the  meas- 
uring basin  were  also  taken  by  hook  gage.  The  bottom  of  the  conduit 
wa8  concave,  and  was  graded  to  a  slope  of  1  foot  per  mile.  It  was 
covered  with  water  previous  to  each  experiment,  leaving  a  nearly 
rectangidar  section. 

The  experiments  in  1877  included  81  depths  on  a  suppressed  weir 
of  5  feet  crest  length,  3.17  feet  high.  The  observed  heads  varied 
from  0.0735  to  0.8198  foot. 

In  1879  a  suppressed  weir,  with  a  creat  length  of  19  feet,  was 
erected  in  Farm  Pond  Gate  House.  Head-gates  and  screens  were 
close  to  weir;  otherwise  the  apparatus  for  measuring  head  and  starting 
and  stopping  flow  w^as  similar  to  that  used  in  previous  experiments. 
The  crest  of  the  weir  was  an  iron  bar  8^  inches  wide  and  one-fourth 
inch  thick,  planed  and  filed  and  attached  to  the  upper  weir  timber  with 
screws.  No  variation  in  level  of  the  weir  crest  occurred.  As  in  the 
preceding  experiments,  no  by-pass  was  provided,  and  the  entire  over- 
flow entered  Sudbury  conduit  below  the  weir.  The  conduit  was 
partly  filled  with  water  at  the  start,  leaving  a  nearly  rectangular  sec- 
tion, 11,800  feet  in  length  and  about  9  feet  wide.  A  difference  of  3 
feet  in  water  level  was  utilized  in  measuring  discharge,  the  total  capac- 
ity being  300,272  cubic  feet.  Semipartitions  w^ere  provided  to  reduce 
oscillation  of  the  water.  Many  observations,  covering  a  considerable 
period  of  time,  were  required  to  determine  the  true  water  level.  This 
series  of  experiment  included  10  depths  on  a  suppressed  weir  19  feet 
long  and  6.55  feet  high,  with  measured  heads  varying  from  0.4685  to 
1.6038  feet  and  velocities  of  approach  ranging  from  0.151  to  0.840  foot 
per  second. 

From  measurements  on  weirs  5  and  19  feet  in  length,  respectively, 
and  from  a  recalculation  of  the  experiments  of  James  B.  Francis, 
Fteley  and  Stearns  obtained  the  final  formula 

Q=S.UL/n +0,0011 (25) 


28  WEIB   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


In  the  above,  if  there  is  velocity  of  approach, 

or  =1.5  for  suppressed  weirs. 

«  =2.05  for  weirs  with  end  contractions. 

The  value  of  the  velocity  head  coefficient  a  was  determined  from 
94  additional  experiments  on  the  5-foot  weir  in  1878.  These  involved 
measured  heads  ranging  from  0.1884  to  0.9443  foot,  heights  of  weir 
ranging  from  0.50  to  3.47  feet,  and  velocities  of  approach  reaching  a 
maximum  of  2.35  feet  per  second.  Also  17  experiments  were  made 
on  weirs  3,  3.3,  and  4  feet  long  respectively;  the  first  with  two  and 
the  last  two  with  one  end  contraction.  These  experiments  included 
measured  heads  varying  from  0.5574  to  0.8702  foot,  and  velocities  of 
approach  from  0.23  to  1.239  feet  per  second. 

In  all  ejcperiments  on  velocity  of  approach,  the  head  was  measured 
6  feet  upstream  from  crest.     The  width  of  channel  was  5  feet.^ 

Fteley  and  Stearns  found  the  following  values  of  a  for  suppressed 
weirs: 

Fteley  and  Steams*  8  valv£  of  a.  for  suppressed  weirs. 


Meiwured 

depth  on 

weir, 

in  feet. 

1 

Depth  of  channel  of  approach  below  weir  t 

crest,  in  feet.                         | 

1 

0.50 

1.00 

1.70 

2.60*' 

0.2 

1.70 

1.87 

1.66 

1.51 

.3 

1.53 

1.83 

1.65 

1.50 

.4 

1.53 

1.79 

1.63 

1.49 

.5 

1.53 

1.75 

1.62 

1.48 

.6 

1.52 

1.71 

1.60 

1.47 

.  7 

1.51 

1.68 

1.59 

1.4(> 

.8 

cl.bO 

M.65 

1.57 

1.45 

.9 

1.49 

1.63 

1.56 

<1.44 

1.0 

1.48 

1.61 

1.54 

1.43 

1.1 

1.59 

1.53 

.   1.42 

1.2 

1.57 

1.51 

1.41 

1.3 

1     1.55 

1.49 

1.40 

1.4 

1.54 

1.48 

1.39 

1.5 

1.52 

1.46 

1.38 

1.6 

1.51 

1.44 

1.37 

'      1.7 

1.49 

1.43 

1.36 

1.8 
1.9 
2.0 

1.41 
1.40 
1.38 

1.  35 
1.34  ' 
1.33 

1 

a  Fteley  and  Steams,  idem  pp.  .V23. 
fc  Applicable  to  (?realor  heights  of  weir. 
o  Limit  of  experiments. 


bazin's  experiments.  29 

Current-meter  measurements  showed  a  nearly  uniform  distribution 
of  velocities  in  the  channel  of  approach  above  the  19-foot  weir,  a  fact 
to  be  taken  account  of  when  the  formulas  are  applied  to  cases  where 
the  velocity  of  approach  varies  in  different  portions  of  the  leading 
channel. 

If  there  are  end  contractions,  the  net  length  of  weir  should  be  deter- 
mined by  the  Francis  formula, 

The  head  should  be  measured  at  the  surface  of  the  channel  of 
approach,  6  feet  upstream  from  the  weir  crast. 

BAZIN'S  EXPERIMENTS. 

Bazin's  experiments  on  thin-edged  weirs  were  performed  in  the  side 
channel  of  the  Canal  de  Bourgogne,  near  Dijon,  France,  and  were 
begun  in  1886.  Their  results  were  published  in  Annales  des  Fonts  et 
Chauss^es  and  have  been  translated  by  Marichal  and  Trautwine." 

The  standard  weir  consisted  of  horizontal  timbers  4  inches  square, 
with  an  iron  crest  plate  0.276  inch  in  thickness.  Air  chambers  were 
placed  at  the  ends  of  the  weir  on  the  downstream  side,  to  insure  full 
aeration  of  the  nappe.  End  contractions  were  suppressed^  The 
height  of  the  firet  weir  was  3.27  feet  above  channel  bottom,  and  the 
head  was  measured  in  *'Bazin  pits,"  one  at  each  side  of  the  channel 
16.  rM)  feet  upstream  from  the  weir  crest.  The  pit  consisted  of  a  lat- 
eral chamber  in  the  cement  masonry  forming  the  walls  of  the  canal. 
The  chamber  was  square,  1.64  feet  on  each  side,  and  communicated 
with  the  channel  of  approach  by  a  circular  opening  4  inches  in  diameter, 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  side  wall  and  having  its  mouth  exactly 
flush  with  the  face  of  the  wall.  The  oscillations  of  the  water  surface 
in  the  lateral  chamber  were  thus  rendered  much  less  prominent  than 
in  the  channel  of  approach.  The  water  level  in  the  Bazin  pit  was 
observed  by  dial  indicators  attached  to  floats,  the  index  magnifying 
the  variations  in  water  level  four  times,  the  datum  for  the  indicators 
having  been  previously  determined  by  means  of  hook  gages  placed 
above  the  crest  of  the  weir  and  by  needle-pointed  slide  gages  in  the 
leading  channel. 

A  drop  gate  was  constructed  on  the  crest  of  the  weir  to  shut  off  the 
discharge  at  will.  In  each  experiment  the  head-gates  through  which 
the  water  entered  the  leading  channel  were  first  raised  and  the  water 
was  allowed  to  assume  the  desired  level.  The  weir  gate  was  then 
raised,  and  the  head-gates  were  manipulated  to  maintain  a  nearly  con- 

a  Bazin,  H.,  Recent  experiments  on  flow  of  water  over  weirs,  trannlated  fmm  the  French  by  Mari- 
chal and  Trautwine:  Proc.  Engineers'  Club  Phila.,  vol.  7.  Jan.,  1890,  pp.  259-310;  vol.  9,  pp.  231-244, 
287-319;  vol.  10,  pp.  121-164. 


30 


WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,    COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 


stant  inflow.  The  arithmetical  mean  of  the  observations  during  each 
period  of  uniform  regimen  was  used  as  the  measured  head  for  that 
experiment. 

The  overflow  passed  into  a  measuring  channel,  656.17  feet  in  length, 
whose  walls  were  made  of  smooth  Portland  cement  concrete.  The 
channel  was  6.56  feet  wide,  its  side  walls  were  3.937  feet  high,  and  its 
lower  end  was  closed  by  water-tight  masonry.  Its  bottom  was  graded 
to  a  slope  of  about  1: 1,000.  The  volume  of  inflow  was  determined  by 
first  covering  the  channel  bottom  with  water,  then  noting  the  change 
of  level  during  each  experimental  period,  the  capacity  of  the  channel 
at  various  heights  having  previously  been  carefully  determined.  A 
slight  filtration  occurred,  necessitating  a  correction  of  about  one-eighth 
of  1  per  cent  of  the  total  volume.  The  observations  for  each  regimen 
were  continued  through  a  period  of  12  to  30  minutes. 

Sixty -seven  experiments  w^ere  made  on  a  weir  3.72  feet  high,  includ 
ing  heads  from  the  least  up  to  1.017  feet.  A})ove  this  point  the 
volumetric  measuring  channel  filled  so  quickly  as  to  require  the  use  of 
a  shorter  weir.  Thirty -eight  experiments  were  made  with  a  standard 
weir,  8.28  feet  long  and  3.72  feet  high,  with  heads  varying  from  the 
least  up  to  1.34  feet.  For  heads  exceeding  1.34  feet  it  was  necessary 
to  reduce  the  height  of  the  weir  in  order  that  the  depth  above  the  weir 
should  not  exceed  that  of  the  channel  of  approach.  Forty-eight 
experiments  were  made  on  a  weir  1.64  feet  long  and  3.297  feet  high, 
with  heads  ranging  from  the  least  up  to  1.780  feet.  These  experiments 
sufficed  to  calibrate  the  standard  weir  with  a  degree  of  accuracy  stated 
bj'  Bazin  as  less  than  1  per  cent  of  error. 

In  order  to  determine  the  effect  of  varying  velocities  of  approach 
the  following  additional  series  of  experiments  were  made  on  sup- 
pressed weirs  2  meters  (6.56  feet)  in  length. 

E.rperimt'uts  on  ^nppresned  weirs  J  meters  in  leyigth. 


Number 
of  experi- 
ment. 

Range  of  head  in  feet 

From—      1 

To— 

28-f30 

0.489     1 

1.443 

29-129 

.314 

1.407 

27^41 

.298    J 

1.338 

44 

.296 

1.3:^8 

Height  of 
experimen- 
tal weir,  in 
feet. 


2.46 
1.64 
1.15 
0.79 


The  standard  weir  was  3.72  feet  high,  and  the  experimental  weirs 
were  placed  46  to  199  meters  downstream.  The  discharge  was  not 
measured  volumetrically.  A  uniform  regimen  of  flow  was  established 
and  the  depths  on  the  two  weirs  were  simultaneously  observed  during 
each  period  of  flow. 


bazin's  formulas.  31 

These  experiments  afforded  data  for  the  determination  of  the  rela- 
tive effect  of  different  velocities  of  approach,  corresponding  to  the 
different  depths  of  the  leading  channel. 

From  these  experiments  Bazin  deduces  coefficients  for  a  thin-edged 
weir  3.72  feet  high,  for  heads  up  to  1.97  feet,  stated  to  give  the  true 
discharge  within  1  per  cent." 

BAZIN*S   FORMULAS   FOR   THIN-EDGED   WEIRS. 

Starting  with  the  theoretical  formula  for  a  weir  without  velocity  of 
approach,  in  the  form 

Q=fJLLn4^2gIf 
and  substituting 

for  II,  in  the  case  of  a  weir  having  velocity  of  approach,  there  results, 


Bazin  obtained,  by  mathematical  ti*ansformation,  the  equivalent^ 


Bazin  writes 

*  771 


for  which  equation  he  obtains,  by  mathematical  transformation,  the 
approximate  equivalent*^ 

-=<^+2H^)-  ■■■■■■  (^'^) 

The  calculation  of  the  factor  /;  appearing  in  this  formula  requires 
the  discharge  ^  to  be  known. 

Assuming  that  the  channel  of  approach  has  a  constant  depth  P  below 
the  crest  of  the  weir,  and  that  its  width  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the 

a  Bazin,  H.,  Experiences  nouvelles)  sur  T^coulement  en  deverHOir:  Ann.  Pontfi  et  Chaufis^es,  M<^m.  et 
Doc.,  1888, 2^  trimefltre.  See  translation  by  Marichal  and  Trau twine  in  Pnw.  Eng.  Club  Phila.,  vol.  7, 
pp.  259-310;  vol.  9.  pp.  231-244. 

*The  steps  in  the  derivation  of  this  formula  arc  given  by  Tniutwine  and  Marichal  in  their  trans- 
latioii  of  Bazin's  report  of  his  experiments,  in  Proc,  Eng.  Club  Phlla.,  vol.  7,  p.  280. 

« The  steps  in  detail  are  given  by  Trautwine  and  Marichal  in  their  translation  of  Bazin,  in  Proc. 
Eng.  Club  PhUa.,  vol.  7,  No.  5,  p.  281. 


32  WEIK   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

weir,  V  may  be  expressed  in  terms.of  these  factors,  and  of  the  discharge 
(^=;«.Z2>V2^). 

Using  this  value  of  v,  Bazin  obtains  the  expression 

m=t^\}+'^Qlj^^~\ (28) 

3 
where  c^=o  ^  '^^*-     ci?  is  a  nearly  constant  factor,  varying  only  with 

m^.     The  value  of  co  as  well  as  that  of  a  can  be  determined  by  com- 
parativ^e  experiments  on  thin-edged  weirs  of  different  heights.^ 

From  a  discussion  of  his  own  experiments  and  those  of  Fteley  and 
Stearns,  Bazin  finally  obtained  the  formulas 


Q=fJLLH4*2igII^  no  velocity  of  approach;    1 
Q=jnLDy2gD^  with  velocity  of  approach.  J 


(29) 


i.  .,,.,  0.003 X  3.281     _  ,^.  ,0.00984^  ^on^ 

/i=0.405H jy-      =0.405H ^ ...     \6K)) 

5 
For  a  weir  with  velocity  of  approach  «=q  and  a?=0.55.     Substitut- 
ing in  equations  (27)  and  (28), 

.=;.  [1+0.55  (^^,;^^J] (32) 


171- 


VI- 


These  formulas  give  values  of  m  agreeing  with  the  results  of  the 
experiments  within  1  per  cent  for  weirs  exceeding  about  1  foot  in 
height  within  the  experimental  range  of  head. 

Approximately,  for  heads  from  4  inches  to  1  foot. 


7;i=0.425+O 


^<>>l^)' ^^^^ 


correct  within  2  to  3  per  cent. 

The  following  table  gives  Bazin's  experimental  coefficients,  the  head 
and  height  of  weir  (originally  meters)  having  been  reduced  to  feet: 

a  For  detailed  analy.sis  see  Trautwine  and  Marichal,  Proc.  Eng.  Club  Phlla..  vol.  7,  pp.  282-283. 
b  Experimental  tabular  values  of  |u  differing  very  slightly  from  the  formula  within  the  range  of 
Bazin's  experiments  are  also  given. 


■^  CJ 
V  ^ 


I         ^ 


IBB  150-06 3 


BAZIN  S   FORMULAS. 


33 


Values  of  the  Bazin  coefficient  C  in  the  formula  Q=CLH^  for  a  thin-edged  weir,  wilhout 

end  contrachon. 


i 

Measured 
headl). 

Hei 
0.66 

Ifht  of  crest  of  weir  atx>ve  bwl  of  cha 
0.98    j    1.31        1.64    1    1.97    '    2.62 

anel  of 
3.28 

approf 
"4.!e 

C 

3.598 

tch,  in  1 

6.56 

C 

3.598 

feet. 

QC 

c 

Meaxured 
headi). 

Metere. 

Feet. 

C     j      C 

C 

C 
3.601 

C 

C 

0.164 

3.678 

3.6S3 

3.617     3.609 

3.601 

8.601 

3.594 

0.06 

.197 

3.657 

3.609 

3.585     3.569 

8.669 

3.561 

3.553  1  3.563 

3.553 

3.550 

.06 

.230 

8.649 

3.598     3.569     3.553 

3.545 

3.537 

3.529 

3.529 

3.521 

3.522 

.07 

.262 

3.657 

3.585     3.553     3.537 

3.529 

3.513 

3.513 

3.506  ;  3.506 

8.499 

.08 

1         .295 

3.665     3.585  \  3.545  |  3.529 

3.513 

3.497 

3.497 

3.489  .  3.481 

3.481 

.09 

.828 

8.681     3.585     3.545  1  3.521 

3.505 

3.480 

8.481 

3.473     3.473 

3.466 

.10 

.394 

3.705     3.593     3.545  |  3.518 

3.497 

3.478 

8.465 

8.449     3.449 

3.441 

.12 

.459 

3.737     3.609     3.553     ^513 

3.489 

3.465 

8.449 

3.482     3.432 

8.422 

.14 

.525 

3.777     3.633     3.561  '  8.513 

8.489 

3.457 

8.440 

3.424     3.416 

3.406 

.16 

.501 

8.810     3.657  ,  3.560     3.521 

8.489 

3.467 

3.482 

3.416 

3.408 

3.392 

.18 

.656 

3,850     3.681:8.585     3.529 

3.497 

3.457 

3.432 

8.408 

3.892 

8.380 

.20 

.722 

8.882     3.705     3.601     3.545 

3.505 

3.457 

8.432 

3.400 

8.892 

8.371 

.22 

.7K7 

3.914     3.729  '  8.625     3.561 

3. 513 

3.465 

3.432 

3.400 

3.384 

3.864 

.24 

.853 

8.946     3.753     3.649     3.577 

3.529 

3.465 

3.440 

3.400 

3.384 

3.358 

.26 

.919 

3.978     3.78'>     3.665 

3.593  ;  3.537 

3.478 

3.440 

3.400 
8.400 

3.884 

8.858 
8.348 

.28 

.984 

4.010     3.810 

3.689 

3.609 

3.553 

3.481 

8.449 

3.876 

.30 

1.060 

3.834 

3.706 

3.626 

3.561 

3.497 

8.449 

3.400 

3.376 

3.843 

.32 

1       1.116 

3.858 

3.721 

3.641 

3.577 

3.505 

3.467 

3.400 

8.376 

3.388 

.34 

1       1.181 

3.874 

8.745  1  3.657 

3.593 

3.513 

3.465 

3.400 

3.376 

3.333 

.86 

1.247 

8.898 

3.761 

3.678     3.601 
3.681     3.617 

3.521 
3.529 

3.465 
3.473 

3.400 
3.400 

3.376 

8.328 
3.323 

.38 

1.312 

3.922 

3.785 

3.376 

.40 

1.378 

8.938 

3.801 

3.697 

3.625 

3.537 

3.481 

3.408 

3.376 

3.319 

.42 

1.444 

3.962 

3.818 

3.713 

3.641 

3.545 

3.489 

3.408 

3.876 

3.316 

.44 

1.609 

3.978 

3.834 

8.729 

3.657 

3.558 

3.489 

3.408 

3.376 

3.311 

.46 

1.575 

3.850 

3.745 
3.753 

3.665  1  8-561 

3.497 
8.505 

3.408 

3.376 
3.376 

3.306 
3.309 

.48 
.50 

3.866 

3.681 

1      1.640 

8.669 

8.416 

1.706 
1.772 
1.137 
1.908 
1.969 

3.874 
3.890 

8.769 
8.786 
3.798 
8.810 
8.818 

8.689 
3.697 
3.718 
3.721 
3.737 

3.577 
8.585 
3.598 
3.601 
3.617 

8.613 
3.513 
8.521 
3.629 
3.537 

3.416 
3.416 
3.424 
3.424 
3.424 

3.376 
3.376 
3.376 
8.376 
3.376 

3.298 
3.294 
3.289 
3.285 
3.282 

.52 
.54 
.56 
.58 
.60 

, 

3.906 
3.922 
8.930 

0.20 

i  Meters. 

0.30 

0.40    ,    0.60 

0.60 

0.80 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

00 

This  table,  unfortunately,  is  inconvenient  for  intei*polation  in  English 
units.  The  values  also  differ  slightly  from  those  computed  from  the 
formulas.  The  table  illustrates  the  difficulty  of  practical  application 
of  a  weir  formula  in  which  the  coefficient  varies  rapidly  both  with 
head  and  height  of  weir. 


34 


WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 


A  table  has  been  added  giving  values  of  pi  computed  by  l^rmula 
(30)  for  a  thin-edged  weir  without  velocity  of  approach. 

Values  of  u  in  the  Bazin  formula,  for  weirs  of  infinite  height,  with  no  velocity  of  approarh. 


H. 
Feet. 

0. 

0.01. 

0.02. 

0.03. 

0.04. 

0.05. 

0.06. 

0.07. 

0.08. 

0.09. 

0.1. 

0.0 

1.389 

0.8970 

0.7331 

0. 6.S10 

0.6018 

0.6693 

0.6467 

0. 5280 

0.6142 

0.50»4 

.1 

0.50&4 

.4944 

.4870 

.4807 

.4753 

.4706 

.4665 

.4628 

.4596 

.4668 

.4.M2 

.2 

.4642 

.4618 

.4497 

.4478 

.4460 

.4444 

.4429 

.4414 

.4401 

.4389 

.4378 

.3 

.4378 

.4867 

.4367 

.4348 

.4339 

.4331 

.4324 

.4316 

.4309 

.4302 

.4296 

.4 

.4296 

.4290 

.4284 

.4278 

.4278 

.4268 

.4264 

.4260 

.4255 

.4251 

.4247 

.5 

.4247 

.4243 

.4289 

.4286 

.4232 

.4229 

.422.T 

.4222 

.4219 

.4216 

.4^4 

.6 

.4214 

.4211 

.4208 

.4206 

.4204 

.4202 

.4-200 

.4197 

.4195 

.4193 

.4191 

.7 

.4191 

.4189 

.4187 

.4186 

.4183 

.4181 

.4180 

.4178 

.4176 

.4174 

.4173 

.8 

.4178 

.4171 

.4170 

.4168 

.4167 

.4166 

.4164 

.4163 

.4162 

.4160 

.4159 

.9 

.4169 

.4158 

.4167 

.4166 

.4164 

.4163 

.4162 

.4161 

.4160 

.4149 

.4148 

1.0 

.4148 

.4147 

.4146 

.4146 

.4145 

.4144 

.4143 

.  4142 

.4141 

.4140 

.4139 

1.1 

.4189 

.4139 

.4138 

.4137 

.4186 

.4136 

.4135 

.4134 

.4133 

.4138 

.4132 

1.2 

.4132 

.4181 

.4131 

.4130 

.4129 

.4129 

.4128 

.4127 

.4127 

.4126 

.4126 

1.3 

.4126 

.4126 

.4124 

.4124 

.4123 

.41*23 

.4122 

.4122 

.4121 

.4121 

.4120 

1.4 

.4120 

.4120 

.4119 

.4119 

.  4118 

.4118 

.4117 

.4117 

.4116 

.4116 

.4116 

1.6 

.4116 

.4116 

.4116 

.4114 

.4114 

.4113 

.4113 

.4118 

.4112 

.4112 

.4112 

1.6 

.4112 

.4111 

.4111 

.4110 

.4110 

.4110 

.4109 

.4109 

.4108 

.4108 

.4108  1 

1.7 

.4106 

.4108 

.4107 

.4107 

.4107 

.4106 

.4106 

.4106 

.4105 

.4106 

.4105 

1.8 

.4106 

.4104 

.4104 

.4104 

.4103 

.4103 

.4108 

.4103 

.4102 

.4102 

.4102  , 

1.9 

.4102 

.4102 

.4101 

.4101 

.4101 

.4100 

.4100 

.4100 

.4100 

.4099 

.4099 

2.0 

.4099 



1 



1       1 

DERIVED    FORMULAS    FOR   THIN-EDGED    RECTANGULAR   WEIRS. 

A  number  of  weir  formulas  have  been  derived  from  subsequent 
analysis  o%  recomputation  of  the  experiments  of  Francis,  Fteley  and 
Steams,  and  Bazin,  diflfering  more  or  less  from  those  given  by  the 
experimenters. 

FTELEY  AND   STEARNS-FRANCIS   IXJRMULA.** 

Q=S.dSLJI^ +0.001  Z (34) 

Correction  for  end  contractions  is  to  be  made  by  the  Francis 
formula;  velocity  of  approach  correction  by  the  Fteley  and  Steams 
formulas 

H—D+Lbh^        for  suppressed  weir. 

If=D+2.0bh,        for  contracted  weir. 

HAMILTON   smith's   FORMULA.* 


The  base  formula  adopted  is 


Q=^  MLIlhgll 


(35) 


aFleley  and  iSU'aras,  Experiments  on  the  flow  of  water,  etc.:  Trans.  Am.  See.  C.  E.,  vol.  12,  p.  82. 
{> Smith,  Hamilton,  Hydiaulics,  pp.  12»-132. 


DERIVE!)   F0RMITLA8   FOR   THIN-EDGED   WKTRS. 


85 


The  velocity  of  approach  correction  is  made  by  the  use  of  the 
formulas 

//=/>+1.4A,         for  contracted  weirs." 
I£=I}+lih^         for  suppressed  weirs. 

A  diagram  and  tables  of  values  of  the  coeflScient  Jf  are  given  by  the 
author.  The  correction  for  partial  or  complete  contraction  is  included 
in  the  coefficient,  separate  values  of  Jf  being  given  for  suppressed  and 
contracted  weirs. 

Making  (7=  5  M^j2gl  the  Smith  formula  (35)  may  be  written 

which  is  directly  comparable  with  the  Francis  formula. 

Smith's  coefficients  in  the  above  form  are  given  in  the  following 
tables. 

Hamilion  Smithes  coefficient  fvr  vjeirs  with  ccmtracHon  suppressed  at  both  ends,  for  use  in 

the  formula  Q=CLlfi. 


Head, 
in  feet. 

19 

16 

J 
10 

?<-leiijrth  of  weir.  In  fee 

7       ;      5       j       4 

L 

1 

in 

2a 

0.66 1» 

0.1 
.15 

3.515 
3.440 

3.615 
3.446 

3.520 
3.445 

3.520 
8.451 

3.526 
3.451 



3.611 
3.542 

3.461 

3.472 

3.488 

.2 

8.397 

3.403 

3.408 

3.408 

3.413 

3.429 

3.436 

3.450 

3.610 

.25 

3.871 

3.376 

3.381 

8.386 

8.392 

3.403 

3.413 

8.429 

3.494 

.3 

3.349 

8.854 

3.860 

8.866 

3.876 

8.386 

3.408 

3.418 

3.483 

.4 

3.S22 

3.328 

3.833 

8.844 

3.360 

8.371 

3.386 

3.403 

3.478 

.5 

3.812 

3.817 

8.322 

8.888 

8.354 

3.371 

3.386 

8.406 

3.478 

.6 

3.306 

3.312 

3.317 

3.388 

3.354 

8.371 

3.392 

3.413 

3.488 

.7 

3.806 

8.312 

8.317 

3.388 

3.860 

3.876 

3.397 

3.424 

8.494 

.8 

3.306 

3.317 

3.322 

3.344 

3.365 

8.386 

8.406 

8.441 

3.510 

.9 

3.312 

3.317 

3.328 

3.354 

8.875 

3.397 

8.418 

8.451 

1.0 

3.812 

8.322 

3.338 

8.360 

3.386 

8.408 

8.429 

8.467 

1.1 
1.2 
1.3 
1.4 
1.6 
1.6 
1.7 
2.0 

3.817 
3.317 
3.322 
3.328 
3.328 
3.388 
3.338 

3.328 
3.338 
8.338 
8.344 
8.344 
8.349 
3.349 

3.344 
3.849 
3.360 
3.365 
3.371 
3.376 
8.381 

8.371 
3.381 
8.386 
3.392 
3.408 
3.408 
3.413 

3.397 
3.403 
8.413 
3.424 
3.429 
3.435 

8.419 
3.429 
8.440 
8.446 
8.456 
3.461 

3.445 
8.456 
8.467 

i 

i 

1 

a  The  lue  of  the  head  corresponding  to  central  surface  velocity  without  correction,  to  determine  D, 
i^  alao  recommended. 
bApproxinuite. 


36        ^KIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


Hamillan  Smith':*  coefficiehts  for  weirs  with  two  complete  end  contractions,  for  use  in  th* 

ftrrmuUi  q=CTjfi. 


Head. 

I 

'=length  of  wuir,  in  feel 

0.66 

la 

2 

2.6 

3 

4 

5 
3.491 

7 

10 
8.504 

15 
3.504 

19      1 

0.1 

3.381 

3.419 

3.456 

3.478 

8.488 

3.494 

3.499 

3.510 

.15 

3.312 

3.344 

3.392 

3.406 

8.413 

3.419 

3.424 

3.424 

3.429 

3.43.'> 

3.435 

.2 

3.269 

3.806 

3.349 

3.366 

3.371 

3.376 

3.376 

3.381 

3.886 

3.392 

3,392 

.25 

3.237 

3.274 

3.322 

3.333 

3.338 

3.344 

3.849 

3.864 

3.360 

3.360 

3.36.1 

.3 

3.215 

3.263 

#3.296 

8.306 

8.312 

8.822 

3.322 

3.383 

3.338 

3.83H 

3.344 

.4 

3.183 

3.215 

3.258 

8.274 

3.280 

8.285 

3.290 

3.301 

3.306 

3.812 

3.317 

.5 

3.156 

3.189 

3.237 

3.247 

3.253 

3.264 

3.269 

3.280 

3.290 

3.295 

3.301 

.6 

3.140 

3.172 

3.215 

8.231 

3.287 

3.247 

3.258 

3.269 

3.280 

3.285 

3.290 

.7 

3.130 

3.166 

3.199 

3.210 

3.226 

3.231 

3.242 

3.258 

3.274 

3.280 

8.2«6 

.8 

3.183 

3.199 

3.216 

3.221 

3.281 

3.247 

3.269 

3.274 

S-'iao 

.9 
1.0 
1.1 
1.2 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 

8.167 
3.156 
3.140 
3.130 
3.114 
8.103 

3.189 
3.172 
3.162 
3.151 
3.135 
3.124 
3.114 

3.199 

8.ias 

3. 172 
8.162 
8.151 
3.140 
3.130 

3.210 
3.199 
3.189 
3.178 
3.167 
3.166 
3.151 

3.226 
3.215 
3.205 
3.194 
3.199 
3.178 
3.167 

3.242 
3.231 
3.226 
3.215 
3.205 
3.199 
3.189 

3.258 
3.253 
3.242 
3.237 
3.231 
3.221 
3.215 

3.269 
3.264 
3.258 
3.253 
3.247 
3.242 
3.237 

3.274 

3,269 

3.264 

3  264 

3.25S 

3.258 

3.253 

1.6 
1.7 

3.103 

3.114 

3.140 

3.162 

3.183 
3.178 

3.210 
3.205 

3.231 
3.226 

3  247 

3.247 

2.0 

a  Approximate. 
Hamilton  Smith* s  coefficient  Cfor  long  weirs. 


H 


0.00 
.01 
.02 
.03 
.04 
.05 
.06 
.07 
.08 
.09 


0.1 


3.6096 
3.4957 
3.4818 
3.4678 
3.4539 
3.4400 
3.4314 
3.4229 
3.4143 
8.4058 


0.2 


8.3972 
3.3908 
3.3844 
3.3780 
8.3716 
8.8662 
3.3637 
3.8612 
3.8488 
8.3463 


0.8 


3.8488 
8.3411 
3.3884 
3.3358 
3.3331 
3.33(M 
3.3277 
3.3250 
3.3224 
3.3197 


0.4 


0.5 


8.3170 
3.3154 
8.3138 
3.3122 
3.8106 
3.3090 
3.3074 
3.3058 
3.3042 
3.3026 


I  3.3010 

I  3.3005 

I  3.2999 

'  3.2994 

3.2968 

3.2983 

3.2978 

3.2972 

3.2967 

3.2961 


0.6 

0.7 

3.2956 

3.2849 

3.2945 

3.2838 

3.2935 

3.2828 

3.2924 

3.2817 

3.2913 

3.2806 

3.2902 

3.2796 

3.2892 

3.2785 

3.2881 

3.2773 

3. 2870 

3.2762 

3.2860 

3.2752 

Hamilton  Smith's  formula  is  based  on  a  critical  discussion  of  the 
experiments  of  Lesbros,  Poncelet  and  Lesbros, -James  B.  Franci.'<, 
Fteley  and  Stearns,  and  Hamilton  Smith;  including  series  with  and 
without  contractions  and  having  crest  lengths  from  0.66  to  19  feet. 


DERIVED   FORMULAS   FOR   THIW-EDGED   WEIRS.  37 

SMITH-FRANCIS  FOBMUUL. 

The  Smith-Francis  formula,"  based  on  Francis's  experiments,  reduced 
to  the  basis  of  correction  for  contractions  and  velocity  of  approach 
used  with  Hamilton  Smith's  formula,  is, 
for  a  suppressed  weir, 

^=3.29  fL+^^ff^ (36) 

for  weir  of  great  length  or  with  one  contraction, 

^=3.29Z^* (37) 

for  weir  with  full  contraction, 

^=3.29(^Z-g^i7* (88) 

If  there  is  velocity  of  approach, 

II=D+1A  A,        for  a  contracted  weir. 
JT=D+H  A,        for  a  suppressed  weir. 

parmlet's  formula.* 
Parmley's  formula  is 

Q=CKLD^ (89) 

If  there  are  end  contractions,  the  correction  is  to  be  made  by  the 
Francis  formula, 

X=Z'~0.1ir// 

The  factor  JST represents  the  correction  for  velocity  of  approach. 
The  factor  has  been  derived  by  comparing  the  velocity  correction 
factor  in  the  Bazin  formula  (formula  32),  written  in  the  form 


K=[l+0.55(±y], 


with  the  approximate  Francis  correction  as  deduced  by  Hunking  and 
Hart  (formula  23),  written  in  the  form 


K=  ["1+0.2489(^2^1' 


where  a  is  the  area  of  the  section  of  discharge,  for  either  a  suppressed 
or  contracted  weir,  and  A  is  the  section  of  the  leading  channel.  It  is 
observexi  that  there  is  an  approximately  constant  relation  between  the 
two  corrections,  that  of  Bazin  being  2.2  times  that  of  Francis. 

a  Smith,  namilton,  Hydraulics,  pp.  99  and  137. 

bBttiter,  G.  W.,  On  the  flow  of  water  over  dams:  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  44,  pp.  360-859,  dlscus- 
■ion  by  Walter  C.  Parmley. 


38 


WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 


Parmley  adopts  the  Bazin  correction  and  gives  the  following  table, 
which  may  also  conveniently  be  applied  in  computing  discharge  by 
Bazin's  formula. 

The  discharge  coefficient  C  used  by  Parmley  is  that  for  a  weir  with 
no  velocity  of  approach,  as  in  the  Francis  formula.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, constant.  Its  values  have  been  deduced  from  a  mean  curve  rep- 
resenting the  experiments  of  Francis,  Fteley  and  Stearns,  and  Bazin. 

Velocity  of  approach  correction^  Ky  Parmley  and  Bazin  formulas. 


0.00 
.01 
.02 
.03 
.04 
.05 
.06 
.07 
.06 
.09 


0.1 


1.0001 
1.0002 
1.0005 
1.0009 
1.0014 
1.0020 
1.0027 
1.0086 
1.0044 


1.0055 

1.0066 

1.0079 

1.0093  I 

1.0108 

1.0124 

1.0141 

1.0169 

1.0178 

1.0198 


0.2 

0.3 

0.4 

0.6 

1.0220 

1.0495 

1.0880 

1. 1376 

1.0243 

1.0529 

1.0926 

1.1431 

1.0266 

1.0563 

1.0970 

1.1487 

1.0291 

1.0599 

1. 1017 

1.1546 

1.0317 

1.0636 

1.1065 

1.1604 

1.0344 

1.0674 

1. 1114 

1.1664 

1.0372 

1.0713 

1.1164 

1.1726 

1.0401 

1.0753 

1. 1215 

1.1787 

1.0431 

1.0794 

1.1267 

1.1860 

1.0463 

1.0837 

1. 1321 

1.1916 

Parmley' s  iveir  formula,  coefficient  C. 


feet. 


0.0 


0.00 


0.01 


0.02 


0.03 


0.04 


0.05 


0.06 


0.07 


0.06 


0.09 


.1 

3.580 

.2 

8.478  I 

.3 

3.420  ' 

.4 

3.385 

.6 

3.368 

.6 

3.358 

.7 

3.361 

.8 

3.346 

.9 

3.340 

1.0 

3.334 

1.1 

3.329 

1.2 

3. 324 

1.3 

3.319 

1.4 

3.313 

1.5 

3.307 

1.6 

3.801 

1.7 

3.296 

1.8 

3.290 

1.9 

3.285 

2.0 

.  3.280 

1 1 


3.471 
3.416 
3.383 
3.367 
3.857 
3.351 
3.a45 
3.339 
3.334 
3.328 
3.324 
3.318 
3.312 
3.306 
3.801 
3.295 
3.290 
3. 285 


3.556 

3.464 

3.412 

8.381 

3.866 

3.856 

3.360 

3.846  ! 

3.339  ' 

3.383 

3.328 

3.823  I 

8.818  I 

8.812  ' 

8.306  I 

8.300  I 

3.296 

3.-289 

3.284 


8.644 
3.458 
3.408 
8.380 
8.364 
3.366 
8.860 
8.344 
8.338 
8.832 
3.328 
8.322 
8.317 
8.811 
3.306 
3.300 
3.294 
3.288 
3.2H4 


8.682 
8.451 
8.404 
3.378 
3.363 
3.855 
3.849 
3.344 
3.338 
3.332 
3. 327 
3.322 
8.317 
8.311 
3.305 
3.299 
3.294 
3.288 
3.283 


3.520 
8.444 
8.400 
3.876 
8.862 
8.364 
3.349 
3.343 
3.387 
3.332 
3.326 
3.322 
3.316 
3.310 
3.304 
3.298 
3.293 
3.288 
3.282 


3.512 
3.439 
3.397 
3.374 
3.361 
3.353 
3.346 
3.342 
3  836 
3.331 
3.326 
3. 321 
3. 315 
3.309 
3.303 
3.298 
3.292 
3.287 
3.282 


3.503 
3.434 
3.394 
8.373 
8.860 
8.853 
3.348 
8.342 
3.386 
8.880 
8.326 
3.320 
3. 315 
3.309 
3.303 
3  298 
3.292 
3.286 
3.282 


3.495 
3.430 
3.391 
3.371 
8.360 
8.362 
8.847 
8.841 
8.836 
3.860 
8.325 
3.820 
3.814 
^3.308 
8.802 
3.297 
3.291 
3.286 
3.281 


3.486 
3.425 
8.888 
3.870 
8.869 
8.8.% 
8.347 
3.841 
3.836 
3.329 
3.324 
8.320 
8.814 
8.306 
3.302 
3.296 
3.291 
3.285 
3.280 


THIN-EDGED    WEIRS. 


39 


EXTENSION  OF  THE  WEIR  FORMULA  TO  HIGHER  HEADS. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  all  the  accepted  formulas  for  discharge  over 
thin -edged  rectangular  weirs  are  based  on  experiments  in  which  the 
head  did  not  exceed  2  feet  above  crest.  It  is  often  desirable  to  utilize 
the  weir  for  stream  gagings  where  the  head  is  greater,  especially  for 
the  determination  of  maximum  .  discharge  of  streams,  the  head  fre- 
quently being  as  large  as  6,  8,  or  even  10  or  12  feet. 

In  the  experiments  at  Cornell  University'  on  weirs  of  irregular  sec- 
tion it  was  often  necessary  to  utilize  depths  on  the  standard  weir 
exceeding  the  known  limit  of  the  formula.  A  series  of  experiments 
was  accordingh'  carried  out  in  which  a  depth  on  a  standard  thin-edged 
weir  (16  feet  long)  not  exceeding  the  limit  of  the  formula  was  utilized 
to  determine  the  discharge  over  a  similar  but  shorter  standard  thin- 
edged  weir  (6.56  feet  long)  for  depths  up  to  approximately  5  feet." 
The  results  of  these  experiments,  as  recomputed,  eliminating  slight 
errors  in  the  original,  are  given  below. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  weir  was  short  and  the  velocity  of  approach 
relatively  large,  yet,  according  to  the  results  when  corrected  by  the 
Francis  method,  the  average  value  of  C  for  heads  from  0.75  to  4.85 
feet  is  3.296,  or  98.88  per  cent  of  the  Francis  coefficient  for  a  thin- 
edged  weir.  The  average  value  of  6^  for  heads  from  0.746  foot  to  2 
feet  is  3.266,  and  for  heads  from  2  to  4.85  feet,  3.278. 

United  /States  Deep  Waterwaytt  experiments  at  Cornell  hydraulic  laboratory  for  extension  of 

thin-edged  weir  formula. 


Standard  ireir,  16 
feet  long,  18.13 
feet  bigh. 

Lower  thin-edged  weir: 

P=5.2,  /.= 

6.66. 

q,  cubic 
feet  per 
second, 
per  foot 

{ cor- 
rected) . 

H 

Cor.D, 
longi- 
tudinal, 
piezome- 
ter, centi- 
meters. 

Q.Bazln 
formula, 
in  cubic 
feet  per 
second. 

Observed 
P,  fluflh, 
piezome- 
ter, centi- 
meters. 

D, 
in  feet. 

4 

I) 
P+I) 

K 

Bunking 

and 

Hart. 

//i 

r-  ^ 

1 

2 

8 

» 

6 

7 

'__. 

12.28 

14.12 

22.744 

0.7462 

0.1255 

1.0041 

0.6469 

2.1066 

3.266 

15.30 

19.42 

27.&56 

.9139 

.  1495 

1.0056 

.8787 

2.9143 

3.317 

18.39 

25.35 

33. 175 

1.0885 

.1731 

1.0075 

1.1434 

3.8183 

3.331 

21.65 

32.24 

39.419 

1.2933 

.1992 

1.0099 

1.4849 

4. 8685 

3. 279 

24.16 

37.86 

44.000 

1.4486 

.  2173 

1.0122 

1.7564 

6.7252 

3.260 

27.21 

46.13 

49.699 

1.6306 

.2387 

1.0141 

2. 1116 

6.8333 

3.23JJ 

30.16 

62.62 

55.213 

1.8115 

.2583 

1.0166 

2.4787 

7.9750 

3.218 

30.22 

52.77 

55.128 

1.8088 

.2581 

1.0166 

2.4730 

7.9977 

3.234 

87.90 

78.46 

68.238 

2.2389 

.8010 

1.0225 

3.4254 

11.1516 

3.226 

44.22 

92.79 

80.566 

2.6434 

.3870 

1.0283 

4.4193 

14.0960 

3.190 

59.00 

143.90 

106.689 

3.4660 

.4000 

1.0398 

6.6095 

21.8902 

3. 312 

74.22 

202.87 

180.286 

4.2747 

.4512 

1.0604 

9.2867 

30.8008 

3.317 

81.69 

233.81 

142.567 

4.67/3 

.4735 

1.0557 

10. 6789 

35.6933 

3.833 

aRafte 

r,  G.  W.,  C 

)n  the  flov 

T  of  water 

over  dams 

V.  Trans.  A 

m.SiX!.C. 

E..  vol.  44, 

p.  397. 

40 


WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 


If  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  the  influences  which  go  to  make  up  vari- 
ation in  the  weir  coefficient  are  more  potent  for  low  than  for  larger 
heads,  it  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  the  Francis  formula  is  appli- 
cable within  2  per  cent  for  heads  as  great  as  5  feet,  and  by  inference  it 
is  probably  applicable  for  much  greater  heads  as  well. 


COMPARISON  OF  WEIR  FORMULAS. 

The  later  weir  formulas  all  give  results  agreeing,  for  the  range  of 
beads  covered,  within  the  limit  of  accuracy  ,of  ordinary  stream  meas- 
urements. Which  of  the  several  formulas  to  use  will  be  determined 
by  convenience  and  by  the  conditions  attending  the  measurements. 

The  Francis  formula  is  applicable  foi^  weirs  with  perfect  bottom 
contraction  and  for  any  head  above  0.50  foot. 

The  Hamilton  Smith,  Fteley  and  Stearns,  and  Bazin  formulas  are 
more  accurate  for  very  slight  heads,  or  where  bottom  contraction  is 
imperfect,  this  element,  which  tends  to  increase  discharge,  being 
included  in  the  larger  velocity  of  approach  correction.  These  for- 
mulas are,  however,  based  on  experiments  none  of  which  exceeded  2 
feet  head,  and  they  have  not  been  extended. 

For  suppressed  weirs  in  rectangular  channels  having  conditions 
closely  duplicating  Bazin's  experiments,  his  formula  is  probably  most 
applicable.  The  head  should  preferably  be  measured  in  a  Bazin  pit, 
opening  at  the  bottom  of  the  channel,  16.4  feet  upstream  from  the 
weir.  In  a  suppressed  weir,  if  the  nappe  is  allowed  to  expand  later- 
ally after  leaving  the  weir,  the  computed  discharge  by  any  of  the  for- 
mulas should  he  increased  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  1  per  cent. 

Comparative  discharge  by  various  formtUas  over  weirs  of  great  height  and  length;  no  end 
contractions  nor  velocity  of  approach, « 


Fonnula. 


Coefficient  C,  for  heads  rangtiig  from 
0.20  to  4  feet. 


Per  cent  of  discharge  by  Francis 
formula  for  heads  ranging  from 
0.20  to  4  feet. 


Caatel 

Boileau 

Welgbach 

FranclB 

Fteley  and  Stearns 

Bazin 

Fteley-Steams-Franeis . 

Hamilton  Smith 

Smith- Francis 

Parmlfey 

East  Indian  engineers . 


8.285 


0.20 

104.616 
100.865 
102.075 
100.00 
105.012 
109.281 
101.400 
101.916 
98.70 
104.340 
104.640 


0.50 

1.00 

104.616 

104.616 

100.365 

100.866 

99.406 

100.0 

100.0 

99.807 

99.51 

102.188 

99.801 

99.90 

99.570 

99.080 

98.520 

98.70 

98.70 

101.040 

100.020 

104.16 

108.35 

104.616 
100.365 

100.0 
99.827 
98.035 
99.412 


96.560 


a  Computed  by  H.  R.  Beebe,  C.  K. 


00MFARI80N   OF   WEIR   FORMULAS. 


41 


Table  phofwmg  comparative  discharge  per  fool  of  crest  for  suppressed  weirs  of  various 
lengths f  heads,  and  velocities  of  approach.^ 


Length  (L) 

Height  (P) 

Hemd  (/)) 

Approximaie  velocity  of  approach  (v) . 


Cartel 

Boiieau 

Francis 

Fteley  and  Stearns 

Bazin 

Fteley-Steams-FranciH  . 

Hamilton  Smith 

Bmith-Franeis 

Parmley 


Average. 


2 

1 

1.0 
1.90 


3. 7822 
3,8630 
3.5373 
3.7268 
3.  7845 
3.  7297 
3.9220 
4.0581 
3.  7924 


2 

2 

1.0 

1.18 


3.6127 
3.5484 
3. 4218 
3.4729 
3.3766 
3. 4752 
3.6392 
3.7109 
3.5337 


3.800  I  3.532 


10 
2 

1.0 
1.16 

3.6217 
3.5484 
3.4218 
3.4730 
3.3766 
3. 4752 
3. 4872 
3.4847 
3.5337 

3.490 


10 
4 

1.0 
.68 


3.5308 
3.4144 
3.3632 
3.3669 
3,4002 
3.3690 
3.3878 
3.3876 
3.3347 


10 

4 

4 

2.16 


30.3037 
30.9046 
28.2983 
29.  7470 
29.7555 
29.7000 

31.573 


3. 395 


30.040 


a  Computed  by  H.  R.  Beebe,  C.  E. 
COMPARISON   OF   VARIOUS  VELOCITT  OF  APPROACH   CORRECTIONS. 

The  various  modes  of  correction  for  velocity  of  approach  used  by 
different  investigators  can  be  rendered  nearly  identical  in  form,  vary- 
ing, however,  in  the  value  of  the  coefficient  a  adopted. 

Comparative  coefficients  of  correction  for  vdocUy  of  approach  for  thin-edged  weirs  teUh  end 

contractions  suppressed. 


Experimenter. 

Value  of  a  In  the  for- 
,      mula//=i)+tt2^ 

1 

Valuee  of  *>  in 
the  formula 

Boiieau 

Lesbros 

Fteley  and  Steams 

a=1.8 

a=1.56 

cr=1.5 

a=1.69  or  a 

Francis 

f'  (»=0.2489 

Bazin 

<»— 0.55 

a  Emerson. 

b] 

Bunking  and  Hart. 

The  above  values  were  all  derived  from  experiments  on  thin-edged 
weirs.  Bazin's  experiments  covered  the  larger  range  of  velocities  and 
were  most  elaborate.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  correction  applied  by 
Bazin  is  two  and  two- tenths  times  that  of  Francis  for  a  given  velocity 


42 


WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 


of  approach.     Bazin's  correction  is,  in  effect,  an  increase  in  the  meas- 
ured head  of  1.69  times  the  velocity  head,  while  Francis  increases  the 

2    111 
measured  head  by  an  amount  7.^jj^  l^s  tha/n  the  velocity  head  accord- 
ing to  Emerson's  formula. 

Raiio  of  the  various  corrections  for  reloeUly  of  approach  for  suppressed  weirs. 


Bazin 

Fteley  and  Stearns 
Hamilton  Smith  . . 
Francis 


Bazin. 


Fteley  and      Hamilton   i      i,.--. -,„«., 
Steams.     '      Smith.      I      ^ranoia. 


1.000 

1.127  i 

1.  271 

2.2 

.887 

1.000 

1.128  1 

1.957 

.789 

.887 

1.000 

1.7.36 

.454 

.511  1 

.576 

1.000 

The  factors  in  the  above  table  are  not  strictly  accurate,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  expressions  used  to  deduce  the  equivalents  from  the  dif- 
ferent formulas  are  in  some  cases  approximations.  They  sen^e  to 
illustrate  the  relative  magnitude  of  the  different  corrections  for  thin- 
edged  weirs  without  end  contractions.  For  thin-edged  weirs  with  end 
contraction,  Hamilton  Smith  uses  the  coefficient  a=\A  and  Fteley  and 
Stearns  give  the  coefficient  ar=2.05. 

There  are  no  experiments  available  relative  to  the  value  of  the 
velocity  correction  for  other  than  thin-edged  weirs.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  utilize  the  values  above  given  for  weirs  of  irregular  sec- 
tion. It  will  be  seen  that  it  matters  little  in  what  manner  the  correc- 
tion for  velocity  of  approach  is  applied,  either  by  directly  increasing 
the  observed  head,  as  in  the  formulas  of  Hamilton  Smith  and  Fteley 
and  Stearns,  or  by  including  the  correction  in  the  weir  coefficient,  as 
is  done  by  Bazin,  or  by  utilizing  a  special  formula  to  derive  the  cor- 
rected head,  after  the  manner  of  James  B.  Francis.  The  three  methods 
can  be  rendered  equivalent  in  their  effect. 

The  important  point  is  that  the  corrected  result  must  be  the  same  as 
that  given  by  the  author  of  the  formula  which  is  used  to  calculate  the 
discharge.  As  to  the  relative  value  of  the  different  modes  of  apply- 
ing the  correction,  it  may  be  said  of  that  of  Francis,  that  in  its  original 
form  it  is  cumbersome,  })ut  it  renders  the  correction  independent  of 
dimensions  of  the  leading  channel,  as  do  also  the  formulas  for  correc- 
tion used  by  Hamilton  Smith,  and  Fteley  and  Stearns.  Inasmuch  as 
the  velocity  head  is  a  function  of  the  discharge,  successive  approxima- 
tions are  necessary  to  obtain  the  final  corrected  head  by  any  one  of 
these  three  formulas. 

By  using  the  Hunking  and  Hart  formula  the  correction  for  the 
Francis  weir  formula  becomes  fairly  simple,  as  it  does  not  require  the 
determination  of  the  mean  velocity  of  approach  by  successive  approxi- 


COMPARISON   OF    WEIR   FORMULAS.  43 

mations,  but  to  apply  this  formula  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  leading  channel  and  of  the  weir  section.  The  approxima- 
tion given  by  Emerson  is  also  much  simpler  than  the  original  Francis 
formula. 

6azitt%  method  of  including  the  velocity  correction  in  the  coefficient 
makes  the  weir  coefficients  obtained  by  the  experiments  comparable 
one  with  another  only  when  both  the  head  and  velocity  of  approach 
are  the  same  in  both  cases.^  His  correction  also  involves  the  dimen« 
sions  of  the  leading  channel  as  factors.  Obviously,  in  the  case  of 
many  broad-ci-ested  weirs  utilized  for  measuring  flow,  the  dimensions 
of  the  leading  channel  can  not  be  ascertained  accurately  and  there  is 
great  variation  of  velocity  in  different  portions  of  the  section  of  ap- 
proach. It  becomes  necessary  that  the  correction  should  be  in  such  a 
form  that  it  is  a  function  of  the  velocity  and  not  of  the  channel 
dimensions. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  where  an  attempt  has  been  made  in  the 
weir  experiments  to  eliminate  velocity  of  approach  effect  from  the 
coefficient  the  velocity  has  been  nearly  equalized  by  screens  and  has 
been  determined  by  successive  approximations.  It  is  suggested  that 
where  the  velocities  vary  widely  they  be  determined  by  current 
meter  in  several  subdivisions  of  the  section,  the  approximate  integral 
kinetic  energy  estimated,  and  a  value  of  a  selected  depending  on  the 

ratio  of  -j  so  obtained,  where  h  is  the  velocity  head  corresponding  to 

the  mean  velocity  and  A'  is  the  velocity  head  which  would  result  if  the 
actual  velocities  were  equalized.  Inasmuch  as  the  surface  velocity 
usually  exceeds  the  mean  velocity  in  the  channel  of  approach  in  about 
the  same  ratio  that  A'  exceeds  A,  the  suggestion  is  made  by  Hamilton 
Smith*  that  where  the  velocity  of  approach  is  unavoidably  variable, 
or  the  boundaries  of  the  current  are  uncertain,  the  surface  velocity  v^ 
be  measured  by  floats  and  applied  directly  in  the  determination  of  the 
(|uantity  A. 

The  variations  in  discharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir,  by  the  different 
formulas,  are  often  less  than  the  difference  in  the  correction  for  velocity 
of  approach  would  indicate.  In  the  formula  of  Fteley  and  Stearns,  as 
compared  with  Francis,  for  example,  the  larger  velocity  correction  is 
in  part  compensated  by  a  smaller  weir  coefficient,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  the  formulas  of  Hamilton  Smith  and  Bazin  for  cases  where  the  head 
is  large. 

a  See  special  diacuasioii  of  the  point,  p.  63.  b  Smith,  Hamilton,  Hydraulics,  p.  84. 


44  WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

END  CONTRACTIONS— INCOMPLETE  CONTRACTION. 

The  formula  for  end  contractions  deduced  by  James  B.  Francis  is 
very  generally  used.  The  correction  is  made  to  the  length  of  weir, 
the  result  obtained  being  the  length  of  a  suppressed  weir  that  will 
give  the  same  discharge. 

L^L-hNH (40) 

J  =  A  coeflScient,  the  value  of  which,  deduced  by  Francis,  is 

J=0.1. 
Z'= Actual  length  of  weir  crest. 
L  =  Length  of  equivalent  suppressed  weir  crest. 
ir=  Number  of  end  contractions. 
^=EflFective  head,  feet. 

The  experiments  of  Fteley  and  Stearns,^  while  somewhat  discordant, 
indicate  an  average  value  of  h  for  heads  from  0.3  to  1  foot,  of-  about 
0.1.  The  value  of  &  apparently  decreases  as  the  head  increases.  It 
also  decreases  if  the  end  contraction  piece  is  so  near  the  side  of  the 
channel  as  to  render  the  contraction  incomplete. 

Hamilton  Smith  shows  that  side  contractions  and  bottom  or  crest 
contraction  are  mutually  related,  and  that  the  side  width  of  the  chan- 
nel of  approach  should  be  fully  three  times  the  least  dimension  of  the 
weir.  Usually  L  is  much  greater  than  //,  and  the  side  width  may  be 
made  at  least  as  great  as  SZT.  The  specification  of  Francis  is,  side 
width  >  //. 

Smith's  rule  indicates  that  to  provide  complete  contraction  the  area 
of  leading  section -J.  must  bear  a  relation  to  the  area  of  weir  section  a 
depending  upon  the  relative  head  and  length  of  crest. 

For  three  weirs  of  equal  section  a,  the  following  values  of  A^  the 
necessary  channel-section  area,  are  given: 


Z'=12 

//=  1 

a=12 

A^  72=6a 

Z'-  4 

//=  3 

a=12 

^=264=2.2a 

Z'=  1 

//=12 

a=12 

J.=105=8.7a 

Hamilton  Smith  prefera  to  use  separate  coeflScients  for  suppressed 
weirs  from  those  for  contracted  weirs,  the  relation  between  the  coeffi- 
cients being  expressed  by  the  formula 

C,=  C.{\^z^ (41) 

(^=Coefficient  for  partially  suppressed  weir,  as  with  complete  sup- 
pression on  sides  and  full  contraction  at  bottom. 

a  Fteley  and  Stearns,  ExperlmentB  on  the  flow  of  water,  etc.:  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  £.,  vol.  12,  pp. 
10&-113. 


END    CONTRACTIONS.  45 

C^= Coefficient  for  completely  contracted  weir. 

^= Least  dimension  of  weir,  whether  L  or  //. 

R  =  Wetted  perimeter  of  weir=Z+2iy. 

I' =  Distance  from  any  side  of  weir  to  the  respective  side  of  channel, 

where  there  is  partial  suppression. 
S  =  Length  of  sides  on  which  there  is  partial  suppression. 

Smith's  values  of  contraction  coefficient  z  in  formula  31  are 


■l\ 

t 

3 

u.ooo 

2 

.005 

1 

.026 

i 

.06 

0 

.16 

The  ratio  }^X approximately  measures  the  amount  of  contraction.^ 

Bazin  does  not  give  a  formula  for  weirs  with  end  contractions.    The 

Bazin  formula  may  be  applied  to  weirs  in  which  the  height  of  weir  is 

so  small  that  the  bottom  contraction  is  partially  suppressed.     The 

Bazin  coefficient  then  includes: 

1.  Effect  of  contraction  from  surface  curve. 

2.  Effect  of  crest  contraction  and  its  modification  by  both  velocity 
of  approach  and  by  partial  suppression,  if  any. 

3.  Effect  of  velocity  of  approach  proper. 

4.  Effect  of  distribution  of  velocities  in  channel  of  approach. 

5.  Loss  of  head  from  friction  and  eddies. 

As  the  Bazin  weirs  were  very  low,  and  these  factors  go  to  increase 
the  correction  necessary,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  relatively  large 
velocity  of  approach  correction  required  by  Bazin's  formula  may  be 
readily  accounted  for. 

The  experiments  of  Flinn  and  Dyer  on  the  Cippoletti  weir  (see 
p.  48)  indicate  that  the  effect  of  end  contraction  may  be  somewhat 
greater  than  that  indicated  by  the  Francis  formula.  Any  experiments 
in  which  similar  volumes  of  water  have  been  successively  passed  over 
weirs  with  and  without  end  contractions  may  be  utilized  to  determine 
the  effect  of  such  contractions. 

It  may  be  added  that  a  more  elaborate  study  of  end  contractions  is 
desirable.  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  to  secure  greater 
accuracy  in  this  regard  a  more  complicated  or  variable  correction  than 
that  of  Francis  must  probably  be  used,  and  the  result  will  be  to  greatly 
increase  the  labor  of  weir  computations  in  the  interest  of  what  is 
usually  a  comparatively  small  matter,  the  better  remedy  being  prob- 
ably the  use  of  weirs  with  end  contractions  suppressed,  wherever 
practicable. 

a  Smith,  Hamilton,  Hydniallcs,  pp.  llft-128.  Smith's  critical  diactUMlon  of  this  subject  will  be 
foand  of  value  In  calculating  discharge  for  weln  with  partially  suppreflsed  contraction  either  at  sides 
orhouom. 


46  WEIB   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FOBMULA8. 

COMPOUND  WEIR. 

A  weir  with  a  low- water  notch  depressed  below  the  general  crest 
level  may  sometimes  be  used  to  advantage  in  gaging  small,  variable 
streams.  The  discharge  over  such  a  weir,  constructed  with  end  con- 
tractions on  both  sections,  can  be  calculated  as  for  two  separate  weirs, 
the  lower  short  section  having  end  contractions  for  all  heads.  The 
flow  over  the  two  upper  sections  is  computed  as  for  a  suppressed  weir. 

Such  a  weir  has  been  used  for  the  determination  of  the  low-water 
flow  of  very  small  streams,  for  which  purpose  it  is  well  adapted,  the 
entire  stream  when  at  low  stages  flowing  in  the  central  notch,  in  a 
stream  relatively  deep  and  narrow. 

The  measurement  of  very  thin  sheets  of  water  on  a  broad  weir  is 
subject  to  peculiar  difficulties,  including  uncertainty  of  coefficient, 
adhesion  of  nappe  to  weir  face,  dispersion  by  winds,  and  a  large  per- 
centage error  in  the  results  if  there  is  a  small  error  in  measuring  the 
head. 

TRIANGULAR  WEIR. 
GENERAL  iXDRMULA. 

Referring  to  fig.  4,  we  may  write 

l\H-y'.\L\H. 

t. 

Fig.  4.— Triansrular  weir. 

Substituting,  in  equation  (4), 

^l^L^^m (45J) 

Thomson's  experiments. 

The  mean  coefficient  of  contraction  for  a  ttiin-edged  triangular  weir 
deduced  experimentally  by  Prof.  James  Thomson,  of  Belfast,  is  Jr= 
0.617,"  the  formula  being 

Q^—ML'^Yg  H^^l.^^^^LH^ (43) 

'     ' • ■    -■ > 

aBritiflh  Ansociation  Report,  18.58  (oiigrinal  not  consulted).    Merriman  given  the  mean  value  of  M. 
for  heMis  between  0.2  and  0.»  foot  aa  0.d92. 


TBAPEZOIDAL   WBIB8.  47 

For  a  right-angled  notch, 

Z=2lT2LndQ=2.64jr* (44) 

The  length  of  the  contracting  edges  in  a  triangular  notch  being  pro- 
portional to  the  depth,  it  is  believed  that  the  coefficient  of  discharge 
is  somewhat  more  constant  than  for  a  rectangular  weir.^ 

TRAPEZOIDAL    WEIR. 

The  discharge  in  this  case  may  be  determined  directly  from  the 
integral  formula  (4)  as  for  a  triangular  weir,  by  integrating  between 
the  limite  AD  and  CE,  fig.  6.    It  may  also  be  derived  as  follows: 


Fio.  5.— Trapezoidal  weir. 

0= slope  of  one  side  to  the  vertical. 

By  integration, 

<?=|V2^ZZr*+A^V2^^* (45) 

in  which  coeflicient^  of  contraction  for  the  horizontal  crest  and  for 
the  end  slopes  must  be  introduced. 

THE   CIPPOLETTI   TBAPEZOIDAL  WEIR. 

The  discharge  over  a  trapezoidal  without  contraction  would  be  the 
sum  of  that  for  a  rectangular  weir  added  to  that  for  two  triangular 
weirs  forming  the  ends.  From  the  experiments  of  James  B.  Francis* 
it  appears  that  each  end  contraction  reduces  the  effective  length  of  the 
weir  0.1//.     The  contraction  decreases  the  discharge  by  the  amount 

If  the  ends  of  the  weir,  instead  of  being  vertical,  are  inclined  out- 
ward in  such  manner  that  the  discharge  through  the  added  area  coun- 
terbalances the  decrease  from  the  end  contraction,  then  the  effective 

a  The  coefficient  2.64  is  the  same  as  that  deduced  for  broad  crest  weirn  with  stable  nappe.   A  table  of 
Talaes  of  2.6iH'  is  ^ven  on  page  177,  which  may  be  applied  In  calculating  flow  over  triangular  weirs, 
b  Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments. 

IBB  150—06 4 


48  WEIB   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

length  of  the  weir  will  remain  constant  as  the  head  increases,  the  same 
as  in  a  suppressed  weir.  The  discharge  through  the  end  triangle  ABC 
will  be,  from  equation  (42), 

Where  z  is  the  width  or  base  of  the  end  triangle.  Equating  the 
two  expressions  for  Q^  and  solving  for  2,  we  find,  assuming  Jf  to  have 
the  same  value  in  both  cases, 

^=\h (46) 

This  condition  defines  the  (yippoletti  weir.^ 

CIPPOLETTI'S   FORMULA. 

Cippoletti  derived  his  formula  from  a  discussion  of  the  experiments 
of  James  B.  Francis,  selecting  a  coeflBcient  1  per  cent  greater,  making 

^=1  X0.629Z^V2<7^=3.367ZJ7*    ....     (47) 

L  is  the  length  of  the  crest  or  base  of  the  trapezoid. 

Flinn  and  Dyer*  experimented  at  the  testing  flume  of  the  Holyoke 
Water  Power  Company  by  passing  the  same  volume  of  water  succes- 
sively over  a  trapezoidal  experimental  weir  and  over  the  gaging  weir 
of  the  turbine  testing  flume  19.7  feet  downstream.  The  latter,  it  is 
stated,  complied  in  form  with  Francis's  specifications. 

The  depths  were  observed  b}^  hook  gage;  eleven  readings,  as  a  rule, 
being  taken  and  their  arithmetical  mean  used  for  the  determination  of 
ahead.  The  thirty-two  series  of  valid  experiments  range  from  0.3 
foot  depth  on  a  weir  with  sill  length  of  3  feet  to  a  head  of  1.25  feet  on 
a  sill  9  feet  long. 

The  discharge  over  the  standard  weir  was  calculated  by  the  formulas 
of  J.  B.  Francis  and  of  Hamilton  Smith.  The  correction  for  veloeit\^ 
of  approach  at  the  experimental  weir  was  made  by  the  formula  of 
Hamilton  Smith,  for  use  with  contracted  rectangular  weirs, 

Flinn  and  Dyer's  coeflScients  are  as  follows: 

Mean  of  32  experiments,  (7=3.283 

Mean  after  rejecting  5  diminished  weights,  C=3.301 
In  genei-al,  the  coefficient  diminished  as  the  head  increased,  suggest- 
ing that  the  end  inclination  should  slightly  exceed    //  in  the  Cippoletti 
weir,  to  provide  complete  compensation,  and  that  the  end  contraction 

a  First  described  by  Cesare  Cippoletti  in  Canal  Villoresi,  Modulo  per  la  Dispensa  delle  Acque,  1887. 
b  Flinn,  A.  D.,  and  Dyer,  C.  W.  D.,  The  Cippoletti  trapezoidal  weir:  Trans.  Am.  See.  C.  E.,  vol.  32, 
1894,  pp.  9-33. 


WEIR   GAGIKG8.  49 

coefficient  in  the  trapezoidal  weir  may  be  greater  than  0.1//,  an  used 
by  Francis. 

The  question  is  complicated  by  velocity  of  approach.  For  example, 
had  the  Francis  velocity-correction  formula  been  used  by  Flinn  and 
Dyer,  their  values  of  C  would  have  been  larger.  As  a  tentative  con- 
clusion it  is  probable  that  the  application  of  either  the  Francis  for- 
mula with  his  velocity-head  correction  or  the  Flinn  and  Dyer  coefficient 
with  the  Smith  velocity  correction  will,  when  applied  to  a  Cippoletti 
weir,  give  results  as  accurate  as  the  precision  of  the  coefficients  will 
justify. 

REQUIREMENTS  ANI>  ACCURACY  OF  WEIR  GAGINGS. 

PRECAUTIONS  FOR  STANDARD  WEIR  GAGING. 

Certain  specifications  were  laid  down  by  James  B.  Francis  as  guides 
in  cases  where  the  utmost  precision  is  desired  in  weir  measurements." 
The  limits  of  applicability  of  the  weir  have  been  greatly  extended 
since  1852,  and  some  of  the  uncertainties  as  to  the  effect  of  various 
modificationK  of  weir  construction  have  been  removed. 

In  general,  for  standard  thin-edged  weirs — 

1.  The  upstream  crest  edge  should  be  sharp  and  smooth. 

2.  The  overflowing  sheet  should  touch  only  the  upstream  crest 
corner. 

3.  The  nappe  should  be  perfectly  aerated. 

4.  The  upstream  face  of  the  weir  should  be  vertical. 

5.  The  crest  should  be  level  from  end  to  end. 

6.  The  measurements  of  head  should  show  the  true  actual  elevation 
of  water  surface  above  the  level  of  the  weir  crest. 

7.  The  depth  of  leading  channel  should  be  suflBcient  to  provide  com- 
plete crest  contractions,  and,  if  they  are  not  suppressed,  the  width  of 
channel  should  be  sufficient  to  provide  complete  end  contractions. 

8.  A  weir  discharging  from  a  quiet  pond  is  to  be  preferred.  If  this 
is  not  available,  the  velocity  of  approach  in  the  leading  channel  should 
be  rendered  as  uniform  as  possible  and  correction  made  therefor  b}'^ 
the  method  employed  by  the  experimenter  in  deriving  the  formula. 

In  order  to  fulfill  these  requirements,  certain  secondary  conditions 
are  necessary.  The  depth  on  the  weir  should  })e  measured  at  a  point 
far  enough  upstream  from  the  crest  to  be  unaffected  by  the  surface 
curvature,  caused  by  the  discharge. 


a  Francis,  J.  B.,  Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments,  pp.  133-135. 


50  WEIK   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIEKT8,  AND   FORMULAS. 

The  distance  upstream  to  the  point  of  measuring  the  head  has  been 
as  follows: 

Distance  ujMream  from  weir  to  gage  U4<ed  by  variotis  experimenters. 


I  I       Distance 

Experimenter.  I         Date.  upstream,  in 

feet. 


Poncelet  and  Lesbroe 1828 

Lesbros I  IK^ 

Francis 1852 

Hamilton  Smith,  jr '  1874-1876 

Fteley  and  Stearns 1878 

Bazin i  1886 


11.48 

11.48 

6.00 

7.60 

6.00 

16.  40 


Six  feet  upstream  from  crest  is  a  distance  frequently  used,  but  this 
may  be  insujfficient  for  suppressed  weirs,  and  also  for  those  having 
irregular  cross  sections  or  upstream  slopes.  Boileau  considered  the 
origin  of  the  surface  curvature  to  be  at  a  distance  from  the  weir  equal 
to  about  2.5  times  the  height  of  crest  above  the  bottom  of  the  channel 
of  approach,  indicating  that  for  a  suppressed  weir  the  head  should 
be  measured  at  least  this  distance  from  the  crest. ^  For  a  weir  dis- 
charging from  a  still  pond  the  head  can  be  measured  at  any  consider- 
able distance  from  the  weir.  Hamilton  Smith*  states  that,  for  w^eirs 
with  full  contraction,  //can  be  measured  at  any  convenient  point  from 
4  feet  to  10  feet  from  the  crest. 

The  head  may  be  measured  directly  by  a  graduated  scale  or  hook 
gage,  or  by  means  of  a  piezometer  tube  having  its  orifice  flush  with 
the  side  wall  of  the  leading  channel,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  direc- 
tion of  flow  of  the  water. 

The  depth  of  the  leading  channel  in  Francis's  experiments  was  4.<J 
feet  below  crest,  and  Francis  lays  down  the  rule  that  the  depth  of  the 
leading  canal  should  be  at  least  three  times  the  head  on  the  weir. 
Hamilton  Smith  fixes  the  minimum  depth  of  the  leading  channel  l)elow 
the  crest  at  2//. 

Fteley  and  Stearns^  state  that  the  depth  of  the  leading  channel 
below  weir  crest  should  be  at  least  0.5  foot,  in  order  that  correction 
for  velocity  of  approach  may  be  reliably  made  for  depths  occurring  in 
their  measurements,  and  that  a  greater  depth  of  leading  channel  is  to 
be  preferred. 

To  provide  complete  end  contractions,  Francis  states  that  the  dis- 
tance from  the  side  of  the  channel  of  approach  to  the  end  of  the  Aveir 
ovei*flow  should  be  at  least  equal  to  the  depth  oh  the  weir.     Hamilton 

a  Fteley  and  Steamfl,  Experiments  on  the  flow  of  water,  etc.:  Trana.  Am.  Soc.  C.  K.,  vol.  12,  p.  47. 

«» Smith,  Hamilton,  Hydraulics,  pp.  129-131. 

cn)id.,ppllJi-U4. 


WEIR   GAGING9. 


51 


Smith  considers  that  the  distance  from  the  end  of  the  weir  to  the  side 
of  the  channel  should  be  at  least  2jy,  and  that  the  depth  of  channel 
below  crest,  also  the  side  distance,  should  in  no  case  be  less  than  1 
foot.  Francis  further  specifies  that  the  length  of  weir  crest  should 
be  at  least  three  times  the  depth  of  overflow.  The  nappe  should  not 
l>e  allowed  to  expand  laterally  immediately  below  a  suppressed  weir. 
In  order  that  the  nappe  may  be  perfectly  aerated,  Francis  considers 
that  the  fall  below  crest  level  on  the  downstream  side  should  be  not 
less  than  i//,  increasing  for  very  long  weirs  or  in  cases  where  the 
downstream  channel  is  shallow.  He  found,  however,  no  perceptible 
diflference  in  the  discharge  for  a  head  of  0.85  foot,  whether  the  water 
on  the  downstream  side  was  1.05  feet  or  0.0255  foot  below  crest  level. 
Fteley  and  Stearns  and  Hamilton  Smith  agree  that,  if  the  water  is 


Crest  4.6  \:i  bci-L'  t-r.-^  -^^^ 

Fig.  6.— Sections  of  the  Francis  weir.     A,  General  section  of  weir;  B,  detail  of  crest. 

deep  below,  it  may  risei  to  crest  level  on  downstream  side  of  weir 
without  sensible  error,  and  Fteley  and  Stearns  add  that  a  weir  may  be 
submerged  to  a  depth  of  15  per  cent  of  the  head  without  an  error 
exceeding  1  per  cent. 

The  thickness  of  crest  lip  is  immaterial  so  long  as  the  edge  is  sharp 
and  square  and  the  nappe  cuts  free  and  is  freely  aerated.  The  latter 
conditions  require,  however,  that  the  crest  shall  be  thin,  especially 
where  the  head  is  slight. 

Fig.  6  shows  cross  sections  of  the  crest  of  the  weir  used  by  James  B. 
Francis  at  the  Lower  Merrimac  locks  at  Lowell,  in  1852,  in  deriving 
hLs  formula.  The  crest  consisted  of  a  cast-iron  plate  13  inches  wide 
and  1  inch  thick,  planed  true  and  smooth  on  all  surfaces.     Its  upper 


52  WEIH    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

edge  was  chamfered  on  the  downstream  side  at  an  angle  of  45^  to  a 
thickness  of  0.25  inch  at  the  edge.  As  shown,  the  nappe  cut 
clear  from  the  top  of  the  crest  in  an  unbroken  sheet.  The  lowest 
head  used  by  Francis  was  over  0.5  foot.  For  very  low  heads  the  crest 
lip  should  be  thinner.  A  wooden  crest  tends,  by  capillary  attraction, 
to  cause  the  nappe  to  adhere  to  the  flat  top  surface  under  low  heads. 
A  wooden  crest  is  cheap,  easily  adjusted,  and  convenient  for  tempo- 
rary use,  but  it  will,  in  time,  tend  to  become  somewhat  rounded, 
reducing  the  vertical  contraction  of  the  nappe. 

A  cast-iron  crest  will  usually  have  to  be  made  to  order.  A  large 
steel  angle  bar  may  often  be  obtained  from  st-ock  sizes  of  the  rolling 
mills  more  cheaply.  Such  a  bar,  with  legs,  say  S  and  6  inches, 
respectively,  with  the  6-inch  flat  fac^  planed  and  its  edge  trued,  will 
form  a  rigid  and  permanent  crest.  The  3-inch  leg  may  be  bolted  to 
the  top  of  the  timbers  forming  the  body  of  the  weir. 

It  may  be  added  that  approximate  corrections  for  rounding  of 
upstream  corner  of  the  crest,  inclination  of  the  weir  upstream  or 
downstream,  or  incomplete  contractions  can  be  made  from  data  now 
available.  In  constructing  gaging  weirs  preference,  however,  should 
be  given  to  those  forms  which  render  the  determination  of  the  dis- 
charge the  most  simple,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  preceding  speci- 
flcations  may  be  departed  from  judiciously  will  depend  upon  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  case  and  the  purposes  for  which  the  results  are  desired. 

PLANK  AND  BEAM  WEIRS  OF  SENSIBLE  CREST  WIDTH. 

Experiments  on  weirs  with  crest  boards  1,  2,  or  4  inches  in  thickness 
were  made  by  Black  well,  Fteley  and  Stearns,  and  Bazin.  The  results 
show  that  for  depths  exceeding  1.5  to  2  times  the  crest  width  the 
nappe  will  break  free,  and  if  properly  aerated  the  coefficient  will  then 
be  identical  with  that  for  a  thin-edged  weir. 

When  the  nappe  adheres  to  the  crest  the  coefficients  are  very  uncer- 
tain for  such  weirs,  adhesion  of  nappe  to  downstream  fac^e  of  crest 
and  modified  aeration  entering  to  give  divergent  values. 

The  precise  stage  at  which  the  change  from  an  adhering  to  a  free 
nappe  or  the  reverse  occurs  is  not  constant,  but  varies  with  velocity  of 
approach  and  with  rate  of  change  of  the  head  as  the  changing  point  is 
approached,  being  different  for  a  sudden  and  for  a  gradual  change,  and 
also  when  the  point  of  change  is  approached  by  an  increasing  as  com- 
pared with  a  decreasing  head. 

REDUCTION  OF  THE  MEAN  OF  SEVERAL  OBSERVATIONS  OF  HEAD. 

In  measuring  a  constant  volume  of  water,  several  observations  of 
the  head  on  the  weir  are  desirable,  the  accurac}"  of  the  result, 
according  to  the  theory  of  least  squares,  being  proportional  to  the 
square  root  of  the  number  of  observations. 


WEIR   GAGING8.  53 

In  weir  experiments  it  is  often  impossible  to  maintain  a  perfectly 
uniform  head  or  regimen.  If  ttie  variations  are  minute  the  arithmet- 
ical mean  may  be  used  directly.  If  the  variations  are  of  wider  range, 
or  if  the  utmost  precision  is  required,  the  following  correction 
formula  of  Francis  may  be  applied:  ^ 

Let  />!,  Z>,,  ^s,  etc.,  Z>„  represent  the  several  successive  observed 

heads. 
Let  /j,  t^y  ^3,  etc.,  tn  represent  the  corresponding  intervals  of  time 

between  the  several  observations. 
Let  T  represent  their  sum,  or  the  total  time  interval. 
^=the  total  volume  of  water  flowing  over  the  weir  in  the  time  T, 
2>=the  mean  depth  on  the  weir  that  would  discharge  the  quantity 

Q  in  the  time  T. 
Z=the  length  of  weir  crest. 
67=  the  weir  coefficient. 
We  have,  very  nearly, 

Q=^^  CLD^^^^-'^  OLD}+i<^  CZ;A^+etc.+%  CLD} 

JL  £1  2i  Z 

Also, 

Q^TCLD^. 

Equating,  eliminating  the  common  factor  (7Z,  and  solving  for  27,  we 
have 

EFFECT  OF  ERROR  IN  DETERMINING  THE  HEAD  ON  WEIRS.  & 

Consider  the  formula 

Differentiating,  we  have 

^^=1  CL^dH. 

The  error  of  any  gaging  when  H-\-dHvA  taken  as  the  head  instead 
of  the  true  head  U  being  used  will  be  dQ^  and  the  ratio  of  this  quan- 
tity to  the  true  discharge  Q  will  be 

dQ_ZCL4Tl  Z  dH  ,,Q. 

«       2C'Z^  "^  ^ 

This  formula  will  give  nearly  the  correct  value  of  the  error  if  the 
increment  dH  approaches  an  infinitesimal. 

aFranciii,  J.  B.,  Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments,  p.  113. 

b Rafter,  G.  W.,  On  the  flow  of  water  over  dams:  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  44,  p.  686;  data  here 
giyen  based  on  discnasion  by  Walter  C.  Parmley. 


54 


WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 


In  the  following  table  is  shown  the  effect  of  errors  of  one  thou- 
sandth, five  thousandths,  one  hundredth,  and  five  hundredths  foot, 
respectively,  for  various  heads.  This  clearly  illustrates  both  the 
necessity  of  proper  care  and  the  folly  of  ultra  precision  in  measuring 
the  relatively  large  values  of  II  with  which  we  are  mainly  concerned. 
The  curves  of  error  on  PI.  II  are  equilateral  hyperbolas,  which  have 
been  reduced  to  straight  lines  by  plotting  on  logarithmic  scales. 

Percentage  error  in  discharge  resulting  from  ntrimis  errors  in  the  measured  head  on  imrit. 


Error  in  measured  head,  in  feet. 


Head,  in 
feet. 

0.001 

0.006 
Percent. 

0.01 
Per  cent. 

0.06 
Per  cetU. 

Per  cent. 

0.1 
.5 

1.5 
.3 

7.5 

1.5 

15 
3 

15 

1.0 

.15 

.75 

1.5 

7.5 

5.0 

.03 

.15 

.3 

1.5 

10.0 

.015 

.075 

.15 

.75 

An  error  of  a  half -tenth  foot  under  5  feet  head  causes  the  same 
error  in  the  result  as  an  error  of  one-half  hundredth  foot  with  a  head 
of  one-half  foot. 

In  weir  experiments  it  is  important  to  know  the  effect  of  an  error 
in  head  ^on  the  resultant  coefficient  of  discharge  C.  The  error  in  C 
is  evidently  equivalent  to  the  error  in  Q  found  above,  where  II  is 
constant. 

ERROR  OP  THE  MEAN  WHERE  THE  HEAD  VARIES. 

In  determining  the  volume  of  flow  over  dams  where  gaging  records 
are.  kept,  the  method  usually  pursued  has  been  to  have  readings  taken 
twice  daily,  as  at  morning  and  evening,  showing  the  depth  flowing 
over  the  crest  of  the  dam.  The  average  of  the  two  readings  for  each 
day  has  been  found  and  the  volume  of  flow  corresponding  to  this 
average  head  has  been  taken  as  the  mean  rate  of  flow  over  the  dam 
for  the  day. 

It  is  evident,  however,  that  as  the  discharge  varies  more  rapidly 
than  the  head  (usually  considered  to  be  proportional  to  the  three-halves 
power  of  the  head),  the  volume  of  discharge  obtained  as  above 
described  will  be  somewhat  less  than  the  amount  which  actually  passes 
over  the  dam.  The  following  analysis  has  been  made  to  show  the 
magnitude  of  the  error  introduced  by  using  the  above  method. 

Assuming  that  the  initial  depth  on  the  crest  of  the  dam  is  zero,  but 
increases  at  a  uniform  rate  to  11^  at  the  end  of  a  time  interval  T,  the 


MMunired  head  in  feet. 

u  • .  -  -^  r 


WEIR   GAQINOfl. 


55 


mean  head  deduced  from  observations  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the 
period  would  be  i  H^^  the  head  at  any  time  t  would  be 

where  y  is  a  constant. 

We  may  write  the  usual  formula  for  weir  discharge  ^=  CLJH^\ 
then,  if  the  he^d  varies  from  zero  to  5J,  the  total  volume  of  flow  in 
the  time  7^  will  be 


0 


(50) 


The  total  discharge  corresponding  to  the  average  head  ^  H^  is 

Q„=CL(^^yT=CLQ0T^  .     .    .    .    (61) 
The  ratio  of  the  discharge  is 


Volume  by  average  head  _  Q^y 
Actual  volume  ~   Qt 


2 
5 


=0.8840  .  .  (62) 


It  appears  that  where  the  initial  or  terminal  head  is  zero  the  volume 
of  flow  determined  by  using  the  average  head  will  be  11.6  per  cent 
too  small.  This  percentage  of  error  is  the  same  whatever  may  be  the 
maximum  head  //,  and  whether  the  stream  is  rising  or  falling.  It  is 
also  independent  of  the  rate  of  change  in  the  head. 

Conditions  like  those  above  discussed  occur  at  milldams  during  the 
season  of  low  water,  when  the  pond  is  allowed  to  till  up  at  night  and 
the  water  is  drawn  down  to  crest  level  or  below  during  the  da}^  when 
mills  are  running. 

The  following  example  will  illusti*ate.  Suppose  a  sharp-crested 
weir  without  end  contractions,  with  crest  1  foot  long,  on  which  the 
water  rises  to  a  depth  of  1  foot  in  a  period  of  10  seconds — 

Mea7i  depth  on  a  weir  vjiih  rarifing  head. 


Time,  in  seconds I  1 

Head,  in  feet,  at  end  of  each  second. . .     .1 
Average  head  for  period 05 


Average  head,  second  to  second . 


.05  1 


; 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

.2 

.3 

.4 

.6 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

1.0 

.1 

.15 

.2 

.25 

.3 

.35 

.4 

.45 

.5 

.15 

.25 

.35 

.46 

.55 

.65 

.75 

.85 

.96 

56 


WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMTTLAS, 


Usioff  the  average  head  during  each  second  the  volume  of  flow  may 
be  approximately  integrated  bj^  finite  differences,  as  follows,  the  dis- 
charge being  taken  from  Francis's  tables: 

Discharge  over  a  weir  with  varying  fiecul. 


Time,  in  secondn. 

Average  hend, 
Infeet. 

Discharge,  in  ' 
8econd-feet. 

Oto    1 

0.05 

0. 037 

1  to    2 

.15 

.194 

2  to    3 

.25 

.416 

3to    4 

.:i5 

.690 

4to    5 

.45 

1.005 

5to    6 

.55 

1.358 

6  to    7 

.65 

1.  745 

7to    8 

.75 

2.163 

8to    9 

.85 

2.609 

9  to  10 
Total 

.95 

3.083 

13.30 

The  average  head  for  the  entire  period,  0.6  foot,  gives  a  discharge 
for  10  seconds  of  11.773  second-feet,  or  88.5  per  cent  of  that  given 
above,  the  numerical  result  agreeing  closely  with  that  obtained  by 
analysis.  The  volume  of  flow  from  average  head  equals  seven-eighths 
of  the  true  integral  volume  of  flow,  approximately. 

If  there  is  an  initial  head  Z?^,  then  when  the  head  varies  uniformly. 

The  total  volume  of  flow  in  time  7^  will  be 

Q,=  I  Qdt=CL    \    {ir,+ft)^dt^l^L(^II,-^fT^-\j,CLir}. 
The  average  head  during  time  Tis 

The  total  volume  of  flow  corresponding  to  this  head  is 

3 

Q^.=  CL(jr,-\-\fT)T 


W£IB   GAOINOS. 


57 


The  ratio  of  the  actual  or  integral  discharge  to  the  discharge  by  the 
average  head  is 

( HJ^-fT^  T 
lime  by  average  ^head_  5  ^       y  J^  _^       y 

Integral  volume 


[(^/wr)*-//,,*] 


(58) 


The  value  of  this  ratio  is  independent  of  the  coefficient  or  length  of 
weir,  but  varies  with  the  rate  of  change  of  head. 


WEIR  NOT  LEVEL. 


If  the  crest  of  a  gaging  weir  is  not  truly  horizontal,  but  is  a  little 
inclined,  the  discharge  may  be  closely  approximated  by  the  use  of  the 
average  crest  depth  //in  the  ordinary-  formula,  or  more  precisely  by 
the  formula  below,  applicable  also  to  weirs  of  any  inclination. 


Fio.  7.— Inclined  weir 


The  flow  through  the  elementary  width  dl  is 
dQ=  Cll^dl 

Total  discharge=C=    /  ClI^  dl=C   I     f  ^A+^V"  0 
Integrating, 


dl 


0=    :^^'^^    fi/i-iii^ 


(54) 


In  this  formula  either    the  mean  coefficient  deduced  by  Thomson 
(see  p.  46)  for  a  triangular  weir,  in  which      C=1.32,  or  that  of  Fran- 

o 
cLs,  in  which   -  C'  =  1.332,  may  be  used.     If  there  are  end  contractions, 
5 

the  net  length, 


should  be  used. 


Z=Z'-0.2  (^^), 


58  WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS, 

The  dischai'ge  using  the  average  head, 

rr      ^.+^. 
Jia-        2       ' 

is 

Q=CL(^^^^^ (55) 

The  extent  of  variation  from  the  true  discharge  resulting  from  the 
use  of  formula  (55)  in  place  of  the  integral  formula  (54)  is  illustrated 
by  the  following: 

Let  L=\0  feet,  II^^LO  foot,  j,  C=^L3'S'2. 

Discharge  by  (55)  for  average  head  =  33. 30  cubic  feet  per  second. 
If  ^g— ^1=0.01  foot— true  discharge,  (>=33.30  cubic  feet  per  second. 
If  ^g—/^ =0.10  foot— true  discharge,  ^=33.30  cubic  feet  per  second. 
If //^—//i  =0.50  foot— true  discharge,  ^=33.54  cubic  feet  per  second. 

In  general,  since  the  discharge  varies  more  rapidly  than  the  head, 
the  effect  of  calculating  the  discharge  from  the  average  head  will  be 
to  give  too  small  discharge,  the  error  increasing  with  the  variation  in 
crest  level. 

Hence  the  discharge  obtained  by  using  the  average  crest  level  for  a 
weir  having  an  inclined  or  uneven  crest  will  be  somewhat  deficient. 
The  magnitude  of  the  variations  in  height  of  the  crest  will  determine 
whether  the  average  profile  can  be  used  or  whether  the  crest  should  he 
subdivided  into  sections,  each  comprising  portions  having  very  nearh' 
the  same  elevation  (whether  adjacent  or  not),  and  the  discharge  over 
each  section  computed  as  for  a  separate  weir. 

In  general  it  may  be  stated  that  the  error  in  the  value  of  Q^ 
increases  directly  in  proportion  a.s  the  ratio  of  the  difference  in  the 
limiting  heads  to  the  average  head  is  increased. 

CONVEXITY  OF  WATER  SURFACE  IN  LEADING  CHANNEL. 

If  there  are  wide  variations  in  velocity  in  the  measuring  section,  the 
level  of  the  water  surface  may  be  affected,  since  water  in  motion 
exerts  less  pressure  than  when  at  rest. 

Conditions  of  equilibrium  cause  the  swift-moving  current  to  rise 
above  the  level  of  the  slower-moving  portions.  If  the  head  is  meas- 
ured near  still  water  at  the  shore,  the  result  may  be  slightly  too  small. 

The  difference  in  height"  may  be  expressed  in  the  form, 

D,- /},=., :il-^^ (56) 

The  coeflicient  /•  is  often  assumed  equal  to  unity,  but  evidently 
varies  with  the  distribution  of  velocities  whose  resultant  effect  it 
measures. 


aHuinphre>-H  and  Abbot,  Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the  Mississippi  River,  1876,  p.  320. 


WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,    AND    FORMULAS.  59 

RE8UIiT8  OF  EXPERIMENTS  ON  VAB10U8  FORMS  OF  MTEIR 

CROSS  SECTIONS. 

THE  USE  OP  WEIRS  OP  IRREGULAR  SECTION. 

Many  cases  arise  where  it  is  desired  to  estimate,  approximately,  at 
least,  the  flow  over  dams  of  peculiar  cross  section. 

The  construction  of  so-called  standard  or  thin-edged  weirs  that 
shall  be  permanently  useful  to  measure  the  flow  of  large  and  variable 
streams  is  so  difficult  and  expensive  as  to  be  frequently  impracticable. 
Existing  milldams  often  aflford  a  convenient  substitute.  In  the 
following  pages  are  presented  the  results  of  the  leading  experiments 
to  determine  proper  coeflScient^  for  ''irregular''  weirs,  followed  by  a 
grouping  of  experiments  on  similar  models,  whether  all  by  one  experi- 
menter or  not.  The  data  are  not  always  as  complete  or  consistent  as 
could  be  desired,  but  the  need  for  fair  working  coefllcients  is  very 
great,  and,  in  the  line  of  making  use  of  all  the  available  information, 
the  several  diagrams  of  comparison  and  the  conclusions  therefrom  are 
presented,  with  the  understanding  that  these  are  not  final,  although  it 
is  quite  certain  that  the  laws  of  coeflicient  variation  are  correctly  out- 
lined by  the  data  at  present  available,  and  they  form,  therefore,  a  safe 
working  hypothesis. 

Weir  models  of  irregular  section  are  calibrated  in  order  that  exist- 
ing dams  of  similar  cross  section  may  be  used  for  stream  gaging.  It 
becomes  necessary  to  calibrate  the  experimental  models  for  a  wider 
range  of  heads  than  has  commonly  been  emploj^ed  in  experiments  on 
standard  thin-edged  weirs,  in  order  that  the  range  of  rise  and  fall  of 
the  stream  from  low  water  to  high  may  be  included. 

While  the  recent  experimental  data  include  heads  as  great  as  from  4 
to  6  feet,  yet  it  is  often  necessary  to  determine  the  discharge  for  still 
greater  heads,  and  experiments  on  certain  forms  with  heads  up  to  10 
or  12  feet  are  needed. 

In  this  connection  the  greater  relative  facility  of  securing  accurate 
results  with  weirs  for  high  than  for  low  heads  may  be  noted. 

The  proportional  error  resulting  from  variations  in  crest  level,  as 
well  as  uncertainties  as  to  the  nappe  form  and  consecjuent  value  of  the 
coefficient,  largely  disappear  as  the  head  increases.  The  eSect  of  form 
of  crest  and  friction  is  also  relatively  diminished.  It  is  probably  true 
that  the  coefficients  for  many  ordinary  forms  of  weir  section  would 
tend  toward  a  common  constant  value  if  the  head  were  indefinitely 
increased.  The  above  facts  render  milldams  especially  useful  for  the 
determination  of  the  maximum  discharge  of  streams.  Dams  can  be 
used  for  this  purpose  when  the  presence  of  logs  and  drift  carried 
down  by  the  flood  preclude  the  use  of  current  metei-s  or  other  gaging 
instruments. 


60  WEIB   EXPEBIMENTB,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  NAPPE  FORM. 

The  elaborate  investigations  of  Bazin  relative  to  the  physics  of  weir 
discharge  set  forth  clearly  the  importance  of  taking  into  consideration 
the  particular  form  assumed  by  the  nappe.  This  is  especmlly  true  in 
weirs  of  irregular  section  in  which  there  is  usually  more  opportunit3' 
for  change  of  form  than  for  a  thin-edged  weir.  In  general  the  nappe 
may— 

1 .  Discharge  freely,  touching  onl}'^  the  upstream  crest  edge. 

2.  Adhere  to  top  of  crest. 

3.  Adhere  to  downstream  face  of  crest. 

4.  Adhere  to  both  top  and  downstream  face. 

5.  Remain  detached,  but  become  wetted  underneath. 

6.  Adhere  to  top,  but  remain  detached  from  face  and  become  wetted 
underneath. 

7.  In  any  of  the  cases  where  the  nappe  is  *' wetted  underneath"  this 
condition  may  be  replaced  by  a  depressed  nappe,  having  air  imprisoned 
underneath  at  less  than  atmospheric  pressure. 

The  nappe  may  undergo  several  of  these  modifications  in  succession 
as  the  head  is  varied.  The  successive  forms  that  appear  with  an 
increasing  stage  may  diflFer  from  those  pertaining  to  similar  stages 
with  a  decreasing  head.  The  head  at  which  the  changes  of  nappe  form 
occur  vary  with  the  rate  of  change  of  head,  whether  increasing  or 
decreasing,  and  with  other  conditions. 

The  law  of  coeflBcients  may  be  greatly  modified  or  even  reversed 
when  a  change  of  form  takes  place  in  the  nappe. 

The  effect  of  modifications  of  nappe  form  on  various  irregular  weir 
sections  is  shown  in  PI.  III.  The  coeflBcients  are  those  of  Bazin  and 
include  velocity  of  approach.  The  coefficient  curve  for  any  form  of 
weir  having  a  stable  nappe  is  a  continuous,  smooth  line.  When  the 
nappe  becomes  depressed,  detached,  or  wetted  underneath  during  the 
progress  of  an  experiment,  the  resulting  coefficient  curve  may  consist 
of  a  series  of  discontinuous  or  even  disconnected  arcs  terminating 
abruptly  in  ^^ pouits  d'arret^'^  where  the  form  of  nappe  changes.  The 
modifications  of  nappe  form  are  usually  confined  to  comparatively  low 
heads,  the  nappe  sometimes  undergoing  several  succevssive  changes  as 
the  head  increases  from  zero  until  a  stable  condition  is  reached  beyond 
which  further  increase  of  head  produces  no  change.  The  condition 
of  the  nappe  when  depressed  or  wetted  underneath  can  usually  be 
restored  to  that  of  free  discharge  by  providing  adequate  aeration. 

The  weir  sections  shown  in  PI.  Ill  are  unusually  susceptible  of  changes 
of  nappe  form.  Among  weirs  of  irregular  section  there  is  a  large 
class  for  which,  from  the  nature  of  their  section,  the  nappe  can  assume 
only  one  form  unless  drowned.  Such  weirs,  it  is  suggested,  may,  if 
properly  calibrated,  equal  or  exceed  the  usefulness  of  the  thin-edged 


Obasnred  depth  on  weir  (feet). 


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WEIKS    OF   IKREGULAR   SECTION. 


61 


weir  for  purposes  of  stream  gaging,  because  of  their  greater  stability 
of  section  and  because  the  thin-edged  weir  is  not  free  from  modifica- 
tion of  nappe  form  for  low  heads. 

As  an  example^  Bazin  gives  the  following  coefficients  applying  to 
a  thin-edged  weir  2.46  feet  high,  with  a  head  of  0.656  foot,  under 
various  conditions: 


Condition  of  nappe. 


Free  discharge,  full  aeration 

Nappe  depressed,  partial  vacuum  underneath 

Nappe    wetted    undemeath-,    dowr  stream    water 


level,  0.42  foot  below  crest- 


Nappe  adherinfc  to  downstream  face  of  weir,  res- 
saoltata  distance 


Bazln  coeffi- 


clentm.     |   C"'"^^ 


0.433 

3.47 

.460 

3.69 

.497 

3.99 

.564 

4.45 

Per  cent  of 
the  Francifi 
coefficient. 


104.1 
110.7 

119.7 

133,5 


These  coefficients  include  velocity  of  approach  effect,  which  tends 
to  magnify  their  differences  somewhat.  There  is,  however,  a  range 
of  26  per  cent  variation  in  discharge  between  the  extremes.  *» 

The  departure  in  the  weir  coefficient  from  that  applying  to  a  thin- 
edged  weir,  for  most  forms  of  weirs  of  irregular  section,  results  from 
some  permanent  modification  of  the  nappe  form.  Weirs  with  sloping 
upstream  faces  reduce  the  crest  contraction,  broad-crested  weirs  cause 
adherence  of  the  nappe  to  the  crest,  aprons  cause  permanent  adherence 
of  the  nappe  to  the  downstream  face. 


BXPERIMENTAL  DATA  FOR  WEIRS  OF  IRREGULAR  CROSS 

SECTION. 

The  only  experiments  on  irregular  or  broad-crested  weirs  in  which 
the  discharge  has  been  determined  volumetrically  are  those  of  Black- 
well  on  weirs  3  feet  broad,  of  Francis  on  the  Merrimac  dam,  and  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  for  lower  heads,  on  various  forms 
of  section.  So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  all  other  such  experiments 
have  been  made  by  comparison  with  standard  weirs. 

In  the  following  pages  are  included  the  results  of  the  experiments 
of  Bazin  on  29  forms  of  cross  section;  also  those  of  the  United  States 
Deep  Waterways  Board  under  the  direction  of  George  W.  Rafter,  and 
those  of  John  R.  Freeman  at  Cornell  University  hydraulic  laboratory. 
The  results  of  20  series  of  experiments,  chiefly  on  weirs  with  broad  and 
ogee  crest  sections,  made  under  the  writer's  direction  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity hydraulic  laboratory,  are  here  for  the  first  time  published. 

oBaAn'e  general  dlMniflsion  of  the  above  and  other  modifications  of  the  coefficient  has  been  tran8- 
lated  by  the  writer,  and  may  be  found  in  Rafter' 8  paper,  On  the  flow  of  water  over  dams:  Trans. 
Am.  See.  C.  E.,  vol.  44,  pp.  264-261. 


62  WEIK   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

As  it  has  been  necessary  to  reduce  the  experimental  data  to  a  uni- 
form basis  for  purposes  of  comparison  the  original  data,  together  with 
the  results  obtained  by  recalculation,  have  been  included  for  theBazin, 
United  States  Deep  Waterways,  and  Freeman  experiments. 

BASE   FORMULA    FOR  DISCHARGE  OVER  WEIRS  OF  IRREGULAR  CROSS 

SECTION. 

Precedent  to  the  opening  of  the  hydraulic  laboratory  of  Cornell 
University  the  most  elaborate  experiments  on  weirs  of  irregular  cross 
section  were  those  of  Bazin.  His  experiments  were  all  reduced  in 
such  manner  as  to  include  the  velocity  of  approach  correction  in  the 
discharge  coefficient. 

In  America  the  formula  most  commonly  used  is  that  adopted  by 
James  B.  Francis,  in  which  velocity  of  approach  is  eliminated  from 
the  coefficient  bj'^  correcting  the  head,  thus  reducing  the  conditions  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  the  basis  of  no  velocity  of  approach  before  apply- 
ing the  formula. 

In  order  to  render  Bazin^s  results  comparable  with  the  later  experi- 
ments, it  has  been  necessary  to  adopt  a  standard  or  base  formula  to 
which  all  the  experiments  should  be  reduced.  The  considerations  lead- 
ing to  the  adoption  of  the  formula  of  Francis  here  used  are  given 
below. 

In  the  process  of  gaging  streams  at  dams  the  head  is  usually 
measured  in  comparatively  still  water  in  an  open  pond.  This  condi- 
tion could  not  be  duplicated  in  the  Cornell  experiments.  As  the 
formula  of  James  B.  Francis  is  most  simple  in  form  for  the  case  of  a 
weir  with  no  velocity  of  approach,  and  as  it  is  often  convenient  to 
compare  the  discharge  over  a  dam  with  that  for  a  thin-edged  weir  of 
standard  form,  a  weir  formula  of  the  base  form  used  by  Francis  has 
been  adopted  in  reducing  the  experiments.     In  this  formula, 

Z= Length  of  crest  corrected  for  end  contractions,  if  any. 

i7=Head  on  weir  crest  corrected  for  velocity  of  approach  by 
the  Francis  correction  formula  or  an  equivalent  method. 

C=A  coefficient  determined  from  experiments  on  a  model  dam. 
In  this  connection  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  formula  of  Bazin 
includes  the  correction  for  velocity  of  approach  in  the  weir  coefficient; 
hence  the  coefficient  for  a  given  weir  is  compamble  onlj'  with  that  for 
another  weir  under  the  same  head  when  the  velocity  of  approach  is 
the  same  in  both  cases.  Bazin's  formula  also  expresses  the  velocity  of 
approach  implicitly  by  means  of  the  depth  and  breadth  of  the  leading 
channel.  In  actual  gagings  the  leading  channel  is  often  of  irregular 
form,  hence  it  becomes  necessar}^  to  eliminate  the  depth  and  breadth 
of  the  channel  from  the  formula. 


WEIRS    OF    IRREGULAR   SECTION.  63 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  magnitude  of  the  correction 
for  velocity  of  approach  used  by  different  experimenters.  As  a  rule, 
the  velocity  of  approach  is  negligible  at  gaging  stations  at  dams.  It 
became  necessar3%  therefore,  in  reducing  these  experiments  to  deter- 
mine from  the  measured  discharge  and  observed  head  what  the  head 
would  have  been  had  the  same  discharge  taken  place  over  a  weir 
in  a  still  pond.  To  accomplish  this  the  formula  for  correction  for 
velocity  of  approach  adopted  by  James  B.  Francis  has  been  used. 
This  being  the  case,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  in  applying  the  coefficients, 
which,  as  given,  have  been  reduced  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  basis 
of  no  velocity  of  approach,  the  same  method  of  velocity  correction 
must  be  used,  and  if  it  is  used  no  error  will  result  where  the  actual 
velocity-  of  approach  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  which  occurred  in  the 
experiments. 

bazin's  experiments  on  weirs  of  irreguij^r  cross  section. 

These  include  a  wide  variety  of  forms,  many  of  which  will  seldom 
be  found  in  America,  and  the  use  of  which  for  purposes  of  gaging 
would  be  ill  advised. 

The  small  size  of  the  models  used,  high  velocity  of  approach,  and 
narrow  range  of  heads  covered,  limit  the  application  of  these  results. 
No  effort  has  been  made  to  present  all  the  results  in  this  paper. **  Cer- 
tain series,  useful  for  comparison,  have  been  recomputed  as  des(*ribed 
below,  and  by  grouping  similar  sections  we  may  determine  the  gen- 
eral effect  of  various  slope  and  crest  modifications. 

bazin's  corrbction  for  velocity  op  approach. 

The  base  formula  for  weir  discharge  adopted  by  Bazin  and  the 
method  of  taking  into  account  the  velocity  of  approach  are  described 
in  connection  with  his  experiments  on  thin-edged  weirs  (p.  31). 

The  following  discussion  shows  the  complex  character  of  the  Bazin 
coefficients,  and  the  fact  that  they  do  not  express  directly  the  relative 
dis<^:harging  capacity  of  weirs  of  irregular  section. 

The  effect  of  velocity  of  approach  is  to  increase  the  discharge  at  a 
given  observed  head,  2>,  over  what  it  would  be  if  the  same  head  were 
measured  in  still  water,  as  in  a  deep,  broad  pond. 

Bazin's  coefficients  in  the  form  published  are  not  readily  applicable 
in  practice  to  weirs  of  other  heights,  or  to  weirs  in  ponds,  or  otherwise 
to  any  but  weirs  in  restricted  channels  of  the  depth  and  width  of  the 
weir. 

a  For  complete  original  data,  see  Bazin,  an  translated  by  Marichal  and  Trautwlne  in  Proe.  Engineers 
Club  Phila.,  vol.  7,  pp.  259-810;  vol,  9,  pp.  231-244,  287-319;  vol.  10,  pp.  121-164;  rIbo  nuraeroua  experi- 
ments reduced  to  English  units  by  Rafter  and  others,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  £.,  vol.  44,  pp.  220-398. 


64        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

The  Bazin  coefficients  as  published  may  be  considered  as  compris- 
ing two  principal  factors.     M  being  the  Bazin  coefficient,  we  raay  write 

i^— velocity  of  approach  eflfect. 
6^=  contraction  effect. 
Bazin  uses  a  correction  formula  for  velocity  of  approach,  derived 
from  the  expression 

Consider  a  standard  weir  and  experimental  weir  both  of  the  same 
height,  but  of  different  form,  the  measured  depth  being  the  same,  and 
the  Bazin  coefficients  being  M  and  m,  the  velocity  of  approach  and 
discharge  Fand  v  and  Q  and  </,  respectively^  and  C  and  Cj  the  coeffi- 
cients in  a  formula  in  which  the  velocity  of  approach  correction  is 
eliminated  from  the  coefficient  and  applied  to  the  head;  then  the  dis- 
charge for  the  standard  weir  would  be, 

using  the  Bazin  coefficients, 

where  J/'  =  Jlf  V  %g  and  Z=1.0; 
using  the  coefficient  C\ 

taking  roots 


( 


Bazin  does  not  give  the  quantities  of  flow  in  the  tables  of  results  of 
his  experiments,  hence  to  determine  //  it  is  necessary  to  calculate  Q. 
t%  and  h  from  the  known  values  M  and  D  and  from  P,  the  height  of 
weir. 

D  being  the  same  for  both  the  standard  and  the  experimental  weirs, 
we  have  for  the  experimental  weir 


(7,  beingr  the  coeflBcient  for  the  experimental  weir,  and  A,  the  velocity 
bead. 


WEIRS    OF   IBREOULAR  SECTION.  65 


Hence,  bv  multiplication, 


and 


or 


\Mj    \CJ  -'D+ah  ^      D      ' 

\Mj  -\i'J  ^  D+air 


M-  C^\D+ahJ. 

The  velocity  of  approach  for  a  given  depth  on  a  weir  is  proportional 
to  C,  hence,  since  h  is  proportional  to  »•',  we  have 

Hf). 

Hence, 


m 


\"    I)+ah      / 


m 


The  ratio  ng  used  by  Bazin  is  not,  therefore,  precisely  a  measure  of 

the  relative  discharging  capacities  of  the  two  weirs  under  similar  con- 
ditions of  head  and  velocity  of  approach,  for  the  reason  that  the 
velocity  of  approach  will  not  be  the  same  for  both  weirs  if  the  Bazin 
coefficients  are  different.  The  ratio  j/JMih  made  up  of  two  factors, 
one  of  which,  Cj  (7,  expresses  the  absolute  relative  discharging  capaci- 
ties of  the  two  weirs  under  similar  conditions  of  head  and  velocity  of 
approach,  and  the  other  expresses  the  effect  of  the  change  in  discharg- 
ing capacity  on  the  velocity  of  approach  for  a  given  depth  on  a  weir 
of  given  height. 

Thus  the  coefficient  Miov  any  weir  has,  by  Bazin's  method  of  reduc- 
tion, different  values  for  every  depth  and  for  every^  height  of  weir 
that  may  occur. 

For  reasons  elsewhere  stated  it  is  preferred  to  express  by  -^  only 

the  relative  discharging  capacities  of  the  weirs  where  the  velocity  of 
approach  is  the  same  in  both.  It  is  then  practically  a  measure  of  the 
vertical  contraction  of  the  nappe,  and  is  constant  for  a  given  head  for 
any  height  of  weir,  and  may  be  sensibly  constant  for  various  depths 
on  the  weir. 


66  WEIR   EXPEEIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

RECOMPUTATION   OP  COEFFICIENTS   IN   BAZIN*8   EXPERIMENTS. 

In  reporting  the  results  of  his  experiments  on  weirs  of  irregular 
section,  Bazin  gives  the  observed  heads  on  the  standard  weir  of  com- 
parison, the  absolute  coefficient  m  applying  for  each  depth  on  the 
experimental  weir  and  the  ratio  ml  Mot  the  experimental  and  standard, 
weir  coefficients. 

The  results  give  coefficients  which  strictly  apply  only  to  weirs  having 
both  the  same  form  of  sei^tion  and  the  same  heights  as  those  of  Bazin. 
Although  weirs  of  sectional  form  geometrically  similar  to  Bazin's  are 
common,  yet  few  actual  weirs  have  the  same  height  as  his.  There 
appear  to  be  two  elements  which  ma}^  render  inaccurate  the  applica- 
tion of  Bazin's  absolute  coefficients  to  weirs  of  varying  height:  (1)  The 
difference  in  velocity  of  approach;  (2)  the  difference  in  contraction  of 
the  nappe  for  a  higher  or  lower  weir. 

In  order  to  render  the  resuhi-  of  Bazin's  experiments  comparable 
one  with  another  and  with  later  experiments,  a  number  of  series  have 
been  recomputed,  the  velocity  of  approach  being  treated  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  computation  of  experiments  at  Cornell  hydraulic 
laboratory. 

The  method  is  outlined  below,  the  references  being  to  the  tables  of 
Bazin's  experiments  given  on  pages  68  to  81. 

Column  2  gives  the  observed  head  reduced  to  feet  for  the  experi- 
mental weir. 

Column  4  the  absolute  coefficient  C^  —  vi  4^2g, 

(These  have  been  reduced  from  Bazin's  original  tables.) 

Column  5  gives  the  discharge  per  foot  of  crest  over  the  experimental 
weir  calculated  by  the  formula 

Q=mLD  ^2gD=  C.LlA, 

quantities  in  column  8  being  taken  directly  from  a  table  of  three-halves 
powers. 

In  column  6  the  actual  velocit}^  of  approach,  v=  j^^Tp  ^®  &i^'^"» 
and  in  column  7  the  velocity  head,  h  —  ^^  • 

The  discharga  over  the  standard  weir  was  calculated  by  Bazin  by 
using  his  own  formula  and  velocity  of  approach  correction.  He  does 
not  give  the  discharge,  however,  and  we  have  been  obliged  to  work 
back  and  obtain  it  from  the  data  given  for  the  experimental  weir. 

Having  determined  the  actual  discharge  and  the  observed  head,  we 
are  now  at  libeily  to  assume  such  a  law  of  velocity  of  approach  cor- 
rection in  deducing  our  new  coefficients  as  we  choose.  We  will  there- 
fore deduce  the  coefficients  in  such  form  that  when  applied  to  a  weir 


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EXPERIMENTS  OF  BAZIN  ON   BROAD-CRESTED  WEIRS. 
Velocity-of -approach  correction  by  the  Francis  method. 


U.  &  QEOLOQfCAL  eURVEY 


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EXPERIMENTS  OF  BAZIN  ON  WEIRS  OF  TRIANGULAR  SECTION   WITH  VARYING 

DOWNSTREAM  SLOPE. 

Velocity-of-approach  correction  by  the  Francis  method. 


U.  «.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY  PAPER  NO.  1M     PU  VI 


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EXPERIMENTS  OF  BAZIN  ON  WEIRS  OF  TRAPEZOIDAL  SECTION   WITH  VARYING 

DOWNSTREAM  SLOPE. 

Velocity-of-approach  correction  by  the  Francis  method.     (See  also  PI.  VII.) 


U.  a.  OCOCOQICAL  SURVEY 

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WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER   Na   160      PL.  VII 


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EXPERIMENTS  OF  BAZIN   ON   WEIRS  OF  TRAPEZOIDAL  SECTION   WITH   VARYING 

DOWNSTREAM  SLOPE. 

Velocity-of-approach  correction  by  the  Francis  method.      (For  cross  section  sef^  Pi.  VI.) 


8.  GEOLOQBAI.  SURVEY 


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EXPERIMENTS  OF  BAZIN  ON  WEIRS  OF  TRAPEZOIDAL  SECTION   WITH  VARYING 
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Velocrty-of -approach  correction  by  the  Francis  nnethod. 


U.  «.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY  PAPER  NO.    ISO      PL.  IX 


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CorrcNtod  head  in  feet. 


EXPERIMENTS  OF  BAZIN  ON   WEIRS  OF  TRIANGULAR  SECTION   WITH   VARYING 
DOWNSTREAM   SLOPE. 

Velocity-of-approach  correction  by  the  Francis  nnethod. 


S.  QEOLOOICAL  SUNVCY 

Ooefll- 

i.-l«nt 

a 


WATER-SUPPLY   PAPER   NO.   ISO      PU  X 


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Slope  of  ufMtream  face.    Run  for  unit  rise. 


MEAN   CONSTANT   COEFFICIENTS    FOR   VARYING   SLOPE   OF   UPSTREAM    FACE. 


I        i    I^S 


Coe-ffl- 
cient 

r. 

0  .1  S.  .3  .4 


Corrected  head  In  feet. 
3  .6  .7  .«  .»         1.0         1.1         l.<         1.3         I.i         1.5 


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Ck>rrected  head  in  feet. 


EXPERIMENTS  OF  BAZIN  ON  WEIRS  OF  TRIANGULAR  SECTION  WITH  VARYING 
UPSTREAM  SLOPE. 

Velocity-of -approach  correction  by  the  Francis  method. 


U.   a.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY  PAPER  NO.   tftO      PL.  XI 


Coeffl- 
clent 
C 
0  a        Jl 


GoiTMted  head  la  feec 
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EXPERI 


MENTS  OF  BAZIN   ON   WEIRS  OF  TRAPEZOIDAL  SECTION   WITH  VARYING 
UPSTREAM  SLOPE. 


U.  8.  QEOLOOICAL  SUKVEY 


WATEH-SUPPLY   PAPEK  NO.   160     PI.  XII 


Ooefll- 
dent 
C. 
0 


Corrected  head  In  feet. 
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Corrected  head  in  feet. 


^   <^0.67' 


EXPERIMENTS  OF  BAZIN  ON  WEIRS  OF  TRAPEZOIDAL  SECTION  WITH  VARYING 

UPSTREAM  SLOPE. 

Velocity-of-approach  correction  by  the  Francis  method.     (See  alto  PI.  XI.) 


WEIRS    OF   IRREGULAR   SECTION.  67 

in   which  there  is  velocity  of  approach  we  may  apply  the  correction 
formula  of  Francis, 


/I=[{D+h)^-'h^lK 


A  sufficient  approximation  to  this  formula  for  our  present  purposes 
ma^^  be  obtained  if  we  simply  make 

where  v  is  the  velocity  of  approach  corresponding  to  the  trial  dis- 
charge for  the  head  />,  no  successive  approximations  being  made,  as 
would  be  necessary  to  determine  the  true  head  II  hj  the  Francis  cor- 
rection formula. 

For  example,  in  an  extreme  case,  using  a  thin-edged  weir 

i>=:1.0,     />=1.0,     V  {sipi^Tox.)j,^=^'^^~  =  1.6^6 

//  =  L==0.(>431     whence     //=  I>+^=  1.0431 , 

and  ^^3.547. 

By  the  Francis  correction  formula  we  tind,  using  three  successive 
approximations, 

^1  =  3.5183  giving  ?;=  1.7591 

(>,=3.5387  giving  t^=1.7694 

^3=3.541  as  the  final  discharge, 

that  the  difference  is  0.11  of  1  per  cent.  We  are  therefore  justified 
in  using  this  method  to  determine  values  of  Cto  two  places  decimals, 
or  to  within  one-fourth  to  one-half  per  cent. 

We  have  also  used  ^l2g=S.02,  as  in  the  reduction  of  the  Cornell 
experiments. 

Column  8  gives  the  corrected  head, 

II=D+h. 
Column  10  gives  the  final  coefficient  (;' deduced  by  the  fornuila 

"-^iir 

Pis-  IV  to  XII  show  the  resulting  discharge  coefficients. 


68        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,    AND   FORMULAS. 
Bcuin^s  experiments  on  weirs  of  irregular  section. 


Bazin's  Series,  No.  86. 
Crest  length,  6.56  feet. 
Crert  height,  2.46  feet. 

J 

CroMi 
H 

lectlon. 

Period. 

Observed 
head, 
experi- 
mental 
weir  /), 
in  feet. 

/>* 

(\ 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 

per 
second. 

r 

tf- 
'20 

^ 

C 

i 

1 

2 

8 

4 

.  _i 

6 

7 

8 

» 

10 

1 

0.1820 

0.0777 

2.7829 

0.2160 

0.082 

0.1820 

0.0777 

2.78 

2 

.2119 

.0976 

2.8712 

.2801 

.105 

.2119 

.0976 

2.87 

3 

.2509 

.  1257 

2.9674 

.3733 

.138 

.2509 

.1257 

2.97 

4 

.2781 

.1466 

2.9754 

.4369 

.159 

.2781 

.1466 

2.98 

6 

.3067 

.1701 

3.0957 

.5273 

.190 

0.0006 

.3078 

.1701 

8.10 

6 

.3392 

.1974 

3.0957 

.6119 

.218 

.0008 

.8400 

.1963 

8.09 

7 

.3678 

.2232 

3.1839 

.7098 

.251 

.0010 

.8688 

.2241 

8.17 

8 

.4016 

.2549 

3.2321 

.8233 

.288 

.0018 

.4029 

.2589 

3.24 

9 

.4251 

.2771 

3.2641 

.9038 

.803 

.0014 

.4266 

.2786 

3.24 

10 

.4527 

.3049 

3.3283 

1.0153 

.8.10 

.0019 

.4646 

.8069 

8.31 

11 

.4770 

.3294 

3.3844 

1.1137 

.379 

.0022 

.4792 

.8316 

3.36 

12 

.6075 

.8616 

3.4406 

1.2449 

.420 

.0027 

.5102 

.8642 

8.42 

18 

.5360 

.3924 

3.4807 

1.3656 

.465 

.0033 

.5398 

.3957 

8.45 

14 

.5639  ,  .4236 

3.5868 

1.4992 

.4S6 

.0039 

.6678 

.4280 

8.50 

15 

.5973 

.4618 

3.6930 

1.6661 

.542 

.0046 

.6018 

.4671 

8.54 

16 

a.  5804 

.3858 

8.4666 

1.8349 

.446 

.0081 

.6335 

.8897 

8.42 

17 

0.6032 

.4683 

3.4486 

1.6166 

.528 

.0044 

.6076 

.4740 

8.41 

18 

a.6347 

.5060 

3.4646 

1.7608 

.566 

.0061 

.6898 

.5120 

8.42 

Bazin 

8  Series.  1» 

Jo.  89. 

"^r 

y 

Crest 
Crest 

ength,  6.66feet. 
Iieight.  2.46  feet. 

1 

Crow  section. 

1 

0.2079 

0.0948 

2. 7669 

0.2626 

0.098 

0.2379 

0.09^ 

2.77     1 

2 

.2873 

.1538 

2.7669 

.4260 

.165 

.2873 

.1588 

2.77     , 

3 

.3641 

.2196 

2.7669 

.6083 

.216 

0.0008 

.3649 

.2206 

2.76 

4 

.4387 

.2859 

2.8280 

.8062 

.279 

.0012 

.4349 

.2869 

2.81 

6 

.4963 

.3494 

2.8792 

1.0063 

.340 

.0018 

.4981 

.8515 

2,86 

6 

.5619 

.4213 

2,9(574 

1.2513 

.414 

.0026 

.6635 

.4286 

2.96 

7 

.6831 

.6036 

3.0476 

1.6860 

.498 

.0039 

.6370 

.5084 

8.02 

K 

.6890 

.67195 

3.0877 

1.7678 

.5<» 

.0049 

.6939 

.5782 

3.0ti 

9 

.7490 

.6482 

3. 1679 

2.0548 

.640 

.0064 

.7564 

.6561 

8.18 

10 

.7985     .7135 

3.2160 

2.2975 

.706 

.0078 

.806!) 

.7236 

3.18 

11 

.8546     .7906 

3.2962 

2.6090 

.785 

.0097 

.8648 

.8081 

8.25 

12 

.9228     .K867 

3.3524 

2.9701 

.879 

.0120 

.9348 

.9W1 

s.-i«  1 

13 

.9648     .9479 

3.4826 

S.2513 

.»t9 

.0140 

.9788 

.9687 

3.36 

14 

1.0236   1.0362 

3.4887 

3.6163 

1.038 

.01(« 

1.0404 

1.0606 

3.41     1 

15 

1.0784   1.1193 

3.5288 

3.9511 

1.118 

.0195 

1.0979 

1.1506 

8.43    j 

U\ 

1.1312   1.2028 

3.5849 

4.3060 

1.201 

.0224 

1.1536 

1.2396 

8.47    1 

17 

1.1866   1.2932 

3.6331 

4.6943 

1.292 

.0259 

1.2125 

1.8359 

8.51 

18 

1. 2375  1. 3767 

3.6732 

5. 0)26 

1.364 

'.0288 

1.2663 

1.4246 

3.54 

19 

1.2959   1.47M 

3. 7052 

5.4737 

1.456 

.0331 

1.3290 

1.5821 

8.57 

20 

a  1.0807   1.1239 

3. 5368 

3.9786 

1.122 

.0196 

1.1002 

1.1687 

8.45 

21 

a  1.1587  !l.2477 

3.5448 

4. 4169 

1.219 

.0281 

1.1818 

1.2850 

8.44 

a  Nappe  free  from  the  crest 


WEIRS   OF   IRREOCLaR   SECTION. 


69 


Bazin*s  experiments  an  weirs  of  irregular  section— Continued. 


Bazin'B  Sciries,  No.  113. 
Creit  height,  2.463  feet. 


:_!. 


(>OM  wrtlon. 


! 

1  Period. 

I 


ObBcnred 
head,    i 
expert-  j 
mental 
weir  D, 
In  feet. 


3 

4 
h 
6 
I 

8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 


0.208 
.289 


.443 

.518 
.592 
.667 
.736 
.805 


I^    I  c, 


0.0948 
.1554 
.2187 
.2949 
.3728 
.4555 
.5447 
.6314 
.7223 
.8017 
.9066 
.989  '  .9835 
1.055  1.0530 
1.076  |l.ll62 
1. 114  'l.  1768 
1.159  !l.2478 
1.197  1.3096 
1.252  1.4009 
1.320  .1.5166 


2.64 
2.66 
2.66 
2.65 
2.66 
2.64 
2.71 
2.76 
2.78 
2.80 
2.85 
2.88 
2.91 
2.94 
2.96 
8.00 
3.01 
3.06 
3.11 


Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  In 
cubic  feet 
per  , 
second.  , 


0.2503 

.4184 

.5817 

.7815 

.9916 

1.2025 

1.4761 

1.7964 

2.0080 

2.2441 

2.5810 

2.8325 

3.aMl 

3.2816 

3.4686 

3.7434 

3.9419 

4.2868 

4.7166 


'i0 


.821 

.872 

.925 

.968  I 

1.032  ' 

1.076  ' 

1.164  I 

1.246  < 


1    «~ 

! 

7 

0.206 

0.0007 

.269 

.0011 

.332 

.0017 

.392 

.0024 

.472 

.0034 

1   .M2 

.0045 

.612 

.0068 

,   .672 

.0070 

.758 

.0090 

H     ^     H^  C      I 


.0105  I 
.0118  ' 
.0132  I 
.0143 
.0165  i 
.0179  ' 
.0206 
.0243 


8 

e 

10 

0.208 

0,09484 

2.68 

.289 

.1562 

2.ri6 

.8637 

.2196 

2.65 

.4441 

.296 

2.64 

.5197 

.375 

2.64 

.5944 

.4578 

2.68 

.67(M 

.549 

2.69 

.74a'> 

.6377 

2.r2 

.8108 

.7303 

2.75 

.8700 

.8115 

2.77 

.9450 

.91865 

2.81 

.9995 

.9925 

2.84 

1.0468 

1.068 

2.86 

1.0892 

1.1364 

2.88 

1.1283 

1.1980 

2.88 

1.1755 

1.274 

2.93 

1.2149 

1.339 

2.94 

1.2726 

1.436 

2.98 

1.3413 

1.558 

3.03 

I 


Bazln's  Series,  No.  114. 
Crest  height,  2.46  feet 


CroM  Bectlon. 

1 

0.204 

0.0921 

2.47 

0.2275 

0.a56 

0.204  jo.  0921 

2.47 

2 

.280 

.1482 

2.54 

.3764 

.137 

.280  !  .1482 

2.64 

3 

.352 

.2069 

2.69 

.5411 

.193 

0.0006 

.3626  .2097 

2.58 

4 

.433 

.28497 

2.60 

.7409 

.256 

.0011 

.4»11   .2860 

2.59 

5 

.604 

.3578 

2.59 

.9267 

.318 

.0016 

.5a')5  I  .a'i94 

2.58 

6 

.578 

.4394 

2.60 

1. 1424 

.376 

.0022 

.5802 

.4417 

2.59 

7 

.657 

.6325 

2.62 

1.3952 

.446 

.0031 

.6601 

.5362 

2.60 

8 

.735 

.6302 

2.68 

1.6511 

.517 

.0(M2 

.7392  .6353 

2.69 

9 

.810 

.7290 

2.63 

1.9173 

.587 

.0064 

.8154  .7358 

2.60 

10 

.882 

.8283 

2.65 

2.1960 

.656 

.0068 

.8888  .8381 

2.62 

11 

.958 

.9377 

2.66 

2.4943 

.728 

.0083 

.9663  .»194 

2.63 

12 

1.034 

1.0511 

2.68 

2.8178 

.806 

.0102 

1.0442  1.0667 

2.64 

i   13 

1.112 

lATZI 

2.69 

3.1516 

.883 

.0120 

1. 1240 

1. 1917 

2.65 

14  . 

1.171 

1.2672 

2.70 

3. 4214 

.941 

.0137 

1.1847 

1.2899 

2.65 

15 

1.243 

1.3866 

2.73 

3.7832 

1.021 

.0161 

1.2591 

1.4127 

2.67 

1   ^« 

1.301 

1.4rf^ 

2.73 

4.0510 

1.078 

.0181 

1.3191 

1.5149 

2.66 

17 

1.S84 

1.6282 

2.76 

4.4938 

1.168 

.0213 

1.4053 

1.6654 

2.70 

70 


WEIR    EXPERIMKNT8,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


Bazin^a  exp^ments  on  wetra  of  irregular  aedion — Continued. 


Bazin's  Series,  No.  115. 
Crest  height,  2.46  feet. 


Period 


Observed 
I  head, 
experi- 
I  mental 
I  weirD, 
I  in  feet. 


1 

0.196 

2 

.264 

3 

.:M2 

4 

.415 

'   5 

.495 

6 

.566 

7   1 

.638 

8   ' 

.716 

9 

.792 

10   i 

.871 

11 

.M8 

12 

1.023 

13 

1.097 

14 

1.178 

15   ' 

1.260 

16 

1.330 

17   1 

1.388 

18   . 

1.424 

19 

1.467 

D» 


CroBB  section. 


Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 
per 
second. 


t' 

2^ 

// 

6 

7 

8 

7/« 


0.0868 

2.25 

0.1963 

0.073 

.1357 

2.41 

.8270 

.120 

.2001 

2. 45 

.4902 

.175 

.2674 

2.51 

.6712 

.233 

.34*3 

2.50 

.8708 

.290 

I  .4258 

2.55 

1.0858 

.858 

.5096 

2.54 

1.2944 

.418 

.6069 

2.56 

1.5511 

.487 

.7049 

2.60 

1.8327 

.563 

.8129 

2.60 

2.1ia5  1 

.634 

.9230 

2.60 

2.4098  ' 

.706 

1.0347 

2.61 

2.7006  ' 

.775 

1.1490 

2.63 

8.0219  I 

.849 

1.2786 

2.64 

3.3765  1 

.928 

1.4144 

2.65 

3. 7482 

1.009 

1.5388 

2.68 

4.1106 

1.085 

1.6363 

2.69 

4.3990 

1.144 

1.6993 

2.70 

4.5881 

1.18 

11.7768 

2.70 

4.797 

1.26 

I 


0.0005 
.0008 
.0013 
.0020 
.0027 
.0037 
.0049 
.0062 
.0078 
.0095 
.0112 
.0134 
.0159 
.0181 
.0202 
.0216 
.0247 


0.196 
.264 
.3425 
.4158 
.4963 
.5680 
.6407 
.7197 
.7969 
.8782 
.9558 
1.0325 
1.1089 
1.1914 
1.276 
1.348 
1.408 
1. 446 
1.492 


0.0868 

.1357 

.2005 

.2683 

.3494 

.42H 

.5132 

.6109 

.7115 

.8227 

.9347 

1.0491 

1.1679 

1.2997 

1.4414 

1.5<'.51 

1. 6707 

1.7388 

1.8225 


10 

2.25 
2.41 
2.44 
2.50 
2.49 
2.51 
2.52 
2.54 
2.58 
2.57 
2. 58 
2.57 
2.58 
2.59 
2.58 
2.62 
2.62 
2.64 
2.63 


Bazin's  Series,  No.  116. 
Great  height,  2.46  feet. 


Crom  section. 


1 

0.177 

0.0745 

2.71 

2 

.225 

.1068 

2.83 

3 

.296 

.1611 

2.90 

4 

.367 

.•2224 

2.92 

5 

.4*5 

.2870 

2.95 

6 

.504 

.S.'i/S 

2.98 

7 

.537 

.  39:^5 

2.99 

8 

.639 

.5108 

3.01 

9 

.713 

.6021 

8.00 

10 

.781 

.6902 

3.00 

11 

.849 

.7823 

3.02 

12 

.917 

.8781 

3.02 

13 

.986 

.9791 

3.a5 

14 

1.053 

1.08a5 

3.06 

15 

1.120 

1.1853 

3.08 

16 

1.  IK-) 

1.28995 

3.09 

17 

1.251 

1.3992 

3.10 

■  18 

1.317 

1.5114 

3.12 

0.2019 

.3022 

.4672 

.6494 

.8467 

1.0662 

1.1776 

1.5375 

1.8063 

2.070(5 

2.3625 

2.6519 

2.9863 

3.3063 

3.6507 

3.98.^9 

4. 3375 

4.7156 


0.076 

.112 

.169 

.229 

.292 

.360 

.392 

.497 

.569 

.640 

.713 

.793 

.864 

.942 

1.019 

1.092 

1.169 

1.2.W 


0. 177 

.225 

.296 

I    .8678 

.4363 

.5060 

.5394 

.6429 

.  7181 

.7874 

.8568 

.9267 

.9975 

1.0667 

1.1362 

1.2035 

2723 

.0243  I  1.8418 


0.0008 
.0013 
.0020 
.0024 
.0039 
.0051 
.0064 
.0078 
.0097 
.0116 
.0137 
.0162 
.0185 


021. \  Is 


0.0745 

.1068 

.1611 

.2232 

.2879 

.3599 

.3957 

.5156 

.6084 

.6982 

.7933 

.8925 

.9963 

1.1021 

1.2108 

1.3203 

1.4346 

1.5529 


2.71 
2.83 
2.90 
2.91 
2.»4 
2.96 
2.98 
2.98 
2.97 
2.96 
2.98 
2.97 
3.00 
3.00 
3. 02 
3.02 
3.02 
3.04 


WEIB8   OF   IKBEOULAR   SECTION. 


7] 


BazivCs  experiments  on  veirs  of  irregular  section — Continued. 

Basin'8  Series.  No.  117.  ^***^^P^^M^  j 

Crest  height.  2.46  feet.  ^"    /^         >  >  ♦ 


CroMMctlon. 


ObBcrved 
I    head. 

I  weiri>, 
in  feet. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

U 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 


/;« 


0.158  |0. 06282 
.201     .09212 
.'289  I  .15M 
.361     .21691 
.27808 
.34724 
.42134 
.5060 
.59678  ^ 
.67702  j 
.76168  ! 
.87096 
.96352 
1.0976 
1.1996 
1.3096 
1.4262 


.426 

.494 

.562 

.635 

.708 

.771 

.834 

.912 

.989 

1.061 

1.129 

1.197 

1.267 

1.336 


1.5442 


2.19 
2.64 
2.57 
2.65 
2.73 
2.77 
2.83 
2.82 
2.86 
2.89 
2.91 
2.98 
2.95 
2.95 
2.95 
2.97 
2.98 
2.99 


Q,  flow 
per  fool, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 

per 
second. 


0. 137C 

.2432 

.3994 

.5126 

.  7592 

.9619 

1.1924 

1.4267  j 

1.7049 

1.9666  I 

2.2156  I 

2.5519  I 

2.9014  I 

3.2376  I 

8.5388 

3.8896  I 

4.2501  ' 

4.6172  ! 


2g 


0.043 



.091 

.145 

.182 

0.0005 

.263 

.0011 

.321 

.0016 

.395 

.0025 

.461 

.0033 

.539 

.0045 

.606 

.674 

.758 

.841 

.919 

.987 

1.062 

1.139 

1.214  ! 


.0068 
.0070 
.0090 
.0110 
.0132 
.0152 
.0176 
.0202 
.022S 


7/ 


0. 158 
.204 
.289 
.3615  I 
.4271  I 
.4956 
.5646 
.6383  I 
.7125 
.7768  I 
.8410  I 
.9210 

1.0000  I 

1.0772 
1.1442 
1.2145  I 
1.2872  I 
1.35HS 


jn 


0.0628 

.0921 

.1554 

.2178 

.2791 

.3493 

.4247 

.5096 

.6020  I 

.  6849  , 

. 7713  1 

.8839  j 

1.0000 

1.1177  ' 

1.2236  ! 

1.3392  I 

1.4601  j 

1.5842  ! 


1 
c 

\ 
1 

1   10 

I-     - 

'  2.19 

2.64 
2.56 
2.35 
2.72 
2.76 
2.81 
2.80 
2.83 
2.86 
2.87 
2.89 
2.90 
2.90 
2.89 
2.90 
2.91 
2.91 


Bacin'B  Series.  No.  136. 
Crest  length,  6.519  feet. 
Crest  height,  2.46  feet. 


Crow  Boctlon. 


1 

0.188 

0.0783 

3.90 

0.306 

0.12 

0.0002 

0. 1832 

0.0783 

3.90 

2 

.244 

.1206 

3.86 

.467 

.17 

.0004 

.2444 

.1206 

8.87 

f    » 

.804 

.1676 

3.86 

.647 

.23 

.0008 

.3048 

.1684 

8.84 

4 

.364 

.2196 

3.86 

.849 

.30 

.0014 

.3654 

.2206 

8.85 

5 

.424 

.2761 

3.88 

1.071  1 

.37 

.0021 

.4261 

.2781 

3.85 

6 

.484 

.3367 

3.87 

1.804 

.44 

.0030 

.4870- 

.3399 

3.84 

7 

.642 

.3990 

8.88 

1.548  1 

.52 

.0042 

.5462 

.4035 

8.84 

8 

.597 

.4610 

3.89 

1.798 

.59 

.0064 

.6024 

.4671 

8.84 

9 

.658 

.5338 

3.91 

2.088 

.67 

.0070 

.6650 

.5423 

8.85 

10 

.713 

.6021 

8.92 

2.360 

.74 

.0085 

.7215 

.6135 

3.85 

11 

.776 

.6836 

8.93 

2.684 

.83 

.0107 

.7867 

.6982 

3.W 

12 

.830 

.7562 

3.97 

8.001 

.91 

.0129 

.8427 

.7740 

3.88 

13 

.887 

.8354 

3.96 

3.300  1 

.99 

.0152 

.9022 

.8667 

3.85 

14 

.963 

.9808 

3.98 

3.701  j 

1.06 

.0181 

.9711 

.9568 

3.87 

15 

1.010 

1.0150 

3.97 

4.029 

1.16 

.0209 

1.0309 

1.0468 

3.85 

16 

1.068 

1.1087 

4.00 

4.417 

1.25 

.0243 

1.0923 

1.1411 

3.87 

17 

1.122 

1.1886 

3.99 

4.748  ' 

1.33 

.0275 

1.1495 

1.2316 

8.8(i 

18 

1.179 

1.2802 

4.01 

5.133 

1.41 

.0309 

1.2099 

1.3310 

3.86 

19 

1.244 

1.3875 

4.01 

6.564 

1.60 

.0850 

1.2790 

1.4446 

3.86 

20 

1.299 

1.4806 

4.01 

6.935 

1.68 

.0388 

1.3378 

1.5477 

3.84 

« 

1.361 

1.5878 

4.03 

6.408 

1.68 

.0439 

1.4W9 

1.6654 

3.86 

72         WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

Bazin's  experiments  on  iDeirs  of  irregular  section — Continaed. 

Bazin's  Series,  No.  187.                                                                ~J^^!&' 
Crest  length,  6.523  feet.                                                                     *f^^^^9>>^ 
Crest  height,  2.46  feet.  *v///////////?fft^ 

CroM  section. 


Period. 

Observed 
bead, 
experi- 
mental 
weir  A 
in  feel. 

8 

0.1388 

(^1 

4 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 

t' 

1^ 
2i7 

// 

8 
0.2686 

h\ 

C 

1 

2 

0.268 

6 

6 

0.18 

7 

0 

11 

1 

8.47 

0.482 

0.0006 

0.1395 

3.46 

2 

.332 

.1974 

3.45 

.680 

.24 

.0009 

.3329 

.1922 

3.M 

3 

.391 

.2445 

3.50 

.856 

.30 

.0014 

.3924 

.2454 

8.49 

4 

.451 

.3029 

3.47 

1.051 

.86 

.0020 

.4530 

.8049 

3.45 

5 

.513 

.3674 

8.63 

1.295 

.44 

.0080 

.6160 

.3707 

8.49 

6 

.578 

.4394 

3.51 

1.540 

.61 

.0040 

.6820 

.4440 

8.47 

7 

.637 

.6084 

8.51 

1.783 

.67 

.0061 

.6421 

.5144 

3.47 

8 

.700 

.6857 

3.55 

2.080 

.66 

.0068 

.7068 

.6945 

3.50 

9 

.766 

.6692 

3.56 

2.382 

.74 

.0085 

.7735 

.6797 

8.60 

10 

.822 

.7452 

8.56 

2.652 

.81 

.0102 

.8322 

.7589 

3.49 

11 

.8S7 

.8354 

3.56 

2.978 

.89 

.0123 

.8993 

.8524 

3.49 

12 

.946 

.9201 

3.62 

3.334 

.98 

.0149 

.9609 

.9420 

3.54 

13 

1.012 

1.0180 

3.59 

8.662 

1.05 

.0171 

1.0291 

1.0438 

3.61 

14 

1.078 

1.1198 

3.61 

4.013 

1.14 

.0202 

1.0982 

1.1506 

3.51 

16 

1.142 

1.2204 

3.60 

4.392 

1.22 

.0231 

1.1651 

1.2575 

8.49 

16 

1.201 

1.8162 

3.62 

4.778 

1.30 

.0268 

1.2273 

1.3591 

3.52 

17 

1.262 

1.4178 

8.62 

5.140 

1.38 

.0296 

1.2916 

1.4686 

3.50 

18 

1.322 

1.6200 

3.64 

5.533 

1.46 

.0331 

1.3661 

1.6773 

3.51 

Bazin's  Serief*.  No.  188. 
Crest  length,  6.632  feet. 
Crest  height,  1.64  feet. 


CroM  Mctton. 


1 

0.194 

2 

.283 

3 

.327 

4 

.391 

6 

.447 

6 

.610 

7 

.671 

8 

.626 

9 

.685 

10 

.745 

11 

.807 

12 

.873 

13 

.927 

14 

.992 

16 

1.015 

16 

1.110 

17 

1.176 

18 

1.233 

19 

1.289 

20 

1.355 

21 

1.429 

0.0854 

.1349 

.1870 

.2445 

.2989 

.8642 

.4314 

.4963 

.5670 

.6431 

.7250 

.8157 

.8926 

.9880 

1.0683 

1.1695 

1.2753 

1.3691 

1.4645 

1. 5773 

1.7082 


3.57 
3.50 
3.48 
8.50 
8.66 
8.63 
3.62 
3.71 
8.66 
3.69 
3.70 
8.72 
3.72 
3.76 
3.80 
8.78 
3.79 
3.81 
3.82 
8.82 
3.83 


0.306 
.473 
.651 
.868 
1.064 
1.S21 
1.660 
1.838  j 
2.076 
2.873 
2.683 
3.086 
8.318 
8.715 
4.060 
4.422 
4.851 
6.220 
6.577 
6.036 
6.542 


0.17 

.26 

.83 

.42 

.60 

.61 

.70 

.81 

.89 

.99 

1.09 

1.21 

1.29 

1.41 

1.51 

1.61 

1.72 

1.82 

1.90 

2.01 

2.13 


0.0004 
.0010 
.0017 
.0027 
.0089 
.0068 
.0076 
.0102 
.0123 
.0152 
.0185 
.0228 
.0259 
.0309 
.0354 
.0403 
.0460 
.0516 
.0561 
.0628 
.0705 


0.1944 

0.0854 

.2640 

.1357 

.8287 

.1887 

.8987 

.2473 

.4519 

.3039 

.5158 

.3706 

.5786 

.4405 

.6362 

.5072 

.6973 

.6820 

.7602 

.6626 
nun 

.9529 
1.0229 
1.0804 
1.1603 
1.2220 
1.2846 
1.3461 
1.4178 
1.4996 


.8481 
.9303  I 
1.0347 
1.1224 
1.2832 
1.3508  I 
1.4650  I 
1.5599 
1.6886  I 
1.8862  i 


3.57 
8.48 
3.46 
3.47 
3.50 
8.56 
8.54 
3.62 
3.56 
3.58 
3.57 
8.58 
8.56 
8.59 
8.62 
8.58 
3.59 
8.69 
3.68 
8.57 
8.66 


WEIRS   OF  IRREGULAR   SECTION. 


73 


Ba2m*8  ejcperiments  an  wevrs  of  irregular  gection — Continued. 

Basin's  Series,  No.  145. 

Crest  length.  6.M1  feet. 

Crest  height.  1.64  feet. 

OrowMctlon. 


Period. 


8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 


Observed 
head, 
experi- 
mental 
weir  D, 
in  feet. 


0.859 

.424 

.479 

.547 

.592 

.658 

.720 

.781 

.835 

.902 

.962 

1.032 

1.087 

1. 152 

1.210 

1.274 

i.3:m 

1.396 
1.467 


0.2151 

.2761 

.3315 

.4046 

.4636 

.5338 

.6109 

.6902 

.7631 

.8567 

.9435 

1.0484 

1.1333 

1.2364 

1.3310 

1.4380 

1.5408 

1.6494 

1.7768 


Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 

I      P®"^^ 
I  second. 


3.02 
3.10 
3.18 
3.25 
3.35 
3.38 
3.42 
3.47 
3.49 
3.53 
3.53 
3.53 
3.58 
3.58 
3.61 
3.61 
3.62 
3.64 
3.64 


I 


0.649 
.856 
1.053 
1.316 
1.558 
1.805 
2.090 
2.394 
2.668 
3.025 
3.332 
8.707 
4.045 
4.408 
4.801 
5.198 
5.575 
6.006 
6.479 


0.32 

.50  I 

.60  I 

.69 

.78 

.89  ' 

.99 

1.07 

1.19 

1.28 

1.39  ' 

1.48 

1.58 

1.68 

1.78 

1.88 

1.98 

2.09 


0.0016 
.0027 
.0039 
.0056 
.0071 
•0095 
.0123 
.0152 
.0178 
.0220 
.0265 
.0300 
.0341 
.0888 
.0489 
.0493 
.0549 
.0609 
.0679 


H 


7/3 


10 


0.3606 

0.2169 

2.99 

.4267 

.2790 

3.07 

.4809 

.3885 

3.16 

.5526 

.4112 

8.20 

.5994 

.4686 

8.33 

.6676 

.5447 

3.31 

.7323 

.6263 

8.34 

.7962 

.7102 

3.37 

.8528 

.7878 

8.38 

.9240 

.8882 

8.41 

.9875 

.9806 

3.40 

1.0620 

1.0944 

3.39 

1. 1211 

1.1869 

8.41 

1.1908 

1.2997 

3.89 

1.'2539 

1.4042 

8.42 

1.3238 

1. 521S 

3.42 

1.3889 

1.6370 

8.40 

1.4569 

1.7586 

3.42 

1.5349 

1.9016 

3.41 

Bazin's  Series,  No.  141. 
(^rest  length.  6.520  feet. 
Crvst  height,  2.46  feet. 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
IH 
19 
JO 


0.216 
.281 
.865 
.425 
.489 
.561 
.624 
.692 
.758 
.822 
.888 
.956 
1.029 
1.113 
1.165 
1.237  , 
1.298 
1.369  ' 
1.431 
1.463  ! 


0.0997 
.1490 
.2116 
.2771 
.3420  ! 
.4202 
.4929 
.5757  I 
.6600  I 
.7462  ' 
.8368 
.9347 
1.0438 
1. 1742 
1.2575 
1.3758  I 
1.4788  , 
1.6018  I 
1.7118 
1.7696 


Cross  Mctloii. 


8.02 

0.301 

O.ll 

0.0002 

0.2152 

0.0997 

8.02 

3.09 

.460 

.17 

.0004 

.2814 

.1490 

3.09 

3.07 

.660 

.24 

.0009 

.3559 

.2124 

8.06 

3.(M 

.842 

.29 

.0013 

.4263 

.2781 

3.02 

3.08 

1.053 

.37 

.0021 

.4911 

.3441 

8.06 

3.08 

1.294 

.43 

.0029 

.6639 

.4236 

8.06 

3.17 

1.562 

.51 

.0040 

.6280 

.4976 

3.14 

3.11 

1.791 

.57 

.0051 

.6971 

.5820 

3.06 

3.12 

2.a59 

.64 

.0064 

.7644 

.6678 

3.08 

3.15 

2.347 

.72 

.0081 

.8301 

.7562 

3.10 

8.17 

2.653 

.79 

.0097 

.8977 

.8509 

3.12 

3.19 

2.983 

.87 

.0118 

.9678 

.9523 

8.13 

3.17 

3.809 

.95 

.0140 

1.04,30 

1.0652 

3.12 

3.20 

3.767 

1.04 

.oir>8 

1.1298 

1.2012 

3.13 

3.21 

4.045 

1.12 

.0195 

1.1845 

1.2884 

3.14 

3.20 

4.416 

1.19 

.0220 

1.2590 

1. 4127 

3.13 

3.22 

4.7(» 

1.27 

.0251 

1.3281 

1.6218 

3.13 

3.22 

5. 152 

I.:i4 

.0279 

1.3969 

1.6.511 

3.12 

3.24 

5.540 

1.12 

.0313 

1.4023 

1.7677 

3.13 

3.25 

5. 752 

1.47 

.03:v» 

1.4966 

1.8307 

3.14 

IRR  150—06 7 


74  WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

BaziiVg  experiments  on  iveirs  of  irregular  section — Continued. 


Bazin 

Crest 

B  Series,  > 
length,  6.5 
height.  2.4 

Observed 
head, 
experi- 
mental 
weir  D, 
in  feet. 

•  o.  142. 
23  feet. 
6  feet. 

^    T' 

iM 

Crest 

Cron  section. 

Period. 

d 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  In 
cubic  feet 

per 
Becond. 

V 

2g 

H 

^ 

c 

' 

2 

8 

_*_ 

6 

«_ 

7 

8             9 

10 

1 

0.300 

0.1643 

2.88 

0.464 

0.17 

O.OOM 

0.3004     0.1648 

2.82 

2 

.369 

.2242 

2.87 

.643 

.23 

.0008 

.3698  ,     .2251 

2.86     . 

3 

.447 

.2989 

2.87 

.a5i 

.29 

.0013 

.4483  I     .2999 

2.84     1 

4 

.509 

.3631 

2.86 

1.038 

.35 

.0019 

.5109       .3652 

2.84 

5 

.591 

.4544 

2.88 

1.308 

.43 

.0029 

..•ygsg  |   .4578 

2.86 

6 

.666 

.5485 

2.86 

1.554 

.50 

.0089 

.6699       .5184 

2.88 

7 

.727 

.6199 

2.92 

1.810 

.67 

.0051 

.7327       .6263 

2.89 

8 

.795 

.7089 

2.94 

2.084 

.64 

.0064 

.8014       .7155 

2.91 

9 

.861 

.7989 

2.94 

2.349 

.71 

.0078 

.8688       .8101 

2.90 

10 

.984 

.9027 

2.95 

2.664 

.78 

.0095 

.9435;     .9158 

2.91     < 

11 

1.007 

1.0105 

2.96 

2.980 

.86 

.0115 

1.0185     1.0286 

2.89 

12 

1.079 

1.1208 

2.98 

3.338 

.94 

.0137 

1.0927     1.1427 

2.92 

13 

1.149 

1.2316 

2.98 

3.665 

1.01 

.0159 

1.1649     1.2575 

2.92 

14 

1.222 

1.3508 

2.99 

4.087 

1.10 

.0188 

1.2408     1.3824 

2.92 

15 

1.285 

1.4567 

3.00 

4.870 

1.17 

.0213 

1.8063     1.4925 

2.98 

16 

1.362 

l..'i895 

8.00 

4.770 

1.25 

.0243 

1.3863     1.6317 

2.92 

17 

1.480 

1.7100 

8.01 

5.147 

1.30 

.0263 

1.4563     1.7569 

2.93 

Bazln 
Crest 

R  Series,  > 
ength,  6.5 
lieight,  1.6 

ro.  139. 
82  feet. 
4  feet. 

~^'\^^ 

Crest  ] 

1 

0.190 

0.0828 

8.66 

0.803 

0.17 

0.0004 

0.19M 

0.0828 

3.66 

2 

.253 

.1278 

3.68 

.467 

.25 

.0010 

.2540 

.1280 

8.65 

3 

.312 

.1743 

3.72 

.647 

.33 

.0017 

.3137 

.1769 

3.68 

4 

.375 

.2297 

3.66 

.Ml 

.42 

.0027 

.3777 

.2823 

8.62 

5 

.434 

.2860 

3.73 

1.067 

.52 

.0(M2 

.4382  ;     .2899 

3.68 

6 

.500 

.3586 

3.72 

1.317 

.62 

.0060 

.5060 

.8600 

3.6.  ' 

7 

.552 

.4101 

8.78 

1.550 

.71 

.0078 

.5598 

.4191 

3.70 

8 

.615 

.4823 

3.76 

1. 812 

.80 

.0099 

.6249 

.4941 

3.67    ' 

9 

.667 

.5447 

3.82 

2.081 

.90 

.0126 

.6796 

.5607 

3.71 

10 

.733 

.6276 

3.79 

2.880 

1.00 

.01&-) 

.7485  1     .6482 

3.67 

11 

.798 

.7128 

3.80 

2.709 

1.11 

.0192 

.81?2       .7385 

3.67 

12 

.852 

.7865 

3.84 

3. 022 

1.21 

.0228 

.8748       .8185 

3.69  : 

13 

.915 

.8753 

3.86 

3.378 

1.32 

.0271 

.9421  i     .9143 

3.68    ' 

14 

.969 

.9538 

3.87 

3. 692 

1.41 

.0309 

.9961        .9940 

8.71 

15 

1. 023 

1.0347 

3.92 

4.038 

1.52 

.0359 

1.0589     1.0897 

8.71 

16 

1.092 

1.1411 

3.90 

4.446 

1.63 

.0413 

1.1833     1.2060 

8.68 

17 

1.  lol 

1.2348 

3.90 

4.816 

1.72 

.0460 

1.1970     1.3096 

3.68 

18 

1.210 

1.3:«0 

3.94 

5. 240 

1.84 

.aV26 

1.2626  '  1.4194 

8.69 

19 

1.268 

1.4110 

3. 95 

5. 570 

1.92 

.0573 

1.3153     1.5080 

3.69 

20 

1.326 

1. 5269 

3.93 

6.013 

2. 03 

.0641 

1.3901      1.6388 

3.67    ' 

21 

1.3W 

1.6459 

3.93 

n.48.1 

•-,3 

.  O/W) 

1.4645     1.7714 

3.6<i 



WE1B8   OF   IBKEOULAB  SECTIOir. 


75 


Bonn's  experiments  on  weirs  of  irregular  section — Continued. 

Badn'B  Series,  No.  140.  " 

Crest  length,  6.5S2  feet 
Crest  height,  1.64  feet. 


Period. 

Observed 

expe^- 
mental 
weirD, 
in  feet. 

i>» 

Ci 

Q,flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 

per 
second. 

r 

«« 
^ 

H 

H^ 

C 

1 

2 

8 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

3.74 

1 

0.192 

0.0885 

3.77 

0.815 

0.17 

0.0004 

0.1924 

0.0841 

2 

.252 

.1265 

S.74 

.478 

.25 

.0010 

.2530 

.1273 

8.72 

-    3 

.308 

.1709 

3.75 

.641 

.33 

.0017 

.8097 

.1726 

3.71 

4 

.371 

.2260 

3.71 

.838 

.42 

.0027 

.3727 

.2278 

3.68 

6 

.436 

.2879 

3.77 

1.086 

.62 

.0042 

.4102 

.2919 

3.T2 

6 

.488 

.3399 

3.74 

1.276 

.60 

.0056 

.4936 

.3472 

8.66 

7 

.549 

.4068 

8.81 

1.551 

.71 

.0078 

.5668 

.4157 

8.73 

8 

.604 

.4694 

8.82 

1.792 

.80 

.0099 

.6189 

.4811 

3.72 

9 

.664 

.5411 

3.83 

2.072 

.90 

.0126 

.6766 

.6670 

8.72 

10 

.719 

.6096 

3.84 

2.342 

.99 

.0162 

.7842 

.6289 

8.72 

11 

.786 

.6956 

3.88 

2.700 

l.U 

.0192 

.8042 

.7209 

8.74 

12 

.837 

.7668 

3.88 

2.968 

1.20 

.0224 

.8504 

.7961 

8.73 

IB 

.905 

.8610 

3.92 

3.375 

1.32 

.0271 

.9321 

.8996 

3.75 

14 

.961 

.9421 

8.90 

3.674 

1.41 

.0809 

.9919 

.9880 

3.72 

15 

1.028 

1.0347 

3.95 

4.069 

1.53 

.0864 

1.0694 

1.0698 

8.78 

16 

1.060 

1.1224 

8.93 

4.402 

1.62 

.0406 

1.1208 

1.1869 

3.71 

17 

1.148 

1.2220 

3.97 

4.843 

1.74 

.0471 

1.1901 

1.2961 

3.78 

18 

1.195 

1.3068 

3.96 

5.187 

1.88 

.0521 

1.2471 

1.3925 

3.72 

19 

1.254 

1.4043 

3.97 

5.558 

1.92 

.0678 

1.3113 

1.60U 

8.70 

20 

1.316 

1.5097 

3.99 

6.024 

2.03 

.0641 

1.8801 

1.6211 

3.72 

« 

1.375 

1.6123 

4.01 

6.456 

2.14 

.0712 

1.4462 

1.7888 

8.71 

Baziu's  Series,  No.  147. 
Crest  length,  6.586  feet. 
Crest  height.  2.46  feet. 


OromweeOon, 


1 
2 
3 
4 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
1*1 
20 
21 


0.231 

0.1110 

.306 

.1709 

.378 

.2278 

.438 

.2899 

.508 

.956» 

.569 

.4292 

.687 

.5084 

.6«1 

.5620 

.734 

.6289 

.797 

.7116 

.M6 

.7768 

.898 

.8510 

.953 

.9808 

1.015 

1.0226 

1.068 

1.0960 

1.116 

1.1774 

1.165 

1.2575 

1.217 

1.3426 

1.265 

1.4228 

1.332 

1.5873 

1.394 

1.6159 

2.75 

2.85 

2.86 

2.97 

3.02 

3.18 

3.20 

3.24 

3.34  I 

3.40 

3.44  I 

3.53 

3.57 

3.63 

3.67 

3.73 

3.79 

3.83 

3,85 

3.89 

3.98 


0.306 

0.11 

0.0002 

.485 

.18 

.0005 

.662 

.23 

.0008 

.861 

.80 

.0014 

1.078 

.37 

.0021 

1.848 

.44 

.0080 

1.626 

.64 

.0045 

1.821 

.58 

.0052 

2.109 

.66 

.0068 

2.417 

.74 

.0083 

2.673 

.81 

.0102 

8.004 

.89 

.0123 

3.320 

.97 

.0146 

3.708 

1.06 

.0175 

4.037 

1.15 

.0200 

4.401 

1.22 

.0231 

4.775 

1.31 

.0267 

5.132 

1.40 

.0805 

5.467 

1.47 

.0336 

5.991 

1.58 

.0388 

6.567 

1.68 

.0439 

0.2312 
.3085 
.3738 
.4394 
.5061 
.5720 
.6415 
.6862 
.7408 
.8053 
.8552 
.9108 
.9676 
1.0825 
1.0836 
1.1381 
1. 1917 
1.2475 
1.2986 
1.370S 
1.4379 


0.1110 
.1709 
.2287 
.2909 
.3589 
.4326 
.6132 
.5682 
.6378 
.7228 
.7906 
.8681 
.9523 
1.0484 
1.1286 
1.2140 
1.3013 
1.3925 
1.4805 
1.6053 
1.7244 


2.76 

2.84 

2.85"' 

2.96 

8.00 

3.10 

3.17 

3.20 

3.31 

3.35 

3.38 

3.46 

3.49 

3.53 

3.58 

3.62 

3.67 

3.68 

3.70 

3.73 

3.81 


76 


WEIR   EXPEKIMENT8,   COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FOBMULA8. 


Bazin^s  experimerUs  on  weirs  of  irregular  section — Continaed. 


Barin'8  Series,  No.  149. 
Crest  length,  6.618  feet. 
Crest  height,  2.46  feet 


Grow  Mctlon. 


Period. 

1 

Observed 
head, 
experi- 
mental 
weir  D, 
in  feet. 

I^ 

a 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 

per 
ttecond. 

V 

20 

H 

l/» 

C 

!« 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1 

0.248 

0.1235 

2.56 

0.816 

0.12 

0.0002 

0.2482 

0.1285 

2.56 

2 

.817 

.1785 

2.58 

.462 

.17 

.0004 

.3174 

.1786 

2.69 

8 

.390 

.2486 

2.67 

.651 

.23 

.0008 

.3908 

.2445 

2.66 

4 

.455 

.3070 

2.73 

.838 

.29 

.0013 

.4563 

.3080 

2.72 

5 

.521 

.3761 

2.82 

1.060 

.36 

.0020 

.5230 

..3782 

2.80 

6 

.585 

.4475 

2.89 

1.295 

.43 

.0030 

.6850 

.4476 

2.89 

7 

.653 

.5277 

2.97 

1.568 

.61 

.0040 

.6570 

.6326 

2.94 

8 

.706 

.6920 

8.00 

1.776 

.56 

.0049 

.7099 

.5983 

2,97 

9 

.766 

.6705 

3.08 

2.067 

.64 

.0064 

.7724 

.6788 

3.05 

10 

.818 

.7398 

8.16 

2.388 

.71 

.0078 

.8268 

.7507 

8.11 

U 

.882 

.8283 

3.23 

2.674 

.80 

.0099 

.8979 

.8509 

8.14 

12 

.942 

.9143 

8.80 

3.016 

.89 

.0128 

.9543 

.9318 

8.23 

18 

.999 

.9985 

3.36 

3.856 

.97 

.0146 

1.0156 

1.0241 

3.28 

14 

1.051 

1.0774 

8.39 

3.627 

1.08 

.0165 

1.0665 

1.1006 

3.30 

16 

1.108 

1.1584 

3.45 

4.002 

1.12 

.0196 

1.1225 

1.1885 

3.37 

16 

1.166 

1.2675 

3.49 

4.897 

1.20 

.0224 

1.1874 

1.2982 

8.40 

17 

1.209 

1.3294 

3.52 

4.682 

1.27 

.0251 

1.2341 

1.8708 

3.42 

18 

1.281 

1.4499 

3.57 

5.177 

1.38 

.0296 

1.8106 

1.6011 

8.45 

19 

1.830 

1.6338 

3.60 

6.508 

1.46 

.0327 

1.3627 

1.6912 

8.46 

20 

1.385 

1.6800 

8.68 

5.917 

1.64 

.0869 

1.4219 

1.6966 

8.49 

21 

1.446 

1.7888 

3.67 

6.386 

1.64 

.0418 

1.4878 

1.8161 

8.62 

Bazin' 
Crest  1 
Crest  1 

M  Series,  N 
ength,  6.5 
leight,  2M 

0.248 

o.  150. 
18  feet. 
Sfeet. 

• 

Cross  se 

etion. 
0.1286 

1 

0.1285 

2.53 

0.314 

0.12 

0.0002 

0.2482 

2.54 

2 

.323 

.1836 

2.65 

.488 

.16 

.0004 

.3234 

.1836 

2.66 

3 

.379 

.2333 

2.78 

.648 

.23 

.0008 

.3798 

.2842 

2.77 

4 

.459 

.3110 

2.82 

.877 

.80 

.0014 

.4604 

.8120 

2.81 

6 

.512 

.3664 

2.91 

1.065 

.36 

.0020 

.6140 

.3686 

2.89 

6 

.586 

.4486 

2.96 

1.329 

.43 

.0029 

.5889 

.4521 

2.94 

7 

.637 

.5084 

3.07 

1.560 

.60 

.0039 

.6409 

.6132 

8.04 

8 

.698 

.5832 

3.12 

1.819 

.57 

.0061 

.7031 

.6896 

3.09 

9 

.751 

.t>508 

3.18 

2.070 

.64 

.0064 

.7574 

.6687 

8.14 

10 

.814 

.7344 

3.26 

2.393 

.73 

.0083 

.8223 

.7462 

3.21 

11 

.869 

.8101 

3.*31 

2.681 

.80 

.0099 

.8789 

.8241 

3.26 

12 

.928 

.8910 

3.37 

3.013 

.89 

.0123 

.9403 

.9114 

3.31 

IS 

.982 

.  9732 

3.42 

3.328 

.97 

.0146 

.9966 

.9965 

3.34 

14 

1.043 

i.oervi 

3.47 

3.713 

1.06 

.0175 

i.oea'i 

1.0918 

3.40 

15 

1.095 

LHriS 

3.51 

4.037 

1.13 

.0199  '  1.1149 

1.1774 

3.4:< 

16 

1.162 

1.23(V4 

3.66 

4.414 

1.22 

.0231      1.1761 

1.2737 

8.4i'> 

17 

1.215 

i.it'm 

3. 5K 

4.797 

l.:{0 

.l»2tKH     1.2413 

1.3825 

3.47 

18 

l.-2.^9 

1.4127 

3.r»:i 

5.118 

l.:w 

.0296     1.2856 

1.4584 

3.  .^1 

19 

i.3i:> 

I .  .'Hiso 

3.  (y> 

n.:^V2 

1.4«i 

,^V\\   .  I.:i481 

1.5651 

3.62 

'M 

l.:i*23 

1..VJIH 

3.  IM 

h.  .MH 

1.47 

.033«      I.3.Y16 

1.5H07 

3.51 

21 

l.'iXA) 

i.r.iii 

3.  <W 

f).  %-2 

l.f>> 

.(«7I  ,  1.4171 

l.K8<W 

S.W 

2*2 

1.439 

1.7'2<i2 

:i.  73 

6.  116 

l.thl 

.(MIH 

1.480.S 

1.8028 

3.56 

WEIRS    OF    IRREGULAR   SECTION. 

Bazin*tf  exfterimentA  on  weirs  of  irregular  section — Continued. 

Bazm'8  Series.  No.  151. 
Crest  length,  6.560  feet. 
Crest  height.  2.48  feet. 

CroM  teetlon. 


77 


Period. 

Obfleryed 

experi- 
mental 
weir  D, 
In  feet. 

Di 

(\ 

1 

2 

S 

4 

1 

0.201 

0.0901 

1 
2.71 

2 

.240 

.1176 

2.81 

3 

.807 

.1701 

2.79 

4 

.S91 

.2445 

2.79 

6 

.445 

.2969 

2.92 

6 

.514 

.3685 

2.95 

7 

.687 

.3985 

2. 98 

8 

.573 

.4837 

8.05 

9 

.648 

.5156 

3.09 

10 

.695 

.5796 

3.20 

11 

.756 

.6574 

3.24 

12 

.800 

.7165 

3.30 

IS 

.826 

.7607 

3.31 

14 

.867 

.8078 

3.36 

15 

.921 

.8839 

8.39 

16 

.975 

.9628 

3.46 

17 

1.027 

1.0408 

3.61 

18 

1.090 

1.1380 

3.52 

19 

1.112 

1.1727 

3.67  1 

29 

1.140 

1.2172 

3.60 

21 

1.209 

1.3294 

3.61 

22 

1.248 

1.3942 

3.64 

2S 

1.314 

1.5063 

3.68 

24 

1.852 

1.5721 

3.71 

25 

1.416 

1.6850 

3.75 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cable  feet 

per 
second. 


0.244 
.329 
.474 
.684 
.867 
1.069 
1.174 
1.324 
1.594 
1.856 
2.129 
2.862 
2.486 
2.712 
2.997 
3.332 
3.658 
4.013 
4.177 
4.382 
4.801 
6.060 
6.657 
6.825 
6.337 


0.09 
.12 
.17 
.24 
.30 
.37 


.51 

.69 

.66 

.72 

.76 

.81 

.89 

.97 

1.04 

1.13 

1.17 

1.23 

1.31 

1.36 

1.47 

1.62" 

1.64 


0.0001 
.0002 
.0004 
.0009 
.0014 
.0021 
.0024 
.0030 
.0040 
.OOM 
.0068 
.0081 
.0090 
.0102 
.0123 
.0146 
.0168 
.0199 
.0218 
.0231 
.0267 
.0288 
.0336 
0859 
.0418 


// 

/fi 

C 

8 

9 

10 

0.2011 

0.0901 

2.71 

.2422 

.1191 

2.76 

.3074 

.1701 

2.79 

.3919 

.2454 

2.79 

.4464 

.2979 

2.91 

.5161 

.8707 

2.94 

.53M 

.3967 

2.97 

.5760 

.4371 

3.03 

.6170 

.5204 

3.06 

.7004 

.6857 

3.17 

.7628 

.6665 

3.19 

.8081 

.7263 

3.25 

.83.')0 

.7681 

3.26 

.8772 

.8213 

3.80 

.9383 

.9013 

3.32 

.9896 

.9850 

8.38 

1.0438 

1.0667 

3.47 

1.1099 

1.1695 

3.48 

1.1883 

1.2060 

3.46 

1.1631 

1.2543 

3.60 

1.2857 

1.8741 

8.49 

1.2768 

1.4431 

3.61 

1.3476 

1.5651 

3.55 

1.3879 

1.6362 

8.66 

1.4578 

1.7604 

3.60 

78  WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

Bazin*s  experiments  on  weir$  of  irregular  section — Gontinaed. 

Bazin'B  Series,  No.  168. 
Crest  length,  6.616  feet. 
Great  height,  2.46  feet. 

CronMotton. 


Period. 

Obflerred 

experi- 
mental 
weir  D, 
In  feet. 

/)• 

Ci 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir.  In 
cubic  feet 

per 
second. 

6 

V 

6 

H 

ifl 

C 

10 

2.72 

1 

« 

8 

4 
2.78 

7 

8 

9 

1 

0.287 

0.1154 

0.814 

0.12 

0.0002 

0.2372 

0.1154 

2 

.801 

.1661 

2.77 

.457 

.16 

.0004 

.9014 

.1651 

2,77 

3 

.872 

.2269 

2.79 

.683 

.22 

.0008 

.3728 

.2278 

2.78    i 

4 

.873 

.2278 

2.83 

.645 

.28 

.0008 

.3788 

.2287 

2.82 

5 

.440 

.2919 

2.90 

.847 

.29 

.0018 

.4413 

.2929 

2.89 

6 

.606 

.8589 

2.03 

1.052 

.36 

.0019 

.6069 

.3610 

2.91 

7 

.576 

.4871 

3.00 

1.311 

.48 

.0080 

.6790 

.4406 

2.98 

8 

.687 

.6004 

3.07 

1.560 

.60 

.0089 

.6409 

.blS2 

3.04 

9 

.696 

.6807 

8.10 

1.801 

.67 

.0061 

.7011 

.5870 

3.07 

10 

.701 

.6870 

8.10 

1.820 

.58 

.0052 

.7062 

.5983 

8.07 

11 

.760 

.6626 

3.15 

2.085 

.65 

.0066 

.  7666 

.6717 

3.10 

12 

.762 

.6652 

3.16 

2.101 

.66 

.0066 

.7686 

.6743 

3.12 

13 

.814 

.7844 

3.20 

2.849 

.72 

.0081 

.8221 

.7452 

3.15 

14 

.879 

.8241 

3.25 

2.678 

.80 

.0099 

.8889 

.8381 

3.20 

16 

.937 

.9071 

3.29 

2.984 

.88 

.0120 

.9490 

.9245 

3.23 

16 

.993 

.9895 

3.84 

3.307 

.96 

.0143 

1.0073 

1.0105 

3.27 

17 

1.001 

i:ooi5 

3.33 

3.380 

.96 

.0143 

1.0153 

1.0226 

3.26 

18 

1.055 

1.0886 

3.40 

3.672 

1.05 

.0171 

1.0721 

1.1099 

3.31 

19 

1.102 

1.1569 

3.41 

3.956 

1.11 

.0192 

1.1212 

1.1869 

3.:« 

20 

1.170 

1.2656 

8.46 

4.394 

1.21 

.0228 

1.1928 

1.3090 

3.87 

21 

1.226 

1.3576 

8.48 

4.733 

1.28 

.0255 

1.2515 

1.3992 

3.38 

22 

1.290 

1.4662 

8.51 

5.159 

1.38 

.0296 

1.3196 

1.5166 

3.40 

23 

1.289 

1.4635 

3.52 

5.139 

1.37 

.0292 

1.3182 

1.5132 

3.40 

24 

1.847 

1.5634 

3.58 

5.607 

1.45 

.0327 

1.8791 

1.6193 

8.40 

26 

1.404 

1.6636 

3.58 

5.943 

1.54 

.0369 

1.4409 

l.?298 

3.44 

26 

1.436 

1.7208 

3.58 

6.158 

1.58 

.0388 

1.4748 

1.7914 

3.44 

WEIRS    OF   IRBEOULAR   8?:CT10N. 
Bazin's  experiment  on  toeirs  of  irregular  action — Continued. 


Bazin'8  Series,  No.  154. 
Crest  lennrth,  6.516  feet. 
Crest  height,  2.46  feet. 


79 


CroM  section. 


Period. 

Obeepved 
head, 
experi- 
mental 
weir  i>, 
in  feet. 

D« 

Ci 

Q.flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 
per 
second. 

V 

H 

H» 

a 

1 

t 

S 

4 

~5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1 

0.236 

0.1147 

2.70 

0.811 

0.12 

0.0002 

0.2632 

0.1849 

2.80 

2 

.806 

.1709 

2,74 

.469 

.17 

.0004 

.8064 

.1709 

2.74 

8 

.873 

.2278 

2.83 

.645 

.28 

.0006 

.3738 

.2287 

2.82 

4 

.447 

.2909 

2.85 

.862 

.29 

.0013 

.4483 

.2999 

2.84 

6 

.506 

.8621 

2.95 

1.068 

.36 

.0020 

.5100 

.8642 

2.94 

6 

.677 

.4382 

2.97 

1.801 

.87 

.0021 

.6791 

.4406 

2.96 

7 

.643 

.6166 

8.04 

1.569 

.51 

.0040 

.6470 

.6004 

8.02 

8 

.706 

.5938 

8.07 

1.821 

.67 

.0051 

.7111 

.5996 

8.04 

9 

.760 

.6626 

8.17 

2.102 

.65 

.0066 

.7666 

.6717 

8.11 

10 

.823 

.7466 

3.20 

2.889 

.78 

.0063 

.8818 

.7576 

8.16 

U 

.888 

.8368 

3.20 

2.678 

.80 

.0099 

.8979 

.8609 

8.15 

12 

.946 

.9201 

8.24 

2.961 

.87 

.0118 

.9578 

.9876 

8.18 

18 

1.011 

1.0166 

8.28 

8.884 

.96 

.0143 

1.0258 

1.0877 

8.21 

14 

1.075 

1.1146 

8.31 

8.674 

1.03 

.0165 

1.0915 

1.1396 

3.22 

15 

1.188 

1.2140 

3.36 

4.066 

1.13 

.0199 

1.1579 

1.2461 

8.26 

16 

1.196 

1.3063 

8.87 

4.415 

1.20 

.0224 

1.2174 

1.8426 

3.29 

17 

1.260 

1.3975 

8.40 

4.760 

1.28 

.0255 

1.2755 

1.4397 

8.81 

18 

1.810 

1.4994 

3.43 

5.145 

1.36 

.0288 

1.8888 

1.5494 

8.32 

19 

1.870 

1.6035 

3.45 

5.520 

1.44 

.0322 

1.4022 

1.6601 

8.82 

20 

1.480 

1.7100 

8.48 

5.961 

1.58 

.0864 

1.4664 

1.7750 

8.85 

80 


WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 


Bazin^s  experiments  on  weirs  of  irregular  section — ContinucHl. 
# 
Basin's  Series,  No.  156. 
Crest  height,  2.46  feet. 
Crest  width,  0.66  foot. 
Upstream  slope,  i  to  1. 
Downstream  slope,  5  to  1. 


Period. 

Observed 
head, 
experi- 
mental 
weir  A 
in  feet. 

i>« 

Ci 

<2,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 

per 
second. 

f 

2y 

H 

//* 

C 

1 

2 

8 

4 

6 

6 

7 

0.0002 

»• 

9 

0.1220 

TO 

2.76 

1 

0.246 

0.1220 

2.76 

0.387 

0.12 

0.2462 

2 

.311 

.1734 

2.80 

.486 

.17 

.0004 

.3114 

.1734 

2.80 

3 

.382 

.2361 

2.84 

.671 

.24 

.0009 

.3829 

.2370 

2.83 

4 

.446 

.2979 

2.90 

.864 

.80 

.0014 

.4474 

.2989 

2.89 

5 

.508 

.3621 

2;  91 

1.054 

.36 

.0020 

.5100 

.3642 

2,89 

6 

.576 

.4371 

2.95 

1.289 

.42 

.0027 

.  5787 

.4406 

2.92 

7 

.688 

.5096 

8.01 

1.634 

.49 

.0037 

.6417 

.5144 

2.98 

8 

.703 

.5895 

8.06 

1.804 

.67 

.0061 

.7081 

.5958 

3.03 

9 

.764 

.6678 

3.10 

2.070 

.64 

.0064 

.7704 

.6757 

3.06 

10 

.834 

.7617 

3.13 

2.384 

.72 

.0081 

.8421 

.7727 

3.08    . 

11 

.888 

.8368 

3.17 

2.653 

.79 

.0097 

.8977 

.8510" 

3.12    1 

12 

.966 

.9347 

3.24 

3.028 

.88 

.0120 

.9680 

.9524 

3.18    1 

13 

1.018 

1.0272 

3.22 

3.309 

.95 

.0140 

1.0820 

1.0484 

8.16 

U 

1.074 

1.1130 

3.  SO 

3.673 

1.04 

.0168 

1.0908 

1.1396 

3.22 

15 

1.139 

1.2166 

3.29 

3.999 

1.11 

.0192 

1.1582 

1.2462 

3.21 

16 

1.203 

1.8194 

3.81 

4.367 

1.19 

.0220 

1.2260 

1.3558 

3.22 

17 

1.267 

1.4262 

3.34 

4.764 

1.26 

.0247 

1.2917 

1.4686 

3.24 

]8 

1.341 

1.5529 

3.36 

5.218 

1.87 

.0292 

1.3702 

1.6035 

3.25 

19 

1.394 

1.6459 

8.36 

5.530 

1.43 

.0318 

1.4258 

1.7028 

3.25 

20 

1.457 

1.7587 

3.39 

5.962 

1.52 

.0359 

1. 4929 

1.8241 

3.27 

Basin's  Series,  No.  158. 
Crest  length,  6.520  feet. 


Crest  height,  2.46  feet 

CroasMctloa. 

1 

0.234 

0. 1132 

2.79 

0.316 

0.12 

0.0002 

0.2342 

0.1132 

2.79 

2 

.312 

.1743 

2.72  1 

.474 

.17 

.0004 

.3124 

.1748 

2.72 

3 

.383 

.2870 

2.77  1 

.656 

.23 

.0008 

.3838 

.2379 

2.76 

4 

.457 

.3090 

2.79 

.862 

.29 

.0018 

.4583 

.8100 

2.78 

5 

.530 

.3858 

2.81 

1.085 

.36 

.0020 

.6320 

.3880 

2.80 

6 

.600 

.  4648 

2.82 

1.311 

.43 

.0030 

.6030 

.4683 

2.80 

7 

.672 

.5509 

2.86  1 

1.576 

.50 

.0039 

.6769 

.5557 

2.  HI 

8 

.733 

.  6276 

2.90  i 

1.821 

.57 

.0051 

.7381 

.6340 

2.87 

9 

.799 

.  7142 

2.91  1 

2.078 

.(>4 

.0064 

.8054 

.722:j 

2.88 

10 

.SCO 

.  7975 

2.95 

2.354 

.71 

.0078 

.8678 

.8087 

2.91 

11 

.930 

.8969 

3.00  1 

2. 691 

.79 

.0097 

.9397 

.9114 

2.95 

12 

.984 

.9761 

3.04 

2.967 

.86 

.0115 

.9955 

.9925 

2.99 

13 

1.065 

1.0836 

3.10 

3.348 

.95 

.0140 

1.0690 

1.1053 

3.03 

14 

1.125 

1.1933 

3.12 

3.713 

1.04 

.0168 

1. 1418 

1.2204 

3.04 

15 

1.177 

1.2769 

3.15  ' 

4.022 

1.10 

.0188 

1.1968 

1.3029 

3.08 

16 

1.243 

1.3858 

3.19 

4.434 

1.20 

.0224 

1.2654 

1.4228 

3.12 

17 

1.297 

1.4771 

3.22 

4.766 

1.27 

.0251 

1.3221 

1.5200 

3.14 

18 

1.861 

1.5878 

3.25 

5.168 

1.35 

.0283 

1.8893 

1.6370 

3.16 

19 

1.412 

1.6779 

8.30 

5.544 

1.43 

.0348 

1.4468 

1.7406 

3.18 

20 

1.457 

1.7587 

3.32 

5.  839 

1.49 

.0345 

1.4916 

1.8215 

3.22 

WEIRS   OF   IBREOrLAR   SECTION. 


81 


BcLzin^s  experiments  on  weirs  of  irregular  secLiwi — Continueil. 


B  Series,  No.  159. 

4  ^y'y:- 

^t^^^^Z>?^ 

-».*.v 

Crest  1 

engtb,  6.611  feet, 
lelght,  2.46  feet. 

-rmmrnm^^ 

^5»>w 

Crest  1 

GroH  seotton. 

!  Period. 

Observed 

experi- 
mental 
weir  D, 
in  feet. 

1^ 

4 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir.  In 
cubic  feet 
per 
second. 

V 

2tr 

^ 

//« 

C 

1 

2 

8 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1 

0.284 

0.1132 

2.68 

0.303 

0.11 

0.0002 

0.2842 

0.1132 

2.68 

2 

.304 

.1676 

2.75 

.462 

.17 

.0004 

.3044 

.1676 

2.74 

3 

.379 

.2833 

2.82 

.657 

.28 

.0008 

.8798 

.2342 

2.80 

4 

.387 

.2408 

2.82 

.680 

.24 

.0009 

.3879 

.2417 

2.81 

5 

.467 

.3090 

2.81 

.868 

.30 

.0014 

.4684 

.3100 

2.80 

6 

.616 

.8707 

2.91 

1.079 

.36 

.0020 

.6180 

.3728 

2.89 

'        7 

.626 

.3815 

2.84 

1.085 

.86 

.0020 

.6280 

.3886 

2.83 

8 

.599 

.4686 

2.82 

1.308 

.43 

.0030 

.6020 

.4671 

2.81 

9 

.664 

.6411 

2.87 

1.553 

.50 

.0039 

.6679 

.6460 

2.84 

10 

.670 

.5484 

2.83 

1.562 

.49 

.0037 

.6737 

.6538 

2.80 

11 

.785 

.6802 

2.88 

1.818 

.56 

.0049 

.7399 

.6366 

2.86 

12 

.797 

.7115 

2.W 

2.092 

.64 

.0064 

.8034 

.7196 

2.91 

18 

.861 

.7969 

2.99 

2.389 

.72 

.0081 

.8693 

.8101 

2.95 

14 

.876 

.8199 

2.94 

2.411 

.72 

.0081 

.8848 

.8311 

2.90 

15 

.936 

.9042 

2.93 

2.649 

.78 

.0095 

.0445 

.9172 

2.89 

16 

.991 

.9910 

3.01 

2.988 

.86 

.0115 

1.0066 

1.009 

2.96 

17 

1.068 

1.1037 

8.06 

8.383 

.94 

.0137 

1.0817 

1.1255 

2.96 

18 

1.126 

1. 1M8 

8.10 

3.704 

1.03 

.0165 

1. 1425 

1.2204 

8.04 

19 

1.146 

1.2252 

3.06 

8.751 

1.04 

.0168 

1,1618 

1.2526 

3.00 

20 

1.198 

1.8112 

3.08 

4.036 

1.10 

.0188 

1.2168 

1.8425 

3.00 

21 

1.261 

1.4161 

3.11 

4.416 

1.19 

.0220 

1.2880 

1.4533 

3.03 

22 

1.320 

1.5166 

3.16 

4.777 

1.27 

.0251 

1  3451 

1.5599 

3.06 

23 

1.332 

1.5878 

3.13 

4.820 

1.27 

.0251 

1.3571 

1.5808 

3.05 

24 

1.389 

1.6370 

3.14 

5. 150 

1.33» 

.0275 

1.4165 

1.6850 

3.06 

25 

1.445 

1. 7870 

3.19 

5.551 

1.42 

.0313 

1.4763 

1.7982 

3.09 

26 

1.466 

1.75^ 

3.19 

5.614 

1.48 

.'0348 

1.4908 

1.8188 

8.09 

82         WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

Bazin^s  experiments  on  weira  of  irregular  section — Continued. 

Basin's  Series,  No.  160. 
Crest  height,  2.46  feet. 
Crest  width,  1.31  feet. 
•    Upstream  slope,  ^  to  1. 
Downstream  slope,  6  to  1. 


i  Period. 

1 

Observed 
head, 
experi- 
mental 
weir  i>, 
In  feet. 

/)« 

a 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 

per 
second. 

V 

6 

'2g 

ff 

ifJ 

C 

10 

2.80 

1 

8 

8 

4 

o 

7 

8 

9 

0.3089 

1 

0.451 

0.3029 

2.81 

0.H540 

0.29 

0.0013 

0.4523 

2 

.522 

.  3772 

2.82 

1.0637 

.86 

.0020 

.6240 

.3793 

2.80 

3 

.693 

.4667 

2.84 

1.2970 

.42 

.0027 

.5967 

.4601 

2.82 

4 

.663 

.5399 

2.88 

1.5549 

.60 

.0089 

.6669 

.6447 

2.86 

5 

.735 

.6302 

2.89 

1.8213 

.67 

.0051 

.7401 

.6366 

2.86 

6 

.798 

.7128 

2.91 

2.0742 

.64 

.0064 

.8044 

.7209 

2.88 

7 

.863 

.8017 

2.92 

2.3410 

.70 

.0076 

.8706 

.8129 

2.88 

8 

.930 

.8969 

2.97 

2.6638 

.78 

.0096 

.9895 

.9100 

2.98 

9 

.998 

.9970 

2.99 

2.9810 

.86 

.0116 

1.0095 

1.0185 

2.94 

10 

1.074 

1. 1130 

3.02 

3.3861 

.95 

.0140 

1.0680 

1.1849 

2.94 

11 

1.129 

1.1996 

3.03 

3.6348 

1.01 

.0159 

1.1449 

1.2252 

2.97 

12 

1.193 

1.3030 

3.06 

3.9872 

1.09 

.0185 

1.2115 

1.3834 

2.98 

13 

1.264 

1.4043 

3.08 

4.3252 

1.16 

.0209 

1.2749 

1.4397 

3.00 

14 

1.32(i 

1.6269 

3.10 

4.7834 

1.25 

.0243 

1.3503 

1.5686 

3.02 

15 

1.389 

1.6870 

8.14 

6.1402 

1.34 

.0279 

1.4169 

1.6867 

3.05 

16 

1.457 

1.7587 

3.16 

5.5675 

1.42 

.0313 

1.4883 

1,8161 

3.06 

Bazin'8  Series,  No.  161. 
Crest  lensrth,  6.643  feet. 
Crest  height,  1.64  feet. 


JjM 


1 

0.298 

0.1627 

2 

.854 

.2107 

3 

.413 

.2654 

4 

.472 

.3243 

6 

.629 

.3847 

6 

.581 

.4429 

7 

.689 

.5108 

8 

.693 

.5770 

9 

.750 

.6496 

10 

.804 

.7209 

11 

.864 

.8031 

12 

.919 

.8810 

13 

.960 

.9406 

14  . 

.992 

.9880 

15 

1,019 

1.0287 

16 

1.056 

1.0851 

17 

1.083 

1.1271 

18 

1.118 

1.1821 

19 

1.157 

1.2445 

20 

1.187 

1.2932 

21 

1.225 

1.3558 

22 

1. 2f>:^ 

1.4194 

23 

1.289 

1.4635 

24 

1.326 

1.5269 

25 

1.359 

1.5843 

4.81 
4.80 
4.26 
4.23 
4.22 
4.25 
4.24 
4.26 
4.28 
4.31 
4.31 
4.32 
4.33 
4.30 
4.31 
4.28 
4.27 
4.24 
4.17 
4.16 
4.12 
4.09 
4.11 
4.08 
4.08 


0.701 
.906 
1.131 
1.371 
1.625 
1.883 
2. 167 
2.458 
2.782 
8.107 
3.461 
3.806 
4.078 
4. 248 
4.434 
4.665 
4.825 
6.003 
5.171 
5.380 
6.378 
5.808 
6.001 
6.242 
6.416 


0.86 

.45 

.56 

.65 

.75 

.85 

.95 

1.06 

1.16 

1.27 

1.38 

1.49 

1.57 

1.61 

1.67 

1.72 

1.78 

1.81 

1.84 

1.90 

1.95 

2.00 

2.05 

2.10 

2.15 


0.0020 
.0031 
.0049 
.0066 
.0087 
.0112 
.0140 
.0171 
.0209 
.0251 
.0296 
.0845 
.0388 
.0403 
.0434 
.0460 
.0493 
.0509 
.0526 
.0661 
.0691 
.0622 
.0658 
.0686 
.0719 


Cro«a  Motion. 

0.8000 

0.1643 

4.27 

.8571 

.2133 

4.25 

.4179 

.2702 

4.19 

.4786 

.3814 

4.14 

.6377 

.8946 

4.12 

.6922 

.4665 

4.13 

.6530 

.6277 

4.U 

.7101 

.5988 

4.11 

.7709 

.6770 

4.11 

.8291 

.7648 

4.12 

.8936 

.8462 

4.10 

.9536 

.9303 

4.09 

.9983 

.9970 

4.08 

1.0828 

1.0484 

4.05 

1.0624 

1.0944 

4.05 

1.1020 

1.1569 

4.08 

1.1328 

1.2044 

4.01 

1.1689 

1.2640 

3.96 

1.2096 

1.8810 

3.88 

1.2431 

1.8858 

3.88 

1.2841 

1.4550 

3.83 

1.3252 

1.6262 

8.81 

1.3543 

1.5756 

3.81 

1.3946 

1.6476 

3.79 

1.4309 

1.7118 

3.76 

WKIR8    OK    IRREGULAR   SECTION. 


83 


Bazin^s  earperiment*  on  loeira  of  irregular  section — Continaed. 


Bazin'M  Series.  No.  163. 
Crest  length.  6.635  foet. 
Crest  hdsbt  1.64  feet. 


CroM  section. 


Period. 


Obeen'ed 
head, 
experi- 
mcnial 

I  weir  A 
in  feet. 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
A 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 


.244  ' 

.303 

.366 

.423 

.4^ 

.536 

.693 

.653 

.702 

.769 

.827 


L0790 
.1206 
.1668 
.2215 
.27M 
.3388 
.3924 
.4567 
.5277 
.5882 
.6744 
.7521 


14 

.949 

.9245 

15   , 

.998 

.9970 

16 

1.056 

1.0851 

17 

1.114 

1. 1758 

18 

1.171 

1.2672 

19 

1.231 

1.3658 

20 

1.285 

1.4567 

21   , 

1.389 

1.5495 

3.81 
3.83 
8.84 
8.83 
8.83 
3.82 
8.86 
8.94 
3.91 
4.(M 
3.98 
4.02 
4.02 
4.04 
4.06 
4.06 
4.a'> 
4.07 
4.07 
4.12 
4.17 


,  Q.  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 

cubic  feet 

per 
second. 


0.301 
.463 
.641 
.850 
1.058 
1.295 
1.513 
1.799 
2.063 
2.376 
2.688 
8.023 
3.329 
8.735 
4.048 
4.425 
4.779 
5.169 
5.576 
6.014 
6.464 


0.17 

.25 

.33 

.42 

.51 

.61 

.69 

.81 

.90 

1.01 

1.11 

1.22 

1.32 

1.44 

1.58 

1.64 

1.74 

1.84 

1.94 

2.06 

2.17 


'241 


O.OOIM 
.0009 

.oof? 

.0027 
.0040 
.0058 
.0074 
.0102 
.0126 
.0159 
.0188 
.0231 
.0271 
.0822 
.0864 
.0418 
.0471 
.0526 
.0585 
.0660 
.0782 


n 


0.1844 

.2449 

.9047 

.8687 

.4270 

.4915 

.5434 

.6082 

.6656 

.7179 

.7878 

.8501 

.9091 

.9812 

1.0344 

1.0978 

1.1611 

1.2236 

1.2895 

1.8510 

1.4122 


//* 


0.0790 
.  1218 
.1684 
.2241 
.2791 
.3441 
.4001 
.4683 
.5435 
.6084 
.6995 
.7837 
.8667 
.9717 
1.0514 
1.1505 
1.2510 
1.8541 
1.4635 
1.5703 
1.6779 


10 

3.81 
3.82 
3.81 
3.79 
3.77 
3.76 
8.78 
3.84 
8.80 
8.90 
3.84 
3.86 
3.84 
8.84 
3.85 
8.85 
8.82 
8.82 
8.81 
3.88 
3.85 


Bazin'B  Series,  No.  164. 
Crest  length,  6.684  feet. 
Crest  height,  1.64  feet. 


Gross  section. 


1 

0.244 

2 

.305 

8 

.867 

4 

.425 

6 

.482 

6 

.540 

7 

.592 

8 

.651 

9 

.702 

10 

.766 

11 

12 


.817, 
.877  I 


18 

.989 

14 

.993 

15 

1.052 

16 

1.115 

17 

1.162 

18 

1.219 

19 

1.277 

20 

1.330 

0.1206 

3.86 

.1685 

3.91 

.2224 

3.87 

.2771 

8.90 

.3346 

8.87 

.3968 

8.87 

.4565 

8.94 

.6252 

3.94 

.5882 

3.97 

.6705 

4.00 

.7385 

4.08 

.8213 

4.06 

.9100 

4.07 

.9896 

4.10 

1.0790 

4.09 

1.1774 

4.12 

1.2528 

4.13 

1.3459 

4.15 

1.4431 

4.18 

1.6338 

4.19 

0.467 
.659 
.859 
1.080 
1.296 
1.536 
1.797 
2.069 
2.384 
2.684 
2.978 
3.325 
3.704 
4.0.>') 
4.417 
4.862 
5.163 
5.602 
6.019 
6.411 


0.25 

0.0009 

.84 

.0018 

.43 

.0090 

.52 

.0042 

.61 

.0058 

.70 

.0076 

.81 

.0102 

.90 

.0126 

.99 

.0152 

1.11 

.0188 

1.21 

.0228 

1.32 

.0271 

1.44 

.0322 

1.54 

.03l>9 

1.64 

.041H 

1.76 

.0482 

1.84 

.0526 

1.96 

.0597 

2.06 

.0660 

2.16 

.072o 

0.2449 
.8068 
.3700 
.4292 
.4878 
.M76 
.6022 
.6636 
.7172 
.7848 
.8398 
.9041 
.9722 
1.0299 
1.0938 
1.1632 
1.2146 
1.2787 
1.3430 
1.402r> 


0.1213 

.1701 

.2251 

.2810 

.3409 

.4a57 

.4671 

.5410 

.6071 

.6955 

.7699 

.8595 

.9583 

l.(M53 

1.1442 

1.2543 

1.3392 

1.4465 

1.55(>4 

1.6<i01 


3.85 
3.88 
3.82 
3.84 
8.80 
3.79 
3.S5 
3.82 
3.84 
3.86 
3.87 
3.87 
3.86 
3.88 
3.86 
3.88 
3.86 
3.87 
3.87 
3.86 


84         WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

Bazin^H  experiments  on  weirs  of  irregular  section — Continued. 


Bazin'K  8erieR,  No.  165. 
Crest  lengtb,  6.544  feet. 
Crest  belgbt,  1.64  feet. 


\^:/§^Mm??,,»^ 


CrowaectioD. 


Period. 

Observed 
bead, 
experi- 
mental 
weir  D, 
in  feet. 

lA 

c, 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 

per 
second. 

1 
1 

2 

8 

4 

5 

0.837 

0.1957 

3.56 

0.696 

2 

.401 

.2640 

3.56 

.904 

3 

.464 

.3161 

3.56 

1.125 

4 

.028 

.3836 

3.55 

1.363 

5 

.593 

.4567 

3.54 

1.618 

6 

.656 

.5313 

3.54 

1.880 

7 

.720 

.6109 

3.54 

2.162 

8 

.783 

.6929 

3.55 

2.461 

9 

.843 

.7740 

3.58 

'    2.771 

10 

.904 

.8595 

3.61 

3.103 

U 

.969 

.9538 

3.63 

3.462 

12 

1.029 

1.0438 

3.63 

3.789 

13 

1.090 

1.1380 

3.64 

4.150 

14 

1.153 

1.2381 

3.65 

4.526 

15 

1.217 

1.3426 

3.66 

4.904 

16 

1.279 

1.4465 

3.68 

5.386 

17 

1.341 

1.5529 

3.68 

5.704 

18 

1.401 

1.6583 

3.69 

6.125 

19 

,.44« 

1. 7424 

3.78 

6.490 

1« 
2y 


H 


i_ 


0.35 

.44 

.54 

.63 

.73 

.82 

.92 

1.02 

1.11 

1.22 

1.33 

1.42 

1.52 

1.62 

1.71 

1.83 

1.92 

2.02 

2.10 


0.0019 
.0080 
.0045 
.0062 
.0063 
.0105 
.0182 
.0162 
.0192 
.0231 
.0275 
.0313 
.0359 
.0408 
.0455 
.0521 
.0673 
.0634 
.0686 


I  O.S 


.4040 


.5842 

I    .6013 

.6665 

.7882 

.7992 

i    .8622 

i    .9271 

.9965 

j  1.0603 

i  1.1259 

1.1988 

1.2625 

1.8811 

1.8968 

1.4644 

1.5166 


i/» 


I       C 


0.1974 

.2568 

.3202 

.3902 

.4660 

.5435 

.6276 

.7142 

.8003 

.8926 

.9940 

1.0913 

1.1948 

1.3046 

1.4178 

1.5855 

1.6590  I 

1.7714 

1.8680 


10 

3.54 
8.52 
3.51 
3.49 
3.47 
8.46 
8.44 
3.45 
8.46 
8.47 
8.48 
8.47 
8.47 
8.47 
3.46 
8.48 
3.45 
3.46 
3.47 


Bazin's  Scries,  No.  176. 
(^rest  length,  6.519  feet. 
Cre«t  height,  2.46  feet. 


Cron  section. 


3 
4 

5 
(i 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

18 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 


0.287 

.296 

.365 

.439 

.494 

.565 

.618 

.r»H2 

.7»J 

.797 

.84!! 

.910 

.974 

1.027 

1.0H8 

1.139 

1.196 

1.218 

1.308 

1.355 

1.420 


1154 

1611 

2206 

2909 

3472 

4247 

4858 

5632 

6270  I 

7115 

7989 

8681  I 

9613  I 

040H 

1349  I 

215f.  ! 

3079 

3942 

4874 

5773 

6921 


2.  'ft 
2.74 
2.92 
2.95 
3.04 
3.10 
8.19 
3.22 
3.29 
3.35 
3.41 
3. 45 
3.51 
8.53 
3.57 
3.62 
3.65 
3.68 
3.73 
3.75 
3.80 


0.317 

.441 

.645 

.858 

1.055 

1.318 

1.550 

1.813 

2.06(i 

2.  385 

2.  ?24 
2.995 

3.  373 
3.671 
4.034 
4.416 

4.  782 
5. 115 
5.558 
5.925 
6.422 


0.12 
.16 
.23 
.30 
.86 
.43 
.50 
.58  ' 
.65  i 


.73 
.82 


.98 
1.05 
1.14 
1.28 
1.30 
1.38 
1.47 
1.55 
1.66  I 


0.0002 

0.2872 

.0004 

.2964 

.0008 

.3658 

.0014 

.4404 

.0020 

.4960 

.0080 

.5680 

.0052 
.0066 
.0083 
.0105 

.0149 
.0171 
.0202 
.0235 
.0263 
.0296 
.0336 
.0374 
.0428 


.6219 

.6872 

.7896 

.8073 

.8715 

.9223 

.9889 

1.0441 

1.1062 

1.1625 

1.228 

1.2776 

1.3366 

1.3924 

1.4628 


0.1154 
.1611 
.2214  j 
.2919  ! 
.3494  I 
.4281  I 
.4905 
.6696 
.6366  I 
.7260  I 
.8129 
'  .8853 
'  .9836 
I  1.0667 
I  1.1668 
I  1.2626 
\   1.3508 
j  1.4448 
!  1.5460 
j  1.6423 
I  1.7695 


2.76 
2.74 
2.91 
2.94 
8.02 
8.  OK 
3.16 
3.18 
3.24 
3.29 
3.35 
8.38 
3.43 
3.44 
3.46 
3.62 
a64 
3.54 
3.60 
3.61 
3.63 


WEIRS   OF   IBBEGULAR   SECTION. 


85 


Bazin'ft  ejcperiments  on  tueirs  of  irregular  wcriort— Continucni. 


Bazin' 
Cre«l 
Creutt 

R  Series,  N 
ength,  6.5 
leight,  2.U 

Obeerved 
head 
experi- 
mental 
welrD, 
in  feet. 

0.  178. 
18  feet. 
Ueet. 

V 

CYOMMCtlon. 

i 

Period. 

1 

D« 

c, 

Q,  flow 
per  foot, 
experi- 
mental 
weir,  in 
cubic  feet 
per 
second. 

2P 

H 

0 

(/ 

1 

2 

S 

4 

& 

6 

7 

.    . . 

0.0002 

8 

10 

1 

1 

0.222 

0.1046 

2.88 

0.297 

0.11 

0.2222 

0.1M6 

2.84    1 

2 

.299 

.1685 

2.95 

.482 

.17 

.0004 

.2994 

.1685 

2.95 

8 

.367 

.2224 

2.96 

.658 

.23 

.0008 

.8678 

.2283 

2.95 

4 

.481 

.2880 

3.08 

.872 

.30 

.0014 

.4324 

.2840 

3.07 

6 

.491 

.8441 

8.18 

1.077 

.87 

.0021 

.4931 

.8462  ; 

8.11 

6 

.666 

.4146 

3.19 

1.823 

.47 

.0034 

.5594 

.4180 

3.16 

7 

.614 

.4811 

8.24 

1.558 

.51 

.0040 

.6180 

.4868 

3.21 

8 

.600 

.5472 

8.28 

1.794 

.57 

.0061 

.6741 

.5533 

3.24 

9 

.782 

.6263 

8.38 

2.065 

.65 

.0066 

.7386 

.6353  , 

3.28 

10 

.789 

.7009 

3.86 

2.355 

.73 

.0083 

.7973 

.7116  ' 

3.31 

11 

.847 

.7796 

3.43 

2.675 

.81 

.0102 

.8672 

.7934 

3.37 

12 

.906 

.8624 

8.46 

2.983 

.89 

.0123 

.9183 

.8796 

3.39 

13 

.966 

.9494 

8.51 

8.381 

.97 

.0146 

.9606 

.9716 

3.43 

14 

1.028 

1.0423 

8.58 

8.671 

1.06 

.0171 

1.0451 

1.0683  1 

3.44 

15 

1.088 

1.1271 

3.58 

4.045 

1.14 

.0202 

1.1032 

1.1584 

3.49 

16 

1.142 

1.2204 

3.60 

4.392 

1.22 

.0231 

1.1651 

1.2675  1 

3.49 

17 

1.195 

1.8063 

3.64 

4.755 

1.30 

.0268 

1.2213 

1.3492 

3.S2 

18 

1.259 

1.4127 

3.66 

5.170 

1.39 

.0900 

1.2890 

1.4635  i 

3.58 

19 

1.314 

1.5068 

8.69 

5.5?2 

1.48 

.0341 

1.3481 

1.5651 

8.66 

20 

1.866 

1.5066 

3.72 

5.952 

1.55 

.0374 

1.4084 

1.6618 

3.58 

21 

1.424 

1.6092 

3.75 

6.876 

1.65 

.0428 

1.4663 

1.7750  , 

3.59 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY   HYDRAULIC   LABORATORY/' 

This  laboratory,  erected  in  1898,  includes  a  reservoir  formed  by  a 
masonry  dam  on  Fall  Creek,  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  An  experimental  chan- 
nel is  supplied  with  water  from  the  pond  and  has,  as  its  gcneml 
dimensions,  length,  400  feet;  breadth,  16  feet;  depth,  10  feet;  bottom 
grade,  1:500.  Fall  Creek  drains  an  area  of  117  square  miles,  and 
affords  a  minimum  water  supply  estimated  at  12  second-feet.  The 
hydraulic  laboratory  is  located  at  Triphammer  Falls,  where  a  descent 
of  189  feet  occurs.  The  weirs  used  in  the  experiments  here  described 
were  erected  in  the  concrete-lined  experimental  channel.  The  water 
supply  was  regulated  by  wooden  head-gates,  operated  by  lever,  rack, 
and  pinion,  the  outflow  from  the  canal  passing  over  the  declivity  below. 

a  In  reducing  the  experiments  at  Cornell  hydraulic  laboraton*-  the  value  of  //  for  Ithaca,  latitude 
42°  27',  Altitude  500  feet,  has  been  taken  aa  32.16,  making)  2(/-8.02,.^---U.015547.  ^l  2g=b.2b. 


86  WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

EXPERIMENTS  OF   UNITED  STATES  BOARD  OF  ENGINEERS  ON   DEEP 

WATERWAYS. 

These  experiments  were  performed  at  Cornell  University  hydraulic 
laboratory  in  May  and  June,  1899,  for  the  United  States  Board  of 
Engineers  on  Deep  Waterways,  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
George  W.  Rafter,  engineer  for  water  supply,  in  conjunction  with 
Prof.  Gardner  S.  Williams.  The  results  of  the  original  computations 
were  published  in  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  44,  together  with  an 
extended  discussion.  In  the  experiments  a  closely  regulated  volume 
of  water  was  passed  over  a  standard  thin-edged  weir  which  was  placed 
near  the  upper  end  of  the  experimental  canal  and  had  a  height  of  13.13 
feet  and  a  crest  length  of  16  feet,  end  contractions  suppressed.  The 
nappe  was  aerated,  but  was  not  allowed  to  expand  on  downstream  side. 
The  water  flowed  down  the  experimental  canal  past  a  series  of  screens 
and  baffles  and  over  the  experimental  weir  placed  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  channel. 

The  experimental  weirs  were  about  4.5  feet  high  and  6.56  feet  crest 
length.  A  leading  channel  of  planed  boards,  6.56  feet  wide  and  48 
feet  in  lengthy  extended  upstream  from  the  experimental  weir,  having 
at  its  upper  end  flaring  sides  extending  8.3  feet  upstream  and  meeting 
the  sides  of  the  main  channel. 

The  head  on  both  weirs  was  read  by  means  of  open  manometers 
connected  to  galvanized-iron  piezometer  pipes,  placed  horizontally- 
across  the  bottom  of  the  narrow  leading  channel,  37  feet  upstream 
from  the  weir.  At  the  standard  weir  two  piezometers  were  used,  one 
termed  the  middle  piezometer,  placed  across  the  leading  channel,  8 
inches  above  the  bottom  and  10  feet  upstream  from  the  standard  weir. 
A  second  or  upstream  piezometer  was  placed  25  feet  upstream  from 
the  standard  weir.  Readings  of  both  piezometers  were  taken.  It  was 
decided,  however,  to  use  the  middle  piezometer  .is  the  basis  of  calcu- 
lation of  discharge  over  the  standard  weir.  Near  the  close  of  the 
experiments  it  was  found  that  this  did  not  give  results  agreeing  with 
those  which  would  have  been  obtained  from  a  piezometer  placed  flush 
with  the  bottom  of  the  channel,  as  is  shown  to  be  necessary  from  the 
experiments  of  H.  F.  Mills  ^  and  others.  A  correction  curve  was 
accordingl}^  deduced  from  comparative  experiments  between  the  middle 
piezometer  and  the  flush  piezometer,  and  the  readings  of  the  middle 
piezometer  thus  corrected  were  applied  in  the  Bazin  formula  to  calcu- 
late the  discharge  over  the  standard  weir  for  heads  not  exceeding  the 
limit  of  Bazin's  experiments.  For  depths  on  the  standard  weir  greater 
than  2  feet  the  discharge  wa,s  computed  by  using  coefficients  deduced 
for  higher  heads  on  a  shorter  experimental  weir,  on  the  basis  of  the 
Fmncis  formula.     Owing  to  the  uncertainty^  as  to  the  piezometers  and 

«  Mills,  H.  F.,  Experiments  upon  piezometera  vtixd  in  hydraulic  investigations,  Boston,  187K- 


ui 

> 

z 


O 

u 


o 

CD 


o 
>- 


U.    S.    GEOLOO'CAL    SURVEV 


WATER-SUPPLY   PAPER    NO.    150      PL.   XIV 


CORNELL  HYDRAULIC   LABORATORY,   ARRANGED   FOR   WEIR   EXPERIMENTS. 


WEIRS    OF    IRREGULAR   SECTION.  87 

other  conditions,  the  original  results  of  the  experiments  were  rredited 
with  a  possihle  error  of  5  or  ♦>  per  cent. 

In  connection  with  the  experiment«j  on  models  of  the  Croton  dam,  a 
very  thorough  comparison  of  the  so-called  upstream  piezometer  with 
other  methods  of  obtaining  the  head  on  a  standard  weir  was  made  by 
Professor  Williams.  It  was  found  that  the  upstream  piezometer  gave 
the  actual  head  on  the  standard  weir  correctly.  These  results  werecom- 
municated  to  the  writer,  and  a  recomputation  of  the  Deep  Waterways 
exjjeriments  has  been  made,  using  readings  of  the  upstream  piezome- 
ter to  calculate  the  standard  weir  discharge  by  Bazin's  formula.  This 
method  of  calculation  eliminates  the  necessity  for  correcting  the  pie- 
zometer readings  at  the  standard  weir,  as  was  necessary  in  the  previous 
reductions.  The  discharge  over  the  experimental  weir  has  been  cal- 
culated from  readings  of  a  piezometer  placed  38  feet  upstream  from 
the  weir  and  8  inches  above  channel  bottom,  corrected  to  the  basis  of 
a  flush  piezometer. 

The  United  States  Deep  Waterways  experiments  included,  for  each 
experimental  model,  a  smaller  number  of  heads  or  periods  than  either 
the  Croton  or  United  States  Geological  Survey  experiments.  They 
were  also  the  first  experiments  of  the  kind  conducted  at  the  Cornell 
laljoratory,  and  the  experience  gained  has  probably  contributed  to  the 
securing  of  somewhat  greater  accuracy'  in  the  later  experiments.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that,  as  recomputed,  the  United  States  Deep  Water- 
ways experiments  do  not  differ  much  in  accuracy  from  those  made  on 
models  of  the  Croton  dam,  which  are  stated  by  John  R.  Freeman  to 
be  reliable  within  about  2  per  cent.  The  coefficient*j  obtained  by 
recomputation,  when  compared  with  the  original  United  States  Deep 
Waterways  coefficients,  show  few  differences  exceeding  2  per  cent. 
The  variations  are  plus  and  minus  in  about  equal  numbers,  and  it  is 
believed  that  these  experiments  are  entitled  to  greater  weight  than 
they  have  hitherto  received. 

In  the  accompanying  tables  a  summary  of  the  recomputation  is 
given. 

IKK  150—06 8 


88         WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,    AND    FORMULAS. 

Recomputaiimi  of  United  States  Deep  Watenvays  Board  experimenii  on  flow  of  water  orer 
model  dams,  Cornell  University  hydraulic  laboratory ,  1899, 


Weir  model. 


SerieMl. 


P-4.91.       i-6.68. 


Series  t. 


mm\ 


P=«4.90.        X=«.58. 


2 


/).  in 
feet. 


flow  ' 
per  I 
fcx)t.  in 
I  cm  bio 
feet  per 
second.. 


! 

1 

Num- 

ber of 

*=i; 

//= 

^'i 

obser- 

i>+A 

vationft 
of 

head. 

I 


I 


4.9?2  , 
4.872  , 

3    '    4.858 

4  j i    4.138  ' 

5  I I    3.368 

«    I    1.725  ' 

7    1    1.190  ' 


I 


SeriMi. 


Serieah 


P-4.91.        £-6.68. 


Series  6. 


5.05 
4.15 
3.35 
2.55 
1.75 
.923 
.34 


5 

89. 7:^ 
39.44 
39.31  ^ 
31.47 

22.81 
8.71 
4.88 

42.18 
31.17 
22.89 
15.0:^  I 
8.39 
3.02  ' 
.82  ■ 


146. 70  1 
123.00  I 
98.80 
75.72  : 
50.65  ! 


P=4.90.        /.=6.58. 
Series  9. 


P=4.94.        /,=6.58. 


1  I  142.75 

2  I  119.20 

3  96.r2 

4  I  74.50 

1  I  144.00 

2  120.50 

3  97.27  ' 

4  74. 35 

5  49. 77 


4.812 
4.034  ] 
3.242  i 
2.484  ' 
1.662  , 

4.682  ' 
3.969 
3.173 
2.444 

4.728 
3.953 
3.192 
2.439 
1.633 


1  i  147.10 

2  i  123.00  I 

3  99.62 

4  76.22 
o   51.00  I 


4.825 
4.034 
8.268 
2. 500 
1.673  ! 


41.04 
81.22 
21.49 
13.27 

8.21 

41.40 
30.72  I 
21.64 
14.07 

41.22  I 
30.50  t 
21.53 
14.18 
7.(i3 

41.16 
30.47 
21.48 
14. 24 

7.85  I 


4.23  0.2782 
3.50  .1959 
2.65  .1092 
1.80  .0504 

1.24  .0239 


10 


4.972 
4.872 
4.853 
4.138 
3.368 
1.725 
1.190 


5.050 
4.150 
3.350 
2.550 
1.750 
.923 
.340 


8.584 

3.668  , 

3.940 

3.789 

8.690 

3.844 

3.759 

8.712 
3.758 
3.733 
3.691 
3.6:« 
3.406 
4.120 


3.: 


5.28      I 

3.49      '    8.383  I 

1.75      !    3.882  I 


5.11 
4.28 
3.43 
2.57 
1.73 


3.54: 
3.873 
3.484 
3.485 
3.485 


I 


5.0902 
4.2299 
8.8512 
2.5344 
1.6859 


4.30  .2875  I  4.9695 

3.47  .1872  4.1562 

2.67  .  .1108  I  3.2838 

1.92  '  .a573  I  2.5018 

4.28  .2848  5.0078 

3. 45  . 1850  4. 1380 

2.62  .1067  3.299 

1.92  .0573  2.4963 

1.17  .0213  1.6543 


4.20 
3.38 
2. 62 
1.92 
1.19 


.2742 
.1776 
.1067 
.0573 
.0220 


5.0992 
4.2116 
3.3927 
2.5573 
1.6950 


41 

15 
21 
l.^i 
18 


21 

15 
21 

21 
27 
27 
27 
•23 


3.  .574 
3.503  I 
3.503  ' 
3.289 
3.751 

3.787 
3.626 
3.637 
3.557 

3.678  , 

3.623 

3.591 

3.596 

3.585 

3.575  i 
3.525  . 
3.437 
3.482 
3.557  . 


31 
•j7 

25 

21 

2** 
29 
27 
•27 

IK 
2ii 
2;i 

l.> 

•22 
29 


(I  Same  as  series  7,  but  upstream  face  covered  with  i-inch  mesh  galvanized  wire  netting. 


WEIRS   OF   IBREOULAB   SECTION. 


89 


RecomptUation  of  United  States  Deep  Waterways  Board  experiments  onflow  of  water  over 
model  dams,  Comell  Dniversity  hydraulic  laboratory ,  1899 — Contiiiued. 


Weir  model. 


1 
Series  10. 


P^A^bl.       Z.-6.58. 


SerieslS. 


JP-4.60.       L«e.68. 


Pb.4.58.       X«6.fi8. 


Series  16. 

yot^e  /Aft 
P«4.fi8.        L=6.S8. 


i»-4.57. 


L-6.68. 


aeries  17, 


P-4.OT.       £«6.5& 


SeriesJS. 


P-4.66 


Cor- 
rected 
depth 
D,  ex- 
peri- 
mental 
weir, 
centi- 
meteni. 


i),in 
feet. 


flow 

per 

foot,  in 

cubic 

feet  per 

seoond 


I 


5.046  42.01 

4.961  81.27 

3.641  22.88 

2.887  14.77 

2.024  8.12 


4.892 
4.189 
8.464 
2.707 
1.980 


1   154.55 
126.80 


144.70 
116.60 
88.52 
60.02 
80.80 


157.05 
131.60 
105.40 
80.25 
54.25 
28.05 


96.75 
66.80 


5.069 
4.160 
8.174 
2.174 


4.747 
8.825 
2.904 
1.969 
1.010 


42.06 
81.66 
22.02 
14.34 
8.26 


80.69 

21.58 

14.12 

7.86 

30.69 

21.75 

14.07 

7.85 

2.89 


129.55  I    4.250 

105.00  8.444 

79.52  I    2.608 

58.66  1.760 


126.75  I  4,157  80.69 

102.55  '  3.364  j  21.87 

78.02  2.559  |  14.02 

62.00  '  1.706  7.73 


127.80  4.175,  31.08 

108.82  I    3.389  21.87 

78.39  2.571  '  14.34 
51.57  1.691  '  7.73 

82.40  1.068  3.82 


38.523  1.264 

[49.362  '  4.899 

125.693  4.123 

100.766  I  3.305 

75.427  2.474 


5.47 
40.19 
30.25 
21.38 
13.85  i 


4.87 
3.50 
2.72 
1.99 
1.24 


J7- 
D+h 


8 


Num- 
ber of 
obeer- 
vatlons 

of 
head. 


0.2969 
.1904 
.1160 
.0616 


4.45 
3.60 
2.72 
1.97 
1.26 

3.19 
2.48 
1.82 
1.17 


3.28 
2.60 
1.90 
1.19 
.51 


.3079 
.2016 
.1150 
.0603 
.0247 

.1682 
.0966 
.0515 
.0213 


4.23 
8.45 
2.72 
1.97 
1.24 
.51 


3.55 
2.72 
1.97 
1.26 

3.52 
2.75 
1.97 
1.24 


3.55 
2.75 
2.02 
1.24 
.68 

.92 
4.23 
3.45 
2.70 
1.94 


.1678 
.1051 
.0661 
.0220 
.0040 

.2782 
.1860 
.1150 
.0608 
.0239 
.0040 


.1959 
.1160 
.0603 
.0247 


.1926 
.1176 


.1959 
.1176 
.0634 
.0239 
.00?2 

.0132 
.2782 
.1850 
.1133 
.0585 


5.8429 
4.6614 
8.7660 
2.9486 


10 


8.402 
8.220 
3.068 
2.917 


2.0479  I  2.771 

5.1999  I  8.547 

4.8906  I  3.418 

3.6790  !  3.252 

2.7673  j  8.115 

1.9647  '  8.022 


5.219 
4.2566 
8.2256 
2.1968 

4.9143 
3.9801 
2.9601 
1.9910 
1.0140 


2.674 
2.468 
2.438 
2.418 


5.4292 
4.6020 
3.5780 
2.6938 
1.8039 
.9240 


4.4459 
3.5590 
2.6683 
1.7847 


4.8496 
3.4816 
2.6193 
1.7299 


4.3709 
3.6066 
2.6344 
1. 7149 
1.0702 


1.2772 
5.1772 
4.3080 
3.4183 
2.5325 


2.817 
2.790 
2.763 
2.859 
2.830 


3.254 
3.208 
8.212 
3.188 
8.219 
3.096 


8.820 
8.257 
3.217 
3.883 


3.883 
8.866 
3.307 
3.897 


3.401 
3.881 
3.354 
3.442 
3.450 


3.790 
3.412 
3  383 
3.383 
3.487 


21 
21 
20 
17 
17 


90 


WEIR   EXPERIMKNTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 


RecompiUatian  of  Ihiited  States  Deep  Waterways  Board  eji^eriments  on  jimr  of  ivaier  oter 
model  dams,  Cornell  Vnivermty  hydraulic  laboralary,  1899 — Continued. 


Weir  model. 

1 

Cor- 
rected 
depth 
Z),  ex- 
peri- 
mental 
weir, 
centi- 
meters. 

I),  in 
feet. 

flow 
per 
foot,  in 
oubic 
feet  per 
second. 

I 

D-irh 

Cx 

Num- 
ber of 
objicr- 
vationii 

of 
head. 

1 

2 

8 

4       j       6 

6             7 

8 

0.8899 
1.7028 
4.9362 
4.0802 
8.3088 
2.5855 
1.7706 

9 

8.276 
3.367 
8.651 
8.694 
8.461 
3.401 
8.260 

10 

Series  19. 
P-5.28.       X»>6.68. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

27.04 
51.36 
142.128 
119.442 
97.858 
77.246 
53.42 

0.8869  1      2.75 
1.685          7.46 
4.662         40.04 
8.918         29.62 
8.210         20.78 
2.534    '    14.17 
1.752          7.68 

0.44     0.0030 
1.07  '    .0178 
4.20       .2742 
3.23       .1622 
2.46       .0933 
1.82       .ft')15 

1.09       .0185 

1 

...'.... 

Column  5  shows  the  discharge  over  the  experimental  weir  per  foot 
of  crest,  deduced  from  the  readings  of  the  upstream  piezometer  at  the 
standard  weir,  by  Bazin^s  formula,  and  corrected  for  slight  leakage. 

Column  3  shows  the  head  on  the  experimental  weir,  in  centimeters, 
taken  by  a  piezometer  38  feet  upstream  and  8  inches  above  channel 
bottom,  corrected  to  reduce  it  to  the  equivalent  reading  of  the  flush 
piezometer. 

Column  4  shows  the  equivalent  head  in  feet. 

Column  6  shows  the  absolute  velocity  of  approach. 

Column  7  shows  the  velocity  head. 

Column  8  shows  the  head  corrected  for  velocity  of  approach;  the 
correction  being  made  by  the  simple  addition  of  the  velocity  head  to 
the  measured  head,  which  is  assumed  to  be  a  sufficiently  precise  equiv- 
alent to  the  Francis  correction  formula  for  this  purpose. 

Column  9  gives  the  coefficient  Cj,  deduced  from  the  foregoing. 

The  resulting  coefficient  diagrams  are  shown  on  Pis.  XV  to  XVII I, 
inclusive. 

EXPERIMENTS    AT    CORNELL    UNIVERSITY    HYDRAULIC    LABORATORY    ON 
MODELS  OF  OLD  CROTON   DAM.^ 

These  experiments  were  made  in  November  and  December,  1899, 
by  Prof.  Gardner  S.  Williams,  under  the  direction  of  John  R.  Free- 
man. The  standard  weir  used  was  located  near  the  head  of  the  experi- 
mental canal,  water  being  admitted  and  regulated  by  head-gates  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  standard  weir  was  11.25  feet  high  and  16  feet 
long  on  the  crest.  The  experimental  weir  was  placed  232.5  feet  far- 
ther downstream,  and  also  occupied  the  full  width  of  the  experimental 
canal.  The  models  of  the  Croton  dam  were  constructed  of  framed 
timber  and  were  6  to  9  feet  high. 


a  Report  on  New  York's  water  8upply,  Freeman,  1900,  pp.  139-141. 


U.  &.  OeOLOOlCAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY  PAPER  NO.  1M   PL.  XV 


Coeffl. 
rient 


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Corrected  head  In  feet. 


4.0         4.4         4.8         ft.2         hA         S.0 


SeriatO 


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Series /Z 


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I'orrected  hfuU  \\\  feec. 


tf^e^ 


Series  J f 


^fl«^p 


Series  13 


EXPERIMENTS  OF  UNITED  STATES  DEEP  WATERWAYS  BOARD  AT  CORNELL 
UNIVERSITY,   1899. 


«  3  2  a 


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U.   S.  OEOLOQICAL  •UflVEY 


WATER-aUPPLY    PAPER    NO.    150      PU  XVII 

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EXPERIMENTS  OF  UNITED  STATES  DEEP  WATERWAYS  BOARD  AT  CORNELL 
UNIVERSITY,   1899. 


U.   8.   GEOLOQICAL  SURVFV 


WATlII-euPPLY  PAPOi  NO.    150      PL.   XVIII 

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Corrected  head  H  In  feet. 


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Corrected  head  H  in  feet. 


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Corrected  head  H  in  feet. 


EXPERIMENTS  OF  UNITED  STATES   DEEP  WATERWAYS   BOARD  AT  CORNELL 
UNIVERSITY,   1899. 


WEIKS   OF    IRREGULAR   SECTION. 


91 


The  head  on  the  weirs  was  measured  by  means  of  open  glass  manom- 
eters connected  to  piezometer  tubes  in  the  channel  above  each  weir. 
The  piezometer  tubes  were  made  of  1-inch  galvanized-iron  pipe  with 
small  holes  drilled  along  the  sides,  the  ends  being  plugged.  At  the 
standard  weir  three  piezometers  were  used,  placed  parallel  to  the  cur- 
rent, at  about  mid-depth  of  the  channel,  one  being  near  each  side  and 
one  at  mid-width  of  the  channel,  the  mid-length  of  the  pipes  being 
26.5  feet  upstream  from  the  standard  weir.  A  hook  gage  in  the  same 
section  was  used  to  check  the  observed  head. 

ErperimtnUt  on  volume  of  flow  over  models  of  old  OroUm  daniy  Oomell  University  hydrau- 
lic laboratory  J  1899. 


Period 
,     No. 


aeries  1— Model  A.  ' 

Round  crent,  old  Croton  dam,  xmooth  pine,  I 
creut  and  slope  16  feet  long.    Nov.  28-29. 


fij         Mean 

sen^ed  |  \^i^ 
depth  I  *7p?f 

dam,     »Ve1- 
^««««^ipec^ond. 


Series  la— Model  A. 

Round  crest,  old  Croton  dam,  upplaned 
plank,  crest  16  feet  long,  smooth  slope. 
Not.  6. 1899. 


1  2.7229 

2  I  2.1867 

3  I  1.438H 

4  I  .9830 

5  I  .5907 

6  I  .1280 

1  ,  2.0897 

2  1.829S 
8  I  1,5878 


1.685 
1.288 
.749 
.449 
.219 
.024 


Correc- 
tion 
for 
veloc- 
ity of 

proach, 
in  feet. 


0.04S9 
.0259 
.0087 
.0081 
.0008 
.0000 


Serinf—ModelA. 

Round  crest,  old  Croton  dam,  16-foot  nnooth 
cre*t,  rough  slope  formed  of  cleats  and 
stone  to  simulate  concrete  and  riprap.  Dec. 
4.1899. 


Series  S— Model  A. 

Round  crest,  old  Croton  dam,  16-foot  crest, 
covered  Mrith  wire  cloth  of  No.  18  wire, 
I -inch  mesh,a  rough  slope,  as  In  series  2.  i 
Nov.  28,  1899. 


a  In  experiments  with  wire  cloth  over  crest, 
oompenaate  for  thicknesB  of  wire. 


1.2562 
.9929 
.6801 

.4871 

2. 9227 
2.8591 
2.4948 
2.1420 
1.6238 
1.2597 
1,1419 
.7196 
.4873 


1. 

1.794 

1.51G 

1.248  ' 

.880  I 

.623 

.545 

.288 

.166 


2.0080 

1. 124 

1.4091 

.712 

.8675 

.366 

.42l« 

.133 

.1184 

1 

.020 

Cor- 
rected 

head 

on 

model 

dam, 
in  feet. 


.978 

.0149 

.810 

.0102 

.661 

.0068 

.467  1 

.0034 

.338 

.0018 

.175 

.0004 

.111 

.0002 

0526 
.OiOO 
.0857 
.0241 
.0120 
.0060 
.0046 
.0013 
.0004 

.0197 
.0078 
.0021 
.0003 
.0000 


2.7668 

2.2116 

1.4476 

.9861 

.5915 

.1280 

2. 1046 
1.8395 
1.5946 
1.2596 
.9947 
.6306 
.4873 

2. 9753 
2.9091 
2.5306 
2. 1661 
1.6358 
1.2657 
1.1465 
.7209 
.4877 

2.0187 

1.4129 

.8656 

.4251 

.  1144 


Dis- 
charge 

over 
model 

dam 

per 
foot  of 
length, 
in  cu- 
bic feet 

('X 

per sec- 
ond. 

7 

8 

14.762 

3.208 

10.562 

3.211 

5.604 

3.218 

3.154 

3.222 

1.451 

3.190 

.147 

3.408 

9.578 
7.883 
6.284 


3.137 
3.160 
3.121 


4.287  I  3.032 

3.006  '  3.030 

1.494  I  2.988 

.991     2.913 


16.  175 
15.969  I 
12.933  I 
10.211  I 
6.740  I 
4.548  I 
3.913  ! 
1.945  ' 
1.087  I 

9.037  ! 
5.308  I 
2.527 
.861  I 


3.240 
3!  218 
3.213 
3.203 
3.222 
3.194 
3.188 
3.178 
3.192 

3.118 
3. 161 
3.13H 
3.099 


.124  '  3.205 


0.004  foot  is  deducted    from  observed  depth  to 


92 


WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 


Experiments  on  wlume  of  flmv  over  models  of  old  Qroion  dam,  Cornell  University  hydrau- 
lic laboratory,  1899 —Continued. 


Series  l—Model  B. 

Angular  crest,  old  Croton  dam,  16-f(K)t  crest, 
all  unplaned  plank.    Nov.  15,  1899. 


Scries  2— Model  B. 

Angular  creat,  old  Croton  dam,  16-foot  un- 
planed plank,  crest  xlope  roughened  with 
cleats  and  stone.    Nov.  28, 1899. 


Scries  t— Continued  model  B. 
Conditions  as  in  preceding.    Nov.  16,  1H99. 


Series  S—MwlH  B. 

Angular  crest,  old  Croton  dam,  wire  cloth  on 
crest,  rough  Hlope.    Nov.  16,  1H99. 


Series  1— Model  C. 

Round  crest,  old  Croton  dam,  12-inch  timber 
on  crest..  16  feet  long,  rough  slope.  Dec. 
1.1899. 


Series  1 — CotUinued  nwdel  (\ 
Couditihns  as  in  preceding.    Dec.  4. 1899. 

Series  1 — Mn<lel  I). 

Angular  creHt,  old  Croton  dam,  Ti-inch  tim-  I 
her,  on  16-foot  crest,  rough  slope.    Nov.  16, 
1X99. 


Period 
No. 

Ob- 
served 
depth 

on 
model 
dam, 
in  feet. 

t 

Mean 
veloc- 
ity of 

proach. 
In  feet 

per 
second. 

Correc- 
tion 
for 
velocN 
ityof 
ap- 
proach, 
in  feet 

Cor- 
rected 

head 

on 

model 

in  feel. 

Dis- 
chai^e 

over 
model 

per 
foot  of 
length, 
in  cubic 
feet  p€T 
8e<x>nd- 

1 

1 

1 

a 

8 

4 

5 

6 

4 

H 

1  '  1.8635 

0.973 

0.0147 

1.8782 

9.506 

3.693 

2  '     .9246 

.370 

.0021 

.9267 

8.272 

3.668 

3  ]     .6419 

.219 

.0008 

.6427 

1.870 

3.6S0 

4 

.3481 

.090 

.0001 

.3482 

.741 

3.a« 

5 

.1787 

.034 

.0000 

.  1787 

.272 
13.478 

3.6t»l 

1     2.4126 

1.298 

.0262 

2.4388 

3..S39 

2     1.6251 

.736 

.0084 

1.5836 

6.945 

3.rt67 

3       .9611 

.391 

.0024 

.9686 

8.466 

3.ti65 

4       .5167 

.162 

.0004 

.5161 

1.369 

3.692 

5       .3051 

.077 

.0001 

.3a52 

.631 

3.742 

6       .0890 

.012 

.0000 

.0890 

.094 

3.  .'HO 

1      1.8930 

.988 

.0151 

1.9081 

9.683 

3-674 

2  ^     .9606 

.391 

.0024 

.9629 

3.465 

3.667 

3       .7028 

.261 

.0010 

.7038 

2.165 

3-»rfM 

4       .3941 

.108 

.0002 

.3943 

.900 

3.  t^V» 

5       .1962 

.039 

.0000 

.1962 

.314 

3.641 

1  1  2.0a'»3 

1.047 

.0170 

02.0183 

10.885 

3. 622 

2  '     .9787 

.389 

.0024 

.9771 

8.468 

3..5j**> 

3       .7391 

.259 

.0011 

.7362 

2.241 

3.54S 

4       .1785 

.032 

.0000 

.1746 

.260 

3.567 

1 

1.9941 

1.097 

.0187 

2.0128 

9.904 

3.4o8 

2 

1.1817 

.512 

.0040 

1. 18.->7 

4.211 

3.262 

8  !     .8832 

.828 

.0017 

.8849 

2.894 

3.116 

4       .6873 

.222 

.0008 

.6881 

l.r22 

3.017 

5 

.4986 

.141 

.0003 

.4989 

1.065 

3.022 

6 

.2992 

.071 

.0001 

.'2998 

.622 

S.1>W 

7 

.1177 

.019 

.0000 

.1177 

.139 

3.4.TO 

8       .0846 

•"^^ 

.0000 

.0846 

.067 

2.723 

1      2.7146 

1.632 

.0414 

2.7660 

15.917 

3.479 

•2     2. 4519 

1.436 

.0320 

2.4839 

13.629 

3.4*2 

3     1.5566 

.774 

.0093 

1.5659 

6.660 

3.399 

4 

1.1046 

.016 

.0000 

.1046 

.112 

3.311 

5 

.1070 

.0165 

.0000 

.1070 

.118 

3. 371 

1 

1.2390 

.495 

.0038 

1.2428 

5.026 

3.6-2^ 

2       .  7885 

.249 

.0010 

.7«li.'S 

2. 415 

3.44:> 

3       .  4448 

.113 

.0002 

.4450 

l.OM 

3.  .-vM 

n  In  experiments  with  wire  cloth  over  crest,  0.004  foot  is  deducted  from  observed  depth  to  com- 
peuBate  for  thickness  of  wire. 


WEIB8   OF   IRREO0LAR   SECTION. 


93 


Experimeni*  on  volume  of  flow  over  models  of  old  Croton  dam,  Cornell  University  hydntu- 
lie  laboratory y  1899 — Continued. 


Period 
No. 

Ob- 
served 
depth 

on 
model 

dam, 
in  feet. 

Mean 
veloc- 
ity of 

proach, 
in  feet 

per 
second. 

Correc- 
tion 
for 
vekK'- 
ity  of 

ap- 
proach, 
in  feet. 

Cor- 
rected 

head 

on 

model 

dam, 
in  feet. 

Dis- 
charge 

over 
model 

dam 
per 
foot  of 
length, 
in  cubic 
feet  per 
second. 

Ci 

1 

t            S 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

1     2.3061 

1.154 

0.0207 

2.8258 

11.778 

3.321 

2  1  1.8125 

.845 

.0111 

1.8286 

8.214 

3.836 

Series  1— Model  E. 

3     1.2278 

.507 

.0040 

1.2818 

4.682 

3.388 

16-foot  angular  crest,  old  Croton  dam,  with- 

4      .8MW 

.313 

.0015 

.8613 

2.744 

3.433 

out  timber,  but  with  obstructed  channel. 

5       .5745 

.179 

.0006 

.5750 

1.616 

3.477 

with  sharp  contraction.    Nov.  18, 1899. 

6  '    .3245 

.078 

.0001 

.3246 

.641 

3.466 

7  1     .1120 

.017 

.0000 

.1120 

.183  '  3.548 

8       .1102 

.017 

.0000 

.1102 

.140  1  3.827 

1  1  1.4569 

.636 

.0063 

1.4632 

5.957     3.366 

2  ,     .9168 

.338 

.0018 

.9186 

2.982  1  3.387 

SerifM  I— Model  A',  repeated. 

3  1     .6866 

.287 

.0009 

.6875 

2.087 

3.578 

Conditions  as  in  preceding.    Nov.  2S,  1899. 

4  1    .4820 

5  .2811 

.148 
.071 

.0008 
.0001 

.4823 
.2812 

1.240 
.579 

3.702 

3.883 

6  .     .1416 

.028 
1.139 

.0000 
.0202 

.1416 
2.3129 

.226     4.208 

1 

2.2927 

all.  613     3.:«2 

Series  t— Model  E. 

: 

2.2914 
1.1896 

1.138 
.478 

.0202 
.0084 

2.3116 
1.1429 

611.606 

4.278 

3.302 
3.501 

Angular  crest,  old  Croton  dam,  16  feet  long 

4 

1.1403 

.453 

.0031 

1.1434 

a  4. 097     3.351 

without  timber,  and  with  slope  instead  of 

5 

1.1006 

.448 

.0081 

1.1087 

64.034     3.479 

sharp  edge  to  upstream  end  of  obstruction. 

6 

1.1099 

.467 

.0082 

1. 1131 

4.119 

3.507 

Nov.  27, 189tf. 

7 

.4763 

.141 

.0008 

.4766 

1.180 

3.586 

« 

.0233 

.081 

.0000 

.0283 

,    .025 

7.029 

o  Trap  open. 


6  Trap  closed. 


At  the  experimental  weir  two  similar  piezometers,  each  about  one 
third  of  the  width  of  the  channel  from  the  side,  were  used.  Owing 
to  the  long  back  slope  of  some  of  the  model  dams,  the  head  was 
measured  69.75  feet  upstream  from  the  crest  of  the  experimental 
weirs.  Readings  of  all  the  piezometers  were  taken  at  half-minute 
intervals,  two  and  sometimes  three  observers  working  at  each  weir. 
The  mean  of  ten  to  twenty  observations  was  used  to  determine  the 
head  for  each  period  in  the  experiment.  Freeman  states  that  he 
considers  the  results  of  these  experiments  for  heads  up  to  2.5  feet, 
including  all  sources  of  errors,  as  certainly  correct  within  2  per 
cent,  and  probably  much  closer.  In  reducing  the  experiments,  the 
head  on  the  experimental  weir  is  corrected  by  a  methtxi  comparable 
with  that  of  Francis.  Freeman  does  not  give  the  resulting  coefficients 
for  the  weir  formula,  but  presents  the  results  in  the  form  of  diagrams 
showing  the  discharge  per  foot  of  crest  for  the  variods  models.  In 
the  accompanying  tables  the  computations  have  been  carried  out  to 


94  WEIE   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

show  the  coefficients,  some  errors  in  the  original  data  liaving  been 
omitted. 

Column  3  shows  the  observed  head  on  the  experimental  dam,  in  feet. 

Column  7  shows  the  computed  discharge  over  the  experimental  dam, 
per  foot  of  crest.  This  was  determined  by  calculating  the  discharge 
over  the  standard  weir  by  means  of  both  the  Francis  and  Bazin  for- 
mulas, the  mean  of  the  two  having  been  used.  The  result  corrected 
for  slight  leakage,  divided  by  16  (the  length  in  feet  of  the  experi- 
mental weir  model),  appears  in  column  7. 

Columns  4  and  5  show  the  velocity  of  approach  and  the  correspond- 
ing velocity  head  at  the  experimental  weir.  The  velocity  of  approach 
correction  was  made  by  adding  directly  the  velocity  head  as  given  to 
the  observed  depth  on  the  model  dam,  this  being  considered  a  suffi- 
ciently close  approximation  to  the  Francis  method  of  correction. 

Columns  1  to  7  are  taken  from  the  original  (computations.  The 
coefficient  C^  has  been  computed  from  the  data  in  columns  6  and  7  by 
the  formula 

in 

Pis.  XIX  to  XXII  show  the  resulting  coefficients  applicable  in  the 
formula  here  adopted, 

correction  for  velocity  of  approach  being  made  by  the  Francis  correc- 
tion formula  or  an  equivalent  method. 

These  experiments  were  performed  for  the  specific  purpose  of 
determining  the  discharge  over  the  old  Croton  dam.  They  include 
two  main  groups:  (1)  Experiments  on  round-crested  portion  of  the 
dam;  (2)  experiments  on  the  angular-crested  portion  of  the  dam. 
Each  group  includes  series  of  experiments  on:  {a)  Model  of  smooth- 
planed  pine;  (J)  model  of  unplaned  plank;  {c)  model  with  cleats  and 
fragments  of  stone  on  the  upstream  slope  to  simulate  the  natural  back 
tilling;  (rf)  model  with  rough  slope  and  with  i-inch-mesh  wire  cloth  on 
crest  to  simulate  cut  stone;  {e)  model  surmounted  by  12-inch-8quaro 
timber  on  crest.  Experiments  were  added  with  a  construction  to 
simulate  a  natural  rock  ledge  lying  upstream  from  the  angular  portion 
of  the  dam. 

The  experiments  were  abbreviated  owing  to  lateness  of  season  and 
trouble  from  air  in  the  gage  pipes. 

The  value  of  the  results  is  limited  by  the  narrow  range  of  heads 
covered.  The  models  were  of  unusual  forms,  and  show  some  peculiar 
differences  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  compare  the  results  with  those 
of  other  weirs  of  similar  slopes.  The  data  are  of  value  as  showing  the 
effect  of  various  degrees  of  roughness  on  the  discharge. 


U.  8.  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY   PAPER   NO.   150      PL.  XIX 


clent 
C. 


Corrected  head  //  In  feet. 
0  •>  A  .6  .8         1.0         1.2  1.4         1.6         1.8         2.0        t.3        2.4         2.6        2.8         8.0 


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SEKIES  /a,  MODEL    A  ^       /^ 


EXPERIMENTS  ON   ROUND-CRESTED   MODELS  OF  OLD  CROTON   DAM. 

1KB  150—06 9 


U.    S.   OEOLCXUCAL    SURVEY 


rlent 


WATER-SUPPLY   PAPER    NO.    ISO      PL.  XX 


Corrected  head  H  in  fwt. 
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EXPERIMENTS  ON  ANGULAR-CRESTED  MODELS  OF  OLD  CROTON   DAM. 


U.    9.   GEOLOGICAL   6URVCV 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER    NO.   180      PL   XXI 


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WEIR8    OF    IRREGULAR   SECTION.  95 

EXPERIMENTS    OF    UNITED    STATES    GEOIXXilCAL    SURVEY    AT    CORNELL 
UNIVERSITY   HYDRAULIC  LABORATORY. 

In  April,  1903,  the  writer  was  instructed  to  plan  and  execute  iv  *<crie8 
of  experiments  on  models  of  dams  similar  to  those  in  use  at  gaging  sta- 
tions of  the  Geological  Survey  in  New  York,  Michigan,  and  elsewhere. 

The  experiments  were  performed  at  the  hydraulic  laboratory  of 
Cornell  University,  mainly  during  the  months  of  May  and  June,  J903, 
and  were  conducted,  under  the  supervision  of  the  writer,  by  Prof. 
Gardner  S.  Williams,  director  of  the  laboratory. 

The  various  types  of  dams  most  commonly  occurring  were  grouped 
as  follows: 

1.  Weirs  with  broad  horizontal  or  slightly  inclined  crests. 

2.  Weirs  with  vertical  downstream  faces  and  inclined  upstream 
slopes. 

3.  Weirs  having  compound  slopes,  including  those  with  inclined 
upstream  faces  and  with  either  broad  crests  or  with  sloping  aprons. 

4.  Completely  or  partially  curved  weir  sections,  including  those  of 
ogee  profile. 

It  was  found  impossible  to  include  in  the  experiments  all  the  forms 
of  section  desired,  and  it  was  accordingly  determined  to  limit  the 
experiments  to  the  thorough  stud}'  of  two  classes — weirs  with  broad 
crests  and  weirs  with  ogee  sections — and  to  extend,  if  possible,  the 
measurements  to  include  dams  with  vertical  downstream  faces  and 
sloping  upstream  approaches.  The  order  of  operation  used  in  pre- 
vious experiments  was  transposed,  the  experimental  models  being  built 
on  a  bulkhead  forming  the  standard  weir  Jiitherto  used  and  located 
near  the  head  of  the  experimental  canal. 

The  quantity  of  water  passing  over  the  experimental  weir  was  meas- 
ured on  a  standard  weir  below,  6.65  feet  high  and  having  a  crest  length 
of  15.93  feet.  The  head  on  the  standard  weir  was  measured  in  a 
Bazin  pit,  3  by  4  feet  in  section,  reaching  to  the  depth  of  the  bottom 
of  the  canal,  and  communicating  therewith  through  a  pipe  4  inches  in 
diameter  and  about  3.5  feet  long,  opening  at  the  bottom  of  the  channel 
of  approach,  29. 88  feet  upstream  from  the  weir.  The  head  on  the  stand- 
ard weir  was  observed  in  the  gage  pit  by  means  of  a  hook  gage  read- 
ing to  millimetei-s  and  estimated  to  about  one-fifth  millimeter.  The 
conditions  at  the  standard  weir  were  thus  closely  comparable  to  those 
obtained  in  Bazius  experiments,  and  his  formula  for  this  height  and 
length  of  weir  was  applied  to  determine  the  discharge.  Observations 
to  determine  the  leakage  between  the  experimental  and  standard  weirs 
were  made,  and  corrections  were  applied  for  whatever  leakage  was 
indicated,  the  amount  being  usualh'  less  than  0.01  cubic  foot  per  second 
per  foot  of  (;rest.     The  discharge  over  the  standard  weir  was  com- 


96 


WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


puted  in  cubic   meters  per   second  and  has   been  reduced   to   cubic 
feet  per  second,  the  discharge  table  beingf  as  follows: 

Discfiarge  (wer  aUindard  weir  at  different  heads. 


Head,  in 
metera. 

Q  in  cubic 

meters,  per 

second. 

Head,  in 
meters. 

0.60 

Q  in  cubic 

raeten*,  per 

second. 

4.  21730 

0.05 

0.  111863 

.10 

. 296230 

.70 

5.  34459 

.15 

. 53207 

.80 

6. 57096 

.20 

.81166 

.90 

7.  89078 

.25 

1.12871 

1.00 

9.30650 

.30 

1.48032 

1.10 

10. 81066 

.40 

2. 27850 

1.20 

12. 40420 

.50 

3. 193,50 

1 

The  discharge  curve  for  the  standard  weir  has  also  been  carefully 
checked  by  comparing  the  depth  flowing  over  with  that  on  a  similar 
weir,  using  the  formula  and  method  of  determining  the  head  adoptc^d 
by  Fteley  and  Stearns;  it  has  also  been  checked  by  float  and  cur- 
rent-meter measurements,  and  for  lower  heads  by  means  of  volumetric 
measurement  of  the  di.scharge  in  the  gaging  channel,  so  that  it  is 
believed  that  the  discharge  in  these  experiments  is  known  within  1  or 
2  per  cent  of  error  as  a  maximum. 

The  work  of  calibrating  the  standard  weir  had  been  accomplished  by 
Professor  Williams  and  his  assistants  before  the  experiments  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  were  taken  up,  so  that  somewhat 
more  certainty  attaches  to  the  results  of  these  later  experiments  than 
to  earlier  experiments  made  before  the  standard-weir  discharge  had 
been  thoroughly  checked. 

It  was  the  wish  of  the  Geological  Survey  that  the  conditions  at  the 
experimental  weirs  should  conform  to  those  actually  existing  at  dams 
which  are  utilized  as  weirs,  in  connection  with  the  stream-gaging 
operations.  In  such  cases  it  is  often  impracticable  to  utilize  gage  pits 
of  the  form  adopted  by  Bazin  or  to  use  piezometer  or  hook  gages. 
The  usual  method  is  to  read  the  depth  directly  on  a  graduated  vertical 
scale  or  measure  the  distance  to  water  surface  from  a  suitable  bench 
mark.  The  method  adopted  in  the  weir  experiments  consisted  of 
reading  directly  the  distance  to  water  surface  from  bench  marks 
located  above  the  central  line  of  the  channel.  The  readings  were 
taken  by  means  of  a  needle-pointed  plumb  bob  attached  to  a  steel  tape 
forming  a  point  gage,  readings  being  taken  to  thousandths  of  a  foot 

Two  gages  were  used,  one  located  10.8  feet  upstream  from  the 
crest  and  another  16.059  feet  upstream.  In  series  XXXV  and 
following,  for  the  higher  heads,  the  readings  of  the  upstream  tape 
were  used.  For  heads  where  no  general  difference  was  apparent  the 
average  of  the  readings  of  the  two  tapes  was  taken.     In  general,  the 


WEIRS    OF   IRREGULAR    SECTION. 


97 


surface  curve  did  not  perceptibly  affect  the  reading  of  the  gage  nearest 
the  weir  for  depths  below  3  feet.  The  readings  of  the  tapes  were 
checked  from  time  to  time  by  observations  with  hook  gages,  thus  prac- 
tically eliminating  the  effect  of  temperature  on  the  tapes.  Observa- 
tions of  the  head  were  usually  taken  at  intervals  of  thirty  seconds. 
Great  care  was  used  to  maintain  a  uniform  regimen  of  flow  during 
each  experimental  period,  and  the  variations  of  head  were  very  slight. 
The  character  of  the  observations  is  illustrated  by  the  following  data 
taken  from  the  experiments: 

Readings  of  tapea  to  determine  head  at  experiinenttd  weir. 


Series  XL. 
Period  10. 
Date     6.22,03. 

Time. 

Readings. 

A, 

TO. 

«. 

12 

37 

40 

42.681 
.681 
.680 
.681 

12 

39 

00 

.682 

12 

52 

30 

42.680 
.681 
.680 
.679 

12 

54 

30 

.680 

Mean 


42.68a5 


_l 


Series   XLIII. 
Period  3, 
Date     6,26.03. 


Time. 

h.      m.      ». 
12    36    20 


Readings. 


12    42     10 
Mean 


2.3a5 
.302 
.302 
.302 
.301 
.302 
.301 
.300 
.300 


.     I 


2.3015 


Series   XLI. 
Period  5. 
Date     6. 23,  as. 


Time. 


k.      m.      «. 
1     34    30 


1    51     20 


Mean 


Readings. 


43.633 
.632 
.  633 
.r)30 
.  630 
.633 
.635 
.6:i5 
.6;i4 
.633 
.630 
.635 
.630 
.635 
.635 
.  633 
.6,S0 
.630 
.630 
.630 
.630 
.634 
.6:^0 
.628 
.630 
.  632 
.628 
.631 

43.6317 


98 


WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


For  the  lower  headt?  the  discharge  over  the  experimental  weir  was 
volumetricall y  determined  by  measuring  the  rise  of  water  in  the  canal, 
as  follows: 

List  of  experimental  periods  for  which  the  discharge  was  volumefrically  detennined. 


Series. 


30 
31 
34 
37 
38 


Periods. 


1,13,14,16 

10,11 

1,9,10 

5« 

5,6 


Series. 

39 
40 
41 
43 
43  « 


Periods. 

1 

Series. 

Periods. 

!  1 

44 

1,2,3 

I     1,2 

45 

1,2,3 

13,14 

46 

1,2,3 

'     1,2,3 

47 

1,2,3 

1,2,3,4 

United  Stales  Geological  Survey  experiments  at  Cornell  University  hydranlic  laboratory  f/n 

model  of  Platlsburg  dam. 

[Series  No.  XXX.     Height  of  weir-- P.  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  cre8t=L.  15.9G9  feet;  width  of 
chaimel-=6, 15.970  feef.  height  of  upstream  crest  corner.  10.50  feet;  crest  width.  3  feet.] 


No. 

Measured  head 
tal  weir 

Num- 

o^;  ,  mam. 
tions.  ■ 

on  experimen- 
,  in  feet. 

Mini-     Mean 
mum.       =/>. 

area  of 
section 

per 
foot  of 
crest. 

v~ 
mean 
veloc- 
ity 
of  ap- 
proach, 
in  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 

Head  corrected 

for  velocity 

of  approach. 

in  feet. 

i 
7/5            H 

Q- dis- 
charge 
per 

f(K)t  of 

crest, 
in  cu- 
bi<'  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 

Dis- 
charge 
coeffi- 
cient 
Ci. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

1 

92 

0.0993 

0.0818 

0.096 

11.JM7 

0.007 

0.030 

0.096 

0.084 

2.835 

2 

31 

.  7993 

.78613 

2.790 

14.041 

1.155 

4. 710 

2. 810 

16. 218 

3.443 

3 

19 

3. 1993 

3. 1473 

3.187  i  14.438 

1.396 

5.766 

3.216 

•20. 152 

3.495 

4 

2t> 

2.3993 

2.3173 

2.384  1  153.635 

.926 

3. 710 

2.396 

12. 631 

3.4ft5 

5 

29 

1.7973 

1.7853 

1.793  1  13.043 

.636 

2.412 

1.799 

8. 282 

3.433 

G 

27 

1.1803 

1.1?23 

1.174      12.425 

.3M 

1.274 

1.176 

4.:399 

3.454 

7 

18 

1.0133 

1.0073 

1.010     12.260 

.280 

1.016 

1.011 

3.43.> 

3.381 

8 

16 

.8043 

.8003 

.802     12.053 

.200 

.719 

.803 

2.409 

3.:«8 

9 

34 

.  6143 

.6113 

.613     11.8&I 

.  136 

.481 

.614 

l.(J08 

:3.345 

10 

24 

.508:3 

.5073 

..508      li.7.58 

.102 

.:362 

.508 

1.195 

3.302 

11 

15 

.4283 

.  42(53 

.427      11.678 

.079' 

.280 

.428 

.921 

:3.L>96     , 

J  2 

20 

.  2943 

.2903 

.291      11.542 

.046 

.157 

.291 

.  526 

:3.344 

13 

32 

.  293(3 

.290:3 

.292     11.543 

.044 

.158 

.292 

.5(W 

:3.':o9    ' 

14 

21 

.1783 

.  1763 

.178     11.427 

.021 

.075 

.178 

.240 

3. '202     . 

15 

24 

.1793 

.17:33 

.179     11.429 

.020 

.076 

.179 

.226 

2.976     ; 

16 

40 

.0893 

.  0893 

.  089 

ll.:340 

.007 

.027 

.059 

.076 

2.841 

17 

26 

1.5.373 

1.5:303 

1.53-2 

12. 783 

.517 

1.904 

1.535 

6.607 

3.471 

18 

25 

2.  io:w 

2. 0813 

2.094 

13.315 

.793 

3.051 

2.104 

10. 576 

3.466 

WEIBS   OF   IRREODLAR   SECTION. 


99 


Uf*iied  SUxttg  (ieological  Surrey  exin'rimeiiUt  at  Cornell  University  hydraulic  UilH/raU/ry  on 
model  of  PUittabury  dam — Contiiuiecl. 

fSeriesNo.  XXXI.    Heiifhi  of  weir=P.  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  crest -A.  7,WW  feel:  width  of  chan- 
nel=/i,  15.970  feet:  height  of  upstream  <'rest  corner,  10.r>()  feet;  width  of  crest,  3  feet.] 


No. 

1 
1 

Measured  hetid  on  exp< 
tal  weir,  in  ftel 

Xum- 

^l     Maxi-     Mini- 
va-       mum.     mum. 
tlons.                 1 

?ri  men- 
Mean 

area  of 

1  section 

1     per 

foot  of 

crest. 

mean 
vt'loc- 

ity 
of  a\t- 
pro»w'h, 
in  feet 

j>er 
second. 

Head  corrected 

for  velocity 

of  approach, 

in  feet. 

0--dis- 
charge 

per 
foot  of 
crest, 
in  cu- 
bic fee  I 

per 
si^ond. 

Dis- 
charge 
coefli- 
eientr',. 

L=ef. 
fective 
length 
of  erest 

weir. 

~L 

i 

8       1       4 

J~ 

I'^'e 

7 

H 

» 

10 

11 

12 

1 

25 

6. 1003     4. 9273 

5. 0014 

•259.585 

1.201 

11. '2.-7 

5.023 

41.925 

3.724 

7.436 

2 

15 

4.2873     4.1693 

4.2214 

247.078 

.945 

8.714 

4.235 

31.086 

3.567 

7. 514 

3 

44 

3.6893     3.5253 

3.6191 

507.460 

,856 

6.890 

3.621 

23.868 

3.464 

7.580 

4 

21 

2.8213     2.8003 

2.8185 

224. 674 

.551 

4.743 

2.823 

16. 170 

3.409 

7.656 

5 

39 

2.2713     2.2623 

2.2696 

215. 780 

.412 

3.425 

2.273 

11.545 

3.377 

7.711 

6 

40 

1.S903     1.3813 

1.8861 

201.998 

.206 

1.6S3 

1.387 

5.338 

3.269 

7.799 

7 

26 

.9673       .9658 

.9663 

195.  OW 

•.  125 

.960 

.966 

3.120 

8. '284 

7.841 

8 

25 

1.8793     1.8723 

1.8749 

,209.606 

.326 

2.570 

1.876 

8.814 

3.429 

7.750 

9 

30 

.6093       .6083 

.6087 

189.383 

.0(>5 

.476 

.609 

1.562 

3.288 

7.877 

10 

18 

.6073       .6063 

.6063 

189.345 

.060 

.472 

.606 

1.456 

3,083 

7.877 

11 

40 

.3023  1    .2993 

.3017 

,184.471 

.020 

.165 

.301 

.469 

2.838 

7.908 

12 

19 

.3003       .2993 

.3017 

184. 481 

.021 

.166 

.302 

.490 

2.956 

7.908 

[Series  No.  XXXII.    Height  of  wc-jr=  P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  cre8t=/.,  7.979  feet;  width  of  chan- 
nel =6,  15.970  feet:  height  of  upstream  crest  corner,  9.75  feet;  width  of  crest,  3  feet.] 


6 

7  j 

8 

9 

10  i 


I   n 


10 
23 
26 
34 
32 
27 
27 
28 
31 
28 
53 


2.1193 
4.0313 
2.6693 
.9953 
5.5543 
4.7343 
4.0173 
3.3053  I 
2.5863 
1.9913 
1.4113 


2.0943 
3.9883 
2.6333 
.9923 
5.2983 
4.&143 
3.9883 
3. '2673 
2.5193 
1.9693 
1.4023 


I 
2.1173  213.476 

4.0053  243.627 

2.6469  221.934  I 

.9942   195.540 

5.4712  •2<;7.038  i 

4.6947   254.637  ' 

4.0007  '240. 808  I 

3.2890  '232.188  ' 

2.5596  220.539 

1.9801   211.285 

1.4015  {202.044 


0.0O4 
.928  ' 
.535 
.135  I 

1-.141  I 
.925 
.701  j 
.506 
.357  I 
.221  i 


3.081 
8.055 
4.317 
.992 
12. 855 
10. 235 
8.010 
5.984 
4.104 
2.790 
1.661 


11.029 
29.846 
15. 398 
3.  :«2 
50. 440 
38.701 
29.395 
21. 278 
14.460 
9.686 
5.701 


3.580 

7.767 

3.706 

7.577 

3. 567 

7.714 

3. 370 

7.880 

3.924 

7.430 

3.7S2 

7.508 

8.65<) 

7.678 

3.55(1 

7.649 

3. 524 

7.  T£i 

3.471 

7.7S1 

3.434 

7.839 

nw  150—06 10 


100        WEIR    EXPERIME1ST8,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


United  States  Geological  Survey  experimaits  at  Cornell  University  hydraulic  laboratory  on 
model  of  Plattsburg  dam — Continued. 

[Series  No.  XXXIII.    Height  of  weir=P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  creet^L.  15.969  feet;  width  of 
channel  =  b,  15.970  feet;  height  of  upstream  creHt  corner,  9.79  feet;  width  of  eresit,  3  feet.] 


No. 


MeaKured  head  on  experimen- 
tal weir,  in  feet. 


Num- 
ber of 
obser-  . 
va-     , 
tions.  ' 


Maxi-  ;  Mini- 
mum. I  mum. 


Mean 


8 


1 

15 

2 

48 

3 

29 

4 

33 

5 

23 

6 

24 

7 

52 

8 

42 

9 

12 

0.7563 

.9973 

1.3963 

1.7898 

2.3733 

2.6683 

.5593 

.6603 

.6601 


0.7493 

.9873 

1.3903  I 

1.7803 

2.3368 

2.6503 

.5193 

.6493 

.6783 


0.762 

.992 

1.3»1 

1.7W 

2.352 

2.660 

.553 

.653 

.679 


1 


A  = 
area  of 
section 

per 
foot  of 
crest. 


12.003 
12.243 
12.644 
13.034 
13.603 
13.910 
11.803 
11.904 
11.930 


mean 
veloc- 

ity 
of  ap- 
proach, 
in  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 


0.183 
.281 
.468 
.671 
.990 
1.170 
1.183 
.152 
.156 


Head  corrected 

for  velocity 

Q=di8- 
charge 

of  approach, 

in  feet. 

per 



'  foot  of 

crest. 

in  cubic 

//» 

II 

feet  per 
sec- 
ond. 

8 

9 

1      10 

0.653 

0.753 

'    2.197 

.990 

.993 

'    3.489 

1.651 

1.^7 

5.913 

2.396 

1.790 

8.747 

3.641 

2.367 

13. 4M 

4.387 

2.680 

16.272 

.432 

.572 

1.397 

.528 

.654 

1.808 

.660 

.680 

1.H66 

Dis- 
charge 
coeffi- 
cient 


I      II 


3.863 
3.473 
3.580 
3.651 
8.696 
3.709 
3.232 
3.422 
3.380 


[Series  No.  XXXIV.    Height  of  weir=P,  11.25  feet:  length  of  weir  cre8t=L,  15.969  feel;  width  of 
channe]=&,  15.970  feet;  height  of  upstream  crest  comer,  8.37  feet;  width  of  crest,  3  feet.] 


—    -- 







—     — 

— 





— 

1 

16 

0.6453 

0.6383 

0.641 

11.891 

0.137 

0.513 

0.641 

1.632 

3.182 

2 

16 

.64*23 

.6383 

.640 

11.891 

.141 

.513 

.640 

1.680 

3.276 

3 

21 

2.025:^ 

2.0043 

2.015 

13.266 

.816 

2.882 

2.025 

10.826 

3.756 

4 

19 

1.6308 

1.6203 

1.628 

12.878 

.592 

2.086 

1.633 

7.627 

3.656 

5 

19 

1.2293 

1.232 

12,483 

.391 

1.371 

1.236 

4.877 

3. 555 

6 

14 

.9523 

.9483 

.960 

12.201 

.261 

.927 

.951 

8. 185 

3.434 

7 

20 

.4013 

.3983 

.400 

11.660 

.070 

.263 

.400 

.815 

3.225 

8 

10 

.6243 

.6243 

.624 

11.875 

.136 

.493 

.625 

1.613 

3.269 

9 

32 

.2248 

.2203 

.222 

11.473 

.029 

.105 

.222 

.328 

3.133 

10 

39 

.1103 

.1093 

.110 

11.360 

.009 

.086 

.110 

.100 

2.777 

11 

14 

6.0963 

5.0793 

3.089 

14.340 

1.509 

5.515 

3.1-22 

21.636 

3.923 

12 

25 

2.7763 

2.7263 

2.749 

14.000 

1.258 

4, 615 

2.7?2 

17.612 

3.816 

13 

31 

2.4383 

2.3968 

2.421 

13. 672 

1.061 

3.8a5 

2.487 

14.874 

8.778    1 

14 

26 

2.8013 

2.7963 

.800 

12.050 

.194 

.716 

.800 

2.341 

8.271 

WEIB8   OF    IRBKGULAK   SKOTION. 


101 


United  Statea  Geological  Surrey  experiments  at  Cornell  lhurer»itij  hydraulic  laboratory 

on  model  of  Chambly  dam, 

[Series  No.  XXXV.    Height  of  welr=P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  crest=X<,  15.969  feet;  width  of 
channel  =ft,  15.970  feet;  height  of  npittream  crest  comer.  10.25  feet;  width  of  crest  4.5  feet.] 


Meoitured  head  on  exyn 
tal  weir,  in  feet 

L'rimen- 
Mean 

A  ^ 
area  of 
section 

per 

f(Mn  of 
crcHt. 

r= 
mean 
veloc- 

ity 
of  ap- 
proach, 
in  feel 

per 
second. 

Head  corrected 

for  velocity 

of  approach, 

in  feet. 

i/*         ;/ 

1 

Q-dls- 
charge 

per 
foot  of 
crest, 
in  cubic 
feet  per 
Hecond. 

DIs- 
chaive 
coeffi- 
cient 

No. 

Num- 
ber of 
obser- 
va- 
tions. 

Maxi-  1  Mini- 
mum. 1  mum. 

1 

t             S             4 

5      I       6 

7 

8 

9 

v» 

11 

1 

&1  '  2.5503  1  2.5463 

0.&49  '  11.799 

0.110 

0.407 

0.M9 

1.297 

3.189 

2 

55     1.0103 

1.0063 

1.008  '  12.259 

.272 

1.014 

1.009 

3.331 

3.285 

3 

40     1. 5643 

1.5523 

1.569     12.810 

.511 

1.954 

1.5<>3 

6.M8 

3.352 

4 

40     2.0273 

2.0133 

2.021 

13.272 

.744 

2.890 

2.029 

9.874 

3.416 

5 

38 

1.7513  j  1.7308 

1.739 

12.990 

.602 

2.304 

1.744 

7.816 

3.392 

6 

45 

1.2673     1.2583 

1.262 

12:513 

.379 

1.422 

1.265 

4.747 

3.337 

7 

41 

.7593  1     .7543 

.757     12.008 

.  176 

.660 

.758 

2.114 

3.206 

8 

43       .4453       .4373 

.441     11.692 

.079 

.293 

.441 

.919 

3.132 

9 

20       .3043       .3003 

.:»2     11.553 

.045 

.166 

.302 

.525 

3. 159 

11 

18     3.7303     3.7063 

3.755     15.006 

1.740 

7.403 

3.798 

26.114  I  3.528 

12 

17     3.2193  j  3.1813 

3. 195     14. 446 

1.406 

5.789 

8.224  '  20.319 

3. 510 

13 

17  ,  3.0O23  !  2.9873 

2.987     14.238 

1.283 

5.224 

3.011     18.267 

3.496 

14 

18     2.6743     2.6643 

2.642      13.892 

1.077 

4.334 

2.658     14.963 

3.452 

15 

23     2.3533  !  2.3283 

2.317  '  13.568 

.901 

3.555 

2.:«0     12.221 

3.438 

16 

22  ,  1.4923     1.4873 

1.463  1  12.713 

.478 

1.775 

1.466  '     6.072     3.4*20 

17 

37       .2103       .2093 

.184  1  11.4a=) 

.02:^ 

.079 

.  184  '       .  258 

3.260 

IM 

25 

.3913       .8908 

.391  1  11.642 

.065 

.245 

.391         .758 

3.096 

19 

17 

.3313       .3:^13 

.331  1  11.582 

.053 

.191 

.331         .609 

3. 194 

20 

24 

.'2523       ,2523 

.253  1  11.504 

.0:^5 

.127 

.253         .404 

3.258 

21 

21 

.2208  1     .2193 

.221     11.472 

.028 

.104 

.221         .325 

3.120 

22 

•       24  ■     .1843 

.1833 

.183     11.434 

.021 

.078 

.183 

.2:J8 

3.039 

23 

19       .1323 

.1313 

.132     11.383 

.012 

.048 

.132 

.136 

2.826 

•24 

20       .0823       .0823 

.083  j  11.3^4 

.007 

.024 

.083 

.079 

3.321 

[Series  No.  XXXVI.  Height  of  weir=P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  crestv=L,  15.969  feet;  width  of  chan- 
nel-^6,  16.970  feet;  height  of  upstream  crest  corner,  10.50  f(»et;  width  of  crest,  4.5  feet,  with  4  inches 
radius  quarter  roand.] 


f          1 

1 

18     2.7653     2.6913 

2.741 

13.991 

1.185 

4.594 

2. 764 

16.586 

3.610 

2' 

18     2.8613     2.2913 

2. 316 

13.567 

.936 

3.558 

2.330 

12.698 

3.569  V 

3  ; 

30     2.9373     2.8923 

1.915     13.166 

.702 

2.666  1 

1.923 

9.243 

3.467 

4 

23     1.5173     1.4993 

1.607  1  12.758 

.501 

1.857 

1.511 

6.390  '  3.441 

S 

21      1.1143     1.1013 

1.111     12.361 

.820 

1. 173  1 

1.112 

3.950     3.367 

6 

19       .7553       .7493 

.753 

12.004 

.177  1 

.654  ' 

.753 

2.123     3.248 

7  1 

22  '     .4»43       .4903 

.492 

11.743 

.095  1 

.345  1 

.492 

1.113     3.221 

1 

102        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 


United  States  (ieologiad  Surrey  experiments  at  Cornell  hydraulic  laboratory  on  model  of 
Dolgeivlle  dam  with  injured  apron. 

[Series  No.  XXXVII.    HeiKht  of  weir=P.  ll.:6  feet;  length  of  weir  cre8t=L,  16.969  feet;  width  of 
channel^--/),  15.970  feet;  height  of  upstream  crest  corner,  10.26  feet;  width  of  crest,  o  feet.] 


No. 

Measu 

red  head  on  experimen- 
tal weir,  in  feet. 

Maxi-  1   Mini-   Mean- 
mum.  '  mum.  1      t). 

1 

1 

A^ 

area  of 

section 

per  foot 

of 

crest. 

t'— 
mean 
veUx*- 
ity  of 

ap- 
proach, 
in  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 

Head  corrected  1        ^. 
for  velocity     1  Q=dls- 
of  approach,     charge 
in  feet.          ,  Per 
foot  of 

Dis- 
charge 

Num- 
ber of 
obser- 
va- 
tions. 

Hi 

,  crest,     coeffl- 
1  in  cu-     cient 
jr       bic  feet      (\. 
per  sec- 
ond.   ' 

1 

* 

8              4 

5      1       • 

7 

8 

9            10 

11 

1 

30 

0.9203     0.9113 

0. 916  1  12. 166 

0.261 

0.878 

0.917       3.049 

3.474 

2 

35 

3.5613     3.4233 

3. 565     14. 816 

1.535 

6.828 

3.599     22.744 

3.331 

3 

28 

2.9123     2.8573 

2.927  '  14.178 

1.170 

5.060 

2.947     16.593 

S.279 

4 

52 

2.3293     2.2903 

2.324     13.574 

.906 

3.570 

2.336     12.297     3.444 

6 

69 

1.6418  1  1.6213 

1.635     12.885 

.585 

2.100 

1.640  ;    7.544  !  3.693 

5a 

41 

1.3973  1  1.3923 

.415 

11.666 

.069 

.267 

.416         .810     3.029 

United  Stolen  Geologicol. Surrey  erperimeftvLa  at  O/mell  hydraulic  laboratory  on  model  oj 

DolgemUe  dam, 

[Series  No.  XXXVIII.    Height  of  weir-P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  cre«t=£,  15.969  feet;  widtli  of 
channel^ft,  15.970  feet;  height  of  upstream  crest  corner,  10.25  feet;  width  of  crest,  600  feet.] 


Measured  head 
tal  weir 

on  experimen- 
in  feet. 

^0. 

Num- 
ber of 
obser- 
va- 
tions. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean^ 

1 

2 

8 

4 

6 

1 

32 

0.3973 

0.3913 

0.395 

2 

36 

1.6843 

1.6713 

1.689 

3 

25 

1. 1143 

1.1693 

1. 112 

4 

32 

.7513 

.7473 

.749 

5 

34 

.5093 

.5083 

.m 

6 

24 

.2173 

.  2113 

.209 

7 

27 

3.4726     3.4586 

3. 470 

8 

34 

3.1176  !  3.0806 

3.100 

9 

29 

2.6176     2.5926 

2.6a5 

10 

30 

2.20%     2.1806 

2.198 

11 

28 

1.9306     1.8156 

1.920 

12 

28 

1.528<i 

1.5106 

1.517 

A  = 

area  of 

section 

per  foot 

of 

crest. 


11.646 
12.940 
12.362 
12.000 
11.754 
11.460 
14.721 
14. 351 
13.a')6 
13. 449 
18. 171 
12. 768 


mean 
veloc- 
ity of 
ap- 
proach, 
in  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 


0.068 

.6a5 

.333 

.186 

.101 

.026 

1.466 

1.271 

1.019 

.846 

.7-26 

.614 


Head  corrected 

for  velocity 

of  approach, 

in  feet. 


H^ 


8 

0.249 

2.206 

1.176 

.649 

.358 

.096 

6.551 

5.521 

4.243 

3.283 

2.677 

1.872 


[Series  No.  XXXIX.    Height  of  weir=P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  cre8t=L,  15.969  feet;  width  of 
channel =b,  15.700  feet;  height  of  upstream  crest  comer.  10.26  feet;  width  of  crest.  6  feet.] 


1 
2 
3  ' 

^ 

6  I 
6 

7  ' 

8  ' 
9I 

10 


26  I  0.(>88S  I  0.6793 


22 
3;} 
24 

^1 

36  I 
32 
39  ' 
32 


.4188 
3.9806 
3.1506 
2.5066 
1.8986 
1.2716 
.8286 
.  5626 


.4153 
3.9206 
3.1366 
2.4806 
1.8756 
1. 2626 
.8206 
.r)606 


f  0.683  , 

1     .683 

.418 

3.943 

3.145 

2.488 

1.884 

1.26H 

.826  I 

.561 


11.931 
11.934 
11.668 
15. 194 
14.396 
13.739 
13.135 
12.618 
12.077 
11.811 


0.170 

.167 

.081 

1.721 

1.280 


.401 
.218 
.125 


0.565 

0.684 

2.027     3.686 

.665 

.684 

1.995     3.680 

.270 

.418 

.944  j  3.497 

7.956 

8.986 

26.150     3.287 

5.642 

3.169 

18.481 

3.266 

3.968  ' 

2.602 

13.268 

8.352 

2.601  1 

1.891 

9.186 

8.582 

1.482  . 

1.270 

5.025 

3.509 

.752 

.827 

2.639  '  8.494    I 

.420  ! 

.561 

1.481 

9.906 

WEtRS   0B»   lBttE<^dT.Att  8RCTI6N. 


108 


Vnited  States  Geotogical  Survey  experimenU  at  ComeU  hydraulic  lalxyraiory  on  model  of 
fiai'iop  weirs  vith  vertical  faces. 

{Si'iien  NO.  XL.    Height  of  weit=P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  cre8t= L,  15.969  feet;  width  of  channel = 
6, 15*970  feet;  width  of  broad  cre«t,  0.479  foot;  nappe  aerated.] 


!      I 


Head  corrected '  ' 

Measured  head  on  experlmen-  '  I     <;=^  ,    for  velocity     '  (^=di»- , 

tal  weir,  in  feet.  ,     y|=       mean      of  approach,     charge 

areaof|]f^'Jf-  *«  ^^^t. 

7- —  . action  I  '^l^^ 

Num.  I  I  IPe^ '««^:pro£-h; 


!     r= 


^o'  I  MaxI-  ,  Mini-    Mean=j  ^^  ilin  feet'l     „J 

008«r-      _,,,,_        -miin«  n       I    *-*^^»"     nor  «*»<»- 1 


obwer- 

va- 
tIon«. 


mum.     mum. 


A    i 


per  Bee-' 
ond. 


// 


crest,      pipnt 
in  cubic    ^*®"^ 


1 

2 

8 

4  ' 

5 

6 

7 

9 
10 
11 


t'    I       8"T""4 

19  !  0.6343     0.6293 


36 


.2643 
.2618 
.  1216 
1.9916 
1.6256 
26  I  1.2566 
21  '  .9766 
21  ,  .8218 
10  .6518 
10       .4508 


.  I 


.2593 

.2513  i 

.1206  1 

1.9816 

1.6106 

1.2496  I 

.9706  ! 

.8163  . 

.6493 

.4483  I 


0.631 

.260 

.'2M 

.124 

1.989 

1.618 

1.256 

.977 

.820 

.650 

.449 


11.882  I 

11.511 

11.515 

11.375 

13.238 

12.868 

12.507 

12.228 

12.070 

11.900 

11.700 


0. 133 


.011 
.710 
.530 
.377 
.262 
.204 
.139 
.074 


I 

1 

I    2.1 


1.502 
.133 
.136 
.044 
!.821 
!.065 
.412 
.967 
.743 
.524 
.301 


;feet  per 
Hecond.j 


10      I      11 

3.148 
2.584 
2.794 
2.943 
3.332 
3.301 


0.632 

1.5H0 

.260 

.343 

.264 

.3«0 

.124 

.129 

1.996 

9.401 

1.622 

6.819 

1.259 

4.713 

.978 

3.209 

.820 

2.469 

.650 

1.654 

.449 

.867 

'  3.338 
I  3.318 
'  3.325 
I  3.154 
I  2.881 


[Series  No.  XLI.    Height  of  weir  =  P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  crewl   =  L,  15.969  feet;  width  of 
channel  -  6,  15.970  feet;  width  of  broad  crest,  1.646  feet;  nappe  partly  aeraUnl.] 


1 

25 

3.8606 

3.8256 

3.842  1  15.092  | 

1.692 

7.651  ' 

25 

8.1906 

3.1666 

8.177 

14.428 

1.317 

5.730  ' 

1    26 

2.6906 

2.6656 

2.674 

13.925 

1.050 

4.413 

81 

2.0906 

2.0116 

2.022 

13.272 

.680 

2.889 

28 

1.6043 

1.5973 

1.601 

12.852  1 

.462 

2.032  ; 

27 

1.2873 

1.2293 

1.238 

12.4R4 

.307 

1.372  I 

25 

.9443 

.9393 

.942 

12. 192  ' 

.203 

.915 

34 

.6733 

.6698 

.671 

11.922 

.123 

.575 

1    30 

.4893 

.4873 

.488 

11.739 

.078 

.3411 

18 

.3298 

.330 

11.581  1 

.045 

.190 

84 

.2113 

.2093 

.210 

11.461  ' 

.024 

.096 

.122 

.788 

11.373  1 
12.088 

.011 
.153 

.(M3 

22 

.1253 

.1218 

.699 

!     ^ 

.4206 

.4186 

.417 

11.668 

.061 

•  .270 

44 

.4206 

.4126 

.417 

11.668 

1 

.065 

.270 

3.883 

3.202 

2.690 

2.028 

1.604 

1.234 

.942 

.692 

.488 

.330 

.210 

.122 

.788 

.417 

.417 


25.581 

18.995 

14.624 

9.021 

5.936 

3.835 

2.476 

1.472 

.910 

.?m 

.272 
.130 
1.840 
.760 
.759 


3.337 
3.315 
3.314 
3.123 
2.922 
2.796 
2.706 
2.560 
2.669 
2.742 
2.827 
3.047 
2.681 
2. 782 
2.815 


[Scries  No. 


XUI. 
nel=fe, 


Height  of  welr=P,  11.26  feet;  length  of  weir  crest =L,  15.S 
15.970  feet;  width  of  broad  cre«t,  12.239  feet;  nappe  partly 


69  feet;  width  of  chan- 
aerated.] 


1 

33 

0.1706 

0.1626 

2 

32 

4.3706 

4.3416  ! 

3 

26 

3.8316 

3.8006 

4 

38 

3.0446 

8.0256 

5 

32 

3.7356 

3.7186 

6 

29 

3.5856 

3.5776  : 

7 

38 

3.3966 

3.3806  ' 

8 

27 

2.2506 

2.2406 

9 

1    ^ 

1.4706 

1.4526 

10 

1    ^ 

1.0986 

1.0906 

11 

36 

.6406 

.6376 

12 

28 

1 

.6126 

.6106 

0.168 
4.353 
3.809  ' 
3.032 
1.728 
2.580 
3.387 
2.243 
1.449 
1.096 
.639 
.611 


11.418 

15.604 

15.060 

14.283  I 

12.979 

13.831 

14.63M 

V,\.  4W 

12.700 

12. 347 

11.890 

11.862 


0.016 

0.069 

1.58-t 

9.196 

1.321 

7.510 

.971 

5.317 

.467 

2.278 

.787 

4.166 

1.130 

6. 2S.'> 

.6.^7! 


.2.S.S 
.116  . 
.109  ! 


3.373 

1.718 

1.149 

..511 

.478 


1.168 
389 
835 
046 
732 
589 
406 
249 
451 
097 
639 
611 


0.180 

24.716 

19.896 

13. 876 

6.066 

10.882 

16.  .'i35 

8.870 

4.682 

3.129 

1. 375 

1.290  I 


2.611 
2.688 
2.649 
2. 610 
•2.663 
2.6i2 

2.tai 

2. 629 
2. 701 
2. 723 
2. 689 
2.700 


104       WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

United  States  Geological  Surt^ey  ejcperiments  at  Cornell  hydraulic  laboratory  on  model  of 
Jiat'iop  weirs  with  vertical  f area — ^Continiied. 

[Series  No.  XLIII.    Height  of  weir=P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  crest =/..  15.969  feet;  width  of  channel  = 
b,  15.970  feet;  width  of  broad  crest,  16.302  feet;  surface  somewhat  rough;  nappe  partly  aerated.] 


No. 


Measured  head  on  experimen- 
tal weir,  in  feet. 


Num- 
ber (of 
obser- 
va- 
tions. 


1 

12 

2 

12 

8 

10 

4 

26 

5 

33 

6 

27 

7 

34 

8 

80 

9 

28 

10 

25 

11 

.26 

Maxi- 

Mini- 

mum. 
8 

mum. 

4 

0.8536 

0.8606 

.4496 

.4426 

.3246 

.3106 

.6986 

.6856 

4.4506 

4.-U76 

3.6806 

3.6306 

2.9426 

2.9306 

2.:i626 

2.3686 

1.8956 

1.886<> 

1.4826 

1.4756 

1.2086 

1.2026 

Mean^ 


A= 

area  of 

sec^tion 

per  ffK)t 

of 

crest. 


0.851 

.447 

.812 

.689 

4.432 

3.661 

2.935 

2.360 

1.890 

1.480 

1.206 


I 


12.102 
11.698 
11.563 
11.940 
15.683 
14. 912 
14.186 
13. 611 
13. 141 
12. 731 
12.457 


mean 
veloc- 
ity Oi 

^)roach, 
in  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 


Head  corrected, 
for  velocity    ] 
of  approach, 
in  feet. 


1^ 


Q=dis- 
charge 

per 
foot  of 
crest, 
in  cubic 
feet  per 
second 


10 


Dis- 
charge 
ccxjm- 
rient 


11 


0.168 

0.786 

0.852 

2.027 

2.679 

.069 

.299 

.447 

.811 

2.713 

.040 

.174 

.312 

.468 

2.684 

.129 

.573 

.690 

1.W4 

2.696 

1.595 

9.449 

'4.469 

25.011 

2.647 

1.251 

7.076 

3.686 

18. 657 

2.637 

.930 

5.062 

2.948 

13.200 

2.608 

.706 

3.644 

2.368 

9.607 

2.637 

.620 

2.607 

1.894 

6.841 

2.624 

.374 

1.804 

1.482 

4.767 

2.531 

.282 

1.327 

1.208 

8.620 

2.652 

[Series  No.  XLIIIo.    Height  of  weir=P,  11.25  feet:  length  of  weir  cre8t=L,  15.969  feet;  width  of  chan- 
nel—6,  15.970  feet;  width  of  broad  crest,  16.302  feet;  smooth  planed  surface.] 


1 

19 

0.3626 

0.3596 

0.3()1 

11.612 

0.050  1 

0.217 

0.361 

0,576 

2.653 

2 

20 

.2496 

.2426 

.246 

11.497 

.026  ; 

.122 

.246 

.mt 

2.494 

3 

44 

.1686 

.1646 

.167 

11.418 

.013 

.068 

.167 

.153 

2.240 

4 

16 

.9906 

.9846 

.986 

12. 236 

.214 

.980 

.986 

2.618 

2.673 

5 

28 

.985(> 

.9776 

.981 

12. '232 

.210 

.973 

.982 

2. 568 

2.638 

6 

Z) 

.7886 

.7826 

.786 

12. 036 

,153 

.697 

.786  ' 

1.847 

2.651 

7 

81 

.6226 

.6206 

.621 

11.872 

.110 

.490 

.622 

1.309 

2. 670 

8 

21 

.4976 

.4946 

.496 

11. 747 

.080 

.360 

.496. 

.945 

2.704 

9 

25 

.3926 

.3906 

.392 

11.643 

.aT8  ; 

.246 

.892 

.670 

2.728 

10 

31 

.2806 

.2786 

.280 

11.530 

.036 

.148 

.280 

.421 

2.848 

11 

28 

.1006 

.1606 

.  161 

11.411 

.016 

.064 

.161 

.184 

2.851 

12 

24 

.0776 

.0756 

.077 

11.327 

.006 

.021 

.077 

.066 

3.127 

[Series  No.  XLIV.    Height  of  weir=/'.  11.25  feet:  length  of  weir  cre8t=/v,  15.969  feet;  width  of  chan- 
nel =?>.  15.970  feet;  width  of  broad  crest,  8.980  feet.] 


1 

27 

0. 3i:v> 

0.3116 

0. 312 

11.663 

0.040 

0.174 

0.812 

0.469 

2.691 

2 

20 

.1596 

.  1576 

.159 

11.410 

.014 

.064 

.169 

.163 

2.570 

3 

32 

.4196 

.4176 

.419 

11.670  , 

.058 

.271 

.419 

.679 

2.504 

4 

20 

3.0666 

3.0506 

3.a=>8 

14.309  , 

.98(i 

6.386 

3.073 

14.105 

2.619 

5 

19 

2.3306 

2.3116 

2.319 

13.669 

.68t) 

8.547 

2.326 

9.807 

2.624 

6 

17 

2.  miC> 

2.8486 

1.856 

13. 107 

.512 

2.537 

1.860 

6. 712 

2.646 

7 

31 

1.5166 

1. 5106 

1.513 

12. 763 

.386 

1.864 

1.515 

4.928 

2,642 

8 

28 

1. 2556 

1. 2606 

1.252 

12. 503 

.297 

1.404 

1.254 

3.718 

2.649 

9 

31 

1.039(1 

1.0356 

1.03H 

12.289  , 

.228 

1.059 

1.089 

2.803 

2.646 

10 

29 

.8996 

.8916 

.897 

12. 148 

.186 

.850 

.897 

2.264 

2.652 

11 

26 

.  7326 

.7306 

.732- 

11.983 

.140 

.627 

.732 

1.676 

2.678 

12 

32 

.5046 

.5006 

.502 

11.753 

.08:3 

.aV) 

.502 

.971 

2.727 

_      _     _ 

_ 



_ 

_     





WEIRS   OF  IRBEGULAK   SECTION. 


105 


United  StaUs  Geolo^cal  Survey  experiments  at  Cornell  hydraulic  laboratory  on  model  of 
flat-top  v)eirs  with  vertical  faces — C^ontinued. 

[Series  Ko.  XLV.    Height  of  weir^P,  11.25  feet;  length  of  weir  create/..  15.969  feet;  width  of  chan- 
nel =6,  15.970  feet;  width  of  broad  crest,  5.875  feet;  nap|>e  partly  aerated.] 


No. 

tal  weir^  in  feet. 

area  of 

r= 
mean 
veloc- 
ity of 
ap- 
proach, 
in  feet 

per 
second. 

Head  corrected 

for  velocity 

of  approach, 

in  feet. 

1  Q=di8- 
1  <'hanpe 
!     per 
foot  of 
1  crext. 
incubii' 
feet  per 
stH'ond. 

Dis- 
charge 
coeffi- 
cient 

Num- 
ber of 
obser- 
va- 
tions. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean  = 
J). 

section 

per  foot 

of 

crest. 

1 

8             S 

4 

5 

6 

7 

H              9 

10 

11 

1 

24     0.1766 

0.1726 

0.174 

11.424 

0.018 

0.0?2       0.174 

1    0.207 

2.867 

2 

32 

.2556 

.2526 

.253 

11.504 

.029 

.127'       .263 

.337 

2.647 

3 

38 

.3906 

.3886 

.390 

11.640 

.065 

.243         .390 

.641 

2.635    , 

4 

31 

.9906 

.9786 

.982 

12.233 

.209 

.975  1       .983 

2. 557 

2. 624 

5 

31     1.2456 

1.2396 

1.242 

12.492 

.293 

1.386       1.243 

8.666 

2.645 

6 

82       .9126 

.9066 

.908 

12.169 

.189 

.367         .909 

2.2W 

2.646 

7 

42       .7346 

.7806 

.783 

11.963 

.189 

.627         .733 

1.670 

2.663 

8 

26     1.0006 

.9916 

1.996 

13.247 

.664 

2.830      2.001 

7.469 

2.639 

9 

33       .5906 

.5806 

1.585 

12.836 

.410 

2.000       1.587 

6.264 

2.632 

10  . 

23       .5916 

.5896 

.590 

11.841 

.108 

.454         .590 

1.220 

2.689 

11 

36       .5216 

.6116 

.520 

11.771 

.087 

.376         .621 

1 

1.022 

2.722 

[Series  No.  XLVI.    Height  of  welr=P.  11.25  feet:  length  of  weir  cre8t=L.  15.969  feet;  width  of  chan- 
nel=6. 15.970  feet;  width  of  broad  crest,  3.174  feet;  nappe  partly  aerated.] 


1 
2 

3  I 

4  I 
5 

7 
8 
9 

»! 

12  I 


26  0.2526 
41  .1916 
.4186 
2.9686 
2.4966 
2.0376 
1.6006 
1.2326 
.9726 
.7866 
.6026 
.da'i6 


0.2446 

.1896 

.4156 

2.9416 

2.4806 

2.0126 

1.5906 

1.2286 

.9706 

.7816 

.6006 

.5026 


0.250 

.191 

.417 

2.965 

2.486 

2.0QO 

1.597 

1.282 

.972 

.784 

.1j02 


11.601  I 
11.441 
11.668 
14.216  I 
13.737  ' 
13.280 
12.847  I 
12.483  I 
12.222 
12.036 
11.852 
11. 7M 


0.029 
.019 
.066 

1.048 
.803 
.594 
.417 
.291 
.208 
.154  , 
.106 
.082 


0.126 

.083 

.269 

6.147  I 

3.943 

2.903 

2.022 

1.370  I 

.959 

.695 

.467 

.357 


0.250 

.191 

.417 

2.981 

2.496 

2.0S5 

1.599 

1.234 

.972 

.785 

.602 


0.333 

.221 

.766 

14.901 

11.032 

7.895 

5.360 

3.628 

2.549 

1.856 

1.264 

.967 


2.665 
2.660 
2.845 
2.895 
2.798 
2.720 
2.650 
2.647 
2.658 
2.670 
2.686 
2.706 


[Series  No.  XLVII.    Height  of  welr=  P,  11.26  feet;  length  of  weir  crests  L,  15.969  feet:  width  of  chan- 
nel =6,  15.970  feet;  width  of  broad  crest,  0.927  foot;  nappe  partly  aerated.] 


1 

27 

0.1666 

2 

29 

.2816 

3 

31 

.4156 

29 

2.9446 

29 

2.5306 

26 

2.0196 

29 

1.5786 

30 

1.2296 

27 

1.0096 

10 

34 

.7786 

11 

27 

.6296 

12 

90 

.4616 

0.1636 

0.165 

11.416 

0.016  1 

0.067 

0.165 

0.180 

2.690 

.2726  ! 

.278 

11.529 

.033 

.147 

.278 

.377 

2.563 

.4106 

.412 

11.663 

.060  1 

.265 

.412 

.700 

2.644 

2.9206 

2.93;^ 

14.184 

1.187  ' 

5.076 

2.9M 

16.840 

3.318 

2.6116  ! 

2.522 

13.772  , 

.970  1 

4.037 

2.536 

13.360 

3.314 

2.0106 

2.014 

13, 2M  1 

.722 

2.874 

2.021 

9.572 

3.331 

1.5706  ' 

1.592 

12.842 

.512 

2.015 

1.596 

6.582 

3.266 

1.2286  1 

i.2-:6 

12.477 

.345 

1.361 

1.228 

4.308 

3.166 

1.0046 

1.007 

12.258 

.248 

1.012 

1.008 

3.M6 

3.008 

.7756  , 

.777 

12.027 

.163  1 

.(W5 

.777 

1.9(>o 

2.869 

.6276 

.629 

11.879 

.117  1 

.499 

.629 

1.389 

2.786 

.4606 

.461 

11.712 

.073 

.313 

.461 

.859 

2.744 

106        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 


United  StateH  Geological  Survey  experimenis  at  Cornell  hydraulic  laborutory  on  model  of 
Merrimae  River  dam^  at  LauTencey  Masn. 

[Height  of  weir=P,  6.65  feet;  length  of  weir  crest^L,  9.999  feet;  width  of  channel  =6, 15.97  ftn-t.] 


No. 


la 

2a 

3a 
21 
10 
11 
22 
23 
12 

1 
24 

2 

3 
13 

4 
25 

5 


MetLvured  head  on  experimen- 
tal weir,  !n  feet. 


Num-  :  ; 

Il£L^/  1  Maxi-     Mini-   Mean  = 
va.     '  "*""^-     ^""™-        ^^■ 


A  = 
area  of 
section 

per 
foot  of 
crest. 


tions. 
2 


I 


r 


4.001 

10.651 

3.980 

10. 580 

3.630 

10.280 

3.680 

10.280 

3.166 

9.816 

2.815 

9.465 

2. 510 

9.160 

2.223 

8.873 

2.130 

8.780 

2.  on 

8.691 

1.850 

8.500 

1.746 

8.396 

1.645 

8.295 

1.496 

8.146 

1. 322 

7.972 

1. 268 

7.918 

1.089 

7.739 

.764 

7.414 

.584 

7.234 

..■)8;3 

7.233 

.198 

6.848 

t'= 
mean 
vcloc- 

ity 
of  ap- 
proach, 
in  feet 
per  sec- 
ond. 


618 

563 

309 

319 

939 

654 

424 

200 

127 

066 

.932 

.860 

.802 

.691 

.600 

.556 

.  462 

.284 

.195 

.192 


Head  corrected 

for  velocity 

of  approach, 

in  feet. 


//* 


8.288 
8.051 
7.029 
7.029 
6.769 
4.837 
4.067 
3.361 
3.150 
2.983 
2.542 
2.327 
2.302 
1.882 
1.528 
1.434 
1.141 
.669 
.447 
.446 
.088 


H 


4.094 
4.018 
3.670 
3.670 
8.216 
2.860 
2.548 
2.244 
2.149 
2.049 
1.868 
1.756 
1.743 
1.497 
1.327 
1.272 
1.092 
.765 
.585 
.584 
.198 


Q=dte- ' 
<!harge 

per 

foot  of 

crest, 

in  cubic 

feet  per| 


Din- 
charge 
coeffi- 
cient 
(\. 


second. 


10 


11 


27.893 
27.120 
23.740 
23.738 
19.089 
15.660 
13.049 
10.652 
9.898 
9.265 
7.929  ' 
7.227 
6.a51 
5.631 
4.791 
4.410 
3.581 
2.108 
1.412 
1.389 
0.270 


I 


3.365 
3.367 
3.377 
3.377 
8.300 
3.287 
3. -208 
3.169 
3.142 
3.158 
3.113 
3.105 
2.889 
3.074 
3.185 
3.075 
3.138 
3.151 
8. 158 
3.114 
3.067 


In  the  accompanying  tables  (pp.  98-106),  columns  2,  »3,  and  4  show, 
respectively,  the  number  of  observations  of  head  *and  the  maximum 
and  minimum  readings  in  each  experimental  period.  In  colunm  5  is 
given  the  mean  head  on  the  experimental  weir  deduced  from  the  tape 
observations  above  described.  Column  6  shows  the  area  of  cros^i  sec- 
tion of  the  channel  of  approach  per  foot  of  crest.  For  suppresised 
weirs  this  quantity  equals  the  sum  of  the  height  of  weir  plus  the 
measured  depth  on  crest.  For  weirs,  with  one  end  contraction  the 
quantity  A  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  area  of  the  water  section, 
where  D  is  measured,  by  the  net  length  of  the  weir  crest  corrected 
for  the  end  contraction.  For  those  series  where  the  depth  on  the 
experimental  weir  was  increased  by  contracting  the  weir  to  about  one- 
half  of  the  channel  width  and  introducing  one  end  contraction,  the 
net  length  of  crest  has  been  determined  by  the  method  of  Francis,  by 
deducting  one  tenth  the  head  from  the  measured  length  of  crest.  The 
discharge  per  foot  of  crest  of  the  experimental  weir  given  in  column 
10  has   been   deduced   from  the  discharge  over  the  standard  weir. 


i 

1 

' 

.], — ^  .  .p — J. . ,  J   ,   J   , 

_         y<                 -_ 

1      X                                                                            Iw         . 

g 

. 

- 

I.. 

^ 

»< 

^ 

\ 

o  > 


Plates  XXllI  and   XXIV  will   be  found   immediately  preceding 
page  95. 


i 

L 

\ 

\ 

^ 

@ 

>, 

til 

i 

V 

!f^ 

<0 

\ 

& 

^ 

p) 

'^ 

N 

(d 

5> 

_J 

cs' 

o  •** 

Hi  > 


Sis-   * 


s 

«0 

F 

(•  ^  l. 

i.oA»-~ 

1 

1 

0 

1 

\ 

X 

) 

\ 

i 

\ 

^ 

i 

\ 

4 

1 

1 

n 

X 

-l/V. 

"a 

\ 

^ 

V) 

(k 

\ 

4i 

Si 


5l 


S 


o 

-J 

D 


> 
I 


> 


O 

o 


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WEIRS    OF    IRKKCirLAR    8E0TTOK.  107 

obtained,  as  described  above,  by  dividing  the  total  discharge  by  the 
net  length  of  the  experimental  weir.  The  mean  velocity  of  approat^h 
r,  given  in  column  7,  has  been  obtained  by  the  formula 

The  correction  for  velocity  of  approa<*h  has  ))oen  carefully  computed 
by  the  Francis  formula 

where 

The  resulting  values  of  //*  are  given  in  column  8.  The  correspond- 
ing values  of  //,  given  in  column  9,  have  been  obtained  by  interpola- 
tion from  a  table  of  three-halves  powers.  The  discharge  coefficient  C^ 
given  in  column  11  has  been  obtained  by  the  formula 

t>l—         3. 

This  coefficient  represents  the  disc*harge  i)er  linear  foot  of  crest,  if 
the  head  is  1  foot,  with  no  velocity  of  approach,  it  being  the  coefficient 
in  a  weir  formula  of  the  same  form  as  that  used  by  J.  B.  Francis  for 
a  thin-edged  weir. 

Pis.  XXIU  to  XXXII  show  the  coefficient  diagrams  deduced  from 
thes<^  experiments. 

EXPERIMENTS  ON   MODEL  OF   DAM   OF  THE   ERSEX   COMPANY,  MERRIMAC 
RIVER,  AT    LAWRENCE,  MASS." 

A  series  of  experiments  covering  five  different  depths  on  crest  was 
made  by  James  B.  Francis  at  lower  locks,  Lowell,  Mass.,  November, 
1852.  The  model  had  a  crest  length  of  9.999  feet,  with  end  contractions 
suppreased.  Height  of  water  was  measured  by  hook  gage  in  a  cham- 
ber at  one  side  of  the  channel,  6  feet  upstream  from  crest,  so  arranged 
as  to  give  substantially  the  height  of  the  still-water  surface  above  the 
crest  without  correction  for  velocity  of  approach.  The  discharge  was 
volumetrically  determined  as  in  Francis's  thin-edged  weir  experiments. 

The  experiments  of  Francis  covered  depths  on  crest  ranging  from 
0.5872  foot  to  1.6338  feet.  From  these  experiments  he  deduced  tne 
foiiuula  for  discharge, 

^=3.01208Z//*". 

aFranciH.  J.  B.,  Lowell  Hydraulic  Exi>erlments.  pp.  18<;-137. 


108        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

If  the  discharge  were  expressed  in  terms  of  the  usual  formula, 

Q=  CJ^H^^  with  a  varying  coefficient  C^^  we  should  have  a  continu- 
ously increasing  coefficient. 

A  series  of  experiments  on  a  similar  model  dam,  6.65  feet  high,  with 
crest  length  of  15.932  feet,  was  made  at  Cornell  ITniversity  h3^draulic 
laboratory  in  1903.  The  model  there  used  differed  from  that  shown 
by  Francis  only  in  the  substitution  of  a  flatter  upstream  slope  near  the 
bottom  of  the  canal,  as  shown  in  PI.  XXXIII.  The  end  conti-actions 
were  suppressed  and  the  depth  on  crest  was  measured  with  steel  tape 
and  plumb  bob  suspended  over  center  of  channel  at  points  14.67  feet 
and  29.82  feet,  respectively,  upstream  from  crest  of  experimentAl  weir. 
Discharge  was  previously  measured  over  the  standard  weir,  calibrated 
by  Bazin's  and  Fteley  and  Stearns's  formulas,  located  at  head  of  experi- 
mental canal. 

The  experiments  covered  a  raiige  of  heads  varying  from  0.198  foot  to 
4.94  feet.  In  the  majority  of  the  experiments  the  head  was  observed 
at  both  points.  The  upper  point  of  measuring  depth  was  at  the 
upstream  end  of  the  inclined  approach.  The  lower  point  was  over  the 
incline,  where  the  area  of  the  section  of  approach  was  smaller  and 
the  velocity  larger  than  in  the  deeper  channel  above.  The  experi- 
ments have  been  reduced  with  reference  to  the  heads  measured  29.82 
feet  upstream  from  crest.  By  comparison  of  the  depths  simultane- 
ously observed  at  the  two  points  correction  factors  have  been  deduced 
for  the  reduction  of  the  remaining  experiments,  in  which  the  head  was 
observed  at  the  downstream  point  of  observation  only. 

The  observed  head  has  been  corrected  for  velocity  of  approach  by 

the  formula  of  Francis.     The  resulting  mean  coefficient  curve,  based 

on  19  valid  observations,  shows  a  larger  coefficient  of  discharge  in  the 

s 
formula  Q—  C\LH^  than  does  that  of  Francis. 

For  a  head  of  1  foot  the  formula  of  Francis  for  the  Merrimac  dam 
gives  a  discharge  of  90.3  per  cent  of  that  for  a  thin-edged  weir.  The 
Cornell  experiments  show  94.5  per  cent  of  the  discharge  over  a  thin- 
edged  weir  under  the  same  head. 


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WKIRS    OK    IKKKOULAK    SKCTION. 


loy 


Ifiinhanjt'  jM'r  font  of  creM,  Francis  fonnuhi  for  Merrimac  dam,  atmiHtreti  wifh  Conull 
ej'jierimenti*  on  »imilnr  rroits  Hiction. 


iN'pih  on 


0. 15 
.20 
.25 
.m 

.;>5 

.40 
.45 
.50 
.55 
.HO 
.H5 
.70 
.  75 
.SO 


Q  per  f<M)t  of 
orest.  in  cu- 
bk"  feet  per 
het'ona.     i 
Fruncb*.     I 


('(x'ffifient  f'\  in  fonnuhi 


q-^CxLU^. 


'  (l  per  iijoi  of 

ui'pti. on  s,?;-,'"'-"- 


Coetticieniri  in  formula 


crest.  //. 


0.  1H53 
.2567 

.;^M 

.  4774 
.6043 
.7431 
'.  8877 
l.(>i30 

1.  206 

1.  379 
1.5581 
1.7452 
1.9395 

2.  1408 


I 


Francis's 
formula. 


2.  845 
2.  871 
2.889 
2.905 
2.913 
2.937 
2.940 
2. 940 
2.956 
2.966 
2. 973 
2.980 
2.986 
2. 992 


Cornell  ex-  ' 
perimeuts.  , 


3.a5 

3.  mi 

3.07 

3.08 

3.09 

3.11 

3. 12 

3.13 

3.  \\\b 

3.14 

3.  14 

3.14 

3.14 

3.15 


•et  per  | 
Kecond,  i 
Francis. 


Francis's 
formula. 


Cornell  ex- 
perimeutM. 


-I- 


0.85 
.JK) 
.95 

1.00 

1.  15 
1.25 
1.50 
1.75 
2.00 

2.  50 
3.00 

3.  50 
4.00 


2.3490 
2. 5636 

2.  784(> 
3.0121 

3.  75(K) 

4.  2378 
5.6012 


2.  997 

3.  002 
3.  (X)7 
3.012 
3.041 
3.  033 
3.  048 


8.  ()975 


I 


3.  075 


16.  1750 


3.113 


25.  121K) 


3.  140 


3.15 
3. 15 
3. 15 
3.13 
3.12 
3.10 
3. 12 
3.14 
3.  20 
3.  26 
3.  31 
3.36 


A.side  from  Blackwell'«  experiinents  the  Francis  forinula  for  the 
Merrimac  dam  was  until  recently  the  only  one  available  for  a  large 
dam  of  irregular  section,  and  for  want  of  more  appropriate  dato  it  has 
been  used  for  the  calculation  of  discharge  over  many  forms  of  weirs 
of  irregular  section,  and  in  spite  of  Francis's  explicit  caution,  it  has 
been  applied  where  the  heads  differed  widely  from  those  used  in  the 
original  experiments. 

Considering  the  limited  experiments  on  which  it  is  based,  Francis's 
Merrimac  dam  formula  gives  good  agreement  with  the  much  more 
extended  experiments  on  a  similar  section  made  at  Cornell  hydraulic 
laboratory. 


110        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

FLOW  OVER  WEIRS  WITH   BROAD  CRESTS. 
THEORBTICAIi  FORMULA  OF   UNWIN    AND  FRIZELL.** 

Consider  a  weir  of  such  breadth  that  the  nappe  becomes  of  sensibly 
uniform  depth  in  the  portion  BC^  fig.  8,  the  upstream  corner  of  the 
weir  being  rounded  to  prevent  vertical  contraction  and  the  surface 
slightly  inclined  downstream  so  that  it  becomes  parallel  with  the 
surface  of  the  nappe  BC. 


Pig.  8.— Broad-crested  weir. 


The  fall  causing  the  velocity  Fin  the  section  BO  is  H—d.  It  fol- 
lows that  if  V  is  the  mean  velocity  in  BC 

v=^l'2g{H^  Q= Ldv=Zd^2g{I{-d) 

In  this  equation  Q  is  0  when  d—0  or  d—IL  There  must,  there- 
fore, be  an  intermediate  value  of  d  for  which  Q  will  be  a  maxinium. 
Differentiating  we  find  for  the  condition  of  a  maximum, 

d  2 

Giving  H—d—!^  and  d=  ^  11^  or,  for  maximum  discharge,  one-thii-d 

the  head  would  be  exj^ended  in  producing  the  velocity  of  flow.     With 
this  value  of  d  the  expression  for  discharge  becomes 


^  T  Tf 


or  if  V2.^=8.02, 


(5.S) 


In  this  formula  frictional  resistance  has  been  neglected.  The  di.«<- 
charge  given  is  the  maximum  for  the  conditions,  and  would  result  only 
if  the  stream  discharges  itself  in  accordance  with  the  '^principle  of 
least  energy.'" 

BlackwelFs  experiments,  given  elsewhere,  show  a  considerably 
larger  coeflicient  for  weirs  3  feet  broad,  slightly  inclined  downward, 
than  for  those  with  horizontal  crests. 


a  Given  by  W.  C.  Unwiu,  in  article  I  on  Hydrodynamics  In  Ency.  Brit    Independently  derived  by 
J.  P.  Frizell.    See  hie  Water  Power,  pp.  1S&-200. 


WEIB8   WITH   BBOAD   OBESTS. 


Ill 


Let  d=KHy  then  from  the  formula  first  given 
Q=LKH-i^mX  -K) 


<7,=8.02-ff'VI=X 


(69) 


The  theoretical  coefficient  Ci  can  be  computed  from  this  equation  if 
^has  been  determined  experimentally. 

From  profiles  taken  in  connection  with  United  States  Deep  Water- 
ways experiments  at  Cornell  Cniversity  hydraulic  laboratory  in  1899 
the  following  values  of  D  and  d  for  broad-crested  weirs  have  been 
scaled  and  the  ratio  i/  />  computed.  Z>  was  taken  4  feet  upstream 
from  the  upper  face  of  the  weir,  and  does  not  include  velocity  of 
approach  correction;  values  of  d^  and  d^  were  taken  at  the  lower-crest 
lip  and  center  of  crest,  re8pectiveh\  The  value  of  rf,  at  center  of 
cre^t  has  been  used  in  the  computations. 

Values  of  D  and  dfor  broad-cresUd  tueirs. 


Broad-creeted  weir. 


.L_ 


Broad-cretted  wdr. 


D 


0.90 
1.16 
1.80 
2.60 
3.56 
5.15 


35 

45 
75  I 
20  ' 
72  I 
20  ' 


0.52 

1.14 
1.76 
2.52 
3.16 


0.58 
.69 
.63 
.67 
.71 
.61 


1.00 
1.32 
1.98 
2.85 
3.90 
4.65 


.50 

.50 

.70 

.50 

.98 

.50 

1.70 

.60 

2.50 

.64 

3.10 

.61 

For  low  heads  a  sudden  drop  begins  near  the  upstreana  crest  corner 
and  terminates  at  a  distance  1.5  to  2  Z>  below  the  upstream  corner. 
From  this  point  to  within  a  distance  about  equal  to  D  from  the  down- 
stream crest  corner  the  surface  is  nearly  parallel  with  the  crest. 
If  the  width  of  crest  is  not  greater  than  2.5  to  3  Z^  the  nappe  passes 
over  the  broad  crest  in  a  continuous  surface  curve,  becoming  more 
nearly  convex  as  the  ratio  D  B  increases. 

For  low  heads  Cornell  experiment  13,  crest  6.56  feet  wide,  with 
rounded  upstream  comer,  complies  very  well  with  the  theory  of  dis- 


112        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   C0EFFICIENT8,   AND   FORMULAS. 

charge  in  accordance  of  the  principle  of  least  energy.     The  coefficient 
computed  as  above  is 

6; =8.02X0. 685^1 -0^585 
=  8.02X0.585X0.6442 
=3.02 

The  experimental  coefficient  with  head  corrected  for  velocity  of 
approach  i«  2.82. 

The  following  additional  data  may  be  cited: 

Trautwine^  cjuotes  data  of  Elwood  Morris,  C.  E.,  for  Clegg's  dam. 
Cape  Fear  River,  North  Carolina.  Horizontal  crest  8.42  feet  wide, 
vei'tical  faces.  //=1.25  feet,  d  (throughout  central  portion  of  crest) 
=0.50  foot,     d  H=0.40. 

Thos.  T.  Johnston*  gives  data  of  elaborate  profiles  of  the  nappe  for 
Desplaines  River  dam,  Illinois.  Horizontal  planed  stone  coping,  ver- 
tical downstream  face;  upstream  face  batter,  1  2:1.  //=0.587  foot. 
rf=0.315  to  0.307  foot  in  central,  nearly  level  portion  at  distances  i.o 
to  4  feet  from  upstream  edge  of  crest.  Johnston  and  Cooley  deduce 
the  coefficient  C=1.69  for  this  case. 

BLACKWELL's   EXPERIMENTS  ON   DISCHARGE   OF  WATER  OVER   BROAD- 
CRESTED  WEIRS. 

Experiments  made  by  Thomas  E.  Blackwell,^  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  are  of 
interest  as  being  probably  the  first  recorded  for  weirs  with  broad  crests. 
The  discharge  was  volumetrically  measured,  and  the  conditions  were 
generally  favomble  to  accuracy.  The  experiments  were  made  on  a 
side  pond  of  the  Kennet  and  Avon  Canal,  106,200  square  feet  surface 
area,  closed  by  a  lock  at  each  end,  the  water  being  admitted  from  time 
to  time  as  required,  the  relation  between  area  of  reservoir  and  volume 
of  discharge  being  such  that  there  was  no  sensible  variation  in  water 
level  during  an  experiment. 

The  weir  was  constructed  in  a  dock  to  which  the  water  had  access 
through  an  irregularly  shaped  channel  40  feet  in  width,  cut  off  from 
the  main  pond  by  a  submerged  masonry  wall  9  feet  wide,  situated  "2'} 
feet  upstream  from  the  weir,  having  its  top  18  inches  to  20  inches 
below  water  surface. 

The  water  level  in  the  pond  being  constant  when  outflow  took  plai-e, 
the  weir,  which  had  a  crest  adjustable  in  a  vertical  plane,  was  set  with 
its  crest  level  at  the  depth  below  water  surface  desired  for  an  experi- 
ment, by  means  of  adjusting  screw\s  at  the  ends  of  the  weir;  the  water 

aEngineera'  Pocket  Book. 

b  Johnston,  T.  T.,  and  Cooley,  E.  L.,  New  experimental  data  for  flow  over  a  broad-crest  dam:  Jour. 
Western  Soc.  Engrs.,  vol.  1,  Jan.,  1896,  pp.  80-51. 

cOriglnal  paper  before  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  of  London,  reprinted  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  March  and  April,  1852. 


WEIRS    WITH    BROAD    CRESTS.  113 

was  then  allowed  to  waste  through  the  weir  until  a  uniform  regimen 
of  flow  was  established. 

A  gaging  tank  having  a  floor  of  brick  laid  in  cement,  with  plank 
sides,  and  441). 39  cubic  feet  cai>acity,  was  erected  at  the  foot  of  the 
weir.  At  a  given  signal  the  lid  of  this  tank  was  raised,  the  time 
noted,  and  the  rate  of  filling  of  the  tank  recorded  by  several  observ- 
ers. Such  leakage  from  the  tank  as  occurred  was  separately  measured 
and  allowed  for.  There  was  no  correction  for  velocity  of  approach  or 
for  end  contractions. 

The  wind  was  so  slight  as  to  be  negligible,  except  during  one  series 
when  there  was  a  brisk  wind  blowing  downstream.  The  experimenter 
states  that  parallel  experiments  on  a  quiet  day  indicated  an  increase  of 
about  5  per  cent  in  discharge  due  to  this  wind. 

The  crest  of  the  thin-edged  weir  consisted  of  an  iron  plate  barely 
one-sixteenth  inch  thick.  A  square-top  plank  2  inches  thick  was 
attached  to  the  weir,  and  an  apron  of  deal  boards,  roughly  planed  so 
as  to  form  an  uninterrupted  continuation  downstream,  constituted  the 
wide-crested  weir  used  in  the  experiments. 

The  coeflScient  C\  from  Blackwell's  experiments  has  been  worked 
out  and  is  given  in  the  following  table.     The  measured  depths  taken 
in  inches  have  also  been  reduced  to  feet. 
1KB  150—06 12 


114       WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

BlackweWs  experiments  on  broad-crested  weirs,  Kennet  and  Avon  (hnal,  England,  18S0. 


EAST  INDIAN    ENGINEERS'   FORMULA    FOR  BROAD-CRESTED   WEIRS.^ 

This  fornmla  is 
Q=\  M'JfH  ^TgJi,  or  if  V'2  r/=«-^^^.  (^=6.S63rZB^=  C\LH^  (60) 
Where  J/'=coefficient  for  thin-edged  weir*=0.664— O.OliSr, 


(61) 


oMiillins,  Gen.  Joseph,  Irrigation  Manual,  Madras,  1890. 

bSee  table  giving  values  of  M  and  equivalent  values  of  C,  p.  22. 


WEIRS    WITH    BROAD    ORESrS. 


115 


Experimental  data  not  given.  This  formula  gives  values  of  M*  or 
C\  decreasing  as  breadth  of  crest  B  increases,  and  for  low  heads 
increasing  to  a  maximum  for  a  head  of  about  1  foot,  then  slowly 
decreasing. 

The  formula  reduces  to 


c-6'r^^+i-^;>^^^(^+^)V56' . 


//+i 


j- 


■   (62) 


For  ^=0 


which  diffei-s  by  the  ratio  R  from  the  equivalent  value  of   V  for  a 
thin-edged  weir. 

Vnlxi/e^  of  cofffirient  C^  <>/"  discharge  over  a  brwui-^'reMU'd  weir  and  of  R^  the  ratio  of  the 
farmer  to  C  the  coeflicierU,  of  discharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir^  hg  .\fnllins* tt  formula. 


I  feet.  -^ 


Ifoot. 


L-l 


2  feet. 


R 


(\ 


3  feet. 
R  ( 


4  feet. 


3l 
4 

6  ' 

7  j 

8  I 

9  • 
10  I 


0.975 
.983 
.988 
.990 
.992 
.998  I 
.994 
.994 
.995 
.995 


I     i- 


3.359 
3.335  1 
3.296  ' 
3.253  , 
3.204 
3.155  I 
3.104 
3.a54 
3.003 
2.950  I 


0.962 
.  975 
.981 
.985 
.988 
.989 
.991 
.992 
.992 


3. 316 
8.807  I 
3.275 
3.237 
3.191 
3.144  I 
3.095  I 
3.0J5 
2.995  , 
2.944 


0.95 
.967 

•  .975 
.98 
.983  ' 
.986  I 
.988 


3.319 
3.279  I 
3.255  I 
3.220 
3. 177  I 
3.132  , 
8.085  ; 
3.037  i 
2.9H8  I 
2. 937 


0.938 
.958 
.969 
.  975 
.979 
.982 
.984 
.98(> 
.988 
.989 


Ci 

3.230 
3.251 
3.2:^1 
3.204 
3.164 
3. 121 
3.075 
3.028 
3.042 
2.930 


5  feet. 


6  feet. 


I 


7  feet. 


I 


0.925 
.95 
.962 
.97 
.975 
.978 
.981 


(\ 

3. 182 

3.22 

3.213 

3.193 

3.149 

3.11 

3.06 

3.017 

2.97 

2.92 


Cy 


0.912 
.942 
.966 
.965 
.971  I 
.975  I 
.978 
.980  j 
.982  I 
.984  , 


3. 144 
3.194 
3. 192 
3.171  i 
3  137 
3.09« 
3.  G^l 
3.012  I 
2.966 
2.916 


R 

0.9 
.933 

.96 

.96 

.967 

.971 

.975 

.977 

.98 

.982 


^1 


8  feet. 

A'      I      <\ 


3.100 
3.  IWi  j 
3.171 
3. 154 
3.123 
3.080  , 
3.046 
2,999 
3.019  , 
2.910  ' 


0.H88 
.925 
.944 
.955 
.962 
.968 
.972 
.975 
.978 
.979 


3.057 

■3.  i:« 

3.150 
3. 138 
3.110 
3.076 
3.056 
2.994 
2.950 
2.093 


The  values  of  C^  given  in  the  above  table  have  been  deduced  from 
the  corresponding  values  of  C  for  a  thin-edged  weir  by  Mullins's 
formula.  The  ratio  R  may,  if  desired,  be  applied  approximately  to 
correct  values  of.  C  derived  from  other  standard  weir  formulas. 


116        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 


FTELEY  AND  STEARNS   EXPERIMENTS  ON   BROAD-CRESTED   WEIRS. *• 

The  formula  of  Fteley  and  Stearns  is  based  on  five  series  of  experi- 
ments made  in  the  Sudbury  River  conduit,  Boston,  1877,  on  weirs  2,  3, 
4,  6,  and  10  inches  wide,  respectively.  Suppressed  weirs  5  feet  long 
were  used,  the  depths  being  as  follows: 

Fteley  ajid  StearM  ejperitnenUf, 


Width  of 
crest,  in 

Number 
of  experi- 
ments. 

RanReof  depth  observed 
on  broad  crests,  in  feet. 

inches. 

From—             To— 

2 

7 

0. 1158         0.  2926 

3 

21 

.  1307     •       .  4619 

4 

25 

.  1318           .  6484 

6 

22 

.  1320           .  8075 

10 

17 

.1352           .8941 

1 

The  results  are  given  by  the  authors  in  the  form  of  a  table  of  cor- 
rections to  be  added  algebraically  to  the  measuf&d  head  for  the  broad- 
crested  weir  to  obtain  the  head  on  a  thin-edged  weir  that  would  give 
the  same  discharge. 

Fteley  and  Stearns's  correction  c  may  be  found  approximately  from 
the  formula 

6'=0.2016V[(0.807  ^-//)'+0.2146  Il^]-0,1H16  B  .    .    (63) 

or  if  X~  0.2016,  //i = 0. 1 876, /i= 0.2146,  6^=0.807,  then 

Q=CZ[II-mB+kyl{aB^IJy+JiB']^      .     .     .     (64) 
If  the  head  on  a  broad-crested  weir  is  II,  the  discharge  will  \ye 

Q=CL{II+c)^ (6.5) 

(/being  the  coeflicient  of  discharge  for  thin-edged  weirs. 
If  (\  is  the  coefficient  for  the  l)road  weir,  then  we  may  also  writo 

Hence 


(««) 


From  formula  (66)  have  been  calculated  Fteley  and  Stearns's  coeffi- 
cients for  weirs  with  nappe  adhering  to  crest  for  use  in  the  formula 

Q=CLIJ\ 


a  Fteley  and  Stearns,  Experiments  on  the  flow  of  water,  etc.:  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  12,  pp.  86-96. 


WEIRS    WITH    BROAD    CRESTS. 


117 


^•orrection  for  velocity  of  approach  being  made  by  adding  1.5  --  to  the 
measured  head  to  obtain  H,^ 

Vahies  of  the  ratio    .]  of  the  coeffirierU  of  discharge  for  a  broad-crested  v^rir,  l/y  Fteley 
arid  Steams^ 8  exjjerimentgy  to  that  for  a  thin-edged  weir. 


If   - 

Width  of  crest,  in  Inehen. 

3        1 

4 

6 

8         ' 

10 

12 

1 
0.0 

.1 

0.7466 

0.74798 

0.7562 

0.7589 

0.7576 

0.7676 

.2 

.H234 

.7878 

.7740 

.7CT9  1 

.7644 

.  7624 

.3 

.91?2 

.8ft24 

.8003 

.7809  1 

.7727 

.7685 

.4  ' 

.9963 

.9201 

.8353 

.6003 

.7850 

.7768 

.5    .. 

.980t'i 

.8781 

.8255  1 

.8008 

.7865 

.6    .. 

1.008U 

.9290 

.8567 

.8199 

.7989 

.7      . 

1 

.9691 

.8911  1 

.8424 

.8130 

.8    .. 

.9997 

.9245 

.8695 

.8339 

.9   .. 

1.0317 

.9653 

.8983 

.8552 

1.0  |.. 

1.1  .. 
1.2'.. 

.9685 
1.0090  1 
1.0317 
1.0499 

.9406 
.9508 
.9732 
.9948 
1.0148 
1.0317 

.8824 

.9027 

1 

; 

.9252 

1.3   -- 

.9466 

1.4    .. 

1.6  L. 

1 

; 

.9657 

1 

1 

1 

.9850 

bazin's  formula  and  experiments  on  broad-crested  weirs. 

These  included  series  of  about  20  periods  each  for  depths  not 
exceeding  1.4  feet  on  weirs  of  0.164:,  0.328,  0.656,  1.315,  2.62,  and 

6.56  feet  breadth  of  crest.  The  coeflScient  Ci  in  the  formula  Q=  C^Llfi^ 
deduced  from  a  recomputation  of  the  experiments  on  weirs  2.46  feet 
high,  using  the  Francis  velocity  of  approach  correction,  is  given 
on  PL  IV. 

Other  experiments  were  made  for  the  four  narrower  weirs  with 
heights  1.148  and  1.64  feet,  to  determine  the  comparative  velocity  of 
approach  eflfect. 

Bazin  shows  that  if  the  nappe  is  free  from  the  downstream  face  of 
the  weir  it  may  assume  two  forms:  (1)  It  may  adhere  to  the  horizontal 
<'rest  surface;  (2)  it  may  become  detached  at  the  upstream  edge  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  flow  over  the  crest  without  touching  the 
downstream  edge.  In  the  second  case  the  influence  of  the  flat  crest 
evidently  disappears  and  the  discharge  is  like  that  over  a  thin-edged 
weir.  The  nappe  usually  assumes  this  form  when  the  depth  I)  exceeds 
twice  the  breadth  of  crest  B^  but  it  may  occur  whenever  the  depth 
exceeds  \B,  Between  these  limits  the  nappe  is  in  a  state  of  insta- 
bility; it  tends  to  detach  itself  from  the  crest,  and  may  do  so  under  the 

a  Fteley  and  Steama's  formula  for  a  thin-edged  weir  lias  been  iised  to  oalculate  Q  in  deriving  these 
coefflnienta,  the  experiments  having  been  made  under  conditions  similar  to  those  under  which  their 
formoja  wan  derived. 


118        WK[R    KXPERTMKNl^,   rOEFFTCTENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

influence  of  any  external  disturbance,  a«,  for  example,  the  entrance  of 
air  or  the  passage  of  a  floating  object  over  the  weir. 

When  the  nappe  adheres  to  the  crest,  the  coeflSeient  t\  depends 
chiefly  on  the  ratio  D  B  and  may  be  represented  by  the  formula 

t;=  f/ (0.70+0. 185 />  J?) (67) 

in  which  6' is  the  coeflicient  for  a  thin-edged  weir. 

When  I)  B=L5()  to  2,  (\  C=0.9S  to  1.07  if  the  nappe  adheres  to 
crest,  or  (\  r=1.00  if  nappe  is  detached,  and  for  /)  B>'2,  6;  6^=1.00. 
Between  the  limits  D—\,bR  and  D—±R  the  value  which  the  coeffi- 
cient 6i  will  assume  in  a  particular  case  is  uncertain.  Bazin  considers 
that  his  formula  gives  accurate  results  for  adhering  nappes  with 
breadth  of  crests  up  to  2  or  8  feet.  For  a  crest  6.56  feet  wide  and 
/>= 1.476  feet  he  finds  the  result  by  formula  (67)  98.4  per  cent  of 
that  given  directl}^  by  the  experiment. 

Valuer  of  the  ratio  (\l(\  fivr  a  hrond-rrested  weir^  with  adhering  lutppe^  hy  Hazin^n 

formvdaJ^ 


Dili 
0.0 

.1 

.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 


1.0 

1.'2 
1.3 
1.4 
1.5 


0 

0.01 

0.02 

0.70J 

0. 7018 

0.7087 

.  7185 

.7204 

.7222 

.7370 

.7388 

.7407 

.7555 

.7574 

.7592 

.7740 

.7758 

.7777 

.7925 

.7944 

.7962 

.8110 

.8128 

.8147 

.82% 

.8314 

.8332 

.8480 

.8498 

.8517 

.8(565 

.8fi84 

.8702 

.88:)0 

.8868 

.8887 

.9035 

.9a'>4 

.9072 

.9220 

.9238 

.9257 

.WOT. 

.9424 

.9442 

.9590 

.96as 

.9627 

.9775 

.9794 

.9812 

6V( '-=0.700 4-0.185  7>.'fi. 

0.01   I   0.05      6. Or; 


0.7056 
.7240 
.7426 
.7610 
.7796 
.7980 
.8166 
.8350 
.8536 
.8720 
.8906 
.9090 
.9276 
.9460 
.9646 
.9830 


0.7074  I  0.7092  0.7111 


.7259 
.7444 
.7629 

.7814 

.81iM 
.8369 
.8554 
.8739 
.8924 
.9109 
.9294 
.9479 
.9664 
.9849 


.7278 
.7462 
.7648 
.7832 
.8018 
.8202 
.8388 
.8572 
.8758 
.8942 
.91-28 


.7296 
.7481 
.7666 
.7851 
.8036 
.8221 
.8406 
.8691 
.  8776 
.89*51 
.9146 


0.07 

0.08 

0.7130 

0.7148 

.7314 

.7333 

.7500 

.7518 

.7684 

.7703 

.  7870 

.7888 

.8064 

.8073 

.8240 

.V258 

.8424 

.8443 

.9312  I    .9331 

.9498  .9516 

.  9682  .  9701 

.98«W  .9886 


.8610 

.8794 

.8980  . 

.9164 

.9350 

.9534 

.9719  : 

.9904  I 


.8628 
.><813 
.8998 
.9183 
.9:ttW 
.9553 
.97:i8 
.9923  ' 


0.7166 
.7352 
.7536 
.7722 
.7906 
.8092 
.8276 
.R462 
.8646 
.8832 
.9016 
.9202 
.9386 
.9572 
.9756 
.9M2 


«lf  there  1«  velocity  of  approach,  the  value 
ratio  ^•,/<'may  be  applied  hi  a  formula  which 
the  head  //  or  in  the  coefficient. 


of  DIB,  not  II]B,  should 
includes  the  velocity  of 


Ih'  used  as  an  argument.    The 
appnwoh  c»<»rn'ction,  either  in 


Bazin's  formula  gives  ratios  which  continually  increase  as  // 
increases,  li  remaining  constant,  and  which  continually  decrease  as 
B  increases,  //  remaining  constant.  It  gives,  however,  a  constant 
I'atio  for  all  widths  or  heads  where  the  ratio  //  B  is  unchanged. 

Compared  with  their  respective  standard  weir  formulas,  MuUins's 
formula  gives  for  a  broad-crested  weir  a  continuously  decreasing  ratio 
of  discharge  as  B  increases  from  zero,  II  remaining  constant,  and  a 
continuously  increasing  discharge  as  //increases  from  zero,  B  remain- 
ing constant;  Fteley  and  Stearns's  experiments  give  a  discharge  ratio 
which  is  less  than  unity,  but  which  varies  in  an  irregular  manner, 
depending  on  the  head  and  breadth  of  weir. 


WEIRS    WITH    BROAD    CRESTS. 


119 


On  referring  to  PI.  IV,  in  which  the  Bazin  coefficients  are  given  in  a 
form  comparable  with  the  experiments  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  it  will  be  noticed  that,  except  for  the  lowest  heads,  the  coeffi- 
cient curves  are  simple  linear  functions  of  the  head.  The  rate  of 
increase  of  the  coefficients  as  the  head  increases  grows  rapidly  less 
as  the  breadth  of  the  weir  increases,  indicating  that  for  a  very  broad 
weir  the  coefficient  would  be  sensibly  constant  throughout  the  range 
of  stability  of  the  nappe. 

For  the  narrower  weirs  the  coefficients  tend  to  increase  rapidly 
almost  from  the  start  toward  the  value  for  a  thin-edged  weir  or 
detached  nappe.  For  the  weirs  2.62  and  6.50  feet  breadth  of  crest 
the  total  variation  in  the  coefficient  for  'the  range  of  heads  covered  by 
the  experiments  is  compamtively  small.  The  average  coefficients  are 
as  follows: 

Average  Bazin  coefficlentHf  hroad-crested  iveirs. 


Bazin  series  Crest  width, 
No.        I     in  feet. 


113 
114 
115 


1.312 
2.624 
6.56 


Range  of  head,  in  feet. 
From—  To- 


Lowest. 

0.35 

.55 


Average  con- 
,    stant  coelfl- 
t      cient,  C\. 


0.60 

2.64 

.85 

2.59 

1.32 

2.62 

Highest. 

0  2.58 

a  Coefficient  increases  slowly  throughout. 


The  average  coefficients  show  a  fair  agreement  with  the  constant 
coefficient  for  broad-crested  weirs  with  stable  nappe  deduced  from  the 
experiments  of  the  "United  States  Geological  Survey  (page  120). 


EXPERIMENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  ON  BROAD- 

ORESTED  WEIRS. 

The  method  of  conducting  these  experiments  and  the  detailed  results 
are  given  on  pages  95-107.  The  coefficient  curves  are  presented  on  Pis. 
XXVIII  to  XXXII.  It  may  be  remarked  here  that  the  models  were 
larger  and  the  range  of  breadth  of  crest  and  depth  of  flow  experi- 
mented upon  was  greater  than  in  the  earlier  experiments  described. 
In  general,  the  laws  of  behavior  of  the  nappe  pointed  out  by  Fteley 
and  Stearns  and  Bazin  were  confirmed. 


120        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

The  following  table  presents  a  r^sum^  of  the  results: 

R^mmS  of  United  l^ies  Geological  Survey  experimerits  on  broad-crested  weirs. 

Nappe ' 


un-     '  Nappe 
I  stable       de- 
n^o/ifii       'or      tached 
SerieH.      of  crest,  |    ^^       ^^^ 
\  m  feet.      ^jj^„        ^^ 

I  valuer 

I  below, 

in  feet. 


CoeflSclent  61  varies  between 
the  limlte— 


CoeCBcient 
constant. 


Head,  In  feet.       Coefficient. 


40 
47 

46  I 
45 
44  I 


43  I 


43fi 
Average. 


0.479 
.927 
1.646 
3.174 
5.875 
8.980 

12.239 

16.302 
16.302 


0.3  1 

0.8 

.81 

1.8 

.7 

2.8 

.5    . 

.5    . 

.5  j. 

.4    . 



head.  |i.^m— 
in  feet. 


0.3 
.3 
.7 
.5 
.5 
.5 


.3 


To— 


0.8 
1.8 
2.8 
1.3 
.9 
2.0 

2.0 
1.1 


Prom—    To— 


2.64 

2.57    ; 

2.56  j 
2.70  I 

2.72  i 

2.73  I 
2.62  i 
2.' 


I     2.73  j 


3.32 
3.31 
3.32 
2.64 
2.64 
2.62 

2.64 


1.0 


2.68 
2.72 


1 2.68 11 


2.72 
2.68 
2.64 


Above 
head, 
in  feet. 


0.8 
1.8 
2.8 
1.3 
.9 
2.0 

2.0 

1.1 
1.0 


I 


3.32     I 
3.31     ' 
3.32 
Increases, 
2.64 
2.62 

«2.64 

b2.6S    I 
2.64 


2.634 


"  Coefficient  shows  tendency  to  increaae  slowly  with  head. 

b  Edges  of  planed  and  matched  boards  not  flush.    Crest  smoothed  in  series  43a. 

The  deductions  that  f9llow  have  been  based  on  a  consideration  of 
earlier  experiments  as  well  as  those  here  given  for  the  first  time. 

1.  For  depths  below  0.3  to  0.6  foot  the  nappe  is  very  unstable, 
owing  probably  to  magnified  effect  of  crest  friction  and  to  the  varying 
aeration  or  adhesion  of  the  nappe  to  the  downstream  weir  face. 

2.  For  heads  from  0.5  foot  to  1  or  2  feet  for  very  broad  weirs,  or 
from  0.5  foot  to  the  point  of  detachment  for  narrower  weirs,  the 
coefficient  is  somewhat  variable  and  changes  in  an  uncertain  manner. 
For  the  broader  weirs,  the  range  of  variation  of  Ci  between  the  depths 
indicated  is  narrow,  from  2.73  to  2.62. 

3.  When  the  nappe  becomes  detached  the  coefficient  remains  nearly 
identical  with  that  for  a  thin-edged  weir.  For  the  narrower  weirs  the 
coefficient  incre^ises  rapidly  within  the  range  of  tendency  to  detach- 
ment indicated  by  Bazin,  i.  e.,  for  heads  between  D  and  2D. 

4.  On  the  broader  weirs  for  depths  exceeding  1  to  2  feet  up  to  the 
limit  of  the  experiments  (about  5  feet),  the  experiments  indicate  a  sen- 
sibly constant  coefficient  for  all  depths.  Where  there  is  any  tendencv 
to  variation  within  the  i-ange  indicated  there  is  a  gi*adual  increase 
in  C,. 

For  weirs  of  5  to  16  feet  breadth  the  experiments  show  no  conspicu- 
ous tendency  for  the  coefficient  (^,  to  change  with  variation  in  either 
//or  />,  the  range  of  value  of  C\  being  from  2.62  to  2.64. 

The  line  of  detachment  of  the  nappe  for  a  weir  of  5  feet  breadth 
would  })e  7.5  to  10  feet  head  or  perhaps  more,  and  a  higher  head  for 


WEIRS    WITH    BROAD    CRESTS.  121 

broader  crests.  If  this  depth  were  ever  reached  it  may  be  surmised 
that  the  coefficient  C\  would  increase  to  about  3.33  at  the  point  of 
detachment.  It  would  also  appear,  as  is  in  fai^t  indicated  in  Bazin's 
formula,  that  the  coefficient  should  very  slowly  increase  with  //  and 
decrease  as  B  increases,  independent  of  the  tendency  to  detachment 
of  the  nappe,  and  owing  to  the  decreased  relative  effect  of  crest  fric- 
tion and  contraction. 

The  United  States  Geological  Survey  experiments  indicate  that  this 
effect  is  of  relativel}'  little  significance  for  large  heads  and  broad  well's, 
and  hence  a  constant  coefficient  covering  a  wide  range  may  be  safely 
adopted. 

The  average  coefficient,  2.64,  which  we  have  tentatively  chosen  for 
weirs  exceeding  3  feet  in  breadth  under  heads  exceeding  2  feet,  ma}" 
apparently  be  applied  for  considerably  lower  heads  for  weirs  of  5  feet 
or  more  crest  breadth  with  but  small  error. 

TABLE  OF  DISCHARGE  OVER  BROAD-CRESTED  WEIRS  WITH  STABLE  NAPPE. 

A  table  has  been  calculated,  using  ^^1=2.64  and  covering  heads  vary- 
ing b}'  0.1  foot  increment  from  zero  to  10  feet  (p.  177).  It  is  consid- 
ered applicable  for  weirs  of  3  feet  or  more  crest  breadth  when  II B 
lies  between  the  general  limits  0.25  to  1.5.  The  coefficient  2.64  gives 
a  discharge  79.2  per  cent  of  that  for  a  thin-edged  weir  by  the  Francis 
foimiula.  The  relative  discharge  obtained  by  other  formulas  and 
experimenters  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Comparison  of  hrOfid-rreMed  iceir  formulae  and  e.y^perimeriJK  ffirin(f  percentage  of 
discharge  over  a  thin-edged  urh." 


1  foot  width.  2.62  feet  width.                 6..%  feet  width. 

Fonniila  or  experiment.    ,   jf^^Q^;     ]^  f  i  5  ^  -    '   ^  j,"       1.5    '  u.2r~0.5    ~l.O    '  'iTT 

I      i/-=0.5         1.0       1.5  1.31       2.62    1    3.93      1.(.4      3.28       6.56      9.  H4 

_  '         ' !  .'  I  ' 

96.7  I  97.5  !  98.0    [ , ,93.2       95.5  1    97.5  |     98.2 

78.6  i  88.2     98.5  I | ' 

79.2  ;  88.5  '  97.8  79.2  '    88.5  ,    97.8     74.6       79.2       88.5  I     97.8 


Mnllinse' 

Ftfley  and  Steams 
Bazin  formula 


U.  S.  Deep  Waterways  ex- 
penmentA 


82.8       93.3  ,  114.1      72.0       71.1  |     72.3  |     73.2 
U.  S.  Geological  Sun'ev  ex- 
periments  I  81.0  I  90.3     97.5  '<'79.5  'c81.3  ,e86.7  I  79.2    rf79.2    d79.2    ^79.2 

«  No  velocity  of  approach. 

fr£ast  Indian  en^fineerH*  formula,  given  in  Mullin.s'8  Irrigation  Mannal,  Madm.s  Presidency. 

<•  Weir  2.17  feet  broad. 

rf  Weir  5.88  feet  broad. 

Considering  the  low  heads  used,  it  may  be  noted  that  before  Bazin's 
experiments  only  those  of  Blackwell  included  a  weir  breadth  sufficient 
to  eliminate  the  early  tendency  to  detachment  and  permit  the  existence 
of  the  stable  period  for  which  a  constant  coefficient  aj)plies. 


122        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

Blackwell's  experiments  on  weirs  3  feet  broad  indicate  a  maximum 
coefficient  C^  of  2.65  to  2.77  for  a  head  of  about  0.5  foot,  decreasing  as 
the  head  increased. 

The  experiments  of  the  United  States  Deep  Waterways  Board  on 
models  with  2.62  and  6.56  foot  crest  width  are  shown  on  PI.  XV.  For 
the  narrower  weir  the  coefficient  increased  uniformly  with  the  head. 
The  nappe  did  not  leave  the  crest,  although  the  experiments  were 
continued  to  the  limit  B)  B—%  at  which  stage  the  coefficient  exceeded 
that  for  a  thin-edged  weir.  For  the  broader  weir  the  coefficients  are 
much  less  variable  and  the  curves  indicate  that  the  coefficients  approach 
a  constant  as  the  breadth  of  crest  is  increased. 

It  will  be  noted  that  considerable  care  must  be  exercised  in  deter- 
mining the  condition  of  the  nappe  for  broad-crested  weirs  of  incon- 
siderable width,  while  for  those  of  greater  breadth  the  wind  ma}'  exerf 
considerable  influence  on  the  nappe  on  the  broad  crest  under  lower 
heads.  The  constant  coefficient  2.64  has  been  deduced  from  experi- 
ments on  weirs  with  smooth,  planed  crests  and  sharp  upstream  crest 
angles.  The  effect  of  crest  roughness  on  weir  discharge  is  discussed 
on  page  133. 

EFFECT  OF  ROUNDING  UPSTREAM  CREST  EDGE. 

Experiments  by  Fteley  and  Stearns^  indicate  that  the  effect  of 
rounding  the  upstream  crest  corner  is  to  virtually  lower  the  weir,  by 
allowing  the  water  to  pass  over  with  less  vertical  contraction.  To 
determine  the  discharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir,  with  upstream  crest 
corner  rounded  to  a  radius  R^  add  to  the  measured  head  the  quantity 

^=o.70jB {m 

The  above  formula  was  deduced  by  Fteley  and  Stearns  from  experi- 
ments on  weirs  with  crest  radii  of  one-fourth,  ,one-half ,  and  1  inch. 
For  heads  not  exceeding  0.17,  0.26,  and  0.45  foot,  respectively,  the 
nappe  adhered  to  the  crest,  and  the  formula  does  not  apply. 

The  correction  formula  (68)  is  equivalent  to  increasing  the  dis- 
charge coefficient  in  the  ratio 


or  nearly  in  the  ratio 


/^+0.7ig\^ 


H    ' 


A  second  series  of  experiments  was  made  with  rounded  upstream 
edges  of  similar  radii  applied  to  a  crest  4  inches  wide,  giving  the  cor- 
rection formula  for  this  case, 

X=0A1R (69) 

a  Experiments  on  the  flow  of  water,  etc.:  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  12,  pp.  97-101. 


EFFECT    OF    ROrNDING    UPSTREAM    CREST    EDGE. 


123 


where  ^  is  a  correction  to  be  added  to  the  measured  head  before 
applying  the  formula  for  discharge  over  the  broad-crested  weir.  This 
formula  is  applicable  for  depths  of  not  less  than  0.17  and  0.26  foot, 
respectively,  on  weirs  with  radii  of  one-fourth  and  one-half  inch. 
Fteley  and  Stearns's  formulas  show  the  effect  to  decrease  with  the 
breadth  of  crest.  It  also  decreases,  whe|i  expressed  as  a  percentage, 
with  the  head.  These  formulas  are  probably  applicable  to  weirs  with 
smaller,  though  not  to  those  with  greatly  larger,  radii  than  those  of  the 
experimental  weirs. 

Bazin  experimented  upon  two  weii-s,  duplicated  in  the  Ignited  States 
Deep  Waterways  experiments,  having  crest  widths  of  2.624  and  6.56 
feet,  respectively,  with  an  upstream  crest  radius  of  0.328  foot  (PL 
IV). 

Broad-crested  i/Wr«  unth  n»inded  upstream  mrn4r. 


Head,  In 
feet. 


0.25 

.50 

1.00 

1.50 


1.50 
2.00 
3.00 
4.00 
5.00 
6.00 


CoeffioicDt  Ci,  Bazin'H  experiments. 


Crest  width,  2.ti2  feet. 


With  angle     With  round- 
creet.  ed  creRt. 


2.52 
2.59 
2.64 
2.69 


2.85 
2.95 
3.00 
3.04  I 


Crest  width,  6.66  feet. 


With  angle    With  roimd- 
crest.  ed  crest. 


2.40 
2.515 
2.575 
2,635 


2.58 
2.76 
2.89 
2.92 


Coefficient  (\,  United  States  Deep  Waterways  experi- 
ments. 


2.67 

2.92 

2.39 

2.75 

3.00 

2.41 

2.93 

3,17 

2.44 

3.11 

3.34 

2.47 

3.30 

3.51 

2.50 

Nappe  free. 

•     3.00 

2.  53 

2.81 
2.81 
2.81 
2.81 
2.81 
2.81 


United  States  Deep  Waterways  series  14  and  15,  PI.  XV,  show  the 
effect  of  rounding  the  upstream  crest  corner,  radius  0.33  foot,  on  a 
model  of  the  Kexford  flats,  New  York,  dam.  In  this  case,  with  a 
weir  22  feet  broad  with  6:1  slope  on  each  face,  the  effect  of  rounding 
becomes  comparatively  slight,  the  average  increase  being  about  2 
per  cent. 

United  States  Geological  Survey  experiments,  series  Nos.  XXXV 
and  XXXVI,  PI.  XXVI,  show  the  effect  of  the  addition  of  a  4-inch 
radius  (0.33  foot),  quarter-round  extension  to  the  upstream  face  of  the 
model  of  an  ogee-section  dam,  having  4.5  feet  crest  width,  4.5 :1  slope. 


124 


WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

Effect  of  rounded  upstream  crest  comer  on  an  ogee  dam. 


Head,  in 
feet. 


0.50 
1.00 
2.00 
3.00 


Chambly 

model, 

scries  35. 


Same,  with 
rounded  up- 
stream crest 
comer. 


Difference 

per  cent  of 

Francis's 

coefficient. 


3.18 
3.30 
3.42 
3.49 


3.23 
3.34 
3.51 
3.64 


-fl.5 
-tl.2 

-h2.7 
+4.5 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  WEIRS  WITH  DOWNSTREAM  SLOPE,  OR  APRON, 
OF  VARYING  INCLINATION. 

Aside  from  the  experiments  of  Blackwell  on  weirs  with  very  slight 
inclination  and  a  few  series  by  other  experimenters  on  weirs  of  irreg- 
ular section  involving  aprons,  the  data  on  this  subject  are  limited  to 
those  of  Bazin^s  experiments. 

Bazin  selected  a  number  of  weir  types,  each  having  a  constant  top 
width,  height,  and  upstream  inclination  and  applied  to  each  a  number 
of  different  downstream  slopes.^ 

TRIANGLXAR    WEIRS    WITH    VERTICAL    UPSTREAM     FACE     AND    SLOPIN(J 

APRONS. 

Such  weirs  are  occasionally  used,  as  where  the  apron  slopes  to  the 
stream  bed  in  log  slides.  A  similar  form  in  which  the  downstream 
slope  terminates  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  from  the  vertical  upstream 
face  is  not  uncommon,  and  to  this  form  the  Bazin  experiments  may 
probably  be  applied,  provided  the  breadth  of  the  sloping  apron  is  con- 
siderable. The  experiments  are  of  special  interest,  however,  as  show- 
ing the  effect  of  attaching  a  sloping  apron  to  the  downstream  face  of 
a  thin-edged  weir,  and  by  inference  affording  an  indication  of  the  effect 
of  a  similar  apron  attached  to  any  form  of  cross  section.  The  results 
of  Bazin's  experiments  recomputed  on  the  basis  of  the  Francis  for- 
mula are  shown  on  PI.  V. 

Four  series  of  experhnents  on  weirs  2.46  feet  high  are  included. 
For  all  these  series  the  coefficient  C  tends  to  remain  nearly  constant 
for  the  range  of  heads  covered,  0.2  foot  to  1.5  feet,  there  being  a  slight 
increase  in  C  with  the  lower  heads  only. 

Two  series  on  weirs  1.64  feet  high  are  also  given.  In  series  145, 
slope  of  apron  3:1,  there  is  a  general  increase  in  coefficient  with  head 
below  0.9  foot.  Series  138,  for  a  weir  1.64  feet  high,  is  duplicated  on 
a  weir  2.46  feet  high,  and  the  latter  series  is  given  preference  in  the 
general  curve.  The  lower  weirs  indicate  in  both  cases  slightly  higher 
coefficients,  possibly  owing  to  the  incomplete  elimination  of  the  effect 
of  ex(^essive  velocity  of  approach. 

u  Ba/in  did  not  attem)>t  to  rollate  the  resultfl  extenMively.  His  general  rt'sum^'  has  been  tiunslAted 
by  the  writer,  and  may  lie  found  In  Kept.  U.  S.  Board  of  Kngineent  on  I>eep  Waterways,  pt,  2.  1900. 
pp.  64(M;58. 


WEIRS    WITH    VARYING    DOWNSTREAM    SLOPE. 


125 


The  average  constant  coefficients  for  the  several  series  are  shown  in 
the  following  table: 

Mean  coefficienLf,  triangular  weirs  wiifi  van/ing  apnm  slope. 


Series. 


I      Range  of  head. 


Height.        Slope. 


Froni- 


Kange  of  C. 


Average  (\ 


Fnnn- 


TtH 


136 

2.46 

1 

0.3 

1.40 

3.84 

3.88 

3.85 

137 

2.46 

2 

.3 

1.6 

3.  48 

3.52 

3.50 

13S 

1.64 

2 

•7 

1.5 

3.56 

3.58 

3.57 

146 

1.64 

3 

.9 

1.5 

3.39 

3.41 

3.40 

141 

2.46 

5 

.6 

1.5 

3:08 

3.14 

3.13 

142 

2.46 

10 

.75 

1.5 

2.90 

2.93 

2.91 

3.9 

i 

I 

— t 

I 

6.We,'rst\64ft',high. 

3.8 

\ 

\ 

i. 

rv-. 

3.7 

^ 

3.6 

\ 

V"\ 

J 

^ 

\ 

'^^ 

t  fk 

\ 

frtr-m  nf^vn^fSm^nts*/  va^trx 

I 

\ 

• 

"^  3  I 

\, 

1 

\ 

\ 

^3.3 

\ 

s 

3.2 

\ 

\ 

s 

JL  1 

N 

^ 

^ 

sf. 

•^ 

3.0 

^ 

"Nfc, 

'^ 

^ 

2.9 

** 

■^ 

^ 

>^  ^ 

^ 

2.8 

t 

"~i 

• 

i 

8 

4 

b 

8 

8 

^ 

1 

0 

1 

1 

12 

Slope  or  batter  of  downstream  face  of  weini. 
Fig.  9.— Coefficient  curve  for  triangular  weirs. 

The  mean  coefficients  have  also  been  plotted  on  fig.  9  and  a  general 
curve  drawn.  This  curve  becomes  approximately  a  straight  line  when 
plotted  on  logarithmic  cross-section  paper.  Its  equation  expressed  in 
logarithmic  form  is 

C^^gl      • (TO) 

where  S  is  the  batter  or  slope  of  apron. 


126       WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

If  /S=6,  then,  solving  by  logarithms, 

log  6=0.7781513 
log  6°"=0.0933782 

log  glw  =9.90H6218 

log  3.85=0.5854607 
log  C=0.4920825 
(7=3.105 

Fig.  9  gives  C=3.07;  the  difference  is  1  per  cent. 
The  following  conclusions  deduced  from  the  recomputed  data  con- 
form in  general  with  those  of  Bazin: 

1.  For  steep  apron  slopes  where  the  nappe  tends  to  break  free,  the 
apron  materially  increases  the  discharge  by  i)eniutting  a  partial 
vacuum  to  be  formed  underneath  the  nappe. 

2.  For  flat  apron  slopes  the  conditions  approach  thosti  for  a  hori- 
zontal crest. 

3.  For  an  apron  slope  of  aljout  3:1,  the  discharge  is  nearly  the  same 
as  for  a  thin-edged  weir. 

4.  For  slopes  greater  than  3  :i  the  apron  diminishes  the  discharge 
the  amount  of  diminution  increasing  as  the  slope  becomes  flatter. 

TRIANGULAR   WEIRS  WITH    UPSTREAM   BATTER    1:1   AND   VARYING    SLOPE 

OF  APRON. 

Three  series  of  experiments  by  Bazin  are  included  (PI.  IX),  all  made 
from  weirs  1.64:  feet  high.  The  resulte  are  comparable  among  them- 
selves, but  owing  to  the  high  velocity  of  approach  their  general  appli- 
cability is  less  certain. 

Series  No.  161,  downstream  slope  1:1,  shows  a  generally  decreasing 
coefficient  with  an  apparent  tendency  to  become  constant  through  a 
narrow  range  of  heads,  from  0.5  to  0.9  foot,  with  6^=  about  4.11. 

Series  No.  163  and  165,  with  apron  slopes  of  2:1  and  5:1,  give  coeffi- 
cient lines,  which  may  be  fairly  represented  by  the  constants  3. 82  and 
3.47,  respectively.  These  coefficients  compare  with  those  for  vertical 
weirs  with  the  same  apron  slopes  as  follows: 

Comparative  roeffirijent*. 


Batter  of 
apron. 


1:1 
2:1 
5:1 


Vertical  ,  Face  iii- 


face. 
C 


.clined  1:1. 

I         C 


3.85 
3.53 
:113 


4.11 
3.82 
3.47 


Difference, 
per  cent, 
Francis's 

c(H»flRcient. 


+  7.8 
+  8.7 
+10.2 


WEIRS    WITH    VARYING    DOWNSTREAM    SLOPE. 


127 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  WEIRS  OF  TRAPEZOIDAL  SECTION  WITH  UPSTREAM 
SLOPE  OF  i:l,  HORIZONTAL  CREST,  AND  VARYING  DOWNSTREAM 
SLOPES. 

Five  series  of  Bazin's  experiments  on  weii*s  2.46  feet  high,  with 
crest  width  of  0.66  foot,  are  shown  on  Pis.  VI  and  VII.  The  curves 
indicate  coefficients  increasing  with  the  head,  the  mte  of  increase  being 
more  rapid  for  the  steeper  apron  slopes.  There  is  a  tendency  to 
depression  at  about  0.4  foot  head,  representing,  possibly,  the  point  at 
which  the  nappe  changes  from  adhering  to  depressed  condition  on  the 
downstream  face.  The  curves  are  all  convex,  and  apparently  approach 
a  constant,  which  was  not,  however,  reached  within  the  limit  of  experi- 
ments, except,  perhaps,  for  the  flattest  slope  of  5:1.  The  coefficients 
increase  in  value  as  the  steepness  of  the  apron  slope  increases. 

Three  series  of  experiments  on  weirs  similar  to  those  above  described, 
but  with  flat  crests  1.317  feet  wide,  are  shown  on  PI.  VIII.  The 
coefficient  curves  are  of  uncertain  form  for  heads  below  0.6  foot. 
For  greater  heads  they  may  be  represented  by  inclined  straight 
lines.  The  coefficients  increase  uniformly  with  the  head,  the  initial 
values  for  0.6  foot  head  being  nearly  the  same  for  the  several  slopes, 
the  increase  being  more  rapid  for  the  steeper  downstream  slopes. 

It  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table  that  increased  width  of  the 
flat  crest,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  preceding  weir,  causes  a 
decrease  in  the  discharge. 

Comparative  coefficients  at  1-fooi  head,  weirs  with  flat  crests  and  J;7  upstream  slope. 


Slope  of 
aproD. 

Great  wid 

0.66 

1:1 

3.62 

2:1 

3.38 

3:1 

3.265 

4:1 

3.205 

5:1 

3. 195 

6:1 

1.317 


2.985 

2.94 

2.93 


COMBINATION  OF   COEFFICIENTS  FOR  WEIRS   WITH   COMPOUND 

SJ.OPES. 

Series  163  for  an  apron  slope  2:1  represents  a  weir  form  which  would 
be  produced  by  placing^  vertical  face  to  vertical  face,  a  weir  with  back 
slope  1:1  and  a  weir  with  apron  slope  2:1.  For  the  former,  Bazin's 
experiments  indicate  10  per  cent  excess  discharge  over  that  for  a  thin- 
edged  weir,  and  for  the  latter  (from  PI.  V)  6—3.50,  equivalent  to  5. 


128        WEIR    KXPERIMENT8,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

per  cent  excess  over  a  thin-edged  weir.  If  the  discharge  over  the  1:1 
upstream  slope  was  similarly  increased  by  the  addition  of  an  apron, 
C  would  be  e3.66X  1.06  =  3.84.     PI.  IX  indicates  6^=3.82. 

The  above  method  of  determining  the  coefficient  for  weir  of  irregu- 
lar cross  section  by  combining  the  coefficients  for  two  principal  ele- 
ments of  which  it  is  composed,  as  separate  weirs,  is  restricted  in  its 
application  and  may  lead  to  inconsistencies. 

WEIRS  WITH  VARYING  SLOPE  OF  UPSTREAM  FACE. 

Experiments  were  made  by  Bazin  on  thin-edged  weirs  inclined  at 
various  angles.  Bazin  found  the  ratio  of  the  coefficient  of  discharge 
to  that  for  a  vertical  thin-edged  weir  to  be  sensibly  constant  for  all 
heads  within  the  limits  of  his  experiments,  0.0  to  1.5  feet.  BazinV 
results  were  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  modulus  by  which  to  multiply 
the  coefficient  for  a  vertical  weir  to  obtain  that  for  an  inclined  weir. 
Assuming  the  Francis  coefficient  3.33  to  apply  to  a  vertical  weir,  the 
coefficients  for  weirs  of  various  inclinations  would  be  as  follows: 

Coefficierdu  for  inclined  weirs,  Bazin^s  experiments. 


