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THE 


SATURDAY    MAGAZINE. 


VOLUME  TIIE  EIGHTEENTH. 


JANUARY  to' JUNE. 


M.DCCC.XLI. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM    PARKER,   WEST  STRAND. 


INDEX 


TO  TBI 


NAMES    AND    SUBJECTS    IN    THE    EIGHTEENTH    VOLUME. 


ABAevs.MM  andcnt,  11 
AdTantatM.  balmDM  of,    In  dUbrtnt 
coaditioot  of  life.  109 

of  bodily  Ubonr,  SS8 

AdvenitT.  3 

nMsor.l9a 


Advfee  to  ill-aatarad  people,  100 
Affections.  enUlvatlon  of  the.  81 

the.  beigliteaed  by  reUglon,  79 

Affliction,  3.  131 

Amicable  Ceremonies,  I..  ISft— II.,  195 

Aoalogy  of  Tafetable  and  human  life, 

144 
Ancient  crypts,  9 
— — ^-»  Egyptian  enstom,  88 
■  philoeiiphers,mazimsof  the.93 

Anecdote  of  Sir  Ralph  Abererombie,  8 
Animal  food.  91 

Animals,  effects  of  mnsle  npon,  99 
Aristippns.  remark  of,  ISO 
Art  of  story.teUtnK.  938.  933 
Artificial  flowers,  maanfactore  of,  944 
Aatomaton  Fignres.  I.,  69—1!.,  69 
Ariridanee  of  vieioos  society.  91 

Balsnee  of  adranlases  in  different  con- 
ditions of  life.  109 

Bank-notes,  Invention  of»  by  the  Chi- 
neee,  114 

Banks  of  the  Thames,  I.,  901—11.,  993 
— III..  9a3-|V,  941 

Bejapoor.  in  Hludoitaa.  140 

Belief  In  supernatnral  appcaranees,  38 

Benerolraee.  30 

spirit  of,  60  ^ 

Birds,  soDf  of.  103 

Boat  Unnch.  the.  34 

Bodily  laboar,  its  adTantiifet,  998 

Bones.  Napier's,  11 

BriUsb  Guyana.  U 177—11,.  185-IIT., 
199-IV.,905-V.,917 

Breeade.  54 

Burnt  pillar  at  ConstaathMple^  19 

Csknlatlng  Machines  :— 

I.  Napier's  bones  ;  the  Abacnt,  11 

II.  Toe    apparatus    of  Sandenon, 
OcTsten.  and  Pascal.  98 

III.  Babbage'sealcnlating engine, 69 
Caddis,  or  Sprinc-fly.  993 

Caaora  and  nls  Works.  I.,  18—11.,  60, 

HI..  66 
Ceiemootss.  Amicable,  I.,  156— II.,  196 
Chains  of  vice.  948 
Cbamomilc,  97 
Chess: — 
I..  II.  Origin  and  aatiqalty  of  the 

rie.  7*  M 
IV.  Ancient  chess-men  dlseo- 
Wrad  in  the  Isle  of  Lewis.  87, 60 
v..  VI  ,   Orlfln    of  the  names    of 

caesa-men,  78.  101 
VII..  VlIU   IX..   X.,  XI.,  Chess, 
writeis  and  players,  184, 148, 171, 
188.930 
XII.   BiocrapUcal   skotch  of  Phi- 
lidor,  937 
ChOd.  the,  155 
— —  an  extraordinary,  68 
Children,  proper  eneonragoment  ol^  144 
China,  use  of  tea  in.  86 
Chinsse,  the  bnrmiton  of  bank-Holes, 

114 
—  dinners.  104 

fimst  of  lanterns,  96 
119 


Chrisdsn  eonsolatlon  on  the  death  of 

friends.  196 

-^ fear  and  felth,  68 

Christianity,  pfcdsion   and   de6nita- 

ncasoi;  118 

mnsonablenees  o^  11 

Cbaehes  in  London,  149 

CliciuBstaiiees,  91 

Cieaalincea  and   moral  feeling,  eon* 

ntxion  between,  147 
Coias.  ancient  and  modem.  Some  Ac* 

eottBtaf>— 
Introduction.  81 
ISeet.  I.    Medals  and  Coins  dbUn- 

gaish»>d— meuU  of  which  tlies  sre 

ma>ie    pecnllaritirs    of  coinfnf— 

sises— mrts  of  a  medal— subjects 
•  of  medal*— portmits^-rererses  of 

medals— remarkable    coinnMtttlcs 
"       89 


Sect.  II.  Coins  and  medals  In  a  ca- 
binet—Greek medals— their  cba. 
rseterlstles— dvil  and  monarchical 
— ^reek  imperial  coins— Roman 
medals— consular  and  imDerial— 
colonial  erins  coins  of  other  na- 
tions •-braeteates.  84 

Sect.  III.  Modern  coins— foreign 
coins— Anglo-Oalllc  coins,  161 

8eet  IV.  Auglo-Saaon  coins— eeole- 
slastlcsl  coins — Norman  coins- 
Peter's  pence— coins  used  in  Eng- 
land till  the  reign  of  Charles  U.— 
coins  once  und  for  toxal  fees 
eoioage  of  Charles  II  —bad  state 
of  the  coinage  at  the  Rerolntion— 
Thomas  Simon— introduction  of 
the  mill  and  screw— copper  money 
^lloy  of  metali— Scoteh  and 
Irish  money,  168 

Sect.  V.  Modern  medals— Papal 
medals— Spanish  and  French 
medals— <omparison  of  ancient  sad 
modern  medals— Buclish  medals 
— coroimtlon  medals,  166 

Sect.  VI.  Study  of  coins  and  medals 
— Pembroks  collection— utility  of 
medals  •  counterfeit  medals— cabi- 
nets—medallions  and  medslet»- 
Itreserratlon  of  coins  and  medals^ 
67 
Conduct  of  life  determined  by  slight 

circumstances,  157 
Conscience,  69 

—  misapplleatlon  of  the  teimi 
948 

Constantinople,  burnt  pillar  at,  19 

Convallarla  msjalis,  1*^  « 

Counters,  origin  and  use  of^  939 

Cowries.  80 

Credulity,  89 

Crypts,  ancient.  9 

Cuckoo,  the.  llfli 

Cultivation  of  tho  albetloas,  91 

of  plants  and  flowers,  179 

Custom  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  88 

—  of  tho  Maunday,  188 

Death  of  Driends,  Christian  consolation 

on  the.  190 
Deity,  considsrstlons  on  the,  160 
Development  of  truth,  64 
Diseaies.  Imaginarr,  86 
Diieontented  people,  96 
Do  stones  srow?  819 
Dog.  the,  91 
Domestic  remedies.  94 
Druidkal  remains  In  England,  187 

Early  rising,  64 

Effects  of  musie  npon  animals,  99 

Eloquence,  advantages  of,  999 

Encanstle  painting.  930 

England,  Diuidical  remains  In,  187 

— —  overland  Journey  fhm  India 

to,  41, 191,  801 
English  and  Indian  landseapei^  160 
Enjoyment,  the  true  test  of  possession, 

Ettler,  the  mathnnatieian,  907 

Evening.  160 

Evil,  sufllsring,  947 

Examination  of  the  evidenees  of  Ram- 

latioo,  159 
Ezoelienee,  foundation  of,  63 
B&tBsordinary  child,  an,  68 

Faith  and  Hope,  79 

Fashion,  56 

Fetish,  the,  96 

Flazman  and  his  Works,  I.,  106—11., 

146-III.,  176 
Flies,  poisonous,  158 
Flowers,  mannlhetnre  of  artlflcia],'944 
Fly,  the  Spring.  993 
Fonst.  considerations  on  a,  131 
Forgetme*not,  the.  994 
Fieth-water  Fbh:— 

Introduction,  119 

I..  II.  The  Salmon,  137,  174 

III.  The  Trout,  191 

IV.  Xhe  Jack,  or  like,  199 

V.  Tfie  l*ereh,  947 
Fretrniness,  16 

Friends,  Christian  eoasolatton  on  the 
death  of,  190 


Frugality  the  daughter  of  pmdenoe,  196 
Fruit,  waxen.  997 
Fanerals  in  China,  119 

Gamester,  the,  986 
Garden  Herbs :— > 

I.  Chamomile,  97 

II.  Rue.  117 

III.  Wormwood.  189 

IV.  Savory— Horshound,  941 
Generosity  and  iustiee,  16 
Oingerbresd.  159 

Glass,  soluble,  183 
Gloves,  a  brief  history  of,  151 
Glue,  on  the  minufeeture  of,  71 
Government  of  the  universe,  7 
Grounds  nntilled  and  wits  unrestrained, 

196 
Guyana.  British,  I..  177—11..  186-1 1 1.. 

193— IV..  905-V.,  917 

Hsbit.  136 

Hanseatie  League,  brief  Aeeonnt  of  the  i 

I.  Historical  Introduction.  949 

II.  Formation  of  the  Hanseatie 
League,  950 

III  Commercial  advantages  of  the 
League.  931 

IV.  Extent  and  Internal  government 
of  tlM  Lesgtto,  969 

V.  Monopolising  spirit  of  the  Hsuse 
merchants,  and  its  ooniequenees, 
953 

VI.  Decline  and  fall  of  the  Hansea- 
tie League,  954 

Hsppiness,  temporal  or  eternal,  ohoioe 

of,  186 
— ^—  and  misery,  898 
Have  hope,  156 
Home,  love  ol^  7>  116 
Honey,  pobonons,  106 
Hope,  139 
Horshound,  941 
Hombesm,  the,  931 
Hot  cross  buns,  144' 
Human  and  vegetable  life,  analogy  of, 

Hungary  water.  8 
Hypochondriadsm,  131 

Icebergs.  75 
Ichneumon,  the,  109 
Ill-natured  people,  advice  to,  100 
lUasions.  OpUcal,  L.  903-11.,  998— 

IIUKS 
Imaginary  dhwases.  86 
ImiUtion  from  I.  Kings,  xix.  II.  19—93 
India,  overiand  journey  from,  to  Evg- 

Und.  41, 191, 901 
Indian  and  English  landscapes,  150  * 
Infentile  poem,  56 
Infldel  speculations,  60 
Isehil,  salt  mountains  ol^  35 

Jerboa,  the 

Joannina,  Psehalie  of.  6 
Journey,  overland,  (him  India  to  Eng- 
land, 41. 191, 901* 
Justice  and  generosity,  16 

Knole,inKent,96 

Knowledge  and  vbtne,  97  , 

Landicapes.  English  and  Indian,  150 

Lsntems,  Chinese  feast  of,  96 

League,  Hanseatie,  account  of  thsb  949 

Leibnits,  life  oC  97 

Lily  of  the  valley.  173 

Uttleeoates,  In  Wlluhlrs.  199 

London,  churches  in,  149 

Love,  a  mother's,  110 

—  of  God  the  troe  foundation  of 

philsnthropy,  60 
— —  of  home,  7 
— — ^^—  In  the  poor,  115 
L>nn.  town  oC  95 