(I  horizontal  to  1  vertical... 
Upstream  inclination  of  the  weir < 2  horizontal  to  3  vertical. . . 

[l  horizontal  to  3  vertical.  .. 
Vertical  weir ^ 

1  horizontal  to  3  vertical. . . 

2  horizontal  to  3  vertical. . . 

1  horizontal  to  1  vertical . . . 

2  horizontal  to  1  vertical. . . 
4  horizontal  to  1  vertical . . . 


Downstream  inclination  of  the  weir. . 


Sarin's 
modulus. 

r 

0.93 

3.097 

.94 

3.130 

.96 

3.197 

^       1.00 

3.3*1 

1.04 

3.463 

1.07 

3. 56:^ 

1.10 

3.663 

1.12 

3.996 

1.09 

3.6:w 

On  PI.  XVI  are  shown  the  results  of  United  States  Deep  Waterways 
experiments  on  weirs  4.9  feet  high,  having  horizontal  crests  0.()7  foot 
broad,  and  with  various  inclinations  of  the  upstream  slope.  The 
experiments  cover  heads  from  1.75  to  5.2  feet,  but  only  3  or  4  points 
are  giv^en  on  each  coeiBcient  curve.  The  results  indicate  in  a  genenil 
way,  however,  nearly  constant  coefficients  for  each  inclination  of  the 
upstream  face.  The  values  of  the  coefficients  are  considerably  smaller 
than  those  obtamed  by  Bazin,  whose  experiments  were  on  weirs  2.46 
feet  high  with  sharp  crests. 

Pis.  X,  XI,  and  XII  show  the  results  of  experiments  of  Bazin  on 
weirs  of  irregular  section,  with  various  upstream  slopes.  PI.  X 
includes  5  series  of  experiments  on  weirs  1.64  feet  high,  with  sharp 


WEIRS    WITH    VARYING    UPSTREAM    SLOPES. 


129 


crest  angles,  and  2  :  1  downstream  slopes.  The  coefficient  curves 
show  a  depression  period  at  from  0.3  to  0.7  foot  ht^ad,  beyond  which 
the  coeiBcients  ma}'  be  fairl}'  represented  b}'  constants  up  to  1.5  foot 
head  (the  limit  of  the  experiment).  A  general  curve  showing  the 
constant  coefficient  in  terms  of  a  downstream  slope  or  batter  has  been 
added.  This  indic^ates  a  maximum  coefficient  of  discharge  for  an 
upstream  slope  of  about  2.()  :  1.  llazin  found,  for  thin-edged  weirs, 
with  inclined  downstream  slopes,  a  maximum  coefficient  for  an  incli- 
nation of  30",  or  If :  1. 

Pis.  XI  and  XII  show  coefficient  curves  for  weirs  having  the  same 
upstream  slopes  as  in  PI.  X,  but  2.46  feet  high,  and  with  flat  crests 
0.67  foot  wide.  The  coefficient  curves  are  convex  outward,  indicating 
that  they  may  approach  constant  values  at  some  point  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  experiments.  The  marked  difference  in  character  of 
these  coefficient  curves,  as  compared  with  those  in  the  preceding 
group,  is  notable.  For  weirs  with  flat  crests  0.67  foot  wide  the 
coefficients  for  a  given  head  uniformly  increase  as  the  slope  becomes 
flatter  up  to  a  batter  of  about  If  :  1.  They  are  also  greater  for  all 
heads  w^ithin  the  limit  of  the  experiments  than  the  coefficients  for 
weira  with  sharp  crest  angles.  The  comparative  values  are  indicated 
in  the  following  table: 

Comparative  coefficients,  weirs  with  varying  upstream  slope. 


Up- 
fdream 
slope. 


Vert. 


Pl.X, 

sharp  erent, 

I  2 : 1  down- 

RtreRm 
I  Klope;  aver- 
age con- 
stant coef- 
fldent. 


Pis.  XI  and  XII,  0.67  feet 
crest  width,  2 : 1  down- 
stream slope. 


Head,  in  feet. 


f  I 

3.58 

3.68 

3.72  " 

3.83 

3.87 


0.5 

(• 

2.78 

2.87 

2.92 

3.03 

3.13 


1.0       I 

c 

3.26  I 

3.  :u  ' 

3.38 
3.42  I 
3.43 


1.5 
(' 

3.  51 
3.  56 
3.62 
3.6o 
3.61 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  addition  of  the  flat  crest  has  an  effect  in  this 
case  similar  to  that  observed  in  Pis.  VI  and  VIII,  showing  the  results 
of  experiments  by  Bazin  on  weirs  with  various  downstream  slopes. 

United  States  Deep  Waterways  series  No.  7,  PI.  XVII,  may  be 
compared  with  Bazin's  series  No.  178,  shown  on  PI.  XI.  The  former 
gives  a  coefficient  of  3.55  for  a  head  of  2  feet  on  a  weir  4. 81^5  feet 
high,  the  coeflicient  slowly  increasing  with  the  head.  Tlie  latter  gives 
a  coefficient  of  3.0  for  a  head  of  1.5  feet,  decreasing  rapidly  as  the 
head  decreases. 

Jt»  150— oe 13 


EIR    EX 

excess  « 
slope 
be  SJ 

ove  iiK 

"jectioi 

whicJj 

n  and 


SIRS 

uent- 
igle.s 
)r  a  ^ 
lin   1 
re  e 
ient 
the 
s  f  o 


clii 


d 
oi 


**"  •  '-'x.r**  ■• 


^.-  -  ,  "^'  ":"*^'  *"'''  i-  t-on- 


^QN.  ?T 


"-ArrSHUHC^ttiuiBLY  TYPE. 
•   -:•    ^  -      -,  ^    ^^^'^  sections  of  fl.„ 

:.----.  -    ■^-^^'^<1««>«  used  as  weirs  a^ 

-    -'-.  •  --  ^.-^~"  '  ~  '  "^a^tream  crest  radius  su|fioio„ri^ 

-     -     -^    W.  a-.,  exclude  (he  Dolgevilk  ^-r^^^' 

•  .  -«.^  free  near  the  .mt  forother  t£  ^^■ 
u.  ■  •---'f>'r/i«nd.  the  Austin  dam,  ,rith,otv!J^^^^-* 
»       "fV-^r..  from  the  meaner  data  inikhh  t..  '-      """  "  * 


«--  » 


"'  ••'™»^  Z^"  ««il8We  data  io  onier. 
M\i  utd  increased  incJinafion  of  sJore"-, 
•  for  various  depths  are  as  fi^k>wC; 


U.  a.  QEOUMICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY   PAPER   NO.   180      PL.  XXXIV 


Bq5eo/jnqde/\  ^ —      . * 

PLA  T  T 5  BURG,  N.  K  I 


rs) 


(E) 


Smooth  stone 


COMPARATIVE  SIZE  OF  MODELS  AND  SECTIONS  OF  OGEE  DAMS- 


130        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

United  States  Geological  Survey  series  No.  XXXIX,  PL  XXVIII, 
and  United  States  Deep  Waterways  series  No.  18,  PL  XVIII,  repre- 
sent weirs  with  vertical  downstream  faces  and  inclined  crests.  The 
upstream  slope  does  not,  however,  extend  back  to  the  bottom  of  the 
channel  of  approach,  but  is  cut  off  abruptly  by  a  vertical  upstream 
face.  The  average  coefficients  deduced  from  these  series  have  been 
plotted  on  a  general  curve  on  PL  XVI,  the  coefficients  agreeing 
closely  with  those  of  the  United  States  Deep  Waterways  experiments 
on  weirs  of  similar  upstream  slope,  extending  to  the  channel  bottom. 
LTnited  Stjites  Geological  Survey  series  No.  XXX  represents  the  Dolge- 
ville  dam,  with  rounded  crest  removed,  leaving  a  trapezoid  with  crest 
6  feet  broad  and  1  foot  lower  at  upstream  than  at  downstream  edge. 
The  coefficient  is  not  constant,  but  apparently  approaches  a  constant 
value  of  about  3.25  for  heads  exceeding  3  feet.  United  States  Deep 
Waterways  series  No.  18  represents  a  model  of  the  spillway  of  the 
Indian  Lake  dam,  having  a  crest  7  feet  wide,  1.5  feet  lower  at 
upstream  than  at  downstream  edge,  which  gives  an  average  constant 
coefficient  of  3.42. 

It  is  suggested  that  if  the  upstream  slope  of  an  inclined  weir  is  con- 
tinued back  (>  feet  or  more  and  terminates  in  a  vertical  upstream  face, 
the  discharge  coefficient  will  not  differ  materially  from  that  for  an 
upstream  slope  extending  to  the  channel  bottom. 

DAMS   OF   OGEE   CROSS    SECTION,   PLATTSBURG-CHAMBLY  TYPE. 

The  United  States  Geological  Survey  experiments  on  dams  of  this 
type  are  shown  on  Pis.  XXllI  to  XXVII.  Cross  sections  of  the 
various  dams,  with  lines  indicating  the  comparative  size  of  the  models 
used  in  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  experiments,  are  shown 
on  PI.  XXXIV.  Cross  sections  of  other  ogee  dams  used  as  weirs  are 
shown  on  PI.  XXXV. 

This  class  includes  dams  with  downstream  crest  radius  sufficiently 
large  to  retain  the  nappe  always  in  contact,  yet  not  so  large  as  to  sim- 
ulate a  broad  flat  crest.  We  thus  exclude  the  Dolgeville  section  on 
the  one  hand,  in  which  the  nappe  as  observed  in  the  existing  dam  par- 
tially or  completely  breaks  free  near  the  crest  for  other  than  very  low 
stages,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  Austin  dam,  with  a  crest  radius  of 
20  feet,  which  appears,  from  the  meager  data  available,  to  lie  outside 
this  class. 

We  have  arranged  the  available  data  in  order,  advancing  with 
decreased  })readth  and  increased  inclination  of  sloping  upstream  face. 

The  coefficients  for  various  depths  are  as  follows: 


U.  1.  aCOUKXCAL  SURVCV 


WATER-tOPPLY   PAPER   NO.   160      PL.  XXXIV 


PLATT^BURG.N.Y.  I 


(B) 


(E) 


Smooth  atone 


COMPARATIVE  SIZE  OF  MODELS  AND  SECTIONS  OF  OQEE  DAMS. 


U.  8.  QEOCOOtCAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER   NO.    ISO      PL.   XXXV 


B£A  V£R  RIVER.  N.  Y. 


ss' ^ 

TRENTON  FALL  S,  N.  K 


H ANN  AW  A    FALLS,  N.Y. 


Crast.  Treoton/a/Js 


Honk  Falls, N.Y. 
Crest9tcVon 


CROSS  SECTIONS  OF  OGEE  DAMS. 


DAMS  OF  OOKE  CROSS  SECTION. 


131 


Comparatiit  roefficientH,  dam*  of  ogee  rrogs  section. 


***™ \   bly. 

Approx.  constant  coeffi-  I 

Hent 3.-I35 

Breadih  of  slope,  in  feet .  I       4.5 

Batter  of  i«lope I     4J:1 

( 'rust  radius,  in  feet 2.0 

Experiment [ , 

Senes , 


Platts- 
burg. 


3.48 

3 
4:1 
3.0 

r.s.G.s. 

•«30 


Modified  Platt,««burK. 


3.4« 

3 
4:1 
3.0 


3.4M 

3 

4:1 

3.0 


3.70 


•2:1 
3.0 


3.70 

3 
2:1 

3.0 


3.70 

3 
2:1 
3.0 


3 

1.04:1 

3.0 


.S.CJ.S.  Meanof  r.S.(}.S.  U.S.G.S.  Mean  of  r.S.Ci 
*31  30-31  632  a  33      I     32-33  34 


0.5foot 

1.0  foot 

8.:w 

2.0feet 

3.42 

8.0feet 

3.49 

4.0feei 

3.  53 

3.22 
3.43 
3.42  I 
3.47  , 


3. 52 


3.29 
3.  35 
3.43 
3.54 


5.0feet 3.62 

e.Ofeet ! 


3.36 
3.:^85 
3.45 
3.  53 


3.29 
3.37  I 
3.51 
3.57  ' 
3.67 
3.73  i. 


3.22 
3.44 
3.67 
3.  72 
3.74 


3.  255 
3.405 
3. 59 
3.  645 
3.  705 


3.46 
3.  75 
3.87 

3.88 


I 


ai5.969  feet  cre«t  length,  without  end  contraction, 
fr  7.979  feet  crest  length,  one  end  contraction. 

It  appears  that  the  rounded  crest  changes  the  character  of  the  law 
of  coeflScient  from  a  vahie  tending  toward  a  constant  for  each  back 
sloj)e  to  a  .slowly  increasing  function  of  the  head.  Compared  with  the 
constant  cx>eflScients  for  weirs  with  .similar  upstream  slopes  extending 
l»ack  to  canal  bottom,  and  with  vertical  faces,  we  find  that  the  con- 
stant values  deduced  for  these  cases  correspond  with  the  values  of  the 
var^'ing  coefficients  for  ogee  sections  at  a  medium  head  of  2  to  4  feet. 

By  plotting  the  data  for  weirs  of  ogee  section  on  logarithmic  cross- 
section  paper  the  following  convenient  approximate  formula  has  been 
deduced,  applicable  for  weirs  with  2  or  3  feet  crest  radius  and  up- 
stream slopes  3  to  4.5  feet  broad.     S  indicates  the  batter  ratio  of  the 
1  horizontal  run 

'    vertical  rise 


vertical  rise 

6^=  [3.62-0.16  i^-l)]  11^ 
If  .S  =  2  : 1         //=4.0         6'=3.46X 4*'*' 

log  4^^=0.080103         6'=3.46X  1.0716  = 
The  experiments  give  f'=3.74. 


(71) 


3.70. 


EXPERIMENTS    ON    DISCHARGE    OVER   ACTUAL  DAMS. 

On  PI.  XXXVII  are  shown  the  results  of  a  number  of  experiments 
made  by  measuring  the  discharge  over  existing  dams  by  means  of  floats 
or  current  meters.  Aside  from  those  for  the  Austin,  Tex.,  dam,  the 
data  have  been  collected  by  Mr.  (xeorge  T.  Nelles." 


•«  DL<%rii.sKion  of  paper  by  H.  W.  Rafter  on  the  flow  of  water  over  danLs:  Trans.  Am.  S^k*.  <'.  E.,  vol.  44, 
pp.  iTy-8fi2. 


132         WEIIt   EXPERIMENTS,   COEKFICIENTfi,    AND   tX)ftMULArf. 
BLACKSTONE    RIVER   AT   ALBION,  MA88. 

This  is  a  timber  dam  217  feet  long,  with  horizontal  crest  1  foot  wide, 
vertical  downstream  face,  and  upstream  slope  covered  with  riprap. 
Discharge  was  measured  by  current  meter  500  feet  below  dam,  and  the 
depth  was  measured  by  hook  gage  20  feet  upstream  from  crest,  Co- 
efficients have  not  been  corrected  to  eliminate  velocity  of  approach. 
They  Illustrate  the  uncertainty  of  discharge  for  broad-crested  weirs  of 
small  width  under  low  heads. 

MUSKINGUM   RIVER,  OHIO. 

Discharge  was  measured  by  rod  floats  in  a  cross  section  500  feet 
above  the  dams,  which  are  constructed  of  timber  cribs  filled  with  stone. 
Data  by  Maj.  W.  H.  Bixby,  U.  S.  Army. 

IXscharge  data  for  Mtiskiiig^im  River  danis. 


Num- 
ber of 
dam. 


Length 
on  crest, 
in  feet. 


I  Area  of    i      Dis- 

Mean     '  diflcharge    charge, 

height,  in'section,  in  in  cubic 

feet.      I    fwuare    '  feet  per 

I      feet.         second. 


848  I  12.6 

535  '  15.9 

472  14. 2 

515  16. 0 


7,  765 
8,360 
8,230 
7,330 


18,118 
25, 559 
21,015 
22,310 


Mean 

velocity,  .,^„  ,_ 

infeetDer  *7™;*'^ 
second.         '^^■ 


Kail  nvt^T  Obfierred 
Fall  over,  ^,^,p^^^jj 

crest,  in 
feet. 


2.333 
3.045 
2.553 
3.044 


8.00  I 
6.70  ' 
7,00 
5.16 


Coeffi- 
cient i\ 


2.86  4.419 

4. 66  4.  72:^ 

4.40  4.812 

5. 90  3. 015 


I 


The  depth  on  crest  has  not  been  corrected  to  eliminate  velocity  of 
approach. 


OTTAWA    RIVER   DAM,  CANADA. 


Data  by  T.  C.  Clark,  C.  E.  Dam  30  feet  high,  with  upstream  and 
downstream  faces  planked  and  sloping  3: 1,  forming  sharp  crest  angle 
at  junction. 

Discfiargf  data  for  Ottawa  River  dam. 


Length  of  I    Depth  on    '..r^.^^^T't 
jdam,Fn  feet,  crest.in  feet,  ^'^^^'^^^^^ 


DiHcliarge 
coefficient  C. 


1,600 
1,760 


2.5 
10.0  I 


26,000 
190,000 


4.106     I 
3.40c<     I 

I 


These  data  are  notable  as  giving  the  only  authentic  value  of  dis- 
charge over  a  dam  under  so  great  a  head  as  10  feet.  The  high  coeffi- 
cient found  for  a  head  of  2.5  feet  renders  the  results  somewhat  doubtful. 


U.  ft.   fiCdCOOICAL   SUftviY 


WATER-ftUf^^LV   PAPCR   NO.    1M      PL.  XXXVII 


toem- 
clent 


- 

- 

e-i® 

.'' 

3) 

*-^ 

2>- 

•"' 

'T 

._.J 

L 

rtent 


.4  .6  .S  1.0         \.t         1.4 

Corrected  head  H  In  feet. 


TAYLOR-HOWARD   EXPERIMENTS  ON    DAM   AT   AUSTIN,  TEX 


Uu^      S^cvonof       j/ 


V 


4.M 

~~" 

—"" 

~~ 

— 

jf 

xto 

/  \ 

1 
f 

i 

SteM 

i 

r 

C\> 

S,40 

.S  .«  .6  .8  1.0 

Corrected  hemd  //  In  feet. 


EXPERIMENTS  OF   OWKIHT   PORTER,  BLACKSTONE   RIVER,  ALBION,  MASS. 


Timber  cr>bi  .  Hone  ftll^a 


Co«ffi- 

ci«nt 

C. 


"^ 

"^ 

v.. 

- 

•%\ 

n 

— 

- 

^ 

~ 

— 

-. 

.- 

- 

■" ' 

'«* 

C3| 

-•" 

—' 

>» 

^ 

^ 

^, 

^  , 

-^ 

_^ 

• 

1^ 

^IV- 

4.0 


5.0 


Corrected  head  //  in  feet. 

MUSKINGUM    RIVER   DAM.      DATA   BY    MAJ.   W.  H.   BIXBY,  U.   8.  A. 

EXPERIMENTS  TO  DETERMINE  COEFFICIENT  C  FROM  ACTUAL  DAMS. 


ROUGHNESS    OF    CREST. 


133 


AUSTIN,  TEX.,  DAM.« 

A  series  of  cun-ent-meter  measurements  of  the  discharge  over  this 
dam  were  made  in  January  and  March,  UMK).  Seveml  observations  at 
each  depth  have  been  combined.  The  resulting  mean  coefficients  are 
given  in  the  following  table: 

I Hscharge  coefficient*  for  the  Aiuiihi,  Te.r.,  (lam. 


l>Htl-. 

1 

Num- 
ber. 

II 

1 

//=depth 
atcrcHt 
of  dam. 

Range  of  vari- 
ation of  ('. 

From—    Tti— 

Number 

of  de- 
termina- 
tions. 

Average 
value 

1 

1900. 

1 

'     Jan.  15 

1 

1.09 

0.838 

3.  09     3. 14 

4 

3. 132 

Jan.  18  1 

2 

.72 

.625 

3.00     3.11 

11 

3. 053 

Jan.  26 

3 

.42 

.33 

3. 06     3. 13 

4 

3.112 

Mar.  28 

4 

1.44 

1.04 

3.  32     3.  36 

•^ 

3.333 

Mar.  28 

5 

1.32 

.96 

3. 26     3.  33 

5 

3.302 

Average  j 





3.186 

ROUGHNESS  OF  CREST. 

The  models  used  in  weir  experiments  have  usually  been  constructed 
of  planed  and  matched  timber.  In  actual  dams  a  wide  variety  of  con- 
ditions exist,  includnig,  in  the  order  of  roughness,  sheet-steel  crests, 
l)oards  smoothed  by  wear  and  rendered  slippery  by  water  soaking  and 
fungus  growths,  unplaned  boards,  dressed  masonry,  formed  concrete, 
rubble  and  undressed  ashlar,  with  earth,  cobble,  or  broken-stone 
approaches.  For  the  determination  of  the  extent,  if  any,  to  which 
the  coefficient  applying  for  a  smooth -crested  dam  must  be  modified  to 
apply  to  any  of  these  conditions,  the  following  data  are  available. 

UNITED   STATES   DEEP  WATERWAYS,  SERIES   7   AND   8  (PL.  XVIl). 

Model  dams,  4.9  feet  high,  2: 1  slope  on  both  faces.  The  mean  coeffi- 
cients are  about  1  per  cent  greater  for  crest  of  planed  boards  than 
for  crest  covered  with  one-fourth-inch  mesh  wire  cloth. 


fl Taylor,  T.  U.,  the  Austin  dam:  Water-Sup.  and  In.  Paper  No.  40,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1900,  p. ; 


134        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


CROTON   DAM,  ROUND-CREST  SECTION,  MODEL   A    (PL.  XIX). 

Crest  rounded,  radius  10  feet.     Upstream  slope  about  H:  1. 

Comparative  coefficients  iviih  varying  roughness^  C^oton  round  crest. 


I    Series. 


la 


Head,  in     jSmooth-pine 
feet.  crest. 


0.25 
.50 
1.00 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
3.00 


3.  34 
3.24 
3.21 
3.  21 
3.21 
3.21 
3.21 


Unplaned- 
plank  crest 
and  slope.n 


2.84 
2.91 
3.04 
3.12 
3.15 
3. 15 


Broken-         Broken- 
stone  slope,  .  stone  slope, 
unplaned   ;  wire  cloth 
crest.  on  crest. 


3.18 
3.18 
3.19 
3.20 
3.21 
3.22 
3.22 


3.16 
3.09 
3.15 
3.15 
3.15 
3.15 
3.15 


a  This  series  appears  doubtful. —R.  K.  H. 
CROTON   DAM,  ANGULAR   SECTION,  MODEL   B  (PL.  XX). 

Apron  slope  1.25:1,  upstream  slope  6.24:1  for  13  feet,  then  rough, 
and  slope  about  4: 1  to  bottom. 

Comparative  coefficitmtJty  varying  roughness,  Croton  angxdar  creti. 


^.  Series.' 
Head.    ^ 

Unplaned 
plank. 

Unplaned 

plank, 
rough -stone 
approach. 

Rough-stone 
approach, 
wire  cloth 
on  crest. 

0.25 

3.61 
3.63 

3.56 

.50 

3.66 

3.57 

1.00 

3.67 

3.66 

3.58 

1.50 

3.68 

3.66 

3.60    , 

2.00 

3.70 

3.66 

3.61     ' 

2.50 

3.  70 

3.66 

3.62 

The  data  given  above  are  somewhat  discordant,  but  indurate  that  in 
general  the  decrease  in  discharge  resulting  from  the  roughness  of  the 
various  materials  forming  the  crests  and  approaches  of  dams  will  not 
exceed  from  1  to  2  per  cent  for  low  heads,  and  usually  decreases  as 
the  depth  of  overflow  increases. 


WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS.        135 


FALLS. 


Bellasis^  presents  the  following  analysis  for  a  fall  in  which  there  is 
neither  a  raised  weir  nor  a  lateral  reduction  in  section.  If  v  is  the 
mean  velocity  at  OD^  near  to  ^4^,  then  v  is  lK)th  the  velocity  of 
approach  and  the  velocity  in  the  weir  formula 


^=ie^J2g(^I)+a^^y 


Fio.  10.— Fall. 

where  c  is  a  coefficient  of  velocitv. 


4  4 


(l-gac»)^=5^2^Z> 


^cV^ 


^=— 


Vi- 


a& 


Making  a=l.(K)  and  c=0.79. 


SAM  .in    ^_.  i-j. 


(72) 


The  depth  7)  is  to  be  measured  so  near  AB  that  the  water  shall  have 
acquired  its  velocit.y  of  efflux.  The  depth  will,  of  course,  be  affected 
by  the  surface  curve,  the  upstream  extension  of  which  will  l)e  longer 
according  as  the  slope  of  the  leading  channel  is  flatter,  being  very 
great  for  a  horizontal  channel.  The  formula  needs  experimental  veri- 
tication,  but  affords  a  convenient  basis  of  approximation  of  the  flow 
through  troughs  and  sluices  and  over  aprons  and  falls. 

Experimental  data  for  c  are  needed. 

a  Hydraulics,  p.  99. 


136        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 
WEIR   CURVED    IN    PLAN. 

Milldams  of  both  wood  and  masonry  are  often  constructed  to  bow 
upstream,  sometimes  to  secure  the  added  strength  of  arched  form,  or  to 
secure  additional  spillway  length,  or  to  follow  the  crest  oi  a  favorable 
rock  ledge,  or  to  throw  the  ice-bearing  current  awaj-  from  intake 
gates.  The  dam  may  follow  the  arc  of  a  circle,  or,  as  is  common  with 
timber  dams,  there  may  be  an  abrupt  angle  in  the  plan  of  the  dam. 
Fig.  11  shows  a  graphical  comparison  of  curved  and  angle  dams  with  a 
straight  dam  across  the  same  channel,  the  former  being  each  13.5  per 
cent  longer  than  the  straight  crested  dam. 

If  such  an  arched  spillway  opens  out  of  a  broad,  deep  pond,  the  dis- 
charge over  it  would  be  greater  than  for  a  straight  overfall  very  nearly 
in  proportion  to  the  excess  in  length  of  the  arc  as  compared  with  the 
length  of  its  chord. 

When  the  stream  is  confined  in  a  restricted  channel,  the  increased 
velocit}^  of  approach  above  the  longer  spillway  will  become  a  factor. 
Thus  if  two  dams — one  straight,  the  other  arched — were  placed  in  the 
same  straight,  uniform  channel,  and  the  depth  on  crest  measured  at 
the  same  distance  upstream  from  each,  then,  with  the  same  measured 
head  on  both,  the  velocity  of  approach  to  the  arched  dam  would  be 


Fig.  11.— -Weir  curved  or  autfular  in  plau. 

greater  nearly  in  the  same  proportion  that  its  length  of  crest  and  dis- 
charge are  greater  than  for  the  straight  crest.  Properly  corrected  for 
velocity  of  approach,  the  arched  dam  will  give  a  correct  measurement 
of  the  discharge,  the  length  of  the  arc  being  used  as  the  crest  length. 
When  the  length  of  the  arc  greatly  exceeds  the  channel  width,  the 
velocity  of  approach  may  become  excessive,  introducing  uncertainty 
as  to  the  proper  correction  coeflScient,  difficulty  in  measuring  the  head, 
and  an  uplifting  of  the  central  swifter-flowing  portion  of  the  stream 
surface. 

The  circular  overflow  lip  of  a  vertical  artesian-well  casing*  is  sonie- 
times  used  to  approximate  the  flow,  the  measured  depth  of  water 
above  the  lip  of  the  pipe,  together  with  its  circumference,  being  used 
in  the  weir  fornuila.^ 


'« Experiments  showing  the  diwjharjfc  Qver  a  circular  weir  to  be  proportional  to  the  length  of  the 
arc  were  made  by  Simpw^n  at  Chew  Magna,  Somersetshire,  England,  1850,  not  recorded  in  detcJL 


WEIB  EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,  AND    FORMULAS.        137 

SUBMBRGKD   WKI U8. 
THEORETICAL   FORMULA. 

In  a  ^'subme reared,'' "' drowned,"  ''incomplete,"  or  *' partial"  weir  the 
water  on  the  downstream  side  stands  above  the  crest  level. 

The  submerged  weir  is  not  extensively  used  as  a  device  for  stream 
gaging.  A  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  head,  rise,  and  discharge 
of  such  weirs  is,  however,  of  great  importance  in  works  of  river 
improvement,  canals,  etc.,  and  the  leading  formulas  are  here  presented. 
It  ma3^  be  added  that  for  situations  whei*e  head  can  not  be  sacTiliced, 
precluding  the  use  of  an  ordinary'  weir,  and  where  the  velocity  is  not 
a  continuous  function  of  the  depth,  as  in  race  wavs,  making  a  channel- 
rating  curve  inapplicable,  the  use  of  submerged  weirs  to  measure  or 
control  the  discharge  merits  consideration.  Their  use  for  such  pur- 
poses as  the  equable  division  and  distribution  of  water  in  power  canals 
has  hitherto  been  very  rCvStricted,  owing  to  the  lack  of  experimental 
coefficients. 

Let  ^=Head  on  upstream  side,  corrected  for  velocity  of  approach. 
/>= Measured  head,  upstream  side  of  weir. 
rf=  Measured  head,  downstream  side  of  weir,  or  the  depth  of 

drowning,  taken  below  the  ressault. 
Z= Difference  of  elevation,  upstream  and   downstream   sides 

P= Height  of  weir  above  channel  bottom. 
i  =  Length  of  weir  crest,  feet. 
^«=Mean  velocity  of  approach. 

A = Head  on  a  thin-edged  weir  that  would  give  the  same  dis- 
charge. 
M'  and  C  coefficients  of  discharge  for  a  submerged  weir. 


n 


Fio.  IZ-^ubmerged  weir. 

The  theoretical  formula  of  Dubuat  for  discharge  is  obtained  by 
regarding  the  overflow  as  composed  of  two  portions,  one  through  the 
upper  part  D—d^  treated  as  free  discharge,  the  other  through  the 
lower  part  rf,  treated  as  flow  through  a  submerged  orifice. 

Combining  the  two  discharges, 

Q=  Q.+  Q2=  I  4^L{D-d)^-VLd^^lg{D-d) 
IBB  150—06 14 


138  WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,    AND   FORMULAS. 

By  reducing,  including  a  coefficient,  and  using  the  head  //corrected 
for  velocit}"  of  approach,  we  have  the  general  fornnula  for  a  submerged 
weir. 

<^^lM'L^27,z(ri+'£)  =  C"L(llV^^Z  .     .     .    (73) 

The  head  due  to  the  velocit}^  of  retreat  should  in  strictnes.s  he  sii>>- 
tracted  from  the  depth  of  submergence  d.  This  is  not  commonl\'  done. 
however,  in  the  experiments,  where  the  usual  method  of  producing  the 
submergence  is  bv  damming  and  retarding  the  water  below.  In  prac- 
tice, if  the  velocity  of  retreat  is  large,  the  correction  should  l)e  made. 

The  theory  of  fonnula  (78)  makes  C'=i.o  times  the  value  of  tlie 
coefficient  0  in  the  free  portion  of  the  discharge."  This  value  is 
adopted  })v  Dubuat  and  Weisbach. 

D'Aubuisson  gives  C'  —  iASC. 

Francis's  earlv  experiments  make  0'  =  1.SSC\ 

From  gage  recopds  of  large  rock-tilled  crib  dams  on  Kentucky 
River,  having  planked  upstream  slope  3:1  and  vertical  steps  below 
crest — height  of  dams  about  20  feet,  heads  -4  to  7.5  feet,  mean  5.3 
feet — Nelles  found  results  as  follows: 

Dam  No.  3,  water  falling  slowly  4  days,  C'  =  l,5(\ 

Dam  No.  2,  water  falling  slowly  3  days,  ^"  =  1.53r. 

Dam  No.  1,  water  rising  and  falling  slowly  o  days,  ("~1.4^C\ 

FTELEY  AND  STEARNS  SUBMERGED-WEIR  FORMULA.  & 

Fteley  and  Stearns  use  the  base  formula 

Q^CLQl+'ly-Z (74) 

Coefficients  for  theal>ove  formula  were  derived  from  experiments  on 
thin-edged  weirs,  by  Fteley  and  Stearns  and  by  J.  B.  Francis,  and 
give  correct  results  for  weirs  for  which  the  free  discharge  w^ould  l)e 
correctly  calculated  by  the  Francis  formula. 

The  head  on  upstream  side  varied  from  0.3251  to  0.9704:  foot,  and 

y^  varied  from  — ().0()3  to  o.OSl  with  air  under  nappe,  and  from  0.(>77 

to  0.975  with  no  air  under  nappe,  and  in  applying  the  formula  the 
same  conditions  should  })e  complied  with.  The  authors  comment  that 
where  sufficient  head  can  not  be  obtained  for  a  weir  of  the  usiial  free- 
discharge  type,  a  submerged  weir  may  be  used,  provided  that  the  head 
does  not  vary  greatly. 


«See  valual>k*  discussion  of  submorKcd  weirn  by  (ieo.  T.  Nelles  in  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  «. 
pp.  So^aKS. 

ft  Fteley  and  Jiicttnis,  ExperimeaUM  ou  the  flow  of  water,  etc.:  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E..  vol.  12,  pp. 
101-108. 


SUBMEBGED   WEIRd. 


139 


From  a  large-scale  curve  Fteley  and  Stearns  derive  the  following 
table  of  coefficient  t\,  for  formula  (74): 

FltUy  and  Steams* s  coefficients  far  submerged  weirs. 


d 
H 


0.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 
.  7 
.8 
.9 


3.:i65 
3.286 
3.214 
3.155 
3.113 
3.092 
3.092 
3.122 
3.190 


3.330 
3.359 
3. 278 
3.2C7 
3.150 
3.110 
3.091 
3.093 
3.127 
3.200 


3.331 
3.352 
3.271 
3.201 
3.145 
3.107 
3.090 
3.095 
3.131 
3.209 


o.oa 

3.335 
3.34:^ 
3.264 
3.194 
3.140 
3.104 
3.090 
3.097 
3.137 
3.221 


0.04 


I 


3. 343 
3.3:«  I 
3.256 
3. 188 
3.135 
3. 102 
3.089  ' 
3.099  j 
3. 143  1 
3.233  I 


0.06 

3.360 
3.327 
3. 249 
3.182 
3.131 
3.100 
3.089 
3.102 
3.150 
3.247 


I 


0.06 

3.368 
3.318 
3.241 
3.176 
3.127 
3.098 
3.089 
3.105 
3.156 
3.262 


0.07 

3.371 
3.310 
I  3.234 
3.170 
I  3. 123 
j  3.096 
'  3.090 
j  3.109 
!  3. 164 


I 


3.280 


O.OH 

3. 372 
3.302 
3.  227 
3.165 
3.119 
3.095 
3.090 
3.113 
3.172 
3.:^00 


0.09 


I 


3. 370 
I  3.294 
I  3.  22(> 

3.159 
I  3.116 
I  3.093 
,  3.091 
!  3.117 


3.181 
3.325 


Where  -^^  is  less  than  0.15  Q  is  not  sensibly  affected  bv  submergence. 

Where  -^  is  from  0.5  to  0.8  6' may  l)e  taken  at  3.10. 

Correction  for  velocity  of  approach  was  made  by  the  formula 
H—D-{-^^.     No  correction  was  made  for  velocitv  of  retreat. 

The  formula  is  probably  applicable  to  larger  dams  and  greater  depths 
by  selecting  proper  values  of  (7,  -jj  being  a  relative  quantit\\ 

A  number  of  empirical  formulae  for  submerged-weir  discharge  are 
also  used. 

CLEMENS  HERSCHEL'S  PORMULA.a 

HerscheFs  formula,  based  on  experiments  of  J.  B.  Francis,  1848, 
Fteley  and  Stearns,  1877,  and  J.  B.  Francis,  1883,  is 

^=3.33Z(ir//)*=3.33ZA* (75) 

In  this  formula  the  measured  head  *  is  reduced  to  an  equivalent  head 
that  would  give  the  same  discharge  over  a  free  overflow.    The  value  of 

A  // 

the  coefficient  N—-fT  depends  on  the  proportional  submergence  -jj- 

oHerEhel,  Clemen,  The  problem  of  the  submerged  weir:  Trans.  Am.  Soo.  C.  E.,  vol.  14.  Ma5%  1886, 
pp.  190-196. 

ft  Corrected  for  velocity  of  approach  by  method  for  Francis's  formula  before  applying  in  above 
ioimola. 


140        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

The  valuer  of  this  ratio,  together  with  their  probable  error,  are 
given  below. 

GoefficiftU  Ny  HergcheVs  submerged-weir  formula.  ^^ 


d 

0.0 

0.0 

1.000 

.1 

1.005 

.2 

.985 

.3 

.959 

.4 

.929 

.5 

.892 

.6 

.846 

.  7 

.787 

.8 

.703 

.9 

.574 

.0.01 

0.02 

1.004 

1.006 

1.003 

1.002 

.982 

.980 

.956 

.  953 

.926 

.922 

.888 

.884 

.841 

.836 

.780 

.773 

.692 

.681 

.557 

.539 

0.08 


.006 

1.007 

.000 

.998 

.977 

.975 

.950 

.947 

.919 

.915 

.880 

.875 

.830 

.824 

.766 

.758 

.669 

.656 

.520 

.498 

1.007 
.996 
.972 
.944 
.912 
.871 
.818 
.750 
.644 
.471 


0.06 


0.07 


1.007 
.994 
.970 
.941 
.908 
.866  , 
.813  i 
.742  ' 
.631 
.441 


1.006  I 
.992 
.967 
.938  [ 
.904 
.861 
.806 
.732 
.618 
.402 


0.06 

1.006 
.989 
.964 
.9:^5 
.900 
.856 
.800 
.723 
.604 
.352 


0.09 


1.005 
.987 
.961 
.932 
.896 
.8.51 
.794 
.714 
..590 
.275 


a  Values  for  —  exceeding  0.80  less  accurately  determined. 


D 


=0, 

=0. 
=0. 
=0. 
=0. 
=  0. 
=0. 


.02  to  0.14, 

16  to  0.22, 
24  to  0,32, 
33  to  0.41, 
42  to  0.59, 
60  to  0.65, 
66  to  .071, 
72  to  .084, 


variation 

variation 
variation 
variation 
variation 
variation 
variation 
variation 


of  iV= 

of  ir= 
of  ir= 
of  .Y= 

of  .y= 

of  ir= 
of  iV^= 
ofJV= 


zhO.005 

±0.008 
dbO.012 
dbO.015 
d=0.018. 
±0.017 
±0.014 
±0.011 


to  0.007. 

to  0.010. 
to  0.014. 
to  0.017. 

to  0.015. 
to  0.012. 
to  0.009. 


This  table  indicates  that  for  depths  of  submergence  not  exceeding 
20  per  cent,  the  head  will  not  ordinarily  be  increased  more  than  2 
per  cent. 

The  discharge  over  a  submerged  weir,  according  to  Hers<^hers  for- 
mula, bears  the  ratio  iV*  to  that  over  an  unsubmerged  weir  under  the 
same  head. 

THE  CHANOINB  AND  MARY  FORMULA. 

Q^M'LH'l^Z (76) 

This  expression  has  a  form  similar  to  that  for  the  ordinary  formula 
for  submerged  orifices.  It  is  applicable  only  under  conditions  identi- 
cal with  those  for  which  J/'  has  been  determined.  ^ 


a  Van  Nostrand's  Eng.  Mag.,  vol.  34,  p.  176. 


SUBMERGED   WSIBS.  141 

R.  H.  RHIND'S  FORMULA." 

Q=3rLyl2grdyl'Z+6Mi^+l/^  .     .     (77) 

This  may  be  reduced  to  the  theoretical  formula  (73)  }>y  omitting 
the  correction  for  velocity  of  approach. 

BAZIN'S  FORMULAS.  6 

By  duplicating,  with  various  depths  of  submergence,  his  experi- 
ments on  thin-edged  weirs  Bazin  deduced  the  following  expressions 
for  the  coefficients  for  submerged  weirs  to  be  applied  in  the  discharge 
formula 

Let  P  represent,  as  heretofore,  the  height  of  weir  crest  above  chan- 
nel bottom,  the  coefficient  m  being  that  which  would  apply  to  the 
same  weir  with  free  discharge. 

(1)  Accurate  formula  with  small  values  of  d: 

[i.O'>+0.16(^p-0.05^2)] ^^^^ 

(2)  Accurate  formula  with  large  values  of  d: 

ra'^m  [(^1.08+0.18  jT)  7^/>^]       •     •     •     •     •     (7^) 

(3)  Approximate  formula  for  all  cases: 

m'^m  (^1.05  +0.21  ^  ^^^ (^^) 

The  above  formulas  are  for  weirs  without  end  contractions. 

The  coefficient  m  contains  the  correction  for  velocity  of  approach  of 
the  free-discharge  weir,  and  m'  contains  the  necessary  factor  (if  an}') 
for  the  resulting  modification  of  the  velocity  of  approach  effect,  when 
the  weir  becomes  drowned.  They  are  only  strictly  accurate,  there- 
fore, when  VI*  is  substituted  for  m  in  Bazin's  formula. 

In  Bazin^s  formulas  the  height  7' of  the  weir  enters  as  a  controlling 
factor  in  (I),  and  is  present  less  prominently  in  (2)  and  (3). 

The   modification   by  drowning  is  made  to  depend  on   .jin  (2),  and 

on  this  ratio  and  that  of  the  cube  root  of  -j.     jointly  in  formula  (3). 

"It  is  often  difficult  to  determine  Por  to  apply  these  formulas  to  a 
weir  fed  by  a  large  pond  and  having  end  contractions. 

a  Proc.  Inst  Civil  EngiDeen,  1886. 

frBazlD,  H.,  Experiences  nouTelles  mir  r^foulement  en  d^vemiir,  6-«  art.,  Ann.  PonL«<  et  Chauss^^OK, 
H^moirofl  et  Dociunenui,  1898. 


rn  —m 


142       WEIB   EXPKRIMKNT8,  COEFFICIENTS    AND    FORMULAfl. 


Atisume  P=oo 
Then  (2)  becomes 


(81) 


and  differs  from  (3)  when  similarly  reduced  only  in  the  sukstitution 
of  1.05  for  1.08  as  a  coefficient. 


If 


Ex.         />=4' 
;//:=  0.425 


rf=2' 


/;/  =  O.425Xl.0S 


P=:c 


=  0.864, 


the  discharge  being  89.4  per  cent  of  that  over  an  unsubmerged  weir 
under  the  same  head. 

Comparison  of  submerged-weir  formiUas. » 


d,  feet. . 
/f,  feet . 
dm .... 


.25 

2.0 

i  ' 


.50  , 

2.0  ; 


.75  ' 
2.0  ' 


I 


.25 
1.0 


.50 
1.0 


-It  I  ■  I 

Percentage  of  unmibmerKed-weir  dixoharge. 


1.0 

J 


Fteley-SteaniH..     99.91      95.06 

Herachel 100.15      95.83 

Baziii(3) j  100.43       96.40 


89.29 

95.01 

82.61 

64.02 

90.56 

95.83 

84.24 

M.95 

89.78 

9{>.40 

83.34 

66. 15 

n  Wefr  aflsumed  U)  be  ver\'  high  ho  that  there  is  no  velocity  of  approach  or  (»f  retreat.    The  coefTi- 
-r      V T         taken  at  3.33  for  the  Fifley- 


ver\'  high  ho  that  there  is  no  velocity  of  approa 
clcnt  of  discharge  for  a  thin-edged  weir  with  free  discharge  has  been 
Stearns  and  Herwhel  formulaN. 


INCREASE  OF  HEAD  BY  SUBMERGED  WEIRS. 

Any  of  the  submepged-weir  formulas  may  be  transformed  into 
expressions  giving  the  rise  in  water  level  caused  by  the  construction 
of  a  submerged  weir  in  a  channel  or  canal;  in  this  form  they  are  most 
useful  in  the  design  of  slack- water  navigation  works. 

rankine\s  formulas." 
Weir  not  drowned,  with  flat  or  slightly  rounded  crest: 


//= 


A  =y^^j,  approximate (82) 


Weir  drowned:     , 

First  approximation — 

Se(^ond  approximation — 


(83) 


"(Uvil  Knginccring.  p.  fi89. 


SUBMERGED   WEIRS.  14S 

COLONEL    DYAS's   FORMLTJl.^ 

This  is  intended  to  determine  the  height  of  a  weir  on  the  crest  of  a 
fall  in  an  irrigation  or  other  canal  to  maintain  a  desired  uniform  depth 
and  slope. 

7>= Depth  on  weir,  feet. 

A'=  Depth  of  uniform  channel,  feet. 

/*=X—/?= Height  of  weir  necessary. 

-.4= Area  uniform  channel  vSection,  feet. 

^=Hydi'aulic  radius,  feet. 

*V=  Slope  or  fall  in  feet,  per  f(X)t. 

Z  =  Len|^th  of  weir  crest,  feet. 

y^^/90(Ljt^7?.V\   _|25.8122i?.9     ....      (84) 

lf.l=l(X)0    X^IO'     Ii=H,SS     .S'=o.o<)l     L=10iK 
^^^r900xioo()«xpxo.oonA_^^,  ,^^^^ 

L  10000  _| 

=9.0856-1.0441  =  8.04 
7>=l()-8.04=  1.96  feet. 

In  this  case  length  of  weir  equals  width  of  channel,  and  the  velocity 
of  approach  would  be  the  mean  velocity,  which  by  Kutt-er's  formula 
will  vary,  say,  from  8  to  10  feet  per  second  under  the  conditions, 
dejx?nding  on  the  value  of  the  coefficient  of  roughness  7i,  This  would 
make  the  flow  in  the  channel  8,000  to  10,(X)0  cubic  feet  per  second. 

As  a  check  on  the  calculated  depth  />,  it  will  be  found  that  the  flow 
over  a  weir  100  feet  long  under  a  head  8.04  feet  (corrected  for  the 
large  velocity  of  approach)  will  also  \)e  from,  say,  8,000  to  10,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  depending  upon  the  coeflicient  used  in  the  weir 
formula. 

SUBMERGED    WEIRS   OF   IRREGULAR   SECTION. 

For  certain  forms  of  irregular  weirs  liaving  verticHl  downstream 
faces,  the  discharge  when  subject  to  submergence  may  probably  be 
approximated  by  applying  the  ratio  of  drowned  to  free  discharge  for 
a  thin-edged  weir  similarly  submerged  as  a  correction  to  the  coeffi- 
cient for  free  discharge  over  the  weir  in  question.  For  broad-crested 
weirs  or  weirs  with  aprons  this  method  probabU^  will  not  be  applicable^ 

BAZIN's   EXPERIMENTS. 

For  many  of  the  model  weirs  of  irregular  section  for  which  free- 
discharge  coefficients  were  obtained  by  Bazin,  duplicate  series  of  coef- 
ticient^j  with  various   degrees  of   submergence   were  also   obtained. 

a  Wibion,  H.  M.,  Irrigation  in  India:  Twelfth  Ann.  Kept.  V,  S.  CJeol.  Survey,  1H90-9I,  pi.  2.  p.  IK2. 


144       WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMULAS. 

Many  of  the^e  data  have  been  reduced  to  English  units  by  Nelles.** 
Evidently  each  form  of  weir  section  will  require  a  special  formula  or 
table  of  coefficients,  and  little  more  can  be  done  than  to  refer  to  the 
original  data  for  each  specific  case. 

By  way  of  general  illustration  of  the  character  of  submergence  effect 
on  weirs  of  irregular  section,  the  writer  has  deduced  the  following 
roughly  approximate  formulas  from  Bazin^s  experiments  on  triangular 
weirs  with  vertical  upstream  faces  and  sloping  aprons.  The  weirs 
were  2.46  feet  high  and  the  end  contractions  were  suppressed.  Coeffi- 
cient curves  for  free  discharge  are  given  on  PI.  V. 
Three  series  are  included: 

Series  195,  batter  of  fat*^  1:1. 

Series  196,  batter  of  face  2  : 1. 

Series  197,  batter  of  face  5  : 1. 

Experiments  in  which  the  proportional  submergence  -=:  was  nearly 
the  same  were  grouped,  and  the  average  values  of  A,  i>,  and  d  were 
determined.  From  these  the  mean  values  of  ^  and  ^  were  computed 
and  platted  and  a  straight-line  formula  deduced. 

f=0.72+i(l--^)| (H5) 

J=0.08+0.17J?. 
The  initial  effect  occurs  when 

d     0.17^^0.20 

D-  17i5+0.08 ^^^ 

In  the  above  formulas  A  is  the  measured  head  on  a  weir  with  free 
overflow,  having  the  same  form  of  cross  section,  that  would  give  the 
same  discharge.  D  is  the  depth  on  the  submerged  weir,  d  is  the  depth 
of  submergence,  and  B  is  the  batter  or  slope  of  the  apron. 

DATA   CONCERNING    EAST  INDIAN  WEIRS. 

The  following  data  compiled  by  Nelles*  are  derived  from  observa- 
tions on  actual  dams  under  heads  unusually  great.  The  calculated 
coefficients  in  the  ordinary  weir  formula  {a) 

in  the  theoretical  subitierged-weir  formula  (b) 


Q^M'U'2gz(d+\z\ 


and  in  the  Rhind  formula  (77)  are  given  in  columns  14,  13,  and  12, 
respectively  (p.  145),  the  observed  head  being  corrected  for  velocity  of 
approach. 

a  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E..  vol.  44,  pp.  35»-383.  «» Loc.  cit. 


SITBICKROBD   WElBd. 


145 


a 


©d 

if 

dd 

dci 

li" 

do 

<69 

m 

do 

do 

if 

dei 

Mi 


|8-8S2||32||§5|ag§g8|||§5§| 


I 


eon         iA« 


it 


rl 


■ rt  C  o  '^ 


xt: 


5 
I 


& 


1 


I 


i 


d 

I 


a    .§ 


146 


WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 


UNITED  STATES   DEEP   WATERWAYS   EXPERIMENTS.'* 

These  experiments  were  made  in  1899  at  Cornell  University  hydrau- 
lic lahomtory  on  a  model  having  completely  rounded  profile,  beinjjr  a 
design  for  a  submerged  dam  for  regulation  of  Lake  Erie. 

The  coefficient  curve  for  free  discharge  is  given  on  PI.  XVI.  Tho 
absolute  coefficients  and  the  relative  discharge  with  varioiLs  degrees  of 
submergence  are  shown  below.     The  Francis  formula  is  used. 

Q^  CLIP. 


Ah 

solute  coeffic 

Submer- 
gence from 
backwater. 

^  Feet. 

ientn. 

D 

« 

c 

Feet. 

0.0 

0.00 

3.70 

.1 

.66 

3.67 

2 

1.32 

3.64 

.3 

1.98 

3.60 

.4 

2.64 

3.54 

.5 

3.  30 

3.47 

.6 

3.99 

3.36 

.7 

4.62 

3.17 

.8 

5.28 

2.88 

.9 

5.94 

2.30 

Relative  coefflcientji^  Vyiited  States  Deej)  Waierftuys  submerged'weir  modd. 


d 

c 

h 

r 

H 

c 

'         H 

<: 

0.0 

1.000 

,       0.5 

0. 937 

.1 

.991 

.6 

.907 

.2 

.98:^ 

.  7 

.856 

.3 

.972 

.8 

.778 

.4 

.956 

.9 
1.0 

.621 

C  is  the  coefficient  for  free  discharge  over  a  similar  weir  under  the 
same  head. 

WEIR  DISCHARGE  UXBER  VARTING  IIEAI>. 

Problems  of  weir  discharge  under  varying  head  occur  in  the  design 
of  storage  reservoirs  for  river  regulation,  and  in  determining  the  maxi- 
mum discharge  of  streams. 


"Rept.  r.  S.  Board  of  KnglneerN  on  Deep  Waterways,  pi.  1,  p.  291. 


WEIR   DISCHARGE    I'NDER    VARYING    HEAD.    '  l47 

An  effort  has  }>een  made  in  the  present  chapter  to  record  the  various 
working  fonnulas  resulting,  from  the  solution  of  this  mathematically 
difficult  portion  of  the  theory'  of  the  weir,  and  to  give  numericjil  data 
to  facilitate  calculations. 

It  is  assumed  that  there  is  no  velocity  of  approach,  or,  if  any,  that  the 
head  has  l>een  corrected  therefor.     The  weir  coefficient  is  also  assumed 
to  continue  constant  through  the  range  of  variation  of  the  head. 
Notation: 

T  =Time  in  seconds  rcijuired  for  the  head  to  change  between 

two  assigned  values. 
//^—Initial  depth  on  weir,  feet. 
//,  =  Depth  on  weir  at  the  time  /. 
.y  =  Reservoir  surface  area,  square  feet. 
L  =  Length  of  ovei*fl€)W  weir,  feet. 
/   =Rate  of  inflow  to  reservoir,  cubic  feet  per  second. 
Q  =Rate  of  outflow  at  time  f. 

PRISMATIC  RESERVOIR.  NO  INFLOW,  TIME  REQUIRED  TO  LOWER 
WATER  SURFACE  FROM  Ho  TO.//^.« 

dQ=CLindt=-Silir 

s 


11  ""^  ill  I 

Where  V=  \M^^lg=-f^:^h  M 

T=3c,  when //,=(). 
If  X=:  1,000,000,    //;=4,     7/^=0.1,     C'-8.88,     and  Z  =  100, 

10(')  10        V     1  — 2/       ^'         seconds  =  4.44  hours. 

To  lower  the  reservoir  from  77=4  to  11-  i   would  require  3,0(^0 
seconds. 

APPROXIMATE    TIME    OF    LOWERING    PRISMATIC    OR    NONPRIS- 

MATIC   RESERVOIR. 

Choosing  small  successive  values  of  77^—//^,  we  may  solve  this 
problem  approximately,  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Time  required  to  lower  reservoir  from  7/^  to  7/^=     Mean  O  ^^"^ 

aDes  iDjirenipiirs  Tiiwht'iibuch,  I,  1902.  p.  2:J0. 


148       WEIR    EXPfiKlMlENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

We  niav  take  the  mean  discbarge  between  tbe  narrow  liniit^^  /^,  and 

Q^=^{hUh}) (89) 

or,  using  the  average  he^id, 

Q^=CLQ^''t/^^ (9c) 

In  the  following  example  we  have' used  the  latter  value,  and  have* 
made  /l^— 71^=0,5  foot.     A  similar  solution  may  be  made  for  a  non- 
prismatic  reservoir,  using  successive  values  of  -  *1^^  *  as  the  reservoir 
area,  and  determining  the  increments  of  Thy  formula  (88). 
Example  of  i^arying  dmharge. 


1 
Ho 

Ht 

Average 

Q  i>er8eoond. 

'lOOO 

Q 

rforlncre- 
,       ment 

Total  T,  in 
fiec-onds. 

4.0 

8.5 

3.  75 

2,417.0 

0.4137 

207 

207 

3.5     1 

8.0 

8.  25 

1,951.0 

.5126 

256 

46:^ 

8.0 

2.5 

2.75 

1,519.0 

.6580 

330 

793 

2. 5     i 

2.0 

2.25 

1,124.0 

.8970 

448 

1,241 

2.0     ; 

1.5 

1.75 

771.0 

1.2970 

1          650 

1,891 

1.5 

1.0 

1.25 

465.4 

2.1500 

1,070 

2,961 

The  total  time  required  in  seconds  is  2,961,  as  compared  with  3,<KM> 
by  formula  (87). 

The  time  retjuired,  using  the  average  Q  instead  of  the  average  //in 
the  calculation,  that  is,  using  formula  (89)  instead  of  (90),  is  2,933.."> 
seconds. 

The  time  T  is  directly  proportional  to  the  area  of  storage  surface 
and  inversely  proportional  to  the  length  of  spillwa}'.  It  is  also  usu- 
ally proportional  to  the  value  of  C  in  the  weir  formula. 

RESERVOIR  PRISMATIC,  WITH  UNIFORM  INFLOW.^ 
GENERAL   FORMULAS. 

Starting  with  reservoir  full  to  crest  level,  /^=0,  to  find  the  time 
required  for  the  depth  of  overflow  to  reach  a  given  stage,  //,. 

tiMullins,  Lieut.  (Jen.  J..  Irrigation  Manual,  Madras  Govt.,  1890.  App.  V,  pp.  214-223. 


WEIR    DISCHARGE    UNDER    VARYING    HEAD.  149 

When  individual  values  of  the  increment  11^—11^  are  small,  not  over 
0.5  foot  each,  if  successive  values  are  taken,  we  have  approximately: 

._s{n,-iQ 

2 
j_2(If,-II,)S+Q,+  Q, (32) 

jit 

^=time  required  to  rise  through  the  increment  11^— 11^, 

A  summation  of  the  successive  values  of  t  required  for  the  water  to 
rise  each  increment  will  give  the  total  time  of  rise  from  11^  to  //^. 
Formula  (92)  will  give  the  maximum  run-off  from  a  catchment  area 
tributary  to  a  reservoir  if  two  successive  values  of  7/ and  the  corre- 
sponding value  of  t  are  known. 

Formnla  (92)  may  also  be  used  to  determine  T  for  a  nonprismatic 
reservoir  with  a  variable  rate  of  inflow  by  choosing  such  increments, 
Ih—Ily^  that  the  average  values  of  8^  /,  and  Q  will  be  nearly  correct. 
Variations  in  the  weir  coefficient  C  may  also  be  considered. 

FORMULAS  FOR  TIME   OF   RISE   TO   ANY  HEAD   H,    PRISMATIC  RESERVOIR 
WITH   UNIFORM   INFLOW. 

Several  analytical  solutions  of  this  problem  have  been  made.  Start- 
ing at  spillway  level,  let  11^  equal  the  depth  of  overflow  correspond- 
ing to  the  quantity  of  inflow  /.  The  problem  is  stated  by  the  follow- 
ing differential  equation  whose  primitive  is  required: 

(Rate  inflow— rate  outflow)  dt—d  (increase  in  storage),  or 

{I-CLH^)dt=SdH (93) 

In  the  solution,  mathematical  substitutions  are  necessary  in  order  to 
render  the  time-outflow  equation  integrable  in  known  forms.  A  very 
clear  demonstration  for  a  special  value  of  C  has  been  given  by  Frizell." 
By  modifying  FrizelFs  formula  to  adapt  it  to  the  use  of  any  value  of 
Cm  the  weir  formula,  the  following  equation  is  obtained: 

-^r=nat.log  V~-^-:_^-+V3tan  ^^-Vstan  ^  ^^  (94) 

where   J=^/  ^ 

When  H—H^^  the  second  member  becomes  the  sum  of  an  infinite 
and  two  finite  quantities,  T\%  then  infinite,  and  the  outflow  can  never 

a  Water  Power,  pp.  200-203. 


150       WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

become  equal  to  the  inflow,  or  //  can  never  equal  //„,  which  quantity 
it  approaches  as  a  linait  as  T  increases.  Frizell  places  H—rJIa,  /• 
having  anj'  value  less  than  unity,  and,  being  very  nearly  unity,  ^ 
will  be  more  nearly  so,  and  is  taken  as  equal  to  unity,  without  great 
error,  enabling  the  two  inverse  trigonometric  constants  to  be  evaluated 
in  terms  of  arc,  giving  Hnallj' : 


T= 


— — ,  (     nat.  log  ^ -,_,— 0.88625  ) 

3(6"ZV)5  \  ^''  / 


(95) 


Nat.  log  iY^  2. 302585  log,,  .V 


E.   Ludlow  Gould"  gives  the  following  formula,  identit«l  with  the 
alwve  except  in  the  form  of  the  constant  of  integration : 


T= 


Vl+V/-+/ 


2.y    r  , 

.       nat. 


(96) 


r—  yy  as  before,     (fould  does  not  consider  ^r  constant,  but  derives 

the  values  of  the  function  in  brackets  for  various  values  of  ?•,  from 
which  the  following  table  has  been  derived: 


T  a/«e«  oj  0,  Gould* 8  formula. 


Ha 

0 

0.0 

0.0000 

.1 

.  1532 

.2 

.3137 

.3 

.4865 

••* 

.6747 

.5 

.8876 

.« 

1. 1489 

.7 

1. 4792 

.8 

1.9141 

.9 

2.6129 

.  3301 

.5047 

.6960 

.  9137 

1.1750 

1.5145 

1.9(v)8 

2. 7681 


.0153  0.0306  0.0459,  0.0()13  0. 
.  1()854;  . .  1838   .  1992   .  2155 

.  3464,  .  3628 

.5229  .5411 

.7173  .7386 

.  9399  .  9660 
1.2012  1.2322 
1.5498  1.58.=>1 
2.0176  2.0715;  2.1488  2. 
2.9233  3.0785  3.2347  3. 


.3791 

.  5593 

.  7598 

.9921  1, 
1.2674'  1 
1.6203  1 


0766 
2319 
39551 
5775' 
7811 
018;i 
3027! 
6556; 
2262 
3889 


0.0919 
.248:5. 
.4137 
.  5957' 
.8024; 

1.0444 

i.:«8o| 

1.7073 
2. 3035 
3.5441 


0. 1072, 
.2646 


I 


0. 12260. 137KS 
2810   .297;i 


.4319     .4501.  .468:J 
.6139.     .t«21    .«5a4 


.  8237 
1.07a5j 
1.3733 
1.7590 
2.3808 
4.0096 


.8450  .8663 
1.0966'l.  1128 
1.40861.4439 
1.81071.8624 
2. 4582  2. 5:^^*) 
4. 47604. 9405 


a  Engineering  News,  Dec.  5, 1901,  pp.  480-481. 


WEIR    DISCHARGE    UNDER   VARYING   HEAD.  151 

VVe  may  write  formula  (9) 

R.  S.  Woodward  suggests  the  formula  * 


I 


(99) 


where  Jr=sin-^  yj ^±^    =8in-»  f^^ 

This,  like  the  preceding  expressions,  becomes  infinity  when  the 
integral  is  carried  over  the  entire  range  X=0  to  X=-,  conforming 
with  the  physical  conditions. 

The  writer   has  evaluated   this   function   for  finite  values  of  -jj 

by  mechanical  quadrature,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  PL  XXXVIII. 
The  diagram  illustrates  the  rapid  rise  until  a  head  closely  approaching 
11^  is  attained,  occupying  a  comparatively  short  time  interval,  while 
for  further  increments  of  head  the  time  interval  is  relativel}^  very 
great. 

E.  Sherman  Gould  *  gives  the  same  integral  developed  as  an  infinite 
series 

aEngineeriDg  News,  December  5. 1901,  p.  431. 
bfingineering  News,  Noyember  14, 1901,  pp.  362-368. 

160—06 16 


where 


152        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

If  we  write 


(102) 


then  Frizell's  formula  may  be  written  T=Fxp{  jr  J 

E.  L.  Gould's  formula  may  be  written  T—Fy.  ^(rjj 

Woodward's  formula  may  be  written  T=2Ft/^  I  ->r  j 

E.  Shennan  Gould's  formula  may  be  written  T=  Fx  ^  (jT  ) 

The  formulas  are  therefore  identical,  the  transcendental  factors 
bearing  the  relation, 

<i)-(D=-a)-(i) 

The  E.  L.  Gould,  Woodward,  and  E.  S.  Gould  formulas  are  appli- 
cable for  any  value  of  the  ratio  r> .     That  of  Frizell  can  be  strictly 

applied  onl}"  when  ,f  is  nearly  unity.     In  the  E.  S.  Gould  formula 

^\W)  c^"^'®^?^'*^  ^®^y  slowly  as  the  argument  approaches  unity. 
For  rough  calculations  E.  S.  Gould  gives  the  rule 

TI-TrL{pi/f)^=SII 

where  /^  is  the  coefficient  in  the  weir  formula  for  reducing  final 
head  to  mean  head. 

T=         -^ — 5 (103) 

/-rZ(/i//)* 

The  ratio  /^  of  the  constant  mean  head  which  would  give  the  total 
discharge  SIfm  the  time  The  finds  by  trial. 
E.  S.  Gould  gives  the  values 

/i=0.H7  for  small  values  of  // 
to  /i=(),75  for  large  values  of  H. 

Comparing  the  formulas. 

Let  Ay=  1,000,000  square  feet 

(7=3.33  =  ^ 

Z=100 
7=10,000  cubic  feet  per  second 

/4=r-^V=30*=9.655  feet 


WEIR   DISCHABOE    UNDER   VARYING    HEAD.  153 

Required  the  time  to  rise  to  a  height  7/^=0.9//=  8. 6895  feet. 

J^=^^^-_- =643.5 

Frizell  (95)  r=1677.6  seconds. 

E.  L.  Gould  (96)  r=  1681.5  seconds. 

Woodward  (99)  T=  1660. 2  seconds. 

E.  S.  Gould  (approximate)  (103)  r=1488.3  seconds. 

The  difference  in  the  value  of  T  by  the  first  three  formulas  repre- 
sents the  difference  in  the  values  of  the  transcendental  portions  of  the 
equations  as  evaluated  by  different  methods. 

The  time  required  to  rise  from  ^  to  /^  will  be  the  difference  of 
the  times  71  and  T^  by  the  above  formulas. 

NONPRISMATIC  RESERVOIR,  UNIFORM  INFLOW. 
P.  P.  L.  O'CONNELL.^ 

Representing  the  reservoir  by  a  cone  having  its  apex  at  distance  A^ 
below  plane  of  the  overflow. 

Area  at  overflow  level      =  S^  —  7t{aAy  I  (\()X\ 

Area  at  any  other  level     =  5=  ^[^^ +//)]*  J 

where  oc  is  the  slope  of  the  sides,  or  where  there  is  a  foot  horizontal 
run  to  1  foot  vertical  rise.  From  (104)  with  S^  and  a  given,  A  may 
be  determined. 

Where  the  factor  /,  ^-J/rr^ 

1 1  9      3      9  / '    77 » 


.r= 


-uz\ 


(105) 


a  Mullins's  Irrigation  Manual. 


154        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

E.  L.  GOULD." 

Calling  /  the  angle  of  inclination  of  the  banks,  I\  the  perimeter,  at 
spillway  level,  exclusive  of  overflow, 

S=.  S^+BH+Bjr  where  B=  1\  cot  i 

B^  =  7t  cot  7^      T=Yl 

"--'~^-  \(s^{VL)^+B{ICLf)  nat.  log  >^+>f^+r  . 

-/?,7Mnat.log(l^r*)+7'n-^(/(7Z)*Vr         •       (^^^) 

For  /=90°  and  ^=0,  the  above  formula  reduces  to  (96).  the  equa- 
tion for  a  prismatic  reservoir. 

VARIABLE  INFLrOW,  NONPRISMATIC  RESERVOIR. 

This  problem  may  be  solved  by  dividing  the  reservoir  into  successive 
levels,  and  solving  by  the  formulas  previously  given,  as  if  each  la\'er 
represented  a  portion  of  a  reservoir  with  a  constant  inflow  equal  to 
the  average  rate,  or  if  the  formulas  for  prismatic  reservoir  are  used, 
then  each  layer  will  be  supposed  to  represent  a  portion  of  a  prismatic 
reservoir  of  area  equal  to  the  average  area  of  the  layer. 

Mullins's  formula  may  often  be  more  conveniently  used  and  a  better 
solution  be  obtained  than  by  attempting  to  average  the  area  and  inflow, 
as  would  be  necessary  to  apply  the  analytical  formulas  given. 

The  general  differential  equation  for  rise  in  time  Twith  a  variahK* 
inflow  and  reservoir  area  is 

{I-Q)dT=SdH      .......     (107) 

If  we  can  express  /as  a  function  of  7",  and  S  and  Q  as  functions  of 
H^  and  integrate  between  the  limits  11=0^  11=- II^^  we  may  obtain  an 
equation  between  //and  Tsimilar  to  those  given  for  prismatic  reser- 
voirs with  constant  inflow. 

We  may  write  the  ordinary  weir  formula, 

a  Loc.  Cit. 


WKIR   DISCHARGE    UNDER    VARYING    HEAD.  155 

The  area  S  can  usually  be  readily  expressed  in  terms  of  the  area  at 
crest  level  and  slope  of  the  reservoir  sides  (assumed  constant  within 
the  narrow  limits  0,  ff);  the  inflow  /often  increases  nearly  as  a  linear 
function  of  T while  a  stream  is  rising  rapidly;  we  have,  then, 

Substituting  in  (107) 

(  l^+fT-CLHi)dT=(S^+2a^Sjr+a'H')dII    .     (108) 

The  complete  primitive  of  this  differential  equation  can  be  deter- 
mined only  as  an  infinite  series.^ 

Rivers  during  flood  usually  rise  rapidly  and  fall  slowly.  The  time- 
inflow  function  can  sometimes  be  approximated  by  a  modified  sinusoid. . 

1=  I,+I^  sin  {bty^ (109) 

where  n=or>l 

7^=  Total  duration  of  flood. 
7^= Maximum  mte  of  inflow. 

7J„=Time  elapsed  from  beginning  of  rise  to  maximum. 
The  constants  are  so  chosen  that  the  arc  value  of  the  duration  of 
the  flood  from  stage  J^  through  to  the  same  stage  is  tt,  or, 

{bt)^=7t  h=Y (11^) 

For  the  maximum  we  will  have,  differentiating  (109), 

cos(&rj^=0,  or(Jrj«=|    .     .     .    (Ill) 

«=log  £ X  1^=3.32204  log  (^£)    .     .     .      (112) 

common  logarithms  being  used. 
If  r=1000  and  if  ^^=200,  then  n=3.322  log  5=2.322, 

«*•*"  1 

J= j^=0.0143,  and  ^=0.43066 

aSeddon,  James  A.,  C.  E.  (Proc.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  24,  June,  1898,  pp.  659-598),  has  solved  equation 
(106)  for  the  Great  Lakes  reservoir  system,  assuming  an  annual  cycle  following  the  law  I^Im+A 
9in  t;  /m  being  the  mean  inflow  and  Tthe  time  arc  on  a  circle  whose  circumference  represents  one 
year.    He  also  assumes  <2-iQo+&^>  or  a  linear  function  of  the  height  H. 


156  WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  •  COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 

Example  of  mr'mble  flood  discharge  computed  hij  formula  (109). 


t,  in  sec- 
onds. 

(W) 

U^  iht) 

1 

(W)" 

1.1667 

Angle. 

1 
sin  («)" 

100 

1.43 

0. 155a% 

0.06695 

o 

66 

55 

0.9199 

200 

2.86 

.456366 

.196694 

1.573 

90 

00 

1.0000 

:iOO 

4.29 

.  632457 

.27259 

1. 8732 

107 

21 

.9938 

400 

5.72 

.  757396 

.32644 

2.1206 

121 

08 

.a'ittO 

j      500 

7.15 

.854306 

.36820 

2.3346 

133 

49 

.7216 

600 

8.58 

.933487 

.40233 

2.5254 

144 

42 

.5779 

.       700 

10.01 

1.000434 

.43100 

2. 6978 

155 

00 

.3907 

800 

•    11.44 

1.058426 

.45618 

2.8588 

163 

52 

.2779 

900 

12.87 

1. 109578 

.47790 

3.0054 

172 

12 

.1320 

^  The  form  of  the  graph  of  the  flood  may  be  determined  by  plotting 
the  quantities  in  the  last  column  of  this  table  in  terms  of  t.  The 
resulting  curve  rises  rapidly  to  a  maximum  when  ^=200,  after  which 
it  descends  slowly. 

TABIiES  FOR  CAIiCUIiATIONS  OF  WEIR  DISCHARGE. 

The  investigations  at  Cornell  University  have  greatly  extended  the 
limit  for  which  weir  coefficients  are  definitely  known.  The  experi- 
ments of  Bazin  did  not  reach  beyond  1.8  feet  head  maximum.  The 
tables  of  Francis  for  thin-edged  weirs  extended  to  a  head  of  3  feet. 

The  experiments  at  Cornell  have  furnished  the  coefficients  for  a 
variety  of  weir  forms  for  heads  up  to  4,  5,  and  6  feet.  At  such  heads 
the  nappe  form  has  become  stable  for  nearly  all  forms  of  weirs.  We 
may  now  predict  the  probable  extension  of  the  coefficient  curves  for 
higher  heads  with  more  confidence  than  could  be  done  by  starting 
from  a  lower  datum. 

Owing  to  their  usefulness  in  the  approximate  determination  of  flood 
discharges,  the  weir  tables  have  been  carried  up  to  a  head  of  10  feet. 

In  the  tables  here  given  the  head  is  uniformly  expressed  in  feet. 
For  computing  the  flow  over  irrigation  modules  and  other  small  weirs 
where  the  head  is  measured  in  inches,  weir  tables  expressed  with  the 
inch  as  the  argument  of  head  are  convenient.  Numerous  tables  of 
this  character  are  available.     The  following  may  be  referred  to: 

The  Emerson  weir  tables,  computed  by  Charla  A.  Adams,  pages  251-285  of  Emer- 
Bon's  Hydrodjmamics,  published  by  J.  and  W.  Jolly,  Holyoke,  Mass.  These  give 
discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  minute  for  weirs  with  two  end  contractions  having  length? 
of  2, 3,  4, 5,  6,  7,  8, 10, 12, 16,  and  20  feet.  The  discharge  is  computed  by  the  Francis 
formula  for  heads  from  0.001  foot  to  2  feet,  advancing  by  thousandths  of  a  foot,  with 
auxiliary  table  of  decimal  equivalents  of  fractional  parts  of  inches. 


TABLES    FOB   CALCULATING    WEIR    DISCHARGE.  157 

The  Measurement  and  Division  of  Water,  Bulletin  No.  27,  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Fort  Ck>llins,  Colo.  This  publication  gives  tables  of  discharge  in  cubic 
feet  per  second,  com])uted  by  the  Francis  formula,  for  a  weir  1  foot  long,  for  heads 
in  inches  and  sixteenths,  from  ^V.  in<^h  to  :)0  inches,  with  auxiliary  table  for  end 
contractions,  and  for  velocity  of  approach  correction  by  the  Fteley  and  Steams 
rule  {H=Di-ih).  A  similar  weir  table  for  a  weir  1  inch  long  is  given.  Also  a  table 
of  dischaiige  for  Cippoletti  weirs  ( C=3.36i),  for  lengths  of  crest  sill  of  1,  1.5,  2,  3,  4, 
5,  and  10  feet.     Head  in  inches  and  decimals  with  feet  equivalents. 

Special  Instructions  to  Watermasters  as  to  Measurements  of  Water,  State  Engineer's 
Office,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  1896.  Table  of  discharge,  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  for 
1-foot  crest,  based  on  the  Francis  formula,  with  auxiliary  table  for  end  contractions 
and  velocity  of  approach.  The  head  is  expressed  in  inches  and  thirty-seconds  (with 
equivalents  in  feet)  for  ^  inch  to  36  inches.  A  similar  table  for  heads  in  inches  and 
sixteenths,  from  ^  to  36  inches,  gives  the  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second  by  the 
Francis  formula  for  weirs  with  two  end  contractions  and  for  the  crest  lengths  of  1,  li, 
2,  2J,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  and  12  feet  A  table  for  trapezoidal  weirs  (0=3.367) 
of  various  crest  lengths  is  also  given. 

CWfornia  Hydrography,  by  J.  B.  lippincott,  Water-Supply  Paper  No.  81,  United 
States  Geological  Survey.  This  publication  contains  a  table  of  weir  discharge  in 
cubic  feet  per  second  for  heads,  advancing  by  sixteenths,  from  y^,^  i^c^  to  10  inches 
(with  equivalent  decimals  of  a  foot),  for  weirs  with  two  end  contractions  having 
crest  lengths  as  follows:  4,  6,  9, 12,  15,  and  18  inches,  2,  2.5,  3,  3.5,  4,  4.5,  5,  6,  7,  8, 
9,  10,  12,  14,  16,  18,  and  20  feet.  Based  on  the  Francis  formula.  Also  published  as 
a  circular. 

The  tables  that  follow  are  all  original  computations,  with  exception 
of  the  "  Francis  weir  tables,"  page  162,  and  the  table  of  head  due  to 
various  velocities,  page  158. 

TABLE  I.— HEAD  DUE  TO  VARIOUS  VELOCITIES.a 

This  table  gives  values  of  the  expression 

based  on  the  constant  of  gravity  for  the  latitude  and  altitude  of  Lowell, 
Mass., 

fl'=32.1618,  1=0.01554639. 

a  Francis,  Lowell  Hydzaulic  ExperimeDts,  extended. 


158        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COi:FFIOIENTS,   AND    FORMFLAS. 


Table  1. —  Values  of  h=-^j  or  heads  dive  to  velocities  from  0  to  4-99  feet  per  second. 


V 

0.00 

0.01 

0.02 

0.03 

0.04 

0.06 

0.06 

0.07 

0.08 

0.09 

0.0 

0.0000 

0.0000 

o.uuou 

0.0000 

0.0000 

0.0000 

0.0001 

0.0001 

0.0001 

0.0001 

.1 

.0002 

.0002 

.0002 

.0008 

.0008 

.0003 

.0004 

.0004 

•00(» 

.0006 

.2 

.0006 

.0007 

.0008 

.0008 

.0009 

.0010 

,0011 

.0011 

•0012 

.0018 

.3 

.0014 

.0015 

.0016 

.0017 

.0018 

.0019 

.0020 

.0021 

0022 

.0024 

,4 

.0025 

.0026 

.0027 

.0029 

.0080 

.0081 

.0038 

.0034 

-0086 

.0087 

.5 

.0039 

.0040 

.0042 

.0044 

.0046 

.0047 

.0049 

.0061 

•0052 

.0054 

.6 

.0056 

.0068 

.0060 

.0062 

.0064 

.0066 

.0068 

.0070 

•0072 

.0074 

.7 

.0076 

.0078 

.0081 

.0088 

.0086 

.0067 

.0090 

.0092 

■  0096 

.0097 

.8 

.0099 

.0102 

.0106 

.0107 

.0110 

.0112 

.0116 

.0118 

.0120 

.0123 

.9 

.0126 

.0129 

.0182 

.0184 

.0187 

.0140 

.0148 

.0146 

.0149 

.0162 

1.0 

0.0165 

0.0159 

0.0162 

0.0166 

0.0168 

0.0171 

0.0176 

0.0178 

0.0181 

0.0185 

.1 

.0188 

.0192 

.0196 

.0199 

.0202 

.0206 

.0209 

.0213 

.0216 

.0220 

.2 

.0224 

.0228 

.0281 

.0236 

.0289 

.0248 

.0247 

.0261 

.0256 

.0880 

.3 

.0263 

.0267 

.0271 

.0276 

.0279 

.0283 

.0288 

.0292 

.0296 

.0300  ' 

.4 

.0305 

.0309 

.0318 

.0818 

.0622 

.0327 

.0381 

.0386 

.0341 

.0045 

.5 

.0350 

.0354 

.0369 

.0364 

.0869 

.0374 

.0378 

.0388 

.0888 

.0898  , 

.6 

.0898 

.0403 

.0408 

.0413 

.0418 

.0423 

.0428 

.0484 

.0489 

.0444 

.7 

.0449 

.0455 

.0460 

.0466 

.0471 

.0476 

.0482 

.0487 

.0493 

.0498  ' 

.8 

.0501 

.0509 

.0616 

.0621 

.0826 

.0582 

.0638 

.0644 

.0649 

.0666 

.9 

.0661 

.0567 

.0678 

.0679 

.0686 

.0691 

.0507 

.0603 

.0609 

.0616 

2.0 

0.0622 

0.0628 

0.0684 

0.0641 

0.0647 

0.0668 

0.0660 

0.0666 

0.0673 

0,0679 

.1 

.0686 

.0692 

.0699 

.0706 

.0712 

.0719 

.0726 

.0732 

.0739 

.0746 

.2 

.0762 

.0759 

.0766 

.0778 

.0780 

.0787 

.0794 

.0801 

.0808 

.0H15 

.3 

.0822 

.0830 

.0637 

.0844 

.0861 

.0869 

.0866 

.0878 

.0881 

.0688 

.4 

.0895 

.0903 

.0910 

.0918 

.0926 

.0983 

.0941 

.0948 

.0966 

.0964 

.5 

.0972 

.0979 

.0987 

.0996 

.1008 

.1011 

.1019 

.1027 

.1035 

.1048 

.6 

.1061 

.1059 

.1067 

.1076 

.1084 

.1092 

.1100 

.1108 

.1117 

.1125  ' 

.7 

.1183 

.1142 

.1150 

.1169 

.1167 

.1176 

.1184 

.1193 

.1201 

.1210 

.8 

.1219 

.1228 

.1286 

.1246 

.1264 

.1268 

.1272 

.1281 

.1289 

.1296 

.9 

.1807 

.1816 

.1326 

.1885 

.1844 

.1868 

.1362 

.1371 

.1381 

.1890 

8.0 

0.1399 

0.1409 

0.1418 

0.1427 

0.1437 

0.1446 

0.1456 

0.1466 

0.1476 

0.1484 

.1 

.1494 

.1604 

.1613 

.1628 

.1688 

.1648 

.1552 

.1662 

.1572 

.1662 

.2 

.1592 

.1602 

.1612 

.1622 

.1632 

.1642 

.1662 

.1662 

.1678 

.1683 

.3 

.1693 

.1703 

.1714 

.1724 

.1734 

.1746 

.1766 

.1766 

.1776 

.1787 

.4 

.1797 

.1808 

.1818 

.1829 

.1840 

.1860 

.1861 

.1872 

.1883 

.1804 

.5 

.1904 

.1916 

.1926 

.1937 

.1948 

.1969 

.1970 

.1981 

.1992 

.2004 

.6 

.2015 

.2026 

.2037 

.2049 

.2060 

.2071 

.2068 

.2004 

.2106 

.2117 

.7 

.2128 

.2140 

.2151 

.2163 

.2175 

.2186 

.2198 

.2210 

.2221 

.2233 

.8 

.2245 

.2257 

.2269 

.2280 

.2292 

.2304 

.2316 

.2828 

.2840 

.2852 

.9 

.2365 

.2377 

.2389 

.2401 

.2413 

.2426 

.2438 

.2450 

.2468 

.2475 

4.0 

0.2487 

0.2500 

0.2612 

0.2525 

0.2537 

0.2860 

0.2668 

0.2576 

0.2688 

0.2601 

.1 

.2613 

.2626 

.2639 

.2652 

.2665 

.2677 

.2690 

.2703 

.2716 

.2729 

.2 

.2742 

.2755 

.2709 

.2782 

.2795 

.2808 

.2821 

.2885 

.2848 

.2861 

.3 

.2875 

.2888 

.2901 

.2915 

.2928 

.'2942 

.2965 

.2969 

.2982 

.2996 

.4 

.3010 

.3023 

.3087 

.3061 

.8066 

.3079 

.8092 

.8106 

.8120 

.81S4 

.5 

.3148 

'.3162 

.3176 

.3190 

.3204 

.8218 

.3233 

.8247 

.8261 

.3276 

.6 

.3290 

.:)304 

.3318 

.3338 

.8847 

.8362 

.8876 

.8890 

.8406 

.8420 

.7 

.3434 

.3449 

.3463 

.3478 

.8493 

.8608 

.8522 

.8687 

.8562 

.3367 

.8 

.3.'>82 

.3597 

.3612 

.3627 

.8642 

.8657 

.8672 

.8687 

.8702 

.8717 

1  ■» 

.8733 

.3748 

.3763 

.3779 

.8794 

.8809 

.8825 

.8840 

.8856 

.8871 

TABLK8   FOR   CALOULATINa    WEIR   DISCHARGE.  159 

This  value  will  sutfice    in   ordinary   corrections    for  velocity   of 
approach  for  localities  in  the  United  States. 

Velocittj  of  affproach  correctvm. 

Francis,  and  as  used  in  portions  of  this  paper  (approximate) H=D-\-h 

Fteley  and  Steams,  contracteci  weir //=/>-f  1.5A 

Hamilton  Smith,  suppressed  weir H=D+Hh 

Hamilton  Smith,  oontraot€<i  weir H=D  j  1.4/i 

TABLE   2.— PERCENTAGE   INCREASE    IN    DISCHARGE  BY  VARIOUS 
RATES  OF  VELOCITY  OF  APPROACH. 

This  table  ha.s  been  calculated  from  the  Francis  correction  formula, 

7/^  =  (Z?+A)*-A*. 

The  percentage  increase  in  discharge  over  that  at  the  same  meas- 
ured head  with  no  velocity  of  approach  is 

Percentage=100 ^3      =K    .     .     .     .     (118) 


160        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,  AND   FORMtTLAS. 


r.    g    S 

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d  d  d 


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gjJ2';5o»'»-*eoooc4oieie<i^»-;.-it-;,.^^^i-;^»H 


^^g^s$;!:ss!s^ssi;S8SS7 


00  e^  d  t»'  lO   -^'  CO   cj  «^'  ci 


fi<Or^adt<^'^eeOOCic«f-if-4r4i-«r^r-4f-<fH 


g>  ^*  d  c^  d  V  OQ  CI  ci 

S 

1H 

S5? 

flO    C* 

8  S  8  S  8 

p 

25.39 

13.64 

9.83 

7.14 

5.86 

5  8  ^  S 

^-  m  d  C4 

S 

S5 

^ 

8  S 

S  S8  ^  f: 

2 

js^Joddideocicir-if-ifHiir-ifH 


ddc^td^cocJf-iiHr-iiHiH 


gSSS252gS?a8888fSP&8gS 

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S8S8^8SSIS8S8p!8SS$$9$S8SS 

^■t-:'9«09»oiFHr^ri 

CJd'^COCJiifHr-! 


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co"  m   ^'  V  id  id   d   d   r-"  r-'   x'   od   d   d    d 

TABLES   FOR   CALCHLATING    WEIK   DI0CHAROE. 


161 


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162      WKIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 


To  use  this  table  the  discharge  corresponding  to  the  measured  head 
D  may  be  taken  directly  from  Table  3  or  4  and  the  quantity  so  obtained 
increased  by  the  percentage  indicated  in  Table  2.  This  table  is  espe- 
ciall}'^  useful  where  the  velocity  of  approach  is  measured  directly.  If 
the  velocity  of  approach  is  determined  from  the  approximate  discharge 

Q 
by  the  formula  ^'=^9  successive  approximate  corrections  may  1m» 

required. 

Table  2  shows  directly  the  relative  error  introduced  by  various  veloci- 
ties of  approach.  The  large  error  introduced  by  moderate  velocities 
with  low  heads  and  the  comparatively  small  error  resulting  from 
higher  velocities  under  great  heads  are  conspicuous. 

TABLES  3  AND  4.— DISCHARGE  OVER  A  THIN-EDGED  WEIR  BY 
THE  FRANCIS  FORMULA. 

These  tables  give  the  discharge  in  cubic  feet  per  second,  for  a  crest 
length  of  1  foot,  without  contractions,  computed  by  the  formula 

Table  3. — Discharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir  per  foot  of  cretl. 


Head //.feet. 

.000 

.001 

.008 

.008 

.004 

.006 

.006 

.007 

.008 

009 

.009 

0.00 

0.0000 

0.0001 

0.0003 

0.0005 

0.0008 

0.0012 

0.0015 

0.0020 

0.0024 

0.0028 

.01 

.0083 

.0038 

.0044 

.0049 

.0056 

.0061 

.0067 

.0074 

.0080 

.0087 

.02 

.0094 

.0101 

.0109 

.0116 

.0121 

.0132 

.0140 

.0148 

.0166 

.0164 

.03 

.0178 

.0182 

.0191 

.0200 

.0209 

.0218 

.0227 

.0287 

.0247 

.0256  ' 

.04 

.0266 

.0276 

.0287 

.0297 

.0907 

.0318 

.0829 

.0839 

.0850 

.0861  ! 

.05 

.0872 

.0384 

.0895 

.0406 

.0418 

.0480 

.0441 

.0458 

.0465 

.0477 

.06 

.0489 

.0502 

.0614 

.0527 

.0639 

.0652 

.0566 

.0678 

.0690 

.0601 

.07 

.0617 

.0630 

.0643 

.0657 

.0670 

.0684 

.0698 

.0712 

.0725 

.0739 

.08 

.0753 

.0768 

.0782 

.0796 

.0811 

.0825 

.0840 

.0855 

.0869 

.0684 

.09 

.0899 

.0914 

.0929 

.(mi 

.0960 

.0976 

.0990 

.1006 

.1022 

.1087 

0.10 

0.1053 

0.1069 

0.1085 

0. 1101 

0. 1117 

0.1188 

0.1149 

0.1166 

0.1182 

0.1196 

.11 

.1215 

.1231 

.1248 

.1266 

.1282 

.1299 

.1316 

.1888 

.1850 

.1867 

.12 

.1384 

.1402 

.1419 

.1436 

.1454 

.1472 

.1489 

.1507 

.1625 

.1543 

.13 

.1661 

.1679 

.1597 

.1615 

.1683 

.1652 

.1670 

.1689 

.1707 

.1726 

.14 

.1744 

.1763 

.1782 

.1801 

.1820 

.1889 

.1868 

.1877 

.1896 

.1915  < 

.16 

.1936 

.1964 

.1973 

.1993 

.  2012 

.2032 

.2062 

.2072 

.2091 

.2111  , 

.16 

.2131 

.2151 

.2171 

.2191 

.2212 

.2232 

.2252 

.2273 

.2298 

.2314  ' 

.17 

.2334 

.2355 

.2375 

.2396 

.2417 

.2488 

.2469 

.2480 

.2601 

.18 

.2543 

.2564 

.2586 

.2607 

.2628 

.2660 

.2671 

.2698 

.2714 

.2736 

.19 

.2758 

.2780 

.2802 

.2823 

.2845 

.2867 

.2890 

.2912 

.2984 

.2956 

0.20 

0.2978 

0.3001 

0.3023 

0.3046 

0.3068 

0.3091 

0.8118 

0.8186 

0.8159 

0.8182 

.21 

.3206 

.3228 

.8260 

.3274 

.3297 

.8320 

.8348 

.8366 

.8389 

.8413 

.22 

.3436 

.3460 

.3483 

.3607 

.3580 

.8654 

.8678 

.8601 

.8625 

.8649  1 

.23 

.3673 

.3697 

.3721 

.8745 

.8769 

.8794 

.8818 

.8842 

.8866 

.3891  ! 

.24 

.3915 

.3940 

.3964 

.3989 

.4014 

.4088 

.4068 

.4068 

.4113 

.4138 

.2.') 

.4162 

.4187 

.4213 

.4238 

.4268 

.4288 

.4313 

.4889 

.4364 

.4889 

.26 

.4415 

.4440 

.4466 

.4491 

.4517 

.4643 

.4668 

.4694 

.4620 

.4646 

.27 

.4672 

.4698 

.4724 

.4750 

.4776 

.4802 

.4828 

.4856 

.4881 

.4907 

.2K 

.4934 

.4960 

.4987 

.6013 

.6040 

.5067 

.509:) 

.5120 

.6147 

.6174 

.29 

.5200 

.5227 

.52W 

.6281 

.5308 

_ 

.5336 



.5863 

.6890 

.5417 

.M44  > 

TABLES   FOR   CALCFLATING    WEIR    DISCHARGE. 
Table  3. — Dheharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir  per  foot  o/ rrrtrf-r-Continued. 


1(53 


UendK.feet. 

.000  i  .001   .002 

1 

.008 

.004 

.005 

.OM 

-' 

.008    .009 

O.S) 

0.5432 

0.5199  0.5527 

0.5564 

0.5582 

0.6609  0.6687 

0.6664 

0.6692  0.5720 

.31 

.5746 

.5775  1  .5808 

.6881 

.5859 

.5887   .5916   .5943 

.5972  1  .6000 

.32 

.6028 

.6056  j  .6086 

.6U3 

.6141 

.6170   .6198   .6227 

.6255   .6284 

1     .33 

.6313 

.6811  1  .6870 

.6399 

.6428 

.6457  ;  .6186  ;  .6515 

.6544 

.6578 

1     .31 

.6602 

.6631  \    .6660 

.6689 

.6719 

.6748 

.6777 

.6807 

.6836 

.6866 

.35 

.6896 

.8925  1  .6951 

.6984 

.7014 

.7043 

.7073 

.7108 

.7133 

.7168 

.36 

.7198 

.7223 

.7258 

.7283 

.7313 

.7343 

.7873 

.7404 

.7484 

.7464 

.37 

.7496 

.7526 

.7565 

.7586 

.7616 

.7647 

.7678 

.7708 

.7739 

.7770 

.;» 

.7800 

.7831 

.7862 

.7898 

.7924 

.7965!  .7986 

.8017 

.8048 

.8079 

.39 

.8110 

.8142 

.8173 

.8204 

.8235 

.8267  '  .8298 

1 

.8330 

.8361 

.8898 

0.40 

0.8424 

0.8156 

0.8488 

0.8519 

0.8551 

0.8583  ;  0.8615 

0.8646 

0.8678 

0.8710 

.41 

.8742 

.8774 

.8806 

.8888 

.8870 

.8903 

.8985 

.8967 

.8999 

.9032 

.42 

.9064 

.9096 

.9129 

.9161 

.9194 

.9226 

.9259 

.9292 

.9824 

.9357 

.43 

.9880 

.9422 

.9155 

.9488 

.9521 

.9654 

.9587 

.9620 

.9668  1  .9686 

.44 

.9719 

.9752 

.9785 

.9619 

.9852 

.9886 

.9919 

.9952 

.9986  1  1.0019 

.45 

1.0062 

1.0086 

1.0119 

1.0153 

1.0187 

1.0220 

1.02W 

1.0288 

1.0821 

1.0855 

.46 

1.0389 

1.0423 

1.0457 

1.0491 

1.0525 

1.0559 

1.0608 

1.0627 

1.0661 

1.0696 

1     ••''^ 

1.0730 

1.0764 

1.0798 

1.0833 

1.0867 

1.0901 

1.0986 

1.0970 

1.1005 

1.1039 

•« 

1.1074 

1.1109 

1.1148 

1.1178 

1.1213 

1.1248 

1.1282 

1. 1317 

1.1352 

1.1387 

'     .49 

1.1422 

1.1457 

1.1492 

1.1627 

1.1562 

1.1597 

1.1682 

1.1668 

1.1708  ,  1.1738 

o.so 

1.1778 

1.1809 

1.1844 

1.1879 

1. 1916 

1.1950 

1.1986 

1.2021 

1.2057  1  1.2098 

.51 

1.2128 

1.2164 

1.2200 

1.2285 

1.2271 

1.2307 

1.2348 

1.2379 

1.2415  1.2451 

.52 

1.2487 

1.2528 

1.2569 

1.2695 

1.2631 

1.2667 

1.2703 

1.2740 

1.2776  !  1.2812 

.58 

1.2849 

1.2885 

1.2921 

1.2958 

1.2994 

1.3081 

1.8067 

1.8104 

1.8141  1  1.3177 

.M 

1.3214 

1.8261 

1.8287 

1.8824 

1.3361 

1.8398 

1.3486 

1.8472 

1.8609  '  1.8546 

.55 

1.3583 

1.8620 

1.8657 

1.8694 

1.3781 

1.8768 

1.8806 

1.3843 

1.3880  1.3918 

.56 

1.8966 

1.3992 

1.4090 

1.4067 

1.4105 

1.4142 

1.4180  j  1.4217 

1.4255  ,  1.4293 

.57 

1.4330 

1.4868 

1.4406 

1.4444 

1.4481 

1.4519 

1.4567  1  1.4695 

1.4633  '  1.4671 

.5H 

1.4709 

1.4747 

1.4785 

1.4823 

1.4862 

1.4800 

1.4938  1.4976 

1.6014  '  1.5053 

.59 

1.5091 

1.6180 

1.6168 

1.6206 

1.6245 

1.5283 

1.5822  1.5361 

1.6399  1  1.5438 

0.60 

1.5476 

1.6515 

1.6551 

1.6696 

1.5681 

1.6670 

1.5709 

1.5748 

1.6787  i  1.6826  | 

.61 

1.5865 

1.5901 

1.5048 

1.5962 

1.6021 

1.6060 

1.6100 

1.6139 

1.6178  1  1.6217 

.62 

1.6257 

1.6*296 

1.6385 

1.6376 

1.6414 

1.6454 

1.6493 

1.6533 

1.6572  '  1.6612 

.63 

1.6662 

1.6601 

1.6731 

1.6771 

1.6810 

1.6850 

1.6890'  1.6980 

1.6970  1.7010 

.61 

1.7060 

1.7090 

1.7180 

1.7170 

1.7210 

1.7260 

1.7290  1  1.7330 

1.7370  1  1.7410  1 

.65 

1.7461 

1.7491 

1.7681 

1.7672 

1.7612 

1.7652 

1.7693  1.7733 

1.7774  1.7814 

.66 

1.7865 

1.7896 

1.7986 

1.7977 

1.8018 

1.8058 

1.8099  1.8140 

1.8181  1.8221 

.67 

1.8262 

1.8806 

1.8344 

1.8885 

1.8426 

1.8467 

1.8508  !  1.8549 

1.8590  1  1.8682 

.68 

1.8678 

1.8714 

1.8765 

1.8796 

1.8888 

1.8879 

1.8920  1.8962 

1.9003  1.9045  1 

.69 

1.9066 

1.9128 

1.9169 

1.9211 

1.9252 

1.9294 

1.9336  1  1.9377 

1.9119  1  1.9461  ' 

0.70 

1.950B 

1.9544 

1.9586 

1.9628 

1.9670 

1.9712 

1.9754  '  1.9796 

1.9838  1.9880  ' 

.71 

1.9922 

1.9964 

2.0006 

2.0048 

2.0091 

2.0133 

2.0175  2.0217 

2.0260  2.0302  1 

.72 

2.0344 

2.0887 

2.0429 

2.0472 

2.0514 

2.0657 

2.0599  2.0642 

2.0684. 

2.0727 

.73 

2.0770 

2,0612 

2.0865 

2.0898 

2.0941 

2.0983 

2.1026  2.1069 

2. 1112 

2.1156  1 

.74 

2.1196 

2.1241 

2.1284 

2.1327 

2.1370 

2.1413 

2.1456  2.1499 

2.1543 

2.1586 

.75 

2.1629 

2.1672 

2.1716 

2.1769 

2.1802 

2.1846 

2. 1889  2. 1932 

2.1976 

2.2019 

.76 

2.2068 

2.2107 

2.2160 

2.2194 

2.2237 

2.2281 

2.2325  '  2.2369 

2.2412 

2.2456  1 

.77 

2.2800 

2.2544 

2.26R8 

2.2682 

2.2675 

2.2719 

2.27e>3  2.2807 

2.2851 

2.2896  , 

.78 

2.2940 

2.2984 

2.8028 

2.8072 

2.3116 

2.3161 

2.3205  2.3249  2.3293 

2.3338  1 

.79 

2.8382 

2.8427 

Z8471 

2.8515 

2.3560 

2.3604 

2.3649  2.3694  2.8788 

2.8783 

164       WEIK   EXPERIMENTS,  COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

Table  3. — Discharge  ot^er  a  thin-edged  weir  per  fooi  of  creM — Continued. 


Head  //,  feet 

.000 

.001 

2.3872 

.002 
2.3917 

.008 

.004 

.006  1  .006 

.007 

.006 

.009 

0.80 

2.3828 

2.8962 

2.4006 

2.4061  2.4096 

2.4141 

1 
2.4186  2:4281  ' 

.81 

2.4276 

2.4321 

2.4866 

2.4411 

2.4456 

2.4501  2.4546 

2.4661 

'2.4636  2.4681 

.82 

2.4727 

2.4772 

2.4817 

2.4862 

2.4908 

2.4958  2.4999 

2.5044 

2.5069  2.5136 

.83 

2.5180 

2.5226 

2,5271 

2.5317 

2.5863 

2.6408  2.54M 

2.5600 

2.6646'  2.^01 

.84 

2.5637 

2.5683 

2.5728 

2. 5T74 

2.5820 

2.5866  2.5912 

2.5058 

2.6004  2.6060 

.85 

2.6096 

2.6142 

2.6188 

2.6234 

2.6280 

2. 6327  2. 6373 

2.6419 

2.6465  2,6511 

.86 

2.6558 

2.6604 

2.6650 

2.6697 

2.6743 

2.6790  2.6886 

2.6888 

2.6929  2.6976 

.87 

2.7022 

2.7069 

2.7116 

2.7162 

2.7209 

2.T266  2.7302 

2.7349 

2.7896  j  2.744S 

.88 

2.7490 

2.7536 

2.7583 

2.7680 

2.7677 

2.7724  2.7771 

2.7818 

2.7865  2.7912  , 

.89 

2.7969 

2.8007 

2.8054 

2.8101 

2.8148 

2.8196  j  2.8248 

2.8290 

2.8887  2.8386  | 

0.90 

2.8432 

2.8479 

2.8527 

2.8574 

2.8622 

2.8669  2.8717 

2.8764 

2.8812  ;  2.8860 

.91 

2.8907 

2.8955 

2.9008 

2.9060 

2.9098 

2.9146  2.9194 

2.9241 

2.9289  2.9837 

.92 

2.9385 

2.9433 

2.9481 

2.9629 

2.9577 

2.9625  :  2.9678 

2.9721 

2.9769  2.9817  , 

.93 

2.9865 

2.9914 

2.9962 

8.0010 

3.0058 

8.0107  3.0165 

3.0203 

3.02S2  ;  3.OS0O 

.94 

3.0348 

8.0397 

3.0445 

3.0494 

3.0542 

3.0591  3.0689 

3.0688 

3.0737  3.0785 

.95 

3.0834 

3.0883 

3.0931 

3.0980 

3.1029 

8.1078  3.1127 

3.1175 

3.1224  3.127S 

.96 

3.1322 

3.1371 

8.1420 

3.1469 

3. 1618 

3.1567 

3. 1616 

3.1665 

3.1714  !  3.1764 

.97 

8.1813 

3.1862 

3.1911 

3.1960 

3.2010 

3.2069 

3.2108 

3.2158 

3.2207  8.2267 

.98 

3.2806 

3.2365 

8.2406 

3.2454 

3.2504 

3.2564 

3.2603 

3.2668 

3.2702  1  3.2762 

.99 

3.2802 

3.2851 

3.2901 

3.2951 

3.3001 

3.3061 

3.3100 

3.3160 

3.3200  J  3.3260  > 

1.00 

3.3300 

3.8350 

3.3400 

3.3160 

3.3500 

3.3550 

3.8600 

3.3650 

3.3700  3.3751 

.01 

3.3801 

3.3851 

3.3901 

3.3951 

3.4002 

3.4052  3.4102 

3.4163 

3.4203 

8.4264 

.02 

3.4304 

3.4354 

3.4405 

3.4465 

3.4506 

3.4667  3.4607 

3.4668 

3.4706 

8.4759 

.03 

8.4810 

3.4860 

3.4911 

3.4962 

3.6013 

3.5063  3.6114 

3.  .5166 

8.5216 

3.6267 

.04 

8.5318 

3.5869 

3.5420 

3.5471 

3.5S22 

3.5573  1  3. 5624 

3.6676 

3.6726 

8.6777 

.06 

3.5828 

3.5880 

3.  .^931 

3.5982 

3.6038 

3.6066  :  3.6136 

3.6187 

8.6239 

3.6290 

.06 

3.6842 

3.6393 

3.6444 

3.6496 

3.6647 

8.6599'  3.6651 

3.6702 

3.6754 

3.68(K> 

.07 

3.6857 

3.6909 

3.6960 

3. 7012 

3.7064 

3.7116  :  3.7167 

3.7219 

3.7271  3.7S2S 

.08 

3.7875 

3.7427 

3.7479 

3.7531 

3.7583 

3.7635  1  3.7687 

3.7789 

3.7791  3.7843  > 

.09 

3.7895 

3.7947 

8.8000 

3.8062 

3.8104 

3.8156  3.8209 

3.8261 

3.8313  3.8966 

1.10 

3.8418 

3.8470 

3.8523 

3.8575 

3.8628 

1 
3.8680  1  8.8733 

3.8785» 

3.8888  3.8890 

.11 

3.8948 

3.89% 

3.9048 

3.9101 

3.9154 

8.9206  1  3.9259 

3.9312 

3.9865  8.9418 

.12 

3.9470 

3.9523 

3.9576 

3.9629 

3.9682  1  3.9736  3.9788 

3.9841 

8.9894  8.9947 

.13 

4.0000 

4.0063 

4.0106 

4.0160 

4.0213 

4.0266 

4.0819 

4.0872 

4.0426  .  4.0479  ' 

.14 

4.0532 

4.0586 

4.0639 

4.0692 

4.0746 

4.0799 

4.0858 

4.0906 

4.0960  4.1013 

.15 

4.1067 

4.1120 

4.1174 

4.1228 

4. 1281 

4.1335 

4.1389 

4.1442 

4,1496 

4.15S0 

.16 

4.1604 

4.1657 

4.1711 

4.1765 

4.1819 

4.1873 

4.1927 

4.1981 

4.2035' 

4.2089 

.17 

4.2143 

4.2197 

4.2251 

4.2305 

4.2859 

4.2413 

4.2467 

4.2522 

4.2676 

4.3690 

.18 

4.2684 

4.2738 

4.2793 

4.2847 

4.2901 

4.2956 

4.3010 

4.3065 

4.8119 

4.8178  j 

.19 

4.3228 

4.3282 

4.3837 

4.3392 

4.3446 

4.8601 

4.8666 

4.3610 

4.3665 

4.8n9  ' 

1.20 

4.3774 

4.3829 

4.3883 

4.3938 

4.3998 

4.4048  ;  4.4106 

4.4166 

4.4212 

4.4267 

.21 

4.4322 

4.4377 

4.4432 

4.4487 

4.4542 

4.4697  '  4. 4662 

4.4707 

4.4763 

4.4818 

.22 

4.4878 

4.4928 

4.4983 

4.5038 

4.5094 

4.5149  4.6204 

4.6260 

4.5816 

4.6370 

.23 

4.5426 

4.5481 

4.6587 

4.5692 

4.5647 

4.6708  1  4.6759 

4.6814 

4.5870 

4.5926 

.24 

4.5981 

4.6036 

4.6092 

4.6148 

4.6203 

4.6259  !  4.6316 

4.6871 

4.6127 

4.6482 

.26 

4.6538 

4.6594 

4.6650 

4.6706 

4.6762 

4.6818  1  4.6874 

4.6980 

4.6986 

4.7042 

.26 

4.7098 

4.7154 

4.7210 

4.7266 

4.7322 

4.7378  1  4.7436 

4.7491 

4.7547 

4.7603 

.27 

4.7660 

4.7716 

4.7772 

4.7829 

4.7885 

4.7941  4.7998 

4.8054 

4.8111 

4.8167 

.28 

4.8224 

4.8280 

4.8337 

4.8893 

4.8450 

4.8606  1  4.8668 

4.8620 

4.8676 

4.8788 

.29 

4.8790 

4.8847 

4.8908 

4.8960 

4.9017 

4.9074  '  4.9131 

4.9187 

4.9244 

4.9901 

TABLES    FOB   CALCULATING    WEIB    DIHCHARGE. 


165 


Table  3. — Diacharge  wer  a  thin-edged  weir  per  foot  of  creM — Continued. 


Head  H,  feet. 

.000 

.001 

.002 

4.9472 

.000 

.004 

.OOi 

4.9643 

.«M 

.007 

.008 

.000 

-  - 

4.9872 

1.30 

4.9858 

4.9415 

4.9629 

4.9586 

4.9700 

4.9757 

4.9814 

.31 

4.99» 

4.9966  5.004S 

5.0100 

5.0158  '  5.0215 

5.0272 

5.0830 

5.0887 

5.0444 

.32 

5.0502 

5.0550  i  5.0616 

5.0674 

6.0731  5.0789 

6.0846 

5.09O4 

6.0961 

5. 1019 

.38 

5.1077 

5.1134  !  5.1192  1  5.1249 

5.1307  5.1366 

5.1423 

5.1480 

5.1638 

5.1596 

.M 

5.1654 

6. 1712  ]  5. 1769 

5.1827 

5.18K5  '  6.1943 

5.2001 

5.0269 

5.2117 

5.2176 

.iT 

5.2238 

5.2291  1  5.2849 

5.2407 

5.2465  6.2523 

5.25K2 

5.2640 

5.2698 

5.2756 

!     "^ 

5.2814 

5.2878  6.2931 

5.2989 

6.8048  5.3106 

6.3161 

5.3223 

6.3281 

6.8340 

1     .37 

5.3396 

5.3456 

5.8516 

5.8673 

5.3632  5.3691 

5.3749 

5.3808 

5.3866 

5.8925 

.3S 

5.30S4 

5.4142 

5.4101 

5.4160 

5.4219  1  5.4277 

5.4336 

5.4395 

5.4451 

5.4518 

.39 

5.4672 

5.4630  1  5.46»9 

5.4748 

5.4807  1  5.4866 

5.4925 

5.4984 

5.5043 

6.5102 

1.40 

5.  .5162 

5.5221  5.5280 

5.5389 

5.5398  1  5.5457 

5. 5516 

5.5576 

5.5635 

5.6694 

.41 

5.5754 

5.5813  6.  .'5872 

5.5982 

5.6991  ,  5.6050 

5.6110 

5.6169 

5.6229 

6.6288 

.42 

.x(J348 

5.6407  5.6467 

5.6526 

6.6686 

5.6646 

6.6705 

5.6765 

5.6825 

5.6884 

.43 

5.6944 

5.70W  !  5.7064 

5.7123 

5.7183 

5.7243 

5.7308 

5.7363 

5.7423 

6.7482 

.44 

5.7.T42 

5.7602  5.7662 

5.7722 

5.7782  5,7842 

5. 7902 

5. 7962 

5.8023 

5.8088 

.46 

5.K14S 

5.8203  5.8263 

5.8323 

5.83H4  \   .5.8444 

5. 8504 

5.8664 

5.8625 

5.8685 

.46 

5.8745 

5.8806 

5.8866 

5.8926 

5.8987  ,  5.9047 

5.9108 

5. 9168 

5.9229 

5.9289 

.47 

5.9350 

5.9410 

6.9471 

5.9682 

5.9592  5.9658 

5. 9714 

5.9774 

5.9836 

5.9896 

.48 

5.9957 

6.0017 

6.0078 

6.0189 

6.O200  6.0261 

6.0322 

6.0382 

6.0448 

6.0504 

.40 

1 

6.0565 

6.0626 

6.0687 

6.0748 

6.«J09  6.0870 

6.0931 

6.0993 

6.1054 

6. 1115 

,    1.50 

6. 1176 

6.1237 

6.1296 

6.1360 

6. 1421  6. 1482 

6.1543 

6.1005 

6.1666 

6.1727 

;     .51 

6.1789 

6.1860 

6.1912 

6.1973 

6.2034  .  6.2096 

6.2157 

6.2219 

6.2280 

6.2342 

.52 

6.2404 

6.2465 

6.2527 

6.2588 

6.2650  1  6.2712 

6.2r73 

6.2835 

6.2897 

6.2959 

.53 

6.3020 

6.8082 

6.3144 

6.8206 

6.32«»  j  6.3380 

6.8391 

6.3453 

6.3515 

6.3577 

.54 

6.3639 

6.8701  '  6.3768 

6.3825. 

6.3887  '  6.3949 

6.4012 

6.4074 

6.4136 

6.4198 

.55 

6.4260 

6.4322  1  6.4385 

6.4447 

6.4509  1  6.4571 

6.4634 

6.4696 

6.4758 

6.4821 

.56 

6.4883 

6.4945  6.500K 

6.  .'1070 

6.5133  6.5195 

6.5258 

6. 5820 

6.6383 

6.5445 

.57 

6.5506 

6.6570  6.5683 

6.5696 

6.5758  6.5821 

6.5884 

6.5946 

6.6009 

6.6072 

.58 

6.6185 

6.6198  6.6260 

6.6328 

6.6386  6.6449 

6.6512 

6.6576 

6.6638 

6.6701 

.60 

6.6764 

6.6827  6.6800 

6.6953 

6.7016  6.7079 

6.7142 

6.7205 

6.7268 

6.7381 

1.60 

6.7804 

6.745h  ,  6.7521 

6.7584 

6.7647  6.7711 

6.7774 

6.7837 

6.7901 

6.7964 

.61 

6.8027 

6.8091  ,  6.8154 

6.8217 

6.8281  ,  6.8344 

6.8408 

6.8471 

6.8535 

6.8598 

.62 

6.8662 

6.8726  6.8789 

6.8853 

6.8916  6.8980 

6.9044 

6.9108 

6.9171 

6.9285 

.68 

6.9299 

6.9963  1  6.9426 

6.9490 

6.9654  6.9618 

6.9682 

6.9746 

6.9810 

6.9874 

.64 

6.9987 

7.0001  1  7.0065 

7.0129 

7.0193  1  7.0258 

7.0322 

7.0386 

7.0460 

7.0514 

.65 

7.0578 

7.0642'  7.0706 

7.0771 

7.0836  1  7.0899 

7.0963 

7.1028 

7.1092 

7.1166 

.66 

7.1221 

7. 1285  7. 1349 

7. 1414 

7. 1478 

7.1543 

7.1607 

7. 1672 

7.1736 

7.1801 

.67 

7.1865 

7.1960  7.1994 

7.2059 

7.2124 

7.2188 

7.2253 

7.2318 

7.2382 

7.2447 

.68 

7.2512 

7.2576  7.2641 

7.2706 

7.2771 

7.2886 

7.2901 

7.2965 

7.3030 

7.3096 

.60 

7.3160 

7.3226  7.8290 

7.3865 

7.3420 

7.3486 

7.3560 

7.3616 

7.3680 

7.3745 

1.70 

7.3810 

7.3876  7.3941 

7.4006 

7.4071 

7.4136 

7.4201 

7.4267 

7.4332 

7.4397 

.71 

7.4468 

7.4628  7.4598 

7.4650 

7.4?24 

7.4789 

7.4855 

7.4920 

7.4986 

7.5051 

.72 

7.5117 

7.5182  7.6248 

7.6813 

7.5379 

7.5445 

7. 5610 

7.  .5576 

7.5641 

7. 5707 

.73 

7.5T73 

7.6839  7.6904 

7.6070 

7.6036 

7.6102 

7.6167 

7.  &23& 

7.6299 

7.6866 

.74 

7.6431 

7.6497  ;  7.6668 

7.6628 

7.6694 

7.6760 

7.6826 

7.6S92 

7.6968 

7.7024 

.75 

7.7091 

7.7157  7.7228 

7.7289 

7.7355 

7.7421 

7.7487 

7.7554 

7.7620 

7.7686 

.76 

7.7752 

7.7819 

7.7885 

7.7951 

7.8018 

7.8084 

7.8150 

7.8217 

7.8283 

7.8349 

.77 

7.8416 

7.8482 

7.8649 

7.8615 

7.8682 

7.8748 

7.8815 

7.8882 

7.8948 

7.9015 

.78 

7.9081 

7.9148  7.9215 

7.9281 

7.9848 

7.9416 

7.9482 

7.9648 

7.9615 

7.9682 

■"     1 

7.9749 

7.9816  7.9682 

■  ■ 

7.9949 

8.0016 

8.0083 

8.0160 

8.0217 

8.0284 

8.0351 

166        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 
Table  3. — Discharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir  per  foot  of  crent — Continued. 


Head  H,  feet. 

.000 

8.0418 

.001       .002 

.008 

.004 

8.0686 

.006 

.006 

...7 

.006 

.009 

1.80 

8.0485     8.0562 

8.0619 

8.0753 

8.0620 

8.0888 

8.0965 

8.1022 

.81 

8.1089 

8.1156     8.1228 

8.1291 

8.1858 

8.1426 

8.1498 

8.1560 

8.1627 

8.16^ 

.82 

8.1762 

8.1829  -  8.1897 

8.1964 

8.2082 

8.2099 

8.2167 

8.2234 

8.2302 

8.ZJ69  " 

.83 

8.2437 

8.2504     8.2572 

8.2640 

8.2707 

8.2775 

8.2842 

8.2910 

8.2978 

8.3046 

.84 

8.3113 

8.8181     8.3249  |  8.3317 

8.3885     8.3462 

8.3520 

8.3688 

8.8656 

8.3724 

.8ft 

8.3792 

8.3860 

8.8928 

8.3996 

8.4064     8.4132 

8.4200 

8.4268 

8.4386 

8.4401 

.86 

8.4472 

8.4540 

8.4608 

8.4677 

8.4746     8.4813 

8.4881 

8.4949 

8.6018 

H.5066 

.87 

8.5154 

8.5223 

8.5291 

8.6859 

8.5428 

8.5496 

8.5564 

8.5683 

8.6701 

8.5770 

.88 

8.5838 

8.5907  !  8.6976 

8.6044 

8.6112 

8.6181 

8.6250 

8.6818 

8.6887 

8.6456 

.89 

8. 6624 

8.6603     8.6661 

8.6780 

8.6799 

8.6868 

8.6986 

8.7006 

8.7074 

8.7148 

1.90 

8.7212 

8.7281     8.7349 

^8. 7418 

8.7487 

8.7556 

8.7625 

8.7694 

8.7763 

8.7882 

.91 

8.7901 

8.7970 

8.8089 

^8108 

8.5177 

8.8246 

8.8316 

H.8386 

8.8454 

8.H523 

.92 

8.8592 

8.8662 

8.8731 

8.8800 

8.8869 

8.8989 

8.9008 

8.9077 

8.9147 

8.9216  . 

.93 

8.9285 

8.9355 

8.9424 

8.9494 

8.9568 

8.9683 

8.9702 

8.9772 

8.9641 

8.9911 

.94 

8.9980 

9.0050  1  9.0119 

9.0189 

9.0269 

9.0628 

9.0696 

9.0468 

9.0687 

9.0607 

.95 

9.0677 

9.0747     9. 0810 

9.0886 

9.0966 

9.1026 

9.1096 

9.1165 

9.1285 

9.1905 

.96 

9.1376 

9.1446  1  9.1615 

9.1685 

9.1655 

9.1725 

9.1795 

9.1865 

9.1936 

9.2005 

.97 

9.2075 

9.2145 

9.2216 

9.2286 

9.2866 

9.2426 

9.2496 

9,2567 

9.2637 

9.2707 

.98 

9.2777 

9.2848 

9.2918 

9.2988 

9.8069 

9.3129 

9.8199 

9.3270 

9.8810 

9.3411 

.99 

9.a481 

9.8552 

9.3622 

9.3693 

9.8768 

9.8834 

9.8904 

9.8976 

9.4045 

9.4116 

2.00 

9.4187 

9.4257  1  9.4328 

9.4399 

9.4469 

9.4640 

9.4611 

9.4682 

9.4752 

9.4823 

.01 

9.4891 

9.4965  '  9.6036 

9.5106 

9.5177  :  9.5248 

9.5819 

9.6890 

9.5461 

9.5532 

.02 

9.6603 

9.5674     9.5745 

9.5816 

9.5887 

9.6958 

9.6029 

9.6100 

9.6in 

9.6C243 

.03 

9.6314 

9.6386 

9.6456 

9. 6827 

9.6699 

9.6670 

9.6741 

9.6812 

9.68M 

9.6955 

.04 

9.7026 

9.7098 

9. 7169 

9.7240 

9.7812 

9.7383 

9.7465 

9.7526 

9.7698 

9.7669 

.06 

9.7741 

9.7812 

9.7884 

9.7955 

9.8027 

9.8098 

9.8170 

9.8242 

9.8313 

9.KJK5 

.06 

9.8167 

9.8528 

9.8600 

9.8672 

9.8744 

9.8815 

9.8887 

9.8959 

9.9031 

9.9108 

.07 

9.9174 

9.9246     9.9818 

9.9390 

9.9462 

9.9534 

9.9606 

9.9678 

9.9750 

9.9KS2 

.08 

9.9894 

9.9966  10.004 

10.011 

10.018     10.025 

10.088 

10.040 

10.047 

10.0&4 

.09 

10.062 

10.060    110.076 

10.088 

10.090    110.098 

10.105 

10.112 

10.119 

10.127 

2.10 

10. 134 

10.141    ,10.148 

10. 156 

10. 168     10. 170 

10.177 

10. 185 

10.192 

10.189 

.11 

10.206 

10.214 

10.221 

10.228 

10.235     10.248 

10.260 

10.257 

10.264 

10.272 

.12 

10.279 

10.286 

10.298 

10.301 

10.308 

10.316 

10.323 

10.380 

10.337 

10.344    ' 

.13 

10.362 

10.359 

10.366 

10.874 

10.381 

10.388 

10.396 

10.403 

10.410 

10.417 

.14 

10.425 

10.432 

10.489 

10.447 

10. 4M 

10.461 

10.469 

10. 476 

10.483 

10.491 

.15 

10.498 

10.505 

10. 513 

10.620 

10.527 

10.585 

10.542 

10.649 

10.557 

10.564 

.16 

10.571 

10.579 

10.686 

10.593 

10.601     10.608 

10.615 

10.628 

10.630 

10.637 

.17 

10.645 

10.652     10.659 

10.667 

10.674 

10.682 

10.689 

10.696 

10.704 

10.711 

.18 

10.718 

10.726 

10. 733 

10.741 

10.748 

10. 755 

10.768 

10.770 

10.777 

10. 7«5 

.19 

10.792 

10.800 

10.807 

10. 814 

10.822 

10.829 

10.837 

10.844 

10.851 

lO.HTi© 

2. 20 

10.866 

10.874 

10.881 

10.888 

10.896     10.903 

10.911 

10.918 

10.926 

lO.S^i 

.21 

10.940 

10.948 

10,955 

10.963 

10.970 

10.978 

10.985 

10.992 

11.000 

11.007 

.22 

11.015 

11.022    |ll.030 

11.037 

11.045 

11.052 

11.059 

11.067 

11.074 

11.0^-2 

.23 

11.089 

11.097 

11.104 

11.112 

11.119 

11.127 

11.134 

11.141 

11. 149 

11. 156 

.24 

11.164 

11.171 

11.179 

11.186 

11.194     11.201 

11.209 

11.216 

11.224 

11.231 

.26 

11.239 

11.246 

11. 2M 

11.261 

11.269     11.276 

11.2M 

11.291 

11.299 

11.806 

.26 

11.314 

11.321 

11.329 

11.836 

11.344     11.351 

11.869 

11.366 

11.371 

ll.?81 

.27 

11.389 

11.396 

11.404 

11.412 

11.419     11.427 

11.434 

11.442 

11.419 

11.467 

.28 

11.464 

11.472     11.479 

11.487 

11. 4W     11.502 

11.610 

11.517 

11.625 

11.682     , 

.29 

1 

11.  MO 

11.547     11.555 

11.662 

11.570     11.678 

11.685 

11.508 

11.600 

1L608 

TABLES    FOR    CALCULATING    WEIR   DISCHARGE.  167 

Table  3. — Discharge  over  a  thin-edged  iveir  per  foot  of  crejtt — Continued. 


Head  ^«  feet. 


2.90 
.81 
.82 
.88 
.34 
.35 
.36 
.37 
.88 


2.70 

.71 
.72 
.78 
.74 
.75 
.76 
.77 
.78 
.79 


11.615 
11.691 
11.767 
11.843 
11.920 
11.996 
12.073 
12.150 
12.227 
12.304 


2.40 

12.381 

.41 

12.450 

.42 

12.536 

.43 

12.614 

.44 

12.692 

.45 

12.770 

.46 

12.848 

.47 

12.927 

.48 

13.005 

.49 

13.084 

2.50 

13.163 

.51 

13.242 

.52 

1&821 

.53 

13.401 

.54 

18.480 

.55 

18.560 

.56 

13.640 

.57 

18.720 

.58 

13.800 

.59 

18.880 

2,60 

13.961 

.61 

14.041 

.62 

14.122 

.63 

14.208 

.64 

14.284 

.65 

14.356 

.66 

14.447 

.67 

14.528 

.68 

14.610 

.69 

14.602 

14.774 
14.856 
14.938 
15.021 
15.103 
15.186 
1.5.269 
15.352 
1.5.435 
15.519 


.001 

11.623 
11.699 
11.775 
11.851 
11,927 
12.004 
12.061 
12,157 
12.234 
12.312 

12.389 

12.466 

12.544 

12.622 

12.700 

12.778 

12.856  i 

12.985 

13.013 

18.092 

13. 171 
13.250 
13,329 
18.409 
18.488 
13.568 
13.648 
18.728 
13.808 
18.888 

18.969 
14.049 
14.130 
14.211 
14.292 
14.873 
14.455 
14.536 
14.618 
14.700 

14.782 
14.864 
14.946 
15.029 
15. 112 
15. 194 
15.277 
15.360 
15.443 
15.527 


11.681 
11.706 
11.783 
11.859 
11.985 
12.012 
12.068 
12.165 
12.242 
12.819 

12.897 
12.474 
12.552 
12.630 
12,708 
12.786 
12.864 
12.942 
13.021 
18.100 

13.179 
13.258 
18.887 
13.417 
18.496 
13.576 
13.656 
18.736 
18.816 
13.896 

13.977 
14.067 
14,138 
14.219 
14.800 
14.382 
14.463 
14.545 
14.626 
14.708 

14.790 

14.872 

14.955 

15.087  1 

15. 120 

15.208 

15.285 

15.369 

15.452 

15.535 


11.638 
11.714 
11.790 
11.866 
11.943 
12.019 
12.096 
12.178 
12.260 
12.827 

12. 4M 
12.482 
12.560 
12.637 
12.715 
12.794 
12.872 
12.950 
13.029 
13.108 

18.187 
13.266 
18.345 
13.424 
13.504 
18.584 
13.664 
18.744 
13.824 
13.904 

13.985 
14.065 
14.146 
14.227 
14.308 
14.390 
14.471 
14.563 
14.634 
14.716 

14.798 
14.881 
14.963 
15.045 
15.128 
15.211 
15.294 
15.377 
15.460 
15.544 


11.646  I 
11.722 
11.798 
11.874  I 
11.960  I 
12.027 
12. 104  I 
12.181  I 
12,258 
12.835 

12.412  I 
12.490  I 
12.567  ' 
12.645 
12.723  I 
12.801 
12.880 
12.968 
13.067 
18. 116 

18.195 
13.274 
13.353 
13.432 
13.512 
13.592 
18.672 
13. 752 
13.832 
13.912 

18.998 
14.074 
14.154 
14.285 
14.816 
14.398 
14.479 
14.661 
14.643 
14.725 

14.807 
14.889 
14.971 
15.064 
15. 136 
15.219 
15.302 
15. 385 
15.468 
15.552 


11.653 
ll.?29 
11.805 
11.882 
11.968 
12.035 
12,  111 
12.188 
12.265 
12.342 

12.420 
12. 497 
12.575 
12,658 
12.731 
12.809 
12.888 
12,966 
13.045 
13.124 

18.202 
13.282 
13.361 
13,440 
13.520 
13.600 
13.680 
18.760 
13.840 
13.920 

14.001 
14.082 
14. 162 
14.243 
14.325 
14.406 
14.487 
14.569 
14.661 
14.733 

14.815 
14.897 
14.979 
15.062 
15. 145 
15.227 
15.310 
15.394 
15.477 
15. 560 


.CM 

.007 

.COS 

.009 

11.661 

11.669 

11.676 

11.684 

11.737 

11.744 

11.752 

11.760 

11.813 

11.821 

11.828 

11.836 

11.889 

11.897 

11.904 

11.912 

11.966 

11.973 

11.981 

11.989 

12.042 

12.050 

12.068 

12.066 

12. 119 

12.127 

12. 134 

12. 142 

12.196 

12.204 

12.211 

12.219 

12.273 

12.281 

12.288 

12.296 

12.850 

12.358 

12.366 

12.873 

12.428 

12.486 

12.443 

12.461 

12.605 

12.513 

12.521 

12.528 

12.583 

12.591 

12.598 

12,606 

12.661 

12.669 

12.676 

12.684 

12.739 

12. 747 

12.754 

12.672 

12.817 

12. 825 

12.833 

12.840 

12.895 

12,903 

12.911 

12.919 

.  12.974 

12,982 

12.990 

12.997 

18.053 

1.3.060 

13.068 

13.076 

13.131 

13.139 

13. 147 

13.165 

13.210 

13.218 

13.286 

13.284 

13.290 

13.297 

13.305 

13,313 

13.369 

13.377 

13.385 

13.393 

'  13.448 

13.456 

13.464 

13. 472 

13.528 

18.536 

13.644 

13.662 

13.608 

13. 616 

13.624 

13.632 

13.688 

13.696 

13.704 

13.712 

13.768 

13.776 

13.784 

13.792 

13.848 

13.856 

13.864 

13.872 

13.928 

13.936 

13.944 

13.963 

14.009 

14.017 

14.026 

14.033 

14.090 

14.098 

14.106 

14,114 

14. 171 

14. 179 

14. 187 

14. 195 

14.252 

14.260 

14.268 

14.276 

14.383 

14.341 

14.349 

14.357 

14.414 

14.422 

14.430 

14.438 

14.496 

14.504 

14. 512 

14.520 

14.577 

14.585 

14.594 

14.602 

14.659 

14.667 

14.675 

14.684 

14.741 

14.749 

14.757 

14.766 

14.823 

14.831 

14.839 

14.fM8 

14.905 

14. 913 

14.922 

14.930 

14.988 

14.996 

15.004 

15.012 

15.070 

15.078 

15.087 

15.095 

15. 153 

15. 161 

15. 169 

15. 178 

15.236 

15.244 

15.252 

15.261 

15.319 

15.327 

15.3a5 

15.344 

15.402 

16.410 

15.419 

15. 427 

15.485 

15.494 

15, 502 

15.510 

15.569 

15.577 

15.586 

15.594 

IBB  150— 06 16 


168         WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 
T.\BLB  3. — Discharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir  per  fool  of  creM — Continued. 


Head /f.  feet. 

.000 

.001 

.008 

.008 

2.80 

15.602 

15.610 

15.619 

15.627 

.81 

15.686 

15.694 

15.702 

15. 711 

.82 

15. 769 

15.778 

15.786 

15.795 

.83 

15.853 

15.862 

15.870 

16.879 

.84 

15.938 

15.916 

15.954 

15.963 

.85 

16.022 

16.030 

16.089 

16.047 

.86 

16.106 

16. 115 

16.123 

16. 132 

.87 

16.191 

16.199 

16.208 

16.216 

.88 

16.275 

16.284 

16.292 

16.301 

16.360 

16.369 

16.377 

16.886 

2.90 

16.445 

16.454 

16.462 

16.471 

.91 

16.530 

16.539 

16.547 

16.556 

.92 

16. 616 

16.624 

16.633 

16.641 

.93 

16. 701 

16. 710 

16.718 

16.727 

.94 

16.787 

16.795 

16.804 

16.812 

.95 

16.872 

16.881 

16.890 

16.898 

.96 

16.958 

16.967 

16.975 

16.984 

.97 

17.044 

17.053 

17.062 

17.070 

.98 

17.180 

17. 139 

17.148 

17.156 

.99 

17. 217 

17. 225 

17.2S4 

17.243 

8.00 

17.3033 

0 

.006    !    .006       .007    I    .008 


15.635 
15. 719 
15.803 
15.887 
15.971 
16.056 
16. 140 
16.225 
16.309 

16.394  I 

I 

16.479  ' 
16.565  j 
16.650 
16.785  I 
16.821  I 
16.907  ' 
16.993 
17.079 
17.165 
17.261 


16.644 
15.728 
15.811 
15.895 
15.980 
16.064 
16.148  I 
16.233  : 
16.318  j 
16.403  I 

16.488 
16.673 
16.658 
16. 744 
16.890 
16.915 
17.001 
17.087 
17.174 
17.260 


15.662 
15.786 
16.820 
15,904 
15.968 
16.072 
16. 157 
16.242 
16.326 
16.411 

16.496 
16.582 
16.667 
16.762 
16.838 
16.924 
17.010 
17.096 
17. 182 
17.269 


16.661 


15.744 
15.828  . 
16.912  I 
15.997 
16.081  I 
16.165  ' 
16.250  I 
16.335 
16.420 

16.605 
16.690 
16.675 
16. 761 
16.847 
16.982 
17.018 
17.105 
17. 191 
17.277 


15.663 

15.758 

15.837 

15.921 

16.005 

16.089 

16. 174 

16.258  . 

16.343 

16.428 

16.513 
16.599 
16.684  I 
16.770  ■ 
le.S.'io 
16.941  I 
17.027  I 
17.113 
17.199 
17.286 


15.677 
15. 761 
15.  R45 
15.929 
16.013 
16.096 
16.182 
16.267 
16.352 
16.437 

16.522 
16.607 
16.693 
16.778 
16.864 
16.950 
17.036 
17.122 
17.206 
17.295 


Table  4. — Discharge  w^er  a  thin-edged  weir  per  foot,  ofcrett. 


Head  . 
if,  feet.  I 

0.0 
.1 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.5 
.6 


.00 


.01 


1.0 ; 
1.1  ' 

1.2' 

1.3 

1.4 

1.5  ' 

l.fi 

1.7 

l.S 

1.9 


0.0000 

.1053 

.2978 

.M72 

.8424 

1.1773 

1.5476 

1.9503 

2.3828 

2.8432 

3.3300 

8.8418 
4. 3774 
4.9368 
5.5162 
6.1170 
6. 7394 
7. 3810 
H.0418 
H.  7212 


0.0033 

.  1215 

.3205 

.5748 

.8742 

1.2128 

1.5865 

1.9922 

2. 4276 

2.8907 

3.3W1 
3. 8943 
4.4322 
4.9929 
5. 5754 
6. 1789 
6.8027 
7.4463 
8.1689 
8.7901 


.02 


.08 


0.0094 

.1384 

.3436 

.6028 

.9084 

1.2487 

1.6257 

2.0344 

2. 4727 

2.9385 


4304 
9470 
487:^ 
fti02 
6348 
2404 
8662 
5117 
1762 
8,")92 


0.0173 

.1561 

.3673 

.6313 

.9390 

1.2849 

1.6652 

2.0770 

2.5180 

2.9865 

8. 4810 
4.0000 
4.5426 
5.1077 
5.6944 
6.3020  j 
6.9299  , 
7.5773  I 
8.2487  ' 
8. 928.i 


.04 

0.0266  , 

.1744  j 

.3915  I 

.6602 

.9719 

1.3214  I 

1.7050 

2.1198  I 

2.6637  ! 

8.0848  i 

8.5318 
4.a5S2 
4.5081  I 
5.1654  I 
5.7542 
6.3638  ' 
6.9937 
7.6431 
8.3118 
8.9980  I 


.05 

0.0372 

.1935 

.  4162 

.6895 

1.0052 

1.3583 

1.7451 

2.1629 

2.6096 

3.0834 

3.5828 
4.1067 
4. 6538 
5.2233 
5. 8143 
6.4260 
7.0578 
7.7091 
8.3792 
9.0677 


.06 

0.0489  ' 

.2131  . 

.4415  I 

.7193 

1.0889  I 

J. 3955  ! 

l.T8>5 

2.2068 

2.6558 

8.1822  I 

3.6342 
4.1604 
4.7098 
6.2814 
5.8745 
6.4888 
7. 1221 
7.7752 
8. 4 172 
9.1375 


.07 


I 


.08 


0.0617 

.2334 

.1672 

.7495 

1.0730 

1.4330 

1.8262 

2.2500 

2.7022 

3. 1813 

3.6857 
4.2143 
4.7660 
.5.3398 
5.9350 
6.5508 
7.1865 
7.8416 
8.6154 
9.2075 


0.0753 

.2543 

.4984 

.7800 

1.1074  , 

1.4709 

1.8678 

2.2910 

2.7490 

8.2306 

3.7375 

4.2384 

4.8224 

5.3984  i 

5.9957 

6.6ia5  ' 

7.2512 

7.9081 

8.5888  I 

8.2777 


0.0899 

.2758 

.6200 

.8110 

1.1422 

1.5091 

1.9086 

2.3382 

2.7959 

8.2»e 


3.789?> 
4.3228 
4.^790 
5. 4.'>?2 
6.056.5 
6.6761 
7.316** 
7.9749 
8.6524 
9.34M 


^    I 


TABLES    FOR    CALCULATING    WEIR    DISCHARGE. 


169 


Table  4. — Discharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir  per  foot  of  crest — Continaed. 


Head  !      ^ 

.01 

.02 

M 

.04 

2.0 

9.4187 

9.4894 

9.5608 

9.6814 

9.7026 

2.1 

10.1340 

10.2060 

10.2790 

10.8620 

10.4260 

2.2 

10.8660 

10.9400 

11.0160 

11.0690 

11.1640 

2.3 

11.6150 

11.6910 

11.7670 

11.8430 

11.9200 

Z4 

12.3810 

12.4690 

12.5860 

12.6140 

12.6920 

2.5     13.1690 

18.2480 

13.8210 

18.4010 

18.4800 

2.6     13.9610 

14.0410 

14.1220 

14.2080 

14.2840 

2.7     14.7740 

14.8560 

14.9880 

15.0210 

16.1080 

2.8     15.6020 

16.6860 

15l7690 

16.8'aO 

16.9880 

2.9     16.44S0 

16.6800 

16.6160 

16.7010 

16.7870 

8.0  ,  17.3088 

17.3899 

17.4698 

17.5684 

17.6608 

8.1  :  18.1754 

18.2634     18.8516 

18.4399 

18.5285 

3.2  i  19.0619 

19.1515     19.2410 

19.3307 

19.4206 

8.3  1  19.9624 

20.0538     20.1442 

20.2854 

20.8267 

3.4  1  20.8777 

20.9690     21.0618 

21.1638 

21.2464 

8.5  ,  21.8046 

21.8980  i  21.9917 

22.0866 

22.1795 

3.6     22.7456 

22.8405 

22.9854 

28.0806 

23.1259 

8.7  \  23.6999 

23.7962 

28.8924 

23.9887 

24.0852 

3.8     24.6678 

24.7646 

24.8621 

24.9600 

26.0576 

8.9 

25.6473 

2&7459 

25.8748 

25.9487 

26.0429 

4.0 

26.6400 

26.7399 

26.8401 

26.9404 

27.0406 

4.1 

27.6458 

27.7466 

27.8478 

27.9494 

28.0509 

4-2 

28.6626 

28.7652 

28.6678 

28.9708 

29.0782 

4.8 

29.6926 

29.7962 

29.9001 

80.0040 

20.l<m 

4.4 

30.7842 

30.8391 

80.9440 

31.0493 

31.1545 

4-5 

31.7878 

81.8941 

32.0006 

82.1065 

82.2128 

4.6 

32.8684 

32.9607 

38.0679 

33.1755 

38.2830 

4.7     38.9807 

84.0873 

34.1475 

34.2560 

34.8646 

4.  A     85^0198 

85.1288 

35.2354 

85.8480 

35.4578 

4.9  1  36.1182 

1 

86.2297 

36.8406 

86.4615 

36.5624 

5.0  j  37.2KM 

37.3423 

37.4542 

87.6661 

37.6783 

•  6.1  ;  38w8629 

38.4658 

88.5787 

88.0919 

38.8062 

6l2  «  39.4865 

89.6004 

39.7146 

89.8288 

39.9430 

5.3     40.6310 

40.7462 

40.5281 

40.9766 

41.0919 

5.4     41.7866 

41.9024 

42.0186 

42.1862 

42.2517 

5.5  !  42.9628 

43.0700 

48.1871 

48.3043 

43.4219 

5.6  •  44.1292 

44.2474 

44.8669 

44.4845 

44.6080 

6.7     45.8166 

45.4869 

45.5554 

45l6746 

45.7945 

6.8  ,  46.5141 

46.6347 

46.7562 

46.8757 

46.99r3 

5.9 

47.7226 

47.8488 

47.9653 

48.0869 

48.20&1 

6.0 

48.9407 

49.0682 

49.1858 

49.9083 

48.4312 

&1 

110.1694 

50.2980 

60.4162 

60.5401 

50.6687 

d.2 

51-4082 

51.6324 

51.6570 

61.7818 

51.9034 

6.3  '  52.6670 

62,7822 

52.9077 

58.0836 

53.1591 

6.4  1  58.9157 

54.0419 

64.1684 

64.2950 

64.4219 

6.5  i  55.1832 

55.3116 

66.4392 

55. 5667 

55.6943 

6.6  1  »6.4625 

56.6910 

56.7192 

56.8478 

56.9766 

6.7  \  .W.7505 

57.8801 

58.0093 

58.1388 

58.2687 

6.8     .'».0482 

60.1788 

59.3090 

50.4428 

59. 5700 

6.9 

60.3656 

60.4868 

60.6183 

60.7499 

60.8814 

9.7741 
10.4980 
11.2390 
11.9960 
12.7700 
13.6600 
14.8660 
15. 1860 
16.0220 
16.8720 

17.7876 
18.6170 
19.6106 
20.4179 
21.8890 
22.2734 
23.2211 
24. 1818 
25.1555 
26.1422 

27.1412 
28.1525 
29.1761 
80.2118 
31.2597 
32.3198 
38.8906 
84.4735 
85.6677 
36.6736 

37.7906 
38.9184 
40.0576 
41.2074 
42.868:^ 
42.5394 
44.7216 
45. 9140 
47. 1172 
48.8303 

49.5537 
50. 7875 
52.0318 
58.2850 
54.5487 
55.8221 
57. 1055 
58.3982 
59.7009 
6L0129 


9.8457 
10.6710 
11.8140 
12.0730 
12.8480 
12.6400 
14.4470 
15.2690 
16.1060 
16.9580 

17.8248 
18.7056 
19.6007 
20.5C9.) 
21.4319 
22.3677 
28.3167 
24.2787 
25.2537 
26.2414 

27.2417 
28.2544 
29.2790 
30.3168 
31.3649 
32.4259 
38.4985 
34.5824 
35.6780 
36.7845 

37.9027 
39.0819 
40. 1718 
41.3230 
42.4848 
43.6673 
44.8404 
46.0839 
47.2380 
48.4522 

49.6766 
50.9114 
52. 1681 
53.4109 
54.6756 
55.9500 
57.2340 
5K.  5281 
r)9. 8314 
61. 1415 


.07 

.08 

9.9174 

9.9894 

10.6450 

10.7180 

11.8890 

11.4640 

12.1600 

12.2270 

12.9270 

13.0050 

13.7200 

13.8000 

14.5280 

14.6100 

15.3620 

16.4860 

16.1910 

16.2760 

17.0440 

17.1300 

17.9124 

18.0000 

18.7945 

18.8838 

19.6910 

19.7812 

'20.6011 

20.6930 

21.5248 

21.6180 

22.4618 

22.5564 

28.4122 
24.3756 
26.8620 
26.8410 

27.8423 
28.3663 
29.3823 
80.4205 
31.4705 
32.5824 
38.6064 
34.6913 
35.7882 
36.8961 

38.0153 
39.1466 
40.2867 
41.4386 
42.6017 
43.7752 
44.9593 
46.1538 
47.3589 
48.5744 

49.7999 
51.0856 
52.2818 
58. 5871 
54.8025 
56.0779 
57. 3233 
58.6580 
59.9623 
61.2763 


28.5081 
24.4728 
25.4602 
26.4406 

27.4482 
28.4682 
29.4856 
90.6261 
81.6764 
32.6398 
33.7143 
34.8005 
&^8964 
37.0073 

38.1276 
39.2691 
40.4012 
41.6544 
42.7186 
48.8981 
45.0782 
46.2740 
47.4798 
48.6963 

49.9230 
51. 1595 
52.4062 
53.6630 
54.9297 
56.2061 
57. 4921 
.'W.  7882 
60.0935 
61.4082 


I 


10.0620 
10.7920 
11.6400 
12.8040 
18.0840 
13.8800 
14.0920 
15.6190 
16.3600 
17. 2170 

18.0876 
18.9727 
19.8718 
20.7849 
21.7118 
22.6510 
28.6040 
24.6697 
26.6488 
26.6401 

27.6411 
28.6604 
29.5890 
30.6297 
31.6820 
82.7462 
33.8226 
34.9097 
36.0066 
87.1188 


i  38.2404 
89.3726 
40.6161 
41.6708 
42.8355 
44.0109 
46.1974 
46.8989 
47.6010 
48.8186 

50.0462 
51.2837 
62.5314 
63.7892 
56.0669 
56.8848 
57. 6213 
58.9180 
60.2244 
61.54(M 


170        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTO,   AND   FORMULAS. 
Table  4. — Discharge  over  a  thin-edged  weir  per  foot  of  crest — Continued. 


Head 
H,  feet 

.00 

.01 

.02 

.08 

62.0692 

.04 

62.2017 

.06 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.09 

62.8657 

7.0 

61.6786 

61.8048 

61.9370 

62.3343 

62.4671 

62.6000 

62.7329 

7.1 

62.9986 

63. 1318 

63.2650 

63.3992 

63.5317 

63.6653 

68.7991 

63.9827 

64.0665 

64.2004 

7.2 

64.3343 

64.4685 

64.6027 

64.7369 

64.8711 

65.0066 

65.1268 

65.2750 

65.4095 

65.5444 

7.3 

65.6793 

65.8145 

65.9493 

66.0845 

66.2197 

66.3562 

66.4908 

66.6263 

66. 7618 

66.8977 

7.4 

67.0336 

67.1694 

67.3068 

67.4415 

67.5777 

67.7139 

67.a504 

67.9869 

68.1235     68,2600 

7.6 

68.8969 

68.5337 

68.6706 

68.8078 

68.9447 

69.0818 

69.2794 

69.3566 

69.4941 

69.6316 

7.6 

69.7695 

69.9070 

70.0449 

70.1827 

70.3209 

70.4591 

70.5973 

70.7356 

70.8737 

71.0123 

7.7 

71.1508 

71.2896 

71.4282 

71.5670 

71.7059 

71.8461 

71.9843 

?2.12S5 

72,2627 

72.4743 

7.8 

72.5414 

'?2.6809 

72.8208 

72.9608 

73.1002 

73.2400 

73.3802     73.6201 

73.6603     TS-SOa** 

7.9 

78.9410 

74.0815 

74.2220 

74.8626 

74.5031 

74.6439 

74.7848 

74.9260 

75.0669 

75.2081 

8.0 

75.8492 

75.4908 

75.6320 

75.7735 

76.9160 

76.0569 

76.1987 

76.3406 

76.4824 

7&G248 

8.1 

76.7665 

76.9087 

77.0609 

77.1934 

77.8360 

77.4784 

77.6210 

77.7638 

77.9067     78.0496 

8.2 

78.1924 

78.3356 

78.4788 

78.6220 

78.7655     78.9067 

79.a'>22 

79.1967 

79.1B96  ,  79.4834 

8.8 

79.6278 

79.7711 

79.9153 

80.0592 

80.2084 

80.8479 

80.4921 

80.6366 

80.7811     80.9260 

8.4 

81.0705 

81.2154 

81.3602 

81.5064 

81.6503 

81.7956 

81.9406 

82,0862 

82.2314 

82,8769 

8.6 

82.5224 

82.6682 

82.8141 

82.9600 

83.1068 

83.2517 

83.8979 

83.5440 

83.6902 

83.8367 

8.6 

83.9833 

84.1298 

84.2763 

84.4228 

84.6697 

84.7165 

84.8634 

85.0106 

86.1578 

85.3049 

8.7 

85.4521 

85.5996 

85.7472 

85.8947 

86.0455 

86. 1897 

86.3876 

86.4854 

86.6836 

86.7815 

8.8 

86.9297 

87.0778 

87.2264 

87.3745 

87.6231 

87.6716 

87.8204 

87.9689 

88.1178 

88.2666 

8.9 

88.4192 

88.5647 

88.7139 

88.8630 

89.0126 

89. 1617 

89.3113 

89.4608 

89.6103 

88.7602 

9.0 

89.9100 

90.0599 

90.2064 

90.3699 

90.5101 

90.6602 

90.4778 

90.9609 

9L1115 

91.2620 

9.1 

91.4125 

91.5633 

91.7142 

91.8650 

92.0159 

92. 1671 

92.8183 

92.4694 

92.6206 

92.7721 

9.2 

92.9237 

93.0782 

93.2267 

93.3785 

93.6804 

98.6822 

93.8341 

93.9863 

94.13H1 

94.2900 

9.3 

94.4428 

94.5950 

94.7475 

94.9000 

95.0529 

95.2054 

95.3582 

95.5111 

95.6689 

96.8171 

9.4 

95.9703 

96.1234 

96.2766 

96.4298  [  96.5883 

96.7368 

96.8903 

97.0442 

97.1977 

97.8516 

9.6 

97.6057 

97.6596 

97.8188 

97.9679     98.1021 

98.2763 

98.4808 

98.5858 

98.7398 

98.8943 

9.6 

99.0492 

99.2040 

99.3589 

99.5141     99.6689 

99.8211 

99.9798 

100.1344 

100.2899 

100.4455 

9.7 

100.6010 

100.7665 

100.9123 

101.0678   101.2237 

101.3799 

101.6867 

101.6919 

101,8481 

102.0042 

9.8 

102.1607 

102.3169 

102.4734 

102.6299   102.7868 

102.9433 

103.1001 

103.2570 

103.4141 

103.5710 

9.9 

108.7282 

103.8853 

104.0429 

104.2000  ,104.3676 

104.5121 

104.6726 

104.8804 

104.9882 

105.1461 

10.0 

105.8039 

105.4618 

106. 6199 

105.7781   105.9363 

106.0945 

106.2530 

106.4115 

106.5700 

106.72K5 

When  applied  to  a  weir  with  ^  end  contractions,  the  measured 
crcvst  length  Z'  should  be  reduced  by  the  formula 

When  applied  to  a  weir  having  appreciable  velocity  of  approach, 
the  measured  head  should  be  corrected  by  the  correction  formula  of 
Francis  (see  p.  15),  or  b}^  one  of  the  simpler  approximate  equivalents; 
or  the  correction  may  be  applied  as  a  percentage  to  the  discharg^^  by 
the  use  of  Table  2. 

Table  3,  taken  from  Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments,  by  James  B. 
Francis,  gives  the  discharge  for  heads  from  zero  to  3  feet,  advancing 
by  thousandths. 

Table  4  is  original  and  gives  the  discharge  for  heads  from  zero  to 
10.09  feet,  advancing  by  hundredths. 


TABLES    FOR    CALCULATING    WEIR    DISCHARGE. 


171 


Bj  increasing  the  quantities  from  either  table  1  per  cent,  the  dis- 
charge by  the  Cippoletti  formula  will  be  obtained, 

^=3.361  Z/A 

In  calculating  discharge  by  this  formula,  the  head  should  be  cor- 
rected for  velocity  of  approach  by  the  formula 

J7=i?+1.5//. 

TABLES   5   AND   6.— THREE-HALVES  POWERS. 

These  tables  of  three-halves  powers  (cubes  of  the  square  roots)  were 
prepared  by  the  writer  to  facilitate  the  calculation  of  discharge  over 
weirs  of  various  forms,  by  the  use  of  coefficients  taken  from  the 
diagrams  that  accompany  this  paper  and  the  base  formula 

Q^  CLII^. 

Table  5. — Three-halrtH  povfers  for  numbers  0  to  1.49. 


Niunbeni. 

.000 

0.0000 

.001 

.002 

.oos 

.004 

.006 

.006 

0.0006 

.007 

0.0007 

.008 

0.0008 

.000 

.010 

0.0010 

o.oo 

0.0001 

0.00Q2 

0.0003 

O.OOOl 

0.0005 

0.0009 

.01 

.0010 

.00118 

.00186 

.00154 

.00172 

.00190 

.00208 

.00236 

.00244 

.00262 

.0028 

.02 

.0028 

.00304 

.00328 

.00352 

.00876 

.00400 

.00424 

.00448 

.00472 

.00496 

.0052 

.03 

.0052 

.00548 

.00576 

.00604 

.00682 

.00660 

.00688 

.00716 

.00744 

.00772 

.0080 

.04 

.0060 

.00832 

.00864 

.00896 

.00928 

.00960 

.00992 

.01024 

.01056 

.01088 

.0112 

.05 

.0112 

.01165 

.01190 

.01225 

.01260 

.01295 

.01330 

.01365 

.01400 

.01485 

.0147 

.06 

.0147 

.01608 

.01546 

.01584 

.01622 

.01660 
.02056 

.01698 

.01736 

.01774 

.01812 

.0185 

.07 

.0185 

.01891 

.01982 

.01973 

.02014 

.02137 

.02178 

.02219 

.0226 

.08 

.0226 

.02304 

.02348 

.02392 

.02436 

.02480 

.02524 

.02568 

.02612 

.02656 

.0270 

.09 

.0270 

.02746 

.02792 

.0283M 

.02884 

.02980 

.02976 

.03022 

.08068 

.08114 

.0316 

O.IO 

0.0316 

0.08209 

0.08258 

0.06307 

0.08356 

0.08405 

0.03454 

0.08603 

00355.2 

0.03601 

0.0365 

.11 

.0365 

.03701 

.08752 

.08808 

.03854 

.08905 

.08956 

.04007 

.04058 

.04109 

.0416 

.12 

.0416 

.04218 

.04266 

.04319 

.04372 

.04425 

.04478 

.04681 

.04584 

.04687 

.0469 

.18 

.0469 

.04745 

.04800 

.04855 

.04910 

.04965 

.06020 

.05075 

.05130 

.05185 

.0524 

.14 

.0524 

.05297 

.06354 

.05411 

.05468 

.05525 

.05582 

.05639 

.05696 

.05753 

.0681 

.15 

.0681 

.05869 

.05928 

.05987 

.06046 

.06105 

.06164 

.06223 

.06282 

.06841 

.0640 

.16 

.0640 

.06451 

.06622 

.06583 

.06644 

.067a5 

.06766 

.06827 

.06888 

.06949 

.0701 

.17 

.0701 

.070T3 

.07136 

.07199 

.07262 

.07325 

.07388 

.07451 

.07514 

.07577 

.0764 

.18 

.07M 

.07704 

.07768 

.07832 

.07896 

.07960 

.08024 

.06088 

.06152 

.08216 

.0828 

.19 

.0828 

.06346 

.06412 

.08478 

.06544 

.08610 

.08676 

.08742 

.08808 

.08874 

.0894 

0.20 

0.0694 

0.09008 

0.09076 

0.09144 

0.09212 

0.09280 

0.09348 

0.09416 

0.09484 

009552 

0.0962 

.21 

.0W2 

.09690 

.09760 

.09830 

.09900 

.09970 

.10040 

. 10110 

.1018 

.1025 

.1032 

.22 

.1082 

.10891 

.10462 

.10583 

.10604 

.10675 

.10746 

.10817 

.10888 

.10959 

.1103 

.23 

.1108 

.11103 

.11176 

.11249 

.11822 

.11895 

.11468 

.11541 

.11614 

.11687 

.1176 

.24 

.1176 

.11834 

.11908 

.11982 

.12506 

.12130 

.12204 

.12278 

.12362 

.12426 

.1250 

.23 

.1250 

.12576 

.12652 

.12728 

'  .12804 

.12880 

.12956 

.13032 

.13108 

.13184 

.1326 

.26 

.1326 

.13337 

.18414 

.13491 

.13568 

.13645 

.13722 

.13799 

.13876 

.13963 

.1408 

.27 

.1408 

.14100 

.14188 

.14267 

.14346 

,  .14425 

.14504 

.14583 

.14662 

.14741  .1482 

.28 

.1482 

.1490 

.1496 

.1506 

.1514 

.1522 

1530 

.1538 

.1540 

.  1554  .  1562 

.29 

1 

.1562 

.15701 

.15782 

.15868 

1  .15944 

.16025 

.16106 

. 16187 

.  16268 

.16349  .1643 

172        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 
Table  5. — Three-halves  pmcern  for  num}}ern  0  to  1.49 — Continued. 


Numbers. 

.000 

.001 

0. 16513 

.002 

0.16696 

•OOS 

0.16679 

.004 

0. 16762 

.006 

0.16845 

.006 

0.1692H 

0.17011 

.008 

0.17094 

.000 

0.17177 

.010 

0.30 

0.1643 

0.1726 

.31 

.1726 

.17344 

.  17428 

.17512 

.17696 

.17680 

.17764 

.17848 

.17982 

.18016 

.1810 

.32 

.1810 

.18186 

.18272 

.18858 

.18444 

.18530 

.18616 

.18702 

.18788 

.18874 

.l*^*'. 

.38 

.1896 

.19047 

. 19134 

.19221 

.19808 

.19396 

.19482 

.19669 

.19656 

.19748 

.19Ki 

.34 

.1983 

.19918 

.20006 

.20094 

.20182 

.20270 

.20358 

.20446 

.206M 

.20622 

.2071 

.8fi 

.2071 

.20799 

.20888 

.20977 

.21066 

.21155 

.21244 

.21383 

.21422 

.21611 

.2160 

.86 

.2160 

.21691 

.21782 

.21873 

.21964 

.22055 

.22146 

.22237 

.22828 

.22419 

.-2251 

.37 

.2251 

.22601 

.22692 

.22783 

.22874 

.22965 

.23056 

.2317 

.23238 

.28829 

.234-2 

.38 

.2842 

.23614 

.23608 

.28702 

.23796 

.23890 

.23984 

.24078 

.24172 

.24266 

.24:v; 

.89 

.2436 

.24454 

.24648 

.24642 

.24786 

.24830 

.24924 

.26018 

.26112 

.25206 

.*2fi3U 

0.40 

0.2630 

0.25395 

0.25480 

0.26585 

0.25680 

0.26T75 

0.25870J  0.26965 

0.26060 

0.261550.262?. 

.41 

.2625 

.'26347 

.26444 

.26541 

.26638 

.26735 

.26832 

.26929 

.27026 

.27123 

.2722 

.42 

.2722 

.  27318 

.27416 

.27614 

.27612 

.27710 

.27808 

.27906 

.28004 

.  28102 

.'>«20 

.48 

.2820 

.28299 

.28397 

.28497 

.28696 

.28695 

.28794 

.28893 

.28992 

.29091 

.'2919 

.44 

.2919 

.2929 

.2939 

.2949 

.2959 

.2969 

.2979 

.2989 

.2«9 

.3009 

.3019 

.46 

.3019 

.30291 

.30392 

.30498 

.305»4 

.30695 

.307% 

.80897 

.30998 

.31099 

.31-20 

.46 

.3120 

.31302 

.31404 

.31506 

.31608 

.31710 

.31812 

.81914 

.32016 

.82118 

.3222 

.47 

.3222 

.82323 

.3242^ 

.32529 

.32632 

.  327:i5 

.32838 

.82941 

.33044 

.38147 

.8325 

.48 

.3826 

.33355 

.33460 

.33565 

.33670 

. 33775 

.33880 

.33985 

.34090 

.34195 

.34:W 

.49 

.3430 

.34406 

.34512 

.84618 

.34724 

.3483 

.34936 

.85012 

.85148 

.35264 

.35*i 

0.60 

0.8536 

0.36466 

0.36672 

0.35678 

0.35784 

0.36890 

0.35996 

0.36102 

0.36208 

0.36314 

0.3642 

.51 

.3642 

.86628 

.36636 

.36744 

.36852 

.36960 

.37068 

.87176 

.87281 

.37392 

.37.10 

.52 

.3750 

.37608 

. 37716 

.37824 

.87982 

.88040 

.38148 

.38256 

.38364 

.38472 

.Sfs.\f^ 

.68 

.8858 

.88690 

.38800 

.38910 

.89020 

.39130 

.39240 

.89850 

.39460 

.3957 

.  290A 

.54 

.3968 

.39791 

.39902 

.40013 

.40124 

.40236 

.40346 

.40457 

.40668 

.40679 

.4079 

.56 

.4079 

.40902 

.41014 

.41126 

.41238 

.41350 

.41462 

.41574 

.41686 

.41798,  .4191 
.42918  .4303 

.56 

.4191 

.42022 

.42134 

.42246 

.42358 

.42470 

.42682 

.42694 

.42806 

.67 

.4803 

.43144 

.43258 

.43372 

.48486 

.48600 

.43714 

.43828 

.43SM2 

.44(^ 

.4417 

..•>8 

.4417 

.44285 

.44400 

.44616 

.44630 

.44745 

.44860 

.44976 

.45090 

.45205 

.4,^32 

.69 

.4632 

.46436 

.46552 

.45668 

.46784 

.46000 

.46016 

.46132 

.46248 

.46364 

.4648 

0.60 

0.4648 

0.46696 

0.46712 

0.46828 

0.46944 

0.47060 

0.47176 

0.47292 

0.47408 

0. 47824  0.47M 

.61 

.4764 

.47758 

.47876 

.47994 

.48112 

.48230 

.48348 

.48466 

.48684 

.48702  .IfcKJ 

.62 

.4882 

.48938 

.49056 

. 49174 

.49292 

.49410 

.49528 

.49646 

.49764 

.49882  .5000 

.63 

.5000 

.50120 

.50240 

.5086 

.6048 

.5060 

.5072 

.6084 

.5096 

.6108 

.51-20 

.61 

.6120 

.5132 

.5144 

.5156. 

.6168 

.6180 

.6192 

.6204 

.5216 

.5228 

.5240 

.66 

.5240 

.62522 

.526-14 

.52766 

.52888 

.53010 

.53132 

.68254 

.53376 

.53496 

.5862  . 

.66 

.5362 

.53742 

.53861 

.53986 

.64108 

.64230 

.64352 

.64474 

.54596 

.64718  .6484  \ 

.67 

.6484 

.54963 

.55086 

.6V209 

.66332 

.55455 

.55578 

.55701 

-  .55824 

.55947  .5Hl»7 

.68 

.6607 

.56195 

.56320 

. 56445 

.56570 

.66695 

.56820 

.56945 

.57070 

.67196  .5752 

.69 

.5732 

.57446 

.5757 

.57695 

.57820 

.67945 

.58070 

.58195 

.58320 

.58M5  .5S57 

0.70 

0.6867 

0.58696 

0.58822 

0.58948 

0.69074 

0.59200 

0.59326 

0.59452 

0.69678 

0. 59704  0.69h3 

.71 

.5983 

.69956 

.60082 

.60208 

.60834 

.60460 

.60686 

.60712 

.60838 

.60861  .6109 

.72 

.6109 

.61218 

.61346 

.  61474 

.61602 

.61730 

.61858 

.61986 

.62114 

.62242  .6237 

.73 

.6237 

.62499 

.  62628 

.  62757 

.62886 

.63015 

.68144 

.63278 

.63402 

.63581  .63Gt> 

.74 

.6366 

.63789 

.63918 

.61W7 

.64176 

.64305 

.64484 

.64563 

.64692 

.64821  .61»'j 

.76 

.6495 

.65081 

.65212 

.65343 

.65474 

.65605 

.65736 

.65867 

.66998 

.66129  .6626 

.76 

.6626 

.66391 

.  66522 

.66653 

.66784 

. 66915 

.67046 

.67177 

.67308 

.67489  .6757 

.77 

.6767 

.67702 

.678:^4 

.  67966 

.68098 

.68230 

.68362 

.68494 

.68626 

.68768  .6889 

.78 

.6889 

.69028 

.69156 

.69289 

.60422 

.69556 

.69688 

.69821 

.69954 

.70087  .7022 

.79 

.7022 

.70353 

.70486 

.70(J19 

.70752 

.70886 

.71018 

.71151 

.71284 

.71417  .7165 

TABLES    FOR   CALCULATING    WKIR    DIflCHARliE. 
Tablk  o. — Three-kcdveat  poircrnfor  nnmltetH  0  to  /.4f* — Continued. 


178 


Numbers. 

.000 

0.7156 

.001 

0.71685 

.00)B 

0.71820 

.OOS       .004       .005    ,    .006 

0.71965  0.7a090|  0.T2225  0.72360| 

.007 

0. 72495 

.008 

0.72680 

.000    1  .010 
0.7276510.7290 

0.80 

.81 

.7290 

.78035 

.7317 

.78805 

.78440 

.785751    .73710 

.73845 

.73980 

.  74115 

.7425 

.82 

.7426 

.74387 

.74624 

.74661 

.74798 

.749851    .75072 

.75209 
.76679 

.75346 

.75488]  .7562 

.83 

.7562 

. 75757 

.75894 

.76031 

.76168 

.76805     .76443] 

. 76716 

.76853|  .7699 

.84 

.7099 

.77128 

.7T266 

.774C4 

.77542 

.77680     .77818 

.77956 

.78094 

.78232,  .7887 

.85 

.7837 

.78508 

. 78646     . 787H4 

.78922 

.79060     .99198 

.79386 

.79474 

.79612.  .7975 

.86 

.7975 

.79890|    .80080.    .80170 

.8031 

.8045       .8059 

.8078 

.8087 

.8101  !  .8115 

.87 

.8115 

.8129  1    .8143 

.8157 

.8171       .8185 

.K199  ■ 

.8213 

.8227 

.8241  1  .8255 

.88 

.8255 

.82691     .82832 

.82973 
.84386 

.83114     .83255 

.83896 

.836:n 

.88678 

.88819   .8396 

.88 

.8396 

.84102 

.84244 

.84528 

.W670 

.  84812' 

.84954 

.86096 

.85238   .8538 

0.90 

0.8588 

0.86523 

0.86666 

0.86809 

0.a5952 

0.86095  0.86238! 

0.86381 

0.86524 

0. 86667,0.  HtWl 

.91 

.8681 

.86953 

.87096 

.8723^ 

.87882 

.87525     .87668 

.87811 

.87954 

.8809*;    .8824 

.92 

.8824 

.88885|    .8853 

.88675 

.88S20     .XS9lVi     .89110' 

.89255 

.8940 

.89545   .8969 

.93 

.8969 

.89835     .89980 

.90125 

.90270|     .90415     .9056  ' 

.90705 

.9085 

.9099:>|  .9114 

.94 

.9114 

.9i2a5 

.9143 

.91575 

.91720|     .91865|     .92010 

.  92155 

.9230 

.92445   .9259 

.95 

.9269 

.92737 

.928K4 

.99081 

.98178     .93325     .98472 

.93619 

.93766 

.93913   .9406 

.96 

.9406 

.94207 

.94354 

.94501 

.  94648'     .  947951    .  94942 

.95089 

.9523(> 

.958831  .955:{ 

.97 

.9553 

.95679 

.96828 

.95977 

.96126 

.96275;     .9W24 

.96573 

.96722 

.96871    .9702 

.96 

.9702 

.97168 

.97316 

.97464 

.97612 

.97760     .97908 

.98056 

.98204 

.98352'  .9860 

.90 

.9860 

.9865 

.9880 

.9895 

.9910 

.9925  j    .9940 

.9955 

.9970 

.9985   1.0000 

1.00 

1.0000 

1.0015 

1.0080 

1.0O45 

1.0060 

1.0075     1.0090  1 

I.OIO) 

1.0120 

1.0185   1.0150 

1.01 

1.0160 

1.01652 

1.01804 

1.01956 

1.02108 

1.02260!  1.02412 

1.02564 

1.02716 

1.02868,1.0802 

1.02 

1,0902 

1.08171 

1.08322 

1.08473 

1.03624 

1.03775  1.03926 

1.04077 

1.04282 

1.04879' 1.0453 

1.03 

1.0453 

1.04683 

1.04836 

1.04989 

1.05142 

1.05295|  1.05448 

1.05601 

1.05754 

1.069071.0606 

1.04 

1.0606 

1.06213 

1.06366 

1.06519 

1.06672 

1.06825  1.06978 

1.07131 

1.07284 

1.074371.0759 

1.05 

1.0759 

1.07744 

1.07898 

1.08062 

1.08206 

1.0836o'  1.08614 

1.08668 

1.08822 

1.06976|1.0918 

1.06 

1.0913 

1.09285 

1.09440 

1.09595 

1.09750   1.09905  1.10060 

1.10215 

1.10870 

1.105251.1068 

1.07 

1.106H 

1.10836 

1.10992 

1.11148 

1.11804^  1.11460;  1.11616 

1. 11772 

1.11928 

1. 12084  ll.  1224 

1.08 

1,1224 

1.12396 

1.12552 

1.12708 

1.12864   1.13020  1.18176 

1.13332 

1.134SS 

1.18644'l.l380 

1.09 

1.1380 

1.13967 

1. 14114 

1.14271 

1.14428   1.14585   1.14742 

1.14899 

1.15056 

1.152131.1537 

1.10 

1.1537 

1.15528 

1.15686 

1.15844 

1.16002   I.16160|  1.16818 
1.17582   1.177401  1.17898 

1.16476 

1.16634 

1. 16792 1. 1695 

1.11 

1.1695 

1.17108 

1.17266 

1. 17424 

1.18066 

1.18214 

1.183721.1853 

1.12 

1.1863 

1.18689 

1.18848 

1.19007 

1.19166J  1.19325|  1.19484; 

1.19643 
1.21240 

1.19802 

1.199611.2012 

1.18 

1.2012 

1.20280 

1.20440 

1.20600 

1.20760   1.20920  1.21080 

1.21400 

1.215601.2172 

1.14 

1.2172 

1.21880 

1.22040 

1.22200 

1.22360   1.22520'  1.22880| 

1.22840 

1.23000 

1.231601.2332 

1.15 

1.2332 

1.23482 

1.23644 

1.23806 

1.23968   1.24130  1.24292 

1.24454 

1.24616 

1.247781.2494 

1.16 

1.2494 

1.25102 

1.25264 

1.25426 

1.25588   1.26750  1.25912' 

1.26074 

1. 262:^6 

1.263981.2656 

1.17 

1.2666 

1.26722 

1.26881 

1.27046 

1.27:08  1.27370,  1.27532 

1.27694 

1. 27856 

1.280181.2818 

1.18 

1.2818 

1.28843 

1.28506 

1.28669 

1.28832   1.28995 

1.29158' 

1.29321 

1.29484 

1.296471.2981 

1.19 

1.2981 

1.29974   1,30138 

L 30302 

1.30466   1.80680 

1.80791' 

1.30958 

1.31122 

1.81286'l.8145 

1 

1.20 

1.3145 

1.31615   1.31780 

1.31945 

1.32110,  1.32275 

1. 32440 

1.326a'> 

1.32770 

1.329:i5  1.3310 

1.21 

1.3310 

1.33266  1.33430 

1.83595 

1.33760   1.38925 

1.34090 

1.34255 

1.34420 

1.345H5  1.3475 

1.22 

1.3475 

1.34916  L 35082 

1.35248 

1.35414    1.35580 

1.3'>746' 

1.35912 

1.36078 

1.36244  1.3&11 

1.23 

1.3641 

1.36577  1.36744 

1.36911 

1.37678J  1.37245 

1.37412 

1.37579 

1.87746 

1.37913'l.3808 

1.24 

1.3808 

L  382471  1.38414 

1.38681 

1.38748   1.38915 

1.39082 

1.39249 

1.39416 

1.39583,1.3975 

1.25 

1.3975 

1.39919  1.40088 

1.40267 

1.40426 

1. 40595 

1.40764 

1.40933 

1.41102 

1.412711.4144 

1.26 

1.4144 

1.41608,  1.41776 
1.4329  1  1.4346 

1.41944 

1.42112 

1.42280 

1.  42448 

1.42616 

1. 42784 

1.42952  1.4312 

1.27 

1.4312 

1.4363 

1.4380     1.4897 

1.4414  1 

1.4431 

1.4448 

1.4465    1.4482 

1.28 

1.4482 

1.4499  !  1.4516 

1.4583 

1.4550     1.4567 

1.45M  1 

1.4601 

1.4618 

1. 4635  ^1. 46-V2 

1.29 

1.4652 

1.4669 

1.4686 

1.4703 

1.4720 

1.4737 

1.4754  1 

1. 4771 

1.47H8 

1.4Ma5 

1.4822 

174        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 
Table  5. — Three-halt^  powers  for  numbers  0  to  1.49 — Continued. 


Numbers. 

.000 

.001 

.002 

.008 

.004 

.006 

.006 

.007 

.008 

.000    >   .010 

1.30 

1.4822 

1.48392 

1.48564 

1.48736 

1.48908 

1.49080 

1.49262 

1.49424 

1.49696 

1.497681.4994 

1.31 

1.4994 

1.50112 

1.60-^84 

1.6045$ 

1.60628 

1.60800 

1.50972 

1.61144 

1.51316 

1.514881.6166 

1.32 

1.5166 

1.51832 

1.62004 

1.62176 

1.62348 

1.62620 

1.62692 

1.52864 

1.63036 

1.632081.5338 

1.33 

1.6338 

1.63554 

1.58728 

1.6S902 

1.64076 

1.64250 

1.64424 

1.64696|  1.54772 

1.549461.5512 

1.34 

1.5512 

1.55294 

1.56468 

1.66642 

1.66816 

1.56990 

1.66164 

1.56S88 

1.56512 

1. 56686 1.568ti 

1.36  . 

1.6686 

1.67034;  1.57208 

1.67382 

1.67656 

1.67730 

1.57904 

1.58078 

1.58252 

1.584261.5860 

1.36 

1.5860 

1.58775 

1.58950 

1.69125 

1.59300 

1.69475 

1.69650l  1.60825 

1.60000 

1.601751.603:1 

1.37 

1.6035 

1.60526 

1.60702 

1.60878 

1.61064 

1.61280 

1.61406 

1.61582 

1.61768 

1.619M  1.6211 

1.38 

1.6211 

1.62287 

1.62464 

1.62641 

1.62818 

1.62996 

1.68172 

1.63349 

1.63626 

1.637031.6388 

1.39 

1.6388 

1.64067 

1.64234 

1.64411 

1.64688 

1.64766 

1.64942 

1.65119 

1.65U96 

1.654731.6565 

1.40 

1.6665 

1.65828 

1.66006 

1.66184 

l.(?6862 

1.66540 

1.66718 

1.66896 

1.67075 

1.67252 

1.6743 

1.41 

1.6748 

1.67608   1.67786 

1.67964 

1.68142 

1.68320 

1.68498 

1.68676 

1.68854 

1.69082 

1.6921 

1.42 

1.6921 

1.69389  1.69568 

1.69747 

1.69926 

1.70i06 

1.70284 

1.7(M6S 

1.70642 

1.70821 

1.7100 

1.43 

1.7100 

1.7118  1  1,7136 

1.7154 

1.7172 

1.7190 

1.7208 

1.7226 

1.7244 

1.7262 

1.72«0 

1.44 

1.7280 

1.7298 

1.7316 

1.7384 

1.7352 

1.7870 

1.7388 

1.7406 

1. 7424 

1.7442 

1.7460 

1.45 

1.74(iO 

1.74781 

1.74962 

1. 75143 

1. 75324 

1.75605 

1.76686 

1.76867 

1.76048 

1. 76229*1. 7641 

1.40 

1. 7611 

1.76692 

1. 76774 

1.76956 

1. 77138 

1.77320 

1.77502 

1.77684 

1.77866 

1.7804s'l.7823 

1.47 

1.7823 

1.78412 

1.78594 

1.78776 

1.78958 

1.79140 

1.79822 

1.79604 

1.79686 

1.79868^1.8005 

1.48 

1.8006 

1.80233 

1.80416 

1.80599 

1.80782 

1.80965 

1.81148 

1.81831 

1.81514 

1.81697  1.8188 

1.49 

1.8188 

Table  6. — Three-halves  potuers  for  numbers  from  0  to  12. 


0.00 
.01 
.02 
.03 
.04 

.a5 

.06 
.07 
.08 
.09 

0.10 
.11 
.12 
.13 
.14 
.15 
.16 
.  17 
.18 
.19 


j: 


O.OOOojl.  0000,2. 8284 
.00101 
.00281, 
.00521 


.00801 
.01121 
.01471 
.01851 
.02261 
.  0270|1, 

0. 03161 1, 
.03(i5|l, 
.01161. 
.0469,1. 


0150  2. 8497 
0802  2.8710 
04532.8923 
0606  2.9137 
07592.9362 
09132.9567 
1068  2.9782 
1224  2.9998 
1380  3.0215 


1637  3.0432  5. 
1695  3.06505. 
1853  3.0868  5. 


20r2  3.108<}j5. 
.052411. 2172  3. 130t»i5. 


:l 


aWlll. '2332  3. 15255. 
2494  3. 1745  6. 


j; 


.0640,1 

.07011.265(>3.196(j|5. 

.07641 

.08281. 


2818  3.2187  5. 
29813.2409  5. 


1962 
2222 
2482 
2743 
3004 
S26(> 
3528 
3791 
4064 
4317 

4581 
4845 
6110 
5375 
5641 
5907 
6173 
6440 
6708 
6975 


I 


000011. 

11. 

060111. 
090211. 
120311. 


1505 
1807 
2109 
2412 11. 
2715,11, 

3019,11. 
332311, 
862711. 
393211. 


1803 

2139 

2475 

2811 14, 

314814. 

348514. 

382214. 

4160 

4497  14. 

4836!  15. 


7337 
7705 
8073 
8442 
8810 
9179 


7      I      8 


10 


18. 5203  22. 6274  27. 0000,31. 6228 
18. 6600  22. 6699!27. 04.50,31 .  6702 
089031.7177 
1351 81. 7652 
1802131.8127 


18.6997  22.7123|27. 
18.6394|22.754827. 


18.6792 
18. 7190 
18. 7689 


14.964918.7988 


22. 7973 
22.8399 
22.8825 
•22.9251 


27. 

27.2253;31.8602 

•27, 

27 


I 


991918.8387  22.9677:27. 
028918.878623.0103:27. 


270531.9078 
8156  31.9554 
360832.0030 
40rio!32.0506 


517415. 

551315. 

5852!l5. 1400,18. 9985 

6192  15.1772;i9.038l> 


066918.9185 
103018.9585 

O.IJ 


J,. 


42.37,11. 6532 
6872 
7213 


4542|11 
484811. 
5154  11. 
b\m  11. 
5767ill. 


^1 


214319.0786 
2515'l9.1187  23. 
2887:19. 1589  23. 


0530 
0957 
1884 
1812 

2240  27. 6324 '32. 2H92 
2668  27. 6778;32. 3370 
27,T232|3a.3848 


4512  32.0983, 
4965  82. 1460; 
6418  3-2. 1937 
5871 1:«.  2414 

'8;3: 


7554 

'895 
8236 


15. 3260119. 1990123. 3525 
8954 


r 


363219.239223. 
40a5 19. 2794  23. 


7686 ;«.  4326 
814032.4804 
438327.85953-2.528;? 


11 


36.4829 
36.6326 
36.5624 
36.6322 
36.6820 
86.7319 
36.7818 
36.8317 
36.8816 
36.9315 

36.9815 
37.0315 
87.0815 
87. 1315 
37. 1816 
37. 2317 
37.2817 
37.8319 
37.3820 
37.4.^22 


TABLES    FOR    CALCULATING    WEIR    DT8CHARGE.  175 

Table  6. — Three-halves  powers  for  numbers  from  0  to  12 — Continued. 


\% 


<Sl 


^ 


^^^ 


0.20 
.21 
.22 
.23 
.24 
.25 
.26 
.27 
.28 


o.ao 

.31 


.34 
.35 
.96 

.37 


0.40 
.41 
.42 
.43 
.44 
.45 
.46 
.47 
.48 
.49 

0.G0 
.51 
.52 

.54 

.» 
.56 
.57 
.58 
.59 

o.eo 

.61 


.64 
.65 
.66 
.67 
.66 
.69 


1 


! 


.09S2jl. 
.10321, 
.11031. 
.11761. 
.  12S0 1. 
.13261. 
.  14031. 
.14821. 
.  1562' 1. 

0.16431. 

.17261. 
I  .18101. 

.  18961. 

.  idssli, 

.20711 
.21601. 
.22511. 
.23421, 
.24861. 


'r 


0. 0894 1. 3145  3. 2631  5.  ?243  8. 6074,11. 8578il5. 4379 
.3310.3. 2854  J5. 7512' 
.3475I3. 3077  5.7781! 


3641 


3.8301 
38083.8525 
39753.37605.8500 
41443.3975I5.886I 
4312'3,420l'5.9192| 


8.638211.892016.4762 

8.669011.926315.5126 

5.8060i  8.6998.11.960615.5501 

8.73e7|ll.9949 


8.761SI2.0293 
8.792612.0636 
8.823512.0981 


16.;7001  19. 6021  23. 7825  28, 
4482 3. 4427 5. 9403  8. 8545 12. 1325  16. 7376 19. 6425 23. 825728. 
4652I3. 4654  5. 9675  8. 8806  12. 1670 16. 7752 19. 6830 


15.5866 
15.6250 


16.6616 


8196 
3599 
4002 
4405 
480H 
5212 


48223.48815.9947 
4994|3.51096.0220 
51663.5337  6.0498 
5338'3.55666.0767 
55123.57966.1041 
6686|3. 60256. 1315 
58603.62556.1590 


8.9167112.201515.8129 


19.7 


60353.6486 
6211 3. 6n7 
63883.6949 


6.1865 
6.2141 
6.2417 


0. 2580  L  6565  3. 7181 6. 2693 

.  2625 1. 6743  3. 7413  6. 2970 

I  .27221. 692113. 7646|6. 3247 


3.764616.3247 
iS.788ol6.8525 


.28201.7100S. 

.  29191. 728o|3. 8114  6. 3803 

.  80191. 7460:3. 8849  6. 4081 

.  3120 1. 7641 13. 868416. 4360 

.3222!l.7823'3.8819;6.4639 

.  3325|l.  8005  3. 9055'6. 4919 

{  .34301.8188:3.92926.5199 

j  I 

p.  85381. 837113. 9629  6. 5479 
.36421.85653.97666.6760 
.875o'l.87404.0004  6.6041 


.419i;i.9484 
.48031.9672 


.38581.8926 

.39681.9111 

.  4079!l.  9297  4. 07206. 6887 


4.0242  6.6323 
4.04816.6605 


4.0960,6.7170 
4.12006.7453 


.4417 1.9660,4. 1441 16. 7737 
.  4582  2. 0049*4. 1682'6. 8021 


4.19246.8306 


0.46482.0238 
.4764  2.04294.2166  6 
.48822.06194.2408  6. 
.50002.08104.26516. 


.5120'2. 1002  4. 2895.6. 
.524o|2.1]95|4.3189  6. 
.5362  2. 138814. 8388|7. 
.5484  2.158l'4.3628  7. 
.5607  2. 1775!4. 38747. 
.57822.197ok4119'7. 


8590 
8875 
9161 
9447 
9783 
0020 
0307 
0695 


7235  23. 9121  28. 3612  33. 0564 

8. 9478 12. 2361 1 15. 8606 19. 7641  23. 9563  28. 40e9[33. 1046 

«046'23. 9986  28. 4627  33. 1527 

8152  24. 041828. 4985;83. 2009 


8.979012.2706;i5.8882 
9.010212.305315.9260 


9.041412.S399;15.9637 
9.0726,12.374616.0015 
9. 104o|l2. 4093.16. 0393 
9.135312.444016.0772 
9.1667112.478816.1150 


i't 


I 


9. 2296112. 6485|16. 1909  20. 
9. 2610 12. 5833 16. 2288  20. 
9.2925,12.6182|l6.2668 
9. 3241 12. 668216. 8048  20. 
9. 8857I12. 6882 16. 8429:20. 


.9514 


10 


23. 4812  27. 9060|32. 5762; 
23. 524227. 
23.5672'27. 


23. 6102|28. 
23.653328. 
23.6963  28. 
557023.7894128. 


23.8689  28. 


32.6241' 
9960J32. 6?20 
0416132. 720o| 
0872  32.7680, 
132832.8160, 
1784  82. 8640 
2241 '32. 9121 
2698182.9600 
3155'33.0083 


I 


8858  24. 0851  28. 5444  33. 2492 
9265  24. 1285:28. 5902,33. 2974 


96T2  24. 1718  28. 6361 133. 3457 
007924.215228. 
048624.258628. 
9. 1981112. 5136'16. 152920. 0894  24.  S02l!28. 


1.682033.3940 
(.7279|33.4423 
1.773933.4906 


-1^. 


3455  28. 8199|33. 5890 
389028. 
20.2118i24.432528. 
4761  i28. 


9.387312.7232:16.3810 
9.418912.758216.4191 


9.4506 
9.4824 
9.5141 


12.7983|16.4572 
12.8284ll6.4964 
12.8635'16.5336 


5469112. 
677812.9838 


6097 
6416 


12.9691 
13.0043' 
673513.0396 
7055|l3.0749 


16. 5718 
16.6101 
16.6484 
16.6867 
16.7250 
16.7634 


9. 7375II8. 110816. 8018  20. 
9. 


j: 


>.7695il3.1457 
L  8016 13. 1811 
1.833713.2165, 


9.8659 
9.8981 
9.9808 
9.9626 


16.8402 
16.8787 
16. 9172 


13.262016. 
13.2876|l6. 
13.323117. 
13. 3587  17. 0714  2L  0769 


;.9567 
;.9943 
.0828 


9.994913.394317.1101 


10.0272 
10. 


13.429917. 
13.466617. 


1874 
10.092013.601817.2172 
13.537017.2649 
10.156913.6728,17.3087 


1302  24.  S 
171024.3 

8|2 
2627|24. 
293624. 
334624. 
375624. 
4165  24. 
457524. 
4985!24. 

I 
6396|24. 
5807  24. 
621824. 
6630J24. 
7041 24. 
7463J25. 
786625. 
827825. 
869l|25. 
9104,25. 


5196|29. 
563229. 


865933.6874 
9119  33. 6358 
957933.6842 
004033.7827' 
050l|33.7811 
0962  33.8297 


606829. 

6605  29. 142433. 8782 

694129. 

7378'29. 


L 1886  33. 9267 
>.  2847,38. 9753 


781529. 
825329. 
869129. 
9129  29. 
9567  29. 
0005'29. 
0444|29. 
088329. 
132229. 
1762  29. 


20.9931 
21.0345 


281034.0239 
827234.0725 
3735  34.1211 
4198  34.1698 
4661 134. 2185 
5124  34. 2672 
5588  34. 3159 
605234.3647 
6616  34.4135 
698034. 46-23 


20. 951825. 2202  29. 7445  34. 5111 
25.264229.791034.5599 
25.308229.8375  34.6088 
25. 3522  29. 8841 134. 6577 


2L  1174|25. 3963  29. 9806  34. 7066 
1488  21. 1589'25. 4404,29. 9772'34. 7557 


21 .  2004  25. 4845|30. 0238  34. 8045 
21. 2419  25. 5287  30. 0704134.  a535 
2I.2834I25.5729I30. 
21.3250125.6171130. 


43 

1. 1171 134. 9025 

1. 1638  34. 9516 


11 


37.4824 
87.5826 
37.5828 
37.6831 
87.6833 
37.7336 
87.7840 
87.8343 
87.8847 
87.9351 

37.9655 
38.0859 
38.0864 
88.1369 
38.1874 
38.2879 


38.3896 
38.4402 

38.4908 
38.5415 
38.5922 
88.6429 
38.6986 
88.7448 
88.7951 
88.8459 
38.8967 
88.9475 

88.9984 
39.0493 
89.1002 
39. 1511 
39.2020 
39.2580 
89.3040 
39.3550 
39.4060 
39. 4571 

89.5082 
39.5593 
39.6104 
39. 6616 
39. 7127 
39.7689 
39.8151 
39.8663 
39. 9176 
39.9689 


76  I 


176        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 
Table  6. — Three-halves  powers  for  numbers  from  0  to  12 — Continued. 


The  tables  of  three-halves  powers  may  conveniently  be  used 
in  conjunction  with  Crelle's  Rechentafeln,  or  similar  tables  of  the 
products  of  pairs  of  factors.  C  will  usually  be  constant,  or  nearly  so. 
Entering  Crelle's  tables  with  C  or  CL  as  an  argument,  the  discharge 

corresponding  to  values  of  11^  read  from  the  tables  here  given  may  be 
taken  out  directly,  and  usually  with  sufficient  precision  at  least  for 
1  foot  length  of  crest,  without  any  arithmetical  computation.     Table  o 

gives  11^  for  values  of  Htrom  zero  to  1.5  feet,  advancing  by  thou- 
sandths.    In  Table  6  the  increment  is  0.1  foot,  and  the  range  zero  to 

12  feet.  Should  77*  be  required  for  larger  values  of  H^  it  may  be 
found  from  the  three-halves  power  of  i//,  by  the  formula 


^•=8(f)' 


(114) 


TABLES    FOR   CALrULATTNO    WEIR    DTSCHARCIK. 


177 


TABLE  7.— FLOW  OVER  BROAD-CRESTBD  WEIRS,  WITH  STABLE 

NAPPE. 


This  table  gives  values  of 


where 


Z=l 

The  derivation  of  this  coefficient  is  given  in  connection  with  discus- 
sion of  broad -crested  weirs  (pp.  119-121).  It  may  be  applied  to  broad- 
crested  weira  of  any  width  of  cross  section  exceeding  2  feet  within  such 
limiting  heads  that  the  nappe  does  not  adhere  to  the  downstream  fat*e 
of  the  weir  for  low  heads  nor  tend  to  become  detached  with  increased 
head.  Under  the  latter  condition  the  coefficient  increases  to  a  limit 
near  the  value  which  applies  for  a  thin-edged  weir,  a  point  being 
finally  reached  where  the  nappe  breaks  entirely  free  from  the  broad 
crest  and  discharges  in  the  same  manner  as  for  a  thin-edged  weir. 
The  coefficient,  2.B4,  may  often  be  applied  for  weirs  exceeding  2-feet 
crest  width  and  for  heads  from  0.5  foot  up  to  1.5  or  2  times  the  breadth 
of  weir  crest.  If  corrections  for  the  velocity  of  approach  are  required 
the  Francis  correction  formula,  or  its  equivalent,  should  be  used. 

Table  7. —  IfVir  discharge  per  foot  ofcreM  length, 
[Coefficient  Ci=2M.] 


Head  H,  feet. 

" 

0 

0.000 

2.64 

% 

7.47 

8 

13.7 

4 
21.1 

5 

29.5 

6 

38.8 

7 

48.9 

8 
59.7 

9 

71.3 

10 

■ 
0.00 

83.5 

.01 

.003 

2.68 

7. 52 

13.8 

21.2 

29.6 

38.9 

49.0 

59.8 

71.4 

H3.6 

.02 

.007 

2.72 

7.58 

13.8 

21.3 

29.7 

89.0 

49.1 

59.9 

71.5 

83.7 

.08 

.014 

2.76 

7.64 

13.9 

21.4 

29.8 

39.1 

49.2 

60.1 

71.6 

8;j.9 

.M 

.021 

2.80 

7.69 

14.0 

21.4 

29.9 

39.2 

49.3 

60.2 

71.7 

84.0 

.06 

.080 

2.84 

7.76 

14.1 

21.6 

30.0 

39.3 

49.4 

60.3 

71.9 

84.1 

.06 

.089 

2.88 

7.81 

14.1 

21.6 

30.0 

39.4 

49.5 

60.4 

ri.o 

84.2 

.07 

.049 

2.92 

7.86 

14.2 

21.7 

80.1 

39.5 

49.6 

60.5 

72.1 

81.4 

.08 

.060 

2.96 

7.92 

14.3 

21.8 

30.2 

39.6 

49.7 

60.6 

72.2 

84.5 

.09 

.071 

8.00 

7.98 

14.8 

21.8 

30.3 

39.7 

49.8 

60.7 

72.3 

84.6 

0.10 

0.083 

3.04 

8.03 

14.4 

21.9 

30.4 

39.8 

49.9 

60.8 

72.5 

84.7 

.11 

.096 

3.09 

8.09 

14.6 

22.0 

30.5 

39.9 

50.0 

61.0 

72.6 

84.9 

.12 

.110 

8.13 

8.15 

14.6 

22.1 

30.6 

40.0 

50.2 

61.1 

72.7 

85.0 

.13 

.124 

3.17 

8.21 

14.6 

22.2 

30.7 

40.1 

50.3 

61.2 

72.8 

85.1 

.14 

.138 

3.21 

8.26 

14.7 

22.2 

30.8 

40.2 

50.4 

61.3 

72.9 

85.2 

.16 

.153 

8.26 

8.32 

14.8 

22.3 

30.8 

40.3 

50.5 

61.4 

73.1 

85.4 

.16 

.169 

3.30 

8.38 

14.8 

22..4 

30.9 

40.4 

60.6 

61.5 

73.2 

86.5 

.17 

.185 

3.34 

8.44 

14.9 

22.5 

31.0 

40.5 

60.7 

61.6 

73.3 

86.6 

.18 

.202 

3.38 

8.50 

15.0 

22.6 

31.1 

40.6 

50.8 

61.8 

73.4 

85.7 

1      •" 

..« 

3.« 

8.56 

15.0 

22.6 

31.2 

40.7 

50.9 

61.9 

73. .-) 

85.9 

178        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 
Table  7. —  Weir  discharge  per  foot  of  cretfl  length — Ck>ntintied. 


Head//,  feet. 

0 

1 

35 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

• 

10 

0.20 

0.236 

3.47 

8.61 

15.1 

22.7 

31.3 

40.8 

51.0 

62.0 

73.7 

86.0 

.21 

.254 

3.51 

8.67 

15.2 

22.8 

31.4 

40.9 

51.1 

62.1 

73.8 

86.1 

.22 

.272 

3. 56 

8.73 

15.2 

22.9 

31.5 

41.0 

61.2 

62.2 

73.9 

86.2 

.23 

.291 

3.60 

8.79 

15.3 

23.0 

31.6 

41.0 

51.3 

62  3 

74.0 

86.4 

.24 

.810 

3.64 

8.85 

15.4 

23.0 

81.7 

41.1 

61.4 

62.4 

74.1 

86.5 

.26 

.330 

3.69 

8.91 

16.6 

23.1 

31.8 

41.2 

51.6 

62.6 

74.3 

86.6 

.26 

.350 

3.73 

8.97 

16.5 

23.2 

81.8 

41.3 

61.6 

62.7 

74.4 

86.H    ' 

.27 

.870 

3.78 

9.03 

15.6 

23.3 

31.9 

41.4 

51.7 

62.8 

74.5     86.9    . 

.28     . 

.391 

3.82 

9.09 

15.7 

23.4 

32.0 

41.5 

61.9 

62.9 

74.6     87.0    ■ 

.29 

.412 

3.87 

9.15 

15.8 

23.4 

32.1 

41.6 

62.0 

63.0 

74.8     87.1 

0.80 

0.434 

3.91 

9.21 

15.8 

23.6 

82.2 

41.7 

62.1 

68.1 

74.9     87.8 

.31 

.466 

3.96 

9.27 

15.9 

23.6 

32.3 

41.8 

52.2 

63.2 

75.0     87.4 

.32 

.478 

4.00 

9.33 

16.0 

28.7 

32.4 

41.9 

62.3 

63.4 

75.1     87.5 

.33 

.500 

4.05 

9.39 

16.0 

23.8 

32.5 

42.0 

62.4 

68.5 

75.2 

87.6 

.34 

.524 

4.10 

9.45 

16.2 

23.9 

32.6 

42.1 

52.5 

63.6 

75.4 

87.8 

.85 

.547 

4.14 

9.51 

16.2 

24.0 

32.7 

42.2 

52.6 

63.7 

75.5 

87.9 

.86 

.670 

4.19 

9.67 

16.3 

24.1 

32.8 

42.3 

62.7 

63.8 

75.6 

88.0 

.37 

.594 

4.23 

9.63 

16.3 

24.1 

32.8 

42.4 

62.8 

63.9 

75.7 

88.2 

.38 

.618 

4.-28 

9.69 

16.4 

24.2 

32.9 

42.6 

62,9 

64.0 

76.8 

88.8 

.39 

.643 

4.33 

9.75 

16.6 

24.8 

83.0 

42.6 

63.0 

64.2 

76.0 

88.4 

0.40 

0.668 

4.37 

9.82 

16.6 

24.4 

33.1 

42.7 

68.1 

64.8 

76.1 

88.6 

.41 

.693 

4.42 

9.88 

16.6 

24.4 

83.2 

42.8 

63.2 

64.4 

76.2 

88.7 

.42 

.719 

4.47 

9.M 

16.7 

24.5 

33.3 

4i9 

68.4 

64.5 

76.3 

88.8 

.43 

.744 

4.51 

10.0 

16.8 

24.6 

33.4 

43.0 

53.6 

64.6 

76.4 

88.9 

.44 

.771 

4.56 

10.1 

16.8 

24.7 

83.5 

43.1 

68.6 

64.7 

76.6 

89.0 

.45 

.797 

4.61 

10.1 

16.9 

24.8 

33.6 

43.2 

68.7 

64.8 

76.7 

89.2 

.46 

.824 

4.66 

10.2 

17.0 

24.9 

33.7 

43.3 

68.8 

66.0 

76.8 

89.8 

.47 

.851 

4.70 

10.2 

17.1 

24.9 

33.8 

43.4 

63.9 

66.1 

76.9 

89.4 

.48 

.878 

4.75 

10.3 

17.1 

26.0 

33.9 

43.6 

64.0 

65.2 

77.0 

89.6 

.49 

.905 

4.80 

10.4 

17.2 

25.1 

34.0 

43.6 

54.1 

65.8 

77.2 

89.7 

0.50 

0.934 

4.85 

10.4 

17.3 

25.2 

34.0 

43.7 

54.2 

66.4 

77.3 

89.8 

.51 

.961 

4.90 

10.5 

17.4 

25.3 

34.1 

48.8 

54.8 

65.6 

77.4 

90.0 

.52 

.990 

4.95 

10.6 

17.4 

25.4 

34.2 

44.0 

54.4 

65.6 

77.5 

90.1 

.53 

1.02 

5.00 

10.6 

17.5 

25.4 

34.3 

44.1 

64.6 

65.8 

77.7 

90.2 

.54 

1.05 

6.04 

10.7 

17.6 

26.6 

34.4 

44.2 

64.7 

65.9 

77.8 

90.3 

.55 

1.08 

5.09 

10.8 

17.7 

25.6 

34.6 

44.3 

54.8 

66.0 

77.9 

90.5 

.56 

1.11 

5.14 

10.8 

17.7 

26.7 

34.6 

44.4 

54.9 

66.1 

78.0 

90.6 

.57 

1.14 

5.19 

10.9 

17.8 

25.8 

34.7 

44.5 

65.0 

66.2 

78.2 

90.7 

.58 

1.17 

5.24 

10.9 

17.9 

2.5.9 

34.8 

44.6 

65.1 

66.3 

78.3 

90.8 

.59 

1.20 

5. -29 

11.0 

18.0 

26.0 

34.9 

44.7 

55.2 

66.6 

73.4 

91.0 

0.60 

1.23 

5.34 

11.1 

IH.O 

26.0 

a5.o 

44.8 

55.3 

66.6 

78.6 

91.1 

.61 

1.26 

5.39 

11.1 

18. 1 

26.1 

a5.i 

44.9 

55.4 

66.7 

78.6 

91.2 

.62 

1.29 

5.44 

11.2 

18.2 

26.2 

35.2 

45.0 

55.5 

66.8 

78.8 

91.4 

.63 

1.32 

5.49 

11.2 

18.2 

26.3 

35.3 

46.1 

56.6 

66.9 

78.9 

91.5 

.64 

1.35 

5.54 

11.3 

18.3 

26.4 

35.4 

46.2 

65.7 

67.0 

79.0 

91.6 

.66 

1.38 

5.60 

11.4 

18.4 

26.5 

35.4 

45.3 

55.9 

67.2 

79.1 

91.8 

.66 

1.42 

5.65 

11.4 

18.5 

26.6 

35.5 

45.4 

56.0 

67.3 

79.3 

91.9 

.67 

1.45 

5.70 

11.5 

18.6 

26.6 

35. 6 

45.5 

56.1 

67.4 

79.4 

92.0 

.68 

1.48 

6.75 

11.6 

18.6 

26.7 

35.7 

45.6 

56.2 

67.5 

79.5 

92.1 

.69 

1.51 

5.80 

11.6 

18.7 

26.8 

35.8 

45.7 

56.3 

67.6 

79.6 

92.3 

TABLES   FOR    CALCULATlNf*    WKIR    DISCHAKGK. 
Table  7. —  Weir  discharge  per  foot  of  rrent  length — Continued. 


179 


Head  JJ.  feet 

0 

1 

2 

S 

* 

6 

6 

7 

N 

0 

10 

H 

^\ 

5.85 

11.7 

18.8 

26.9 

35.9 

45.8 

56.4 

0.70 

1.66 

67.7 

79.8 

92.4 

.71 

1.68 

5.90 

11.8 

18.9 

27.0 

86.0 

45.9 

66.5 

67.9 

79.9 

92.6 

.72 

1.61 

6.96 

11.8 

18.9 

27.1 

36.1 

46.0 

56.6 

68,0 

80.0 

92.7 

.78 

1.65 

6.01 

11.9 

19.0 

27.2 

86.2 

46.1 

56.7 

68.1 

80.1 

92.8 

.74 

1.68 

6.06 

12.0 

19.1 

27.2 

36.3 

46.2 

56.8 

68.2 

80.2 

92.9 

.76 

1.71 

6.11 

12.0 

19.2 

27.3 

36.4 

46.3 

57.0 

68.8 

90  A 

93.0 

.76 

1.76 

6.16 

12.1 

19.2 

27.4 

36.5 

46.4 

57.1 

68.4 

80.6 

93.2 

.77 

1.78 

6.22 

12.2 

19.8 

27.5 

36.6 

46.6 

67.2 

68.6 

80.6 

93.8 

.78 

1.82 

6.27 

12.2 

19.4 

27.6 

36.7 

46.6 

57.3 

68.7 

80.7 

93.4 

.79 

1.86 

6.32 

12.3 

19.5 

27.7 

86.8 

46.7 

67.4 

68.8 

80.9 

93.6 

0.80 

1.89 

6.38 

12.4 

19.6 

27.8 

36.9 

46.8 

57.6 

68.9 

81.0 

98.7 

.81 

1.92 

6.43 

12.4 

19.6 

27.8 

37.0 

46.9 

67.6 

69.0 

81.1 

93.8 

.82 

1.96 

6.48 

12.5 

19.7 

27.9 

37.1 

47.0 

67.7 

69.2 

81.2 

94.0 

.88 

2.00 

6.54 

12.6 

19.8 

28.0 

87.2 

47.1 

57.8 

69.3 

81.4 

94.1 

.84 

2.03 

6.59 

12.6 

19.9 

28.1 

87.3 

47.2 

58.0 

69.4 

81.6 

94.2 

.86 

2.07 

6.64 

12.7 

19.9 

28.2 

37.4 

47.3 

58.1 

69.5 

81.6* 

94.4 

.86 

2.10 

6.70 

12.8 

20.0 

28.3 

37.4 

47.4 

58.2 

69.6 

81.7 

94.6 

.87 

2,14 

6.76 

12.8 

20.1 

28.4 

87.5 

47.5 

58.3 

69.7 

81.9 

94.6 

;      .88 

2.18 

6.80 

12.9 

20.2 

28.5 

37.6 

47.6 

58.4 

69.9 

82.0 

94.7 

'            .88 

2.22 

6.86 

13.0 

20.2 

28.6 

87.7 

47.7 

58.5 

70.0 

82.1 

94.9 

0.90 

2.26 

6.91 

13.0 

20.8 

28.6 

37.8 

47.8 

68.6 

70.1 

82.2 

95.0 

.91 

2.29 

6.97 

13.1 

20.4 

28.7 

87.9 

48.0 

68.7 

70.2 

82.4 

95.1 

.92 

2.33 

7.02 

13.2 

20.5 

28.8 

38.0 

48.1 

68.8 

70.3 

82.5 

95.3 

.93 

2.37 

7.08 

13.2 

20.6 

28.9 

38.1 

48.2 

69.0 

70.4 

82.6 

95.4 

.94 

2.41 

7.13 

18.3 

20.6 

2910 

38.2 

48.3 

59.1 

70.6 

82.7 

96.5 

.95 

2.44 

7.19 

18.4 

20.7 

29.1 

38.3 

48.4 

59.2 

70.7 

82.9 

95.6 

.96 

2.48 

7.24 

13.4 

20.8 

29.2 

38.4 

48.5 

69.3 

70.8 

83.0 

96.8 

.97 

2.82 

7.30 

18.5 

20.9 

29.8 

38.5 

48.6 

59.4 

70.9 

83.1 

95.9 

.96 

2.56 

7.36 

13.6 

21.0 

29.3 

88.6 

48  7 

69.5 

71.0 

83.2 

96.0 

.99 

2.60 

7.41 

13.6 

21.0 

29.4 

38.7 

48.8 

59.6 

71.2 

83.4 

96.2 

1.00 

1 

2.64 

7.47 

13.7 

21.1 

29.5 

38.8 

48.9 

59.7 

71.8 

83.5 

96.3 

180  WEIB    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND   FORMULAS. 

TABLE  8.— BACKWATER  CAUSED  BY  A  DAM  OR  WEIR. 

In  a  channel  of  uniform  depth,  width,  and  slope,  let 
Z>= Original  uniform  depth. 
(/2= Depth  at  the  dam  or  obstruction. 
rfi= Depth  at  a  point  upstream. 
/= Distance  upstream  to  the  point  d^, 
?^= Width  of  channel. 

/i= Distance  upstream  to  the  '^hydrostatic  limit." 
x9=  Natural  uniform  slope  or  inclination  of  water  surface  and 
stream  bed,  assumed  parallel. 

^= Acceleration  of  gravity.  

C=  Coefficient  in  the  Chezy  or  slope  formula  ^»=  C^HS^ 

where  R  is  the  hydrauUc  radiu8=-"f*  f_J^S^.. 

wetted  perimeter 

The  value  of  (7  varies  for  rivers  from  about  50  to  140. 

The  distance  upstream  from  the  obstruction  at  which  the  depth  will 

be  d^  may  be  found  by  the  formula 


I 


7^  is  a  function  of  -v-,  whose  value  can  be  expressed  mathematically- 
only  as  a  transcendental  equation.  The  numerical  values  of  this  func- 
tion are  given  in  Table  8.     F^  will  be  found  opposite  the  argument 

-^,  and  F^  opposite  ^  . 


Fio.  15.— Concave  backwater  surface. 

The  inverse  problem  of  finding  the  depth  at  any  given  distance  / 
upstream  can  be  solved  only  by  successive  trials. 

Using  the  above  equation,  a  series  of  values  of  d^  may  be  determined 
giving  in  tabular  form  the  corresponding  values  of  I,  From  this  data 
the  form  of  the  surface  curve  may  be  graphically  shown  or  the  depth 
of  back  piling  at  any  point  may  be  interpolated. 

If  2^=5,     /7,=  10,     r=75,     .S^O.OOOl,     ^=0.5,  and  i^,=0.13lS, 


TABLES    FOB    CALCULATING    WEIB   DISCHARGE. 


181 


C'olumn  (2)  in  the  following  table  give«  the  values  of  I  for  varioiw 
values  of  d^  computed  by  means  of  formula  (115). 

Form  of  backwater  curve  above  a  dam. 


d 

I 

5 

rf,-« 

Depth, 

feet 

(1). 

Distance 
from  dam 
to  depth  di, 

feet 

(2). 

Hydrostatic 

depth  at 

distance  /, 

feet 

(8). 

Depth  of 

•'back 

piling," 

feet 

(4). 

9 

11,687 

8.88 

.17 

8 

24,277 

7.57 

.43 

7 

88,526 

6.15 

.85 

6.5 

47,024 

5.30 

1.20 

6.4 

48,798 

5.18 

1.27 

6.S 

50,796 

a5.00 

1.30 

6.2 

52,813 

a5.00 

1.20 

6.1 

55,010 

a5.00 

1.10 

6 

57,240 

a5.00 

1.00 

6.6 

67,252 

a6.00 

.60 

5.3 

82,940 

a6.00 

.30 

5.1 

101,265 

a6.00 

.10 

a  Above  hydrostatic  limit. 


If  the  pond  formed  by  the  dam  were  level,  the  hydrffstatic  depth  6 
at  any  distance  upstream  would  be 


S=d^—l  sin  S 


(116) 


Column  (3)  in  the  above  table  shows  this  factor  for  the  several  values 
of  /.  The  true  "back  piling"  or  rise  due  to  the  mrface  miruatiire  is 
expressed  by  the  difference  d^S^  as  given  in  column  (4). 

This  quantity  has  a  maximum  value  at  the  hydrostatic  limit ^  or  ter- 
minus of  the  level  pond,  where  d=D. 

Its  location  is  such  that  if  l^  is  the  distance  upstream  from  the  dam 


*•-  sin  S 


(117) 


Flo.  16.— Convex  backwater  surfnoe. 


In  the  example  given  the  hydrostatic  limit  oc(»ur8  at  a  distance 
Z,  =60,000  feet  above  the  dam,  at  which  point  the  maximum  back  piling 
of  about  1.31  feet  occurs. 

Above  the  hydrostatic  limit  the  depth  of  back  piling  is  d^-D. 


182       WEIB   EXPERIMENTS,  COEPKICIENT8,   AND   FORMULAS. 
When  S>'i (118) 

the  pond   surface  will   not  be  concave,  but  a  renwu  or   bj^draulic 
jump  will  occur,  having  a  height 


(Hi*) 

where  v^  is  the  mean  velocity  corresponding  to  rf,.  To  find  the  dis- 
tance upstream  to  the  point  where  the  jump  occurs,  solve  equation 
(115)  for  the  value  of  rf,,  found  by  formula  (119). 

If  /S=0.004        ^^=100        1^2=0.008216. 
If«/,=S         w=lOO         I}=5         i?=j^=4.56. 


4 
*"^^  1000  —^'^'"^^  '^®*  P®''  second. 


^,,  =  100^ 

Let  the  depth  at  the  dam  be  10  feet;  using  r/,  as  found  above  as  the 
terminal  depth  in  formula  (116),  we  obtain 

'='or()oi"+ ^(0:004-^^0  <^«""^»^ 

7^;  =  0.2578  i<;= 0.1318 

Z=630+(250-311)X  0.126=622.3  feet 

The  hydrostatic  limit  in  this  case  is 

10 5 

If  the  channel  above  an  obstiTiction  consists  of  successive  reaches 
having  different  slopes  or  cross  sections,  the  depth  at  the  head  of  the 
first  reach  or  level  may  be  found  by  the  method  outlined,  and  using 
this  as  the  initial  depth  d^^  a  similar  solution  may  be  made  for  the 
second  and  succeeding  levels.** 

a  Table  H  has  been  extended  from  Bresae's  original  table  by  inteipolation.  Demonstrations  of  the 
formulas  here  given  may  be  found  in  Merrtman's  or  Bovey's  Hydraulics.  In  case  of  a  faH  a  different 
function  must  be  employed.    Itn  values  will  be  found  in  the  works  mentioned. 


TABLKS    FOB   CALCULATING    WEIR   DISCHARGE. 


18JT 


Table  8. — Backwater  function  (F)  for  a  dam  or  ohstruction. 
[The  column  headloRBare  hundredthH  for  valiieftof  ^^  from  zl'th  to  0.1:9.  thousandths  for  valuw  of    , 
from  U.30  to  O.tm.  ami  ten-thoiiKandtiut  for  values  of  ^^  from  0.900  to  0.9W.] 


d 

0 

1 
F 

2 

S 

4 
F 

5 

F 

6 
F 

7 

F 

S 
F 

9 

.• 

F 

F 

0.0 

0.0000 

0.0001 

0.0008 

o.ooa5 

0.0009 

0.0013 

0.0018 

0.0026 

0.0034 

0.0042 

-1 

.oow 

.0061 

.0072 

.0085 

.0098 

.0113 

.0128 

.0045 

.0162 

.0181 

.2 

.OSJOI 

.0221 

.0243 

.0266 

.0290 

.0314 

.0340 

.o:w7 

.  0:i95 

.0425 

0.30 

0.O155 

0.0458 

0.0461 

0.(M61 

0.0467 

0.0471 

0.0474 

0.0477 

0.0480 

0.O183 

.31 

.04« 

.(M»<9 

.0193 

.0496 

.0499 

.0503 

.a'w 

.0509 

.  0.')12 

.0516 

'      .:« 

.a=>i9 

.0522 

.0526 

.0629 

.0533 

.0536 

.a'>39 

.a'>43 

.0546 

.avio 

.33 

.a>53 

.0556 

.0560 

.0563 

.0567 

.0570 

.0573 

.0577 

.or>K) 

.a-iw 

.34 

.a>7 

.0591 

.05W 

.0598 

.0601 

.0605 

.0609 

.a5r2 

.0616 

.0tU9 

.35 

.0628 

.0627 

.0630 

.0634 

.0638 

.0642 

.0615 

.0649 

.0«V>3 

.  WW) 

.36 

.066  J 

.06»H 

.0668 

.0672 

.0676 

.0680 

.0683 

.0687 

.0691 

.0695 

.37 

.0699 

.0703 

.0707 

.0711 

.0716 

.0718 

.0722 

.0726 

.0730 

.0731 

.38 

.07»t 

.0742 

.0746 

.0780 

.0754 

.0758 

.0763 

.0767 

.0771 

.0775 

.39 

.0779 

.0783 

.0787 

.0792 

.0796 

.0800 

.0804 

.0808 

.0813 

.0817 

0.40 

0.0h2I 

0.0825 

0.0830 

0.0834 

0.0839 

0.0843 

0.0847 

0.0852 

0.0N56 

0.0861 

.41 

.0^6.'> 

.0869 

.0874 

.0878 

.0683 

.0887 

.0891 

.0896 

.0900 

.0905 

.42 

.0909 

.0918 

.0926 

.0935 

.0943 

.0952 

.0961 

.0969 

.0978 

.0986 

.43 

.099.-) 

.0996 

.0997 

.0997 

.0998 

.0999 

.1000 

.1001 

.1001 

.1002 

.44 

.1003 

.1008 

.1013 

.1018 

.1023 

.1030 

.1032 

.1037 

.1042 

.1047 

.45 

.10r>2 

.1057 

.1062 

.1067 

.1072 

.1077 

.1082 

.1087 

.1092 

.1097 

.46 

.1102 

.1107 

.1112 

.1118 

.1123 

.1128 

.1133 

.1138 

.1144 

.1149 

.47 

•  IIM 

.1159 

.1165 

.1170 

.1175 

.1180 

.1186 

.1191 

.1196 

.1-202 

.4H 

.1207 

.1212 

.1218 

.1224 

.1229 

.1234 

.  1240 

.1246 

.  1215 

.1256 

.49 

.1262 

..1268 

.1273 

.1279 

.1284 

.1290 

,1296 

.1301 

.1307 

.1312 

O.ftO 

0. 131H 

0.1324 

0.1330 

0.1335 

0.1841 

0.1847 

0.1353 

0.1359 

0. 13(U 

0. 1370 

.51 

.1376 

.1382 

.1388 

.1394 

.1400 

.1406 

.1411 

.1117 

.1423 

.1429 

..V2 

.U3ft 

.1441 

.1447 

.1454 

.1460 

.1466 

.1472 

.1478 

.1485 

.1491 

..t3 

.  1197 

.1503 

.1510 

.1616 

.1622 

.1528 

.  1535 

.1541 

.1547 

.1554 

.54 

.1560 

.1566 

.  1573 

.1580 

.1686 

.1592 

.1599 

.1606 

.1612 

.1618 

..» 

.  1625 

.1632 

.1638 

.1645 

.1652 

.  1658 

.1665 

.  1672 

.1679 

.  1685 

.56 

.1692 

.1699 

.1706 

.1713 

.1720 

.1726 

.1733 

.1740 

.1747 

.1754 

.37 

.176L 

.1768 

.1775 

.  1782 

.1789 

.1796 

.1801 

.1811 

.  181H 

.  1K25 

.58 

.1832 

.1839 

.1847 

.IKVl 

.1861 

.1868 

.1876 

.1SK3 

.1890 

.1898 

.59 

.1905 

.1912 

.1920 

.1928 

.1935 

.1942 

.1960 

.  1958 

.19«k5 

.  1972 

1  0.60 

0.1980 

0.1988 

0.1996 

0.2003 

0.2011 

0.2019 

0.2027 

0.2035 

0. 2012 

0. 20.% 

,   .61 

.2058 

.2066 

.2074 

.2082 

.2090 

.2098 

.2106 

.2114 

.2122 

.2130 

.62 

.2138 

.2146 

.2155 

.2163 

.2171 

.2180 

.21H8 

.2196 

.  -220 1 

.2213 

.63 

.2221 

.2238 

.2246 

.2255 

.2264 

.2272 

.2280 

.'2-2S9 

.  2298 

.&i 

.2306 

.2315 

.2824 

.2333 

.(2342 

.23.'t0 

.23.'i9 

.2368 

.2377 

.2386 

.65 

.2395 

.24W 

.2413 

.2422 

.2431 

.2440 

.2450 

.  2459 

.2468 

.  2477 

.66 

.2486 

.2495 

.2505 

.2514 

.2524 

.2533 

.'2512 

.  2552 

.2.561 

.  2571 

.   .67 

.2580 

.2589 

.2897 

.2606 

.2615 

.2624 

.2632 

.2641 

.2650 

.2658 

.   .68 

.2867 

.2678 

.2689 

.2700 

.2711 

.2722 

.2734 

.2745 

.27.V5 

.2767 

.69 

1 

.2778 

.2788 

.2799 

.2810 

.2820 

.2830 

.2»41 

.2852 

.28(;2 

.2872 

IBB  150—06 17 


184        WEIR    EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,    AND    FORM^LA^i. 


Table  S.--liachmter  function  {F)  for  a  dam  or  obstruction — Continues!. 

[The  ooliimn  hetidlngM  are  hundredthH  for  valucM  of  ~  from  zero  to  0.29.  thousandths  for  va1u«.  »i  ^ 

a  (J 

from  0.30  to  0.899,  and  ten-thouHiindths  for  values  of  ^  from  0.900  to  0.999.1 

rf 


D 

0 

1 

i 

8 

4 

o 

6 

8 

0 

F 

/' 

F 

F 

/' 

F 

F 

F 

F 

/• 

0.70 

0.2883 

0.2894 

0.2905 

0.2915 

0. 292<) 

0. 2937 

0.2948 

0.-2959 

0.29(J9 

0.29W 

.71 

.2991 

.3002 

.3013 

.3025 

.30:^ 

.:»47 

.3058 

.:I070 

.3081 

.3093 

.72 

.3104 

.3116 

.3127 

.3139 

.8150 

.3162 

.8174 

.8186 

.3197 

.3209 

.78 

.8221 

.323:^ 

.  3245 

.32.58 

.8*270 

.3282 

.8294 

.3306 

.3319 

.3:«i 

.74 

.8343 

.3:i56 

.3:J68 

.3381 

.339:^ 

.:M0t5 

.8419 

.:i432 

.8444 

.»i:>7 

.75 

.3470 

.348!{ 

.3496 

.8510 

.3523 

.  :i53ii 

.8549 

.3568 

.8576 

.3590  \ 

.76 

.3603 

.3617 

.3630 

.8IV44 

.»i57 

.3671 

.8685 

.»i99 

.3713 

.3727 

.77 

.3741 

.3755 

.3770 

.37H4 

.3799 

.3813 

.3828 

.:JH42 

.3857 

.3871 

.78 

.3886 

.3901 

.3916 

.3932 

.8947 

.3962 

.:«77 

.3993 

.4008 

.4024 

.79 

.4039 

.4ttV» 

.4070 

.4086 

.4101 

.4117 

.4133 

.4149 

.4166 

.4182 

0.80 

0.4198 

0.4215 

0.4-231 

0. 4248 

0.4264 

0.4281 

0.4298 

0. 4315 

0.4338 

0. 4350 

.81 

.4367 

.4384 

.4402 

.4419 

.4437 

.4454 

.  4472 

.4490 

.4608 

.45-26 

.82 

.  4544 

.4563 

.  4581 

.4600 

.  461 S 

.4637 

.4('»56 

.4675 

.4695 

.4714 

.83 

.4733 

.4753 

.4772 

.4792 

.4811 

.4.^:^1 

.4851 

.  4871 

.4892 

.4912 

.W 

.4982 

.4953 

.4974 

.4995 

.  5G16 

.50:^7 

.5a59 

.5081 

.5102 

.5124 

.85 

.5146 

.  5168 

.5191 

.5213 

.  52:^«i 

.  5258 

.  5281 

.530* 

.5:«h 

..V151 

.86 

.5;i74 

.5398 

.5422 

.  5446 

.5470 

.5494 

.  5519 

.5.>44 

.  55(59 

.55W  1 

.87 

.5619 

.5645 

.5671 

.5697 

.5723 

.5719 

.  :.77(5 

.58a^ 

..58;w 

.58.J7  . 

.88 

.5884 

.5912 

.5940 

.6969 

.5997 

.6025 

.6orv> 

.60M 

.(5114 

.6143 

.89 

.6178 

.&20i 

.0235 

.6265 

.6296 

.6327 

.6359 

.6892 

.«24 

.(•►457 

0.900 

0.6489 

0.6492 

0.6496 

0.6499 

.6502 

0.6506 

0.6509 

0.(5512 

0.6.M5 

0.(5519 

.901 

.6522 

.6525 

.6529 

.&532 

.658(i 

.6539 

.0642 

.(i>46 

.6549 

.(i553 

.902 

.6556 

.6559 

.6563 

.65(>6 

.6570 

.6573 

.  ti576 

.6.580 

.  6.>:i 

.6587 

.903 

.6590 

.6594 

.6597 

.6600 

.6604 

.6608 

.«>11 

.6614 

.  (5(51  ^ 

.  i5t5-22 

.904 

.6625 

.6629 

.6632 

.(i63() 

.6639 

.6642 

.6646 

.6650 

.t56Ki 

.  (>ti.'i6 

.906 

.6660 

.6664 

.6667 

.6670 

.6674 

.6678 

.6681 

.6684 

.66KS 

.(5«i92 

.906 

.6695 

.6698 

.6702 

.6706 

.6709 

.6712 

.671« 

.6720 

.672:^ 

.  (57-215 

.907 

.6730 

.6784 

.6737 

.6741 

.  6744 

.6748 

.6752 

.6755 

.6759 

.  (57(52 

.908 

.6766 

.6770 

.6778 

.6777 

.  678() 

.6784 

.6788 

.6791 

.6795 

.679h 

.909 

.6802 

.6806 

.6809 

.  6813 

.6817 

.6820 

.6824 

.6828 

.  68:« 

.6X35 

0.910 

0.6839 

0.6843 

0. 6M6 

0.6850 

0.68.>1 

0.6858 

0.6861 

0. 68(55 

0.  (58(59 

0.6K72 

.911 

.6876 

.0880 

.()8K4 

..W87 

.(i891 

.6895 

.6S99 

.6903 

.6906 

.6910 

.912 

.6914 

.6918 

.6922 

.6925 

.6929 

.6933 

.6937 

.6941 

.'6944 

.(5iM^ 

.913 

.6962 

.6956 

.69ti0 

.  69*53 

.  ♦;967 

.6971 

.6975 

.6979 

.6982 

.69M<; 

.914 

.6990 

.6994 

.6998 

.7002 

.7000 

.7010 

.7013 

.7017 

.7021 

.702.5 

.  915 

.7029 

.70:« 

.7037 

.7011 

.7045 

.7049 

.7053 

.7057 

.7061 

.70115 

.916 

.70<J9 

.7073 

.7077 

.7081 

.7085 

.7089 

.7093 

.7097 

.7101 

.7105 

.917 

.7109 

.7113 

.7117 

.  7121 

.  7125 

.7129 

.713;^ 

.7iarr 

.7141 

.  7145 

.918 

.  7149 

.7153 

.7167 

.7161 

.  71(V5 

.7170 

.7174 

.7178 

.  7182 

.71W 

.919 

.7190 

.71W 

.7198 

.7202 

.72tKi 

.7210 

.  7215 

.  7219 

.7223 

.7227 

0.920 

0. 72:u 

0.7235 

0.7239 

0. 7244 

0.  724H 

0. 7252 

0. 7256 

0.7260 

0. 7265 

0.7269 

.921 

.  7273 

.7277 

.7281 

.728ti 

.  7290 

.7294 

.72»< 

.7302 

.7307 

.7811 

.922 

.7315 

.7319 

.  7324 

.  7328 

.7332 

.788(5 

.7841 

.7346 

.7349 

.7364 

.923 

.  7:tSh 

.  T.m 

.73t)7 

.7:^71 

.7375 

.7380 

.7884 

.7888 

.7392 

.7397 

.924 

.7101 

.7ta5 

.7410 

.7414 

.7419 

.7423 

.7427 

.  7432 

.7436 

'  .7441 

.  925 

.  7445 

.  74:)0 

.74;>4 

.746« 

.  74»» 

.74<58 

.  7472 

.  7476 

.7481 

.748t; 

.  \Y2i\ 

.7490 

.7494 

.7499 

.75(M 

.7508 

.  7512 

.7517 

.  7522 

.  75'2t5 

.7530 

.927 

.  75:i;-) 

.  7540 

.  7r>44 

.  7M9 

.  75.->3 

.755S 

.  75ea 

.7567 

.7572 

.7576  1 

.928 

.7:>H1 

.75W 

.  7.^^90 

.  7595 

.7600 

.7(504 

.7(509 

.7614 

.7619 

.1^2A    1 

.929 

.  7<i2S 

.  76:« 

.  7637 

.  7(^42 

.  7IM7 

.7(5.52 

.7656 

.7661 

.  7(K5(5 

.«;« 

TABLES    FOR   CALCULATING    WEIR    DISCHARGE. 


185 


Tablk  8. — Bwknyiter  Junction  {F)  for  a  dam  or  obstruction — Continued. 

{The  column  headings  are  hundredtlut  for  values  of   .  from  zero  to  0.29,  thoumndtliH  for  values  of  ^ 

a  a  , 

from  0.30  to  0.899.  and  ten -thousandths  for  values  of  ^-  from  0.900  to  0.999.] 

a 


_i 


D 
d 

0 

1 

a 

S 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

F 

F 

F 

F 

/• 

F 

F 

F 

F 

F 

0.990 

0.7675 

0.7680 

0.7685 

0.7t589 

0.7694 

0.7699 

0.7704 

0.7709 

0.7713 

0.7718 

.931 

.7723 

.7728 

.7724 

.7738 

.7748 

.7748 

.  7752 

.7757 

.7762 

.7767 

.932 

.7772 

.THl 

.7782 

.7787 

.7792 

.7796 

.7801 

.7806 

.7811 

.7816 

.983 

.7821 

.7826 

.7881 

.7836 

.7841 

.7846 

.7851 

.7856 

.  7861 

.7866 

.9S1 

.7871 

.7876 

.7881 

.7886 

.7891 

.7896 

.7902 

.7907 

.7912 

.7917 

.935 

.7922 

.7927 

.7982 

.7937 

.7942 

.7948 

.7953 

.7958 

.7963 

.7968 

.986 

.7973 

.7978 

.7984 

.7989 

.7994 

.8000 

.8006 

.8010 

.8015 

.8021 

.987 

.8026 

.8081 

.8087 

.8042 

.8047 

.8062 

.8068 

.8063 

.8068 

.8074 

.98K 

.8079 

.HOW 

.8090 

.8096 

.8101 

.8106 

.8111 

.8117 

.8122 

.8128 

.989 

.8133 

.8i:w 

.8144 

.8150 

.8155 

.8160 

.8166 

.8172 

.8177 

.8182 

0.940 

0.8188 

0.8191 

0.8199 

0.8205 

0.8210 

0.8216 

0.8222 

0.8227 

0-8233 

0.8238 

.»11 

.8244 

.8250 

.8256 

.  8262 

.8268 

.8274 

.8280 

.8286 

.8292 

.8298 

.942 

.8301 

.S307 

.8313 

.8318 

.8324 

.8330 

.8336 

.8342 

.8347 

.8353 

.943 

.8359 

.8365 

.8371 

.8377 

.8388 

.8388 

.8394 

.8400 

.8406 

.8412 

.9*4 

.M18 

.8424 

.8480 

.8436 

.8442 

.8448 

.8454 

.8460 

.8466 

.84?2 

.945 

.8478 

.8484 

.8490 

.8496 

.8t02 

.8508 

.8515 

.8521 

.8527 

.853:} 

.946 

.8539 

.8545 

.8552 

.8558 

.8564 

.&570 

.8577 

.8583 

.8589 

.8.596 

.947 

.8602 

.8608 

.8615 

.8621 

.8627 

.8634 

.8640 

.8(>46 

.8652 

.8(i59 

.»18 

.8665 

.8672 

.8678 

.8684 

.8691 

.  869S 

.8704 

.8710 

.8717 

.8724 

.919 

.8780 

.8736 

.8743 

.8750 

.8756 

.8762 

.8769 

.8776 

.8782 

.8788 

0.9ri0 

0.8795 

0.8802 

0.8809 

.8815 

0.8822 

0.8829 

0.8836 

0.8843 

0.8849 

0.8856 

.951 

.8863 

.8870 

.8877 

.8883 

.8890 

.8897 

.8904 

.8911 

.8917 

.8924 

.952 

.8931 

.8988 

.8945 

.8952 

.8969 

.8966 

.8974 

.8981 

.8988 

.8995 

.953 

.9002 

.9009 

.9016 

.9023 

.9080 

.9038 

.9045 

.9052 

.9059 

.9066 

.9M 

.9073 

.90HO 

.9088 

•9095 

.9108 

.9110 

.9117 

.9125 

.9132 

.9140 

.965 

.9147 

.91M 

.9162 

.9169 

.9177 

.9184 

.9191 

.9199 

.9206 

.9214 

.956 

.9221 

.9229 

.9236 

.9244 

.9252 

.9260 

.9267 

.9275 

.9283 

.9290 

.967 

.9298 

.9306 

.9814 

.9321 

.9829 

.9337 

.9&45 

.9353 

.9360 

.9368 

.958 

.9876 

.9384 

.9392 

.9400 

.9408 

.9416 

.9425 

.943:^ 

.9141 

.9449 

.959 

.9457 

.9465 

.9473 

.9482 

.9490 

.9498 

.9fi06 

.9614 

.9523 

.9531 

0.960 

0.«)39 

0.9548 

0.9556 

0.9664 

0.9673 

0.9582 

0.9590 

0.9598 

0.9607 

0.9616 

.961 

.9621 

.9632 

.9641 

.9650 

.9658 

.9666 

.9675 

.9(»a 

.9692 

.9700 

.962 

.9709 

.9718 

.9727 

.9736 

.9745 

.9754 

.9763 

.9772 

.9781 

.9790 

.963 

.9799 

.9808 

.9817 

.9826 

.9835 

.9844 

.98.>4 

.98«» 

.9872 

.9881 

.964 

.9890 

.9899 

.9909 

.9918 

.9928 

.9937 

.9947 

.9956 

.99<>i 

.9975 

.965 

.9985 

.9994 

l.OOW 

1.0018 

1.0023 

1.0082 

1.0042 

l.OOil 

1.0061 

1.0070 

.966 

1.0080 

1.0090 

1.0100 

1.0110 

1.0120 

i.oi:«) 

1.0140 

1.0150 

1.0160 

1.0170 

.967 

1.0181 

1.0191 

1.0201 

1.0211 

1.0221 

1.0231 

1.0241 

1.0251 

1.0261 

1.0271 

.968 

1.0282 

1.0292 

1.0803 

1.0814 

1.0J524 

1.0335 

1.0^46 

1.0356 

1.0367 

1.0378 

.969 

1.0389 

1.0899 

1.0410 

1.0421 

1.0432 

1.0443 

1.04.i;i 

1.0464 

1.0475 

1.0486 

0.970 

1.W97 

1.0608 

l.a519 

1.0530 

1.0542 

1.0658 

1.05<»5 

1.0576 

l.a587 

1.0698 

.971 

1.0610 

1.0622 

1.0633 

1.0645 

1.0657 

1.0668 

1.0681) 

1.0692 

1.0704 

1. 0715 

1   .972 

1.0727 

1.0789 

1.0751 

1.0763 

1.0775 

1.0788 

l.OWO 

1.0812 

1.0824 

1.0836 

'   .973 

1.0848 

1.0861 

1.0873 

1.0886 

1.0898 

1.0911 

1.0924 

1.0936 

1.0949 

1.0961 

.974 

^  1.0974 

1.0987 

LIOOO 

1.1018 

1.1026 

1.1040 

1.1053 

1.1066 

1. 1079 

1.1092 

«   .975 

'  1.1105 

1. 1119 

1.1132 

1.1146 

1.1159 

1.1173 

1.1187 

1.1200 

1. 1214 

1.1227 

1   .976 

1.1241 

1.1255 

1.1269 

1.1284 

1.1298 

1.1312 

1.1326 

1.1340 

i.i;y>5 

1.1»;9 

.977 

1.1383 

1.1896 

1.1413 

1.1427 

1.14-42 

1. 1457 

1. 1472 

1. 1487 

1.1501 

1. 1516 

.978 

1.1681 

1.1546 

1. 1562 

1. 1578 

1.1593 

1.1608 

1.1624 

1.1640 

1. 16.^5 

1.1670 

.979 

1.1686 

1.1702 

1.171S 

1.1735 

1. 1751 

1. 1767 

1.1783 

1.1799 

1.1816 

1.1832 

186        WEIR   EXPERIMENTS,   COEFFICIENTS,   AND    FORMULAS. 
Table  8. — Backwater  function  (F)  for  a  dam  or  obstruction — Continued. 
[The  column  headinf^  are  hundredths  for  value8  of  ^  from  zero  to  0.29,  thousandths  for  vahus 

of  -~  from  0.30  to  0.899,  and  ten-thou8andth.s  for  values  of  R  fnmi  0.900  to  0.999.1 
d  a 


':    0 

' 

i 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 



8 

9 

F 

F 

: 
F 

F 

F 

F 

F 

F 

f 

F 

0. 980  1. 1848 

1.1865 

1.1882 

1.1899 

1.1916 

1.19^4 

1.1951 

1.1968 

1.1965 

1.2002 

.981   1.2019 

1.20.S7 

1.2a55 

1.2073 

1.2091 

1.2109 

1.2127 

1.2145 

1.2163 

1.2181 

.982  !  1.2199 

1.2218 

1.2237 

1. 2256 

1.-2275 

1.2294 

1.2814 

1.2333 

1.2352 

1.2371 

.983  1.2390 

1.2410 

1.2430 

1. 2451 

1.2471 

1.2491 

1.2511 

1.2531 

1.2.»2 

1.2572 

.984  1.2592 

1.2614 

1.2635 

1.2656 

1.2678 

1.2700 

1.2721 

1.2742 

1.2764 

1.2786 

.985  1.2807 

1.2830 

1.2853 

1.2876 

1.2899 

1.2922 

1.2945 

1.2968 

1.2991 

1.3014 

.980  1.3037 

1.3062 

1.3086 

1.3111 

1.3136 

1. 3160 

1. 3185 

1.3210 

1.8235 

1.3259 

.987  i  1.3284 

1.3311 

1.3337 

1.3364 

1.3391 

1.3418 

1.3444 

1.8471 

1. 3498 

1.3524 

.988  !  1.3551 

1.3580 

1.3609 

1.3638 

1.3667 

1.3696 

1.3725 

1.3T54 

1.3783 

1.3812 

.989  !  1.3841 

1.3873 

1.3905 

1.3936 

1.3968 

1.4000 

1.4032 

1.4064 

1.4095 

1. 4127 

0.990  '  1.4159 

1.4194 

1.4229 

1.4264 

1.4299 

1.4334 

1.4370 

1.4406 

1.4440 

1.4475 

.991  1.4510 

1.4M9 

1.4588 

1.4628 

1.1667 

1.4706 

1.4745 

1.4784 

1.4824 

1.4863 

.992 

1.4902 

1.4947 

1.4991 

1.5036 

1.5080 

1.5125 

1.  .5170 

1.6214 

1.5259 

1.5308 

.993 

1.5348 

1.5399 

1.5451 

1..5502 

1.5563 

1.5604 

1.5656 

'1.6707 

1.5758 

1.5810 

.994 

1.5861 

1.5922 

1.5983 

1.6043 

1.6104 

1.6165 

1.6226 

1.6287 

1.6347 

1.6108 

.995 

1.6469 

1.6543 

1.6618 

1.6692 

1. 6767 

1.6841 

1.6915 

1.6990 

1.706^1 

1.7139 

.996 

1.7213 

1.7309 

1.7405 

1.7501 

1.7597 

1.7692 

1.  r;88 

1.7884 

1.7980 

1.8076 

.997 

1. 8172 

1.8307 

1.8442 

1.8677 

1.8712 

1.8848 

1.8982 

1.9118  1  1.9253 

1.9388 

.998 

1.9528 

1.97&4 

1.9986 

2.0216 

2.0447 

2.0678 

2.0910 

2. 1141 

2.1878 

2.1603 

.999 

2.1834 

1.000 



:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::  ::::;;::'.....:::.i 

INDEX 


Pa,  re. 

Al bion,  Mass.,  dam  at,  flow  over i:i2 

Angular  wein.    See  Welre,  anKular. 
Afiproach.  channel  of.    S*e  Channel  of  ap- 
proach. 

«?<-tion  of,  deAnltion  of 7 

veKx»iiy  of.    Ser  Velocity  of  approach. 

.Vsi'tiu,  Tex.,  dam  at,  flow  over 133 

Authorities  cited,  list  of 10 

Biukwater, depth  of 180-182 

depth  of,  figure:*  showing ISO,  181 

table  showing 183-186 

Bazin,  H.,  base  formula  of 9 

coeflicieiita  of.  for  thin-edged  weirs 61 

plate  showing 32 

<^)rrectlon  of,  for  velocity  of  approach  .  63-65 
experimcntH  of,  on  effect  of  rounding 

upstream  crt^st  edge 123 

on   .••iibmerged    weint  qf  Irregular 

se<'tion 1-13-U4 

on  thin-edged  weirs 29-31 

on  trapezoidal  weirs 127 

on  triangular  weirs V2A-12() 

on  weirH  of  irregular  crow*  section. .  63-85 
on  weirs  with  com{>ound  slopes..  127-128 
on    weirs  with   varying   upstream 

slopes 128-129 

plate  showing 66 

londula  of,  c(»mparison  of,  with  other 

formulas 40-42 

for  submenred  weirs 1 J 1-142  ; 

for  thin-edged  weirs 81  -.S4 

for  weirs  with  end  contraction,  use  ' 

of 45 

formulas  and  experiments  of.  on  broad- 

crestcil  weirs 117-119 

Bf llasis,  — ,  on  falls 136 

Rlack.'itone  River,  dam  on,  flow  over 132  | 

RIackwell,  T.  K..  experiments  of.  on  broad- 

cre-stcd  weirs 112-114, 122  ! 

Boileau,  P..  exp<>rimentsof,  on  thin-crested 

weirs 21-22  j 

formula  of,  compared  with  other  for-  > 

mulas 40-41 

Broad-creBted    weirs.     See  Weirs,    broad- 
created. 

C'aj'tel,  M.,  experiments  of,  on  thin-crested 

weirs 20-21 

formula  of,  compared  with  other  for- 
mulas   40-41 

Chambly  dam,  model  of,  experiments  on . .     101 


Page. 

Channel,  leading,  definition  of 7 

Channel  of  approach,  deflnition  of 7 

depth  of,  for  weir  gaging 50 

energy  in,  distribution  of 17-20 

velocity  in,  distribution  of 16-17 

Chanolne  and  Marj*,  formula  of,  for  sub- 
merged weirs 140 

Cippoletti,  Cesare,  formula  of,  for  tmi»e- 

zoidal  weirs 48-49 

weir  of,  deflnition  of 47-18 

('legg's  dam,  flow  over 112 

CoefllcientM.  relations  of 9 

Compound  weirs,  flow  over 46 

Contracted  weirs,  deflnition  of 7 

C4mtraction,  crest,  deflnition  of 8 

Contraction,  en«l.  formula  for 44-45 

Contraction,  vertical,  deflnition  of 8 

effect  of 13-14 

Cornell  Cniversity.hydniullc  lalK>ratory  of , 

description  of 86-87 

hydraulic   lalK)mtory  of,  experiments 

at 39.8.-)-107 

ex{)eriments  at,  plate  showing 86 

Crest,  character  of 52 

roughness  of,  corrections  for 13:^134 

Crest,  contraction,  definition  of 8 

Croton  dam,  crest  of,  correction  for 134 

model  of,  flow  over,  experiments  on 90-94 

flow  over,  expn'riments    on,  plate 

showing 94 

Dams,  backwater  caused  by,  depth  of 180-182 

backwater  caused  by,  depth  of,  table 

showing 183-1.S6 

Dams,  actual,  flow  over,  experiments  on . .  131-lH;i 
flow  over,  experiments  on,  plate  show- 
ing       132 

Dams,  mcxlel,  crest  of.  correction  for 133 

flow  over,  experiments  on 8H-9() 

Dams,  submerged,  dfita  con^'erning 144-1 45 

D'Aubuis.son,J.  F..  formula  of 21 

Deep  Waterways,  C.  S.  Board  of  KuKinccrs 
on,  experiments  of,  on  sub- 
merged weirs 14(1 

experiments  of,  on  weirs  of  irregular 

section s.vy(» 

on   woirs    with   varying    uiistreain 

slopes " 12S-130 

plate  showing 90 

formula  of,  for  broad-crested  weirs. . .  121-122 

Definitions  of  terms 7-8 

Desplaines  River  dam,  flow  over 112 

Dimensions,  methods  of  expressing 8 

187 


188 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Dolgeville   dam,    model    of,    experiments 

on 102 

Dyafl,  — ,  formula  of,  for  submerg^ed  weirs  . .      143 
Dyer,  C.  W.  D.,  and  Fllnn,  A.  D.,  experi- 
ment of 46. 48 

East  Indies,  engineers  of,  formulas  of,  for 

broad-crested  weirs 114-116,121 

formulas  of,  for  thin-edged  weirs 22, 40 

submerged    dams    in,    data   concern- 
ing    144-145 

Energy,  dlstributiou  of,  in  channel  of  ap- 
proach    17-20 

Error,  effect  of,  In  determining  head 53 

Essex  County, dam  of,  model  of,  experiments 

on 107-109 

Falls,  flow  over 136 

flow  over,  flgure  showing 136 

Farm  Pond,  Mass.,  experiments  on  thin- 
edged  weirs  at 28 

Flinn,  A.  D.,  and  Dyer,  C.  W.  D.,  experi- 
ments ol 45, 48 

Flow,  method  of  expressing 8 

Formulas,  comparison  of 40-42 

listof 9 

Francis,  J.  B.,  base  formula  of 9 

experiments  and  formulas  of,  for  thin- 
crested  weirs 23-26 

formula  of,  compared  with  other  formu- 
las         40 

disi'harge  by,  table  showing 1(12-171 

for  end  contractions 44 

for  weirs  of  irregular  cross  sections.        62 

weir  of.  diagram  showing .il 

Francis,  J.  B.,  and  Smith,  H.,  formula  of. 

for  thin-edged  weirs 37 

Francis,  J.  B.,  Stearns,  F.  P.,  and  Ftclcy, 
A.,  formula  of,  for  thin-edged 

weirs 26. 29. 34. 4(M1 

Freeman,  J.  U.,  experiments  of 90-94 

Frizell,  J.  P.,  formula  of,  for  broad-crested 

weirs 110-112 

Fteley  and  Steams.  Sfc  Stearns  and  Fteley. 
Fteley,  A.,  Stearns.  F.  P.,  and  Francis,  J. 
B.,  formula  of,  for  thin-edged 
weirs 26, 29. 34. 40-11 

Gaging,  aecumcy  of 53-58 

requirements  for 49-53 

Geological  Survey,  United  St^ites,  exiwri- 
ments    of,    on     broad  -  crested 

weirs 119-121 

experiment**  of,  on  rounding  upstream 

etige 123,124 

on  weirs  of  irregular  section 98-107 

on  weirs  with  varying  slopes 130 

plate  showing 106 

Go'ild.  E.   L.,    formula   of,    for   discharge 

from  nonprisniatic  reservoir 1  .vi 

formula   of,    for   discharge  from  pris- 
matic reservoir 150-152 

Gould,  £.  S.,    formula   of,    for  discharge 

from  prismatic  reservoir 151-152 

Hart  and  Hunkiiig.  formula  of,  for  thin- 
edged  weirs 25-26 


Head,  determination  of,  error  in,  effect  of.  53-67 
determination  of,  error  In,  effect  of, 

plate  showing ■>4 

effect  of  velcKJltles  on.  table  showing.  IST-lVi* 

increase  in,  effect  of 39-4U 

from  submerged  weir 142-14,; 

variation  In 53-64, 97-iPs 

diagram  showing l.i<> 

effect  of 14e-l.'Wi 

Herschel,  C,  formula  of,  for  submerged 

weirs 13»-140 

HortOD,  R.  E.,  experiments  of 95-1(^7 

Hunking  and  Hart,  formula  of,   for  thin- 
edged  weirs '2^*in 

Inclined  weirs.    See  Weirs,  inclined. 

India.    Sec  East  Indies. 

Inflow,  effect  of,  on  reser\*oir 1  lfv-lfW> 


Johnston,  T.  T.,  on  flow  over  Desplaini^s 
Ri  ver  dam 


11 


Lawrence,  Ma.ss.,  dam  at,  model  of,  experi- 
ments on ia7-l«J9 

dam  at,  model  of,  experiments  on.  plate 

showing l<iri 

Leading  channel,  definition  of 7 

Lesbros.    (>xi)erimentK  of.   on    thin-edged 

weirs I'l 

formulas  of,  compare<l  with  other  for- 
mulas         41 

I^sbros  and  Poncelet,  experiments  of,  on 

thin-edged  weirs Ji 

Lowell.  Mass.,  ex(>eriments  at 23-26, 107-  IW 

Merrimac  River,  dam  on,  experiments  on. .      H»i 
dam  on,  experiments  on,  plate  showing.      ]()>i 
Metz.  Germany,  experiments  on  thin-edged 

weirs  at 21-22 

Morris,  Elwood,  on  Clegg's  dam 1 IJ 

Muskingum  River,  dam  on.  flow  over l.fj 

Nappe,  definition  of 7 

form  of,  modifications  c»f ♦H>-^l 

modifications  of,  plate  showing m» 

Nelles,  George  T.,  data  col le<'ted  by i::i 

Notation,  explanation  of .«»  s 

O'Connell,  P.  P.  L.,  formula  of.  for  discbarge 

from  nonprismatic  rvser>-oir IV 

Orifice,  flow  through 12-i:. 

flow  throtigh,  figure  showing IJ 

Ottawa  River  dam.  Canada,  flow  over VM 

Parabolic  law  of  velocity,  application  of,  to 

weirs IJ 

Parmley,  W.  C,  formula  of,  compared  with  i 

other  formulas 40-4 1 

formula  of,  for  thln-edgcd  weirs 37-:*"       \ 

Plattsburg  dam,  model  of,  experiments  on .  9b-  U*        I 

Poncelet  and  Lesbroe,  experiments  of.  on 

thin-edged  weirs ji       j 

Rafter,  G.  W.,  experiments  of s.V'.«» 

Rankine,  W.  J.,  formula  of.  for  .<iubmerged 

weirs 142       | 

Reservoirs,  lower! ng  of,  time  required  for.  14tVl  ». 
Rhind,R.H.,fonnulaof.forsubmcrgedweini      I  il 


INDEX. 


189 


PftCft 

St*vtion  of  approach,  definition  of 7 

shairp-crested  weirs,  definition  of 7 

Smith,  Hamilton,  base  formula  of 9 

lormnla  of,  for  thin-edged  weirs 22, 

94-36. 4(M1, 44 
Smith.  H.,  and  Franci«,  J.  B.,  formula  of, 

for  thin-edged  wein« 37 

Mrarns,  F.  P., and  Fteley.  A..base  fomiulaof         9 
experiments     of,      on     broad-crested 

weiiB 116-117 

on  rounding  upper  crest 122-124 

on  thin-edged  weirs  26-29 

formula  of,  compared  with  other  formu- 
las   40-41 

for  submerged  weirs 13^139 

for  thin-edged  weirs 34 

Su-ams,  F.  P.,  Fteley,  A.,  and  Francis,  J.  B., 

form  ula  of,  for  thi  n-edged  weirs .      26, 
29,34,4(M1 
submerged  weirs.    See  Weirs,  submerged. 
Suppressed  weirs,  definition  of 7 

Thin-edged  weirs.    :k-e  Weirs,  thin-edged. 

Thom.son,  James,  experiments  of,  on  coefn- 
cient  of  contraction  for  thin- 
edged  weirs 46-47 

Three-halves  powers,  table  of 171-176 

Torricelli,  G.,  theory  of 10-11 

iheor}'  of,  application  of,  to  weir,  figure 

showing 11 

Toulouse,  France,  experiments  at,  on  thin- 
edged  weirs 20-21 

Trapezoidal  weirs.    See  Weirs,  trapezoidal. 

Triangular  weirs.    See  Weirs,  triangular. 

I'nited  States  Board  of  Engineers  on  Deep 
Waterways.  See  Deep  Water- 
ways. 

I'nited  States  Geological  Survey.  See  Geo- 
logical Survey. 

I'nwin,  W.  (?.,  formula  of,  for  broad-crested 

weirs 110-112 

Wlmities,  method  of  expressing 8 

VeKK?lty,  parabolic  law  of,  application  of . .       12 

Velocity  of  approach,  distribution  of 16-17 

distribution  of,  figure  showing 16 

efTect  of,  on  weir  discharge 14-20, 68 

correction  for 14-16, 41-43, 63-66 

table  showing   (Bunking  and 

Hart  formula) 26 

table    showing    (Parmly    and 

Bazin  formula) 38 

table  showing 169-162 

energy  of,  distribution  of 17-20 

formulas  for 14-20 

hcfid  due  to,  table  showing 157-159 

Vfrtiral  contraction.  See  Ck>ntraction,  ver- 
tical. 

Weir  i<ection,  definition  of 8 

W«ir»,  aprons  of,  variation  in,  effect  of  ..  124-127 
backwater  caused  by»  depth  of 180-182 


Page. 
Weirs,  backwater  cause<i  by,  depth  of,  table 

showing 183-186 

definition  of 7 

dischaiige  over,  relative  approximate..  10-11 

variation  in 146-154 

diagram  showing 150 

fiow  over,  calculation  of,  tables  for  . .  156-186 

measurement  of.  formulas  for 9. 

9-12,11-13,40-43 

theory  of 10-14 

gaging  at.    Sty;  Gaging, 
head  on.    See  Head. 

Weirs,  angular,  flow  over 136 

flow  over,  figure  showing 136 

Weirs,  broad-crested,  edge  of,  rounding  of, 

effect  of 124 

flow  over 110-122 

figure  showing 110 

table  showing 177-179 

Weirs,  compound,  flow  over 46 

Weirs,  contracted,  definition  of 7 

Weirs,  curved,  flow  over 13<l 

flow  over,  figure  showing 136 

Weirs,  East  Indian,  flow  over 144-145 

flow  over,  figures  showing 145 

Weirs,  flat-top,  models  of,  experiments  on.  103-105 

Weirs,  inclined,  flow  over 127-130 

flow  over,  figure  showing 57 

Weirs, irregular,  flow  over,experiment.'<on.  61-110 

flow  over,  formulas  for.  basic 62-63 

use  of 59 

Weirs,  of  sensible  crest  width,  flow  over . . .        52 

Weirs,  ogee  cross-jsectioned,  flow  over 130-131 

flow  over,  plate  showing 130 

Weirs,  submerged,  flow  over 137-146 

flow  over,  figure  showing 137 

increiise  of  head  due  to 142-143 

Weirs,  suppressed,  definition  of 7 

Weirs,  thin-edged,  definition  of 7 

discharge  over,  table  showing 162-171 

flow  over,  measurement  of,  experiments 

on  and  formulas  for 20-29, 31-16 

measurement  of.  fonnulas  for,  compari- 
son of 40-41 

formulas  for,  ex  tension  of 39^0 

Weirs,  trapezoidal,  aprons  of.  variation  in, 

effect  of 127 

cross-section  of 47 

flow  over,  formulas  for,  figures  showing .        17 

formulas  for 47 

Weirs,  triangular,  aprons  of,  variation  in, 

effect  of 124-126 

coefllcient  curve  for,  figure  showing . . .      12.> 
flow  over,  experiments  on,  figure  show- 
ing          46 

experiments  on  and  formulas  for  . .  46-47 

Weirs,  uneven,  flow  over 57-58 

Weisbach,  formula  of 40 

*'  Wetted  underneath,"  definition  of 7 

Williams,  O.  S.,  exin^riments  by 90-107 

Woodman,  R.  S.,  formula  of,  for  discharge 

from  prismatic  reservoir 151-152 


CLASSIFICATfON  OF  THE  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

[\Vau»r-«upply  I»aper  No.  I.tO.] 

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Annual  Rejwrte,  (2)  Monograplis,  (3)  ProfeHsional  Papers,  (4)  Bulletins,  (5) 
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This  paper  is  the  sixteenth  in  Series  M,  the  complete  list  of  which  follows.  (PP= 
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SKRIEH  M— <fEXERAL  H VDROGRAPHK'  IXVEMTIOATIOSS. 

WS   'j*i.  Met htid-s  of  Stream  mea-surenu' lit.    1901.    51  pp.,  12  pis. 

WS  6\.  Aeonrary  of  stream  measurt'ments.  by  K.  C.  Miirj^hy.    1902.    99  pp..  4  pLs. 

W.s  76.  OlJK*rvHtion.M  (Hi  the  flow  of  rivers  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City.  l»y  H.  A.  l're«sey.    1902. 

108  pp.,  13  pis. 
\VS  MO.  The  relation  of  rainfall  to  run-off.  by  (i.  \V.  Rafter.    190:J.    104  pi>. 
WS  M.  California  hydrography,  by  J.  B.  Lippineott.    1903.    4HX  pp.,  1  pi. 
WS  HH.  The  Passaic  flrxxi  of  1902,  by  (i.  B.  Hpllister  an«l  M.  ().  LeiRhton.     1«(W.     Vi  pp.,  15  i)ls. 
\Vs  91.  Natural  features  and  ei-onomie  development  of  the  Sandusky,  Mnumee,  MnfkinKum.  and 

Miami  dminage  Hrea.s  in  Ohio,  by  B.  U.  Flynn  and  M.  H.  Flynn.    1904.    \'M)  j»|i. 
W-«  92.  The  Passaic  floo<l  of  1903,  by  M.  O.  Leiichton.     1904.    4S  pp.,  7  pis. 
W.<  y4.  tlydrographic  manual  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  preimri'd  l)y  K.  (\  Murphy^ 

J.  C.  Hoyt,  and  G.  B.  Hollisti'r.    190J.    76  pp.,  3  pis. 
Ws  ^.  Accuracy  of  stream  measurement.s  (second  edition),  by  E.  C.  Murphy.    1901.    169  pp..  (»  pis. 
WS  96   Destnictive  floods  in  the  United  States  in  VMK\,  by  K.  V.  Murphy.    1901.    M  ])p..  13  pis, 
WS  106.  Water  rejvmrces  of  the  Philadelphia  district,  by  Florence  BtuH'Oin.    190 1.    75  pp.,  4  |)ls. 
WS  109.  Hydrography  of  the  .Su.«»quehnnna  River  drainage  bnsin,  by  J.  ('.  Hoyt  «nd  R.  H.  .\n<lersnn. 

1904.    215  pp.,  28  pis. 
Ws  116.  Water  resourct»s  near  8anta  BarUim,  ('alifornia.  b>  .1.  B.  Lippineott.     I9<i4.    W  |>p..  S  pN. 
WS  147.  Destnictive  floods  in  the  Unititl  States  in  1904,  by  E.  C.  Murphy  and  oih.rs.     ii>o.\    2in;  pp., 

18  pis, 
WS  1.50.  Weir  experiments,  coefficients,  and  formula-s,  by  R.  K.  Horton.    19(x;.     isy  pi*.,  3S  pis. 

Correspondence  Hhould  be  addressed  to 

The  I)ike<tok, 

Unite!^  States  (teoi/kikal  SrRVEY, 

WAsniN(;T()N,  I).  C. 
Jastary.  1906. 


Water-Sapply  and  Irrigation  Paper  No.  151 


Senas  L,  Qaalitj  of  Water,  11 


DKPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

UNITED  STATES  (iEOUXHCAL  SURVEY 

CHARLES  D.  WALCOTT.  Dirfxtor 


FIELD  ASSAY  OF  WATER 


BY 


MARSHALL  O.  LEIGHTON 


WASHINGTON 

aOYEBNMENT    PRINTING    OPFIOB 
1905 


CONTENTS. 


Lfetter  of  transmittal 7 

IntrodQction ._ __ _ 9 

Sanitary  analyses - .  _ 10 

Inorganic  an^yaes _. ..- 13 

General  observations 16 

Field  determinations 17 

Suspended  matter 18 

Methods  of  determination 18 

Turbidity 22 

United  States  Geological  Survey  turbidity  rod 23 

Description _ 23 

Objections _ 25 

Jackson's  turbidimeter 1 26 

Description _  _ 26 

Tests 29 

Probable  error 40 

Color 41 

Occurrence 41 

Color  standards 42 

G^eological  Survey  standard 42 

Field  standards _ . .  48 

Description _.. 43 

Use 44 

Iron 45 

Chlorides... 47 

Laboratory  determination 47 

Field  determination ..  50 

Standard  silver-nitrate  tablets 50 

Practical  tests  of  method _ 53 

Estimation  of  chlorine .- 55 

Hardness ..-  56 

General  statement 56 

Field  method  of  determination _ _ 57 

Use  of  sodium-oleate  tablets 57 

Test  of  sodium-oleate  tablets 57 

Estimation  of  hardness _ 61 

Hardening  constituents 62 

Classes 62 

Carbonates 63 

Tests  of  sodium  acid-sulphate  tablets 63 

EiStimation  of  alkalinity 66 

Normal  and  add  carbonates 66 

Sulphates 69 

Determination  by  turbidimeter 70 

Precautions 73 

Calcium _ '. 73 

Instruments  and  reagents _  _ 74 

Index 77 

3 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Page. 

Platk  I.  Jackson's  candle  tnrbidimeter _ 26 

n.  Tabes  and  disks  for  determining  color  of  water 46 

III.  United  States  Geological  Survey  tablet  case 50 

rV.  United  States  Geological  Survey  field  case 74 

Fig.  1.  Jackson^s  electric  tnrbidimeter _ 28 

2.  Logarithmic  scale  of  turbidity 38 

8.  Turbidity  curve 39 

5 


LETTER   OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 
United   States    (ieological    Sirvey, 

Hydro«raphi('  Branch, 
Washington^  Z>.  C.^  June  »9,  1905. 
Sir:  I  transmit  herewith  a  manuscript  entitled  "Field  Assay  of 
Water,-'  by  Marshall  O.  Leighton,  and  request  that  it  l)e  published  as 
one  of  the  series  of  Water-Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers. 

In  this  manuscript  are  described  and  discussed  the  methods  which 
have  for  some  time  been  used  with  success  in  connection  with  the 
investigations  into  the  quality  of  water  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States  carried  on  by  the  division  of  hydro-economics.  As  the  meth- 
ods have  proved  of  value,  it  is  l)elieved  that  their  publication  in  the 
form  submitted  will  be  of  general  interest. 

Very  respectfully,  F.  H.  Newell, 

(^hief  Engineer. 
Hon.  Charles  D.  Walcott, 

Director  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

7 


FIELD  ASSAY  OF  WATER 


By  M.  O.  Leighton. 


INTRODUCTION. 

A  chemist  aims  to  secure  exceeding  refinement  in  analytical  meth- 
ods and  results.  He  seldom  considers  whether  or  not  a  method  is 
sufficiently  exact  for  certain  broad  purposes.  The  fact  that  it  is 
incomplete,  approximate,  or  susceptible  of  refinement  is  to  him  suffi- 
cient reason  for  improving  or  rejecting  it  at  the  first  opportunity. 

The  scrutiny  to  which  chemical  methods  have  been  subjected  in 
the  endeavor  to  secure  exact  results  has  led  in  many  cases  to  processes 
so  complicated  and  expensive  that  in  commercial  work  the  advan- 
tages do  not  compensate  for  the  increased  cost  and  delay  which  the 
methods  involve.  The  result  has  been  that  the  chemical  profession 
distinguishes  between  two  classes  of  chemical  methods  which  differ 
in  degree  of  accuracy.  The  first  includes  the  exact  methods,  which 
afford  results  as  nearly  perfect  as  chemical  procedure  will  permit. 
Such  methods  are  used  in  all  cases  where  minute  differences  in  analy- 
sis would  cause  errors  in  interpretation  or  in  subsequent  chemical 
procedure.  The  second  class  consists  of  "  commercial  methods,"  so 
called  because  the  results  obtained  by  them,  while  departing  from 
the  actual  truth,  are  sufficiently  accurate  to  insure  the  profitable  con- 
duct of  industrial  chemical  processes  without  appreciable  error  or 
waste.  Methods  of  the  first  class  are  the  product  of  chemistry, 
while  those  of  the  second  are  used  in  response  to  the  demands  of 
expediency — they  are  good  enough  for  the  purposes  for  which  they 
are  used. 

In  no  branch  of  chemistry  are  approximate  results  more  service- 
able than  in  the  analysis  of  water  for  hydro-economic  surveys,  or 
surveys  made  to  determine  the  value  of  water  and  its  applicability 
for  use  in  domestic  supply,  boilers,  industries,  etc.  Under  the  condi- 
tions which  generally  prevail  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  long,  tedious, 
and  expensive  processes  in  order  to  secure  a  determination  of  the 
character  and  amount  of  foreign  constituents  in  water.  It  is  the 
practice  in  such  cases  to  secure  a  sample  of  the  water  and  transport 


10  FIELD   ASSAY    OF    WATER.  Ino.151. 

it  to  a  laboratory,  where,  after  conventional  delays,  it  is  passed 
through  the  usual  course  of  analysis. 

There  has  in  the  past  been  surprisingly  little  discrimination  usetl 
with  reference  to  the  selection  of  determinations  for  specific  purposes, 
and  as  a  general  rule  the  same  procedure  has  usually  been  followed 
without  regard  to  the  object  of  the  particular  investigation.  If  the 
purpose  of  the  analysis  is  to  determine  the  incrusting  constituents, 
the  course  pursued  has  been  to  follow  the  entire  analytical  procedure. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  desired  to  determine  the  amount  of  organic 
pollution  in  a  water  and  show  its  value  for  domestic  use,  the  chemist 
forthwith  begins  the  round  of  nitrogen  determinations,  and  closes 
with  a  statement  of  the  oxygen  consumed  and  the  number  of  bacteria 
per  cubic  centimeter.  In  only  a  few  well-known  laboratories  has 
this  rule  been  violated,  and  such  is  the  conservatism  in  the  chemical 
profession  that  it  will  probably  be  largely  followed  in  future.  Con- 
servatism is  the  safeguard  of  science  and  one  of  the  most  commenda- 
ble qualities  of  a  chemist,  but  an  excess  is  sometimes  almost  as  bad  as 
a  deficiency. 

SANITARY  ANALYSES. 

The  requisites  to  be  met  by  a  water  in  almost  every  line  of  special 
development  are  broad  and  flexible.  In  the  sanitary  analysis  certain 
results  receive  certain  interpretations,  which  remain  generally 
unchanged  if  the  results  are  varied  by  1,  2,  3,  or  sometimes  even  10 
per  cent.  A  strange  feature  in  connection  with  sanitary  analyses  of 
water  is  that,  in  addition  to  insisting  upon  superrefinement,  many 
chemists  persist  in  making  determinations  that  are  admittedly  to  no 
purpK)se.  It  is  a  common  thing  to  see  an  analyst's  report  of  a  water 
containing  the  results  of  determinations  of  albuminoid  and  free 
ammonia,  nitrates,  and  nitrites,  accompanied  by  a  footnote  statin|i^ 
that  these  results  are  unworthy  of  trust  and  mean  very  little,  except 
to  verify  conclusions  made  from  inspection  of  the  territory  from 
which  the  water  was  taken.  In  case  such  conclusions  do  not  agree 
with  the  analytical  evidence,  the  latter  is  invariably  discredited. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  day  the  great  and  growing  swarm  of 
water  analysts  will  awaken  to  the  fact  that  sanitary  analyses,  as  gen- 
erally applied  and  interpreted,  are  but  a  successioii  of  unrelated 
absurdities.  Water  experts,  who  encounter  real  problems,  who  must 
use  analytical  data  as  a  basis  for  the  design  and  construction  of 
purification  plants,  and  whose  varied  experience  has  taught  them  that 
in  the  United  States  the  waters  are  as  diverse  in  character  as  the 
climates,  have  learned  a  few  things  not  taught  in  text-books  nor  antic- 
ipated in  the  beautiful  theory  of  the  oxidation  of  organic  matter. 

The  occasional  isolated  sanitary  analysis  of  water  is  positively  with- 
out value.    There  are  throughout  the  country  numerous  State,  munic- 


LMCHTON.!  SAKITABY  ANALYSES.  11 

ipal,  and  private  laboratories  in  which  sanitary  analyses  are  car- 
ried on.  The  water  analyzed  to-day  may  be  from  a  well,  to-morrow 
from  a  brook,  and  the  next  day  from  a  pond.  From  the  results  of  a 
single  analysis  wise  and  ponderous  verdicts  are  sent  broadcast,  and 
the  eager,  waiting  public  is  duly  impressed.  No  one  understands 
how  singularly  misleading  a  sanitary  analysis  of  water  can  be  until  he 
has  examined  the  results  of  such  analyses  of  samples  taken  daily  or 
hourly  from  the  same  source ;  then  he  sees  that  in  general  only  a  few 
single  analyses  in  the  group  contain  results  which  would  admit  of  the 
interpretation  that  is  finally  placed  upon  the  series. 

If  there  is  at  hand  a  well-defined  problem  which  involves  the  con- 
sideration of  nitrogenous  matter  and  the  state  in  which  it  appears  in 
a  water,  certain  daily  nitrogen  determinations  are  of  undoubted 
value;  not,  however,  by  reason  of  the  absolute  amounts  which  are 
revealed  in  each  determination,  but  by  reason  of  the  daily  relations 
and  variations  which  appear  in  the  successive  analyses,  and  upon 
which  interpretations  can  be  placed.  This  statement,  it  should  be 
emphasized,  refers  almost  entirely  to  water  slightly  or  moderately 
polluted,  and  does  not  include  sewage.  The  organic  matter  normally 
occurring  in  a  natural  water,  or  what  may  be  more  accurately 
described  as  a  highly  dilute  sewage,  is,  after  all,  practically  infini- 
tesimal in  amount.  The  diflSculties  attendant  upon  a  determination 
of  nitrogen  in  its  various  forms  and  the  true  interpretation  of  the 
results,  grow  less  and  less  as  the  amount  of  organic  matter  is  increased. 
Yet,  even  with  strong  sewages  some  of  the  determinations,  such  as 
albuminoid  ammonia  and  nitrites,  are  not  usually  productive  of  val- 
uable information. 

In  an  article  entitled  "The  composition  of  sewage  in  relation  to 
problems  of  disposal,"  *»  Mr.  George  W.  Fuller  discusses  in  a  charac- 
teristically clear  manner  an  experiment  which  illustrates  the  apparent 
futility  of  the  albuminoid-ammonia  determination,  as  follows : 

lUustrative  of  the  varying  relation  of  nitrogen  In  the  form  of  albuminoid  am- 
monia to  the  total  organic  nitrogen  present  In  raw  sewage,  there  are  given 
below  in  a  table  the  results  of  an  experiment  made  in  the  Lawrence  laboratory 
and  published  in  the  1804  report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  board  of  health, 
page  461.  A  bottle  of  fresh  sewage  was  analyzed  just  after  its  collection  and 
again  at  frequent  intervals,  allowing  the  natural  decomposition  processes  to 
take  place  at  room  temperature.  In  this  table  it  is  seen  that  fresh  sewage 
contains  dissolved  oxygen,  coming,  of  course,  from  the  water  supply  which  forms 
the  principal  portion  of  the  sewage.  It  also  contains  nitrogen  in  the  form  of 
nitrates,  as  well  as  other  salts  which  are  completely  oxidized.  Through  the 
agency  of  the  bacteria  and  the  oxygen  dissolved  in  the  water  and  yielded  by  the 
oxidized  salts,  the  carbon  of  the  organic  matter  is  oxidized  and  the  organic 
nitrogen  uniting  with  the  hydrogen  forms  free  ammonia. 


•  Technology  Quarterly.  June,  1903,  pp.  143-144. 


12 


FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER. 


[NO.  151. 


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LEIGHT0N.1 


SANITABY  ANALYSES. 


13 


Thus  it  is  seen  from  the  results  in  the  table,  page  [12],  that  the  dissolved  oxy- 
^D  and  the  nitrates  gradually  disappear,  the  bacteria  for  a  time  increase,  the 
oxygen  consumed  (carbonaceous  matter)  decreases,  the  nitrogen  as  free  ammo- 
nia increases,  and  the  organic  nitrogen  (Kjeldahl)  decreases.  The  nitrogen 
HH  albuminoid  ammonia,  however,  remains  approximately  constant,  notwith- 
standing that  more  than  20  parts  of  organic  nitrogen  are  changed  to  free  am- 
monia, and  some  5  or  6  parts  of  free  nitrogen  escape  into  the  atmosphere. 

The  nitrite  determination,  which  has  been  regarded  by  many  as 
one  of  the  most  valuable  pollution  indicators,  fluctuates  in  a  stream 
or  reservoir  according  to  the  amount  of  available  oxygen  rather  than 
the  amount  of  organic  matter  undergoing  oxidation.  It  will  rise 
and  fall  in  amount  when  there  is  a  positive  certainty  that  it  can  not 
be  due  to  increase  or  decrease  of  organic  pollution.  Nevertheless, 
many  an  interpretation  has  been  made  largely  on  the  evidence  pre- 
v^ented  by  this  determination. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  sanitary  water  analyses  reported 
include  the  determination  of  oxygen  consumed,  a  test  which  is 
dependent  upon  so  many  features  that  as  a  whole  the  great  mass  of 
determinations  which  have  been  made  are  valueless  for  purposes  of 
comparison.  The  following  table,  compiled  by  Mr.  George  W. 
Fuller,  shows  clearly  the  relative  results  of  the  determinations  made 
according  to  different  methods.  In  short,  the  only  practical  value  of 
the  "  oxygen-consumed  "  determination  is  in  its  application  to  highly 
polluted  waters  of  the  same  general  character  and  origin,  and  then 
only  for  purposes  of  comparison  between  the  successive  determina- 
tions made  by  absolutely  the  same  method.  In  other  words,  it  is 
essentially  a  sewage  determination. 

Approximate  comparison  of  average  amounts  of  oxygen  consumed  by  sewage  and 
seicage  effluents  as  shown  by  different  methods. 


Method. 


of  Bolntion. 


Kftbel,  as  practiced  at  Boston  and  gener- 
aUy  in  America. 

Kubel,  as  practiced  at  Lawrence,  Mass 

Ktibel,  as  practiced  in  Germany 


English  official  tests 


do t  2  minutes 

do 10  minutes 

f80°F 3  minutes 

.  -do 15  minutes 

-.do I  4hours 

''Absolute"  oxygen consamed I  Boiling  ..., do 


Boiling  ...    5  minutes  . 


'^^/"^SP.'S*^^    Period  of  contact,    ^f^^ 

1.00 

.65 
1.25 
.20 
.35 
.60 
4.00 


"!- 


INORGANIC  ANALYSES. 


In  the  determination  of  inorganic  constituents  in  a  water  it  would 
make  no  difference,  in  the  decision  to  accept  or  reject  that  water  for 
boiler  use,  for  irrigation,  or  for  manufacturing,  if  the  harmful  con- 
stituents were  conteined,  for  example,  in  the  proportion  of  40,  44, 
or  48  grains  per  gallon.    The  lines  dividing  good  and  bad  water  for 


14 


FIELD   ASSAY    OF   WATER. 


[NO.  151. 


boiler  purposes  are  very  broad.  If  a  water  contains  a  certain  amount 
of  incrusting  constituents  and  a  method  used  is  inaccurate  to  a  limit  of 
5,  or  even  10,  per  cent,  it  would  not  lead  tx>  the  acceptance  of  a  bad 
water  or  the  rejection  of  a  good  one.  The  "  good "  and  "  bad  " 
provinces  are  approached  too  gradually  to  admit  of  such  consequences. 

Another  error  arises  from  the  conventional  methods  of  expression 
of  results.  If  the  analyst  finds  that  a  water  contains  certain  amounts 
of  calcium,  magnesium,  sodium,  and  potassium,  and  certain  equiva- 
lents of  the  carbonate,  sulphate,  and  chloride  radicals,  he  unites  thest* 
substances  according  to  methods  which  are  apparently  not  uniform 
and  entitled  to  little  scientific  justification.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  if  several  chemists,  each  independent  of  every  other,  analyze  a 
certain  water,  there  will  almost  invariably  be  wide  differences  in  the 
expression  of  results. 

Dr.  F.  W.  Clarke,  chief  chemist  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  in  a  recent  communication  has  given  an  excellent  illustration 
of  the  various  hypothetical  combinations  w^hich  may  be  made  of  the 
results  of  a  single  analysis  of  water.  The  statements  are  set  forth  in 
the  following  table.  Each  series  of  combinations  is  based  upon  a 
generally  accepted  hypothesis,  and  each  represents  a  water  that  is 
tt'tally  different  from  the  others. 


Analpsis  of  water  from  artesian  well  at  Macomb,  IIL<^ 
[Orams  per  liter.] 


Statement  in  ionic  form 


SiO,  . 
Al,08 
Fe,0, 
SO4  . 
CO,-. 

a ... 

Na-.. 
K.... 
Ca... 
Mg  .. 


Statement  according  to  hypothetical  combinations. 


a  Bv  Qeorge  Steiger,  laboratory  of  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
<»  AljOg,  FegOa,  SiO*,  conventionally  retarded  as  colloidal, 


i.KinirroN.l  INORGANIC   ANALYSES.  15 

The  inorganic  constituents  of  a  water  should  invariably  be  ex- 
pressed as  positive  and  negative  ions,  and  if  so  expressed  the  result 
determined  according  to  approximate  methods  is  as  valuable  as  the 
expression  of  precisely  determined  constituents  united  according  to 
the  individual  ideas  of  the  analyst. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

A  practical  disadvantage  in  chemical  water  surveys  arising  from 
the  insistence  on  refined  methods  of  analysis  and  lack  of  discTim- 
ination  in  the  choice  of  specific  determinations  is  the  delay  which 
arises  in  securing  valuable  information  with  refei^ence  to  wide  areas. 
Jlonths  and  even  years  have  Ikhmi  spent  upon  water  surveys  covering 
only  a  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  country.  Two  examples 
are  here  cited. 

The  most  important  chemical  survey  in  the  United  States  has  been 
carried  on  since  1888  by  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts.  This 
survey  work  may  safely  Ix^  taken  as  the  standard  in  this  or  any  other 
country.  During  this  period  of  sixteen  years  the  appropriations  for 
the  work  have  been  on  an  average  about  $30,000  a  year,  making  a 
total  cost  of  not  far  from  $480,000.  A  large  part  of  this  sum  has 
l)een  used  to  pay  expenses  of  experimentation  and  can  not  be  charged 
to  water  survey.     The  work  was  confined  to  Massachusett-s. 

In  the  year  1898  the  Ohio  State  board  of  health  commenced  an 
examination  of  the  principal  streams  of  the  State,  making  monthly 
analyses  of  samples  of  water  taken  from  numerous  points  along 
the  various  streams.  This  work  was  continued  five  years  before  the 
State  was  covered,  and  there  resulted  merely  a  large  number  of  peri- 
odical analyses  in  sets  of  twelve,  showing  the  character  of  the 
stream  water  and  its  variation  according  to  local  conditions. 

These  two  cases  are  typical.  No  one  would  claim  that  all  the 
results  could  have  been  reached  by  the  use  of  field  methods.  Un- 
doubtedly a  large  part  of  them  could  have  been  obtained  far  more 
cheaply  and  quickly,  and  there  would  have  been  no  loss  to  the  cause 
of  pure  water,  nor  to  science  generally,  had  some  of  the  determina- 
tions been  omitted. 

Among  water  analysts  there  seems  to  be  a  general  tendency  to  attack 
every  water  problem  as  though  the  object  were  to  prove  its  fitness  or 
unfitness  for  drinking  purposes.  In  many  investigations  it  is  well 
known  at  the  outset  that  the  water  can  not  be  used  for  domestic  pur- 
I>oses  and  the  problem  is  of  quite  another  character.  The  conven- 
tional grind  of  nitrogen  determinations  has  been  made  to  do  service 
in  almost  every  conceivable  water  problem.  It  has  been  used  fre- 
quently in  investigating  pollution  problems  in  which  organic  matter 
bad  absolutely  no  part.    A  study  of  the  results  obtained  in  many 


16  FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER.  [no,  151. 

laboratories  will  show  that  in  the  routine  work  a  number  of  deter- 
minations could  be  omitted  without  detriment.  These  facts  are 
mentioned  in  order  to  emphasize  the  point  that  if  care  and  dis- 
crimination were  used  in  the  selection  of  tests  the  work  necessary 
in  carrying  on  chemical  surveys  might  be  decreased  and  the  money 
available  for  such  work  might  be  distributed  over  a  wider  field; 
results  of  more  immediate  use  might  be  secured  and  the  completion 
of  a  chemical  survey  would  not  be  postponed  for  the  benefit  of  future 
generations.  "  Commercial  methods  "  serve  useful  purposes  in  man- 
ufacturing; the  success  of  enormous  industrial  plants  is  dependent 
upon  them,  and  in  water  surveys  they  would  at  least  be  businesslike. 

It  was  these  considerations,  in  connection  with  the  knowledge  of 
ihe  vast  areas  covered  by  the  United  States,  which  led  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  through  its  hydro-economic  division,  to 
investigate  the  practicability  of  employing  field  methods  for  the 
determination  of  important  characteristics  of  water.  It  was  realized 
that  if  there  could  be  provided  a  few  simple  tests,  the  apparatus  for 
which  could  be  taken  into  the  field  and  used  on  the  spot,  large  areas 
might  be  covered  in  a  sjiort  time,  and  if  it  were  necessary  for  any 
reason  to  make  periodical  determinations  the  cost  of  the  work  would 
still  be  small  and  the  total  would  not  run  up  into  the  large  sums 
which  have  been  spent  in  such  investigations.  In  general,  the  testi- 
mony of  a  large  number  of  approximate  results  is  far  more  repre- 
sentative of  actual  conditions  than  that  of  one  or  two  refined  analyses. 

The  idea  of  testing  waters  in  the  field  is  by  no  means  new.  Ver\' 
successful  field  tests  have  been  carried  on  by  numerous  authorities. 
Probably  one  of  the  most  successful  systems  now  in  use  is  that  of  the 
Bureau  of  Soils,  Department  of  Agriculture.  Another  excellent  field 
outfit  for  sanitary  analysis  has  been  devised  and  used  with  satisfaction 
by  Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards.  Several  others  are  noteworthy.  They  all 
involve  the  use  of  considerable  apparatus  and  the  carrying  of  stand- 
ard solutions.  Specially  equipped  wagons  are  necessary  in  some 
cases.  In  others  the  variety  of  determinations  is  limited  or  the 
equipment  can  not  be  used  in  an  extensive  circuit  without  renewal  of 
reagents.  The  difficulty  of  carrying  solutions  and  complex  apparatus 
into  the  field  is  obvious.  The  ideal  equipment  is  one  which  can  be 
carried  on  journeys  afoot  or  on  horseback  without  much  fatigue. 
The  sources  of  useful  or  desirable  water  supply  are  not  distributed 
with  reference  to  the  railroad  or  wagon  routes  and  the  field  man  must 
often  climb  mountains  or  trace  obscure  trails  to  accomplish  his  pur- 
pose. The  outfit  should  contain  a  sufficient  supply  of  reagents  to 
serve  for  a  large  number  of  determinations  without  renewal.  The 
processes  should  be  rapid  and  the  results  fairly  accurate  and  compre- 
hensive. Finally,  the  equipment  should  be  provided  with  material 
for  so  various  a  series  of  determinations  that  with  proper  discrim- 


LKiGHTox.)  FIELD    DETERMINATIONS.  17 

ination  the  essential  characteristics  of  a  water  may  be  shown,  whether 
the  purposes  l)e  domestic  or  industrial  water  supply,  irrigation,  or 
any  other  special  line  of  utilization.  Volumetric  methods  requiring 
the  use  of  burettes  are  objectionable;  gravimetric  methods  are  impos- 
sible. Therefore,  in  the  Survey's  study  of  field  methods  the  whole 
matter  developed  into  a  question  of  choosing  the  most  useful  deter- 
minations and  so  modifying  the  volumetric  methods  that  their  us(» 
would  be  practicable,  while  at  the  same  time  they  would  give  a  degree 
of  accuracy  sufficiently  close  for  all  practical  purposes. 

To  the  methods  hereinafter  proposed  the  term  "  assay  ''  readily 
lends  itself.  There  is  no  attempt  at  water  analysis.  The  plan  contem- 
plates the  determination  of  ingredients  which  give  to  water  certain 
well-known  characteristics.  The  methods  and  the  suggestions  with 
reference  to  their  application  are  only  tentative  and  will  be  modified 
as  experience  may  dictate.  As  they  stand  they  are  the  result  of 
extended  experimentation,  and  the  tests  to  which  they  have  been  put 
show  that  they  are  practicable.  They  have  been  found  to  be  more 
nearly  accurate  than  was  at  first  anticipated,  though  this  fact,  it  is 
believed,  has  not  greatly  increased  their  usefulness  for  the  purposes 
in  view.  By  their  use,  combined  with  a  fair  amount  of  common 
sense,  the  essential  characteristics  of  waters  can  be  ascertained  at 
small  expense.  In  almost  every  situation  in  which  such  determina- 
tions are  significant  they  will  afford  sufficiently  satisfactory  data. 
In  the  case  of  finely  balanced  considerations  of  a  purely  physical, 
chemical,  or  geologic  nature,  however,  they  are  practically  useless. 
They  are  intended  for  practical  purposes  and  have  no  place  in  pure 
science. 

FFEIiD  DETERMIXATIOXS. 

The  following  determinations  are  described  on  subsequent  pages : 

1.  Turbidity. 

2.  Color. 

3.  Iron. 

4.  Chlorine  or  total  chlorides. 

5.  Total  hardness. 

6.  Alkalinity. 

7.  Normal  carbonates. 

8.  Bicarbonates. 

9.  Total  sulphates. 
10.  Calcium. 

It  should  be  stated  at  the  outset  that  the  successful  operation  of 
these  methods  depends,  as  in  all  chemical  procedure,  upon  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  applied.  A  failure  to  insist  upon  strict  compli- 
ance with  the  rules  laid  down  may  result  in  total  failure, 

iRB  151—05 2 


18  FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER.  [xo.lSL 

SUSPENDED  MATTER. 

The  turbidity  of  water  is  that  j)r()pertv  which  is  imparted  to  it  by 
substance  carried  in  suspension.  In  many  parts  of  the  United  States 
waters  are  often  extremely  muddy,  and  when  this  condition  is  main- 
tained during  long  periods  it  becomes  one  of  the  most  serious  diffi- 
culties with  which  the  water-supply  enginet»r  has  to  deal.  Turbid 
water  is  ()bje(!tionable  for  domestic  use.  In  industrial  operations, 
especially  in  those  in  which  w^ater  enters  into  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses, turbidity  is  a  factor  which,  if  not  removed,  may  exert  a  harm- 
ful influence  upon  the  manufactured  products.  It  is  also  important 
in  connection  with  irrigation  works.  One  of  the  serious  troubles  in 
Western  reservoirs  is  loss  of  storage  capacity  due  to  silt  deposits-  In 
the  construction  of  irrigation  canals  the  amount  of  turbidity  usually 
carried  by  the  water  often  determines  the  grade  of  the  canal.  Such 
canals  nnist  have  grade  sudicient  to  cause  the  flowing  water  to  carry 
along  suspended  matter  and  not  allow  it  to  settle.  If  this  is  not  taken 
into  consideration,  the  nuiintenance  of  the  irrigation  system  Ixjcomes 
extremely  expensive,  and  cases  have  occurred  where  the  canals  have 
l>een  practically  filled  by  the  deposits  of  suspended  matter. 

The  suspended  substances  causing  turbidity  are  of  various  char- 
acters. They  are  found  often  in  a  flocculent  condition,  settling 
readily  when  the  water  which  carries  them  becomes  quiescent.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  tiu'bid  matter  is  often  made  up  of  minute  par- 
ticles of  clay,  so  fine  that  they  pass  through  certain  filtering  media. 
In  some  cases  the  problem  of  removing  turbidity  from  the  water  is 
so  diflicult  that  the  process  which  may  be  successful  is  so  radical  that 
it  will  remove  also  dissolved  organic  material  and  even  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  bacteria. 

METHODS    OF   DETERMINATION. 

There  are  several  methods  of  estimating  the  proportion  of  sus- 
pended matter  in  a  water,  all  but  one  of  which  have  their  particular 
fields  of  usefulness.  The  first  is  merely  a  statement  of  the  observer's 
.opinion  of  the  degi-ee  of  turbidity,  such  as  ''very  slight,'*  "slight,'' 
"distinct,"  or  "decided."  Although  this  method  of  estimation  has 
no  real  value,  it  is  used  by  many  w^ater  chemists. 

The  secoiKJ  method  is  also  based  upon  the  appearance  of  the  water, 
but  dillVrs  from  the  first  in  that  a  definite  and  fairly  well-fixed  basis 
of  comi)ariM)n  is  provided.  A  water  containing  no  suspended  matter 
is  j)racti(ally  transparent,  but  matter  in  suspension  intercepts  the 
rays  of  traii>mitted  light.  An  observer  can  see  objects  distinctly 
through  a  body  of  clear  water,  but  as  the  water  becomes  more  and 
more  nuuldy  the  objects  can  be  seen  less  and  less^  distinctly  until 


LEiGHTOX.l  SUSPENDED   MATTER.  19 

they  are  quite  lost  to  view.  Now,  it  has  been  found  by  experiment 
that  there  is  a  fairly  definite  relation  between  the  proportion 
of  light  rays  intercepted  and  the  amount  of  matter  in  suspension. 
This  relation  varies  somewhat  with  the  character  of  the  sus- 
pended matter  and  with  the  size  of  the  particles,  but  for  the  purpose 
to  which  this  method  of  measurement  is  applicable  the  variations  do 
not  often  seriously  affect  the  interpretations  placed  upon  the  results. 
The  details  of  the  method  will  be  explained  on  later  pages  under  the 
caption  "  Turbidity."  For  the  present  it  will  be  sufficient  to  state 
that  it  has  found  its  greatest  usefulnass  in  connection  with  the 
adaptation  and  operation  of  water-filtration  plants  and  sewage- 
disposal  works. 

The  third  method  of  measuring  the  amount  of  suspended  matter 
in  water  consists  in  separating  it  from  a  weighed  portion  of  the  fluid 
by  filtration,  weighing  the  filtered  water,  and  stating  the  difference 
between  the  two  weights  as  suspended  matter.  The  form  of  state- 
ment commonly  used  is  parts  of  suspended  matter  per  million  of 
water,  milligrams  per  liter,  or  some  other  comprehensive  proportion. 
Tliis  is  undoubtedly  the  best  method  of  determination,  as  it  is  rela- 
tively accurate  and  can  be  used  in  the  study  of  all  water  problems. 
Its  practical  disadvantage  is  that  the  determination  requires  a  large 
amount  of  time  and  can  not  be  economically  performed  in  serial 
investigations  without  considerable  equipment  and  tedious  labor. 
It  is  also  true  that  the  processes  for  which  a  knowledge  of  suspended 
matter  is  necassary  will  generally  in  practical  work  be  as  well  served 
by  an  approximate  determination  as  by  a  precise  one;  therefore  the 
cruder  methods,  based  upon  photometry,  are  more  often  used.  • 

There  is,  however,  no  necessarily  constant  relation  between  the 
weight  of  suspended  matter  in  a  given  volume  of  water  and  the 
turbidity  produced.  A  certain  weight  of  suspended  substance  of 
one  kind  does  not  usually  produce  the  same  degree  of  turbidity  as 
a  similar  weight  of  another  substance.  In  other  words,  the  turbid- 
ity determination  takes  no  account  of  the  character,  weight,  or  volume 
of  the  suspended  matter.  This  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  by 
Mr.  Robert  Spurr  Weston  in  the  report  on  Water-Purification 
Investigation  and  on  Plans  Proposed  for  Sewerage  and  Waterv»orks 
Systems  made  to  the  sewerage  and  water  l)oard  of  New  Oraums, 
La.,  pages  27  and  28.  To  overcome  the  errors  above  cited,  Mr.  Weston 
has  proposed  the  use  of  a  "  turbidity  coefficient,"  as  follows : 

AU  optical  methods  for  the  determination  of  turbidity  are  naturally  compared 
with  the  gravimetric  determination  of  the  suspended  matter  which  produces 
the  turbidity.  Equal  weights  of  suspended  matter  do  liot  necessarily  produce 
the  same  turbidity.  For  example,  waters  which  contain  suspended  silt  or  sand 
exhibit  less  turt>idity  per  unit  of  suspended  matter  by  weight  than  do  waters 
containing  finely  divided  clay.    Therefore  the  ratio  between  silica  turbidity, 


20  FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER.  [no.  isi. 

determined  optically,  and  suspended  matter,  determined  gravi metrically,  is 
most  important,  as  it  is  an  index  of  the  character  of  the  suspended  matter  pro- 
ducing the  turbidity.  To  express  this  relation  most  conveniently,  the  term 
"  turbidity  coefficient "  has  been  adopted. 

Turbidity  coefficient  equals  Susj^ded  matter. 

bihca  turbidity. 

Naturally  this  coefficient  varies  with  different  waters,  generally  increasing 
with  the  size  of  the  particles  composing  the  suspended  matter.  Thus  the 
samples  of  unsettled  river  water  have  the  highest  turbidity  coefficient,  while 
samples  from  the  effluents  of  the  three-day  subsiding  basins  have  the  lowest,  as 
the  following  table  will  show : 

Table  of  average  turbidity  coefficients. 

Turbidity 
coefficient. 

Mississippi  River  water l.tJS 

Mississippi  River  water,  after  0  hours'  subsidence .1^) 

Mississippi  River  water,  after  12  hours'  subsidence .  HT 

Mississippi  River  water,  after  18  hours'  subsidence .Si; 

Mississippi  River  water,  after  24  hours'  subsidence .ST) 

Mississippi  River  water,  after  48  hours'  subsidence .SO 

Mississippi  River  water,.after  24  hours'  subsidence  and  coagulation .«H» 

This  table  is  very  easy  to  understand,  since  the  coarser  particles  of  low 
turbidlty-pro<lucing  iwwer  and  somewhat  higher  specific  gravity  gradually  sep- 
arate out  according  to  their  hydraulic  values,  the  finer  particles  of  high  tur- 
bidity-producing power  and  somewhat  lower  specific  gravity  remaining  longest 
In  susi)enslon. 

The  idea  of  Mr.  Weston  above  set  forth  is  an  admirable  one  and 
should  be  utilized  in  connection  with  all  water  investigations. 

The  fourth  method  of  determining  suspended  matter  consists  in 
measuring  the  cubical  contents  thereof  after  sedimentation.  This 
method  takes  no  account  of  the  weight  of  the  substance  nor  of  the 
turbidity  produced  by  it,  and  its  particular  value  is  confined  to  those 
highly  turbid  waters  which  it  is  proposed  to  conserve  in  storag*.* 
reservoirs  or  to  conduct  in  canals.  In  the  preparation  of  reservoirs 
for  irrigation  and  domestic  uses  in  the  arid  and  semiarid  regions,  one 
of  the  most  troublesome  features  is  the  loss  of  storage  capacity  in  the 
reservoir  by  reason  of  its  filling  up  with  matter  deposited  from  sus- 
pension, and  indeed  it  is  necessary  in  the  construction  of  these  res(»r- 
voirs  to  provide  means  whereby  the  silt  can  be  removed  at  proper 
intervals.  The  problem  is,  therefore,  one  of  cubical  contents  and  the 
observations  are  usually  made  by  filling  a  100  c.  c.  graduate  with  the 
turbid  water,  allowing  the  suspended  matter  to  settle,  and  readin*r 
the  depth  of  the  sediment  and  expressing  it  in  percentage  terms.    • 

The  results  of  such  observations  do  not  bear  any  more  constant  rela- 
tion to  the  turbidity  produced  by  the  suspended  matter  than  do  the 
determinations  of  actual  weight.  An  interesting  series  of  observa- 
tions upon  this  point  has  recently  been  compiled  by  the  Geological 


LEIGHTOK.] 


SUSPENDED   MATTEB. 


21 


Survey,  the  water  being  taken  from  Gila  River  at  San  Carlos,  Ariz. 
This  river  is  probably  the  muddiest  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
observations  represent  extreme  conditions.  Turbidity  measurements 
consume  so  small  an  amount  of  time  in  comparison  with  that  necessary 
in  the  observation  of  per  cent  volume  of  total  solids  that  an  endeavor 
was  made  to  determine  whether  or  not  turbidity  measurements  pos- 
sess any  constant  relation  to  amount  of  matter.  If  such  were  found 
to  be  the  case  the  work  necessary  in  preparing  plans  for  storage  reser- 
voirs would  be  considerably  shortened. 

Parallel  determinations  were  therefore  made  of  turbidity  and  per 
cent  volume  of  sediment  upon  daily  samples  taken  from  Gila  River 
from  July  21  to  October  24,  1904,  the  results  of  which  are  set  forth  in 
the  following  table.  It  will  be  noted  in  this  table  that  the  conversion 
factor,  which  should  be  constant  if  the  hypothesis  were  correct,  varies 
so  widely  as  to  indicate  unmistakably  the  entire  absence  of  any  con- 
stant relation  between  the  two  sets  of  observations : 


Parallel  observations  of  per  cent  volume  of  sediment  and  of  turbidity,  in  terms 
of  parts  per  millioti,  of  silica  in  water  from  Gila  River  at  8an  Carlos,  Ariz. 


Date. 

Per  cent 
sediment 
volume. 

Turbidity 
(silica  parts 
per  million). 

27,300 

Conversion 
factor. 

Date. 

Per  cent 
sediment 
volume. 

15 

Turbidity 
(silica  parts 
per  million). 

Conversion 
factor. 

July  21.. 

12 

2,280 

Aug.  12.. 

63,936 

4.260 

22.. 

16.5 

37,800 

2,290 

i         ,    13.. 

10 

57,600 

5,760 

23.. 

19 

43,200 

2,280 

14.. 

11 

33,550 

3,050 

24.. 

18.5 

43,200 

2,340 

15.. 

17 

48,000 

2,820 

25.. 

21 

44,784 

2,140 

16.. 

18.5 

54,000 

2,920 

26-- 

18 

41,568 

2,310 

17.. 

15 

42,000 

2,800 

27-. 

16 

40,572 

2,540 

18.. 

13 

39,000 

3,000 

28-. 

9 

40,800 

4,530 

19.. 

9 

33,000 

3,670 

29.- 

21 

53,000 

2,520 

20.. 

12 

39,000 

3, 250 

30.. 

19 

64,000 

3,370 

21.. 

15. 5 

36,000 

2,320 

31-. 

12 

64,000 

5,330 

22.. 

13 

36,000 

2,770 

Aug.   1.- 

13 

53,312 

4,110 

23.. 

10 

27,000 

2,700 

2.. 

22 

73,536 

3,340 

24.. 

13 

39,000 

3,000 

3.. 

20 

67,200 

3,350 

25-- 

8 

30,000 

3,  750 

4.. 

19 

70,368 

3,680 

26.. 

9 

30,000 

3, 340 

5-. 

15 

68,936 

4,260 

27.. 

8 

27,000 

3,380 

6.. 

15 

62,400 

4,160 

28_. 

8 

24,000 

3,000 

7. . 

14 

62,400 

4,460 

29-. 

8 

27,000 

3,380 

8.. 

15 

67,200 

4,480 

30-. 

8 

27, 000 

3,380 

9.- 

14 

63,936 

4,560 

31.. 

8 

21,000 

2,630 

10.. 

14 

60,768 

4,340 

Sept.  1.. 

8.5 

28,500 

3,360 

11.- 

13 

62.400 

4,800 

!              2-. 

8.5 

30,000 

3,520 

22 


FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER. 


[NO.  151- 


Parallel  observations  of  per  cent  vohime  of  sediment  and  of  turbidity,  in  temt^ 
of  parts  per  million,  of  silica  in  water  from  OiUi  River,  etc, — Continued. 


Date. 

Per  cent 
sediment 
volume. 

Turbidity 
(silica  partK 
per  million). 

33,960 

ConverBlon 
factor. 

Date. 

Per  cent 
sediment 
volume. 

0.5 

Turbidity 
(silica  parts 
per  million). 

650 

factor. 

Sept.  8._ 

9 

3,770 

Sept.  29.. 

l.SOC) 

4._ 

8 

36,000 

4,500  ' 

36.. 

.5 

600 

1,300 

5.. 

18 

40,980 

8,150 
2,800 

Oct.     1-. 

Trace. 

650 

6-. 

15 

42,000 

2.. 

2.5 

850 

7-- 

11 

40,980 
31,500 

8,730 

3-- 

Trace. 

650 

8.. 

10 

3,150 

1 

Trace. 

280 

"   "      '" 

9-- 

6.5 

25,200 

3,880 

5.. 

Trace. 

220 



10-. 

3.5 

9,200 

2,630 

6.- 

Trace. 

6,400 

11.. 

1.5 

4,200 

2,800 

7.- 

2 

42,000 

12.. 

1.5 

8,150 

2,090 

8.- 

10 

42,000 

4,200 

18-- 

5 

14,000 

2,800 

9.. 

13 

39,000 

3,000 

14-. 

7.5 

20,000 

2,670 

10.. 

12 

86,000 

»,000 

15.. 

4 

18,000 

3,250 

11.. 

18 

27,000 

2,  OK) 

16.. 

6 

16,000 

2,670 

12.. 

9 

18,000 

2,000 

17-- 

6 

16,000 

2,670 

13-- 

5.5 

12,000 

2,184> 

18.- 

5 

13,000 

2,600 

14-. 

8.5 

8,000 

2,280 

19-. 

5 

11,320 

2,260 

15.. 

2.5 

4,400 

1,760 

20.. 

4 

12,000 

3,000 

16.. 

2 

3,800 

1,900 

21.. 

2 

6,800 

8,000 

17.. 

1 

8,750 

3, 7.V) 

22.. 

1 

5,500 

5,500 

18.. 

7 

26,000 

8.720 

23-. 

3.5 

8,000 

2,280 

19. 

2 

6,000 

8.(K)0 

24. 

14 

80,000 

2,140 

20.- 

1.5 

3,000 

2,000 

25-. 

17 

80,000 

1,760 

21.- 

.5 

1,000 

2.0(K) 

26.. 

8 

7,000 

2,330 

22.. 

.3 

900 

3,000 

27.- 

2 

8,000 

4,000 

1            23.. 

.5 

800 

1,600 

28.. 

1 

1,000 

1,000 

:            24.. 

.5 

766 

1,5:K) 

TURB 

tDITY. 

As  all  the  usual  methods  for  the  determination  of  turbidity  are 
fairly  familiar,  having  been  repeatedly  described  in  numerous  scien- 
tific journals,  no  further  statements  are  necessary  here.  It  is  custom- 
ary at  the  present  time  to  adopt  as  a  basis  for  the  scale  of  each  an 
absolute  turbidity  produced  by  a  definite  amount  of  finely  divide<l 
silica  in  a  (x^rtain  volume  of  water.  The  scale  has  been  described 
by  its  originators,  Messrs.  George  C.  Whipple  and  Daniel  D.  Jackson, 
in  Technology  Quarterly,  Vol.  XII,  No.  4,  December,  1899,  pages 
283-287. 


LElGHTf)N.l  SrSPKNDKD    MATTKK.  2«^ 

ITmiTED  KTATEN  UKOM»tiI(  AL  SURVEY  TI'KBIDITY  ROD. 

DKSfRriTlON. 

This  rod,  devised  by  Messrs.  Allen  Hnzen  and  (fe()r<re  (\  Whipi)le, 
is  a  modification  of  the  ori«:inal  llazen  rod,  and  is  des<MMl)ed  in  the 
following  extract  from  circular  No.  0  of  the  division  of  hydrography. 
United  States  (leological  Survey : 

Propofted  turbiditf/  standard. — The  standard  of  tm-hidity  shaU  bo  a  wator 
which  ct>ntalns  KK)  parts  of  silica  iK»r  miUion  in  such  a  state  of  fineness  tliat  a 
bright  platinum  wire  1  niillinieter  in  diameter  can  just  he  se<»n  when  tlie  center 
of  the  wire  is  KM)  millimetei-s  Inflow  the  surface  of  the  water  and  the  eye  of  the 
observer  is  1.2  meters  above  the  wire,  the  observation  l>einj;  nnnle  in  the  middle 
of  the  day,  in  the  oiH»n  air.  but  not  in  sunli>;ht.  and  in  a  vissol  so  larpe  tliat  the 
sides  do  not  shut  out  the  liglit  so  as  to  influence  the  n»sults.  The  turbidity  of 
such  water  shall  he  Hn\ 

The  turbidity  of  waters  more  turbid  than  the  standard  sliall  be  coinpute<l  as 
f<»llow«:  The  ratio  of  the  turbidity  of  the  water  to  1(H)  shall  be  as  the  extendeil 
\olume  is  to  the  original  volume  when  the  water  is  diluted  with  a  clear  water 
until  the  mixture  is  of  standard  turbidity. 

The  turbidities  of  waters  lower  than  the  stamlard  should  be  compute<l  as  fol- 
lows: The  ratio  of  the  turbidity  of  the  water  to  KM)  shall  be  as  the  ratio  of  the 
original  volume  of  water  of  standanl  turbidity  is  to  the  extended  volume  when 
such  water  is  diluted  with  clear  water  until  its  tiu'bidity  is  e«iunl  to  that  of  the 
water  under  examination. 

Tlii.s  standard  can  bo  used  in  both  Held  and  laboratory.  In  the  field  tlie  wire 
method  will  be  emi)loyed  as  at  present,  except  for  a  new  gra<luation,  while  in  the 
laboratorj'  the  metho<ls  of  dilution  and  comi>arison  now  in  use  for  the  silica 
standard  will'be  employe<l. 

Method  of  application  to  the  platinum-u-irr  prorrss.  -  -A  rod  with  a  platinum 
wire  inserte<l  in  it  at  a  fixed  iH)iut  and  projecting  from  it  at  a  right  angle  will 
he  used,  as  at  present.  The  graduation  shall  be  as  follows :  The  graduation 
mark  of  100  shall  be  placed  on  the  head  of  the  rod  at  a  tlistance  of  UK)  uiilli- 
nieters  from  the  center  of  the  wire.  Other  gra<luations  will  l>e  made.  base<l  cm 
the  l>est  obtainable  data,  in  such  a  way  that  when  a  water  is  diluted  the  read- 
ings will  decrease  in  the  same  proporti(m  as  the  percentage  of  tlie  original  water 
in  the  mixture.  Such  a  rod,  having  the  graduation  shown  in  the  tM])le  l)elow, 
shall  be  known  as  the  United  States  (ieological  Survey  turbidity  rod  of  1!H)2. 
When  this  rod  is  immersed  in  water,  the  visibility  of  tlie  projecting  platinum 
wire  at  tlie  deptli  from  the  surface  shown  in  the  second  column  will  determine 
ttie  degree  of  turbidity,  as  indicated  in  the  first  column. 


24 


FIELD    ASSAY    OF   WATER. 
Oraduation  of  turbidity  rod  of  1902. 


[NO.  151. 


Turbidity. 

Depth  of 
wire. 

Corre- 
sponding 
value  on 
reciprocal 

scale. 

Turbidity. 

Depth  of 
wire. 

Corre- 
sponding 
value  on 
reciprocal 

scale. 

mm. 

mm. 

7 

1,095 

0.023 

70 

138 

0.184 

8 

971 

.026     , 

75 

130 

.196 

9 

873 

.029     ' 

80 

122 

.208 

10 

794 

.032     ' 

85 

116 

.219 

11 

729 

.035 

90 

110 

.230 

12 

674 

.038 

95 

105 

.242 

13 

627 

.041 

100 

100 

.254 

14 

587 

.043 

110 

93 

.278 

15 

551 

.046 

120 

86 

.295 

16 

520 

.049 

130 

81 

.314 

17 

493 

.052 

140 

76 

.384 

18 

468 

.054 

150 

72 

.35 

19 

446 

.057 

160 

68.7 

.87 

20 

426 

.060 

180 

62.4 

.41 

22 

891 

.065 

200 

57.4 

.44 

24 

361 

.070 

250 

49.1 

.52 

26 

336 

.076 

300 

43.2 

.59 

28 

314 

.081     . 

350 

38.8 

.-65 

30 

296 

.086     1 

400 

35.4 

.72 

35 

257 

.099 

500 

30.9 

.H2 

.      40 

228 

.111 

600 

27.7 

.92 

45 

205 

.124 

800 

23.4 

1.09 

50 

187 

.136 

1,000 

20.9 

1.21 

55 

171 

.148 

1,500 

17.1 

1.49 

60 

158 

.160 

2,000 

14.8 

1.72 

65 

147 

.172 

3,000 

12.1 

2.10 

This  table  is  compiled  from  observations  made  at  Cincinnati,  St.  IjOuIs,  New- 
Orleans,  Pittsburg,  Brooklyn,  rblladelphia.  and  Boston,  for  records  of  which 
we  are  Indebted  to  several  ol)servers.  The  values  of  the  turbidities  by  the  recli>- 
rocal  scale  are  Includetl  In  the  table  for  convenience,  but  they  do  not  form  a  part 
of  the  standard. 

This  graduation  Is  subject  to  revision  whenever  additional  data  shall  make 
it  ne<'essary  and  revised  rods  shall  be  designated  by  the  same  name,  but  with 
the  year  of  revision  substituted  for  19()2.  The  revisions  shall  have  as  their 
basis  the  100  mark,  100  millimeters  from  the  wire. 

Near  the  end  of  the  rod,  at  a  distance  of  1.2  meters  from  the  platinum  wire, 
a  wire  ring  shall  be  placed  dlrec»tly  above  the  wire,  through  which  the  observer 
will  look,  the  object  of  the  ring  being  to  control  the  distance  from  the  wire  to 
the  eye. 


LEiGHTOx.l  SUSPENDED    MATTER.  25 

When  the  turbidity  is  greater  than  5(K)  the  water  Rhould  be  diluted  before  the 
observation  is  made.  Wlien  tlie  turbidity  is  l)elo\v  7  this  method  can  not  be 
usetl,  and  comparison  should  l)e  made  with  the  silioa  standard  properly  diluted 
in  bottles  or  tubes,  as  des<TilH?d  by  Whipple  and  Jackson  in  Technology  Quar- 
terly, Vol.  XII.  No.  4,  December,  1899. 

The  numlier  obtained  by  dividing  the  weight  of  suspended  matter  in  parts  per 
million  by  the  turbidity  as  ol)tained  alM)ve  shall  l)e  called  the  coefficient  of  fine- 
ness. If  greater  than  unity  it  indicates  that  the  matter  in  suspension  in  the 
water  is  coarser  than  the  standard ;  if  less  than  unity,  that  it  is  finer  than  the 
standard. 

This  standard  is  proposed  with  the  idea  of  combining  the  best  features  of  the 
platinum-wire  and  silica  methods  of  measuring  turbidities  as  commonly  used, 
and  of  avoiding,  as  far  as  possible,  the  objections  to  each. 

OBJECTIONS  TO  ROD   METHOD. 

The  method  of  turbidity  determination  above  outlined  answers 
all  purposes  demanded  in  ordinary  use.  In  field  determinations  it 
has  many  objections  which  are  not  easily  overcome.  It  was  readily 
observed  in  practice  that  the  method  is  largely  a  test  of  the  individual 
and  that  the  point  at  which  the  wire  disappears  from  view  varies 
according  to  the  eyesight  of  the  observer.  Under  ordinary  condi- 
tions this  variation  is  not  sufficient  to  influence  the  interpretations 
placed  upon  the  results,  but  there  are  some  conditions  under  which 
the  variation  would  be  large  enough  to  cause  considerable  error. 

Again,  the  method  was  found  to  be  inaccurate  and  unsafe  in  deter- 
mining turbidity  above  100.  It  is  also  difficult  to  select  the  conditions 
})rescribed  in  the  directions  above  set  forth.  A  person  in  the  field 
is  governed  absolutely  by  the  conditions  which  he  meets,  and  it  is 
exceptional  when  he  is  able  to  be  at  a  desired  point  at  a  given  time. 
Therefore  the  observation,  which  must  be  made  "  in  the  middle  of  the 
day,  in  the  open  air,  but  not  in  sunlight,  and  in  a  vessel  so  large  that 
the  sides  do  not  shut  out  the  light,''  is  in  most  cases  an  undertaking 
of  extreme  difficulty.  Another  observation  is  more  important;  it  is 
nec'essary  for  the  field  man  to  take  observations  in  the  running  stream, 
f )bviously  it  would  l)e  impracticable  to  carry  about  a  container  large 
enough  to  meet  these  prescril)ed  conditions,  and  in  the  majority  of 
cases  a  turbidity  reading  must  be  taken  at  long  distances  from  points 
at  which  such  containers  can  be  borrowed.  It  is  well  known  that 
in  many  easels  the  suspended  matter  in  running  streams  occurs  in 
clouds.  In  a  certain  section  of  the  stream  the  turbidity  at  one 
moment  may  be  high  and  at  the  next  moment  much  reduced,  or  vice 
versa.  Often  the  observer,  after  fixing  the  point  at  which  the  plati- 
num wire  disappears,  finds  that  before  he  is  able  to  read  the  scale 
the  wire  is  either  plainly  in  sight  or  has  become  submerged  below  the 
point  of  correct  turbidity  reading. 


^6  FIELD   ASSAY   OF   WATER.  fvo.  IM. 

All  these  objections  make  the  use  of  the  turbidity  rod  undesirable 
in  general  field  work.  AVliile  its  value  at  selected  stations  is  acknowl- 
edged, it  has  been  found  to  be  impracticable  under  less  favorable  cir- 
cumstances ;  consequently  a  new  method  w  as  sought. 

JA€KKON*S  TURBIDIMETER. 

DESCRIPTION. 

The  needs  of  the  Survey  were  found  to  be  met  in  a  satisfactory' 
manner  by  the  use  of  a  turbidimeter  devised  by  Mr.  Daniel  D.  Jack- 
son, chemist  in  charge  of  the  Mount  Prospect  laboratory,  department 
of  water  supply,  gas,  and  electricity,  city  of  New  York.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  report  by  Mr.  Jackson  with  reference  to  this  instrument : 

The  suspended  matter  or  turbidity  in  natural  waters  is  the  most  imiM>rtant 
physical  characteristic  In  many  sections  of  the  country.  In  such  se<-tious  the 
selection  of  new  water  8ui)i)lies,  as  well  as  the  improvement  of  existing  sup- 
plies, rests,  to  a  verj'  great  extent,  upon  a  consideration  of  this  particular 
feature.  These  milky  or  muddy  waters  are  often  quite  variable  in  the  aunmnt 
and  nature  of  their  suspended  matter,  and,  in  case'  they  are  to  \ye  piiriftetl. 
require  considerable  study  to  determine  the  i)roi)er  treatment. 

When  the  maximum  and  the  average  turbidity  in  a  water  are  known,  quest ii>ns 
may  be  st)lved  relating  to  the  nature,  size,  and  construction  of  settling  basins, 
filter  plants,  and  clear- w^ater  reservoirs,  and,  finally,  in  determining  the  elli 
ciency  of  the  removal  of  suspended  matter  in  such -filter  plants  we  must  kn*iw 
the  turbidity  of  the  water  l)efore  and  after  filtration. 

The  hj'drographic  branch  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sun'ey  is  p;ir- 
ticularly  interested  in  developing  accurate  and  rapid  methods  for  the  deter- 
mination of  turbidity,  both  for  data  relating  to  water  supplies  as  well  a> 
relating  to  the  erosion  and  the  carrying  power  of'susi)ended  matter  by  rivers 
and  streams.  It  Is  necessary  that  the  field  methods  should  be  comparable  with 
those  of  the  laboratory,  that  the  work  should  lie  rapidly  accomplished,  and  that 
the  results  should  express,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  actual  w^eight  of  the 
suspended  matter  present. 

If  we  determine  the  total  solids  in  a  water  l)efore  and  after  filtration  through 
a  Berkfeld  filter,  the  difference  in  the  results  obtained  will  give  the  weight  <»f 
the  suspended  matter  present,  but  this  method  is  tedious  in  the  lalwratorj-  and 
Impossible  in  the  field.  It  is  evident  that  some  photometric  standard  of  com- 
parison must  be  used,  and  extensive  studies  have  shown  that  whatever  tlie 
instrument  employed  for  this  puriwse  it  should  be  graduated  by  a  standard 
turbid  water.  The  standard  now  employed  is  known  as  the  **  silica  standard." 
and  Is  made  from  diatomaceous  earth.a 

This  standard  is  preferable  to  all  others  that  have  been  usetl  In  that  it  is 
absolutely  insoluble,  has  a  very  uniform  size  of  particle,  and,  unlike  clay,  dt)es 
not  cake  together  on  standing.  The  diatomaceous  earth  (infusorial  earth)  is 
found  in  natural  der)osits  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  To  prt^pare  the 
standard  this  material  is  first  washed  and  ignited  to  free  it  from  organic  matter. 
It  is  then  ground  to  an  Impalpable  iKJwder  in  an  agate  mortar,  put  through  a  2««)- 
mesh  sieve  to  break  up  tlie  lumps  produccxl  in  grinding,  treatetl  with  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  finest  i>ortion  decanted.  This  fine  iwrticm  is  then 
dried  at  100°  C,  cooled  in  a  desiccator,  and  kept  in  a  tightly  stopi>ere<l  bottle. 

•Whipple,  O.  C,  and  .Tftckson,  I).  I).,  Silica  Htandards  for  the  determination  of  the 
turbidity  in  water:  Techn.  Quart.,  vol.  12.  No.  4,  l»e<'..  181)9, 


U.  S.   QEOLOOICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER   NO.    1S1      PL.  I 


JACKSON'S  CANDLE  TURBIDIMETER. 


LEIGHTON.1  SUSPENDED    MATTER.  27 

One  grnni  of  this  imiterinl  Ih  weighed  out  and  put  into  1  liter  of  distilled  water. 
The  mixture  represents  a  standard  of  1,()(K)  parts  i>er  ui  ill  ion  of  silica  turbidity, 
and  dilutions  may  tte  made  from  this  for  comparison  with  natural  waters. 
Readings  made  with  this  standard  compare  very  well  with  the  actual  weight 
of  the  susiiended  matter  in  water,  but  it  has  been  found  that  the  standard  as 
prp[)ared  varies  slightly  when  made  by  different  analysts.  The  author  now  pro- 
lioses  to  make  the  standard  absolute  by  making  readings  on  the  candle  turbidim- 
eter and  so  adjusting  the  mixture  that  the  standard  of  1.000  parts  per  million 
will  always  read  2.3  centimeters  on  the  instrument. 

THK    CANDLK    TrilBIDIMRTER. 

The  original  form  of  this  instrument  was  first  described  by  the  writer  in  the 
Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  November,  1901,  but  since  that  time 
it  has  been  considerably  improved  upon.  The  accompanying  illustration  gives 
u  gix)d  idea  of  the  present  form  of  the  instrument  and  its  use.  [Stn?  PI.  I.]  The 
apparatus  consists  of  a  gla.ns  tube,  closed  at  the  bottom  and  graduated  in  centi- 
meters and  millimeters  depth.  This  is  surrounded  by  a  brass  holder,  open  at  the 
t)ottom  and  supported  by  a  stand,  in  the  center  of  which  Ik  a  standard  English 
candle,  so  adjusted  by  means  of  a  spring  below  that  its  top  rim  Is  always  Just 
^  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  glass  tube. 

The  water  to  be  determined  for  turbidity  is  poured  into  the  glass  tube  until  the 
image  of  the  lighted  candle  l>eiow  Just  disappears:©  The  depth  of  the  water  In  the 
tube  is  then  read  (using  the  Iwttom  of  the  meniscus),  and  this  depth  is  compared 
with  a  table  which  gives  the  turbidity  of  the  water  in  parts  per  million  of 
silica.  The  tube  itself  may  \>e  graduated  in  turbidity  as  well  as  in  millimeters 
depth,  thus  dispensing  with  the  use  of  the  table.  Between  5,(K)0  and  100  parts 
I>er  million  of  silica  a  tul)e  25  centimeters  in  length  is  necessary,  or  a  comparison 
with  silica  standards  in  tubes  or  bottles  may  be  substituted.  The  candle  instru- 
ment is  very  convenient  in  the  laboratory,  and  as  its  source  of  light  is  the  stand- 
ard (*andle  it  is  ready  for  use  at  all  times.  The  candle  must  always  be  proiierly 
trimmed,  and  the  determination  must  be  made  rapidly,  ^^  a^  not  to  heat  the 
liquid  to  any  extent.  The  most  accurate  work  is  obtained  in  a  dark  room,  and 
the  candle  should  be  so  placed  as  not  to  be  subjected  to  a  draft  of  air.  The 
latter  necessity  renders  the  iastrument  absolutely  imi>ossible  for  use  in  the 
field. 

Several  fonns  of  field  apparatus  In  which  the  candle  was  employed  as  a 
soun^  of  light  were  attempted,  but  were  entirely  unsuccessful,  and  it  was  found 
necessary  to  resort  to  the  electric  light  for  field  use. 

THB    ELECTRIC    Tl*  RBI  DIMETER. 

This  instrument  was  designed  by  the  author  for  the  use  of  the  hydrographic 
branch  of  the  United  States  (ieological  Survey,  and  is  intended  for  field  use 
only.  Its  construction  is  so  regulated  as  to  be  exactly  comparable  with  the 
candle  turbidimeter,  and  the  measuring  tubes  for  each  have  l)een  made  inter- 
changeable. 

The  electric  turbidimeter  as  shown  in  fig.  1  consists  of  the  same  graduated 
glass  tube  as  described  for  the  candle  turbidimeter,  inclosed  in  a  similar  manner 


*  It  has  been  found  in  actual  field  work  that  the  end  point  in  the  electric  tui'bidim/pter, 
viz,  the  disappearance  of  the  cross  of  light,  is  f^enerally  sharper  and  less  subject  to  per- 
sonal errors  tlian  the  end  point  above  designated.  This  is  especially  true  when  the  two 
Instruments  are  used  by  the  same  person.  I.  e..  a  common  end  point  is  more  satisfactory. 
The  Geological  Survey  has  therefore  placed  the  glass  plate  and  cross  disk  in  the  candle 
turbidimeter. 


28 


FIELD   ASSAY   OF   WATER. 


[NO.  151. 


.•b 


by  a  brass  holder  (A)  open  at  the  bottom.  This  holder  is  attached  to  the  end  of 
a  brass  cylinder  (w)  containing  a  2.5- volt  dry  battery  (O)  and  a  2.5- volt  electri<* 
light  id).  Above  the  electric-light  bulb,  at  a  distance  of  1  centimeter,  is  a  disk 
of  glass  (e)  which  is  ground  on  the  under  side.  Immediately  above  tlrt«  Is  a 
brass  disk  (&)  1  millimeter  thick,  through  the  center  of  which  a  cross  is  cut  iB\. 
The  lines  in  this  cross  are  0.5  millimeter  wide.  From  the  top  of  the  brass -plate 
to  the  bottom  of  the  graduates!  glass  tube  the  distance  is  just  1  centimeter. 

To  make  a  determination  with  the  electric  turbidimeter,  first  pour  the  turbid 
water  to  l)e  tested  back  and  forth  from  the  glass  tube  to  another  vessel  until 
it  is  thoroughly  mixed,  and  then  turn  on  the  light  by  adjusting  the  screw  if) 
at  the  bottom  of  the  instrument.  Place  the  graduated  glass  tube  in  the  holder, 
which  has  been  screwed  into  place  above  the  light,  and  pour  the  turbid  water 

into  the  tube  until  the  cross  of  light  just 
disapi>ear8.  If  the  tube  is  not  graduated 
directly  in  parts  i)er  million  of  silica,  read 
the  depth  in  millimeters  of  the  water  in  the 
tube  and  refer  to  the  table  given  later.  In 
reading  use  the  t)ottom  of  the  meniscus  as 
the  reading  point  In  the  lower  part  of  the 
tube  read  past  the  disappearance  of  the 
sharp  cross  of  light  to  the  disappearsince  *»f 
the  hazy  cross  of  light.  In  this  way  the 
end  point  is  the  same  as  in  the  candle 
turbidimeter.  Higher  up  in  the  tube  there  is 
only  the  sharp  cross  of  light  for  an  end  ixiiut. 
If  the  turbidity  is  above  100  parts  iK?r 
million  use  the  short  tube  (25  centimeters 
long).  If  the  turbidity  is  between  100  part* 
and  25  parts  i^er  million  the  long  tube  <7r* 
centimeters)  may  be  employed,  but  at  any 
lK)int  below  100  the  glass  tube  and  the 
holder  may  be  removed  and  the  instrument 
lowered  directly  into  the  turbid  water  by 
means  of  a  steel  millimeter  tape.  Any  de- 
gree of  turbidity  may  be  read  in  this  manner 
provided  the  water  is  sufficiently  deep. 

IWk  If    the    water    is    shallow    and    below    2r> 
I                    JaL-f             turbidity,    close   estimations    may    be    made 

l>y  holding  a  bottle  of  the  water  towartl  the 
light  and  comparing  it  with  the  remem- 
bered appearance  of  standards  of  5,  10,  15,  and  20  parts  per  million  in  bottles 
of  the  same  size. 

In  the  determination  of  turbidity  with  Jackson's  turbidimeter 
many  of  the  objections  to  the  use  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey turbidity  rod  are  avoided.  As  the  standard  illumination  is  a 
part  of  the  apparatus  itself  rather  than  the  sun,  none  of  the  limita- 
tions which  apply  to  the  use  of  the  rod,  such  as  time  of  day,  shade, 
etc.,  are  necessary  considerations.  The  instrument  may  be  used  at 
night  if  desired.  As  the  sample  to  be  tested  is  collected  from  the 
body  of  water  under  observation,  inaccuracies  due  to  moving  water 
and  variations  in  turbidity  caused  thereby  are  avoided,  and  it  is  not 


Fifl.  1. — Jackson's  electric  turbidi- 
meter. 


LEIGHTON.] 


SUSPENDED   MATTEE. 


29 


necessary  to  consider  the  depth  of  water  in  the  river  or  lake  under 
observation.  In  the  use  of  the  rod  this  is  often  a  very  troublesome 
feature,  because,  in  case  of  low  turbidity,  there  may  not  be  water  of 
sufficient  depth  to  allow  the  rod  to  be  submerged  to  the  point  of  disap- 
pearance of  the  platinum  wire.  Another  advantage  is  that  the  end 
point  in  Jackson's  turbidimeter  is  approached  more  sharply  and  the 
use  of  the  instrument  is  not  practically  a  test  of  the  observer's  eye- 
sight, for  the  measurement  of  turbidity  depends  upon  the  obliteration 
of  a  beam  of  light,  and  not  upon  the  definition  of  a  certain  object. 

TESTS   OF   ELECTRIC   TURBIDIMETER. 

The  Jackson  electric  turbidimeter  is  made  up  of  several  parts 
which  it  was  necessary  to  test  in  order  to  determine  their  effect  upon 
the  accuracy  of  the  instrument.  These  tests,  made  by  Mr.  R.  B. 
Dole,  assistant  engineer.  United  States  Geological  Survey,  under  the 
direction  of  Mr.  Daniel  D.  Jackson,  are  classified  as  follows : 

1.  Tests  of  the  battery  for  current,  electromotive  force,  and  dura- 
bility. 

2.  Tests  of  the  electric  bulb  for  intensity  of  light. 

3.  Test  of  the  ground-glass  plate  for  opacity. 

4.  Calibration  of  the  tube  with  silica  standard. 

5.  Determination  of  the  probable  error. 

6.  Calibration  of  the  tube  with  a  sulphate  standard.  This  will  be 
treated  under  the  heading  "  Sulphates,"  on  page  69. 

Battery  test. — The  "  Reliable  "  2-cell  battery,  6  inches  long,  was 
selected  and  tested,  first  for  constant  current  and  then  for  recupera- 
tion, by  running  it  for  one  minute,  alternating  with  a  rest  of  five 
minutes.  These  tests,  applied  to  three  cartridges  selected  at  random, 
resulted  as  follows : 

Results  of  tests  of  6-inch  2-cell  ^'Reliable  "  battery. 
BATTKRY  NO.  1. 


Atendof- 

Current. 

Ampere.     \ 
0.250  1 
.245 
.243 
.242  ' 
.240 
.240 
.238  ' 
.236  1 
.235  ' 
.235 
.235 
1 

Loss. 

Ampere. 

0.005 
.002 
.001 
.002 
.000 
.002 
.002 
.001 
.000 
.000 

.015 

E.  M.  F. 

Light. 

0  minute __ 

Volts. 

2.66 

Bright. 

1  miirnte     , ,  , .            - 

2  minutes 

3  minates 

4  TnvfXTiteif^  _ 

.'5  minntAfl      _    _  .        

6  minutes 

7  Tninntep   .  .    . 

8  miniit^. ... 



9  minntes 

2.50 

10  minutes 

Bright. 

30 


FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER. 


[NO.  15L 


Results  of  tests  of  6-inch  2'Cell  '^Reliable  "  battery — Continued. 

BATTKRY  NO.  1  AFTER  A  REST  OF  90  MINUTES. 


0  minute.. 

1  minute . . 

2  minutes - 

3  minutes. 

4  minutes. 

5  minutes. 

6  minutes - 

7  minutes. 

8  minutes. 

9  minutes. 
10  minutes. 


At  end  of— 

Current. 

Loss. 

E.  M.  F. 

Li^ht. 

0  minut-e                                    _   _    .   _ . 

Ampere. 
0.250 
.245 
.243 
.241 
.239 
.237 
.236 
.235 
.235 
.234 
.234 

VoUi. 
2.66 

Bright. 

1  miTiTite                    

0.003 
.002 
.002 
.002 
.002 
.001 
.001 
.000 
.001 
.000 

2  miTintes                  

3  jniTnit^-fl                         - 

4  minutes                           -   - 

5  minutes                            _   _           

6  minutes.         .      _        

7  minutes 

8  minutes 

9  minutes.        

10  minutes - 

2.50 

Bright. 

.016 

BATTERY  NO.  2. 


BATTERY  NO.  2  AFTER  A  REST  OF  90  MINUTES. 


0  minutp                                           

0.263 
.258 
.253 
.252 
.250 
.248 
.246 
.245 
.244 
.243 
.243 

2.70 

Bright. 

1  minute                              

0.005 

,(m 

.001 
.002 
.002 
.002 
.001 
.001 
.001 
.000 

2  minutes                  - 

3  minutes _ _. - 

4-  minntflH 

5  minutes 

6  minutes.   .          

7  minutes 

8  minutes                        . .        .... 

9  miTint^s 

10  minutes 

2.52 

Bright. 

.020 

LEiGimx.l  SUSPENDED   MATTEB. 

Results  of  tests  of  G-inch  2'Cell  *\R€liaUe*'  hatteru — Continued. 


81 


BATTERY  NO.  3; 

Alendof— 

Current. 

Ampere. 
0.273 
.270 
.265 
.262 
.260 
.258 
.255 
.253 
.252 
.251 
.250 

Law. 
Ampere. 

E.M.F. 

Light. 

Bright. 

0  minute                      . 

VolU. 
2.82 

1  minute.              . 

0.003 
.005 
.003 
.002 
.002 
.003 
.002 
.001 
.001 

2  miiint^^           

3  minutes 

4  minutes 

5  minutes 

6  minutes 

7  minutes 

H  minnt^vi 

9  minutes . . 

10 minutes.- 

.001 

2.60     Bright. 

.023 

1 

BATrEKY   NO.  3  APTE 

:R  REST  O 

F  90  MINITTES. 

0  minute 

0.256 
.252 
.249 
.246 
.244 
.243 
.242 
.241 
.240 
.239 
.238 

2.70 

Bright. 

1  minute.  _ 

0.004 
.003 
.003 
.002 
.001 
.001 
.001 
.001 
.001 
.001 

2  minutes 

3  minutes .-. _.. 

4  minutes 

5  minutes _ 

6  minutes  _ - 

7  minutes 

8  minutes : 

- 

9  minutes _ 

10  Tninnt^s         ... 

2.50     Bright. 

.018 

The  batteries  were  next  tested  for  recuperation  by  alternating  one 
minute  of  use  with  five  minutes  of  rest,  as  follows : 


BATTERY   NO.   1. 


Period. 

Initial 
current. 

Ampere. 
0.243 
.242 
.241 
.240 
.240 

Pinal 
current. 

Ampere. 
0. 238 
.237 
.237 
.238 
.236 

Drop  in 
current. 

Initial 
voltage. 

Final 
voltage. 

Drop  in 
voltage. 

First  minntA                   _ 

Ampere. 
0.005 
.005 
.004 
.002 
.004 

2.60 
2.56 
2.56 
2.56 
2.57 

2.54 
2.51 
2.50 
2.50 
2.50 

0.06 

Second  minute 

.05 

Third  minute 

.06 

Fouriih  minute 

.06 

Fifth  minute 

.07 

32 


FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER. 
BATTERY  NO.  2. 


[NO.  151. 


Period. 


First  minute  _  _ . 
Second  minute.. 
Third  minute _.. 
Fourth  minute . 
Fifth  minute  . . . 


Initial 
current. 

Final 
current. 

Ampere. 

Ampere. 

0.349 

0.245 

.249 

.245 

.248 

.245 

.247 

.243 

.247 

.243 

Drop  in  j    Initial         Final       Drop  in 
current,     voltage,     voltage.  Ivoltiige. 


Ampere. 
0.004 
.004 
.003 
.004 
.004 


2.63 

2.56 

2.63 

2.56 

2.63 

2.56 

2.62 

3.56 

2.63 

2.60 

0.07 
.07 
.07 
.06 
.03 


BATTERY  NO.  3. 


First  minute  . . . 
Second  minute.. 
Third  minute... 
Fourth  minute  . 
Fifth  minute  - . 


0.260 
.257 
.255 
.254 
.253 


0.255 

0.005 

2.76 

.253 

.004 

2.72 

.251 

.004 

2.70 

.250 

.004 

2.70 

.249 

.004 

2.66 

2.66 
2.63 
2.63 
2.60 


0.10 
.06 
.07 
.07 
.06 


Volts. 

Highest  voltage  observed 2.k1 

Lowest   voltage   observed 2. 5«» 


Extreme    variation. 


.32 


Reckoned  on  an  average  voltage  of  2.66  volts,  this  is  a  variation  of 
12  per  cent. 

Ampere. 

Highest  amperage  observed 0.273 

Lowest  amperage  observed .2:^1 


Maximum   variation .  030 

Reckoned  on  an  average  amperage  of  0.248  ampere  this  is  a  variation 
of  16  per  cent  in  current.  The  drop  in  current  averages  O.OO'J 
ampere  per  minute,  or  about  0.8  per  cent. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  results  that  the  battery  is  quick  in  recov- 
ery and  that  while  in  use  the  reduction  in  electromotive  force 
is  comparatively  small.  The  change  in  current  observed  in  the  bat- 
teries tested  does  not  cause  any  error  in  a  turbidit}'^  estimation. 
Readings  were  made  at  different  times  with  a  standard  of  turbidity 
corresponding  to  250  parts  per  million  of  silica,  and  in  every  case  the 
variation  in  depth  of  liquid  read  in  the  gi^aduated  tube  came  within 
the  probable  deviation  occurring  in  reading.  The  ordinary  varia- 
tion of  current  in  the  battery  does  not  affect  the  accuracy  of  the 
in.strument  to  a  measurable  degree. 

This  battery  will  remain  effective  under  ordinary  conditions  from 
fifty  to  sixty  days,  at  the  end  of  which  time  it  is  advisable  to  change 
the  cartridge. 


LEIGHTDN.] 


SUSPENDED   MATTER. 


38 


El^ctriC'lmlb  test. — Several  lights  were  tested  to  see  if  there  were  a 
noticeable  deviation  in  the  intensity  of  light  produced.  The  test  of 
four  sample  lights  is  here  given : 


Battery. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 
No.  8. 

Lamp 
No.  1. 

1 

Lamp 
No.  2. 

8.5 

Lamp 
No.  8. 

8.4 

Lamp 
No.1. 

8.7 

7. 7 

8.6' 

8.6 

8.2 

8.0 

8.9  . 

8.5 

8.3 

7.9 

The  numbers  given  are  the  depths  in  centimeters  produced  by  using 
a  standard  turbidity  of  250  with  different  batteries  and  lights.  The 
mean  of  these  observations  is  8.4,  while  the  average  deviation  from  the 
mean  is  0.3,  which  brings  three  of  the  lamps  within  the  limit  allowed 
on  individual  readings  under  constant  conditions;  the  fourth  light, 
however,  falls  without  the  limit  of  error.  The  lamps  were  chosen 
at  random  from  a  stock  of  2.5-volt  lights.  It  is  evident  that  here  is  a 
variation  which  must  be  overcome.  It  may  be  done  by  buying  a 
large  stock  of  lamps  and  selecting  only  such  as  come  within  the  stand- 
ard conditions,  or  by  buying  lamps  of  guaranteed  candle  power. 
In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  well  to  test  a  new  lamp  with 
silica  standard  before  using  it  in  the  field. 

Glass-plate  test. — The  glass  diaphragm  placed  over  the  lamp  is 
ground  on  one  side  in  order  to  tone  and  diffuse  the  rays  from  the 
electric  light.  It  also  makes  possible  the  use  of  a  much  shorter 
glass  tube  than  would  otherwise  be  necessary,  and  it  reduces  varia- 
tion in  candlepower  in  the  effect  thereof  on  turbidity  determina- 
tions. It  appears  to  be  possible  to  procure  glasses  which  are  groimd 
to  the  same  opacity.  Different  glasses  were  tried  in  the  instrument 
without  any  apparent  effect  on  the  depth  of  turbid  liquid  required 
to  shut  off  the  light.  It  may  be  said  in  connection  with  the  ground 
glass  that  the  cross  slit  of  brass  above  it  should  be  constant  in  width 
of  aperture.  As  this  offers  no  mechanical  difficulties,  no  experi- 
ments were  made  to  determine  the  effect  of  variation  in  the  width 
of  the  slit. 

Calihratian  for  turbidity. — When  work  was  begun  on  the  calibra- 
tion of  the  instrument  it  was  necessary  to  prepare  a  standard  silica 
solution.  The  standard  heretofore  used  has  been  very  difficult  to 
match  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  grinding  the  silica  fine  enough 
to  reach  the  required  turbidity.  The  standard  is  such  that  it  gives 
a  reading  of  500  parts  per  million  at  a  depth  of  4.5  centimeters, 
while  the  standard  prepared  by  ordinary  grinding  gives  a  reading 
of  500  parts  per  million  at  a  depth  of  about  5.7  centimeters.    Several 

IRR  151—05 3 


34 


FIELD   ASSAY   OF   WATEB. 


[NO.  151. 


careful  grindings  failed  to  give  the  desired  reading  of  4.5  centime- 
ters. It  was  therefore  decided  to  make  some  very  careful  grindings 
and  to  select  as  a  standard  the  one  giving  the  lowest  reading  in 
depth  with  the  turbidimeter.  It  was  found  that  the  particles  of 
silica  need  to  be  rubbed  apart  with  the  finger  after  being  ground,  in 
order  to  secure  the  maximum  turbidity.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  the 
various  readings  with  the  four  standard  solutions  prepared. 

Variations  in  turbidity  readings  tcith  different  degrees  of  fineness  of  silica. 
DEPTH,  IN  CENTIMETERS.  PRODUCED  WITH  500  STANDARD. 


Standard 
No.l. 

standard 
No.  2. 

Standard 
No.  8. 

Standard 
No.  4. 

5.7 

5.8 

4.4 

6.1 

5.6 

5.4 

4.6 

6.0 

5.6 

5.3 

4.5 

6.1 

5.7 

5.2 

4.4 

6.1 

«5.6 

a5.3 

«4.5 

«6.1 

DEPTH,  IN  CENTIMETERS.  PRODUCED  WITH  250  STANDARD. 


10.2 

10.2 

8.6 

11.0 

10.2 

9.7 

8.5 

11.1 

10.1 

9.9 

8.6 

11.0 

10.2 

10.0 

8.7 

11.0 

«10.2 

«10.0 

«8.6 

«11.0 

DEPTH,  IN  CENTIMETERS,  PRODUCED  WITH  125  STANDARD. 


20.0    i 

19.8 

16.7 

21.7 

20.3     1 

19.6 

16.9 

21.5 

20.5 

19.9 

17.0 

22.0 

20.5    , 

20.1 
«19.8 

17.1 

21.8 

«20.3 

1 

0  16.9 

a21.8 

•  Average. 

According  to  these  readings  it  was  found  that  solution  No.  3  prac- 
tically coincides  with  the  old  standard  and  was  therefore  used  as 
standard.  It  is  believed  that  this  choice  will  result  in  less  confusion 
in  the  future  when  a  new  standard  solution  is  desired,  because  this 
chosen  turbidity  represents  the  limit  in  grinding. 

The  work  of  calibration  consisted  in  taking  readings  with  different 
dilutions  of  the  silica  standard.    After  thoroughly  shaking  the  stand- 


LEIGHTON.] 


SUSPENDED   MATTEB. 


35 


ard  it  was  poured  into  the  graduated  tube  until  the  depth  was 
reached  at  which  the  cross  of  light  disappeared.  Precautions  were 
taken  to  secure  uniform  conditions  of  light,  and  the  battery  was  tested 
for  current  at  frequent  intervals.  In  the  following  tables  the  actual 
readings  of  the  tube  are  given,  after  which  the  average  and  average 
deviation  are  stated.  Observations  deviating  by  more  than  the  aver- 
age deviation  are  then  discarded  and  'the  average  of  the  remainder  is 
taken  to  determine  the  resultant  point  on  the  curve  which  represents 
the  turbiditv  scale. 


Calibration  of  turbidimeter  for  standard  of  250  parts  per  million  turbidity. 
[Centimeters.     Excewi  of  average  deviation  indicated  by  italic  figures.] 


Beading. 

Deviation. 

Beading. 

Deviation. 

9.2 

0,6 

8.6 

0.1 

8.4 

.3 

8.4 

.3 

8.7 

'' 

8.8 

.1 

8.9 

.2    ' 

8.4 

,3 

8.5 

.2    ' 

8.4 

.3 

9.2 

.5 

9.2 

,5 

.     8.4 

.S     I 

8.4 

,3 

8.7 

.0     1 

8.7 

.0 

8.9 

.2 

8.9 

.2 

8.5 

.2    1 

8.5 

.2 

8.6 

.1 

8.8 

.1 

8.8 

.1 

8.9 

.2 

8.9 

.2 

8.7 

.0 

9.0 

,3 

8.5 

.2 

8.7 
8.8 

.0 
.1 

269.9 

6.2 

8.5 

.2 

Mean=269.9  4- 31=8.7.     Average  deviatlon^6.2-j- 31=0.2. 

It  will  be  not«d  that  10  of  31  readings  differ  from  the  mean  by  an 
amount  gi-eater  than  the  average  deviation  (0.2).  Only  3  readings 
have  a  deviation  greater  than  0.3.  It  is  therefore  assumed  that 
under  ordinary  conditions  a  variation  of  0.3  centimeter  at  250 
standard  should  be  allowed. 


36  FIELD    ASSAY    OF   WATER.  [»o.  151. 

Calibration  of  turbidimeter  for  standard  of  200  parts  per  million  turbidity. 
[Centimeters.     Excess  of  average  deviation  indicated  by  italic  figures.] 


Beading. 

Deviation. 

Beading. 

Deviation. 

11.8 

O.S 

10.6 

0.4 

11.1 

•1     1 

11.3 

.3 

11.1 

.1 

11.1 

.1 

11.0 

.0 

11.1 

.1 

11.0 

.0 

11.0 

.0 

10.9 

.1 

11.0 

.0 

11.5 

.s 

10.9 

.1 

10.6 
11.1 

.4 
.1 

187.8 

2.9 

10.7 

.3    \ 

1 

Mean=187.3^17-=11.0.     Average  deviation— 2.0 -M7»0.2. 

The  deviation  of  6  of  the  17  observations  exceeds  0.2  centimeter, 
the  average  deviation.  Only  3  observations  exceed  0.3  centimeter  in 
deviation.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  we  mpy  consider  0.3  cen- 
timeter as  the  average  deviation. 

Calibration  of  turbi4imetei'  for  standard  of  100  parts  per  million  turbidity. 
[Centimeters.     Excess  of  average  deviation  Indicated  by  italic  flgnrea.] 


Beading. 

Deviation. 

Beading. 

Deviation. 

21.9 

0.2 

i 

21.9 

0.2 

21.5 

.2 

22.2 

.5 

21.6 

.1 

21.0 

.7 

21.1 

,6 

21.9 

.2 

22.2 

,6 

21.5 

.2 

21.0 

.  7 

21.9 

.2 

21.9 
21.5 

.2 
.2 

808.1 

4.7 

Mean— 303.1  ~  14=21.7.     Average  deviation— 4.7  >- 14—0.3. 

The  deviation  of  5  of  the  14  observations  exceeds  0.3  centimeter. 
the  average  deviation.  Probably  0.4  centimeter  would  be  the  ordi- 
nary deviation.  If  we  reckon  0.4  as  the  average  deviation,  mean  = 
21.8.    Probably  21.7  is  correct. 


LXIGRION.] 


&U8P£KD£t)  MAtTEB. 


87 


Calihratian  of  turhidimeter  for  standard  of  125  parts  per  million  turbidity. 
[Gentlmeten.    EzceM  of  ayerage  deviation  Indicated  by  Italic  figures.] 


Beading. 

D«»viation. 

Beading. 

Derlatlon. 

17.3 

0.0 

1        17.2 

.1 

16.7 

,6 

1        17.5 

.2 

17.2 
17.4 
17.3 

A 
.1 
.0 

i        17.4 
1      155.6 

.1 

1.5 

17.6 

.3 

Mean  —  155.6  -r-  9  ^  17.3.     Average  deviation  —i  1.5  -r-  9  —  0.2. 

The  average  deviation  from  9  readings  is  0.2  centimeter  and  is 
exceeded  by  only  2  readings.  Probably  more  readings  would  give 
greater  deviations  and  the  average  deviation  would  be  increased. 

Calibration  of  turbidimeter  for  standard  of  500  parts  per  million  turbidity. 
[Centimeters.     Excess  of  average  deviation  Indicated  by  Italic  flgares.] 


Beading. 

Deviation. 

Beading. 

Deviation, 

4.4 
4.6 
4.5 
4.4 
4.4 

0.1 
.1 
.0 
.1 
.1 

I 

4.6 
4.5. 

.1 
.0 

31.4 

.5 

Mean»31.4-s-7»4.5.     Average  deviatlon=0.5-^7=B0.1. 

Though  only  7  readings  are  here  given,  many  more  were  taken 
without  getting  anomalous  results.  The  probable  deviation  is  0.1 
centimeter  and  wiU  not  be  exceeded.    Mean =4.5  centimeters. 

Turbidity  of  IfiOO  parts  per  million. — From  many  observations 
at  different  times,  2.3  centimeters  is  the  reading  for  1,000  standard. 

Average  devlation=0.1  centimeter. 
Mean  =2.3  centimeters. 

We  have,  then,  determined  by  actual  experiment  the  depth  cor- 
responding to  6  turbidities : 

Turbidity 100 

Depth  (centimeters)—     21.7 


125 

200 

250 

500 

1,000 

17.3 

11.0 

8.7 

4.5 

2.3 

88 


MELD   ASSAY   OF   WATEB. 


[iro.  151. 


These  points  are  then  plotted  on  logarithmic  cross-section  paper 
(fig.  2)  and  intermediate  points  determined  by  measurement  on 
the  plot. 

Below  100,  depths  have  been  determined  at  50  and  at  25  by  usinp:  a 
longer  tube,  with  which  the  effect  will  be  the  same  as  lowering  the 
light  into  the  standard  by  means  of  a  tape.     The  observations  made 


ifi.7em. 

2/ 

X 



iO 

X 

^v 

tB 

X 

n 

V 

IB 

\ 

13 

X 

13 

X 

\ 

ti 

\ 

If 

\ 



\, 

9 

\, 

n  8 

\ 

\ 

\ 

1:  d 
3 

\ 

\, 

\ 

\ 

4 
9 

\ 

\ 

^ 

^ 

\ 

N 

\ 

09 

Zi 

OO                            J> 

OO 

•« 

OO 

s 

la 

& 

OO      A 

30 

a 

»    9C 

kHA 

Ports  per  million  of  silica 
Fig.  2. — Logarithmic  scale  of  turbidity. 

at  50  and  25  seem  to  indicate  that  the  curve  begins  to  swing  away 
from  its  course  at  100.  This  change  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
distance  between  light  and  eye  is  increased.  From  1,000  to  100  the 
light  is  25  centimeters  from  the  eye;  at  50  it  is  40  centimeters  away, 
while  at  25  the  distance  is  65  centimeters.  The  readings  are  as 
follows : 


LKiGHTON.l  SUSPENDED   MATTEB.  S9 

CaUhraiion  of  turbidimeter  for  standard  of  50  and  25  parts  per  million  turbidity. 


[Centimeters.] 


346.8 


Meaii»346.8H- 10»=34.7. 


[Centimeters.] 
25  parts.  ; 


64 
61 
56 
61 
63 
60 
65 


430 


Mean-»430-^7=61. 


400  SOO  SOO 

.  Part*  per  million  of  silica 

Fig.  3. — ^Turbidity  curve. 


40 


FIELD  ASSAY   OF   WAtEft. 


(no.  151. 


These  readings  may  not  be  accurate.  Further  experiments  may 
show  that  they  are  too  low.  At  most,  however,  they  are  within  10 
parts  per  million  of  silica  in  their  relation  to  the  real  values  (fig.  3). 
The  limit  of  accuracy  between  100  and  1,000  is  well  defined  from  the 
points  determined. 

From  the  values  heretofore  determined  the  depths  of  liquid  in  the 
turbidimeter  corresponding  to  a  silica  standard  of  turbidity  are  sot 
forth  in  the  following  table : 


T  u  rb  id  it  y  deter  m  in  at  ions. 


Depth. 

SUica. 

1  Depth. 

Silica. 

Cm. 

Parts  per 
miUion. 

Cm. 

Partuper 
miUion. 

2.3 

1,000 

10.5 

210  . 

2.6 

900 

11.0 

200 

2.9 

800 

11.5 

190 

3.2 

700 

'  12.1 

180  . 

3.5 

650 

12.8 

170 

3.8 

600 

13.6 

160 

4.1 

550 

14.4 

150 

4.5 

500 

15.4 

140 

4.9 

450 

16.6 

130 

5.6 

400 

18.0 

120 

6.3 

350 

19.6 

110 

7.3 

800 

;  21.7 

100 

7.6 

290 

23.0 

90 

7.8 

280 

25.0 

80 

8.1 

270 

28.0 

70 

8.5 

260 

31.0 

60 

8.7 

250 

35.0 

50 

9.1 

240 

42.0 

40 

9.5 

280 

52.0 

30 

10.0 

220 

,  70.0 

1 

20 

DETERMINATION   OF  THE   PROBABLE   ERROR. 


Readings  on  the  same  standard  solution  with  the  same  battery 
and  light  by  the  same  jjerson  will  vary  within  narrow  limits.  These 
limits  have  been  determined  for  several  points  and  calculated  as 
average  deviation. 


LMGHTON.3  COLOa.  41 

Limit  ft  of  accuracy  on  duplicate  readings. 


1 
1 

Average  devi- 
ation in  centi- 
meters. 

Limit  of  accaraey  in  parts  per  million. 

1,000 

0.1 

Reading  correct  within  35  parts. 

500 

.1 

Reading  correct  within  15  parts. 

250 

.3 

Reading  correct  within  10  parts. 

200 

.3 

Reading  correct  within  8  parts. 

100 

.4 

Reading  correct  within  5.  parts. 

50 

Reading  correct  within  5  parts. 

30 

Reading  correct  within  5  parts. 

In  other  words,  a  turbidity  between  500  and  1,000  parts  can  be 
measured  accurately  within  35  parts.  Between  200  and  500  parts 
measurement  can  be  made  within  10  to  15  parts,  and  between  50  and 
200  within  5  to  8  parts  per  million. 

The  limit  of  accuracy  is  not  changed  by  change  of  observers.  Since 
the  thing  seen  is  a  ray  of  light,  it  appears  to  be  visible  to  any  eye  and 
appears  to  be  shut  off  at  the  same  depth  for  different  observers. 

The  limit  is  greater  than  that  change  in  depth  caused  by  normal 
variations  in  the  current.  Therefore  the  limit  of  accuracy  is  not 
increased  by  variations  in  the  battery  within  ordinary  limits. 

Changes  in  the  electric  bulb  can  introduce  a  constant  error  greater 
than  the  probable  error  in  determination.  Therefore  only  such 
lamps  should  be  used  as  have  been  tested  with  a  standard  silica 
solution. 

In  the  general  field  work  of  the  hydrographic  branch  the  field 
assistants  and  those  cooperating  are  instructed  to  use  the  Jackson  tur- 
bidimeter in  connection  with  all  waters  having  a  turbidity  of  more 
than  100,  while  the  turbidity  rod  could  be  used  in  waters  having  a 
lower  turbidity.  The  objections  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
use  of  this  rod  are  not  so  serious  in  the  determination  of  low  tur- 
bidities. 

COLOR. 
OCCURRENCE. 

The  term  "  color  "  as  used  in  water  chemistry  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  term  as  ordinarily  used.  The  streams  of  the  Missis- 
sippi A'alley,  and  indeed  the  great  river  itself,  appear  highly  colored. 
One  will  find  rivers  which  are  habitually  red,  yellow,  brown,  or  black 
in  appearance.  This  color  is  not  due  to  the  water  itself,  but  to  the 
character  of  the  matter  which  is  carried  in  suspension.  It  is  a  factor 
of  the  turbidity,  and  reveals  the  nature  of  the  geologic  formations 
eroded  by  the  flowing  water.     On  the  other  hand,  waters  may  have  a 


42  FIELD   ASSAY   OF   WATER.  [xo.  151. 

color  due  to  dissolved  substances,  and  this  is  the  feature  referred  to 
by  the  term  as  used  in  water  analysis. 

In  those  parts  of  the  United  States  where  the  underlying  rock  is 
resistant — that  is,  where  it  does  not  readily  break  up  and  disintegrate 
under  the  forces  of  erosion — we  usually  find  colored  water.  At  first 
sight  it  seems  paradoxical  that  the  clear  waters  of  New  England, 
many  of  which  drain  from  granitic  formations  and  hills  of  gravel, 
are  colored,  while  those  of  the  Central  West,  which  carry  large 
amounts  of  suspended  matter  eroded  from  the  surface,  are,  when  freed 
from  turbidity,  nearly  colorless.  In  many  cases  this  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  substances  in  suspension  are  of  such  nature  that  they  absorb 
any  color  which  might  have  been  dissolved.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
New  England  streams  the  color  due  to  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter, 
such  as  peat  or  muck,  remains  in  solution,  and  while  the  water  is  gen- 
erally very  clear  the  color  itself  is  apparent  in  varying  degrees. 

The  importance  of  the  color  determination  arises  from  the  fact  that 
in  public  supplies  consumers  demand  a  clear,  colorless  liquid,  and 
are  reluctant  to  accept  any  other.  In  manufacturing  processes  a 
colored  water  often  works  harm.  In  certain  classes  of  waters  the 
dissolved  color  is  a  fair  index  of  the  amount  of  organic  matter  con- 
tained. These  facts  pertain  primarily  to  unpolluted  water,  for  it  is 
apparent  that  a  water  contaminated  by  wastes  may  have  colors  aris- 
ing from  sources  such  as  dyes,  sediments,  etc.  On  the  whole,  the  color 
of  a  natural  water  which  can  be  applied  to  domestic  and  manufac- 
turing purposes  affects  its  value  along  economic  lines.  The  periodical 
determination  of  dissolved  color  is  necessary,  as  its  intensity  varies 
with  the  seasons  and  is  influenced  by  sunlight,  precipitation,  and 
various  other  natural  phenomena. 

COLOR   STANDARDS. 
GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  STANDARD. 

The  standard  of  color  determinations  adopted  by  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  is  known  as  the  platinum-cobalt  method,  devised 
by  Mr.  Allen  Hjizen,  from  whom  so  many  practical  and  extremely 
valuable  ideas  with  reference  to  the  determination  of  quality  of  water 
have  come. 

The  method  is  as  follows : 

A  standard  solution  which  has  a  color  of  500  is  made  by  dis- 
solving 1.246  grams  potassium-platinic  chloride  <»  (PtCl4^KCl>, 
containing  0.5  gram  platinum,  and  1  gram  of  crystallized  cobalt 
chloride  (CoCL„6ll20),  containing  0.25  gram  of  cobalt  in  water,  with 

"  Potassium-plat Idous  chloride  is  a  salt  that  Is  often  substituted  by  dealers  In  place  of 
the  potaHsium-platinic  chloride.  It  is  Rometlmos  Incorrectly  labeled.  The  platlnous  salt 
has  a  reddish  color,  while  the  platinic  salt  has  a  yellow  color. 


LEIQHTON.l  COLOR.  48 

100  cubic  centimeters  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  and  making  up 
to  1  liter  with  distilled  water.  By  diluting  this  solution,  standards 
are  prepared  having  values  of  0,  5,  10,  15,  20,  25,  30,  35,  40,  50,  60, 
and  70.  The  numbers  correspond  to  the  metallic  platinum  in  the  solu- 
tions in  parts  per  million.  These  are  kept  in  100  c.  c.  Ne&sler  jars 
of  such  diameter  that  the  liquid  shall  have  a  depth  between  20  and  25 
centimeters  and  shall  l)e  protected  from  dust.  The  color  of  a  sample 
is  ol)served  by  filling  a  similar  tube  with  water  and  comparing  it 
with  the  standards.  The  observation  is  made  by  looking  verti- 
cally downward  through  the  tubes  upon  a  white  surface  placed  at 
such  an  angle  that  light  is  reflected  upward  through  the  column  of 
liquid.  The  reading  is  recorded  to  the  nearest  unit.  Waters  that 
Iiave  a  color  darker  than  70  are  diluted  before  making  the  compar- 
ison, in  order  that  no  difficulties  may  be  encountered  in  match- 
ing the  hues.  Water  containing  matter  in  suspension  is  filtered 
until  no  visible  turbidity  remains.  If  the  suspended  matter  is  coarse, 
filter  paper  may  be  used  for  this  purpose;  if  the  suspended  matter  is 
fine,  the  use  of  the  Berkfeld  filter  is  recommended.  The  use  of  a  Pas- 
teur filter  is  to  be  avoided,  as  it  exerts  a  decolorizing  action. 

It  is  impracticable  to  carry  the  standard  tubes  above  described  into 
the  field  for  observations,  and  yet  field  observations  are  of  great  con- 
venience and  value  to  the  sanitary  engineer,  and  in  general  to  the 
investigations  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

FIELD  8TAl<rDiJU>8. 

DESCRIPTION. 

Disks  of  colored  glass  have  been  prepared  by  Mr.  Allen  Hazen,  in 
cooperation  with  the  Survey,  as  standards  for  measuring  color  of  water 
in  the  field."  These  disks  have  been  rated  by  Mr.  George  C.  Whipple 
to  correspond  with  the  platinum-cobalt  standard.  The  color  is  meas- 
ured by  balancing  the  color  of  the  water  in  a  metallic  tube  with  glass 
ends  against  the  colors  of  glass  disks  of  known  value.  The  number 
on  each  disk  represents  the  corresponding  color  of  a  water.  This  is 
not  a  new  standard,  but  a  new  application  of  an  old  standard.  The 
glass  disks  are  rated  to  correspond  with  the  platinum-cobalt  color 
standard.  The  process  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  usual  labora- 
torj'  process  that  an  aneroid  barometer  bears  to  a  mercurial  barometer. 
The  metallic  tubes  and  glass  standards  are  more  portable  and  better 
adapted  to  field  use  than  the  Nessler  tubes  and  color  solutions  hereto- 
fore used.  The  standards  are  disks  of  amber-colored  glass,  mounted 
with  aluminum.  Each  disk  carries  two  numbers.  One  number  is 
over  100,  and  is  a  serial  number  for  the  purpose  of  identification. 

•  I*resaey,  H.  A.,  Observations  on  flow  of  rivers  In  vicinity  of  New  York  City :  Water- 
Sup,  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  76,  U.  S.  (Jeol.  Survey,  1903,  VI.  X. 