Machinet ,  calculating,  11,  98, 59 
Maffpio,  the.  31 
Malicious  « it.  183 
Maoaious.  Old  Eiidish:-* 

I.  Wroxtoa  Abbey,  9, 

II.  Knole,  90 

III.  Littlecuates.  199 
Mannlketure  of  artificial  flowonii  944 
— ofglne,71 


Mannday,  on  the  custom  of  the,  138 
Maxims  of  the  sncients,  93 
Memory,  181 

Mind  tk  man.  perverseness  of  the.  78 
Misapplication    of    the    term  "  Con- 

scleucc,**  948 
Mississippi  achsme,  the,  13 
Moderation  in  argument.  40 
Moldavia  and  the  Moldavians.  153 
Months.  Rural  Sporto  for  tho  :— 

I.  January.  38 

II.  February,  76 

III.  March.' 116 

IV.  April.  153 

V.  May,  197 
VL  June.  943 

Morsl  feeling  and   eleanliness,    eon- 

nexion  between.  147 
Mother's  love,  110 
Mount  Ossa.  description  of.  73 
Mouse-ear  seorpton-grais,  894 
M.  Remousat  and  his  children,  21 
Mushrooms,  53 
Musie.  effects  of.  npon  animals,  99 

Obstinate  man.  the.  939 
Old  English  Mansions:— 

I.  Wroxtou  Abbey.  9 

II.  Knole.  90 

III.  Liitleeoatcfl,  130 

Opticsl  Illations.  I..  903-11.,  928— 

HI.  835 
Overland  Journey  from  India  to  Bor- 
land.—  * 

Jlrrt  Jloafs.— By  way  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  throogh  Persia  and  Ratsia. 
to  St  Peteimbnrgh.  41 

Steaki  Aoate.— Hy  way  of  the  Per- 
sian. Gulf.  Penia.  Armenia,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Coutantlnople.  to 
Europe.  l91  '^ 

Third  Aonto.- By  way  of  Lahore, 
Caubul.  Bokhars,  Toorkmania. 
Khorasan,  and  Persis,  to  the  Black 

Owyhee,  volcano  of,  4 

Pachalie  of  Joannina,  5 

FainUng,  encaustic.  930 

Parental  tenderness,  948 

Pedantii,  various  kinds  of,  198 

Persian  amusements,  104 

Perverseness  of  the  mind  of  man.  78 

Pett.  Spring  feir  st.  30 

P*»"ojophy  not  oppoaed  to  RevelaUon, 

Physic,  87 

Physical  powers,    necessity  for   their 
cultivation.  110 

'^  and  moral  life,  76 

Plants  and  flowers,  caltivation  ot  179 
Pleasures,  808 
Poisonous  Artteles  of  Food  :— 

I-  Mushrooms.  65 

II.  Animal  food,  91 

III.  Poisonous  honey,  poisonous 
grain,  spurred  rye,  10(8 

PDlsoaoos  fltea.  159 

Poreopine,  the.  68 

Possession,  enjoyment  the  trna  test  of, 

86 
Power  of  truth,  141 
Prayer,  86 
Prejudiee.  30 

Present  and  the  futare.  198 
Preservation  of  timber.  891' 
ProdueUou  of  designs  by  stamping.  59 
Proud  man.  the,  184 
Prudence  the  mother  of  frugality.  196 
Prudent  advice.  3 

Rainbow,  the.  115 

Real  kuowledge.  8 

Reasonableness  of  Christianity,  U 

Religion.  79.  196 

Resolution,  98 

Resurrection,  the.  150 

Revenge,  pleasure  of  forbearing.  835 

uuJustiflableueM  of,  150 

Rome  under  the  emucTors.  19 

Hue.  117 

Rural  Sports  for  the  Months  :— 

1.  January.  38^ 

II    February.  76 

IIL  Mnrch.  116i 

IV.  April,  155 


INDEX  TO  THE  EIGHTEENTH  VOLUME. 


Rural  Sport*  for  the  Moniht  ^— * 

V.  Muv.  197 

VI.  Juue.  843 

SalTnon,  the,  137.  174  ^ 
Srilt  mouiiuuiis  uf  laciiil.  35 
Savory.  24  L 
Sflf-guveriimcnt.  23 
■         intpnivement,  60 

kiM»*ledm%  17*3 

Syvt-ii  wotul«r»  of  the  world,  the,  94 
Shark,  cluiracier  of  a.  340 
8htfU-IUh.  Bilk  from.  135 
HtuHi  buckles.  141 
Silk  from  fthell- ash.  135 
— —  from  «pider».  99 
Sil  phi  lira.  lu*i 

Small-iNjx,  History  of.  and  of  the 
for  iu  Piev«utioii  :— 

I.  Oriirin  and  pro^rt^ss;  IntroductioD 
of  iiKiciuatiou,  15 

II.  DiicoTory  of  vacdnaUon;  Ita 
proi^ress  on  the  Contineat;  re* 
vaccioation.  91 


Soluble  glasi.  183 

Sdmnambuliim.  iingnUr  eaaet  of*  61 

Song  ot  birds,  103 

Sorrow.  8 

Spiileis.  silk  from,  99 

Spirit  of  b«fneToleae«,  60 

Sprinf^  fair  at  Fesi.  30 

Spriuj^.ily,  th«,  2*23 

StampiDK,  prudacliou  of  designa  by, 

59 
Stones,  their  asserted  growth.  919 
Story  tflliDir,  the  art  uf,  93i,  S35 
Sturgeon. the.  93 
Suffering  evil.  347 
Suliot  hills,  the.  33 
Suliuts  and  All  Pacha,  5? 
Supernatural  ^appoaranceif  belief  in, 

38 

Tattooing.  107 
Tea,  use  of.  in  China,  35 
■  —  in  various  eonntriea,  lift 

Temporal  or  eternal  Jutupioeia^  ehoiM 
of.  186 


Thames.  Banks  of  the.  I.,  901^11.,  995 

—III..  233— I  v..  941 
Thank-offering,  99 
This  eariji  not  our  rest,  99 
Timber,  preservation  of,  991 
Trifles.  109 
Truut.  the.  191 
True  devotion,  34 

patriotism.  131 

— >  philosophy  not  oppotad  to  Berela- 

tlon,  136 
Truth,  development  of.  64 

immoruUtty  of,  97 

— —  power  of.  141 

Turkey  nod  the  Turkish  provlneM^** 

I.  Fafihalic  of  Juaoulna,  5 

II.  The  Sulioi  hills,  Albania.  33 

III.  AU  Paeba  and  the  SnlioU.  67 

IV.  Mount  Osaa,  fce.,  in  the  proviaec 
of  Trikhala,  73 

V.  MoldavU  a  d  Um   Moldavians, 
157 

Universe^  foverom«Bt  of  the,  7 


Unklndneas.  64 

Use  of  tea  in  China,  3S 

■         in  various  countries,  110 

VacnioatloD,  149 

Valley,  lily  of  the.  173 

VegetaUle  ktnKdum,  principle  of  repro- 
duction in  the,  160 

and  human  life,  analogy  of, 

144 

Velvet.  94 

Vice,  chains  of,  948 

Volciinus  uf  Owyhee,  4 

Woxeu  fhiit.  997 

Wire  drawing,  I.,  14»-II.,  180 

Wit,  malicious,  183 

Wits  unrestrained  and    grounds    nn* 

tilled.  196 
Woman,  lis 

Wonders  of  the  world,  the  itt«a,  94 
Wormwood.  189 
Wroxton  Abbey,  9 


INDEX  TO  THE  ENGRAVINGS. 


AroH4W  national  dance,  913 
Alired.  coin  of.  11.9 
Altiir*  oil  Kutnaii  coins.  84 
ARi)thipoli!i.  ••oin  of,  Sb  ^ 
Ant'i'Mil  cliesj*-men,  37,60 
AiitiiM-li,  com  of.  84 

III  PiKiiiui.  c«)<n  of,  86 

Antiochus  V  ,  coin  of,  8i 
VI..  c«iiuof.  83 


—  Vn  .cm  of.  85 


Apamenii  nVMlul,  167 

Apollo,  \\'-Ail  of,  on   'foio  of  Ampbi- 

|K)lis.  85 
Asia  Miuor,  Tokat,  in.  191 
Atanilpii.  rouuutuins  of.  185 
Ait^ii^ivu,  ii^ud  of.  uu  cuiu  of  Antioeh, 

8k 

Bablmi;-''"  calculating  engine,  portion 

.,f.  51 
Itank    iiii". ''hiue-'e.  113 
l>:i|)ii-<[n    of   (:i>ii«t/iiitiii«   the   Great, 

nifcl.ii  •  oranifmor.iiinsr,  88 
Hj  moor,  ill  ilrndu4taii,  UO 

1.  -  ..   [iifAl  u*iii  ul,  141 

B»'iii'li.-f:jf-.  Iiom  I'.iiiova,  17 
Bi>ho|»,  cii'ss,  as    designed  by  Flas- 

maii,  MA 
Ilniv.  vil.Kijeof,  933 
Brt-Hkrast.  a  Pe<-sian,  195 
Biiiisli  coin«,  88 
Gnvaua.  views  in.  177*  188^  198» 

203.21*7 

Caddis  or  Sprint;  fly.  thp.  934 
CalciilaiiuK  michiiie.  UahbaKe*s,  53 

Piofesaor  Saundor- 

sons,  2i 
Cami>.  Toorkman.  216 
CanoTa,  groups  hy,  17.  49,  65 
Ciiiiutt*.  coin  uf.  169 
(Ml  irity,  by  Canova,  €5 
Ciiess.m*'!!.  ancient,  37t  60 

des  ijiicd  by  Plazman,  Idi^ 

US,  173,  188.  920,  237 
Chess-rooks,  in  heraldry,  101 
Chinese  bank«nute,  113 
Coins:— 

Alfred.  169 

AmphiiMlis.  85 

Ancieut  British,  88 

Auglo-.*^iixon,  earliest,  ,169 

Autioch,  84 

of  Pisidia.  86 

Autiochus  V  ,  85 

« VI.  83 

VII.,  85 

Cautiie.  163 

Comraoowe.ilth.  165 

Cnuol)eline,  88 

Kdwiird  the  Confessor,. .169 

Gilbert,  162 

Bliz:il}eth,  163, 164 

EphfsiiJi,  85 

Ethelbett,  169 

Ethelred  of  Kent.  169 

'  of  Nortbumberland,  169 

Ethelstan,  169 

Gadara.  87 


Coins  :-4 

Ht.rold,169 

Henry  1 ,  163 

II.,  KJ3 

Jewish,  83,  87 

Bdaceiloniau,  84 

UfTa,  kin^'  of  Mercia,  169 

Persian,  87 

Phoenician.  88 

Human,  84,  86 

Simon's  Trial  piece,  161 

William  11,163 
*/ollege,  Eton,  941 
Columbus,  mfdal  in  honour  of,  167 
''Comlnrt  ye  the  fatherless    and    the 

widow."  group  by  Fiaxmaa,  160 
Common  iox,  the,  /6 
Commonwealth,  coin  of  the,  165 
Consuiitine    the  (>reat,  medal    com* 

mcmorating  the  iMptism  of,  88 
Constantinople,  burut  pillar  at,  13 
Cow  ies.  80 