44  FIELD   ABSAY   OF   WATEB.  [sciSL 

The  other  number  is  less  than  100,  and  shows  the  color  value  of  the 
disk;  that  is  to  say,  the  color  of  each  disk  is  equal  to  the  color  of  a 
solution  of  the  designated  number  of  parts  per  million  of  platinum 
with  the  required  amount  of  cobalt  to  match  the  hue  when  seen  in  a 
depth  of  200  millimeters.  When  a  water  comes  between  two  disks  its 
value  can  be  estimated  between  them  by  judgment.  Two  or  more 
disks  can  be  used,  one  behind  the  other,  in  which  case  their  combined 
value  is  the  sum  of  the  individual  values.  By  combining  the  disks  of 
a  series  in  different  ways  a  considerable  number  of  values  can  be  pro- 
duced, allowing  the  closer  matching  of  many  waters. 

USE  OF  FIELD  STANDARDS. 

Filling  the  tubes. — The  tube,  having  an  aluminum  stopper,  is  to  be 
filled  with  water,  the  color  of  which  is  to  be  determined.  Rinse  the 
tube  once  or  twice  by  filling  and  emptying  it.  The  second  tube,  hav- 
hig  the  clips  to  hold  the  glass  disks,  is  made  much  like  the  one  holding 
the  water,  to  facilitate  comparison.  Theoretically  this  tube  should 
be  filled  with  distilled  water.  Practically  it  makes  very  little  differ- 
ence whether  it  is  filled  with  distilled  water  or  empty.  Use  distilled 
water  when  it  is  convenient  to  do  so,  and  when  distilled  water  of 
unquestionable  quality  is  at  hand;  otherwise  wipe  the  inside  of  the 
tube  dry  to  prevent  fogging  of  the  glass  ends,  and  proceed  with  the 
tube  empty. 

Holding  the  tubes. — Hold  the  tubes  at  such  a  distance  from  the  eye 
that  the  sides  of  the  tubes  just  can  not  be  seen.  This  occurs  when  the 
near  end  of  the  tube  is  8  or  9  inches  from  the  eye.  Hold  the  tubes  at 
such  an  angle  that  both  can  be  seen  at  once  with  one  eye.  Good 
results  can  not  be  obtained  in  any  other  way.  Interchange  the  tubes 
once  or  twice,  as  sometimes  the  light  on  the  right  and  left  is  not  quite 
equal. 

Background, — There  should  be  a  clear  white  background  with  a 
strong  illumination.  The  best  results  can  not  be  obtained  with  either 
too  little  or  too  much  light.  In  a  gray  day  look  at  the  sky  near  the 
horizon  away  from  the  sun.  In  a  bright  day  look  at  a  piece  of 
white  paper  or  tile  upon  which  a  strong  light  falls.  The  white  sur- 
face may  be  vertical  and  the  tubes  held  horizontally,  or  the  tubes  may 
be  held  at  an  angle  directed  downward  toward  a  horizontal  surface, 
as  may  be  most  convenient.  Good  results  can  not  be  obtained  by 
artificial  light. 

Turbid  water, — The  colors  of  very  turbid  waters  can  not  be  meas- 
ured in  this  way.  Slight  turbidities  do  not  interfere  seriously  with 
the  results.  Waters  too  turbid  for  direct  observations  should  be 
filtered  through  thick  filter  paper  before  being  tested;  and  in  case 
the  suspended  matter  causing  the  turbidity  is  fine  in  grain  and  large 


LKIGHTON.l  IRON.  45 

in  amount,  even  this  method  may  fail.  The  turbidity  of  water  should 
be  taken  as  far  as  possible  in  connection  with  color  observations, 
except  in  cases  where  it  is  obvious  from  inspection  that  there  is  prac- 
tically no  turbidity. 

Highly  colored  waters. — Some  waters  will  be  found  having  a 
higher  color  than  can  be  matched  by  the  standards.  In  general, 
waters  with  colors  above  100  should  not  be  matched  in  200-millimeter 
tubes,  and  the  results  with  waters  having  colors  below  80  will  be 
considerably  more  accurate  than  with  more  highly  colored  ones. 
Two  procedures  are  possible  with  waters  having  higher  colors; 
namely,  to  dilute  with  distilled  water  before  measuring  the  color,  or  to 
use  shorter  tubes.  The  latter  procedure  is  the  more  convenient,  but 
both  are  equally  accurate.  To  measure  the  color  with  short  tubes, 
put  the  highly  colored  water  in  a  tube  of  one-half  the  usual  length 
and  match  as  usual.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  short  standard 
holder.  The  200-millimeter  tube  can  be  used.  After  the  water  is 
matched  the  result  is  multiplied  by  2.  In  case  the  color  is  too  high 
to  be  read  in  a  100-millimeter  tube  it  can  be  put  in  a  50-millimeter 
tube,  and  the  result  multiplied  by  4.  When  dilution  is  used  the 
highly  colored  water  is  mixed  with  one  or  more  volumes  of  distilled 
water,  the  color  matched,  and  the  result  multiplied  by  a  correspond- 
ing factor.  The  tube  itself  can  be  used  for  measuring  the  colored 
water  and  the  distilled  water,  and  the  mixing  can  be  done  in  a  tumbler 
or  any  convenient  clean  vessel. 

Cleaning  the  tubes. — Always  keep  the  tubes  clean.  Take  particu- 
lar care  of  the  glass  ends.  All  the  ends  are  removable  for  the  purpose 
of  cleaning,  and  should  not  be  screwed  on  too  tightly.  They  should 
be  water-tight  when  screwed  up  only  loosely,  for  if  screwed  on  hard 
they  may  stick  so  as  to  come  off  with  difficulty. 

IRON. 

One  of  the  important  determinations  which  it  is  necessary  to 
include  in  many  special  investigations  is  that  of  iron.  Water  con- 
taining an  appreciable  amount  of  this  metal  can  not  be  used  in  many 
manufacturing  processes.  It  is  objectionable  in  domestic  uses  by 
reason  of  its  taste  and  the  discoloration  of  linen.  Certain  solutions 
of  iron  in  boiler  feed  waters  are  particularly  destructive.  Iron  in 
ground  waters  stimulates  the  growth  of  Crenothrix,  w^hich  frequently 
clogs  water  pipes.  On  the  other  hand,  iron  has  a  certain  medicinal 
value,  and  when  it  is  in  the  form  of  sulphate  has  valuable  coagulat- 
ing properties.  The  last-named  effect  is  well  demonstrated  in  streams 
draining  coal  regions.** 

■  Lelghton,  M.  O.,  Qaality  of  water  in  Susquehanna  River  drainage  basin  :  Water-Sup. 
and  Irr.  Paper  No.  108,  U.  8.  Oeol.  Survey,  1904,  p.  36. 


46  FIELD   ASSAY    OF    WATER.  [no.  151 

Colorimetric  methods  are  believed  to  be  the  simplest  and  best  for 
the  determination  of  iron  in  natural  waters,  and  they  readily  lend 
themselves  to  modification  for  field  purposes.  That  which  involves 
the  use  of  potassium  ferrocyanide,  described  on  page  220  of  Sutton's 
Volumetric  Analysis,  ninth  edition,  was  selected  as  best  adapted  for 
the  purposes  in  view.  The  process  involves  the  addition  of  acid  and 
KCXS  to  the  water  under  investigation  or  to  the  residual  solution  of 
that  water,  thereby  producing  a  characteristic  blood-red  color.  The 
depth  of  this  color  is  absoluteh^  fixed  by  the  amount  of  iron  in  the 
water.  It  is  then  necessary  to  add  to  a  similar  mixture,  made  up  witli 
distilled  water,  such  a  quantity  of  standard  iron  solution  as  will  pro- 
duce in  this  solution  exactly  the  same  shade  of  red  as  is  shown  in  the 
water  under  investigation.  Then  from  the  amount  of  standard  iron 
solution  used  to  produce  that  shade  of  red  the  amount  of  iron  in  the 
water  under  investigation  may  easily  be  determined. 

The  modification  of  this  method  for  field  purposes  consists  of  the 
use  of  fixed  color  standards,  each  having  been  previously  rated  to  cor- 
respond with  some  known  equivalent  of  iron.  The  apparatus  used 
in  the  work  is  that  already  described  for  the  determination  of  natural 
color.  (PL  II.)  The  color  standards  are  red  glass  disks,  rated  and 
used  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the  natural  color  standards.  The 
colored  light  is  transmitted  djrectly  through  the  disk  tube,  and  the 
disks  may  be  changed  or  combined  until  the  color  of  the  sample  under 
examination  is  matched.  Then  from  the  rating  of  the  disks  the 
amount  of  iron  may  be  stated. 

A  sample  of  the  clear  water  to  be  tested  is  poured  into  a  50-  or  100- 
c.  c.  graduate  to  the  45  c.  c.  mark,  2  cubic  centimeters  of  concentrated 
nitric  acid  added,  and  the  contents  thoroughly  mixed  in  order  to  con- 
vert all  ferrous  iron  present  into  ferric  iron.  The  fluid  should  then 
be  allowed  to  stand  about  five  minutes. 

The  mixing  and  oxidation  is  preferably  accomplished  by  pouring 
the  solution  from  the  graduate  into  another  vessel,  such  as  the  gla>> 
turbidimeter  tube,  and  vice  versa,  at  least  eight  or  ten  timevS.  To  the 
acidified  solution  in  the  graduate  is  then  added  3  cubic  centimeters  of 
a  solution  of  potassium  sulphocyanide  containing  20  grams  KCNS 
per  liter,  and  the  liquids  are  thoroughly  mixed  and  allowed  to  stand 
10  minutes.  The  solution  is  now  transferred  to  the  aluminum  color- 
imeter tube,  which  has  a  capacity  of  about  45  cubic  centimeters  and  i> 
about  8  inches  long. 

Nitric  acid  is  used  in  the  above  method  instead  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  commonly  employed,  in  the  first  place  to  avoid  any  corrosion  of 
the  aluminum  tube,  the  desirability  of  the  use  of  which  will  l>e  ex- 
plained later.  With  the  employment  of  nitric  acid  instead  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  moreover,  it  was  discovered  that  the  color  produced  in 


UJ 


O 
O 


cc 


o 


CO 

D 


LEIGHTON.l  CHLORIDES,  47 

ii-oii  solutions  by  the  addition  of  sulphocyanide  is  somewhat  deeper 
and  does  not  fade  nearly  so  rapidly.  Finally,  the  addition  of  nitric 
acid  not  only  effects  the  required  acidity  of  the  solution  essential  to 
the  test,  but  obviates  the  need  of  employing  potassium  permanganate 
in  order  to  convert  any  ferrous  iron  present  to  the  ferric  state. 

Tlie  aluminum  tube  is  employed  in  the  assay  for  iron  in  natural 
waters,  because  (1)  it  is  light,  (2)  it  can  not  be  easily  broken  in 
transportation,  like  the  glass  tubes  used  in  the  water  laboratories,  (3) 
it  is  provided  with  a  suitable  spring  for  supporting  the  colored-glass 
disks,  (4)  it  provides  a  suitable  depth  of  column  of  the  water  for  the 
iron  determination,  and  (5)  it  is  generally  used  by  the  hydrographic 
division  in  determining  the  natural  colors  of  waters.  The  aluminiun 
colorimeter  tube  thus  serves  a  double  purpose,  and  obviates  the  neces- 
sity of  carrying  special  tubes  in  the  field  for  the  iron  assay. 

The  results  reached  by  this  method  of  determination  should  be  as 
accurate  for  practical  purposes  as  those  attained  by  the  laboratory 
method. 

CHLORIDES. 

The  determination  of  chlorides  in  water  is  significant  in  two  gen- 
eral lines  of  investigation.  In  connection  with  sanitary  analyses,  it 
is  in  certain  parts  of  the  country  a  valuable  index  of  sewage  pollu- 
tion. In  analyses  of  water  for  boiler  and  industrial  purposes  it  is 
also  important,  as  the  chloridas  of  calcium  and  magnesium  corrode 
boiler  plates. 

LABORATORY   DETERMINATION. 

With  reference  to  the  determination  of  chlorides  from  a  sanitary 
standpoint,  the  following  article  by  Mr.  Daniel  D.  Jackson,  chemist 
in  charge  of  the  Mount  Prospect  laboratory,  department  of  water 
supply,  gas,  and  electricity,  of  New  York  City,  is  presented : 

Chlorine,  a  constituent  of  common  salt,  is  present  in  nearly  all  natural  waters. 
Its  original  sources  are  mineral  salt  de[)osits  and  finely  divided  salt  spray  from 
the  sea.  This  latter  Is  carried  with  dust  particles  by  the  wind  and  precipitated 
with  the  rain.  All  salt  found  In  waters  not  coming  from  these  original  sources 
comes  from  domestic  drainage,  and  indicates  that  the  water  is  at  the  present  time 
polluted,  or  was  polluted  and  has  since  been  purified.  By  a  comparison  of  the 
salt  contents  of  any  water  under  examination  with  the  normal  chlorine  figure 
for  that  region,  the  extent  of  past  or  present  pollution  may  be  determined. 

PHY8IOIXXJICAL   FUNCTIONS   OF   COMMON    SALT. 

Salt  always  occurs  in  drainage  from  animal  sources  because  in  all  animal 
c'<t)nomy  a  certain  fairly  definite  amount  of  common  salt  is  eaten  with  the  food 
daily  and  later  expelled  from  the  body  in  practically  the  same  condition  in 
which  it  was  absorbed.  That  it  plays  an  important  role  in  the  blood  is  indi- 
cated by  the  fact  than  on  an  average  it  constitutes  about  one-halt  ot  tU^  total 


48  FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER.  [no.  IM. 

blood  asb.  It  iH  also  found  tbat  normal  gastric  Juice  can  not  be  formed  without 
the  presence  of  salt,  and  that  in  many  other  secretions  of  the  body  its  presence 
is  probably  a  necessity. 

SALT   AS   AN    INDICATION   OF  POLLUTION. 

The  amount  of  salt  in  a  water  is  a  valuable  indication  of  pollution  because 
of  the  following  facts :  The  animal  body  exi)els  the  same  amount  of  salt  that  it 
absorbs;  tills  salt  is  unchangeable  in  the  soil  and  is  very  soluble  in  water:  it 
must  eventually  form  a  part  of  the  drainage  and  become  mixed  with  the  general 
run-off  of  the  region  in  which  it  is  exi)elled.  The  average  amount  of  salt  enter- 
ing the  drainage  of  any  particular  district  is  so  constant  for  each  inhabitant 
that  it  has  been  daimeii  that  the  numl)er  of  people  living  on  a  drainage  area 
may  be  determined  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy  from  the  average  run-ofT  and 
the  excess  of  chlorine  over  the  normal.o  Stearns  estimates  the  chlorine  in  the 
run-off  of  any  drainage  area  not  receiving  factory  waste  to  be  increased  about 
one-tenth  of  a  part  i)er  million  by  every  20  inhabitants  per  square  mile. 

SALT   IN   THE   WATERS   OF  INLAND   STATES. 

All  salt  in  natural  uni)ol luted  waters  farther  inland  than  Ohio  comes  from 
mineral  dei)ORits.  The  salt  winds  from  the  sea  have  no  effect  beyond  this 
State,  but,  unfortunately,  west  of  this  State  a  large  proportion  of  the  natunil 
waters  are  more  or  less  affected  by  the  salt  deposits.  The  underground  ssilt 
seems  to  spread  over  a  broad  area,  and  exerts  not  only  a  wide  but  a  varhiblo 
influence  over  most  of  the  waters.  In  these  inland  States,  while  the  "normal 
chlorine  "  would  be  prac'tlcally  zero,  the  value  of  the  determination  of  chlorin«» 
is  in  most  cases  vitiated  by  the  variable  quantity  of  salt  from  minenil  sourcfs. 
Determinations  of  chlorine  in  samples  of  water  taken  above  and  liolow  a  city 
which  runs  Its  drainage  into  the  stream  examined  may  give  the  extent  of  iioUu- 
tion  due  to  the  city  sewage,  but  the  waters  so  far  analyzed  in  the  inland  States 
give  indications  that  the  question  of  normal  chlorine  does  not  to  any  gre:it 
extent  enter  into  sanitary  problems. 

SALT   IN    COAST   STATE   WATEBS. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  coast  Stsite  waters  are  practically  unaffected  by  this 
mineral  salt,  and  while  very  extensive  deix)sits  exist,  especially  in  the  State 
of  New  York,  they  are  in  narrow  jwckets  and  exert  an  influence  over  a  verj 
limited  area.  Except  in  these  pockets  the  mineral  salt  has  apparently  been 
washed  into  the  sea. 

It  is  foimd  that  in  the  coast  States  the  salt  in  the  natural  waters  whicli 
comes  from  original  sources  is  practically  all  brought  in  by  the  sea  winds,  and 
that  a  certain  normal  amount  Is  i>resent  in  the  waters  of  each  locality. 

The  difference  in  the  normal  amount  in  different  localities  is  due  to  varia- 
tions in  distance  from  the  seacoast.  in  the  amount  of  rainfall,  in  the  rate  of 
evai)oration,  in  the  amount  of  protection  from  ocean  winds,  and  in  the  dlrwtion 
of  the  prevailing  winds.  In  spite  of  the  great  variety  of  causes  which  affet*i 
the  normal  chlorine  in  natural  waters,  the  normal  for  any  particular  region  is 
surprisingly  constant. 

The  chlorine  dcHTcases  as  waters  farther  and  farther  inland  are  tested.  s<> 
that  by  conne<'ting  with  lines  on  the  map  lo<*alitles  having  the  same  normal  we 
find  that  these  lines  of  e<uial  chlorine  (isochlors)  follow  in  a  genera!  way  the 


•Rept,  Ma.ssachusetts  State  Board  of  Ucaltb,  1890,  pt.  1,  p.  680. 


i^QHTON.]  '  CHLORIDES.  49 

coast  lines,  and  as  they  extend  inland  are  still  more  or  less  parallel  to  the  coast. 
The  distance  of  these  lines  from  the  coast  depends  chiefly  ui)on  the  general 
dire<'tion  of  the  wind  and  the  protectinj;  influences  of  mountains  on  the  coast 
or  of  islands  near  the  mainland. 

COLLECTION   OF   SAMPLES. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  normal  chlorine  lines  for  any  State  it  is  first  necessary 
t<i  collec*t  a  large  numl)er  of  analyses  for  chlorine  in  waters  taken  at  different 
seasons  over  the  entire  area  to  be  covere<l.  It  is  evident  that  near  the  seacoast, 
where  the  variations  in  chlorine  within  a  limited  urea  are  greatest,  the  largest 
amount  of  data  must  be  collected.  A  large  number  of  samples  of  water  taken 
from  surface  and  ground  sources  must  be  obtained.  The  pond  waters  usually 
give  the  t)est  results,  and  careful  insi)ection  of  the  drainage  area  of  such  sources 
gives  a  good  idea  of  whether  or  not  the  water  is  subject  to  i)ollution.  Samples 
for  analy.sis  should  be  chosen  as  far  from  human  habitation  as  possible. 

SOLUTIONS  REQUIRED  IN  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  WATER  FOR  CHLORINE. 

The  following  solutions  are  employed  in  the  analysis  of  water  for  chlorine : 

Sialt  .solution. — A  solution  of  chemically  inire  fused  salt,  containing  1  milli- 
gram of  chlorine  in  each  cubic  centimeter,  is  made  by  dissolving  l.(>48  grams  of 
the  fused  sodium  chloride  in  1  liter  of  distilled  water  free  from  chlorine. 

tiilver-nitrate  solution. — Two  and  one-half  grams  of  crystallized  silver  nitrate 
are  dissolved  in  1  liter  of  distilled  water  free  from  chlorine.  To  this  solution 
water  or  strong  silver  nitrate  is  added  until  by  actual  titration  10  cubic  centi- 
meters of  it  are  equal  to  5  cubic  centimeters  of  the  standard  salt  solution. 
One  cubic  centimeter  of  this  solution  is  then  e<iual  to  0.5  milligram  of  chlorine. 

Pot assium-chr ornate  solution. — An  indicator  solution  is  made  by  adding  50 
grams  of  potassium  chromate  to  1  liter  of  distilled  water  and  then  adding  suffi- 
cient silver-nitrate  solution  to  precipitate  all  the  chlorine  present  and  turn  the 
precipitate  slightly  reddish.  This  is  allowed  to  stand,  and  by  filtering  or  decant- 
ing the  clear  solution  is  then  obtaine<l. 

EmulHiitn  of  alumina. — This  is  made  by  dissolving  125  grams  of  i>otassium  or 
ammonium  alum  in  1  liter  of  water  and  precipitating  the  alumina  from  boiling 
solution  by  ammonia.  After  precipitation  the  alumina  must  l>e  washed  free 
from  chlorine,  sulphate,  and  ammonia  by  successive  treatments,  settlings,  and 
decantations  with  cold  distilled  water. 

METHOD    OF    PROCEDURE    IN    THE    ANALYSIS    OF    WATER    FOR    CUIX>RINE. 

Pour  25  cubic  centimeters  of  the  water  to  be  tested  into  a  white  porcelain 
di.sh.  Add  about  one- half  a  cubic  centimeter  of  chromate  solution  and  run  in 
standard  silver-nitrate  solution  from  a  Imrette  until  the  first  faint  reddish  tint 
api)ears.  This  is  more  easily  note<l  if  for  comparison  a  dish  containing  the 
ssime  amount  of  water  and  chromate  is  kept  beside  the  dish  in  which  the  test  is 
made. 

If  1  Of  more  cubic  centimeters  of  silver  nitrate  are  necessary  to  reach  an  end 
I>oint,  the  test  may  be  made  without  evaporation,  but  if  less  is  required  then 
evaporate  250  cubic  centimeters  to  25  cubic  centimeters  volume  l>efore  making 
the  test  It  may  at  times  be  necessary  to  evaporate  more  than  this  if  the 
chlorine  present  is  very  close  to  zero  in  amount. 

It  is  best  to  always  titrate  with  25  cubic  centimeters  of  the  water.  In  this 
case  0.1  cubic  centimeter  is  subtracted  from  the  results  as  an  Indicator  error. 

IRR  151—05 4 


50  FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATEB.  [»o.  iftl 

If  more  than  this  amount  Is  used  In  titration,  subtract  0.1  cubic  centimeter  for 
each  25  cubic  c*enti meters  of  the  volume  of  water  titrated. 

If  250  cubic  centimeters  of  water  are  taken,  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters 
of  silver-nitrate  solution  used  to  obtain  an  end  i)oint  minus  0.1  <;ubic  centimeter 
multiplied  by  2,  gives  the  chlorine  in  parts  per  million. 

Example :  250  cubic  centimeters  are  eva[)orated  to  a  volume  of  25  cubic  centi- 
meters and  chromate  solution  added.  In  the  titration  3.5  cubic  centimeters  of 
silver  nitrate  are  used.  Then  (3.5  —  0.1)  x2  =  6.8.  The  water,  then,  contains 
6.8  parts  i)er  million  of  chlorine. 

If  the  sample  is  highly  coloi-ed  and  vei-y  turbid  it  may  be  necessary  to  clarify 
it  by  treating  It  with  an  emulsion  of  alumina.  This  Is  best  accomplished  by 
bringing  the  water  Just  to  the  lK)lllug  i)olnt.  and  then  adding  alumina  and 
shaking  the  emulsion.  In  a  few  minutes  the  clarified  water  may  be  decanted. 
This  is  allowed  to  cool  and  the  required  amount  Is  measuretl  out  for  titration. 

OBSERVATIONS   ON    THE   USE   OF   THE    NORMAL   CHLORINE    MAP. 

Having  drawn  a  map  of  this  character  for  any  coast  State,  we  are  then  able 
to  estimate  the  pollution  In  any  natural  water  by  the  amount  of  chlorine  pres^ent 
over  the  normal.  In  some  Instances  It  Is  first  necesbary  to  ascertain  that  the 
chlorine  Is  not  from  mineral  sources. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  normal  clilorine  lines  are  of  great  practical  value. 
both  to  the  chemist  and  to  the  engineer,  as  they  give  an  index  from  which  may 
be  estimated  the  sanitary  quality  of  most  waters  analyssed  within  the  coast 
States.  The  chlorine  also  furnishes  Information  as  to  the  ^urce  of  deei>- 
seated  springs  or  artesian  wells. 

While  this  chlorine  in  the  general  run-off  Is  In  direct  proportion  to  the  popu- 
lation on  a  drainage  area,  provided  none  of  the  sewage  is  carried  outside  of  that 
area,  yet  waters  in  this  region  may  have  l)een  purified  before  reaching  thi 
source  from  which  they  are  collected.  The  clilorine  would  still  be  pre«*eiit  and 
It  Is  necessary  to  find  from  other  tests  whether  the  pollution  Is  present  or  past. 

It  will  be  noted  in  Mr.  Jackson's  discussion  that  the  determination 
of  chlorine  for  the  location  of  isochlors  should  be  made  by  very  pre- 
cise laboratory  methods.  Iix  fact,  such  precision  should  l^e  used  in  all 
cases  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  decide  whether  or  not  a  water  in  a 
country  where  normal  chlorine  is  significant  contains  chlorides  in  an 
amount  which  corresponds  to  or  approximates  a  normal  for  the 
country  from  which  the  water  comes.  In  general  water  surveys, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  make  such  nice  distinctions  only  in  rare 
cases.  In  the  determination  of  chlorides  in  a  water  which  is  to  Ix* 
used  for  l)oiler  or  industrial  purposes  this  refinement  is  not  necessary, 
and  field  methods  will  generally  suffice. 

FIELD    DETERMINATION. 
STANDARD  8ILTEB-NITRATE  TABLETH. 

The  Geological  Survey  proposes  to  use  a  method  for  the  rapid 
determination  of  chlorides  which,  from  numerous  experiments,  seems 
to  meet  the  conditions  in  a  satisfactory  manner.     In  place  of  the 


U.  «-   OEOLOOlCAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY  PAPER  NO.   1B1      PL.   Ill 


UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY  TABLET  CASE. 


LEIGHTON.]  CHIiOBIDES.  51 

standard  solution  of  silver  nitrate,  which  must  be  measured  in  a 
burette  when  applied  to  a  water  under  examination,  there  are  used 
tablets  of  silver  nitrate  containing  a  known  equivalent  of  this  reagent. 
These  tablets  are  packed  in  tubes  and  carried  in  a  leather  case,  the 
details  of  which  are  shown  in  PI.  III.  This  method  of  packing  is 
well  designed  to  avoid  mechanical  agitation  of  the  tablets,  which 
would  result  in  their  loss  of  active  equivalent.  The  tablets  are  held 
securely  in  place  by  the  stoppers,  which  are  suflSciently  small  to  be 
pushed  through  the  lumen  of  the  tube  as  fast  as  the  tablets  are  used. 
This  maintains  a  constant  pressure  against  the  tablets  and  prevents 
their  agitation. 

The  manufacture  of  stable  silver-nitrate  tablets  proved  to  be 
K)mewhat  difficult.  A  niunber  of  pharmaceutical  experts  who  were 
engaged  at  various  times  to  prepare  them  failed  to  produce  a  tablet 
which  was  reasonably  stable.  Those  which  are  now  supplied  to  the 
Survey  are  made  by  the  Kremers-Urban  Company,  of  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  and  are  of  superior  quality. 

In  connection  with  the  determination  of  chlorides  it  is  necessary 
to  carry  into  the  field  only  a  small  bottle  of  potassium-chromate  crys- 
tals or  solution  and  a  heavy  glazed  porcelain  mortar,  together  with  a 
pestle  of  approved  design.  The  tablets  are  dissolved  in  a  measured 
quantity  of  water,  a  small  amount  of  potassium  chromate  having  first 
l>een  placed  in  the  solution.  The  end  point  is  indicated  by  the  change 
in  color  in  the  usual  way  and  the  number  of  tablets  of  known  equiva- 
lent indicates  the  amount  of  chloride  in  the  water. 

This  method  may  be  objected  to  by  some  chemists  because  it  is 
generally  believed  that  the  results  of  a  chlorine  determination  made 
on  a  water  without  first  evaporating  the  same  are  too  high.  This 
is  apparently  true  with  waters  like  those  of  New  England,  which  con- 
lain  only  minute  quantities  of  chlorine,  but  in  the  waters  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  the  chlorides  are  so  high  in  amount  that 
the  error  which  arises  from  direct  titration  is  not  large  enough  to  be 
of  significance  in  industrial  work. 

AMiile  the  tablets  may  be  manufactured  to  contain  almost  any 
i*easonable  amount  of  silver  nitrate,  it  has  been  found  that  the  most 
convenient  equivalents  for  general  field  use  are  those  of  approximately 
1  and  10  milligrams  of  chlorine.  In  all  special  cases  the  strength  of 
tablets  should  be  adjusted  to  suit  conditions.  As  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  manufacture  tablets  of  the  exact  equivalent  desired,  it  is 
necessary  to  determine  the  strength  of  each  new  supply  and  to  make 
calculations  of  all  field  results  accordingly. 

The  following  statement  includes  various  tests  of  a  supply  of 
tablets.  Each  tablet  was  made  up  to  contain  an  equivalent  of  as  near 
1  milligram  of  chlorine  as  possible.    The  purposes  of  the  tests  were 


52 


FIELD   ASSAY    OF   WATER. 


[NO.  151, 


to  determine  the  variation  in  equivalent  of  single  tablets  and  the 
combined  equivalent  of  tablets  in  sets  of  5  and  10,  the  actual  values 
in  milligrams  of  chlorine  being  determined  by  volumetric  methods. 

Tests  to  determine  variation  in  silver-nitrate  tablets. 

[Milligrama.] 


Single  tablets. 

6  tablets. 

1                  10  tablets. 

Equiva- 
lent of 
1  tablet. 

Deviation 
from 
mean. 

-0.046 
-  .056  ' 

+  .044  ; 

+  .067  1 

1 

Equiva- 
lent of 
6  tablets. 

6.000 
6.280 
6.210 
6.110 
6.090 
6.200 
6.060 
6.110 

Mean     Deviation 
equiva-      of  1  tab- 
lent  of  1     let  from 
tablet.        mean. 

Equiva- 
lent of  10 
tablets. 

Mean 
equiva- 
lent of  1 
tablet. 

Deviation 
of  1  tab- 
let from 
mean. 

0.96 

.96 

1.049 

1.062 

1.012 
1.046 
1.042 
1.022 
1.018 
1.040 
1.016 
1.082 

-0.016 
+  .019 
+  .016 

-  .006 

-  .009 
+  .018 

-  .011 

-  .006 

Maximum 
deviation. 

10.24 
10.16 
10.17 
10.18 

1.024 
1.016 
1.017 
1.018 

+0.0066 

-  .0086 

-  .0016 

-  .0006 

Mean. 

Maximum 
deviation. 

Mean. 

Mean. 

deviation. 

1.006 

-f  0.067 

1 

6.211 

1.027 

+0.019 

10.186         1.018 

+0.0066 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  results  that  the  maximum  variation 
in  the  equivalent  of  single  tablets  is  0.057  milligram  of  chlorine  for 
each  tablet.  Therefore,  considering  the  maximum  variation  shown 
in  the  single  tablets  and  allowing,  for  purposes  of  illustration,  that 
the  maximum  error  may  always  be  present  in  a  determination,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  use  18  tablets  in  a  determination  in  order  to 
reach  an  error  equivalent  to  1  milligram  of  chlorine.  The  mean 
value,  however,  of  the  single  tablet  is  thoroughly  representative  of  all 
the  tablets  tested,  the  variations  lying  above  and  below  the  mean  value 
equally.  It  wnll  be  se*»n,  further,  that  when  the  tablets  are  used  in 
larger  quantities  and  the  combined  equivalents  of  such  quantities  are 
compared,  the  deviations  from  the  mean  are  considerably  less  and  the 
maximum  deviation  is  practically  negligible.  This  is  shown  e^spe- 
cially  well  in  the  statement  of  the  comparison  of  the  ten  tablets.  It 
is  therefore  apparent  that  the  tablets  do  not  vary  by  an  appreciable 
amount,  and  that  having  e^stablished  their  equivalent  by  taking  the 
mean  of  several  determinations,  such  mean  can  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  field  determinations  of  chlorine  in  natural  waters. 


LEIGHTOM.] 


GHLiOBIDES. 


58 


PRACTICAL  TESTS  WITH  TABLET  MSTHOD. 

Three  chloride  solutions  were  made  up  at  random,  which,  when 
tested  by  precise  methods,  were  found  to  contain  4,280,  12,940,  and 
1,372  parts  of  chlorine  per  million,  respectively.  These  solutions 
were  titrated  with  tablets,  and  the  end  points  reached  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  used  in  the  field.  The  results  are  set  forth  in  the 
following  table : 

Tests  of  silver-nitrate  tablets,  with  solutions  of  known  equivalent. 
SOLUTION  NO.  1.— CHLORINE,  4,280  PARTS  PER  MILLION. 


Yolnmeof 
aoliition. 

Number  of 
tablets. 

Value  of 
tablets. 

Parts  chlo- 
rine, tablet 
method. 

Deviation 

from  actual 

value. 

Per  cent 
deviation. 

c.  c. 
22 

5 

188.0 
21.0 

1.052 
1.052 

6,850 
4,410 

-f2,070 

-f     180 

48.4 

8.04 

5 

21.0 

1.052 

4,410 

-f     180 

8.04 

25 

10.4 

10.1 

4,200 

-      80 

1.87 

25 

I        10.0 
\          8.0 

10.1 
1.052 

}      4.160 

-     120 

2.80 

50 

20.8 
f        20.0 

10.1 
10.1 

4,200 

-      80 

1.87 

50 

5.0 
1.0 

1.052 
.481 

4,154 

-     126 

2.44 

15.06 

Mean  deviation   (six  results)— >15.06-h6»2.51  per  cent. 
SOLUTION  NO.  2.— CHLORINE  12,940  PARTS  PER  MILLION. 


26 

82.25 

10.1 

12,510 

-430 

•      8.82 

26 

82.0 

10.1 

12,430 

-510 

8.04 

15 

r    19.5 
I      1.0 

10.1 
1.052 

}  18,200 

-1-260 

2.01 

15 

1    18.5 
I      8.0 

10.1 
1.052 

1  18,020 

4-  80 

.62 

5 

64.0 

1.052 

18,470 

+530 

4.09 
18.98 

Mean  devlation=13.98-r5«2.80  per  cent. 


54  FIELD   ASSAY   OF   WATEB.  [no.  151. 

2*e8t8  of  silver-nitrate  tablets j  icith  solutions  of  knotcn  equivalent — Continued. 
SOLUTION  NO.  3.— CHLORINE  1,372  PARTS  PER  MILLION. 


Volume  of 
solution. 


50 

50 

50 
20 


Value  of 
tablets. 


Parts  Ohio-      Deviation 
rine,  tablet    from  actual ' 
method.  value. 


.  Percent 
deviation. 


1,353 


-  19 

-  U 

-  14 
+  20 
-hl08 


1.38 
1.02 

1.02 

1.46 

7.80 


12.27 


Mean  deviation:^  12.27-^5=2.45  per  cent. 

The  first  result  in  the  table  above  set  forth  is  so  radically  wrong 
that  it  is  inserted  to  illustrate  a  condition  which  must  always  be 
avoided  when  this  method  is  employed,  viz,  the  use  of  a  large  number 
of  tablets.  It  will  be  noted  that  a  considerable  amount  of  strong 
chloride  solution  was  used  with  tablets  of  low  equivalent,  i.  e.,  1.05*2 
milligrams  of  chlorine.  This  made  it  necessary  to  use  133  tablets  to 
reach  the  end  point,  with  a  result  that  is  absurd.  But  25  and  50 
cubic  centimeters  of  the  same  solution  are  titrated  with  the  tablets 
with  only  a  small  error  when  the  tablets  of  larger  equivalent,  10.1 
milligrams  of  chlorine,  are  used.  On  the  whole,  the  results  shown  in 
the  above  table  are  very  satisfactory,  the  error  involved  in  the  deter- 
minations averaging  about  2.5  to  3  per  cent,  which  is  well  within  the 
limits  of  field  work.  Indeed,  when  the  method  was  designed  it  wa.^ 
believed  that  an  error  of  5  per  cent  would  be  as  small  as  could  l)e 
expected. 

A  very  simple  way  of  testing  for  small  amounts  of  chlorine  i^ 
afforded  by  cutting  tablets  into  quarters  with  a  jackknife.  Only 
ordinary  care  need  be  used  and  the  quarters  may  then  be  taken  for 
analysis  without  extreme  regard  to  the  selection  of  large  or  small 
pieces.  The  following  account  of  some  experiments  performed  is 
submitted : 

No.  1.  Twenty  tablets  were  cut  into  quarters.  Each  quarter  should 
precipitate  0.25  milligram  of  CI.  To  100  cubic  centimeters  of  water 
(blank  =  0.13  cubic  centimeter)    1  cubic  centimeter  of  NaCl  was 


LJUGHTOM.] 


CHIiOBIDES. 


55 


added,  making  the  actual  value  of  the  water  =  1.13  milligrams  CI. 
l^^our  quarters  gave  no  end  reaction,  but  five  quarters  did.  This 
experiment  was  done  fifteen  times  with  the  same  results.  One  and 
one- fourth  tablets  ai-e  equivalent  to  1.25  milligrams  CI. 

No.  2.  Twenty  more  tablets  were  cut  up  and  added  as  above,  except 
that  1.1  cubic  centimeters  of  NaCl  were  used,  making  the  value  of 
water=1.23  milligrams  CI  (blank+0.13  cubic  centimeter).  Five 
quarters  used  in  eight  out  of  twelve  titrations.  This  shows  a  varia- 
tion in  quartering  of  possibly  an  equivalent  of  0.02  milligram  CI,  or 
0.2  part  per  million,  an  insignificant  amount. 

Xo.  3.  Next' 1  cubic  centimeter  of  NaCl  was  used  (=1.13  milli- 
grams CI).  One  whole  tablet  gave  no  end  reaction,  but  one  whole 
tablet-|-one  quarter  tablet  gave  a  reaction  in  every  case. 

No.  4.  The  same  was  done  with  0.9  cubic  centimeter  NaCl  (=1.03 
milligrams  CI).    One  tablet,  no  end  reaction ;  IJ  tablets,  end  reaction. 

No.  5.  The  same,  using  1.2  cubic  centimeters  NaCl  (  =  1.33  milli- 
grams CI).  One  tablet,  no  end  reaction,=l  milligram  CI;  IJ  tab- 
lets, no  end  reaction,=1.25  milligrams  CI;  IJ  tablets  gave  end  reac- 
tion,=1.50  milligrams  CI. 

Nos.  3,  4,  and  5  were  each  done  ten  times. 

The  value  of  these  results  and  their  accuracy  are  shown  below : 


No. 

Hmigrams  chlorine. 

Actual  con- 
tent. 

Found  by  titration. 

1 

1.13 

1.25 

2 

123     1            ««l>o^l-2'^ 
1            4  show  1.50 

8 

1.13     1                          1.25 

4 

1.03                               1.25 

5 

1.38     i                           1.50 

This  method  comes  within  0.25  milligram  of  the  amount  of  chlo- 
rine present,  or  within  2.5  parts  per  million  of  chlorine.  This  pro- 
cedure is  recommended.  If  only  ordinary  care  be  used  in  cutting 
tablets,  their  value  will  be  within  1  part  in  a  million. 

ESTIMATION  OF  CHLOBINE.  ^ 

A  known  amount  (about  50  c.  c.)  of  the  water  to  be  tested  is  meas- 
ured into  a  glazed  porcelain  mortar  (4  inches  diameter)  and  5  drops 
of  potassium  chromate  (5  per  cent  solution)  added. 

One  silver-nitrate  tablet  is  then  cut  into  quarters,  using  ordinary 
care  to  get  the  quarters  equal.    Whole  tablets  are  added  to  the  water 


56  FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER.  [no.  151. 

till  near  the  end  point,  when  quarter  tablets  are  used.  The  end  point 
is  the  api)earance  of  the  red  color  of  silver  chromate. 

■^—^ir — =milligram8  per  liter  of  chlorine,  when  W=cubic  ceu- 

timeters  of  water  used,  n  =  number  of  tablets  used,  and  A  =  value 
of  one  tablet  in  milligrams  of  chlorine.  Proper  allowance  should  be 
finally  made  for  the  amount  of  silver  nitrate  consumed  in  the  end 
reaction. 

Each  tube  of  AgNOg  tablets  is  marked  with  its  equivalent  of 
chlorine. 

Note. — Silver-nitrate  tablets^  should  not  be  bandied'  with* the  fingers  nor 
exposed  to  sunlight    Keep  ail  tubes  well  stoppered. 

HARDNESS. 
GENERAL   STATEMENT. 

A  hard  water  is  popularly  recognized  as  a  water  with  which  it  is 
difficult  to  obtain  a  soap  lather.  Strictly  defined,  it  is  that  i)roperty 
imparted  to  water  by  the  carbonates,  sulphates,  chlorides,  and  nitrates 
of  calcium  and  magnesium.  Chemical  methods  for  the  determina- 
tion of  hardness  are  not  yet  well  defined;  in  fact,  the  whole  subject 
is  somewhat  chaotic.  A  method  which  may  be  satisfactory  for  the 
waters  of  one  part  of  the  United  States  may  be  of  little  value  for 
those  of  another.  Consequently  there  has  developed  a  rude  geo- 
graphic distribution  of  methods,  each  being  adapted  to  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  waters  in  the  regions  in  wiiich  they  are  used.  The  result 
is  that  comparisons  between  hardness  determinations  made  in  differ- 
ent regions  are  somewhat  uncertain  and  nearly  always  unsatisfactory. 

The  effect  of  hard  water  upon  the  lathering  properties  of  sodium 
soap — that  is,  the  soap  used  for  laundry  and  toilet  purposes — hsis 
been  made  use  of  in  determining  hardness.  Indeed,  the  soap  test 
w^as  the  earliest  and  is  still  the  commonest  of  all  those  employed  for 
this  purpose.  A  standard  solution  of  a  pure  soap,  usually  a  high- 
grade  castile,  is  standardized  against  a  solution  of  calcium  chloride, 
the  equivalent  of  which  has  been  determined  in  terms  of  calcium  car- 
bonate. The  details  of  this  process  are  too  familiar  to  warrant  fur- 
ther description.  Practically,  the  principal  weaknass  of  the  test  i> 
the  determination  of  the  end  point,  which  is  not  sharply  defined. 
The  sodium  salts  pf  oleic,  palmitic,  and  stearic  acids  which  compose  a 
pure  soap  are  definite  chemical  compounds,  and  their  transformation 
into  calcium  and  magnesium  soaps  should  follow  the  usual  course  of 
chemical  change,  and  therefore  the  soap  test  is  not  merely  a  test  of  the 
soap-consuming  power  of  water,  as  maintained  by  some  chemists. 

In  practice  the  soap  test  is  limited  in  its  usefulness,  and  its  result> 
are  modified  by  many  conditions.  A  few  authorities  who  have 
made  minute  studies  of  the  soap  method  are  impressed  with  its  pos- 


LEIQHTON.]  HABDNESS.  57 

sibilities,  but  the  modifications  which  they  suggest  are  somewhat  cum- 
bersome, involve  superrefinements,  and  in  the  end  require  so  much 
time  that  the  importance  of  the  results  is  not  commensurate.  In 
those  parts  of  the  country  where  soft  waters  abound  and  where  it  is 
known  that  magnesium  salts  are  not  abundant  the  test  has  great 
value.  Its  usefulness  is  limited  in  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi 
basin,  and  it  fails  entirely  when  applied  to  western  waters. 

FIELD  METHOD. 
USE  OF  SODIiM-OLEATE  TABLETS. 

The  soap  test  has  been  modified  for  field  use  by  the  substitution  of 
tablets  of  pure  sodium  oleate  for  the  soap  solution.  Sodium  oleate 
can  be  obtained  in  pure  form  and  readily  divided  in  tablets,  each  con- 
taining a  known  amount  of  the  reagent.  The  tablets  used  by  the 
Geological  Survey  in  field  work  are  made  by  the  Kremers-Urban 
Company,  of  Milwaukee,  Wis.  They  are  of  three  grades,  "  full," 
^-  half,"  and  "  quarter,"  or,  as  they  are  usually  denoted,  "  F,"  "  H," 
and  '*  Q,"  according  to  their  content  of  10,  5,  or  2.5  milligrams  of 
sodium  oleate,  respectively. 

In  using  the.se  tablets,  100  cubic  centimeters  of  the  water  to  be 
tested  are  placed  in  a  specially  designed  bottle  (Emil  Greiner) 
having  a  heavy  semispherical  bottom.  Tablets  are  then  added  one  at 
a  time  and  dissolved  in  the  water.  This  process  is  greatly  hastened 
by  trituration  of  the  tablets  in  the  bottle  with  a  blunt  glass  rod. 
After  each  tablet  is  dissolved  the  bottle  should  be  shaken  and  laid 
upon  its  side,  and  the  determination  conducted  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  that  prescribed  in  the  case  of  the  soap  solution.  From 
the  number  of  tablets  used  and  their  equivalent  the  hardness  may  be 
determined. 

The  facility  with  which  this  determination  may  be  carried  on  is 
largely  determined  by  practice.  When  first  attempted  it  seems  awk- 
ward, but  after  a  few  trials  the  operator  finds  that  it  can  be  readily 
]-ierformed.  The  proper  way  is  to  start  with  the  F  tablets  until  near 
the  end  point,  then  apply  the  H,  and  finally  the  Q  tablets.  This  of 
course  may  become  a  method  of  "  trial  and  error,"  but  the  skilled  field 
man  will  seldom  add  tablets  beyond  the  end  point.  The  appearance 
of  the  lather  at  various  stagesLis  characteristic  and  affords  a  guide  for 
the  operator.  In  order  to  show  certain  characteristic  features  in  the 
tablet  method  for  the  hardness  determination  the  following  results 
of  a  test  made  of  a  supply  of  tablets  are  set  forth : 

TEST  OF  80D11M-0LEATE  TABLETS. 

For  a  standard  of  hardness,  0.2  gram  of  Iceland  spar  was  dissolved 
in  HCl,  evaporated  to  dryness  three  times  in  IICl  and  twice  with 
water.    Finally  the  residue  was  dissolved  and  diluted  to  one  liter 


58 


FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATEB. 


[HO.  15L 


with  redistilled  water.     Five  cubic  centimeters  of  this  solution  of 
CaCla  is  equivalent  to  1  milligram  CaCOj. 

The  tablets  used  in  the  work  are  of  three  equivalents,  and  are 
designated  as  follows : 

One  F  tablet  contains  an  approximate  equivalent  of  0.0014  gram  oaleimn 
carbonate. 

One  II  tablet  contains  an  approximate  equivalent  of  0.0007  gram  calcium 
carbonate. 

One  Q  tablet  contains  an  approximate  equivalent  of  0.0003  gram  calciiun 
carbonate. 

The  first  test  was  to  determine  the  amount  of  sodium-oleate  tablet 
reacted  with  100  cubic  centimeters  distilled  water.  In  the  follow- 
ing tabulated  statement  the  sign  +  denotes  a  permanent  foam  or 
satisfactory  end  point,  while  —  denotes  no  end  point. 

Standardization  of  sodium-oleate   tablets   against  100  cubic  centimeters  dis- 
tilled water. 


P. 

H. 

Q- 

»Q. 

3Q 
2. 

H.^ 

-f 

-f 

— 

-\- 

-- 

-f 

-f 

4- 

— 

-r 

— 

-f 

-f- 

-f 

— 

^ 

- 

-1- 

-h 

+ 

— 

+ 

- 

-f 

-f 

— 

-f 

- 

-f 

-h 

— 

-h      • 

— 

Results  in  the  above  series  of  experiments  indicate  that  100  cubic 
centimeters  distilled  water  requires  about  0.006  grams  of  sodium 
oleate. 

To  reduce  this  to  terms  of  calcium  carbonate  experiments  were 
made  with  100  cubic  centimeters  distilled  water  containing  varying 
amounts  of  calcium  chloride.  It  was  found  by  repeated  trial  that 
where  two  H  tablets  were  used  it  required  3.2  cubic  centimeters  of  the 
CaClo  solution  in  100  cubic  centimeters  of  distilled  water  to  react 
exactly.  Consequently,  as  the  100  cubic  centimet>ers  distilled  water 
required  one  H  tablet,  the  remaining  IT  tablet  was  equivalent  to  the 
CaCla-  Therefore  the  distilled  water  is  equivalent  in  the  soap  reaction 
to  3.2  cubic  centimeters  of  CaCla,  or  0.64  milligram  CaCOg. 

The  first  experiments  in  standardizing  the  tablets  were  made  with 
the  standard  CaClj  solution  diluted  with  100  cubic  centimeters  dis- 
tilled water  against  one  F  tablet,  with  results  as  follows : 


LEIGUTON.] 


HARDNESS. 
Standardization  of  sodium-oleate  tablet  F. 


59 


^Si'ifJer,       HeBHlt. 


8.0.     ...    Foam. 

3.5 '  Foam. 

3.6 Foam. 

3.7 Foam. 

8.7 I  Foam. 

3.7_.       .     Foam. 
3. 7. . .  Foam. 

3.8 ..   No  foam. 

8.8 .   Nofoam. 

4.0 Nofoam. 

I 


From  the  above  it  appears  that  one  F  tablet  is  equivalent  to  3.7 
cubic  centimeters  CaClj  solution  with  100  cubic  centimeters  distilled 
water,  or  actually  equivalent  to  6.9  cubic  centimeters  (3.7+3.2  cubic 
centimeters),  which  expressed  in  terms  of  CaCOj  is  equal  to  1.38 
milligrams. 

Using  seven  F  tablets  in  100  cubic  centimeters  distilled  water  against 
different  amounts  of  the  CaClj  solution  the  following  results  were 
reported : 


CaCLAffAinst 
7  P  tablets. 

Beeult. 

c.  c. 

41.7 

Foam. 

41.5 

Foam. 

42.5 

Foam. 

44.9 

Foam. 

45.0 

Foam. 

45.9 

Nofoam. 

46.0 

No  foam. 

From  the  above  results  it  appears  that  the  end  point  is  practically 
reached  with  45  cubic  centimeters  CaClj  solution.  With  the  amount 
for  100  cubic  centimeters  distilled  water  added,  seven  tablets  are 
therefore  equivalent  to  48.2  cubic  centimeters  CaCU,  or  9.G4  milli- 
grams CaCOa-  This  allows  for  one  tablet  an  equivalent  of  1.37 
milligrams  CaCOg,  which  agrees  with  the  previous  determinations 
within  the  limit  of  experimental  error. 


60 


FIELD    ASSAY   OF    WATER. 


[NO.  ISL 


Experiments  were  made  with  various  combinations  of  tablets  as 
follows : 


CbC1«. 

Tablets  (number 
and  value). 

Result. 

c.  c. 

3.2 

4Q 

No  foam. 

3.2 

5Q 

Foam. 

3.0 

5Q 

Foam. 

3.0 

5Q 

Foam. 

2.8 

4Q 

Foam. 

2.9 

4Q 

Foam. 

45.0 

7F 

Foam. 

46.9 

7F 

No  foam. 

45.9 

7F-flQ 

Foam. 

45.0 

14  H 

45.0 

15  H 

Foam. 

45.0 

6F  +  2H 

Foam. 

45.0 

6F+2H 

Foam. 

Analyzing  the  results  above  given  we  have: 

1. 


Caa2+100  c.  c. 
distilled 
water. 

Tablets 

(number  and 

value). 

Result. 

c.  c. 
3.2 

4Q 

No  foam. 

3.2 

5Q 

Foam. 

3.0 

5Q 

Foam. 

2.8 

4Q 

Foam. 

2.9 

4Q 

Foam. 

Therefore  four  Q  tablets  are  equivalent  to  an  amount  of  CaCO, 

lying  between  1.28  milligrams  and  1.22  milligrams,  or  one  Q  tablet  to 

an  amount  lying  between  0.32  and  0.30.     Using  either  as  the  value, 

the  error  will  not  be  significant.    0.31  milligram  is  probably  the  most 

accurate  factor. 

2. 


CaCl-+100  c.  c. 
distilled 
water. 

Tablets 

(number  and 

value). 

Result. 

c.  c. 
45.0 
45.9 
45.9 

7F 

7F 

7F-hlQ 

Foam. 
No  foam. 
Foam. 

LEI6HTON.1 


HABDNESS. 


61 


Therefore  seven  F  tablets  are  equivalent  to  an  amount  of  CaCO, 
lying  between  9.82  and  9.64  milligrams,  or  one  tablet  to  an  amount 
lying   between    1.40   and    1.38   milligrams.    The   error   introduced 

if  either  1.40  or  1.38  is  used  as  a  factor  will  be  less  than  ^  and 

therefore  insignificant. 


OftCLflOOc.  0. 
diBtiUed 
water. 

Tableto 

(niimber  and 

value). 

Result. 

c.  c. 
45 
45 
45 

14  H 

15  H 
6F-f2H 

No  foam. 

Foam. 

Foam. 

Therefore  the  equivalent  of  9.64  milligrams  CaCOs  lies  between  the 
value  of  14  and  15  H  tablets,  or  one  tablet  is  equivalent  to  an  amount 
of  CaCOj  between  0.69  and  0.64  milligram.  But  from  the  third 
experiment  it  is  seen  that  two  H  tablets  are  equivalent  to  1.36  milli- 
grams (9.64— [6X1.38]),  or  one  tablet  to  0.68  milligram. 

E8TIM1TI0N  OF  HARDNESS. 

The  directions  for  using  these  tablets  should  be  followed  absolutely. 
The  end-point  foam  should  be  permanent  for  at  least  five  minutes, 
the  bottle  lying  upon  its  side.  The  smallest  number  of  tablets  possi- 
ble should  be  used;  for  example,  if  the  hardness  of  a  water  is  120 
parts  per  million  on  direct  titration  without  correction,  the  best 
procedure  assuming  the  given  value  of  the  tablets  used  would  be  as 
follows : 

Milligrams  CaCOv 

8  F  tablets  equivalent  to 11.04 

1  II  tablet  equivalenf  to . .(;8 

1  Q  tablet  equivalent  to  — ^ .  31 

Total 12. 03 

Subtracting  0.64  milligram  CaCO,  for  distlUed  water .  64 

Hardness  expressed  by  tablets 11.39 

Or  in  parts  per  million 113.  9 

In  this  case  the  error  would  be  equivalent  to  0.03  milligrams  CaCOg, 
an  amount  unimportant  in  practical  work. 

The  end  point  can  be  approached  in  the  manner  above  described 
after  the  operator  has  had  a  short  experience  with  the  method.  The 
comparative  permanence  of  the  preliminary  foam  pellicles  which  do 
not  remain  imbroken  for  the  entire  five  minutes  is  a  guide. 


62  FIELD   ASSAY    OF    WATEB.  [mo.  151. 

HARDENING   C30N8TITUENT8. 
CLASSES. 

It  is  customary  to  distinguish  between  temporary  and  permanent 
hardness.  Temporary  hardness  is  due  to  the  carbonates  (and  bicar- 
bonates)  of  calcium  and  magnesium.  Calcium  and  magnesium  car- 
bonates are  not  readily  soluble  in  water  unless  accompanied  by  carbon 
dioxide.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  supposed  that  the  carbonates 
become  bicarbonates,  although  the  bicarbonates  of  these  two  elements 
have  never  been  isolated.  A\Tien  waters  containing  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium bicarbonates  are  boiled  the  carbon  dioxide  is  driven  off  and  the 
normal  carbonates  of  calcium  and  magnesium  are  precipitated. 
Therefore,  the  properties  which  they  impart  to  the  water  are  desig- 
nated temporary  hardness.  Permanent  hardness,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  that  property  which  is  imparted  to  waters  by  the  sulphates,  chlor- 
ides, and  nitrates  of  the  alkali  earths.  They  are  not  precipitated  by 
ordinary  boiling,  and  therefore  their  effects  are  regarded  as  perma- 
nent. The  usual  method  of  determining  temporary  and  permanent 
hardness  by  the  soap  test  consists  in  making  the  test  on  a  sample  of 
water  before  boiling,  and  another  on  a  similar  sample  after  boiling; 
the  difference  in  the  two  results  representing  the  temporary  hardne?^. 

Temporary  and  permanent  hardness  are  often  expressed  as  alka- 
linity and  incrusting  constituents,  respectively,  and  it  is  common  to 
see,  even  in  analytical  reports  of  well-informed  chemists,  the  ex- 
pression "  alkalinity  or  temporary  hardness."  This  expression  i> 
misleading.  It  is  approximately  correct  when  the  waters  of  New 
England  and  certain  other  portions  of  the  country  are  referred  to, 
but  as  a  general  statement  concerning  the  majority  of  waters  nothing 
could  l)e  more  inaccurate.  There  are  abundant  instances  in  which 
waters  are  alkaline  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  and  yet  are  widely 
known  as  soft  waters,  giving  little  or  no  reaction  with  the  soap  test. 
The  alkalinity  in  such  cases  is  due  to  the  carbonates  of  sodium  and 
potassium,  which,  while  they  impart  a  truly  alkaline  reaction,  have  no 
hardening  effect.  The  majority  of  the  waters  of  the  United  States 
contain  alkali  carbonates,  and  therefore  any  interpretation  of  alka- 
linity as  being  equivalent  to  temporary  hardness  with  such  waters  is 
erroneous. 

If  the  alkalinity  found  in  a  water  is  the  result  of  the  carbonates 
of  the  alkali-earth  elements,  its  industrial  significance  is  consider- 
ably different  from  that  of  the  carbonates  of  the  alkalies.  For  ex- 
ample, calcium  carbonate  forms  soft  scale  when  used  in  boilers, 
while  sodium  carbonate  forms  no  scale,  but  presents  a  much  less 
important  difficulty,  that  of  foaming.  If,  however,  a  water  con- 
taining calcium  carbonate   were   used   for  irrigation  purposes,   it 


LEIGHTOK.l  HARDNESS.  63 

would  not  damage  crops  unless  it  were  present  in  extremely  high 
proportions — ^higher,  in  fact,  than  it  is  almost  ever  found  in  nature. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  small  amount  of  sodium  carbonate  is  destruc- 
tive to  crops.  It  is  as  desirable  to  know  whether  the  sulphat-es  and 
chlorides  which  are  found  in  the  water  are  of  the  alkali  earths  or 
the  alkalies,  for  they  present  variations  in  usefulness  with  reference 
to  industries  similar  to  those  above  described  in  the  case  of  the  car- 
bonates- 
It  has  been  the-  endeavor  of  the  Geological  Survey  to  so  modify 
the  methods  by  which  the  various  determinations  of  the  hardening 
constituents  of  water  may  be  made  that  they  can  be  used  in  the  field. 
These  methods  are  set  forth  in  subsequent  pages.  They  do  not  in- 
clude all  of  the  determinations  desirable  for  some  classes  of  work,  but 
sufficient  to  allow  of  a  very  comprehensive  interpretation  concerning 
the  quality  of  any  wat^r  under  investigation. 

C^ABBONATEH. 

The  determination  of  alkalinity  or  carbonates  is  a  simple  volu- 
metric process.  It  requires  only  a  standard  solution  of  an  acid, 
preferably  a  mineral  acid,  with  accurate  means  for  measuring  the 
^^me,  and  a  proper  indicator  solution.  On  account  of  the  carbon 
dioxide  set  free  by  the  determination,  methyl  orange  is  the  indicator 
in  commonest  use.  The  objections  already  cited  to  carrying  standard 
solutions  and  burettes  in  the  field  led  to  an  attempt  to  adopt  an 
acid  which  could  be  preserved  in  tablet  form.  Many  organic  acids 
were  tried,  but  is  was  found  that  they  were  either  too  weak  to 
afford  a  definite  end  point  or  were  of  so  deliquescent  a  character 
that  they  could  not  be  made  to  form  stable  tablets.  It  was  finally 
decided  to  adopt  the  use  of  sodium  acid  sulphate.  Tablets  made 
from  this  reagent  are  easily  regulated  in  equivalent  and  are  of  an 
extremely  stable  nature.  The  results  which  can  be  procured  through 
their  use  are  very  satisfactory. 

TESTS  OF  SODIUM    ACID-BTnLPHATE  TABLETS. 

For  use  in  titrating  against  sodium  acid-sulphate  tablets  a  fiftieth 
normal  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  was  made,  in  which  each  cubic 
centimeter  equals  1.06  milligram  NaCO.,.  Six  sets  of  five  sodium  acid- 
sulphate  tablets  each  were  then  dissolved  in  50  cubic  centimeters  of 
distilled  water  and  each  solution  was  titrated  with  the  standard 
sodium  carbonate.  The  results  of  these  titrations  are  shown  in  the 
following  table : 


64 


FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER. 
Standardization  of  sodium  acid-sulphate  taJ)lets. 


[so.  151. 


NaHS04. 

NaaCOa- 

Ylilue  of  1  tablet.  ' 

r.  c. 

c.  c. 

MgCaCOi. 

10.60 

2.15 

2.08 

10.15 

2.05 

2.02 

10.85 

2.20 

2.08 

10.30 

2.10 

2.04 

10.10 

2.05 

2.03 

10.10 

2.05 

2.03 

Assuming  these  final  reactions, 

NagCOs  +  2NaHS04  =  2Na2S04  +  IIjO  +  COj, 

and  CaCOg  +  2NaHS04  =  CaS04  +  HjO  +  CO2  +  NajSO^, 

then  for  the  expression  of  the  value  of  our  tablet  in  milligrams  of 
CaCOg  we  have  the  following  proportion : 


NajCOg 
CaCOT '' 


106 
100' 


The  experiments  above  described  were  made  with  solutions  of  the 
acid-sulphate  tablets,  and  the  results  show  the  constancy  of  the  reac- 
tion between  the  normal  carbonate  and  the  sulphate.  They  do  not 
show,  however,  the  variations  which  would  occur  in  the  practical 
use  of  the  tablets  applied  directly  to  tlie  alkaline  solution,  as  would 
lye  done  in  the  field.  Therefore  the  following  tests  are  submitted  to 
?how  the  deviations  which  may  arise  in  suct^essive  tablets  or  succi^- 
sive  sets  of  tablets.  The  tablets  used  were  marked  "  Lot  715,  sodium 
acid-sulphate  equivalent  to  1.995  milligrams  calcium  carbonate. 
These  tablets  had  been  in  stock  for  several  months,  had  received  some 
rough  handling,  and  were  in  poor  condition.  In  fact,  they  repre- 
sented the  most  unfavorable  conditions  that  might  l^e  supposed  to 
occur  in  connection  with  the  field  use  of  tablets,  and  the  variations 
Avhich  are  shown  may  be  accepted  as  the  extreme  variations  which 
are  likely  to  occur  in  common  use. 

In  testing  and  standardizing  the  sodium  acid-sulphate  tablets  nor- 
mal solutions  of  sulphuric  acid  and  sodium  carbonate  were  useil. 
Tests  were  made  as  follows: 

Solutions  of  unknown  strength  of  sodium  carbonate  were  made  up 
and  the  alkalinity  was  determined  volumetrically  with  standard  sul- 
phuric acid  solution.  Following  this,  determinations  of  the  same 
unknown  solutions  were  made  with  the  tablets.  Varying  amount> 
of  the  solution  were  used,  with  a  corresponding  variation  in  the  num- 
ber of  tablets. 


LEIGHTOS.] 


HARDNESS. 


65 


Cumparativc  determinations  of  alkalinity  in  carbonate  itolutions  with  standard 
sulphuric-acid  and  sodium  acid-sulphate  tablets, 

CARBONATE    SOLUTION    NO.    1.— ALKALINITY,    5,764    PARTS    PER    MILLION    IN 
TERMS  OF  CALCIUM  CARBONATE. 


Amount  of 
fiolntion. 

Number  of 
tablets. 

Parts  per 
million. 

Deviation 

in  parts  per 

millionT 

Per  cent  de- 
viation. 

e.c. 

1.9 

3.5 

7.0 

11.0 

10.5 

17.5 

46.5 

5 

10 
20 
32 
30 
50 
135 

5,225 
5,674 
5,674 

1        5,726 

5,674 
5,767 

-539 

-  90 

-  90 

-  38 

-  90 
-r    8 

9.3 

1.56 

1.56 

.66 

1.56 
.05 

CARBONATE    SOLUTION    NO.    2.— ALKALINITY,    2,312    PARTS    PER    MILLION    IN 
TERMS  OF  CALCIUM  CARBONATE. 


4.5 

5 

2,207 

-105 

4.55 

10.0 

12 

2,383 

+  71 

3.1 

15.0 

18 

21.0 

25 

2,384 

+  72 

3.1 

19.0 

23 

25.5 
25.0 

80 
30 

]         2,359 

+  47 

2.0 

51.0 
50.5 

60 
59 

}        2,328 

+  14 

.61 

The  figures  of  the  above  tables  show  that  when  a  large  number 
of  tablets  are  used  to  determine  alkalinity  the  results  are  more 
nearly  correct  than  when  a  few  are  used.  This  is  especially  notice- 
able in  the  first  entries  in  the  two  tables,  where  the  small  amount 
of  the  alkaline  solution  used  requires  only  five  tablets.  The  error 
in  each  of  these  cases  is  larger  than  is  permissible  even  in  field 
work.  In  the  remainder  of  the  tests,  however,  the  variation  is  not 
sufficiently  great  to  be  appreciable,  especially  in  the  weaker  car- 
bonate solutions,  where  it  is  shown  that  the  use  of  a  larger  number 
of  tablets  involves  a  minimum  error.  This  suggests  that  in  con- 
nection with  the  field  determination  of  carbonates  it  is  advisable, 
wherever  waters  of  a  low  alkalinity  are  tested,  to  use  a  large  amount 
of  the  water  in  order  that  a  large  number  of  tablets  can  be  used  to 
neutralize  the  alkalinity,  and  thereby  avoid  the  error  arising  from 
the  variation  which  occurs  in  the  single  tablets. 

1KB  151—05 5 


66  FIELD    ASSAY    OF   WATER.  [xo.  15L 

ESTIMATION  OP  ALKALINITY. 

.Measure  100  cubic  centimeters  of  water  to  be  test^  into  a  glazed 
porcelain  mortar  (4  inches  diameter).  Add  two  drops  niethyl- 
orange  indicator.  Add  NaHS04  tablets  till  an  acid  reaction  i.s 
reached.  Then  add  some  of  the  original  water  that  is  being  tested, 
drop  by  drop,  till  an  alkaline  reaction  is  exactly  reached.  Measure 
the  liquid  in  the  mortar  and  to  the  amount  of  the  reading  add  1  cubic 
centimeter  for  the  wetted  interior  of  the  dish.  The  following  for- 
mula is  convenient  for  use  in  making  calculations  of  alkalinity : 

1,000  n  A  ,       .„.  ,.^       ^  ^  ,,^ 
^ equals  milligram  per  liter  of  CaCOj. 

When  W  equals  cubic  centimeter  of  water  used; 
n  equals  number  tablets  used; 
A  equals  value  of  1  t«,blet  in  milligrams  of  CaCOg. 
Each  consignment  of  tablets  is  marked  with  its  value  in  equivalent 
of  CaCOa. 

NORMAL   AND   ACID   CARBONATES. 

It  is  nearly  always  of  value  to  determine  the  proportion  of  normal 
and  acid  carbonates  in  a  water,  for  it  affords  a  fairly  good  index  to 
the  character  of  the  base  with  which  the  carbon  dioxide  is  united. 
It  is  a  generally  accepted  idea  that  the  carbonates  of  the  alkaline- 
earth  metals  are,  when  in  solution  in  water,  in  the  form  of  bicarlxni- 
ates.  For  the  general  purposes  of  field  work  it  may  be  considered 
that  all  bicarbonates  occurring  in  natural  waters  are  alkaline-earth 
carbonates  and  may  conveniently  be  calculated  as  CaCO,.  All 
normal  carbonates,  on  the  other  hand,  must  be  alkali  carbonates, 
conveniently  calculated  as  NajCOg.  This  generalization  is  not 
uniformly  true,  especially  in  certain  classes  of  western  waters.  It  ha> 
been  plainly  shown,  by  the  work  of  Messrs.  Frank  K.  Cameron  and 
Lyman  J.  Briggs,  of  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  that  there  is  considerable  complexity  in  the  occur- 
rence and  equilibrium  of  carbonates  and  bicarbonates  in  waters. 
There  are,  however,  few  practical  water  problems  occurring  outside 
of  the  alkali-desert  regions  in  which  the  interpretation  of  bicarbon- 
ates as  alkaline-earth  carbonates  and  normal  carbonates  as  alkali 
carbonates  would  lead  to  erroneous  results.  The  field  men  of  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  are  therefore  instructed  to  re}K)rt 
bicarbonates  as  CaCOg  and  normal  carbonates  as  Na2C08,  in  the 
absence  of  data  which  will  allow  of  other  interpretations. 

The  method  of  determining  carbonates  and  bicarbonates  in  aqueou> 
solution  is  discussed  by  Mr.  Frank  K.  Cameron,  chemist  of  the  Bureau 
of  Soils,  in  Bulletin  No.  18  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Soils,  pages  77-89.    The  method  depends  upon  the 


LEIGHT0N.3  HAEDNESS.  67 

fact  that  while  phenolphthalein  reacts  with  the  normal  carbonates  of 
the  alkali  and  alkaline-earth  metals  and  not  with  the  bicarbonates, 
methyl  orange  reacts  with  either.  The  water  under  investigation 
is  titrated  with  a  standard  solution  of  potassium  acid  sulphate, 
using  phenolphthalein  as  an  indicator,  the  first  end  point  being  the 
complete  disappearance  of  the  red  color.  Methyl  orange  is  then 
added  to  the  solution,  and  the  titration  is  continued  with  the  same 
standard  until  a  pink  acid  reaction  is  obtained.  The  amount  of 
standard  solution  used  to  reach  the  first  end  point  is  a  measure  of 
the  amount  of  normal  carbonates,  while  the  total  amount  used  in 
securing  both  end  points,  less  twice  that  for  the  first  end  point,  is  a 
measure  of  the  bicarbonatas. 

The  reaction  taking  place  before  and  up  to  the  total  neutraliza- 
tion of  the  phenolphthalein  is  a  conversion  of  carbonates  into  bicar- 
bonates and  can  probably  be  expressed  as  follows : 

2KHSO,+2Xa2C08=Na2SO,+K,SO,+2NaHC03 
or 

2KHSO,+2MgC03=MgSO,+K2SO,+Mg(HC03)2. 

The  neutralization  of  bicarbonates  probably  takes  place  in  this 
manner : 

2KHSO,+2NaHC03=Na2S04+K2SO,+2H2Q-f2CO, 
or 

2KHSO,+Mg(HC03)2=MgSO,+K2SO,+2H,0+2C02. 

It  is  evident  that  w^hen  the  end  point  with  phenolphthalein  has 
been  reached  there  remains  as  a  product  of  the  fii'st  reaction,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  bicarbonates  originally  present,  an  amount  of  bicarbon- 
ates equal  in  reacting  power  to  the  reaction  shown  by  the  phe- 
nolphthalein. In  other  words,  double  the  amount  of  potassium  acid 
sulphate  required  to  convert  the  carbonates  to  bicarbonates,  and  so 
destroy  the  color  of  the  phenolphthalein,  is  necessary  to  completely 
neutralize  the  normal  carbonates  as  indicated  by  methyl  orange. 
This  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  computing  the  results  from 
the  titration. 

Inasmuch  as  the  reactions  taking  place  when  sodium  acid  sulphate 
is  used  must  be  similar  to  those  with  the  use  of  potassium  acid  sul- 
phate, there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  tablets  now  in  use  in  this 
division  may  not  be  substituted  for  the  standard  solution  suggested  by 
Mr.  Cameron.  Experiments  have  been  made  to  determine  the  accu- 
racy of  the  results  obtainable  and  are  discussed  in  the  following 
paragraphs. 

An  unknown  amount  of  thoroughly  fused  Kahlbaum's  sodium 
bicarbonate  was  dissolved  in  distilled  water  that  had  previously  been 
boiled  to  drive  out  carbonic  acid.    Twenty-five  cubic  centimeters  of 


68  FIELD   ASSAY   OF    WATER.  [no.  151. 

this  solution,  which  should  contain  only  sodium  carbonate,  was  tested 
by  adding  phenolphthalein,  triturating  and  dissolving  standard  tab- 
lets of  sodium  acid  sulphate  till  decolorized,  adding  methyl  orange, 
and  continuing  the  trituration  until  the  methyl-orange  end  point  was 
reached.  Another  equal  portion  of  the  solution  was  tested  by  adding 
methyl  orange  alone  and  dissolving  tablets  imtil  the  end  point  was 
reached.     The  results  in  the  two  cases  were  as  follows : 

1.  Necessary  for  phenolphthalein  end  point Otabletji. 

Excess  necessary  for  methyl -orange  end  point 9  tablets. 

2.  Total  necessary  for  methyl-orange  end  point 18  tablets. 

Two  solutions  were  then  made,  one  similar  to  the  first,  of  sodium 
carbonate  in  boiled  distilled  water,  the  other  of  supposedly  pure 
Kahlbaum's  sodium  bicarbonate  in  distilled  water,  also  boiled.  These 
were  tested  by  solution  of  tablets,  using  first  phenolphthalein  and 
then  methyl  orange  as  an  indicator,  as  in  the  first  case. 

Sodium  carbonate  solution 25  cubic  centlmeterji. 

Necessary  for  phenolphthalein  end  point 27  tablets. 

Necessary  excess  for  methyl-orange  end  point 27  tablets. 

Sodium  bicarbonate  solution 25  cubic  x.-entimeters. 

Necessary  for  phenolphthalein  end  point 15  tablets. 

Necessary  excess  for  methyl-orange  end  point 57  tablets. 

It  is  evident  that  the  solution  of  bicarbonate  was  impure,  30  tablets 
out  of  a  total  of  72  being  required  for  the  neutralization  of  the  normal 
carbonate.  A  mixture  of  these  two  solutions  was  then  made,  as 
follows : 

Cubic  cent I- 

Sodium  carbonate  solution KB) 

Solution  containing  bicarbonate lu) 

Distilled  water  (boiled) IW 

It  is  evident  that  the  number  of  tablets  required  by  this  solution,  if 
the  method  is  reliable,  will  be  equal  to  one-fourth  of  the  sum  of  all 
the  tablets  used  to  neutralize  the  two  original  solutions,  25  cubic  centi- 
meters being  taken  in  each  case.  This  should  be  true,  not  only  of 
the  whole  determination,  but  of  each  part.  Tests  made  of  the  mix- 
ture resulted  as  follows : 

Necessary  for  phenolphthalein  end  point lOJ  tablets. 

Necessary  excess  for  methyl-orange  end  point 21  tablets. 

Inspection  of  these  figures  and  comparison  with  those  preceding 
indicate  that,  in  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  judge  under  the  conditions, 
the  method  is  accurate  and  reliable. 

To  make  the  determination,  measure  a  convenient  quantity  of  the 
water  to  be  tested  into  a  porcelain  mortar  and  add  4  drops  of 
phenolphthalein  (1  per  cent).  Triturate  the  standard  NaHS04  ^^ 
lets  in  the  mortar,  one  at  a  time,  until  the  color  disappears.     Note  the 


LEitJHTON.l  HAKDNESS.  69 

number  of  tablets  and  then  add  4  drops  of  methyl  orange  (1  per  cent). 
Continue  the  titration  with  the  tablets  until  the  orange  color  of  the 
solution  changes  to  a  faint  pink.  Then  note  the  total  number  of 
tablets  used  in  both  titrations.  The  equivalent  of  the  sodium  acid- 
sulphate  tablets  is  usually  given  in  terms  of  calcium  carbonate. 
Therefore  the  amount  of  bicarbonates  in  the  water  may  be  calcu- 
lated directly  from  this  valuation.  In  order  to  calculate  the  normal 
carbonates  as  NajCO.,,  it  will  be  necessary  to  multiply  the  valuation 
of  the  sodium-sulphate  tablets  given  by  1.06,  the  conversion  factor  of 
CaCOa  to  Na^CO,. 

For  computation  of  the  normal  carbonates  in  parts  per  million, 
double  the  number  of  tablets  used  for  the  decolorization  of  phenol- 
phthalein,  multiply  by  the  equivalent  of  each  tablet  in  milligrams 
Na^COj.  Then  multiply  this  product  by  1,000  and  divide  the  whole  by 
the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  the  sample  tested.  To  find  bicar- 
LM>nates  in  parts  per  million,  subtract  from  the  total  number  of  tablets 
Used  in  the  two  titrations  twice  the  number  required  for  the  phenol- 
phthalein  end  point  and  multiply  this  difference  by  the  equivalent  of 
each  tablet  in  terms  of  calcium  carbonate.  Then  multiply  this  prod- 
uct by  1,000  and  divide  by  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters  of  water 
tested. 

For  the  convenient  expression  of  the  above  in  formulas,  assume  the 
following  symbols: 

A  =  equivalent  of  NaHSO*  tablets  in  terms  of  milligrams  of  CaCOj. 
B=:equivalent  of  NaHSO^  tablets  in  terms  of  milligrams  of  NagCOg. 

The  conversion  factor  being  1.06,  we  have 

n  =  number  of  tablets  used  to  reach  first  or  phenolphthalein  end  point. 
X  =  number  of  tablets  used  to  reach  second  or  methyl-orange  end  point. 
W=  amount  in  cubic  centimeters  of  water  tested. 

Then  for  the  determination  of  normal  carbonates  we  have  the  formula 

2,000nB 
W 
and  for  the  determination  of  bicarbonates 

l,000(y-2n)A 

w 

The  results  of  the  two  above  equations  will  be  the  expression  of  parts 
per  million. 

8ULPHATES. 

Water  generally  contains  either  one  or  more  of  the  sulphates  of 
sodium,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron.  If  present  in 
minute  amounts  the  effect  of  any  or  all  of  them  is  negligible,  but  if 


70  FIELD    ASSAY    OF    WATER.  [no.  16L 

they  appear  in  large  proportions  they  do  damage  in  every  branch  of 
science  or  industry  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  use  water.  Calcium, 
magnesium,  and  iron  sulphates  damage  boilers,  textiles,  soaps,  malt 
liquors,  paper,  and  many  other  manufactured  products,  while  they 
render  water  undesirable  for  domestic  purposes.  The  sulphates  of 
sodium  and  potassium  are  troublesome  in  boilers,  and  damage  crops 
when  water  containing  large  amounts  is  used  for  irrigation.  A 
knowledge  of  the  amoimt  of  sulphates  in  a  water  is  of  great  im- 
portance. 

The  determination  of  sulphates,  as  it  is  usually  performed  in  the 
laboratory,  is  a  slow,  laborious,  and  expensive  process.  A  field 
method  has,  however,  been  devised  by  which  the  sulphates  can  be 
determined  in  a  few  minutes  and  with  a  degree  of  accuracy  sufficient 
for  all  practical  purposes.  The  determination  involves  the  use  of 
the  Jackson  turbidimeter,  described  on  previous  pages.  In  the  fol 
lowing  paragraphs  the  determination  of  sulphates  is  described  by 
the  originator  of  the  method,  Mr.  Daniel  D.  Jackson : 

DETERMINATION  BY  TURBIDIMETER. 

Knowledge  of  the  amount  of  sulphates  In  a  water  to  be  used  for  industrial 
purposes  is  especially  important  The  scale  which  is  most  troublesome  to  remove 
from  boilers  is  produced  by  the  precipitation  of  sulphate  of  lime.  If  the  amount 
of  sulphate  is  considerable  the  detenni nation  of  lime  may  be  made  by  the 
turbidimeter  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy.    The  method  is  as  follows : 

To  100  cubic  centimeters  of  water  to  be  tested  add  1  cubic  centimeter  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  (1-1)  and  1  gram  of  solid  barium-chloride  crystals.  If  the  amount 
of  sulphate  is  low,  200  or  300  cubic  centimeters  of  water  must  be  treated  in 
order  to  fill  the  longer  tube  employed.  In  this  case  add  1  cubic  centimeter  of 
acid  and  1  gram  of  barium  chloride  for  each  100  cubic  centimeters  of  water 
taken. 

The  mixture  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  ten  minutes,  and  in  this  time  it 
should  be  frequently  shaken.  It  is  best  to  employ  a  bottle  for  this  purpose. 
Treating  the  water  in  the  cold  with  solid  barium  chloride  causes  the  barium 
sulphate  to  be  precipiUited  in  a  finely  divided  state,  and  the  turbidity  produce! 
may  then  be  read  by  either  the  candle  or  the  electric  turbidimeter. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  tube  the  end  point  is  taken  when  the  hazy  cross  of 
light  disappears.  This  is  a  higher  reading  than  the  point  where  the  sharp 
cross  disappears.  Higher  up  in  the  tube  there  is  no  hazy  cross  of  light,  and  the 
end  point  is  the  disaitpearance  of  the  sharp  cross  of  light  When  this  ix>int 
is  obtained,  remove  the  glass  tube  and  find  the  depth  of  the  liquid  (using  tlie 
bottom  of  the  meniscus  in  reading).  Refer  this  reading  to  the  accompanying 
table  to  obtain  the  parts  per  million  or  grains  per  gallon  of  sulphate  present 

The  readings  of  these  instnniients  are  only  to  a  very  slight  extent  affecteil 
by  the  amount  of  light  used,  so  that  a  fairly  wide  variation  in  this  respect  gives 
little  or  no  error  in  the  result.  This  Is  also  true  with  variations  in  the  color 
of  diflferent  natural  waters.  The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  end 
point  Is  not  to  any  great  extent  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  light  cut  out 
but  to  the  complete  covering  up  of  the  image  of  light  by  the  particles  in  suspen- 
sion. It  is  surprising  to  find  that  the  interposition  of  disks,  even  of  highly  col- 
ored glass,  produces  little  or  no  effect  upon  the  end  point 


L£IGIITON.] 


HARDNESS. 


71 


In  using  the  electric  turbidimeter.  If  the  image  becomes  perceptibly  dim  the 
battery  is  replaced  by  a  fresh  one,  but  if  the  analyst  Is  careful  to  keep  the  light 
turned  off  except  when  actually  making  readings  the  batteries  will  last  for  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time.  Fresh  electric  bulbs  and  batteries  may  be  obtained 
from  the  Howard  Electric  Novelty  Company,  221-227  Canal  street,  New  York 
City,  or  183  Lake  street,  Chicago.  If  any  parts  of  the  Instrument  are  lost  or 
broken  they  may  be  r^laced  by  Baker  &  Fox,  83  Schermerhorn  street,  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y. 

Table  far  converting  readings  in  depths  6|/  the  turbidimeter  into  parts  per  mil- 
lion or  grains  per  gallon  of  sulphate. 


BMkUngln 
centime- 
ters. 

Parts  per 

million, 

80s. 

QraixiB  per 
United 

States  ral- 
lon,  80,. 

1 

1  Reading  in 
!    centime- 
ters. 

Parts  per 

million, 

SO,. 

Grains  per 
UniteS^ 
States  gal- 
lon, SO,. 

1.0 

522 

30.5 

3.9 

144 

8.4 

1.1 

478 

28.0 

4.0 

140 

8.2 

1.3 

442 

25.8 

4.1 

187 

8.0 

1.3 

410 

24.0 

4.2 

183 

7.8 

1.4 

383 

22.4 

4.8 

131 

7.7 

1.5 

859 

21.0 

4.4 

128 

7.5 

1.6 

338 

19.8 

4.5 

125 

7.8 

1.7 

319 

18.6 

4.6 

122 

7.1 

1.8 

302 

17.7 

4.7 

119 

7.0 

1.9 

287 

16.8 

4.8 

117 

6.8 

2.0 

273 

16.0 

4.9 

115 

6.7 

2.1 

261 

15.3 

5.0 

118 

6.6 

2.2 

250 

14.6 

5.1 

110 

6.4 

2.8 

239 

14.0 

5.2 

108 

6.3 

2.4 

230 

13.5 

5.3 

106 

6.2 

2.5 

221 

12.9 

5.4 

104 

6.0 

2.6 

213 

12.4 

5.5 

108 

6.0 

2.7 

205 

12.0 

5.6 

101 

5.9 

2.8 

198 

11.6 

5.7 

99 

5.8 

2.9 

191 

11.2 

5.8 

97 

5.7. 

8.0 

185 

10.8 

5.9 

96  ^ 

5.6 

8.1 

179 

10.5 

6.0 

94 

6.5 

3.2 

173 

10.1 

6.1 

93 

5.4 

8.8 

168 

9.8 

6.2 

91 

5.8 

3.4 

164 

9.6 

6.8 

90 

5.2 

8.5 

159 

9.8 

6.4 

88 

5.1 

8.6 

155 

9.1 

6.5 

87 

5.1 

8.7 

151 

8.8 

6.6 

86 

5.0 

3.8 

147 

8.6 

1          '-' 

1 

84 

4.9 

72 


FIELD   AB8AY    OF   WATEB. 


[NO.  151. 


Table  for  converting  readings  in  depths  by  the  turbidimeter  into  parts  per  mil- 
lion or  grains  per  gallon  of  sulphate — Continued. 


Reading  in 
centime- 
ters. 

Parts  per 

million, 

SO,. 

Grains  per 

United 
States  gal- 
lon, SO,. 

;  Reading  In 
1    eentime- 
'       ters. 

Parts  per 

million, 

80a. 

United 
States  gal- 
lon, 80k. 

6.8 

83 

4.9 

J        12.4 

46 

2.7 

6.9 

82 

4.8 

12.6 

45 

2.6 

7.0 

81 

4.8 

12.8 

44 

2.6 

7.1 

80 

4.7 

13.0 

43 

2.5 

7.2 

79 

4.7 

18.5 

42 

2.5 

7.3 

78 

4.6 

-14.0 

41 

2.4 

7.4 

77 

4.5 

14.5 

39 

.2.3 

7.5 

76 

4.4 

15.0 

88 

2.3 

7.6 

75 

4.4 

15.5 

87 

2.2 

7.7 

74 

4.3 

16.0 

36 

2.1 

7.8 

73 

4.3 

W.5 

35 

2.0 

7.9 

72 

4.2 

17.0 

34 

2.0 

8.0 

7i 

4.2 

17.5 

33 

1.9 

8.1 

70 

4.1 

18.0 

32 

1.9 

8.2 

69 

4.0 

18.5 

31 

1.8 

8.8 

68 

4.0 

19.0 

30 

1.8 

8.5 

67 

3.9 

20.0 

29 

1.7 

8.6 

66 

3.9 

21.0 

28 

1.7 

8.7 

65 

3.8 

22.0 

27 

1.6 

8.8 

64 

3.8 

22.5 

26 

1.6 

9.0 

63 

3.7 

23.0 

25 

1.5 

9.1 

62 

3.7 

24.0 

24 

1.4 

9.3 

61 

3.6 

25.0 

23 

1.3 

^.5 

•60 

3.6 

26.5 

22 

1.3 

9.7 

59 

3.5 

28.0 

21 

i;2 

9.8 

58 

3.4 

29.0 

20 

1.2 

10.0 

57 

3.3 

31.0 

19 

1.1 

10.2 

56 

3.3 

33.0 

18 

1.1 

10.4 

55 

3.2 

35.0 

17 

1.0 

10.6 

54 

3.2 

37.5 

16 

1.0 

10.8 

53 

3.1 

40.0 

15 

.9 

11.0 

52 

3.1 

43.0 

14 

.9 

11.2 

51 

3.0 

46.5 

13 

.8 

11.4 

50 

8.0 

50.0 

12 

.7 

11.6 

49 

2.9 

55.5 

11 

.6 

11.8 

48 

2.8 

62.0 

10 

.6 

12.0 

47 

2.7 

68.0 

9 

.5 

LEiQHTON.]  HABDNE8S.  73 

PRECAUTIONS  IN  USE  OF  INSTRUMENT. 

1.  The  same  care  sbould  be  taken  as  in  measuring  turbidity  to  bare  tbe  tur- 
bidimeter In  good  running  order.  2.  Always  sbnke  the  solution  until  nil  tbe 
barium  chloride  is  dissolved.  Otherwise  a  flaky  precipitate  may  be  obtained. 
:\  Since  the  barium-sulphate  precipitate  is  very  heavy,  the  solution  should  be 
mixed  frequently  by  pouring  and  shaking  while  readings  are  being  made.  4. 
Only  sufficient  hydrochloric  acid  should  be  added  to  moke  the  water  acid. 

CALCICX. 

The  determination  of  calcium  is  made  by  means  of  the  turbidi- 
meter, the  method  being  similar  to  that  described  in  the  chapter  on 
sulphates.  It  is  the  latest,  and  therefore  the  least  known,  of  all  the 
determinations  here  described.  While  the  results  which  have  been 
reached  by  this  method  appear  to  be  satisfactory,  no  particular  plan 
has  yet  been  offered  to  determine  certain  necessary  facts  with  ref- 
erence to  the  behavior  of  precipitated  calcium  oxalate.  The  method 
depends  upon  the  turbidity  produced  by  the  precipitation  of  calcium 
oxalate  upon  the  addition  of  ammonium  oxalate  to  the  water  under 
investigation.  Whether  or  not  the  variations  which  occur  in  the 
character  of  this  precipitate  under  different  conditions  are  sufficient 
to  affect  appreciably  the  degree  of  turbidity  produced  is  a  matter 
which  is  yet  to  receive  attention. 

The  test  is  made  in  the  following  manner :  To  100  cubic  centimeters 
of  the  water  to  be  tested  add  a  few  drops  of  ammonium  hydroxide, 
NH^OH.  The  amount  added  should  be  barely  sufficient  to  impart  to 
the  water  a  perceptible  ammoniacal  odor.  Then  add  crystals  of  am- 
monium oxalate.  The  amount  of  crystals  to  be  added  depends,  of 
course,  upon  the  amount  of  lime  in  the  water.  As  this  is  yet  undeter- 
mined, care  should  be  taken  to  add  an  excess  of  ammonium  oxalate. 
Mix  thoroughly  and  allow  the  solution  to  stand  for  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes.  Then  determine  the  turbidity  with  the  Jackson  turbidi- 
meter precisely  as  described  in  previous  pages  in  the  case  of  sulphates, 
and  state  the  amount  of  calcium  according  to  the  table  given  below. 

The  treatment  above  described  will  precipitate  materials  other  than 
calcium,  but  they  are  usually  in  so  small  a  proportion  in  natural 
waters  that  they  do  not  often  give  trouble.  The  most  frequent  com- 
plication arises  from  the  precipitation  of  magnesium  on  the  addition 
of  ammonia.  If  the  precipitate  is  sufficient  in  amount  to  materially 
affect  the  degree  of  turbidity  it  should  be  filtered  before  the  addition 
of  ammonium  oxalate. 


74 


FIELD    ASSAY   OF   WATEB. 


[NO.  15L 


The  table  given  below  for  the  determination  of  calcium  is  less  satis- 
factory than  that  for  sulphates,  and  it  will  probably  be  found  that 
corrections  must  be  made  as  future  experience  dictates. 

Table  for  determining  calcium  toith  Jackson's  turWdimeter. 


Beading 
in  cen- 
timeters. 

Par  taper 
million. 

Beading 
in  cen- 
timeters. 

Parts  per 
million. 

Beading 
in  cen- 
timeters. 

Partsper 

•Beading 
in  cen- 
timeters. 

Partsper 
million. 

1.0 

1,150 

4.0 

167 

7.0 

80 

10.0 

53 

1.1 

1,000 

4.1 

162 

7.1 

78 

10.2 

52 

1.2 

890 

4.2 

156 

7.2 

77 

10.4 

51 

1.3 

795 

4.3 

151 

7.8 

76 

i       10.6 

50 

1.4 

715 

4.4 

146 

7.4 

74 

10.8 

49 

1.5 

650 

4.5^ 

142 

7.5 

73 

11.0 

48 

1.6 

595 

4.6 

137 

7.6 

72 

!       11.2 

47 

1.7 

550 

4.7 

133 

7.7 

71 

11.4 

46 

1.8 

506 

4.8 

130 

7.8 

70 

11.7 

45 

1.9 

470 

4.9 

126 

7.9 

69 

11.9 

44 

2.0 

435 

5.0 

123 

8.0 

68 

12.8 

48 

2.1 

410 

5.1 

119 

8.1 

67 

'      12.4 

42 

2.2 

380 

5.2 

116 

8.2 

66 

12.7 

41 

2.8 

360 

5.3 

113 

8.3 

65 

13.0 

40 

2.4 

340 

5.4 

110 

8.4 

64 

13.3 

89 

2.5 

320 

5.5 

107 

8.5 

64 

.13.7 

38 

2.6 

305 

5.6 

105 

8.6 

63 

14.0 

37 

2.7 

288 

5.7 

102 

8.7 

62 

14.4 

36 

2.8 

274 

5.8 

100 

8.8 

61  I 

60  1 

14.8 

35 

2.9 

.      261 

5.9 

98 

8.9 

15.3 

34 

3.0 

248 

6.0 

96 

9.0 

60 

15.7 

33 

3.1 

238 

6.1 

94 

9.1 

59 

16.2 

32 

3.2 

228 

6.2 

92 

9.2 

58 ; 

16.7 

81 

3.3 

218  , 

6.3 

90 

9.8 

57 

17.3 

80 

3.4 

209 

6.4 

88 

9.4 

57 

17.9 

29 

3.5 

200 

6.5 

87 

9.5 

56 

18.5 

28 

3.6 

194 

6.6 

85 

9.6 

55 

19.2 

27 

3.7 

186  ! 

6.7 

84 

9.7 

55 

20.0 

26 

3.8 

179 

6.8 

82 

9.8 

54; 

21.7 

24 

3.9 

173 

6.9 

81 

9.9 

54 

22.7 

28 

INSTRUMENTS  AND  REAGENTS. 


The  field  case  (see  PL  IV)  contains  the  instruments  and  reagents 
described  below : 

1.  A  Berkfeld  army  filter  for  removing  suspended  matter  from 
water  under  investigation.    The  porous  stone  in  this  filter  should 


LEiOHTOJc.l  INSTRUMENTS  AND   REAGENTS.  75 

be  removed  from  the  tube  frequently  and  thoroughly  cleansed  with 
the  small  stiff  brush  provided  for  this  purpose.  If  it  is  desired  to 
secure  sterile  water,  or  if  the  only  water  available  is  known  to  be 
polluted  and  a  supply  for  drinking  purposes  is  desired,  the  filter  stone 
should  be  boiled  or  baked  frequently.  Watch  the  filter  stone  closely 
for  cracks  and  imperfections.  When  water  is  pumped  through  the 
filter,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  suction  end  does  not  rest  on 
sand  or  mud ;  such  materials,  if  drawn  into  the  buckets  of  the  pump, 
are  troublesome  and  materially  shorten  the  term  of  usefulness  of  the 
filter. 

2.  One  or  more  leather  cases  containing  tubes  of  reagent  tablets. 
The  equivalent  of  each  tablet  of  the  various  reagents  should  be  noted 
on  a  slip  pasted  upon  the  inside  of  the  case. 

The  tablets  are  packed  in  tubes  to  prevent  mechanical  agitation. 
This  is  highly  important,  because  if  the  tablets  are  loosely  packed 
a  loss  of  active  chemical  reagent  is  inevitable.  Tablets  which  show 
signs  of  extraordinary  wear  should  be  rejected.  In  using  a  tube 
one  of  the  cork  stoppers  should  be  removed  and  the  tablets  poured 
out  as  needed.  When  the  end  point  is  reached  the  cork  should  be 
replaced  and  the  stoppers  in  the  opposite  end  of  the  tube  should  be 
pushed  through  the  lumen  until  the  tablets  remaining  in  the  tube  are 
projected  against  the  opposite  stopper,  thus  holding  them  securely. 

Sodium-oleate  tablets  are  packed  in  unmarked  transparent  glass 
tubes.  Two  grades  of  silver-nitrate  tablets  are  usually  issued.  The 
tubes  containing  tablets  of  the  higher  equivalent  have  a  cross  etched 
on  the  glass,  while  those  with  the  lower  equivalent  are  etched  with 
a  single  transverse  line.  The  sodium  acid-sulphate  tablets  are  packed 
in  transparent  glass  tubes,  upon  each  of  which  is  etched  the  symbol 
NaHSO,. 

3.  One  case  containing  four  aluminum  tubes  for  natural  color  and 
for  iron  determinations.  There  will  also  be  provided  brown-glass 
disks  for  the  color  determination  or  red-glass  ones  for  the  iron,  or 
both.  The  equivalent  of  each  disk  in  terms  of  parts  per  million  is 
engraved  on  the  aluminum  rim. 

4.  One  Jackson  candle  or  electric  turbidimeter  with  two  graduated 
cylinders  for  same.  An  extra  electric  bulb,  a  ground-glass  disk,  a 
brass  cross  disk,  a  standard  English  candle,  and  a  dry  battery  will  be 
p^o^aded  with  each  turbidimeter.  The  field  observer  should  not  use 
any  dry  battery  which  has  been  in  his  possession  over  sixty  days, 
irrespective  of  the  intensity  of  the  light  produced  by  it.  Candles 
other  than  the  standard  English  sperm  should  not  be  used. 

The  candle  turbidimeter  should  be  used  in  preference  to  the  electric 
whenever  possible,  as  the  former  is  the  more  steady  instrument  and 
insures  uniformity  of  results.    If,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  make 


76^  B^IELD    ASSAY    OF   WATER.  [so.  161. 

determinations  in  exposed  places  when  the  wind  is  blowing,  the  elec- 
tric turbidimeter  must  be  used,  as  the  slightest  flickering  of  the  candle 
flame  will  introduce  errors  in  the  determinations.  Whenever  possible, 
water  samples  should  be  carried  to  a  convenient  shelter  and  assayed- 

5.  Seven  special  dropping  bottles  containing  the  following  rea- 
gents: Concentrated  nitric  acid  (HNO3) ;  concentrated  hydrochloric 
acid  (HCl) ;  concentrated  ammonium  hydroxide  (NH^OH) ;  two  per 
cent  solution  of  potassium  sulphocyanide  (KCNS) ;  five  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  potassium  chromate  (K2Cr04) ;  one  per  cent  solution  of 
phenolphthalein ;  onfe-tenth  per  cent  solution  of  methyl  orange.    . 

Care  should  be  taken  to  close  the  stoppers  in  these  dropping  bottles 
where  they  are  packed  in  the  cases. 

6.  Two  salt-mouth  bottles  containing  pure  crystals  of  barium 
chloride  and  ammonium  oxalate. 

AH  bottles  containing  chemicals  have  etched  labels,  except  the 
indicators,  the  colors  and  odors  of  which  are  sufficient  for  identifi- 
cation. 

7.  One  heavily  glazed  porcelain  mortar  and  pestle. 

8.  One  round-bottom  glass  bottle,  with  glass  pestle,  for  hardness 
determination. 

9.  One  small  horn  spoon  for  handling  crystals  noted  in  section  6. 

10.  One  5  c.  c.  pipette  in  case  for  general  use  in  measuring  small 
amounts  of  liquid. 

11.  One  centigrade  thermometer  in  brass  case. 

12.  One  loose-leaf  notebook.  This  notebook  is  made  up  of  printed 
cards,  with  every  alternate  leaf  a  blank. 


INDEX. 


Agricnltnral  Department,  field  aaaay  of  wa- 
ter by 16 

Alkalinity,  detennlnatlon  of 66 

discDfisionof 62-68 

Analysis,  methodsof 9,1M5 

Anal>-fiis,  commercial,  character  of 9 

Analysis,  sanitary,  requirements  of 10 

AasAT,  definition  of 17 

Battery  of  turbidimeter,  tests  of 29-32 

Bicarbonates,  determination  of 66-69 

BoOer  water,  quality  of ia-14,62 

Bolbs,  electric-light,  for  turbidimeter,  tests 

of 33 

Calcium,  determination  of 73-74 

Calcium  carbonate,  effect  of 62-63 

Candle  turbidimeter,  description  of 27 

Tiewof 26 

Carbonates,  determination  of 63-69 

Chemicals,  list  of,  in  Survey  outfit 74-76 

Chlorine,  determination  of,  in  field 4S,  60-66 

determination  of,  in  laboratory 47-50 

occurrence  of 47-49 

Chlorine  maps,  construction  and  use  of . . . .       60 

Clarke,  F.  W.,  on  water  analysis 14 

Color  of  water,  definition  of 41-42 

determination  of 44-46 

tubes  and  dif>ks  for,  plate  show- 
ing        46 

standards  of 42-44 

Conservatism,  abuse  of 10 

Crenothrix,  growth  of ^ 46 

Heotric  turbidimeter,  description  of 27-28 

view  of 28 

Filtration,  determination  of  turbidity  by..       19 
Fuller,  George  W.,  on  nitrogen  determina- 
tion   11-13 

Geological  Survey,  field  case  of,  description 

of lfr-17, 74-76 

field  case  of,  view  of 74 

tablet  case,  description  of 75 

view  of 50 

Gila  River,  Arizona,  turbidity  of 21-22 

f ilasR  plate  for  turbidimeter,  tests  of 83 

Hardening  constituents,  classes  of 62-63 

HardneiHi,  permanent,  definition  of 62 

determination  of 70-74 

Hs rdnesB,  temporary,  definition  of 62 

determination  of 63-69 

Hardness,  total,  definition  of 66-61 

determination  of 56-^7, 61 

Hazen,  Allen,  turbidity  rod  of 23 

Hypothetical    combinations,  unreliability 

of 14 

Incrusting  constituents,  determination  of, 

accuracy  of 13-14 

Instruments,  list  of,  in  Survey  outfit 74-76 


Page. 

Iron  in  water,  determination  of 46-47 

effects  of 45 

Isochlora,  determination  of 50 

Jackson,  D.  D.,  on  chlorides 47-50 

on  sulphates 70-73 

on  turbidity 22 

Jackson's  turbidimeters,  description  of 26-28 

tests  of 29-41 

views  of 26,28 

Macomb,  111.,  well  at,  water  of,  analyses  of.       14 

Massachusetts,  water  survey  in 15 

Nitrites,  determination  of,  futility  of,  in 

sanitary  analysis 11-.13 

Ohio,  water  survey  in 16 

Oxygen,  relation  of  nitrites  and 13 

Platinum-cobalt  method  of  color  determi- 
nation   42-43 

modification  of,  infield 43-44 

use  of 44-46 

Reagents,  list  of,  in  Survey  outfit 74-76 

Richards,  Ellen  H.,  field  assay  outfit  of  ... .        16 

Sewage,  analysis  of,  lutcrpretatlon  of 11-13 

Silica,  standard  solution  of,  preparation  of.  83-34 
Silver-nitrate  tablets,  manufacture  and  use 

of 60-61,66-56 

tests  of 61-56 

Soap  test  for  hardness,  use  of 56 

Sodium  acid  sulphate  tablets,  tests  of 63-65 

use  of 66 

Sodium  carbonate,  effect  of 62-63 

Sodium-oleate  tablets,  tests  of 57-61 

use  of 57,61 

Sulphates,  determination  of 70-73 

Tablet  case,  description  of 75 

view  of 60 

Turbidimeters,  Jackson's,  deHcription  of . . .  26-28 

testsof 29-41 

use  of 27-28, 70-71 

views  of 26, 28 

Turbidity,  curves  of,  figures  showing 38, 89 

definition  of 18 

determination  of,  methods  of 18-41 

Geological  Survey  rod  for  determina- 
tion of 23-26 

relation  of  volume  of  suspended  matter 

and 19-20 

relation  of  weight  of  suspended  mat- 
ter and 20-22 

standard  of 22-23,33-iO 

'  Turbidity  coefficient,  definition  of 19-20 

Water,  analysis  of,  interpretations  of 13-1.5 

methodsof 9-10 

I  Water  surveys,  chemical,  slowness  of 15-16 

Water  surveys,  field,  speed  of 16 

Weston,  R.  S.,  on  turbidity 19-20 

Whipple,  G.  C,  on  turbidity  scale 22-23 

77 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

[Water-Supply  Paper  No.  151.] 

The  serial  publications  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  consist  of  (1 )  Annual 
Reports,  (2)  Monographs,  (3)  Professional  Papers,  (4)  Bulletins,  (5)  Mineral  Re- 
sources, (6)  Water-Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers,  (7)  Topographic  Atlas  of  United 
States — ^folios  and  separate  sheets  thereof,  (8)  Geologic  Atlas  of  United  States— folios 
thereof.  The  classes  numbered  2, 7,  and  8  are  sold  at  cost  of  publication;  the  others 
are  distributed  free.    A  circular  giving  complete  lists  may  be  had  on  application. 

Most  of  the  above  publications  maybe  obtained  or  consulted  in  the  following  ways: 

1.  A  limited  number  are  delivered  to  the  Director  of  the  Survey,  from  whom  they 
may  be  obtained,  free  of  charge  (except  classes  2,  7,  and  8) ,  on  application. 

2.  A  certain  number  are  allotted  to  every  member  of  Congress,  from  whom  they 
may  be  obtained,  free  of  charge,  on  application. 

3.  Other  copies  are  deposited  with  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington, 
D.  C,  from  whom  they  may  be  had  at  practically  cost. 

4.  Copies  of  all  Government  publications  are  furnished  to  the  principal  public 
librari^  in  the  large  cities  throughout  the  United  States,  where  they  may  be  con- 
sulted by  those  interested. 

The  Professional  Papers,  Bulletins,  and  Water-Supply  Papers  treat  of  a  variety  of 
subjects,  and  the  total  number  issued  is  large.  They  have  therefore  been  classified 
into  the  following  series:  A,  Economic  geology;  B,  Descriptive  geology;  C,  System- 
atic geology  and  paleontology;  D,  Petrography  and  mineralogy;  E,  Chemistry  and 
physics;  F,  Geography;  G,  Miscellaneous;  H,  Forestry;  I,  Irrigation;  J,  Water  stor- 
age; K,  Pumping  water;  L,  Quality  of  water;  M,  General  hydrographic  investiga- 
tions; N,  Water  power;  O,  Underground  waters;  P,  Hydrographic  progress  reports. 
This  paper  is  the  eleventh  in  Series  L,  the  complete  list  of  which  follows. 
(PP=Profe88ional  Paper;  B=Bulletin;  WS= Water-Supply  Paper.) 

Sbribs  L— Quality  of  Wateb. 

WS     3.  Sewage  irrigation,  by  O.  W.  Rafter.    1897.    100  pp.,  4  pls^    (Out  of  stock.) 

W.S  22*  Sewage  Irrigation,  Pt.  II.  by  G.  W.  Rafter.    1899.    100  pp.,  7  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 

Wif   72.  Sewage  pollution  near  New  York  City,  by  M.  O.  Leigh  ton.    1902.    76  pp.,  8  pis. 

WS  76.  Plow  of  rivers  near  New  York  City,  by  H.  A.  Pressey.    190S.    108  pp  ,  13  pis. 

WS  79.  Normal  and  polluted  waters  In  northeastern  United  States,  by  M.  O.  Leigh  ton.    1903.    192  pp., 

15  pis. 
WS  108.  Review  of  the  laws  forbidding  pollution  of  inland  waters  in  the  United  States,  by  E.  B. 

Goodell.    1904.    120  pp. 
WS  108.  Quality  of  water  In  the  Susquehanna  River  drainage  basin,  by  M.  O.  Leighton,  with  an 

introductory  chapter  on  physiographic  features,  by  0.  B.  Hollister.    1904.    76  pp.,  4  pis. 
WS  113.  Strawboard  and  oil  wastes,  by  R.  L.  Sackett  and  Isaiah  Bowman.    19a5.    52  pp.,  4  pis. 
WS  121.  Preliminary  report  on  the  pollution  of  Lake  Champlain,  by  M.  O.  Leighton.    1905.    119  pp., 

18  pis. 
WS  144.  The  normal  distribution  of  chlorine  in  the  natural  waters  of  New  York  and  New  England, 

by  D.  D.  Jackson.    1905.    31  pp..  5  pis. 
WS  151.  Field  assay  of  water,  by  M.  O.  Leighton.    1905.    77  pp.,  4  pis. 

Ck>rreepondence  should  be  addressed  to 

The  Dirbctor, 

United  States  Geological  Survey, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
October,  1905. 

I 


LIBEAET  CATALOGUE  SUPS. 

[Mount  each  slip  upon  a  separate  card,  placing  the  subject  at  the  top  of  the 
second  slip.  The  name  of  the  series  should  not  be  re()eated  on  the  series 
card,  but  the  additional  numbers  should  be  added,  as  received,  to  the  first 
entry.] 


Leighton,  Marshall  0[ra]  1874- 

.  .  .  Field  assay  of  water,  by  Marshall  O.  Leigh  ton. 
Washington,  Gov't  print,  off.,  1905. 

77,  ill  p.    illus.,  IVpL,  diagrs.     23*"".     (U.S.  Geolo^cal survey.     Water- 
supply  and  irrigation  paper  no.  151 ) 

Subject  series:  L,  Quality  of  water,  11. 

1.  Water— analysis. 


Leighton,  Marshall  0[ra]  1874- 

j        ...  Field  assay  of  water,  by  Marshall  O.  Leighton. 
I  *  Washington,  Gov't  print,  off.,  1905. 

z 

77,  iii  p.    illus.,  IV  pi.,  diagrs.    23«".     (U.  8.  Geological  survey.     Water- 
supply  and  irrigation  paper  no.  151) 

Subject  series:  L,  Quality  of  water,  11. 

1.  Water—analysis. 


U.  S.    Geological  survey. 
i  Water-supply  and  irrigation  papers. 

I    no.  151.  Leighton,  M.  O.     Field, assay  of  water.     1905. 

^        U.S.     Dept.  of  the  Interior. 

I  see  also 

I    U.  S.     Geological  survey. 

IRR  151—05 6  III 


Watar-Snpply  and  Irrigation  Paper  No.  152  Series  l,  Quality  of  Water,  12 

DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

CHARLES  D.  WALCOTT,  DlRBCTOB 


A  REVIEW 


OF  THE 


POLLUTION  OF  INLAND  WATERS 

IN  THE  UNITED   STATES 


SECX)ND  EDITION 


By  ED'WIN    B.   GOODELL 


WASHINGTON 

GOVEUNMKNT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1905 


CONTENTS. 


Letter  of  transniittal 5 

Water  poUntion  under  the  common  law _ 7 

Principles  and  decisions 7 

Classification 7 

A.  Rights'of  riparian  owners  to  pnre  water  as  against  one  another.  8 

Case  in  exception 10 

Opinion  of  Vice-Chanceller  Pitney,  of  New  Jersey 11 

Missouri  V,  Illinois  et  al _ 20 

Riparian  rights  in  arid  and  mining  States _ 21 

B.  Bights  of  the  public  (as  distinguished  from  individual  owners)  * 

to  have  inland  waters  kept  free  from  x)ollution 23 

C.  Conditions  under  which,  and  extent  to  which,  public  munici- 
palities may  use  inland  waters  in  disposing  of  sewage  from  public 
sewers 24 

Citations  of  cases 25 

Excerpts  from  important  decisi  ns 26 

Statutory  restrictions  of  water  pollution 32 

Claasification  - 32 

Class  I:  States  with  partial  restrictions , 33 

Alabama - 33 

Arkansas 34 

Delaware , * -  35 

Florida - - 35 

Georgia 85 

Idaho 86 

Iowa 36 

Kansas ._ 36 

Kentucky 36 

Louisiana 36 

Michigan _.  36 

Mississippi 38 

Nebraska 38 

North  Dakota _ 39 

Oklahoma 39 

Rhode  Island 40 

Wisconsin 43 

Class  11:  States  with  general  restrictions 45 

California 46 

Colorado 48 

Illinois ^ 48 

Indiana -- - —  49 

8 


4  CONTENTS. 

Statntory  restrictions  of  water  poUntion— Continued.  Pmtee. 
Class  II:  States  with  general  restrictions — Continued. 

Maine... 51 

Maryland 02 

MisEOuri. 58 

Nevada 54 

New  Mexico. 5f5 

North  Carolina  .  _ 58 

Ohio  -. 611- 

Oregon 62 

South  Dakota 63 

Tennessee 64 

Texas ._ 64 

Utah 60 

Virginia _  60 

Washington _ 67 

West  Virginia _  _ 69 

Wyoming .* 70 

Class  III:  States  with  severe  restrictions 73 

Connecticut ' 74 

Massachusetts ..'. 77 

Minnesota _ HI 

New  Hampshire _ 8*,* 

New  Jersey H6 

New  York lil 

Pennsylvania 13*2 

Vermont : , 137 

General  rules 141 

Rights  and  duties  of  riparian  owners 141 

Rights  and  duties  of  municipal  corporations 142 

Rights  and  duties  of  the  public 143 

Public  rights  and  duties  enforce!  by  statute 14:^ 

Progress  of  legislation  _ .  _ 14.S 

Index 145 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

United  States  Geological  Survey, 

Hydrographic  Branch, 
Washington^  D.  6^,  August  17^  1905. 

Sir:  I  transmit  herewith  a  manscript  entitled  "A  Review  of  the 
Laws  Forbidding  Pollution  of  Inland  Waters  of  the  United  States," 
prepared  by  Edwin  B.  Goodell,  and  request  that  it  be  published  as  a 
water-supply  and  irrigation  paper.  This  paper  is  a  second  edition  of 
Water-Supply  Paper  No.  103,  published  last  year.  The  subject- 
matter  has  been  brought  to  date  by  the  incorporation  of  the  statutes 
passed  since  the  first  edition  was  prepared,  and  the  section  on  pollu- 
tion under  the  common  law  has  been  amplified  to  include  the  arid 
States  and  Territories. 

One  of  the  important  features  involved  in  the  determination  of 
the  water  supplies  of  the  United  States  and  the  preparation  of  reports 
upon  the  best  methods  of  utilizing  water  resources  is  the  character  of 
those  supplies.  In  the  more  populous  sections  of  the  country  the 
quality  of  water  is  dependent  to  a  large  degree  upon  the  amount  and 
character  of  the  pollution  which  is  allowed  to  discharge  into  the 
streams.  Therefore  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  study  different 
State  laws  regulating  and  controlling  this  matter  and  to  determine 
the  scope  of  the  work  to  a  large  degree  according  to  them. 

Mr.  Goodell  has  presented  the  subject  of  antipollution  laws  in  a 
manner  which  will  be  of  assistance  to  public  officials,  water  compa- 
nies, manufacturers,  farmers,  and  legislators,  rather  than  to  members 
of  the  bench  and  bar.  The  broad  legal  principles  under  which  anti- 
pollution statutes  become  operative  are  explained,  and  important 
court  decisions  are  quoted  to  show  authority  for  various  deductions. 
The  statutes  enacted  in  the  different  States  are  classified  according  to 
the  general  scope,  and  an  opportunity  is  thereby  afforded  to  compare 
their  effectiveness  and  desirability.  In  short,  the  paper  provides 
specific  information  necessary  to  a  popular  knowledge  of  the  condi- 
tions in  each  State  with  respect  to  one  feature  of  the  conservation  of 
natural  water  resources.  Its  distribution  should  be  of  material  assist- 
ance in  bringing  about  a  general  apprehension  of  correct  principles 
upon  the  subject. 

Very  respectfully,  '        F.  H.  Newell, 

Chief  Engmeer, 

Hon.  Charles  D.  Walcott, 

Director  United  States  Geological  Survey, 

6 


A  REVIEW  OF  THE  LAWS  FORBIDDING  POLLUTION  OF 
INLAND  WATERS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


By  Edwin  B.  Goodell. 


This  subject  naturally  divides  into  two  parts:  (1)  A  summary  of 
the  common  law  upon  the  subject  of  water  pollution — i.  e.,  the  law  tis 
pronounced  and  determined  by  the  courts  independently  of  legis- 
lative action,  and  (2)  a  summary  or  abstract  of  the  statutes  enacted 
by  the  various  legislatures  for  the  correction  of  the  evil. 

WATER  POIiliUnON  IHSTJEB  THE  COMMON  liAW. 

The  full  treatment  of  this  branch  of  the  subject  involves  the  exami- 
nation of  the  very  numerous  decisions  which  have  been  rendered  by 
the  courts  in  England  and  the  United  States  in  the  determination  of 
litigation  arising  from  alleged  violations  of  the  right  to  have  inland 
waters  preserved  in  their  natural  state.  It  .necessarily  follows  that  a 
full  treatment  of  this  branch  of  the  subject  would  be  beyond  the 
scope  of  this  paper.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  present  publication 
to  furnish  a  complete  work  upon  water  pollution  for  the  use  of  mem- 
bers of  the  bench  and  bar,  but  rather  to  put  into  the  hands  of  public 
officials  and  others  who  may  be  interested  in  the  subject  a  guide  for 
their  action  and  references  to  the  sources  from  which  a  more  exhaust- 
ive knowledge  of  the  subject  may  be  obtained  if  required. 

No  attempt,  accordingly,  will  be  here  made  to  present  a  detailed 
.statement  of  the  entire  law  against  water  pollution  as  it  exists  inde- 
pendently of  statutes,  but  this  branch  of  the  subject  will  be  confined 
to  a  statement  of  the  general  principles  which  are  to  be  deduced  from 
the  decisions,  with  references  to  some  of  the  leading  cases. 

PRINCIPLES  AND  DECISIONS. 
CLASSIFICATION. 

These  principles  and  decisions  have  been  classified  and  are  pre- 
sented in  the  following  groups : 
A.  The  rights  of  riparian  owners  to  pure  water  as  against  one 

another. 

7 


8  LAWS  FORBIDDING  INLAND- WATEB  POLLUTION.  (No.  152. 

B.  The  rights  of  the  public  (as  distinguished  from  individual 
owners)  to  have  inland  waters  kept  free  from  pollution  by  riparian 
owners  or  others. 

C.  The  conditions  under  which,  and  the  extent  to  which,  public 
municipalities  may  use  inland  waters  in  disposing  of  sewage  matter 
from  public  sewers, 

A.   RIGHTS   OP   RIPARIAN   OWNERS   TO   PURE   WATER   AS    AGAINST   ONE 

ANOTHER. 

In  contemplation  of  law  the  water  flowing  over  the  land  is  part 
of  the  realty  and  belongs  to  the  owner  of  the  soil.  But  the  latter 's 
ownership  thereof  is  a  qualified  one.  He  may  use  it  in  certain  ways 
as  it  passes,  may  take  from  it  for  his  own  use  to  a  certain  extent,  and 
may  thus,  incidentally,  somewhat  diminish  its  volume  and  slightly 
alter  its  character.  But  its  nature  is  to  pass  on  to  the  owners  of  the 
adjoining  soil,  and  the  next  owner  has  precisely  the  same  rights 
therein  as  every  other  owner.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  as  no  ripa- 
rian owner  of  a  stream  may  appropriate  all  the  water  which  comes 
to  him,  neither  may  he  so  corrupt  or  pollute  it  as  to  injure  the  other 
owners  by  diminishing  the  value  of  their  property  in  the  natural 
stream.  This  prohibition  is  independent  of  any  statute ;  it  is  a  part 
of  the  law  of  the  land,  except  in  certain  of  the  arid  and  mining  States 
of  the  West;  its  application  in  these  is  discussed  on  pages  21-23. 

The  conflict  of  rights  between  the  several  ownei-s  has  given  rise  to 
litigation  in  many  hundreds  of  instance^?,  and  it  is  impossible  to  give 
a  rule,  limiting  the  owner's  right  to  use  the  water  of  a  stream  as  it 
passes,  more  exact  than  this :  Every  owner  may  make  such  use  of  the 
water  for  farming  and  domestic  purposes  as  is  reasonable,  and  in 
the  States  in  which  the  doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  obtains  may 
use  the  water  which  he  has  acquired  by  appropriation,  and  the  lower 
owners  must  accept  the  diminution  and  perturbation  of  the  water 
which  necessarily  follows  from  this  reasonable  use. 

If  the  use  for  farming  or  domestic  purposes  is  challenged  by  an- 
other owner,  the  question  of  its  reasonableness,  in  that  case,  is  to  be 
determined  by  court  or  jury  as  a  question  of  fact. 

If  the  water  is  used  for  any  other  than  farming  or  domestic  pur- 
poses, it  must  be  such  a  use  as  will  not  change  the  character  of  the 
water  from  its  natural  state  or  make  it  less  useful  to  other  owners. 

If  the  riparian  owner  cast  sewage,  filth,  or  waste  material  therein, 
he  does  it  at  his  peril. 

Independent  of  statutory  provisions  there  is  a  remedy  for  these 
wrongs  in  the  following  ways: 

By  private  suit  against  the  wrongdoer  for  damages. 

By  injunction  when  the  wrong  is  a  continuing  one. 

By'  indictment  when  the  injury  affects  the  rights  of  the  public 


cooDtti.]  RESTRICTIONS  OP  COMMON  LAW.  9 

AMiere  the  acts  causing  the  pollution  are  done  in  one  jurisdiction 
and  the  injuries  suffered  are  in  another,  the  injured  party  has  his 
remedy  in  a  civil  action  to  the  same  extent  as  if  the  injurious  act  and 
the  resulting  injury  were  in  the  same  jurisdiction. 

These  general  principles  will  be  found  to  be  fully  sustained  by  the 
cases.     The  following  are  given,  not  as  an  exhaustive  list,  but  to 
enable  the  reader  to  find  authorities  if  his  needs  require : 
Alabama : 

Drake  t\  Iron  Co.,  14  So.  Rep.,  749;  102  Ala.^  501 ;  24  L.  R.  A..  64;  48  Am. 
St  Rep..  77. 

Tenn.  Coal  Co.  r.  Hamilton,  14  So.  Rep.,  1«7. 

Lewis  V.  Stein,  16  Ala.,  214. 
Arkansas : 

State  r.  Chapin,  17  Ark.,  361. 
California : 

I'otter  r.  Fronient  et  al.,  47  Cal.,  165. 

People  r.  Elk  River  Mill  and  Lumber  Co.,  107  Cal.,  214;  8.  C.  40  Pac.  Rep., 
48Hi. 

Mining  Co.  r.  Mining  Co.,  48  Pac.  Rep.,  828. 

People  r.  (lold  Run  Ditch  Co.,  66  Cal.,  138 ;  56  Am.  Rep.,  80 ;  4  Pac.  Rep., 
1152.« 
Colorado : 

City  of  Durango  r.  Chapman,  (50  Pac.  Rep.,  (535. 
Connecticut: 

Morgan  r.  Danbury,  ()7  Conn.,  484. 

Nolan  r.  New  Britain,  (59  Conn.,  (5(58. 
(teorgia : 

Satterfield  r.  Rowan,  83  (la.,  187 ;  S.  C.  9  S.  B.  Rep.,  677. 
Indiana : 

Muncie  Pulp  Co.  r.  Martin,  55  X.  E.  Rep.,  796. 

State  r.  Herring  (Ind.,  1897),  48  N.  E.  Rep.,  598. 

State  r.  Wabash  Pai)er  Co.,  48  N.  E.  Rep.,  653. 

Weston  Paper  Co.  r.  Pope,  155  Ind.,  394. 

Indiana rK>l is  Water  Co.  v.  Am.  Straw  Board  Co.,  57  Fed.  Rep.,  1000. 
Iowa : 

Ferguson  r.  Mfg.  Co.,  77  la.,  576;  S.  C.  42  N.  W\  Rep.,  448. 

Kinnaird  r.  Oil  Co.  (Ky.),  12  S.  W.  Rep.,  937. 
Maine : 

Gerrish  r.  Brown,  51  Me.,  25(5,  81  Am.  Dec.,  569. 
Maryland : 

Baltimore  r.  Warren  Mfg.  Co.,  59  Md.,  96. 

Price  V.  Lawson,  74  Md.,  499. 
Massachusetts : 

Ball  r.  Nye.  99  Mass.,  582. 

Martin  r.  (ileason,  139  Mass.,  183. 

Merri field  r.  Lombard,  13  Allen,  16. 

Woodward  v.  Worcester,  121  Mass.,  245. 

Dwight  Printing  Co.  v.  Boston,  122  Mass.,  583. 

McGenness  v.  Adriatic  Mills,  116  Mass.,  177. 

a  This  case  was  one  brought  in  behalf  of  the  people  to  restrain  a  public  nuisance, 
caused  by  discharging  the  refuse  from  mining  operations  into  an  unnavlgable  stream. 
The  injunction  was  granted  and  It  was  heid  that  the  right  to  pollute  the  stream  in  this 
manner  could  not  be  gained  by  prescription. 


10  LAWS  FORBIDDING  INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

Minnesota : 

Roller  MillB  v.  Wright,  30  Minn.,  254. 
Mississippi : 

Mississippi  Mills  t\  Smith,  69  Miss.,  299 ;  S.  C.  11  So.  Rep.,  2a 
Missouri : 

Smith  V.  Conathy,  11  Mo.,  517. 
New  Hampshire: 

Hayes  i\  Waldron,  44  N.  H.,  580. 
New  Jersey : 

Holsman  i\  Boiling  Springs  Co.,  1  McCart,  335. 

Aequackanonk  Water  Co.  v,  Watson,  2  Stew.  Eq.,  366. 

Beach  r.  Sterling  Iron  and  Zinc  Co.,  9  Dick.,  65. 

Same  case  affirmed  on  appeal,  10  Dick,  824. 

(See  the  opinion  of  Pitney,  V.  C,  in  the  last-cited  case,  given  in  fall  on 
pp.  11-20.) 

0*Riley  v.  McChesney,  3  Lans.,  278. 

Covert  v.  Cranford,  141  N.  Y.,  521. 

Townsend  v.  Bell,  24  N.  Y.  S.  (70  Hun,  557),  193. 

Smith  V,  Cranford,  32  N.  Y.  S.,  375. 
Ohio: 

The  Columbus,  etc.,  Co.  r.  Tucker,  48  Ohio  St,  41 ;  S.  C.  26  N.  E.  Rep.*  63a 

Thayer  v.  Brooks,  17  Ohio,  489. 
Pennsylvania : 

Elder  v.  Lykens  Valley  CJoal  CJo.,  157  Pa.  St,  490. 

Hindson  v,  Markle,  171  Pa.  St,  138. 

Stevenson  v.  Ebervale  Coal  Co.,  201  Pa.  St,  112. 
Rhode  Island : 

Stillman  v.  Mfg.  Co.,  3  W.  &  M.  (R.  L),  546. 

Richmond  Mfg.  Co.  i\  x\tlantic  De  Laine  Co.,  10  R.  I.,  106. 
South  Carolina : 

Threatt  r.  Mining  Co.  (S.  C,  1897),  26  S.  E.  Rep.,  970. 
Vermont : 

Snow  V.  Parsons,  28  Vt,  459. 

Canfield  v.  Andrew,  54  Vt,  1. 
Wisconsin : 

Middlestadt  t'.  Starch  Co.  (Wis.),  66  N.  W.  Rep.,  713. 

Hazeltine  v.  Case,  46  W^is.,  391. 

Greene  i\  Nunnemacher,  36  Wis.,  50. 
Wyoming : 

Howell  V.  Johnson,  89  Fed.  Rep.,  556.« 
English : 

Mason  v.  Hill,  5  B.  &  Ad.,  1. 

Embry  v.  Owen,  (i  Exch.,  353. 

Wood  V.  Waud.  3  Exch.,  748. 

Bealey  v.  Shaw,  (5  East,  208. 

CASE  IN   EXCEPTION. 

A  single  case  in  Pennsylvania  seems  to  create  an  exception  to  the 
operation  of  the  principles  above  stated,  viz,  Sanderson  v.  Pennsyl- 
vania Coal  Company,  113  Pa.  St.,  126. 

•  In  this  case  the  injurj'  arose  from  an  act  done  in  Montana,  but  the  injurloufl  result 
occurred  in  the  State  of  Wyoming. 


GOODKLL.1  BESTRICTIONS  OF   COMMON  LAW.  11 

This  was  a  case  brought  by  a  riparian  owner  who  had  established  a 
home  on  the  banks  of  a  stream,  after  ascertaining,  by  a  careful  inves- 
tigation, that  its  waters  were  uncontaminated  by  any  influx  of  dele- 
terious matter,  and  who  used  the  waters  of  the  stream  for  domestic 
purposes.  Subsequently  a  coal  mine  was  opened  higher  up  the 
stream,  and  the  mining  company,  in  the  course  of  its  mining  opera- 
tions, pumped  the  water  from  the  mine  to  the  surface,  where  it  ran 
into  this  stream  and  rendered  the  water  unfit  for  domestic  use.  The 
c^se  was  bitterly  contested,  and  came  before  the  court  several  times. 
(See  86  Pa.  St.,'401 ;  94  Pa.  St.,  303,  and  102  Pa.  St.,  370.) 

In  the  final  decision  the  court  refused  damages  to  the  riparian 
owner.  The  reasoning  of  the  court  indicates  that  this  result  was  due 
lo  its  unwillingness  to  impose  upon  the  immense  coal-mining  interests 
of  the  State  the  burden  of  paying  for  the  damage  to  property  in  the 
water  of  streams  caused  by  their  operations;  but  the  reason  given  for 
the  decision,  in  the  court's  attempt  to  harmonize  it  with  the  principles 
firmly  established  by  precedent  in  Pennsylvania,  was  that  the  water 
which  the  defendant  conducted  into  the  stream  was  contaminated 
only  by  the  coal,  which  was  a  natural  product,  and  hence  was  said  to 
be  conducted  into  the  stream  in  its  "  natural  state."  This  reasoning 
is  specious,  since  the  presence  of  coal  in  the  brook  was  due  wholly  to 
the  operations  of  the  defendant  company,  the  stream  in  its  natural 
state  showing  no  trace  of  coal,  and  the  doctrine  thus  established  for 
Pennsylvania  has  not  found  favor  in  any  other  jurisdiction. 

But  in  subsequent  decisions  the  courts  of  Pennsylvania  have  been 
careful  not  to  extend  the  force  of  Sanderson  v.  Pennsylvania  Coal 
Company  beyond  the  single  act  of  turning  the  natural  drainage  from  a 
mine  into  a  stream.  (See  Elder  v.  Lykens  Valley  Coal  Co.,  157  Pa. 
St.,  490;  Hindson  v.  Markle,  171  Pa.  St.,  138,  and  Stevenson  v.  Eber- 
vale  Coal  Co.,  201  Pa.  St.,  112.) 

OPINION  OF  VICE-CHANCELLOB  PTTNEY,  OF  NEW  JEBSET. 

The  whole  subject  was  thoroughly  treated  in  Beach  v.  Sterling  Iron 
and  Zinc  Company  (9  Dick.  (N.  J.),  65). 

This  was  an  action  for  an  injunction,  brought  by  the  manufacturers 
of  a  white  tissue  paper  against  a  mining  company,  the  water  from 
whose  mines  was  pumped  into  the  stream  above  the  paper  works  and 
tefouled  the  water,  making  it  unfit  for  the  purposes  of  the  complain- 
ant. The  opinion  gives  a  careful  and  most  lucid  and  interesting 
review  of  the  course  of  decisions  sustaining  and  enforcing  the  rights 
of  riparian  owners  upon  streams  above  tide  water  to  have  the  water 
in  the  stream  maintained  in  its  natural  condition.  The  decision  of 
the  court  in  this  case  was  affirmed  by  the  court  of  errors  and  appeals 


12  LAWS   FOBBIDDING   INLAND- WATEB   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

(10  Dick.,  824)  upon  the  opinion  of  the  court  below,  which  is  given 
here  in  full : 

The  material  facts  of  the  case  are  undisputed.  The  only  dispute  is  as  to  tht* 
degree  of  discoloration  caused  by  the  defendant's  operations  and  the  len^h  of 
time  over  which  such  discoloration  extended. 

The  facts  clearly  established  are  as  follows: 

The  Wallkill  River  rises  in  the  southern  part  of  Sussex  Ounty  and  flows  upon 
a  course  nearly  north,  passing  through  the  villages  of  Franklin  and  Hamburg. 
At  the  latter  place  is  situated  an  artificial  pond,  called  the  Furnace  Pond.  eauHed 
by  an  old  dam,  upon  which,  for  several  years,  has  been  a  paper  mill  driven  bj-  the 
waters  of  the  river  from  that  i)ond.  The  complainant,  Beach,  purchased  this 
water  iK)wer  and  lands  connected  with  it  in  the  summer  of  1891.  for  the  purpose 
of  erecting  a  plant  for  the  manufacture  of  what  is  known  as  white  tissue  imper. 
Associateil  with  him  were  two  gentlemen  by  the  name  of  Sparks,  who  had  previ- 
ously been  engaged  in  the  business  of  waxing  white  tissue  paper  according  to  a 
process  which  they  controlled,  and  the  project  was  to  both  manufacture  and  wax, 
for  market,  white  tissue  paper.  For  that  puriwse  the  corporation  was  formed, 
of  which  Mr.  Beach  and  the  Messrs.  Sparks  were  stockholders,  and  the  latter 
were  the  active  managers.  A  large  amount  of  money  was  spent  in  erecting  a 
plant  between  the  date  of  the  purchase  and  the  1st  of  February,  1892,  when  tbey 
commenced  the  manufacture  of  white  tissue  paper  and  carried  it  on  with  success 
for  about  a  year. 

The  manufacture  of  such  paper  requires  a  perfectly  clear,  pure  water,  and 
before  purchasing  the  Hamburg  water  power  the  complainants  inspected  the 
stream  and  inquired  as  to  its  character  for  clearness,  and  satisfied  themselves 
that  they  would  be  able  to  use  It  for  making  white  tissue  paper  without  incur- 
ring the  expense:  of  filtration,  and  their  experience  for  a  year  proved  that  their 
expectations  were  just. 

'  In  the  month  of  February,  1893,  complaints  began  to  come  in  from  the  pur- 
chasers of  their  paper  that  it  was  deteriorating  in  the  matter  of  whiteness,  and 
they  investigated  the  cause.  The  pond  was  frozen  over,  but  they  knew  by  repu- 
tation that  mining  operations  were  being  carried  on  at  Greenspot  by  the  defend- 
ant, and  they  went  there  March  1  and  found  a  stream  of  highly  colored  water 
flowing  from  the  defendant's  mine  shaft  into  the  river,  traced  its  effect  in  dis- 
coloration to  their  i)ond,  and  by  subsequent  observations  by  themselves  and 
others  in  the  neighborhood  traced  its  effect  not  only  in  and  through  the  Fuma<-e 
Pond,  but  for  miles  down  the  river  to  the  north  of  Hamburg.  In  fact,  several 
respectable  and  creilible  witnesses,  called  by  the  complainants,  testified  to  the 
discoloration  of  the  water  in  the  Furnace  Pond  and  beyond,  and  the  complain- 
ants were  stopped  by  the  court  from  producing  further  evidence  on  that  subje^-t 
in  the  opening  of  their  case.  Several  witnesses  called  by  the  defendant,  among 
them  its  sui>erintendent,  corroborated  this  evidence,  and  there  is  no  attempt  to 
meet  it. 

The  color  was  a  peculiar  reildish-yellow  tint,  which  was  in  marked  contrast 
with  the  discoloration  due  to  the  ordinary  road  and  field  wash  after  a  heavy 
storm  or  spring  thaw. 

This  peculiar  discoloration  continued  throughout  the  month  of  March  and, 
with  some  intermissions  and  variations  in  degree  of  discoloration,  through  the 
month  of  April.  Complainants  early  in  March  were  obliged  to  stop  the  makiug 
of  white  tissue  paper.  Negotiations  between  the  parties  for  some  arrangement 
of  the  matter  failing,  the  bill  was  filed  on  the  21st  of  April,  lSa3. 

The  iuunediate  origin  of  the  discoloration  was  as  follows :  The  defendant  c*or- 
poration  was  organized  by  two  gentlemen  by  the  name  of  Ueckscher  and  two  by 


oooDELL.]  BESTRICTIONS   OF   COMMON    LAW.  18 

the  name  of  Wetherlll  for  the  i)ur])08e  of  reaching  and  working  a  bed  of  franlc- 
linite  ore  which  had  been  located  by  boring  exploration  at  a  depth  of  about  a 
thousand  feet  below  the  surface  near  this  iK)int  called  (ireensiwt.  It  was  the 
continuation  of  a  seam  of  ore  for  many  years  worked  to  the  ^uthwest  of  Green- 
BiH>t  by  two  companies,  one  of  which — viz,  the  Lehigh  Zinc  and  Iron  Company — 
was  owned  and  controlled  by  the  Heckschers  and  Wetherllls.  In  the  spring  or 
early  summer  of  1891  the  defendant  commenced  to  sink  a  i)eri)endicular  shaft, 
known  as  the  "  Parker  shaft,"  10  by  21)  feet  in  diameter,  and  after  passing 
through  a  small  amount  of  super incximbent  earth  struck  solid  limestone  rock. 
It  continued  the  working  without  cessation  until  August  11,  1802,  when,  having 
attained  a  depth  of  560  feet  (many  feet  lower  than  the  l>ed  of  the  Wallkill),  the 
workmen  struck  a  water-bearing  fissure  or  rent  in  the  rock,  which  instantly 
flooded  the  mine  and  drove  them  out.  IVevious  to  that  time  they  had  encoun- 
tered small  seams  or  fissures  from  time  to  time.  prodiK'ing  a  little  water  and 
sometimes  a  little  mud,  which  they  pumped  up,  of  course,  carried  through  a 
trough  or  trunk  several  hundred  feet  westerly  toward  the  Wallkill  till  it  reached 
a  small  spring  run,  where  it  was  discharged,  and  from  thence  it  ran  into  the 
Wallkill.  The  amount  of  water  up  to  August  was  small,  and  its  discoloration 
was  slight,  so  that  it  was  not  felt  or  observed  by  complainants.  The  infiux  in 
August,  1892.  was  discolored  by  a  fine  clay,  amounting  almost  to  a  pigment,  hav- 
ing a  high  reddish-yellow  tint  and  intermixed  Avith  a  small  quantity  of  very  fine 
sand.  This  water  rose  to  within  40  feet  of  the  surface,  and  resisted  all  attempts 
to  lower  It  by  the  pumps  then  in  use  and  until  very  large  and  heavy  pumps  were 
introduced.  This  was  done  in  September.  After  the  shaft  filleil  with  water 
there  was  no  further  movement;  it  became  i)erfectly  quiet,  and  the  clay  and 
sand  began  to  settle,  so  that  the  water  in  the  upi)er  reach  of  the  shaft  became 
comparatively  clear.  The  first  water  that  was  discharged  after  heavy  pumping 
commenced  came  from  near  the  top  and  was  but  slightly  dlsc*olored,  such  dis- 
coloration being  due  to  the  disturbance  of  the  day  and  sand  which  had  settled 
on  the  timbering  of  the  shaft.  The  quantitj'^  of  water  struck  in  the  fissure  was 
so  great  that  with  these  powerful  pumps  very  slow  advani'e  was  made,  the 
pumps  being  lowered  from  time  to  time,  and  the  greater  the  depth  attained  the 
less  rapid  the  advance  and  the  greater  the  discoloration. 

Oil  about  the  Ist  of  Januar>%  1893,  the  water  was  reduced  to  a  de[)th  of  420 
feet  from  the  surface,  and  a  delay  there  occurred  of  alx)ut  three  wi»eks.  cause<l 
by  the  necessity  of  establishing  a  pumping  station  at  that  \yo\nt  When  the 
rapid  pumping  commenced  again,  at  or  near  the  1st  of  February,  the  discharge 
was  much  discolored,  and  continued  growing  worse  and  worse  until  the  bottom 
was  reached,  and  there,  without  detailing  the  circumstances,  the  greatest  dis- 
coloration was  reached,  and  continue<l  during  the  month  of  March.  The  discol- 
oring clay  is  so  very  fine  in  its  texture  that  a  very  slight  movement  of  particles 
of  water  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  will  thoroughly  mix  It,  and  it  will  only 
subside  in  perfectly  still  water.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  it  did  not  fully 
subside  in  passing  through  complainants'  pond,  which  Is  quite  narrow,  so  that  It 
is  probable  that  the  volume  of  the  water  of  the  Wallkill  causes  continued  motion 
throughout  its  length. 

After  the  shaft  had  been  entirely  pumped  out  and  the  volume  of  water  stored 
in  the  fissure  had  been  entirely  exhausted  and  the  flow  reduce<l  to  the  natural 
supply  of  the  flssure,  and  the  various  water  channels  which  had  been  created 
throughout  it  by  the  sudden  drawing  off  of  the  water  had  arrived  at  what  the 
experts  call  an  **  angle  of  repose,**  so  that  no  further  scouring  resulted  from  the 
flow  of  the  ordinary  quantity  of  water,  there  was  no  discoloration  and  the  water 
ran  clear.  This  condition  was,  as  claimed  by  the  defendant,  reached  some  time 
in  the  summer  of  1893,  and  the  case  shows  that  from  about  the  middle  of  April 


14  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION  I  No.  152. 

or  the  1st  of  May  till  about  the  middle  of  July  the  discoloratlons  were  temporary 
and  increasingly  infrequent,  and  usually  the  result  of  clearing  out  the  different 
settling  basins,  called  "  sinks,"  which  had  been  established  in  the  rock  at  differ 
ent  points  in  the  shaft.  Since  that  time  the  shaft  has  been  sunk  over  20O  fee> 
without  finding  any  more  water  or  fissures. 

The  proof  is  clear  that  the  result  of  the  contribution  of  this  discolored  water 
to  the  waters  of  the  river  was  to  render  the  mixture  when  It  reached  complain- 
ants' mill  unfit,  without  filtration,  for  use  in  making  white  pai>er. 

An  ingenious  experiment  was  made  by  an  expert,  as  follows :  He  ascertainetL 
by  a  rough  measurement,  that  the  flow  of  the  river  was  about  forty  times  tluit  of 
the  output  from  the  mine,  and  he  took  a  jar  of  perfectly  clear  water  and  mixed 
with  it  one-fortieth  of  its  quantity  of  tlu»  dirty  water  that  came  from  the  nilue, 
and  exhibited  the  sample  to  show  to  what  a  slight  extent  it  was  discolored. 

The  dirty  water  which  he  used  had  been  confined  In  a  jar  for  several  months, 
with  the  result  that  the  fine  particles  of  clay  had  partially  coagulate<l  and  gath- 
ered into  little  flakes,  and  when  shaken  up  did  not  produce  the  same  dejjree  of 
discoloration  as  exhibited  when  freshly  taken  from  the  running  stream.  But 
even  that  experiment  showed  that  the  result  of  so  slight  a  mixture  made  the 
whole  mass  palpably  roily.  In  point  of  fact,  as  shown  by  the  evidence  of  the 
expert  paper  makers,  a  very  small  admixture  of  mud  or  clay  will  render  tlie 
water  improper,  without  filtration,  for  making  white  tissue  pai)er ;  and  the  effect 
of  that  evidence  Is  that  the  river  in  Its  ordinary  clear  state  is  no  clearer  than  is 
necessary  for  that  purpose.  A  very  small  admixture  of  coloring  or  dirty  matter 
renders  It  unfit  for  use. 

Several  matters  are  urged  in  defense  to  this  case.  First,  but  faintly,  that  the 
doctrine  finally  established  by  a  bare  majority  of  a  divided  court  in  I»ennsylva- 
nia,in  Sanderson  r.  The  Coal  Company  (80  Pa.  St,  401;  04  Pa.  St,  303;  102  Pa. 
St,  370,  and  113  Pa.  St,  12(5),  should  be  adopted  here.  The  history  of  tliat  cas**. 
In  its  various  phases,  Is  given  by  a  writer  In  the  Ameri(ran  Law  Ueglster  (u.  s.), 
vol.  1,  p.  1  (1894).  It  was  an  action,  as  here,  by  a  riparian  proprietor  against  a 
mining  company  for  ix)llutlng  a  natural  stream  with  water  pumiMMi  from  its 
mine.  After  three  decisions  by  the  supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania  In  favor  of 
the  plaintiff's  right,  that  court  finally  held  the  contrary  and  affirmed  the  right  of 
the  coal  company  to  discharge  Its  acid  mine  water  Into  the  creek,  without  regani 
to  Its  effect  ui)on  lands  below,  ui)on  the  broad  ground  that  the  nec^esslties  of  tlK» 
mining  Interests  of  the  (Commonwealth  re<iulred  It  This  result  was  attributed 
by  the  author  of  the  article  In  the  American  Law  Register  (pp.  5.  18),  In  part  to 
a  lack  of  care  on  the  part  of  the  learned  judge  who  prepared  the  first  prevailing 
opinion  (8(>  Pa.  St.,  40(5).  The  doctrine  of  that  case  Is  shown  by  that  writer  to 
be  inharmonious  with  a  long  line  of  previous  decisions  In  Pennsylvania,  and  has 
not  been,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  followed  In  any  other  State — certainly  not  hi 
this  State.  It  was  repudiated  In  Ohio,  whose  mining  Interests  are  quite  largi'. 
In  the  recent  and  well-considered  case  of  The  Columbus,  etc.,  C-o.  v.  Tucker  <4.s 
Ohio  St,  41 ) .  I  refer  particularly  to  the  lucid  expressions  of  the  learned  Judge 
found  on  pages  58  and  02. 

It  was  not  suggested  on  the  argument  that  the  doctrine  ever  had  the  least 
foothold  In  this  State.  No  case  of  a  stream  fouled  by  mining  operations  has 
indeed  ever,  so  far  as  I  know,  been  presented  to  our  courts,  but  the  right  of  a 
riparian  proi)rletor  to  have  the  waters  of  the  stream  come  to  him  uuchang^l 
in  quality,  as  well  as  undiminished  In  quantity,  has  been  determined  In  the 
clearest  and  most  i)osltlve  manner.  In  fact,  the  doctrine  stated  so  tersely  by 
Chancellor  Kent  In  Gardner  v,  Newburgh  (2  Johns.  Ch.  162,  at  p.  166)— "A  right 
to  a  stream  of  water  is  as  sacred  as  a  right  to  the  soil  over  which  it  flows.    It 


rooDELL.1  RESTRICTIONS   OF   COMMON   LAW.  15 

is  a  part  of  the  freehold  " — has  always  been  adhered  to  by  our  courts.  I  need 
refer  only  to  Holsman  v.  Boiling  Spring  C/O.  (1  MoCart.  335),  and  Acquacka- 
nonk  Water  Co.  r.  Watson  (2  Stew.  Eq.,  366).  In  the  last  case  the  right  was 
stated  by  the  learned  master  in  an  extremely  clear  and  comprehensive  manner, 
and  the  decree  advised  by  him  was  unanimously  affirmed  on  appeal,  for  the 
reasons  by  him  given. 

The  facts  of  that  case  are,  in  a  manner,  analogous  to  those  here  under  con- 
sideration. Watson  owned  and  operated  a  bleachery  which  required  for  use 
clear  and  pure  water,  which  he  obtained  from  a  small  stream  running  through 
his  land.  The  water  company,  desiring  to  supply  the  city  of  Passaic  with  pota- 
ble water,  proposed  to  take  this  small  stream  above  the  bleachery  and  substi- 
tute for  it  an  equal  or  greater  quantity  of  Passaic  River  w^ater,  drawn  from  the 
Dundee  Canal  and  used  to  drive  its  pumps.  This  the  court  restrained,  on  the 
ground  that  the  substituted  water  was  not  of  equal  purity  with  that  abstracted. 

There  Is  a  line  of  cases  of  pollution  by  mine  water  in  England  which  sustains 
the  general  doctrine.  Hodgkinson  v.  Ennor  (4  Best  and  S.,  229)  was  the  case,  as 
here,  of  a  paper  maker  against  a  miner  who  had  permitted  dirty  washings  of 
lead  ores  to  run  through  rents,  called  **  swallets,"  In  limestone  rock  into  a  sub- 
terraneous stream,  rendeMng  the  water,  which  in  its  course  came  to  plaintiff's 
paper  mill,  unfit  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and  the  action  was  sus- 
tained by  Chief  Justice  Cockburn  and  Justices  Blackburn  and  Mellor. 

Magor  V.  Chadwick  (11  Ad.  and  E.,  571)  was  a  suit  by  a  brewer  against  a 
miner. 

Pennington  v.  The  Brinsop  Coal  Co.  (L.  R.,  5  Ch.  Div.  769)  (1877)  was  a  suit 
by  a  manufacturer  against  a  coal  miner,  where  the  only  allegation  of  Injury  was 
that  the  acid  contributed  to  the  water  from  the  mine  rendered  It  less  fit  for  use 
In  the  engine  boilers,  driving  the  machinery  of  the  plalntlff*s  mill.  An  injunc- 
tion was  allowed.  Defendant  relied,  without  success,  upon  the  ground  taken  In 
Sanderson  v.  The  Coal  Co.,  supra,  that  the  acid  could  not  l>e  removed  from  the 
water ;  that  there  was  no  means  of  remedying  the  evil,  and  an  injunction  would 
absolutely  stop  its  work.  The  learned  judge  (Fry)  refused  even  to  exercise  the 
right  given  by  the  English  statute  to  give  damages  instead  of  an  Injunction, 
relying  on  Clowes  v,  Staffordshire  Waterworks  (L.  R.,  8  Ch.  App.,  12,5)  (1873), 
and  he  declared  that  he  would  have  granted  the  Injunction,  although  the  present 
damage  was  only  nominal,  because  of  the  injury  to  the  riparian  rights  of  the 
plaintiff,  and  such  is  the  doctrine  of  the  case  relied  on,  which  was  a  suit  by  a 
silk  dyeing  and  washing  establishment  against  a  waterworks  company  for  ren- 
dering the  water  coming  to  their  works  less  clear  and  pure. 

The  English  cases  dealing  with  pollution  by  mine  water  culminated  in  the 
case  of  Young  i-.  Bankler  (L.  R.,  App.  Cas.,  (591)  (1893),  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
on  appeal  from  Scotland.  The  case  was  argued,  elaborately,  of  course,  before 
six  law  lords,  whose  unanimous  judgments  were  delivered  after  consideration. 
The  riparian  proprietor  (Bankler),  the  plaintiff  there,  was  a  distiller,  and  used 
the  water  of  the  stream  In  his  distilling  process,  presumably  for  making  mash, 
for  which  it  was  peculiarly  fit  by  reason  of  its  softness.  The  added  mine  water 
did  not  render  it  unfit  for  ordinary  purposes — there  called  primary  purposes — 
but  by  reason  of  Its  hardness  rendered  it  less  fit  for  distilling  pun>oses.  San- 
derson V,  The  Coal  Co.  was  cited,  but  the  court  repudiated  its  doctrine  and  was 
unanimous  in  judgment  In  favor  of  the  respondent,  who  was  the  plaintiff  and 
liad  Judgment  below.  Lord  Macnaghten,  at  page  699,  says :  "  Then  the  api)el- 
lant  urged  (precisely  as  does  the  defendant  here)  that  working  (X)al  was  the 
natural  and  proper  use  of  their  mineral  property.  They  said  they  could  not 
continue  to  work  unless  they  were  permitted  to  discharge  the  water  which 


16  LAWS   FOBBIDDING   INLAND- WATEB  POLLUTION,  [No.  lo2. 

accumulates  in  their  mine,  and  they  added  that  this  water  course  is  the  natural 
and  proper  channel  to  carry  off  the  surplus  water  of  the  district  All  that  may 
be  very  true,  but  in  this  -country,  at  any  rate,  it  is  not  permissible  in  such  a 
case  for  a  man  to  use  his  own  property  so  as  to  injure  the  property  of  hi** 
neighbor." 

There  are  numerous  English  cases  upon  the  general  right  of  a  riparian  proyiri- 
etor  to  have  the  waters  of  his  stream  come  to  him  in  its  natural  condition.  t»f 
which  I  cite  Grossley  v.  Lightowler  (L.  R.,  3  Eq.  Cas.,  279;  2  Chan.  App.,  4T.s» 
(18G7)  ;  Attorney-General  v.  Lunatic  Asylum  (L.  R.,  4  Ch.  App..  145)  (lS<i^)- 
Numerous  other  cases  will  be  found  cited  in  Gould,  Waters,  section  219,  and  iu 
Higg.  Pol.  Waterc,  132  et  seci. 

The  argument  was  advanced  by  the  defendant  that  the  use  of  the  defendant's 
property  for  mining  purposes  is  what  was  termed,  unfortunately,  I  think,  by 
Lord  Cairns,  in  Fletcher  v.  Rylands  (L.  R.,  3  11.  L.,  330,  at  pp.  338.  339)  (ISiWi. 
a  natural  user,  and  similar  in  that  respect  to  plowing  a  field,  and  that  If  it  Ik* 
unlawful  for  defendant  here  to  cast  into  the  stream  the  muddy  waters  from  its 
mine  it  is  also  unlawful  for  the  farmer  to  plow  his  land  and  allow  the  uiuddy 
water  which  runs  from  it  after  a  heavy  rain  to  reach  the  river.  But  the  very 
statement  of  the  two  cases  shows  the  alisence  of  analog^'  between  them.  In  the 
first  place,  the  water  from  the  plowed  field  comes  thereon  by  natural  caiuses 
l)eyond  the  farmer's  control  and  runs  by  gravity  to  the  stream,  while  In  the  case 
of  the  mine  the  water  is,  as  here,  found  and  raised  by  artificial  means  from  a 
level  far  below  that  of  the  river  and  would  never  reach  it  but  for  the  act  of  the 
miner,  and  in  tlie  second  place,  by  the  common  law  of  the  land  every  owner  may 
cultivate  his  land  without  regard  to  its  effects  upon  his  neighlK)r,  while  such  is 
not  the  law  as  to  mining.  The  supreme  court  of  Ohio,  In  Columbus  Company  r. 
Taylor  (48  Ohio,  41,  at  p.  58),  repudiates  the  notion  that  mining  was  a  natural 
use  of  the  land  in  the  sense  that  farming  is. 

The  ground  of  a  reasonable  natural  user  seems  to  be  at  the  bottom  of  what 
was  said  In  Merrifleld  ?•.  Worcester  (110  Mass.,  21(5)  uix>n  this  topic.  So  far  as 
the  expressions  there  useil  favor  the  notion  that  a  city  or  town  may  collect  and 
discharge  sewage  matter  Into  a  fresh-water  stream  to  the  injury  of  a  riparian 
owner  without  liability  to  action  they  are  contrary  to  the  law  as  held  in  Eng- 
land for  centuries.  See  Iligg.  Pol.  Waterc,  127  et  seq..  where  several  csise-s 
besides  these  above  cited  are  collected. 

Equally  untenable  Is  another  iK)sition  advanced  by  the  defendant,  viz,  that 
the  river  was  always  more  or  less  polluted  by  (X)utributions  from  other  mlm^ 
and  from  the  washing  of  plowed  fields,  public  roads,  and  railroad  embank- 
ments. Such  insistments  have  been  freijuently  made  and  alwaj's  overruliNl. 
The  question  In  such  cases  seems  to  be  whether  the  stream  has  already  be<x>me 
so  far  i)olluted  by  contributors  who  have  aciiuired  a  right  so  to  do  by  adverse 
use  or  otherwise  as  that  the  pollution  presently  opposed  will  not  sensibly  alter 
its  condition.  And  even  In  such  a  case  the  courts  have  held  that  the  imrty  has 
the  right  to  deal  with  each  contributor  in  detail  and  to  buy  off  such  contributors 
as  have  acquired  a  right,  and  is  not  obliged  to  submit  to  fresh  cx)ntrlbutors. 
I  cite  the  following  authorities:  Ross  r.  Butler  (4  C.  E.  Gr.,  2m,  at  p.  :Un}) : 
iVttorney-General  r.  Steward  (5  C.  E.  Gr.,  415,  at  p.  419),  where  the  learneil 
chancellor  says ;  "  The  defendants  have  no  right  to  i)ollute  or  corrupt  the  waters 
of  the  creek,  or  if  they  are  already  partially  polluted  to  render  them  more  so:'* 
to  Cleveland  v.  The  (Jas  Co.  (5  C.  E.  Gr.,  201.  at  p.  208)  ;  and  to  Meigs  r.  I.ister 
(8  C.  E.  Gr.,  199,  at  p.  205),  where  the  learned  chancellor  says:  "The  posit iou 
taken  by  counsel  that  the  complainants  were  entitletl  to  no  relief  from  this 
nuisance  because  the  locality  was  surrounded  by  other  nuisances  and  dedicated 


GOODKLL.1  RESTRICTIONS   OF   COMMON   LAW.  1 


to  such  purix>8es  has  no  foundation  In  law  or  in  fact  If  there  were  severa. 
nuisances  of  the  like  nature  surrounding  them,  they  must  seek  relief  from  each 
separately.  They  can  not  be  Joined  In  one  suit  nor  need  the  suits  proceed  pari 
passu." 

In  Crossley  r.  Lightowler  (L.  R.,  2  Ch.  App.,  478.  p.  481,  1807)  Lord  Chelms- 
ford says :  "  But  the  defendants  contend  that  the  plaintiffs  have  no  rl^ht  to 
fomplaln  of  any  i)ollution  of  the  Ilebble  occasioned  by  them,  because  there  are 
many  other  manufacturers  who  i)our  polluting  matter  into  the  stream  above  the 
[dnintiffs*  works,  so  that  they  never  c*ould  have  the  water  In  a  fit  state  for  use 
even  if  the  defendants  altogether  ceased  to  foul  It.  The  case  of  St.  Helen's 
Smelting  Co.  v.  Tipping  (11  H.  L.  Ch.,  (U2;  11  Jur.  N.  S..  785),  Is,  however,  an 
answer  to  this  defense.  Where  there  are  many  existing  nuisances,  either  to  the 
air  or  to  water,  It  may  be  very  difficult  to  trace  to  its  source  the  injury  occa- 
sioned by  any  one  of  them ;  but  If  the  defendants  add  to  the  former  foul  state 
of  the  water  and  yet  are  not  to  be  resi)onsible  on  account  of  its  previous  condi- 
tion, this  conseiiuence  would  follow  that  if  the  plaintiffs  were  to  make  terms 
with  the  other  polluters  of  the  stream  so  as  to  have  water  free  from  Impurities 
produced  by  their  works,  the  defendants  might  say,  *  We  began  to  foul  the 
stream  at  a  time  when,  as  against  you,  it  was  lawful  for  us  to  do  so,  Inasmuch 
as  it  was  unfit  for  your  use,  nnd  you  can  not  now,  by  getting  rid  of  the  exist- 
ing pollutions  from  other  sources,  prevent  our  continuing  to  do  what,  at  the 
time  when  we  began,  you  had  no  right  to  object  to.* "  ( Attorney-General  v. 
Lunatic  Asylum,  4  Ch.  App.,  145,  p.  150,  report  of  the  exi)ert,  and  p.  155. ) 

In  Attorney-General  v.  Leeds  <L.  R.,  5  Ch.  App.,  583,  i>.  595,  1870)  the  lord 
chancellor  says :  "  I  think  the  argument  deduced  from  the  foul  state  of  the 
water  before  it  gets  to  Leeds  is  not  deserving  of  any  weight  for  two  reasons : 
First — and  it  is  hardly  disputed— the  evil  did  become  seriously  aggravated 
when  the  new  sewer  was  opened — that  Is  to  say,  sixteen  or  seventeen  years 
:igo ;  and,  secondly,  the  nuisance  might  terminate ;  and  no  one  can  say  it  was 
right  tliat  when  one  nuisance  terminates  there  should  be  another  brought  Into 
existence." 

The  sensible  and  material  Increase  In  the  discoloration  of  the  water,  In  this 
case  resulting  from  the  contribution  of  the  defendant's  mine,  Is  clearly  proved. 
The  complainant  was  able  to  make  white  paper  successfully  and  satisfactorily 
from  February  1,  1892,  for  nearly  a  year,  and  until  the  serious  discharge  of  dis- 
colored water  from  the  defendant's  sliaft,  in  January,  1893 ;  and  they  were  also 
able  to  make  such  paper  after  the  discoloretl  water  ceased  to  run,  in  June  or 
July,  1893.  During  the  intermediate  period,  while  the  discoloration  of  the  water 
being  discharged  from  the  defendant's  mine  was  the  greatest,  complainant  could 
not  make  white  paper  satisfactorily. 

In  whatever  point  of  view  the  complainant's  case  Is  considered  it  seems 
entirely  clear  and  free  fn)m  doubt.  I  can  not  think  the  least  doubt  is  cast  upon 
the  law  by  the  last  decision  in  the  Sanderson  case,  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
facts  of  the  case  are  substantially  undisputed.  The  complainants*  title  and  pos- 
ijcssion  of  the  ripa,  though  put  In  issue  by  the  answer,  is  established  by  the 
proofs  and  was  finally  admitted  at  the  hearing.  Their  right  to  have  the  water 
come  to  them  in  its  natural  condition  follows  inevitably.  (Holsman  t\  Boiling 
Spring  Co.,  1  McCart,  335,  at  p.  343,  bottom,  and  cases  there  cited.)  The 
learned  chancellor  there  says :  "  Where  the  complainant  seeks  protection  in 
the  enjoyment  of  a  natural  water  course  upon  his  land,  the  right  will  ordi- 
narily be  regarded  as  clear.  And  the  mere  fact  that  the  defendant  denies  the 
right  by  his  answer  or  sets  up  title  in  himself  by  adverse  user  will  not  entitle 
him  to  an  issue  before  the  allowance  of  an  Injunction." 

IBB  152—05  M 2 


18  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  132. 

,  There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  upon  the  facts  presented,  it  would  be  tbe  duty 
of  a  judge  to  direct  a  verdict,  and  the  rule  adopted  by  the  court  of  errors  and 
ai^eals  in  Higgins  v.  The  Water  Co.  (9  Stew.  Eq.,  538)  applies.  I  refer  to  the 
language  of  the  chief  justice  on  page  544  et  seq. 

The  jurisdiction  of  this  court  to  adopt,  on  final  hearing,  the  extreme  remedy 
of  an  injunction  in  this  class  of  cases,  when  the  right  is  clear,  is  well  estab- 
lished, not  only  by  the  case  just  cited,  but  by  Acquackanonk  Water  Co.  r. 
Watson,  supra,  which  was  decided  by  the  court  of  errors  and  appeals,  and  by 
Holsman  v.  Boiling  Spring  Co.,  supra,  decided  by  Chancellor  Green,  and  by 
Shields  V,  Arndt  (3  Gr.  Ch.,  234),  and  by  Carlisle  v.  Cooi)er  (6  C.  E.  Gr.,  570). 

It  was  suggested  that  in  this  case  no  injunction  should  be  ordered,  but  that 
the  complainants  should  be  left  to  their  action  at  law  for  damages.  I  am 
unable  to  adopt  that  view.  It  must  now  be  considered  as  settled  law  In  this 
State  that  the  maintenance  of  a  nuisance  of  the  kind  here  in  question  is,  in 
effect,  a  taking  of  property.  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co.  r.  Angel  (14  Stew.  Ekj., 
316,  p.  329),  where  Judge  Dixon,  speaking  for  the  court  of  errors  and  appeals, 
says :  **  This  principle  rests  upon  the  express  terms  of  the  Constitution.  In 
declaring  that  private  property  shall  not  be  taken  without  recompense,  that 
instrument  secures  to  owners  not  only  the  possession  of  property,  but  also 
those  rights  which  render  i)ossession  valuable.  Whether  you  flood  the  farmer^s 
fields  so  that  they  can  not  be  cultivated,  or  pollute  the  bleacher's  stream  so 
that  his  fabrics  are  stained,  or  fill  one's  dwelling  with  smells  and  noise  so  that 
it  can  not  be  occupied  In  comfort,  you  equally  take  away  the  owner's  property. 
In  neither  instance  has  the  owner  any  less  of  material  things  than  he  had 
before,  but  in  each  case  the  utility  of  his  property  has  been  impaired  by  a 
direct  invasion  of  the  bounds  of  his  private  dominion.  This  Is  the  taking  of 
his  property  in  a  constitutional  sense.  Of  course,  mere  statutory  authority- 
will  not  avail  for  such  an  Interference  with  private  property.  This  doctrine 
has  been  frequenjtly  enforced  In  our  courts,"  and  he  proceeds  to  cite  previous 
authorities  in  the  same  court.  If  this  be  so,  then  the  legislature  has  no  power 
to  authorize  the  maintenance  of  a  nuisance  for  the  promotion  of  private  objects, 
even  uiK)n  terms  of  making  compensation;  for  no  authority  is  necessary  for 
the  position  that  the  legislature  is  powerless  to  enact  a  law  declaring  that 
defendant  may  hai^e  complainants'  mill  and  water  power  ui)on  terms  of  payini: 
them  what  a  court  may  ascertain  it  is  worth.  And  I  am  unable  to  distinguish 
such  action  and  that  of  leaving  complainants  to  the  remedy  of  repeated  actions 
at  law  to  recover  damages  as  often  as  they  are  suffered.  In  this  respect  our 
system  of  laws  varies  from  that  of  England,  where  Parliament  is  omnliiotent 
and  is  not  confined  to  the  mere  making  of  laws — the  true  function  of  a  legis- 
lature— but  may  take  private  profierty  for  private  purposes,  with  or  without 
making  compensation,  the  only  restraint  uiwn  Its  power  being  its  own  innate 
sense  of  justice.  Hence  the  English  courts  are  authorized.  In  cases  of  certain 
nuisances,  to  give  damages  once  for  all  instead  of  an  injunction. 

The  result  of  my  consideration  of  the  subject  Is  that  there  Is  no  princi])lr- 
which  will  sustain  a  court  of  equity  in  refusing  an  injunction  against  the  main- 
tenance of  an  established  continuing  nuisance  and  leaving  the  injured  party  to 
his  remed^v  at  law.  To  do  so  is,  in  effect,  to  i)ermlt  a  party  to  take  his  neighbor's 
land  for  his  own  use  upon  terms  of  making  such  compensation  as  a  jury  shall 
assess.    This  Is  Inadmissible. 

The  object  and  oflice  of  a  verdict  and  judgment  at  law  is  to  establish  the  right 
and  give  comr)ensatlon  for  past  Injuries.  The  right  being  once  made  clear. 
whether  by  judgment  at  law  or  upon  Incontrovertible  rules  of  law  and  well- 
established  facts,  the  remedy  In  equity  by  Injunction  to  prevent  future  injury  is 
a  matter  of  right,  and  the  relief  can  not  be  refused. 


GOODELL.1  BESTRICTIONS   OF   COMMON   lAW.  19 

Tbe  ground,  however,  mainly  relied  upon  by  defendant  is  that  the  proofs  show 
that  tbe  nuisance  has  entirely  abated  and  that  there  is  no  danger  of  its  recur- 
rence, and  hence  an  injunction  is  unnecessary  and  improi)er. 

At  about  the  time  the  injunction  was  issued — July  11,  180^^ — defendant  pur- 
chased a  small  tract  of  land  skirting  the  railroad,  between  the  shaft  and  the 
rirer,  and  established  on  it  a  settling  basin,  into  which  the  mine  water  was 
turned  and  given  opix)rtunity  for  subsidence  before  reaching  the  river.  The 
result  was  that  it  was  substantially  clear,  and  no  further  injury  has  been  since 
felt  at  the  paper  mill.  It  is  also  in  proof  that  from  that  time  up  to  July,  1804,  the 
water  was  usually  clear  when  it  came  from  the  mine.  At  the  sessions  of  Decem- 
ber 27  and  December  28,  1893,  Professor  Nason,  a  competent  geologist  and  min- 
ing expert,  testified  that,  in  his  opinion,  no  further  clay  and  water-bearing  seams 
or  rents  would  be  met  in  the  course  of  defendant's  mining  oi)erations,  and  that 
the  rent  which  had  given  so  much  trouble  had,  by  natural  causes,  become  harm- 
less. It  was  not  suggested  that  all  or  any  large  proiK)rtion  of  the  discolored  clay 
dei)osit  had  been  removed,  but  the  theory  was  that  the  descending  water  had 
worn  channels  in  the  clay,  resulting  in  little  rivulets  centering  at  the  se<?tion  by 
the  shaft,  and  that  the  scouring  power  of  the  water — that  is,  its  ix)wer  to  bring 
down  clay — had  ceased  by  reason  of  the  clay  banks  and  beds  of  the  little  rivulets 
having  arrived  at  an  "  angle  of  rei)ose."  The  stability  of  this  state  of  affairs 
depends,  of  course,  upon  the  unifbrmity  of  the  flow  of  water,  both  as  to  quantity 
and  source  of  inflow,  and  Professor  Nason,  on  cross-examination,  admitted  some 
uncertainty  in  this  respect  After  his  examination  and  the  close  of  the  evidence 
on  both  sides,  and  before  the  argument,  viz,  about  July  IG,  1894,  an  unexpecte<l 
influx  of  muddy  water  ocirurred,  due  to  an  overflow  from  a  flume  carrying  water 
from  the  neighboring  mine  of  the  Lehigh  Zinc  and  Iron  Company,  which  found 
Its  way  into  the  seam  or  rent  at  a  ix)int  where  it  came  to  the  surface,  al)out 
1,800  feet  from  the  Parker  (defendant's)  shaft.  This  opening  was  a  surface 
fissure  or  swallet  in  the  rock — quite  common  where  limestone  rocks  come  to  the 
surface.  In  this  case,  as  I  understand  Professor  Nason,  he  did  not  supiwse  or 
infer,  from  the  trend  of  the  fissure,  that  it  reached  the  surface  in  that  neighbor- 
hood, but  such  was  the  fact.  It  was  promptly  stopped  by  defendant  and  filled 
up,  so  as  to  prevent  any  more  water  getting  in  at  that  point 

Now,  it  seems  to  me  that  this  occurrence  shows  the  impossibility  of  aflirming 
that  there  will  be  no  further  incursions  of  muddy  water.  It  is  true  that  with  the 
continued  use  of  the  settling  ground  no  injury  will  probably  result  to  complain- 
ants from  such  an  Irruption.  I  say  "probably,"  because,  in  case  of  a  sudden 
irruption  of  discolored  water,  the  quantity  might  be  so  great  as  to  overwork  the 
present  settling  basin.  But  without  a  decree  and  injunction  tlie  defendant  will 
be  at  liberty  to  discontinue  its  use  and  permit  any  muddy  water  that  may  appear 
to  flow  into  the  Furnace  Pond  as  of  old. 

At  the  time  the  complainants  filed  their  bill  the  injury  was  serious  and  contin- 
uous. The  defendant  positively  declined  to  stop  it,  but  claimed  the  right  to  con- 
tinue it.  To  complainants'  bill  was  interposed  a  general  denial,  and  setting  up  a 
right  to  persist  In  the  injury  as  long  as  its  necessities  refjuired.  On  all  these 
issues  the  defendant  is  beaten.  The  complainants  have  established  their  case, 
and  it  would  seem  to  be  a  most  lame  and  impotent  conclusion  to  refuse  to  give 
them  the  very  relief  prayed  for,  viz,  a  perpetual  injunction.  I  am  unable  to 
imagine  any  other  decree  in  their  favor  which  would  adequately  meet  the  case 
and  give  them  the  Just  fruits  of  their  suit ;  and,  surely,  if  there  is  no  danger  of 
further  discoloration  the  injunction  will  do  the  defendant  no  harm,  but  will  be 
of  value  as  a  muniment  of  title  to  the  complainants'  property.  The  language 
of  Lord  Justice  Turner,  In  Goldsmid  r.  Tunbridge  Wells  Commissioners  (L.  R., 
X  Cb,,  App.,  349,  p.  355),  applies:  " In  this  particular  case  I  think  that  regard 


20  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

must  be  had  not  merely  to  the  comfort  or  convenience  of  the  occupier  of  tlie 
estate,  which  may  only  be  interfered  with  temporarilj'  and  in  a  partial  dej^ive. 
but  that  regard  must  also  be  had  to  the  effect  of  the  nuisance  upon  the  value  of 
the  estate  and  upon  the  prosi^ect  of  dealing  with  it  to  advantage;  and  I  can  not 
but  think  that  the  value  of  this  estate,  and  the  prospect  of  advantageous* ly 
dealing  with  it,  is  and  will  be  affected  by  the  continuance  of  this  nuisance." 

But  the  defendant  further  urges  that  the  complainants  have  manifested  a  dis- 
position to  make  an  unreasonably  harsh  and  oppressive  use  of  their  rights  in  tin* 
premises,  and  have  thereby  w^eakened  their  standing  in  equity  and  disentitled 
them  to  the  extreme  decree  asked  for. 

In  the  month  of  March,  1893,  while  the  outflow  from  the  mine  was  at  its 
worst,  negotiations  took  place  betw^een  the  parties  for  some  sort  of  settlement, 
and  a  filter  was  mentioned.  The  complainants  offered  to  be  satisfied  if  defend- 
ant would  furnish  them  with  a  filter  of  proper  size,  which  they  said,  and  alK»ut 
which  there  is  no  dispute,  would  cost  $5,000.  The  defendant  offered  to  pay  one- 
half  of  the  expense  of  the  filter,  the  same  to  l>e  in  full  compensation  for  all 
damages  up  to  the  time  it  was  furnished,  which  offer  the  complainants  refused 
to  accept.     I  can  see  nothing  harsh  or  oppressive  in  that  refusal. 

Next,  and  after  bill  filed,  as  I  now  recollect,  defendant  made  an  arranf^einent 
with  the  tenant  of  a  gi-istmill,  located  upon  a  little  stream  which  empties  into 
the  Furnace  Pond,  for  a  right  to  divert  water  from  the  mill  and  carry  it  hy  a 
fiunie  several  hundred  feet  down  to  the  complainants'  works  and  furnish  them 
with  clear  water  from  that  stream.  Complainants  employed  an  expert  U* 
examine  the  stream  and  see  w^hether  it  would  supply  suflScient  water  for  their 
paper  engines,  with  the  result  that  they  were  informed  and  believed  that  it  wa.s 
not  sufllcient,  and  declined  to  accept  it  as  a  substitute  for  the  river  water.  The 
defendant,  nevertheless,  in  the  face  of  complainants'  refusal,  built  the  flume — a 
mere  wooden  trough,  set  upon  benches  and  trestles — along  the  surface  of  the 
ground  down  to  the  mill  yard  of  the  complainants.  The  complainants  refuse<l  to 
allow  it  to  be  put  across  their  mill  yard,  because  it  would  prevent  them  fn>m 
having  access  to  their  works  and  from  free  passage  with  carts  and  wagons  from 
one  part  to  the  other,  and  said  that  anything  of  that  kind  must  be  put  under- 
ground in  iron  pipes.  But  the  radical  dlflJculty  with  that  movement  on  the  p:irt 
of  the  defendant  was  that  the  right  to  the  use  of  the  water  was  merely  obtained 
temporarily  from  a  mere  tenant  of  the  mill  property,  and  did  not  give  tbe  c<mi- 
plalnants  any  permanent  right  to  the  flow  of  the  stream,  even  if  it  had  i»een 
large  enough  for  their  punwses.  I  can  see  nothing  harsh  or  oppressive  in  t*om- 
plainants'  action  in  refusing  this  offer  of  substitution.  They  not  only  had  tht' 
strict  right  in  law  to  refuse  to  accept  them,  but  their  conduct  In  so  doing,  in  my 
judgment,  was  not  inequitable. 

I  shall  advise  a  decree  establishing  the  complainants'  right  to  the  flow  of  the 
stream  in  its  natural  condition  and  an  injunction  with  costs. 

MISSOURI  V.   ILLINOIS  ET  AL. 

\^^le^e  an  injurious  act  in  one  State  is  so  far-reaching  in  its  injuri- 
ous consequences  as  to  threaten  the  rights  of  property  and  the  health 
of  a  large  number  of  citizens  in  another  State,  the  latter  State  may 
become  a  party  complainant  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  to  enforce  the  legal  remedies  of  its  citizens  for  such  inju^ie^=. 
(Missouri  i\  Illinois  et  al.  (U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  October  term, 
1900),  180  U.S.,  208.) 


.KHJDBLL.]  RESTRICTIONS  OF   COMMON   LAW.  21 

This  was  a  case  in  which  the  State  of  Missouri  sued  to  restrain  the 
State  of  Illinois  and  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago  from  carrying 
the  sewage  of  Chicago  through  an  artificial  channel  to  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  right  of  the  State  of  Missouri  to  protect  its  citizens  by 
this  action  and  to  implead  the  State  of  Illinois  as  a  party  defendant 
and  to  have  an  injunction  against  the  defendants  in  case  the  facts 
alleged  in  its  bill  should  be  established  was  upheld  by  a  divided  court 
in  overruling  a  demurrer  to  the  bill.  The  defendants  have  answered, 
but  at  the  time  of  the  present  writing  the  final  hearing  has  not  been 
reached. 

BIGHTS  OP  aiPABIAN  OWNERS  IN  ABID  AND  MINING  STATES. 

In  certain  of  the  arid  and  mining  States  of  the  West  the  doctrine 
of  riparian  rights  has  been  in  whole  or  in  part  abrogated  by  what  is 
known  as  the  doctrine  of  prior  appropriation.  Where  the  latter  doc- 
trine prevails  the  rights  of  riparian  owners  as  given  above  do  not 
exist,  and  where  the  doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  has  been  adopted 
in  part  the  rights  of  appropriators  to  some  extent  supersede  the 
rights  of  riparian  owners. 

'"Appropriation  "  is  an  actual  use  of  the  water  for  a  beneficial 
purpose  by  a  person  having  the  right  to  make  such  use,  i.  e.,  by  any 
person  having  lawful  access  to  the  water.  The  appropriator,  by  the 
fact  of  appropriation,  acquires  the  right,  as  against  riparian  owners, 
to  use  the  water  in  the  .state  and  condition  and  to  the  extent  necessary 
for  the  purpose  for  which  he  has  appropriated  it.  Subsequent  appro- 
priators also  acquire  rights,  but  such  are  subordinate  to  the  rights  of 
the  prior  appropriator. 

The  doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  has  been  adopted  to  the  extent 
indicated  in  the  States  mentioned  below : 

Arizona : 

Clough  V,  W^ing,  17  Pac.  Rep.,  453. 
Colorado:  • 

**Tbe  right  to  divert  unappropriated  waters  of  any  natural  stream  sliall 
never  be  denied."    Const,  Art.  XVI,  sec.  0. 

Wheeler  v.  Northern  Colorado  I.  Co.,  10  Col.,  582. 

3  Am.  St.  Rep.,  603 ;  17  Pac.  Rep.,  487. 
Idaho : 

Constitution  of  1889,  Art.  XV,  sec.  3. 

Wilterding  r.  Green,  45  Pac.  Rep.,  134 ;  4  Idaho,  773. 
Montana : 

Constitution,  Art.  Ill,  sec.  15. 

Smith  V.  Denniflf,  24  Mont,  20. 

81  Am.  St  Rep.,  408;  60  Pac.  Rep.,  398;  50  L.  R.  A.,  741. 
Nevada : 

Reno  Smelting,  etc..  Works  v.  Stevenson,  20  Nev.,  269. 


22  LAWS  FORBIDDING  INLAND- WATEE  POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

New  Mexico : 

Compiled  Laws  of  New  Mexico,  sec.  23. 

Albuquerque  Land  and  Irr.  Co.  v.  Gutierrez,  61  Pac.  Rep.,  357. 
North  Dakota: 

Springville  v.  Fullmer,  7  Utah,  450. 

Stowell  V,  Johnson,  7  Utah,  215. 
Wyoming : 

Farm  Investment  Co.  v.  Carpenter,  9  Wyo-,  110 ;  50  L.  R.  A.,  747 ;  61  Pac 
Rep.,  288. 

In  California  the  common  law  as  to  riparian  rights  seems  to  pre- 
vail, except  as  to  rights  acquired  by  appropriation  upon  public  lands 
made  before  any  riparian  owner  has  acquired  title  to  lands  below. 
(Lux  V.  Haggin,  69  CaL,  254.) 

In  Oregon  the  right  of  appropriation  is  confined  to  such  rights  a.s 
were  acquired  before  Washington  became  a  State,  under  an  act  of 
Congress  passed  in  1866.  (Simmons  v.  Winters,  21  Oreg.,  35;  2^ 
Am.  St.  Rep.,  727;  27  Pac.  Eep.,  7.) 

In  Washington  the  right  of  appropriation  seems  to  be  recognized, 
at  least  as  to  the  portion  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  in  that  State, 
but  not  as  against  settlers  who  have  obtained  riparian  rights  before 
the  appropriation. 

Isaacs  V.  Barber,  30  L.  R.  A.,  G65. 

10  Wash.,  124 ;  45  Am.  St  Rep.,  772. 

38  Pac.  Rep.,  871. 

Benton  r.  Johncox,  39  L.  R.  A.,  107 ;  17  Wash.,  277. 

61  Am.  St.  Rep.,  912 ;  49  Tac,  495. 

In  several  of  the  arid  or  partly  arid  States  not  included  in  the 
above  list  the  riparian  owner  holds  subject  to  the  right  of  those  own- 
ing above  him  to  a  reasonable  use  of  the  water  for  irrigation 
purposes. 

Rhodes  r.  Whitehead,  27  Tex.,  309 ;  84  Am.  Dec.,  631. 

Tolle  V.  Carreth.  31  Tex.,  362 ;  98  Am.  Dec.,  540. 

Fleming  t\  Davis,  37  Tex.,  173. 

Baker  v.  Brown,  55  Tex.,  377. 

Mud  Creek  Irr.,  etc.,  Co.  v,  Vivian,  74  Tex.,  170;  11  S.  W.  Rep.,  107& 

Barrett  v.  Metcalf,  12  Tex.  Civ.  App.,  247 ;  33  S.  W.  Rep.,  758. 

So  far  as  the  doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  is  recognized,  the 
rights  of  riparian  owners  are  pro  tanto  extinguished.  In  such  States, 
therefore,  the  general  statements  already  given  require  modification. 

In  States  where  the  doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  is  established 
it  may  be  safely  asserted : 

1.  That  the  riparian  owners  can  not  complain  of  pollution  s<>  far 
as  such  pollution  necessarily  results  from  the  use  for  which  tlio 
appropriator  has  appropriated  the  water. 

2.  That  no  person,  except  a  prior  appropriator,  may  pollute  the 
stream  so  as  to  render  the  water  less  fit  for  use  by  one  who  has  law- 


GooDELL.]  RESTRICTIONS  OF  COMMON   LAW.  23 

fully  appropriated  it,  and  such  prior  appropriator  can  not  so  pollute 
the  water  by  a  subsequent  appropriation  to  a  new  use. 
Fairplay  Hydraulic  Mining  Co.  v.  Westou,  29  Colo.,  125. 

3.  Xo  appropriator  or  other  person  may  pollute  waters  to  the 
extent  of  creating  a  public  nuisance. 

Woodruff  V,  North  Bloomfleld  Gravel  Mining  Co.,  8  I^wy.,  028;  10  Fed. 

Rep..  25 ;  9  Lawy.,  441 ;  18  Fed.  Rep.,  753. 
People  V,  Gold  Run  Ditch,  etc.,  Co.,  66  Cal.,  138;  56  Am.  Rep.,  80;  4  Pac. 

Rep.,  1152. 
Carson  r.  Hayes,  39  Oreg.,  97 ;  65  Pac.  Rep.,  814. 
Suffolk  Gold  Min.  and  Milling  Co.  v.  San  Miguel  Consd.  Mining  and  Milling 

Co.,  9  Colo.  App.,  407 ;  48  Pac.  Rep.,  828. 
Nixon  V,  Bear  River  and  A.  Water  Co.,  24  Cal.,  367 ;  85  Am.  Dec..  69. 
Levaroni  v.  Miller,  34  Cal.,  231 ;  91  Am.  Dec.,  692. 

Yuba  Lake,  etc.,  Co.  v.  Yuba  Co.,  Super.  Ct..  66  Cal.,  311 ;  5  Pac.  Rep.,  490. 
McLaughlin  r.  Del  Re,  71  Cal.,  230;  16  Pac.  Rep.,  881. 

B.  RIGHTS  OF  THE  PUBLIC  (a8  DISTINGUISHED  FROM  INDIVIDUAL 
owners)  TO  HAVE  INLAND  WATERS  KEPT  FREE  FRO>I  POLLUTION  BY 
RIPARIAN  OWNERS  OR  OTHERS. 

Whenever  the  pollution  of  a  stream  or  other  body  of  water  injuri- 
ously affects  the  health  or  materially  interferes  with  the  peace  and 
comfort  of  a  large  and  indefinite  number  of  people  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, such  pollution  becomes  what  is  known  as  a  public  nuisance. 
But,  except  under  such  circumstances,  the  public,  as  such,  has  no 
standing  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  waters.  When,  however,  there 
is  a  public  or  quasi-public  ownership  of  the  banks  of  a  stream,  as  in 
the  case  of  a  source  of  water  supply  owned  by  a  municipality  or 
owned  by  a  company  which  supplies  the  inhabitants  of  a  munici- 
pality with  water,  the  public  is  interested  in  the  enforcement  of  the 
rights  of  riparian  proprietors,  as  stated  under  heading  "A." 

\Vhere  there  is  a  public  nuisance  caused  by  the  pollution  of  water, 
it  is  the  duty  of  public  authorities  to  cause  its  abatement,  and  their 
right  to  do  so  has  been  sustained  in  numerous  cases.  Where  the 
public  is  injured  in  its  capacity  of  riparian  owner  the  remedy  is 
either  by  injunction  or  by  criminal  proceedings,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  wrong  and  the  laws  and  practice  of  the  jurisdiction  in 
which  the  offense  occurs. 

The  following  are  cases  in  which  the  pollution  of  water  has  been 
held  to  be  a  public  nuisance: 

Board  of  Health  v.  Casey,  3  N.  Y.  S.,  399. 

People  V.  BIk  River  Mill  and  Lumber  Company,  107  Cal.,  214. 

State  r.  Taylor,  29  Ind.,  517. 

Greene  v.  Nunnemacher,  36  Wis.,  50. 


24  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  Ia2- 

C.  CONDITIONS  UNDER  WHICH,  AND  EXTENT  TO  WHICH,  PUBLIC  MUNia- 
PAL1TIE8  MAY  USE  INLAND  WATERS  IN  DISPOSING  OF  SEWAGE  FROM 
PUBLIC  SEWERS. 

This  subject  has  but  recently  been  receiving  attention  from  the 
courts.  It  seems  to  have  been  the  custom  of  municipalities  to  dis- 
charge their  sewers  freely  into  the  larger  streams,  and  until  within 
the  last  few  years  but  little,  if  any,  objection  to  the  practice  has 
found  its  way  into  the  courts.  Latterly  the  increase  of  population, 
with  the  consequent  increase  of  the  amount  of  sewage  matter  so  dis- 
charged, has  brought  about  a  condition  of  affairs  that  has  produml 
opposition  and  in  many  cases  litigation.  The  principles  establLsheJ 
by  the  decisions  thus  made  necessary  are  briefly  summarized  as 
follows : 

Municipalities,  if  riparian  owners,  have  the  same  rights  and  are 
subject  to  the  same  restrictions. in  the  use  and  treatment  of  the  water 
flowing  over  their  lands  as  private  owners  are — i.  e.,  they  may  deix>sit 
sewage  and  other  filth  in  such  waters,  provided  always  that  by  so 
doing  they  cause  no  injury  to  property  below  them.  They  may 
drain  the  surface  water  from  their  streets  into  water  courses,  with 
the  impurities  which  it  naturally  carrias,  provided  they  do  not 
thereby  increase  the  flow  of  water  into  the  stream  so  as  to  exceed 
the  capacity  of  the  channel  to  the  injury  of  property  below. 

Bralnerd  r.  Newton,  154  Mass.,  255 ;  27  N.  E.,  905. 
Cone  r.  Hartford,  28  Conn.,  303. 

Where  municipalities  are  expressly  authorized  by  statute  to  con- 
struct a  system  of  sewerage,  and  to  cause  the  sewage  matter  to  l)e 
discharged  into  any  particular  waters,  the  statutory  authority  is  to 
be  exercised  subject  to  the  implied  condition  that  such  discharge  will 
not  constitute  a  nuisance.  Legislative  authority  can  go  no  further 
than  to  authorize  municipalities  to  acquire  the  rights  of  lower  owners 
by  purchase  or  condemnation,  because  of  the  constitutional  i-e^^trir- 
tion  against  taking  private  property  for  public  use  without  just 
compensation. 

It  will  thus  l)e  seen  that  the  increase  of  population  under  the  pres- 
ent conditions  and  with  the  now  prevalent  methods  of  sewage  disposal 
in  cities  is  rapidly  leading  to  a  condition  of  affairs  which  will  call 
for  radical  changes.  Many  cities  will  find  themselves  unable  to  dis- 
pose of  their  sewage  matter  by  means  of  rivers  without  enormous 
expense,  and  probably  not  without  additional  legislation.  As  will 
be  seen  hereafter,  the  subject  is  already  receiving  serious  attention 
from  legislators. 


G<H>DELL.]  BESTRICTIONS  OF   COMMON   LAW.  25 

CITATION   OF  GASES. 

The  following  cases  will  be  found  to  sustain  the  general  principles 
above  stated  : 

Knglish : 

(;olclsniid  t\  Tunbridge  Wells  Imp.  Com..  L.  R.,  1  Chan.  App.,  349. 

Holt  V.  Rochdale,  L.  R.,  10  Eq.  Cases,  :ir>4. 

Attorney -General  r.  Leeds,  L.  R.,  5  Chan.  App.,  583. 

Attorney-(ieneral  iv  Richmond,  L.  R.,  2  Eq.  Cases,  300. 

Attorney-General  v.  Hackney  T^ocal  Board,  L.  R.,  20  Eq.  Cases,  026. 

Attorney-(»eneral  r.  Cockerniouth  Ix)cal  Board,  L.  R.,  18  Eq.  Cases,  172. 

Attorney-General  r.  Luton  I»c*al  Board,  2  Jurist,  180. 

Attomey-Cieneral  r.  Halifax,  39  L.  J.  (X.  S.),  129. 

North  Staffordshire  R.  R.  Co.  v.  Tunstall  Local  Board,  39  L.  J.,  Chan.,  131. 

Attorney -General  r.  Kingston  on  Thames,  34  L.  J.,  481. 

Attorney-<;eneral  r.  Basingstoke,  45  L.  J.  (N.  S.),  726. 

Attorney-General  r.  Colney  Hatch  Lunatic  Asylum,  L.  R.,  4th  (^h.  DIv.,  146. 

Attorney -(General  r.  Birmingham,  4  Kay  &  Johns.,  528. 

Attorney-(4eneral  r.  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works,  1  H.  &  M.,  298. 

Bidder  v.  Croyden  Locnil  Board,  6  L.  T.,  778. 

Manchester,  etc..  Railway  Co.  r.  Worksop  Board  of  Health,  23  Beav.,  198. 

Oldaker  r.  Hunt,  6  De  Gex,  McN.  &  G.,  376. 
Alabama : 

Birmingham  r.  Land,  374  So.  Rep.,  613. 
California : 

People  r.  City  of  San  Luis  Obispo,  116  Cal.,  617. 

Peterson  r.  City  of  Santa  Rosa,  51  Pac.  (Cal.),  557. 
Connecticut : 

Morgan  r.  Danbury,  67  Conn.,  484. 

Nolan  r.  New  Britain,  m  Conn.,  6(«. 
(See  extracts  from  opinions  in  the  Conn,  cases  given  below.) 
Georgia : 

Columbia  Av.  Savings  Fund,  etc.,  Co.  v.  Prison  Commission  of  Georgia,  92. 

Fed.  Rep.,  801  (Clr.  Ct.  West  Dlv.  Ga.,  1899). 
Illinois: 

Village  of  D<vight  v.  Hayes,  150  HI.,  273. 

Robb  r.  Village  of  La  Grange  (1895),  158  HI.,  21. 

Barrett  v.  Cemetery  As.sn.,  159  HI.,  385. 
Indiana : 

Valparaiso  u.  Hagen,  153  Ind.,  ;i37 ;  48  L.  R.  A.,  707 ;   74  Am.  St.  Rep.,  305 ; 
54  N.  E.,  1062. « 
Iowa : 

Randolf  v.  Town  of  Bloomfleld,  77  la.,  .50. 

Loughran  v.  City  of  Des  Moines,  72  la.,  382 ;   S.  C.  34  N.  W.  Rep.,  172. 


«  In  this  case  it  was  held  that  wliere  c  municipality  acts  In  conformity  to  the  stntute, 
KklllfuUy  and  without  negligence,  it  may  discbarge  its  sewage  into  a  stream  and  tlie 
lower  proprietors  may  not  have  an  injunction,  and  are  entitled  to  no  compensation  for  the 
damages  suffered  by  them. 

This  seems  to  settle  the  law  in  that  State ;  hut  the  reasoning  Is  not  convincing,  and  it 
is  believed  no  other  State  has.  so  far,  adopted  that  rule,  which  might,  perhaps,  ]ie  held 
violative  of  that  clause  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  which  forl^lds  the  taking 
of  private  property  for  public  use  without  compensation. 


26  LAWS  FORBIDDING  INLAND- WATER  POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

Kansas : 

Topeka  Water  Supply  Co.  v.  City  of  Potwln,  43  Kan.,  404. 
Massachusetts : 

Brainard  v.  Newton  (Mass.  Sup.),  27  N.  E.  Rep.,  995,  and  154  Mass.,  255. 

Morse  v.  Worcester,  139  Mass.,  389. 

Boston  Rolling  Mills  v,  Cambridge,  117  Mass.,  396. 

Haskell  r.  New  Bedford,  lOS  Mass.,  20a 

Woodward  r.  Worcester,  121  Mass.,  245. 

Middlesex  Co.  t\  Lowell,  149  Mass.,  509. 

Merrifieid  v,  Worcester,  110  Mass.,  216.« 
Missouri : 

The  Joplin  Consolidated  Mining  Co.  v.  City  of  Joplin,  124  Mo.,  129. 
New  Hampshire: 

Vale  Mills  t\  Nashua,  63  N.  H.,  136. 
New  Jersey : 

Doremus  t\  Paterson,  65  N.  J.  Eq.,  711. 

State  r.  Freeholders  of  Bergen,  1  Dick..  173 

Atty.  Gen.  v.  City  of  Paterson,  45  Atl.  (N.  J.,  1900),  995;  60  N.  J.  Bq.,  385 
New  York : 

Butler  V,  Village  of  Edgewater,  6  N.  T.  S.,  174. 

Chapman  t\  City  of  Rochester,  110  N.  Y.,  273. 
Pennsylvania : 

Good  V.  Altoona  City,  162  Pa.  St,  493. 

EXCERPTS   FROM    IMPORTANT   DECISIONS. 

In  Owens  v.  Lancaster  City  (182  Pa.  St.,  257,  and  193  Pa.  St.,  436) 
the  right  of  a  city  to  use  a  stream  passing  through  it  as  an  open  sewer, 
subject  only  to  liability  for  any  injury  done  to  adjoining  property 
through  its  negligence,  seems  to  be  conceded. 

As  to  the  limits  of  this  right,  and  the  consequences  for  which  the 
municipality  would  be  liable  in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  see  the 
following  cases : 

The  city  was  held  liable  for  injury  done  to  plaintiflTs  wharf  by 
deposits  from  a  sewer,  in  Butcher's  Ice  and  Coaf  Company  lk  Phila- 
delphia.    (15GPa.  St.,  54.) 

It  was  held  liable  to  a  lot  owner  for  maintaining  a  sewer  mouth 
upon  his  lot,  in  Harris  v.  City.     (155  Pa.  St.,  76.) 

It  w^as  held  liable  for  destroying  the  value  of  wells,  caused  by  the 
flowing  of  polluted  river  water  into  them  by  underground  passages, 
in  Good  r,  Altoona.     (1G2  Pa.  St.,  493.) 

It  was  held  liable  for  damages  caused  by  accumulations  of  filth, 
ashes,  or  other  material,  that  obstruct  the  flow  of  the  water  and  throw 


''In  Merrifleld  r.  Worcester  damapres  were  refused  to  a  riparian  owner  who  soed  in 
tort  for  tbe  pollution  of  hlg  stream.  The  decision  turned  upon  the  nonliability  of  munid- 
pal  corporations  for  the  consequences  of  the  Judicial  acts  of  their  governing  bodies.  It 
holds  that  the  plaintiff  roi^^ht  recover  for  injury  caused  by  pollution  due  to  the  improper 
construction  or  unreasonable  use  of  the  sewers,  or  to  tbe  negligence  or  other  faolt  of  th<* 
defendant  in  the  care  and  management  of  them.  It  is  no  authority  for  the  principle 
established  in  Indiana  in  Valparaiso  r.  Hagen. 


COODKLL.1  RESTBICTIONS   OF   COMMON   LAW.  27 

it  out  upon  the  lands  of  adjoining  owners,  in  Blizzard  v.  The  Borough 
of  Danville.     (175  Pa.,  479.) 

In  Owens  v.  Lancaster  City  (182  Pa.  St.,  257),  at  page  262,  Mr. 
Justice  Green  remarks,  obiter:  "We  apprehend  the  same  principle 
would  apply  to  the  injury  inflicted  by  allowing  offensive  and  injuri- 
ous odors  and  smells  to  issue  from  the  polluting  substances  dis- 
charged into  the  stream  from  the  city  sewers." 

Xolan  V.  New  Britain  (69  Conn.,  668)  was  an  action  for  damagas 
caused  by  the  defendant's  discharge  of  its  public  sewers  into  a  stream 
called  Pipers  Brook,  which  ran  through  plaintiff's  land. 

The  city  had,  in  1872,  under  alleged  legislative  authority,  con- 
demned and  taken,  and  condemned  the  right  to  take,  occupy,  and 
appropriate  Pipers  Brook  for  sewer  purposes,  but  plaintiff  did  not 
appear  in  the  proceedings,  nor  was  any  award  made  to  him. 

Significant  excerpts  from  the  supreme  court's  opinion,  by  Andrews, 
C.  J.,  are  here  given: 

The  use  of  Pipers  Brook  which  the  complainant  charges  that  the  defendant 
has  made,  unless  there  is  n  lawful  warrant  therefor,  causes  a  public  nui- 
sance. ♦  ♦  ♦  That  it  would  be  a  public  nuisance  to  render  the  water  of  a 
Ktream  so  impure  that  it  could  not  be  used  for  domestic  purposes  or  for  water- 
ini?  cattle,  and  so  that  it  gave  off  noxious  and  unhealthy  odors  is  hardly  open 
to  question  (Chapman  v.  Rochester,  110  N.  Y.,  273),  for  the  reason  that  these 
causes  would  injuriously  affect  every  riparian  owner  along  the  whole  length 
of  the  stream  and  every  person  who  lived  near  it  If  a  municipal  corporation, 
in  the  absence  of  a  legal  right  to  do  so,  causes  sewage  to  pollute  a  water  course, 
to  the  use  of  which  a  lower  owner  through  whose  premises  the  water  course 
flows  is  entitled,  it  is  guilty  of  a  nuisance  for  which  damages  may  be  recovered. 
[Many  authorities  cited.] 

C>n  page  681,  after  an  examination  of  the  alleged  statutory  author- 
ity, the  opinion  continues: 

If  it  had  been  the  intent  of  the  legislature  by  the  act  of  1872  to  authorize  the 
common  council  of  the  city  of  New  Britain  to  take  or  to  affect  any  lands  outside 
of  the  city  limits,  it  Is  certain  there  would  have  been  in  the  act  some  provision 
for  the  ascertainment  of  damages  to  be  paid  to  the  landowner.  The  right  of 
the  plaintiff  to  have  the  water  of  Pilfers  Brook  flow  through  his  land  as  it  had 
l)een  accustomed  to  flow  (1.  e.,  pure  and  uncontaminated)  is  not  an  easement, 
but  is  inseparably  annexed  to  the  soil.  (Wadsworth  v.  Tillotson,  15  Conn.,  366, 
:{73.)  To  deprive  the  plaintiff  of  that  part  of  his  soil  for  the  purposes  named  in 
that  act  would  be  the  taking  of  private  property  for  public  use,  and  the  plaintiff 
would  be  entitled  to  have  just  compensation. 

As  the  complainant  lived  outside  the  city  limits,  it  was  held  that  he 
was  in  no  way  affected  by  the  assessment  proceedings. 

The  other  defenses  amounted  to  a  claim  of  right  to  such  use  of  the 
stream  by  prescription.  As  to  this  defense  the  court  says,  at  page 
683: 

The  sixth  defense  presents  the  question  of  prescription.  We  have  already 
indicated  our  opinion  that  the  use  of  Pipers  Brook  of  which  the  plaintiff  com- 


28  LAWS  FORBIDDING  INLAND- WATER  POLLUTION.  tNo.ir,L>. 

plains  is  a  public  nuisance.  We  suppose  the  law  to  be  so  that  a  public  nulsanei' 
can  not  be  prescribed  for.  No  length  of  time  can  legitimate,  or  enable  a  party 
to  prescribe  for,  a  public  nuisance.  (People  v.  Cunningham,  1  Denio.,  524: 
Mills  r.  Hall,  9  Wencl.,  315;  Veazie  v,  Dwinel,  50  Me.,  479,  490;  Comnioowealth 
1'.  Upton,  6  Gray,  471,  476;  Wood  on  Nuisances,  722;  19  Am.  and  Eng.  Enoyc-  of 
Law,  30.)  When  an  action  is  brought  by  a  party  who  has  suffered  a  si)eci;il 
injury  in  consecjuence  of  a  public  nuisance,  a  prescriptive  right  to  do  the  act^« 
complained  of  can  not  be  maintained  against  him.  (Bowen  v.  Wendt,  103  Cal, 
23G ;  Peoi)le  i'.  Gold  Run,  etc.,  Mining  Co.,  m  Cal.,  138 ;  Boston  Rolling  Mills  r. 
Cambridge.  117  Mass.,  39(5;  O'Brien  t\  St.  Paul,  18  Minn.,  176;  Cooley  on  Torts. 
614.)  There  is  no  occasion  to  discuss  this  defense  further,  because  the  defend- 
ant's counsel  in  their  brief  expressly  disclaim  that  any  right  can  be  obtained 
by  prescription  to  commit  such  a  nuisance. 

In  Morgan  v.  City  of  Danbury  (67  Conn.,  484)  the  question  of 
restraining  a  city  from  polluting  the  water  of  a  stream  by  sewage,  at 
the  suit  of  a  mill  owner  below  the  city,  was  thoroughly  discusseil. 
and  the  injunction  sustained.  The  opinion  is  written  by  Baldwin,  J.. 
and  the  important  portions  of  it  are  as  follows  (p.  493)  : 

The  nuisance  thus  complained  of  consisted,  then,  of  discharging  into  a  river, 
above  the  plaintiff's  premises,  certain  substances  of  a  kind  and  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  water  came  to  him  polluted,  and  a  deix>sit  was  made  upon  his  land 
and  in  his  mill  pond  whereby  noxious  odors  were  created,  dangerous  to  hi^ 
health  and  that  of  others,  his  dam  partly  filled  up  by  filth,  and  the  use  and  value 
of  his  property  largely  taken  away — injuries  which  the  defendant  intended  tti 
increase  by  enlarging  its  sewer  system,  and  adding  to  the  amount  of  the  de- 
posits made  from  the  sewers  in  the  river,  the  re-sult  of  which  would  be  to  fill 
up  his  mill  i)ond  with  filth  and  sewage,  and  make  his  property  valueless. 

These  allegations  were  denied,  but  they  have  been  found  true,  and  there  is 
nothing  inconsistent  with  their  truth  in  the  special  finding  of  facts.  They  stateil 
that  the  deposits  from  the  sewers  both  filled  up  the  plaintiff's  mill  |)ond,  and  ik»1- 
luted  the  air  he  breathed  and  the  v^aters  that  flowed  over  his  property.  These, 
though  proceeding  from  the  same  act,  produce<I  separate  injuries.  A  nuisam-e 
was  created  with  a  double  aspect.  That  to  the  waters  of  the  stream  and  the  air 
above  it  it  was  found  constituted  a  public  nuisance,  though  it  was  one  which  ab*» 
wrought  a  special  and  i^eculiar  injury  to  the  plaintiflf.  That  from  filling  up  the 
mill  iKjnd  constituted  simply  a  private  nuisance.  (Haskell  v.  New  Bedford,  ics 
Mass.,  208,  216;  Bray  ton  v.  Fall  River,  113  Mass.,  218,  229.)  It  was  proper  thai 
the  injunction  should  be  so  framed  as  to  protect  the  plaintiff  against  eveo 
serious  and  irreparable  injury  which  he  might  suffer  by  the  continuance  of  the 
nuisance,  and  its  terms  are  fully  conformable  to  the  claims  stated  in  his  coui- 
plaint. 

The  defendant  contends  that  the  decree  Is  too  broad,  in  that  it  restrains  the 
discharge  into  the  river  of  any  sewage,  even  if  not  of  a  noxious  or  polluting 
character,  or  though  entirely  and  permanently  disinfected  and  purified. 

The  primary  meaning  of  "sewage"  is  that  which  passes  through  a  .sewer 
(Century  Dictionary;  Webster's  International  Dictionary).  A  secondary  mean- 
ing is  (lerivetl  from  the  usual  character  of  the  contents  of  a  sewer,  and  as  useil 
in  that  sense  the  word  signifies  the  refuse  and  foul  matter,  solid  or  liquid, 
which  it  so  carries  off. 

In  the  plaintiff's  complaint  the  connection  in  which  the  term  is  employed  is 
such  as  to  indicate  that  it  was  Intended  to  carry  the  secondary  meaning. 


GooDBLU]  BESTBICTIONS   OF   COMMON   LAW.  29 

And  further,  at  page  496 : 

The  defendant  urges  that  it  should  not  be  made  responsible  for  the  acts  of 
others,  and  that  if  Its  sewage  Is  thoroughly  disinfected,  sterilized,  and  imrltied 
before  its  discharge  Into  the  river  nothing  further  should  be  reiiulred,  even 
though  as  it  flows  down  the  stream  it  maj'  l^e  brought  into  contact  with  other 
substnnc-es  in  such  a  way  as  to  work  a  nuisant*e.  But  the  right  to  deposit  a  thing 
in  any  place  must  ahvaj's  be  dependent  not  only  on  its  own  nature  but  on  the 
nature  of  the  place  in  question  and  the  uses  to  which  that  has  already  bcH?n  put. 
A  lighted  match  may  be  safely  thrown  into  a  brook  under  ordinary  circum- 
stJinces,  but  not  should  it  hapi)en  to  be  (covered  with  oil  from  a  leaky  tank. 

If  different  parties  by  several  acts  foul  the  same  stream,  each  may  be  enjoined 
agiiinst  the  commission  of  the  wrong  with  which  he  is  individually -chargeable. 

And  see,  also,  Watson  t\  Town  of  New  Milford  (72  Conn.,  561) ; 
Piatt  Bros.  &  Co.  v.  Waterbiiry  (72  Conn.,  531) ;  and  note  on  "  Righth 
of  municipal  corporations  to  drain  sewage  into  waters,"  appended  to 
a  report  of  the  last-named  case  in  48  Lawyers'  Rep.  Annotated, 
page  691. 

In  Mayor,  etc.,  of  Birmingham,  v.  Land  (34  So.  Rep.,  613),  decided 
by  the  supreme  court  of  Alabama  in  June,  1903,  the  Connecticut 
cases  above  cited  were  followed.  Among  other  things,  the  court,  per 
McClellan,  C.  J.,  say : 

The  fact  that  the  city  of  Birmingham  had  statutory  authorization  to  construct 
a  sewer  emptying  into  Valley  Creek,  m\x>ii  the  condemnation  of  lands  taken  or 
injured  in  its  construction  and  use,  is  not  of  importance,  since  the  lands  here 
injured  have  not  been  condemned.  The  nuisance  is  none  the  less  a  nuisance 
l>ecause  of  the  statutory  iwwer  referred  to,  the  right  to  exercise  the  power  in 
r€*spe<*t  of  this  land  not  having  been  acquired.  City  of  Mansfield  v.  Balliett 
(05  Ohio  St..  451 ;  58  L.  R.  A..  628,  and  note). 

See,  to  the  same  effect,  Sammons  v.  City  of  Gloversville  (67  N.  E. 
Rep.,  622) ,  decided  by  the  court  of  appeals  of  New  York,  June  9, 1903. 
In  this  case  an  injunction  was  granted,  its  operation  being  suspended 
to  enable  the  defendant  to  obtain  legislative  relief,  or  to  abate  the 
nuisance. 

In  Middlesex  Company  v.  Lowell  (149  Mass.,  509),  decided  in  1889, 
it  was  held  that  an  injunction  should  be  granted  to  restrain  defend- 
ant from  discharging  sewage  into  plaintiff's  mill  pond,  and  that  no 
right  to  do  so  could  be  acquired  by  prescription. 

This  places  Massachusetts  in  line  with  the  other  States,  notwith- 
standing the  decision  in  Merrifield  v.  Worcester  that  a  city  is  not 
liable  for  damages  caused  by  lawfully  laying  out  and  constructing 
and  reasonably  using  a  system  of  sewers  in  accordance  with  plans 
adopted  by  the  proper  corporate  body,  upon  the  principle  that  such 
liody  acts  quasi  judicially  in  so  adopting  plans. 

In  Butler  r.  Village  of  ^Vhite  Plains  (69  N.  Y.  Supp.,  198;  N.  Y. 
Sup.  Court  App.  Div.,  2d  Dept.,  March,  1901),  an  injunction  was 


80  LAWS   FOBBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

granted  against  a  nuisance  caused  by  the  deposit  of  the  eflSuent  of 
defendant's  sewage  in  the  Bronx  River.  The  fact  that  others  wen* 
polluting  the  stream  was  no  defense. 

Grey,  Attorney-General,  v.  Paterson  (13  Dick.,  1;  on  appeal,  1.') 
Dick.,  385),  was  an  action  brought  by  riparian  owners  below  Paterson 
for  an  injunction  restraining  the  city  of  Paterson  from  depositing  or 
discharging  its  sewage  through  its  drains  or  sewers  into  the  Passaic 
River,  and  from  constructing  new  sewers  to  discharge  into  said  river, 
and  from  enlarging  or  increasing  its  present  sewerage  system  with 
outlets  into  said  river. 

By  an  act  passed  in  1867  (P.  L.  of  1867,  p.  653,  sec.  17)  Paterson 
had  been  authorized  by  the  legislature  as  follows : 

That  the  mayor  and  aldermen  of  the  city  of  Paterson  are  hereby  authorized  to 
cause  such  surveys,  maps,  and  returns  to  be  made  as  may  be  necessary  to  enaltle 
them  to  prescribe  and  adopt,  either  for  the  whole  or  any  part  of  said  city,  the 
location  of  streets  and  sewers,  or  either,  and  the  width  thereof,  hereafter  to  Ih» 
opened  or  constructed  therein,  and  when  such  location,  width,  and  grade  shall  1m> 
adopted,  the  surveys,  maps,  and  returns  prescribing  and  defining  the  same  shall 
\ic  recorded  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  county  of  Passaic,  and  thereupon  no  stre<*t 
or  sewer  shall  thereafter  within  the  district  comprised  in  any  such  survey,  map, 
or  return  be  opened  or  constructed,  except  in  conformity  therewith  as  to  lo<»a- 
tion,  width,  and  gratle,  and  fully  to  accomplish  the  purposes  contemplated  by  this 
section  the  said  mayor  and  aldermen  may  employ  such  engineers,  surveyors,  and 
other  i^ersons,  and  provide  for  their  compensation  and  i)a8s  such  ordinances  as 
they  may  deem  to  be  proper,  and  may  enter  upon  any  land  for  making  surveys 
and  examinations. 

On  the  26th  of  February,  1868,  Paterson  was  further  authorized  to 
construct  sewers  and  drains  (P.  L.,  1868,  p.  126).  The  second  section 
provides : 

That  all  such  sewers  and  drains  shall  be  constructed  in  conformity  with  the 
plans  thereof  adopted  or  which  shall  be  adopted  by  said  maj^or  and  aldernuHi 
pursuant  to  the  seventeenth  section  of  the  act  approved  April  4,  18*57,  entitled 
"A  further  supplement  to  the  act' entitled  *An  act  amending  and  revising  the  a<t 
to  incorporate  the  city  of  Paterson.' " 

It  was  found  by  the  court  that,  so  far  as  the  authority  of  the  State 
can  avail  for  that  purpose,  the  legislative  consent,  in  this  case,  fur- 
nishes ample  protection  to  the  city  for  the  appropriate  exercise  of  the 
power  granted. 

It  was  further  said  that  riparian  owners  l)elow  the  point  where  the 
tide  ebbs  and  flows  were  not  entitled  to  an  injunction,  l)ecause  the 
title  to  their  lands  did  not  extend  below  high-water  mark. 

The  title  of  owners  above  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  extends  tc» 
the  middle  of  the  stream,  subject  only  to  the  rights  of  the  public  for 
purposes  of  navigation;  and  it  is  held  that,  notwithstanding  the  leg- 
islative grant  of  authority,  such  owners  can  not  be  deprived  of  their 


GooDia-L.]  RESTRICTIONS   OF   COMMON   LAW.  31 

right  of  property  in  the  river  without  just  compensation.  Following 
the  case  of  Beach  v.  Sterling  Iron  and  Zinc  Company  (9  Dick.,  65),  as 
affirmed  in  10  Dick.,  824,  it  was  decided  that  the  owners  above  tide 
water  were  entitled  to  compensation,  but  in  view  of  the  great  detri- 
ment to  the  city  if  an  injunction  should  be  granted  and  the  compara- 
tively small  injury  done  to  the  owners  the  injunction  was  refused, 
except  in  the  alternative  that  the  city  should  refuse  to  make  such 
compensation  for  the  diminished  value  of  their  lands  as  shall  be 
ascertained  to  be  just 

In  this  case  there  is  no  recognition  of  the  damage  done  to  the  lands 
adjoining  or  near  the  stream.  The  complainant^  right  to  redress 
arises  wholly  from  the  injury  done  to  the  water,  in  which  they  have 
a  proprietary  right 

In  Winchell  v.  Waukesha  (110  Wis.,  101),  Dodge,  J.,  gave  the 
opinion,  which  in  part  is  as  follows: 

The  findings  and  evidence  disclose  a  very  obvious  nuisance,  which,  if  created 
and  maintained  by  an  individual,  would  entitle  the  plaintiff  to  the  aid  of  a 
c"ourt  of  equity  to  effect  its  abatement,  and  to  damages  if  pecuniary  Injury  he 
tf^tablisbed,  with  the  decisions  of  this  court  •  ♦  ♦  It  has  been  declared  by 
this  court  in  Harper  r.  Milwaukee  (30  Wis.,  365,  372),  that  "  the  general  rule  of 
law  is  that  a  municipal  corporation  has  no  more  right  to  erect  and  maintain  a 
nuisance  than  a  private  individual  possesses,  and  an  action  may  be  maintained 
against  such  corporation  for  injuries  occasioned  by  a  nuisance  for  which  it  is 
responsible  in  any  case  in  which,  under  like  circumstances,  nn  action  could  be 
maintained  by  an  individual."  Again,  in  Hughes  t\  Fond  du  Lac  (73  Wis.,  380, 
383)  it  is  said :  "A  municipal  corporation  is  no  more  exempt  from  liability  in 
case  it  creates  a  nuisance,  either  public  or  private,  than  an  individual."  These 
{statements  are  very  broad,  and,  appellant  insists,  must  yield  to  various  excep- 
tions and  limitations  (pp.  105  and  :106). 

When,  if  ever,  the  legislature  shall  enact  that  streams  generally  or  any  stream 
shall  be  used,  as  sewers  without  liability  to  the  owners  of  the  soil  through  which 
they  run,  the  question  of  constitutional  protection  to  private  rights  may  be 
forced  upon  the  courts  for  decision.  Until  such  enactment  is  made,  however,  in 
clear  and  unambiguous  terms,  we  shall  be  slow  to  hold  by  inference  or  implica- 
tion that  it  has  l)een  made  at  all.  The  right  of  the  riparian  owner  to  the 
natural  flow  of  waters,  substantially  unimpaired  in  volume  and  purity.  Is  one 
of  great  value,  which  the  law^  nowhere  has  more  persistently  recognized  than  in 
Wisconsin.  Not  alone  the  strictly  private  right  but  important  public  interests, 
would  l)e  seriously  jeopardized  by  promiscuous  pollution  of  our  streams  and 
lakes.  Considerations  of  aesthetic  attractiveness,  industrial  utility,  and  public 
health  and  comfort  are  involved.  Amid  this  conflict  of  important  rights,  we  can 
not  believe  that  the  legislature  concealed,  in  words  merely  authorizing  mnnici- 
jtalities  to  raise  and  expend  money  for  the  construction  of  sewers,  a  declaration 
of  policy  that  each  municipality  might.  In  Its  discretion,  without  liability  to 
individuals,  take  practical  possession  of  the  nearest  stream  as  a  vehicle  for  the 
transportation  of  its  sewage  in  a  crude  and  deleterious  (X)ndition.  At  that 
stage  in  its  logic  we  can  not  agree  with  the  Indiana  court  In  Valparaiso  v. 
Hagen  (153  Ind.,  337). 


32  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

STATUTORY  RESTRICTIONS  OF  WATER  POIiliUTIOX. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Speaking  generally,  jurisdiction  over  the  pollution  of  waters  in  the 
United  States  is  confined  to  the  several  States.  There  is  no  pro  siou 
in  the  Constitution  which  gives  to  Congress  authority  in  theji-  emi?^, 
partly,  no  doubt,  because  at  the  time  of  its  adoption. tUe  gi'eat  impor- 
tance of  the  subject  from  an  interstate  point  of  virw  was  not  thought 
of.  Hence,  by  the  familiar  principle  that  the  several  States  retain 
full  sovereign  powers  except  so  far  as  such  powers  are  restricted  by 
the  National  Constitution  or  expressly  delegated  thereby  to  the 
National  Government,  the  States  have  full  control  of  this  subject. 
In  reviewing  these  laws,  accordingly,  we  must  examine  the  statutes 
of  all  the  States  and  Territories. 

Uniformity  of  legislation  is  not  to  be  expected.     The  natural  condi- 
tions existing  in  different  portions  of  the  vast  territory  are  s()  various, 
the  density  of  population  differs  so  widely  in  the  different  section.^ 
involved,  and  public  enlightenment  as  to  the  deleterious  etfect>  of 
water  pollution  and  the  necessity  to  restrain  it  is,  in  sparsely  settle<l 
districts,  so  far  l)ehind  that  which  has  been  developed  in  congested 
areas  by  the  terrible  consequences,  that  statutory  regulations  must 
necessarily  differ.     In  some  States  there  is  found  nothing  more  than 
a  simple  provision  making  it  a  crime  to  poison  wells  and  sprinsrr^, 
while  others  have  made  elaborate  provisions  designed  to  check  ami. 
so  far  as  possible,  absolutely  to  prevent  all  pollution  of  waters  l\v 
mingling  with  them  the  refuse  products  of  animal  life  or  the  wastes 
of  human  industry.     If,  therefore,  we  are  to  avoid  making  this  review 
a  mere  catalogue  of  statutes,  it  will  be  necessary  to  adopt  some  system 
of  classification  and  grouping.     Doubtless  a  mere  citation  of  the 
statutes  of  all  the  States,  taken  in  their  alphabetical  order,  wouM 
serve  a  useful  purpose  in  enabling  the  reader  to  turn  to  the  particu- 
lar section  in  which  his  interest  lies  and  to  find  the  legislation  whic' 
affects  this  section.     But  if,  by  a  logical  grouping  of  States  accordi 
to  their  progress  in  this  particular,  we  can  give  a  clearer  idea  o^ 
status  of  such  legislation  as  a  whole,  without  seriously  interfe. 
with  the  usefulness  of  the  book  as  a  compendium  of  State  ^  ws  u  • 
this  subject,  much  will  be  gained. 

Accordingly,  I  have  arranged  the  States  and  Territories  -^n  th** 
groups  or  classes,  placing  those  in  each  group  in  alphabeti.^1  ni 
for  convenience  of  reference.  ' ' 


GooDELL.]  PABTIAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS ALABAMA.  33 

CLASS  I.  STATES  WITH  PARTIAL  RESTRICTIONS. 

This  gi'oup  comprises  those  States  and  Territories  in  which  the 
legislature  has  confined  itself  to  forbidding  the  poisoning  or  pollution 
of  drinking  water  in  certain  ways  or  in  certain  localities.  They 
Ix^lo.  "r  in  the  same  category  because  they  are  all  at  the  same  stage  of 
<,'rowth  *.  sanitary  education — i.  e.,  there  is  manifest  in  their  legisla- 
tion no  sense  oT  the  general  desirability  of  pure  natural  waters,  but 
only  a  desire  to  p/^vent  certain  acts  recognized  as  criminal  in  intent 
or  as  likely  to  injure  special  groups  of  persons  (public  or  private  cor- 
porations) whom  the  legislature  desires  to  protect. 

An  alphabetical  list  of  the  States  and  Territori^  in  Class  I,  with 
the  statutes  in  force  in  each  at  the  close  of  1905,  either  given  in  full 
or  abstracted  so  as  to  show  their  nature  and  force,  is  here  presented. 

AI^BAMA. 

[Acts  of  Alabama,  1896-97.  p.  1281.] 

AX  ACT  to  punish  any  person  who  iK)nutes  or  contaminates  water  suppUed  to 
cities  and  towns  of  the  State. 

Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  hy  the  general  a^nemhhj  of  Alabama^  That 
it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  to  knowingly  deposit  any  dead  ani- 
mal or  nauseous  substance  in  any  source,  standpipe,  or  reservoir  from 
which  water  is  supplied  to  any  city  or  town  of  said  State.  Any  per- 
son violating  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misde- 
meanor, and  upon  conviction  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding 
SoOO  and  may  be  sentenced  to  hard  labor  for  the  county  not  exceeding 
one  year. 

Approved,  Februar\^  17,  1897. 

[General  Acts,  Alabama,  1903,  Act  No.  r)42,  p.  499.] 

AN  ACT  to  amend,  reconstruct,  and  provide  for  the  enforcement  of  the  laws 
relating  to  the  public  health. 

Sec.  15  (p.  508).  Whenever  complaint  shall  be  made  in  writing  to  a 

;h  officer  of  a  county,  city,  or  town  that  there  is  in  any  pond,  lake, 

tream  owned  or  maintained  by  a  private  individual  or  corporation 

^;»rsoiMPr:  of  infection,  or  unsanitary  condition,  which  is  prejudicial 

lO  the  public  health,  or  likely  to  l)ecome  so,  or  any  material  or  thing 

^^"t  isjorrossly  offensive  or  indecent,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such 

•ii  officer  to  thoroughly  investigate  such   complaint.     If  upon 

stigation  said  health  officer  shall  be  of  the  opinion  that  said  com- 

..*L  is  lyell  founded,  he  shall  at  once  notify  the  person  responsible 

'^or  that  he  must  remove  or  abate,  at  his  own  expense,  said  source 

..  >     ion,  unsanitary  condition,  or  grossly  offensive  or  indecent 

IB  152—05  M 3 


34  LAWS    FORBIDDING    INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

material  or  thing.  Should  such  person  responsible  for  said  nuisanw 
refuse  or  neglect  to  obey  such  order,  said  officer  shall  refer  the  matter 
to  the  county  board  of  health  for  investigation,  and  either  party  to 
the  contest  may  request  the  State  health  officer  to  be  present  and  par 
ticipate  in  fhe  investigation.  Should  said  county  board  of  health 
agree  with  the  opinion  of  said  health  officer,  and  should  the  person 
responsible  for  said  nuisance  or  for  said  indecent  material  or  thin^^ 
still  refuse  or  neglect  to  comply  with  the  decision  reached  by  saiil 
county  board  of  health,  the  health  officer  to  whom  said  complaint  wa^ 
first  made  shall  proceed  with  as  little  delay  as  possible  to  cause  said 
source  of  infection,  unsanitary  condition,  or  grossly  oifensive  mate- 
rail  or  thing  to  be  removed  or  abated  at  the  expense  of  the  i)ers<)!i 
responsible  therefor. 

ARKANSAS.   ^ 
[Sandel  and  Hill's  Digest.  1804.] 

Sec.  1903.  The  throwing  or  dragging  of  dead  animals,  or  animal> 
in  a  dying  condition,  into  any  running  stream  or  other  body  of 
water  in  this  State  is  a  misdemeanor. 

Anyone  violating  the  provisions  of  this  chapter,  on  convictioTi 
thereof,  shall  be  fined  in  any  sum  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than 
fifty  dollars.     (Act  March  27,  1891.) 

(Laws  of  1895,  Act  t:XXVI,  p.  183.] 

AN  ACT  authorizing  municipal  cori)oration8  and  other  corporations  to  exeivi;"^* 
-  certain  privilogrea,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Sec.  7.  If  any  person  shall  *  *  *  commit  such  a  nuisance  in 
or  near  the  impounding  dams  or  reservoirs  of  any  water  plant,  or 
shall  pollute  the  water  or  effect  [aflfect]  its  wholesome  qualities,  he 
shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  be  fined  for  each  ami 
every  offense  in  any  sum  not  exceeding  $200. 

[Sandel  and  HiH's  Digest,  sec.  5134.] 

They  [municipal  corporations]  shall  have  the  power  to  provide  a 
supply  of  water  by  constructing  or  acijuiring,  by  purchase  or  other- 
wise, wells,  pumps,  cisterns,  reservoirs,  or  waterworks;  to  regulate 
the  same;  to  prevent  the  unnecessary  waste  of  water;  to  prevent  the 
pollution  of  the  water  and  injury  to  the  waterworks;  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  establishing  or  supplying  waterworks  any  municipal  cor|H)ni- 
tion  may  go  beyond  its  territorial  limits;  and  its  jurisdiction  to  pre- 
vent or  punish  any  pollution  or  injury  to  the  stream  or  source  of 
water,  or  to  the  waterworks,  shall  extend  five  miles  beyond  its  cor- 
porate limits.     [As  amended  by  laws  of  1903,  act  88,  p.  152.] 


u«HjDKLL.l  PARTIAL   STATUTE    RESTRICTIONS.  85 

DELAWARE. 

[Laws  of  1893,  p.  1024.] 

AN  ACT  to  amend  chapter  242,  volume  10,  of  the  Laws  of  Delaware,  entitleil 
"An  act  to  provide  for  the  light iug  of  Middletown." 

Sec.  10  (p.  1029).  That  if  any  person  or  persons  shall  designedly 
or  maliciously  injure  the  said  light  and  water  works,  or  obstruct  the 
water  to  and  from  the  same,  or  in  any  manner  pollute  the  water 
supply  ♦  *  *  they  shall  forfeit  and  pay  to  the  commissioner  of 
the  town  of  Middletown  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  hundred  (100)  dol- 
lars, to  be  recovered,  etc. 

FLORIDA. 
[Revised  Statutes  of  Florida,  approved  January  8,  1801.] 

Sec.  2658.  Poiftoning  food  or  water. — Whoever  mingles  any  poison 
with  food,  drink,  or  medicine,  with  intent  to  kill  or  injure  another 
I)erson,  or  wilfully  poisons  any  spring,  well,  or  reservoir  of  water 
with  such  intent,  shall  be  punished  by  imprisonment  in  the  State 
prison  for  life  or  any  term  of  years. 

Sec.  2665.  Carrupting  or  interfering  with  water  supply, — Whoever 
wilfully  or  maliciously  defiles,  corrupts,  or  makes  impure  any  spring 
or  other  source  of  water  or  reservoir,  or  destroys  or  injures  any  pipe, 
conductor  of  water,  or  other  property  pertaining  to  an  aqueduct,  or 
aids  or  abets  in  any  such  trespass,  shall  be  punished  by  imprisonment 
not  exceeding  one  year  or  by  fine  not  exceeding  one  thousand  dollars. 

GEORGIA. 

[Laws  of  1896,  p.  84.1 

No.  57.  AN  ACT  to  prohibit  the  poisoning  of  any  spring,  well,  or  reservoir  of 
water,  to  provide  a  penalty  for  the  violation  of  the  same,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

Sec.  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  general  assembly  of  the  State  of 
Georgia^  and  it  is  hereby  enacted  by  authority  of  the  same^  That  from 
and  after  the  passage  of  this  act  any  person  who  wilfully  and  wan- 
tonly poisons  or  procures  another  to  poison  any  spring,  fountain, 
well,  or  reservoir  of  water  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  felony,  and  on 
conviction  therefor  shall  be  imprisoned  in  the  penit-entiary  for  a 
term  of  not  l^s  than  two  nor  more  than  twenty  years. 

Sec.  2.  Repeals  inconsistent  laws. 

Approved,  December  19,  1896. 

IDAHO. 
[Penal  Code,  passed  1901.] 

Sec.  4916.  Every  person  *  *  *  who  wilfully  poisons  any  spring, 
well,  or  reservoir  of  water  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  in  the  State 
prison  for  a  term  not  less  than  one  nor  more  than  ten  years. 


86  LAWS   FORBIDDING  INLAND- WATER  POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

IOWA. 
[Code  of  Iowa,  annotated,  1897.] 

Sec.  4979.  Throwing  dead  animals  in  stream^  spring^  etc. — If  any 
person  throw,  or  cause  to  lx»  thrown,  any  dead  animal  into  any  river. 
well,  spring,  cistern,  reservoir,  stream,  or  pond,  he  shall  he  impris- 
oned in  the  county  jail  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  thirty  day> 
or  be  fined  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars. 

KANSAS. 

[Laws  of  1005.  chap.  267,  fish  and  game  law.] 

Sec.  (5.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  to  empty  or  throw  into 
or  place  in  any  lake,  pond,  river,  creek,  or  stream,  or  other  water 
within  or  bordering  on  this  State,  any  acid,  drug,  lime,  or  other  dele- 
terious substance,  or  fishberries,  or  dynamite,  giant  powder,  or  other 
explosive  matter  of  whatever  kind,  or  any  material  or  liquid  which 
may  kill,  stun,  poison,  or  craze  fish;  provided,  that  nothing  in  thi> 
section  shall  be  construed  to  prevent  the  proper  use  of  explosivi^ 
for  the  exclusive  purpose  of  improving  navigation,  or  for  blastin^r 
rock  on  [in]  preparing  foundations,  or  other  improvements  on  or 
along  the  streams  or  waters  of  the  State. 

KENTUCKY. 

[Compilation  by  John  D.  Carroll,  2d  ed.,  1899.] 

Sec  1278.  If  any  person  shall  cast  or  place  the  carcass  of  any  cat- 
tle or  that  of  any  other  dead  beast  in  any  water  course  or  within 
twenty-five  yards  thereof,  or  shall  cast  the  same  into  any  spring,  <»r 
into  any  pond,  such  person,  for  every  such  offence,  shall  be  fined  for 
the  first  offense  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  twenty  dollars,  and 
every  subsequent  offense  not  less  than  twenty  nor  more  than  one  hun- 
dred dollars.     (Under  head  of  "  Offences  against  public  health.") 

LOUISIANA. 
[Revised  Laws  (Wolff).] 

Sec  924.  Amending  law  of  1882,  page  109. 

Makes  it  an  offense  to  "  throw  or  cause  to  be'  thrown  or  conveycnl 
into  any  navigable  stream,  bay,  or  lake  within  this  State,  bagasse 
from  sugar  mills,  ballast  from  vessels,  sinking  timber  of  any  kind,  or 
any  other  matter  of  a  nature  to  form  an  obstruction  to  its  free  navi- 
gation." 

MICHIGAN. 
[Complied  Laws  of  the  State  of  Michigan  (Lewis  M.  Miller).] 

Sec.  11496.  Willfully  poisoning  spring,  well,  or  reservoir  made  a 
crime. 


cooDBLi*.]  PARTIAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — MICHIGAN.  37 

Sec.  2806.  The  council  (of  any  village  located  upon  or  adjacent  to 
any  of  the  navigable  waters  of  this  State)  shall  have  authority  to 
"  provide  by  ordinance  for  the  preservation  of  the  purity  of  the 
waters  of  any  harbor,  river,  or  other  waters  within  the  village,"  and 
other  powers. 

Sec.  3146.  The  council  (of  any  city  IcK'ated  upon  or  adjacent  to  any 
of  the  navigable  waters  of  the  State)  '*  shall  have  authority  to  pro- 
vide by  ordinance  for  the  prestTvation  of  the  purity  of  the  waters 
of  any  harlx)r,  river,  or  other  waters  within  the  city,  and  within  one- 
half  of  a  mile  from  the  corporate  boundaries  thereof;  to  prohibit  and 
punish  the  casting  or  depositing  therein  of  any  filth,  logs,  floating 
matter,  or  any  injurious  thing,"  and  other  powers. 

[Public  Acts,  1891),  No.  80,  p.   llo.] 

AN  ACTF  to  prevent  and  puninh  the  pollution  and  contamination  of  the  waters 
of  the  stream  known  as  Wolf  Creek,  in  Lenawee  County,  Michigan,  and  the 
tributaries  thereof. 

The  people  of  the  State  of  Mirhigmi  enact: 

Section  1.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  or  persons  to  wil- 
fully or  in  any  other  manner  knowingly  to  befoul,  pollute,  contami- 
nate in  any  manner,  so  as  to  render  said  water  offensive  for  drinking 
l)urposes,  the  waters  of  that  stream  situated  in  the  townships  of 
Adrian,  Rome,  and  Cambridge,  Lenawee  County,  Michigan,  and 
known  commonly  as  Wolf  Creek,  or  any  tributary  thereof  situated 
in  siiid  county,  at  any  place  in  said  stream  above  the  dam  from  which 
the  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Adrian  i§  taken. 

Sec.  2.  WTioever  mischievously,  maliciously,  or  wilfully  puts  any 
dead  animal,  carcass  or  part  thereof,  or  any  other  putrid,  nauseous, 
noisome,  or  offensive  substance  in  said  stream  or  its  tributaries,  or  in 
any  other  manner  befouls  the  waters  of  said  stream  or  its  tributaries 
in  an  unwholesome  or  offensive  manner,  or  shall  drain  the  contents 
of  any  barnyard,  waste  factory  products,  or  other  unwholesome  sub- 
stance, into  the  water  of  said  stream  or  its  tributaries,  shall  be 
deenried  guilty  of  a  violation  of  this  act. 

Sec.  3.  Any  person  convicted  of  a  violation  of  this  act  shall  be 
punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars  and  not  less 
than  five  dollars  and  costs  of  prosecution,  and  in  default  of  the  pay- 
ment of  said  fine  and  costs  he  shall  l)e  imprisoned  in  the  jail  of 
Lenawee  County  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  ninety  days,  or  both 
such  fine  and  impriscmment,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

This  act  is  ordered  to  take  immediate  effect. 

Approved,  May  17,  1899. 


38  LAWS   FORSroDING   INLAND- WATER  POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

mouse  Enrolled  Act  No.  404.] 

AN  ACT  in  relatiou  to  the  liollutiou  of  the  waters  of  Pine  River  in  the  counties 
of  Midland  and  Gratiot,  and  Cass  River  in  the  county  of  Tuscola. 

Sec.  1.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation, 
except  municipal  corporations,  or  any  agent  oj*  employe  of  such  firm 
or  corporation  to  pollute  the  waters  of  Pine  River  in  the  counties  of 
Midland  and  Gratiot,  and  Cass  River  in  the  county  of  Tuscola,  by 
depositing  or  attempting  to  deposit  therein  any  beet  pulp  or  other 
waste  matter  of  any  kind  or  character  liable  to  decomposition. 

Sec.  2.  Any  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  any  agent  or  employe 
of  such  firm  or  corporation,  found  guilty  of  a  violation  of  this  act 
shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  fifty  dollars, 
or  more  than  three  hundred  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  in  the  county 
jail  for  not  less  than  throe  months  nor  more  than  six  months,  or  by 
both  such  fine  and  imprisonment  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

MISSISSIPPI. 
[Annotated  Code  of  the  General  Statute  Laws  (Thompson,  Dlllard  &  Campbell). 1 

Sec.  1326  (under  *' Crimes  and  misdemeanors").  If  any  f)erson 
shall  in  any  manner  permanently  obstruct  any  of  the  navigable 
waters,  or  shall  place  any  obstruction  therein  and  not  remove  the 
same  within  a  reasonable  time,  or  if  any  person  shall  pollute  any 
such  waters  by  putting  therein  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal,  or  any 
refuse  or  foul  matter,  or  any  matter  or  thing  calculated  to  render  the 
water  thereof  less  fit  for  drink  or  the  sustenance  of  fish,  the  person 
so  offending,  in  either  case,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and,  on 
conviction,  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  more  than  fifty  dollar>. 
or  by  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  not  more  than  thirty  days,  or 
both ;  but  this  shall  not  apply  to  the  Mississippi  or  Yazoo  rivers. 

[Amended;  Laws  of  1898,  chap.  80,  p.  101.] 

Exception  of  Mississippi  and  Yazoo  rivers  dropped  out,  and  tht' 
following  clause  added :  "  But  this  act  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to 
prevent  any  city  or  town  in  this  State  from  constructing  sewers  s<> 
as  to  empty  into  any  navigable  streams  of  water  in  this  State." 
(Approved  February  10,  1898.) 

NEBRiVSKA. 

[Complied  Statutes  of  Nebraska,  1807.1 

Sec.  0892  (Criminal  Code,  sec.  229).  Putting  offensive  m<itter  into 
well  or  spring, — If  any  person  or  j^rsons  shall  put  any  dead  animal, 
carcass,  or  part  thereof,  or  other  filthy  substance,  into  any  well,  or 
into  any  spring,  brook,  or  branch  of  running  water,  of  which  use  is 


oooDELL.]    PABTIAI.   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NORTH   DAKOTA.  89 

made  for  domevStic  purposes,  every  pei-son  so  offending  shall  be  fined 
in  any  sum  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  forty  dollars. 

Sec.  6893  (230).  If  any  person  or  ptu^sons  shall  put  the  carcass  of 
any  dead  animal,  or  the  offals  from  any  slaughterhouse*  or  butcher's 
establishment,  packing  house,  or  fish  houst\  or  any  spoiled  meats  or 
sjx)iled  fish,  or  any  putrid  animal  substance,  or  the  contents  of  any 
privy  vault,  upon  or  into  any  river,  bay,  creek,  pond,  canal,  road, 
btreet,  alley,  lot,  field,  meadow,  public  ground,  market  space,  or  com- 
mon *  *  *  he  shall  be  fined  in  any  sum  not  less  than  one  nor 
more  than  fifty  dollars. 

NORTH   DAKOTA. 

[RevlMOd  Codes  ot  North  Dakota,  1899.] 

Sec.  7291  (Penal  Code,  sec.  435).  Fonliiuj  water  with  gm  tar, — 
PIvery  jxjrson  who  throws  or  deposits  any  gas  tar  or  refuse  of  any  gas 
house  or  factory  into  any  public  waters,  river,  or  stream,  or  into  any 
sewer  or  stream  emptying  into  any  such  public  waters,  river,  or 
stream,  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

[('bap.  60.  Fouling  the  public  waters  of  this  State.] 

Sec.  7653.  Fouliny  public  waters, — Pivery  person  who  deposits  or 
places  or  causes  to  be  deposited  or  placed  any  dead  animal,  offal,  or 
other  refuse  matter  offensive  to  the  sight  or  smell  or  deleterious  to 
health  upon  the  banks  or  in  the  waters  of  any  lake  or  stream,  so  far 
as  the  same  is  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State  is  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor, and  upon  conviction  thereof  is  punishable  by  a  fine  of  not 
less  than  twenty  and  not  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars. 

Sec.  7654.  Extent  of  la^t  section, — The  provisions  of  the  last  sec- 
tion shall  be  construed  to  include  privies  and  privy  vaults  and  any 
stable,  shed,  pen,  yard,  or  corral  wherein  is  kept  any  horse,  cattle, 
sheep,  or  swine  and  located  nearer  than  sixty  feet  from  the  top  of  the 
bank  of  such  lake  or  stream,  and  also  any  slaughter  house,  grave, 
graveyard,  or  cemetery  located  nearer  than  eighty  feet  therefrom. 
But  the  provisions  of  said  section  shall  not  be  construed  to  prevent 
any  incorporated  city  wdthin  this  State  from  running  its  sewers  into 
any  river:  Provided,  That  where  there  is  :i  dam  across  said  river 
within  the  corporate  limits  of  any  such  city,  any  such  sewer  shall  con- 
nect with  such  river  below  such  dam. 

OKLAHOMA. 
[Wilson's  Revised  and  Annotated  Statutes  of  Oklahoma,  vol.  1,  p.  894.1 

Sec.  3732.  From  "An  act  to  prevent  public  nuisances  and  fixing 
penalties  for  maintaining  the  same." 


40  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATEB   POLLUTION.  [No.  152, 

Sec.  1G.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  or  persons  or  corpora- 
tions to  put  any  dead  animal,  carcass,  or  part  thereof  into  any  well, 
spring,  brook,  or  branch  of  lunning  water  of  which  use  is  made  for 
domestic  purposes.  Ev^ery  person  or  persons  so  offending  shall,  oi, 
conviction  thereof,  be  fined  in  any  sum  not  less  than  five  nor  more 
than  one  hundred  dollars. 

Sec.  8733.  Any  person  or  persons  or  corporations  who  shall  put 
any  dead  animal  or  any  part  of  the  carcass  of  a  dead  animal  into  any 
river,  creek,  or  pond  shall,  upon  conviction  thereof,  be  fined  in  any 
sum  not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  twenty-five  dollai's. 

Sec.  2344.  Every  person  who  throws  or  deposits  any  gas  tar  4)r 
refuse  of  any  gas  house  or  factory  into  any  public  waters,  river,  or 
stream,  or  into  any  sewer  or  stream  emptying  into  any  such  public 
waters,  river,  or  stream  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 
[Revision  of  1890,  sec.  16.  p.  077.1 
OFFENCES    AGAINST   THE   PERSON. 

Sec.  16.  Every  person  who  shall  mingle  any  poison  with  any  foo*!, 
drink,  or  medicine,  with  intent  to  kill  or  injure  any  pers<m,  and  every 
person  who  shall  wilfully  poiscm  any  spring,  well,  or  reservoir  of 
water  with  such  intent  shall  be  imprisoned  for  life  or  for  any  term  <»f 
years. 

[Laws  of  Rhode  Island,  1004,  chap.  1222,  p.  33.] 

AN  ACT  for  the  better  protwtion  of  the  sheU  fisheries  in  the  pubUc  waters  of 

this  State. 

Sec  1.  No  person  shall  deposit  in,  or  allow  to  escape  into,  or  shall 
cause  or  permit  to  be  deposited  in,  or  allowed  to  escaj^e  into  any  of  the 
public  w^aters  of  this  State  any  substance  which  shall  in  any  manner 
injuriously  affect  the  growth  of  the  shellfish  in  or  under  said  waters, 
or  which  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  flavor  or  odor  of  such  shell- 
fish so  as  to  injuriously  affect  the  sale  thereof,  or  which  shall  cau^* 
any  injury  to  the  public  and  private  fisheries  of  this  State. 

Sec  2.  Any  person  violating  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  aci 
shall,  upon  conviction  thereof,  be  fined  not  le^s  than  five  hundred 
dollars  or  more  than  two  thousand  dollars,  one-half  thereof  to  the 
use  of  the  complainant  and  one-half  thereof  to  the  us(»  of  the  State: 
Prorided,  That  in  case  of  conviction  upon  prosecution  by  the  com- 
missioners of  shell  fisheries  the  whole  of  any  fine  imposed  shall  gt)  to 
the  use  of  the  State. 

Sec  3.  Every  person  violating  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act 
shall  be  liable  to  pay  to  the  party  injured  by  such  violation  double 


r.<x>DELL.]      PARTIAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — RHODE   ISLAND.  41 

the  amount  of  damages  eausetl  thereby,  to  1k»  reoovered  in  an  action 
of  the  case  in  any  court  of  coni|xHent  jurisdiction.  It  shall  not  be 
necessary,  lK*fore  bringing  suit  for  the  recovery  of  such  damages,  for 
a  criminal  prosecution  to  have  In^en  first  instituted  for  the  violation 
of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  nor  shall  the  recovery  of  damages  under 
this  section  be  a  bar  to  such  criminal  prost»cution. 

Sec.  4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  commissioners  of  shell  fisheries 
to  investigate  all  complaints  made  to  them  of  the  violation  of  any  of 
the  provisions  of  this  act.  For  the  purpose  of  such  investigation  said 
eonimissioners.may  make  examination  of  the  premises,  hold  public 
hearings,  summon  witnesses,  and  take  testimony  under  oath,  and  they 
shall  have  power  to  punish,  by  fine  or  imprisonment  or  both,  all  con- 
tempt of  their  authority  in  any  hearing  before  them.  They  may 
employ  professional  or  expert  services  as  they  may  deem  desirable. 

Sec.  5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  shell  fish  commissioners  to  prose- 
cute any  person  in  their  opinion  guilty  of  the  violation  of  any  of  the 
provisions  of  this  act,  and  in  all  such  prosecutions  said  commissioners 
shall  not  be  required  to  enter  into  any  recognizance  or  to  give  surety 
for  costs.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  attorney-general  to  conduct  the 
])rosecution  of  all  cases  brought  by  said  commissioners  imder  the 
provisions  of  this  act.  Complaints  may  also  he  brought  and  prose- 
cuted by  any  citizen  for  any  violation  of  its  provisions. 

Sec.  6.  The  expenses  incurred  by  the  commissioners  of  shell  fish- 
eries in  the  performance  of  the  duties  imposed  upon  them  by  this  act 
.-hall  be  paid  by  the  general  treasurer  out  of  any  funds  in  the  treasury 
not  otherwise  appropriated,  upon  the  presentation  of  vouchers  there- 
for duh^  certified  by  their  chairman. 

Sec.  7.  All  provisions  of  the  General  Laws,  of  the  Public  Laws, 
and  of  any  special  law  inconsistent  herewith  are  hereby  repealed, 
and  this  act  shall  take  effect  upon  its  passage. 

[Laws  of  Rhode  Island,  1004,  chap.  1178,  p.  58.} 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  i)oUution  of  the  80urces  of  the  water  supply  of  the  cities 
of  Paw  tucket  and  Woonsocket  and  the  towns  of  Bristol  and  East  Providence. 

Sec.  1.  Section  1  of  chapter  491  of  the  Public  Laws  is  hereby 
amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows : 

'^  Sec.  1.  Xo  person  shall  throw  or  discharge,  or  suffer  to  be  dis- 
charged from  land  owned,  occupied,  or  controlled  by  him,  into  any 
stream,  pond,  or  reservoir  used  as  a  source  of  water  supply  by  the 
city  of  Woonsocket,  the  city  of  Pawtucket,  the  city  of  Newport,  the 
town  of  Bristol,  the  town  of  Warren,  the  town  of  East  Providence, 
the  town  of  Narragansett,  the  town  of  Jamestown,  the  East  Green- 
wich fire  district,  or  by  any  water  company  supplying  water  for 
domestic  use  in  any  of  said  cities  or  towns,  or  into  any  tributary  or 


42  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  CN*'- l'»2. 

feeder  of  any  such  stream,  pond,  or  restn'voir,  any  sewerage,  draina*?*. 
refuse,  or  noxious  or  polluting  matter  of  such  nature  as  will  corrupt 
or  impair  the  quality  of  the  waters  of  said  stream,  pond,  or  reservoir, 
or  render  the  same  injurious  to  health,  Avhieh  water  shall  bo  of  the 
recognized  standard  of  purity  to  be 'determined  by  the  State  boanl 
of  health  or  other  recognized  authority.  But  the  provisions  of  thi^ 
section  shall  not  interfere  with  or  prevent  the  enriching  of  land  for 
agricultural  purposes  by  the  owner  or  occupant  thereof  if  no  human 
excrement  is  used  thereon.  Any  person  violating  the  provisions  of 
this  section  shall  be  punished  for  each  offence  by  a  fine  of  fifty  dollars 
or  by  imprisonment  for  not  to  exceed  thirty  days  or  by  both  such  fine 
and  imprisonment. 

Sec.  2.  Section  2  of  chapter  491  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  rea<l  as 
follows : 

"  Sec.  2.  The  State  board  of  health  or  the  secretary  of  said  bojinl. 
when  satisfied  that  any  sewerage,  drainage,  or  refuse  or  }K>lluting 
matter  exists  in  a  locality  such  that  there  is  danger  that  said  sewer- 
age, drainage,  or  refuse  or  polluting  matter  may  corrupt  or  impair 
the  quality  of  said  waters  or  render  them  injurious  to  healths  may 
order  the  owner  or  occupant  of  the  premises  where  said  sewerage. 
drainage,  or  refuse  or  polluting  matter  exists  to  remove  the  same  from 
said  premises  within  such  time  after  the  serving  of  the  notice  prv- 
scribed  in  the  next  succeeding  section  as  said  board  or  secretary  may 
designate;  and  if  the  owner  or  occupant  neglects  or  refuses  so  to  do 
he  shall  be  fined  twenty  dollars  for  each  day  during  which  he  permits 
.said  sewerage,  drainage,  or  refuse  or  polluting  matter  to  remain  uikhi 
said  premises  after  the  time  prescribed  for  the  removal  thereof.'* 

Sec.  3.  Section  3  of  chapter  491  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as 
follows : 

"  Sec.  3.  Such  notice  shall  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  secretary  of 
the  State  board  of  health  or  the  person  performing  the  duties  of  that 
official,  and  shall  be  served  by  any  sheriff,  deputy  sheriff,  or  con- 
stable by  reading  the  same  in  the  presence  or  hearing  of  the  owner, 
occupant,  or  his  authorized  agent,  or  by  leaving  a  copy  of  the  same  in 
the  hands  or  possession  of,  or  at  the  last  and  usual  place  of  alxnle  of. 
said  owner,  occupant,  or  agent  if  within  this  State:  Proruled^  hftir- 
ercr.  That  if  said  owner,  occupant,  or  agent  be  a  corporation  inc<»r- 
porated  in  this  State,  said  notice  shall  be  served  by  leaving  a  (\)py 
thereof  at  the  last  and  usual  place  of  alK)de  of  the  president  or  person 
performing  the  duties  of  president  of  said  corporation.  But  if  said 
[)remises  are  unoccui)ied,  or  the  residence  of  the  owner  is  unknown  or 
without  this  State,  or  if  the  said  owner  is  a  corporation  incorporate*] 
without  this  State,  the  notice  may  l)e  served  by  posting  a  cx)py  of  the 
same  on  the  premises  and  by  advertising  the  same  in  some  newspaf>er 
published  in  Providence  County  in  such  manner  and  for  such  length 


nrw^DELL.]  PARTIAL   STATUTE    RESTRICTIONS WISCONSIN.  43 

of  time  as  the  State  lK)ar(l  of  health  or  the  Secretary  thereof  may 
<h»termine/' 

Sec.  4.  Section  4  of  chapter  41)1  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as 
follows : 

'•  Sec.  4.  The  secretary  of  the  State  lK)ard  of  health,  when  so 
directed  by  said  board,  shall  prosecute  for  all  violations  of  this  chap- 
ter and  shall  not  be  required  to  give  surety  for  costs  upon  complaints 
made  by  him;  but  the  cities?  of  Woonsocket  and  Pawtucket  and  the 
towns  of  Bristol  and  East  Providence  shall  be  directly  liable  to  the 
State  for  the  costs  incurred  in  the  prosecution  for  violation  of  this 
chapter  in  their  respective  cases." 

Sec.  5.  Section  5  of  chapter  491  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as 
follows : 

"  Sec.  5.  The  appellate  division  of  the  supreme  court,  upon  the 
application  of  the  mayors  of  said  cities  or  the  presidents  of  the  town 
councils  of  said  towns,  or  upon  the  application  of  the  secretary  of  the 
State  board  of  health,  may  issue  an  injunction  to  enforce  the  orders 
of  the  State  board  of  health,  or  the  secretary  thereof,  provided  for  in 
this  chapter." 

Sec.  6.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  herewith  are  hereby 
rei>ealed,  and  this  act  shall  take  effect  upon  its  passage. 

Passed  April  12,  1904. 

WISCONSIN. 

[Wlsfonsln  Statutes.  1808,  p.  051.] 

POWERS    OF   COUNCIL   IN    CITIES    UNDER   GENERAL   LAW. 

57.  To  provide  for  the  preservation  of  any  harbor  within  or  of 
the  city;  prevent  any  use  of  the  same  or  of  such  part  of  any  lake, 
river,  stream,  spring,  or  pond  as  is  within  the  city,  or  any  action  in 
relation  thereto  inconsistent  with  or  detrimental  to  the  public  health 
or  calculated  to  render  the  water  of  the  same  or  any  part  thereof 
impure  or  offensive;  or  tending  in  any  degree  to  fill  up  and  obstruct 
the  same;  prohibit  and  punish  the  casting  or  depositing  therein  of 
any  earth,  dead  animals,  ashes,  or  other  substance,  or  filth,  logs,  or 
floating  matter.     *     *     * 

PRESERVATION    OF   PUBIJC    HEALTH. 
[Idem,  p.  1005.] 

Slaitghterhouses.  Sec  1418.  No  person  shall  erect,  maintain,  or 
keep  any  slaughterhouse  upon  the  bank  of  any  river,  running  stream, 
or  creek,  or  throw  or  deposit  therein  any  dead  animal  or  any  part 
thereof  or  any  of  the  carcass  or  offal  therefrom,  nor  throw  or  deposit 
the  same  into  or  upon  the  banks  of  any  river,  stream,  or  creek  which 


44  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152 

shall  flow  through  any  city,  village,  or  organized  town  containing  two 
hundred  or  more  inhabitants,  or  erect,  maintain,  or  use  any  biiildiu^^ 
for  a  slaughterhouse  within  the  limits  of  any  village,  incorporated  <»r 
unincorporated,  or  at  any  place  within  one-eighth  of  a  mile  of  any 
dwelling  house  or  a  building  occupied  as  a  place  of  business;  and 
every  person  who  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  sc»oti<ni 
shall  forfeit  for  each  such  violation  not  less  than  ten  dollars  nor  more 
than  one  hundred  dollars;  and  the  mayor  of  the  city,  president  of  ihe 
village,  and  the  chairman  of  the  town  in  which  any  such  slaughter- 
house is  located  shall  have  the  power  to  and  shall  cause  the  same  to  l»e 
immediately  removed;  and  every  such  officer  who  shall  knowingly 
permit  any  such  slaughterhouse  to  be  used  or.  maintained  contrary  to 
the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  forfeit  not  less  than  fifteen  dollar> 
nor  more  than  fifty  dollars.  In  any  county  containing  a  population 
of  one  hundred  thousand  or  over  all  the  provisions  of  this  section 
relating  to  slaughterhouses  shall  apply  to  all  establishments  and 
manufactories  in  which  dead  animals  or  any  part  thereof  or  any  of 
the  carcasses  or  offal  therefrom  are  collected  and  converted  into  mar- 
ketable products. 

OFFENSES    AGAINST   LIVES    AND   PERSONS. 
[Idem,  p.  2669.] 

Sec.  4384.  Poisoning  food^  drink^  etc. — Any  person  who  shall 
mingle  any  poison  with  any  food,  drink,  or  medicine,  with  intent  to 
kill  or  injure  any  other  person,  or  who  shall  wilfidly  poison  any 
spring,  well,  or  reservoir  of  water  with  such  intent,  shall  be  punislu^l 
by  imprisonment  in  the  State  prison  not  more  than  ten  years  nor  It^- 
than  one  year. 

[Laws  of  Wisconsin,  1905,  chap.  402.] 

AN  ACT  to  amend  section  4507  of  the  statutes  of  1808,  as  amended  by  eliai»i»'r 
325,  liiws  of  11K)3,  prohibiting  depositing  of  deleterious  substances  in  water- 
and  providing  a  penalty. 

Sec.  1.  Section  4567  of  the  statutes  of  1898,  as  amended  by  chapter 
325,  laws  of  1903,  is  hereby  amended  by  adding  after  the  wonK. 
"  decayed  wood,"  where  they  occur  in  line  14  of  chapter  325,  laws  <»f 
1903,  the  words:  ''Sawdust,  sawmill  oflfal,  and  planing  mill  shav- 
ings; "  also  by  adding  after  the  word  "  paper  "  where  it  occurs  in  lin< 
10  of  chapter  325,  laws  of  1903,  the  words  "beet  sugar;'-  furthtv 
amend  by  striking  out  the  word  "  or  "  in  line  20,  all  of  lines  21,  22, 2:^, 
24,  and  25,  and  the  words  "  mill  shavings  "  in  line  26  of  chapter  ^VJ."*. 
laws  of  1903;  also  further  amend  by  adding  after  the  word  '*  moiithr 
where  it  occurs  in  line  30  of  chapter  325,  laws  of  1903,  the  wonl- 
"nothing  in  this  section  shall  apply  to  the  following  streams:  Tlif 
Kickai^oo  River,  the  Pine  River  in  Richland  County,  Balsam  branch 


G<K»DELL.l  GENERAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS.  45 

in  Polk  County,  the  Chippewa  River  from  mouth  of  Thornapple 
River  to  its  mouth,  Flambeau  River  from  dam  at  Ladysmith  to  its 
mouth,  Black  River  from  Falls  Dam  down,  in  Jackson  County,  and 
the  Wisconsin  River  from  the  north  boundary  line  of  the  city  of 
Rhiiielander  down  to  its  mouth,"  so  that  said  section  4567  when  so 
amended  shall  read  as  follows : 

"  Section  45G7.  Any  person  who  shall  cast,  deposit,  or  throw  over- 
board from  any  row%  sail,  or  steam  boat  or  other  craft  into  any  of  the 
inland  waters  of  this  State  or  into  Green  Bay,  Sturgeon  Bay,  and 
Chequamegon  Bay,  or  deposit  or  leave  upon  the  ice  thereof  until  it 
melts,  any  fish  oflfal,  which  shall  be  construed  to  mean  and  include 
tlie  head,  intestines,  blood,  and  cleanings  of  fish  and  dead  fish,  or 
throw  or  deposit  or  permit  to  be  thrown  or  deposited  any  lime,  tan- 
bark,  ship  ballast,  stone,  sand,  slabs,  decayed  wood,  sawdust,  saw- 
mill offal,  and  planing-mill  shavings,  or  any  acids  or  chemicals  or 
waste  or  refuse  arising  from  the  manufacture  of  pulp,  paper,  or  beet 
sugar,  or  other  substances  deleterious  to  fish  life  (authorized  drain- 
age and  sewage  from  municipalitie^s  excepted),  into  any  of  the  rivers, 
lakes,  or  streams  of  this  State,  including  Green  Bay,  Chequamegon 
Bay,  Sturgeon  Bay,  or  into  any  streams  wherein  there  have  been 
planted  trout  fry,  or  in  which  trout  naturally  abound,  shall  be  pun- 
ished by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars  nor  more  than  one 
hundred  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  not  levss  than 
thirty  days  nor  more  than  four  months.  •  (Nothing  in  this  section 
shall  apply  to  the  following  streams :  The  Kickapoo  River,  the  Pine 
River  in  Richland  County,  Balsam  branch  in  Polk  County,  the  Chip- 
pewa River  from  the  mouth  of  Thornapple  River  to  its  mouth.  Flam- 
beau River  from  dam  at  Ladysmith  to  its  mouth,  the  Black  River 
from  the  Falls  Dam  down  in  Jackson  County,  and  the  Wisconsin 
River  from  the  north  Iwundary  line  of  the  city  of  Rhinelander  down 
to  its  mouth.)  The  fact  of  any  fisherman  coming  to  the  shore  with 
dressed  fish  in  his  boat  and  without  the  offal  produced  by  such  dress- 
ing shall  be  prima  facie  evidence  of  the  violation  of  the  first  clause*  of 
this  section." 

Sec.  2.  All  acts  or  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  or  in  conflict  with 
the  provisions  of  this  act  are  hereby  repealed. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its 
passage  and  publication. 

Approved,  June  17, 1905. 

CLASS  II.  STATES  WITH  GENERAL  RESTRICTIONS. 

This  group  consists  of  those  States  and  Territories  in  which  the 
importance  of  pure  water  for  every  inhabitant  of  the  State  or  Terri- 
tory  for  drinking  and  domestic  purposes  has  received  legislative 


46  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  |N*..  ir^iL 

recognition.  It  will  be  notod  that  the  laws  are  general  in  their  appH- 
cation,  varying  much  in  the  elaborateness  of  the  wording  and  in  tht* 
emphasis  laid  upon  the  remedies  and  penalties  provided  for  infrac- 
tions of  the  law. 

This  class  logically  includes  all  States  not  included  in  Class  I,  !)i!t 
inasmuch  as  certain  States  have  recently  adopted  stringent  and  ehil>- 
orate  methods,  novel  and  extraordinary  in  their  character,  to  n*st(>n' 
and  protect  the  purity  of  their  navigable  and  potable  waters,  the^- 
States  have  been  omitted  from  Class  II  and  are  treated  in  a  clas>  Im 
themselves,  forming  Class  III  (see  p.  57). 

CALIFORNIA. 
[I'enal  code  as  In  force  at  the  close  of  the  session  of  1001.] 

Sec.  374.  Putting  dead  animals  in  Htreetn^  rirer,%  etc. — Every  jx^r- 
son  who  puts  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal,  or  the  offal  from  any 
slaughter  pen,  corral,  or  butcher  shop  into  any  river,  creek.  {K)nd.  nv- 
ervoir,  stream,  street,  alley,  public  highway,  or  road  in  common  u>f, 
or  who  attempts  to  destroy  the  same  by  fire  within  one-fourth  of  a 
mile  of  any  city,  town,  or  village,  except  it  be  in  a  crematory,  tht' 
construction  and  operation  of  which  is  satisfactory  to  the  board  ol 
health  of  such  city,  town,  or  village;  and  every  person  who  puts  any 
water-closet  or  privy,  or  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal,  or  any  offal 
of  any  kind  in  or  upon  the  borders  of  any  stream,  pond,  lake,  or  n^ 
ervoir  from  which  water  is  drawn  for  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants  of 
any  city,  city  and  county,  or  any  town  in  this  State,  so  that  the  drain- 
age for  such  water-closet,  privy,  or  carcass,  or  offal  may  lx>  taken  up 
by  or  in  such  stream,  pond,  lake,  or  reservoir:  or  who  allows  any 
water-closet  or  privy,  or  carcass  of  any  dead  animal,  or  any  offal  <»f 
any  kind  to  remain  in  or  upon  the  borders  of  any  such  stream,  pond, 
lake,  or  reservoir  within  the  boundaries  of  any  land  owne<l  or  iH-cu- 
pied  by  him,  so  that  the  drainage  from  such  water-closet,  privy,  car- 
cass, or  offal  may  be  taken  up  by  or  in  such  stream,  pond,  lake,  or 
reservoir,  or  who  keeps  any  horses,  mules,  cattle,  swine,  sheej>,  or 
live  stock  of  any  kind  penned,  corralled,  or  housed  on,  over,  or  on  iho 
borders  of  any  such  stream,  pond,  lake,  or  reservoir,  so  that  the  wator> 
thereof  become  polluted  by  reason  thereof,  or  who  bathes  in  any  sufii 
stream,  pond,  lake,  or  res(»rvoir,  or  who  by  any  other  means  fouls  or 
pollutes  the  waters  of  any  such  stream,  pond,  lake,  or  reserA'oir  i- 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  thereof  shall  be  pun- 
ished as  descrilx»d  in  section  877.  (Commissioners'  amendment^, 
approved  March  16,  1901 ;  took  effect  July  1,  1901.) 

Sec.  374}.  Discharging  coal  tai'^  etc.^  into  icatei's. — Every  person, 
firm,  association,  or  corporation  which  shall  discharge  or  deposit,  or 


GtK>DKLL.]         GENERAL   STATUTE    RESTKICTIONS CALIF()R^MA.  47 

'^hall  cause  or  suffer  to  be  discluirged  or  deposited,  or  to  pass  in  or 
into  the  waters  of  any  navigable  bay  or  river  in  this  State  any  coal 
lar  or  refuse  or  i-esiduary  product  Qf  coal,  petroleum,  asphalt,  bitu- 
men, or  other  carbonaceous  material  or  substance  is  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor, and  for  each  offense  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  in  the 
county  jail  for  not  exceeding  one  year  or  by  fine  not  exceeding  $1,000 
or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment.  (New  section,  approved 
March  25,  1901;  took  effect  immediately.     Statutes,  1901,  p.  813.) 

[Statutes  of  Cnnfornia,  1905,  chap.  OXXXV,  p.  138.1 

AN  ACT  to  ameiid  the  penal  c-ode  of  the  State  of  California  hy  addini?  a  new  sec- 
tion thereto,  to  be  numbered  section  3771).  making  it  a  misdemeanor  to  refuse  or 
neglect  to  t-onform  to  the  rules,  orders,  and  regulations  of  the  State  board  of 
health,  eon<*erning  the  t)ollutiou  of  water,  used  or  intendeil  to  be  used  for 
human  or  animal  consumption : 

Sec.  1.  A  new  section  to  W  numbered  section  377b  is  hereby  added 
to  the  penal  code  of  the  State  of  California,  to  read  as  follows: 

377b.  Any  person  who  shall  violate  or  refuse  or  neglect  to  conform 
to  any  sanitary  rule,  order,  or  regulation  prescril)ed  by  the  State 
board  of  health  for  the  prevention  of  the  pollution  of  springs, 
streams,  rivers,  lakes,  wells,  or  other  waters  used  or  intended  to  be 
used  for  human  or  animal  consumption  shall  be  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor. • 

Sec.  2.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  or  in  conflict  with  this 
act  are  hereby  repealed. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately.  (Act  of  March  18, 
1905.) 

[Statutes  of  California,  1905,  (^hap.  CXXXVI,  p.  138.1 

AN  ACT  To  amend  the  penal  code  of  the  State  of  California  by  adding  a  new 
Hection  thereto,  to  be  numl>ered  fiection  377c,  making  it  a  misdemeanor  to 
refn«e  or  neglect  to  conform  to  the  rules,  orders,  and  regulations  of  the  State 
board  of  health,  concerning  the  pollution  of  ice  used  or  intended  for  public 
consumption. 

Sec.  1.  A  new  section,  to  be  numbered  377c,  is  hereby  added  to  the 
penal  code  of  the  State  of  California,  to  read  as  follows: 

377c.  Any  person  who  shall  violate,  or  refuse  or  neglect  to  conform 
lo  any  sanitary  rule,  order,  or  regulation  prescribed  by  the  State 
board  of  health  for  the  prevention  of  the  pollution  of  ice  or  the  sale 
or  disposition  of  polluted  ice  offered,  kept,  or  intended  for  public  use 
or  consumption,  shall  he  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

Sec;.  2.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  or  in  conflict  with  this 
act  are  hereby  repealed. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately.  (Act  of  March  18, 
1905.) 


48  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

COLORADO. 

[Mills'  Annotated  Statutes.  1891.  p.  940.] 

Sec.  1376.  Polluting  streams — penalty. — If  any  person  or  persons 
shall  hereafter  throw  or  discharge  into  any  stream  of  running  water 
or  into  any  ditch  or  flume  in  this  State  any  obnoxious  substanct\  >.iu'h 
as  refuse  matter  from  slaughterhouse  or  privy,  or  slops  from  eating 
houses  or  saloons,  or  ariy  other  fleshy  or  vegetable  matter  which  is 
subject  to  decay  in  the  water,  such  person  or  persons  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  less  than  one  hundrtHl  dol- 
lars nor  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  for  each  and  every  offense  s<> 
committed. 

Sec.  1357  provides  a  penalty  not  exceeding  five  hundred  dollars  for 
anyone  ''  who  shall  in  anywise  pollute  or  obstruct  any  water  cour^*, 
lake,  pond,  marsh,  or  common  sewer,  or  continue  such  obstruction  or 
pollution  so  as  to  render  the  same  offensive  or  unwholesome/'  &c. 

Sec.  3330  (j).  1861).  Emptying  oil  into  the  waters  of 'the  >Stati  a 
misdemeanor — penalty. 

AN  ACT  To  prohibit  the  emptying  or  running  of  oil  or  i>etroleum,  or  other  ol*'- 
nginous  substance  into  any  waters  of  this  State,  and  to  imiKwe  a  penalty  for 
the  violation  of  this  act. 

[Laws,  1889,  p.  287,  approved  March  7,  1880,  in  force  June  7.  1889.] 

If  any  person  or  persons,  corporation  or  corporations  shall  hereafter 
empty  or  cause  to  be  emptied,  or  allow  the  emptying  or  flowing  of 
oil,  petroleum,  or  other  oleaginous  substance  into  any  of  the  watei*s 
of  this  State,  or  deposit  or  cause  the  same  to  be  deposited  at  such 
distance  that  the  same  may  be  carried  into  such  waters  by  natural 
causes,  such  person  or  persons,  corporation  or  corporations  so  offend- 
ing shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction 
thereof  shall  l^e  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  thousand  dol- 
lars, or  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  not  exceeding  six  months,  or 
both  such  fine  and  imprisonment,  for  each  such  offense. 

ILLINOIS. 
[EIiird*8  Revised  Statutes,  1001,  sec.  202,  p.  627.] 

Whoever  willfully  and  maliciously  defiles,  corrupts,  or  makes  im- 
pure any  spring  or  other  source  of  water  or  reservoir  *  *  * 
shall  be  fined  not  exceeding  one  thousand  dollars  or  confined  in  a 
county  jail  not  exceeding  one  year. 

Page  681,  section  221,  makes  it  a  public  nuisance — 
1.  To  cause  or  suffer  the  carcass  of  any  animal  or  any  offal,  filth, 
or  noisome  substance  to  be  collected  or  deposited  or  to  remain  in  any 
place  to  the  prejudice  of  others. 


GOODBLL.1  GENERAL  STATUTE  RESTBICTIONS — INDIANA,  49 

2-  To  throw  or  deposit  any  offal  or  other  offensive  matter,  or  any 
carcass  of  any  dead  animal,  in  any  water  course,  lake,  pond,  spring, 
well,  or  common  sewer,  street,  or  public  highway. 

3.  To  corrupt  or  render  unwholesome  or  impure  the  water  of  any 
spring,  river,  stream,  pond,  or  lake  to  the  injury  or  prejudice  of 
others. 

INDIANA. 

[Burns's  Annotated  Statutes,  1004.] 

Sec.  2156.  Nuisance  by  dead  animals. — Whoever  puts  the  carcass 
of  any  dead  animal  or  the  offal  from  any  slaughterhouse  or  butcher's 
establishment,  packing  house,  or  fish  house,  or  any  spoiled  meats  or 
spoiled  fish,  or  any  putrid  animal  substance,  or  the  contents  of  any 
privy  vault  upon  or  into  any  river,  pond,  canal,  lake,  public  ground, 
market  place,  common,  field,  meadow,  lot,  road,  street,  or  alley,  and 
whoever,  being  the  owner  or  occupant  of  any  such  place,  knowingly 
permits  any  such  thing  to  remain  therein  to  the  annoyance  and  injury 
of  any  of  the  citizens  of  the  State,  or  neglects  or  refuses  to  remove  or 
abate  the  nuisance  occasioned  thereby  within  twenty-four  hours  after 
knowledge  of  the  existence  of  such  nuisance  upon  any  of  the  above 
.  described  premises  owned  or  occupied  by  him,  or  after  notice  thereof, 
in  writing,  from  any  health  officer  of  the  city  or  the  trustee  of  the 
township  in  which  such  nuisance  exists,  shall  be  fined  not  more  than 
one  hundred  dollars  nor  less  than  one  dollar. 

Sec.  2169.  Whoever  maliciously  or  mischievously  puts  any  dead 
animal  carcass  or  part  thereof  on,  or  any  other  putrid,  nauseous, 
noisome,  or  offensive  substance  into,  *  *  *  or  in  any  manner 
lx»fouls  any  well,  cistern,  spring,  brook,  canal,  or  stream  of  running 
water,  or  any  reservoir  of  waterworks  of  which  any  use  is  made  or 
may  he  made  for  domestic  purposes  shall  be  fined  not  more  than  one 
hundred  dollars  nor  less  than  five  dollars,  to  which  may  be  added 
imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  not  more  than  sixty  days  nor  less 
than  ten  daj^s. 

(The  foregoing  section  is  repealed  by  the  act  of  1905  hereafter 
quoted.) 

Sec.  3538.  Streams  and  femes, — The  common  council  shall  have 
exclusive  power  to  keep  open  streams,  and  preserve,  and,  if  necessary 
and  expedient,  change  the  course  of  rivers  passing  through  or  border- 
ing upon  the  corporate  limits  of  such  city ;  to  prevent  encroachment 
or  injury  to  the  banks  thereof,  or  the  casting  into  the  same  of  offal, 
dead  animals,  logs,  or  rubbish.  *  *  * 
IBB  152—05  M 4 


50  LAWS    FORBIDDING    INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  lo2. 

•  [Acts  of  1901,  Chap.  LXI,  p.  96.] 

AN  ACT  prohibiting  the  discharge  of  waste  water  and  refuse  of  manufacturing 
establishments  into  streams  of  water,  conferring  certain  iiowers  upon  th.» 
State  board  of  liealth  in  such  cases,  providing  i)enaltie8  for  the  violation 
thereof,  and  declaring  an  emergency. 

Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  hy  the  general  amemhly  of  the  State  of 
Indiana^  That  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm,  or  corpora- 
tion owning  or  operating  any  manufacturing  establishment  to  dis- 
charge or  permit  to  be  discharged  into  any  stream  of  water  any  waste 
water  or  refuse  from  said  factory  of  such  character  as  to  pollute  said 
stream,  except  by  and  in  pursuance  to  a  written  permission  so  to  do, 
first  obtained  from  the  State  board  of  health  as  hereinafter  provided. 

Sec.  2.  Whenever  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  owning  or 
operating  a  manufacturing  establishment  shall  file  with  the  secre- 
tary of  the  State  board  of  health  a  verified  application  in  writin<r, 
asking  permission  to  be  allowed  to  discharge  into  any  stream  any 
waste  water  or  refuse  from  such  establishment,  and  showing  therein 
that  the  water  of  said  stream  is  at  such  stage  as  that  such  refuse  or 
waste  water  may  be  safely  discharged  into  such  stream  without 
injury  to  the  public,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  board  to  inspect  th^ 
said  stream  at  and  below  the  poinf  of  such  proposed  discharge,  and 
if  it  is  found  that  such  refuse  and  waste  water  may  be  safely  dis- 
charged therein  without  injury  as  aforesaid,  the  said  board  may,  in 
its  discretion,  grant  and  issue  a  written  permit  allowing  such  dis- 
charge into  said  stream  for  a  time  to  be  limited  therein,  which  i>er- 
mit  shall  be  void  and  of  no  effect  after  the  time  so  fixed,  and  may  Ik* 
revoked  by  said  board  at  any  time.  The  holder  of  any  such  permit 
regularly  issued  by  such  board  shall  be  authorized  to  discharge  any 
such  refuse  or  waste  water  into  such  stream  during  the  time  fixed 
and  limited  in  such  permit,  and  shall  not  be  liable  therefor  in  any 
suit  at  law  or  in  equity:  Provided^  That  nothing  herein  containeil 
shall  prevent  any  person  specially  damaged  by  any  such  di.scliarc^ 
from  recovering  the  amount  of  such  special  damages  so  sustained  in 
an  action  at  law  brought  for  such  purpose. 

Sec.  3.  Any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  violating  any  of  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act  shall  be  fined  in  any  sum  not  less  than  twenty-five 
dollars  nor  more  than  five  hundred  dollars. 

Sec.  4.  Wliereas  an  emergency  exists  for  the  immediate  takinir 
effect  of  this  act,  the  same  shall  be  in  force  on  and  after  its  passage. 

[Laws  of  1905,  chap.  1C9,  p.  584.] 

Sec  553.  Befovling  water, — 'NMioever  maliciously  or  mischievous! • 
puts  any  dead  animal,  carcass,  or  part  thereof,  or  any  other  putri«l. 
nauseous,  noisome,  or  offensive  substance  into,  or  in  any  manner  be- 


<MH>DELL.]  GENERAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS MAINE.  51 

fouls  any  well,  cistern,  spring,  brook,  canal,  or  stream  of  running 
water,  or  any  reservoir  of  waterworks,  of  which  any  use  is  or  may 
be  made  for  domestic  purposes,  shall,  on  conviction,  be  fined  not  less 
than  five  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars,  to  which  may 
Ix*  added  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  not  less  than  ten  days  nor 
more  than  sixty  days. 

Sec.  689.  Repeal. — All  laws  within  the  purview  of  this  act  are 
hereby  repealed;  but  this  repeal  shall  not  affect  any  prosecutions 
pending  or  offenses  heretofore  committed  under  existing  laws,  and 
such  prosecutions  and  offenses  shall  lx»  continued  and  prosecuted 
to  a  final  determination,  as  if  this  act  had  not  passed;  nor  shall 
this  repeal  affect  the  enforcement  of  any  fine  or  penalty  or  other  pun- 
ishment provided  as  a  punishment  for  the  violation  of  any  civil 
statute;  nor  shall  this  act  be  construed  to  repeal  any  act  passed  at 
this  session  of  the  general  assembly. 

(Approved  March  9,  1005.) 

MAINE. 

[Laws  of  1891,  chap.  82,  p.  67.] 
AN  ACT  to  protect  waters  used  for  domestic  puiposes. 

Sec.  l.**  Whoever  knowingly  and  willfully  poisons,  defiles,  or  in 
any  way  corrupts  the  waters  of  any  well,  spring,  brook,  lake,  pond, 
river,  or  reservoir  used  for  domestic  purposes  for  man  or  beast,  or 
knowingly  corrupts  the  sources  of  the  water  supply  of  any  water 
company  or  of  any  city,  town,  or  municipal  corporation  supplying 
its  inhabitants  with  water,  or  the  tributaries  of  said  sources  of  sup- 
ply, in  such  manner  as  to  affect  the  purity  of  the  water  so  supplied, 
or  knowingly  defiles  such  water  in  any  manner,  whether  the  same 
l>e  frozen  or  not,  or  puts  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal  or  other 
offensive  material  into  said  waters  or  upon  the  ice  thereof,  shall  be 
punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  thousand  dollars  or  by  impris- 
onment not  exceeding  one  year. 

Sec.  2.  Whoever  shall  wilfully  injure  any  of  the  property  of  any 
water  company  or  of  any  city,  town,  or  municipal  corporation  used  by 
it  in  supplying  water  to  its  inhabitants  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not 
exceeding  one  thousand  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  one 
year,  and  such  person  shall  also  forfeit  and  pay  to  such  water  com- 
pany, city,  or  town  three  times  the  amount  of  actual  damages  sus- 
tained, to  be  recovered  in  an  action  of  the  case.  (As  amended  by  the 
laws  of  1905,  Chap.  9eS,  p.  97.) 

Sec.  3.  Inconsistent  acts  repealed. 

•  As  amended  by  laws  of  1905,  chap.  97,  p^  100. 


52  LAWS   FORBIDDING    INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

[Laws  of  1903,  Special  Laws,  chap.  94,  p.  156.1 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  waters  of  Sebago  I^ke. 

Sec.  1.  No  person  or  corporation  shall  use  or  occupy  any  structure 
hereafter  built  upon  or  near  the  shoras  of  Sebago  Lake,  in  the  county 
of  Cumberland,  or  upon  any  of  the  islands  of  said  lake  for  such  pur- 
poses or  in  such  manner  that  the  sewage  or  drainage  therefrom  shall 
enter  the  waters  of  said  lake  or  pollute  the  same. 

Sec.  2.  No  sewage,  drainage,  refuse,  or  polluting  matter  of  such 
kind  and  amount  as  either  by  itself  or  in  connection  with  other  mat- 
ter will  corrupt  or  impair  the  quality  of  the  water  of  said  Sebagi> 
Lake  or  render  it  injurious  to  health  shall  be  discharged  into  said 
lake,  but  nothing  herein  shall  prohibit  the  cultivation  and  use  of  tht* 
soil  in  the  ordinary  methods  of  agriculture  if  no  human  excrement  i- 
used  thereon  within  three  hundred  feet  of  the  shores  of  said  lake. 

Sec.  3.  The  supreme  judicial  court  shall  have  jurisdiction  in  equity 
to  enjoin,  prevent,  or  restrain  any  violation  of  the  provisions  of  thi^ 
act. 

Sec.  4.  This  act  shall  take  effect  when  approved. 

Approved  February  26,  1903. 

MARYLAND. 
[Poe's  Maryland  Code,  adopted  March  14,  1888.] 

RIVEBS.       N 

Sec.  240.  If  any  ballast,  ashes,  filth,  earth,  soil,  oysters,  or  oyster 
shells  be  taken,  unladen,  or  cast  out  of  any  ship,  steamboat,  scow, 
pungy,  or  other  vessel,  on  any  pretense  whatever,  in  the  Chesapeake 
Bay  above  "  Sandy  Point,"  or  in  the  waters  of  Herring  Bay,  or  in  any 
river,  creek,  or  harbor  within  this  State,  below  high-water  mark,  the 
master  or  other  person  having  charge  of  such  vessel  shall,  upon  con- 
viction thereof,  be  fined. 

Waters  of  Potomac  River  above  the  canal  dam  near  the  mouth  of 
AVills  Creek  are  protected  by  section  242  against  pollution  calculated 
to  render  the  waters  of  said  river  ''  impure  or  unfit  for  use.'' 

WATER    81TPPLY — POLLUTION    OF    SOURCES    OF. 
[Passed  In  1886,  chap.  6.] 

Sec.  277.  If  any  person  shall  put,  or  cause  to  be  placed,  any  dead 
animal  or  part  of  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal,  or  any  decayed  or 
filthy  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  into  any  stream,  or  the  tributary 
of  any  stream,  well,  spring,  reservoir,  pond,  or  other  source  from 
which  water  or  ice  is  drawn,  taken,  or  used  for  drinking  or  domest  it- 
purposes,  or  shall  knowingly  suffer  any  sewage,  washings,  or  other 


COODELL.1  GENEBAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — MISSOURI.  53 

offensive  matters  from  any  privy,  cesspool,  factory,  trades  establish- 
ment, slaughterhouse,  tannery,  or  other  place  over  which  he  shall 
have  control,  to  flow  therein,  or  into  any  drain  or  pipe  coimnunicating 
therewith,  whereby  the  water  supply  of  any  city,  town,  village,  com- 
munity, or  household  is  fouled  or  rendered  unfit  for  drinking  and 
domestic  purposes,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  shall, 
upon  conviction  thereof  in  a  court  of  competent  jurisdiction,  be  fined 
not  more  than  two  hundred  dollai*s  for  every  such  offence ;  and  after 
reasonable  notice,  not  exceeding  fifteen  days,  from  the  State  board  of 
health,  or  any  local  sanitary  authority,  to  discontinue  the  act  whereby 
such  water  supply  is  fouled,  a  further  sum  of  not  more  than  fifty 
dollars  for  every  day  during  which  the  offence  is  continued. 

MISSOURI. 

[ReTised  StatuteB,  1809.] 

CBIMES    AND   PUNISHMENTS. 

Sec.  2284.  Pntting  dead  animalH  in  welly  c6c. — If  any  person  or 
persons  shall  put  any  dead  animal,  carcass,  or  part  thereof,  the  offal, 
or  any  other  filth  into  any  well,  spring,  brook,  branch,  creek,  pond,  or 
lake,  every  person  so  offending  shall,  on  conviction  thereof,  be  fined 
in  any  sum  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars.  If 
aii}^  person  shall  remove,  or  cause  to  be  removed  and  placed  *  *  ♦ 
in  any  of  the  streams  and  water  courses  other  than  the  Missouri  or 
Mississippi  River,  any  dead  animal,  carcass,  or  part  thereof,  or  other 
nuisance,  to  the  annoyance  of  the  citizens  of  this  State,  or  any  of 
them,  every  person  so  offending  shall,  upon  conviction  thereof,  be 
fined  for  every  such  offence  any  sum  not  less  than  ten  dollars  nor 
more  than  fifty  dollars,  and  if  such  nuisance  be  not  removed  within 
tliree  days  thereafter,  it  shall  be  deemed  a  second  offence  against  the 
])ro visions  of  this  section. 

Sec.  2235.  Corrupthig  or  diverting  water  supply. — ^Whoever  will- 
fully or  maliciously  poisons,  defiles,  or  in  any  way  corrupts  the  water 
of  a  well,  spring,  brook,  or  reservoir  used  for  domestic  or  municipal 
purposes,  or  whoever  willfully  or  maliciously  diverts,  dams  up,  and 
holds  back  from  its  natural  course  and  flow  any  spring,  brook,  or 
other  water  supply  for  domestic  or  municipal  purposes,  after  said 
water  supply  shall  have  once  been  taken  for  use  by  any  person  or 
I)ersons,  corporations,  town,  or  city  for  their  use,  shall  be  adjudged 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  punished  by  a  fine  not  less  than  fifty 
nor  more  than  five  hundred  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  in  the  county 
jail  n^t  exceeding  one  year,  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment, 
and  shall  be  liable  to  the  party  injured  for  three  times  the  actual 
damage  sustained,  to  be  recovered  by  suit  at  law. 


54  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [Ni>.  152. 

Sec.  1974.  Injury  to  schoolhouses  and  church  hmldings. — Ever>* 
person  *  *  *  who  shall  in  any  manner  polhite  the  water  con- 
tained in  any  well,  cistern,  or  reservoir  (in  which  water  is  gathere*! 
OT*  kept  for  the  supply  of  a  schoolhouse  or  those  attending  the  same) 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

ISoctlon  28  of  House  bill  No.  15,  laws  of  1905,  p.  16.1.] 

AN  ACT  relating  to  the  preservation,  propagation,  and  protection  of  gamo  ani 
mals,  birds,  and  fish ;  creating  the  office  of  game  and  fish  warden ;  creating  :i 
game  protection  fund,  and  appropriating  money  therefrom. 

Sec.  28.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person  or  persons,  firm,  or 
corporation  to  suffer  or  permit  any  dyestuff,  coal  tar,  oil,  sawdust, 
poison  or  deleterious  substances  to  be  thrown,  run,  or  drained  into 
any  of  the  waters  of  this  State  in  quantities  sufficient  to  injure, 
stupefy,  or  kill  fish  which  may  inhabit  the  same  at  or  below  the  point 
where  any  such  substances  are  discharged  or  permitted  to  flow  or 
thrown  into  such  waters.  Any  person  or  persons,  firm,  or  cori>orati(>n 
offending  against  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  be  deemetl 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  shall  be  fined  not  le>- 
than  $200.00  nor  more  than  $500.00  for  each  offense. 

Approved  March  10,  1905. 

NEVADA. 
[General  Statutes  of  Nevada.] 

Sec.  4617.  (Crimes  and  punishments,  sec.  54.)  *  *  *  Every 
person  who  shall  willfully  poison  any  spring,  well,  or  reservoir  of 
water  shall,  upon  conviction  thereof,  be  punished  by  imprisonment 
in  the  State  prison  for  a  term  not  less  than  one  nor  more  than  ten 
years. 

Sawdust  in  Hrers. — It  is  made  a  misdemeanor  to  deposit  sawdu>t 
in  or  on  the  waters  of  any  lake,  river,  or  running  stream  by  laws  of 
1889,  page  24,  Chapter  XV. 

[Laws  of  Nevada,  1903,  Chap.  CXXII,  p.  214.] 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  iK)IIution  or  contamination  of  the  waters  of  the  lakes. 
'     rivers,  streams,  and  ditches  in  tlie  State  of  Nevada,  prescrihlng  iHMialtios,  an<l 
making  an  appropriation  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  this  act.   (Appn^vt^l 
March  20,  1908.) 

The  people  of  the  State  of  Nevada^  represented  in  senate  and  assem- 
bly^ do  enaH  as  follows: 

Section  1.  Unlawfid  to  pollute  any  body  of  water. — Any  i)erson  or 
persons,  firm,  company,  corporation,  or  association  in  this  State,  or 


G*>oDKLi^3  GENERAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS NEVADA.  55 

the  managing  agent  of  any  person  or  persons,  firm,  company,  corpo- 
ration, or  association  in  this  State,  or  any  duly  elected,  appointed,  or 
lawfully  created  State  officer  of  this  State,  or  any  duly  elected, 
appointed,  or  lawfully  created  officer  of  any  county,  city,  town, 
municipality,  or  municipal  government  in  this  State,  who  shall  de- 
posit, or  who  shall  permit  or  allow  any  person  or  persons  in  their 
employ  or  under  thfeir  control,  management,  or  direction  to  deposit 
in  any  of  the  waters  of  the  lakes,  rivers,  streams,  and  ditches  in  this 
State  any  sawdust,  rubbish,  filth,  or  poisonous  or  deleterious  sub- 
stance or  substances  liable  to  affect  the  health  of  pei'sons,  fish,  or  live 
stock,  or  place  or  deposit  any  such  deleterious  substance  or  substances 
in  any  place  where  the  same  may  be  washed  or  infiltered  into  any  of 
the  waters  herein  named,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor, 
and  upon  conviction  thereof  in  any  court  of  competent  jurisdiction 
shall  be  fined  in  any  sum  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  more  than 
five  hundred  dollars,  exclusive  of  court  costs:  Provided^  That  in 
cases  of  State  institutions,  municipalities,  towns,  incorporated  towns 
or  cities,  when,  owing  to  the  magnitude  of  the  work,  immediate  cor- 
rection of  the  evil  is  impracticable,  then  in  such  cases  the  authorities 
shall  adopt  all  new  work,  and  as  rapidly  as  possible  reconstruct 
the  old  systems  of  drainage,  sewerage,  and  so  as  to  conform  with  the 
provisions  of  this  act:  And  fromdcd  further^  That  all  such  new  and 
recopstructed  systems  shall  be  completed  within  four  years  from  the 
date  of  passage  hereof:  Provided^  That  nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  so 
construed  as  to  permit  mining  or  milling  companies  to  dump  tailings 
directly  into  any  stream  in  this  State  so  as  to  prevent  or  impede  the 
natural  flow  of  such  stream.  Nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  so  construed 
as  to  apply  to  any  quartz  mill  or  ore  reduction  works  in  this  State. 

Sec.  2.  For  the  purposes  of  this  act  the  word  "  ditcli  "  shall  be  con- 
strued to  mean  any  ditch,  canal,  channel,  or  artificial  waterway  used 
for  carrying  or  conducting  water  into  any  reservoir  from  which  it 
may  be  used  or  distributed  for  domestic  purposes  to  any  person  in  this 
State,  or  to  any  person  in  any  county,  city,  town,  or  municipality  in 
this  State. 

Sec.  3.  The  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars  is  hereby  appropriated 
out  of  any  money  in  the  State  treasury,  not  otherwise  appropriated, 
subject  to  the  disposal  of  the  governor  of  this  State,  for  the  purpose 
of  enforcing  the  provisions  of  this  act,  either  in  the  courts  of  this 
State  or  in  the  courts  of  the  United  States,  such  expenditure  to  be 
allowed  and  paid  as  other  claims  against  the  State  are  allowed  and 
paid. 

Sec.  4.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  the 
first  day  of  July,  A.  D.  nineteen  hundred  and  four. 


56  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

NEW    31EXICO. 

[Compiled  laws,  act  of  March  16,  1897.] 

STREAMS   AND   LAKES. 

Sec.  54.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  person  or  persons  to  throw 
or  cast  the  dead  body  or  carcass  of  any  animal  or  fowl,  or  to  run  (»r 
empty  any  sewers  or  other  polluted  or  befouled' substances  into  any 
river,  stream,  lake,  pond,  reservoir,  ditch,  or  any  water  course,  or  to 
in  any  manner  or  by  any  means  pollute  or  befoul  the  waters  thereof, 
within  this  Territory,  so  as  to  render  the  same  unwholesome  or 
offensive  or  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants  of  any  com- 
munity or  of  any  person  having  the  right  to  use  and  who  uses  the 
same,  for  drinking  or  domestic  purposes,  or  that  may  render  such 
waters  unfit  or  dangerous  for  watering  stock,  or  for  agricultural  or 
horticultural  purposes. 

Sec.  55.  That  the  polluting  of  waters  in  any  of  the  manners  alK)ve 
specified  is  hereby  declared  to  be  a  public  nuisance,  which  shall  \ye 
immediately  removed  by  the  person  or  persons  creating  the  j^ame. 
upon  the  demand  of  any  public  officer  or  of  any  pei-son  or  |>ersons. 
who  may  have  a  right  to  the  use  of  said  waters. 

Sec.  56.  That  any  person  or  persons  violating  any  of  the  provision^ 
of  sec.  54  may  be  tried  therefor  before  any  justice  of  the  peace  of  the 
county  where  the  offence  is  committed,  and  upon  conviction  thereof 
shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  in  any  sum  not  less  than  ten  dollars  nor 
more  than  one  hundred  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail 
for  any  period  of  time  not  less  than  ten  days  nor  more  than  sixty 
days,  or  by  both  fine  and  imprisonment.  And  in  addition  thereto  the 
justice  of  the  peace  shall  direct  the  sheriff  of  the  county  or  the  con- 
stable of  the  precinct  to  relieve  such  nuisance,  at  the  expense  of  the 
person  or  persons  creating  the  same,  which  said  expenses  shall  In* 
taxed  as  other  costs  against  the  person  or  persons  so  offending,  and 
shall  be  collected  in  the  manner  provided  by  law  for  the  collection  of 
costs  in  criminal  cases. 

[Laws  of  1899,  chap.  79,  p.  175.] 

AN  ACT  to  amend  section  54  of  the  compiled  laws  of  1897.     (Approved  Mareb 

IGth,  1899.) 

Be  it  enacted  hy  the  legMatire  assembly  of  the  Ten^itory  of  Xitr 
Mexico: 

Section  1.  That  section  54  of  the  compiled  laws  of  1897  be,  and 
the  same  is  hereby,  amended  to  read  as  follows: 

Sec.  54.  It  is  hereby  made  unlawful  for  any  person  to  cast  the 
dead  body  of  any  animal  or  fowl,  or  any  refuse  matter,  such  as  tin 


GooDKLL.]      GENERAL   STATUTE  RESTRICTIONS — NEW    MEXICO.  57 

cans,  paper,  ashes,  bones,  or  other  garbage  into  any  running  stream, 
spring,  lake,  pond,  reservoir,  ditch,  or  water  course,  or  to  run  or  empty 
any  sewer  or  other  foul  substance  into  the  same,  or  in  any  other  man- 
ner or  means  to  polhite  or  foul  the  said  water  so  as  to  render  the  same 
offensive  or  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants  of  any  com- 
munity or  of  any  person  having  the  right  to  use  the  same  for  drink- 
ing or  domestic  purposes,  or  that  may  render  said  waters  unfit  or 
unhealthy  for  watering  stock.  But  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  every 
person,  outside  of  incorporated  towns,  cities,  or  villages,  to  destroy  all 
ilomestic  refuse  and  garbage  by  burning  the  same;  any  violation  of 
this  section  shall  be  considered  a  misdemeanor  and  punished  as  pro- 
vided by  law. 

Sec.  2.  All  acts  and  parts  of  act.s  in  conflict  herewith  are  hereby 
repealed ;  and  this  act  shall  take  effect  from  and  after  its  passage. 

[LawB  of  1903,  chap.   21,  p.  32.] 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  injury  to  ditches,  pipe  lines,  reservoirs,  and  the  taking  of 
and  befouling  of  water  therefrom.     (Approved  March  10th,  1903.) 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  legislative  assembly  of  the  Territory  of  Neio 
Mexico  : 

Section  1.  Any  person  who  shall  wilfully  and  maliciously  cut, 
break,  or  injure,  or  who  shall  by  shooting  or  by  damming  or  obstruc- 
ting the  same  cause  to  break  any  ditch,  flume,  pipe  line,  or  reservoir,  or 
any  of  the  attachments  or  fixtures  used  in  connection  therewith,  shall 
he.  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not 
less  than  ten  dollars  nor  more  than  fifty  dollars,  or  by  confinement 
in  the  county  jail  for  not  more  than  sixty  days,  or  by  both  such  fine 
and  imprisonment,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court  trying  the  case, 
except  in  cases  where  such  pipe  line  or  reservoir  is  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  water  to  any  community,  village,  town,  or  city  for 
domestic  purposes,  in  which  event  the  person  committing  such  offence 
shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  fifty  nor  more  than  one 
hundred  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  not  less  than 
thirty  nor  more  than  sixty  days,  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprison- 
ment in  the  discretion  of  the  court  trying  the  case. 

Sec.  2.  Any  person  who  shall  bathe  in,  or  wilfully  cast  any  filth  in, 
any  reservoir  or  ditch  used  for  supplying  water  for  domestic  use 
shall  l)e  guilt\'^  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  shall  be  fined 
not  less  than  ten  dollars  or  not  more  than  twenty -five  dollars. 

Sec.  3.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  in  conflict  herewith  are  hereby 
repealed,  and  this  act  shall  take  effect  from  and  after  its  passage. 


58  LAWS    FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

NORTH    CAROLINA. 
[North  Carolina  Criminal  Code  and  Digest  (2d  ed.),  p.  436.] 

Sec.  500.  Putting  poisonous  substance  in  water  for  the  purpose  of 
killing  fish  is  forbidden. 

Laws  of  1903,  chapter  245,  page  321,  forbids  throwing  sawdust  into 
the  water  courses  of  Yancey  County. 

[Laws  of  North  Carolina,  1903,  chap.  159.  p.  182.] 
AN  ACT  to  iirotect  water  supplies. 

Sections  1  to  10,  inclusive,  provide  a  thorough  system  of  inspection 
and  forbid  any  person  or  corporation  to  supply  water  for  the  public 
without  taking  the  precautions  therein  prescribed. 

Sections  11  to  17  are  as  follows : 

Sec  11.  ^^Tioever  defiles,  corrupts,  pollutes  any  well,  spring,  drain^ 
branch,  brook,  or  creek,  or  other  source  of  public  water  supply  used 
for  drinking  purposes,  in  any  manner,  or  deposits  the  body  of  any 
dead  animal  on  the  watershed  of  any  such  water  supply,  or  allows 
the  same  to  remain  thereon  unless  the  same  is  buried  with  at  least 
two  feet  cover,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  fined  and  im- 
prisoned, in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec  12.  WTioever  shall  collect  and  deposit  human  excreta  on  the 
watei'shed  of  any  public  water  supply  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misde- 
meanor, and  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  in  the  discretion  of 
the  court. 

Sec  13.  No  person,  firm,  corporation,  or  municipality  shall  flow  or 
discharge  sewage  into  any  drain,  brook,  creek,  or  river  from  which  a 
public  drinking-water  supply  is  taken,  unless  the  same  shall  have 
been  passed  through  some  well-known  system  of  sewage  purification 
approved  by  the  State  board  of  health.  Any  person,  firm,  cor|X)ru- 
tion,  or  the  officer  of  any  municipality  having  this  work  in  charge, 
who  shall  violate  this  section  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and 
the  continued  flow  and  discharge  of  such  sewage  may  be  enjoined  by 
any  j^erson. 

Sec  14.  That  all  schools,  hamlets,  villages,  towns,  or  industrial 
s(»ttlements  which  are  now  located  or  may  be  hereafter  located  on  the 
shed  of  any  public  water  supply  not  provided  with  a  sewerage  sys- 
tem, shall  provide  and  maintain  a  tub  system  for  collecting  human 
excrement,  and  provide  for  removal  of  the  same  from  the  watershed 
at  least  twice  each  week.  Every  person,  firm,  corporation,  or  munici- 
pality violating  this  section  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and 
lined  or  imprisoned,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

Sec  15.  No  burying  ground  or  cemetery  shall  be  established  on 
the  watershed  of  any  public  water  supply  nearer  than  five  hundred 
yards  of  the  source  of  supply. 


«4K»i>ELL.]     GENERAL.   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NORTH    CAROLINA.  59 

Sec.  16.  All  water  companies  now  operating  under  charters  from 
the  State  or  municipalities,  which  may  maintain  public  water  sup- 
plies, may  acquire  by  condemnation  such  lands  and  rights  in  land 
imd  water  as  are  necessary  for  the  successful  operation  and  protection 
of  their  plants,  said  proceedings  to  be  the  same  as  pi^escribed  by  chap- 
ter 49,  volume  1,  of  the  Code  of  North  Carolina. 

Sec.  17.  For  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  act  the  State  board 
of  health  is  authorized  and  empowered  to  have  the  bacteriological 
examination  made  as  hereinbefore  provided  for,  and  to  charge  for  the 
same  the  sum  of  five  dollars  ($5.00)  for  each  examination. 

[lAWS  of  1JK>5,  chap.  4ir>.] 
AN  ACT  to  estabHsh  a  State  laboratory  of  hygiene. 

Section  1.  That  for  the  better  protection  of  the  public  health  and 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  communicable  diseases  there  shall  be  estab- 
lished a  State  laboratory  of  hygiene,  the  same  to  be  under  the  control 
and  management  of  the  State  board  of  health. 

Sec.  2.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  State  board  of  health  to 
have  made  in  such  laboratory  monthly  examinations  of  samples 
from  all  the  public  water  supplies  of  the  State.  The  board  shall 
also  cause  to  l)e  made  examinations  of  well  and  spring  waters  when 
in  the  opinion  of  any  county  superintendent  of  health  or  any  reg- 
istered physician  there  is  reason  to  suspect  such  waters  of  being  con- 
taminated and  dangerous  to  health.  The  board  shall  likewise  have 
made  in  this  laboratory  examinations  of  sputum  in  cases  of  suspected 
tuberculosis,  of  throat  exudates  in  cases  of  susjoected  diphtheria,  of 
blood  in  cases  of  suspected  typhoid  and  malarial  fever,  of  fceces  in 
cases  of  suspected  hook-worm  diseases,  and  such  other  examinations 
as  the  public  health  may  require. 

Sec.  3.  For  the  support  of  the  said  laboratory  the  sum  of  twelve 
hundred  dollars  is  hereby  appropriated  and  an  annual  tax  of  sixty 
dollars,  payable  quarterly,  by  each  and  every  water  company,  munici- 
pal, corporate,  and  private,  selling  water  to  the  people,  said  tax  to 
l)e  collected  by  the  sheriff  as  other  taxes  and  paid  by  said  slieriff 
directly  to  the  treasurer  of  the  State  board  of  health,  and  the  print- 
ing and  stationery  necessary  for  the  laboratory  to  be  furnished  upon 
requisition  upon  the  State  printer. 

Sec.  4.  Section  seventeen  of  chapter  one  hundred  and  fifty-nine 
of  the  laws  of  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  three  is  hereby 
repealed. 

Sec.  5.  This  act  shall  be  in  force  from  and  after  its  ratification. 

In  the  general  assembly  read  three  times,  and  ratified  this  4th  day 
of  March,  1905. 


60  LAWS  FORBIDDING  INLAND-WATER  POLLUTION.  (Na  152. 

OHIO. 
[Bates's  Annotated  Revised  Statutes  of  Ohio,  p.  3343.] 

Sec.  6921.  Nuisance. — Wlioever  *  *  *  corrupts  or  renders  un- 
wholesome or  impure  any  water  course,  stream,  or  wat^er  *  *  ♦ 
shall  be  fined  not  more  than  five  hundred  dollars. 

Sec.  6923.  {Unlawful  deposit  of  dead  animals^  offal^  c(*r.,  into  oi 
upo^i  land  or  water.) — Whoever  puts  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal, 
or  the  offal  from  any  slaughterhouse  or  butcher's  establishment, 
packing  house,  or  fish  house,  or  any  spoiled  meat  or  spoiled  fish,  or 
any  putrid  substance,  or  the  contents  of  any  privy  vaults,  uj>on  or 
into  any  lake,  river,  bay,  creek,  pond,  canal,  road,  street,  alley,  lot. 
field,  meadow,  public  ground,  market  place  or  common,  and  whoever, 
being  the  owner  or  occupant  of  any  such  place,  knowingly  ix»rmits 
any  such  thing  to  remain  therein,  to  the  annoyance  of  any  of  tlie  citi- 
zens of  this  State,  neglects  or  refuses  to  remove  or  abate  the  nuisance 
occasioned  thereby,  within  twenty-four  hours  after  knowledge  of  the 
existence  of  such  nuisance  upon  any  of  the  above-described  premise.-, 
owned  or  occupied  by  him,  or  after  notice  thereof  in  writing  from 
any  supervisor,  constable,  trustee,  or  health  officer  of  any  municipal 
corporation  or  township  in  which  such  nuisance  exists,  or  from  a 
county  conmiissioner  of  such  county,  shall  be  fined  not  nioi-e  than 
fifty  dollars  nor  less  than  ten  dollars  and  pay  the  costs  of  prosecu- 
tion, and  in  default  of  the  payment  of  said  fine  and  costs  be  impris- 
oned not  more  than  thirty  days;  but  the  provisions  hereinbefore  made 
shall  not  prohibit  the  depositing  of  the  contents  of  privy  vaults  and 
catch-basins  into  trenches  or  pits  not  less  than  three  feet  deep,  exca- 
vated in  any  lot,  field,  or  meadow,  the  owner  thereof  consenting,  out- 
side the  limits  of  any  municipal  corporations,  and  not  less  than  thirty 
rods  distant  from  any  dwelling,  well,  or  spring  of  water,  lake,  bay,  or 
pond,  canal,  run,  creek,  brook,  or  stream  of  water,  public  road  or 
highway :  Pro'vided^  That  said  contents  deposited  in  said  trenches  or 
pits  are  immediately  thereafter  covered  with  dry  earth  to  the  deptli 
of  at  least  twelve  inches;  nor  shall  said  provisions  prohibit  the 
depositing  of  said  contents  into  furrows  situate  and  distinct,  as  speci- 
fied for  said  trenches  or  pits,  provided  the  same  are  immediately 
thereafter  wholly  covered  with  dry  earth  by  plowing  or  otherwise: 
And  pro  ruled  aho^  That  the  owner  or  occupant  of  the  land  in  which 
said  furrows  are  plowed  consents  and  is  a  party  thereto:  Proridtd 
aho^  That  the  board  of  health  of  any  municipal  corporation  may 
allow  said  contents  to  l)e  deposited  within  corporate  limit.s  into 
trenches  or  pits  or  furrows,  situate  distant  and  to  be  covereil  a> 
aforesaid. 

Sec.  6925.  Emptying  of  coal  dirt,  petroleum^  <&c.^  into  lakes^  rivers. 
cJ&c,  or  pcnnitting  same;  penalty. — Whoever  intentionally  throws  or 


oooDBtu]  GENERAL   STATUTE   BESTRICTIONS OHIO.  61 

deposits,  or'i>emiits  to  be  thrown  or  deposited,  any  coal  dirt,  coal 
slack,  coal  screenings,  or  coal  refuse  from  coal  mines,  or  any  refuse  or 
filth  from  any  coal-oil  refinery  or  gas  works,  or  any  whey  or  filthy 
drainage  from  a  cheese  factory,  upon  or  into  any  of  the  rivers,  lakas, 
ponds,  or  streams  of  this  State,  or  upon  or  into  any  place  from  Avhich 
the  same  will  wash  into  any  such  river,  lake,  pond,  or  stream;  or 
whoever  shall,  by  himself,  agent,  or  employe,  cause,  suffer,  or  permit 
any  j)etroleum,  or  crude  oil,  or  refined  oil,  or  any  compound  or  mix- 
ture or  other  product  of  such  well,  except  fresh  or  salt  water,  or 
residuum  of  oil  or  filth  from  oil  well,  or  oil  tank,  or  oil  vat,  or  place 
of  deposit,  of  crude  or  refined  oil,  to  run  into,  or  be  poured,  or 
emptied,  or  thrown  into  any  river,  or  ditch,  or  drain,  or  water  course, 
or  into  any  place  from  which  said  petroleum,  or  crude  oil,  or  resid- 
uum, or  refined  oil,  or  filth  may  run  or  wash,  or  does  run  or  w^ash, 
into  any  such  river,  or  ditch,  or  drain,  or  water  coui'se,  upon  indict- 
ment and  conviction  in  the  county  in  which  such  coal  mines,  coal-oil 
refinery,  gas  works,  cheese  factory,  oil  well,  oil  tank,  oil  vat,  or  place 
of  deposit  of  crude  or  refined  oil  are  situated,  shall  he,  fined  in  any 
sum  not  more  than  one  thousand  dollars  nor  less  than  fifty  dollars. 

(Fine  and  coats  a  lien;  execution,) — And  such  fine  and  costs  of 
prosecution  shall  be  and  remain  a  lien  on  said  oil  well,  oil  tank,  oil  re- 
finery, oil  vat,  and  place  of  deposit,  and  the  contents  of  said  oil  well, 
oil  tank,  oil  refinery,  oil  vat,  or  place  of  deposit  until  said  fine  and 
costs  are  paid ;  and  said  oil  w ell,  oil  tank,  oil  refinery,  oil  vat,  or  place 
of  deposit,  and  the  contents  thereof,  may  l)e  sold  for  the  payment  of 
such  fine  and  costs  upon  execution  duly  issued  for  that  purpose. 

Sec.  6927.  {Befouling  well^  npring^  d:c,) — Whoever  maliciously 
puts  any  dead  animal  carcass,  or  part  thereof,  or  any  other  putrid, 
nauseous,  noisome,  or  offensive  substance  into,  or  in  any  manner  be- 
fouls, any  well,  spring,  brook,  or  branch  of  running  w^ater,  or  any 
i-eservoir  of  waterworks,  of  which  use  is  or  may  be  made  for  domestic 
purposes,  shall  l)e  fined  not  more  than  fifty  nor  less  than  five  dollars, 
or  imprisoned  not  more  than  sixty  days,  or  both. 

[Laws  of  1904.  house  bUl  277,  p.  135.) 

AN  ACT  to  amend  section  2433,  Revised  Statutes  of  Ohio,  for  t|ie  purpose  of 
preventing  the  poUution  of  water  and  providing  i>enalty  therefore 

Sec.  1.  That  section  2433,  Revised  Statutes  of  Ohio,  l)e,  and  the 
same  is  hereby,  amended  to  read  as  follows : 

''Sec.  2433.  The  jurisdiction  of  any  municipal  corporation  to  pre- 
vent the  pollution  of  its  water  supply  and  to  provide  penalty  therefor 
shall  extend  twenty  miles  beyond  the  corporation  limits.  Whoever 
pollute  any  running  stream,  the  water  of  which  is  used  for  domestic 
purposes  by  any  municipality  by  putting  therein  any  putrid  or  offen- 


62  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

sive  substance  (other  than  fresh  or  salt  water)  injurious  to  hcaltli 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  which  shall  be  punishable  by  a 
fine  of  not  less  than  five  or  more  than  five  hundred  dollars.  It  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  public  service  or  board  of  trustees  of  pub- 
lic affairs  of  any  municipal  corporation  to  enforce  the  provisions  of 
this  section." 

Sec.  2.  Original  section  2433  is  hereby  repealed. 

OREGON. 

[Bellinger  and  Colton's  Annotated  Codes  and  Statutes  of  Oregon,  vol.  1,  p.  735.1 

OF  CRIMES  AGAINST  THE  PUBLIC   HEALTH. 

Sec.  2128.  PoUnting  with  sewage^  cfcr.,  water  for  clomeMic  use  tm- 
lawful. — Any  person  who  shall  put  any  sewage,  drainage,  or  refuse*, 
or  polluting  matter,  as  either  by  itself  or  in  connection  with  other 
matter  wull  corrupt  or  impair  the  quality  of  any  well,  spring,  brook, 
creek,  branch,  or  pond  of  water  which  is  used  or  may  be  used  for  do- 
mestic purposes,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  misdemeanor.  (Law.^ 
1885,  p.  110,  sec.  1.)       . 

Sec.  2129.  Animal  cai'cass^  rfv.,  nnlartfid  to  place  in  water  for  do- 
Tuestic  use  or  near  (levelling, — If  any  person  shall  put  any  dead  ani- 
mal carcass,  or  part  thereof,  excrement,  putrid,  nauseous,  noisome, 
decaying,  deleterious,  or  offensive  substance  into,  or  in  any  other 
manner  not  herein  named  befouls,  pollutes,  or  impairs  the  quality  of 
any  spring,  brook,  creek,  branch,  well,  or  pond  of  water,  which  is  or 
ma}^  be  used  for  domestic  purposes,  or  shall  put  any  such  dead  ani- 
mal carcass,  or  part  thereof,  excrement,  putrid,  nauseous,  noisome, 
decaying,  deleterious,  or  offensive  substance  within  one-half  mile  of 
any  dwelling  house  or  public  highway,  and  leave  the  same  without 
proper  burial,  or,  being  in  the  possession  or  control  of  any  land,  shall 
known ngly  permit  or  suffer  any  such  dead  animal  carcass,  or  part 
thereof,  excrement,  putrid,  nauseous,  noisome,  decaying,  deleterious, 
or  offensive  substance  to  remain  without  proper  burial  upon  su<h 
premises,  within  one-half  mile  of  any  dwelling  house  or  public  high- 
way, whereby  the  same  becomes  offensive  to  the  occupants  of  such 
dw^elling  or*the  traveling  public,  he  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor.    (1885,  p.  110,  sec.  2.) 

Sec.  2130.  Penalty  for  riolating  preceding  provisions  and  jitri.sdi*  - 
tion  to  enforce, — Any  person  violating  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall, 
upon  conviction,  be  fined  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  fifty  dollars, 
or  be  imprisoned  not  less  than  five  days  nor  more  than  twenty-fivt» 
days,  or  by  both  fine  and  imj)ris(mment.  Justices  of  the  peace  shall 
have  jurisdiction  of  offences  conunitted  against  the  provisions  of  this 
act. 


c«3<iDELL.]    GENERAL   STATUTE   RESTBICTIONS — SOUTH    DAKOTA.  63 

Sec.  21*31.  PoUuting  water  used  for  doinestic  purposes^  or  to  which 
lire  stork  hare  a^-eess^  unlawful. — If  any  person  or  persons  shall  put 
an}'  dead  animal's  carcass,  or  part  thereof,  or  any  excrement,  putrid, 
nauseous,  decaying,  deletmous,  or  offensive  substance  in  any  well,  or 
into  any  spring,  brook,  or  branch  of  running  water,  of  which  use  is 
made  for  domestic  purposes,  or  to  which  any  cattle,  horses,  or  other 
kind  of  stock  have  access,  every  j)erson  so  offending  shall,  on  convic- 
tion thereof,  be  fined  in  any  sum  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than 
fifty  dollars. 

Sec.  2133.  Animnl  carcass^  viiJawful  to  put  in  rirer  or  elsewhere  to 
in/ury  of  health. — If  any  person  or  persons  shall  put  any  part  of  the 
carcass  of  any  dead  animal  into  any  river,  creek,  pond,  road,  street, 
alley,  lane,  lot,  field,  meadow,  or  common,  or  if  the  owner  or  owners 
thereof  shall  knowingly  permit  the  same  to  remain  in  any  of  the 
aforesaid  places  to  the  injury  of  the  health  or  to  the  annoyance  of  the 
citizens  of  this  State,  or  any  of  them,  every  person  so  offending  shall, 
on  conviction  thereof,  l)e  fined  in  a  sum  not  le.ss  than  two  nor  more 
than  twenty-five  dollars,  and  every  twenty-four  hours  during  which 
said  owner  may  permit  the  same  to  remain  thereafter  shall  be  deemed 
an  additional  offence  against  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 
[Revised  Codes  of  1903,  Penal  Code,  p.  1146.] 

Sec.  445.  Every  person  who  throws  or  deposits  any  gas  tar,  or 
refuse  of  any  gas  house  or  factory  into  any  public  waters,  river,  or 
stream,  or  into  any  sewer  or  stream  emptying  into  such  public  waters, 
river,  or  stream,  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

Sec.  446.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  persons,  company,  or 
corporation  to  place  or  cause  to  be  placed  any  manure,  butcher's  offal, 
carcasses  of  animals,  or  other  deleterious  substances  into  any  river, 
stream,  or  lake,  in  the  State  of  South  Dakota,  or  upon  the  banks 
thereof  in  such  proximity  that  such  substances  may  be  washed  into 
said  water  or  water  courses. 

Sec.  447.  Any  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  chapter  is  a  mis- 
demeanor, and  the  person,  persons,  company,  or  corporation  so  vio- 
lating are  deemed  guilty  thereof,  and  upon  conviction  shall  be  liable 
to  a  fine  not  less  than  ten  dollai*s  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars, 
and  in  addition  thereto  such  offending  person  or  persons  shall  be 
subjected  to  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  for  the  period  of  thirty 
days  unleas  he  or  they  cause  such  deleterious  substances  to  be  removed. 

Sec.  448.  This  act  shall  not  be  construed  as  to  interfere  with  or 
prevent  any  necessary  or  legitimate  mining  operation  or  sewerage 
svstem. 


62  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  ir»i 

sive  substance  (other  than  fresh  or  salt  water)  injurious  to  health 
shall  he  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  which  shall  be  pimishable  by  a 
fine  of  not  less  than  five  or  more  than  five  hundred  dollars.  It  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  public  service  or  board  of  trustees  of  pub- 
lic affairs  of  any  nuniicipal  corporation  to  enforce  the  provisioiLs  <if 
this  section." 

Sec.  2.  Original  section  2433  is  hereby  repealed. 

OREGON. 

[Bellinger  and  Colton's  Annotated  Codes  and  Statutes  of  Oregon,  vol.  1,  p.  735.] 
OF  CRIMES  AGAINST  THE  PUBLIC   HBLALTII. 

Sec.  2128.  Polluting  with  sewage,  cCy*.,  watei'  for  domes  fir  use  tm- 
lawful. — Any  i>erson  who  shall  put  any  sewage,  drainage,  or  refuse*, 
or  polluting  matter,  as  either  by  itself  or  in  connection  w  ith  other 
matter  will  corrupt  or  impair  the  quality  of  any  well,  spring,  brook, 
creek,  branch,  or  pond  of  water  which  is  used  or  may  be  used  for  do- 
mestic purposes,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  misdemeanor.  (Laws 
1885,  p.  110,  sec.  1.)       . 

Sec.  2129.  Animal  carcass,  rf'r.,  xinlawfnl  to  place  in  water  for  (h*- 
mestic  iise  or  near  dwelling, — If  any  person  shall  put  any  dead  ani- 
mal carcass,  or  part  thereof,  excrement,  putrid,  nauseous,  noisome, 
decaying,  deleterious,  or  offensive  substance  into,  or  in  any  other 
manner  not  herein  named  befouls,  pollutes,  or  impairs  the  quality  of 
any  spring,  brook,  creek,  branch,  well,  or  pond  of  water,  wiiich  is  or 
may  be  used  for  domestic  purposes,  or  shall  put  any  such  dead  ani- 
mal carcass,  or  part  thereof,  excrement,  putrid,  nauseous,  noisome, 
decaying,  deleterious,  or  offensive  substance  within  one-half  mile  of 
any  dw^elling  house  or  public  highway,  and  leave  the  same  without 
proper  burial,  or,  being  in  the  possession  or  control  of  any  land,  shall 
knowingly  permit  or  suffer  any  such  dead  animal  carcass,  or  part 
thereof,  excrement,  putrid,  nauseous,  noisome,  decaying,  deleterious, 
or  offensive  substance  to  remain  without  proper  burial  upon  siu^h 
premises,  wuthin  one-half  mile  of  any  dwelling  house  or  public  hi^h- 
w^ay,  whereby  the  same  becomes  offensive  to  the  occupants  of  surh 
dwelling  or'the  traveling  public,  he  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor.    (1885,  p.  110,  sec.  2.) 

Sec.  2130.  Penalty  for  riolating  pi^eceding  provisions  and  jurL^iJi*  - 
tion  to  enforce. — Any  person  violating  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall, 
upon  conviction,  be  fined  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  fifty  dollars. 
or  be  imprisoned  not  less  than  five  days  nor  more  than  twenty -five 
days,  or  by  both  fine  and  imprisonment.  Justices  of  the  peace  shall 
have  jurisdiction  of  offences  conunitted  against  the  provisions  of  thi> 
act. 


GOiiDELL.]    GENERAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS SOUTH    DAKOTA.  63 

Sec.  2131.  Polluting  water  used  for  dofnestie  pni'poHeH^  or  to  which 
lire  stock  hare  access^  unlawfuL — If  any  person  or  persons  shall  put 
any  dead  animars  carcass,  or  part  thereof,  or  any  excitement,  putrid, 
nauseous,  decaying,  deletwious,  or  offensive  substance  in  any  well,  or 
into  any  spring,  brook,  or  branch  of  running  water,  of  which  use  is 
made  for  domestic  purposes,  or  to  which  any  cattle,  horses,  or  other 
kind  of  stock  have  access,  every  pei-son  so  offending  shall,  on  convic- 
tion thereof,  be  fined  in  any  sum  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than 
fifty  dollars. 

Sec.  2133.  Animcd  carcasH^  vnlawful  to  put  in  rirer  or  ehewhere  to 
injury  of  health. — If  any  person  or  persons  shall  put  any  part  of  the 
carcass  of  any  dead  animal  into  any  river,  creek,  pond,  road,  street, 
alley,  lane,  lot,  field,  meadow,  or  common,  or  if  the  owner  or  owners 
thereof  shall  knowingly  permit  the  same  to  remain  in  any  of  the 
aforesaid  places  to  the  injury  of  the  health  or  to  the  annoyance  of  the 
citizens  of  this  State,  or  any  of  them,  every  j)erson  so  offending  shall, 
on  conviction  thereof,  l)e  fined  in  a  simi  not  less  than  two  nor  more 
than  twenty-five  dollars,  and  every  twenty-four  hours  during  which 
said  owner  may  permit  the  same  to  remain  thereafter  shall  be  deemed 
an  additional  offence  against  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 
[Revised  Codes  of  1903,  Penal  Code,  p.  1146.] 

Sec.  445.  Every  person  who  throws  or  deposits  any  gas  tar,  or 
refuse  of  any  gas  house  or  factory  into  any  public  watei*s,  river,  or 
stream,  or  into  any  sewer  or  stream  emptying  into  such  public  waters, 
river,  or  stream,  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

Sec.  446.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  persons,  company,  or 
corporation  to  place  or  cause  to  be  placed  any  manure,  butcher's  offal, 
carcasses  of  animals,  or  other  deleterious  substances  into  any  river, 
hiream,  or  lake,  in  the  State  of  South  Dakota,  or  upon  the  banks 
thereof  in  such  proximity  that  such  substances  may  be  washed  into 
said  water  or  water  courses. 

Sec.  447.  Any  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  chapter  is  a  mis- 
demeanor, and  the  person,  persons,  company,  or  corporation  so  vio- 
lating are  deemed  guilty  thereof,  and  upon  conviction  shall  be  liable 
to  a  fine  not  less  than  ten  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars, 
and  in  addition  thereto  such  offending  person  or  persons  shall  be 
subjected  to  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  for  the  period  of  thirty 
days  unleas  he  or  they  cause  such  deleterious  substances  to  l)e  removed. 

Sec.  448.  This  act  shall  not  be  construed  as  to  interfere  with  or 
prevent  any  necessary  or  legitimate  mining  operation  or  sewerage 
system. 


62  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

sive  substance  (other  than  fresh  or  salt  water)  injurious  to  health 
shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  which  shall  be  punishable  by  a 
fine  of  not  less  than  five  or  more  than  five  hundred  dollars.  Tt  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  board  of  public  service  or  board  of  trustees  of  pub- 
lic affairs  of  any  municipal  corporation  to  enforce  the  provisions  of 
this  section." 

Sec.  2.  Original  section  2433  is  hereby  repealed. 

OREGON. 

[Bellinger  and  Col  ton's  Annotated  Codes  and  Statutes  of  Oregon,  vol.  1,  p.  7.35.1 
OF  CRIMES  AGAINST  THE  PUBLIC   HEALTH. 

Sec.  2128.  Polluting  with  sewage^  cf?r.,  water  fo?'  clomesitir  nsc  vn- 
lawful. — Any  person  who  shall  put  any  sewage,  drainage,  or  refuse*, 
or  polluting  matter,  as  either  by  itself  or  in  connection  with  other 
matter  will  corrupt  or  impair  the  quality  of  any  w^ell,  spring,  brook, 
creek,  branch,  or  pond  of  water  which  is  used  or  may  be  used  for  do- 
mestic purposes,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  misdemeanor.  (Laws 
1885,  p.  110,  sec.  1.)       . 

Sec.  2129.  Animal  carcass^  d*c.^  vnlawfvl  to  place  in  icater  for  do- 
mestic use  or  near  dwelling. — If  any  person  shall  put  any  dead  ani- 
mal carcass,  or  part  thereof,  excrement,  putrid,  nauseous,  noisome, 
decay^ing,  deleterious,  or  offensive  substance  into,  or  in  any  other 
manner  not  herein  named  befouls,  pollutes,  or  impairs  the  quality  of 
any  spring,  brook,  creek,  branch,  well,  or  pond  of  water,  which  is  or 
may  be  used  for  domestic  purposes,  or  shall  put  any  such  dead  ani- 
mal carcass,  or  part  thereof,  excrement,  putrid,  nauseous,  noisonie. 
decaj'ing,  deleterious,  or  offensive  substance  within  one-half  mile  of 
any  dwelling  house  or  public  highway,  and  leave  the  same  without 
proper  burial,  or,  being  in  the  possession  or  control  of  any  land,  shall 
knowingly  permit  or  suffer  any  such  dead  animal  carcass,  or  part 
thereof,  excrement,  putrid,  nauseous,  noisome,  decaying,  deleterious, 
or  offensive  substance  to  remain  without  proper  burial  upon  such 
premises,  within  one-half  mile  of  any  dwelling  house  or  public  high- 
way, w^hereby  the  same  becomes  offensive  to  the  occupants  of  such 
dwelling  or^the  traveling  public,  he  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor.    (1885,  p.  110,  sec.  2.) 

Sec.  2130.  Penalty  for  violating  preceding  provisions  and  jari-sdi*  - 
tion  to  enforce, — Any  person  violating  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall, 
upon  conviction,  l)e  fined  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  fifty  dollars, 
or  be  imprisoned  not  less  than  five  days  nor  more  than  twenty-five 
days,  or  by  both  fine  and  imprisonment.  Justices  of  the  peace  shall 
have  jurisdiction  of  offences  committed  against  the  provisions  of  thi> 
act. 


WNJDELL.]    GENERAL.   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS SOUTH    DAKOTA.  63 

Sec.  2131.  Polluting  water  used  for  domestic  purposes^  or  to  which 
lire  stock  hare  access^  unlawful, — If  any  person  or  jx^rsons  shall  put 
any  dead  animars  carcass,  or  part  thereof,  or  any  excrement,  putrid, 
nauseous,  decaying,  deleterious,  or  offensive  substance  in  any  well,  or 
into  any  spring,  brook,  or  branch  of  running  water,  of  which  use  is 
made  for  domestic  purposes,  or  to  which  any  cattle,  horses,  or  other 
kind  of  stock  have  access,  every  perscm  so  offending  shall,  on  convic- 
tion thereof,  be  fined  in  any  sum  not  less  than  three  nor  more  than 
fifty  dollars. 

Sec.  213»3.  Animal  carcass^  uidawful  to  put  in  rirer  or  elsewhere  to 
injury  of  health. — If  any  person  or  j^rsons  shall  put  any  part  of  the 
carcass  of  any  dead  animal  into  any  river,  crwk,  pond,  road,  street, 
alley,,  lane,  lot,  field,  meadow,  or  common,  or  if  the  owner  or  owners 
thereof  shall  knowingly  permit  tlie  same  to  remain  in  any  of  the 
aforesaid  places  to  the  injury  of  the  health  or  to  the  annoyance  of  the 
citizens  of  this  State,  or  any  of  them,  every  person  so  offending  shall, 
on  conviction  thereof,  be  fined  in  a  sum  not  less  than  two  nor  more 
than  twenty-five  dollars,  and  every  twenty-four  hours  during  which 
said  owner  may  permit  the  same  to  remain  thereafter  shall  be  deemed 
an  additional  offence  against  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 
[Revised  Codes  of  1903,  Penal  Code,  p.  114G.] 

Sec.  445.  Every  person  who  throws  or  deposits  any  gas  tar,  or 
refuse  of  any  gas  house  or  factory  into  any  public  waters,  river,  or 
stream,  or  into  any  sewer  or  stream  emptying  into  such  public  waters, 
river,  or  stream,  is  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

Sec.  446.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  persons,  company,  or 
corporation  to  place  or  cause  to  be  placed  any  manure,  butcher's  offal, 
carcas.ses  of  animals,  or  other  deleterious  substances  into  any  river, 
stream,  or  lake,  in  the  State  of  South  Dakota,  or  upon  the  banks 
thereof  in  such  proximity  that  such  substances  may  Ixi  washed  into 
said  water  or  w^ater  courses. 

Sec.  447.  Any  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  chapter  is  a  mis- 
demeanor, and  the  person,  persons,  company,  or  corporation  so  vio- 
lating are  deemed  guilty  thereof,  and  upon  conviction  shall  be  liable 
to  a  fine  not  less  than  ten  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars, 
and  in  addition  thereto  such  offending  person  or  persons  shall  be 
subjected  to  imprisonment  in  the  county  jail  for  the  period  of  thirty 
days  unless  he  or  they  cause  such  deleterious  substances  to  be  removed. 

Sec.  448.  This  act  shall  not  be  construed  as  to  interfere  with  or 
prevent  any  necessary  or  legitimate  mining  operation  or  sewerage 
system. 


64  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

TENNESSEE. 
[Code  of  Tennessee,   1896.1 

Sec.  6869.  It  is  a  public  nuisance —    *   ■  *     * 

3.  To  corrupt  or  render  unwholesome  or  impure  the  water  of  any 
river,  stream,  or  pond  to  the  injury  or  prejudice  of  othei-s. 

Sec.  6520.  If  any  person  place  or  throw  the  dead  body  of  any  ani- 
mal in  any  spring,  well,  cistern,  or  running  stream  of  water  he  i> 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

[1903.  chap.  310,  p.  905.] 

Section  1  makes  it  a  misdemeanor  for  ^'  any  person  to  in  any  'way 
wilfully  *  ♦  *  disturb,  pollute,  contaminate,  or  injure  the  water 
in  the  tanks,  standpipes,  or  reservoirs  "of  any  such  waterworks  by 
bathing  therein  or  by  any  other  act  or  acts  tending  to  injure  the 
water  or  to  make  it  unpalatable,  unwholesome,  or  unfit  for  domestic 
or  manufacturing  purposes  of  any  plant  supplying  water  for  domes- 
tic or  manufacturing  purposes,  however  owned.'' 

Sec.  2.  That  it  shall  be  a  misdemeanor  for  any  person  to  wilfully 
corrupt  or  to  permit  anything  to  run  or  fall  into  any  stream  from 
which  water  shall  be  taken  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  water  to  any 
water  plant  such  as  is  referred  to  in  section  1  of  this  act,  and  any 
person  violating  this  section  shall  be  punished  as  provided  in  section 
1  hereof. 

Act  takes  effect  April  7,  1903,  on  its  passage. 

TEXAS. 

[White's  Annotated  Penal  Code  of  Texas,  p.  256.] 

OFFENCES   AFFECTING    PUBUC    HEALTH. 

Art.  424.  If  any  person  shall  in  any  wise  pollute  of  <»  [or?]  obstruct 
any  water  course,  lake,  pond,  marsh,  or  conmion  sewer,  or  continue 
such  obstruction  or  pollution  so  as  to  render  the  same  unwholesome 
or  offensive  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  county,  city,  town,  or  neighbor- 
hood thereabout,  he  shall  be  fined  in  a  sum  not  exceeding  five  hun- 
dred dollars. 

OFFENCES  AGAINST  THE  PERSON. 

Art.  647.  If  any  person  shall  mingle  or  cause  to  bo  mingled  any 
other  noxious  potion  or  substance  witli  any  drink,  f<K)d,  or  medicine, 
with  intent  to  kill  or  injure  any  other  person,  or  shall  wilfiilly  pK>ison 
or  cause  to  be  poisoned  any  spring,  well,  cistern,  or  reservoir  of  water 
with  such  intent,  he  shall  be  punished  by  imprisonment  in  the  peni- 
tentiary not  less  than  two  nor  more  than  ten  years. 

'  So  In  original. 


GooDBLUl  GENERAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — VIRGINIA.  (55 

UTAH. 
[Revised  Statutes,  p.  910,  Penal  Code:  Public  Health  and  Safety.] 

Sec. 4274.  Befovling  itaters, — Any  person  who  shall  either: 

1.  Construct  or  maintain  any  corral,  sheep  pi»n,  stable,  pigpen, 
chicken  coop,  or  other  offensive  yard  or  outhouse,  where  the  waste  or 
drainage  therefrom  shall  flow  directly  into  the  waters  of  any  stream, 
well,  or  spring  of  water  used  for  domestic  purposes ;  or 

2.  Deposit,  pile,  unload,  or  leave  any  manure  heap,  offensive  rub- 
bish, or  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal  where  the  w^aste  or  drainage 
therefrom  will  flow  directly  into  the  waters  of  any  stream,  well,  or 
.spring  of  water  used  for  domestic  purposes;  or 

3.  Dip  or  wash  sheep  in  any  stream,  or  construct,  maintain,  or  use 
any  pool  or  dipping  vat  for  dipping  or  washing  sheep  in  such  close 
proximity  to  any  stream  used  by  the  inhabitants  of  any  city,  town,  or 
village  for  domestic  pusposes  as  to  make  the  waters  thereof  impure 
or  unwholesome;  or 

4.  Construct  or  maintain  any  corral,  yard,  or  vat  to  be  used  for  the 
purpose  of  shearing  or  dipping  sheep  within  twelve  miles  of  any  city, 
town,  or  village,  where  the  refuse  or  filth  from  said  corral  or  yard 
would  naturally  find  its  way  into  any  stream  of  water  used  by  the 
inhabitants  of  any  city,  village,  or  town  for  domestic  purposes;  or 

0.  Establish  and  maintain  any  corral,  camp,  or  bedding  place  for 
the  purpose  of  herding,  holding,  or  keeping  any  cattle,  horses,  sheep, 
or  hogs  within  seven  miles  of  any  city,  town,  or  village,  where  the 
refuse  or  filth  from  said  corral,  camp,  or  bedding  place  will  naturally 
find  its  way  into  any  stream  of  water  used  by  the  inhabitants  of 
any  city,  town,  or  village  for  domestic  purposes,  shall  be  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanor. 

[Laws  of  1800,  chap.  45,  p.  60.1 

Sec.  2.  No  house  refuse,  offal,  garbage,  dead  animals,  decaying 
vegetable  matter,  or  organic  waste  substance  of  any  kind  shall  be 
thrown  on  or  allowed  to  remain  upon  any  street,  road,  ditch,  gutter, 
public  place,  private  premises,  vacant  lot,  water  course,  lake,  pond, 
s])ring,  or  well. 

VIRGINIA. 

ri'ollard's  General  I^ws,  1887-1805,  chap.  72,  p.  44  (Acts  1887-88,  p.  83).  1 

AX  ACTT  to  prevent  the  iX)IlutioQ  of  drinking  water  in  this  State.     (Approved 

February  3,  1888.) 

1.  Be  It  enacted  hy  the  general  assembly  of  Virginia^  That  any  per- 
son or  persons  who  shall  knowingly  and  wilfully  throw^  or  cause  to 
be  thrown  into  any  reservoir  or  other  receptacle  of  drinking  water, 

IBB  152—05  M 5 


66  LAWS   FORBIDDING    INLAND- WATER    POLLUTION.  (No.  l-'.^ 

or  spring,  or  stream  of  running  water  ordinarily  used  for  the  supply 
of  drinking  water  or  domestic  purposes  of  any  person  or  family. 
town,  or  city  in  this  Commonwealth  the  dead  body  of  any  aiiimaK  or 
shall  drown  and  leave,  or  cause  to  be  drowned  and  left  any  animal 
therein  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  thereof 
shall  be  fined  not  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars  or  imprisoned  not 
exceeding  six  months,  or  both,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court  in  which 
such  conviction  is  made. 

[Idem,  p.  115  (Acts  1801-92,  p.  750 ).l 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  pollutiun  of  i)otabIe  water  used  for  the  supply  of  cities 
and  towns.     (Approved  February  2t),  1802.) 

1.  Be  it  enacted  hy  the  general  assembly  of  Virginia^  That  it  shall 
be  unlawful,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  for  any  person  to  defile 
or  render  impure,  turbid,  or  offensive  the  water  used  for  the  supply 
of  any  city  or  town  of  this  State,  or  the  sources  or  streams  used  for 
furnishing  such  supply,  or  to  endanger  the  purity  thereof  by  the  fol- 
lowing means,  or  any  of  them,  to  wit,  by  washing  or  bathing  thert*in, 
or  by  casting  into  any  spring,  well,  pond,  lake,  or  reservoir  from  whi:*h 
such  supply  is  drawn,  or  into  any  stream  so  used,  or  the  tributary 
thereof  above  the  point  where  such  supply  is  taken  out  of  such  stream 
or  is  impounded  for  the  purposes  of  such  supply,  or  into  any  canal, 
aqueduct,  or  other  channel  or  receptacle  for  water  connected  with 
any  works  for  furnishing  a  public  water  supply,  any  offal,  dead  fi>h, 
or  carcass  of  any  animal,  or  any  human  or  animal  filth  or  other  foul 
or  waste  animal  matter,  or  any  waste  vegetable  or  mineral  substance, 
or  the  refuse  of  any  mine,  manufactory,  or  manufacturing  process, 
or  by  discharging  or  permitting  to  flow  into  any  such  source,  sprinir, 
well,  reservoir,  pond,  stream,  or  the  tributary  thereof,  canal,  aque- 
duct, or  other  recept^acle  for  water,  the  contents  of  any  sewer,  privy, 
stable,  or  barnyard,  or  the  impure  drainage  of  any  mine,  any  crude 
or  refined  petroleum,  chemicals,  or  any  foul,  noxious,  or  offensive 
drainage  whatsoever,  or  by  constructing  or  maintaining  any  privy 
vault  or  ce.sspool,  or  by  storing  manure  or  other  soluble  fertilizer  of 
an  offensive  character,  or  by  disposing  of  the  carcass  of  any  animal, 
or  any  foul,  noxious,  or  putrescible  substance,  whether  solid  or  flui<l 
and  whether  the  same  be  buried  or  not,  within  two  hundred  ftnH  of 
any  water  course,  canal,  pond,  or  lake  afore.said,  which  is  liable  ft* 
contamination  by  the  washing  thereof  or  percolation  therefrom :  I*n*- 
inded^  That  nothing  in  this  act  contained  shall  Ik».  const rue<l  to 
authorize  the  pollution  of  any  of  the  watei"s  of  this  State  in  any  man- 
ner now  contrary  to  law:  .1//^  prorided  further^  That  this  act  shall 
not  apply  to  streams  the  drainage  area  of  which,  al)ove  the  |K)int 
where  the  water  thereof  is  withdrawn  for  the  supply  of  any  city  or 


«j<N»DKLL.]       GENERAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — WASHINGTON.  67 

town,  or  is  impounded  for  the  purposes  of  such  supply,  shall  exceed 
fifty  square  miles. 

2.  That  any  i)ei-son  knowingly  or  wilfully  violating  the  terms  of 
this  act  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  pun- 
ished for  each  offence  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars  or 
by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  thirty  days,  or  by  both,  at  the  discre- 
tion of  the  court:  Aful  pro  folded  further^  That  nothing  herein  con- 
tained shall  l)e  so  construed  as  to  prevent  the  washing  of  ore  or  min- 
erals in  any  of  the  sti'eams  or  waters  of  this  Commonwealth  other 
than  such-as  may  be  used  for  the  water  supply  of  any  city  or  town. 

3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  fifteen  days  after  its  passage. 

WASHINGTON. 
[Balllnger's  Annotated  Codes  and  Statutes,  Including  acts  of  1807.] 

Nuisances.  Sec.  3085.  It  is  a  public  nuisance : 

2.  To  throw  or  deposit  any  offal  or  other  offensive  matter,  or  the 
carcass  of  any  dead  animal,  in  any  water  course,  stream,  lake,  pond, 
spring,  well,  or  common  sewer,  street  or  public  highway,  or  in  any 
manner  to  corrupt  or  I'ender  unwholesome  or  impure  the  water  of 
any  such  spring,  stream,  pond,  lake,  or  well,  to  the  injury  or  preju- 
dice of  others. 

Punishment  provided  in  section  3097. 

[Acts  of  1899,  Chap.  LXX,  p.  114:  Proyiding  for  a  pure  water  supply.] 

AN  AC?T  to  preserve  from  poUution  the  water  supplied  to  the  inhabitants  of 
cities  and  towns  in  the  State  of  Washington ;  to  declare  wliat  are  nuisances  In 
the  vicinity  ot  the  source  of  such  water  supply ;  providing  for  the  abatement 
thereof,  and  for  tlie  punishment  of  the  violations  of  this  act. 

Be  it  enacted  hy  the  legidature  of  the  State  of  Wofihington: 
Section  1.  That  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  water  furnished 
to  the  inhabitants  of  towns  and  cities  within  this  State  from  pollu- 
tion, the  said  towns  and  cities  are  hereby  given  jurisdiction  over  all 
property  occupied  by  the  works,  rescu'voirs,  systems,  springs,  branches, 
and  pijx?s  by  means  of  which,  and  of  all  sources  of  supply  from 
which,  such  cities  or  the  companies  or  individuals  furnishing  water 
to  the  inhabitants  of  such  cities  or  towns  obtain  their  supply  of 
water  or  store  or  conduct  the  same. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  establishment  or  maintenance  of  any  slaughter 
j)en,  stock-feeding  yards,  hogpens,  or  the  deposit  or  maintenance  of 
any  uncleanly  or  unwholasome  substance,  or  the  conduct  of  any  busi- 
ness or  occupation,  or  the  allowing  of  any  condition  upon  or  suffi- 
ciently near  the  sources  from  which  the  supply  of  water  for  the 


68  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

inhabitants  of  any  such  city  or  town  is  obtained,  or  where  such 
water  is  stored,  or  the  property  or  means  through  which  the  same 
may  be  conducted  or  conveyed,  so  that  such  water  would  be  polhited 
or  the  purity  of  such  water  or  any  part  thereof  destroyed  or  endan- 
gered, is  hereby  prohibited  and  declared  to  be  unlawful,  and  i> 
hereby  declared  to  be  and  constitute  a  nuisance,  and  as  such  to  be 
abated  as  other  nuisances  are  abated  under  the  provisions  of  the 
existing  laws  of  the  State  of  Washington,  or  under  the  laws  which 
may  be  hereafter  enacted  in  relation  to  the  abatement  thereof;  and 
that  any  person  or  persons  who  shall  do,  establish,  maintain,  or 
create  any  of  the  things  hereby  prohibited  for  the  purpose  of  or 
which  shall  have  the  effect  of  polluting  any  such  sources  of  water 
supply  or  water,  or  shall  do  any  of  the  things  hereby  declared  to  \>o 
unlawful,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  creating  and  maintaining  a 
nuisance,  and  may  be  prosecuted  therefor,  and  upon  conviction 
thereof  may  be  fined  in  any  sum  not  exceeding  five  hundred  dollar-. 

Sec.  3.  If  upon  the  trial  of  any  person  or  persons  for  the  violation 
of  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  such  person  or  persons  shall  U» 
found  guilty  of  creating  or  maintaining  a  nuisance  as  hereby  defined 
or  of  violating  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  such  person  or  persons  to  forthwith  abate  such  nuisance,  and  in 
the  event  of  their  failure  so  to  do  within  one  day  after  such  convic- 
tion, unless  further  time  be  granted  by  the  court,  a  warrant  shall  \yo 
issued  by  the  court  wherein  such  conviction  was  obtained  directeil 
to  the  sheriff  of  the  county  in  which  such  nuisance  exists,  and  the 
sheriff  shall  forthwith  proceed  to  abate  the  said  nuisance,  and  tho 
cost  thereof  shall  be  taxed  against  the  party  so  convicted  as  a  part  of 
the  costs  of  such  case. 

Sec.  4.  It  is  hereby  made  the  duty  of  the  city  health  officer,  city 
physician,  board  of  public  health,  mayor  of  the  city,  or  such  other 
officer  as  may  have  the  sanitary  condition  of  such  city  or  town  in 
charge,  to  see  that  the  provisions  of  this  act  are  enforced,  and,  uiwn 
complaint  teing  made  to  any  such  officer,  to  immediately  investigate 
the  said  complaint  and  see  if  the  same  shall  api>ear  to  be  well  founded ; 
and  if  the  same  shall  appear  to  be  well  founded,  it  shall  be,  and  is 
hereby,  declared  to  be  the  duty  of  such  officer  to  proceed  and  file  a 
complaint  against  the  person  or  persons  violating  any  of  the  proA-i- 
sions  of  this  act  and  cause  the  arrest  and  prosecution  of  such  person 
or  persons. 

Sec.  5.  That  any  city  supplied  with  water  from  any  source  of  sup- 
ply as  hereinbefore  mentioned,  or  any  corporation  owning  water- 
works for  the  puri^ose  of  supplying  any  city  or  the  inhabitants  there<if 
with  water,  in  the  event  that  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  an^ 
being  violated  by  any  person,  may,  by  civil  action  in  the  superior 


cnoDKLL.]     GENERAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — WEST   VIRGINIA.  69 

court  of  the  proper  county,  have  the  maintenance  of  the  nuisance 
which  pollutes  or  tends  to  pollute  the  said  water,  as  provided  for  by 
section  2  of  this  act,  enjoined,  and  such  injunction  may  be  perpetual. 

WEST   VIRGINIA. 

[Code  of  Wegt  Virginia,  1891,  p.  933.] 

OFFE?7CE8    AGAINST    PUBLIC    HEALTH — MISDEMEANOR    TO    PUT    DEAD    ANIMALS,    ETC., 
INTO  WATER  USED  FOB  DOMESTIC  PURPOSES. 

If  any  person  or  persons  shall  knowingly  and  willfully  throw  or 
cause  to  be  thrown  into  any  well,  cistern,  spring,  brook,  or  branch  of 
running  Water  which  is  used  for  domestic  purposes,  any  dead  animal, 
carcass,  or  part  thereof,  or  any  putrid,  nauseous,  or  offensive  sub- 
stance, he  or  they  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  con- 
viction thereof  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  five  dollars  nor  more  than 
one  hundred  dollars,  and  may,  at  the  discretion  of  the  jury,  be  con- 
fined in  the  jail  of  the  county  not  exceeding  ninety  days,  and  shall 
moreover  be  liable  to  the  party  injured  in  a  civil  action  for  damages. 
(Acts  1872-73,  ch.  176.) 

PREVENT! NCf  THE  DEPOSIT  OP  THE  CARCASSES  OF  DEAD  ANIMALS  AND  OTHER   NOXIOUS 
MATTER  IN   CERTAIN    WATERS  OF  THE  STATE,   ETC. 

It  shall  be  unlawful  to  put  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal,  or  the 
offal  from  any  slaughterhouse,  butcher's  establishment,  or  packing 
house,  or  slop  or  other  refuse  from  any  hotel  or  a  tavern,  or  any 
six)iled  meats  or  spoiled  fish,  or  any  putrid  animal  substance,  or  the 
contents  of  any  privy  vault,  upon  or  into  any  river,  creek,  or  other 
h^tream  within  this  State,  or  upon  the  surface  of  any  road,  street,  alley, 
city  lot,  public  ground,  market  space,  or  common,  or  on  the  surface 
within  one  hundred  feet  of  any  public  road. 

III.  A  justice  of  the  peace  shall  have  jurisdiction  of  any  offence 
against  the  provisions  of  this  act,  committed  within  his  county.  Any 
such  offence  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than  five  or  more 
than  fifty  dollars,  and  the  proceedings  in  the  case,  as  well  as  in  all 
other  cases  under  this  act,  shall  lx»  in  conformity  with  sections  221  to 
•230,  inclusive,  or  chapter  50  of  the  Code  of  West  Virginia,  which  sec- 
tions are  hereby  made  applicable  to  such  cases.  Upon  a  conviction 
for  any  such  offence  the  accused  nuist  bury  at  least  three  feet  under 
the  ground,  or  destroy  by  fire,  any  of  the  things  named  in  the  first 
s^^ction  which  he  has  placed  in  any  of  the  waters  or  places  named  in 
such  section,  or  which  he  has  knowingly  permitted  to  remain  upon  a 
city  lot,  public  gi'ound,  market  space,  or  common,  contrary  to  the 
provisions  of  the  second  section,  within  twenty-four  hours  after  such 
conviction,  and  if  he  shall  fail  to  do  so,  the  justice  shall  further  fine 
him  not  less  than  ten  nor  more  than  fifty  dollars.    (Acts  1887,  ch.  25.) 


70  LAWS  FORBIDDING  INLAND- WATEB  POLLUTION.  [Na  152. 

WYOMING. 

[Revised  Statutes*  1899.] 

CRIMES  AGAINST  THE  PERSON. 

Sec.  4966.  Poisoning  springs. — Whoever  poisons  any  spring,  well, 
cistern,  or  reservoir  of  water  with  intent  to  injure  or  kill  any  human 
being  shall  be  imprisoned  in  the  penitentiary  not  more  than  fourteen 
years. 

CRIMES   AGAINST  PUBLIC   HEALTH   AND  SAFETY. 

Sec.  5114.  Putting  offensive  suhstanres  in  creek  or  highway  declared 
a  nvisance. — If  any  person  or  persons,  association  of  persons,  com- 
pany, or  corporation  shall  deposit,  place,  or  put,  or  cause  to  be  depos- 
ited, placed,  or  put  upon  or  into  any  river,  creek,  bay,  pond,  canal, 
ditch,  lake,  stream,  railroad,  public  or  private  road,  highway,  street, 
alley,  lot,  field,  meadow,  public  place  or  public  ground,  common, 
market  place,  or  in  any  other  and  different  locality  in  this  State, 
where  the  same  may  become  a  source  of  annoyance  to  any  person  or 
detrimental  to  the  public  health,  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal  or 
the  offal  or  refuse  matter  from  any  slaughterhouse*,  butcher's  estab- 
lishment, meat  market,  packing  house,  fish  house,  hogpen,  stable,  or 
any  spoiled  meats,  spoiled  fish,  or  any  animal  or  vegetable  matter  in 
a  putrid  or  decayed  state,  or  liable  to  l)ecome  putrid,  decayed,  or 
offensive,  or  the  contents  of  any  privy  vault,  or  any  offensive  matter 
or  substance  whatever,  or  shall  cause  to  lx»  maintained  any  pri\'y, 
slaughterhouse,  meat  market,  or  any  other  or  different  place,  build- 
ing, or  establishment  that  shall  directly  or  indirectly  Iw  the  cause  of 
polluting  the  waters  of  any  spring,  reservoir,  stream,  lake,  or  water 
supply  used  wholly  or  partly  for  domestic  purposes,  or  if  the  owner 
or  owners,  tenant  or  tenants,  occupant  or  occupants  of  any  lands  or 
tenements,  dwellings,  or  places  of  business,  or  any  other  and  different 
places  or  localities,  w^hether  defined  in  this  section  or  not,  shall  know- 
ingly permit  any  of  the  said  offensive  matters  or  substances,  or  any 
other  and  different  offensive  matter  or  substances,  to  remain  in  any 
of  the  aforesaid  j)laces  or  other  and  different  places  or  localities,  or 
shall  permit  any  of  the  aforesaid  places  to  l)e  maintained  which  shall 
cause  the  jwllution  of  any  stream,  spring,  reservoir,  lake,  or  water 
supply,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  in  any  locality,  place,  or  situa- 
tion in  this  State,  to  the  aiuioyance  of  the  citizens  or  residents  of  this 
State,  or  any  of  them,  or  to  the  detriment  of  the  public  health,  or  who 
shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  remove  or  abate  the  nuisance,  offence,  or 
inconvenience  occasioned  or  caused  thereby  within  twenty-four  hours 
after  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  such  nuisance,  offence,  or  incon- 
venience in  or  upon  any  of  the  above-described  premises  or  placets. 


GOI3DKLL.]  GENERAL   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS WYOMING.  71 

or  any  other  and  different  place  or  locality,  owned  or  occupied  by 
him  her,  it,  or  they,*  [them?]  or  after  notice  in  writing  from  the 
sheriff,  deputy  sheriff,  or  coroner  of  any  county  in  this  State,  or  the 
constable  of  any  precinct,  or  the  marshal  or  any  of  the  policemen  of 
any  city,  town, or  village  in  which  such  nuisance  shall  exist, or  from  any 
peace  officer  in  this  State  of  the  locality  wherein  such  nuisance  shall 
exist,  every  such  person  so  offending  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor, 
and  upon  conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  less  than 
ten  dollars  nor  more  than  fifty  dollars,  and  if  such  nuisance  is  not 
abated  within  forty-eight  hours  after  the  same  is  created  or  exists  to 
the  knowledge  of  such  offender,  or  within  forty-eight  hours  after 
said  written  notice  is  given,  such  failure  to  abate  such  nuisance  shall 
be  deemed  a  second  offence  against  the  provisions  of  this  section, 
and  every  like  failure  and  neglect  to  abate  such  nuisance  of  each 
twent3'-four  hours  thereafter  shall  be  considered  an  additional  offence, 
and  shall  be  subject  to  a  like  penalty  as  is  herein  provided. 

Sec.  5115.  Abatement  of  nuisance, — Provides  that  officer  shall  re- 
move nuisance,  on  neglect  of  owners  so  to  do,  expenses  collectible  in 
civil  action. 

Sec.  5116.  Thronnng  aawdnst  into  streams, — If  any  person  or  per- 
sons who  may  own,  run,  or  have  charge  of  any  sawmill  in  this  State 
shall  throw  or  permit  the  sawdust  therefrom  to  be  thrown  or  placed 
in  any  manner  into  any  river,  stream,  creek,  bay,  pond,  lake,  canal, 
ditch,  or  other  water  course  in  this  State,  such  person  or  persons  shall 
be  liable  to  a  like  penalty  as  is  provided  in  section  5114. 

riiAWB  of  WyomlriK,  1005,  chap.  31,  p.  25.] 
FISH — POLLUTING    WATEBS. 

AX  ACT  To  repeal  section  1  of  chapter  22  of  the  session  laws  of  Wyoming  of 
the  year  A.  1).  1903,  heing  an  act  entitled  "An  act  to  amend  and  reenact  sec- 
tion 2146,  revised  statutes  of  Wyoming,  IHIH).  relating  to  the  unlawful  taking 
or  having  in  possession  of  certain  kinds  of  fish,"  and  to  amend  and  reenact 
section  2148,  revised  statutes  of  Wyoming,  181)9,  relating  to  the  unlawful 
placing  of  deleterious  substances,  poisons,  or  explosives  in  the  waters  of  the 
State. 

Sec.  1.  That  section  1,  chapter  22,  of  the  session  laws  of  Wyoming, 
1003,  l)eing  "An  act  to  amend  and  reenact  section  2146  of  the  revised 
statutes  of  Wyoming,  1899,  relating  to  the  unlawful  taking  or  having 
in  possession  of  certain  kinds  of  fish,"  be  and  the  same  is  hereby 
rej>eAled. 

Sec.  2.  That  section  2148  of  the  revised  statutes  of  Wyoming,  1899, 
be  amended  and  reenacted  so  as  to  read  as  follows: 

"  Sec.  2148.  Any  owner  or  owners  of  any  sawmill,  reduction  works, 
smelter,   refining  or   contraction   works,  or   any   of  the  employees 

»  So  in  original. 


72  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

thereof,  who  shall  throw,  deposit,  or  in  any  way  permit  to  pass  iiito 
any  natural  stream  or  lake  wherein  are  living  fish,  any  sawdust, 
chemicals,  or  other  matter  or  substance  that  will  tend  to  drive  away 
from  such  waters  any  fish  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor 
and  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars  nor  more  than  one 
hundred  dollars,  or  shall  be  imprisoned  in  the  county  jail  not  le^s 
than  thirty  days  nor  more  than  sixty  days.  Any  person  who  shall 
kill  in  any  of  the  waters  of  this  State,  by  use  of  any  poison  or  iiele- 
terious  drug,  or  by  the  use  of  any  explosive  substance,  or  explode  or 
cause  to  be  exploded  any  powder,  giant  powder,  hercules  powder, 
dynamite,  nitroglycerine,  lime  gas,  or  any  other  explosive  substance 
for  the  purpose  of  catching,  killing,  or  destroying  food  fish  in  such 
waters  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor  and  upon  conviction 
thereof  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  more  than  two 
hundred  dollars,  and  shall  be  imprisoned  in  the  county  jail  not  less 
than  ninety  days  nor  more  than  one  year:  Provided  further^  That 
nothing  in  this  title  contained  shall  prevent  the  owner  or  owners  of 
any  quartz  mill  or  reduction  works  in  this  State,  now  located  or  to 
be  hereafter  located  upon  any  natural  stream  or  lake,  from  operating 
or  working  said  quartz  mill  or  reduction  works,  where  the  said  owner 
or  owners  thereof  shall  build  or  cause  to  be  built  a  suitable  dam^  to 
be  used  in  connection  with  said  quartz  mill  or  reduction  works,  and 
which  dam  shall  be  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  any  tailings  or  sub- 
f)tance  from  passing  into  the  stream  or  lake  which  will  destroy  or 
drive  away  the  fish  or  any  number  of  them  from  said  stream,  lake, 
or  water." 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its 
passage. 

Approved  February  15,  A.  D.  1905. 

[Chapter  83,  House  bill  No.  87.] 

FIBH. 