Cr>pt  in  Lasiingham  church,  9 
Cuuoiteliue.  cuius  of.  88 

Dance,  national,  of  thn  Afghans,  913 
Dane,  a  Persian  coin.  87 
|>eer.  red.  156 

Draught  players,  from  an  Egyptian 
paiuUng.  90 

eastern  dormitory  on  the  house-top, 
48 

Edward  the  Confessor,  coin  ttt,  163 

Bvliert.  coin  of.  169 

Kliubeth,coiuof,  163,  164 

Bphesus,  coiu  of,  85 

Kssequibo  river.  William  IV.'s  Ca- 
taract. 205 

Ethelbert,  coiu  of.  162 

Ethelred  of  Kent,  coin  of.  169 

of  Northumberland,  styea  of, 

169 

Bthrlstan.  coin  of,  162 

Btou  college.  341 

Flazmau.  sculptures  by,  105, 145. 169, 

— chess-men  designed  by,  J38, 

148,  173. 188.  220.  237 

Oadara,  coin  of,  67 

Gallery  over  the  hnll  at  Knole.  89 

Glue,  diagram  illustrating  the  manufiio- 

ture  of,  72 
Gold  angel  of  Elisabeth,  163 

spur  royal  of  Klisaljeth,  164 

— —  ten-shilling  piece  of  the  Common- 
wealth. 165 
Great  gun  at  Hejapuor,  141 
Group  of  Suliots,  o7 
Guyana,  British,  views  in,  177, 185, 193, 
205. 217 

Hadrian,   medal   commemorating   hit 

victory  over  the  Jews,  88 
Hall  at  Knole.  gallery  over  the.  89 

at  LittlecoatM,  interior  of  tlie,  199 

Hanover,  Leibuits's  house  in,  97 
Honseatic  rath-house,  Labeok,  949 


Hare,  the,  1 L6 

iu  her  form.  117 

Harold,  eoin  uf.  16i 

Harpies,  vicloiy  of  Hercules  over  the, 
medalliuu  eummemorating  the,  81 

Henry  I.,  coin  of,  163 

1 1 .  coiu  of,  163 

Hercules*  victory  over  the  Harpies,  rae- 
rtallioii  commemoratiuK  the  81, 

Hornlteam,  leaf  aud  catkins  of  the, 
931 

House-top.  Eastern  dormiioryonthe,48 

Hut  and  cauues,  of  the  natives  of  Bri- 
tish Guyana,  917 

Cchneumon,  the,  109 

Illusions,  ojitical.  Illustrations  of,  903, 

228.  235.  236 
lostructiou,  from  Canova,  49 

Jaasy,  public  promenade  at,  153 
Jerbon,  the.  64 

Jewish  coins  and  medals,  83,  87 
Jj.>nnlna,  6 

Ring,  chess,  designed  by  FluKman,  139 
King   William  the  Fourth's  Cataract, 

Bssequilw,  905 
Knight  f,  chess,  designed  by  Flamnon, 

188    . 
Knole.  gallery  over  the  hall  at.  89 
Koords  exercising.  128 

Lastingham  church,  erypt  in.  9 
lA^ibuttz's  house  iu  Hanover,  97 
LHllecoates,  iuterior  of  the  hail  at,  199 
Lubeck,  view  of,  256 

Hanseatic  rath*housi>.  949 

Lynn,  .St.  Nicholas  chapel,  95 

Macedonian  coins.  84 
Machiuerv  for  wir»>drawing,  180 
ftlagpie,  the.  39 
Mallard,  the.  ^'' 
Massaroony,  view  on  the,  193 
Medals : — 

Apamean,  168 

Baptism  of  Constantino  the  Giftt* 
88 

Co' umbos.  167 

Krench.  issued  by  Ndpoleon,  167 

Hadrian.  88 

Hercules  and  the  Hnrpiefl,  61 

Jewiah,  87 

Nero.  83 

Vespucci.  167 
Mercia,  coin  of  Offa.  king  of,  169 
Months,  rural  sports  of  the,  illnstra* 

tions  of.  40.  76.  116,  117.  156, 197 
Mount  Ararat,  45 
Mountains  of  Ataralpu,  185 
— . — — —  Kbaina,  177 

Napier's  rods,  or  bones^  11 
Napoleon,  medal  issued  bv,  167 
National  d.ince  uf  the  Afghans,  913 
Nero,  medal  of,  83 

Offa,  king  of  Mtfrela,  etrfn  of,  7 


Old  English  mansions.  1,  89,  199 
Optica)  illusions,  illustrations  of,  903. 

228.  235  236 
Otter,  the,  197 

Pawns,  chess,  designed  by  FlaSBian. 

820,  237 
Pen  y  (imitf.  ^almou-leap  at,  137 
Perch,  the.  248 
Persian  breakfast,  125 
■•  coins,  8/ 

Pheeniciao  coiu,  88 
Pike,  the.  200 
Porcupine,  the.  68 
Public  promenade  at  Jassy.  153 

Queen,  eheso,  designed  by  Flouiiu^ 

Itajah  and  his  vas<als,  909 

itaih-hous*-,  Hauseatic.  at  Lulieck.  SMO 

Ked  deer,  156 

Uesijriiaiioti,  by  Klaxman.  105 

Kouiua  monii'Hius.  r>ii>gtf!4  ut  ilie,  177 

Koniau  coms^  aitarsou,  84 

— aud  medals,   81,  33^  64, 

cK> 
Books,  chess,  101 
Eural  sporU  of  tite  months,  illnstra- 

tions  o(  40. 76, 116. 117, 166, 19? 

St  Nicholas  ehapel,  Lynn,  95 

Salmgn,  the.  176 

Salmon  leap  at  Pen  y  Graig,  137 

.Sauiideraou's  calculating  machine,  98 

SecUou  exhibiting  the  aiructute  of  vel- 
vet. 24 

Shekel,  the  Jewish.  87 

8imtiu*s  trial  piece.  161 

Source  of  the  Thames.  901 

Sports,  rural,  of  the  months,  illoslim- 
tioos  ot.  49.  76. 116,  U7.  156, 197 

Spting.ay,  the.  994 

Sturgeon. the,  92 

Styea  ot  Ethelred  of  Northttmberlaad* 

Suliot  hills,  the.  33 

Suliots,  group  ol.  57 

Snltooieb,  in  Northern  Persia,  41 

Thames,  soureo  of  the,  901 
'    ■       views  on  the  banks  of  the.  9(^1. 
925. 933  -»       *. 

Tokat.  in  Asia  Minor,  191 
Toorkman  camp,  916 
Trout,  the,  199 

Velvet,  section  exhibiting  the  ttmetiir* 

of.  94 
Vespucci,  medal  in  honour  of.  167 
Victory  of  Hercnles  over  the  Harpl«a, 

medallion  commemorating  tba,  81 
View  on  the  Massaroony,  199 

William  It.,  coin  of,  168 

William  the  Fourth's  oataraet,  Esse* 

quibo.  206 
Wire*drawing  machinery,  189 
WroxtoB  Abbey,  1 


N?  646.  JANUARY  2':?.  1841.  {o.^'^SU. 


.1 


5   I 


Vol.  xvm. 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[January  2, 


WROXTON  ABBEY,  OXFORDSHIRE- 


The  stately  hones  of  EDgIan4, 

How  beantiful  they  stand ! 
Amidst  their  tall  ancestral  trees, 

O'er  all  the  pleasant  land. 
The  deer  acrosK  their  greensward  bound 

Tlwough  shade  and  sunny  gleav, 
And  the  swan  glides  past  tliem  witli  the  sonnd 

Of  some  rtgoicing  stream. Hkmass. 


We  have,  on  one  or  two  occasions,  presented  the  reader 
with  copies  of  some  of  the  admirable  engravings  Con- 
tained in  Mr.  Nash's  Mannons  of  England  in  the 
Olden  Time.  The  appearance  of  a  second  series  of 
that  work,  and  the  permission  of  the  publisher  to  pre- 
sent a  view  from  it  in  our  present  Number,  offers  an 
opportunity  for  our  again  expressing  the  bpinion  which 
we  have  formed  of  it. 

The  idea  of  presenting  views  of  the  mansions  of  the 
nobility  and  gentry  in  various  parts  of  England,  is  by  no 
means  a  new  one ;  for  many  of  our  artists  and  eng^vers 
have,  at  diilbrent  times,  and  to  different  extent,  followed 
up  such  a  plan.  We  may  particularly  allude  to  Mr. 
Neale's  elegant  work,  entitled  Views  of  Seats,  which 
extends  to  ten  or  twelve  volumes,  and  contains  repre- 
sentations and  descriptions  of  a  very  large  number  of 
mansions.  But  still  something  else  was  wanted;  some 
other  feature  was  looked  for,  which  might  carry  the 
imagination  back  to  old  times,  when,  from  the  peculiar 
usages  and  customs  of  the  age,  the  English  gentry  were 
wont  to  dwell  more  in  the  midst  of  their  tenantry  and 
dependents  than  they  are  enabled  to  do  at  the  present 
day.  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  why  it  is  that  such 
changes  occur,  daring  the  lapse  of  time;  but  oertun  it 
is,  that  the  home  of  an  English  country  gentleman,  in 
the  reign  of  **  good  Queen  Bess,"  of  tlie  Jameses,  and 
the  Charleses,  presented  marked  and  characteristic  fea- 
tures :  our  authors  may  describe  these  characteristic  fea- 
tures, and  do  all  that  the  pen  can  effect  in  presenting 
them  to  the  mind ;  but  the  aid  of  the  painter  is  wanting 
to  produce  the  full  effect. 

Now  this  brings  us  to  the  nature  and  object  of  Mr. 
Nash's  work,  m  does  not  merely  represent  cold  exte- 
riors of  large  mansions ;  he  carries  the  spectator  within 
doors,  and  peoples  the  halls,  the  saloons,  the  libraries, 
with  inmates,  habited  as  they  were  wont  to  be  in  the 
times  of  which  we  have  spoken.  His  plan  has  been,  to 
visit  such  old  mansions  as  present  the  most  striking  ex- 
amples of  the  "  Elixabethan"  style  of  architecture,  and 
as  have  suffered  the  smallest  degree  of  change  by  repair ; 
to  select  some  portion  of  each  building,  of  &e  most  pic- 
turesque kind;  to  furnish  it  (if,  as  is  usual,  it  be  an  in- 
terior) with  such  decorations,  furniture,  and  implementa, 
as  were  likely  to  be  found  in  it  in  times  long  gone  by; 
to  give  vividness  to  the  scene  by  introducing  imaginary 
figures,  habited  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  era 
chosen ;  and  to  represent  those  figures  as  being  employed 
in  such  avocations  as  will  illustrate  the  domestic  arrange- 
ments and  the  domestic  sports  of  *'  merry  England,"  two 
or  three  centuries  ago.  Such  was  the  plan  proposed; 
and  the  mode  of  execution  is  so  admirable,  that  a  seeond 
series  of  similar  views  was  speedily  called  for.  This 
second  series  is  now  before  us ;  and  from  it  we  select  a 
view  of  Wroxton  Abbey,  Oxfordshire,  respecting  which, 
we  will  give  a  few  descriptive  and  historical  details. 