AN  ACT  to  repeal  section  1  of  chapter  22  of  the  session  laws  of  Wyoming  of 
the  year  A.  D.  1903,  being  an  act  eutitleil  "An  act  to  amend  and  reenact  sec- 
tion 2146,  revised  statutes  of  Wyoming,  1899,  relating  to  the  unlawful  taking 
or  having  in  possession  of  certain  Ivinds  of  fish,"  and  to  amend  and  reenact 
section  2148,  revised  statutes  of  Wyoming,  1899,  relating  to  the  unlawful 
placing  of  deleterious  substances,  i)ois<)ns,  or  explosives  in  the  waters  of  the 
State. 

Sec.  1.  Repeat  of  sec.  7,  chap,  22,  lavs  1903, — That  section  1,  chap- 
ter 22,  of  the  session  laws  of  Wyoming,  1903,  being  ''An  act  to  amend 
and  reenact  section  214()  of  the  revised  statutes  of  Wyoming,  1809, 
relating  to  tlie  unlawful  taking  or  having  in  possession  of  certain 
kinds  of  fish"  be,  and  the  same  is  hereby,  repealed. 


eooDELL.]  SEVEBE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS.  78 

Sec.  2.  Use  of  explosives  and  poison. — That  section  2148  of  the 
revissed  statutes  of  Wyoming,  1899,  be  amended  and  reenacted  so  as 
to  read  as  follows : 

"  Sec.  2148.  Any  owner  or  owners  of  any  sawmill,  or  any  of  the  em- 
ployees thereof,  who  shall  throw,  deposit,  or  in  any  way  permit  to 
pass  into  any  natural  sti-eam  or  lake  wherein  are  living  fish  any 
saw^dust  or  other  matter  or  substance  that  will  tend  to  drive  away 
from  such  waters  any  fish,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor, 
and  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars  nor  more  than  one 
hundred  dollars,  or  shall  be  imprisoned  in  the  county  jail  not  less 
than  thirty  days  nor  more  than  sixty  days.  Any  pei-son  who  shall 
kill  in  any  of  the  waters  of  this  State,  by  use  of  any  poison  or  dele- 
terious drug,  or  by  use  of  any  explosive  substances,  or  explode  or 
cause  to  be  exploded  any  powder,  giant  powder,  hercules  powder, 
dynamite,  nitroglycerine,  lime  gas,  or  any  other  explosive  substance 
for  the  purpose  of  catching,  killing,  or  destroying  the  food  fish  in 
such  waters,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  con- 
viction thereof  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  more 
than  two  hundred  dollars,  and  shall  be  imprisoned  in  the  county  jail 
not  less  than  ninety  days  nor  more  than  one  year." 

Sec  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its 
passage. 

Approved  February  21,  A.  D.  1905. 

CLASS  III.  STATES  WITH  SEVERE  RESTRICTIONS. 

This  group  consists  of  those  States  which  have  adopted  unusual 
and  stringent  methods  to  enforce  the  right  of  their  citizens  to  unpol- 
luted natural  waters.  The  adoption  of  the  legislation  embodied  in 
the  following  pages  under  this  group  indicates  that  the  inhabitants 
of  the  States  in  which  these  laws  have  l>een  adopted  have  begun  to 
realize  the  immense  harm  which  the  increased  pollution  of  waters, 
owing  to  increase  of  population,  is  doing  to  ixjrsons  and  property 
within  their  borders.  It  is  noticeable  that  in  several  of  the  States 
stringent  methods  are  adopted  by  which  pollution  by  cities  can  be 
regulated  and  controlled;  while  in  at  least  one  State  (New  Jersey)  a 
system  has  l)een  instituted  which,  carried  to  its  logical  conclusion, 
will  result  in  conveying  all  sewage  matter  from  cities  and  large  towns 
so  far  beyond  the  borders  of  the  land  as  to  i*ender  it  wholly  inoffen- 
sive or  in  some  other  way  preventing  its  getting  into  any  inland 
waters  in  an  offensive  form. 


74  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

CONNECTICUT. 

[deneral  Statutes,  revision  of  1902,  sec.  1328,  as  amended  by  chap.  28,  of  the  laws  of 

1905.1 

Every  person  who  shall  wantonly  and  indecently  expose  his  person, 
or  who  shall  bathe  in  any  reservoir  from  which  the  inhabitants  of 
any  town,  city  or  borough  are  supplied  with  water,  or  in  any  lake, 
pond  or  stream  tributary  to  such  reservoir,  or  who  shall  cast  any 
filthy  or  impure  substance  into  said  reservoir,  or  any  of  its  tribu- 
taries, or  commit  any  nuisance  in  or  about  it  or  them,  shall  be  fined 
not  more  than  one  hundred  dollars,  or  imprisoned  not  more  than  six 
months,  or  both. 

[General  Stetutes,  revision  of  1902,  p.  668.1 

Sec.  2593.  Pollutian  of  water  from  which  ice  is  taken, — Every  p>er- 
son  who  shall  put  any  substance  into  waters  from  which  ice  is  pro- 
cured for  consumption  which  shall  defile,  pollute,  or  injure  the 
quality  of  said  ice,  or  who  shall  throw  anything  into  such  waters  or 
upon  the  ice  with  intent  to  injure  the  quality  of  the  ice  or  obstruct 
the  cutting  or  gathering  of  the  same,  shall  l)e  fined  not  more  than 
thirty  dollars  or  imprisoned  not  more  than  thirty  days.  This  section 
shall  not  affect  the  rights  of  any  manufacturing  establishment  now 
existing  or  hereafter  established  to  use  any  waters  in  carrying  on  it.^ 
business. 

Sec.  2594.  Pollution  of  waters, — Every  person  who  shall  put  or 
leave  a  dead  animal  or  carcass  in  a  pond,  spring,  or  reservoir,  the 
water  of  which  is  conveyed  to  any  building,  or  who  shall  wilfully  put 
and  leave  in  any  of  the  waters  of  this  State  a  dead  animal,  shall  Ik» 
fined  not  more  than  fifty  dollai-s  or  imprisoned  not  more  than  thirty 
days. 

Sec.  2595.  Penalty  for  polluting  drinking  water. — Every  person 
who  shall  put  anything  into  a  well,  spring,  fountain,  or  cistern,  or 
other  place  from  which  water  is  procured  for  drinking  or  other 
purposes,  with  the  intent  to  injure  the  quality  of  said  water,  shall 
l)e  fined  not  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  or  imprisoned  not  moro 
than  six  months. 

Sec.  2590.  Analysis  of  witter, — Town,  borough,  and  city  health 
officers  shall,  when  in  their  judgment  health  is  menaced  or  impaired 
through  a  water  supply,  send,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  county 
health  officer,  samples  of  such  water  to  the  State  l)oard  of  health  for 
examination  and  analysis,  and  the  expense  of  such  examination  and 
analysis  shall  Ik?  paid  out  of  the  funds  appropriated  to  said  board  to 
investigate  the  pollution  of  streams. 

Sec.  2598.  Location  of  cemetei^ies, — No  cemetery  or  place  of  sepul- 
ture shall  hereafter  be  located  or  established  within  one-half  mile  of 


GOODRLL.1        SEVEKE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — CONNECTICUT.  75 

any  reservoir  from  which  the  inhabitants  of  a  town,  city,  or  borough 
are  supplied  with  water ;  nor  shall  such  reservoir  be  located  or  estab- 
lished within  one-half  mile  of  a  cemetery  or  place  of  sepulture  unless 
the  superior  court  of  the  county  wherein  such  cemetery  or  place  of 
sepulture  or  reservoir  is  located  shall,  upon  application  or  notice  find 
that  such  cemetery  or  place  of  sepulture  or  such  reservoir  so  proposed 
to  be  located  is  of  public  convenience  and  necessity  and  will  not  be 
detrimental  to  the  public  health. 

Sec.  2602.  Pollution  of  reservoirs — Penalty, — No  person,  after 
notice  shall  have  been  posted  that  any  reservoir,  or  any  lake,  pond,  or 
stream  tributary  thereto,  is  used  for  supplying  the  inhabitants  of  a 
town,  city,  or  borough  with  water,  shall  wash  any  animal,  clothing, 
or  other  article  therein.  No  person  shall  throw  any  noxious  or  harm- 
ful substance  into  such  reservoir,  lake,  pond,  or  stream,  nor  shall  any 
person,  after  receipt  of  written  notice  from  any  county  or  town 
health  officer  having  jurisdiction  that  the  same  is  detrimental  to  such 
water  supply,  suiler  any  such  substance  to  be  placed  upon  land 
ow-ned,  occupied,  or  controlled  by  him,  so  that  the  same  may  be 
carried  by  rains  or  freshets  into  the  water  of  such  reservoir,  lake, 
pond,  stream,  or  drain,  or  allow  to  be  drained  any  sewage  from  said 
land  into  such  water.  Every  person  who  shall  violate  any  provision 
of  this  section  shall  be  fined  not  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  or 
imprisoned  not  more  than  thirty  days,  or  both. 

Sec.  2603.  Appointment  of  special  police. — The  governor  may,  upon 
the  application  of  such  town,  borough,  city,  or  company,  commission 
during  his  pleasure  one  or  more  persons  who,  having  been  sworn, 
may  act  as  policemen  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  and  abating 
nuisancas  and  protecting  such  water  supply  from  contamination. 
Such  policemen  shall  arrest  without  previous  complaint  and  warrant 
any  person  for  any  offense  under  the  provisions  of  any  law  for  the 
protection  of  wat^^'r  supplies  when  the  offender  shall  be  taken  or 
apprehended  in  the  act  or  on  the  speedy  information  of  others,  and 
all  persons  so  arrested  shall  be  immediately  presented  before  proper 
authority.  Every  such  policeman  shall,  when  on  duty,  wear  in  plain 
view  a  shield  bearing  the  words  "  Special  police  "  and  the  name  of 
the  town,  city,  borough,  or  company  for  which  he  is  commissioned. 

[Acts  of  1003,  chap.  192,  p.  148.1 
AN  ACT  coiicerniug  iujuuctions. 

Be  it  enacted  hy  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives  in  general 
assembly  convened. 

Section  1.  Section  2599  of  the  General  Statutes  is  hereby  amended 
to  read  as  follows:  \\Tienever  any  land  or  building  is  so  used,  occu- 
pied or  suffered  to  remain,  that  it  is  a  source  of  injury  to  the  water 


76  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

stored  in  a  reservoir  used  for  supplying  a  town,  city,  or  borough  with 
water,  or  to  any  source  of  supply  to  such  reservoir,  or  when  such 
water  is  liable  to  pollution  in  consequence  of  the  use  of  the  same, 
either  the  authorities  of  such  town,  city,  or  borough,  or  the  company 
having  charge  of  said  water,  may  apply  to  the  superior  court,  or  any 
judge  thereof  in  vacation,  in  the  county  in  which  said  town,  citA, 
borough,  or  company  is  located,  for  relief;  and  said  court  or  judge 
may  order  the  removal  of  any  building,  enjoin  any  use  or  occupation 
of  any  land  or  building  or  of  said  water  which  is  detrimental  to  said 
water,  or  make  any  other  order,  temporary  or  permanent,  which  in 
its  or  his  judgment  may  be  necessary  to  preserve  the  purity  of  said 
water.  Said  town,  city,  borough,  or  company  may,  by  its  officers  or 
agents,  duly  appointed  for  such  purpose,  at  all  reasonable  times  enter 
upon  and  inspect  any  premises  within  the  watershed  tributary  to  such 
water  supply,  and  in  ca.se  any  nuisance  shall  be  found  thereon  which 
pollutes  or  is  likely  to  pollute  such  water,  may  abate  such  nuisance 
at  its  own  expense  aft^r  reasonable  notice  to  the  owner  or  occupant 
of  said  premises  and  upon  his  neglect  or  refusal  to  abate  the  same: 
but  such  town,  city,  borough,  or  company  shall  be  liable  for  all  unnec- 
essary or  unreasonable  damage  done  to  said  premises. 

Sec.  2.  Section  2600  of  the  General  Statutes  is  hereby  amended  to 
read  as  follows:  Any  city,  town,  borough,  or  corporation  authorized 
by  law  to  supply  the  inhabitants  of  any  city,  town,  or  borough  with 
pure  wjvter  for  public  or  domestic  use  may  take  and  use  such  lands, 
springs,  streams,  or  ponds,  or  such  rights  or  interests  therein  as  the 
superior  court  or  any  judge  thereof  in  vacation  may,  on  application, 
deem  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  such  supply.  For  the  purpose  of 
preserving  the  purity  of  such  water  and  preventing  any  contamina- 
tion thereof,  such  city,  town,  borough,  or  corporation  may  take  such 
lands  or  rights  as  the  superior  court  or  any  judge  thereof  in  vacation 
may,  on  application,  deem  necessary  therefor.  Compensation  shall 
be  made  to  all  persons  entitled  thereto  in  the  manner  provided  by 
section  2601. 

Sec.  3.  Section  2601  of  the  General  Statutes  is  hereby  amended  to 
read  as  follows :  In  all  cases  where  the  law  requires  compensation  to 
\^  made  to  any  person  whose  rights,  interests,  or  property  are  injuri- 
ously affected  by  said  orders,  such  court  or  judge  shall  appoint  a 
committee  of  three  disinterested  freeholders  of  the  county  who  shall 
determine  and  award  the  amount  to  be  paid  by  such  authorities  before 
such  order  is  carried  into  effect- 
Approved  June  18,  1903. 


GOODELL.1        SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS MASSACHUSETTS.        77 

MA88ACHI  SETTS. 

[Reviaed  laws  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  enacted  November  21,  1901,  taking 
effect  January  1,  1902,  chap.  75,  p.  677.1 

OF  THE  PRESEBVATION  OF  THE  PUBLIC  HEALTH. 

Sec.  112.  Supervision  of  inlund  waters.— The^  State  board  of  health 
shall  have  the  general  oversight  and  care  of  all  inland  waters  and  of 
all  streams  and  ponds  used  by  any  city,  town,  or  public  institution, 
or  by  an}^  water  or  ice  company,  in  this  Commonwealth  as  sources  of 
water  supply,  and  of  all  springs,  streams,  and  water  courses  tribu- 
tary thereto.  It  shall  be  provided  with  maps,  plans,  and  documents 
suitable  for  such  purposes  and  shall  keep  records  of  all  its  transac- 
tions relative  thereto. 

Sec.  113.  Examination  of  water  suppli/. — Said  lx)ard  may  cause 
examinations  of  such  waters  to  lx>  made  to  ascertain  their  purity  and 
fitness  for  domestic  use  or  their  liability  to  impair  the  interests  of  the 
public  or  of  persons  lawfully  using  them  or  to  impair  the  public 
health.  It  may  make  rules  and  regulations  to  prevent  the  pollution 
and  to  secure  the  sanitary  protection  of  all  such  waters  as  are  used 
as  sources  of  water  supply. 

Sec.  114.  Effect  of  publication  of  notice. — The  publication  of  an 
order,  rule,  or  regulation  made  by  the  board  under  the  provisions  of 
the  preceding  section,  or  section  one  hundred  and  eighteen,  in  a  news- 
paper of  the  city  or  town  in  which  such  order,  rule,  or  regulation  is 
to  take  effect,  or,  if  no  newspaper  is  published  in  such  city  or  town, 
the  posting  of  a  copy  of  such  order,  rule,  or  regulation  in  a  public 
place  in  such  city  or  town,  shall  be  legal  notice  to  all  persons,  and  an 
affidavit  of  such  publication  or  posting  by  the  person  causing  such 
notice  to  be  published  or  posted,  filed  and  recorded  with  a  copy  of  the 
notice  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  such  city  or  town,  shall  be  admitted 
as  evidence  of  the  time  at  which,  and  the  place  and  manner  in  which, 
the  notice  was  given. 

Sec.  115.  Report  and  recommendations, — Said  board  shall  annu- 
ally, on  or  before  the  tenth  day  of  January,  make  a  report  to  the  gen- 
eral court  of  its  doings  for  the  preceding  year,  recommend  measures 
for  the  prevention  of  the  pollution  of  such  waters  and  for  the  removal 
of  polluting  substances  in  order  to  protect  and  develop  the  rights  and 
property  of  the  Commonwealth  therein  and  to  protect  the  public 
health,  and  recommend  any  legislation  or  plans  for  systems  of  main 
r-ewers  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  public  health  and  for  the 
purification  and  prevention  of  pollution  of  the  ponds,  streams,  and 
inland  waters  of  the  Commonwealth.  It  shall  also  give  notice  to  the 
attorney-general  of  any  violation  of  law  relative  to  the  pollution  of 
water  supplies  and  inland  waters. 


78  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152, 

Sec.  116.  Agents  and  assistants. — Said  board  may  appoint,  employ, 
and  fix  the  compensation  of  such  agents,  clerks,  servants,  engineers, 
and  expert  assistants  as  it  considers  necessary.  Such  agents  and 
servants  shall  cause  the  provisions  of  law  relative  to  the  pollution  of 
water  supply  and  of  the  rules  and  regulations  of  said  board  to  l^e 
enforced. 

Sec.  117.  Adrice  as  to  methods. — Said  board  shall  consult  with  and 
advise  the  authorities  of  cities  and  towns  and  persons  having,  or  about 
to  have,  systems  of  water  supply,  drainage,  or  sewerage  as  to  the  most 
appropriate  source  of  water  supply,  and  the  best  method  of  assuring 
its  purity  or  as  to  the  best  method  of  disposing  of  their  drainage  or 
sewage  with  reference  to  the  existing  and  future  needs  of  other  cities, 
towns,  or  persons  which  may  be  affected  thereby.  It  shall  also  con- 
sult with  and  advise  persons  engaged  or  intending  to  engage  in  any 
manufacturing  or  other  business  whose  drainage  or  sewage  may  tend 
to  pollute  any  inland  water  as  to  the  best  method  of  preventing  such 
pollution,  and  it  may  conduct  experiments  to  determine  the  best 
methods  of  the  purification  or  disposal  of  drainage  or  sewage.  Xo 
person  shall  be  required  to  bear  the  expense  of  ^uch  consultation, 
advice,  or  experiments.  Cities,  towns,  and  persons  shall  submit  to 
said  board,  for  its  advice,  their  proposed  system  of  water  supply  or  of 
the  disposal  of  drainage  or  sewage,  and  all  petitions  to  the  general 
court  for  authority  to  introduce  a  system  of  water  supply,  drainage, 
or  sewerage  shall  be  accompanied  by  a  copy  of  the  recommendation 
and  advice  of  said  board  thereon.  In  this  section  the  term  *'  drain- 
age "  means  rainfall,  surface,  and  subsoil  water  only,  and  ''  sewage '' 
means  dome.stic  and  manufacturing  filth  and  refuse. 

Sec.  118.  Removal  of  causes  of  pollntion, — Upon  petition  to  said 
board  by  the  nuiyor  of  a  city  or  the  selectmen  of  a  town,  the  manag- 
ing board  or  officer  of  any  public  institution,  or  by  a  board  of  water 
commissioners,  or  the  president  of  a  water  or  ice  company,  stating 
that  manure,  excrement,  garbage,  sewage,  or  any  other  matter  pol- 
lutes or  tends  to  pollute  the  waters  of  any  stream,  pond,  spring,  or 
water  course  used  by  such  city,  town,  institution,  or  company  as  a 
source  of  water  supply,  the  board  shall  appoint  a  time  and  place 
within  the  county  where  the  nuisance  or  pollution  is  alleged  to  exist 
for  a  hearing,  and  after  notice  thereof  to  parties  interested  and  a 
liearing,  if  in  its  judgment  the  public  health  so  requires,  shall,  by  an 
order  served  upon  the  party  causing  or  permitting  such  pollution, 
prohibit  the  deposit,  keeping,  or  discharge  of  any  such  cause  of  ik)1- 
lution,  and  shall  order  him  to  desist  therefrom  and  to  remove  any 
such  cause  of  pollution;  but  the  board  shall  not  prohibit  the  cultiva- 
tion and  use  of  the  soil  in  the  ordinary  methods  of  agriculture  if  no 
human  excrement  is  used  thereon.    Said  board  shall  not  prohibit  the 


G4x>i»ELL.l     SEVERE    STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — MASSACHUSETTS.  79 

use  of  any  structui-e  which  was  in  existence  on  the  eleventh  day  of 
June,  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  ninetj-^-seven,  upon  a  com- 
plaint made  by  the  board  of  water  commissioners  of  any  city  or  town 
or  by  any  water  or  ice  company,  unle^ss  such  board  of  water  commis- 
sioners or  company  files  with  the  State  board  a  vote  of  its  city  council, 
s=electmen,  or  company,  respectively,  that  such  city,  town,  or  company 
will,  at  its  own  exi>ense,  make  such  changes  in  said  structure  or  its 
location  as  said  board  shall  deem  expedient.  Such  vote  shall  be  bind- 
ing on  such  city,  town,  or  company.  All  damages  caused  by  such 
changes  shall  be  paid  by  such  city,  town,  or  company ;  and  if  the  par- 
ties can  not  agree  thereon,  the  damages  shall,  on  petition  of  either 
party,  filed  within  one  year  after  such  changes  are  made,  be  assessed 
by  a  jury  in  the  superior  court  for  the  county  w^here  the  structure  is 
located. 

Sec.  119.  Appeal  from  order. — Whoever  is  aggrieved  by  an  order 
passed  under  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  section  may  appeal 
therefrom  in  the  manner  provided  in  sections  95  and  97,  but  such 
notice  as  the  court  shall  order  shall  also  be  given  to  the  board  of 
water  conunissioners  and  mayor  of  the  city  or  chairmen  of  the  select- 
men of  the  town  or  president  or  other  officer  of  the  w^ater  or  ice  com- 
pany interested  in  such  order.  WTiile  the  appeal  is  pending  the  order 
of  the  board  shall  be  complied  with,  imless  otherwise  authorized  by 
the  board. 

Sec.  120.  Enforcement  of  law. — ^The  supreme  judicial  court  or  the 
superior  court  shall  have  jurisdiction  in  equity,  upon  the  application 
of  the  State  l)oard  of  health  or  of  any  party  interested,  to  enforce  its 
orders  or  the  orders,  rules,  and  regulations  of  said  board  of  health, 
and  to  restrain  the  use  or  occupation  of  the  premises  or  such  portion 
thereof  as  said  board  may  specify,  on  which  said  material  is  deposited 
or  kept,  or  such  other  cause  of  pollution  exists,  until  the  orders,  rules, 
and  regulations  of  said  board  have  been  complied  with. 

Sec.  121.  Entry  on  premise.^. — The  agents  and  servants  of  said 
board  may  enter  any  building,  structure,  or  premises  for  the  purpose 
of  asceilaining  w^hether  sources  of  pollution  or  danger  to  the  w^ater 
supply  there  exist,  and  whether  the  rules,  regulations,  and  orders 
aforesaid  are  obeyed.  Their  compensation  for  services  rendered  in 
connection  with  proceedings  under  the  provisions  of  section  118  shall 
be  fixed  by  the  board  and  shall  in  the  fii*st  instanc^e  be  paid  by  the 
Commonwealth;  but  the  whole  amount  so  paid  shall,  at  the  end  of 
each  year,  l>e  justly  and  equitably  apportioned  by  the  tax  commis- 
sioner between  such  cities,  to\vns,  or  companies  as,  during  said  year, 
have  instituted  said  proceedings,  and  may  l)e  recovered  in  an  action 
by  the  treasurer  and  receiver-general,  with  interest  from  date  of  the 
demand. 


80  LAWS   FORBIDDING    INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  ir.i>. 

Sec.  122.  Penalties, — Whoever  violates  any  rule,  regulation,  or 
order  made  under  the  provisions  of  section  113  or  section  118  shall  he 
punished  for  each  offence  by  a  fine  of  not  more  than  five  hundred 
dollars,  to  the  use  of  the  Commonwealth,  or  by  imprisonment  for  not 
more  than  one  year,  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment. 

Sec.  123.  Application  of  preceding  sections, — The  provisions  of  the 
eleven  preceding  sections  shall  not  apply  to  the  Merrimac  or  Con- 
necticut rivers,  nor  to  so  nmch  of  the  Concord  River  as  lies  withiii 
the  limits  of  the  city  of  Ijowell,  nor  to  springs,  streams,  ponds,  cir 
water  courses  over  which  the  metropolitan  water  board  has  control. 

Sec.  124.  Sources  of  water  supply — a«  to, — The  provisions  of  the 
refuse,  or  poHuting  matter  of  such  kind  and  amount  as  either  by 
itself  or  in  connection  with  other  matter  will  corrupt  or  impair  tlie 
quality  of  the  water  of  any  pond  or  stream  used  as  a  source  of  ice  or 
water  supply  by  a  city,  town,  public  institution,  or  water  company 
for  domestic  use,  or  render  it  injurious  to  health,  and  no  human 
excrement  shall  be  discharged  into  any  such  stream  or  pond,  or  upon 
their  banks  if  any  filter  basin  so  used  is  there  situated,  or  into  any 
feeders  of  such  pond  or  stream  within  twenty  miles  above  the  point 
where  such  supply  is  taken. 

Sec.  125.  Prescriptire  rights  unaffected — application  limited. — ^The 
provisions  of  the  preceding  section  shall  not  destroy  or  impair  rights 
acquired  by  legislative  grant  prior  to  the  first  day  of  July  in  the 
year  1878,  or  destroy  or  impair  prescriptive  rights  of  drainage  or 
discharge,  to  the  extent  to  which  they  lawfully  exis-ted  on  that  date; 
nor  shall  it  l>e  applicable  to  the  Merrimac  or  Connecticut  rivers,  or  to 
so  much  of  the  Concord  River  as  lies  within  the  limits  of  the  city  of 
Lowell. 

Sec.  126.  Injunction  against  pollution  of  icater  supply. — ^The 
supreme  judicial  court  or  the  superior  court,  upon  application  of  the 
mayor  of  a  city,  the  selectmen  of  a  town,  managing  board  or  officer  of 
a  public  institution,  or  a  water  or  ice  company  interested,  shall  have 
jurisdiction  in  equity  to  enjoin  the  violation  of  the  provisions  of 
sec.  124. 

Sec.  127.  Penalty  for  corrupting  spring^  etc, — Whoever  willfully 
and  maliciously  defiles  or  corrupts  any  spring  or  other  source  of 
water,  or  reservoir,  or  destroys  or  injures  any  pipe,  conductor  of 
water,  or  other  property  pertaining  to  an  aqueduct,  or  aids  or  alx^ts 
in  any  such  trespass,  shall  be  punished  by  a*  fine  of  not  more  than 
one  thousand  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  for  not  more  than  one  3^ear. 

Sec.  128.  Penalty  for  corrupting  sources  of  water  supply. — AVho- 
ovov  willfully  deposits  excrement  or  foul  or  decaying  matter  in  water 
which  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  domestic  water  supply,  or  upon  the 
shore  thereof  within  five  rods  of  the  water,  shall  be  punished  by  a 


GOODELL.]  SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS MINNESOTA.  81 

fine  of  not  more  than  fifty  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  for  not  more 
than  thirty  days ;  and  a  police  officer  or  constable  of  a  city  or  town  in 
which  such  water  is  wholly  or  partly  situated,  acting  within  the  limits 
of  his  city  or  town,  and  any  executive  officer  or  agent  of  a  water 
board,  lx)ard  of  water  commissioners,  public  institution,  or  water 
company  furnishing  water  or  ice  for  domestic  purposes,  acting  upon 
the  premises  of  such  board,  institution,  or  company,  and  not  more 
than  five  rods  from  the  water,  may,  without  a  warrant,  arrest  any 
person  found  in  the  act  of  violating  the  provisions  of  this  st»ction  and 
detain  him  until  a  complaint  can  be  made  against  him  therefor.  But 
the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  not  interfere  with4he  sewage  of  a 
city,  town,  or  public  institution,  or  prevent  the  enriching  of  land  for 
agricultural  purposes  by  the  owner  or  occupant  thereof. 

Sec.  129.  Penalty  for  bathing  in  public  pondn, — Whoever  bathes  in 
a  pond,  stream,  or  reservoir  the  water  of  which  is  used  for  the  pur- 
ix)se  of  domestic  water  supply  for  a  city  or  town,  shall  be  punished 
by  a  fine  of  not  more  than  ten  dollars. 

Sec.  130.  Penalty  for  driving  on  ice  of  pond  used  for  vmter  sup- 
ply.— Whoever,  not  being  engaged  in  cutting  or  harvesting  ice,  or  in 
hauling  logs,  wood,  or  lumber,  drivers  any  animal  on  the  ice  of  a  pond 
or  stream  which  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  domestic  water  supply  for  a 
city  or  town,  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  of  not  more  than  fifty  dollars 
or  by  imprisonment  for  not  more  than  thirty  days. 

Note. — Sections  95  and  97,  referred  to  in  section  119,  provide  for 
an  appeal  to  the  superior  court  of  the  county  and  a  jury  trial.  The 
verdict  may  alter,  affirm,  or  annul  the  order,  and  shall  be  returned 
to  the  court  for  acceptance,  and,  if  accepted,  shall  have  the  authority 
and  eflFect  of  a  valid  order  of  the  board. 

MINNESOTA. 
[General  Statutes,  p.  120.]. 

Sec.  430.  Pollution  of  sources  of  water  supply  forbidden. — No  sew- 
age, drainage,  or  refuse,  or  polluting  matter  of  such  kind  as,  either 
by  itself  or  in  connection  with  other  matter,  will  corrupt  or  impair 
the  quality  of  the  water  of  any  spring,  well,  pond,  lake,  stream,  or 
river  for  domestic  use,  or  render  it  injurious  to  health,  and  no  human 
or  animal  excrement  shall  be  placed  in  or  discharged  into  or  placed 
or  deposited  upon  the  ice  of  any  pond,  lake,  stream,  or  river  used  as  a 
source  of  water  supply  by  any  town,  village,  or  city;  nor  shall  any 
such  sewage,  drainage,  refuse,  or  polluting  matter  or  excrement  be 
placed  upon  the  banks  of  any  such  pond,  lake,  stream,  or  river  within 
five  miles  above  the  point  where  such  supply  is  taken,  or  into  any 
feeders  or  the  banks  thereof  of  any  such  pond,  lake,  stream,  or  river : 

IBR  152—05  M <i 


82  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  (No.  15- 

Provided^  nothing  in  this  section  contained  shall  apply  to  Lake  Supe- 
rior.    (1885.     Chap.  225,  sec.  1.) 

Sec.  431.  Supervision  of  sources  of  water  supply — procedure  if 
cases  of  pollution, — The  State  board  of  health  shall  have  the  general 
supervision  of  all  springs,  wells,  ponds,  lakes,  streams,  or  rivers  used 
by  any  town,  village,  or  city  as  a  source  of  water  supply,  with  refer- 
ence to  their  purity,  together  with  the  waters  feeding  the  same,  and 
shall  examine  the  same  from  time  to  time,  and  inquire  what,  if  any. 
pollution  exists  and  their  causes.  In  case  of  a  violation  of  any  of  the 
provisions  of  section  one  of  this  act  (sec.  430)  said  board  may  appoint 
a  time  and  place  for  hearing  parties  to  be  affected,  and  shall  give  due 
notice  thereof,  as  hereinafter  provided,  to  such  parties;  and  after 
such  hearing,  if  in  its  judgment  the  public  health  requires  it,  irmy 
order  any  person  or  corporation,  or  municipal  corporation,  to  desist 
from  the  acts  causing  such  pollution,  and  may  direct  any  such  person 
or  corporation  to  remedy  the  pollution,  or  to  cleanse  or  purify  the 
polluting  substances  in  such  a  manner  and  to  such  a  degree  as  shall 
be  directed  by  said  board,  before  being  cast  or  allowed  to  flow  into  the 
waters  thereby  polluted,  or  placed  or  deposited  upon  the  ice  or  bank- 
of  any  of  the  bodies  of  water  in  the  first  section  of  this  act  mentioned. 
Upon  the  application  of  the  proper  officers  of  any  town,  village,  or 
city,  or  of  not  less  than  ten  legal  voters  of  any  such  town,  village,  or 
city,  to  said  State  board,  alleging  the  pollution  of  the  water  supply 
of  any  such  town,  village,  or  city  by  the  violation  of  any  of  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act,  said  State  board  shall  investigate  the  alleged  pol- 
lution, and  shall  appoint  a  time  and  place  when  and  where  it  will 
hear  and  examine  the  matter,  and  shall  give  notice  of  such  hearing 
and  examination  to  the  complainant,  and  also  to  the  pei-son  or  cor- 
poration or  municipal  corporation  alleged  to  have  caused  such  pollu- 
tion, and  such  notice  shall  be  served  not  less  than  ten  days  prior  to 
the  time  so  appointed,  and  shall  be  served  in  the  same  manner  that 
now  is  or  hereafter  may  be  by  law  provided  for  the  service  of  a  sum- 
mons in  a  civil  action  in  the  district  court.  Said  board,  if  in  its 
judgment  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  have  been  violated,  shall 
issue  the  order  or  orders  already  mentioned  in  this  section.  (1885. 
Chap.  225,  sec.  2.) 

NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

I  Public  statutes  of  New  Hampshire  and  general  laws  In  force  Jan.  1,  1901,  p.  337,  chap 
108.     (Wm.  M.  and  Arthur  H.  Chase.)] 

Section  13,  entitled,  "  The  prevention  and  removal  of  nuisances,"  is 
as  follows :  "  If  a  person  shall  place,  leave,  or  cause  to  be  placed  or  left 
in  or  near  a  lake,  pond,  reservoir,  or  stream  tributary  thereto,  from 
which  the  water  supply  for  domestic  purposes  of  a  city,  town,  or  vil- 
lage is  taken,  in  whole  or  in  part,  any  substance  or  fluid  that  may 


OOODELL.1    SEVERE   STATUTE   BESTRICTIONS — NEW   HAMPSHIRE.  83 

cause  the  water  thereof  to  become  impure  or  unfit  for  such  purposes, 
he  shall  be  fined  not  exceeding  twenty  dollars  or  be  imprisoned  not 
exceeding  thirty  days,  or  both.'' 

Sec.  14.  The  board  of  health  of  the  town  or  the  water  commis- 
sioners having  charge  of  the  water  supply  or  the  proprietors  thereof 
may  remove  such  substance  or  fluid,  and  they  may  recover  the 
expense  of  removal  from  the  person  who  placed  the  same  or  caused 
it  to  be  placed  in  or  near  the  water  as  aforesaid  in  an  action  on  the 
case. 

[Laws  of  189r»,  chap.  76,  p.  433.1 
AN  ACT  to  protect  waters  used  for  domestic  inirposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  netiate  and  house  of  representatlren  in  general 
court  convened: 

Section  1.  Wlioever  knowingly  and  wilfully  poisons,  defiles,  pol- 
lutes, or  in  any  way  corrupt.s  the  waters  or  ice  of  any  well,  spring, 
brook,  lake,  pond,  river,  or  reservoir  used  as  the  source  of  a  public 
water  or  ice  supply  for  domestic  purposes,  or  knowingly  corrupts  the 
sources  of  the  water  of  any  water  company  or  of  any  city  or  town  sup- 
plying its  inhabitants  with  water,  or  the  tributaries  of  said  sources  of 
supply,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  affect  the  purity  of  the  water  or  ice  so 
supplied  at  the  point  where  the  water  or  ice  is  taken  for  such  domes- 
tic use,  or  puts  the  carcass  of  any  dead  animal  or  other  offensive 
material  into  said  waters  or  up<m  the  ice  thereof,  shall  Ik?  punished 
by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  thousand  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  not 
exceeding  one  year.  The  provisions  of  this  st^ction  shall  not  apply  to 
the  deposit  of  any  bark,  sawdust,  or  any  other  waste  of  any  kind 
arising  from  the  business  of  cutting,  hauling,  driving,  or  storing  logs, 
or  the  manufacture  of  luml)er;  and  the  use  of  any  stream  for  the 
purposes  of  manufacturing  and  for  the  necessary  drainage  connected 
therewith,  if  more  than  four  miles  distant  from  the  point  where  the 
water  is  taken  for  sucli  domestic  purposes,  shall  not  be  deemed  a  vio- 
lation of  this  section. 

Sec.  2.  No  person  shall  cut  or  take  ice  from  any  lake,  pond,  or  res- 
ervoir used  as  the  source  of  a  public  water  or  ice  supply  for  domestic 
purposes  for  man,  unless  he  first  shall  comply  in  all  respects  with 
such  reasonable  rules  and  regulations  in  regard  to  the  manner  and 
place  of  cutting  and  taking  such  ice  on  said  lake,  pond,  or  reservoir 
as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  local  board  of  control  or  officers  of  a 
water  company  who  may  have  charge  of  the  works  of  any  city  or  town 
supplying  its  inhabitants  with  water  from  said  lake,  pond,  or  reser- 
voir. The  supreme  court  shall  have  power  to  issue  injunctions 
restraining  any  person  from  cutting  or  taking  ice  from  such  lakes, 
ponds,  or  reservoirs  imtil  they  have  complied  with  the  reasonable 
regulations  made  as  aforesaid. 


84  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATEB   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

Sec.  3.  Said  local  boards  and  officers  may  also  make  all  reasonable 
rules  and  regulations  in  regard  to  fishing  and  the  use  of  boats  in  and 
upon  any  such  lake,  pond,  or  reservoir,  and  in  regard  to  racing  or 
speeding  horses  upon  the  ice  thereof,  which  they  may  deem  expe- 
dient. Any  person  who  shall  violate  any  of  said  rules  and  regula- 
tions after  notice  thereof  shall  be  fined  not  exceeding  twenty  dollars, 
or  imprisoned  not  exceeding  six  months. 

Sec.  4.  If  any  person  shall  bathe  in  such  lake,  pond,  or  reservoir 
within  one-fourth  mile  of  the  point  where  said  water  is  taken,  he 
shall  be  fined  not  exceeding  twenty  dollars,  or  imprisoned  not 
exceeding  six  months. 

Sec.  5.  ^Mioever  shall  wilfully  injure  any  of  the  property  of  any 
water  company  or  of  any  city  or  town,  used  by  it  in  supplying  water 
to  its  inhabitants,  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one 
thousand  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  year;  and 
such  person  shall  also  forfeit  and  pay  to  such  water  company,  city, 
or  town  three  times  the  amount  of  actual  damages  sustained,  to  be 
recovered  in  an  action  on  the  case. 

Sec.  0.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  this  act  are 
hereby  repealed,  but  nothing  in  this  act  Shall  be  construed  to  repeal 
any  special  act  applying  to  cities  and  towns. 

[Laws  of  1897,  chap.  85,  p.  82.] 

Section  1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  lx)ards  of  health  of  the  cities  and 
towns  of  the  State  to  examine  and  inspect  the  sources  from  which  ice 
is  cut,  or  is  proposed  to  be  cut,  for  domestic  use  in  such  cities  and 
towns,  and  to  employ  such  means  as  may  be  necessary  to  determine 
whether  the  waters  of  such  sources  of  ice  supply  have  been  polluted, 
or  whether  ice  taken  therefrom  will  be  deleterious  to  the  public 
health. 

Sec.  2.  In  each  case  where  the  waters  of  the  sources  of  ice  supplies 
shall  be  found  so  polluted  that  the  ice  taken  therefrom  will  lie 
unhealthy  or  unsafe  for  domestic  use,  the  board  of  health  of  the  city 
or  town  concerned  in  the  same  shall  immediately  notify  such  person 
or  persons  as  may  have  taken,  or  who  propose  to  take  ice  from  such 
polluted  source  for  their  own  domestic  use  or  for  sale  for  domestic 
use,  of  the  dangerous  character  of  the  waters  inspected  and  that  the 
taking  of  such  ice  for  domestic  use  must  cease. 

Sec.  3.  Wh(K»ver  knowingly  or  wilfully  shall  cut  or  take  any  ice  for 
domestic  pur[)()ses  from  any  waters  which  are  polluted  with  sewage  or 
other  substance  deleterious  or  dangerous  to  life  or  health,  or  from 
waters  which  a  board  of  health  has  condemned,  shall  be  fined  not 
exceeding  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  or  imprisoned  not  exceeding 
six  months. 


GooDELL.]    SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   HAMPSHIRE.  85 

TActa  of  1899,  chap.  57.1 

Section  1.  WTienever  any  Ixianl  of  water  commissioners,  local 
board  of  health,  or  ten  or  more  citizens  of  any  town  or  city  have  rea- 
son to  believe  that  a  public  water  or  ice  supply  is  lyeing  contaminated 
or  is  in  danger  of  contamination,  and  that  the  local  regulations  are 
not  sufficient  or  effective  to  prevent  such  pollution,  they  may  petition 
the  State  board  of  health  to  investigate  the  case  and  to  establish  such 
regulations  as  the  said  board  may  deem  necessary  for  the  protection 
of  the  said  supply  against  any  pollution  that  in  its  judgment  would 
endanger  the  public  health. 

Sec.  2.  The  State  board  of  health  shall,  after  due  investigation, 
make  such  regulations  as  it  may  deem  best  to  protect  the  said  supply 
against  any  dangerous  contamination,  and  the  regulations  %  so  made 
shall  be  in  force  when  a  copy  is  filed  with  the  town  clerk  and  posted 
in  two  or  more  public  places  in  said  town,  or  published  in  some  news- 
paper in  the  county,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  local  board  of 
health  to  enforce  said  regidations. 

Sec.  3.  Any  person  violating  any  regidation  established  by  the 
State  board  of  health  shall  l>e  punished  by  a  fine  of  twenty  dollars 
for  each  offense,  and  a  certified  copy  under  oath  of  such  regidation, 
made  by  the  secretary  of  the  State  board  of  health  or  by  the  town 
clerk  where  the  regidations  are  filed,  shall  Ix^  received  as  prima  facie 
evidence  of  such  regulations  in  any  court  of  the  State. 

fLaws  of  1905,  chap.  12.] 

.\N  ACT  to  protect  the  waters  of  Alton  Bay  from  iKiUiition  by  sawdust  and  other 

waste. 

Sec.  1.  That  no  sawdust,  shavings,  or  other  waste  product  of  saw- 
mills, planing  mills,  or  other  manufactories  shall  be  deposited, 
dumped,  or  placed  in  that  part  of  Lake  Winnipesaukee  known  as 
Alton  Bay,  nor  shall  any  sawdust,  shavings,  or  other  waste  products 
be  allowed  to  escape  into,  or  be  deposited,  dumped,  or  placed  in  any 
stream  which  runs  or  empties  into  said  bay. 

Sec.  2.  Any  person,  or  any  officer  of  any  corix)ration,  violating  the 
provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  fined  not  exceeding  twenty-five  dollars 
for  each  offense,  and  each  day  of  a  violation  of  the  same  shall  be 
deemed  a  separate  offense. 

Sec.  3.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  this  act  are 
hereby  repealed. 

Sec.  4.  This  act  shall  take  effect  on  April  1, 1905. 

Approved  February  9, 1905. 


86  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

[LawB  of  1905.  chap.  73.] 

AN  ACT  to  prohibit  the  deposit  of  sawdust  and  other  sawmill  refuse  and  other 
waste  in  Swift  River  and  ite  tributaries  in  the  town  of  Tarn  worth. 

Sec.  1.  Any  person  who  shall  deposit,  dump,  plac«,  or  cause  to  be 
deposited,  dumped,  or  placed  any  sawdust  or  other  sawmill  refuse, 
rubbish,  or  other  waste  in  Swift  River  and  its  tributaries,  in  the 
town  of  Tamworth,  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  ten  dollars  nor  more 
than  fifty  dollars. 

Sec.  2.  This  act  shall  take  effect  upon  its  passage. 

Approved  March  9, 1905. 

[Laws  of  1905,  chap.  74.] 
AN  ACT  to  protect  Mink  Brook  from  pollution  by  sawdust  and  other  waste. 

Sec.  1.  No  person  or  corporation  shall  put  or  place,  or  cause  or 
allow  to  bo  put  or  placed,  any  sawdust,  shavings,  edgings,  chip^. 
bark,  or  other  waste  from  woodwork  establishments  into  Mink  Brook 
in  the  town  of  Hanover. 

Sec.  2.  Any  person  or  corporation  violating  the  provisions  of  this 
act  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each 
offense,  and  every  day  that  they  violate  the  same  shall  be  deemed  a 
separate  offense. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  June  1,  1905. 

Approved  March  9, 1905. 

[Laws  of  190ri,  chap.  88.] 

AN  ACT  to  protect  Union  River  and  its  tributaries  from  pollution  by  sawdust 

and  other  waste. 

Sec.  1.  No  person  or  corporation  shall  put  or  place,  or  cause  to  be 
put  or  placed,  any  sawdust,  shavings,  edgings,  chips,  bark,  or  other 
waste  from  sawmills  or  other  woodwork  establishments  into  Union 
River,  so  called,  or  its  tributaries,  in  the  towns  of  Brookfield  and 
Wakefield  in  Carroll  County,  and  the  town  of  Milton  in  Strafford 
County.  Any  person  or  corporation  violating  the  provisions  of  this 
act  shall  l)e  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars  for 
each  offense. 

Sec.  2.  This  act  shall  take  effect  on  April  15,  1905. 

Approved  March  10,  1905. 

NEW  jersey. 

[General  Statutes,  p.  1109.] 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  waters  of  any  of  the  creeks,  ponds,  or 
brooks  of  this  State.     (Approved  March  29,  1878.) 

322.  Section  1.  That  if  any  person  or  persons  shall  throw,  cause  or 
permit  to  be  thrown,  into  the  waters  of  any  creek,  pond,  or  brook  of 


•iCMJOKLL.]         SEVERE    STATUTE    RESTRICTIONS NEW    JERSEY.  87 

this  State,  the  waters  of  which  may  l)e  used  for  the  cutting  or  harvest- 
ing of  ice,  any  carcasses  of  any  dead  animal  or  any  offal  or  offensive 
matter  whatsoever,  calculated  to  render  said  waters  impure  or  create 
noxious  or  offensive  smells,  or  shall  connect  any  water-closet  with  any 
s«?wer  or  other  means  whereby  the  contents  thereof  may  be  conveyed 
to  and  into  any  such  creek,  pond,  or  brook,  shall  he  deemed  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanor,  and  on  conviction  thereof  shall  lye  punished  by  a  fine 
not  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars,  or  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
thirty  days,  or  both. 

[2  General  Statutes,  p.  2215.] 

AX  ACT  to  enable  towns  and  townships  in  this  State  to  construct  waterworks 
for  the  extinguishment  of  fires  and  supplying  the  inhabitants  thereof  with 
pure  and  wholesome  water.     (Approved  March  1),  1808.) 

419.  Sec.  18.  That  if  any  person  or  persons  shall  willfully  pollute 
or  adulterate  the  waters  in  any  reservoir  erected  under  the  provisions 
of  this  act,  any  person  so  offending  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor, and  on  conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not 
exceeding  five  hundred  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  at  hard  labor  not 
exceeding  three  years,  or  both,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court  before 
whom  such  conviction  shall  lx»  had. 

fCJeneral  Statutes,  p.  1107.1 

Supplement  to  an  act  to  prevent  the  willful  pollution  of  waters  of  any  of  the 
creeks,  ponds,  or  brooks  of  this  State.     (Approved  February  27,  1880.) 

Section  1.  (As  amended  by.  act  passed  March  14,  1893.  General 
Statutes,  p.  1107,  sec.  311.)  That  if  any  person  or  persons  shall  throw, 
clause  or  permit  to  be  thrown  into  any  reservoir,  or  into  the  waters  of 
any  creek,  pond,  or  brook  of  this  State  which  runs  through  or  along 
the  border  of  any  city,  town,  or  borough  of  this  State,  or  the  waters  of 
which  are  used  to  supply  any  aqueduct  or  reservoir  for  distribution 
for  public  use,  any  carcass  of  any  dead  animal,  or  any  offal  or  offen- 
.sive  matter  whatsoever  calculated  to  render  said  waters  impure,  or  to 
create  noxious  or  offensive  smells,  or  shall  connect  any  water-closet 
with  any  sewer,  or  other  means  whereby  the  contents  thereof  may  be 
conveyed  to  and  into  any  such  creek,  pond,  or  brook,  or  shall  so  de- 
IK)sit  or  cause  or  permit  to  l)e  dei)Osited  any  such  carcass,  offal,  or 
other  offensive  matter  that  the  washing  or  waste  therefrom  shall  or 
may  be  conveyed  to  and  into  any  such  creek,  pond,  brook,  or  reservoir, 
such  person  or  persons  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and 
on  conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one 
thousand  dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  two  years,  or  both. 

309.  Sec.  2.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  owner  or  owners,  occu- 
pant or  occupants  of  any  land  whereon  any  such  carcass,  offal,  or 
other  offensive  matter  may  be  to  cause  the  same  to  l)e  buried  forth- 


88  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152, 

with,  SO  that  all  portions  thereof  shall  be  covered  with  solid  earth  to 
a  depth  of  at  least  two  feet  l)elow  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  not 
within  a  distance  of  two  hundred  feet  from  such  creek,  pond,  or 
brook  used  as  aforesaid;  and  any  such  owner  or  occupant  who  shall 
refuse  or  neglect  for  the  space  of  two  days  to  remove  and  bury  as 
aforesaid,  or  cause*  to  be  removed  and  buried,  any  such  carcass,  otfal. 
or  offensive  matter  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  on 
conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  thou- 
sand dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  two  years,  or  both. 

[Laws  of  1808,  chap.  136,  p.  233.] 

AN  ACT  authoriziDf?  the  appointment  of  commiBs! oners  to  oonsider  the  Bubjert 
of  the  poHution  of  rivers  and  streams  within  this  State,  to  provide  a  plan  for 
tlie  prevention  thereof,  and  for  the  reUef  of  the  persons  and  property  affe<.-ted 
therel)y,  and  to  provide  for  the  expenses  necessary  for  tliat  purpose. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  senatetand  general  assembly  of  the  State  of 
New  Jersey : 

1.  The  governor  of  this  State  shall  have  power  and  authority  to 
appoint  and  commission  not  less  than  three  suitable  persons  commis- 
sioners to  consider  the  subject  of  the  pollution  of  any  stream  or  river 
within  this  State,  whose  duty  it  shall  be,  after  having  duly  investi- 
gated the  cause,  character,  and  extent  of  such  pollution,  if  they  shall 
deem  it  necessary  and  expedient,  to  prepare  and  perfect  a  plan  for 
the  prevention  thereof  and  for  the  relief  of  the  persons  and  property 
affected  thereby,  and  to  report  their  conclusions  and  present  their 
plan  to  the  legislature  of  this  State,  together  with  a  bill  providing 
therefor  and  for  the  expenses  thereof. 

2.  Such  commissioners,  when  so  appointed,  shall  organize  by  the 
selection  of  one  of  their  number  as  chairman  and  one  to  act  as  treas- 
urer, and  they  are  authorized  to  select  a  clerk  and  to  employ  such 
other  agents  and  assistants  as  may  be  necessary.  The  salary  and 
compensation  of  such  commissioners  shall  be  fixed  by  the  governor, 
and  shall  not  exceed  one  thousand  dollars  each,  and  they  shall  have 
power  and  authority  to  fix  the  compensation  of  their  agents  and 
assistants. 

8.  Such  commissioners  are  authorized  to  raise  and  expend  for  the 
purposes  of  this  act  a  sum  not  exceeding  twenty-five  thousand  dollars, 
which  smn,  or  such  part  thereof  as  may  be  required  and  be  necessar>\ 
they  are  hereby  authorized  to  apportion  among  the  several  local 
municipalities  which  the  said  commissioners  shall  deem  to  be  affected 
by  such  pollution,  in  proportion  to  the  population  of  such  municipali- 
ties as  shown  by  the  last  State  or  National  census,  and  the  sum  or 
sums  so  apportioned  shall  be  certified  by  the  said  commissioners 
under  their  hands  to  the  assessors  or  other  taxing  officers  of  the  said 
several  municipalities,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  proper  taxing 


cooDELL.]         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  89 

officer  or  officers  in  each  of  the  said  municipalities  to  whom  such 
apportionment  is  made  to  proceed  to  have  the  same  levied  and 
assessed  and  collected  in  tlie  same  manner  and  at  the  same  time  as 
other  taxes  are  levied  and  collected  therein,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  collector  or  other  equivalent  officer  of  each  of  the  said  munici- 
palities to  pay  over  the  said  several  sums  of  money,  when  so  levied, 
assessed,  and  collected,  to  the  said  commissioners  or  to  such  person 
or  {persons  as  they  may  appoint  to  receive  the  same,  and  the  said 
commissioners  are  authorized  to  use  and  disburse  the  same  for  the 
purposes  of  this  act. 

4.  The  commissioners  appointed-  under  the  authority  of  this  act 
shall  have  the  power  and  authority  to  anticipate  the  collection  and 
receipt  of  the  sums  of  money  hereby  authorized  to  be  raised  by  tax- 
ation, and  may  issue  from  time  to  time  certificates  of  indebtedness,  or 
other  obligations,  to  be  paid  from  the  funds  to  be  raised  by  taxation 
in  the  manner  herein  provided;  and  they  are  authorized  to  use  the 
funds  received  from  the  sale  or  negotiation  of  such  certificates  or 
obligations  authoriz€»d  to  be  issued  by  this  act. 

5.  Said  commissioners  are  hereby  required,  at  any  time,  on  the 
order  of  the  governor,  to  render  to  him  a  report  and  statement  of 
their  receipts  and  ex[)enditures  under  the  authority  of  this  act. 

6.  Vacancies  caused  by  the  death  or  resignation  of  any  commis- 
sioner appointed  under  the  authority  of  this  act,  or  from  other 
cause,  shall  be  filled  by  the  governor,  and  the  governor  may  remove 
any  of  the  persons  so  appointed  and  appoint  another  commissioner 
in  his  place. 

7.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 
Approved  April  2,  1898. 

[Laws  of  1890,  chap.  41.  p.  73.1 

AN  ACT  to  secure  the  purity  of  the  puhllc  suppUes  of  potable  waters  in  this 

State. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  State  of 
New  Jersey : 

1.  No  sewage,  drainage,  domestic  or  factory  refuse,  excremental  or 
other  polluting  matter  of  any  kind  whatsoever  which,  either  by  itself 
or  in  connection  with  other  matter,  will  corrupt  or  impair,  or  tend  to 
corrupt  or  impair,  the  quality  of  the  water  of  any  river,  brook,  stream, 
or  any  tributary  or  branch  thereof,  or  of  any  lake,  pond,  well,  spring, 
or  other  reservoir  from  which  is  taken,  or  may  be  taken,  any  public 
supply  of  water  for  domestic  use  in  any  city,  town,  borough,  town- 
ship, or  other  municipality  of  this  State,  or  which  will  render,  or 
tend  to  render,  such  water  injurious  to  health,  shall  be  placed  in,  or 
discharged  into,  the  waters,  or  placed  or  deposited  upon  the  ice,  of 


90  LAWS    FORBIDDING    INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152, 

any  such  river,  brook,  stream,  or  any  tributary  or  branch  thereof,  or 
of  any  lake,  pond,  well,  spring,  or  other  reservoir  above  the  point 
from  which  any  city,  town,  borough,  township,  or  other  municipality 
shall  or  may  obtain  its  supply  of  water  for  domestic  use,  nor  shall 
any  such  sewage,  drainage,  domestic  or  factory  refuse,  excremental  or 
other  polluting  matter  l^e  placed  or  suffered  to  remain  upon  the  banks 
of  any  such  river,  brook,  stream,  or  of  any  tributary  or  branch 
thereof,  or  of  any  lake,  pond,  well,  spring,  or  other  reservoir  above 
the  point  from  which  any  city,  town,  borough,  township,  or  other 
municipality  shall  or  may  obtain  its  supply  of  water  for  domestic  use 
as  aforesaid ;  and  any  person  or  persons,  or  private  or  public  corpora- 
tion, which  shall  offend  against  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  section 
shall  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  one  hundred  dollars  for  each  offense: 
and  each  week's  continuance,  after  notice  by  the  State  or  local  lx)ard 
of  health  to  abate  or  remove  the  same,  shall  constitute  a  separate 
offense:  Provided^  howere)\  That  this  section  shall  not  he  held  to 
apply  to  any  city,  town,  borough,  township,  or  other  municipality  of 
this  State  which,  at  the  date  of  the  passage  of  this  act,  has  a  public 
sewer  or  system  of  sewers,  drain  or  system  of  drains,  legally  con- 
structed under  municipal  or  township  authority,  discharging  its 
drainage  or  sewage  into  any  such  river,  brook,  stream,  lake,  pond, 
well,  spring,  or  other  reservoir:  And  provided  further^  That  nothing? 
in4:his  section  contained  shall  be  construed  to  repeal,  modify,  or  other 
wise  affect  any  law  or  statute  now  conferring  upon  any  local  board  of 
health  the  power  or  authority  to  institute  any  proceedings  in  any 
court  of  this  State  for  the  recovery  of  any  penalty  for,  or  obtaining 
any  injunction  against,  the  pollution  of  any  of  the  waters  of  this 
State. 

2.  Any  penalty  incurri?d  under  any  of  the  provisions  of  the  first 
section  of  this  act  may  be  recovered,  with  costs,  in  a  summary  pro- 
ceeding, either  in  the  name  of  the  board  of  health  of  the  State  of  New 
Jersey  or  in  the  name  of  the  local  board  of  health  of  the  township, 
city,  borough,  town,  or  other  local  municipal  government  within 
whose  jurisdiction  the  penalty  may  have  been  incurred;  it  shall  Ih» 
the  duty  of  any  health  inspector,  or  member  of  any  local  board  of 
health,  w^io  shall  know  or  be  informed  of  any  violation  of  any  of  the 
provisions  of  the  first  section  of  this  act  whereby  any  penalty  may 
have  been  incurred,  to  make,  and  any  other  person  having  such  know  1- 
edge  may  make,  under  oath  or  affirmation,  a  complaint  against  the 
person  or  persons  or  private  or  public  corporation  incurring  such  pen- 
«ilty,  setting  forth  the  facts  of  such  violation,  w^hich  complaint  shall 
be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  district  court,  or  with  any 
justice  of  the  j^eace  of  the  county  within  which  the  offense  may  have 
been  committed,  or  with  any  police  justice  or  recorder  of  the  town- 
ship, city,  or  other  municipality  within  which  any  local  board  bring- 


uoiiDELL.]         SEVERE   STATUTE    RESTRICTIONS — NEW    JERSEY.  91 

iug  suit  shall  have  jurisdiction;  and  tlie  district  court,  justice  of  the 
|)eaee,  police  justice,  or  recorder,  with  whom  any  complaint  shall  be 
filed  as  aforesaid,  setting  forth  facts  sufficient  to  show  that  the  penalty 
pi-escribed  by  the  first  section  of  this  act  has  been  incurred,  is  hereby 
authorized  and  required  to  issue  process  either  in  the  nature  of  a  sum- 
mons or  warrant,  which  process,  when  in  the  nature  of  a  warrant, 
shall  l>e  returnable  forthwith,  and  when  in  the  nature  of  a  summons 
shall  be  returnable  in  not  less  than  five  nor  more  than  fifteen  days. 
On  the  return  of  such  process,  or  at  any  time  to  which  the  trial  shall 
have  been  adjourned,  the  said  court,  justice  of  the  peace,  police  jus- 
tice, or  recorder  shall  proceed  to  hear  the  testimony  of  witnesses  and 
the  proofs  in  the  case,  and  to  determine  and  give  judgment  in  the 
matter  without  the  filing  of  any  pleadings,  and,  if  judgment  shall  be 
given  in  favor  of  the  plaintiff,  execution  shall  forthwith  issue  against 
the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  defendant  for  the  amount  of  the  penalty, 
with  costs;  and  all  judgments  so  rendered  shall  have  the  same  force 
and  effect  as  other  judgments  in  civil  actions  before  civil  courts  and 
officers,  and  may  be  docketed  in  like  manner  in  the  office  of  the  clerk 
of  the  couit  of  common  pleas;  the  officers  to  serve  and  execute  any 
process  or  execution  issued  as  aforesaid  shall  be  the  constables  of  the 
counties,  which  service  and  execution,  in  tlie  case  of  any  execution 
issued  out  of  the  district  court,  shall  be  made  in  the  same  manner  and 
under  the  same  liabilities  as  other  executions  issued  out  of  said  court 
are  served  and  executed;  the  officers  to  serve  and  execute  any  process 
or  execution  issued  by  a  justice  of  the  peace,  police  justice,  or  recorder, 
shall  be  the  constables  of  the  county,  which  service  and  execution 
shall  be  made  in  the  same  manner  and  under  the  same  liabilities  as 
pre^scribed  in  cases  of  the  service  and  execution  of  processes  and  exe- 
cutions by  the  act  entitled  "An  act  constituting  courts  for  the  trial 
of  small  causes,"  and  the  supplements  thereto;  all  moneys  recovered 
in  any  such  proceeding  shall  be  paid  to  the  plaintiff  therein  and 
applied  by  such  plaintiff  to  any  purpose  for  which  it  may  be  legally 
authoriised  to  expend  money. 

3.  The  State  board  of  health  shall  have  the  general  supervision, 
with' reference  to  their  purity,  of  all  rivers,  brooks,  streams,  lakes, 
ponds,  wells,  springs,  or  other  reservoirs  in  this  State  the  waters  of 
which  are  or  may  be  used  as  the  source  or  sources  of  public  water 
supplies  for  domestic  use,  together  with  the  waters  feeding  the  same, 
and  shall  have  the  authority  from  time  to  time,  as  they  deem  neces- 
j^ary  or  proper,  to  examine  the  same  and  to  inquire  what,  if  any,  pol- 
lutions exist  and  their  causes ;  and  the  said  State  board  of  health,  in 
carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  section,  may  from  time  to  time,  as 
they  deem  it  necessaiy  or  proper,  address  inquiries  in  printed  or 
written  form  to  any  local  board  of  health,  municipal  or  township 
authority,  corporation,  or  person  or  persons,  which  inquiries  it  shall 


90  LAWS    F« 


OB  p«-:L~r.' 


any  such  river,  brcn  -  mi^I  to  i-x. 

of  any  lake,  pond, 
from  which  any  cii 


■  "    "'Mb  Mi"-   'I-  J 

any  such  sewage,  d  -       .    ji    f  ih,  :r .  .. 


shall  or  may  obt; 


-^.^  nv  to  >-  •■■-• 


other  polluting  m:. 

of  any  such  rivi  > 

thereof,  or  of  an\  ^ .. 

the  point  from  v  .  , ..  ^^^ , ,  ^ 

jiLi<  -nr  ait*  r^i^- 


-:i  z-ymvM-i^ 


municipality  shal 

as  aforesaid;  and 

tion,  which  shall 

shall  l>e  liable  t( 

and  each  week's 

of  health  to  ab.  ~.     ^.   -^eh- 

offense:  Prorich 

apply  to  any  cit 

this  State  whicl 

sewer  or  systei 

structed    undei 

drainage  or  sc 

well,  spring,  o 

in  -this  section 

wise  affect  an\ 

health   the   pc  _  ...  -  -  j^  -::^::i^  and  futl. 

court  of  this  .  -         •.   -^-^ 

any  injuncti<  sni,,..i\ 

State. 

2.  Any  pe 
section  of  tl 
ceeding,  eitli 
Jersey  or  ii 
city,  Iwrou 
whose  juri^ 
the  duty  o 
health,  wh 
provisions 

^l|gi>  timr    m 


.      -•_  ij—  ^T^Dfii-:  ■ 

z:  .V  uiii  ^.^. 

:  ^  ~    r  ---  Sute.  '< 

^ 

-_      ...:  -•  n."    In  tS- 

" 

_-^z  ^'  rlie  "^r-at- 

...     -  •    _.•  vt-ar.  a:. 

'"■.  -   ■•. 

.     '    r-'-'-.r-r  '.ht^  niHii.- 

* 

-    :    z   '^'  ^'  '"'7  *'*^''' 

-  •  ' 

-    • .  ..-    L  'iiT^^  vt-ar- 

^ .    —  -  -' 

KRE   STATUTE   EESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  98 

**"  '  *^  '  ■   luties  of  their  office,  shall  make  and  subscribe  an  oath 

■»    (before  some  person  authorized  by  the  laws  of  this 


^  -linister  the  same)  to  truly,  faithfully,  and  impartially 

\'    '    '     _        J  'lischarge  the  duties  of  their  office  according  to  law  and 

"'**     _^      *'  with  the  secretary  of  state.     The  terms  of  office  of  the 

said  commission  (except  those  appointed  by  the  governor 

.ties  as  aforesaid)  shall  commence  on  the  finst  Monday  of 

*   *  .icceeding  their  appointment  by  the  governor  and  confir- 

'  ""  he  senate.     On  the  first  Monday  of  May  next  succeeding 

*^  ^^  1  appointment  of  said  commission  the  members  thereof 

at  the  statehouse  in  the  city  of  Trenton  and  organize  by 

^^■*,    *"     :i  of  one  of  their  number  to  be  chairman  of  said  commis- 

ne  to  be  treasurer  thereof,  which  officers  shall  hold  office  at 

re  of  the  commission.     After  having  so  met  and  organized 

t  meetings  of  the  commission  shall  be  held  at  such  times 

•s  as  the  connnission  may  direct  or  as  it  may  be  called  to 

♦  he  chairman. 

I  commission  shall  keep  a  record  of  all  its  proceedings  and 

*"*'•"■■•     ons,  also  full  and  accurate  account  of  its  receipts,  disburse- 

xpenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities,  and  shall  annually  report 

gislature  its  operations,  proceedings,  and  transactions  for  the 

ig  year,  with  a  statement  or  abstract  of  such  receipts,  dis- 

»nts,  expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities. 

'le  members  of  said  commission  shall  each  receive  an  annual 
of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  as  other  salaries  of  State 
>  are  paid.     Said  commission  may  have  a   secretary    (not  a 
t»r  of  the  commission),  to  l)e  appointed  by  the  commission  or  a 
ity  thereof,  who  shall  hold  his  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  com- 
on  or  a  majority  thereof,  and  receive  such  salary  as  the  commis- 
or  a  majority  thereof,  wnth  the  approval  of  the  governor,  may 
said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may  also  from  time  to 
'   employ   or   appoint    such   experts,   engineers,   officers,   agents, 
)loyes,  workmen,  and  servants  as  it  may  deem  necessary  or  proper 
3nable  it  to  perform  its  duties  and  carry  out  the  objects  and  pur- 
ses of  this  act;  and  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may 
.  and  determine  the  duties  and  compensation  of  said  experts,  engi- 
^ers,  officers,  agents,  employes,  workmen,  and  servants,  and  remove 
V  discharge  the  sf**^*^  ^r  any  of  them  at  pleasure. 
4.  It  sha"  '     '^  f  the  secretary  to  keep  a  record  of  all  the 

)roceedin  s  of  the  commission,  to  prepare  the  annual 

report  tc  d  perform  such  other  duties  as  the  com- 

mission lall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  take 

charge  ^ed  by  the  commission,  to  keep  accurate 

acoouT  disbursement  thereof,  and  to  deposit  and 


92  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

be  the  duty  of  the  persons  or  parties  addressed  to  answer  within  such 
time  as  the  said  State  board  of  health  may  in  such  inquiries  prescribe. 

4.  If  any  person  or  persons,  corporation  or  corporations,  city,  town. 
borough,  township,  or  other  municipality  of  this  State,  or  any  munici- 
pal or  township  authority,  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  the 
first  section  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  State  board  of 
health,  instead  of  proceeding  in  a  summary  way  to  recover  the  i>en- 
alty  prescribed  in  said  section,  to  file  a  bill  in  the  court  of  chancen\ 
in  the  name  of  the  State,  on  the  relation  of  such  board,  for  an  injunc- 
tion to  prohibit  the  further  violation  of  the  said  section,  and  ever\' 
such  action  shall  proceed  in  the  court  of  chancery  according  to  the 
rules  and  practice  of  bills  filed  in  the  name  of  the  attorney-general 
on  the  relation  of  individuals,  and  cases  of  emergency  shall  have 
precedence  over  other  litigation  pending  at  the  time  in  the  court  of 
chancery,  and  may  be  heard  on  final  hearing  within  such  time  and  on 
such  notice  as  the  chancellor  shall  direct. 

5.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  this 
act  are  hereby  repealed. 

6.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 
Approved  March  17,  1899. 

(Laws  of  1899,  chap.  210,  p.  5.%.] 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  poHution  of  the  waters  of  this  State  by  the  establishment 
of  a  State  sewerage  commission,  and  authorizing  the  creation  of  sewenige 
districts  and  district  sewerage  boards,  and  prescribing,  defining,  and  regulating 
tlie  lowers  and  duties  of  such  commission  and  such  boards. 

Be  it  enacted  hy  the  senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  Stat-e  of  Xew 
Jersey : 

1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  governor,  within  thirty  days  next  suc- 
ceeding the  approval  or  passage  of  this  act,  to  appoint,  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  five  citizens  of  this  State.,  to 
compose  and  be  known  as  *'  the  State  sewerage  commission.''  In  the 
original  nomination  of  the  members  of  said  commission  to  the  senate 
the  governor  shall  designate  one  of  them  to  serve  for  one  year,  and 
two  for  two  ye^rs,  and  two  for  three  years,  and  thereafter  the  mem- 
bers of  said  commission  shall  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  for  the  term  of  three  years 
and  until  their  successors  are  duly  appointed,  confirmed,  and  quali- 
fied. Any  vacancy  occurring  in  said  commission  when  the  legislature 
is  not  in  session  shall  be  filled  by  appointment  of  the  governor  until 
the  next  regular  session  of  the  legislature,  when  such  vacancy  shall 
be  filled  in  the  manner  hereinbefore  provided,  but  any  such  last- 
mentioned  appointment  and  confirmation  by  the  senate  shall  be  for 
the  unexpired  term  only.    Members  of  said  conmiission,  before  enter- 


GOODBLL.]         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  93 

ing  upon  the  duties  of  their  office,  shall  make  and  subscribe  an  oath 
or  affirmation  (before  some  person  authorized  by  the  laws  of  this 
State  to  administer  the  same)  to  truly,  faithfully,  and  impartially 
perform  and  discharge  the  duties  of  their  office  according  to  law  and 
file  the  same  with  the  secretary  of  state.  The  terms  of  office  of  the 
members  of  said  commission  (except  those  appointed  by  the  governor 
to  fill  vacancies  as  aforesaid)  shall  commence  on  the  finst  Monday  of 
May  next  succeeding  their  appointment  by  the  governor  and  confir- 
mation by  the  senate.  On  the  first  Monday  of  May  next  succeeding 
the  original  appointment  of  said  commission  the  members  thereof 
shall  meet  at  the  statehouse  in  the  city  of  Trenton  and  organize  by 
the  election  of  one  of  their  number  to  be  chairman  of  said  commis- 
sion and  one  to  be  treasurer  thereof,  which  officers  shall  hold  office  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  commission.  After  having  so  met  and  organized 
subsequent  meetings  of  the  commission  shall  be  held  at  such  times 
and  places  as  the  commission  may  direct  or  as  it  may  be  called  to 
meet  by  the  chairman. 

2.  Said  commission  shall  keep  a  record  of  all  its  proceedings  and 
transactions,  also  full  and  accurate  account  of  its  receipts,  disburse- 
ments, expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities,  and  shall  annually  report 
to  the  legislature  its  operations,  proceedings,  and  transactions  for  the 
preceding  year,  with  a  statement  or  abstract  of  such  receipts,  dis- 
Imrsements,  expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities. 

3.  The  members  of  said  commission  shall  each  receive  an  annual 
salary  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  as  other  salaries  of  State 
officers  are  paid.  Said  commission  may  have  a  secretary  (not  a 
member  of  the  commission),  to  be  appointed  by  the  commission  or  a 
majority  thereof,  who  shall  hold  his  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  com- 
mission or  a  majority  thereof,  and  receive  such  salary  as  the  commis- 
sion or  a  majority  thereof,  with  the  approval  of  the  governor,  may 
fix;  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may  also  from  time  to 
time  employ  or  appoint  such  experts,  engineers,  officers,  agents, 
employes,  workmen,  and  servants  as  it  may  deem  necessary  or  proper 
to  enable  it  to  perform  its  duties  and  carry  out  the  objects  and  pur- 
poses of  this  act;  and  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may 
fix  and  determine  the  duties  and  compensation  of  said  experts,  engi- 
neers, officers,  agents,  employes,  workmen,  and  servants,  and  remove 
or  discharge  the  same  or  any  of  them  at  pleasure. 

4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  keep  a  record  of  all  the 
proceedings  and  transactions  of  the  commission,  to  prepare  the  annual 
report  to  the  legislature,  and  perform  such  other  duties  as  the  com- 
mission may  require.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  take 
charge  of  the  moneys  received  by  the  commission,  to  keep  accurate 
accounts  of  the  receipt  and  disbursement  thereof,  and  to  deposit  and 


92  LAWS   FOEBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

be  the  duty  of  the  persons  or  parties  addressed  to  answer  within  sucli 
time  as  the  said  State  board  of  health  may  in  such  inquiries  prescrilje. 

4.  If  any  person  or  persons,  corporation  or  corporations,  city,  town. 
l)orough,  township,  or  other  municipality  of  this  State,  or  any  munici- 
pal or  township  authority,  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  the 
first  section  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  State  board  of 
health,  instead  of  proceeding  in  a  summary  way  to  recover  the  pen- 
alty prescribed  in  said  section,  to  file  a  bill  in  the  court  of  chancery. 
in  the  name  of  the  State,  on  the  relation  of  such  board,  for  an  injunc- 
tion to  prohibit  the  further  violation  of  the  said  section,  and  even- 
such  action  shall  proceed  in  the  court  of  chancery  according  to  the 
rules  and  practice  of  bills  filed  in  the  name  of  the  attorney-general 
on  the  relation  of  individuals,  and  cases  of  emergency  shall  have 
precedence  over  other  litigation  pending  at  the  time  in  the  court  of 
chancery,  and  may  be  heard  on  final  hearing  within  such  time  and  on 
such  notice  as  the  chancellor  shall  direct. 

5.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  thiN 
act  are  hereby  repealed. 

6.  This  act  shall  take  eifect  immediately. 
Approved  March  17,  1899. 

[Laws  of  1899,  chap.  210,  p.  536.] 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  tbe  pollution  of  the  waters  of  this  State  by  the  establishmeDt 
of  a  State  sewerage  commission,  and  authorizing  the  creation  of  sewerage 
districts  and  district  sewerage  boards,  and  prescribing,  defining,  and  regulating 
the  powers  and  duties  of  such  commission  and  sucli  boards. 

Be  it  enacted  hy  the  senate  and  gerieral  assemhly  of  the  State  of  Xew 
Jersey: 

1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  governor,  within  thirty  days  next  suc- 
ceeding the  approval  or  passage  of  this  act,  to  appoint,  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  five  citizens  of  this  State,  to 
compose  and  be  known  as  "  the  State  sewerage  commission."  In  the 
original  nomination  of  the  members  of  said  commission  to  the  senate 
the  governor  shall  designate  one  of  them  to  serve  for  one  year,  and 
two  for  two  ye^rs,  and  two  for  three  years,  and  thereafter  the  mem- 
bers of  said  commission  shall  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  for  the  term  of  three  years 
and  until  their  successors  are  duly  appointed,  confirmed,  and  quali- 
fied. Any  vacancy  occurring  in  said  commission  when  the  legislature 
is  not  in  session  shall  be  filled  by  appointment  of  the  governor  until 
the  next  regular  session  of  the  legislature,  when  such  vacancy  shall 
be  filled  in  the  manner  hereinbefore  provided,  but  any  such  last- 
mentioned  appointment  and  confirmation  by  the  senate  shall  be  for 
the  unexpired  term  only.    Members  of  said  commission,  before  enter- 


GOODBLL.]         SBVEBB   STATUTE   EESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  93 

ing  upon  the  duties  of  their  office,  shall  make  and  subscribe  an  oath 
or  affirmation  (before  some  person  authorized  by  the  laws  of  this 
State  to  administer  the  same)  to  truly,  faithfully,  and  impartially 
perform  and  discharge  the  duties  of  their  office  according  to  law  and 
file  the  same  with  the  secretary  of  state.  The  terms  of  office  of  the 
members  of  said  commission  (except  those  appointed  by  the  governor 
to  fill  vacancies  as  aforesaid)  shall  commence  on  the  finst  Monday  of 
May  next  succeeding  their  appointment  by  the  governor  and  confir- 
mation by  the  senate.  On  the  first  Monday  of  May  next  succeeding 
the  original  appointment  of  said  conmiission  the  members  thereof 
shall  meet  at  the  statehouse  in  the  city  of  Trenton  and  organize  by 
the  election  of  one  of  their  number  to  be  chairman  of  said  commis- 
sion and  one  to  be  treasurer  thereof,  which  officers  shall  hold  office  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  commission.  After  having  so  met  and  organized 
subsequent  meetings  of  the  commission  shall  be  held  at  such  times 
and  places  as  the  commission  may  direct  or  as  it  may  be  called  to 
meet  by  the  chairman. 

2.  Said  commission  shall  keep  a  record  of  all  its  proceedings  and 
transactions,  also  full  and  accurate  account  of  its  receipts,  disburse- 
ments, expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities,  and  shall  annually  report 
to  the  legislature  its  operations,  proceedings,  and  transactions  for  the 
preceding  year,  with  a  statement  or  abstract  of  such  receipts,  dis- 
bursements, expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities. 

3.  The  members  of  said  commission  shall  each  receive  an  annual 
salary  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  as  other  salaries  of  State 
officers  are  paid.  Said  commission  may  have  a  secretary  (not  a 
member  of  the  commission),  to  be  appointed  by  the  commission  or  a 
majority  thereof,  who  shall  hold  his  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  com- 
mission or  a  majority  thereof,  and  receive  such  salary  as  the  commis- 
sion or  a  majority  thereof,  with  the  approval  of  the  governor,  may 
fix;  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may  also  from  time  to 
time  employ  or  appoint  such  experts,  engineers,  officers,  agents, 
employes,  workmen,  and  servants  as  it  may  deem  necessary  or  proper 
to  enable  it  to  perform  its  duties  and  carry  out  the  objects  and  pur- 
poses of  this  act;  and  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may 
fix  and  determine  the  duties  and  compensation  of  said  experts,  engi- 
neers, officers,  agents,  employes,  workmen,  and  servants,  and  femove 
or  discharge  the  same  or  any  of  them  at  pleasure. 

4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  keep  a  record  of  all  the 
proceedings  and  transactions  of  the  commission,  to  prepare  the  annual 
report  to  the  legislature,  and  perform  such  other  duties  as  the  com- 
mission may  require.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  take 
charge  of  the  moneys  received  by  the  commission,  to  keep  accurate 
accounts  of  the  receipt  and  disbursement  thereof,  and  to  deposit  and 


92  LAWS   FORBIDDING    INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

l^  the  duty  of  the  persons  or  parties  addressed  to  answer  within  such 
time  as  the  said  State  board  of  health  may  in  such  inquiries  prescril>e. 

4.  If  any  person  or  persons,  corporation  or  corix)rations,  city,  town. 
lK)rough,  township,  or  other  municipality  of  this  State,  or  any  munici- 
pal or  township  authority,  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  tlie 
first  section  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  State  board  of 
health,  instead  of  proceeding  in  a  summary  way  to  recover  the  pen- 
alty prescribed  in  said  section,  to  file  a  bill  in  the  court  of  chanceiy, 
in  the  name  of  the  State,  on  the  relation  of  such  board,  for  an  injunc- 
tion to  prohibit  the  further  violation  of  the  said  section,  and  even- 
such  action  shall  proceed  in  the  court  of  chancery  according  to  the 
rules  and  practice  of  bills  filed  in  the  name  of  the  attorney-general 
on  the  relation  of  individuals,  and  cases  of  emergency  shall  have 
precedence  over  other  litigation  pending  at  the  time  in  the  court  of 
chancery,  and  may  be  heard  on  final  hearing  within  such  time  and  on 
such  notice  as  the  chancellor  shall  direct. 

5.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  thiN 
act  are  hereby  repealed. 

G.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 
Approved  March  17,  1899. 

[Laws  of  1899,  ctiap.  210,  p.  536.1 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  waters  of  this  State  by  the  establishment 
of  a  State  sewerage  conmilssion,  and  authorizing  the  creation  of  sewerage 
(listriots  and  district  sewerage  l)oards,  and  prescribing,  defining,  and  regulating 
the  iK)wer8  and  duties  of  such  commission  and  such  boards. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  senate  and  general  OHsemhly  of  the  State  of  Xeic 
Jersey : 

1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  governor,  within  thirty  days  next  suc- 
ceeding the  approval  or  passage  of  this  act,  to  appoint,  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  five  citizens  of  this  State,  to 
compose  and  be  known  as  "  the  State  sewerage  commission."  In  the 
original  nomination  of  the  members  of  said  commission  to  the  senate 
the  governor  shall  designate  one  of  them  to  serve  for  one  year,  and 
two  for  two  yelirs,  and  two  for  three  years,  and  thereafter  the  mem- 
bers of  said  commission  shall  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  by  and 
w  ith  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  for  the  term  of  three  years 
and  until  their  successors  are  duly  appointed,  confirmed,  and  quali- 
fied. Any  vacancy  occurring  in  said  commission  when  tlie  legislature 
is  not  in  session  shall  be  filled  by  appointment  of  the  governor  until 
the  next  regular  session  of  the  legislature,  when  such  vacancy  shall 
be  filled  in  the  manner  hereinbefore  provided,  but  any  such  last- 
mentioned  appointment  and  confirmation  by  the  senate  shall  be  for 
the  miexpired  term  only.    Members  of  said  commission,  before  enter- 


GooDELL.]         SEVEBE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  93 

ing  upon  the  duties  of  their  oflSce,  shall  make  and  subscribe  an  oath 
or  aflirmation  (before  some  person  authorized  by  the  laws  of  this 
State  to  administer  the  same)  to  truly,  faithfully,  and  impartially 
perform  and  discharge  the  duties  of  their  office  according  to  law  and 
file  the  same  with  the  secretary  of  state.  The  terms  of  office  of  the 
members  of  said  commission  (except  those  appointed  by  the  governor 
to  fill  vacancies  as  aforesaid)  shall  commence  on  the  finnt  Monday  of 
May  next  succeeding  their  appointment  by  the  governor  and  confir- 
mation by  the  senate.  On  the  first  Monday  of  May  next  succeeding 
the  original  appointment  of  said  commission  the  members  thereof 
shall  meet  at  the  statehouse  in  the  city  of  Trenton  and  organize  by 
the  election  of  one  of  their  number  to  be  chairman  of  said  commis- 
sion and  one  to  be  treasurer  thereof,  which  officers  shall  hold  office  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  commission.  After  having  so  met  and  organized 
subsequent  meetings  of  the  commission  shall  be  held  at  such  times 
and  places  as  the  commission  may  direct  or  as  it  may  be  called  to 
meet  by  the  chairman. 

2.  Said  commission  shall  keep  a  record  of  all  its  proceedings  and 
transactions,  also  full  and  accurate  account  of  its  receipts,  disburse- 
ments, expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities,  and  shall  annually  report 
to  the  legislature  its  operations,  proceedings,  and  transactions  for  the 
preceding  year,  with  a  statement  or  abstract  of  such  receipts,  dis- 
bursements, expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities. 

3.  The  members  of  said  commission  shall  each  receive  an  annual 
salarj'  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  l)e  paid  as  other  salaries  of  State 
officers  are  paid.  Said  commission  may  have  a  secretary  (not  a 
member  of  the  commission),  to  be  appointed  by  the  commission  or  a 
majority  thereof,  who  shall  hold  his  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  com- 
mission or  a  majority  thereof,  and  receive  such  salary  as  the  commis- 
sion or  a  majority  thereof,  with  the  approval  of  the  governor,  may 
fix;  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may  also  from  time  to 
time  employ  or  appoint  such  experts,  engineers,  officers,  agents, 
employes,  workmen,  and  servants  as  it  may  deem  necessary  or  proper 
to  enable  it  to  perform  its  duties  and  carry  out  the  objects  and  pur- 
poses of  this  act;  and  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may 
fix  and  determine  the  duties  and  compensation  of  said  experts,  engi- 
neers, officers,  agents,  employes,  workmen,  and  servants,  and  femove 
or  discharge  the  same  or  any  of  them  at  pleasure. 

4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  keep  a  record  of  all  the 
proceedings  and  transactions  of  the  commission,  to  prepare  the  annual 
report  to  the  legislature,  and  perform  such  other  duties  as  the  com- 
mission may  require.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  take 
charge  of  the  moneys  received  by  the  commission,  to  keep  accurate 
accounts  of  the  receipt  and  disbursement  thereof,  and  to  deposit  and 


92  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

be  the  duty  of  the  persons  or  parties  addressed  to  answer  within  such 
time  as  the  said  State  board  of  health  may  in  such  inquiries  prescrilje. 

4.  If  any  person  or  persons,  corporation  or  corporations,  city,  town. 
borough,  township,  or  other  municipality  of  this  State,  or  any  munici- 
pal or  township  authority,  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  the 
first  section  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  State  board  of 
health,  instead  of  proceeding  in  a  summary  way  to  recover  the  pen- 
alty prescribed  in  said  section,  to  file  a  bill  in  the  court  of  chanceiy, 
in  the  name  of  the  State,  on  the  relation  of  such  board,  for  an  injunc- 
tion to  prohibit  the  further  violation  of  the  said  section,  and  ever>- 
such  action  shall  proceed  in  the  court  of  chancery  according  to  the 
rules  and  practice  of  bills  filed  in  the  name  of  the  attorney-general 
on  the  relation  of  individuals,  and  cases  of  emergency  shall  have 
precedence  over  other  litigation  pending  at  the  time  in  the  court  of 
chancery,  and  may  be  heard  on  final  hearing  within  such  time  and  on 
such  notice  as  the  chancellor  shall  direct. 

5.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  thib 
act  are  hereby  repealed. 

6.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 
Approved  March  17,  1899. 

[Laws  of  1899,  chap.  210,  p.  536.] 

AX  ACT  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  waters  of  this  State  by  the  establishmeDt 
of  a  State  sewerage  commission,  and  authorizing  the  creation  of  sewerage 
districts  and  district  sewerage  boards,  and  prescribing,  defining,  and  regulating 
the  powers  and  duties  of  such  commission  and  such  boards. 

Be  it  enacted  hy  the  senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  State  of  Xeir 
Jersey: 

1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  governor,  within  thirty  days  next  suc- 
ceeding the  approval  or  passage  of  this  act,  to  appoint,  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  five  citizens  of  this  State,  to 
compose  and  be  known  as  "  the  State  sewerage  commission."  In  the 
original  nomination  of  the  members  of  said  commission  to  the  senate 
the  governor  shall  designate  one  of  them  to  serve  for  one  year,  and 
two  for  two  yeTirs,  and  two  for  three  years,  and  thereafter  the  mem- 
bers of  said  commission  shall  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  for  the  term  of  three  years 
and  until  their  successors  are  duly  appointed,  confirmed,  and  quali- 
fied. Any  vacancy  occurring  in  said  commission  when  the  legislatun^ 
is  not  in  session  shall  be  filled  by  appointment  of  the  governor  until 
the  next  regular  session  of  the  legislature,  when  such  vacancy  shall 
be  filled  in  the  manner  hereinbefore  provided,  but  any  such  last- 
mentioned  appointment  and  confirmation  by  the  senate  shall  be  for 
the  unexpired  term  only.    Members  of  said  commission,  before  enter- 


GOODBLL.]         SEVEBE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  93 

ing  upon  the  duties  of  their  office,  shall  make  and  subscribe  an  oath 
or  affirmation  (before  some  pei'son  authorized  by  the  laws  of  this 
State  to  administer  the  same)  to  truly,  faithfully,  and  impartially 
perform  and  discharge  the  duties  of  their  office  according  to  law  and 
file  the  same  with  the  secretary  of  state.  The  terms  of  office  of  the 
members  of  said  commission  (except  those  appointed  by  the  governor 
to  fill  vacancies  as  aforesaid)  shall  commence  on  the  finst  Monday  of 
May  next  succeeding  their  appointment  by  the  governor  and  confir- 
mation by  the  senate.  On  the  first  Monday  of  May  next  succeeding 
the  original  appointment  of  said  commission  the  members  thereof 
shall  meet  at  the  statehouse  in  the  city  of  Trenton  and  organize  by 
the  election  of  one  of  their  number  to  be  chairman  of  said  commis- 
sion and  one  to  be  treasurer  thereof,  which  officers  shall  hold  office  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  commission.  After  having  so  met  and  organized 
subsequent  meetings  of  the  conmiission  shall  be  held  at  such  times 
and  places  as  the  commission  may  direct  or  as  it  may  be  called  to 
meet  by  the  chairman. 

2.  Said  commission  shall  keep  a  record  of  all  its  proceedings  and 
transactions,  also  full  and  accurate  account  of  its  receipts,  disburse- 
ments, expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities,  and  shall  annually  report 
to  the  legislature  its  operations,  proceedings,  and  transactions  for  the 
preceding  year,  with  a  statement  or  abstract  of  such  receipts,  dis- 
bursements, expenditures,  assets,  and  liiibilities. 

3.  The  members  of  said  commission  shall  each  receive  an  annual 
salary  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  as  other  salaries  of  State 
officers  are  paid.  Said  commission  may  have  a  secretary  (not  a 
member  of  the  commission),  to  be  appointed  by  the  commission  or  a 
majority  thereof,  who  shall  hold  his  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  com- 
mission or  a  majority  thereof,  and  receive  such  salary  as  the  commis- 
sion or  a  majority  thereof,  with  the  approval  of  the  governor,  may 
fix;  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may  also  from  time  to 
time  employ  or  appoint  such  experts,  engineers,  officers,  agents, 
employes,  workmen,  and  servants  as  it  may  deem  necessary  or  proper 
to  enable  it  to  perform  its  duties  and  carry  out  the  objects  and  pur- 
poses of  this  act;  and  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may 
fix  and  determine  the  duties  and  compensation  of  said  experts,  engi- 
neers, officers,  agents,  employes,  workmen,  and  servants,  and  remove 
or  discharge  the  same  or  any  of  them  at  pleasure. 

4.  It  shall  l>e  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  keep  a  record  of  all  the 
proceedings  and  transactions  of  the  commission,  to  prepare  the  annual 
report  to  the  legislature,  and  perform  such  other  duties  as  the  com- 
mission may  require.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  take 
charge  of  the  moneys  received  by  the  commission,  to  keep  accurate 
accounts  of  the  receipt  and  disbursement  thereof,  and  to  deposit  and 


92  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATEB   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

be  the  duty  of  the  persons  or  parties  addressed  to  answer  within  such 
time  as  the  said  State  board  of  health  may  in  such  inquiries  prescribe. 

4.  If  any  person  or  persons,  corporation  or  corporations,  city,  town, 
borough,  township,  or  other  municipality  of  this  State,  or  any  munici- 
pal or  township  authority,  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  the 
first  section  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  State  lx>ard  of 
health,  instead  of  proceeding  in  a  summary  way  to  recover  the  pen- 
alty prescribed  in  said  section,  to  file  a  bill  in  the  court  of  chancery, 
in  the  name  of  the  State,  on  the  I'elation  of  such  board,  for  an  injunc- 
tion to  prohibit  the  further  violation  of  the  said  section,  and  ever^' 
such  action  shall  proceed  in  the  court  of  chancery  according  to  the 
rules  and  practice  of  bills  filed  in  the  name  of  the  attorney-general 
on  the  relation  of  individuals,  and  cases  of  emergency  shall  have 
precedence  over  other  litigation  pending  at  the  time  in  the  court  of 
chancery,  and  may  be  heard  on  final  hearing  within  such  time  and  on 
such  notice  as  the  chancellor  shall  direct. 

5.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  this 
act  are  hereby  repealed. 

6.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 
Approved  March  17,  1899. 

[Laws  of  1899,  chap.  210,  p.  536.] 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  poHutlon  of  the  waters  of  this  State  by  the  establishment 
of  a  State  sewerage  commission,  and  authorizing  the  creation  of  seweragt* 
districts  and  district  sewerage  boards,  and  prescribing,  defining,  and  regulating 
the  i)owers  and  duties  of  such  commission  and  such  boards. 

Be  H  enacted  hy  the  senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  State  of  Xc\c 
Jersey: 

1.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  governor,  within  thirty  days  next  suc- 
ceeding the  approval  or  passage  of  this  act,  to  appoint,  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  five  citizens  of  this  State,  to 
compose  and  be  known  as  *'  the  State  sewerage  commission."  In  the 
original  nomination  of  the  members  of  said  commission  to  the  senate 
the  governor  shall  designate  one  of  them  to  serve  for  one  year,  and 
two  for  two  ye^rs,  and  two  for  three  years,  and  thereafter  the  mem- 
bers of  said  commission  shall  be  appointed  by  the  governor,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate,  for  the  term  of  three  year> 
and  until  their  successors  are  duly  appointed,  confirmed,  and  quali- 
fied. Any  vacancy  occurring  in  said  commission  when  the  legislature 
is  not  in  session  shall  be  filled  by  appointment  of  the  governor  until 
the  next  regular  session  of  the  legislature,  when  such  vacancy  shall 
be  filled  in  the  manner  hereinbefore  provided,  but  any  such  last- 
mentioned  appointment  and  confirmation  by  the  senate  shall  be  for 
the  imexpired  term  only.    Members  of  said  commission,  before  enter- 


GooDEix.]         SBVEBB   STATUTE   BESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  93 

ing  upon  the  duties  of  their  office,  shall  make  and  subscribe  an  oath 
or  affirmation  (before  some  person  authorized  by  the  laws  of  this 
State  to  administer  the  same)  to  truly,  faithfully,  and  impartially 
perform  and  discharge  the  duties  of  their  office  according  to  law  and 
file  the  same  with  the  secretary  of  state.  The  terms  of  office  of  the 
members  of  said  commission  (except  those  appointed  by  the  governor 
to  fill  vacancies  as  aforesaid)  shall  commence  on  the  fiisst  Monday  of 
May  next  succeeding  their  appointment  by  the  governor  and  confir- 
mation by  the  senate.  On  the  first  Monday  of  May  next  succeeding 
the  original  appointment  of  said  commission  the  members  thereof 
shall  meet  at  the  statehouse  in  the  city  of  Trenton  and  organize  by 
the  election  of  one  of  their  number  to  be  chairman  of  said  commis- 
sion and  one  to  be  treasurer  thereof,  which  officers  shall  hold  office  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  commission.  After  having  so  met  and  organized 
subsequent  meetings  of  the  commission  shall  be  held  at  such  times 
and  places  as  the  commission  may  direct  or  as  it  may  bt»  called  to 
meet  by  the  chairman. 

2.  Said  commission  shall  keep  a  record  of  all  its  proceedings  and 
transactions,  also  full  and  accurate  account  of  its  receipts,  disburse- 
ments, expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities,  and  shall  annually  report 
to  the  legislature  its  operations,  proceedings,  and  transactions  for  the 
preceding  year,  with  a  statement  or  abstract  of  such  receipts,  dis- 
bursements, expenditures,  assets,  and  liabilities. 

3.  The  members  of  said  commission  shall  each  receive  an  annual 
salarj'^  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  as  other  salaries  of  State 
officers  are  paid.  Said  commission  may  have  a  secretary  (not  a 
member  of  the  commission),  to  be  appointed  by  the  commission  or  a 
majority  thereof,  who  shall  hold  his  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  com- 
mission or  a  majority  thereof,  and  receive  such  salary  as  the  commis- 
sion or  a  majority  thereof,  with  the  approval  of  the  governor,  may 
fix;  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may  also  from  time  to 
time  employ  or  appoint  such  experts,  engineers,  officers,  agents, 
employes,  workmen,  and  servants  as  it  may  deem  necessary  or  proper 
to  enable  it  to  perform  its  duties  and  carry  out  the  ol)jects  and  pur- 
poses of  this  act;  and  said  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may 
fix  and  determine  the  duties  and  compensation  of  said  experts,  engi- 
neers, officers,  agents,  employes,  workmen,  and  servants,  and  remove 
or  discharge  the  same  or  any  of  them  at  pleasure. 

4.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  secretary  to  keep  a  record  of  all  the 
proceedings  and  transactions  of  the  commission,  to  j)repare  the  annual 
report  to  the  legislature,  and  perform  such  other  duties  as  the  com- 
mission may  require.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  treasurer  to  take 
charge  of  the  moneys  received  by  the  conimission,  to  keep  accurate 
accounts  of  the  receipt  and  disbursement  thereof,  and  to  deposit  and 


94  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

pay  out  said  moneys  as  the  commission  may  direct  and  under  such 
rules  and  regulations  as  it  may  from  time  to  time  establish.  The 
treasurer  may  be  required  to  give  bond  to  the  commission  for  the  due 
and  faithful  performance  of  his  duties  as  such  treasurer,  in  such  sum 
and  with  such  sureties  as  the  commission  or  a  majority  thereof  may 
require  and  approve. 

5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  commission  to  investigate  the  vari- 
ous methods  of  sewage  disposal,  either  in  this  country  or  elsewhere, 
in  order  that  they  may  be  able  to  make  proper  recx)mmendations  in 
regard  thereto.  They  shall  investigate  all  complaints  of  pollution  of 
the  waters  of  this  State  which  shall  be  brought  to  their  notice,  and 
shall  advise  as  to  the  best  methods  of  sewage  disposal  in  order  to 
prevent  such  pollution. 

6.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  corporation,  or  municipality 
to  build  any  sewer  or  drain  or  sewerage  system  from  which  it  is 
designed  that  any  sewage  or  other  harmful  and  deleterious  matter, 
solid  or  liquid,  shall  flow  into  any  of  the  waters  of  this  State  so  as  to 
pollute  or  render  impure  said  waters,  except  under  such  conditions  as 
shall  be  approved  by  the  State  sewerage  commission:  Prorided^ThsLt 
the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  not  be  deemed  to  prohibit  the  use 
or  extension  of  existing  sewers,  drains,  or  sewerage  systems. 

7.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  corporation,  or  municipality 
to  build  or  cause  to  be  built  any  plant  for  the  treatment  of  sewage  or 
other  polluting  substance  from  which  the  effluent  is  to  flow  into  any 
of  the  waters  of  this  State,  except  under  such  conditions  as  shall  be 
approved  by  the  State  sewerage  commission,  to  whom  the  plans  shall 
be  submitted  before  building. 

8.  On  or  before  the  first  day  of  January,  one  thousand  nine  hun- 
dred, and  thereafter  whenever  required  by  said  commission,  the  mayor 
of  every  municipality  and  the  chairman  of  every  township  conimitt^H* 
of  every  township  now  having,  using,  owning,  leasing,  or  controlling 
a  sewerage  plant  or  system  shall  furnish  to  said  commission,  on  blanks 
to  be  provided  by  said  commission,  a  statement  showing  the  disi>osi- 
tion  made  of  the  sewage  of  their  respective  municipalities  or  town- 
ships, and,  as  near  as  possible,  the  amount  discharged  each  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  such  other  information  and  data  as  may  be  called  for 
by  said  blanks  to  be  provided  as  aforesaid  by  said  commission. 

9.  The  words  ''  waters  of  this  State,"  as  used  in  this  act,  shall  be 
held  and  construed  to  mean  and  include  any  and  all  waters  of  any 
pond,  lake,  creek,  inlet,  bay,  estuary,  river,  or  stream  of  this  State. 

10.  To  enable  said  commission  to  carry  out  and  enforce  the  provi- 
sions of  this  act,  the  said  commission  may  expend  a  sum  not  exceeding 
five  thousand  dollars,  when  duly  appropriated. 

11.  And  whereas,  in  order  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  the  waters  of 
this  State,  it  is  deemed  necessary  to  establish  a  proper  system  or  sys- 


aooDELL.J         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS NEW   JERSEY.  95 

teins  of  sewerage  and  drainage  wherein  may  or  may  not  be  included 
a  system  or  systems  of  sewage-disposal  works  for  the  scientific  treat- 
ment and  proper  disposal  of  sewage  and  sewage  matter  and  the  efflu- 
ent thereof,  and  the  establishment  of  any  such  system  or  systems 
may  render  proper  or  necessary  the  formation  or  creation  of  sewerage 
districts  embracing  portions  or  the  whole  of  the  territory  of  two  or 
more  of  the  municipalities  of  this  State,  within  which  districts  such 
system  may  be  constructed,  maintained,  and  operated,  and  such 
municipalities  may  be  unable,  through  lack  of  power  and  authority 
or  otherwise,  to  agree  upon  the  establishment  of  any  such  system  or 
systems  or  upon  the  extent  or  limits  of  the  territory  of  their  respec- 
tive municipalities  to  be  included  in  any  such  district  or  districts  and 
devoted  to  the  uses  and  purposes  of  any  such  system  or  systems  as 
aforesaid;  therefore  upon  presentation  to  said  the  State  sewerage 
commission  of  a  petition  in  writing,  setting  forth  that  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  pollution  of  the  waters  of  this  State,  or  any  of  them,  it  is 
proper  or  necessary  that  portions  or  the  whole  of  the  territory  of  two 
or  more  of  the  municipalities  of  this  State  should  be  erected  into  a 
ir-ewerage  district  for  the  construction,  maintaining,  and  operation 
within  such  district  of  a  system  of  sewerage  and  drainage  or  a  system 
of  sewage-disposal  works,  or  of  both  such  systems,  and  naming  each 
municipality,  the  whole  or  any  portion  of  the  territory  whereof  it  is 
proposed  shall  be  included  in  such  district,  and  stating  generally  the 
boundaries  and  outlines  of  such  proposed  district  with  sufficient 
exactness  to  show  approximately  the  quantity  or  extent  of  territory 
of  each  municipality  to  be  embraced  in  such  proposed  district,  and 
requesting  said  commission  to  create  and  establish  such  district  for 
either  or  both  of  the  purposes  aforesaid ;  and  if  said  petition  be  signed 
by  the  mayors  or  other  chief  executive  officers  of  all  of  the  munici- 
palities named  in  said  petition,  any  of  whose  territory  is  proposed  to 
be  included  in  said  district,  said  signatures  being  respectively  affixed 
to  said  petition  by  authority  or  direction  of  the  respective  governing 
bodies  of  such  municipalities  (full  power  and  authority  to  authorize 
and  direct  the  signing  of  any  such  petition  being  hereby  conferred 
upon  and  vested  in  all  such  governing  bodies),  and  the  signing  of 
said  petition  by  such  authority  or  direction  being  made  to  appear  by 
affidavit  or  other  due  proof  thereof,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  said  the 
State  sewerage  commission  to  appoint  a  time  and  place  when  and 
where  it  will  attend  and  give  public  hearing  of  the  matters  contained 
in  said  petition  to  all  persons  and  parties  interested  therein;  said 
commission  shall  cause  at  least  twenty  days'  notice  to  be  given  of  the 
time  and  place  of  any  such  hearing  by  publishing  the  same  in  the 
newspaper  or  newspapers,  if  any,  published  within  said  proposed  dis- 
trict, and  if  none  be  published  therein,  then  in  a  newspaper  or  news- 
papers published  in  the  neighborhood  of  said  proposed  district  and 


96  LAWS   FORBroDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  ir.2. 

circulating  therein;  said  notice  may  also,  at  the  discretion  of  said 
commission,  be  published  in  a  newspaper  or  newspapers  published 
outside  of  said  proposed  district,  whether  or  not  any  paper  or  paper? 
be  published  within  the  same;  said  commission  shall  also,  at  least 
ten  days  prior  to  the  day  fixed  for  such  hearing,  cause  notice  of  the 
time  and  place  ^thereof  to  be  mailed  to  or  served  upon  the  mayor  or 
other  chief  executive  officer  of  any  and  all  municipalities  named  in 
said  petition,  any  territory  whereof  is  included  in  said  proi>osed  dis- 
trict ;  and  said  commission  may,  if  it  deem  proper  so  to  do,  require  a 
copy  of  said  petition  to  be  mailed  to  or  served  upcm  such  mayors  or 
other  chief  executive  officers  such  number  of  days  prior  to  said  hear- 
ing as  it  may  direct;  said  hearing  may  be  adjourned  from  time  to 
time  as  said  commission  may  decide ;  the  sessions  of  said  commission 
on  said  hearing,  or  any  adjournment  thereof,  when  sitting  for  the 
taking  of  testimony  or  hearing  argument  of  counsel,  shall  be  open 
and  public,  and  witnesses  may  be  examined  under  oath  or  affirmation, 
which  any  member  of  said  commission  or  the  secretary  thereof  is 
hereby  authorized  and  empowered  to  administer;  the  secretary  of  said 
commission  shall  attend  at  all  such  hearings  and  keep  minutes  of  the 
proceedings  thereat;  said  commission  may,  if  it  deem  proper  so  to  do, 
employ  a  stenographer  to  take  and  transcribe  the  testimony  produced 
before  it  at  any  such  hearing;  and  said  commission  may  require  the 
persons  or  parties  presenting  to  it  any  such  petition  as  aforesaid  to 
pay  in  advance  or  assume  or  guarantee  to  pay  all  or  such  part'  of  the 
costs,  charges,  and  expenses  to  be  made  or  incurred  by  reason  of  the 
filing  of  said  petition  and  subsequent  proceedings  to  be  had  there- 
upon or  thereunder,  as  said  commission  may  think  proper. 

12.  If,  after  such  hearing,  said  commission,  or  a  majoritj'^  thereof, 
shall  deem  it  advisable  to  comply  with  the  request  of  said  petition, 
and  that  a  district  for  the  purpose  or  purposes,  or  either  of  them 
therein  stated,  should  lx>  created  and  established,  said  commission 
shall  adopt  a  resolution  to  that  effect,  defining  the  limits  and  bountl- 
aries  of  such  district  with  certainty  and  declaring  the  territory 
included  within  such  limits  and  boundaries  to  be  a  sewerage  district, 
within  which  a  system  of  sewerage  and  drainage,  or  a  system  of 
sewage-disposal  works,  or  both,  may  be  constructed,  maintained,  and 
operated  under  the  provisions  of  this  act ;  the  said  districts  shall  be 
called  and  known  as  "  sewerage  districts,"  and  the  boards  to  con- 
struct, maintain,  and  operate  the  system  or  systems  of  sewerage  or 
sewage-disposal  works  within  such  districts  shall  be  called  and  known 
as  "  sewerage  boards ;  "  in  and  by  said  resolution,  said  commission 
shall  assign  to  the  district  therein  and  thereby  established  a  name 

and  number,  thus,  "  Sewerage  district  number ,"  and  shall  also 

specify  the  name  by  which  the  board  thereafter  to  be  elected  in  such 


GooDBLU]         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY,  97 

district  shall  be  called  and  designated,  thus,  "  Sewerage  board  of  dis- 
trict number ,"  the  number  of  any  such  district  and  that  of  the 

sewerage  board  therein  to  be  always  the  same.  The  first  sewerage 
district  created  and  established  under  this  act  shall  be  "  Sewerage 
district  number  one,"  the  second  number  two,  and  so  on  in  regular 
order  as  the  same  may  be  respectively  created.  Said  conmussion 
shall  also  cause  a  map  to  be  prepared  of  said  district  so  created  and 
established,  whereon  and  whereby  shall  be  shown  with  accuracy  the 
limits  and  boundaries  of  such  district,  of  what  municipalities  the 
lands  included  in  said  district  form  a  part,  and  what  extent  or  quan- 
tity of  territory  of  each  municipality  (whether  the  whole  or  a  portion 
thereof)  is  included  in  said  district.  The  original  of  said  map  shall 
be  filed  with  said  commission,  and  within  ten  days  after  the  adoption 
of  said  resolution  a  copy  thereof  and  of  said  map  shall  be  filed  in 
the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  and  in  the  clerk's  office  of  each 
county  in  which  any  of  the  lands  included  in  said  district  may  be 
situate;  and  from  and  after  the  filing  of  such  resolution  and  maps  as 
aforesaid  the  territory  included  in  said  district  as  stated  and  shown 
in  and  by  said  resolution  and  map  shall  be  deemed  to  be  and  consti- 
tute a  sewerage  district  by  the  name  and  number  and  for  the  pur- 
poses stated  in  said  resolution. 

13.  The  members  of  the  several  sewerage  boards  shall  consist  of 
two  members  from  each  municipality,  in  whole  or  part,  within  the 
hewerage  district,  to  be  appointed  by  the  governing  body  of  each  of 
such  municipalities,  and  one  member  to  be  appointed  by  the  State 
sewerage  commission,  all  of  whom  shall  be  residents  of  the  district ; 
provided  that  in  case  more  than  three  municipalities  shall  be  included 
in  whole  or  part  in  any  sewerage  district  there  shall  be  but  one  mem- 
ber from  each  municipality  in  addition  to  the  number  appointed  by 
the  State  sewerage  commission. 

14.  The  members  of  any  district  sewerage  board  first  appointed 
shall  meet  at  such  time  and  place  as  the  State  sewerage  commission 
shall  designate;  each  member  of  said  board  (and  all  members  thereof 
afterwards  appointed  thereto)  shall  take  and  subscribe  an  oath  or 
affirmation,  before  some  person  authorized  to  administer  the  same,  to 
faithfully  and  truly  perform  his  duty  as  member  of  such  board  to  the 
best  of  his  ability,  and  within  two  days  after  making  thereof  forward 
the  same  to  the  secretary  of  state;  said  board  when  met  as  aforesaid 
(the  members  thereof  having  each  made  and  subscribed  said  oath  or 
affirmation)  shall  organize  by  the  election  of  one  of  their  number  as 
chairman,  one  as  secretary,  and  one  as  treasurer ;  the  members  of  said 
board  shall  serve  for  the  term  of  three  years  each,  and  the  terms  of 
such  members  shall  commence  on  the  date  of  their  first  meeting  as 

IBB  152—05  M 7 


98  LAWS   FORBIDDING    INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

designated  by  the  State  sewerage  commission;  the  chairman,  secre- 
tary, and  treasurer  of  said  board  shall,  respectively,  serve  for  the 
period  of  one  year  and  until  their  successors  are  elected ;  a  certificate 
or  statement  of  such  meeting  and  organization  of  said  board  shall,  on 
the  day  of  such  meeting,  be  prepared  and  mailed  to  the  secretary  of 
state,  to  be  filed  in  his  office;  meetings  of  said  board  subsequent  to 
such  first  meeting  for  organization  shall  be  held  at  such  times  and 
places  as  the  board  may  decide  or  as  it  may  be  called  to  meet  by  the 
chairman. 

15.  From  and  after  such  meeting  and  organization  of  said  board 
and  the  filing  of  such  certificate  as  aforesaid,  said  board  shall  be 
deemed  to  be  and  shall  be  a  body  politic  and  corporate,  under  the 
same  name  and  title  as  that  designated  and  specified  in  the  resolution 
of  the  State  sewerage  commission  creating  and  defining  the  said  sew- 
erage district,  to  wit,  "  Sewerage  board  of  district  number ,"  and 

by  such  name  and  title  said  sewerage  board  shall  have  perpetual  suc- 
cession, with  power  to  sue  and  be  sued,  and  the  right,  power,  and 
authority  to  acquire,  hold,  use,  and  dispose  of  all  such  property,  real 
or  personal,  as  may  be  proper  or  necessary  for  the  objects,  uses,  and 
purposes  for  which  said  sewerage  board  was  created,  and  with  all 
other  powers  necessary  or  incident  to  bodies  politic  and  corporate  or 
that  may  be  necessary  or  proper  to  carry  out  and  effectuate  the  objects 
and  purposes  of  this  act  and  the  objects  and  purposes  for  which  said 
sewerage  board  was  created. 

16.  Any  such  board  incorporated  as  aforesaid  shall  have  full  power 
and  authority  within  its  respective  district,  under  the  supervision, 
direction,  and  control  of  the  State  sewerage  commission  as  hereinbe- 
fore or  hereinafter  provided,  to  construct,  maintain,  and  operate  in 
said  district  a  system  of  sewerage  and  drainage,  or  of  sewage-dis- 
posal works,  or  both,  with  the  necessary  pipes,  drains,  conduits,  fix- 
tures, pumping  works,  and  other  appliances  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
up  sewage  and  all  other  offensive  and  deleterious  matter  and  con- 
vey the  same  to  some  proper  place  or  places  of  deposit  or  disposal  to 
be  selected  by  the  said  board,  there  to  be  deposited,  treated,  disin- 
fected, or  disposed  of  as  to  the  said  board  may  seem  proper  and  as 
may  be  deemed  most  advantageous;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  all 
persons  and  all  corporate  bodies  and  municipalities  owning  or  con- 
trolling sewers  or  drains  or  having  charge  thereof  within  the  limits 
of  the  district  wherein  intercepting  or  main  sewers  have  been  or  may 
be  constructed  by  the  said  board  as  herein  provided,  to  cause  the  same 
to  be  connected  therewith ;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  board  in 
constructing  such  main  or  intercepting  sewers  to  have  them  so  con- 
structed that  such  connection  can  be  made  therewith  at  all  necessary 
and  proper  points  and  places;  all  such  connections  shall  be  made  in 


•iuoDELL.1         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  99 

accordance  with  the  rules  and  regulations  from  time  to  time  adopted 
by  the  said  board  in  relation  thereto,  and  under  the  direction  and 
supervision  of  its  officers  and  agents. 

17.  The  said  board  shall  have  power  and  authority  to  purchase  and 
acquire  all  lands,  rights,  or  interest  in  lands  which  may  be  deemed 
necessary  for  the  construction  of  sewers,  drains,  disposal  pumping, 
and  other  works  authorized  by  this  act ;  and  if  in  any  case  the  said 
board  shall  be  unable  to  agree  with  the  owner  or  owners  of  any  lands, 
rights,  or  interests  in  lands  deemed  necessary  by  the  said  board  in  the 
construction  of  the  works  herein  authorized,  or  when,  by  reason  of 
the  legal  incapacity  or  absence  of  such  owner  or  owners,  no  agree- 
ment can  be  made  for  the  purchase  thereof,  the  lands  or  rights  in 
lands  so  desired  shall  be  acquired  in  the  manner  provided  by  the 
general  laws  of  this  State  relating  to  the  condemnation  of  lands  for 
public  use. 

18.  Before  determining  upon  the  final  plan  or  route  for  the  build- 
ing or  construction  of  any  work  authorized  by  this  act,  the  said  board 
may,  by  its  officers,  agents,  servants,  and  employes,  enter  at  all  times 
upon  any  lands  or  waters  for  the  purpose  of  exploring,  surveying, 
leveling,  and  laying  out  the  route  of  any  drain  or  sewer,  locating 
any  disposal,  pumping,  or  other  works,  establishing  grades  and  doing 
all  necessary  preliminary  work,  doing,  however,  no  unnecessary  dam- 
age or  injury  to  private  or  other  property. 

19.  The  said  board  shall  have  power  and  authority  to  construct  any 
sewer  or  drain,  by  it  to  be  made  or  constructed  under  or  over  any 
water  course,  under,  over,  or  across,  or  along  any  street,  turnpike, 
road,  railroad,  highway  or  other  way,  and  in  or  upon  private  or  pub- 
lic lands  under  water,  in  such  way  and  manner,  however,  as  not 
unnecessarily  to  obstruct  or  impede  travel  or  navigation,  and  may 
enter  upon  and  dig  up  any  road,  street,  highway,  or  private  or  public 
land,  for  the  purpose  of  laying  down  sewers  and  drains  upon  or 
beneath  the  surface  thereof,  and  for  maintaining  and  repairing  the 
same,  and  in  general  may  do  all  other  acts  and  things  necessary,  con- 
venient, and  proper  for  the  purposes  of  this  act;  and  whenever  the 
said  board  shall  dig  up  any  road,  street,  or  way,  as  aforesaid,  it  shall, 
as  far  as  practicable,  restore  the  same  to  as  good  condition  and  order 
as  the  same  was  when  such  digging  commenced. 

20.  The  said  board  shall  have  power  and  authority  also  to  alter  or 
change  the  course  or  direction  of  any  water  course,  and,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  board  or  body  having  control  of  the  streets  and  highways 
in  any  city,  town,  or  municipality,  to  alter  or  change  the  location  or 
grade  of  any  highway,  public  street,  or  way  crossed  by  any  sewer  or 
drain  constructed  or  to  be  constructed  under  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  or  in  which  such  sewers  or  drains  may  be  located. 


100  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

21.  The  said  board  shall  at  all  times  keep  full  and  accurate  accounts 
of  its  receipts,  expenditures,  disbursements,  assets,  and  liabiliti^ 
and  shall  annually  make  a  report  of  its  operations  and  doings,  in 
which  report  it  shall  include  an  abstract  of  such  receipts,  expendi- 
tures, disbursements,  assets,  and  liabilities,  and  publish  the  same  in 
one  or  more  newspapers,  published  in  each  of  the  counties  in  said 
district. 

22.  To  provide  for  the  payment  of  the  costs  and  expenses  incurred 
or  to  be  incurred  by  the  said  board  in  making  the  constructions  and 
executing  the  work  and  performing  the  duties  imposed  upon  it  by 
this  act,  it  shall  have  power  and  authority  from  time  to  time  to  issue 
bonds  in  its  corporate  name,  not  to  exceed  in  amount  such  costs  and 
expenses,  and  not  to  exceed  that  part  of  such  cost  and  expense 
incurred  in  the  work  of  constructing  sewers,  drains,  disposal,  and 
other  works,  including  the  cost  of  lands,  rights  and  interests  in  lands, 
of  which  a  separate  account  is  to  be  kept  by  said  board  as  hereinafter 
provided ;  such  bonds  shall  be  of  the  form  and  payable  at  such  time, 
not  exceeding  thirty  years  from  the  date  thereof,  and  at  such  place, 
either  in  currency  or  coin,  as  the  said  board  may  determine ;  they  shall 
bear  interest  at  a  rate  not  exceeding  five  per  centum  per  anniun ;  in 
issuing  such  bonds  the  said  board  may,  in  its  discretion,  make  the 
same  or  any  part  thereof,  fall  due  at  stated  periods  less  than  thirty 
years,  or  may  reserve  therein  an  option  to  redeem  and  pay  the  same  or 
any  part  thereof  at  stated  periods  at  any  time  between  the  date  thereof 
and  the  date  at  which  they  would  otherwise  fall  due,  and  all  such 
bonds  may  be  negotiated,  sold,  or  disposed  of  at  not  less  than  their 
par  value,  and  the  same  or  the  proceeds  thereof  may  be  used  by  the 
said  board  for  the  purpose  aforesaid. 

23.  The  said  board  shall  keep  the  costs  and  expenses  of  the  con- 
struction of  sewers,  drains,  disposal  and  other  works,  in  which  shall 
be  included  the  cost  of  lands,  rights,  and  interests  in  lands,  separate 
from  the  costs  and  expenses  of  maintenance,  operation,  and  repairs, 
and  shall,  after  having  prepared  and  adopted  plans  (which,  however, 
the  board  or  the  State  sewerage  commission  shall  have  the  power  to 
change  or  modify,  if  such  change  or  modification  shall  be  found  neces- 
sary or  desirable) ,  make  a  careful  estimate  of  the  cost  and  expense  of 
such  construction,  and  shall  divide  and  apportion  the  same,  accord- 
ing to  their  best  judgment,  to  and  between  the  several  municipalities^ 
or  parts  thereof  (if  any)  included  within  such  sewerage  districts  rat- 
ably and  proportionally  to  the  benefits  received  or  to  be  received  by 
such  municipalities  or  parts  thereof  from  such  construction,  and  shall 
furnish  to  the  governing  body  of  each  and  every  municipality  the 
whole  or  any  part  whereof  is  included  in  such  sewerage  district,  a 
statement  of  such  estimated  cost  and  expense  and  of  the  division  and 


GOODM.L.1        SEVERE  STAtlTTE  ftESfRTCtlOJTS — KEW  ^EftSEV.  101 

apportionment  thereof  as  aforesaid,  and  service  of  said  statement 
upon  the  mayor  or  other  chief  executive  officer  or  upon  the  clerk  of 
any  such  municipality  shall  be  deemed  to  be  a  service  upon  the  munici- 
pality; if  the  governing  body  of  any  such  municipality  (whether  a 
whole  or  only  a  part  thereof  is  included  in  such  sewerage  district) 
shall  be  dissatisfied  with  such  division  and  apportionment  and  shall 
within  twenty  days  after  service  thereof  as  aforesaid  express  such  dis- 
satisfaction by  a  resolution  adopted  by  a  majority  of  such  body,  then 
it  shall  be  lawful  for  such  body,  in  the  corporate  name  of  such  munic- 
ipality, to  make  application  to  any  justice  of  the  supreme  court  of 
this  State  for  the  appointment  of  three  disinterested  persons,  residents 
of 'this  State,  commission  to  review  such  division  and  apportion- 
ment, and  correct,  amend,  revise,  alter,  or  confirm  the  same,  as  they 
or  a  majority  of  them  shall  deem  just  and  proper,  and  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  said  justice  to  make  such  appointment;  the  commissioners  so 
appointed  (having  respectively  taken  and  subscribed  an  oath  or  affir- 
mation before  some  person  authorized  to  administer  the  same  faith- 
fully and  impartially  to  perform  the  duties  imposed  upon  them  by «»), 
shall  forthwith,  at  such  time  and  place  as  they  or  a  majority  of  them 
may  appoint,  and  upon  such  notice  as  the  said  justice  in  the  order 
appointing  said  conmiissioners  shall  direct  to  be  given,  hear  the  par- 
ties interested  in  said  matter  and  such  proofs  and  witnesses  as  may 
be  produced  before  them ;  said  conmiissioners  may  adjourn  said  hear- 
ing from  time  to  time  as  occasion  may  require ;  on  any  such  hearing 
the  parties,  if  they  so  choose,  may  be  represented  by  counsel,  and  the 
witnesses  may  be  examined  under  dath  or  affirmation,  which  any  of 
said  commissioners  are  hereby  authorized  to  administer;  said  com- 
missioners may  designate  one  of  their  number  to  act  as  chairman  and 
one  to  act  as  clerk  or  secretary;  at  the  conclusion  of  such  hearing, 
and  withiii  ten  days  thereafter,  said  commissioners,  or  a  majority  of 
them,  shall  correct,  amend,  revise,  alter,  or  confirm  such  division  and 
apportionment  as  they  or  a  majority  of  them  shall  deem  just  and 
proper  under  the  evidence  and  proofs  produced  before  them  and  shall 
make  and  sign  a  statement  or  certificate  thereof,  which  statement  or 
certificate  shall  be  final  and  conclusive  and  binding  upon  all  parties ; 
the  application  for  the  appointment  of  such  commissioners,  the  order 
of  the  justice  appointing  them,  the  oath  or  affirmation  of  said  com- 
missioners, and  their  said  statement  or  certificate  shall,  within  two 
days  after  the  making  of  such  statement  or  certificate,  be  filed  with 
the  secretary  of  the  sewerage  board  which  made  the  division  or  appor- 
tionment reviewed  by  said  commissioners  ;•  and  such  sewerage  board, 
within  five  days  after  the  filing  of  such  statement  or  certificate  as 
aforesaid,  shall  cause  a  certified  copy  thereof  to  be  served  in  manner 

a  So  In  original. 


102  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

aforesaid  upon  each  of  the  municipalities  that  the  original  division 
and  apportionment  made  by  said  sewerage  board  was  served  upon, 
which  certified  copy  so  served  shall  be  in  lieu  and  stead  of  that  orig- 
inally served  and  (as  aforesaid)  be  final  and  conclusive  and  binding 
upon  all  parties;  if,  in  any  case,  where  only  a  part  of  a  municipality 
is  included  in  a  sewerage  district,  the  governing  body  of  such  munic- 
ipality shall  not  within  said  twenty  days  after  service  upon  it  of  any 
such  original  statement  as  aforesaid  adopt  a  resolution  expi?essing  its 
dissatisfaction  as  aforesaid  provided,  then,  and  in  every  such  case,  it 
shall  and  may  be  lawful  for  one  or  more  of  the  residents  and  tax- 
payers, or  residents  and  nonresident  taxpayers  of  said  sewerage  dis- 
trict, to  join  in  such  application  as  aforesaid  to  any  justice  of  the 
supreme  court  for  the  appointment  of  commissioners  to  review,  as 
aforesaid,  the  said  division  and  apportionment,  and  thereupon  the 
said  justice  may,  in  his  discretion,  appoint  such  commissioners,  and  if 
such  appointment  be  made,  said  commissioners  shall  proceed  in  the 
same  manner,  and  the  proceedings  before  them  had  shall  be  similar 
to  those  hereinbefore  provided,  and  the  statement  or  certificate  of 
said  commissioners  made  upon  any  such  last-mentioned  application 
shall  be  final  and  conclusive  and  binding  upon  all  parties. 

24.  The  said  sewerage  board  shall  also,  in  the  manner  hereinbefore 
directed,  serve  upon  or  furnish  to  each  of  said  municipalities  after 
every  issue  and  sale  of  bonds  a  statement  of  the  amount  of  such 
bonds  and  the  date  of  interest  thereon  and  the  proportion  thereof 
allotted  to  each  municipality  (where  such  municipality  is  entirelj- 
within  the  sewerage  district)  or  (where  only  a  part  of  the  municipal- 
ity is  included  in  the  sewerage  district)  of  the  proportion  of  such 
division  and  apportionment  allotted  to  the  part  of  the  municipality 
in  said  sewerage  district;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  of  said 
municipalities,  and  of  its  proper  officers,  in  the  next  annual  tax  levy 
made  in  such  municipality  and  in  each  succeeding  year  thereafter  to 
include  and  raise  by  taxation  the  amount  required  to  pay  the  inter- 
est on  the  proportion  of  such  bonded  indebtedness  allotted  to  such 
municipality  or  part  thereof,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  if  such  munici- 
pality be  entirely  within  such  sewerage  district  then  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  such  municipalities  to  cause  to  be  levied  and  assessed  therein 
a  sum  equal  to  the  amount  of  interest  so  apportioned  and  allotted  to 
such  municipality  together  with  such  additional  sum,  to  be  divided 
and  apportioned  and  allotted  to  and  between  said  municipalities  or 
parts  thereof  as  aforesaid  as  may  be  necessary  to  establish  and  main- 
tain a  sinking  fund  sufficient  to  pay  the  principal  of  the  bonds  issued 
by  the  said  sewerage  board  under  authority  of  this  act  when  the  same 
fall  due.  If  only  a  part  of  the  municipality  be  included  in  the  sew- 
erage district,  then  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  municipality  and  its 


GooDBLL.]         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTBICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  103 

proper  officers,  instead  of  levying  and  assessing  the  same  upon  the 
whole  municipality,  to  cause,  in  manner  aforesaid,  the  sum  or  sums 
that  may,  as  aforesaid,  be  apportioned  and  allotted  to  such  part  of 
the  municipality  as  is  included  in  the  sewerage  district  to  be  levied 
and  assessed  in  and  upon  such  part  of  the  municipality  as  is  included 
in  the  sewerage  district,  in  the  same 'manner  as  other  taxes  may  be 
levied  and  assessed  therein;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  taxing 
officers  and  all  collecting  officers  in  the  said  municipalities  to  levy, 
assess,  and  collect  the  said  amount  or  sums  so  to  be  raised  in  such 
municipalities  or  parts  thereof,  as  the  case  may  be;  and  it  shall  also 
\ye  the  duty  of  the  collector  of  taxes  in  each  of  the  said  municipali- 
ties, or  other  proper  officer,  to  pay  to  the  sewerage  board  thereunto 
entitled  the  money  so  levied,  assessed,  and  collected.  After  each 
census.  State  or  national,  a  new  allotment  shall  be  made  of  the  sink- 
ing fund  or  redemption  fund  in  the  manner  herein  provided. 

25.  As  soon  as  the  work  of  construction  by  this  act  authorized  (or 
the  cost  and  expense  of  which  a  preliminary  estimate  shall  have  been 
made  as  herein  provided)  has  been  completed  the  said  board  shall 
proceed  at  once  to  ascertain  the  actual  cost  and  expense  of  such  work, 
and  shall  furnish  to  each  of  the  said  municipalities  or  municipal 
divisions  a  statement  of  such  cost  and  expense. 

26.  The  cost  of  maintenance,  operation,  and  repairs,  together  with 
the  cost  of  supervision,  and  all  other  expenses  of  every  kind  not 
included  in  the  cost  and  expense  of  construction,  shall  be  annually 
estimated  by  the  said  board  and  divided  and  apportioned  between  the 
said  several  municipalities  or  parts  thereof  upon  the  same  basis  as 
herein  provided  for  the  division  of  the  cost  and  expense  of  construc- 
tion; and  that  the  same,  when  so  divided  and  apportioned,  shall  be 
levied,  assessed,  collected,  and  paid  annually  in  the  same  manner  pro- 
vided for  the  levying,  assessment,  and  collection  of  the  cost  and 
expense  of  construction :  Provided^  however^  That  if  at  the  end  of  any 
year  when  such  cost  and  expense  shall  have  been  accurately  ascer- 
tained such  estimate  shall  be  found  to  have  been  more  or  less  than  the 
proper  proportion  of  any  such  municipality,  then  the  surplus  or  defi- 
ciency, as  the  case  may  be,  shall  be  deducted  from  or  added  to  the 
sum  to  be  levied,  assessed,  and  collected  for  the  succeeding  year. 

27.  The  said  board  shall,  immediately  after  receiving  from  the  said 
municipalities,  or  either  of  them,  or  from  the  collector  or  treasurer 
of  any  such  municipality,  any  moneys  on  account  of  the  apportion- 
ment made,  as  hereinbefore  provided,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  prac- 
ticable, cause  the  same  to  be  invested  in  securities,  the  character  of 
which  shall  be  the  same  as  required  by  law  for  savings  banks  of  this 
State,  except  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  required  to  pay  interest  due 
or  to  fall  due  during  the  current  year ;  and  all  such  funds,  and  the 


104  LAWS  FORBIDDING  INLAND- WATEB  POLLUTION.  {Ko.  152. 

securities  in  which  the  same  or  any  part  thereof  shall  be  invested, 
and  the  interest  received  therefrom,  shall  be  held,  used,  and  applied 
by  the  said  board  as  a  sinking  fund  to  meet  and  pay  the  interest  and 
principal  on  the  bonds  issued  by  the  said  board  under  the  authority 
of  this  act,  and  for  no  other  purpose  whatever,  until  all  such  bonds 
and  all  arrears  of  interest  thereon  are  fully  paid.  It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  said  sewerage  board  to  include  in  its  annual  report  the  amount 
of  money  received  by  it  for  the  purposes  aforesaid,  the  sources  from 
which  such  money  was  received,  and  the  investment  of  the  same ;  and 
the  said  board  shall  keep  a  record  and  account  of  all  bonds  issued 
by  it,  when  the  same  fall  due,  the  time  and  place  of  payment,  and 
the  rate  of  interest  thereon,  and  of  the  amount  received  on  the  sale 
or  disposition  thereof,  and  shall  also  keep  an  account  of  all  moneys 
invested,  held,  and  used  as  a  sinking  fund,  and  of  the  securities  in 
which  the  same  may  be  invested.  The  books,  records,  accounts, 
papers,  and  documents  of  the  said  board  shall  be  open  to  the  inspe<*- 
tion  of  any  person  appointed  by  the  governing  body  of  any  munici- 
pality within  said  district  to  inspect  the  same:  Provided^  howerer. 
That  in  case  the  said  board  shall  issue  bonds  which  shall  fall  due  and 
become  payable  at  stated  periods  less  than  thirty  years,  or  shall  retain 
in  any  such  issue  the  option  to  redeem  bonds  prior  to  the  date  at  which 
they  would  otherwise  fall  due  as  hereinbefore  provided,  then  it  shall 
be  lawful  for  the  said  board  to  make  application  of  the  moneys 
received  by  it  from  the  several  municipalities  and  of  the  funds  tem- 
porarily invested  by  the  said  board  so  received  for  the  purpose  of  pav- 
ing off  and  discharging  the  said  obligations  according  to  their  tenor 
and  effect. 

28.  During  the  year  preceding  the  year  in  which  the  bonds  issued 
under  the  authority  of  this  act  shall  fall  due  the  said  board  shall 
cause  a  careful  computation  to  be  made  of  the  moneys  that  will  be 
available  for  the  payment  of  the  same,  and  if  it  shall  be  found  that 
any  deficiency  will  exist  in  the  fund  that  will  be  available  therefor, 
after  the  application  of  moneys  received  and  the  use  of  all  securities 
held,  such  deficiency  shall  be  apportioned  and  allotted  to  the  said 
municipalities  in  the  same  manner  and  upon  the  same  basis  as  the 
original  apportionment,  and  shall  be  added  to  the  amount  so  levied, 
assessed,  collected,  and  paid  by  the  said  municipalities,  respectively, 
in  the  succeeding  year;  and  if  any  excess  shall  be  found  to  exist  in 
such  fund  the  surplus  shall  be  credited  to  each  of  the  said  munici- 
palities in  the  same  proportion  and  deducted  from  future  estimates 
of  the  respective  shares  or  proportions  of  such  municipalities  of  the 
cost  and  expense  of  maintenance,  operation,  and  repairs. 

29.  In  and  about  the  performance  and  discharge  of  the  duties 
imposed  upon  it  by  this  act  any  such  sewerage  board  as  aforesaid, 


C500DM.L,]         SEVERE  STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  105 

or  a  majority  thereof,  may  employ  such  experts,  engineers,  contract- 
ors, officers,  agents,  employes,  clerks,  workmen,  and  servants  as  it 
may  deem  necessary  or  proper  to  enable  it  to  perform  its  duties  and 
carry  out  the  objects  and  purposes  of  this  act;  and  said  board,  or  a 
majority  thereof,  may  fix  and  determine  the  duties  and  compensa- 
tion of  such  experts,  engineers,  contractors,  officers,  agents,  employees, 
clerks,  workmen,  and  servants,  and  remove  or  discharge  the  same, 
or  any  of  them,  at  pleasure. 

30.  The  secretary  of  any  such  sewerage  board  shall  keep  a  record 
of  all  the  proceedings  and  transactions  of  said  board ;  under  the  direc- 
tion of  said  board  he  shall  prepare  the  estimate,  division,  and  appor- 
tionment provided  for  in  section  twenty-six  hereof;  he  shall  prepare 
the  annual  report  of  said  board  and  perform  such  other  duties  as  the 
l)oard  may  from  time  to  time  require.  The  secretary  shall  receive  an 
annual  salary,  to  be  fixed  by  the  board,  or  a  majority  thereof,  but  he 
shall  not  receive  any  per  diem  allowance. 

31.  The  treasurer  of  any  such  sewerage  board  shall  have  charge  and 
custody  of  all  moneys  and  securities  received  or  owned  or  held  by  said 
board ;  he  shall  keep  accurate  record  and  account  of  the  receipt,  dis- 
bursement, and  disposition  of  all  such  moneys  and  securities,  and 
invest,  deposit,  dispose  of,  disburse,  and  pay  out  the  same  at  such 
times  and  in  such  manner  as  the  board  may  direct,  and  under  such 
rules  and  regulations  as  it  may  from  time  to  time  establish.  The 
treasurer  shall  give  bond  to  such  board  for  the  due  and  faithful  per- 
formance of  his  duties  as  such  treasurer  in  such  sum  and  with  such 
sureties  as  the  board,  or  a  majority  thereof,  may  require.  The  treas- 
urer shall  receive  an  annual  salary,  to  be  fixed  and  determined  by  the 
board,  or  a  majority  thereof,  but  he  shall  not  receive  any  per  diem 
allowance. 

32.  The  members  of  any  such  board,  except  the  secretary  and  treas- 
urer thereof,  when  actually  engaged  in  and  about  the  business  of  said 
board,  shall  receive  a  per  diem  compensation  of  five  dollars;  said  per 
diem  compensation,  and  the  salaries  to  be  paid  the  secretary  and  treas- 
urer, shall  be  included  in  said  estimate  hereinbefore  mentioned. 

33.  Any  such  sewerage  board  is  authorized  and  empowered  to  rent 
an  office  or  offices  as  may  be  required  for  the  due  transaction  and 
carrying  out  of  its  work  and  duties,  and  to  properly  equip  and  fur- 
nish such  office  or  offices,  the  expense  thereof  to  be  included  in  said 
estimate  mentioned  in  section  twenty-six  hereof. 

34.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 
Approved  March  24, 1899. 


106  LAWS   FORBIDDING  INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

[Laws  of  1902,  p.  195,  chap.  49.] 

AN  ACT  authorizing  the  appointment  and  defining  the  powera  and  duties  of 
commissioners  in  sewage  and  drainage  districts  created  for  the  purpose  of 
relieving  tlie  streams  and  rivers  therein  from  pollution,  and  to  provide  a  plan 
for  the  prevention  thereof,  and  providing  for  the  raising,  expenditure,  and 
payment  of  moneys  necessary  for  this  purpose. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  State  of 
New  Jersey: 

1.  Upon  the  creation  and  incorporation  by  the  legislature  of  any 
sewerage  and  drainage  district  for  the  purpose-  mentioned  in  the  title 
of  this  act  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  governor  of  this  State  forthwith 
to  appoint  therein  and  therefor  five  able  and  discreet  men,  residents 
within  such  district  (having  regard  in  making  such  appointments  to 
locality,  so  that  each  section  of  the  district  may  be  represented,  as 
far  as  practicable),  who,  when  so  appointed,  commissioned,  and 
sworn,  shall  constitute  a  board  of  commissioners,  to  be  known  as  the 

district  sewerage  and  drainage  commissioners  (inserting  in 

each  case  in  the  blank  space  the  name  of  the  district  designated  in 
the  act  of  incorporation),  and  the  persons  so  appointed  shall  receive 
as  compensation  for  their  services  an  annual  salary  of  twenty-five 
hundred  dollars,  payable  in  equal  monthly  installments.  In  making 
the  first  appointments  under  this  act  the  members  of  the  said  board 
shall  be  appointed  as  follows :  One  for  a  term  of  one  year,  one  for  a 
term  of  two  years,  one  for  a  term  of  three  years,  one  for  a  term  of 
four  years,  and  one  for  a  term  of  five  years,  and  thereafter  one  shall 
be  appointed  each  year  for  a  term  of  five  years.  Any  vacancy  occur- 
ring in  the  said  board  by  death,  resignation,  or  otherwise,  shall  be 
filled  in  the  same  manner  as  the  original  appointment  for  the  balance 
of  the  term.  Each  of  the  said  commissioners  so  appointed  shall, 
before  they  enter  upon  the  duties  of  their  office,  take  and  subscribe  an 
oath  that  they  will  faithfully  and  impartially  execute  and  perform 
the  duties  imposed  upon  them  by  law,  and  cause  the  same  to  be  filed  in 
the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  of  this  State.  The  governor  of  this 
State  shall  have  power  to  remove  such  commissioners  from  office  for 
cause  during  their  term  of  office  and,  upon  removal,  to  fill  the  vacancy 
thus  occasioned  for  the  unexpired  term  in  the  manner  herein  pro- 
vided for  filling  vacancies. 

2.  The  said  board  shall,  as  soon  as  may  be  after  appointment,  and 
annually  thereafter  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  May  in  each  year,  organize 
by  the  choice  of  one  of  its  members  as  chairman,  and  may  elect  a 
clerk,  who  may  or  may  not  be  a  member  of  the  said  board,  and  may 
from  time  to  time  appoint  such  agents,  officers,  and  servants  and 
employ  such  engineers  and  assistants  as  it  may  deem  necessary  to 


<;ooi»KLL.l         SEVERE  STATUTE  RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  107 

carry  out  the  purposes  of  this  act,  and  may  determine  their  duties 
and  compensation  and  remove  the  same  at  its  pleasure. 

3.  The  said  board  of  commissioners,  when  duly  organized,  shall  be 
deemed  to  be  and  shall  become  a  body  corporate,  with  power  to  sue 
and  be  sued  and  with  the  right  to  acquire,  hold,  use,  and  dispose  of 
all  such  property  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  uses  and  purposes  for 
which  the  said  board  was  created  and  with  all  other  necessary  powers 
incident  to  corporate  bodies. 

4.  When  duly  organized,  the  said  commissioners  shall  at  once,  with 
the  aid  and  assistance  of  such  engineers  and  other  agents  as  they  may 
deem  proper,  proceed  to  investigate  methods  and  plans  for  relieving 
the  streams  and  fivers  within  the  said  district  from  pollution  and  for 
preventing  the  pollution  of  the  same,  and  to  determine  the  apportion- 
ment of  the  capacity  of  sewer  provided  for  each  municipality  in  any 
intercepting  sewer,  sewers,  or  disposal  works:  Provided^  That  before 
a  final  determination  as  to  the  plan  or  method  to  be  adopted  for  the 
purpose,  an  opportunity  shall  be  given  the  governing  body  of  each 
municipality  to  be  heard  in  relation  thereto,  and  after  said  hearing, 
as  soon  as  the  said  commissioners  have  adopted  a  plan  or  method  for 
this  purpose,  they  shall  report  the  same  to  the  respective  municipal- 
ities of  the  district  and  to  the  legislature  of  this  State,  together  with 
a  bill  providing  therefor  and  for  the  expenses  thereof. 

5.  Before  determining  upon  the  final  plan  or  route  for  the  building 
or  construction  of  any  work  investigated  under  this  aqt  the  said 
board  may,  by  its  officers,  agents,  servants,  and  employees,  enter  at  all 
times  upon  any  lands  or  waters  for  the  purpose  of  exploring,  survey- 
ing, leveling,  and  laying  out  the  route  of  any  drain  or  sewer,  locating 
any  disposal,  pumping,  or  other  works,  establishing  grades,  and  doing 
all  necessary  preliminary  work  in  the  way  of  designating  locations, 
doing,  however,  no  unnecessary  damage  or  injury  to  private  or  other 
property. 

6.  The  said  board  shall  at  all  times  keep  full  and  accurate  account 
of  its  receipts  and  expenditures,  disbursements,  assets,  and  liabilities, 
and  shall  annually  cause  a  detailed  statement  thereof  to  be  published 
in  one  or  more  newspapers  published  or  circulating  in  the  respective 
municipalities  in  said  district. 

7.  To  provide  for  the  payment  of  the  cost  and  expense  incurred  or 
to  be  incurred  by  the  said  board  in  investigating  and  performing  the 
duties  imposed  upon  it  by  this  act,  one-half  of  said  cost  of  ^  expense 
shall  be  paid  out  of  the  State  treasury  on  certificate  of  the  governor 
to. the  comptroller,  who  shall  draw  his  warrant  on  the  State  treasurer 
in  favor  of  the  said  board  for  the  amount  thereof,  the  same  to  be 

•So  in  original. 


108  LAWS   IJ'ORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  fNo.  152. 

ascertained  on  a  duly  verified  statement  of  such  expenses  being  filed 
with  the  governor  and  in  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state;  as  to  the 
balance  of  the  said  costs  and  expense  incurred  or  to  be  incurred 
under  this  act,  the  said  board  shall  have  power  and  authority : 

I.  To  issue  from  time  to  time,  for  the  said  one-half  of  the  costs  and 
expenses,  temporary  certificates,  to  run  for  a  period  not  to  exceed 
two  years,  the  aggregate  issue  of  said  certificates  not  to  exceed  the 
sum  of  twenty -five  thousand  dollars;  such  certificates,  when  issued, 
shall  be  deemed  and  considered  the  indebtedness  of  the  sewerage  and 
drainage  district,  and  shall  constitute  a  charge  upon  persons  and 
property  therein,  and  shall  be  retired  and  paid  in  the  manner  herein- 
after provided. 

II.  The  said  board  shall  have  power  and  authority  to  order  and 
cause  a  tax  to  be  levied,  assessed,  and  collected  upon  persons  and  prop- 
erty within  the  said  sewerage  and  drainage  district,  the  proceeds  of 
which  to  be  used  in  payment  of  the  said  certificates  and  the  interest 
due  and  to  grow  thereon;  the  amount  to  be  assessed  and  collected 
in  the  respective  municipalities  composing  such  districts  shall  be 
determined  by  the  said  board,  and  shall  be  apportioned  according  to 
the  taxable  ratables  of  the  last  preceding  year  as  returned  by  the 
taxing  officers  in  said  district,  and  a  certificate  by  the  said  board 
shall  be  filed  with  the  taxing  officers  of  such  municipalities  compos- 
ing the  said*  sewerage  district,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  taxing 
officers  within  the  said  municipalities  included  in  the  said  sewerage 
and  drainage  district,  to  levy,  assess,  and  collect  and  pay  over  to  the 
said  commissioners  any  tax  ordered  by  them  to  be  assessed  by  virtue 
of  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

8.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  said  board  annually  to  make  and  file 
with  the  secretary  of  state  of  this  State  a  report  showing  the  amount 
of  money  received  by  it  for  the  purposes  aforesaid,  sources  from 
which  money  was  received,  and  the  expenditure  of  the  same;  and  it 
5?hall  be  the  duty  of  the  said  board  to  keep  an  account  of  all  certifi- 
cates issued  by  it,  when  the  same  fall  due,  the  time  and  place  of  pay- 
ment, the  rate  of  interest  thereon,  and  of  the  amount  received  on  the 
sale  or  disposition  thereof;  and  the  books,  records,  accounts,  papers, 
and  documents  of  the  said  board  shall  be  open  for  the  inspection  of 
the  governor  of  this  State,  or  any  person  or  pei'sons  whom  he  may 
appoint  to  inspect  the  same. 

9.  For  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  act  with 
dispatch  the  sum  of  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  is  hereby  appropri- 
ated by  the  State  out  of  any  moneys  now  in  the  State  treasury  not 
otherwise  appropriated,  and  the  governor  is  hereby  authorized  and 
empowered  to  give  an  order  on  the  comptroller  for  advanced  pay- 
ments to  the  said  board  on  account  of  the  State's  share  of  such  ex- 
penses to  be  incurred.    • 


GooDESLU]         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  109 

10.  When  the  said  board  of  commissioners  are  appointed  and 
organized  under  this  act  it  shall  have  absolute  control  of  and  supervi- 
sion over  the  prevention  of  pollution  throughout  the  said  sewerage  or 
drainage  district  for  which  the  said  commissioners  were  appointed, 
exclusive  of  any  other  body  or  board  in  this  State  now  having  control 
of  the  same:  Provided^  however^  That  nothing  herein  contained  shall 
in  any  way  affect  or  delay  or  interfere  with  any  action  or  proceedings 
which  may  have  heretofore  been  taken  by  the  State  sewerage  commis- 
sion for  the  purpose  of  preventing  pollution  in  said  sewerage  district, 
or  that  may  hereafter  be  taken  by  said  State  sewerage  commission  for 
the  enforcement  thereof. 

11.  All  acts  or  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  this 
act  be,  and  the  same  are  hereby,  repealed,  and  this  act  shall  take  effect 
immediately. 

Approved  March  27,  1902. 

[Act  passed  by  the  special  session  of  the  legislature  convened  April  21,  1903.     Laws  of 

1903,  p.  777.] 

AN  ACT  to  relieve  from  pollution  the  rivers  and  streams  within  the  Passaic 
Valley  sewerage  district,  established  and  defined  by  an  act  of  the  legislature 
entitled  "An  act  to  create  a  sewerage  district  to  be  called  the  Passaic  Valley 
sewerage  district,"  approved  March  twentj'-seventh,  one  thousand  nine  hun- 
dred and  two,  and  for  this  purpose  establishing  therefor  a  district  board  of 
conunissloners,  defining  its  powers  and  duties,  and  providing  for  the  appoint- 
ment, terms  of  office,  duties,  and  compensation  of  such  commissioners,  and 
further  providing  for  the  raising,  collecting,  and  expenditure  of  the  necessary 
moneys. 

Whereas  the  legislature  of  this  State  has  created  and  defined  a  sew- 
erage district,  embracing  a  large  number  of  municipalities  and  parts 
of  municipalities,  in  the  counties  of  Passaic,  Bergen,  Hudson,  and 
Essex,  under  the  name  of  the  Passaic  Valley  sewerage  district ;  and 

Whereas  the  Passaic  River  and  many  streams  flowing  into  it  within 
said  sewerage  district  are  polluted  by  sewage  and  other  deleterious 
matter  to  the  extent  that  the  health  of  the  people  residing  in  said 
district  is  seriously  endangered ;  and 

Whereas  immediate  relief  therefrom  is  imperative ;  and 

Whereas  the  governor  of  this  State,  by  sanction  of  the  legislature, 
has  appointed  five  commissioners  for  said  district  with  power,  among 
other  things,  to  investigate  methods  and  plans  for  relieving  the 
streams  and  rivers  within  said  district  from  pollution,  and  for  pre- 
venting the  pollution  of  the  same ;  and 

Whereas  said  commissioners  have  adopted  an  effectual  plan  or 
method  for  relieving  the  streams  and  rivers  within  said  district  from 
pollution,  and  for  preventing  the  pollution  of  the  same,  and  have 
reported  said  plan  or  method  to  the  legislature ;  and 

Whereas  in  order  to  carry  into  effect  such  plan  or  method,  with 


110  LAWS  FOBBIDDING  INLAND- WATEB  POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

such  modifications  or  additions  thereto  as  shall  hereafter  be  approved 
by  said  commissioners,  it  is  necessary  that  further  and  greater  power 
be  given  to  said  conmiissioners : 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  senate  and  general  assembly  of  the  State  of 
New  Jersey: 

1.  The  commissioners  heretofore  appointed  by  the  governor  of  this 
State  in  and  for  the  Passaic  Valley  sewerage  district  shall  continue 
in  their  respective  offices  for  the  terms  for  which  they  were  severally 
appointed,  and  said  terms  are  hereby  extended  to  the  first  Tuesday 
of  May  succeeding  the  date  when  their  terms  under  said  appointments 
would  respectively  expire;  and  hereafter  one  commissioner  shall  be 
appointed  by  the  governor,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
senate,  in  each  year  for  a  term  of  five  years,  beginning  on  the  first 
Tuesday  of  May  next  following  the  date  of  his  appointment.  Anj- 
vacancy  occurring  in  the  office  of  commissioner  by  death,  resignation, 
or  otherwise  shall  be  filled  by  the  governor,  but  for  the  unexpired 
term  only.  Each  of  the  said  commissioners  hereafter  appointed^  be- 
fore he  enters  upon  the  duties  of  his  office,  shall  take  and  subscribe  an 
oath  that  he  will  faithfully  and  impartially  execute  and  perform  the 
duties  imposed  upon  him  by  law,  and  cause  the  same  to  be  filed  in 
the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  of  this  State.  The  commissioners 
shall  each  receive  for  services  under  this  act  an  annual  salary  of 
twenty-five  hundred  dollars,  payable  in  equal  monthly  installments, 
and  the  said  commissioners  shall  henceforth  receive  no  other  com- 
pensation than  that  provided  under  this  act.  The  governor  of  this 
State  shall  have  power  to  remove  any  commissioner  from  office  for 
cause  during  his  term  of  office,  and  upon  removal  to  fill  the  vacancy 
thus  occasioned  for  the  unexpired  term.  In  making  appointments, 
either  for  full  terms  or  to  fill  vacancies,  regard  shall  be  had  by  the 
governor  both  to  ability  and  fitness,  and  also  to  locality,  so  that  each 
section  of  the  district  may  be  represented  as  far  as  practicable.  Xo 
commissioner  shall  be  directly  or  indirectly  interested  in  any  contract 
awarded  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  nor  in  furnishing  materials 
or  supplies  therefor  to  any  contractor,  nor  in  furnishing  security  for 
the  performance  of  any  contract.  If  at  any  time  it  shall  appear  to 
the  satisfaction  of  the  governor  of  this  State  that  any  commissioner  is 
or  has  been  so  interested^  or  is  or  has  been  a  stockholder  in  any  cor- 
poration furnishing  material  or  supplies  to  any  contractor  for  work 
done  or  to  be  done  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  or  that  he  is  the 
owner  of  any  lands  or  water  or  water  rights  taken  or  to  be  taken  or 
used  in  or  for  the  construction  of  any  work  under  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  or  a  stockholder  in  any  corporation  owning  or  leasing  any 
such  lands  or  waters  or  water  rights,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  gov- 
ernor to  remove  such  commissioner  from  office  forthwith,  and  all  con- 
tracts made  by   such   sewerage   commissioners   wherein   any   such 


GooDELL.]        SEVERE  STATUTE  BE8TBICTI0NS — NEW   JEBSEY.  Ill 

commissioner  shall  have  been  interested,  directly  or  indirectly,  as 
aforesaid,  or  otherwise,  shall  thereupon  become  and  be  null  and  void, 
and  no  further  payments  on  account  thereof  shall  be  made  by  said 
sewerage  commissioners. 

2.  The  said  commissioners  shall,  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  May  of 
each  year,  at  the  hour  of  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  organize  by 
the  choice  of  one  of  their  members  as  chairman  of  the  board,  and 
they  may  elect  a  treasurer,  who  may  or  may  not  be  a  member  of  the 
board,  and  a  clerk,  who  may  or  may  not  be  a  member  of  the  board, 
and  may  also  from  time  to  time  appoint  such  other  officers,  attorneys, 
agents,  employees,  and  servants,  and  such  engineers  and  assistants  as 
they  may  deem  necessary  to  carry  out  the  purposes  of  this  act,  and 
may  prescribe  the  duties  and  fix  the  compensation  of  all  officers, 
attorneys,  agents,  employees,  servants,  engineers,  and  assistants ;  and 
all  appointees  of  said  commissioners  may  be  removed  at  their  pleas- 
ure. The  organization  of  said  board  and  the  appointment  of  officers, 
agents,  clerks,  servants,  engineers,  and  assistants  heretofore  made  by 
the  said  board  shall  have  the  same  effect  as  if  made  under  this  act. 

3.  The  said  commissioners  heretofore  appointed  and  their  succes- 
sors in  office  are  and  shall  continue  to  be  a  body  politic  and  corporate, 
with  perpetual  succession  under  the  name  of  "  Passaic  Valley  sewer- 
age commissioners,"  with  power  to  sue  and  be  sued,  with  power  to 
adopt  and  use  a  corporate  seal,  and  the  right,  power,  and  authority 
to"  acquire,  hold,  use,  and  dispose  of  all  such  property,  real  and  per- 
sonal, as  may  be  proper  or  necessary,  and  with  all  other  powers  proper 
or  necessary  to  carry  out  and  effectuate  the  purposes  for  which  said 
board  is  created. 

4.  The  board  of  Passaic  Valley  sewerage  commissioners,  incorpo- 
rated as  aforesaid,  is  hereby  given  full  power  and  authority  to  make, 
construct,  maintain,  and  operate  intercepting,  main,  trunk,  and  out- 
let sewers  with  the  necessary  pipes,  conduits,  pumping  works,  and 
other  appliances  for  thfe  purpose  of  taking  up,  within  the  said  Pas- 
saic Valley  sewerage  district,  sewage  and  other  offensive  and  dele- 
terious matter  which  would  or  might  otherwise  pollute  the  streams 
and  rivers  in  said  district  and  convey  the  same  to  some  proper  place 
or  places  of  deposit,  discharge,  or  outfall  in  the  New  York  Bay, 
within  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  to  be  selected  by  the  said  sewerage 
commissioners,  there  to  be  discharged,  which  place  or  places  of 
deposit,  discharge,  or  outfall  shall  be  at  least  one  and  one-quarter 
miles,  measured  at  right  angles,  in  an  easterly  direction,  from  the 
exterior  line  for  solid  filling  in  the  New  York  Bay,  as  now  established 
by  the  riparian  commissioners  of  this  State,  and  in  a  tidal  channel  of 
not  less  than  forty  feet  in  depth  at  mean  low  water;  and  the  said 
sewerage  commissioners  shall  also  have  power  to  establish  within  said 
sewerage  district,  when  necessary,  sewage  disposal  works  and  works 


112  LAWS  FOBBIDDING  INLAND- WATEB  POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

for  the  treatment,  disinfecting,  and  disposal  of  sewage:  Provided, 
however^  That  no  sewage  disposal  work  and  works  for  the  treatments 
disinfecting,  and  disposal  of  sewage  shall  be  erected,  established,  or 
maintained  within  the  distance  of  five  miles  from  the  outfall  of  said 
trunk  sewer  herein  provided  for:  Provided^  however^  That  nothing 
herein  contained  shall  in  any  way  be  construed  to  allow  or  piennit 
said  sewerage  commission  to  establish  or  build  more  than  one  sewage 
disposal  works  or  more  than  one  plant  or  works  for  the  treatment*  dis- 
infecting or  disposal  of  sewage;  no  contract  of  any  kind  shall  be 
awarded  at  any  one  time  for  more  than  one  million  dollars:  Provided, 
however^  That  this  provision  shall  not  apply  to  the  sale  of  bonds.  All 
work  done  and  materials  purchased  in  the  prosecution  of  said  w^ork 
or  works,  the  cost  of  which  shall  exceed  five  thousand  dollars,  shall  be 
be  by  contract  awarded,  after  due  advertisement,  to  the  lowest  respon- 
sible bidder,  and  all  contractors  shall  be  required  to  give  bonds  satis- 
factory in  security  and  amount  to  the  said  board;  and  no  contract 
involving  an  expenditure  of  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  dollars 
shall  be  awarded  until  after  the  same  shall  have  been  submitted  to 
»nd  approved  by  the  governor:  Provided^  That  no  contract  for  any 
of  the  work  herein  required  to  be  performed  by  contract  shall  be 
awarded  except  on  the  express  stipulation  that  so  far  as  practicable 
all  said  work  shall  be  performed  by  union  labor,  and  preference 
shall  be  given  to  citizens  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey. 

5.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  persons,  corporations,  and  municipali- 
ties owning  or  controlling  the  sewers  or  drains  within  the  limits  of 
said  sewerage  district,  which  discharge  directly  or  indirectly  into  the 
streams  or  rivers  within  the  said  sewerage  district  any  sewage  or 
deleterious  matter,  to  cause  the  same  to  be  connected  with  and  to  be 
discharged  into  the  sewers  constructed  by  the  said  sewerage  commis- 
sioners when  the  same  shall  have  been  constructed,  and  at  the  places 
which  shall  have  been  designated  for  that  purpose  by  the  said  sewer- 
age commissioners;  all  sewers  and  drains  hereafter  constructed  by 
any  person,  corporation,  or  municipality  within  the  said  sewerage 
district  conveying  or  discharging  sewage  or  other  deleterious  matter, 
which  might  otherwise  discharge  into  or  be  discharged  into  the  streams 
or  rivers  within  the  said  sewerage  district,  directly  or  indirectly,  shall 
be  so  constructed  that  the  outfall  or  discharge  therefrom  shall  be  de- 
livered into  the  drains  or  sewers  provided  by  the  said  sewerage  com- 
missioners at  the  points  and  places  designated  by  the  said  commission- 
ers; and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  said  sewerage  commissioners,  in 
constructing  said  intercepting  or  main  sewers,  to  have  them  so  con- 
structed that  connection  therewith  can  be  made  at  necessary  or  proper 
points;  and  all  such  connections  shall  be  made  in  accordance  with  the 
rules  and  regulations  from  time  to  time  adopted  by  the  said  sewerage 


GOODBLL.]         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  113 

commi&sioners  in  relation  thereto,  and  under  the  direction  and  super- 
vision of  their  officers  and  agents,  and  all  such  connections  shall  be 
the  property  of  such  sewerage  commissioners;  the  main,  intercepting 
or  trunk  sewer  to  be  constructed  by  the  said  sewerage  commissioners 
shall  commence  at  or  near  the  Valley  of  Rocks,  in  the  city  of  Pater- 
son,  and  shall  extend  to  the  point  of  discharge  or  outfall  in  the  New 
York  Bay,  within  the  limits  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey ;  before  any 
moneys  expended  or  obligations  are  incurred  for  the  construction  of 
any  trunk  or  outlet  sewer  which  shall  discharge  into  New  York  Bay, 
the  said  board  shall  carefully  investigate  whether  said  discharge  is 
likely  to  pollute  the  waters  of  said  bay  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
State  of  New  York  to  such  an  extent  or  in  such  a  degree  as  to  cause  a 
nuisance  to  persons  or  property  within  said  State,  and  shall  present 
the  result  of  their  investigation  to  the  governor  with  their  opinion 
thereon  and  their  reasons  for  their  opinion ;  and  thereupon  the  same 
shall  be  considered  by  the  governor  and  the  attorney-general,  and  no 
work  shall  be  done  or  further  proceedings  taken  unless  the  attorney- 
general  shall,  in  writing,  advise  that  no  cause  of  action  either  for 
damages  or  an  injunction  will  arise  in  favor  of  the  State  of  New  York 
or  any  of  its  inhabitants  by  reason  of  such  discharge  of  sewage  into 
the  waters  of  New  York  Bay,  and  the  governor  shall,  by  order,  in 
writing,  advise  said  board  that,  in  his  judgment,  it  is  safe  and  prudent 
to  proceed  with  its  work,  due  regard  being  had  to  all  the  risks  and 
dangers  of  injunctive  litigation. 

6.  The  said  sewerage  commissioners  shall  have  power  and  authority 
to  purchase  and  acquire  lands  and  rights  or  interests  in  lands  within 
and  without  the  said  sewerage  district  which  may  be  deemed  neces- 
sary for  the  construction  of  sewers,  drains,  disposal,  pumping  or  other 
works  authorized  by  this  act,  but  no  ventilating  plant,  sewage  dis- 
posal works,  or  works  for  the  treatment,  disinfecting,  or  disposal  of 
sewage  shall  be  erected  or  maintained  outside  of  said  sewerage  dis- 
trict; and  if  in  any  case  the  said  sewerage  commissioners  shall  be 
unable  to  agree  with  the  owner  or  owners  of  any  lands  or  rights  or 
interests  in  lands  deemed  necessary  by  said  sewerage  commissioners 
in  the  construction  and  prosecution  of  the  work  hereby  authorized, 
or  when  by  reason  of  legal  incapacity  or  absence  of  such  owner  or 
owners  no  agreement  can  be  made  for  the  purchase  thereof,  the  lands 
or  rights  or  interests  in  lands  so  deemed  necessary  for  the  purposes  of 
this  act  shall  be  acquired  by  condemnation  by  the  said  sewerage  com- 
missioners in  the  manner  provided  by  the  general  laws  of  this  State 
relating  to  the  condemnation  of  lands  for  public  uses :  Provided^  That 
no  private  property  shall  be  taken  for  the  purposes  of  this  act  without 
compensation  therefor  shall  have  first  been  made  or  tendered  to  the 
owner  or  owners  thereof,  or,  in  lieu  thereof,  paid  to  the  clerk  of  the 

IBB  162—06  M 8 


114  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATEB   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

county  in  which  the  lands  taken  are  located  for  the  use  of  the  person 
or  persons  entitled  to  receive  the  same ;  and  in  case  such  payment  or 
tender  to  the  owner  or  owners,  or  payment  into  court,  is  made  by  thf 
said  sewerage  commissioners  upon  the  award  of  commissioners,  the 
said  sewerage  commissioners  shall  be  entitled  to  take  immediate  pos- 
session of  the  property  so  condemned,  notwithstanding  anj'  ap[>eal. 
and  the  acceptance  by  the  owner  or  owners  of  the  lands  or  rights  so 
condemned  of  any  award  of  commissioners  shall  not  interfere  with  or 
prevent  the  taking  of  any  appeal  provided  by  law. 

7.  The  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  shall  have  power  to 
construct  any  sewer  or  drain  by  it  to  be  made  or  constructed  under  or 
over  an}'^  water  course,  under  or  over  or  across  or  along  any  street, 
turnpike,  railway,  canal,  highway,  or  other  way,  and  in  or  upon  pri- 
vate or  public  lands,  and  in  or  upon  lands  of  this  State  and  under 
waters  of  this  State,  in  such  manner,  however,  as  not  unnecessarily  to 
obstruct  or  impede  travel  or  navigation,  and  may  enter  upon  and  dig 
up  any  street,  road,  highway,  or  private  or  public  lands  either  within 
or  without  the  said  sewerage  district  for  the  purpose  of  constructing 
or  laying  sewers  or  drains  upon  or  beneath  the  surface  thereof,  and 
for  maintaining  and  operating  the  same,  and  in  general  may  do  all 
other  acts  or  things  necessary,  convenient,  and  proper  to  carry  out 
the  purposes  of  this  act;  but  no  part  of  said  sewer  where  laid  under 
the  waters  of  this  State  beyond  the  exterior  lines  for  solid  filling,  as 
established  by  the  riparian  commissioners  of  this  State,  shall  in  said 
Newark  Bay  be  above  an  elevation  of  thirty  feet  below  mean  low 
water,  or  shall  in  said  New  York  Bay  be  above  an  elevation  of  thirty- 
five  feet  below  mean  low  water ;  and  the  said  board  of  sewerage  com- 
missioners shall  have  power,  for  the  purpose  of  carrjnng  such  sewage 
or  other  matter  to  the  place  of  deposit  or  discharge  in  New  York  Bay. 
to  construct  sewers  within  territory  outside  of  the  said  sewerage  dis- 
trictf  and  with  its  sewers,  pipes,  and  drains  to  pass  through  or  partly 
through  the  territory  of  municipalities  outside  of  said  sewerage  dis- 
trict; and  whenever  the  said  board  shall  dig  up  any  road,  street,  or 
highway  as  aforesaid,  it  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  restore  the  same  to 
as  good  condition  and  order  as  the  same  was  when  such  digging  com- 
menced:  Provided^  however^  That  when  such  streets,  roads,  or  high- 
ways lie  outside  of  such  sewerage  district,  the  laying  down  of  sewer? 
or  drains  under  or  across  said  streets,  roads,  or  highways  shall  be 
subject  to  such  police  regulations  of  the  governing  bodies  of  such 
municipalities  as  are  applicable  and  enforceable  in  the  construction 
of  sewers  or  drains  for  such  municipality. 

8.  The  said  sewerage  commissioners  shall  have  power  and  authority 
to  alter  or  change  the  course  or  direction  of  any  water  course,  and, 
with  the  consent  of  the  township  committee  of  any  township  and  of 
the  board  or  body  having  control  of  the  streets  or  highways  in  any 


GooDBLL.]         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW    JERSEY.  115 

city,  town,  or  other  municipality,  to  alter  or  change  the  grade  or  loca- 
tion of  any  highway,  public  street,  or  way  crossed  by  any  sewer  or 
drain  to  be  constructed  under  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

9.  The  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  may,  by  its  officers, 
agents,  servants,  and  employees,  enter  at  all  times  upon  any  lands  or 
waters  within  or  without  the  said  sewerage  district  for  the  purpose  of 
exploring,  surveying,  leveling,  and  laying  out  the  route  of  any  drain 
or  sewer,  locating  any  disposal,  pumping,  or  other  works,  establishing 
grades,  and  doing  aU  necessary  preliminary  work ;  doing,  however,  no 
iinneoessary  damage  or  injury  to  private  property. 

10.  The  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  shall  at  all  times 
keep  full  and  accurate  accounts  of  its  receipts,  expenditures,  disburse- 
ments, and  liabilities,  and  shall  annually  cause  a  detailed  statement 
thereof  to  be  published  and  a  copy  thereof  mailed  to  the  secretary  of 
state  of  this  State  and  to  the  clerk  of  each  of  the  municipalities  in  the 
district.  The  fiscal  year  of  said  sewerage  commissioners  shall  end  on 
the  first  Tuesday  of  May  in  each  year,  and  said  report  so  to  be  pub- 
lished shall  be  a  report  for  the  previous  fiscal  year,  and  shall  be  made 
as  soon  after  the  end  of  each  fiscal  year  as  conveniently  may  be;  and 
the  mayor  or  chief  officer  of  any  city  or  other  municipality  included 
within  said  drainage  district  shall  be  given  full  access  to  all  the 
books,  accounts,  and  vouchers  of  the  said  board,  at  all  reasonable 
times,  for  the  purpose  of  examination  and  report  in  the  interest  of 
such  municipalities,  respectively,  and  of  the  taxpayers  therein. 

11.  To  provide  for  the  payment  of  costs  and  expenses  incurred  or 
to  be  incurred  by  the  said  sewerage  commissioners  for  the  purchase 
of  lands,  rights,  or  interests  in  lands  or  other  property  or  rights,  and 
in  the  construction  of  said  disposal  works,  pumping  stations,  sewers, 
drains,  and  all  other  works  by  them  to  be  constructed,  and  for  engi- 
neering, administrative,  and  other  expenses  connected  therewith, 
including  interest  during  construction,  said  board  of  sewerage  com- 
missioners shall  have  power  from  time  to  time  to  issue  its  corporate 
bonds  in.  an  amount  not  to  exceed  nine  million  dollars  and  not  to 
exceed  the  total  estimated  cost  and  expenses  of  the  whole  work ;  such 
bonds  shall  be  in  the  form  and  payable  at  a  time  not  exceeding  fifty 
years  from  the  date  thereof  and  at  such  places,  and  either  in  cur- 
rency or  coin,  as  the  said  sewerage  commissioners  may  determine; 
.such  bonds  shall  bear  interest  at  a  rate  not  exceeding  four  per  centum 
per  annum,  payable  semiannually ;  all  such  bonds  shall  be  signed  by 
the  chairman  of  the  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  and  coun- 
tersigned by  the  treasurer,  and  shall  be  sealed  with  its  corporate  seal, 
attested  by  the  clerk;  in  issuing  such  bonds  the  board  of  sewerage 
commissioners  may,  in  its  discretion,  make  the  same  or  any  i)art 
thereof  fall  due  at  stated  periods  less  than  fifty  years  from  the  date 
of  issue,  and  may  reserve  in  said  bonds  an  option  to  redeem  or  pay 


116  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

the  same  or  any  part  thereof  at  stated  periods  at  any  time  between 
the  date  thereof  and  the  date  at  which  they  would  otherwise  fall  due: 
the  said  bonds  may  be  either  coupon  or  registered  bonds  or  partly 
coupon  and  partly  registered  bonds,  and  all  such  bonds  may  be 
negotiated,  sold,  and  disposed  of  at  not  less  than  their  par  value,  and 
the  same  or  the  proceeds  thereof  may  be  used  by  the  said  sewerage 
commissioners  for  the  purposes  aforesaid ;  the  said  board  of  sewerage 
commissioners  shall  keep  the  cost  and  expenses  of  the  construction  of 
its  plant — in  which  shall  be  included  the  cost  of  lands,  rights,  or  inter- 
ests in  lands,  and  the  cost  of  all  other  property  and  rights,  and  the 
cost  of  construction  of  all  works,  including  engineering  expenses, 
administrative  expenses,  and  legal  expenses,  and  including  interest 
during  the  course  of  construction — separate  from  the  cost  and  ex- 
penses of  maintenance,  operation,  and  repairs;  all  sales  of  bonds  shall 
be  made  after  public  notice  and  advertisement  calling  for  bids  and 
shall  be  made  to  the  highest  responsible  bidders. 

12.  The  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  may,  in  anticipation 
of  the  issuing  of  bonds,  and  from  time  to  time  as  it  may  need  money. 
borrow  such  sum  or  sums  of  money,  not  exceeding  at  any  one  time 
one-fifth  of  the  estimated  cost  of  the  whole  work,  and  may  issue  its 
certificates  of  indebtedness,  promissory  notes,  or  other  obligations 
therefor,  retiring  the  same  from  time  to  time  as  the  bonds  hereinbe- 
fore authorized  to  be  issued  are  sold.  In  order  that  the  said  bonds 
issued  for  the  purchase  of  land,  rights  in  land,  and  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  works,  plant  and  extensions,  betterments  and  improve- 
ments thereof  may  be  paid  and  retired  at  maturity,  the  sewerage 
commissioners  shall  provide  a  proper  and  suitable  sinking  fund  not 
exceeding  in  amount  to  be  raised  in  any  one  year  one  per  centum  of 
the  face  value  of  the  bonds  issued,  which  sum  shall  be  raised  annu- 
ally, beginning  with  the  fifth  year  after  the  issuing  of  said  bonds,  at 
the  time  and  in  the  manner  herein  provided  for  the  raising  of  the 
moneys  necessary  to  pay  the  interest  on  said  bonds.  The  money  so 
raised  for  sinking-fund  purposes  shall  be  kept  in  a  separate  account 
by  the  treasurer  of  the  board  of  sewerage  commissionei-s,  and  shall, 
under  its  direction,  be  used  or  invested  from  time  to  time  in  the  pur- 
chase or  retirement  of  its  own  bonds,  or  in  the  purchase  of  securities 
in  which  savings  banks  and  savings  institutions  of  this  State  are 
authorized  to  invest. 

13.  All  indebtedness  of  the  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners 
incurred  for  the  purchase  of  lands,  rights,  or  interests  in  land  or 
other  property,  and  in  the  construction  of  its  works  or  plant,  or 
otherwise  lawfully  incurred,  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  this  act, 
whether  such  indebtedness  is  represented  by  bonds,  certificates  of 
indebtedness,  promissory  notes,  or  other  form  of  indebtedness,  with 
interest  accrued  or  to  accrue  thereon,  shall  be  a  charge  upon  all  per- 


OOODHLL.1         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  117 

sons  and  property  in  the  municipal  or  taxing  districts  lying  in  whole 
or  in  part  within  said  sewerage  district  as  fully  as  the  legislature  of 
this  State  shall  have  power  to  authorize  the  same;  and  all  bonds, 
certificates  of  indebtedness,  promissory  notes,  and  other  obligations 
issued  by  the  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  shall  be  free 
from  all  State,  county,  municipal,  and  other  taxes,  and  the  property, 
real  and  personal,  of  the  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  held 
by  it  under  authority  of  this  act,  wherever  situated,  shall  in  like  man- 
ner be  free  from  taxation. 

14.  The  said  sewerage  commissioners  shall,  on  or  before  the  fif- 
teenth day  of  June  in  each  year,  ascertain  and  determine  the  amount 
of  money  necessary  to  be  raised  for  the  payment  of  interest  upon 
bonds  and  other  indebtedness  and  for  sinking-fund  charges  for  the 
current  fiscal  year,  and  shall  apportion  the  same  among  the  respective 
municipalities  and  taxing  districts  lying  in  whole  or  in  part  within 
said  sewerage  district,  in  such  proportion  as  the  taxable  ratables 
within  so  much  of  said  municipality  or  taxing  district  as  is  embraced 
within  said  sewerage  district  bears  to  the  total  amount  of  taxable 
ratables  within  the  whole  of  said  sewerage  district,  as  returned  and 
certified  by  the  respective  taxing  boards  and  taxing  oflBicers  of  the 
said  municipalities  or  taxing  districts  for  the  preceding  year:  Pro- 
vided^ howevei*^  That  all  ratables  in  said  district  for  this  purpose  be 
assessed  at  their  true  value;  and  it  shall  be  the-duty  of  each  assessor, 
taxing  board,  or  taxing  officer  for  the  several  municipalities  and  tax- 
ing districts  lying  in  whole  or  in  part  within  said  sewerage  district 
for  this  purpose,  to  examine,  compute,  determine,  and  certify  to  the 
said  sewerage  board  annually,  and  by  the  first  day  of  April  of  each 
year,  the  amount  of  taxable  property  or  ratables  assessed  in  the  last 
preceding  year  to  or  upon  persons  and  property  within  so  much  of 
the  several  municipalities  and  taxing  districts  as  lie  within  the  said 
sewerage  district,  and  the  books  of  each  of  the  said  assessors,  taxing 
boards,  and  taxing  officers  shall  at  all  times  be  open  for  examination 
by  the  board  of  sewerage  commissioners,  its  officers  and  agents,  for 
the  purpose  of  examining,  checking,  and,  if  necessary,  correcting 
said  certificates. 

15.  The  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  shall,  on  or  before 
the  fifteenth  day  of  June  in  each  year,  ascertain  and  determine  as 
near  as  may  be  the  amount  of  money  necessary  to  be  raised  for  oper- 
ating, maintaining,  and  repairing  its  works  and  plant  for  the  current 
fiscal  year,  and  shall  apportion  the  money  so  estimated  to  be  neces- 
sary among  the  several  municipalities  or  taxing  districts  lying  in 
whole  or  in  part  within  said  sewerage  district  according  to  the 
amount  of  sewage  by  them  respectively  delivered  to  or  discharged 
into  any  sewers  or  other  receptacles  provided  or  constructed  by  the 
said  sewerage  commissioners  for  the  reception  thereof.  Before  such 
apportionment  is  finally  made  and  adopted  by  the  sewerage  commis- 


118  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

sioners  for  any  year  and  on  the  fourth  Tuesday  of  May,  at  two  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  the  said  sewerage  commission  shall  sit  at  its  prin- 
cipal office  for  the  purjwse  of  hearing  such  municipalities  as  desire 
to  be  heard  upon  the  apportionment  of  the  estimated  amount  of 
money  required  for  the  operation,  maintenance,  and  repair  of  sai^J 
works  and  plant,  but  the  apportionment  when  made  by  the  said  sew- 
erage commissioners  shall  be  final  and  conclusive;  in  case,  however, 
the  estimate  of  moneys  necessary  to  be  raised  in  any  year  for  operat- 
ing, maintaining,  and  repairing  the  works  and  plant  of  the  sewern^ 
commissioners  shall,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  be  found  to  have  been  too 
low,  the  deficiency  shall  be  made  good  by  adding  the  same  to  the  esti- 
mated amount  required  for  operating,  maintaining,  and  repairing 
the  said  works  for  the  next  succeeding  year;  and  if  said  estimate 
shall  be  found  to  have  been  excessive,  then  such  excess  shall  be  de- 
ducted from  the  estimate  for  the  next  succeeding  year. 

16.  The  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  shall,  on  or  before 
the  twentieth  day  of  June  in  each  year,  order  and  cause  a  tax  to  Ix* 
levied  and  assessed  upon  all  persons  and  property  within  each  of  the 
municipal  and  taxing  districts  lying  in  whole  or  in  part  within  said 
sewerage  district,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the  money  necessary  to 
pay  interest  upon  its  bonds  and  other  indebtedness  and  necessary 
sinking-fund  charges  and  for  the  sum  or  sums  of  money  estimated  as 
necessary  to  provide  for  the  proper  maintenance  and  operation  of  its 
works  and  plant,  and  for  oil  the  other  expenses  of  the  said  sewerage 
commissioners,  and  to  this  end  it  shall,  on  or  before  the  twentieth  day 
of  June  in  each  year,  certify  to  the  tax  assessor,  taxing  board,  or  tax- 
ing officer  of  each  of  said  municipalities  or  taxing  districts  lying  in 
whole  or -in  part  within  said  sewerage  district,  the  amount  of  tax 
required  to  be  levied,  assessed,  and  raised  in  each  of  their  respective 
municipalities  and  taxing  districts  for  said  purposes;  and  the  said 
assessors,  taxing  boards,  and  taxing  officers  shall  assess  said  sums  so 
directed  to  be  assessed  (and  certified  to  them)  upon  all  the  pei"sons 
and  property  within  their  respective  municipalities  or  taxing  districts 
liable  to  be  assessed  for  State  or  county  taxes,  and  the  said  tax  shall 
be  levied,  assessed,  and  collected  by  the  same  officers  at  the  same 
time  and  in  the  same  manner  and  with  the  same  effect  as  State  or 
county  taxes  are  required  to  be  levied,  assessed,  and  collected  within 
said  municipalities  or  taxing  districts;  and  the  taxes  so  levied  upon 
real  estate  in  said  municipalities  and  taxing  districts  shall  be  and 
remain  a  first  and  paramount  lien  thereon  until  paid. 

17.  Out  of  the  first  moneys  collected  in  any  year  in  any  munici- 
pality or  taxing  district,  and  not  required  l)y  law  to  be  paid  to  the 
county  collector  for  State  or  county  purposes,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  disbursing  officer  or  officers  of  such  municipality  or  taxing  dis- 


COODBLL.1         SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   JERSEY.  119 

trict  to  pay  to  the  treasurer  of  the  sewerage  commissioners  the  sum 
or  sums  of  money  directed  by  said  sewerage  commissioners  to  be 
assessed,  levied,  and  collected  in  such  municipality  or  taxing  district. 

18.  The  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  may,  from  time  to 
time,  in  anticipation  of  the  collection  of  moneys  directed  by  it  to  be 
assessed,  levied,  and  collected  within  the  municipalities  or  taxing 
districts  lying  in  whole  or  in  part  within  its  sewerage  district,  borrow 
such  sum  or  sums  of  money  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  payment  of 
interest  upon  bonds  or  other  indebtedness,  and  for  the  payment  of 
sinking-fund  charges,  and  for  the  payment  of  its  officers,  agents, 
employees,  and  for  all  other  necessary  or  proper  expenses  in  main- 
taining and  operating  its  works  and  plant,  and  the  payment  of  the 
moneys  so  borrowed  shall  be  secured  by  a  lien  upon  said  taxes  as 
le\aed  and  assessed,  or  so  directed  to  be  levied  and  assessed,  and  said 
taxes  when  collected  shall  be  applied  to  the  payment  of  the  moneys 
so  borrowed;  all  loans  made  in  pursuance  of  this  section  shall  be 
after  public  notice  and  advertisement,  and  shall  be  made  or  taken 
from  the  person  or  persons  offering  the  most  favorable  terms. 

19.  If  in  any  case  the  streams  and  rivers  within  the  said  sewerage 
district  are  or  may  be  polluted  by  sewage  or  other  deleterious  matter 
discharged  therein,  directly  or  indirectly,  from  any  municipality  or 
any  part  of  a  mimicipality  lying  without  the  said  sewerage  district,  it 
shall  and  may  be  lawful  for  the  said  board  of  commissioners  to  enter 
into  contract  with  such  municipality  for  the  disposal  of  all  such  sew- 
age and  deleterious  matter,  and  every  such  municipality  is  hereby 
authorized  to  enter  into  such  contract  with  the  said  board,  and  the 
siiid  board  may,  in  the  constructions  made  by  it  under  the  authority 
of  this  act,  make  provisions  for  such  disposal ;  such  contracts  may  be 
made  upon  such  terms  and  for  such  lengths  of  time  and  for  such 
annual  or  semiannual  payments  as  shall  be  mutually  agreed  upon, 
and  the  municipalities  and  taxing  districts  so  contracting  shall  have 
the  power  to  raise  annually,  by  taxation,  the  moneys  necessary  to 
make  the  payments  required  to  be  made  under  such  contracts,  or  to 
use  for  this  purpose  any  moneys  not  otherwise  appropriated;  and  the 
moneys  received  by  the  said  commissioners  under  such  contracts  shall 
l>e  applied  by  them  as  follows :  Two-thirds  thereof  to  the  payment  of 
interest  upon  bonds  issued  by  the  said  board,  and  one-third  thereof 
to  the  payment  of  the  expense  -of  operation,  maintenance,  and  repair 
of  work. 

20.  The  said  sewerage  commissioners  shall  have  within  said  sew^er- 
age  district  powers  exclusive  of  all  other  boards  to  protect  the  rivers 
and  streams  thereof  from  pollution  and  to  prevent  the  pollution  of 
the  same,  and  to  this  end  the  said  sewerage  commissioners  may  pro- 
hibit the  deposit  or  discharge  into  the  rivers  or  streams  within  said 
sewerage  district  of  any  sewage  or  other  matter  or  thing  which  may 


120  LAWS  FOEBIDDING  INLAND-WATER  POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

pollute  the  same;  they  may  also  in  like  maimer  prohibit  or  prevent 
the  emptying  into  any  tributary  of  said  rivers  or  streams,  by  any 
municipality  or  part  of  a  municipality  lying  within  the  said  sewerage 
district,  of  any  sewage  or  other  matter  or  thing  which  will  directly  or 
indirectly  cause  the  rivers  or  streams  within  said  sewerage  district  to 
be  polluted;  and  the  said  board  of  sewerage  commissioners  may  at 
any  time,  when  it  has  reason  to  believe  that  any  river  or  stream 
within  its  district  is  being  polluted  by  any  such  municipality  or  part 
of  a  municipality  by  deposit  or  discharge  into  said  rivers,  streams^  or 
their  tributaries  of  any  sewage  or  other  matter  or  thing  which  will 
pollute  the  same,  or  when  such  deposit  or  discharge  is  threatened,  to 
apply  by  bill  or  petition  to  the  court  of  chancery  of  this  State  for 
injunction  to  prevent  the  said  pollution  or  threatened  pollution  of  said 
rivers  or  streams  or  their  tributaries,  and  the  court  of  chancery  shall 
have  power  to  hear  and  dispose  of  said  petition  or  bills  in  a  summary 
manner,  and  to  grant  any  and  all  relief  necessary  to  prevent  said 
pollution  or  threatened  pollution  or  the  continuation  of  any  pollution 
of  said  rivers,  streams,  or  their  tributaries. 

21.  The  said  board  of  sewerage  conmiissioners  shall  have  po'wer 
from  time  to  time  to  adopt  all  such  reasonable  rules  and  regulations 
for  its  own  government  and  the  government  of  its  officers  and  agents, 
and  also  for  the  use,  protection,  and  management  of  its  works,  prop- 
erty, and  plant,  and  for  the  protection  of  the  rivers  and  streams 
within  its  district  from  pollution,  not  inconsistent  with  the  provi- 
sions of  this  act  and  the  laws  of  this  State. 

22.  The  chairman  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  sewerage 
commissioners,  and  shall,  with  the  treasurer,  sign  all  bonds,  promis- 
sory notes,  certificates  of  indebtedness,  and  other  obligations  of  the 
board;  he  shall  also  countersign  all  checks;  in  the  absence  of  the 
chairman,  or  in  case  he  is  incapacitated  by  illness  or  other  cause,  the 
sewerage  commissioners  shall  have  power  to  elect  an  acting  chair- 
man, who  for  the  time  being  shall  have  all  the  powers  and  perform 
all  the  duties  of  the  chairman ;  the  treasurer  shall  give  bond  in  such 
sum  as  the  sewerage  commissioners  may  determine,  and  shall  be  the 
receiving  and  disbursing  officer  of  the  said  sewerage  commissioners, 
and  all  moneys  required  by  law  to  be  paid  to  said  sewerage  commis- 
sioners shall  be  paid  to  the  treasurer  thereof,  and  shall  be  by  him 
deposited  in  such  bank  or  banks  of  deposit  or  trust  company  or  trust 
companies  in  this  State  as  shall  be  determined  upon  by  the  said 
sewerage  commissioners;  all  disbursements  shall  be  by  check,  sig^ned 
by  the  treasurer  and  coimtersigned  by  the  chairman;  the  clerk  sliall 
have  charge  of  the  seal  of  the  corporation  and  shall  affix  it  to  such 
instruments  as  he  shall  be  directed  by  the  said  board,  and  he  shall 
attest  the  same ;  he  shall  keep  full  minutes  of  all  the  meetings  of  the 
board  and  of  its  committees  and  shall  perform  all  such  other  duties 


GooDBLL,!  SEVEBE  STATUTE  RESTRICTIONS — NEW   YORK.  121 

as  he  may  be  directed  by  the  said  board  of  commissioners  to  perform ; 
no  deposit  of  moneys  in  the  charge  of  the  said  board  shall  be  made 
in  any  bank  or  trust  company  except  upon  the  condition  that  the 
said  board  shall  receive  interest  at  the  rate  of  not  less  than  two  per 
centum  per  annum  upon  the  said  deposits. 

23.  In  case  for  any  reason  any  section  or  any  provision  of  this  act 
jJiall  be  questioned  in  any  court  and  shall  be  held  to  be  unconstitu- 
tional or  invalid,  the  same  shall  not  be  held  to  affect  any  other  sec- 
tion or  provision  of  this  act. 

24.  All  acts  and  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  this  act  are  hereby 
repealed ;  and  this  act  shall  take  effect  immediately .<> 

Approved  April  22, 1903. 

NEW  YORK. 

[ReTlaed  Statutes,  3d  ed.  (C.  F.  Eirdseye),  vol.  2,  pp.  2822  ff..  Article  V:  PubUc  health 

law.] 

POTABLE  WATEBS. 

Sec.  70.  Rules  and  regulations  of  State  board. — The  State  board 
of  health  may  make  rules  and  regulations  for  the  protection  from 
contamination  of  any  or  all  public  supplies  of  potable  waters  and 

■This  act  waa  declared  unconstitutional  by  the  court  of  errors  and  appeals  of  New 
Jersey  in  March,  1905.  Van  Cleve  v.  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners,  60  Atlan- 
tic Rep.,  214.  It  is  retained  here,  however,  because  the  ground  upon  which  it  was  held 
unconstitutional  affects  only  the  mode  of  raising  the  necessary  funds  for  carrying  out 
the  work. 

It  was  subjected  to  an  attack  by  the  city  of  Paterson  and  by  a  property  owner  who 
had  been  assessed  for  public  sewers  in  the  city  of  Paterson.  Argument  was  conducted 
by  several  of  the  ablest  counsel  in  the  State  on  each  side  and  the  act  was  sustained 
upon  all  grounds  in  the  supreme  court,  but  by  a  divided  court.  In  the  court  of  errors 
and  appeals  the  action  of  the  supreme  court  was  reversed,  and  the  act  declared  to  be 
unconstitntional  upon  the  ground  that  It  contained  an  unlawful  delegation  to  the  sewer- 
age commissioners  of  the  power  of  taxation.  The  court  says,  per  Garrison,  J.,  "To 
relieve  a  river  from  pollution  and  to  construct  and  maintain  for  this  purpose  sewers  to 
the  seaboard  or  to  other  point  of  output  and  to  carry  away  through  such  sewers  all 
that  would  otherwise  pollute  such  river  is  clearly  within  the  power  of  the  central  legis- 
lative body." 

The  act  under  examination  authorized  the  commissioners  to  raise  by  taxation  any 
amount  In  their  discretion,  subject  only  to  the  limit  of  nine  million  dollars  ($9,000,000 1 
in  the  matter  of  construction,  but  without  any  limit  in  the  matter  of  maintenance.  The 
taxation  was  laid  upon  a  taxation  area  that  was  not  coterminous  with  the  sewerage  dis- 
trict established  by  the  legislature;  and  neither  the  taxation  area  nor  the  sewerage  dis- 
trict is  a  political  division  of  the  State  nor  invested  with  any  governmental  function. 
The  court  held  that  the  fundamental  law  of  New  Jersey  required,  "  that  the  district  to 
be  taxed  shall  be  coterminous  with  a  district  to  which  some  right  of  local  self-govern- 
ment is  given.**  The  act  is,  therefore,  held  invalid.  The  court  then  proceeds  as  follows : 
"  Having  stated  the  considerations  that  lead  me  to  the  conclusion  that  the  act  before  us 
is  Invalid,  because  of  its  fiscal  provision,  I  shall,  to  avoid  misapprehension,  add  that 
nothing  in  this  opinion  is  intended  to  imply  a  lack  of  power  in  the  legislature  to 
effectuate  the  object  expressed  in  this  act  by  means  that  are  in  harmony  with  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  taxation  illustrated  by  the  decisions  I  have  cited.  If,  for  Instance, 
as  was  suggested  by  the  arguments  before  us,  powers  adequate  to  the  execution  of  the 
legislative  scheme  of  drainage  were  conferred  upon  the  entire  area  to  be  taxed  and 
duties  respecting  the  exercise  of  such  powers  constitutionally  imposed  In  such  manner  as 
indicated  and  that  their  exercise  was  compulsory,  a  question  not  touched  upon  in  this 
opinion  would  be  presented.'* 


122  LAWS   POBBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

their  sources  within  the  State.  If  any  such  rule  or  regulaticMi  relates 
to  a  temporary  source  or  act  of  contamination,  any  person  violating 
such  rule  or  regulation  shall  be  liable  to  prosecution  for  misdemeanor 
for  every  such  violation,  and  on  conviction  shall  be  punished  by  a 
fine  not  exceeding  two  hundred  dollars,  or  imprisonment  not  exceed- 
ing one  year,  or  both.  If  any  such  rule  or  regulation  relates  to  a 
permanent  source  or  act  of  contamination,  said  board  may  impose 
penalties  for  the  violation  thereof  or  the  noncompliance  therewith 
not  exceeding  two  hundred  dollars  for  every  such  violation  or  non- 
compliance. Every  such  rule  or  regulation  shall  be  published  at  least 
once  in  each  week  for  six  consecutive  weeks  in  at  least  one  newspa- 
per of  the  county  where  the  waters  to  which  it  relates  are  located. 
The  cost  of  such  publication  shall  be  paid  by  the  corporation  or 
municipality  benefited  by  the  protection  of  the  water  supply  to  which 
the  rule  or  regulation  published  relates.  The  affidavit  of  the  printer, 
publisher,  or  proprietor  of  the  newspaper  in  which  such  rule  or  regu- 
lation is  published  may  be  filed  with  the  rule  or  regulation  published 
in  the  county  clerk's  office  of  such  county,  and  such  affidavit  and  rule 
and  regulation  shall  be  conclusive  evidence  of  such  publication  and 
of  all  the  facts  therein  stated  in  all  courts  and  places. 

Sec.  71.  Inspection  of  water  supply. — The  officer  or  board  having 
by  law  the  management  and  control  of  the  potable  water  supply  of 
any  municipality,  or  the  corporation  furnishing  such  supply,  may 
make  such  inspection  of  the  sources  of  such  water  supply  as  such 
officer,  board,  or  corporation  deems  it  advisable,  and  to  ascertain 
whether  the  rules  or  regulations  of  the  State  board  are  complied  with. 
If  any  such  inspection  discloses  a  violation  of  any  such  rule  or  regu- 
lation relating  to  a  permanent  source  or  act  of  contamination,  such 
officer,  board,  or  corporation  shall  cause  a  copy  of  the  rule  or  regula- 
tion violated  to  be  served  upon  the  person  violating  the  same  with  a 
notice  of  such  violation.  If  the  person  served  does  not  immediatelj- 
comply  with  the  rule  or  regulation  violated,  such  officer,  board,  or 
corporation  shall  notify  the  State  board  of  the  violation,  which  shall 
immediately  examine  into  such  violation,  and  if  such  person  is  found 
by  the  State  board  to  have  actually  violated  such  rule  or  regulation, 
the  secretary  of  the  State  board  shall  order  the  local  board  of  health 
of  such  municipality  to  convene  and  enforce  obedience  to  such  rule 
or  regulation.  If  the  local  board  fails  to  enforce  such  order  within 
ten  days  after  its  receipt,  the  corporation  furnishing  such  water  sup- 
ply, or  the  municipality  deriving  its  water  supply  from  the  waters  to 
which  such  rule  or  regulation  relates,  may  maintain  an  action  in  a 
court  of  record,  which  shall  be  tried  in  the  county  where  the  cause  of 
action  arose  against  such  person,  for  the  recovery  of  the  penalties 
incurred  by  such  violation,  and  for  an  injunction  restraining  him 
from  the  continued  violation  of  such  rule  or  regulation. 


GooDKLL.]  SEVEBE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   YORK.  123 

Sec.  71a.  Rules  and  regulations  legalized. — All  rules  and  regula- 
tions heretofore  duly  made  and  published  for  the  sanitary  protection 
of  public  water  supplies,  pursuant  to  chap.  543  of  the  laws  of  1885 
and  chap.  661  of  the  laws  of  1893,  as  amended,  are  hereby  legalized, 
ratified,  confirmed,  and  continued  in  force  until  new  rules  and  regu- 
lations become  operative. 

Sec.  71b.  Construction  of  act — This  act  shall  not  be  construed  to 
repeal  or  affect  any  of  the  provisions  of  chap.  378  of  laws  of  1897,  or 
its  amendments. 

Sec.  72.  Sewerage. — When  the  State  board  of  health  shall,  for  the 
protection  of  a  water  supply  from  contamination,  make  orders  or  reg- 
ulations the  execution  of  which  will  require  or  make  necessary  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  any  system  of  sewerage,  or  a  change 
thereof,  in  or  for  any  village  or  hamlet,  whether  incorporated  or  unin- 
corporated, or  the  execution  of  which  will  require  the  providing  of 
some  public  means  of  removal  or  purification  of  sewage,  the  munici- 
pality or  corporation  owning  the  waterworks  benefited  thereby  shall, 
at  its  own  expense,  construct  and  maintain  such  system  of  sewerage, 
or  change  thereof,  and  provide  such  means  of  removal  and  purifica- 
tion of  sewage  and  such  works  or  means  of  sewage  disposal  as  shall  be 
approved  by  the  State  board  of  health.  When  the  execution  of  any 
such  regulations  of  the  State  board  of  health  will  occasion  or  require 
the  removal  of  any  building  or  buildings  the  municipality  or  corpora- 
tion owning  the  waterworks  benefited  thereby  shall,  at  its  own  ex- 
pense, remove  such  buildings  and  pay  to  the  owner  thereof  all  the 
damages  occasioned  by  such  removal. 

When  the  execution  of  any  such  regulation  will  injuriously  affect 
any  manufacturing  or  industrial  enterprise  which  is  not  a  public 
nuisance,  such  municipality  or  corporation  shall  pay  all  damages 
occasioned  by  the  enforcement  thereof.  Until  such  construction  or 
change  of  such  system  or  systems  of  sewerage,  and  the  providing  of 
such  means  of  removal  or  purification  of  sewage,  and  such  works  or 
means  or  sewage  disposal  and  the  removal  of  any  building,  are  so 
made  by  the  municipality  or  corporation  owning  the  waterworks  to 
be  benefited  thereby  at  its  own  expense  there  shall  be  no  action  or 
proceeding  taken  by  such  municipality  or  corporation  against  any 
person  or  corporation  for  the  violation  of  any  regulation  of  the  State 
board  of  health  under  this  article,  and  no  person  or  corporation  shall 
be  considered  to  have  violated  or  refused  to  obey  any  such  rule  or 
regulation.  The  owner  of  any  building  the  removal  of  which  is  occa- 
sioned or  required,  or  which  has  been  removed  by  any  rule  or  regula- 
tion of  the  State  board  of  health  made  under  the  provisions  of  this 
article,  and  all  persons  whose  rights  of  property  are  injuriously  af- 
fected by  the  enforcement  of  any  such  rule  or  regulation,  shall  have  a 
cause  of  action  against  the  municipality  or  corporation  owning  the 


m 


Ttfef-T.-75:E  iPQpfnT-'. Tjf  -u^gj  I'M"  II    ic  -%iiii  rLt^  -jr  rcgalAtioii 

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^^  ,    -^  ^.:-    r    •-^  T  r£  ttui^  -Ufc-  jsmit*^  r?i«!ii  ir:'5i->:ci  f«>r  tlie 

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-r  -^  .^^^■%^.-__    t.,--     r  ..i^-r  '•  ."  ■!:  '^ii'Hr  hat  lii-r^  az.«i  r'.^iniain  an 

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_    ~-  ,!^      ..  ".~^.  »:^    -f  '^>^  u:^  r  rc*ill  'r«»  :L«r  .iutr  of  the 

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""      ^     ^     ,     ,  _:.i-iaii»'-    c  --I'  'J-  *"^'  n.  iztinr  :i*f  rc*^^Ls:oii>  of  ihi^ 

"'""f  ;;;;  "^  ,1  [^^    --i*-^-  a  ^i^'-^  -^^^^-^  ^^  m.-.cT^rirr.i  a  mandatorv 

**  '  '   _.,  ^  '^^   Tt-*^!!^  >ti^-  ':».ar-L  -^ CT*:«ai>'<i.  munici- 

^    /  ™^   ,r  1MT^  '•••Jur  A  itf^^Lu::  :•:  sii-i  action  which 

"^  .  -  :-^  ^.vufT  :c  JJ-'  x:**^  <.'^•ta^.^v  Jel^erioiL^  to 

,  lak*'^  or  otlier 

J^.,  c  nprsrr  its  waUT 

M>  »1J  tw^  pfie»*TibeJ  by  ihir 

r-  or  the  di^^ 


GooDELL.]  SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   YORK.  125 

jM^sal  of  such  sewage  or  other  substance  into  such  waters,  or  the  poUu- 
lioii  thereof,  with  such  further  directions  in  the  premises  as  may  be 
proper  and  desirable  to  effect  such  purpose ;  provided,  that  such  river, 
stream,  lake,  or  other  body  of  water  is  wholly  or  in  part  within  the 
lK>undaries  of  the  county  in  which  such  plaintiff  is  located. 

Sec.  72c.  Examination  hy  State  hoard  of  health, — But  no  such 
action  shalf  be  brought  as  provided  for  in  section  2  (i.  e.,  72b)  of  this 
act  until  the  State  board  of  health  has  examined  and  determined 
whether  the  sewage  does  pollute  or  contaminate  the  river,  sti-eam, 
lake,  or  (rther  body  of  water  into  which  said  sewage  is  discharged. 
The  expense  of  such  examination  by  said  board  shall  be  a  charge 
u]K>n  and  paid  by  the  municipality  in  whose  interest  and  on  whose 
behalf  such  examination  is  made. 

Sec.  72d.  Approral  of  plans, — In  case  the  State  board  of  health 
shall  find  upon  examination  that  the  discharge  of  said  sewage  does 
polhite  or  contaminate  said  waters,  or  any  of  them,  in  such  manner 
as  to  be  of  menace  or  danger  to  the  health  of  those  using  said  waters, 
the  plans  for  the  removal  or  disposal  of  the  sewage  ordered  to  be  pre- 
pared by  the  court  as  provided  in  section  2  (i.  e.,  72b)  shall  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  State  board  of  health  for  its  approval. 

[Laws  of  1001.  vol.  3,  p.  214,  charter  of  New  York  City.] 

Sec.  481.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  person  to  throw  or  deposit, 
or  cause  to  be  thrown  or  deposited,  in  any  lake,  pond,  or  stream,  or 
ill  any  aqueduct  from  or  through  which  any  part  of  the  water  supply 
of  the  city  of  New  York  shall  be  draw^n,  or  either  of  the  reservoirs, 
any  dead  animal  or  other  offensive  matter  or  anything  whatever. 
Any  person  offending  against  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  thereof  shall 
be  punished  by  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  in  the  discretion  of  the 
court,  such  fine  not  to  exceed  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars  and 
such  imprisonment  not  to  exceed  a  period  of  three  months,  such 
imprisonment  to  be  in  the  jail  of  the  county  in  which  the  offense 
s^hall  have  been  committed. 

Sec.  482.  If  any  person  shall  willfully  do  or  cause  to  be  done  any 
act  whereby  any  work,  materials,  or  property  whatever,  erected  or 
used,  or  hereafter  to  be  erected  or  used,  within  the  city  or  elsewhere 
by  the  said  city,  or  by  any  person  acting  under  their  authority,  for 
the  purpose  of  procuring  or  keeping  a  supply  of  water,  shall  in  any 
manner  be  injured,  or  shall  erect  or  place  any  nuisance  on  the  banks 
of  any  river,  lake,  or  stream  from  which  the  water  supply  of  said  city 
shall  be  drawn,  or  shall  throw  anything  into  the  aqueduct  or  into 
any  reservoir,  or  pipe,  such  person  on  conviction  thereof  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 


124  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

waterworks  benefited  by  the  enforcement  of  such  rule  or  regulation 
for  all  damages  occasioned  or  sustained  by  such  removal  or  enforce- 
ment, and  an  action  therefor  may  be  brought  against  such  municipal- 
ity or  corporation  in  any  court  of  record  in  the  county  in  which  the 
premises  or  property  affected  is  situated  and  shall  be  tried  therein ;  or 
such  damages  may  be  determined  by  a  special  proceeding  in  the  su- 
preme court  or  the  county  court  of  the  county  in  which  the  property  is 
situated.  Such  special  proceedings  shall  be  commenced  by  petition 
and  notice  to  be  served  by  such  owner  upon  the  municipality  or  cor- 
poration in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  commencement  of  condemna- 
tion proceedings.  Such  municipality  or  corporation  may  make  and 
serve  an  answer  to  such  petition  as  in  condemnation  proceedings. 
The  petition  and  answer  shall  set  forth  the  claims  of  the  respective 
parties,  and  the  provisions  of  the  condemnation  law  shall  be  applica- 
ble to  the  subsequent  proceedings  upon  the  petition  and  answer,  if 
any.  Either  party  may,  before  the  service  of  the  petition  or  answer, 
respectively,  offer  to  take  or  pay  a  certain  sum,  and  no  costs  shall  be 
awarded  against  either  party  unless  the  judgment  is  more  unfavora- 
ble to  him  than  his  offer. 

Sec.  72a.  Actions  by  municipalities. — ^Any  incorporated  city  or  vil- 
lage in  the  State  of  New  York  which  has  made  such  provision  for  the 
disposal  of  its  sewage  as  not  to  pollute  or  contaminate  therewith  any 
river,  stream,  lake,  or  other  body  of  water  may  have  and  maintain  an 
action  in  the  supreme  court  to  prevent  the  discharge  of  any  sewage  or 
substance  deleterious  to  health,  or  which  shall  injure  the  potable 
qualities  of  the  water  in  any  river,  stream,  lake,  or  other  body  of 
water  from  which  such  incorporated  city  or  village  shall  take  or 
receive  its  water  supply;  provided,  that  such  river,  stream,  lake,  or 
other  body  of  water  is  wholly  or  in  part  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
county  in  which  such  plaintiff  is  located. 

Sec.  72b.  Duty  of  supreme  court. — Whenever  such  action  shall  be 
brought  under  the  provisions  of  this  act,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
supreme  court,  upon  proof  of  the  existence  of  facts  justifying  the 
bringing  and  maintenance  of  such  action  under  the  provisions  of  this 
act,  to  render  a  judgment  in  which  shall  be  incorporated  a  mandatory 
injunction  requiring  the  person,  body,  board,  corporation,  munici- 
pality, village,  county,  or  town  being  a  defendant  to  said  action  which 
directly  or  indirectly,  or  by  its  servants,  agents,  or  officers,  shall  dis- 
charge or  dispose  of  its  sewage  or  any  other  substance  deleterious  to 
health,  which  shall  injure  the  potable  qualities  of  the  water  in  such 
wise  as  that  the  same  shall  enter  into  any  river,  stream,  lake,  or  other 
body  of  water  from  which  such  plaintiff  shall  take  or  receive  its  water 
supply,  within  such  reasonable  time  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the 
court,  to  take  such  action  as  shall  prevent  such  discharge,  or  the  dis- 


ooDELL.]  SEVERE   STATUTE   BESTBICTIONS — NEW   YOEK.  125 

posal  of  such  sewage  or  other  substance  into  such  waters,  or  the  polhi- 
tion  thereof,  with  vsuch  further  directions  in  the  premises  as  may  be 
proper  and  desirable  to  effect  such  purpose;  provided,  that  such  river, 
strc^am,  lake,  or  other  body  of  water  is  wholly  or  in  part  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  county  in  which  such  plaintiff  is  located. 

Sec.  72c.  Examination  hy  State  hoard  of  health. — But  no  such 
action  shaU  be  brought  as  provided  for  in  section  2  (i.  e.,  72b)  of  this 
act  until  the  State  board  of  health  has  examined  and  determined 
whether  the  sewage  does  pollute  or  contaminate  the  river,  stream, 
lake,  or  other  body  of  water  into  which  said  sewage  is  discharged. 
The  expense  of  such  examination  by  said  board  shall  be  a  charge 
upon  and  paid  by  the  municipality  in  whose  interest  and  on  whose 
behalf  such  examination  is  made. 

Sec.  72d.  Approval  of  plans. — In  case  the  State  board  of  health 
shall  find  upon  examination  that  the  discharge  of  said  sewage  doi^s 
pollute  or  contaminate  said  waters,  or  any  of  them,  in  such  manner 
as  to  be  of  menace  or  danger  to  the  health  of  those  using  said  waters, 
the  plans  for  the  removal  or  disposal  of  the  sewage  ordered  to  be  pre- 
pared by  the  court  as  provided  in  section  2  (i.  e.,  72b)  shall  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  State  board  of  health  for  its  approval. 

[Laws  of  1001,  vol.  3,  p.  214,  charter  of  New  York  City.] 

Sec.  481.  It  shall  not  be  lawful  for  any  person  to  throw  or  deposit, 
or  cause  to  be  thrown  or  deposited,  in  any  lake,  pond,  or  stream,  or 
in  any  aqueduct  from  or  through  which  any  part  of  the  water  supply 
of  the  city  of  New  York  shall  be  drawn,  or  either  of  the  reservoirs, 
any  dead  animal  or  other  offensive  matter  or  anything  whatever. 
Any  person  offending  against  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  upon  conviction  thereof  shall 
l3e  punished  by  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  in  the  discretion  of  the 
court,  such  fine  not  to  exceed  the  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars  and 
such  imprisonment  not  to  exceed  a  period  of  three  months,  such 
imprisonment  to  be  in  the  jail  of  the  county  in  which  the  offense 
shall  have  been  committed. 

Sec.  482.  If  any  person  shall  willfully  do  or  cause  to  be  done  any 
act  whereby  any  work,  materials,  or  property  whatever,  erected  or 
used,  or  hereafter  to  be  erected  or  used,  within  the  city  or  elsewhere 
by  the  said  city,  or  by  any  person  acting  under  their  authority,  for 
the  purpose  of  procuring  or  keeping  a  supply  of  water,  shall  in  any 
manner  be  injured,  or  shall  erect  or  place  any  nuisance  on  the  banks 
of  any  river,  lake,  or  stream  from  which  the  water  supply  of  said  city 
shall  be  drawn,  or  shall  throw  anything  into  the  aqueduct  or  into 
any  reservoir,  or  pipe,  such  person  on  conviction  thereof  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 


128  LAWS   FOBBIDDING   INLAND- WATEB   POLLUTION.  I  No.  152, 

matter  from  any  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establishment  not 
constructed  or  in  process  of  construction  when  this  act  takes  effect 
shall  be  put  in  or  constructed  for  the  purpose  of  discharging  any 
refuse  or  waste  matter  therefrom  into  any  waters  in  this  Stato,  the 
plan  or  plans  therefor,  together  with  a  statement  of  the  purpose  for 
which  the  same  is  to  be  used,  shall  be  submitted  to  the  commissioner. 
If  the  same  is  not  detrimental  to  the  public  health  he  shall  issue  a 
permit  therefor  to  the  applicant.  No  such  conduit,  discharge  pipe, 
or  other  means  of  discharging  or  casting  any  refu^j^  or  waste  matter 
from  any  such  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  establishment  into  any  of  the 
waters  of  this  State  shall  be  put  in  or  constructed  before  such  i>ermit 
is  granted,  and  if  put  in  or  constructed  the  person  putting  in  or  con- 
structing or  maintaining  the  same  shall  forfeit  to  the  people  of  the 
State  five  dollars  a  day  for  each  day  the  same  is  used  or  maintained 
for  such  purpose,  to  be  collected  in  an  action  brought  by  the  commis- 
sioner. He  may  also  maintain  an  action  in  the  name  of  the  people  to 
restrain  a  violation  of  this  section. 

Sec.  78.  Re  ideation  of  permit. — Every  such  permit  for  the  dis- 
charge of  sewage  from  a  sewer  system  or  for  the  discharge  of  refuse 
or  waste  matter  from  a  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establish- 
ment shall,  when  necessary  to  conserve  the  public  health,  be  revocable 
or  subject  to  modification  or  change  by  the  State  commissioner  of 
health  on  due  notice  after  an  investigation  and  hearing  and  an  oppor- 
tunity for  all  interested  therein  to  be  heard  thereon  being  served  on 
the  public  authorities  of  the  municipality  owning  and  maintaining 
the  sewage  system,  or  on  the  proprietor,  lessee,  or  tenant  of  the  shop. 
factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establishment.  The  length  of  the  time 
after  receipt  of  the  notice  within  which  the  discharge  of  sewage  or 
of  refuse  or  waste  matter  shall  be  discontinued  may  be  stated  in  the 
permit,  but  in  no  case  shall  it  exceed  two  years  in  the  case  of  a  sewer 
system  nor  one  year  in  the  case  of  a  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial 
establishment,  and  if  the  length  of  time  is  not  specified  in  the  permit 
it  shall  be  one  year  in  the  case  of  a  s4wer  system  and  six  months  in 
the  case  of  a  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establishment.  On 
the  expiration  of  the  period  of  time  prescribed  after  the  service  of  a 
notice  of  revocation,  modification,  or  change  from  the  State  com- 
missioner of  health,  the  right  to  discharge  sewage  or  refuse  or  waste 
matter  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  shall  cease  and  terminate, 
and  the  prohibition  of  this  act  against  such  discharge  shall  be  in  full 
force  as  though  no  permit  had  been  granted,  but  a  new  permit  may 
thereafter  again  be  granted  as  hereinbefore  provided. 

Sec.  79.  Reports  of  municipal  authorities  to  local  boards  of  health. — 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  public  authorities  having  by  law  charge  of 
the  sewer  system  of  every  municipality  in  the  State,  from  which  sewer 


GooDELL.)  SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW    YORK.  129 

system  sewage  was  being  discharged  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the 
State  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act,  to  file  with  the  board  of 
health  of  the  municipality  within  which  any  sewer  outlet  of  the  said 
sewer  system  is  located  and  wuthin  sixty  days  after  the  passage  of 
this  act  a  report  of  each  sewer  system  having  an  outlet  w-ithin  the 
municipality,  which  report  shall  comprise  such  facts  and  information 
as  the  State  commissioner  of  health  may  require  and  on  blanks  or 
forms  to  be  furnished  by  him  on  application.  The  board  of  health 
of  each  municipality  being  satisfied  as  to  the  correctness  and  com- 
pleteness of  each  report  submitted  to  it  shall  within  thirty  days  after 
its  receipt  certify  the  same  and  transmit  it  to  the  State  commi&sioner 
of  health.  Such  report  when  satisfactory  to  the  State  commissioner 
of  health  shall  be  filed  by  him  in  his  office  and  shall  constitute  the 
evidence  of  exemption  from  the  prohibition  of  this  act.  No  sewer 
system  shall  be  exempt  from  the  prohibition  of  this  act  against  the 
discharge  of  sewage  into  the  waters  of  the  State  for  which  a  satis- 
factory report  shall  not  be  filed  in  the  office  of  the  State  conunissioner 
of  health  in  accordance  with  this  section. 

Sec.  79a.  Reports  of  proprietors  of  mdxistrial  establishments. — It 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  proprietor  of  every  shop,  factory,  mill,  and 
industrial  establishment  in  the  State  from  which  refuse  or  waste  mat- 
ter was  being  discharged  into  any  of  the  w^aters  of  the  State  at  the 
time  of  the  passage  of  this  act  to  file  with  the  State  commissioner  of 
health  within  sixty  days  after  the  passage  of  this  act  a  report  of  eacli 
shop,  factory,  mill,  and  industrial  establishment  from  which  refuse 
or  waste  matter  was  being  discharged  through  an  outlet  within  the 
municipality  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act,  which  report  shall 
comprise  such  facts  and  information  in  regard  to  the  size,  location, 
and  character  of  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establishment,  the 
machinery  in  use  therein,  and  the  character  and  quantity  of  goods 
produced  as  the  State  commissioner  of  health  may  require  and  on 
blanks  or  forms  to  be  furnished  by  him  on  application.  Suth  report 
shall  be  filed  by  him  in  his  office,  and  shall  constitute  the  evidence  of 
exemption  of  the  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establishment  from 
the  prohibition  of  this  act.  No  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial  estab- 
lishment shall  be  exempt  from  the  prohibition  of  this  act  against  the 
discharge  of  refuse  or  waste  matter  into  the  waters  of  the  State,  for 
which  a  report  shall  not  be  made  as  required  by  the  State  commis- 
sioner of  health  in  accordance  with  this  section. 

Sec.  79b.  Record  of  permits;  inspection  of  local  hoards  of  health. — 

Each  board  of  health  shall  preserve  in  its  office,  and  in  a  form  to  be 

prescribed  by  the  State  commissioner  of  health,  a  permanent  record 

of  each  permit  issued  by  the  State  commissioner  of  health  granting 

IBB  152--05  M ^9 


i*  LAWS  FOBB.DDING   U^LAND-WATEB   POLLCTIOK        [v  ,- 

™m.n..,ons  of  .„y  pmn,».  Wldix, .  J».p.  f.„„„.  ^a.  ind^,!, 
Mablishment,  process,  or  ^*wag^.  sTr^t-m. 

Sec.  79c.  Vlohitiom:  utrri^^,  ,,f  „,,?;,  -  „,./■,.  -  i     j      ,  , 

The  local  Ixjard  of  health  <.f  «,,i,  n.uLKij«ilirr  >hall  promptly  a^v 

Uin  every  violatum  of  .^  ii.,u(v.i-j.]:a;„<e  with  anv  of  the  proviM.iw 

of  this  act  or  of  th^  p^rn.n^  f..r  iLe  dwliam-  of  *wage  or  ref.w  cr 

waste  material  lU.-  aiy  ..f  iV-  Traiei-  ..f  xi.e  Sute  herein  provide-i 

whi.h  may  ,«rur  ^r.L.i   ma:  iiiuu.- j^Iirr.    The  board  of  health 

shall.  ..!,  liif  .■:s"<.v<.T^  .,:  ^v.-n-  ri„]„n..L  of  ,«■  n.«compliance  with 

ai.\  ..f  -.tK-  jin-x-NKtit-  .I-!  -iLi-  B'l  (n  i.f  aLT  jieniiit  .July  issued.  j*rve  a 

«r;ii<n.  urn  in  oi.  tin  i>"Xii  n:  ••iiri»(»raT)0L  re-j«.i:-it»le  for  the  viola- 

ii.ii   or  ii.iiinmii.iiai.-    U'jj^-v.rc  ^   i  t  n.j.j  ..f  this  act  and  of  the 

jwTii.n.  .:  :ii  >   ■>■'•::."■     "     -  •■u^pUe,i  w::i.  ^»^ifying  the  partici;- 

hv.  i,n.v>,.r  «■  u.  -     !■  ■'•'='""n'P''«I  "-fth.aud  stipulating  the 

I'-..!'"    .     ■  -     •''  ^T'^ation  or  nonainipliance  miht 

r-..-,^      !         ■         ~     -    "■  ■•■•'  -f-p'il^teil  length  of  time  the  rio 

,^..  -  ~  ...  < ...  .•.T.tmue.  the  board  of  health  sl.all 

^  .         .,        .        .    :  -:.  c.-..o.phantv  to  the  State  roranii- 

,  :     r    ..-  :rve  s  hearing-  to  and  take  the 

-  ~     •  -*■•   '  '  •  ''■■'■^.  '"'"'ation  or  noncompliai..v 

=     "'■•-   ■"  -''^  *  "olation  or  noncmi 

..     :      :.-   -nry  the  fact  to  the  board  ..f 

—  ^^     ■■■'        '• -^'*      —-'^'■aKv  bring  an  actio.. 

,         ..      c<.i.    >  tnerl  m  the  coiintv  wheivir. 

,^^   _->.  .-<  ■■>!  rerv<t  ..r  a»rporation  res,>.n 

^  . .    :.  .:.'ii.    ■  ac.v  t'.>r  the  recoverv  of  the 

:i.  c .  Q  airiest  the  wntiniiatioii  of 


^^;.ii    Hi"  ill}  .>t  die  waters  of  the  State 


ODBLL.]  SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTBICTIONS — NEW    YORK.  131 

ithout  a  duly  issued  permit  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this 

ct  shall  be  five  himdred  dollars,  and  a  further  penalty  of  fifty 

ollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.    The  pen- 

Uy  for  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any   public  sewer  system 

ito  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  without  filing  a  report  for*which 

report  is  required  to  be  filed  with  the  board  of  health  of  the  mu- 

icipality  shall  be  fifty  dollars.     The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 

efuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial 

stablishment  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this  act  without  such 

>ermit  shall  be  one  hundred  dollars  and  ten  dollars  a  day  for  each 

lay  the  offence  is  maintained.     The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 

•efuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  shop,  mill,  factory,  or  industrial 

'Stablishment  without  filing  a  report  where  a  report  is  required  by 

his  act  to  be  filed  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and  five  dollars  per  day 

for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.    The  penalty  for  discharging 

nto  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  any  other  matter  prohibited  by 

his  act  Ix^sides  that  specified  above  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and 

five  dollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained. 

Sec.  2.  Common-law  rights  not  ajfer-ted. — Nothing  in  this  act  shall 
be  construed  to  diminish  or  otherwise  to  modify  the  common-law 
rights  of  riparian  owners  in  the  quality  of  waters  of  streams  covered 
by  such  rights,  nor  in  the  case  of  actions  brought  against  the  pollu- 
tion of  waters  to  limit  their  remedy  to  indemnities. 
Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 

[Laws  of  1905,  chap.  454.1 

AN  ACT  regulating  the  sanitary  condition  of  bathing  establishments,  and  amending 
section  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five  of  the  general  public  health 
laws,  ns  amended  by  the  laws  of  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-three :  being  renum- 
bered by  the  laws  of  nineteen  hundred,  chapter  six  hundred  and  sixty-seven  ;  number 
of  section  being  originally  two  hundred  and  two. 

Section  1.  Section  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five 
of  the  general  public  health  laws,  as  amended  by  the  laws  of  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety -three,  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows : 

§  212.  Reg^dating  the  sanitary  condition  of  bathing  establishments 
and  the  'preservation  of  life  at  bathing  places. — It  shall  be  unlawful 
for  any  person  to  maintain,  either  as  owner  or  lessee,  any  bathing 
♦establishment  of  any  kind,  in  this  state,  for  the  accommodation  of 
persons,  for  pay,  or  any  consideration,  at  a  point  less  than  five  hun- 
dred feet  from  any  sewer  connection  emptying  therein,  or  thereat,  so 
as  to  pollute  in  any  way,  the  waters  used  by  those  using  or  hiring 
bathing  houses  at  such  bathing  establishments;  it  shall  l)e  the  duty 
of  such  owner  or  le^ssee  to  provide  separate  toilet  rooms,  with  water- 
closets  properly  provided  with  sanitary  plumbing,  constructed  in  a 
manner  approved  by  the  local  board  of  health  and  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  contaminate  the  waters  used  bv  the  bathers:    it  shall  also  be 


130  LAWS   FOEBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

the  right  to  discharge  sewage  or  refuse  or  waste  matter  into  any  of 
the  waters  of  the  State  within  that  municipality  and  of  each  revoca- 
tion of  a  permit ;  and  also  a  permanent  record  of  each  report  receive*! 
by  the  board  of  health  concerning  each  sewer  system  and  each  shop* 
factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establishment  which  at  the  time  of  the  pas- 
sage of  this  act  was  discharging  sewage  or  refuse  or  waste  matter  into 
any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  within  that  municipality.  Each  local 
board  of  health  shall  make  and  maintain  such  inspection  as  will  at  all 
times  enable  it  to  determine  whether  this  act  is  being  complied  ^'ith 
in  respect  to  the  discharge  of  sewage,  refuse,  or  waste  matter  or  other 
materials  prohibited  by  this  act  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State 
within  that  municipality.  For  the  purpose  of  such  inspection  every 
member  of  such  board  of  health,  or  its  health  oflScers,  or  an\'  person 
duly  authorized  by  it,  shall  have  the  right  to  make  all  necessary 
examinations  of  any  premises,  building,  shop,  factory,  mill,  industrial 
establishment,  process,  or  sewage  system. 

Sec.  79c.  Violations;  service  of  notice;  actions  hy  local  hoards. — 
The  local  board  of  health  of  each  municipality  shall  promptly  ascer- 
tain every  violation  of  or  noncompliance  with  any  of  the  provisions 
of  this  act  or  of  the  permits  for  the  discharge  of  sewage  or  refuse  or 
waste  material  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  herein  provided 
which  may  occur  within  that  municipality.  The  board  of  health 
shall,  on  the  discovery  of  every  violation  of  or  noncompliance  with 
any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  or  of  any  permit  duly  issued,  serve  a 
written  notice  on  the  person  or  corporation  responsible  for  the  viola- 
tion or  noncompliance,  together  with  a  copy  of  this  act  and  of  the 
permit,  if  any,  violated  or  noncomplied  with,  specifying  the  particu- 
lar provision  being  violated  or  noncomplied  with,  and  stipulating  the 
length  of  time  within  which  the  violation  or  noncompliance  must 
cease.  If  at  the  expiration  of  the  stipulated  length  of  time  the  \'io- 
lation  or  noncompliance  shall  still  continue,  the  board  of  health  shall 
at  once  report  the  violation  and  noncompliance  to  the  State  commis- 
sioner of  health,  who  shall  at  once  give  a  hearing  to  and  take  the 
proof  of  the  persons  charged  with  such  violation  or  noncompliance 
and  investigate  the  matter,  and  if  he  finds  a  violation  or  noncom- 
pliance to  exist  he  shall  at  once  certify  the  fact  to  the  lK)ard  of 
health  of  the  municipality,  which  shall  immediately  bring  an  action 
in  a  court  of  record,  which  action  shall  l)e  tried  in  the  county  wherein 
the  cause  of  action  arose  against  the  person  or  corporation  resj>on- 
sible  for  the  violation  or  the  noncompliance  for  the  recovery  of  the 
penalties  incurred  and  for  an  injunction  against  the  continuation  of 
the  violation  or  the  noncompliance. 

Se(\  79d.  Penalties. — The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of  sewage 
from  any  public  sewer  system  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State 


«x>DKLL.]  SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   YORK.  131 

without  a  duly  issued  permit  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this 
act  shall  be  five  hundred  dollars,  and  a  further  penalty  of  fifty 
dollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  pen- 
alty for  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any  public  sewer  system 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  without  filing  a  report  fomvhich 
a  report  is  required  to  be  filed  with  the  board  of  health  of  the  mu- 
nicipality shall  be  fifty  dollars.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 
refuse  or  w^aste  matter  from  any  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial 
establishment  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this  act  without  such 
permit  shall  be  one  hundred  dollars  and  ten  dollars  a  day  for  each 
day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 
refuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  shop,  mill,  factory,  or  industrial 
establishment  without  filing  a  report  where  a  report  is  required  by 
this  act  to  l>e  filed  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and  five  dollars  per  day 
for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  penalty  for  discharging 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  any  other  matter  prohibited  by 
this  act  besides  that  specified  above  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and 
five  dollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained. 

Seg.  2.  Common-law  Hghts  not  affected, — Nothing  in  this  act  shall 
bo  construed  to  diminish  or  otherwise  to  modify  the  common-law 
rights  of  riparian  owners  in  the  quality  of  waters  of  streams  covered 
by  such  rights,  nor  in  the  case  of  actions  brought  against  the  pollu- 
tion of  w^aters  to  limit  their  remedy  to  indemnities. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 

[Laws  of  1905,  chap.  454.] 

AN  ACT  regulating  the  sanitary  condition  of  bathing  entablishments,  and  amending 
Kectlon  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five  of  the  general  public  health 
lawH.  nn  amended  by  the  laws  of  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-three :  Tjelng  renum- 
bered by  the  laws  of  nineteen  hundred,  chapter  six  hundred  and  sixty-seven  ;  numlier 
of  section  being  originally  two  hundred  and  two. 

SEcmoN  1.  Section  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five 
of  the  general  public  health  laws,  as  amended  by  the  laws  of  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety-three,  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows: 

§  212.  Regulating  the  sanitary  condition  of  bathing  establishments 
ami  the  preservation  of  life  at  bathing  places. — It  shall  be  unlawful 
for  any  person  to  maintain,  either  as  owner  or  lessee,  any  bathing 
♦^tablishment  of  any  kind,  in  this  state,  for  the  accommodation  of 
persons,  for  pay,  or  any  consideration,  at  a  point  less  than  five  hun- 
dred feet  from  any  sewer  connection  emptying  therein,  or  thereat,  so 
as  to  i>ollute  in  any  way,  the  waters  used  by  those  using  or  hiring 
bathing  houses  at  such  bathing  establishments;  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  such  owmer  or  lessee  to  provide  separate  toilet  rooms,  with  water- 
closets  properly  provided  with  sanitary  plumbing,  constructed  in  a 
manner  approved  by  the  local  board  of  health  and  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  contaminate  the  waters  used  bv  the  bathers:    it  shall  also  be 


130  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER    POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

the  right  to  discharge  sewage  or  refuse  or  waste  matter  into  any  of 
the  waters  of  the  State  within  that  municipality  and  of  each  revoca- 
tion of  a  permit;  and  also  a  perananent  record  of  each  report  receiveil 
by  the  board  of  health  concerning  each  sewer  system  and  each  shop, 
factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establishment  which  at  the  time  of  the  pas- 
sage of  this  act  was  discharging  sewage  or  refuse  or  waste  matter  into 
any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  within  that  municipality.  Each  local 
board  of  health  shall  make  and  maintain  such  inspection  as  will  at  all 
times  enable  it  to  determine  whether  this  act  is  being  complied  with 
in  raspect  to  the  discharge  of  sewage,  refuse,  or  waste  matter  or  other 
materials  prohibited  by  this  act  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State 
within  that  municipality.  For  the  purpose  of  such  inspection  every 
member  of  such  board  of  health,  or  its  health  officers,  or  any  person 
duly  authorized  by  it,  shall  have  the  right  to  make  all  necessary 
examinations  of  any  premise^s,  building,  shop,  factory,  mill,  industrial 
establishment,  process,  or  sewage  system. 

Sec.  79c.  Violations;  serinee  of  notice;  acti&n^  by  local  boards, — 
The  local  board  of  health  of  each  municipality  shall  promptly  ascer- 
tain every  violation  of  or  noncompliance  with  any  of  the  provisions 
of  this  act  or  of  the  permits  for  the  discharge  of  sewage  or  refuse  or 
waste  material  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  herein  provided 
which  may  occur  within  that  municipality.  The  board  of  health 
shall,  on  the  discovery  of  every  violation  of  or  noncompliance  with 
any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  or  of  any  permit  duly  issued,  serve  a 
written  notice  on  the  person  or  corporation  responsible  for  the  viola- 
tion or  noncompliance,  together  with  a  copy  of  this  act  and  of  the 
permit,  if  any,  violated  or  noncomplied  with,  specifying  the  particu- 
lar provision  being  violated  or  noncomplied  with,  and  stipulating  the 
length  of  time  within  which  the  violation  or  noncompliance  must 
cease.  If  at  the  expiration  of  the  stipulated  length  of  time  the  vio- 
lation or  noncompliance  shall  still  continue,  the  board  of  heiilth  shall 
at  once  report  the  violation  and  noncompliance  to  the  State  commis- 
sioner of  health,  who  shall  at  once  give  a  hearing  to  and  take  the 
proof  of  the  persons  charged  with  such  violation  or  noncompliance 
and  investigate  the  matter,  and  if  he  finds  a  violation  or  noncom- 
pliance to  exist  he  shall  at  once  certify  the  fact  to  the  board  of 
health  of  the  municipality,  which  shall  immediately  bring  an  action 
in  a  court  of  record,  which  action  shall  be  tried  in  the  county  wherein 
the  cause  of  action  arose  against  the  person  or  corporation  respon- 
sible for  the  violation  or  the  noncompliance  for  the  recovery  of  the 
penalties  incurred  and  for  an  injunction  against  the  continuation  of 
the  violation  or  the  noncompliance. 

Sec.  79d.  Penalties. — The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of  sewage 
from  any  })ublic  sewer  system  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State 


G4iODELL.l  SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   YORK.  131 

without  a  duly  issued  permit  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this 
act  shall  be  five  hundred  dollars,  and  a  further  penalty  of  fifty 
dollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  pen- 
alty for  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any  public  sewer  system 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  without  filing  a  report  fornvhich 
a  report  is  required  to  be  filed  with  the  board  of  health  of  the  mu- 
nicipality shall  be  fifty  dollars.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 
refuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial 
establishment  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this  act  without  such 
pennit  shall  be  one  hundred  dollars  and  ten  dollars  a  day  for  each 
day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 
refuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  shop,  mill,  factory,  or  industrial 
establishment  without  filing  a  report  where  a  report  is  required  by 
this  act  to  be  filed  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and  five  dollars  per  day 
for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  penalty  for  discharging 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  any  other  matter  prohibited  by 
this  act  besides  that  specified  above  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and 
five  dollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained. 

Sec.  2.  Common-ldw  rights  not  aflerted, — Nothing  in  this  act  shall 
be  construed  to  diminish  or  otherwise  to  modify  the  common-law 
rights  of  riparian  owners  in  the  quality  of  waters  of  streams  covered 
by  such  rights,  nor  in  the  case  of  actions  brought  against  the  pollu- 
tion of  waters  to  limit  their  remedy  to  indemnities. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 

[Laws  of  1905,  chap.  454.] 

AN  ACT  regulating  the  sanitary  condition  of  bathing  establishments,  and  amending 
Keotlon  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five  of  the  generai  public  health 
law.s.  as  amended  by  the  laws  of  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-three;  being  renum- 
l)ered  by  the  laws  of  nineteen  hundred,  chapter  six  hundred  and  sixty-seven ;  number 
of  section  being  originally  two  hundred  and  two. 

Section  1.  Section  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five 
of  the  general  public  health  laws,  as  amended  by  the  laws  of  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety-three,  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows: 

§  212.  Regulating  the  sanitary  condition  of  bathing  establishments 
and  the  preservation  of  life  at  bathing  places. — It  shall  be  unlawful 
for  any  person  to  maintain,  either  as  owner  or  lessee,  any  bathing 
t^tablishment  of  any  kind,  in  this  state,  for  the  accommodation  of 
persons,  for  pay,  or  any  consideration,  at  a  point  less  than  five  hun- 
dred feet  from  any  sewer  connection  emptying  therein,  or  thereat,  so 
a.s  to  pollute  in  any  w^ay,  the  waters  used  by  those  using  or  hiring 
bathing  houses  at  such  bathing  establishments;  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  such  owner  or  lessee  to  provide  separate  toilet  rooms,  with  wat^r- 
rlosets  properly  provided  with  sanitary  plumbing,  constructed  in  a 
manner  approved  by  the  local  board  of  health  and  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  contaminate  the  waters  used  bv  the  bathers:    it  shall  also  be 


130  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER    POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

the  right  to  discharge  sewage  or  refuse  or  waste  matter  into  any  of 
the  waters  of  the  State  within  that  municipality  and  of  each  revoca- 
tion of  a  permit ;  and  also  a  permanent  record  of  each  report  receivetl 
by  the  board  of  health  concerning  each  sewer  system  and  each  shop, 
factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establishment  which  at  the  time  of  the  pas- 
sage of  this  act  was  discharging  sewage  or  refuse  or  waste  matter  into 
any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  within  that  municipality.  Each  local 
board  of  health  shall  make  and  maintain  such  inspection  as  will  at  all 
times  enable  it  to  determine  whether  this  act  is  being  complied  with 
in  respect  to  the  discharge  of  sewage,  refuse,  or  waste  matter  or  other 
materials  prohibited  by  this  act  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State 
within  that  municipality.  For  the  purpose  of  such  inspection  every 
member  of  such  board  of  health,  or  its  health  officers,  or  any  person 
duly  authorized  by  it,  shall  have  the  right  to  make  all  necessary 
examinations  of  any  premises,  building,  shop,  factory,  mill,  industrial 
establishment,  process,  or  sewage  system. 

Sec.  79c.  Vwlations;  service  of  notice;  action's  hy  local  hoards. — 
The  local  board  of  health  of  each  municipality  shall  promptly  ascer- 
tain every  violation  of  or  noncompliance  with  any  of  the  provisions 
of  this  act  or  of  the  permits  for  the  discharge  of  sewage  or  refuse  or 
waste  material  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  herein  provided 
which  may  occur  within  that  municipality.  The  board  of  health 
shall,  on  the  discovery  of  every  violation  of  or  noncompliance  ^ivith 
an}'  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  or  of  any  permit  duly  issued,  serve  a 
written  notice  on  the  person  or  corporation  responsible  for  the  viola- 
tion or  noncompliance,  together  with  a  copy  of  this  act  and  of  the 
permit,  if  any,  violated  or  noncomplied  with,  specifying  the  particu- 
lar provision  being  violated  or  noncomplied  with,  and  stipulating  the 
length  of  time  within  which  the  violation  or  noncompliance  must 
cease.  If  at  the  expiration  of  the  stipulated  length  of  time  the  vio- 
lation or  noncompliance  shall  still  continue,  the  board  of  he«ilth  shall 
at  once  report  the  violation  and  noncompliance  to  the  State  con^mis- 
sioner  of  health,  who  shall  at  once  give  a  hearing  to  and  take  the 
proof  of  the  persons  charged  with  such  violation  or  noncompliance 
and  investigate  the  matter,  and  if  he  finds  a  ^^olation  or  noncom- 
pliance to  exist  he  shall  at  once  certify  the  fact  to  the  board  of 
health  of  the  municipality,  which  shall  immediately  bring  an  action 
in  a  court  of  record,  which  action  shall  be  tried  in  the  county  wherein 
the  cause  of  action  arose  against  the  person  or  corporation  respon- 
sible for  the  violation  or  the  noncompliance  for  the  recovery  of  the 
penalties  incurred  and  for  an  injunction  against  the  continuation  of 
the  violation  or  the  noncompliance. 

Sec.  70d.  Penalties. — The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of  se^*a^ 
from  any  public  sewer  system  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State 


GOODELL.1  SEVERE   STATUTE   BESTRICTIONS — NEW    YORK.  131 

without  a  duly  issued  permit  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this 
act  shall  be  five  hundred  dollars,  and  a  further  penalty  of  fifty 
dollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  pen- 
ahy  for  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any  public  sewer  system 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  without  filing  a  report  for*which 
a  report  is  required  to  be  filed  with  the  board  of  health  of  the  mu- 
nicipality shall  be  fifty  dollars.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 
refuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial 
establishment  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this  act  without  such 
permit  shall  be  one  hundred  dollars  and  ten  dollars  a  day  for  each 
day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 
refuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  shop,  mill,  factory,  or  industrial 
establishment  without  filing  a  report  where  a  report  is  required  by 
this  act  to  be  filed  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and  five  dollars  per  day 
for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  penalty  for  discharging 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  B,ny  other  matter  prohibited  by 
this  act  besides  that  specified  above  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and 
five  dollars  per  day  for  each  daj'-  the  offence  is  maintained. 

Seg.  2.  Common-law  rights  not  affected, — Nothing  in  this  act  shall 
bo  construed  to  diminish  or  otherwise  to  modify  the  common-law 
rights  of  riparian  owners  in  the  quality  of  w^aters  of  sti'eams  covered 
by  such  rights,  nor  in  the  case  of  actions  brought  against  the  pollu- 
tion of  waters  to  limit  their  remedy  to  indemnities. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 

[Laws  of  1905,  chap.  4r)4.1 

AN  ACT  regulating  the  sanitary  condition  of  bathing  establishments,  and  amending 
section  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five  of  the  general  public  health 
laws,  as  amended  by  the  laws  of  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-three ;  being  renum- 
bered by  the  laws  of  nineteen  hundred,  chapter  six  hundred  and  sixty-seven ;  number 
of  section  being  originally  two  hundred  and  two. 

Section  1.  Section  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five 
of  the  general  public  health  laws,  as  amended  by  the  law^s  of  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety-three,  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows : 

§  212.  Regvlating  the  mnitary  condition  of  bathing  establishments 
and  the  preservation  of  life  at  bathing  places. — It  shall  be  unlawful 
for  any  person  to  maintain,  either  as  owner  or  lessee,  any  bathing 
establishment  of  any  kind,  in  this  state,  for  the  accommodation  of 
persons,  for  pay,  or  any  consideration,  at  a  point  less  than  five  hun- 
dred feet  from  any  sewer  connection  emptying  therein,  or  thereat,  so 
as  to  pollute  in  any  way,  the  w^aters  used  by  those  using  or  hiring 
bathing  houses  at  such  bathing  establishments;  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  such  ow^ner  or  lessee  to  provide  separate  toilet  rooms,  w  ith  water- 
closets  properly  provided  with  sanitary  plumbing,  constructed  in  a 
manner  approved  by  the  local  board  of  health  and  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  contaminate  the  waters  used  bv  the  bathers:    it  shall  also  be 


130  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER    POLLUTION.  I  No.  152. 

the  right  to  discharge  sewage  or  refuse  or  waste  matter  into  any  of 
the  waters  of  the  State  within  that  municipality  and  of  each  revoca- 
tion of  a  permit;  and  also  a  perjnanent  record  of  each  report  receive<l 
by  the  board  of  health  concerning  each  sewer  system  and  each  shop, 
factory,  mill,  or  industrial  establishment  which  at  the  time  of  the  pas- 
sage of  this  act  was  discharging  sewage  or  refuse  or  waste  matter  into 
any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  within  that  municipality.  Each  local 
board  of  health  shall  make  and  maintain  such  inspection  as  will  at  all 
times  enable  it  to  determine  whether  this  act  is  being  complied  with 
in  respect  to  the  discharge  of  sewage,  refuse,  or  waste  matter  or  other 
materials  prohibited  by  this  act  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State 
within  that  municipality.  For  the  purpose  of  such  inspection  every 
member  of  such  board  of  health,  or  its  health  oflBcers,  or  any  person 
duly  authorized  by  it,  shall  have  the  right  to  make  all  necessary 
examinations  of  any  premises,  building,  shop,  factory,  mill,  industrial 
establishment,  process,  or  sewage  system. 

Sec.  79c.  Violations;  sennce  of  notice;  actions  hy  local  hoards, — 
The  local  board  of  health  of  each  municipality  shall  promptly  ascer- 
tain every  violation  of  or  noncompliance  with  any  of  the  provisions 
of  this  act  or  of  the  permits  for  the  discharge  of  sewage  or  refuse  or 
waste  material  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  herein  provided 
which  may  occur  within  that  municipality.  The  board  of  health 
shall,  on  the  discovery  of  every  violation  of  or  noncompliance  with 
any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  or  of  any  permit  duly  issued,  serve  a 
written  notice  on  the  person  or  corporation  responsible  for  the  viola- 
tion or  noncompliance,  together  with  a  copy  of  this  act  and  of  the 
permit,  if  an}^,  violated  or  noncomplied  with,  specifying  the  particu- 
lar provision  being  violated  or  noncomplied  with,  and  stipulating  the 
length  of  time  within  which  the  violation  or  noncompliance  must 
cease.  If  at  the  expiration  of  the  stipulated  length  of  time  the  \Tio- 
lation  or  noncompliance  shall  still  continue,  the  board  of  health  shall 
at  once  report  the  violation  and  noncompliance  to  the  State  commis- 
sioner of  health,  who  shall  at  once  give  a  hearing  to  and  take  the 
proof  of  the  persons  charged  with  such  violation  or  noncompliance 
and  investigate  the  matter,  and  if  he  finds  a  violation  or  noncom- 
pliance to  exist  he  shall  at  once  certify  the  fact  to  the  board  of 
health  of  the  municipality,  which  shall  immediately  bring  an  action 
in  a  court  of  record,  which  action  shall  be  tried  in  the  county  wherein 
the  cause  of  action  arose  against  the  person  or  corporation  respon- 
sible for  the  violation  or  the  noncompliance  for  the  recovery  of  the 
penalties  incurred  and  for  an  injunction  against  the  continuation  of 
the  violation  or  the  noncompliance. 

Sec.  79d.  Penalties. — The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of  sewag*^ 
from  any  i)ublic  sewer  system  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State 


rHiODELL.]  SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — NEW   YORK.  131 

without  a  duly  issued  permit  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this 
act  shall  be  five  hundred  dollars,  and  a  further  penalty  of  fifty 
dollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  pen- 
alty for  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any  public  sewer  system 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  without  filing  a  report  for-which 
a  report  is  required  to  be  filed  with  the  board  of  health  of  the  mu- 
nicipality shall  be  fifty  dollars.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 
refuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  shop,  factory,  mill,  or  industrial 
establishment  for  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this  act  without  such 
permit  shall  be  one  hundred  dollars  and  ten  dollars  a  day  for  each 
day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of 
refuse  or  waste  matter  from  any  shop,  mill,  factory,  or  industrial 
establishment  without  filing  a  report  where  a  report  is  required  by 
this  act  to  l)e  filed  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and  five  dollars  per  day 
for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained.  The  penalty  for  discharging 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  any  other  matter  prohibited  by 
this  act  besides  that  specified  above  shall  be  twenty-five  dollars  and 
five  dollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offence  is  maintained. 

Sec.  2.  Common-law  7*i(jht8  not  affected, — Nothing  in  this  act  shall 
be  construed  to  diminish  or  otherwise  to  modify  the  common-law 
rights  of  riparian  owners  in  the  quality  of  waters  of  streams  covered 
by  such  rights,  nor  in  the  case  of  actions  brought  against  the  pollu- 
tion of  waters  to  limit  their  remedy  to  indemnities. 

Sec.  3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 

[Laws  of  1905,  chap.  454.] 

AN  ACT  regulating  the  sanitary  condition  of  bathing  establishments,  and  amending 
Hection  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five  of  the  general  public  health 
laws,  ns  amended  by  the  laws  of  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-three ;  being  renum- 
bered by  the  laws  of  nineteen  hundred,  chapter  six  hundred  and  sixty-seven  ;  number 
of  section  being  originally  two  hundred  and  two. 

Section  1.  Section  two  hundred  and  twelve  of  chapter  twenty-five 
of  the  general  public  health  laws,  as  amended  by  the  laws  of  eighteen 
hundred  and  ninety-three,  is  hereby  amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows : 

§  212.  Regulating  the  sanitary  condition  of  bathing  eHtahlishments 
and  the  preservation  of  life  at  bathitig  places. — It  shall  be  unlawful 
for  any  person  to  maintain,  either  as  owner  or  lessee,  any  bathing 
establishment  of  any  kind,  in  this  state,  for  the  accommodation  of 
persons,  for  pay,  or  any  consideration,  at  a  point  less  than  five  hun- 
dred feet  from  any  sewer  connection  emptying  therein,  or  thereat,  so 
as  to  pollute  in  any  way,  the  w^aters  used  by  those  using  or  hiring 
bathing  houses  at  such  bathing  establishments;  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  such  owner  or  lessee  to  provide  separate  toilet  rooms,  with  water- 
closets  properly  provided  with  sanitary  plumbing,  constructed  in  a 
manner  approved  by  the  local  board  of  health  and  in  such  a  way  as 
not  to  contaminate  the  waters  used  by  the  bathers:    it  shall  also  be 


132  LAWS   FORBIDDING    INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  132. 

the  duty  of  such  owner  or  lessee  to  thoroughly  wash  and  disinfect,  or 
cause  to  be  thoroughly  washed  and  disinfected,  in  a  manner  approver! 
by  the  local  board  of  health,  all  bathing  suits  that  have  been  hired  or 
used,  before  rehiring  or  permitting  the  use  of  the  same  again.  Any 
persoi^or  persons  violating  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall 
forfeit  and  pay  a  penalty  of  not  less  than  fifty  dollars  nor  inor*» 
than  two  hundred  dollars  to  be  recovered  by  the  sheriff  of  the 
county  in  which  such  violation  is  committed,  except  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  when  the  penalty  shall  be  sued  for  in  the  name  of  the 
department  of  health  of  the  city  of  New  York  and  collected  by  it. 
It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  sheriffs  and  constables  of  the  several  coun- 
ties of  this  State  abutting  upon  the  seashore,  to  see  that  in  their 
respective  counties  the  provisions  of  this  section  are  enforced,  and  to 
bring  suit  for  the  recovery  of  the  penalty  therein  provided,  unle>> 
some  other  person  had  already  -brought  suit  for  the  same.  A  sepa- 
rate penalty  may  be  rec^overed  for  each  day  that  any  person  subject 
to  the  provisions  of  this  section  may  violate  any  of  the  provisions  t>f 
the  same;  but  no  penalty  shall  be  recovered  for  any  other  violation 
thereof  than  shall  have  occurred  during  the  days  when  the  owner  or 
lessee,  or  other  person  or  persons,  maintaining  the  said  bathing  estal>- 
lishments,  shall  have  kept  the  same  open  for  the  use  of  the  public,  or 
for  such  persons  as  may  be  the  guests  of  any  hotel  that  such  bathing 
establishments  may  be  connected  with.  The  owner  of  a  bathing 
house  shall  not  be  subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  section  when  it  is 
used,  occupied  or  maintained  by  a  lessee  for  hire,  but  such  le^^sot* 
shall  be  deemed  the  keeper  or  proprietor  or  person  or  persons  main- 
taining such  bathing  establishment  thereof.  Nothing  in  this  section 
shall  be  construed,  in  any  to  affect  any  bathing  establishments,  in  any 
city  or  municipality,  at  which  there  is  maintained  at  public  expense  a 
life-saving  guard. 

§  2.  This  act  shall  take  effect  the  first  day  of  June,  nineteen  hun- 
dred and  five. 

Approved,  May  IG,  1005. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

[Pepper  ami  Ijewls  Diju^est,  Supplement,  p.  98.] 

Burial.  Sec.  7. — Pollution  of  water  by  use  of  land  for  burial  pur- 
poses prohibited. — That  it  shall  be  unlawful  to  use  for  the  burial  of 
the  dead  any  land  the  drainage  from  which  passes  into  any  stream 
furnishing  the  whole  or  any  portion  of  the  water  supply  of  any  city, 
except  beyond  the  distance  of  one  mile  from  such  city :  Provided ^  hotr- 
erery  That  the  prohibitions  of  this  act  shall  not  be  enforceable  against 
any  land  now  devoted  to  burial  purposes  in  which  there  shall  have 
heretofore  been  burials  and  sales  of  burial  lots. 

NiTisANCES.     Same,  col.  253. 


oooDELL.]       SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — PENNSYLVANIA.  133 

Sec.  27. — Penalty  for  pollution  of  water  used  for  drinking  pur- 
poses,— Any  person  who  shall  wilfully  enter  upon  the  enelcsed  land 
of  any  company  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  this  Commonwealth 
for  the  purpose  of  supplying  water  to  the  public  for  drinking  pur- 
poses, oii  which  land  is  erected  any  dam,  reservoir,  [X)nd,  or  other 
artificial  means  for  storing  water,  and  pollute  or  attempt  to  pollute 
the  water  on  such  land,  shall  l)e  deemed,  and  the  same  is  hereby 
declared  to  be,  a  misdemeanor,  and  may  be  prosecuted  and  convicted 
as  such  under  the  laws  of  this  Connnonwealth,  and  (m  conviction 
thereof  in  the  court  of  quarter  sessions  of  the  proj^er  county  shall  Ijfe 
fined  not  exceeding  fifty  dollars,  and  imprisoned  not  exceeding  sixty 
days. 

Sec.  28. — Offender  to  he  arrested  on  rien\ — That  any  duly  consti- 
tuted watchman  of  any  such  water  company,  or  any  constable  or 
policeman,  is  hereby  authorized  and  empowered,  upon  his  own  view 
of  any  such  trespass,  to  make  arrests  and  bring  before  any  alderman 
or  magistrate  of  the  proper  county  offenders  found  violating  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act. 

[I.ftWB  of  1905,   No.   182.1 

AX  ACT  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  waterH  of  tho  State,  for  the  i>rotection 

of  the  publh-  health. 

Sec.  1.  Be  it  enacted,  rfv'.,  That  the  term  "  waters  of  the  State," 
wherever  used  in  this  act,  shall  include  all  streams  and  springs,  and 
all  bodies  of  surface  and  of  ground  water,  whether  natural  or  arti- 
ficial, within  the  boundaries  of  the  State. 

Sec.  2.  Every  municipal  corporation,  private  corporation,  com- 
pany, and  individual  supplying  or  authorized  to  supply  water  to  the 
public,  within  the  State,  shall,  within  sixty  days  after  the  passage  of 
this  act,  file  with  the  commissioner  of  health  a  certified  copy  of  the 
plans  and  surveys  of  the  waterworks,  with  a  description  of  the 
source  from  which  the  supply  of  water  is  derived ;  and  no  additional 
source  of  supply  shall  thereafter  l)e  used  without  a  written  permit 
from  the  commissioner  of  health,  as  hereinafter  provided. 

Sec.' 3.  No  municipal  corjjoration,  private  corporation,  company, 
or  individual  shall  construct  w^aterworks  for  the  supply  of  water  to 
the  public  within  the  State,  or  extend  the  same,  without  a  w^ritten 
permit,  to  be  obtained  from  the  commissioner  of  health,  if,  in  his 
judgment,  the  proposed  source  of  supply  api)ears  to  be  not  prejudicial 
to  the  public  health.  The  application  for  such  permit  must  be  ac- 
companied by  a  certified  copy  of  the  plans  and  surveys  for  such  water- 
works, or  extension  thereof,  with  a  description  of  the  source  from 
which  it  is  proposed  to  derive  the  supply;  and  no  additional  source 
of  supply  shall  subsequently  be  us<h1  for  any  such  waterworks  with- 


134  LAWS   FORBIDDING    INI^AND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152. 

out  a  similar  permit  from  the  commissioner  of  health.  '\Mien  applica- 
tion shall  be  made  for  a  permit  uitder  either  of  the  above  provision^ 
of  this  section,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  commissioner  to  proceed  to 
examine  the  application  without  delay,  and,  as  soon  as  possible,  h<* 
shall  make  a  decision,  in  writing;  and,  within  thirty  days  after  such 
decision,  the  corporation,  company,  or  individual  making  such  appli- 
cation may  appeal  to  any  court  of  common  pleas  of  the  county,  and 
said  court  shall,  without  delay,  hear  the.  appeal,  and  shall  make  an 
order  approving,  setting  aside,  or  modifying  such  decision,  or  fixing 
the  terms  upon  which  said  permit  shall  be  granted.  The  penalty  for 
failure  to  file  copies  of  plans,  surve3's,  and  descriptions  of  existing 
waterworks  within  the  time  hereinbefore  fixed,  and  for  the  construc- 
tion or  extension  of  waterworks,  or  the  use  of  an  additional  source 
of  supply  without  a  permit  from  the  commissioner  of  health,  shall 
be  five  hundred  dollars,  and  further  penalty  of  fifty  dollars  per  day 
for  each  day  that  the  works  are  in  operation  contrary  to  the  pro- 
visions of  this  act,  recoverable  by  the  Commonwealth,  at  the  suit  of 
the  commissioner  of  health,  as  debts  of  like  amount  are  recoverable 
by  law. 

Sec.  4.  No  person,  corporation,  or  municipality  shall  place,  or  j^er- 
mit  to  be  placed,  or  discharge,  or  permit  to  flow  into  any  of  the 
waters  of  the  State,  any  sewage,  except  as  hereinafter  provided.  But 
this  act  shall  not  apply  to  waters  pumped  or  flowing  from  coal  mines 
or  tanneries,  nor  prevent  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any  public 
sewer  system,  owned  and  maintained  by  a  municipality-,  provided 
such  sewer  system  was  in  operation  and  was  discharging  sewage  into 
any  waters  of  the  State  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act.  But 
this  exception  shall  not  permit  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  the 
sewer  system  which  shall  be  extended  subsequent  to  the  passage  uf 
this  act. 

For  the  purpose  of  tliis  act,  stowage  shall  be  defined  as  any  substanw 
that  contains  any  of  the  waste  products,  or  excrementitious  or  other 
discharges  from  the  bodies  of  human  beings  or  animals. 

Sec.  5.  Upon  application  duly  made  to  the  commissioner  of  health, 
by  the  public  authorities  having  by  law  the  charge  of  the  sewer  sys- 
tem of  any  municipality,  the  governor  of  the  State,  the  attorney -gen- 
eral, and  the  commissioner  of  health  shall  consider  the  case  of  such 
a  sewer  system,  otherwise  prohibited  by  this  act  from  discharging 
sewage  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State,  and,  whenever  it  is  their 
unanimous  opinion  that  the  general  interests  of  the  public  health 
would  be  subserved  thereby,  the  commissioner  of  health  may  issue 
a  permit  for  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any  such  sewer  system 
into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State,  and  may  stipulate  in  the  permit 
the  conditions  on  which  such  discharge  may  be  permitted.     Such  per- 


«ooDELL.]       SEVERE   STATUTE    RESTRICTIONS — PENNSYLVANIA.  135 

mit,  before  being  operative,  shall  be  recorded  in  the  office  of  the  re- 
corder of  deeds  for  the  county  wherein  the  outlet  of  the  said  sewer 
j^ystem  is  located.  Every  such  permit  for  the  discharge  of  sewage 
from  a  sewer  system  shall  be  revokable,  or  subject  to  modification  and 
change,  by  the  commissioner  of  health,  on  due  notice,  after  an  inves- 
tigation and  hearing,  and  an  opportunity  for  all  interested  therein  to 
be  heard  thereon  being  served  on  the  public  authorities  of  the  munic- 
ipality owning,  maintaining,  or  using  the  sewage  system.  The  length 
of  time  after  receipt  of  the  notice  within  which  the  discharge  of 
sewage  shall  be  discontinued  may  be  stated  in  the  permit,  but  in  no 
case  shall  it  be  less  than  one  year  or  exceed  two  years,  and  if  the 
length  of  time  is  not  specified  in  the  permit  it  shall  be  one  year.  On 
the  expiration  of  the  period  of  time  prescribed,  after  the  service  of  a 
notice  of  revocation,  modification,  or  change,  from  the  commissioner 
of  health,  the  right  to  discharge  sewage  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the 
State  shall  cease  and  terminate;  and  the  prohibition  of  this  act 
against  such  discharge  shall  be  in  full  force,  as  though  no  permit  had 
been  granted,  but  a  new  permit  may  thereafter  again  be  granted,  as 
hereinbefore  provided. 

Sec.  6.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  public  authorities  having  by 
law  charge  of  the  sewer  system  of  every  municipality  in  the  State 
from  which  sewage  was  being  discharged  into  any  of  the  waters  of 
the  State  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act,  to  file  with  the 
commissioner  of  health,  within  four  months  after  the  passage  of 
this  act,  a  report  of  such  sewer  system,  which  shall  comprise  such 
facts  and  information  as  the  commissioner  of  health  may  require. 
No  sewer  system  shall  be  exempt  from  the  provisions  of  this  act 
against  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  the  waters  of  the  State  for 
which  a  satisfactory  report  shall  not  be  filed  with  the  commissioner 
of  health  in  accordance  with  this  section. 

Sec.  7.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge  of  sewage  from  any  public 
sewer  system  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  without  a  duly 
issued  permit  in  any  case  in  which  a  permit  is  required  by  this  act 
shall  be  five  hundred  dollars,  and  a  further  penalty  of  fifty  dollars 
per  day  for  each  day  the  offense  is  maintained,  recoverable  by  the 
Commonwealth  at  the  suit  of  the  commissioner  of  health  as  debts  of 
like  amount  are  recoverable  by  law.  The  penalty  for  the  discharge 
of  sewage  from  any  public  sewer  system  into  any  of  the  waters  of 
the  State  without  filing  a  report,  in  any  case  in  which  a  report  is 
required  to  be  filed,  shall  be  fifty  dollars,  recoverable  by  a  like  suit. 

Sec.  8.  All  individuals,  private  corporations,  and  companies  that, 
at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act,  are  discharging  sewage  into 
any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  may  continue  to  discharge  such  sew- 
age imless,  in  the  opinion  of  the  commissioner  of  health,  the  discharge 


136  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  15i 

of  such  sewage  may  become  injurious  to  the  public  health.  If  at 
any  time  the  commissioner  of  health  considers  that  the  discharge  of 
such  sewage  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the  State  may  become  injurious 
to  the  public  health  he  may  order  the  discharge  of  such  sewa*re 
discontinued. 

Seg.  9.  Every  individual,  private  corporation,  or  company  shall 
discontinue  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  any  of  the  waters  of  the 
State  within  ten  days  after  having  been  so  ordered  by  the  commis- 
sioner of  health. 

Sec.  10.  Any  individual,  private  corporation,  or  company  that 
shall  discharge  sewage,  or  permit  the  same  to  flow,  into  the  waters 
of  the  State  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  deemed 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  upon  conviction  be  punished  by 
a  fine  of  twenty-five  dollars  for  each  offense  and  a  furtlier  fine  of 
five  dollars  per  day  for  each  day  the  offense  is  maintained,  or  by 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  month,  or  l>oth,  at  the  discretion  of 
the  court. 

Seg.  11.  Any  order  or  decision,  under  this  act,  of  the  commissioner 
of  health,  or  that  of  the  governor,  attorney-general,  and  commis- 
sioner of  health,  shall  be  subject  to  an  appeal  to  any  court  of  com- 
mon pleas  of  the  county  wherein  the  outlet  of  such  sewer  or  sewer 
system,  otherwise  prohibited  by  this  act,  is  situated;  and  said  court 
shall  have  power  to  hear  said  appeal,  and  may  afKrm  or  set  aside 
said  order  or  decision,  or  modify  the  same,  or  otherwise  fix  the  terms 
upon  which  permission  shall  be  granted.  But  the  order  or  decision 
appealed  from  shall  not  be  superseded  by  the  appeal,  but  shall  stand 
until  the  order  of  the  court,  as  above. 

Approved  the  22d  day  of  April,  A.  D.  1905* 

[Laws  of  1905.  No.  223.] 

AN  ACT  authorizing  and  empowering  cities,  owning  and  operating  waterworks 
systems,  to  enter,  by  any  of  its  employes,  uyyon  private  lands  through  which 
may  pass  any  stream  or  streams  of  water  supplying  such  cities,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  patrolling  the  drainage  area,  and  making  investigations  or  inquiries 
pertaining  to  the  condition  of  the  stream  or  streams,  sanitary  or  otherwise. 

Sec.  1.  Be  it  enacted^  cf^*..  That  any  city  owning  and  operating  a 
waterworks  system  is  hereby  authorized  and  empowered  to  enter,  by 
any  of  its  employes,  upon  private  lands  through  which  may  pas^ 
any  stream  or  streams  of  water  supplying  such  city,  for  the  purpose^ 
of  patrolling  the  drainage  area  of  such  stream  or  streams,  and  making 
investigations  or  inquiries  pertaining  to  the  condition  of  the  stream  or 
streams,  sanitary  or  otherwise;  Provided,  however.  That  any  injury 
or  damage  done  to  the  property  so  entered  upon  shall  be  paid  by  such 
city. 

Approved  the  2d  day  of  May,  A.  D.  1905. 


GOODELL.1  SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — VERMONT.  137 

VERMONT. 

[Statutes,  1804,  p.  842,  Preservation  of  public  health.] 

Sec.  4695.  If  any  person  puts  or  causes  to  be  put  a  dead  animal  or 
animal  substance  into  or  upon  the  bank  of  a  lake,  pond,  running 
stream,  or  spring  of  water  so  that  it  is  drawn  or  washed  into  the  same, 
and  suffers  it  to  remain  therein,  he  shall  be  fined  not  more  than  twenty 
dollars  and  not  less  than  five  dollars. 

[Laws  of  1898,  No.  150,  p.  115.] 

AX  ACT  In  amendment  of  act  No.  137  of  the  acts  of  1804,  relating  to  iK)Hut!on  of 
the  waters  of  Mlssisquol  River. 

It  «r  herehy  enacted  hy  the  general  assemhly  of  the  /State  of  Ver- 
mont: 

Section  1,  number  137,  of  the  public  acts  of  1894,  is  hereby 
amended  so  as  to  read  as  follows:  "A  person  owning  or  operating  a 
mill  who  shall  by  himself  or  his  agent  deposit  or  suffer  to  be  deposited 
any  sawdust,  shavings,  or  any  mill  refuse  in  the  waters  of  the  Missis- 
quoi  River  above  Enosburgh  Falls,  or  in  any  of  the  tributaries  of  said 
Missisquoi  River  above  Enosburgh  Falls,  shall  be  fined  not  less  than 
twenty  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars,  in  the  discretion 
of  the  court,  for  each  offence." 

Sec.  2.  This  act  shall  take  effect  from  March  1st,  1899.  Approved 
November  16th,  1898. 

rLftwfi  of   1902,   No.   115.   p.    144.1 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  poUution  of  the  sources  of  water  supply,  as  amended  by 

No.  141,  Laws  of  1904. 

It  is  hereby  enacted  hy  the  general  assembly  of  the  State  of  Ver- 
mont: 

Section  1.  The  State  board  of  health  shall  have  the  general  over- 
sight and  care  of  all  waters,  streams,  and  ponds  used  by  any  cities, 
towns,  villages,  or  public  institutions,  or  by  any  w^ater  or  ice  compa- 
nies in  this  State  as  sources  of  water  supply,  and  of  all  springs, 
streams,  and  water  courses,  tributary  thereto.  It  shall  Iiave  power  to 
call  for,  and  when  it  calls  for  it  shall  be  provided  with  maps,  plans, 
and  documents  suitable  for  such  purposes,  at  the  expense  of  such  city, 
town,  village,  public  in.stitution,  water  or  ice  company,  and  shall  keep 
records  of  all  its  transactions  relative  thereto. 

Said  board  shall  have  authority  to  prohibit  any  town,  city,  village, 
public  institution,  individual  or  water  or  ice  company  from  using 
water  or  ice  from  any  given  source  wh-.^never  in  its  opinion  the  same 
is  so  contaminated,  unwholesome  and  impure  that  the  use  thereof 
endangers  the  public  health.     And  the  court  of  dianc^ery  shall  have 


138  LAWS   FORBIDDING   INLAND-WATER   POLLUTION.  [So.  152. 

jurisdiction  and  power,  upon  application  therefor  by  the  State  boani 
of  health,  to  enforce  by  proper  order  and  decree  any  order,  rule  or 
regulation  which  said  board  may  make  under  and  by  virtue  of  thi- 
section. 

Sec.  2.  Said  board  may  cause  examinations  of  such  waters  to  he 
made  to  ascertain  the  purity  and  fitness  for  domestic  use,  or  their 
liability  to  impair  the  interests  of  the  public  or  of  persons  lawfully 
using  them  or  to  imperil  the  public  health.  It  may  make  rules  and 
regulations  to  prevent  the  pollution  and  to  secure  the  sanitary  pro- 
tection of  all  such  waters  as  are  used  as  sources  of  water  supply. 

Sec.  3.  The  publication  of  an  order,  rule,  or  regulation  made  by 
the  board  under  the  provisions  of  sec.  2  or  sec.  6  hereof,  in  the  news- 
paper of  any  town  or  village  in  which  such  order,  rule,  or  regulation 
is  to  take  effect,  or  if  no  newspaper  is  published  in  such  city,  town, 
or  village,  the  posting  of  a  copy  of  such  order,  rule,  or  regulation  in 
three  public  places  in  such  city,  town,  or  village,  shall  be  legal  notice 
to  all  persons,  and  an  affidavit  of  such  publication  or  posting  by  the 
pei-sons  causing  such  to  be  published  or  posted,  filed,  and  recorded 
with  a  copy  of  the  notice  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  such  city,  town, 
or  village  shall  lx»  admitted  as  evidence  of  the  time  at  which  and  the 
place  and  manner  in  which  the  notice  was  given. 

Sec.  4.  Said  board  shall  include  in  its  biennial  report  to  the  gen- 
eral assembly  its  doings  for  the  preceding  biennial  term,  and  shall 
recommend  measures  for  the  prevention  of  the  pollution  of  such 
waters  and  for  the  removal  of  polluting  substances  in  order  to  pn)- 
tect  and  develop  the  rights  and  property  of  the  State  therein,  and  to 
l^rotect  the  public  health,  and  shall  recommend  any  legislation  or 
plans  for  systems  of  main  sewers  necessary  for  the  preservation  of 
the  public  health  and  for  the  purification  and  prevention  of  ix)llution 
of  the  ponds,  streams,  and  waters  of  the  State.  It  shall 'also  giv»» 
notice  to  the  State's  attorney  for  the  county  wherein  any  violation  of 
the  law  relative  to  the  pollution  of  the  water  supplies  occurs.  It 
shall  have  the  power  to  employ  such  expert  assistants  as  it  considor> 
necessary. 

Sec.  5.  Cities,  towns,  villages,  and  persons  shall  submit  to  sjiid 
board  for  its  advice  their  proposed  systems  of  public  water  supply  or 
for  the  disposal  of  drainage  or  sewage.  Said  board  shall  consult 
with  and  advise  the  authorities  of  the  cities,  towns,  villages,  and 
persons  having  or  about  to  have  systems  of  public  water  supply, 
drainage,  or  sewage,  as  to  the  most  appropriate  sources  of  water 
supply,  and  the  Ix^st  methods  of  assuring  its  purity  or  as  to  the  Ix^st 
methods  of  disposing  of  their  drainage  or  sewage,  with  reference 
to  the  existing  and  future  needs  of  other  cities,  towns,  villages,  or 
persons  which  may  be  affected  thereby.  It  shall  also  consult  with 
and  advise  persons  engaged  or  intending  to  engage  in  any  manu- 


GOODELL.J  SEVERE   STATUTE   RESTRICTIONS — VERMONT.  189 

facturing  or  other  business  whose  drainage  or  sewage  may  tend  to 
pollute  any  water  or  source  of  water  supply  as  to  the  l)est  method 
of  preventing  such  pollution,  and  it  may  conduct  experiments  to 
determine  the  best  methods  of  purification  or  disposal  of  drainage 
or  sewage.  No  person  shall  be  required  to  bear  the  expense  of  such 
consultation,  advice,  or  experiments.  In  this  section  the  term 
'*. drainage  "  means  the  rainfall,  surface,  and  subsoil  water  only,  and 
"  sewage  "  means  domestic  and  manufacturing  filth  and  refuse. 

Sec.  6.  Upon  petition  to  said  board  by  the  mayor  of  a  city,  the 
selectmen  of  a  town,  the  trustee  or  bailiff  of  a  village,  the  managing 
board  or  officer  of  any  public  institution,  or  by  a  board  of  water  com- 
missioners, or  the  president  of  a  water  or  ice  company,  stating  that 
manure,  excrement,  garbage,  or  any  other  matter  is  polluting  or  tend- 
ing to  pollute  the  water  of  any  stream,  pond,  spring,  or  water  course 
used  by  such  city,  town,  village,  institution,  or  company  as  a  source 
of  water  supply,  the  board  shall  appoint  a  time  and  place  within  the 
county  where  the  nuisance  or  pollution  is  alleged  to  exist,  for  hear- 
ing, and  after  notice  thereof  to  parties  interested  and  a  hearing,  if  in 
its  judgment  the  public  health  so  requires,  shall,  by  an  order  served 
upon  the  party,  company,  or  premises  so  polluted,  prohibit  the  deposit, 
keeping,  or  discharge  of  any  such  cause  of  pollution,  and  shall  order 
him  to  desist  therefrom  and  to  remove  any  such  cause  of  pollution; 
but  the  board  shall  not  prohibit  the  cultivation  or  use  of  soil  in  the 
ordinary  methods  of  agriculture  if  no  human  excrement  is  used 
therefor. 

Said  board  shall  not  prohibit  the  use  of  any  structure  which  was  in 
*-xistence  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  act  upon  a  complaint 
made  by  the  board  of  water  commissioners  of  any  city,  town,  or  vil- 
lage, or, by  any  water  or  ice  company,  unless  such  board  of  water 
commissioners  or  company  files  with  the  State  board  a  vote  of  its  city 
council,  selectmen,  trustees,  or  bailiffs,  or  company,  respectively. 
that  such  city,  town,  village,  or  company  will,  at  its  own  expense, 
make  such  change  in  said  structure  or  its  location  as  said  board  shall 
deem  expedient.  Such  vote  shall  be  binding  on  such  city,  town, 
village,  or  company.  All  damages  caused  by  such  change  shall  be 
paid  by  such  city,  town,  village,  or  company,  and  if  the  parties  can 
not  agree  thereon  sucli  city,  town,  village,  or  company  shall  tender 
to  the  parties  sustaining  damages  such  a  sum  of  money  as  in  their 
judgment  is  a  reasonable  compensation  for  the  damages  sustained. 
Whoever  is  aggrieved  by  an  order  under  the  provisions  of  the  pre- 
ceding section,  or  with  the  sum  so  tendered  as  damages,  may  appeal 
therefrom  in  the  manner  provided  in  Vermont  statutes,  sec.  3314  to 
3317,  inclusive,  relating  to  highways.  But  the  notice  therein  pro- 
vided for  shall  be  served  on  the  party  or  parties  who  are  petitioners 
in  fact  under  section  6  of  this  act,  and  also  upon  the  State  board  of 


140  JiAWS    FORBIDDING    INLAND-WATER   POLLVTION.  {Xo.  15- 

health.  If  the  appeal  be  only  from  the  compensation  for  damage^, 
the  order  of  the  board  shall  be  complied  with  during  the  pendenc3'  of 
huch  appeal  unless  otherwise  authorized  by  said  lx)ard. 

Sec.  7.  The  court  of  chancery  shall  liave  jurisdiction  and  power. 
upoii  application  thereto  by  the  State  board  of  health  or  any  party 
interested,  to  enforce  its  orders,  or  the  orders,  rules,  and  regulation^ 
of  said  board  of  health,  and  to  restrain  the  use  or  occupation  of  the 
preniise^s  or  such  portion  thereof  as  said  board  may  specify,  on  which 
said  material  is  deposited  or  kept  or  such  other  cause  of  pollution  ex- 
ists, until  the  orders,  rules,  and  regulations  of  said  board  have  been 
complied  with. 

Seo.  8.  Said  board  of  health  may  by  itself,  its  servants  and  agents. 
(liter  any  building,  structure,  or  premises  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining whether  sources  of  pollution  or  danger  to  the  water  supply 
tliere  exist  and  whether  the  rules,  regulations,  and  orders  aforesaid 
sire  obeyed. 

Sec.  9.  Whoever  violates  any  rule,  regulation,  or  order  made  under 
the  provisions  of  section  2  or  section  6  of  this  act  shall  be  punislied 
for  each  oflFense  by  a  fine  of  not  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  to 
the  use  of  the  State,  or  by  imprisonment  for  not  moi'e  than  one  year, 
or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment. 

Sec.  10.  No  sewage,  drainage,  refuse,  or  polluting  matter  of  such 
i^ind  and  amount  as  either  by  itself  or  in  connection  with  other  matter 
will  corrupt  or  impair  the  quality  of  the  water  of  any  pond  or  stream 
used  as  a  vsource  of  ice  or  water  supply  by  a  city,  town,  village,  public 
institution,  or  water  company  for  domestic  use,  or  render  it  injurious 
to  health,  shall  be^  discharged  into  any  such  streams,  ponds,  or  upon 
their  banks. 

Sec.  12.«  The  court  of  chancery,  upon  the  application  of  a  mayor  of 
a  city,  the  selectmen  of  a  town,  the  trustees  or  bailiffs  of  an  incor- 
porated village,  the  managing  lx)ard  or  officer  of  a  public  institution, 
or  a  water  or  ice  company  interested,  shall  have  jurisdiction  in  equity 
to  enjoin  the  violation  of  the  provisions  of  section  10. 

Sec  18.  Whoever  wilfully  deposits  excrement  or  foul  or  decaying 
matter  in  water  which  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  domestic  water  sup- 
ply or  on  the  shore  thereof  within  five  rods  of  the  water  shall  be  pun- 
ished by  a  fine  of  not  more  than  fifty  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  for 
not  more  than  thirty  days;  and  a  constable  of  a  town  or  police  officer 
of  a  city  or  village  in  which  such  water  is  wholly  or  partially  situated 
may  act  within  the  limits  of  his  city  or  town,  and  any  executive  officer 
or  agent  of  a  water  board,  lx)ard  of  water  commissioners,  public  insti- 
tution, or  water  company  furnishing  water  or  ice  for  domestic  pur- 
poses, acting  upon  the  premises  of  such  board,  institution,  or  company, 

°  Section  1 1  repealed. 


«.o.»DELL.]  RIGHTS   OF   RIPARIAN    OWNERS.  141 

and  not  more  than  five  rods  from  the  water,  may  without  a  warrant 
arrest  any  person  found  in  the  act  of  violating  the  provisions  of  this 
secti<Mi  and  detain  him  until  complaint  may  be  made  against  him 
therefor.  But  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  not  interfere  with 
the  sewerage  of  a  city,  town,  village,  or  public  institution,  or  prevent 
the  enriching  of  land  for  agriculture  by  the  owner  or  occupant  thereof. 

Sec;.  14.  Each  member  of  the  State  board  of  health  shall  receive 
four  dollars  per  day  and  actual  expenses  while  in  tlie  discharge  of  the 
duties  imposed  by  this  act.  The  State  auditor  is  directed  to  draw  his 
order  on  the  State  treasurer  every  six  months  for  such  sums  as  are 
necessary  to  meet  the  exj^enses  of  said  board  under  the  provisions  of 
(his  act. 

Approved  December  12,  1902. 

GENERAL  UUJLE8. 

The  foregoing  compendium  of  common  and  statute  law  may  be 
summarized  and  stated  in  a  few  general  rules,  which  wiJl  perhaps  be 
useful  to  property  owners  and  also  to  officers  charged  with  the  duty 
o{  protecting  health  and  property  rights  in  watei-s. 

In  the  nature  of  the  case  these  rules  can  be  only  general,  and  many 
exigencies  will  appear  in  which  more  particular  instructions  must  be 
obtained  from  the  consuhation  of  text-books  and  decisions  or  from 
the  advice  of  counsel. 

I.  RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES  OF  RIPARIAN  OWNERS. 

Every  riparian  owner  has  the  right — 

1.  To  use  the  waters  of  streams,  navigable  or  otherwise,  which  flow 
across  or  along  his  property  for  the  ordinary  purposes  incidental  to 
domestic  life  and  agriculture,  including  grazing. 

2.  To  use  such  watere  for  water  power  and  for  all  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing purposes  which  do  not  sensibly  diminish  the  quantity  which 
flows  on  for  the  use  of  lower  proprietors  nor  change  the  quality  of 
the  waters  to  any  appreciable  extent,  nor  interfere  with  the  use  of 
the  stream,  if  navigable  by  the  public. 

3.  To  have  such  waters  flow  to  him  from  the  premises  of  higher 
proprietors  not  unreasonably  diminished  nor  diverted  nor  rendered 
impure  by  the  farming  or  domestic  uses  to  which  the  waters  are  sub- 
jected by  higher  proprietors. 

4.  To  have  such  waters  flow  to  him  not  sensibly  changed  in  quality 
by  any  manufacturing  or  other  uses  to  which  they  may  have  been 
])ut  by  higher  proprietors. 

5.  To  have  such  waters  flow  to  him  in  their  natural  bed,  unpolluted 
by  any  deposits  of  filth  or  any  other  substance  in  the  bed  or  channel 


142  LAWS    FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER   POLLUTION.  [No.  152.' 

previously  traversed  by  them.     But  3,  4,  and  5  do  not  apply  to 
riparian  owners  in  those  States  in  which  the  doctrine  of  prior  appro- 
priation is  the  law.     (See  pp.  21-23.) 
Convei'sely,  it  is  the  duty  of  every  riparian  owner — 

1.  To  so  guard  his  use  of  the  waters  of  streams  which  flow  across 
or  along  his  property  for  domestic  and  agricultural  purposes  as  not 
unreasonably  to  divert  nor  diminish  nor  render  impure  such  waters. 

2.  To  refrain  from  every  use  in  manufacturing  which  will  divert  or 
sensibly  diminish  the  quantity  of  the  waters  which  flow  onward  to 
the  lower  proprietors  or  render  them  appreciably  different  in  quality. 

3.  To  refrain  from  depositing  any  filth  or  other  substance  in  the 
l)ed  of  such  streams  in  such  a  manner  or  to  such  an  extent  as  will 
cause  the  waters  to  flow  to  the  lower  proprietors  out  of  their  natural 
bed  or  will  in  anywise  pollute  them  or  render  them  impure. 

Wliere  the  doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  is  in  forc*e  the  appro- 
priator  must  confine  his  use  of  the  appropriated  water  to  the  use  for 
Avhich  he  has  appropriated  it  and  take  only  so  much  as  is  reasonably 
necessary  to  accomplish  that  purpose.  He  may  not  pollute  the  stream 
wantonly,  nor  by  using  it  for  purposes  not  included  in  his  appropria- 
lion.  Subject  to  these  restrictions,  the  prior  appropriator  has  the 
right  to  divert  from  the  stream  and  use  as  much  of  the  water  as  is 
necessary  to  accomplish  the  purpos<^  for  which  it  was  appropriated. 

II.  RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES  OF  MUNICIPAL  CORPORATIONS. 

Considered  as  corporate  entities,  municipal  corporations  have  such 
I'ights  and  powers  only  as  are  conferred  upon  them  by  statute,  either 
expressly  or  by  necessary  implication. 

When,  uniler  due  authority,  they  l)ecome  the  owners  of  lakes,  reser- 
voirs, and  natural  streams,  they  have  the  same  rights  to  pure  water, 
and  are  charged  with  the  same  duties  as  are  other  riparian  pro- 
prietors. 

If  authorized  to  construct  a  system  of  sewers  draining  into  a 
stream,  such  authority  d(K»s  not  exempt  them  (exc*ept  in  the  State  of 
Indiana)  from  the  duty  not  to  pollute  the  stream  to  the  damage  of 
h)wer  proprietors. 

The  rights  of  property  owners,  specified  in  3,  4,  and  5  alwve  are 
property  rights  and  can  not  be  taken  away  from  owners  for  public 
use  excej)t  upoii  payment  therefor  of  an  amount  determined  by  con- 
stitutional coudenmation  proceedings  authorized  by  statute. 

Therefore,  until  municipal  corporations  have,  by  such  proceedings, 
jicqiiired  the  rights  of  all  lower  pr()i)rietoi'S  and  paid  for  them,  they 
are  recfuired  in  all  cases  to  refrain  from  the  pollution  of  streams  to 
the  same  extent  as  private  owners. 


c,<K>DELL.l  PROGRESS  OF   LEGISLATION.  148 

III.  RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES  OF  THE  PUBLIC. 

By  "  the  public  "  is  meant  that  indefinite  numl>er  of  individuals, 
whether  larger  or  smaller,  who  occupy  as  a  common  habitation  a 
neighborhood,  village,  town.  State,  or  country.  Rights  and  duties 
which  affect  inhabitants  of  the  neighborhood,  village,  town.  State,  or 
country  as  a  whole,  or  a  considerable  but  indefinite  number  of  them, 
are  called  "  public ''  rights  and  duties. 

The  public,  in  this  sense,  aside  from  the  right  to  use  navigable 
waters  for  conmierce,  has  the  right  to  enjoy  the  natural  waters  and 
the  air  which  passes  over  them,  so  far  as  life  and  health  are  affected 
by  these  elements,  in  a  condition  so  near  that  in  which  nature  left 
them  that  their  use  will  not  destroy  nor  threaten  life  nor  injure 
heiilth. 

And,  reciprocally,  the  public,  and  each  member  of  it,  is  charged 
with  the  duty  not  to  pollute  the  natural  waters  upon  which  the  com- 
munity depends  for  life  and  health  in  any  manner  that  will  render 
the  continued  use  of  the  %vaters,  or  of  the  air  wh\ph  passes  over  them, 
destructive  of  or  injurious  to  the  life  or  health  of  the  community. 

PUBLIC  RIGHTS  AND  DUTIES  ENFORCED  BY  STATUTE. 

The  rights  and  duties  attempted  to  be  expressed  under  III  have 
received  some  recognition  by  the  courts  apart  from  statutory  enact- 
ments. They  have  been  enforced  chiefly,  however,  through  legisla- 
tion. These  rights  and  duties  have  received  full  recognition,  and  an 
active  effort  has  been  made  to  provide  an  efficient  sanction  for  their 
enforcement  by  the  legislatures  of  all  the  States  included  in  Class  II 
and  Class  III,  as  hereinbefore  stated.  These  classes  inchide  thirty- 
eight  of  the  States  and  Territories. 

These  st;atutes,  not  being  in  derogation  of  common-law  rights,  have 
been  construed  as  remedial  statutes  and  not  unconstitutional,  although 
in  some  ca^es  they  may  seem  to  interfere  with  prescriptive  rights. 
No  one  can  acquire  by  prescription  a  right  to  do  an  act  which  men- 
aces public  health  or  destroys  public  comfort. 

PROGRESS  OF  LEGISLATION. 

It  will  have  been  noticed  that  public  opinion,  as  expressed  in  public 
laws,  is  steadil}'  progressing  in  the  direction  of  a  full,  complete,  and 
comprehensive  enforcement  of  all  the  rights  and  duties  of  riparian 
owners,  of  municipal  corporations,  and  of  the  public,  as  summarized 
above.  Each  advance  in  statutory  regulation  is  an  advance  in  that 
direction,  and  more  especially  in  the  direction  of  regulating  and 
enforcing  public  rights  and  municipal  rights  and  duties. 


144  LAWS    FORBIDDING   INLAND- WATER    POLLUTION.  f  No.  152. 

Private  owners,  from  time  immemorial,  have  been  active  in  pro- 
tecting their  riparian  rights  as  against  other  private  owners.  But  the 
effect  of  poUution  upon  public  health  has  not,  until  a  comparatively 
recent  period,  been  brought  prominently  into  notice.  The  pollutioii 
of  streams  by  cities  and  private  persons  has,  accordingly,  not  received 
the  attention  which  it  deserved.  This  state  of  affairs  is  now  rapidh 
passing  away.  Courts  have  shown  themselves  fully  alive  to  the 
existence  and  validity  of  public  rights  in  that  respect,  and  the  legis- 
latures in  Class  III,  comprising  the  States  of  Connecticut,  ^Ias>a- 
chusetts,  New  Hampshire,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Minnesota,  Ver- 
mont, and  Pennsylvania,  which  has  come  into  this  class  by  legislation 
enacted  in  1905,  have  made  enactments  calculated  so  to  control  such 
pollution  as  eventually  to  prevent  all  danger  to  public  health. 


INDEX 


21 
21 


34 


57   I 


17   I 


16 


A. 

Piige. 
Ac-quackanonk  Water  Co.  r.  WatHon,  cited 

on  mine  contamination 15  I 

reference  to 18  | 

Alabama,  common-law  cases  in 9, 26, 29  , 

statute  laws  of 33-34  , 

AItcK>na,  Good  r..  decision  in 26 

AiulrewM.  Chief  Justice,  (pinion  of,  quoted 

on  sewage  pollution . .' 27-28 

Angel,  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co.  r.,  opin-  j 

ion  in,  quoted  on  Interference 

wi  th  private  property 18 

Appropriation,  prior,  doctrine  of,  in  arid 

and  mininR  BUtes 21-23  | 

Arid  and  mining  States,  liparian  rights  in . .  21-23 

Arizona,  common-law  case  in 

doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  in 

Arkansas,  common-law  case  in 

statute  laws  of 

A<he8,  depofdtion  of,  in  streams,  etc.,  prohi- 
bition of  and  penalty  for 

Attorney -General    r.  I^eeds,    opinion   in, 

quoted  on  previous  pollution  . . 

Aiiorney-General  r.  Steward,  opinion  in, 

quoted  on  previous  pollution. . . 

B. 

BHldwin,  Judge,  opinion  of,  quoted  on  sew- 
age pollution 2H-29  ] 

Bankier,  Young  v.,  cited  on  mine  contami- 
nation          15 

Barnyarrl  refuse,  contamination  by,  prohi- 
bition of  and  penalty  for 87,   I 

46,65,66,67-68,70  . 

Bathing  In  stream,  etc..  used  for  water  sup-  i 

ply,  prohibition  of  and  penalty 
for 46,67,64,66-67,74,81,84  j 

Bathing  establishments, law  regulating..  181-132 

Beach  r.  Sterling  Iron  and  Zinc  Co.,  deci- 
sion in 11-20 

reference  to 31  ' 

Birmingham,  Mayor,  etc.,  of,  r.  Land,  opin- 
ion in 29  , 

Blixzard  r.  The  Borough  of  Danville,  deci- 
sion in 27 

Boards  of  health.    See  Health,  boards  of. 

Boiling  Spring  Co.,  Holsman  r.    See  Hols- 
man  r.  Boiling  Spring  Co. 

Bones,  depoKition  of,  in  streams,  etc.,  pro- 
hibition of  and  penalty  for 57 

Borough  of  Danville.  The,  Blizzard  r.,  de- 
cision In 27  I 

Rrinsop  Coal  Co.,  Pennington  r..  cited  on 

mine  conumination 15 


IRR  152—05  M- 


-10 


Page. 
Butcher's  Ice  and  Coal  Co.  t*.  Philadelphia, 

decision  in 26 

Butler  V.  Village  of  White  Plains,  decision 

in 29-30 

C. 

Cairns,  Iy»rd,  cited  on  mine  contamina- 
tion          16 

California,  common-law  cases  in 9, 22, 23, 25 

doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  in 22, 28 

statute  laws  of 46-47 

Cases  on  discharge  of  sewage 24-31 

on  public  nuisances 23 

on  rights  of  public 28 

municipalities 24, 25-81 

riparian  owners 9-28 

Cemetery,  maintenance  of,  near  streams, 
etc.,  prohibition  of  and  penalty 
for 39,58,74-76,182 

Chadwick,  Magor  r.,  cited  ou  mine  con- 
tamination         15 

Chelmsford,  Lord,  opinion  of,  quoted  on 

previous  pollution 17 

Chemicals,  deposition  of.  in  streams,  etc., 

prohibition  of  and  penalty  for  .       72 

Chicago,  sewage  from,  suit  concerning  dis- 
posal of 20-21 

City,  Harris  t'.,  decision  in 26 

City  of   Danbury,  Morgan  v.,  opinion  in, 

quoted  on  sewage  pollution 28-29 

City  of  Gloversville,  Sammons  r.,  decision 

in 29 

Clowes  r.  Staffordshire  Waterworks,  cited 

on  right  to  give  damages 15 

Coal  mines,  contamination  from.   See  Mines. 

Coal  tar,  etc.,  contamination  by,  prohibi- 
tion of  and  penalty  for . . .  46-47, 54, 61 

Colorado,  common-law  cases  in 9, 21, 28 

doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  in 21, 23 

statute  laws  of 48 

Columbus,  The,  etc.,  Co.  r.  Tucker,  deci- 
sion in,  cited 14 

Columbus  Co.  t'.  Taylor,  cited  on  natural 

use 16 

Commissioners  on  stream  pollution.  New 

Jersey,  powers,  etc.,  of . .  88-89, 106-121 

Common  law.    See  Law,  common. 

Connecticut,  common-law  ca»ses  in 9, 26, 27-29 

statute  laws  of 74-76 

Contamination  of  water.  See  Water,  pollu- 
tion of. 

Council,  city  or  village,  powers  of 37, 43, 49 

Crowley  r.  Lightowler,  opinion  in,  quoted 

on  previous  pollution 17 

145 


146 


INDEX. 


Pa«e. 
D. 

Damages,  right  to  sue  for 8 

Danbury,  Morgan  r.,  opinion  in 28-29 

Danville,  Borough  of,  Blizzard  r.,  decision 

in 27 

Decisions.    See  Cases. 

Delaware,  statute  Jaws  of 35 

Diversion  of  water  supply,  prohibition  of 

and  penalty  for 53 

Dixon,  Judge,  opinion  of,  quoted  on  intei: 

ference  with  pnvate  property. .       18 
Dodge,  Judge,  opinion  of,  quoted  on  sewage 

pollution 31 

Domestic  purposes,  right  of  reasonable  use 

ofwaterfor 8 

E. 
England,  common-law  cases  in . . .  10, 15-16, 17, 25 
Ennor,  Hodgkinson  v.,  cited  ou  mine  con- 
tamination         15 

Excrement,  contamination  by,  prohibition 

of  and  penalty  for 58, 

62, 63, 65, 66-67, 69, 70, 80, 81, 89-90, 140 
Explosives,  deposition  of,  in  streams,  etc.. 

restriction  of 36. 72, 73 

F. 

Factory  refuse,  contamination  by,  prohibi- 
tion of  and  penalty  for 37, 

38, 45, 50, 53, 54, 61, 66-67. 89-90 
discharge  of,  in  streams,  etc.,  when  al- 
lowed    126-128 

Farming,  right  of  reasonable  use  of  water 

for 8 

Fish,  etc.,  poisoning  of.  pnihibltion  of  and 

penalty  for 36, 

38,40.45,54,55,58,72,73 

Fletcher  v.  Rylands,  cited  on  mine  contam- 
ination         16 

Florida,  statute  laws  of 35 

Fond  du  Lac,  Hughes  v.,  opinion  in,  quoted 
on  rights  of  municipal  corpora- 
tion          31 

G. 

Garbage,  etc. .  burning  of 57, 69 

Gardner  v.  Newburgh,  decision  in,  quota- 
tion from 14 

Garrison,  Judge,  opinion  of,  quoted  on  sew- 
erage commission 121 

Gas  tar,  etc.,  contamination  by,  prohibition 

of 39,40,61,63 

Georgia,  common-law  caj«es  in 9, 25 

statute  laws  of 35 

Gloversville,  Sammons  r.,  decision  in 29 

Goldsmid  v.  Tunbridge  Wells  Commission- 
ers, opinion  in,  quoted  on  effect 
of  nuisance 19-20 

Good  r.  Altoona,  decision  in 26 

Great  Britain,  common-law  cases  in.  10, 15-16,17,25 

Grey.  Attoniey-General,  r.  Paterson,  discus- 
sion of 30-31 

opinion  in,  quoted  on  sewage  dL<;po6al . .        30 

H. 

Hagen,  Valparaiso  i\,  decision  in 25, 26, 31 

Harper  r.  Milwaultee,  opinion  in,  quoted  on 

rights  of  municipal  corporation.       31 


]  Harris  V.  City,  decision  in a 

I  Health,  boards  of,  powers  of M, 

1                         42-43, 47, 50, 58, 59, 68. 74. 77-79.  *t».  88,  M 
I                         85, 90, 91-92, 121-126, 129-130, 132, 137-1 4i 

I  Higgins  P.  The  Water  Co.,  cited 1- 

Hodgkinson  r.  Ennor,  cited  on  mine  con- 
tamination    l'< 

I  Holsman  v.  Bol  ling  Spring  Co. ,  cited  on  mine 

contamination 14 

opinion  in,  quoted  on  protection  of  ripn- 

rianright 17 

I         reference  to 1- 

Hughes  V.  Fond  du  Lac,  opinion  In,  quoted 
I                      on  rights  of  municipal  corpora- 
tion   31 

;  I. 

Ice,  cutting  of,  restriction  of ?sJ.^4 

Ice  pond,  driving  on,  restriction  of •»! 

I  Idaho,  common-law  cases  in .!l 

doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  in J  J 

sUtutelawsof So 

Illinois,  common-law  cases  in :^*) 

statute  laws  of 45-1^ 

I  Illinois  et  al.,  Missouri  r.,  case  of 20-Jl 

Indiana,  common-law  cases  in 9, 2.'>.  ;>] 

statute  laws  of 49- '.i 

Indictment  as  remedy  for  injury * 

'  Injunction  as  remedy  for  in  jury 8,  1*<,76,n» 

cases  bearing  on 15-16, 18.  '.S-^:! 

Iowa,  common-law  cases  in i*.-'» 

statute  laws  of ;>'. 

I  J- 

'  Jurisdictions  of  act  and  its  results,  different.    9.lu 

I  K. 

'  Kansas,  common-law  cases  in 3^ 

'  statute  laws  of Jr. 

I  Kent,  Chancellor,  opinion  of,  quoted  on 

riparian  rights 14 

Kentucky,  statute  laws  of *• 

L. 

I   Lancaster  City,  Owens  v.,  decision  in 2»..  -r 

Land,  Mayor,  etc.,  of  Birmingham  r.,  opin- 
ion in,  quoted  on  sewage  pollu- 
tion          Ji* 

Law,  common,  decisions  at 7-ol 

decisions  at,  classification  of 7-» 

'         principles  of 7-o: 

classification  of 7-^ 

remedies  at ** 

Laws,  statute,  classes  of :'. 

lack  of  uniformity  in C 

restrictions  of,  general 4.S-7 ; 

partial 33-4'» 

severe T^-U\ 

text  of,  by  classes  and  by  States Z:\-l  i  1 

See  a/so  und/r  State  names. 
Leeds,    Attorney-General   v.,   opinion    In, 

quoted  on  previous  poll  Jtion  . .        IT 
Lightowler,  Crossley  r.,  opinion  in,  quoted 

on  previous  pollution IT 

Lister,  Meigs  i'.,  opinion  in,  quoted  on  pre- 
vious pollution 16-17 

Ixirds.  Hou.se  of,  decision  of 1 "» 

I   LouL<<iana,  statute  laws  of :-j 


INDEX. 


147 


Paje. 

L.r>woll.  Middlesex  Co.  r.,  declsioii  In 29 

Lumbering  waste,  depoeition  of,  in  streams, 

etc.,  when  allowed 83 

M. 

McClellan,  Chief  Justice,  opinion  of,  quoted 

on  sewage  pollution 29 

Maena^hten,  Lord,  opinion  of,  quoted  on 

mine  contamination 16-16 

Magor  r.  Cliad wick,  cited  on  mine  contami- 
nation        15 

Maine,  common-law  case  in 9 

sta  tute  la ws  of 61-52 

Maryland,  common-law  cases  in 9 

statute  laws  of 62-53 

MasMachusctts,  common-law  cases  In 9, 26, 29 

statute  laws  of 77-81 

Mayor,  etc.,  of  Birmingham  r.  Land,  opinion 

in,quoted  on  sewage  poll utlon . .       29 
MeigK  r.  Lister,  opinion  in,  quoted  on  pre- 
vious pollution 16-17 

Merrifield  r.  Worcester,  cited  on  natural  use .       16 

decision  in 26,29 

Michigan,  statute  laws  of 36-38 

Middlesex  Co.  r.  Lowell,  decision  in 29 

Milling  refuse,  contamination  hy,  prohibi- 
tion of  and  penalty  for 44. 

45,85,86,137 
Milwaukee,  Harper  v .,  opinion  in,  quoted 
on  rights  of  municipal  corpora- 
tion        31 

Mines,  contamination  of  streams  by,  deci- 
sions on 10-20 

Mining  refuse,  pollution  by 9, 10-20, 55, 66 

Minnesota,  common-law  case  in 10 

statute  laws  of 81-82 

Missi^ppi.  common-law  case  in 10 

statute  laws  of 38 

MisHourl.  common-law  case  in 10 

statute  laws  of 53-64 

Missouri  v.  Illinois  et  al.,  case  of 20-21 

Montana,  common-law  cases  in 21 

doctrin e  of  prior  appropriation  in 21 

Morgan  v.  City  of  Danbury,   opinion  in, 

quoted  on  sewage  pollution 28-29 

Municipalities,  as  riparian  owners 24-142 

righ  ts  of 8 , 

24-81,34,88.39,65,61,81,90,94,112- 
113,  124,  126,  127,  134,  141,  142-143 

N. 
Nason,  I*rofe8sor,  testimony  of,  on  mine 

water 19 

Natural  use.    See  Use,  natural. 

Nebraska,  statute  laws  of 38-39 

Nevada,  common-law  cases  in 21 

doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  in 21 

.Ktatute  la  ws  of 54-55 

New  Britain,  Nolan  r., opinion  in,  quoted  on 

sewage  pollution 27-28 

New  Hampshire,  common-law  case  in 10, 26 

statute  lawsof 82-8rt 

New  Jersey,  commissioners  on  stream  pollu- 
tion in 88-89,106-121 

common-law  cases  in 10, 11-20, 26, 30-31 

sewerage  commission  in 92-105 

statute  lawsof H(>-121 


I  Page. 

New  Mexico,  common-law  cases  in 22 

doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  in 22 

statute  lawsof 66-57 

I  New  York,  common-law  cases  in 26, 29-30 

statuU*  lawsof 121-132 

'  Newburgh,  (Jardner  v.,  decision  in,  (|Uota- 

tion  from 14 

Nolan  r.  New  Britain,  opinion  in,  quoted 

on  sewage  pollution 27-28 

I  North  Carolina,  statute  laws  of 58-59 

North  Dakota,  common-law  ca^e-J  in 22 

doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  in 22 

statute  laws  of 39 

Nuisance,  commission  of,  near  waterworks, 
,                      piohibition  of  and  penalty  for. .  34, 74 
public,  from  water  pollution 23, 27 

O. 
JjUjstructlons  to  navigation,  depot^it ion  of,  in 

streams,  etc.,  prohibition  of 36, 38 

Ohio,  common-law  cases  in 10, 14, 16 

statute  laws  of 60-62 

Oil,  etc.,  contamination  by,  prohibition  of 

and  penalty  for 48, 54, 61 ,  66-67 

Oklahoma,  st^itute  laws  of 39-40 

Oregon,  common-law  cases  in 22, 23 

doctrine  of  prior  appmpriation  in 22, 23 

statute  laws  of 62-63 

Owens  r.  Lanca.ster  City,  decision  in 26. 27 

Owners,  riparian,  rights  of....  8-23,30-31,141-142 

below  tide  water,  rights  of 30 

Oysters,  etc.,  deposition  of,  in  streams,  etc., 

prohibition  of  and  penalty  for. .        52 

P. 
Paper,  dej)Osilion  of,  in  streams,  etc..  prohi- 
bition of  and  penalty  for 57 

Parliament,  powers  of is 

Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Commissioners, 
Van  Cleve  r.,  decision  in.  refer- 
ence to 121 

Paterson.  (Jrey,  Attorney-General,  r.    Stc 
Grey,  Attomey-(}eneral,  r.  Pater- 
son. 
Pennington  v.  Brinsop  Coal  Co..  cited  on 

mine  contamination 16 

Pennsylvania,  common-law  cases  in 10, 

11. 14, 17,  IM,  26, 27-28 

statute  laws  of 132-136 

Pennsylvania  Coal   Co.,  Sanderson  r.    .^>a 

'  Sanderson  r.  Pennsylvania  Coal 

Co. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Co.  v.  AnKcl.  opin- 

;  ion  in,  quoted  on  interference 

with  private  property 18 

Philadelphia,  Butcher's  Ice  and  Coal  ro.  r.. 

decision  in 26 

,  Pitney,  Vice-Charicellor,  opinion  of 1 1  -20 

'  Poison,  deposition  of,  in  streams,  ete.,  pro- 
'  hibition  of  and  penalty  for.  ...      35, 

36, 40, 44, 51 ,  54, 55, 58, 64, 70, 83 
'   Polluting  articles,  deposition  of.  in  streams, 

etc.,  statutorj'  restrictions  of  . .  32-141 
for  npfcial  articles  not  univertally  pro- 
hibited, Ke  under  their  nnmff. 
Pollution,  right  of.  impossibility  of   pre- 

.scribing 9 


148 


INDKX. 


FViUutlon  of  water.    See  Water,  poll ution  rif . 
Prior  Appropriation.    See  Approprl  a  tion . 

Privy  vaults,  laws  concerning 39, 

46, 48, 49, 53, 60, 66-67. 69, 70.  H7 
Property,  private,  interference  with,  provi- 
sion of  Constitution  conceniing.        IH 

Public,  as  riparian  owner 23 

rights  of M.  23.143 


R. 


Refuse.    >!ce  Factory  refuse;  Milling  refuse; 

Mining  refuse. 
Remedies  at  common  law  for  water  jiollu-  | 

tion H 

R^trictions,  statutory,  claasifioation  of ;vj 

general,  by  States 4.V73 

partial,  by  States 3:}-45 

severe,  by  States 7:J-l  II 

Rhode  Island,  common -law  cases  in 10 

statute  laws  of 4(>-l3 

"  Rights  of  municipal  corporations  to  drain 

sewers,"  etc.,  cited 29 

Rights    prescriptive,    cases    bearing    on. 

cited  16.27-28 

discussion  of .• 16. 141-143 

Riparian  owners.    See  Owners,  riparian. 
Rylauds,  Fletcher  v.,  cited  on  mine  con- 
tamination          16 

8. 

St.  Helen's  Smelting  Co.  v.  Tipping,  cited 

on  previous  pollution 17 

Stimmons  v.  City  of  Gloversville,  decision  in ,       29  ; 
Sanderson  v.  Pennsylvania  Coal  Co..  de- 
cision In 10-11 

discussion  of 14 

reference  to 1 1.  lo.  17 

Sawdust,  etc.,  deposition  of,  in  stream.s, 
etc.,  prohibition  of  and  penalty 

for 44, 45, 54, 55, 71. 72, 73.  H5. »;.  i;J7 

Sewage,  definition  of 2h  , 

discharge  of,  cases  on 24-31   ' 

decisions  concerning 1 7, 25, 26-31 

limitation   of   statutory   authority 

for 24 

restrictions  on 42. 52. 5.s.  62. 

66. 75, 81. 89-90,  W,  112-113, 126. 134. 140 

rights  of  municipalities 24-31. 

38,  39,  55.  81,  90.94. 112-1 1:{. 
124, 126, 127. 134, 141. 142-1 43 
Sewerage  commission,  New  Jersey,  powers,  , 

etc.,  of 92-105 

Sheep   washing,   contamination   by,    pro-  j 

hibition  of  and  penalty  for 6.1 

Slaughterhouse,     maintenance     of.     near 
streams,  etc.,  prohibition  of  and 

penalty  for 39. 43, 44. 67-6M,  70  t 

South  Carolina,  common-law  case  in 10 

South  Dakota,  statute  laws  of ♦«  , 

Sta>)lc.  etc.,  maintenance  of,  near  streaniH,  1 

etc..  prohibition  of  and  penalty 

for 39, 46.  ♦>.).  67-68   ■ 

Staffordshire  Waterworks,  Clowes  r..  cited 

on  right  to  give  damages ir> 

States,  control  of  water  pollution  coiiliii*''! 

to 3J 


States,  law»  of,  classification  of 

laws  of,  lack  of  uniformity  in .t- 

textof 33-141 

See  alfto  under  State  names. 
Statutory  restrictions.    See  Restrictions. 
Sterling  Iron  and  Zinc  Co.,  Beach  r.    S*f 
Beach  r.  Sterling  Iron  and  Zinc 
Co. 
Steward.  Attornej-General  r.,  opinion  in. 

quoted  on  previous  pollution ...        1^ 
Streams,  ijanks  of.  deposition  of  offen«ivf 
matter  on,  prohibition  of  and 

penaltyfor :ft*. 

43, 46. 58. 6&-67. 80.  M .  1  «i 
iLMC  (»f,  as  sewers,  rights  of  municipali- 
ties in 24-31, --6^.  19 

Suit,  private,  as  remedy  for  injury -* 

Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  com- 
mon-law case  in 2i'-21 

T. 

Taylor,  Columbus  Co.  r..  cited  on  natural 

use 1^ 

Ten nes.see.  statute  laws  of *A 

Texas.  ca«es  bearing  on  prior  appropriation 

in if 

statute  laws  of t-\ 

Tin  cans,  deposition  of,  in  streams.  et«'.. 

prohibition  of  and  penalty  for. .  u 
Tipping.  St.  Helen's  Smelting  Co.  r.,  cited 

on  previous  pollution  1 : 

Tucker,  Columbus,  etc.,  Co.  r.,  de<*ision  in. 

cited 14 

Tunbridge  Wells  Commissioners.  Goldsmid 

f.,  opinion  in,  quoted  on  effect 

of  nuisance 19-JO 

Turner.  Ix>rd  Justice,  opinion  of,  quoted 

on  effect  of  nuisance 1  v-*3i 

r. 

Cse.  natural,  discussion  of v 

reasonable,  right  of n,  •."_ 

rcascmableneaii  of,  determination  of h 

Utah,  statute  laws  of i*=» 

V. 

Valparaiso  r.  Hagen,  decision  in 2.'>.  jr*.  u 

Van  Cleve  »'.  Passaic  Valley  Sewerage  Com- 
missioners, decision  in.  refer- 
ence to \l\ 

Vermont,  common-law  cases  in n 

sUtutelawsof 137-141 

Village  of  White  Plains.  Butler  t.,  decision 

in  J".' .« 

Virginia,  statute  laws  of fVv-»,7 

W. 

Washington,  common-law  cases  in Ji; 

doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  in ^ 

statute  laws  of t.T  ♦>* 

Water,  appropriation  of,  limitation  of  ripa- 
rian owner's  right  of »'.  n J 

total,  prohibition  of... •» 

ownership  of,  qualification  of * 

pollution  of,  by  drainage  from  mines. .  liv^i 
causing  public  nuisance ».  23 


INDEX. 


149 


Page 

Water,  pollution  of,  from  sewage 24-31 

pollution  of,  jurifldiction  over 32 

liability  of  municipality  for 24-51 

liability  of  riparian  owner  for «,  142 

relation    of    prior    appropriation 

to 22-23 

statutory  restrictions  on 32-141 

prior  appropriation  of,  doctrine  of 21-23 

reasonable  use  of,  determination  of 8 

righte  of  public  in 23 

rights  of  riparian  owners  to 7. 8, 141-142 

limitations  on 8,21.142 

rule  of  law  concerning 8 

Kupply  of,  inspection  of 122 

u»e  of,  for  farming  and  domestic  pur- 
poses  8,141 

for  other  than  fanning  or  domestic 

purposes,  limitationH  on ... .  8, 141-142 

riparian  owner's  right  to 7, 8, 141 

Water  Co. ,  The,  Higgins  r. ,  cited 18 

Water  companies,  laws  concerning 59. 83-84 


]  Page. 

Watflon,  Aequackanonk  Water  Co.  r.    See 
I  Aequackanonk    Water    Co.    v. 

^  Watson. 

I  Waukenha,  Winchell  v., opinion  in,  quoted 

,         .  on  sewage  pollution 31 

West  Virginia,  statute  laws  of 69 

'  White  Plains,  Village  of,  Butler  v.,  deci- 

I      slonin 29-30 

Winehell  r.  Waukesha,  opinion  in,  quoted 

I  on  sewage  pollution 31 

I  Wi-sconsin,  common-law  cases  in 10, 31 

Ntatutelawsof 48-45 

I  Worcester,  Merrifield  v.    See  Merrifleld  r. 
Worcester. 

I  Wyoming,  common-law  cases  in 10, 22 

doctrine  of  prior  appropriation  In 22 

statute  laws  of 70-73 

i 

I  Young  V.  Bankier,  cited  on  mine  eontaml- 

'  nation 15 


O 


PrBLICATIONS  OF  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

[Water-supply  Paper  No.  152.] 

The  serial  pablications  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  consist  of  (1) 
Annua]  Reports,  (2)  Monographs,  (3)  Professional  Papers,  (4)  Bulletins,  (6) 
Mineral  Resources,  (6)  \>  ater-Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers,  (7)  Topographic  Atlas 
of  United  States— folios  and  separate  sheets  thereof,  (8)  Geologic  Atlas  of  United 
States — folios  thereof.  The  classes  numbered  2,  7,  and  8  are  sold  at  cost  of  publica- 
tion ;  the  others  are  distributed  free.  A  circular  giving  complete  lists  may  be  had 
on  application. 

Most  of  the  above  publications  may  be  obtaineil  or  consulted  in  the  following  ways: 

1.  A  limited  number  are  delivered  to  the  Director  of  the  Survey,  from  whom  they 
may  be  obtained,  free  of  chaise  (except  classes  2,  7,  and  8),  on  application. 

2.  A  certain  number  are  allotted  to  every  member  of  Congress,  from  whom  they 
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3.  Other  copies  are  deposited  with  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington, 
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4.  Copies  of  all  Government  publications  are  furnished  to  the  principal  public 
libraries  in  the  large  cities  throughout  the  United  States,  where  they  may  be  con- 
sulted by  thoee  interested. 

The  Professional  Papers,  Bulletins,  and  Water-Supply  Papers  treat  of  a  variety  of 
subjects,  and  the  total  number  issued  is  large.  They  have  therefore  been  classified 
into  the  following  series:  A,  Economic  geology;  B,  Descriptive  geology;  C,  System- 
atfc  geology  and  paleontology;  D,  Petrography  and  mineralogy;  E,  Chemistry  and 
physics;  F,  Geography;  G,  Miscellaneous;  H,  Forestry;  I,  Irrigation;  J,  Water 
storage;  K,  Pumping  water;  L,  Quality  of  water;  M,  General  hydrographic  investi- 
gations; N,  Water  power;  O,  Underground  waters;  P,  Hydrographic  progress  reports. 
This  paper  is  the  twelfth  in  Series  L,  the  complete  lists  of  which  follow.  (PP= 
Professional  Paper,  B=Bulletin,  WS=Water-Supply  Paper. ) 

Series  L— Quality  op  Watbr. 

WS     3.  Sewage  irrigation,  by  G.  W.  Rafter.  ^  1897.    100  pp.,  4  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 

WS   22,  Sewagre  Irrigation,  Pt.  II,  by  G.  W,  Rafter.    1899.    100  pp.,  7  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 

WS   72.  Sewage  pollution  near  New  York  City,  by  M.  O.  Leighton.    1902.    75  pp.,  8  pis. 

WS   76.  Flow  of  rivers  near  New  York  City,  by  H.  A.  Pressey.    1903.    108  pp..  13  pis. 

WS   79.  Normal  and  polluted  waters  in  northeastern  United  States,  by  M.  O.  Leighton.    1903.    192  pp., 

15  pis. 
WS  103.  Review  of  the  laws  forbidding  pollution  of  inland  waters  in  the  United  States,  by  E.  B. 

Goodell.    1904.    120  pp. 
WS  106.  Quality  of  water  in  the  Susquehanna  River  drainage  basin,  by  M.  O.  Leighton,  with  an 

introductory  chapter  on  physiographic  features,  by  G.  B.  Hollister.    1904.    76  pp.,  4  pis. 
WS  113.  Strawboard  and  oil  wastes,  by  R.  L.  Sackett  and  Isaiah  Bowman.    1905.    52  pp.,  4  pis. 
WS  121.  Preliminary  report  on  the  pollution  of  Lake  Champlaln,  by  M.  O.  Leighton.    1905.    119  pp., 

13  pis. 
WS  144.  The  normal  distribution  of  chlorine  in  the  natuni  waters  of  New  York  and  New  England, 

by  D.  D.  Jackson.    1905.    31  pp.,  §  pis. 
WS  151.  Field  assay  of  water,  by  M.  O.  Leighton.    1905.    77  pp.,  4  pis. 
WS  152.  A  review  of  the  laws  forbidding  pollution  of  inland  waters  in  the  United  States,  second 

edition,  by  E.  B.  Goodell.    1905.    149  pp. 

Correspondence  should  be  addressed  to 

The  Director, 

United  States  Geological  Survey, 

Washington,  D.  G. 
Octobeb,  1905. 


9 


LIBEABT  CATALOGUE  8LIP8. 

[Moaiit  each  slip  upon  a  8e{)arate  card,  pLacing  the  subject  at  the  top  of  the 
second  slip.  The  name  of  the  series  should  not  be  repeated  on  the  series 
card,  but  the  additional  numbers  should  be  added,  aH  received,  to  the 
fi rnt  entry.] 


Goodell,  Edwin  B[urpee]  1850- 

...    A  review  of  the  laws  forbidding  pollution  of 
I    inland  waters  in  the  United  States.     2d  ed.     By  Edwin 
B.  Goodell.     Washington,  Gov't  print,  off.,  1905. 

149,  iii  p.     23®".     (U.  S.  (ireological  survey.     Water-supply  and  irrigation 
paper  no.  152) 

Subject  series:  L,  Quality  of  water,  12. 

First  ed.  published  as  Water-supply  and  irrigation  paper  no.  103. 

1.  Water,  Pollution  of.     2.  Water — T^aws  and  legislation. 


Goodell,  Edwin  B[urpee]  1850- 

...  A  review  of  the  laws  forbidding  pollution  of 
inland  waters  in  the  United  States.  2d  ed.  By  Edwin 
B.  Goodell.     Washington,  Gov't  print,  off.,  1905. 

149,  iii  p.  23'"".  (U.  S.  ( Geological  survey.  Water-supply  and  irrigation 
paper  no.  152) 

Subject  series:  L,  Quality  of  water,  12. 

First  ed.  published  as  Water-supply  and  irrigation  pa|)er  no.  103. 

1.  Water,  Pollution  of.     2.  Water — Iaws  and  legislation. 


U.  S.     Geological  survey. 

Water-supply  and  irrigation  papers . 
no.  152.  Goodell,  E.  B.     A  review  of  the  laws  forbidding 
pollution  of  inland  waters.     2d  ed.     1905. 


U.S.     Dept.  of  the  Interior. 

I  see  also 

*    U.  S.     Geological  survey. 


Wai^^pply  «d  legation  Paper  No.  168  8«i«  jj  ^J^til 


Waier8,50 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

CHARLES  I).  WALCOTT,  DiRSCTOB 


THE  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY 
IN  WESTERN  KANSAS 


BY 


CHARLES  S.  SLIGHTER 


WASHINGTON 

GOVKRNMENT    PRINTING     OFFICE 

1906 


CONTENTS. 


PBffe. 

Introdnctioii 5 

Chapter  I.  Measurements  of  the  underflow  of  Arkansas  River 7 

(Teneral  statement 7 

Measurements  2  miles  west  of  Garden,  Kans.  (camp  1  ) 7 

Measurements  at  Sherlock,  Kans.  (camp  2) 13 

Measurements  at  Deerfield,  Kans.  (camp  3) 16 

Measurements  at  Clear  Lake,  near  Hartland,  Kans.  (camp  4) 18 

Measurements  of  the  underflow  at  Narrows  of  Arkansas  River,  near  Hart- 
land,  Kans.  (camp  6) 22 

Chapter  II.  Fluctuations  of  ground- water  level 25 

Influence  of  the  rainfall  and  of  height  of  water  in  Arkansas  River  on 

ground- water  level 25 

Fluctuation  of  ground- water  level  at  Sherlock,  Kans 35 

Fluctuation  of  ground- water  level  at  Deerfield,  Kans 42 

Evaporation  experiments  near  Deerfield 43 

Chapter  III.  Chemical  composition  of  the  waters  of  the  underflow 45 

Chapter  IV.  Origin  and  extent  of  the  underflow 51 

Origin 51 

North  and  south  limitations ^. 54 

Chapter  V^.  Summary  of  tests  of  small  pumping  plants  in  Arkansas  Valley  ...  55 

General  results .• 55 

Specific  capacity 56 

Cost  of  pumping 57 

Chapter  VI.  Details  of  tests  of  pumping  plants 59 

Test  of  pumping  plant  of  D.  H.  Logan,  Garden,  Kans 59 

Test  of  the  Richter  pumping  plant,  near  Garden,  Kans 62 

Test  of  pumping  plant  of  C.  E.  Sexton,  near  Garden,  Kans 65 

Test  of  pumping  plant  of  N.  Fulmer,  Lakin,  Kans 67 

Test  of  pumping  plant  of  J.  M.  Root,  Lakin,  Kans 70 

Test  of  well  at  King  Brothers'  ranch.  Garden,  Kans 73 

Test  of  city  waterworks  well,  Garden,  Kans ■. 76 

Test  of  Holcomb's  pumping  plant,  7  miles  west  of  Garden,  Kans 80 

Test  of  producer-gas  pumping  plant  near  Rocky  Ford,  Colo 82 

Index 89 

3 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate     I.  Cardboard  model  of  changes  in  water  plane  near  camp  1 '*^2 

II.  Cardboard  model  of  changes  in  water  plane  near  Sherlock,  Kann.  -        -^ 

III.  Cardboanl  model  of  changes  in  water  plane  near  Sherlock,  Kans. .        40 

Fkj.    1.  Map  of  water  plane  between  Garden  and  Deeriield,  KanH ^ 

2.  Map  showing  location  of  underflow  stations  and  test  wells  at  i^mp  1, 

2  miles  west  of  Garden,  Kans 9 

3.  Cross  section  near  camp  1,  2  miles  west  of  Garden,  Kans II 

4.  Map  showing  location  of  underflow  stations  and  test  wells  at  Sher- 

lock, Kans -.         14 

5.  Cross  section  at  camp  2,  near  Sherlock,  Kans I  "i 

6.  Map  showing  location  of  underflow  stations  and  test  wells  at  i*amp  3. 

near  Deerfield,  Kans 17 

7.  Map  showing  location  of  underflow  stations  and  test  wells  at  Clear 

Lake,  Kansas li» 

8.  Map  showing  location  of  underflow  stations  and  test  wells  near  Hart- 

land,  Kans 2r2 

9.  Cross  section  at  the  Narrows  of  Arkansas  River,  west  of  Hartland, 

Kans ^ - 1*3 

10.  Elevation  of  water  in  Arkansas  River  and  test  wells,  Garden,  Kans., 

from  June  16  to  July  11, 1904 iN 

11.  Curves  of  barometric  pressure  and  height  of  water  plane "W 

12.  Elevation  of  water  in  test  wells  and  in  Arkansas  River,  at  Sherlock, 

Kans.,  between  July  15  and  August  3, 1904 Uh 

13.  Elevation  of  water  in  Arkansas  River  and  in  test  wells  near  Sherlock, 

Kans.,  during  flood  of  July  27,  1904 4<) 

14.  Elevation  of  water  in  Arkansas  River  and  test  wells  at   Deerfield, 

Kans.,  August  4  to  14,  1904 48 

15.  Curve  for  Whitney  electrolytic  bridge  used  in  converting  resistance  in 

ohms  into  total  solids  for  ground  waters  of  Arkansas  Valley 47 

16.  Elevation  of  water  surface  of  Arkansas  River  at  Sherlock  and  rainfall 

at  (larden,  Kans 52 

17.  Elevation  of  water  surface  of  Arkansas  River  at  Deerfiehl  and  rainfall 

at  Garden,  Kans 1 oii 

18.  Rising  curves  for  Logan  well t>l 

19.  Rising  curve  for  Richter  well 64 

20.  Rising  curve  for  Fulmer  wel I HM 

21 .  Rising  curves  for  R(x)t  well 72 

22.  Rising  curves  for  main  well  and  test  well.  King  Brothers'  well 7.t 

23.  Rising  curves  for  city  waterworks  well,  Garden,  Kans 77 

24.  Elevation  of  water  in  city  waterworks  well  and  engine  cycles.  Garden, 

Kans 78 

4 


THE  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY  IN 
WESTERN  KANSAS. 


Bv  Charles  S.  Slighter. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  investigation  of  the  underflow  of  Arkanstis  River,  described  in 
this  paper,  was  made  during  the  summer  of  1904.  The  field  party  was 
under  the  general  supervision  of  the  writer.  Mr.  Henry  C.  Wolff  had 
charge  of  the  measurements  of  the  rate  of  movement  of  the  ground 
waters.  He  also  made  careful  determinations  of  the  fluctuation  of  the 
position  of  the  water  plane,  and  the  success  of  the  field  work  was 
largel)'^  due  to  his  skill  and  hard  work.  Mr.  Ray  Owen  had  charge  of 
level  and  plane-table  work,  and  made  a  contour  map  of  the  water  plane. 

A  few  of  the  principal  conclusions  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  The  underflow  of  Arkansas  River  moves  at  an  average  rate  of  8 
feet  per  twenty-four  hours,  in  the  geneml  direction  of  the  valle\\ 

2.  The  water  plane  slopes  to  the  east  at  the  rate  of  7.5  feet  per  mile, 
and  toward  the  river  at  the  rate  of  2  to  3  feet  per  mile. 

3.  The  moving  ground  water  extends  several  miles  north  from  the 
river  valley.     No  north  or  south  limit  was  found. 

4.  The  rate  of  movement  is  very  uniform. 

5.  The  underflow  has  its  origin  in  the  rainfall  on  the  sand  hills  south 
of  the  river  and  on  the  bottom  lands  and  plains  north  of  the  river. 

6.  The  sand  hills  constitute  an  essential  part  of  the  catchment  area. 

7.  The  influence  of  the  floods  in  the  river  upon  the  ground- water 
level  does  not  extend  one-half  mile  north  or  south  of  the  channel. 

8.  A  heavy  rain  contributes  more  water  to  the  underflow  than  a 
flood. 

9.  On  the  sandy  bottom  lands  60  per  cent  of  an  ordinary  rain  reaches 
the  water  plane  as  a  permanent  contribution. 

10.  The  amount  of  dissolved  solids  in  the  underflow  grows  less  with 
the  depth  and  with  the  distance  from  the  river  channel. 

5 


6  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

11.  There  is  no  appreciable  nin-oflf  in  the  vicinity  of  Garden,  Kans. 
Practically  all  of  the  drainage  is  underground  through  the  thick 
deposits  of  gravels. 

12.  Carefully  constructed  wells  in  Arkansas  Valley  are  capable  of 
yielding  very  large  amounts  of  water.  Ekich  square  foot  of  percolat- 
ing surface  of  the  well  strainers  can  be  relied  upon  to  yield  more  than 
0.25  gallon  of  water  per  minute  under  1  foot  head. 

13.  There  is  no  indication  of  a  decrease  in  the  underflow  at  Gar- 
den in  the  last  five  years.  The  city  well  showed  the  same  spetMiic 
capacity  in  1904  that  it  had  in  1899. 

14.  Private  pumping  plants  in  the  bottom  lands  will  be  profitable 
for  irrigation  if  proper  kind  of  power  be  used.  There  should  be  a 
large  field  of  usefulness  for  suction  gas-producer  power  plants  of  from 
20  to  100  horsepower,  with  Colorado  hard  coal  or  coke  as  fuel.  Kan- 
sas crude  oil  in  gas  generators  should  prove  profitable  for  use  in  the 
smaller  plants.  The  present  cost  of  pumping  with  gasoline  for  fuel  L^ 
not  encouraging. 


CHAPTKR  I. 

MKASITREMKXTS  OF  THE  UNDF;RFrX>W  OF  ARKAXSA8 

RIVER. 

GENERAL  STATEMENT. 

Investigations  of  the  underflow  of  Arkansas  River  were  begun  June 
11,  1904.  The  work  consisted  of  the  mapping  of  the  water  plane  or 
ground-water  level  within  a  distance  of  6  to  12  miles  from  the  river 
channel,  and  of  observations  by  the  electrical  method  of  the  rate  of 
movement  of  the  underflow.  The  ground-water  levels  were  obtained 
by  observing  the  water  levels  in  private  wells  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  river  and  in  a  few  wells  which  were  sunk  especially  for  this  purpose. 
The  slope  of  the  water  plane  was  found  to  l)e  between  7  and  8  feet  to 
a  mile  in  a  general  easterly  direction,  and  from  2  to  3  feet  to  a  mile 
toward  the  river  channel  from  the  country  immediately  to  the  north 
and  south.  The  southern  margin  of  the  river  valley  is  bordered  for  5 
Uy  10  miles  to  the  south  by  sand  hills,  which  are  only  partially  covered 
with  natural  vegetation.  These  sand  hills  extend  from  east  of  Dodge, 
Kans.,  to  beyond  the  Colorado  line.  The  river  valley  proper  varies  in 
width  from  1  to  5  miles.  Near  the  river  channel  there  is  a  strip  known 
as  ''first  bottoms,"  which  is  only  a  few  feet  above  the  river  level. 
The  principal  cultivated  portion  of  the  valley  lies  from  3  to  8  feet 
higher  than  first  bottoms,  and  is  locally  known  as  ''second  bottoms." 
North  of  the  river  valley  the  ground  rises  rather  abruptly  to  the  high 
plains  with  their  well-known  level  topography  and  compact  sod  of 
native  grasses.  The  slope  of  the  water  plane  toward  the  channel  of 
the  river  from  the  north  is,  as  has  been  stated,  about  2^  feet  to  a  mile, 
but  10  to  14  miles  to  the  north  of  the  valley  the  slope  of  the  water 
plane  changes  from  southerly  to  northerly,  and  the  land  at  the  same 
time  gently  dips  to  the  north  toward  the  valley  of  White  Woman 
Creek.  The  easterly  slope  of  7^  to  8  feet  to  the  mile  is  maintained, 
however,  quite  constantly  throughout  all  of  this  region.  Fig.  1  shows 
the  results  of  the  determination  of  the  water  plane. 

MEASUREMENTS  2  MILES  WEST  OF   GARDEN,  KANS.  (CAMP  i). 

The  measurements  showed  a  rate  of  movement  much  greater  than 
had  been  anticipated.  The  first  set  of  underflow  stations  were  estab- 
lished at  a  point  about  2  miles  west  of  Garden  (camp  1),  as  shown  on 
the  map  (fig.  1).     The  stations  were  in  a  north-south  line,  which  was 

7 


8 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTEilN  KANSAS. 


about  li  miles  in  length.     At  this  point  the  river  flows  in  an  ea^^t  bv 
south  direction,  and  borders  closely  on  the  north  margin  of  the  sand 

T.22S  T  23  S.  T24  5, 


SZS    i. 


S€2  X 


S  ¥2   J. 


hills,  leaving  but  little  bottom  land  on  the  south  side  of  the  river.  The 
channel  of  the  river  where  the  observations  were  made  is  about  l,OiK) 
feet  wide.     On  the  north  side  is  a  strip  of  low  land,  or  first  bottoms. 


MEASUREMENTS    OF    THE   UNDERFLOW. 


9 


about  1,100  feet  wide,  which  is  onl}'  a  few  inches  above  the  general 
bottom  of  the  river  bed.  This  low  bottom  has  several  sloughs  run- 
ning through  it  approximately  parallel  to  the  river.  North  of  this 
low  strip  of  bottom  the  land  abruptly  rises  several  feet  and  continues 


Kii;.  2.— Miip  showing  location  of  underflow  stations  and  test  wells  at  camp  1,  2  milcH  west  of  Ganlen, 
Kans.  Tiie  velocity  and  dire<>tion  of  flow  is  nhownby  the  length  and  direction  of  the  arrow**  at  the 
various  stations.    The  depth  is  indicated  in  figures  at  each  location. 

to  rise  gradually  for  several  miles  farther  north,  this  slope  constituting 
the  cultivated  portion  of  the  valley — the  so-called  second  bottoms. 

The  measurements  at  this  point  were  made  at  stations  that  lay,  in 
general,  in  a  straight  line  across  the  valley  (fig.  2).  Most  of  the  meas- 
urements were  made  in  the  river  channel  itself,  or  on  the  low  ground 


10 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


to  the  north.  One  test  was  made  on  the  south  side  of  the  river  at  the 
foot  of  the  sand  hills  and  another  1  mile  to  the  north.  The  velocities 
were  determined  at  depths  ranging  from  11  to  65  feet.  The  results  of 
the  measurements  at  this  location  are  given  in  Table  1. 

Table  1. —  Underflow  meamirements  at  camp  1,  -2  milea  weM,  of  Garden,  Kans. 


Date  of  test. 

1904. 

June  30 

June  22. 

Do 

June  21 

June  24 

June  2() 

June  25 

JulyC 

July  4 

July9 

Sej^tember  6 

September  8 

Average . . . 


No.  of 
station. 


9 

1 

•     2 

5 

5 

4 

8 

40 

12 

6 

40 


Depth 
of  well. 


Ffet. 
16 
14 
31 
15 
31 
29 
17 
28 
17 
11 
65 
26 


Velotdty   |  Direction  j 

of  ground  offiow.east 

water,     i  of  north.   ! 


Location  and  remarks. 


Ft.jtfrday. 

o 

5.3 

90 

4.8 

101 

10.3 

71 

9.r. 

103 

8.0 

Go 

8.0 

77 

9.0 

55 

9.6 

121 

8.2 

121 

4.0 

120 

1.75 

101 

1.3 

104 

6.6 

94 

1  mile  north  of  river. 
1.100  feet  north  of  river. 

Do. 
430  feet  north  of  river. 

Do. 

Do. 
In  channel,  260  feet  north  of  center. 
In  channel,  150  feet  south  of  center. 

Do. 

250  feet  south  of  river. 

1,100  feet  north  of  river. 

NW.  comer  SW.  *  se<-.  2.  T.  23  S ,  R. 
33  W.,  84  miles  north  of  river. 


Moan  direction  of  river  channel,  100°  east  of  north. 

Of  the.  stations  for  which  data  are  given  in  this  table,  No.  9  was 
located  on  the  second  bottoms  1  mile  north  of  the  river,  No.  4()  wa.-* 
located  on  the  uplands  8^  miles  north  of  the  river,  and  No.  12  was  in 
the  sand  hills  south  of  the  river.  The  other  stations  were  either  in 
the  first  bottoms  or  in  the  channel.  Station  No.  6  reached  so-called 
''second  water,"  or  the  water  beneath  a  layer  of  silt  which  seemed 
(juite  impervious  to  the  flow  of  water.  The  mean  of  all  of  the  observed 
velocities  was  6.6  feet  a  day.  The  average  direction  of  the  motion 
was  94°  east  of  north,  which  may  be  compared  to  the  average  direction 
of  the  river  valley  at  this  point,  which  we  have  estimated  to  be  approx- 
imately 100  -  east  of  north.  On  the  cross  section  through  the  river 
channel  and  the  first  bottoms  (fig.  3)  are  shown  the  depth  of  a  nunil)er 
of  the  test  wells  near  the  river  channel  andlhe  velocity  of  the  under- 
flow. 

Except  for  occasional  layers  of  silt,  the  gravels  were  ver}-  uniform 
in  size  and  character  of  grain  ;  a  large  percentage  of  an}'  one  sample 
consisted  of  grains  larger  than  grains  of  wheat.  The  gi-avel  was  also 
found  to  be  very  uTiiform  in  lateral  extent,  but  showed  a  tendency  to 
become  coarser  with  the  depth  until  32  feet  was  reached.  At  about 
32  feet  fine  sand  and  silt  was  encountered,  which  seemed,  as  nearly  u> 
could  ])e  determined  from  the  wells  sunk  in  a  comparatively  small 
radius,  to  be  horizontal  in  extent.  Fine  material  was  encountered  at 
a  higher  level  at  only  one  place,  which  was  near  the  center  of  the  river 
at  a  depth  of  about  18  feet,  but  50  feet  upstream  it  was  entirely  absent. 


MEASUREMENTS   OF    THE   UNDERFLOW. 


11 


A  well  was  put  down  at  station  No.  11  in  order  to  secure  a  sample  of 
this  fine  material.  It  was  found  at  the  same  level  as  at  stations  No.  6 
and  No.  8,  and  consisted  of  about  the  same  kind  pf  material,  except 
that  it  contained  a  considerable  amount  of  gypsum  mixed  with  sand. 
This  fine  sand  must  be  more  or  less  impervious,  for  no  water  could  be 
di-awn  by  means  of  a  hand  pump  from  a  well  driven  in  the  sand,  and 
a  hole  washed  out  8  feet  below  the  casing  remained  for  a  considerable 
time  unfilled  with  sand. 


fine  santf  OMfSf/f 


(^ 


<^  Vt/ocify  ofuncferfhw  m  feet  per  e&ty 
SS  Totaf  50/icfs  in  parts  per  waooo 
(2)  Chtorine  m  parts  per /oaooo 
Horizontal  scale 

Vertical  scale 
0  2  4  6  8  to  feet 


@|C11<@>  ^  ' 

Fi«.  3.— Croes  section  near  camp  1,  2  miles  west  of  Garden,  Kans.  The  total  solids  dissolved  In  the 
ground  water  at  various  depths  are  shown,  in  parts  per  100,000.  by  the  numbers  inclosed  in  rectan- 
gles. The  numbers  Inclosed  in  circles  express  the  amount,  in  parts  per  100,000,  of  chlorine  found 
at  the  position  at  which  the  circles  are  placed. 

The  velocities  above  this  layer  of  silt  are  very  uniform,  ranging 
from  4.8  feet  a  day  to  10.3  feet  a  day,  with  an  average  for  ten  tests  of 
7.68  feet  a  day,  with  the  direction  varying  from  55^  east  of  north  to 
121^  east  of  north. 

The  direction  of  motion  at  these  various  stations,  as  has  been  stated, 
was  in  general  toward  the  east,  but  several  exceptions  were  noted  from 
time  to  time.  At  the  time  field  work  was  begun  the  channel  of  the 
Arkansas  River  was  dry,  as  is  very  usual  in  the  months  from  June  to 
October.  The  summer  of  1904,  however,  proved  to  be  an  exceptional 
one,  and  high  floods  were  of  constant  occurrence  throughout  the  sea- 
son. One  of  these  floods  came  down  the  river  soon  after  the  first 
undei-flow  stations  were  established  near  the  bank  of  the  river.  This 
offered  an  excellent  opportunity  of  determining  the  influence  of  the 


12  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

river  waters  upon  the  underflow.  At  one  underflow  station,  situated 
near  the  north  bank  of  the  channel  of  the  river,  2  miles  west  of  Gar- 
den, the  direction  of  the  flow  of  the  ground  waters  was  very  greatly 
changed  b}'  the  flood  in  the  river.  It  was  therefore  possible  to  niea>- 
ure  the  rate  at  which  the  river  contributed  to  the  ground  watei-s  at 
this  point.  It  was  found  that  the  water  during  the  early  stages  of  tlie 
flood  flowed  away  from  the  river  at  the  rate  of  6  to  8  feet  per  twenty- 
four  hours.  This  point  can  be  established  by  consulting  the  recoi-d  for 
stations  No.  2  and  No.  5,  as  given  in  Table  1.  These  stations  ai-e 
located  at  the  same  point.  The  velocit}'  at  station  No.  2  on  June  21, 
1904,  before  a  rain  on  the  night  of  June  21,  and  before  a  flood  which 
came  down  the  river  at  3  p.  m.  June  22,  was  9.6  feet  per  twenty-four 
hours  in  a  direction  103^  east  of  north,  which  is  substantially  the  dire< - 
tion  of  the  river  channel.  After  the  flood  the  velocity^  at  the  same  pla<*e 
(at  a  greater  depth,  however)  was  found  to  be  8  feet  per  twenty-four 
hours,  in  a  direction  65^  east  of  north,  or  at  an  angle  of  35  -  away  from 
the  river  channel,  the  flood  having  therefore  changed  the  former 
direction  of  flow  by  about  38^.  On  June  26,  when  the  flood  had  still 
further  receded,  a  second  determination  of  velocity  showed  the  same 
rate  as  before,  but  the  direction  had  shifted  to  77^  east  of  north,  or  at 
an  angle  of  about  23-  with  the  river  channel. 

It  was  not  only  possible  to  actually  determine  this  rate  of  loss  of 
water  from  the  river  by  the  use  of  the  electric  underflow  meter,  hut 
the  northerly  progress  of  the  water  from  the  river  into  the  gnivels 
could  be  noted  by  observation  of  the  changes  in  the  temperature  of  the 
ground  water  as  it  flowed  north.  The  river  water  was  much  warmer 
than  the  natural  ground  water,  and  the  increased  temperature  could 
be  followed  away  from  the  river  bank.  These  facts  are  shown  by  the 
temperatures  of  the  water  recorded  in  Table  11.  In  that  table  will  l)e 
found  the  following  entries: 

Tfmj[}erature  of  water  of  river  and  test  ivelUy  June  ^,  1904^ 

River ., 71 

Test  well  No.  3,  .3H0  feet  north  of  river 62.5 

Test  well  No.  1,  1,100  feet  north  of  river 59 

The  water  taken  from  the  other  wells  had  a  somewhat  more  uniform 
temperature,  excepting  in  two  cases — that  taken  from  the  wells  at  sta- 
tion No.  10  and  station  No.  8.  At  station  No.  10,  at  a  depth  of  Ls 
feet,  the  temperature  was  51;  at  station  No.  8,  28  feet  below  the 
bottom  of  the  river,  the  tempemture  was  48^,  which  was  the  colde>t 
water  found  at  any  point.  At  these  two  stations  the  direction  of  the 
underflow  was  the  most  southerly  of  any  found,  being  in  each  ca.so 
121°  ea.st  of  north. 

It  was  also  possible  to  partially  trace  inward  moving  ground  water 
originating  in  the  river  by  the  change  in  the  chemical  com|x)sition  of 
the  water.     Apparatus  was  at  hand  for  detei-mining  the  alkalinity, 


MEASUREMENTS   OF    THE    UNDERFLOW.  13 

hardness,  chlorine,  and  the  total  solids  dissolved  in  the  water;  and  this 
apparatus  was  used  to  secure  the  results  just  stated.  A  further  veri- 
fication of  the  inwardly  moving  ground  water  was  found  in  thechangeil 
slope  of  the  water  plane  during  the  flood  periods  in  the  river.  The 
water  plane  sloped  away  from  the  river  about  8  feet  to  the  mile  during 
the  first  stages  of  high  water,  and  corresponded  quite  accurately  with 
the  observed  velocities  of  the  water.  Fig.  3  shows  the  slope  of  the 
water  plane  on  June  23  and  July  3.  Several  gradients  corresponding 
to  other  dates  are  given  in  Table  1. 

MEASUREMENTS  AT  SHERLOCK,  KANS.  (CAMP  2). 

Several  underflow  measurements  were  taken  at  camp  2,  which  was 
situated  at  Sherlock,  Kans.,  7  miles  west  of  Garden.  The  results 
differed  little  from  those  found  at  the  first  set  of  stations  at  camp  1, 
except  that  more  sorting  of  the  gravels  had  taken  place  at  the  latter 
point,  giving  greater  variety  to  the  rate  of  movement.  The  location 
of  the  various  test  wells  and  underflow  stations  is  marked  in  fig.  4. 
The  same  stations  are  shown  in  cross  section  in  fig.  5.  The  details  of 
the  results  are  printed  in  Table  2.  From  this  table  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  average  velocity  of  the  underflow  for  all  of  the  stations  was 
SA)  feet  per  twent\'-four  hours.  The  mean  direction  of  the  motion  was 
J>3.5'^  east  of  north,  which  may  be  compared  with  the  mean  direction  of 
the  river  valley  at  this  point,  which  was  computed  to  be  105^  east  of 
north.  There  was  some  water  in  the  river  throughout  all  of  the  time 
during  which  the  tests  were  made,  and  on  July  27  a  heavy  flood  swept 
down  the  river. 

Tablr  2. — Underflow  measurements  at  camp  2,  Sherlock^  Kans. 


Velocity   I  Dlre<;tion  I 
I>Mte  of  toit.        '  sLtinn    I      **^      I  ofgrroiiiul  |Offlow,ea.st  lxx;alion  and  remarks. 

water.      '   of  north. 


19(H. 

July  16 

July  30 

July  31 

July  17 

July  23 

July  22 

July  18 

July  29 

July  22 


No.  of 
station. 

i^epiii 
of 

wells. 

• 

Feei. 

13 

18 

21 

28 

22 

28 

14 

•22 

18 

21 

17 

36 

15 

22 

•20 

•26 

16 

18 

Ft.  ]>cr  day. 


6. 7  I  01. 0  i  700  feet  north  of  river. 
•22.9               64.0  i  Do. 

2. 8  101. 0  I  1,700  feet  north  of  river. 

9. 1  75. 0  :  In  channel,  500  feet  north  of  center. 
16.0             101.0  !  In  channel,  20  feet  north  of  cenler. 

3. 0  I  103. 0     In  channel,  '210  feet  aouth  of  center. 

16.7  13'2.0  Do. 

2. 2  j  1  £2. 0     -200  feet  south  of  ri  ver. 
•2.0  79.0  j  2,100  feet  south  of  river. 


Average 8.9  1  93.5 

31ean  direction  of  river  channel,  105°  etist  of  north. 


By  studying  the  results  of  the  measurements  it  will  be  observed 
that  station  No.  22  was  on  the  border  of  the  second  bottoms,  1,700 
feet  north  of  the  north  bank  of  the  river.  The  velocity  at  this  station 
was  2.8  feet   per  day,  and  the  direction  of  flow  was  substantially 


14 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


the  same  as  the  direction  of  the  river  valley.     This  resuJt  is  impor- 
tant, as  the  measurement  was  made  on  July  31,  at  a  time  when   the 


SEC/3.Te4S.. 


T0stwe/fNe.6 


Scale 

300 


looo  feet 


^^ 


Sta  f6 


Fig.  4. — Map  showinK  location  of  underflow  stations  and  te.si  welia  at  bherluck,  Kaii».,  7  iuiicv  %«*eHi  <«! 
Ganlen.  The  velocity  and  direction  of  flow  of  the  ground  water  are  shown  by  the  length  and  direi*- 
tion  of  the  arrows  at  the  various  stations.    The  depth  is  indicated  in  flgures  at  each  station. 

flood  of  July  ^lA  should  have  shown  some  influence  upon  the  direction 
of  flow,  if  it  had  any  at  all.  The  direction  of  motion  at  this  station 
was  in  marked  contrast  to  the  direction  of  flow  observed  at  stations 


MEASUREMENTS    OF    THE    UNDERFLOW. 


15 


No.  13  and  No.  21,  located  in  the  first  bottoms,  700  feet  north  of  the 
river.  At  both  of  the  latter  stations  the  direction  of  flow  was  64^ 
east  of  north,  or  in  a  direction  making  an  angle  of  41^  northeast  of 
the  general  direction  of  the  river  valley.  These  stations  were  within 
the  immediate  influence  of  the  fluctuations  of  the  height  of  the  water 
in  the  river. ** 

Of  the  stations  established  in  the  channel  of  the  river  itself,  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  a  station  located  north  of  the  center  of  the 


Sandhills 


<^  ^ioC'tyofundernowinfeetpercfay 

H]  Tsisi  solids j  parts  per  fOdOOO 

@  Otiof/ne ,  parts  per  tOO.  000 

Tht  w^nation  of  total  solids  is  shown  by  thecootourfines 


Horizontal  scale 

&00  1000  1500 


^ooofeet 


Vertical  seal* 

.  .  .  S         to         t?  feet 


Fi(i.  5. — Cross  section  at  camp  2,  near  Sherlock,  Kans.  The  total  solids  dissolved  in  the  ground  water 
at  various  depths  are  shown  in  parts  per  100,000  by  the  numbers  inclosed  in  rectangles.  The 
numbers  inclosed  In  circles  express  the  amount,  in  parts  per  100,000,  of  chlorine  found  at  the 
position  where  the  circles  are  placed.  The  contour  lines  show  the  position  of  water  of  the  same 
strength.    The  contribution  of  soft  water  from  the  sand  hills  is  very  apparent. 

channel  (station  18)  showed  a  component  of  velocity  northerly  to  the 
general  trend  of  the  valle\ ,  while  a  station  south  of  the  channel  (sta- 
tion 15)  showed  a  component  of  velocity  southerly  to  the  direction  of 
the  valley.  At  station  No.  17,  in  the  channel  at  the  same  point  as  sta- 
tion No.  15,  but  at  a  greater  depth,  the  direction  of  the  flow  corre- 
sj)onded  closely  with  the  direction  of  the  valley,  indicating  that  the 
influence  of  flowing  water  in  the  river  did  not  extend  so  deep.  Station 
No.  20  was  located  on  the  first  bottoms,  200  feet  .south  of  tlie  south 
bank  of  the  river.  The  motion  at  this  point  showed  a  southerly  com- 
ponent, the  direction  of  flow  making  an  angle  of  17  with  the  direction 
of  the  vallev.     The  measurement  was  taken  while  tiic  river  was  in 


aThis  fact  will  be  further  illustrate<i  at  a  later  place  in  this  report. 


16 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


flood.  Station  No.  16  was  located  in  the  boi-der  of  the  sand  hillj?, 
nearly  a  half  mile  south  of  the  river.  The  direction  of  flow  was  toward 
the  river  and  away  from  the  sand  hills,  as  should  be  expected  on 
account  of  the  excellent  collecting  area  offered  by  the  sand  hills  to  the 
i-ainfall. 

The  fac^t  that  the  influence  of  the  river  only  extends  to  very  shallow 
depths  and  that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ground  water  origi- 
nates in  the  sand  hills  is  shown  by  the  cross  section  (fig.  5).  The  con- 
tour lines  in  this  figure  correspond  to  equal  amounts  of  total  solid?< 
dissolved  in  the  ground  water.  The  soft  water  from  the  sand  hills  can 
be  observed  to  be  crowding  the  strong  water  of  the  underflow  to  the 
north  of  the  valley. 


MEASUREMENTS  AT  DEERFIELD,  KANS.  (CAMP  3). 

Camp  3  was  established  near  the  Deerfield  bridge,  14  miles  west  of 
Garden.  The  valley  at  this  point  lies  mostly  south  of  the  channel. 
All  of  the  south-side  lands, -to  the  edge  of  the  sand  hills,  would  proba- 
bly be  classed  as  '*  first  bottoms."  The  surface  of  the  ground  on  the>c 
lands  is  onlj'  a  few  feet  above  the  river  bed  and  the  soil  is  unusually 
sandy.  The  topogmphy  of  the  sand  hills  south  of  the  bottom  lands  is 
unusually  well  adapted  for  collecting  the  rainfall,  there  being  several 
level  stretches  inclosed  or  hemmed  in  b)^  the  hills.  A  short  distanc-e 
south  of  station  No.  23  there  are  found  the  remains  of  a  former  river 
bank,  indicating  that  an  ancient  channel  extended  a.s  far  south  its  sta- 
tion No.  23  (see  fig.  6). 

On  the  north  side  of  the  channel  the  river  sweeps  a  high  bank  from 
6  to  10  feet  above  the  river  bed  for  a  distance  of  about  3  miles.  The 
uplands  begin  not  more  than  1  mile  north  of  the  river. 

Since  the  channel  here  borders  the  extreme  north  margin  of  the 
valley  the  underflow  measurements  were  made  south  of  the  river  or 
in  the  channel.     The  results  are  printed  in  Table  3. 

Table  3. —  Underflow  measurements  at  camp  S,  DeerfiM^  Kans, 


Date  of  lest. 


,    No.  of 
[  station. 


Depth  Velo<'ityof|  Direction 
of  ground     of  flow  east 

wells.        water.     I   of  north. 


Location  and  remarks. 


1901. 

August  6 

Do 

Augu.st5 

Augu.st  8 

Augusts 

August  12 

September  '2:2 .. 
August  17 

Average. 


Fed. 

Ft.  Iter  day. 

o 

25 

16 

6.3 

66.0 

In  channel  at  center. 

24 

21 

12.5 

67.0 

In  channel  400  feet  south  of  center 

23 

24 

19.2 

111.0 

500  leet  south  of  river. 

26 

36 

9.2 

111.0 

Do. 

27 

24 

14.8 

129.0 

1,050  feet  south  of  river 

28 

21 

1.25 

74.0 

1,800  feet  south  of  river. 

29 

17 

1.6 

56.0 

1.8  miles  .south  of  river. 

32 

31 

2.2 

63.0 

1,800  feet  .Month  of  river. 

8.4 

84.6 

Mean  direction  of  river  channel,  70°  east  of  north. 


MEASUREMENTS    OF   THE    UNDERFLOW. 


17 


The  average  velocity  of  the  ground  water,  8.4  feet  per  twenty-four 
hours,  compares  accurately  with  the  average  velocities  found  for 
.stations  similarly  located  at  previous  camps.  The  mean  direction  does 
not  correspond  as  accurately  with  the  general   trend  of  the  river 


.^r.^'^-:^r 


^^'^  '^i-"^-  ^^■■■^'^«^  -^^-i^^^^ 


^ 


^^ 


Fig.  6.— Map  ahowing  the  location  of  underflow  stations  at  camp  3,  near  Dcerfleld,  Kaus.  The 
velocity  and  direction  of  flow  of  the  ground  water  is  shown  by  the  length  and  direction  of  the 
arrows.    The  depth  is  indicated  in  flgures  at  each  station. 

channel  as  at  other  stations,  probably  in  part  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  river  has  at  this  point  a  ver}''  northerly  course. 

It  will  \ye  observed  that  the  direction  of  flow  at  stations  Nos.  23,  26, 
and  27,  which  are,  respectively,  500,  500,  and  1,050  feet  south  of  the 
river,  had  a  strong  southerly  component,  the  resultant  direction  of 

IKE  153—06 2 


1 


18  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

motion  making  angles  in  the  three  cases  of  41^,  41^,  and  59^,  reepec- 
tiveh%  awa}^  from  the  river.  These  are  to  be  contrasted  with  the 
direction  of  motion  nearer  the  sand  hills,  at  stations  Nos.  29  and  82, 
where  the  direction  of  flow  was  away  from  the  sand  hills  and  toward 
the  river,  the  direction  of  flow  in  the  two  cases  making  angles  of  1^- 
and  7^,  respe^jtivel}^  toward  the  channel  of  the  river. 

MEASUREMENTS  AT  CLEAR  LAKE,  NEAR  HARTLAND,  KANS. 

(CAMP  4). 

About  2i  miles  southeast  of  Hartland,  Kans.,  in  section  13,  T.  25  S., 
R.  37  W. ,  there  is  situated  a  small  bod}'  of  water  called  Clear  Lake. 
This  pond  is  nearly  circular,  320  feet  in  length  and  280  feet  across  at 
the  narrowest  point.  The  pond  is  located  within  500  feet  of  the  south- 
side  ditch,  and  the  owners  of  the  canal  have  had  under  serious  con>id- 
eration  the  erection  of  a  pumping  plant  to  take  water  from  the  pond 
to  suppl}^  the  ditch  with  water  for  irrigation.  It  was  expected  hv 
the  promoters  of  this  scheme  that  the  lake  would  act  as  an  enormou> 
well  and  would  furnish  a  large  amount  of  water  when  its  level  was 
lowered  by  means  of  large  centrifugal  pumps. 

There  have  been  the  usual  rumors  current  among  the  settlers  to  the 
eflfect  that  the  pond  was  very  deep,  and  that  its  elevation  was  independ- 
ent of  the  amount  of  rainfall  or  the  fluctuations  in  the  river,  which  at 
this  point  is  about  1  mile  northwest  of  the  pond.  Investigations 
showed  that  the  water  in  the  lake  was  11  feet  below  the  water  in  south- 
side  ditch.  The  location  of  the  lake  with  reference  to  the  ditch  and 
the  topography  near  it  is  shown  on  the  map,  fig.  7.  This  is  a  5-f(x>t 
contour  map  of  the  district  surrounding  the  lake,  made  from  the  level 
of  the  water  in  the  pond  as  datum.  Mr.  H.  E.  Hedge,  engineer  of 
the  south-side  dit(*h,  furnished  the  field  party  much  assistance,  and 
especially  aided  them  in  the  construction  of  a  raft  from  which  to  take 
soundings,  so  as  to  make  a  hydrographic  map  of  the  bottom  of  the 
lake.  The  shores  slope  at  an  angle  of  about  35^  to  a  depth  of  1^> 
feet,  where  there  is  practically  a  flat  level  floor  of  mud.  At  this  depth 
the  diameter  of  the  lake  is  about  100  feet.  From  this  it  can  be  com- 
puted that  the  total  volume  of  the  lake  is  483,000  cubic  feet,  or  that 
the  lake  contains  about  11  acre-feet  of  water.  The  bottom  of  the  lake 
consists  of  an  accumulation  of  black  muck,  w^hich  is  ver}'  soft.  A  test 
well  was  sunk  in  the  center  of  the  lake  from  the  raft  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  character  of  the  material  at  the  bottom,  so  as  to 
settle,  as  far  as  practicable,  the  question  of  whether  the  lake  could  l>e 
used  as  a  large  well  from  which  to  secure  a  supply  of  water.  In  sink- 
ing a  2-inch  pipe  for  this  purpose  it  was  found  that  it  would  sink  of 
its  own  weight  to  a  depth  of  30  feet.  The  pipe  was  then  forcHnl 
dow^n  w^ithout  driving  to  a  depth  of  40  feet,  after  which  it  was  easily 
jetted  and  driven  to  a  depth  of  62  feet  below  the  water,  or  46  feet 
under  the  bottom  of  the  lake.     In  clearing  the  material  from  the  2-incb 


MEASUEEMBNTS   OF   THE   UNDEBFLOW. 


19 


pipe  75  feet  of  wash  pipe  was  used,  so  that  samples  were  washed  up 
from  a  depth  of  about  12  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  2-inch  well. 
The  material  washed  out  consisted  of  black  mud  and  clay,  with  some 
quicksand. 


Fio.  7.— Map  showing  location  of  underflow  stations  and  test  wells  near  Clear  Lake,  Kansa.s. 

A  line  of  levels  was  run  from  Clear  Lake  to  Arkansas  River  as 
nearly  as  practicable  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  river 
channel.  The  result  of  this  leveling  showed  that  the  river  was  at 
least  8  feet  higher  than  the  lake.« 

a  Field  notes  show  that  the  river  was  quite  high  at  the  time  of  the  observation  on  August  20, 1904. 


20  UNDEBFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

This  result  was  somewhat  surprising,  so  that  a  second  line  of  leveU 
was  run  to  the  river  along  the  ea«t  line  of  section  13  until  this  line 
intersected  the  river.  This  line  of  levels  intersected  the  river  at  a 
point  three-fourths  of  a  mile  below  the  former  point.  The  river  at 
this  point  was  found  to  be  3  feet  higher  than  the  surface  of  Clear 
Lake.  Since  the  river  slopes  about  7k  feet  to  the  mile,  this  checks 
the  former  measurement  that  the  river  opposite  the  pond  is  8  feet 
higher  than  the  water  in  the  latter. 

The  above  observations  seem  to  indicate  that  the  small  pond  known 
as  Clear  Lake  is  one  of  the  many  circular  depressions  which  are  found 
throughout  the  western  plains,  and  which  have  been  fully  described 
by  Mr.  Willard  D.  Johnson. « 

This  small  pond  is  of  especial  interest  beca,use  it  is  in  line  with  the 
dry  channel  of  a  plains  stream  called  Bear  Creek.  This  stream  rises  in 
Colorado,  and  near  the  western  border  of  Kansas  has  a  well-marked 
valley,  eroded  to  a  depth  of  nearly  100  feet,  but  as  it  approaches 
Arkansas  River,  near  the  north  edge  of  Grant  Count}',  it  loses  thk, 
and  its  waters  spread  out  on  the  plains  and  sink.  The  ordinary  flow 
of  this  stream  is  very  small,  but  during  times  of  heavy  rain  in  eastern 
Colorado  and  western  Kansas  it  may  carry  a  large  quantity  of  water* 
which  it  pours  out  upon  the  high  plaint  of  northern  Grant  County  and 
into  the  sand  hills  along  the  south  side  of  Arkansas  River.  On  some 
occasions  the  freshets  in  this  stream  have  been  so  severe  that  the 
waters  have  nearly  reached  the  Arkansas.  There  is  a  slight  elongated 
depression  extending  through  the  sand  hills  in  line  with  Clear  Lake, 
which  makes  it  possible  to  believe  that  the  waters  of  Bear  Creek  have 
on  some  occasions  in  the  past  extended  to  the  Arkansas,  but  so  far  as 
known  there  is  no  settler  who  can  testify  to  having  actually  observed 
such  an  event. 