Wroxton  Abbey  is  situated  in  the  parish  of  Wroxton, 
near  Banbury,  in  Oxfordshire.  We  will  say  a  few  words 
respecting  Banbury,  before  we  visit  the  Abbey  itself. 

If  we  look  at  a  map  of  Oxfordshire,  we  find  that  the 
northern  portion  is  very  narrow,  not  above  eight  or  ten 
miles  in  breadth.  At  the  eastern  border  of  this  narrow 
district,  is  the  town  of  Banbury,  on  the  river  Charwell; 
and  proceeding  westward  from  Banbury,  we  come  to 
Wroxton  Abbey,  at  a  distance  of  about  two  miles. 

Banbury  is  a  considerable  market  town,  twenty-two 


miles  from  Oxford,  and  seventy-thiee.from  London,  nnd 
contains  between  five  and  six  thousand  inhabit;^  U. 
This  place  is  supposed  to  have  been  occupied  by  t!  c 
Romans,  from  the  discovery  of  some  Roman  coins  and 
a  Roman  altar  there.  About  the  year  1 1 53,  a  castle  \\  as 
built  here  by  Alexander,  bishop  of  Lincoln,  wliich  con- 
tinued an  episcopal  residence  till  the  first  year  of  tlic 
reign  of  Edward  the  Sixth;  and  is  said  to  have  contained 
a  dreary  dungeon  for  convicts.  During  the  wars  of  the 
Roses,  the  neighbourhood  of  Banbury  was  the  scene  of 
frequent  conflicts,  of  which  the  most  disastrous  was  the 
battle  of  Banbury,  fought  in  1469,  on  a  plain  called 
Danesmore,  near  Edgecote,  a  village  about  three  miles 
distant,  between  the  Earl  of  Warwick  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  Earls  of  Pembroke  and  Stafford  on  the  other; 
which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Yorkists.  The  town 
was  again  the  seat,  of  contention,  during  the  civil  wars  of 
the  Commonwealth.  The  inhabitants  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  Parliament;  but  the  town  was  taken  by  the 
Royalists  after  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  and  defended  by 
Sir  William  Compton,  against  Colonel  Fiennes,  for  thir- 
teen weeks,  till  the  garrison  was  relieved  by  the  Earl  of 
Northampton.  It  was  afterwards  besieged  for  several 
weeks  by  Colonel  Whalley,  and  surrendered  on  honour- 
able terms. 

The  town  of  Banbury  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a  fertile 
valley,  on  the  banks  of  the  small  river  Charwell.  The 
houses  are  well  built,  and  the  streets  are  lighted  with 
gas.  The  chief  manufactures  of  the  town  are  cheese,  of 
which  a  \aTge  quantity  of  superior  quality  is  made,  and 
the  celebrated  *^  Banbury  eakes  ;**  formerly  there  was 
an  extensive  manufacture  of  plush,  shag,  and  girth  web- 
bing ;  but  this  has  greatly  declined.  Ilie  church,  dedi- 
cated to  St  Mary,  is  a  spacious  structure,  erected  under 
the  authority  of  an  act  or  Parliament,  obtained  in  1790. 
The  living  is  a  discharged  vicarage,  in  the  archdeaconry 
and  diocese  of  Oxford,  rated  in  the  king's  books  at 
22/«  Q«.  2d*f  endowed  with  200/.  private  benefaction, 
400^  royal  bounty,  and  600^  parliamentary  grant. 
Among  the  places  for  education  are  a  blue-coat  school, 
established  by  subscription  in  1705,  and  endowed  with 
property  to  the  amount  of  60/.  per  annum:  thia  school 
was,  in  1807,  incorporated  with  a  national  school,  to 
which  a  Sunday-school  has  been  sinee  attached.  For- 
merly, there  was  a  firee  grammar-school  here^  which  was 
held  in  such  high  estimation,  that  the  statutes  of  Saint 
Piaiil's  School*  London,  are  said  to  have  been  drawn  up 
on  the  model  of  those  of  Banbury  SdiooL  Cke  of  the 
masters,  Mr.  Stanbridge,  was  tutor  to  Uie  celebrated  Sir 
Thomas  Pope;  and  so  great  was  the  reputation  which 
this  institution  had  acquired,  that  the  statutes  of  the  free 
grammar-school  at  Manchester,  dated  1524,  ordain  that 
the  grammar  be  there  taught  *<  after  the  manner  of  the 
school  at  Banbunr*  in  Ox&dshire,  which  is  caUed  Stan- 
bridge  grammar.' 

In  proceeding  from  Banbury  to  Wroxton  Abbey, 
which  is  about  two  miles  westward  of  it,  we  pass  through 
the  small  parish  of  Drayton,  possessed  by  the  noble 
houses  of  Guilford  and  Dorset.  It  onee  contained  a 
mansion  occupied  by  the  Greville  family,  but  this  has 
been  long  in  an  uninhabitable  state  as  a  mansion,  though 
we  believe  a  portion  of  it  has  been  repaired  and  fitted 
up  as  a  poor-house.  The  church  of  Drayton  is  a  simple 
unimposing  structure,  principally  remarkable  for  the 
tombs  and  relics  of  the  noble  personages  who  once 
resided  in  the  neighbourhood. 