It  can  easily  be  believed,  from  the  rather  remarkable  character  of 
Bear  Creek,  that  settlers  would  naturally  associate  Clear  Lake  with  the 
disappearing  waters  of  Bear  Creek,  so  that  the  story  would  become 
current  that  Clear  Lake  was  merely  an  evidence  or  indication  of  the 
existence  of  an  underground  stream  extending  from  the  sand  hills  to 
Arkansas  Valley  itself.  On  this  account  belief  in  the  adaptability  of 
the  lake  for  a  supply  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  for  irrigation  has 
been  prevalent,  so  that  an  investigation  of  the  conditions  surrounding 
the  lake  has  importance.  There  are  several  streams  of  the  same  type 
as  Bear  Creek  in  western  Kansas. 

Underflow  stations  Nos.  33,  35,  and  36  were  established,  as  shown  on 
the  map  (fig.  7),  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  direction  and  mag- 
nitude of  the  velocity  of  the  underground  water.  It  was  hoped  to 
determine  in  this  way  whether  or  not  there  was  any  seepage  at  this 
point  from  the  direction  of  Bear  Creek  toward  Arkansas  Valley.     The 

a  The  High  Plains  and  their  utilization:  Twenty-lirat  Ann.  Rept.U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  4,  1900,  pp. 
609.  693-715. 


MEASUREMENTS   OF   THE   UNDERFLOW. 


21 


direction  and  velocity  of  movement  are  indicated  b}^  the  arrows  shown 
in  fig.  7,  and  the  details  of  the  measuremiMit  are  given  in  Table  4. 
Station  No.  33,  25  feet  south  of  Clear  Lake,  gave  a  velocity  of  5  feet 
a  day  ;  the  direction  was  almost  exactly  across  the  dry  channel  of  Bear 
Creek  and  in  the  general  direction  of  Arkansas  Valley.  Station  No. 
J^O,  located  at  the  same  place,  but  at  a  depth  of  38  feet,  showed  a 
velocity  of  4.3  feet  in  the  same  direction.  Station  No.  35, 150  feet  north- 
west of  Clear  Lake,  showed  a  velocity  of  5  feet  a  day  at  a  depth  of  30 
feet.  The  velocities  observed  at  this  point  may  have  been  due  in  part 
to  seepage  from  the  south-side  ditch,  as  the  direction  was  almost 
directly  away  from  this  ditch  and  in  the  general  direction  of  the  slope 
of  the  ground.  Even  if  this  be  the  case,  it  nevertheless  proves  that 
there  is  no  seepage  nor  movement  of  ground  water  extending  down  the 
so-called  channel  of  Bear  Creek,  for  if  there  had  been  such  motion  the 
resultant  velocity  found  would  at  least  have  shown  a  component  of 
motion  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  in  the  channel  of  Bear  Creek.  It 
would  be  impossible  for  the  seepage  from  south  side  ditch  to  disguise 
completely  a  ground-water  movement  in  another  direction. 

Table  4. —  Vnd^rflow  measurements  at  camp  4i  Clear  Ijake^  near  Ilartland,  Kans. 


Date  of  test. 


No.  of 
I  Btation. 


1904. 
August  19  .. 
August  20  . . 
August  21  .. 


35 


Depth 
of 

wells. 

Velocity  of 
gmiind 
water. 

Direction 

of  flow,  cemt 

of  north. 

Fed. 

n.  per  day. 

o 

30 

5.0 

74 

15 

8.1 

101 

3S 

4.3 

74 

Location  and  remarks. 


26  feet  Houthwest  of  Clear  Lake. 
150  feet  northwest  of  Clear  Lake. 
25  feet  southwest  of  Clear  Lake. 


An  attempt  was  made  to  sink  a  set  of  wells  at  station  No.  34,  230 
feet  south  of  Clear  Lake.  At  this  point  wells  were  driven  to  a  depth 
of  40  feet,  but  the  material  was  so  fine  that  no  water  could  be  pumped 
from  the  wells,  except  a  very  little  at  a  depth  of  16  feet.  On  this 
account  no  test  was  made. 

It  can  easily  be  concluded  from  the  tests  made  above  that  it  is  not 
feasible  to  use  Clear  Lake  as  a  well  from  which  a  large  quantity  of 
water  can  be  pumped  for  irrigation  purposes.  While  Clear  Lake 
undoubtedl}'  has  direct  connection  with  the  surrounding  ground  water 
and  shows  the  level  of  the  ground  water  in  its  neighborhood,  the  evi- 
dence from  the  character  of  the  material  encountered  in  stations  Nos. 
33,  35,  and  36,  and  the  evidence  from  direct  observation  of  the  flow  of 
the  water  and  the  material  encountered  in  the  deep  well  sunk  in  the 
middle  of  the  lake,  show  that  the  ix)nd  is  not  favorably  situated  for 
use  as  a  source  of  a  large  supply  of  water  for  the  south-side  ditch. 

These  observations  also  show  that  no  ground  water  reaches  either 
Clear  Lake  or  Arkansas  River  from  the  lost  waters  of  Bear  Creek. 
Any  seepage  water  approaching  Arkansas  Valley  from  Bear  Creek 
must  take  up  a  generally  easterly  movement  almost  immediately  upon 
entering  the  sand  hills. 


22 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


MEASUREMENTS    OP    THE    UNDERFLOW   AT  THE    NARROWS    OF 
ARKANSAS  RIVER,  NEAR  HARTLAND,  KANS.  (CAMP  5). 

Two  miles  west  of  Hartland,  Kans.,  Arkansas.  River  flows  between 
rock  bluffs,  the  distance  between  which  at  the  narrowest  poilion  is 


2,250  feet.     The  river  channel  occupies  900  feet  of  this  distance,  only 
a  portion  of  which  was  utilized  by  flowing  water  on  August  24,  ltR)4. 


MEASUREMENTS   OF   THE   UNDERFLOW. 


23 


Test  wells  A,  B,  and  C  were  driven  to  shallow  depths  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  slope  of  the  water  plane  through  the  Narrows. 


3  U9M  IS91  \ 


V" 


fUf/  //*4»  iti^ 


^  ^V  //*•*  JMJ 


^  II9M  I9il  \ 


¥119^^9^ 


4|   9 


^1 


. 


//»4»  ^U9^UtfUJSQ    I 


I 
5 


1 

I 


I, 


Eh  -O 

08    o 


I 


In  addition  to  these  test  wells,  the  elevation  of  the  water  was  taken 
at  Demlinger's  well  and  in  the  wells  of  station  No.  38,  and  in  test  wells 


24  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

driven  for  the  purpose  of  testing  for  rock.  These  wells  form  a  lint' 
about  a  mile  long,  as  indicated  on  the  map  (fig.  8).  The  gradient  of 
the  water  plane  in  the  first  portion  of  this  line  was  7.5  feet  per  mie: 
in  the  next  portion  it  was  6.4  feet  per  mile,  and  in  the  next  9. 2  feet 
per  mile.  Just  above  the  Narrows  the  gradient  was  found  to  be  11.4 
feet  per  mile,  and  in  the  last  portion,  in  the  Narrows  itself,  the  slop*- 
of  the  water  plane  was  8.5  feet  per  mile.  A  profile  showing  the-M- 
gradients  is  given  at  the  bottom  of  fig.  9. 

Test  wells  Nos.  1  and  2  (shown  in  fig.  8)  were  driven  for  the  pur- 
pose of  testing  for  bed  rock.  What  is  believed  to  be  rock  was 
struck  at  test  well  No.  1,  at  elevation  3,011.7,  or  37  feet  below  th(» 
water  plane,  and  at  test  well  No.  2  rock  was  reached  at  elevation 
3,009.8,  or  39.3  feet  below  the  water  plane.  Rock  was  also  struck  at 
station  No.  38  at  38.75  feet  below  the  water  plane.  As  a  diamond 
drill  was  not  at  hand,  the  evidence  that  bed  rock  was  reached  is,  of 
course,  not  conclusive.  The  only  test  that  could  be  applied  was  the 
evidence  supplied  by  the  drill  on  the  wash  pipe  and  by  the  wa\'  in 
which  the  2-inch  casing  acted  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  drive  it. 

Two  measurements  were  made  of  the  rate  of  movement  of  the 
undei'flow  near  the  center  of  the  Narrows  at  stations  Nos.  37  and  3S. 
The  velocities  determined  were  9.6  feet  per  twenty -four  hours  at  a 
depth  of  16  feet  and  3.4  feet  per  twenty -four  hours  at  a  depth  of 

25  feet. 

Table  5. — Underflow  measurements  al  camp  J,  Narrows  of  Arkafisas  River y  near  Har*- 

landj  Kans. 


Date  of  test.        I    No.  o^ 

I 


1904.  I 

AugUKt  23 :  37 


Depth 

of 
wells. 


IVet. 
16 


Augimt26 1  38  ,  25 


ground     'of  flow,  casti  Location  and  remarks, 

water,     i    of  north,  j 


Ft.  ]*er  day. 
9.6 
3.4 


Center  of  channel. 
Do. 


From  the  cross  section  of  the  Narrow^s  (shown  in  fig.  9)  an  estimate 
can  be  made  of  the  amount  of  water  which  flows  through  the  Narrows. 
The  total  cross  section  of  the  sands,  assuming  the  above  test  borings 
as  indicating  the  true  position  of  bed  rock,  is  75,000  square  feet. 
Assuming  one-third  as  the  porosit}^  of  the  sands  and  10  feet  per  day 
as  the  average  velocity  of  the  groundwater,  the  total  flow  through  the 
Narrows  would  be  250,000  cubic  feet  per  day,  or  2.9  cubic  feet  per 
second.  The  actual  average  velocity  of  the  underflow  is  undoubtedly 
much  less  than  10  feet  per  day,  so  that  the  above  result  represents  the 
maximum  that  can  be  claimed  in  a  high  estimate. 


CHAPTER  II. 


FliUCTlTATIONS  OF  GROUND- WATER  liEAT^Ii. 

INFLUENCE  OF  RAINFALL  AND  OF  HEIGHT  OF  WATER  IN 
ARKANSAS  RIVER  ON  THE  GROUND- WATER  LEVEL., 

During  the  field  work  of  the  summer  several  opportunities  were 
found  to  observe  the  influence  of  a  change  of  level  of  the  water  in  the 
river  upon  the  water  plane  in  the  adjacent  bottom  lands.  The  summer 
of  1904  was  especially  favorable  for  observations  of  this  kind,  as  the 
season  was  an  exceptional  one,  both  in  respect  to  the  rainfall  and  as  to 
the  quantity  of  water  flowing  in  the  river.  There  was  water  in  Arkansas 
River,  in  western  Kansas,  during  nearly  all  of  the  time  from  the  mid- 
dle of  June  to  the  middle  of  September,  and  on  seveml  occasions  floods 
of  marked  suddenness  and  great  severity  passed  down  the  river.  The 
i*ainfall  during  the  same  period  was  above  the  average.  The  record 
of  rainfall  from  May  1  to  October  1,  as  observed  by  the  volunteer  sta- 
tion of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  at  Garden,  Kans.,  is  given 
in  Table  6. 

Table  6. — Daily  precipitaiianj  Garden,  Kans.,  May  1  to  September  SO,  1904. 


Date. 

May. 

1 

0.58 

2 

Trace. 

3 

1.82 

4 

.75 

5 •. 

.0 

6 

.0 

.0 

8 

.20 

9 

.0 

10 

.0 

11 

.0 

12 

Trace. 

13 

.0 

14 

.0 

15 

Trace. 

16 

.0 

17 

.0 

18 

.0 

19 

.0 

20 

,0 

21 

.08 

22 

.85 

23 

.0 

24 

.0 

25 

.0 

26 

.0 

June.    :    July. 

August. 

September. 

0.0 

0.0 

0.08 

0.0 

.25 

.0 

.0 

.24 

.04 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.95 

.28 

.0 

.0 

Trace. 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.12 

.45 

.0 

.0 

.55 

.0 

.0 

.0 

1.10 

.0 

.0 

.71 

.0 

Trace. 

.0 

.0 

.05 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

1.32 

.0 

.0 

.30 

.08 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

Trace. 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.19 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.W 

.0 

.0 

.0   ^ 

.32 

.0 

.0 

Trace. 

.0 

.0 

Trace. 

Trace. 

.0 

.0 

.W 

«1.42 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.06 

.11 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

.0 

((Much  leKi  lit  Sherlcx;k,  Kan.s. 


25 


26  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

Table  6. — i)aily  precipUationj  Garden,  A'arw.,  May  1  to  September  SO,  1904 — Continued. 


I>ate. 


27. 

28., 
29. 


Total. 


May. 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September. 

0.03 

0.0    ■ 

0.0 

0.0 

0.10 

.04 

.20 

.0 

.0 

1.S5 

.0 

.0    ' 

.0 

.0 

1.10 

.0 

.0    j 

.0 

.09 

.10 

.0 

Trace. 

Trace. 

4.30 

.«: 

5.65 

1.32 

3.J9 

Total  for  five  months,  17.30. 

Observations  of  the  water  plane  were  made  very  systeniaticallv 
during  the  various  stages  of  the  water  in  the  river  by  Mr.  Wolff, 
who  was  in  charge  of  the  part}'^  making  the  field  observations-  The 
results  of  these  observations  are  given  in  the  acxuompanying  diagrams, 
which  Mr.  Wolff  has  constructed  from  the  field  notes.  The  first 
underflow  determinations  were  made  at  the  camp  located  about  2  miles 
west  of  Garden,  Kans.,  on  the  ranch  of  Mrs.  M.  Richter,  which  L^ 
referred  to  in  the  text  as  camp  1.  At  this  camp  a  number  of  shallow 
test  wells  were  put  in  place  for  the  special  purpose  of  observing  the 
position  of  the  water  plane.  These  test  wells  are  shown  on  the  map 
(fig.  2),  from  which  it  will  be  observed  that  test  wells  Nos.  1  and  '2 
were  located  north  of  the  river  bank  at  a  distance  of  about  1,070  feet; 
test  well  No.  3  was  closer  to  the  river,  at  a  distance  of  about  360  feet 
from  the  north  bank.  A  large  well  located  on  the  ranch  of  Mi-s. 
Richter,  and  used  for  irrigation,  was  also  used  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  track  of  the  fluctuations  of  the  water  plane.  The  location  of 
this  well  is  shown  on  the  map  (fig.  2)  near  the  quarter- section  comer 
in  the  upper  I'ight-hand  corner  of  the  map.  As  will  be  observed,  thk 
well  is  situated  a  considei*able  distance  upstream  from  test  wells  Nos. 
1,  2,  and  3;  hence  the  water  in  it  stood  much  higher  than  that  in  the 
test  wells,  since  the  water  plane  slopes  eastward  at  the  rate  of  about 
7i  feet  per  mile.  The  land  in  which  test  wells  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  are 
situated  is  what  is  commonly  called  in  that  locality  ''firet  bottoms." 
Immediately  north  of  test  wells  Nos.  1  and  2  the  ''second  bottoms'' 
begin,  the  land  here  being  some  3  to  5  feet  higher  than  in  the  '"first 
bottoms."  Two  sloughs  shown  on  the  map  were  grass  covered,  hut 
contained  more  or  less  water  either  during  high  stages  of  the  river 
or  after  heavy  rains.  In  fig.  10  the  elevations  of  water  in  Arkansas 
River  from  June  16  to  July  11,  1904,  and  the  elevations  in  test  wells 
Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  and  in  Mrs.  Richter's  well  are  represented  graphic- 
ally. The  elevations  are  expressed  in  feet  above  mean  sea  level,  as 
determined  from  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  permanent 
bench  marks  in  the  valley.  The  detailed  observations  at  these  stations 
are  printed  in  Table  7,  in  which  the  elevations  are  given  in  feet  above 
mean  sc^a  level.  The  observation  of  the  height  of  the  river  was  made 
from  a  gage  rod  set  up  in  the  river  and  observed  from  the  bank  with 


FLUCTUATIONS   OP    GROUND-WATER   LEVEL. 


27 


a  level.  Observations  were  made  morning  and  evening,  during  the 
period  covered  by  the  table.  Th<^re  were  occasional  omissions  of 
observation  of  river  height,  due  to  the  absence  of  the  level  from 
camp. 

Table  7. — Elet^atton  of  ground  water  in  the  Arkansas  River  and  in  test  wells  near  camp 

ly  2  miles  west  of  Garden,  Kans. 

[Wells  Nob.  1  and  2  are  1,070  feet  north  of  river;*  well  No.  3  is  860  feet  north  of  river.    Datum  is  2,800 
feet  above  mean  sea  level.] 


Date. 

Time. 

Eleva- 
tion of 
water  in 
well  No.l. 

Feet, 
33.97 
38.86 
33.90 
83.87 

Hydrau- 
lic gradi- 
ent per 
mile  from 
well  No.  2 
to  well 
No.l. 

FeeL 

Eleva- 
tion of 
water  in 
well 
No.  2. 

Fffl. 

Hydrau- 
lic gradi- 
ent per 
mile  from 
well  No. 
1  to  well 
No.  3. 

Elevation 

of  water 

in  well 

No.  8. 

Eleva- 
tion of 
water  in 
river. 

Barometric 

pressure  in 

inches  of 

mercury. 

1904. 
June  16 

12m 

6p.  m 

6a.  m 

12  m 

Feet. 

Fed. 


Feet.  . 
86.7 

Inches. 
28  60* 

Do 

1 ' 

26.54 

June  17 

26  62 

Do 

■ 

26.65 

Do  .. 

6  p.  m 

1 

June  18 

6  a.  m 

6p.  m 

6p.  m 

6a.m '. 

6  p.  m 

33.98 
38.76 
33.75 
33.89 

26.63 

Do 

June  19. . 

6.4 
4.7 
8.1 

33.53 
33.58 
83.60 

6.3 
6.9 

1  " 

34.61 
34.55 
34.61 
34.41 
34.47 
3^1.38 
31.88 
35.02 

36.2 

26.60 
26.46 

June  20 

36.1 
36.0 
36.0 

Do 

June  21 

6n.  m 

12  m 

33.82 
88.69 
83.77 
84.45 

4.5 
4.2 

26.47 

Do  . 

6.4 
7.2 
8.9 

33.86 
33.51 
34.13 

Do  ... 

6p.  m 

6a.m 

12m 



June  22 

Do 

Do 

6p.m 

6  a.  m 

6p.  m 

6a.m 

6p.  m 

6  a.  m 

83.94 
34.05 
33.87 
34.00 
33.77 
33.93 
33.93 
33.77 
33.93 

8.8 
7.6 
8.0 
7.1 
6.8 
5.1 
3.6 

35.12 
35.07 
34.95 
34.95 
34.69 
34.61 
34.42 

37.7 
36.9 
36.9 
36.5 
36.3 
36.2 
35.9 

June  28 

Do 

6.7 

33.81 

26.27 

June  24 

6.9 
6.7 
8.1 

33.75 
33.63 
33.64 

Do 

June  25 

26.35 

June  26  .... 

6a.m 

12m 

Do 

6.1 

7.7 

33.56 
33.67 

June 27  .... 

6  a.m 

3.9 

34.45 

a5.9 
35.9 
35.9 
35.8 
35.8 
85.7 
35.7 
35.7 

35.7 
35.6 
35.6 
35.6 
35.6 
35.6 
a5.6 
3.').7 
35.7 
35.  (i 
;15.8 

Do 

6p.  m 

June  28 

6  p.m 

1 

June 29  .... 

6a.m 

Do 

6p.m...  . 

! 

July  1 

Do 

6  a.  m 

6  p.  m 

July  2 

Do 

6  a.m 

6  D.  m 

Julys 

Do 

6  a.m 

1 

C  p.m 

33.19 

6.7 

32.96 

7.2 

34.16 

July  4 

Julys 

July6 

July  7 

Do 

6  At  m 

6  a.  m 

6  a.m 

:::::::::r::::::: 

6  a.m 

33.99 

7.2 

33.73 

2.72 

34.35 

6  p.  m 

Julys 

Julv9 

6  a.  m 

34.53 
33.88 

7.-2 
8.1 

34.27 
33.59 

3.64 
1.71 

35.02 
34.11 

6a.m 

July  10 

July  11 

6  a.m 

G  a.  m 

33.68 

8.1 

33.39 

3.15 

81.10 

.   _    .  . 

28  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

From  the  morning  of  June  21  until  noon  of  June  22,  which  are  left 
blank  in  the  table,  there  was  no  material  change  in  the  height  of  the 
river.  The  water  in  the  river  slowly  sank  during  the  period  covered 
from  noon  of  June  16  to  noon  of  June  22.  The  record  shown  in  fig.  10 
begins  on  June  16.  The  levels  in  the  various  wells  remained  substan- 
tially stationary  from  that  date  until  June  22.  During  the  night  of 
June  21  a  heavy  rain  fell,  which  is  given  on  the  official  record  at 
Garden  as  0.94  of  an  inch.  The  test  wells  on  the  morning  of  June  22 
showed  marked  changes  in  the  elevation  of  the  ground  water,  due  to 
the  rain  of  the  previous  night.  Well  No.  1  rose  0.68  of  a  foot;  well 
No.  2  rose  0.62  of  a  foot;  well  No.  3  rose  0.64  of  a  foot,  while  the 
Richter  well  rose  0.05  of  a  foot  before  noon  of  June  22,  and  by  the 
morning  of  June  24  had  risen  0.10  of  a  foot.  The  river  remained  sta- 
tionary until  3  p.  m.  of  June  22,  when  a  flood  consisting  of  an  abrupt 
wave  swept  down  the  river,  causing  a  rise  of  1.7  feet.  Notwith- 
standing this  rise  in  the  river,  the  water  in  test  wells  Nos.  1  and  2, 
1,070  feet  from  the  river,  fell  during  the  interval  between  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  of  June  22,  while  test  well  No.  3,  which  was  situated 
within  360  feet  of  the  river  bank,  was  only  0.1  higher  at  6  p.  m.  of 
June  22  than  it  was  at  6  a.  m.  on  the  same  day.  These  results  show 
that  the  heavy  rain  of  the  night  of  June  21  raised  the  water  in  all  of 
the  test  wells,  but  that  the  flood  of  the  afternoon  of  June  22  raissed 
the  water  only  in  the  well  nearest  the  river.  The  river  gradually 
receded  from  the  high-water  mark  reached  on  the  afternoon  of  June 
22,  and  all  of  the  test  wells  gradually  fell.  There  was  no  i-ain  until 
July  4,  except  a  slight  shower  on  June  28.  Test  wells  Nos.  1,  2,  and 
3  showed  a  tendency  to  fall,  although  the  water  in  the  river  was  from 
2  to  3  feet  higher  than  the  water  in  the  wells  during  all  of  this  period. 

The  rise  in  the  water  plane  from  6  p.  m.  of  June  21  to  6  a.  m.  of  June 
22,  amounting  to  a  rise  of  0.68  foot  in  test  well  No.  1  and  0.62  foot  in 
test  well  No.  2,  was  due,  as  stated  above,  to  a  heavy  rain  which  fell  dur- 
ing the  night.  From  the  data  at  hand  it  is  possible  to  express  the 
magnitude  of  the  contribution  to  the  underflow  as  so  man}'  cubic  feet 
of  water  for  each  mile  of  the  river  valley.  If  this  contribution  be  sup- 
posed to  extend  uniformly  over  a  given  period  of  time,  then  the  addi- 
tion to  the  ground  water  may  be  expressed  as  a  continuous  flow  of  so 
many  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second  for  each  linear  mile  of  the  river 
valley.  Thus,  in  the  present  case,  if  we  suppose  that  the  rainfall  of  the 
night  of  June  21  fell  uniformly  during  the  twelve  hours  from  6  p.  m. 
to  6  a.  m.,  we  can  readily  compute  that  the  observed  increased  amount 
of  ground  water  was  equivalent  for  each  mile  of  valley  along  the  river 
to  a  continuous  flow  of  water  amounting  to  23.8  cubic  feet  per  second. 
To  put  this  in  other  words,  we  can  say  that  if  the  sands  of  the  valley 
had  contributed  to  the  river  by  seepage  all  of  the  water  which  the  niin 
added  to  these  same  sands,  the  seepage  w^ould  amount  to  a  continuous 


FLUCTUATIONS   OF    GROUND-WATER   LEVEL. 


29 


flow  into  each  mile  of  the  river  of  23.8  cubic  feet  per  second,  main- 
tained for  twelve  hours. 


3 

c 


8> 


O    '^ 


•0    ft 

I? 

S  B 


3.  o 


«  - 

l.i 

I? 

^  1 


i 


« 

I     ....     ....     .... 

? 

I 

* 

I 

i 

f-                               ^^^„^ 

jL          5:                                                 ir^^ 

^5            »  * 

C  ?fi      ^5!           iz: 

-,      ?    EL         §.|L                3 

*    A          21            ^5 

5 

i     A  7         XZ           lA 

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In  a  similar  way,  if  the  water  contributed  to  the  ji^round  by  the  flood 
in  the  river  from  3  p.  m.  to  6  p.  m.  of  June  22  be  considered  as  spread 
uniformly  over  twelve  hours,  it  can  readily  be  computed  that  the  gain 
by  the  ground  due  to  this  cause  represents  a  seepage  loss  for  each  mile 


30 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


of  the  river  of  6.4  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second.  It  can  readily  he 
8een,  therefore,  that  the  rainfall  contributed  a  much  greater  volume  of 
water  to  the  underflow  than  was  contributed  by  the  flbod  in  the  river. 

The  average  rise  of  the  ground  water  during  the  night  of  June  21 
was  such  that  it  would  require  a  rainfall,  without  run-oflf,  of  2.2  inches 
to  fully  account  for  it.  The  rainfall  recorded  at  Gurden  for  the  night 
of  June  21  was  0.94  inch.  The  dillerence  between  the  measured  rise  of 
the  ground  water  and  the  rainfall  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  there  i;? 
almost  no  run-off  from  the  level  lands  of  the  river  valley,  so  that  nearly 
all  of  the  drainage  is  underground  by  means  of  the  deposits  of  sand*' 
and  gravels.  The  seepage  of  this  drainage  is  in  part  toward  the  low- 
water  plane  along  and  near  the  river  channel.  At  such  a  place  the 
amount  of  rise  in  the  ground  water  would  naturally  be  higher  than 
could  be  accounted  for  by  the  localized  rainfall. 

After  the  high  water  of  June.  22  the  river  gradually  fell  until,  on 
the  morning  of  June  27,  it  had  reached  an  elevation  of  2,835.9  feet, 
which  was  0.1  foot  lower  than  its  elevation  on  the  morning  of  June  22. 
The  water  in  the  test  wells  gradually  fell  during  the  same  period,  the 
corresponding  loss  of  gi'ound  water  being  given  in  Table  8  as  a  con- 
tinuous flow  of  water  expressed  in  cubic  feet  per  second  for  1  mile  of 
river  valley.  Bj^  the  morning  of  June  27  nearlj^  all  of  the  water  con- 
tributed to  the  sands  of  the  valley  by  the  rain  of  June  21  and  the  flood 
of  June  22  had  disappeared.  The  gain  and  loss  can  be  expressed  as 
follows,  in  the  form  of  a  balance  sheet: 

Table  8. — Lose  and  gain  of  ground  water  per  mile  of  river  valley,  1904, 
I.— FROM  RIVER  TO  WELL  NO.  1, 1,070  FEET  NORTH  OF  RIVER,  GARDEN,  KAX8. 


Time. 


June  18,  6  p.  m.,  to  June 


June  21, 
June  22, 
June  22, 
June  23, 
June  24, 
July  3,  6 


6  p.  m, 
6  a.  m. 
6  p.  m, 
6  a.  m. 
6  a.  m. 
p.  m., 


July  7.  6  a.  m., 
July  S,  6  a.  m., 


.,  to  June 
,,  to  June 
.,  to  June 
,,  to  June 
,,  to  June 
to  July  7, 

to  July  8, 

to  July  9. 


July  9,  »i  a.  ra..  to  July  11 


21,  6  p.  m 

22.  6a.m 

22,  6  p.  m 

23,  Ga.  m 

24,  6  a.  m 
27,  6  a.  m 
6a.  m... 

6  a.  m 

6  a.  m 

,  6  a.  m.. 


Gain  in 
ground 

water  per 
mile  of 

river  val- 
ley. 


Sec.  feet. 

-  0.98 

2S.8 
7.3 

-  5.4 

-  3.1 

-  2.7 
2.3 

22.4 

-14.6 


1.0 


Remarks. 


Nq  change  in  elevation  of  river  water, 
and  omy  slight  change  in  elevation 
of  water  in  well  No.  1  until  June  if. 

Due  to  rainfall  of  0.94  inch. 

Due  to  rise  in  river. 


Due  to  rain.  No  change  in  elevation 
of  river  water. 

Due  to  rain  night  of  July  7.  Nu 
change  in  elevation  of  river  water. 

Rate  of  loss  during  24  hours  after  pr<^ 
cipitation  of  1.2  inches  of  night  of 
July  7. 


FLUCTUATIONS   OF   GROUND- WATER   LEVEL. 


31 


Tablb  8, — Low  and  gain  of  ground  UKiter  }ht  mile  of  river  vaUey^  1904 — Continued. 
II.— FROM  RIVER  TO  WELL  NO.  2,  900  FEET  NORTIJ  OF  RIVER,  SHERLOCK,  KANS. 


• 

Time. 

Gain  in 
ground 

water  per 
mile  of 

river  val- 
ley. 

Remarks. 

July  15,  9  a.  m.,  to  July  20,  7.30  a.  ra 

Hec.  feet. 

-  2.0 

-  1.0 
M.O 
?i.O 
66.0 
87.0 

1.5 
-  l.H 

July  20,  7.80a.  m.,  toJuly  25,  6a.  m 

July  27, 11  a.  m.,  to  July  27, 1  p.  m 

July  27, 1  p.  m.,  to  July  27,  8  p.  m 

Julv  27,  3  p.  m.,  to  July  27,  5  p.  m 

Julv  27,  5  p.  m.,  to  July  27,  7  p.  m 

July  27,  7  p.  m.,  to  July  28,  6  a.  m 

Julv  2H,  6  a.  m.,  to  August  1,  6  a.  m 

III.— FROM  RIVER  TO  WELL  NO.  5.  550  FEET  SOUTH  OF  RIVER,  SHERU)CK.  KANS. 


July  18,  7  a.  m.,  to  July  20,  7  a.  m. .. 
July  20,  7  a.  m.,  to  July  25,  7  p.  m. . . 
July  2^),  7  p.  m.,  to  July  27, 11  a.  m. . 
July  27, 11  a.  m.,  to  July  27, 1  p.  m.. 
July  27, 1  p.  m.,  to  July  27,  3  p.  m . . . 
July  27,  3  p.  m.,  to  July  27,  5  p.  m. . . 
July  27,  5  p.  m.,  to  July  27,  7  p.  m... 
July  27,  7  p.  m.,  to  July  29,  8  a.  m. . . 
July  29.  8  a.  m.,  to  August  1.  8  a.  m  . 


-  1.36 

-  .54 

-  .20 
63.8 
28.9 
13.4 

L34 

-  .22 

-  .92 


IV.— FROM  WELL  NO.  5  TO  WELL  NO.  6,  2,600  FEET  SOfTH  OF  RIVER,  SHERLOCK,  KAN8. 


July  18,  7  a.  m.,  to  July  20, 12  m 

July  20,  12  m.,  to  July  25,  8  a.  m 

July  25,  8  a.  m.,  to  August  1,  8  a.  m. 


2.6 
1.5 
.•6 


v.— FROM  RIVER  TO  WELL  NO.  2,  1,780  FEET  SOUTH  OF  RIVER,  DEER  FIELD,  KANS. 


Au{?ust  4.  9  a.  m.,  to  August  9.  a.  m 

August  6. 9  a.  m.,  to  August  8,  7.30  a.  m. . 
August  8,  7.80  a.  m.,  to  August  9,  9 a.  m. . 
August  9,  9  a.  m.,  to  Augtmt  10.  7.30  a.  m. 


0.51 

5.26 

L82  . 

.61 


Summary  of  lofu*  and  gain  of  ground  water  per  mile  of  rirer  valley. 


\  Cubic  feet,  i 


Acre- 
feet. 


Rain  of  night  of  June  21.  From  6  p.  m..  June  21,  to  6  a.  m.,  June  22. 12  hours, 
at  23.8  cubic  feet  per  second 

Flood  of  afternoon  of  Juno  22.  From  6  a.  m.,  June  22,  to  6  p.  m,  June  22, 12 
hours,  at  7.8  cubic  feet  per  second 

Total  gain , 


6  p.  m„  June  22,  to  6  a.  m.,  June  23,  12  hours,  at  5.4  cubic  feet  per  second. 
6  a.  m.,  June  23,  to  6  a.  m.,  June  24,  24  hours,  at  3.1  cubic  feet  per  second. 
6  a,  m.,  June  24,  to  6  a,  m.,  June  27,  72  hours,  at  2.7  cubic  feet  per  se<'ond. 

Total  loss 

Xetgain 


1,030,000 


315,000 


l,:il5.000 


233,000 
2fW.0OO 
700,000 


l,2l)l.(KX) 
144,000 


23.6 


30.8 


5.4 
6.1 
16.1 


27.6 


32  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

In  PL  I  there  is  shown  a  view  of  a  model  designed  to  illustrate 
the  changes  in  ground-water  levels  which  have  just  been  discussed. 
This  model  shows,  b}^  cardboard  cross  sections,  the  level  of  the  water 
in  Arkansa.s  River  and  in  three  wells  north  of  the  river  on  variou> 
dates  in  June  and  July,  1904.  These  are  the  same  wells  and  the  tame 
data  given  in  Table  8  and  represented  graphically  in  fig.  10.  The 
height  of  the  river ,  is  represented  at  the  left  end  of  each  cardboard 
section  and  the  position  of  the  surface  of  the  gi-ound  water  in  the  three 
wells  appears  at  the  appropriate  distances  to  the  right,  the  wells  bein^ 
indicated  by  vertical  lines  and  by  the  right  end  of  the  caixi.  The  well 
represented  by  the  right  end  of  each  cardboard  section  is  located  about 
2,500  feet  north  of  the  north  bank  of  the  river. 

The  surface  of  the  ground  water  is  represented  in  the  model  by  the 
straight  lines  forming  the  top  of  each  piece  of  cardboard.  Of  cour>e 
the  actual  surface  did  not  consist  of  a  broken  line,  as  shown,  but  of  a 
curved  line  passing  smoothly  through  the  angles  of  the  broken  line. 
The  representation  of  the  ground-water  surface  as  straight  lines 
between  the  various  wells  introduces  no  substantial  error  in  the 
results,  and  it  illustrates  the  characteristic  changes  with  greater  fidel- 
ity than  curved  lines,  whose  forms,  in  any  case,  could  be  known  only 
approximately. 

It  can  readily  be  observed  from  this  diagram  that  the  river  and 
water  plane  remained  substantially  stationary  from  June  18  to  June  21. 
The  influence  of  the  heavy  rain  of  the  night  of  June  21  is  shown  on 
the  third  cardboard  section  by  the  more  elevated  water  plane  of  iho 
next  morning,  the  river  remaining  stationary  during  this  interval. 
The  fourth  cardboard  cross  section  (6  p.  m.,  June  22)  shows  the  river 
flood,  which  began  at  3  p.  m.  June  22.  This  cross  section  shows  that  the 
water  plane  sank,  notwithstanding  this  heavy  flood,  except  at  the  well 
nearest  the  river.  The  river  gradually  fell,  the  water  plane  also  fall- 
ing at  the  same  time.  The  model  shows  the  water  plane  at  its  lowest 
observed  position  on  July  3.  The  section  shown  in  the  model  for 
July  7  illustrates  the  influence  of  the  rains  falling  from  Juh'  3  to 
Jul}"  7  in  raising  the  water  plane.  The  greatest  rise  in  the  water  plane 
observed  at  an\'  time  is  shown  in  the  model  by  the  third  section  from 
the  end,  tha^t  corresponding  to  the  morning  of  July  8.  This  rise  wa> 
due  to  a  rain  of  more  than  1  inch  on  the  night  before.  As  in  the  pre- 
vious instances,  the  water  plane  rapidly  fell  away  after  the  rise.  It 
is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  height  of  the  river  remained 
almost  constant  from  July  3  to  9. 

These  same  changes  are  also  shown  in  fig.  10,  where  a  curve  is  given 
for  the  changing  height  of  water  in  each  well  and  the  river.  In  using 
this  diagram  or  the  table  it  is  important  to  know  that  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  compare  evening  observations  with  evening  observationN 
and  not  with  morning  observations.     Owing  to  changes  in  tempera- 


FLUCTUATIONS   OF    GROUND-WATER   LEVEL. 


38 


ture  and  barometer  there  are  diurnal  periodic  changes  in  the  position 
of  the  water  plane,  and  these  fluctuations  are  such  that  it  is  always 
more  satisfactory  to  compare  observations  taken  at  corresponding 
times  of  the  daj',  unless  the  intermediate  changes  are  very  violent. 
The  morning  level  of  the  ground  water  is  normally  higher  than  the 


Fefrt 


26.33 


2366.0 


Fig.  11. — Curves  of  barometric  preissure  and  height  of  water  plane,  showing  correspondence  between 
the  flactuations  of  the  barometer  and  the  water  plane  &»  oljKer\-ed  on  several  dates  at  Sherlock, 
Kans.  The  dotted  lines  give  the  diurnal  variations  in  the  barometric  pressure;  the  full  lines 
show  the  elevations  of  the  water  in  test  well  No.  1. 

evening  level,  the  fluctuations  in  the  wells  discussed  above  being  indi- 
cated very  clearly  by  some  of  the  lines  in  fig.  10,  especially  those  show- 
ing the  June  fluctuations  in  test  wells  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3. 

Some  results  showing  the  correspondence  between  the  barometric 
pressure  and  the  ground- water  elevation  were  sought  for  at  camp  1, 

IBB  163—06 3 


84  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

near  Sherlock,  Kans.  The  data  oblnined  are  depicted  graphically  in 
fig.  11.  The  results  were  not  what  were  expected,  as  the  influence 
of  the  barometric  pressure  should  be  to  raise  the  ground  water  as  the 
barometer  falls. **  This  indicates  that  the  low  position  of  the  ground 
water  in  the  afternoon  of  each  day^  is  probably  a  temperature  effect, 
due  to  the  decrease  in  the  capillarity  of  the  water  with  the  tempiera- 
ture.  The  ground  water  at  test  well  No.  1,  Sherlock,  and  in  test  welk 
Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  Garden,  was  within  3  feet  of  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  the  diflference  in  temperature  of  day  and  night  was  very 
great. 

In  fig.  10  the  level  of  water  in  the  Richter  well,  2,500  feet  north  of 
the  river,  is  compared  for  a  period  of  about  thirty  days  with  the  ele- 
vation of  the  water  in  Arkansas  River.  The  total  variation  of  the 
water  plane,  as  shown  by  the  levels  observed  in  the  well  twice  daily 
during  the  thirty -day  interval,  did  not  exceed  2  inches.  This  shows 
that  the  influence  of  the  river  upon  the  ground  water  dies  out  to  prac- 
tically nothing  in  a  distance  of  one-half  mile.  The  influence  of  the 
rainfall  upon  the  water  in  the  well  is  traceable  by  a  comparison  of  the 
rainfall  record  and  the  well  curve,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  any 
connection  can  be  detected  between  the  elevation  of  the  river  and  the 
well  curve.  The  influence  of  occasional  pumping  upon  the  ground- 
water level  is  quite  pronounced. 

The  observations  given  above  indicate  the  following  conclusions: 

1.  The  level  of  the  ground  water  shows  a  marked  tendency  to  remain 
at  a  level  lower  than  the  channel  of  the  river  at  a  point  about  one- 
fourth  mile  north  of  the  river  channel. 

2.  The  elevation  of  the  water  plane  is  very  sensitive  to  the  amount 
of  rainfall,  the  rise  in  the  water  plane  (due  to  a  rain)  in  the  first  bot- 
toms being  greater  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  localized  pre- 
cipitation. 

3.  High  water  in  the  river  has  much  less  effecf  upon  the  level  of  the 
ground  water  than  the  rainfall,  its  influence  being  confined  to  a  dis- 
tance of  a  few  hundred  feet  from  the  river  channel. 

4.  The  water  plane  falls  at  a  very  rapid  rate  after  its  elevation  has 
been  increased  by  rainfall  or  b}^  a  flood  in  the  river. 

5.  The  fact  that  the  water  plane  lies  for  a  considerable  distance  at  a 
level  lower  than  the  river  channel,  even  when  there  is  water  in  the 
river  for  an  extended  length  of  time,  and  the  i*apid  way  in  which  the 
ground  water  sinks  after  its  rise  due  to  heavy  rain,  establishes  the  fact 
that  the  underground  drainage  through  the  sands  and  gravels  beneath 
the  river  valley  is  more  than  sufficient  to  carry  off  all  of  the  rainfall 
without  run-off  into  the  river  channel. 


a  Slichter,  C.  S.,  Motionaof  underground  waters:  Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  67,  U.  S.  GcoL  SorreT 
1902,  p.  73.  f 


FLUCTUATIONS  OF   GKOUND-WATEE  LEVEL.  85 

FLUCTUATION  OF  GROUND-WATER  LEVEL  AT  SHERLOCK,  KANS. 

Observations  of  changes  of  level  of  ground  water  near  Sherlock, 
Kans.,  were  made  during  the  period  extending  from  July  15  to  August 
3,  1904.  For  this  purpose  a  number  of  test  wells  were  driven,  the 
location  of  which  is  shown  in  tig.  4.  Of  these  test  wells,  No.  2  was 
900  feet  and  No.  3  was  400  feet  north  of  the  river;  No.  6  was  660 
feet  and  No.  6  was  2,600  feet  south  of  the  river.  The  complete  record 
of  observations  taken  in  the  field  is  given  in  Table  9.  The  principal 
results  presented  l^y  this  table  are  shown  graphically  in  fig.  12.  As 
shown  by  this  diagram,  Arkansas  River  gradually  fell  from  July  16 
until  July  27.  At  this  time  the  water  in  the  river  had  reached  a  very 
low  stage,  the  flowing  water  occupying  a  width  in  the  channel  .of 
about  a  rod  and  a  depth  of  about  6  inches. 


36 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KA.NSAS. 


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FLUCTUATIONS  OF   GROUND-WATER  LEVEL. 


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37 


38 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


During  this  same  period  of  fall  in  the  river  there  was  no  rainfall 
except  on  July  22  and  a  very  light  rain  on  July  25.    The  rain  of  July 

Iff 


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-  -  -  ,        5*5  So 

22  was  measured  at  Garden  by  the  volunteer  observer  of  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  as  1.42  inches,  but  the  rainfall  at  Sherlock 
was  very  much  less.     During  this  period  of  fall  of  level  of  the  water 


FLUCTUATIONS  OF   GBOUND-WATER  LEVEL.  39 

in  the  river  the  test  wells  north  of  the  river  fell  at  corresponding 
rates.  The  total  fall  in  the  river  amounted  to  0.95  of  a  foot;  the  fall 
in  test  well  No.  3,  400  feet  north  of  the  river,  during  the  same  period 
was  0.9  of  a  foot;  in  test  well  No.  2,  900  feet  north  of  the  river,  0.77 
of  a  foot;  in  test  well  No.  5,  560  feet  south  of  the  river,  0.5  of  a  foot; 
and  in  test  well  No.  6,  2,500  feet  south  of  the  river,  0.8  of  a  foot. 
On  July  27,  between  11  a.  m.  and  5  p.  m.,  the  river  rose  1.6  of  a  foot, 
restoring  the  level  of  water  in  the  river  to  the  height  of  July  15  plus 
0.6  of  a  foot.  This  sudden  rise  in  the  river  was  not  accompanied  by 
rainfall  in  the  neighborhood  of  Sherlock.  Its  influence  upon  the 
various  test  wells  is  shown  by  fig.  12.  The  immediate  effect  upon  test 
wells  Nos.  2  and  3,  north  of  the  river,  was  very  apparent.  Between  11 
a.  m,  and  7  p.  m.  test  well  No.  3, 400  feet  north  of  the  river,  rose  1.05 
feet,  and  test  well  No.  2,  900  feet  north  of  the  river,  rose  0.49  of  a 
foot.  By  the  next  morning  at  6  a.  m.  the  river  had  fallen  0.25  of  a 
foot;  test  well  No.  3,  400  feet  north  of  the  river,  had  risen  about  0.1 
of  a  foot,  and  test  well  No.  2,  900  feet  north  of  the  river,  had  risen 
0.23  of  a  foot.  The  river  continued  to  fall  very  slowly,  on  the  morn- 
ing of  July  29  having  fallen  only  about  one-half  of  0.1  of  a  foot  from 
its  elevation  on  July  28;  the  water  in  test  wells  Nos.  2  and  3  had 
dropped  about  the  same  amount,  and  on  August  1,  at  8  a.  m.,  when 
the  river  had  fallen  0.6  of  a  foot  below  its  elevation  of  July  29,  test 
wells  Nos.  3  and  2  had  dropped  3.6  and  1.8  feet,  respectively.  During 
this  same  period  of  time  the  water  plane  south  of  the  river  acted  very 
differently  from  that  observed  on  the  north  side  of  the  river.  The  water 
in  test  well  No.  6, 2,500  feet  south  of  the  river,  fell  continuously  from 
July  18  to  August  1,  notwithstanding  the  flood  of  July  27;  and  that 
in  test  well  No.  5,  550  feet  south  of  the  river,  fell  from  July  18  until 
July  27,  the  total  fall  amounting  to  0.47  of  a  foot.  No  observation 
was  made  at  this  test  well  on  July  28,  but  by  the  morning  of  July  29 
the  water  had  risen  0.45  of  a  foot.  On  August  1  it  had  fallen  0.2  of  a 
foot  below  its  level  on  the  morning  of  July  29,  in  sympathy  with  the 
general  fall  of  the  water  in  the  river.  It  can  be  seen  from  this  that 
the  elevation  of  the  water  in  the  various  test  wells  showed  all  varieties 
of  change  during  the  flood  in  the  river.  The  wells  within  900  feet  of 
the  river  fluctuated  quite  accurately  with  the  changing  level  in  the 
river  itself,  while  the  water  in  the  test  well  one-half  mile  from  the 
river  seemed  to  show  no  effect  of  the  flood  in  the  river  during  the 
period  of  observation. 

In  explanation  of  the  gradual  fall  in  the  test  wells  from  July  18  to 
July  27,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  position  of  the  water,  as 
found  on  «Tuly  18,  was  high  on  account  of  the  heavy  rains  which  fell 
during  the  first  twelve  days  of  July.  From  July  4  to  July  13,  inclu- 
sive, 3.27  inches  of  rain  were  caught  at  the  i*ain  gage  at  Garden,  Kans. ; 
the  rainfall  at  Sherlock,  Kans.,  was  probably  as  great,  so  it  is  very 
likely  that  the  level  of  the  water  found  in  the  test  wells  on  July  15 


40 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


and  18  was  high  owing  to  the  previous  rains.  In  fig.  13  the  result* 
of  the  flood  of  July  27  are  shown  in  greater  detail  than  in  the  previous 
diagram. 

A  photograph  of  a  cardboard  model  showing  the  changing*  f)osition> 
of  the  water  plane  at  Sherlock  is  reproduced  in  Pis.  II  and  III-  The 
top  of  each  cardboard  corresponds  to  a  cross  section  of  the  water  plane 
taken  across  the  valley  on  a  certain  date,  the  right  side  of  each  can! 
corresponding  with  the  north  side  of  the  valley,  the  left  side  corre- 


FiG.  18.— Elevation  of  water  in  Arkansas  River  and  in  two  test  wells  near  Sherlock,  Kaus.,  for  various 
hours  during  the  flood  of  July  27,  1904.  The  vanishing  influence  of  the  flood  with  increasing 
distance  from  the  river  is  clearly  brought  out  by  the  diagram.  Test  well  No.  2  is  900  feet  north 
of  north  bank  of  river;  test  well  No.  3  is  400  feet  north  of  north  bank  of  river. 

sponding  with  the  south  side  of  the  valley.  The  location  of  each  test 
well  is  shown  by  a  vertical  line,  and  the  position  of  the  channel  of  the 
Arkansas  is  indicated  by  the  level  segment  of  each  card  near  the  mid- 
dle of  each  section.  The  model  shows  to  the  eye  the  way  in  which 
the  river  and  the  water  in  all  of  the  test  wells  gradually  fell  from  July 
13  to  July  27,  and  it  also  illustrates  the  influence  of  the  flood  of  July 
27  upon  the  wells  near  the  river.  It  also  shows  that  the  level  of  water 
in  well  No.  6,  one-half  mile  south  of  the  river,  was  not  influenced  by 
the  flood  in  the  river,  but  continued  to  fall  during  the  entire  period. 
The  decreasing  influence  of  the  river  on  the  water  plane  with  the  dis- 
tance from  the  river  is  brought  out  clearly  by  the  diagram  (fig.  13). 

It  is  apparent  from  this  model,  as  well  as  from  the  one  shown  for 
camp  1,  that  there  is  a  marked  tendency  for  the  ground  water  near 
the  river,  especially  on  the  north  side,  to  remain  at  a  lower  level  than 


C3 

Z 


I 

o 


FLUCTUATIONS   OF   GROUND-WATER   LEVEL,  41 

the  water  in  the  river  itself.  At  the  time  the  data  presented  by  the 
model  were  obtained,  there  had  l)een  water  in  the  river  for  six  or  seven 
weeks  and  the  amount  of  rainfall  had  been  above  the  average.  These 
facts  indicate  that  the  underground  drainage  through  the  sands  and 
gravels  is  more  than  suflScient  to  drain  off  the  precipitation,  without 
return  seepage  into  surface  streams  and  without  run-off  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground. 

The  various  amounts  of  ground  water  gained  or  lost  by  each  mile 
of  the  valley  along  the  river  at  Sherlock  from  July  16  to  August  1, 
1904,  is  expressed  in  Sections  II,  III,  and  IV  of  Table  8  (p.  81).  For  the 
pui-pose  of  making  the  results  as  definite  as  possible  the  gain  or  loss 
for  each  mile  of  valley  is  given  as  a  continuous  flow  of  water  expressed 
in  cubic  feet  per  second.  Thus,  according  to  the  table,  the  strip  of 
ground  between  the  river  bank  and  test  well  No.  2,  900  feet  north  of 
the  river,  extending  along  the  stream  for  a  distance  of  a  mile,  lost 
water  from  July  15  to  to  July  20  at  a  rate  equivalent  to  a  steady  flow 
of  water  equal  to  2  cubic  feet  per  second.  During  the  flood  on  July 
27  this  same  strip  of  country  absorbed  water  from  the  river  during 
the  first  two  hours  of  flood  at  the  rate  of  64  cubic  feet  per  second. 
The  rate  of  gain  during  the  three  following  periods  of  two  houi*s  each 
was  72,  65,  and  32.4  second-feet,  respectively.  During  the  eleven 
hours  from  7  p.  m.,  July  27,  to  6  a.  m.,  July  28,  the  rate  of  gain  fell 
to  1.5  second-feet,  after  which  the  ground  lost  water.  These  results, 
and  similar  results  for  the  south  side  of  the  river,  are  given  in  the 
table.  Putting  all  of  these  results  together  we  can  compute  the 
amount  of  water  furnished  to  the  sands  by  the  flood  in  the  river  as 
follows,  the  computation  applying  to  1  mile  of  the  river  valley  only: 

Water  fumuhed  to  mndu  near  Sherlock^  Kans.y  bp  flood  of  Arkansas  River. 

North  of  river:  cubic  feet. 

July  27,  11  a.  m.  to  1  p.  m.,  2  hours,  at  54  cubic  feet  per  second  . . .  389, 000 

July  27,  1  p.  m.  to  3  p.  m.,  2 'hours,  at  72  cubic  feet  per  second 526, 000 

July  27,  3  p.  m.  to  5  p.  m.,  2  hours,  at  65  cubic  feet  per  second 467, 000 

July  27,  5  p.  m.  to  7  p.  m.,  2  hours,  at  32.4  cubic  feet  per  second  . .  234, 000 
July  27,  7  p.  m.  to  6  a.  m.  July  28,  11  hours,  at  1.5  cubic  feet  per 

second 59, 500 

Total  gain *<  1,674, 500 

South  of  river: 

July  27,  11  a.  m.  to  1  p.  m.,  2  hours,  at  63.8  c  bic  feet  j)er  second  .  459, 000 

July  27,  1  p.  m.  to  3  p.  m.,  2  hours,  at  28.9  cubic  feet  per  second  . .  208, 000 

July  27,  3  p.  m.  to  5  p.  m.,  2  hours,  at  13.4  cubic  leoi  per  second  . .  96, 500 

July  27,  5  p.  m.  to  7  p.  m.,  2  hours,  at  1.34  cubic  feet  per  second  . .  9, 650 

Total  gain 773,150 

July  27,  7  p.  m.  to  8  a.  m.  July  28,  loss  at  0.22  cubic  foot  per  second.  10,  296 

Net  gain 6762, 854 

Total  gain  both  sides  of  river '2, 437, 354 

a  Equals  38.4  acre-feet.        b  Equals  17.6  aere-feet.        <*  Equals  56  acre- feet. 


42 


UNDEBFLOW  IN  ABKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTEBN  KANSAS. 


The  gain  of  56  acre-feet  took  place  on  land  having  an  area  of  17d 
acres. 

The  above  results  show  the  gain  between  test  well  No.  2,  900  feet 
north  of  the  river,  and  test  well  No.  5,  550  feet  south  of  the  river. 
There  was  some  gain  in  ground  water  in  the  lands  north  and  south  of 
these  boundaries,  but  the  data  are  not  at  hand  for  the  computation. 
The  susceptibility  of  the  adjoining  lands  in  receiving  seepa^  water 
from  the  river  was  greater  on  the  north  side  than  on  the  south  side  of 
the  river, 

FLUCTUATION    OF    GROUND-WATER    LEVEL    AT    DBBRFIBLD, 

KANS. 

Observation  of  the  ground- water  level  was  made  at  camp  3,  near 
Deerfield,  in  three  test  wells.  The  location  of  these  test  wells  appears 
on  the  map,  fig.  6.  The  water  in  the  river  occupied  but  a  soiall  part 
of  the  river  channel  during  most  of  the  time  during  which  these  obser- 
vations were  made,  and  therefore  the  distances  of  the  test  wells  from 
the  edge  of  the  flowing  water  are  given  in  fig.  19,  in  preference  to  the 
distances  from  the  river  bank.  Test  well  No.  1  was  1,100  feet,  and 
well  No.  2,  1,730  feet  south  of  water  in  the  river.  Test  well  No.  :^ 
was  1,100  feet  south  of  the  river,  but  1,000  feet  upstream  from  test 
well  No.  2. 

Table  10. — ElevaLion  of  water  in  river  and  test  wells  at  Deerfield,  Kans. 


Date. 


1904. 
August  4.. 
August  5.. 
August  6. . 


Time. 


,.  m., 
.do  . 
•do  , 


Augusts j  7.30  a.  m  . 

Do 10  a.m... 


I  . 


Do '  r2m 

Do '  4.30  p.  m. 

August  9 1  9  a.  m 

Do j  2.30  p.  m  . 

August  10 ;  7.30  a.  m  . 


£levation 
of  water  in 
well  No.l, 

1,100  feet 
from  river. 


Feet. 
2,923.02 
2,923.14 
2,9'23.21 
2,923.23 
2,923.23 
2,923.23 
2,923.23 
2,923.27 
2,923.29 
2,923.32 


Hy 

draulic 
gradl 

ent,  per 
mile, 
from 
well 
No.l 

to  well 
No.  2. 


Feci. 
0.26 
.17 
.60 
.60 
.34 
.42 
.25 
.17 
.08 
.00 


Elevation 


I     H>-    I 

'  draulic, 

gradi- 


Hy- 
'  drauUc 
Elevation  |  gradi 


of  water  in    "  li^  ,  of  water  in  ent,  per 
well  No.  2. 1  P;*®'   '  well  No.  3,     mile. 


1.730  feet      ^^*J}   I  1,100  feet 

from  river.  I  jJq  2  i^^m  river. 

j  to  well  I 

No.  3.  I 


Feet. 
2,922. 
2,923. 
'2,923. 
2,923. 
2,923. 
2,923. 
2,923. 
2,923. 
2,923. 
2.923. 


I 
99  { 
12  j 
27 
29 
27 
28 

»| 

29 
28  '. 
32I 


8.7 
9.0 
8.8 
8.4 
8.5 
8.5 
8.7 
8.8 


8.7 


from 

river 

to  well 

No.  3. 


JElevatioii 

of  water  11 

river. 


2,924.57 
2,924.75 
2,924.87 
2,924.82 
2.924.83  I 

2.924.83  ' 

2.924.84  I 
2,924.89  ! 


Feet. 

/W. 

-1.10 

2,9Hm 

1.44 

2,924.45 

2.96 

2,924© 

-1.58 

2,926.10 

-1.49 


2,924.91  j      1.78  I 


2,925.2U 


2,924.5.=' 


The  chart  given  in  fig.  14  shows  that  a  flood  on  August  7  in  the 
river  had  no  influence  upon  the  water  level  in  any  of  the  wells, 
although  frequent  observations  were  made  to  detect  such  influence. 
The  diagram  likewise  shows  the  effect  of  the  rain  in  raising  the  ground 
water  an  shown  by  all  of  the  wells  from  August  4  to  August  7.     Dur- 


FLUCTUATIONS  OF   GBOUND-WATER   LEVEL. 


43 


ing  this  same  interval  the  river  was  falling,  while  the  ground  water 
was  rising.  The  i*ainfall  was  measured  at  camp  by  catching  rain  in 
a  tin  bucket  and  correcting  for  difference  in  area  between  top  and  bot- 
tom of  bucket.  The  observed  rainfall  on  August  4  and  August  5 
amounted  to  about  1.75  inches.  The  water  in  the  various  teat  wells 
rose  by  the  following  amounts  between  August  4  and  August  6:  Test 
well  No.  1,  0.17  foot,  or  2.02  inches;  test  well  No.  2,  0.29  foot,  or  3. 48 
inches;  and  test  well  No.  3,  0.30  foot,  or  3.60  inches.  If  we  assume 
that  the  soil  had  a  porosity  of  33i  per  cent,  these  observed  changes 
in  the  level  of  the  water  plane  are  equivalent  to  actual  increments  of 
0.7,  1.16,  and  1.2  inches,  respectively.     These  amounts  will  average 


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Fio.  14.— Eleyation  of  water  in  Arkanaas  River  and  teHt  wells  at  Deerfleld,  Kans.,  August  4  to  14, 
1904.  Test  well  No.  1  is  1,100  feet  south  of  stream.  Test  well  No.  2  is  1,730  feet  south  of  stream. 
Test  well  No.  3  is  1,100  feet  from  stream  and  1,000  feet  from  test  well  No.  2. 

almost  exactly  60  per  cent  of  the  i*ainfall  for  the  two  days,  August  4 
and  August  5,  1904.  This  result  gives  very  direct  proof  of  the  excel- 
lent quality  of  the  catchment  area  furnished  by  the  sandy  bottom  lands 
on  the  south  side  of  the  river  at  Deerfield. 


EVAPORATION  EXPERIMENTS  NEAR  DEERFIELD. 

The  table  of  meteorological  data  below  has  value  in  showing  that  a 
considerable  amount  of  stored  ground  water  is  lost  in  the  first  bottoms 
of  Arkansas  River  b\'  evaporation.  Although  these  measurements 
extend  over  only  a  very  brief  period,  they  are  sufficient  to  establish 


44 


UNDEBFLOW  IN  ABKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


the  fact  that  the  loss  of  ground  water  by  evaporation  is  about  ten 
times  as  great  where  the  water  is  within  1  foot  of  the  surface  of  tht- 
ground  as  it  is  where  the  water  lies  at  a  depth  of  3  feet.  The  pump- 
ing plants  that  materially  lower  the  ground  water  in  the  bottom  land> 
will  thus  save  a  considerable  amount  of  water  that  now  goes  to  waste 
in  evaporation  and  in  supplying  the  rank  growth  of  wild  grasses  that 
flourish  in  the  first  bottom  lands.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  this  savable 
loss  amounts  on  the  average  to  a  foot  of  water  for  each  acre  of  fir>t 
bottoms  for  the  months  of  July  and  August  alone. 

The  following  is  a  record  of  observations  of  evaporation  from  three 
tanks  filled  with  natural  soil  in  which  the  water  plane  was  kept  at  a 
constant  depth,  compared  with  the  evaporation  from  a  tank  of  open 
water.  The  tanks  were  located  in  the  bottom  lands  of  Arkansia> 
Valley,  near  the  head  gates  of  the  Farmers'  ditch.  The  soil  is  a  sandy 
loam  changing  to  coarse  sand  at  a  depth  of  about  3  feet. 

Meteorological  records  at  Deerfieldy  Kans.^  from  July  S  to  September  8^  1905. 


Week  of— 


July8-9a 0.11 

July  ^16 0.0 

July  16-23 0.08 

July  23-30 1.24 

July30-Aug.  6 1.50 

Aug.6-13 1  0.88 

Aug.  13-20 0.05 

Aug.  20-27 0.0 

Aug.  27-Sept.  a 0.03 

Sept.  3-8a 0.71 


Rain- 
fall in 
inchefi. 


Vapor 
pres- 
sure. 

Per  cent 

of 
reUtive 
humid- 
ity. 



.440 

47.3 

.482 

50.2 

.660 

61.2 

.668 

68.9 

.478 

54.8 

.680 

57.3 

.620 

49.3 

.395 

41.4 

.489 

60.4 

Evaporation  in  inches. 


Velocity 
of  wind 

in         Open 
miles.      water. 


16.60   . 
15.89   . 
16.13 
19.78 
12.05 
13  62  I 
13.26 
19.58  ' 
17. 19  ! 
14.54 


2.53 
2.39 
1.80 
2.45 
2.-22 
3.04 
8  19 
1.21 


1  loot  to  I  1  foot  to 
water.  '    water; 
soil      I      soil 
culti-     I  unculti- 
vated.   '    vated. 


2  feet  to  3  feet  t.> 
water,     water. 


1.48 
1.34 
1.14 
0.92 
0.70 


I 


1.78 
1.21 
1.38 
1.51 
0.87 


0.65 
0.60 
0.49 
0.49 
0.60 


0.13 
0.  :3 
0.25 
I.-IO 
ti.On 
C  43 

o.i: 

0.12 


a  Week  incomplete. 


CHAPTER  III. 


CHEMICAIi    COMPOSITION    OF    THE    WATERS    OF    THE 

UNBERFLrOW. 

Chemical  tests  of  the  ground  waters  were  made  wherever  possible 
during  the  process  of  the  work.  Portable  fi^ld  apparatus  was  at  hand 
which  could  be  used  in  making  a  few  simple  tests.  The  determina- 
tions made  included  titrations  for  chlorine,  alkalinity,  and  hardness. 
Total  solids  were  determined  by  means  of  the  Whitney  electrolytic 
bridge.  The  curve  of  total  solids  used  in  this  case  was  obtained  by 
evaporating  a  sample  of  water  containing  95.9  parts  per  100,000  total 
solids.  The  results  of  the  test  are  brought  together  in  Table  11,  and 
the  curve  used  for  the  determination  of  the  total  solids  is  printed  as 
fig.  15  (p.  47). 

Table  11. — Analyses  of  ground  water  in  the  Arkajims  Valley ^  western  Kansas. 

WEST  OF  GARDEN,  KANS. 


Jjocation. 


33.5 

38.8 

63.5 

106 
114 

.^5.0 
62.0 

47.9 

48.0 

1 

48.0 

59.0 
62.5 
60.0 
52.0 

86.0 

39.1 
39.5 

121 
126 

28 
17 
17 
16 
15 
32 
32 
58 
48 
56 
30 
16 

5 
5 
3-4 
3-4 
3-4 
8-4 
12 


River  water. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do.      . 
Windmill  south  of  river. 
Station  12. 
Station  8. 
Station  10. 
Station  4. 
Station  2. 
Station  1. 
Station  S. 
Station  6,  well  A. 

Do. 
Station  6,  well  B. 

Do. 

Station  11. 

Mrs.  Richter'8   well  at 
camp. 

Do. 

Do. 
Test  well  No.  1. 

Do. 
Test  well  No.  8. 

Do. 
New  well  (camp). 


45 


46 


UNDBBFLOW  IN  ABKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


Table  11. — Analyses  of  ground  tvaier  in  the  Arkansas  Valley y  vjestem  Kansag — Cont'd 
WEST  OF  GARDEN,  KANS.— Continued. 


Date. 


Chlorine  | 
(parts  peri 
100.000).  ' 


1904. 

June  16 

Do 

July  7 

Do 

September  22 

1905. 
January  24  . . 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 


1904. 
September  22..  I 

Do ! 


Alkalin- 
ity as 
CaCOs 

(parts  per; 

100,000). 


10.62  I 

.78  I 

1 

.67 
2.06 

4.2 

2.1 

5.1 

4.1 

3.4 
11.4 
17.6 

1.2 


19.5 
22.5 
13.1 

13.6 
19.9 

19.2 
11.4 
18.0 
20.5 
18.1 
19.2 
22.7 
18.6 


Degree 
of  hard- 
ness 
(parts  per 
100.000). 


39.9 
43.7 
10.7 

11.2 
25.6 

53.3 
31.1 
82.0 
31.2 
27.9 
39.3 
45.9 
21.8 


Total 
solids 


6 
35 

86 
57 
119 
102 
68 
76 
150 
26 


''lS?l.'r3'e'.'j.'"l  !—«"»• 


/Wrf. 


65.0 
57.0 


12     New  well  (camp). 

14  i  Station  1. 

. . . . ,  Sand  hills,  sec  36,  T.  21 
]      S.,  R,  34  W. 

Do. 

16  I  Sec.  2,  T.  23  S..  K.  83  W. 


25 

20 

40 

36 

«18 

116 

86 

a30 


Poor  fann. 

ShulU. 

L.  C.  Working. 

A.  Robinson. 

Foronan. 

Faye. 

M.  McClurken. 

Frank  Kolbius. 


GARDEN,  KANS. 


Do I 

1905.  I 

January  24 


.85 
3.96  ' 


15.9 
20.3 


18.8 


2^.6 

30.0 
69.2 

29.5 


16 
80 


130  I  Atchison,   Topeka    and 
I     Santa  Fe  R.  R.  well. 


110 
ie-f-40 

78 


Carter's  well. 

City  waterworks  well. 

S.  L.  Leonard. 


SHERLOCK,  KANS. 


1904. 

Julyie 

July22 

July  16 

July  19 

July  16 

July26 

July  18 ... 

July21 

July30 

July  22 

Do 

July23 

July  16 

Do 

July  16 

July27 

Do 

July  19 

Do 

September  22.. 


4.04 

3.85 

.89 

.50 

..58  I 

1.10  I 

3.62  I 

2.46  ' 


4.61  ' 
4.58  I 
4.W>  I 
5.20  I 
3.47  I 
5.10  ' 
5.  IK  I 
4.97  I 
4.90 
,96 

.17  i 

2.24  ! 


13.20 
13.90 
21.20 
17.50  ' 
21.50 
17.  H5  ' 
16.75  j 
21.30  I 
19.45  I 
15.90  ' 
15.90  I 
17.45 
14.6.S 
15.75 
15.50  ' 
15.25  ' 
16.25  I 
16.  H5  1 
19.00  I 
21.30  I 


27.70 
37,90 
13.09 
4.64 
2.38 
26.20  I 
27.80  I 
28.10  I 
44.70  i 
40.60  ' 
42.90  I 
16.30  I 
30,00  , 
31.10  I 


48.5 
50.6 
20.0 
25.9 
29.9 


78.0 
74.0 
27.0 
30.0 
66.0 
42.0 
35.0 
55.0 
83.0 
80.0 
78.0 

104.0 
93.0 
97.0 

107.0 
96.0 
97.0 
21.0 
37,0 
44.0 


71.0 
78.0 
63.0 
58.5 
60.0 
56.0 
67.0 
56.2 
66.0 
56.0 
67.0 
63.0 
57.7 
56.0 
64.0 
65.5 
57.6 


40 


River  water. 

Do. 
Test  well  No.  6. 
Station  16. 
Test  well  No.  4. 
Station  20. 
Station  15. 
Station  17. 
Near  station  17. 
Station  18. 

Do. 
Station  19. 
Station  14. 

Do. 
Station  13. 
Station  21. 
Station  22. 

Sec.30,T.24S..R.34  W. 
Sec.20,T.24S.,R,M  W. 
Sec.  80,  T.  22  8.,  R.  88  W. 


a  To  water. 


CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION    OF   THE   WATEBS. 


47 


Table  11. — Anahj^es  of  ground  tmUr  in  the  Arkansas  Valley,  western  Kansas — Cont'd. 

DEERFIELD,  KANS. 


Date. 


I  I  Alkalin 

Chlorine  ity  an 
(parts peri  CaCO^ 
100,000).    (parts  per 


1901. 

September  22 . .  1.49  I 

Augusts I  2.60 

Aui;iistlD 2.45 

Aii|Oist9 5.00 

Aufl:iut4 7.60 

Do 6.64  I 

Augusts j  5.11  I 

Ausiist4 8.61 

Au«iiBt5 5,: 

Auf^i^  6 5. ! 


Temper-  Depth  of  i 
atnre.        well. 


Location. 


Feet. 


NE.  quarter  sec.  26,  T.  24 
S.,R.  85W. 

SW.  quarter  sec.  24,  T.  24 
S..  R.  36  W. 

Near  station  28. 

Station  27. 

Well  at  camp. 

Station  23. 

Station  26. 

Teat  well  No.  1. 

Station  24. 

Station  16. 


*4C 
JS3C 

. 

'"■■■" 

fM0 

HO 

4 

W 

MO 

\ 

i\\ 

r 

1: 

\\ 

A 

V 

\\ 

»^. 

u 

v^ 

\ 

L 

L\ 

v\ 

^^ 

\> 

\ 

^ 

\ 

s> 

s 

^ 

. 

•JV 

N 

i 

$ 

V 

^ 

M 

X 

^ 

::::::: 

^ 

g 

^ 

irr: 

= 

=:= 

0 

\    jI 

9    A 

b  A 

^   di 

• 

W^ 

vlJfO 

i 

0    Ji 

*    41 

«l    w 

0     00 

c  'ia 

0     /M 

*0  // 

f  r0S 

w   /* 

*C0 

90  m 

90    *S 

OO  Hi 

W    /A 

iclk 

Fio.  15.— Curve  for  Whitney  electrolytic  bridge  used  in  converting  resistance  in  ohms  into  total 
solids  for  ground  wate;T»  of  Arkansas  Valley. 

A  comparison  of  the  results  of  the  tests  at  various  stations  shows  a 
marked  decrease  in  the  quantity  of  dissolved  solids  in  the  water  with 
the  depth  at  which  the  sample  was  taken.  In  forcing  down  test  wells 
at  almost  any  point  in  the  bottom  lands  of  Arkansas  River  the  increas 
ing  softness  of  the  water  can  be  noted  almost  from  foot  to  foot.  At  a 
considerable  depth,  say  from  60  to  100  feet  or  more,  there  are  found 
waters  which  are  popularly  called  in  this  region  ''second"*  or  ''third" 
waters,  which  are  very  much  softer  than  the  water  obtained  from 


48  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

shallow  wells.  At  points  located  in  the  sand  hills  south  of  the  rirei 
there  are  places  where  shallow  wells  furnish  water  much  softer  than 
the  so-called  second  or  third  waters  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Garden. 

The  total  solids  in  the  ground  water  determined  at  wells  in  the  first 
camp,  2  miles  west  of  Garden,  varied  from  121  part^^  per  100,000  for 
water  taken  4  feet  below  the  water  plane  to  103  parts  per  100,000  for 
water  taken  at  6  feet,  and  80  parts  per  100,000  for  water  taken  at  14 
feet.  Water  taken  from  the  railroad  well,  130  feet  deep,  at  Grarden, 
showed  total  solids  of  16  parts  per  100,000.  Water  in  the  sand  hills 
south  of  the  river  at  a  depth  of  9  feet  showed  33  parts  per  100,0 1> 
total  solids,  and  another  well,  deeper,  but  of  unknown  depth,  showe<i 
6  parts  per  100,000  total  solids.  The  tendency  of  the  ground  water 
near  the  surface  in  the  bottom  lands  of  the  river  to  run  high  in  solid- 
seems  to  indicate  that  this  increased  hardness  is  due  to  the  loss  of  the 
ground  water  by  evaporation.  The  water  plane  in  these  bottom  lami^ 
lies  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  is  subject  to  frequent  fluc- 
tuations due  to  rain  and  changes  of  conditions  in  the  river  itself. 
These  changes  are  sufficient  to  accx)unt  for  a  large  excess  of  dissolved 
solids  in  the  surface  waters,  and  it  is  believed  that  no  other  explana- 
tion is  necessary.  As  the  ground  water  moves  downstream,  the  vari- 
ous filaments  of  moving  water  must  thread  themselves  around  the 
grains  of  sand  and  gravel,  continually  dividing  and  subdividing  the 
water  as  it  moves  through  the  capillary  pores.  The  effect  of  this  action 
is  to  slowly  work  the  concentrated  water  near  the  surface  down  to 
greater  depths,  forming  a  ground  water  of  gnuluated  strength. 
Every  layer  of  silt,  clay,  or  other  impervious  material  which  possesses 
a  considerable  area  acts  as  a  partition,  separating  the  moving  ground 
water  into  layers  which  do  not  mix,  except  where  the  impervious 
strata  give  out.  This  results  in  layers  of  water  of  distinct  difference 
in  total  solids,  which  are  locally  known  as  '* first,"  ''second,''  and 
''third''  water,  etc. 

In  the  following  table  (Table  12)  the  various  samples  of  ground 
water  are  classified  by  depth  of  the  wells,  and  the  averages  of  the  dif- 
ferent determinations  are  tabulated.  From  this  arrangement  a  com- 
parison is  possible  between  the  waters  of  different  depths,  in  which 
the  errors  due  to  special  peculiarities  of  particular  wells  are  partly 
eliminated.  Some  of  the  well  water  taken  from  stock  or  domestie 
wells  showed  marked  pollution,  but  all  such  samples  have  been 
included  in  the  table. 


CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION    OF   THE   WATEB8. 


49 


Table  12. — Quality  of  ground  tvater  in  Arkansas  River  Valley ^  as  determined  from  the 

averages  of  classified  samples. 


Classification. 


Wells  under  10  feet  deep: 

Average  of  II  samples 

Probable  error 

Error percent.. 

Wells  10  to  20  feet  deep: 

Ayerage  of  18  samples 

Probable  error 

Error per  cent . . 

Wells  20  to  30  feet  deep: 

Average  of  14  samples 

Probable  error 

Error per  cent. . 

Wells  30  to  40  feet  deep: 

Average  of  10  samples 

Probable  error 

Error percent.. 

Wella  40  to  70  feet  deep: 

Ayerage  of  6  samples 

Probable  error 

Error per  cent. . 

Wells  over  70  feet  deep: 

Average  of  4  samples 

Probable  error 

Error per  cent. . 

Sand  hills  wells: 

Ayerage  of  9  samples 

Probable  error 

Error per  cent- . 


Chlorine 

Alkalinity 

CaCOs 
(parts  per 
100,000). 

10.82 

20.84 

1.45 

.434 

14.05 

2.08 

7.77 

18.55 

.829 

.520 

10.66 

2.80 

4.96 

16.28 

.336 

.251 

6.76 

1.64 

4.62 

17.62 

.397 

.862 

8.60 

4.89 

2.47 

12.07 

.28 

.298 

11.33 

2.47 

1.12 

16.27 

.160 

.924 

14.29 

6.67 

1.24 

16.41 

.222 

.587 

17.9 

3.57 

Degree 
of  hard- 
ness 


Total 
.solids 


^&^!'^^^- 


Tempera- 
ture. 


38.58 
3.76 
9.77 

40.13 
1.321 
3.30 

40.95 
1.989 
4.85 

88.00 
2.812 
6.08 

16.70 
1.659 


28.37 
.939 
8.81 

18.21 
2.32 
12.78 


76.80 
10.47 
18.83 

96.73 
4.87 
5.04 

91.00 
5.162 
5.68 

92.75 
9.5 
10.28 

85.00 
1.081 
2.95 

24.67 
5.864 
28.7 

26.86 
4.06 
15.06 


op 

60.60 

.735 

1.21 

56.16 
.795 
1.42 

55.50 
.552 
.995 

65.05 

.74 

1.84 

63.33 
.596 
1.12 


61.25 
1.07 
1.76 


The  above  table  is  not  free  from  objection,  since  the  waters  of  the 
first  bottoms,  second  bottoms,  etc.,  have  all  been  grouped  together. 
The  water  in  the  first  bottoms  is  softer  than  that  in  the  second  bottoms, 
owing  to  the  ease  with  which  bpth  the  rainfall  and  the  softer  water 
from  the  river  contribute  to  its  supply.  In  Table  13  all  wells  north  of 
the  river,  less  than  40  feet  in  depth,  have  been  classified  as  first-bot- 
tom, second-bottom,  and  upland  wells,  and  the  averages  of  the  various 
groups  have  been  taken. 

IRK  15a-06 1 


50 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


Table  13. — Quality  of  ground  water  in  ivells  north  of  Arkansas  River  Valley  and  lest  than 
40  feet  in  depth j  as  determined  from  the  averages  of  classified  samples. 


Classification. 


1  Chlorine 


First-bottom  wells:  ' 

Average  of  38  samples 

Probable  error 

Error percent.. 

Second-bottom  wells: 

Average  of  7  samples 

Probable  error 

Error per  cen  t . . 

Upland  wells: 

Average  of  3  samples 

Probable  error 

Error per  cent. . 


Alkalinity  Degree  of     Total 


CaCOg 

(parts  per 

100.000). 


18.18 


hardness  |    solids    Tempen- 
(parU  per  ( parts  per     tore. 
100,000).  I  100,000).  - 


.447 

.809 

6.52 

1.7 

4.04 

18.27 

.280 

.819 

6.96 

4.48 

1.88 

19.90 

.216 

.546 

11.8 

2.74 

42.81 
1.672 
8.91 

47.64 
5.40 
11,8 

76.80 
1.678 
2.18 


93.75 
8.818 
3.54 

89.43 
5.938 


35.0 
3.5 
10.0 


.387 


52.0 


oOne  observation. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
ORIGIX  AND  EXTKNT  OF  THE  UNDERFLOW. 

ORIGIN. 

The  investigations  which  have  been  explained  in  the  preceding  pages 
of  this  report  indicate  that  the  water  of  the  Arkansas  underflow  has 
its  main  source  in  the  rainfall  upon  the  sand  hills  south  of  the  river 
and  upon  the  bottom  lands  and  uplands  north  of  the  river. 

The  average  annual  rainfall  in  the  vicinity  of  Garden  is  about  20 
inches.  A  very  large  portion  of  this  passes  into  the  level  and  porous 
soil,  so  that  the  actual  contribution  to  the  underflow  must  be  consid- 
erable. As  previously  stated  in  this  paper  there  is  a  ground  water 
district  along  the  river  that  remains  lower  than  the  river,  whether  the 
same  be  flowing  or  not,  in  which  region  the  rise  in  the  ground  water 
after  a  rain  is  more  than  can  be  accounted  for  by  the  localized  pre- 
cipitation. This  fact  indicates  not  only  that  the  underground  drain- 
age at  this  point  is  contributed  to  by  rainfall  on  distant  catchment 
areas,  but  that  the  underflow  constitutes  a  separate  drainage  system 
which  is  more  than  suflScient  to  take  care  of  the  rainfall.  Determina- 
tions made  in  the  sandy  flats  south  of  the  river  at  Deerfield  (see  Chap. 
II)  show  that  the  rise  in  the  water  plane,  observed  after  a  rain 
storm,  amounts  to  as  much  as  60  per  cent  of  the  water  that  fell.  This 
fact  verities  what  is  quite  obvious  to  a  careful  observer,  that  there  is 
no  run-oflf  from  the  lands  adjacent  to  Arkansas  River  in  the  region 
under  discussion. 

The  total  depths  of  the  deposits  of  sand  and  gi'avels  at  Garden  is 
not  known  very  exactly.  A  deep  well  was  sunk  at  Garden  in  1888, 
which,  according  to  a  partial  log  printed  in  the  local  newspaper, 
showed  that  rock  was  reached  at  a  depth  of  311  feet.  Every  indica- 
tion drawn  from  the  behavior  of  the  ground  water  shows  that  the 
gravels  must  extend  to  a  considerable  depth,  so  that  it  is  safe  to  assume 
that  the  well  log  just  referred  to  gives  a  correct  notion  of  the  depth  to 
rock.  However,  as  one  approaches  the  western  boundary  of  Kansas, 
bed  rock  comes  near  the  surface,  which  fact,  even  if  no  other  evidence 
were  at  hand,  would  show  that  no  portion  of  the  ground  water  could 
originate  in  Colorado.  The  former  popular  belief  in  a  Colorado  source 
of  the  ground  water  has  practically  disappeared,  although  a  few  settlers 
still  adhere  to  it.  During  the  summer  of  1904  one  resident  of  Finney 
County  informed  the  writer  that  the  water  in  his  well  was  invariably 
roily  after  a  rain  storm  during  the  preceding  night  in  Colorado.  This 
corresponds  to  nearly  passenger-train  speed  for  the  flow  of  ground 

61 


52 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VAL.LEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


water.  The  story  may  be  regfarded  as  about  the  sole  surviving  ghotjt 
of  the  numerous  extravagant  beliefs  which  were  formerlj'  current 
among  the  settlers. 

The  region  near  Garden,  Kins.,  is  peculiarly  the  area  properly 
called  the  High  Plains.  The  land  is  level  and  completely  covered  in 
its  natural  condition  with  a  short  compact  sod  of  buffalo  grass.  John- 
son and  other  writers  on  this  region  have  remarked  the  complete  lat^k 
of  run-oflf  from  this  portion  of  the  plains  area.  The  precipitation 
falls  mostly  during  the  summer  months  and  is  sufficient  in  amount  to 
maintain  a  luxuriant  sod,  which  not  only  protects  the  soil  against  ero- 
sion, but  prevents,  by  the  obstruction  offered  by  the  grass,  the  esca[^ 


t9e€.o 

H£ 

GHT 

Of  At 

KANS 

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hut 

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N^ 

httk 

>Cun 

vnt- 

cMaf 

»^»U 

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^ 

\ 

5       /6        17        la        19       to       Zl        Z 

^        23       2<        IS       Ze       Z7       Z8       z 

9        30       M 

'^'     1 

tnck 

z 

/ 

0 

es 

11" 

tNfA 

U  A' 

OAR 

0£M 

5     16      i7      19      n      zo     zi      ^^      23     ««     zs     ze     Z7    za      z 

U — . ttftr 

•    "   *  1  '      '_•'     1 

Fig.  16.— Elevation  of  water  surface  of  Arkansas  River  at  Sherlock  Bridge,  compared  with  rain  fa' i 

record  at  Qarden,  Kans. 

of  the  water  in  flowing  torrents.  In  consequence  the  rainfall  is  com- 
pletely taken  care  of  b}^  absorption  into  the  ground  and  by  evaporation 
and  use  b}'^  the  vegetation.  Eastward  from  the  High  Plains  region 
rainfall  is  greater,  and  the  sod  is  not  able  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
rills  and  eroded  channels,  so  that  nmch  of  the  water  runs  off  into  sur- 
face streams.  Westward  from  the  High  Plains  district,  as  Colorado  i< 
approached,  the  rainfall  decreases  and  in  consequence  vegetation 
becomes  so  scant  that  it  is  not  able  to  protect  the  surface  of  the 
ground  from  erosion  even  from  a  diminished  rainfall.  Hence  it  i> 
that  both  to  the  east  and  west  of  the  High  Plains  there  is  a  marked 
run-off,  but  in  the  plains  district  pro^r  the  rains  are  disposed  of  by 
absorption. 


ORIGIN   AND  EXTENT   OF   UNDERFLOW. 


53 


The  above  facts  are  well  shown  b}:  the  results  previously  discussed 
in  this  paper.  The  summer  of  1904  was  one  of  unusually  ample  rain- 
fall in  the  plains,  and  many  flooils  came  down  the  river.  The  river 
ivas  carefully  watched  by  the  field  party  and  its  elevation  noted. 
Figfs.  16  and  17  show  the  elevation  of  the  river  at  Sherlock  and  Deer- 
iield  bridges,  respectivel}^  compared  with  the  rainfall  at  Garden.  A 
similar  diagram  for  cimp  1,  near  Garden,  is  given  in  fig.  10.  A  study 
of  these  diagrams  shows  practically  no  influenci^  of  the  rainfall  upon 


Z9Z&0 


^ 

^ 

5 


Z9ZSO 


j 


19Z*.S 


\ 

1 

^! 

\ 

\ 

\ 

V 

\^ 

\ 

\ 

> 

\ 

"^ 

r 

V 

M 

■^ 

i      ^      s 

• 

i 

6 

►         / 

7         //          /Z         /3         /-*»         //        /^         h 

l\ — 


i 


fO        it 
AUGUST 


tS        /6 


Fig.  17. — Elevation  of  water  surface  of  Arkansas  River  at  Deerfleld  Bridge,  eom]>ared  with  rainfall 
,  record  at  Oarden,  Kans. 

the  stream.  Many  of  these  rains  extended  into  Colorado,  where  they 
were  the  cause  of  floods  that  showed  themselves  at  the  camps  in 
Kansas  many  hours  after  the  rain.  Thus  we  have  ample  evidence  of 
no  run-off  from  the  countr}'  between  Garden  and  Deerfield,  and  at  the 
same  time  have  proof  of  a  considerable  run-off  from  the  watershed 
toward  the  western  limit  of  Kansas  and  in  Colorado. 

The  few  instances  in  which  small  surface  streams  are  formed  near 
the  Colorado  line — like  the  plains  streams  known  as  Bear  Creek  and 
White  Woman  Creek — are  no  exception  to  the  statement  above  that 


54 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


there  is  no  run-off  into  the  Arkansas  in  the  High  Plains  district,  for 
these  streams  entirely  disappear  as  surface  streams  before  the  Arkansas 
is  reached.  Their  waters,  less  the  evaporation,  are  ultimately  joined 
to  the  underflow.  The  situation  may  be  sumriiarized  in  the  following 
words:  The  underground  drainage  in  this  region  is  so  enormous,  and 
the  water  passes  through  the  gravel  so  freely,  that  there  is  no  surplu.-- 
water  left  to  form  surface  streams,  or  to  form  a  perennial  supply  for 
Arkansas  River.  If  the  gravels  of  the  plains  near  Garden  were  le<> 
deep,  it  is  entirely  conceivable  that  the  Arkansas  River  would  be  a 
perennial  spring-fed  stream  at  this  point. 

The  large  contribution  to  the  underflow,  which  is  made  b^-  the 
rainfall  upon  the  sand  hills  south  of  the  river,  is  clearly  demonstrated 
by  the  course  of  the  contours  in  fig.  5.  In  this  diagram  the  soft  water 
from  the  south  side  of  the  river  can  be  observed  to  be  pressing  the 
hard  water  of  the  first  bottoms  northward  toward  the  left  side  of  the 
river  valley. 

Annual  predpitalion  at  Dodge  and  Garden ,  Kans. 


Year. 


18V5., 
1876. 
1877. 
1878. 
1879. 
1880. 
1881., 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885., 
1886. 
1887. 


Dodge. 

Garden. 

Year. 

i  Dodge. 

GmxdfO. 

10.78 
16.40 

•  •• 

1890... 
1891... 
1892... 
1893... 
1894... 
1895  .. . 
1896... 

!       11.72 

'       S2.S4 

19.66 

10.12 

12.60 

30.S1 

19.87 

27.2: 

27.89 
17.96 

15.43 

. 

1L45 

18.12 

33.55 

13.14 
28.60 
30.86 
23.71 
19.35 
16.71 
22.94 
19.17 

1897... 
1898... 
1899... 

21.58 

31.46 

28.46 

•>  T 

30  > 

1900... 
1901... 
1902... 
1908... 
1904... 

20.76 

16.06 

!        17.70 

16.27 

1        17.19 

l!*  Ji- 

18.  *t 

19.  i!> 

20.  &i 

1 

•.a.a-. 

NORTH  AND  SOUTH  LIMITATIONS. 

A  noteworthy  feature  of  the  underflow  is  the  lack  of  any  natural 
north  or  south  limitation  to  the  easterly  moving  stream.  There  are 
important  changes  from  place  to  place  in  the  north  and  south  slope  of 
the  water  plane,  but  none  are  of  sufficient  consequence  to  materially 
modify  the  dominant  influence  of  the  easterly  gradient  of  7  to  8  feet  ti* 
the  mile.  The  velocities  found  at  the  edge  of  the  sand  hills  to  the 
south  of  the  river,  and  at  a  distance  as  high  as  9  miles  from  the  chan- 
nel of  the  river,  are  about  the  same  as  those  found  near  the  bed  of  the 
river  in  similar  material.  There  is  nothing  surprising  in  this  except 
that  the  stratification  of  the  sand  and  gravel  on  the  High  Plains  is  such 
that  there  is  no  natural  north  or  south  limitation  to  the  eastward- 
moving  ground  waters. 


CHAPTER  V. 

SUMMARY  OF  TESTS  OF  SMALI^  PUMPING  PliANTS  IN  THE 
ARKANSAS  VAT^IiEY. 

GENERAL  RESULTS. 

Table  14  shows  the  results  of  tests  of  a  number  of  pumping  plants 
used  for  irrigation  in  Arkansas  Valley  between  Garden  and  Lakin, 
Kans.     Most  of  the  entries  in  the  table  explain  themselves. 

The  fuel  used  in  most  of  the  plants  is  gasoline,  the  current  price  of 
^hich  during  the  summer  of  1904  was  22  cents  a  gallon,  a  cost  that  is 
almost  prohibitive,  even  when  pumping  water  from  the  most  excellent 
wells  found  in  the  valley. 

Table  14. — Testa  of  smaU  pumping  plants^  Arkansas  VcUteyj  Kansas, 


1 

2 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Owner  of  plant. 

Location. 

Kind  of  pump. 

Horse- 
power 
of  en- 
gine. 

Fuel  used. 

Price  of 
fuel  per 
gallon. 

Total 
lift. 

D.  H.  Logan 

Garden,  Kans. 
do 

No.  3  centrifugal 

Menre 

6 
10 

7 
14 

Gasoline.. 

do..-. 

do.... 

do.... 

do.... 

1    F^t. 
•0. 22        22. 1 

Mre.  M.  Richter 

.20        15. 5 

C.  E.  Sexton 

do 

2  vertical  6  by  16  cyl- 
inder. 
Chain  and  bucket .... 
do 

.22        15.06 

Lakin,  Kans . . 
do 

i 

.21  1      17.0 

J.M.Root 

.22         1R.8 

King  Bros 

Qardeu,  Kans. 
do 

No.  4  centrifugal 

2  duplex  steam 

63.0 

Waterworks 

I.  L.  Diesem 

do 

No.  4  centrifugal 

No.  3  centrifugal 

No.  14  centrifugal.... 
2  horizontal  5  by  5 

cylinders. 
No.  4  centrifugal 

10 

6 
80 

84 

6 

Gasoline.. 

do.... 

Coal 

Gasoline.. 

do.... 

1 

.12J       22.13 

L.  E.  Smith 

do 

.12i!      17.60 
a4.00  1      23.0 

H.  B.  Holcomb 

Sherlock,  Kans 
Garden,  Kans. 

do 

H.B.  Kipp 

.124       21.7 

1 

.124'       21.47 

J.  RMcKinney 

a  Price  per  ton. 


66 


56  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

Table  14. — Tests  of  small  pumping  plants,  Arkansas  Valley,  Kansas — Continaed. 


Owner  of  plant. 


D.  H.  Logan 

Mrs.  M.Rlchter.. 

C.  E.  Sexton 

Nathan  Fulmer. . 

J.M.Root 

King  Bros 

Waterworks 

I,  L.  Diesem 

L.  E.  Smith 

H.  B.  Holcomb  . . 

H.  S.  Klpp 

J.  R.  McKinney . 


Distance  Yield  of 
water  is  well  per 
lowered     minute. 


10 


12 


13 


cr^iw^iA/.  Specific    I  i 

S™S?Lv  Area  of  per-  capacity  Coat  of  fuel '  Coet  of 
7?/«.^ii  colatlng  or  per  Miuare  per  acre-  fuel  y^ 
ivprmin      Strainer         foot  of  foot  of      l.O0o/<vt 

«♦«  .surface.    Istrainerper      water.        galloniL 

^^-  minute.    ;     •  , 


^eet 

GaUons. 

Qallont. 

Sq.feet.    > 

CfaUons.    \ 

1 

OntU. 

6.85  ; 

272 

42.2 

107.0  1 

0.394  : 

«2.9S 

^ 

5.3    1 

394 

73.0 

266.5  , 

.27    , 

2.90  ; 

iV 

3.0    ' 

91 

30.3  ' 

67.2  1 

.53 

3,75 

i\ 

6.35 

540 

85.0  1 

834.0  , 

.264 

1.37 

^ 

4.16 

215 

51.7  , 

210.0  1 

.246' 

2.78  1 

(V 

20.3 

183 

9.0 

86.0 

.106    .. 

5.48 

290 
363 

77.0 
M.0 

247.0  1 
151.0  ' 

.31     ... 

6.72 

.856 

2.10  . 

A 

2.16 

198 

91.6  1 

70.7' 

1.290  ' 

1.67 

A 

9.60 

2,300 

240.0 

1,876.0  , 

.128' 

-.85' 

i^ 

2.83 

96 

34.0  1 

45.3  ! 

.75    1 

1.09 

h 

8.89 

420 

50.0  1 

116.0  1 

.42    1 

1 

i.» 

^ 

a  Including  cost  of  labor  and  lubricating  oil. 


SPECIFIC  CAPACITY. 


The  numbers  in  column  10  express  the  readiness  with  which  the  well 
furnishes  water  to  the  pump.  The  numbers  in  each  case  were  found 
by  dividing  the  numbers  in  column  9  by  the  corresponding  numbers  in 
column  8;  these  numbers,  therefore,  express  the  amount  of  water  the 
well  would  furnish  if  the  water  lev^l  was  lowered  but  1  foot.  These 
numbers  constitute  what  the  writer  has  called  the  "specific  capacity" 
of  the  well,  and  are  large  in  the  case  of  a  good  well  and  small  in  the 
case  of  a  poor  well. 

The  water-bearing  gravels  are  usually  from  9  to  15  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  good  wells  can  be  ver}-  cheaply  constructed. 
There  is  no  quicksand  or  hardpan  or  other  troublesome  material  above 
the  water-bearing  gravels.  The  well  tubes  or  strainers  are  usually  12 
to  20  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  made  of  slotted  galvanized  iron. 
For  the  most  part  the  wells  are  of  the  very  best  design  and  possess  a 
remarkably  high  specific  capacity;  the  writer  knows  of  few  places 
where  better  ones  can  be  constructed. 

The  usual  construction  consists  of  a  dug  well,  6  to  10  feet  in  diame- 
ter, excavated  several  feet  below  the  level  of  ground  water,  with  a  num- 
ber of  "feeders"  or  tubular  wells  penetrating  the  bottom  of  the  well. 
No  better  construction  can  be  suggested  for  small  plants.  The  only 
modification  in  detail  that  seems  likely  to  better  the  present  excellent 
results  would  be  the  use  of  galvanized-iron  strainers  with  larger  slots 
than  are  at  present  in  use.  This  would  be  practicable  at  some  of  the 
wells.  Heavy  pumping  would  remove  much  of  the  fine  material  that 
now  remains  in  contact  with  the  present  well  strainers. 


TESTS   OF   SMALL   PUMPING   PLANTS.  57 

In  column  12  there  are  given  the  same  magnitudes  as  are  expressed 
in  column  10,  reduced  in  each  case  to  1  square  foot  of  well  strainer. 
The  numbers  in  this  column  express,  therefore,  the  amount  of  water 
in  gallons  per  minute  furnished  l>y  1  square  foot  of  well  strainer  under 
a  head  of  1  foot  of  water.  They  are  a  numerical  expression  of  the 
degree  of  coarseness  of  the  material  in  which  the  well  is  placed. 

These  numbers  are  almost  the  same  for  all  of  the  well  plants,  when 
proper  allowance  is  made  for  diflference  in  construction.  At  the 
Riehter,  Fulmer,  and  Root  plants,  there  are  large  dug  wells  with  sev- 
eral feeders  in  the  bottom.  The  numerous  feeders  interfere  with  eac*h 
other  somewhat,  keeping  the  specific  capacity  lower  than  it  would 
otherwise  be.  At  the  Logan  and  Sexton  plants  the  construction  is 
different.  The  Logan  w^ell  is  constructed  of  20-inch  casing,  through 
the  bottom  of  which  are  two  4-inch  feeders  extending  26  feet  below 
the  bottom  of  the  20-inch  casing.  The  20-inch  casing  is  perforated 
for  10  feet  at  the  bottom.  At  the  Sexton  plant  there  is  a  12-inch 
well  22  feet  deep,  and  a  10-inch  well  31  feet  deep,  both  perforated 
10  feet  from  the  bottom. 

COST  OF  PUMPING. 

While  the  cost  of  water  at  these  various  pumping  plants  may  at 
first  glance  seem  high,  and  the  results  not  especially  encouraging,  yet 
a  more  careful  inspection  shows  that  the  facts  are  real)}'  highly  favor- 
able. It  nmst  be  remembered  that  the  cost  of  ])umping  is  based  upon 
a  22-cent  price  of  gasoline.  This  price  is  almost  prohibitive,  but  for- 
tunately there  exist  several  possible  ways  of  cutting  down  very  mate- 
rially the  cost  of  power,  and  on  this  point  the  following  suggestions 
are  offered: 

In  the  first  place,  the  cost  of  pumping  can  be  reduced  by  the  use 
of  crude  oil  in  place  of  the  gasoline.  Crude  oil  from  Kansas  fields 
should  be  laid  down  at  Garden  at  from  3  to  4  cents  a  gallon.  The 
crude  oil  re(|uires  a  special  device,  which  must  })e  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  gasoline  engine,  called  a  generator,  in  which  the  crude 
oil,  or  part  of  it,  is  converted  into  a  gas  }>efore  it  is  led  into  the  engine 
cylinder.  By  the  use  of  such  a  generator  the  cost  of  fuel  can  be 
lowered  to  a  point  about  equivalent  to  a  5  cents  a  gallon  price  for  gas- 
oline. The  crude-oil  generators  will  work  best  on  engines  of  12  to  30 
horsepower. 

If  plants  of  from  20  to  50  horsepower  are  constructed,  as  I  believe 
will  inevitably  be  the  case  in  the  near  future,  the  cheapest  power  will 
probably  be  found  in  the  use  of  coal  in  small  gas-producer  plants  in 
connection  with  gas  engines.  **  These  small  gas-producer  plants  are 
largely  automatic  in  action  and  can  be  operated  by  an3^one.  With  hard 
coal  or  coke  or  charcoal  at  $8  per  ton,  the  cost  of  power  would  be  less 

a  See  test  of  produce r-gfts  plant,  Chapter  VI. 


58  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

than  one-half  cent  per  horsepower  for  one  hour,  or  only  one-fifth  of 
the  cost  of  power  from  gasoline  at  22  cents  a  gallon.  The  writer  antici- 
pates no  difficulty,  therefore,  in  keeping  the  cost  of  water  below  60  to 
75  cents  an  acre-foot  for  fuel,  or  below  $1.25  to  $1.50  per  acre-foot  for 
total  expense.  Hundreds  of  such  plants  have  been  put  in  use  in  Eng- 
land during  the  past  ten  or  more  years,  and  they  are  in  charge  of 
unskilled  labor.  These  gas-producer  plants  are  used  in  England  for  a 
great  variety  of  purposes,  such  as  power  for  agricultural  machinerv. 
and  for  small  electric-light  plants  for  country  estates,  etc.  They  are 
used  in  as  small  units  as  5  horsepower. 

In  this  country  the  producer-gas  plants  have  been  in  use  for  several 
years,  and  at  the  present  moment  they  are  fast  taking  the  place  of 
steam  power  in  new  plants.  The  cost  of  a  producer  plant  and  ga> 
engine  is  about  the  same  as  the  cost  of  a  steam  engine  and  boiler  of 
same  size  when  everything  is  included,  but  the  cost  of  power  from 
the  producer-gas  plant  is  very  much  less  than  that  obtained  from  small 
steam  engines. 

In  producer  plants,  ranging  upward  from  100  horsepower,  a  style  of 
plant  may  be  installed  in  which  soft  coal  or  lignite  may  be  successfully 
used.  This  still  further  cuts  down  the  cost  of  power.  In  fact,  lar^ 
plants  of  this  type  furnish  the  cheapest  artificial  power  that  has  yet 
been  devised.  The  saving  is  not  only  in  fuel,  but  also  in  labor,  as  one 
man  is  capable  of  running  a  300-horsepower  plant. 

That  part  of  the  operating  expense  which  is  properly  chargeable  to 
fuel  cost  can  be  accurately  determined.  Column  13,  Table  14,  expresJ^e^ 
the  cost  per  acre-foot  of  water  recovered.  In  column  14  is  given  the 
cost  of  fuel  for  lifting  1,000  gallons  of  water  1  foot.  For  the  purpose 
of  comparison,  these  results  are  expressed  in  fractional  parts  of  a  cent- 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  cost  given  in  the  table  is  based  upon  a 
22-cent  price  for  gasoline.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  producer-ga< 
plants  in  moderate-sized  units  would  enable  irrigation  by  pumping  in 
the  bottom  lands  of  Arkansas  River  to  be  highly  profitable. 

No  allowance  has  been  made  for  interest,  depreciation,  and  labor. 
These  expenses,  if  included,  would  about  double  the  cost  per  acre-foot 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DETAIliS  OF  TE8TH  OF  PUMPIISTG  PliANTS. 

TEST  OF  PUMPING  PLANT  OF  D.  H.  LOGAN,  GARDEN,  KANS. 

This  plant  is  located  in  the  northeast  corner  of  sec.  13,  R.  38  W., 
T.  24  S. ,  and  is  in  the  northwest  corner  of  the  city  of  Garden.  The 
outfit  consists  of  a  6-horsepower  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.  horizontal 
gasoline  engine  connected  by  a  belt  to  a  No.  3  centrifugal  pump.  The 
well  is  constructed  of  20-inch  galvanized-iron  casing  32  feet  long,  per- 
forated 10  feet  up  from  the  bottom,  inside  of  which  are  two  4-inch 
feeders  28  feet  long,  perforated  their  entire  length,  and  extending  26 
feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  20-inch  casing,  making  a  total  depth  of 
58  feet.  The  pump  has  been  in  operation  since  April,  1902,  and  the 
engine  since  April,  1903.  The  water  was  measured  by  the  use  of  a 
fully  contracted  weir  with  a  length  of  crest  of  0.66  foot. 

The  engine  was  started  at  9  o'clock  and  the  weir  was  ready  for  water 
at  about  10.30.  The  water  was  turned  on  weir  and  the  head  read  until 
it  became  constant  at  1  p.  m.  In  order  to  determine  the  expense  of 
pumping,  all  of  the  gasoline  was  used  out  of  the  reservoir,  then  1  gal- 
lon was  poured  in  and  the  length  of  the  run  noted  to  be  one  hour  and 
thirty-two  minutes,  or  two-thirds  gallon  per  hour.  As  the  engine  is 
a  6-horsepower  one,  this  equals  0.111  gallon,  or  0.445  quart  of  gasoline 
per  horsepower  hour. 

The  average  corrected  head  on  the  weir  was  found  to  be  0.440  foot. 
Using  weir  formula 

?=(?  f  V27  *  HI, 

where  J=0.66,  whence  c= 0.592,  the  discharge  is  found  to  be 
^=0.6045  second-foot =272  gallons  per  minute. 

Data  of  Logan  pumping  plants  Garden,  Kans. 

Feet. 

Average  depth  to  water  while  pumping 18. 6 

Normal  depth  to  water 11.  75 

Amoont  lowered  by  pumping 6. 85 

Elevation  of  well  platform 2,835.28 

Distance  water  was  raised  above  platform 3. 5 

Lift,  or  total  distance  water  was  raised 22. 1 

Total  area  of  well  strainer,  107  square  feet. 

69 


60 


UNDEBFLOW  IN  ABKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


The  fuel  cost  of  pumping  was,  therefore,  0.9  cent  per  1,000  gallons 
of  water  recovered,  or  $2.93  per  acre-foot.  The  cost  of  1,000  foot- 
gallons  (1,000  gallons  raised  1  foot)  was,  therefore,  0.0406  cent,  or 
one  twenty-fifth  cent. 

The  specific  capacity  of  the  well  is  42.2  gallons  a  minute,  or  0.391 
gallon  for  each  square  foot  of  well  strainer. 

The  engine  ran  at  a  speed  of  350  revolutions  a  minute,  exploding 
143  times  a  minute.  The  diameter  of  engine  pulley  is  16  inches  and 
of  pump  pulley  10  inches.  This  gives  a  speed  of  560  revolutions  a 
minute  to  the  pump. 

The  size  of  the  pond  was  40  feet  by  60  feet,  mostly  covered  with  a 
green  scum,  which  would  prevent  evaporation.  As  to  seepage,  the 
pond  falls  8  inches  in  twelve  hours  at  night.  The  pond  being  2,4c>'» 
square  feet  in  area,  the  observed  seepage  represents  a  loss  of  16.68 
gallons  per  minute,  which  should  be  added  to  the  capacity  of  pump 
and  well,  but  not  to  the  effective  capacity  for  Mr.  Logan. 

There  is  a  windmill  at  a  well  20  feet  north  of  the  one  pumped  by 
the  gasoline  engine — a  12-foot  airometer  connected  to  a  10-inch  pump 
of  12-inch  stroke.  After  the  weir  measurements  were  completed  the 
windmill  was  thrown  into  gear.  There  was  a  brisk  wind  from  the 
south  and  the  pump  threw  a  good  quantity  of  water,  but  no  appreciable 
lowering  of  the  water  in  the  gasoline-engine  well  20  feet  away  was 
detected.     The  rise  of  the  water  in  the  well  was  obtained  twice. 

Below  are  the  two  sets  of  observations: 

Rise  of  ivaier  after  cessation  of  pumping  in  Logan  weU^  Garden^  Aofu. 
FIRST  TRIAL-WINDMILL  NOT  RUNNING. 


Time. 


55  seconds 

1  minute  and  5  seconds . . 
I  minute  and  20  seconds . 
1  minute  and  37  seconds . 
1  minute  and  55  seconds . 


Depth  to 
water. 


Feet. 

a  18. 60 
16.05 
14.55 
12.95 
12.50 


Time. 


2  minutes  and  8  seconds. . . 
2  minutes  and  22  seconds. , 
2  minutes  and  S3  seconds. . 
2  minutes  and  48  seconds. . 


1 


Depth  to 
water. 


Feet. 

12.  S5 
1135 
12.25 
12.15 


SECOND  TRIAL-WINDMILL  RUNNING. 


24  minutes  and  30  seconds  . 
24  minutes  and  35  Beconds  . 
24  minutes  and  45  seconds  . 

24  minutes  and  48  seconds  . 

25  minutes  and  10  seconds . 
25  minutes  and  26  seconds . 
25  minutes  and  38  seconds  . 


(a)        j  25  minutes  and  48  seconds. 

18.0    'i  26minutes 

16. 5  ,  {  26  minutes  and  23  seconds. 
14.85  1 1  26  minutes  and  58  seconds. 
13. 10  i'  27  minutes  and  15  seconds. 
12. 90  I'  27  minutes  and  80  seconds. 
12.55  !' 


12.55 
12.45 
12.25 
12. 2» 
12.25 
12.25 


a  Stopped  pumping. 


DETAILS   OF    TESTS   OF    PUMPING   PLANTS. 


61 


The  curves  showing  the  rate  of  rise  of  water  in  the  Logan  well  after 
ptimping  ceased  are  given  as  curves  1  and  2  in  fig.  18.  Curve  2  is 
the  one  which  was  produced  when  the  windmill  was  pumping  from  a 
well  20  feet  away.  The  comparison  of  this  curve  with  curve  1,  which 
was  produced  when  the  neighboring  well  was  not  used,  is  very  inter- 
esting, showing,  as  it  does,  a  less  rapid  rise  when  the  neighboring  well 
was  in  use.  To  find  the  specific  capacity  for  the  Logan  well  from  these 
curves  we  must  substitute  the  values  of  the  various  constants  in  the 
formula 

A         H 

c=l7.26  -T  log  -T-  ga^aons  per  minute. 


^Q^/w^/i  /ggsr 


ilSO^At   y^^ifK/mtif  t  wfftt/^ 


~3o  "jfoO  IWo' 

r»mm  tn  seconds 


"SZfe 


Fig.  18.— Rising  curves  for  Logan  well.    Curre  2  taken  when  neighboring  well  wa.H  being  pumped  by 
windmill.    Curve  1  taken  when  windmill  was  shut  off. 

The  value  of  the  area,^A,  of  cross  section  of  the  well  casing  is  2.17 
square  feet,  and  H,  the  amount  the  water  is  lowered  b}-  the  pump,  is 
t>.85  feet.  The  amount  of  depression,  A,  of  the  water  level  below  the 
natural  level  at  any  time  can  then  be  selected  from  the  curve,  and  the 
specific  capacity  readily  computed.  If  t  be  taken  to  be  40  seconds, 
or  f  of  a  minute,  h  will  be  found  from  the  curve  to  be  equal  to 
6.85—5.5=1.35  feet,  hence 

c  =i7.25  X  I  X  2.17  X  log  {  pov  )  gallons  per  minute  =  39.5  gallons 

per  minute. 

The  yield  of  the  well  for  the  maximum  depression,  6.85  feet,  must 
then  be 

6.85  X  39.5  =  270  gallons  per  minute. 


62  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

The  curve  of  rise  of  water  forms  one  of  the  best  methods  of  deter- 
mining the  yield  of  a  well.  Such  curves  can  readily  be  obtained.  Well 
data  should  always  include  measurements  of  the  amount  of  loTrering 
of  the  water  surface  by  the  pumps,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  continue 
these  measurements  after  the  pumps  have  stopped  to  secure  sufficient 
data  to  estimate  the  specific  capacity  and  total  yield  of  the  well.  Thi.-i 
avoids  the  necessity  of  constructing  a  weir  or  other  method  of  meas- 
uring the  water  discharge.  The  accui'acj''  is  sufficiently  great  for  the 
purpose  for  which  such  data  are  used.  The  method  can  be  used  only 
in  cases  where  an  internal  suction  pipe  extends  into  the  well  casing 
with  sufficient  room  around  it  to  permit  a  sounder  to  be  lowered  to  the 
water  surface.  If  there  is  no  foot  valve  or  other  means  for  prevent- 
ing the  water  from  returning  to  the  well  after  pumping  ceases,  the 
rising  curve  may  still  be  used  for  the  determination  of  the  specific 
capacity,  provided  that  only  the  portion  of  the  curve  be  used  which 
was  formed  after  the  water  had  completely  returned  to  the  well  from 
the  pump. 

TEST  OF  THE  RICHTER  PUMPING  PLANT,  NEAR  GARDEN,  KANS. 

This  plant  is  located  in  the  northwest  corner  of  SW.  i  sec.  14,  R. 
33  W.,  T.  24  S.  The  upper  part  of  this  well  is  cased  with  part  of  the 
old  standpipe  from  Garden.  The  casing  is  10  feet  in  diameter  and 
extends  down  20  feet.  In  the  bottom  of  this  part  of  the  well  are 
placed  four  8-inch  galvanized-iron  feeders,  arranged  symmetrically 
about  the  center;  each  feeder  is  25  feet  long,  perforated  its  entire 
length,  and  extends  about  2i  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  large  part 
of  the  well. 

The  pump  used  is  a  Menge  pump,  which  operates  on  the  principle 
of  a  screw  propeller  of  a  steamship.  It  bores  the  water  out  and  up  a 
square  wooden  penstock  or  pump  shaft.  There  are  two  of  these  pro- 
pellers mounted  one  above  the  other  on  vertical  iron  shaft  inside  the 
penstock.  The  top  of  the  iron  shaft  carries  the  belt  pulley  and  has  a 
shoulder  bearing  which  takes  the  thrust  of  the  pump  as  a  pull  above. 
This  pump  is  made  in  New  Orleans. 

The  pump  is  run  by  a  10-horsepower  Otto  gasoline  engine,  which 
runs  at  a  speed  of  300  revolutions  per  minute.  The  circumference  of 
the  drive  pulley  is  5.25  feet,  and  of  the  driven  pulley  2.65  feet,  mak- 
ing the  pump  run  at  595  revolutions  per  minute.  The  screws  are 
boxed  up  and  under  water  when  the  pump  is  not  in  operation.  A 
small  pond  was  constructed  at  the  end  of  the  discharge  trough  and  a 
fully  contracted  rectangular  weir  of  length  of  crest  of  1.2  feet  was 
used  to  measure  the  discharge.  The  measurements  for  head  were 
taken  6  feet  away  from  the  weir,  and  boards  were  interposed  between 


DETAILS   OF    TESTS   OF    PUMPING   PLANTS.  63 

the  discharge  trough  and  weir  to  cut  down  the  velocity,  which  might 
tend  to  give  erroneous  results.  The  average  corrected  head  on  the 
weir  was  0.371  foot.     Using  the  weir  formula 

and  taking  c  from  Merriman's  tables  as  0.603, 

^=0.876  second-foot =394  gallons  per  minute. 

Using  a  small  Price  acoustic  water  meter  in  the  discharge  trough, 
>)y  measuring  the  velocity  at  diflferent  places  and  also  by  integrating, 
the  discharge  was  found  to  be  0.76  second-foot,  or  342  gallons  per 
minute.  The  water  in  the  flume  was  so  shallow  that  this  determina- 
tion is  of  little  value.  By  putting  chips  in  the  discharge  trough  and 
catching  the  time  with  a  stop  watch,  the  surface  velocity  was  found 
to  be  1.565  feet  per  second.  This  number  multiplied  by  0.8  gives  an 
average  velocity  of  1.25  feet  per  second  and  a  discharge  of  0.884 
.second-foot,  or  397  gallons  per  minute. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  determine  the  amount  of  gasoline  used. 
The  reservoir  was  filled  full  and  the  engine  run  for  1  hour  and  36  min- 
utes, or  1.6  hours.  All  the  gasoline  we  had,  9i  quarts,  did  not  then 
fill  the  tank.  This  was  at  noon,  July  6.  On  the  morning  of  July  7, 
l^i  quarts  were  required  to  completely  fill  the  reservoir,  a  total  of  18f 
quarts  or  37i  pints  for  the  run  of  1.6  hours  for  a  10-horsepower 
engine.  The  makers  claim  their  engines  use  one  pint  per  horse- 
power hour.  This  would  require  in  this  case  16  pints,  or  less  than 
half  of  what  was  actually  measured,  if  the  engine  developed  its  full 
horsepower.  A  leak  in  the  tank  or  feed  pipe  is  clearly  indicated,  so 
this  amount,  while  being  of  value  to  the  owner  of  the  plant,  is  value- 
lovss  so  far  as  comparative  cost  of  pumping  is  concerned. 

Two  observations  of  the  rising  curve  were  obtained  which  plot  well 
together.  The  lower  part  of  the  curve  is  not  accurate,  because  of  the 
water  in  the  penstock  dropping  back  into  the  well  when  pumping 
ceases. 

Data  of  Richter  pumping  plant,  near  Garden^  Kans. 

Feet. 

Elevation  of  the  ground  at  well 2, 846. 0 

Average  elevation  of  water  in  well 2, 836. 8 

Average  elevation  of  water  in  well  when  pumping 2, 831. 5 

Elevation  of  discharge  from  penstock 2, 847. 0 

Lift 15.5 

Average  amount  water  is  lowered  by  the  pump 5. 3 

Number  of  exploeions  of  engine,  126.5  per  minute. 

Total  area  of  surface  of  well  strainers  and  all  percolating  surfaces,  226.5  square  feet. 


64 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


The  curves  of  rise  for  this  well  were  obtained  on  two  different 
occasions  and  are  shown  as  curves  1  and  2  in  fig.  19.  Thev  plot 
together  very  well.  To  find  the  specific  capacity  of  the  well  from  the 
curve,  we  note  the  following  values  of  the  constants  in  the  formula 
for  specific  capacity: 

A        H 

6  =  17.25   r  lo^  J-  gallons  per  minute. 

The  area,  A,  of  cross  section  of  the  well  casing,  less  the  amount 
occupied  by  obstructions,  is  76.79  square  feet.  The  amount,  H,  that 
the  water  is  lowered  by  the  pump  is  5.3  feet.  The  amount  of  depres- 
sion, A,  of  ihe  water  surface  below  the  natural  level  at  any  time  can 
be  selected  from  the  curve.  From  the  curve,  at  the  close  of  ten 
minutes,  h  equals  5.3  less  4,  or  1.3  feet. 


r/me  in  seconds 
Fiu.  19.— Rising  curves  for  Richter  well,  near  Garden,  Kans. 

Hence  the  specific  capacity 

,^  ,.     7().79,      5.3     ^.       ,.  .     , 

<:'=1(.25X     j^T—  log  |-y  =  81  gallons  per  minute. 

Multiplying  by  5.3,  tlie  head  under  which  pumping  took  place,  the 
total  yield  of  the  well  is  Six 5.3=430  gallons  per  minute. 

The  above  determination  of  the  specific  capacity  is  inaccurate,  since 
the  first  portion  of  the  rising  curve  does  not  show  the  true  rate  of 
rise  of  water  in  the  well.  The  penstock  of  the  propeller  pump  hold> 
37.7  cubic  feet  of  water,  which  immediately  returns  to  the  well  when 
the  pump  is  stopped.  This  amount  of  water  is  suflicient  of  itself  to 
raise  the  level  in  the  well  by  \)A\\h  foot.  For  this  reason,  only  that 
portion  of  the  rising  curve  should  ))e  used  which  is  not  influenced  hv 


DETAILS    OF    TESTS   OF    PUMPING    PLANTS.  65 

the  returning  water  from  the  penstock.  Thus,  if  we  use  that  part  of 
the  curve  from  ^—100  seconds  to  t=600  seconds,  we  will  eliminate 
the  inaccurate  portion.  Making  this  modification,  the  data  are 
changed  to 

H=8.76feet;  A =1.30  feet;  ^=8i  minutes. 
Computing  the  specific  capacity  on  this  basis,  we  obtain 

6'= 73  gallons  a  minute. 

-Multiplying  this  by  5.3,  the  total  estimated  yield  is  388  gallons  a  min- 
ute, which  checks  remarkably  with  394  gallons  a  minute  obtained. 

The  area  of  the  strainer  and  bottom  of  the  well  is  266.6  square  feet. 
The  above  specific  capacity  divided  by  266.5  gives  0.341  gallon  per 
minute  as  the  specific  capacity  per  square  foot  of  percolating  surface. 

The  engine  ran  at  a  speed  of  300  revolutions  and  exploded  125  times 
j>er  minute.  This  would  indicate  that  it  was  working  at  about  83  per 
cent  of  its  rated  capacity.  Assuming  that  such  was  the  case,  and  that 
it  would  then  use  83  per  cent  of  the  fuel  necessary  to  run  it  at  its  full 
rated  power  (10  horsepower),  we  have  8.3  pints  as  the  probable  amount 
of  gasoline  used  per  hour  b}^  the  engine  during  the  test.  This,  at  20 
cents  per  gallon,  would  make  a  cost  of  21  cents  per  hour.  This 
assumption  makes  the  cost  of  water  0.89  cent  per  1,000  gallons,  J2.90 
l>er  acre-foot,  and  one- seventeenth  cent  per  1,(X)0  foot-gallons. 

TEST    OF    PUMPING    PLANT    OF    C.    E.    SEXTON.    NEAR    GARDEN, 

KANS. 

This  plant  is  located  at  about  the  center  of  sec.  13,  R.  33  W., 
T.  24  S.,  and  is  1  mile  west  of  Garden.  It  consists  of  two  pumps  of 
16-inch  stroke,  with  6-inch  pistons,  connected  to  a  walking  beam  and 
driven  by  li^-horsepower  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.  vertical  gasoline 
engine.  The  east  well  has  a  12-inch  casing  22  feet  deep,  and  the  west 
well  a  10-inch  casing  31  feet  deep,  both  casings  being  perforated  for  a 
distance  of  10  feet  up  from  the  bottom.  The  pump  rods  are  2  by  4 
timbers. 

The  two  pumps  discharge  into  an  artificial  pond  or  reservoir,  and 
the  flow  was  measured  with  a  weir  at  the  outlet  of  the  reservoir. 
The  weir  was  fully  contracted  with  a  length  of  crest  of  0.66  foot. 

The  height  of  water  on  the  weir  was  measured  by  placing  a  stick 
on  the  head  of  the  nail  and  marking  the  water  line  on  the  stick  with 
a  pencil,  then  measuring  with  a  pocket  tape ;  in  the  absence  of  a  hook 
gage  this  was  the  best  method  that  suggested  itself. 

The  weir  heights  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  discharge  of  the  pump 
are  those  obtained  after  the  water  level  in  the  reservoir  had  become 
stationary,  as  indicated  by  an  absence  of  systematic  variation  of  the 
IKE  153—06—6 


66  UNDEBFLOW  IN  ABKANSAS  VAIXEY,  WESTEBN  KANSAS. 

weir  heights.  As  evaponition  would  make  the  results  too  smalls  th^ 
foHowing  data  are  important: 

The  size  of  reservoir  is  50  feet  by  90  feet,  or  4,500  square  feet: 
trees  border  the  north  and  south  sides,  with  high  grass  along  thi- 
banks;  brisk  wind  was  blowing  from  southwest;  temperature  of  air 
was.  80^,  temperature  of  water,  52";  there  was  sunshine  until  about  **. 
p.  m.,  when  it  became  cloudy  and  the  wind  moderated. 

The  east  well  threw  a  much  smaller  stream  than  the  west  ^weli,  prob- 
ably due  to  a  leak  in  the  suction  pipe,  and  consequent  pumping-  of  air. 
No  air  was  pumped  by  the  west  pump. 

Measurements  to  the  water  surface  in  the  east  well  were  made  at 
five-minute  intervals,  but  no  soundings  were  obtained  in  the  west 
well.  The  number  of  strokes  of  each  pump  averaged  24.5  per 
minute  during  the  test;  the  nunaber  of  explosions  of  the  gasoline  en- 
gine averaged  106.2  per  minute.  The  battery  used  with  the  engine 
not  working  satisfactorily,  a  gasoline  torch  was  used  for  ig-nitioo. 
Gage  readings  of  distance  to  water  in  well  were  made  downward  from 
a  point  on  the  well  platform  whose  elevation  above  sea  level  wa> 
2,836.69. 

Data  of  Sexton  pumping  plant,  near  Garden,  Kan», 

Feet. 

Distance  to  water  when  level  is  normal S.  '^ 

Distance  to  water  when  pumping II.  V) 

Amount  water  level  was  lowered 3.06 

Elevation 2,827.9 

Distance  water  was  raised  above  point  on  platform 3. 2 

Total  distance  water  was  raised  (11.86-f3.2) 15.06 

Total  area  of  well  etrainers,  57.2  square  feet. 

The  reservoir  has  been  in  use  for  some  time  and  the  seepag-e  was 
probably  quite  small,  a  small  enough  per  cent  to  be  negligible.  There 
was  no  leakage  around  the  weir,  or  elsewhere. 

The  gasoline  tank  was  filled  at  the  start,  and  when  the  nm  wa^  com- 
pleted the  amount  needed  to  refill  was  measured,  thus  getting-  the 
amount  used  by  the  engine,  which  was  11  quarts  for  a  run  of  9  hours 
and  37  minutes,  or  1.14  quarts  per  hour,  making  a  trifle  over  three- 
fourths  quart  per  horsepower  hour.  The  average  corrected  weir 
height  was  0.206  foot. 

Using  the  formula  for  a  contracted  weir 

and  taking  from  Merriman's  Hydraulics  the  value  of  the  constant 
c  for  J =0.66  and  H= 0.206  as  0.611,  we  have  for  the  discharge 

y= 0.202  second-foot,  =91  gallons  per  minute. 

With  gasoline  at  22  cents  per  gallon,  or  5^  cents  per  quart,  the  exjjense 
of  an  hour's  run,  not  counting  gasoline  used  for  ignition  tube,  is 


DETAILS   OF   TESTS   OF   PUMPING    PLANTS.  67 

^.0626  per  hour,  or  ^.0115  per  thousand  gallons  of  water  pumped, 
or  $3.76  per  acre-foot.  The  lift  being  15.06  feet,  the  cost  per  1,000 
foot-gallons  is  0.076  cent,  or  about  one-thirteenth  cent  per  1,000  gal- 
lons raised  one  foot. 

On  Jul}^  8  the  rise  of  water  in  the  east  well  was  taken  by  means  of 
a  thin  pine  board  stuck  down  between  the  casing  and  pump.  The 
intervals  of  time  were  measured  with  a  stop  watch.  The  pine  strip 
-wsLS  lowered  into  the  well  until  the  water  was  reached,  after  which  the 
board  was  drawn  up,  the  wet  line  marked,  the  time  recorded,  and  the 
board  replaced,  the  observations  being  repeated  as  fast  as  possible. 
The  distances  marked  on  the  strip  were  measured  later. 

Rise  ofwcUer  after  cessation  of  pumping  in  Sexton  welly  near  Garden^  Kans, 


Time. 


8  seconds . 


Rise. 


Feet, 
0.46 


20.5  seconds 2.44 


56.6  seconds.., 

82  seconds 

104.6  seconds.. 
134.6  seconds. 


2.92 
3.01 
3.02 
8.03 


The  rising  curve  plotted  from  these  data  was  of  little  use  in  deter- 
mining the  specific  capacity  of  the  wells,  both  on  account  of  an 
unknown  amount  of  water  returned  to  the  well  by  leakage  of  the 
pump,  and  because  of  the  unknown  amount  of  lowering  of  the  water 
in  the  west  well. 

TEST  OF  PUMPING  PLANT   OF  NATHAN  FULMER,  LAKIN.  KANS. 

This  plant  is  in  the  center  of  NE.  i  sec.  10,  R.  36  W.,  T.  25  S., 
Kearney  County,  3  miles  south  of  Lakin,  Kans.  The  well  consists  of 
a  wooden  casing,  6  feet  in  diameter  and  10  feet  deep,  sunk  with  the 
top  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Inside  of  this  cylindrical 
casing  and  extending  9i  feet  below  the  bottom  of  it  is  a  tapered  wooden 
curbing  10  feet  long,  4  feet  in  diameter  at  the  top,  and  5  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  bottom.  This  curb  was  given  the  tapering  form  in 
order  to  lessen  the  friction  on  the  sides  in  sinking  the  well.  The  total 
depth  of  the  two  large  curbs  is  19i  feet.  Arranged  in  a  circle  in  the 
bottom  of  the  main  well,  about  5  inches  from  the  edge,  are  7  feeders. 
Four  of  these  feeders  are  7  inches  and  3  are  8  inches  in  diameter.  The 
length  of  each  feeder  is  23  feet  4  inches.  The  feeders  extend  down  to 
within  3  or  4  inches  of  an  underlying  clay  or  silt  and  8  inches  above 
the  bottom  of  the  large  well.  The  total  depth  of  the  well  is  42  feet. 
The  feeders  are  made  of  No.  20  galvanized  sheet  iron  with  three-eighths- 
inch  perforations  arranged  in  circles  from  three- fourths  of  an  inch 
to  2  inches  apart. 


68  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS- 

The  material  encountered  in  sinking  the  well,  according:  to  Mr. 
Fulmer,  was,  first,  4  feet  of  clay,  then  sand,  which  became  coarser 
with  the  depth.  The  bottom  stratum  consists  of  a  mixture  of  fine 
sand  and  gravel,  some  of  the  latter  being  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg. 
Water  was  found  at  a  depth  of  8  feet. 

A  local  make  of  chain  and  bucket  pump,  known  as  the  Pittman 
pump,  is  used  in  this  well.  It  consists  of  an  upper  shaft  and  sub- 
merged lower  shaft  around  which  run  the  two  sprocket  chains  to 
which  are  attached  the  galv^anized  iron  buckets,  each  with  a  capacity 
of  12.5  gallons.  The  buckets,  33  in  number,  are  hung  between  the 
chains  and  are  of  such  shape  that  when  they  come  over  at  the  top  of 
the  circuit  they  discharge  the  water  readily  into  the  discharge  trough, 
allowing  very  little  to  run  back  into  the  well.  To  aid  in  starting  the 
water  down  the  trough  a  number  of  horizontal  guide  vanes  are  placed 
therein  with  a  slope  away  from  the  descending  buckets  in  such  a  way 
that  the  water  is  started  down  the  trough  with  very  little  splashing 
back  into  the  well.  These  pumps  are  of  a  recent  design,  and  are  made 
in  Kearney  County.  There  are  three  such  pumps  in  operation,  one 
run  by  a  windmill  near  Garden,  and  one  owned  by  Mr.  Root,  a  test  of 
which  is  described  in  this  report  (pp.  70-73). 

The  power  is  supplied  through  the  proper  gearing  by  a  Howe 
gasoline  engine,  built  by  the  Middletown  Machine  Company,  which 
develops  about  7  horsepower  at  285  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
engine  is  cooled  by  water  taken  from  the  discharge  trough.  The 
supply  of  gasoline  is  put  in  a  rectangular  sheet-iron  tank,  2.4  feet  by 
2.6  feet  by  1  foot  high,  which  is  placed  in  the  ground  outside  the  engine 
house.  The  ratio  of  the  gearing  between  the  engine  and  bucket  chain 
is  such  that  175^  revolutions  of  the  engine  produce  1  revolution  of 
the  bucket  chain,  or  5i  revolutions  of  the  engine  to  each  bucket 
discharge. 

The  discharge  trough  empties  into  a  reservoir  from  which  the  seep- 
age is  quite  rapid.  As  there  was  no  chance  to  put  a  weir  between 
the  pump  and  the  reservoir,  and  since  one  placed  at  the  outfall  of  the 
reservoir  would  measure  only  a  portion  of  the  water  entering  the 
reservoir,  the  amount  of  water  pumped  was  measured  by  counting 
the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  bucket  chain  and  computing  the 
capacity  of  several  buckets  to  secure  an  average  value.  The  average 
capacity  was  found  to  be  12.52  gallons.  The  computed  discharge, 
obtained  by  counting  the  revolutions  of  the  bucket  chain  and  noting 
the  time,  was  561  gallons  per  minute.  It  was  estimated  that  the 
buckets  lacked  about  0.05  foot  of  being  full,  this  being  about  4  per 
cent  of  the  measured  capacity  of  the  buckets.  Also,  during  the  run, 
22  buckets  came  up  empty,  caused  by  the  failure  of  the  valve  in  the 
bottom  to  work,  which  amounts  to  a  loss  of  one-fourth  of  1  per  cent 
of  the  total  discharge.     Reducing  the  observed  561  gallons  by  4  per 


DETAILS  OP   TESTS  OF   PUMPING  PLANTS. 


69 


cent  gives  540  gallons  per  minute  as  the  corrected  discharge  of  the 
well.  The  water  level  was  lowered  6^36  feet  below  the  normal.  The 
lift  to  the  discharge  trough  was  17  feet.  The  engine  ran  at  240  revo- 
lutions and  averaged  64  explosions  per  minute. 

The  amount  of  gasoline  used  was  determined  by  measuring  the 
depth  of  gasoline  in  the  tank  at  intervals  and  noting  the  time  at  each 
measurement;  then  by  plotting  a  curve  the  average  rate  per  hour  of 
lowering  of  the  gasoline  in  the  tank  was  obtained,  and,  the  horizontal 
cross  section  of  the  tank  being  known,  the  amount  of  gasoline  used 
per  hour  was  computed  to  be  0.65  gallon.  The  cost  of  gasoline  was 
21  cents  per  gallon  in  barrel  lots,  making  the  expense  of  running  the 


7 

f^ormm/ 

• 



.    • 

£AMn^SJ\ 

>  €'df«ni€. 

'«r 

6 

1 

f 

Ot^n^tC 

rr      ■ 

I 

4 

i 

\                  4 

Time  fn* 

ninufes 

X              A 

i              i 

i              / 

&           }o 

Fig.  20.— Rifling  curve  for  the  Fulmer  well,  Lakin,  KanB. 

engine  13.65  cents  per  hour.  The  cost  of  water  per  acre-foot  was 
therefore  $1.37.  The  cost  of  water  per  1,000  gallons  was  0.42  cent, 
and  the  cost  per  1,000  foot-gallons  was  one-fortieth  of  a  cent. 

A  reservoir  100  feet  wide  by  240  feet  long  is  used  in  connection  with 
the  plant.  This  reservoir  was  made  by  digging  out  the  inside  and 
using  the  material  to  form  the  banks.  This  produced  a  very  porous 
bottom  and  much  trouble  has  been  experienced  from  seepage.  To 
remedy  this  the  bottom  was  puddled  thoroughly  by  plowing  and  har- 
rowing, then  putting  in  chatf  and  straw  and  herding  cattle  and  horses 
in  the  bottom  for  several  days,  but  the  surface  of  the  water  still  drops 
about  6  inches  per  day. 

One  observation  of  the  rising  curve  of  this  well  was  made  (fig.  20). 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  an  irregularity  in  the  curve  correspond- 
ing to  a  depth  of  about  li  feet  below  the  normal  water  level,  caused 


70 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ABKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


by  the  sudden  change  in  cross  section  from  12i  square  feet  to  28i 
square  feet  at  the  top  of  the  lower  casing.  From  the  rising  curve  the 
specific  capacity  may  be  obtained  from  the  following  formula: 

6=17.25  4  log  5 

t      ^  h 

At  a  point  4  feet  above  lowest  position  of  water  level  the  average 
area  A  of  the  well  from  0  to  this  point  is  17  square  feet.  ^=1.6  min- 
utes; H=6.35  feet;  A=2.35  feet. 

Then  <?= 80  gallons  per  minute.  This,  multiplied  by  6.35,  the  amount 
the  water  was  lowered  by  pumping,  gives  508  gallons,  which  is  within 
6  per  cent  of  the  observed  discharge. 

The  total  area  of  percolating  surface,  7  feeders,  and  the  bottom  of 
the  well,  is  334  square  feet.  The  above  specific  capacit}^  divided  by  334 
gives  0.24  gallon  per  minute  per  square  foot  of  percolating  area. 

The  amount  of  water  recovered  can  not  be  increased  without  lower- 
ing the  pump,  as  a  glance  at  the  dJa^EcaOb^ll  show,  the  water  level 
being  now  lowered  slightly  below  the  lower  shaft. 

The  Fulmer  plant  was  installed  in  the  spring  of  1903  and  has  been 

in  operation  since  April  of  that  year.     The  cost  of  the  entire  plant  is 

as  follows: 

Cost  of  Fulnier  plard,  Lakin^  Kans. 


Well: 

Material  and  lumber 

Digging 

Seven  feeders  at  18.40  (24  feet  each,  at  35  cents  a  foot) . 

Reservoir,  man  and  team,  at  S3.50  a  day 

Pump,  made  by  Mr.  Fnlmer,  market  price  about 

Engine: 

Cost  in  Kansa8Clty 

Freight 

Shed,  8  by  22  by  7  feet 

Incidentals 


Cost  of 
material. 


SIS.  60 


260.00 

328.50 
18.62 
86.00 


Total  cost . 


719.42 


Labor. 


Time,  in 
days. 


as 
a  45 


Cost. 


«6.00 
90.00 


40     140.00 


10.00 


246.00 


ToUl 
cost. 


S24.5C 

90.00 

140.00 
'2G0.0U 

«7.12 

45l00 
34. » 


1, 000. 00 


a  Labor,  $2  a  day. 

Mr.  Fulmer  uses  water  from  the  south-side  ditch,  and  only  about  15 
acres  of  cantaloupes  and  fruit  trees  are  irrigated.  The  capacity  of  the 
plant  is  about  ICH)  acres. 

TEST  OF  PUMPING  PLANT  OF  J.  M.  ROOT.  LAKIN,  KAN8. 

This  plant  is  located  at  the  southeast  corner  of  northwest  i  sec.  4, 
R,  36  W.,  T.  25  S.,  Kearne}'^  Count}^  3  miles  southwest  of  Lakin,  Kan^ii. 

The  well  consists  of  a  wooden  casing,  6  feet  in  diameter  and  12  feet 
long,  sunk  with  the  top  flush  with  the  ground.     Inside  of  and  below 


DETAILS   OF   TESTS   OF   PUMPING   PLANTS.  71 

this  is  a  10-foot  casing,  4i  feet  in  diameter  at  the  top  and  5i  feet  at 
the  bottom,  sunk  until  the  top  is  2  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  upper 
casing,  making  the  total  depth  of  the  main  well  20  feet.  In  the  bot- 
tom of  this  main  well  are  sunk  5  feeders  in  a  circle  about  10  inches 
from  the  edge  of  the  lower  casing.  The  feeders  are  8  inches  in  diam- 
eter; two  of  them  are  24  feet  long  and  three  are  18  feet  long.  The 
24-foot  feeders  project  2  feet  above  the  bottom,  while  the  18-foot 
f eedei*8  project  only  1  foot.  These  feeders  are  made  of  No.  20  gal- 
vanized iron,  and  the  perforations  are  the  same  as  in  Fuhner's  well, 
previously  described. 

The  material  encountered  in  sinking  the  well  was,  first,  about  1  foot 
of  sand,  then  about  17  feet  of  black  dirt,  followed  by  1  foot  of  yellow 
clay  and  2  feet  of  sandy  clay.  There  is  no  record  of  the  material 
encountered  in  sinking  the  feeders. 

The  Pittman  pump  is  used  in  this  well  and  is  of  the  same  pattern  as 
that  described  in  connection  with  the  Fulmer  plant.  The  buckets  are 
smaller,  having  a  capacity  of  6.3  gallons,  and  the  bucket  chain  has 
places  for  40  buckets,  24  of  which  were  in  place  at  the  time  of  the 
test.  The  vacant  places  were  left  at  regular  intervals  around  the 
chain,  but  the  effect  was  to  give  the  chain  a  swinging  motion,  which 
caused  the  slopping  out  of  a  great  deal  of  water.  The  valves  in  the 
bottoms  of  the  buckets  also  leaked  excessively. 

Power  is  furnished  by  a  vertical  2i- horsepower  two-cycle  Weber 
gasoline  engine  with  throttle  governor,  built  by  the  Weber  Gras  and 
Gasoline  Engine  Company,  Kansas  City,  Mo.  The  engine  is  cooled 
by  a  small  tank  and  exploded  by  an  autosparker.  The  ratio  of  the 
g'earing  between  the  engine  and  the  bucket  chain  is  such  that  257 
revolutions  of  the  drive  wheel  produce  1  revolution  of  the  bucket 
chain,  or  6.4  revolutions  of  the  engine  to  each  bucket  raised,  if  the 
buckets  are  all  on  the  chain. 

There  is  no  reservoir  used  with  this  plant.  The  discharge  was 
measured  with  a  fully  contracted  weir,  with  a  length  of  crest  of  1 
foot.  The  average  head  observed  was  0.2805  foot,  giving  the  follow- 
ing discharge  by  the  Francis  formula: 

q  =  3.33  (J  -  0.2  H)  Hi 

=  3.33  (1.0  -  0.056)  0.2805* 

=  3.33  X  0.944  X  0.1485 

=  0.4675  second-foot 

=  210  gallons  per  minute. 

By  the  formula  given  by  Merriman  for  fully  contracted  weir  of 
length  of  crest  of  1  foot  the  discharge  is  computed  to  be  218  gallons  per 
minute.  The  following  computations  are  based  on  a  discharge  of  215 
gallons  per  minute:  As  the  water  level  was  lowered  4.16  feet  the  specific 
capacity  is  51.7  gallons  per  minute.     The  lift  was  16.8  feet.     The 


72 


UNDEBFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS- 


engine  averaged  488  revolutions  per  minute,  exploding  at  every  revo- 
lution. 

The  amount  of  gasoline  used  for  a  three-hour  run  was  exactjy  *'* 
quarts,  or  at  the  rate  of  0.5  gallon  per  hour.  This  gasoline  cost  '2'2 
cents  per  gallon,  making  the  cost  of  fuel  11  cents  per  hour.  The  eci>t 
of  water  is  0.856  cent  per  1,000  gallons,  $2.78  per  acre-foot,  and  one- 
nineteenth  cent  per  1,000  foot-gallons.  The  lack  of  economy  in  thi> 
plant  is  in  the  engine,  which  is  old  and  in  poor  condition,  and  in  the 
buckets,  the  valves  of  which  leak  l>adh\  Also  the  water  was  low- 
ered so  far  that  the  buckets  did  not  start  up  full,  and  the  swinging 
motion  of  the  chain  spilled  a  great  deal.  The  owner  has  never  betn 
able  to  keep  the  plant  running  for  more  than  half  an  hour  at  a  time, 
and  it  took  as  long  to  put  the  plant  in  order  as  it  did  to  make  the  test. 


"f 

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FiQ.  21.— Two  rising  curves  for  the  Root  well:  Curve  A,  after  four  or  five  hourn  of  pumping;  cur\'e  B. 
after  only  twenty  minutes  of  pumping. 

Two  lising  curves  of  this  well  were  obtained,  which  make  an  inter- 
esting comparison  (see  fig.  21). 

Curve  A  was  taken  late  in  the  afternoon,  after  about  four  or  five 
hours'  pumping,  and  curve  B  was  taken  after  about  twenty  minutes* 
pumping,  when  the  water  was  lowered  to  the  same  depth  as  durinir 
the  preceding  afternoon. 

Curve  B  is  much  steeper  than  curve  A,  showing  that  the  water 
flowed  into  the  well  faster.  This  can  be  explained  by  the  fact  that 
during  the  short  period  of  pumping  (twenty  minutes)  the  cone  of  influ- 
ence had  not  extended  as  far  ax  in  the  first  case,  and  there  was  there- 
fore less  unsaturated  soil  to  fill  with  water  and  a  steeper  slope  of  the 
ground-water  surface. 

The  specific  capacity  of  the  well,  determined  from  these  curves, 
using  the  method  described  heretofoi*e,  is  62.5  gallons  per  minute. 
This  multiplied  by  4.16,  the  amount  of  lowering  of  the  well  by  the 
pump,  gives  260  gallons  per  minute,  which  is  19  per  cent  above  the 


DETAILS   OF   TESTS   OF   PUMPING   PLANTS.  73 

o>>served  discharge.  The  percolating  surface — area  of  feeders  plus 
Ixittom  of  well — is  210  square  feet,  and  dividing  the  specific  capacity 
determined  from  the  discharge  by  210  we  get  0.246  gallon  per  minute 
as  the  specific  capacity  per  square  foot  of  percolating  area.  This 
large  error  is  probably  caused  by  the  steep  slope  given  to  the  rising 
curve  by  the  leakage  of  the  water  from  the  buckets.  The  pump  must 
))e  lowered  before  a  greater  quantity  of  water  can  be  re<*overed,  as 
the  water  at  present  is  lowered  to  the  level  of  the  lower  shaft. 

This  plant  has  not  been  utilized  for  irrigation  as  yet,  but  its 
use  is  contemplated  for  irrigating  about  20  acres  of  beets,  cantaloupes, 
melons,  and  garden  truck. 

The  Root  plant  was  installed  in  the  spring  of  1904,  being  completed 
in  the  latter  part  of  May.     Its  total  cost  was  as  follows. 

Co9t  of  Root  pumpinf^  plant  near  Lakiiif  Kans. 

Labor. 


L 

I  I     days. 


Coat  of 
!  material.   Time  in 


Total 
cost. 


Well: 

Lumber I  «27    ' 127 

Feeders '  42   1  42 

Labor—  I 


Prospecting  for  location,  digging  big  hole 2           %i  4 

Making  big  curb 9,         18  18 

Sinking  big  curb ' 12  |         24  24 

Sinking  feeders 17;         84  34 

Pump 100   1  100 

Engine j           100  ' j 100 

Installing I ' !           6  6 

III, 


2 

«4 

9 

18 

12 

24 

17 

84 

Shed: 


I  '  i 

Lumber,  nails,  and  window 33    ' '  33 

Paint  and  painting |              4  I | 4 

Labor ' 1 '    10  '  10 


Total I     306  I i    96  1    402 

('Labor,  92  a  day. 

TEST  OF  WELL  AT  KING  BROTHERS'  RANCH.  GARDEN,  KANS. 

This  well  is  located  near  the  west  side  of  sec.  30,  R.  33  W.,  T.  22  S., 
al>out  12  miles  northwest  of  Garden.  Kans. 

The  well  consists  of  a  shaft,  about  5  feet  square,  sunk  41.4  feet,  to 
within  1.2  feet  of  the  water  level.  From  the  bottom  of  this  shaft  a 
15-inch,  perforated,  galvanized-iron  casing  extends  down  to  a  depth  of 
40.5  feet  from  the  normal  surface  of  the  ground  water. 

It  was  put  down  by  King  Brothers  to  determine  the  amount  of 
ground  water  which  could  be  recovered  at  this  point  from  a  single  well 
and  its  influence  on  other  wells. 


74  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

Fifteen  feet  from  the  first  well  a  second  well  was  sunk  to  a  depth  of 
91  feet,  7.9  feet  lower  than  the  first  well.  This  second  well  was  put 
down  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  effect  on  the  water  plane  of 
lowering  the  water  in  the  first  well  by  pumping. 

A  No.  4  Byron-Jackson  centrifugal  pump  was  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  shaft  of  the  first  well  -and  connected  by  a  long  belt  running  over 
2  idle  wheels  to  a  14-horsepower  thresher  engine  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  The  discharge  was  measured  by  a  fully  contracted  weir  with 
a  crest  of  1  foot.  The  head  at  the  time  of  maximum  discharge,  when 
the  water  in  the  well  was  as  far  down  as  the  pump  could  lower  it, 
was  0.25  foot,  corresponding  to  a  flow  of  183  gallons  per  minute. 
This  maximum  rate  was  very  diflBcult  to  maintain  for  any  length  of 
time,  because  of  the  temporary  manner  in  which  the  machinery  wa*i 
installed.  The  belt  was  liable  to  slip  and  allow  the  water  to  rise  sev- 
eral feet;  also  the  idle  wheels  at  the  top  of  the  shaft  over  which  the 
belt  ran  were  poorly  mounted,  and  at  times  a  stop  was  necessary  to 
cool  off  a  hot  box  at  that  place. 

The  above  discharge  was  measured  when  the  water  level  in  the  well 
was  lowered  20.3  feet  by  the  pump.  Dividing  the  discharge  by  the 
distance  gives  the  specific  capacity  of  the  well,  or  the  amount  of  water 
furnished  for  1  foot  of  lowering,  as  9  gallons  per  minute.  The  total 
percolating  area  of  well  strainer  exposed  to  the  water  was  85  sc^uare 
feet.  From  this  it  appears  that  the  specific  capacity  of  the  well 
strainer  is  0.106  gallon  per  square  foot  per  minute. 

As  this  was  a  test  of  the  eapacity  of  the  well  only,  and  not  of  the 
pumping  plant,  no  indicator  cards  nor  other  device  was  used  to  get 
the  efficiency  of  the  plant,  and  no  measure  was  made  of  the  coal  burned. 
The  mechanical  efficiency"  would  undoubtedly  have  been  low,  as  there 
was  a  constant  slipping  of  the  belt,  and  the  idle  wheels  were  home- 
made, running  in  wooden  bearings,  which  were  smoking  constantly. 

The  maximum  lowering  of  the  water  in  the  main  well  was  20.2  feet, 
and  the  corresponding  depression  of  the  water  plane,  15  feet  away,  as 
indicated  by  the  test  well,  was  3.5  feet.  This  shows  the  steep  slope  of 
the  water  plane  and  the  comparativel}"  small  radius  of  the  base  of  the 
cone  of  influence. 

Readings  were  taken  of  the  water  level  in  the  main  well  and  the  test 
well,  and  the  discharge  was  noted  at  intervals.  The  accompanying 
curve,  fig.  22,  shows  rising  curves  for  the  main  well  and  the  test  well 
plotted  together.  A  study  of  the  curve  brings  out  several  facts  that 
might  well  be  expected.  The  rise  of  the  test  well  lags  slightly  behind 
that  of  the  main  well.  The  curve  of  the  main  well  shows  an  irregu- 
larity due  to  the  caving  in  of  material  around  the  strainer. 

King  Brothers  contemplate  sinking  20  of  these  wells  in  a  north 
and  south  line.  They  propose  to  connect  them  all  with  a  tunnel  just 
above  the  water  plane  and  lay  a  main  suction  pipe  in  this  tunnel,  with 


DETAILS   OF   TESTS  OF   PUMPINO   PLANTS. 


75 


branches  tapping  all  the  wells.  The  pumps  will  be  located  in  the  shaft 
already  dug,  and  connected  by  a  belt  to  the  power  plant  on  the  surface. 
The  owners  paid  40  cents  a  foot  for  sinking  the  wells  and  furnished 
one  man.  The  price  paid  for  the  16-inch,  No.  16,  iron  casing  was  1^1 
a  foot.     They  contemplate  using  wooden  casing  in  the  remainder  of 


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Fio.  22.— Rising  curves  for  main  well  and  test  well,  King  Brothers'  plant,  Oai-den,  Kans. 

the  wells.  This  will  be  made  of  pine  lumber  1  inch  by  3  inches.  It 
will  take  16  such  boards  to  make  the  circular  casing,  at  a  cost  of  $3.50 
per  hundred  linear  feet  of  lumber.  One  man,  at  $1.50,  can  make  and 
perforate  about  25  feet  of  this  casing  in  a  day.  This  would  make  the 
cost  of  wooden  casing  62  cents  pei'  foot. 


76  UNDEBFLOW  in  ABKAKSAS  valley,  western  KANSAS. 

After  the  tunnels  and  wells  are  dug  King  Brothers  purpose  to  con- 
tract for  the  installation  of  a  compound  Corliss  engine  and  centrifugal 
pump  at  about  $9,600.  They  expect  the  plant  to  raise  4,000  gallon^ 
of  water  per  minute,  with  a  60-foot  lift,  this  being  at  the  rate  of 
2,000,000  foot-pounds  per  minute  on  4,800  pounds  of  coal  per  twenty- 
four  hours.  If  the  coal  contain  12,500  British  thermal  units,  and  if 
the  boiler  eflSciency  be  assumed  at  75  per  cent,  engine  13  per  cent,  and 
belt  90  per  cent,  the  pump  would  be  required  to  have  an  efficiency  of 
70  per  cent  to  realize  the  above  expectation.  These  figures  require 
that  the  plant  turn  out  5.9  per  cent  of  the  energy  in  the  fuel  in  the 
form  of  useful  work. 

TEST  OF  CITY  WATERWORKS  WELL,  GARDEN,  KANS. 

The  first  test  began  at  4.25  a.  m.  June  28,  1904,  when  one  pump 
was  started.  The  second  pump  was  started  at  5.50  a.  m.  The  hydrant^ 
used  in  flushing  the  sewers  were  opened  at  about  7.30  a.  m.  and  closed 
at  10.35  a.  m.  The  east  pump  was  stopped  at  11.15  a.  m.;  the  we?>t 
pump  was  operated  constantly  all  day.  On  account  of  the  flushing  of 
the  sewers  an  exceptionall}'  large  amount  of  water  was  pumped  during 
this  test. 

Gage  heights  in  the  well  were  read  every  five  minutes,  and  the  num- 
ber of  cycles  of  each  pump  was  recorded  every  tenth  minute  for  the 
ten  preceding  minutes.  The  pumping  machinery  consists  of  two 
compound  steam  duplex  pumps,  with  cylinders  8  inches  by  12  inches, 
which  are  very  old  and  worn.  The  test  was  continued  until  12.40 
p.  m.  At  8  p.  m.  the  test  was  again  taken  up,  this  being  the  time 
when  the  sprinkling  of  lawns  is  stopped.  The  cycles  of  the  engine 
were  counted  and  well  heights  taken  as  before. 

Pumping  is  stopped  at  9  p.  m.  Sprinkling  of  lawns  is  allowed  from 
7  to  11  a.  m.  and  from  4  to  8  p.  m.  Most  of  the  rise  of  water  in  the 
well  occurs  before  9  p.  m.,  when  the  pump  is  stopped.  A  plug  was 
made  for  the  feeder  and  inserted  July  7,  but  it  did  not  fit  tight  enough 
to  stop  the  flow.  The  rising  curve  was  taken  July  7  in  the  evening 
and  also  July  8,  when  the  plug  was  driven  down  so  as  to  be  water- 
tight. July  il  the  rising  curve  was  again  taken  when  the  water  w&i 
lower. 

The  well  is  16.2  feet  inside  diameter  and  20  feet  deep.  The  bottom 
is  about  8.9  feet  below  the  normal  level  of  the  ground  water.  There 
is  a  10-inch  feeder  in  the  bottom  of  the  well,  which  extends  to  a  depth 
of  42  feet  below  the  ground  and  about  3  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the 
large  well.  It  is  open  at  the  bottom  and  perforated  10  inches  up 
from  the  bottom.  The  water  level  is  about  1 1  feet  below  the  ground 
level. 


DETAILS    OF    TESTS    OF    PUMPING    PLANTS. 


77 


Data  of  city  waterworks  well^  (larderi,  Kans. 


Feet. 


Klevationof  top  of  well  roof 2,837.26 


Distance  to  top  of  gage. 
Distance,  top  to  0 


10.36 
13.26 


23.60 


Elevation,  water  normal 8.  72 

Xormal  elevation  of  water 2, 822. 38 

Ground  level 2,832.00 

Elevation  of  l)ottoin  of  well  2,813.66=0  of  ga^e. 


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Time  ofdsy  P.M. 

Fio.  28.— Rising  curves  for  city  waterworks  well,  Garden,  Kans. 

The  rising  curves  obtained  for  this  well  on  June  28,  July  7,  8,  and 
11  are  reproduced  in  fig.  23.  Fig.  24  gives  the  engine  cycles  and  ele- 
vation of  water  in  the  well  for  several  hours  of  heavy  pumping  on 
June  28,  1904,  while  the  sewers  were  being  flushed.  The  displace- 
ment in  the  two  cylinders  of  one  of  the  pumps  amounts  to  1.362  cubic 
feet.  The  curve  in  fig.  24  enumerates  the  cycles  of  pumps,  so  that 
the  total  discharge  of  the  pumps  can  be  obtained,  if  no  allowance  be 


78 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


made  for  slip,  by  multiplying  the  number  of  cycles  by  1.362.  The 
discharge,  computed  in  this  way,  amounts  to  685  gallons  a  minute. 

The  amount  of  slip  is  enormous.  Using  the  rising  curve  for  June 
28,  we  may  place  H=0.66,  A =0.46,  and  A =204. 6  square  feet  in  the 
formula  for  specific  capacity".     This  gives  a  specific  capacity 

c=53  gallons  a  minute. 

This  result  is  much  below  the  normal  on  account  of  the  excessive 
amount  of  pumping  on  that  day,  due  to  the  flushing  of  sewers.  The 
maximum  amount  of  lowering  of  the  water  in  the  well  was  5.4S  feet. 


Fio.  24.— Elevation  of  water  in  city  well,  Garden,  Kans.,  and  engine  cycles  of  steam  pump  during 
heavy  pumping  while  flushing  sewers,  June  28, 1904.  - 

which  occurred  at  10.30  a.  m.,  when  the  pump  cycles  numbered  67  per 
minute.  Multiplying  5.48  by  63,  the  total  discharge  at  that  time  is 
found  to  be  290  gallons  a  minute.  The  slip  of  the  pump  must  there- 
fore have  amounted  to  57  per  cent  at  this  time. 

Using  the  rising  curve  of  July  7,  the  specific  capacity  of  the  well  is 
found  to  be  67  gallons  a  minute.  The  following  table  shows  the 
specific  capacities  computed  for  the  several  dates: 

Specific  capacity  of  city  UHilerworks  wellf  Garderiy  Kaiis.,  1904. 


Rising  curve. 


Specific  ra- 
pacity per 
minute. 


OalUm*. 


June  28,  8.55  to  9.05  p.  m. 

July  7,  9  to  9.10  p.  m 

Julys,  9  to  9.10  p.  m 

July  11,  9.05  to  9.15  p.  m . 


53 
67 

78 
«0 


DETAILS   OF    TESTS   OF    PUMPING   PLANTS.  79 

These  results  furnish  interesting  comparisons.  The  low  specific 
capacity  on  June  28  was  obtained  after  the  prolonged  and  excessive 
pumping  for  flushing  of  the  sewers.  There  was  a  light  rain  on  the 
night  of  July  6,  and  a  heavy  rain  on  the  night  of  July  7,  which  influ- 
enced both  the  consumption  of  water  in  the  city,  and  in  a  slight  degree 
the  amount  of  ground  water  available. 

On  July  8  and  11  the  feeder  in  the  bottom  of  the  well  was  plugged. 
The  plug  did  not  leak,  but  the  casing  of  the  feeder  must  have  leaked 
badly  since  no  influence  upon  the  specific  capacity  of  the  well  can  be 
detected. 

In  Water-Supply  Paper  No.  67,^  a  rising  curve  for  this  same  well  is 
given,  as  observed  by  Johnson  in  1900.  From  that  curve  it  is  possi- 
ble to  compute  the  specific  capacity  of  the  well  in  1900.  The  follow- 
ing determinations  are  based  upon  various  intervals  after  pumping  has 
stopped,  as  indicated  in  the  table.  The  specific  capacity  of  a  well 
always  appears  to  be  lower  than  its  true  value,  if  the  very  last  portion 
of  the  rising  curve  be  used,  since  at  this  period  a  large  f  luction  of  the 
water  is  being  utilized  in  filling  up  the  ground  around  the  well. 

Specific  capacity  of  city  watemvorks  weU^  Garden^  Kans. ,  1900. 


IntervalB. 


Specific  ca- 
pacity per 
minute. 


0-10  minutes. 
0-20  minutes., 
0-30  minutes. 
O-oO  minutes.' 
20-40  minutes. , 


QaUons. 
73.0 
71.0 
66.4 
63.0 
d9.0 


40-60  minutes |  55.0 

These  results  seem  to  be  identical  with  those  obtained  in  1904. 

The  average  specific  capacity  (77  gallons  a  minute)  as  determined  in 
1904  indicates  that  the  maximum  \'ield  of  the  well,  if  the  water  in  Iho 
well  be  lowered  8  feet,  is  615  gallons  a  minute.  The  pumps  in  use  ut 
present  can  not  pump  much  more  than  half  of  this  amount  of  water  on 
account  of  the  worn  condition  of  pistons  and  cylinders. 

The  total  percolating  surface  of  the  well  bottom  and  strainer  of  the 
feeder  is  247  square  feet.  From  this  it  can  be  deduced  that  the  spe- 
cific capacity  of  the  well  is  0.31  gallon  a  minute  per  square  foot  of 
percolating  surface. 

a  Slichter,  C.  S.,  The  motions  of  underground  waters:  Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  67,  U.  S,  Geol. 
Survey,  1902,  p.  68, 


80  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

TEST   OF  HOLCOMB'S  PUMPING  PLANT. 

A  very  important  attempt  to  recover  water  from  the  underflow  wa^ 
begun  in  the  1904  season  by  the  owners  of  the  Riverside  stock  ranch, 
about  7  miles  west  of  Garden,  Kans.  A  well  200  feet  long  and  5  feet 
wide,  excavated  to  a  depth  of  9  to  10  feet  below  the  water  plane  wa^ 
constructed  of  sheet  piling,  and  11  galvanized-iron  feeders  were  inserted 
in  the  bottom  of  the  wells  to  a  depth  of  about  20  feet.  A  75-hoise- 
power  Corliss  engine  with  condenser,  a  90- horsepower  boiler,  and  a 
No.  16  Bj^ron-Jackson  centrifugal  pump  were  put  in  position  at  the 
north  end  of  the  well.  Foundations  for  the  engine  and  pump  and 
buildings  to  cover  the  machinery  were  constructed  in  a  very  substan- 
tial manner.  As  soon  as  the  engine  and  pump  are  in  satisfactory 
working  order  it  is  purposed  to  sink  a  large  number  of  additional 
feeders  in  the  bottom  of  the  well  in  the  expectation  of  increasing  it-* 
capacity  to  6,000  gallons  per  minute.  The  approximate  cost  of  the 
plant  is  about  $8,000  for  machinery  and  $4:,000  for  the  well.  Trinidad 
slack  coal  is  used  for  fuel  at  a  cost  of  $4  to  $4.50  per  ton. 

The  construction  of  this  pumping  plant  has  attracted  very  wide 
attention  and  if  it  proves  to  be  a  Success  it  will  mean  a  great  deal  for 
the  progress  of  irrigation  in  the  bottom  lands  of  Arkansas  Valley. 
There  is  some  question  whether  6,000  gallons  per  minute  can  })e 
obtained  from  the  present  well,  even  with  a  very  large  number  of  addi- 
tional feeders,  but  it  will  be  entirely  practicable  to  increase  the  length 
of  the  well  without  very  nmch  additional  expense.  The  present  well, 
with  ten  20-foot  feeders,  16  inches  in  diameter,  would  furnish  about 
6,000  gallons  per  minute,  if  we  can  rely  upon  a  specific  capacity  of 
one-third  gallon  per  minute  for  each  square  foot  of  strainer.  Thi> 
would  require,  however,  the  lowering  of  the  natural  level  of  the  water 
to  a  distance  of  10  feet,  which  is  somewhat  more  than  would  be  l>est 
for  the  most  economical  running  of  the  plant.  ^ 

Both  suction  and  discharge  pipe  of  the  centrifugal  pump  are  made 
of  No.  16  galvanized  iron,  riveted  and  soldered.  A  20-inch  flap  valve 
is  placed  at  the  upper  end  of  the  discharge  pipe,  dispensing  with  the 
use  of  a  foot  valve.  The  pump  is  primed  before  starting  by  opening 
a  1-inch  valve  in  a  lead  pipe  from  the  main  pump  to  the  air  pump. 
When  the  proper  vacuum  is  shown  by  the  gage  the  1-inch  valve  is 
closed  and  the  engine  started. 

A  test  run  of  the  plant  was  made  for  five  days,  from  July  18  to  23, 
1905.  The  engine  was  started  at  the  lowest  speed  at  which  it  would 
work  the  pump  satisfactorily.  After  running  at  this  rate  for  forty- 
eight  hours  the  speed  was  increased  until  nearly  the  full  capacity  of 
the  well  had  been  reached. 

The  amount  of  water  pumped  during  the  test  averaged  about  2,3(m> 
gallons  a  minute,  or  5  cubic  feet  of  water  a  second.     This  is  equivalent 

a  Actual  test  of  \he  plantshowa  thftt  this  amount  of  water  can  not  be  recovered  without  eattending 
the  well. 


DETAILS   OF    TESTS   OF    PUMPING   PLANTS.  81 

to  a  d^ily  discharge  of  10  acre-feet,  or  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  to 
cover  10  acres  of  land  1  foot  deep.  As  is  well  known,  the  present  well 
is  not  sufficient!}'  large  to  supply  the  pump  and  engine  with  all  of  the 
water  that  they  are  designed  to  handle;  in  fact,  the  pump  and  engine 
are  capable  of  handling  three  times  the  amount  of  water  at  present 
available  for  long-continued  runs.  It  is  expected  that  by  clearing  out 
the  feeders  at  present  in  the  well,  and  by  enlarging  the  well,  the 
capacity  of  the  plant  will  be  greatly  increased;  but  even  at  the  present 
low  rate  of  delivery,  and  consequent  rather  low  efficiency  of  the 
machinery,  the  cost  of  water  delivered  is  comparatively  low. 

The  average  amount  of  coal  consumed  was  2,460  pounds  per  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  about  li  tons  per  day.  At  $1  a  ton  the  daily  cost, of 
coal  was  $5  per  twenty -four  hours.  The  cost  of  labor  for  the  day  and 
night  man,  each  at  $1.25  per  day,  makes  the  cost  for  coal  and  labor 
$7.50  per  twenty-four  hours.  The  cost  of  lubricating  oil  and  miscel- 
laneous supplies  may  be  estimated  at  $1  a  day,  making  a  total  cost  of 
§8.50  per  twenty -four  hours.  At  this  rate  the  cost  of  water  was  85 
cents  per  acre-foot,  not  including  interest  on  the  plant  nor  any  allow- 
ance for  depreciation  and  repairs  on  the  machinery  and  well.  If  these 
latter  items  be  included,  the  cost  of  water  would  be  very  materially 
increased. 

It  seems,  however,  unfair  to  estimate  these  charges  at  the  present 
time,  as  the  expense  of  erecting  the  plant  was  incurred  on  the  basis  of 
securing  a  very  considerably  larger  amount  of  water  than  is  at  present 
delivered;  for  that  reason  the  interest  charges  would  be  very  high,  if 
charged  against  the  present  amount.  It  seems  very  probable  that  if 
the  supply  of  water  from  the  well  is  sufficiently  increased  the  plant 
will  ultimately  be  capable  of  delivering  water  into  the  ditch  at  a  cost 
not  to  exceed  $1  per  acre-foot,  including  a  moderate  charge  for  interest 
and  depreciation  on  machinery,  but  not  including  any  profit. 

The  following  tables  show  the  fuel  consumed  and  the  data  obtained 
during  the  test.  The  well  was  not  of  sufficient  size  to  supply  the 
pump  with  water,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  run  difficulty  was  expe- 
rienced in  operating  the  plant.  Occasionall}^  the  water  became  so  low 
that  air  would  be  taken  into  the  suction  pipe,  and  the  plant  would 
have  to  be  stopped  to  prime  the  pump.  In  order  to  secure  proper 
returns,  it  will  be  necessary  to  enlarge  the  well  to  about  three  times 
its  present  capacity,  otherwise  the  engine  and  pump  will  be  entirely 
too  large  for  the  well. 

iRR  163—06 6 


82 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 


Consumption  of  coal  at  test  of  Holcomb  pumping  plant. 


Vti- 


July  20,  6  a.  m.  to  6.30  p.  m 1.  > 

July  20,  6.30  p.  m.  to  July  21,  6.20  a.  m !.:>. 

July  21,  6.20  a.  m.  to  6  p.  m : 1.]^^ 

July  21,  6  p.  m.  to  July  22,  6  a.  m.a l.iS' 

July  22,  6a.  ru.  to  6.30  p.  m 1.1- 

July  22,  6.30  p.  m.  to  July  23,  6.30  a.  m.  ^ 1,:'^ 

July  23,  6.30  a.  m.  to  2.40  p.  m ^S 


Date. 


July  18.. 
July  18.. 
July  18.. 
July  18.. 
July  18.. 
July  18.. 
July  18.. 
July  18.. 
July  19.. 


7.54  a.  m... 

8  a.  m 

8.45  a.  m.. 
9.30  a.m.. 
11.20  a.m. 
2.25  p.m.. 
4.25  p.m.. 

5  p.  m 

7.15  a.m.. 


July  19.-  9.30  a.m. 
July20..|  7a.m.-. 
July 20.. I  7.45a.m. 
July 21..  6a.  m..., 
July 21.. I  8a.  m... 
July 21.. I  8.20a.m. 
July 22..  7a.  m... 
July23.. do... 


8.:^*; 


Data  of  test  of  Holcomb  pumping  plant, 
[From  7.54  a.  m.,  July  18,  to  2.40  p.  m.,  July  23.] 


Hour. 


Dischaige  of  flume.'  Depth  of 
water 
below  its 

initial 
position. 


Cubic 
feet  per 
second. 


Gallons 
per  min- 
ute. 


Sp>eedinr€'.'!  3 
tionspermin  T' 


Engine.    Pnir  j 


0 
13.88 
7.42 
7.38 
6.29 
6.87 
5.82 
4.89 
4.67 
4.72 
5.30 
4.67  ' 
5.82  I 
5.68 
5.30 
5.03 
5.15 


0 
5,980 
3.830 
3,310 
2,820 
2,630 
2,380 
2,190 
2,090 
2.110 
2.380 
2,090 
2,610 
2,  .540 
2,880 
2,250 
2.310 


Fr€t. 
0 
4.40 
7.25 
7.27 
7.44 
7.61 
7.61 
7.62 
7.80 
7.74 
7.87 
8.40 
8.50 
9.50 
9.53 
9.80 
9.60 


0 

73 

78 
73 
73 
7S 
73 
T3 


77 
71* 


TEST  OF  PRODUCER-GAS  PUMPING  PLANT  NEAR  ROCKY  FORD, 

COLO. 

The  future  of  irrigation  in  the  bottom  lands  of  Arkansas  Vh11».v 
will  be  greatly  influenced  by  the  cost  of  power  for  pumping  nattM. 
One  of  the  possible  wa^^s  of  cutting  down  this  cost  is  by  the  uj*e  of 
producer-gas  in  gas  engines,  as  mentioned  in  Chapter  V, 

A  35-horsepower  producer-gas  plant  has  been  installed  by  Mr.  A.  W. 
Shelton,  about  6  miles  northeast  of  Rocky  Ford,  Cx)lo.  It  consists  d 
a  40-horsepower  Pintsch  suction  gas  producer,  a  35-horsepower  single 
cylinder  gas  engine,  and  a  12-inch  Byron-Jackson  vertical -shaft  cen 
trif ugal  pump.  The  water  is  pumped  from  a  canal  through  15-inrh 
concrete  tile  (200  feet  of  intake  and  300  feet  of  discharge)  to  an  eleva 


a  stopped  35  minutes. 


b  Stopped  36  mlnutea. 


DETAILS   OF   TESTS   OF   PUMPING   PLANTS. 


83 


tion  of  16  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  canal,  called  the  first 
discharge,  and  at  another  point  to  an  elevation  of  28  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  canal,  called  the  second  discharge. 

A  test  was  made  of  this  plant,  extending  from  December  2  to  6, 
1905.  The  results  of  the  test  of  the  engine  and  producer-gas  appara- 
tus are  given  herewith.  Unfortunately  the  cement-discharge  pipe 
^ve  out  when  the  plant  was  first  started,  so  that  water  could  not  be 
pumped  during  the  test,  and  the  hydraulic  data  for  this  plant  are 
therefore  not  available. 

In  connection  with  the  generation  of  the  gas  a  vaporizer,  scrubber, 
and  purifier  are  used.  Water  is  evaporated  at  atnK>spheric  pressure 
to  generate  the  steam  required  in  the  producer.  The  vaporizer  is 
located  directly  on  top  of  the  producer.  The  scrubber  is  of  the  form 
in  which  a  spray  of  water  trickles  down  through  coke,  the  water  run- 
ning out  at  the  bottom  of  the  scrubber.  After  being  scrubbed  the 
gas  passes  through  a  purifier  box,  next  through  a  gas  governor,  and 
then  to  the  engine. 

The  engine  used  was  one  of  the  Olds  gasoline  type,  somewhat  modi- 
fied for  the  use  of  producer-gas.  The  engine  governor  was  not  the 
one  belonging  to  the  engine. 

A  belt  was  connected  from  a  30-inch  pulley  on  the  engine  to  a  pulley 
on  the  vertical  shaft  of  the  centrifugal  pump.  A  clutch  at  the  engine 
shaft  allowed  the  pump  to  be  disconnected  at  will. 

A  small  pulley,  fastened  to  the  shaft  opposite  the  pulley  end,  carried 
a  belt  which  drove  a  3  by  5  inch  ''Baker"  feed- water  pump.  This 
pump,  making  about  46  revolutions  a  minute,  drew  water  from  the 
well  and  discharged  it  into  a  3  by  8  feet  by  30  inches  storage  tank 
near  the  roof  of  the  building  and  above  the  producer.  A  pipe  leading 
from  the  bottom  of  this  tank  furnished  all  the  water  used  to  operate 
the  plant,  viz,  water  for  the  engine  jacket,  steam,  and  scrubber. 
During  the  brake  tests  it  also  supplied  cooling  water  for  the  brake. 
The  water,  after  being  used,  passed  through  the  seals  and  then  into 
the  well  from  which  it  was  drawn. 


Preliminary  brake  tests  of  gas  engine  at  pumping  platU  ofA.W.  SheUony  near  Rocky  Ford, 

Colo.f  December  4y  1905. 


1 

1 

1 

Maxi- 

Maxi- 

iMeanef- 

mum 

mum 

ia.,u».»^    1.. 

fectlve 

Mechan- 

pressure 

pressure 

Net 

revolu- 
tions per 
minute 

Ezplo- 

pressure, 

Brake 

Indicat- 

ical effi- 

ofexplo-' ofcom- 

'     Test. 

load,  In 

slons  per 

in  pounds 

horse- 

ed horse- 

ciency 

slon,  in  |  pression. 

pounds 

minute. 

per 

power. 

power. 

(per 

pounds 

in  pounds 

square 

cent). 

per 

per 

inch. 

square 

square 

inch. 

inch. 

1 

151 

199 

99.6 

44.0 

26.7 

34.0 

78.5 

225 

140 

2 

lfi9 

20O 

100.0 

45.6 

30.0 

85.4 

84.9 

285 

133 

3 

174 

199 

99. 5           ^.  0 

80.7 

38.7 

79.4 

235 

148 

84  UNDERFLOW  IN  ARKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTERN  KANSAS. 

Diameter  of  piston 14  inches. 

Length  of  stroke 20  inches. 

Length  of  brake  arm 56  inches. 

T>    u  *     *     2X^X66  ^^-_^^ 

Brake  con8tant=  1 2^33000  ~ uOtRSv 

__     .             ^     ^    20XJO<14X14  .__ 

ifingine con8tant=  TonTJsTqqooo  ^^ - •-•     * ^^*  * ^ 

Brake  hor8epower= Net  load  X Speed  X     .O0088^ 

Indicated  horsepower  = Mean  effective  pressure  X  Explosions  X      .  00778 

,,    ,      .    ,    «,  .  Brake  horsepower 

Mechanical  efficiency =1^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^. 

Indicator  spring,  pounds  per  square  inch,  =160  for  Test  No.  1,  250  for  Test  No.  2,  and 
250  for  Test  No.  3. 

Of  the  gas  producer  a  test  of  three  hours'  duration  was  made.  The 
gas  governor  was  not  in  operation.  The  producer  was  filled  with  coal 
at  the  beginning,  as  well  as  at  the  end  of  the  run.  As  the  engine  was 
not  operating  well  the  load  had  to  be  taken  off  for  a  time. 

Test  of  gas  producer  cU  pumping  plant  of  A,  W,  SheUoUf  near  Bocky  fbrd,  Colo., 

December  4,  1906, 


Time. 

Net 
brake 
load. 

Pound*. 

181 
181 
181 
181 
181 
181 

]   Load 
partly 
off. 

181 
181 
181 

Revolu- 
tions 

per  min- 
ute. 

204 
208 

Explo- 
sions per 
minute. 

Temperature  ^F. 

Jacket  water. 

Engine 
room. 

Out- 
side 
air. 

CoaL 

Enter- 
ing. 

Leav- 
ing. 

Range. 

P.m. 

1.86 
1.50 
2.05 
2.20 
2.85 
2.50 
8.05 
8.20 
8.35 
8.60 
4.05 
4.20 
4.85 

Av 

Total . . 

102 
104 

45 
45 

154 
160 
166 
165 
165 
208 
206 

109 
115 

120 
120 
168 
168 

60 
60 
60 
64 
64 
64 

^  Pound*. 

60     

50     

49    1 

48      

48            21    ■ 
47             -24 

46     ' 

46     

206 
206 
206 
204 
202 

108 
108 
108 
102 
101 

45 
45 
45 
45 
45 

1 

45    i 

1 

44             17    ' 

218    1         117 
220              110 

45 
45 

43            1^    1 

42 
41 

*n 

45 

1 

125 

207    1         105 

46 

175 

182 

62 

46 

"ioi** 

1 

Summary  of  test  of  gas  producer  at  pumping  plant  of  A.  W,  SheUon,  near  Rocky  Fhrd, 

Colo.,  December  4y  1906, 

Duration  of  test 3  hours. 

Net  brake  load  (maximum) 181  pounds. 

Net  brake  load  (average) 125  pounds. 

Revolutions  per  minute  (average) 207. 

Explosions  per  minute  (average) 105. 

Temperature  of  water  entering  jacket  (average) 45®  F. 

Temperature  of  water  leaving  jacket  (average) 175®  F. 

Range  of  jacket-water  temperature 132®  F. 


DETAILS  OF   TESTS  OF   PUMPING  PLANTS.  85 

Temperature  of  engine  room  (average) 62**  F. 

Temperature  of  outside  air  (average) .46®  F. 

Total  coal  consumed 104  pounds. 

Pressure  maximum  explosion 258  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Pressure  maximum  compression 145  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Preesure,  suction  at  exit  of  producer 2  inches  water. 

Pressure,  suction  at  exit  of  scrubber 2.125  inches  water. 

Pressure,  suction  at  exit  of  purifier 2.25  inches  water. 

Pressure,  mean  effective 51.6  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Indicated  horsepower  (51.6X  105 X. 00778)= 42.2. 

Brake  horsepower  (maximum)  =  (181 X207X. 000888)  =  ...33.2. 

Brake  horsepower  (average)  =  (125X207X. 000888)= 22.9.  ' 

33.2 
Mechanical  efficiency  (maximum)  ^2~2 ^^'^  P®*"  ^"*' 

22.9 
Mechanical  efficiency  (average)  js-o ^-2  per  cent. 

Pounds  of  coal  per  brake  horsepower  per  hour,  based  on 

maximum  brake  horsepower  (  3^330  J ^'^' 

Pounds  of  coal  per  brake  horsepower  per  hour,  based  on 

(104    N 
3x22  9) ^'^^' 

TeM  of  ffos  engine  at  pumping  plant  of  A.  W.  ShelUmy  near  Rocky  Ford,  Colo.y  as  shown 

by  sample  indicator  card. 

Duration  of  test  (10  a.  m.  to  5  p.  m. ) 7  hours. 

Rated  horsepower  of  engine 35. 

Weight  of  engine '. '. 11,000  pounds. 

Mean  effective  pressure  (average  of  54  cards) « 43.7  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Indicator  spring 160  pounds  per  square  inch. 

I^ad  on  brake 175  pounds. 

Revolutions  per  minute 201.6. 

Explosions  per  minute 100.8. 

Brake  horsepower  (175X201.6X.000888) 31.4. 

Indicated  horsepower  (43. 7 X  100.8 X. 00778) 34.3. 

Mechanical  efficiencyf  5x3  )" ^^-^  P®*"  ^®^^ 

Kind  of  producer .* Pintsch. 

Producer  rated  horsepower 40. 

Temperature  of  water  entering  jacket 49. 8°  F. 

Temperature  of  water  leaving  jacket 165.8®  F. 

Range  of  jacket-water  temixjrature 116°  F.^ 

Temperature  of  outside  air 46.8°  F. 

Temperature  of  engine  room 72.0°  F. 

Pressure  of  maximum' explosion 260  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Pressure  of  maximum  compression 150  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Pressure  of  maximum  steam Atmospheric. 

Pressure  of  maximum  suction  at  producer  exit 2.2  inches  water. 

Pressure  of  maximum  suction  at  scrubber  exit 2.2  inches  water. 

Pressure  of  maximum  suction  at  purifier  exit 2.4  inches  water. 

aThe  high  mechanical  efficiency  Is  probably  due  to  an  error  in  the  indicated  honiepower.  The 
mean  effective  prewure  appeant  to  be  too  low.  The  reducing  motion  used  was  made  of  wood  and  had 
become  considerably  worn  when  this  test  was  made. 


86 


UNDERFLOW  IN  ABKANSAS  VALLEY,  WESTEBN  KANSAS. 


Data  concerning  coed  used  in  ted  of  producer-gas  pumping  plant  of  A.  W,  SheUon^  : 

liocky  Ford,  Colo. 

Kind CJolorado  anthracite,  Floresta  mine. 

Cost  at  plant  per  ton $6. 

Size Pea. 

Total  quantity  fired 325  pounds. 

Total  refuse  (clinkers,  ash,  and  unburned  coal) .  66  pounds. 

Total  clinkers 5  pounds. 

Total  ynburned  coal 43  pounds. 

Total  ash  (siftings)  18  pounds. 

Calorific  value  of  coal  per  pound 13,850  B.  T.  U. 

Pounds  of  coal  per  brake  horsepower  per  hour, 
as  fired  and  uncorrected  for  unburned  coal  in 

(325    "\ 
txsTa) ^■'^- 

Pounds  of  coal  per  brake  horsepower  per  hour 
(corrected  for  unburned  coal  in  refuse) 1. 24. 


Approximate  analysis  of  coal  used  at  producer-gas  pumping  plant  of  A,  W.  Shelton,  nasr 

Rocky  Fordy  Colo, 

Percent 

Moisture 2. 2 

Volatile  matter 7. 6 

Fixed  carbon 83.8 

Ash 6.4 

Water  used  per  hour  in  producer-gas  pumping  plant  of  A.  W.  Shdtony  near  Rocky  Ford, 

Colo. 

Pounds. 

By  jacket 1,200 

By  brake 930 

By  scrubber  (approximately) 1, 300 

By  vaporizer 16 

Efficiencies  at  iHirious  loads  of  producer  gas  pumping  plant  of  A.  W.  Sheltony  near  Rocky 
Ford,  Colo,;  test  of  December  6,  1905, 


Time. 

Net 
brake 

load 
(lbs.). 

Revo- 
lutions 
per 
min- 
ute. 

Explo- 
sions 
per 
min- 
ute. 

Jacket  water. 

Mean 
effective 
pressure 
(pounds 

per 
square 
inch). 

Indi- 
cated 
horse- 
power. 

Brake 
horse- 
power. 

Mechan- 

Temperatures. 

Pounds 
per 
hour. 

ical  effi- 
ciency 

Inlet. 

Out- 
let. 

Range. 

(per 
cent). 

9.50 

27 

205 

45.0 

44 

104 

60 

1,260 

44.1 

15.4 

4.9 

90.0 

10.13 

.  50 

203 

52.2 

44 

107 

68 

1,570 

41.1 

17.9 

9.0 

50.2    1 

10.42 

75 

203 

59.4 

42 

112 

70 

1,900 

44.9 

20.7 

18.5 

65.2 

11.06 

100 

203 

69.8 

42 

117 

76 

1,340 

44.1 

28.8 

18.0 

75.6 

11.30 

126 

203 

83.0 

42 

126 

84 

1.340 

43.7 

28.2 

22.5 

79. « 

12.25 

160 

199 

96.0 

42 

136 

94 

1,570 

42.4 

31.6 

26.5 

83.8 

1.18 

175 

201 

100.5 

42 

146 

108 

1,570 

39.9 

81.2 

31.2 

1.40 

200 

189 

95.0 

42 

140 

98 

1,670 

89.9 

29.5 

33.6 

2.00 

215 
a225 

178 

89.0 

42 

148 

106 

41.3 

28.6 

83.9 

1 

f 

a  £nKlne  would  not  carry  load. 


DETAILS  OF  TESTS  OP  PUMPING  PLANTS. 


87 


Analysis  of  gas  from  gas  producer  at  pumping  plant  of  A.  W.  Shelion^  near  Rocky  Fhrd, 

Colo. 


B.T.U.per 
pprppnt     100  cubic 
Percent    feetofgiw 
1                 '    at60°F. 

COj                          ,         6.3    ' 

0              '          1.0    ' 

CO 23.2              7,613 

CH4 '         0.0    1 

H 18.6             6,107 

N 60.9     

1 

100      !     i3,ffiao 

It  will  be  o})served  from  the  results  obtained  in  the  test  that  1.24 
pounds  of  coal  per  hour  produced  1  brnke  horsepower.  At  $6  a  ton 
the  cost  of  fuel  was  therefore  three-eighths  of  a' cent  per  brake-horse- 
power hour.  At  this  rate  power  was  obtained  at  a  cost  for  fuel 
equivalent  to  gasoline  at  3  cents  per  gallon.  One-half  cent  per  brake- 
hoi-sepower  hour  for  labor  and  five-eighths  cent  per  bi^ake-horse- 
power  hour  for  supplies,  depreciation,  and  repairs  should  cover  all 
other  charges.  The  total  cost  of  power  should  not  exceed,  there- 
fore, li  cents  per  brake-horsepower  hour,  or  about  $4.50  per  day  of 
ten  hours,  for  the  present  plant.  In  this  length  of  time  the  plant 
should  furnish  about  8  acre-feet  of  water  on  the  16-foot  lift,  or  at  a 
cost  of  about  58  cents  per  acre-foot. 

The  first  cost  of  the  pumping  plant  in  round  numbers,  was  $3,300 
for  the  producer,  engine,  and  pump;  $200  for  the  building,  and  $1,500 
for  the  intake  and  discharge  pipe  and  flumes. 


INDEX 


Page. 

Alkalinity,  measurements  of 45-47 

Analyses  of  ground  water 45-47, 49^50 

Arkansas   River,  cross  section  of,   figure 

staowtng .^ 23 

narrows  of,  measurements  at 22-24 

valley  of,  topography  of 7 

wells  in,  water  of,  quality  of 4&-50 

water  of,  gain  and  loss  of 31, 41-42 

height  of...; .^. 28-43 

figures  showing 29,32,38,43,52 

water  of,  temperature  of 12 

Barometric   pressure,    relations   of   water 

table  and 32-^ 

relations  of  water  table   and,   figure 

showing 33 

•  Bear  Creek,  character  of 20 

water  from 21. 53^54 

Catchment  area,  location  of 5 

Cle^ir  Lake,  Kans.,  character  of 18-19 

location  of 18 

map  of  vicinity  of 19 

underflow  stations  at,  measurements  at.  20-21 

water  supply  from 18, 21 

Colorado,  coal  from,  use  of,  for  fuel 6 

origin  of  ground  water  in 51 

Deerfleld,  Kans.,  evaporation  at 43-14 

ground  water  at,  fluctuations  of. . .  31 ,  42-44, 54 

rainfall  at 44 

river  at,  height  of,  figure  showing 53 

underflow  at,  analyses  oL 47 

underflow  stations  at,  location  of,  map 

showing 17 

measurements  at 16 

Diesem,  I.  L.,  pumping  plant  of,  data  on. . .  55-05 

Dodge,  Kans.,  rainfall  at 54 

sand  hills  near 7 

Evaporation,  measurements  of 43-44 

Field  work,  character  and  extent  of 5, 7 

Floods,  influence  of,  on  ground  water  . . .  5, 11-12, 

14,28-34,3^40 

source  of 53 

Fulmer,   Nathan,  pumping   plant  of,  cost 

of 70 

pumping  plant  of,  data  on 55-56. 68 

tests  of 67-70 

well  of,  character  of 57,67-68 

rise  of  water  in,  figure  showing 69 

Garden,  Kans.,  cross  section  near,  figure 

showing 11 

gravel  near,  character  of 10-11 

ground  water  at,  fluctuations  of 26-^)0, 54 

rainfall  at 30,38-39,54 

figures  showing 52,53 


Page. 

Garden,  Kans.,  rock  under,  depth  to 51 

run-off  at 6 

underflow  near 6 

analyses  of 45-46 

solids  in,  figure  showing 11. 

underflow  stations  near,   location  of, 

map  showing 9 

measurements  at 7-13 

waterworks  of,  pumping  plant  of,  data 

on 55-56,76 

pumping  plant  of,  tests  of 76-70 

well  of,  character  of 76, 79 

rise  of  water  in,  figures  lihowing 77, 78 

Gasoline,  use  of,  for  fuel ...  6, 55, 57, 63, 65-67, 69, 72 

Gas-producer  plant,  test  of 84-87 

use  of 6,57-^ 

Gravels,  character  of . ; 10-11, 13 

depth  of 51,56 

Ground  water.    See  Underflow, 
Hartland,  Kans.,  underflow  stations  near, 

location  of,  map  showing 22 

underflow  stations  near,  measurements 

at 20-21,24 

Hedge,  11.  E.,  aid  of 18 

Fligh  Plains,  character  of 52 

Holoomb,  n.  D.,  pumping  plant  of,  cost  of.. .  80-81 

pumping  plant  of,  data  on 55-.'>6. 80 

tests  of 80-82 

well  of,  character  of 80 

Johnson,  W.  D.,  on  ponds  on  High  Plains. .       20 

Kansas  oil,  use  of,  for  fuel 6, 57 

King  Brothers,  pumping  plant  of,  cost  of . .        76 

pumping  plant  of,  data  on 55-56, 73 

tests  of 73-76 

well  of,  character  of 73-74 

rise  of  water  in,  figure  showing 75 

Klpp,  H.  S.,  pumping  plant  of,  data  on 55-56 

Lakin,  Ejins.,  pumping  plant  near 70 

Logan,   D.   H.,   pumping  plant   of,   data 

on 55-56,59-^ 

pumping  plant  of,  tests  of 59-62 

well  of,  character  of 57,61-62 

rise  of  water  in,  figure  showing  ....       61 
McKinney,  J.  R.,  pumping  plant  of,  data  on .  55-56 

Owen,  Ray,  work  of 5 

Producer  gas.    See  Gas-producing  engines. 

Pumping,  coat  of 57-58,80,63,65-67,09,72,87 

Pumping  plants,  power  for » . .         6 

tests  <rf.  details  of 59-87 

summary  of 55-58 

See  (Uao  individual  plants. 

Rainfall,  amount  of 25-26,54 

effect  of 5,28-30,34 


90 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Rlchter,  Mrs.  M.,  pumping  plant  of,  data 

on 56-56,62,65 

pumping  plant  ol,  testa  of 62-65 

well  of,  character  of 57-62 

fluctuations  In 26, 34 

rise  of  water  in,  figure  showing 64 

Rocky  Ford,  Colo.,  producer-gas  pumping 
plant  near.  See  Shelton,  A.  W., 
pumping  plant  of. 

Root,  J.  N.,  pumping  plant  of,  cost  of 73 

pumping  plant  of ,  data  on 55-56, 70 

tests  of 70-73 

well  of,  character  of ". 57, 70-71 

rise  of  water  in,  figure  showing 72 

Run-off,  absence  of 6, 64 

Sand  hills,  catchment  area  in 5, 16, 51, 54 

location  of 7 

weUs  on,  water  of,  quality  of 49 

Sexton,  C.  E.,  pumping  plant  of,  data  on.  55, 56, 65 

pumping  plant  ol,  tests  ot 65-67 

wen  of,  character  ol 57, 65-67 

Shelton,  A.  W.,  pumping  plant   of,  data 

on 82-84 

pumping  plant  dl,   gas  from,  analysis 

of 87 

t«sts  of " 82-87 

Sherlock,  Kans.,  cross  section  near,  figure 

showing 15 

ground  water  at,  fluctuations  of. .  31,33,35-42 
fluctuations  of,  figures  showing ....  38, 40 

rai  nf  all  a  t 3»-39 

underflow  at,  analyses  of 46 

underflow  stations  at,  location  of,  map 

showing 14 

measurements  at 13 


Papp. 

Sherlock  Bridge,  water  at,  height  of,  figure 

showing '      hi 

Silt,  occurrence  of lo 

Smith,  L.  £.,  pumping  plant  of,  data  on  . . .    nb~:A 

Specific  capacity  of  wells 56-57 

Temperatures,  relative,  of  ground  and  river 

water 12 

Underflow,  analyses  of 45-47, 4d-» 

chemical  composition  of 45-.*) 

variations  in 5, 12-13, 16 

conclusions  concerning 5-6 

direction  of 10, 11, 13, 15-18, 21.24 

extent  of ^ 5,54 

influence  of  floods  on. . .  5, 1 1-12, 14, 28-34. 39-40 

influence  of  rains  on 5, 2ft-30, 34 

level  of,  figure  showing 29 

fluctuations  of 25-44 

solids  in,  amount  of 5,45-5ii 

variation  in 5,47-18 

figure  showing 47 

source  of 5l-*i 

temperature  of 12 

velocity  of 5,10,13,16-17.21.24.54 

Water  plane,  map  of,  figure  showing >« 

slope  of 5-7 

figure  showing ". II 

Wells,  character  of 56-.57 

specific  capacity  of 56-57 

water  of,  quality  of 49-50 

yield  of 6 

See  also  individual  pumping  plants. 

White  Woman  Creek,  fiow  of 5.V54 

Whitney  electrolytic  bridge,  use  of 45 

use  of,  results  of,  figure  showing 47 

Wolff,  H.  C,  work  of 5,26 


CLASSIFICATION  OP  THE  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL 

SURVEY. 

[Water-Supply  Paper  No.  158.] 

The  serial  publications  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  consist  of  (1 )  Annual 
Reports,  (2)  Monographs,  (3)  Professional  Papers,  (4)  Bulletins,  (6)  Mineral 
Resources,  (6)  Water-Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers,  (7)  Topographic  Atlas  of  United 
States — folios  and  separate  sheets  thereof,  (8)  Geologic  Atlas  of  the  United  States — 
folioe  thereof.  The  classes  numbered  2,  7,  and  8  are  sold  at  cost  of  publication;  the 
others  are  distributed  free.    A  circular  giving  complete  lists  may  be  had  on  application. 

Most  of  the  above  publications  may  be  obtained  or  consulted  in  the  following  ways: 

1.  A  limited  number  are  delivered  to  the  Director  of  the  Survey,  from  whom  they 
may  be  obtained,  free  of  charge  (except  classes  2,  7,  and  8),  on  application. 

2.  A  certain  number  are  delivered  to  Senators  and  Representatives  in  Congress 
for  distribution. 

3.  Other  copies  are  deposited  with  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington, 
D.  C,  from  whom  they  may  be  had  at  prices  slightly  above  cost 

4.  Ck>pie8  of  all  Government  publications  are  furnished  to  the  principal  public 
libraries  in  the  large  cities  throughout  the  United  States,  where  they  may  be  con- 
sulted by  those  interested. 

The  Professional  Papers,  Bulletins,  and  Water-Supply  Papers  treat  of  a  variety  of 
subjects,  and  the  total  number  issued  is  large.  They  have  therefore  been  classified 
into  the  following  series:  A,  Economic  geology;  B,  Descriptive  geology;  C,  System- 
atic geology  and  paleontology;  D,  Petrography  and  mineralogy;  E,  Chemistry  and 
physics;  F,  Geography;  G,  Miscellaneous;  H,  Forestry;  I,  Irrigation;  J,  Water  stor- 
age; K,  Pumping  water;  L,  Quality  of  water;  M,  General  hydrographic  investiga- 
tions; N,  Water  power;  O,  Underground  waters;  P,  Hydrographic  progress  reports. 
This  paper  is  the  twelfth  in  Series  K  and  the  fiftieth  in  Series  O,  the  complete  lists 
of  which  follow  (PP=Professional  Paper;  B=Bulletin;  WS=Water-Supply  Paper): 

SERIES  K,  PUMPING  WATER. 

WS     1.  Pumping  water  for  Irrigation,  by  H.  M.  Wilson.    1896.    67  pp.,  9  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 

WS     8.  Windmills  for  irrigation,  by  £.  C.  Murphy.    1897.    49  pp.,  8  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 

WS   14.  New  tests  of  certain  pumps  and  water  lifts  used  in  irrigation,  by  O.  P.  Hood.    1896.    91  pp., 

Ipl.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS   20.  Experiments  with  windmills,  by  T.  O.  Perry.    1899.    97  pp.,  12  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WB  29.  Wells  and  windmills  in  Nebraska,  by  £.  H.  Barbour.    1899.    85  pp.,  27  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS  41.  The  windmill:  its  efficiency  and  economic  use,  Pt.  I,  by  E.  C.  Murphy.    1901.    72  pp.,  14  pis. 

(Out  of  stock.)  / 

WS   42.  The  windmill,  Pt.  II  (continuation  of  No.  41).    1901.    78-147  pp.,  15-16  pis.    (Out  of  s^xsk. ) 
WS  91.  Natural  features  and  economic  development  of  Sandusky,  Maumee,  Muskingum,  and  Miami   • 

drainage  areas  in  Ohio,  by  B.  H.  Flynn  and  M.  S.  Flynn.    1904.    130  pp. 
WB  117.  The  lignite  of  North  Dakota  and  its  relation  to  irrigation,  by  F.  A.  Wilder.,    1906.   ^pp.,   / 

8  pis. 
WS  136.  Underground  waters  of  Salt  River  Valley,  Arizona,  by  W.  T.  Lee.    1905.    196  pp..  23  pis.  > 

WS  141.  Observations  on  the  ground  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  1904,  by  C.  S.  Slichter.    1906.    • 

83  pp.,  5  pis. 
WS  158.  The  underflow  in  Arkansas  Valley  in  western  Kansas,  by  C.  S.  Slichter.    1906.    90.pp.,  3  pis.    . 

•SERIES  O,  UNDERGROUND  WATERS. 

WS     4.  A  reconnaiflsance  in  southeastern  Washington,  by  I.  C.  Russell.    1897.    96  pp.,  7  pis.    (Out  - 

of  stock.) 
WS     6.  Underground  waters  of  southwestern  Kansas,  by  Erasmus  Haworth.    1897.    65  pp.,  12  pis. 

(Out  of  stock.) 
WS     7.  Seepage  waters  of  northern  Utah,  by  Samuel  Fortier.    1897.    50  pp.,  3  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 


II  SEBIES   LIST. 

WS  12.  Underground  waters  of  southeastern  Nebraska,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1898.    56  pp.,  21  pit.    (Oat 

of  stock.) 
WS  21.  Wells  of  northern  Indiana,  by  Frank  Leverett.    1899.    82  pp.,  2  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS  26.  Wells  of  southern  Indiana  (continuation  of  No.  21),  by  Frank  Leverett.    1899.    61  pp.    (Out 

of  stock.) 
WS  SO.  Water  resources  of  the  Lower  Peninsula  of  Michigan,  by  A.  C.  Lane.    1899.    97  pp.,  7  pis. 

(Out  of  stock.) 
WS  81.  Lower  Michigan  mineral  waters,  by  A.  C.  Lane.    1899.    97  pp.,  4  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS  34.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  a  portion  of  southeastern  South  Dakota,  by  J.  E.  Todd.    19U.<. 

84  pp.,  19  pis. 
WS  63.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  Nez  Perces  County,  Idaho,  Pt.  I,  by  I.  C.  Ruwell.    1901.    •« 

pp.,  10  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS  64.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  Ne^  Perces  County,  Idaho,  PL  II,  by  I.  C.  Russell.    19ui. 

87-141  pp.    (Out  of  stock. ) 
WS  55.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  a  portion  of  Yakima  County.  Wash.,  by  G.  O.  Smith.    1901. 

68  pp.,  7  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS    67.  Preliminary  list  of  deep  borings  in  the  United  States,  Pt.  I,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1902.    GO  pp. 

(Out  of  stock.) 
WS  69.  Development  and  application  of  water  in  southern  California,  Pt.  I,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott. 

1902.    96  pp.,  11  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS  60.  Development  and  application  of  water  in  southern  California.  Pt.  II,  by  J.  B.  Lippinoott, 

1902.    96-140  pp.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS  61.  Preliminary  list  of  deep  borings  in  the  United  States,  Pt  II,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1902.    67  pp. 

(Out  of  stock.) 
WS  67.  The  motions  of  underground  waters,  by  C.  8.  Slichter.    1902.    106  pp.,  8  pis.    (Out  of  stock.  > 
B     199.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  the  Snake  River  Plains  of  Idaho,  by  I.  C.  Russell.    1902.    192 

pp.,  25  pis. 
WS  77.  Water  resources  of  Molokai,  Hawaiian  Islands,  by  W.  LIndgren.    1908.    62  pp.,  4  pis. 
WS  78.  Preliminary  report  on  artesian  basins  in  southwestern  Idaho  and  southeastern  Oregon,  by  I.  C 

RuaseU.    1908.    58  pp.,  2  pis. 
PP    17.  Preliminary  report  on  the  geology  and  water  resources  of  Nebraska  west  of  the  one  hundnid 

and  third  meridian,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1903.    69  pp.,  43  pis. 
WS  90.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  a  part  of  the  lower  James  River  Valley.  South  Dakota,  by  J.  £. 

Todd  and  C.  M.  Hall.    1904.    47  pp.,  23  pis. 
WS  101.  Underground  waters  of  southern  Louisiana,  by  G.  D.  Harris,  with  discussions  of  their  uses  for 

water  supplies  and  for  rice  irrigation,  by  M.  L.  Fuller.    1904.    98  pp.,  11  pis. 
WS  102.  Contributions  to  the  hydrology  of  eastern  United  States,  1903,  by  M.  L.  Fuller.    1904.    Sc22  pp. 
WS  104.  Underground  waters  of  Gila  Valley,  Arizona,  by  W.  T.  Lee.    1904.    71  pp.,  6  pis. 
WS  106.  Water  resources  of  the  Philadelphia  district,  by  Florence  Bascom.    1904.    76  pp.,  4  pis. 
WS  110.  Contributions  to  the  hydrology  of  eastern  United  States,  1904;  M.  L.  Fuller,  geologist  in 

charge.    1904.    211  pp.,  6  pis. 
PP    32.  Geology  and  underground  water  resources  of  the  central  Great  Plains,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    190n. 

488  pp.,  72  pis     (Out  of  stock.) 
WS  111.  Preliminaiy  report  on  underground  waters  of  Washington,  by  Henrj'  Landes.    1904.    83  pp., 

ipl. 
WS112.  Underflow  tests  in  the  drainage  basin  of  Los  Angeles  River,  by  Homer  Hamlin.    19M. 

65  pp.,  7  pis. 
WS114.  Underground  waters  of  eastern  United  States;  M.  L.  Fuller,  geologist  in  charge.    190L 

286  pp.,  18  pis. 
WS  118.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  east-central  Washington,  by  F.  C.  Calkins.    1905.    96  pp., 

4  pis. 
B    252.  Preliminary  report  on  the  geology  and  water  resources  of  central  Oregon,  by  I.  C.  RuMell. 

1905.    188  pp.,  24  pis. 
WS  120.  Bibliographic  review  and  index  of  papers  relating  to  underground  waters  published  by  the 

United  States  Geological  Survey,  1879-1904,  by  M.  L.  Fuller.  1906.  128  pp. 
WS  122.  Relation  of  the  law  to  underground  waters,  by  D.  W.  Johnson.  1906.  65  pp. 
WS  123.  Geology  and  underground  water  conditions  of  the  Jornada  del  Muerto,  New  Mexico,  by  C.  R. 

Keyes.    1905.    42  pp.,  9  pis. 
WS  186.  Underground  waters  of  Salt  River  Valley,  Arizona,  by  W.  T.  Lee.    1906.    196  pp.,  24  pis. 
B.    264.  Record  of  deep-well  drilling  for  1904,  by  M.  L.  Fuller,  £.  F.  Lines,  and  A.  C.  Veatcb.    1906. 

106  pp. 
PP    44.  Underground  water  resources  of  Long  Island,  New  York,  by  A.  C.  Veatch,  C.  S.  Slichter, 

Isaiah  Bowman,  W.  O.  Crosby,  and  R.  £.  Horton.    1906.    394  pp.,  31  pis. 
WS  187.  Development  of  underground  waters  in  the  eastern  coMtal  plain  region  of  southern  Cali- 
fornia, by  W.  C.  Mendenhall.    1906.    140  pp.,  7  pis. 
WS  138.  Development  of  underground  waters  in  the  central  eoa.stal  plain  region  of  southern  C^i- 

fomia.  by  W.  C.  Mendenhall.    1906.    162  pp.,  5  pis. 


SERIES    LIST.  Ill 

WS 139.  Development  of  underground  waters  in  the  western  coastal  plain  region  uf  southern  Cali- 
fornia, by  W.  C.  MendenhaU.    1905.    105  pp.,  7  plR. 

Wd  140.  Field  measurements  of  the  rate  of  movement  of  underground  waters,  by  G.  S.  SUchter.  1905. 
122  pp.,  15  pis. 

VfB  141.  Observations  on  the  ground  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande  Valley,  1904,  by  0.  8.  SHchter.  1905. 
82  pp.,  5  pis. 

WS  142.  Hydrology  of  San  Bernardino  Valley,  California,  by  W.  C.  MendenhaU.    1905.    124  pp.,  IS  pis. 

WS  145.  Contributions  to  the  hydrology  of  eastern  United  States;  M.  L.  Fuller,  geologist  in  charge. 
1906.    220  pp.,  6  pis. 

WS  148.  Gtelogy  and  water  resources  of  Oklahoma,  by  C.  N.  Gould.    1905.    178  pp.,  22  pis. 

WS  149.  FxnHminary  list  of  deep  borings  in  the  United  States.  Second  edition,  with  additions,  by 
N.  H.  Darton.    1905.    175  pp. 

PP  46.  Geology  and  underground  water  resources  of  northern  Louisiana  and  southern  Arkansas,  by 
A.  C.  Veatch.    1906.    — pp.,  61  pis. 

WS  153.  The  underflow  in  Arkansas  Valley  in  western  Kansas,  by  C.  8.  Slichter.  1906.  90  pp.,  8  pis. 
The  following  papers  also  relate  to  this  subject:  Underground  waters  of  Arkansas  Valley  in  eastern 

Colorado,  by  G.  K.  Gilbert,  in  Seventeenth  Annual,  Pt  II;  Preliminary  report  on  artesian  waters  of  a 

portion  of  the  Dakotas,  by  N.  H.  Darto^,  in  Seventeenth  Annual,  Pt.  II;  Water  resources  of  Illinois, 

by  Frank  Leverett,  in  Seventeenth  Annual,  Pt.  II;  Water  resources  of  Indiana  and  Ohio,  by  Frank 

Leverett,  in  Eighteenth  Annual,  Pt.  IV;  New  developments  in  well  boring  and  irrigation  in  eastern 

South  Dakou,  by  N.  H.  Darton,  in  Eighteenth  Annual,  Pt.  IV;  Rock  waters  of  Ohio,  by  Edward 

Urton,  in  Nineteenth  Annual,  Pt.  IV;  Artesian  well  prospects  in  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  region,  by 

N.  H.  Darton,  BulleUn  No.  188. 

Correspondence  should  be  addressed  to 

The  Director, 

United  States  Geological  Survey, 

Washington,  Di  C. 
May,  1906. 

o 


oi^H  Congress,  |   HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES.  (  Document 
lift  Session.      \  \    No.  552. 


(B,  Descnptive  Geology,  .81 


Water-Supply  and  Irrigation  Paper  No.  154  Series  -j  I,  Irrigation,  20 

""  y  0,  Underground  Waters,  61 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

UNITED  STATES  GEOLOCilCAL  SURVEY 

CHARLES  1).  WALCOTT,  DIRECTOR 


THE 

GEOLOGY  AND  WATER  RESOURCES 


EASTERN  PORTION  OF  THE  PANHANDLE 

OF  TEXAS 

BY 

CIIARLKS    ISr.    G^OULD 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING    OFFICE 

1906 


CONTENTS. 


Pace. 

Introdaction 7 

Area  covered 7 

Sources  of  data _ _ 7 

Topography : 8 

General  featares 8 

HighPlainfi 8 

Surface  features 8 

Valleys  and  canyons _ _ 9 

Escarpment 9 

Eroded  plains 10 

Interstream  highlands 10 

Valleys  and  canyons 10 

Sandhills 11 

BiTer  plains 11 

Canadian  River  Valley 11 

Wolf  Creek  Valley... 12 

Washita  River  Valley 12 

North  Fork  of  Red  River  Valley 12 

Elm  Fork  of  Red  River  Valley 12 

Salt  Fork  of  Red  River  Valley 12 

Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  River  Valley _ 12 

Minor  stream  valleys 18 

Geology 18 

General  relations 18 

Permian  red  beds 15 

General  statement 15 

Permian  in  the  Panhandle  region 18 

Greer  formation 18 

Quartermaster  formation 21 

Triassic  red  beds _ 28 

Dockum  formation _ 28 

Tertiary  and  Quaternary  formations 24 

Reference  list  of  publications 24 

Stratigraphy 25 

G^eral  statement 25 

Loup  Fork  formation 25 

Gkx>dmght  formation 26 

Blanco  formation 26 

Tule  formation 26 

Ageofbeds 27 

Origin 27 

General  character 28 

Sandhills 80 

Alluvium 80 

3 


CONTENTS. 


Water  reBonrcefl 31 

Undergrotind  waters 3: 

General  conditions HI 

Water  from  the  red  beds _     .  31 

Character. 31 

Occnrrence S:' 

Water  from  Tertiary  rocks tr 

Character -12 

Occurrence .-. 33 

Source _ . .  '-^i 

The  water  table » 

Use  of  windmills 36 

Deep-seated  waters ST 

Springs ** 

Bed-beds  springs 3>? 

Salt  springs 38 

Gypsum  springs 39 

Fresh-water  springs 39 

Tertiary  springs 4(j 

Streams 40 

Classification  of  drainage 40 

North  Fork  of  Canadian  drainage 41 

Canadian  drainage _ .  41 

Red  River  drainage. - _ . .  41 

Streams  in  detail _  41 

Coldwater  Creek 41 

Palo  Dnro  Creek 41 

Wolf  Creek 42 

Canadian  River 42 

Washita  River _ 43 

North  Fork  of  Red  River 43 

Elm  Fork  of  Red  River 44 

Salt  Fork  of  Red  River _.. -W 

Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  Ri.er. 44 

Drainage  of  the  High  Plains 45 

Irrigation .  46 

Need  of  irrigation 46 

Possible  methods  of  irrigation 46 

Irrigation  from  streams _ .   . .  46 

Irrigation  from  springs .  -  47 

Irrigation  from  storm  waters 48 

Irrigation  from  wells 48 

Future  of  irrigation 49 

Water  conditions  by  counties , 4© 

Lipscomb  County 49 

Topography 49 

G^eology 49 

Water  supply 50 

Ochiltree  County 60 

Toi)ography .-     -   .  50 

Geology 50 

Water  supply.. 51 


CONTKNT8.  5 

Water  resources — Continned.  *    Pag©. 

Water  conditions  by  connties — Continned. 

Hansford  CJonnty - .        .  -   . 51 

Topography . 51 

Geology 51 

Water  snpply - ..   51 

Hntchinson  C  onnty 52 

Topography 52 

Gleology -  - 52 

Water  snpply. . . 52 

Roberts  Connty 58 

Topography _ 53 

Geology - 58 

Water  snpply 58 

Hemphll  Connty 58 

Topography 53 

Geology 58 

Water  snpply. 54 

Wheeler  Connty 54 

Topography 54 

G^eology - H 

Water  snpply -  - ^ —  55 

Gray  Connty - 55 

Topography . .   . .  55 

Geology ^ 55 

Water  snpply 56 

Carson  Connty -  - 56 

Topography 56 

Geology —  56 

Water  snpply. - 56 

Armstrong  Co  nty - 57 

Topography _ 57 

Geology - - 57 

Water  supply 57 

DonleyConnty 58 

Topography 58 

G^eology -  - .  58 

Water  snpply - 58 

Collingsworth  Connty 59 

Topography 59 

Geology , - 59 

Water  snpply 59 

Index 61 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate  I.  Map  of  the  Texas  Panhandle  and  adjacent  regions,  showing 

area  treated  in  this  rejKjrt T 

II.  Geologic  sections  across  a  i>ortion  of  northwestern  Texas ^ 

III.  The  High  Plains !<• 

lY.  A,  Sand  hills  blown  from  Canadian  River;  B,  Gypsum  ledge, 

showing  banded  structure , !• 

V.  Geologic  map  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Panhandle  of  Texas.       14 
VI.  A,  G3rpsum  cave;  B,  Spring  issuing  from  a  cave  in  Greer 

gypsum 1^ 

VII.  A,  Undermining  of  gypsum  ledges;  B,  Erosion  in  the  Quarter- 
master sandstone  in  Palo  Duro  Canyon i" 

VIII.  A,  Rocking  Chair  Mountains;  B,  Sandstone  member  of  the 

Dockum  formation  in  Palo  Duro  Canyon 22 

IX.  ^,  Erosion  forms  in  the  Dockum  sandstone  in  Tule  Canyon;  B, 

Sandstone  and  shale  member  of  the  Eockimi  formation '^4 

X.  A,  Edge  of  Tertiary  escarpment;  B.  Peculiar  weathering  of 

Tertiary  clay  in  Palo  Duro  Canyon "5 

XI.  A,  Windmill  and  tank  at  Ochiltree,  Tex. ;  B,  Typical  windmill 

and  tank 36 

XII.  A,  By  Freshet  on  Red  Deer  Creek  at  Miami,  Tex 42 

XTTT.  .4,  Buffalo  wallow;  B,  Lake  on  High  Plains 44 

XIV.  A^  Orchard  and  garden  at  Claude,  Tex.;  B,  Jacob's  well,  in  a 

deep  basin  near  edge  of  High  Plains - 4^' 

XV.  Map  showing  locations  of  lakes  on  a  portion  of  the  High 

Plains. 4!! 

Fio.  1.  Generalized  section  of  Oklahoma  red  beds 16 

2.  Section  showing  members  of  Greer  formation  on  Elm  Fork  of 

Red  River,  Salton,Okla.. 1^ 

3.  Ideal  section  of  Tertiary,  showing  first  and  second  sheet  water.        ^ 

4.  East- west  section  of  High  Plains,  showing  ground-water  level. .       ^ 

6 


=        ?     3 


GEOLOGY  AND  WATER  RESOURCES  OF  THE  EASTERN 
PORTION  OF  THE  PANHANDLE  OF  TEXAS. 


By  Charles  N.  Gould. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Area  covered. — The  area  described  in  this  report  lies  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  Texas  Panhandle,  and  includes  the  following  12 
counties:  Lipscomb,  Ochiltree,  Hansford,  Hutchinson,  Roberts, 
Hemphill,  Wheeler,  Gray,  Carson,  Armstrong,  Donley,  and  Collings- 
worth, each  of  which  is  approximately  30  miles  square.  It  is  an  area 
90  miles  east  and  west  and  120  miles  north  and  south,  situated  south 
of  the  center  of  the  Great  Plains.  The  total  area  is  approximately 
10,800  square  miles.  It  extends  from  100°  to  101°  35'  west  longitude 
and  from  34°  45'  to  36°  30'  north  latitude.  On  the  north  and  east 
it  is  adjoined  by  Oklahoma. 

Sources  of  data. — ^The  field  work  upon  which  this  report  is  based 
was  done  during  the  years  1903  and  1904.  During  the  former  season 
little  more  was  accomplished  than  a  general  reconnaissance  in  the 
region  adjacent  to  Canadian  River,  through  Carson,  Hutchinson, 
Roberts,  and  Hemphill  counties  to  the  Oklahoma  line,  thence  south 
through  Hemphill,  ^Mieeler,  and  Collingsworth  counties  as  far  as 
^Im  Fork  of  Red  River.  On  this  trip  the  writer  was  assisted  by 
Messrs.  Charles  T.  Kirk,  Chester  A.  Reeds,  Charles  A.  Long,  and 
Pierce  Larkin,  students  in  the  University  of  Oklahoma.  During  the 
field  season  of  1904  the  writer  made  an  examination  of  the  area  to 
which  this  report  relates,  assisted  by  Prof.  E.  G.  Woodruff.  Most  of 
the  counties  were  studied  in  detail,  excepting  on  the  broader  plains 
areas,  of  which  only  a  reconnaissance  was  made.  The  well  records 
were  mostly  secured  from  farmers  and  ranchmen  by  correspondence. 
Professor  Woodruff  has  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the  manu- 
script, "  Topography  ''  and  "  Water  conditions  by  counties  "  being 
principally  his  work. 


EASTERN   PANHANDLE   OF   TEXAS. 
TOPOGRAPHY. 


The  region  here  described  lies  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Great 
Plains.  Its  general  slope  is  to  the  east,  with  only  a  slight  gradieiii 
to  the  south.  The  topography  is  properly  divisible  into  two  claKse>— 
the  High  Plains  and  the  eroded  plains — with  local  modifications  pn>- 
duced  by  dune  sands.  A  third  and  more  local  phase  is  found  in  the 
river  flood  plains.  The  location  is  shown  on  PL  I,  and  the  general 
features  are  indicated  in  the  two  general  cross  sections  of  the  Grea: 
Plains  shown  on  PI.  II,  and  on  PI.  Ill,  which  includes  the  general 
region  of  the  High  Plains. 

HIGH  PLAINS. 

Surface  features. — The  region  here  treated  as  the  High  Plains  in- 
cludes not  only  the  northern  portion  of  the  Llano  Estacado  or  Staked 
Plains  of  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  but  also  the  high,  level  plains  in  ihf 
region  north  of  Canadian  River.  It  seems  probable  that  this  area 
was  once  a  great  plain  extending  far  to  the  east,  with  moderate  slope 
covered  by  the  deposits  of  the  meandering  rivers  which  were  flow- 
ing from  the  mountains  and  depositing  their  load  of  sediment.  By 
this  deposition  of  material  the  stream  beds  were  filled  and  the  water 
forced  to  a  new  channel.  By  continued  shifting  of  streams,  irregular 
layers  were  deposited  with  much  less  uniform  bedding  than  those  of 
marine  deposition.  It  is  thought  that  the  material  composing  the 
High  Plains  was  laid  down  in  this  way  upon  the  red  beds,  the  basal 
formation  in  this  region. 

In  later  times  the  High  Plains  have  been  extensively  cut  into  by 
stream  erosion,  until  at  present,  in  the  region  under  discussion^  the 
original  level  surface  remains  only  in  those  localities  more  remotv 
from  the  larger  valleys.  From  a  geological  standpoint  the  erosion  of 
the  High  Plains  has  been  rapid  and  is  still  vigorously  in  progre>>- 
In  the  region  comprised  in  this  report  High  Plains  constitute  por- 
tions of  the  following  counties:  Western  Lipscomb,  most  of  Ochiltree 
and  Hansford,  southwestern  Hemphill,  southern  Roberts,  northwest- 
ern Hutchinson,  western  Gray,  nearly  all  of  Carson,  and  portions  of 
Donley  and  Armstrong,  including  the  greater  part  of  the  regioL 
mapped  as  Tertiary  on  PI.  V,  an  area  of  approximately  4,000  squan' 
miles. 

In  general  the  surface  of  the  High  Plains  is  so  nearly  level  that 
railroads  require  little  or  no  grading,  and  wagon  roads  go  directly 
from  point  to  point.  With  a  surface  so  nearly  level  drainage  i- 
wholly  undeveloped.  Rain  water  can  not  run  off,  but  either  evap^*- 
rates  or  collects  in  broad,  shallow  depressions,  known  in  some  locali- 


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10  EASTERN   PANHANDLE   OF   TEXAS. 

have  a  sparse  vegetation,  since  the  very  rapid  erosion  prevents  most 
kinds  of  plants  &om  obtaining  a  foothold.  Bunch  grass,  yucca,  and 
dwarf  mesquite  are  often  present.  Such  a  region  is  most  difficult  to 
traverse,  and  in  localities  where  the  breaks  are  conspicuous  it  can  be 
crossed  with  a  wagon  only  at  infrequent  intervals  over  specially 
selected  routes.  This  escarpment  is  most  typical  along  the  Canadian 
und  in  Palo  Duro  Canyon,  in  Armstrong  County. 

ERODED  PLAINS. 

Interatream  highlands. — From  the  High  Plains  the  escarpment 
forms  a  descent  to  the  lower  level  of  the  eroded  plains,  which  occupy 
the  entire  eastern  part  of  the  region  to  which  this  report  relates. 
From  the  eroded  plains  the  Tertiary  and  Pleistocene  rocks,  which 
compose  the  High  Plains,  have  been  entirely  removed,  and  the 
streams,  both  large  and  small,  are  now  cutting  deep  valleys  into  the 
subjacent  red  beds.  This  part  of  the  Panhandle  is  a  rolling  plain, 
which  is  now  being  eroded  rapidly,  yet  without  the  conspicuous  bad- 
land  forms  that  mark  the  escarpment.  The  streams  are  confined 
almost  entirely  to  rather  deep,  steep-sided  valleys;  the  plains  between 
are  rolling  an(}  well  drained. 

Standing  on  this  plain  not  far  from  the  escarpment  are  outlying 
hills,  generally  conical,  but  often  elongated,  and  joined  into  irregular 
ridges.  They  sometimes  attain  a  height  of  100  to  200  feet.  These 
hills  have  resulted  from  the  thickening  and  hardening  of  certain  of 
the  upper  members  of  the  red  beds,  usually  ledges  of  sandstone, 
gypsum,  or  dolomite,  which  resisted  erosion  and  protected  the  rela- 
tively softer  clays  and  shales  beneath.  A  line  of  such  hills  extends 
from  near  Shamrock,  in  Wheeler  County,  southwest  to  beyond  Mem- 
phis, the  county  seat  of  Hall  County.  South  from  Shamrock  the 
ridge  reaches  its  maximum  width  near  the  post-office  of  Dozier,  at 
which  place  the  range  is  10  miles  wide.  Here  it  consists  of  a  number 
of  isolated  mesa-like  hills  rising  100  feet  above  the  eroded  plains  and 
capped  by  a  ledge  of  sandstone,  described  under  "  Gteology,"  6  to  14 
feet  thick.  The  most  typical  of  these  hills  are  Rocking  Chair  Moun- 
tain, north  of  Elm  Fork;  Antelope  Hills,  northeast  of  Dozier;  the 
Dozier  Mounds,  southeast  of  Dozier,  and  Flat  Top,  northwest  of 
Dozier.  The  range  is  interrupted  in  northern  Collingsworth  County 
by  Salt  Fork  of  Red  River,  but  again  becomes  conspicuous  in  the  south- 
western portion  of  the  county,  where  the  creeks  are  rapidly  trenching 
the  valleys  between  the  mesas  and  bringing  the  hills  into  strong 
relief. 

Valleys  and  canyons. — Crossing  the  eroded  plains  at  intervals  are  a 
number  of  streams  which  have  their  rise  on  the  High  Plains,  and, 
after  cutting  through  the  escarpment,  find  their  way  into  the  larger 


U.   a.  GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER    NO.    154      PL.    Ul 


f^v^  (jiwi  I  SiTf^ 


^    -N  N 


f^*^-«^4**  J""^: 


THE  HIGH    PLAINS. 


TOPOGRAPHY.  11 

rivers  which  receive  the  drainage  of  the  Panhandle.  For  the  most 
part  these  streams  have  carved  valleys  averaging  3  miles  wide  and 
100  to  200  feet  deep  in  the  eroded  plains.  These  streams  have 
already  been  mentioned,  and  they  will  be  discussed  in  more  or  less 
detail  under  "  River  plains." 

SAND  HILLS. 

The  sand  hills  form  an  important  topographical  feature  of  the 
Panhandle.  In  size  the  hills  range  from  small  mounds  to  ridges  30 
to  40  feet  high;  in  shape  they  are  oval,  crescent,  or  elongated,  but 
when  parallel  they  are  separated  by  trough-like  depressions.  The 
hills  extend  in  various  directions,  although,  in  certain  localities,  those 
ranging  S*  15®  E.  appear  to  predominate.  Within  the  sand-dune 
regions  are  broad,  shallow,  basin-like  depressions  which  are  probably 
large  blow-outs  covering  1  to  10  acres.  There  are  a  few  localities 
containing  migratory  dunes.  One  such  is  on  the  south  side  of 
Canadian  River,  in  western  Roberts  County,  where  the  dunes  are  ap- 
proaching the  river.  Another  is  north  of  Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red 
River,  in  southwestern  Donley  County. 

The  sand  composing  these  dunes  is  derived  from  two  sources, 
chiefly  from  the  sandstone  ledges  of  either  the  red  beds  or  the  Ter- 
tiary disintegrating  in  place,  or  from  the  river  sand  which  in  times 
past  has  been  transported  from  farther  west.  These  make  two  classes 
of  sand  hills,  both  of  which  are  frequently  found  in  the  same  region. 
The  subject  is  treated  more  fully  under  "  Geology." 

Sand  hills  occur  chiefly  in  the  escarpment  region  or  along  the 
streams,  as  in  western  Lipscomb  and  northern  Roberts  and  Hemp- 
hill counties,  in  Wheeler  County  south  of  Mobeetie,  and  in  Donley 
and  Collingsworth  counties  along  the  south  side  of  Prairie  Dog  Fork. 
A  typical  sand  hill  is  shown  in  PI.  IV,  A, 

RIVER  PLAINS. 

Canadian  Y alley, — The  north  central  part  of  the  Panhandle  of 
Texas  is  traversed  by  Canadian  River,  which  rises  in  the  mountains 
of  New  Mexico  and  in  its  eastward  course  crosses  the  region  under 
discussion  in  a  valley  5  to  20  miles  wide  cut  deeply  into  the  High 
Plains.  The  sides  of  this  gorge  constitute  a  portion  of  the  escarp- 
ment, with  its  bad-lands  structure  of  short,  sharp  ridges,  often  desti- 
tute of  vegetation,  separated  by  V-shaped  valleys.  The  flood  plan,  1 
to  5  miles  wide,  occupies  the  bottom  of  the  gorge,  600  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  High  Plains.  The  river  runs  over  a  sandy  bed  varying 
in  width  from  a  half  mile  to  more  than  a  mile.  It  is  constantly  shift- 
ing, excavating  sand  in  one  place  and  depositing  it  in  another. 


12  EASTEBN   PANHANDLE   OF   TEXAS. 

Wolf  Creek  Valley, — ^Wolf  Creek  has  cut  a  wide  valley  in  the  High 
Plains  in  the  northeastern  portion  of  this  region.  It  rises  in  western 
Ochiltree  County,  at  an  elevation  of  3,300  feet,  and  descends  to  2,350 
feet  at  the  Oklahoma  line,  45  miles  east — ^a  gradient  of  21  feet  per 
mile.  The  width  of  the  valley  varies  from  1  to  4  miles,  and  the  breaks 
which  adjoin  it  are  less  rugged  than  those  along  the  Canadian.  Sand 
hills  occur  along  this  creek  and  its  tributaries. 

Washita  River  Valley. — ^The  headwaters  of  the  Washita,  which  in 
Oklahoma  becomes  a  river  of  considerable  size,  rise  in  Gray  County. 
Tex.,  in  a  small  creek  not  differing  from  many  others  in  this  part  of 
the  plains.  It  flows  eastward  in  a  valley  1  to  3  miles  wide  acrobs 
northern  Wheeler  County  and  finally  passes  from  Texas  into  Roger 
Mills  County,  Okla. 

North  Fork  of  Red  River  Valley, — North  Fork  of  Red  River  rises 
among  the  High  "Plains  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Carson  County, 
and  flows  east  in  a  broad  bend  to  the  north,  passing  from  the  State 
almost  directly  east  of  its  starting  place.  It  flows  in  a  narrow,  sand- 
choked  valley,  with  sand  dunes  flanking  its  south  side  and  with  red- 
beds  bluffs  guarding  it  on  the  north  for  a  considerable  part  of  it> 
course.  This  river  descends  from  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet  on  the 
plains  to  2,050  feet  at  the  State  line,  making  a  descent  of  950  feet 
in  a  passage  of  60  miles,  or  16  feet  per  mile. 

Elm  Fork  of  Red  River  Valley. — Elm  Fork  of  Red  River,  which 
becomes  a  stream  of  considerable  importance  in  Greer  County,  Okla.. 
is  in  the  Panhandle  a  mere  creek,  the  greater  portion  of  whose  bed 
is  entirely  dry  during  the  summer.  It  rises  in  the  escarpment  in 
northwest  Collingsworth  County  and,  flowing  southeast  in  a  deep 
valley  cut  in  the  eroded  plains,  makes  its  exit  from  the  State  35  miles 
from  its  source. 

Salt  Fork  of  Red  River  Valley, — Salt  Fork  of  Red  River  rises  on 
the  High  Plains  in  northern  Armstrong  County  at  an  elevation  of 
3,250  feet,  crosses  the  escarpment,  cuts  a  valley  in  the  eroded  plains, 
and  after  a  tortuous  course  passes  from  the  State  in  the  southeastern 
part  of  Collingsworth  County  at  an  elevation  of  1,900  feet,  a  descent 
of  15  feet  per  mile.  It  flows  in  a  sand-filled  valley,  and  at  times  of 
low  water  the  river  is  a  narrow  ribbon  upon  a  sand  bed  half  a  mile 
wide. 

Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  River  Valley, — Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red 
River  crosses  Armstrong  County  in  Palo  Duro  Canyon  (not  to  be 
confused  with  Palo  Duro  Creek,  in  Hansford  County),  which  is  5 
miles  wide  and  which  has  been  cut  875  feet  through  the  Tertiary  and 
the  red-beds  rocks.  The  river  flows  in  a  narrow  valley  at  the  bottom 
of  this  gorge,  the  sides  of  which  present  an  alternate  precipitous  and 
terraced  structure  according  to  the  nature  of  the  beds.  In  Armstrong 
County  there  are  20  miles  of  this  canyon. 


U.   ft.   QEOLOGICAL  8URVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER    NO.    164      PU  IV 


A.     SAND   HILLS  BLOWN    FROM  CANADIAN   RIVER. 


B     GYPSUM   LEDGE.  SHOWING  BANDED  STRUCTURE. 


GEOLOGY. 


13 


Minor  ntream  ralUys, — Sweetwater  Creek,  in  northern  Wheeler 
County;  Spillers  Creek,  in  Collingsworth;  Mulberry  Creek,  in  Arm- 
strong; Mammoth  Creek,  in  Lipscomb;  Palo  Duro  and  Coldwater 
creeks,  in  Hansford ;  Kit  Carson  and  White  Deer  creeks,  in  Hutchin- 
son: Red  Deer  Creek,  in  Hemphill,  and  McClellan  Creek,  in  Gray 
County,  are  the  largest  streams  of  secondary  importance.  These 
Miialler  streams  all  form  a  part  of  the  three  major  drainage  systems, 
the  North  Fork  of  Canadian,  the  Canadian,  and  the  Red  River.  Most 
of  these  minor  streams  are  periodic,  although  numerous  springs  at  the 
base  of  the  Tertiary  feed  many  of  the  smaller  creeks,  thus  rendering 
them  perennial. 

GEOIiOGY. 

GENERAL  RELATIONS. 

The  general  geologic  features  of  the  Texas  Panhandle  are  not 
complex.  Most  of  the  rocks  belong  to  two  gi*eat  systems — the  Per 
mian  and  the  Tertiary — and  there  are  small  amounts  of  Quaternary 
deposits,  all  of  which  lie  nearly  level.  The  lowest  formations  ex- 
posed consist  of  extensive  deposits  of  red  clays  and  shales  known  as 
the  red  beds,  most  of  which  are  of  Permian  age.  The  greater  part 
of  the  upper  formations  are  made  up  of  sands,  clays,  and  conglomer- 
ates belonging  to  the  Tertiary  system.  Covering  these  two  members 
in  many  places  are  beds  of  sand,  gravel,  and  alluvium  of  Quaternary 
age.  On  the  geologic  map  (PI.  V)  the  distribution  of  these  forma- 
tions is  shown.  The  relative  age  and  general  character  of  the  vari- 
ous deposits  are  given  in  the  following  table : 

Qeologic  formation^i  of  the  Texas  Panhandle. 


System. 


Name. 


Predominant  characters. 


IAUuvitun Loam,  sand,  and  gravel, 
Sand  hills |  Sand,  chiefly  in  dunes. 
Tnle  formation Sand,  clay,  and  gravel. 

I  Blanco  formation 
Goodnight  formation 
Lonp  Fork  formation 
Triassic Dockum  formation  . . 


Carboniferons 
mian). 


(Per- 


Clay,    sands,    and    conglom- 
erates. 


Clays,   sandstones,   and    con- 
glomerates. 

Quartermaster  forma-     Red  sandy  clay  and  soft  sand- 
tion.  stone. 

Greer  formation J  Red  clay,  with  gypsum  and 


i 


dolomite. 


IRR  154 — 06  M- 


14 


EASTERN    PANHANDLE   OF   TEXAS. 


A  typical  section  of  the  Permian,. Triassic,  and  Cenozoic  strata  in 
Palo  Duro  Canyon,  16  miles  south  of  Claude,  Armstrong  County. 
Texas,  is  as  follows : 

Typical  section  in  Palo  Duro  Canyon,  Texan. 


ByBtem. 


Tertiary  . 


Unconformity. 


Triassic. 


Formation. 


Docknm. 


Unconformity. 


CarboniferoTis 
(Permian). 


Character. 


Thirk 

feet- 


Tertiary  clays,  varying  in  color  from        2u0 
almost  white   to  pink:  osnally  with 
calcite  concretions  and  a  few  pebbles: 
occasional  harder  bands  forming  ter-  i 
races. 


Gray  to  brown  or  reddish  sandstone. 
Soft  and  friable,  cross  bedded;  often 
changing  into  conglomerate  with 
lenses  of  bine  and  red  clay. 

Variegated  clays,  maroon,  wine-col-  [  27u 
ored,  drab,  grav,  blnish,  and  red.  witib 
ledges  of  sandstone,  sometimes  be- 
coming hard  enongh  to  form  an  es- 
carpment; often  simply  a  gray  arena- 
ceous shule. 


Qnartermaster-I  Red  clay  shale,  with  bands  of  harder  *,*?". 
clays,  sometimes  forming  a  sand- 
stone, and  occasional  bands  of  white 
or  gray  clay  or  sandstone,  weathering 
into  characteristic  bnttes  or  mounds. 
Seams  of  satin  spar  in  the  lower  part. 

Greer  _ .  *.• i  Red  clay  shale,  with  ledges  of  massive        I'^O 

white  or  purple  gypsum,  interstratified 
with  bands  of  clay  and  sandstone. 

I  Total 935 


f 

1  ^ 

K — S 

i        ^ 

L       —: 

PERMIAN    RED   BEDS. 


15 


The  following  sections  made  on  Palo  Duro,  Tule,  and  Mulberry 
i-aiiyons  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  region  here  discussed,  where 
all  formations  are  best  exposed,  indicate  the  relative  thickness  (in 
feet)  of  the  various  beds: 

(ieologie  sections  in  Palo  Dura,  Tule,  and  Mulberry  canyons,  1  xas  Panhandle. 


Palo  Dnro  Canyon. 


System. 


Formation. 


Silver 
ton-Clar- 
endon 
road. 


Silverton-Clande 
road. 


Tule  Canyon. 
Silverton- 
Clande  road. 


Bontb 
side. 


Tertiary     and    

Qnatemary. 

Triassic Dockam  . . 

^    -       ..  (Quarter- 

Carboniferons   I     master. 
(Permian).       1_ 

I  Greer 


Total 


Feet. 

380  I 

110 
805 

175 

970  I 


Feet. 
220 

175 

280 

1»5 
870 


North 
side. 


Feet. 
200 


Feet. 


260 
210  I 


180 

165 
50 


190  I  Not  exposed. 
860  i  895 


Mulberry 

Ckinyon. 

Silverton- 

Clarendon 

road. 


Feet. 
240 

Eroded. 
160 

100 
500 


PERMIAN  RED  BEDS. 


GENERAL  STATEMENTS. 

The  oldest  rocks  found  on  the  surface  in  the  Panhandle  of  Texas 
are  the  Permian  red  beds.  These  rocks  occupy  a  considerable  part 
of  the  Great  Plains  from  southern  Kansas  aqross  Oklahoma  and 
Texas  as  far  as  New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  and  outcrop  along  the 
eastern  flank  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  as  far  north  as  the  Black  Hills 
of  South  Dakota. 

In  Oklahoma,  where  the  Permian  red  l>eds  are  typically  exposed, 
they  have  been  divided  by  the  writer  into  five  formations,  as  follows : « 

Quartermaster. 
Greer. 

f  Permian Woodward. 

Blaine. 
Enid. 
Pennsylvanlan. 


CarboniferouH-- 


The  rocks  typically  exposed  around  Chandler,  now  known  to  Ix*  Peiin- 
sylvanian,  consist  of  red  shales  and  red  or  gray  sandstones.  The  Enid 
formation  is  composed  largely  of  red  clay  shales,  with  an  occasional 
ledge  of  soft  sandstone.     The  Blaine  is  characterized   by  massive 

■  (jould,  Chas.  N.,  (jcneral  geolojfy  of  Oklahoma .  Second  Bien.  Rept.  Oklahoma  Geol. 
Survey.  1902,  pp.  42-58.  Revised  In  Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  I'aper  No.  148.  V.  S.  Oool. 
Survey,  1905,  p.  39. 


16 


EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 


Tertiary 


Quartermaster    300 


Greer    275 


Woodward    425 


Blaine    100 


Delhi  (dolomite;  ( 

Collingiworth   (gypaum)( 
Cedar  Top  (gypsum) 
Haystack  (gypsum) 
Kiser   (gypsum) 
Chaney  (gypsum) 

Day  Creek  (dolomite) 


Bed  Bluff  (sandstoue) 


Dog  Creak    sliales 

^Shlmer  (.8yP*uni) 
Medicine  Lodge  n 
^Pergasou  '  >; 


Enid    1500 '< 


Coarse  sandstoue  and 
shale 


FIG    1  — (leneralized  section  of  Oklahoma  red  beds.     In  the  above  legend  "  Delhi  "  should 
read  Man^um,  and  '*  Red  HlufT  '  should  read  Whitehorse. 


PERMIAN    RED    BEDS. 


17 


ledges  of  white  g>'psuni  iiiterl)e(kle(l  with  red  shales.  The  Wood- 
ward is  made  up  of  red  shales  and  sandstones  and  a  ledge  of  white 
dolomite.  The  (Jreer  is  also  a  gypsum  fonnation,  in  which  the  ledges 
are  interstratified  with  red  shales.  In  the  Quartermaster  the  rocks 
consist  chiefly  of  red  shales  and  clays,  with  ledges  of  soft  sandstone. 
Fig.  1  shows  the  general  character  and  relative  thickness  of  the  red 
l)eds  as  exposed  in  Oklahoma. 

Professor  Cragin  classified  the  red  l)eds  in  Kansas  and  northern 
Oklahoma,  but  he  did  not  examine  the  lower  nor  the  upper  members. 
He  divided  the  portion  that  he  studied  into  the  Salt  Fork  and  Kiger 
divisions,  each  consisting  of  a  number  of  formations.'' 

In  comparing  this  author's  classification  with  the  one  used  by 
Professor  Cragin  it  may  be  said  that,  in  general,  the  Enid,  Blaine,  and 
Woodward  formations  correspond  to  his  Salt  Fork  and  Kiger. 
Neither  the  rocks  near  Chandler  nor  the  Greer  nor  the  Quartermaster 
formations,  as  they  are  now  known,  were  described  by  Professor 
Cragin. 

Profe«ssor  Cummins  divided  the  red  beds  into  the  Wichita,  Clear 
Fork,  and  Double  Mountain  formations,  without,  however,  sharply 
differentiating  them.*  Doctor  Adams,  who  studied  the  lower  mem- 
lx»rs  of  the  Texas  red  beds,  found  that  the  divisions  made.b}^  Profes- 
sor Cummins  were  unsatisfactory  and  recommended  that  they  should 
not  be  retained.'^  He  has  also  shown  that  the  Wichita  beds  in  Texas, 
like  those  near  Clunidler,  in  Oklahoma,  are  Pennsylvanian  in  age.*' 
From  the  best  available  information  it  seems  probable  that  the 
Wichita  beds  are  approximately  the  equivalent  of  those  near  Chand- 
ler, the  Clear  Fork  beds  include  about  the  same  rocks  as  the  Enid, 
Blaine,  and  Woodward  formations,  and  that  the  Double  Mountain 
beds  are  practically  the  same  as  the  (Jreer  and  Quartermaster  forma- 
tions.    The  following  table  expresses  the  conditions  : 

Relationship  of  fonnation  classifications. 


Cnmmins's  ckMsiflcatlon. 

Double  Mountain  beds 

Clear  Fork  beds 

Wichita  beds. 


ClaHsiflcation  of  the  writer.  Cra^in's  classiflcation. 


f  Quartermaster 
IQreer  _ 

i  Woodward 
Blaine 
Enid 


1  Kiger  division. 
Salt  Fork  division. 


-  Cragin,  F.  W.,  Permian  system  of  Kansas :  Colorado  Coll.  Studies,  vol.  6,  1896,  p.  li. 

*  Cummins,  W.   F.,  Kept,  on  the  geolopy  of  northwestern  Texas :    Second  Ann.   Rept. 
Texas  Geol.  Survey,  1890,  pp.  400-402. 

*"  Adams,  George  I..  Stratlgraphic  relations  of  the  red  beds  to  the  Carboniferous  and 
IVrmlan  in  northern  Texns :   Bull.  (Jeol.  Soo.  America,  vol.  14,  1903,  pp.  191-200. 

*  Ibid.,  pp.  195-199. 


18  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OP    TEXAS. 

THE   PERMIAN    IN    THE   PANHANDLE   REGION. 

Of  the  formations  of  tlie  Permian  red  beds  discussed  alxjA'e,  <inl> 
the  (ireer  and  Quartermaster  are  exposc^d  in  the  Panhandle  of  Texaji. 

(Ireer  formation. — The  Greer  formation,  the  lowest  member  of 
the  red  beds  found  in  the  Panhandle,  has  it^i  type  exposure  in  Greer 
County,  Okla.,  along  Elm  Fork  of  Red  River,  a  few  miles  east  of 
the  Texas  line.  It  is  here  composed  of  150  to  200  feet  of  brick-nnl 
clays  and  shales  interstratified  with  ledges  of  white,  bluish,  ami 
pinkish  gypsum,  with  an  occasional  ledge  of  magnesian  limestone 
and  dolomite.  In  many  places,  however,  the  gypsum  beds  are  en- 
tirely wanting  or  occur  as  single  ledges,  while  in  other  localitie> 
there  are  six  or  more  w- ell-marked  beds,  ranging  from  1  to  30  feet  in 
thickness,  besides  one  or  two  ledges  of  irregular  gray,  honeyconabetl, 
magnesian  limestone,  1  to  3  feet  thick.  A  number  of  localities  in 
Collingsworth  County,  Tex.,  may  be  cited  where  these  definite  g^'p- 
sum  layers  occur,  but  extensive  study  in  the  region  has  shown  that 
all  of  them  are  more  or  less  lenticular  and  do  not  persist  for  any  con- 
siderable distance.  Indeed  it  is  not  an  uncommon  occurrence  for 
two  or  more  of  these  ledges  to  merge  locally  by  the  thinning  out  of 
the  intervening  clays,  while  at  a  short  distance  beyond  the  gypsum> 
themselves  become  thin  and  disappear.  In  very  few  parts  of  the 
red  Ix^ds  is  the  tendency  to  form  lenses  better  exemplified  than  in 
the  (ireer  formation.  Along  North  Fork  of  Red  River,  just  east  of 
the  Panhandle  line,  the  writer  has  named  the  following  members  of 
the  Greer:  Chaney,  Kiser,  Haystack,  Cedartop,  and  Collingsworth 
gypsums  and  Mangum  dolomite."  The  sequence  of  the  beds  is  shown 
in  fig.  2. 

In  view  of  the  facts  as  presented  above,  it  appears  better  not  to 
indicate  by  name  those  lenses  which  persist  only  for  a  short  distantv 
and  w^iich  can  not  be  correlated  in  adjoining  regions;  henve  in  the 
present  paper  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  subdivide  the  Greer 
formation. 

Because  of  the  lenticular  nature  of  the  beds  it  is  not  always  pos- 
sible to  locate  the  exact  limits  of  the  various  subdivisions  of  the  nnl 
beds.  In  general,  however,  the  upper  limit  of  the  (Jreer  is  placeil 
either  at  the  top  of  the  highest  prominent  gypsum  ledge  or  at  the 
top  of  the  ledge  of  magnesian  limestone  or  dolomite,  which  appears 
10  to  20  feet  above  the  highest  ledge  of  solid  gj^^sum. 

The  gypsum  members  of  the  Greer  fonnation  abound  in  caves 
and  sink  holes.  In  PI.  VI,  .1,  is  reproduced  a  photograph  of  an 
opening  on  the  surface  of  a  gypsum  cave  in  western  Oklahoma. 
The  soft  shales  which  underlie  the  ledges  are  easily  eroded,  and  the 

«  (Jmild,  ('has.  N..  (teneral  jfeology  of  Oklahoma  :  Second  Blen.  Rept.  Okla.  <ieol.  Sur- 
vey, loo'j,  pp.  r.ri-r»(5. 


U.   R.   OEOLOQICAL   SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER    NO.   154      PL.   VI 


.1.     GYPSUM   CAVE. 


B.     SPRING   ISSUING  FROM  A  CAVE   IN  GREER  GYPSUM. 


PERMIAN    RED    BEDS. 


19 


gypsum  is  gradually  dissolved  by  water.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
a  prairie  stream  of  considerable  size  which  disappears  in  a  sink 
hole.  In  such  case,  however,  it  usually  comes  again  to  the  surface  at 
no  gi-eat  distance  as  a  spring  issuing  from  a  cave  (PL  VI,  B). 
These  sink  holes  are  of  various  shapes,  with  the  oblong  and  circular 
forms    predominating.     The    oblong    sink    holes    often    terminate 

Dolomite,  hon«yconib«d 


Red  cley 


Massive  white  gypsam 
Red  and  blue  clay 

M aeaive  white  fypsDin 
White  aud  greeo  and  red  clay 
Uaaalve  white  fypanm 

Red  and  freenlah  clay 

Greenish  selenitic  gypsam 

Red  clay 

Hard  stratified  cypsain 
Blnlsh  and  red  clay 
Hard  gypsom 


CollJiiKxvrosth 


C^dju'  Top 


Bed  and  blnish  shale,  banded 


KiKT 


Fig.  2. — Section  showing  members  of  Greer  formation  on  Elm  Fork  of  Red  River  at 
Salton,  Okla.     In  above  legend  **  Delhi  "  should  read  Mnngum. 

abruptly  in  caves  at  one  end,  while  the  circular  ones  exhibit  a 
conical  hole  in  the  center,  through  which  the  water  escapes  most 
freely.  These  sink  holes  vary  in  depth  from  a  few  inches  to  20  feet 
or  more  and  are  10  to  100  feet  in  diameter.  In  general  they  are 
irregularly  distributed;  in  some  cases,  how'ever,  they  seem  to  occur 
in  chains,  evidently   connected   by   an   underground   passage,  thus 


20  EASTERN    PANHANDLE   OF    TEXAS. 

marking  the  beginning  of  a  drainage  channel.  These  sink  holes  an- 
probably  formed  by  the  subterranean  drainage  which  dissolvcr*  th»^ 
gypsum  and  clay  below  the  surface,  forming  caves  which  eventually 
collapse  and  become  stream  beds.  North  of  Shamrock,  2  miles  from 
North  Fork  of  Red  River,  there  is  a  typical  sink-hole  region  in  which 
hundreds  of  these  openings  occur  in  an  area  of  a  few  square  mile-. 
In  various  places  the  members  of  the  Greer  exhibit  a  markt^l 
peculiarity  of  stratification  not  usually  found  in  the  rocks  of  the 
plains.  The  gypsum  ledges  are  here  often  distinctly  laminated,  a- 
shown  on  PI.  IV,  B,  Steep  local  dips,  both  anticlines  and  syncline-. 
are  often  observed  along  the  sides  of  a  cliff. 

A  striking  peculiarity  of  the  Greer  formation  is  the  erratic  dip 
of  the  gypsum.  Frequently  in  tracing  a  ledge  along  a  small  streau 
it  is  found  that  within  a  distance  of  perhaps  half  a  mile  the  streaci 
descends  50  feet,  while  the  gypsum  along  the  bluff  still  retains  the 
same  height  above  the  water  channel.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the 
stream  the  same  ledge  may  be  traced  along  another  branch  until  le-^ 
than  a  mile  away  it  is  75  feet  higher  than  at  the  main  stream.  Ii. 
other  w^ords,  the  dip  of  the  ledge  is  toward  the  stream  on  both  side>. 
though  the  ledge  is  continuous.  This  peculiarity  of  dip  gives  tht 
appearance  of  irregularly  folded  strata,  yet  there  has  been  no  gen 
eral  folding  whatever.  The  phenomenon  is  not  easy  to  understand. 
Perhaps  the  most  plausible  explanation  is  that  the  shales  have  been 
removed  from  beneath  the  gypsum  ledges,  permitting  the  latter  tn 
sink  along  the  streams  into  the  semblance  of  a  local  dip.  This  fart 
is  exemplified  on  PI.  VTI,  A, 

The  Greer  formation  being  the  lowevSt  member  of  the  red  bezels  in 
the  Panhandle  naturally  outcrops  low  in  the  stream  valleys.  It  i> 
well  exposed  along  the  branches  of  Red  River,  particularly  on  Kim, 
Salt,  and  Prairie  Dog  forks.  On  Elm  Fork  it  outcrops  along  the 
valley  of  the  stream  from  the  Oklahoma  line  as  far  west  as  Sham- 
rock, in  southern  AVheeler  County.  Between  Elm  Fork  and  Salt 
Fork  the  Greer  forms  the  plain  as  far  Avest  as  the  post-office  of  Dozier. 
while  along  the  north  side  of  Salt  Fork  gypsum  ledges  appear  in  the 
bluffs  at  intervals,  finally  disappearing  in  Donley  County  a  few 
miles  east  of  the  center.  South  of  Salt  Fork  a  strip  of  sand  hills 
covers  the  red  beds,  so  that  the  (ireer  formation  is  not  exposed  north 
of  the  divide  betw^een  Salt  and  Prairie  Dog  forks  of  Red  River- 
It  is  in  the  valley  of  Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  River  and  its  tribu- 
taries, Spillers  and  Mull>erry  creeks,  and  in  Palo  Duro  Canyon,  in 
Collingsworth,  Donley,  and  Armstrong  counties,  that  the  Greer  forma- 
tion attains  its  typical  development  in  the  Panhandle.  In  this  locality 
it  is  expost^d  along  the  bluffs  of  the  main  creeks  and  caps  the  slopes  of 
the  smaller  side  canyons  that  are  dissecting  the  red-beds  plain.  In 
Palo  Duro  Canyon,  in  particular,  the  gypsums  of  the  Greer  are  con- 


U.  8.   OCOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY   PAPER   NO.   154      PL.  VII 


A      UNDERMINING  OF  GYPSUM   LEDGES. 


B.     EROSION   IN  THE  QUARTERMASTER  SANDSTONE   IN    PALO  DURO  CANYON. 
Tertiary  cliffs  in  the  distance. 


"""■king  Jhe  f„ 
i>'t>J,al./v  f<„,„ 
«?;i»siii„  and  ,' 
"P^  and  I, 


<oJ| 


"""•Jrcds  of  , 
^"   various 
I^fiiliaritv  o( 
plains,     ffjp 

•"''"WJi  on  PI 

"^  often  ofjj. 

^•^  "^trikin.r 

"//''^  ff>p.m 
"  "<  found  tl 
<'«'sfends  r)0 
^»»e  lieight 
^freani  the  s. 
«Jian  a  mi),, 
ot'ior  «or(|v. 
though  thf 
appearand. 
^P»l  folding 
Perhaps  tl„ 
•^''fiovwl  ft 
fi'ik  alon/; 
'^  exempli  I 
The  (Jr, 
*'»e  PanJ,,, 
^yelj  exp„. 
'■^alt,  and 
vaJJev  of 
'■o<Jc,  in 
*  oj-ic  th(. . 
''■hih  aJ„ 

f«  is 


PEBMIAN   BED   BEDS. 


21 


1^ 


'miber  of  narrow  ravines  have  lx?en  cut  out.  In 
jometinies  pass  into  caves  and  sink  holes,  and  after 
Id  for  half  a  mile  or  more  reappear  in  a  deep  can- 
pite  ^ypsnm  cap  the  bluffs  and  wind  in  sinuous 
(le  streams. 

formation, — Resting  conformably  upon  the  Greer 
f  of  rocks,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  soft,  red 
lldy  clays  and  shales.     To  this  formation  the  name 
been   applied,  the  name  being  derived  from  a 
Custer  counties  of  Oklahoma,  along  which  the 
exposed.     In  the  lower  part  of  the  formation  the 
shales,  usually  red,  but  sometimes  containing  green- 
ers of  clay  and  often  (particularly  near  the  base)  a 
liount  of  gypsum,  which  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
fsatinspar  or  of  rounded  concretions.     At  a  higher 
lales  become  more  arenaceous  and  not  infrequently 
idated   sandstone,  which   is  rather  thin  bedded  and 
into  small  rectangular  blocks.     These  harder  members 
ermaster  formation   often  weather  into  long,  narrow 
more  or  less  conical  mounds,  varying  in  height  from 
Bt,  as  shown  in  PI.  VII,  B,    These  conical  mounds  some- 
alone,  but  more  often  they  appear  in  groups;   occasion- 
ire  hundreds  of  them  on  a  single  quarter  section. 
Istone  members  are  further  characterized  by  marked  and 
iar  irregular  dips  and  folds.     Strata  are  often  seen  dipping 
^le  of  20  to  40  degrees,  but  the  dip  is  irregular,  varying  in 
I  to  all  points  of  the  compass,  even  on  a  small  area.     These 
often  produce  slopes  w^hich  have  the  character  of  those 
l)y  normal  faults  or  by  general  folding.     The  cause  of  this 
enon  is  not  well  understood,  but  apparently  the  erratic  dips 
ed  by  the  erosion  of  some  of  the  subjacent  gypsum  members 
fGreer  formation. 

ertain  parts  of  the  Quartermaster  formation  there  occur  beds 
1,  white,  or  pinkish  dolomite.     One  such  outcrops  on  Mulberry 
10  miles  southwest  of  Clarendon,  as  a   ledge  5  feet  thick, 
ther,  which  caps  the  bluff  at  the  crossing  of  KSalt  Fork  of  Red 
^er,  3  miles  north  of  Clarendon,  is  8  to  5  feet  thick,  white  or 
dsh  in  color,  hard  or  even  cherty,  with  characteristic  dendritic 
irkinffs.     When  traced  east  for  several  miles  this  ledge  is  found  to 
'^ng  into  sandstone  and  sandy  shale.     Another  locality 
occurs  is  on  Antelope  Creek,  in  northwestern  Carson 
»g  the  bluffs  north  of  Canadian  River,  near  Plemons, 
*  Hutchinson  County.     The  red  beds  in  this  locality 
Massed  as  Quartermaster. 


PERMIAN    RED    BEDS.  21 

spiciious;  here  a  numl)er  of  narrow  ravines  have  l)een  cut  out.  In 
tliis  locality  creeks  sometimes  pass  into  eaves  and  sink  hoh^s,  and  after 
flowing  underground  for  lialf  a  mile  or  more  reapj)ear  in  a  deep  can- 
yon. Ledges  of  white  gypsum  cap  the  bluffs  and  wind  in  sinuous 
white  lines  along  the  streams. 

.  Quartermaster  formation, — Resting  conformably  upon  the  (xreer 
are  250  to  300  feet  of  rocks,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  soft,  red 
sandstones  and  sandy  clays  and  shales.  To  this  formation  the  name 
Quartermaster  has  been  applied,  the  name  l)eing  derived  from  a 
creek  in  Day  and  Custer  counties  of  Oklahoma,  along  which  the 
rooks  are  typically  exposed.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  formation  the 
rocks  are  chiefly  shales,  usually  red,  but  sometimes  containing  green- 
ish bands  or  layers  of  clay  and  often  (particularly  near  the  base)  a 
considerable  amount  of  gypsum,  which  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
white  or  pink  satinspar  or  of  rounded  concretions.  At  a  higher 
level  the  red  shales  become  more  arenaceous  and  not  infrequently 
form  a  consolidated  sandstone,  which  is  rather  thin  bedded  and 
prone  to  break  into  small  rectangular  blocks.  These  harder  members 
of  the  Quartermaster  formation  often  weather  into  long,  narrow 
buttre^sses  and  more  or  less  conical  mounds,  varying  in  height  from 
10  to  50  feet,  as  shown  in  PI.  VII,  B.  These  conical  mounds  some- 
times occur  alone,  but  more  often  they  appear  in  groups;  occasion- 
ally there  are  hundreds  of  them  on  a  single  quarter  section. 

The  sandstone  members  are  further  characterized  by  marked  and 
very  peculiar  irregular  dips  and  folds.  Strata  are  often  seen  dipping 
at  an  angle  of  20  to  40  degrees,  but  the  dip  is  irregular,  varying  in 
direction  to  all  points  of  the  compass,  even  on  a  small  area.  These 
local  dips  often  produce  slopes  which  have  the  character  of  those 
formed  by  normal  faults  or  by  general  folding.  The  cause  of  this 
phenomenon  is  not  well  understood,  but  apparently  the  erratic  dips 
are  caused  by  the  erosion  of  some  of  the  subjacent  gypsum  members 
of  the  Greer  formation. 

In  certain  parts  of  the  Quartermaster  formation  there  occur  beds 
of  hard,  white,  or  pinkish  dolomite.  One  such  outcrops  on  Mulberry 
Creek,  10  miles  southwest  of  Clarendon,  as  a  ledge  5  feet  thick. 
Another,  which  caps  the  bluff  at  the  crossing  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red 
River,  3  miles  north  of  Clarendon,  is  3  to  5  feet  thick,  white  or 
pinkish  in  color,  hard  or  even  cherty,  with  characteristic  dendritic 
markings.  WTien  traced  east  for  several  miles  this  ledge  is  found  to 
be  a  lens  changing  into  sandstone  and  sandy  shale.  Another  locality 
where  dolomite  occurs  is  on  Antelope  Creek,  in  northwestern  Carson 
County,  and  along  the  bluffs  north  of  Canadian  River,  near  Plemons, 
the  county  seat  of  Hutchinson  County.  The  red  beds  in  this  locality 
are  provisionally  claSvSed  as  Quartermaster. 


I 


PERMIAN    RED    BEDS.  21 

spicuous;    here  a  niinil)cr  of  narrow  ravines  have  been  cut  out.     In  | 

this  locality  creeks  sometimes  pass  into  raves  and  sink  hoh*s,  and  after 
flowing  underground  for  half  a  mile  or  more  reappear  in  a  deep  can- 
yon. Ledges  of  white  gypsimi  cap  the  bluffs  and  wind  in  sinuous 
white  lines  along  the  streams. 

.  Quartermaster  formation. — Resting  conformably  upon  the  Greer 
are  250  to  300  feet  of  rocks,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  soft,  red 
sandstones  and  sandy  clays  and  shales.  To  this  formation  the  name 
Quartermaster  has  been  applied,  the  name  being  derived  from  a 
creek  in  Day  and  Custer  counties  of  Oklahoma,  along  which  the 
rocks  are  typically  exposed.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  formation  the 
rocks  are  chiefly  shales,  usually  red,  but  sometimes  containing  green- 
ish bands  or  layers  of  clay  and  often  (particularly  near  the  base)  a 
considerable  amount  of  gypsum,  which  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
W'hite  or  pink  satinspar  or  of  rounded  concretions.  At  a  higher 
level  the  red  shales  become  more  arenaceous  and  not  infrequently 
form  a  consolidated  sandstone,  which  is  rather  thin  bedded  and 
prone  to  break  into  small  rectangular  blocks.  These  harder  members 
of  the  Quartermaster  formation  often  weather  into  long,  narrow 
buttresses  and  more  or  less  conical  mounds,  varying  in  height  from 
10  to  50  feet,  as  shown  in  PL  VII,  B.  These  conical  mounds  some- 
times occur  alone,  but  more  often  they  appear  in  groups;  occasion- 
ally there  are  hundreds  of  them  on  a  single  quarter  section. 

The  sandstone  members  are  further  characterized  by  marked  and 
very  peculiar  irregular  dips  and  folds.  Strata  are  often  seen  dipping 
at  an  angle  of  20  to  40  degrees,  but  the  dip  is  irregular,  varying  in 
direction  to  all  points  of  the  compass,  even  on  a  small  area.  These 
IcK^al  dips  often  produce  slopes  wiiich  have  the  character  of  those 
formed  by  normal  faults  or  by  general  folding.  The  cause  of  this 
phenomenon  is  not  well  understood,  but  apparently  the  erratic  dips 
are  caused  by  the  erosion  of  some  of  the  subjacent  gypsum  members 
of  the  Greer  formation. 

In  certain  parts  of  the  Quartermaster  formation  there  occur  beds 
of  hard,  white,  or  pinkish  dolomite.  One  such  outcrops  on  Mulberry 
Creek,  10  miles  southwest  of  Clarendon,  as  a  ledge  5  feet  thick. 
Another,  which  caps  the  bluff  at  the  crossing  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red 
River,  3  miles  north  of  Clarendon,  is  8  to  5  feet  thick,  white  or 
pinkish  in  color,  hard  or  even  cherty,  with  characteristic  dendritic 
markings.  WTien  traced  east  for  several  miles  this  ledge  is  found  to 
be  a  lens  changing  into  sandstone  and  sandy  shale.  Another  locality 
where  dolomite  occurs  is  on  Antelope  Creek,  in  northwestern  Carson 
County,  and  along  the  bluffs  north  of  Canadian  River,  near  Plemons, 
the  county  seat  of  Hutchinson  County.  The  red  beds  in  this  locality 
are  provisionally  classed  as  Quartermaster. 


PERMTAN    RED    BEDS.  21 

spicuous;  hei-e  a  niimlwr  of  narrow  raviiu»s  have  l)een  cut  out.  In 
this  locaUty  creeks  sometimes  pass  into  eaves  and  sink  hok»s,  and  after 
flowing  underground  for  half  a  mile  or  more  reapi)ear  in  a  deep  can- 
yon. Ledges  of  white  gypsum  cap  the  bluffs  and  wind  in  sinuous 
white  lines  along  the  streams. 

.  Quartermaster  format  ion. — Resting  conformably  upon  the  (ireer 
are  250  to  300  feet  of  rocks,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  soft,  red 
sandstones  and  sandy  clays  and  shales.  To  this  formation  the  name 
Quartermaster  has  been  applied,  the  name  being  derived  from  a 
creek  in  Day  and  Custer  counties  of  Oklahoma,  along  which  the 
rocks  are  typically  exposed.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  formation  the 
rocks  are  chiefly  shales,  usually  red,  but  sometimes  containing  green- 
ish bands  or  layers  of  clay  and  often  (particularly  near  the  base)  a 
considerable  amount  of  gypsum,  which  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
white  or  pink  satinspar  or  of  rounded  concretions.  At  a  higher 
level  the  red  shales  become  more  arenaceous  and  not  infrequently 
form  a  consolidated  sandstone,  w^hich  is  rather  thin  bedded  and 
prone  to  break  into  small  rectangular  blocks.  These  harder  members 
of  the  Quartermaster  formation  often  weather  into  long,  narrow 
buttresses  and  more  or  less  conical  mounds,  varying  in  height  from 
10  to  50  feet,  as  shown  in  PI.  VII,  B.  These  conical  mounds  some- 
times occur  alone,  but  more  often  they  appear  in  groups;  occasion- 
ally there  are  hundreds  of  them  on  a  single  quarter  section. 

The  sandstone  members  are  further  characterized  by  marked  and 
very  peculiar  irregular  dips  and  folds.  Strata  are  often  seen  dipping 
at  an  angle  of  20  to  40  degrees,  but  the  dip  is  irregular,  varying  in 
direction  to  all  points  of  the  compass,  even  on  a  small  area.  These 
IfKnil  dips  often  produce  slopes  which  have  the  character  of  those 
formed  by  normal  faults  or  by  general  folding.  The  cause  of  this 
phenomenon  is  not  well  understood,  but  apparently  the  erratic  dips 
are  caused  by  the  erosion  of  some  of  the  subjacent  gypsum  members 
of  the  Greer  formation. 

In  certain  parts  of  the  Quartermaster  formation  there  occur  beds 
of  hard,  white,  or  pinkish  dolomite.  One  such  outcrops  on  Mulberry 
Creek,  10  miles  southwest  of  Clarendon,  as  a  ledge  5  feet  thick. 
Another,  which  caps  the  bluff  at  the  crossing  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red 
River,  3  miles  north  of  Clarendon,  is  3  to  5  feet  thick,  white  or 
pinkish  in  color,  hard  or  even  cherty,  with  characteristic  dendritic 
markings.  WTien  traced  east  for  several  miles  this  ledge  is  found  to 
be  a  lens  changing  into  sandstone  and  sandy  shale.  Another  locality 
where  dolomite  occurs  is  on  Antelope  Creek,  in  northwestern  Carson 

County,  and  along  the  bluffs  north  of  Canadian  River,  near  Plemons, 

the  county  seat  of  Hutchinson  County.     The  red  beds  in  this  locality 

are  provisionally  classed  as  Quartermaster. 


PERMIAN    RED    BEDS.  21 

spicuous;  heiv  a  number  of  narrow  ravines  have  Ix^en  cut  out.  In 
this  locality  creeks  sometimes  pass  into  caves  and  sink  holes,  and  after 
flowing  underground  for  half  a  mile  or  more  reapj^ear  in  a  deep  can- 
yon. Ledges  of  white  gypsum  cap  the  bluffs  and  wind  in  sinuous 
white  lines  along  the  streams. 

.  Quartermaster  formation. — Resting  conformably  upon  the  (ireer 
are  250  to  300  feet  of  rocks,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  soft,  red 
sandstones  and  sandy  clays  and  shales.  To  this  formation  the  name 
Quartermaster  has  been  applied,  the  name  being  derived  from  a 
creek  in  Day  and  Custer  counties  of  Oklahoma,  along  which  the 
rocks  are  typically  exposed.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  formation  the 
rocks  are  chiefly  shales,  usually  red,  but  sometimes  containing  green- 
ish bands  or  layers  of  clay  and  often  (particularly  near  the  base)  a 
considerable  amount  of  gypsum,  which  is  usually  in  the  form  of 
white  or  pink  satinspar  or  of  rounded  concretions.  At  a  higher 
level  the  red  shales  become  more  arenaceous  and  not  infrequently 
form  a  consolidated  sandstone,  which  is  rather  thin  bedded  and 
prone  to  break  into  small  rectangular  blocks.  These  harder  members 
of  the  Quartermaster  formation  often  weather  into  long,  narrow 
buttresses  and  more  or  less  conical  mounds,  varying  in  height  from 
10  to  50  feet,  as  shown  in  PI.  VII,  B.  These  conical  mounds  some- 
times occur  alone,  but  more  often  they  appear  in  groups;  occasion- 
ally there  are  hundreds  of  them  on  a  single  quarter  section. 

The  sandstone  members  are  further  characterized  by  marked  and 
very  peculiar  irregular  dips  and  folds.  Strata  are  often  seen  dipping 
at  an  angle  of  20  to  40  degrees,  but  the  dip  is  irregular,  varying  in 
direction  to  all  points  of  the  compass,  even  on  a  small  area.  These 
Wal  dips  often  produce  slopes  which  have  the  character  of  those 
formed  by  normal  faults  or  by  general  folding.  The  cause  of  this 
phenomenon  is  not  well  understood,  but  apparently  the  erratic  dips 
are  caused  by  the  erosion  of  some  of  the  subjacent  gypsum  members 
of  the  Greer  formation. 

In  certain  parts  of  the  Quartermaster  formation  there  occur  l)eds 
of  hard,  white,  or  pinkish  dolomite.  One  such  outcrops  on  Mulberry 
Creek,  10  miles  southwest  of  Clarendon,  as  a  ledge  5  feet  thick. 
Another,  which  caps  the  bluff  at  the  crossing  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red 
River,  3  miles  north  of  Clarendon,  is  3  to  5  feet  thick,  white  or 
pinkish  in  color,  hard  or  even  cherty,  with  characteristic  dendritic 
markings.  WTien  traced  east  for  several  miles  this  ledge  is  found  to 
be  a  lens  changing  into  sandstone  and  sandy  shale.  Another  locality 
where  dolomite  occurs  is  on  Antelope  Creek,  in  northwestern  Carson 
County,  and  along  the  bluffs  north  of  Canadian  River,  near  Plemons, 
the  county  seat  of  Hutchinson  County.  The  red  beds  in  this  locality 
are  provisionally  classed  as  Quartermaster. 


22  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

Throughout  the  greater  part  of  this  region  the  Quartermaster  for 
niation  is  overlain  unconformably  by  the  Tertiary  or  Quatemarv 
deposits.  In  the  localities  where  the  Dockuni  l)eds  are  i)resent  the 
upper  limit  of  the  formaticm  is  located  at  the  line  where  the  color  of 
the  shales  changes  from  brick  red  to  mar(X)n  or  wine  color. 

In  general  the  Quartermaster  formation  outcrops  in  a  belt  1  to  :> 
miles  wide  at  the  base  of  the  High  Plains.  It  appears  in  the  southmi 
part  of  Wheeler  County,  between  Shamrock  and  Dozier,  (x^cupies  tin 
northwestern  part  of  Collingsworth  County,  and  follows  along  tLi 
north  side  of  Salt  Fork  as  far  wast  as  Clarendon.  In  the  southen 
part  of  Collingsworth  County  the  Quartermaster  is  exposed  soiit! 
and  west  of  Wellington,  the  county  seat.  It  forms  the  dissal»'<i 
plain  between  Memphis  and  Giles  in  southern  Donley  and  ea<tm 
Armstrong  counties.  Along  Palo  Duro  Canyon,  in  southwt*steri. 
Armstrong  County,  it  exhibits  a  maximum  thickness  of  800  feet  aii-: 
forms  the  top  of  the  intracanyon  terrace,  just  above  the  Greer  gypsim 
ledges. 

The  red  beds  are  exposed  along  Canadian  River  in  northern  Caixn 
and  southern  Hutchinson  counties.  The  most  typical  exposures  ar» 
along  Dixon  and  Antelope  creeks,  in  Carson  C'Ounty,  where  250  ftvi 
appear  in  vertical  section.  They  contain  some  beds  of  dolomite  ai:<i 
gypsum.  These  beds  do  not  seem  suflSciently  uniform  and  persi>tt'ii( 
to  warrant  giving  them  definite  names,  yet  they  are  more  exteiisiv. 
than  similar  beds  that  occur  in  other  portions  of  the  formation.  Ii 
is  probable  that  a  detailed  study  will  reveal  that  these  l)eds  extei.! 
farther  to  the  Ayest  along  Canadian  River.  Plicated  structure,  iioit  i 
elsewhere,  is  exemplified  in  this  region.  The  following  section  wa- 
made  in  southwestern  Hutchinson  County,  2  miles  from  the  niouih 
of  Antelope  Creek : 

Srction  of  red  beds  on  Antelope  Creek,  Carson  County,  Tex.  i 

Red  clays,  with  sandy  shale : I 

Gray  sandstone : J 

Red  clay ^ 

dray  dolomite,  weathers  out  In  hlooks  which  are  scattered  over  talus  sloi)e    j 

(this  le<ltjc  forms  a  terrace) J 

Red  day 1* 

ilypsum,  l)hilsh  in  places;  a  fairly  i)ersistent  uniform  ledjje I 

Red  clay,  lower  iwrtion  covered i 

I 

For  lithological  reasons  these  beds  as  a  whole  are  considered  ^ 
belonging  to  the  Quartermaster  formation.  J 

Near  the  middle  of  the  Quartermaster  formation,  as  exposed  J 
Collingsworth  and  Hall  counties,  there  is  a  ledge  of  rather  hard,  n 
or  pinkish,  more  or  less  oolitic  sandstone,  which  on  weathering  p^ 
rise  to  a  numbi»r  of  flat-topped  buttes  and  ridges.  Of  the.se  the  infl 
typical  are  Rocking  Chair  Mountains  (PL  VIII,  ^4),  southwest 


U.   6.   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY  PAPER  NO.   154      PL.  VIII 


A.     ROCKING  CHAIR   MOUNTAINS. 
A  hill  capped  by  the  Dozier  sandstone. 


h.     SANDSTONE  MEMBER  OF  THE  DOCKUM   FORMATION  IN  PALO  DURO  CANYON. 


TRTASSIC    RED   BEDS.  23 

Shamrock ;  Antelope  Butte,  near  the  head  of  Elm  Fork  of  Red  River ; 
Dozier  Mounds,  near  Dozier  post-office,  and  'Possum  Peaks,  Twin 
Mounds,  and  Ragged  Top,  a  few  miles  farther  west  of  Dozier.  Be- 
tw(»eii  Salt  and  Prairie  Dog  forks  of  Red  River,  in  the  vicinity  of 
MtMiiphis,  in  Hall  County,  these  buttes  are  conspicuous.  Hogback 
Butte,  8  milei?  south  of  Memphis,  is  a  noted  landmark.  These  buttes 
persist  for  an  unknown  distance  south  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red  River. 

From  the  sandstone  on  Antelope  and  Dozier  mounds.  Dr.  J.  W. 
Beede  identifies  fossils  belonging  to  the  following  genersLi  Dielasma^ 
Srhizodus^  AUorisma^  Pleurophorus^  Edmorulia^  Aviciilopecten^  l^ei- 
opteria,^  Capulusf  {Lepetopsiaf)^  Loxonema^Strophostylus^  Murchi- 
t^onia^  Pleurotomaria^  and  W orthenop^is ;  indicating  the  Permian  age 
of  the  sandstone. 

TRIASSIC  RED  BEDS. 

Donkum  fm^iation. — The  upper  part  of  the  Texas  red  beds  was 
described  by  Professor  Cummins  under  the  name  of  Dockum  beds,« 
and  afterwards  by  Drake.''  This  formation,  which  is  composed 
largely  of  clays,  sandstones,  and  conglomerates,  underlies  practically 
all  of  the  Staked  Plains  of  Texas  and  southeastern  New  Mexico. 
According  to  Drake,*^  the  Dockum  beds  average  200  feet  in  thickness, 
and  may  be  divided  into  three  members,  as  follows :  (1)  A  lower  bed  of 
sandy  clay  0  to' 150  feet  thick,  (2)  a  central  bed  or  beds  of  sandstone, 
conglomerate,  and  some  sandy  clay  0  to  235  feet  thick,  and  (3)  an 
upper  bed  of  sandy  clay  and  sandstone  0  to  300  feet  thick. 

Along  Palo  Duro  Canyon  in  Armstrong  and  Briscoe  counties, 
where  this  formation  was  studied  by  the-  writer,  it  is  difficult  to 
divide  it  into  recognizable  members.  The  formation  abounds  in  local 
unconformities  with  clay,  sandstone,  and  conglomerate  lentils,  with 
cross-bedded  structure,  and  other  features  indicative  of  shallow-water 
deposition.  In  places  the  lower  portion  is  made  up  of  red,  maroon, 
or  wine-colored  clays,  while  at  higher  horizons  there  are  more  or 
less  lenticular  sandstones  and  conglomerates,  as  shown  in  PI.  IX,  B. 
On  weathering,  the  sandstones  of  the  Dockum  beds  give  rise  to  unique 
erosion  forms;  the  harder  members  protect  the  softer  shales  beneath 
and  produces  pillars,  chimneys,  toadstools,  and  other  unusual  figures, 
some  types  of  which,  exposed  in  Tule  Canycm,  (>  miles  northwest  of 
Silverton,  are  shown  in  PL  IX,  .1. 

The  lithologic  character's  which  justify  the  separation  of  the 
Dockum  beds  from  the  Permian  are,  (1)  the  gray  and  brown  color 
of  the  sandstones  and  conglomerates  and  the  abundance  of  the  latter ; 

•Cummins,  W.  F.,  First  Ann.  Kept.  Texas  Geol.  Survey,  1800,  pp.  189-100;  Second 
Ann.  Kept.,  1900,  pp.  424-428. 

*  Drake,  N.  F.;  Stratigraphy  of  the  Triasalo  formations  of  northwest  Texas ;  Third 
Ann.  Rept.  Texas  (leol.  Survey,  1001,  pp.  227-247. 

•  Ibid.,  pp.  229-233. 


24  EASTERN   PANHANDLE   OF   TEXAS. 

(2)  the  maroon,  wine-colored,  and  yellow  shales  and  clays,  and  c' 
Ihe  extensive  cross-bedding  and  local  unconformities  of  the  varinih 
memlx^rs.  AMiether  or  not  the  Dockuni  formation  is  confonnab.* 
throughout  with  the  subjacent  Quartermaster  formation  is  still  i\u 
open  question.  There  is  often  local  imconformity  between  the  tw.. 
formations,  but  on  the  other  hand  there  are  localities  in  which  ih» 
brick-red  shales  and  argillaceous  sandstone  of  the  QuartemmMtr 
grade  so  imperceptibly  into  the  wine-colored  shales  and  gray-bnnvi, 
conglomerates  of  the  Dockum  that  the  closest  search  fails  to  reveal  lii- 
line  of  separation  l)etween  them." 

Concerning  the  age  of  the  Dockum  formation  it  may  be  said  that 
vertebrate  fossils,  found  in  these  rocks  and  described  by  Cope,''  a- 
well  as  certain  new  forms  of  Union  named  by  Simpson,''  indicate  tl.;.i 
the  beds  belong  to  the  Triassic.  In  all,  seven  species  of  vertebnitt- 
and  fokr  of  pelecypods  have  been  secured  from  this  formation. 

TERTIARY  AND  QUATERNARY  FORMATIONS. 
REFERENCE    LIST   OF   PUBLICATIONS. 

For  extended  discussions  of  the  Tertiary  rocks  of  various  parts  of 
the  Great  Plains  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  following  publication-: 

Ciimniins,  W.  F..  Notes  on  the  geology  of  northwest  Texas:  Fourth  Aiil. 
Kept.  Texas  Geol.  Survey,  1S93,  i>p.  D)0-208. 

Dunible,  E.  T.,  Cenozolc  deiK)sits  of  Texas :  Jour.  Geol.,  vol.  2,  Xo.  t».  ImM. 
r)p.  54S>-r>(W. 

Hay,  Robert,  Water  resources  of  a  portion  of  the  Great  Plains:  Sixttvr.tb 
Ann.  Kept.  U.  S.  Goal.  Surv(\v,  pt.  2,  1895,  pp.  r»<{9  et  seq. 

llaworth.  ^].,  Pliysicnl  proiHM'ties  of  the  Tertiary:  Univ.  Geol.  Surv€*y  K.\n- 
sas,  vol.  2,  1S97,  ijp.  247-2S4.  Underground  waters  of  southwestern  Kan??;!'?: 
Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Pai)er  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  No.  <i,  1897. 

Darton,  N.  II.,  HeiK)rt  on  the  geology  and  water  resources  of  Nebraskn  west 
of  103d  Mer. :  Nlnett^enth  Ann.  Kept.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt  4,  1899,  pp.  71S^7.V. 
Also  in  Prof.  Paper  U.  S.  (;eol.  Survey  No.  17,  U)0:\. 

Darton,  N.  H.,  Kept,  on  the  geology  of  the  central  Great  Plains :  Prof.  Paper 
IT.  S.  Geol.  Survey  No.  32,  lSK)r». 

Johnson,  Willard  I).,  The  High  Plains  and  their  utilization:  Twenty-fir< 
■  Ann.  Kept.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  4,  1901,  pp.  (501-741.  Twentj'-tjeoond  Ann, 
Kept.  U.  S.  (Jeol.  Survey,  pt.  4,  19()2,  pp.  631-669. 


«  Since  the  above  was  written  opportunity  has  been  afforded  for  studying  these  beds  iu 
the  western  part  of  the  Tanhaudle  of  Texas,  both  on  upper  Palo  I  hire  Canyon  and  alouj 
the  valley  of  Canadian  River.  The  writer  finds  that  in  this  region  the  Triassic-  i- 
everywhere  Hejiarated  l)y  a  pronounced  unconformity  fro)n  the  subjacent  Permian  red  l-^i" 
and  that  it  is  clearly  divisiljle  into  two  formations,  each  consisting  of  well-markt^t 
mem1)ers.  These  formations  and  meml^ers  will  be  described  in  a  forthcoming  water 
supply  and  irrigation  paper. 

*  Cope.  K.  I>.,  Vertebrate  remains  from  the  Dockum  Terrane  of  the  Trassic  system: 
Fourth  Ann.  Kept.  Texas  (leol.  Survey.  1903,  pp.  11-17. 

*•  Simpson,  ('.  T.,  I)es(rii)iions  of  four  new  Triassic  Unios  from  the  Staked  Plains  of 
Texas:  I»roc.  U.  S.  National  Mus.,  vol.  18,  No.  1072,  1896,  pp.  381-385. 


U.   B.   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY  PAPER  Na    164      PU  DC 


A      EROSION    FORMS   IN   THE  DOCKUM  SANDSTONE   IN   TULE  CANYON. 


B.     SANDSTONE  AND  SHALE  MEMBER  OF  THE  DOCKUM   FORMATION. 
Showing  lenticular  nature  of  the  strata. 


TERTIARY   AND   QUATERNARY   FORMATIONS. 


25 


STRATIGRAPHY. 

GeneTal  statement, — After  the  deposition  of  the  Permian  and 
friassic  red  beds  in  the  Panhandle  region  the  area  was  elevated  and 
'or  a  long  period  of  time  the  land  was  extensively  eroded.  Farther 
loiith  and  west  extensive  deposits  of  Cretaceous  rocks  rest  on  the 
'ed  l)ecls,  but  in  the  part  of  the  Panhandle  under  discussion  Cre- 
aceous  formations  are  absent. 

Resting  uncomformably  upon  the  eroded  surface  of  the  red  beds 
liroiighout  the  region  described  in  this  paper  are  extensive  deposits 
)f  the  Cenozoic  age — Tertiary  or  Quaternary — which  make  up  the 
rocks  of  the  High  Plains.  These  formations,  which  consist  largely 
i)f  loosely  consolidated  clays,  sands,  and  conglomerates,  typically 
white,  but  varying  locally  into  gray,  buff,  brown,  or  other  colors, 
constitute  the  "  Tertiary  grit "  and  the  "  Tertiary  marl  "  or  "  mortar 
l)eds"  of  the  Kansas  geologists.  In  Nebraska,  Mr.  Darton  sub- 
divides the  beds  of  approximately  this  age  into  the  Arikaree  and  the 
Ogalalla.  In  the  Panhandle  of  Texas  Professor  Cummins  has  dis- 
tinguished four  horizons,  basing  his  classification  upon  the  evidence 
afforded  by  vertebrate  fossils  obtained  in  the  diffei-ent  beds  and 
identified  by  Professor  Cope." 

The  following  table  sets  forth  the  names  of  tlie  members  as  used  by 
Professor  Cummins,  the  geologic  age,  and  the  number  of  species  Pro- 
fessor Cope  found  in  each : 

ycrtchrafc  foHHiln  disthiijuinhinfj  four  horizons  in  the  Panhandle  of  Texas, 


Period. 

Epoch. 

Formation. 

Number  of 
Hpecies. 

Quaternary 

Pleistocene 

fPliocene. 

Tnle  (EqmiH  beds) 

Blanco 

10 
16 

Tertiary 

(Transition) 

Goodnight  .  _ 

8 

iMiocene 

Loup  Fork    

17 

Loup  Fork  formntiori. — The  term  "  Loup  Fork  "  has  long  been  used 
to  include  a  series  of  rocks,  usually  considered  later  Miocene  in  age, 
which  are  extensively  exposed  on  the  Great  Phiins,  particularly  in 
Colorado,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  Texas,  and  New  Mexico. 
The  rocks  consist  largely  of  sands,  days,  and  conglomerates,  the  lat- 
ter made  chiefly  of  smooth  water-worn  pebbles  presumably  derived 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  thickness  of  the  deposits  %^aries, 
but  the  maximum  is  several  hundred  feet.  The  Loup  Fork  beds  con- 
J^titute  the  lowest  Tertiary  formation  known  to  exist  in  the  Pan- 
handle.    According  to  Professor  Cummins  these  beds  do  not  extend 


•  Fourth  Ann.  Rept.  Texas  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  8,  1S93,  pp.  18-86. 


2H  EASTEKN   PANHANDLE   OF   TEXAS. 

farther  soutli  along  tlie  eastern  edge  of  tlie  Llano  Estacado  tL; 
the  Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  River."  On  Mulberry  Creek,  12  mid- 
west of  Clarendon,  where  Cummins  and  Cope  obtained  the  fo^-i^ 
identified  by  the  latter,  the  Ijoup  Fork  beds  are  30  feet  thick  -a:  . 
''  composed  of  alternating  beds  of  bluish  and  almost  pure  wh.i  • 
sand.''  ^ 

Goodnight  formation, — This  division,  named  by  Professor  Cum 
mins  from  the  town  in  x\rmstrong  County,  Tex.,  consists  of  calcan^n « 
and  arenaceous  clays,  sands,  and  heavy  conglomerates.     Litholi^ 
ally,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  differentiate  these  lieds  from  tli^*^ 
of  the  Ijouj)  Fork  or  Blanco,  and  it  is  only  by  means  of  fossil>  co.  j 
tained  in  them  that  the  beds  are  known  to  be  of  different  age.    Pn    j 
fessor  Cope  identified  eipfht  vertebrates  from  these  lx»ds  and  assipi^ 
them  to  an  age  intermediate  between  the  Loup  Fork  and  the  BlaD(i>. 
Professor  Cummins  states  that  the  Goodnight  l)eds  have  exten-i\ 
develo[)ment  south  of  Mulberry  Creek.     The  maximum  thickness  t- 
given  by  him  is  approximately  150  feet.** 

Dall,  on  the  authority  of  Dumble,  has  called  these  beds  Palo  l>ur«t 
He  classes  them  as  transitional  between  the  Miocene  and  Plioceim 
and  says :  *'  These  beds,  identified  in  western  Texas  by  Scott  85  tran 
sitional,  also  had  the  absurd  name  of  Goodnight  applied  to  theni." 
Certainly  no  one  who  has  ever  been  in  that  portion  of  the  Panhandl* 
would  consider  the  name  of  Goodnight  as  absurd,  for  it  is  the  nam* 
of  one  of  the  largest  of  the  old-time  cattle  ranches,  as  well  as  of  n 
good-sized  town,  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  college. 

Blanco  formation, — Professor  Cummins  gave  the  name  Blanco  U^l^ 
to  those  Tertiary  rocks  which  rest  unconformably  upon  the  Dockiiii. 
conglomerate  at  the  type  locality  of  the  latter — i.  e.,  at  Dockum,  Dirk 
ens  County,  Tex.  Vertebrate,  fossils  from  that  region  have  \^'\\ 
identified  by  Professor  Cope,  who  states  that  '*  the  horizon  is  moi> 
strictly  and  nearly  Pliocene  than  any  of  the  lacustrine  terram*- 
hitherto  found  in  the  interior  of  the  ccmtinent." '  The  rocks  consi^i 
of  alternating  layers  of  sand,  clay,  and  diatomaceous  earth,  appn)xi 
mately  1()0  feet  in  thickness. 

Tule  formation, — These  beds,  described  by  Professor  Cunuuiii> 
and  by  Professor  Cope,  were  assigned  by  the  latter  to  the  EqmuK-UA 


"  Cunimlns,  W.  F.,  Notes  on  the  jfeolo^y  of  northwest  Texas:  Foarth  Ann.  Rept.  Tm. •« 
(Jeol.  Survey.  18S».S,  p.  L>(K{. 

»  Ibid.,  p.  204. 

•■('ope,  K.  !>..  Vertebrate  fauna  of  the  Loup  Fork  lieds :  Fourth  Ann.  Rept.  Texas  <i«'l 
Survey,  j^t.  8.  1«0.'{,  p.  40. 

•<  rumralns.  op.  clt.  pp.  201-202. 

*■  Dall,  Wm.  FI..  Table  of  North  American  Tertiary  horizons,  etc. :  FM^btt^euth  Ann.  K**!'* 
r.  S.  (Jeol.  Survey,  pt.  2,  1898,  p.  3.'?8. 

^  (~'ope.  K.  1)..  Vertebrate  fauna  of  the  HIanco  l)edH :  Fourth  Ann.  Rept.  Texas  <;^♦ 
Survey,  ]80;i,  p.  47. 

t  Cummins,  op.  clt.  pp.  199-200. 


tt-:rtiary  and  quaternary  formations.  27 

hi>rizoii  of  the  e.arly  Pleistocene,  on  account  of  vertebrates  from  Tule 
Cany  on  in  Swisher  County.  In  general,  the  statement  made  by  Pro- 
fessor Cope  that  "  Equus  beds  form  the  superficial  formation  of  the 
counti-y  at  various  points  on  the  Staked  Plains  and  about  its  eastern 
osearpinent,"  *  may  be  considered  as  accurate.  However,  the  EqmiH 
be<is  are  by  no  means  confined  to  the  top  of  the  Llano  Estacado,  but 
(K*cur  in  other  localities  as  well,  notably  north  of  Canadian  River. 
These  rocks  consist  of  coarse  sand,  clay,  and  gravel,  with  variable 
thickness. 

Age  of  hah, — It  is  the  experience  of  the  writer,  after  ten  seasons 
spent   in  studying  these  deposits  in  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  Texas,  and 
New  Mexico,  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  separate  either  the 
Tertiary  or  Pleistocene  deposits  of  the  plains  into  mappable  forma- 
tions-    From  the  bottom  of  the  Loup  Fork  to  the  top  of  the  EquvJi 
l)eds  the  general  character  of  the  rocks  changes  so  constantly  and 
with  such  extreme  irregularity  that  they  can  not  for  the  most  part  be 
dilFerentiated  in  the  field.     Sections  made  at  about  twelve  points  in 
eastern  Colorado,  western  Kansas,  western  Oklahoma,  and  in  the 
Panhandle  of  Texas  show  such  a  marked  similarity  of  structure  that 
without  the  evidence  of  fossils  it  is  impossible  to  determine  w^hether 
the  rocks  belong  to  the  Miocene,  the  Pliocene,  or  the  Equm  beds. 
Even  Professor  Hay,  who  studied  these  rocks  in  Kansas  and  applied 
to  them  the  descriptive  terms  "  Mortar  beds,"  "  Tertiary  grit,"  "  Ter- 
tiary marl,"  etc.,  did  not  succeed  in  differentiating  them  into  definite 
horizons.    If  it  were  possible  to  distinguish  formations  stratigraph- 
ically,  the  matter  of  classification  would  be  greatly  simplified,  but  in 
the  light  of  present  knowledge,  it  seems  not  only  inexpedient  but  even 
impossible  to  differentiate  them  structurally.     In  view  of  these  facts, 
therefore,  the  general  term  Tertiary  will  be  used   to  include  the 
Loup  Fork,  the  Goodnight,  the  Blanco,  and  in  most  cases  also  the 
Tule  or  Equu^  beds.     The  Equus  beds  are  classed   with  Tertiary 
chiefly,  as  stated  above,  becajise  these  beds  can  not  be  distinguished 
in  the  field,  nor,  indeed,  by  any  other  means  than  that  of  vertebrate 
fossils,  which  are  present  only  in  scattered  localities. 

origin  of  the  tertiary  deposits. 

With  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  the  (ireat 
Plains  two  general  theories  have  been  advanced.  The  earlier  geolo- 
gists who  studied  these  rocks  considered  them  lacustrine  in  origin; 
Professor  Marsh,  for  instance,  described  a  great  Pliocene  lake  cover- 
ing practically  the  entire  Great  Plains  area,  in  which  deposits  1,500 
feet  thick  were  laid  down.'^     Professor  Cummins,  in  speaking  of  the 

"Cope,  E.  D.,  Vertebrate  fauna  of  the  Blanco  beds:  Fourth  Ann.  Rept.  Texas  Geol. 
Survey,  1893,  p.  75. 

*  Marsh,  O.  C,  Amer.  Jour.  Sc!.,  vol.  9,  Jan.,  1875,  p.  52. 


28  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

Goodnight  beds,  says,  "  They  seem  to  have  been  deposited  in  a  lak<* 
much  more  extensive  to  the  south  than  the  Loup  Fork,  which  lattrr 
seems  to  have  had  its  southern  termination  here''  (at  Mulberry 
Canyon)."  Professor  Cope  has  already  been  quoted  regarding  "  La 
custrine  terranes."  Professor  Hay  accepted  the  lake  theory,  althougli 
he  did  not  account  for  the  formation  of  these  supposed  bcxlies  of 
water.''  Later  investigations,  however,  have  led  to  the  opinion  that 
it  is  to  fluviatile  rather  than  to  lacustrine  agencies  that  we  must  look 
for  the  origin  of  the  Tertiary  deposits. 

Professor  Ha  worth,  in  discussing  the  Kansas  Tertiary,*^  observe^: 
"  The  relative  positions  of  the  sand,  the  gravel,  and  the  clay  of  thr 
Tertiary  over  the  whole  of  Kansas  *  *  *  corre.spond  much  liei- 
ter  to  river  deposits  than  to  lake  deposits.  The  irregularity  of 
formation  succession,  the  limited  lateral  extent  of  the  beds  of  gravel. 
sand,  and  clay,  and  the  frequent  steepness  of  the  cross-bedding:  plane<, 
all  correspond  to  river  deposits.  *  *  *  The  materials  themselve> 
have  many  indications  of  river  deposits  and  a  very  few  of  lake  de- 
posits." 

Mr.  Johnson,  in  his  report  on  ''  The  High  Plains  and  Their  TTtiliza- 
tion,'-  expresses  the  opinion  that  "  The  structure,  an  uneven  network 
of  gravel  courses  and  elongated  beds  of  sand  penetrating  a  mas>  of 
silt  and  sand -streaked  clay,  is  the  normal  product  of  desert -stream 
work  under  constant  desert  conditions.  The  coarse  material  is  no! 
regarded  as  the  product  of  necessarily  strong-running  streams  an<l 
the  fine  material  of  sluggish  streams,  in  alternating  epochs  of  humii) 
and  dry  climate  or  of  high  and  low  inclination  of  slope,  but  as  the 
simultaneous  product  of  branching  streams  of  the  desert  habit,  here 
running  in  a  channel  and  there  spreading  thinly."  ** 

The  only  point  at  issue  among  these  writers  seems  to  be  whether 
the  cause  of  the  deposition  of  the  material  by  the  streams  is  to  lie 
sought  in  climatic  changes  which  produced  alternate  periods  of  arid- 
ity and  humidity,  or  in  deformation  movements  of  the  earth's  crust 
by  which  the  eastern  part  of  the  Great  Plains  was  elevated  and  the 
gradient  of  the  streams  lessened.  With  regard  to  this  matter  tlie 
writer  does  not  express  an  opinion.  The  subject  has  been  discussed 
by  Johnson,  to  whose  article  the  reader  is  referred.'' 

(JENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  TERTIARY  DEPOSITS. 

It  has  been  stated  already  that  the  greater  part  of  the  rocks  vau- 
sists  of  clays,  sandstones,  and  conglomerates  with  clays  predoniinat- 

»  Cummins,  W.  F.,  Notes  on  the  geology  of  northwest  Texas :  Fourth  Ann.  Kept.  Terns 
(ieol.  Survey.  1893,  p.  201. 

*  Hay.  Robert,  Water  resources  of  a  portion  of  the  (ireat  Plains :  Sixteenth  Ann.  Rept. 
U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  2,  1895,  p.  571. 

'^  Haworth,  E.,  Physical  properties  of  the  Tertiary  :  TTniv.  (teol.  Survey  Kansas,  vol.  2. 
1897,   p.   28.3. 

^  Twenty-first  Ann.  Rept.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  4,  1901,  655. 

'  Ibid.,  chap.  2,  p.  612-650. 


1 


U.   8.   OEOLOQICAL   SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY   PAPER    NO.   184      PL.  X 


A.     EDGE  OF  TERTIARY   ESCARPMENT. 
Showing  alternation  of  hard  and  soft  beds. 


B.     PECULIAR    .vEATHERING  OF  TERTIARY  CLAY   IN   PALO  DURO  CANYON. 


TERTIARY   AND   QUATERNARY    FORMATIONS.  29 

ing.  In  color  the  clays  are  normally  white,  so  white  that  when  ex- 
j)osed  they  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  *'  gyp  "  cliffs  or  "  chalk  ■' 
cliffs,  although  they  contain  neither  gypsum  nor  chalk.  However, 
the  color  of  the  clays  is  not  invariably  white;  it  often  grades  into 
the  various  other  light  tints.  In  structure  the  clay  is  usually  so 
soft  that  it  may  be  crushed  with  the  fingers;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  more  calcareous  members  are  frequently  indurated  and  make  a 
fair  quality  of  limestone.  Occasionally  beds  are  found  full  of  white 
calcareous  lumps  or  concretions,  which  give  to  the  rock  a  mottled  ap- 
pearance. The  lime  often  cements  the  clay  together  in  the  form  of 
elongated  concretions,  which,  on  weathering,  have  a  resemblance  to 
stalactites,  as  shown  in  PI.  X,  J?,  and  form  what  one  author  calls 
"  pipy  ''  concretions.** 

Sand  beds  and  ledges  of  conglomerate  also  constitute  a  considerable 
part  of  the  Tertiary  and  Quaternary.  The  sand  is  usually  in  smooth, 
rounded,  w'hite  or  yellowish  grains  and  the  material  is  of  quartz. 
The  conglomerate  is  made  up  typically  of  smooth  water-worn 
pebbles,  usually  composed  of  quartz,  granite,  porphyry,  and  other 
igneous  rocks,  varying  in  size  from  sand  grains  to  bow^lders  as 
large  as  a  peck  measure.  These  pebbles  most  commonly  occur  in  beds 
or  layers  sometimes  as  much  as  25  feet  thick,  but  often  they  are  inter- 
mingled with  fine  sand  and  sometimes  sprinkled  through  the  clay 
members. 

In  a  number  of  localities  the  gravel  beds  at  the  immediate  base  of 
the  Tertiary  contain  considerable  numbers  of  water- w^orn  Gryphrva 
shells  of  lower  Cretaceous  age.  It  has  been  stated  that  at  the  present 
time  there  are  no  Cretaceous  rocks  exposed  l>etween  the  red  beds  and 
the  Tertiary  deposits  in  this  part  of  the  Panhandle,  but  that  extensive 
Cretaceous  deposits  are  found  along  the  southern  and  western  edges 
of  the  Llano  Estacado.  Whether  these  sheik  were  derived  from  the 
lower  Cretaceous  rocks  in  place,  or  were  transported  by  streams  from 
l)eds  farther  west,  it  is  impossible  to  determine,  but  in  the  light  of 
available  data  the  latter  supposition  seems  probable. 

The  relative  proportion  of  the  different  rocks  enumerated  above 
varies  with  the  locality,  but  it  is  probable  that  three-fourths  of  the 
Tertiary  and  Pleistocene  material  exposed  along  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  Staked  Plains  is  some  form  of  clay,  silt,  or  marl,  tlie  other  one- 
fourth  being  sand  or  conglomerate.  Farther  north,  in  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  the  proportion  of  coarser  material  is  relatively  larger, 
often  being  more  than  cme-half. 

In  all  places  on  the  plains,  so  far  as  known,  these  materials  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  heterogeneous  manner — the  clays,  sand,  pebbles,  silt, 
conglomerate,  and  other  forms  of  rock  occurring  indiscriminately 
iind  without  similarity  of  position.     In  one  place  a  sc^ction  of  a  hill 

*  Darton,  Nelson  H.,  Report  on  the  geology  und  water  resources  of  Nebraska  west  of 
I03d  Mer. :    Prof.  Paper  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  No.  17,  19U3,  1>.  lio. 
IRB  154 — 06  M 3 


30  EASTEKN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

shows  nothing  but  clay  and  silt ;  half  a  mile  away  beds  of  sandstone 
and  gravel  occur;  and  still  farther  away  the  section  reveals  little 
besides  sand  and  conglomerate.  (PI.  X,  J.,  5,  exhibits  typical  Ter- 
tiary structure.) 

SAND    HILLS. 

There  are  two  general  classes  of  sand  hills  in  the  Panhandle,  th(p^ 
derived  from  the  disintegration  of  rocks*  in  place  and  those  blown  bv 
the  winds  from  some  stream  channel.  The  sand  hills  of  disintegra- 
tion occur  usually  either  along  the  base  of  the  escarpment  at  the  fcKit 
of  the  High  Plains  or  along  the  divide  between  two  river  systeni.v 
The  material  of  which  these  sand  hills  are  composed  has  l>een  largely 
derived  in  place  by  the  disintegration  of  Tertiary  rocks.  As  the  day 
and  silt  which  make  up  a  considerable  part  of  the  Tertiarv  depoMt^ 
were  removed  by  the  action  of  water  the  sand  and  gravel  reinaine«l 
behind  and  the  finer  materials  have  been  shaped  by  the  wind.  In 
each  of  the  four  eastern  counties  of  the  Panhandle  there  are  con- 
siderable areas  of  sand  hills  which  have  been  formed  in  this  manner 
In  Lipscomb  and  Hemphill  counties  sand  hills  occur  along  Wolf  Creek 
and  on  the  divide  between  that  stream  and  Canadian  River.  Much 
of  Wheeler  County  is  covered  with  sand  hills,  particularly  in  the 
region  between  Sweetwater  Creek  and  North  Fork  of  Red  River.  In 
Collingsworth  County  there  is  a  region  10  to  15  miles  wide  sotitii  of 
Salt  Fork,  extending  entirely  across  the  county,  composed  wholly-  of 
these  sand  hills,  and  in  southeastern  Donley  County  there  are  largf 
areas  covered  with  sand  hills. 

In  the  second  class  of  sand  hills  are  those  formed  of  wind-blown 
sand  derived  from  the  stream  channels.  In  the  Panhandle  region 
they  seem  to  occur  indiscriminately  on  both  the  north  and  south  sidt- 
of  the  various  rivers,  usually  along  the  flood  plain  between  the  chan- 
nel of  the  stream  and  the  bluffs.  Hills  of  this  character,  which  an- 
composed  of  fine  white  or  yellowish  quartz  grains,  are  usually  barnui 
of  vegetation,  as  shown  in  PL  IV,  .1.  They  are  present  alon|r 
practically  all  the  larger  streams,  particularly  along  Canadian  River 
and  Salt  Fork  of  Red  River.     Migrating  dunes  are  not  uncommon. 

ALLUVIUM. 

Along  all  the  large  streams  in  this  region  there  have  been  deposite<l 
materials  of  greater  or  less  thickness  that  have  l)een  broVight  by  the 
streams  from  higher  levels.  In  the  valley  of  Canadian  River  is  a 
broad  belt  of  bottom  land  made  up  largely  of  alluvium,  which  hen* 
consists  chiefly  of  fine  sand  and  clay  mixed  with  decayed  organic 
matter  and  occasional  coarser  gravels,  the  whole  constituting  a  sandy 
loam.  As  much  of  the  clay  is  derived  from  the  red  beds,  the  loaui 
often   partakes  of  a   reddish   color.     Along  all   the   small   stream- 


WATER   RESOURCES.  31 

emptying  into  Canadian  River  are  bottom  lands  or  flood  plains  com- 
posed of  practically  the  same  material,  and  there  are  deposits  along 
the  various  tributaries  of  Red  River.  Along.  North  Fork  and  Salt 
Kork  the  bottom  lands  are  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  wide. 

WATER  RESOITRCES. 

UNDERGROUND  WATERS. 
GENERAL   CONDITIONS. 

The  underground  waters  of  the  Panhandle  of  Texas  may  be  dis- 
cussed under  two  general  heads — red-beds  waters  and  Tertiary  waters. 
ITnder  the  latter  head  is  included  water  from  the  sand  hills.  The 
water  of  the  red  beds  occurs  chiefly  on  the  eroded  plains  at  the  foot 
of  the  escarpment  in  the  southern  and  eastern  part  of  the  region. 
The  water  of  the  Tertiary  is  found  on  the  High  Plains  and  in  the 
escarpment  regions — that  is,  on  the  greater  part  of  the  area  under 
discussion.  The  water  of  the  red  beds  is  limited  in  amount  and 
usually  impregnated  with  mineral  salts,  particularly  gypsum  (CaCO^) 
mid  common  salt  (NaCl),  so  that  it  is  often  unfit  for  general  use, 
while  the  Tertiary  water  is  uniformly  abundant  and  almost  always 
pure  and  wholesome.  So  diflFerent  both  in  quality  and  quantity  are 
the  waters  from  these  two  horizons  that  it  seems  best  to  discuss  them 
separately. 

WATER  FROM  THE  RED  BEDS. 

Character, — WTierever  the  Permian  red  beds  are  exposed  the  water 
is  unsatisfactory  in  quality,  although  it  ordinarily  is  plentiful. 
Water  from  the  red  Ijeds  generally  contains  appreciable  amounts  of 
mineral  salts,  which  in  many  cases  are  so  abundant  as  to  render  it 
unfit  for  general  use.  To  all  this  salt-impregnated  water  the  com- 
mon term  "  gyp  "  water  is  applied.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  much 
of  the  water  does  not  contain  any  considerable  per  cent  of  calcium 
sulphate.  A  number  of  other  mineral  salts  are  found  in  the  red 
beds,  the  most  abundant  of  which  are  sodium  chloride,  sodium  sul- 
phate, sodium  carbonate,  magnesium  carbonate,  magnesium  sulphate, 
calcium  chloride,  and  sodium  borate,  in  about  the  order  named.  In 
some  instances  all  of  these  salts  are  found  in  the  water  of  a  single 
well,  but  in  most  cases  only  two  or  three  of  them  appear  in  appre- 
ciable quantities. 

It  must  not  be  understood,  how^ever,  that  all  the  water  from  the 
red  beds  is  bad,  for  there  are  numerous  localities  where  soft  and 
pure  water  is  found.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  localities  where 
the  water  is  obtained  in  the  Quartermaster  formation,  Avhich,  as  has 
l)een  stated,  consists  largely  of  soft  sandstones  and  sandy  shales.     In 


32  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF   TEXAS. 

this  formation  but  little  gypsum  occurs,  and  the  proportion  of  the 
other  mineral  salts  enumerated  above  is  not  as  great  as  in  the  rock- 
of  the  Greer  formation.  The  general  statement  may  be  made,  how- 
ever, that  water  from  the  red  beds  is  not  good  water. 

Occurrence. — Water  in  the  red  beds  is  usually  found  under  one  <if 
two  conditions :  first,  in  sandstones  or  sandy  clay  beds,  and  secoml. 
in  underground  veins,  either  joints  in  the  clay  or  in  gypsum  cavt»>. 
As  has  been  stated,  the  red  beds  consist  largely  of  red  clay  shal** 
with  occasionally  interbedded  members  of  sandstone  and  gj'psuin. 
In  part  the  clays  are  composed  of  very  fine-grained  material  which 
is  practically  impervious  to  water.  Frequently  they  contain  a  hijrh 
proportion  of  sand,  in  which  case  the  intei'stices  l^tween  the  >aii<i 
and  clay  particles  are  sufficiently  wide  for  the  seepage  of  water,  and 
it  is  from  beds  of  this  character  that  perhaps  the  greater  part  of  tlie 
wells  obtain  their  permanent  supply.  In  many  parts  of  the  red  l)ed>, 
especially  in  the  Quartermaster  formation,  the  arenaceous  clay  bed- 
become  a  true  sandstone  and  the  relatively  large  spaces  between  the 
sand  grains  afford  ready  passage  for  water. 

Many  of  the  wells,  however,  find  their  supply  not  in  sand  nor  even 
in  sandy  shales,  but,  if  the  testimony  of  drillers  is  given  credence,  in 
joints  in  the  red  clay.  Those  who  have  had  experience  in  drillin? 
wells  agree  in  stating  that  while  the  greater  part  of  the  water  in  the 
red  beds  is  found  in  sand,  many  of  the  wells  penetrate  notliing  but 
the  red  clay.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  drill  to  strike  a  so-called 
vein  in  the  clay,  in  which  the  flow  is  so  strong  that  the  water  ri>e- 
many  feet  before  the  tools  can  be  lifted.  It  has  been  said  that  the 
red  beds  abound  in  sink  holes  and  caves,  and  that  from  many  of  the 
caves  springs  issue.  In  a  numl)er  of  castas  the  drill  has  been  known 
to  penetrate  these  caverns,  which  thus  Ix^come  reservoirs  for  the  well>. 
The  depth  of  wells  in  the  red  beds  varies  from  20  to  190  feet,  averaging 
60  feet. 

WATER    FROM    TERTIARY    ROCKS. 

Character. — Almost  without  exception  the  water  obtained  in  the 
Tertiary  and  sand-hills  deposits  of  the  (Ireat  Plains  is  good.  .Anal- 
yses of  water  from  a  numl)er  of  wells  and  springs  in  these  forma- 
tions in  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas  have  almost  inva- 
riably showni  that  the  water  contains  little  or  no  harmful  mineral 
salts.  There  are  to  be  found  small  amounts  of  calcium  sulphate,  cal- 
cium chloride,  calcium  carbonate,  magnesium  carbonate,  and  sodium 
bicarbonate  in  the  water  of  some  of  the  wells,  but  the  average  amount 
of  mineral  salts  in  7  samples  was  but  15  grains  per  gallon.  The  water 
on  the  plains  is  almost  universally  soft,  pure,  and  wholesome,  suitable 
for  household  and  stock  use. 


UNDERGROUND    WATERS.  33 

Oecunmre, — In  order  to  appreciate  the  underground-water  con- 
ditions of  the  High  Plains,  an  understanding  of  the  rocks  from  which 
the  water  is  obtained  is  necessary.  As  has  been  shown  under  "  Geol- 
ocry,"  pages  25-31,  the  Tertiary  deposits,  several  hundred  feet  thick, 
which  cover  this  region,  consist  chiefly  of  alternating  layers  of  clay, 
sand,  and  gravel.  It  is  generally  believed  by  geologists  that  the  ma- 
terial w^hich  comprises  these  rocks  was  derived  largely  from  the  Rocky 
Aloiintains,  and  that  it  was  spread  out  in  the  beds  of  streams  which 
ill  time  past  flow^ed  from  the  mountains  and  were  lost  on  the  plains. 
These  streams  left  deposits,  now  of  sand,  now  of  gravel  or  clay,  and 
now  of  pebbles,  which,  in  time,  were  covered  by  other  deposits,  some- 
times of  the  same,  but  more  often  of  other  material.  This  process 
was  continued  until  several  hundred  feet  of  alternating  beds  of  the 
various  kinds  of  rocks  were  deposited.  From  this  it  will  be  under- 
stood that  the  greater  part  of  the  beds  must  necessarily  be  irregu- 
larly lens-shaped  in  cross  section,  and  in  most  cases  will  not  be  found 
continuous  over  large  areas.  In  some  places  the  greater  part  of  the 
thickness  consists  of  clay  or  silt,  w^hile  in  other  localities  sand  and 
gravel  predominate.  In  general,  it  is  observed  that  the  deposits  near 
the  base  of  the  Tertiary  have  a  greater  proportion  of  the  coarser 
material,  consisting  of  sand  and  gravel  beds,  and  that  at  a  higher 
level  they  have  clays  and  silts  in  greater  abundance. 

Most  of  the  water  of  the  High  Plains  is  known  as  "  sheet  water." 
This  is  a  term  almost  universally  used  in  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  to  indicate  any  fairly  constant  supply  of  water  at  a 
more  or  less  uniform  depth  beneath  the  surface.  The  term  "  under- 
flow ■'  is  sometimes  used  to  indicate  practically  the  same  phenomenon. 
The  general  impression  seems  to  be  that  at  some  depth  beneath  the 
surface  there  is  a  regular  "  sheet "  or  "  lake "  of  water,  which  if 
tapped  by  a  well  will  yield  a  constant  supply.  In  some  places  two 
or  even  three  "  sheets  "  are  supposed  to  exist,  and  the  expression 
''first  sheet"  and  "second  sheet,"  or  "first  w^ater "  and  "second 
water  "  are  common.  Another  prevalent  notion  is  that  the  water  in 
these  "  sheets  "  is  constantly  flowing,  stream-like,  beneath  the  surface, 
an  idea  disclosed  by  the  expression  "  the  underflow  is  to  the  south," 
or  "  the  underflow  is  east."  Much  of  this  theory,  however,  is  errone- 
ous and  not  based  on  valid  conceptions  of  the  conditions  found  in 
the  nature  and  relations  of  the  water-bearing  beds.  Rounded  grains 
of  sand  and  gravel  do  not  lie  close  enough  together  to  fill  all  of  the 
space,  but  have  interstices  between  them.  These  pores  or  spaces 
are  minute  reservoirs  for  the  water  which,  in  its  passage  through 
such  materials,  seeps  from  one  of  these  minute  reservoirs  to  the  next, 
and  thus  very  slowly  flows  along  underground.  This  movement  is 
called  "  underflow,"  but  it  is  not  nearly  so  rapid  as  popularly  sup- 


84 


EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 


posed.  Experiment  lias  shown  that  even  along^  stream  be<l>,  mkIi 
as  the  Arkansas  River  in  western  Kansas,  the  rate  of  nnderflow  (1(»h^ 
not  average  more  than  10  feet  a  day."  On  the  High  Plains,  wlun 
the  gradient  is  exceedingly  low,  it  is  doubtfnl  if  the  water  niov.^ 
more  than  this  distance  in  a  year.  This  is  a  point,  however,  upi 
which  there  are  practically  no  data,  and  estimates  may  be  misle^diuff 
Dry  ground,  according  to  the  theory  just  advanced,  is  ground  th^ 
pores  of  which  contain  no  water,  while  wet  or  saturated  ground  i- 
that  in  which  the  pores  are  filled.  Since  water  tends  to  sink  to  th' 
lowest  levels,  there  is  in  most  regions  a  certain,  but  variable,  thick 
ness  of  beds  filled  with  water  in  what  is  technically  known  as  the 
''  zone  of  saturation."  The  upper  surface  of  this  zone  of  saturation 
is  called  the  "  water  table,"  and  this  is  often  identical  with  the  popii 
lar  phrase  ''  sheet  water.''  Since  water  moves  so  slowly  undergrouml. 
this  w-ater  table  often  becomes  approximately  similar  in  contoup  h< 


Impervious  beds      Tertiary  marla^ sandstones 
9nd   conglomerslee 


Water  tables 
Fio.  3. — Idenl  section  of  Tertiary.  Bhowln^  first  and  second  stieet  water. 


the  surface  of  the  ground,  being  high  on  the  divides  and  low  ne^r  the 
streams  where  the  water  may  escape  in  springs. 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  conditions  under  which  these  he^h 
were  laid  down.  As  originally  deposited  they  must  have  had  an 
irregular  outline  and  surface,  especially  when  laid  down  in  swamp- 
or  lakelets.  Where  the  material  is  clay  or  very  fine  sand  its  inter 
sticas  are  very  minute  and  practically  impervious  to  water.  Such 
fine  deposits  are  often  overlain  by  sand  and  gravel  in  basins  or  chan- 
nels, and  these  in  turn  by  other  fine-grained  deposits  in  var>'ing  suc- 
cession, so  that  the  alternation  in  water-bearing  and  impervious  M^ 
is  most  irregular,  as  shown  in  fig.  3.  If  such  deposits  are  penetrate<l 
by  a  well  the  first  sand  encountered  will  supply  water,  the  quantity 
of  w^hich  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  water-bearing  deposit,  it> 
coarseness  of  grain,  the  height  of  its  edges,  etc.;  in  the  next  coarse 
sand  bed  a  second  water  stratum  is  found,  and  so  on  until  finally  th< 
main  water  table  is  penetrated.     This  may  be  considered  a  probahlf 


*•  Slichter,  Charles  S.,  The  motions  of  iinderRroiind  waters:  Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Pap^r 
No.  67,  U.  S.  (Jeol.  Survey,   1902,  pp.  41-4.3. 


UNDERGROUND    WATERS.  35 

oxplanation  of  the  ''  first  and  second  water,"  "  first  and  second  sheet," 
viv.  It  also  possibly  accounts  for  conditions  similar  to  the  one  found 
near  Groom,  (Jray  County,  whiere  records  obtained  from  a  relatively 
small  area  show  well  depths  ranging  from  300  to  360  feet,  except  in 
one  well  where  water  is  obtained  at  228  fe«t.  This  shallower  well 
probably  finds  its  source  of  supply  in  one  of  these  buried  basins. 

Wells  throughout  the  Tertiary  area  usually  secure  water  at  depths 
varying  from  20  to  500  feet.  On  the  High  Plains  the  average  of 
twenty  wells,  taken  at  random  from  half  a  dozen  counties,  was  258 
feet.  The  deepest  wells  are  found  along  the  line  of  the  Santa  Fe 
Railroad  on  the  high  divide  south  of  Canadian  River,  in  Caisson  and 
Gray  counties,  where  the  wells  are  from  350  to  500  feet  deep.  On 
the  High  Plains  in  Hansford,  Ochiltree,  and  Lipscomb  counties, 
north  of  Canadian  River,  the  average  depth  is  240  feet.  In  Arm- 
strong County,  alcmg  Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  River,  the  average 
depth  is  less  than  200  feet.  In  certain  parts  of  the  region,  notably  in 
Hansford  and  Carson  counties,  the  driller  sometimes  fails  to  obtain 
a  water  supply,  and  instances  are  reported  where  the  entire  thickness 
of  the  Tertiary  has  been  penetrated  without  finding  an  adequate 
amount.  It  is  the  experience  of  drillers  that  if  the  ''  red  clay " 
(evidently  red-beds  clay)  is  encountered  without  finding  a  sufficient 
:i mount  of  water,  it  is  useless  to  go  deeper. 

SOITRCE  OF   THE   UNDERGROUND   WATER. 

Ijocal  precipitation  is  the  source  of  the  underground  water  of  the 
High  Plains.  The  rainfall  at  Amarillo,  Tex.,  a  few  miles  west  of 
the  region  here  discussed,  averaged  21.94  inches  annually  for  a  period 
of  twenty  years. 

Rainfall  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  disposed  of  chiefly  by  evap- 
oration, run-off,  and  sinking,  or  seepage  into  the  ground.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  in  general  the  amount  of  water  disposed  of  in  each  of  the 
three  ways  is  about  equal,  but  the  relative  amounts  in  different  regions 
depend  upon  several  local  conditions.  For  instance,  on  a  steep  slope 
the  greater  part  runs  off;  in  a  warm,  arid  climate  the  greater  part 
evaporates,  while  in  loose  soil  the  greater  part  soaks  in. 

On  a  considerable  part  of  the  Great  Plains,  where  the  surface  is 
level  and  the  drainage  systems  undeveloped,  there  is  no  run-off,  and 
the  rainfall  is  either  absorbed  by  the  ground  or  evaporates.  After  a 
rain  the  water  which  does  not  evaporate  immediately  or  is  not  ab- 
sorbed by  the  ground  accumulates  in  broad,  shallow  depressions  on 
the  surface,  known  as  ''buffalo  wallows,"  or  "lakes,"  and  there  re- 
mains until  it  evaporates.  Johnson  estimates  that  not  more  than  3 
or  4  inches  annually  soak  into  the  ground,  an  amount  which  would 
not  saturate  more  than  about  1  foot  of  sandy  strata."    This  estimate 

•  Johnson.  Willard  I>.,  The  High  Plains  and  their  utilization :  Twenty-second  Ann. 
Rept.  V.  8.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  4,  1902,  p.  646. 


36 


EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 


of  the  amount  of  water  absorbed  seems  rather  small. 
but  in  all  probability  not  more  than  (>  inches  (»f 
rainfall  are  added  to  the  ground  water  each  year. 


^Mrttm  i 


\iS^' 


■Hm^ 


tion  of  Uigh  Plains, 
showing  position  of 
water  table. 


THE    WATER    TABLE. 

As  stated  on  page  34,  the  "  water  table  *'  or  "  water 
plane  ''  is  the  subsurface  plane  beneath  which  the 
ground  is  saturated  with  water;  in  other  words,  the 
level  at  which  the  top  of  the  ground  water  stAnd>. 
It  varies  constantly  from  place  to  place,  from  year 
to  year,  and  even  from  day  to  day.  It  is  supplied 
chiefly  from  rainfall  and  is  lowered  when  the  water 
is  removed,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  springs, 
by  artesian  wells,  or  by  heavy  pumping.  Ordinarily 
it  is  at  a  considerable  distance  below  the  surface, 
but  occasionally  it  reaches  the  surface  level,  as  in 
springs,  swamps,  or  marshes. 

On  the  High  Plains  the  water  table  is  located  ai 
the  upper  point  of  saturation  of  the  pervious  beds 
AYell  records  show  that  this  water  level  for  the  High 
Plains,  as  a  whole,  averages  approximately  250  feet 
below  the  surface.  So  far  as  known,  this  level  i> 
fairly  constant,  the  amount  of  water  taken  away  by 
springs  and  wells  being  approximately  equaled  by 
the  amount  added  each  year  by  precipitation.  Fig.  4 
shows  an  east-west  section  of  the  plains  and  the  posi- 
tion of  the  water  table. 

USE   OF    WINDMH^S. 

As  the  Panhandle  is  chiefly  a  grazing  country, 
most  of  the  wells  have  been  put  down  for  the  pur- 
pose of  furnishing  water  for  cattle.  On  the  greater 
number  of  the  larger  ranches  wells  are  located  2|  to 
3  miles  apart,  and  windmills  are  almost  universally 
used  to  bring  the  water  to  the  surface. 

Often  upon  the  prairie  the  only  object  in  view  to 
indicate  that  the  locality  is  inhabited  is  a  solitari- 
Avindmill.  These  mills  are  placed  upon  towers  2<> 
to  30  feet  high,  constructed  of  wood  or  steel.  .VII 
types  of  factory-made  turbines  are  used,  but  the 
steel  mill  with  a  wheel  8  to  10  feet  in  diameter 
seems  to  be  most  effective  for  general  purpose>. 
Larger  wheels,  some  even  20  feet  in  diameter,  an* 
employed  to  elevate  the  water  for  the  entire  sup- 
ply of  some  of  the  larger  towns,  as,  for  instance. 
Panhandle  and  Ochiltree.      (PI.  XI,  .4.)     On   the 


U.  S.  QEOtOGICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER    NO.    164       PL.   XI 


A.     WINDMILL  AND  TANK  AT  OCHILTREE.  TEX. 


Jf.     TYPICAL  WINDMILL  AND  TANK. 


UNDERGROUND    WATERS.  37 

niDtfe  the  water  is  pumped  into  large  steel  or  wooden  vats  or  into 
shallow  basins  (locally  called  ''tanks"')  excavated  in  the  ground  or 
formed  hv  dannning  a  shallow  draw.  These  tanks  are  of  various 
sizes,  but  ordinarily  they  have  a  capacity  of  sev'eral  thousjiiul  bar- 
rels and  are  very  serviceable,  since  the  soil  is  of  such  nature  that  when 
thoroughly  compact  and  saturated  it  permits  but  little  seepage. 
Typical  views  of  windmills  and  tanks  are  shown  in  PI.  XI,  Aj  B. 
The  mill  is  allowed  to  operate  continuously,  and  is  visited  occasionally 
by  a  rider  for  purposes  of  repairs  or  oiling.  Wind  is  such  a  con- 
stant factor  on  the  plains  that  little  concern  is  felt  regarding  the 
power  to  raise  the  water,  and  in  very  few  instances  are  provisions 
made,  or  are  other  means  necessary,  for  lifting  it.  In  a  few  in- 
stances gasoline  engines  are  installed  for  use  in  case  of  emergency. 
In  the  Panhandle  a  week  seldom  passes  without  wind  to  drive  the 
mills  so  that  they  will  supply  sufficient  water  for  the  stock. 

DEEP-SEATED    WATERS. 

The  project  of  obtaining  artesian  water  in  various  parts  of  the 
Panhandle,  particularly  in  the  red-l)eds  areas  at  the  foot  of  the  High 
Plains,  is  often  considered.  In  general,  the  arguments  advanced  in 
favor  of  the  project  are  based  on  the  mistaken  idea  that  there  is  an 
underground  source  of  supply  from  the  High  Plains  or  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

From  what  has  been  stated  already  it  will  be  understood  that  the 
water  supply  of  the  High  Plains  is  derived  wholly  from  the  rainfall, 
and  while  the  part  which  sinks  into  the  ground  and  is  added  to  the 
provmd  water  may  amount  to  5  or  6  inches  a  year,  the  geologic  struc- 
ture is  not  favorable  for  artesian  conditions.  Between  the  Tertiary 
and  the  underlying  red  l)eds  there  is  everywhere  a  pronounced  uncon- 
formity, and  the  rocks  of  the  red  beds  beneath  this  unconformity  are 
composed  chiefly  of  impervious  clays  and  shales,  through  which  the 
water  can  not  pass  readily.  These  conditions,  then,  preclude  the 
probability  of  artesian  water  supply  having  its  source  on  the  High 
Plains. 

That  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  a  source  for  an  artesian  supply 
through  the  red  beds  is  also  improbable.  These  red  bf»ds,  which  are 
covered  by  the  Tertiary  of  the  High  Plains,  reappear  in  New  Mexico 
beyond  the  western  escarpment  of  the  plains,  and  are  exposed  along 
the  eastern  base  of  the  mountains  at  a  higher  altitude  than  in  the 
region  east  of  the  plains  escarpment.  Some  of  these  beds  are  coarse- 
grained, and  doubtless  they  contain  water  in  some  places,  but  whether 
they  could  be  reached  by  deep  wells  and  would  yield  water  in  the 
Panhandle  region  remains  to  be  determined.  Their  general  relations 
are  shown  in  PI.  II  and  fig.  3.     In  the  e^istern  part  of  the  Panhandle 


38  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

these  lieds  must  Iw  very  deep  seated,  probably  more  than  2,000  f*^t. 
and  the  drill  has  never  reached  this  depth  in  the  red  l)eds  anywh^T- 
in  this  part  of  the  plains.  The  only  ])laee  where  the  red  l^eds  h:i\« 
been  well  explored  is  along  their  eastern  margin  in  eastern  Oklahoma, 
where,  however,  artesian  water  was  not  found. 

At  Childress,  Tex.,  20  miles  south  of  the  southeastern  comer  of  tin 
region  discussed,  the  Fort  Worth  and  Denver  City  Railroad  ha- 
drilled  a  w^ell  to  a  depth  of  1,800  feet  in  search  of  water  for  engin*^ 
and  shops.  From  the  surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  well  the  dril! 
passed  through  nothing  but  red  clay  shales  containing  a  few  le^lgv- 
of  sandstone  and  gypsum.  Several  horizons  of  salt  water  weiv  en-  1 
countered,  but  no  fresh  water  was  obtained. 

At  a  numlnu'  of  points  in  Oklahoma  wells  have  been  drilled  :ii  I 
search  of  coal,  oil,  gas,  and  water,  but  so  far  artesian  supplies  lia\f  | 
nev(»r  been  found.  At  Fort  Reno  the  (lovernment  sunk  a  well  to  tlit  j 
depth  of  1,400  feet  in  search  of  water  for  the  post,  but  none  wa-  | 
secured.  Near  Oklahonui  City  a  well  2,050  feet  deep  passetl  out  uf 
the  red  l)eds  at  1,550  feet.     No  artesian  water  was  found. 

From  all  data  at  hand  the  conclusion  must  lx»  drawn  that  tl.» 
chances  are  very  poor  for  finding  artesian  water  in  the  red  l>eds  under 
the  plains.  The  red  beds  present  difficulties  to  very  deep  drilling'  | 
which  usually  have  l>een  insurmountable,  and  if  artesian  water  d<»t- 
exist  in  the  lower  members  of  this  series  it  is  doubtful  if  it  can  U- 
reached  at  a  cost  which  would  I)e  generally  profitable.  However,  ii 
is  to  be  hoped  that  at  some  time  the  experiment  will  be  tried  of  te-i 
ing  all  of  the  red-lKul  strata. 

SPRINGS. 

There  are  in  the  region  under  discussion  two  general  classes  of 
springs — those  from  the  red  beds  and  those  from  the  Tertiary  ami 
sand  hills.  Both  in  amount  of  flow  and  in  character  of  water  tht^ 
springs  differ  considerably,  and  for  that  reas(m  it  is  thought  1k*si  to 
(U»scril)e  the  two  classes  separately. 

RED- BEDS    SPRINGS. 

Springs  in  the  red  beds  are  of  infrequent  occurrence,  and  those 
present  are  rarely  strong.  They  may  be  classified,  according  to  the 
character  of  their  water,  as  salt  springs,  gypsum  springs,  and  fn^sh- 
water  springs. 

AS(f?f  sprhu/H, — Along  the  branches  of  Red  River,  Prairie  Dog. 
Salt,  and  Elm  forks,  there  are  a  number  of  weak  salt-water  springs, 
often  little  more  than  seeps.  The  horizon  from  which  the  water  conu*^ 
is  usually  near  the  base  of  the  Greer  formation.  On  Elm  Fork  of  Rod 
River  in  western  Greer  County,  Okla.,  5  miles  east  of  the  Texas  line. 


SPRINGS.  39 

then*  «iv  two  salt  plains  of  considerable  size,  fed  by  a  number  of 
j^trong  salt  springs,  the  combined  flow  of  which  approximat.vi  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  galhms  of  sah  water  a  day.  No  springs  as 
strong  as  these  arc  found  in  any  j)art  of  the  Panhandle.  Some  salt 
^<p^ings  occur,  however,  but  so  far  as  knowni  the  salt  brine  of  Texas 
springs  is  not  used,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  the  salt  water  of  the 
l*anhandle  Avill  ever  bi*  utilized,  on  account  of  the  much  larger 
amounts  near  at  hand  in  Oklahoma. 

Gypsu?n  HfningH, — I*ractically  all  the  gypsum  springs  in  the  Pan- 
handle issue  either  from  beneath  or  in  close  proximity  to  the  massive 
gypsum  ledges  that  make  up  a  considerable  part  of  the  (ireer  forma- 
tion. Such  springs  occur  along  Elm  Fork  of  Red  River  in  Collings- 
Avorth  Coimty  and  on  the  branches  of  Prairie  Dog  Fork  in  Col- 
lingsworth, Donley,  and  Armstrong  counties.  Sometimes  these 
springs  are  mere  wet -weather  seeps,  but  in  a  number  of  cases  they 
are  strong,  boiling,  perennial  springs  derived  from  underground 
streams,  flowing  from  beneath  ledges  of  white  gypsum. 

Fre8h-water  nprhigs, — The  greater  number  of  the  fresh-w^ater 
springs  of  the  red  beds  issue  from  the  Quartermaster  formation, 
which,  as  has  l)een  stated,  consists  largely  of  sandstone  and  sandy 
shale,  with  but  little  gypsum  or  other  mineral  salts.  The  conditions 
are  ideal  for  springs,  provided  there  is  a  source  of  supply,  and  in  a 
region  of  greater  rainfall  a  large  number  might  be  expected  to  exist. 
In  the  Panhandle,  however,  the  number  is  small.  In  the  Quarter- 
master formation  there  are  very  few  bold  flowing  springs.  This  is 
due  to  the  peculiar  lithologic  character  of  the  rocks,  mostly  soft  sand- 
stones and  sandy  clays,  which,  as  stated  (m  page  21,  usually  weather 
into  peculiar  rounded  knobs  and  buttresses  and  into  narrow^  canyons. 
It  is  in  the  latter  that  the  springs  occur,  and  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  find  at  the  head  of  a  little  canyon  an  outcropping  ledge  of  sand- 
.-tone,  beneath  which  the  water  seeps  out  of  the  bank.  The  flow  is 
rarely  strong,  but  it  is  often  very  persistent,  and  the  w^ater  usually 
accumulates  to  form  a  tiny  rill  in  the  bottom  of  the  canyon.  Ranch- 
men and  farmers  frequently  take  advantage  of  the  soft  rock  to  hollow 
out  a  small  basin,  in  which  the  water  collects,  often  in  quantities 
sufficient  to  supply  a  farmhouse,  or  even  to  furnish  water  for  a  num- 
ber of  cattle. 

Springs  are  occasionally  found  in  the  Dockum  beds,  issuing  from 
beneath  ledges  of  sandstone  or  from  undei*  the  conglomerate  mem- 
Ikji-s.  These  springs  are  usually  weak  and  unimportant  and  so  far 
as  noticed  not  utilized.  This  latter  fact  may  be  attributed  chiefly  to 
their  inaccessibility,  for  the  Dockum  is  exposed  only  along  the  steep 
escarpment  at  the  foot  of  the  High  Plains. 


40  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

TERTIARY    SPRINGS. 

Throughout  tlie  High  Phiins  region  the  Tertiary  deposits  yie!il 
numerous  springs,  which  are  always  of  good  water  and  have  lung 
bc^en  most  advantageous  to  the  settlers  and  travelers.  Camps,  forts, 
farms,  and  even  cities  have  been  located  with  reference  to  the  prox- 
imity of  a  Tertiary  spring  or  spring-fed  creek.  In  the  Texas  Pan- 
handle there  are  thousands  of  such  springs.  They  are  found,  usually 
in  great  numbers,  in  every  one  of  the  twelve  counties  descrilicd  in 
this  report. 

The  source  of  supply  of  the  Tertiary  springs  is  chiefly  in  the 
ground  water,  otherwise  called  the  "  sheet  water,"  or  "'  underflow.'" 
of  the  High  Plains,  and  they  are  usually  found  where  deep  canyons 
have  been  cut  into  the  highlands. 

Not  infrequently  springs  occur  at  the  line  of  contact  between  the 
Tertiary  deposits  and  the  clay  strata  of  the  upper  part  of  the  red  lieds. 
This  condition  is  due  to  the  ready  seepage  of  water  through  tlie 
Tertiary  sands  to  the  top  of  the  impervious  red  beds,  where  it  flow> 
laterally  until  it  reaches  the  surface.  Many  of  these  contact  springs 
do  not  issue  from  a  single  opening,  but  the  water  finds  its  escape 
along  a  zone  of  seepage  extending  sometimes  for  hundreds  of  yards 
nlong  the  side  of  a  cliff.  In  such  cases  the  amount  of  water  dis- 
charged at  any  one  place  is  not  large,  but  the  aggregate  is  often 
considerable. 

Excellent  springs  frequently  occur  in  the  sand  hills  at  the  con- 
tact of  the  sand  and  the  relatively  impervious  underlying  strata. 
The  flow^  from  these  sand-hill  springs  is  seldom  strong,  but  the  water 
is  pure  and  wholesome.  Springs  of  this  type  occur  chiefly  in  the 
sand-hill  regions  of  the  four  eastern  counties. 

In  a  region  %vhere  the  underground  supply  is  scanty  the  water 
that  issues  from  springs  is  necessarily  limited  in  amount.  Very  few 
of  the  springs  discharge  half  a  second-foot  of  water,  and  perhaps  the 
greater  number  of  them  will  not  average  one-tenth  of  that  amount. 
Tlie  water  usually  flows  but  a  short  distance  and  then  disappears  in 
the  sand.  AMiere  there  are  a  numl)er  of  strong  springs  in  a  locality 
the  water  unites  to  form  a  small  creek,  which  is  sometimes  perennial, 
but  usually  intermittent. 

STREAMS. 
CLASSIFICATION    OF   DRAINAGE. 

The  drainage  of  this  region  flows  into  Mississippi  River.  The 
water  from  the  northern  part  of  the  area  flows  into  either  the  Cana- 
dian or  the  Xorth  Fork  of  the  Canadian,  tributaries  of  Arkansas 
River,  while  the  water  from  the  southern  part  reaches  Red  River. 
The  drainage  may  be  classified  as  follows: 


STREAMS.  41 

North  Fork  of  Cfinadian  draiiuige. — Cold  water,  Palo  Duro,  and 
Wolf  creeks  are  tributary  to  North  Fork  of  Canadian  River. 

Canadian  drainage, — Canadian  River  flows  northeast  across  this 
region  into  Oklahoma,  traversing  Hutchinson,  Roberts,  and  Hemphill 
counties.  It  receives  as  tributaries  a  number  of  small  creeks  which 
rise  on  the  plains  both  north  and  south  of  the  river,  cutting  their  way 
through  the  escarpment  and  entering  the  river  nearly  at  right  angles. 
The  width  of  the  basin  from  watershed  to  w^atershed  averages  not 
more  than  85  miles. 

Red  Ricer  drainage, — Five  main  branches  of  Red  River  either 
rise  in  or  pass  through  this  part  of  the  Panhandle.  Beginning  on 
the  north  they  are  as  follows:  (1)  Washita  River,  which  in  Oklahoma 
and  Indian  Territory  becomes  a  stream  of  considerable  size,  rises  in 
southwestern  Hemphill  County  and  flows  east;  (2)  North  Fork  has 
its  source  in  (xray  County  and  flows  east  across  Wheeler  County  into 
Oklahoma;  (S)  Elm  Fork  has  its  origin  in  northwestern  Collings- 
worth County  and  flows  southeast;  (4)  Salt  Fork  rises  in  northern 
Armstrong  County  and  flows  east  across  Collingsworth  County 
before  reaching  Oklahoma;  (5)  Prairie  Dog  Fork  rises  on  the  High 
Plains  far  to  the  west,  and  in  this  region  flows  through  Palo  Duro 
Canyon  across  the  southwest  corner  of  Armstrong  County.  These 
four  branches,  North,  Elm,  Salt,  and  Prairie  Dog  forks  join  at  the 
southeast  comer  of  Greer  County,  Okla.,  forming  Red  River,  a 
tributary  of  Mississippi  River. 

STREAMS    IN    DETAIL. 

Cold  water  Cree/i. — In  its  upper  course  this  stream  is  known  as 
Rabbit  Ear  Creek,  from  the  fact  that  it  rises  near  the  Rabbit  Ear 
Mountains,  two  volcanic  peaks  in  northeastern  New  Mexico.  It  flows 
southeast  across  Dallam  and  Sherman  counties,  then  turning  north- 
east crosses  the  northwest  corner  of  Hansford  County,  passes  into 
Beaver  County,  Okla.,  and  empties  into  Beaver  Creek  at  the  town  of 
Hardesty.  In  its  course  through  Hansford  County  it  has  cut  a 
canyon  1  to  3  miles  wide  and  approximately  100  feet  deep  into  the 
Tertiary  rocks  of  the  High  Plains.  The  stream  is  fed  by  Tertiary 
springs.     Consequently  its  water  is  fresh. 

Palo  Dui'o  Creek. — This  stream  flows  diagonally  across  Hansford 
County  from  southwest  to  northeast.  It  is  a  typical  High  Plains 
stream.  Rising  on  the  level  prairie,  it  soon  begins  to  cut  a  trench, 
which  becomes  deeper  and  wider  until  in  Hansford  County  it  is  a 
canyon  1  to  3  miles  wide  and  100  feet  below  the  level  of  the  plains. 
Only  in  parts  of  its  course  is  there  water  the  year  ai-ound.  At  Hans- 
ford, the  county  seat,  the  stream  is  dry  except  after  heavy  rains,  but 


42  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

15   miles   downstream   running   water   appears.     This   stream    also 
empties  into  Beaver  Creek  in  Beaver  County,  Okla. 

Wolf  Creek. — Wolf  Creek  rises  on  the  High  Plains  a  few  mile> 
southw^est  of  Ochiltree,  the  county  seat  of  Ochiltree  County,  aiul  flow^ 
east  across  Ochiltree  and  Lipscomb  counties  into  Woodward  County. 
Okla.  At  old  Fort  Supply  it  joins  Beaver  Creek,  forming  North 
Fork  of  Canadian  River.  In  its  upper  course  it  has  cut  a  narrow  <-an- 
yon  with  precipitous  bluifs.  Farther  down  it  passes  out  of  the  High 
Plains  and  enters  the  sand-hills  region,  where  the  bed  is  wide  and 
sandy.  The  creek  is  fed  by  small  branches — Camp,  Willow,  Cotton- 
wood, Plum,  Mammoth,  and  others — the  water  of  which  comes  from 
Tertiary  springs  among  the  sand  hills.  Wolf  Creek  has  the  reputa- 
tion among  the  cattlemen  of  being  the  most  constant  stream  in  the 
Panhandle. 

Canadian  River. — The  largest  stream  in  the  Panhandle  of  Texa.^, 
Canadian  River,  has  its  headwaters  among  the  high  peaks  of  tht 
Rocky  Mountains  in  northern  New  Mexico.  In  its  upper  course  it 
receives  a  number  of  tributaries  which  are  fed  by  mountain  springs. 
After  leaving  the  mountains  it  flows  southeast  first  across  a  plain 
composed  of  upper  Cretaceous  rocks,  then  for  nearly  100  niile> 
through  a  canyon  500  to  800  feet  deep  in  the  Dakota  sandstone, 
finally  reaching  the  red-beds  plain  in  the  region  north  of  TucunK'ari, 
N.  Mex.  At  this  point  it  changes  its  direction  to  the  northeast  and 
so  flows  out  of  New  Mexico  and  across  the  Panhandle  of  Texas  into 
Oklahoma,  where  it  again  turns  southeast,  finally  joining  Arkansa-s 
River  in  the  eastern  part  of  Indian  Territory.  Of  the  700  miles  of 
its  course  only  about  100  miles  are  included  in  the  part  of  the  Pan- 
handle under  discussion.  Across  this  region  it  flows  in  a  broad  curve. 
convex  to  the  north,  crossing  southeastern  Hutchinson,  northern 
Roberts,  and  middle  Hemphill  counties  l)efore  pas.sing  into  Okla- 
homa. Throughout  this  distance  the  river  has  cut  a  broad  cany<>n  in 
the  High  Plains.  In  places  the  headlands  between  the  tributary- 
creeks  approach  almost  to  the  river,  but  at  most  points  the  fl(x>d  plain. 
usually  a  sandy  flat,  is  2  to  4  miles  wide.  The  channel  of  the  river 
itself  is  a  sand  bed  averaging  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  width. 

Canadian  River  is  perhaps  more  treacherous  than  any  t>tlier 
stream  of  the  plains.  The  stream  is  either  dry  or  a  raging  tomMit. 
Th(*  river  may  have  been  dry  for  weeks  at  a  time,  when  suddenlv. 
without  warning,  a  wall  of  water  several  feet  high  rushes  down  X\w 
channel,  sweeping  everything  before  it,  and  for  a  number  of  days 
the  river  continues  high,  then  gradually  subsides,  following  thi^ 
period  of  abnormal  flow  the  sand  in  the  stream  becomes  "  quicksand." 
oi'  loose  sand  which  appears  firm  but  gives  way  suddenly  under  foot. 
rendering  the  stream  extremely  dangerous  to  cross.     Many  a  henl  of 


U.   6.  OEOLOOICAL    SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER    NO.   154      PU   XII 


FRESHET  ON  RED  DEER  CREEK  AT  MIAMI,  TEX. 


STREAMS.  43 

<nittle  has  been  mired  in  Canadian  River,  and  every  year  loaded 
wagons  and  even  teams  are  abandoned.  The  cause  of  the  sudden 
and  rapid  rises  is  not  yet  fully  understood,  but  most  of  them  are 
caused  by  heavy  rains  near  the  head  of  the  stream. 

Such  sudden  rises  are  not  confined  to  the  Canadian  River,  or  to  tlie 
larger  streams,  for  the  small  streams  exhibt  the  same  phenomena, 
ihough  on  a  much  diminished  scale.  PI.  XII,  ^4,  5,  shows  a  rise 
which  occurred  on  Red  Deer  Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Canadian, 
at  Miami,  Roberts  County,  August  16,  1904.  The  town  lies  in 
a  rather  narrow  valley  cut  by  the  stream  into  the  High  Plains. 
Thete  had  been  no  rain  at  Miami  for  several  weeks  and  the  bed 
of  the  creek  was  a  dry  sand  flat.  A  heavy  rain  occurred  at  the 
head  of  the  creek  a  few  miles  southwest,  and  two  hours  later  the 
water  came  down  the  stream  channel,  a  narrow  tongue  of  white 
foam,  as  shown  in  PI.  XII,  A.  This  was  followed  by  a  wall  of 
turbid,  yellow  water  that  filled  the  banks  of  tho  stream.  In  half  an 
hour  the  flood  was  at  its  highest,  a  seething,  foam-capped  torrent. 
By  next  morning  the  water  had  disappeared  except  from  a  few  pools 
in  the  channel,  as  shown  in  PI.  XII,  J?,  and  by  noon  even  these  were 
dry. 

Canadian  River  does  not  receive  any  large  tributaries  in  its  (course 
across  the  plains.  In  three  counties  which  it  crosses  in  the  region 
to  which  this  report  relates  there  are  a  number  of  small  creeks,  none 
more  than  25  miles  long,  emptying  into  the  river.  Of  these  the  most 
important  are  Spring,  Kit  Carson,  Dixon,  Antelope,  Blue  Bear,  Wal- 
nut, Buffalo,  WTiite  Deer,  and  Red  Deer,  all  of  which  rise  on  the  High 
Plains  and  cut  their  way  through  the  escarpment  before  reaching  the 
river. 

Washita  liircr. — Only  the  upper  course  of  Washita  River  is  in 
Texas,  whore  it  is  a  small  creek,  not  differing  from  scores  of  others 
which  take  their  rise  in  the  escarpment  and  sand-hill  regions.  It 
flows  east  across  the  southern  part  of  Hemphill  County.  Farther 
east  in  Oklahoma  the  valley  of  the  Washita  lies  almost  entirely  in 
the  red  l)eds,  and  it  is  there  known  as  the  muddiest  stream  of  the 
plains.  In  Hemphill  County,  Tex.,  however,  it  has  not  yet  cut 
through  the  Tertiary,  and  is  here  a  clear,  fresh-water  stream. 

North  Fork  of  Red  Rirer, — This,  the  northernmost  of  the  four 
l)ranches  which  make  up  the  Red  River,  rises  on  the  High  Plains,  in 
Carson  County,  breaks  tlirough  the  escarpment  in  (Jray  County,  and 
flows  northeast  into  A\Tieeler  County,  then  southeast  into  Oklahoma. 
East  of  the  Gray- Wheeler  county  line  the  stream  has  cut  through  the 
Tertiary  deposits  and  into  red  beds,  which  are  here  exposed  along  its 
north  bank,  while  on  the  south  side  sand  hills  occur.  Across  Gray 
and  Wheeler  counties  the  bed  of  North  Fork  is  sand  choked  and  has 


44  EASTERN    PANHANDLE   OF   TEXAS. 

a  surface  flow  only  part  of  the  year.  The  chief  tributaries  of  Xortl. 
Fork  are  McClellan  Creek,  which  drains  southern  Gray  County. 
emptying  near  the  AVheeler  County  line,  and  Sweetwater  Creek. 
which  drains  northern  AVheeler  County  and  passes  into  Oklahonia 
before  joining  the  main  stream.  All  of  these  streams  are  fed  hy 
Tertiary  springs,  and  even  where  the  surface  sand  is  dry  water  nia\ 
usually  bt^  obtained  by  digging  a  few  feet. 

Elm  Fork  of  Red  River, — Northern  Collingsworth  and  southenj 
WTieeler  counties  are  drained  by  Elm  Fork,  which  rises  along  the 
escarpment,  but  soon  reaches  the  red  beds,  across  which  it  flows^  iax 
the  greater  part  of  its  course  in  Texas.  The  water  of  the  upp^r 
branches  is  derived  from  the  Tertiary  springs  in  the  sand  hills  alou<; 
the  escarpment,  but  as  soon  as  the  river  enters  the  red-beds  forma- 
tions, gA'psum  and  salt  water  flow  into  it,  until  by  the  time  it  reaoh<-> 
the  Oklahoma  line  the  water  has  lost  its  purity.  Shortly  after 
entering  Greer  County  it  receives  water  from  a  number  of  >alt 
springs,  and  from  that  point  is  considered  to  contain  the  saltie>t 
water  of  any  stream  of  the  plains. 

Salt  Fork  of  Red  River. — Salt  Fork  is  a  typical  stream  of  \\\^ 
plains.  It  rises  far  out  on  the  Llano  Estacado  in  southern  Car^ou 
County,  crosses  northeastern  Armstrong  County,  and  flows  entirely 
across  Donley  and  Collingsworth  counties  before  reaching  the  Okla- 
homa line.  In  its  upper  course  it  is  but  a  shallow  draw  in  the  lev(*I 
prairie,  but  eastward  it  soon  flows  in  a  trench,  and  10  miles  from  it- 
source  this  deepens  into  a  canyon  with  cliffs  of  white  Tertiary-  l)e<l^ 
Up  to  this  point  the  stream  receives  no  water  except  the  run-off,  but 
a  few  miles  lower  in  its  course  it  reaches  the  Tertiary  springs  level 
and  has  a  surface  flow  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  Ka.stwartl  the 
lx»d  widens  and  becomes  sand  choked,  until  in  central  Donley  County, 
north  of  Clarendon,  it  cuts  through  the  lower  members  of  the  Tertiary 
and  enters  the  red  l)eds.  From  that  point  almost  to  Mangiini,  in 
Greer  County,  Okla.,  it  flows  between  red-beds  bluffs  on  the  north  j=i<l(» 
and  sand  hills  on  the  south  side.  It  is  a  sandy,  treacherous  stream, 
dangerous  to  cross  ex(*ept  when  low. 

Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  River, — This  stream  flows  southwest- 
ward  across  Armstrong  County  in  Palo  Duro  Canyon,  which  has 
been  discuss(»d  under  "  Topography,"  page  12.  This  canyon  is  jmm- 
haps  the  most  notal)le  canyon  in  the  High  Plains.  Near  its  mouth 
the  walls  are  approximately  1,000  feet  high,  composed  of  red  U*<K 
in  the  lower  part  and  of  Tertiary  deposits  above.  Several  crtH»k> 
are  tributary  to  this  stream,  the  chief  of  which,  Spillers  and  Mnl- 
Ix^rry  creeks,  drain  parts  of  southern  Collingsworth  and  Donley 
counties.  These  streams  do  not  differ  materially  from  others  in  this 
region.  Spillers  Creek  rises  in  the  sand  hills  of  Collingsworth 
County  and  flows  southeast  across  the  I'ed  beds  into  Childi-ess  County 


U.   S,   GEOLOGICAL    SURVFV 


WATER-SUPPLY  PAPER  NO.   154      PL.   XIII 


A.     BUFFALO  WALLOW. 


B.     LAKE  ON   HIGH   PLAINS. 


DRAINAGE.  45 

l>ef  ore  joining  Prairie  Dog  Fork.  Mulberry  Creek  rises  on  the  High 
1^1  a  ins  and  has  cut  a  deep  canyon  entirely  through  the  Tertiary  to  a 
cleiDth  of  several  hundred  feet  into  the  red  beds. 

DRAINAGE  OF  THE  HIGH  PLAINS. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  understood  that  there  is  a  con- 
si  derable  portion  of  the  Panhandle  which  has  no  developed  drainage; 
i  II  other  words,  from  a  great  part  of  the  High  Plains  there  is  no  run- 
off. The  headwaters  of  the  various  small  streams  tributary  to  Cana- 
clian  or  Red  rivers  have  cut  into  the  slope  of  the  escarpment,  but  so 
far,  except  in  a  few  isolated  localities,  the  flat  upland  has  not  yet 
l>een  invaded  and  remains  still  uneroded.  It  is  graphically  described 
by  Johnson,"  who  says  the  plains  are  the  remnants  of  an  old  debris 
apron,  unscored  by  drainage,  yet  standing  in  relief. 

Scattered  at  irregular  intervals  on  this  flat  surface  are  saucer- 
>>haped  depressions,  in  which  water  collects.     In  size  these  depres- 
i^ions  vary  from  the  ordinary  "  buffalo  wallow,"  a  few"  feet  across 
(PL  XIII,  ^),  to  lakes  hundreds  of  rods  in  diameter  (PI.  XIII,  B). 
In   a  few  instances,  particularly  in  localities  near  the  edge  of  the 
plain,  the  basins  are  deep  and  bowl  shaped,  as  shown  on  PL  XIV,  B. 
Often  the  lakes  are  perennial  and  afford  an  abundant  supply  of  stock 
water  the  year  round ;  others  are  ephemeral,  being  filled  by  rains  but 
soon  becoming  dry,  while  still  others  contain  \yater  part  of  the  year. 
These  lakes  occur  with  no  regularity.     In  some  localities  on  the  High 
Plains  there  are  none  of  these  basins  for  miles,  while  in  other  sections 
there  are  scores  of  them  in  a  single  township.     PL  XV  represents  the 
conditions  on  the  High  Plains  in  parts  of  Carson  and  (Iray  counties. 
Many  of  the  larger  depressions  have  extensive  drainage  basins, 
which  sometimes  collect  the  water  from  a  number  of  square  miles. 
Small  prairie  streams  receive  the  run-off  from  the  outer  part  of  the 
basin  and  lead  to  the  lake.     It  is  not  infrequent  in  traversing  the 
High  Plains  to  encounter  a  sag  in  the  surface  along  which  storm 
water  is  carried  to  a  near-by  lake.     The.se  small  stream  beds,  how- 
ever, rarely  exceed  a  mile  or  two  in  length.     In  view  of  the  admirable 
treatment  of  the  subject  by  Johnson,''  there  seems  no  need  to  enter 
upon  a  discussion  of  the  origin  of  these  lakes.     The  writer  agrees 
that  the  "  innumerable  hollows  in  the  High  Plains  surface,  large  and 
small  alike,  are  due  to  ground  settlement  rather  than  to  some  process 
either  of  original  construction  or  of  subsequent  erosion."'' 

The  influence  of  these  lakes  upon  the  settlement  of  the  country  has 
i)een  important,  for  on  the  High  Plains  the  matter  of  water  supply  is 

•  Johnson,  W.  D.,  The  Hl^h  Plains  and  their  utilization :   Twentj-flrst  Ann.  Rept.  U.  8. 
Geol.  Survey,  pt.  4,  1901,  p.  626. 

•Ibid.,  pp.  695-711. 

*  Ibid.,  p.  T02. 

IBB  154— -06  M -4 


46  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF   TEXAS. 

vital.  In  the  early  history  of  the  Panhandle,  before  wells  had  be.-.: 
sunk,  these  lakes  constituted  the  only  source  of  supply,  and  thu>  ir 
happened  that  the  early  cow  camps  were  located  beside  some  per- 
manent body  of  water.  In  a  number  of  instances  a  town  g:rew  up  a: 
the  site  of  the  cow  camp,  and  to-day  some  of  the  largest  county  seats— 
for  example,  Clarendon,  Claude,  and  Panhandle — owe  their  locatiurj 
to  the  presence  of  such  basins.  Although  windmills  are  now  used  to 
draw  water  for  household  use,  as  shown  in  PI.  XI,  -4,  5,  a  great  part 
of  the  stock  water  still  comes  from  the  lakes. 

IRRIGATION. 

nep:d  of  irrigation. 

The  Panhandle  of  Texas  is  located  in  the  semiarid  belt  of  the  (irvat 
Plains.  The  annual  rainfall  averages  approximately  20  inches,  hut 
the  greater  part  of  this  amount  is  from  dashing  rains.  During  ot- 
tain  seasons  there  is  little  or  no  rain.  The  soil  is  extremely  fertile, 
and  if  water  were  prevsent  it  is  capable  of  producing  abundant  croj.»>. 
At  various  times  on  the  High  Plains  farming  has  been  attempted, 
and  often  with  success  for  a  few  years,  but  usually  seasons  of  drought 
have  ensued  and  the  effort  has  been  abandoned.  In  general,  practi- 
cally all  the  crops  that  have  been  raised  successfully  on  the  High 
Plains  are  such  forage  plants  as  kaffir  corn,  sorghum,  and  milo  maiz^. 
which  are  able  to  mature  with  a  mijiimum  of  moisture.  At  the  f<>>t 
of  the  plains,  particularly  along  some  of  the  stream  valleys,  the 
culture  of  corn,  oats,  cotton,  and  alfalfa  is  now  being  attempted  with 
considerable  success.  Crops  are  frequently  abundant  for  several 
successive  years,  but  occasionally  fail  during  periods  of  drought. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  in  a  region  with  climatic  con- 
ditions such  as  those  in  the  Panhandle,  irrigation  is  necessarj'  for 
successful  farming.  This  fact  has  long  been  recognijsed  and  a  num- 
ber of  desultory  attempts  have  been  made  to  irrigate  small  tracts, 
but  nothing  approaching  a  large  system  has  ever  been  projected. 

POSSIBLE  METHODS   OF   IRRIGATION. 

It  is  proposed  in  the  following  pages  to  discuss  four  possible  modes 
of  irrigation  which  might  be  put  into  operation  in  the  Panhandle  of 
Texas,  viz,  (1)  irrigation  from  streams,  (2)  springs,  (3)  storm 
water,  and  (4)  wells. 

Imgation  from  streams, — It  has  l)een  shown  above  that  the  larger 
streams  of  this  region  practically  all  flow  in  broad,  shifting,  sand- 
choked  channels,  contained  between  low,  sandy  banks,  and  that  the 
water  varies  constantly,  the  stream  l>eing  at  one  time  a  rushing  tor- 
rent, at  another  nothing  but  a  dry  sand  bed.  Only  one  of  the^ 
I'ivers — the  Canadian — ^has  its  headwaters  in  the  mountains;  all  the 


U.   8.   OEOLOOlCAL  8URVFV 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER    NO.    1S4      PL.   XIV 


A.     ORCHARD  AND  GARDEN   AT  CLAUDE.  TEX. 


B.     JACOB'S  WELL.   IN   A   DEEP   BASIN    NEAR   EDGE  OF  HIGH   PLAINS. 


mRIGATTON.  47 

others  take  their  rise  on  the  High  Plains  and  are  fed  by  local  rains 
or  by  springs. 

There  are  no  Government  gaging  stations  in  the  Panhandle  of 
Texas,  and  no  accurate  data  are  available  regarding  the  amount  of 
flow  in  the  various  rivers.  It  is  known,  however,  that  enough  water 
passes  down  the  streams  each  year,  particularly  during  times  of 
flood,  to  irrigate  considerable  are^s  of  valuable  land.  In  most  cases, 
however,  there  would  he  great  difficulty  in  storing  these  flood  waters. 
Ill  the  first  place,  so  far  as  known,  there  are  no  available  dam  sites 
along  the  larger  streams.  The  broad,  shallow  channel,  sometimes 
filled  to  a  depth  of  100  feet  with  fine  sand,  precludes  the  construction 
of  masonry  dams.  Besides  this,  in  most  cases  material  for  dams  is 
rare,  or,  indeed,  entirely  wanting.  There  are  few  hard  rocks  in  this 
region  except  an  occasional  local  ledge  of  sandstone  or  dolomite  in 
the  red  beds  and  some  indurated  Tertiary  limestone  along  the  bluffs. 
Again,  the  sandy  nature  of  the  soil  along  the  streams  presents  diffi- 
ciiltias  in  the  way  of  the  construction  of  ditches. 

Along  some  of  the  smaller  streams  irrigation  has  been  carried  on 
with  more  or  less  success.  Along  Palo  Duro  Creek,  near  the  post- 
office  of  Mulock,  in  northeastern  Hansford  County,  Robinson 
I^rothers  have  a  plant  in  operation  from  which  35  acres  are  irrigated. 
The  difficulty  at  this  place  has  been  in  securing  a  suitable  site  for  the 
dam,  and  the  scarcity  of  material  with  which  to  construct  it.  In 
former  years  several  dams  here  have  been  washed  out  during  times  of 
high  water.  Other  similar  plants  are  projected  farther  down  Palo 
Duro  Creek;  one  at  Range,  Okla.,  12  miles  below  Mulock,  has  been 
in  successful  operation  for  a  number  of  years.  In  eastern  A'Mieeler 
County  the  water  of  Sweetwater  Creek  was  formerly  utilized  to  irri- 
♦2:ate  a  tract  of  60  acres,  but  in  the  last  few  years  the  project  has  been 
abandoned.  There  are  a  number  of  smaller  streams  where  small 
plants  sufficient  to  irrigate  10  to  25  acres  might  be  successfully  in- 
stalled. Particularly  are  there  opportunities  for  such  projects  along 
Mammoth,  Wolf,  and  Sweetwater  creeks,  the  upper  branches  of  the 
various  forks  of  Red  River,  and  some  of  the  short  tributaries  of 
Canadian  River. 

Inngatian  frojin  spinngs. — Since  only  springs  that  have  a  consider- 
able flow  can  be  utilized  for  this  purpose,  irrigation  from  springs 
must,  at  best,  be  confined  to  limited  areas.  In  the  Panhandle  it  is 
rather  an  unusual  occurrence  for  a  spring  to  be  located  where  the 
water  may  be  led  off  to  irrigate  a  tract  of  land,  but  in  a  few  cases 
there  are  springs  which  are  so  located  that  they  might  be  thus  util- 
ized. So  far  as  known  there  is  no  irrigation  directly  from  a  single 
spring  in  this  region,  but  there  are  localities  in  which  a  small  creek, 
formed  by  a  number  of  springs  uniting,  might  be  deflected  from  its 
channel  and  carried  by  a  ditch  over  a  tract  of  land.     Examples  of 


48  EASTEBN   PANHANDLE   OF   TEXAS. 

this  condition  might  be  cited  along  the  smaller  tributaries  of  Wolf 
and  Sweetwater  creeks  and  Canadian  River. 

Irrigation  from  storm  waters, — Much  of  the  rainfall  of  the  Pan 
handle  occurs  as  dashing  showers  at  irregular  intervals,  chiefly  dur 
ing  the  spring  and  summer  months.  After  a  shower  the  water  ««i. 
the  High  Plains  accumulates  in  shallow  sags  which  empty  into  bnia<l. 
shallow  "lakes;"  while  among  the  breaks  and  at  the  foot  of  th*- 
plains  it  passes  into  the  streams.  In  numerous  places  the  sags  on  tli« 
High  Plains  or  the  dry  channels  among  the  breaks  have  been  dammeil 
forming  reservoirs,  known  locally  as  "tanks,"  to  hold  stock  water, 
and  in  a  few  instances  a  ditch  has  been  led  out  from  one  of  the- 
artificial  ponds  to  irrigate  a  few  square  rods  of  garden  or  orchani. 
While  it  is  obvious  that  irrigation  of  this  character  can  never  i'- 
practiced  on  a  large  scale,  it  is  nevertheless  possible  for  hundred>  ^i 
families  in  the  region  to  be  provided  with  home-grown  vegetahl*'^ 
and  fruit  by  irrigation  from  stonn  waters. 

Irrigation  from  wells. — In  the  discussion  of  the  subject  of  ant- 
sian  water  in  another  part  of  this  report,  the  conclusion  was  readnil 
that  the  probabilities  for  artesian  supply  in  the  Panhandle  are  not 
good.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  ordinary  wells,  which  are  com- 
mon in  all  parts  of  the  region,  usually  supply  considerable  amount^ 
of  water,  often  more  than  is  needed  for  stock  water  and  domestic  usi, 
and  the  surplus  might  well  be  used  for  irrigation.  The  chief  diffi- 
culty in  the  way  of  the  utilization  of  well  water  for  these  purpose>  i< 
the  matter  of  expense  in  lifting  the  water  to  the  surface.  In  thi- 
region  wind  power  is  almost  univei*sally  used  for  this  purpose.  In 
localities  where  wells  are  shallow,  as,  for  instance,  along  stream  valley^ 
or  among  the  sand  hills,  it  has  been  found  profitable  to  use  water  from 
wells  for  irrigating  areas  of  considerable  size.  In  the  greater  pan 
of  the  Panhandle,  however,  the  water  is  too  deep  to  be.  used  in  thi< 
way.  As  has  been  stated,  the  average  depth  of  the  wells  on  the  Hi^h 
Plains  is  over  200  feet,  while  on  the  eroded  plains  the  wells  average 
nearly  100  feet  in  depth.  It  is  obvious  that  under  such  condition- 
little  more  can  be  done  than  to  irrigate  a  garden  or  an  orchard,  and 
so  far  as  has  been  observed  this  is  all  that  is  ever  attempted.  PI. 
XIV,  .4,  page  46,  shows  an  orchard  and  garden  at  Claude,  which  i? 
irrigated  from  a  well  over  250  feet  deep.  Examples  similar  to  thi> 
are  not  uncommon. 

In  the  sand-hill  regions,  where  the  water  is  not  so  deep,  there  are  a 
number  of  instances  of  small  plots  irrigated  with  water  obtaineil 
from  a  well.  On  the  red-beds  plain  there  is  less  irrigation  by  thi? 
means,  partly  because  the  gypsum  water  is  not  suitable  for  irrigation, 
but  chiefly  because  the  need  of  irrigation  is  not  realized. 


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WATER   CONDITIONS.  49 

FUTURE   OF    IRRIGATION. 

Taking  into  account  the  local  facts  it  seems  very  doubtful  if  there 
will  ever  be  any  extensive  irrigation  in  the  region  under  discussion. 
The  supply  of  water  is  not  sufficient  for  this  purpose  except  along 
the  larger  streams,  where  the  conditions  are  such  that  dams  can  not 
be  constructed.  Small  streams,  springs,  artificial  ponds,  and  wells 
supply  water  for  limited  irrigation,  sufficient  often  to  raise  vegetables 
and  fruit  for  a  family,  but  not  more.  As  time  goes  on  and  the  region 
is  more  thickly  settled,  these  small  plants  will  increase  in  number. 
There  is  little  to  warrant  the  hope  that  the  water  supply  in  the  Pan- 
handle will  ever  increase,  and  unless  some  more  efficient  means  than 
the  ordinary  windmill  be  secured  to  lift  the  water  from  deep  wells 
to  the  surface  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  anything  like  extensive 
works  can  ever  be  installed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  obvious  that 
only  a  very  small  part  of  the  available  water  is  now  being  utilized. 
It  is  possible  that  the  future  will  witness  in  this  region  thousands  of 
small  pumping  plants,  each  capable  of  supplying  sufficient  water  to 
irrigate  a  garden  and  an  orchard. 

WATER  CONDITIONS  BY  COUNTIES,  a 
LIPSCOMB  COUNTY. 

Topography. — ^Lipscomb  County  is  in  the  northeastern  corner  of 
the  Panhandle.  Its  surface  is  a  level  plain  trenched  from  west  to 
east  through  the  middle  by  the  valley  of  Wolf  Creek.  This  valley 
is  like  a  great  sloping  groove,  250  feet  below  the  level  of  the  High 
Plains  at  the  west  line  of  the  county  and  500  feet  below  at  the  east 
line.  The  High  Plain  along  the  northern  line  of  the  county  is  being 
cut  into  by  branches  of  Beaver  Creek.  Wolf  Creek  Valley  separates 
the  county  into  two  areas  of  plains,  one  forming  the  table-land  be- 
tween Wolf  Creek  and  Beaver  Creek  drainage  basins,  the  other  lying 
between  Wolf  Creek  and  Canadian  River.  Sand  hills  are  present  in 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  county  and  between  Wolf  Creek  and  the 
southern  line. 

Geology. — The  rocks  of  the  surface  in  Lipscomb  County  are  en- 

« There  are  no  Federal  public  lands  In  Texas.  This  State,  when  it  came  into  the 
Union  by  annexation,  retained  Its  public  lands,  nnd  the  general  system  of  township  and 
range  lines,  by  which  the  lands  of  the  greater  part  of  the  ITnited  States  are  surveyed,  Is 
not  employed.  No  regular  section  lines  exist,  but  various-sized  tracts  are  laid  off, 
usually  In  blocks  of  square  miles  as  they  were  selected  by  the  land-grant  railroads  or 
purchased  by  individuals.  Some  of  the  earliest  surveys  employed  the  Spanish  vara, 
which  equals  33.38o  inches  (1,897.7-1-  varas  equal  1  mile).  With  such  a  system  of  sur- 
vey the  roads  are  irregularly  distributed,  no  correction  Hues  exist,  and  the  location  of 
points  by  township  and  range  is  Impossible.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Panhandle,  how- 
ever, the  counties  are  uniformly  30  miles  square,  each  containing  900  square  miles,  a 
condition  which  tends  to  obviate  much  of  the  difficulty  otherwise  encountered  in  attempt- 
ing to  map  the  region. 


50  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

tirely  of  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  age.     Gray  sandstones  and  cla\> 
predominate  and  form  conspicuous  bluffs  along  the  larger  stream?. 

Wat€7'  supply. — The  two  largest  streams  in  the  county  are  Wolf 
Creek  and  its  tributary  Mammoth  Creek.  Wolf  Creek  enters  from 
Ochiltree  County  near  the  center  of  the  west  line  of  the  county  anil 
flows  directly  east;  Mammoth  Creek  rises  in  the  northwest  part  of 
the  county  and  flows  southeast,  joining  Wolf  Creek  in  Oklahoma  a 
few  miles  east  of  the  Stat«  line.  These  creeks,  as  well  as  a  niimWr 
of  other  smaller  tributaries  of  Wolf  Creek,  are  spring  fed.  but  ii. 
their  lower  courses  flow  through  sand-choked  beds.  Ordinarily  the 
amount  of  water  is  small,  flowing  but  1  or  2  second-feet,  and  at  pla<e> 
entirely  disappearing  under  the  sand.  The  streams  are  subject  lo 
sudden  rises  of  a  few  hours'  duration,  at  which  time  the  creeks  flow 
several  hundred  second-feet.  In  this  county  the  drainage  is  so  well 
developed  that  few  lakes  exist  on  the  High  Plains.  Lipscomb  ha> 
the  reputation  among  cattle  men  of  being  the  best  watered  county  in 
the  Panhandle.  The  sand  strata,  both  that  of  the  Tertiary  and  in 
the  sand-hill  regions,  furnishes  an  abundance  of  good  water,  issuing 
in  the  form  of  numerous  springs,  w^hich  reach  the  surface  along  th*^ 
streams.  Although  their  flow  is  seldom  large,  these  springs  are  con 
stant  in  volume  and  usually  perennial  in  their  character.  The  mvlUt 
is  pure  and  wholesome  and  almost  always  free  from  notable  amount< 
of  salts.  It  is  these  springs  which  feed  the  numerous  tributaries  <>f 
Wolf  Creek  and  render  the  water  so  abundant  in  the  county. 

Wells  on  the  uplands  in  the  county  range  from  130  to  333  feet  in 
depth,  wnth  an  average  of  150  feet.  In  the  valleys  a  maximum 
depth  of  50  feet  usually  secures  an  abundance  of  water,  but  along 
Wolf  Creek  and  some  of  the  smaller  streams  many  of  the  best  wellb 
are  not  more  than  20  feet  deep.  *  Of  the  well  records  seciu^d  in  Lip>- 
comb  County,  the  average  depth  was  121  feet. 

OCHILTREE   COUNTY. 

Topography, — Ochiltree  County  is  in  the  northern  part  of  this 
region,  lying  almost  wholly  on  the  High  Plains  and  having  uniform 
plains  topography.  Near  the  center  it  is  trenched  by  the  head 
branches  of  Wolf  Creek,  in  a  valley  which  gradually  deepens  to  the 
east.  Some  of  the  small  side  branches  of  Canadian  River  which  head 
in  the  southern  part  of  this  region  are  actively  eroding  the  plains, 
forming  rugged  breaks.  A  few  of  the  small  branches  of  Beaver 
Creek,  which  head  in  extreme  northern  Ochiltree  County,  have  caustnl 
but  little  erosion. 

Geology, — The  rocks  are  entirely  Tertiary  and  Quaternary,  and. 
with  the  exception  of  the  regions  of  the  breaks  near  the  streams,  the 
surface  is  flat.  Along  the  bluffs  there  are  ledges  of  Tertiary  clay  and 
?and. 


WATER   CONDITIONS.  51 

Water  supply, — ^There  are  two  drainage  systems  in  this  county. 
The  eastern  portion  is  drained  by  Wolf  Creek,  which  has  its  source 
in  the  central  part  of  the  county,  where  it  is  a  small  fresh-water 
s^tream,  fed  by  perennial  springs,  and  flows  through  a  wide  gorge 
in  the  Tertiary  rocks.  Canadian  River  drains  the  southern  portion, 
iiTid  branches  of  this  stream,  which  have  their  origin  in  Tertiary 
jsprings  along  the  breaks,  flow  south  into  Roberts  County.  A  few 
minor  branches  of  Beaver  Creek  drain  the  northern  part. 

The  High  Plains  surface  is  entirely  without  drainage,  and  shallow 
lakes  are  abundant  and  often  of  relatively  large  size,  sometimes  cov- 
ei-ing  100  acres  or  more.  Ochiltree  County  has  an  abundance  of  good 
well  water,  but  ordinarily  it  is  found  at  a  considerable  depth.  In 
t  he  southern  part  of  the  county,  near  the  breaks,  the  depth  to  water 
exceeds  400  feet,  while  farther  north  water  is  obtained  in  abundance 
from  150  to  300  feet.  In  the  Wolf  Creek  Valley  the  wells  are  shal- 
low, many  of  them  finding  good  water  at  50  to  100  feet.  The  average 
depth  of  twenty-four  wells  in  Ochiltree  County  is  245  feet. 

HANSFORD    COUNTY. 

Topography. — Hansford  County  is  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
region  to  which  this  report  relates.  It  includes  a  portion  of  the 
High  Plains,  trenched  by  two  streams,  Palo  Duro  Creek,  which  rises 
in  the  extreme  southwestern  portion  of  the  county  and  passes  into 
Oklahoma  near  the  northeast  corner,  and  Coldwater  Creek,  also 
known  as  Rabbit  Ear  Creek,  which  enters  the  county  near  the  center 
of  the  west  line  and  flows  across  the  northwest  corner,  passing  into 
Beaver  County,  Okla.  The  greater  portion  of  the  county  retains  its 
original  plains  features,  while  a  lesser  part  consists  of  valleys  and 
breaks.  The  entire  county  presents  a  gradual  slope  to  the  east.  The 
highest  point  in  this  part  of  the  Panhandle  is  attained  in  this  county, 
just  south  of  the  center,  along  the  west  line — an  altitude  of  3,750  feet. 

Geology. — Nearly  all  of  the  surface  rocks  of  Hansford  County  are 
of  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  age.  In  the  extreme  northeast  corner 
Palo  Duro  Creek  has  cut  through  the  Tertiary  and  exposes  the  under- 
lying red  beds.  Along  Coldwater  and  Palo  Duro  creeks  bluffs  of 
hard  Tertiary  rocks  occur,  but  for  the  most  part  nothing  appears  on 
the  surface  except  ledges  of  soft  Tertiary  marl  exposed  along  prairie 
draws. 

Water  supply. — With  the  exception  of  a  small  portion  at  the 
south  which  drains  into  Canadian  River,  all  the  waters  of  this  county 
find  their  way  into  the  Beaver  Creek  drainage  system.  Palo  Duro 
Creek  is  a  small  stream  which  rises  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
county,  and  gi'adually  deepens  its  valley  in  its  passage  northeast 
until  at  the  county  line  it  has  attained  a  depth  of  approximately 
300  feet  below  the  level  of  the  High  Plains.    Its  numerous  lateral 


52  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

branches  receive  the  drainage  from  a  considerable  area,  and  at  time- 
of  heavy  rains  these  discharge  their  waters  into  a  main  trunk,  which 
for  a  short  time  becomes  a  torrent.  In  its  central  and  lower  course 
there  are  fertile  valleys  which  afford  good  farming  land^  especially 
adapted  to  alfalfa  culture.  Several  small  irrigation  works  havo 
been  constructed  along  the  lower  part  of  Palo  Duro  Creek.  Th*- 
difficulty  in  maintaining  these  plants  is  that  the  dams,  built  nf 
rough  stone  uncemented,  wash  out  in  times  of  freshets.  Coldwat^r 
Creek  crosses  the  northwest  corner  of  the  county,  entering  fron- 
Sherman  County,  Tex.,  and  passing  northeast  into  Beaver  Countv. 
Okla.  It  is  a  small  stream  flowing  through  a  well-developed  gorgy. 
Lakes  similar  to  those  in  other  parts  of  the  region  occur  upon  the 
High  Plains.  Hansford  County  has  an  abundance  of  good  well 
water  at  depths  varying  on  the  High  Plains  from  190  to  300  feet,  and 
rarely  does  a  well  fail  to  encounter  an  ample  supply.  In  the  valley- 
springs  occur,  the  water  from  which  is  like  water  from  the  Tertiary 
beds,  pure  and  wholesome.  The  average  depth  of  thirteen  wells  in 
this  county  is  235  feet. 

HUTCHINSON  CX)UNTY. 

Topography. — Hutchinson  County  lies  in  the  western  part  of  the 
region  to  which  this  report  relates.  The  surface  of  its  northern  part 
is  High  Plains.  The  central  and  southern  part  is  occupied  by  the 
canyon  of  Canadian  River  and  the  breaks  on  either  side  formed  by 
short  tributary  creeks. 

Geology. — Along  Canadian  River  and  along  the  small  streams 
flowing  into  it  in  the  central  and  southwestern  part  of  the  county 
there  are  extensive  exposures  of  Permian  red  beds,  consisting  of 
red  clays  and  shales  with  interbedded  dolomite  and  gypsum  members. 
These  rocks  have  been  provisionally  referred  to  the  Quartermaster 
formation.  The  remainder  of  the  county  is  composed  of  typical 
Tertiary  and  Quaternary  deposits,  the  former  being  exposed  a^ 
bluffs  along  the  streams  and  the  latter  as  sand  hills  and  alluvium. 

Watrr  supply. — The  entire  drainage  of  this  county  flows  into 
Canadian  River,  which  crosses  the  county  from  southwest  to  north- 
east. On  the  north  side  there  are  several  small  streams,  the  chief 
of  which  are  Kit  Carson  and  Coldwater  creeks,  while  from  the  south 
flow  AMiite  Deer,  Spring,  Bear,  Dixon,  and  Antelope  creeks.  Thu^ 
the  greater  part  of  Hutchinson  County  is  well  drained.  It  has  an 
abundance  of  good  water,  and,  wuth  the  exception  of  some  wells  in 
the  Canadian  Valley  and  in  its  tributary  creeks,  which  find  their 
supply  in  the  red  beds,  the  water  is  wholesome  and  free  from  injurious 
salts.  West  from  Plemons  a  number  of  strong  springs  occur  at  the 
line  of  contact  between  the  red  beds  and  the  Tertiary.     On   the 


WATER   CONDITIONS.  58 

High  Plains  water  is  obtained  at  depths  ranging  from  136  to  320 
feet,  and  in  the  valleys  at  less  than  20  feet.  The  well  records  col- 
lected show  an  average  depth  of  243  feet. 

ROBERTS    COUNTY. 

Topography. — Roberts  County  lies  in  the  north  central  part  of  the 
I'egion  embraced  in  this  report.  The  surface  of  the  southern  portion 
is  High  Plains  trenched  to  the  east  by  the  gorge  of  Red  Deer  Creek. 
The  northern  portion  is  occupied  by  the  valley  of  Canadian  River, 
with  its  broad  flood  plain  bordered  by  a  region  of  breaks  on  either 
side.  The  breaks  are  so  extensively  dissected  by  the  smaller  stream 
canyons  that  the  northern  portion  of  Roberts  County  is  one  of  the 
most  rugged  localities  in  the  Panhandle. 

Geology, — The  surface  rocks  are  mostly  of  Tertiary  age,  with  the 
usual  sand  hills  along  the  streams.  In  the  northwestern  portion  of 
the  county  Canadian  River  has  cut  down  into  the  red  beds  which 
are  exposed  in  the  bluffs  along  the  north  bank.  Alluvium  deposits 
occur  along  this  river  and  its  tributaries. 

Water  supply. — The  drainage  belongs  entirely  to  the  Canadian 
River  system.  This  river  flows  through  a  broad  flood  plain  occu- 
pied occasionally  by  low  sandy  marshes.  The  waters  of  a  consider- 
able portion  of  this  country  reach  the  river  by  parallel  streams 
rising  in  the  south  central  part  and  flowing  north.  Few  streams 
enter  from  the  north  side,  and  those  which  do  are  short,  steep,  and 
intermittent.  Red  Deer  Creek,  a  tributary  of  Canadian  River,  rises 
In  the  southern  portion  of  the  county  and  flows  northeast  into 
Hemphill  County.  Ordinarily  this  stream  has  no  surface  flow,  but 
it  becomes  a  raging  torrent  when  there  are  sudden  storms  about  its 
head.  Tertiary  springs  occur  along  the  breaks  and  canyons  and  sup- 
ply a  number  of  small  creeks.  Wells  in  the  High  Plains  area  are 
150  to  350  feet  deep,  and  in  the  valleys  water  is  obtained  at  from  0  to 
20  feet. 

HEMPHILL  COUNTY. 

Topography. — ^Hemphill  County  is  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
Panhandle.  Its  topography  is  varied,  for  Washita  River  rises  in  the 
southwestern  comer  and  its  northern  portion  is  crossed  by  Cana- 
dian River.  These  two  river  systems  have  removed  practically  all 
of  the  original  High  Plains  level  and  reduced  the  region  to  broad 
valleys  with  undulating  surfaces  between.  Along  Canadian  River  is 
a  wide,  sandy  flood  plain,  occupied  by  sand  hills  in  scattered  areas. 
Sand  hills  also  occur  in  the  north,  central,  and  eastern  parts  of  the 
county. 

Geology. — The  rocks  are  chiefly  Tertiary  deposits,  sand  hills,  and 
wash.     Small  areas  of  red  beds  are  exposed  along  the  Canadian  and 


54  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

Washita  rivers  in  the  eastern  portion  of  tlie  county.  Along  th»- 
streams  there  are  bluffs  and  outliers  of  white  Tertiary  rockj>,  hut 
the  greater  part  of  the  county  consists  of  rugged  breaks  and  undu- 
lating sand  hills. 

Wafe?*  supply. — The  drainage  system  is  well  developed.  The  water 
from  more  than  half  of  this  county  finds  its  way  into  Canadian 
River  through  a  number  of  short,  swift  streams,  many  of  which  an* 
j3erennial,  having  their  source  in  Tertiary  springs.  The  southern 
portion  of  the  county  is  drained  by  Washita  River,  a  stream  which 
In^comes  a  prominent  river  in  Oklahoma,  but  is  onl}-  a  small  creek  ifi 
ihe  Panhandle.  Its  w^ater,  being  derived  from  the  Tertiary  springs. 
is  fresh  and  free  from  the  injurious  salts  so  common  in  the  large 
rivers.  Springs  are  not  uncommon  in  this  county,  and  the  water 
obtained  from  lK)th  springs  and  wells  is  almost  uniformly  soft.  an<l 
pure.  The  depth  at  which  water  is  found  in  Hemphill  County  varie- 
greatly.  In  the  north,  south,  and  southwest  the  Tertiary  beds  of  the 
High  Plains  furnish  fresh  water  at  depths  ranging  from  100  to  335 
feet.  In  the  northern  sand-hill  regions  water  occurs  at  depths  of  7r> 
to  150  feet.  In  Canadian  and  Washita  valleys  wells  are  less  than  :^<) 
fcfet  deep.  Records  of  nineteen  wells  at  various  places  in  this  county 
show  an  average  depth  of  94  feet. 

WHEELER  COUNTY, 

Topography, — Wheeler  County  lies  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Pan- 
handle. The  surface  is  a  part  of  the  eroded  plains,  except  small 
areas  in  the  northwest  and  southwest.  The  region  is  a  rolling  plain 
dissected  by  two  principal  streams — Sweetwater  Creek  and  Xorth 
Fork  of  Red  River — with  their  tributaries.  There  are  extensive 
sand-hill  regions,  one  of  which,  5  to  10  miles  in  width,  and  being 
widest  near  the  center  of  the  county,  extends  along  the  south  side  of 
Sweetwater  Creek  almost  the  entire  length  of  the  county.  An  area 
of  very  prominent  sand  dunes  occupies  part  of  the  northeastern  cor- 
ner of  the  county.  The  hills  are  mostly  low  ridges  from  one-eighth 
of  a  mile  to  1  mile  long  and  10  to  20  feet  high.  Broken  ridges  and 
knolls  occur  everywhere  and  blow-outs  are  common.  A  third  sand- 
hill region  is  found  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  county,  between 
North  Fork  and  the  headwaters  of  Elm  Fork,  and  a  fourth  region  i^ 
in  the  extreme  southeastern  part. 

Geohxjy, — Red  beds  belonging  to  the  Greer  and  Quartermaster 
formations  appear  along  North  Fork  of  Red  River  and  the  branches 
of  Elm  Fork  in  the  southern  part  of  the  county.  Gypsum,  dolomite, 
and  red  shales  of  the  Greer  formation  and  the  red  sandy  shales  and 
thin  sandstones  of  the  Quartermaster  formation  may  be  seen  in  the 
vicinity  of  Shamrock,  and  red  bluffs  outcrop  along  the  north  side 
of  North  Fork  entirely  across  the  county.     The  greater  part  of  the 


WATER    CONDITIONS.  55 

i^urfpce  rocks,  however,  consist  of  sand  derived  from  the  Tertiary 
dcpenits  and  of  alluvium  along  the  valleys. 

Water  nupply. — The  drainage  of  this  county  is  through  three 
streams,  Sweetwater  Creek  and  North  Fork  and  ¥Am  Fork  of  Red 
River.  The  first  named,  farthest  to  the  north,  is  a  small  perennial 
stream  which  rises  just  beyond  the  limits  of  the  county  and  in  the 
eastern  part  was  formerly  used  to  some  small  extent  for  irrigation. 
North  Fork  of  Red  River  crosses  this  county  from  west  to  east  a 
little  south  of  the  center.  Ordinarily  it  is  a  small  stream  flowing 
ill  a  sand-choked  bed  and  receives  no  important  tributaries  in  this 
county.  The  waters  of  tbis  river  are  highly  impregnated  with  cal- 
cium sulphate  and  sodium  chloride.  The  extreme  southern  part  of 
the  county  drains  to  Elm  Fork  of  Red  River.  As  might  be  ex- 
pected in  a  region  of  sand  hills,  there  are  in  A^Tieeler  Coimty  a  num- 
ber of  fine  springs.  Six  miles  southwest  of  Mobeetie  is  Anderson's 
si>ring,  which  boils  up  out  of  the  sand  and  runs  off  down  a  little 
canyon.  It  is  one  of  the  strongest  springs  in  the  Panhandle  and 
flows  perhaps  1  second-foot.  It  is  said  to  be  artesian  in  character 
and  the  water  if  confined  will  rise  15  feet.  Other  noted  springs  in 
the  county  are  Nasby  Spring  (which  fills  a  3-inch  pipe),  Broncho 
Spring,  and  Stanley  Spring  (both  of  which  have  a  very  strong  flow). 
Well  water  from  the  Tertiary  and  sand  hills  is  obtained  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  county  at  depths  of  80  to  200  feet.  In  the  red- 
beds  region,  in  the  southern  part,  wells  are  not  so  deep,  rarely  ex- 
(!eeding  50  feet,  and  the  water  is  usually  not  good,  containing  a 
considerable  percentage  of  mineral  salts.  Records  of  nineteen  wells 
in  this  county  show  an  average  of  71  feet. 

GRAY    COUNTY. 

Topography, — ^Gray  County  occupies  the  south  central  part  of  the 
region  here  discussed.  The  surface  is  a  portion  of  the  High  Plains 
cut  into  by  two  streams — North  Fork  of  Red  River,  which  flows 
through  a  gorge  crossing  the  county  from  west  to  east,  and  Mc- 
Clellan  Creek,  flowing  in  a  similar  gorge  from  southwest  to  north- 
east, joining  North  Fork  near  the  eastern  line  of  the  county.  Wide 
breaks  border  the  gorge  of  these  two  principal  streams. 
•  Geology. — With  the  exception  of  a  small  area  of  red  beds  near  the 
mouth  of  McCellan  Creek  along  the  eastern  line,  the  rocks  of  Gray 
County  are  entirely  Tertiary  and  Quaternary.  High  white  cliffs 
are  exposed  along  the  edges  of  the  High  Plains,  and  along  the  breaks 
and  streams  there  are  alluvial  deposits  and  sand  hills. 

Water  supply, — The  greater  part  of  the  drainage  is  through  North 
Fork  of  Red  River  and  McClellan  Creek.  The  former  stream,  which 
rises  in  Carson  County  just  west  of  the  Gray  County  line  and  flows 
east,  drains  only  a  limited  region  at  the  south  through  a  few  short 


56  EASTERN    PANHANDLE   OF   TEXAS. 

tributaries,  none  of  which  are  more  than  5  miles  in  length.  Thp 
southern  portion  of  the  county  is  drained  by  McClellan  Creek,  • 
branch  of  North  Fork,  which  rises  west  of  the  south  central  part  .f 
the  county.  Springs  from  the  Tertiary  and  sand  hills  occur  in  i 
number  of  places  along  the  streams.  Many  are  from  small  se**i-, 
but  several  have  an  estimated  flow  of  40  gallons  per  minute.  On  ih*- 
plains  good  water  is  obtained  at  depths  ranging  from  100  to  280  ft- 1. 
In  the  valleys  depths  to  water  do  not  exceed  35  feet.  Along  North 
Fork  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  county  a  few  wells  afford  g^'psiini 
water;  otherwise  the  supply  in  this  county  is  pure  and  wholessoni^*. 
Records  of  eleven  wells  show  an  average  depth  of  166  feet. 

OABSON   COUNTY. 

Topography. — Carson  County  lies  in  the  western  part  of  X\\v 
region.  With  the  exception  of  Ochiltree  County,  Carson  contain^ 
a  larger  proportion  of  the  High  Plains  than  any  other  county  herp 
described.  The  northern  part  is  dissected  by  tributaries  of  Cana- 
dian River  and  a  very  small  portion  of  the  eastern  part  is  occupied  bv 
the  headwaters  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red  River.  With  these  exception> 
its  surface  is  the  uniform  level  of  the  High  Plains,  dotted  at  interval 
by  shallow  lakes. 

Geology. — In  the  extreme  northwestern  portion  of  the  county  alon^j 
the  canyons  of  Antelope  and  Dixon  creeks,  tributaries  of  Canadian 
River,  there  are  exposures  of  the  red  beds,  consisting  of  red  clays  ani- 
shales  with  ledges  of  gypsimi  and  dolomite.  With  this  minor  excep- 
tion, the  rocks  are  Tertiary  and  Quaternary.  Along  the  breaks  high 
Tertiary  cliffs  are  present,  but  the  flat,  upland  Tertiary  constitutes 
the  greater  part  of  the  rocks  of  the  county. 

Water  supply. — The  drainage  of  Carson  County  is  into  two  sys- 
tems, Canadian  River  and  Red  River,  between  which  is  a  great  flat 
table-land  divide.  The  former  stream  receives  the  water  fi-om  the 
northern  part  of  the  county  through  a  number  of  creeks — ^the  most 
important  being  White  Deer,  Spring,  Dixon,  and  Antelope — ^all  of 
which  have  their  rise  near  the  central  line  of  the  county  and  flo\^ 
north.  The  headwaters  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red  River  occupy  a  few 
square  miles  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  county.  Most  of  thi> 
county,  however,  has  no  drainage  other  than  that  which  finds  its  way 
into  the  shallow  lakes  on  the  level  upland  and  disappears  by  seepage 
and  evaporation. 

In  the  southern  part  of  Carson  County  the  water  table  seems  to  be 
very  deep,  for  while  a  few  wells  secure  permanent  flows  at  depths  of 
less  than  250  feet,  many  of  them  are  obliged  to  penetrate  400  to  4.>0 
feet  for  an  adequate  supply ;  but  water  when  found  is  both  abundant 
and  pure.    Among  the  breaks  and  along  the  creeks  in  the  northern 


WATER   CONDITIONS.  57 

part  of  the  county  the  wells  range  from  50  to  200  feet.  Few  springs 
occur,  those  which  are  found  being  near  the  base  of  the  Tertiary 
in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  county. 

ARMSTRONG   COUNTY. 

Topography. — Armstrong  county  is  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the 
region.  It  is  a  level  plain  cut  by  three  canyons  trending  southeast. 
The  central  and  northwestern  part  of  the  county  has  the  uniform 
5^iirface  of  the  High  Plains.  The  northeastern  portion  is  trenched  by 
the  upper  course  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red  River,  which  has  its  source  near 
the  center  of  the  north  line  of  the  county.  Mulberry  Creek  Canyon 
crosses  the  county  from  northwest  to  southeast.  In  the  southwestern 
portion  is  Palo  Duro  Canyon,  through  which  flows  Prairie  Dog  Fork 
of  Red  River.  Twenty-five  miles  of  this  gorge,  875  feet  deep  and 
5  miles  wide,  lies  in  Armstrong  County.  The  sides  of  the  canyon 
are  frequently  precipitous  and  exhibit  typical  banded  structure  so 
rough  that  the  canyon  is  passable  by  wagon  only  along  selected  routes. 

Geology. — The  best  geological  sections  obtainable  in  the  Panhandle 
are  found  along  Palo  Duro  Canyon  in  Armstrong  County,  where  all 
the  formations  discussed  in  this  report  are  exposed.  The  Greer 
and  Quartermaster  formations  of  the  Permian  red  beds  are  particu- 
larly well  exposed  in  this  canyon.  The  Dockum  formation  outcrops 
halfway  up  the  escarpment,  and  Tertiary  clays,  sand,  and  conglomer- 
ate lie  along  the  upper  part  of  the  bluffs.  The  level  upland  in  other 
parts  of  the  county  exhibits  the  ordinary  Tertiary  and  Quaternary 
rocks. 

Water  supply. — Northeastern  Armstrong  County  is  drained  by  the 
lieadwaters  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red  River,  and  Mulberry  Creek  receives 
the  drainage  from  the  central  and  southeastern  parts  of  the  county. 
Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  River  in  Palo  Duro  Canyon,  in  the 
southwestern  part,  has  no  large  tributaries  in  the  county,  and  al- 
though it  flows  through  a  great  canyon  the  stream  itself  ordinarily 
has  little  or  no  surface  flow,  but,  like  other  streams  of  the  plains,  is 
^ubject  to  rapid  rises  after  heavy  rains  near  its  head.  The  drainage 
of  a  large  portion  of  the  county  is  undeveloped,  and  the  shallow  lakes 
which  occur  at  frequent  intervals  often  reach  considerable  size. 
Springs  are  not  common,  but  a  few  are  found  at  the  base  of  the  Ter- 
tiary and  among  the  red  beds.  On  the  High  Plains  water  is  obtained 
in  abundance  in  wells  ranging  in  depth  from  120  to  320  feet.  Few 
wells  have  been  sunk  in  the  red  beds,  but  those  that  have  been  dug 
usually  find  water  of  rather  poor  quality  at  depths  ranging  from  20 
to  100  feet.  Records  of  eighteen  wells  in  Armstrong  County  show 
an  average  depth  of  207  feet. 


58  EASTERN    PANHANDLE    OF    TEXAS. 

DONLEY    COUNTY. 

Topography, — Donley  County  lies  in  the  southern  part  of  tip 
region.  The  northern  and  western  portions  are  level  High  Plain-. 
On  the  eroded  plains  which  occupy  the  eastern  and  southern  part?  of 
the  county  the  surface  is  rolling  and  dissected  by  many  streams. 
Even  on  the  High  Plains  the  streams  occupy  well-marked  courses  ixiw 
have  so  dissected  the  surface  that  only  in  a  few  instances  is  the  uf>- 
land  sufficiently  level  to  i)erniit  the  water  to  collect  in  lakes.  7Ti»^ 
western  extension  of  the  sand-hill  region,  which  crosses  Collingsworth 
County  south  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red  River,  finds  its  terminus  in  the  es- 
carpment at  the  base  of  the  High  Plains  in  Donley  County. 

Geology. — Both  red  beds  and  Tertiary  rocks  are  exposed  in  Donler 
County.  The  red  beds,  including  both  the  Greer  and  Quartermaj-ter 
formations,  outcrop  along  the  streams,  particularly  along  North 
Fork  of  Red  River  in  the  region  northeast  of  the  center  of  the 
county  and  along  Mulberry  Creek  in  the  southwestern  part.  Alon^ 
the  latter  stream  the  Dockum  beds  occur.  Tertiary  rocks  c*onsti- 
tute  the  High  Plains  in  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  county; 
while  the  sand  hills  derived  largely  from  Tertiary  deposits  occupy 
considerable  areas  in  the  central  and  southern  portions.  AUuWun. 
is  found  along  the  stream  valleys. 

Water  supply, — The  drainage  of  the  county  is  through  two  branclu-^ 
of  Red  River — Salt  Fork,  which  crosses  the  county,  and  several 
smaller  branches  of  Prairie  Dog  Fork,  which  rise  in  the  county 
and  flow  south.  Salt  Fork  flows  almost  due  east  across  the  center  of 
the  county.  It  is  a  small  stream  with  a  sand-choked  bed  and  a  flow 
of  but  a  few  second-feet,  the  water  l)eing  free  from  disagreeable  salt>. 
The  southern  part  of  Donley  County  is  drained  by  the  branches  of 
Salt  Fork,  the  chief  of  which  is  Mull)erry  Creek,  rising  in  Armstroiiir 
County  and  flowing  across  the  southwest  corner  of  Donley  County. 
It  is  an  ordinary  stream  of  the  plains,  with  a  wide,  sand-choke<l 
channel  and  ordinarily  little  water,  but  at  times  of  heavy  rainfall  it 
assumes  the  proportions  of  a  river.  Springs  are  found  in  both  tlu' 
sand-hill  regions  and  among  the  red  beds.  On  the  High  Plains  ami 
in  the  escarpment  region  wells  are  from  40  to  250  feet  deep.  In  th«* 
valleys  and  lower  portions  of  the  county  water  is  obtained  at  20  to  1»m 
feet.  The  Tertiary  and  sand-hill  water  is  good,  while  that  foimd  in 
the  red  beds  is  usually  bad.  Records  from  thirty  wells  show  an  aver- 
age depth  of  152  feet. 


WATER   CONDITIONS.  59 

COLLINGSWORTH    COUNTY. 

Topography, — Collingsworth  County  forms  the  southeastern  por- 

t  ion  of  the  region  here  discussed.     This  county,  which  is  almost 

^v"  holly  in  the  eroded  plains,  presents  the  most  diverse  topography  of 

sxll  here  described.     It  is  trenched  from  northwest  to  southeast  by 

1  liree  stream  systems — Elm  and  Salt  forks  of  Red  River,  and  Spillers 

CT'reek,  a  branch  of  Prairie  Dog  Fork.     Just  west  of  the  center  and 

c*xtending  entirely  across  the  county,  trending  slightly  west  of  south, 

ai  re  the  Dozier  Mounds,  composed  of  hard  ledges  of  sandstone  under- 

lain  by  stratified  clays,  shales,  and  sandstones.     In  the  southwestern 

c-orner  of  the  county  these  hills  are  deeply  dissected  by  streams,  ren- 

<lering  the  region  very  rugged.    On  the  south  side  of  Salt  Fork  is  a 

^^and-hill  region  ranging  from  2  to  9  miles  in  width,  extending  from 

northwest  to  southeast  entirely  across  the  county. 

Geology, — The  greater  part  of  the  rocks  of  Collingsworth  County 
l>elong  to  the  Greer  and  Quartermaster  formations  of  the  red  beds. 
Along  the  various  streams  ledges  of  gypsum  and  dolomite  outcrop, 
while  at  a  higher  level  soft  sandstones  occur.  The  extreme  north- 
western part  of  the  county  is  in  the  escarpment  region,  and  Tertiary 
and  Quaternary  sand  hills  appear  south  of  Salt  Fork  of  Red  River. 

^Vater  supply. — Elm  Fork  of  Red  River  rises  in  the  northwestern 
portion  of  the  county  and  flows  southeast,  leaving  the  county  9  miles 
from  the  northern  limit,  thus  draining  the  entire  northern  portion. 
Salt  Fork  of  Red  River  crosses  the  county  from  west  to  east  in  a  tor- 
tuous course  near  its  center  and  drains  the  middle  portion  of  the 
t'ounty.  Spillers  Creek,  a  branch  of  Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  River, 
lias  its  source  in  Donley  County  and  flows  southeast  across  Collings- 
worth, draining  the  southwestern  part.  Except  in  the  sand-hill 
regions  south  of  Salt  Fork,  good  water  is  difficult*  to  obtain  for  the 
reason  that  the  county  is  underlain  by  red  beds,  which  contain  large 
quantities  of  gypsum  and  other  mineral  salts.  There  are  a  number  of 
springs  of  good  water  among  the  sand  hills.  Springs  occur  in  the 
red  beds  also,  but  the  water  often  contains  salt  or  gypsum  and  is  not 
suitable  for  general  domestic  use.  Wells  in  the  sand  hills  are  10  to 
220  feet  in  depth  and  in  the  red  Iwds  40  to  190  feet.  Records  from 
twenty  wells  in  Collingsworth  County  show  an  average  depth  of  105 
feet. 

iRR  154—06 5 


INDEX. 


A,  Fage. 

Adams,  G.  I.,  on  red  beds 17 

AUorifima  sp.,  occurrence  of 23 

Alluvium 1 

occurrence  and  character  of 12),  30-31 

Anderson's  spring,  location  of 55 

Antelope  Butte,  location  of 23 

Antelope  Creek,  rocks  on 21-22, 56 

sectionon 22 

Antelope  Hills,  location  of 10 

Arikaree  formation,  equivalente  of 25 

Arkansas  River,  underflow  on 34 

Armstrong  County,  area  and  location  of . . .         7 

lakes  in 57 

rocks  in 20,22-23,57 

section  In H 

springs  in 39 

topogrephy  of 8. 10, 12-13, 57 

water  resources  of 57 

wells  of,  depth  of •. 35, 57 

Aviculopecten  sp.,  occurrence  of 28 


B. 


Banded  gypsum  structure,  view  showing. . .       12 

Beaver  Creek,  drainage  of 49-52 

Beede,  J.  W.,  fossils  identified  by 23 

Bibliography  of  Tertiary  and  Quatemar>' 

formations 24 

Blaine  formation,  occurrence  and  charac- 
ter of 1&-16 

Blanco  formation,  fossils  from 26 

occurrence  and  character  of 13, 25-26 

Breaks,  The.    See  Escarpment. 

Briscoe  County,  rocks  in 23 

Broncho  Spring,  location  of 55 

Buffalo  wallows,  occurrence  of 35 

view  of 44 


C. 


Canadian  River,  alluvium  on 31  ' 

character  and  course  of 9-11,42-43  I 

drainageot 52-53,56  , 

reconnaissance  on 7  , 

rocks  on 21-22 

sand  hills  on,  view  of 12  i 

tributaries  of 41-43 

irrlgalion  from 47-48  | 

valley  of,  character  of 1 1, 42-43 

wells  along,  depth  of 36,  M  I 

Capulus  (Lepetopsis)  sp.,  occurrence  of 23  l 

Carboniferous  rocks.    See  Permian  rocks.  | 

Carson  County,  area  and  location  of 7 

rocksln 21-22,66  | 

topography  of 8, 12, 66  i 

water  supply  of 56-57  ' 

wells  In,  depth  of 35,57  i 

Cedartop  gypsum  member,  segregation  of . .       is  ' 


Page. 

Chandler,  rocks  near 15 

Chaney  gypsum  member,  segregation  of . . .        18 

Childress,  well  at 38 

Clarendon,  rocks  near 21-22 

Claude,  orchard  and  garden  at,  view  of 46 

section  near 14 

Clay,  water  from 82 

Clear  Fork  beds,  equivalents  of 17 

Coldwater  Creek,  character  and  course  of . .      13, 

41,51-^2 

erosion  by 9 

Collingsworth  County,  area  and  location  of.         7 

rocks  in *. 18,20,22,59 

sand  hills  in 30 

springNin 89 

topography  of 10-13,  f»9 

water  resources  of 59 

wells  of,  depth  of 59 

Collingsworth  gypsum  member,  segrega- 
tion of 18 

Cope,  E.  D.,  fossils  found  by 24, 27 

on  Tule  formation 27 

Counties  in  area  discussed.  list  of 7 

Cragin,  F.  W.,  on  red  beds 17 

Cretaceous  fossi  Ig,  occurrence  of 29 

Crops,  character  of 46 

Cummins,  W.  F.,  on  Goodnight  formation.  '26-28 

on  Loup  Fork  formation 25-26 

on  red  beds 17, 23 

on  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  rocks 25 

on  Tule  formation 26 

D. 

Dall,  W.  D.,  on  Goodnight  formation 26 

Darton,  N.  H.,  on  High  Plains  rocks 25 

Dielasma  sp.,  occurrence  of ., 23 

Dixon  Creek,  rocks  on 22, 56 

Dockum  formation,  divisions  of 2:{ 

erosion  of,  view  of 24 

fossils  of 21 

occurrence  and  characterof .  13-16, 23-24, 57-58 

relations  of  Quartermaster  and 23-24 

sandstone  member  of,  view  of 22, 24 

springs  Irom 39 

Donley  County,  area  and  location  of 7 

rocksm '20,-22,58 

sand  hills  of 30 

springs  in 39 

topography  of 8, 1 1 .  .18 

water  resources  of 58 

wel Is  in,  depth  of 58 

Double  Mountain  beds,  equi valentM  of  17 

Dozier,  rocks  near 20, 22-2:1 

Dozier  Mounds,  location  of 10, 23. 59 

Drainage,  of  eroded  plains 40-45 

of  High  Plains 8-9,46-46 

See  also  individual  rouulirs. 
Drake,  N.  F.,  on  red  beds 23 

61 


62 


INDEX. 


!•:. 


Page. 
23 


Edmonia  sp.,  occurrence  of 

Elm  Fork  of  Red  River,  drainage  of 41, 69 

erosion  by 9 

rocks  on 20 

section  on,  diagram  showing 19 

springs  along 38 

valley  of,  character  of 12 

Enid  formation,  occurrence  and  character 

of 15 

Equus  beds.    See  Tule  formation. 

Eroded  plains,  character  of 10-11 

drainage  of 41-45 

Escarpment,  character  of 9-10 

view  of 28 

Evaporation,  extent  of 9 

F. 

Field  work, character  of 7 

Flat  Top,  location  of 10 

Fluvlatile  theory  of  origin  of  Great  Plains 

Tertiary 28,33 

Fort  Reno,  Okla.,  well  at 38 

Fossils,  occurrence  of 23-24. 27, 29 

G. 

Geology  of  area  discussed 13-31 

See  also  individual  counties. 

Goodnight  formation,  fossils  from 26 

name  of 26 

occurrence  and  character  of 13, 25-26 

Gray  Ctounty,  area  and  location  of 7 

rocks  of 55 

springs  in 56 

topography  of 8,12-13,65 

water  resources  of 55-56 

wells  in,  depth  of 36,56 

Greer  formation,  cave  in,  spring  from,  view 

of 18 

members  of i .        18 

occurrence  and  character  of  .  13-21,57-59 

section  of,  diagram  showing 19 

sink  holes  In 18-20 

springs  from 39 

water  from 32 

Groom,  well  at 35 

Gry phcea  sp.,  occurrence  of 29 

"  Gyp  "  water,  occurrence  of 31 

Gypsum,  occurrence  of.  In  red-beds  waters.  31-32 

Gypsum  caves,  view  of 18 

Gypsum  ledges,  view  of 12 

undermining  of,  view  of 20 

Gypsum  springs,  occurrence  and  character 

of 32 

H. 


Hall  County,  top<»graphy  of.. 
Hansford  County,  altitudes  in 

area  and  location  of 

irrigation  in 

lakes  in 

rocks  in 

topography  of 

water  supply  of 

wells  in,  depth  of 

Haworth,  E.,  on  Kan.siis  Tertiary 

Hay,  Robert,  on  Kansas  geology 


...  8,13, 


10 

51 

7 

47,52 

52 

51 

41,51 

51-52 

ai.  52 

28 

27-2S 


Hayistack  gypsum  member,  segregation  of.       !• 

Hemphill  County,  area  and  location  of 7 

rocks  of vj-'4 

sand  hills  of ,*» 

topography  of K  11,13.:*"? 

water  resources  of M 

wellsof,  depth  of >i 

High  Plains,  artesian  water  of 37-> 

character  of S-lO.si-- 

drainage  on Jv-S.I'i-i-. 

erosion  on ••-!? 

evaporation  on ivV.- 

lakes  on ILx  4->-i^ 

location  of,  map  showing i** 

view  of U 

map  of 10 

precipitation  on v. 

rocks  of r* 

section  of,  showing  water  level Si 

streams  on 9 

topograph  y  of ^  I  '■> 

modification  of 

water  of 33-M 

water  table  of,  depth  of S*. 

wells  on,  depth  of SS.*^ 

Hills,  location  and  character  of y 

Hogback  Butte,  location  of 23 

Hhtchiuson  County,  area  and  location  of . .        7 

rocks  in •2l-*l.'-*l 

topography  of 5*.  n.  vj 

water  supply  of .vj-iS 

wellsof,  depth  of v; 

I. 

Irrigation,  need  of « 

possibilities  of ¥y-i) 

J. 

Jacob's  well,  view  of *•. 

Johnson,  W.  D.,  on  High  Plains 2>,  3r*-3^,  i5 

K. 

Kiger  division,  equivalents  of it 

Kirk,  C.  T..  work  of 7 

Kiser  gypsum  member,  segregation  of l  * 

Kit  Carson  Creek,  character  of 13 

L. 

Lacustrine  theory  of  Great  Plains  Tertiarj-.  27-> 

Lakes,  formation  and  character  of 35, 4.>-4<^ 

influence  of,  on  settlement 4». 

location  of,  map  showing i> 

view  of 44 

Lakes,  playa,  formation  of *w9 

Land  subdivision  in  Texas,  character  of . . .        49 

Larkin,  Pierce,  work  of 7 

Leiopteria  sp.,  occurrence  of 'Z> 

I^pctopsis  sp. ,  occurrence  of 

Lipscomb  County,  area  and  lo(>ation  of 

rocks  of 4»-'<» 

sand  hills  of A" 

springs  of bi> 

topography  of 8-9.11. 13.4V 

water  supply  of -t") 

wellsof,  depth  of 3^*1. V) 

Llano  Estacado.    See  Staked  Plain. 

Umg,  C.  A.,  work  of 7 


INDEX. 


63 


Page. 
Loup    Fork    formation,    occurrence    and 

character  of l:?.  25-26 

Loxonema  sp.,  occurrence  of 23 

M. 

McCIellan  Crock,  character  of 13 

drainage  of 44,5.^-56 

Mammoth  Creek,  character  and  coumo  of. .  13, 50 

irrigation  from 47 

Mangum  dolomite  member,  segregation  of.        18 

Map  of  High  Plains 10 

of  High    Plains,  showing  location   of 

lakes 48 

of  Texas  Panhandle  and  vicinity 7 

Map,  geologic,  of  area  discussed 14 

Marsli,  O.  C,  on  Great  Plains  Tertiary 27 

Memphis,  rocks  near 22-23 

Miami,  freshet  at,  view  of 42 

Mobeetie,  springs  near 65 

Mortar  beds,  equivalents  of 25 

Mulberry  Creek,  canyon  of,  character  of . . .       67 

character  of 13 

drainage  of 44-45, 57-58 

erosion  by 9 

rocks  on 20-21, 26 

section  on 15 

Mulock,  irrigation  near 47 

Murchisonia  sp.,  occurrence  of 23 

N. 

Nasby  Spring,  location  of 55 

North  Fork  of  Canadian  River,  tributaries 

of 41 

North  Fork  of  Red  River,  alluvium  on 31 

character  and  course  of 43-44 

drainage  of , 41,54-56 

erosion  by 9 

tributaries  of 43 

valley  of,  character  of 12 

O. 
Ochiltree,  windmill  and  tank  at.  view  of . .       36 

Ochiltree  County,  area  and  location  of 7 

rocks  of 50 

topography  of 8, 12, 50 

water  resources  of 51 

wells  of,  depth  of :i6, 51 

Ogalalla  formation,  equivalents  of 25 

Oklahoma,  Greer  County,  rocks  in 18 

Greer  County,  springs  in 38-39 

topography  of 12 

red  beds  in,  divisions  of 15-17 

section  of,  diagram  showing 16 

Roger  Mills  County— 

topographyof 12 

wells  in :« 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla.,  well  at 38 

P. 

Palo  Duro  beds,  equivalent  of 26 

Palo  Duro  Canyon,  character  of d-10, 12, 44-45 

erosion  In,  view  of 20 

rocks  In 20-23,57 

sections  in 14-15, 57 

views  in 20, 22, 28 

weathering  in,  view  of 28 

Palo  Duro  Creek,  character  and  course  of . .       13, 

41-42,51-52 


Page. 

Palo  Duro  Creek,  erosion  by 9,52 

irrigation  on 47,62 

Panhandle,  mapof 7 

portion  of  discussed,  area  and  k)cation 

of 7-8 

geologic  map  of 14 

geology  of 13-31 

topography  of 8-13 

water  resources  of 31-59 

Permian  rocks,  divisions  of 15,17 

occurrence  and  character  of 13-23 

See  cUso  Red  beds. 

Pleistocene  rocks;  erosion  of 10 

Plemons,  rocks  near 21 

springs  near 62 

Pleurophorus  sp.,  occurrence  of 23 

Pleurptomarla  sp.,  occurrence  of 23 

Poesum  Peaks,  location  of 23 

Prairie  Dog  Fork  of  Red  River,  character 

and  course  of 44-45 

drainage  of 41,67 

rocks  on 20 

springs  along 38-39 

valley  of,  character  of 12 

wells  along,  depth  of 35 

Precipitation,  amount  of 85.46 

Public  lands,  nonexistence  of,  in  Texas 49 

Q. 

Quartermaster  formation,  erosion  of,  view 

of 20 

fossils  in 23 

hills  due  to 22-23 

name  of 21 

occurrence  and  character  of 13-17, 21-23, 

57^9 

relations  of  Dockum  and 22-23 

springs  in 39 

water  from 31-32 

Quaternary  rocks,  bibliography  of 24 

character  of 29 

formation  of,  divisions  of 27 

occurrence  and  character  of 13, 22, 25-31 

stratigraphy  of 24-27 

R. 
Rabbit  Ear  Creek.    See  Coldwater  Creek. 

Rabbit  Ear  Mountains,  location  of 41 

Ragged  Top,  locationof 23 

Range,  Okla.,  irrigation  at 47 

Red  beds,  occurrence  and  character  of 13 

sand  from '. U 

water  from ; 31  -;«,  38 

See  also  Permian  rocks. 
Red  Deer  Creek,  character  and  course  of.  13, 43,58 

flood  on 43 

views  of 42 

Red  River,  branches  of,  character  of 9, 41 

branches  of,  irrigation  from 47 

Reeds,  C.  A.,  work  of 7 

River  plains,  character  of 11-18 

Roberts  County,  area  and  location  of 7 

rocks  of 53 

topography  of 8, 1 1, 63 

water  supply  of 63 

wells  of,  depth  of 63 

Rocking  Chair  Mountains,  location  of . . .  10, 22-23 
view  of 22 


64 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Rocks,  hard,  scarcity  of 47 

Rocky  MountainB,  fwurce  of  artesian  water 

in 87-88 

S. 

Salt  Fork  divisioD,  equivalents  of 17 

Salt  Fork  of  Red  River,  alluvium  on 81 

character  and  course  of 44 

drainage  of 41,56-57 

erosion  by 9 

rocks  on 20-22 

springs  on 38 

valley  of,  character  of 12 

Salt  springs,  occurrence  and  character  of. .  38-39 
Salton,  Okla.,  section  at,  diagram  showing .       19 

Salts,  prevalence  of,  in  red-beds  water 31 

scarcity  of,  in  Tertiary  rocks  water  —       32 

Sand,  source  of 11 

Sand  hills,  classes  of 30 

migration  of 

occurrence  and  character  of .  11, 13, 30, 58-^5, 59 

springs  from 40 

view  of .- —        12 

water  from 81 

Saturation,  zone  of,  character  of 34 

Schizodussp.,  occurrence  of 23 

Section,     geologic,    across     northwestern 

Texas,  figure  showing 8 

in  Palo  Duro  Canyon 14 

Shamrock,  rocks  near 22-23 

Sheet  water,  character  of 83-34 

Simpson,  C.  T.,  fossils  found  by 24 

Sink  holes,  occurrence  of 18-20 

Spillers  Creek,  character  of 18 

drainage  of 44-45, 59 

erosion  by 9 

rocks  on 20 

Spring  issuing  from  cave,  view  of 18 

Springs,  character  and  occurrence  of 13, 

38-40,55-56 

irrigation  from 47-48 

Staked  Plains,  part  of  High  Plains  on 8 

rocks  of 27 

Stanley  Spring,  location  of 55 

Storms,  water  of,  storage  of 48 

Streams,  drainage  basins  of : 40^16 

irrigation  from 46-47 

location  and  character  of 9-11, 41-45 

run-oflf  of 47 

Strophostylus  «p. .  occurrence  of 23 

Sweetwater  Creek,  character  and  course  of.  IS,  55 

drainage  of 44, 54-55 

irrigation  from 47-18 

T. 

Tertiary  grit,  equivalents  of 25 

Tertiary  marl,  equivalents  of 25 

Tertiary  rocks,  bibliography  of 24 

character  of 13-15,28-30,33 

deposition  of 27-28, 34 

erosion  of 10 

formations  of,  divisions  of 27 

occurrence  of 25-31 

sand  from 11.80 

section  of.  showing  water  beds 34 

springs  from 40-41. 53 

stratigraphy  of 24-27 


Phg*. 

Tertiary  rocks,  water  from 31-^» 

wellsin .>' 

Texas,  northwestern,  sections  across,  dia- 
gram showing " 

Topography,  character  of ^1 . 

jSe«  alto  huiividual  counties. 

Triaasic  rocks,  occurrence  and  character 

of l3-15.2S-:-l 

Tule  Canyon,  erosion  in,  view  of -4 

fossils  from r 

rocks  in 23 

sec  tion  on !.=> 

Tule  formation,  fossils  from T 

occurrence  and  character  of IS.  2^-27 

Twin  Mounds,  location  of 25 

r. 

Underflow,  character  of "o 

Unios,  occurrence  of '^4 

W. 

Washita  River,  character  of c 

dral  nage  of 41 ,  :i3-:^ 

valley  of,  character  of u 

wells  in >« 

Water,  artesian,  occurrence  of JT-J^ 

Water,  underground,  annual  addition  to...  ZS-T 

movement  of St^M 

source  of S.V3S 

Water  beds,  section  of  Tertian'  showing. . .      M 

Water  resources  of  area Sl-v» 

by  counties 4&-''j 

Water  storage,  difficulty  of i' 

instances  of 4n 

Water  table,  position  of • 

position  of,  section  showing :j' 

Weathering.  In  Palo  Duro  Canyon,  view  of.       > 

Wellington,  rocks  near r 

Wells  in  red  beds,  depth  of 

in  Tertiary  rocks,  depth  of av  *•» 

Wells,  irrigation  from 4^ 

records  of,  source  of T 

See  also  individual  counties. 

Wheeler  County,  area  and  location  of ' 

irrigation  in 4* 

rocks  in 22,  >*-^'^ 

sand  hills  of » 

springs  in » 

topography  of lO-l-vM 

water  resources  of v> 

wells  in,  depth  of Vi 

White  Deer  Creek,  character  of l.> 

Wichita  beds,  equivalents  of IT 

Windmills,  character  of 36-37 

use  of :* 

views  of *' 

Wolf  Creek,  character  and  course  of 42,  H>si 

erosion  by » 

irrigation  from i'-i'^ 

tributariesof iJ 

valley  of.  character  of 114^ 

wel Is  in •>! 

Woodruff,  E.  G.,  work  of " 

Woodward  formation,  occurrence  and  char- 
acter of 1  >- '" 

Worth enopsis  sp.,  occurrence  of S 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL 

SURVEY. 

[Water-supply  Paper  No.  154.] 

The  serial  publications  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  consist  of  (1)  Annual 
Tie  ports,  (2)  Monographs,  (3)  Professional  Papers,  (4)  Bulletins,  (5)  Mineral 
Resources,  (6)  Water-Supply  and  Irrigation  Papers,  (7)  Topographic  Atlas  of 
X'nited  States — folios  and  separate  sheets  thereof,  (8)  Geologic  Atlas  of  the  United 
States — folios  thereof.  The  classes  numl^ered  2,  7,  and  8  are  sold  at  cost  of  publica- 
tion; the  others  are  distributed  free.  A  circular  giving  complete  lists  may  be  had 
on  application. 

Most  of  the  above  publication.s  may  be  obtained  or  consulted  in  the  following 
Airaya: 

1.  A  limited  number  are  delivered  to  the  Director  of  the  Survey,  from  whom  they 
may  be  obtained,  free  of  charge  (except  classes  2,  7,  and  8),  on  application. 

2.  A  certain  number  are  delivered  to  Senators  and  Representatives  in  Congress,  for 
distribution. 

3.  Other  copies  are  deposited  with  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington!, 
D.  C,  from  whom  they  may  be  had  at  prices  slightly  above  cost. 

4.  CJopies  of  all  Government  publications  are  furnished  to  the  principal  public 
libraries  in  the  large  cities  throughout  the  United  States,  where  they  may  be  con- 
Hulted  by  those  interested. 

The  Professional  Papers,  Bulletins,  and  Water-Supply  Papers  treat  of  a  variety  i)f 
sabjectfl,  and  the  total  number  issued  is  large.  They  have  therefore  been  classified 
into  the  following  series:  A,  Economic  geology;  B,  Descriptive  geology;  C,  System- 
atic geology  and  paleontology;  D,  Petrography  and  mineralogy;  E,  Chemistry  and 
physics;  F,  Geography;  G,  Miscellaneous;  H,  Forestry;  I,  Irrigation;  J,  Water  stor- 
age; K,  Pumping  water;  L,  Quality  of  water;  M,  General  hydrographic  investiga- 
tions; N,  Water  power;  O,  Underground  waters;  P,  Hydrographic  progress  reports. 
This  paper  is  the  eighty-first" in  Series  B,  the  twentieth  in  Series  I,  and  the  fifty-first 
in  Series  O,  the  compete  lists  of  which  follow  (PP= Professional  Paper;  B=Bulletin; 
WS= Water-Supply  Paper) : 

SERIES  B,  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOLOGY. 

B  28.  Observations  on  the  junction  between  the  Eastern  sandstone  and  the  Keweenaw  series  on 

Keweenaw  Point,  Lake  Superior,  by  R.  D.  Irving  and  T.  C.  Chamberlln.    188ft.    124  pp., 

17  pis. 
B  33.  Notes  on  geology  of  northern  California,  by  J.  S.  Diller.    1886.    23  pp.     (Out  of  sUK'k.) 
B  39.  The  upper  beaches  and  deltas  of  Glacial  Lake  Agasslz,  by  Warren  Upham.    1887.    84  pp..  1  pi. 

(Out  of  stock.) 
B40.  Changes  In  river  courses  in  Washington  Territory  due  to  glaciation,  l»y  Bailey  Willis.    1887. 

10  pp.,  4  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
B  45.  The  present  condition  of  knowledge  of  the  geology  of  Texas,  by  R.  T.  Hill.    1887.    94  pp.    (Out 

of  stock.) 
B  53.  The  geology  of  Nantucket,  by  N.  S.  Shaler.    1889.    55  pp.,  10  pis.    (Out  of  stock.)    • 
B  57.  A  geological  reconnaissance  in  southwestern  Kansas,  by  Robert  Hay.    1890.    49  pp.,  2  pis. 
B58.  The  glacial  boundary  in  western  Pennsj-lvania,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  by  G.  F. 

Wright,  with  introduction  by  T.  C.  Chamberi in.    1890.    112  pp.,  8  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
B  67.  The  relations  of  the  traps  of  the  Newark  system  in  the  New  Jersey  region,  by  N.  H.  Darton. 

1890.    82  pp.     (Out  of  stock.) 
B IW.  Gladation  of  the  Yellowstone  Valley  north  of  the  Park,  by  W.  H.  Weed.    1893.    41  pp.,  4  pis. 


II  SERIES    LIST. 

B  106.  A  geological  reconnaissance  in  central  Washington,  by  I.  C.  Russell.    1893.    1«  p|».,  l:^  ]  • 

(Out  of  stock.) 
B  119.  A  geological  reconnaissance  in  northwest  Wyoming,  by  Q.  H.  Eldridge.    18M.    72  pp..  4  ; 
B187.  The  geology  of  the  Fort  Riley  Military  Reservation  and  vicinity,  Kansas,  by  Robert  n- 

1896.    36  pp..  8  pis. 
B  144.  The  moraines  of  the  Missouri  Coteau  and  their  attendant  deposits,  by  J.  £.  Todd.    1".^..    ' 

pp.,  21  pis. 
B  158.  The  moraines  of  southeastern  South  Dakota  and  their  attendant  depostts,  by  J.  £.  Tf 

1899.    171  pp.,  27  pis. 
B  159.  The  geology  of  eastern  Berkshire  County,  Massachusetts,  by  B.  K.  Emenion.    1899.    139  :•! 

9  pis. 
B  165.  Contributions  to  the  geology  of  Maine,  by  H.  S.  Williams  and  H.  E.  Gregory.    1900.    T^l  p- 

14  pis. 
WS  70.  Geology  and  water  resources  of   the  Patrick  and  Goshen  Hole   quadrangles   in  fc^«n-- 

Wyoming  and  western  Nebraska,  by  G.  I.  Adams.    1902.    50  pp.,  11  pis. 
B  199.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  the  Snake  River  Plains  of  Idaho,  by  I.  C.  Ru.«»?Il.    19inL    l/. 

pp.,  25  pis. 
PP  1.  Preliminary  report  on  the  Ketchikan  mining  district,  Alaska,  with  an  introductory  jirt'-hi  .: 

the  geology  of  southeastern  Alaska,  by  A.  H.  Brooks.    1902.    120  pp.,  2  pis. 
PP2.  Reconnaissance  of  the  northwestern  portion  of  Seward  Peninsula,  Alaska,  by  A.  J.  i«jl,i-r 

1902.    70  pp.,  11  pis. 
PP3.  Geology  and  petrography  of  Crater  Lake  National  Park,  by  J.  S.  Diller  and  H.  B.  PaJuc 

1902.    167  pp.,  19  pis. 
PP  10.  Reconnaissance  from  Fort  Hamlin  to  Kotzebue  Sound,  .\laska,  by  way  of  Dall,  KanutI,  .\lk^ 

and  Kowak  rivers,  by  W.  C.  Mendenhall.     1902.    68  pp.,  10  pis. 
PP  11.  Clays  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  by  Heinrlch  Ries.    1903.    298  pp,.  9  pC-. 
PP  12.  Geology  of  the  Globe  copper  district,  Arizona,  by  F.  L.  Ransome.    1903.    168  pp..  27  pis. 
PP13.  Drainage  modifications  in  southeastern  Ohio  and  adjacent  parts  of  West  Virginia  and  K-l 

tucky,  by  W.  G.  Tight.    1908.    Ill  pp.,  17  pis. 
B  208.  Descriptive  geology  of  Nevada  south  of  the  fortieth  parallel  and  adjacent  portions  of  C>  J- 

fornia,  byJ.  E.  Spurr.    1903.    229  pp.,  8  pis. 
B  209.  Geology  of  Ascutney  Mountain,  Vermont,  by  R.  A.  Daly.    1908.    122  pp.,  7  pis. 
WS  78.  Preliminary  report  on  artesian  basins  in  southwestern  Idaho  and  southeastern  Orpcroo,  Kt 

I.C.Russell.    1903.    51pp.  2 pis. 
PP  15.  Mineral  resources  of  the  Mount  Wrangell  district,  Alaska,  by  W.  C.  Mendenhall  and  f.  < 

Sehrader.    1908.    71  pp.,  10  pis. 
PP  17.  Preliminary  report  on  the  geology  and  water  resources  of  Nebraska  west  of  the  one  hun«ir-J 

and  third  meridian,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1903.    69  pp.,  43  pis. 
B  217.  Notes  on  the  geology  of  southwestern  Idaho  and  southeastern  Oregon,  by  I.  C.  Rna^l.    l**i 

83  pp.,  18  pis. 
B  219.  The  ore  deposits  of  Tonopab,  Nevada  (preliminary  report),  by  J.  E.  Spurr.    1908.    SI  pp..  1 1  ^ 
PP  20.  A  reconnaissance  in  northern  Alaska  in  1901,  by  F.  C.  Sehrader.    1904.    139  pp.,  16  pfe. 
PP  21.  The  geology  and  ore  deposits  of  the  Bisbee  quadrangle,  Arizona,  by  F.  L.  Ransome.    l^*i. 

168  pp.,  29  pis. 
WS  90.  Geolojry  and  water  resources  of  part  of  the  lower  James  River  Valley,  South  Dakota,  by  J.  ¥- 

Todd  and  C.  M.  Hall.    1904.    47  pp.,  23  pla. 
PP25.  The  copper  deposits  of  the  Encampment  district,  Wyoming,  by  A.  C.Spencer.   1904.  107pp.,2f.> 
PP  26.  Economic  resources  of  northern  Black  Hills,  by  J.  D.  Irving,  with  chapters  by  S.  F.  Emitn-A» 

and  T.  A.  Jaggar,  jr.    1904.    222  pp.,  20  pis. 
PP  27.  Geological  reconnaissance  across  the  Bitterroot  Range  and  the  Clearwater  Mountains  in  M^  n 

tana  and  Idaho,  by  Waldemar  Lindgren.    1904.    122  pp.,  15  pis. 
PP31.  Preliminary  report  on  the  geology  of  the  Arbuckle  and  Wichita  mountains  in  Indian  Terri- 
tory and  Oklahoma,  by  J.  A.  Taflf,  with  an  appendix  on  reported  ore  deposits  in  the  Wit  hi:* 

Mountains,  by  H.  F.  Bain.    1904.    97  pp.,  8  pis. 
B  235.  A  geological  reconnaissance  across  the  Cascade  Range  near  the  forty-ninth  parallel,  by  G. ' '. 

Smith  and  F.  C.  Calkins.    1904.    103  pp.,  4  pis. 
B  236.  The  Porcupine  placer  district,  Alaska,  by  C.  W.  Wright.    1904.    35  pp.,  10  pis, 
B  237.  Igneous  rocks  of  the  High  wood  Mountains,  Montana,  by  L.  V.  Hrsson.    1904.    208  pp.,  7  pK 
B  2:iM.  Economic  geology  of  the  lola  quadrangle,  Kansas,  by  G.  I.  Adams,  Erasmus  Haworth.  i^vA 

W.  R.  Crane.    1904.    83  pp.,  1  pi. 
IT  32.  Geology  and  underground  water  resources  of  the  central  Great  Plains,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1**^ 

433  pp.,  72  pis. 
WS  110.  Contributions  to  hydrology  of  etuMtern  United  States,  1904;  M.  G.  Fuller,  geologist  in  ehatT' 

190").    211  pp.,  5  pis. 
B  242.  Geology  of  the  Hudson  Valley  between  the  Hoosic  and  the  Kinderhook,  by  T.  Nelsnn  I>»!t 

1904.    63  pp..  3  pis. 
PP  34.  The  Dclavan  lobe  of  the  Lake  Michigan  glacier  of  the  Wisconsin  stage  of  glaciatiun  ai  1 

aasociatA'd  phenomena,  by  W.  C.  Alden.    1904.    lt>6  pp.,  15  pis. 


SERIES    LIST.  Ill 

I*F»  36.  Geology  of  the  Perry  Baaln  in  Bouthenstern  Maine,  by  G.  O.  Smith  and  David  White.    1906. 

107  pp.,  6  pis. 
M  248.  Cement  materials  and  industry  of  the  United  States,  by  E.  C.  Eckel.    1905.    396  pp.,  15  pis. 
li  '246.  Zinc  and  lead  deposits  of  northwestern  Illinois,  by  H.  *F.  Bain.    1904.    56  pp.,  5  pis. 
»  247.  The  Fairhaven  gold  placers  of  Seward  Peninsula,  Alaska,  by  F.  H.  Mofflt.    1906.    85  pp.,  14  pis. 
K  249.  Limestones  of  southwestern  Pennsylvania,  by  F.  G.  Clapp.    1906.    52  pp.,  7  pis. 
R  2ftO.  The  petroleum  fields  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  Alaska,  with  an  account  of  the  Bering  River  coal 

deposit,  by  Q.  C.  Martin.    1906.    64  pp.,  7  pis. 
H  241.  The  gold  placers  of  the  Fort>inile,  Birch  Creek,  and  Fairbanks  regions,  Alaska,  by  L.  M. 

Prindle.    1905.    89  pp.,  16  pis. 
^VS  1 18.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  a  portion  of  east  central  Washington,  by  F.  C.  Calkins.    1905. 

96  pp.,  4  pis. 
B  252.  Preliminary  report  on  the  geology  and  water  resources  of  central  Oregon,  by  I.  C.  Russell. 

1905.    138  pp.,  24  pis. 
F»P  36.  The  lead,  zinc,  and  fluorspar  deposits  of  western  Kentucky,  by  E.  O.  Ulrich  and  W.  8.  Tangier 

Smith.    1905.    218  pp.,  15  pis. 
I'P  38.  Economic  geology  of  the  Bingham  mining  district  of  Utah,  by  J.  M.  Boutwell,  with  a  chapter 
on  areal  geology,  by  Arthur  Keith,  and  an  introduction  on  general  geology,  by  S.  F.  Emmons. 
1905.    418  pp.,  49  pis. 
PP  41.  The  geology  of  the  central  Copper  River  region,  Alaska,  by  W.  C.  Mendenhall.    1906.    i:33  pp., 

20  pis. 
S  254.  Report  of  progress  in  the  geological  resurvey  of  the  Cripple  Creek  district,  Colorado,  by  Walde- 

mar  Lindgrcn  and  F.  L.  Ransome.    1904.    36  pp. 
l^  256.  The  fluorspar  deposits  of  southern  Illinois,  by  H.  Foster  Bain.    1905.    75  pp.,  6  pis. 
B  256.  Mineral  resources  of  the  Elders  Ridge  quadrangle,  Pennsylvania,  by  R.  W.  Stone.     1906. 

86  pp.,  12  pis. 
B  257.  Geology  and  paleontology  of  the  Judith  River  beds,  by  T.  W.  Stianton  and  J.  B.  Hatcher,  with 

a  chapter  on  fossil  plants,  by  F.  H.  Kuowlton.    1906.    174  pp.,  19  pis. 
PP  42.  Geology  of  the  Tonopah  mining  district,  Nevada,  by  J.  E.  Spurr.    1906.    295  pp.,  23  pis. 
'WS  123.  Geology  and  underground  water  conditions  of  the  Jornada  del  Muerto,  New  Mexico^  by 

C.  R.  Keyes.    1905.    42  pp.,  9  pis. 
WS  136.  Underground  waters  of  Salt  River  Valley,  Arizona,  by  W.  T.  Lee.    1905.    194  pp.,  24  pis. 
PP  43.  The  copper  deposits  of  CUfton-Morenoi,  Arizona,  by  Waldemar  Llndgren.     1906.    375  pp., 

25  pis. 
B  265.  Geology  of  the  Boulder  district,  Colorado,  by  N.  M.  Fenneman.    1905.   101  pp.,  5  pis. 
B  21)7.  The  copper  deposits  of  Missouri,  by  H.  F.  Bain  and  E.  O.  Ulrich.    1905.    52  pp.,  1  pi. 
PP  44.  Undeiground  water  resources  of  Long  Island,  New  York,  by  A.  C.  Veatch  and  others.    1905. 
WS  148.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  Oklahoma,  by  C.  N.  Gould.    1905.    178  pp.,  22  pis. 
B  270.  The  configuration  of  the  rock  floor  of  Greater  New  York,  by  W.  H.  Hobbs.    1906.    96  pp.,  5  pis. 
B  272.  Taconic  physiography,  by  T.  M.  Dale.    1905.    52  pp.,  14  pis. 

PP  45.  The  geography  and  geology  of  Alaska,  a  summary  of  existing  knowledge,  by  A.  H.  Brooks, 
with  a  section  on  climate,  by  Cleveland  Abbe,  jr.,  and  a  topographic  map  and  description 
thereof,  by  R.  M.  Goode.    1906. 
B  273.  The  drumlins  of  southeastern  Wisconsin  (preliminary  paper),  by  W.  C.  Alden.    1905.    46  pp., 

9  pis. 
PP  46.  Geology  and  underground  water  resources  of  northern  Louisiana  and  southern  Arkanm-s,  by 

A.  C.  Veatch,    1906. 
PP  49.  Geology  and  mineral  resources  of  part  of  the  Cumberland  Gap  coal  field,  Kentucky,  by  G.  H. 
Ashley  and  L.  C.  Glenn,  in  cooperation  with  the  State  Geological  Department  of  Kentucky, 
C.  J.  Norwood,  curator.    1906. 
PP  50.  The  Montana  lobe  of  the  Kewatln  ice  sheet,  by  F.  H.  H.  Calhoun.    1906. 
B  277.  Mineral  resources  of  Kenal  Peninsula,  Alaska:  Gold  fields  of  the  Tumagaln  Arm  region,  by 

F.  H.  Moffit,  and  the  coal  fields  of  Kachemak  Bay  region,  by  R.  W\  Stone.    1906. 
WS 154.  The  geology  and  water  resources  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Panhandle  of  Texas,  by  C.  N. 
Gould.    1906.    64  pp.,  15  pis. 

SERIES  I— IRRIGATION. 

WS  2.  Irrigation  near  Phoenix,  Ariz.,  by  A.  P.  Davis.   1897.   98  pp.,  31  pis.  and  maps.    (Out  of  stock. ) 

WS  5.  Irrigation  practice  on  the  Great  Plains,  by  E.  B.  CowglU.    1897.   89  pp.,  11  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 

W8  9.  Irrigation  near  Greeley,  Colo.,  by  David  Boyd.    1897.    90  pp.,  21  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 

WS  10.  Irrigation  in  Mesilla  Valley,  New  Mexico,  by  F.  C.  Barker    1898.    51  pp.,  11  pis.    (Outof 

stock.) 

WS  13.  Irrigation  systems  in  Texas,  by  W.  F.  Huteon.    1898.    68  pp..  10  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 

WS  17.  Irrigation  near  Bakersfield,  Cal.,  by  C.  E.  Grunsky.    1S98.    96  pp.,  16  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 

WS  18.  Irrigation  near  Fresno,  Cal.,  by  C.  E.  Grunsky.    1898.    94  pp..  14  pis.     (Out  of  stock.) 

WS  19.  Irrigation  near  Merced,  Cal.,  by  C.  E.  Grunsky.    1899.    69  pp.,  11  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 


IV  SERIES   LIST. 

WS  23.  Water-right  problems  of  Bighorn  Mountains,  by  Elwood  Mead.    1899.    G2  pp.,  7  pis.     (Out  .< 

rtock.) 
WS   32.  Water  resources  of  Porto  Rico,  by  H.  M.  Wilson.    1899.    48  pp.,  17  pis.  and  maps.    {(Jut  *4 

stock.) 
W8  43.  Conveyance  of  water  in  irrigation  canals,  flumes,  and  pipes,  by  Samuel  Fortier.    1»"H. 

86  pp.,  15  pis.    (Out  of  stock. ) 
WS   70.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  the  Patrick  and  Qoehen  Hole  quadrangles,  Wyoming,  by  4i.  1. 

Adams.    1902.    60  pp.,  11  pis. 
WS   71.  Irrigation  systems  of  Texas,  by  T.  U.  Taylor.    1902.    137  pp.,  9  pis, 
WS  74.  Water  resources  of  the  State  of  Colorado,  by  A.  L.  Fellows.    1992.    151  pp..  14  pis. 
WS  87.  Irrigation  in  India  (second  cdiUon),  by  H.  M.  Wilson.    1908.    238  pp.,  27 pis. 
WS  98.  Proceedings  of  first  conference  of  engineers  of  the  reclamation  service,  with  aecctDp^nyizx^ 

papers,  compiled  by  F.  H.  Newell,  chief  engineer.    1904.    361  pp. 
WS  117.  The  lignite  of  North  Dakota  and  its  relation  to  irrigation,  by  F.  A.  Wilder.    19W.    .=»  pp. 

8  pis. 
WS  143.  Experiments  on  steel-concrete  pipes  on  a  working  scale,  by  J.  H.  Quinton.   1905.   61  pp.,  4  fi^. 
WS  146.  Proceedings  of  second  conference  of  engineers  of  the  reclamation  service,  with  accompan;  - 

ing  papers,  compiled  by  F.  H.  Newell,  chief  engineer.    1905.    267  pp. 
WS  154.  The  geology  and  water  resources  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Panhandle  of  Texas,  by  C.  N 

Gould.    1906.    64  pp.,  15  pis. 
The  following  papers  also  relate  especially  to  irrigation:  Irrigation  in  India,  by  H.  M.  Wilsm.  m 
Twelfth  Annual,  Part  II;   two  papers  on  irrigation  engineering,  by  H.  M.  Wilson,  in  Thirteenih 
Annual,  Part  III. 

SERIES  O— UNDERGROUND  WATERS. 

WS     4.  A  reconnaissance  in  southeastern  Washington,  by  I.  C.  Russell.    1897.    96  pp.,  7  pK 

WS     6.  Underground  waters  of  southwestern  Kansas,  by  Erasmus  Haworth.    1887.    65  pp.,  12  pltL 

WS     7.  Seepage  waters  of  northern  Utah,  by  Samuel  Fortier.    1897.    60  pp.,  8  pis. 

WS  12.  Underground  waters  of  southeastern  Nebraska,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1898.    66  pp.,  21  pis. 

WS  21.  Wells  of  northern  Indiana,  by  Frank  Leverett.    1899.    82  pp.,  2  pis. 

WS  26.  Wells  of  southern  Indiana  (continuation  of  No.  21).  by  Frank  Leverett.    1899.    M  pp. 

WS  30.  Water  resources  of  the  lower  peninsula  of  Michigan,  by  A.  C.  Lane.    1899.    97  pp..  7  pis. 

WS  31.  Lower  Michigan  mineral  waters,  by  A.  C.  Lane.    1899.    97  pp.,  4  pis. 

WS  34.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  a  portion  of  southeastern  South  Dakota,  by  J.  E.  Todd.    I90u. 

34  pp.,  19  pis. 
WS  63.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  Nez  Perces  County,  Idaho,  Pt  I,  by  I.  C.  Rus^ll.    1901.    **■ 

pp.,  10  pis. 
WS  64.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  Nes  Perces  County,  Idaho,  Pt.  II,  by  I.  C.  RueiieU.    1901. 

87-141  pp. 
WS   55.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  a  portion  of  Yakima  County,  Wash.,  by  G.  O.  Smith.    iviOl. 

68  pp.,  7  pis. 
WS  57.  Preliminary  list  of  deep*lx)ring8  in  the  United  States,  Pt.  I.  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1902.    60  pp. 
WS  59.  Development  and  application  of  water  in  southern  California,  Pt.  I,  by  J.  B.  Lippinoott. 

1902.    95  pp..  11  pis. 
WS  60.  Development  and  application  of  water  in  southern  California,  Pt.  II,  by  J.  B.  LJppinci^tt. 

1902.    96-140  pp. 
WS  61.  Preliminary  list  of  deep  borings  in  the  United  States,  Pt.  II,  by  N.  B.  Darton.    1902.    ($7  pp. 
WS   67.  The  motions  of  underground  waters,  by  C.  S.  Slichter.    1902.    106  pp.,  8  pis. 
B    199,  Geology  and  water  resources  of  the  Snake  River  Plains  of  Idaho,  by  I.  C.  Russell.    1902.    l*xl 

pp.,  25  pis. 
W8  77.  Water  resources  of  Molokal,  Hawaiian  Islands,  by  W.  Lindgren.    1908.    62  pp..  4  pis. 
WS  78.  Preliminary  report  on  artesian  basin  in  southwestern  Idahoand  southeastern  Oregon,  by  I.  c. 

Russell.    1903.    53  pp.,  2  pis. 
PP    17.  Preliminary  report  on  the  geology  and  water  resources  of  Nebraska  west  of  the  one  hundivd 

and  third  meridian,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1903.    69  pp.,  43  pis. 
WS   90.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  a  part  of  the  lower  James  River  Valley.  South  Dakota.  h\ 

J.  E.  Todd  and  C.  M.  Hall.    1904.    47  pp.,  28  pis. 
WS  101.  Underground  waters  of  southern  Louisiana,  by  G.  D.  Harris,  with  discussions  of  their  toes  for 

water  supplies  and  for  rice  irrigation,  by  M.  L.  Fuller.    1904.    98  pp.,  11  pis. 
WS  102.  Contributions  to  the  hydrology  of  eastern  United  States,  1903,  by  M.  L.  Fuller.    1904.    522  pp. 
WS  104.  Underground  waters  of  Gila  Valley,  Arizona,  by  W.  T,  Lee.    1904.    71  pp.,  5  pis, 
WSllO.  Contributions  to  the  hydrology  of  eastern  United  States.  1904;  M.  L.  Fuller,  geologist  io 

charge.    1904.    211  pp.,  5  pis. 
PP    32.  Geology  and  underground  water  resources  of  the  central  Great  Plains,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    19W. 

433  pp.,  72  pis. 
WS  111.  Preliminary  rejHJrl  on  underground  waters  of  Washington,  by  Henry  Landes.    1904.    HS  pf*. 

ipl. 


SERIES    LIST.  V 

AVS  112.  Underflow  tests  in  the  drainage  basin  of  Los  Angeles  River,  by  Homer  Hamlin.    1904. 

55  pp.,  7  pis. 
\VS  114.  Underground  waters  of  eastern  United  States;  M.  L.  Fuller,  geologist  in  charge.    ]904. 

285  pp.,  18  pis. 
AVB  118.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  east-central  Washington,  by  F.  C.  Calkins.    1905.    96  pp., 

4  pis. 
B      252.  Preliminary  report  on  the  geology  and  water  resources  of  central  Oregon,  by  I.  C.  Russell. 

1905.  138  pp.,  24  pis. 

\VS  120.  Bibliographic  review  and  index  of  papers  relating  tu  underground  waters  published  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  1879-1904,  by  M.  L.  Fuller.    1905.    128  pp. 

WS  122.  Relation  of  the  law  to  underground  waters,  by  D.  W.  Johnson.    1905.    55  pp. 

WS  128.  Geology  and  underground  water  conditions  of  the  Jornada  del  Muerto.  New  Mexico,  by  C.  R. 
Keyes.    1905.    42  pp.,  9  pis. 

WS  136.  Underground  waters  of  the  Salt  River  Valley,  by  W.  T.  Lee.    1905.    194  pp.,  24  pl«. 

B  264.  Record  of  deep-well  drilling  for  1904,  by  M.  L.  Fuller,  E.  F.  Lines,  and  A.  0.  Veateh.  1905 
106  pp. 

PP     44.  Underground  water  resources  of  Long  Island,  New  York,  by  A.  C.  Veateh  and  others.    1905. 

WS  137.  Developmentof  undeiground  watersin  the  eastern  coastal  plain  region  of  s<jnthem  Calilornia, 
by  W.  C.  Mendenball.    1906.    140  pp.,  7  pis. 

WS  188.  Development  of  underground  waters  in  the  central  coastal  plain  region  of  southern  Califor- 
nia, by  W.  C.  Mendenhall.    1905.    162  pp.,  5  pis. 

WS  139.  Development  of  underground  waters  In  the  western  coastal  plain  rt>gion  of  .southern  Cali- 
fornia, by  W.  0.  Mendenball.    1^05.    105  pp.,  7  pis. 

WS  140.  Field  measurements  of  the  rate  of  movement  of  underground  waters,  by  C.  S.  Sllchtor.  1905. 
122  pp.,  15  pis. 

WS  141.  Observations  on  the  ground  waters  of  Rio  Grande  Valley,  by  C.  .<=!.  siichier.  1905.  83  pp., 
5pla 

WS  142.  Hydrology  of  San  Bernardino  Valley,  California,  by  W.  C.  Mendenhall.    1905.    124  pp..  13  pis. 

WS140.  Contributions  to  the  hydrology  of  eastern  United  States;  M.  L.  Fuller,  geologist  in  charge. 

1906.  220  pp.,  6  pis. 

WS  148.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  Oklahoma,  by  C.  N.  Gould.    1905.    178  pp.,  22  pis. 

WS  149.  Preliminary  list  of  deep  borings  In  the  United  States.    Second  edition,  with  additions,  by 

N.  H.  Darton.    1906.    175  pp. 
i'P     46.  Geology  and  underground  water  resources  of  northern  Louisiana  and  southern  Arkansas,  by 

A.  C.  Veateh.    1906. 
WS  153.  The  underflow  in  Arkansas  Valley  in  western  Kansas,  by  C.  S.  Slichter.    1906. 
WS  154.  The  geology  and  water  resources  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Panhandle  of  Texas,  by  C.  N. 

Gould.  1906.  64  pp.,  15  pis. 
The  following  papers  also  relate  to  this  subject:  Underground  waters  of  Arkansas  Valley  in  eaKtcni 
Colorado,  by  Q.  E.  Gilbert,  in  Seventeenth  Annual,  Pt.  II;  Preliminary  report  on  artesian  waters  of  a 
portion  of  the  Dakotas,  by  N.  H.  Darton,  in  Seventeenth  Annual,  Pt.  II:  Water  resources  of  Illinois, 
by  Prank  Leverett,  in  Seventeenth  Annual,  Pt.  II;  Water  resources  of  Indiana  and  Ohio,  by  Frank 
Leverett,  In  Eighteenth  Annual,  Pt.  IV;  New  developments  in  well  boring  and  irrigation  in  eastern 
South  Dakota,  by  N.  H.  Darton,  In  Eighteenth  Annual,  Pt.  IV;  Rock  waters  of  Ohio,  by  Edward 
Orton,  in  Nineteenth  Annual,  Pt.  IV;  Artesian  well  prospects  in  the  Atlantic  coa«3tal  plain  region,  by 
N.  H.  Darton,  Bulletin  No.  188. 

Correspondence  should  be  addressed  to 

The  Director, 

United  States  Geoixxhcal  Survey, 
FEBRrARV,  190(5.  Washington,  D.  0. 

o 


W&tor-Sapply  and  Irrigation  Paper  No.  155 


Series  0,  Undergroand  Waters,  52 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

CHARLES  D.  WALCOTT,  Dirrctor 


FLUCTUATIONS  OF  THE  WATER  LEVEL  IN 

WELLS,  WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE 

TO  LONG  ISLAND,  NEW  YORK 


BY 


A..  C.   VE^TCH 


WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT     PRINTING    OFFICE 

1006 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

"introduction  and  summary 7 

I*ART  I.  Long  Island  observations 9 

Introductory  outline  of  hydrologic  conditions 9 

Observations  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey 10 

Observations  with  direct-reading  gages 10 

At  Huntington,  N.  Y 10 

At  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y 13 

Observations  with  self-recording  gages 17 

Instrument  used 17 

At  Queens  County  Water  Company  pumping  station  near  Hew- 
lett, N.  Y 18 

AtLong Beach,  N.  Y 19 

NearMillbum,  N.  Y 22 

AtLynbrook,  N.  Y 23 

At  Douglaston,  N.  Y 25 

Observations  of  the  New  York  City  commission  on  additional  water  supply .  27 

Part  II.  General  discussion  of  the  fluctuations  of  water  in  wells 28 

Classification  of  causes 28 

Fluctuations  produced  by  natural  causes 29 

Rainfall  and  evaporation 29 

Regular  annual  fluctuations 29 

General  character  and  cause 29 

Effect  of  depth  of  soil  above  the  zone  of  complete  saturation 

on  time  of  occurrence  of  yearly  maximum  and  minimum. .  34 

'    Irregular  secular  fluctuations 37 

Amount  of  annual  and  secular  fluctuation 38 

Fluctuations  due  to  single  showers 42 

By  transmitted  pressure  without  any  increase  in  the  ground 

water 42 

By  the  actual  addition  of  water  to  the  ground  water  through 

percolation 44 

Percentage  of  rainfall  contributed  to  the  ground  water 44 

Methods  of  estimation 44 

By  lysimeters 44 

By  stream  discharge 49 

By  changes  in  level  of  ground- water  table 50 

References  relating  to  well  fluctuations  due  to  rainfall 51 

Fluctuations  due  to  barometric  changes 52 

Character  and  cause 52 

References  relating  to  w^ell  fl uctuations  due  to  barometric  changes .  53 

Fluctuations  due  to  temperature  changes 54 

Observations  at  Madison,  Wis. ;  fluctuations  varying  directly  with 

the  temperature 54 

3 


CONTENTS. 


Part  II.  General  discussion  of  the  flactuations  of  water  in  wells — Cont'd. 
Fluctnations  produced  by  natural  causes — Continued. 
Fluctuations  due  to  temperature  changes— Continued. 

Observations  at  Lynbrook,  N.  Y. ;  fluctuations  in vereely  related  to 

the  temperature : , b7 

Observations  at  Sherlock,  Kans 5<» 

Diurnal  fluctuations  of  Cache  la  Poudre  River,  Colorado 59 

References    relating   to  fluctuations    produced  by  temperatare 

changes .50 

Fluctuations  produced  by  rivers * 55 

By  change  in  rate  of  ground- water  discharge 60 

By  irregular  infiltration  from  rivers  with  normally  impervioos 

beds 61 

By  plastic  deformation 62 

References  relating  to  fluctuations  produced  by  rivers 62 

Fluctuations  produced  by  changes  in  lake  levels 63 

Fluctuations  produced  by  changes  in  the  ocean  level— tidal  wells 63 

By  changes  in  rate  of  oatflow  of  ground  water 64 

By  plastic  deformation 65 

References  relating  to  tidal  fluctuations  in  wells 67 

Possibility  of  tides  in  the  ground  water  produced  by  direct  solar  and 

lunar  attraction 69 

Fluctuations  due  to  geologic  causes 69 

Fluctuations  produced  by  human  agencies 70 

Effect  of  settlement,  deforestation,  and  cultivation 70 

Effect  of  irrigation 72 

Effect  of  dams 72 

Effect  of  underground  water-supply  developments 72 

Subsurface  dams 72 

Infiltration  galleries 72 

Pumping 73 

Artesian- well  developments 74 

Effect  of  large  cities  on  the  ground-water  level 74 

Loaded  freight  trains 75 

Fluctuations  due  to  indeterminate  causes 75 

Small  fluctuations 75 

Fluctuations  at  Millbum,  N.  Y 76 

Fluctuations  at  Urisino  Station,  New  South  Wales 76 

Index 77 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate  I.  Sketch  map  of  western  Long  Island,  New  York,  showing  localities 

discussed 9 

II.  Map  of  a  portion  of  southern  Long  Island,  New  York,  showing  loca- 
tion of  Hewlett,  Long  Beach,  Millbum,  and  Lynbrook  wells 16 

III.  Partial  record  of  fluctuations  of  water  level  in  a  181-foot  well  near 

Hewlett,  N.  Y 18 

IV.  Partial  record  of  fluctuations  in  a  386-foot  well  at  Long  Beach,  N.  Y.        20 


ILLU8TBA.TI0NS.  5 

Pace. 
Pi^jLTB  V.  Partial  record  of  fluctoationB  of  water  level  in  a  289-foot  well  near 

Millbum,N.  Y ' 22 

VI.  Partial  record  of  fluctuationfl  of  water  level  in  wells  at  Lynbrook, 

N.Y 24 

VII.  Sketch  map  showing  location  and  topographic  surroundings  of  wells 

of  the  Citizens'  Water  Supply  Company  near  Douglaston,  N.  Y. . .        26 
VIII.  Partial  record  of  fluctuations  of  water  level  in  wells  near  Douglaston, 

N.Y 28 

IX.  Fluctuations  of  water  level  in  wells  near  Wiener  Neustadt,  Austria.        32 
Fio.  1.  Diagrammatic  cross  section  of  Long  Island,  showing  principal  topo- 
graphic and  geologic  factors  influencing  the  underground  water  con- 
ditions   9 

2.  Sketch  map  showing  location  of  well  of  Huntington  Light  and  Power 

Company  at  Huntington  Harbor,  N.  Y 11 

3.  Detail  of  well  and  tide  curves  at  Huntington  Harbor,  N.  Y.,  show- 

ing lag  between  well  and  tide L 12 

4.  Sketch-map  showing  location  of  wells  observed  at  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y..        13 

5.  Sketch  map  showing  topographic  surroundings  of  wells  shown  in  fig. 

4  and  location  of  sections  shown  in  figs.  6  and  7 14 

6.  Section  at  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y.,  along  line  B-B,  fig.  5,  showing  geologic 

relations  of  wells  observed 14 

7.  Section  at  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y.,  along  line  A-A,  fig.  5,  showing  geologic 

relation  of  the  artesian  wells  at  Oyster  Bay  and  on  Center  Island  . .        15 

8.  Welland  tide  curves  at  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y 17 

9.  Yearly  rainfall  and  water-level    curves   in  shallow  wells  in  middle 

Europe 29 

10.  Yearly  rainfall  and  water-level  curves  in  shallow  wells  in  the  United 

States 30 

11.  Mean  annual  ground-water  curve  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  and  rainfall  and 

temperature  curves  at  Philadelphia,  Pa 31 

12.  Results  of  English  percolation  experiments 32 

13.  Fluctuations  of  water  level  in  wells -on  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  from  obser- 

vations of  New  York  City  commission  on  additional  water  supply. .        36 

14.  Residual-mass  curves  of  rainfall  for  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  Newark,  N.  J., 

and  Philadelphia,  Pa 37 

15.  Annual  and  secular  changes  of  the  ground- water  level  and  fluctuations 

due  to  single  showers  in  a  shallow  well  at  Millbum,  N.  Y 39 

16.  Fluctuations  of  water  level  in  a  well  at  Madison,  Wis.,  showing  non- 

transmission  of  diurnal  fluctuations  produced  by  changes  in  capil- 
lary attraction 57 

17.  Diagram  showing  production  of  fluctuations  of  ground-water  level  by 

temperature  changes  affecting  rate  of  flow 58 


FLUCTUATIONS  OF  THE  WATER  LEVEL  IN  WELLS, 
WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  LONG  ISLAND. 
NEW  YORK.  

By  A.  C.  Veatch. 


INTRODUCTION  AND  SUMMARY. 

In  coDnection  with  the  investigation  of  the  geology  of  Long  Island  by  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  in  the  summer  of  1903,  a  few  observations  were  made  on 
the  fluctuation  of  the  water  level  in  wells,  both  with  direct-reading  and  self-recording 
gages.  In  the  consideration  of  these  data,  as  well  as  those  collected  at  the  same 
time  by  the  New  York  City  commission  on  additional  water  supply,  it  has  seemed 
desirable  to  enter  into  a  general  discussion  of  the  fluctuation  of  water  in  wells. 

Some  of  the  results  of  this  study  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 

1 .  The  most  important  and  characteristic  of  the  natural  ground-water  fluctuations 
Ih  the  regular  annual  period.  This  is  a  relatively  uniform  curve,  with  a  single  maxi- 
mum and  minimum,  on  which  the  fluctuations  of  shorter  periods,  as  a  rule,  form 
but  minor  irregularities.  This  curve  does  not  generally  resemble  the  rainfall  curve. 
Were  the  rainfall  uniform  throughout  the  year,  the  ground  water  would  still  show  a 
regular  yearly  period  and  the  maximum  would  occur  early  in  the  year  in  the  North 
Temperate  Zone.  The  effect  of  irregularities  in  the  rainfall  is  to  move  the  time  of 
occurrence  of  this  maximum  either  forward  or  back. 

2.  The  water  from  single  showers  is  generally  delivered  gradually  to  the  ground- 
water table,  and  even  where  noticeable  fluctuations  are  produced,  these  do  not  com- 
monly make  important  irregularities  in  the  regular  annual  ground-water  curve. 

3.  Single  showers  may,  by  transmitted  pressure  through  the  soil  air,  produce  instan- 
taneous and  noticeable  rises  in  the  water  in  wells  and  notably  increase  the  stream 
discrharge  without  contributing  either  to  the  ground  water  or  directly  to  the  surface 
flow. 

4.  The  amount  contributed  to  the  ground  water  can  not  be  satisfactorily  estimated 
by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  water  in  wells,  because  the  same  amount  of  rainfall  under 
the  same  geologic  and  climatic  conditions,  in  be^ls  of  the  same  porosity,  will  pro- 
duce fluctuations  of  very  different  values.  Near  the  ground- water  outlet  the  total 
yearly  range  may  be  but  a  few  inches,  while  near  the  ground-water  divide  it  may  be 
50  or  100  feet.  When  an  attempt  is  made  to  calculate  the  amount  of  water  received 
from  single  rains,  the  results  are  not  reliable,  because  in  the  cases  which  are  usually 
taken,  such  as  sharp,  quick  rises,  it  is  impossible  to  tell  how  much  of  the  rise  is  due 
to  transmitted  pressure  and  how  much  to  direct  inflltration. 

5.  Because  of  the  increase  in  stream  flow  due  (1)  to  transmittal  pressure  from 
rains,  (2)  to  changes  in  barometric  pressure,  and  (3)  to  increase  in  area  of  ground- 
water discharge,  with  the  elevation  of  the  ground-water  table,  it  is  not  possible  to 

7 


8  FLU01UATION8    OF   THE    WATKK   LEVEL   IK   WELLS. 

correctly  separate  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  stream  discharge  contributed  by  spring 
flow  from  that  contributed  by  direct  surface  run-off.  There  are  many  reasons  for 
believing  that  in  humid  regions  **fiood  flows"  contain  large  percentages  of  ground 
water. 

6.  Tidal  fluctuations  in  wells  are  very  often  produced  by  a  plastic  deformation  doe 
to  the  loading  of  the  tides,  and  the  occurrence  of  such*  fluctuations  in  wells  does  not 
in  itself  indicate  a  connection  between  the  water-bearing  strata  and  the  sea. 

7.  Temperature  changes  may  produce  marked  fluctuations  ( 1 )  by  changes  in  capillary 
attraction — such  fluctuations  are  perceptible  only  at  the  surface  of  the  zone  of  cc»m- 
plete  saturation,  are  not  transmitted  to  deeper  levels,  and  vary  directly  with  tbi^ 
temperature;  (2)  by  changes  in  viscosity  or  rate  of  flow — fluctuations  due  to  thi? 
cause  vary  inversely  with  the  temperature,  and  show  in  deep  wells  by  transmitttrd 
pressure. 


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PART  I. 


LONG  ISLAND  OBSERVATIONS. 


INTRODUCTORY  OUTLINE  OF  THE  HYDROLOGIC  CONDITIONS. 


The  geologic  and  topographic  conditions  are 

'9 


The  conditions  on  Long  Island,  New  York,  are  particularly  favorable  for  the  study 
of  the  fluctuations  of  water  in  wells, 
such  that  it  may  be  affirmed  that 
the  underground  water  is  derived 
wholly  from  the  rain  which  falls 
on  the  surface  of  the  island,  and 
the  problems  involved  are,  there- 
fore, not  unduly  complicated,  as 
they  are  in  many  regions,  by  the 
possibility  of  the  influx  of  water 
from  other  areas.  In  addition 
to  this  comparatively  complete 
ground-water  isolation,  the  is- 
land is  of  such  a  size — 120  miles 
long  and  20  miles  wide — that 
ground -water  phenomena  can 
attain  a  relatively  complete  de- 
velopment, and  the  geologic 
structure  of  the  water-bearing 
beds,  while  not  complicated,  is 
sufficiently  varied  to  produce 
several  differing  conditions. 

Topographically  the  western 
part  of  Long  Island — the  portion 
involved  directly  in  this  paper- 
may  be  said  to  consist  of  a  single 
range  of  rolling  hills,  usually  150 
to  250  feet  high,  though  in  one 
place  attaining  an  elevation  of 
over  400  feet.  This  hill  range 
descends  somewhat  abruptly  to 
the  north  shore,  where  it  is  cut 
by  several  reentrant  bays  occu- 
pying old  valleys.  On  the  south 
side  is  a  very  flat  gravel  plain, 
sloping  gently  to  the  ocean,  along 
which  a  series  of  barrier  beaches 
inclosing  long  marshes  has  been 
developed.  To  the  east  the  hill 
range  divides  and  produces  two 
hilly  peninsulas,  each  with  a 
single  ridge  on  the  northern  side. 

Geologically  the  island  may  be  regarded  as  a  series  of  relatively  porous  gravel  and 
sand  beds,  containing  irregular  and  discontinuous  clay  masses,  the  whole  limite<l 

9 


Bprlngi  w^hlch  aupptj  Brooklyn 
^  Wmttt 


"Spojir  (Rept.  New  York  City  Commission  on  Additional  Water  Supply,  1904.  p.  829)  has  eKtimatei! 
thftt  4:$  per  cent  of  the  toUil  stream  flow  (or  14  per  cent  of  the  minfall)  can  be  connldered  a^  flood  il»»« 
or  an  not  having  passed  tlirmigh  the  ground.  He  bases  this  judgment  on  the  relative  heighU^  of  the 
stream  and  gnmnd-water  levels  near  the  south  shore,  where,  as  explained  on  page  61,  a  correct  jud*:- 
ment  can  not  be  formed.  The  average  flood  flow  is  believed  to  be  much  less  than  6  per  cent  of  iht- 
precipitation. 

t>  For  details  of  the  slope  of  the  ground-water  table  see  Prof.  Paper  U.  S.  Qeol.  Survey  No.  44,  !««. 
Pis.  XI,  XII. 


10  FLUOTUATIOHB  OF  THE   WATER  LEVEL   TJX   WELLB. 

below  by  the  peneplained  surface  of  a  mass  of  highly  distarbed  ana  metamorpbne^: 
Paleozoic  and  pre-Paleozoic  rocks,  which  have  little  water  value  except  as  a  mor^  xr 
less  compl  ete  barrier  to  downward  percolation  ( fig.  1 ) .  W  hile  these  unconsolidateii  hn^ii 
represent,  in  the  geologic  time  scale,  several  of  the  divisions  of  the  Upper  Cretace«rfL- 
and  as  many  as  five  Pleistocene  or  glacial  stages,  and  as  a  whole  are  stratified  depi«>itK 
dipping  at  very  low  angles  south  and  southeastward,  they  are,  under  the  L«lani 
essentially  continuous  from  a  water  standpoint,  and  the  rain  falling  on  the  f>nria(-^  i> 
relatively  free  to  yiaas  to  any  part  of  the  mass.  The  Pleistocene  beds  which  form  the 
surface  are,  however,  as  a  rule,  coarse  and  more  porous  than  the  underlying  Creta- 
ceous and  tend  to  increase  the  absorbing  power  of  the  island.  As  a  resnlt,  the  per- 
centage of  rainfall  which  passes  into  the  streams  w^ithout  first  going  through  tht 
ground  is  extremely  small.  <^  ThLs  percolating  water  has  entirely  saturated  the  p?n>a? 
strata  above  the  bed  rock,  except  a  limited  portion  at  the  surface,  and  has  drivea 
out  the  salt  water  which  filled  these  beds  when  they  were  first  deposited  and  whi<b  I 
reoccupied  them,  at  least  in  part,  during  the  several  submergences  to  which  tht*  i 
region  has  been  subjected.  The  surface  of  this  zone  of  complete  saturation,  or  the  , 
main  ground- water  table,  is  coincident  with  the  sea  level  at  the  shores  and  l)ecom?s> 
more  and  more  elevated  in  passing  inland,  though  the  rate  of  increase  of  elevation  is  ' 
less  than  that  of  the  surface,  of  which  it  is  but  a  subdued  reflection  (fig.  1).  & 

This  slope  of  the  ground-water  table  permits  the  development  of  artesian  welL^  at 
many  points  on  the  coast,  at  elevations  w^hich  are  commonly  lees  than  10  feet  above 
high  tide.  The  head  is,  in  all  cases,  due  to  the  greater  height  of  the  ground  wat4*r 
in  the  adjacent  hill  mass.  In  order  that  such  a  differential  head  may  he  develoi)e«l.  it 
is  merely  necessary  that  the  water-bearing  bed  in  question  be  coarser  than  the  ovir- 
lying  beds.  A  clay  or  other  impervious  cover  is  not  essential  and,  indeed,  is  oft^^n 
absent. 

OBSERVATIONvS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

Observations  on  the  fiuctuations  of  the  water  level  in  wells  were  made  by  the  G^y 
logical  Survey  near  Himtington,  Oyster  Bay,  Valley  Stream,  Millbum,  Long  Beach, 
and  Douglaston,  all  villages  on  Long  Island  west  of  longitude  73®  W.,  and  between 
latitudes  40°  35'  and  40°  55'  N.     (PI.  I. ) 

OBSERVATIONS  ^TITH  DIRECT-READING  GAGES. 

OBSERVATIONS   AT   HUNTINGTON,  N.  Y. 

The  Huntington  observations,  from  which  the  other  Survey  observations  developeil, 
were  undertaken  to  test  the  common  report  that  the  discharge  of  most  of  the  artesian 
wells  along  the  northern  shore  of  Long  Island  fiuctuated  with  the  tide;  in  some  cases' 
the  flow  ranging  from  0  at  low  tide  to  over  100  gallons  per  minute  at  high  tide. 
Nearly  all  of  the^e  wells  were  being  pumped,  or  were  utilized  to  run  rams,  but  i»er- 
mission  was  obtained  to  gage  a  newly  completed  well  l)elonging  to  the  Huntington 
Light  and  Power  Company,  at  Huntington  Harbor,  until  it  should  be  conne<*ted  with 
the  pumps — a  period  of  three  or  four  days. 

A  direct-reading  float  gage  of  simple  type  was  quickly  constructed  by  Baker  dfe  Fox, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  This  consisted  of  a  2-inch  cylinder  of  brass  carrying  a  J-inch  alu- 
minum rod  6  feet  long  and  graduated  to  hundredths  of  a  foot,  with  the  zero  point  ja«.t 


OBBEBYATIOITS    WITH   DIBSOT-BEADIKO    GAOBS. 


11 


si.'bove  the  cylinder.  For  convenience  in  carrying,  as  well  as  to  avoid  the  use  of  so 
lon^  a  rod  except  where  absolutely  necessary,  the  rod  was  divided  into  three  parts 
SLn<i  jointed.  The  cylinder  was  so  constructed  that  it  would  just  carry  the  total  length 
o»t  6  feet,  and  when  used  with  only  2  or  4  feet  of  rod,  weights,  balancing  the  effect  of 
"the  part  removed,  were  added  to  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder. 

Some  trouble  was  experienced  by  the  float  tending  to  approach  the  side  of  the  well 
^nd  develop  a  thin  capillary  film  between  it  and  the  pipe,  which  decreased  the  sen- 
ssitiveness  of  the  gage.  It  is  suggested  that  when  direct-reading  floats  are  used  in 
^wells  of  small  diameter  they  be  kept  away  from  the  walls  of  the  well  by  means  of 


Fio.  2.~8ketcli  map  gbowlng  location  of  well  of  Hantlngton  Light  and  Power  Gompany  at  Hunt- 
ington Harbor,  N.  Y. 

slightly  arched  wires,  as  in  the  float  devieed  by  Professor  King  for  the  self-recording 
gages  used  in  the  Madison  experiments  and  later  on  Long  Island. 

The  well  of  the  Huntington  Light  and  Power  Company  is  situated  on  a  dock  at 
Huntington  Harbor,  near  Halesite  post-office  (PI.  I,  fig.  2. )  The  natural  level  of  the 
surface  at  the  point  where  the  well  is  sunk  is  between  high-  and  low-tide  mark,  but 
the  ground  has  been  built  up  by  filling  alx)ut  5  feet  higher.  The  well  is  75  feet  deep 
and  4  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  water  rises  in  the  pipe  from  1  to  3  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  made  ground.  The  well  was  piped  above  the  limit  of  flow,  so  that  all 
the  fluctuations  could  be  measured  directly,  rather  than  inferred  from  variations  in 
the  rate  of  discharge. 


14 


FLUCTUATIONS    OP   THE   WATER    LEVEL   IN    WELLS. 


from  below  the  blue-clay  layer  (fig.  6).  Thici  blae  clay  thins  rapidly  southward  an«l 
entirely  disappears  half  a  mile  south  of  the  wells  (fig.  7).  It  extends  under  OvsUt 
Bay  Harbor  and  is  exposed  in  the  clay  pits  on  the  south  end  of  Center  Island. « 


LONG 

ISLAND    SOUND 

r^ 

i      ^ 

^ 

<^ 

^ 

^\/"^0^'y^  vi^n 

V 

V 

YccnterV 

'  ^^ 

*!3r'|j 

^>;^^ 

^J^^^Xn^ 

//        .^^ 

w         ( 

YM«cky8i6  well 

^ 
^ 

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teA 

^         M 

^ 

^ 

p 

tt5>^ 

^^^^x 

W\H 

t 

5^ 

Scale 
1 

2  miles 

,  \  ^ 

Pig.  5.~Sketch  map  showing  topogiaphic  BUiroundings  of  wells 
shown  in  flg.  4  and  location  of  sections  shown  in  figs.  6  and  7. 

All  these  wells  were  flowing,  and  in  each  case,  before  observations  were  coinmeiice<l, 
lengths  of  pipe  were  added  until  the  wells  no  longer  flowed,  even  at  high  tide,  Fl«*at 
gages  similar  to  those  used  at  Huntington  were  then  inserted  and  the  wells  covered 


Feet 


o  Sm  level 


ZOC/' 


•  mile 


Fig.  6.— Section  at  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y.,  along  line  B-B,  fig.  6,  show- 
ing geologic  relations  of  wells  observed. 

with  flat-topped  caps,  each  containing  a  smooth  beveled  hole  through  which  the 
gage  rod  extended.  ^ 

a  The  folding  of  the  beds  here  shown  is  due  to  ice  shove.  See  Prof.  Paper  U.  8.  Geol.  Survey  Xo.  44, 
1906,  pp.  3VM3. 

ftTht*  general  conditions  of  observation  are  well  shown  in  Prof.  Paper  U.  S.  Gool.  Survey  No,  44, 1906. 
PI.  XIII,  A.  This  view  Indicates,  in  a  very  graphic  manner,  the  relation  of  the  wells  to  the  water  of 
the  bay  and  the  considerable  head  developed  by  these  fresh-water  artesian  wells  on  the  seashore. 


OBSERVATIONS    WITH    DIRECT-READING    GAGES. 


15 


In  order  to  obtain  more  refined  results  than  were  possible  with  the  board  gage  at 
I-IviTitington,  a  3-inch  pipe,  i>erforated  at  a  point  several  feet  above  the  bottom,  was 
driven  in  the  harbor  at  the  end  of  a  row  of  piles  and  at  a  distance  of  about  200  feet 


I 


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O 

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99 


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ST 

p 


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B 


from  the  shore  (fig.  4).  This  still  box  or  tide  well  was  fitted  with  a  direct-reading 
float  gage  like  those  used  in  the  artesian  wells.  This  arrangement  is  not  to  be  rec- 
ommended during  stormy  weather,  but  fortunately  during  the  whole  time  of  obser- 
vation at  this  place  no  trouble  was  experienced  from  that  cause. 


16 


FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL    IN    WELL8. 


Obeervations  were  commenced  on  the  Cas'no,  Underbill,  and  Burgess  wells  on  tb^^ 
evening  of  May  30,  by  a  party  in  cbarge  of  Mr.  Isaiah  Bowman,  and  continued,  with 
interruptions  on  the  nights  of  May  30  and  31  and  June  1,  to  10  p.  m.  on  June  4. 

On  June  10  and  11  observations  were  made  on  the  Lee  (or  Hill)  well,  covering  twi 
high  and  two  low  tides,  and  for  the  purpose  of  comparison  the  Casino  and  tide  well- 
were  also  observed.  Observations  were  generally  made  every  minute  for  thirty 
minutes  preceding  and  following  the  times  of  high  and  low  water,  and  from  these 
values  the  curves  shown  in  fig.  8  were  drawn.  Times  of  high  and  low  water  werv 
found  by  plotting  the  observations  near  high-  and  low-tide  marks  on  a  much  lar^^r 
scale,  in  the  manner  shown  in  fig.  3.  The  values  so  obtained  are  indicated  on  Qg.  K 
and  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Difference  in  time  between  high-  and  low-waler  stages  in  four  artesian  wells  at  Oyster  Bnv, 
N.  Y.y  and  the  tide  in  Oyster  Bay  Harbor. 

[Time  expressed  in  hours  and  minutes  of  24-hour  clock.] 
HIGH  TIDES. 


1908. 


Casino  well. 
Tide 


Difference  (lag) ... 

Burgess  well 

Tide 


Difference  (lag) . 


Lee  well. 
Tide 


Difference  (lag) . 

Underbill  well 

Tide 

Difference  (lag) . 


May 

ao. 


May  81. 


14.62 
14.43 


.09 


June 
1. 


15.13 
14.43 


14.43 


1.19 


16.05 
15.44 


.21 


16.02  17.02 


15.44 


1.18 


June  2. 


17.05 
16.54 


17.15 
16.54 


18.00 
16.54 


1.06 


Junes.     ,JT«  ''^o'l^i-^yrry^' 


5.19 
5.12 


.07 


5.38 
6.12 


.26 


6.20 
6.12 


18. 11| 
18.02 


6.38 
6.2», 


.09'" 


12.22 

12.20; 


tttfS. 


.02 


I8.25I    6.66|. 
18.02!    6.29'. 


.23,      .271. 


a0.20| 

23.48 


13.12! 
12.20! 


.32 


19.10     7. 41.. 
18.02     6.29. 


1.08     1.12|. 


:^ 


LOW  TIDES. 


Casino  well 

20.28 
20.10 

9.21 
9.04 

i 

23.46 

19  OR 

0.47 

17.42 

A  X* 

Tide 

23.36  n.55 

.38 
.09 

17.331     6.20 

1 
.09.       .12 

Difference  (lag) ... 

.18 

.17 

.10,      .13 



12  ft 

Burgess  well 

10.41 
10.00 

741 

11.26 
10.53 

aO.lO 

23.36 

12.28 

1  04 

Tide 

11.55'      .38 

i 

i 

Difference  (lag) ... 

.33 

.84 

.33       .26 

! 

sa4 

Lee  well 

18.23     7.26 
17.83     «  90. 

Tide 

.^* 

Difference  (lag) . . . 

.60 

1.06 

Underbill  well..... 

21.26 
20.10 

10.17 
9.04 

11.22 
10.00 

12.06 
10.53 

aO.65 
23.36 

18.  U 
11.56 

1.49 
.38 

Tide 

Difference  (lag) ... 

1.15 

1.13 

1.22 

1.13 

1.19 

L16 

1.11 

75.6 

a  Morning  of  following  day. 


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LONG   ISLAND    OBSERVATIONS. 


17 


OBSERVATIONS  ^VITH  S£LF-R£CORI>ING  GAGBS. 

INSTRUMENTS  USED. 

The  continuation  of  the  observations  by  means  of  self-recording 
ttie  timely  interest  of  Mr.  F.  H.  Newell  and  Prof.  Charles  S.  Slichter. 


was  due  to 
Mr.  Newell 


Feet  aoove  low  tide 

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£2               -p"«                                                              __..:.7                                        yjl 

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s.                  *"-E              - -'"      X5"  5 

&                       F                f      ..,-^J     - 

^                  >=^                Z          72- 

1                                                 t 

s                            ^ 

§. 

1-                  ~                      :- 

visited  the  island  when  the  observations  at  Oyster  Bay  were  in  progress,  and  at  once 
airected  that  three  Friez  water-stage  registers  be  purchased.     These  were  supple- 
IRR  155—06 2 


18  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WELLS. 

mented  ))y  a  ga^e  constructed  at  Purtiue  University  from  the  designs  of  Mr.   HIl  ^-* 
Mead. 

Shortly  after  Mr.  Newell' s  visit,  and  before  the  Friez  gages  had  been  ne*-*?-i> 
Prof.  Charles  S.  Slichter  arrived  to  take  charge  of  the  measurement  of  the    rsir^ 
underflow.     He  kindly  obtained  the  loan  of  five  of  the  gages  used  by  Kin^   in  1  j 
experiments  at  Madison,  Wis.;«  of  these,  four  were  week  gages  and  one  a  one—  ':j 
gage.     The  King  gages  were  constructed  by  H.  Green,  Brooklyn,  from  barc«:rai 
stands;  they  consist  of  an  ordinary  barograph  cylinder,  driven  by  a  double-^|»riij 
marine  clock,  the  recording  device  being  a  simple  lever  on  a  cone  bearing  with  a  j-  | 
on  one  end  and  a  place  for  attaching  the  float  on  the  other.     At  the  jwint  whert*  ilJ 
clock  motion  is  transmitted  to  the  drum  there  was  a  slight  amount  of  play  y^'}j}''A 
King  found  would  introduce  into  the  records  an  error  of  one  to  two  honra.      A  fri«  i 
tion  brake  was,  however,  subsequently  added  to  overcome  this  defect.    The  gau?*-' 
as  received  on  Long  Island  were  adjusted  to  magnify  the  fluctuations  two  or  ni««n 
times;  and  ^  this  scale  was  entirely  too  great  for  the  wells  observed,  the  ami  wa> 
extended  until  the  ratio  was  1:2  and. a  reduction  of  one-half  thereby  obtaint^/. 
These  gages  were  found  to  be  more  sensitive  and  reliable  than  any  others  used.     By 
means  of  the  simple  lever  with  its  cone  bearing,  the  friction  in  this  instmispn/  i» 
reduced  to  a  minimum ;  the  pens  respond  to  the  slightest  movement  of  the  water, 
and  for  the  faithful  reproduction  of  small  fluctuations  this  simple  type  of  ga^  in  t« 
be  highly  recommended. 

In  the  Mead  gage  the  recording  drum  is  vertical  and  the  pen  is  carried  by  a  carria^ 
working  between  two  upright  guides.  The  wire  supporting  the  carriage  windsaN'fit 
a  wheel  connected  with  the  wHeel  around  which  a  wire  from  the  float  passee^and  i* 
lifted  and  lowered  as  the  float  descends  and  rises.  The  float  and  the  wheel  to  which 
the  pen  is  attached  are  so  related  in  diameter  that  the  curve  traced  is  10/42  of  the  true 
scale.  There  is  with  this  gage,  as  with  most  gages  where  the  recording  cylinder  15 
driven  by  the  clock,  some  lost  motion  at  the  point  of  connection.  This  is  particu- 
larly bad  in  this  instrument  On  the  Long  Beach  records  great  care  was  used  in  set- 
ting the  gage  and  the  trouble  was  avoided,  but  some  of  the  curves  from  well  No.  8,  af 
Douglaston,  are  clearly  in  error  two  to  three  hours. 

In  the  Friez  gage  ^  the  recording  drum  is  horizontal  and  is  moved  by  the  flfat, 
while  the  pen  is  moved  by  the  clockwork.  It  was  found  that  with  the  size  of  fl<iat 
that  must  be  used  in  wells  of  small  diameter  the  inertia  of  the  drum  in  this  instru- 
ment was  such  that  it  would  not  move  until  considerable  head  was  developed  an<i 
that  small  fluctuations  were  often  not  recorded.  There  was  also  a  considerable 
amount  of  lost  motion  in  the  cogs  used  in  the  reducing  device;  and  while  an  ecct?n- 
tric  was  provided  for  engaging  the  cogs  closer,  this  could  not  be  done  without  h> 
increasing  the  friction  that  the  instrument  was  useless.  As  a  whole,  this  gSLgeisDitt 
sufficiently  sensitive  for  this  kind  of  work,  and  the  time  element  is  entirely  too  small. 

A  water-stage  register  manufactured  by  a  western  house  was  also  used,  but  the 
results  obtained  were  not  satisfactory  because  of  the  poor  mechanical  construction  of 
the  gage. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    WELL    OF    QUEENS    COUNTY    WATER    COMPANY,    1     MILE    WEfff   OF 

HEWLETT,  N.   Y. 

Through  the  kindness  of  the  chief  engineer  of  the  Queens  County  Water  Companv. 
Mr.  Charles  R.  Bettes,  an  artesian  well  181  feet  deep  and  3,300  feet  south  of  the 
company's  pumping  station  (PI.  II)  was  covered  with  a  shelter  for  the  protection  of 
the  gages  and  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Survey.  This  well,  as  is  common  with 
the  wells  of  about  the  same  depth  sunk  near  the  pumping  station,  passes  through  a 
layer  of  surface  sand  and  gravel,  then  through  beds  of  clay  and  other  fine  material 

a  Bull.  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  No.  5,  1892. 
bManu'.actured  by  Julian  P.  Friez,  Baltimore,  Md. 


I.I 

1            JULY       7 
-1            M  ^                12        . 

"Pik 

i 

.--^ 

^ 

1    ■ 

/ 

rT 

(1    ^ 

\-- 

/ 

■ 

AC 

/ 

O 

/ 

f 

A 

/ 

V 

\ 

/ 

Bd 

AT 

(» 

r 

1 

-^ 

.^* 

1 

/ 

(S 

u 

J^ 

AT  5 

B 
(Respi 

FromP 

_     1 

u.^ 

lEWLETT,    N.    Y. 
i^e  is  inverted. 


18  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IK    WEX-H-S. 

mented  by  a  ga^e  constructed  at  Purdue  University  from  the  designs  of  JVf  r.   K! 
Mead. 

Shortly  after  Mr.  Newell's  visit,  and  before  the  Friez  gages  had  l>eoo    re--**. 
Prof.  Charles  S.  Slichter  arrived  to  take  charge  of  the  measurement   of    the   n. 
underflow.     He  kindly  obtained  the  loan  of  five  of  the  gages  used  by  JCixifr  ii 
experiments  at  Madison,  Wi8.;<»  of  these,  four  were  week  gages  and  one   a.  one- 
gage.     The  King  gages  were  constructed  by  H.  Green,  Brooklyn,  from   IxLnyisr 
stands;  they  consist  of  an  ordinary  barograph  cylinder,  driven  by  a  ciouWe-j-;* 
marine  clock,  the  recording  device  being  a  simple  lever  on  a  cone  bearing'  'witb  a 
on  one  end  and  a  place  for  attaching  the  float  on  the  other.     At  the  point  ^'lien- 
clock  motion  is  transmitted  to  the  drum  there  was  a  slight  amount  of   l>la.y^  *  -'i 
King  found  would  introduce  into  the  records  an  error  of  one  to  two  honire.      A  i 
tion  brake  was,  however,  subsequently  added  to  overcome  this  defect-       Xbe  eoi 
as  received  on  Long  Island  were  adjusted  to  magnify  the  fluctuations  t'wo  or  rii 
times;  and  as  this  scale  was  entirely  too  great  for  the  wells  observed,  tbe   arm   ^h 
extended  until  the  ratio  was  1:2  and  a  reduction  of  one-half  thereby  obtain 
These  gages  were  found  to  be  more  sensitive  and  reliable  than  any  others  used,      J 
means  of  the  simple  lever  with  its  cone  bearing,  the  friction  in  this  instrument 
reduced  to  a  minimum ;  the  pens  respond  to  the  slightest  movement  of  the  war.- 
and  for  the  faithful  reproduction  of  small  fluctuations  this  simple  type  of  ^^a^Bre  A**  ^ 
be  highly  recommended. 

In  the  Mead  gage  the  recording  drum  is  vertical  and  the  pen  is  carried  by  a  carria^^ 
working  between  two  upright  guides.  The  wire  supporting  the  carriage  winds  al^  .1; 
a  wheel  connected  with  the  wHeel  around  which  a  wire  from  the  float  passee,  and  i 
lifted  and  lowereil  as  the  float  descends  and  rises.  The  float  and  the  wheel  to  whUt 
the  pen  is  attached  are  so  related  in  diameter  that  the  curve  traced  is  10/42  of  the  tnk 
scale.  There  is  with  this  gage,  as  with  most  gages  where  the  recording  cylinder  iy 
driven  by  the  clock,  some  lost  motion  at  the  point  of  connection.  ThiB  ia  partite- 
larly  bad  in  this  instrument  On  the  Long  Beach  records  great  care  was  used  in  i«et- 
ting  the  gage  and  the  trouble  was  avoided,  but  some  of  the  curves  from  well  No,  h,  at 
Douglaston,  are  clearly  in  error  two  to  three  hours. 

In  the  Friez  gage  ^  the  recording  drum  is  horizontal  and  is  moved  by  the  flr^ac 
while  the  pen  is  moved  by  the  clockwork.  It  was  found  that  with  the  size  uf  flnat 
that  nmst  be  used  in  wells  of  small  diameter  the  inertia  of  the  drum  in  this  instru- 
ment was  such  that  it  would  not  move  until  considerable  head  was  developeil  ami 
that  small  fluctuations  were  often  not  recorded.  There  was  also  a  considerable 
amount  of  lost  motion  in  the  cogs  used  in  the  reducing  device;  and  while  an  eccen- 
tric was  provided  for  engaging  the  cogs  closer,  this  could  not  be  done  without  l^•) 
increasing  the  friction  that  the  instrument  was  useless.  As  a  whole,  this  gage  is  vot 
suflBciently  sensitive  for  this  kind  of  work,  and  the  time  element  is  entirely  too  small. 

A  water-stage  register  manufactured  by  a  western  house  was  also  useil,  but  tbe 
results  obtained  were  not  satisfactory  because  of  the  poor  mechanical  oonstroction  of 
the  gage. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    WELL    OF    QUEENS    COUNTY     WATER    COMPANY,     1     MILE     WEST    OF 

HEWLETT,  N.   Y. 

Through  the  kindness  of  the  chief  engineer  of  the  Queens  County  Water  Company, 
Mr.  Charles  R.  Bettes,  an  artesian  well  181  feet  deep  and  3,300  feet  south  of  tbe 
company's  pumping  station  (PI.  II)  was  covered  with  a  shelter  for  the  protection  of 
the  gages  and  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Survey.  This  well,  as  is  common  \nith 
the  wells  of  about  the  same  depth  sunk  near  the  pumping  station,  passes  through  a 
hiyer  of  surface  sand  and  gravel,  then  through  beds  of  clay  and  other  fine  material 

a  Bull.  U.  8.  Weather  Bureau  No.  5, 1892. 

6 Manufactured  by  Julian  P.  Friez,  Baltimore,  Md. 


■\ 

1             1           JULY       7 
_J            M  .                 12 

A 

TB 

^^ 

_ 

h^ 

/ 

r^ 

<i    "^ 

/ 

■■ 

aI 

/ 

a      _^ 

1 

/ 

A 

/ 

V 
\ 

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nl-  — 

__^ 

AT 

(a 

- 

'" 

- 

"1 

/ 

(3 

J^    J 

■^^^ 

AT  5 

(Respi 
26I1I 

Fromlj 

lEWLETT,    N.    Y. 
I^e  is  inverted. 


18  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATEB   LEVEL   IN    WEr-H-S- 

mente<l  by  a  gage  construrted  at  Punlue  University  from  the  designs  of  >fr.    Kl 
Mead. 

Shortly  after  Mr.  NewelPs  visit,  and  before  the  Friez  gages  had  t>€30ii  i>-»« 
Prof.  Charles  S.  Slichter  arrived  to  take  charge  of  the  measurement  of  tKe  r,^ 
underflow.  He  kindly  obtained  the  loan  of  five  of  the  gages  used  \>y  ICixi^r  ii 
experiments  at  Madison,  Wis.;<»  of  these,  four  were  week  gages  and  ono  a  <»rj«? 
gage.  The  King  gages  were  constructed  by  H.  Green,  Brooklyn,  from  iMirtf^ 
stands;  they  consist  of  an  ordinary  barograph  cylinder,  driven  by  a  <ioul>l«.^!^p 
marine  clock,  the  recording  device  being  a  simple  lever  on  a  cone  bearini^'  'writli  a 
on  one  end  and  a  place  for  attaching  the  float  on  the  other.  At  the  poifit  -wlit-r* 
clock  motion  is  transmitted  to  the  drum  there  was  a  slight  amount  of  ]>Iay  %%  f  i 
King  found  would  introduce  into  the  records  an  error  of  one  to  two  hoar*?-  A  i 
tion  brake  was,  however,  subsequently  added  to  overcome  this  defect,  Xbe  ^:^ 
as  receive<l  on  Long  Island  were  adjusted  to  magnify  the  fluctuations  two  or  ni* 
times;  and  jis  this  scale  was  entirely  too  great  for  the  wells  observed,  the  arm  v 
extended  until  the  ratio  was  1:2  and  a  reduction  of  one-half  thereby  obtain*: 
These  gages  were  found  to  be  more  sensitive  and  reliable  than  any  others  laeeci.  1 
means  of  the  simple  lever  with  its  cone  bearing,  the  friction  in  this  instniznenf 
reduced  to  a  minimum;  the  pens  respond  to  the  slightest  movement  of  the  warn 
and  for  the  faithful  reproduction  of  small  fluctuations  this  simple  type  of  fSBfg^  i.- 
be  highly  recommended. 

In  the  Mead  gage  the  recording  drum  is  vertical  and  the  pen  is  carried  by  a  carriaj 
working  between  two  upright  guides.  The  wire  supporting  the  carriage  windi^  alx  i.l 
a  wheel  connected  with  the  wheel  around  which  a  wire  from  the  float  passes,  and  ii 
lifted  and  lowered  as  the  float  descends  and  rises.  The  float  an<l  the  wheel  to  whk: 
the  pen  is  attached  are  so  related  in  diameter  that  the  curve  traced  is  10/42  of  the  tnit 
scale.  There  is  with  this  gage,  as  with  most  gages  where  the  recording  cylinder  iy 
driven  by  the  clock,  some  lost  motion  at  the  point  of  connection.  This  is  particc- 
larly  bad  in  this  instrument  On  the  Long  Beach  records  great  care  was  used  in  f«et- 
ting  the  gage  and  the  trouble  was  avoided,  but  some  of  the  curves  from  well  No,  ^,  at 
Douglaston,  are  clearly  in  error  two  to  three  hours. 

In  the  Friez  gage  &  the  recording  drum  is  horizontal  and  is  moved  by  the  AtfiC 
while  the  i)en  is  moved  by  the  clockwork.  It  was  found  that  with  the  size  of  fl«'at 
that  must  be  used  in  wells  of  small  diameter  the  inertia  of  the  drum  in  this  instru- 
ment was  such  that  it  would  not  move  until  considerable  head  was  developed  anil 
that  small  fluctuations  were  often  not  recorded.  There  was  also  a  considerable 
amount  of  lost  motion  in  the  cogs  used  in  the  reducing  device;  and  while  an  etn-en- 
trie  was  provided  for  engaging  the  cogs  closer,  this  could  not  be  done  without  !^> 
increasing  the  friction  that  the  instrument  was  useless.  As  a  whole,  this  ^rage  is  no: 
sufficiently  sensitive  for  this  kind  of  work,  and  the  time  element  is  entirely  too  small. 

A  water-stage  register  manufactured  by  a  western  house  Mas  also  use<l,  but  tbf 
results  obtained  were  not  satisfactory  because  of  the  poor  mechanical  construction  vi 
the  gage. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    WELL    OF    QUEENS    COUNTY     WATER    COMPANY,     1     MILE     WRST    OF 

HEWLETT,  N.   Y. 

Through  the  kindness  of  the  chief  engineer  of  the  Queens  County  Water  CompanT, 
Mr.  Charles  R.  Bettes,  an  artesian  well  181  feet  deep  and  3,300  feet  south  of  ti)f 
company's  pumping  station  (PI.  II)  was  covered  with  a  shelter  for  the  protection  of 
the  gagen  and  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Survey.  This  well,  as  is  common  m\\\\ 
the  wells  of  about  the  same  depth  sunk  near  the  pumping  station,  passes  through  a 
layer  of  surface  sand  and  gravel,  then  through  l^eds  of  clay  and  other  fine  material 

nBull.  V.  8.  Woather  Bureau  No.  5, 1892. 

fc Manufactured  by  Julian  P.  Friez,  Baltimore,  Md. 


■J 

1            1           JULY       7 
J           M                     12 

T 

^ 

^ 

i 

"X 

/ 

(I 

V 

\^ 

/ 

1 

A 

i 

/ 

C 

1 

> 

/ 

/ 

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/ 

\ 

/ 

— 

— 

Si 

A 

ni 

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( 

2( 

c 

hi 

r 

- 

■^ 

/ 

a 

^ 

J^  I 

(R 

espi 

F 

romB 

lEWLETT,    N.    Y. 
<fe  is  inverted. 


18  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WELLS. 

merited  by  a  gage  constructed  at  Purdue  University  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  Elin  ^ 
Mead. 

Shortly  after  Mr.  Newell' s  visit,  and  before  the  Friez  gages  had  been  re<«"% 
Prof.  Charles  S.  Slichter  arrived  to  take  charge  of  the  measurement  of  the   rat* 
underflow.     He  kindly  obtained  the  loan  of  five  of  the  gages  used  by  King*  in 
experiments  at  Madison,  Wis.;«  of  these,  four  were  week  gages  and  one  a  one-ti 
gage.     The  King  gages  were  constructed  by  H.  Green,  Brooklyn,  from  baro^ra| 
stands;  they  consist  of  an  ordinary  barograph  cylinder,  driven  by  a  double-FpHi 
marine  clock,  the  recording  device  being  a  simple  lever  on  a  cone  bearing  with  a  i"^' 
on  one  end  and  a  place  for  attaching  the  fioat  on  the  other.     At  the  point  where  th 
clock  motion  is  transmitted  to  the  drum  there  was  a  slight  amount  of  play  wh  iol 
King  found  would  introduce  into  the  records  an  error  of  one  to  two  hours.    A.  f ric 
tion  brake  was,  however,  subsequently  added  to  overcome  this  defect.     The  i^B^ret 
as  received  on  J^ng  Island  were  adjusted  to  magnify  the  fluctuations  two  or  more 
times;  and  ^s  this  scale  was  entirely  too  great  for  the  wells  observed,  the  arm   'was 
extended  until  the  ratio  was  1:2  and  a  reduction  of  one-half  thereby  obtaineii. 
These  gages  were  found  to  be  more  sensitive  and  reliable  than  any  others  used.      By 
means  of  the  simple  lever  with  its  cone  bearing,  the  friction  in  this  instrument  i^ 
reduced  to  a  minimum ;  the  pens  respond  to  the  slightest  movement  of  the  water, 
and  for  the  faithful  reproduction  of  small  fluctuations  this  simple  type  of  gage  in  to 
be  highly  recommended. 

In  the  Mead  gage  the  recording  drum  is  vertical  and  the  pen  is  carried  by  a  carria^ 
working  between  two  upright  guides.  The  wire  supporting  the  carriage  winds abrmt 
a  wheel  connected  with  the  wheel  around  which  a  wire  from  the  float  passes,  and  is« 
lifted  and  lowered  as  the  float  descends  and  rises.  The  float  and  the  wheel  to  whi<»h 
the  pen  is  attached  are  so  related  in  diameter  that  the  curve  traced  is  10/42  of  the  true 
scale.  There  is  with  this  gage,  as  with  most  gages  where  the  recording  cylinder  is 
driven  by  the  clock,  some  lost  motion  at  the  point  of  connection.  This  is  particu- 
.  larly  bad  in  this  instrument.  On  the  Long  Beach  records  great  care  was  used  in  pet- 
ting the  gage  and  the  trouble  was  avoided,  but  some  of  the  curves  from  well  No.  8,  at 
Douglaston,  are  clearly  in  error  two  to  three  hours. 

In  the  Friez  gage  &  the  recording  drum  is  horizontal  and  is  moved  by  the  float, 
while  the  pen  is  moved  by  the  clockwork.  It  was  found  that  with  the  size  of  float 
that  must  be  used  in  wells  of  small  diameter  the  inertia  of  the  drum  in  this  ingtni- 
ment  was  such  that  it  would  not  move  until  considerable  head  was  developed  and 
that  small  fluctuations  were  often  not  recorded.  There  was  also  a  considerable 
amount  of  lost  motion  in  the  cogs  used  in  the  reducing  device;  and  while  an  eccen- 
tric was  provided  for  engaging  the  cogs  closer,  this  could  not  be  done  without  so 
increasing  the  friction  that  the  instrument  was  useless.  As  a  w^hole,  this  gage  is  not 
sufiiciently  sensitive  for  this  kind  of  work,  and  the  time  element  is  entirely  too  small. 

A  water-stage  register  manufactured  by  a  western  house  was  also  use<l,  but  the 
results  obtained  were  not  satisfactory  because  of  the  poor  mechanical  construction  of 
the  gage. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    WELL    OF    QUEENS    COUNTY     WATER    COMPANY,     1     MILK    WEST    OF 

HEWLETT,  N.  Y. 

Through  the  kindness  of  the  chief  engineer  of  the  Queens  County  Water  Company, 
Mr.  Cliarles  R.  Bettes,  an  artesian  well  181  feet  deep  and  3,300  feet  south  of  the 
company's  pumping  station  (PI.  II)  was  covered  with  a  shelter  for  the  protection  of 
the  gages  and  placed  at  the  dispo^'al  of  the  Survey.  This  well,  as  is  common  with 
the  wells  of  about  the  same  depth  sunk  near  the  pumping  station,  passes  through  a 
layer  of  surface  sand  and  gravel,  then  through  beds  of  clay  and  other  fine  material 

a  Bull.  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  No.  5, 1892. 

<>  Manufactured  by  Julian  P.  Friez,  Baltimore,  Md. 


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0PSEBVATI0K8    WITH    SELB'-BEOORDING    GAGES.  19 

into  a  rather  coarse  gravel,  which  yields  an  abundant  supply  of  flowing  water. « 
Ttie  whole  section  is  of  Pleistocene  age.  There  are  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
pumping  station  thirty-two  5-inch  w^ells,  33  feet  deep,  and  nineteen  6-inch  wells,  150 
to  190  feet  deep.  These  are  arranged  along  two  lines,  one  extending  northwest  and 
the  other  southwest  from  the  pumping  station.  The  extreme  end  of  the  south  line 
IS  aboat  1,000  feet  from  the  pumping  station,  and  the  well  observed  is  therefore  over 
2,000  feet  from  the  nearest  pumped  well  and  but  slightly  to  one  side  of  the  probable 
<lirection  of  flow.  (PI.  II. )  It  was  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Bettes  that  this  well  was  not 
affected  by  pumping,  and  through  a  misinterpretation  of  the  first  records  it  was 
believed  that  this  surmise  was  correct.  Considerable  discussion  was  therefore  caused 
^'lien  it  was  found  that  the  well  fluctuations  simulated  the  thermograph  curve  in  a 
remarkable  manner,  that  these  fluctuations  were  inversely  related  to  the  tempera- 
ture (a  rise  in  temperature  causing  a  fall  in  water),  and  that  the  changes  manifested 
themselves  with  a  lag  of  but  one  or  two  hours  behind  apparently  similar  temperature 
fluctuations.     (PI.  III.) 

The  hourly  pumpage  was  kindly  furnished  by  Chief  Engineer  Bettes,  and  this 
record,  when  plotted  with  the  well  curves,  conclusively  demonstrated  that  the 
rhythmical  fluctuations  were  due  more  to  pumpage  than  to  temperature  (PI.  III). 
Fluctuations  of  a  somewhat  similar  character  are  produced  by  temperature  changes 
(see  p.  54),  and  this  element  is  doubtless  present  in  this  curve.  On  PI.  Ill  the  effect 
of  pumpage  is  clearly  shown  in  the  double  cusps  of  the  well  curves  on  the  night  of 
July  5-6.  The  temperature  curve  shows  no  such  variations.  Similarly,  the  records 
on  June  21,  25,  and  26  show  important  differences  between  the  well  and  temperature 
curves,  which  are  largely  due  to  pumping.  These  results  are  important  because  of 
the  ra])id  rate  of  transmission.  The  effect  of  this  pumping  is  felt  at  a  distance  of  2,000 
feet  or  more,  with  a  time  lag  of  but  one  or  two  hours.  This  contrasts  sharply  with 
the  very  slow  transmission  noted  in  the  pressure  changes  due  to  tidal  loading  and  to 
the  inflow  and  outflow  along  rivers  (see  pp.  60,  65).  It  conclusively  proves  that  the 
supply  here  is  lai^ge;  that  the  beds  are  quite  porous,  and  that  the  normal  water  flow 
is  rapid. 

In  the  records  from  the  day  gage,  which  was  maintained  here  for  the  first  ten 
days,  the  lai^ger  time  scale  brought  out  very  clearly  a  series  of  regular  minor  fluctua- 
tions which  were  not  clearly  defined  with  the  smaller  scale  of  the  week  records. 
The  most  pronounced  of  this  series  recurs  day  after  day  and  has  a  period  of  very 
nearly  twenty  minutes  and  a  range  of  0.06  to  0.08  inch. 

Besides  these  vibrations,  with  a  period  of  twenty  minutes,  there  are  several  fluctu- 
ations of  smaller  amplitude  and  period.  One  series  has  a  period  of  about  flve  or  six 
minutes,  but  it  is  so  involved  that  little  can  be  definitely  state^l  regarding  it.  An 
instrument  with  a  large  time  scale,  1  or  2  inches  to  the  hour,  and  a  vertical  scale  of 
once  or  twice  the  normal  would  record,  at  this  place,  a  very  complicated  series  of 
small  recurrent  vibrations. 

OBSERVATIONS  AT  LONG   BEACH,  N.  V. 

The  deep  flowing  well  of  the  Long  Beach  Association  at  Long  Beach,  N.  Y.  (PI. 
II),  offered  a  most  excellent  opportunity  for  the  observations  of  tidal  fluctuations. 
It  is  situated  on  a  narrow,  sandy  barrier  beach,  separated  from  the  main  island  by 
a  sea  marsh  2  to  3  miles  wide,  cut  by  narrow  tidal  channels,  and  is  entirely  removed 
from  the  influence  of  any  pumping  station. 

This  well  is  3  inches  in  diameter  and  386  feet  deep.  The  water  is  obtained  in 
sands  of  Cretaceous  age  and  rises  2  to  4  feet  alK)ve  the  surface  of  the  ground  or  10  to 
12  feet  above  sea  level.  The  general  geologic  relations  may  be  inferred  from  the 
diagrammatic  cross  section  given  in  fig.  1  (p.  9) . 

a  For  detailed  record  of  strata  in  near-by  wells  see  Prof.  Paper  U.  8.  Geol.  Survey  No.  44, 1908,  p.  225. 
fig.  66. 


20  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE   WATER   LEVEL   IN    WELLS 

The  section  reported  by  the  driller,  Mr.  W.  C.  Jaegle,  is  as  follows: 

Section  of  weU  of  Long  Beach  As9ociationj  at  Long  Beach,  N.  Y. 

1.  Whitesand 0-  36 

2.  Dark  sand  and  creek  mad 36-  40 

3.  White  gravel,  containing  saltwater 40-  51 

4.  Whitesand 51-  55 

5.  Darksand 55-  65 

6.  Whitesand 65-  70 

7.  Whitegravel 70-  73 

8.  Yellowsand 73-  76 

9.  Blueclay 76-  82 

10.  Yellowgravel 82-  90 

11.  Creek  mud 90-  99 

12.  Dark  fine  sand,  containing  lignite 99-101 

13.  Whitesand 101-111 

14.  Darksand 111-119 

15.  Whitesand,  with  lignite 119-121 

16..  Blue  clay 121-1^5 

17.  Fine  white  sand 135-143 

18.  Gravel,  with  saltwater 143-145 

19.  Darksand 145-156 

20.  Gravel,  with  salt  water 156-158 

21.  Clay 158-174 

22.  White  sand,  containing  at  190  feet  a  log  of  lignitized  wood 174-192 

23.  White  gravel  and  saltwater 192-196 

24.  Clay 196-200 

25.  Fine  sand 200-220 

26.  Solid  blueclay 220-270 

27.  White  sand  and  wood,  containing  fresh  water,  sweet  and  chalybeate...  270-276 

28.  Clay 276-282 

29.  Whitesand  and  wood 282-297 

30.  Blueclay 297-305 

31.  Whitesand,  wood,  and  water 305-308 

32.  Blueclay 308-317 

33.  White  sand,  containing  wood  and  artesian  water 317-325 

34.  Blueclay 325-340 

35.  White  sand  and  mineral  water;  has  considerable  CO,,  sparkling  and 

effervescent 340-356 

36.  Blueclay 356-360 

37.  Whitesand  and  purewater 360-378 

38.  Blueclay 378-380 

39.  Whitesand 380-381 

40.  White  clay 381-383 

41.  Fine  sand,  with  artesian  water 383-386 

Mr.  F.  D.  Rath  bun  was  placed  in  charge  of  these  observations  and  by  a  careful 
readjustment  of  the  Mea<l  gage  obtained  very  excellent  curves  (PI.  IV^).  Indee«i. 
for  this  character  of  work  the  results  from  the  Mead  gage,  as  set  up  by  Mr.  Rath- 
bun,  are  better  than  from  the  Friez  gage. 

It  was  impos.sible  to  make  tide  observations  at  this  point,  and  the  values  plotted 
on  the  curve  are  taken  from  those  predicted  by  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur\'ey« 
for  East  Rockaway  Inlet,  which  is  2.8  miles  west  of  the  well.    The  difference  in  time 

aU.  8.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  Tide  Tables  for  1908,  p.  346. 


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2*2  FLUCTUATIONS   OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WEI-LS. 

Table  shatoing  difference  in  time  between  high  and  law  neater  in  a  SSS-foot  vreU  at  L- 
Beach  J  N.  K.,  and  tide  at  EaM  Rockaway  Intel — Gontinaed. 


Date. 


High  water. 


Well. 


Tide. 


Differ- 
ence. 


Low  water. 


Well. 


Tide. 


tztrr 


1903. 


July  13 . 
July  14 . 
July  15. 
July  16. 
July  17. 


Time. 
11.50 
23.00 
11.40 
23.45 


Time. 

9.44 

21.54 

10.21 

22.28 


Hmirt 

and  min- 

utet, 

2.06 

1.06 

1.19 

1.17 


ftw'. 


12.20 
0.30 


11.08 
23.09 


1.07 
1.21 


1.10 


23.56 


1.14 


Average. 


Time. 

4.50 
16.55 

5.10 
17.10 

5.55 
18.00 

6.20 
19.20 

7.20 


8.44  I 

15l44! 

4.19, 
16.21 

4.56 
17.04 

5.S4 
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It  will  be  noted  that  the  lag  at  high  water  is  greater  than  at  low,  whirh  is  jn^*. 
the  reverse  of  what  occurs  in  tidal  rivers,  where  the  water  rises  much  more  rapi>iiy 
than  it  falls  and  the  low- water  lag  is  long  and  the  high- water  lag  short.  Thi«  i^  jlo 
important  result  bearing  on  the  relation  between  the  fluctuations  of  the  water  in 
wells  and  the  oceanic  tide  and  clearly  refutes  the  doctrine  that  the  tidal  fluctuatimt^ 
here  are  due  to  leakage  and  that  the  fluctuations  are  analogous  to  thoee  of  tidAl 
rivers.     (See  pp.  63-67.) 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  8CHRBIBEB  WELL  NEAR   MTLLBURN.    N.    Y. 

This  well  is  located  on  the  very  edge  of  the  sea  marsh,  about  2  miles  south  of  fiaiJ- 
win  station  on  the  Long  Island  Railroad  (PI.  II).  It  is  8  inches  in  diameter  and 
the  total  depth  determined  by  sounding  is  288.6  feet.  The  water  will,  when  pijiei 
up,  rise  about  a  foot  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  After  an  unsucc-es^ful  attenijit 
to  record  the  fluctuations  here  with  a  Friez  gage,  which  gave  no  results  beaiuft>  of 
the  small  amplitude  of  the  fluctuations,  the  King  gage  used  on  the  Queens  County 
Water  Company  well  near  Hewlett  was  set  up  and  the  record  obtained  from  July  17 
to  August  5.  This  record  shows  the  most  erratic  fluctuations  obtaine<l  on  U>n^ 
Island' (PI.  V). 

In  all  the  other  records,  while  there  are  always  many  factors  present,  certain  fluc- 
tuations can  be  definitely  ascribed  to  temperature,  atmospheric  pressure,  rainfall, 
pumping,  or  transmitted  tides,  but  here  either  the  curves  product  by  j»evt*r*I  of 
these  factors  have  been  so  superposed  that  the  character  of  eai-h  is  thoroughly 
maf»ke<l  or  new  factors  have  been  introduced.  The  most  evident  characterirticf 
these  curves  is  the  greater  rapidity  and  abruptness  in  the  fall  of  the  water  than  in 
its  rise.  Abrupt  drops  of  this  character  are  known  to  be  produce<l  by  chanp^  in 
barometric  pressure  and  by  pumping.  It  will  be  noted  in  this  case  thai  lheeetiu<*- 
•  tuations  are  not  represented  in  the  barograph  curve,  and  a  comparison  with  the 
record  from  the  504-foot  well  at  Lyn brook  (PI.  VI),  in  which  tiie  geologic  o»n<li- 
tions  are  very  similar,  shows  no  correspondence,  although  the  Lyn  brook  wfl/  » 
clearly  greatly  affected  by  barometric  changes. 

The  nearest  pumping  stations  are  at  Rockville  Center  and  Freeport,  and  these  an* 
small  village  plants.  At  Rockville  Center  there  were  at  this  time  four  8-inch  welK 
about  50  feet  deep,  and  at  Freei^rt  4  wells,  about  35  feet  deep.  At  RtK^kville  CVntt-r 
about  150,000  gallons  per  day  were  i)umi)e<l,  and  at  Freeport  about  100,000.    The« 


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OBSERVATION^    WITH    SELF-RECORDING    GAGES.  23 

stations  are,  respectively,  1.9  and  2.4  miles  from  the  Schreiber  well  (PI.  II).  The 
R<jckville  Center  pumping  station  is,  moreover,  nearer  the  deep  Lynbrook  well  than 
the  Schreiber  well,  and  the  Lynbrook  well  shows  no  such  fluctuations.  It  is  there- 
fore believed  that  these  fluctuations  are  not  due  to  pumping. 

A  third  hypothesis  is  that  the  fluctuations  are  largely  tidal,  and  that  they  represent 
the  complicated  stresses  resulting  from  the  culmination  of  the  tides  at  different  times 
in  the  neighV)oring  network  of  creeks  and  channels.  The  conditions  near  this  well 
are  regarded  as  quite  favorable  for  complex  tides,  but  the  resultant  of  these  would 
})e  represented  by  a  sm(X)th  curve,  as  ia  shown  by  the  Long  Beach  well.  The  normal 
ti<lal  curve  in  such  narrow  channels  would,  moreover,  show  a  rapid  rise  and  a  gradual 
fall,  while  the  well  curve  is  just  the  reverse. 

The  fluctuations  in  this  well  are,  so  far  as  known,  unique.  The  geologic  condi- 
tions are  believed  to  correspond  in  a  general  way  with  those  in  the  368-foot  well  at 
Long  Beach  and  the  504-foot  well  at  Lynbrook,  both  in  the  same  region,  but  the 
characteristics  of  the  curves  are  entirely  different  and  apparently  not  related  to  either. 

OBSERVATIONS   AT   LYNBROOK,  N.    Y. 

A  station  was  established  one-half  mile  west  of  Lynbrook  (PI.  11).  At  this  point 
there  were  two  test  wells,  one  604  feet  deep  and  the  other  72  feet,  belonging  to  the 
Queens  County  Water  Company.  Through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Franklin  B.  Lord, 
president,  and  Mr.  Charles  R.  Bettes,  chief  engineer,  these  wells  were  covereil  with 
a  shelter,  and  a  third  well,  14  feet  deep,  driven  about  6  feet  from  the  other  two. 
This  gave  a  shallow  surface  well,  a  **deep  well"  (comparable  to  many  of  those  used 
at  the  Brooklyn  waterworks  pumping  stations  west  of  this  point)  which  flowed  at 
the  surface  for  about  half  the  time,  and  a  very  deep  artesian  well,  all  within  a  few 
feet  of  each  other  and  away  from  the  zone  of  influence  of  any  pumping  station. 

About  15  feet  from  the  wells  there  is  a  small  ground-water  fed  brook,  the  bottom  of 
which  has  an  elevation  of  about  10  feet  above  sea  level;  the  ground  at  the  wells  is 
11.3  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  crest  of  the  low  swell,  1,000  feet  to  the  west,  about 
20  feet  (PL  II,  p.  16).  The  surface  material  is  yellow  loam,  ranging  from  a  few 
inches  to  3  feet  thick,  then  rather  coarse  sand  and  gravel.  No  record  was  preserved 
of  the  strata  penetrated  in  the  72-  and  504-foot  wells,  but  a  new  well  sunk  during  the 
summer  of  1904,  about  300  feet  west  of  this  group  of  wells,  gave  the  following  section: 

Section  of  well  of  Queens  County  Water  Company^  one-half  mile  toest  of  Lynhrook,  N.  Y. 

Tiabury :  Feet. 

1.  Coarse  yellow  quartz  sand ;  no  erratic  material 0-29 

2.  Light-gray  sand 29-31 

3.  Same  as  No.  1 31-73 

Cretaceous?: 

4.  Light-gray  silty  clay 73-89 

5.  Light-yellow  medium  sand ;  no  erratic  material 89-150 

Cretaceous: 

6.  Fine  to  medium  gray  lignitic  sand 150-158 

7.  Very  fine  black  micaceous  lignitiferous  silt 158-200 

8-9.  Very  fine  dark-colored  lignitiferous  sand 200-228 

10.  Medium  light-gray  sand,  with  small  amount  of  lignite 228-340 

11.  Dark-colored  lignitiferous  silty  clay 340-363 

12.  Medium  dirty-yellow  sand,  lignitic 363-403 

13.  Medium  to  coarse  gray  sand 403-536 

The  water  in  the  504-foot  well,  during  the  time  of  observation,  stood  from  0.8  foot 
to  2.2  feet  above  the  surface;  in  the  72-foot  well  from  0.6  foot  below  to  0.5  foot  above 
the  surface,  and  in  the  14-foot  well  from  0.6  foot  below  to  0.2  foot  above  the  sur^ 


24  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATEB   LEVEL   IN    WEIiLS. 

face.  The  water  in  the  14-foot  well  rose  above  the  sarface  three  or  four  times  lf»r 
j^riods  of  a  few  hours.  The  elevation  of  the  water  table  under  the  low  swell  to  tht 
west  was  probably  about  13  feet. 

Mr.  Francis  L.  Whitney  w^as  placed  in  charge  of  the  observations  at  this  point  oi 
King  gages  were  installed  on  supports  clamped  to  the  well  casings.  The  gages  wea 
maintained  from  June  25  to  September  15,  and  some  of  the  results  are  given  in 
PI.  VI.  These  give  a  large  amount  of  important  material  bearing  not  only  on  pan]) 
scientific  problems,  but  on  some  of  the  live  economic  problems  of  the  region.  It  yIII 
be  noticed  that  as  a  whole  the  curves  of  these  wells  are  parallel.  This  beare  rry 
directly  on  the  old  question  of  the  source  of  the  water  in  the  deep  wells  on  L/^a^ 
Island.  It  has  long  been  a  favorite  hypothesis  that  in  some  mysterious  way  lu^ 
quantities  of  water  were  introduced  by  great  underground  streams  from  the  New 
England  States,  and  this  504  foot  well  was  one  of  the  wells  which  were  supposed  to 
strike  one  of  these  streams.  It  has  already  been  shown  «  that  the  source  of  the  wiler 
in  the  deep  wells  on  Long  Island  is  from  the  rain  that  falls  on  the  surface  (see  p.  Km, 
and  the  really  remarkable  agreement  of  the  general  shape  of  these  curves  fumisbes 
additional  confirmation,  pointing  as  it  does  to  close  interrelation  and  a  common 
source. 

The  behavior  of  these  wells  during  rain  storms  shows  that  rain  may  affect  the 
water  level  in  wells  in  two  ways,  (1)  without  the  water  reaching  the  ground-waier 
table,  and  (2)  by  actual  infiltration  and  addition  to  the  ground  water.  In  both 
cases  the  effect  is  greatest  in  the  shallow  well.  In  the  first  case  all  wells  commeoct; 
to  rise  as  soon  as  the  rain  begins,  and  rise  abruptly,  sometimes  several  inches.  That 
this  can  not  be  due  to  actual  infiltration  is  shown  by  its  instantaneous  character  and 
by  the  fact  that  the  water  in  the  shallow  14-foot  well,  driven  entirely  in  sand,  ne« 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground  four  times  under  such  circumstances.  Such  ri9et>, 
moreover,  produce  no  permanent  deflection  of  the  well  curve.  (See  record  for  Ang. 
18-22,  PL  VI.) 

This  sudden  rise  is  due  to  a  number  of  factors.  In  the  first  place,  when  the  soil 
above  the  water  table  is  filled  with  air  the  addition  of  water  to  the  surface  practi- 
cally seals  the  outlets  for  the  air  and  the  weight  of  the  rain  is  transmitted  by  thi!! 
confined  air  to  the  water  table.  The  effect  of  such  a  transmission  is  to  hasten  the 
discharge  of  the  water  at  the  ground- water  outlet,  and  so  produce  an  immediate  rise 
in  the  streams.  In  this  manner  rains  which  never  reach  the  ground-water  table 
and  which  do  not  contribute  directly  to  stream  flow  may  immediately  prodm^  a 
greatly  increased  stream  discharge.  It  should  be  noted  in  this  connection  that  the 
well  always  rose  before  the  adjacent  brook,  although  the  brook  might  later  reach  a 
higher  elevation. 

In  the  second  case,  when  the  water  in  the  wells  is  elevated  by  the  actual  perwla- 
tion  of  water,  the  water  rises  gradually  and  reaches  its  highest  point  several  day*  or 
weeks  after  the  rain,  rather  than  in  several  minutes.  In  the  case  of  the  heavy  niiite 
which  occurred  on  August  28,  the  14-foot  well  reached  its  highest  point  before  no(m 
on  the  29th,  the  72-foot  well  at  about  6  o'clock  on  the  29th,  and  the  504-foot  well  at 
noon  on  the  30th.  There  are  three  factors  concerned  in  this  last  rise:  (1]  The 
instantaneous  transmission  of  pressure  due  to  weight  of  rain  on  the  surface  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  well;  (2)  actual  percolation  in  the  vicinity  of  the  well,  and  (3)  pn>- 
gressive  detormations  resulting  from  the  weight  of  the  rain  at  more  distant  poinL^ 
The  rise  in  the  deeper  wells  is  wholly  due  to  the  first  and  third  causes.  The  cun»; 
in  this  case  is  actually  displaced  and  returns  to  its  former  position  only  gradually, 
instead  of  at  once,  as  in  the  case  described  atJove. 

Barometric  changes  affect  the  504-foot  well  most,  but  are  occasionally  perceptible 
in  the  72-foot  well.  Temperature  changes  produce  rhythmical  daily  fluctuatioiu  in 
the  14-  and  72-foot  wells;  in  the  first  the  changes  are  very  pronounced,  amounting 

a  Prof.  Paper  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  No.  44, 1906,  pp.  67-09. 


jKiMPw— >aa»juiiMi<  mmmmnt  -  mm- 


OBSERVATIONS  WITH   SELF-RKOORDINO    OAOES. 


25 


to  as  much  as  1}  inches  a  day.  The  504-foot  well  showed  a  regular  fluctuation  with 
two  high  and  two  low  waters  a  day.  The  fluctuation,  however,  is  not  progressive, 
and  so  is  not  tidal. 

The  curve  from  the  504-foot  well  shows  a  great  number  of  minor  periodic  oscilla- 
tions, but  the  time  scale  is  not  sufficiently  great  to  study  them  satisfactorily.  The 
most  pronounced  of  the  series  has  a  period  of  about  forty  minutes.  The  72-foot  well 
occasionally  shows  well-marked  secondary  oscillations,  with  a  period  of  approxi- 
mately eighty  minutes.  For  a  careful  study  of  these,  however,  a  much  larger  gage 
with  a  large  time  scale  is  demanded. 

OBSERVATIONS  AT  DOUGLA8TON,  N.  Y. 

In  the  winter  of  1902  and  1903  a  number  of  shallow  wells  were  sunk  along  the  base 
of  hills,  east  of  Alley  Creek,  and  near  ''The  Alley,"  an  old  settlement  just  south  of 
Douglaston,  N.  Y.  (PI.  VII),  for  the  Citizens'  Water  Supply  Company.  Six  of  these 
are  flowing  wells,  and  in  the  other  two  the  water  comes  very  near  the  surface.  Through 
the  kindness  of  Mr.  Cord  Meyer  and  his  son,  Mn  J.  Edward  Meyer,  president  and 
superintendent,  respectively,  of  the  Citizens*  Water  Supply  Company,  the  flowing 
wells  were  piped  up  beyond  the  limit  of  flow  and  thus  prepared  for  gaging. 

The  relative  elevation,  depth,  and  head  in  these  wells  are  shown  in  the  following 
table: 

Elevatiom  in  weUs  of  Citizen^  Water  Supply  Company ,  at  Douglasiony  N.  Y. 


Elevation 

of  surface 

above  sea 

level. 

Depth  of 
bottom  of 
pipe  below 
sea  level. 

Average 
height 

above  sea 
level  to 
which 

water  will 
rise  if 

piped  up. 

Alley  Pond 

Feel. 
17.2 
20.2 
10.2 

6 

5 

10.8 
10.1 

9.8 
10.6 

JPtscI. 

Feet. 
17.2 

Well  No.  1 

20.6 

25 

28 

25 

89 

35 

80 

17 

19 

Well  No.  2 '. 

9 

Well  No.  3 

8.5 

Well  No.  4 

18 

WellNo.6 

18 

Well  No.  6 

19 

Well  No.  7 

17 

Well  No.  8 

16 

The  strata  encountered  vary  considerably;  some  of  the  wells  penetrate  nothing 
but  sand  and  gravel,  and  in  others  clay  beds  of  greater  or  less  thickness  are  found. 
The  water  is  derived  from  the  adjacent  hill  mass,  the  height  of  the  ground  water  in 
which  determines  the  head  in  these  wells. 

The  tidal  marsh  to  the  west  is  a  mass  of  soft  black  mud  largely  covered  with  a  mat 
of  growing  vegetable  matter,  which  is  sufficiently  Arm  to  walk  on,  but  which  gives  at 
every  step.  This  surface  mat  of  roots  is  often  sufficiently  tenacious  to  hold  up  when 
undermined  by  the  small  streams  formed  by  the  many  springs  that  occur  at  the  base 
of  the  hills,  and  these  streams  oft«n  flow  through  underground  passages  beneath  the 
turf.  The  underlying  mud  or  black  ooze  is  over  10  feet  thick  in  the  upper  end  of 
the  mud  flat,  and  Mr.  D.  L.  Van  Nostrand  states  that,  in  driving  piles  for  a  dock 
at  the  bridge,  the  depth  to  ** solid  ground"  was  found  to  be  65  or  70  feet.  The  arte- 
sian pressure  beneath  this  mud  has  caused  the  ground  to  rise  in  several  places,  with 
the  resultant  production  of  many  small  rapids  (PI.  VII).  At  a  number  of  points 
near  the  upper  end  of  the  basin,  where  the  mud  is  thin,  the  water  haa  broken 


26  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER    LEVEL   IN    WELLS. 

through  and  produced  low  mud  conee  or  mud  volcanoes. «    The  drilling  of  tlie  ar 
sian  wells  and  the  fact  that  they  were  allowed  to  flow  freely  have  perhaps    in  \  ,.' 
relieved  the  pressure  here,  and  during  the  three  months  the  cones  were  ol>sen  - 
they  did  not  change  materially,  although  on  several  occasions  mud  w^as  seen   ri-i  . 
from  the  craters  and  flowing  down  the  sides.     Three  hundred  feet  north  of  the  r;  n 
flat  and  on  the  east  bank  of  Alley  Creek  there  is  a  lesser  area  of  mud  which    i.^  u 
covered  at  low  tide.     In  this  there  is  a  marked  mud  flow,  which  is  likewise.  prc>l»a' 
connected  with  the  artesian  waters  under  discussion. 

Mr.  Francis  L.  Whitney  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  work  here,  and  he  prepan- 
wooden  shelter  boxes  covered  with  tarred  paper.  These  were  securely  clanipei  * 
the  top  of  the  well  pipes,  which  were  steadied  by  means  of  guy  lines.  *  A  tide  ^^j- 
was  established  on  the  end  of  the  crib  of  the  drawbridge  on  the  main  tunlpi^^ 
(PI.  VII.).  The  crib  furnished  a  very  good  still  box,  and  the  locality  is  as  near  x\ 
wells  as  it  was  possible  to  get,  for  to  the  south  the  creek  bed  is  uncovered  at  low  ti'l^ 

The  equipment  consisted  of  3  Friez  gages  and  1  Mead  gage.  The  Mesul  jrij- 
was  placed  on  well  No.  8  and  furnished  the  only  record  running  thrt>ogh  li- 
whole  of  the  time  of  observation.  One  of  the  Friez  gages  was  placed  at  the  drae 
bridge  during  the  whole  period,  but  from  one  cause  and  another  no  reconi  » :- 
obtained  before  August  6,  and  after  that  time  the  record  was  not  completr 
By  shifting  the  remaining  gages  records  were  obtained  for  a  time  from  all  r> 
wells  but  No.  3.  Some  of  the  curves  obtained  from  these  observations  are  shown  u 
PI.  VIII. 

All  these  wells  are  clearly  tidal,  but  when  the  question  of  the  rate  of  propagatJ  - 
of  tidal  effect  is  considered  many  difficulties  are  encountered  and  the  extreme  r<  >  -  - 
plexity  of  the  problem  at  once  becomes  evident.  The  curves,  while  broadly  resen - 
bling  each  other,  show  many  minor  points  of  difference,  which  must  be  attribute, 
to  the  varying  shape  of  the  tidal  wave  in  the  mud  flat  near  the  wells  and  the  ctit»- 
quent  complexity  and  variation  of  the  stresses  involved.  Thus  the  records  fn-L 
wells  2  and  8  show  that,  while  the  relative  amplitudes  of  the  high  tides  a^m^ 
perfectly  and  both  show  a  tendency  toward  a  double  cusp  at  high  tide,  in  well  X<».  i 
the  second  cusp  is  characteristically  greater,  while  in  well  No.  8  the  first  cusp  is  ofieti 
the  greater;  compare  curves  from  July  27  to  29.  The  low-tide  curves  also  show  markni 
differences;  thus,  in  well  No.  2  there  is  a  continued  fall  until  the  tide  turns,  wliith 
it  does  sharply;  in  No.  8  there  is  a  long  period  of  stagnation  and  the  curve  is  roun<it': 
when  the  rise  begins.  Evidently  these  curves  are  not  readily  comparable  with  thr 
tide  gage  at  the  bridge  nor  with  each  other,  for  each  represents  the  resultant  of  a 
different  set  of  forces.  The  conditions  for  the  production  of  such  differences  are  vm 
favorable.  The  semiliquid  marsh  mud  yields  readily  to  all  pressure  changes,  how- 
ever slight;  the  liquidity  of  the  mu<l  varies  greatly  from  point  to  point,  and  whilf 
the  artesian  water  does  not  commonly  escape  through  the  mud  covering  it  may.  a? 
shown  by  the  mud  cones,  do  so  at  any  time,  and  such  a  point  of  relief  would  afect 
adjacent  wells  differently. 

Another  factor  making  exact  time  comparisons  difficult  is  the  small  scale  of  tl.t- 
records  and  the  great  amount  of  lost  motion  in  the  Mead  gage.  The  Mead  rectml.'. 
show  unquestionable  time  errors  of  one  to  two  hours,  and  for  this  reason  the  en<l 
values  are  more  important  than  the  initial  ones  of  each  record.  Where  evidrt^t 
errors  occur  in  the  record  of  the  Mead  gage  for  well  No.  8  they  have  been  c^>r- 
reeled  as  far  as  possible,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  indicate  on  the  diaf^nun 
the  various  details  affecting  the  time  values  so  far  as  known.  For  this  purpose  the 
end  of  each  of  the  original  record  sheets  has  been  indicated  on  PI.  VIII. 

a  See  Prof.  F»aper  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  No.  46.  1906.  PI.  XXVII,  C. 

6  An  illustration  of  the  gage  box  on  well  No.  4  will  be  found  in  Prof.  I^per  U.S. Geol.  Survey  Na m. 
1906,  PI.  XIV. 


U.  6.  GEOLOOICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-aUPPLY  PAPER  NO.  166     K.  Vt 


Scalo 


SKETCH   MAP  SHOWING  LOCATION  AND  TOPOGRAPHIC  SURROUNDINGS  OF  WELLS  OF 
CITIZENS'   WATER  SUPPLY  COMPANY   NEAR   DOUGLASTON,   N.  Y. 

Black  dots  indicate  location  of  mud  volcanoes. 
By  A.  C.  Veatch,  1903. 


LONG    I8LAKD   OBSERVATIONS.  27 

OBSERVATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  CITY  COMMISSION  ON 
ADDITIONAL  WATER  SUPPLY.a 

The  Long  Island  division  of  the  commission  on  additional  water  supply  under  the 
direction  of  Mr.  W.  E.  Spear,  division  engineer,  during  the  perio<l  from  the  middle 
of  April  to  the  last  of  October,  1903,  made  many  observations  on  the  water  level  in 
wells  on  Long  Island.  In  all  about  1,200  wells  were  observed  at  intervals  of  from 
one  to  three  days  by  means  of  steel  tapes  fitted  with  cup  sounders.  From  these 
observations  Mr.  Spear  endeavored  to  obtain  the  velocity  of  the  downward  capillary 
flow  of  the  water  on  Long  Island. 

Meteorological  stations,  equipped  with  self-recording  instruments,  were  established 
at  Brentwood  and  Floral  Park  (PI.  I,  p.  9).  It  was  from  these  records  that  the 
thermograph,  barograph,  and  rainfall  curves  shown  on  Pis.  Ill,  V,  and  VI  were 
obtained. 

Mr.  Spear  likewise  obtained  from  the  records  of  the  Brooklyn  waterworks  data 
regarding  the  fluctuations  of  the  water  in  shallow  wells  on  the  south  shore  and  the 
effect  of  pumping  at  Merrick  and  Agawam. 

a  Spear,  Walter  £.,  Long  Island  sources:  Kept.  Commission  on  Additional  Water  Supply  for  the  City 
of  New  York,  Nov.  30, 1903,  New  York,  1901,  appendix  7,  pp.  617-806 


PART  11. 

GENERAL    DISCUSSION    OF   THE    FLUCTUATIONS    OF    WATER 
LEVEL  IN  WELLS. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  CAUSES. 

The  vertical  fluctuations  of  the  ground-water  table  or  the  changes  in  the  level .; 
the  water  in  wells  may  l)e  grouped  as  follows: 

A.  Fluctuations  due  to  natural  causes. 

1.  Rainfall  and  evaporation. 

1.  Fluctuations  not  depending  on  single  show^a. 

a.  Regular  annual  fluctuations, 
b^  Irregular  secular  changes. 

2.  Fluctuations  produced  by  single  showers. 

a.  By  transmission  of  pressure  without  any  actual  addition  to  the  ground  water. 

b.  By  the  actual  addition  of  rain  to  the  ground  water. 
II.  Barometric  changes. 

III.  Thermometric  changes. 

1.  Fluctuation  directly  related  to  temperature. 

2.  Fluctuation  inversely  related  to  temperature. 

a.  At  the  surface  of  the  ground-water  table,  directly  through  temperature  changes. 

b.  In  deeper  zones,  by  pressure  changes  produced  by  fluctuations  of  the  preoe«lc; 

class. 

IV.  Fluctuations  produced  by  adjacent  bodies  of  surface  water:  Rivers,  lakes,  the  ocean. 

1.  By  changes  in  rate  of  ground-water  discharge. 

2.  By  seepage. 

3.  By  plastic  deformation  due  to  varying  loads. 
V.  Fluctuations  due  to  geologic  changes. 

B.  Fluctuations  due  to  human  agencies. 

1.  Settlement,  deforestation,  cultivation,  drainage. 

2.  Irrigation. 

3.  Dams. 

4.  Underground  water-supply  developments. 

5.  Unequal  loading. 

C.  Fluctuations  due  to  indeterminate  causes. 

The  relation  between  the  fluctuations  due  to  natural  causes  may  be  stated  in  thi» 
way:  On  the  broad  and  irregular  curves  produced  by  the  secular  climatic  and  g<t>. 
logic  changes  are  superposed  the  regular  annual  fluctuations,  which  are  perhaps  iht 
most  characteristic  and  important  of  the  ground-water  fluctuations  due  to  natural 
causes;  and  on  these,  in  turn,  are  superposed  the  simple  ramfall,  barometric,  ther- 
mometric, tidal,  and  flood  fluctuations.  This  complex  curve,  made  up  of  many  rega- 
lar  and  irregular  elements,  is  further  modified  by  human  agencies.  The  camulativ^e 
effect  of  these  human  agencies  is  irregular  and  the  result  is  to  modify — indeed,  often 
to  largely  alter — the  character  of  the  broad  irregular  curves  produced  by  secular  cli- 
matic and  geologic  changes.  Yet  some  of  these  human  modifications  have  a  penodio 
value  which,  in  the  case  of  cultivation,  for  example,  may  greatly  change  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  annual  fluctuations,  or,  in  the  case  of  pumping  or  the  change  of  water 
level  behind  a  milldam,  may  give  rise  to  rather  regular  daily  fluctoatioiis. 
28 


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ges.    At  point  marked  *  on  well  curve  No.  8  lost  motion  is  evident 
original  record  sheets. 


FLUCTUATIONS   OF    WATER   IN    WELLS, 


29 


FLUCTUATIONS  PRODUCED  BY  NATURAL  CAUSES. 

RAINFALL  AND  EVAPORATION. 

BEOULAB  AinnrAL  FLVOTTTATIOVS. 

GENERAL  CHARACTER   AND   CAUSE. 

Woldrich,  from  a  study  of  nine  years'  observations  on  a  19-foot  well  at  Salzbnrg,  con- 
;1ude<I  that  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  ground  water  stands  in  no  relation  whatever  to  the 


FiQ.  9.'~Yearly  rainfall  and  water-level  curves  in  shallow  wells  In  middle  Europe  (after  Soyka). 
The  curves  are  duplicated  for  a  second  year  to  facilitate  comparisons. 

amount  of  rain,  since  with  the  same  quantity  of  precipitation  it  at  times  rises,  and  again 
falls,  and  even  with  considerably  increasing  quantities  of  rain  it  often  falls  constantly.^ 

aWoldHch.  Johann  Nepomuk.  Mitt.  d.  Techn.  Klubs  zu  Salzburg,  1869,  Heft  1,  Zeltschrift  d. 
Osterreicbischen  Geselischaft  liir  Meteorolorie,  Bd.  4,  1869,  pp.  273-279  Penck's  Qeograpnlsche 
AbhaDdlungen,  Bd.  2,  Heft  3.  Wlen,  1^.  p.  23. 


80 


FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL    IN    WELLS. 


While  BO  broad  a  statement  is  not  entirely  trae  for  all  localities  in  the  North  T^ 
perate  Zone,  yet  it  properly  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  relation  betwe«fn  r 
ground- water  fluctuations  and  the  rainfall  is  not  the  simple  one  which  znigijt 
inferred  from  the  statement  that  the  rainfall  is  the  source  of  the  fnt)uii<i  wa-* 
Observations  at  many  points  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone  have  shown   that  *'• 


Miflburn, 
Long  hhnd.nr, 

LansmA  Mich. 


Fi(}.  10.— Yearly  rainfall  and  water-level  curves  in  shallow  wells  in  the  United  States.    The  cnnt* 
are  duplicated  for  a  second  year  to  facilitate  comparisons. 

ground  water  fluctuates  in  a  yearly  period  with  a  single  maximum  and  minimmu. 
and  that  this  curve  generally  doea  not  correspond  with  the  rainfall  curve  (figs,  9,  10  . 
Indeed,  at  Frankfurt,  Bremen,  Berlin,  and  Briinn,  the  highest  point  of  the  ground 
water  is  in  the  ppring  months  at  the  time  of  least  rainfall  (fig.  9).     The  yeariy 


FLUCTUATIONS   DUE   TO   RAINFALL   AND   KVAPOBATION. 


81 


curves  of  the  ground  water  are  much  more  regular  than  the  rainfall  curve,  and  on 
"the  whole  in  general  shape  they  most  resemble  the  annual  temperature  curve  (fig. 
H).  The  reason  for  this  difference  is  the  simple  one  that  the  fluctuations  of  the 
ground  water  depend  not  only  on  the  absolute  amount  of  the  rainfall,  but  on  the 
ciuantity  that  reaches  the  zone  of  complete  saturation,  or  the  ground-water  table, 
jand  the  time  consumed  in  so  doing.  The  quantity  is  affected  by  many  factors, 
among  which  are  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  evaporation 
or  transpiration  from  plants,  the  quantity  retained  in  the  soil  above  the  zone  of  satu- 
ration, and  the  amount  that  runs  directly  off  the  surface  without  ever  penetrating 
the  ground.  The  time  element  is  affected  by  the  porosity  and  moisture  content  of 
the  soil,  the  character  of  the  covering,  and  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  the  height 
of  the  soil  column.  The  general  result  is  that  the  water  is  delivered  gradually  to 
thc^  zone  of  complete  saturation,  and  as  the  effects  of  single  rains  are  thus  generally 


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Fia.  11.— Annual  curves  baned  upon  mean  monthly  averages  of  ground-water  level  at  Bryn 
MawT,  Pa.,a  and  temperature  and  rainfall  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,b  for  the  period  1886-1895, 
showing  the  general  resemblance  of  the  ground- water  and  temperature  curves.  The 
exact  agreement  of  the  maximum  ground-water  level  and  the  maximum  temperature  Is 
unusual. 

minified  and  often  entirely  blotted  out,  a  relatively  smooth  cur\'e  results  (PI.  IX). 
This  yearly  period  of  the  ground  water  is  largely  due  to  the  periodic  character  of  the 
evaporation,  including  plant  transpiration.  This  depends  on  the  temperature,  and 
the  net  result  for  the  year  is  a  simple  curve  of  the  same  shape  as  the  mean  tempera- 
ture curve,  although  inversely  related  to  it,  hence  the  general  resemblance  of  the 
yearly  well  curve  to  the  temperature  curve.  Were  the  rain  uniform  throughout  the 
year,  and  were  there  no  lag  due  to  transmission  or  unmelted  snow,  the  maximum 
ground-water  level  would  occur  at  the  time  of  the  minimum  temperature  and  satu- 
ration deficit  of  the  atmosphere,  or,  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone,  in  January.  The 
effect  of  the  irregular  distribution  of  the  rainfall  is  to  change  the  time  of  the  occur- 
rence of  this  maximum.     A  moderate  excess  of  rain  in  the  summer,  such  as  occurs 

a  Observations  of  W.  8.  Auchlnc]o»«;  Waters  within  the  Earth  and  Laws  of  Rainflow,  1897. 
^Observations  of  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau;  Annual  Summary  Pennsylvania  Climate  and  Crop  Service. 


32 


FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WELLS. 


at  Frankfurt-am-Main,  causes  the  maximum  to  advance  to  March,  while  at  Bnenif:- 
Berlin,  and  Briinn,  where  the  difference  between  the  summer  and  winter  rainlai/  • 
progressively  greater,  in  the  order  named,  the  maxima  occur  respectively  in  Mar. 
April,  and  May  (fig.  9).     The  extremely  great  summer  precipitation  at  Munich  a- 
Salzburg,  together  with  the  low  rainfall  in  January,  causes  the  maximum  at  th-^ 
places  to  advance  to  July  and  August. 

In  this  connection  the  observations  of  (1)  Dickinson  and  Evans,  (2)  Greave^^  ai 
(3)  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  near  London,  are  of  great  interest.     All  of  these  ohp«ervt-- 
endeavored  to  determine  the  amount  of  rain  actually  contributed  to  the  gn  »fi^.: 


Fig.  12.— Results  of  English  percolation  experiments.  In  the  Dickinson  and  Evans  experiments  tU 
gages  were  buried  in  the  ground;  one  was  filled  with  ordinary  Hertfordshire  soil  (aaandy.  Kn^- 
elly  loam)  and  covered  with  sod;  the  other  was  filled  with  challc  and  covered  with  a  thin  Uvt 
of  soil  and  sod.  In  the  Lawes  and  Gilbert  observations  columns  of  a  rather  hcavr  loam  v.tK 
clay  subsoil  in  their  natural  state  of  consolidation  were  built  in  with  brick  and  cement;  no  vr.: 
elation  wa.s  allowed  to  grow  on  the  gages,  which  were  surrounded  by  meadow  land.  Curres  art 
based  on  the  monthly  averages  from  September  1, 1870,  to  August  SI,  1902. 

water.  Each  used  vessels  with  impervious  sides  and  pervious  bottoms,  sunk  1h>} 
with  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  water  percolating  through  the  soil  columns  »&= 
collected  and  compared  with  the  yield  of  the  adjacent  rain  gages.  In  the  case  of  the 
Dickinson  and  Evans  and  the  Greaves  experiments  the  boxes  were  filled  with  mate- 
rial supposed  to  represent  the  average  soil  of  the  region,  in  both  cases  a  sandy  !*Kii» 
In  the  Lawes  and  Gilbert  experiments  actual  blocks  of  soil  were  undermined  and  the 
results  represent  the  amount  of  rainfall  passing  through  a  heavy  loam  with  a  flsy 
subsoil  in  its  natural  condition  of  consolidation,  but  not  covered  with  vegetation.  The 
average  results  obtained  are  given  in  the  following  table  and  are  partially  shown  in 
a  graphic  manner  in  fig.  12. 


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FLUCTUATIONS   DUE   TO   RAINFALL   AND   EVAPORATION. 


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84  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATEB   LEVEL   IN   WELLS. 

Of  these  the  Lawes  and  Gilbert  results  are  perhaps  of  the  greatest  ^'alae,  becxn^ 
they  more  nearly  represent  the  normal  conditions,  and  they  extend  throogh  a  squ:- 
ciently  long  period  to  obliterate  temporary  variations.    While  the  quantitative  \  ai  >- 
obtained  from  these  experiments  differ,  the  qualitative  results,  as  shown  by  tig.  1, 
are  essentially  the  same.     All  except  the  bare  sand  give  curves  of  the  same  ciumhr.'^ 
as  those  obtained  from  the  actual  observation  of  ground-water  fluctuations.     The  i<  > 
percentage  of  water  which  passes  through  the  soil  in  summer  is  emphasized  by  i 
as  is  also  the  greater  contribution  during  the  winter  months.    Even  in  the  bare  iaii ! 
where  the  water  sinks  at  once  and  so  loses  little  by  evaporation,  a  downward  tfrt:- 
ency  of  the  curve  during  the  summer  months  is  evident.    The  effect  of  the  fat^^ 
precipitation  in  the  fall  is  particularly  evident  in  the  Lawes  and  Gilbert  resnltE   '^ 
12),  where  it  clearly  hastened  the  time  of  occurrence  of  the  maximum  groaiid-wkt  - 
percolation  by  about  two  months. 

EFFSCT  OF   DEPTH   OF    SOIL   ABOVE   ZONE  OF  COMPLKFE  SATURATION  ON   TIME  OF   OCXTl- 
BSNCE   OF  YEARLY   MAXIMUM   AND   MINIMUM   OF  GROUND-WATER   LEVEL. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  soil  above  the  ground- water  table  tends  to  dt¥m>7 
the  effect  of  single  rains  by  causing  the  water  to  be  delivered  gradually  to  the  z«r.^ 
of  complete  saturation,  whose  upper  surface  is  the  water  table.  In  the  case  of  :^^ 
English  experiments  at  Kothamsted  (Lawes  and  Gilbert)  and  Heniel  Hemf«t«»: 
(Dickinson  and  Evans)  the  maximum  percolation  occurs  from  November  to  Januan. 
yet  the  water  in  the  wells  in  that  region,  while  commencing  to  rise  about  Decern l^r 
did  not  reach  its  maximum  elevation  udtil  March, «  a  delay  of  about  three  month*. 
Yet  in  any  attempt  to  calculate  the  rate  of  percolation  from*  these  data  two  dilfcr  il- 
ties  are  encountered.  In  the  first  place  the  yearly  maximum  occurretl  at  about  tV* 
same  time  in  this  region  in  wells  of  all  depths,  and,  furthermore,  the  Rothanfi-t*"! 
results  (fig.  12)  show  no  very  important  difference  in  the  time  in  which  the  watK 
is  discharged  through  20,  40,  and  60  inches  of  soil  so  far  a£  it  relates  to  the  timt-  *i 
occurrence  of  the  yearly  maximum.  In  the  second  place  the  undei^grotrnd  water  it 
in  motion,  a  certain  amount  is  discliafged  at  all  times,  and  the  amount  incr^«^ 
with  the  head.  The  case  is  not,  therefore,  the  simple  one  where  water  is  caught  in  a 
measuring  tube,  as  in  the  percx)lation  experiments  above  described,  but  the  «at*r 
must  reach  the  ground- water  table  at  a  rate  greater  than  the  rate  of  the  outflow,  eb^ 
no  rise  will  take  place. 

At  Wiener  Neustadt,  Austria,  a  similar  relation  has  been  demonstrated  by  tK 
observations  made  between  1883  and  1895,  in  connection  with  the  Wiener  Neusteiii 
deep- well  project  for  the  supply  of  Vienna.^  These  wells  are  in  a  valley  filling « if 
fiuvio-glacial  material,  somewhat  irregular  in  character,  which  Suess  describes  a>  & 
series  of  old  deltas,  c  The  wells  extend  from  Fisha  River,  a  spring-fed  stream,  south- 
westerly along  the  Southern  Railway.  The  land  and  the  ground-water  table  beneatL 
lx)th  rise  gradually  in  this  direction,  but  while  the  water  table  is  at  the  surface  »: 
the  ground  at  Fisha  River,  6}  miles  south,  at  St.  Agyden,  it  is  from  140  to  170  fwt 
from  the  surface,  the  exact  depth  depending  on  the  time  of  year.  (See  section  at 
top  of  PI.  IX. )  The  curves  obtained  from  this  series  of  wells,  extending  roughly 
at  right  angles  to  the  slope  of  the  water  plane,  are  entirely  concentric,  and  the  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  occur  at  the  same  time,  irrespective  of  depth  of  Boil  above  the 
ground-water  table.  It  would  seem  to  follow  from  these  data  that  no  very  satissiai- 
tory  determination  of  tlie  rate  of  downward  percolation  can  be  made  from  the  rvh- 
tion  of  the  time  of  greatest  precipitation,  or  percolation,  to  the  time  of  maximuiL 

aClutterbnck,  James.  Min.  Proo.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  2, 1842,  p.  IM. 

bBerieht  des  Aiisachussea  fiir  die  Wasservereorgung  Wiens:  Osterreichiacher  Ingenienr-  nw3 
Archit<ikten-Verein.  1895. 

clbid..  p.  32:  see  also  Bericht  ilber  die  Erfolgeder  Wiener  WaaBerleituDgs-CommiaBlon,  1864:  Kanw, 
F.,  Geologic  der  Franz  Josephs-Qiiellcnleitung:  Abhandlungen  4er  K.-k.  geologlechen  ReiclMii- 
sialt,  1877. 


FLUCTUATIONS    DUE    TO    RAINFALL    AND    EVAPORATION.         35 

^pround-water  level.  The  rise  of  the  water  is  not  determined  by  the  simple  delivery 
of  water  to  the  zone  of  complete  saturation,  but  by  the  relation  of  the  water  so 
<3elivered  to  the  rate  of  outflow.  If  the  water  is  lowering,  a  certain  amount  is  con- 
snmed  in  checking  that  tendency,  and  only  the  excess  over  the  outflow  is  available 
for  raising  the  ground-water  level.  Moreover,  in  several  carefully  observed  instances, 
"the  depth  of  the  soil  above  the  ground  water  has  been  shown  to  have  no  effect  on 
1:he  time  of  occurrence  of  the  yearly  maximum. 

The  short-period  observations  on  Long  Island,  New  York,  during  the  summer  of 
1903,  however,  gave  quite  different  results  from  those  obtained  at  Wiener  Neustadt 
The  conditions  do  not  appear  to  be  essentially  different;  the  glacial  sands  and  gravels 
of  the  south  plain  of  Long  Island  slope  gradually  to  the. ocean  and  in  a  similar  way 
the  valley  glacial  gravels  of  Wiener  Neustadt  slope  to  Fisha  River,  and  there  is 
apparently  no  great  difference  in  the  irregularity  and  complexity  of  the  bedding. 
The  Wiener  Neustadt  or  Steinfeld  Valley,  it  is  true,  is  traversed  by  a  large  river,  the 
L«itha,  whose  stages  depend  on  the  conditions  affecting  its  headwaters  in  the  moun- 
tains, but  observations  have  shown  that  this  stream,  because  of  the  silted  character 
of  its  bed,  affects  only  a  few  wells  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  and  is  not  to  be  regarded 
as  a  disturbing  factor.  (Compare  the  river  stages  with  well  curves  on  PI.  IX. )  On 
Long  Island  the  measurements  in  charge  of  Mr.  Walter  E.  Spear,  department  engi- 
neer of  the  commission  on  additional  water  supply, «  showed  that,  during  the  summer 
of  1903,  the  highest  stage  of  the  ground  water  occurred,  as  a  nile,  earlier  in  the  shal- 
low than  in  the  deeper  wells  (fig.  13).  Where  the  water  level  was  less  than  20  feet 
from  the  surface  the  highest  stage  af  the  ground  water  occurred  in  April,  while  where 
the  water  level  was  60  to  75  feet  below  the  surface  it  did  not  occur  until  August 
The  increase  of  the  retardation  was  not  always  uniform.  Thus  the  highest  water  in 
a  3o-foot  well  near  Jamaica  (No.  551)  occurred  in  May,  while  in  a  well  of  the  same 
depth  near  Deer  Park  (No.  388)  it  did  not  occur  until  August,  although  in  a  well 
near  Hicksville  (No.  237),  of  about  the  same  depth,  the  maximum  occurred  in  May. 
Whether  this  irregularity  is  typical  or  is  only  a  result  of  the  rather  peculiar  season 
-  in  which  the  measurements  were  made  could  be  determined  only  by  observations 
covering  a  period  of  years,  instead  of  months.  It  should,  however,  be  stated  in  this 
connection  that  along  the  south  shore,  where  the  Brooklyn  water  department  has 
observed  shallow  wells  for  several  years,  the  curve  for  1903  is  not  greatly  different 
from  that  of  preceding  years,  indicating,  so  far  as  the  shallow  wells  are  concerned, 
that  the  year  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  an  abnormal  one  (fig.  15,  p.  39).  On  the  other 
hand,  the  results  are  so  at  variance  with  the  thirteen  years'  observations  at  Wiener 
Neustadt,  which  apparently  cover  similar  conditions,  that  further  confirmation  of 
these  Long  Island  results,  by  additional  observ^ations,  is  needed  before  any  conclu- 
sions can  be  drawn.  Certainly  the  Wiener  Neustadt  data  indicate  that  the  depth  of 
the  soil  above  the  ground- water  table  is  of  no  importance  in  determining  the  time  of 
occurrence  of  the  maximum  ground-water  level.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Long 
Island  observations  suggest  that  a  difference  in  thickness  of  60  feet  may  delay  the 
time  of  the  occurrence  of  the  maximum  level  four  months. 

The  curves  showing  the  result  of  the  Long  Island  work  indicate  further  that,  in 
the  soil  in  question,  single  showers  frequently  produce  very  definite  effects  in  shallow 
wells,  and  that  such  effects  become  less  as  the  depth  of  unsaturated  material  above 
the  water  table  increases.  Indeed,  in  the  wells  where  the  water  is  30  or  40  feet 
below  the  ground,  the  curves  are  relatively  smooth  or  the  variations  bear  no  evident 
relation  to  the  rainfall.  &  Spear  has  attempted  to  trace  the  time  of  rise,  due  to  given 
showers,  from  the  shallow  through  the  deeper  wells,  and  so  determine  the  rate  of 

a  Long  Island  sources:  Kept.  New  York  City  Commission  on  Additional  Water  Supply,  1904,  appen- 
dix 7,  Pi.  IV,  Incorrectly  numbered  PI.  VI,  p.  792. 

frMany  of  the  wells  observed  by  the  commission  were  open,  dug  wells,  which  were  In  use,  and  the 
minor  fluctuations  are  partially  due  to  this  cause,  as  well  as  to  barometric  and  thermometric  changes, 


86 


FI.U0TUAT10N8   OF  THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN   WELLS. 


FLUCTUATIONS   DUE   TO   RAINFALL   AND   EVAPORATION. 


37 


downward  percolation  or  downward  capillary  flow.  There  are  certain  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  determining  the  value  sought  in  this  manner.  In  the  first  place,  the 
fluctuations  in  the  shallow  wells  can  not  l)e  satisfactorily  correlated  with  those  in  the 
deep  ones,  and  the  only  line  which  can  be  followed  through  the  diagram  prepared  by 
S]>ear  is  the  time  of  maximum  ground  water,  which,  as  indicated  above,  in  this 
region  during  the  time  of  observation,  in  general  lags  proportionally  to  the  depth. 
This  gives  a  fairly  regular  curve  and  the  remaining  curves  have  been  inferred  on 
either  side  of  this  one.  The  yearly  maximum,  however,  can  scarcely  be  attributed 
to  a  single  rain,  but  represents  rather  the  culmination  of  a  whole  series  of  events, 
and  hence  can  not  be  used  as  a  basis  of  such  a  calculation. 

In  the  case  of  regions  like  Wiener  Neustadt  it  is  clear  that  the  results  from  calcu- 
lations of  this  character  would  have  no  meaning,  and,  indeed,  what  do  the  values 
really  represent  on  Long  Island? 

ntREGULAA  SSOULAB  FLTFOTTTATIOVS. 

The  observations  of  Dickinson  and  Evans  and  of  Lawes  and  Gilbert  with  percola- 
tion gages  developed  the  fact  that,  as  a  rule,  not  only  did  more  water  percolate  in 
wet  than  in  dry  years,  but  that  the  percentage  of  rain  water  which  passed  through 
the  soil  columns  was  usually  much  greater  in  wet  years  than  in  dry  ones.  Thus 
while  the  average  yearly  percolation  of  1870-1902  at  Rothamsted  (Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert) was  49  per  cent  of  the 
yearly  rainfall  of  28  inches,  in 
the  year  1878-79,  when  40.2 
inches  of  rain  fell,  61  per  cent 
of  the  rain  water  passed 
through  a  soil  column  60 
inches  high,  and  in  the  year 
1877-78,  with  a  rainfall  of  18.2 
inches,  the  percolation  was 
but  36  per  cent  (see  p.  47.) 
The  general  tendency — al- 
though there  are  exceptional 
cases,  such  as  recorded  at 
Hemel  Uem|)6tead  (Dickinson 
and  Evans)  in  1868-69,  when, 
with  a  rainfall  of  28  inches,  2 
inches  more  than  the  annual 
average,  the  percolation  was 
but  one-third  of  1  per  cent 
instead  of  the  usual  27  per 
cent — is  for  the  small  differ- 
ences in  the  annual  rainfall  to 
have  a  rather  magnified  value 
in  the  ground- water  fluctua- 
tions. 

The  yearly  variations  of  the 
rainfall  are  generally  pro- 
gressive over  rather  long  periods  (fig.  14),  and  corresywnding  broad,  irregular  vari- 
ations of  the  ground- water  level  are  produced.  On  Long  Island  the  shallow  wells 
observed  by  the  Brooklyn  waterworks  show,  besides  the  annual  fluctuations,  secular 
variations  corresponding  in  general  with  those  of  the  rainfall  (fig.  16).  Thus  the 
lowest  point  in  both  curves  is  in  1901  and  the  highest  in  1899.  Many  differences 
are,  however,  to  be  noted  between  the  two  curves.  The  annual  curve,  though  it 
may  be  slightly  modified,  .persistently  recurs,  whatever  the  rainfall.  Note  in  this 
connection  the  regular  downwani  course  of  the  ground  water  in  the  latter  part  of 


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Fio.  11.— ReHidual-ma.ss  curves  of  rainfall  for  Long  Island, 
N.y.,  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  Philadelphia,  Pa.  (After  Spear, 
1904. )  These  curves  show  the  cumulative  excess  or  defi- 
ciency of  the  total  actual  rainfall  over  the  total  mean 
rainfall  for  the  periods  under  confllderation,  and  as  these 
excess  or  deficiency  values  are  those  which  determine 
the  long-period  rise  and  fall  of  the  ground  water  they 
indicate  the  general  character  of  the  secular  fluctuation 
of  the  ground  water  occurring  at  these  points. 


38  FLUCTUATIONS   OF   THE   WATER   LEVEL    IN   WELLS. 

1898  and  1903,  when  the  rainfall  curve  is  rising,  and  the  appearance  in  1900  of  a 
typical  yearly  curve  when  the  rainfall  curve  falls  rather  regularly  from  the  ^pri^ 
of  1899  to  1901. 

Similarly,  in  the  Wiener  Neustadt  observations  (PI.  IX,  p.  62)  the  seculiir  var- 
ations  of  the  ground-water  level  broadly  follow  the  variations  of  the  rainfalL 

The  observations  of  Auchincloss"  on  a  well  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  which  have  beei 
plotted  by  Spear  &  in  connection  with  the  yearly  rainfall  and  temperature  curves,  lik*^ 
wise  show  pronounced  annual  and  secular  fluctuations.  Here,  however,  the  seeoUr 
fluctuations  of  the  ground  water,  while  broadly  resembling  the  rainfall  variation-. 
show  some  points  of  difference.  Thus,  the  minimum  of  the  secular  curve  of  the 
ground  water  is  in  1885-86,  while  the  minimum  rainfall  is  in  1887,  and  the  gener£ 
shape  of  the  two  curves  for  1886-87  and  1888  is  by  no  means  parallel.  The  poatictf 
of  the  maxima,  however,  agree  closely,  and  there  is  a  general  falling  off  in  hiA^\ 
curves  from  1 889  to  1 893-94.  Though  the  extreme  rains  of  the  latter  part  of  1889  ttn  - 
porarily  obliterated  the  annual  curve,  it  quickly  reasserted  itself. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  irregularities  in  the  yearly  curve  are  due  to  im^- 
larities  in  the  rainfall  occurring  in  the  same  year. 

AXOTJirr  OF  AHITTTAL  AHD  SECULAR  FLTFOnTATIOH. 

The  size  of  the  annual  fluctuations  depends  principally  upon  (1)  the  percentag*- r.f 
rainfall  reaching  the  ground  water;  (2)  the  amount  of  free  pore  space  of  theFtrata  in 
the  zone  affected  by  the  fluctuations,  and  (3)  the  relation  of  the  ground-water  table 
to  the  topography  of  the  region  involved. 

It  is  relatively  self-evident  that,  where  a  single  well  is  considered,  the  range  of  the 
yearly  fluctuations  will  vary  with  the  first  factor,  and  that  in  general  the  s>uw 
amount  of  infiltration  will  prcnluce  a  greater  fluctuation  where  the  pore  8|iace  is  anal] 
than  where  it  is  large.  It  does  not,  however,  follow  that  in  a  given  region,  in  U"»'> 
of  the  Rame  porosity,  the  same  annual  rainfall  under  the  same  climatic  conditiori^ 
will  produce  the  same  results.  Obt?ervations  have  shown  that  whatever  the  rainfall 
or  porosity,  provided  the  latter  be  reasonably  constant  in  the  art»a  under  considen- 
tion,  the  annual  fluctuations  approach  zero  at  the  point  of  discharge  and  tend  to  n-i- 
ularly  increase  in  magnitude  from  that  point  to  the  ground-water  divide.  <^  Tha»i  ;U 
Wiener  Neustadt  (PI.  IX,  p.  62),  near  the  ground- water  discharge  into  Fisha  River, 
where  the  depth  to  the  ground-water  table  is  about  5  feet,  the  yearly  fluctuation  L*-  3 
to  4  feet,  while  at  St.  Agyden  station,  where  the  water  plane  is  about  150  feet  frum 
the  surface,  the  fluctuation  is  25  to  30  feet,  and  the  fluctuations  in  the  intervening 
wells  are  proportional  to  their  position  between  these  two  points.  On  Long  Islaod 
the  annual  fluctuation  2  miles  from  the  shore,  at  Millburn  (figs.  13,  15),  is  22inchf>, 
while  at  the  ground-water  divide,  8  to  9  miles  from  the  south  shore,  the  fluctuation 
is  about  10  feet.  A  few  observations  regarding  the  amount  of  the  yearly  fluctuation 
at  different  points  have  l)een  collected  in  the  table  following.  Many  of  these  points 
of  ol>Hervation  are  located  near  the  points  of  discharge,  and  the  values  as  a  whole 
are  to  be  regarded  as  low. 

In  records  for  but  a  few  years  it  is  evidently  impossible  to  separate  the  annual  from 
the  secular  fluctuations.  When,  however,  the  ol)8ervations  cover  a  conaideraltle 
period,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  value  for  the  secular  fluctuation.  This  equals  the 
total  range  less  the  average  yearly  fluctuation.  A  few  such  values  are  given  in  the 
table  on  page  40. 

a  Auchincloss,  W.  S..  Waters  within  the  Earth  and  Laws  of  Rainflow,  Philadelphia.  1897.  p.  9. 

^ Spear,  Walter  E.,  Kept.  Commission  on  Additional  Water  Supply  for  the  City  of  Kew  York,  19W. 
appendix  7,  fig.  45,  p.  822. 

<'Tiie  crosM section  irom  Wailord  to  the  Chlltern  Hills  midway  between  Colne  and  Gade  rivers,  whkh 
accompanies  Clutlerbuck's  di.scu«iion  of  the  '*  Periodic  Alternations  of  the  Chalk  Water  I^vel  umlrf 
London"  (Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  9, 18dU,  Pi.  V1),i.m  a  most  excellent  diagram  matlcUlustriUt'Q 
of  this  pnnciple. 


FLUCTUATIONS   DUE   TO   RAIITFALL   AND   EVAPORATION. 


39 


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40 


FLUCTUATIONS   OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WELLS. 


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42  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WELLS. 

FLUOnrATIOVB  SUE  TO  8ZVGLE  8H0WER8. 

In  the  foregoing  consideration  of  the  relation  of  the  rainfall  to  secular  and  ann  .. 
fluctuations,  the  most  imiwrtant  factor  was  clearly  the  amount  of  water  s/cinA  - 
contribute<l  to  the  zone  of  complete  saturation,  or  the  ground  water. «  In  thejse  ra.-*- 
the  water  table  rises  or  falls  because  the  amount  of  water  receive<l  is  greater  or  .r^- 
than  the  outflow. 

In  the  consideration  of  single  showers,  however,  it  is  found  that  another  fact*  .r  • 
of  as  great  or  even  greater  importance.  Single  showers  may  affect  the  water  Ievt-1  \ 
a  well  in  two  ways:  (1)  By  transmission  of  pressure  without  any  actual  additi<  ^n  * 
the  ground  water — indeed,  in  many  cases  the  elevation  of  the  water  in  the  w^Il  > 
accompanied  by  an  actual  depression  of  the  ground- water  table;  (2)  by  an  aitn^ 
contribution  to  the  ground  water  whereby  the  level  of  the  water  table  is  raised. 

FLUCTUATIONS   PRODUCED  BY  SHOWERS  BY  TRANSMITTED   PRESSURE  WITHOUT   ANT 
INCREASE  IN  THE  GROUND  WATER. 

King  observed  at  Madison,  Wis.,*  that  the  water  often  rose  in  wells  very  sudden  1; 
and  sharply  during  summer  rains,  when  an  investigation  of  the  soil  showed  tlia:  i* 
was  dry  beneath  the  surface  covering  wet  by  the  showers.  Similar  oocurrvno-? 
were  recorded  at  Lynbrook,  N.  Y.,  where  in  a  2-inch  well  14  feet  deep  every  rain— 
during  the  period  of  ol)8ervation,  July  17  tt^  September  10 — was  reconled  and  (*• 
duration  and  complexity  indicated.  Many  of  these  fluctuations  pro<luce  no  fitru  a- 
nent  deflection  of  the  ground-water  curve  and  the  evidence  that  no  water  in-u 
several  of  these  rains  reached  the  ground  water  is  regardeil  as  conclusive  (PL  VI: 
also  note  particularly  the  l)ehavior  of  the  shallow  well  August  lft-21  and  the  florta- 
ations  produce<l  by  rains  of  July  20,  22,  30,  and  August  6;  the  two  successive  pliowt-r^ 
of  August  6-7  are  jwirticularly  noteworthy). 

In  the  case- of  wells  which  are  not  separated  from  the  main  water  table  by  iinp^^r- 
vious  layers  and  in  which  the  water  is  not  under  artesian  pressure,  this  is  due  larsj^-ly 
to  the  hydrostatic  transmission  of  pressure  by  means  of  the  soil  air.  When  the  raiu 
strikes  the  surface  it  closes  the  superficial  soil  pores  or  interstices  and  thus  confin»^l 
and  compresses  the  air  in  the  soil  between  the  surface  and  the  ground- water  tal>if. 
The  weight  of  the  rain  is  thus  transmitted  to  the  ground- water  table,  and  the  extra 
head  so  developed  raises  the  water  in  wells  and  increases  the  discharge  at  tie 
ground-water  outlets.  The  effect  on  the  stream  flow  is  very  analogous  to  the  increaiA' 
produced  by  a  lowering  of  the  barometric  pressure.  It  is  thus  possible  for  a  rain  i*- 
produce  instantly  a  change  in  the  water  level  in  wells  and  an  increase  in  the  groiiD^i- 
water  outflow  without  contributing  a  drop  to  the  ground  water.  This  has  an  impor- 
tant l)earing  on  the  calculation  of  "flood  flows '*  from  ground- water-fed  streams,  f^r 
it  is  evident  that  in  this  manner  a  decided  rise  in  the  stream  may  be  prodaced  by  a 
rain  from  which  there  is  no  diret^t  run-off  and  which  does  not  reach  the  ground- wat*^ 
table. 

Two  other  factors  may  be  involved  in  the  production  of  the  change  in  level  dorinj: 
rains:  (1)  An  actual  elastic  compression  or  plastic  deformation  of  the  soil,  and  (l?  s 
change  in  the  capillary  conditions.  King  olwerved  in  a  shallow  well  near  a  railn*l 
track  that  the  passage  of  a  freight  train  caused  a  quick  ri.<^  and  fall  of  the  water  in  tht- 
well  ( p.  75).  Apparently  the  weight  of  the  train  compressed  the  earth  and  by  decrea.*- 
ing  the  pore  space  caused  the  water  to  rise.  The  weight  of  the  rain  might  have  a 
similar  effect.  Under  this  hypothesis  the  water  would  rise  on  the  addition  of  the 
rain  and  gradually  fall  on  its  removal  by  evaporation. 

n Ground  water  as  here  used  does  not  include  the  hygroscopic  and  capillary  water  above  the  w:itrr 
table,  or  zone  of  complete  saturation.  For  the  purpose  of  this  discuasion,  water  is  not  cunsiderc*! 
"ground  water"  until  It  roaches  the  water  table. 

fcBull.  U.  8.  Weather  Bureau  No.  5,  1892,  pp.  20,  72-78. 


PLU0TUATION8   DUE  TO  KAINFALL   AOT)  EVAPORATION.        48 

IRegarding  the  second  hypothesis  it  is  well  known  that  changes  in  the  surface  con- 
ditions greatly  affect  the  capillary  action  of  the  soil.  At  Purdue  University  it  was 
found  that  the  addition  of  a  thin  layer  of  soil  to  the  surface  of  a  lysimeter  caused  an 
Immediate  discharge  of  water. ^  This  was  attributed  to  a  change  in  the  capillary 
c^onditions,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  wetting  of  the  ground  surface  would 
produce  a  similar  effect.  King,  however,  observed  *  that  a  moderate  wetting  of  the 
Hurface  tended  to  increiase  the  upward  percolation,  and  the  effect  of  wetting  the  sur- 
face at  Lynbrook  would  therefore  be  to  diminish  rather  than  increase  the  rise  due  to 
rains  which  do  not  contribute  to  the  ground  water: 

At  the  Colorado  experiment  station  Headden  has  observed  <?  that  light  rains  during 
dry  periods  produce  a  comparatively  great  increase  in  the  height  of  the  water  plane, 
while  in  intervals  of  abundant  moisture,  when  the  soil  is  wet,  rains  of  this  character 
<Io  not  produce  such  an  increase;  moderate  rains  are  here  sometimes  accompanied 
l>y  temporary  depressions  of  the  water  plane.  These  observations  may  be  explained 
on  the  basis  that  the  soil  air  is  the  principal  factor  and  that  when  the  soil  is  very 
moist  there  is  so  little  soil  air  that  no  effect  is  possible  with  slight  showers.  The 
cause  of  the  temporary  depression  after  moderate  rains  is  not  evident  unless  the  con- 
ditions are  unfavorable  for  the  transmission  of  pressure  by  the  soil  air,  but  are  such 
that  the  increased  upward  capillary  action  resulting  from  the  moistening  of  the  sur- 
face is  sufficient  to  perceptibly  decrease  the  ground  water. 

Where  there  is  an  impervious  layer  between  the  water-bearing  strata  and  the 
local  ground-water  surface,  and  where  there  is  artesian  pressure,  the  adde<l  weight 
due  to  the  rainfall  in  all  cases  acts  directly.  In  case  the  rain  is  imiform  over  a  con- 
siderable area  this  pressure  may  be  regarded  as  acting  on  an  elastic  Ixxly  and  the 
same  character  of  results  is  to  be  expected  in  both  deep  and  shallow  wells.  Thus  in 
the  Lynbrook  wells  on  July  22  and  August  25  all  wells  show  a  sharp  vertical  rise 
(PI.  VI).  On  July  22  the  rise  started  in  the  14-foot  well  at  10  p.  m.,  in  the  72-foot 
well  at  10.25,  and  in  the  504-foot  well  at  10.34;  on  August  25  a  somewhat  similar  lag 
i.M  noted,  the  14-foot  well  rising  at  4.10  p.  m.,  the  72-foot  well  at  4.20,  and  the  504- 
foot  well  at  4.24.  The  cause  of  this  lag  is  not  fully  apparent.  With  a  direct  trans- 
mission of  pressure  such  as  the  curve  indicates  no  lag  is  to  be  expected.  It  may  be 
that  in  this  case  the  soil  is  to  be  regarded  as  having  some  of  the  plastic  characters 
shown  in  other  cases. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  the  rainfall  is  unequally  distributed  in  time  and  amount 
a  plastic  deformation  may  result,  due  to  unequal  loading,  which  will  give  rise  to 
different  results  in  wells  of  different  deptbs.  In  the  shallow  well  the  zone  of  influ- 
ence is  relatively  limited  and  the  condition  in  this  area  may  be  regarded  as  fairly 
uniform.  The  result  is  therefore  immediate  and  abrupt,  as  in  the  first  case.  In  the 
deeper  wells,  however,  the  increasing  zones  of  influence  bring  in  more  factors,  which, 
arriving  progressively  from  different  sources,  tend  to  produce  a  more  and  more 
gradual  change.  Thus,  in  the  Lynbrook  wells  there  were  on  August  d-7,  11,  and  20 
abrupt  changes  in  the  14-foot  well  and  a  more  gradual  one  in  the  72-  and  504-foot 
wells. 

This  plastic  deformation  in  the  surflcial  beds,  produced  by  varying  load  and  the 
response  of  the  water  to  it,  throws  some  light  on  the  extreme  complexity  of  the 
fluctuation  recorded  in  the  wells,  for  it  suggests  that  variation  in  load,  from  whatever 
cause,  will  produce  corresponding  fluctuations.  The  water  level  in  deep  wells  where 
an  artesian  head  is  developed  may  thus  be  very  sensitive  to  local  conditions,  the 
effect  of  local  rainfall  and  of  the  yearly  fluctuations  of  the  local  ground- water  level 
being  felt  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  by  transmitted  pressure  in  the  deeper  zones. 

aSecond  Ann.  Rept.  Indiana  Expt.  Station,  1889-90,  pp.  32-38. 
6 Seventh  Ann.  Rept.  Wisconsin  Arric.  Expt.  Station.  1890,  p.  135. 

c  Headden,  WiUUim  P.,  A  soil  study,  pt.  4,  The  ground  water:  Bull.  Golonulo  Agric.  Expt  Station 
No.  72, 1902. 


44  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER    LEVEL   IN    WEI-I-S. 

FLUCTUATION    OF    THE    GROUND-WATKB    LEVEL    RESULTING     FROM    SINGLE     8HOWER8,    IT 

ACTUAL  PERCOLATION. 

The  fluctuations  produced  by  direct  percolation  are  of  a  much  less  abrupt  eL&*- 
acter  than  those  just  described;  indeed,  it  is  usually  the  case  that  the  vi'^ter  is  dt-ii.- 
ered  so  gradually  to  the  water  table  that  no  change  is  noticed.  Only  in  the  shall  •« 
wells  in  coarse  material  can  these  fluctuations  be  identified,  except  in  the  case-  > 
extraordinary  rains,  when  the  result  is  an  irregularity  of  greater  or  leee  impoprtuiv 
on  the  regular  annual  ground-water  curve. 

On  Long  Island  the  shallow  wells  near  the  south  shore  are  affected  by  most  of  th- 
important  rains,  although  part  of  the  fluctuations  recorded  are  of  the  character  jiM 
described.  (See  figs.  13,  15.)  This  is  due  to  the  coarseness  of  the  sorficial  in» 
rial  and  to  the  nearness  of  the  water  table  to  the  surface.  In  the  wells  in  whidi  tbr 
ground  water  is  farther  from  the  surface  the  effect  of  any  rain  can  not  be  positiTrl} 
identified.  In  the  Wiener  Neustadt  records  the  effect  of  single  rains  ia  entirel; 
obliterated  (PI.  IX),  and  in  long  observations  of  the  chalk  waters  of  England  tht 
general  rule,  to  which,  of  course,  there  are  exceptions  where  large  undeigr&iu>l 
caverns  are  concerned,  is  that  the  water  is  delivered  very  gradually  to  the  groimd' 
water  table. 

PEEOXIITAOI  OF  RADnTALL  OOHTSIBTJTED  TO  THE  OBOUHI)  WAT3KB. 
METHODS  OF  EOTIKATION. 

In  connection  with  this  discussion  of  the  fluctuation  of  the  water  level  it  may  not 
be  inappropriate  to  take  up  the  allied  question,  to  which  reference  has  been  madt-  at 
several  points,  of  the  percentage  of  rain  contributed  to  the  ground  water. 

Estimates  of  this  character  have  been  made  by  three  methods — (1)  by  means  o: 
the  lysimeter,  (2)  by  stream  dischai^,  and  (3)  by  changes  in  the  level  of  the 
ground  water. 

ESTIMATION  OF  PBRCOLATION  BT  MEANB  OF  LYBimTERS. 

By  the  lysimeter  method  the  rain  water  passing  through  a  column  of  soil  in  fiel«i 
conditions  is  measured  directly.  The  gage  used  for  this  purpose  comdsts  of  a 
vessel  with  impervious  sides  and  a  pervious  bottom,  filled  with  the  soil  to  be  t&^, 
and  buried  so  that  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  the  gage  is  at  the  same  level  as  the  sir- 
rounding  ground.  The  discharge  through  the  pervious  bottom  of  the  vensel  is  M- 
lected  by  a  cone  and  conducted  by  a  small  tube  to  the  measuring  gages.  In  the  eariy 
forms  of  the  apparatus  used  by  Dal  ton,  1796,  and  Dickinson,  1835,  surfiu*e  ootl^ 
were  provided  to  discharge  the  excess  rainfall,  but  these  were  abandoned  when  it 
was  found  that  on  the  level  surface  of  the  gage  there  was  no  surface  run-ofL 

Many  observations  have  been  made  along  this  line,  and  while  the  results  for  long 
periods  clearly  have  a  greater  value  than  those  for  short  periods,  some  of  these  short- 
period  values  have  been  included  in  the  table  on  the  following  page  for  the  pnrpoHS 
of  comparison. 

Lysimeter  results  have  been  subjected  to  considerable  criticism,  and  very  difieriof 
views  expressed  regarding  their  value.  It  has  been  suggested  (1)  that  the  material 
in  the  gage  is  not  in  the  natural  condition  of  consolidation,  and  that,  therefore,  the 
results  are  too  high;  (2)  that  the  underdrainage  necessary  to  collect  and  carry  the 
water  from  the  base  of  the  soil  column  to  the  measuring  tube  introduces  an  unnatonl 
condition  whereby  the  results  are  too  low;  (3)  that  the  Burface  run-off  factor  is 
surpressed  and  the  results  are  too  high. 


FLUCTUATIONS    DUE   TO    RAINFALL    AND    EVAPORATION. 


45 


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48  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL    IN    WELLS. 

The  objection  regarding  consolidation  is  well  taken,  thongh  it  clearly  doe- : 
apply  to  the  results  at  Rothamsted,  where  natural  soil  columns  were  used,  and  wb-r 
very  high  results  were  obtained,  or  to  other  gages  after  the  first  few  years,  drru 
which  the  soil  has  settled.  In  the  Hemel  Hempstead  experiments  the  i>ein>L:. : 
between  1835  and  1843  was  42.5  per  cent  of  the  rainfall,  while  in  the  period  IK^^ ' 
1853  it  was  but  35  per  cent,  a  decrease  which  is  perhaps  due  in  part  to  the  gr3>.  . 
compacting  of  the  soil,  though  it  is  also  affected  by  the  varying  rate  of  percolar- 
for  it  must  be  remembered  that^he  amount  of  percolation  depends  more  on  the  t  '.- 
at  which  the  rain  falls  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  distributed  than  on  the  &'  . 
amount. 

Regarding  the  unnatural  condition  introduced  by  the  method  of  drainage,  it  :i> 
been  suggested  on  the  one  hand  that  the  lower  part  of  the  soil  column  is  thos  exp*  -- : 
to  evaporation,  and  that  not  only  is  there  a  loss  in  this  manner  not  accounted  f  >r 
the  measuring  gage,  but  that  the  dry  condition  of  the  basal  layer  would  retan;  r> 
percolation  to  a  measureable  extent  and  increase  the  loss  by  evaporation  from  ti- 
surface  of  the  ground.  Ebermeyer  has  shown,  however,  that  with  small  lysimr>-s 
the  lower  portion  of  the  soil  column  is  damper  than  normal, «  and  he  propo^ii  t 
remedy  this  by  constructing  larger  gages.  These  defects  are  clearly  ones  of  con- 
struction which  it  is  possible  to  remedy.  At  Rothamsted  essentially  the  same  rt^:i'^ 
were  obtained  from  soil  columns  20,  40,  and  60  inches  high  (fig.  12),  showing  r  l 
clusively  that  in  this  case  the  natural  conditions  were  not  essentially  distnrbed. 

Indeed,  it  is  believed  that  carefully  conducted  lysimeter  observations,  extentiir; 
over  long  periods,  such  as  are  represented  by  the  Dickinson  and  Evans*  aii«i  :rt 
Lawes  and  Gilbert  experiments,  give  very  important  values  bearing  on  this  qnerfi  r. 
the  Lawes  and  Gilbert  results  being  particularly  important  and  trustwortbT.  Thr. 
indicate  that  in  the  climatic  condition  of  middle  England,  with  28  inches  of  rainL  . 
half  of  the  rainfall  is  contributed  to  the  ground  water  through  a  rather  heavy  <•■  i 
not  covered  with  vegetation,  and  half  of  it  evaporated.  If  the  rainfall  is  greater,  :.v 
percentage  increases,  if  less,  it  decreases.  Had  the  ground  been  covered  with  \e&\^. 
straw,  or  similar  matter  the  percolation  would  have  been  greater;  if  covered  w:r:. 
growing  vegetation,  less.  Lawes  and  Gilbert  estimate,  from  their  observatioD!^  •  c 
plant  transpiration,  that  in  this  region  2  inches  per  year  would  represent  the  jlirt 
transpiration  in  the  area  of  downs  and  waste  land,  where  there  was  very  little  veji^ 
tation,  while  with  a  heavy  grass  or  mangel  crop  it  would  amount  to  7  inches  or  nurv. 
The  average  for  the  whole  region  was  estimated  at  3  to  4  inches.  This  would  niait 
the  percolation  for  soil  of  this  character,  in  the  case  of  downs  and  wa^te  land,  4:^  \^ 
cent;  for  the  average  mid-England  district,  39  per  cent,  and  for  land  covered  wi'h 
heavy  grass  or  mangel  crop,  25  per  cent  or  less. 

It  should  be  noted  in  this  connection  that  while  the  most  of  these  obeer\'ati(tn.<. 
including  those  at  Rothamsted,  were  made  in  connection  with  agncultural  investi- 
gations, the  Hemel  Hempstead  and  Lee  Bridge  (Greaves)  experiments  were  mtie 
for  engineering  purposes.  The  Hemel  Hempstead  observations  were  undertaken  f»r 
a  paper  manufacturer,  dependent  on  the  water  power  of  a  spring-fed  stream.  He 
argued  that  stream  flow  depended  on  the  amount  of  water  which  percolated  tliruucJi 
the  soil;  that  measurements  of  this  quantity  would  indicate  the  stream  flow  to  l<? 
expected  during  the  following  summer.  It  is  stated  that  he  found  that  the  indica- 
tions of  the  gage  during  the  winter  enabled  him  to  calculate  the  supply  of  water  irom 
the  stream  during  the  ensuing  season,  that  he  had  always  found  the  indication  p^'r- 
fectly  reliable,''  and  that  he  was  accustomed  to  regulate  the  volume  of  the  order' 
accepted  for  the  summer  season  by  the  indication  of  the  gage  for  the  preceding 
winter.^    Ciutterbuck  adds,  though  the  relation  is  clearly  more  of  a  qualitative  than 

a  Reported  by  R,  H.  Scoct,  Jour.  Royal  Agnc.  Soc  ,  2d  ser..  vol.  17,  1881.  pp.  66-67. 
tMin.  Proc.  \im.  Ciyil  Emt..  vol.  2,  1842,  p.  168. 
« Ibid.,  p.  157.     •  '     "^ 


FLUCTUATIONS    DUE    TO    RAINFALL    AND    EVAPORATION..       49 

a  quantitative  one,  that  the  rise  in  level  of  the  water  in  the  wells  in  that  region  is 
found  to  coincide  with  the  readings  of  the  Dickinson  gages.  << 

The  lysimeter  certainly  furnishes  a  very  direct  and  exact  means  of  determining  the 
stmonnt  of  water  contributed  to  the  ground  water  at  any  given  point.    The  principal 
olDJection  to  it  is  that  the  block  of  soil  tested  is  not  necessarily  representative  of  the  ■ 
iwhole  area  under  investigation.  ^''f 

Somewhat  similar  experiments,  having  for  their  object  the  determination  of  the 
evaporation  from  plants,  have  been  conducted  by  many  agriculturists  in  this  country, 
notably  by  King,  f>  by  means  of  tanks  which  can  be  lifted  from  the  ground  and 
^^eighed.  This  method  is  not  so  applicable  to  the  amount  of  water  contributed  to 
the  ground  water  as  is  the  lysimeter  type  used  above,  for  the  results  are  leas  direct, 
the  percolation  being  inferred  from  the  evaporation  generally  under  more  artificial 
conditions  than  with  the  lysimeter. 

iSTIHATION  OP  PERCOLATION  FROM  THE  8TBBAM  OI8CHARGB. 

The  favorite  method  of  estimating  the  evaporation  of  a  given  drainage  basin  is  to 
subtract  the  stream  discharge  expressed  in  inches  of  rainfall  over  the  d|^inage  basin 
from  the  average  rainfall.     Thus  it  is  assumed  that — 

Rainfall— Stream  discharge  ^  Evaporation. 

The  stream  discharge  is  composed  of  ( I )  the  rain  water  which  flows  into  the  drain- 
age channels  without  penetrating  the  soil— this  is,  strictly  speaking,  the  run-off,  but 
as  this  word  is  now  by  common  consent  used  for  the  whole  quantity  of  water  dis- 
charged by  the  river,  this  contribution  may  be  somewhat  arbitrarily  referred  to  as 
the  flood  flow;  and  (2)  the  water  which  after  a  greater  or  less  journey  through  the  earth 
returns  to  the  surface — this  may  be  called  the  spring  or  ground-water  flow  oi  the  river. 
It  has  been  assumed  that  the  ground- water  flow  of  a  river  is  its  low -water  flow  and 
that  any  excess  of  this  quantity  can  be  regarded  as  flood  flow.  This  is  far  from  being 
a  general  fact.  As  the  height  of  the  ground-water  table  increases  the  stream  dis- 
charge also  increases,  and  it  is  possible  to  have  high  and  low  waters  dependent 
entirely  on  the  fluctuation  of  the  ground -water  discharge.  In  streams  which  cut  the 
ground-water  table  and  are  clearly  ground-water-ted  streams,  such  as  those  on  Long 
Island,  a  rise  in  the  ground-water  table  changes  the  position  of  the  head  of  the  stream, 
and  by  thus  increasing  both  the  head  and  the  area  of  discharge  greatly  increases  the 
stream  flow.  The  total  range  of  the  ground-water  table  near  the  coast  is  much  less 
than  near  the  ground-water  divide,  and  the  discharge  during  periods  of  high  ground- 
water level  may  therefore  be  disproportionate  to  the  changes  in  level  recorded  by  the 
wells  near  the  coast.  Because  of  these  great  changes  in  the  area  of  the  discharge  and 
the  relatively  free  flow  of  the  surface  water,  it  otten  happens  that  the  fluctuations  of 
the  stream  height  in  the  lower  part  of  the  stream  are  greater  than  the  changes  in  thie 
level  in  wells  in  the  same  region. 

fleavy  rains,  with  no  surface  run-off,  may  likewise  produce  sudden  and  considejc- 
able  rises  by  increasing  the  spring  flow  by  transmitted  pressure  in  the  manner 
described  above  (p.  42).  In  the  14-foot  well  at  Lynbrook  (p.  23),  besides  the  sud- 
den rises  recorded  for  every  rain,  the  water  four  times  during  the  period  of  observa- 
tion rose  above  the  surface.  In  the  flrst  instance  the  water,  much  to  the  amazement 
of  the  observer,  gushed  over  the  top  ol  the  pipe  a  few  minutes  after  the  showerib<^n, 
and,  while  after  the  pipe  was  raised  this  did  not  occur  again,  the  records  show>ibaA 
on  several  occasions  the  water  rose  higher  than  the  ground  surface.  There  appear, 
then,  to  be  great  and  almost  insurmountable  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  satisfactory 
separation  of  the  stream  discharge  into  spring  or  ground- water  flow  and  flood 'Aow. 

r       ••••« 

a  Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  9,  pp.  153, 156. 

OAnn.  Repts.  Wisconsin  Agric.  Expt.  Station,  1892,  pp.  94-100,  lt)93,  pp.  162-159,  1894.  pp.  240-280; 
1897,  pp.  228-231. 

IBB  155—06 4 


50 


FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER    LEVEL   Ilf     WELLS. 


It  is  the  belief  of  the  writer  that  in  the  eastern  United  States  the  portion  of  the  fau 
stream  flow  attributed  to  ground- water  contributions  is  commonly  greatly  ua«.r! 
estimated. 

On  Long  Island  Spear,  from  a  comparison  of  the  hydrographs  of  sevenil  erf  t 
streams  near  the  south  shore  with  the  fluctuation  in  neighboring  wells,  ha?  c 
eluded  that  of  the  total  stream  discharge  but  57  per  cent  is  springy  or  groimd-Ta^' 
flow.«   This  is  an  extremely  low  value,  and  from  a  consideration  of  the  various  fact  -^ 
involved  it  is  believed  that  90  per  cent  is  much  nearer  the  true  value.     On  this  l«ar-- 
the  Hood  flow  is  but  3  or  4  per  cent  of  the  yearly  rainfall. 

In  the  simple  equation,  Rainfall— Stream  flow = Evaporation,  no  aoooont  is  takes  ••: 
the  underflow,  it  being  assumed  that  all  the  ground  water  is  returned  to  the  strvtz. 
above  the  point  at  which  the  measurement  is  made,  an  assumption  which  is  far  frcL 
correct.  The  result  of  this  is  to  give  to  the  evaporation  a  value  just  as  much  in  ex<  v* 
of  its  true  value  as  there  is  loss  by  underflow.  Thus  on  Long  Island,  where  the  pm- 
lation  is  perhaps  60  per  cent  of  the  rainfall,  the  estimate  of  Spear  *  gives  the  total  ta-r- 
mal  stream  dischai^e  as  33  per  cent  of  the  rainfall,  and  the  estimates  of  the  Bruc>kl}x 
water  department  are  still  lower.  This,  according  to  the  above  formula,  would  gi'^'^ 
a  loss  by  evaporation  of  67  per  cent,  when  it  is  actually  about  40  per  cent.  It  tua} 
be  assumed,  however,  except  in  regions  deeply  covered  with  loose  superficial  mai'~ 
rial,  such  as  Long  Island,  that  the  loss  by  underflow  is  less  than  the  excess  bytl  •<. 
flow,  and  that  the  total  stream  flow  represents  a  quantity  slightly  laiiger  than  ihf 
percolation.  With  thi^  in  mind,  some  idea  of  the  amoimt  of  percolation  can  'nt 
obtained  from  the  following  values: 

Rainfall  and  run-off  of  drainage  basins  in  the  United  SUUes, 


Drainage  basin. 


Watershed  of  southern  Long  Island 

Muskingum  River,  Ohio 

Genesee  River,  N.  Y 

Lalce  Coehituate,  Mass 

Mystic  Lake,  Mass 

Croton  River,  N.Y 

Neshamlny  Creek,  Pa 

Sudbury  River,  Mass 

Sudbury  River,  Mass 


Years  of 
record. 


Perkiomen  Creek,  Pa 

Connecticut  River,  Conn 

Hudson  River,  N.Y 

Nashua  River,  South  Braucli,  Mass. 


Pequannock  River,  Conn  . 


188H-1895 
1890-1898 
1863-1900 
1878-1896 
1868-1899 
1884-1899 
1876-1900 
1875-1902 

1884-1899 
1872-1885 
1888-1901 
1897-1902 

1891-1899 


Average 


Average 


isr,.;« 


Percent- 
age: 
Stream 
flow  of 
rainfall. 


Inches  of 
depth. 

42.66 

S9.7 

40.3 

47.1 

44.1 

48.07 

47.6 

46.1 

46.38 

48.0 
43.0 
44.2 
51.32 

44.2 


Inches  qf 
dejMi. 

14,0 

13.1 

14.2 

20.3 

20. 0 

22.83 

23.1 

22.6 

22.75 


22.0 
23.3 
27.66 

26.8 


83.0 
83.0 
35.0 
43.0 
45.3 
46.5 
48.5 
49.0 
49.0 

49.0 
51.0 
52.7 
58.7 

60.6 


AuthoritT. 


Spear. 
Rafter. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Freeman. 
Rafter. 

Do. 

Metropolitan   wfttt) 
works. 

Rafter. 

Do. 

Do. 

^etitipcditan    wsir: 
^^orks. 

Ra  er. 


In  this  table  the  large  loss  by  underflow  in  the  Muskingum  and  Gensee  dnunaet' 
basins  is  evident. 


ESTIMATION  OF  PERCOLATION  FROM  CHANGES  IN  LEVEL  OF  THE  GBOUND-WATKI "TABLE. 

The  broader  and  more  imi)ortant  fluctuations  of  the  ground-water  tab  e  are  clrtr^ 
due  to  the  infiltration  of  water,  and  attempts  have  been  made  repeated!  •  toestiinafc 


a  ReF>t.  New  York  City  Commission  on  Additional  Water  Supply,  1904,  p. 
6  Ibid.,  p.  795. 


f 


FLUCTUATIONS    DUE   TO    RAINFALL    AND    EVAPORATION.         51 

tlie  amount  of  infiltration  by  the  rise  in  the  ground  water.  After  having  determined 
the  available  pore  apace,  which' is  by  no  means  a  simple  matter,  it  appears  very  easy 
t<  *  (^Iculate  the  amount  of  water  which  will  cause  the  water  level  to  rise  a  few  inches 
or  a  few  feet.  The  method  is  an  attractive  one,  with  an  appearance  of  exactness  and 
Hiiiiplicity,  and  has  often  been  tried.  The  results  have  very  little  meaning,  however, 
for  the  very  important  reason  that  the  same  rainfall  under  the  same  climatic  condi- 
tions will  produce  very  different  rises  in  material  of  the  same  porosity;  for,  as  pointed 
out  previously  (p.  38),  the  amplitude  of  the  fluctuation  increases  with  the  distance 
from  the  groimd- water  discharge.  Thus,  with  material  of  the  same  porosity,  an 
annual  rainfall  of  25  inches  produces  at  Wiener  Neustadt  a  fluctuation  in  one  well  of 
1  foot,  and  in  another  a  fluctuation  of  25  feet  (PI.  IX).  It  is  evident  that  a  calcu- 
Latiun  of  infiltration  based  on  the  rise  of  water  produced  in  well  No.  1,  will  give  very 
different  values  from  that  of  No.  2,  and  yet  it  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  the 
same  amount  of  percolation  is  received  in  both.  Similarly,  in  the  chalk  region  of 
Kii>;land,  the  fluctuation  in  the  same  region  ranges  from  a  few  inches  to  50  or  100 
feet.  The  impossibility  of  accurately  calculating  the  amount  of  percolation  from  the 
rise  of  the  ground- water  table  is  evident. 

RE7SRSK0E8  BBLATINQ  TO  WELL  FLVOTITATIONS  DUE  TO  BAHTFALL  AVS  BYAPORATIOH. 

The  bibliography  relating  to  flut^tuations  of  water  in  wells  due  to  rainfall  is  natu- 
rally very  extensive,  and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  collect  a  few  only  of  these 
titles,  important  either  for  their  general  bearing  or  their  special  reference  to  the 
United  States: 

ArciiiNCLOfiB,  W.  S.    WnterM  within  the  Earth  and  Laws  of  Rainflow,  Philadelphia,  1897. 

Gives  record  of  fluctuations  in  well  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  18S6-1895,  showing  annual  and  secular 
fluctuations. 
Barbour,  Erwin  Hinckley.    Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  29,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1899,  p.  28; 
Nebraska  Geol.  Survey,  Rept.  of  State  Geologist,  vol.  1, 1903,  p.  106. 

States  that  wells  in  Nebraska  show  an  annual  fluctuation  independent  of  the  rainfall,  with  the 
maximum  occurring  in  February. 
Cli'TTERBUck,  James.    Observations  on  the  periodic  drainage  and  replenishment   of  the  sub- 
terraneous reservoir  in  the  chalk  ba.sin  of  London:  Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.  [vol.  2J,  1842, 
pp.  155-165;  1843.  pp.  156-159. 

On  the  periodic  alternations  and  progressive  permanent  dcprcsnion  of  the  chalk-water  level 

under  London:  Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  9,  1850,  pp.  151-180,  PI.  VI. 
Emery,  Frank  E.    Notes  on  fluctuations  in  height  of  water  In  un  unused  well:  Eighth  Ann.  Rept. 
.     New  York  Agric.  Expt.  Station  for  1889, 1890,  pp.  374-376,  fig. 

Records  monthly  observations  from  December,  1886,  to  December,  1889,  on  a  40-foot  well  at 
(fcneva,  N.  Y.,  which  shows  a  single  yearly  period  independent  of  the  rainfall. 
FoRTiBR,  Samuel.    A  preliminary  report  on  seepage  water  and  the  underflow  of  rivers:  Bull.  Utah 
Expt.  SUtion  No  38,1895. 

On  p.  30,  under  heading  "  Effect  of  subsurface  temperature  on  rate  of  flow,"  are  given  dis- 
charge, temperature,  and  rainfall  at  Denver  Water  Company's  plant  at  Cherry  Creek,  from  1888  to 
1891.    This  is  an  inflltration  gallery  in  flne  sand  15  feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  dischafge 
shows  a  rather  regular  yearly  fluctuation  with  a  minimum  in  February-March  and  a  maximum, 
normally,  in  August-November.    This  fluctuation  is  ascribed  by  Fortier  to  changes  In  soil  tem- 
pemture.    It  should  be  pointetl  out,  however,  that,  while  the  annual  changes  in  soil  temperature 
do  affect  the  rate  of  flow  (see  p.  59),  the  yearly  maximum  is  independent  of  this  fluctuation  and 
the  agreement  here  is  merely  a  coincidence. 
FRErND,  Adolph  (secretary).    Bericht  des  Ausschusscs  fiir  die  Wasserversorgung  Wiens,  Osterreich- 
i>*»hen  Ingenieur-  und  Archit^kten-Vercin,  1895. 
PI.  V,  Graphische  Darstellung  der  Was^erstiinde  im  Stelnfelde,  l.s«;i-1888. 
Gerhardt,  p.  I.    Handbuch  der  Ingenieurwi-Hsenwhaften,  vol.  3,  Der  Waswerbau,  pt.  1, 1892,  pp.  46-51. 
Under  heading  "  Schwankungen  des  Gmiidwas  ers,"  gives  a  summary  based  largely  on  the 
reports  of  Soyka. 
Headden,  Wiluelm  p.    a  soil  study,  pt.  4,  The  ground  water:  Bull.  ( 'olorado  Agric.  Expt.  Station 
No.  72,  1902. 
Gives  data  regarding  effect  of  single  showers. 
Kino,  Franklin  H.    Fluctuations  in  level  and  rtite  of  movement  of  ground  water:   Bull.  U.  S. 
Weather  Bureau  No.  5.  1892,  pp.  72-74. 
Discusses  instantaneous  percolation  after  rains. 


52  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL    IK   WELLS. 

KiNQ.  Franklin  H.    Principles  and  conditions  of  the  movement  of  ground  water:   Ninetevr'^ 

Ann.  Rept.  U.  S.  Geol.  Sur\'ey,  pt.  2. 1899,  pp.  100-106. 
Discusses  "  Elevation  of  ground-water  surface  due  to  precipitation  and  percolation/*  l&rp- : 

from  standpoint  of  porosity. 
LiZNAR,  Josef.    Ueber  die  periodische  Anderung  des  Grundwasserstandes,  ein  Beltra^r  znr  Qik  ki 

theorie:  6«ea,  vol.  17, 1881,  p.  390:  Meteorol.  Zeitschr.,  Wien,  vol.  17. 1882,  pp.  36»-371. 
LUEGER,  Otto.    Die  Schwankungen  des  Grundwassers:  Gsea,  vol.  24, 1888,  p.  630. 
Michigan  State  Board  of  Health.    Annual  reports,  1878-1903. 

Contain  monthly  observations  of  water  level  at  many  points  in  Michigan. 
SoYKA,  IBIDOR.    Expcrimentelles  zur  Theorie  des  Grundwasserschwankungcn:  ViertelJahiaBctr. 

fOr  off.  Gesundheitspflege,  vol.  4,  1885,  p.  692. 

Der  Bodcn  (Uandbuch  des  Hygiene  uud  der  Gewerbekrankheiten,  vol.  2,  pt.  3).  Lciji*- 

1887,  pp.  251-351. 

Contains  much  of  the  material  Incorporated  in  the  following  report. 

Die  Schwankungen  des  Grundwassers  mit  besonderer  Beriicksichtigung  der  mitteWur  ;  t 

ischen  Verhaltnisse:  Penck's  Geographische  Abhandlungen,  vol.  2,  pt.  3,  Wien,  1M8S. 

Spear,  Walter  £.    Long  Island  sources:  Rept.  New  York  City  Commission  on  Additional  Wu** 
Supply,  appendix  7,  1904,  pp.  816-826.^ 
Discusses  fluctuation  in  elevation  of  ground- water  surface. 
Todd,  James  E.    Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  34,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey.  1900,  p.  29. 

The  normal  yearly  maximum  is  here  tentatively  referred  to  the  melting  of  snows  or  floc«l<«. 
Tribus,  L.  L.    Trans.  Am.  Soc.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  31,  1894,  pp.  170.  891-395. 

Reports  (p.  170)  that  in  driven  wells  in  New  Jereey,  50  feet  deep,  the  effect  of  rain  was  nirt:- 
felt  in  less  than  thirty  hours;  gives  curve  (pp.  391-396)  showing  fluctuation  of  water  level  in  :-*^  !•  • 
well  at  Plainfleld,  N.  J.,  waterworks,  1891-1894.   This  shows  normal  annual  curves  slightJ y  affe*  :<-: 
by  pumping. 
WoLDRicH,  JoHANN  Nepomuk.    VebcT  den  Einfluss  der  atmosphiirischen  Niederschlage  aiu   i^* 
Grundwasser:  Zeitschr.  Meteorol.,  Wien,  vol.  4, 1869,  pp.  273-279. 

Ueber  die  Beziehungeu  dor  atmosphiirischen  Nicderschlage  zum  Fluss-  und  Qrandwa-wr 

stand:  Mitt.  d.  Techn.  Klubw  zu  Salzburg,  pt.  1, 1869. 

FLUCTUATIONS  1>UE  TO  IJAUOMETRIC  CHANGES- 

CHA&ACTER  AND  CAUSE. 

Chauges  in  air  pressure  have  been  observed  to  affect  wells  in  two  waya;  in  A»nh 
there  is  an  inflow  and  oiitflow  of  air,  alid  in  others  a  rising  and  lowering  of  thenaUr 
level.  <*  The  rise  or  outflow  occurs  with  a  falling  barometer,  and  the  depreg&don  '-r 
inflow  with  a  rising  barometer.  In  the  case  of  flowing  wells,  when  the  external  -si: 
pressure  decreases,  the  air  within  the  earth  expands,  and,  as  the  escape  through  t'l' 
soil  is  greatly  retarded  by  friction  and  as  the  well  offers  a  free  eecape,  it  find^  nl.ir: 
through  the  well  tubing.  The  power  of  this  blast  evidently  depends  on  the  aiva 
tributary  to  the  well,  the  loss  by  friction,  and  the  rate  of  lowering  of  the  out>jit 
pressure.  On  the  other  hand,  with  a  rising  barometer  the  ext^imal  air  flows  int*'  tli* 
pijH?  to  supply  the  volume  lost  by  the  compression  of  the  soil  air  or  earth  air.  1: 
water  is  interposed  between  this  included  air  and  the  well,  the  well  becomes  a  n>u^ii 
differential-pressure  gage  in  which  the  maximum  change  possible  is  about  12  inch** 
of  water  for  each  mercurial  inch  of  variation  in  the  barometric  pressure. 

Where  there  is  no  soil  air  suitably  confined  to  produce  the  result  just  descril«ei 
the  air  and  other  gases  in  the  water  so  increase  its  compressibility  that  a  ffliia.l, 
though  measurable  ressult  may  be  produced  by  the  direct  comprc^ion  and  expansi  : 
of  the  water.  In  tiie  latter  case  the  depth  of  water  involve<l  is  an  important  !act««r. 
and  it  is  prol)ably  for  this  reason  that  on  Long  Island,  where  the  earth  air  otrur^ 
only  in  the  porous  surflcial  soil,  from  which  it  is  relatively  free  to  escape^  in  v>v 
wells  at  l^ynbrook  fluctuations  due  to  barometric  changes  are  clearly  noticeable  or:. > 
in  the  504-foot  well,  and  these  are  relatively  small.  An  examination  of  PI,  VI  ?ho*? 
that  there  aie  no  indications  of  l)arometric  influence  on  the  curves  from  the  7--tt« : 
well,  but  that  in  the  r)04-foot  well  there  is  a  striking  resemblance.  The  simiiarit}  b. 
however,  in  some  places  due  in  part  to  other  causes.  Thus  the  elevations  of  the  watt  • 
on  July  18-11),  August  5,  and  September  16,  while  closely  following  the  IJarometn 

a  See  in  this  connection  Nineteenth  Ann.  Kept.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  2.  1899,  Egs.  3,  4,  5:  Wair: 
Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  67,  U.  S.  (ieol.  Survey.  1902,  tig.  .39,  p.  73. 


FLUCTUATIONS    DUE   TO    BAROMETRIC    CHANC4E8.  53 

curve,  are  partly  (hie  to  rainfall.  This  is  indicated  hy  the  fact  that  somewhat  similar 
abrupt  barometric  depressions  on  July  26,  August  20,  and  September  4-5,  when  there 
were  no  important  rains,  did  not  produce  similar  elevations  of  the  water  in  the  well. 
There  is  a  further  point  of  resemblance  and  dissimilarity  between  the  curve  for  the 
504-foot  w^ell  and  the  barometric  curve.  The  well  curve  shows  a  very  marked  semi- 
.  diurnal  fluctuation,  the  two  parts  of  which  are  generally  of  about  the  same  value, 
although  they  sometimes  merge  into  a  pronounced  diurnal  wave,  as  on  August  1,  2, 
and  3.  In  the  barometric  curve,  although  there  is  a  tendency  toward  a  semidiurnal 
well  wave,  it  is  nowhere  well  marked.  The  semidiurnal  well  w-ave  is  clearly  not  tidal. 
Its  resemblance  to  the  barometer  curve  is,  however,  sufliciently  close  to  lead  to  the 
belief  that  it  is  largely  barometric,  but  modified  by  some  other  element,  perhaps  the 
diurnal  temperature  wave  which  shows  in  the  14-  and  72-foot  wells  (pp.  24-25). 

KE7EBSHCES  KELATIKO  TO  WELL  FLUOTTTATIOKB  BITE  TO  BAEOKETBIO  GHANOES. 

BLOWING   WELI^. 

Barbour,  Erwin  Hincklky.    [Blowing  wells  in  Nebraska] :    Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  29,  U.  S. 

Geol.  Survey,  1889,  pp.  78-82;  Nebraska  Geol.  Survey,  Rept.  of  State  Geologist,  vol.  1, 1903,  pp.  9&-97. 
Farrley,  T.    On  the  blowing  wells  near  North  Allerton:  Proc.  Yorkshire  Oeol.  and  Poly t.  Soc.,  n.  s., 

vol.  7,  pt.  8,  1880,  pp.  409-421,  PI.  VII. 
Harris,  Gilbert  Dennison.    [Blowing  wells  in  Rapides  Parish,  La.]:    Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper 

No.  101,  U.  8.  Geol.  Survey,  1904,  pp.  60-61:  Louisiana  Geol.  Survey.  Bull.  No.  1, 1906,  pp.  50-60. 
Lane,  Alfred  C.    Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  80,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1899,  pp.  66-^56. 

Records  shallow  blowing  well  in  Michigan. 
V BATCH,  A.  C.    Prof.  Paper  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  No.  44, 1906,  p.  74. 

Records  reported  occurrence  of  blowing  wells  on  Long  Island,  New  York. 

CHANGES   IN   WATER  LEVEL. 

Atwell,  Joseph.  Conjectures  on  the  nature  of  intermitting  and  reciprocating  springs:  Trans.  Phil. 
Soc.  London,  No.  424,  vol.  37, 1732,  p.  301;  Trans.  Phil.  Soc.  London  from  1665-1800  (abridged),  vol. 
7,  1809,  pp.  M4-550. 

Describes  irregular  fluctuations  of  short  interval  in  springs  at  Brixam,  near  Torbay,  in  Devon- 
shire called  "l^y  well."  These,  he  suppose.^,  are  produced  by  the  action  of  natural  siphons. 
Perhaps  they  are  barometric  fluctuations. 

Denizet.  Sources  sujett^es  h  de«  variations  qui  paratsscnt  lifiea  &  r<5tat  du  barom^tre:  Compt«s 
rend  us.  vol.  7, 1839,  p.  799. 

Reports  that  springs  at  Voize  are  affected  by  changes  in  barometric  pressure,  and  that  the  dis- 
charge is  directly  relate<l  to  the  pressure,  instead  of  inversely,  as  has  been  proved  by  more  recent 
work. 

(ioi'GH,  John.  Observations  on  the  ebbing  and  flowing  well  at  Giggleswick,  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  with  a  theory  of  reciprociiting  fountains:  Jour.  Nai.  Phil.  Chem.  Arts,  ser.  2,  vol.  36, 
1813,  pp.  178-198;  Mem.  Phil.  Soo.  Manchester,  n.  s.,  vol.  2,  1813,  pp.  3W-363. 

The  water  level  in  this  well  fluctuates  irregularly  at  short  intervals,  and  Mr.  Gough  suggests 
that  the  fluctuations  are  produced  by  the  obstruction  resulting  from  the  natural  accumulation 
of  air  bubbles  in  the  outlet  and  the  relief  resulting  from  their  irregular  escape.  He  cities  the  irreg- 
gular  fluctuations  of  the  Weeding  well  in  Derbyshire  and  the  Ljiy  well  near  Torbiiy,  as  proving 
tliat  the  prevailing  idea  of  the  produ(Jtion  of  these  phenomena  by  natural  siphons  is  erroneous. 
He  concludes,  very  correctly,  that  too  little  is  known  of  the  fountain  of  Jupiter  in  Dodona  and 
Pliny's  well  in  Como  to  judge  of  the  true  cause  of  the  fluctuations  mentioned  by  Pliny. 

King, Franklin  H.  [Influence  of  barometric  changes  on  discharge  and  water  level  in  wells  and 
springs  at  Madison  and  Whitewater,  Wis.]:  Bull.  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  No.  6,  1892,  pp.  41-53; 
Nineteenth  Ann.  Rept.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  pt.  2,  1H99,  pp.  73-77. 

Latham,  Baldwin.  On  the  Influence  of  barometric  pressure  on  the  discharge  of  water  from  springs: 
Brit.  Assoc.  Rept.  for  1881,  1882,  p.  614;  Brit.  Ah.soc.  Rept.  for  imi,  1884,  pp.  495-496. 

The  fluctuation  of  the  Croydon  Bourne,  due  to  barometric  pressure,  on  one  occasion  exceeded 
half  a  million  gallons  per  day.  Observations  in  deep  wells  are  alw)  recorded,  showing  that  fluctu- 
ations are  inversely  related  to  the  pressure.  The  fluctuations  are  attributed  to  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  air  and  gases  in  the  water. 

Knightley,  T.  E.  Ebbing  and  flowing  wells  [in  Derby.shire,  England]:  Geol.  Mag.,  n.  s.,  decade  4, 
vol.  5.  1898.  pp.  333-334. 

Suggests  that  irregularities  in  flow  are  due  to  cavernous  limestone,  which,  by  means  of 
natural  siphons,  gives  rise  to  "  intenniitent  spring  phenomena."  The  possibility  of  these  fluctu- 
ations being  due  to  barometric  changes  Ls  not  considered. 


64  FLUCTUATIONS    OP   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WKL.I-S. 

LUBOBR,  Otto.    Einfluss  der  Atmoepharondniekes  aiif  die  ErgiebiKkeit  von  Brunnen  uiwi  <ir>\ 

Ccntralblatt  d.  Bauverwaltung,  1882,  p.  8. 
Milne,  John.    Seismology.    London,  1898,  p.  243. 

Reports  two  sinkingH  and  two  risings  of  alx>ut  5  millimeterH  in  a  shallow  well  near  Toki^.    T 
sinkings  took  place  between  2  and  6  p.  to.  and  2  and  5a.  m.    Note:  The?*,*  fluotii&tions  wiicr~" 
diurnal  barometric  wave,  but  they  can  be  referred  to  it  only  if  the  time  given  is  taken  u  c  • 
the  time  at  which  the  water  commenced  to  sink  and  not  the  time  of  the  low- water  Mafre. 
Oliver,  Dr.  William.    Of  a  well  tliat  ebbs  and  flows    .    ^    .    :  Trans.  Phil.  Soc.  London.  No,  'J»  - 
17, 1698,  p.  908;  Trans.  Phil.  Soc.  London  from  16G5-1800  (abridged),  vol.  3,  1809.  pp.  fi85--V«. 

Describes  w^ell  near  Torbay  called  "  Lay  well,"  that  ebbs  and  flows  from  16  to  20  times  per  ':,  •  " 
See  Atweli,  above,  and  discussion  of  minor  periodic  fluctuations  on  p.  76. 
Puny  the  Younger  (Caius  Plinius  Ceecilius  Secundus).    Epistols;,  lib.  4,  epist.  ult. 

In  his  letter  to  Licinius  Pliny  describes  the  fluctuations  in  the  discharge  of  a  flprinf?  r.wr  i  • 
villa  in  Como,  Italy,  which  he  states  ebbs  and  flows  thrice  a  day.    He  suggests  that  the  fie-   . 
tions  may  be  due  to  "  the  obstruction  of  air,"  tidal  action,  or  some  secret  and  unknown  c>>^  - 
ance  in  the  nature  of  a  valve.    Pliny  the  elder,  in  his  Historia  Naturalis.  lib.  2,  cap.  lOG.  n-f  - 
the  same  spring,  but  states  that  it  ebbs  and  flows  every  hour— a  statement  ^rhich  i*i  verifs". 
Catanseus,  the  learned  commentator  on  the  Epistles.    From  the  meager  and  c^ontntdictikty  j.. 
given  it  is  unsafe  to  venture  a  decided  opinion  on  the  cause  of  these  fluctuations,  bot  thry  1. 1  - 
be  tentatively  regarded  as  barometric. 
Roberts,  Isaac.    On    .    .    .    the  variation  in  atmospheric  pressure    .    .    .    causing  o«ci]la::"t>  ir 
the  underground  water  in  porous  strata:  Rept.  Brit.  Assoc,  for  1883,  p.  405. 
States  that  autographic  records  from  a  well  at  Maghill,  near  Liverpool,  show  such  flucinat:  c^ 
Slighter,  Charli-s  S.    Water-Sup.  andlrr.  Paper  No.  67,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1902,  pp.  71-72, 

Refers  to  reports  of  Latham,  King,  and  Lueger. 
ToDD,  James  E.    Bull.  Geol.  Survey,  South  Dakota,  No.  2, 1898,  p.  116;  Water-Sup.  and  In.  Paper  v.. 
84,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1900,  p.  29. 
Reports  that  well  discharge  varies  inversely  with  barometic  pressure. 

FLUCTUATIONS  DUE  TO  TEMPERATURE  CHANGES. 

OBSERVATIONS  AT  KADISON,  WIS.— FLUCTUATI0K8  VARTIHO  DIRECTLY  WITH   THE  TSl 

FERATURE. 

In  1888  King  observed  in  certain  shallow  wells  at  Madison,  Wis.,  that  the  waii  - 
regularly  for  a  portion  of  the  summer  months  stood  higher  in  the  morning  than  a: 
night. «  Further  observations  during  the  period  1888  to  1892  showed  that  there  wa.- 
in  many  wells  a  diurnal  wave,  distinctly  marked  during  the  summer  and  d^-inj?  or.: 
in  winter,  which  was  clearly  not  barometric  in  character,  and  was  not  pn>ini^-i 
by  the  unetiual  plant  transpiration  during  the  day  and  night  Suspecting  that  th»-^ 
changes  were  intimately  related  to  temperature,  King  tried  the  following  experinj»-i  * 

A  galvanized-iron  cylinder,  6  feet  deep  and  80  inches  in  diameter,  provided  with  a  bottciD.  &'  * 
water-tight,  was  filled  with  soil,  standing  its  full  height  above  the  ground  in  the  open  field.  Ir  ;^. 
center  of  this  cylinder  and  extending  to  the  bottom  a  column  of  6-inch  drain  tile  was  placed  ajf".  r*^ 
soil  filled  in  about  it  and  packed  as  thoroughly  as  practicable.  Water  was  poured  intr>  the  ra^  '3 
formed  by  the  tile  until  it  was  full,  and  allowed  to  percolate  into  the  soil  so  a.s  to  saturate  it  and  le»i> 
the  water  standing  nearly  a  foot  deep  in  the  well.  When  the  water  in  this  artificial  well  had  be.  •:.?■ 
nearly  stationary  one  of  the  self- registering  instruments  was  placed  up<m  it.fe  In  order  lo  avoid  :i'.j 
complications  due  to  percolation,  the  appjinitus  was  provided  with  a  cover  which  could  be  pat  *-»ii  r 
times  of  rain  and  removed  again  during  fair  weather.  The  first  records  showed  a  small  diurnal  <>«<  I 
lation,  and  as  the  season  advanced  these  increased  in  amplitude  until  finally  the  water  rof*  m  i.  . 
well  during  the  day  of  July  8, 1.8  inches  and  fell  during  the  following  night  1.84  inches.  After  iht^ 
diurnal  oscillations  had  become  so  pronounced  and  so  constant,  a  series  of  thermometers  were  intr- 
duced  into  the  side  of  the  cylinder,  extending  to  different  distances  from  the  surface,  and  a  n-c-  r 
kept  of  the  changes  in  the  soil  temperature;  and  the  result  of  these  observations  wafi  to  .^how  tha: "  >- 
turning  points  m  the  water  curve  fell  exactly  upon  the  turning  points  of  the  temperature  ol  ttit  «* 
In  the  cylinder.  When  this  fact  was  ascertained,  to  show  whether  the  correspondence  in  the  un^  <  * 
the  two  curves  was  due  to  a  diurnal  cause,  other  than  temperature,  which  had  Ita  turning  pom*"*' 
related  to  those  of  the  temperature  as  to  cau.se  the  two  to  accidentally  fall  together,  cold  water  w-* 


aKIng,  Franklni  H.,  Observations  and  experiments  on  the  fluctuations  in  the  level  and  r;.i' 
movement  of  ground  water  on  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Farm  and  at  \^  - 
water.  Wis.:  Bull.  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  No.  5,  1892;  also  Ann.  Repts.  Wisconsin  Agric.  Expt.  St»i. 
1889-1893. 

t>  For  a  figure  of  this  apparatus  see  Bull.  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  No.  5. 


FLU0TTTATION8   DUE   TO   TEMPER ATURE    CHANGES.  55 

brought  from  the  well  and,  with  a  spray  pump,  applied  to  the  mitface  of  the  cylinder  all  around. 
Tlie  water  was  applied  on  a  hot  sunny  day,  just  after  dinner,  when  the  water  was  rising  in  the  well, 
a.Tid  the  result  was  an  Immediate  change  in  the  curve,  the  water  beginning  to  fall  In  the  well.  The 
%vater  was  then  turned  off,  and  the  result  of  this  change  was  to  stop  the  fall  of  the  water  in  the  well, 
CLS  shown  by  a  change  in  the  direction  of  the  curve. 

This  led  to  the  conchision  that  there  was  a  very  positive  connection  between  the 
ohanges  in  the  soil  temperature  and  changes  in  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  wells, 
and  that  the  fluctuation  varied  directly  with  the  temperature;  that  is,  the  water  in 
thie  wells  rose  with  increasing  temperature  and  fell  when  the  temperature  lowered. 
A.  specially  constructed  self-recording  soil  thermometer  showed  that  at  a  depth  of 
18  inches  the  minimum  temperature  occurred  at  noon,  and  the  the  maximum  a  little 
&f  ter  midnight.  It  was  therefore  argued  that  at  a  depth  of  3  feet,  or  the  level  at 
which  the  wells  were  fluctuating,  the  maximum  and  minimum  temperature  would 
occur  still  later,  and  that  the  high  water  which  occurred  in  the  wells  at  8  o'clock  in 
tlie  morning  was  due  to  the  maximum  temperature  falling  at  that  time  at  that  depth. 
The  autographic  records,  moreover,  show  that  the  well  curves  have  the  same  charac- 
teristic as  the  temperature  curve — there  is  in  both  a  comparatively  sudden  rise  and  a 
long  fall.  King  at  first  believed  that  these  fluctuations  were  produced  by  a  variation 
in  the  capillary  action  of  the  soil  resulting  from  the  change  in  temperature,^  but 
afterwards  concluded  that  the  fluctuations  were  due  not  so  much  to  "a  change  in  the 
viscosity  of  the  ground  water  as  to  variations  in  pressure  due  to  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  the  gas  confined  in  the  soil  within  and  above  the  water.  "^ 

Changes  in  capillary  attraction  and  surface  tension,  due  to  temperature  changes, 
are  quite  competent  to  produce  fluctuations  which  are  related  to  the  temperature  in 
the  way  observed.  A  rise  in  temperature,  by  decreasing  the  capillary  attraction, 
causes  some  of  the  capillary  water  al>ove  the  water  table  to  be  added  to  the  zone  of 
complete  saturation,  and  so  increases  the  level  of  the  water  in  wells.  Conversely,  a 
decrease  of  temperature,  by  increasing  the  surface  tension  and  capillary  attraction, 
clauses  water  to  be  transferred  from  the  ground  water  to  the  partially  saturated  zone 
alwve  it,  and  so  lowers  the  water  in  wells.  There  is,  then,  a  continual  interchange, 
a  flux  and  reflux,  between  the  ground  water  and  the  water  in  the  partially  saturated 
zone  above  it  The  amount  of  water  involved  in  this  change  is  probably  small,  but, 
he<»U8e  of  the  very  small  amount  of  unoccupied  pore  space  existing  immediately  above 
the  zone  of  saturation,  a  very  slight  shifting  of  water  can  produce  a  fluctuation  of  sev- 
eral inches  in  the  surface  of  the  zone  of  saturation  or  the  water  level  in  a  well.  This 
effect  is  marked  only  when  the  bottom  of  the  well  (supposing  the  well  tube  to  be 
impervious)  is  very  near  the  top  of  the  ground- water  table;  it  is  not  shown  in  deep 
wells  because,  while  the  position  of  the  ground-water  table  is  constantly  changing  in 
this  way,  there  is,  so  far  as  deeper  points  are  concerned,  no  important  change  in 
pressure.  The  total  pressure  at  a  given  point  below  the  gn)und-water  table  is  essen- 
tially the  same  whether  the  water  involve<l  is  in  the  saturated  zone  or  2  or  3  inches 
above  it  in  an  almost  satnrat-ed  layer.  To  this,  more  than  to  the  fact  that  the  vari- 
ations in  soil  temperature  at  a  given  depth  are  less  in  winter  than  in  summer,  is  due 
the  fact  that  these  fluctuations  at  Madison,  Wis.,  were  not  yhovvn  by  the  twice-<laily 
ol^servations,  made  morning  and  evening  b€;tween  1888  and  1892,  until  past  or  near 
the  middle  of  July  (when  the  water  was  nearing  its  yearly  minimum),  and  from  that 
time  increased  toward  a  maximum,  o(!turring  wnietinie  in  August  (probably  corre- 
sponding with  the  ground-water  minimum),  and  then  die<l  away  until  the  middle 
of  October,  when  they  became  inconspicuous.  It  likewise  explains  the  fact  that  not 
all  the  wells  obeerve<l,  though  they  were  in  a  limite<l  area,  show  the?e  fluctuations, 
and  why  they  begin  at  different  times  in  adjacent  wells  of  different  depths. 


a  Bull.  U.  8.  Weather  Bureau  No.  6.  1892.  pp.  03,  67. 

t>Bul\.  U.  8.  Weather  Bureau  No.  5.  1892,  p.  72;  Nineteenth  Ann.  Kept.  U.  S.  Qeol.  Survey,  pt.  2, 
1899,  pp.  76,  77. 


5G  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATKR    LEVEL    IN    WELLS. 

To  this  relation  are  due  the  apparently  anomaloas  phenomena  observed  in  "'w- 
No.  5/'  which  King  records  as  follows: 

The  ground-water  level  had  fallen  nntU  well  5  was  likely  to  become  dry.    In  ord<?r  not  to  !••*--  • 
records  It  waM  deepened  by  boring  a.hole  in  the  center  and  curbing  it  with  sections  of  S-inrh  ti-\ 
tile  in  the  manner  represented  in  the  figure,n  which  shows  the  two  water  surfaces  whcwe  flurtiaaT 
are  recorded  in  fig.  16.    The  original  well,  having  an  inside  diameter  of  1  foot  and  a  depth  of  .=•  ^^ :  - 
was  bricked  up  to  within  2  feet  of  the  surface  and  then  finished  with  a  section  of  wwcr  j-if  .- 
shown  in  the  cut,a  where  the  character  and  arrangement  of  the  soil  through  which  the  well  f»-- 
trated  may  also  be  seen,  h 

The  factb  are,  strange  as  it  does  appear,  that  under  these  conditons  and  in  such  close  juxtaponi 
oscillations  so  unlike  in  their  character  as  the  two  under  consideration  were  produced  8iinaltazKv>  i- 
The  level  of  the  water  in  the  outer  well  oscillated  so  as  to  stand  in  the  morning  from  0.1  to  O.i.  .  ~ 
above  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  inner  one,  and  at  night  from  0.5  inch  to  1.2  inches  below  r  ^ 
surface,  and  these  differences  were  maintained  with  only  the  unglazed  section  of  drain  tile  sep«re'  .^ 
them.    The  large  oscillations  in  this  well  became  very  pronounced  and  constant  only  &  short  tin 
before  it  became  dry,  and  the  inner  well  did  not  take  up  the  marked  changes  in  level  after  tlje  vi". 
fell  below  the  bottom  of  the  original  well.    No  other  well  of  this  series,  although  constructed  in  - 
same  manner,  showed  such  marked  oscillations. 

The  second  suggestion,  that  the  fluctuations  are  produced  hy  the  expansion  aL>: 
contraction  of  the  air  due  to  temperature  changes,  is  not  supported  by  the  ot*servt^i 
facts.  The  daily  temperature  fluctuation  at  the  depths  observed  amounts  to  bi::  a 
fraction  of  a  degree,  and  the  change  in  volume  or  vapor  tension  of  the  air  resniltiLj 
from  this  is  quite  incompetent  to  produce  the  fluctuations  observed.  Moreover,  th? 
involves  an  elevation  in  the  well  due  to  pressure  of  much  the  same  character  as(  tb^r 
producing  the  fluctuations  due  to  barometric  clianges.  The  effects  of  such  preft>n> 
changes  are  felt  not  only  at  the  surface  of  the  zone  of  complete  saturation,  or  ::;^ 
water  table,  but  are  transmitted  for  many  feet  below  it,  and  in  the  case  of  well  No.  \ 
described  above,  the  fluctuations  under  such  conditions  would  be  shown  in  U\i 
wells,  though  in  the  deep  one  the  amplitude  would  be  slightly  leas. 

On  the  whole  there  seems  to  be  no  other  alternative  than  to  regard  these  Maiii-src 
fluctuations  as  the  result  of  variations  in  the  capillary  attraction  and  surface  ten«i<  -a. 
of  the  water  above  the  zone  of  complete  saturation,  produced  by  variations  ia 
temperature. 

In  fluctuations  of  this  character  a  limiting  factor  is  clearly  the  range  of  tranpera- 
ture,  which  decreases  very  rapidly  with  depth,  so  that  at  a  relatively  shallow  dej-trj. 
much  less  than  the  limit  of  no  annual  change,  the  fluctuations  become  impercej»ti- 
ble.  The  amplitude  will,  moreover,  be  affected  by  the  size  of  the  jxjre  spaces,  beinj 
greater  in  fine  than  in  coarse  material. 

0B8ERYATI0K8   AT   LYNBBOOK,    H.    Y.— TIUOTTrATIOITS   IHYER8BLT   RELATED   TO 


Two  of  the  wells  at  Lynbrook  show  pronounced  fluctuations  which  are  clearly  dne 
to  temperature  changes.  These  fluctuations,  while  they  resemble  those  ob8er\'eil  at 
Madison  in  the  fact  that  the  water  is  higher  in  the  morning  than  at  night  difrVr 
from  them  in  two  important  respects.  There  is  no  connection  between  their  o<-cur- 
rence  and  the  relation  of  the  ground-water  table  to  the  bottom  of  the  well;  they  ai>» 
best  developed  in  a  2-in('h  well,  14  feet  deep,  whose  bottom  is  about  13,75  feet  beluv 
the  ground- water  level;  they  are  distinctly  developed  in  a  w^ell  72  feet  deep,  and  are 
believed  to  form  one  of  the  elements  in  a  compound  curve  obtained  from  the  .VH- 
foot  well  (PI.  VI,  p.  24).  There  is  also  the  further  difference  that,  while  thes^eare 
clearly  temperature  fluctuations,  they  are  inversely  related  to  the  temperature— thst 
is,  the  water  is  high  when  the  temperature  is  low.     Avoiding  all  di:aicu8sion  of  the 

a  Omitted  in  this  report. 

<>Thc  stratitication,  as  shown  in  the  original  cut,  is  as  follows: 

Section  of  well  at  Madison,  Wis.,  which /umishcd  fluctuations  shown  in  fig.  16.  Fe^-t 

1 .  Loam (  •• 

2.  (Mav So 

3.  Sand v. 

4.  Clay S 

5.  Sand 2.C 


FLUCTUATIONS    DUK    TO   TEMPKRATIIRK    0HANOE8. 


57 


liiostion  of  la*?,  this  relation  ia 
r<  Jiichiflively  shown  by  the 
«  hape  of  the  curves.  The  char- 
it  ^teristic  of  the  air  temperature 
.  nirve  is  a  quick  rise  and  slower 
fall;  well  fluctuations  directly 
related  to  the  temperature,  as 
ttiose  at  Madison,  therefore 
Kiiiist  show  a  quick  rise  and  a 
slower  fall,  but  in  the  Lyn- 
l>rook  wells  there  is  a  quick 
fall  and  slower  rise  (see  PL  VI, 
Aug.  1-3).  These  evidently 
l>elong  in  quite  a  different  class 
from  the  temperature  fluctua- 
tions observed  at  Madison,  and 
involve  quite  a  different  rela- 
tion between  the  soil  tempera- 
ture and  the  ground  water. 

The  soil  is  a  very  poor  trans- 
mitter of  heat,  and  there  is  not 
only  a  very  rapid  diminution 
t>f  the  temperature  range  with 
depth,  but  a  very  considerable 
time  lag.     Swezey's  observa- 
tions «  at  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  for  a 
p<»riod  of  fourteen  years  show 
that  while  in  winter  the  maxi- 
nnini  temperature  occurs  in  the 
air  at  about  the  middle  of  the 
afternoon,  at  a  depth  of  3  to  6 
inches  it  occurs  in  the  evening, 
and  at  1  foot  it  is  delayed  until 
the  following  morning;  below 
1  foot  it  is  scarcely  appre<'iable. 
In  summer  the  daily  range  is 
considerably    greater    at    all 
depths,  the  changes  are  ai)pre- 
ciable  to  a  depth  of  at  least  2 
feet,  and  are  retarded  to  about 
the  same  extent  as  in  winter. 
At  Bronx  Park,  New  York 
City,  the  record  obtained  by 
MacDougal  ^  with  a  Hallock 
thermograph  showed  that  at  1 
foot  below  the  surface  the  max- 
imum  daily  temperature  oc- 
(•arre<l  between  8  and  lip.  m., 
and  the  minimum  between  8 


II 

II 


3  ^ 


2.i3  S 


OQ    £, 


el- 
ls 

3  £. 


X 


flSwezey,  G.  D.,  Soil  temperature 
at  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  18.S8  to  1902:  Six- 
teenth Ann.  Rept.  Nebraska  Agnc. 
Expt. Station  for  1W2, 1903,  pp.  95-1*29; 
Expt.  Station  Record,  vol.  16,  1904, 
pp.  460-161. 

h MacDougal,  Daniel  Trembly,  Soil 
temperatures  and  vegetation:  Month- 
ly Weather  Review,  vol,  31,  August, 
1908,  pp.  375-S79. 


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58 


FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WKLI^. 


62=  =  .' 


and  10  a.  m.;  and  the  maximum  daily  ranj?e  waa  but  2°  C.  (3.6°  F.),  which  if^- 

reat-hed  on  but  two  .in-. 
sioiiH.  The  total  anri-« 
variation  from  Jane  9,  l^*i 
U)  May  31,  1903,  was  l^.J  ( 
(29.4°  P.).  Similar!^!:  ^ 
have  been  obtaine<l  Yty  C  a 
lender  at  Montreal. « 

As  a  result  of  this?  A-  a 
transmis8ion  of  temj«tr3- 
ture,  the  temperaturv  at  th- 
ground- water  outlet  njai\  "r 
at  its  maximum  whilf  . 
short  distance  away ;  w  I  ei^ 
the  water  table  is  hut  a  f  •  ' 
or  two  from  the  sfurfac**,  i\>^ 
ground  temperature  may '  »- 
at  its  minimum.  Now,  th.^ 
rate  of  flow  of  wat*T  i- 
greatly  affected  by  temf.^r- 
ature.  Poiseu  i  1 1 e  f o 1 1  r  i  i 
that  watt^r  at  a  teiuj-eni- 
ture  of  45°  C.  flowe<i  L*.'> 
times  as  fast  under  other- 
wise like  condition.-*  jl- 
water  at  5°  C.  ^  This  giv»- 
rise  to  the  phenonieiia 
shown  in  fig.  17. 

There  is  thus  producv<i  a 
distinct  and  periodic  fluc- 
tuation    of      the      gn»unl 
water,  which  is  great  nt-ar 
the    ground-water     outlTrt 
and    decreases    rapidly  in 
amplitude  as  the  distance 
from  the  outcrop  Lncresfezs. 
The  fluctuation  is  produced 
by  an  actual  shifting  of  the 
water  whereby  the  pre:«ire 
conditions    are   constantly 
changed,  and    in   this   re- 
spect  it   differs    from    the 
Madison    fluctuations     p 
54).     It  is  this  change  in 
pressure  that  causes  tht>e 
fluctuations  to  show  in  the 
other  wells,  even  to  a  dfpth 
of  500  feet    The  same  phe- 
nomenon  of   response    to 
loading    and    relief   fron) 
load  is  exhibited  in  sornv 
of  the  rainfall  fluctuations: 
de8cribe<l  above  (p.  42)  and  in  the  sympathetic  tidal  fluctuations  (p.  65). 

nCalleiider,  Hugh  L.,  I»roc.  and  Trans.  Royal  Soc. Canada  for  1895,  2d  ser.,  vol.  1,  sec.  3,  p.  79.  rnr  i 
^Quok^d  by  King.  Nineteenth  Ann.  Kept.  U.  S.  Geol.  Survev.  pt.  2,  1899.  p.  82:  i»ee  also  Carpenter 

L.  C,  .Seepage  and  return  waters  from  irrigation:  Bull.  Colorado  Agric.  Expt.  StaUoii  No.  33,  IvS* 

pp.  42-44. 


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FLUCTUATIONS    DUE   TO   TEMPERATURE    CHANGES.  59 

These  data  sugjpest  that  the  annual  (changes  of  the  soil  temperature  may  proauce  a 
somewhat  analogous  effect,  the  warm  Hummer  temperature  asRisting  in  the  depletion 
or  lowering  of  the  water  near  the  ground- water  outlets,  and  the  cold  winter  tempera- 
t^ure,  hy  rendering  the  water  more  visc'ous,  retarding  the  outflow.  In  one  respect 
t^he  result  would  be  in  the  same  direction  as  the  annual  ground-water  fluctuations, 
and  this  is  perhaps  to  be  considered  one  of  the  minor  factors.  It  would  also  tend  to 
xnake  the  time  of  occurrence  of  the  maximum  and  minimum  of  the  yearly  fluctua- 
tion earlier  near  the  ground- water  outlets  than  on  the  divides — or  just  the  condi- 
tion observed  on  Long  Island  (p.  35). 

OBBEEYATIOHB  AT  8ESBL00K,  KAKS. 

Diurnal  fluctuations  due  to  temperature  changes  were  observed  by  Mr.  Henry  0. 
Wolff,  at  Sherlock,  Kans.,  in  1904,  while  working  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  C.  S. 
Slichter.o  Mr.  Wolff  reports  that  the  wells  are  low  in  the  evening  and  high  in  the 
morning,  and  that  there  is  no  iin()ortant  time  lag  l)etween  wells  where  the  water  line 
is  6  inches  below  the  surface  and  those  whore  it  is  3  feet  below.  In  a  few  wells 
where  the  water  level  was  alwut  3  feet  from  the  surface,  which  were  observed  long 
enough  to  show  the  shape  of  the  curve,  the  characteristics  of  the  Madison  curve  are 
shown — that  is,  there  is  a  long  fall  and  sudden  rise. 

BIUBITAL  nUOTUATIOHB  07  CACHE  LA  POUDKB  RIYEK,  OOLOKASO. 

Carpenter  has  observed  very  regular  diurnal  changes  in  the  height  of  Cache  la 
Poudre  River  near  Fort  Collins,  Colo.  *  Here  the  high  water  occurs  at  from  4  to  6 
e.  m.,  the  low  water  at  8  p.  m.,  and  the  extreme  range  of  the  daily  change  in  river 
level  noted  was  about .  1  foot.  The  curves  show  the  same  characteristics  as  those 
observed  by  Wolff  at  Sherlock,  Kans. ;  there  is  a  long  fall  and  a  sudden  ripe,  and 
they  are  therefore  directly  related  to  the  temperature.  Carpenter  concludes  that 
these  fluctuations  are  due  to  differences  in  daily  melting  in  the  snow  fields,  and  that 
the  occurrence  of  the  high  water  in  the  morning  is<Uie  to  the  distance  from  the  snow 
fields.  While  this  is  a  very  possible  explanation,  and  in  the  writer's  opinion  it  is 
probably  the  correct  one,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  matter  checked  by  other  obser- 
vations. If  the  fluctuations  are  purely  due  to  daily  waves  moving  down  the  river, 
due  to  melting  snow,  gages  at  other  points  should  show  the  maximum  and  minimum 
at  different  times;  if  the  fluctuations  are  due  to  variation  in  rate  of  ground-water 
discharge  and  are  analogous  to  those  described  above,  the  time  will  be  the  same  at 
different  points. 

RSFEKSVCSS  KELATDTC  TO  nTTCTUATIOirB  nLODlTCSB  BY  TEKPSKATinLE  CHAVGSB. 

Besides  the  references  given  above  to  the  discussions  of  King,  Slichter,  and  Wolff, 
it  is  desirable  to  add  here  the  early  reference  of  Pliny  to  fluctuating  wells  l)elonging 
to  this  class: 

Flint  thk  Eldeb  (Caiiu  Pllnius  Secundns).    Historia  Natnralis,  lib.  2,  cap.  106  [Pliny's  Natural 
History,  Bostock  and  Riley's  translation,  Bobn's  Libraries,  vol.  1, 1887,  pp.  138-134]. 

"  In  the  island  of  Tenedos  there  is  a  spring  which,  after  the  summer  solstice,  is  full  of  water 
from  the  third  hour  of  the  night  to  the  sixth."  "The  fountain  of  Jupiter  in  Dodona  .  .  . 
always  becomes  dry  at  noon,  from  which  circumstance  it  is  called  'The  Loiterer.'  It  then 
Increases  and  becomes  full  at  midnight,  after  which  it  again  visibly  decreases."  Hardouin  notes 
that  there  Is  a  similar  kind  of  fountain  in  Provence  called  "Collis  Martiensifi."  These  fluctua- 
tions clearly  belong  to  the  class  produced  by  temperature  changes. 

FL.UCTUATIONS  PRODUCED  BY  RIVKKS. 

Rivers  may  produce  fluctuations  of  the  water  level  in  wells  in  three  ways:  (1)  By 
changing  the  height  of  the  ground- water  discharge;  (2)  by  seepage  or  actual  con- 
tributions to  the  ground  water,  and  (3)  by  transmitted  pressure  or  plastic  deformation. 


oThe  underflow  of  the  Arkansas  Valley  in  western  Kansas:  Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  163,  U.  8. 
Oeol.  Survey, 
b  Carpenter,  L.  O.,  Bull.  Colorado  Agric.  Expt.  Station  No.  66, 1901,  figs.  2-d. 


GO 


FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL    IN    WELI-S. 


FLTrcrnrAT];oHs  frosuoed  bt  ghavoes  nr  rate  of  oBOUim-WATEE  dibcskasoz. 

In  regions  where  the  sides  of  the  channels  are  pervious  and  the  ground  water  <'on- 
tri  bates  to  the  stream  flow,  the  water  table,  after  a  period  of  long  drought,  t»lope5 
regularly  down  to  the  water  surface.     If  the  stream  rises  through  cauneH  not  ai^f 
ciated  with  local  ground- water  conditions,  the  ground- water  table  is  found  like^-ia* 
to  rise  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.     This  is  accomplished  in  part  by  an  outflow  from 
the  river  and  in  part  by  the  accumulation  of  the  ground-water  flow,  which  can  nox 
so  readily  escape  under  the  new  conditions  as  under  the  old.     If  this  new  level  werp 
permanently  maintained  a  complete  readjustment  would  take  place,  and  a  line 
roughly  parallel  to  the  initial  position  of  the  ground-water  table  would  be  developed: 
and  if  there  were  no  new  outlets  developed  by  this  elevation  of  the  ground  water, 
wells  at  all  distances  would  be  similarly  affected.     Actually,  however,  the  river  is  con- 
stantly changing;  a  series  of  waves  of  unequal  height  and  duration,  representing  the 
high  and  low  waters,  are  constantly  traveling  down  every  stream,  and  no  stage  la8t.« 
long  enough  for  the  establishment  of  a  perfectly  graded  ground-water  table,  even 
were  there  no  other  factors  involved.     The  result  of  this  unceasing  change  L<  that 
the  fluctuations  are  greatest  near  the  river  and  become  imperceptible  at  very  short 
distances.     This  is  due  not  only  to  the  rapidity  of  the  fluctuations  in  the  river,  bat 
to  the  slow  rate  of  outflow  and  accumulation. 

Observations  made  by  Hess  «  along  Aller  River,  near  Celle,  Germany,  in  1866,  give 
the  values  expressed  in  the  table  below: 

Table  tihowing  lag  of  hi^h-  and  UyuMvaler  stages  in  wells  along  Aller  River,  behind  high-  axid 

lovMvaier  stages  in  the  river. 


Distance 
from 
river. 

High  water.  Feb.- 
Mar.,  1866. 

Low  water,  Mar.  7, 
1866. 

High  water.  Apr.  1, 
1886. 

Test  well  No.— 

High  war 

ter  in 
well  be- 
hind high 
water  in 
river. 

Rate  per 
day. 

Low  water 
in  well  be- 
hind low 
water  In 
river. 

Rate  per 
day. 

High  water 
in  well  be- 
hind high 
water  in 
river. 

Rate  per 
day. 

1 

Meters. 
47 
140 
851 
468 
584 

Days. 

h 

5 

17 

19 

21 

Meters. 
10 
28 
21 
24 
28 

Days. 
2 
3 

4 
.7 

Meters. 
23.5 
47.0 
88.0 
67.0 

Days. 

4 

5 

10 

Mdm. 

1*15 

2 

2!l0 

3 

S&.0 

4 

5 

Observations  made  by  Slichter  in  very  porous  gravels  in  western  Kansas,  at  Ga^ 
den,  Sherlock,  and  Beerfield,  while  showing  a  more  rapid  transmission  than  thoee 
just  indicated,  give  very  marked  time  lags.  The  conditions  here  are  different  in  the 
respect  that  the  ground  water  does  not  materially  add  to  the  stream  flow,  and  the 
rise  of  the  water  in  the  wells  is  due  wholly  to  seepage.  The  slope  of  the  water  phine 
is  not  toward  the  river,  but  downstream,  at  a  rate  very  nearly  the  same  as  tliat  of 
the  stream.  At  Sherlock  the  water  plane  on  July  27, 1904,  sloped  gently  to  the  river 
from  test  well  No.  5,  but  the  water  in  tost  wells  Nos.  2,  3,  and  6  was  lower  than  the 
river.  Between  11  and  4  o'clock  the  river  rose  1.6  feet,  and  then  fell  gradually.  The 
beginning  of  the  rise  was  felt  in  well  No.  3,  400  feet  north  of  the  river,  in  less  than 
two  hours;  in  wells  No.  2,  900  feet  north  of  the  river,  and  No.  5,  550  feet  south  of 
the  river,  in  between  three  and  four  hours;  in  well  No.  4,  1,000  feet  south  of  the 

a  He.H8,  Beobachtiingeii  viber  das  GrundwasHcrs  der  norddeulsehen  Ebene.  Zeitschr.  des  Arrhitekten 
nnd  Ingenieurvereins  in  Hannover,  vol.  16, 1870,  quoted  by  Soyka,  Der  Boden,  Leipzig.  lt*7,  pp.  2fi2- 
267,  figs.  •2;J-25:  and  Gerhardt,  Der  Wasserbau,  Leipzig,  1«92,  pp.  49-50,  PI.  I,  ligs.  7,  8.  The  diagTwns 
given  by  Soyka  and  Gerhardt  do  not  check  with  the  values  given  in  the  text,  and  aa  the  figures  uv 
clearly  carelessly  drawn  the  text  values  are  reproduced  here. 


FLUCTUATIONS    PRODUCED    BY    RIVERS. 


61 


river,  in  four  hours.  Well  No.  6,  2,500  feet  from  the  river,  fell  during  the  whole 
period  of  observation.  The  difference  in  time  in  the  occurrence  of  the  maximum  is 
expressed  in  the  following  table: 

Difference  in  Hme  between  high  vxUer  in  Arkanms  River  and  wdU  on  Us  banks,  near  Sher- 

hckf  Kans.y  Jvly,  1904. 


No.  of 
well. 

Distance 
from 
river. 

La«r. 

JPeet. 

JIOUTK. 

3 

a  400 

3-6 

2 

agoo 

12 

1 

0600 

36 

5 

5650 

108+ (?) 

4 

M,000 

lOH-l- 

6 

l»2,500          (c) 

a  North. 
«» South. 
o  No  rise  In  Hve  days. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  most  rapid  transmission  was  toward  the  north,  where  the 
water  plane  sloped  away  from  the  river,  while  the  slight  rise  of  the  water  plane 
toward  wells  Nos.  4  and  5  produced  a  very  marked  retardation. 

These  observations  seem  to  indicate  that  the  rate  of  transmission  is  greater  when 
the  water  plane  slopes  from  the  river  than  when  it  slopes  toward  it  and  help  to 
explain  the  great  retardation  observed  at  Celle.  In  no  instance  in  this  Kansas  work 
were  the  effects  of  floods  observed  in  wells  at  distances  of  more  than  one-fourth  of 
a  mile  from  the  river. 

In  case  there  is  open  connection  between  the  river  and  the  well,  such  as  might  be 
afforded  by  limestone  caves,  changes  in  level  may  be  felt  at  considerable  distances 
with  but  very  little  time  lag.  Very  rapid  fluctuations  would,  however,  be  obliter- 
ated here,  for  the  well  would  act  very  much  as  the  still  box  used  in  tidal  work, 
which  consists  of  a  lai^e  well  connected  with  the  ocean  by  means  of  a  relatively 
small  passage  opening  at  some  distance  below  the  water  suHace.  The  wave  action 
is  entirely  obliterated,  because  the  water  does  not  have  time  to  flow  in  and  out  of 
the  well  in  tlie  period  between  fluctuations.  The  gradual  changes  of  the  tide  are, 
however,  exactly  recorded.  But  direct  cavernous  connections  between  wells  and 
waterways  are  rare,  and  generally  river  changes  act  through  the  interstices  of  the 
soil  in  the  way  observed  at  Gelle  and  Sherlock  or  by  transmitted  pressure  as  described 
below. 

FLXronrATIOVB  PBOBITOEB  by  IBKBOTTLAB  XNTILTRATIOV  raOM  RIVEBS  WITH  HORKALLT 

IXPBBVIOtrB  BESS. 

Besides  rivers  which  have  pervious  sides  and  into  which  the  ground  water  is 
always  free  to  flow  or  out  of  which  the  water  flows  whenever  the  river  level  exceeds 
that  of  the  ground  water,  there  are  many  rivers  which,  under  normal  conditions,  so 
plaster  their  beds  with  fine  silt  that  water  is  unable  to  flow  either  in  or  out.  Nearly 
all  rivers  carrying  large  amounts  of  fine  silt  ^  are  normally  in  this  condition,  and 
it  is  thus  that  the  water  in  many  delta  regions  is  able  to  flow  at  heights  above  the 
surrounding  land,  and  rivers  in  other  regions  flow  at  heights  much  above  the  normal 
ground-water  level. 

Thus  the  Leitha  at  Katzelsdori,  near  AViener  Neustadt,  flows  at  a  height  of  10  to 
70  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground  water  at  that  place,  the  height  depending  on 


a  For  au  example  of  the  silting  power  of  a  clear  stream  see  Freeman,  John  R.,  Percolation  through 
dmbankmentii  and  the  Natural  Closing  of  I^akn,  Boston  Soc.  Civil  £ng.,  June  20,  1888. 


62  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WELLS. 

the  stage  of  the  ground  water,  although  there  ia  at  all  times  considerable  B&epBge. 
(PI.  IX.) 

The  Rio  Grande  in  a  similar  way  flows  from  central  New  Mexico  to  the  sea,  alwav- 
above  the  ground- water  level. 

When  the  rivers  silt  up  their  beds,  where  the  water  plane  slopes  down  to  the  river 
and  there  is  a  tendency  to  discharge  into  the  river,  the  silting  develops  an  artesian 
head  which  causes  the  water  to  rise  above  the  level  of  the  river  in  wells  sunk  within 
the  channel.  Such  occurrences  have  been  reported  by  Salbach  in  the  Elbe.  «  Thi? 
Elbe  occurrence  may,  however,  be  due  to  a  sheet  of  clay  not  connected  with  the 
river-silt  deposits  of  the  present  regime.  During  floods  such  rivers  frequently  stour 
out  their  beds  and  establish  a  connection  between  the  surface  and  the  under;pn>und 
waters.  When  the  river  is  above  the  ground- water  table,  this  leakage  will  raise  tht- 
water  level;  when  the  reverse  is  the  case,  it  may,  by  permitting  a  discharge  of  the 
artesian  water,  cause  the  water  level  in  a  near-by  well  to  lower. 

Slichter  has  found  at  Mesilla  Park,  N.  Mex.,  that  the  greater  part  of  theuuderflc»w 
in  the  valley  is  derived  in  this  way  from  the  flood  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande.  ^  Pn- 
ceding  the  flood  of  October  5,  1904,  the  ground-water  level  was  several  feet  below  the 
river  channel,  although  the  river  contained  considerable  water.  The  effect  of  the 
flood  was  well  marked  at  well  No.  7,  three-fourths  of  a  mile  from  the  river,  but  did 
not  affect  well  No.  6,  1.3  miles  from  the  river,  in  seventeen  days.  The  rate  of  trans- 
mission is  evidently  quite  similar  in  this  case  to  those  given  above. 

Quite  different  from  these  slow  rates  of  change  in  the  ground- water  level  due  to  river 
changes  are  the  changes  in  the  London  wells  ascribed  by  Clutterbuck  and  Buckland  <* 
to  floods  in  Colne  River  at  Watford,  Hertfordshire.  According  to  these  obaerven*  a 
rise  in  the  Colne  produces  a  rise  in  the  London  wells,  15  miles  distant,  in  a  few  houn<. 
These  floods  are  due  to  heavy  rains  and  it  seems  much  more  probable  that  the 
observed  rise  is  due  to  the  weight  of  the  rain  on  the  local  London  area  than  to  the 
transmitted  pressure  from  a  flood  15  miles  distant.  Fluctuations  of  this  character 
due  to  rainfall  have  been  observed  at  Lynbrook,  N.  Y.  (p.  42),  and  no  such  rates  of 
lateral  transmission  have  been  observed  either  from  the  river  flood  or  tides,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  the  tidal  wells  at  Lille,  France  (p.  64.)  Certainly  there  is  no 
evidence  of  such  great  underground  caverns  between  Lille  and  the  sea  as  this  rate  of 
transmission  would  require,  though  its  very  occurrence,  if  conclusively  proven,  wouiO 
indicate  some  such  connection. 

FLUCTTTATIOKB  DUE  TO  A  PLASTIC  DEFOKHATIOK  PRODTTOEI)  BT  YAXTIXQ  YOLXmS  OF 
WATER  CARRIED  BY  RIVERB. 

The  alternations  of  load  due  to  the  irregular  waves,  whose  crests  are  the  high-  an<l 
low-water  stages,  which  are  constantly  passing  down  every  river,  produce  fluctua- 
tions anagalous  to  those  produced  by  tides,  though  lacking  their  periodic  character. 
They  resemble  also  the  sympathetic  fluctuations  produced  in  the  72- and  504-f«>*»t 
wells  at  Lynbrook  due  to  variations  in  load  produced  by  rainfall  and  thermometrir 
changes  (pp.  43, 58).  The  zone  in  which  these  fluctuations  will  be  distinctly  recogniz- 
able will  be  limited  to  a  mile  or  two  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  river. 

REFEREKCES  RELATING  TO  FLUCTUATIONS  OF  THE  WATER  IN  WELLS  PRODVCSP   BT 

RIVERS. 

Buckland,  Dr.    Min.  Prw.  Inst.  Civil  Eiik-  Ivol.  2).  1842,  p.  159. 

Reports  that  wells  in  London  rise  In  ii  low  hours  alter  floods  at  Watford,  15  miles  distant. 
Ci.inTKRBUCK,  Jamks.    Observations  on  the  periodical  drainage  and  replenishment  of  the  subterm- 
neous  reservoir  in  the  challc  baMn  of  London:  Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.  [vol.  2j,  1842,  pp.  KV. 
158;  1843,  p.  162. 
Same  a.>s  under  Buckland. 


"Sftlbach  (Bauralhat  Dresden.  Saxony),  Experiences  had  during' the  Ia«t  twenty-five  >e«rs  •viih 
waterworks  having  an  undtTgiound  source  of  supply.  Trans.  Am.  Skx".  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  30.  if^SW.  p  SU 

'•Shchler,  Charles  S.,  Otiservalions  on  the  ground  waters  of  Rio  Grande  Valley:  Water-Sup.  and  Irr. 
Paper  No.  141,  V.  S.  (Jeol.  Survev.  19()5,  p  27. 

t-Min.  Pioc.  Insl.  Civil  Eng.,  1812.  pp.  158,  159.  lH-13,  p.  162. 


FLUCTUATIONS  DUE  TO  LAKE  AND  OCEAN  LEVELS.     63 

FuLLKB,  Myron  L.    Notes  on  the  hydrology  of  Cuba:  Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  110,  U.S.Geol. 
Survey,  1906. 

Records,  on  p.  189,  fluctuations  of  spring  level  at  Vento,  Cuba,  due  to  changes  in  level  of 
Almendares  River,  evidently  acting  through  a  free  connection  of  large  size  in  the  limestone. 
Harris,  Gilbert  D.  Underground  waters  of  south  Louisiana:  Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  101,  U.  8. 
Geol.  Survey,  1904,  p.  14;  Bull.  Louisiana  Geol.  Survey  No.  1, 1906,  p.  4. 
Discusses  effect  of  Missi^ippi  River  on  level  of  wells  along  its  banks. 
Gkrhardt,  p.    Der  Wasserbau.  vol.  1,  pt.  1,  3d  ed.,  1892,  pp.  48-49. 

Gives  Bess's  observations  on  Aller  River. 
Slighter,  Charles  S.    Observations  on  the  ground  waters  of  Rio  Grand  Valley:  Water-Sup.  and 
Irr.  Paper  No.  141,  U.S.Geol.  Survey,  1905,  pp.  18,25-28,80. 

Gives  observations  on  effect  of  outflow  from  river  on  ground-water  level  at  El  Paso,  Mesilla 
Park,  and  Berino. 

The  underflow  of  the  Arkansas  Valley  in  western  Kansas:  Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  168, 

U.S.  Geol.  Survey. 

Gives  results  of  observations  on  the  influence  of  floods  in  Arkansas  River  on  the  water  level  in 
wells  at  Garden,  Sherlock,  and  Deerlield,  Kans..  in  the  summer  of  1901. 
SoYKA,  IsiDOR.    Die  Schwankungen  des  Grundwassers:  Penck's  Geographische  Abhandlungen,  vol. 
2,  pt.  3, 1888. 

Chapter  3,  "  Die  Beziehungcn  des  Grundwassers  zu  den  oberirdischen  WasserlHufen,"  contains 
an  excellent  discuwion  of  middle  European  conditions. 
Thomassay,  Raymond.    Gdologie  pratique  de  la  Louisiane,  1860. 

Contains  an  entirely  fanciful  discussion  of  the  seepage  of  the  water  from  Mississippi  River. 
Toi>i>,  James  E.    Geology  and  water  resources  of  a  portion  of  southeastern  South  Dakota:  Water-Sup. 
and  Irr.  Paper  No.  34,  U.S.  Geol.  Survey,  1900,  p.  29;  Bull.  South  Dakota  Geol.  Survey  No.  2, 1898, 
p.  116. 

Records  that  many  deep  wells  have  a  greater  discharge  when  Missouri  River  is  high,  and  sug- 
gests that  the  increased  hydrostatic  pressure  checks  the  leakage. 
Veatch,  a.  C.    Geology  and  underground  water  resources  of  northern  Louisiana  and  southern 
Arkansas:  Prof.  Paper  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  No.  46. 

Records  fluctuations  of  water  level  in  artesian  wells  at  Fulton,  Ark.,  agreeing  with  stages  of 
Red  River.  These  are  ascribed  to  pressure  of  river  water  acting  at  the  outcrop  of  the  water- 
bearing sands  in  river  bed  several  miles  from  the  town.  This  probably  is  a  case  of  transmitted 
pressure,  the  blue  clay  over  the  water-bearing  layer  acting  as  a  diaphragm  and  producing  fluctu- 
ations in  wells  near  the  river. 

FLUCTUATIONS  PRODUCED  BY  CHANGES  IN  LAKE  LEVEL. 

Variations  in  lake  levels  of  whatever  cause  produce  fluctuations  of  the  level  in  wells 
along  tlieir  shores  ( 1 )  by  checking  the  rate  of  outflow  when  the  ground  wat^r  is 
draining  freely  into  the  lake  and  (2)  by  transmitted  pressure  and  deformation  as  in 
ocean  tides  described  below.  The  pressure  of  deep-seated  waters  might  also  be  slowly 
affected  by  the  weight  of  the  sediment  deposited  in  the  lake  beds.  This  would  tend 
to  equalize  itself  by  back  flow,  and  is  perhaps  a  factor  of  no  great  importance,  except 
when  considered  for  very  long  periods.  King  has,  however,  obtained  a  flow  artifi- 
cially by  ordinary  sedimentation  in  a  tank.« 

FLUCTUATIONS  PRODUCED  BY  VARIATIONS  IN  THE  OCEAN  LEVEL- 
TIDAL  WELLS. 

As  partially  indicated  in  the  references  on  page  67,  wells  and  springs  which  fluctuate 
witli  the  tide  have  been  observed  on  nearly  all  coasts  and  under  many  different  geo- 
logic conditions.  These  fluctuations  are  produced  in  three  ways:  (1)  By  transmis- 
sion of  pressure  through  open  cavities  or  passageways  affording  a  free  communication 
between  the  wells  and  the  ocean;  (2)  by  a  checking  of  the  rate  of  discharge  of  the 
normal  ground-water  flow  through  porous  beds  freely  connecting  with  theo(!ean; 
and  (3)  by  a  deformation  of  the  strata  due  to  the  alternate  loading  and  unloading  of 
the  tides,  in  this  last  case,  instead  of  leakage  being  an  important  factor,  as  it  is  in 
the  first  two,  the  fluctuations  are  greater  the  more  nearly  complete  the  separation  of 
the  oceanic  and  ground  waters. 


a  Nineteenth  Ann.  Kept.  U.  >?.  Ueol.  Survey,  pt.  2,  1^99,  pp.  79-«0. 


64  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATEB   LEVEL   IN    WELLS. 

FLTTOTITATIOHS  PKODUGED  BY  0HAHGE8  IV  BATE  OF  OUTFLOW. 

The  first  two  classes  differ  more  in  the  rate  at  which  the  change  takee  place  ami  \Ia 
character  of  the  zone  of  influence  than  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  produced.  If  iL*- 
ocean  level  is  raised  the  first  effect  is  to  check  the  velocity  of  outflow;  but  before  aL> 
change  occurs  in  the  level  of  near-by  wells  it  is  necessary  that  water  accumul&te  at  tl  r 
point  of  observation  by  actually  flowing  in.  This  change,  then,  is  clearly  depemiri:: 
on  the  same  factors  which  influence  the  rate  of  flow,  and  in  underground  caven* 
where  the  velocity  is  a  question  of  miles  per  day  this  accumulation  will  be  rai»i  1 
there  will  be  a  relatively  short  lag,  and  the  distance  from  the  shore  to  which  the  ri-- 
can  be  propagated  before  the  water  begins  to  fall  will  be  comparatively  great-  II* 
influence  will,  however,  be  restricted  to  wells  along  limited  lines,  following  th-e 
course  of  the  underground  passageway.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  water  is  fl« •»- 
ing  through  the  interstices  of  porous  strata,  where  the  motion  is  one  of  feet  jjer  <L*y 
instead  of  miles,  the  accumulation  will  be  slow,  the  lag  proportionately  greater,  at*! 
the  zone  of  influence,  while  not  extending  so  far  from  the  ocean,  will  perhaps  ot-mpy 
a  larger  area,  because  of  its  uniform  distribution  along  the  coast.  When  the  o«vati 
level  falls  the  reverse  will  occur. 

Where  there  is  considerable  velocity,  as  in  a  cavernous  opening,  the  velocity  oi 
outflow  retards  the  effect  of  the  rising  tide  and  hastens  that  of  the  falling  title  ai]  i 
there  is  then,  as  in  tidal  rivers,  a  greater  lag  at  low  than  at  high  water.  Wheu  tht- 
outflow  is  slow,  as  from  porous  beds,  the  velocity  is  not  sufficient  to  exert  a  very 
great  retarding  influence. 

The  fluctuations  in  porous  materials  along  the  seashore  are  clearly  the  same  ir. 
character  and  cause  as  those  occurring  under  similar  conditions  along  river  coun^ 
(see  p.  60),  and  the  same  great  time  lag  is  to  l)e  expected.  The  difference  is  only  in 
the  very  regular  periodic  nature  of  the  oceanic  fluctuations.  Nearly  all  the  ehaliuw 
tidal  wells  noticed  along  the  seacoas^ts  belong  to  this  class.  Such  are  clearly  tlie 
tidal  wells «  reported  near  Bombay  and  along  the  Malabar  coast;  at  Barren  Isianil. 
in  the  Andaman  Sea;  at  Perim  Island,  in  the  Red  Sea;  at  South  Foreland  light-hou?^. 
Kent;  the  shallow  wells  at  Seagirt,  N.  J.;  and  perhaps  the  wells  at  Newton  Notxa^. 
Glamoiganshire,  Wales,  and  Chepstow,  Monmouth,  England.  At  Perim  Island,  in 
shallow  pits  at  a  distance  of  GO  to  300  feet  from  the  shore,  the  lag  is  such  that  lh«' 
high  water  in  the  wells  appears  to  agree  with  the  low  water  in  the  (x^ean.  A  similar 
lag  is  reported  in  a  well  14  feet  deep  and  400  feet  from  the  river  at  Chepstow.  M 
Newton  Nottage,  where  a  shallow  well  500  feet  from  the  ocean  was  obeer\'ed  by  Man- 
dan,  the  lag  is  but  three  hours. 

Experience  has  shown  that  wells  which  are  sunk  entirely  in  porous  beds  near  the 
seacoast  should  have  their  lx>ttoms  about  midway  between  high  and  low  tide;  if  they 
are  deeper  there  is  generally  an  infiltration  of  salt  water.  Such  wells  are  comriKmiy 
dry  at  low  tide,  but  frequently  furnish  good  supplies  of  fresh  water  at  high  tide,  at 
which  time  it  is  necessary  to  obtain  all  the  water  used  for  domestic  and  other  pur- 
poses. 

Wells  deiHjndent  on  underground  cavernous  openings,  such  asretiaired  by  the  first 
case,  are  quite  rare.  The  fluctuations  of  the  Iceland  springs,  reported  by  Hallan  tlv 
Roucroy,  are  perhaps  connected  with  such  ojien  fissures,  though  any  opinion  fnun 
the  data  presented  is  but  a  hazanl.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  occurrence  <•! 
tidal  fluctuation  is  that  reported  at  Lille  in  an  artesian  well  at  the  citadel.  These 
fluctuations,  which  amount  to  0.415  meter,  are  referre<l  by  Bailly  ^  to  the  tides  of  the 
English  (  hannel,  ISO  miles  away,  with  a  time  lag  of  but  eight  hours.  The  only  hatiis 
on  which  these  fluctuations  can  now  be  explained  is  a  supposition  of  a  relatively 
open  connection  between  the  well  and  the  ocean,  which,  it  must  be  admitted,  is*  a 
very  unsatisfactory  hypothesis. 


a  See  references,  pp.  67-60.  frComptes  rendus,  vol.  14, 1W2,  pp.  310^814. 


TIDAL    WELLS.  65 

TZSAL  TLUOnrATIOHB  DT  WELI8  PBOSVOBD  BY  PIUIBTIO  SEFOItXATIOV. 

Besides  the  shallow  wells,  depending  on  ordinary  porous  surficial  heds,  there  are, 
along  and  near  the  seacoast,  many  deep  artesian  wells  which  show  tidal  fluctuations. 
In  many  of  these  wells  there  are  clearly  no  underground  caverns  involved,  the 
water-bearing  beds  being  onlinary  porous  strata  in  which  the  water  flows  through 
the  small  interstices  at  a  rate  to  be  expressed  in  feet  rather  than  miles  per  day,  and 
in  which  accumulation  or  depletion  by  simple  flowage  will  be  correspondingly  slow. 
There  is,  moreover,  every  reason  to  believe,  in  some  cases  where  there  are  thick  clay 
be<i8  above  the  water-bearing  strata,  which  are  known  to  be  continuous  for  many 
miles,  that  there  are  no  near  suboceanic  outlets  of  importance.  In  case  there  is 
some  distant  outlet  it  is  evident  from  the  slow  rate  of  change  shown  in  the  examples 
given  above,  where  there  was  a  sudden  increase  or  decrease  in  the  volume  of  river 
water  (pp.  60, 61),  that  the  fluctuation  produced  by  a  simple  checking  or  hastening  of 
the  rate  of  outflow  could  be  propagated  but  a  short  distance,  and  that  a  long  period 
of  time  would  be  necessary  for  even  that. 

There  is,  however,  in  the  case  of  waters  under  artesian  head  a  new  factor  intro- 
duced which  is  of  very  great  importance.  The  pressure  of  the  artesian  water  exerted 
against  the  retaining  cover,  which  may  be  assumed  at  present  to  be  clay,  tends 
to  elevate  it,  thus  placing  the  clay  under  an  upward  stress.  The  addition  of  any 
weight  on  the  surface  tends  to  disturb  the  equilibrium.  If  there  is  no  outlet  and  the 
weight  is  applied  uniformly,  the  additional  weight  can  not  change  the  position  of 
any  portion  of  the  mass,  except  to  the  very  slight  degree  of  the  elastic  compressibility 
of  the  water  and  the  soil.  If,  however,  there  is  any  escape  for  the  confined  water, 
such  as  would  be  afforded  by  a  well  tube,  the  mass  will  yield  and  the  water  be  forced 
up  in  the  tube.  Were  the  clay  layer  perfectly  elastic,  or  in  the  condition  of  a 
stretched  elastic  membrane  above  a  perfectly  mobile  body,  there  would  be  no  time  lag, 
and  the  water  in  the  well  would  exactly  follow  the  fluctuations  of  the  ocean  waters; 
but  the  clay  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  an  elastic  diaphragm,  and  the  water-bearing 
sand  is  not  a  perfectly  mobile  body;  moreover,  for  such  a  deformation  to  be  felt  in 
a  well  water  must  be  transferred  from  one  point  to  another,  and  this  involves  a  time 
element.  The  deformation  is  essentially  a  plastic  one;  the  clay  yields  to  the  super- 
posed weight  and  the  water  is  lifted  in  the  well,  but  if  there  were  no  pressure  from 
below  the  clay  could  not  return  to  its  original  position.  In  the  case  of  tides  along 
the  coast  only  the  portion  of  the  clay  layer  under  the  ocean  is  loaded,  and  that  load- 
ing is  a  progressive  one  from  a  distant  point  toward  the  shore.  The  effect  is  a  defor- 
mation in  which  the  clay  layer  is  depressed  under  the  ocean  and  elevated  under  the 
land.  When  the  weight  is  removed  the  artesian  pressure  tends  to  reestablish  the 
old  conditions  of  equilibrum,  and  the  clay  layer  is  lifted  under  the  ocean  and  sinks 
under  the  land. 

If  the  artesian  pressare  is  high,  compared  with  the  tide  when  the  ocean  water  com- 
mences to  fall  after  high  tide,  this  pressure  lifts  the  clay  quickly  and  thus  tends  to 
shorten  the  high-tide  lag  in  a  near-by  well;  as  the.tide  falls  the  high  pressure  enables 
the  clay  to  follow  the  tide  closely;  at  low  tide  the  artesian  pressure  is  clearly  in  the 
ascendancy  and  the  clay  still  rising  in  the  ocean  area.  As  the  tide  begins  to  rise  it 
must  overcome  this  artesian  pressure  before  any  deformation  occurs,  and  the  rising 
curve  in  the  well  therefore  lags  more  behind  the  tide  than  the  falling  curve.  Under 
such  conditions  the  high-tide  lag  is  less  than  the  low-tide  lag.  Conversely,  when  the 
artesian  pressare  is  low  compared  with  the  tide,  at  high  tide  the  feeble  artesian  pres- 
sure but  slowly  lifts  the  clay  weight  and  the  lag  is  long;  at  low  tide,  when  the  clay 
diaphragm  is  high,  the  greater  tidal  weight  quickly  overcomes  the  feeble  resistance  of 
the  artesian  water  and  the  lag  is  short;  it  may  then  happen  that  the  low-tide  lag  will 
be  less  than  the  high-tide  lag.«    It  is  evident  that  between  the  two  extremes  thus 


a  This  plastic  deformation  should  not  be  confused  with  the  elastic  deformation  of  the  earth  which 
Darwin  has  considered  in  his  calculations  of  the  effect  of  tides  on  seacoasts.    He  assumes  that  tlie 

IRB  165—06 5 


66 


FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL    IN   WELI^. 


indicated  there  are  all  possible  variations,  and  that  the  thickness  and  plasticity  of  tb-? 
beds  above  the  water-bearing  layers  are  important  modifying  factors.  The  flncica- 
tion  in  a  well  in  such  cases  does  not  furnish  an  exact  measure  of  the  amount  A 
deformation;  it  furnishes  only  a  fair  indication  of  the  variation  in  pressare  at  the 
particular  point  at  which  the  well  is  sunk. 

The  maximum  effect  is  felt  at  the  seacoast  near  low-tide  mark  and  graduallT 
decreases  inward,  disappearing  in  a  few  miles.  It  is  less  if  there  is  leakage  from  s»i'f:i- 
ocean  springs,  for  in  such  cases  the  escape  of  the  water  decreases  that  available  for 
the  elevation  of  the  water  in  the  tube. 

On  Long  Island  the  tidal  fluctuations  observed  in  the  wells  at  Hantington,  Oyster 
Bay,  Long  Beach,  and  Douglaston  are  clearly  of  this  character,  all  depending  incTt? 
on  the  deformation  of  the  overlying  layer  through  tidal  load  than  on  changes  of  dis- 
charge in  leakage.  At  Huntington  (p.  10),  Oyster  Bay  (p.  13),  and  Douglaston 
(p.  25)  the  lag  is  greater  at  low  than  at  high  tide,  as  would  be  expected  from  the 
great  head  and  shallow  depths,  while  at  Long  Beach,  where  the  head  is  low,  the 
water-bearing  sand  fine,  and  the  thickness  of  overlying  strata  great,  the  reverse  is 
true  (p.  19).    The  Oyster  Bay  observations  give  the  following  values: 

Summary  of  observations  on  tidal  welU  at  Oysier  Bay,  N.  Y. 


Well. 


Casino  ... 
Burgess . . 

Lee 

Underbill 


Depth. 


93 
155 
188 
114 


Distance 
from  ordi- 
nary high 
tide. 


Lo«r- water 
lag- 


Feft. 

In  water. 

50 

100 

500 


Minuteg. 
12.6 
33.4 

58.0 
75.6 


Higb-v&ter 
l«<f. 


Minute* 


It  will  be  noticed  that  the  lag  here  increased  with  the  distance  from  the  shore, 
and  that  the  low-water  lag  increased  more  rapidly  with  depth  than  the  high-water 
lag.  The  cause  of  the  very  small  difference  between  the  high-  and  low-water  lags  in 
the  Underbill  well,  the  one  farthest  from  the  shore,  is  not  clear,  but  it  is  apparently 
related  to  the  lessening  of  the  tidal  injQiuence  with  the  increasing  distance. 

The  Long  Beach  well  is  affected  both  by  the  tide  in  the  ocean  and  in  the  channel* 
behind  it,  the  curve  being,  as  would  be  expected,  a  simple  resultant  of  the  iw«» 
stresses.  Because  of  the  shallow  bars  at  the  openings  the  irregularity  in  the  height 
of  the  inner  low  tide  is  less  than  in  the  ocean,  and  the  effect  of  this  difference  id 
shown  in  the  greater  regularity  of  the  low-tide  heights  in  the  well  than  in  the  ocean 
(PI.  IV,  p.  20).  Here  the  high-tide  lag  is  one  hour  and  nineteen  minutes  and  the 
low-tide  lag  forty  minutes,  when  compared  with  the  ocean,  while  compared  with  the 
tide  behind  the  bar  the  high-tide  lag  is  practically  nothing  and  the  low-tide  la^  i^^ 
nearly  two  hours. 

To  this  same  class  belong  nearly  all  the  deep  artesian  wells  along  the  seacoast 
which  fluctuate  with  the  tide.  The  phenomenon  observed  is  the  result  of  actual 
deformation,  and  the  occurrence  of  tidal  fluctuations  in  deep  wells  does  not,  as*  ha.« 
been  commonly  supposed,  prove  a  connection  between  the  water-bearing  strata  and 
the  ocean.     Examples  of  this  type  are  afforded  by  the  deep  wells  along  the  New  Jer- 


enrth  has  an  elaslTcity  equal  to  twice  that  of  the  stlffest  glass,  and  the  elastic  compression  pnwImT-l 
by  loadinu  a  sphere  of  such  material  ol  the  same  size  as  the  earth  with  a  tide  ol  5  feet  is  calculaii-- 
on  the  supposiDon  iliat  the  ocean  is  in  the  sliape  of  a  narrow  canal.  According  to  this  the  lidt-^of 
the  Atlantic  coast  may  cause  the  land  to  rise  and  fail  as  much  as  5  inches.'  See  Darwin,  G.  H.  i»p 
variations  in  the  vertical  due  to  elasticitv  of  the  earth's  snriace:  Brtl.  Assoc.  Rept,.  1W2.  p.  388.  I'li::. 
Mas  .  5ih  ser..  vol.  14,  \HS2,  pp.  409-427.  The  Tides,  Boston  and  New  York  1898,  pp.  139-143.  quoit-d 
by  Milne,  J.,  Nature,  vol.  38,  1883,  p.  367.  Seismology,  Loudon,  1898.  pp.  236-237. 


TIDAL    WELLS BIBLIOGRAPHY.  67 

r 

sey  coast,  the  wells  at  Pensaeola,  Fla,,  the  deep  wells  at  Greenwich  Hospital,  Lon- 
don, and  the  wells  along  the  Lincolnshire  and  Yorkshire  coasts. 

Shelford  «  has  presenteil  a  very  clear  diagram  of  the  conditions  on  the  Lincolnshire 
coast.  This  shows  overflow  springs  occurring  at  the  top  of  a  porous  layer  and  the 
base  of  an  impervious  one,  and  the  relation  between  ordinary  overflowing  and  tidal 
wells,  all  depending  on  the  same  strata.  Here,  as  is  almost  universally  the  case,  the 
tidal  wells  occur  only  on  the  shore,  and  the  wells  2  and  3  miles  inland  are  not 
affected.  In  explaining  the  phenomenon  Shelford  supix>sed  that  the  water  found 
an  outlet  in  Silver  Pit,  a  deep  hole  in  the  ocean  bed  about  18  miles  from  the  coast, 
which  he  has  represented  in  his  drawing  as  the  ground-water  outlet,  and  that  changes 
in  level  in  the  discharge  produced  the  tidal  fluctuations.  Such  a  simple  change  in 
the  rate  of  discharge  could  affect  the  wells  18  miles  distant  only  if  there  were  a  large 
open  cavernous  connection.  That  there  is  no  such  cavern  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
the  effect  diminishes  very  rapidly  in  passing  inland,  entirely  dying  out  in  2  miles. 
There  is  no  reason  why  the  effect  should  be  propagated  18  miles  to  the  coast  and  then 
suddenly  cea«5e,  when  tidal  wells  of  the  same  character  penetrating  a  thick  clay  bed 
and  obtaining  water  in  the  upper  porous  layer  of  the  chalk  occur  along  the  whole 
Lincolnshire  and  Yorkshire  coast.  In  many  cases  springs  near  the  coast,  deriving 
their  supply  from  the  water  beneath  the  clay,  are  likewise  tidal.  The  cause  of  this 
phenomenon  in  the  Bridlington  Quay  wells,  Yorkshire,  was  correctly  given  by  Inglis 
in  1817.  He  recognized  in  the  clay  layer  a  moving  diaphragm  affected  by  the  tidal 
pressure  from  above  and  the  artesian  pressure  from  below. 

REFEKEKCES  RELATDro  TO  TIDAL  FLTTOTUATIOKS  IV  WELLB  AND  8FBIKG8. 

Anonymous.    London  Athenseum,  August,  1860;  Jour.  Franklin  Inst.,  vol.  72,  1861,  pp.  309-310. 

States  that  tides  in  wells  near  the  sea  are  univenial,  and  records  their  occurrence  about  Bom- 
bay and  along  the  Malabar  coast  wherever  the  material  dug  through  Is  porous.  Wells  dug  in 
trap  rock  are  not  tidal.  ' 

Baili.y.  Rapport  sur  les  variations  observ^es  dans  la  d^pense  du  puits  art^sien  de  I'hdpital  militaire 
de  Lille  et  dans  les  hauteurs  de  la  colonne  d'eau  qnand  on  a  interrompu  I'^coulement:  Comptes 
renuus,  vol.  14, 1842,  pp.  810-314. 

Gives  observations  showing  that  fluctuations,  having  a  range  of  0.415  meter,  are  clearly  tidal 
and  occur  eight  hours  behind  the  tide  on  the  adjacent  coast  between  Dunkerque  and  Calais. 
Reports  that  tidal  wells  also  occur  at  Noyelle-sur-Mer,  D^partement  de  la  Somme,  and  at  Pul- 
ham,  London,  England. 
Bbaithwaite,  Fredrick.    Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  9, 1850,  p.  168;  vol.  14, 1855,  pp.  507-522. 
"At  Greenwich  Hospital,  London,  the  land  springs  ebb  and  flow  2  feet  6  inches,  the  sand 
springs,  3  feet,  and  the  chalk  springs,  4  feet  6  inches  every  tide."    The  total  depth  of  the  chalk 
well  referred  to  is  149  feet. 
Christie,  James.    Jour.  Franklin  Institute,  vol.  101, 1901,  p.  193. 

Reports  fresh- water  well  near  shore  which  fluctuates  with  the  tide. 
Clutterbuck,  James.    Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  9, 1850,  p.  170. 

Explains  tidal  fluctuation  in  wells  on  basis  of  leakage  between  high-  and  low-tide  marks. 

Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  14, 1855,  pp.  510-511. 

Wells  at  Ramsgate,  England,  are  sunk  to  half-tide  level.  These  begin  to  fall  at  half  tide,  are 
dry  at  low  tide,  and  begin  to  rise  at  half  tide  on  the  flood. 

Mm.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  19, 1860,  p.  33. 

Reports  that  wells  at  Portsmouth,  England,  are  tidal,  and  concludes  that  this  proves  a  firee 
connection  with  the  sea. 
DESAGITLIER.S,  Rcv.  J.  T.    An  attempt  to  account  for  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  water  of  so:ine 
ponds  near  the  sea,  etc.    Trans.  Phil.  Soc.  London,  No.  384,  vol.  33,  1724,  p.  132;  Trans.  Phil.  Soc. 
London  from  1665-1800  (abridged),  vol.  7, 1809,  pp.  39-41. 

Reports  well  at  Grecnhlthe  in  Kent,  between  London  and  Gravesend,  which  appears  to  fluctu- 
ate inversely  wiih  the  tide.    This  he  explains  by  imagining  a  natural  siphon. 
Douglas,  James  Nichols.    Mm.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  47, 1879,  p.  88. 

Chalk  well  at  South  Foreland  light-house,  Kent,  England,  283  feet  from  face  of  cliff,  280  feet 
deep,  with  bottom  level  with  half  tide,  has  a  peculiarity  common  to  many  wells  of  this  region  In 
that  It  Is  dry  at  low  tide  and  fllled  w^ith  pure  spring  water  at  high  tide. 


aShelford.  W.,  Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  90, 1887.  p.  69. 


68  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN   WELLS. 

Frazbr,  Pbbsifor.    Notes  on  fresh- water  wells  of  the  Atlantic  beach:  Jonr.  Franklin  Inst.,  1890,  roL 
130.  p.  231. 

Reports  well  at  Sea  Girt,  N.  J.,  20  feet  deep,  which  rises  and  falls  with  tide  in  ocean  150  feri 
distant. 
Hallan  db  Roucboy.    Comptes  rendus,  yol.  12. 1841,  pp.  1000-1001. 

States  that  well  at  Lille.  France,  shows  tidal  fluctuations. 
HUTTON,  Capt.  F.  W.    Trans,  and  Proc.  New  Zealand  Inst.,  1895,  vol.  28, 1806.  p.  665. 

States  that  artesian  wells  at  New  Brighton  are  affected  by  the  tide. 
iNGLis,  Gavin.    On  the  cause  of  ebbing  and  flowing  springs  [at  Bridlington,  Yorkshire] :  PblL  Mag., 
vol.  60, 1817,  pp.  81-83. 

"  When  the  recess  of  the  ocean  lessens  the  pressure  upon  the  upper  surface,  the  hydraulic  pret- 
sure  on  the  under  stratum  must  raise  the  whole  mass  in  proportion  as  the  force  is  snpeilofr  to  thr 
resistance.    The  return  of  the  tide  brings  with  it  the  weight  and  altitude  of  its  mass  of  water  and 
acts  on  the  flexibility  of  the  clay  as  a  pressure  would  on  a  hydraulic  blowpipe." 
Kino.  Fbanklin  H.    Fluctuations  in  the  lerel  and  rate  of  moTement  of  ground  waten  Bull.  r.  S. 
Weather  Bureau  No.  5, 1892,  pp.  52-^. 
Suggests  that  tidal  fluctuations  may  be  produced  in  wells  by  coastal  deformation. 
Mandan,  H.  G.    Note  on  ebbing  and  flowing  well  at  Newton  Nottage  [Glamorganshire,  Wales] :  Ataa. 
Proc.  Geol.  Soc.  London,  1898,  pp.  85-86;  Nature,  vol.  68, 1898,  pp.  45-16. 
Shallow  well  500  yards  from  shore  ebbs  and  flows  with  the  tide;  lag  about  three  hours. 
If  ALLBT,  F.  R.    Ebbing  and  flowing  wells:  Nature,  vol.  58, 1898,  p.  104. 

Shallow  wells  in  volcanic  ash  on  Barren  Island,  Andaman  Sea,  show  tidal  fluctuations  clearty 
due  to  retardation  of  leakage. 
KcCallib.  S.  W.    a  preliminary  report  on  the  artesian-well  systems  of  Georgia:  Bull.  Geol.  Sorrer 
Georgia  No.  7, 1898,  p.  112. 

Reports  three  artesian  wells  at  Tybee  Island,  near  Savannah.  Ga.,  240  feet  deep,  one  of  which  is 
affected  by  the  tide. 
MooRB.  H.  C.    A  well  intermitting  inversely  with  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide:  Trans.  Woolhope  Nat- 
uralists Field  Club,  1892.  pp.  2S-24;  Jour.  Manchester  Geol.  Soc.,  vol.  10, 1884.  pp.  22»-224. 

Well  at  Chepstow.  Monmouth,  fluctuates  inversely  with  the  tide.    Shallow  pits  on  Perim  Island, 
Straits  of  Bab  el  Mandeb,  Red  Sea,  20  to  100  yards  from  shore,  are  full  of  fresh  water  at  low  tide, 
empty  at  high  tide;  explained  on  basis  of  time  required  for  filtration. 
Pearson,  Rev.  W.    Observations  on  some  remarkable  wells  near  the  seacoest  at  Brigbthelmstcms 
and  other  places  contiguous.    Jour.  Nat.  Phil.  Chem.  Arts,  vol.  8, 1802.  pp.  65-69. 

States  that  shallow  wells  at  Brighton  fluctuate  with  the  tide,  but  with  a  lag  of  two  hoan.    He 
ascribes  the  fluctuation  to  retardation  of  leakage. 
Pliny  thb  Elder.    (Caius  Pllnius  Secundus.)    Historia  Naturalls,  lib.  2.  cap.  106:  (Pliny^s  Katnral 
History,  Bostock  and  Riley's  translation,  vol.  1, 1887,  pp.  134-186). 

"  There  is  a  small  island  in  the  sea  opposite  the  river  Timavus,  containing  warm  springs  wiiidi 
increase  and  decrease  at  the  same  time  with  the  tide  of  the  sea." 
BivikRB.    Comptes  rendus,  vol.  9, 1839,  p.  653. 

Spring  at  Givre,  canton  Montiers-les-Maux,  fluctuates  with  tide. 
Robert,  £.    Comptes  rendus,  vol.  14, 1842,  pp.  417-418. 

Reports  that  springs  near  Buder,  Olafsen.  and  Paulsen,  Iceland,  ebb  and  flow  with  the  tide. 
Roberts,  Isaac.    On  the  attractive  influence  of  the  sun  and  moon  causing  tides  ...  in  the  ^nde^ 
ground  water  in  porous  strata:  Rept.  Brit.  Assoc.,  1888.  p.  405;  see  also  Proc.  Liverpool  Geol.  Sofr, 
vol.  4.  pt.  8. 1881,  pp.  23a-286. 

Reports  that  in  a  well  sunk  in  Triassic  sandstone  in  which  the  water  rose  60  feet  above  sea  level, 
autographic  records  showed  solar  and  lunar  tides.    (See  p.  69.) 
Shelpord,  W.    Min.  Proc.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  vol.  90, 1887,  p.  68. 

Describes  wells  200  feet  deep,  on  the  North  Sea,  near  Louth,  Ldnoolnshire,  which  flnctoate  t 
feet  with  spring  tides. 
Sinclair,  W.  F.    Ebbing  and  flowing  wells:  Nature,  vol.  58, 1898,  p.  52. 

Describes  well  at  Alibag,  near  Bombay,  in  sand  dunes  about  25  yards  from  high-tide  nark, 
which  fluctuated  with  the  tide  after  heavy  rains  when  the  ground  water  level  was  high.  Tide 
in  well  occurred  later  than  that  in  ocean. 
Storer.  Dr.  John.  On  an  ebbing  and  flowing  stream  discctvered  by  boring  in  the  harbor  of  Brid- 
lington [Yorkshire]:  Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  105.  pt.  1. 1815,  pp.  54-59;  Phil.  Mag.,  vol.  45, 1815.  pp.  4S3- 
436. 
8.,  W.    On  ebbing  and  flowing  springs:  Phil.  Mag.,  vol.  50, 1817,  p.  267. 

States  that  wells  near  Hull  under  conditions  similar  to  those  at  Bridlington  are  not  tidal. 
Tbautwine,  J.  C,  Jr.    Jour.  Franklin  Inst.,  vol.  51, 1901,  pp.  198-194. 

Explains  tidal  wells  on  basis  of  free  discharge  in  ocean,  as  from  an  open  tube;  changes  in  pres- 
sure at  discharge  change  water  level  in  wells  as  if  they  were  piezometers  along  a  oondnit. 
Tribus,  L.  L.    Trans.  Am.  Soc.  Civil  Eng.,  vol,  30. 1893,  p.  695. 

Mentions  tidal  fluctuations  in  wells  at  Pensacola,  Fla.,  U  miles  from  the  shore  front.  4  to  4 
inches  in  diameter,  and  from  60  to  280  feet  deep.    Water  rises  16  to  17  feet  above  sea  level  and 


GROUND-WATER    TIDES GEOLOGIC    CAUSES.  69 

fluctuaten  6  to  10  inches  daily  with  the  tide.  He  suppoees,  therefore,  that  they  tap  gubtemnean 
rivers  which  have  free  connection  with  the  ocean.  Note:  The  tides  at  Pensacola  are  rather 
irregular,  with  a  small  semidiurnal  and  large  diurnal  value,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  a  portion 
of  the  fluctuation  observed  is  due  to  barometric  and  thermometric  changes. 

Vermbuli,  a  a    Water  supply  tot  wells:  Ann.  Kept.  New  Jersey  Geol.  Survey  for  1896,  1899,  p.  1«8. 
States  that  many  wells  along  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  show  tides  corresponding  in  period^ but  not 
in  time  of  occurrence,  with  the  tides  of  the  ocean,  and  with  a  smaller  range. 

Wood,  James  G.    Jour.  Manchester  Oeog.  Soc.,  vol.  10, 1894,  pp.  287-239:  Abs.  Proc.  Geol.  Soc.  London, 
1898,  p.  86. 

Reports  well  near  that  described  by  H.  C.  Moore  (see  above),  and  suggests  that  well  is  fed  by 
water  coming  along  fault,  which  passes  under  the  river;  that  at  high  tide  this  fault  is  closed, 
cutting  olT  supply,  and  at  low  tide  opens  again,  allowing  an  influx;  and  that  therefore  well  fluctn- 
ates  inversely  with  tide.  (Note:  A  simple  leakage  would,  on  account  of  slow  propagation  of 
change,  explain  the  phenomena  quite  as  well,  and  more  naturally.) 

WooLMAN,  Lewis.    Artesian  wells  in  New  Jersey:  Ann.  Kept.  New  Jersey  Geol.  Survey  for  1898, 1809, 
pp.  76,  78,  79. 

Records  that  the  height  of  water  in  many  artesian  wells  along  the  New  Jersey  coast  fluctuates 
with  the  tide.  At  Ventor  fluctuations  were  noted  in  a  well  813  feet  deep,  which  had  a  range  of 
7|  to  14ft  Inches,  and  a  lag  of  approximately  forty-five  minutes.  Similarly  at  Avalon,  in  a  well  925 
feet  deep,  the  fluctuation  observed  had  a  range  of  from  10ft  to  15|  inches. 

YouNO,  Rev.  G.  and  J.  Bird.    A  Geological  Survey  of  the  Yorkshire  Coast.    4<>.    Whitby,  1822;  2d  ed., 
1828. 
Ebbing  and  flowing  springs,  Bridlington,  pp.  22-24;  intermittent  springs,  pp.  27-28. 

TII>SS  IN   THE   GROUND   WATER  PRODUCED   BY   DIRECT  SOLAR  AND 

LUNAR  ATTRACTION. 

The  ground  water  has  not  an  extended  level  surface  like  the  ocean,  where  the 
tides  range  from  nothing  to  50  feet,  or  even  the  Great  Lakes,  where  the  tidal  fluctua- 
tion is  but  a  few  inches.  The  ground-water  table  is  comparatively  level  only  over 
areas  which  are  but  a  fraction  of  the  size  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  direct  ground- 
water tides  would  be  of  extremely  small  size.  It  seems  quite  unlikely,  therefore, 
that  the  fluctuations  in  the  Maghull  (Liverpool)  well  are  due  to  direct  solar  and 
lunar  attraction,  as  Roberts  ^  suggests,  but,  as  King  ^  has  already  pointed  out,  are 
rather  to  be  ascribed  to  the  action  of  the  ocean  tides  on  the  near-by  coast. 

FLUCTUATIONS  DUE  TO  GEOLOGIC  CAUSES. 

In  regions  of  abundant  rainfall  the  ground-water  table  is  but  a  subdued  reflectioii 
of  the  surface  topography,  and  any  changes  in  the  topography  will  therefore  change 
the  position  of  the  ground-water  table.  If  a  stream  valley  is  flUed  by  sedimentation, 
the  ground  water  is  raised  over  the  whole  tributary  area  up  to  the  ground- water 
divide;  if  the  stream  valley  is  eroded,  the  water  level  is  in  like  manner  lowered. 
Similarly,  if  a  lake  is  produced  by  a  landslip  or  destroyed  by  the  erosion  of  its  outlet, 
or  the  ocean  level  is  changed  by  orographic  movements,  the  ground-water  table  like- 
wise is  changed.  To  these  broad  generalizations  certain  exceptions  are  to  be  men- 
tioned. If  a  river  is  intrenched  in  an  impervious  layer  overlain  by  porous  strata,  it 
is  evident  that  the  position  of  the  impervious  bed  in  the  bank,  when  the  water  level 
in  the  river  is  below  it,  is  the  factor  ^hich  determines  the  position  of  the  ground- 
water table.  A  stream  may  thus  lower  its  bed  without  affecting  the  adjacent  ground 
water.  Examples  of  this  kind  are  found  in  the  Isar  at  Munich  and  the  Salzach  at 
Salzburg,  both  of  which  have  deepened  their  beds  in  recent  times,  due  to  regulating 
works,  without  lowering  the  adjacent  ground  water,  because  the  deepening  was 
entirely  in  impervious  material,  c 

Solution  and  deposition  by  percolating  waters  may  cause  a  gradual  depression  or 
elevation  of  the  water  level;  solution,  by  increasing  the  porosity  and  consequent  rate 
of  flow,  will  enable  quite  a  quantity  of  water  to  escape  along  certain  lines  and  so  lower 
the  water  level;  deposition,  in  an  opposite  way,  will  raise  it. 

a  Roberts,  Isaac,  Kept.  Brit.  Araoc.  1HK3. 1884.  p  405. 

6 King.  Franlclin  H..  Bull.  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  No.  5,  1892,  p.  54. 

«8oykE,  Penck's  Geograpfaische  Abhandluugen,  vol.  2,  pt.  8,  Wien,  1888,  pp.  60,  63. 


70  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL    IN    WELLS. 

In  regions  where  the  ramfall  is  low  and  the  ground-water  table  is  below  the  level 
of  the  rivers  changes  in  topography  naturally  have  little  effect,  except  where  the 
erosion  is  sufficient  to  cut  the  ground- water  table.  Generally  in  such  regions  tbt- 
rivers  contribute  to  the  ground  water  by  seepage,  and  the  amount  so  contributet; 
becomes  small  when  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  the  deposition  of  silt  with  whirh 
the  rivers  plaster  up  their  beds.  During  flood  periods  the  rivers  scour  out  the  rilt 
and  again  allow  the  percolation  of  water. 

Earthquakes  may  produce  fluctuations  due  to  several  causes:  Small  fiuctuatioa.^ 
may  result  directly  from  the  earth's  tremors;  a  deformation  without  faulting  niaj 
produce  changes  in  pressure;  and  faulting  may  make  new  ground-water  outlets  whiih 
will  cause  the  water  in  neighboring  wells  to  rise  or  fall  according  to  their  relation  to 
the  faulting. 

Geyser  phenomena  may  produce  both  periodic  and  irregular  fluctuations  of  the 
water  level,  and  Slichter  has  suggested  that  the  peculiar  periodic  fluctuations  at  Uri- 
sino  Station,  New  South  Wales  (p.  76),  may  be  due  to  such  a  cause. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  refer  to  the  hypothetical  siphon,  or  Tantalua- 
cup  arrangement,  which  the  old  philosophers  gave  as  an  explanation  of  intermittent 
springs, fl  a  theory  which  has  sur\ived  in  Houston's  Physical  Geography,  a  work  still 
used  in  the  high  schools  in  some  parts  of  this  country.  ^  From  a  geologic  stand- 
point the  existence  of  such  a  siphon  arrangement  as  this  theory  postulates  may  be 
regarded  as  almost  impossible  becauseof  the  difficulty  of  finding  an  air-tight  passage. 
The  fluctuations  are  now  known  to  be  due  in  many  cases  to  causes  not  understood  at  the 
time  this  hypothesis  was  advanced,  and  in  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  an 
intermittent  spring  depending  on  a  natural  siphon  for  its  action  would  l^e  regardeil 
.as  a  most  exceptional  phenomenon.  It  would  l)e  necessary  to  do  more  than  prove 
that  a  spring  or  well  ebbs  and  flows  to  esta))li8h  the  existence  of  such  a  siphon. 

FLUCTUATIONS  PRODUCED  BY  HUMAN  AGENCIES. 

:EFFECT    of    SETTLEMENT,    DEFORESTATION,    AND    CULTIVATION    OX 
THE  LEVEL.  OF  WATER  IN  WELLS. 

It  is  well  known  that  many  hillside  springs  throughout  the  entire  eastern  United 
States  which  furnished  water  when  the  country  was  first  settleii  are  now  dry,  that 
large  areas  of  former  marsh  land  are  now  in  cultivation,  and  that  streams  on  which 
boats  plied  in  the  early  days  are  no  longer  navigable.  The  rainfall  records  do  not 
indicate  that  there  have  l)een  any  radical  climatic  changes,  and  the  changes  are  clearh 
the  result  of  human  occupation.  ^ 

Part  of  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  large  areas  have  been  artificially  drained  by 
tiles,  ditches,  or  absorption  pits;  beaver  dams  and  other  stream  obstructions,  such  as 
tlie  Great  Red  River  Raft,  have  been  removed,  with  the  consesquent  drainage  of  greater 
or  less  areas. '^  Some  of  the  hillside  springs  have  merely  been  buried  as  the  soil 
washed  in  from  the  surrounding  lands,  while  others  have  been  affected  by  the  drainage 
of  the  lower  lands. 

Different  kinds  of  vegetation  use  different  amounts  of  water  ♦?  and  affect  the  surfai'e 

a  See  Regiiault,  P«^re,  Phil.  Conversations,  vol.  2.  conversation  6:  Dechales,  Tract.  17  de  Fontibu? 
NaturalibuM,  etc.;  Desiiguliers,  Rev.  J.  T.,  Trans.  Phil.  Soc.  London,  No.  384,  vol.  33,  1724  (abridgi^ 
edition  Trans.  1665-lSUO.  vol.  7,  pp.  89-41);  Atwell,  JoMcph,  Trans.  Phil.  Soc.  London,  No.  424,  vol.  37. 
1732  (abridged  edition  Trans.  lfidVl800,  vol.  7,  pp.  544-555). 

b  For  a  more  recent  suggestion  of  the  same  theorv,  see  Knightly,  T.  E.,  G«ol.  Mag.,  n.  s.,  decade  1. 
vol.  5.  1898,  pp.  333-334. 

cSoe,  in  this  connection.  King,  Franklin  H.,  Bull.  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  No.  6,  1892,  p.  42;  Lane, 
Alfred  C,  Water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  30,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1899,  pp.  54-d6. 

dPn)f.  Paper  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  No.  46, 1906. 

«The  literature  on  the  amount  of  water  transpired  from  plants  and  evaporated  from  the  earth 
under  different  conditions  in  very  e.xten«*ive.  but  the  results  are  neither  readily  comparable  nor 
readily  applicable  to  natural  conditions,  because  of  the  differing  and  in  many  cases  unnatural  condi- 
tions under  which  the«o  experiments  have  been  tried.  For  a  review  of  the  literature,  see  Harrington. 
M.  W.,  lieview  <tf  forest-meteorology  observations,  and  Fernow,  B.  E.,  Relation  of  forest  to  water 
8upi)ly;  Bull.  Bureau  of  Forestry,  V.  S.  Dept.  .Agric.  No.  7,  1873;  Lueger,  Otto,  Die  Waa9erver>*f>TRnn^ 
der  Stiidte:  Der  stiidtische  Tiefbau,  Bfl.  11.  pp.  176-177,  196-205,  bibliography,  pp.  I4S-161:  Wollnr. 
Ewald,  Kxpt.  Station  Record,  vol.  4,  ]89;i,  pp.  531-633;  King,  F.  H.,  The  Soil,  New  York.  1895,  Drainaiv 
and  Irrigation,  New  York,  1899. 


FLUCTUATIONS    PBODUCED    BY    HUMAN    AGENCIES.  .71 

evaporation  in  different  ways,  and  a  change  in  the  plant  covering  or  crop  over  large 
areas  may  clearly  result  in  a  broad  elevation  or  lowering  of  the  water  level.  Simi- 
larly, certain  methods  of  cultivation  conserve  more  moisture  than  w^ould  find  its  way 
into  the  ground  under  certain  natural  conditions,  while  others  allow  large  quantities 
to  flow  off  the  surface.  Fertilizers  and  manures  affect  the  rate  of  percolation  in  dif- 
ferent ways;  some  greatly  hasten  and  others  retard  the  percolation  of  the  soil  water. 
The  relation  of  cultivation  to  the  position  of  the  ground  water  is  therefore  very  com- 
plex, and  it  is  clearly  possible  to  have  different  results  on  adjacent  fields.  In  regard 
to  the  effect  of  forested  areas  on  percolation  it  should  be  pointed  out,  on  the  one 
hand,  that  (1)  a  portion  of  the  rain  water,  varying  from  8.5  to  59  per  cent«  of  the 
yearly  rainfall,  is  caught  in  the  crow^ns  of  the  trees  and  is  evaporated  without  reach- 
ing the  ground;  (2)  the  absorption  capacity  of  the  forest  litter  and  moss  is  great,  and 
water  can  be  contributed  to  the  ground  water  only  after  this  is  saturated;  while  the 
evaporation  from  this  surface  is  slow,  it  is  to  be  considered  evaporation  from  a  satu- 
rated surface,  and  the  net  result  may  be  greater  than  from  a  region  where  the  water 
sinks  rapidly  into  the  ground;  (3)  the  old  litter  or  humus  is,  according  to  the  experi- 
ments by  Riegler,  Ebermeyer,  and  Wollny,  practically  imper\'ious,  and,  while  the 
fresh  litter  may  absorb  large  quantities  of  water,  the  impervious  humus  or  rotted  lit- 
ter prevents  the  water  from  reaching  the  ground  water;  (4)  the  roots  of  the  trees  in 
some  cases  draw  from  ground  water  that  is  entirely  out  of  the  reach  of  ordinary  field 
plants.  Moreover,  the  direct  observations  of  Ototzky  f>  and  Henry  and  Tolsky  <?  yield 
the  positive  result  that  in  Russia  and  France  the  level  of  the  ground  water  is  decidedly 
lower  under  forests  than  under  cleared  land.  The  results  of  Ototzky' s  observations 
are  summarized  in  the  Experiment  Station  Record  in  the  following  wordg: 

This  is  a  translation  from  the  Russian  giving  the  results  of  a  hydrologlcal  survey  in  the  steppefl 
reg^ion.  The  conclusion  is  reached  that,  physico-geographical  conditions  being  the  same,  the  level 
of  ground  water  is  lower  in  forests  than  in  adjacent  steppes  or  in  general  in  neighboring  open  spaces. 
The  level  falls  as  forests  are  approached,  the  fall  sometimes  being  very  sudden,  and  it  is  more  marked 
in  case  of  old  forests  than  new. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  stream  flow  from  forested 
regions  is  more  constant  than  from  unforested  oneSj^*  and  as  this  is  to  be  considered 
as  due  to  ground-water  phenomena  it  indicates  a  greater  percolation. 

On  the  plains,  groves  and  hedgerows  by  acting  as  wind  breaks  tend  to  elevate  the 
w^ater  level  by  decreasing  the  surface  evaporation. 

It  is  well  known  to  agriculturists  that  it  is  possible  to  cultivate  the  soil  so  that  the 
evaporation  will  be  greater  than  under  natural  conditions  or  so  that  the  moisture 
will  be  conserved.  It  is  thus  possible  to  either  increase  or  decrease  the  ground  water 
by  cultivation.  In  the  semiarid  region  of  the  Middle  West,  where  the  rainfall  is 
light,  the  secret  of  the  so-called  "  dry  or  arid  farming"  is  to  so  prepare  the  soil  as  to 
insure  the  percolation  of  all  the  rain  water  or  of  a  very  large  i)ercentage  of  it,  and  to 
prevent  its  escape  by  evaporation.  To  accomplish  this  various  methods  of  subsoil- 
ing,  subsurface  rolling,  and  surface  mulching,  either  by  pulverizing  the  soil  or  by  the 
addition  of  straw  or  manure,  have  been  employed,  in  some  cases  with  marked  suc- 
cess. I  am  informed  by  Prof.  Charles  S.  Slichter  that  in  western  Kansas,  where  the 
Campbell  system  is  employed,  the  ground  water  has  in  places  been  raised  several 
feet  by  the  increased  percolation. 


oSee  Bull.  Division  of  Forest^-y,  U.  8.  Dept.  Agrlc.  No.  7,  1893.  pp,  100-101,  130-131,  and  refeifences 
therein  given;  also  Lueger,  Wasnerversorgimg  der  Stadie.  p.  197. 

ft  Ototzky,  P.,  Ann.  Sci.  Agron.  1897,  vol.  2,  No.  3,  pp.  455-477,  pis,  2;  review,  Expt.  Station  Record, 
vol.  9, 1898,  p.  1041. 

c- Henry,  E.,  and  Tolsky,  A.,  Ann.  Soc.  Agron.  1902.  vol.  3.  No.  3,  pp.  396-422;  review,  Expt.  Station 
Record,  vol.  15, 1903.  p.  125. 

dSee  Bull.  Division  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  No.  7,  1892,  pp.  158-170;  Manson,  Marsden,  Com- 
parison of  low-water  discharge  from  a  timbere<l  with  that  from  a  comparatively  timberless  area: 
water-Sup.  and  Irr.  Paper  No.  46,  r.  a.  Qeol.  Survey,  1901,  pp.  46-47. 


72  FLUCTUATIONS   OF   THE    WATEB   LEVEL   IK    WSLUB. 

EFFECT  OF  IBKIGATEOIT. 

Irrigation,  almost  without  exception,  raises  the  grcmnd-water  level,  andi  in  refiooa 
where  there  is  no  natural  ground-water  outlet  so  placed  that  it  fumiBhee  a  flmffideoi 
natural  escape  for  the  underflow,  elaborate  systems  of  tiliflg  and  pcreapln^  are  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  water  level  from  reaching  the  surface  in  the  low  places  an<l  ad- 
verting them  into  marshes  or  alkali  flats.  Carpenter  reports  that  in  the  Cache  b 
Poudre  Valley,  Colorado,  the  water  level  has  been  raised  20  to  40  feet.«  The  effecte 
of  irrigation  in  the  King  River  Valley,  California,  are  shown  in  Water-Supply  and 
Irrigation  Paper  No.  58,  PI.  XXVI. 

On  Long  Island  only  limited  areas  have  so  far  been  irrigated,  but  these  bid  fair  to 
rapidly  increase.  On  account  of  the  very  porous  character  of  the  soil  and  the  iict 
that  all  the  water  used  must  be  obtained  from  the  ground  water  of  the  regrinn 
involved,  there  is  no  danger  of  serious  raising  of  the  ground- water  level;  indeed,  tb« 
net  result  here  of  extreme  irrigation,  which  would  have  to  be  done  by  pumping, 
would  be  a  lowering  of  the  ground-water  level  to  the  extent  of  the  added  loas  by 
evaporation  and  plant  transpiration.  When  the  water  for  irrigation  is  supplied 
wholly  from  springs,  as  it  is  at  one  or  two  points  near  Flushing,  or  w^here  supplied 
from  the  city  waterworks,  as  at  Elmhurst,  ^  the  result  is  a  local  raising  of  the  ground- 
water level 

EFFECT  OF  BAMS. 

In  regions  where  the  ground  water  is  tributary  to  the  stream  channels  the  effect 
of  the  ponding  of  streams,  except  where  the  material  of  the  l)ed  of  the  resen-oir 
is  entirely  impervious,  is  to  raise  the  ground-water  level.  As  the  pond  or  reservoir 
is  relatively  permanent,  the  ground  water  generally  has  time  to  adjust  itself  to  the 
new  conditions,  and  an  elevation  is  produced  which  is  persistent  as  long  as  the  reser- 
voir lasts.  Thus  on  Long  Island,  where  dams  were  built  in  all  the  little  streams  at 
an  early  day,  the  effect  has  been  to  abnormally  raise  the  ground-water  level  over 
considerable  areas. 

In  mill  ponds  of  this  character  the  use  of  the  water  during  the  day  and  the  accumu- 
lation during  the  night  give  rise  to  a  periodic  fluctuation  of  the  water  in  the  welL* 
along  their  banks  which  tends  to  accentuate  the  temperature  effect 

In  regions  where  the  ground- water  table  is  below  the  stream,  ponding  will  increase 
the  leakage,  though  this  may  naturally  check  itself  in  time  by  the  deposition  of  silt 
and  colloidal  material. 

EFFECT  OF  UNDERGROUND  TVATER-SUPPI.Y  DEVELOPMENTS. 

Underground  water  is  developed  for  water  supply  in  one  of  four  general  ways: 
(1)  By  subsurface  dams,  (2)  by  infiltration  galleries,  (3)  by  pumping  from  single 
wells  or  groups  of  wells,  and  (4)  by  flowing  wells. 

EFFECT  OF  8UB8TJBFA0E  DAKS. 

In  regions  where  there  are  valleys  with  impervious  sides  filled  with  porous  mate- 
rial a  dam  across  the  valley  will  pond  this  underflow  and  force  it  to  the  surface. 
This  has  been  employ 'mI  in  many  regions  of  the  West  where  dry  stream  beds  with 
considerable  underflow  abound.  The  effect  of  such  a  structure  on  the  ground-water 
level  is  shown  in  Water-Supply  and  Irrigation  Paper  No.  67,  Pis.  V,  VII. 

EFFECT  OF  IHFILTBATIOV  0ALLEBIB8. 

Infiltration  galleries  may  either  raise  or  lower  the  ground-water  level.  ,  When  cod- 
structed  along  the  line  of  contact  of  a  pervious  and  impervious  bed  they  may  act  in 

a  Carpenter,  L.  G.,  Seepage  or  return  waters  from  irrigation:  Bull.  Colorado  Expt.  Station,  No.  S3, 
1896.  p.  4. 
6  Bull.  Office  Expt.  Stations,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  No.  148, 1904. 


FLUCTUATIONS   DUE  TO   PUMPING. 


73 


a  way  analogous  to  a  subeurface  dam.  Where  deep  in  pervious  layers  they  offi^  a 
new  outlet  at  a  lower  level  than  the  natural  one,  and  so  depress  the  water  plane. 
This  effect  is  the  same  as  that  in  a  pumped  well,  except  that  here  the  cone  of  deprech 
sion  is  greatly  lengthened  in  one  direction. 

siTBOT  07  FUHPnro. 

Tae  first  effect  of  pumping  is  to  develop  a  more  or  less  symmetrical  cone  of  depres- 
sion, of  which  the  well  is  the  center.  The  steepness  and  slope  of  the  cone  c'epend 
on  such  factors  as  the  porosity,  rate  of  flow,  rate  of  pumping,  and  imiformity  of  soil. 
The  effect  of  such  a  depression  in  the  porous  material  on  Long  Island  is  to  lower  the 
water  in  adjacent  wells  and  drain  the  near-by  ponds  and  marsh  areas. <> 

The  effect  of  this  lowering  of  the  water  table  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  stream 
flow  on  Long  Island,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  table,  compiled  by  L.  B.  Ward: 

Effect  of  graundrwater  pumping  in  di7ninishing  stream  flow^  from  187 S  to  1899 j  in  the  old 
watershed  of  the  Brooklyn  yxUerworis,  comparing  five-year  periods,  f^ 


Driven-well  supply. 


Period. 


Period. 


Ig7a-1877 
187»-1882 
1885-1887 
1889-1893 
1896-1899 


Other  pumped 

sources  of 

supply. 


Ex 
pressed 
as  rain- 
fall. 


Inches. 
0.18 
.99 
2.30 
4.17 
•2.74 


Daily  per 
square 
mile. 


Dally 

total  per 

square 

mile 
derived 
from  all 
soureesin 
the  wa- 
tershed 


Water  collected  as  stream 
flow,  referred  to  50  square 
miles  of  watershed. 


Daily  per 
square 
mile. 


Expressed  as  rain- 
fall. 


Galloru. 

GaUons. 

8.669 

517,206 

47.063 

586,978 

109,041 

651,506 

198.606 

824,196 

130.224 

745.988 

Gallons. 


a  Merchants'  Association  of  New  York,  The  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  New  York.  1900.  p.  186. 
5Beganinl883. 

While  all  pumped  wells  cause  a  cone  of  depression,  in  regions  where  the  ground 
water  moves  rapidly  and  where  the  demand  does  not  exceed  the  supply  the  recovery 
is  very  rapid,  as  is  shown  by  the  figures  prepared  by  W.  E.  Spear  from  the  records 
of  the  Brooklyn  water  department.  ^ 

Several  i)oints  are  noteworthy  about  these  diagrams.  The  water-bearing  strata, 
in  the  deep  and  shallow  wells,  in  each  case  are  separated  by  rather  fine  material 
which  may  usually  be  called  a  clay.  There  is  a  distinct  flow  below  the  clay  layer 
with  a  velocity,  as  shown  by  Slichter,  of  6  feet  per  day,  while  that  immediately  above 


aSee  discussion  in  Prof.  Paper  U.  8.  Geol.  Survey  No.  44. 1906,  pp.  78-79. 

frRept.  New  York  City  Commission  on  Additional  Water  Supply,  1904,  appendix  7,  Pis.  XI,  XII. 


74  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE    WATER   LEVEL   IN    WELI^. 

tl#clay  layer  is  but  18  inches.  Near  the  surface  the  velocity  is  3  to  15  feet  per  day. 
It  is  therefore  interesting  to  notice  at  Agawam,  which  is  essentially  a  deei>-wtil 
station,  the  sympathetic  effect  of  pumping  in  the  lower  layer  on  the  water  in  :b^ 
upper.  There  is  also  an  important  difference  in  the  depression  produced  in  urii 
No.  11  and  well  No.  16.  This  indicates  local  irregularities  in  porosity.  At  Mern«i 
the  wells  connected  to  the  suction  are  all  shallow  but  one;  the  effect  of  panipinj;  i- 
therefore  more  marked  in  the  shallow  than  the  deep  wells.  It  is  here  quite  normally 
greatest  in  the  center  well.  The  recovery  after  pumping  is  very  rapid  in  both  ca?«", 
indicating  that  the  supply  is  a  free  one  and  that  the  plants  have  not  overdrawn  it. 

The  records  for  a  181-foot  well  at  the  Queens  County  Water  Company  pumping 
station,  near  Hewlett,  N.  Y.,  show  regular  fluctuations  due  to  pumping  (PL  III, 
■p.  18).  This  well  is  3,000  feet  from  the  pumping  station  and  2,000  feet  from  tli^ 
nearest  pumped  well,  and  the  records  showed  fluctuations  of  such  a  regular  rhy  thniii^il 
character  that  they  were  at  first  thought  to  represent  fluctuations  due  entirely  tr- 
temperature  changes.  Further  consideration  in  connection  with  the  record  of  pcn-jj- 
ing  from  the  station  shows  that  the  fluctuations  are  almost  wholly  due  to  pumping, 
although  there  is  perhaixs  a  slight  temperature  effect  involved. 

The  response  of  the  water  level  in  the  deeper  wells  to  changes  of  pressure  at  iht- 
surface,  due  to  rainfall,  tidal,  barometric,  and  thermometric  fluctuations,  suggests  tliat 
the  removal  by  pumping  of  the  surface  ground  water  over  an  artesian  stratum  will. 
by  relief  from  load,  produce  sympathetic  fluctuations  in  deep  wells  where  there  ia 
absolutely  no  connection  between  the  water-bearing  strata. 

SFFEOT  or  ASTE8IAK-WSLL  DETSLOFMEHTS. 

The  universal  experience  in  artesian  basins  has  been  that  after  a  time  the  heaii 
decreases.  This  is  due  to  many  causes.  When  the  whole  basin  is  affected,  it  indicate? 
that  the  outflow  or  pumping  from  the  wells  exceeds  the  inflow  from  the  porous  strata, 
and  a  gradual  decrease  is  to  be  ex()ected  until  these  factors  are  t>alanced.  A  well  or 
group  of  wells  may  be  influenced  by  interference  from  a  single  well  favorably  situate  1. 
Thus  the  drilling  of  a  well  in  which  the  outflow  is  many  feet  below  that  of  near-l«y 
wells  quickly  affects  the  head  of  the  higher  wells.  Very  often  where  but  a  few  wt-U? 
here  and  there  are  affected  the  decrease  in  head  is  to  be  regarded  as  wholly  due  t" 
leakage,  either  on  the  outside  of  the  casing  or  by  the  failure  of  the  casing  thnragL 
corrosion. 

All  artci^ian  wells  are  sooner  or  later  pumped,  and  the  effect  of  the  pumping  is  uiVl 
to  lower  the  head  over  wide  areas.  The  diminution  of  the  head  in  the  chalk  we..s 
in  London  during  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  well  shown  hy 
Clutterbuc^.« 

EFFECT  OF  LARGE  CITIES  ON  THE  WATER  LEVEL. 

Aside  from  the  general  lowering  of  the  water  level  in  cities  due  to  pumpa^, 
another  factor  tending  in  the  same  direction  is  a  decrease  of  the  inflow  of  ram  watt- rv. 
The  mat's  of  buildings,  paved  street.^,  and  drainage  systems  absolutely  prevent  the 
infiltration  of  rain  water  over  wide  areas.  This  loss  is,  however,  in  part  replace<l  t  y 
leakage  from  the  water  and  sewer  systems. 

The  loading  resulting  from  the  placmg  of  large  and  heavy  buildings  on  small  area.* 
will  have  the  same  effect  as  loading  due  to  any  natural  causes,  except  that  the  formtr 
is  so  gradual  that  in  most  cases  the  water  has  time  to  escape  laterally.  It  is  conceiv- 
able, however,  that  the  loading  may  exceed  the  rate  of  outflow  and  a  temporary 
measurable  increase  in  the  artesian  head  be  produced,  but  this  is  of  such  slight  value 
as  to  be  of  theoretical  rather  than  practical  importance.  The  effect  is  practically 
nothing  when  the  building  rests  on  bed  rock,  as  at  New  York,  and  reaches  its  maxi- 


aMin.  PrtKi.  Inst.  CivU  Eng.,  vol.  9, 1850,  pi.  vl,  p.  180. 


FLUCTUATIONS   DUE    TO    INDETERMINATE    CAUSES.  75 

mam  at  points  like  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  and  other  coast  towns  underlain  by 
unconsolidated  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  beds.  A  much  more  readily  measurable 
effect  would  be  produced  by  large  fires,  which  in  a  short  time  would  remove  a  large 
weight  from  a  limited  area.  These  pressure  effects  would  be  noticeable  only  in  wells 
in  w^hich  the  water  is  already  under  artesian  head  and  when  the  overlying  beds  have 
considerable  plasticity.  They  would  clearly  be  greatest  in  unconsolidated  materials 
and  would  decrease  with  the  thickness  of  the  strata  above  the  water-bearing  layer. 

EFFECT  PRODUCED  BY  LOADED  FREIGHT  TRAINS. 

The  sensitiveness  of  the  water  in  wells  to  any  change  in  load  at  the  surface  is 
strikingly  illustrated  by  the  oscillation  produtred  by  slowly  moving  freight  trains  at 
Madison,  Wis.    This  is  described  by  King  as  follows:  ^ 

WhiJe  the  self-registering  instrument  was  upon  well  No.  48,  It  was  ob.Herved  that  there  were  frequent 
records  of  sharp  short-period  curves  shown  upon  the  sheet,  which  at  first  were  supposed  to  be  the 
result  of  accidental  jars  which  the  instrument  sustained;  but  the  frequency  of  their  occurrence  and 
the  fact  that  they  always  indicated  elevations  of  the  water  led  to  a  closer  scrutiny  and  their  final 
association  with  the  movement  of  trains  past  the  well.  On  the  eight-day  instrument  these  fluctua- 
tions are  shown  as  single  dashes,  but  with  the  one-day  form  the  curve  was  open.  The  well  In  which 
these  disturbances  occur  is  situated  about  140  feet  from  the  railroad  track  and  has  a  depth  of  40  feet. 
It  is  tubed  up  with  6-inch  Iron  pipe  to  the  sandstone,  37  feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  water  has  a 
mean  depth  of  about  20  feet  in  it. 

The  strongest  rises  in  the  level  of  the  water  are  produced  by  the  heavily  loaded  trains,  which  move 
rather  slowly.  A  single  engine  has  never  been  observed  to  leave  a  record,  and  the  rapidly  moving 
passenger  tains  produce  only  a  slight  movement,  or  none  at  all,  which  is  recorded  by  the  instrument. 
The  figure  shows  the  curve  to  t>e  produced  by  a  rapid  but  gradual  rise  of  th6  water,  which  is  followed 
by  only  a  slightly  leas  rapid  fall  to  the  normal  level,  there  being  nothing  oscillatory  in  character 
indicated  by  any  of  the  tracings  tior  ot>servable  to  the  eye  when  watching  the  pen  while  in  motion. 
The  downward  movement  ot  the  pen  usually  begins  when  the  engine  has  parsed  the  well  by  four  or 
five  lengths,  and  when  the  pen  is  watched,  it  may  be  seen  to  start  and  to  descend  quite  gradually, 
occupying  some  seconds  in  the  descent. 

This  is  very  similar  to  the  various  pressure  effects  noted  above,  due  to  tidal,  baro- 
metric, and  rainfall  loading,  and  to  transmitted  fluctuations  due  to  variations  in  local 
load  produced  by  temperature  changes,  except  that  the  time  of  lateral  transmission 
is  rather  shorter,  and  it  is  not  clear  that  the  water  is  under  artesian  head. 

FLUCTUATIONS   DUE  TO   INDETERMINATE   CAUSES. 
SMALL.   FLUCTUATIONS. 

The  extreme  susceptibility  of  the  water  level  in  wells  to  pressure  changes  would 
lead  one  to  expect  many  minute  fluctuations;  and,  indeed,  all  the  well  curves  show 
a  great  number  of  such  fluctuations  superposed  on  the  larger  fluctuations  produced 
by  the  dominant  element  at  that  point.  Many  are  clearly  compound  waves  of  very 
complex  character  and  represent  the  resultant  of  many  forces.  They  emphasize  the 
continued  state  of  unrest  of  the  earth's  surface.  These  fluctuations  can  be  properly 
studied  only  with  instruments  having  both  a  large  vertical  and  time  scale,  and 
their  elucidation  would  necessitate  corresponding  meteorologic  instruments  of  great 
delicacy. 

On  the  day  gages  at  Hewlett  (p.  18)  there  is  a  distinct  series  of  minor  fluctuations 
with  a  well-defined  period  of  about  twenty  minutes.  These  greatly  resemble  the 
minor  oscillations  in  the  tidal  curves  at  many  points.  ^ 

a  Bull.  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  No.  6, 1892,  pp.  67-68. 

bSee  Airy,  Sir  G.  B.,  On.  the  seiches  or  nontidal  undulations  of  short  period  at  Malta:  Phil.  Trans. 
Royal  Soc.,  1878,  pp.  123-138  Dawson,  W.  Bell  Notes  on  secondary  undulations  recorded  by  self- 
registering  tide  gages.  Trans.  Royal  Soc.  Canada,  soc.  3, 1896,  pp.  26-26;  Illustrations  of  remarkable 
secondary  tidal  undulations  m  Nova  Scotia,  Trans.  Roval  Soc.  Canada,  sec.  3, 1899,  pp.  23-26.  Duff, 
A.  W.,  Secondary  undulations  shown  by  recording  tide  gages;  Trans.  Nat.  Hi.st.  Soc.  New  Bruns- 
wick, 1897;  Am.  Jour.  Sci..  4th  ser.,  vol.  3,  1897,  pp.  406-^12;  Am.  Jour.  Sci.,  4th  ser.,  vol.  12,  1901,  pp. 
123-139.  Denison,  F.  Napier,  The  Great  Lakes  as  a  sensitive  barometer:  Canadian  Eng.,  Oct.-Nov., 
1897:  Secondary  undulations  oi  tide  gages,  Proc.  Can.  Inst.,  n.  s.,  vol.  1, 1897,  pp.  28-31;  The  Great 
Lakes  as  a  sensitive  barometer:  Proc.  Can.  Inst.,  n.  s..  vol.  1. 1897,  pp.  56-63;  The  origin  of  ocean  tidal 
secondary  undulations:  Proc.  Can.  Inst.,  n.  s.,  vol.  1,  1897,  pp.  134-135. 


76  FLUCTUATIONS    OF   THE   WATER   LEVEL    IN   WELLS, 

The  seco&dary  oscillations  in  the  tide  curve  at  Swansea,  England,  have  a  tbr^ 
interval  of  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes;  at  Malta,  twenty-one  minutes;  and  at  Sydner. 
twenty-six  minutes;  while  Benison  has  observed  on  Lake  Huron  oscillations  nith 
periods  of  fourteen,  eighteen,  twenty-two,  and  forty-five  minutes.  As  no  f^a^h 
secondary  tidal  oscillations  have  been  observed  near  Long  Island,  and  as  the  HerWn 
well  is  at  such  a  distance  from  the  coast  that  it  is  not  affected  by  tides  4  feet  hij^k 
these  oscillations  are  clearly  not  of  transmitted  ocean  origin.  Denison's  obeenrat^  is 
led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  many  of  the  secondary  oscillations  are  dne  to  baro- 
metric fluctuations,  and  the  occurrence  of  these  fluctuations  in  wells  must  be  regarded 
as  strong  confirmatory  evidence  of  his  conclusion. 

Besides  these  fluctuations  with  a  period  of  twenty  minutes,  there  are  ee-veral  other 
minor  vibrations  with  smaller  amplitudes  and  periods;  one  series  seems  to  \axti 
period  of  five  or  six  minutes,  but  is  not  very  sharply  defined. 

In  the  wells  at  L}mbrook  (p.  28)  minor  fluctuations  with  periods  of  forty  and  eighty 
minutes  have  been  clearly  recognized  in  a  mass  of  still  smaller  fluctuations. 

FLUCTUATIONS  AT  MILL.BURN,  N.  T. 

Extremely  irregular  fluctuations  with  a  range  of  as  much  as  1  inch  were  obtaiiwd 
from  a  well  at  Millbum,  N.  Y.  (PL  V,  p.  22).  These  are  quite  different  from  any 
of  the  other  curves  obtained  and  no  cause  can  be  assigned  for  these  irregularities. 
Not  the  least  strange  part  of  the  curve  is  that  its  general  character  changes  sharply 
on  July  29.     (See  discussion,  pp.  22-23.) 

FLUCTUATIONS  AT  URI8INO  STATION,  NEW  80LTTH  WALES. 

The  fluctuations  reported  by  Professor  David  «  at  Urisino  Station,  between  Wanaar- 
ing  and  Milparinka,  in  the  northwest  comer  of  New  South  Wales,  200  miles  from  t.he 
ocean,  are  unique.  Two  subartesian  wells,  one  1,680  and  the  other  2,000  feet  deep, 
in  which  the  water  rises  to  within  15  or  20  feet  of  the  surface,  show  regular  rhvth- 
mical  pulsations  with  a  range  of  4  to  6  feet  every  two  hours.  That  is,  there  are  here 
six  almost  equal  ** tides"  of  large  size  every  twenty-four  hours.  Prof.  Charle?S. 
Slichter  has  suggested  the  very  probable  explanation  that  the  fluctuataona  are  doe 
to  a  sort  of  periodic  geyser  phenomena.  This  is  quite  competent  to  produce  the  fiuc- 
tuations  observed  and  the  high  temperature  of  the  water  in  this  basin  lends  congider- 
able  color  to  the  suggestion. 


a  David,  T.  W.  E.,  Notes  on  artesian  water  iu  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland:  Jour,  and  Pr&e. 
Royal  Soc.  New  South  Wales  for  18d3,  vol.  27,  pp.  429-430. 


INDEX. 


A. 


Page. 


74 


A^awam,  N.  Y.,  pumpiDg  at,  effect  of 

Afpram,   Hungary,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at 41 

Air.  fluctuations  produced  by  pressure  trans- 
mitted through 7-8, 24, 42-43 

Airy,  G.  B.,  on  minor  tidal  fluctuations  at 

Malta 76 

AHriston,  England,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at 41 

Almenderes  River,  Cuba,    fluctuations  in 

springs  produced  by 63 

A  Her   River,  Germany,  well   fluctuations 

produced  by 60 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  annual  and  secular  fluc- 
tuations in  well  at 40 

Annual  fluctuations,  character  and  cause 

of 2ft-84 

dates  of  maximum  and  minimum,  fac- 
tors affecting 34-37 

diagrams  showing 30,31,32 (PI. IX), 39 

Arkansas,  well  fluctuations  produced  by 

RedRivcrin 63 

Artesian  well  developments,  effect  of,  on 

water  level 74 

Atwell,  Joseph,  on  fluctuating  springs  in 

Devonshire 53 

Auchincloss,  W.  S.,  on  annual  and  secular 

fluctuations  at  Bryn  Mawr 38, 51 

Avalon,  N.  J.,  tidal  fluctuations  in  well  at.       69 

B. 

Baden,  Austria,  annual  fluctuations  in  well 

at 41 

BalUy, .  on  tidal  well  at  Lille.  Ffance..  64,67 

Barbour,  £.  H.,  on  blowing  wells  In  Ne- 
braska         58 

on    annual   well  fluctuations    in   Ne- 
braska         51 

Barometric  changes,  effects  of.  7-8, 24-25, 52-54, 76 

effects  of,  bibliography  of 53-54 

diagram  showing 24  (PI.  VI) 

Barren  Island  (Andaman  Sea),  tidal  wells 

on 64,68 

Berlin,  Germany,  annual   fluctuations   in 

well  at 40 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

at,  figure  showing 29 

Bettes,  C.  R.,  aid  of 18-19 

Bibliography  of  fluctuations,  due  to  baro- 
metric changes 68-54 

due  to  ocean  tides 67-69 

due  to  rainfall 51-52 

due  to  rivers 62-63 

due  to  temperature 59 


Page. 
Blowing  wells,  occurrence  aud  bibliogra- 
phy of 63 

Bombay,  India,  tidal  wells  near 64, 67-68 

Bowman,  Isaiah,  well  observations  by 13,16 

Bralthwaite,  Frederick,  on  tidal -well  fluctu- 
ations at  London 67 

Bremen,  Germany,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at 40 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

at,  figure  showing 29 

Brentwood,  N.  Y.,  barograph  record  at,  fig- 
ure showing 18  (PI.  Ill), 

22(P1.  V),24(F1.VI) 

observations  at 27 

rainfall  record  at,  figure  showing.  18  (PI.  Ill), 
22(P1.  V),24(P1.  VI) 
Bronx  Park,  N.  Y.,  soil  temperatures  at, 

observations  on 57, 68 

Brooklyn  waterworks,  effect  of  pumping  at, 

onstreamflow 73 

BrUnn,  Austria,  annual  fluctuations  in  well 

at 40 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

at,  figure  showing 29 

Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  annual  and  secular  fluc- 
tuations in  well  at 40, 61 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

at,  flgure  showing 30 

ground-water  curves  at 38 

figures  showing 30,31 

Buckland,  Doctor.,  on  London  well  fluctua- 

Uons 62 

C. 

Cache  la  Poudre  River,  Colo.,  diurnal  fluc- 
tuations of 69 

rise  of  ground  wateralong 72 

Caleves,  Switzerland,  percolation  experi- 
ments at 46 

Callender,  H.  L.,  on  soil  temperatures 58 

Capillarity,  effect  of,  In   producing  well 

fluctuations 8,42-43,57 

effect  of  surface  changes  on 43 

Carpenter,  L.  G.,  on  fluctuations  In  Cache 

la  Poudre  River,  Colo 59 

on  rise  in  ground  water  along  Cache  la 

Poudre  River,  Colo 72 

Caterham,  England,  annual  fluctuations  in 

wellat 41 

Caverns,    tidal    fluctuations    transmitted 

through 62-64 

Celle,  Germany,  well  fluctuations  produced 

by  Aller  River  at 60-61 

Charnock,  Charles,  lysiroeter  experiments 

at  Ferrybridge  by 46 

77 


78 


INDEX. 


ChelgTove,  England,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at 41 

Cheshire,.  England,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at 41 

Christie,  James,  on   tidal  fluctuations  in 

wells 67 

Cities,  effect  of,  on  water  table 74-75 

Citizens  Water  Supply  Co.,  wells  of,  fluctua- 
tions in,  plate  showing  ..  26  (PI. VII) 
wellsof,  location  of,  map  showing.  26  (PI.  VII) 

observations  on 25-26 

.  Clutterbuck,  James,  on  lysimeters 48-49 

on  tidal  wells  in  England 67 

on  well  fluctuations  at  London 51, 62, 74 

Cochituate,  Lake,  Mass.,  basin  of,  rainfall 

and  run-off  in 50 

Colne  River,  England,  well  fluctuations  at 

.London  due  to 62 

Colorado,  annual  fluctuations  in  infiltration 

gallery  in 61 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

in,  relations  of 43 

ground- water  fluctuations  in 48, 60 

Connecticut  River,  Conn.,  basin  of,  rainfall 

and  run-off  in 60 

Consolidated  Ice  Co.,  Huntington,  N.  Y., 

observations  on  well  of 13 

Cretaceous  clays,  lack  of  continuity  of,  on 

Long  Island 10 

figureshowing 9 

Cretaceous  sands,  figure  showing 9 

water  In 10, 19 

Croton  River,  N.  Y.,  basin  of,  rainfall  and 

run-off  in 50 

Cuba,  spring  fluctuations  produced  by  Al- 

menderes  River  in ■ 63 

Cultivation,  changes  in  ground-water  level 

due  to 70-71 

Csernowitz,  Austria,  annual  fluctuations  in 

wellat 41 


Dalton,  John,  Ij'^imeter  experiments  of 44-45 

Dams,  changes  in  grt)und-water  level  due 

to 72 

Darwin,  G.  H.,  on  elastic  deformation  of  the 

earth ." 65-66 

David,  T.  W.  E.,  on  well  fluctuations  In  New 

South  Wales.... 76 

Dawson,  W.  Bell,  on  secondary  tidal  fluctua- 
tions         75 

Debreczin,  Hungary,  annual  fluctuations  in 

wellat 41 

Deformation,  elastic,  of  earth,  G.  H.  Dar- 
win on 65-66 

Deformation,  plastic,  of  earth,  well  fluctua- 

tionsdue  to 8,28, 

42-13, 62-03, 65-08, 74-75 

Denizet,  ,    on   spring  fluctuations   at 

Voize,  France,  due  to  baromet- 
ric changes 53 

Denison,  F.  Napier,  on  secondary  fluctua- 
tions of  Lake  Huron 75-76 

Denver  Water  Co.,  infiltration  gallery  of, 

fluctuations  in 61 


Desaguliers,  J.  T.,  on  tidal  fluctuations  in 

England 6" 

Dickinson,  John,  lysimeter  of 44-^'» 

Dickinson,  John,  and  Evans,  John,  perc«^la- 

tion  experiments  of.  32-34, 37, 4-3-4r'<  *<• 
percolation   experiments  of,    djagrram 

showing tl 

Discharge,  point  of,  distance  from,  relations 

of  fluctuations  and »<,  4S*.  •: 

rate  of,  fluctuations  due  to .S7, 61. 63-64 

Douglas,  J.  N.,  on  tidal  well  in  Kent,  Eng- 
land        C 

Douglaston,  N.  Y.,  manh  near,  descripticm 

of 25-35 

marsh  near,  map  showing 26  ( PL  VII 

mud  volcanoes  near 2?--* 

wells  at,  description  of 

fluctuations  In y> 

figure  showing 28  ( PI.  VIII  i 

lag  in 25.66 

location  of,  map  showing 26  ( PI.  Vll  • 

observations  on 10, 25-aFi.  ** 

errors  in !»»  A 

Drainage,  changes  in  water  table  due  to. . .       T<> 

Dubois,  H.  J.,  well  record  by 12 

Duff,  A.  W.,  on  secondary  tidal  fluctuatians 

in  New  Brunswick 75 


E. 


Earthquakes,  changes  in  water  table  due 

to 70 

East  Rockaway  Inlet,  tide  curves  at,  figure 

showing 20(PLIV 

Eastdean,  England,  annual  fluetuationn  in 

wellat 41 

Ebermeyer,  Dr.  E.,  on  forest  litter 71 

on  lysimeters 4^ 

Elbe  River,  Germany,  artesian  wells  in  bed 

of iil 

Emery,  F.  E.,  on  annual  fluctuations  in  well 

at  Geneva,  N.  Y" ."^1 

England,  annual  fluctuations  in  wells  in...  ll.Sl 
barometric  fluctuations  in  springs  and 

wells  in 53-54 

blowing  well  in .t3 

decrease  of  head  in  artesian  wells  in. ..       74 

fluctuations  due  to  rivers  in 62 

percolation  experiments  in 32-d4. 44-47 

tidal  fluctuations  in  wells  in 64, 67- to 

Erosion,  changes  in  water  table  due  to (S^ 

Europe,  annual  and  secular  fluctuations  in 

wells  in 34-35,88.40-41,51.61-62 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

in,  figures  showing.  29,82  (PI.  1X^.62 
Evans  and  Dickinson.    See  Dickinson  and 
Evans. 

Evaporation,  loss  by SO 

Evaporation  and  rainfall,  fluctuations  dne 

to 2W2 


I  Farrley,  T.,  on  blowing  well  in  England...      S3 

Fenhurst,  N.  Y.    See  Hewlett,  N.  Y. 
1  Fires,  effect  of,  on  water  level 75 


INDEX. 


79 


Page. 
Flood  flows,  contribution  by  ground  water 

to 8.42.49 

definition  of 49 

effect  of  showers  on 42 

Sft  aUtt  Stream  flow. 

Floral  Park,  N.  Y..  observations  at 27 

rainfall  records  at,  figures  showing...  W  (PI. 
Ill), 22  (PI.  V), 24  (PI.  VI) 
thermograph  records  nt,  figures  show- 
ing.. 18  ( PI.  in ). 22  r PI.  V), 24  (PI.  VI) 
Fluctuations  in  ground-water  level,  amount 

of 7.38-41.51 

causes  of 7, 28-76 

claasification  of 28 

See  also  Annual  fluctuations;  Artesian 
wells;  Bibliography:  Capillarity; 
Cities;  Dams;  Deformation;  For- 
ests; Geysers;  Geologic  changes; 
Irrigation;  Pumping:  Rainfall; 
Secular  fluctuations;  Showers; 
Soil;  Streams;  Tides. 

Forest,  effect  of,  on  ground-water  level 71 

Fortier,  Samuel,  on  underflow 51 

France,  barometric  fluctuations  in  springs 

in 63 

forests  In,   effect  of,  on  ground- water 

level 71 

percolation  experiments  in 45 

tidal  fluctuations  in  wells  in 62,  &4, 67-69 

Frankfurt,  Germany,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at 40 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

in  wells  at,  figures  showing 29 

Freund,  Adolf,  report  of,  on  Vienna  water- 
works         51 

Frazer,  Persiflor,  on  tidal  well  at  Seagirt, 

N.J 68 

Friez  gage,  description  of 18 

Fuller,  M.  L.,  on  spring   fluctuations   in 

Cuba,  due  to  river  changes 63 

Fulton,  Ark.,  fluctuations  due   to  stream 

flow  in  well  in 63 

G. 

Gages,  directrreading,  description  of 10-11 

observations  with 10-17 

self-recording,  descHntion  of 17-18 

observations  with 18-26 

Galleries,    infiltration,  changes    in   water 

table  due  to 72-73 

Ga^parln,  Doctor,   lysimeler   experiments 

of 46 

Genesee  River,  N.  Y.,  basin  of,  rainfall  and 

run-off  in 50 

Geneva,  N.  Y.,  annual  fluctuations  in  well 

at 40,61 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

in  well  at,  flgure  showing 30 

Geneva,  Switzerland,  percolation  experi- 
ments at 46 

Geologic  causes,  changes  in  ground-water 

level  due  to 69-70 

Geological  Survey,  U.  S.,  observations  by . . .  10-27 

Georgia,  tidal  fluctuations  in  wells  in 68 

Gerhardt,  P.,  on  annual  fluctuations 51 

on  fluctuations  d  ue  to  stream  flow 63 


Page, 
Germany,  annual  and  secular  fluctuations 

in  wells  in 40 

percolation  experiments  in 46-47 

well  fluctuations  due  to  streams  In 60-62 

Geysers,  well  fluctuations  due  t*) 70, 76 

Gilbert  and  Lawes.    ^e  Lawes  and  Gilbert. 
Gorlitz,  Germany,  percolation  experimentn 

at 46 

Gough,  John,  on  barometric  fluctuations  in 

Yorkshire  wells fS 

Graz,  Austria,  annual  fluctuations  in  well 

at 40 

Greaves,  Charles,  percolation  experiments 

of 32-38,46,48 

Green.  H.,  gages  of,  description  of 18 

Ground  water,  deflnition  of 42 

topography  and,  relations  of 3h,  69-70 

Sf^  (U«o  Bibliography ;  Capillarity ;  Citios; 
Dams;  Deformation;  Forests; 
Flood  flow;  Geysers;  Geologic 
changes;  Human  agencies;  Irri- 
gation; Pumping;  Rainfall; 
Showers;  Streams;  Stream  flow; 
Temperatures;  Tides. 
Ground-water  curves,  relation  of  rainfall 

cur>'es  and,  figures  showing 18 

(PI.  Ill), 22  (P1.V),24  (Pl.VI), 
29,  30,  31,  32   (PI.  IX),  36,  39 
Ground-water  divide,  distance  from,  effect 

of,  on  fluctuations 38,49 

figure  showing 9 

H. 


64 

68 


53 


63 


Hallan  de  Roucroy,  on  si)rlng  fluctuations 

in  Iceland 

tidal  fluctuations  at  Lille,  France... 
Harris,  G.  D.,  on  blowing  wells  in  Louisi- 
ana   

on  relations  of  Mississippi  River  to  well 

fluctuations 

Hcaddon,  W.  P.,  on  effect  of  showers  on 

ground  water 43, 61 

Hemel  Hempstead,  England,  annual  per- 
colation ond  rainfall  curves  at, 

figure  showing 32 

percolation  experiments  at 32-31, 45-46, 48 

Henry,  E.,  and  ToL^ky,  A.,  on  relations  of 

forests  and  ground  water 

Hess,  pon  fluctuations  due  to  stream 

flow 

Hertfordshire,  England,  annual  fluctuations 

in  well  in 

Hewlett,  N.  Y.,  wells  at.  description  of lH-19 

wells  at,  location  of.  maps  showing 9 

(PI.  I),  16  (PI,  II) 

observations  on 18-19, 75-76 

pumping  of,  effect  of 74 

effect  of,  figure  showing..  18  (PI.  Ill) 

tidal  fluctuation  in,  flgure  showing.        18 

(PI.  Ill; 

I  Hicksville,  N.   Y.,  annual   fluctuations  in 

wells  at 

Hudson  River,  N.  Y.,  basin  of,  rainfall  and 

run-off  in 

I  Human    agencies,    gnjund-water   fluctua- 


71 


60 


41 


40 


50 


tlonsdue  to 70-75 


80 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Humus,  abflorptive  capacity  of 71 

Huntington,  N.  Y.,  wells  at,  deeeription  of.  10-18 

welleat,  location  of 11 

location  of ,  figure  showing 11 

observations  on 10-13 

tidal  fluctuation  in,*flgure  showing.       12 

lag  In 10,66 

Huntington  Light  and  Power  Co.,  well  of, 

location  of,  figure  showing 11 

well  of,  observations  on '.  10-13 

record  of 12 

Huron,  Lake,  secondary  tidal  oscillations 

on 76 

Hutton,  F.  W.,  on  tidal  fluctuations  at  New 

Brighton,  England 68 

I. 

Iceland,  springs  in,  tidal  fluctuations  of .. .  64,68 
Infiltration  from  rivers,  fluctuations  due  to.  60-^1 
Infiltration  galleries,  changes  in  water  Uble 

due  to 61,72-73 

Inglis,  Gavin, on  tidal  fluctuations  in  springs 

in  Yorkshire 68 

InnsbrQck,  Austria,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at ,.       40 

Irrigation,  changes  in  water  table  due  to  . .       72 

J. 

Jaegle,  W.  C,  well  record  by 20 

Japan,  barometric  fluctuations  in  well  in. .  54 
Jevington,  England,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at 41 

Josephstadt,  Austria,  annual  fluctuations 

in  well  at 40 

K. 

King,  F.  H.,  cltaUonsof..  42-43, 61^66, 63, 68-«9, 75 

evaporation  experiments  by 49 

Klagenfurt,  Austria,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at 40 

Knightly.  T.  K.,  on  barometric  fluctuations 

in  Derbyshire  wells 53 

Krakau,  Austria,  annual   fluctuations   in 

well  at 40 

L. 

Lag  in  well  fluctuations 18, 

17, 19, 21-22, 24, 34-36,  |i0-62, 64-66 

Lake  level,  changes  in,  effect  of,  on  warer 

table 63,69 

Lane,  A.  C,  on  blowing  well  in  Michigan. .       53 

Lansing,  Mich.,  annual  fluctuations  in  well 

at 40 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

at,  figure  showing 80 

Latham,  Baldwin,  on  barometric  fluctua- 
tions in  springs  in  England 58 

Lawes,  John,  and  Gilbert,  J.  H.,  percolation 

experiments  of 82-34, 37, 47-48 

percolation  experiments  of,  figure  show- 
ing         32 

Leakage  from  rivers,  effect  of,  on  water 

level 61-63 

Leitha  River,  Austria,  effect  of,  on  ground 

water 35,61-62 


LUle,  France,  tidal  wells  at dS.64,€7-« 

Lincoln,  Nebc-tSoil  temperatures  at,  obeerra- 

tionson '' 

Liverpool,  England,  barometric  and  tidal 

fluctuations  in  well  near bt,  &-«s 

Liznar,  Joseph,  on  periodic  fluctuationa  in 

wells £ 

London,  England,  annual  and  secular  fluc- 
tuations in  wells  at 41.  '4 

barometric  fluctuations  in  wells  at ^ 

diminution  of  artesian  head  at U 

fluctuations  due  to  rivers  at £ 

percolation  experiments  near ^. 

tidal  fluctuations  in  wells  at C 

Long  Beach,   N.  Y.,  well  at.  description 

of 1*-2L 

well  at,  location  of,  maps  showing. .  9  i.P:.  I  ■ 

16  (pt  i: 

observations  on 10,19-i:: 

errors  in :* 

record  of » 

tidal  fluctuations  In IS,  21-22  •« 

figure  showing 20(Pl,lVi 

lag  In isf.f* 

Long  Island,  blowing  wells  on ^ 

ground  water  on.  source  of Ifl 

hydrologic  conditions  on 9-1'. 

figure  showing s 

similarity   of,  to  thoee  at  Wiener 

Neustadt :c: 

i  rrigation  on 7; 

map  of  southern  part  of 16  (PLI1> 

map  of  western  end  of 9(PLI,i 

observations  on K^-J 

pondson,  effectof 72 

pumping  on,  effect  of 71 

rainfall  curves  on,figures showing.  1$<  PL  III . 
22  (P1.V),24  ( PI. VI), 30, 36, 37. 19 

section  of 9 

secular  fluctuations  on ST-S* 

south  side  of,  rainfall  and  run-off  on . . .      4 

stream  flow  on 10.50 

topography  of i 

underflow  on 7J-74 

wells  on,  fluctuations  in 10-27, 

35. 37-38, 40, 42-44, 49,  52-53, 57~». 
62,66.74-76. 

fluctuations  in,  figures  showing IZ 

16,18  (PI. Ill), 20  (PI. IV). 22  iPL 
V),24(Pl.VI).26(Pl.Vn).»*  PL 
VIII),  30, 86, 39. 

observations  on ^5 

Louisiana,  blowing  wells  In 53 

fluctuations  of  wells  in,  due  toMissisBippi 

River 63 

Lueger,  Otto,  on  annual   fluctuations  in 

wells 52 

on  barometric  fluctuations  in  weUs  and 

springs bi 

Lynbrook,  N.  Y.,  wells  at,  description  of . ..      3 

wells  at,  fluctuations  in ^ 

42-43, 49, 52, 57-59.  fti7« 

location  of,  map  showing 9  ^  PI.  I  ■ 

16  (PI. II I 

observations  on 23-2&.97-a? 

record  of 2J 


INDEX. 


81 


Page. 

Ly  si  meters,  deicriptioiu  of 32, 44-^7 

objections  to 44, 48-49 

obaervations  with 82,84,44-49 

results  of,  figure  showing 32 


McCallie,  S.  W..  on  tidal  well  fluctuaUons 

InGeorgia 68 

McDougal.  D.  T.,  on  soil  temperatures 67-58 

Madi.Hon,  Wis.,  temperature  and  well  fluc- 
tuations at  54-67 

well  at,  fluctuations  in,  due  to  showers.       42 

fluctuations  In,  figure  showing 56 

record  of 56 

Maghull,  England,  tidal  and  barometric 

fluctuations  in  well  at 54,68-69 

Malabar  coast,  tidal  wells  on 64,67 

Mallet,  F.  R.,  on  tidal  fluctuations  in  wells 

In  Wales 68 

M a1  ta ,  secondary  tidal  oscillations  at 76 

Manchester,  England,  percolation  experi- 
ments at : 45 

Mandan,  H.  G..  on  tidal  wells 64,68 

Map  of  Douglaston  and  vicinity 26 

of  Oyster  Bay  and  vicinity 13, 14 

of  property  of  Huntington  Light  and 

Power  Company  and  vicinity . .       11 

of  southern  Long  Island 16  (PI.  II ) 

of  western  Long  Island 9  ( PI.  I) 

Maurice, .  lysimeter  experiments  of —       45 

Mead,  Elwood,  gage  of,  description  of 18 

Merrick,  N.  Y.,  pumping  at,  effect  of 74 

Mesilla  Park,  N.  Mex.,  underflow  at 13. 62 

Meyer,  Cord,  aid  of 25 

Meyer,  J.  E.,  aid  of 25 

Michigan,  annual  and  secular  flnctations 

in  wells  in 40 

blowing  well  in 53 

rainfall  and  water-level  curves  in,  flg- 

ures  showing 80 

water  level  in,  observations  on 52 

Mill    ponds,    effect   of,    on   ground-water 

level "2 

Millbum,  N.  Y.,  well  at,  fluctuations  in. . . .      22- 

23,38,40,76 
well  at,  fluctuations  in,  figures  show- 
ing  22  (PI.  V)  30,89 

location  of ,  map  showing 9  (PI.  I), 

16  (PI.  II) 

observations  on 10, 22-23 

rainfall  and  water-level  curves  in, 

figures  showing 30,89 

Milne,  John,  on  barometric  fluctuations  in 

well  in  Japan 54 

Moore,  H.  C,  on  tidal  fluctuations  in  wells.       68 
Mud  volcanoes,  location  of,  near  Douglas- 
ton,  map  showing 26  (PI.  VII) 

occurrence  of,  near  Douglaston 25-26 

Munich,  Germany,  annual  fluctuations  in 

well  at 40 

annual  rainfall  and  water-level  curves 

in  well  at,  figure  showing 29 

percolation  experiments  at 47 

Muskingum  River,  Ohio,  basin  of,  rainfall 

and  run-off  in 50 

IRR  156—06 6 


Page. 
Muskingum  River,  Ohio— Continued. 

basin  of,  underflow  in 50 

Mystic  Lake,  Mass.,  basin  of,  rainfall  and 

run-offin 60 


N. 


Nashua  River,  Mass.,  basin  of,  rainfall  and 

run-offin 50 

Nebraska,  annual  fluctuations  in  wells  in. .       51 

blowing  wells  in 63 

soil  temperatures  at,  observations  on  . .       57 
Neshaminy  Creek,  Pa.,  basin  of,  rainfall 

and  run-off  in 60 

New  Inlet,  N.  Y.,  tide  curve  at 22  (PI.  V) 

New  Jersey,  annual  fluctuations  In  wells  in.       52 

artesian  wells  In.  fluctuations  in 69 

tidal  fluctuations  in 66-69 

New  York,  annual  fluctuations  in  well  at 

Geneva 51 

soil  temperatures  at  Bronx  Park,  obser- 
vations on 57-58 

See  aUo  Long  Island. 
New  York  City  commission  on  additional 
water  supply,  observations  of, 

on  Long  Island 27 

observations  of,  results  of,  figure  show- 
ing   18  (PI.  Ill), 

22(P1.  IV),  26  (PI.  VII),  36 
Newark,  N.  J.,  residual-mass  curves  of  rain- 
fall at  87 

Newell,  F.  H.,  aidof 17-18 

North  Allerton,  England,  blowing  well  at .       68 


O. 


Oliver,  William,  on  minor  periodic  fluctua- 
tions of  well  in  England ,54 

Orange,  France  percolation  experiments  at.       45 
Ototsky,  P.,  on  forests  and  ground  water  . .        71 
Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y.,  sections  at,  figures  show- 
ing    14,15 

wells  at,  location  of,  figures  showing. . .  18, 14 

observations  on 15-17,66 

tidal  fluctuations  in 17 

figure  showing 17 

P. 

Paleozoic  rocks,  occurrence  of 10 

occurrence  of,  figure  showing 9 

Pearson,  W.,  on  tidal-well  fluctuations  in 

England 68 

Pennsylvania,  annual  fluctuations  in  well 

in >. 61 

Pensacola,  Fla.,  fluctuations  in  wells  at 67-69 

Pequanock  River,  Conn.,  basin  of,  rainfall 

and  run-off  in 50 

Percolation,  amount  of,  estimation  of.  82-37, 44-51 
rainfall  and,  relations  of,  figure  show- 
ing        32 

stream  flow  and,  relations  of 49-60 

Perim  Island  (Red Sea),  tidal  wells  on  ....  64,68 

Perkiomen  Creek,  Pa.,  basin  of,  rainfall  and 

run-offin 50 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  rainfall  curve  at 31,87 


82 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Plastic  deformation.   See  Deformation,  plas- 
tic. 
Pleistocene  gravels,  of  Long  Island,  occur- 
rence of 10 

Pliny  the  Elder,  on  barometric  fluctuations 

in  wells  in  Italy 54 

on  temperature  fluctuations  in  wells  in 

Italy 69 

on  tidal  fluctuations  in  wells  in  Italy  . .        68 
Pliny  the  Younger,  on  barometric  fluctua- 
tions in  wells  in  Italy M 

Point  of  discharge.    See  Discharge. 

Poisenllle,  — ,  on  temperature  and  viscosity .       58 

Prag,  Hungary,  annual  fluctuations  in  well 

at 40 

Pressure,    transmitted,    fluctuations    pro- 
duced by 7-8, 

•24, 28, 42-43, 62-63, 65-«8, 74-75 

Pumping,  effect  of,  on  ground  water 52, 73 

effect  of,  on  ground  water,  plate  show- 
ing  18(P1.  Ill) 

on  stream  flow 73 

Purdue  University,  lysimeter  experiments 

at 43 

Q. 
Queens  County  Water  Co.,  wells  of .. .  18-19.23-25 
wells  of,  fluctuations  in,  flgures  show- 
ing  18  (PI.  Ill), 24  (PI.  VI) 

R. 
Railway  trains,  effect  of.  on  water  table ...  42, 75 
Rainfall,  contribution  to  ground  water  by.  44-51 

effect  of,  on  ground  water 7, 24, 29-52 

excess  of,  effect  of 37-38 

effect  of,  figure  showing 34, 36, 37 

figures  showing 18  (PI.  Ill), 

22(P1.  V),24(P1.  VI). 
29,  30,  81,  32,  36,  37,  89 

fluctuations  due  to 7, 24, 29-62 

bibliography  of 51-52 

percolation  of,  amount  of 38 

effect  of 44 

observations  on 32-34 

residual-mass  curves  of,  figures  show- 
ing  32,36.37,39 

statisticsof 40-41,45-47,50 

Btrcam  flow  and,  relations  of.  7-8, 10, 24, 49-61 
ike  also  Showers. 
Rainfall  curves,  relation  of  ground- water 

curves  and,  figures  showing..  18  (PI. 
Ill),  22  (PI.  V),24  (PI. 
VI),  29,  80,  31,32,36,89 

Rathbun,  F.  D..  work  of 18  (PI.  III). 

20  (PI.  IV), 22  (PI.  V) 
Red  River,  Ark.,  fluctuations  in  wells  along.       63 
Residual  mass  rainfall  curves,  figures  show- 
ing  32,36,37,39 

Riegler, ,  on  forest  litter 71 

Rio  Grande,  relation  between  water  table 

and  bed  of 62 

I^isler, .  lysimeter  exi>eriments  by 46 

Rivers.    Atee  Streams. 

Riviere, ,  on  tidal  fluctuations  in  spring 

at  Gi vre 6S 

Robert,  E.,  on  tidal  fluctuations  In  Iceland 

springs 68 


P^. 
Roberts,  Isaac,  on  barometric  fluctuations 

in  well  at  Maghull '4 

on  tidal  fluctuations  in  well  at  M a^hol! .  d^  * 
Rothamsted,  England,  percolation  experi- 
ments at 32-54.  *• 

percolation  and  rainfall  curves  at,  fiig- 

ureshowing J 

Run-off,  statisticsof '^ 

See  alto  Stream  flow;  Flood  flow. 


S. 


Salbach,  B.,  on  artesian  wells  in  Elbe  River.      <kj 
Salt  water,  expulsion  of,  from  formati<».« 

ofLonglsland 

infiltration  of,  prevention  of •m 

Salzburg,  Austria,  annual  2uctuations  at ..       *- 
annual  rainfall  and  water-level  cur^'es* 

at,  figure  showing 25 

observations  at i 

Saturation,  zone  of,  depth  of  soil  above, 
effect  of,  on  ground-water  fluc- 
tuations'   »4-X 

Schrieber,  Adolf,  well  of,  observations  on..  ±;-.r 

Seagirt,  N.  J.,  tidal  wells  at M  *i^ 

Secular  fluctuations,  amount  of ♦-■ 

diagrams  showing 32  -* 

occurrence  of ?7->> 

rangeof *. 

Sedimentation,  changes  in  water  table  due 

to «i.irt» 

Seepage,  effects  of 61-6j 

Shelford,  W.,  on  tidal  fluctuations  in  Lin- 
colnshire wells 6T-i^ 

Sherlock,  Kans.,  fluctuation  due  to  temper- 
ature change  at r? 

ground- water  movement  at f**^\ 

Showers,  effect  of,  on  wells 35-37, 42-H   I 

effect  of,  on  wells,  diagrams  showing. . .      .4 
(PI.  vn.y.  r 

Sidney,  secondary  tidal  oscillations  at > 

Silt  in  rivers,  effect  of,  on  ground  water o1. :  ■ 

Sinclair,  W.  F..  on  tidal  fluctuation^in  Bom- 
bay wells t^^'' 

Siphons,  natural,  hypothetical,  question  of.  ^3.7< 

Slichter,  C.  S.,  aidof !%:> 

on  fluctuations  in  ground  water  due  to 

stream  flow ti'-'." 

on  ground- water  movements  in  Kansait.       •< 

on  rise  of  ground  water  1  n  Kansas 7". 

on  underflow  on  Long  Island 7 

on  well  fluctuations '*i 

on  well  fluctuation.s  in  New  South  Wales.       > 
Soil,  air  in,  pressure  transmitt«d  to  ground 

wa  ter  by 7-6. 24,  i2-i  ■ 

depth  of.  effect  of,  on  ground-water  fluc- 
tuations   3i-r 

temperature  of,  relations  of  well  fluctu- 
ations and M-'* 

Solution,  changes  in  water  table  due  to t? 

Soyka,  Isidor,  flgures  by 3 

on  annual  fluctuations '^ 

on  fluctuations  due  to  rivers S 

Spear,  W.  E.,  figures  by »  .' 

observations  by 27.*\  ^* 

on  flood  flow :i 


INDEX. 


83 


72 


60 


Spear,  W.  £.— ContlDued. 

on  fluctuations  on  Long  Island 52 

due  to  pumping 78 

Springs,  intermitting,  occurrence  of 53, 70 

Still  box,  useof 61 

Storer,  John,  on  tidal  fluctuations  in  wells 

in  Yorkshire 68 

Stream  flow,  effect  of  pumping  on 73 

estimation  of  percolation  from 49-fiO 

ground  water  and,  relations  of 7-8, 49-^ 

rainfall  and,  relations  of 7-8, 24, 49-^ 

See  alto  Flood  flow. 

Streams,  fluctuations  in  wells  due  to 59-63 

fluctuations  in  wel  Is  due  to,  bibliography 

of - 62-63 

infiltration  from 61-62 

silt  in,  effect  of 61-€2 

fluctuations  in  springs  due  to 63 

plastic  deformation  due  to 62 

Streams,  silted,  relation  of  ground-water 

level  and 61-62 

Subsurface  dams,  effect  of,  on  ground-water 

level 

Sudbury  River,  Mass.,  basin  of,  rainfall  and 

rtm-off  in 

Sussex,  England,  annual   fluctuations  in 

wells  In 41 

Swansea,  secondary  tidal  oscillations  at ...       76 
Swezey,  G.  D.,  on  soil  temperatures  In  Ne- 
braska         57 

Switzerland,  percolation  experiments  in..  45-46 
Szegedin,  Hungary,  annual  fluctuations  In 

well  at 41 


T. 

Temperature  changes,  depth  and,  relation 

of 

effect  of,  on  well.fluctuations.  8, 24-25, 61 

bibliography  of 

figure  showing 

nontransmission  of ,  figure  showing. 
Tharoud,   Germany,    percolation    experi- 
ments at 

Thomassey,    Raymond,  on   seepage   from 

Mississippi  River 

Tides,  effect  of,  on  still  box 

effect  of,  on  well  fluctuations..  8, 10-26, 

bibliography  of 

observations  on 

Todd,  J.  £.,  on  annual  fluctuations 

on  barometric  fluctuations 

on  fluctuations  In  South  Dakota  wells 

due  to  Missouri  River 

Tolsky  and  Henry.    See  Henry  and  Tolsky. 
Topography,  relations  of  ground- water  table 

and 

Trautwlne,  J.  C,  Jr.,  on  tidal  fluctuations 

In  wells 

Tribus,  L.  L.,  on  fluctuations  In  New  Jersey 

wells  due  to  rainfall 

on  tidal  fluctuations  in  Florida 

Trieste,   Austria,   annual   fluctuations  In 

wells  at 

Tybee  Island,  Georgia,  tidal  fluctuations  in 
well  at 


57-68 

,54-59 

59 

58 

56 

46 


61 


67-69 

10-26 

52 

54 


52 
68-69 


40 


V.  '''^ 

Underflow,  loss  by 60 

United  States,  rainfall  and  ground-water 

curves  in.  figures  showing 80, 81 

Urusino  station,  New  South  Wales,  well 

fluctuations  at 76 

V. 

Valley  Stream,  N.  Y.,  observations  on  well 

fluctuation  at 10 

See  aUo  Lynbrook  and  Hewlett. 
Van  Nostrand,  D.  L.,  on  depth  of  mud  near 

Douglaston 25 

Veatch,  A.  C,  on  Arkansas  and  Louisiana 

fluctuations  due  to  streams....       68 

on  Long  Island  blowing  well8 63 

Vento,  Cuba,  spring  fluctuations  at,  due  to 

Almenderes  River 68 

Ventor,  M.  J.,  on  tidal  fluctuations  in  well 

at 69 

Vermeule,  C.  C,  on  tidal  fluctuations  in 

wells  in  New  Jersey 69 

Von  Mollendorf,  G.,  lysimeter  experiments 

by , 46 

W. 

I  Wales,  tidal  fluctuations  in 68 

Ward,  L.  B.,  on  pumping  on  Long  Island..  78 
Wells.  See  Annual  fluctuations;  Artesian 
wells;  Bibliography;  Capillar- 
ity; Cities:  Dams:  Deforma- 
tion; Forests;  Geysers;  Geologic 
changes;  Irrigation;  Pumping; 
Rainfall:  Secular  fluctuations; 
Showers;  Soil;  Streams;  Tides. 
Wells,  blowing,  occurrence  and  bibliogra- 
phy of 58 

Wells,  sea-coast,  peculiarities  of 64,67-^ 

Whitney,  F.  L.,  work  of 18  (Fl.  III). 

22  (PI.  V),24  (PI.  VI).  26,28  (PI.  VIII) 
Wiener  Neustadt,  Austria,  wuter  level  at, 
compared  with  that  on   Long 

Island 35 

water  level  at,  fluctuations  of 38,41,51 

fluctuations  of,  figure  showing 32, 

(PI.  IX) 

observations  on 34-86,38 

percolation  and,  relations  of 44 

Wisconsin,  barometric  fluctuations  in  wells 

in 53-67 

Woldrlch,  J.  N.,  on  effect  of  rainfall  on 

ground  water 29,62 

Wolff,  H.  C,  observations  by 69 

Wollny,  E.,  lysimeter  experiments  by 47 

on  forest  litter 71 

Wood,  J.  G.,  on  tidal  fluctuations 69 

Woolman,  Lewis,  on  tidal  fluctuations  in 

New  Jersey  wells 09 

Y. 

Yorkshire,  England,  percolation  experi- 
ments In 46 

Young,  G.  and  J.  Bird,  on  iidal  fluctuations 

In  Yorkshire  wells 69 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  PUBLICATIONS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL 

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[Water-Supply  Paper  No.  156.] 

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4.  Copies  of  all  Government  publications  are  furnished  to  the  principal  public 
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SERIES  O,  UNDERGROUND  WATERS. 

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WS   12.  Underground  waters  of  southeastern  Nebraska,  by  N.  H.  Darton.    1898.    56  pp..  21  pis.    (Out 

of  stock.) 
WS   21.  Wells  of  northern  Indiana,  by  Frank  Leverett.    1899.    82  pp..  2  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS  26.  Wells  of  southern  Indiana  (continuation  of  No.  21),  by  Frank  Leverett.    1899.    64  pp.    (Out 

of  stock.) 
WS   30.  Water  resources  of  the  lower  peninsula  of  Michigan,  by  A.  C.  Lane.     1899.    97  pp.,  7  pis.     (Out 

of  stock. ) 
WS  81.  Lower  Michigan  mineral  waters,  by  A.  C.  Lane.    1899.    97  pp.,  4  pis.    (Out  of  stock.) 
WS   84.  Geology  ami  water  resources  of  a  portion  of  .southeastern  South  Dakota,  by  J.  E.  Todd.    1900. 

34  pp.,  19  pis. 
WS   53.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  Nez  Perces  County,  Idah5,  Pt.  I,  by  I.  C.  Russell.    1901.    86 

pp.,  10  pis.    (Out  of  stock. ) 
WS   54.  Geology  and  water  resources  of  Nez  Perces  County,  Idaho,  Pt.  II,  by  I.  C.  Russell.    1901. 

87-141  pp.    ( Out  of  stock . ) 

I 


Water-Supply  and  Irrigation  Paper  No.  156 


Series  N,  Water  Power,  11 


DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  INTERIOR 

UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 

CHARLES  D.  WALCOTT,  DIRECTOR 


ISCONSII 


BT 


LEONARD   S.  SMITH 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING    OFFICE 
1906 


CONTENTS, 


Introduction 9 

Significance  and  extent  of  watei^power  resources 9 

Sources  of  information 9 

Physical  geography  of  northern  Wisconsin 10 

Geology 10 

Pre-Cambrian  rocks 10 

Paleozoic  rocks 10 

Glacial  drift 11 

Topography 12 

Hydrography 12 

Soils 13 

Forest  conditions 14 

Climatic  conditions 15 

Temperature 15 

Precipitation 15 

Fox  River  system 19 

Drainage 19 

Upper  Fox 20 

Lower  Fox 21 

Geology  and  topography 21 

Profile 22 

Rainfall  and  run-off 22 

Water  powers 32 

General  statement 32 

Legal  status 32 

Neenah 34 

Menasha 34 

Appleton 35 

Fall 35 

Upper  dam 35 

Middle  dam 36 

Lower  dam 37 

Cedars  dam 37 

Littlechute 38 

Combined  Locks  dam 38 

Grand  Eaukauna  dam 38 

Rapide  Croche  dam ^ 40 

Little  Eaukauna  dam. 40 

Depere  dam 41 

Railroads 42 

3 


4  coNTEirrs. 

Menominee  River  system 42 

Drainage 42 

Profile 42 

Geology 43 

Rainfall  and  run-off • 44 

Water  powers 51 

General  conditions 51 

Bad  Water  rapids 51 

Twin  Falls 51 

Pine  River  rapids 51 

Horse  Race  rapids 52 

Big  Quinnesec  Falls 52 

Little  Quinnesec  Falls S 

Sand  Portage  rapids. 52 

Sturgeon  Falls 53 

Pemena  dam  and  rapids 53 

Chalk  Hill  rapids 53 

White  rapids 54 

Twin  I^and  rapids 54 

Schappies  rapids 54 

Marinette  dams 54 

Tributaries : 55 

Dams  on  main  river  and  tributaries 56 

Peshtigo  River : 56 

Oconto  River 57 

General  conditions 57 

Water  powers 57 

Stiles 57 

Oconto  Falls 5S 

Pulcifer  dam 58 

Miscellaneous 58 

Wolf  River  system 59 

General  conditions 59 

Run-off 60 

Tributaries 62 

Water  powers 62 

Wisconsin  River  system 63 

Topography  and  drainage 63 

Lake  elevations  and  reservoir  sit«s 64 

Profile 65 

Geology 67 

Rainfall  and  run-off 67 

Railroads 76 

W^ater  powers. 76 

Kilboum 77 

Nekoosa 77 

Port  Edwards 77 

Grand  Rapids 78 

Stevens  Point 78 

Battle  Island 78 

Mosinee 79 

Rothchilds 79 

Wausau 79 


CONTENTS.  5 

Page. 
Wisconsin  River  system — Continued. 
Water  powers — Continued. 

Brokaw 80 

Trapp  rapids 80 

Merrill 80 

Bill  Cross  rapids 80 

Grandfather  rapids 81 

Grandmother  rapids -. 81 

Tomahawk  dam 81 

Pine  Creek  rapids 81 

Whirlpool  rapids 81 

Hat  rapids 82 

Rhinelander  dam 82 

Rainbow  rapids 82 

Otter  rapids 82 

Tributaries 82 

General  statement 82 

St.  Germain  River 83 

Tomahawk  River 83 

Pelican  River 83 

Prairie  River 84 

Rib  River 84 

Eau  Claire  River. 84 

Eau  Pleine  River 85 

Black  River 85 

Topography  and  drainage 85 

Water  powers *> 89 

Black  River  Falls 89 

Black  River  Falls  to  Neillsville 89 

Neillsville 90 

Hemlock  dam 90 

Railroads : 90 

Chippewa  River  system , 90 

Topography  and  drainage 90 

Geology 91 

Proposed  reservoir  sites 91 

Railroads 92 

Rainfall  and  run-off 93 

Water  powers 98 

Below  junction  of  Flambeau  River 98 

Topography  and  drainage 98 

Eau  Claire 100 

Chippewa  Falls 101 

Jim  Falls 101 

BrunettFaUs 102 

Holcombe  dam 103 

Mouth  of  Flambeau 103 

Branches  and  upper  waters 103 

Topography  and  drainage 103 

EJast  Branch  of  Chippewa  River 104 

West  Branch  of  Chippewa  River 104 

Court  Oreilles  River 104 

Upper  powers 105 


6  CONTENTS. 

Chippewa  River  system — Continued.  Pa.pe. 

Tributaries 105 

Flambeau  River 105 

Drainage  and  water  powers 1(K 

Profile 105 

Rainfall  and  run-off ICC 

Tributaries 113 

Red  Cedar  River 113 

Drainage 113 

Profile 113 

Water  powers  and  dams 1 U 

Railroads '. 115 

Eau  Claire  River 115 

Jump  River 115 

Yellow  River 116 

Smaller  tributaries 116 

St.  Croix  River  system 117 

Topography  and  drainage 117 

Profile 118 

Geology 119 

Rainfall  and  run-off .^ 119 

Water  powers 123 

Fall : 123 

St.  Croix  rapids 124 

Kettle  River  rapids 124 

Tributaries 125 

Length  and  drainage 125 

Yellow  River 125 

Eau  Claire  River 126 

Apple  River 12r3 

Willow  River 128 

Clam  River 128 

Namekagon  and  Totogatic  rivers 129 

Minor  streams 131 

Osceola  Creek 131 

Einnikinnic  River 131 

Lake  Superior  system 132 

Topography 132 

Water  powers •. 132 

Character 132 

St.  Louis  River 133 

Nemadji  and  Black  rivers ". 134 

Bois  Brule  River 134 

Montreal  and  Gogoshungun  rivers 135 

Bad  River 135 

Main  river 135 

Tributaries 136 

White  River 136 

Maringouin  River 136 

Tylers  Fork 137 

Potato  River 137 

Minor  rivers 137 

Railroads 137 

Index 139 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Paire. 

Plate  I.  Drainage  map  of  Wisconsin 12 

II.  A,  Dam  on  lower  Fox  River  at  Depere,  Wis.,  looking  east;  fi,  Combined 

Locks  dam,  Littlechute,  Wis.,  lower  Fox  River 38 

III.  A  J  Grandfather  rapids,  Wisconsin  River;  B,  Brunett  Falls,  Chippewa 

River 80 

IV.  Profile  of  Chippewa  River  from  Reeds  Landing,  Minn.,  to  Flambeau,  Wis.  100 
V.  -4,  Lower  pitch  of  Big  Falls,  Flambeau  River;  By  Copper  Falls,  Bad 

River 106 

Fio.  1.  Rainfall  map  of  Wisconsin .  16 

2.  Chart  showing;  rainfall  at  Milwaukee,  1837-1904 18 

3.  Plan  of  water-power  development  at  Little  Kaukauna,  Wis 41 

4.  Plan  of  proposed  water-power  development  at  Jim  Falls 102 

5.  Plan  of  canal  of  Great  Northern  Power  Company  on  St.  Louis  Rivpr. .  133 

7 


WATER  POWERS  OF  NORTHERN  WISCONSIN. 


By  L.  S.  Smith. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Signifieanee  and  extent  of  vxUer^power  resources. — Unlike  other  great  natural  resources  of 
the  State,  such  as  the  forest  and  mineral  wealth,  the  utilization  of  which  means  the  final 
destruction  of  the  source  of  supply,  the  water-power  resources  are  as  certain  and  eternal 
as  the  sunshine.  The  importance  of  water  powers  to  a  State  so  remote  from  coal  mines  as 
is  Wisconsin  is  not  likely  to  be  overestimated.  Unquestionably  these  powers  are  destined 
to  exercise  a  wide  influence  on  the  development  of  the  State.  So  far  as  known,  not  a  single 
important  river  in  the  State  has  as  yet  been  made  to  fully  produce  its  available  power. 
The  lower  Fox  may  be  said  to  come  the  nearest  to  this,  with  a  total  of  31,898  actual  horse- 
power,a  all  produced  in  the  35  miles  between  Lake  Winnebago  and  Green  Bay.  This  large 
water  power  has  caused  the  district  to  take  high  rank  as  a  paper  and  pulp  manufacturing 
center.  Wisconsin,  Chippewa,  and  St.  Croix  rivers  can  each  be  made  to  produce  power 
equaling  and  even  exceeding  that  of  the  lower  Fox.  Growth  in  the  development  of  Wis- 
consin water  powers  has  been  very  rapid.  During  the  ten  years  ending  in  1900  the  gain 
was  75  per  cent.    The  foUowing  figures  show  the  g^wth  during  the  last  thirty  years: 

Wisconsin  water  powers  developed. 

Horsepower. 

1870 33,700 

1880 45,300 

1890 56,700 

1900 99,000 

The  annual  saving  represented  by  this  power  over  the  cost  of  an  equivalent  amount  of 
steam  power,  computed  at  S20  per  horsepower,  reaches  the  sum  of  nearly  $2,000,000. 

Sources  of  information. — Judging  from  the  scant  literature  descriptive  of  Wisconsin  water 
powers,  but  little  attention  has  been  directed  in  the  past  to  this  great  natural  resource  of 
the  State.  The  longest  and  most  accurate  description  is  contained  in  the  Tenth  Census 
of  the  United  States.  In  Geology  of  Wisconsin,  volume  3, 1880,  will  be  found  good  detailed 
descriptions  of  the  Lake  Superior  rivers  from  the  standpoint  of  a  geologist.  Very  reliable 
information  regarding  the  upper  headwaters  of  the  lai^r  rivers  is  given  in  the  reports  of 
the  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  for  the  years  1879-1883,  Jpclusive,  to  which  frequent 
reference  is  herein  made.  This  work  of  surveying  reservoir  sites  involved  the  running  of 
many  hundred  miles  of  levels,  thus  securing  numerous  water  levels  on  lakes  and  rivers. 
The  maps  of  these  surveys  were  never  published,  but  copies  of  the  originals  have  been 
obtained,  and  no  pains  or  expense  has  been  spared  to  preserve  and  present  these  data- 
A  fourth  source  of  information,  and  a  most  welcome  one,  both  because  of  its  intrinsic  value 
and  because  it  marks  the  beginning  of  a  rational  and  systematic  study  of  Wisconsin  water 
powers,  is  the  detailed  survey  of  part  of  Chippewa  River  and  the  daily  discharge  records  of 

a  Rept.  Chief  Eng.  U.  S.  Army,  1897,  p.  2737. 

0 


10  WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 

many  important  water-power  rivers  carried  on  by  the  United  States  Geological  Surver 
during  the  years  1903,  1904,  and  1905.  a 

Finally,  the  data  here  presented  would  have  lacked  much  of  whatever  value  and  ccu.- 
pleteness  they  may  have  had  it  not  been  for  the  generous  support  of  hydraulic  enginer  r« 
and  mill  owners. 

After  exhausting  all  possible  sources  of  information  by  correspondence,  however,  it  »«:; 
found  that  many  points  of  importance  could  be  cleared  up  only  by  a  personal  visit  to  iV* 
field.  In  this  manner  visits  were  made  to  St.  Croix  River  at  Taylors  Falls;  to  Apple  arc 
Willow  rivers;  to  Eau  Claire  and  Chippewa  Falls,  on  Chippewa  River;  to  Black  River  Fal- 
and  Neillsville,  on  Black  River;  to  Grand  Rapids,  Stevens  Point,  Tomahawk,  and  Rhir-.- 
lander,  on  Wisconsin  River,  and  to  Oshkosh,  Appleton,  Menasha,  Kaukauna,  and  Deppn*. 
on  Fox  River. 

The  importance  of  these  water-power  resources  to  the  development  of  the  Stato  wou^d 
certainly  justify  it  in  cooperating  financially  with  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  h\ 
extending  the  investigation  to  include  hypsometric  surveys  of  the  important  rivers,  espe- 
cially in  the  region  now  undeveloped. 

PHYSICAL  GEOQRAPHY  OP  NORTHERN  WISCONSIN. 

GEOLOGY,  b 

The  rock  formations  of  northern  Wisconsin  readily  fall  into  three  classes — the  pre-C^am- 
brian  crystalline  rocks,  the  Paleozoic  rocks,  and  the  Glacial  drift.  The  pre-Cambrian  and 
Paleozoic  formations  are  adjacent  to  one  another,  but  the  loose  Glacial  drift  is  distributed 
irregularly  over  all  the  hard-rock  formations  of  the  region. 

PBK-C-\MBRIAN   ROCKS.  . 

The  pre-Cambrian  crystalline  rocks  consist  of  various  kinds  of  igneous  rocks,  such  a? 
greenstone  or  trap  rocks,  granite,  diorite,  rhyolite,  schists,  and  gneisses,  and  varieties  i4 
mctamorphased  sedimentary  rocks,  such  as  quartzite,  slate,  limestone,  conglomerate  ferru- 
ginous rocks,  slate,  and  schists.  Tlic  rocks  here  classed  as  pre-Cambrian  include  all  thus*' 
often  referred  to  as  the  Laure/itian  (Archean),  Huronian,  and  Kewcenawan  series,  '^^e 
various  kinds  of  crystalline  rocks  generally  stand  on  edge,  trend  in  various  directions,  and 
form  irregular  belts  and  areas  throughout  the  region. 

The  area  of  crj-stalline  rocks  covers  the  principal  part  of  northern  Wisconsin.  Its  north- 
em  boundary  is  approximately  parallel  to  and  ver}^  near  the  adjac<»nt  shore  of  Lake  Sup(»rii^r 
on  the  west  it  projects  irregularly  into  Minnesota;  on  the  south  it  extends  to  the  central  par. 
of  the  State,  and  on  the  east  it  reaches  within  25  to  40  miles  of  Green  Bay. 

The  pre-Cambrian  region  is  the  highest  portion  of  the  State,  and  in  these  crystalhn-- 
highlands  the  large  rivers  have  their  source  and  flow  outward  in  all  directions.  The  cnsta.- 
line  ro<'ks  are  generally  hard.  They  do  not  everywhere  have  this  character,  however,  and 
the  la<^k  of  uniformity  causes  much  irregularity  in  the  surface  features.  Higli,  ri>und*'(i 
knolks  of  hard  granite  and  quartzite  dot  the  surface  of  the  region,  and  the  abrupt  variation^ 
in  the  character  of  the  rock  along  the  river  valleys  have  caused  the  formation  of  numen>2> 
rapids  and  waterfalls.  The  slope  of  the  pre-Cambrian  region  is  relatively  steep  on  the  L^kt 
Superior  side  and  comparatively  gentle  toward  the  east,  south,  and  west. 

PALEOZOIC   ROCKS. 

The  Paleozoic  rocks  consist  of  alternating  formations  of  comparatively  incoherent, 
friable  sandstone  and  hard,  compact  limestone  lying  unconformably  upon  the  upturned 
edges  of  the  crystalline  rocks  and  dipping  slightly  toward  the  north,  east,  south,  and 


a  The  Wisconsin  lopislHturo  of  I'JO.')  appropriated  32.500  for  the  purpose  of  surveying  the  w»tir 
powers  of  the  SUite  in  ('oop<>rution  with  the  Unit<^d  States  Geological  Survey,  which  has  set  aaci  .n 
equal  amount  for  this  purpose.  In  the  fall  of  1905  Wisconsin,  Block,  and  Flambeau  rivers  w«  i> 
surveyed.    This  work  is  in  oharpe  of  Leonard  S.  Smith. 

&  Prepared  by  S  Weidman,  State  geologist  of  Wisconsin. 


GEOLOGY.  11 

'west — the  dip  thus  being  away  from  the  broad  central  core  of  the  pre-Cambrian  region. 
The  Paleozoic  rocks  of  northern  Wisconsin  include  the  following  formations,  named  from 
the  base  upward:  (1)  Cambrian  ("Potsdam")  sandstone,  (2)  "Lower  Magnesian"  lime* 
stone,  (3)  St.  Peter  sandstone,  and  (4)  "Trenton"  limestone. 

The  Cambrian  sandstone  is  by  far  the  most  abundant  Paleozoic  rock  of  the  region.  Along 
the  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  where  it  is  generally  called  the  Lake  Superior  sandstone,  it  forms 
&  strip  less  than  a  mile  in  width  at  the  Michigan  boundary,  increasing  to  15  miles  in  width  at 
the  Minnesota  boundary.  For  variable  distances  of  15  to  40  miles  about  the  broad  central 
area  of  the  pre-Cambrian  to  the  west,  south,  and  east,  the  Cambrian  is  the  principal  surface 
rcK'rk.  It  is  only  adjacent  to  the  shore  of  Green  Bay  on  the  east  and  in  St.  Croix  and  Pierce 
counties  on  the  west  that  limestone  and  sandstone  later  than  the  Cambrian  oc<!ur  to  any 
notable  extent. 

The  surface  features  of  the  Cambrian  sandstone  district  are  mainly  broad  valley  bottoms, 
dotted  here  and  there  with  a  few  pinnacles  of  hard  sand  rock.  In  the  region  of  the  limestone, 
however,  the  valleys  are  generally  sharp  and  narrow,  and  the  uplands  constitute  the  main 
portion  of  the  landscape.  The  hills  and  sharp  ravines  in  the  limestone  district  are  in  sharp 
contrast  with  the  broad,  graded  valley  bottoms  of  the  sandstone  district. 

GLACIAL   DRIFT. 

The  Glacial  drift  consists  of  a  loose,  incoherent  mass  of  bowlders,  gravel,  sand,  and  clay. 
In  some  places  the  coarse  drift  is  abundant,  while  in  other  places  clays  and  sand  prevail. 
The  drift  has  a  very  irregular  thickness  throughout  the  area.  It  was  deposited  upon  the 
older  crystalline  and  Paleozoic  rocks  during  the  several  successive  glaciations  in  Wisconsin 
and  the  adjacent  region. 

Drift  in  variable  quantity  occurs  throughout  northern  Wisconsin,  being  ver}''  abundant 
in  the  northeastern,  northern,  and  northwestern  parts  of  the  region,  while  in  a  very  irregular 
but  considerable  area  in  the  southwestern  part  the  drift  is  very  thin. 

The  surface  of  a  large  part  of  the  drift-covered  region  is  ver\'  irregular  and  uneven,  and 
consists  of  hiUs  and  ridges  alternating  with  basins,  swamps,  and  lakes.  In  some  places 
the  drift  covering, completely  obliterates  the  topographic  features  of  the  crystalline  and 
Paleozoic  rocks;  in  other  places  it  only  modifies  the  older  topography.  On  the  whole, 
however,  the  glaciation  of  the  region  exerted  a  considerable  influence  on  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  drainage  lines  and  in  shaping  the  minor  inequalities  of  the  land  surface.. 
The  drift  region,  from  the  topographic  point  of  view,  may  be  divided  into  two  general 
districts — one  covered  by  the  older  drift  series  and  the  other  by  the  later  drift.  In  the 
district  of  the  older  drift,  the  southwestern  part  of  northern  Wisconsin,  there  are  no  lakes 
or  ponds,  and  swamps  are  very  rare.  Here  the  topography  is  mature  and  the  land  has 
good  surface  drainage.  In  the  district  of  the  later  drift,  however,  which  includes  the 
main  portion  of  northern  Wisconsin,  the  glacial  deposits  are  abundant;  ridges  and  hills 
of  bowldery  material  occur,  and  lakes,  swamps,  and  sags  are  common.  In  this  district, 
therefore,  the  surface  drainage  is  often  very  poor  and  large  amounts  of  water  are  held  in 
swamps  and  ponds.  Here,  also,  there  are  marked  differences  in  the  surface  features  pre- 
vailing over  large  parts  of  the  district.  Along  its  border  is  the  terminal  moraine,  often 
called  the  "kettle  moraine,"  having  a  width  ranging  from  3  or  4  to  20  miles  and  consisting 
of  numerous  drift  hills  and  ridges  closely  associated  with  sags,  lakes,  and  ponds.  This 
terminal  moraine  extends  across  the  entire  continent.  In  crossing  this  portion  of  the 
State  it  turns  north  a  few  miles  east  of  Grand  Rapids,  thence  extends  to  Antigo,  thence 
in  a  sinuous  belt  westward  to  Barron  County,  and  thence  southwest  into  Minnesota. 
Back  of  this  terminal  moraine — that  is,  to  the  east  and  north — are  similar  belts  known  as 
''recessional  moraines,"  separated  one  from  another  by  broad  areas  having  the  general  features 
of  the  hard  rocks  beneath.  Between  the  moraine  belts  are  broad  tracts  of  sandy  land, 
called  "barrens,"  which  cover  considerable  portions  of  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State. 
Along  Lake  Superior  is  a  broad  belt  of  nearly  flat  clay  land  which  may  Ikj  mentioned, 
though  it  has  no  influence  on  the  distribution  of  the  water  powers  of  the  region. 


12  WATEB   POWERS   OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  abundant  water-power  resources  of  Wisconsin  are  the  result  of  its  unique  topqgr^  j. 
A  wide  and  comparatively  flat  highland  crosses  the  northern  part  of  the  State.  Tbt» 
divide  varies  in  elevation  from  1,900  feet  in  the  eastern  part  to  1,000  feet  in  the  we^^n 
part,  and  extends  to  within  30  miles  of  Lake  Superior.  From  it  the  rivers  descend  imdiaLj 
in  all  directions  except  eastward.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  Lakes  Superior  and  Mich^^u 
bound  the  State  on  the  north  and  east,  while  Mississippi  River  forms  the  8outhwest«ni 
and  the  larger  part  of  the  western  boundary,  all  the  rivers  must  needs  find  a  low  tioogii 
into  which  to  dischai^e,  and  that  at  a  short  distance  from  their  source.  This  conditxA 
results  in  a  rapid  fall  and  large  water  powers. 

About  9  per  cent  of  the  total  area  considered  belongs  to  the  abrupt  Lake  Superior  water- 
shed and  the  remainder  to  the  broad  southeast,  south,  and  southwest  slopes.  Tlie  divides 
between  the  rivers  which  drain  this  southern  slope  are  almost  imperceptible,  in  some  ca?«4 
being  entirely  lost  in  labyrinths  of  lakes  and  swamps. 

Hills  over  300  feet  in  height  are  rare.  A  few  *  *  mounds,"  or  isolated  steep  hills  with  extremely  nMxrct 
bases,  rise  out  of  the  sandy  plains  of  Jackson  and  Clark  counties,  and  a  few  larger,  more  msnaJTr-  M.* 
one  1,940 feet  above  the  sea, occur  in  the  valleys  of  the  larger  rivers, besides  the  low,  broad  hiUa  wYu-l 
form  the  crests  of  the  Penokee  and  Copper  ranges.  These  hilly  tracts  do  not  cover  over  5  per  cect  A 
the  total  area,  while  about  45  per  cent  is  level  upland  and  about  50  per  cent  is  rolling  country,  of  vh^ci 
a  considerable  portion  is  steeply  rolling  "kettle"  or  *' pot-hole"  land.a 

The  surface  features  are  discussed  elsewhere,  under  the  head  of  '' Geology,"  and  abo  in 
connection  with  the  drainage  of  each  river. 

mrOROGRAPHY. 

St.  Croix,  Chippewa,  Black,  and  Wisconsin  rivers  drain  70  per  cent  of  the  northern  half 
of  the  State,  an  area  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  State  of  Maine.  The  Lake  Superior  liym 
drain  only  9.3  per  cent  and  those  flowing  into  Green  Bay  the  remaining  20.7  per  cent. 

In  general,  each  of  the  important  rivers  may  be  divided  into  three  divisions,  differiog: 
widely  in  physical  characteristics.  First,  the  headwaters,  marked  by  sluggish  streams 
with  low  divides,  fed  by  numerous  and  extensive  swamps  and  lakes,  frequently  so  mter- 
laced  that  it  is  impossible  to  trace  out  the  river  divides.  Here  many  of  the  lakes  have  dam 
sites  forming  natural  reservoirs  for  the  river  below.  Bowlder  rapids  are  here  of  frequent 
occurrence.  Second,  a  stretch  of  maximum  descent  along  the  center  reach  of  the  rivfr. 
abounding  in  numerous  falls  and  long  stretches  of  rapids.  This  part  of  the  river  is  ahriT^ 
in  the  region  of  the  pre-Cambrian  crystalline  rocks,  the  southern  border  of  which  niark> 
the  lower  limit  of  the  rapids.  ^  Third,  the  lower  portion  of  the  course,  where  for  a  distance 
of  about  50  miles  the  river  flows  through  sandstone  and  limestone,  the  descent  being  verr 
slight.  This  region  is,  therefore,  devoid  of  water  power.  In  fact,  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment has  improved  the  larger  rivers  along  this  reach  for  the  purpose  of  navigati<m  wit  it- 
out  the  use  of  locks. 

As  compared  with  the  upper  Mississippi  basin  in  Minnesota,  the  area  under  discission 
may  be  said  to  have  a  steeper  grade,  the  middle  portion,  containing  the  main  water  powprs, 
having  an  average  fall  of  3  to  8  feet  to  the  mile.  Because  of  the  storage  effect  of  tbe  laket: 
and  swamps,  the  low-water  run-off  is  as  high  as  from  0.3  to  0.8  second-foot  per  square  mue 
of  drainage  area.     Probably  about  a  third  of  the  total  rainfall  finds  its  way  into  the  streams. 

The  general  use  and  control  of  these  northern  rivers  for  logging  purposes  in  the  past 
tended  to  decrease  the  value  of  the  water  powers  by  withholding  the  water  at  times  whet 
most  needed.  All  logging  on  rivers  is  fast  disappearing.  Indeed,  on  many  rivers,  like 
the  Wisconsin,  it  has  practically  given  way  entirely  to  railroad  transportation.  This 
leaves  the  rivers  free  for  the  permanent  development  of  their  water  powers.     The  effect  oo 


aRoth^  Filibert,  Forestry  Conditions  of  Northern  Wisconsin:  Bull.  Wis.  Ceol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Sur- 
v«v,  No.  1,  1898,  pp.  2-3. 

6 The  only  important  exception  to  this  rule  is  on  Wisconsin  River  at  Kilboum,  where  the  ri\« 
descends  rapidly  about  16  feet  in  the  dalles  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone. 


II. 

o 

a. 
III 

5 

Z 


HTDBOGBAPHT — SOILS. 


18 


the  stage  of  water  which  these  dams  have  had  in  the  past  suggests  their  enlargement, 
extension,  and  systematic  operation  for  the  sole  purpose  of  increasing  the  low-water  flow. 
The  United  States  engineers  have  surveyed  32  large  reservoirs  in  Wisconsin  and  have 
constructed  Bve  such  reservoirs  in  Minnesota.  The  total  capacities  of  the  proposed  Wis- 
consin reservoirs  are  as  follows  :a 

Storage  capacity  of  proposed  reservoirs  in  Wiscongin. 


River. 

Area  of 

overflowed 

lands. 

Storage 
capacity. 

St.  Croix .' 

Acres. 
b  102, 092 
Not  given. 
25,832 

Cubic  feet. 
34,334,000,000 
25,239,000,000 
10,557,000,000 

Chi  pypewa 

Wisconain 

79,130,000,000 

The  intelligent  operation  of  even  a  part  of  these  reservoirs  would  have  a  marked  effect 
in  steadying  the  river  discharge.  This  point  will  be  separately  discussed  in  connection 
with  the  several  rivers.  It  may  be  remarked  here  that  nature,  by  providing  numerous 
swamps  and  upward  of  1,400  lakes  for  this  region,  has  accomplished  unaided  a  decided 
rv^lation  of  the  water  supply. 

The  availability  of  these  water  powers  varies  greatly  on  the  different  rivers,  or  even  on 
parts  of  the  same  river.  Those  on  Wisconsin  River,  for  example,  are  all  reached  by  the 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway,  which  parallels  the  river  for  100  miles,  and  by 
other  railroads  at  certain  points.  The  powers  on  the  lower  Chippewa  are  likewise  available; 
but  as  yet,  because  of  the  small  population,  the  railroads  have  not  built  generally  into 
the  upper  part  of  the  region.  The  rapid  opening  up  of  farms  now  in  progress  will  soon 
bring  a  demand  for  better  transportation. 

The  present  bulletin  discusses  the  water  powers  of  the  northern  rivers,  for  the  reason 
that  these  powers  are  the  least  known  and  least  developed. 

SOILS,  c 

The  soils  of  northern  Wisconsin  may  be  grouped  into  seven  readily  recognized  classes. 

Sandy  soils  are  found  in  regions  known  as  flood  plains,  and  owe  their  origin  to  the  sorting 
action  of  flowing  water  as  it  issued  from  the  melting  ice.  The  two  largest  areas  of  this 
type  are  found  in  central  Wisconsin  east  of  Black  River  and  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
the  State.  These  soils  are  so  coarse  and  open  that  nearly  all  the  rain  soaks  into  the  ground, 
reappearing  later  at  lower  levels  as  springs. 

Sandy  loams  cover  a  much  broader  area  than  the  sandy  soils,  being  roughly  coincident 
in  distribution  with  the  Potsdam  sandstone,  from  which  they  have  in  large  part  been 
derived. 

Prairie  loam  is  a  light,  open  soil,  more  closely  aUied  to  those  described  above  than  to 
the  following  ones.  It  is  usually  underlain  by  from  3  to  5  feet  of  coarse,  open  gravel.  In 
northern  Wisconsin  the  largest  area  of  this  type  is  found  in  St.  Croix  County. 

Gayey  loam  is  finer"'and  contains  more  clay  than  the  soils  already  described.  Such  a 
soil  has  a  great  capacity  for  holding  water.  "The  area  of  northern  Wisconsin  covered 
by  this  type  of  soil  is  lai^r  than  that  oc<;upied  by  any  other  variety." 

Loamy  clay  is  still  heavier  and  more  clayey  than  the  last,  with  smaller  particles.  There 
are  three  considerable  areas  of  the  soil  in  this  region. 

Red  cUy  soil  is  the  most  peculiar,  the  finest  grained,  and  heaviest  in  the  State.  It  is 
practically  impervious  to  water.     Its  areas  border  Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan. 

aRept.  Chief.  Eng.  U.  S.  Army,  1880. 
t>  Including  27,406  acres  In  Minnesota, 
c Condensed  from  F.  H.  King's  description  in  Northern  Wisconsin  Handbook. 


14  WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WIROONSIN. 

Swamp  soil  includes  all  swamp  and  marsh  land  soils.  While  few  very  lai^  atngie  ar^a.- 
are  covered  by  these  soils,  the  aggregate  amount  is  probably  not  less  than  1,000,001 » :•. 
1  ,.'500,000  acres.  Some  of  these  lands  are  now  covered  by  a  growth  of  white  cedar,  othr  r- 
with  tamarack  and  spruce,  the  latter  being  usually  found  on  the  borders  of  both  tamani  t 
and  cedar  swamps,  while  still  others  are  simply  sedge  marshes,  some  of  which  are  yearly 
cut  for  hay.  In  many  other  swamp  areas  fires  have  killed  the  trees,  causing  all  the  >mi.l 
anchoring  roots  to  die  and  decay,  so  that  the  winds  have  overturned  nearly  every  trer-. 

Many  of  the  northern  swamps  are  underlain  by  vast  beds  of  peat,  while  all  have  a  thi* .-: 
covering  of  moss  and  humus.  Both  these  factors  play  an  important  part  in  delm^'ing  the 
water  in  its  journey  to  the  streams. 

FOREST  CO>'I>ITION.S. 

"Northern  Wisconsin  in  its  primeval  state  was  a  vast  forest  of  magnificent  timh»»r. ' 
This  could  be  said  to-day  of  large  areas.  The  central  portion  of  this  region  includes^  mix<TJ 
forest  in  which,  though  the  pine  has  nearly  all  been  cut,  there  still  remain  over  5,000  fet-i 
of  hard  wood  and  hemlock  per  acre,  besides  other  timber  equally  valuable.  The  total 
area  covered  by  forests  of  this  grade  amounts  to  8,000  square  miles,  about  the  same  as  that 
of  the  State  of  Massachusetts. 

Mr.  E.  T.  Sweet  o  enumerates  34  different  kinds  of  trees  which  he  found  on  the  Lake 
Superior  slope  alone.  Additional  species  found  on  the  southern  slope  would  increase  tliix 
numlx^r  considerably. 

The  lumberman's  lalx)rs  were  first  directed  to  getting  out  the  pine,  both  because  of  its 
high  value  and  l)ecau.se  of  the  fact  that  he  could  float  it  downstream  to  market.  Tin-! 
industry,  including  the  manufacture  into  lumber, had  an  invested  capital  in  1900  of  $lCif).- 
1(58,000  and  turned  out  a  product  valued  at  J81 ,983,000. 6  This  easily  places  it  as  t In- 
most important  industry  of  the  State.  Only  two  other  States  exceeded  this  in  1900.  In 
the  same  year,  according  to  the  l^nit^d  States  Census  report,  Wisconsin  was  the  leadiior 
State  of  the  Union  in  lumber  and  timber  product^?,  their  total  value  being  $58,000,001). 
The  amount  of  pine  timl)er  is  limited  and  already  its  production  is  waning.  Its  place  i> 
being  taken,  to  a  large  extent,  by  hard-wood  timber,  by  cedar  posts  and  poles,  and  by  hem- 
lock lumber  and  bftrk.  The  changes  wrought  annually  by  the  lumberman's  ax  and  the 
succecding  forest  fires  are  very  considerable.  The  recent  appointment  of  a  State  fores'trT 
commission  promises  much  for  the  protection  and  fostering  care  of  these  great  intere<t>. 

The  once  popular  belief  that  this  northern  area  was  worthless  after  the  loss  of  its  timl>er 
has  given  way  in  the  past  ten  years  to  a  general  confidence  in  its  agricultural  possibilitie>. 
This  is  amply  evidenced  by  the  rapidity  with  which  these  lands  are  being  opened  up  by 
farmers  and  by  their  rapid  appreciation  in  market  value.  In  1895  only  7  per  cent  of  the 
18,000,000  acres  of  the  northern  half  of  Wisconsin  was  cultivated.  This  re^non  has  fur- 
nished 85,000,000,000  feet  B.  M.  of  pine  lumber  alone  in  the  past  sixty  years.  The  grad- 
ual clearing  of  the  timber  has  doubtless  had  an  effect  on  the  run-off  of  the  rivers.  Under 
the  changing  conditions  the  rainfall  will  he  less  absorbed  by  the  soil  and  will  get  to  ibf 
streams  in  a  shorter  period.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  swamps,  where  the  fires  have 
burned  the  thick  humus  and  moss  which  formerly  delayed  the  passage  of  the  water  to  ihf 
lakes  and  rivers.  It  is  only  fair,  however,  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  lar^e  areas  of 
the  original  timber  consumed  by  forest  fires  have  been  replaced  by  a  second  growth  of 
both  hard  and  soft  timber,  much  of  it  in  the  form  of  dense  thickets,  which  shade  and  pnv 
tect  the  ground  more  effectually  even  than  the  original  forest. 


o  Geol.  Wisconsin,  vol.  3,  18S0,  p.  328.  b  u.  S.  Census,  1900,  pt.  1,  p.  293. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


15 


CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS. 


TEMPERATURE. 


The  climate  of  this  region  is  characterized  hy  a  large  amount  of  sunshine,  with  high 
ttMnperatures  in  summer  and^  extreme  cold,  deep  snows,  and  clear  skies  in  winter.  The 
fiumnier  heat  and  wint<?r  cold  are  generally  tempered  by  the  influence  of  the  bordering 
l^es.  Lakes  Superior  and  Michigan  cover  an  area  of  over  54,000  square  miles  and  never 
freeze  over  in  winter.  Although  the  prevailing  wind  is  from  some  westerly  quarter,  this 
is  so  frequently  broken  up  by  the  passing  of  storm  centers  from  the  lakes  that  both  the 
temperature  and  the  humidity  of  the  air  are  affected  by  these  great  bodies 'of  water.  Wis- 
consin rivers  are  generally  frozen  over  between  December  1  and  March  30.  The  following 
tabic  gives  the  highest  and  lowest  temperatures  for  each  month  of  the  year  for  the 
twelve  years  ending  1883  at  places  in  or  adjacent  to  this  region: 

Highest  and  lowest  iemperahirefi  for  each  month  of  the  year  for  the  twelve  years  ending  1883. a 


Locality. 


'         '         I         !  i 

Jau.  ,  Feb.  |  Mar.  Apr.   May.  June.  July. 


I 


51 


.57 


02       75         91       92 


I 


-38     -34  ,  -26 


26       36 


69 
-27  I 


70  ;     81    ' 

-14  ,      3 


Duluth: 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Marquette:  I 

Maximum 56 

Minimum '  —26 

Escanaba:  ,  '         i 

Maximum ....'      45        52'      57       65  i      83  I    88    '    92    |  89    [    84 


93  90 

45  30 

I 

92   95  '  100   96  ,  97 

22   31  '  40. 3,  39. 7'  28 


Aug.  Sept    Oct.  Nov.  Dec. 


78  I      65  I 
8  '  -29 


87  '      66  ! 
18  I  -  9 


Minimum.. 
Alpena: 

Maximum. 

Minimum.. 
St.  Paul: 

Maximum. 

Minimum. . 
La  Crosse: 

Maximum. 

Minimum . . 


-20     -32 


-20  I 


20       34         42       38 


26    I 


75  !      61 
17  9 


52 

58 

66 

72 

27 

-27 

-14 

2 

49 

59 

(>S  ' 

82 

31 

-32 

-22  1 

7 

59, 

05 

72! 

83 

43 

-34 

23 

10 

91       97    j    97    I  92    I    92         83         63  ; 
22  ,    33.5     45       40    j    29. 3     22  ,  -  4  , 

'     '     '  '     ! 

87-2 
15     -24  I 


94  I    94       100       98 


24       39 


46       43 


101    1  96 


29       40         52     I  44 


94    I 
30 

I 

92 
31 


84  I      70 
18  I  -21 


51 
-34 


-20 

I      48 
-23 

56 

-15 

56 
-30 

60 
-37 


a  King,  F.  H.,  Northern  Wisconsin  Handbook,  1890. 

In  connection  with  the  sudden  lowering  of  the  winter  temperature,  a  most  interesting 
phenomenon  was  observed  on  St.  Croix  River  by  United  States  engineers  in  the  early 
winter  of  1882 :« 

This  was  the  apparently  close  relation  between  the  temperature  and  the  mean  velocity  and  discbarge 
of  the  stream,  the  stand  of  the  water  being  at  the  «ime  time  nearly  constant.  In  the  early  winter  it 
was  found  that  each  cold  wave  which  increased  the  thickness  of  the  ice  about  one-tenth  of  a  foot  at  a 
time  was  accompanied  by  a  great  falling  off  of  the  discharge,  to  be  followed  l)y  a  partial  recovery  dur- 
ing the  next  few  days,  the  same  phenomenon  recurnng  with  great  regularity  at  each  cold  wave.  The 
recovery  of  discharge  being  in  each  case  only  partial,  the  gradual  tendency  was  downward  until  the 
apparent  minimum  was  reached,  when  there  was  no  appreciable  change  for  several  weeks. 

PRECIPITATION. 


The  average  rainfall  for  twenty-five  years  over  the  entire  State  is  close  to  32.3  inches, 
di.stributed  by  seasons  as  follows:  Winter,  4.7  inches;  spring,  7.6  inches;  summer,  11.7 
inches;  autumn,  8.3  inches.  If  the  rainfall  of  the  northern  half  alone  be  considered,  these 
figures  would  probably  need  to  be  slightly  increased.     It  is  worthy  of  note  that  60  per 


aRept.  Chief  Eng.  U.  S.  Army,  1883,  p.  1470. 


16 


WATEB   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


cent  of  the  rainfall  comes  in  the  supimer  and  autumn  months,  while  the  least  fall  is  during^ 
the  winter  months.  December,  January,  and  February  are  the  months  of  minimum  run- 
off, both  because  of  smaller  precipitation  and  because  of  low  temperatures  and  resulting 
deep  frosts. 

In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  precipitation  in  Wisconsin  exc€«ds  that  of  Minnesou 
and  Michigan  and  about  equals  that  of  Iowa. 


Fig.  1.— Rainfall  map  of  Wisconsin. 

Because  of  its  bearing  on  the  run-off  of  the  various  river  systems,  whose  discharge  meas- 
urements for  1903  and  1904  are  herein  given,  the  precipitation  map  shown  in  fig.  1  has 
been  prepared.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  heaviest  rainfall  occurred  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  State,  averaging  about  40  inches. 


PRECIPITATION. 


17 


The  following  table  shows  some  details  of  the  distribution  of  rainfall  by  months: 
Average  preeipUaiion  aijive  stations  in  Wisconsin  for  twenty  years,a 


Detail. 


PEBCKNTAGBS. 


Distribution 

ClaMiflcation  of  days: 
On  which  rain  fell- 
Mean 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Without  rain 

Trace  to  0.26' 

0.25'to0.fi(K 

0.50' to  1.00' 

1.00' to  2.00' 

2.00' to  3.00' 

3.00' to  6.00' 

Overy 


NUMSEB  or  DATS. 

Greatest  consecutive— 

With  rain 

Without  rain 


INCHES  or  BAIN. 

Heaviest  In  1  day 


100 


41.2 

66.6 

27.0 

6&7 

31.4 

S.0 

3.4 

1.4 

.2 

.1 

.2 


4.9 


43.0 
77.4 


4.3 


41.9 
79,2 


1&7|  11.3 
57.9;  68.1 
41.  l!  36.8 
3.3,    3.4 


6.1 


4a4 
60.4 
19.3 
60.2 


7.2,  10.6 


4a  6|  43.7 

60. 3!  67. 6 
21.91  20.7 
50. 6[  56. 3 


32. 4-  3a  6  3a  6 


1.4 
.3 
.2 


1.5 
.3 


4.1 

2.8 

.4 

.1 


5.8 

aol 
1.2' 

.3' 


1.8   2.1 


]3| 
8 


2.9;    3.1 


1 

9 

< 

1 

1 

1 

1 

13.8 

12.1 

11.0  12.0 

7.9 

6.5 

4.9 

4&1 

41.1 

3&2 

41.7 

36.1 

30.3 

43.5 

7a  0 

66.2 

6a6 

70.0 

60.8 

71.  Oj  79.6 

30.6 

17.4 

21.3 

16.9 

12.8 

14.91  19.3 

51.9 

58.9 

61.8 

67.6 

63.9 

6a  7!  56.5 

3a9 

27.6 

25.7 

2&4 

26.2 

32.1 

37.7 

7.6 

&8 

6.3 

6.3 

4.8 

a9 

3.7 

5.7 

4.9 

4.6 

4.6 

3.6 

2.5 

1.7 

S.2 

2.0 

1.9 

2.6 

1.6 

.7 

.4 

7 

.7 
.2 

:: 

.3 
.2 
.2 

11 

13 

16 

13 

19 

14 

14 

13 

8 

8 

8 

8 

9 

13 

2.9 

4.5 

a9 

5.6 

7.23 

1.8 

1.5 

aMooTO,  W.  L.,  Rainfall  of  the  United  States:  Bull.  D,  U.  S.  Depi.  Agriculture. 

The  amount  of  precipitation  is  fairly  constant  for  the  winter  and  a  portion  of  the  fall  and 
spring  months,  but  varies  considerably  in  the  summer  months. 

Exceptionally  dry  periods  occur  about  once  In  fifty  years,  when  the  average  for  three  consecutive 
years  is  22  Inches  and  the  least  for  one  year  Is  13.5  to  20.5  Inches.  Dry  periods  occur  once  in  twenty- 
five  years,  when  the  average  for  three  consecutive  years  Is  24.2  Inches  and  the  least  for  one  year  is  20.3 
Inches.  Moderately  dry  periods  occur  once  in  ten  years.  T>.<i  exceptionally  dry  periods  are  preceoed 
by  an  exceptionally  wet  period,  when  the  annual  precipitation  has  been  as  high  as  50  Inches.  This  Is 
followed  by  a  period  of  moderately  heavy  rainfall,  with  a  maximum  of  45  inches.  The  last  exception- 
ally dry  period  occurred  In  1884  to  1896.a 

The  year  1903  had  a  moderately  heavy  rainfall.  If  the  above  cycle  can  be  depended  on, 
the  next  period  of  maximum  rainfall  may  be  expected  about  the  year  1908. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  progressive  averages  of  the  precipitation  at  Milwaukee  for  the  past  sev- 
enty years,  computed  by  the  formula —  ft 

a-|-46-h6c-f  4rf+€_  / 
16 

where  c  represents  the  rainfall  of  the  year  in  question  and  b  and  a  stand  for  the  rainfall 
in  the  two  years  preceding,  while  d  and  e  represent  the  rainfall  of  the  following  two  years. 


a  Kirohoffer,  W.  Q.,  master's  thesis. 

b  After  Blandford.    See  Bull.  D,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 


IRR  156—06 2 


18 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


This  curve  makes  clearer  the  nature  of  the  rainfall  cycle. 

In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  long-t^rm  precipitation  records  of  four  tvpir-ji' 


I          1                    ^         > 

^            Oi            ^            ^            ^ 

fQJS 
36 

J/ 

*^ 

■** 
^« 

■4^ 

^ 

s 

s 

n 

t 

5 

X. 

r 

/ 

^ 

' 

•-' 

^ 

^ 

\ 

\ 

fv 

*^ 

k 

i 

\ 

y 

■^ 

L 

■" 

M 

^ 

.       *9 

.       St 

.     SJ 

.       S'0 
.       J3 
.       J6 
.       J7 
.       ^tf 
.       ^SS 
.  /S60 

-     5^ 

6J 
_        6* 
.       tfJ 
,       66 

67 
.       6B 
.       69 
./B70 

rt 

.        73, 

.        ^ 

77 

^ 

y 

- 

r 

1 

\ 

s 

L 

> 

\ 

i 

f-^ 

,e^ 

'S. 

. 

^ 

' 

jK^ 

' 

^ 

L 

; 

^ 

^ 

s 

' 

^ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

V 

-' 

_ 

_ 

__ 

_,_ 

1 

,_ 

--S  = 

*T-- 

- 

- 

-- 

- 

- 

r 

^ 



,        7S 

_     a/ 

.       Si? 

^ 

w 

A 

.       33 

h 

/ 

L 

9f 

•^ 

h,l 

r' 

.^ 

f 

- 

\ 

1 

■"i'i  :\ 

' 

■  1 

H.u 

1 

T 

;      ;  1 

1 

J 

^'' 

.       ^ 

'   ^  - 

.       55 

-    ^ 

"f+^" 

V 

9a 

1  -^ 

^^ 

.       99 

.     as 

)/ 

"\- 

■ 

K 

T   ^ 

, 

I'lG.  2.— Chart  showing  rainfall  at  Milwaukee,  1837-1904. 

stations  in  this  general  region.     The  rainfall  at  Milwaukee  appears  to  l)e  considerail 
loss  than  the  average  of  the  State. 


PRECIPITATION. 


19 


Precipitation  at  Milwaukee  and  Embarrass^  Wis.,  and  Duluih  and  St.  Paid,  Minn. 


Year. 


Mil-  Em- 
wan-  bar- 
kec.    '    ras8. 


Du- 
luth. 


1845 

20.5 

1846 

25.3 

1847 

.  22.4 

1848 

33.5 

1849 

31   1 

1850 

26.4 

1851 

30.4 

1852... 

20.3 

1853 

30.0 

1854 

3.7 

1855 

36.0 

1856 

29.0 

1857 

30.0 

1858 

44.0 

1859            

?89 

I860 

24.0 

1861 

31.0 

1862 

38.3 

1863 

31.8 

1864 

27.8 

1865 

30.1 

1^66 

34.0 

1867 

24.6 

I8«i8 

20.4 

1S69 

37.8 

1870 

26.6 

1871 

32.0 

1872 

26.2 

1873 

30.6 

1874 

30.8 

280 
36.3 
34.5 
20.0 
.38.8 


30.3 

41.0 

37.7 

286 

35.0 

31.0 

St. 
Paul. 


27.7 
35.4 
22.8 
17.8 
200 
30.6 
25.7 


31.2  ' 
30.1  I 
388 
36.5  I 


34.2 
30.5 
34.5 
15.7 
14.0 
38.1 
27.0 
33.6 
30.7 
32.2 
32.1 
30.7 
20.6 
34.6 
35.5 


Year. 




1 

1 

20.1 

1875. 
1876. 
1877. 
1878. 
1870. 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1880. 
1800. 
1801. 
1802. 
1893. 
1804. 
1895. 
1806. 
1807. 
1808.. 
1800. 
1000. 
1001. 
1902. 
1903. 
1904.. 


Mil-  Em- 
wau-  bar- 
kee.       rasR. 


35.6 
£0.4 
46.2 
383 
24.9 
30.0 
39.1 
284 
29.5 
3a6 
32.6 
31.5 
30.5 
23.5 
31.7 
30.1 
29.8 
35.0 
32.9 
27.8 
24.9 
29.0 
31.0 
32.4 
22.8 
30.1 
181 
286 
23.4 
29.9 


43.9 
489 
34.4 
37.6 
41.6 
49.8 
57.4 
40.0 
42.2 
62.1 
42.6 
45.4 
43.6 
43.9 
33.8 
44.0 
41.2 
44.0 
23.1 


16.7 
32.4 
25.3 
281 
27.8 


Du- 
luth. 

St. 
Paul. 

27.0 

30.7 

32.3 

23.6 

34.3 

287 

281 

22.6 

45.3 
382 
37.6 
380 
2a  2 
35.8 
20.0 
3a3 
285 
27.3 
32.0 
24.1 
20.5 
285 
23.3 
31.7 
22.3 
27.1 
30.0 
10.7 
30.5 
23.1 
26.7 
26.1 
280 
24.5 


32.5 
20.8 
30.2 
23.1 
26.5 
26.1 
25.3 
22.0 
25.0 
25.8 
17.1 
23.5 
21.8 
32.6 
26.0 
25.8 
24.3 
34.7 
30.5 
25.3 
27.5 
34.2 
25.8 
31.8 
37.0 
34.1 


FOX  RIVER  SYSTEM. 

DRAINAGE. 

Lake  Winnebago,  the  largest  inland  lake  in  Wisconsin,  divides  Fox  River  into  two  rad- 
ically different  sections,  the  upper  and  the  lower  Fox.  The  upper  river  approaches  from 
the  southea.st  to  within  about  a  mile  of  Wisconsin  River  at  Portage,  then  turns  to  the  north- 
east on  its  course  to  Lake  Winnebago.  It  winds,  with  low  banks,  through  broad  savannas 
having  only  a  gentle  slope,  passing  a  total  distance  of  25  miles  through  three  long  lakes 
before  reaching  Lake  Winnebago. 

Mud  Lake.  Buffalo  Lake,  and  Lake  Pucka  way  have  been  caused  by  the  deposits  of  affluents  which 
the  main  stream  has  not  been  able  to  wash  away,  plainly  indicating  that  the  present  upper  Fox  did  not 
erode  its  course,  for  it  has  not  even  the  power  to  keep  itself  free,  but  instead  Is  filling  up.  Lake  Butte 
des  Morts  and  Lake  Winnebago  are  depressions  which  the  present  tendency  is  to  fill  up.a 

Major  Warren's  hypotheses  for  these  peculiar  conditions  have  been  widely  accepted,  and 
are  so  interesting  that  they  are  here  given: 

We  have  only  to  suppose  that  all  the  waters  of  Lake  Winnebago  basin  (including  that  of  the  upper 
Fox)  formerly  drained  to  Wisconsin  River;  that  a  slow  change  of  level  in  this  region  elevated  the  south- 
western part  and  depressed  the  northeastern  part  till  a  large  lake  was  formed,  which  finally  overflowed, 
forming  the  course  of  the  lower  Fox.    This  explains  the  present  doubling  back  In  the  course  of  the 


a  Warren,  G.  K.,  Rept.  on  Wisconsin  and  Fox  rivers.  1876. 


20 


WATER  POWERS   OF    NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


upper  Fox  and  tributaries,  and  it  accounts  for  the  dose  relation  and  yet  opposite  coonet  of  Fox  aad 
Wisconsin  rivers.  As  the  level  changed  the  erosion  at  the  outlet  could  not  keep  pace  with  it  asd  ** 
prevent  a  lake  forming,  because  a  granite  ridge  lies  near  the  surface  between  the  Wisconsin  and  BiiiZai*-> 
Lake.  When  the  lower  Fox  outlet  formed  the  loose  material  covering  the  rocks  rapidly  gare  way  aad 
lowered  the  lake  level  down  to  the  rock,  which  now  (1875)  keeps  it  to  its  present  levd.  Tlie  period  r< 
this  change  was  post-Glacial,  because  this  alluvial  terrace  is  free  from  Glacial  drift,  whicfa  it  could  n-i 
have  been  if  formed  before  in  a  region  like  this,  surrounded  by  Glacial  drift  deposit. 


UPPER  FOX. 

Fox  River  descends  only  40.4  feet  in  the  95.5  miles  between  Portage  and  Lake  Winn^ 
bago — an  average  fall  of  less  than  0.5  foot  to  the  mile. 
The  following  table  shows  the  river  profile  in  detail  as  given  by  United  States  engmeefv. 

Profile  of  Fox  River  from  Lake  Winnebago  (Oshkosh)  to  Portage  lock  (Fort  Winnebago). 


Station. 


Descent  bet  «v^m 
points. 


Distance— 
'    Eleva- 

^^    I     Be-    '    ab2?e    ; 
Winne-     *^®®"  '  ""^  ^^'^^'  '  Total.     Per  raik 
bago.     iPO»nt«| 


Milet.      Miles.  ' 


Feet. 


Feet. 


FeeL 


Lake  Winnebago .* |  0 

Eureka  lock,  crest 24. 6 

Berlin  lock,  crest \  32.9  ' 

White  River  lock,  crest ,  33.9  | 

Princeton  lock,  crest  (Lake  Puckawa) !  43. 3  , 

Grand  River  lock,  crest 64. 0  i 

Montello  lock,  crest  (Lake  Buffalo) '  67. 3 

Governor  Bend  lock,  crest I  91. 4  | 

Fort  Winnebago  lock  (Portage) '  95.5 


746.1    . 

24.6 

748.8 

2.7 

&3 

75a  6 

1.8 

10.0 

755.7  , 

5.1 

9.4  1 

7ea2  1 

9L4 

2a7  1 

763.9  ' 

3L7 

3.3 

768.9 

5.0 

241 

774.7 

5.8 

4.1 

781.6  , 

6l9 

ac 


Fox  River  has  been  improved  for  navigation  by  the  Federal  Government  along  this  entire 
distance  by  the  building  of  10  locks,  but  the  slight  fall  gives  few  opportunities  for  water 
power. 

The  first  dam  on  the  Fox  \s  at  Pardeeville.  where  a  head  of  14  feet  is  available.  Wisconsdn 
River  is  about  10  feet  above  Fox  River  at  Portage,  and  this  fall  could  be  utilized  bj  a  dam 
near  the  Fort  Winnebago  lock.  A  considerable  quantity  of  water  could  be  dischar]ged 
through  the  canal  with  safety. 

At  Montello,  28  miles  below,  a  turbine  is  installed  under  a  head  of  3  feet,  deTek>pinir 
power  for  a  gristmill.     No  developed  power  is  in  use  on  the  river  below  this  point. 

The  three  principal  tributaries  of  the  upper  Fox  have  a  fall  of  about  250  feet — much 
greater  than  that  of  the  main  river;  they  are  all  found  on  the  north  side.  These  branches, 
Montello,  Mecan,  and  White  rivers,  start  as  clear,  steady  springs,  running  from  the  sand 
ridges  of  the  drift  covering  that  portion  of  the  basin.  They  are  each  about  20  miles  lon^ . 
and  would  be  unimportant  except  for  the  fact  that  their  fall,  combined  with  their  st«adiD<^ 
of  flow,  makes  them  of  considerable  value. 

Montello  River  joins  the  upper  Fox  at  Montello.  A  dam  at  this  point  has  a  head  of  11 
foet,  furnishing  power  for  a  flouring  mill  and  a  woolen  mill.  This  head  could  be  easily 
increased  to  16  feet. 


POX   BIVER   Si'STEM. 


21 


The  foUowing  table  shows  the  principal  developed  powers  on  the  tributaries  of  the 
upper  Fox. 

Developed  water  jxiwers  on  trilnUaries  of  upper  Fox  River. 


Location  and  stream. 


IlattoD,  Little  River 

Lawrence,  Duck  Creek 

Manchester,  Qrand  River 

Marblehead,  De  Nevue  Creek 

Marke«an,  Grand  River 

Oxford,  Neenah  Creek 

Do •. 

Pine  River,  Pine  Creek 

Poysippe,  Pine  Creek 

Princeton,  ditch  from  Mecan  River. 

Ripen,  Silver  Creek 

SaxevlUe,  Pine  Creek 


Owner  and  use. 


C.  F.  Stollyman,  flour  and  feed 

C.  E.  Pierce,  flour  and  feed 

Cm.  Pfeiffer,  flour 

D.  I.  Williams,  flour  and  feed 

P.  Wiealci,  flour  and  feed 

H.  Larmer,  flour  and  feed 

H.  E.  McNutt,  flour  and  feed 

Skinner  &  Johnson,  flour  and  feed 

W.  H.  Paulsen,  flour  and  feed 

Teske  &  Zlerka,  flour,  feed,  and  electric  light. 

Nohr  Milling  Co. ,  flour  and  feed 

B .  W.  Heald ,  flour  and  feed 

A.  0.  Ochsner,  flour 


Head.     H.  P. 


Waumander,  Waumander  Creek. . 

Wautoma,  Mecan  River WiUiam  Henke,  flour  and  feed 

Westfield,  MonteUo  River Cochran  &  Nettinger,  flour  and  feed 


10 

33 

11. 

70 

12 

45 

30 

30 

11 

30 

9 

70 

14 

190 

14 

GO 

0 

70 

19 

180 

12 

120 

10 

54 

15 

27 

8 

36 

10 

85 

LOWER  FOX. 


GEOLOGY  AXD  TOPOGRAPHY. 


East  of  Wolf  River  Valley  is  the  more  prominent  though  sfmilar  valley  of  Green  Bay  and 
Lake  Winnebago.  In  pre-Olacial  time  it  must  have  been  much  smaller  in  size,  having  been 
excavated  to  its  present  great  size  by  the  glacier.  Lake  Winnebago  alone  covers  about  200 
square  miles,  while  the  area  of  the  connecting  valley  below  (lower  Fox  River)  is  400  square 
miles.  y 

The  western  slope  of  both  valleys  is  gradual,  but  the  eastern  slope  is  precipitous,  being  cut 
out  of  the  soft  Cincinnati  shales  overlain  by  the  hard  ''Niagara"  limestone.  The  bed  is 
the  hard  "Galena"  limestone  of  the  "Trenton"  series.  Th6  eastern  side  of  the  lower  Fox 
River  drainage  basin  rises  abruptly  100  to  200  feet  above  the  water  in  Green  Bay,  and 
continues  as  a  line  of  cUiTs  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  present  Lake  Winnebago,  and 
thence  southward,  though  largely  covered  with  drift  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State.  The 
glacial  action  sent  down  an  immense  ice  sheet,  cutting  out  the  valley  of  Lake  Michigan, 
while  a  branch  tongue  gouged  out  Green  Bay  Valley  to  its  present  size.  On  the  peninsula 
between  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan  was  formed  the  prominent  Kettle  Range,  a  medial 
moraine. 

The  floor  of  Green  Bay  Valley  has  a  rapid  rise.  Lake  Winnebago  being  166  feet  above 
Green  Bay.  The  portion  of  the  old  valley  now  occupied  by  the  upper  Fox  was  largely 
filled  with  drift,  and  it  seems  probable  that  to  the  action  of  the  glacier  in  cutting  down 
the  intervening  "Lower  Magnesian"  rampart  and  in  partially  filling  the  upper  valley  of  Fox 
River  ia  due  the  change  in  the  flow  of  upper  Fox  and  Wolf  rivers  through  the  new^ly 
enlarged  Green  Bay  Valley  to  the  lake.  It  is  also  likely  that  the  change  in  flow  is  partly 
due  to  a  depression  toward  the  north,  which  occurred  during  or  after  the  recession  of  the 
glacier,  as  suggested  by  Major  Warren.  This  depression  caused  an  advance  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, which  rearranged  the  drift  and  deposited  the  red  clays.  By  means  of  the  latter  this 
ancient  shore  of  the  lake  can  now  be  traced  northward  beyond  Shawano,  on  Wolf  River, 
westward  up  Fox  River  above  Berlin,  and  southward  to  a  few  miles  north  of  Fond  du  Lac. 
Lake  Winnebago  is  a  comparatively  modem  reservoir,  formed  in  the  valley  by  the  deposi- 
tbn  of  glacial  drift. 


22 


WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


PROFILE. 


The  table  below  gives  in  detail  the  profile  of  the  river  to-day,  after  the  extensive  navi^A- 
tion  improvements  by  the  United  States  Government: 

Profile  of  Fox  River  from  Lake  Winneboffo  (Meruuha)  to  Green  Bay.**. 


Station. 


Menasha  dam,  crest 

Appleton  upper  lock,  crest . 

Apple  ton  locks,  foot 

Cedars  lock,  crest 

Littlechute  locks: 

Crest 

Foot 

Grand  Kaukauna  locks: 

Crest 

Foot 

Rapide  Croche  lock: 

Crest 

Foot 

Little  Kaukauna  lock: 

Crest 

Foot 

Depere  lock: 

Crest 

Foot 

Qreen  Bay 


Distance. 

Eleva- 
tion 
above 
sea  level. 

Des«- 
tween 

TotAl. 

nt  U- 
p*,^^t- 

From 
Menasha. 

Between 
points. 

Hi    1-  - 

MiUs. 

Mile: 

Feet. 

Feet. 

htf^ 

ao 

74a  1 
736.^ 

5.1 

5.1 

9.6 

1 

&3 

1.2 

609.7 

3&.S 

-i 

9.6 

Z.Z 

699.7 

-0 

10.6 

1.0 

e9ao 

47 

.-» 

11.6 

1.0 

653.8 

3ti2 

v. 

13.3 

1.7 

653.8 

.0 

14  2 

.9 

603.3 

5a5 

> 

17.9 

3.7 

603.3 

.0 

17.9 

.25 

583.9 

9.4 

37 

23.9 

6.0 

593.9 

.0 

23.9 

.2 

587.7 

6.2 

31 

29.8 

.9 

587,7 

.0 

29.8 

.0 

58ao 

7.7 

35.2 

&4 

58ao 

.0 

J '  I 

o  From  United  States  engineer's  profile  of  the  river. 

These  improvements  have  change<l  the  river  into  long  stretches  of  slack  water,  ^nxh  p^-r- 
haps  short  rapids  at  the  foot  of  a  dam,  except  at  Grand  Kaukauna  and  Grand  Chute,  th- 
site  of  the  city  of  Appleton,  where  the  rapids  are  passed  by  canals,  while  the  river  flows  over 
its  original  steep  bed. 

RAINFALL  AND  RUN-OFF. 

The  United  States  engineers  have  maintained  a  gaging  station  at  Rapide  Croche  dam  ever 
since  March,  1896.  The  assistant  engineer  in  charge,  L.  M.  Mann,  states  that  the  crest  of 
the  dam  at  this  point  is  well  suited  for  a  weir.  Care  is  taken  to  read  the  gage  three  tiitit-^ 
daily,  the  mean  reading  being  used  to  calculate  the  daily  discharge. 

According  to  these  records  the  mean  low-water  dischai^-  for  the  past  eight  years  wil^ 
1,409  second-feet  and  the  average  discharge  3,007  second-feet;  2,660  second-f«vt  may  I*- 
regarded  as  the  ordinary  flow  of  the  river.  Because  of  the  steadying  effect  of  Lake  Winr*^ 
bago  and  the  lakes  above,  formed  by  the  expansion  of  upper  Fox  and  Wolf  rivers,  tho  <il-- 
charge  of  the  river  is  remarkably  uniform.  At  Appleton  the  ordinary  variation  from  J«m 
to  high  water  is  scarcely  more  than  2  or  3  feet  throughout  the  year. 

The  following  table  gives  the  maximum,  the  minimum,  and  the  average  flow  for  cu.  h 
month  for  nearly  nine  years,  ending  December,  1904,  as  measured  at  Rapide  Croche  daoi. 
and  also  the  rainfall  and  run-off  for  the  same  period: 


FOX   EIVEB   SYSTEM. 


23 


Estimated  numtMy  discharge  of  lower  Fox  River  at  Rapide  Crocks  dam. 
[Drainage  area,  6,200  square  miles.] 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 


Run-off.  !  Rainfall. ' 


Second- 
feet  per    Depth  in 
square   I   inches., 
mile. 


,  Per  cent 
I  of  rain- 
Inches,        fall. 


1896. 


March 

April 

May 

Juno 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November., 
Pecember.. 


The  year. 


1897. 


January 

February.. 

March 

April 

May 

Juno 

July 

August 

Septem!)er. 

October 

November. 
December. . 


The  year. 


i8e«. 


January 

Februar>' . . 

March 

.\pril 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 
October 


0.731 
.726 
.734 
1.53 
1.04 
2.30 
1.42 
.823 
.717 
.635 


1,739  I 
1,766  I 
4,246' 
4,605  I 
3,863  , 
2.607 

390  I 
1,888  I 
2,882 
3,558  ! 


697  1 

1,284 

.207 

.239 

1.14' 

21.0 

406 

9401 

.152 

.170 

4.39' 

3.87 

1.563' 

3,140  1 

.506 

.583 

5.23 

11.1 

2, 173  1 

3,726 

.601 

.670 

2.75! 

24.4 

880  1 

2,787  , 

.450  t 

.519 

3.09 

16.8 

123  ; 

1,470 

.237 

.273 

3.09 

8.83 

9 

146' 

.024 

.027 

3.23  I 

.84 

145 

1,065 

.172 

.198 

2.55  ' 

7.76 

985  , 

2,007 

.324 

.362 

3.06 

11.8 

838 

2,367 

.382 

.440 

1.04  1 

42.3 

29.57 


3,795 

1.512  ! 

2,762 

3.522 

1.297  , 

2,765 

6,344 

1,160 

2.711 

8,728 

3.296  1 

6,132 

5.344 

2,519  1 

4.01« 

4.749  ' 

2.a32  j 

3.246 

4,071  1 

1.297 

3,200 

3,2;» 

116 

1.881 

1,588 

272 

833 

2,(508 

299  1 

1,424 

2.«i4 

m\ 

l,«i2 

3,770  1 

8tti  ' 

2.314 

158 
196 
872 
(i92 
862 

553 
SOS 
795  ■ 
368  ' 


1.425  j 

1.494  I 

1.782 

2,568  ' 

2,204 

1,604  , 

438 

8<-4'. 

442 

383 


2.762 

2,559 
2,3.59 
2,968 
4.079 
4.743 
3,216 
1,571 
1,817 
1,088 
1,201 


.445 
.446 
.437 
.969 
.648 
.524 
.516 
.303 
.134 
.230 
..%0 
.373  ' 

.445 

.413 
..380 
.479 
.658 
.765 
.519 
.253 
.293 
.176 
.194  ' 


.513 

1.37 

37.5 

.464 

1.17 

39.6 

.504 

2.19 

23.1 

1.10 

2.00 

55.0 

'   .747 

1.74 

42.9 

.585 

5.06 

11.6 

.595 

3.51 

16.9 

.349 

2.00 

17.4 

.150 

2.53 

5l9 

.265 

2.15 

12.3 

.335 

1.60 

22.3 

.430 

.86 

50.0 

6. 04 

.476 
..397 
.552 
.734 
.882 
.579 
.292 
.338 
.195 
.224 


.71 
1.21 
2.18 
2.02 
2.75 
3.84 
3.00 
3.00 
2.36 

a  15 


23.2 

67.1 
32.8 
25.3 
36.4 
32.1 
15.1 
9.45 
11,3 
8.25 
7.10 


24 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Estimated  monthly  dUcKarge  oflcfwer  Fox  River  <U  Rajride  CrocKe  dam — Cootinued. 


Month. 


1806. 


November. 
December. . 


The  year. 


January 

Febniary... 

liaroh 

April 

May 

June , 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November. . 
December. . 


1800. 


'The  year. 


1900. 


January 

February.. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November., 
December.. 


The  year. 


January . . . 
February.. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November., 
December.. 


1901. 


Discharge  in  seoond-feet. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


2,726 
2,805 


6,852 


2,417 
2,810 
3,435 
6,707 
8,767 
8,571 
6,171 
3,505 
1,437 
2,079 
2,648 
2,672 


Mini- 
mum. 


8,767 


2,684 

3,024 

3,677 

4,355 

4,054 

2,206 

2,413 

2,646 

3,518  I 

8,036  ! 

9,597'! 

8,222 


9,507  j 


1,234 
994 


Mean. 


2,213 
2,175 


2,499 


771 

1,014 

995 

1,447 

3,787 

4,018 

1,741 

791 

707 

308 

613 

105 


I 


1,906 
2,075 
2,253 
3,667 
6,209 
0,296 
3,786 
1,836 
968 
1,144 
2,119 
2,042 


Run-off. 


Second-  j 

feet  per  ,  Depth  in 


square 
mUe. 


a  357 
.351 


.403 


.307 
.335 
.363 
.600 
1.00 
1.02 
.611 
.206 
.159 
.185 
.342 
.329 


inches. 


a306 
.405 


5.47 


105  ' 


2,850  I 


.461 


Indies. 


1.4D  , 
.35 


Perooit 
of  ralD- 


11£.0 


26.15 


.364 
.340 
.418 
.656 
L15 

1.14  ; 

.7041 

.3411 

.177 

.213 

.382 

.370 


6l26 


I 


841 
1,044 
1,110  > 
1,107  ! 
1,383 

258 

131 
1,057 
1,107 
1,734 
4,948 
1,668 


2,174 
2,247 
2,566 
3,414 
2,076 
873 
958 
1,831 
2,021 
5,230 
8,062 
4,353 


.361 
.362 
.412 
.561 
.480 
.141 
.164 
.205 
.326 
.844 
1.30 
.702 


.406 
.377 
.475 
.615 
.553 
.157 
.178 
.340 
.364 
.973 
1.45 
.809 


1.12 
.90 
2.31 
3.00 
X06 
5.40 
3.20 
2.73 
2. 06 
X02 
.74 
L47 


29.74 


.74 
1.56 
1.09 
2.82 
1.61 
2.66 
&45 
4.30 
6.17 
7.06 
1.57 

.60 


131  I 


3,058 


.493  , 


6.70 


36.76 


31.  e 

3&8 

ia3 

2L» 
37.3 

2L2 
2L4 
12.5 
6.6G 
7.  OS 

sie 

25.4 


21  1 


54.7 
24.2 

416 

21.8 

34.5 

5.K 

IT* 

7.91 

S.» 

13.7 

0S.4 

117-0 


18.2 




4,349 

1,930  ' 

3,526 

.560 

.656  : 

.00 

r2-9 

4,634 

1,825 

3,773 

.609 

.634  I 

.46 

138.0 

6,431 

•      1,742  ' 

3,839 

.619 

.714 

304 

ZLh 

12,033 

2.460 

8,960 

1.45 

1.62 

.70 

20&0 

6,905 

3,453  I 

4,994 

.805 

.928 

272 

34.1 

5.087 

1,741 

3,723 

.600 

.660 

4.62 

14.  i 

4,557 

2,045  ' 

3,501 

.665 

.651, 

6.41  . 

la; 

3,846 

1,130 

2,176 

.351 

.405 

238  , 

17  2 

1,687 

675 

1,221 

.19Zh 

^          .220  ' 

306 

556 

3,873 

9,910 

2,551 

.411 

.474 

203 

lb.  2 

3,873 

1,640 

3,256 

.526 

.586 

1.25  1 

4fi.9 

3,672 

1,464 

2,768 

.446 

.514 

.81  ! 

635 

The  year. 


12,033  I 


3,601 


.506, 


8.07 


30.27  , 


FOX   RIVER  SYSTEM. 


25 


Estimated  monthly  dueharge  of  lower  Fox  River  at  Rapide  Croche  dam — Continued. 


Month. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Mini- 
mum. 


I9Q2.  I 

January '  3, 136 

February '  3,480 

March 4,019 

April '  3,252 

May I  12,317 

June '  11,868 

July I  5,703 

August 4.086 

September 1,865 

October '  3,024 

November 3, 184 

December 3,100 

Theyear 12,317 

1903.  ! 

January 3, 756 

February 3,652 

March 8,437 

April 9,297 

May 7,378 

June 6, 791 

July 5,571 

August 4,449 

September 5, 519 

October 5,826 

November 5, 077 

December 3,702 

Theyear 9,297 

1904. 

January 3,860 

February '  4,134 

March 7,425 

April. 9,637 

May *  11,682 

June 9, 793 

July 4.111 

August 4,043 

September '  2, 631 

October '  6, 434 

November I  0, 935 

December I  4,504 

Theyear 1^  11,682 


OlfO    I 

1,135 

947 

1,471 

3.401 

1,647 

1.311  I 

515 

435 

756 

892 


nd-feet. 

Run-off. 

Rainfall 

Mean. 

fpct  per 

square. 

mile. 

Depth  in 
inches. 

Inches. 

Percent 
of  rain- 
fall. 

2,263 

0.365 

0.421 

0.60 

61.1 

2,142 

.345 

.350 

1.53 

23.5 

2.892 

.466 

.537 

1.50 

3&8 

2.335 

.377 

.421 

2.42 

17.4 

4,035 

.796 

.918 

402 

22.8 

6,930 

1.12 

1.25 

3.80 

32.1 

4,304 

.604 

.800 

&47 

14.6 

2,896 

.467 

.538 

1.40 

38.4 

1,266 

.204 

.228 

2.81 

8.11 

1,818 

.293 

.338 

1.94 

17.4 

2,394 

.386 

.431 

2.90 

14.9 

2,274 

.367 

.423 

1.93 

21.9 

435 


3,037 


.490 


6.66 


30.50  , 


1,206 

1,675 

1,780 

3,886 

3,043 

2,656 

1,856 

1,438 

1,829 

2,500 

1,733  j 

1,319 


1.2 


.1 


2,760 

2,949  ! 

3,827  i 

6,500 

5,532 

5,061 

4.124 

3,446 

4,321 

4,686 

3,686 

2.885 

4,148  I 


.445 
.476 
.617 
1.05 
.892 
.816 
.665 
.556 
.607' 
.756 
.505 
.465  I 

.660 


.513  , 
.496  ' 
.711  I 

1.17    ' 

1.03 
.910  ' 
.767 
.641  i 
.778 
.872  j 
.664 
.536 


9.09 


1,185 

1,565 

1.724 

1,612 

4,456 

2,336  I 

1,41G 

1.561, 

988 
1,324 
1,667  I 
1.812 

988 


3.074 
3,128 
3,398 
6,669 
8.707  j 
6,682 
3,105  I 
2.965  I 
1.854 
3,457  I 
4,056 
3,618 

4,228 


.496 

.571 

.505 

.545 

.548 

.632 

1.06 

1.20 

1.40 

1.61 

1.08 

1.20 

.501 

.578 

.481 

.554 

.299 

.334 

.558 

.643 

.654 

.730 

.584 

.673 

.47 
.80 
3.12 
3.14 
5.87 
2.14 
5.47 
6.23 
5.91 
2.75 
1.14 
.71 


37.75 


.38! 
1.45  ' 
1.80  I 
1.86  ' 
5.93  I 
3.99  I 
3.98  I 
3.01  I 
5.75 
4.73  I 

.30  ' 
2.13  I 


21.8 


109.5 
62.0 
22.8 
37.3 
17.5 
42.5 
14.0 
10.3 
13.2 
31.7 
58.3 
75.5 


24L1 


150.0 
37.6 
3&1 
64.5 
27.1 
30.1 
14.5 
1&4 
5.81 
13.6 

243.5 
31.6 


9.270  I 


3&31 


26.2 


26 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Mean  daily  discharge  y  in  second-feet  ^  of  lower  Fox  River  at  Rapide  Croche  dam. 


I  I 

Jan.      Feb.      Mar.     Apr.  I  May 


lSii5. 

1 3.012 

2 '  2,2G2 

3 I  3,350 


4 3,7S1 

5 !  4,447 

0 4,2<i0 

7 i  4,2S5 

8 1  3  024 

9 '  2,9<)7 

10 4,244 

11 4.422 


I  4,594 

1  4,559 

4,102 

3.112| 

I  2.497' 

17 3,916 


12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 


4,672 
4,328 
4,766 
5,164 
3,765 
2,(«9 
4.785 
4,973 
5,063 
5,009 
5,173 
4,061 
2.892' 
4,8;«) 
5,20l' 
4,785 
4,72;}' 


18 

4,244 

4,6:^7 

19 

4,(i02 

3,309 
2,545 

20.. 

4,6.54 
4,619 
3,027 
2,963 

21 

4,839 

22 

4,910 
4.847 

23 

24 

4,742 

4,777 

25. 

4,829 

4,356 
3,05.'> 

26..    .. 

4,5-0 
4,972 

27 

2,575 

28 

4,653 

4,186 

29 

3,413 

30 

3  137 

31 

4,576 

Total . . . 

121,850|l20,975 

1896. 

1 

2 

4,097| 

4,438 

4,285| 

4,260 

2.846, 

2,611 

3,982 

3.9i*8 

4,021 1 

4,419' 

4,214, 

2,704, 

2,2(>4 

2,062 

3,892 

3,685    11 

3,876!  11 

4,313'  11 

2,529', 

2,098 

4.22k' 

4,490, 

5,79() 

5,757| 

5,026' 

4,508 

^,546' 

4,.y>3 

4,2(i8| 

4.395| 

4,I8.> 


798 
185' 
076 
064 
,595 
998 
804 
a52 
SO? 
422 
435 
354 
,706 
,187 
033, 
,063 
,110 
,637 
,277, 
,879 
,336 
,6;J9 
,406, 
,032' 
,208 
,661 
,862, 
,164 
,144 
,362 


June.  '  July.     Aug.     Sopt.      Oct.      Nov.      iv-i 


I 


4,373 

5,852 
5,880 
5,910 
5,949 
6,135| 
4,493! 
4,23.3| 
5,546' 
6,38(ij 
6, 15.5! 
6,037 
6,0(Mil 
4,642; 
4,399! 
6.179 
6,ia'j 
6,274 
5,891 
6.115 
4,803 
4,386 
5,804 
6,047 
5,880' 
5,880 
5,841 
4,5(i() 
5,129 
6,597 
6,312 


6,628 
7,339 
6,935 
7,225 
8.277 
15,416 
14,244 
14.178 
15,132 
14,286 
14, 122' 
14,060 
14,, 559 
14,585 
14,219 
14,365^ 
14,588 
13.981 
14,277 
14,279 
14,19l| 
13,419 
13,674, 
13,513 
12.524 
11,8921 
14,021 
12,265' 
12,509, 
12.251 


11,982 
10,639 
10,433 
10,585 
10,664 
10,639 
9.415 
9,206 
7,865 
7,416 
8,803. 
9,124 
9,066 
8.769 
8,521 
7,165 
6,699 
8,860 
7,87.} 
6,597 
6.577 
5,804 
4,. 583 
3.451 


5,498 
5,545 
5,192 
3,562 
3,480 


884 
963 
964 
936 
173 
4UI 
385 
382 
847 
S98' 
242 
847 
577| 
383 
849 
937, 
937^ 
027 
785 
047 
526, 
794' 
892 
036, 
019' 
804' 
593 
518| 
1451 
086 
2()    . 


4,698 
5,072 
3,387 
3,048 
3,788 
4,102 
4,487 
4,395 
4,4.10 
3.969 
3,10«j 
4,372! 
4,144 
4.327 
4,447 
4,243 
2,JvVJ 
2,821. 
4,23<i| 

4,4a5 
4,44: 

4,294 
4.337 
2,974 
2  242" 
4.0J(} 
4.421 
4,162 
4,2>v.^ 
4.1; 


2.071  . 
2.132  . 
3.546  . 
3,5M  . 
3.3«i*i  . 
3.5.S4  . 
3,9:«  . 
3,057  - 
2.504  . 
3.899  . 
3.971  . 
4,022  . 
3,8S4  . 
3,7t>4  . 
2.774  . 
2  227 

4.av. . 

3,939  . 
3,95*i  . 
2,0NS  . 
2.173. 
3,917  . 
4,021  . 
4,069. 
4,0S1  . 
4.160. 
2,710  . 
2,2t«  . 
4.185  . 


122,346  255,292  173,925  382.954  235,989  137,156  119,657  105,942  . 


10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 


888 

«97' 

1,386 

1,226 

1,3951 

1,.338| 

1,430 

1,1  l.T 

919| 

1,271 

I.479I 

1,«7, 

1,407 

1,271 

981 

837 

1.4.37 

1.24S 

1,4811 

1,366, 


1,272 

1,027' 
922 
760 

1,048 
780 
761 
922 
8.-)9 
9(>4 
859 
406 
644 
8.59 
922 
98,5 

1.04H 
98,5 
644' 
608, 


2,400i 
2,088 
1,563; 
1,639 
3,493 
3,166 
3,312 
2,9i13 
3,230 
2,032 
1,575 
3,361 
3,427, 
.3,476 
3.. 5.58 
3,396 
2,6% 
2,460 
3.. 591 
3,897 


2,789 
4,246l 
4,246J 
4,141 
4,2821 
3,9(>7 
3,897| 
3,1.3.5 
4,461 
4,282 
4.605 
4,389 
4.106 
3,296 
2.913 
4,0,37 
3,796 
3.897 
3,897 
3,897 


3,694 
3,728 
3,761; 
2,032 
880 
1.82o' 
3.592 
3,394' 
3,863 
3,728, 
3,761 
2,201 
l,i»52! 
3,592| 
3,525 
3,525 
3,694 
3.290, 
1,872 


1,6; 


ro! 


912 
1,0481 
1,512' 
2,314 
2,461, 
2,578 
2,607 
2,490 
1.2.50 
1,392, 
1.818 
1.818 
1,T« 
1.723J 
2,006 

985| 
1,352 
2,006 
2,032 
2,061| 


2.59, 


179] 

78 


»i      1, 
179 

32S'     1 
390 

122     1 
192! 
136 

48      1.1 

t 

2a5' 
145'   1 

192j     1 

134 
78, 


I95I 


145 
608 
838 
608 
6»3 

,440 
880 

,070 
880 

.Oft} 
60fS 
779 
093 
964 
922 

.093, 

,13?* 
608 
722 


1,3 


2.72 


9« 

,01H 

.512 
.537 
,S7'J 
.872 
.792 

.0[*3 
.201 
.229 
.U58 
,72!» 
.729 
.115 

.4<i0 
,  729 
,«* 


2.'*wl 

A  :  L' 

3  -^• 

^^  v.* 

..  I  .-. 


2  ¥V 

2  '*~ 


FOX    RIVER   SYSTEM.  27 

Mean  daily  discharge ^  in  second-feet,  of  lower  Fox  Ritrr  at  Rapide  Croche  dam — C-ontinued. 

Day.  Jan.      Fob.     Mar.  I  Apr.     Uay.  ,  Juno.    July.     Aug.     Sept.     Oct.      Nov.     Dw. 


isni-. 


21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27- 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 


1.414J 
1,024 
1,024 
1,739| 
I,461{ 
l,224i 
1,1791 
l.(X)5 
1,337' 
1,522| 
1,7071. 


943 
943 

901 

9S5 

1,273 

,V>6 

7S0 

1,0271 

1,765 

1,7»35 


3,897 
3,897 
4,071 
2,729 
2,38: 
3,932 
4,246 
4,071 
4,161 
4,071 
2,519 


2,431 
2,461 
3,967 
4,211 
3,932 
4,141 
3,897i 
2,606 
2,173 
3,693 


2,913 
2,607 
2,314 
2,607 
2,607 
1,563' 
1,563 
2,913 
2,609' 
2,490 
2,578 


2,00(> 

1,899; 

2,454 
838 
327j 
123, 
259 
3751 
406' 
453' 
312,. 


17 
145 
134 

36 

112' 

122. 

",' 

374 
134 


1,647 
1,440' 
1,563 
1.613; 
543 

1,440 
1,272' 
1,845 
1,888 
1.672'. 


2,882 
1,639- 
1,440 
2, COS 
2,789 
2,82l' 
2,669 
1,818 
1,205 
1,672 


1,613 
2,519 
2,460 
2,431 

838 
1,160 

838 
1,792 
2,913 
2.607 
2,229 


Total ' 39,818    28.213   97, ;J30  111,793   Wi,406   45,582     4,388    i3,013   60,204    73,302 


1897. 

1 2,201 

2 2.173 

3 1.512 

4 2.088 

5 2,789 

0 3,104 

7 ,3.394 

8 3.008, 

9 2.759 

10 1  2,(307 

11 2,286 

12 3,072 

13 3,198 

14 3,072 

15 3,040 

16 2,788 

17 1,644 

18 1,872 

19 3.230 

20 '  3.795 

21 3.459 

22 j  3,198 

23 j  3,394 

24 2.759' 

25 1  1,899 

26 2.945| 

27 '  2,94.') 

28 3.103 

29 3,3()1  . 

30 3,103. 

31 ,  1,818. 


1,563 
3,040 
3.3(>1 
3.ia3 
3,072 
3,20;* 
1,440 
1,563' 
3,008 
3,3(il, 
3.040 
3,198' 
3,198 
2, 1S9 
1,29: 
3,103 
3,072 
3,230 
3,U)8 
3,361 
l,(i39 
1,723 
3. 135 
3.522 
3,. 378' 
3,4:)8| 

3,i;i') 

1,7««' 


I 
1,472! 

3,2«;'i 

3,263 
3, 135 
3.395 
2,608| 
1,183 
1,393' 
2,431| 
2,490| 
2.461 
2,.')78 
2,4fil' 
1.512 
17      1,160 


2.490' 
2.3141 
2.619, 
3.460 
5,344 
2,821 
2,4611 
3,694 
3,62() 
3,. 328 
3,394 
3, 135 
1,512 
1.9(52 
3,394 
3,604  . 


3.72S 
4,037 
4.966' 
3,296' 
4,037 
5,624' 
6.329 
6..j29| 
6,533 

6,.s:«' 

5,231 

4,789| 
6,6I4| 
6,410 
6,533! 
6,329, 
6,779 
7,072J 
5,419, 
7,114 
7,582j 
7,32<V 
8,728' 
8,549| 
6,946 
6.329 
7,.539l 
6,329, 
5,4.59 
5,459 


5.344' 

I 

4,071| 

4,002 

4.886' 

5.079 

4,713 

4,6a5| 

4,354 

3,198 

2.759| 

4,354 

4,497' 

4,461; 

4,141 
4,425 
3,329 
2,913 
4,106 
4,282 
4,425 
4,318 
4,461 
3,072 
2,7.59 
4,141 
4,246 
4,246 
4.071 
4.071 
2,63H 
2,519 


3,26:i 
3,659 
3,727 
3,727 
3,761 
2,201 
2,402 
3,361 
3,230 
3,329 
3.459 
3,659 
2,229 
2,229 
3,394 
4,749 
4,037 
3,727 
3,727, 
2,286 
2.314 
3,52,51 
3.52.5' 
3,. 592 
3,263 
3,528 
2,343 
2.032' 
3.932 
3,727 


3,761 
3,863 
4,0371 
2,490 
1,2971 
2,173| 
4.002' 
4.07l| 
3,932 
3,932 
2, 4021 
2,402 
3,459| 
3,,558j 
3,694 
3.897I 
3.604 
2.2291 
2,000' 
3,394 
3.558| 
3.761, 
3,694 
3,525 
1.926 
2,117 
3,008' 
3.1(« 
3,394' 
3.394| 
3.329 


2.314I 

1,765, 
3,103i 
3, 103, 
3,230 
3.O72I 
3,040 
1,926 
1,416 
2,760 
2,608 
2,490 
2,490 
2, 60S 
1,440 
1,3451 
3,431 
2,(^38 
2,431 
1,7651 
1,093 
1,04S 
1,352 
1,27,3| 
1,273 
901 

i,\m\ 

343 

374 
116 
403 


46S' 

621 ! 

343 

328 

328 

300 

272' 

539' 

702| 

5.56 

664 

390 

390 

819 

1,416 

1,588 

1,440 

1.2a5 

761 

702 

943 

1,205 

1,393 

1,369' 

1,160, 

(>44 

83s' 

1.138, 

1.183 

1,183 


1.160 

1.070 

702, 

556 

1,138 

1,115, 

1,160 

1,183' 

985' 

741' 

556' 

1,345' 

l,512j 

1,512. 

1.897' 

1,952 

1,048| 

722' 

1,807 

2,061, 

1,897! 

1,897' 

299, 

1,115 

1,239 

2,..7| 

2,490 

2,373 

2.608| 

2,2861 

1.512" 


1,160 
1,983 
2,209 
2,615 
2,642 
2,664' 
1,973, 
1,390 
1,861, 
1,964 
1,912 
1,964 
2.183, 
1,481' 
1,092 
1,833 
1,912' 
1,964 
2.432 
2,412 
1,387 
861 
2,045 
1,207 
2,476 
2,107 
2,148 
1.281 
1,097 
1,602 


1,820 
1.832 
2,128 
2.226 
1,638 
1,196 
2,401 
2,474 
2,497 
2,748 
2,568 
1,905 
1,102 
2.512 
3,409 
3,439 
3,770 
1,880 
2,213 
1,559 
2,424 
2,6()5 
2,642 
2.732 
1,878 
806 
1.657 
2.900 
2,808 
2,923 
2,969 


ToUl. 

1896.  I 

1 '  3,063 

2 2,099' 

3 1,425 

4 2,5351 

5 3,000] 


85.616    77.415   84.05.3  18:^.948  124.486   97.. 397    99. 197;  58,311    24.978    44.145   .55.R57    71,721 


2,793 
2,762 
2,931 
3,19() 
3,062 


2.676 
2,698 
2,753 
2,908 
2,7.52 


4,05<i 
4. 176 
2.846 
2.5(W 
3.890' 


3,776 
3.799 
5.. 508 
5,016 
6.6<3.S 


4,9tl9 
4,. 522 
4,579 
4.. 397 
3.578 


2,.V.3 
2,49<ii 


43S 
l.WvS 


6 1    3,039,    2,038,     1,699;    4,072.    6,852,    2,388;    1,865 


876 
l,.i46 
l.('>49 
1,670 
1,585 


1,652 
1,795 
1,6.39 
1,317! 

726' 


602 
5.54 
517 
857 
595, 


2.609 
2.351 
2.2.37 
2,134 
2,1871 


2,805 
2,766 
2,714 
1,789 
1,647 


l,667j     1,4541        771.    l,467j    2,479 


28 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


Mean  daily  dueharge,  in  second-feety  of  lower  Fox  River  at  Rapide  Croche  dam — ContmiKd 


Day. 


1806. 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 


Jan. 


2,9461 

2,977 

1,873 

1,396 

2,953 

2,96o| 

2,90i; 

2,946 

3,079' 

1,864' 

1,56U' 

2,908! 

2,799' 

3,078' 

2,859 

2,915' 

l,a25j 

1,741 

2,962' 

2,965 

3,077 

3,158| 

2,964. 

1,851. 

l,46l'. 


Feb.     Mar.     Apr.  '  May.    June. 


1,766 
2,504' 
2,665! 
2,5831 
2,701 
2,679 
1,723 
1,578 
2,331 
2,549 
2,490 
2,468 
2,497 
1,528 
1,587 
2,403 
2,409| 
2,505 
2,403" 
2,505' 
1,494< 
1,914' 


1,7821 
3,064* 
3,669 
3,761 

3,192 

1,902 
3,224 
3,288 
3,111 
3,135 
3,435 

2,235 
3,280 
3,200 
3,122 
0,643 
3,361 
2,565 
3,035 
3,872 
3,728 
3,736 


Total...    79,317,  66,0(M   92,026122.360147,045'  96,483   48,707,  56,326 


1899. 

1 1     1,533| 

2 1     1,488 


3 1  2,366     2,275| 

4 1  2,417' 

5 ;  2,187| 

6 '  2,303| 

7 ]  2,1731 

8 '  1,466 

9 1  1,465^ 

10 '  2,316 

11 1  2,329 

12 1  2,316' 


2,111 
2,174 

2, 261 1 
1,453 
2,4581 
2,175| 
1,303 
2,68l' 
2,572' 


13 1  2,106' 

14 1  2,406 

15 '  1,514 

16 !  1,604' 

17 1  2,254 

18 1  2,379| 

19 1  2,352 

20 2,347' 

21 1  2,330 


22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
36. 


1,409 
1,506' 
1,729! 
1.562 
1,690, 


2,810 
2,047' 
l,7ll| 
2,588i 
2,646 
2,534! 
2,619! 
2,453 
1,243| 
1,291 
1,902 
2,117! 
2,152! 
1,995| 
2,104 
l|d95| 


1,931 
2,113 
2,134 
2,113 
1,352 
1,279 
1,976 
1,932 
2,027 
2,062 
2,034 
2,355 
1,^36 
1,913 
2,289 
2,692 
2,612 
2,553 
1,553 
995 
2,731 
3,001 
2,756 
2,832 
2,829 
1,910 


4,159 
4,115 
4,150 
2,925 
2,837 
4,291 
4,273 
4,054 
4,189 
4,301 
2,924 
3,025 
4,372 
4,650 
4,776 
5,602 
4,894 
3,176 
3,462 
4,656 
5,089 
5,136 
4,767 
4,839 


6,098 
4,921. 
4,333] 
5, 8891 
5,904! 
5,683 
5,487 
5,432 
4,018' 
3,457 
4,551 
5,088 
4,758 
4,647 
4,739 
3,577 
3,157 
4,338 
4,594 
4,471 
4,739 
4,612| 
3,857 
2,2041 
4,872 


4,018 

4,408 

4,276 

4,175 

4,364 

3,215 

2,524 

3,690 

3,703 

3,723 

3,167 

3,1 

2,343 

2,076 

2,453 

2,623 

2,603 

2,624 

2,488 

1,623 

1,604 

1,863 

2,230 

2,567 


3,279 
1,837 
1,447 
3,756 
4,249 
4,641 
4,839 
4,425 
2,823 
2.249 
3,741 
3,821 
3,812 
3,976 
3,721 
2,199 
2,004 
3,461 
3,946 
3,778 
3,955 
4, 154 
2,798 
2,813 
4,336 
4,624 


July.     Aug. 


Sept. 


1,760 
l,63o| 
1,466 
1,096J 
1,042' 
1,535| 
1,757| 
1,798 
1,842 
1,792 
1,074 
1,245 
1, 
1, 
1,616! 
1,664 
1,685 
1,088' 
989 
1,557 
1,641 
1,618 
1,687 
1,661 
1,117 


973 
1,074 
1,653| 
1,685 
1,695 
1,660 
1,835 
1.213 
1,226 
1,765 
2,273 
2,460 
2,805 
2,752 
2,024 

866* 
2,571 
2,579 
2,482 
2,468 
2,572 
1,942 
1,195 
1,848 
1,717 


1,532 
1,629 
1,735 
1,714 
1,133 
750 
1,288. 
1,115| 
1,11 


Oct.  ,  Nov.      Dec 


801 
1,024' 

383* 

I 
638i 

1,056 

1,092 

1,246 

1,155 

1,156 


1,060| 

1,17 
778 
442 
760 
818 
959 
906 
933 
676 
491 
681 
693 
877 


«0|        745. 
,77         755 


1,300; 
1,178 
1,304 


3,787j 
5,020! 
5,12l| 
5,417 

5,395! 
5,500 
4,4461 
4,145| 
5,924' 
6,192. 
6,618 
7,601 
8,050 
7,301' 
7,763| 
8,562, 
8,767 
7,838| 
8,421 
8,43ll 
7,046| 
6,272l 
5,263] 
5,333j 
5,451 
6,2631 


5,209 
5,238 
5,432 
4,733 
4,018 
5.518 
5,633 
5,565 
5,062 
5,369 
4,406| 
4,334 
5,878 
7,09l! 
7,080] 
7,68l! 
7,408] 
6,702' 
0,853] 
8,123 
8,095! 
8,57ll 
8,515| 
8,277' 
7,338' 
6,504, 


5,042| 
4,031 
3,133' 
3,678 

3,36l| 
4,923 
5,171 
4,726' 
3,942. 
3,019' 
4,592^ 
4,715' 
4,882] 
4,852! 
4.974 
3,773, 
3,021 
4,516] 
4,511, 
4,186l 
3,8811 
3,701' 
2,450| 
1,741! 
3,103 
3,336 


3,345 
3,505 
3,121 
2,396 
2,4I8j 
1,745 
056 
2,043' 
2,585' 
2,394 
2,343 
2,357 
1,547 
1,250 
1,852 
1.812 
1,829' 
l,946j 
1,973! 
1,026 
1,163 
1,578 
1,609 
1,772 
1,317 
1,;I39 


1.802 
1,865 
1.136 
760 
2,043 
1,815 
1,845| 
2,064| 
2,2331 
1,489 
2,368 


2,ftl7 

2,475 
2,48S 
2,497 
2,542 

>.«»; 

1,451 
2,438. 
2,453 
2,552 
2,563 
2,482 
1,747 
1,281 
2,704 
2,549 
2,499 
2,725 
2,572 
1,486 
l,«l2j 
2,006: 
2,519 


2,a» 

2,  fin 
2,5:^ 
1,37S 
2,153 
1.539 
2,345 
2.637 
2.7»1 
2,7U 
2.215 
1,343 
1,4s: 
2,4» 
2,409 
2,3» 
2,341 
2,3D3 
994 
1,017 
1,544 
2,41:2 
2,44B 
2.3L5 
2,244 


629  37,239,  66,397    67,435 


1, 

1,437 
842 

1.003 

1,411 

1,121 
991 
953 
996 
792 
678 
945 
825 
891 
889 
831 
831 

1,001 

1, 
996 

1,039 
991 
855 
707 
719 


831 
764 

1,560| 

1,037' 

996 

1,193 

i.ioo" 

928' 

774 

964 

922: 

1,056] 

1,144 

962 

779 

398 

969' 

1,039 

1,179 

1,3041 

1,327, 

885 

685 

1,480 

1,651 

1, 


2,104; 

2,648 
2,5« 

2,446j 
1,742] 
1,261| 
2,579' 
2,622 
2,523 
2,635, 
2,6I9J 
1.890; 
1,143! 
2.187 
2.381 
2,351 
2,352 
2,261 
1,774| 
613! 
2,301 
2,205' 
2,237] 
2.209* 
2,352 


2,303 

2,455 
1,667 

2,549 
2,411 
2,475 
2,572 
2.53r» 
1.77.S 

i.oai 

2,3r«j 
2.49b 

2..%i2 
2,395 
2,33? 
1.7!0 
l,2j» 
2,576 
2.au 
2,3!» 
2,417 
2,4^7 
I,7S2 
105 


FOX  KIVER  8Y8TEM. 


29 


Mean  daily  disckargef  in  second-feet,  of  lower  Fox  River  at  Rapide  Croehe  dam — Continued. 
Mar. 


Day.         '  Jan.  |  Feb. 


1880. 


27. 
28. 


1,W1 

I  771 

29 1  l,fi06 

30 j  1,346J 

31 


1,014 
2,007i 


1,8 


I 


1,243 
3,192 
3,297 
3,325 
3,435 


Total...   59,044  58,0911  69,802 


1900. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 


841 
2,352 
2,391 
2,406 
2,479J 
2,568' 
1,576. 
1,213! 
2,406 
2,669 
2,684 

12 1    2,646' 

13 2,677 

14 j     1,736! 

15 1,2361 

16 2,527 

17 1    2,424! 

18 '    2,639' 

19 '     2,534! 

20 2,657 

21 1     1,719| 

22 '     1,043' 

23 !     2,632! 

24 2,649 

25 1     2,46l| 

26 2,579' 

27 1     2,420| 

28 1,608 

29 1     1,219|. 

30 2,160!, 

31 ]     2,430| 


2,395 
2,366 
2,446 
1,641 
1,044 
2,366 
2,381 
3,024 
2,420 
2,396 
1,675 
1,071 
2,316j 
2,654! 
2,707| 
2,729 
2,6621 
1,895' 
1,314| 
2,861 
2,840 
2,606 
2,687 
2,646 
1,434 
1,296 
2,411 
2,624 


Apr. 


4,565 
6,707 
4,913 
3,947 


May.    June. 


100,716 


2,432 
2,468 
2,490 
1,70: 
1,110, 
1,342 
2,576 
2,639J 
2,614; 
2,636| 
1,921 
1,352: 
2,666l 
2,973| 
3,036 
2,961| 
2,935 
2,069* 
1,354, 
2,710J 
2,832, 
2,904 
2,954 
3,296| 
2,259, 
1,300 
3,159, 
3,6441 
3,677| 
3,560 
3,652 


2,454 

1,107 

3,554 

3,846 

3,967 

4,063 

3,791 

2,903 

1,751 

3,510 

3,770 

4,067 

4,006 

4,1 

2,560 

2,237 

3,942 

4,355 

4,( 

4,137 

4,072 

2,932 

1,977 

3,856 

4,089 

4,106 

4,063 

4,225 

2,862 

2,064 


5,525 
5,898 
5,160 
5,466 
5,513 


192,489 


July. 


7,372  3,364 
6,029j  3,395 
5,797     3,232 


5,007 


2,051 
1,982 


188,928117,383 


Total . .  .1  67,396,  62,909,  79.228  102,435 


3,636 

3,882 

4,028 

4,010 

4,054 

2,779 

1,674 

2,461 

2,283 

2,275 

2,240, 

2,285 

1,784 

1,753] 

3,741 

3,989 

3,799 

3,885 

3,791 

2,665 

2,105 

3,729 

3,937 

3,872 

3,  J 

3,694 

2,539 

1,; 

2,103 
2,149 
1.859 


1,4821 

1,574 

1,375 

1,102 

1,929 

2,208 

2,085 

1,467 

1,302 

969 

1,013 

1,217 

1,189 

756i 

353 

497 

394 

437 

573 

523 

569 

585 

264 

262 

396 

258 

360 

298 

386 

341 


Aug.     Sept. 


944  1,138 

791  1,099 

1,307  1,206 

1,351  1,166 


1,299; 


92,273 


1901.  :  I 

1 1    3,822 


2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 


4,000 
4,215, 
4,202| 
4,253! 
3,016| 
2,043 
3,939| 
4,279{ 
4,349, 

11 1    4,159; 

12 1    4,009 


3,475| 
3,734 
2,659 
1,825 
3,723 
4,096 
•4,352 
4,515 
4,541 
2,796 
2,045 
4,164 


4,362' 
4,262, 
2,741 
2,109 
4,073 
4,481: 
4,262 
4,262| 
4,210 
2,908 
1,793 


2,469 
4,664 
5,086J 
5,209, 
5,385j 
6,081 
6,777, 
7,075 
10,675| 
10,986 
11,579 


2,206   12,033i 


6,328 
6,905 
5,9U0 
6,032 

4,769 
3,799 

5,707| 
5,53t> 
5,498| 
5,574| 
5,428| 
4,183| 


276 

511 

319 

131 

820! 

352 

345 

294 

365{ 

473 

353 

333 

394| 

382 

538 

979 

1,176 

1,067 

907, 

1,192 

1,152 

799| 

1.170| 

1,846 

2,047 

1,9821 

1,979' 

1,905| 

1,536 

1,672' 

2,413' 


2,646{ 
2,106 
1,946| 
1,966! 
1,638| 
1,287 
1,9561 
1,912 
2,075 
1,973 
2,043| 
1,498| 
1,057J 
1,825 
1,905| 
1,889' 
2,039! 
2,002' 
1,4341 
1,120 
2,120 
2,007J 
1,875 
1,966 
1,924 
1,440 
1,115 
1,912 
1,928 
2,127 
2,023 


Oct.      Nov. 


1,829  905 
2,029'  2,329 
1,493|  2,159 
769  2,330 
2,079'.... 


56,913   29,6o3   35,450   63,573 


29,708  56,754 


4,803 
3,802, 
3,473| 
4,913 
5,087, 
4,905! 
4,647 
4,846: 
2,834 
2,654 
3,873' 
3,916 


2,046 
3,496 
3,740 
2,618 
3,1941 
4,097 
2,945| 
2,722; 
4.185 
4,557! 
4,08o| 
4,154i 


3,834 
3,846 
3,787 
2,648 
1,713 
2,653 
2,605 
2,321| 
2,406! 
2,336| 
1,503' 
1,607| 


1,976 
1,640 
1,421 
1,962 
2,141 
1,894: 
2,050 
2,113 
1,333 
1,143 
1,973; 
2,071 
2, 187 
2,075 
2,184' 
1,163 
1,167 
1,949 
1,899 
2,062 
2,020 
2,169| 
1,433 
1,107| 
2,329 
2,8911 
2,810 
3,39l' 
3,518 
2,561 


1,734 
4,007 
6,185' 
5,479, 
4,846j 
4,758 
3,657 
2,848' 
4,827 
6,166| 
5,117 
4,813! 
4,668 
3,559| 
3,028 
4,46l' 
4,885 


Dec. 


2,123 
2,185 
2,417 
2,241 
1,659 


63,299 


9,535 
9,397 
9,597 
8,225 
7,650J 
8,989 
9,039 
8,418 
8,658! 
9,260' 
7,830' 
7,567 
8,775' 
8,456' 
8,076 
6,611 
6,909 
5,285|  5,654| 
5,254|     4,948 


5,703j 
4,5991 
4,22.5 
6,610 
6,270 
7,427 
7,672 
7,624 
6,393 
6,336 
7,865 
8,036| 


7,536| 
7,875 
8,249| 
8,189, 
8,792' 
7,100; 
6,917| 
8,416' 
8,632! 
8,328 
8,239! 


6,C08 
4,372 
3,612 
6,674 
5,943 
5,807 
5,683 
5,439 
8,222 
3,586 
6,245 
6,052 
6,076 
5,301 
4,099 
2,725 
2,240 
4,118 
4,292 
4,314 
4,378 
4,457 
4,035 
1,668 
3,224 
2,621 
4,068 
4,147 
4,111 
3,191 
1,728 


60,632  162, 1261241,866  134,935 


l,ltt7 
1,161| 
1,636 
1,682, 
1,687 
1,682 
1,649 
1,106; 


893j 
1,449 

964 
1,199 


1,161 
1,782 

1,748J 
1,713' 
1,228 
991 
2,067 
2,145 
2,265 
2,468 
2,314 


3,664; 
3,804, 
2,674, 
1,789 
3,699, 
3,728! 
3,71ll 
3,728! 
3,684* 
2,585J 
1,654 
3,447! 


2,686 
1,685 
2,653 
3,620 
3,497 
3,469 
3,648 
2,329 
1,608 
3,257 
3,585 
3,660 


30 


WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Mean  daily  discharge,  in  second-feet,  of  lower  Fox  River  at  Rapide  Crochc  r^cwi— Continurd. 


Day. 


Jan.  I  Fol).     Mar.     Apr.     May.    June.    July.     Aug.     Sept.     Oct.      Nov.      Dk:. 


1001.  , 

13..' 3,04C| 

14 2,235 

15 3,914 

16 3,929 

17 2,480 

la. 3,542 

19 3.981 

20 2,9(y) 

21 2,835 

22 3,521 

23 3,88.') 

24 3,885 

25 3,898 

26 3,813 

27 2.5<i:{ 

28 '  1,939 

29 3,286 

30 '  3,668 

31 3,643 


4,181 
4,434 
4,262 
4,292 
3,0(58 
2,227 
4,309 
4,47o! 
4,302 
4,500 
4,393 
3,086 
2,489' 
4,402 
4,634' 
4.577 


I 

4,000 
4,121 
4,05e' 
4,160, 
2,818' 
1,742' 
3,9()7 
4,030 
4,554 
4,143 
4,109 
3,433 
4,615 
6.431 
4,994 
4,084 
4,36: 
4,245 
3, 


11,573 
11,088' 
10.728 
11.869 
11.935 
11,614 
11,467 
11,334 
9,926 
9,302 
11,103 
9,826 
9,467 
9,240 
8,395 
7,401 
7,244 
7,271 


754 
012 
564 
428 
371 
Oil 
099 
715 
000 
2t)l 
312 
686 
938 
884 
759 
875! 
453 
010 
920. 


4,443 
4,273 
3,911 
2,. 586 
1,741- 
3,475 
4,087' 
4,148 
3.948 
3,956 
3,137 
2,493 
3,336 
3,506 
3,474 
3,554 
3,506! 
2,354 


4,041 
3,131 
2.909 
3,996 
4,089 
4,002 
3,8981 
4,067 
2,912 
2,230 
3,623 
3.899 
3.93(> 
3,833 
3,791 
2,668j 
2,1381 
3,724' 
3,921 


2,579 
2,512 
2.497 
2.642 
2,575 
1,617 
1,404, 
1,737' 
1,607 
1,764 
1,885 
1,795 
1,542 
1,130 
1,849 
1,892' 
1,932 
1,622 
1,725. 


1,051 
1.194 

706 
1,146 
1,009 
1,039, 
1.004 
1.090 
1,056 

675 
1,020 
1,276 
1,449 
1,513 
1,449 
1,437 
1,073 
1,124 


1,740 
1,260 
3,63a! 
3,a57 
3,232 
3,366 
3.].% 
2.099 
1,574 
3.5311 
3.72> 
3,622 
3,664 
3,749 
2,719 
1,646 
3,597 
3,873 
3,791  . 


3,766 
3,766 
3,771 
3,856 
2,697 
1,661 
3.644 
3.S73 
3, 7  A 
3.S*33 
3,717 
2,4S5 
1.640 
3.212 
3, 5^5 
3,476 
3.432 
3,4.V> 


3.1  5- 
1'  VI 

I .  V.- 

?^.?^' 

3.. 11^ 

2.t^ 
1.>.T 
2.<iVi 

2.rs.' 
i.p'i 

3,UV 
2,177 
1.4r4 


Total...  109, 314  105,640  119,019  268,802  154. 807  111, (i81108,54i;  67,465   36,635   79.090   97.655    JviML' 


1902. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 


.1  3,0«i 
.  3, 104 
.  2,938 
.  3.0t)0 
1,058 
1,676 

7 2,776 

8 2,860 


j  3,13(i 

2,993 

2,915 

765 

I  1,285 

,  2,494 

15 2,344 

16 2,461 

17 2.514 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 


2.59.5 
917 
l,488l 
2,446 
2.513 
2,609 
2,609 
2,408 
696 


18... 
19... 
20... 
21... 


2.3. 
24. 


....  2,505 

....I  1,139 

....'  1,099 

....  2,422 

....  2,113 

....  2.450 

....  2,422 

2o 2,429 

26 1  927 

27 1.389 

28 2,42.'-> 

29 2..V>8 

3i) 2.42.'-. 

31 2.373 


1,427| 
2.389 
2,595 
2,  .587 
2.477 
2,455 
1.063 

1,421: 

2,492 
2,413 
2,587 
2,  mi 
2,48<> 
1.085 
1,377 
2.210 
2,424' 
2. 'My 
3,48() 


3,368, 
1,190, 
l.(i32| 
2. -497 
2,632 
2,7.58 
2.8271 
2,754 
1,135 
1,575 
3,866', 
3.274 
3,608 
3,690 
3,567 
1,603, 
1,765 
3,707, 
3,841 
3,841 
3,994 
3.9(K» 
1,8.V2 
1,723 
3,777i 
3,925 
4,019 
3.84l' 
3,ir26 
1 .  im 
i.7:r. . 


2,765 
2,964 
3,011 
3,106 
3,2.52 
1,603 
1,706 
3,134 
3,102 
3, 147' 
3,102 
3,119 
1,459 
1,759 
2,108 
2,3(56 
2,449 
2,26.5' 
2,376 
1,086' 
2,0(59 
2.267 
2.0(59 
2.314 
1,986 
2,247 
947 
1,.')71 
2,.^S1 
2.312 


2,393 
2,469 
2,423 
1,471 
2,079 
2,845 
3.537 
4,079 
3,131 
4,018 
2,076 
2,743 
4,6.37 
4,917 
5,056 
4,917 
4,615 
2,484 
2.692 
4,682 
5.08.') 
4,8(52 
4,72.5 
4,949 
5,719 
7.422 
9,941| 
11.227 
12,317 
9.8(59 
9,599  . 


9,.573| 

10,488, 
11.868' 
11,462 
11,050, 
10.407' 
9.886 
7,31^1 
7,886 
8,343 
8,209 
6,222 
{5.431 
3,998 
5,840| 
4,169 
6,156i 
6,282l 
5.439^ 
5,992 
6,088 
3.852 
4,215 
5.866 
6,089 
6,001' 
5,707 
5.740 
3.491 
3.K-)2 


r 


5,703 

5.6OI: 

I 

5,447 

3,372 

3,453 

3.010 

3,349 

5,534' 

5,633, 

6,326 

6,280 

5,136 

4,639 

3,264' 

5,125 

5,142 

6,266 

5,28l' 

5,163 

2,896 

3,150 

4,248 

4,209 

4,325 

4,6(M) 

4,287 

1.647' 

2,2(i5 

3,441 

3,733 

4,024' 


3,r27 
3,276 
1.544 
2,532 
3.692 
3,912 
4,086 
3,999 
3,894 
1,532 
2,362 
3,666 
4,047| 
4,031 
3,863 
3,968^ 
1,600 
2,0971 
2,539! 
2,733 
2,913 
2,927 
2,869 
1.311 
1,773 
2,763 
2,8911 
2,879 
2,789| 
2,158 
1,529. 


910 
1,111' 
1,682 
1.680 
1.723 
1,863 

704 
1,244 
1,709 
1,750 
1,653 
1,550' 
1,669- 

821 
1,083 

965 
1,203, 
1,2081 
1,317 
1,174 

652 

887 
1,473 
1,462 
1,174 
1,369 
1,336 

615 

851 
1,222' 


1,286 
1.490 
1.596 
1.498 

435 

736 
1,576 
1,751 
1,613 
1,613 
1,526 

651 
1,042 
2,116 
2.301 
2,250 
2,219 
2.716 

715 
1,455! 
2.120 
2.646 
2,634 
2.676 
2,681 
1,086 
1.286 
1,785 
2,9(^3 
3,024 
2,875  . 


2,962 
1.004 
1.314 
2,71t» 
2,931 
2.854 
2.073 
3,012^ 

014 
1,273 
2.077! 
3,02s 
2,046 
2.891. 
2,891 

7d*» 
1,30S 
2.841; 
2,S32' 
2,<W2 
2,954 
2,915 

1.349 
2,077 
3,1M 
2.860 
2,962 
3,123 
1,13> 


2.  ♦'4.3* 
2.'««y 
3.t» 
2.9iC 

3.'rj:: 

2.7V^« 
2.M'. 

3.:w 

3.04- 
2.'.^«. 
l.IV. 

1  -vV 
2.U4 
2.W/ 
2.tl" 
2.»5i»' 
2.nNs 

I."-.- 

2.'<- 

2  t-L 
l.^M 

2.N.4 

1.14J 

I  r^TA 

2.>~ 


Total . 


70,151    .59,9.S1    89,(5(50 


70,042  1.52,978  207.913  K«,414j  89,782    37,97] 


56.360   71.805    70.47^ 


FOX    RIVER    8YSTEM. 


31 


jlfean  daily  dMiarge,  in  secofid-feet ,  of  lower  Fox  River  at  Rapide  Oroche  dam — Continued. 


Day. 


Jan.  I   Feb.  ;  Mar.  I  Apr.     May.    Juiio.  !  July. 


■Aug.     Sept.  '  Oct.     Nov. 


190.J. 

1 '  2,587i 

2 2,63l! 

3 2,587; 

■^ l,206j 

o 1,479 

6 2,662 

7 2,818 

8 ."...  2,767| 

9 '  2,832 

10 2,409 

11 ..'  1,5591 

12 1.522 

13 '  2,954 

14 3,187 

16 3,610 

16 3,&55 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 


3,493 

1;295 

,  1,953 

....  3jm 

■  3,476j 

I  3,664 

3,436j 

....'  3,543 

....  1,2«3| 
,  1,935 

....  3,289| 

'  3,4.35! 

29 3,527 


23... 
24... 
25... 
26... 
27... 
2S... 


1,675| 
2,102 
3,t)0Si 
3,063 
3,097 
3,304 
3,387J 
1,825 
1,837 
3,300 
3,581 
3,503! 
3,(>52 
3,50l' 
2,005, 
2,042 
3,368; 
3,269^ 
3,2Sr> 
3,431. 
3,468' 
2,379 
1,749 
3,232 
3,107' 
3,068 
3,457' 
3,627 


30. 
31. 


I- 
3.514  . 

3,7561. 


1,829 
1,780 
3, 191 1 
3,197| 
J,  453 
3,318| 
3,665j 
2,301 
2,070 
3,560 
3,981 
4,199' 
4,064| 
3,9()2' 
2,550 
2,207' 
4,178 
4,&50 
8,437 
6,454' 
3,H87 
1,H15 
2,340 
5,086 
5,055 
4,838| 
4,8:19 
4,967 
3,979 
3,337 
5,454  . 


6,192 
6.597 
6.S06 
7.649 
9,297 
7,729 
7,661, 
6,379 
6,. 342 
6,78.3 
8,283 
7,807 
7,402 
8,394 
8,517' 
6,2.% 
6,216 
6,339 
4.188 
4.518 
6,429 
6,246 
6,f>57 
5,784 
4,796 
3.SX6 
4,376 
6,207' 
6,011 
5,288 


,009  5 

,306  6, 

,145  6, 

,275  5, 

.118  5 

,989,  5 
,237 
,078 


677 
791 
009 
429' 
386 


3.7 
4,0 

,911     5, 

,629'    5, 

,964 

,(i98 

,467, 

,771 

,467, 

,8411 


5 
3, 
3 

5 

,42l|    5 
,869:     5, 
,088 
,127| 
,127     3, 


,933' 

..| 

,043| 

,824  5, 

,216'  5 

,378|  5, 

,421  2, 

,138,  3, 

,(157'  5, 


056 


084 


5,571| 

5,4191 

5,278 

3,5091 

2,055 

2,721' 

3,943| 

.3,746 

4,093! 

3,796 

4,0O9j 

1,8.56, 

3,370 

4,992 

4.684 

5.15: 

5,149 

5,139| 

2,700 

3,174' 

5.047! 

4.945] 

5,102' 

5,176! 

4,918 

2,5;«[ 

2,189j 

4,442 
4,555' 
4,254 
4,, 321' 


4,393 
2,827 
3,011' 
3,845 
4,136 
3,756 
3,707 
3,787 
2,206 
2,875 
3,671 
4,021 
4,134 
4,03o' 
4,134 
1,438 
2.003 
4,064 
4,099 
4,047 
4,021 
1,874 
3,869 
1,9{>5 
3,794 
4,291 
4,449, 
4,244 
4,099 
1,781 
2,257  . 


4,195 
4,28l' 
4,298 
4,325 
4,324 
1,829' 
1,936 
3,9«J5 
4,708, 
4,809 
5,077 
5,086 
2,734 
2,731 
5,199! 
5,312 
5,293' 
5,387| 
4,442 
3,75l| 
2,489; 
5,106| 
5,369 
5,481 
5,415, 
5.519 
3,481 1 
2,991 
5,013| 
5,059 


5,. 312 
5,293! 
2,805| 
2,618 
5,32l| 
4,993 
5,826' 
5,595 
5,339, 
5,339 
2,845 
2,577 
5,340' 
5,509| 
5,482 
5,51ol 
5,434| 
2,760 
2,957| 
5,.599| 
5,134 
5.3681 
5,293 
5,28.3 
2,590, 
2,666 
5,133 
5,302 
5,264 
5,217 
5,264 


2,664 
2,102 
4,674 
4,772 
4,769 
4,965' 
4,929 
1,975 
2.09S 
4,230' 
4,957! 
5,077 
.4,731' 
4,846' 
2,226< 
1,859 
4,219 
4,466 
4,888' 
4,504 
4,282 
1,733' 
2,307 
4,422 
4,484 
3,874 
3,310 
3,378, 
1,977 
1,873' 


Dec.* 


2,819 
3,385 
1,916 
3,669 
3,628 
1,653 
1,973 
3,507 
3,621 
3,702 
3,505 
3,644 
1,623 
1,827 
2,964 
3,516 
3,694 
3,702 
3,677 
2,000 
1,916 
3,328 
3,424 
1,908 
3,353 
1,584 
1,319 
2,162 
3,134 
3,619 
3,587 


Totnl . . .    85,577'  82„582  118,643  195,015  171,503  151,841  127,848  106,828  129,635  145,268  110,591    89,448 


1904. 


1. 


3,497; 

2 3,59.5' 

3 I,8y8 

4 2,221 

5 3,189 

6 3,.'K)7 

7 3,869' 

8 3,861 

9 3,752 

1,762 
2,027 
3,719 
3,62S 


10 

11 

12 

13 

14 3,405 

15 3,.572' 

16 :....      3,-587 

17 1,481 

18 2,018 

19 ,     3,166] 


2,371 
3,. 586 
3,545 
3.5.38 
3,306 
.1,.'505 
1,664 
2,073 
3,.'>30 
3,.'J95 
3,(536 
3,710 
3,663 
1,.5(>5 
1.904 
3„V)4 
3,400 
3,662 
3,628! 


3,408 
,3,457' 
3,, 545 
3,. 522 
3,505 
1,724 
1,7(19 
3,392 
3,147 
3,545 
3.6ti8 
3,465 
1,818 
1,988 
3.289 
3,r>44' 
3,424 
3,481 
3,130 


4,127i 
3,878 
1,612 
4,091 
4,317 
4„507 
4,410 
4,879 
5,. 3.34 
2,. 564 
3. 887 
5,7.37 

6,ias 

7,  ir)8 
7,40,5 
8,015 
7,647 
8.2:« 
9,637, 


6,742 
7,316| 
5,794 
5,477 
5,804 
5,784* 
5,813, 
4.45()' 
5,417| 
7,. 548 
10,052 
10,960 

inm 

11,183 
9,81o' 

\o,m 

ll,022j 
10,9(i0 
10,604! 


I 
9,539 
9,411] 
9,283 
9,793 
8,253 
8,404 
8,799 
8,248 
6,9(58 
8, 179^ 
8,483 
8,139 
8,027 
8,527 
8,12,5 
8,315 
8,28l' 
7,a5(>j 
5,999i 


3,428; 
3,282' 
2,082 
2,243 


3,578; 
1,4161 
3,. 578 
3,483| 
2,603 
2,709' 
3,4.59, 
3,4.52, 
3,(5.58 
3,475 
3,428 
2, 4661 
•S,8,'e 


3,459! 


2,745 
3,489 
3,617( 
3,636 
3,546 
3,676 
2,575, 
2,833 
3.8.33 
3.754 
3.987 
3,924 
4,043 
2,()98 
3,0^7 
3.226 
3,098 
3,217' 
3,197 


2,031 
2,399' 
2,231 
1,327 
1,622 
1,949 
2,000 
2,013 
1,863 
2,096 
1,.312' 
1,545 
1,907 
2, 103 
2, 1(52 
2,124 
2,0911 
J,  5(58' 
1,361, 


2,124 
1,35.5! 
1,324| 

2,499' 

3,385[ 
3,480 
3,678' 
3,628 
2,412 
3,5t» 
3,797| 
3,. 354 
3., 592 
3,(509 
3,717 
2,. 345' 
1,894' 
3,4.53 
3,379| 


4,245 

4,767 
4,785 
4,750 
4,829' 
4,423 
2,611 
4,346 
4,742 
4,794 
4,847 
5,137 
3,280 
2,(5(53, 
4,52,5 
4,(537 
4,576 
4,48r 
4,499, 


3,869 
4,406 
4,354 
3,006 
2,527 
4,077 
4,379 
4,413 
4,2(59 
4,277 
2,881 
2,452 
3,069 
3,638 
3,(599 
3,757 
3,721 
2,871 
2,299 


82  WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

Mean  daily  discharge  j  in  second-feet,  of  lower  Fox  River  at  Rapide  Croche  dam — Continoed 


Day. 


Jan.      Feb 


1904.  ! 

20 :  3,3S2 

21 j  3,329 

22 •  3,408' 


Mar. 


23. 
24. 


3,302 
1,185; 


25 ;     2,096; 

26 

27 


.,J 
3,727 

28 1    3,869 

29 1    3,752' 

30 3,848 

31 1,885!, 


3,710. 
1,68b{ 
2,237, 

3,7eoj 

3,9621 
4,082' 
4,134! 
3,810 
1,843 
2,091 


Apr.     May.    June. 


1,739 
2,036 


9,434  10,168 

9,309|  9,574 

3,913'    9,190^  8,571 

4,335,    9,018!  9,099 

7,4361  9,845, 


5,185] 
7,425 
5,429| 
2,354^ 
2,504 
3,359 
3,748' 
4,385, 


July. 


7,126|  10,168j 
8,823   10,812! 


9,075' 
9,028l 
9,017 
8,868{ 


9,389 
9,6271 

8,72o| 
8,471 


5,776 
6,167 
5,241 
3,758 
3,617 
2,336 
2,336! 
2,585^ 
3,474' 
3,538 
3,4911 


Aug. 


3,206. 
3,420 
3,359 
2,345' 


Sept. 


Oct.      Nov.      D-c. 


3,240 
2,214 
1,722' 
2,443 
2,531' 
2,585|  2,396| 
2,909|  1,551! 
3,146  2,503i 
3,498J  2,505j 
3,584]  2,115 
4,111!    2,389| 


8,0891 2,659     2,645: 


1,762 
1,825 
988 
1,968 
1.888 
1,276 
l,38l| 
1,975 
1,925 
2,267 
2,052 


Totol. 


95,307 


90,703105,333,  20,06o|260,925!200,448;  96, 


I 


253,  92, 


525  55,631 


4,488 

2,^ 

3,n: 

4,470 

2,28» 

4.4»!. 

4,248 

4,102 

4.«4 

3,018 

4.421 

4.III 

2,915 

3.264 

4,«~ 

4,336 

3,379} 

2,2S3 

4,  CM 

4,2^ 

1.M2 

4,542 

2.748 

3.i?>a 

4,575 

1.667 

3,703 

6,434 

3,127 

3,677 

3,690 

6.93S 

4,5M 

3,158 

4.311 

107,156121.68»112.163 


Unlike  many  other  northern  rivers  the  lower  Fox  is  rarely  troubled  with  toe  gorges, 
because  the  ice  on  Lake  Winnebago  melts  gradually.  It  is  stated  that  trouble  is  someiinies 
experienced  from  anchor  ice  forming  on  the  rapids  in  exceptionally  cold  weather,  but  thk 
is  lai^gely  prevented  by  the  system  of  slack-water  navigation. 

The  absence  of  great  freshets  prevents  backwater  and  allows  the  construction  of  the 
mills  out  into  the  stream,  as  well  as  connecting  sidetracks  on  short  trestles  only  a  few  foet 
above  the  water,  with  perfect  safety. 

The  bed  of  the  river  in  nearly  all  cases  is  in  hard  limestone.  Excellent  quarries  of  fine 
building  stone  have  been  opened  for  use  in  both  the  Government  and  private  improvements 
of  the  river. 

W^ATKR   POWERS. 

GENERAL  STATEMENT. 

No  other  river  system  in  the  State  has  so  lai^e  a  proportion  of  its  total  descent  ooDcen- 
trated  in  its  lower  reaches  as  has  the  Fox.  Between  Lake  Winnebago  and  Green  Bar 
the  river  descends  a  total  of  166  feet  in  a  series  of  eight  rapids.  'Hie  total  drainage  area  ol 
the  river  is  6,449  square  miles,  of  which  area  6,046  square  miles,  or  94  per  cent,  are  included 
above  the  outlet  of  Lake  Winnebago.  These  two  facts — the  laige  concentration  of  fall  in 
the  lower  river  and  the  location  of  94  per  cent  of  its  drainage  area  above  this  conoentmtion — 
have  the  effect  of  producing  extensive  and  valuable  water  powers. 

Before  any  improvements  had  been  made  the  river  flowed  between  wooded  clay  bluffs  from  10  to  7n 
(eet  or  more  in  height,  in  some  places  rising  abruptly  from  the  river's  edge  on  each  side.  Throngfa  this 
channel  ran  the  clear,  dashing  river  over  its  limestone  bed  from  300  to  1,000  feet  wide.  Great  chaojc*^ 
have  since  been  made,  a 


a  Tenth  Censos. 


FOX   RIVER  SYSTEM. 


88 


The  following  table  gives  the  location  and  amount  of  fall  at  each  of  these  rapids  before 
improvement,  according  to  surveys  of  Major  Suter  in  1866: 

Rapids  on  lower  Fox  River  in  1866  {before  improvement). a 


Name. 


I>epere 

Little  Kaukauna 

Raplde  Croche 

Orand  Kaukauna 

Littlechute 

Cedar  rapids 

Grand  Chute 

Winnebago  rapids 

Qieen  Bay  to  Lake  Winnebago 


Descent. 


'  Distance 


1 

jipart. 

eet.     1 

MUes. 

8' 

8 

6.0 

8 

fi.0 

50 

4.5 

10 


10  I 


2.5 
.75 
10 
4.25 


170  I 


28.0 


a  Warren,  O.K.,  Report,  1876,  p.  29. 


LEGAL  STATUS. 


^  1846  Congress  passed  an  act  granting  a  large  amount  of  land  to  the  State  of  Wisconsin 
for  the  purpose  of  making  a  navigable  route  from  Lake  Michigan  along  Fox  River  to  Wis- 
consin River.  In  1853  the  State,  after  expending  $400,000  upon  the  improvements,  passed 
the  whole  matter,  including  the  land,  into  the  hands  of  the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  Improvement 
Company.  This  company  issued  bonds,  completed  the  improvement,  and  in  1856  the  first 
steamer  passed  through  from  Mississippi  River  to  Qreen  Bay.  On  the  advent  of  railroads 
soon  after  the  route  fell  into  disuse,  and  the  company  was  unable  to  pay  interest  on  its  bonds. 
Suit  was  brought  by  the  holders  of  these  bonds,  and  the  franchises,  property,  and  land  grants 
of  the  company  were  sold  to  a  corporation  organized  in  1866  as  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi 
Canal  Company.  In  1870  the  United  States  appraised  the  value  of  the  locks  and  canals  at 
$145,000,  took  possession  of  them  on  the  payment  of  this  sum,  and  has  since  exercised 
control  in  the  interests  of  navigation. 

The  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company  still  exists  and  retains  its  land  grants, 
wateivpower  franchises,  and  other  property.  The  company  claims  the  right  to  all  surplus 
water  after  the  needs  of  navigation  are  supplied.  This  claim  includes  the  right  to  tap  the 
canals  at  any  point  and  draw  off  the  water,  provided  navigation  is  not  interfered  with,  as 
well  as  the  right  to  take  all  the  surplus  flow  of  the  river  at  the  head  of  each  rapids  and  use 
it  at  that  level.  This  claim  has  been  confirmed  by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  The 
company  does  not  claim  ownership  of  power  which  is  devclop3d  at  a  Ipvel  below  the  head  of 
a  rapids  by  persons  owning  the  land  and  using  water  which  has  passed  the  tailraces  of  the 
company. 

In  some  cases  this  company  owns  the  power,  while  others  own  the  land.  These  interests 
have  in  some  instances  been  mutualized  in  a  joint  company;  in  others  protracted  lawsuits 
have  resulted  in  preventing  the  development  and  use  of  the  water  power  up  to  the  present 
time.  The  water  powers  at  Rapide  Croche  and  Little  Kaukauna  dams  have  not  been 
improved  for  this  reason. 

As  the  low-water  flow  of  the  river  falls  far  short  of  being  sufficient  for  the  turbines  now 
installed,  frequent  controversies  and  lawsuits  concerning  the  ownership  of  the  water  have 
resulted.  Finally  a  few  years  ago  the  Neenah  and  Menasha  Water  Power  Company, 
composed  of  practically  all  the  users  of  water  for  power  purposes  on  the  river,  was  formed 
to  regulate  the  use  of  the  surplus  water  not  required  for  navigation.  Under  the  rules  of  the 
Secretary  of  War  water  may  not  be  drawn  below  the  crest  of  the  Menasha  dam  except  by 

IBR  156—06 3 


84 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


his  special  permit.  Such  permission  is  frequently  given,  however,  to  help  out  Um  grfAi 
manufacturing  interests  concerned. 

Fox  River  dischai^ges  from  Lake  Winneliago  in  two  nearly  parallel  chanDels,  distADt 
about  three-fourths  of  a  mile  from  each  other.  Tliese  branches  join  in  less  than  2  miks  in 
Lake  Butte  des  Mort«,  an  expansion  of  the  river  3  miles  long  and  extending  at  right  angles  to 
the  general  direction  of  the  river. 

Menasha  and  Ncenah  are  located  at  the  lower  end  of  the  two  channels,  Menasha  on  the 
north  side  of  the  northern  channel  and  Neenah  on  the  south  side  of  the  southern  chann^i 
These  cities  are  about  1  mile  apart  and  have  a  total  population  of  about  12,000. 

The  river  banks  are  here  only  10  feet  or  less  high.  There  is  a  dam  in  each  channel,  with 
an  average  head  of  8  feet,  the  two  maintaining  the  level  of  Lake  Winnebago.  The;se  dams 
would  develop  2,400  theoretical  horsepower,  a 

The  riparian  owners  on  the  Neenah  channel  improved  the  water  powers  before  the  ship 
canal  was  begun,  and  thus  obtained  a  prior  right  under  a  State  charter.  Most  of  the  manu- 
factories are  located  on  the  strip  of  land,  averaging  125  feet  wide,  between  the  riTer  and  the 
race. 


The  Kimberly  Clark  Paper  Company  is  the  most  extensive  user  of  water  power  at 
Neenah,  having  installed  20  turbines  under  a  head  of  7}  feet,  rated  at  1,560  horsepower. 
In  addition,  this  firm  has  550  steam  horsepower,  all  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphite  and 
ground  wood  pulp.  The  Neenah  Paper  Company  has  installed  11  turbines  under  a  head  of 
7  feet,  rated  at  838  horsepower,  and  reports  an  additional  750  steam  horsepower,  all  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  paper.  The  Winnebago  Paper  Mills  have  installed  turbines  under  a 
9-foot  head,  rated  at  854  horsepower,  which  is  supplemented  with  450  steam  horeepower. 

Other  power  users  in  Neenah  are  included  in  the  following  table: 


Additional  water  pmvers  at  Neenah. 


Turbines. 


•Owner  find  use. 


I  Head.  '  H.  P 


I  Feet. 

Kreuger  &  Lochmann,  flour 8.0 

Neenah  Boot  and  Shoe  Manufacturing  Co \  8. 0 

Neenah  and  Menasha  Gas  and  Elettric  Light  Co . '  7. 5 

Robert  Jamison,  machine  shop ". I  8.0 

Wulff,  Clausea  &  Co.,  flour I  8.0 


I 


Steam 
H.  P. 


460 
39 

199 

.»4l 
123  I 


125 
12 

125 
10 
60 


Remarks. 


Use  steam  when  water  is  cut 
off. 


Burned. 


MENASHA. 

The  Government  canal  is  located  at  Menasha.  This  canal  has  a  total  length  of  about 
4,320  feet,  its  single  lock  l)eing  located  at  the  lower  end,  near  Lake  Butte  des  Morts.  TTii? 
dam  develops  2,487  theoretical  horsepower  at  ordinary  flow.  The  Federal  Government 
entered  into  an  agreement  with  certain  persons  under  which  they  constructed  the  navigation 
improvements  and  received  in  return  the  ownership  of  the  resulting  water  powers.  As  a 
consequence  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company  has  no  interest  in  these  wattf 
powers. 

A  dam  475  feet  long  at  the  head  of  the  canal  develops  a  head  of  8.2  feet,  though  some  of 
the  turbines  work  under  heads  of  6  to  8  feet.  The  strip  of  land  between  the  canal  and  river 
is  used  for  the  location  of  numerous  manufacturing  plants,  all  the  power,  except  that  of  the 
Howard  Paper  Mill,  being  taken  from  the  canal. 


a  This  estimate  is  based  on  an  ordinary  discharge  of  2,660  second-feet,  equal  to  a  run-ofl  of  at>out  O.-C 
■econd-fect  per  square  mile. 


FOX   RIVER   8T8TEM. 


85 


The  largest  water-power  user  at  Menasha  is  the  George  A.  Whiting  Company,  which 
owns  the  right  to  "first-class  water.''  Its  6  turbines  work  under  an  average  head  of  8  feet 
and  are  rated  at  503  horsepower.  The  company,  which  is  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
paper,  has  also  installed  265  steam  horsepower. 

Another  large  concern  is  the  Menasha  Wooden  Ware  Company,  whose  turbines  work 
under  an  average  head  of  5  feet  and  are  rated  at  414  horsepower.  This  is  supplemented  by 
1,090  steam  horsepower. 

The  other  important  water-power  users  in  Menasha  are  included  in  the  following  table: 

Additional  water  powers  at  Menoftha.  a 


Owner  and  use. 


Gilbert  Paper  Co 

Howard  Paper  Co 

John  Strange  Paper  Co 

Banner  Flouring  MillB 

MacKinnon  Excelsior  Co 

MacKinnon  Pulley  Co 

John  Schneider,  planing  mill 

Valley  Knitting  Co.,  hose,  mittens, etc 
Menasha  Woolen  Mills 


Turbines. 


Head.  ,  H.  P. 


Feet. 
5 
5 
5 
5 
6 
6 
6 
4 
5 


Steam 
H.  P. 


Remarks. 


I 


243 
321 
15« 

90 
124 

25 
124 

38 

35     Small  en- 
gines. 


800-1,000 
200 
250 

50 
225 

25 


Leased. 


When  water  is  low. 


o  Authority,  L.  M.  Mann,  United  States  assistant  engineer. 

For  the  entire  distance  of  5  miles  between  Menasha  and  the  Appleton  upper  dam  the 
river  affords  slack-water  navigation;  indeed,  it  has  been  claimed  that  later  improve- 
ments on  the  Appleton  dam  have  caused  the  water  at  Menasha  to  back  up  a  foot  or  more 
above  its  original  level.  As  Appleton  b  approached  the  clay  banks  rise  to  a  height  of  50  or 
60  feet. 

APPLETON. 

Fall. — Because  of  their  intrinsic  value,  as  well  as  on  account  of  their  early  develops 
menti  the  Appleton  powers  are  not  excelled  on  the  lower  Fox.  According  to  the  Govern- 
ment profile  the  river  has  a  total  fall  of  36.7  feet  in  a  distance  of  1.2  miles.  This  head  is 
developed  by  three  dams,  which  divide  the  river  into  upper,  middle,  and  lower  levels, 
with  estimated  theoretical  horsepowers  at  ordinary  floj^  of  4,238,  2,225,  and  2,558, 
respeetively. 

At  Appleton  the  river  by  a  gradual  bend  changes  its  course  from  northeast  to  southeast, 
again  turning  to  the  northeast  just  above  the  lower  da'm.  On  the  left  bank  the  clay  bluffs 
rise  steeply  50  to  70  feet,  while  on  the  opposite  bank  is  a  flat  extending  for  3,500  feet,  and 
perhaps  1 ,300  fedt  wide,  beyond  which  rise  high  bluffs,  as  on  the  left  bank.  For  the  purposes 
of  navigation  the  Government  has  constructed  two  dams,  dividing  the  descent  into  two 
levels.  The  second  or  middle  dam  was  constructed  by  private  enterprise  and  is  used 
exclusively  for  Water  power. 

Upper  dam. — ^The  upper  dam  is  a  substantial  stone  structure.  It  extends  from  the  foot 
of  State  street  on  the  left  bank  normal  to  the  shore  for  250  feet,  thence  diagonally  down- 
stream for  700  feet  to  a  point  400  feet  from  the  right  bank.  From  this  latter  point  a  retain- 
ing wall  or  long  pier  extends  downstream  800  feet  to  the  right  bank.  The  head  varies  from 
about  10  feet  at  the  upper  end  of  the  dam  to  18  feet  at  the  lower  end,  the  average,  as  given 
by  the  Government  engineers,  being  14  feet.  Its  available  water  power  is  taken  from  a  race 
along  the  left  bank,  from  the  ship  canal  on  the  right  bank,  and  from  the  adjacent  retaining 
wall. 


a  Estimated  by  U.  8.  Asst.  Engr.  L.  M.  Mann,  on  flow  ol  170,000  minute-feet,  at  4,508, 2,367,  and  2,721, 


36     •  WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

The  extreme  variation  of  head  is  stated  at  2  feet,  but  the  ordinary  variatioo  »  ooIt 
half  that  amount.  It  is  due  to  the  manner  of  using  water  by  the  Neenah  mills,  and  to  the 
prevalence  of  strong  winds  blowing  continuously  on  Liake  Winnebago  and  changing  its 
volume  of  discharge. 

The  race  on  the  left  bank  is  600  feet  long,  several  extensive  paper,  pulp,  and  flouring  mills 
occupying  the  strip  of  land  between  it  and  the  river.  Here  are  located  the  Appleton  Paper 
and  Pulp  Company,  with  installed  turbines  under  11-foot  head,  rated  at  550  horeepowpr: 
the  Kimberly  &  Clark  Company;  the  Vulcan  and  Tioga  mills,  with  about  710  and  770  tur- 
bine horsepower,  respectively;  and  the  Atlas  paper  mill,  with  766  turbine  horsepower.  Tl* 
Appleton  Waterworks  Company,  1,400  feet  below,  receives  power  from  this  canal  through  & 
flume  which  affords  a  head  of  18  feet.  The  above  powers  by  long-established  usage  ait 
recognized  as  belonging  to  the  respective  companies,  and  not  to  the  Green  Bay  and  Miad^ 
sippi  Canal  Company. 

Of  the  power  developed  on  the  right  bank,  nearly  all  is  taken  from  the  long  pier.  The 
Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company  owns  the  land  on  this  side  of  the  river  and  leases 
power  to  users. 

The  head  here  varies  from  12  feet  near  the  upper  end  of  the  pier  to  16  feet  at  the  lover 
end.  The  water  is  taken  through  ten  arched  openings  in  the  stone  pier  from  the  laige  hay 
above.  This  power  is  fully  developed  by  the  Wisconsin  Traction,  Heat,  Light,  and  Power 
Company,  with  turbines  under  16-foot  head,  rated  at  2,250  porsepower  (besides  2,000  steam 
horsepower). 

Of  the  few  unused  power  sites  on  this  dam  the  greater  number  are  located  on  the  ship 
canal,  and,  as  heretofore  stated,  are  owned  by  the  Green  Bay  and  Mtssissippi  Canal 
Company.     The  following  table  gives  the  developed  powers: 

Water  powers  on  the  United  Stales  canal  at  Appleton . 


Owner  and  use. 


Water  power. 


Average  !    Rated 


head. 


H.  P. 


Entitled 
to- 


Steam 
H.  P, 


Riverside  Paper  and  Fiber  Co 
Appleton  Chair  Co.,  furniture, 
Union  Toy  and  Furniture  Co . 


Feet. 
14.0  ' 

7.5  I 
8.0 


383 
26  I 
50 


300 
35 


3S 
30 


Middle  dam. — The  middle  dam  also  is  independent  of  both  the  Government  work  and  the 
Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company.  It  was  built  by  pri^at-e  capital  for  water-power 
purposes  only.  It  is  2,400  feet  below  the  upper  dam  and  is  about  450  feet  long.  The  dam 
was  constructed  of  timber  in  1877  and  has  its  foundation  in  lime:)tone.  A  canal  leads  down 
the  north  (left)  bank.  The  south  end  of  the  dam  abuts  on  Grand  Chute  Island,  Wos«'s 
hydraulic  canal  being  supplied  from  the  adjacent  basin. 

Previous  to  1877  power  had  l^een  developed  by  wing  dams  passing  upstream  from  both 
banks  for  several  hundred  feet.  The  present  dam  is  reported  to  have  an  average  head  of  7^ 
feet,  developing  at  ordinary  flow  (2,660  second-feet)  2,190  theoretical  horsepower.  The 
head  at  the  various  factories  and  mills  varies  from  7  to  14  feet,  depending  on  their  location, 
the  variation  being  similar  to  that  at  the  upper  dam.  The  water  level  is  remarkable  for 
uniformity. 

The  north-shore  race  is  800  feet  long,  supplying  a  head  varying  from  9  feet  at  the  upper 
end  to  12  feet  at  the  lower. 

West's  canal  starts  at  the  right  abutment  of  the  dam  and  extends  down  Grand  Chute 
Island  for  about  1,700  feet,  nearly  parallel  to  the  river.     It  has  a  width  of  about  130  ^ 
feet,  with  earth  and  stone  embankment  about  3  feet  above  the  water  surface.     The  head 
averages  10  feet.     Several  fine  powci-  sites  still  unoccupied  on  this  canal  are  especially 
desirable  because  of  excellent  transportation  facilities. 


FOX   BIVER   SYSTEM. 


37 


The  following  table  gives  the  important  users  of  water  power  from  the  middle  dam: 
Water  powers  on  the  middle  <2am,  Apjjleton.a 


Owner  and  use. 


Fox  River  Paper  Co.:* 

Ravine  mill 

Lincoln  mill 

Fox  River  mill 

Patton  Paper  Co 

Patton  Pulp  Co 

Telulah  paper  mill,  pulp 

Appleton  Mac))ine  Co 

Appleton  woolen  mill,  paper,  knitting,  etc 

Fourth  Ward  planing  mill,  lumber 

liarston  &  Beveridge,  hubs  and  spokes 

Valley  iron  works 


Water  i>ower. 


Average      Rated 
head.         H.  P. 


Feet. 
11.0 

8.0 

8.5 
14.0 
5.0 
5.0 
8.0 
8.0 
7.0 


Entitled  to— 


f   flow    of 
River    lea 
HP. 


Fox 
I    25 


814 

465 

903 

14 

47 
28 
77 
47 


1,250  H.P  . 


h 


,000sq.  in. 

I  500sq.  in... 
I  90  H. 


P. 
30  H.  P. 
75  H.  P. 
40  H.  P. 


Steam 
H.  P. 


1,050 


500 


a  Authority,  L.  IC.  Mann,  U.  S.  assistant  engineer. 

6  Power  used  by  Fox  River  Paper  Co.  (three  mills)  are  located -on  West's  canal;  Uie  other  powers  are 
on  the  left  bank. . 

Lower  dam. — ^The  lower  or  Government  dam  is  located  about  three-fourths  of  a  mile 
below  the  middle  dam  and  just  below  the  lower  bend  of  the  river,  at  a  point  where  the  river 
is  485  feet  wide.  The  dam  extends  downstream  from  the  left  bank  417  feet,  at  an  angle  of 
about  45^  with  the  channel,  to  an  embankment  which  extends  600  feet  farther  downstream. 
The  lower-level  ship  canal  is  back  of  this  embankment.  The  river  runs  close  to  the  left  bank, 
which  is  high  and  steep,  while  on  the  right  bank  a  flat  200  to  300  feet  wide  intervenes  between 
the  shore  and  the  bluffs.  There  are  four  methods  of  utilizing  the  power — viz,  from  the 
abutment  of  the  dam,  from  the  race  on  the  left  bank,  from  the  ship  canal,  and  from  the 
Telulah  Water  Power  Company's  canal  on  the  right  shore.  The  average  head  of  this  dam 
M  stated  at  8.5  feet,  which  at  ordinary  flow  gives  2,550  theoretical  horsepower.  The  report 
of  Capt.  L.  M.  Mann,  on  whose  authority  the  above  statement  is  made,  shows  that  about  850 
horsepower  remain  to  be  installed.  There  is  said  to  be  a  fall  of  3  feet  in  the  1,500  feet 
below  the  dam.  This  water  power  Ls  owned  by  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal 
Company. 

The  left  or  west-shore  race  starts  at  a  point  450  feet  above  the  dam  and  extends  nearly 
parallel  to  the  channel  a  distance  of  1 ,2Q0  feet  below  the  dam.  The  bluffs  rise  steeply  from 
the  water,  so  that  mills  must  extend  out  over  the  river.  It  is  claimed  that  this  race  is  entitled 
to  one-fourth  of  the  stream  flow. 

The  right  or  east  canal,  known  as  the  Hyde  &  Harriman  canal,  has  several  good  locations 
for  mills.  The  land  adjacent  was  owned  by  Mr.  W.  Hyde  and  Judge  J.  E.  Harriman,  while 
the  power  belonged  to  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company.  These  interests  were 
united  and  the  canal  completed  in  1880.  It  starts  at  the  head  of  the  ship  canal  and  skirts 
the  bluffs  for  its  entire  length  of  2,250  feet,  leaving  a  wide  .strip  of  flat  land  between  it  and 
the  river.  An  earth  embankment  forms  the  river  side.  The  cross  section  of  the  canal  at  its 
upper  end  is  120  by  7  feet,  but  it  gradually  decrease.s.  Its  head  varies  but  slightly  and 
is  said  to  average  10  feet.  The  most  important  mill  on  this  canal  is  that  of  the  Telulah 
Paper  Company,  with  a  total  of  11  turbines,  rat«d  at  1,368  actual  horsepower. 

CEDARS    DAM. 

This  dam  backs  up  the  water  for  the  entire  distance  of  3.3  miles  to  the  lower  Appleton 
dam,  affording  slack-water  navigation.     Fox  River  in  this  stretch  is  hemmed  in  by 


88  WATER   POWERS   OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

high  clay  banks  and  has  an  average  width  of  600  feet.  At  a  short  distance  below  the  dam 
however,  a  small  creek  enters  from  the  north,  causing  the  bluffs  to  recede  from  the  river  and 
follow  up  the  creek,  leaving  a  flat  area  of  perhaps  35  acres.  The  dam  is  situated  about  1  fiOO 
feet  below  the  point  where  the  bluffs  leave  the  river.  It  crosses  the  river  in  a  nomiA]  dk- 
tance  of  810  feet.  It  has  an  average  head  of  9.7  feet,  which  at  an  ordinary  flow  of  2JGCO 
second-feet  gives  2,910  theoretical  horsepower.  This  power  is  owned  by  the  Green  Bay  and 
Mississippi  Canal  Company,  but  the  entire  power  is  leased  to  the  Kimberly  &  Clark  Paper 
Company  for  a  paper  mill.  This  firm  reports  an  installation  of  33  turbines,  under  a  head  of 
11  feet,  rated  at  4,217  actual  horsepower. 

LITTLEOHUTE. 

The  next  Government  dam  is  located  4,000  feet  below  the  Cedars  dam  at  a  small  village 
called  Littlechute.  The  river  has  extensive  rapids  at  this  point,  there  being  a  total  descent . 
according,  to  the  Government  profile,  of  36.2  feet  in  the  2  miles  between  the  foot  of  the 
Cedars  lock  and  the  backwater  of  the  Eaukauna  dam  below.  These  rapids  are  pasaed  by 
a  canal  6,500  feet  long  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  One  lockj?f  16-foot  lift  is  located 
about  1,000  feet  from  the  head  of  the  canal,  and  a  composite  lock  of  about  20-foot  bead 
is  located  at  the  lower  end  of  the  canaL 

The  river  is  about  840  feet  wide  at  the  dam  site.  On  the  left  bank  the  bluffs  rptreat 
from  the  river  slightly,  leaving  a  narrow  flat  and  some  small  islands.  On  the  ri^t  bank 
there  is  a  break  of  perhaps  1,500  feet  in  the  bluffs.  This  power  and  the  adjacent  land 
belong  to  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company.  The  dam  has  a  head  of  12  feet, 
but  the  total  available  head,  because  of  the  adjacent  rapids  in  the  7,000  feet  below  the  dam. 
is  stated  to  be  34  feet.  This  descent,  with  a  flow  of  2,660  second-feet,  gives  10,200  theoret- 
ical horsepower.  It  is  certain  that  to  develop  more  than  half  this  amount  would  require 
a  large  expenditure  of  money.     At  the  present  time  20  feet  of  fall  have  been  developed. 

The  Littlechute  Pulp  Company  has  installed  24  (mostly  54-inch)  turbines  under  a  head 
of  12  feet,  rated  at  3,000  actual  horsepower.  The  power  next  in  importance  on  this  dam. 
and  the  only  power  not  leased  from  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company,  is  that 
of  a  flouring  mill  owned  by  Arnold  Verstigen,  run  by  6  turbines  rated  at  100  horsepower. 

COMBINED   LOOKS   DAM. 

About  a  mile  below  the  Littlechute  dam  is  the  Combined  Locks  dam,  owned  bv  the 
Combined  Lojcks  Paper  Company.  A  view  of  this  dam,  together  with  part  of  the  company's 
plant,  is  shown  in  PI.  II,  B.  The  company  has  49  turbines  installed,  rated  at  4,438  prac- 
tical horsepower,  leased  from  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company. 

GRAND   KAUKAUNA   DAM. 

A  descent  of  50.3  feet  in  a  distance  of  less  than  a  mile  entitles  the  Grand  Kaukauna 
rapids  to  first  place  in  all  the  water  powers  of  the  lower  Fox  River.  Both  topographic 
and  transportation  conditions  are  very  favorable  for  improvement.  The  Kaukauna 
dam  is  distant  2.5  miles  from  the  Littlechute  dam  and  producer  slack  water  to  the  end  of 
the  Littlechute  canal.  The  rapids  are  passed  by  a  ship  canal  7,400  feet  long,  extending 
from  the  dam  and  including  5  locks  with  an  aggregate  lift  of  50.3  feet,  all  located  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river.  At  its  middle  point  this  canal  is  distant  1,000  feet  from  the 
river.  The  river  is  about  700  feet  wide  at  the  dam,  but  a  quarter  of  a  mile  below  broadens 
out  between  several  i.slands  to  a  maximum  width  in  the  middle  of  the  rapids  of  over  2.000 
feet.  The  islands  are  low,  but  all  have  the  limestone  base.  These  islands,  together  with 
the  flats  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  give  fine  facilities  for  water-power  development.  The 
distance  across  the  valley  from  bluff  to  bluff  is  about  3,500  feet. 

The  water  powers  are  made  available  in  three  or  more  ways,  viz,  from  the  ship  canal. 
from  the  Kaukauna  Water  Power  canal,  and  from  the  Eklwards  &  Mead  canal.    There  is 


U.   8.   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY  PAPER  NO.    156      PL.   II 


.^- 

iV—  «^  -^    "li 

^^^^C^      i^?«i^jga  vjESfafcf 

^—^SS 

A.     DAM  ON   LOWER   FOX   RIVER  AT  DEPERE. 
Looking  east. 


B.     COMBINED   LOCKS  DAM  ON   LOWER  FOX  RIVER  AT  LITTLECHUTE. 
Private  dam;   plant  cost  $1,250,000. 


FOX   BIVER    SYSTEM.  39 

a  frontage  of  900  feet  or  more  on  the  upper  level  of  the  ship  canal  suitable  for  power 
development  and  furnishing  an  average  head  of  about  16  feet.  The  Kaukauna  Water 
Power  canal  starts  400  feet  above  the  dam,  thence  runs  400  feet  at  an  angle  from  the  shore 
of  about  45°.  At  a  point' about  200  feet  from  the  river  it  turns  and  runs  parallel  to  the 
south  channel  of  the  river  for  2,000  feet.  Its  greatest  width,  150  feet,  is  at  the  bulkhead. 
Its  minimum  width  is  86  feet  and  its  depth  is  11  feet.  There  is  said  to  be  a  descent  of  2 
feet  in  the  total  length  of  2,400  feet,  and  the  average  head  furnished  is  18  feet.  Along 
the  side  and  end  of  the  canal  there  is  a  total  frontage  of  2,100  feet  available  for  power 
sites  and  mills. 

The  Kaukauna  Water  Power  Company's  claims  to  one-half  the  flow  of  the  river  were 
denied  by  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company  at*the  time  of  the  construction 
of  these  improvements,  and  the  matter  was  taken  into  the  courts  for  adjudication.  After 
successive  trials  in  the  State  courts  the  question  was  finally  settled  by  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  October,  1898,  in  favor  of  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company, 
which  thereupon  purchased  the  entire  plant  and  canal  of  the  Kaukauna  Water  Power 
Company.  ^ 

In  this  decision  the  Supreme  Court  held  broadly  that  the  use  of  the  surplus  waters  cre- 
ated by  the  Government  dam  and  canal  at  Kaukauna  belonged  to  the  Green  Bay  and 
Mississippi  Canal  Company,  but  that  "after  such  waters  had  passed  over  the  dam  and 
through  the  sluices  and  had  found  their  way  into  the  unimproved  bed  of  the  stream,  the 
rights  and  disputes  of  the  riparian  owners  must  be  determined  by  the  State  court." 

The  Edwards  &  Mead  canal  was  built  under  the  direction  of  Capt.  N.  M.  Eklwards,  engi- 
neer for  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company.  Advantage  was  taken  of  a  branch 
of  the  main  north  channel  running  between  two  large  islands ;  this  was  formed  into  a  pocket 
by  damming  the  ends  and  sides.  This  channel  starts  600  feet  below  the  bridge,  and  the 
dam  was  placed  1,000  feet  below  its  head.  As  the  water  is  taken  from  b«low  the  first 
level  of  the  rapids  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company  could  make  no  legal 
claim  to  it,  but  subsequent  to  its  development  bought  the  power.  The  sides  of  the 
channel  are  substantially  built  of  earth  on  the  south  side  and  dry  rubble  masonry  on  the 
north  side. 

Recently  very  comprehensive  plans  have  been  prepared  for  the  improvement  of  the  lower 
level  at  Kaukauna,  which  will  produce  6,500  theoretical  horsepower.  These  plans  include 
the  blasting  out  of  the  tailrace  so  as  to  develop  a  21-foot  head  at  the  present  Government 
dam,  and  also  the  construction  of  a  new  masonsy  dam  below  which  will  develop  27  feet 
additional.  As  this  dam  would  render  useless  some  of  the  present  improvements  below 
the  Government  dam,  it  will  be  necessary  to  purchase  such  property  before  the  new  dam 
can  be  constructed.  These  developments  will  be  made  as  soon  as  a  suitable  tenant  is 
found. 

At  the  present  time  the  Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company  offers  for  rent  3,000 
theoretical  horsepower  already  developed  at  the  headrace  of  the  Kaukauna  WaterPower 
Company's  canal,  recently  purchased.  Large  store  buildings  at  this  point,  though  par- 
tially destroyed  by  6re,  could  readily  be  converted  into  a  large  manufacturing  plant. 

The  city  of  Kaukauna  has  5,000  inhabitants  and  is  on  the  main  line  of  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  Railway,  being  also  reached  by  the  Fox  River  Valley  Electric  Railway. 


40  WATER    POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

The  following  table  gives  a  list  of  the  power  users  at  Kaukauna  and  the  installed  turbine 
power: 

Water  powers  on  Fox  River  at  Kaukauna.  a 


Owner. 


Water  power. 


Average      Rated 
head.     I     H.  P. 


Steam 
Entitled    H.  P. 
to— 


!     Feet. 

Badger  Paper  Co 16         1.230  " 4St) 

Chicago  and  Northwestern  Rwy«  shops 7i  47  I             75            110 

Kaukauna  Fiber  Co , '  14  194             100           300 

Kaukauna  Machine  Co .* 14  250              75             15 

Kaukauna  Electric  Light  Co 14,  194   1«jO 

Thilmany  Pulp  and  Paper  Co 14'  389'           275  i          175 

Western  Paper  Bag  Co 15'  1,400  I           400           310 

Outagamie  Paper  Co I  21  !  816  j        1.300   

Lindauer  Pulp  C^ 12   

ReeaePulpCo 12  1  440   150 

Thilmany  Pulp  and  Paper  C^ '. 12  709  1 5^7 


o  Nos.  1-4  are  owned  jointly  by  the  Oreen  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company:  Nos.  5-0  are  leased 
from  the  same  company;  Nos.  10  and  11  are  leased  from  same  company  and  Edwards. 

Below  Kaukauna  Rapids  the  river  is  from  1,200  to  2,200  feet  wide  for  nearly  2  miles,  but 
it  gradually  contracts  to  a  width  of  about  500  feet  for  the  lower  half  of  its  course  between 
Kaukauna  and  Rapide  Croche.  Almost  without  exception  the  bluffs  rise  directly  from 
the  river  for  the  entire  distance.  Navigation  is  also  by  slack  water  from  the  Grand  Kau- 
kauna Canal  to  the  Rapide  Croche  dam. 

RAPIDE   CROCHE   DAM. 

The  Rapide  Croche  dam  is  located  4.5  miles  below  the  Grand  Kaukauna  dam  and  was 
built  by  the  Government  for  navigation  purposes.  It  is  about  450  feet  long  and  has  an 
average  head  of  8.5  feet.  The  bluffs  rise  on  either  side  close  to  the  river,  except  on  the 
left  bank  at  the  site  of  the  ship  canal.  This  canal  starts  just  above  the  dam  and  exten«k 
downstream  for  a  distance  of  1,760  feet  to  the  lock.  This  forms  a  strip  of  land  well  suited 
for  power  or  mill  sites,  being  900  feet  long  and  varying  in  width  from  20  feet  at  the  ends 
to  200  feet  at  the  middle.  This  ground  and  120  acres  adjacent  is  owned  by  the  Green 
Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Company. 

The  Rapide  Croche  dam  develops  2,400  theoretical  horsepower,  which  may  be  leased  on 
extremely  favorable  terms.  At  the  present  time  this  power  is  not  utilized.  Its  location, 
nearly  midway  between  Green  Bay  and  Appleton,  is  convenient  for  the  development  of 
electric  power  for  railroad  or  other  purposes.  The  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway 
and  the  Fox  River  Valley  Electric  Railway  are  close  at  hand  on  the  left  bank. 

LITTLE    KAUKAUNA    DAM. 

Six  miles  below  the  Rapide  Croche  dam  is  located  another  Government  dam  which  fur- 
nishes slack-water  navigation  in  this  stretch  of  the  river.  This  dam  is  about  550  feet  long 
and  furnishes  a  head  of  8  feet.  The  bluffs  rise  close  to  the  right  bank,  but  on  the  left  bank 
recede  for  several  hundred  feet.  Advantage  is  taken  of  this  fact  to  locate  the  Govern- 
ment canal  here.    This  canal  is  950  feet  long  and  has  a  single  lock  at  its  lower  end. 

The  power  here,  like  that  at  Rapide  Croche,  is  owned  by  the  Green  Bay  and  Miasissippi 
Canal  Company,  while  the  riparian  rights  are  owned  by  other  parties.  This  fact  has  led 
to  a  protracted  legal  struggle,  which  has  resulted  in  preventing  the  utilization  of  the  valu- 
able water  powers.  It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  these  suits  have  recently  been 
settled  and  that  improvements  will  soon  be  made. 


FOX   KIVER   SYSTEM. 


41 


A  large  number  of  water-power  lots  would  be  made  available  by  the  construction  of  a 
tailface  parallel  to  the  canal  about  as  shown  in  fig.  3.  An  8-foot  head  with  a  flow  of  2,660 
second-feet,  gives  2,400  theoretical  horsepower. 


DEPERE    DAM. 

This  dam  at  Depere,  a  city  of  over  4,000  inhabitants,  about  7  miles  from  the  mouth  of 
Fox  River,  is  the  last  dam  and  lock  on  the  river.  A  view  of  it  is  shown  in  PI.  II,  A.  The 
dam  is  of  crib  construction,  about  2,000  feet  long,  and  furnishes  an  average  head  of  7  feet, 
which,  at  an  ordinary  flow  of  2,660  second-feet,  gives  2,100  theoretical  horsepower.  A 
modem  steel  bridge  is  located  just  below  the  dam. 


A               -X 

Vl^^^*^ 

Scale 

«f0  4fos^»9oifo  f                          tifo                         topofeet 

Fig.  3.-  Plan  of  water-power  development  at  Little  Kaukauna,  Wis. 

This  power  does  not  belong  to  the  Green  Bay  and  Misssisippi  Canal  Company,  for  it  was 
built  under  a  contract  whereby  the  riparian  owners  were  to  have  the  use  of  the  power  in 
return  for  the  maintenance  of  navigation  improvements. 

The  American  Writing  Paper  Company,  which  has  one  of  the  largest  and  most  modern 
paper  mills  on  the  river,  has  installed  16  large  turbines,  with  a  rating  of  1,565  practical 
horsepower.  In  addition  the  company  uses  1,300  steam  horsepower.  It  is  entitled  to 
the  total  power  of  the  river  loss  290  horsepower.  The  value  of  its  annual  product  is  stated 
at  $600,000. 

On  the  right  bank,  taking  water  from  the  ship  canal,  are  located  the  J,  P.  Dousman 
Company's  flouring  mill,  with  175  actual  turbine  horsepower,  and  the  Depere  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Company's  plant,  with  100  actual  turbine  horsepower.  The  flouring  mill  has 
a  capacity  of  300  barrels  a  day.     These  are  the  last  powers  on  the  river. 


42  WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

RAILROADS. 

Attention  has  elsewhere  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  freedom  from  freshets  which  k>^rr 
Fox  River  enjoys  allows  the  building  of  railroad  side  tracks  over  or  across  the  river  so  as  to 
reach  any  mill  no  matter  how  situated.  The  river  thus  enjoys  excellent  railroad  facilit:p». 
The  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway  closely  follows  the  left  bank  of  the  river  betwer-i: 
Neenah  and  Green  Bay,  and  a  branch  performs  a  similar  service  for  all  the  mills  betwt-=ti 
Menasha  and  Eaukauna  on  the  right  bank.  The  Cliicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Ral- 
way  reaches  Neenah,  Menasha,  and  Appleton,  while  another  branch  parallels  the  rivr-r 
between  Green  Bay  and  Depere.  The  Wisconsin  Central  line  reaches  Neenah  and  Mena.-ha- 
Besides  the  steam  lines,  the  river's  entire  length  is  closely  followed  by  an  electric  intrr- 
urban  railroad,  which  provides  a  train  every  hour  at  reduced  rates. 

The  navigation  improvements  maintained  by  the  Federal  Grovcmment  provide  U^  a 
6-foot  channel  between  Oshkosh  and  Green  Bay.  While  this  channel  is  insufficient  for  ti^ 
larger  freight  boats  navigating  the  Great  Lakes,  the  commerce  on  lower  Fox  River  has  herz 
sufficient  to  reduce  the  railroad  freight  rates  to  an  exceedingly  reasonable  basis.  This  pvt- 
the  numerous  factories  on  this  river  a  very  marked  advantage  in  shipping  both  raw  mater.al^ 
and  finished  products.  This  advantage,  together  with  the  extremely  low  rates  at  whir', 
water  power  may  be  rented  ($5  to  $10  per  annum  per  horsepower),  has  already  made  ti.> 
one  of  the  largest  manufacturing  districts  in  the  State. 

MENOMINEE:  RIVER  SYSTEM. 

This  nver  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  Michigamme  and  Brule  rivers,  and  for  its  entire 
length  of  about  104  miles  forms  the  boundary  between  Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  It  flov.- 
in  a  general  southeasterly  direction,  entering  Green  Bay  at  Marinette. 

DRAINAGE. 

The  Menominee  drainage  basin  is  narrow  in  its  lower  portion,  but  widens  as  the  strean 
is  ascended,  the  river  receiving  important  branches  near  its  source.  Its  total  drainage  a.-va 
is  about  4,000  square  miles,  of  which  1,430  square  miles  is  in  Wisconsin. 

Like  Chippewa  River,  it  has  a  main  arm  to  the  north,  Michigamme  River,  which  is  npar  y 
as  long  as  the  main  river,  its  source,  in  fact,  being  within  12  miles  of  Lake  Superior.  Thi^ 
has  an  important  bearing  on  the  discharge  of  the  Menominee,  because  it  secures  the  Unrr- 
run-oflf  due  to  the  heavy  precipitation  of  that  region  as  well  as  the  steadying  effect  of  ilrf 
enlarged  drainage.  The  combined  drainage  area  of  Brule  and  Michigamme  rivers  amount « 
to  1,769  square  miles  a — nearly  one-half  that  of  the  entire  river  system. 

PROFILE. 

From  its  head,  at  the  junction  of  Brule  and  Michigamme  rivers,  to  its  mouth,  a  distant* 
of  about  104  miles,  the  river  descends  about  700  feet.  In  addition  to  this  its  Wis(xio>ir 
tributaries  descend  j,bout  300  feet,  and  those  in  Michigan  470  feet.  The  opportunities  ft" 
water  power  are  numerous,  because  of  the  frequent  cx)ncentrations  of  descent  in  rapid- 
along  the  entire  course  of  the  river.  The  following  descriptions  of  the  most  importacr 
water  powers  are  taken  from  data  furnished  by  Messrs.  O'Keef  &  Orbison,  hydraulic  en^- 
neers,  of  Appleton,  Wis.,  who  also  loaned  maps  and  profiles  of  the  river,  and  from  the  ven 
full  descriptions  by  James  L.  Greenleaf ,  C.  E.,  in  the  census  report.* 

Quoting  from  the  latter: 

It  will  be  evident  from  the  following  account  that  there  is  an  immense  amount  of  water  power  ixi  *.t- 
Menominee  awaiting  development,  the  concentrations  of  the  descent  in  numerous  rapids  and  falls  <^- 
plying  remarkably  fine  opportunities  for  improvements.    Any  worlcs  for  the  uti!i*aUoa  of  th«  p«>tt  * 
would  have  to  be  so  constructed  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  manufacturing  company  in  the  dfiviug  . ' 
logs;  but  dams,  etc.,  could  be  built  so  as  to  be  no  hindrance  to  the  passage  of  logs. 


a  Tenth  Census,  vol.  17.  p.  57. 

*  VVatar  powers  of  the  Northwest;  Tenth  Census,  vol.  17,  pp.  59-60. 


MENOMINEE   RIVEB   SYSTEM. 


43 


In  the  table  that  follows  will  be  found  a  statement  in  detail  of  the  descent  of  Menominee 
River,  together  with  other  valuable  data: 

Profile  of  Menominee  River  from  its  mouth  to  head  of  upper  rapids  ^  Twin  FalU.a 


station. 


1 

2 
3 
4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 


Mouth  of  river 

Dam  No.  1,  foot 

Dam  No.  2,  foot 

Dam  No.  3,  foot 

Schappies  rapids,  foot 

Schappies  rapida,  head 

Grand  rapids,  foot  (mouth  of  Little  C«dar  River) 

Grand  rapids,  head  (NW.  }  sec.  32,  T.  34  N.,  R.  23  E.) . 

Railroad  crossing,  Ross 

White  rapids,  foot  (lot  1,  sec.  30,  T.  35  N.,  R.  21  E.) .. 
White  rapids,  head  (south  line  sec.  7,  T.  35  N. ,  R.  22.  E.) 

Pemena  rapids,  foot  (mouth  Pemena  ('reek) 

Pemena  rapids,  head  (south  line  sec.  5,  T.  36  N.,  R. 

22  E.) 

Pemena  dam,  foot 

Pemena  dam,  crest , 

Sturgeon  Falls,  foot 

Sturgeon  Falls,  head 

Sturgeon  River,  mouth 

Norway,  Mich,  (where  public  road  joins  river) 

Iron  Mountain,  Mich.  (500  feet  aiK>ve  old  ferry) 

Little  Quinnesoo  Falls,  foot 

Little  Quinnesec  Falls,  head 

Big  Quinnesec  Falls,  foot 

Railroad  bridge  south  of  Iron  Mountain 

Highway  bridge  south  of  Iron  Mountain 

Railroad  bridge,  river  siding 

Twin  Falls  (500  feet  below  lower  rapids) 

Twin  Falls  (head  of  upper  rapids) 


Distance— 

From 
mouth. 

Be- 
tween 
points. 

Milet. 

MiU9. 

2.0 

2.0 

2.5 

.5 

2.75 

.25 

7.7 

5.0 

&7 

1.0 

22.0 

13.3 

24.5 

2.5 

2a5 

2.0 

SO.  7 

24.2 

53.7 

3.0 

6L5 

7.8 

63.0 

1.5 

67.0 

4.0 

67.5 

.5 

77.0 

9.6 

77.5 

.5 

7&1 

.6 

80.1 

2.0 

84.1 

4.0 

85.4 

1.3 

85.65 

.25 

89.9 

4.25 

9L15 

L25 

92.4 

L25 

100.4 

8.0 

101.4 

1.0 

102.1 

.7    j 

Eleva- 
tion 
above 
sea  level.   Total 


Descent  be- 
tween points. 


Feet. 

580.0 

580.0 

587.0 

594.0 

612.0 

622.  Oi 

649. 0± 

660.  Oi: 

671.8 

683.4 

714.4 

74a  3 

767.1 

773.1 

786.2 

803.0 

81&8 

818.0 

824.0 

851.0 

878.0 

042.0 

966.0 

1,020.0 

1,045.0 

1,065.3 

1,072. 5 

1,099.8 


Per 
mile. 


Feet,   i    Feet. 


7.0 
7.0 
18.0 
10.0 
27.0 
20.0 
2.8 

n.6 

31.0 
30.3 

18.8 

6.0  ; 
13.1  I 
17.7 
12.9  I 

L2 

6.0 
27.0 
27.0 
64.0 
24.0 
54.0 
25.0 
20.3 

7.2 
27.3 


14.0 
28.0 

3.6 
10. 0± 

2.0± 

8.0 

L4 
48.0 
103.0 

3.9 

12.5 
15.0 
26.2 

L9 
25.8 

2.0 

3.0 

6.7 
20.7 
256.0 

5.6 
43.3 
20.0 

2.5 

7.2 

3.9 


a  Authority:  No.  1,  U.  S.  Lake  Survey;  Nos.  2-6,  Menominee  River  Boom  Company;  Nos.  7,  8,  and 
10-18,  T.  W.  Orbison;  No.  9,  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  Railway;  Nos.  19-27,  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey;  No.  28, 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway. 

GEOLOGY. 

While  the  surface  is  largely  covered,  generally  deeply,  by  glacial  drift,  the  Menominee 
and  all  its  tributaries  flow  over  hard,  pre-Oambrian  crystalline  rocks  as  far  south  as  the 
mouth  of  Pike  River,  or  fully  two-thirds  its  length.  In  this  region  important  iron  mines  are 
found.  Below  the  mouth  of  Pike  River  the  Menominee  flows  10  miles  across  the  Cambrian 
sandstone,  then  for  18  miles  across  the  next  higher  layer,  the  "Lower  Magnesian"  lime- 
stone, and  for  the  last  8  miles  to  its  mouth  across  the  "Trenton"  group  of  limestones.a 

The  crossing  of  the  Cambrian  sandstone  results  in  no  rapids  of  importance,  but  two  rapids 
occur  in  passing  the  "Lower  Magnesian"  and  the  "Trenton"  limestones.  Most  of  the 
rapids,  of  course,  are  in  the  harder  crystalline  rocks  above  the  mouth  of  Pike  River  . 

Tlie  topography  of  the  country  through  which  Menominee  River  flows  can  not  be  de- 
scribed as  mountainous,  but  many  high  ridges  give  diversity  to  the  surface.  The  Wisconsin 
branches,  Pine  and  Brule  rivers,  rise  side  by  side  with  the  Flambeau  and  the  Wisconsin  in 


a  Geol.  Wisconsin,  p. 


44 


WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


a  high,  flat  plateau,  abounding  in  lakes  and  swamps.  In  many  cases  the  rivers  b»d  is 
lakes  but  a  few  rods  apart,  or  even  in  the  same  swamp.  These  lakes  and  swamps  have  &o 
elevation  of  nearly  1,600  feet  above  sea  level,  or  1,000  feet  above  Lake  Michigan.  Tb* 
Michigan  branches  flow  from  a  similar  though  even  hi^er  region,  and  it  is  certain  tb&i 
these  swampe  and  lake  reservoirs  exert  a  marked  influence  in  steadying  the  diwciiaiy  of 
the  river. 

RAINFALL.  AND  RUN-OFF. 

Because  of  the  paucity  of  data  concerning  the  discharge  of  rivers  in  this  regioo,  it  i^ 
exceedingly  difficult  to  estimate  the  ordinary  discharge.  The  dLscharge  measurement  ir. 
this  district  have  been  made  since  1901,  and  most  of  them  since  1908. 

The  rivers  mentioned  below  are  similarly  situated  with  respect  to  Lake  Superior,  whici 
is  perhaps  the  governing  factor  in  determining  the  rainfall.  In  1903  Racaaaba  Rivc: 
yielded  a  minimum  of  700  second-feet  from  891  square  miles.  Measurements  made  bj 
the  I.  Stevenson  Company  indicate  a  minimum  flow  of  this  river,  in  a  dry  year,  of  400  secfmd- 
feet.  Measurements  of  Iron  River^  continuing  from  November,  1901,  to  April,  1904,  sfaov 
a  minimum  flow  of  0.8  second-foot  per  square  mile  for  two  months  in  1902,  and  the  same 
for  February,  1903.  It  seems  reasonably  certain  that  except  in  unusually  dry  years  tbr 
ordinary  low-water  discharge  of  these  rivers  is  not  far  from  0.6  second-foot  per  square  milt. 
In  1904,  a  year  of  average  rainfall,  the  minimum  run-off  occurred  in  the  month  of  Decemli^r. 
when  it  averaged  0.77  second-foot  per  square  mile. 

In  the  following  tables  will  be  found  the  maximum,  minimum,  and  mean  dschargie  in 
second-feet  of  Menominee  River  at  Little  Quinnesec  Falls  during  twelve  months  of  IS^ 
and  1899 : 

EstinuUed  monthly  discharge  of  Menominee  River  at  Little  Quinnesec  FaUSf  Wis.a^  May,  is:*d. 

to  August,  1899,^ 

[Drainage  area,  2,432  square  miles.] 


Date. 


18d8. 


May 

June 

July 

August 

September.. 

October 

November. , 


1899. 


April... 
May.... 

June 

July.... 
August . 


Discharge 

Run-off. 

Mazi> 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Per 
square 
mile. 

Deptk 

Sec-feet. 

Sec-feet, 

Sec-feet. 

Sec-feet. 

Ifuhfr 

3,802 

2,443 

3,086 

1.26  ' 

L4^i 

3,«16 

1,447 

2,459 

1.01 

1  ." 

2,740 

«55 

1,439 

.50 

*> 

4,968 

498 

2,282 

.M. 

Li*? 

3,544 

797 

2,566 

1.06 

Li: 

5,735 

1,947 

3,248 

1.34 

1  ,A 

3,001 

1,484 

2,766 

1.14 

ir 

4,642 

3,083 

4,011 

1.65 

1*1 

4,485 

3,744 

4,112 

Leo 

!  s». 

4,624 

2,017 

3,476 

1.43; 

1  '• 

2,521 

804 

1,819 

.75 

.v 

1,789 

I,«8 

1,573 

.65 

.:: 

a  For  the  daily  discharge  for  this  time  see  Water-Supplv  Paper  No.  83,  pp.  256-257.    Meftaurvmrr  t> 
were  made  by  J.  H.  Wallace,  C.  £.,  and  furnished  by  KJmberly  &  Clark,  of  Niagara,  Wis. 


MENOMINEB   RIVER   SYSTEM. 


45 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  smallest  monthly  average  during  this  time  was  0.50  second-foot 
per  square  mile  of  drainage.  Lumbering  operations  on  Menominee  River,  though  declin- 
ing since  1892;  are  still  active.  The  operation  of  the  many  logging  dams  must  have  a  great 
effect  on  the  regimen  of  the  river.  In  a  few  years  the  lumber  will  be  so  nearly  removed 
that  it  will  be  cheaper  to  carry  logs  by  railroad.  Then  the  dams  can  be  used  to  augment 
the  low-water  flow.    This  will  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  the  water  powers. 

The  average  annual  rainfall  of  this  region  is  estimated  by  the  Tenth  Census  at  35  inches, 
or  10  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  average  of  the  State. 

The  following  table  gives  the  annual  precipitation  in  the  valleys  of  Wolf,  Oconto,  Pesh- 
tigo,  and  Menominee  rivers  for  the  eleven  years  ending  in  1904: 

Annual  precipiiationf  with  averages ^  at  seven  stations  in  Wisconsin  covering  eleven  years. 


Station. 

Il894. 

1 

1805. 

1806. 

1897. 

1806. 

1809. 

1900. 

1901. 
In. 

33.0 
32.7 
28.1 
28.1 

1902. 

1903.  '  1904. 

Average. 

In.  1   In. 

In. 
35.1 
32.2 
29.2 
36.0 

In. 
30.2 
25.5 
25.7 
28.1 
27.4 
25.3 
26.5 

In.       In. 
28.7     30.2 
28.1  1  31.3 
27.5     34.3 
29.7  1  26.4 
29.0    

In. 
37.6 
46.6 
37.9 
38.0 
35.6 

In.      In.      In. 
32.1    30.2 

Inches. 
34.7 

Koepenick 

Florence ,.... 

Occmto 

New  LoDdon 

...J  23.8  '  24.9 

....27.6     27.2 

....29.8     29.9 

I           1 

27.7 

29.3 
34.3 

42.9     43.0 

«-3    

34.1     34.7 

28.8     31.1 

32.6 
31.7 
31.3 
30.8 

Shawano 

....    27.9  ' 

32.8 
33.6 

36.3 

25.3     27.9     39.3 
24.3  1  32.4    

29.8 

Waupaca 

28.0 

:io.R 

32.0  1  32.0 

29.7 

...    27.3 

27.3 

1 

Average 

27.0 

27.5 

30.8 

39.1 

20.6 

30.8 

36.2     34.2 

31.5 

The  summary  given  above,  embodying  observations  of  the  yearly  rainfall  from  1894  to 
1904,  inclusive,  at  seven  near-by  stations,  shows  the  average  rainfall  of  this  section  for  the 
above  period  to  be  31.5  inches.  This  is  very  conservative,  for  earlier  observations  for 
longer  periods  show  larger  averages,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following: 

Record  of  precipitation  at  two  stations  in  Wisconsin  prior  to  189 J^. 
[From  the  Smithsonian  tables.] 


Station. 


Precipi- 
tation. 


Embarrass.. 
WeyauwQga. 


There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  rainfall  at  the  headwaters  of  these  rivers  is  in  excess 
of  that  on  the  lower  part  of  the  drainage  area,  where  most  of  the  observation  stations 
are  located. 

The  following  table  compiled  from  Bulletin  C,  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  shows 


46 


WATEK   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


the  result  of  observations  of  precipitation  and  temperature  in  the  basins  of  Fox«  Oracti. 
Menominee,  and  Wolf  rivers  for  the  years  stated  prior  to  1876: 

Record  of  precipitation  and  temperature  cU  nine  statioiut  in  Wisconsin  prior  to  1S76. 


Station. 


Period  of 
observa- 
tion. 


Wautoma 1S71-1874 

PorUge '  1836-1845 

Weyauwega 1881-1873 

Waupaca '  1867-1874 

Menasha I  1857-1858 

Appleton 1856-1871 

Green  Bay '  1858-1865 

Embarrass I  1864-1874 

Escanaba '  1872-1876 


Precipitation. 


Temperat-jT 


Qt^wm^     Bum-  I     Au-       Win-      v«--    I   Sum-      Wj?- 


Inches 
5.50 
5.58 
6.74 
5.50 
6.83 
7.65 
6.18 
8.14 
8.52 


Inches. 

6.25 
11.46 
17.85 
14.50 
10.73 
10.24 

9.35 
12.49 
13.72 


Inches. 
1.98 
7.63 

14.23 
6.92 
7.06 
6.92 

10.43 
a21 

10.57 


Incites.    Inchon. 


3.16 

25.92 

2.83 

27.50 

5.31 

44.13 

3.93 

25.92 

5.14 

29.76 

3.70 

28.51 

4.46 

32.42 

5.73 

34,57 

68.2! 

68.20 
7a  17 
65.30 
67.48 
68.10 
66.82 


i  : 

I"  - 


3.28       36.09 


It  will  be  noted  that  the  upper  portion  of  this  drainage  area  is  scarcely  reprpsenti^  :2 
the  above  tables,  the  stations  where  rainfall  observations  were  made  being  groups  i 
the  lower  portion  of  the  river  valleys.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  average  rainfa. 
would  be  found  to  be  sensibly  larger  for  a  series  of  stations  more  evenly  distributed  su  »? 
to  include  the  northern  portion. 

The  following  discharge  measurements,  gage  heights,  and  rating  table  are  tiie  resd'  < ' 
observations  b}'^  hydrographers  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  on  Meoomiaf^ 
River,  near  Iron  Mountain,  Mich. : 

Discharge  measurements  of  Menominee  River  at  Homestead  hridgey  near  Iron  Mouniain,  Mi'^ 

1902  to  1906, 


Date. 


1902. 
September  4 . . 
November  4. . . 


Hydrograplier. 


Horton  and  Gregory . 
W.V.  Savicki 


do. 
do. 


1903. 

April  9« 

AprU19 

July  22 

August  25 

September  16 ' do 

October  27 do 

1904. 

May  18 

June  1 

August  10 

Septembers 

October  11 

November  18 


L.  R.  Stockman . 
....do 


E.  Johnson,  jr. 
....do 

do 

....do 

F.  W.  Hanna.. 
E.  Johnson,  Jr. 


1905. 


AprII12. 
May  22.. 
June  15 . . 
July  13.. 


S.  K.Clapp.... 

do 

M.  S.  Brennon. 
do 


August  13 do. 


Width. 


Feet. 


202 


208 
208 
212 
205 

210 
210 
205 
210 
225 
210 

220 
215 
208 
225 
207 


Area  of 
section. 


Sq.feet. 


1,532 
2,000 
1,455 
1,4M2 
2,875 
1,477 

2,312 
2,522 
1,101 
1,571 
2,406 
1,511 

2,271 
2,036 
1,421 
2,100 
1,346 


Mean         Ga«e  Di^ 

velocity,     height,      r^rzi*. 

Ft.pr.sec) 


2.22 
2.78 
2.17 
1.76 
ft  3. 41 
1.93 

2,68 
3.01 
1.42 
2.02 
3.20 
1.94 

2.90 
2.32 
1.78 
2.50 
1.83 


Feet. 

Sf'-fff 

1.90 

l.Al 

2.67 

!.>« 

5.40  ; 


5** 
3 


4.20 
3.60 

ia38  9*» 

3.99  2  A' 


7.95 
8.97 
2.06 
4. 34 
8.25 
4.02 


7.43 
6.85 
3.67 
6.58 
3.24 


4r- 


a  Stream  full  of  logs;  probably  log  jam. 


&  Mean  velocity=85  per  cent  of  surface  vekr*:; 


MENOMINEE   RIVER   SYSTEM. 


47 


Mean  daily  gage  height^  in  feet,  of  Menominee  Riwr  near  Iron  Mountain  j  Mich.,  September 
4y  1902,  to  December  31,  1906. 


Day. 


1902. 


I 
I  Sept.  Oct.  I  Nov. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14- 
l.j. 
16. 


Day. 


i.go 

1.60 
2.00 
2.25 
2.35 
2.05 
1.92 
l.«7 
1.95 
1.65 
1.53 
1.45 
1.40 


1.67 
1.53 
l.,55 
1.45 
1.55 
1.58 
1.60 
1.67 
1.77 
1.30 
1.50 
1.55 
2.85 
2.05 
2.47 
1.82 


2,62 
2.80 
2.95 
2.72 
2.85 
2.95 
2.50 
2.60 
2.50 
2.40 
2.45 
3.27 
4.85 
6.07 
6.88 
6.57 


Dec. 


Day. 


I  Sept.   Oct. 


I 


1902. 


1.60 
2.22 
2.80 
2.25 
1.85 
1.95 
2.25 
2.70 
3.45 
3.35 
3.60 
3.35 
3.05 
2.90 
2.85 
2.90 


1.40 
1.45 
1.35 
1.35 
1.20 
1.45 
1.52 
1.48 
1.47 
1,40 
1.40 
1,35 
1.38 
1.55 


Nov. 


Dec. 


1,65 

6.45 

2.55 

1.92 

5.65  ! 

2.70 

1.60 

5.35  i 

2.63 

1.65 

5.00  ' 

2.75 

1.57 

4.47 

2.75 

1.65 

4.45 

2.57 

1.67 

3.90 

2.40 

2.42 

3.92 

2.32 

2.80 

3.45 

2.35 

3.22 

3.30 

2,20 

2.95 

3,00 

2.10 

3.57 

2.62 

2.00 

3.07 

2.55 

2.15 

2.83 

2.62  - 

2.20 

2.75 

1 

2.10 

Jan. 


1903. 

1 1  255 

2 2.52 

3 2.42 

4 2.48 

5 !  2.50 

6 2.30 

7 *  2.25 

8 1  2.40 

9 j  2.35 

10 2.30 

11 j  2.35 

12 1  2.30 

13 '  2.20 

14 2.10 

15 :.  2.18 

16 1  2.22 

17 '  2.25 

18 i  2.25 

19 '  2.32 

20 '  2.25 

21 1  2.10 

!22 2.20 

23 2.22 

24 1  2.15 

25 1  2.12 

26 '  2.25 

27 2.35 

28 '  2.25 

29 j  2.35 

30 1  2.35 

31 !  2.20 


Feb.     Mar.     Apr.  I  May.  1  June.    July.     Aug,     Sept,  I   Oct.  '  Nov.     Dec. 


2,35 
2.30 
2.20 
2,15 
2.15 
2.28 
2.25 
2.22 
2.20 
2.28 
2.40 
2.28 
2.22 
2.25 
2.20 
2.25 
2.22 
2.18 
2.20 
2.18 
2.10 
2.00 
1.95 
2.20 
2.25 
2.32 
2.45 
2.38 


2.38 
2.38 
2.42 
2.40 
2.35 
2.48 
2.55 
2.68 
2.72 
2.72 
2.75 
300 
332 
3.55 
350 
3.48 
3.55 
4.25 
6.25 
8.38 
8.85 
7.60 
6.20 
5.95 
5.80 
6.15 
5.42 
5.50 
6.15 
4.65 
4.30 


4.68 

5.15 

5.65 

&35 

2.25 

4.75 

&30 

5.50 

5.50 

0.06 

6.25 

7.25 

7.15 

&70 

7.45 

7.52  I 

7.55  I 

7.80 

&30 

7..  45  i 

7.58  I 

7.05 

6.90  I 

7.65  I 

7.60 

7.75 

7.00 

6.45 

6.82 

7.45 


7.95 
7.85 
9.55 
8.80 
9.45 
9.48 
9.72 
9.60 

9.32 : 

7.90 
8.98 
8.10 
9.90 
9.45 
9.18 
8.65 
7.60 
a22 
7.55 
8.72 
9.05 
7.40 
9.40 
6.80 
7.80 
7.15 
&45 
10.40 
11.85 
10,10 
10.75 


9.30 
8.05 
&30 
7.60 
7.05 
6.50 
340 
4.85 
4.86 
4.46 
3.90 
3.50 
4.40 
6.75 
4.50 
4.45 
4.55 
4.80 
3.75 
4.80 
2.30 
a  10 
2.70 
3.10 
2.80 
2.00 
3  80 
2.70 
2.45 
2.00 


a  70 

4.80 

6.50 

3.85 

3.50 

7.40 

&30 

6.95 

6.45 

6.26 

5.20 

&00 

4.65 

4.60  I 

4.00 

340 

305 

2.75 

2.85 

2.40 

310 

4.20 

315 

i.10 

325 

4.80 

5.30 

5.70 

a&5 

8.20 
7.10 


6.25 
6.20 
4.55 
5.60 
&60 
8.00 
9.00 
&90 
7.20 
6.70 
6.75 
&60 
6.50 
5.40 
6.60 
5.60 
3.70 
4.05 
4.25 
4.05 
3.75 
3  70 
0.75 
3.75 
3.35 
4.05 
4.65 
3.85 
390 
4.00 
4.56 


4.46 
4.06 

3  70 
3.50 
3.65 
4.00 

4  65 
5.70 
&65 
6.90 
5.80 
5.50 
7.60 
8.10 
9.00 

10.50 
11.20 
10.40 
9.46 
8.70 

aoo 

6.85 
6.95 
6.35 
6.90 
4.45 
6.50 
4  80 
4.40 
4.00 


4.30 

380 

3.60 

4.40 

3.80 

3.65 

5.20 

3.75 

3.56 

6.60 

4.10 

3.56 

7.70 

4.00 

3.70 

7.50 

380 

3.60 

7.65 

3.60 

3.40 

7.55 

3.65 

3.36 

7.10 

3.60 

335 

6.85 

3.40 

ao6 

6.70 

4.10 

2.90 

&50 

4.95 

2.60 

6.26 

3.50 

2.50 

6.75 

3.20 

2.40 

5.50 

a25 

2.46 

5.40 

3  55 

2.40 

485 

325 

2.40 

4.90 

2.85 

2.35 

4.90 

2.a5 

2.65 

4.90 

2.85 

2.35 

6.20 

2.50 

2.30 

6.30 

3  2.5 

2,25 

4.35 

300 

2.36 

4.20 

310 

2.30 

4.a5 

2.90 

2.36 

3  80 

aoo 

2.65 

390 

2.&5 

3.16 

385 

300 

325 

380 

310 

3.10 

3  75 

3  60 

3.06 

3.70 

315 

48 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Mean  daily  g€ige  height^  in  feet,  of  Menominee  River  near  Iron  Mountain,  Midi.,  Septemh^ 
4f  1902,  to  December  31,  i905— Continued. 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
16. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
20. 
30. 
31. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 


Day. 


1904. 


1905. 


Jan. 


Feb.  t  Mar. 


2 

a2o 

2^00 

5 1  2.70 

'  2.75 

1  2.75 

8 

!  a20 

3.60 

aso 

3.45 
3.20 
3.10 
3.40 
4.25 
4.30 
4.30 
4.35 
4.35 
4.40 
4.15 
4.10 
4.25 
4.25 
4.20 
4.20 
4.25 
4.20 
4.50 
4.45 
4.35 

2.60 
2.58 


2.35 
2.60 
2.60 
2.80 
2.82 


10 

2.60 

11 1 

12             ..  . 

13 

2.40 

14 1 

15 1  --. 

2.38 

16 

17 

3.20 

2.30 
2.22 

18 

19 

2.90 

;  2.92 

2.55 

2.25 
2.35 

I 


4.75 
4.70 
4.55 
4.10 
3.90 
4.50 
4.90 
4.80 
4.70 
a95 
a50 
3.00 

a  15 
a3o 
a25 
aoo 
ao5 

&35 
3.45 

a  15 
a  15 
a4o 
a45 
a  75 

4.55 
4.60 
4.35 
4.40 
4.30 
4.55 
4.60 

2.35  7.40 
2.38  ^80 
2. 45  6. 70 
7.00 
7.90 
8.00 
7.45 
6.80 
6.80 
6.60 
7.00 
7.30 
7.40 
7.40 
6.70 
6.40 
6.10 
6.20 
5.80 
o  Gage  under  water. 


4.30 
4.25 
4.30 
4.50 
4.30 
4.25 
4.20 
4.20 
4.25 
4.00 
a  90 
a  95 

a90 
a85 
a95 
a8o 
a  75 
a  76 
a  70 
ago 
a  75 
a6o 
aeo 
a55 
a65 
a55 
a  75 

4.55 
4.90 


2.70 


Apr. 


2.60 
2.62 


4.65 
4.55 
4.35 
4.60 
5.10 
4.85 
4.70 
4.65 
6.05 
6.20 
4.10 

aso 

a  65 

a  70 
a  75 

4.10 

a95 

4.25 
4.40 
4.30 
4.35 
4.40 
5.45 
6.05 
7.35 
7.25 
7.46 
8.35 
7.75 
7.40 


May. 


7.90 
7.95 
8.70 
9.70 
8.15 
9.70 
&50 
10.40 
11.95 

(«) 

11.80 

11.10 

10.70 

10.55 

9.65 

9.05 

8.10 

8.15 

8.15 

6.25 

4.90 

6.15 

&10 

7.05 

8.25 

9.60 

(«) 

10.90 

10.00 

8.70 

8.00 

8.60 
8.40 
8.50 
9.10 
9.20 
9.20 
9.30 
9.20 


June,  j  July.  '  Aug.  I  S:"pt.      Oct.      Nor.     Iw* 


8.45  I 
6.95  I 
5.65 
6.30  ' 
9.60 
7.30 
8.80  ; 
7.50 
8.55 
8.50 
7.50  ) 
6w70  I 
6u70  t 


5.90 
5.40 
4.95 
4.60 
4.50 
a  70 
a50 

a50 

4.40 

a7o 
a  70 

5.45 
7.20 
6.75 
5.60 
6.70 
6.70 


a60  I 
5.60  I 
2.40  \ 
2.40 

a50 ; 

6.30  , 
6.90  I 
7.30 


4.60 
Z35 
2.20 
2.90 
2.80 
a  70 

aeo 
aeo 

4.20 
O.30 
4.10 
4.20 
1.80 
4.30 
a  75 
4.30 
1.65 
a  25 

ao5 

2.50 
4.30 
2.70 
2.30 
1.30 
2.75 
1.40 
2.70 
1.50 
a  10 
1.45 
1.30 

5.50 
8.60 
6.40 
7.10 
8.00 
8.00 
7.60 
7.60 


9.80 

6.30 

5.80 

9.60 

7.10 

4.20 

9.10 

5.20 

5.20 

9.00 

5.80 

4.90 

9.10 

5.70 

5.40 

8.30 

5.70 

5.20 

7.40 

5.80 

5.60 

8.60 

6.40 

4.30 

9.70 

7.30 

4.40 

10.10 

7.30 

6.10 

10.20. 

10.20 

a90 

2.35 
a30 
2.90 

aoo 

1.30 
2.70 
1.30 
1.20 
1.45 
a20 

aso 

4.40 
4.00 
1.90 
2.05 

a  70 
aeo 

4.00 

a  10 
a  15 

Z40 

a65 
a45 
a9o 
a^io 
a40 

2.70 
2.30 
1.90 
2.05 
1.95 


1.80 
a  15 

a  70 

4.95 
4.30 
4.00 
4.10 
4.10 
a70 

a  15 

2.90 

a  10 

2.55 
2.85 

a50 
a40 

2.80 

a  15 

2.60 
2.70 
2.95 
2.30 
2.55 

aso 
a90 
a95 

4.15 
4.00 

a5o 
a  37 


I 
4.20  I 

a7o 
a40 
aso  < 
a40  ; 
a  45 
a30 
a25 
a40  , 
a3o  j 
a  40 
a  20 
a20 
aso 
aso 

2.80 
2.50 
2.65 
2,50 
b  River 


aoo 

2.75 

2.65 

2,45 

2.75 

2.85 

2.55  . 

2.90 

aw 
arc 
7.eo 

8.25 

7.80 

7.35 

6.40  I 

5.90 

5.55 

5.30 

5.20 

5l00 

5.00 

5.05 

5.05 

5.15 

5.05 

5.15 

5.05  i 

4.85  = 

4.35 

4.30  ' 


2.80 

a90 

7.20 

8.00 

7.80  j 

7.00 

a30  . 

5.30 

4.60 

4.40 

4.10 

a  70 

a  35 

aoo 

2.95 

aeo 

4.33 

4.40  , 
4.80  I 
frozen. 


X90 

2.82 
2.80 
2.50 
2.42 
2.42 
2.35 
2.40 
2.42 
2.40 
2.35 
2.40 
2.45 
2.50 
2.55 
2.80 
2.90 
2.82 
2L96 
a  10 


a  10 

a65 

4.10 

a  75 
a25 
a3o 
a«o 

4.83 
4.10 

a  10 
a3D 

3.30 
3.25 

ao5 

2.96 

aos 

2.90 
a85 

aio 

2.92 
2.90 
2.67 
2.77 
2.S5 
2. 75 
2.42 
1.92 
1.75 
2.00 
2.07 


3l30 
3L30 
3.30 

aoo 
aoo 

xoo 

2>«k5 
2.88 
2.92 

aoo 
aoo 
aoo 

2.90 
2.»s 

a  10 
a  15 
ao5 

2.90 
2.88 


1  > 

.\Jk 

5  4' 
.1  * 


iTEiroMnrEE  kiver  ststem. 


49 


Mean  daUy  gage  height,  in  feet,  of  Menominee  River  near  Iron  Mountain,  Mich.,  September 
4, 19(>^,  to  December  SI,  1905— Continued. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr.  1  May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

I 
Sept.     Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

] 

1906 

1 

20 

2.95 
2.78 

2..^'i 

2.50 
2.40 
2.45 

5.80  !    9.30 
5.70  '  10.20 
6.00  1     7.40 

9.30  1    a  40 

2.70 

4.90 
4.80 
4.40 

a8o 

a30 
aso 
a5o 

2.90 
a  05 
a  05 

a  10 
a  05 
a  15 
a  20 
a  05 

2.90 
2.50 
1.80 

2.95 

21 

1    6.70       2.20       2.72 

2.86 

22 

2.75   

2,50    

1 

j    8.40       2.05 
1    6.50       2.95 
,     6. 50       a  90 

2.25 
2.00 
2.22 
2.28 
2.20 
2.28 
2.10 
2.12 

2.70 

2.50       6.20,     7.40 
2.65       6.00  ,    7.40 
2.98       5.80       6.00 
3,40       6.40  '     5.20 
3.80       6.80  1    7.60 
4.60  j    7.60  ,    5.60 
6.00  1    &00       4.80 
7.60  '    8.60  !    5.80 
7.40  1 a  40 

2.60 

a50  1  aso 
a  45  !  a  55 
a  15  1  a50 

2.95  1     3.40 

2.60 

2.35 
2.40 
2.40 
2.45 

5.80 
1    6.60 
'    7.80 
1    7.60 

a  70 

a  70 

•  a  40 

a95 

2.62 

2.65 

2.70 

ao5 

2.85 

a2o 
a  20 

2.65 

3.00 

1    aOO       4.60 

2.40 

■^y 

1 

aOO       4.70       2.07 
4.60       2.00 

2.80  1    a20 

1  ^" 

2.40 

1 

2.48 

Ixatir 

tg  iabiefo 

Gage 
height. 

rMem 

iminee 
irgB  ' 

i?tver 

Oage 
height. 

near  Iron  Mountain,  Mich.,  September  4, 1902,  to  December 
SI,  1906. 

DiMhf 

Discharge. 

j   he'lght. 

Discharge. 

1 

m^i.  D'-'h-n^e. 

Feel. 

Second-feet.  ^ 

Feet.     Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. \ 

Feet, 

Secondnfeet. 

1.2 

1,032 

'    2.8              2,080 

4.4 

3,242 

6.8 

5,230 

1.3 

1,094 

2.9              2,150 

4.5 

3,319 

7.0 

5,420 

1.4 

1,156    1, 

3.0              2,220 

4.6 

3,396 

7.2 

5,615 

1.5 

1,219 

3. 1              2,290 

4.7 

3,474 

7.4              5,815 

1.6 

1,282 

3.2    1          2,  .61 

4.8 

3,562 

7.6 

6,025 

1.7 

1,346 

a  3              2,432 

1          4.9 

3,630    1 

7.8 

6,235 

1.8 

1,410 

3.4    1          2,603 

5.0 

3,708    1 

8.0 

6,450 

1.9 

1,475    l| 

3.6              2,575 

!        '5.2 

3,865 

a5 

7,020 

2.0 

1,540    ,| 

Z.6              2,647 

5.4 

4,023    1 

9.0 

7,630 

2.1 

1,606 

3.7              2,719 

5.6 

4,183    ! 

9.5 

8,280 

2.2 

1,672    ll 

as    '          2,792 

'          5.8 

4,345 

10.0 

8,970 

2.3 

1,739    ', 

a9    1          2,866 

6.0 

4,510    1 

10.5 

9,670 

2.4 

1,806 
1,874    1! 

4.0 

2,940 

1          6.2 

4,680    1 

11.0 

10,370 

2.5 

4.1 

3,015 

6.4              4,860 

11.5 

11,070 

2.6 

1,942 

4.2    ''          3,090 

6.6              5,040 

12.0 

11,710 

2.7 

2,011  ; 

4.3    I          3,166 

1                   1                       1 

! 

IRR  15 

6— Oti- 

4 

50 


WATER   POWEB8    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Menominee  River  near  Iron  Mountain,  Mick.,  September,  19^'2, 

to  December  31, 1905. 

[Drainage  area,  2,415  aquare  miles.] 


Date. 


100  . 


September  (i-30) . 

October 

November 

December 


1903. 


April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. , 

October 

November. 
December.. 


1904.0 


April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November. 
December.. 


ig05.a 


April. 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

Novem])er. 
December.. 


Discharge. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


8ec.-feet. 
1,772 
2,625 
5,306 
2,647 

6,780 
11,560 
8,020 
6,670 
7,630 
10,660 
6,130 
3,660 
2,719 

8,150 
11,770 
8,410 
S,396 
3,242 
3,669 
6,725 
3,591 
2,199 


Mini- 
mum. 


Mean. 


Rim-oS. 


Per 


Sec-feet. 
1,032 
1,094 
1,806 
1,282 

1,705 
4,698 
1,540 
1,806 
2,467 
2,575 
2,719 
1,874 
1,705 

2,683 
3,630 
2,575 
1,094 
1,032 
1,410 
1,840 
1,378 
1,672 


1,295 
1,596 
2,829 
1,909 

5,175 
7,496 
3,417 
3,553 
4,049 
5,091 
4,057 
2,505 
2,150 

3,995 
7,879 
4,791 
2,196 
2,125  ' 
2,488  i 
3,650 
2,293 
1,838  I 


square 
mile. 

Dn^tl- 

Sec-feel. 

fnchet. 

0.536 

e.S3R 

.661 

-7^2 

1.17 

1.3P 

.790 

.911 

2.39 

2.14 

3.57 

ilO 

1.57 

141 

1.70 

l.C 

7,140 

4,265 

5,282 

9,250 

2,503 

6,810 

9,250 

1,806 

5,011 

7,140 

1,573 

3,850 

3,090 

1,540 

2.130 

6,450 

2,080 

3.284 

2,611 

1,772 

2,163 

2,432 

1,410 

2,204 

2,539 

1,378 

2.065 

1.94 
2.35 
1.94 
1.16 
1.03 

1.84 
3.76 
3.21 
1.05 
1.01 
1.15 
1.74 
1.06 
.877 

Z19 
2.82 
2.07 
1.59 
.882 
1.36 
.896 
.913 
.S63 


2.11 
l.^ 
l.M 
.890 

xy 
.^ 

1.03 
1.51 


2.44 

X2o 
iil 

L« 

i.oe 

1.2 
1.01 
1.02 
.96C 


a  Ice  conditions  January,  February,  and  March.    No  estimate  made. 

The  following  table  of  drainage  areas  of  Menominee  River  at  various  points  is  coropilfd 
from  Water-Supply  and  Irrigation  Paper  No.  83: 

Menominee  River  drainage  areas. 

Square  mile? 

Brule  River  above  Iron  River 170. 0 

Iron  River  above  mouth W.  7 

Brule  River,  including  Iron  River 264. 7 

Brale  River  above  Paint  River 305. 0 

Paint  River  at  mouth 73S.  o 

Brule  River  at  junction  with  Michigamme  River 1 , 044.  U 


MENOMINEE    RIVEB   SYSTEM.  51 

Square  miles. 

Michigamme  River  at  mouth 723. 7 

Menominee  River  at  junction  of  Brule  and  Michigamme  rivers 1, 767. 7 

Menominee  River  above  junction  with  Pine  River 1, 833. 0 

Pine  River 586.0 

Menominee  River,  including  Pine  River 2, 419. 0 

Menominee  River  above  Sturgeon  River 2, 538. 0 

Sturgeon  River  at  mouth 396. 0 

Menominee  River,  including  Sturgeon  River 2, 934. 0 

Menominee  River  above  junction  with  Pemcbonwon  River 2, 993. 0 

Feme  Bon  Won  River 163. 0 

Menominee  River,  including  Pemebonwon  River 1 . . .  3, 156. 0 

Menominee  River  above  junction  with  Pike  River 3, 274. 0 

Pike  River 292.0 

Menominee  River,  including  Pike  River 3, 566. 0 

Menominee  River  above  Little  Cedar  River 3, 792. 0 

Little  Cedar  River 149.0 

Menominee  River,  including  Little  Cedar  River 3, 941. 0 

Menominee  River  at  mouth 4, 1 13. 0 

WATER  POWERS. 

GENERAL  CONDITIONS. 

Principally  because  of  the  opening  up  of  the  many  rich  and  valuable  iron  mines  of  this 
region,  and  the  resulting  extensive  railroad  building,  the  valley  of  Menominee  River  has 
ha<l  a  rapid  development.  The  following  railroads  at  present  have  extensions  in  this 
territory:  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul;  Chicago  and  Northwestern;  Minneapolis,  St. 
Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie;  and  Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  All  of  them  cross  the  Menomi- 
nee one  or  more  times,  and  several  are  near  enough  to  run  short  spurs  to  the  important 
water-power  sites.  .  The  developed  water  power  is  at  present  used  for  the  most  part  in 
mining  and  for  the  operation  of  lumber,  paper,  and  pulp  mills. 

Menominee  River  varies  in  width  from  200  to  600  or  700  feet  far  up  toward  the  head- 
waters. For  the  first  7  miles  from  the  junction  of  the  Brule  and  Michigamme  there  are 
no  heavy  rapids,  but,  in  the  language  of  the  lumberman,  there  is  "strong  water"  all  the 
way  and  probably  many  good  water-power  sites. 

BAD    WATER   RAPIDS. 

The  first  notable  rapids,  known  as  the  Bad  Water  rapids,  occur  7  miles  below  the  head 
of  the  river,  in  sec.  27,  T.  40  N.,  R.  19  E.,  at  a  point  where  the  river,  100  feet  wide,  descends 
5  feet  over  a  ledge  of  rock.  While  definite  information  is  lacking,  it  is  likely  that  a  dam 
could  be  built  here,  giving  a  head  of  10  feet. 

TW^IN   PALLS. 

About  3i  miles  below  Bad  Water  rapids,  in  sec.  2,  T.  39  N.,  R.  19  E.,  are  the  Twin 
Fails,  about  one-half  mile  apart.  The  vertical  fall  in  each  case  is  12  feet,  but  the  adja- 
cent rapids  are  sufficient  to  increase  the  total  descent  to  28  feet. 

PINE   RIVER  RAPIDS. 

For  6  miles  below  the  foot  of  Twin  Falls  the  total  descent  of  the  river  is  but  20  feet, 
and  the  only  rapids  worthy  of  note  are  those  extending  for  about  five-eighths  of  a  mile 
on  both  sides  of  the  mouth  of  Pine  River.  Here  an  island  divides  the  river  into  two  chan- 
nels with  rocky  bed.  The  descent  of  the  rapids  at  this  point  is  said  to  be  6  feet,  but  as 
the  banks  are  high  a  dam  could  develop  more  than  this.  Pine  River  increases  the  drain- 
age area  by  586  square  miles. 


52  WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

HOBSE   RACE   RAPIDS. 

The  most  important  rapids  between  Twin  Falls  and  Big  Quinnesec  Fails,  called  tbe 
Horse  Race,  are  found  in  sec.  7,  T.  38  N.,  R.  20  E.,  both  above  and  below  the  Chirac- 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railroad  bridge.  These  rapids  consist  of  two  pitches,  the  u^r: 
of  about  20  and  the  lower  of  8  feet  descent,  separated  by  about  2,000  feet  of  le«s  fw^f'. 
water.  As  the  banks  are  high  and  the  river  narrow,  it  seems  likely  that  a  dam  could  >» 
economically  constructed  here  to  develop  about  40  feet  of  head.  This  site  ia  only  3  mi.!-- 
from  Iron  Mountain,  Mich. 

Bia  QUINNESKC    FALLS. 

A  little  over  7  miles  below  the  mouth  of  Pine  River,  and  4  miles  from  QiiinDesar.  t-r 
the  Big  (Upper)  Quinnesec  Falls.    These  are  located  in  sec.  6,  T.  38  N.,  R.  20  E. 

At  Upper  Quinnesec  Falls  the  river  narrows  to  hardly  more  than  50  feet  wide  (map  mea^iar^'m'  at 
between  rocky  banks  of  igneous  origin.  Immediately  at  the  foot  of  the  falls  the  river  wid<^»  ">  > 
and  about  800  feet  below  is  700  feet  across.  On  the  Wisconsin  side  the  banks  are  80  to  100  fept  ^i' 
and  on  the  Michigan  side  30  to  40  feet. a 

Below  the  falls  the  river  descends  only  2  feet  to  the  mile  for  a  distance  of  about  3  mi!f^. 
At  present  only  54  feet  of  the  total  head  is  improved,  one-half  of  the  power  beii^  u««d  t^ 
compress  air  for  the  supply  of  the  Chapin  Iron  Mines  at  Iron  Mountain,  SJ  miles  di^ar.t 
The  remaining  portion  is  to  be  harnessed  in  1905  and  used  for  operating  mines  at  Norway 
9  miles  away.  On  account  of  the  local  conditions  it  is  unlikely  that  much  more  than  rb» 
present  head  can  be  economically  developed. 

LITTLE   QUINNESEC   FALLS. 

Four  miles  below  in  sec.  10,  T.  38  N.,  R.  20  E..  are  the  Little  (lower)  Quinnesec  Falk 
which,  together  with  the  upper  falls,  descrfced  above,  form  the  most  important  powers*!: 
the  river.  For  the  greater  portion  of  the  distance  between  the  upper  and  lower  Quinn*^- 
Falls  there  is  comparatively  quiet  water.  The  greater  part  of  the  descent  of  24  feet  ir. 
this  distance  occurs  in  the  lower  2  miles.  Above  the  upper  and  below  the  lower  falb  :  r*' 
banks  are  generally  high  near  the  river,  but  between  these  falls  the  hills  recede  from  tir^ 
river  an  average  distance  of  about  one-half  mile  and  are  separated  from  it  bj  a  flat  and  in 
some  places  swampy  area. 

Maj.  T.  B.  Brooks,  who  reported  on  the  geology  of  this  district,  considered  that  the  sLt^tv 
deposits  indicated  the  presenoe  of  a  lake  at  a  comparatively  recent  date. 

Above  Little  Quinnesec  Falls  the  river  runs  southwest,  but  at  the  foot  of  the  falb  it  sud- 
denly turns  at  right  angles  and  runs  southeast,  the  w^ater  surging  down  an  incline  of  a^xrjt 
45°  and  then  plunging  into  the  comparatively  still  water  of  the  basin  below.  The  i«»:h^ 
fall  is  62  feet.  A  short  distance  above  the  falls  the  river  is  250  feet  wide,  but  nam«- 
down  at  the  pitch  to  about  50  feet.  The  falls  are  hemmed  in  by  great  ma^jses  of  grren- 
stone  and  schist  rock.  Along  the  Michigan  side  a  steep  cliff  of  greenstone  at  least  140  fet: 
high  forms  the  bank  for  a  distance  of  a  mile  or  more.  A  smaller,  but  similar,  rib  of  rvi  i 
forms  the  Wisconsin  bank  for  About  700  feet. 

Formerly  Little  Quinnesec  Falls  were  partially  developed  under  25  feet  head  for  w<x»i- 
pulp  grinding;  but  in  1898  they  were  redeveloped  by  the  Eimberly  &  Clark  Company  f«: 
wood-pulp  and  paper  manufacturing.  A  ledge  of  rock,  wliich  is  used  for  a  bridge  pit- 
divides  the  falls  into  two  channels.  The  present  development  gives  a  net  head  of  62  fet:. 
equivalent  to  8,370  theoretical  horsepower.  An  actual  installation  of  turbines,  generation 
5,800  horsepower,  consumes  all  the  available  power. 

SAND  PORTAGE   RAPIDS. 

These  rapids  lie  between  Little  Quinnesec  Falls  and  the  mouth  of  Stui^gcon  Piver.  They 
receive  this  name  because  the  Indians,  in  making  their  "carry"  around  part  of  tlh*ai. 

o  Tenth  Census,  vol.  17. 


MENOMINEE   RIVER   SYSTEM.  58 

passed  over  a  lai^e  amount  of  sand.  The  rapids  are  scattered  along  a  distance  of -6  miles, 
in  which  space  there  is  a  descent  of  60  feet.  About  half  of  this  amount  is  concentrated  in 
the  1 J  miles  between  the  falls  and  the  old  cable  bridge  or  ferry  below.  As  the  topographic 
map  shows  very  high  banks,  fairly  close  together,  a  head  of  25  feet  or  more  may  some  day 
l)e  developed  here.    The  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway  is  distant  only  1.5  miles. 

Between  the  above-described  dam  site  and  a  point  2.5  miles  below,  the  river  descends 
27  feet.  A  point  due  south  of  Norway,  Mich.,  and  on  the  road  leading  from  that  city  is 
probably  the  l)est  location  for  the  dam  to  develop  this  fall,  but  even  here  a  dam  not  less 
than  700  feet  long  would  probably  he  required. 

Menominee  River  descends  but  6  feet  between  this  point  and  the  mouth  of  Sturgeon 
River.     This  may  be  considered  a  part  of  the  Sturgeon  Falls  power. 

STURGEON   FALLS. 

From  below  the  mouth  of  Sturgeon  River  to  a  point  just  above  Pemebonwon  River,  a 
distance  of  10  miles,  the  drainage  area  increases  from  2,934  square  miles  to  2,993  square 
miles.  In  this  stretch  are  Sturgeon  Falls,  one-half  mile  below  the  mouth  of  Sturgeon 
River,  in  sec.  22,  T.  38  N.,  R.  21  E.,  Wisconsin.  These  falls  have  high  rock-ledge  banks, 
with  t¥ro  pitches  aggregating  13  feet.  By  backing  the  water  a  distance  of  about  3  miles 
this  head  could  be  increased  to  15  feet.  At  the  head  of  the  falls  the  river  narrows  to  about 
200  feet,  but  at  the  foot  it  spreads  out  into  a  broad  basin.  In  order  to  use  the  power  it  will 
probably  be  necessary  to  blast  out  a  race  in  the  rocks  or  build  a  flume  and  locate  the  mill 
at  or  near  the  foot  of  the  rapids. 

In  the  next  10  miles  the  river  descends  only  17  feet,  with  a  fairly  even  grade,  except  for 
two  or  three  small  rapids.  The  largest  of  these,  Nose  Peak  rapids,  is  about  1,000  feet 
long  and  descends  about  4  feet. 

PEMBNA   DAM   AND   RAPIDS. 

A  logging  dam  which,  together  with  the  adjacent  rapids,  gives  a  fall  of  14  feet  in  a  dis- 
tance of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  is  located  in  sec.  24,  T.  37  N.,  R.  21  E.  The  Minneapolis,  St. 
Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Railway  crosses  the  river  2^  miles  above  the  dam  and  passes 
within  a  fraction  of  a  mile  from  it.  The  operation  of  a  dam  at  this  point  for  lumbering 
purposes  greatly  lessens  the  amount  of  available  power.  At  the  present  rate  of  progress, 
however,  this  dam  will  be  needed  for  logging  only  a  few  more  years.  It  has  been  found 
elsewhere  in  the  State  that  river  logging,  except  for  pine,  can  not  compete  with  railroad 
transportation. 

From  below  Pemebonwon  River  to  a  point  just  below  Pike  River,  a  distance  of  18  miles, 
the  drainage  area  increases  from  3,156  square  miles  to  3,566  square  miles.  Pemena,  Chalk 
Hill,  and  White  rapids  occur  in  this  distance. 

About  a  mile  above  the  mouth  of  Pemebonwon  River,  in  sec.  8,  T.  36  N.,  R.  21  E.,  the 
Pemena  rapids  begin.  They  extend  for  a  distance  of  about  2  miles,  with  a  total  descent 
of  20.2  feet.a  The  river  bed  here  is  a  metamorphic  slaty  schist,  and  the  location  is  said 
to  be  favorable  for  a  dam  site.  The  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  Railway  runs  parallel  to  the 
river  at  this  point  and  is  only  2  miles  distant,  and  the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  Railway  crosses  the  river  a  few  miles  above. 

CHALK  HILL  RAPIDS. 

In  the  11  miles  between  the  foot  of  Pemena  rapids  and  the  head  of  White  rapids  the  river 
descends  38  feet,  the  grade  being  even  except  for  three  small  rapids  of  from  3  to  6  feet  each. 
Chalk  Hill  rapids,  the  most  important  of  these  three,  are  located  in  sec.  6,  T  .35  N.,  R.  21 E. 
They  run  over  a  slaty  rock  at  a  point  said  to  be  suitable  for  a  dam,  and  if  developed  in  con- 
nection with  other  falls  about  half  a  mile  above  would  give  a  total  head  of  8  feet  or  more. 

oThia  Btatement  is  based  on  an  accurate  profile  of  the  river,  prepared  by  Mr.  T.  W.  Orbiaon.  C.  E.. 
from  hia  actual  surveys.  The  statement  made  in  the  Tenth  Census,  vol.  17,  p.  61,  that  the  total  fall 
li  70  teati  ia  ttvidft&tljr  an  error. 


54  WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

WHITE  RAPI06. 

Four  miles  above  the  mouth  of  Pike  River,  in  sec.  19,  T.  35  N.,  R.  21  E.,  are  the  Whit- 
rapids.  The  bed  of  the  river  is  said  to  be  gravel  and  bowlders,  and  the  banks  bit  hi|^ 
enough  to  give  a  head  of  30  feet,  thus  developing  the  fall  for  3  miles.  Even  above  tii^ 
limit  the  river  descends  10  feet  in  1|  miles,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  profile  (p.  51).  A  hnc 
of  30  feet  at  ordinary  low  water  would  develop  5,350  theoretical  horsepower. 

From  below  Pike  River  to  a  point  just  above  Little  Cedar  River,  a  distance  of  25  miW. 
the  drainage  area  increases  from  3,566  to  3,792  square  miles. 

All  the  rapids  thus  far  described  have  been  over  the  pre-Cambrian  ciystalline  rockis.  In 
the  next  28  miles  the  river  crosses  the  Cambrian  sandstone  and  ''Lower  Magnesian'*  i^rr- 
stone.  No  falls  or  rapids  worthy  of  note  oc^ur  until  Grand  rapids  are  reached,  immediatrl;. 
above  the  mouth  of  Little  Cedar  River,  in  sec.  5,  T.  33  N.,  R.  22  E.  These  rapids  are  rtut^ri 
by  a  descent  over  hard  "Trenton''  limestone,  underlain  by  softer  strata.  They  hrnvt-  a 
fall  stated  at  25  feet  in  a  length  of  3  miles,  but  of  this  fall  only  that  in  the  lower  2  niiW^ 
amounting  to  18  feet,  can  be  cheaply  developed.  Both  the  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  &rK2 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  railways  pass  within  2  or  3  miles  of  this  site. 

From  below  the  mouth  of  Little  Cedar  River  to  the  mouth  of  the  Menominee,  23  mil^ 
the  drainage  increases  from  3,941  to  4,113  square  miles. 

TWIN   ISLAND  RAPIDS. 

These  rapids  are  situated  about  7  miles  below  the  Grand  rapids  and  16  miles  from  thf 
mouth  of  the  river.  They  extend  for  three-fourths  of  a  mile  and  are  said  to  descend  U' 
feet.  The  two  islands  lie  one  below  the  other,  dividing  the  river  into  east  and  west  rhAr>- 
nels.  The  bed  of  the  river  is  limestone,  the  banks  are  steep,  and  a  dam  could  be  huij 
across  each  channel  to  the  islands.  The  total  length  of  such  dams  is  estimated  at  abou' 
700  feet.     A  sawmill  with  a  6-foot  head  once  occupied  the  east  channel. 

8CHAPPIES   RAPIDS. 

Located  about  5  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Menominee  River,  in  T.  31  N.  and  betwp«B 
Rs.  22  and  23  E.,  Scliappies  rapids  extend  for  a  distance  of  about  a  mile.  Duriof;  ibe 
winter  of  1897  a  survey  was  made  of  these  rapids  by  a  competent  engineer,  Mr.  C.  B.  Pridr. 
at  a  time  of  extreme  low  water.  He  found  a  dischai^e  of  2,370  second-feet  and  determiurd 
that  a  head  of  18  feet  could  be  economically  obtained.  This  power  belongs  to  the  Menom- 
inee River  Boom  Company.  The  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway  is  loctted 
about  3  miles  distant. 

MARINETTE  DAMS. 

The  last  series  of  rapids  is  found  at  Marinette,  Wis.,  near  the  mouth  of  the  MenomiD^- 
The  natural  channel  probably  had  about  12  feet  descent  here,  but  the  Menominee  Rirr: 
Boom  Company  built  three  dams,  one  above  another,  the  upper  one  backing  the  water  u> 
the  foot  of  Schappies  rapids.  The  first  of  these  dams,  850  feet  long,  located  about  3  milRs 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  in  T.  30  N.  and  near  the  line  between  Rs.  23  and  24  E.,  de- 
velops a  head  of  7  feet. a  Power  is  applied  to  two  paper  and  pulp  mills  owned  by  tbr 
Marinette  and  Menominee  Paper  Company  and  also  to  a  flouring  mill.  No  statemeot  d 
the  turbine  installation  at  the  paper  mills  is  made,  but  that  at  the  flouring  mill  is  95  hone- 
power. 

The  third  dam  from  the  mouth  is  located  on  the  west  line  of  sec.  1,  T.  30  N.,  R.  23  L 
This  dam  is  940  feet  long  and  has  a  head  of  18  feet.  The  middle  or  second  dam  is  located 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  below  the  third  dam  and  is  700  feet  long,  with  a  head  of  7  feet 
It  is  used  for  boom  purposes  only.    The  Marinette  and  Menominee  Paper  Company  iniD 

a  Data  regarding  the  Marinette  dams  fumiabed  by  the  owners. 


MEI70MINER   BIVEB   SYSTEM. 


65 


18  located  just  below  this  dam,  but  it  takes  power  through  a  canal  from  the  third  dam.     Its 
turbines  therefore  work  under  a  total  head  of  about  24  feet. 

The  owners  of  these  three  dams  state  that  each  could  be  raised  from  5  to  10  feet  higher 
than  at  present. 

TBIBUTARTES  OF  MENOMTNBE  RI\rEB. 

The  notable  Wisconsin  tributaries  of  Menominee  River  are  Brule,  Pine,  Pemebonwon, 
and  Pike  rivers. 

Brule  River  courses  in  a  bed  composed  mostly  of  gravel  and  bowlders  of  the  drift,  and 
for  this  reason  has  few  vertical  falls,  one  of  10  feet  being  said  to  exist  at  its  mouth.  It  is 
described  ss  having  a  series  of  rapids  or  ''strong  water"  for  its  entire  length  of  42  miles. 
Its  total  drainage  area,  including  that  of  Paint  River,  is  1 ,044  square  miles. 

The  following  table  gives  a  fairly  complete  profile  of  Brule  River: 

ProJUe  of  Brule  River,  Wisconsin  Jrom  its  mouth  to  sec.  23,  T.  41  N.,  R.  U  E.a 


No. 


StotioD. 


Brule,  Wis.    (C.  &  N.  W.  bridge) 

)  mile  below  section  line  22-23,  T.  41  N.,  R.  15  E  . . 

Center  of  bend  E.  \  stake,  sec.  31,  T.  41  N.,  R. 
15  E 

i  mile  west  of  east  line,  sec.  24,  T.  41  N.,R.  14  E 

0.4  mile  below  dam.    Noted  below 


Distance- 


From    I 
mouth.  < 


Be- 
tween 
points. 


Eleva- 
tion       

above    I 
lea  level   Total. 


Descent  be- 
tween points. 


Above  dam  800  feet  east  of  \  post,  sec.  22-Z),  T.  41 
N.,  R.  14E 


7  '  1  mile  last  of  section  line  22-23,  T.  41  N.,R.  ME. 


Miles. 
7.0  I 
24.0  I 

29.5  I 

31.6 

33.1 

33.5  ! 
35.5  I 


Miles. 


±17.0 

5.4 
2.1 
1.5 

.4 

2.0 


I 


Feet. 
1,260 
1,411 


Feet. 


1,431 
1,46S  ' 
1,400  I 

1,507  \ 
1,520 


20 
37 
22 

17  I 
13  ' 


Per 
mile. 


Feet. 


8.8 

3.7 
18.0 
14.6 

42.  & 
6.5 


a  Authority:  No.  1,  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway;  Nos.  2-7,  U.  S.  Oeol.  Survey. 

Pine  River,  the  largest  tributary  lying  wholly  in  Wisconsin,  has  a  total  length  of  53  miles 
and  drains  an  area  of  586  square  miles. 

In  the  first  half  mile  from  Its  mouth  the  current  is  very  rapid  t>;  in  the  next  12  or  13  miles  the  fall  is 
comparatively  slight,  and  in  the  next  3  miles  there  are  two  falls  of  8  feet  each  1,000  fwt  apart,  half  a 
mile  of  strong  water,  succeeded  by  another  fall  of  12  feet,  then,  half  a  mile  above,  a  fall  of  40  feet. 
Sixty  feet  above  this  is  a  logging  dam  belonging  to  the  Menominee  River  Improvement  Company.^ 


The  length  of  Pike  River  is  48  miles. 


t  Tenth  Census. 


56 


WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 
DAMS  <>X  MENOMINEE  RIVER  AND  TRIBUTARIES. 


The  location  and  height  of  dams  on  Menominee  River  and  trihutarien  in  \Vu9coi»iii  art- 
shown  in  the  following  table: 

Dams  on  Menominee  River  and  tributaries  in  Wisconsin, 


Dam. 


Menominee  River:  i 

1 

2 

3 , 

Pemena  dam I 

Pike  River: 

1 1 

2 

North  Branch  of  North  Branch  Pike  River 

North  Branch  Pike  River: 

South  Branch  Pike  River: 

1 

2 1 

3 ' 

4 

5 : 

Pine  River: 

1 „ 

2 '. 

3 

4 

Brule  River: 

1 

2 

3 

"WTieeler  dam 


Sec- 
tion. 

Town- 
ship. 

Ran^. 

of  dA-Tl 

Fefi. 

6 

30 

24 

7 

1 

30 

23 

7 

32 

31 

22 

14 

24 

37 

21 

12 

8 

35 

21 

9 

16 

35 

20 

13 

28 

37 

13 

13 

32 

36 

20 

» 

20 

36 

30 

13 

19 

35 

20 

13 

31 

36 

1» 

9 

35 

36 

isj 

n 

29 

36 

18  1 

10 

17 

36' 

IS 

6 

30 

39| 

IS 

9 

11 

39 

15 

10 

10 

39 

14  ; 

lU 

36 

40 

13  1 

1 

9 

5 

40  I 

^' 1 

7 

19 

41 

16 

3 

15 

42 

13 

3 

23 

"i 

"1 

10 

PESHTIGO  RIVER. 

In  length,  grade,  shape,  and  size  of  drainage  area  Peshtigo  River  closely  resembles  its 
neighbor,  the  Oconto.  It  descends  an  average  of  nearly  10  feet  to  the  mile,  but  few  of 
its  powers  have  as  yet  been  developed,  because  this  region  is  very  thinly  populated.  The 
only  powers  reported  are  two  at  Peshtigo.  A  dam  with  a  10-foot  head,  owned  by  the  Pesh- 
tigo Lumber  Company,  supplies  the  power  for  a  sawmill,  which  has  turbines  of  1,390  horse- 
power installed.     A  flouring  mill  of  50  horsepower  is  also  located  at  Peshtigo. 

The  next  important  development  is  a  power  known  as  '*  High  Falls  "  in  sec.  1,  T.  32  N.. 
R.  18  E.  In  a  distano«  of  165  feet  the  river  descends  46  feet.  A  dam  1,000  feet  long  would 
increase  this  to  55  feet.  In  a  recent  report  on  this  power  by  a  competent  engineer,  it  is 
stated  that  a  dam  200  feet  long  1}  miles  above  this  point  would  create  an  immense  reser- 
voir.   Both  dam  sites  are  on  the  pre-Oambrian  rock,  and  the  banks  are  of  clay  and  sand. 

A  few  miles  below,  in  sec.  9,  T.  32  N.,  R.  19  E.,  are  the  Grindstone  Rapids,  with  a  fall  of 
25  feet.  The  banks  at  this  point  are  said  to  be  high  and  steep.  The  Wisconsin  Geological 
Survey  map  shows  a  descent  of  35  feet  in  sec.  10,  T.  33  N.,  R.  18  E.  A  dam  at  Ellis  Junction 
creates  a  large  pond  and  furnishes  a  head  of  12  feet,  which  was  formerly  used  to  run  a  saw- 
mill. It  is  now  proposed  to  increase  this  head  to  24  feet  and  to  use  the  power  for  a  new 
pulp  mill. 


PE8HTIGO    AND   OCONTO   BIVEB8. 


57 


Between  Ellis  ^Lunction  and  the  mouth  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  and  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  railways  are  adjacent  to  the  river,  which  is  still  being  used  for 
lumbering  purposes.  Besides  the  above-described  dams,  logging  dams  are  located  in  sec. 
10,  T.  33  N.,  R.  18  E.,  and  in  sec.  22,  T.  34  N.,  R.  18  E.,  with  heads  of  10  and  8  feet, 
respectively.    The  following  table  shows  the  profile  of  the  river: 

Profile  ofPeshtigo  River  from  its  motUh  to  near  North  Crandon. 


station. 


Mouth  of  river 

Peshtigo 

Do 

West  of  Ellis  Junction. 
Near  North  Crandon. . . 


Authority. 


United  States  engineers. 

Wisconsin  and  Michigan  Rwy. 

Chicago  and  Northwestern  Rwy. 

Do. 

Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  Rwy. 


OCONTO   RIVER. 

OENERAI^  CONDITIONS. 

Oconto  River  rises  in  a  number  of  small  lakes  and  swamps  in  the  plateau  region,  at  an 
elevation  of  about  1,530  feet  above  the  sea.  In  its  length  of  87  miles  it  descends  945  feet. 
In  the  uppe^  35  miles  of  its  course  the  river  flows  over  the  crystalline  rocks,  and  here  is 
found  about  two-thirds  of  its  total  fall.  Upon  leaving  the  crystalline  rocks  the  river  flows 
nearly  due  south  for  20  miles  over  the  Cambrian  sandstones.  At  Underbill  it  turns  abruptly 
and  flows  nearly  due  east,  crossing  the  "  Lower  Magnesian ''  and  **  Trenton ''  limestones  and 
joining  Lake  Michigan  near  Oconto.    The  profile  of  the  river  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

PrqfSe  of  Oconto  River ,  Wisconsin,  from  its  mouth  to  Wabena.a 


No. 


Station. 


Chicago  and    Northwestern   Railway    bridge, 
Oconto 


Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway  bridge, 
Oconto  


Distance.  Eleva- 

tlon 

^taS."  ««^*'^«^^«1-  Total 


Descent  be- 
tween points. 


From 
mouth. 


Stiles 

Underbill 

Surings 

One  mile  south  of  mountain. . 
Two  miles  north  of  mountain. 
Wabena 


MUe9. 


Miles. 


Per 
mile. 


Feet. 


500 
614 
770 
791 
916 
941, 
1,526 


Feet.   I    Feet. 


9 
24 

156 
21 

125 
25 

585 


1.8 
4.0 
7.8 
1.9 
7.8 
8.3 
24.3 


The  most  important  powers  are  found  in  the  last  33  miles  of  its  course,  in  which  distance 
the  river  descends  190  feet. 

lYATER  POWBRS. 


The  first  dam  above  the  mouth  of  the  Oconto  River  is  located  at  Stiles,  in  sec.  34,T.  28  N. 
R.  20  £., where  a  dam  400  feet  long,  with  11-foot  head,  furnishes  power  for  saw  and  pulp 
miUa  owned  by  the  Anson  Eldred  Company.    This  company  has  installed  turbines  of  500 

a  Authority:  Nos.  1  and  4-8,  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway;  Nos.  2  and  3,  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul  Railway. 


58 


WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


horsepower.     It  is  reported  that  by  conslructing  a  dike  about  450  feet  long  the  head  could 
be  increased  to  18  feet. 

OOONTO  FALLS. 

The  most  important  concentration  of  fall  on  the  river,  about  100  feet,  occurs  in  the  ''Lower 
Magnesian"  limestone  at  Oconto  Falls,  in  sec.  25,*T.  28  N.,  R.  19  E.  A  dam  owned  hv 
the  Falls  Manufacturing  Company  has  a  head  of  37  feet  and  supplies  power  for  a  larige  paprr 
and  pulp  mill.  The  company  has  installed  turbines  rated  at  1,370  horsepower,  besidr^^ 
400  steam  horsepower.  About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  farther  up  is  located  a  dam  of  19-foot 
head,  which  furnishes  power  for  a  large  pulp  mill,  belonging  to  the  Union  Manufacturing 
Company.  Seven  turbines  rated  at  940  horsepower  are  installed.  These  run  twenty-four 
hours  every  day  except  Sunday.  Only  half  a  mile  below  the  Falls  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany's dam  are  some  important  rapids,  where  an  excellent  power  is  available.  It  is  ei^ti- 
mated  that  a  dam  250  feet  long  would  develop  a  head  of  nearly  40  feet.  This  power  is 
owned  by  E.  A.  Edmonds,  who  has  a  charter  for  a  dam  at  this  point  with  a  head  of  27.5 
feet.  The  Chicago  and  Northwestern  railway  furnishes  excellent  shipping  facilities  at  all 
the  Oconto  Falls  powers  described  above. 

PULCIFER   DAM. 

The  last  dam  used  for  power  purposes  is  located  in  sec.  6,  T.  27  N.,  R.  18  E.,  and  fumisfaes 
power  for  a  gristmill.     It  is  also  used  for  logging  purposes. 

MISCELLANEOUS  POWERS 

The  following  table. gives  the  location  and  extent  of  the  most  important  developed  uid 
undeveloped  water  powers  on  the  Oconto  River: 

Water  'powern  on  Oconto  River. 


No. 


Location. 


Estimated 
head.a 

H.  P.  in- 
sUUed. 

Feet. 

11 

500 

37 

1,370 

19 

940 

12 

45 

12 

10 

DEVELOPED  POWERS. 

Stiles,  aec.  34,  T.  28  N.,R.20E 

Oconto  Falls, sec. 25, T. 28 N.,  R.  19E.. 
Oconto  Falls,  sec.  26,  T. 28 N.,  R.  19  E. . 

Puloifer,  sec.  6,  T.  27  N.,  R.  18  E 

Sec.  25,  T.  31  N.,  R.  16  E 

Sec.  4,  T.  31  N.,  R.  16  E 

Sec.  23,  T.  32N.,  R.  16E. 

Sec.  30,  T.  33  N.,  R.  17  E 

Sec.  5,  T.  33  N.,  R.  16  E 

Sec.  1,  T.  33  N.,  R.  15  E 

Sec.  11,  T.  32  N.,  R.  16  E 

Sec.  34,  T.  33  N.,  R.  16  E 

Sec.  30,  T.  33  N.,  R.  16  E 

Sec.  27,  T.  33  N.,  R.  15  E 

Sec.  18,  T.  31  N.,  R.  17  E 

Sec.  33,  T.  32  N.,  R.  17  E 

Sec.  21,  T.  32  N.,  R.  17  E 

Sec.  23,  T.  30  N.,  R.  16  E 

Sec.  16,  T.  30  N.,  R.  16  E 

UNDEVELOPED  POWERS. 

Oconto,  sec.  23,  T.  28  N.,  R.  21  E 

Oconto  Falls,  sec.  31,  T.  28  N.,  R.  20  E 

Sec.  34,  T.  28  N.,  R.  18  E 

Sec.  23,  T.  31  N.,  R.  16  E 


Saw  and  pulp  mill. 
Paper  and  pulp  mill. 
Pulp  mill. 

Flouring  mill  and  driving. 
Driving  only. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


a  The  first  four  heads  are  reported  by  owners;  the  remainder  are  estimated  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Holt,  of  tht 
Bolt  Lumber  Co.,  Oconto. 


WATER   POWERS   OF   NORTHEBK    WISCONSIN. 

WOLF  RIVER  SYSTEM. 
GENERAL.  CONDITIONS. 


59 


Wolf  River  rises  in  a  number  of  lakes  about  25  miles  south  of  the  Michigan  boundary  and 
flows  in  a  general  southerly  direction,  entering  upper  Fox  River  at  a  point  about  10  miles 
west  of  Lake  Winnebago.  Though  nominally  a  branch  of  Fox  River,  it  is  in  reality  the 
master  stream,  having  over  three  times  the  discharge.  Wolf  River  receives  all  its  important 
tributaries  from  the  west  and  at  points  relatively  near  its  mouth.  It  has  been  elsewhere 
noted  (p.  64)  that  there  is  much  evidence  that  the  river  formerly  ran  west  and  joined  Missis- 
sippi River  through  the  present  Wisconsin  River  Valley  between  Portage  and  Prairie  du 
Chien. 

In  the  upper  half  of  its  course  Wolf  River  has  formed  its  bed  in  the  pre-Cambrian  crys- 
talline rocks,  and  in  this  distance  the  descent  of  the  river  is  very  rapid.  At  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern  railway  crossing,  2  miles  west  of  Lenox,  the  river  has  an  elevation  of  1,562 
feet  above  the  sea.  In  the  80  miles  between  this  point  and  Shawano  the  river  descends  774 
feet,  or  9.7  feet  per  mile.  This  steep  gradient  causes  many  rapids  and  falls.  Lumber- 
ing dams  have  been  maintained  on  the  upper  river  at  the  following  points :«  Sec.  9,  T.  33  N*, 
R.  12E.;Lillydam,8ec.  34,T.33N.,R.  13  E.;  sec.  10,T.31N.,R.  14E.;  sec.  25,  T.  31  N., 
R.  14  E.,  and  at  several  other  places  lower  down.  In  the  40  miles  above  Shawano  small 
undeveloped  powers  of  10  to  15  feet  head  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Shawano,  the  head  of  navigation  6n  the  river,  and  county  seat  of  Shawano  County,  has  a 
population  of  2,000.  A  dam  is  located  at  this  point,  with  a  head  of  12  feet.  It  is  used  to 
grind  wood  pulp.  Shawano  also  marks  the  point  of  transition  from  the  pre-Cambrian  to 
the  Cambrian  sandstone.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  river  crosses  the  old  coast  line  of  Lake 
Michigan  and  enters  the  region  of  red  clay.  Below  Shawano  the  stream  is  sluggish,  its 
descent  being  only  about  42  feet  to  Lake  Winnebago,  a  distance  of  about  80  miles.  The 
banks  are  low,  and  in  high  water  the  surrounding  flats  are  all  covered,  the  river  sometimes 
expanding  at  time  of  heavy  freshets  to  several  miles  in  width.  For  obvious  reasons  there 
can  be  no  water  powers  in  this  lower  region. 

The  profile  of  Wolf  River  for  160  miles  of  its  course  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Profile  of  Wolf  River  f  Wisconsin,  from  mouth,  to  near  Lenox. 


SUtion. 

Distonce 

Iroiii 
mouth. 

Eleva- 
tion 
above 
sea  level. 

Feet. 

746.4 

749.5 

78S.0 

1,562.5 

Authority. 

Wlnn«onT»nP._ 

Miles. 

United  States  Engineers. 

New  London 

33 

80 
160 

Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway. 
Do. 

Shawano 

Lenox 

Do. 

a  Wlaoonain  Geological  Survey  maps. 


60 


WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


RUN-OFF. 


The  following  tables  showing  gage-height  observations  an4  discharge  meaflurements  at 
Winneconnc  and  near  Northport,  on  Wolf  River,  are  from  dat-a  published  by  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey: 

Discharge  measurements  of  Wolf  River  at  Winneeonnej  Wis.,  in  1903. 


Date. 


Hydrographer. 


h^el^t.    I>i«**'K- 


January  5  a L.  R.  Stockman . 

January  24  a do 

February  20 do 

Maroh24 ' do 

April  15 1 do 

May  11 1 do 

June  20 do 


Feet. 

Second-jtet. 

5.50 

<<I.H 

5.30 

I,4>. 

5.00 

!.>:. 

6.60 

9.9»^ 

6.90 

3.«*i^ 

6.70 

3.:*r 

6.40 

3,1M 

a  River  frozen. 

Mean  daUy  gage  heightf  in  feet,  of  Wolf  River  at  Winneconju,  Wis,,  January  1  to  July  2't, 

190S, 


Day. 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

6. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
81. 


Jan. 


5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.40 
5.40 
5.40 
5.40 
5.40 
5.40 
5.40 
5.40 
6.40 
5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.30 


Feb. 


5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.20 
5.20 
5.20 
5.20 
5.20 
5.20 
5.10 
5.10 
5.10 
5.10 
5.10 
5.00 
5.00 
5.00 
5.00 
5.00 
5.00 
4.90 
4.90 
4.90 
4.90 
4.90 
4.80 
4.80 
4.80 


Mar. 


Apr.   I   May.  ;  June.  '  July. 


I 


4.80 
4.80 
4.80 
4.80 
4.80 
4.90 
4.90 
4.90 
4.90 
5.00 
5.00 
5.10 
5.25 
5.30  ! 
5.60  I 
5.70 
5.80 
5.90 
6.00 
6.20 
6.30 
6.40 
6.50 
6.60 
6.70 
6.80 
6.90 
6.90 
6.90 
7.00 
7.10 
I 


7.10 
7.20 
7.20 
7.10 
7.10 
7.10 
7.05 
6.90 
6.80 
6.95 
7.10 
7.00 
7.00 
6.90 
6.80 
6.85 
6.90 
6.80 
6.80 
6.75 
6.70 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.70 
6.70 
6.65 
6.60 


6.60 
6.65 
6.70 
6.65 
6.60 
6.65 
6.70 
6.70 
6.70 
6.70 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6.85 
6.90 
6.90 
7.05 
6.90 
7.00 
7.00 
7.00 


7.00 
7.00 
7.00 
6.90 
6.80 
6.80 
6.85 
6.80 
6.80 
6.80 
6,70 
6.70 
6.60 
6.60 
6.60 
6.50 
6.50 
6.45 
6.45 
6.40 
6.40 
6.40 
6.30 
6.30 
6.20 
6.» 
6.10 
6.10 
6.10 
6.10 


6.10 
f..IU 
6.10 
6.10 
6.10 
6-10 
6.20 
6,30 
6.2U 
6.30 
6.30 
6.30 
6.30 
6.30 
6.30 
6.30 
6.30 
6.40 
6.40 
6.40 
6,30 
6.30 
6.20 
6.30 
6.10 


WOLF   RIVER   SYSTEM. 


61 


■  Discharge  meaJturemenis  of  Wolf  River  near  Northportf  Wia.f  in  1905. 


Date. 


Aprils.. 
May  27. 


Hydrographer. 


F.  W.Hanna.. 

S.  K.  Clapp 

June  17 1  M.  8.  Brennan. 

July  15 do 

August  lir. ' do 

Bept«inber  22.  .i  F.  W.  Hanna. . 


Width. 


Feet. 
182 
171 
151 
176 
176 
172 


Area  of 
section. 

Smutre 
feet. 

2,642 

2,198 

2,553 

2,300 

2,053 

1,978 


Mean 
velocity. 


Feet  per 
second. 

2.64 

1.8 

1.97 

1.60 

1.26 

1.41 


Gage 
height. 


Feet. 
7.03 
4.65 
6.42 
5.06 
3.01 
3w6 


Dis- 
chaige. 


Second- 
feet. 

6,965 

3,964 

5,032 

3,885 

2,594- 

2,781 


Mean  daily  gage  height ^  in  feet^  of  Wolf  River  near  Northporty  Wis.,  April  6  to  DecenUmt 

SO,  1905. 


Day. 
1 

Apr. 

May. 
3.40 

2... 

3.60 

3 

3.80 

4 ' 

4.00 

fi 

4.20 

6. 

6.90 
6.80 
6.70 
6.60 
6.60 
6.40 
6.30 
6.10 
6.00 
5.80 
&60 
5.60 
5.20 
5.20 
4.90 
4.80 
4.80 
4.30 
4.10 
4.0) 
3.80 
3.60 
3.60 
3.50 
3.40 

4.40 

7 

4.60 

8 

4.80 

9 

4.80 

10 

5.00 

11 

5.00 

12 

5.20 

13 

5.60 

14 

6l80 

15 

5.60 

16 

5.50 

17 

5.30 

18 

5.30 

19 

5.20 

20 

5.00 

21 

4.80 

22 

4.60 

23 

4.60 

24 

4.80 

25 ". 

5.00 

26 

5.00 

27 

4.60 

28 

4.30 

29 

5.40 

30 

5.60 

31 

5.80 

June. 

6.00 
5.00 
5.00 
4.90 
4.60 
5.60 
5.40 
5.30 
5.80 
5.80 
5.80 
5.90 
6.10 
6.40 
6.40 
6.60 
6.50 
6.40 
6.40 
6.20 
6.00 
5.80 
5.60 
5.30 
5wlO 
4.70 
4.40 
4.00 
3.80 
3.50 


July. 


Aug. 


3.30 

3.00 

3.40 

3.60 

3.80 

3.30 

4.30 

4.60 

4.60 

4.90 

5.00  I 

5.20  ! 

5.10  ' 

5.10  I 

4.90 

4.20  I 

4.60 

4.30 

4.80 

4.60 

4.45 

4.20 

4.10 

4.00 

a30 

3.60 

2.80 

2.50 

2.30 

2.20 

2.00 


Sept. 


.2.00 
2.30 
2.20 
2.10 
2.30 
2.20 
2.40 
2.90 
3.30 
4.00 
3.50 
3.60 
3.60 
3.00 
3.00 
3.50 
3.50 
3.30 
3.20 
3.00 
2.80 
2.40 
2.60 
2.30 
2.00 
1.80  ! 
1.60  i 
1.40  I 


Oct. 


1.60 

2.40 

2.60 

2.20 

3.10 

3.40 

3.60 

3.30 

3.40 

3.60 

3.80 

3.50 

2.80 

2.50 

2.70  I 

2.90 

2.80 

3.00  I 

3.40  I 


1.20 
l.ip  I 

i.ob 


2.90 
2.80 
a  70 
3.60 
3.40 
3.25 
3.10 
2.90 
2.75 
2.35 


1.55 
1.40 
1.35 
1.30 
1.15 
1.10 
.90 
.85 
.70 
.65 
.60 
.50 
.35 
.10 
.25 
.40 
.75 
.90 
1.15 
1.60 
2.20 
2.60 
2.90 
3.20 
3.40 
3.30 
3.20 
3.00 
2.10 
2.30 
2.00 


Nov. 


1.30 

1.40 

1.50 

1.60 

1.70 

1.95 

2.10 

2.30 

2.50 

2.70 

2.60 

2.40 

2.30 

2.20 

2.10 

1.80 

1.50 

1.40 

1.30 

1.20 

1.10 

1.00 

.90 

.80 

.60 

.40 

.20 

.60 

.80 

1.90 


Dec. 


1.70 

1.60 

1.40 

1.50 

1.60 

1.76 

1.80 

1.90 

2.10 

2.00 

1.90 

1.96 

1.80 

1.60 

1.40 

1.20 

1.20 

1.10 

1.00 

1.00 

1.00 

1.00 

.90 

.90 

.75 

.60 

.50 

.50 

.40 

.40 


62 


WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


TRIBUTARIES   OF   WOLF   RIVER. 

The  lower  part  of  the  Wolf  River  drainage  area  is  more  thickly  settled  than  the  upper, 
and  as  a  result  the  tributaries  which  occupy  this  lower  portion  are  rather  fully  developed.  Tlds 
is  especially  true  of  Embarrass,  Little  Wolf,  and  Waupaca  rivets. 

WATER  POW^ERS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  water  powers  on  Wolf  River  and  its  tributaries: 

Water  powers  on  Wolf  River  and  its  tributaries. 


Location  and  stream. 


Owner  and  use. 


Hcsad.     H.  P. 


Manowa,  sec.  15,  T.  23  N.,  R.  13  E.,  Little  Wolf 
River. 

Littlewolf,  sec.  34.  T.  23  N.,  R.  13  K.,  Little 
WoM  River. 

Scandinavia,  south  branch  Little  Wolf  River . . 

Sec.  22,  T.  23  N. .  R.  1 1  £.,  south  branch  of  Little 
Wolf  River. 

Phlox,  sec.  26,  T.  30N.,  R.  12  E.,  Red  River 

Mount  Morris,  sec.  16,  T.  19  N.,  R.  11  E.,  Rattle- 
snake Creek. 

Wittenberg, 8ec.lO,T. 27  N.,R.ll  E., Embar- 
rass River. 

North  branch  of  Embarrass  River 

Sec.  7,  T.  26  N.,  R.  13  E.,  Embarrass  River  . . . 

Embarrass,  sec. 5,T.  25 N.,  R.  15  E.,  Embarrass 
River 

Sec.  23,  T.  26  N.,  R.  13  E.,  middle  branch  of  Em- 
barrass River. 

Sec.  15,T.27  N.,  R.  15  E,  north  branch  of  Em- 
barrass River. 

Sec.  23,  T.  28  N.,  R.  12  E.,  north  branch  of  Em- 
barrass River. 

Pllla,  sec.  9,  T.  26  N.,  R.  14  E.,  Embarrass 
River. 

See.  9,  T.  27  N.,  R.  12  E.,  middle  branch  of  Em- 
barrass River. 


Waupaca,  sec. 
River. 


,  T.  22  N.,  R.  12  E.,  Crystal 


Waupaca,  sec. 20,  T.  22  N.,  R.  12  E.,  Waupaca 
River. 

City  of  Waupaca,  Waupaca  River 

Do 


Sherman,  sec.  18,  T.22  N.,R.ll  E.,  Waupaca 
River. 

Weyauwoga,  sec.  4,  T.  21 N.,  R.  13  E.,  Waupaca 
River. 

Waupaca,  Waupaca  River 

Amherst,  Spring  Creek 

Rural,  sec.  10,  T. 21  N.,  R.  11  E.,  -\rbor Creek... 

Gresham,  sec.  3,  T.  27  N.,  R.  14  E.,  Red  River. . . 

Sec.  6,  T.  27  N.,  R.  15  E,  Red  River 

Sec.  19,  T.  27  N.,  R.  14  E.,  Red  River 

Sec.  18,  T.  28N.,  R.  14  E.,  Red  River 

Sec.  16,  T.  26  N.,  R.  10  E.,  Little  Wolf  River  . . 

Sec.  7,  T.  2.5  N.,  R.  11  E.,  Little  Wolf  River .. . 

Sec.  5,  T.  24  N.,  R.  13  E.,  Little  Wolf  River  . . . 

Sec.  9,  T.  33  N.,  R.  12  E.,  Wolf  River 

Sec.  34,  T.  33  N.,  R.  13  E.,  Wolf  River ' 

Sec.  10,  T.  31  N.,  R.  14  E.,  Wolf  River '< 

Sec.  25,  T.  31  N.,  R.  14  E.,  Wolf  River ' 


Little  Wolf  River  Lumber  Co.,  grist,  I 
lumber,  electric  light. 

Booth  &  Smith, grist,  lumber, electric 
light. 

Henry  Peterson,  feed  mill 

J.  I.  W^alstatt,  feed  mUl 


J.  Kaufman,  saw  and  planing  mill  . . 
Wm.  Kemp,  grist  mill 


Viking  Lumber  Co.,  sawmill . 


N.  M.  Edwards,  sawmill 

N,  M.  Edwards,  undeveloped. 

Decker  &  Beedle,  Imnber  and  planing  , 
mill. 

Theo.  Boettncr,  flouring  mill , 

Seiber  &  Dumke,  sawmill 


L.  A.  Weikel,  saw,  planing,  and  feed 
mill. 

Grosskopt,  saw  and  planing  mill 


BuckstafT  Lumber  Co.,  power  house  I 
burned.  ' 

Waupaca  woolen  mills 

A.  G.  Nelson, planing  and  grist  mill. . . 


Electric  Light  Co 

Undeveloped 

Brooks  &  Root,  flouring  mill. 


Weed  Gunnard,  flour,  planing,  and 
electric  light. 

C.  Gurlnes,  brick  manufacture 

N.  Howard,  feed  mill 

J.  Ashmun,  flouring  and  saw  mill 

A.  G.  Schmidt,  sawmill 

Undeveloped 

....do 


.do. 


Little  Wolf  River  Lumber  Co. 
....do : 


....do 

Used  for  logging. . 
....do 


.do... 
.do... 


/>rt. 

10 

390 

9 

eo 

8 

2s 

0 

.10 

14 

73S 

12 

44 

12 

75 

13 

50 

ao 



8 

IL'i 

9 

300 

13 

192 

16 

116 

13 

» 

10 

. 

8 

35 

64 

65 

18 

300 

15 

8 
10  I 

9 
11 


96 
MO 


WATER'  POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


63 


WISCONSIN   RIVER   SYSTEM. 
TOPOGRAPHY    AND   DRAINAGE. 

Because  of  its  length,  its  great  drainage  area,  and  its  central  location  Wisconsin  River  is 
preeminently  the  main  river  of  the  State. 

Like  the  Flambeau,  the  headwaters  of  Wisconsin  River  are  found  in  an  intricate  network 
of  lakes  and  swamps  occupying  the  flat  plateau  region  near  the  northern  boundary.  Its 
extreme  source  is  found  in  Lake  Vieux  Desert,  a  body  of  water  about  10  square  miles  on  the 
line  separating  the  northern  peninsula  of  Michigan  from  Wisconsin,  at  about  1,650  feet 
above  sea  level.  The  general  course  of  the  river  for  the  first  300  miles  is  south.  At  a  point 
near  Portage  it  turns  abruptly  westward,  and  in  the  next  100  miles  flows  nearly  west,  joining 
Mississippi  River  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  only  40  miles  from  the  southern  boundary  of  the  State. 

The  drainage  basin  includes  12,280  square  miles,  with  an  average  width  of  50  miles  and  a 
length  of  about  225  miles.  The  apportionment  of  this  drainage  area  among  the  several 
tributaries  of  Wisconsin  River  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Distances  and  drainage  areas  of  Wisconsin  River. 


River.a 


Distance. 


From 
source. 


Drainage 

— area 

Between      above 
stations,    station. 


MiUs. 


Pelican,  above  mouth 

Pelican,  mouth 

Tomahawk 

Prairie 

Rib,  above  mouth 

Rib,  mouth. 

Eau  Claire 

Kau  Pleine,  above  mouth . 

Eau  Plelne,  mouth 

Little  Eau  Plelne 

Plover 

Yellow,  above  mouth 

Yellow,  mouth 

Lemonweir. 

Baraboo 

Wisconsin 


60  I 


113 


158 
166 

184 


I 


248 
259 
292 
407 


M. 

Sq.  miUt. 

60 

940 

0 

1,202 

25 

2,111 

28 

2,697 

23 

3,192 

0 

3,690 

2 

4,114 

20 

4,268 

0 

4,646 

8 

5.005 

18 

5,300 

64 

6,448 

0 

7,394 

11 

8, 172 

33 

9,095 

115 

12,280 

a  Station  is  at  mouth  of  river  unless  otherwise  stated. 

Because  of  its  long  traverse  from  the  extreme  northern  to  the  extreme  southwestern  part 
of  Wisconsin  the  topography  of  the  basin  includes  nearly  every  fonn  found  in  the  State. 
Like  the  upper  Chippewa  Valley,  the  northern  half  is  a  densely  wooded  region  of  hard  and 
soft  timber  except  whei*  cleared  for  farming.  The  woods  gradually  give  way  to  a  semi- 
prairie  region  with  a  gently  undulating  surface,  but  with  occasional  decided  ridges  both  of 
rock  and  glacial  origin.  A  very  striking  surface  feature  toward  the  southern  part  is  found 
in  the  *'  Baraboo  quartzite"  ranges,  which  have  an  elevation  of  from  400  to  700  feet  above  the 
surrounding  country.  These  ranges  comprise  two  main  ridges  from  4  to  6  miles  apart, 
extending  nearly  cast  and  west  in  the  section  of  country  west  of  Portage  for  about  25  miles, 
but  uniting  and  ending  abruptly  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley,  near  Portage.  The  angle  of 
the  river  at  this  point  seems  due  to  its  effort  to  secure  a  pjissage  around  this  rock  barrier. 

Through  a  portion  of  the  city  of  Portage  and  southward,  the  river  can  hardly  be  said  to 
have  an  eastern  divide.  Fox  River  approaches  within  1 J  miles  of  the  Wisconsin  at  this  point, 
only  a  low  marsh  intervening.  Even  this  marsh  has  a  slope  of  about  3  feet  toward  Fox 
River.  At  the  present  time  levees  at  this  and  other  points  prevent  the  Wisconsin  at  times 
of  high  water  from  overflowing  into  Fox  River.  These  levees  for  a  distance  of  several  miles 
compel  the  river  to  flow  along  the  contour  instead  of  in  the  direction  of  maximum  slope. 


64  WATER   POWERS    OP   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

The  reasons  for  this  and  other  peculiarities  of  its  valley  are  interestingly  discuased  in  Gec4o^ 
of  Wisconsin,  (vol.  3): 

It  is  evident  that  such  an  uncertain  divide  as  this  can  not  have  formed  one  of  the  original  penoAwnft 
features  of  the  drainage  of  the  region,  but  as  the  disposition  of  the  surface  soil  is  due  to  glacial  mcticm, 
modified  by  subsequent  erosion  and  transportation,  this  may  be  fairly  attributed  to  such  a  cause.  Tt  «■ 
rampart  of  limestone  which  compels  the  lower  Wisconsin  to  flow  west  does  not  stop  south  of  Port«^. 
but  continues  east  and  north,  although  less  prominent,  forming  an  eastern  barrier  to  the  flow  of  rt  <> 
Wolf  River.  The  course  of  the  upper  Fox  to  Lake  Winnebago  is  sluggish,  consisting  largely  of  ma  r*!i»5 
and  lake-like  expansions.  On  account  of  the  depression  of  the  divide  at  Portage,  the  continuacion  of  tb^ 
southern  barrier  northeast,  the  small  slope  of  the  upper  Fox,  the  large  trough  of  the  Wiaconsin  below 
Portage,  which  it  is  unable  to  occupy,  while  above  the  river  is  more  nearly  in  proportion  to  its  ehacn^' 
of  drainage,  and  finally  the  evidently  modem  outlet  for  the  Wolf  and  the  upper  Fox  through  the  k»wn 
Fox— the  conclusion  is  reasonable,  if  not  inevitable,  that  at  one  time  the  Lake  Winnebago  vy^irzr 
drained  southwest  into  the  Mississippi  and  the  Wolf  was  the  true  continuation  of  the  Wisconsin  a^Miv 
Portage,  while  the  present  upper  Wisconsin  was  merely  a  tributary  of  the  main  stream. 

I^KE    ELEVATIONS   AND    RESERVOIR  SITES. 

Attention  has  elsewhere  been  called  (p.  15)  to  the  opportunity  of  increasing  the  low- 
water  flow  of  the  northern  rivers  by  the  construction  of  dams  near  the  headwaters  for  ii5«e  a- 
re^rvoirs.  The  opportunity  for  such  a  system  on  Wisconsin  River  is  especdally  goiid. 
because  the  ownership  of  the  lands  to  be  flooded  is  in  the  hands  of  a  comparatively  t<pw 
corporations  and  a  beginning  has  already  been  made.  For  example,  a  well-built  dam  at  th*^ 
foot  of  the  Tomahawk  chain  of  lakes,  which  impounds  water  covering  many  square  miles  of 
reservoir,  has  been  used  for  several  years  to  regulate  the  stage  of  the  river  for  the  nvAis 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Tomahawk.  In  scores  of  cases  the  dams  are  already  const ruct4^ 
for  logging  purposes  and  need  only  to  be  kept  in  repair  to  be  of  service  for  power  regulation 
when  they  are  no  longer  needed  for  their  original  purpose,  as  will  soon  be  the  case. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  build  or  maintain  dams  at  the  following  points:  Lake  VieuT 
Desert,  sec.  17,  T.  42  N.,  R.  11  E.;  Twin  Lakes,  sec.  19,  T.  41  N.,  R.  11  E.;  Eagle  Lakf^. 
sec.31,T.40N.,R.  lOE.;  SugarcampLake8,sec.  17,T.  39N.,R.  9E.;  Buckataban  Lidc»s, 
sec.  24,  T.  41  N.,  R.  9  E. ;  Little  St.  Germain  Lake,  sec.  2,  T.  39  N.,  R.  8  E. ;  Big  St.  Germain 
Lake,  sec.  18,  T.  39  N.,  R.  8  E. 

At  many  if  not  most  of  the  larger  lakes  near  the  headwaters,  logging  companies  have  long 
maintained  dams,  which  some  day  will  serve  the  double  purpose  of  reservoirs  and  sources  of 
power.  A  list  of  some  of  these  lakes,  together  with  their  elevation  above  the  sea,  as  deter- 
mined by  United  States  engineers,  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

Lakes  at  headvxUers  tributary  to  Wisconsiji  River. 


Name  of  lake. 


Elevation 
At  headwaters  of—  al>ov«» 


E agle E agle  R  Ivor 1 ,  582.  n 

Catfish do 1 ,  5S3. 0 

Cranberry do 1 ,  583. 5 

Long do 1. 592.  J 

Planting  Ground do 1 ,  .t92.  2 

Fish do l.o82,J 

Medicine I do 1 .  592. 2 

Stone I do 1,«2.2 

Dog do I  1.592,2 

Big do I  1,592-2 

Pelican Pelican  River '  l,i590. 0 

Tomahawk Tomahawk  River 1.5<e.2 

Island do '  l,5&).i 

Keawasogan. do '  1,56D^4 

Mud do i  1 ,  .'i53. 4 

Squirrel do 1,5C9 


WOLF  BIVEB  8Y8TEK. 


65 


Tho  following  table  a  gives  dimensions  and  other  data  of  eight  reservoir  sites  surveyed  by 
United  Statrs  engineers  as  an  aid  to  navigation  on  Mississippi  River: 

PrapoHcd  United  States  Government  reservoirs  on  Wisconsin  River. 


1 

Location. 

-'1 

I 

Feet. 
1,520.83 
1,562.00 
1,578.07 
1,554.67 
1,521.78 

Max] 

Dai 

mum 

i 

H 

Feet. 
28 
12.5 
22 

12 
17 
14 

dimensions. 
Dike. 

lit 

Feet.    Feet. 

3,625  15 
260  4 
700          5. 

Reservoir. 

1 

Name. 

'  '     ,            1 
.  '     1     ^ 

'1      S    1    §i 

|~                 I 
1    6  '  36N.!  9K_, 
17     39N.    9E.. 
1  36     40N.    9E.. 
1    7  1  39N.    6E  .. 
1     38N  .    5E.. 

1 

!     ^ 

i  '     1 

Sq.mi\     Cutncfeet. 

13.45  5,153,180,627 
5.00     1,356,284,160 

30.74  1  7,389,727,488 

13.46  1  2,226,113,036 
5.30     1,338,163,200 
6.00  1  1,043,516,880 
7.00  j      400,000,000 
6.50  1      650,000,000 

1 

< 

i 
A 

Feet. 
800 
235 

1,300 
190 
315 

1,100 

Pelican 

Sugarcamp... 
Otter  rapids. . 
Tomahawk . . . 

Sq.  mi. 

301.0 

60.0 

447.0 

101.5 

Squirrel 

56.0 

Rice  

!    9 
1  17 

35  N. 

49  N 

6E  .. 

396.0 

Vieiix  Desert 

11  E  . 

19.0 

Twin  Lakes . . 

.    19  1  41  N  . 

1 

HE. 

30.0 

1 

87.45 

19,556,985,291 

1,410.5 

Subsequent  to  this  report  two  of  these  dams,  at  Rhinelander  (Pelican)  and  Tomahawk, 
have  been  constructed  by  private  enterprise  for  power  purposes;  several  others  have  be«n 
constructed  with  reduced  heads.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  proposed  Government  reser- 
voirs have  a  total  area  of  87.45  square  miles  and  a  drainage  area  of  1,410}  square  miles. 
It  was  proposed  to  fill  the  reserv^oirs  during  the  .spring  freshets  and  then  allow  the  water  to 
escape  at  times  of  low  water.  The  United  States  engineers  estimated  that  these  reser\'oirs 
would  maintain  a  flow  of  3,000  second-fe«t  for  three  months  of  the  year.  Such  a  flow  would 
nearly  double  the  present  low-water  flow  of  the  river  and  its  resulting  wat«r  power.  Inci- 
dentally the  use  of  such  reservoirs  would  to  a  large  extent  serve  to  reduce  the  dangers  of 
high  iloods,  both  to  dams  and  to  overflowed  lands.  It  would,  in  fact,  tend  to  restore  the 
r(»gimen  of  the  river  to  that  which  it  possessed  before  deforesting  and  cultivation  began 
to  transform  a  great  primeval  forest  region  into  cleared  and  well-cultivated  fields. 

PROFILE. 

According  to  the  United  States  engineers,  the  elevation  of  Lake  Vieux  Desert  is  about 
1,650  feet,  while  the  elevation  of  the  mouth  of  Wisconsin  River  at  Prairie  du  Chien  is  604 
feet  at  low  water  or  625  feet  at  high  water.  This  gives  a  total  descent  of  about  1,046  feet 
in  an  estimated  length  of  429  miles,  or  about  2}  feet  per  mile.  About  634  feet  of  this  fall 
occur  in  the  150  miles  between  Rhinelander  and  Nekoosa,  an  average  of  4.23  feet  per  mile. 
This  descent  is  concentrated  at  many  places,  producing  a  large  number  of  valuable  water 
powers,  many  of  which  have  been  improved  and  used  by  important  industries. 

The  fall  in  the  main  tributaries  is  even  greater  in  many  cases  than  that  in  tho  parent 
stream,  and  owing  to  this  fact,  and  also  to  the  absence  of  lakes  and  swamps,  it  is  likely 
that  their  discharge  is  subject  to  great  extremes. 


IBR  156—06 5 


o  Rept.  Chief  Eng.  U.  S.  Army,  1880,  p.  1655, 


66 


WATER   POWERS   OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


A  statement  in  detail  of  the  profile  of  Wisconsin  River  is  given  in  the  following  table: 
Profile  of  Wisconsin  River  Jrom  its  mouth  to  Lake  Vieux  Deserl.a 


No. 


25 
26 
27 

28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 

34 
35 

36 
37 


SUtion. 


Mouth  of  river 

Sauk  City 

Merrimac 

Portage 

Kllboum,  railroad  bridge 

Sec.  36,  T.  15N.,  R.  5  E.,  north  line 

Peterwell  bridge,  opposite  Necedah 

Nekoosa  dam: 

Below 

Above 

Port  Edwards  dam: 

Below 

Above 

South  Centralia  dam: 

Below 

Above 

Grand  Rapids  dam: 

Below 

Above 

Biron  dam: 

Below '. 

Above 

Lower  paper  mill  south  of  Stevens  Point: 

Below 

Above 

Upper  paper  mill  south  of  Stevens  Point: 

Below 

Above 

Stevens  Point,  Wisconsin  Central  bridge 

Sec.  23,  T.  24N.,  R.  7E 

Knowlton  bridge,  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St. 
Paul  Rwy 

Sec.  8,  T.  26N.,  R.7  E 

Sec.  31,  T.  27  N.,  R.7  E.,  south  line 

Mosinee    rapids,  foot,  sec.  29,  T.  27  N.,  R.  7  E., 
south  line 

Mosinee  dam,  alwve 

Black  Creek,  mouth  of 

Cedar  Creek,  mouth  of 

Eau  Claire  River,  mouth  of 

Rib  River,  mouth  of 

Lower  Wausau  bridge 

Wausau  dam: 

Below 

Above 

Brokawdam: 

Foot 

Crest 


Distance. 


From 
mouth, 


1  Between 
points. 


MiUg.    !    Miles. 


90.0 
102.0 
118.0 
138.0 
147.0 
174.0 

208.0 


212.5 


214.0 


216.5 


220.5 


233.0 


233.5 


236.0 
240.0 

257.0 
260.5 
264.5 

206. 0 
266.5 
270.5 
274.0 
279.0 
280.5 
283.0 

283.5 


9.0 


90.0 
12.0 
16.0 
20.0 
9.0 
27.0 

34.0 


2.5 


4.0 


12.5 


2.5 
4.0 

17.0 
3.5 
4.0 

2.0 
.5 
4.0 
3,5 
5.0 
1.5 
2.5 


5.5 


Eleva- 
tion 
above 
jea  level. 


Descent  be- 
tween points. 


Total, 


t     Per 


Feet. 
604.0 
746,0 
764.0 
790.0 
814.0 
833.0 
875.3 

918.9 
936.6 

938.5 
955.5 

957.3 
969.3 

979.8 
1,002.0 

1,005.5 
1,016.3 

1,032.4 
1,044.0 

1,045.5 
1,058.8 
1,063.8 
1,075.8 

1,092.2  ! 
1,097.4  j 
1,104.0  ' 

1,105.8 
1.124.6 
1.125.9 
1,130.6 
1,138.6 
1.142.8 
1.151.0 

1.171.0 
1.177.7 


1,182.7  , 
1.194.7  i 


Feet.       Frrt. 


142.0 
18.0 
26.0 
24.0 
19.0 
42.  C 

43.6 
17.7 

1.9 
17.0 

l.S 


I 


1.5 
13.3 

4.0 
13.0 

16.4 
5.2 
6.6 

1.8 
18,8 
1.3 
4.7 
8.0 
4.2 
8.2 

20.0 
6.7 

5.0 
12.0 


I.', 
l.'t 

1.K3 
1.2 


10.5 

4.2 

22.2 

3.5 

.9 

10.8 

16.1 

1.3 

11.6 

3  -2 


1.5 
l.<i5 

.9 

37,6 

.3 

l.M 
1.6 
2.* 
3.3 


o  Authority:  Nos.  1  (low-water  elevation)  and  53-57,  United  States  engineers:  2and3.  Major  Warren: 
4-35,  Wisconsin  water-power  survey  by  the  U.  S.  G.  S.  and  State  authorities:  36-52,  levels  run  by  C  B. 
Pride  in  19(X)  for  the  Wisconsin  River  Valley  Advancement  Association;  56,  Chicago  and  North- 
western Ry. 


WOLF   BlVER   8Y8TBM. 


67 


Profile  cf  Wisconsin  River  from  its  mouth  to  Lake  Vieux  Desert — Continued. 


No. 


38 


40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 
49 
50 
51 

52 
53 
54 
55 

51? 
57 


Station. 


Pine  Rirer,  mouth 

MerriU: 

Lindore  dam,  foot 

LIndore  dam,  crest 

Upper  dam,  crest 

BUI  Cross  rapids,  foot 

Orandfather  rapids,  foot. . 

1.5  miles  above,  head . . 
Grandmother  rapids,  foot. 

GUbert  Station 

Tomahawk  dam: 

Foot '. 

Crest 

Nigger  Island 

Whirlpool  rapids,  head 

Hat  rapids,  foot 

Rliinelander  dam: 

Foot 

Crest 

Otter  rapids,  head 

Sec.  30,  T.  41  N.,  R.  lOE... 
Sec.  6,  T.  41  N.,  R.  10  E.... 
Lake  Vieux  Desert 


Distance. 


From 
mouth. 


Miles. 
298.0 


304.0 


305.0 
314.0 
318.0 
319.5 
%2l.2 
326.7 

328.7 


344.7 
346.7 
3il.7 

357.7 


392.7 
402.7 
416.7 
429.0 


Between 
points. 


Miles. 
9.0 


6.0 


Elevar 

tlon 

above 

sea  level. 


1.0 
9.0 
4.0 
1.5 
1.7 
5.5 

2.0 


16.0 
2.0 
5.0 

6.0 


35.0 
10.0 
14.0 
12.3 


Feet. 
1,212.7 

1,214.7 
1,227.7 
1,233.7 
1,245.7 
1,272.2 
1,381.7 
1,370.7 
1,409.7 

1,412.7 
1,425.7 
1,448.4 
1,464.8 
1,477.4 

1,523.2 
1,553.2 
1,570.7 
1,592.7 
1,644.0 
1,650.0 


Descent  be- 
tween points. 


Total. 


Feet. 
18.0 

2.0 
13.0 

6.0 
12.0 
26.5 
89.5 

9.0 
39.0 

3.0 
13.0 
23.7 
15.4 
12.6 

45.8 
30.0 
17.5 
22.0 
51.3 
4:  6.0 


Per 
mile. 


Feet. 
2.0 


6.0 
1.3 
6.6 
6.0 
5.3 
7.1 

1.5 


1.48 

7.7 

2:5 

7.6 


.5 
2.2 
3.66 

.5 


GEOLOGY. 

All  that  part  of  the  Wisconsin  River  basin  above  Nckoosa,  including  over  half  the  entire 
drainage,  is  underlain  by  pre-Cambrian  rocks.  North  of  Merrill  this  region  has  been 
covered  so  deeply  by  drift  that  the  rock  rarely  outcrops  except  in  the  river  bed.  These 
rocks,  by  presenting  a  barrier  to  further  erosion,  cause  numerous  rapids;  in  fact,  all  the 
water  powers,  with  but  a  single  exception,o  are  found  in  the  pre-Cambrian  area.  Below 
Nekoosa  the  pre-Cambrian  rocks  give  way  to  the  softer  Cambrian  sandstone,  the  disintegra- 
tion of  which  has  made  the  bed  of  the  river  one  succession  of  shifting  sandbars,  almost  with- 
out interruption,  to  its  mouth.  North  of  Nckoosa  this  sandy  belt  rapidly  narrows  and, 
at  Merrill,  90  miles  above,  almost  entirely  disappears,  being  replaced  by  the  clayey  loams 
and  loamy  clays.  North  of  Tomahawk  the  clays  are  replaced  again  by  sandy  soils  contain- 
ing gravel  and  by  bowlders  and  glacial  drift.**  In  the  60  miles  below  the  city  of  Tomahawk 
the  tributaries  of  Wisconsin  River  flow  mainly  through  a  clayey-loam  soil,  excepts  for  a 
narrow  strip  adjacent  to  the  main  stream,  where,  as  before  stated,  the  sandy  soil  pre- 
dominates. 

RAINFALT^  AND  IIU^-OFF. 

The  United  States  Geological  Survey  has  maintained  regular  gaging  stations  at  Necedah 
and  Merrill  since  November,  1902.  As  the  rainfall  during  1904  was  very  close  to  the  average 
rainfall  for  the  pa.st  thirty  years,  the  run-off  data  for  this  year  are  especially  valuable. 


oKIlboiim,  in  the  Cambrian  sflnd.stone. 

bWeidman,  Samuel,  Wis.  Oeol.  Nat.  Hist.  Survey,  Bull.  11,  pi.  1. 


68 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


Rainfall  records  for  this  drainage  area  are  given  elsewhere  in  this  report.     The  folkwrii^ 
tables  give  the  run-off  data: 

Discharqe  measurements  of  Wisconsin  River  near  Necedah,  Wis.j  in  1902, 1903^  190^,  and  if-^l?. 


Date. 


1902. 
Decern  l)er  2.. 
Decern  l)er  23. 


do. 
do. 
do. 


1903. 
January  13<». 
Februarys'* 
March  5  a — 

March  26 

April  2 

April  28 J do 

June  12 do 


Hydrographer. 


L.  R.  Stockman . 
....do 


Width. 


I        Gacie 
y.   hei^t. 


chare*'. 


Feet. 


Area  of  [    Mean 
section.  '  velocity. 

Square  ;  Fe^per  Srrwid- 
feet.        second.       Feet.        /e^d. 
4.90         3>T;; 


280 

284  j 
284  ' 


Johnson  and  Stockman. 
1j.  R.  Stockman 


I 


I 


July7 

August  19.... 
Septeml>er  4. 
October  12... 


1904. 

January  12 « 

May  11 


.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 


E.Johnson,  jr. 
....do 


May  23 Johnson  and  Hanna. 

July  16 '  K.Johnson,  Jr 

September  21 do 

Octolier  14 |  F.  W.  Hanna 

1905.  I 

Aprll4 S.  K.Clapp 

May  25 ; do 

June  12. ,  M.  L.  Brennon 

August  9 do 


220 
309 
281 
316 
302 
276 
314 

288 
317 
314 
294 
294 
449 


317 
437 
314 


2,617 
2,360 
2,411 
5,405 
4,206 
3,860 
3,282 
4,708 
2,832 
2,463 
3,871 

2,031 
4,685 
3,717 
3,525 
1,823 
6,216 

5,777 
4,437 
6,017 
3,846 


I 


1.18 

1.26 

1.09 

3.94 

2.42  ' 

1.84 

1.79 

4.43 

2.46 

2.05  ' 

3.23 

1.33 
3.65 
2.67 
1.66 
2.08 
5.71 

5.07 
3.23 
4.99 
2.4 


5.40 

5.65 
5.80 
5.80 

11.05 
7.65 
6.50 
6.00 

10.50 
6.20 
5.30 
9.43 

4.60 
9.60 
7.(B 
5.80 
4.92 
13.35 

12.33 
7.65 

12.9 
6.S5 


X5» 


2.C2 
21, 2« 
10. 19«t 
7.123 
5  ^Jv^ 

5.047 
12.5a« 

3.  lift-. 
17. IIH 
9  iCl 
5..S4S 

1^34.  C30 

29,29f 

13.5.VI 

39.(tV» 

9  >* 


Note.— Width  is  the  actual  width  of  water  surface,  not  including  piers.    Area  of  section  is  ibe 
total  area  of  the  measured  section,  including  both  moving  and  still  water. 

a  Frozen.  b  Add  to  this  discharge  3,000  second-feet  overflow. 

Mean  daily  gage  height  j  in  feet,  of  Wisconsin  River  near  Neeedahf  Wt«.,  December  2,  190i.  to 

December  31,  1905. 


Day 

1902. 
Dec. 

1 

1 

2 

'  4.90 

3 

4.95 

4 

1  5.10 

5 

4. 85 

6 

1  4,75 

4.70 

8 

I4.3O 

9 

4. -Vi 

10 

1  5  2.", 

11       .   ... 

5.20 

12 

5.40 

13 

1  5.25 

14 

'  5.30 

1903. 


I  Jan.  1 


5.90 
5.90 
5.80 
5.  75 
5.60 
5.70 
5.  a') 
5.  45 
5.  fiO 
5.  no 
5.45 
5.50 
5.65 
5.75 


Feb. 

5.75 

5.70 

5.90 

5.80 

5.75 

5.90 

5.80 

5.  70 

5.60 

5.80 

5.  75 

5.65 

5.90  i 

5.80  I 


Mar.  !  Apr.    May.  1  June. 


5.75 
5.60 
5.85 
5.80 
5.75 


7.70 
7.55 
7.35 
7.50 
7.40 


I     r 


5.80  I  7.25 
5. 90  I  7. 15 
5..')0  7.20 
5.50  I  7.10 
6.2,')  '  7.25 
a  40  I  7.05 
05  I  &90 
7.65  I  a  80 
6.  75  '  a  75 


6.65 
8.30 
9.35 
9.75 
9.95 
10. 15 
10.  a5 
9.70 
9.30 
8.80 
8.25 
8.15 
&45 
9.05 


July.  I  Aug. 


10.55 
9.85  I 
8.85 
8.15  I 
7.60  I 
7.40 
7.15  I 
6.85 

6.55  I 
&20  I 

aoo  I 

615  I 
5.85  I 


4.70 
4.00 
7.70 
8.90 
10.10 
10.00 
U0.6O 
10.60 
9.70 
&40 
7.80 


I 


4.80 
4.95 
4.75 
4.80 
4.85 
5.65 
6.65 
7.75 
8.00 
7.70 
7.50 


Sept.    Oct.    Nov.    D«. 


7.50  I  7.20 
7. 10     6  90 

a  70  I  a  70 


'I' 


5.20 
5.50 
540 
530 
530 
540 
560 
a  10 

a  10 
aso 

7.30 
7.30 
7.20 
8.60 


7.10 

aeo 
aso 
aso 

7.05 
&30 
9.05 
&95 
9.15 
9.80 
9.80 
9.35 
&90 
&30 


5.70 
5.55 
5w70 
5.75 
&55 
5.45 
530 
550 
5l35 
5u30 
5.25 
5.30 
530 
5.30 


5.  'fl 

f.  JO 
ft.  90 
7.10 

K.Kf 

dm 

&50 

a  40 
aar 
aor 

•  4.11; 
4.40 


a  River  frozen  December  13  to  31. 


WOLF   BIVEB   SYSTEM. 


69 


Mean  daily  gage  height,  in  feet,  of  Wisconsin  River  near  Necedah,  Wis.,  December  2, 1902, 
to  December  31,  i905— Continued. 


Day. 


15. 

16., 
17. 
18.. 

Id. 

20- 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 


Dec. 

I  5.35 
j  5.G6 
5.65 
'  5.30  '  5.55 


Jan.    Feb, 


Mar. 


&45 
5.  SO 
5.65 


Day. 


5.50 
5.45 
5.30 
5.30 
5.40 
5.60 
6.40 
6.30 
&60 
6.15 
&05 


5.45 
5.75 
5.65 
5.55 
5.85 
5.80 
5.80 
5.65 
5.85 
5.80 
5.70 


6.20     5.80 
6.00     5.80 


5.75 
5.65 
5.65 
5.55 
5.75 
5.70  ' 
5.70  ' 
5.65  I 
5.55  ' 
5.70 
5.65  i 
5.65 
5.70  ' 
5.85  I 
I 


7.30 
7.75 
8.35 


Apr. 


&80 
6.g5 
7.10 


&  70  7. 25 
&  85  '  7. 10 
10.00  &90 
11.40  I  &  50 
12.70  '  a  55 


May.     Juno.  I  July.    Aug.    Sept. 


ia55  I 
12.  &5  I 
11.80  I 
10.90 
10.05 
9.35  I 
8.95  I 


&30 
6.20 
&05 
&10 
6.35 
&50 
&85 


8.50  I  6.60 
8.00  , 


9.80 
10.10 
9.90 
9.35 
&70 
8.30 
7.95 
7.90 
7.75 
7.45 
7.35 
7.60 
&00 
8L70 
9.55 
10.55 
11.00 


I  5.70 

I  5.45 

I  5.35 

'  5.60 

I  5.45 

I  5.25 

I  5.15 

'  4.90 

'  5.20 

I  4.95 

I  4.70 

I  4.80 
4.75 

'  4.80 

I  4.70 

I  4.85 


6.55  I 
6.25 
&00 
6.10  I 
5.90  I 
6.00  i 
5.90  j 
5.60 
5.40  I 
5.20  I 
5.30  I 
5.30  I 
5.00 
5.10 
5.00 
4.90 
4.80 


6.70 
6.40 
&20 
&40 
6.10 
5.70 
5.90 
5.40 
5.10 
5.10 
5.40 
5.20 
5.30 
5.30 
5.20 
5.00 
5.00 


10.90 
12.50 
13.40 
14.60 
14.60 
14.60 
13.80 
12.70 
11.40 
10.60 
9.90 
a  70 
8.15 
7.95 
7.65 
7.65 


Oct.   Nov.  i  Dec. 


i..«l 


7.90  5.35 
7.65  I  5.25 
7.55  I  5.35 
7.25  I  4.90 


6.95 
7.00 
6.05 
6l55 
6.40 
6.40 
&30 
&10 
6.05 
5.95 
&00 


4.90 
5.00 
5.10 
5.05 
4.96 
6.20 
5.20 
5.05 
5.00 
5.15 
5.00 


5. 80  I  5. 40 
5.70    


4.50 
4.40 
4.00 
4.40 
4.30 
5.00 
4.80 
4.90 
4.90 
4.80 
4.70 
4.70 
4.90 
4.80 
4.90 
4.90 
4.90 


Jan.  I 


Feb.  I  Mar.     Apr.     May, 


V.M.         '  ; 

1 '«aoo  I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 , 

29 

30 , 

31 


I 


5.70  ' 
5.90  ' 
5.60  I 

aoo  ; 

&00 
5.90 

a  10  ' 

6.10  I 

aoo  I 

5.90  I 

5.10 

5.10 

5.20  I 

5.20  I 

5.30  I 

5.20  ! 

5.10  ' 

5.30 

5.00 

5.20 

5.20 

5.20 

5.10 

5.00 

5.10 

5.00 

5.10 

5.20 

5.20 

5wl0 


5.10 

5.20  I 

5.10  I 

5.00  I 

5.20 

5.20 

5.20 

5.00 

5.20 

4.90 

5.10 

5.20 

5.10 

5.20 

5.10 

5.20 

5.20 

6.10 

5.10 

5.00 

5.10 

5.10 

5.10 

5.10 

5.20 

6.30 

5.40 

5.20 

5.10 


5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.40 
5.40 
5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.20 
5.30 
5.20 
5.20 
5.20 
5.10 
6.00 
4.90 
6.00 
6.00 
4.80 
6.00 
6.00 
6.20 
5.20 
5.20 
5.60 
5.80 


0  6.60 
6l30 
6.50 
&90 
6.60 
a80 
7.00 
7.20 
7.50 
7.90 
8.80 
9.80 
9.80  ' 
9.40  I 
8.70  I 
8.30  I 
7.70  I 
7.30 
7.50  ' 
7.50  ' 
7.70  I 
7.70  I 
7.50  ' 
7.60  I 
8.00  ; 
9.30  j 
10.30 
10.90 
10.70 
10.50 


9.  SO 
9.20 
&90 
8.40 
&00 
7.80 
7.40 


June.  I  July. 


7.40 
7.90 

10.50  ' 
10.50  I 

9.90 ; 

9.40 
9.20  ! 
9.00  I 
&.50  I 
8.00  I 
7.70  , 
7.40  ' 
7.20  ' 
7.10  I 
7.00  I 
7.50  I 
8.10  I 
9.40  ' 
10.60  I 
11.90  ! 
12.60  I 
12.30  I 


11.20 
10.00 
9.10 
8.60 
&40 
9.0d 
9.90 
10.50 
10.50 
9.80 
9.00 
8.30 
7.80 
7.50 
7.20  I 
6.80  I 


Aug.  I  Sept. 


I 


6.30 

a6o  I 
a  60  I 
aso 
a2o  I 
a3o  I 
aoo  j 

5.90 

a  10 

a30  I 
a40  I 
a80  I 

7. 10 
7.00 

a6o  I 

5.90  I 

ago  I  5.80  I 


a  70 
a  50 
a2o 

5.90 
5.80 

a2o 

6.70 

aoo 

6.70 

a  10 

5.80 

a  10 
aoo 


5.50 
6.80 
5.50 
6.60 
5.30 
6.00 
4.80 
4.50 
4.80 
4.90 
4.80 
4.70 
4.80 
4.70 


4.50  I 
4.70 
4.90 
4.80  I 
4.70  1 
4.70  ' 
4.30  ! 
4.40  ' 
4.80  j 
"4.90 
5.30  ] 
5.30  I 
5.40  I 
5.30  I 
6.30 
5.70  I 
5.00  I 
5.10  I 
5.00 
5.00  I 
5.00  I 
4.70  I 
5. 10  j 
4.80 
4.90 
4.90 
6.00 
6.90 
4.60 
5.00 
4.70 


I 


Oct.     Nov.  ,  Dec. 


4.80 

4.80 

4.80 

4.80 

4.30 

5.80 

a30 

6.90 

5.70 

5.70 

5.30 

5.70 

6.30 

6.50 

5.60 

4.90 

5.20 

5.30 

5.90 

5.70 

4.80 

4.90  I 

4.80 

4.70 

4.85  I 

4.80  I 

a  70  J 

7.40  j 
7.40  ! 
7.00  I 


a60 

a45 
a2o 
a  10 

7.00 

aoo 

5.90 

a3o 
a  42 
a  70 

8.40 
10.10 
12.00 
13.20 
13.00 
11.90 
10.30 
9.40 
9.00 
8.40 
7.90 
8.00 
8.50 
8.50 
8.30 
8.30 
7.90 
7.60 
7.50 
7.40 
7.00 


|.  7.10  I 


4.80 
4.80 
4.80 


7.10  I 

a90  I 
aeo  I 
a  70  ' 
a50  '...:.. 

xa40  I 

aio  j 

aio  

aeo  j 

a  10  I    6. 10 

5.90  \ 

5.20  i 

5.60  I 

5.60    

6.60    

6.80  ' 

6.50  j     5.50 

5.30  f 

4.S 

5.00 

5.00 

5.30 

6.40 

6.30 

4.90 

5..% 

5.10 

4.£ 

5.00 

6.00 


aoo 


aoo 


«  River  frozen  January  1  to  March  31.    Ice,  average  thicknrss,  10  inches. 

ft  Ice  conditions  April  1  to  12. 

c  River  frozen  December  4  to  31.    Ice  1  foot  to  2  feet  thick. 


70 


WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Mean  daily  gage  height ,  in  feet ,  of  Wiaconsin  River  near  Neeedah,  Wis.,  Decefnher  ^,  190£,  to 
December  31 ,  1905 — Continued. 


Day. 


Jan.      Feb.  I  Mar. 


(«) 


(«) 


(«) 


6.00       5.70 


Apr. 


6.00  I 


I 


6.00 


6.00 


laao 

13.30 
12.80 
12.40 
11.90 
11.60 
11.80 
11.90 
9 ] I  11.40 

10 1 1 ' i  10.60 

11 ' ' I    6.15  I    9.90 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 


6.10 


9.30 
9.00 
8.60 
8.40 
8.00 
7.80 
7.50 
7.10 


May.    June. 


6.00 


6.00 


5.00 
5.00 
5.00  j 
5.30  ' 
5.60  I 
6.80  ! 
7.10  I 
8.30 
9.30  I 
10. 70  , 


S.95 
&10 
6.10 
6.00 
6.00 
6.50 
6.60 
6.70 
&90 
7.00 
7.00 
7.50 
8.30 
8.50 
8.30 
8.60 
9.30 
9.80 
9.80 

6. 70  '    9. 70 

6.60'i    9.30 

6.60 

6.50 

6.40 

6.30 

6.00 

6.15 

6.00 

5.95 

5.90 


6.50 

6.40 

6.40 

6.30 

7.70 

8.30 

11.00 

12.50 

15.00 

17.00 

16.00 

13.00 

11.90 

11.50 

11.20 

10.40 

9.70 

9.50 

9.60 

11.20 

12.40 


July. 


7.30 
7.30 
7.50 
7.50 
7.50 
8.10 
&60 
9.10 
8.70 
8.30 
7.00 
7.40 
7.00 
6.60 
6.70 
6.50 
6.30 
6.50 
6.30 
6.30 
6.30 


8.80 

12.30 

6.10 

8.30 

11.00 

5.90 

8.00 

9.80 

5.70 

7.70 

8.80 

5.75 

7.20 

8.30 

6.00 

7.10 

8.00 

5.50 

7.00 

7.80 

5.10 

6.70 

7.40 

5.30 

6.80 

7.00 

5.10 

6.60 

5.30 

Aug.     Sept.     Oct.      Not.      D-^ 


I 


5.50 
5.30 
5.20 
5.20 
5.60 
5.30 
5.40 
6.60 
6.90 
7.10 
a  70 
6.50 
6.70 
6.40 
6.20 
5.90 
6.00 
5.90 
5.80 
5.60 
5.50 
5.70 
5.70 
5.50 
5.70 
5.90 
5.30 
5.00 
5.80 
5.70 
5,70 


5.90 
6.00 
6.20 
6.00 
&10 
&10  I 
6.55 
&20 
5.70  ! 
5.60  I 
5lS0  I 
5.30  ' 
&40 
5.50 
5.50 
5.30 
5.40 
5.50 
6.90 
7.40 
8.20 
8.40 
8.40 
7.80 
7.20 
&80 
.6.50 
6.00 
5.90 
&00 


6.00 
5l70 
5.60 
5.50 
5.40 
&40 
5l40 
5.40 
5.20 
a30 
5lOO 
4.90 
4.70 
4.70 
5.10 
5.10 
5.30 
5.30 
5.60 
5.60 
5.80 
6.30 
6.70 
7.00 
6.80 
6.70 
6.  CO 
6.40 
6.20 
6.30 
6.00 


5.80 
5.50 
5.30 
5i40 
5.50 
5.40 
5.40 
5l40 
5l50 
5.S0 
5l60 
5l50 
5.50 
5.50 
5.30 
5.30 
5.10 
5.20 
5.20 
5.30 
5.20 
4.90 
4.90 
4.90 
4.80 
5l10 
5.10 
5.50 

&ao 

5.40 


A.6U 
6.* 

tL«C 

6  JL 

.V  n? 

7.70 

1.70 

;.•« 

7.  ft' 
T.-l 

7.  /»:• 

7.  a 

7..D 
7.3) 

T.m 

7.  iO 

6.* 
tl  t 

6.  ji 

7.1m 
6  V 
r.  «J 
6  3D 
f-..  10 


a  Rivor  frozen  over  January  1  to  March  20. 
Thicknoss  of  Ice,  2  to  2.5  feet, 
fr  No  ice  r3cord  for  December. 


Gage  heights  are  to  water  surface  in  a  hole  in  the  kv. 


WOLF   RIVER   8Y8TEM. 


71 


Rating  taUefor  Wiaeonsin  River  near  Necedahf  Wis.,  from  March  10  to  Jvly  5, 1903. a 


,X.  I  Discharge.'! 


G 
heigiit. 

Feet. 
4.6 
4.7 
4.8 
4.9 

.  5.0 

5.2 
5l3 
5u4 
5.5 
5.6 
5w7 
5.8 


^Second-feei. 

'         3.400  ' 

I         3,540  I 

3.690  ' 
3.840 

I  4,000  I 

'  4,160 

4,320  I 

I  4,490  I 

I  4,670  ' 

4.860  j 

5,060  I 
5.260 

6.470  I 


Gage 
height. 

Feet. 
&9 
&0 
&1 
6.2 
6.3 
6.4 
&5 
6.6 
8.7 
6.8 
6.9 
7.0 
7.1 


Discharge. 


Second-feet. 
5.680 
5.900 
6.130 
6,370 
6,620 
6,880 
7.150 
7,430 
7,710 
8,000 
8,290 
8.580 
8,870 


Gage 
height. 

Feet. 
7.2 
7.3 
7.4 
7.5 
7.6 
7.7 
7.8 
7.9 
8.0 
8.2 
8.4 
8.6 


Discharge. ' 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

9.160    ' 

8.8 

14,160 

9.460 

9.0 

14.800 

9,760 

9.2 

15,440 

10,060 

9.4 

16.080 

10.360 

9.6 

16,720 

10,670 

9.8 

17.360 

10,980 

10.0 

18.000 

11,290 

10.5 

19.600 

11.600    1 

11.0 

21.200 

12.240 

11.5 

22,920 

12,880 

12.0 

24,670 

13,520 

13.0 

28,360 

a  Flood  in  July  changed  channel. 
Rating  table  for  Wisconsin  River  near  Necedah,  Wis.,  from  Jvly  6  to  December  12, 1903. 


I 


.SX.     I>i«harge. 


heigl 

Feet. 
4.8 
4.9 
5.0 
5.1 
5.2 
5.3 
5.4 
5.5 
5.6 
5.7 
5.8 
5.9 
6.0 


^Second-feet. 
I  4.200  ' 
I  4.350 

I         4,510    I 

4,680 
'  4,860    I 

I  5.040 

I  5.230 

5.430    I 
I  5,630    ' 

5,840 

6.050    I 
I  6,270    I 

i  6,500 


Gage 
height. 

Feet. 
6.1 
6.2 
&3 
6.4 
6.5 
6.6 
6.7 
6.8 
6.9 
7.0 
7.1 
7.2 
7.3 


Discharge.     ^^X.     Discharge. 


J. 

^Second-feet.  I 
,  6.730 

6,970  I 
7.220 
7.480 
7.750 
8,030 
8,320 
8,620 
8.920 
9,220 
9,520 
9,820 
10,130 


Feet. 
7.4 
7.5 
7.6 
7.7 
7.8 
7.9 
8.0 
8.2 
8.4 
8.6 
8.8 
9.0 


^Second-feet. 
I  10,440 
I  10.760 
I  11.080 
I  11.410 
11,740 
12,070 
I  12,400 
I  13,060 
13,760 
14.440 
15.120 
15.800 


heiS^t. 

Discharge. 

Feet 

Second-feet. 

9.2 

16,480 

9.4 

17,160 

9.6 

17,840 

9.8 

18.620 

10.0 

19,200 

10.5 

20.900 

11.0 

22,600 

11  5 

24.300 

12.0 

26,000 

12.5 

27.700 

13.0 

29.400 

14.0 

32.800 

Rating  taUefor  Wisconsin  River  near  Necedah,  Wis.,  from  January  1  to  December  31,  190^, 


Gage 
height. 

1 
Discharge,  i 

Second-feet. 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 
Second-feet  i 

height. 

Discharge. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

4.0 

1.800 

5.4 

4.880    1 

6.7 

8.500 

4.1 

2.000 

5.5 

5.130    , 

6.8 

8,800 

4.2 

2,200 

5.6 

5.380    ; 

6.9 

9.100 

4.3 

2,400 

5.7 

5.640 

7.0 

9,400 

4.4 

2,600 

5.8 

6,900 

7.2 

10,000 

4.6 

2,810 

5.9 

6,170 

7.4 

10,600 

4.6 

3,020 

6.0 

6,440 

7.6 

11.200 

4.7 

3.240 

6.1 

6.720 

7.8 

11,800 

4.8 

3,460 

6.2 

7,010 

8.0 

12,400 

4.9 

3,690 

6.3 

7,300    1 

8.2 

13,000 

&0 

3,930 

6.4 

7.600    , 

8.4 

13.600 

&1 

4,150    1 

6.5 

7,900 
8,200    ' 

1 

1 

8.6 

14,200 

6.2 

4,390 

6.6 

8.8 

14.800 

5u3 

4,630 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

9.0 

15.400 

9.2 

16.000 

9.4 

16,600 

9.6 

17,200  ■ 

9.8 

17.800 

10.0 

18,400 

10.5 

19,900 

11.0 

21.400 

11.5 

23,610 

12.0 

25.860 

12.5 

28,230 

13.0 

30,750 

13.5 

38.450 

72 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Rating  table  for  Wisconsin  River  near  Necedah,  Wis.,  from  January  1  to  December  Jl,  19i^'*. 


Gaflc 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
height. 

Feet. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
height. 

Feet. 

Discharge. 
Second-feet. 

Gage 
height. 

Feet. 

Di9ehai]ge. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Second-feet. ' 

Second-fe4t. 

4.00 

1,800 

5.50 

5,130 

7.00 

9,400 

9.80 

17,800 

4.10 

2,000 

5.60 

5,380 

7.20 

10,000 

10.00 

18,400 

4.20 

2,200 

5.70 

5,640    ; 

7.40 

10,600 

10,50 

19,900 

4.30 

2,400 

5.80 

5,900 

7.60 

11,200 

11.00 

21, «» 

4.40 

2,600 

5.90 

6,170 

7.80 

11,800 

11.50 

23.610 

4.50 

2,810 

6.00 

6,440 

8.00 

12,400 

12.00 

25.J«0 

4.60 

3,020 

6.10 

6,720 

8.20 

13,000 

12.50 

28.230 

4.70 

3,240 

6.20 

7,010    i 

8.40 

13,600 

13.00 

30.730 

4.80 

3,460 

6.30 

7,300 

8.60 

14,200 

13.50 

38,430 

4.90 

3,690 

6.40 

7,600 

8.80 

14,800 

14.00 

4G.200 

5.00 

3,920 

6.50 

7,900 

9.00 

15,400 

15.00 

61,800 

5.10 

4,150 

6.60 

8,200 

9.20 

16,000    , 

16.00 

77,500 

5.20 

4,390 

6.70 

8,500 

9.40 

16,600    ' 

17.00 

93,300    1 

5.30 

4,630 

6.80 

8.800    ,i 

9.60 

17,200 

18.00 

109,200 

5.40 

4,880 

6.90 

9,100    ' 

! 

The  last  table  is  applicable  only  for  open-channel  conditions.  It  is  based  on  23  diacharge  me&san^ 
ments  made  during  1902-1905.  It  is  well  defined  between  gage  heights  4.5  feet  and  10.5  feet.  Th<»  tiil> 
has  been  extended  beyond  these  limits.  From  gage  height  6.3  feet  to  11  feet  the  rating  curve  Is  a  Uini^Dt . 
the  difference  being  300  per  tenth.  Above  11  feet  the  bank  overflows,  which  causes  the  diflcfaargc  t* 
increase  at  a  greater  rate  per  foot. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Wisconsin  River  near  Necedah,  TFi*.,  190S  to  J90.5. 
[Drainage  are^i,  5,800  square  miles.] 


Date. 


1903. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Discharge. 

1 " 
Mini- 
mum. 


Sec-feet.    Sec-feet. 


January 

February i I 

March  e 30,450 

April 10,670  | 

May '      21,200 

June 1      19,760  ' 

July 21,240  I 

August '      12,400  I 

September |      34,840  i 

18,520  I 
5,945 
9,520  i 


Mean. 


Run-off. 


Per 

I   square 

mile. 


October 

November 

Decemljer  1-12  d. 


1904. 


January.. 
February. 


March . . 
April.... 
May.... 

June 

July.... 
August. 


I 


6,015 
7,570 
3,540 
3,400 
4,125 
4,860 
5,840 
4,350 
*5,630 


Sec-feet. 
I>  2,600 
b2,550 
11,859 
8,322 
14,492 
6,897 
9,022 
6,648 
15,832 
10,586 
5,007 
r7,798 


Sec-feet. 
0.45 

.44 
2.04 
1.43 
2.50 
1.19 
1.56 
1.15 
2,73 
1.83 

.86 
'1.34 


Depth. 


Inches. 
0.52 

.46 
2.35 
1.60 
2.88 
1.33 
1.80 
1.33 
3.05 
2.11 

.96 
'.60 


KainfA.l  ^ 


Invkes. 

av. 

2-  ,i=> 

4m» 

»■  II 


Iff' 


I 


21,100 

7,300 

12,830 

2.21 

2.47 

2-H 

28,720 

9,400 

15,250 

2.63 

3.03 

P  .\' 

22,280 

5,640 

11,350 

1.96 

2.19 

4.S: 

9,700 

2,810 

5,926 

1.02 

1.18    . 

.X.S 

6,170 

2,400 

3,845 

.663 

.7641 

X2\ 

a  Rainfall  for  1903  is  the  average  of  the  recorded  precipitation  at  the  following  stations:  Antic^. 
Koepenick,  Stevens  Point.  Wausau,  Amherst,  Grand  Rapids,  and  Medford.  That  Tor  1904  includes  ibo 
same  stations,  except  Medford  and  adding  Miuocqua  and  Prentice. 

b  Estimated. 

*  March  1  to  9,  inclusive,  estimated. 

d  River  frozen  Decemljer  13  to  31. 

«  Twelve-day  period. 


WOLF   BIVER  SYSTEM. 


73 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Wiseormn  River  near  Necedah,  Wis.^  for  1903  to  1906 — 

ContiDued. 


Date. 


1904. 


September. 

October 

November. 
I>ecember.. 


Maxi- 
mum- 


Discharge. 

r 

Mini-    ; 
mum.    I 


Run-ofr. 


Sec-feet. 
10,600 
33,830 
9,700 


I 


Mean. 


Per 
Miuare 
mile. 


Sec-feet.  Sec-feet. 
2,400  5,227 

6,170         13,500 
3,460  ,        5,608 


I 


.1. 


Sec-feet. 
.001 
2.34    I 
.082  ' 


Depth. 

Inchea. 
1.01 
2.70 
1.10 


1905.a 


March  21-30 ' I  20,500 

April 1 35,370 

May ' 17,800 

June I ■  03,300 

July '  15,700 

August ,  9,700 

Si'ptoraber ! '  13, 600 

October ' 9,400 

November |  6,900 

December ' '  14,800 

The  year 


I 


3,920 
6,170 
6,305 
7,300 
4,150 
3,920 
4,630 
3,240 
3,460 
4,150 


9,037 
15,700 
11,060 
23,320 
8,711 
6,099 
7,419 
5,748 
4,667 
8,888 


1.56 
2.72 
1.91 
4.02 
1.50 
1.05 
1.28 
.991 
.805 
1.53 


I 


Rainfall. 


I  Inche*. 

4.53 
I  5.70 

I  -25 

1.86 

0.58 
3.04 
2.20 
■  4.48 
1.73 
1.21 
1.43 
1.14 
.886 
1.76 

34.87 


a  No  estimate  for  ice  period. 
Discharge  measurements  of  Wisconsin  River  at  Merrill ^  Wis.^  in  1902 ^  1903 ^  190 J^^  and  1906. 


Date. 


Hydrographer. 


1902.  I 

November  17 '  L.  R.  Stockman. 

December  10 do 


Width.l 

I 


Area  of       Mean        Gage 
section,    velocity,  height. 


Feet. 


Square 
feet. 


Feet  per 
t>econd. 


lOai.  I 

January  20  o do 

February  16<» ' do 

March  20 ! do 

May7* do 

June  17  «► ' do 

July  13 ' do 

August  22  6 1 do 

September  11 |  E.  C.  Murphy.. . 

October  24 '  L.  R.  Stoclcman . 

1904. 

May  126 E.  Johnson,  jr... 

Junes do 

July  15  6 do 

September  21 do 


Octotjer  14 

November  30  o. 

19a5. 

April  10 

May26 

June  10 

July  10 


F.W.  Hanna.... 
E.  Johnson,  jr... 

S.  K.  Clapp 

do 

M.  S.  Brennan... 
do 

a  Partly  frozen. 


310 
310 
344 
332 
308 
305 
283 
343 
334  I 

334  I 
334  I 
334 

312  j 

327 
306  i 


718  I 
660  ' 
2,639  I 
2,232  I 
1,269  I 
1,424  ! 
1,115  I 
1,759  I 
1,594  I 

2,220  I 
2,286  ' 
1,366  I 
1,210  I 
2,333  ' 
1,237  I 


334 

2,189 

324 

1,679 

334 

2,334 

332 

.,«« 

1.91 
1.86 
3.78 
3.54 
1.78 
2.10 
2.36 
3.19 
2.61 

3.71 
4.19 
1.98 
1.91 
4.42  I 
1.85  , 

3.84  ' 
2.69  I 
4.06 
2.73  ' 


Feet. 
7.6 
3.8 

4.05 
3.70 
8.90 
6.&5 
4.72 
5.70 
5.00 
6.66 
6.06 


7.85 
8.25 
5.30 
5.01 
8.25 
4.97 


Dis- 
charge. 


Second 
feet. 

9,015 

1,394 


1,376 
1,250 
9,905 
7,893 
2,258 
2,993 
2,638 
-5,614 
4,159 

8,242 
9,587 
3,107 
2,312 
10,323 
2,294 


7.8 


'  8,396 

6.25  I  4,519 

8.17  I  9,478 

6.48  ,  4,357 


I 


b  Affected  by  log  Jam. 


74 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Mean  daily  gage  height,  in  feet,  of  Wiseangin  River  at  MernU,  Wis.,  November  16,  1902,  h 

December  31,  1906, 


2. 
3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
16. 
16. 
17v 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 
27. 
28., 
29. 
30. 
31.. 


Day. 


Day. 


1902. 


Nov.    Dec. 


3.60  ' 
3.80  ' 
2.50 
2.05  I 
1.90 
1.90 
1.55  j 
1.05  ' 
.90  I 
1.05 

:Si 

.Oi  I 
.10, 


4.00 
3.95 
4.00 
4.00 
3.85 
3.65 
3.85 
3.85 
3.90 
3.85 
4.05 
3.80 
3.80 
3.75 
3.&5 
4.a5 
3.95 
3.90 
3.80 
3.70 
3.70 
3.70 


Jan.  j  Feb.    Mar.    Apr. 


3.65 

3.80 

3.70 

3.80 

3.85 

3.85 

3.80 

3.80 

3.75 

3.85 

3.70 

3.85 

3.75 

3.90 

3.70 

3.80 

3.65 

,  3.90 

3.65 

1  3.85 

3.70 

'  3.55 

3.70 

3.85 

3.80 

3.75 

3.75 

3.70 

3.65 

3.75 

3.50 

3.80 

3.70 

3.90 

3.70 

3.76 

4.20 

3.55 

4.00 

3.70 

3.a5 

3.65 

4.00 

3.85 

4.00 

3.45 

4.00 

3.65 

4.10 

3.70 

4.05 

3.70 

4.00 

3.(iO 

3.85 

3.65 

3.95 

1 

3.90 

3.85 

3.70 

3.70 
,  3.80 
I  3.75 

3.80 
I  3.70 
I  3.80 

3.75 
I  3. 75 
I  3.90 

4.a'> 

i  4.20 

j  4.75 

I  5.00 

I  5.05 

I  5.0) 

5.50 

I  5.55 

I  7.90 

8.35 

I  8.30 

8.00 

I  8.25 

7.50 

I  7.35 

7.00 

6.65 

6.05 

6.80 

6.45 

6.70 


6.75 
6.70 
6.55 
6.65 
6.75 
6.70 
6.80 
6.90 
6.75 
6.70 
6.75 
6.55 
6.  OS 
6.70 
6.75 
6.80 
6.85 
6.75 
7.10 
7.20 
7.10 
6.80 
6.75 
6.80 
7.05 
6.10 
6.35 
6.50 
6.85 
6.f.0 


May.  June.l  July.  |  Xug.  \  Sept. !  Oct.  I  Nov.    I**t. 


6.65  I 
8.30  ' 


5.15 
5.20 
5.55 
5.60 
6.00 
6.45 
6.40 
5.85 
5.35 
5.a5 
6.30 
6.75 


7.05 
7.65 
7.65 
8.70 
8.80 
8.70 
8.30 
8.10 
7.70 
7.60 
7.50 
7.30 
6.30 
5.50 
6.00 
5.40 
5.50 
5.40 
5.15 
5.55 
4.65 
4.90 
5.40 
5.10 
4.65 
5.10 
4.10 
4.50 
5.60 
4.50 
4.30 


4.30 
4.30 
4.90 
5.60 
6.55 
7.45 
7.35 
7.25 
(«) 


I 


5.50 
5.70 
5.80 
6.00 
6.10 
6.10 
6.50 
6.60 
6.80 
6.90 
9.10 
9.40 
10.00 
11.10 
11.50 
10.80 
10.10 
9.40 

&go 

&50 
8.10 
7.90 
7.70 
7.10 
7.20 
7.20 
7.05 
5.40 
6.a5 


6.50  5.S5 
5.90  >  5.60 
6.90  j  5.30 
7.85  [  5.30 
8.00  ,  5.30 
7.80  ■  5-75 
8.85  '  5.30 
8. 55  I  5. 10 


8.35 

5-20 

&20 

5.10 

7.70 

5.30 

7.25 

5.25 

7.35 

5.25 

7.10 

5.25 

7.10 

ol05 

6.75 

5.50 

6.  CO 

5.35 

6.60 

4.65 

6.60 

4.75 

6.35 

4.85 

6.35  1 

4-75 

6.35 

4.55 

6.40, 

4.60 

6.15  ' 

4-70 

6.05 

4.90 

6.00 

5.35 

5.85  j 

.5.25 

5.75 

4.83 

5-85 

4.85 

5.*> 

5.03 

5,60 

.X  r. 

•xflTi 
4«> 

4-n^ 
<-« 

4*«J 

5..V 
4  v. 

all"' 

:.  I'l 

-j.  iJ 

.\3> 
XXi 
4.W 

4  HI 
A.  "II 
xOO 
5.  J 

S.  -V" 
.-I  '0 

.'l.5(I 
;■  Nl 


Jan.  I  Feb.  j  Mar.     Apr.     May 

I I 


1904.  ,  I 

1 1  5.90  5.65  I 

2 1  6.00  '  5.65  I 

3 6.05  I  5.(»0  ' 

4 1  6.10  '  5.55  I 

5 1  6.10  I  5.70 

6.. I  6.00  I  5.70  I 

7 ,  5.75  !  5.60  I 

8 1  5.80  ]  5.80 

9 5.50  '  5.80 

10 1  5.85  '  5.75  I 

11 1  5.55  I  5.85 

12 5.70  ,  5.75 

13 '  5.75  6.10  I 

14 j  5.70  I  5..'>5 

15 1  5.55  I  5.60  I 


5.90  I 
5.95  j 
5.90  I 
5.90  ' 
5.90  I 
5.85 
5.95  I 
5.85  I 
5.90 
5.90  I 
5.90  I 
5.90  ' 
5.80  I 
5.80 
5.90  I 


5.90 
5.») 
5.90 
5.85 
5.90 
6.40 
6.35 
6.65 
7.20 
7.15 
7.15 
6.75 
6.80 
0. 65 
6.35 


7.55 
7.10 
6.80 
7.05 
7.30 
6.75 
6.75 
7.05 
8.40 
8.20 
7.90 
7.95 
7.70 
7.95 
7.70 


June.    July. 


7.55 
7.25 
7.30 
7.70 
8.05 
8.30 
7.80 


7.55 
7.35 
7.00 
7.55 
7.25 
6.50 
6.20 
Chain  gage  stolen. 


6.75 
6.80 
6.60 
6.20 
6.25 
6.20 
6.20 
6.35 
6.70 
6.95 
7.20 
6.55 
5.45 
6.00 
5.75 


Aug.  I  Sept. 


5.15 
5.20 
5.10 
5.00 
5.05 
5.25 
5.20 
6.65 
5.10 
5.20 
5.30 
6.20 
7.15 
5.50 
5.30 


5.a'» 
4.90 
5.95 
7.80 
6.90 
6.25 
/.W 
7.00 
6.75 
5.90 
6.15 
6.60 
6.15 
5.ft5 
5.95 


Oct. 


6.15 
6.25 
6.70 
5.85 
6.40 
5.90 
5.60 
6.70 
7.75 
10.10 
10.40 

iai5 

9.05 
8.30 
7.55 


Nor.  I  JVC 


6.  TO 

6.60 

6.25 

5.90 

5.75 

5.70 

5.55 

5.15 

4-70  , 

4.55 

4.40 

4.75 

5.90 

rXOO 

4.60 


4.« 
5.  J I 
4.K" 
4.M 
4-7.' 
4.5Li 
4.'« 
5.  I* 
.uU 
-xik 
4.  C' 
4.45 
4.H» 
ill" 
5.30 


WOLF   RIVER   SYSTEM. 


75 


Mean  daUy  goge  height ^  in  feet,  of  Winconsin  River  at  Merrill j  Wis.,  November  16, 1902,  to 
December  SI,  1905 — Continued. 


Day. 

'             1 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Vpr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1904. 

l»t 

..      5.60  1 

5.65 

5.85 

5.85 

7.90 

6.10 

5.60 

5.70 

5.90 

7.15 

4.50 

5.30 

17 

..'    5.60 

5.95 

5.90 

6.45 

7.40 

6.05 

5.80 

6.65 

5.90 

6.90 

4.55 

5.20 

IJS 

..      5.55 
..      5.65  ' 
..!    5.60 

5.90 
5.90 
6.15 

5.75 
5.65 
5.70 

6.30 
6.35 
6.15 

6.55 
6.75 
6.75 

6.10 
6.50 
6.20 

6.a5 
4.50 
4.60 

5.90 
5.75 
6.40 

5.95 
5.90 
5.20 

6.90 
6.95 
6.25 

4.55 
4.75 
5.05 

5.20 

r.j 

5.10 

:») 

5.05 

21 

..      5.70  1 

5.&> 

5.75 

6.05 

6.&5 

6.05 

5.10 

6.10 

5.35 

6.35 

5.10 

5.20 

22 

..,     5.65  , 

5.95 

5.80 

6.05 

7.05 

6.10 

5.20 

6.20 

5.05 

6.80 

5.25 

5.70 

isj 

..      5.60 

5.90 

5.35 

6.10 

7.05 

6.05 

5.30 

6.15 

5.50 

6.65 

5.10 

5.25 

•24 

..      5-50  ' 

5.90 

5.75 

7.00 

7.05 

7.25 

4.90 

5.&5 

6.80 

6.55 

4.95 

i.20 

o- 

..      5.85 
..      5.55 

..   5..V) ; 

..'    5.55 

5.90 
5.90 
5.90 
5.90 

6.00 
5.85 
5.55 
5.70 

8.10 
8.35 
8.45 
8.  .50 

8.10 
10.10 
10.60 

9.80 

5.60 
6.00 
6.25 
7.25 

4.  .50 
4.60 
5.40 
5.10 

5.80 
5.70 
6.00 
5.50 

7.10 
7.75 
7.15 
7.20 

7.10 
7.20 
6.90 
6.75 

4.75 
4.95 
.5.45 
5.15 

5  45 

•>  - 

5  05 

•>7 

5.60 

2,S 

5.95 

■Jt* 

..      5..x>  j 

5.95 

5.80 

8.20 

9.05 

6.80 

5.50 

5.90 

6.40 

6.85 

5.15 

5.60 

3f) 

-.      5.55  , 

5.70 

7.75 

8.60 

6.30 

5.70 

6.35 

6.10 

6.65 

4.85 

5.60 

31 

..      5.50  i 

.» 



7.95 

5.50 

5.05 

6.25 

6.16 

1{«5. 

1 

I 

..'     &20 

5.2,5 

5.35 

8.90 

5.15 

5.80 

7.40 

5.05 

6.10 

6.20 

6.20 

6.20 

2 

..I     4.95  1 
..      5.20| 
..,     5.70 

5.00 
4.90 
5.15 

5  35 
5.20 
5.40 

8.80 
9.20 
8.90 

5.70 
6.20 
6.10 

5.70 
5.90 
5.50 

7.30 
7.50 
7.60 

5.45 
5.35 
5.35 

6.20 
6.15 
6.70 

6.00 
6.20 
6.00 

6.30 
5.60 
5.25 

5.70 

3 

5.00 

4 

5.80 

5 

..'    5.35  1 

5.50 

5.25 

8.80 

6.25 

7.60 

8.00 

5.95 

6.70 

6.05 

5.80 

5.40 

f> 

.J     5.40  ' 

5.3.5 

5. 35 

8.80 

6.40 

10.40 

8.20 

6.10 

6.25 

6.00 

5.35 

5.25 

•J 

..|     5.20 
..      5.45 

5.15 
5, 25 

5.55 
5.15 

8.80 
8.20 

6.45 
7.20 

10.00 
9.00 

7.70 
7.80 

&85 
6.00 

6.00 
6.25 

5.30 
5..-W 

5.10 
5.55 

6.66 

8 

5.55 

0 

..      5.15  1 

5.10 

.5.20 

8.ro 

6.70 

9.00 

8.00 

6.25 

6.10 

4.30 

5.45 

6.36 

10 

..      5.05 

5.40 

.5. 65 

7.80 

6.  45 

8.40 

7.20 

6.40 

6.30 

4.90 

5.90 

6.76 

11 

..      5.3,5 

5.20 

,5. 45 

7.40 

6. 95 

8.  ,50 

6. 85 

6.a5 

6.15 

6.15 

5.80 

6.70 

J2 . 

..1     5..%  1 

4. 05 

5.05 

7.20 

7.20 

8.40 

7.05 

.5.75 

6.30 

6.80 

5.15 

5.65 

13 

. .      5.  50 
.._     5.90 
..'     fi.OO 
..      5.95 

.5.20 
5.  2,5 
5.15 
5.50 

5. 45 
4.70 
4.70 
4. 95 

7.40 
7.00 
6.90 
7.20 

6.90 
7.40 
7.60 
7.60 

7.80 
7.80 
7.60 
8.10 

6.20 
6.30 
0.80 
6.50 

6.00 
6.15 
5.90 
6.05 

6.65 
6.40 
0.05 
6.40 

6.45 
6.55 
5.90 
6.15 

5..% 
5.00 
5.20 
5.65 

5.6o 
5.60 

14 

15 

6.-35 

If. 

6.70 

17 

.J    5.75 

5.70 

,5.05 

7.40 

7.80 

10.40 

6.30 

5.90 

6.  GO 

5.85 

5.70 

6.16 

18 

..      5.85 

5.65 

,5.25 

7.00 

7.80 

10.60 

6.55 

6.40 

6.45 

6.25 

5.75 

6.50 

19 

..      5.65 
.J     5.15 

5.55 

5.  a5 

5.25 
5.25 

6.  45 
6.45 

7.50 
7.30 

10.60 
9.60 

5.05 
5,05 

6.25 
6.20 

6.90 
7.35 

6.05 
6.85 

5.85 
5.45 

6.60 

20 

6.66 

21 

..'    5.15 

4.30 

5.  .50 

6.45 

7.00 

9.20 

6.45 

5.90 

6.70 

0.70 

5.75 

6.76 

22 

..(     5.60 

5.20 

4.95 

6.05 

6.75 

8.60 

6.00 

6.80 

7.,% 

6.70 

5.75 

5.75 

2.J 

..1     5.80  1 
..'     6.05, 

5.75 
5.80 

4.95 
5.35 

5.95 
5.60 

6.80 
6.40 

8.50 
8.00 

5.50 
5.40 

0.50 
4.80 

6.90 
6.80 

6.80 
6.15 

5.75 
5.60 

5  45 

24 

5.56 

2.').... 

..     fl.  15 

5.60 

4.65 

5.75 

6.  45 

7.60 

5.20 

5.55 

6.50 

6.30 

5.70 

5.90 

20 

. .      5. 85  ' 

5.15 

5.75 

G.20 

6.30 

6.90 

5.10 

6.35 

6.25 

6.70 

5.20 

6.26 

27 

. .      5. 85 

5. 6,5 

6.a5 

5.90 

6.35 

7.60 

5.6,5 

6.40 

6.55 

6.55 

4.80 

5.90 

2S 

.J    5.25, 

5.35 

7.40 

.5. 65 

6.35 

7.50 

5. 80 

6.25 

6.15 

6.90 

.5.15 

1     6.60 

29 

. .      5. 10 

8.00 

5.  95 

6.25 

6.  75 

5.60 

5.75 

5.95 

6.50 

5.65 

.5.85 

30 

..      5.05 

8.60 

5.45 

6. 25 

7.05 

5.75 

6.00 

6.  45 

5.70 

5.50 

,     5.70 

31 

..'    5.15 

8.  .50 

6.00 



4.  .30 

6.80 

5.80 

6.40 

Note.— No  ice  HBCord  at  this  station. 


76 


WATER   POWERS   OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


Rating  table  for  Wisconsin  River  at  highway  bridge  near  Merrill,  Wis.,  from  June  17,  IS^H,  to 

December  31, 190^. 


Qage 
height. 

Discharge. 
Second-ft. 

Oagc 
height. 

Feet. 

Dischaiige. 
Second-ft. 

heiS^t. 

Discharge. 
Second'/t. 

Gaf«  • 
height. 

IMschai^. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

S^cond-ft.  , 

4.5 

1,485 

5.5 

3,225 

6.5 

5,485 

8.0 

9,565 

4.6 

1,645 

5.6 

3,425 

6.6 

5,725 

8.2 

10,225 

4.7 

1,805 

5.7 

3,635 

6.7 

5,975 

8.4 

10,885 

4.8 

1,970 

5.8 

3,855 

6.8 

6,225 

&6 

11,545    1 

4.9 

2,140 

5.9 

4,075 

6.9 

6,475 

8.8 

12,203 

5.0 

2,310 

6.0 

4,305    1 

7.0 

6,725 

9.0 

12,865    1 

5.1 

2,485 

6.1 

4,535 

7.2 

7,245 

9.5 

14,515    1 

5.2 

2,665 

6.2 

1          4,765 

7.4 

7,785 

lao 

16,165 

5.3 

2,845 

6.3 

5,005 

7.6 

8,345 

las 

17,S15 

5.4 

3,a'i5 

6.4 

5,245     1 

7.8 

8,935 

11.0 

19,465 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  Wisconsin  River  at  Merrill,  Wis.,  for  190^ 
[Drainage  area,  2,6.10  square  mile^.] 


Date. 


1904. 


Discharge. 


Ran-off. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Sec.  ft. 

January 4,535 

February |        4,655 

March '        4,305 

April 11,220 

May '      18,140 


June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November. 
Deceml)or.. 


The  year. 


10,560 
7,245 
7,110 
8,935 

17,480 
5,975 
4,195 

18,140 


Mini- 
mum. 


Sec.  ft. 
3,225 
3,330 
2,945 
3,970 
5,610 
3,425 
1,485 
2,310 
2,140 
3,425 
1,410 
1,490 


Mean. 

Sec.  ft 
d,664 
3,749 
3,880 
6,242 
8,935 
6,472 
3,957 
3,766 
5,000 
7,343 
2,800 
2.566 


Per 
square 
mile. 


1,410 


4,865 


Sec.  ft. 
1.39 
1.43 
1.48 
2.37 
3.40 
2.46 
1.51 
1.43 
1.90 
2.79 
1.06 
.976 

1.85 


Depth. 

Inches. 
1.60 
1.54 
1.71 
2.64 
3.92 
2.74 
1.74 
1.65 
2.12 
S.22 
1.18 
1-12 


,  Rainfall. 


fnch/.f. 

e.33 

1.30 
1.4i 

2-01 
6.  A' 
4.M 
3  > 

4.  -k] 


RAII^ROADS. 

The  railway  facilitie.s  will  be  discuwwd  in  connection  with  each  power,  but  in  genenl 
it  may  be  said  that  they  are  excellent.  The  willingness  of  the  railroads  to  go  where  therv 
is  an  assured  traffic  is  seen  at  Nekoosa.  Since  the  construction  of  the  paper  and  pulp 
mill  at  this  point  three  different  railroads  have  extended  their  lines  to  the  mill. 

The  land  is  being  rapidly  cleaned  and  made  into  farms,  especiall}-  during  the  past  fiv^ 
years.     This  fact  insures  the  certain  and  steady  exU^nsion  of  the  railroads  in  this  region. 

AVATER  l»OWERS. 

In  the  first  138  miles  above  its  mouth  Wisconsin  River  occupies  a  wide,  sandy  vaUej, 
entii-ply  devoid  of  any  falls  or  rapids,  and  showing  a  very  uniform  descent  of  only  IJ 
feet  per  mile. 


WOLF    RIVER   SYSTEM.  77 


The  first  water  power  is  found  at  Kilbourn,  where  the  river  flows  across  the  Cambrian 
sandstone  in  a  narrow,  deep  gorge  known  as  "The  Dell/'  100  to  600  feet  wide  and  40  to 
70  feet  deep.  The  drainage  area  of  Wisconsin  River  at  Kilbourn  is  about  8,200  square 
miles.  Accordiiig  to  discharge  measurements  made  by  United  States  engineers,  the  low- 
"water  discharge  is  3,000  second-feet.  A  dam  with  a  crest  3  feet  above  low  water  was  for 
many  yeara  operated  here,  under  an  old  charter,  the  power  being  used  for  a  flouring  mill. 
Tliis  was  burned  down  over  thirty  years  ago  and  since  that  time  no  use  has  been  made  of 
the  power. 

The  Madison  Traction  Company,  of  Madison,  Wis.,  has  a  charter  for  a  15-foot  dam 
above  the^  ordinary  low-water  level,  with  the  privilege  of  2  feet  of  flashboards,  giving  a 
head  of  17  feet  or  more.  It  has  been  proposed  to  build  an  electric  railroad  from  Madison 
northward  via  Kilbourn,  as  an  extension  of  the  present  Madison  street  railway  system, 
and  the  plans  contemplate  using  this  water  power  to  drive  the  dynamos. 

The  river  continues  to  flow  in  the  Cambrian  sandstone  for  the  next  70  miles,  until  Nekoosa 
is  reached.  Although  the  river  descends  over  105  feet  in  this  distance  the  fall  is  so  evenly 
distributed  that  good  water-power  sites  are  lacking.  At  Nekoosa,  however,  for  the  first 
time,  we  find  the  river  flowing  in  the  hard  pre-Cambrian  crystalline  rock.  In  the  next 
8i  miles  above,  the  river  has  a  descent  of  83  feet,  nearly  all  of  which  is  improved  by  5 
dams.  These  dams  furnish  power  for  5  lai^e  modern  paper  and  pulp  mills  and  will  be 
described  in  order,  beginning  below. 

NEKOOSA. 

A  rock  crib  dam  at  Nekoosa  develops  a  head  of  nearly  20  feet.  This  power  is  used 
to  operate  a  modern  paper  and  sulphite  mill,  one  of  the  largest  on  the  river,  owned  by 
the  Nekoosa  Paper  Company.  An  installation  of  37  turbines  is  reported,  developing  a 
total  of  4,560  actual  horsepower  for  twenty-four  hours  per  day.  The  drainage  area  of 
the  river  at  this  point  is  about  5,700  square  miles. 

PORT  EDWARDS. 

About  4 J  miles  farther  upstn^am  is  another  fully  developed  power  owned  by  the  John 
Edwards  Manufacturing  Company.  A  head  of  18  feet  is  here  available.  Turbine  wheels, 
to  the  number  of  28,  develop  3,860  actual  horsepower,  which  is  used  to  run  a  lai^  paper 
and  pulp  mill.  Two  miles  farther  upstream  is  the  Centralia  Pulp  and  Water  Power  Com- 
pany's dam,  with  an  average  head  of  13  feet.  Turbines  of  1,460  horsepower  are  here 
installed,  according  to  the  company's  report,  all  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  and 
pulp. 

GRAND  RAPIDS. 

One  of  the  lai^st  and  most  complete  paper  and  pulp  mills  in  the  entire  State,  owned  by 
the  Consolidated  Paper  and  Power  Company,  is  located  on  the  west  side  of  the  river, 
within  the  city  limits  of  Grand  Rapids.  This  mill  was  erected  in  1902  and  its  instal- 
lation of  paper-making  machinery  has  all  the  recent  important  improvements.  Before 
this  mill  was  constructed  there  was  a  total  descent  of  30.8  feet  between  the  foot  of  Biron 
dam,  4  miles  above,  and  the  Grand  Rapids  bridge.  Of  this  amount  the  new  masonry 
and  concrete  dam  of  the  Consolidated  Paper  and  Power  Company  develops  a  head  of 
about  25  feet.  Turbines  of  6,500  horsepower  are  already  installed,  flume  space  being  also 
provided  for  the  development  of  an  additional  1,000  horsepower  for  future  expansion. 
Prior  rights  to  500  horsepower  developed  by  this  dam  are  owned  by  the  Grand  Rapids  • 
Mining  Company,  which  uses  it  in  the  manufacture  of  flour. 

The  Pioneer  Wood  and  Pulp  Company  has  certain  rights  to  alx)iit  600  or  800  horse- 
power "when  the  stage  of  the  river  will  permit,"  which  has  meant  about  ten  months  each 
year.  This  power  is  used  by  the  company  for  grinding  wood  pulp.  The  Grand  Rapids 
foundry  also  has  rights  to  about  40  horsepower  from  the  same  dam.     The  milling  company 


78  WATER    POWERS   OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

and  the  foundry  both  receive  their  power  from  the  ConsoHdat^^d  Company  in  consideratioD 
for  power*  previously  owned  by  them  and  displaced  by  the  present  dam. 

The  above-described  four  paper  mills  have  the  advantage  of  competition  in  freight  rat*^ 
incident  to  being  served  by  each  of  the  following  railways:  The  Chicago  and  Northwesteni: 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul;  Green  Bay  and  Western;  and  Wisconsin  Central. 

About  4  miles  above  Grand  Rapids  is  located  the  dam  of  the  Grand  Rapids  Paper  and 
Pulp  Company.  A  head  of  from  10  to  12  feet,  depending  on  the  stage  of  the  water.  i> 
reported  with  turbines  already  installed  of  3,063  hoi^sepower.  This  company  Is  serred 
by  the  Green  Bay  and  Western  Railroad.  In  the  13  miles  between  the  crest  of  the  Bin.m 
dam  and  the  foot  of  the  next  one  above,  near  Stevens  Point,  Wisconsin  River  desreiKt 
16  feet.  The  only  rapids  in  this  distance  is  one  of  3i  feet  called  "Crocked  Rift,"  about 
4  miles  above  the  Biron  dam.  iThe  greater  part  of  this  fall  properly  belongs  to  the  Binic 
power  and  is  largely  developed  by  the  splash  boards  of  that  dam. 

STEVENS  POINT. 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  top>ography  of  the  river  valley  between  Neko<>«a  and  Steven* 
Point,  whereby  the  adjacent  tributaries  flow  for  long  distances  parallel  to  the  main  riv»  r, 
and  to  the  decided  narrowing  of  the  river  valley  between  these  points,  the  dischai^pp  ol 
Wisconsin  River  at  Stevens  Point  does  not  differ  greatly  from  that  at  Nekousa.  The 
drainage  area  at  Stevens  Point  is  about  5,600  square  miles. 

In  the  city  of  Stevens  Point  and  immediately  south  of  it  are  found  three  develop*^ 
powers  and  one  undeveloped.  Of  the  fonner,  the  lower  two  are  owned  and  operated  hy 
the  Wisconsin  River  Paper  and  Pulp  Company.  One  of  its  dams  is  "located  in  the  NE 
i  sec.  17,  T.  23  N.,  R.  8  E.,  just  below  the  mouth  of  Plover  River,  and  supplies  a  head 
of  9  feet.  At  this  point  a  lai^ge  island  occupies  the  middle  of  the  river  and  is  made  u«* 
of  in  the  construction  of  the  dam.  The  company  has  installed  turbines  rated  at  1J370 
horsepower.  One-half  mile  above  this  dam,  at  a  point  where  the  river  is  much  narrower. 
is  located  the  second  dam  belonging  to  this  corppany,  giving  an  average  head  of  16  fet'i. 
Here  are  installed  18  turbines  rated  at  4,660  horsepower.  This  power,  as  well  as  tlml 
derived  from  the  dam  below,  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pulp  and  papier.  Both  niilb 
are  located  on  the  east  or  right  bank  and  have  good  shipping  facilities.  Al>ove  the  Llm- 
described  power  and  about  a  mile  below  the  dam  next  above  is  an  undeveloped  power  »»r 
about  7-foot  head  belonging  to  the  same  company.  As  the  river  is  wide  at  this  point,  a 
very  long  dam  would  be  required  to  develop  this  power,  but  its  loc^ation  in  the  city  wimlci 
make  it  very  valuable." 

The  third  dam  is  located  within  the  limits  of  the  city  of  Stevens  Point  and  is  owned 
by  the  Jackson  Milling  Company.  This  dam  develops  an  average  head  of  7  fet»t.  Thf 
owners  have  installed  only  3  turbines,  rated  at  140  horsepower,  which  is  used  to  run  a  flour 
and  feed  mill.  By  building  a  new  dam  1,000  feet  below  the  present  one,  with  a  crest  of  in 
feet,  a  12-foot  head  could  easily  be  obtained  without  flooding.  On  account  of  its  local  lor. 
in  a  growing  city  of  10,000  people^  it  would  seem  that  all  this  power  could  easily  find  takcry^ 
at  remunerative  rates. 

BATTLE  ISLAND. 

In  the  19  miles  between  the  head  of  the  upper  dam  at  Stevens  Point  and  the  bridge  «»f 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  ^t.  Paul  Railway  near  Knowlton,  according  to  railroad  levels, 
the  river  descends  30  feet.  In  this  distance  there  is  only  one  opportunity  for  the  develop- 
ment of  water  power,  namely,  at  Battle  Island,  in  sec.  28,  T.  26  N.,  R.  7  E.  From  ih<» 
loot  of  the  rapids  at  Mosinee  to  Battle  Island,  according  to  a  surve)-,  there  is  a  fall  of  2il 
feet.  The  banks  at  this  point  arc  said  to  be  high,  so  that  a  dam  could  be  economically 
built  with  a  head  of  20  feet.     The  Wisconsin  Valley  division  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 


WQLF   RIVER   SYSTEM.  79 

and  St.  Paul  Railway  is  distant  less  than  a  mile  from  this  site,  and  rock  and  timber  are 
very  abundant  and  near  at  hand;  in  fact,  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  river  are  in  rock. 


An  easily  developed  power,  one  of  the  best  on  the  river,  is  found  at  Mosinee,  in  sec.  31, 
T.  27  N.,  R.  7  E.  It  is  owned  by  the  Joseph  Dessert  Lumber  Company.  About  forty 
years  ago  a  flooding  dam  with  a  head  of  5  or  6  feet  was  built  here,  and  it  has  since  been 
rebuilt  several  times.  The  dam  was  located  near  the  head  of  the  rapids,  probably  because 
of  the  ease  of  construction  due  to  a  large  island  in  the  river  at  this  point.  Later  a  sawmill 
was  built  OL'  (he  right  bank,  thereby  securing  a  head  of  about  12  feet.  At  the  present  time 
Ihi^  milJ  is  nm  by  steam  power,  and  no  use  is  made  of  the  water  power.  An  effort  is  now 
being  made  tc  interest  capital  to  develop  this  power  to  its  maximum  amount  for  a  pro- 
posed paper  and  pulp  mill.  This  will  require  a  new  dam.  Such  a  dam  could  be  made  to 
develop  a  head  of  20.7  feet  by  flooding  a  small  marsh  above.  Tlie  high  banks  and  the  bed 
of  the  river  are  in  the  hard  crystalline  rock. 

ROTHCHILDS. 

In  thfe  18  miles  between  the  east  quarter  stake  of  sec.  35,  T.  29  N.,  R.  7  E.,  below  the 
mills  at  Wausau,  and  the  crest  of  the  Mosinee  dam,  Wisconsin  River  descends  28  feet.a 
A  considerable  portion  of  this  fall  is  concentrated  in  rapids  in  sec.  24,  T.  28  N.,  R.  7  E. 
at  a  place  called  Rothchilds.  The  right  bank  is  steep,  but  the  left  bank  is  much  less  so. 
A  dam  could  be  built  here  which  would  develop  a  head  of  nearly  20  feet,  but  it  would 
nerd  to  he  long.  Rib  and  Eau  Claire  rivers,  with  dramage  areas  of  500  and  423  square 
miles,  respectively,  enter  Wisconsin  River  from  opposite  sides  but  a  short  distance  above 
Uuthchilds.  This  place  is  7  miles  from  Wausau  and  is  reached  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee 
and  St.  Paul  Railway.  During  the  year  1903  Wausau  capitalists  made  earnest  efforts  to 
accjuire  the  necessary  flowage  rights  for  the  improvement  of  this  power,  but  the  owners 
of  the  land  were  unwilling  to  sell  at  the  rates  offered  and  the  project  was  dropped. 


Only  a  portion  of  the  valuable  water  power  located  in  the  city  of  Wausau  has  been 
developed.  A  high  granite  island,  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  occupies  the  middle 
third  of  the  river  at  this  place,  the  main  dam  l)eing  built  from  the  head  of  this  island  to 
the  right  bank,  a  distance  of  about  350  feet.  The  guard  lock  is  located  on  the  opposite 
channel,  at  the  site  of  the  Scott  Street  Bridge,  and  is  about  300  feet  long. 

Near  the  head  of  the  island  is  located  the  McEchroy  roller  mill.  Three  turbines,  installed 
under  an  average  head  of  only  7 J  feet,  develop  296  actual  horsepower,  which  is  ample  for 
this  mill  as  at  present  equipped. 

Aboit  1,000  feet  below  the  guard  lock  are  situated  the  Alexander  Stewart  Lumber  Com- 
pany's planing  and  saw  mills,  working  under  heads  of  9  and  11  feet,  respectively.  Four 
turbines,  rated  at  200  horsepower,  are  installed.  The  planing  mill  runs  ten  and  the  saw- 
mill twenty  hours  a  day.    The  company  also  has  350  steam  horsepower. 

About  1,300  feet  below  the  guard  lock  is  located  the  plant  of  the  Wausau  Paper  Mills 
Company,  which  takes  its  power  from  the  old  dam,  but  because  of  the  location  so  far 
below  has  the  advantage  of  the  additional  fall  in  the  river.  This  gives  an  average  head 
of  14  feet.  The  company  has  installed  12  turbines,  rated  at  alK)ut  3,600  actual  horsepower, 
and  in  addition  has  500  steam  horsepower.     This  mill  runs  twenty-four  hours  a  day. 

During  the  past  year  the  Wausau  Electric  Company  has  acquired  rights  to  two-ninths 
of  the  total  flow  of  the  stream,  and  has  blasted  a  new  tail  race  out  of  the  solid  rock  for  a 
distance  of  300  or  400  feet,  thereby  incrca^ng  the  head  to  22J  feet.  This  company  has 
as  yet  installed  only  one  pair  of  turbines,  rated  at  700  horsepower,  but  intends  to  double 


oU.  S.  Geol.  Survey  topographic  map. 


80  WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

this  in  two  years.    The  Stewart  Lumber  Company  owns  three-ninths  and  D.  L.  Plum*-: 
four-ninths  of  the  total  flow  of  the  river. 

Wausau  b  a  city  of  about  13,000  inhabitants  and  is  the  county  seat  of  Marathon  Count y 
The  Marshfield  branch  of  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway  crosses  WiacoDsiD  Riv>  r 
at  this  point,  and  the  city  is  served  also  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Rai]wa\. 


In  the  20  miles  (by  river)  between  the  foot  of  the  lower  dam  at  Merrill  and  the  head  <•( 
the  Wausau  dam  Wisconsin  River  descends  about  55  feet,  35  feet  of  this  being  betwei-f. 
Wausau  and  the  mouth  of  Pine  River. a  The  only  portion  of  this  fall  at  present  devekip<Hi 
is  at  Brokaw,  where  a  dam  with  a  head  of  12  feet  furnishes  power  for  a  large  paper  and 
pulp  miU.  Twelve  turbines,  rated  at  3,964  horsepower,  are  installed.  Brokaw  is  ab<)jT 
6  miles  above  Wausau,  in  sec.  3,  T.  29  N.,  R.  6  E.,  and  is  reached  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukiv 
and  St.  Paul  Railway. 

TRAPP  RAPIDS. 

About  4  miles  above  Brokaw,  near  the  mouth  of  Trapp  River,  are  the  Trapp  rapids.  ^ 
The  bed  of  the  river  is  in  the  hard  crystalline  rocks,  and,  according  to  the  topograpliir 
map,  both  banks  are  about  30  or  35  feet  high  and  the  river  600  feet  wide.  A  head  of  l-S  or 
20  feet  could  probably  be  developed  here  by  a  dam.  The  nearest  city  is  Merrill,  a  plar»- 
of  over  9,000  inhabitants,  distant  only  8  miles  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
Railway. 

MERRILL. 

In  the  city  of  Merrill  are  two  dams.  The  lower  one,  which  has  recently  been  repaind 
and  partially  rebuilt,  is  located  between  lots  1  and  3,  sec.  12,  T.  31  N.,  R.  6  E..  and  givtx 
an  average  head  of  14  feet.  This  power  is  owned  by  the  Merrill  Electric  Light  Company, 
which  has  installed  and  uses  600  horsepower.  The  remainder  of  the  power  is  leased  i>> 
the  Lindore  Paper  Company,  which  in  1904  blasted  out  a  new  tailrace  about  600  ft-e: 
below  the  dam  and  has  here  installed  23  turbines  under  a  14-foot  head,  rated  at  2;^  J 
horsepower. 

The  second  dam  within  the  city  limits  of  Merrill  is  located  in  sec.  10,  T.  31  X.,  R.  6  E . 
about  2  J  miles  above  the  paper  mill,  and  is  used  for  boom  purposes  only.  It  has  a  len^h 
of  about  475  feet  and  develops  an  average  head  of  8  feet.  A  similar  dam  with  an  8-fi¥»: 
head  is  located  about  2  miles  above,  between  sees.  8  and  9,  T.  31  N.,  R.  6  E.,  and  is  .^:^> 
used  only  for  boom  purposes.  Both  dams  are  owned  by  the  Wisconsin  River  Dri\*ing  Av^)- 
ciation.  As  these  dams  are  of  little  use  at  present,  owing  to  the  decline  of  the  lumU^r 
interests,  a  company  is  now  being  formed  to  greatly  improve  the  two  powers  by  the  con- 
struction of  a  new  dam,  to  be  located  between  sees.  9  and  16,  T.  31  N.,  R.  6  E.  It  is  stat4>d 
that  a  head  of  24  feet  can  be  obtained  here  to  run  a  new  paper  mill. 

Wisconsin  River  is  joined  at  Merrill  by  Prairie  River.  Between  Merrill  and  Rhinelandtr 
Tomahawk  and  Pelican  rivers  add  their  waters  from  an  aggregate  drainage  area  of  3,.'^*^ 
square  miles. 

BIU.  CROSS  RAPIDS. 

The  next  power  in  order  above  Merrill  is  found  at  Bill  Cross  Rapids,  in  sec.  13,  T.  32  N.. 
R.  5  E.,  not  far  from  the  east  quarter  stake.  Between  this  point  and  the  foot  of  Grand- 
father Rapids  the  river  descends  26J  feet.  As  the  banks  are  reported  high  at  this  poiM 
it  is  probable  that  a  head  of  20  to  24  feet  could  be  obtained.  This  dam  site  is  distant  .'i 
miles  from  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway. 


aV.  S.  Geol.  Survny  topographic  map. 

f>  The  i>ower  and  nnarian  rights  at  those  rapids  are  owned  by  G.  D.  Jones,  Neal  Brown*  and  ( 
Mathie,  of  Wausau,  wis. 


U.    S.   CFOLOCICAL   SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER    NO.    156      PL.    Ill 


A.     GRANDFATHER  RAPIDS.  WISCONSIN   RIVER. 
Ninety  feet  fall  in  IJ  miles. 


It.     BRUNETT  FALLS,  CHIPPEWA  RIVER. 


/.  WOLF   RIVER   SYSTEM.  81 

GRANDFATHER  RAPIDS. 

In  the  53  miles  between  the  foot  of  the  upper  dam  at  Merrill  and  the  foot  of  the  Rhine- 
lander  dam  the  river  has  a  natural  descent  of  277  feet,  an  average  of  5.2  feet  per  mitpf 
In  this  stretch,  besides  several  other  fine  powers,  are  included  Grandfather  Rapids,  the 
laiigest  water  power  on  the  river,  developed  or  undeveloped.  These  rapids  begin  in  the 
NE.  }  sec.  30,  T.  33  N.,  R.  6  E.,  and  extend  to  the  SW.  i  sec.  31,  a  distance  of  li  miles, 
and  are  the  most  noted  rapids  on  the  river.  A  view  of  them  is  shown  in  PI.  Ill,  A,  The 
descent  in  this  distance  is  89}  feet.  The  high  bank  and  the  bed  of  the  river  are  in  the  hard 
pre-Cambrian  rock.  For  nearly  thirty  years  the  Wisconsin  River  Logging  Association  has 
maintained  three  logging  dams  on  these  rapids.  It  is  probable  that  the  cheapest  method 
of  developing  this  power  would  be  to  construct  three  dams  of  30  feet  head  each,  and  that 
the  power  could  be  best  employed  by  paper  mills.  The  site  is  about  midway  in  the  20  mile 
stretch  from  Merrill  to  Tomahawk. 

About  1.5  miles  above  Grandfather  Rapids  are  some  small  rapids  where  a  8.9-foot  dam 
would  back  the  water  to  the  foot  of  Grandmother  Rapids. 

GRANDMOTHER   RAPIDS. 

From  the  foot  of  the  present  Tomahawk  dam  to  the  foot  of  Grandmother  Rapids,  Wi- 
cx)nsin  River  descends  41  feet,  6J  feet  of  which  are  concentrated  at  these  rapids  in  a  dis- 
tance of  40  rods.  According  to  a  survey,  39  feet  can  be  developed  here.  One  dam  site 
should  be  near  the  south  line  of  sec.  10,  T.  33  N.,  R.  6  E.,  which  is  distant  only  2\  miles 
from  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway  at  Irma. 

TOMAHAWK  DAM. 

This  dam,  which  has  a  head  of  13.2  feet,  is  located  in  the  SW.  \  sec.  10,  T.  34,  N.,  R.  6  E. 
It  has  a  total  pondage  of  over  4  square  miles,  the  largest  on  the  river,  backing  up  the  water 
in  the  main  river  for  about  6  miles,  as  well  as  in  the  tributaries.  The  steadying  effect 
which  this  dam  exerts,  together  with  that  of  several  dams  on  adjoining  lakes,  must  be  very 
beneficial.  This  power  has  been  used  for  several  years  for  running  a  lai^e  paper  mill 
located  on  the  left  bank  and  reached  by  spur  tracks  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
Railway.  The  installation  is  650  horsepower.  During  the  summer  of  1904  another  paper 
mill  was  erected  on  the  opposite  bank,  taking  its  power  from  the  same  dam. 

PINE  CREEK  RAPIDS. 

From  the  foot  of  Whirlpool  Rapids  to  the  backwater  of  the  Tomahawk  dam,  a  distance 
of  10  miles,  the  river  has  b  nearly  even  descent  of  23J  feet,  20  feet  of  which  could  be  devel- 
oped by  one  or  possibly  two  dams.  A  20-foot  dam  located  about  a  mile  east  of  the  city 
of  Tomahawk,  in  the  SE.  J  sec.  25,  T.  35  N.,  R.  6  E.,  would  back  the  water  up  into  Pine 
River.  Most  of  the  land  thus  to  be  overflowed  belongs  to  lumbering  companies  or  to  the 
Bradley  Company,  of  Tomahawk,  Wis.  This  dam  site  is  less  than  half  a  mile  from  the 
Marinette,  Tomahawk  and  Western  Railway. 

WHIRLPOOL  RAPIDS. 

These  rapids  extend  from  the  west  line  of  sec.  12,  T.  35  N.,  R.  7  E.,  to  the  north  line  of 
Lincoln  County,  a  distance  of  about  2  miles,  in  which  the  river  descends  15.4  feet.  Between 
the  head  of  Whirlpool  Rapids  and  the  foot  of  Hat  Rapids  there  is  a  descent  of  12.63  feet. 
A  suitable  dam  at  the  foot  of  Nigger  Island,  in  sec.  12,  T.  35  N.,  R.  7  E.,  would  develop  a 
head  of  28  feet.  The  banks  are  said  to  be  high,  with  an  abundance  of  rock  and  timber 
adjacent  to  the  dam  site.  The  drainage  area  at  this  point  is  1,300  square  miles.  Three 
different  railroad  lines  are  located  within  3  or  4  miles  of  this  site,  and  Tomahawk,  a  city  of 
2,500  population,  is  7  miles  west. 

IRR  156—06 6 


82  WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

HAT  RAPIDS. 

Between  the  mouth  of  Pelican  River  and  the  foot  of  Hat  rapids,  in  sec.  27,  T.  36  N., 
*R.  8  E.,  the  WisQonsin  descends  ahout  22  feet.  As  the  hanks  are  high,  a  dam  in  spc. 
27  between  lots  4  and  5  could  he  made  to  develop  about  20  feet  of  head.  The  drainage 
area  at  this  poin^  is  1,220  square  miles.  The  Rhinelander  Power  Company  has  been 
formed  to  develop  this  power,  and  from  Mr.  A.  W.  Sheldon,  Rhinelander,  Wis.,  its  attor- 
ney, the  following  facts  were  learned.  A  recent  survey  shows  that  the  concrete  dam 
should  be  located  13  rods  north  of  the  south  line  of  sec.  27,  T.  36  N.,  R.  8  E.  It  will  be 
264  feet  long,  with  earthen  dikes,  in  addition,  of  80  and  2^  feet.  Such  a  dam  would  cnv 
ate  a  head  of  20.3  feet.  The  site  is  only  5  miles  from  Rhinelander,  a  city  of  over  5.000 
inhabitants,  reached  by  both  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and  the  Minneapolis,  St. 
Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  raii'^ays.  The  power  could  be  either  used  at  the  site  for  a 
paper  mill  or  electrically  transmitted  to  Rhinelander  for  lighting  and  power  purposes.  The 
latter  is  stated  as  the  present  intention  of  the  owners.  An  officer  of  the  company  states 
that  all  the  contracts  for  construction  and  machinery  have  been  let,  and  that  the  plant 
is  expected  to  be  in  operation  by  September,  1905. 

RHINELANDER   DAM. 

Between  the  foot  of  the  present  dam  of  the  Rhinelander  Paper  and  Pulp  Company, 
in  the  city  of  Rhinelander,  and  the  foot  of  Otter  rapids,  in  sec.  36,  T.  40  N.,  R.  9  E..  a 
distance  of  about  35  miles,  the  river  descends  79.2  feet.  The  dam  develops  30  feet  of  this 
descent,  and  the  power  is  used  to  run  one  of  the  largest  paper  and  pulp  mills  on  the  river. 
Tlie  company  has  installed  turbines  rated  at  a  total  of  3,000  actual  horsepower  and  has 
also  1,200  steam  horsepower.  The  daily  capacity  of  this  mill  is  45  tons  of  finished 
paper,  40  tons  of  pulp,  and  40  tons  of  sulphite  pulp. 

The  river  above  this  point  has  a  drainage  area  of  about  940  square  miles.  Above  Rhine- 
lander the  river  banks  are  lower  and  the  opportunities  for  developing  large  powers  few. 
In  the  35  miles  between  Rhinelander  and  the  source  there  are  two  rapids,  called  Rainl»ow 
rapids  and  Otter  rapids.  In  this  distance,  according  to  the  United  States  engineers.^ 
between  the  head  of  Otter  rapids  and  a  point  about  a  mile  above  the  mouth  of  Pelican 
River,  the  descent  of  Wisconsin  River  is  only  57  feet,  or  about  1.62  feet  per  mile. 

RAINBOW   RAPIDS. 

These  rapids  are  of  small  extent.  They  are  located  in  sec.  6,  T.  38  N.,  R.  8  E.,  and  a 
head  of  6  to  10  feet  could  be  secured. 

OTTER   RAPIDS. 

The  most  important  power  above  Rhinelander  is  at  Otter  rapids,  where  a  logging 
dam  with  a  head  of  about  10  feet  was  early  constructed.  The  rapids  proper  descend 
16  feet, a  so  that  a  head  of  this  amount  or  more  could  be  developed.  The  dam  site  i> 
between  lots  6  and  8,  sec.  36,  T.  40  N.,  R.  9  E.  The  drainage  area  above  this  point  is 
about  500  square  miles. 

According  to  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway,  the  Wisconsin  River  at  Conovrr, 
in  sec.  9,  T.  41  N.,  R.  10  E.,  has  an  elevation  of  1,644  feet  above  the  sea.  This  would 
give  a  fall  of  66  feet  in  the  24  miles  between  Conover  and  the  head  of  Otter  rapids. 

TRIBUTARIES  OP  Wl8C:ONSIN  RIVER. 

OENERAL  STATEMENT. 

The  watershed  line  on  each  side  of  the  W^isconsin  Valley  is  between  300  and  400  feet 
above  the  main  river,  and  as  the  tributaries  have  to  descend  this  distance  in  a  length 
of  50  or  60  miles  they  have  many  rapids  and  available  powers.     In  the  upper  portion  of 


a  Rcpt.  Chief  Eng.,  U.  S.  Army,  1881,  p.  1824. 


WOLI"  BIVEB  BTfSTEM. 


8S 


their  coursee  the  tributaries  flow  over  the  hard  pre-Cambrian  rock,  giving  many  hipids. 
The  lower  valleys,  however,  are  filled  by  continued  eroHion,  so  that  with  feW  exceptions^  no 
powers  are  found  here. 

The  length  and  drainage  area  of  certain  streams  tributary  to  Wisconsin  River  are  ishowu 
in  the  following  table: 

PriTwipal  tribiUcunes  of  Wiitconsin  River. 


River. 


Pelican.... 
Tomahawk 

Rib 

Eau  Clain?. 
Eau  Pleijie. 

Yellow 

Lemon  weir 
Baraboo... 
Kickapoo.. 


length. 

Drainage 
area. 

MiUt. 

Sq.  miles. 

25 

262 

SO 

714 

50 

408 

50 

423 

50, 

377 

70  ' 

946 

.      50' 

588 

70  1 

656 

75' 
1 

760 

Only  Kickapoo,  Baraboo,  and  Lemonweir  rivers  and  their  branches  have  been  as  yet 
fully  or  even  largely  developed,  but  the  present  rapid  settlement  of  this  northern  region 
is  fast  bringing  a  demand  for  the  utilization  of  these  valuable  water-power  resources. 
While  these  powers  are  small  as  compared  with  those  on  the  main  river,  in  the  aggregate 
they  are  large,  and  their  wide  distribution  makes  them  of  still  greater  value.  In  some 
cases,  because  of  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  developed  and  controlled,  manufactur- 
ers seem  to  prefer  them  to  the  larger  but  more  expensive  powers  on  the  parent  river.  An 
example  of  this  is  seen  in  the  present  power  developments  on  Prairie  River. 

trr.  GERMAIN   RIVER. 

Although  but  20  miles  long,  St.  Germain  River  has  at  least  three  good  dam  sites 
located  as  follows:  (1)  SW.  }  sec.  31,  T.  41  N.,  R.  8  E.;  (2)  near  the  outlet  of  Big  St. 
Germain  Lake,  sec.  32,  T.  40  N.,  R.  8  E.;  and  (3)  near  the  northeast  comer  of  sec.  18, 
T.  39  N.,  R.  8  E.  At  the  second  dam  site  a  head  of  20  feet  and  at  the  third  site  a  head 
of  26  feet  are  reported  as  feasible. 

TOMAHAWK   RIVER. 

This  river  rises  in  about  40  lakes  with  elevatioDs  of  from  1,540  to  1,575  feet  above  the 
sea,  the  largest  of  which  is  Tomahawk  Lake,  with  an  area  of  7  square  miles.  The  river 
joins  the  Wisconsin  at  Tomahawk  after  a  course  of  alx)ut  50  miles. 

The  dam  in  Wisconsin  River  at  Tomahawk  backs  the  water  in  Tomahawk  River  to 
an  elevation  of  1,442  feet,  so  that  the  remaining  descent  is  about  120  feet,  or  2.4  feet  per 
mile,  nearly  half  of  which  is  concentrated  in  four  rapids.  Only  one  of  these  has  been 
developed  for  power  purposes,  the  dam  being  located  al)out  2  miles  above  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  where  a  head  of  al>out  18  feet  is  obtained.  At  present  only  300  horsepower 
are  here  utilized,  in  a  tannery  belonging  to  the  United  States  Leather  Company. 

Eight  miles  above  this  dam,  in  lots  5  and  6,  sec.  21,  T.  36  N.,  R.  6  E.,  are  the  Prairie 
rapids,  with  a  descent  of  20  feet;  10  miles  above,  in  lots  1  and  4,  sec.  17,  T.  37  N.,  R.  6 
E.,  are  the  Halfbreed  rapids,  with  descent  of  8  feet ;  and  12  miles  still  farther  upstream, 
in  sec.  27,  T.  38  N.,  R.  5  E.,  are  the  Cedar  rapids,  with  descent  of  12  feet. 

PELICAN    RIVER. 

This  river  rises  in  a  series  of  lakes,  the  largest  l)eing  known  by  the  same  name,  at  an 
elevation  of  1,590  feet  above  the  sea.    The  river  flows  west  and  joins  the  Wisconsin  near 


84 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Rhinelander,  aft^r  dc>scending  about  50  feet  in  its  length  of  25  miles.     The  following  table 
shows  the  location  of  promising  dam  sites,  none  of  which  are  as  yet  developed: 

Dam-eiie  locations  on  Pelican  River. 

Possible 
bead  (fcrt !. 

Between  lots  4  and  6,  sec.  4,  T.  36  N.,  R.  10  E 6  to  8 

SW.  i  sec.  17,  T.  36  N.,  R.  10  E 6 

Between  lot«  3  and  4,  sec.  26,  T.  36  N.,  R.  9  E 10 

Between  lot  1,  sec.  21,  and  lot  1,  sec.  22,  T.  36  N.,  R.  9  E 12 

PRAIBIE    RIV£R. 

Although  Prairie  River  has  a  drainage  area  of  only  214  square  miles  and  is  without 
lakes  at  its  upper  headwaters,  its  water  powers  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  have  already 
attracted  capital  for  their  development.  At  the  eastern  limit^s  of  the  city  of  Merrill  a 
dam  200  feet  long  is  being  rebuilt  so  as  to  give  a  head  of  21  feet.  This  dam  is  owned  by 
the  Prairie  River  Power  and  Boom  Corgpany.  Nine  miles  northeast,  in  sec.  13,  T.  32  N., 
R.  7  E.,  at  a  point  where  the  river  has  worn  a  deep  channel  in  the  rocks,  forming  dalles, 
a  masonry  dam  to  furnish  a  head  of  72  feet  is  now  being  built  by  the  same  company. 
This  power  will  be  transmitted  electrically  to  the  lower  dam  for  use  in  a  paper  mill  now 
under  construction. 

Ixi  sec.  14,  T.  33  N.,  R.  8  E.,  are  smaller  dalles,  where  a  head  of  20  feet  may  be  obtained. 

RIB   RIVER. 

Rib  River  rises  in  two  small  lakes,  the  lai^r  of  which.  Rib  Lake,  has  an  elevation 
of  about  1,556  feet.  After  a  course  of  about  50  miles,  the  Rib  joins  Wisconsin  River 
a  mile  below  the  city  of  Wausau.  Its  total  descent  is  400  feet,  an  average  of  8  feet  lo 
the  mile.  A  considerable  part  of  this  descent  is  concentrated  in  the  middle  third  of  it* 
length. 

The  first  power  is  found  at  Marathon,  10  miles  from  its  mouth,  where  a  dam  about  NO 
feet  long  develops  a  head  of  18  feet.  About  5  miles  above,  in  the  city  of  Rib  Fails,  a 
dam  100  feet  long  develops  a  head  of  20  feet.  In  sec.  24,  T.  30  N.,  R.  4  E.,  therv  is  an 
undeveloped  power  with  a  head  of  18  feet. 

EAU   CLAIRE   RIVER. 

The  Eau  Claire  enters  Wisconsin  Rivei*  2  miles  below  the  mouth  of  Rib  River,  and 
from  the  opposite  (eastern)  side.  It  has  a  smaller  drainage  area  than  that  of  the  Rib, 
and  a  much  larger  proportion  of  its  descent  is  distributed  in  its  lower  part. 

A  total  of  148  feet  is  concentrated  at  the  following  points,  given  in  order  from  tbe  mouth 
of  the  river.o 

Dam-site  locaiimis  on  Eau  Claire  River. 


Location. 


Schonold,  sec.  12,  T.  28  N.,  R.  7  E 

MaiiHor's,  sec.  10,  T.  2«N.,  R.8E 

Old  Kciloy ,  S6C.  13,  T.  28  N.,  R.  8  E 

Baniards  rapids,  sec.  23,  T.  29  N.,  R.  9  E 

The  Dalles,  sec.  7,  T.  29N.,  R.  lOE 

Three  Rolls,  sec.  34,  T.  30  N.,  R.  10  E . . . . 
Little  rapids,  sec.  22,  T.  30  N.,  R.  10  E... 


Head. 

Feet. 
12 
25 
25 
22 
40 
12 
12 


Remarks. 


Developed  (old  mill  abandonedj . 
Developed,  but  only  part  used. 
Developed  for  logging. 
Undeveloped. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 


The  first  three  powers  are  adjacent  to  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway,  and  are 
used  chiefly  for  boom  purposes. 


o Authority:  D.  L.  Plummer,  C.  E. 


EATT   PLEINE   AND   BLACK   KIVEK8. 


85 


EAU   PLEINE   RITER. 

This  river  has  a  narrower  and  smaller  drainage  area  than  either  the  Rib  or  the  Eau 
Claire  and  is  entirely  devoid  of  lakes.  Like  the  latter,  it  has  considerable  descent  con- 
centrated in  its  lower  reaches,  one  power  with  a  15-foot  head  being  located  within  2 
miles  of  its  mouth.     Following  is  a  summary  of  its  powers: 

Dam-site  locations  on  Eau  Pleine  River. 


Location. 


Sec.  18,  T.26N.,  R.  6E. 
Sec.  24,  T.  26  N.,  R.  6E. 
Sec.  13,  T.  27  N.,  R.3E. 
Sec.  4,  T.27N.,R.3E.. 
Sec.24,  T.28N.,  R.2E. 


Head. 


Remarks. 


Feel. 

15 

Undeveloped. 

15 

Do. 

15 

Do. 

10± 

Developed. 

10± 

BLACK  RIVER. 
TOPOGRAPHY  AXD  DRAIXAGE. 

Black  River,  hemmed  in  by  the  Chippewa  on  the  west  and  the  Wisconsin  on  the  east,  is 
restricted  to  a  long  and  narrow  watershed  of  about  2,270  square  miles,  a  with  an  average 
width  of  only  20  miles.  At  one  point  the  branches  of  Chippewa  River  extend  to  within  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  of  Black  River.  Unlike  that  of  the  Chippewa,  about  a  third  of  the  Black 
River  drainage  area  is  in  the  comparatively  level  sandstone  region,  so  that  the  maximum 
watershed  available  for  water  powers,  namely,  at  Black  River  Falls,  is  only  1,570  square 
miles.a  The  watershed  narrows  rapidly  as  the  river  is  ascended,  and  at  NeilLsville,  22 
miles  in  an  air  line  from  Black  River  Falls,  the  drainage  area  is  reduced  to  only  729  square 
miles,  a  Were  it  not  for  this  small  watershed,  the  steep  gradient  of  the  river  and  its  high, 
rocky  banks  would  insure  large  water  powers.  Black  River  rises  at  an  elevation  of  about 
1,400  feet  above  sea  level,  and  after  a  sinuous  course  of  over -140  miles  joins  Mississippi 
River  at  La  Crosse.  Tlie  total  descent  in  this  distance  is  772  feet,  with  details  as  shown  in 
the  following  table: 

Profile  of  Black  River  from  its  mouth  near  La  Crosse  to  near  Withee.b 


La  Crosse  (near) . 
Black  River  Falls: 

Below  dam . 

Above  dam . 

Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha  Rail- 
road bridge. 

Halls  Creek,  mouth  of. 

Halcyon 

Hatfield  railroad  bridge  . 

East  Forks,  mouth  of. 

Dells  dam,  below 


a  Census  report,  vol.  17,  1880,  p.  87. 

b  Authority:  No.  1  (low-water  elevation),  Mississippi  River  Commission;  2  to  22,  Joint  Survey  of 
Wis.  Qeol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Survey  and  United  States  Geological  Survey. 


§6 


Water  powers  of  northerk  wisooN^rK. 


Profile  of  Black  River  from  its  morulh  near  La  Crosse  to  near  Withee—Continutd, 


No. 


Station. 


Wedges  Creek,  mouth  of 

Cunningham  Creek,  mouth  of 

Center  sec.  22,  T.  24  N.,  R.  2  W 

O'Neill  Creek,  Neillsville 

Bridge,  sees.  9  and  16,  T.  25  N.,  R.  2  W 

Bridge,  sees.  21  and  28,  T.  27  N.,  R.  2  W 

Bridge,  Fairchild  and  Northeastern  Rwy 

Site  New  Greenwood  dam 

Between  sees.  27  and  28,  T.  27  N. ,  R.  2  W 

Hemlock  dam,  600  feet  below 

Hemlock  dam,  above 

Bridge,  sees.  20  and  29,  T.  29  N. ,  R.  2  W 

Bridge,  Wisconsin  Central  Rwy.,  west  of  Withee 


Distance. 


From 
mouth. 

MiUs. 

78.5 
84.8 
86.8 
0.8 


103. 
107. 
109. 
110. 
113. 
113. 
119. 
12.5. 


Between 
points. 

Miles. 
1.0 
6.3 
2.0 
4.0 
8.0 
4.7 
4.3 
1.5 
1.0 
3.2 
.1 
6.0 
5.5 


Eleva- 
tion 
above 
sea  leveL '  Total 


I      I>esent  be- 
tween points. 


Feet. 

93 

909 

929 

9H9 

1.034 

1.070 

1.094 

1,105 

1,107 

1.132 

1.151 

1,167 

1,187 


reet. 

19 

20 
60 
45  ' 
36 
24 
11 
2 
25 
19 
16 
20 


Per 


Fret. 


10.0 

no 

oh 
7.9 
5.6 
T.3 
2.0 
R.O 


In  the  55  miles  below  the  city  of  Black  River  Falls  the  river  flows  through  the  sandstoDe 
country  in  a  wide  valley  with  low  banks,  making  dam  construction  very  expensive,  if  not 
entirely  impracticable.  In  the  40  miles  next  above  Black  River  Falls  the  river  has  worn 
its  bed  into  the  hard,  crystalline  rocks,  which  rise  from  10  to  60  feet  or  more  from  the  water, 
frequently  in  nearly  vertical  walls.  The  descent  in  this  distance  is  337  feet,  nearly  9  feet  to 
the  mile.  It  is  only  in  this  stretch  that  important  water  powers  occur.  In  the  upper  third 
of  the  valley  the  crystalline  rocks  frequently  outcrop,  but  the  resulting  rapids  are  of  ies$i 
importance.  The  United  States  Geological  Survey  maintained  a  gaging  station  on  Blark 
River  at  Melrose  for  nine  months  in  1903,  but  as  the  station  proved  unsatisfactory  it  was 
abandoned  August  1,  1903.  Such  measurements  and  observations  as  were  taken  are  given 
below: 

Discharge  measurements  of  Black  River  near  Melrose^  Wis.j  in  190S. 


Date. 


January  15. 
February  7. 

April  4 

May  1 

June  13 


Hydrographer. 


L.  R.  Stockman. 

do 

do 

do 

....do 


hS^t.    IniBTh.r^. 


Feci. 

Sectntd^eri. 

4.30 

a-^ 

4.30 

a5its 

5.90 

2,9v 

11.00 

1             10,931 

3.90 

M2 

a  Frozen. 


BLACK   BIVER. 


87 


Mean  daHy  gage  height,  in  feet,  of  Black  River  near  Melrose,  Wis.,  December  4, 1902,  to  August 

1,  1903. 


1.. 
2.. 
3.. 
4.. 

5.. 

6.. 

7.. 

8.. 

9.. 
10.. 
11.. 
12.. 
13.. 
14.. 
15.. 
16.. 
17.. 
18.. 
19.. 
20.. 
21.. 
22.. 
23.. 
24.. 
25.. 
26.. 
27.. 
28.. 
29.. 
30.. 
31.. 


Day. 


1902.    i 
Dw.    I    Jan. 


3.75 
3.95 
4.00 
3.80 
4.35 
4.35 
4.30 
4.35 
4.20 
4.20 
4.10 
4.15 
4.10 
4.00 
4.00 
4.05 
4.25 
4.60 
4.95 
5.80 
6.05 
5.85 
5.80 
5.65 
5.50 
5.35 
5.20 


5.05 

5.00 

4.90 

4.75 

4.60 

4.60 

4.50 

4.50 

(°) 

4.40 

4.40 

4.40 

4.40 

4.40 

(°) 

4.30 

4.30 

4.30 

4.30 

4.20 

4.20 

4.20 

4.20 

4.20 

4.20 

4.20 

4.20 

4.20 

4.20 

4.20 

4.10 


1903. 


Feb.    '   Mar.    i    Apr. 


4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4.10 
4.20 
4.20 
4.20 
4.20 
4.20 
4.30 
4.25 
4.20 
4.20 
4.20 
4.10 
4.15 
4.00 
3.95 
3.90 
3.90 
4.00 
4.00 
4.00 
4.05 
4.10 
4.20 
4.35 


4.30 

4.35 

4.40 

4.45 

4.60 

4.75 

(°) 

6.25 

8.20 

9.30 

9.70 

10.75 

12.05 

12.55 

11.55 

9.85 

9.40 

10.35 

11.95 

13.40 

12.90 

11.40 

9.65 

8.05 

7.65 

6.65 

6.02 

6.55 

5.70 

6.55 

5.30 


5. 10 
4.85 
5.30 
5.65 
5.90 
6.50 
6.65 
6.50 
6.20 
5.50 
5.60 


5.45 

5.60 

5.95 

5.85 

6.05 

5.60 

5.00  I 

5.15  , 

4.50, 

4.65 

4.30 

4.30  j 

4.35' 

4.65, 

.85 
5.00 
5.&5  I 
6.80  ' 


May. 

June. 

11.00 

7.60 

10.00 

10.25 

10.50 

9.65 

6.00 

9.05 

4.70 

8.15 

4.40 

7.00 

4.30 

6.9.5 

4.25 

6.55 

4.00 

6.10 

4.00 

6.65 

3.95 

10.60 

3.95 

12.00 

3.80 

10.90 

3.80 

9.15 

3.80 

7.80 

3.70 

6.55 

3.70 

6.50 

3.70 

6.40 

3.70 

6.30 

3.70 

I 


1 


5.90 
6.50 
5.70 
5.80 
5.95 
8.40 
11.85 
12.60 
10.95 
9.50 


3.70 
3.70 
3.60 
3.60 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 
3.50 


July.       Aug. 

3.00          3.75 

6.70  1 

11.20   

10.90  i 

13.00  , 

12.30  1 

10.20  1 

7.90    

6.90  ' 

7.40  ' 

8.70  ! 

7.20  1 

6.70    

6.20    

5.80    

5.30  ' 

4.50   

4.20   

4.10  ' 

4.00    

4.00    

4.00    

3.90    

3.90    

3.90  ' 

3.75  1 

3.90  1 

4.20  1 

4.00    

3.80, 

3.75 

o  Observer  absent. 


A  gaging  station  was  established  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  at  Neillsville 
April  7,  1905,  and  the  following  data  have  been  collected: 

Discharge  measurements  of  Black  River  at  NeHlsville,  Wis.,  in  1905. 


Date. 


April  7 

May  24 

June  13 

July  11 

.\ugust  11 

September  25. 


Hydrographer. 


Hanna  and  Clapp. 

S.  K.  Clapp 

M.  S.  Bronnon 

do 

....do 

F.  W.  Ilanna 


I 


Width.' 

Feet. 
192 
1&5 
192 
161 
151 
163 


Area  of 
section. 


feet. 
1,021 
471 
945 
392 
242 
419 


Mean 
velocity. 

Gaffe 
height. 

Feet. 

Feet  per 
second. 

3.  5 

7.7 

2.18 

4.a5 

3.15 

7.26 

1.56 

4.25 

.93 

3.3 

1.86 

4.35 

Dis- 
charge. 

Second- 

feet. 

3,279 

1,024 

2,978 

612 

225 

780 


Note.—  Width  is  the  actual  width  of  water  surface,  not  including  piers.    Area  of  section  is  the  total 
area  of  the  measured  section,  including  both  moving  and  still  water. 


88 


WATER   POWERS    OP    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Mean  daily  gage  Tieighi,  in  feet  ^  of  Black  River  at  NeiUsvUlej  Wis.,  for  1905. 

May.  !  June.      July.  |   Aug.  '  Sept.       Oct.       Nov.   '    ixer. 


Day 

'    Apr. 

May. 

1 

3.4 

2 

3.4 

3 

4.1 

4 

6.3 

5.                               -   -  _               

5.2 

6 

8.2 

4.9 

7 

7. 7 

5.0  1 

8 

,        6.9 

46' 

9 

1       6.2 

46' 

10 

1        6.0 

59! 

11 

'        5.7 

6.6  ' 

12 

1        &6 

6.7 

13 

1        &1 

6.2 

14.                   * 

4.8 

10.7 

15 

4.6 

10.1 

16 

4.3 

9.2  ' 

17 

19 

1 
8.7  ■ 

18 

3.8 

8.2 

19 

4.2 

6.6 

20 

3.9 

6.0 

21 :... 

3.2 

5.3  , 

22 

i        3.1 

1 
5.1 

23. 
24. 
25., 
26. 
27., 
28. 


3.1 
3.5 
3.4 
3.4 

a4 

Z.A 
3.4 
3.4 


4.9' 

4.7 

4.3 

4.2 

4.1  I 

3.9  ' 

3.9 

3.8 

3.8 


3.7 
3.3 
3.2 
7.7 
14.2 
19.8 
16.5 
11.5 
&8 
7.6 
8.6 
8.0 
7.1 
6.2 
5.5 
5.8 
11.2 
10.7 
8.6 
7.0 
6.0 
5.2 
4.5 
4.1 
3.9 
3.7 
3.5 
3.3 
3.3 
3.5 


30 3.4  3.8  I        3.5 

31 '        3.8  I 

Note.— No  Ice  record  at  thia  station. 

Rating  table  for  Black  River  at  NeiUsviJUf  1 


4.4! 

4.9  I 

6.5  I 

a4  , 

8.0  I 

6.8  * 

5.9 

5.3 

4.7 

4.2 

3.8 

3.9 

4.0 

4.8 

4.5 

4.0 

3.8 

4.2 

4.3 

4.0 

3.8 

3.3 

3.1 

3.1 

3.0 

2.9 

2.9 

2.8 

2.8 

2.7 


2.7 

2.6 

2.6 

2.6 

2.9 

2.7 

4.2 

4.0 

4.0; 

3.5 

3.3 

3.3 

3.3 

13 

3.2 

3.0 

2.9  ' 

3.0 

3.0 

3.0 

3.2 

3.5 

3.4  , 

3.6 

3.4 

3,3 

3.2 

3.0  ! 

3.4 

3.5 

3.3 


3.3 
3.2 
3.5 
3.4 
3.6 
3.2 
3.1 
3.0 
2.9 
2.8 
2.7 
2.8 
2.7 
2.7 
4.3 
6.0 
6.0 
6l1 
6.6 
8.3 
7.5 
6.3 
5.8 
4.7 
4.2 
3.9 
18 
17 
16 
18 


3.0 

15 

14 

14 

10 

10 

11 

2.7  I 

2.4 

11 

10 

10 

10 

10 

4.0 

4.9 

5.4 

5l5 

5l6 

6.6 

6.9 

6.5 

5.9 

5.5 

SlO 

4.6 

4.4 

4.1 

19 

17 

16    . 


3.7 
15 
3.0 
3.5 
3.5 
17 
4.1 
4.1 
3.9 
18 
17 
3.7 
3L6 
3.5 
3L4 
X4 
1.4 
3.4 
3.4 
3L3 
3.2 
3.2 
3.2 
3.5 
4.2 
4.6 
4.5 
4.3 
3.9 

a7 


4.U 
4.2 
1«^ 
17 

3.S 

a  5 
.1 J 

.14 

i:> 
.1 4 

14 

1.1 

a  4 

a  4 

3.5 

14 

A   'i 

•in 
12 
11 
3  I 
.13 
15 

1  : 

1.1 

14 
d4 
14 

1.: 


Wis.  y  from  April  6  to  December  31,  1905. 
helgll     J5i«^harge.'    ^^^,      Discharge.  |    ^^,      Discharge.'    £^^      Discharge. 


The  above  table  is  applicable  only  for  open-channel  conditions.  1 1  is  based  on  six . 
m<!nts  made  during  liKW.  It  is  well  defined  between  gage  heights  3.3  feet  and  7.7 
limits  of  the  table  the  discharge  is  only  approximate. 


diseharae  measure 
feet.    Beyond  the 


BLACK   BIVEB. 


89 


Estimated  morMy  discharge  of  Black  River  at  NeUlsviUef  Wis. ,  for  1905. 


April  (6-30) . 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. . 

October 

November. . 
December... 


Month. 


Discharge  in  second-feet. 
I  Maximum.  |  Minimum.  I    Mean. 


3,900 

177 

1,036 

6,910 

267 

1,768 

23,060 

205 

3,840 

4,120 

80 

884 

635 

60 

229 

4,340 

80 

918 

2,670 

20 

750 

870 

205 

302 

635 

150 

292 

'WATER  POWERS. 

It  is  many  years  since  Black  River  was  used  for  lumbering,  and  as  the  surrounding  coimtry 
is  well  settled,  it  seems  likely  that  the  near  future  will  see  a  demand  for  the  available  water 
powers.  These  powers,  while  not  of  the  lai^est,  are  so  situated  as  to  be  cheaply  developed. 
The  river  has  no  large  tributaries,  but  nearly  all  its  numerous  small  feeders  are  now  developed 
and  used  to  run  grist  and  saw  mills.  At  the  present  time  several  projects  are  being  exploited 
which  look  to  the  employment  of  these  powers  by  interurban  electric  railroads  and  other 
enterprises  in  near-by  cities. 

BLACK  RIVEB  FALLS. 

The  first  dam  in  the  river  is  at  Black  River  Falls  and  is  of  timber  construction.  The 
power  developed  is  owned  by  the  city  of  Black  River  Falls,  with  turbines  working  under  a 
head  of  13  feet,  and  by  J.  J.  McGillivray,  with  turbines  under  a  head  of  16  feet.  The  present 
tailrace  could  be  lowered  3  or  4  feet,  and  the  crest  of  the  dam  could  be  raised  the  same 
amoimt  without  flooding.  This  improvement  would  give  a  total  head  of  20  feet.  The 
turbines  now  installed  develop  about  345  horsepower,  which  is  used  to  run  an  electric-light 
plant,  a  sash  and  door  mill,  a  wagon  shop,  and  a  gristmill. 

About  1}  miles  below  the  above-described  dam  is  the  site  of  an  old  sawmill  dam,  300  feet 
long,  which  at  one  time  was  made  to  develop  a  head  of  7  feet. 

BLACK   RIVER   FALLS  TO  NEILLSVILLE. 

Because  of  the  high,  rocky  banks  and  high  gradient  of  this  river,  dams  of  15  to  20  feet 
head  could  be  installed  nearly  every  2  or  3  miles  between  Black  River  Falls  and  Neillsville, 
but  only  a  few  of  the  largest  undeveloped  powers  will  l)e  described. 

The  first  dam  site  above  Black  River  Falls  is  located  near  the  east  line  of  sec.  2,  T.  21  N., 
R.  4  W.,  just  below  tho.  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha  Railway  bridge.  At 
this  point  the  rocky  banks  form  a  narrow  gorge  and  are  high  enough  to  furnish  a  head  of  30 
feet  or  more.  By  the  use  of  a  short  canal  this  head  could  probably  be  increased.  This  site 
belongs  to  the  Black  River  Improvement  Company,  of  La  Crosse,  Wis.  Another  unde- 
veloped power,  similar  in  all  respects,  for  which  a  charter  has  been  granted,  is  at  Halcyon,  in 
sec.  16,  T.  22  N.,  R.  3  W.  A  30-foot  dam  here  would  back  the  water  nearly  to  Hatfield,  3 
miles  above.  A  still  more  important  dam  site  is  located  at  Hatfield,  just  above  the  bridge 
of  the  Green  Bay  and  Western  Railroad.  According  to  surveys  made  recently  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  here  a  head  of  50  feet,  which  could  be  increased  to  about  85  feet  by  means 
of  a  long  canal.  Such  a  dam  would  create  a  large  pondage  by  backing  up  the  water  for  7 
miles.  This  would  cover  up  dam  sites  in  sec.  35,  T.  23  N.,  R.  3  W.,  and  also  the  "Dells 
dam"  in  sec.  18,  T.  23  N.,  R.  2  W.,  near  the  mouth  of  Wedges  Creek.  At  the  latter  site  a 
head  of  25  feet  could  be  easily  secured. 


90  WATER    POWEKS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

In  the  6  miles  below  Neillsville,  between  the  mouths  of  O'Neill  &nd  Cunningham  creeks, 
the  river  descends  80  feet,  42  feet  of  which  can  be  easily  developed  at  Ross  Ekldy  rapids, 
where  a  large  part  of  this  gradient  is  concentrated.  It  has  been  proposed  to  build  a  crib 
dam  250  feet  long,  with  a  crest  of  18  feet,  at  the  head  of  these  rapids,  and  then  conduct  the 
water  through  a  canal  95  rods  long  (in  earth),  thereby  cutting  off  a  long  bend  of  the  river 
and  giving  a  total  fall  of  42  feet. a  The  outlet  of  such  a  canal  would  provide  a  favorable 
power  sit^,  free  from  any  injury  from  ic^  jams. 

NEnXSVILLE. 

The  last  important  undeveloped  water  power,  known  as  Westons  Rapids  and  ofwned  by 
V.  Iluntzicker,  of  Neillsville,  Wis.,  is  located  in  sec.  2,  T.  24  N.,  R.  2  W.,  about  1 J  mil« 
above  Neillsville.  From  the  head  of  these  rapids  near  the  north  line  of  the  NW.  J  sec.  2,  to 
the  south  line  of  same  section,  a  distance  of  about  a  mile,  the  river  descendbs  21^  feet,  a 
The  owner  proposes  to  locate  a  crib  dam  250  feet  long,  w^ith  a  crest  of  18  feet,  near  the  centA- 
of  the  section,  and  by  making  use  of  a  canal  in  earth  600  feet  long  to  obtain  a  head  of  24 
feet.  A  franchise  has  recently  been  obtained  from  the  city  of  Neillsville  for  the  employ- 
ment of  this  power  in  lighting  the  city  and  for  other  purposes. 

HEMIX>CK   DAM. 

The  most  important  developed  power  on  the  upper  river  is  in  sec.  15,  T.  27  N.,  R.  2  W. 
This  dam,  called  the  Hemlock  dam,  has  a  head  which  averages  12  feet.  Four  turbines  are 
installed  here,  with  a  total  of  175  horsepower,  used  to  run  a  roller  flouring  mill.  The  dam 
was  originally  erected  for  lumbering  purposes. 

Because  of  the  unusually  steep  gradient  in  the  branches  of  Black  River  a  water  power  of 
from  10  to  20  feet  can  be  located  at  frequent  intervals  on  these  streams.  Several  of  the 
many  mills  in  such  locations  report  an  available  head  of  from  35  to  40  feet.  In  nearly  every 
case  timlier  and  rock  are  found  near  the  dam  sites. 

RAILROADS. 

That  portion  of  Black  River  containing  the  important  powers  is  fairly  well  served  by 
railroads.  The  river  is  crossed  by  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha  Railway 
four  times,  and  once  each  by  the  Wisconsin  Central  Railway  and  the  Green  Bay  and  West- 
ern Railroad. 

CHIPPEWA  RIVER  SYSTEM. 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND  DRAINAGE. 

The  Chippewa  drainage  system  has  its  source  in  over  a  hundred  lakes,  large  and  amall. 
with  many  connecting  swamps,  near  the  Michigan  boundary  and  only  20  miles  from  Lake 
Superior.  The  drainage  area  has  a  length  of  180  miles,  a  maximum  width  of  90  mik>s. 
and  an  average  width  of  nearly  60  miles.  The  general  direction  of  the  drainage,  exceot  in 
the  extreme  western  part,  is  toward  the  southwest.  Chippewa  River  unites  with  the 
Mississippi  at  the  foot  of  Lake  Pepin,  after  a  course  of  267  miles.  *  The  total  area  drained 
by  the  river  is  9,573  square  miles,  of  which  about  6,000  include  the  most  unsettled  region 
of  northern  Wisconsin.  This  area  includes  the  richest  forests  of  the  State,  of  both  soft  and 
hard  timlxr.  Although  lumbering  operations  have  been  very  active  here  for  many  years, 
considerable  pine  timber  still  remains,  chiefly  at  the  upper  headwaters,  but  it  is  fast  disap- 
pearing. Most  of  the  large  tracts  of  pine  lands  are  owned  by  lai^  corporations,  and  many 
of  them  are  reached  by  long  lines  of  logging  railroads,  which  in  many  cases  have  been 
purcha.sod  by  the  trunk-line  railroads  and  made  a  part  of  their  systems.  The  exten5iTe 
use  of  such  railroads  has  greatly  relieved  the  rivers  of  the  burden  of  transporting  logs,  and 
correspondingly  added  to  the  value  of  the  rivers  for  water-power  purposes. 

The  main  line  of  drainage  runs  very  nearly  along  the  central  line  of  the  basin,  Imt  the 
name  of  Chippewa  River  is  not  given  to  this  continuation  of  the  principal  stream.     Tbe 

a  Authority:  C.  Stockwell,  county  surveyor. 


CHIPPEWA   RIVKR   STSTEM. 


91 


river  divides  1 12  miles  from  the  mouth ;  one  branch,  the  prolongation  of  the  line  of  drainage; 
called  the  Flaml)eaii,  rises  in  the  lakes  near  the  Michigan  line,  at  an  elevation  of  a  little  over 
1,600  feet  above  the  sea;  the  other  branch,  rising  farther  west  and  flowing  more  directly 
south,  receives  the  name  Chippewa.  The  Flambeau  drains  1,983  square  miles,  while 
Chippewa  River,  above  their  junction,  drains  only  1,777  square  miles.  About  56  miles 
above  this  junction  the  Chippewa  again  divides  into  East  and  West  branches,  the  one  flowing 
from  the  northeast,  the  other  fmm  the  north,  draining,  respectively,  278  and  480  square 
milefl. 

The  lakes  of  this  region  are  situated  in  two  widely  separated  groups,  one  in  the  extreme 
northeastern  part,  at  the  headwaters  of  Flambeau  River,  and  the  other  in  the  northwestern 
part,  at  the  headwaters  of  what  is  known  as  the  main  stream  and  of  Red  Cedar  River. 
The  remainder  of  the  area  is  almost  devoid  of  lakes.  The  wooded  regions,  however, 
include  very  large  areas  of  cedar  and  tamarack  swamps. 

GKOI-.OGY. 

The  pre-Cambrian  crystalline  rocks  form  the  underlying  strata  in  the  area  above  Chippewa 
Falls,  while  below  that  point  they  are  replaced  by  the  Cambrian  sandstone.  The  entire 
area  above  Chippewa  Falls  is  covered  with  glacial  drift,  so  that  the  rock  appears  only  in 
the  river  bed.  The  country  is  level  or  rolling.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  area  the  rivers 
have  eroded  deeply  into  the  drift  and  rock,  but  in  the  northern  portion  they  have  not  cut 
much  below  the  surface. 

With  only  a  few  exceptions  (the  most  notable  one  at  Eau  Claire)  all  the  many  and 
important  water  powers  on  Chippewa  River  are  found  in  the  region  of  the  pre-Cambrian 
crystalline  rocks,  but  Ix'cause  of  the  deep  drift  the  powers  on  the  upper  streams  occur  as 
l>owlder  rapids. 

PROPOSED  RK.SERVOIR  SITEvS. 

According  to  detailed  surveys  made  by  United  Staters  enjjineers,  this  drainage  area  is 
favored  with  an  unusual  numl>er  of  excellent  sites  for  reservoirs.  A  list  of /hese  sites,  with 
valuable  data  concerning  them,  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

Proposed  United  States  Gm^rnment  dams  on  Chippeuxi  River,  a 


Length. 

Maxlmui 

Dam  above 
low  water. 

m  height. 
Dike. 

Fee, 

8.5 

Drainage 

Location  and  name. 

Dam. 

Dike. 

area  above 
reservoir. 

East  Branch  Chipppwa  Rivor: 

Bear  Lake 

Ffft, 
l.Ol.'i 
710 

1,23.-) 
900 

■   fi20 

aw 
2,  .wo 

170 

zw 

297 

Fret. 
200 


IfiO 

100 

460 


7.5 
2,000 

2.W 

1 



Fert. 
19..") 
24.0 

2.').  7 

6.5 

22.0 

— 

10.0 
15.0 
l.-i-O 

10.0 
9.0 
15.0 

Sq.  miles. 
244.5 

I,ittle  Chief  Lake 

57.6 

West  Branch  Chippewa  River: 
Moose  Lake     . .   . 

1.5 

214.3 

Pakwawang  Lake 

257.2 

Court  Oreilies 

5.0 

114.0 

Chippewa  River,  Paint  Creek 

3,943.1 

Total 

4,830.7 

Butternut  Creek,  Butternut  Lake 

40.0 

Manitouish  River,  Rest  Lake.. . 

2.5 
10.5 

10.0 

211.6 

North  Fork  Flambeau,  Bear  Creek 

Dore  Flambeau: 

Round  Lake 

1.54.5 
63.0 

SqOaw  Lake 

39.0 

Turtle  River,  Park  Lake 

174.0 

Grand  total 

R.-'i^ 

2. 78.-) 

5,512.8 

a  Rept.  Chief  £ng.  U.  S.  Army,  1880,  p.  1G48. 


92 


WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


Proposed  United  States  Oovernment  dams  on  Chippevxi  River — Continaed. 


Location  and  name. 


Supply  (one- 
thirdf  of  30 
inches  rain- 
fall). 


East  Branch  Chippewa  River:  Cubic  feet. 

Bear  Lake '  5,677,951,910 

Little  Chief  Lake 1, 337, 627, 935 

West  Branch  Chippewa  River: 

Moos©  Lake 4,976,626, 153 

Pakwawang  Lake 6,972,880,292 

Court  OrelUes 2,647,388,621 

Chippewa  River,  Paint  Creek 91 ,  560, 456, 760 


Capacity  of 
reservoir. 


Cubic  feet. 
1.113,148,856 
771,332,009 

2,-01,783,402 

7,692,997,229 

2,647,388,621 

505,336,720 


Total 112,181,931,671     14,751,986,837 


Butternut  Creek,  Butternut  Lake ;  928, 906, 288 

Manltoulsh  River,  Rest  Lake i  4, 897, 100, 264 

North  Fork  Flambeau,  Bear  Creek'  3, 107, 280, 000 
Dore  Flambeau: 

Round  Lake 1,382,304,000 

Squaw  Lake 864,230,400  j 

Turtle  River,  Park  Lake 4. 026, 198, 428  ' 


585,446.400 
1,840,000,000 
5,406,567,152 

1,303,036,416 
731,808,000 
620,782,720 


90  days. 


CoAof 

dam  ttod 

dikp. 


Cubic  feet. 
4.564,803,054 
566,295,926 

1.234.725,814 


91,064,120,040 


Sec-feet. 
143.1 
99.2 

[      260.0 

I      969.3 

340.4 

65.0 


125.  *»2.'. 
4D,T»C 

45. 'M> 

66,40 

2.462 

eD.<«i 


97,429,944,834 
343,461,888 

757,813,112 


79,267,584 

132,422,400  ' 

3,405.415.708  , 


1.897.0 

75.3 

236.6 

695.3 

I 

167.6 
94.1 

79.8 


340.  fM* 
5,2:fi 

47,  Mi 

10.  jatt 
4.001 
9.941 


Grand  total 127,387,953,051     25,239,627,525   102,148,325.526  |    3.245.7 


325.. Vi' 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  the  systematic  operation  of  these  propo?#d 
reservoirs  for  this  purpose  would  increase  the  ordinary  low-water  flow  of  the  river  by  3,2+5 
second-feet  for  ninety  days  a  year,  thus  about  doubling  the  present  available  water  power 
of  the  river.  Estimated  upon  a  run-off  of  one-fourth  of  the  annual  rainfall,  assumed  ai 
30  inches,  this  increase  would  be  2,800  second-feet  for  ninety  days. 

Experiments  now  being  carried  on  by  the  Government  in  Minnesota  on  five  similarly 
constructed  dams  will  doubtless  determine  whether  the  reservoir  system  at  the  headwaters 
of  the  Mississippi  will  Ix)  extended  to  include  any  of  the  above  proposed  dams.  Probably 
the  main  obstacle  to  building  such  reservoirs  at  the  present  time  by  the  Govemmeot  Is  the 
fact  that,  owing  to  the  settling  up  of  this  region,  the  land  has  now  become  very  valuable 
The  total  cost  would  seem  to  be  prohibitive.  That  the  owners  of  wat^r  powers  are  in 
favor  of  such  Governmental  control  is  certain.  Be.sides  adding  to  the  amount  of  power, 
such  a  system  would  prevent,  in  large  measure,  the  danger  to  dams  by  floods.  The  building 
of  even  a  part  of  these  dams  would  have  marked  economic  value.  Alreadj'^  private  enter- 
prise has  developed  some  of  the  smaller  of  these  reservoirs. 

RAILROADS. 

The  logging  interests  of  the  river  are  controlled  by  the  Chippewa  Falls  Lumber  and 
Boom  Company,  with  headquarters  at  Chippewa  Falls,  a  thriving  city  of  about  lOiXHO 
population.  The  largest  city  of  this  region  is  Eau  Claire,  population  17.517.  situated  at 
the  junction  of  Eau  Claire  and  Chippewa  rivers.  This  city  has  numerous  manufactone? 
and  sawmills,  and  is  quite  a  railroad  center.  From  its  mouth  to  Chippewa  Falls,  Chippeira 
River  is  paralleled  by  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway,  and  between  Eau 
Claire  and  Chippewa  Falls  by  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha  and  the 
Wisconsin  Central  railways,  besides  an  electric  line.  Chippewa  River,  above  Chippewa 
Falls,  is  reached  by  the  Chicago,  St,  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha  Railway  for  a  Jistance 
of  about  25  miles.  In  addition,  the  drainage  area  is  crossed  east  and  west  by  the  Minne- 
apolis, St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Railway  and  north  and  south  by  the  Wisconsin  Central 
Railway. 

Several  railroad  lines  are  projected  or  l)eing  built  in  this  section,  and  the  agricultural 
and  manufacturing  interests  are  fast  supplanting  that  of  lumber.     Where  the  timber  has 


CHIPPEWA   RIVER   SYSTEM. 


08 


been  cut  the  land  is  being  taken  up  by  settlers,  so  that  there  is  but  little  second-growth 
timber.  The  people  seem  prosperous,  and  numerous  companies  are  on  the  point  of  investing 
lai^  sums  in  the  manufacturing  interests  of  the  neighborhood,  thereby  utilizing  the 
undeveloped  water  powers. 

RAINFALL.  AND  RUN-OFF. 

The  extensive  forests  of  this  area  combine  with  the  numerous  lakes  and  swamps  to  give 
a  naturally  uniform  flow^  by  preventing  the  rapid  escape  of  the  rainfall  into  the  streams. 
Since  1903  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  has  maintained  gaging  stations  near 
£au  Claire,  on  Chippewa  River,  and  at  Ladysmith,  on  the  Flambeau.  As  a  result  of  the 
operation  of  logging  dams,  the  minimum  discharge  is  found  to  be  only  1.6  per  cent  of  its- 
maximum  discharge  for  the  year.  The  following  tables  give  discharge  data  of  Chippewa 
River  at  Eau  Claire,  covering  the  period  from  November  14,  1902,  to  August  12,1905, 
and  also  a  monthly  summary  of  the  same. 

Discharge  measurements  of  Chippewa  River  at  highway  bridge,  Shaxvtowrif  near  Eau  Claire, 

Wis..  1902  to  19()5. 


Date. 


Ilydrographer. 


19Q2.  I 

November  13 L.  R.  Stockman . 

December  6 do 

December  28 do 


1903. 

January  17.. 
February  10. 

March  9 

April  6 

Mays 


L.  R.  Stockman. . 
....do 


..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
June  15 ! do. 


July  10 ' do 

August  20 ! do 

September  5 do 

October  13 1 do 

November  24 | do 

1904.  I 

January  1  la '  E.Johnson, Jr. 


May  14 

May  24 

June  7 

July  13 

August  28 

Septeml^  19. 
October  12. . . . 

October  13 

November  29., 

1905. 

May  22 

June  14 

July  12 

August  12 


.do. 


Johnson  and  Hanna. 

E.  Johnson  Jr 

do 

....do 

....do 

F.W.Hanna 

....do 

E.  Johnson,  jr 


S.K.Clapp.... 
M.  S.  Brennan . 
do 


Width. 


Feei. 


Area  of  '    Mean        Gage       Dis- 
section. ,  velocity. ,  height,  charge. 


Square  '  Feet  per 
feet.     I  seamd. 


310 
385 
370 
426 
354 
322 
329 
495 
457 
324 


200 
427 
3.W 

335 


2,809 
2,793 


2,509 
2,315 
2,877 


5,726 
3,105 
4,761 
2,372 
3,626 
4,637 
2,281 


2,429 
4,272 
4,074 
6,815 
3,770 
2,766 
3,122 
7,118 
6, 137 
2,847 


4,004 
5,131 
3,585 
3,062 


1.03 
1.09 

.79 
.77 
1.32 


4.62 
1.64 
3.61 
1.83 
2.21 
3.25 
1.54 


3.42 
3.10 
4.52 
2.10 

.82 
1.47 
5.43 
4.76 

.80 


3.83 
2.09 
1.29 


Feet. 
8.70 
4.45 
4.60 


4.15 
3.80 
4.85 
7.40 
11.85 
4.70 
9.25 
5.13 
6.20 
8.77 
4.90 


3.80 
8.40 
7.60 
11.25 
6.55 
4.20 
5.25 
14.80 
13.10 
4.44 

aso 

10.72 
6.55 
5.00 


SecoTid- 
feet. 

11,134 

2,871 

3,063 


o 1,979 
o 1,778 
53,818 
10,688 
26,458 

4,107 
17,167 

4,336 

8,032 
15,087 

3,511 

2,454 

14,610 

12,630 

26,270 

7,918 

2,274 

4,581 

38,680 

29,200 

2,281 


16,110 
19,665 
7,489 
3,948 


a  Frozen.  6  Partly  frozen. 

Note.— Width  is  the  actual  width  of  waU»r  surface,  not  including  piers.    Area  of  section  is  the  total 
area  of  the  measured  section,  including  both  moving  and  still  water. 


94 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Mean  daily  gage  height^  in  feet j  of  Chippewa  River  near  Eau  Claire^  Wis.,  Novembtr  7^, 

1902,  to  becember  31,  1905. 


1902. 


1903. 


Day. 


Nov.    Dec.     Jan.    Feb. 


1.... 

2 

i 
3 

4 

5. 

.  .  .   4.50 

6 

4. 45 

7 '. 

'  4.00 

8...J. 

4.05 

14 

13.70 

15 

10.20 

18 

12.40 

17 

13.05 

18 

12.60 

19 

11.35 

20 

9.60 

21 

8.50 

22 

7.55 

23 

7.40 

24 

7.15 

25 

7.00 

26 

6.45 

27 

6.20 

28 

6.00 

29 

5.75 

30 

31 

5.55 

4.05 
4.10 
4.25 
4.20 
4.45 
4.25 
4.55 
4.25 
4.30 
4.10 
4.30 
4.25 
4.30 
4.25 
4.50 
4.70 
4.30 
4.90 
5.10 
4.60 
4.50 
4.8.5 
4.50 


4.30 
4.35 
4.15 
4.20 
4.40 
3.90 
4.15 
4.40 
4.20 
4.40 
4.80 
4.65 
4.75 
4.60 
4.85 
4.30 
4.20 
4.30 
4.65 
4.40 
4.50 
4.35 
4.35 
4.45 
3.50 
4.20 
4.10 
4.10 
3.85 
4.15 
4.25 


I 


3.70 
4.25 
4.10 
4.05 
4.10 
4.05 
4.15 
4.15 
4.00 
3.85 
3.80 
3.85 
3.90 
3.90 
3.90 
4.50 
4.10 
4.15 
4.30 
4.25 
4.20 
3.35 
3.80 
4.15 
4.05 
3.90 
3.95 
3.85 


Mar.     Apr.  ■  May.  '  June.'  July.     Aug.  -  Sept.      Oct.     Nov.    IKt 


3.20 
3.75 
3.85 
3.90 
3.75 
3.75 
3.85 
4.10 
4.60 
5.05 
5.80 
6.00 
7.05 
&20 
8.05 
7.00 
7.00 
7.55 
11.80 
13.95 
13.65 
12.65 
11.70 
10.45 
9.40 
8.75 
8.40 
7.75 
7.60 
7.15 
6.80 


1 

6.85 

12.80 

(«) 

7.15 

13.10 

(«) 

7.45 

12.15 

(«) 

7.95 

11.85 

(«) 

7.85 

11.55 

(a) 

7.40 

10.90 

(«) 

7.50 

10.30 

6.85 

7.90 

9.20 

5.45 

8.55 

9.15 

6.45 

8.00 

7.65 

5.95 

7.60 

8.95 

6.50 

8.15 

12.00 

5.90 

7.70 

13.25 

9.25 

7.65 

13.40 

3.75 

7.80 

13.25 

4.65 

7.80 

11.85 

4.95 

7.50 

10. 45 

4. 95 

6.75 

9.90 

4.90 

6.65 

9.15 

4.20 

6.85 

9.15 

.5.15 

6.80 

9.30 

4.70 

6.65 

9.50 

4.20 

6.40 

9.a'> 

4.20 

6.40 

9.10 

4.15 

8.60 

9.85 

4.2.', 

6.55 

10.20 

4. 15 

7.15 

12.50 

6. 75 

7.00 

15.15 

4.20 

7.30 

16. 70 

4.(iO 

11.70 

16.10 

4.95 

7.65 
8.05 
10.60 
13.50 
15.30 
15.20 
13.75 
11.30 
10.30 
9.40 
10.10 
9.95 
8.90 
8.10 
7.80 
7.20 
6.50 
8.80 
5.95 
6.70 
6.15 
5.70 

5.eo 

6.00 
9.20 
5.25 
5.05 
5.20 
5.15 
5.15 
5.10 


5.05 
5.20 
5.85 
6.85 
7.50 
9.10 
9.00 
11.0> 
6.70 
7.55 
7.25 
6.75 
6.85 
6.90 
9.65 
5.10 
6.80 
6.65 
6.00 
5.10 
5.15 
7.50 
5.60 
5.10 
5.15 
5.25 
4.70 
5.45 
5.60 
5.20 
5.60 


5.90 
6.45 
5.65 
5.85 
5.75 
6.45 
5.85 
6.30 
&00 
8.0* 
9.15 
12.85 
14.00 
16.75 
17.85 
18.50 
17.45 
15.50 
13.45 
11.80 
10,50 

9.15 
7.80 
7.60 
7.00 
7.65 
7.05 
7.05 
7.05 


I 


6.90  ' 
7.00 
7.35  1 
9.90 
11.25 
11. 1^ 

11.  eo 

11.15 
11.35 
10.96 
9.95 
9.45 
9.00 
8.80 
8.45 
7-  75 
7.70 
7.40 
7.S5 
7.05 
7.05 
6.75 
6w70 
6.55 
6.30 
6.15 
5.95 
6.10 
6.10 
6.10 
5.90 


I : 


.S.55 
5.55 
ow4r> 
5.50 
S.2.J 
5.20 
5.15 
5.  10  I 
5.03  ' 
5.00  I 
5.00 
5.0I>  I 

5-a> 

5.30 
5.40 
4.95 
4.9r> 
4.25 
4.40 
4.15 
4-JLi 

4.a> 

4.85 
4.95 
4.95 
4.  Sit 
4.85 
4.60 


4  a 
4.K-- 
4  - 

4.'»» 

4  :\i 

4  .V, 
4  V 
4  70 
4.N5 
4"' 
4  7t 
4  -.J 

4.ro 

4.C 
4  tt< 
4  '  J 

4.N.' 

iri' 

4-< 

4  ••< 
4.«> 

3.4J 
3  7< 

:<. '%) 

X46 


1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8., 

9. 
10., 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 


Day. 


Jan.      Feb.     Mar.     Apr.     May.    June.  I  July.     Aug.  ,  Sept.     Oct.      Nov.     rvc. 


1904.& 


e4.90 
c5. 15 


«4.80 


d4.80 


6.25 
6.72 
6.50 
6.52 
6.60 
7.17 
7.60 
9.10 
9.67 
9.72 
9.70 
9.32 
9.05 
8. 82 


9.00  I 

8.65 

8.63 

8.28 

8.10 

8.03 

10.13 
8.50 
8.83 
9.35 
9.25 
8.85 
8.78 

10.20 


8.45 
7.65 
7.65 
8.85 
9.00 
10.95 
11.30 
10. 85 
9.85 
8.92 
7.95 
7.80 
7.80 
7.45 


8.10 
a  52 
8.28 
8.02 
10.32 
10.12 
9.63 
8.93 
7.22 
7.10 
7.20 
6.72 
6.60 
5.88 


4.42 

4.80 

4.38 

4.78 

4.:<2 

4.12 

3.45 

4.62 

5.10 

5.42 

5.35  i 

4.38 

4.12 

3.  .50  i 


4.58 

5.a5 

8.18 

7.52  ■ 

8.30 

7.30, 

7..'i2  I 

7.12 

6.?2 

7.95 

5.03 

5.28  i 

5.42  ' 

5.35 


6.31 
5.24 
a  27  i 
5.65  j 
5.30^ 
5.27 

4.82  ; 

9.12 
7.86 
13.35 
15.07 
14.93 
13. 15 
11.38 


6.79 

6.84 

6.80 

6.61 

5.91 

6l4! 

6.0S  , 

5.35  [ 

5,35 

5.60 

5.36 

5.a> 

6,27 
4-82 


3.M. 

3  4- 

4  V 
4> 
4.1V. 
4.> 
4.  .'7 
4.  - 

4  Jr. 

4.34 
4..^ 
4.?. 


a  Observer  absent. 

ftRiver  frozen  over  January  1  to  March  18, 1904,  but  open  about  200  to  300  feet  alx)ve  and  one-fouril: 
mile  below  bridge. 
c  Ice  2.0  feet  thick  at  gag«»;  1.0  foot  in  middle  of  channel, 
rf  Ice  2.5  feet  thick  at  gage;  2.5  feet  in  middle  of  channel. 
« Ice  2.0  feet  thick  at  gage;  2.0  feet  in  middle  of  cluumel. 


CHIPPEWA   BIVEB  SYSTEM. 


95 


Mean  daily  gage  heighty  in  feet,  of  Chippewa  River  near  Eau  Claire,  Wis.,  November  IJ^, 
190:2,toD€cemier  31,1906— Continued. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb.     Mar. 

1904. 
15 

1 

1 

16 

a5.00 



17 

1 

,8 1 

1 

19       .              .-.| 

^  5.  10        4.  ATi 

20 

4.07 
4.45 
4.37 
4.32 
5.62 

21 

22 

23 

24 

«5.00 

25 

• 

5.95 

1 
26 i 

6.45 

27 1     .   .   . 

65.30 

6.10 

28 --- 

5.72 

29 

30 

d4.70 

5.05 
5.10 
6.32 

31 

19a5. 
1 

4.36 

2 

3 

4 

.....................| 

5 

4.80  1     4.20 

6 



.......1 1 

7  . 

' 1 

8 

1 

9 

4.40 

1    4.50  1 

10 

11 

1 

12 

4.30  ' 

13 

5.30 

4.30 

14 ,... 

4.25 

15 

,4.80 

4.10 

16 

4.50 

17 

4.50 

18 

.   5.36 



4.65 
4.40 
4.45 

19 

20      



21 

4.55 

22 

4.67 

5.50 

23 

6.20 

24 

7.10 

25 

4.95 

7.80 

26 

8.90 

27 

10.40 

28 

11.80 

29     

5.I7I 

13.20 

30 

13.00 
12.90 

11 

1 

i 

May.    June. 


I 


8.50 
7.5.5 
7.25 
7.50 
8.38 
8.20 
8.13 
7.45 
8.05 
8.50 
9.65 
10.63 
10.45 
9.18 
9.55 
9.03 


00 
20! 
20  I 
50  I 
40  I 
80 
20  I 
80  I 
20 
90, 
70 
40  1 
75 
65  I 

10  ■ 

75  ' 
20  I 

00. 

60  I 

45 

40 

40 

05 

30 

30 

30 

50 

80 

a5 

85 


8.00 
&20 
7.55 
7.22 
7.55 
6.93 
10.30 
6.30 
6.83 
7.33 
9.20 
12.00 
13.48 
13.63 
12.02 
10.67 
9.20 

6.80 
5.80 
5.90 
6.50 
7.50 
6.60 

7.;« 

7.60 
7.30 
8.80 
7.80 
7.90 
7.50 
9.50 
10.70 
12.20 
12.90 
12.00 
10.60 
10. 20 
9.20 
8.60 
8.60 
8,00 
8.10 
7.50 
7.70 
7.00 
7.10 
7.20 
6.90 


7.80 
8.35 
6.25 
5.50 
5.10 
6.20 
6.50 
5.90 
5.80 
5.£^ 
8.95 
5.55 
7.75 
7.60 
7.75 
7.50 


July.  I  Aug.     Sept.  |   Oct. 


75  I 


6.30 
I  6.80 
'  6.50 
\  8.20 
12.10 
I  19.20 

I •'• 

19.60 

i  17.30 

I  14.50 

13.00 

I  12.60 

11.50 

10.00  I 

9.40 

8.80  ' 

8.70 

10.20  ' 

12.20 

11.30 

10.50 

9.10 

9.00 

8.80 

8.20 

7.30 

7.50 

8.70 

7.80  I 

5.75 


5.07 
5.55 
5.35  < 

5,60  ' 
5,50  ' 
5.10 
5.47  ' 
5.05  j 
4.75  I 
3.93  I 
4.07  : 
4.90  ' 
4.80 
5.00  I 
4.88  I 
6.45  < 
5.00  I 

6.80 
7.40 
6.90  I 
6.20  I 
6.90 
10.40  I 
10.60 
11.30 
10.10 
7.00 
8.10 
6.90 
6.90 
7. '20 
7.10 
7.60 
6.80 
6.50 
6.60 
6.70 
6.00 
6.40 
5.70 
6.10 
5.75 
5.55 
4.90 
4.45 
5.30 
4.45 
4.35 


3.80 

.4.55 

4.82 

4.65 

4.78 

7.20 

5.25 

4.75 

4.68 

4.60 

5.00 

5.40 

8. 15 

3.58  ' 

5.55  I 

4.92  j 

4.52  I 

6.80 
5.75  I 
4.35  [ 
4.35  I 

5.10  ! 
5.25 
5.05 
5.30  I 
5.90  ' 
4.90 
5.45  j 
5.10 
5.35  ' 
5.70  I 
4.45  ' 
4.45  I 
6.  (50  ' 
5.25  I 
7.40  I 
7.30  I 
8.90  I 
5,85 
6.20  I 
6.40  ' 
8.30 
5,30 
5.00 
7.80 
6.20 
6.20 


5.38 
5.42 
7.10 
4.80 
4.89 
4.27 
4.30 
4.35 
5.10 
4.24 
5.76 
8.18 
7.61 
6.93 
9.81 
6.65 


6,50 
6.20 
5.30 
6.10 
6.80 
6.50 
6.10 
5.65 
5.75 
5.10 
4.90 
5.35 
6.90 
5.85 
5.40 
5.55 
7.70 
10.70 
7.00 
10. 10 
10.80 
10.30 
9.20 
8.40 
6.50 
8.50 
6.00 
6.00 
7.90 
6.20 


I 


10.30 
9.17 
8.10 
8.00 
7.08 
6.85 
8.35 
9.25 
9.42 
9.00 
8.78  I 
7.81 
8.02  I 
7.22 
7.55 
7.30 
6.85 
I 

5.15 
5.55  I 
7.80  ' 
5.55  ' 
4.90  I 
4.90  ' 
7.50  I 
5.00  > 
4.85  I 
4.80  ' 
5.50  I 
7.90  ' 
6.20  I 
5.90 
5,25  I 
6.40  , 
7.35  I 
7.80 
7.90 
8.95  I 
8.50 
8.65 
8.35 
7.90 
7.55' 
7.20 
7. 10 
7.00  j 
6.60  I 
6.50 
6.40  I 


Nov. 


6.26 
5.42 
5.30 
5.47 
5.20 
4.98 
5.28 
5.23 
5.74 
4.77 
4.94 
5.10 
4.85 
4.55 
4.54 
4.46 


Dec. 


4.34 
4.32 
4.15 
4.19 
4.53 
4.29 
4.34 
4.37 
4.55 
4.38 
3.31 
4.19 
4.55 
(0 


5.70  , 
6.15 
5.45  I 
5.75  I 
5.65  I 
5.75  I 
6.10  I 
6.30  I 
6.05  I 
6.10  I 
6.60 
5.50  I 
5.70 
5.80  ' 
5.20 
6.20  ' 
5.50 
6.00 
5.50  I 
5,45 
5,40 
4.60 
5.20 
5.00 
5.20 
6.70  I 
6.05  . 
5.70  I 
5.70 
5.00  ■ 


4.75 
5.15 
4.85 
5,65 
4.40 
5.40 
5.40 
5.90 
5.85 
5.35 
6.30 
5.30 
5.30 
5.26 
5.00 
4.60 
4.70 
4.80 
4.70 
4.70 
4.65 
4.85 
4.55 
4.60 
4.10 
4.80 
4.60 
4.65 
4.55 
4.70 
4.70 


olce  2.0  feet  thicker  at  F^agc;  1.0  foot  in  middle  of  chtmnci. 
b  Ice  2.6  feet  thick  at  gage:  2.5  feet  in  middle  of  channel. 
c  River  frozen  Decembc5r  28  to  ;U. 

dice  2.0  feet  thick  at  gage:  2.0  feet  \t.  -niddle  of  channel. 

<  River  frozen  entirely  across  at  gage  January  1  to  February  28;  March  1  to  17,  loo  gradually  disap- 
peared.   Thickness  of  ice,  2  to  9.6  foct.    Gage  heights  are  to  water  surface  In  a  hole  In  the  ice. 


96 


WATER  POWEB8    OF   NOBTHEBK   WISCONSIN. 


Rating  table  for  Chipjmwa  River  near  Eau  Claire,  Wis.,  from  November  30,  190g,  to  Monk 

12, 190SA 


Gaee 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
height. 

1 
Discharge. 

Gage 
height. 

'  Discharge. 

Feet, 

Second-feet. 

Feel. 

Second-feet} 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

\seamd^ert. 

3.2 

840 

4.0 

1.985    , 

A.1 

I         3,370 

'         5.4 

5.150 

3.3 

940 

4.1 

2,165 

4.8 

J         3,610 

5.5 

1          5. 410 

3.4 

1,055 

4.2 

2,345 

4.9 

3,850 

6-6 

1          5,670 

3.6 

1,190 

4.3 

2,535 

6.0 

4,110 

5.7 

5.930 

3.6 

1,335 

4.4 

2,735 

5.1 

4,370 

5.8 

6,190 

3.7 

1.490 

4.5 

2,940 

5.2 

4.630 

i          5.9 

6.450 

3.8 

1,655 

4.6 

3,150 

5.3 

1          4,890 

6.0 

,          6,710 

3.9 

1,825 

; 

»To  be  used  only  when  river  is  frozen. 

Rating  table  for  Chippewa  River  near  Eau  Claire,  Wis.,  from  March  lii,  1903,  to  December 

1,  19m, 


Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
heiglit. 

Discharge. 

Gaee 
heiglit. 

Feet. 

Disctiarge.  | 

Feti. 

Second-feet: 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second^eet} 

Second-feet:^ 

3.8 

2,160 

5.7 

6,290 

7.6 

11,310 

11.0 

23.310    - 

3.9 

2,340 

5.8 

6,530 

7.7 

11,610 

11.2 

24,07D    1 

4.0 

2,530 

5.9 

6,770 

7.8 

11,910 

11.4 

34,830 

4.1 

2,730 

6.0 

7,010 

7.9 

12.210    , 

11.6 

25.500 

4.2 

2.930 

6.1 

7,270 

8.0 

12,510 

11.8 

26.350 

4.3 

3,130 

6.2 

7,530 

8.2 

13,150 

12.0 

27.110 

4.4 

3,330 

6.3 

7,790 

&4 

13,790 

12.5 

39.010 

4.5 

3,540 

6.4 

8,050 

8.6 

14,450 

13.0 

30.910 

4.6 

3,760 

6.5 

8,310 

&8 

15,130 

13.5 

32,810    1 

4.7 

3,980 

6.6 

8,570 

9.0 

15,810 

14.0 

34.710     1 

4.8 

4,200 

1          6.7 

8,830 

9.2 

16,530 

14.5 

36,610 

4.9 

4,420 

6.8 

9,090 

9.4 

17,250 

1        15.0 

3S.510 

5.0 

4,640 

6.9 

9,350 

9.6 

17,990 

15.5 

40,410 

5l1 

4,860 

7.0 

9,610 

9.8 

18,750 

16.0 

42.310 

5.2 

5,090 

7.1 

9,890 

lao 

19,510 

16.5 

44,210 

5.3 

5,330 

7.2 

10,170 

10.2 

20,270 

17.0 

46,110 

5.4 

5,570 

7.3 

10,450 

1        10.4 

21,030 

17.5 

48,010 

5.5 

5,810 

7.4 

10,730 

10.6 

21,790 

18.0 

49,910     j 

5.6 

6.050 

7.5 

11,010 

10.8 

22,550 

Rating  table  for  Chippewa  River  near  Eau  Claire,  Wis.,  from  January  1  to  December  31, 190^ 


Gaee 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 

'     Gage 
height. 

! 
Discharge. 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge, 

Feet. 

Secondrfeet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

4.0 

1,780 

I          5.1 

4,390 

6.4 

8,100    1 

9.0 

16,680 

4.1 

1,980 

i          5.2 

4,660 

&6 

8,720 

9.5 

18,380    j 

4.2 

2,180 

5.3 

4,93U 

&8 

9,350 

10.0 

20,080 

4.3 

2,390 

5.4 

5,200 

;         7.0 

9,990 

10.5 

21,780     , 

4.4 

2,610 

5.5 

5,480 

1         7.2 

10,650    1 

11.0 

23,480    ! 

4.5 

2,840 

5.6 

5,760 

1         7.4 

11,310 

11.5 

25,210 

4.6 

3,080 

5.7 

6,040 

'          7.6 

11,970    ! 

12.0 

26,960 

4.7 

3,330 

j          5.8 

6,320 

7.8 

12,630 

13.0 

30.500 

4.8 

3,590 

5.9 

•6,610 

8.0 

13,290 

14.0 

34,480 

4.9 

3,850 

1          6,0 

6,900 

8.5 

14,980    ' 

15.0 

40,000    I 

5.0 

4,120 

6.2 

7,490 

1 

1 
1 

CHIPPEWA    BIVKR    SYSTEM. 


97 


Rating  table  for  Chippewa  River  near  Eau  Claire^  Wis.ffrom  January  1  to  December  SI,  190$, 


.  dace 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gago 
height. 

Discharge,  i 

height. 

Discharge.  | 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge 

Feet. 

Secand-feet. 

Feet. 

1 
Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feel. 

Second-feet. 

a.  50 

\            750    1 

5.40 

4,830    1 
5,050 
5,280    1 
6,610    1 

7.60 

10,290    ' 

11.40 

22,410 

3.60 

1             960 

5.50 

7.80 

10,870    ' 

11.60 

23,160 

3.70 

1          1,170 

&60 

8.00 

11,450    1 

11.80 

23,950 

3.80 

1,380 

5.70 

8.20 

12,030 

12.00 

24,750 

3.90 

1,590    1 

5.m 

5,740    ' 

8.40 

12,610 

12,20 

25,650 

4.00 

,          1,800    1 

5.90 

5,970 

8.60 

13,200 

12.40 

26,350 

4.10 

2,010    1 

6.00 

6,200 

8.80 

13,800    ' 

12.60 

27,150 

4.20 

'          2,220 

6.10 

6,430 

9.00 

14,400    1 

12.80 

27,950 

4.30 

'          2,430    1 

6.20 

0,660 

9.20 

15,000    , 

13.00 

28,750 

4.40 

1          2,040    ! 

6.30 

6,900 

9.40 

15,620    , 

13.20 

29,560 

4.50 

2,850    , 

6.40 

7,140 

9.60 

16,260 

ia40 

30,e90 

4.60 

1          3,070    1 

6.50 

7,380 

9.80 

16.920 

13.60 

31,240 

4.70 

3,290 

6.60 

7,630 

10.00 

17,600 

13.80 

32,110 

4.80 

3,510    ! 

6.70 

7,880 

10.20 

18,280 

14.00 

33,000 

4.90 

'          3,730    1 

6.80 

8,130 

10.40 

18,960    , 

14.20 

33,900 

5.00 

3,950    1 

6.90 

8,390 

10.60 

10,640 

14.40 

34,800 

5.10 

1          4,170    1 

7.00 

8,650 

10.80 

20,320 
21,000    ' 

14.60 

35,700 

5.20 

4.390    , 

7.20 

9,180 

11.00 

14.80 

36,600 

5.30 

4,610    1 

7.40 

9,720    1 

11.20 

21,690    ' 

1 

The  above  table  is  applicable  only  for  open-clmnnel  conditions.  It  is  based  on  15  discharge  measure- 
ments made  during  1904-.5.  It  is  well  denned  between  gage  heights  5  feet  and  13  feet.  The  table  has 
been  extended  beyond  these  limits. 

Estimated  monthly  discharge  ofChippevxi  River  at  Eau  Claire y  Wis.,  1902  to  1906, 
[Drainage  area,  6,740  square  miles.] 


Date. 


1902. 


Noveml)er  14-29. 
December  5-31' . . 


1903. 


January... 
February . . 

March 

April 

May6 

June  c 

July 

August 

September, 
Oc  toiler 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Discharge. 

i     Mini-     ' 
mum.    I 


Sec-feet.   Sec-feet,  i  Sec-feet 

I 


I 


3,730 
2,940 
34,520 
25,970 
44,970 
36,990 
39.f>.'J0 
2:J,500 
51,810 
25,780 


1,190  I 
995  ' 
840  ' 
8,050  I 
11,460  ' 
2,070  I 
4,750  ! 
3,980  I 
6,170  I 
6,770 


Run-off. 

Per 

Rainlall.a 

Mean. 

square 
mile. 

Depth. 

lec-feet. 

_  _  _    _ 
Sec-feet. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

14,836 

2.20 

1.39 

5.82 

2,789 

.41 

.41 

1.92 

2,593 

.38 

.44 

.45 

2,023 

.30 

.31 

.86 

ll,5r3 

1.72 

1.98 

2.28 

11,240 

1.67 

1.86 

3.07 

24, 761 

3.67 

4.23 

6.45 

8,720 

1.29 

1.44 

1.95 

14,698 

2.18 

2.51 

7.70 

8,602 

1.28 

1.48 

5.35 

19,584 

2.90 

3.24 

7.58 

13,524 

2.01 

2.32 

3.57 

a  Rainfall  for  1902  and  1903  Is  the  avoragr  of  tho  recorded  precipitation  at  the  following  stations: 
Butternut,  Hay  ward,  Medford,  Barron,  and  Eau  Claire;  that  for  1904  includes  the  same  stations  with 
the  addition  of  Stanley  and   Trentice. 

b  May  31  estimated. 

cl  to  6,  inclusive,  estimated. 

IRR  15( 


98 


WATER   POWEBS   OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Estimated  monthly  ducharge  of  Chippewa  River  at  Eau  Claire  j  Wis. ,  1903i  to  1905— CootimieA 


Date. 


1903. 


November. 
December.. 


The  year. 


1904. 


January 

February 

March  19^1.... 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November 

December  1-27., 

The  year. 


1005. 


March  18-31. 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. . 

October 

November.., 
December. . . 


Discharge. 


Run-off. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Sec-feet. 
5,930 
3,980 


Mini- 
mum. 


51,810 


8ec.-feet. 
2,830 
1,055 


840 


8,255 

1,920 

22,220 

7,640 

32.900 

7,790 

24,510 

4,390 

21,170 

1,647 

13,790 

660 

19,430 

2,264 

40,400 

3,642 

9,478 

2,748 

2,960 

380 

Mean. 


Per      I 
square      Depth, 
inch. 


.Rainfaa 


8ec.-feet.   Sec.-feeL     Inches.      Inches. 
4,562  0.68  0.76  0.96 

2,855  .42    ,  .48    !  .M 


10,305 


1.54 


21.06 


4.622 
14,550 
16,960 
12,600 
8,525 
3,778 
7,801 
15,170 
5,576 
2,230 


.686 
2.16 
2.52 
1.87 
1.26 

.561 
1.16 
2.25 

.827 

.331 


.332 
2.41 
2.90 
2.09 
1.45 

.647 
1.29 
2.59 

.923 

.332 


41.77 

.51 
1.06 
1.56 
2.01 
4.33 
6.14 
3.13 
4.27 
4.86 
5. 59 

.17 
1.79 


31,240 
24,750 
28,350 
60,520 
22,050 
14,100 
20,320 
14,250 
7,380 
5,970 


2,640 
3,510 
5,740 
5,625 
2,535 
2,535 
3,730 
3,510 
3,070 
2,010 


13,510 
10,184 
12,666 
20,368 
8,626 
5,867 
8,970 
8,041 
5,437 
3,821 


2.00 
1.51 
1.88 
3.02 
4«28 
.870 
1.33 
1.19 
.807 
.567 


35.41 

1.01 
L6ft 
2.17 
3.26 
1.48 
1.00 
1.48 
1.37 
.900 
.654 


WATER  POWERS. 

CHIPPEWA   BELOW  JUNCTION   OF  FI.AMBEAU  RIVER. 

Topography  and  drainage. — The  folIowiDg  descriptions  of  the  water  powers  on  Chippewa 
River  between  its  mouth  and  the  junction  with  Flambeau  River  were  largely  obtained  fnran 
a  manuscript  report  of  a  hjrpsometric  survey  of  this  part  of  the  river  made  by  the  Umt<*d 
States  Geological  Survey  during  the  summer  of  1903.o  Between  the  mouth  of  the  river 
and  Chippewa  Falls  a  very  careful  primary  level  was  run,  while  between  Chippewa  Falls  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Flambeau,  in  addition  to  taking  levels,  a  topographic  survey  was  made  of 
the  river  bank  and  the  area  immediately  adjacent.  Between  the  mouth  of  the  Chippewa 
and  that  of  the  Eau  Claire,  a  distance  of  48.4  miles,  this  survey  showed  that  there  was  a 
descent  at  low  water  of  about  106  feet,  or  about  2.3  feet  per  mile.  Because  of  the  uniformity 
of  this  low  gradient,  and  also  because  of  the  width  of  the  stream  and  of  the  adjacent  bottom 
lands,  there  are  no  opportunities  for  water  powers  until  Eau  Claire  is  reached.  Details  of 
descent  and  apportionment  of  drainage  areas  are  shown  in  the  following  tables: 

a  The  survey  of  that  portion  of  the  river  between  Watkins  Landing.  Minnesota,  and  Chlppewm  Fan*. 
Wis.,  was  under  the  charge  of  Geographer  J,  P,  Ren^baw.  Above  Chippewa  Falls  tl|e  wprk  was  ia 
charge  of  Geogrrapher  H.  M.  Wilson.  •-  ■     " 


CHIPPEWA    RIVEB   SYSTEM.  99 

Projile  of  Chippewa  River  from  its  moulh  to  aoturees  of  East  and  West  branches. a^ 


No. 


2 
3 

4 
5 

6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
11 
12 

13 
H 

15 
16 
17 

18 
19 

20 
21 
22 

23 
24 

25 
26 
27 
28 
29 


Station. 


Difitanoo. 


From  I  B€tween 
mouth.,  points. 


Reedfl  Landing 

Shawtown 

Eau  Claire  River,  mouth 

Dallea  paper  mills: 

Foot  of  dam 

Head  of  dam 

Chippewa  Falls: 

Foot  of  dam 

Head  of  dam 

Yellow  River,  mouth 

Eagle  rapids: 

Foot 

Head 

Water  level 

Rapids,  foot 

Jim  Falls: 

Foot 

Head 

Colton  rapids: 

Foot 

Head 

Bob  Creek 

Chevalley  rapids: 

Foot 

Head 

Brunett  Falls: 

Foot 

Head 

Fisher  River,  month 

Holcombe  rapids: 

Foot 

Foot  of  dam 

Head  of  dam,  water  level 

Deertail  Creek,  mouth 

Flambeau  Hiver  Junction 

Bruce,  sec.  28,  T.  32  N.,  R.  6  W . . . . 
East  and  West  branches  junction. 


MUe$.  I    Milet, 

0 


EAST  BRANCH. 


45.5 

48.8 

49.4 
49.4 

64.4 
64.4  I 
69.9  I 

72.4  I 
73.6  ' 
75.1  I 
77.4  i 

i 
80.1  , 

81.0 

82.3 
83.6 
87.3 

00.1  I 

91.3  I 

91.4  I 
92.4 
93.9  I 

97.1 
97.6 
97.6 
104.1 
107.7 
124.2 
162.7 


1 


30  I  Goose  Eye  rapids  head  (foot  Little  Chief  Lake) {  164. 7 

Snaptail  rapids  (Hunters  Lake) :  I 

31  ,  Foot ;  166.7 

32  Head '  168.2 

33  Blaisdells  Lake ]  170.7 

C^dar  rapids:  ; 

34  j  Foot : 173.2 

35  I         Head J  175.7 

36  I  Bear  Lake 178.2 

a  Authority:  Nos.  1,  Mississippi  River  Commission;  2-27,  U.  S. 
U.  S.  engineers, 
ft  High  water, 
c  Low  water. 


45.5 
3.3 

.6 
10.0 

14.5 

50.0 

5.5 

2.5 
1.2 
1.5 
2.3 

2.7 
.9 

1.3 
1.3 
3.7 

2.8 
1.2 

.1 
1.0 
L5 

3.2 
.5 
.0 
6.5 
3.6 
16.5 
38.5 


2.0 

2.0 
1.5 
2.5 

2.5 
2.5 
2.6 


Descent 
fileva-     between  points. 

tion     I : 

above 


sea-level.'  Total. 


Per 
mile. 


Feet. 


Feet.  I    Feet. 


f   »680.0  l| 
I    '664.0  ij" 

770.0 

770.0 


772.0 
793.0 

806.0 
839.0 
862.0 

854.0 
867.0 
871.0 
881.0 

90L0 
936.0 

942.0 
945.0 
964.0 

961.0 
966.0 

967.0 
993.0 
995.0 

1,004.0 
1,020.0 
1,036.0 
1,036.0 
1,050.0 
1,060.0 
1,280.0 

1,323.4 

1,325.2 
1,368.8 
1,374.5 

1,404.0 
1,420.0  I 
1,432.9  I 


106.0 

2.3 

.0 

.0 

2.0 

3.3 

21.0 

14..0 

1.0 

33.0 

13.0 

2.4 

2.0 

.8 

13.0 
4.0 
10.0 

20.0 
35.0 

6.0 
3.0 
9.0 

7.0 
6.0  I 

1.0 
26.0 
2.0  ! 


5.7  1 

I 

I 
29.5 

16.0  I 

12.9  1 


10.8 
2.7 
4.3 

7.4 
39.0 

4.6 
2.3 
2.4 

2.5 
4.2 

10.0 

26.0 

1.3 


9.0 

2.7 

16.0 

32.0 

16.0 

.0 

.0 

14.0 

4.0 

9.0 

.5 

221.0 

5.6 

43.4 

21.7 

1.8 

.9 

43.6 

29.0 

2.3 

11.8 
6.4 
5.1 


Geol.  Survey;  28,  David  Kirk;  2{M7 


100  WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

Profile  of  Chippewa  River  from  its  mouth  to  saurcee  of  East  and  West  branches. — Continued. 


No 


Distance. 


Station. 


I  Prom 
mouth. 


EAST  BRANCH.— Continued.  Miles. 

River,  water  level 181. 7 

Pelican  Lake 186. 7 

River,  water  level,  sec.  19,  T.  42  N.,  R.  2  W 190. 2 

Glidden  Station 201. 7 

Source  of  river i    223. 7 


WEST  BRANCH. 


Proposed  U.  S.  dam 

Pakwawang  Lake 

Moose  Lake: 

Proposed  U.  S.  dam . 

Water  level 

Partridge  Crop  Lake 

Source  of  river 


164.5 
168.7 

178.7 
178.7 
185.7 
205.7 


Between 
points. 


Descent 
Eleva-   I  beiwetm  point*. 

tion     ' , 

above 
aea-levpl.|  Total. 


Miles. 
3.5 
5.0 
3.5 
n.5 
22. 0± 


Feet. 
1,442.0 
1,462.0 
1,463.8  I 
1.509.3  ; 


Feet. 

20.0  I 

,.8  I 

45.5  ' 


I 


Per 

mile. 


Feet. 

AM 

.  5 
4.«"' 


L8 

1,286.0  1 

6.0 

3.3 

6.0   1 

1,287.2  ' 

1.2 

*» 

10.0 

1,358.8 

71.6 

7.2 

.0 

1,361.9 

3.1 

7.0 

1,384.4 

22,5 

X  2 

20. 0± 

1 

Distances  and  drainage  areas  of  Chippewa  River, 


River.» 


East  and  West  brandies  (junction) . 

Court  Oreillcs 

Thomapple  (above  mouth) 

Flamljeau: 

Above  mouth 

Mouth 

Yellow: 

Above  mouth 

Mouth 

Eau  Claire: 

Above  mouth 

Mouth 

Red  Cedar: 

Above  mouth 

Mouth 

Chippewa 


Distance 

from  the 

Junction  of 

East  and 

West 
branches, 

map       I 
measure. 


DraiTia^ 

aroa  ab<>v« 

station. 


-I  ■ 


Miles.      _  Sq.  miles. 


0 

Hi 
36 


53 


»* 

!.».> 


3.7b: 


90 

4.92' 

90 

5,>4 

113 

5.7r.- 

113 

6.^Je? 

142 

7.0W 

143 

^••1 

165 

9,:n 



-  -  - . 

a  Station  ia  at  mouth  of  rivor,  unless  otherwise  statiKl. 

Eau  Claire. — The  first  dam  site  is  located  about  2i  miles  below  the  mouth  of  Eau  Claire 
River.  According  to  a  recent  survey  by  the  city  engineer,  a  head  of  7  feet  could  be  obtftined 
here.  On  accoimt  of  its  proximity  to  the  city  of  Eau  Claire,  this  power  would  have  especial 
value.  Before  improvement  there  were  two  rapids  in  the  river  between  Eau  Claire  and 
Chippewa  Falls,  one  1.25  miles  above  the  Eau  Claire,  called  the  Lower  Dalles,  ^lith  a  desrecC 
of  lOi  feet  in  a  little  over  2  miles;  the  other  about  4  miles  below  Chippewa  Fails,  called  the 
Upper  Dalles,  with  a  descent  of  9  feet  in  about  2  miles. 


\BA9\  B^s  iinaoi  3Aoqv  ;daj 


z 


^       5: 


'     CHIPI'EWA    RIVER   SYSTEM.  101 

The  dam  2  miles  above  Eau  Claire,  owned  by  the  Dells  Paper  and  Pulp  Company,  is  of 
the  square-timber,  crib  type  on  a  sandstone  foundation.  It  is  about  600  feet  long,  19  feet 
high,  3  feet  wide  at  the  top,  and  with  a  base  of  about  8  feet.  Eight  splash  boards  are  used 
on  the  crest  when  necessary,  giving  a  head  of  26  feet.  It  would  be  possible  to  increase  the 
height  of  the  dam  so  as  to  develop  32  feet,  and  a  bill  authorizing  this  increase  is  now  (March, 
1905)  pending  before  the  State  legislature.  Such  a  dam  would  back  the  water  nearly  to 
Chippewa  Falls,  15  miles  above,  greatly  adding  to  an  already  very  large  pondage.  This  is 
the  most  important  manufacturing  plant  on  the  river.  The  turbine  installation  is 
reported  as  follows: 

DeUs  Paper  and  Pidp  Company^a  turhiju  instaUation,  2  miles  above  Eau  Claire. 

Purpose.  Horsepower. 

Paper  mill 1,396 

Pulp  mill 4,918 

Electric  light  and  power 1, 632 

Waterwoitoj 300 

8,246 

Chippewa  Falls. — In  the  141  miles  between  the  Dells  dam  and  Chippewa  Falls  no  power 
sites  arc  found,  the  river  having  a  nearly  uniform  slope  of  1  foot  to  the  mile.  At  the  latter 
place,  however,  is  a  wooden  dam  800  feet  long,  with  a  head  of  30  feet,  owned  by  the  Chip- 
pewa Falls  Lumber  and  Boom  Company.  This  dam  supplies  power  for  a  large  sawmill 
and  also  a  plant  furnishing  the  city  of  Chippewa  Falls  with  water  and  electric  light.  The 
dam  could  be  made  several  feet  higher,  as  Ihe  local  conditions  arc  favorable,  but  this 
would  interfere  with  a  proposed  plant  at  Paint  Creek  rapids,  2i  miles  upstream,  to  which 
point  the  water  now  backs.  The  owners  have  developed  only  about  20  feet  of  head,  but 
this  could  be  increased  to  the  full  head  of  30  feet  by  blasting  and  cleaning  out  the  river  to 
the  wagon  bridge  below.  The  power  and  light  company  leases  1,000  horsepower,  using  a 
head  of  29  feet. 

The  next  rapids,  known  as  Paint  Crcek  rapids,  are  2}  miles  above  the  Chippewa  Falls 
dam.  A  flooding  dam  526  feet  long,  with  a  crest  lOi  feet  above  low  water,  was  fonnerly 
maintained  hero.  A  dam  about  800  feet  long,  with  a  head  of  14  feet,  could  be  constructed 
at  the  foot  of  the  rapids  at  this  point.  The  banks  and  bed  appear  to  be  sand^  intermingled 
with  large  bowlders.  Stone  for  construction  is  abundant  and  near  at  hand,  and  it  is 
likely  that  a  rock  foundation  could  be  easily  obtained. 

Eagle  rapids,  4i  miles  farther  upstream,  in  lot  3,  sec.  16,  T.  29  N.,  R.  8  W.,  is  a  good 
site  for  a  dam,  owned  by  F.  G.  &  C.  A.  Stanley,  of  Chippewa  Falls.  A  dam  60  feet  long 
and  20  feet  high  would  back  the  water  three  fourtlis  of  a  mile  above  the  city  of  Chippewa 
Falls,  where  O'Neils  Creek  enters  from  the  west.  One  mile  above  the  mouth  of  O'Neils 
Creek,  in  sec.  10,  T.  29  N.,  R.  8  W.,  is  a  gorge  700  feet  wide,  where  a  25-foot  dam  would 
have  solid  sandstone  for  foundations  and  abutments  and  would  back  the  water  almost 
to  the  foot  of  Jim  Falls,  3  miles  above.  Such  a  dam  would  develop  5,000  theoretical 
horsepower. 

Jim  Falls. — Near  the  small  station  of  Jim  Falls,  on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Rail- 
way, occurs  the  best  opportunity  for  water-power  development  on  Chippewa  River.  It  is 
owned  by  W.  L.  Davis,  of  Eau  Claire.  Formerly  an  old  flooding  dam  was  located  here. 
The  river  flows  over  a  series  of  granite  ledges  1  to  4  feet  high,  while  the  banks  seem  to  be 
of  the  same  rock,  covered  by  a  few  feet  of  sandy  soil.  This  power  is  now  under  develop- 
ment, a  company  having  purchased  all  the  land  needed.  The  proposed  dam,  28  feet  high, 
will  be  located  at  the  head  of  the  rapids.  It  is  designed  to  furnish  power  for  a  pulp  mill 
near  the  foot.  The  t<>tal  head  obtained  by  this  plant  will  be  55  feet.  Fig.  4  shows  the  plan 
of  the  proposed  development.  Water  is  to  be  conducted  from  the  dam  by  a  canal  extend- 
ing on  the  left  bank  for  a  distance  of  about  5,000  feet  to  high  bluffs  100  feet  from  the  river 
bank.    The  power  house  will  be  on  the  river  bank  immediately  below.    The  dam  will  back 


102 


WATER  P0WEB8   OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


the  water  nearly  to  Bnrnett  Falls,  9}  mUes  above,  and  will  cover  the  Colton  and  Chevallpj 
rapids. 

Brunett  FdUs. — One  of  the  best  powers  on  Chippewa  River,  and  one  most  cheaply  devel- 
oped, is  found  at  Brunett  Falls  (PL  III,  S),  located  in  sec.  18,  T.  31  N.,  R.  6  W.     It  belongs 


Fig.  4.— Plan  of  proposed  water-power  development  at  Jim  Falls  (Davis  Falls). 

to  Cornell  University,  which  also  owns  the  adjacent  land  as  well  as  the  water  rights.  The 
best  location  for  the  dam  would  be  about  650  feet  above  the  foot  of  the  rapids,  where  a 
35-foot  dam  would  back  the  water  up  to  the  rapids  at  Holcombe,  5i  miles  above.  The 
river  at  the  dam  sit*  is  narrow  (70  or  80  feet),  while  the  banks  are  high,  granite  le<lges. 


CHIPPEWA    RIVER  SYSTEM.  103 

A  dam  here  would  create  a  large  reservoir.  It  is  stated  that  the  plans  contemplate  a  dam 
200  feet  long.  A  steel  wagon  bridge  has  recently  been  built  across  the  river  immediately 
below  the  dam  site. 

Holeombe  dam. — ^The  next  power  is  at  Holcombe,  about  3  miles  below  the  mouth  of  Jump 
River,  where  the  Chippewa  Falls  Lumber  and  Boom  Company  maintains  a  timber  dam,  with 
a  head  of  about  17  feet.  This  is  the  third  dam  that  has  been  built  here,  the  others  having 
been  washed  out  by  freshets.  As  the  lumber  interests  are  fast  declining,  the  present  dam  is 
being  allowed  to  decay.  For  power  piuposes  it  should  be  replaced  by  a  more  substantial 
structure.  The  river  here  has  a  rock  bottom,  with  rather  low  clay  sides,  but  an  18-foot 
dam  could  be.  constructed  on  the  site  of  the  present  structure,  which,  together  with  a 
15-foot  dam  at  the  foot  of  the  rapids  just  below  (sometimes  called  Little  Falls),  would 
develop  about  all  the  head  at  this  point  and  would  not  flood  any  more  valuable  lands  above. 
This  would  back  the  water  above  Deertail  Creek  and  furnish  considerable  storage. 

Mouth  ofFlamheau. — Of  the  14  feet  of  descent  in  Chippewa  River  between  Holeombe 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Flambeau  10  feet  are  concentrated  in  the  first  mile  below  the  latter 
point.     It  is  very  Ukely  that  a  dam  on  this  reach  would  easily  develop  15  feet  of  head. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  all  the  water  poweis  on  Chippewa  River  thus  far  described 
are  reached  by  one  or  more  railroads.  Because  of  their  availability  many  of  the  above 
powers  are  likely  to  be  developed  in  the  near  future.  Their  importance  is  emphasized 
by  the  following  statement:  Of  the  244  feet  descent  in  the  Chippewa  between  Chippewa 
Falls  and  the  mouth  of  the  Flambeau,  116  feet  are  concentrated  in  5  falls  and  rapids. 
The  building  of  10  dams  would  economically  develop  a  total  of  213  feet  head  in  this  dis- 
tance of  43  miles.  When  fully  developed  these  powers  will  rival  in  importance  the  extensive 
developments  on  lower  Fox  River  between  Appleton  and  Green  Bay. 

BRANCHES   AND  UPPER  WATERS. 

Topography  and  drainage. — The  following  statements  in  regard  to  the  water  powers  of 
upper  Chippewa  River,  not  being  based  on  a  hydrographic  survey,  are  necessarily  incom- 
plete. Statements  concerning  profile,  etc.,  are  based  on  the  survey  and  maps  of  this 
region  made  in  1880  by  United  States  engineers  in  connection  with  the-  reservoir  surveys* 
Distance  and  drainage  area  data  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Length  and  drainage  area  of  the  upper  tributaries  of  Chippewa  River. 


River. 


Length 

(map 

measure). 


Drainage 
area. 


West  Branch  of  Chippewa 

East  Branch  of  Chippewa.  ..^. 

Court  Oreilles 

Flambeau 

Jump 

Yellow 

Eau  naire 

Red  Cedar 


Miles. 
35 


Sq.  miUt. 
480 


60  278 

20  176 

155  1,983 

65  721 


458 

809 

1,957 


In  the  16^  miles  between  the  mouth  of  the  Flambeau  and  Bruce  Chippewa  River  descends 
only  0.8  foot  per  mile,  but  in  the  38^  miles  between  Bruce  and  the  confluence  of  East 
and  West  branches  of  the  Chippewa,  in  sec.  2,  T.  39  N.,  R.  6  W.,  the  river  descends  216 
feet,  an  average  of  5.6  feet  per  mile.  This  steep  gradient  is  certain  to  produce  many 
good  powers.  This  reach  is,  however,  devoid  of  railroads  except  a  few  logging  roads. 
One  of  these  undeveloped  powers,  called  Belills  Falls,  is  located  in  sec.  26,  T.  38  N., 
R.  7  W.    Its  owner,  the  John  Arpin  Lumber  Company,  reports  that  this  power  is  capable 


104  WATER    POWERS   OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

of  producing  a  head  of  about  30  feet.    It  is  near  Radison^  on  the  Cliicago,  St.  Paul,  yTm- 
neapolis  and  Omaha  Railway. 

East  Branch  of  Chippeuxi. — Three  important  rapids  occur  in  East  Branch  of  Chippewa 
River.  Between  Little  Chief  Lake  and  the  confluence  of  East  and  West  branches,  a  dis- 
tance of  2.7  miles,  there  is  a  descent  of  43  feet.  Between  these  points  there  is  a  series  of 
rapids,  "the  bed  of  the  riyer  being  literally  paved  with  bowlders.  The  banks  are  from 
10  to  20  feet  high  and  the  drift  a  reddish  clay."  These  are  known  as  the  Goose  Eye  rapidN. 
Two  or  three  dams  could  develop  a  head  of  about  40  feet. 

Above  Hunters  Lake,  in  sees.  22  and  23,  T.  40  N.,  R  5  E.,  oc^-ur  the  Snaptail  rapids, 
with  an  aggregate  descent  of  43.6  feet. 

Cedar  rapids,  the  last  of  importance  on  this  branch,  with  a  descent  of  16  feet,  are  located 
in  sec.  9,  T.  40  N.,  R.  4  W.,  and  in  the  2  miles  above.  The  total  descent  l>etweon  Blaii«- 
dell  and  Bear  lakes  is[about  58  feet,  all  in  a^distance  of  7 J  miles.  Between  Bear  and  little 
Chief  lakes  the  banks  vary  from  4  to  50  feet  in  height.  A  logging  dam  has  been  maintained 
at  the  head  of  the  rapids,  in  sec.  26,  T.  41  N.,  R.  4  W.,  which  had  a  height  of  10  feet.  Mi»a.- 
urements  made  here  by  United  States  engineers  on  June  20  and  July  12,  1879,  with  the 
river  respectively  0.6  and  2.1  feet  above  low-water  mark,  showed  a  discharge  of  381  and 
472  second-feet.    The  river  at  this  point  is  153  feet  wide. 

West  Branch  of  Chippewa. — West  Branch  of  the  Chippewa  River  has  a  drainage  area 
of  480  square  miles,  or  200  square  miles  more  than  East  Branch,  but  its  descent  is  con^d- 
erably  less  rapid.  The  river  has  its  source  in  several  lai^Bje  lakes  at  about  1^380  feet  above 
sea  level.  The  first  undeveloped  power  is  located  about  IJ  miles  above  the  confluence 
of  the  two  branches,  in  sec.  34,  T.  40  N.,  R.  6  W.,  where  the  hills  approach  within  90(> 
feet.  The  river  at  this  point  has  a  width  of  121  feet,  and  here  United  States  engineers 
made  surveys  for  a  dam  with  a  head  of  25i  feet,  which  gave  a  very  laiige  reservoir  arra. 
A  15-foot  head  could  probably  be  obtained  at  reasonable  expense.  Four  measuremen*- 
made  by  United  States  engineers  on  August  6,  1879,  at  a  stage  only  0.2  foot  above  k)w 
water  gave  a  mean  dischaige  of  360  second-fe<»t,  or  0.-75  second-feet  per  square  mile  of 
drainage  area.  This  laige  low-water  run-off  is  double  that  estimated  for  this  drainage  area 
The  excess  may  be  explained  by  the  steadying  action  of  the  laige  lakes  near  the  head- 
waters of  this  river. 

In  the  10  miles  between  Moose  and  Pakwawang  lakes  West  Branch  descends  71.6  fivt, 
including  a  series  of  rapids  with  sluggish  water  between.  Tlie  banks  are  generally  from 
20  to  30  feet  high,  with  clay  soil.o 

Court  OreiUes  River. — Court  Oreilles  River  has  its  source  at  an  elevation  of  1,287  feet  in  a 
lake  of  the  same  name.  The  group  of  lakes  forming  its  headwaters  have  a  total  area  of  almut 
16  square  miles.  A  dam  at  this  outlet  would  need  to  have  a  length  of  260  feet  to  secure  a 
head  of  5  feet,  and  would  store  a  supply  sufficient  to  deliver  255  second-feet  for  ninety  days 
at  times  of  low  water.  The  river  is  from  50  to  60  feet  wide,  and  in  the  first  3  miles  of  its 
course  is  sluggish.  Thence  to  its  mouth  it  furnishes  a  series  of  rapids,  with  still  reaches 
between.  The  most  important  rapids,  known  as  the  Court  Oreilles,  are  situated  within  3 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which  at  this  point  flows  over  ledges  of  the  pre-Oamhrian 
rocks.  The  river  is  crossed  at  its  middle  point  by  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and 
Omaha  Railway,  where  the  water  surface  has  an  elevation  of  1,240  feet.  This  shows  a 
descent  of  47  feet  in  10  miles  between  this  point  and  the  lake.  The  lower  half  of  the  river  is 
reached  by  the  above  railway.  Unlike  either  East  Branch,  West  Branch,  or  any  other 
neighboring  branches  of  the  Chippewa,  Court  Oreilles  River  drains  a  region  with  a  very  open 
sandy  soil.  A  measurement  made  by  United  States  engineers,  October  25, 1879,  at  a  stage 
0.3  foot  above  low  ivater,  showed  a  discharge  at  the  mouth  of  Lake  Court  Oreilles  of  only  2^ 
second-feet  from  a  drainage  area  of  114  square  miles.  It  seems  likely  that,  because  of  the 
character  of  the  soil,  part  of  the  run-off  escapes  underground  to  the  west  into  Namekagon 
Rii'er. 


a  Kept.  Chief  Eng.  U.  S.  Army,  1880,  p.  1562. 


CHIPPEWA    RIVER   SYSTEM. 


105 


Upper  powers. — Because  of  their  present  isolation  from  railroads,  the  chief  use  of  dams 
which  have  been  maintained  on  the  upper  headwaters  of  Chippewa  River  would  lie  in  their 
operation  as  reservoirs  to  improve  the  powers  below.  Their  location  is  shown  in  the 
following  table: 

Dams  on  "upper  vxUers  of  Chippewa  River  A 


Location. 


Chippewa  River: 

NW.  }aec.  28,  T.  32  N.,  K.  6  W 

Sec.  22,  T.3.3N.,  R.  8  W 

Sec.  28,  T.  32  N.,  R.  6  W 

West  Branch: 

S W.  i  S W.  i  sec.  32,  T.  42  N.,  R.  5  W 

Sec.  12  1 .  42  N.,  R.  5  W 

NE  jSFI.iaec.  14,  T.  41  N.,  R.  6  W 

Outlet  to  Pokegama  Lake,  N  W.  J  N  W.  \  see.  32,  T.  40  N.,  R.  6  \V . 

Little  Chief  River,  N  E.  i  N  E.  1  sec.  26,  T.  40  N.,  R.  7  W 

i:a8t Branch,  NW.  J  SE.  i  sec.  2«,  T.  41  N.,  R.  4  W 

Thornapple  River: 

Sec.  10,  T.  35  N.,  R.  6  W 

Sec .  4,  T .  36  N . ,  R.  5  W 

Sec.  20,  T.38N.,  R.  4  W 

Sec .  4,  T .  38  N . ,  R .  4  W 

Bnmett  River,  sec.  17,  T.  38N.,  R.  5  W 

Torch  River,  sec.  16,  T.  42  N.,  R.  4  W 


Dimensions,  b 
Height.  '  length. 


Reservoir 
capacity. 


Ffft.     I 
21 


8 
♦20 
7 
8 
6 
10 

♦18 
♦18 
♦12 
♦15 
♦15 
*20 


Feet.     I    Cubic  feet. 
62ri  '       133,333,000 

'      153,331,000 

334,536,000 


123 


*300 

347 

108 

430,000,000 

142 

564 
*800 

300,000,000 

*400 

*250 

♦250 



*325 

*300 

a  Authority:  Nos.  1-4  and  6-9,  United  States  engineers;  5  and  10-15,  Chippewa  Lumber  and  Boom 
!)ompany. 

b  Dimensions  m 
Boom  Company. 


Company. 
A  Dimensions  marked  with  an  asterisk  (♦)  were  estimated  by  the  owner,  The  Chippewa  Lumlier  and 


TRIBUTARIES  OF  CHIPPEWA  RIVER. 

FLAMBEAU    RIVER. 

Drainage  and  water  pouters. — In  size  of  drainage  area  Flambeau  River  ranks  first  among 
the  tributaries  of  the  Chippewa.  Indeed,  because  of  its  central  location  in  the  drainage 
basin,  it  might  properly  be  regarded  as  the  prolongation  of  the  main  stream  itself.  Regard- 
less of  its  size,  however,  its  water  power  must,  in  large  part,  continue  for  some  time  unused, 
because  of  its  forested  location  and  its  lack  of  railroad  facilities.  The  settling  of  this  area 
will  eventually  justify  the  extension  of  present  railroads  and  the  building  of  new  ones. 
Flambeau  River  is  crossed  near  its  mouth  (at  Ladysmith)  by  the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  Railway,  near  its  center  (at  Park  Falls)  by  the  Wisconsin  Central  Railway, 
and  at  its  upper  headwaters  by  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway.  Between  Park 
Falls  and  Ladysmith  is  a  reach  of  70  miles  unserved  by  railroad,  and  yet  with  no  point  at  a 
greater  distance  than  15  miles  from  the  present  railroads.  It  is  significant  that  the  two 
points  with  transportation  facilities,  Ladysmith  and  Park  Falls,  have  established  large  paper 
and  pulp  mills  and  other  manufactories.  The  unusually  steady  flow,  the  soft  water,  and  the 
proximity  of  almost  unlimited  quantities  of  pulp  wood  should  make  this  river  a  center  of  the 
paper  and  pulp  industry.     Transportation  alone  is  lacking. 

Flambeau  Jliver  has  its  source  in  the  largest  number  of  lakes  and  coni^ecting  swamps 
with  the  greatest  aggregate  storage  capacity  of  any  river  in  the  State.  This  storage  capacity 
has  been  increased  in  many  cases  by  lumbering  dams  built  at  the  lake  outlets,  but  as  yet 
many  opportunities  for  the  storing  of  surplus  waters  remain  unimproved.  These  lakes  lie 
in  the  highest  portion  of  the  State,  at  elevations  varying  from  1,560  to  1,650  feet  or  more 
above  the  sea.    The  levels  show  that  the  river  descends  570  feet  in  a  distance  of  150  miles, 


106 


WATER   POWERS    OP   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


or  about  3.8  feet  per  mile.  A  large  part  of  this  fall  is  known  to  be  concentrated  at  numerous 
falls  and  rapids.  In  the  19  miles  between  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  Ladysmith  the  descent 
is  42  feet.  A  company  has  recently  been  formed  to  construct  a  dam  with  a  head  of  20  fe<»t 
at  a  point  6  miles  below  Ladysmith,  in  sec.  18,  T.  34  N.,  R.  6  W.,  and  the  work  of  constnic- 
tion  is  already  begun.  The  next  developed  power  above  the  mouth  is  found  at  Ladysmith, 
where  a  timber  dam  350  feet  long  develops  a  head  of  16  feet.  This  power  is  used  to  run  a 
paper  and  pulp  mill  &nd  also  for  the  manufacture  of  wooden  ware. 

There  are  no  developed  powers  on  Flambeau  River  for  70  miles  above  Ladysmith,  but  a 
fall  of  353  feet  in  this  distance  insures  many  undeveloped  powers.  Two  of  these.  Little  Falls 
and  Big  Falls,  are  of  special  importance.  The  former  is  located  in  the  NW.  }  sec.  21 ,  T.  35 
N.,  R.  5  W.,  and  is  owned  by  A.  J.  McGilvary  and  B.  D.  Viles,  of  Chippewa  Falls.  A  15-fix>t 
dam  at  the  head  of  the  first  rapids  would  give  a  head  of  about  25  feet  at  the  foot  of  tht' 
rapids  a  short  disl-ance  below.  Big  Falls,  owned  by  the  John  Heim  Company,  of  Tony, 
Wis.,  is  located  6  miles  above  Little  Falls,  in  sec.  35,  T.  36  N.,  R.  5  W.  There  is  a  deso^nt 
of  25  feet  here  in  a  short  distance,  concentrated  in  three  pitches.  A  view  of  one  is  shown 
in  PI.  V,  ^.  No  accurate  survey  has  been  made  of  either  fall,  but  the  owner  of  Big  Falb 
estimates  that  a  25-foot  dam  at  the  head  of  the  rapids  and  a  canal  about  five-eighths  of  a 
mile  to  the  end  of  the  rapids  would  -give  a  6Q-foot  head.  Both  falls  occur  over  ledges  of 
pre-Cambrian  crystalline  rock. 

At  Park  Falls  the  Flambeau  Paper  Company  has  constructed  two  dams;  one,  half  a  mik^ 
above  the  railroad  crossing,  in  sec.  13,  T.  40  N.,  R.  1  W.,  and  one  about  a  mile  below,  in 
sec.  25,  T.  40  N.,  R.  1  W^.  Each  dam  furnishes  an  average  head  of  16  feet.  The  upper 
plant  has  installed  13  turbines,  rated  at  1,300  horsepower,  while  at  the  lower  plant  about 
1,100  horsepower  has  been  installed. 

There  are  other  rapids  in  sees.  28, 32,  and  33,  T.  41  N.,  R.  1  E.,  and  levels  taken  by  Unitt'd 
States  engineers  showed  a  fall  here  of  24  feet  in  2  miles.  Again,  in  sees.  3  and  4,  T.  41  N.. 
R.  2  E.,  below  the  junction  of  Turtle  and  Flaorbeau  rivers,  is  a  similar  fall  of  25  feet.  Above 
this  point  the  river  is  much  smaller  and  has  lower  gradient,  though  bowlder  rapids  are  of 
frequent  occurrence. 

The  lack  of  railroad  transportation  on  this  watershed  will  postpone  the  utilization  of 
its  many  large  water  powers  uiltil  the  region  is  more  thickly  settled  and  better  served  by 
railroads. 

Profile. — No  Government  surveys  have  been  made  in  the  46  miles  above  Big  Faik, 
so  that  reliable  data  regarding  water  powers  along  this  portion  of  the  river  are  almoet 
entirely  lacking.  Al>ove  Park  Falls  United  States  engineers  have  run  levck  in  connection 
with  the  reservoir  surveys,  thus  furnishing  valuable  hypsometric  data.  Information  con- 
cerning the  river  profile  from  mouth  to  headwat«rs,  with  the  exception  noted  above,  is 
fairly  complete,  and  is  summarized  in  the  following  table: 

Profile  of  Flambeau  Riverfront  its  mouth  to  Boulder  Lake.a 


No. 


Station. 


Mouth  of  river 

SW.  i  sec.  34,  T.  34N.,  R.  7  W 

Ducomon  rapids,  N  W.  i  sec.  23,  T.  34 N.,  R.  7  W  . . 

New  dam,  foot  of  rapids 

SVV.  Jaec.  1,  T.  34N.,  R.  6  W 

Ladysmith,  l)elow  dam 


Distance. 


From 
mouth. 

Between 
points. 

Mile*. 

MiUs. 

0.0 

7.0 

7.0 

11.0 

4.0 

15.0 

4.0 

15.75 

.75 

24.25 

8.5 

Elevar 

tion 

above  set 

level. 


Feet. 
1,050.0 
l.OM.O 
1,070.0 
1,061.0 
1,0S8.4 
1,099.0 


Deaoent  b^ 
tweeo  potnU. 


Total. 


Per 
mile. 


Feet.    I    Fert. 


a  Authority:  No.  1-26,  U.  R.  Geol.  Survey;  27-30.  U.  8.  engineers.  Because  of 
assigned  eievHtion  of  the  initial  bench  mark,  15  feet  is  added  to  the  U.  8.  eng^eer 
rect  to  sea-level  datum. 


U.0 
6.0  I 

11.0  . 

7.4  i 

.       10-6  i 

an  error 
elevation 


2.0 
1.5 


10.0 
l.X» 


in  the 
to  cor- 


U.  8.  OEOLOOICAL  SURVEY 


WATER-SUPPLY    PAPER   NO.   156      PL.   V 


A.     LOWER  PITCH  OF  BIG  FALLS.  FLAMBEAU   RIVER. 


B.     COPPER  FALLS,   BAD   RIVER. 


CHIPPEWA   BIVER   SYSTEM. 


107 


Profile  of  Flambeau  River  from  Us  mouth  to  Boulder  Lake — Oontinued. 


Ko 


Station. 


Difltanoe. 


From    Between 
mouth,    ooints. 


Eleva- 
tion 
above  set 
level. 


Defloeht  be- 
tween points. 


I  Total 


Per 
mile. 


7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 

10 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 


Ladysmlth,  above  dam 

NW.  i8eo.25,  T.35N.,  R.6W 

Little  FalU,  foot  of 

Little  Falls,  head  of  (sec.  21,  T.  35  N.,  R.  5  W.) 

NE.  J  sec.  16,  T.  35  N.,  R.  5  W 

Big  Falls,  foot  of  (N  W.  J  sec.  2,  T.  35  N.,  R.  5  W.)  . 

NW.  I  sec.  8,  T.  39  N..  R.  1  W 

South  line  see.  33,  T.40N.,  R.l  W 

Sec.  35,  T.  40  N..  R.  1  W.,  west  line  of 

Below  dam,  sec.  25,  T.  40  N.,  R.  1  W.,  west  line  of. . 

A  bovB  dam 

Park  Falls  railroad  bridge,  west  line  sec.  24,  T.  40 
N.,  R.1  W 

Below  tail  race  upper  dam,  Parle  Falls 

Above  upper  dam.  Park  Falls 

Backwater,  upper  dam 

Center  sec.  28,  T.  41  N..  R.  1  E 

Sec.  12,  T.  41  N.,  R.  1  E.,  W.  J  stake 

Sec.  4,  T.  41  N.,  R.  2  E.,  W.  J  stake 

Turtle  River,  mouth 

Manitowish  River,  junction  of  Bear  Creek 

Rest  Lake,  mouth  of  (sec.  8,  T.  42  N.,  R.  5  E.) 

Island  Lake,  inlet  of 

Boulder  Lake 


MUe». 
24.25 
28.0 
32.0 
32.8 
36.8 
40.3 
86.2 
9L2 
04.2 
05.0 
05.0 

06.6 
96.3 
96.5 
104.3 
107.1 
112.5 
115.8 
110.0 
134.0 
146.0 
153.5 
163.0 


0.0 
3.75 
4.0 
.8 
4.0 
3.5 

45l0 
5.0 
3.0 

54.7 
0.0 

1.6 
.5 
.2 
5.8 
2.8 
6.4 
3.3 
3.2 
15.0 
12.0 
7.5 
0.5 


Feet. 
1,115.3 
1,115.4 
1,131.4 
1,U7.4 
1,166.7 
1,177.0 
1,421.8 
1,429.6 
1,438.0 
1,454.0+ 
1,470.0+ 


470.0 
466.8 
481.0 
482.5 
490.2 
5ia8 
516.0 
541.4 
568.0 
587.0 
502.0 
625.0 


Feet. 
16.3 
.1 
16.0 
16.0 
10.3 
10.3 
244.8 
7.8 
8.4 


2.8 

14.2 
1.5 
16l7 

n.6 

6.2 
25.4 
26.6 
10.0 

5.0 
33.0 


Feet. 


4.0 
20.0 
4.8 
03.0 
5.3 
1.5 
28 


5.6 


.2 
6.0 
2.0 
1.8 
7.6 
1.8 
1.6 

.66 
3.5 


RainfaU  and  run-off. — ^Like  all  the  northern  rivers  of  the  State  the  minimum  flow  of 
Flambeau  River  occurs  in  severe  midwinter  weather,  or  during  very  dry  summers  in  the 
months  of  July  and  August.  At  present  there  are  not  sufficient  discharge  data  covering 
periods  when  the  river  is  frozen  to  construct  an  accurate  rating  curve  for  such  periods. 
Because  of  the  extensive  forest  and  the  numerous  lakes  and  swamps,  an  ordinary  flow  of 
0.8  second-foot  per  square  mile  of  drainage  area  would  seem  conservative.  By  the  proper 
regulation  of  present  dams  at  the  headwaters  it  is  likely  that  this  dischai^ge  could  be  con- 
siderably increased. 

In  February,  1903,  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  established  an  observing  station 
at  the  Ladysmith  dam,  and  has^taken  daily  gage  readings  since.  Discharge  measurements 
are  taken  by  current  meters  and  are  being  continued  so  that  in  time  an  accurate  estimate  of 
the  river's  dischargOb^will  be  available.    The  following  tables  give  such  daily  observations: 


108 


WATER   POWEKS    OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


discharge  measurements,  and  computations  as  have  become  available  since  the  eBtablisfa- 
ment  of  the  station,  and  also  a  record  of  rainfall  for  the  corresponding  period: 

Diachajfe  measurements  of  Flambeau  River  near  Laiysmith,  Wis.  ^  for  1903, 1904,  and  IdOo. 


Date. 


1903. 
February  13  «. 

March  19b 

Aprils 

May  6 

June  16 

July  11 

iugust  21 

September  10. 
October  23.... 


1904. 

May  16 

Junes 

August  29 

September  20. 
October  12 


1905. 


Hydrographer. 


L.  R.  Stockman. 

do 

....do 

....do 

do 

....do 

do 

E.C.  Murphy.... 
L.  R.  Stockman. 


E.  Johnson,  Jr. 

....do 

....do 

....do 

F.  W.Hanna.. 


April  8 S.  K.  Clapp 

May  23 do ..... 

June  14 M.  S.  Brennan. 

July  12 ' do 

August  12 ! do 

September  23 '  F.  W.  Hanoa. . 


Width. 


Feet. 
325 
366 
349 
361 
342 
342 
342 
364 
348 

350 
350 
349 
343 
364 

129 
357 
354 
353 
345 
353 


Area  of 
section. 


Square 
feet. 

472 
1,871 
1,330 
1,927 

703 
1,430 

995 
1,579 
1,271 

1,333 

1,448 

733 

702 

1,653 

1,537 
1,292 
1,232 
1,015 
623 
1,404 


Mean       Gage .  I     Dis- 
veloeity.  I  height !  cfaaigp. 


I 


Feel  per  j 
second.  | 

1.64 
1.77 
2.80 
3.70 
1.91 
2.»S 
2.60 
3.36 
3.07 

3.15 
2.99 
2.07 
2.21 
3.37 

3.49 
2.60 
2.67 
2.54 
1.84 
3.02 


Feet. 
16.20 
18.95 
17. « 
1&97 
l&OD 
18.10 
16.85 

laos 

17.21 


Sefond- 
feei. 

773 
3.  .112 
3,727 
7,113 
l.x^45 
4  ^22 
2,681 
5.3Q8 


17.88  '  4.203 

17.45  I  4.321 

16l06  '  1.517 

16l01  I  1,554 


IS.  SS 

.  i 

18.27 
17.60  I 
17.35 
16.80  ' 
15.66 
17.75 


I 


5,S8S 

5.367 
3,474 

3.2S8 
2.576 
1,144 

4,23^ 


aFroren. 


b  Log  Jam  below. 


Mean  daily  gage  height,  in  feet,  of  Flambeau  River  near  Ladysmith,  Wis.,  February  I'l, 

190S,  to  December  SI,  1905. 


Day. 


Feb.      Mar. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 


1903. 


16.15 

I  16.60 

!  16.50 

'  16.10 

16.30 

16.50 

16.60 

16.10 


16.  50  17. 25 

16.05  ,  17.25 

16.45  17.30 

16.35  17.25 

14 ■  16.35  17.60 

16.60  17.40 


Apr.     May.    June,  i  July. 


Aug.     Sept.     Oct,  '  Not.     Dpv. 


~r 


17.00  18.30 

16.80  18.40 

16.90  18.60 

16.90  19.05 

17.05  19.10 


16.40  I  19.10 

1&90  \  19.10 

17.45  i  18.80 

16.50  '  17.35  !  18.70 


15 '  16.00 

16 16.10 

17 1  16.05 

18 1  16.00 

19 T i  16.90 


16.15 
16.20 


17.20 

laos 


10.30     17.00 
18.25  j  16.90 


17. 95 
18.25 
18.80 
19.55 
19.80 
19.65 
19.55 
19.40 
19.45 
19.05 


19.80 
19.65 
18.95 
18.60 
18.10 
17.55 
17.55 
17.30 
16.95 
1&60 
16.75 
16.80 
16.30 
1&15 
16.35 
16.50 
16.05 
16.05 
15.85 


15.65  ' , 

16.15  I , 

17.25  ' 

18.10  ' 

18.90   

19.05  I 

19.20   

18.85 

18.70  j 

18.60  !  18.20 
18.75  18.00 
18.55  I  17.90 
1&30  '  17.80 
17.85  17.70 
17.70  \  17.50 
17.65  ■  17.30 
IT.  60  17. 30 
17.35  17.20 
17.35  I  17.00 


17.00 
16.70 
I  16.80 
16.30 
16.80 
1&90 
16.90 
17.30 
18.20 
18.20 
18.00 
18.40 
19.00 
19.80 
20.40 
20.50 
20.50 
20.30 
20.00 


17.20 

17.30 

17.60 

19.65 

19.70 

19.35 

19.25 

19.25  I 

19.30  . 

19.35  I 

18.95  , 

18.65  j 

18.45  j 

18.25  I 

17.90 

17.85  I 

17.80 

17.50 

17.35 


16.00 

1&25 

15.85 

15l85 

1&85 

1&85 

15.90 

1&65  . 

l&TO 

1&.85 

16. 00 

15.85 

15l85 

15l80 

1ol80 

15.75 

15l80 

15lQ0 

15.50 


li» 
1S.T5 
15  9k3 
15.  KV 

15.  Ml 
IClSS 

1ol81) 
14.7t> 
16LaO 
16.,T3 

i&a> 

16. ,% 
Id  45 
16.55 

ltv35 

16.  «i 
16l:.' 

16.  K) 


CHIPPEWA   BIVER   8Y8TKM. 


109 


Mean  daily  gage  height ,  in  feet  ^  of  Flambeau  River  near  Ladysmiihf  Wis.,  February  15  y  1903  ^ 
to  December  31 ,  i905— Continued. 


Day. 


Feb.  I  Mar.  |  Apr. 


1903. 

20 \  l&OO 

21 j  15.90 

22 '  16.06 

23 1  16.00 

24 16.25 

28 J  16.00 

as ;  15.96 

27 16.40 

28 '  16.25 

29 

30 1 

31 1 


20.35 
19.30 
18.50 
18.45 
17.30 
17.60 
17.25 
17.00 
17.10 
17.00 


16.85 
16.90 
1&65 
16.65 
17.30 
17.30 
17.25 
17.15 
17.20 
17.40 
16. 76  i  18  45 
16.60  I 


Day. 


1904. 


1 16.75 

2 16.96 

3 16.75 

4 16.85 

5 17.00 

6 16.50 

7 16.50 

8 16.66 

9 16.65 

10 16.70 

11 laeo 

12 16.55 

13 16.50 

14 16.70 

15 16.70 

16 ia75 

17 laeo 

18 16.60 

19 16.66 

20 16.30 

21 1  16.75 

22 1  16.75 

23 1  16.75 

24 '  16.65 

25 j  16.70 

26 16.70 

27 '  16.45 

28 1  16.65 

29 1  16.60 

30 ;...|  16.75 

31 1  16.65 

I 


Jan.ft    Feb.c 


16.75 

16.75 

16.10 

16.80 

1&90 

16.70 

16.80 

16.75 

16.75 

16.65 

1«.70 

16.95 

17.00 

16,70 

16.90 

16.95 

16.55  I 

17. 10  I 

16.95  I 

1&95  I 

17.55 

16.90 

17.00 

16.60 

17.00 

16.90 

17.00 

16.96 

16.95 


Mar.b 


17.00 
17.06 
17.00 
17.05 
17.15 
16.95 
16.90 
17.15 
16.90 
17.50 
17.40 
17.05 
17.30 
17.20 
17.20 
17.00 
17.16 
17.20 
17.15 
17.05 
17.06 
17.15 
16.85 
17.15 
16.96 
16.95 
16.95 
17.15 
17.05 
16.45 
17.20 


Apr.e 


16.90 
17.20 
16.80 
16.90 
16.85 
16.80 
17.10 
17.25 
17.05 
17.00 
17.10 
17.10 
17.15 
17.05 
17.25 
17.20 
17.10 
17.05 
17.00 
16.85 
16.86 
16.65 
17.20 
17.20 
1800 
18  40 
18  45 
18  50 
18  50 
18  90 


May. 

June. 

July. 

19.20 

15.80 

17.20 

19.25 

15.85 

17.15 

1886 

15.96 

16.70 

19.15 

1&65 

16.70 

18.90 

15.90 

16.70 

19.00 

15.60 

16.80 

19.55 

15.86 

(«) 

20.60 

15.60 

(«) 

21.45 

15.70 

(«) 

21.45 

15.95 

(«) 

21.20 

15.80 

(») 

21.45 

(«) 

Aug.     Sept.     Oct. 


17.00 
17.10 
16.90 
16.70  I 
16.80  I 
17. 10  I 
1&80  I 
17.00  I 
16.90  ! 
16.80  I 
16.70  I 
16.80  , 


Nov.  I  Dec. 


19.70 

17.25 

15.60 

16.67 

19.30 

17.25 

15.45 

16.67 

18.90 

17.15 

15.25 

16.67 

18  50 

17.05 

15.40  1  1&66 

18.20 

17,00 

15.66 

17.00 

1800 

16.80 

16.46 

16169 

17.70 

17.00 

1&56 

16.66 

17.85 

16.80 

16l86 

16.50 

17.50 

l&M 

i&aB 

16.10 

17.30 

16.66 

16.80 

16.80 

17.20 

16.05 

15.85 

16.80 

16.20 

16.70 

May. 


18.70 
18  56 
18.60 
18.35 
18  45 
18.60 
18.60 
18.86 
19.20 
19.15 
18.90 
1880 
18  36 
18.15 

laoi 

17.96 
1801 
18  01 
1&03 
17.05 
17.03 
17.01 
17.04 
17.06 
18  40 
19.00 
19.40 
19.30 
1880 
18  40 
17.80 


Juno.    July.     Aug.  '  Sept.  I  Oct. 


17.60 

17.40 

17.42 

17.43 

18.00 

18.02 

18.25 

18  27 

17.90 

17.22 

17.10 

17.25 

17.16 

17.12 

16.60 

16.65 

16.35 

16.25 

16.32 

15.95  I 

15.88  I 

16.15  I 

15.95  I 

16.35  I 

16.65  I 

1&70 

16.95  I 

17.05  i 


17.06 
17.20 


17.58 

17.77 

17.70 

19.90 

18.82 

18.88 

18.75 

ia75 

1805  ; 

17.96  I 

17.70  I 

17.25  I 

16.40  i 

16.30 

16.12 

16.16 

16.03 

16.00 

15.60 

16.80 

15.95 

15.85 

15.80 

15.70 

15.85 

16.16 

ia76 

16.75 

15.70 

15.25 

15.55 


15.15 
15.40 
(/) 
(/) 
16.60 
16.72 
15.13 
16.40 
15.75 
15.92 
15.85 
16.00 
15.90 
15.90 
15.85 
16.02 
15.90 
16.85 
15.96 
15.75 
16.00 
16.20 
16.36 
16.45 
16.65 
16.45 
16.45 
16.20 
16.10 
16.27 
16.15 


I 
16.26 
16.30 
16.38 
17.78 
17.65 
17.20 
17.28 
17.30 
17.03 
16.00 
16.40 
16.32 
16.46 
16.30 

iai6 

16.05 

16.05 

16.13 

16.15 

16.00 

I  16.00 

I  15.90 

I  15.95 

15.95 


I 
16.40 

I  16.40 

I  16.40 

16.45 

16.40 

16.45 


(*) 

(«) 

(*) 

(') 
16.05 
16.05 
16.10 
16.10 
17.05 
18.70 
18.65 
18  60 
18  50 
1&43 
18  30 
17.86 
17.20 
16.95 
17.15 
17.25 
17.60 
17.80 
17.75 
17.76 
17.85 
17.76 
17.65 
17.55 
17.65 
17.70 
17.22 


Nov. 


17.26 

17.30 

17.20 

16.90 

16.70 

16.80 

16.30 

16.20 

16.17 

16.15 

16.05 

15.55 

15.60 

15.45 

15.82 

15.28 

15.66 

15.72 

16.70 

15.60 

15.46 

15.82  I 

15.27  I 

15.55  I 

15.72  I 

16.70  I 

15.55  I 

15.40  I 

14.95 

15.55 


Dec.d 


15.65 
15.05 
15.95 
14.50 
15.15 
15.30 
14.87 
15.78 
16.67 
16.55 
15.25 
16.77 
16.55 
16.30 
15.35 
15.45 
15.35 
15.30 
15.50 
15.67 
15.70 
15.72 
16.68 
15.60 
15.65 
15.70 
16.10 
15.76 
15.60 
16.30 
16.40 


a  Chain  gage  stolen. 

^Frozen  from  January  1  to  March  30,  when  ice  l)egins  to  break.    Ice  varied  from  6  to  18  inches  in 
thickness. 
f:  Ice  conditions  March  31  to  about  April  10. 
d  Ice  conditions  during  December. 
<  Weight  gone. 
/Key  lost;  no  gage  height  taken  on  August  3  and  4. 


110  WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 

Mean  daily  gage  heighlf  in  feet,  of  Flambeau  River  ntar  Ladysmiih,  Wis.,  etc. — Omtinued. 


Day. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

1905. 
1     

(«) 

2 

3 

4 

16.4 

16.80 

5 ;>.... 

« L... 

7 

16.3 

8 

9 

10 

f 

11 

16.5 

16.00 

12 

13 

14 

16.6 

-'i 

15 

1 

16 

17 

18 

16.7 

16.90 

19 

20 

1 

21 

16.7 

i 

22 

1 

23 

1 

24 

16.80 
16.45 
16.35 

25 1 

16.6 

26 1 

27 . 

16.25 

^:::::::::::::: 

16.6 

17.10 
17.90 

30 ' 

18.20 

31 

18.60 

Apr.  I  May, 


18.80 
1&40 
19.00 
19.20 
18.90 
18.40 
1&40 
ia20 
18.10 
17.80 
17.40 
17.20 
17.20 
ia20 
I  18.10 
17.60 
17.20 
16.55 
16.55 
16.45 
1&55 
17.00 
16.30 
16.35 
16.15 
16.05 
17.40 
17.40 
17.00 
1&80 


June. 


16.8 
16.8 
1&8 
17.0 
17.3 
17.6 
17.6 
17.4 
17.1 
17.4 
17.6 
17.8 
17.8 
18.0 
18.3 
18.2 
18.4 
18.6 
18.6 
18.4 
18.0 
18.0 
17.4 
18.0 
17.6 
17:4 
17.2 
18.0 
17.8 
17.6 
17.4 


17.40 
16.25 
16.40 
16.80 
17.80 
18.70 
19.60 
19.30 
18.90 
18.70 
18.60 
18.60 
17.60 
17.50 
17.60 
17.70 
l&OO 
19.70 
19.60 
19.40 
19.10 
18.90 
18.60 
18.40 
18.00 
l&OO 
l&OO 
17.70 
17.70 
17.70 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept.  '  Oct.     Nov^  ,  Dec. 


17.70 
17.60 
17.50 
17.60 
1&60 
19.00 
19.20 
1&80 
1&50 
1&20 
17.40 
17.00 
17.00 
17.00 
16.70 
16.60 
16.35 
16.35 
16.40 


15l80 
15.90 
1&80 
15l70 
15.75 
1&35 
15.35 
15.30 
15.50 
15u30 
15.40 
15.55 
15.40 
15.32 
15.45 
15.60 
15u55 
15.90 
16.80 


1&15  I  16.90 


16.10 
16.20 
15.90 
15.50 
15.90 
15.75 
15.80 
15.80 
15.75 
15.70 
15.55 


17. 10  j 

16u90 

16.00  I 

16.45 

16.80  I 

16.35  I 

16.25  I 

16.80 

17.00 

17.20 

17.00 


16.90 

16.60  ' 

16.90 

17.00  i 

17.00  ' 

16.90  ! 

16.60 

ia70 

16.50 

^40, 

16.20  I 

16.20 

1&25  I 

16.25 

16.45 

16.80 

17.10 

17.05 

17.70 

17.80 

1&20 

1&40 

17.80 

17.60 

17.30 

17.20 

16.80 

16.80 

16.70 

16.20 


16.55 

16.55 

16.35 

16l25 

16l20 

16iI5 

15.80 

15.96 

15.80  I  16.05 

15.95     15.96 


16l40 
16.25 
16l15 
16l05 
1&28 
1«lU 

i&ao 

1&I5 


15.55 
16.20 
16.15 
16.10 
16.40 
16.75 
ia75 
17.00 
17.65 
17.20 
17.65 
17.35 
17.45 
17.30 
17.10 
16.85 
16.85 


1&05 
16.30 
16.30 
16.20 
16L10 
16.35 
16.05 
l&QO 
15.90 
15.85 
15.90 
15.70 
15.75 
15.60 
l&QO 
16.60 
16.10 


1680  I  I&60 
16  70  I  iai5 
1655  I  15u90 
1630 


16uI5 

15.90 
15.83 
Ml  2D 
1&9S 
I&IO 
1&45 
16.15 
16.25 
16l2S 
15.90 

15.  NO 
,   15.90 

15.70 

15.7X1 

;   16l20 

16,  40 

I  ii:x> 

15.95 
'  15u45 
15l65 
lifiO 
15.65 
15.70 
16.75 
16.10 
15.60 
16.00 
1&90 
,   16.15 


I 


16.10 


o  River  frozen  entirely  across  January  1  to  March  23.    March  1 1-23  there  was  water  on  the  ice. 
heights  are  to  water  surface  in  a  hole  in  the  ice.    The  following  comparative  readings  were  al4K> 


Date. 


January  7.. 
January  14., 
January  21 . , 
January  28.. 
February  4. 
February  11 
February  18 
February  25 
March  4.... 


Water 
surface. 


FecL 
163 
16  6 
16  7 
166 
16  4 
16  5 
167 
166 
16.8 


Top  of    ,    Thick- 
Ice. 


Feet. 
16  4 
16  8 
16.9 
16  9 
16  9 
16  9 
17.1 
16  9 
17.8 


F'eet. 


a7 

1.3 

1.4 

1.:. 

L7 
1.7 
2.0 
LS 


CHIPPEWA    RIVER   SYSTEM. 


Ill 


BaHng  tahUfor  Flambeau  River  near  LadysmUh^  Wis. ,  from  March  19, 1903,  to  December  1, 

1903.  a 


he^t. 

Discharge,  i 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
hei^t. 

Feet. 

r 
Discharge,  i 

Second-feet., 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 
Second-feet. 

Feet, 

Second-feet.l 

Feet, 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

15.0 

530    1 

16.3 

1,765 

17.6 

4,280    J 

1&8 

6,920 

15.1 

666    1 

1&4 

1,925 

17.7 

4,500     1 

18.9 

7,140 

1&2 

600    1 

16.5 

2,085 

17.8 

4,720    ' 

19.0 

7,380 

15.3 

665 

16.6 

2,245 

17.9 

4,940    1 

19.2 

7,800 

1&4 

746    1 

16.7 

2,406 

lao 

5,160     1 

19.4 

8,240 

16.6 

825 

16.8 

2,575 

18.1 

5,380    I 

19.6 

8,680 

15.6 

015    ' 

16.9 

2,756 

1&2 

5,600    1 

19.8 

9,120 

1&7 

1,010    1 

17.0 

2,960 

1&3 

5,820 

20.0 

9,660 

15l8 

1,110    \ 

17.1 

3,U0 

1&4 

6,040    ' 

20.2 

10,000 

U9 

1,220    1 

17.2 

3,400 

ia5 

6,260    1 

2a4 

10,440 

16.0 

1,340    1 

17.3 

3,620 

18.6 

6,480     1 

2a6 

10,880 

16.1 

1,465    ' 

17.4 

3,840 

18.7 

6,700    ,1 

21.0 

11,760 

16.2 

1,610 

17.5 

4,060 

i; 

a  Made  from  measurements  between  gage  heights  16  and  18.9.5  feet.    Curve  above  and  below  these 
points  is  approximate.    To  be  used  only  for  open  river. 

BatiTig  table  for  Flambeau  River  near  Ladysmithf  Wis.,  from  January  1, 1904,  to  December 

31, 1904. 


Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
hei^t. 

j      Feet. 

Discharge. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Second-feet. 

15.0 

567 

1        16.0 

1,399 

15.1 

506 

16.1 

1,542 

15.2 

637 

I        16.2 

1,686 

15.3 

600 

'        16.3 

1,830 

15.4 

755 

1        16.4 

1,974 

15.5 

832 

1&5 

2,118 

15.6 

921 

16.6 

2,262 

1&7 

1,022 

1        16.7 

2,406 

15.8 

1,135 

;        16.8 

2,550 

1&9 

1,260 

1      lao 

2,695 

Gage 
beiSt. 

Feet. 

17.0 

17.1 

17.2 

17.3 

17.4 

17.5 

17.6 

17.8 

18.0 

18.2 

Dischaige. 

Gage 
hei^it. 

Discharge. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

2,841 

18.4 

5,291 

2,990 

18.6 

6,704 

I          3,143 

1&8 

6,120 

3,300 

19.0 

6,539 

1         3,461 

19.2 

6,959 

3,626 

19.4 

7,379 

!         3,795 

19.6 

7,799 

1          ^A^ 

19.8 

8,219 

4,611 

20.0 

8,639 

I          4,893 

Rating  table  for  Flambeau  River  near  Lady  smith,  Wis.,  from  January  1  to  December  31, 1905, 


hei^t. 

Discharge. 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 
Second-feet. 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge. 

1 

Gage 
height. 

Discharge 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Second-feet. 

Feet. 

Secondr-feet. 

15.00 

600 

16.20 

1,735 

17.40 

3,510    '1 
3,700     1 
3,890 

18.50 

5,770 

15.10 

670 

16.30 

1,855 

17.50 

18.60 

5,960 

15.20 

745 

16.40 

1,980 

17.60 

18.70 

6,190 

15.30 

825 

16.50 

2,110 

17.70 

4.090    li 
4,300    1 

18.80 

6,400 

15.40 

910 

16.60 

2,245 

1      17.80 

ia90 

6,610 

15.50 

1,000    1 

16.70 

2,385 

1      17.90 

4,510    {' 

19.00 

6,820 

1&60 

1,090    I 

16.80 

2,630 

18.00 

4,720     1 

19.20 

7,240 

15.70 

1,185    1 

16.90 

2,680 

'      18.10 

4,930     1 

19.40 

7,680 

15u80 

1,285 

17.00 

2,835 

1      18.20 

5,140  1; 

19.  eo 

8,120 

15.90 

1,300 

17.10 

2,995 

18.30 

5,350 

19.80 

8,560 

16.00 

1,500 

17.20 

3,160 

18.40 

5,560 

20.00 

9,000 

16.10 

1,615 

17.30 

3,330 

1 

The  above  table  is  applicable  only  for  open-channel  conditions.    It  to  bM^d  on  discharge  measure- 
pieats  made  dprtn^  19<^1905.    It  is  not  very  well  defined. 


112 


WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Estimated  monOdy  discharge  of  Flambeau  River  near  Ladysmiihf  TTu. ,  for  1 90Sy  190^^  and  19*'>o . 
[Drainage  area,  2,120  square  miles.] 

Discharge.  Run-off. 


Date. 


January 

February !»., 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July  c 


1903. 


Augusts... 
Septeniljer.. 

Octoter 

Novenilxjr.. 
December.. 


The  year. 


1904. 


January... 
February.. 

March 

April  < 

May 

June 

July 


August  / 

Septeml)er... 
Octolier /.... 
November... 
December  «.. 


The  year. 


1905.  ff 


March  24-31  , 

April '. . 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September . . 

Octolx^r 

Novemljer . . 
December . . . 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Mini- 
mum. 


Sec.-fl.    j   Sec.-ft. 


10,330 
6,150 

12,750 
9,120 


833 
1.925 
5,050 

915 


10,660 
8,900 
1,685 


1,765 

1,400 

530 


7,379 
6,034 
8,429 
2,334 
4,109 
5,912 
3,300 
1,974 


2,334 

2,856 

1,234 

662 

607 

1,260 

1,470 

555 

390 


Mean. 


Per 
square 
mile. 


-I 


Depth. 


Sec.'ft.   I   Sec.-ft.  '    Inches. 


860 
2,-736 
3.266 
8.187 
2,749 
4,596 
3,431 
5,777 
4,807 
1,054 


0.41 
1.29 
1.54 
3.86 
1.30 
2.17 
1.62 
2,72 
2.27 
.50 


3, 
5,183 
2,890 
2,834 
1,336 
2,056 
3,517 
1,416 
951 


-h 


1.60 
2.44 
1.36 
1.34 
.636 
.970 
1.66 
.668 
.449 


5,980 
7,240 
5,980 
8,340 
7,240 
3,160 
5,560  , 
3.990  \ 
2,245  ; 
2,045  I 


1,795 
1,558 
2,530 
1,795 
1,000 

825 
1,735 
1,045  ' 
1,090 

955  i 


I 


3,384 
3,867 
4,090 
5,223 
2,950 
1,669 
2,839 
2,305 
1,616 
1,449 


0.21 
1.49 
1.72 
4.45 
1.45 
2.02 
1.33 
3.03 
2.62 
.56 


1.60 
1.82 
1.93 
2.46 
1.39 
.787 
1.34 
1.09 
.762 
.683 


Rain- 
fall a 

InchfM. 

0  46 

.9P 

2.  r7 

\m 

t\  M 

l.M 

^■:k\ 

.\r* 

S.o3 

Z.XS 

."H 

1.78 

2.81 

1.52 

1.54 
.726  1 

1.08 

1.91  I 
.745  I 
.518 


1 


.4.* 
1.11 
1.76 
1.77 
4.M 
5.64 
2.U 
S-lil 

5l(I 

.W 

2.39 


35.43 

.47h 
2.<« 
2.J2 
2.74 

l.N) 

.1«7 
1.50 
1.2» 


a  Rainfall  for  19a3  is  the  average  of  the  recorded  rainfall  at  Butternut,  Medford,  and  Eau  Claire 
that  for  1904  omits  F:au  Claire  and  adds  Prentice  and  Minocqua. 
h  February  15  to  2X,  inchisive. 
e  July  1  to  25,  inclusive. 
d  August  10  to  31,  inclusive. 

<  Estimates  April  and  December  made  as  if  open  channel. 
/  Discharge  estimated  for  August  3  and  4  and  October  1  to  4. 
9  No  estimate  for  ice  period. 


CHIPPEWA   BIVER   SYSTEM. 


113 


Tributariea  of  Flambeau  River. — Dore  Flambeau  River,  the  south  branch  of  the  Flambeau, 
risen  at  an  elevation  of  1,582  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  group  of  a  dozen  lakes,  the  largest  being 
Long  Lake.  Its  total  drainage  area  is  742  square  miles.  After  a  very  rapid  course  of  about 
60  miles  it  joins  the  main  stream  in  sec.  31 ,  T.  37  N .,  R.  3  W.  In  the  27  miles  between  Long 
Ldike  and  Fifield  the  river  descends  146  feet,  or  5.4  feet  to  the  mile.  Its  gradient  below 
Fiiield  has  not  been  determined,  but  it  is  known  to  have  many  important  falls  and  rapids. 
One  of  the  largest  of  these,  located  in  sec.  33,  T.  37  N.,  R.  3  W.,  has  a  total  fall  of  35  feet. 
Owing  to  its  lakes  and  swamps  this  river  has  a  much  more  uniform  flow  than  any  of  the 
Chippewa  tributaries  farther  south.  Dams  are  maintained  by  the  Chippewa  River  Improve- 
ment Company  at  the  outlet  of  Long  Lake  and  at  Fiiield.  The  same  company  maintains 
h)gging  dams  on  Elk  River  in  sec.  11,  T.  37  N.,  R.  2  W.,  and  also  in  sec.  14,  T.  37  N.,  R.  1 
W.,  with  flowage  of  li  and  21  square  miles,  respectively.  These  and  other  logging  dams 
within  this  drainage  area  are  listed  in  the  following  table: 

Lwjging  darns  maintained  on  tributaries  of  Flambeau  River, a 


No. 


Dam. 


Location. 


Doro  Flambeau  River: 

See.  7,  T.  39  N.,  R.  1  E;  sec.  24,  T.  40  N.,  R.  1  E.. 

Sec.  16,  T.  38  N.,  R.  1  W 

Sees.  23-26,  T.  40  N.,  R.  3  E 

Flambeau  Lake,  sec.  2,  t:  40  N.,  R.  4  E 

Manitowish  River: 

Sec.  9,  T.  42  N.,  R.  5  E 

Sec.  24,  T.  42  N.,  R.  6  E 

Sec.lS,  T.  42N.,  R.7E., 

Elk  River: 

Sec.  11,  T.  37  N.,  R.  2  W 

Sec.  14,  T.  37N.,  R.  1  W 

Trout  River,  sec.  14,  T.  41  N.,  R.  6  E 

Bear  Creek,  sec.  2,  T.  40  N.,  R.  4  E 


Height. 

Length. 

Ftet. 

Feet, 

16 

350 

15 

400 

6 

24 

13 

400 

17 

300 

15 

250 

10 

450 

10 

4 

a  Authority:  Nos.  1  aud  3,  Wm.  Irving,  manager,  Chippewa  Lumber  and  Boom  Co.;  4-8.  Flambeau 
Lumber  Co.;  9,  J.  R.  Davis  Lumber  Co.;  lOand  11,  E.  S.  Shcpard.  Owners:  Nos.  1, 3,  and  5-7,  Chippewa 
Lumber  and  Boom  Co.;  2,  Lugar  Lumber  Co.;  4,  Flambeau  Lumber  Co.;  8  and  9,  Chippewa  Klver 
Improvement  Co. 

RED  CEDAR  RIVER. 

Drainage. — An  area  of  1,9.57  square  miles  in  the  extreme  western  part  of  Chippewa  Vallay 
is  drained  by  Red  Cedar  River  (sometimes  called  the  Menomonie),  which,  unlike  the  other 
large  tributaries  of  Chippewa  River,  does  not  reach  the  main  stream  until  within  a  few  miles 
from  its  mouth.  Except  at  its  headwaters.  Red  Cedar  River  drains  a  region  underlain  by  the 
Cambrian  sandstone.  As  a  result,  the  greater  part  of  the  area  has  a  sandy  soil.  A  narrow 
belt  of  clayey  loam,  increasing  in  width  southward,  extends  along  the  western  limit  of  this 
an'a.  The  drainage  an^a  occupies  the  U-shaped  region  included  between  two  terminal 
moraines,  one  near  the  eastern  and  one  near  the  westc^rn  border,  which  unite  at  the  upper 
headwaters,  giving  rise  to  numerous  lakes.  Four  of  the  largest  of  these  have  an  area  of  about 
20  square  miles. 

Profile. — A  study  of  the  profile  of  Red  Cedar  River  shows  that  its  total  descent  in  the  90 
miles  above  its  mouth  is  470  feet,  or  5.2  feet  per  mile.  This  gives  opportunity  for  a  large  num- 
ber of  water  powers.    There  are  about  25  old  logging  dams  on  the  river,  besides  about  an  equal 

iRR  156—06 8 


114 


WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


number  of  sawmills  and  flouring  mills.    The  following  table  has  been  compiled  from  actual 
surveys  by  competent  engineers  and  from  checked  railroad  levels: 

Profile  of  Red  Cellar  River  from  its  mouth  to  Red  Cedar  Lake  A 


No.! 


Station. 


Mouth  of  river 

Dunn  vilie 

Downs\iIle  dam: 

Foot 

Crest V 

Ir\ing 

Menomonie  dam: 

Foot 

Crest 

' '  Omaha ' '  b ridge 

Cedar  rapids  dam: 

Foot .^. 

C  rest 

Hay  River,  mouth 

Colfax 

Cameron  (2  miles  west) 

Railroad  crossing 

Cedar  Lake  dam,  sec.  22,  T.  37  N.,  R.  10  W.. 
Dam  in  sec.  25,  T.  37  N.,  R.  10  W 


Distance. 

From      Between 
mouth,      points. 


Eleva- 
tion 
al>ove 
lea  level. 


Miles.    \    MUes.    I 

0       

2.0  2.0 


7.8  I 
7.8  ! 
13.0 

I 

1&6  . 
16.6  I 
18.9  ' 


I 


I 


23.4  I 
23.4 
30.2  ' 
3&0 
70.0  I 
74.0  I 

9ao 

96.0  I 


5.8 
.0 
5.2 

3.6 

.0 

2.3 

4.5  I 
.0 

6.8  i 

4.8  ' 
35.0  I 

4.0 
16.0  I 

6.0  ' 


Descent  b^ 
tweea  points. 


ToUl. 


Per 


Feet. 
705.0 
723.4 

739.0 

758. 2 
766.4  , 

788.3 
803.9 
806.7 

823.3  I 
842.0  ' 
8S9.3 
895lO 

1,068.0 
1,116.0 
1,191.0 


mik. 
FeeL        Fttt. 

18.4  '  9.: 

.15.6  2. 

19.2 
&2 

21.9 

15.6  ,\ 
2.8    i 

16.6 

18.7  I 
17.3  J 
35.7 

173.0 
48.0 
7a  0 


&.0 

3.7 

5.3 

7.4 
5-0 
12.0 
4.7 


o  Authority:  No.  1.  Chicago.  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway:  2-11,  O'Kwf  6i  Orbison.  Appletoc 
Wis.;  12,  Wisconsin  Central  Railway;  13,  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul, and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Railway:  14  and 
15,  Chica^,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha  Railway. 

A  study  of  this  table  shows  that  Red  Cedar  River  has  a  high  gradient,  averaging  54  feet  per 
mile  in  the  last  74  milej$,  with  frequent  concentrations  of  descent.  No  gagings  of  the  river 
have  been  made.  Tributaries  entering  the  river  from  the  west  flow  through  a  clayev-loam 
soil,  but  the  upper  and  eastern  portions  of  the  drainage  area  have  a  sandy-loam  soil.  It  is 
therefore  likely  that  this  river  has  a  fairly  uniform  flow.  The  decline  of  the  lumbpring  inter- 
ests greatly  increases  the  value  of  the  Red  Cedar  River  as  a  power  producer. 

Waier  powers  and  dams. — In  the  30  miles  below  Hay  River  the  Red  Cedar  descends  154.3 
feet,  and  as  this  region  borders  the  prairie  region  and  is  thickly  settled,  the  six  powers  here 
included  will  probably  be  developed  to  the  full  extent  in  the  near  future.  This  develop- 
ment  includes:  (1)  The  construction  of  a  dam  at  Punnville,  2  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  giving  a  head  of  15.6  feet  and  an  estimated  1,685  horsepower;  (2)  the  raising  of  the 
present  dam  at  Downsvilie  4  feet,  giving  a  total  head  of  23.2  feet  and  an  estimated  2,480 
horsepower;  (3)  the  construction  of  a  dam  at  Irving,  with  a  total  head  of  21 .9  feet,  giving  an 
estimated  2,260  horsepower;  (4)  the  raising  of  the  present  dam  at  Menomonie  2^  feet,  thus 
obtaining  a  total  head  of  18.4  feet  and  an  estimated  1,800  horsepower;  (5)  the  building  of  a 
new  dam  near  the  "Omaha''  bridge,  2.8  miles  above  Menomonie,  with  a  head  of  16.6  feet  and 
an  estimated  1,700  horsepower;  (6)  the  raising  of  the  present  dam  at  Cedar  rapids  21.3  feet, 
giving  a  total  head  of  40  feet  and  an  estimated  3,800  horsepower.a  Recently  all  the  powers 
owned  by  Knapp,  Stout  &  Co.,  including  many  of  the  most  valuable  on  the  river,  have  been 


«  This  statement  is  based  on  a  careful  survey  for  the  owners  made  by  O'Keef  &  Orbison,  hjdimuhe 
engineera,  ot  Appieton,  Wis.,  ana  an  estimated  run-off  of  0.461  seoond-foot  per  square  mile. 


CHIPPEWA    KIVER   SYSTEM.  115 

acquired  by  the  Wisconsin  Power  Company,  of  Chicago,  III.    The  location  of  10  dams  owned 
by  this  company  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Dam3  on  Red  Cedar  River  owned  by  the  WiscoTisin  Power  Company. 
Location. 


Sec.  25,  T.  37  N.,  R.  lOW. 
Sec.  2,  T.  36N.,  R.  10  W.. 
Sec.25,  T.  36N.,  R.  lOW. 
Sw.  30,  T.  36  N.,  R.OW.. 
Sec.  29,  T.  36N.,  R.9  W.. 


Sec.  13,  T.  34N.,  R.  10  W - 12.0 

Sec.  30,  T.  33  N.,  R.  10  W ' 

Downsville '. 

Menomoni'e 

C«dar  Falls 


Head. 

Amount  of 
flowa«e. 

Authority. 

Feet. 

Cubic  feet. 

14.0 

1,674,000,000 

U.S.  engineers. 

7.0  1 

405,000,000 

Do. 

12.0 

10.0 

136,000,000 

Do. 

10.0 

12.0 

40,500,000 

Do. 

10.0 

810,000,000 

Do. 

19.0 

J.  W.  Orbison. 

15.5  ! 

Do 

18.7 

Do. 

Railroads. — Between  the  mouth  of  Red  Cedar  River  and  Menomonie  the  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee and  St.  Paul  Railway  clearly  parallels  the  river.  In  this  stretch  of  17  miles  are  situated 
the  most  important  powers.  Above  Menomonie  the  drainage  is  crossed  by  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  and  St,  Paul,  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha,  the  Wisconsin 
Central,  and  the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  railways. 

EAU    CLAIRE   RIVEB. 

Ranked  in  order  of  its  drainage  area  (900  square  miles),  Eau  Gaire  River  is  third  among 
the  tributaries  of  the  Chippewa.  The  greater  part  of  this  area  is  underlain  by  the  Cam- 
brian sandstone,  and  all  except  the  upper  headwaters  drain  a  sandy-loam  soil,  as  will  be 
seen  from  PI.  II.  Like  most  of  the  neighboring  rivers,  the  Eau  Claire  has  been  an  impor- 
tant lumbering  stream,  with  many  flooding  dams.  Very  few  water  powers  have  been 
ntilized.  The  first  developed  water  power  is  about  500  feet  from  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
where  a  dam  300  feet  long  develops  a  head  of  11  feet  to  run  a  linen  mill,  which  uses  only 
part  of  the  power  thus  furnished.  About  3,000  feet  farther  upstream  is  a  second  dam, 
with  an  average  head  of  13J  feet,  owned  by  the  Northwestern  Lumber  Company.  An 
installation  of  turbines  of  420  horsepower  is  reported.  This  is  used  in  running  a  sawmill, 
a  machine  shop,  and  dynamos.  The  same  company  reports  the  three  following  lumbering 
dams  on  this  river,  but  none  of  the  resulting  water  power  is  utilized  at  the  present  time. 
In  the  NW.  J  NE.  }  sec.  14,  T.  27  N.,  R.  9  W.,  is  a  dam  with  a  7-foot  head,  capable  at  ordi- 
nary low  water  of  furnishing  210  theoretical  horsepower.  In  the  SW.  J  NE.  \  seo.  13, 
T.  27  N.,  R.  8  W.,  is  a  timber  dam  with  a  head  of  8  feet,  which  could  easily  and  cheaply 
be  increased  to  20  feet,  thus  producing  at  ordinary  low  water  540  theoretical  horsepower. 
The  third  dam,  with  a  present  head  of  20  feet,  is  reported  in  the  SW.  J  SW.-  J  sec.  5,  T.  26 
N.,  R.  6  W.  This  dam  has  not  been  used  for  many  years  and  is  much  in  need  of  repairs. 
There  are  many  other  opportunities  for  developing  water  powers  on  the  Eau  Claire  River, 
as  well  as  on  its  tributaries. 

JVUF  RIVER. 

As  its  name  would  imply.  Jump  River  is  a  very  rapid  stream,  with  numerous  falls  and 
rapids,  making  a  descent  of  nearly  500  feet  in  its  entire  length  of  65  miles.  Its  drainage 
area  of  720  square  miles  is  a  long  and  narrow  one,  and  with  only  a  few  unimportant  excep- 
tions is  devoid  of  lakes  and  swamps.  As  a  result  the  river  has  a  very  uneven  flow  as  com- 
pared with  the  Flambeau,  which  stream  it  resembles  in  flowing  through  a  valley  whose 
soil  is  a  clayey  loam.    The  main  portion  of  the  Jump  River  valley  has  no  railroads  and  is 


116 


WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


sparsely  settled.  A  branch  of  the  Wisconsin  Central  is  now  being  built  across  this  drain- 
age. The  most  important  falls  on  the  river,  35  feet  in  height,  are  in  sec.  20,  T.  34  X., 
R.  2  W.,  about  1  mile  east  of  the  junction  of  North  and  South  forks,  but  there  are  numer- 
ous other  dam  sites  of  15  to  20  foot  head,  which  will  doubtless  be  utilized  when  this 
section  is  settled. 

YELLOW   R1YER. 

The  drainage  area  of  Yellow  River  is- 460  square  miles,  distributed  in  a  long,  narrow 
vaUey.  The  lower  half  of  the  valley  has  a  sandy  soil,  the  upper  part  a  clayey  loam. 
While  the  gradient  of  Yellow  River  is  not  so  great  as  that  of  its  neighbor,  Jimip  River, 
it  has  a  rapid  current.  As  in  the  case  of  other  rivers  in  this  region  the  only  dams  built 
were  for  logging  purposes.  The  Miller  dam  is  said  to  be  the  only  oiie  remaining.  Thrw» 
other  dams,  one  at  Colbum,  one  in  sec.  7,  T.  29  N.,  R.5  W.,  and  ona  at  Cadott,  have  all 
been  carried  away  by  floods.    The  river  is  crossed  by  three  railroads. 

SMALLEIR  TRIBUTARIES. 

Chippewa  River  has  a  host  of  smaller  tributaries,  nearly  all  of  which,  because  of  their 
rapid  currents  and  high,  rocky  banks,  can  be  cheaply  developed.  Duncan  Creek  is  a  good 
example  of  what  can  be  done  with  this  class  of  tributaries.  Although  only  25  mUes  long, 
it  has  five  dams  with  an  aggregate  head  of  68  feet.  Four  gristmills,  with  a  total  turbine 
capacity  of  over  500  horsepower,  take  their  power  from  this  creek.  Below  the  •'Star 
mills,"  in  the  city  of  Chippewa  Falls,  is  an  unimproved  pwwer  of  14-foot  head;  and  imme- 
diately below  this  site  is  a  dam  with  a  9-foot  head,  belonging  to  the  Gatzian  Shoe  Manu- 
facturing Company.  The  significant  point  regarding  powers  of  this  class  is  that  they  are 
cheaply  improved  and  very  widely  distributed.  The  locations  of  some  of  them  are  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

Dams  on  smaller  tributaries  of  Chippeiva  River. 


Location. 


Arkansaw  Creek,  Arkansaw. 

Bass  Creek,  Afton 

Bear  Creek,  Durand. 

Bridge  Creek: 

Augusta 

Sec.  18,  T.  26,  R.  6  VV 

Duncan  Creek: 

Chippewa  Falls 

Do 

Do 

Soc.  31,  T.  29N.,R.  8W.. 

Sec.  24,  T.  29N.,  R.  9W.. 


Sec.  8,T.  30N.,R.9  W.. 
Kighteenmile  Creek,  Colfax. 


Hay  River,  Prairie  farm 

Jump  River: 

Sec.  20,  T.  34  N.,  R.  2  W 

Westboro 

Lowes  Creek,  sec.  4,  T.  26  N.,  R.  9  W. 


Owner  and  use. 


Mills  &  Son,  gristmill 

Wm.  Denoger,  flouring  mill. 
Durand  roller  mill,  flour 


Dells  Milling  Co.,  flour.. 
J.P.  Waddell 


Gotzian  Shoe  Co 

Leinenkugel  Brewing  Co. .. 

Leinenkugel  Co.,  flour 

Glen  mills,  flour 


G.  W.  Lockin,  Tllden  flour- 
ing mills. 

Bloomer  mills,  flour 


J.  A.  Anderson  &  Son,  grist 
and  saw  mill. 

P.  F.  Milling  Co.,  grist 


Head. 

Fert.   ' 
12 
9 

18  I 

I 
20 

»| 

9  ' 
14  i 

16, 

ao 

10 

12 
14 


InsUl- 
.  lation. 


H.P. 


a  Vndoveloped. 


i»  Unused. 


W.J.Davis 

e  Could  be  raised  8 


CM 
feet. 


40 
73 


1*) 


31 


(«) 


ST.  CBOIX   BIVER   SYSTEM. 


117 


Datna  on  smaller  tributaries  »/  Chippewa  River — Continued. 


Location. 


Owner  and  use. 


Head. 


O'Neals  Creek,  west  branch:  | 

Sec.  26,  T.  31  N.,  U.  9  W ,  Wm.  Durch,  Rriat  and  saw 

I      mill. 

Near  mouth i  F.  0.  &  C.  A.  Stanley,  saw- 

I      mill. 

Eagle  Point :  M.  RosmuB,  electric  light 


Feet.   I 
8  , 


'  Instal- 
lation. 


H.P. 


I 


Otter  Creek,  Fan  Claire R.  Clark,  flour. 

Pine  Creek: 

Lucas 


Sand  Creek. 
Dalles 


Plover  River: 

Shantytown 

Jordan 

Bevent 

Rock  Creek,  sec.  22,  T.  27  N.,  R.  11  \V 

Tiffany  Creek,  Boywville A.  A.  Hoyr  &.  Bro.,  grist. 


T.  Teegarden,  grist  and  saw 
mill. 

A.  F.  Johnson,  grist  and 
saw  mill.  I 

J.  A.  Anderson,  grist  and  | 
saw  mill. 


S.  Y.  Bentley.  sawmill. 
A.  Van  Orden 

I ••» 

D.  W.  Andrews,  flour. . 


30 
50 


150 
95 


96 
50 


40 
100 


(«) 


75 
30 


a  Undeveloped. 

ST.  CROIX  RIVER  SYSTEM. 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND  DRAIXAGE. 

St.  Croix  River  rises  at  an  elevation  of  1,010  a  feet,  in  St.  Croix  Lake,  on  the  Lake  Supe- 
rior divide,  only  20  miles  from  Lake  Superior.  The  lower  two-thirds  of  its  length  forms  a 
part  of  the  Minnesota  boundary.  In  its  total  length  of  168  miles  it  descends  344  feet,  all 
but  20  feet  of  which  is  in  the  upper  116  miles,  making  the  average  for  this  upper  portion 
nearly  3  feet  per  mile.  This  slope  is  fully  six  times  the  slope  of  Mississippi  River  above 
Minneapolis,  and,  according  to  United  States  engineers,  has  an  important  bearing  on  the 
relatively  large  mn-off  as  compared  with  Mississippi  Valley  above.  Another  important 
feature  of  this  region  is  its  relatively  small  number  of  lakes,  these  forming  only  3  per  cent  of 
the  total  drainage  area  as  compared  with  11  per  cent  in  Mississippi  Valley  above  Minne- 
apolis.a  Evaporation  on  lake  surfaces  is  probably  nearly  equal  to  the  precipitation  for 
the  corresponding  period.  The  total  drainage  area  comprises  7,576  sqaare  miles,  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  in  Wisconsin.  The  Wisconsin  portion  has  a  width  of  50  miles  on 
its  northern  margin  and  extends  southwesterly  toward  Mississippi  River,  a  distance  of  about 
150  miles. 

The  topography  may  be  described  under  three  heads— (1)  the  level  area,  (2)  the  rolling  and  swelling 
hill  districts,  and  (3)  the  knoll  and  basin  combination.  The  first  Includes  the  so-called  "barrens" 
which  border  the  streams  and  some  elevated  plateaus,  together  with  smaller  scattered  areas.  The 
third  class  may  be  described  as  a  belt  lying  near  the  southeastem  watershed  and  stretahing  from  the 
vicinity  of  Lake  Namekugon  southwestward  to  the  St.  Croix.  The  second  class  includes  most  of  the 
territory  which  remains.  i> 

Marshes  are  quite  as  infrequent  as  the  lakes  and  occur  only  on  the  river  bottoms.  Not 
half  of  the  lakes  are  visibly  connected  with  the  rivers,  but  because  of  the  open  soil  they  are 
likely  to  have  underground  connection.  There  are  usually  lumbering  dams  on  such  lakes 
as  have  outlets,  and  these  lakes,  together  with  the  numerous  smaller  depressions,  play  an 
important  part  in  the  preventing  of  freshets.  The  lakes  of  this  region  arrange  themselves 
into  two  groups — one,  lying  mostly  in  the  "  barrens,"  adjacent  and  parallel  to  the  upper  St. 


oRppts.  Chief  Eng.  U.  S.  Army,  1881,  1883. 
b  Qeol.  Wisconsin,  vol  3, 18S0,  p.  370. 


118 


WATER   POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Croix  and  extending  southwest  from  its  source  to  the  point  where  the  stream  turns  south- 
ward, and  a  second  group  in  the  extreme  southeastern  portion  of  this  region,  occurring  in 
the  depressions  of  the  ''Kettle  moraine.'*  As  the  water  of  this  region  flows  ahnost  exclu- 
sively over  the  crystalline  rocks  and  sandstones,  or  the  drift  derived  from  them,  it  is  in 
general  soft,  though  usually  amber  colored.  Springs  are  very  common,  many  of  the  kk« 
being  fed  almost  entirely  by  them.  They  are  especially  frequent  in  the  Cambrian  sand- 
stone and  tend  to  equalize  the  flow  of  all  the  streams. 

The  apportionment  of  drainage  areas  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Distance  and  drainage  areaa  of  St.  Croix  River. 


River.a 


Distance   tx— irwi— 
from       I>«»'»K* 
aouioe 
(map 

meaaore). 


above 
fltatioQ. 


MiUs.    'Sq.  miUt. 


St.  Croix,  source 

Eau  Claire: 

Above  mouth 

Mouth 

Namekagon 

Yellow 

Clam: 

Above  mouth 

Mouth 

Kettle: 

Above  mouth 

Mouth 

Snake 

Wood 

Sumlse 

St.  Croix,  St.  Croix  rapids. 

Apple 

Willow 

St.  Croix,  mouth 


6.5 

117 

&5' 

234 

38.0 

1,451 

5Q.0 

2.084 

64.0  ' 

2,428 

64.0 

2.S44 

75.0  ^ 

3.046 

75. 0 

4,139 

79.0 

5,097 

84.0 

5,281 

loao 

i.85: 

iao.0 

6,202 

138.0 

6,951 

151.0 

7,301 

168.0 

7.576 

a  Station  is  at  mouth  of  river,  unless  otherwise  stated. 

PROFILB. 

The  following  table  gives,  upon  the  authority  of  United  States  engineers,  eleTations 
above  the  sea  and  gradients  per  mile  of  St.  Croix  River  at  twenty  points  between  its  mouth 
and  its  source: 


ST.   CROIX   RIVER  SYSTEM. 


119 


ProJUe  of  St.  Croix  River  from  itx  mouth  to  St  Croix  Lake. 


Station. 


Prescott.  mouth  of  river 

KiimiUnnlc  River,  mouth 

Apple  River,  mouth 

Osceola 

St.  Croix  Falls  (head  of  navigation) . 

Trade  River,  mouth 

Sunrise  River,  mouth 

Rush  City,  ferry 

8ec.36,T.38N.,R.20  W 

Snake  River,  mouth 

Kettle  River  rapids,  foot 

Kettle  River,  mouth 


Kettle  River  rapids,  head  (proposed  U.  S.  dam,  sec.  2. 
T.  39  N.,  R.  19  W) 


Clam  River,  mouth 

Sec.  1.  T.  40N..  R.  18  W.... 

Yellow  River,  mouth 

Nameka^on  River,  mouth . 

Moose  River,  mouth 

Sec.  36.  T.  44N.,  R.  13W.: 

Below  dam 

Above  dam 

St.  Croix  Lake 


DisUnce. 

Eleva- 
tion 

Descent  be- 
tween points. 

From 
mouth. 

Between 
points. 

above  sea 
level. 

Total. 

Per 
mile. 

MiU».    1 

MiUs. 

Feet.     1 

feet. 

Feet. 

0.0 

«667.0 
668.0 

5.0 

5.0 

1.0 

0.2 

•iS.O 

23.0 

672.0 

4.0 

.2 

42.0 

14.0 

(i83.0 

11.0 

.8 

4K.0  , 

(hO 

ii87.0 

4.0 

- 

G0.0  1 

12.0 

753.0 

6.6 

5.5 

G5.0  1 

5.0 

758.5 

&5 

1.1 

75.0 

10.0 

773.0 

14.5 

1.4 

79.0 

4.0 

±782.0 

9.0 

2.2 

86.0 

7.0 

±79ao 

8.0 

1.1 

89.0 

3.0 

±801.0 

11.0 

3.7 

90.0 

1.0 

±81&0 

15.0 

15.0 

93.0 

3.0 

±850.0 

34.0 

11.3 

101.0 

ao' 

4:868.0 

18.0 

2.2 

103.5 

2.5 

874.0 

6.0 

2.4 

115.0  1 

11.5 

888.0 

14.0 

1.2 

127.0 

12.0 

908.0 

^.0 

1.7 

139.0 

12.0 

1.001.0 

93.0 

7.7 

144.0 

5.0 

1,001.5 

.5 

.1 

144.0 

.0 

1,005.3 

3.8 

1 

160.0 

l&O 

1,010.0 

4.7 

.3 

«*  Low-water  elevation. 


<SKOLOGY. 

Almost  the  entire  watershed  has  been  glaciated  to  such  an  extent  that  outcrops,  except 
near  the  rivers,  are  very  infrequent.  According  to  the  reports  of  the  Wisconsin  Geological 
Survey,  the  central  and  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  this  area  is  underlain  by  the  pre-Cam- 
brian  crystalline  rocks  known  as  the  ''Keweenawan."  This  belt  narrows  toward  the  south, 
giving  way  both  on  the  east  and  west  to  the  Cambrian  sandstones.  These  pre-Oambrian 
crystalline  rocks  intersect  St.  Croix  River  at  St.  Croix  Falls,  and  because  of  their  greater 
hardness  have  caused  the  falls  and  rapids — the  most  important  on  the  entire  river — which 
extend  for  6  or  7  miles  above  the  city  of  Taylors  Falls,  Minn. 

RAINFALL,  AN1>  UUN-OFF. 

The  United  States  Geological  Survey  has  maintained  a  gaging  station  3}  miles  above  St. 
Croix  Falls,  Wis.,  since  1903.  The  gage  heights  are  referred  to  four  iron  pins  on  the  right 
bank  just  below  the  gaging  station,  the  elevations  of  which  are  referred  to  the  datum  of  the 
bench  marks  of  the  St.  Croix  River  survey.    Their  elevations  are  as  follows. 

Feet. 

Pin  No.  I , 732.08 

Pin  No,  2 •. 734.54 

Pin  No.  3 736.10 

Pin  No.  4 737.57 

A  large  number  of  measurements  were  obtained  during  1903,  and  the  gage  was  read  daily 
by  V.  H.  Caneday.  Discharga  measurements  were  made  from  a  boat  held  in  place  by  a  wire 
cable  stretched  across  the  river  between  two  trees.    The  initial  point  for  soundings  is  a  ver- 


120 


WATEB   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN   WISCONSIN. 


tical  rod  on  the  left  bank.  The  channel  is  straight  for  about  800  feet  above  and  1.000  feet 
below  the  station,  while  the  banks  are  high  and  can  not  overflow.  The  section  is  regular, 
smooth,  and  permanent,  and  the  velocity  is  never  sluggish,  making  this  on  the  whole  a  sta- 
tion at  which  good  results  are  obtainable.  Tlie  drainage  area  at  this  point  is  6,370  square 
miles. 

Discharge  measurements  of  St.  Croix  River  near  St.  Croix  Falls ^  Wis.,  in  190S. 


Date. 


1903. 


Hydrographer. 


I  h^t.  'd»'*«'K'- 


May  22 E.  Johnson,  jr... 

August  11 W.  R.  Hoag 

October  9 L  R.  Stockman. 


Feet.  Sfcond'ffrt. 

4.00  10.747 

2.70  7,470 

3. 84  10.244 


Discharge  data  relating  to  St.  Croix  River  near  St.  Croix  Falls,  Wis.,  obtained  through  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  have  been  supplemented  by  data  supplied  by  Loweth  Jt 
Wolf,  civil  engineers,  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.     The  results  are  embodied  in  the  following  tiible: 

Daily  discharge,  in  second-feet j  of  St  Croix  River  near  St.  Croix  Fallsy  Wis.,  January  10, 19^2, 

to  December  31, 190J^. 


Day. 


1902. 

1... 

2... 

3... 

4... 

5... 

6... 

7... 

8... 

9... 
10... 
11... 
12... 
13... 
14... 
15... 
16... 
17... 
18... 
19... 
20... 
21... 
22... 
23... 
24... 
25... 
26... 
27... 
28... 
2i... 
30... 
31... 


Jan.  '  Feb.  i    Mar. 


1,895 
1,910 
1,860 
1.850 
1,685 
1,765 
1,775 
1.795 
1.880 
1,860 
1,920 
1.875 
1,930 
1,8(» 
1,950 
1,985 
1,975 
1,950 
1,930 
1,920 
1,905 
1,890 


1,820 
1,875 
1,930 
1,700 
1,760 
1,755 
1,750 
1,770 
1,7()5 
1,760 
1,750 
1,7.50 
1,815 
1,870 
1.990 
1,990 
1.990 
1,990 
1,990 
1,990 
1,990 
1.990 
2,027 
2.065 
2.110 
2,180 
2.260 
2.480 


2.425 
2.442 
2,460 
2.300 
2,370 
2,420 
2,270 


Apr.    I  May.      June      July. 


I 


4.650 
4,995 
4,650 
4,600 
4.035 
3,470 
3,110 
3,117 
3,125 
3,125 
3,125 
3,037 
2,950 


2,910 
2,840 
300 
400 
2,750 
2,515 
2.280 
2.280 
2.190 
2.110 
1,990 
1,870 
1,468 
2,065 
2,020 
2,170 
2,070 
5.190 
1,510 
1,005 
500 
5.540 
440 
510 
1,050 
2,760 
3.025 
3,290 
3,480 
3.750 


3,930 

4,090 

3,910 

3,920 

3,935 

4,900 

3.980 

4.880 

4.560 

4.590 

4.450  j 

5.850  I 

6,150 

5,250 

4,780 

4,875 

4,820  ' 

4.940 

5.065  ; 

5.300  '■ 

5.870  I 

7,080  I 

9,600  I 

7,250  I 

6.420  I 

5,585  ' 

5,760 

5,090  ' 

6,070  I 

4,930 

5,290 


5,150 
5,010 
4,480 
9,798 
11.871 
10,956 
10,610 


9,261 
10,468 
6.810 
7,600 
8.280 
4,780 
6,350 
4,220 
3,420 
3,580 
6,350 
3,780 
960 
3,300 
3,400 
6,000 
3,560 
4.145 
4.380 
4,200 
2,550 
4,690 


Aug.       Sept.  I    Oct.    I    Nov.       D«r, 


6,690 
4.490 
4.830 
4,700 
7.350 
5.200 
12,106 
11.603 
11,137 
12,947 
8,978 
7,980 
6,700 
6,060 
5.780 
4,860 
4,380 
3,800 
5,210 
2,850  I 
3,405  I 
3,530  ' 
3,600 
3,185  I 
2,560 
7,250  I 
850  ' 
750 
2,515 
2,515 
2,610 


2,270 
1,740 
1,790 
1,825 
1,870 
2,035 
2,260 
1,980 
1,060 
1,990 
3,970 
1,680 
1,120 
1,015 
1,570 
1,590 
1,560 
1,500 
1,510 
1.500 
1,480 
1,480 
1,575 
1,405 
1,405 
3,850 
1,860 
1,740 
1,465 
5,995 
1,795 


1,725 
1,730 
1,680 
1,840 
1,700 
2,560 
2,550 
2,220 
4,110 
3,500 
1,720 
1,500 
1,640 
1,550 
1,355 
1,355 
1.540 
1,480 
1,120 
510 
2,800 
2,070 
2.540 
2,365 
1.065 
1,135 
1.120 
3,050 
2.210 
2.310 


I 


2,330 
2.390 
2.395 
1,685 
2.150 
2,445 
2,390 
2.290 
2.050 

930 
2.9S0 
1.950 
2.040 
2.000 
1,915 

800 

845 
3,600 
1.940 
1.925 
2,040 
1,960 
2.040 

850  I 
1,100  I 
2,300 
2.310  i 
2,660 
2.890  I 
1.875 
2,840  I 


5.190  2.4*1 

3,aS0  2.555 

3.290    

4,740    

3,910    

4.180    

4.030    

4.740    

4.500  ' 

3.290  ; 

2.960    

3.195  ' 

4.300  2.Srf. 

4, 530  2, 2i*) 

4.900  2,15n 

4.e00  2.  CM 

4,700  2.  on 

4.580  2.110 

5.  leo  2,  Ir^ 

3. 090  2.iKi 

4.6fio  2.040 

4.ieo  '    2.0ir' 

4.250  2,ili« 

4.060    

3.720    

3,555    

.3.680    

3,000    

3,050  2.  ON) 

2,050  2,0r» 
2.045 


9T.   CROIX    RIVER   SYSTEM. 


121 


DaUy  discharge,  in  second-feet,  of  St.  Croix.  River  near  St.  Croix  Falls,  Wis.,  January  10, 1902, 
to  December  31.  1904 — Continued. 


Day.  '  Jan.  I  Feb.  j  Mar.   '    Apr.      May.   !  June.  I  July.   !   Aug.   I  Sept.  i    Oct.    I  Nov. 


1903. 

1.... 

2.... 

3.... 

4.... 

5.... 

6.... 

7 

8.... 

9... 
10.... 
II.... 
12.... 
13.... 
14.... 
15.... 
16.... 
17.... 
18.... 
19.... 
20.... 
21.... 
22.... 
23.... 
24.... 
25.... 
26.... 
27.... 
28.... 
29.... 
30.... 
31 ... . 

1904. 

1.... 

2.... 

3.... 

4.... 

5.... 

6 

7.... 

8.... 

9.... 
10.... 
11.... 
12.... 
13.... 
14.... 
15.... 
16*. . . . 
17.... 
18.... 
19.... 
20.... 


2,055 

1,940 

1,940 

1,910 

1,880 

,  1,930 

I  1,945 

,  2,010 

1,930 

1.850 

I  1.875 

1.900 

>  1.930 

1.950 

\  1.980 

\  1.870 

'  1,770 

1,815 

'  1,870 

1,780 

'  1,980 

1,730 

I  1,820 

1,800 

•  1,865 

1,930 

I  1.990 

'  2,050 

I  1,980 

I  1.835 

I  1,970 


I  1,935  I 
I  1,760  I 
!  1,830  I 
I  1,900 

2,015  I 

I  1,930  ' 

I  1.915  I 

I  1.895  ' 

'  1,945  I. 

I  1.950 

1,880 

I  1.975  I, 

1.9%  ' 

1,870  I 

1,840  ' 

1,870  [ 

1,970 

1,850  I 

1,700 

'  1,745  I 

1.830 
f  1,910  I 

1,950 

'  1,945  I 

1.820  ' 

I  1,880  I 

1,970 


-L 


1,940 
1,920 
1,920 
1,960 
1,965 
1,885 
1,990 
2,050 
2,110 


I 


I 


4,030 
4.530 
6,480 
9,890 
11.440 
11.40) 
11.480 
10.740 
9,660 
10.100 
9.5.')0 
8.725 
8,590 
8.445 
8.160 


6,770  I    8,920  j  7,680  ' 

9.800  I    9,555  \  10,420  | 

10,750   \  (9,490)] 

12,220  I I  8,560  ' 

15.200  7,910  I 

10,350  I  15,611  7,340  ! 

8.850     1^,176  (6,805), 

11,045  I  13,835  i  6,270  j 

17,975  I  12.150  6.010 

16.438    5.760 

18,272       9.245  5. 160  ' 

20,166     16,157  6,190 

I ,  7,320 

' 1  (6.910) 

15,382  ! ".  6,500 

14,080    1  5,825 

12,800  ' 5.130 

5.755 

12.540  ' !  4.300 

10.260  I  1.3,830    1    5,150 

13,790  I I    4.540 

I  10,580  1,542  I    4.375 

'  11,230  I  2,700 

11,605  I  2,710 
12,100  I 
9.580  ' 

12,020  I  (2.475) 

12.640  -  (2.420) 
11.420 
10.640 
(9. 160) 


251 
3.030 


8,640 

8,880 
10, 155 
10,870 
11,630 
(10,437) 
9,245 
7,250 
7,200 
0.915 
6.790 
6,035 
(5.502) 


6.800 
9,740 
9.265 
8.790 
10,460 
10.080 
8,925 


4,570 
4,800 
5,050 
6,170 
6,710 
1,600 
7,900 
(7,600) 
(7,280) 
7,170 
4,830 
5,510 
5,340 
5,350 
(4.792) 
4.235 
4.150 
3.460  ' 
3.580 
4.360 
4,740 


Dec. 


2.640 
2,545 


2,360 
907 


3,990 
1,830 
5,590 
(4.670) 
3,750 
4.770 
4.730 
4,485 
4.570 


3,220 


'  2,390 
2.390 


^1= 


I 


I 


3,660 

3.140 

2.810 
(2,820) 

2,840 

2,600 

2,340  I  2 

2,660  (2 

2,680 

2,630 
(2,410) 

2,200 

2,480 

2,460 


110 
090  ( 
060  , 
040  I 
080  I 
070  I 
040) 
020 
160 
110 
000  I 
160  I 
000  I 
140) 
280) 
4.'» 
430  , 
460 
410  I 


450  I 


2,580 
2,570 
2,520 
2.390 
2,290 
2,390 
2,490 
2,600 
2,500 
2,560 
2,500 
2,640 
2,650 
2,660 
2,700 
2,740 
2,690 
2.700 
2.750 
(°) 


I 


5.560 
6,130 
(7,000) 
8,080  I 
9,873  I 
12,390  I 
15.930  I 


8,400  ,    6,340  I  6,170 

7,500  !    5.520  I  5.850 

7,640  I    6,050  (.3,630) 

7,480  I    7,950  |  1,410 

7,380    (12, 5*30)'  (3,010) 

8,290  '  17,180  I  4.610 


8,790  !  17,920  ' 
16,900  '(10,320)  17,460  | 
18,300  (11,850)  15,660  | 
aO.OOO)  13,370  <  12,940 
16,060  11,300  12,610 
14,010  9,490  (12,070) 
10,590  8,550  11,530  ' 
7,910       8,980 


12,560  I    8,650 
10.010       8,310 


(9.400) 
(8,920) 
8.380 
7,850  , 


7,280 
7,820 
6,860 
5.250 


11,320 
7,880 
8.540 
7.628 
8,140 
8.710 
9.280 


4,780 
4,610 
4.970 
2.960 
950 
3,480 
3.860 
3,750 
3.890 
3.990 
(2.530> 
1.080 
1,140 
3.760 


a  March  20  to  2.'),  ice  going 


840 
1.080 
1,480 
3,460 
2,250 
1    1,990 
I    2,040 
'    2.100 
I    2,210 
2,100 
!    2,000  j 
I    2,300  I 
;    2.340  I 
I  (1,750)1 

;  1.150  I 

I  960 
'  1.430  I 
I  3,370  ■ 
I  1.920  I 
'  2,240  I 
out. 


4,530 
4,610 

(4,750) 
4,900 
4,870 
5,040 
4,690 
4.600 

(4.030) 

(3.460) 
2,820  I 

(2,380) 
1,940 
2,150  , 
3.480 
3.190 

(3.160)^ 
3,140  I 
2,890  I 


3,960 
(3,840) 

3,720 

3,360 
11,310 

1,240 
(2,800) 

4,090 
(3,400) 

2,120 
10,430 
15,020 
14,270 
13,800 
12.560 


10,060 
10,760 
10,310 
12,710 


8,780 
8,040 
7,590 
6,780 
3,280 

(4,230) 
5.230 
5,440 
5,700 
4,900 
5,330 
5,600 

(5,640) 
5,470 
5,250 
4,970 
4.770 
4,670 
4.480 

(4,340) 


1,600 
1,760 
2,210 

(2,400) 
2,620 
2,740 
2,890 
2,970 
2,770 
2,820 

(2,820) 
2,830 
2,500 
2,420 

!  2,220 
2,380 

[  2,330 
2,320 
2,300 

I  2,380 


122 


WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


Daily  discharge,  in  second-feet,  of  St.  Croix  River  near  St.  Croix  Falls,  Wis.,  January  10, 
to  December  31, 1904 — Continued. 


1902. 


Day.  I  Jan 


Feb.      Mar.       Apr. 


1904. 
21... 
22... 
23... 
24... 
26... 
26... 
27... 
28... 
29... 
30. 
31. 


2,440 

2,630 

2,620 

(2,570) 

2.520 

2,330 

..    2,390 

..;  2,280 

..;  2,270 

..j  2,250 


(2,370) 
2,290 
2,330 
2,230 
2,280 
2,410 
2,400 
2,480 
2,520 


I 


3,090 
(3,370) 
3,660 
3,300 
3,770 
4,510 


7,490 
7,530 
11,260 
(10.810) 
10.360 
11.170 
11,230 
10,760  I 
10,850  I 
9,490  I 


May.   ,  June.  ,  July. 

I  I 

6,390 
(6, 900)  I 
(7,500)1 

8,000  ' 

7,790 

8,760  ; 

8.030 

7,390  I 
(6,700)1 

6,060  I 

6,440  '. 


Aug.    I  Sept.       Oct.    I  Nov.      Doc, 


6,730 
5,630 
5,820 
4,960 
5,190  i 
(3.380). 
1,570 
4,850 
5,330 
5,320 


3,420 
3,170 
3,270  ' 
(2,240>; 
1.210  ' 
1,050  I 
2,580  I 
2,780 
2.720 
2.810  I 


(3,760) 
5,290 
4,390 
2,520 
2.970 
2,510' 
2,480 

(2,230) 
1,960 
2,260 

(3.000) 


2,750 
2,380 
2,490 
2,700 

(3,240) 
3,790 
3,330 
3,500 
3.580 

(3,880) 


(15, 700 1 
18,700 

(18,010> 
17.330 
16.180 
15.540 
12.710 
12,910 
10.590 

(10,410) 
10.230 


4,190 
4,020 
4,000 
4.120 
3.730 
3,710 

(3,300> 
2,800 
2.800 

(2. 230) 


2.1* 
2.440 

2,340 
2.».. 
(2-  4J» 

3.450 
2.4H. 
(2.44C 
(2,430  = 
(2.4U) 
2,380 


Estimated  monthly  discharge  of  St.  Croix  River  at  St.  Croix  Falls,  Wis.,  for  1902,  1903,  and 

190M. 
[Drainage  area,  6,370  square  miles.] 

Discharge. 


Date. 


January . . . 
February.. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November. 
December . . 


Run-off. 


Maxl-    I    Mini- 
mum,       mum. 


Per  Rainiaii.-i 

Mean.       square      Depth, 
mile. 


Sec-feet.  \  Sec. -feet,  Sec.-feet. 


The  year. 


1903. 


1,980 
2,480 
5,000 
5,560 
9,000 
11,870 
12,106 
6,000 
4,100 
3,600 
5,200 
2,550 


,680 
,700 
1,380  I 

MO,: 

1,100  ! 

960 
760 
,020  ! 
400  , 
800  I 
1.550  I 
!,020 


1,880 
1,880 
3,300 
2,220 
2,020 
5,950 
5,.%0 
1.860 
1,860 
2,000 
4,080 
2.100 


Sec.-feet. 

0.31 

.31 

.eo 

.37 
.33 
.99 
.92 
.31 

.31 

I 
.33 

.68  I 

.35  ' 


Inches. 

0.36 


1.14  , 

1.06  I 

.36 


.36 


.40  I 


Inches. 

O.H) 
.34 

.(fa* 

2.08 

J  :* 

2.S2 

X2t 
1.5» 
2.7i 
2  H 


12,106 


200  I 


2.912 


.48 


January 2,040 

February 2,020 

March 11, 480 

April 20, 185 

May '  16,167 

J  une 7, 900 

July 11,6M 

August 7, 900 

September 14,918 

October 29,611 

November 7,000 

December 3, 440 


The  year 29, 61 1 


,,740 
,700  I 
,960  I 
1,800 
1,920  I 
906 
251  I 
,600 
i,960 
i,740  ; 

850 
!,340  I 


1.920  , 
1,880  ' 
5,500  I 
12,000  I 
12,700 
5,050  , 
6,360  I 
4,850 
11,750 
12,780 
4,270 
2,740 


6,816 


I 

.32  I 
.31 

.92, 
2.00 
2.12 

.84  ' 
1.06 

.81  I 
1.96  I 
2.13 

'71 

.46  ' 


.37 

.36  , 
1.06 
2.30  f 

2.43  . 
.96  j 

1.21  I 

.92 
2.26  j 

2.44  ! 
.81  I 
.52  1 


2-7«i 

4-r: 

4.11 


1.14 


15.63 


».- 


o  This  is  the  average  of  the  recorded  precipitation  at  Barron,  DuVuth,  Grantsburg,  Hay  ward.  Oir*^ .". 
and  St.  Paul. 

0  Low  water  due  to  the  manipulation  of  a  lumbering  dam  a  few  miles  above. 


ST.  CROIX   RIVKR   SYSTEM. 


123 


EsHmaied  ThorUfUy  discharge  of  St  Cwix  River  at  St.  Croir  Falls,  Wis.,  for  1902, 1903,  and 

1904— Contmmd. 


IMscharge. 


Date. 


IMM. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Mini- 
mum. 


Mean. 


I 


Sec.-fett.  Sec-feet. 


January . . 
February . 
March .... 
April 


'  2.840 

2.480  ' 

4.510 

18.300 

May 13,370  \ 


June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November. 
December.. 


•I 


17,930  ! 


The  year. 


5,850 
3,460 
5,040 
18,700 
8,780 
2,970 


18,700 


2.200 
2.000 
2.290 
.5,560 
5,250 
4.850 
950 
840 
1.940 
1,240 
2,800 
1,600 


Sec-feet. 
2.600 
2.238 
2,832 

10,748 
8,176 
8,868 
3,145 
2,334 
3,544 

10,560 
4,843 
2,441 


Run-off. 


Per 
square 
mile. 


Sec-feei. 
.43 
.37 
.47 
1.79 
1.36 
1.48 
.52 
.39 
.59 
1.76 
.80 
.40 


840 


5,194  { 


Depth. 

Inclui. 

.48 

.42 

.53 

2.01 

1.53 

1.66 

.58 

.44 

.66 

1.96 

.90 

.45 


10.36  I 


I  Rainfall. 


Jnchett. 

.64 

1.18 

1.19 

1.65 

3.78 

5.58 

4.64 

3.84 

5.76 

5.47 

.05 

.99 


11.65 


34.77 


WATER  POWDERS. 

TALL. 

In  the  lower  48  miles  of  its  course  the  St.  Croix  River  has  its  bed  in  the  Cambrian  sand- 
stone or  "Lower  Magnesian''  limestone,  principally  the  former,  which  it  has  succeeded  in 
wearing  down  nearly  to  base  level,  giving  steamboat  navigation  from  Taylors  Falls,  Minn., 
to  Mississippi  River.  Its  descent  in  this  distance  of  48  miles  is  only  20  feet  at  low  stages, 
nearly  all  of  which  is  found  in  the  upper  half  between  Stillwater  and  Taylors  Falls.  At  Still- 
water, 223  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river,  the  sandstone  bluffs  rise  steeply  on  either  side 
to  a  height  of  150  to  200  feet,  and  the  river  rapidly  narrows.  The  bluffs  continue,  generally 
with  a  flat  on  one  side,  between  Taylors  Falls  and  Stillwater.  In  the  24  miles  below  Still- 
water the  river  averages  about  half  a  mile  in  width,  with  a  maximum  of  7,000  feet  at  the 
expansion  of  the  river  known  as  St.  Croix  Lake,  below  Stillwater.  For  several  miles  here, 
according  to  reports  of  United  States  engineers,  the  river  is  almost  without  gradient. 

The  portion  of  the  St.  Croix  above  Taylors  Falls  abounds  in  undeveloped  powers.  Except 
near  the  headwaters  of  St.  Croix,  Totogatic,  and  Namekagon  rivers  and  a  small  area  served 
by  a  branch  line  of  the  Northern  Pacific,  running  to  Grantsbi;rg,  this  region  is  without  rail- 
road facilities.  The  following  detailed  description  of  the  main  river  above  St.  Croix  rapids, 
taken  from  the  Tenth  Census,  1880,  gives  the  most  trustworthy  information  of  the  region 
obtainable: 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Rau  Claire  to  that  of  the  Namekagon  River  there  is  a  descent  of  100  feet,  or  4 
feet  per  mile,  and  many  rapids  occur,  among  which  Copper  Mine  rapids  may  be  mentioned.  Above  the 
mouth  of  the  Namekagon  the  ordinary  low-water  power  under  a  head  of  10  feet  would  be  150  horsepower. 
The  Namekagon  River  increases  this  to  600  horsepower. 

In  the  12  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Namekagon  to  the  Yellow  River  the  total  fall  is  20  feet,  Including 
Big  Island  rapids,  State  Line  rapids,  and  Bishops  rapids.  Each  of  the  first  two  Is  described  as  afford- 
ing fine  opportunities  for  developing  water  powers.  At  Big  Island  rapids  the  river  runs  close  to  the 
bluffs  on  the  left  bank,  but  a  dam  would  need  to  extend  some  distance  across  the  flat  on  the  right. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Yellow  River  to  the  head  of  Kettle  rapids,  a  distance  of  21  miles,  the  average 
slope  is  I A  feet  per  mile,  there  being  no  rapids  of  s^peclal  importance.  It  is  very  probable  that  available 
water-power  sites  can  be  found  in  this  section. 


124  WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

ST.  CBOIX  RAPIDS. 

The  St.  Croix  rapids  oiler  fine  opportunities  for  water  power,  and  were  used  at  onelinie,  bat  now  the 
river  flows  unemployed.  There  is  a  total  descent  of  55  feet  in  the  6  miles  which  may  be  included  uDa<? 
the  name  of  St.  Croix  rapids.  Several  local  names  are  indefinitely  applied  at  different  points.  At  th^- 
foot  are  Taylors  Falls,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  above  are  St.  Croix  Falls,  then  Turtle  TaUf.p'.c. 
Strictly  speaking,  there  are  no  falls  in  the  entire  distance,  only  a  more  rapid  decline  in  f&e  bed  at  certicn 
places. 

The  village  of  Taylors  Falls  is  situated  in  Minnesota,  at  the  foot  of  the  rapids,  about  50  miles  aU'x- 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  at  the  head  of  navigation.  St.  Croix  Falls,  a  village  of  Wiaconsixi,  is  situjit»^i 
upon  the  slope  overlooking  the  river  from  that  side,  nearly  opposite  Taylors  Falls.  Directly  below :  ht 
rapids  the  river  enters  the  Dalles  of  the  St.  Croix,  where  for  half  a  mile  or  more  it  passes  between  vert JcjL 
cliffs  of  trap  rock  with  sharp  edges  and  bold  angles.  Just  above  the  entrance  into  the  Dalles  the  «  «T-r 
way  is  so  contracted  that  when  the  river  is  high  the  water  forms  a  fall  of  nearly  5  feet  before  it  can  ort^r- 
come  the  resistance,  but  there  is  no  very  rapid  descent  there  in  low  water.  It  is  to  this  portion  of  tt^ 
river  that  the  name  of  Taylors  Falls  is  given. 

Above  the  Dalles  the  rock  continues  in  the  bed,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  banks  of  the  river,  hut 
the  valley  spreads  considerably.  On  the  Minnesota  side  the  bank  rises  steep  from  the  river  for  30  r4-  «• 
feet  at  the  lower  part  of  the  rapids.  Back  from  this  for  several  hundred  feet  is  a  nearly  level  pl&i-n 
swampy  in  places;  and  bounding  this  are  the  bluffs,  rising  fully  100  feet  higher.  At  the  foot  of  tt<> 
rapids  the  plain  narrows  and  is  lost  in  the  Dalles.  On  the  Wisconsin  side,  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Cn^ix. 
Falls,  the  slope  Is  rather  more  uniform  up  to  the  general  level  of  the  country.  At  the  enhance  into 
the  Dalles  the  river  is  scarcely  more  than  100  feet  wide.  At  St.  Croix  Falls,  three-quarters  of  a  niiK 
above  Taylors  Falls,  it  is  between  200  and  300  feet  wide,  the  average  width  of  the  river  in  this  p«rt 
of  its  course. 

The  portion  of  the  rapids  known  as  St.  Croix  Falls  presents  the  most  favorable  site  for  Improvemcat 
of  the  power,  and  here  a  dam  was  once  built  and  sawmiUs  were  run.  The  bed  is  solid  rock,  and  th-* 
banks  rise  abruptly  from  the  river  on  both  sides.  On  the  Minnesota  side  a  large,  high  mass  of  trap  n  Tk 
stands  out  in  the  channel  and  forms  a  natural  abutment  for  a  dam;  on  the  Wisconsin  side  the  ruck 
bank  rises  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  water  in  a  rib,  and  back  of  it  is  a  depression  which  k-iKlF 
to  the  slope  upon  which  the  village  of  St.  Croix  Falls  is  situated.  The  improvement,  long;  «nce  poDt>  t4 
ruin,  consisted  of  a  dam  built  across  the  river  at  the  point  described,  and  a  race  blasted  through  th<> 
rock  in  the  line  of  the  depression  on  the  Wisconsin  side  and  then  carried  down  the  slope  along  the  rirrr 
front,  giving  a  head  of  25  or  30  feet.  The  dam  was  a  very  extensive  structure,  raising  the  water  to  a 
height  of  25  feet  when  in  good  condition.  It  was  300  feet  long,  24  feet  wide  at  the  top,  and  only  tu  U-^.t 
wide  at  the  base.  .  .  .  The  same  natural  facilities  exist  for  developing  the  water  power  as  formerh . 
...  If  the  dam  were  built  so  as  to  give  a  head  of  about  40  feet,  which  is  practicable,  a  race  could  tje 
carried  down  the  plain  on  the  Minnesota  side  for  a  long  distance  as  readily  as  on  the  Wisconsin  shcir 
The  pond  would  probably  back  the  water  4  or  5  miles,  and  would  not  overflow  much  land.  With  tb*- 
ordinary  low  flow  the  power  under  a  head  of  30  feet  is  7,811  theoretical  horsepowt^r,  and  under  a  bea&d  *  t 
40  feet,  10,415  theoretical  horsepower.  With  the  yearly  average  flow  it  is  17,266  theoretical  hor8epi>w»  r 
under  a  head  of  30  feet,  and  23,021  theoretical  horsepower  under  40  feet.  There  is  about  5  f«M»t  of  fall  .r 
the  river  from  the  site  of  the  dam  to  Taylors  Falls.  Here  is  an  excellent  site  for  the  construction  o.'  a 
dam,  which  would  scarcely  be  more  than  100  feet  long,  but  the  vertical  cliffs  come  close  to  the  river  ju^t 
below,  leaving  only  room  for  a  small  steamboat  landing,  without  space  to  erect  extensive  manuf acti^t-*. 

KETTLE   RIVER  RAPIDS. 

The  Kettle  River  rapids  are,  next  to  the  St.  Croix  rapids,  the  most  prominent  on  the  river.  Tb«^T 
start  2 J  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Kettle  River,  which  enters  from  the  west,  and  end  IJ  miles  belo* 
it.  In  this  length  of  4  miles  the  total  fall  is  49  feet,  of  which  34  feet  is  above  the  mouth  of  the  Kf-tth' 
River.  Two  islands  from  1  mile  to  2  miles  long  divide  the  river  into  two  channels.  The  bed  of  th«= 
river  is  solid  rock  and  it  is  practical  to  build  several  dams.  Above  the  mouth  of  the  Kettle  Riv<>r  s 
head  of  10  feet  would  afford  1,280  theoretical  horsepower,  with  the  ordinary  low-water  flow,  and  l^-li.ir 
the  entrance  of  the  Kettle  River  1,737  theoretical  horsepower,  under  the  same  conditions  of  flow,  a«x>rJ- 
ing  to  the  estimates  previously  given. 

Above  the  mouth  of  the  Snake  River,  which  enters  4)  miles  below  the  Kettle  River,  there  is  II  f»*t 
of  fall  from  the  foot  of  the  rapids.  Between  Snake  River  and  St.  Croix  rapids  are  the  following  nip}<:<- 
The  Otter  Slide,  just  l)elow  the  mouth  of  the  Snake,  the  ordinary  low-water  power  of  which,  undt^r  .t 
head  of  10  feet,  is  2,140  theoretical  horsepower;  the  Horse  Race,  1  mile  below;  the  Baltimore  rapids  h 
mile  below  the  mouth  of  the  Wood  River,  the  ordinary  low-water  power  of  which,  under  a  bead  «•(  :♦' 
f«»t,  is  2,220  theoretical  horsepower;  the  Upper  Big  Rock  rapids,  about  1  mile  below  them;  and  IN. 
Yellow  Pine  rapids,  about  3  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Sunrise  River.  The  amount  of  fall  at  t-^ac  \ 
of  these  rapids  can  not  lie  determined  from  the  data  at  hand.  The  total  fall  from  the  mouth  of  Srukr 
River  to  St.  Croix  rapids  is  111  feet  and  the  average  slope  is  2.64  feet  per  mile.  This  must  furnish  oppor- 
tunities to  develop  power  with  what  will  be  a  reasonable  expense  at  some  time  m  the  future. 


ST.   CROIX   RIVEB   SYSTEM. 


125 


TBIBUTARIES  OF  ST.  CROIX  RIVER. 

LENGTH   AND  DRAINAGE. 

The  length  and  drainage  area  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  St.  Croix  River,  including 
those  entering  from  the  western  (Minnesota)  side,  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Principal  tributaries  of  St.  Croix  fiiver. 


River; 


Eau  Claire 

Namekagon 

Yellow 

Clam 

Kettle  (Minnesota) 
Snake  (Minnesota) , 

Wood 

Apple 

Willow..#. 


Length 


(map 
meas- 
ure). 

Drainage 
area. 

MUea. 

Sq.  miles. 

25 

107 

85 

1,002 

50 

310 

50 

416 

70 

1,093 

78 

937 

30 

168 

55 

427 

35 

246 

YELLOW   RIVER. 

Yellow  River  rises  in  a  large  lake  called  Mud  Lake,  at  an  elevation  of  1,085  feet,a  and 
after  a  sinuous  course  of  50  miles  joins  the  St.  Croix  at  a  point  only  half  this  distance 
from  the  source  and  at  an  elevation  of  888  feet.  This  gives  a  descent  of  197  feet,  an  aver- 
age of  nearly  4  feet  per  mile.  This  high  gradient  results  in  rapids  at  frequent  intervals 
throughout  its  entire  course.  The  slope  in  the  upper  third  of  its  length  is  about  120  feet. 
Here  springs  and  creeks  are  numerous.  The  river  is  known  to  have  a  remarkably  con- 
stant stage,  the  natural  rise  and  fall  during  the  year  varying  only  from  1^  to  3^  feet. 
This  fact  may  be  attributed  to  the  springs  and  to  the  regulating  eflfect  of  the  large  lakes, 
especially  Yellow  Lake,  through  which  it  flows.  "Its  valley  is  generally  narrow,  being 
from  200  to  800  feet  in  width,  although  in  some  places  it  widens  into  tamarack  marshes 
of  considerable  extent.  The  first  banks  have  a  general  elevation  of  15  feet  above  low 
water,  running  back  into  high,  broken  ridges,  covered  with  white  Norway  and  jack  pine. 
Little  stone  and  few  bowlders  are  found  until  reaching  the  rapids  below  Yellow  Lake, 
which  are  almost  continuous  to  the  mouth  of  the  stream. "o 

Near  the  mouth  of  the  river  the  banks  are  high.  A  dam  could  be  built  in  sec.  27,  T. 
41  N.,  R.  16,  which  would  develop  a  head  of  25  feet  or  more  and  still  not  back  the  water 
up  to  the  Yellow  Lake  dam.  This  power  could  be  combined  in  the  same  plant  with  that 
furnished  by  Loon  Creek,  which  enters  Yellow  River  near  the  proposed  dam.  Loon 
Creek  is  said  to  descend  50  to  75  feet  in  a  distance  of  1}  miles,  and  is  therefore  of  considerable 
importance.  A  dam  could  also  be  located  in  Yellow  River  about  a  mile  above  Yellow 
Lake,  which  would  develop  a  head  of  20  feet  by  overflowing  some  good  meadow  lands 
between  Yellow  and  Devils  lakes. 


o  Kept.  Chief  Eng.  U.  S.  Army,  1880. 


126 


WATER  P0WEB8    OF    NOETHEBN    WISCONSIN. 


The  following  profile  of  Yellow  River  suggests  the  possibility  of  developing  other  powers 
on  this  river  because  of  its  high  gradient  in  ranges  14  and  13: 

Profile  of  Yellow  River  from  its  month  to  Mud  Lake  dam. a 

I  Distanre. 


No. 


Station. 


I    Eleva- 
•      tion 
From      Between      above    I 
mouth,      points,     sea  level. '  Total 


•    Miles.  Miles.  Feet. 

Mouth  of  river 888.0 

Yellow  Lake  dam 7.0  7.0  928L0 

SW.  t  sec.  2.  T.  30  N.,  R.  16  W 15.0  8.0  938.4 

RiccLakedam(SW.j8€C.  16,T.30,  N.,R.  HW).  34.0  19.0  909.4 

8E.  t  sec.  25,  T.  30  N.,  R.  14  W 39.5  5.5,  994.4 

Sec.  31  (near north  i  stake),  T.  30  N.,R.  13  W....  40.5  I.O  1,004.8 

SW.  1  sec.  32,  T.  39  N..  R.  13  W 41.5!  10  1,011.6 

Harts  (SE.i  860.5,  T.  38  N.,R.  13) 42.5'  .       1.0  1,019.0 

Sec.  36  (near  north-south  \  line),  T.  30  N..  R. 

13W 47.6  5.0  1,046.8 

Spooner 49.0  1.5  1,058.0 

Mud  Lake  dam  (above) 52.0  3.0  1,085.0 


Descent  be- 

tween 

points. 

Total. 

Per 

Feet. 

Feet. 

4O.0 

i" 

10.4 

1.3 

31.0 

1  6 

2ao 

4.5 

10.4 

10.4 

6.8 

6.^ 

&4 

8.4 

27.8 

56 

11.2 

7.5 

27.0 

9-0 

a  Authority:  Nos.  1-9  and  11,  U.  S.  engineers;  10,  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha  Rwy. 
Important  logging  dams  are  described  by  United  States  engineers  as  follows: 
Logging  dams  on  YeUow  River. 


Name. 


Location. 


Head.        Capacity. 


I 


Remarks. 


Mud  Lake  dam . . . 

Hector  dam 

Rice  Lake  dam... 


YeUow  Lake  dam. 


Sec.  27,  T.  39N.,  R.  12  W.. 
Sec.  10.  T.  38N.,R.  13W... 
Sec.  20.  T.  39N.,  R.  14  W.. 

Sec.  7,  T.  40  N.,  R.  16  W... 


I 


Feet.   I      Cubic  feet. 

7.5  I        475,000,000 

7.5  ' Small  capacity. 

10.0  I       700,000,000    Head    could     be    in- 
creased to  15  feet. 


18.0 


I 


1,400,000,000  Raises  water  in  Yel- 
low Lake  3  feet. 


EAU  CLAIRE   RIVER. 

£au  Claire  River  has  its  source  in  lakes  of  the  same  name  at  an  elevation  of  1,122  feet  a 
above  sea  level.  These  lakes  are  surrounded  by  high  banks,  so  that  at  small  expense  a 
dam  could  be  constructed  at  their  outlet  and  made  to  store  surplus  waters,  thus  adding 
greatly  to  all  water  power  on  the  river.  In  ite  short  length  of  25  miles  this  river  descends 
118  feet,  including  several  rapids,  46  feet  of  this  descent  being  concentrated  in  the  first 
6  miles  below  Eau  Claire  Lakes.     The  total  drainage  area  of  the  river  is  107  square  miles. 

APPLE   RIVER. 

Apple  River,  like  the  Willow,  occupies  a  comparatively  well-«ettled  valley.  It  drains 
an  area  of  427  square  miles.  The  Wisconsin  Central,  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis 
and  Omaha,  and  the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  railways  are  distant  1  to 
5  miles  from  the  river,  the  last-named  road  crossing  it  near  Amery.  The  river  has  its 
source  in  20  or  more  lakes,  the  largest  6  miles  long  and  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  a  mile 
wide.  These  lakes  tend  to  equalize  and  increase  the  summer  flow.  The  long  and  severe 
winters  cause  the  minimum  flow  during  the  months  of  January  and  February. 

Formerly  most  of  the  dams  on  Apple  River  were  used  in  connection  with  logging  opera- 
tions, but  the  timber  is  now  practically  all  cut.    Flouring  mills  have  been  maintained  at 


«  Rept.  Chief  Eng.  U.  S.  Army,  1883. 


ST.   CROIX   RIVER   SYSTEM.  127 

a  number  of  points,  and  at  others  the  power  is  used  for  electric  lighting.  There  are  several 
projects  at  the  present  time  which  look  to  large  improvements  of  some  of  these  powers. 
The  river  in  the  first  and  last  thirds  of  its  course  runs  through  the  Cambrian  sandstone, 
while  its  middle  third  is  through  the  ''Lower  Magnesian"  limestone.  In  the  lower  third 
of  its  course  the  river  flows  over  a  rocky  bed  lietween  rocky  banks,  giving  ideal  conditions 
for  dams.  Most  of  the  larger  powers  occur  in  this  stretch,  and  some  of  these,  developed 
and  undeveloped,  are  described  below: 

1.  The  first  power  on  the  river  is  an  undeveloped  one  located  about  IJ  miles  from  its 
mouth.     A  dam  at  this  point  would  give  a  head  of  15  feet. 

2.  The  second  power,  owned  by  the  St.  Croix  Power  Company,  is  located  about  2  miles 
from  the  mouth.  Here  a  concrete  dam  of  the  arch  type,  250  feet  long  lyid  47  feet  high, 
develops  a  head  of  82  feet. 

3.  Four  miles  from  the  mouth  is  a  gristmill  with  a  head  of  11  feet,  owned  by  E.  E.  Mason. 

4.  The  next  dam,  located  in  sec.  35,  T.  31  N.,  R.  19  W.,  develops  a  head  of  18  feet. 

5.  Another  dam,  located  in  sec.  31,  T.  31  N.,  R.  18  W.,  with  a  head  of  22  feet,  is  owned, 
under  the  name  of  the  Apple  River  Power  Company,  by  the  Western  Gas  and  Investment 
Company  of  Chicago,  which  also  owns  No.  4,  described  above. 

6.  A  dam  12  miles  above  the  mouth  of  Apple  River  gives  a  head  of  29  feet.  The  dis- 
charge at  this  point  is  about  80  per  cent  of  the  total  flow  measured  at  the  mouth.  This 
power  is  transmitted  electrically  to  New  Richmond,  where  it  is  used  by  mills  and  elevators. 

The  powers  on  Apple  River  of  less  importance  are  described  in  the  following  table: 

Minor  water  powers  on  Apple  River. 


Location.  Owner  and  use.  '  Head.  Remarks. 

Above  mouth:  '  |    Feet. 

13  miles '  H.  L..Blxby,  flour ■         11  j  Developed. 

13)  miles M.  C.  Duggies  tSc  Jewett '  8  |  Undeveloped. 

15J  miles  (Star  Prairie; I  II.  L.  Blxby ,         Do. 

25i  miles \  J.  C.  Schnyder,  flour '         12  |  Developed. 

Sec.  17,  T.12.N,  R.  13  W |  Winger  &  Winger ]  2  '         Do. 


One-half  mile  above  last  site 1  J.  St ucky,  gristmill 12 

Amery j  Northern  Supply  Co.,  ele- 
vators. 


BlakesLake ■  Blake. 


12 


Do. 

One-half  total  dis- 
charge devel- 
oped. 

Developed;  can  be 
made  18  feet. 


There  are  many  other  powers  above  Bfakes  Lake,  with  heads  of  from  6  to  20  feet,  mostly 
old  logging  dams  in  poor  condition.  When  the  region  becomes  more  settled  some  of  these 
powers  will  be  improved. 

The  foUowing  data  on  the  discharge  of  Apple  River  for  the  year  1903  are  furnished  by 
John  Pearson,  superintendent  of  the  St.  Croix  Power  Company,  Somerset,  Wis.  The 
computations  are  based  on  the  capacity  of  turbines  located  at  a  point  2  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  Apple  River.    The  average  daily  dischai^e  for  each  month  is  as  follows: 

Estimated  daily  discharge  of  Apple  River  near  Somerset,  Wis.,  for  1903. 


Month.  ^^'«-,.    ,  Month.  ^^^^^  ;  Month. 


Dis- 
charge. 

'  '  I  h  I 

Sec-feet,  i  '  Sec-feet. ,,  |  Sec-feet. 

January 258  '  May '  860  |p8eptember ■  690 

February '         230  I  June I  468  ij  October 660 

March |  600  |  July I  «2  |i  November 362 


April ^ 655  ''  Au^st I  380  l|  December. 

\ ! ii 


324 


128  WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISOONBIN. 

WILLOW   RIVER. 

Willow  River,  one  of  the  smaller  tributaries  of  the  St.  Croix,  has  a  high  gradient,  due  to 
the  fact  that  its  bed  lies  in  the  "Lower  Magnesian"  limestone  for  its  entire  length.  It 
drains  an  area  of  only  246  square  miles  and  has  a  length  of  about  35  miles.  In  the  lower 
two-thirds  of  this  distance,  between  Hudson  and  Jewett  Mills,  it  descends  213  feet,  giving 
many  opportunities  for  water  power.  Many  of  these  powers  are  improved,  as  the  river 
traverses  a  fairly  rich  and  well-settled  country  and  is  paralleled  for  a  considerable  distance 
either  by  the  Wisconsin  Central  or  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha  Railway. 
Tlie  powers  are  here  briefly  described  in  order,  beginning  at  the  mouth: 

1.  A  timber  dam  at  Hudson  100  feet  long  gives  a  head  of  16  feet,  and  with  improved 
machinery  would  develop  117  horsepower  at  ordinary  low  water.  A  part  of  this  power  ia 
used  occasionally  for  electric  light  when  the  power  described  as  No.  3  is  short  of  water. 

2.  Two  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Willow  River  a  dam  formerly  developed  a  9-foot  head 
and  was  used  for  driving  a  flouring  mill.    At  present  this  dam  is  washed  out. 

3.  The  130-foot  dam  of  the  Willow  River  Electric  Light  and  Power  plant,  3^  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  gives  a  head  of  22  feet,  sufficient  to  develop  200  theoretical  horse- 
power at  ordinary  low-water  flow.  The  power  is  used  to  generate  electricity  for  lighting 
the  city  of  Hudson,  Wis.,  and  for  pumping  its  water  supply. 

4.  A  timber  dam  100  feet  long,  5^  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Willow  River,  gives  a  head 
of  24  feet,  sufficient  to  develop  about  125  horsepower.  This  power  is  used  for  a  flouring 
mill.  About  1,200  feet  below  this  dam  there  is  a  fall  of  about  47  feet,  and  at  this  point 
a  new  dam  could  be  erected,  which  could  be  made  to  include  the  24-foot  dam  above,  giving 
a  total  head  of  71  feet.  Such  a  dam  would  need  to  be  about  26  feet  high  and  about  70  or 
80  feet  long.  By  carrying  the  water  a  short  distance  below  in  a  penstock,  a  total  head 
of  105  feet  could  be  secured,  sufficient  to  develop  about  600  horsepower  at  ordinary  flow 
of  water.  This  site,  being  where  the  river  bed  changes  from  the  "Lower  Magnesian" 
limestone  to  the  Cambrian  sandstone,  affords  ideal  conditions  for  a  dam.  The  town  of 
Burkhardt,  on  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Miimeapolis  and  Omaha  Railway,  b  located  about 
a  mile  distant. 

5.  Seven  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Willow  River  a  100-foot  timber  dam  gives  a  head  of 
16  feet.    This  power  is  used  to  run  dynamos. 

6.  Rapids  occur  SJ  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Willow  River.  A  dam  125  feet  long  at  this 
point,  located  at  comparatively  small  expense  in  a  narrow  limestone  goige,  could  be  made 
to  develop  a  head  of  22  feet. 

7.  At  a  point  about  11  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Willow  River  the  Boardman  flouring 
mills  were  formerly  located.  The  80-foot  timber  dam  at  this  point  was  washed  out  some 
time  ago,  but  the  mill  still  stands.  If  the  dam  were  replaced,  a  head  of  16  feet  or  more 
could  be  easily  developed.  All  the  above  powers  on  Willow  Riyer  are  owned  by  C.  Burk- 
hardt, who  has  the  right  of  flowage  wherever  needed  along  this  stretch  of  11  miles,  giving 
an  aggregate  descent  of  nearly  200  feet. 

8.  The  next  power  on  Willow  River  is  located  at  New  Richmond.  A  timl^er  dam  40 
feet  long,  owned  by  the  New  Richmond  roller  mills,  develops  a  head  of  18  feet. 

9.  The  last  dam  on  this  stream  is  located  at  Jewett,  5  miles  east  of  New  Richmond. 
Power  afforded  by  a  10-foot  head  is  owned  by  P.  Newell  &  Hennesey  and  used  in  a  feed 
mill  and  sawmill.    Above  this  point  Willow  River  is  too  small  for  water-power  use. 

CLAM   RIVER. 

Clam  River  drains  an  area  of  416  square  miles.  It  is  formed  by  two  branches — North 
Fork  and  South  Fork — which  unite  near  the  center  of  the  drainage  area  just  above  Clam 
Lake.  The  river  descends  about  350  feet  in  a  total  length  of  50  miles,  and,  as  much  of 
this  high  gradient  is  concentrated  at  rapids,  several  good  opportunities  are  offered  for 
development.  The  river  flows  through  a  comparatively  thinly  settled  region,  which  as 
yet  has  no  railroads.    Several  railroads,  however,  cross  the  margins  of  the  drainage.     The 


ST.   CROIX   BIVER   SYSTEM. 


129 


following  statements  regarding  its  principal  water  powers  are  based  on  information  given 
the  writer  by  Edward  L.  Peet,  editor  of  the  Journal,  Grantsburg,  Burnett  County. 

A  large,  unimproved  water  power  exists  in  T.  40  N.,  near  the  line  between  Rs.  17  and  18 
W.  At  this  point  the  banks  of  Clam  River  are  80  to  150  feet  high,  and  the  land  which 
would  be  flooded  is  low  and  of  little  value.  Above  the  proposed  dam  the  valley  bottom 
will  average  half  a  mile  wide,  with  a  few  expansions  to  1^  miles.  Tlie  bed  of  the  river  is 
clay  and  bowlders,  mixed  with  sand.  Plenty  of  timber  for  the  construction  of  a  dam  grows 
in  the  swamps  close  at  hand.  Bowlders  are  also  abundant  at  the  dam  site.  The  levels 
taken  on  a  recent  survey  show  that  this  power  could  be  improved  in  the  following  ways: 
A  dam  6  rods  long  at  the  range  line  would  give  a  head  of  20  feet.  A  dam  10  rods  long 
built  farther  downstream  would  produce  a  head  of  35  feet.  By  adding  a  6-foot  embankment 
for  a  distance  of  20  rods  this  head  could  be  increased  to  28  feet ;  or  a  dam  60  rods  long 
could  be  built  across  the  valley  with  an  average  height  of  40  feet  and  a  maximum  height 
of  85  feet.  If  the  water  were  conducted  by  canal  a  distance  of  about  a  mile  to  the  low- 
lands adjacent  to  St.  Croix  River,  turbines  could  be  installed  with  a  head  of  100  feet.  This 
dam  site  is  distant  only  3  miles  from  other  large,  undeveloped  powers  on  St.  Croix  and  Yel- 
low rivers,  with  which  it  could  be  easily  and  cheaply  connected  by  electric  transmission. 

About  half  a  mile  below  Clam  Lake  there  is  now  a  logging  dam  with  a  head  of  alx)ut  20  feet 
whirh  raises  the  water  in  the  lake  3  or  4  feet.  This  dam  impounds  the  water  from  a  drain- 
age area  of  283  square  miles.  United  States  engineers  reported  that  a  dam  would  need  to 
be  560  feet  long  at  this  point  to  produce  a  head  of  25  feet.  Such  a  dam  would  have  a 
capacity  of  4,670,786,000  cubic  feet, a  and  if  properly  regulated  could  be  made  to  greatly 
increase  the  amount  and  value  of  the  powers  below.  The  engineers  found  that  the  bed 
of  the  river  consisted  of  sand  from  3  to  20  feet,  at  which  depths  soundings  indicated  hard 
materials,  supposed  to  be  clay  and  gravel. 

Another  large  water  power  is  found  at  Clam  FaUs,  in  sec.  13,  T.  37  N.,  R.  16  W.,  where 
the  river  falls  over  a  wide  ledge  of  the  '*  Keweenawan  "  rocks.  A  dam  at  this  point  impounds 
the  drainage  from  an  area  of  45  square  miles  and  develops  a  head  of  34  feet.  Between 
Clam  FaUs  and  Clam  Lake  the  slope  is  small  and  the  river  valley  half  a  mile  to  1^  miles 
wide.  The  river  profile  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  compiled  from  surveys  made  by 
United  States  engineers : 

Profile  of  Clam  River  from  its  month  to  Clam  Fails. 


Station. 


Mouth  of  river 

St.  Croix,  road  crossing 

Clam  Lake,  mouth 

Sec.  35,  T.  38  N.,  R.  16  W.,  south  line. 
Clam  Falls 


Distance. 

From      Between 
mouth.  I  points. 


6.0 
19,0 
29.0 
32.5 


Eleva- 
tion 
above 
sea  level. 


Miles.        Miles. 


6.0 
13.0  I 
10.0  I 

3.5  ,. 


Feet. 

868 
881 
947 
967 


Descent  be- 
tween points. 


Total.  I 


Per 
mile. 


Feet.   \    Feet. 


2.2 
5.1 
2.0 


NAMEKAGON   AND  TOTOOATIG    RIVERS. 


Namekagon  River  rises  in  a  large  lake  of  the  same  name  near  the  divide  in  the  water- 
sheds of  Chippewa  and  Bad  rivers.  Its  drainage  area  is  second  in  extent  of  all  the  St. 
Croix  tributaries.  Namekagon  Lake  is  formed  by  six  or  more  connected  lakes,  occupying 
parts  of  14  sections  and  surrounded  by  extensive  cedar  and  tamarack  marshes.  In  the 
upper  60  miles  of  its  courae  the  river  is  generally  narrow  and  swift,  stretches  of  rapids  over 


oRept.  Chief  Eng.  U.  S.  Army  1880,  p.  1619. 


IRR   1 


130 


WATER    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 


pre-Cambrian  cn'stalline  rock  being  frequent. o  There  are  also  several  vertical  falls  of 
2  to  4  feet,  which,  together  with  the  rapids,  furnish  good  opportunities  for  water  powers. 
Tlie  banks  are  high  on  either  side,  stretching  away  into  high,  broken  ridges  and  sand  barrens 
covered  with  timlx'r.  In  the  remaining  25  miles  of  its  length  the  river  is  from  100  to  200 
feet  wide.  In  this  reach  it  descends  130  feet,  including  several  sharp  pitchers  and  rapids, 
tho  principal  of  which  are  Little  and  Big  Bull  rapids  and  Dupee  flats.  The  averagie  slope 
of  tlie  river  is  5.3  feet  per  mile. 

A  good  location  for  a  dam  is  found  4  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river,  where  the  high 
gravel  banks  approach  ^vithin  600  feet.  A  head  of  20  feet  or  more  could  be  obtained  ht-re 
without  overflowing  much  land,  impounding  the  drainage  from  1,000  square  miles.  With 
the  ordinarj'  low-water  flow  estimated  at  one-third  of  a  second-foot  per  square  mile,  ihis 
would  produce  740  theoretical  horsepower.  Because  of  the  storage  efl"ect  of  the  present 
dams  alx)ve  this  point,  the  river  at  this  site  might  be  made  to  produce  nearly  1,000  horee- 
power.  Another  good  location  for  a  dam  is  found  at  Veazie,  on  the  Chicago.  St.  Paul, 
Minneapolis  and  Omaha  Railway.  By  overflowing  6,000  acres,  mostly  railroad  and 
Government  land,  a  head  of  30  feet  could  be  obtained,  according  to  United  States  engi- 
neers. A  dam  of  15  feet  head  would  cause  little  overflow.  Such  a  dam  would  have  the 
run-off  from  about  800  square  miles  and  at  ordinary  low  water  would  produce  275  theo- 
retical horsepower.  Small  dams  are  located  at  Stinnett  and  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Xanie- 
kugon.  A  dam  owned  by  the  Hayward  Electric  Light  and  Power  Company,  located  ni*ar 
Hayward,  develops  200  horsepower  and  is  used  for  light  and  power  purposes  in  that  city. 

Additional  information  regarding  undeveloped  powers  is  given  in  the  following  prafJe: 

Profile  of  Namekagon  River  from  its  month  to  Cabie,  Wis. a 


Station. 


Mouth  of  river 

Sec.  33,  T.  43  N.,  R.  14  W.,  east  side 

Totogatic  River,  mouth 

McKinzie  Creek,  mouth,  sec.  28,  T.  42  N.,  R.  13  W  . 
Stuntz  Brook,  mouth,  sec.  27,  T.  42  N.,  R.  13  W.. 

N.  E.  J  sec.  34,  T.  41  N.,R.  13W 

NW.  J  8ec.fi,T.40N..R.  12  W 

Sec.  18.  T.  40  N.,  R.  12  W.,  near  center 

Sec.  30,  T.  40  N.,  R.  12  W.,  near  center 

SW.  i  sec.  27.  T.  40  N.,  R.  12  W 

Veazie,  sec.  36,  T.  40  N.,  R.  12  W 

River  Jordan, mouth,  sec.  21,  T.  40  N.,  R.  11  W... 
Spring  Brook,  mouth,  sec.  15,  T.  40  N.,  R.  11  \V  .. 
Chipiienacia  Creek,  mouth,  sec.  33,  T.  40  N.,  R.  10  W 

Stinnett 

T-ittlo  Puckanance 

Cable,  Bayfield  County 


Distance. 


From 
mouth. 


sMiles. 


Between 
points. 

Miles. 


Descent  l>t«- 
bleva-       t  ween  point 9 

tion      I ^ 

above 
sea  level.    Total 


Py.»r 

mile. 


4.0 
5.0 
13.0 
15.0 
16.0 
19.5 
21.5 
24.0 
25.5 
28.5 
3.5.5 
37.0 
43.0 
45.0 
50.0 
70.0 


4.0  I 
1.0 
8.0  I 
2.0 

1.0  i 

3.5 

2.0  I 

2.5 

1.5  i 

3.0  I 

7.0 

1.5  ' 

6.0 
12.0 
14.0 
11.0 


Feft. 

±908.0 

917.8 

918.0 

M4.0 

952,0 

958.0 

990.0 

1,004.5 

1,024.2 

1,025.2  ■ 

1,039.0 

1,058.0 

1,068.0  ' 

1.115.0  ' 

1.136.0 

1,218.0 

1,303.0 


Feet.        Feet. 


9.8 

2 

2t>.0 

ao 

6.0 
32.0 
14.5 

19-7  ; 

1.0 
13.8 
19-0 
10.0 
47.0 
21.0 
82.0 
85.0 


2.4 
.2 
3-2 
4.0 
6.0 
9-0 
7  2 
7.9 

4.fi 

2  7 
6.6 
7.R 
10.5 
5-9 


a  Authority:  Nos.  1-14,  and  16,  C  S.  engineers:  15  and  17,  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha 
Railway. 


In  its  length  of  55  miles,  Totogatic  River,  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Namekagon. 
descends  350  feet.  It  enters  the  main  stream  only  5  miles  above  its  mouth.  The  region 
is  high  and  precipitous,  with  frequent  ledges  of  pre-Cambrian  crystalline  rock  and  bowl- 
ders. As  a  result,  the  stream  forms  for  miles  a  series  of  rapids  with  many  vertical  falls  of 
10  feet  or  more.     Many  logging  dams  already  exist,  the  most  important  being  located 


oSimar,  V.  B.,  Asst.  U.  S.  Engineer:  Rept.  Chief  Eng.  V.  S.  Army,  1880.  p.  1616. 


ST.   CROIX    RIVER   SYSTEM. 


131 


as  follows:  Sec.  13,  T.  42  N.,  R.  10  W.;  sec.  6,  T.  42  N.,  R.  10  W.;  and  sec.  12,  T.  43  N., 
R.^  10  W.  A  good  site  for  a  dam  is  near  the  outlet  of  Gilmore  Lake,  in  sec.  9,  T.  42  N.,  R. 
12  W.;  and  another  in  sec.  12,  T.  42  N.,  R.  12  W.  The  following  profile  of  Totogatic 
River  is  compiled  from  surveys  made  by  United  States  engineers: 

Profile  of  Totogatic  River  from  its  mouth  to  NE.  1  sec.  15,  T.  4£  N.,  R.  9  W. 


Station. 


Distance. 

Elevft- 

; 1      tion 

From      Between     above 
mouth.  I  points,     sea  level. 


Descent  be- 
tween points. 


Total.  , 


Per 

mile. 


Milet!.        MiUn. 


Mouth  of  river 

Sec.  13,  T.  42  N.,  R.  13  W.,  dam 
NE.  J  sec.  10,  T.  42  N.,  R.  12  W  . 
NE.  i  sec.  3.  T.  42  N.,  R.  10  W .  . 
NE.  i  sec.  13,  T.  42  N.,  R.  10  W  . 
NE.  4  sec.  15,  T.  42  N.,  R.  9  W  . . 


11.5 
20.0 
37.0 
40.0 
60.0 


11.5  ' 

8.5  I 
17.0  I 

3.0 
10.0 


Feet. 
918.0 
975.5 
1,008.8 
1,1(^4 
1,241.6 
1,251.6 


Feet.       Feet. 


57.5  , 


23.3 

159.6  I 
73.2  I 
10.0  , 


5.0 
2.7 
9.4 
24.4 
1.0 


MINOR   STREAMS. 

Osceola  CreeJc. — Emptying  into  St.  Croix  River  a  few  miles  south  of  Willow  River  is  a 
small  stream  known  as  Osceola  Creek.  In  the  city  of  Osceola,  near  its  mouth,  is  a  water 
power  with  a  head  of  90  feet,  owned  by  the  Osceola  Mill  and  Elevator  Company.  This 
dam  furnishes  the  power  to  nin  a  mill  with  a  capacity  of  175  barrels  per  day.  One-fourth 
of  a  mile  above  is  another  dam  with  a  he^  of  26  feet. 

Kinnikinnic  River. — A  small  river  emptying  into  St.  Croix  River  only  5  miles  above  its 
mouth  bears  this  name«  Its  gradient  is  so  high  that  there  are  a  number  of  good  sites  for 
water  powers.  The  descent  in  10  miles  is  190  feet.  The  following  l^  a  tabulated  statement 
of  its  water  power: 

Water  pou^rs  on  Kinnikinnic  Riv^r.  a 


\ 


No.' 


I 


Location. 


O  .vner  and  use. 


I  Head. 


I 

1  2  miles  from  mouth ...    N.  Kohl .  flouring  mill 

2  5  miles  from  mouth.. . 

3  I  7  miles  from  mouth... 

I  River  Falls:  i  j 

4  '         3  miles  l)elow , 

5  1  ihile  below City  water^'orks 

6  !  River  Falls | do \ 

7   do 1  Geo. Fortune, mill  and  elevator  i 

8  I do Prairie  mill  and  elevator 

9  7  miles  above  River  |  Clapp's  mill ' 

Falls.  i  I 

10  South  Branch,  sec.  1 ,  I  W.  11.  Putnam,  feed  and  flour . . 
'      T.  27  N.,  R.  19  W.     I 

11  I  1  mile  above  No.  10. . .,  Glass  Bros.,  manufacturers  . . . 

12  Balsom  Lake J.  \V.  Park,  lumber  and  flour. . .  . 


Feet 
10 


20 


Esti- 
mated 
horse- 
power. 


Remarks. 


14  ' 

15  I 
39  I 

8 

14  i 
10  I 

I 

H  I 


I 


Timber  dam. 
Good  dam  location. 


(jO     Tiral)erdam,9byl20. 
140     Timber  dam. 
40  I  Timberdam,4by210. 
eo  I  Timljer  dam,  12  by  180. 
Dam  out. 


30 


Timljer  dam,  2(i  by  114. 


180 


o  Figures  are  low-water  estimates.    Nos.  1  and  5-12  developed;  2-4,  undeveloped. 


132  WATEB    POWERS    OF    NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

LAKE  SUPERIOR  DRAINAGE  SYSTEM. 
TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  watershed  which  limits  the  area  of  Lake  Superior  drainage  in  Wisconsin  varies  in 
elevation  (above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior)  from  600  feet  near  the  Minnesota  line  to  over 
1,000  feet  near  the  Michigan  line.  Its  average  distance  from  Lake  Superior  is  only  30 
miles.  For  this  reason  the  rivers  are  comparatively  small;  but  owing  to  the  fact  that 
their  high  gradient,  600  to  1,000  feet,  is  largely  concentrated  at  a  few  points,  they  offer 
many  opportunities  for  water-power  development.  From  a  point  near  the  center  of  the 
watershed  a  wide  and  nearly  flat  table-land,  of  which  Bayfield  Peninsula  and  the  Apostle 
Islands  form  the  northern  prolongation,  separates  the  drainage  into  eastern  and  western 
sections  of  nearly  equal  area.  In  both  of  these  sections  three  distinct  belts  of  topography 
are  usually  distinguished.  The  southernmost  belt  consists  of  a  plateau  in  large  part  covered 
wi.h  swamps  and  lakes  and  is  so  flat  that  in  mafty  cases  the  water  from  the  same  swamps 
and  lakes  may  flow  either  north  to  Lake  Superior  or  south  to  the  Mississippi. 

From  this  flat  watershed  the  descent  northward  is  gradual  until  a  range  of  mountains 
from  600  to  900  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior  is  reached.  The  northern  slope  of 
these  mountains  is  much  steeper  than  their  southern  slope,  forming  a  marked  though  not 
continuous  escarpment. 

In  the  western  section  these  mountains,  known  as  Douglas  Copper  Range,  reach  a  height 
of  400  to  600  feet  above  the  lake  and  have  a  width  of  1  to  4  miles.  They  extend  in  an  east- 
northeast  direction,  gradually  merging  into  the  Bayfield  moraine.  From  the  crest  of  the 
mountains  there  is  a  sudden  descent  of  300  to  400  feet,  caused  by  a  faulting  of  the  rocks. 
The  Lake  Superior  rivers  break  through  the  ridges  at  this  point,  and  here  the  greatest 
opportunities  for  water-power  development  are  to  be  found. 

In  the  eastern  section  the  mountains,  called  the  Penokec  Iron  Range,  extend  from  a 
point  on  the  Michigan  l>oundary,  12  miles  from  Lake  Superior,  in  a  southwesterly  direction 
for  about  35  miles,  gradually  merging  into  the  plateau.  As  in  the  western  section,  many 
falls  and  rapids  occur  in  breaking  through  the  hard  "Huronian"  rocks  of  which  the  range 
is  composed.  Smaller  falls  continue  for  a  distance  of  5  to  6  miles  after  crossing  the  Penokee 
Range,  or  until  the  Copper  Range  has  been  crossed. 

To  the  north  of  the  highlands  and  extending  with  a  gradual  slope  northward  to  the  shores 
of  Lake  Superior  lies  a  plain  with  a  width  of  5  to  15  miles.  Its  northern  portion  reaches  an 
elevation  of  100  to  200  feet  above  Lake  Superior  or  700  to  800  feet  above  the  sea.  The 
entire  belt  Is  underlain  by  till  and  deep  layers  of  red  clays  sometimes  mixed  with  sand.  The 
rivers,  both  large  and  small,  have  cut  deep  and  narrow  banks  in  the  clay  soil.  As  a  result 
the  surface  is  carved  in  every  direction  by  narrow  water  courses  whose  steep  sides  have  a 
height  of  25  to  100  feet,  making  railroad  and  highway  construction  expensive.  Very  few 
swamps  are  found  in  this  lowland  area.  Because  of  the  gradual  slope  of  the  shallow  rivers 
opportunities  for  water-power  development  in  this  belt  are  rare.  In  many  cases,  however, 
there  are  important  falls  at  the  immediat'O  mouths  of  the  rivers  and  over  the  red  sandstone. 

>VATER  POWERS. 

CHABACTER. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  rivers  of  the  Lake  Superior  system  in  Wisconsin  have  a  total 
fall  of  400  to  1,000  feet  in  the  narrow  belt  of  30  miles  separating  the  plateau  region  in 
which  they  rise  from  Lake  Superior,  their  currents  are  characteristically  rapid.  As  a  result 
the  rainfall  is  quickly  discharged,  the  streams  alternating  between  small  creeks  and  torren- 
tial rivers.  ^Vhile  the  storage  of  surplus  waters  is  important  everywhere  in  the  State  for 
the  economical  development  of  water  power,  it  is  here  doubly  so.  The  fact  that  the  most 
important  falls  and  rapids  are  in  the  upper  half  of  the  drainage  area  increases  the  difficulty 
of  storing  a  large  proportion  of  the  rainfall.  With  a  storage  of  less  than  5  to  15  per  cent 
of  the  rainfall  most  of  the  rivers  would  furnish  at  low  water  an  insignificant  flow. 


LAKE    SUPERIOR    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM. 


133 


Rainfall  data  regarding  this  drainage  area  are  scanty,  but  sufficient  to  show  that  the  rain- 
fall increases  from  the  lake  to  the  highlands.  This  fact  is  strikingly  shown  bj'  the  precipi- 
tation rpap  published  by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  and  shown  in  fig.  1  (p.  16).  I^t 
is  here  seen  that  the  rainfall  increases  southward  at  the  avei-age  rate  of  about  5  inches  every 
25  miles,  the  maximum  not  being  reached  until  after  the  highlands  are  passed.  This  fact 
has  an  important  bearing  on  the  value  of  the  water  powers,  because,  a.s  already  stated,  it 
necessitates  the  location  of  reservoirs  to  a  large  extent  in  this  region  of  greatest  rainfall. 
The  most  important  water  powers  occur  near  the  Copper  ranges  and  the  Penokee  Iron 
Range,  where  future  mining  operations  may  render  them  of  much  economic  importance. 

ST.  IX^lJIS   RIVER. 

Although  the  w^afer  powers  of  St.  Louis  River  lie  outside  the  State,  they  are  located  so 
near  the  Wisconsin  boundary  that  development  contemplates  their  extensive  use  in  Supe- 


T.    48    -    R.    16 


1100. 

^iom'- 
|ioooi 

-   980'. 


H.W.L.     WEStWvOIR 


_  MtAO  OF  PtPt  UNI 


J»QW£RV[M00ag 


Fig.  5.— Plan  of  canal  of  Grpat  North«rn  Power  Company.  St.  Louis  River. 

rior  and  other  Wisconsin  cities.  An  important  feature  of  St.  Louis  River  is  the  concentra- 
tion of  its  descent  in  the  lower  reaches,  where  its  volume  i.s  greatest.  This  provides  oppor- 
tunities for  water  power  which  if  distributed  among  its  smaller  tributaries  would  \ye  in  large 
part  wasted.  The  upper  portions  of  St.  Louis  River  are  sluggish,  flowing  through  many 
lakes  and  swamps,  but  as  the  waters  near  the  lake  their  speed  is  increased  until  at  a  point 
about  22  miles  from  Lake  Superior,  just  above  Fond  du  Lac,  there  is  a  series  of  falls  and 
rapids  extending  6  miles  upstream  from  a  point  2  miles  from  the  Wisconsin  boundary.  In 
this  di.stance  of  6  miles  the  river  descends  456  feet  in  a  series  of  wild  leaps  over  the  upturned 
ledges  of  slate  rock,  forming  a  water  power  which  has  few  superiors  in  the  West.  This 
power  and  the  riparian  rights  are  owned  by  the  Great  Northern  Power  Company.     Mr. 


134  WATER   POWERS    OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

F.  A.  Cokefair,  chief  engineer  of  the  company,  furnishes  the  following  statement  under  date 
of  January  23,  1904: 

One  steel  gravity  dam  36  feet  high  and  620  feet  long  has  already  been  constructed  near  the  village  r»f 
Thompson.  This  dam  conserves  the  water  in  a  reservior  of  about  1  square  mile  of  area,  from  which 
the  water  is  led  through  a  canal  2}  miles  long.  62  feet  wide,  and  15  feet  deep.  (Fig.  5.)  From  the  tir- 
minus  of  the  canal  the  water  is  taken  by  iron  pipes  for  a  distance  of  about  a  mile  and  delivered  under  a 
head  of  365  feet  at  the  power  house  midway  between  Thompson  and  Fond  du  Lac.  The  capacity  of 
this  canal  is  sufBcient  to  develop  100,000  horsepower.  Final  plans  and  designs  are  now  completed,  and 
work  on  the  first  station  for  the  ultimate  development  of  100,000  horsepower  will  begin  in  the  early 
spring.  Bids  have  been  asked  from  leading  manufacturers  for  the  first  threes  wheels  of  12^500  horse- 
power capacity  each,  the  largest  units  ever  yet  built  and  similar  to  those  in  use  at  Niagara  Falls.  Trans- 
mission lines  will  carry  the  power  to  the  neighboring  cities  of  Duluth  and  Superior,  and  even  farther 
to  the  Mesabi  and  other  iron  ranges,  where  it  will  augment  or  displace  steam  power. 

NEMADJI    AND   BLACK    RIVEBS.  a 

Unlike  other  rivers  of  the  Lake  Superior  watershed,  Nemadji  River  flows  northeast 
instead  of  north  and  does  not  rise  in  an  elevated  region.  As  a  result  it  is  devoid  of  impor- 
tant rapids  or  falls  suitable  for  water  power. 

Black  River,  the  most  important  tributary  of  the  Nemadji,  rises  in  an  elevated  country, 
its  source  being  in  a  lake  on  the  Minnesota  boundary.  It  flows  north  and  empties  into 
Nemadji  River  about  10  miles  from  Lake  Superior  at  an  elevation  of  only  20  feet  above  the 
lake.  In  the  upper  two-thirds  of  its  length  Black  River  flows  through  many  tamarack  and 
cedar  swamps,  wliich  give  to  its  waters  a  distinct  color  and  taste.  Up  to  about  4  miles 
from  the  Douglas  Copper  Range  it  occupies  a  wide  valley  with  small  descent.  As  this 
range  is  approached  the  valley  narrows  and  its  gradient  increases.  In  the  SE.  \  sec.  28,  T. 
47  N.,  R.  14  W.  the  hard  layers  of  the  "Keweenawan"  rocks  cross  the  river,  producing  a 
vertical  fall  of  31  feet.  A  total  head  of  160  feet  2>  could  easil}"^  be  obtained  here  for  a  dam 
site.  As  Black  River  has  a  drainage  area  of  80  square  miles  above  these  falls,  an  assvuned 
run-off  of  0.4  second-foot  per  square  mile  gives  560  theoretical  horsepower.  A  company 
was  formed  some  time  ago  to  improve  this  power,  and  a  franchise  was  secured  from  the  city 
of  Superior  for  lighting  by  electricity,  but  no  construction  has  yet  been  done.  The  water 
at  the  head  of  the  upper  rapids  is  387  feet  above  Lake  Superior;  at  their  foot,  50  yards 
beyond,  the  elevation  is  227  feet.  From  this  point  the  river  passes  for  nearly  a  mile  through 
a  gorge  100  to  170  feet  deep,  below  which  the  walls  of  the  goi^e  are  less  elevated  above  the 
stream,  but  the  current  is  very  rapid  until  it  joins  Nemadji  River  4  miles  below.  From  the 
foot  of  Black  River  Falls  to  the  junction  with  the  Nemadji  the  total  descent  is  200  feel,  an 
average  of  50  feet  to  the  mile. 

BOIS   BRULE   RIVER. 

Though  over  33  miles  long,  Bois  Brule  River  has  a  drainage  area  of  only  200  square 
miles,  practically  all  of  which  is  in  the  highland  district.  It  rises  in  a  swamp,  near  St. 
Croix  Lake,  at  an  elevation  of  420  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior.  In  sec.  15,  T. 
46  N.,  R.  10  W.,  at  the  Dalles,  Bois  Brule  River  is  only  25  feet  wide,  with  banks  of  clay  and 
bowlders  averaging  8  feet  in  height.  Near  this  point  there  are  swift  rap  ds,  with  a  total 
descent  of  about  15  feet  in  200  yards.  Similar  rapids  about  3  miles  farther  north,  near  the 
township  line,  continue  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  Nebagemain  River,  the  most  important 
tributary  of  the  Bois  Brule,  in  sec.  27,  T.  47  N.,  R.  10  W.  For  the  next  10  or  12  miles 
the  current  is  very  sluggish  until  the  head  of  the  lower  rapids  is  reached,  in  sec.  26,  T.  4S 
N.,  R.  10  W.  From  this  point  to  within  IJ  miles  of  Lake  Superior  rapids  and  small  falls 
(the  largest  being  4  or  5  feet  in  height)  occur  almost  continuously.  These  descend  an 
aggregate  of  200  feet  over  *'Kcweenawan"  eruptives  and  sandstones.  By  constructing 
dams  at  the  outlets  of  Lakes  Nebagemain  and  Minnesung  the  surplus  water  could  be  held 


a  The  authority  for  most  of  the  statements  concerning  the  Lake  Superior  rivers  is  Prof.  R.  D. 

■ving:  Geology  of  Wlsconsfn,  vol.  3,  ISK). 

b  Sweet,  E.  T..  Geol.  Wisconsin,  vol.  3, 1880, p.  319. 


LAKE   SUPERIOR    DRAINAGE    SYSTEM.  135 

back  and  used  at  times  of  low  water,  thus  adding  greatly  tx>  the  value  of  the  water  powers 
on  the  river.  At  present  there  are  no  dams.  Mr.  Howard  Thomas,  city  engineer  of  Supe- 
rior, Wis.,  states  that  the  normal  discharge  of  this  river  is  100  second-feet,  and  that  at  sev- 
eral points  heads  of  40  feet  could  be  obtained  by  dams  between  bluffs  or  with  dams  and 
flumes  along  the  banks.  Such  a  head  would  give  450  theoretical  horsepower.  Because  of 
its  comparatively  small  watershed  and  the  fact  that  the  river  is  fed  very  largely  by  springs 
it  is  not  subject  to  freshets. 

MONTREAL   AND   GOOOSHUNGUN   RIVERS. 

For  nearly  its  entire  length  Montreal  River  forms  a  part  of  the  Michigan-Wisconsin  bound- 
ary. It  rises  in  'a  tangle  of  lakes  and  tamarack  swamps  near  the  boundary  line  at  an  ele- 
vation of  about  1,600  feet  above  sea  level,  or  1,000  feet  above  Lake  Superior.  Its  length 
is  50  miles,  the  highest  gradient  being  concentrated  in  the  last  quarter  of  this  distance. 
This  exception  to  the  general  rule  of  the  Lake  Superior  drainage  area  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  here  the  Penokee  Iron  Range  and  its  associated  highlands  of  the  " Keweenawan  "  series 
approach  Lake  Superior  within  a  distance  of  only  3  miles,  leaving  no  lowland  region. 

About  1,300  feet  from  its  mouth,  on  the  north  line  of  sec.  7,  T.  47  N.,  R.  1  E.,  is  a  verti- 
cal fall  of  35  feet  over  sandstone.  It  is  stated  by  an  oflBcer  of  the  Duluth,  South  Shore 
and  Atlantic  Railway  that  a  head  of  55  feet  could  be  developed  here  by  constructing  a 
flume  100  feet  long.  Because  of  the  lakes  and  swamps  at  the  headwaters  of  this  river  it  is 
likely  that  at  least  5  per  cent  of  the  annual  rainfall  could  be  stored  in  reservoirs.  This 
would  give,  from  its  280  square  miles  of  drainage  area,  an  ordinary  flow  of  140  second-feet, 
equivalent,  with  a  head  of  55  feet,  to  868  theoretical  horsepower.  In  the  last  five-eighths 
of  a  mile  of  its  course  Montreal  River  descends  90  feet.  The  railway  ofiicial  mentioned 
above  also  states  that  another  power  site  is  located  in  the  NW.  J  SW.  {  sec.  21,  T.  47  N., 
R.  1  E.,  at  falls  of  60  feet  over  the  crystalline  rocks.  As  the  banks  are  high,  a  20-foot 
dam,  with  a  flume  250  feet  long,  would  develop  a  head  of  80  feet.  Both  of  the  above  pow- 
ers are  within  4  miles  of  the  Duluth,  South  Shore  and  Atlantic  Railway.  At  Iron  wood, 
about  2  miles  above  these  falls,  the  river  has  an  elevation  of  880  feet.  In  the  5  miles  above 
Ironwood  the  river  descends  only  30  feet,  and  for  the  remainder  of  its  upper  reaches  its 
current  is  slow.  At  all  the  rapids  on  this  river  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  the  build- 
ing of  dams.  \ 

The  Gogoshungun,  a  branch  of  the  Montreal,  is  nearly  as  large  us  the  upper  Montreal, 
being  about  30  miles  long.  Its  total  descent  is  500  feet.  Until  the  river  reaches  the  Peno- 
kee Range  its  current  is  sluggish,  being  bordered  by  swamps.  In  its  passage  through  the 
mountains,  in  sec.  27,  T.  46  N.,  R.  2  E.,  a  number  of  rapids  and  falls  occur. 

BAD   RIVER. 
MAIN  RIVER. 

The  sources  of  Bad  River  lie  in  large  swamps  8  miles  south  of  the  Penokee  Iron  Range, 
at  an  elevation  of  900  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior.  In  this  distance  of  8  miles  its 
descent  is  110  feet,  but  its  course  is  sinuous,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  Wis- 
consin Central  Railway  is  forced  to  cross  it  eight  times.  About  li  miles  above  Mellen  are 
rapids  called  Copper  Falls,  which  have  a  total  descent  of  about  60  feet.  (PI.  V,  B.)  The 
river  at  this  point  has  a  drainage  area  of  about  144  square  miles.  According  to  a  survey, 
5  per  cent  of  the  annual  rainfall  could  be  easily  stored  in  dams  near  the  headwaters,  which 
should  provide  an  ordinary  flow  of  68  second-feet,  equivalent  to  460  theoretical  horse- 
power. 

Near  the  Penokee  Range  Bad  River  enters  a  gorge  of  pinkish  granite,  narrowing  in  places 
to  a  width  of  10  feet  and  descending  20  feet  in  30  rods,  with  a  total  descent  of  50  feet  in 
three-fourths  of  a  mile.  The  river  then  widens  and  continues  with  reduced  grade  until 
Penokee  Gap  is  reached,  when  it  again  contracts.  Coming  into  contact  with  the  "Iluro- 
nian''  rocks,  it  flows  along  their  strike.     In  the  next  4  miles  occur  many  rapids  and  several 


136  WATER   POWERS   OF   NORTHERN    WISCONSIN. 

falls,  including  one  of  35  feet.  In  the  next  1,000  feet,  in  which  the  river  descends  40  ffet. 
Tylers  Fork,  the  most  important  tributary,  is  reached.  Directly  at  the  junction  TVlers 
Fork  has  a  fall  of  45  feet  over  the  wall  of  a  gorge  65  feet  deep.  This  is  in  .sec.  17,  T.  45  X., 
R.  2  W.  A  competent  engineer,  reporting  on  this  water  power,  states  that  dams  c<Hi]d 
develop  here  a  head  of  about  120  feet.  The  tributary  drainage  area  is  given  at  234  square 
miles.  On  the  assumption  that  the  rainfall  is  only  32  inches  and  that  reservoirs  can  lie 
made  to  store  15  per  cent  of  the  rainfall,  it  was  estimated  that  the  river  would  fumif^h  a 
continuous  flow  of  206  second-feet,  equivalent  to  about  3,000  theoretical  horsepower.  Il 
was  proposed  to  conduct  this  power  electrically  to  Ashland. 

In  the  next  1,000  feet  l^elow  Tylers  Fork  the  river  flows  through  a  rocky  goi^  100  feel 
deep,  beyond  which  the  rocks  disappear  and  the  stream  flows  between  higli  hanks  of  red 
clay,  the  g^uud  rising  rapidly  on  both  sides.  The  total  descent  in  sec.  17  is  probably  135 
feet.  In  the  next  6  miles  of  its  sinuous  course,  to  the  mouth  of  Maringouin  River,  the 
river  descends  about  3C  feet  to  the  mile.  Both  ri%'ers  at  their  confluence  are  broad  and 
deep,  with  slow-moving,  muddy  currents  and  wide  bottom  lands — conditions  which  con- 
tinue to  the  mouth  of  Bad  River. 

Farther  north,  2J  miles  from  this  junction,  Bad  River  receives  the  waters  of  Potato 
River.  At  this  point  its  elevation  is  80  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior.  In  sec.  25, 
T.  47  N.,  R.  3  W.,  occur  some  small  falls,  of  1  or  2  feet,  over  red  sandstone  and  shale,  which 
continue  for  perhaps  2  miles.  Below  these  falls  Bad  River  continues  sluggish,  deep,  and 
tortuous,  with  bold  and  high  clay  banks,  until  White  River  is  reached.  For  the  remain- 
der of  its  course  the  river  finds  it-s  way  to  Lake  Superior  through  swamps. 

TRI  RUT  ABIES. 

The  principal  tributaries  of  Bad  River,  named  in  order  from  its  mouth,  are  as  follows: 
White  River  entering  from  the  west;  Potato  River  from  the  east;  Maringouin  or  Moequito 
River  from  the  west,  and  Tylers  Fork  from  the  east. 

White  /?tiY/-.— This  river,  the  largest  tributary  of  Bad  River,  has  a  total  length  of  about 
45  miles,  and  drains  an  area  of  400  square  miles.  It  rises  in  Long  Lake,  at  about  700  feel 
above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior.  Most  of  its  descent  is  concentrates!  in  its  upper  waters^ 
where  its  discharge  is  least.  It  pursues  a  general  northeasterly  course,  with  many  wind- 
ings through  high  and  steep  clay  banks,  like  those  described  on  Bad  River.  Its  only 
considerable  falls  are  in  sec.  6,  T.  46  N.,  R.  4  W.,  where  the  river  was  originally  obstructed 
by  the  edges  of  southward-dipping  rocks.  A  dam  with  a  20-foot  head  has  been  maintained 
here  for  several  years,  and  until  October,  1903,  furnished  the  power  to  run  a  paper  mill. 
At  t4iat  time  the  mill  burned,  and  it  has  not  been  rebuilt.  It  had  turbines  rated  at  710 
horsepower.  The  owner,  George  Davidson,  reports  that  he  has  a  charter  for  a  dam  with 
30-foot  head,  to  be  located  about  1,300  feet  upstream.  The  main  dam  as  planned  would 
be  125  feet  long,  with  an  embankment  10  to  12  feet  high  and  900  feet  long.  Mr.  David:^»n 
also  states  that  about  500  feet  below  the  present  dam  there  is  a  location  for  a  dam  with 
a  9-foot  head.  At  three  dam  sites  the  bed  of  the  river  is  in  sandstone  which  extends  10 
feet  above  the  water  surface.     The  rock  is  overlain  with  red  clay. 

Maringouin  River. — Maringouin  River,  sometimes  also  called  Maringo  (Mosquito)  River, 
has  a  total  length  of  about  40  miles  and  drains  an  area  of  231  square  miles.  Four  milfs 
from  its  source  it  crosses  the  Penokee  Range.  Here,  in  the  NW.  }  sec.  23,  T.  44  N.,  R. 
5  W.,  the  river  descends,  in  a  series  of  three  falls,  a  total  distance  of  65  feet  within  a  few 
rods.  The  two  upper  falls,  of  15  and  25  feet,  respectively,  are  onh'  50  feet  apart.  Nothing 
but  the  limited  amount  of  water  prevents  this  from  being  a  valuable  water  power.  For 
the  remainder  of  its  course  the  river  is  devoid  of  falls  or  rapids,  flowing  between  high  clay 
banks. 

Within  6  miles  of  its  junction  with  Bad  River,  the  Maringouin  receives  several  ra^Md 
tributaries,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Brunsweiler  Creek.  This  creek  rises  in  the 
same  swamp  with  Maringouin  River,  but,  unlike  it,  has  important  falls  north  of  the 
"lluromau"  hills.     Until  Bladder  Lake  is  passed  in  sec.  11,  T.  44  N.,  R.  4  W.,  the  cur- 


LAKE   SUPERIOR   DRAINAGE    SYSTEM.  137 

rent  is  sluggish.  The  outlet  of  this  lake  is  only  6  feet  wide,  with  rwk  walls  on  either  side. 
A  dam  which  would  greatly  raise  the  water  in  the  lake  could  l)e  constructed  here  at  slight 
expense.  At  the  outlet  of  the  lake  there  is  a  long  series  of  chutes  and  rapids  for  a  dis- 
tance of  over  6  miles.  In  this  stretch  the  creek  flows  through  a  narrow  valley  with  steep, 
rocky  hills.  The  last  important  descent  occurs  near  the  north  line  of  sec.  22,  T.  45  N., 
R.  4  E.,  where  the  stream  leaves  the  Copper  Range,  the  slope  being  30  feet  in  a  distance 
of  130  feet. 

Tylers  Fori. — ^This  tributary  is  the  only  one  which  joins  Bad  River  l)efore  the  lowlands 
are  reached.  Tylers  Fork,  nevertheless,  has  a  length  of  30  miles  and  a  total  descent  of 
700  feet.  Until  it  reaches  the  I-enokee  Range  its  current  is  sluggish.  In  the  NE.  J  sec. 
33,  T.  45  N.,  R.  1  W.,  the  river  falls  20  feet  over  the  hard  "Huronian"  rock.  Less  than  a 
mile  farther  on,  in  sec.  28,  occurs  a  series  of  low  falls  over  black  slate,  the  descent  being  20 
feet  in  a  distance  of  500  feet.  On  the  north  line  of  sec.  20  the  river  surface  is  760  feet 
above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior.  In  the  next  10  miles  of  its  course  it  descends  260  feet, 
but  without  any  considerable  rapids.  On  the  west  line  of  sec.  15,  T.  45  N.,  R.  2  W.,  the 
elevation  of  the  water  is  485  feet.  The  current  now  becomrs  s\\ifter  and  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  l:)elow  the  east  line  of  sec.  16  is  a  series  of  rapids  which  continues  to  its  junction 
with  Bad  River,  ending  in  the  45-foot  fall  already  described  (p.  — ).  As  these  falls  and 
rapids  are  within  a  mile  of  the  Wisconsin  Central  Railway,  they  seem  destined  to  become 
of  some  economic  importance. 

Potato  River. — In  its  course  of  only  30  miles,  Potato  River  has  a  total  descent  of  over 
900  feet.  The  river  is  small  until  it  is  joined  in  sec.  15,  T.  46  N.,  R.  1  W.,  by  Little  Potato 
River.  From  this  confluence  a  course  nearly  due  west  for  12  miles  takes  it  to  Bad  River. 
Near  the  east  line  of  sec.  17,  T.  46  N.,  R.  1  W.,  at  428  feet  above  the  level  of  Lake  Superior, 
is  a  series  of  rapids  followed  by  a  series  of  cataracts.  These  rapids  begin  on  the  east  line 
SE.  1  SW.  }  sec.  17,  T.  46  N.,  R.  1  W.,  and  are  in  the  trap  rock.  In  the  next  quarter  mile 
abrupt  descents  of  10,  4,  and  40  feet  occur,  with  swift  water  between.  A  still  larger  fall 
of  60  feet  or  more  is  located  near  the  west  line  of  sec.  17,  and  as  the  banks  are  high  and 
precipitous,  a  suitable  dam  would  develop  a  head  of  nearly  or  quite  100  feet.  On  both 
sides  of  the  west  line  of  sec.  17,  about  2,000  feet  north  of  the  southwest  comer,  is  a  series 
of  bold  falls  having  a  total  descent  of  80  feet  in  a  distance  of  500  feet,  with  two  leaps  of 
25  feet  and  32  feet,  respectively.  The  total  fall  in  sees.  17  and  18  is  170  feet.  These 
falls,  being  over  solid  rock  of  conglomerate  and  sandstone,  furnish. ideal  conditions  for 
dams.     Below  sec.  18  the  river  course  is  tortuous  and  slow. 

MINOR   RIVERS. 

Aminicon,  Middle,  Poplar,  and  Iron  rivers  are  small  streams  in  Douglas  County  They 
are  all  swift  streams  with  many  small  falls,  but  are  subject  to  great  variations  of  flow, 
being  insignificant  at  low  water.  A  corporation  known  as  the  Iron  River  Water,  Light 
and  Power  Company  has  recently  constructed  a  dam  135  feet  long,  with  a  head  of  32  feet, 
on  Iron  River,  in  sec.  22,  T.  47  N.,  R.  10  W.,  the  intention  being  to  install  turbines  of  1,000 
horsepower,  which  will  be  transmitted  to  near-by  towns. 

RAIL.ROAI>S. 

All  the  falls  which  ocxrur  near  the  Penokee  Range  on  Bad  River  and  Tylers  Fork  are 
near  the  Wisconsin  Central  Railway.  Montreal  and  Wliite  rivers  are  crossed  by  the 
Duluth,  South  Shore  and  Atlantic,  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  and  the  Wisconsin 
Central  railways.  The  western  half  of  the  Lake  Superior  watershed  has  good  transpoVta- 
tion  facilities.  Branches  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway  cross  the  valley  of  Black  River 
and  follow  the  valley  of  Nemadji  River.  Besides  these  the  drainage  is  crossed  by  the 
Northern  Pacific,  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis  and  Omaha,  and  the  Minneapolis, 
St.  Paul,  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  railways,  and  by  minor  logging  roads. 


INDEX. 


A.  Page. 

Af  ton,  power  development  at 116 

AKiicultiire,  development  of 14, 92-93 

Alpena,  Mich.,  temperature  at 15 

Araery,  power  development  at 127 

Amherst,  power  development  at 62 

precipitation  at 45 

Am  in  icon  River,  description  of 137 

Apple  River,  drainage  area  of 118, 125-126 

fall  at  mouth  of 119 

I»ower  development  and  sites  on 126-127 

run-off  of 127 

Appleton,  fall  at ! ....  22, 35 

flow  at 22 

power  development  at 35-37 

precipitation  at '    46 

A  rljor  Creek,  j»ower  development  at 62 

Arkunnas,  power  development  at 116 

Arkan»a.s  Creek,  power  development  on 116 

Augusta,  power  development  at 116 

B. 

Bud  River,  tributaries  of 136-137 

water  powers  on 135-136 

Bad  Water  rapids,  water  power  at 51 

Balsom  Lake,  water  power  on 1 31 

Bal timore  rapids,  water  power  at 124 

Baraboo  quartzite,  occurrence  of 63 

Baraboo  Riiwr,  drainage  area  of 63, 83 

Barnards  rapids,  dam  site  at M 

Ba.««  Creek,  power  development  on 116 

Battle  Island,  fall  at 78 

I)ower  site  at 78-79 

Bear  Creek,  logging  dam  on 113 

Bear  Lake,  faU  at 99 

reservoir  site  at 91-92 

BelilLs  Falls,  water  power  at ia3-l(>4 

Be  vent,  power  development  at 117 

Big  Falls,  fall  at 107 

view  of 106 

water  i>ower  at 106 

Big  Lake,  elevation  of 64 

Big  Quinnesec  Falls,  fall  at 43 

water  power  at 52 

Big  Rock  rapids,  water  power  at 124 

Bill  Cross  rapids,  fall  at 67 

water  power  at 80 

Biron  dam,  fall  at 66 

BlackCreek,  fallatmouthof 66 


I  Page. 

Black  River  (Lake  Superior  drainage),  wa- 

I  ter  power  on 134 

I  Black  River  (Mississippi  River  drainage), 

'  character  of 85 

I         drainage  area  of 12 

flowof 8&-SQ 

profileof 85-86 

I  rocks  on 86 

I  water  powers  on 89-90 

I  Black  River  Falls,  fall  at 85 

power  development  at 89 

I  Blaisdells  Lake,  fall  at 99 

I  Blakes  Lake,  power  development  at 127 

I  Bob  Creek,  fall  at 99 

I  Bois  Brule  River,  drainage  of 134 

I  water  power  on 134-135 

I  Boulder  Lake,  fall  at 107 

I  Boyceville,  power  development  at 117 

I  Bridge  Creek,  power  development  on 116 

Brokaw,  fall  at 66 

power  development  at 80 

Brooks.  T.  B.,  on  Little  Quinnesec  Falls  . . .        52 

Bruce,  fall  at 99 

Brule,  fall  at 55 

Hrule  River,  character  of 55 

dams  on 56 

drainage  area  of 42, 50, 55 

profile  of 55 

source  of 43-44 

Bnmctt  Falls,  fall  at 99 

view  of 80 

water  power  at 102-103 

Brunett  River,  dam  on 105 

Uuckatal>an  Lakes,  proposed  dam  at 64 

Buffalo  Lake,  origin  of 19 

Bull  Rapids,  location  of 130 

Burkhardt,  water  power  near 128 

Butte  des  Morts,  Lake,  chamcter  of 19, 34 

Butternut  Creek,  reserv«>ir  site  on 91-92 

Butternut  Lake,  reservoir  site  at 91-92 


Cable,  fallat 130 

Cambrian  sandstone,  occurrence  of 11, 

43,54,57,67,77,91,113,123 

Cameron,  fall  at 114 

Catfish  Lake,  elevation  of 64 

I  Cedar  Creek,  fallatmouthof 66 

I  Cedar  Lake  dam,  fall  at 114 

139 


140 


INDEX. 


Cedar  rapids  (Chippewa  River),  fall  at 99  1 

water  power  at IW  | 

Cedar  rapids  (Tomahawk  River),  location  j 

of 83  I 

Cedar  rapids  dam,  fall  at 114 

waterpowerai 114-115  I 

Cedars  dam,  fall  at 22,33  | 

power  development  at 87-38 

Chal  k  Hill  rapids,  water  power  at 63  , 

Chevalley  rapids,  fall  at 99  ■ 

Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway,  access 

to  water  powers  by  .42, 51, 57-58, 105, 137 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Railway, 

acresH  to  water  powers  by 13, 

42,51,57,92,116 
ChioAK^.  St.  Paul.  Minneapolis  and  Omaha 
Railway,  access  to  water  pow- 
ers by  90, 92, 116, 126, 12H,  130. 137 

Chippenacia  Creek,  fall  at  month  of 130 

Chippewa  Falls,  fall  at 99 

power  developments  at 1 01, 116 

Chippewa  River,  dams  on 105 

drainage  area  of 12, 90-91 ,  98-100, 103 

fall  of 98,108 

power  sites  and  developments  on . . .  9, 98-105 

profile  of 9»-100 

plate  showing 100 

rapids  on,  view  of 80 

reservoir  sites  on 13, 91-92 

rocks  on 91 

run-off  of 93-98 

timber  on 90 

topography  of 90-91,98-100 

tributaries  of 91, 105-117 

Sec  aluo  Etist  Branch  Chippewa:  West 
Branch  Chippewa. 

Cincinnati  shales,  occurrence  of 21 

Clam  Falls,  water  power  at 129 

Clam  Lake,  fall  at 129 

Clam  River,  description  of 128-129 

drainage  area  of 118, 125, 128 

fall  at 119 

iroflleof 129 

water-power  development  at 129 

Clays,  occurrence  and  character  of 13 

Climate,  character  of 15-19 

Cokefair,  F.  A.,  on  St.  Louis  River  power 

development 134 

Colfax,  fail  at 114 

power  development  at 1 16 

Colton  rapids,  fall  at 99 

Combined  Locks  dam,  iK)wer  development  at       38 

view  of 38 

Conovor,  elevation  at 82 

Copper  Falls,  fall  at 135 

view  of 106 

Court    Oreillcs    Lake    and    rapids,  water 

power  at 104 

Court  Oreilles  River,  drainage  area  of 100,103 

rcMTvoirsites  on 91-92 

water  power  on 104 

Cranbrrry  Lake,  elevation  of 64 

Crooked  Rift  nipids.  location  of 78 

Crystal  River,  jM^wer  dovclopmont  on 62 

Crystalline  rocks,  occurrence  of 10 

Cunningham  Creek,  fall  at  mouth  of 56 


D.                                   Pa«*. 
Dalles  (Chippewa  River),  power  develop- 
ment at  117 

Dalles  (Eau  Claire  River),  dam  site  at ... .  M 

fallat 9^.' 

Dams.    See  particular  rivers,  places,  etc. 

Davis  Falls.    Sec  Jim  Falls. 

Dc  Nevue  Creek,  power  development  on . . .  21 

Deertail  Creek,  fall  at  mouth  of » 

Dellsdam,  fallat •*«> 

water  power  at *^v 

Depere,  dam  at,  plan  of.  figure  showing  ...  41 

dam  at,  view  of > 

fallat ilSi 

power  development  at 41 

Dog  Lake,  elevation  of ^ 

Dorc  Flambeau  River,  character  of 115 

dams  on 11- 

reservoir  sites  on 91-9B 

Douglas  Copper  Range,  location  and  char- 
acter of ic' 

Downsville.  fal  1  at ill 

power  development  at 1  H-l  1 ' 

Drainage,  character  of 12-!  > 

map  showing...' 12 

Duck  Creek,  power  development  on *l 

Ducomon  rapids,  fall  at :<t^ 

Duluth,  Minn.,  rainfall  at 19 

temperatures  at l'-* 

Duluth,  South  Shore  and  Atlantic  Railway. 

access  to  water  powew  by l$>,  KS" 

Duncan  Creek ,  power  developmen  t  on y( 

Dunnville,  fallat ni 

water  power  at 114 

Dupee  flats,  location  of IJO 

Durand,  power  development  at it*. 

E. 

Eagle  Lakes,  elevation  of *a 

proposed  dam  at •►i 

Eagle  Point,  power  development  at ilT 

Eagle  Rapids,  fallat » 

waterpowerat : »: 

Eagle  River,  lakes  on M 

East  Branch  of  Chippewa  River,  drainage 

area  of ]0u.M» 

proflleof »-lti' 

reser\-oir  sites  on 91 -y_ 

water  power  on I'H 

East  Forks,  fall  at  mouth  of >s 

Eau  Claire,  flow  near iti-y 

gaging  station  near y . 

power  development  at 1 1: 

Eau  Claire  Rirer  (Chippewa  River  drain- 
age), drainage  area  of lOClor..  r* 

fall  at  mouth  of yy 

power  development  on 1<jO-iul; 

Eau  Claire  River  (St.  Croix  River  drainaj?e  j , 

description  of ]_•. 

drainage  area  of i\n,  vs*-\ > 

Eau  Claire  River  (Wisconsin  River  drain- 
age), dam  sites  on ^\ 

drainage  area  of ii*  v. 

fall  at  mouth  of tf 

Eau  Pleine  River,  dam  sites  on x-. 

drainage  area  of u*.  n. 


INDEX. 


141 


Pape. 
Eighteen-mile  Creek,  power  development 

on 116 

Elk  River,  logging  dams  on 118 

Em barrass,  po wer  developm en t  at 62 

rainfall  at 19.45^6 

Embarrass  River,  power  development  on . .  62 
Engineers,  army,  reports  of,  on  Wisconsin 

rivers 9,15 

Escanaba,  precipitation  at 46 

temperature  at 15 

Escanaba  River,  flow  of 44 

F. 

Fish  Lake,  elevation  of 64 

Fisher  River,  fall  at  mouth  of 99 

Flambeau  Lake,  logging  dam  on 113 

Flambeau  River,  character  of 105-106 

drainage  area  of 91, 100, 103, 105 

fall  of 106 

fall  at  mouth  of 99 

water  power  at 103 

falls  on,  view  of .-. _. 106 

power  development  on 106 

profileof 106-107 

run-ofT  of '. 107-112 

source  of 43-44,91 

tributaries  of 118 

Florence,  precipitation  at 45 

Forest  condi tiona,  d  iscussion  of 14 

Fox    and    Wisconsin   Improvement  Com- 
pany, development  by 33-3-i 

Fox  River,  drainage  of 19-20 

precipitation  on 46 

water  powers  on,  development  of 9 

Fox  River,  Lower,  character  of *  32 

damson,  views  of ^.       88 

drainage  area  of 32 

fall  of 22,32 

floods  on 82,42 

ice  on .- 32 

legal  status  of  water  powers  on 83-34 

navigation  of 42 

profileof 22 

rock-j  on 21, 82 

run-off  of 22-32 

topograph  yon 21 

water  i)Owers  on 32-41 

Fox  River,  Upper,  profile  of 20 

water  powers  on 20-21 

Fox- Wisconsin  divide,  character  of 63-64 

G. 

Galena  limestone,  occurrence  of 21 

Geography.physical,  of  northern  Wisconsin.  10-19 
Geological   Survey,    U.    9.,   on  Wisconsin 

rivers 9-10 

Geology,  account  of 10-11 

Gilbert,  fall  at 67 

Gilmore  Lake,  dam  site  at 131 

Glacial    drift,    occurrence   and    character 

of 11,21,91 

Glidden  Station,  fall  at 100 

GoRoshungun  River,  water  power  on 135 

Goose  Eye  rapids,  fall  at 99 

waterpower  at 104 


(irand  Chute,  fall  at. 


Page. 
..       '33 


Grand  Kaukauna,  fall  at 22, 33. 38 

power  development  at 38-40 

'  Grand  rapids,  fall  at 4: 

I  Grand  Rapids,  fall  at 66 

I         power  development  at 77-78 

I  Grand  River,  power  development  on 21 

I  Grandfather  rapids,  fall  at 67 

I          view  of 80 

water  power  at Hi 

I   Grandmother  rapids,  fall  at 67 

1          water  power  at 81 

Great  Northern  Power  Co.,  power  develop- 
ment of,  figure  showing 133 

Great  Northern  Railway,  access  to  water 

power  by 137 

Green  Bay,  elevation  at 22 

precipitation  ot % 46 

Green  Bay  and  Mississippi  Canal  Co.,  devel- 
opment by 33 

water  power  owned  by 33, 36-40 

Green  Bay  and  Wes  em  Railroad,  access  to 

waterpowerby 90 

Green  Bay  Valley,  topography  of 21 

Greenleaf.  J.  L.,  on  Menominee  River 42 

Gresham,  power  developmen t  at 62 

Grindstone  rapids,  power  development  at. .  56 


Halcyon,  fall  at 85 

water  power  at 89 

Halfbreed  rapids,  location  of 83 

Halls  Creek,  fall  at  mouth  of 85 

Harts,fall  at 126 

Hat  rapids,  fall  at 67 

water  power 82 

Hatfield,  fall  at 85 

water  power  at 89 

Uatton,  power  development  at 21 

Hay  River,  dam  on 116 

fall  at 114 

Hector,  logging  dam  at 126 

Hemlockdam,  fallnear 86 

power  development  at 90 

High  Falls,  water  power  at 56 

Holcombe  rapids,  fall  at 99 

jiower  development  at 103 

Homestead  bridge,  flow  at 46 

Horse   Race   rapids   (Menominee   River), 

water  power  at 62 

Horse  Race  rapids  (St.  Croix  Rivera,  water 

power  at 124 

Hudson,  water  power  near 128 

Hunters  Lake,  fall  at 99 

Huronian  rocks,  occurrence  of 10, 135-137 

Hydrography,  account  of 12-18 

See  alfo  Drainage. 

I  ^' 

i  Igneous  rocks,  occurrence  of 10 

'  Iron  mines,  location  of 43, 51 

I  Iron  Mountain,  Mich.,  fall  at 43 

flowat 46-50 

'         water  power  near 52 

Iron  River  (Menominee  River  drainage), 

drainage  area  of 50 

flow  of 44 


142 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Iron  River  (Lake  Superior  drainage),  power 

development  on 136 

Ironwood,  fall  at 136 

Irving,  fall  at 114 

water  power  at 114 

Island  I^ke,  elevation  of 64 

fall  at 107 

J. 

Jewctt.  water  power  at I2f< 

Jim  FalK  fall  at 99 

power  development  at 101-102 

figure  showing 102 

Jordan,  power  development  at 117 

Jordan  Ri  ver,  fall  at  mouth  of 130 

Jump  River,  dams  on 116 

drainage  area  of 103, 115 

water  power  on lliS-116 

# 
K. 

Kaukauna.    See  Grand   Kaukauna;  Little 
Kaukauna. 

Keawasogon  Lake,  elevation  of 64 

Kettle  River,  drainage  area  of 118, 125 

Kettle  River  rapids,  fall  at 119 

water  power  on 124 

Keweenawan  rocks,  ot'currenee  of.  10, 129, 134-135 
Kickapoo  River,  drainage  area  of 83 

jM)wer  development  on 83 

Kilbourn,  fall  at 66 

power  development  at 77 

Kinnikinnic  River,  description  of 131 

fall  at  mouth  of 119 

water  power  on 131 

Knowlton  bridge,  fall  at 66 

Koepenick.  precipitation  at 45 

L. 

La  Crosse,  fall  at 85 

temperature  at 15 

Ladysmith,  fall  at 106-107 

flow  near 108-112 

gaging  station  near 93, 107 

Lake  Superior  drainage,  description  of 132 

drainage  to 12 

rainfall  of 133 

t()iK)graph y  of 132 

water  powcr?J  of 132-137 

Lake  Vieux  Desert,  dam  at *64 

fttllat 67 

hK'Htlon  of 63 

reservoir  site  at 65 

Lak&N,  oi'currence  of 12-13, 117-118 

La u ren  t  ian  roc ks,  occu rrence  of 10 

Lawrence,  i»ower  development  at 21 

Lemonweir  River,  drainage  area  of 03, 83 

power  development  on 8:5 

Lindore  dam,  fall  at 67 

Little  Cedar  River,  drainage  area  of 51 

Little  Ciiicf  I>ake,  fall  at 99 

reservoir  site  at 91-92 

Little  Chief  River,  dam  on 105 

Little  Eau  Pleine  River,  drainage  area  of. .        63 

Little  Falls,  fall  at 107 

water  iH>wer  at 106 

Little  Kaukauna,  fall  at 22, 33 

I>ower  development  at 40 

fi^nre  showing 41 

legal  troubles  of 33, 40 


..   I 


P*g- 

Little  Puckanance,  fall  at :-^> 

Little  Quinnesec  Falls,  fall  at 43 

flow  at 44-1? 

power  development  at '•- 

Little  rapids,  dam  site  at M 

Little  River,  power  development  on 21 

Little  Wolf  River,  power  development  on  .        ».-' 
Littlechute,  dam  at,  view  of > 

fall  at 22,S:\.> 

power  development  at 

Littlewolf,  power  development  at _ 

Loams,  occurrence  and  character  of 1 

Logging,  cessation  of U 

Long  Lake,  elevation  of 'A 

Lower  Fox  River.    S^e  Fox  River.  Lower. 
Lower  Magnesian  limestone,  <»ccurrence  of.       1  i 
21,43,54.57. 1-.::V1J* 

Lowes  Creek,  dam  on 1  » 

Loweth&  Wolf,  gaging  by U 

Lucas,  dam  at 117 

Lumbering  indiistr>',  extent  of 14 

M. 

McKinzie  Creek,  fall  at  mouth  of l.a* 

Manchester,  power  development  at Jl 

Manitouish  River,  fall  on ImT 

logging  dams  on w:. 

reservoir  site  on si  -•/_• 

Mann,  L.  M.,  flow  measurements  by i- 

Manowa,  power  development  at 

Manser's,  dam  site  at m 

Marblehead,  power  development  at IM 

Marinette  rapids,  power  development  at. . .  r>4-Vj 
Maringo  River.    See  Maringonin  River. 

Maringouin  River,  description  of !.* 

*  water  i>ower on l.>v-i.  ■ 

Markesan,  power  development  at j: 

Marquette,  temperature  at : ' 

Mecan  River,  character  of j" 

water  powers  on ji 

Medicine  Lake,  elevation  of M 

Melrose,  flow^  at •* 

Menasha,  fallal jj 

power  development  at ;;i-.v 

precipitation  at t^- 

Menomoniedam  (Red  Cedar  River),  fall  at.       m 

water  power  at li  4-:i'» 

Menominee  River,  character  of '>: 

dams  on v 

drainage  area  of 4*-*.  "ii»  '»! 

fallof 2 

origin  of II 

power  development  on ^i- v. 

precipitation  on 44  i^ 

profile  of 42-ti 

rocks  on 13-14 

run  -off  of 4*-.'»  ■ 

tributaries  of vV-nr 

Merrill,  fall  at »- 

flow  at 7;>-T' 

power  development  at "•' 

Michigamme  River,  drainage  area  of 4J,  =•: 

source  and  character  of u 

Middle  River,  descriptirnof ].C 

Milwaukee,  rainfall  at ij 

rainfall  at,  chart  showings i* 

Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie 
Railway,  access  to  water  powers 
by 61.106.115,12H.ir 


INDEX. 


143 


M  innesun^r  Lake,  water  power  at 134 

Montello,  power  development  at 20 

Moiitello  River,  character  of 20 

water  powers  on 20-21  i 

Montreal  River,  water  power  on 135 

M<x)MJ  Lake,  fall  at 100  , 

i-eservoir  site  at 91-92 

Mcxme  River,  fall  at  mouth  of 119 

Moraines,  location  and  character  of 11,21 

Mosinee,  fall  at 66 

I.K)wer  »{te  at 79 

Mount  Morris,  power  development  at 62 

Mud  Lake  ( Fox  River) ,  origin  of 19 

Mud  Ljike  (Wi»conMin  River),  elevation  of       64 
Mud  Lake  (Yellow  River),  dam  at 126 

fallat 126 

N. 

Niimekugon  River,  description  of 129-130 

drainage  area  <»f lis,  125 

drainage  to 104 

fall  at  mouth  of 119 

Nebagemain  Uike,  water  iK)wer  at 134-135 

Nebagemain  River,  rapids  at  mouth  of 134 

Necedah,  fallat 66 

flowat 6H-73 

Ncenah,  location  of 34 

power  development  at 34 

Ncenah  and  Menasha  Water  Power  (?om-  ' 

puny,  organization  of 33 

Neenah  (!reek,  jwwer  development  on 21  I 

Neillsville.  f^ow  at 87-89  ' 

water  power  at 90  I 

Neko<^)sa,  fall  at 66 

power  development  at 77  i 

Nemadji  River,  character  of 134 

New  Greenwood  dam,  fall  at ^  , 

New  London,  precipitation  at 45  , 

New  Richmond,  water  power  at 128  , 

Niagara  limestone,  occurrence  of 21 

Nigger  Inland,  fall  at 67 

North  Fork  of  FlamlK*au  River,  reservoir  ' 

site  on 91-92  ' 

Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  access  to  water  i 

powers  by 126,137  ' 

Northport,  flow  at 61 

Norway,  Mich.,  fallat 43 

Nose  Peak  rapids,  fall  at 53 

O. 

Oconto,  precipitation  at 45 

C)cont(»  Falls,  power  development  at 58  i 

(Honto  Kiver,  character  of 67 

prc<'ij)itation  on 43-46  , 

profile  of 57  , 

water  i)owcrs  on 57-58  ^ 

O'  Keef  &  OrbLMou,  on  Menominee  River  ...  42 

Omaha  Imdge.  fall  at 114 

water  power  at 114 

( )■  Nfjil.s  Creek,  i>ower  developnients  on 117 

O'Neill  Creek,  mouth  of,  fallat 86  ' 

( )s<'eola,  fall  at 1 19 

( )s('eola  Creek,  water  power  on 131  I 

oitor  Creek,  power  development  on 117  ' 

otter  rapids,  fall  at 67 

IM)wer  development  at 82 

ieHer\oir.siteat 65  I 


Page 

Otter  Slide  rapids,  water  power  at 124 

Oxford ,  power  development  at 21 

P. 

Paint  Creek,  reser\'oir  site  on 91-92 

Paint  Creek  rapids,  water  power  at 101 

Paint  River,  drainage  a rea  of 60 

Pak  wawang  Lake,  fall  at 100 

reservoir  site  at 91-92 

Paleozoic  rocks,  occurrence  and  character 

of 10-11 

Pardeeville,  water  power  at 20 

Park  Falls,  fall  at 107 

power  development  at 106 

Partridge  Crop  Lake,  fall  at 100 

Peat,  occurrence  of -..  14 

Peet,  E.  L.,  on  Clam  River 129 

Pelican  Lake,  dam  proposed  at 65 

elevation  of 64 

fallat 100 

Pelican  River,  dam  sites  on 83-84 

dminage  area  of 63, 83 

lakes  on 64 

Pemebon won  River,  drainage  area  of 51 

Pemena  dam  and  rapids,  fall  at 43 

pK)wer  site  and  dam  at 53 

Penokee  Iron  Rango,  location  and  charac- 
ter of  132 

Peshtigo  River,  characterof 56 

power  skes  and  dams  on 5(>-57 

precipitation  on 45 

profile  of 57 

Phlox,  power  development  at 62 

Pike  River,  djimson 56 

drainage  area  of 61 

Pilla,  power  development  at 62 

Pine  Creek  (Chippewa   River  dra  nage)^ 

power  developments  on 117 

Pine  Creek  (Fox  River  drainage),  power  de- 
velopment on 21 

Pine  Creek  rapids,  fall  at 81 

water  power  at 81 

Pine  River,  power  development  at 21 

Pine  River,  character  of 65 

dams  on 56 

drainage  an'a  of 51 ,  55 

mouth  of,  fall  at 67 

source  of 43-44 

water  powers  on 55 

Pine  River  rapids,  water  power  at 51 

Planting  (} round  Lake,  elevation  of 64 

l*lover  River  (Chippewa  River  drainage), 

power  development  on 117 

Plover  River  (Wisconsin  River  drainage). 

drainage  area  of 63 

Pokegama  Lake,  dam  at 105 

Poplar  River,  description  of 136 

Port  Edwards,  fall  at 66 

power  development  at 77 

Portage,  fall  at 43 

predpitiition  at 46 

Potato  River,  water  power  on 137 

Potsdam  sandstone,  occurrence  of 11 

soil  from 13 

Poysippe,  power  developmen tat 21 

Prairie  rapids,  fall  at 83 


144 


IKDEX. 


Page. 

Prairie  River,  drainage  area  of 63,84 

power  development  on 84 

l*recipitation,  discussion  of 15, 46-16, 76  . 

map  showing 16 

variations  in,  at  Milwaukee,  chart  show- 
ing          18 

Prescott,  fallal 119 

Pride,  C.  B.,  sur>'ey  by M 

Princeton,  power  development  at 21 

Puckaway,  Lak«,  origin  of 19  i 

Pulcifer  dam,  water  power  at 58 

Q-  I 

Ciuinnesec  Falls.    Set  Big  Quinnesec;  Little 

Quinnosec.  i 

R. 

Railroads,  access  to  water  powers  by 13  , 

42, 51, 76, 90, 92, 105, 116, 126, 128, 1S5-187   I 

Rainbow  rapids,  water  power  at 82 

Rainfall.    .Srr  Precipitation. 

Rapide  Croche  dam,  fall  at 22,33 

flow  of  Fox  River  at 22-32 

gaging  station  at 22  | 

power  development  at 40 

legal  complications  of 33, 40 

Rattlesnake  Creek,  power  development  on.        62 

Red  Cedar  River,  dams  on 115 

drainage  area  of 100,103,113 

fall  of 113-114  ! 

l(K.>aiion  of 91 

power  development  on 1] 4-115 

profile  of 113-114 

Red  River,  i>ower  development  on 62 

Reeds  LAnding.  fall  at 99 

Reservoirs,  capacity  of  proposed  sites  for. . .        13 

Rest  Lrfike,  fall  at 107 

Rhinelander,  dam  at 65 

dam  at,  fallal 67 

power  development  at 82 

Rib  River,  drainage  areii  of 63, 83 

fall  at  mouth  of 66 

power  development  on 83 

Rice,  reservoir  site  nt 66  ' 

Rice  Lake.fallat 126 

logging  dam  at VX 

Rijwn .  power  developmen  tat 21 

River  Falls,  water  powers  at 131 

RcK'k  Creek,  power  development  on 117 

RfK'ks.  pre-Cambrian,  occurrence  of 10, 

51, 5C.,  59, 67, 77, 91, 130 

Ross  Eddy  rapids,  water  power  at 90 

Rothchilds,  fall  at 79  , 

water  iM)wer  at 79 

Round  Lake,  reservoir  site  at 91-92 

liural,  power  development  at 62 

Rush  City,  fall  at 119 

S. 

St.  Croix  County,  soils  in 18 

St.  Croix  Falls,  fall  at 119 

St.  Croix  Liike,  fall  to 119 

flow  at 120-123 

St.  Croix  mpids,  water  power  at 124   ; 

St.  Croiic  River,  character  of 123-124 

draiiijtge  area  of V2, 117-118 

fall  of  .  .• 123 

profile  of n.s-119 


St.  Croix  River,  reservoir  sites  on 15 

rocks  on 119 

run-ofT  of llS-125 

temx>erature  on,  and  velocity  of.  rela- 
tions of 1?> 

topt^raphy  on 117-^15 

tributaries  of 125-131 

water  powers  on 9, 123-124 

St.  Germain  I.Akes,  dam  sites  at fA  *d 

St.  Louis  River,  character  of 133 

water  power  of 1 3:^  1 M 

development  of,  figure  showing I  :r> 

St.  Paul,  Minn.,  rainfall  at V.» 

temperature  at 1% 

St.  Peter  sandstone,  occurrence  of 11 

Sand  Creek,  power  development  at 1 17 

Sand  Portage  rapids,  water  power  at 53->4 

Sandy  soils  and  loams,  occurrence  and  char- 
acter of  1 .. 

SaukClty.  fall  at •* 

Saxeville,  power  development  at n 

Scandinavia,  power  development  at » "J 

Schappies  rapids,  fall  at 4o 

water  power  at .S4 

Schofield,  dam  site  at »^ 

Shantytown,  dam  at 117 

Shawano,  precipitation  at 4a 

power  development  at ?^ 

Shawtown,  fall  at w 

flow  at -C 

Sherman,  power  development  at 'w 

Silver  Creek,  power  development  on 

Snake  River,  drainage  area  of 11»».  li'i 

Snaptail  rapids,  fall  at w 

water  power  at IM 

Soils,  character  of i:^i  l 

South  Centralia  dam,  fall  at 'li^ 

Spooner,  fall  at 1* 

Spring  Brook,  mouth  of.  fall  at VK* 

Spring  Creek,  power  development  at »ij 

Sfiuaw  Lake,  reaervoir  site  at 91 -V-' 

Squirrel  Lake,  elevation  of ''i 

reservoir  site  at '•> 

Stevens  Point,  fall  at •*■ 

power  development  at 7* 

Stil es,  f all  at ■^~ 

power  development  at .%7- '^^ 

Stinnett,  fall  at I  *• 

Stone  Lake,  elevation  of M 

Stuntz  Brook,  fall  at  mouth  of :  j» 

Sturgeon  Falls,  fall  at 4.'. 

water  power  at V 

Stuigeon  River,  drainage  area  of 

fallat c. 

Sugarcamp  Lakes,  reservoir  site  at »>4-*;' 

Sunrise  River,  drainage  area  of :  1^ 

fallat  mouth  of US' 

Surings,  fall  at C 

Swamp  soila,  occurrence  and  charHCt*»r  of . .        1 4 

Swamps,  occurrence  of l-*-l ' 

Sweet,  E.  T. ,  on  Wisconsin  timber :  4 

T. 

Temperature,  range  of :"^ 

Thomas,  Howard,  on  Bois  Brule  River k  . 

Thornapple  River,  dam  on 1-6 

drainage  area  of Uv 


INDEX. 


145 


ThrtH)  Rolls.  d»im  site  ttt H4 

Tiffany  Creek,  power  clevelopment  on 117 

Timber,  occurrence  and  character  of 14 

Tomahawk  dam,  fall  at 67 

water  power  at SI,  83 

Tomahawk  Lake,  dam  at 65,83 

64 

..  GA,m 

CA 

83 

12 

..       105 


elevation  of 

Tomahawk  River,  drainage  area  of. . 

lakes  on 

power  development  on 

Topography,  character  of 

Torch  River,  dam  on 

Totogatic  River,  description  of 130-131 

fall  at  mouth  of  ." 180  , 

profileof 181  ' 

Trade  River,  fall  ut  month  of 119 

Trapp  Rapids,  water  pow€»r  at 80  | 

Trenton  limestone,  occurrence  of .  Jl,  21, 43. 54, 57 

Trout  River,  dam  on 113 

Turtle  River,  fall  at  mouth  of 107  ; 

reservoir  site  on 91-92  ! 

Twin  Falls,  fall  at 43 

waterpowerat 51 

Twin  Island  Rapids,  water  power  at 54  i 

Twin  Lakes,  reservoir  site  at 64-65 

Tylers  Fork,  water  power  on 136-137  i 

U. 

I'nderhill.  fall  at 57 

Tnited  States  Government,  dams  of 34-35, 

38,40,91-92 
Upper  Fox  River.    ,^€  Fox  River,  Tpper. 


Veazie,  water  power  at 130 

W. 

Wabena,  fall  at 57 

Warren,  G.  K.,  on  Fox  River 19-20 

Water  powers,  availabil  ily  of 9 

capacity  of 9 

development  of 9 

information  on,  sources  of 9-10 

permanence  of 9 

Waumander,  power  development  at 21 

Waumander  Creek,  power  development  on.       21 

Waupaca,  power  development  at 02 

precipitation  at 45-16 

Waupaca  River,  power  developmen t  on 62 

Wausau,  fall  at 66 

power  development  at 79-80 

Wautoma,  power  development  at 21 

precipitation  at 46 

Wedges  Creek,  fall  at  mouth  of 86 

West  Branch  of  Chippewa  River,  dams  on.      105 

drainage  area  of 100, 103, 104 

profileof 100 

resers'oir  sites  on 91-92 

water  power  on 104 

Westboro,  dam  at 116 

Westlleld.  power  development  at 21 

Weyauwega,  precipitation  at 46-46 

power  development  at 62 

Whirlpool  rapids,  fall  at 67 

water  power  at 81 


Page. 

White  rapids,  fall  at 43 

location  of 53 

water  power  at 54 

White  Rfver  (Fox  River  drainage), di*scrip- 

tlon  of 136 

power  development  on 136 

White   River   (Ijike    Superior   drainage), 

characterof 20 

Willow  River,  drainage  area  of 118, 125, 128 

pow  er  development  on 128 

Winnebago  Lake,  character  of 21 

location  of 19 

origin  of 19-21 

Winnebago  rapids,  fall  at 38 

Winneconne,  flow  at 60 

Wisconsin,  State  of,  power  development  by.       33 
Wisconsin  and  Michigan  Railroad,  access 

to  railroads  by : 51 

Wisconsin  Central  Railway,  acctnw  to  water 

powers  by 42, 

90, 92, 105, 1 15, 126, 128, 136-137 

Wisconsin-Fox  divide,  character  of 63-64 

Wisconsin  River,  character  of 63 

dams  on 64-65 

drainage  area  of 12, 63 

levees  on 63-64 

profileof 65-67 

rainfall  oi 67 

rapids  on,  view  of 80 

reservoir  sites  on 13, 65 

rocks  on 67 

run-oflf  of 67-76 

sourceof 43-44 

tributaries  of 82-85 

water  powers  on 76-86 

access  to 13 

value  of 9 

Wittenberg,  power  development  at 62 

Wolf  River,  character  of 59 

flow  of 59 

precipitation  on 45-46 

profileof .• 69 

run-off  of (UMJl 

tributaries  of 62 

water  powers  on 02 

Wood  River,  drainage  area  of 1 IH,  125 

Y. 

Yellow  Lake,  dam  at,  fall  at 1-6 

Yel low  Pine  rapids,  water  power  at 1 24 

Yellow  River  (Chippewa  River  drainage), 

drainage  area  of 100,  i;)3, 116 

fall  at  mouth  of 9e,  1 16 

Yellow  River  (St.  Croix  River  drainage), 

chanicter  of 125 

drainage  area  of 118, 125 

fall  at  mouth  of 119 

logging  dams  on 126 

profileof 120 

water  power  on 125 

Yellow  River  (Wisconsin  River  drainage), 

drainage  area  of 63, 88 

fall  at  mouth  of 99 

water  iK)wer  on 116 


IRR  156—06- 


-10 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL 

SURVEY. 

[Water-Supply  Paper  No.  156.] 

The  publications  of  the  United  States  (teological  Survey  consist  of  (1)  Annual 
Reporte,  (2)  Monographs,  (8)  Professional  Papers,  (4)  Bulletins,  (5)  Mineral  Re- 
sources, (6)  Water-Supply  and  Irrigation  Pajxirs,  (7)  Topographic  Atlas  of  United 
States,  folios  and  separate  sheets  thereof,  (8)  Geologic  Atlas  of  United  States,  folios 
thereof.  The  classes  numbered  2,  7,  and  8  are  sold  at  cost  of  publication;  the  others 
are  distributed  free.     A  circular  giving  complete  lists  may  be  had  on  application. 

Most  of  the  above  publications  maybe  obtaine<l  or  consulted  in  the  following  ways: 

1.  A  limited  number  are  delivered  to  the  Director  of  the  Survey,  from  whom  they 
may  be  obtained,  free  of  charge  (except  classes  2,  7,  and  8),  on  application. 

2.  A  certain  number  are  delivered  to  Senators  and  Representatives  in  Congress, 
for  dLstribution. 

3.  Other  copies  are  deposited  with  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington, 
D.  C,  from  whom  they  may  l)e  had  at  practically  cost. 

4.  Copies  of  all  (Tovernment  publications  are  furnished  to  the  principal  public 
libraries  in  the  large  cities  throughout  the  United  States,  where  they  may  be  con- 
sulted by  those  interested. 

The  Professional  Papers,  Bulletins,  and  Water-Supply  Pai)ers  treat  of  a  variety  of 
subjects,  and  the  total  numl)er  issued  is  large.  They  have  therefore  been  classified 
into  the  following  series:  A,  Economic  geology;  B,  Descriptive  geology;  C,  System- 
atic geology  and  paleontology;  D,  Petrography  and  mineralogy;  P2,  Chemistry  and 
physics;  F,  Geography;  G,  Miscellaneous;  H,  Forestry;  I,  Irrigation;  J,  Water  stor- 
age; K,  Pumping  water;  L,  Quality  of  water;  M,  General  hydrographic  investiga- 
tions; N,  Water  power;  O,  Underground  waters;  P,  Hydrographic  progress  reports. 
This  paper  is  the  eleventh  in  Series  N,  the  complete  list  of  which  follows 
(WS=Water-Supply  Paper): 

Serieh  N— Water  Powe:r. 

WS   24.  Water  resources  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Pt.  I,  by  G.  W.  Rafter.    1.S99.    92  pp.,  13  pis. 

WS   25.  Water  resources  of  the  State  of  New  York,  Pt.  11,  by  G.  W.  Rafter.    1899.    100-200  pp.,  12  pis. 

WS   44.  ProfileM  of  rivers,  by  Henry  Gannett.    1901.    100  pp.,  11  pis. 

WS   62.  Hydrography  of  the  Southern  Appalachian  Mountain  region,  Pt.  I,  by  H.  A.  Prewcy.    1902. 

95  pp.,  25  pis. 
WS   63.  Hydrography  of  the  Southern  Appalachian  Mountain  region,  Pt.  II,  by  H.  A.  I'reRsey.    1902. 

96-190  pp.,  26-44  pis. 
WS   69.  Water  powers  of  the  SUite  of  Maine,  by  H.  A.  Pressey.    1902.    124  pp.,  U  pis. 
WS  105.  Water  i)owerH  of  Texas,  by  T.  U.  Taylor.    1904.    116  pp.,  17  pis. 
WS  107.  Water  powers  of  Alabama  with  an  appendix  on  stream  measurements  in  Mississippi,  by  B.  M. 

Hall.    1904.    253  pp.,  9  pis. 
WS  109.  Hydrography  of  Susquehanna  River  drainage  ba.sin,  by  J.  C.  Hoyt  and  K.  H.  Andersen. 

1905.    215  pp.    29  pis. 
WS  115.  River  surveys  and  profiles  made  in  1903,  by  W.  C.  Hall  and  J.  C.  Hoyt.    1905.    115  pp.,  4  pis. 
WS  156.  Water  powers  of  northern  Wisconsin,  by  L.  S.  Smith.    1906.    145  pp.,  5  pis. 

Correspondence  should  be  addressed  to 

The  Director, 

United  States  Geological  Survey, 

Washington^  D.  C. 
June,  1906. 

I 

o