The  parish  of  Wroxton,  in  which  the  abbey  is  situated, 
contains  only  about  eight  hundred  inhabitants.  The  livin^r 
is  a  vicarage  in  the  archdeaconry  and  diocese  of  Oxford, 
and  m  toe  patronage  of  ihe  Marquis  of  Bute.  1  he 
church  is  dedieated  to  All  Saints,  and  contains  monu- 
ments totwo  er  three  of  the  Earls  of  Guilford,  to  several 
other  metnberw  of  that  family,  to  the  first  Earl  of  Donne, 
and  to  other  distinguished  personages. 

Wroxton  Abbey  would  seem,  from  its  name,  to  Le 


1841.] 


THE  SATUKDAY  MAGAZINE. 


3 


rather  an  ecclesiastical  structure  than  a  private  mansion ; 
but  the  truth  is  that  an  abbey  formerly  occupied  the  spot, 
and  a  portion  of  it  has  bfi^n  built  into  or  included  in 
the  present  mansion,  which  retains  the  old  name.  A 
priory  of  canons  regular  of  St.  Augustin  was  founded 
here  in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Third,  and  valued  at 
78/.  13j.  4d.  The  buildings  of  this  priory  were  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  the  present  mansion  was  built  on  its  site. 

The  estate  came  into  the  family  of  the  Norths  by  the 
marriage  of  Francis,  Lord  Keeper  Guilford,  with  Lady 
Frances  Pope,  sister  of  fourth  and  last  Earl  of  Donne. 
The  greater  part  of  the  present  structure  was  erected 
by  Sir  William  Pope,  afterwards  Earl  of  Donne,  in  the 
year  1618.  The  building  is  of  an  ornamental  and  inte- 
resting  iJiaracter,  though  it  was  not  completed  according 
to  the  original  desigrn,  as  an  intended  wing  on  the  south 
side  was  never  commenced.  The  Lord  Keeper  made 
some  additions,  and  the  late  Earl  of  Guilford  erected  an 
elegant  library,  after  a  plan  by  Smirke.  llie  chapel  is 
a  fine  room,  beautified  by  the  first  Earl  of  Guilford. 
Among  the  pictures  deposited  in  this  mansion  are  many 
ancient  portraits  of  the  families  of  North  and  Pope. 
Among  the  latter  is  an  original  of  Sir  Thomas  Pope, 
founder  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  uncle  of  the 
first  Earl  of  Donue.  Of  the  Norths  there  is  a  complete 
series  of  portraits,  from  Edward,  the  first  lord,  created 
in  the  reign  of  Philip  and  Mary,  to  the  present  Earl  of 
Guilford.  "  The  whole  of  Wroxton  Priory,"  says  Mr. 
Brewer,  "is  creditable  to  the  taste  of  the  noble  owner. 
Every  improvement  introduced  (and  many  have  been 
effected)  is  rendered  subservient  to  the  ancient  baronial 
character  of  the  edifice.  The  gardens  and  pleasure- 
grounds  will  be  viewed  with  particular  interest,  as  no 
innovating  hand  has  robbed  them  of  their  monastic  fea- 
tures.** 

The  only  remains  of  the  original  abbey  (or  priory,  as 
it  would  seem  to  be  more  correctly  called)  are  an  arch, 
which  was  probably  a  door  of  entrance,  and  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  passages,  communicating  with  offices  in  the 
lower  division  of  the  building. 

Mr.  Nash  has,  in  one  picture,  represented  the  porch 
of  Wroxton  Abbey,  which  is  an  elegant  specimen  of  the 
Italian  decorated  entrances,  so  frequenUy  attached  to 
buildings  of  this  date.  Another  plate  is  devoted  to  the 
hall.  This  hall  is  handsome,  though  plain,  and  is  re- 
markable for  the  screen,  which  is  richly  carved  and  sup- 
ported on  columns,  leaving  the  space  beneath  the  music- 
gallery  open.  The  pendant  in  tne  centre  of  the  ceiling 
is  likewise  a  curious  feature,  and  has  a  light  and  elegant 
effect.  The  stags'  heads  introduced  into  the  wall  are  also 
peculiar  and  striking  ornaments. 


HUNGARY  WATER. 


Jbopabd  not  the  loss  of  many  things  for  the  gain  of  one 
thing;  neither  adventure  the  loss  of  one  thing  certain  for 
many  things  doubtful.— Sin  Thomas  Smith. 


The  heart  may  be  sad,  without  the  eye  being  wet. — Lovke. 


ADv£B8nT  is  like  the  period  of  the  former  and  of  the  latter 
nkiuy— cold,  comfortless,  unfriendly  to  man  and  to  animal ; 
yet  from  that  season  have  their  birth,  the  flower,  and  the 
fruit,  the  date,  the  rose,  and  the  pomegranate, — Sir  Walter 
Scott.  

Affuction  appears  to  be  the  guide  to  reflection ;  the  teacher 
of  humility ;  tne  parent  of  repentance ;  the  nuxse  of  faith ; 
the  strengthener  of  patience,  and  the  promoter  of  charitv : 
while  of  Uioee  upon  whom  affliction  is  thus  sanctified  to  the 
purifying  of  the  soul,  and  its  improvement  in  Christian 
graces ;  of  thoee,  who  study  to  convert  it  with  the  blessing  of 
their  merciful  Father,  to  their  spiritual  and  eternal  welfare, 
that  they  *'  may  become  partakers  of  his  holiness ;"  of  those 
who  welcome  it  as  the  means  whereby  they  may  ^' learn 
the  statutes"  of  the  Lord :  of  such  persons  it  may  be  truly 
affirmed,  as  the  royal  Psalmist  acknowledged  of  himself,  that 
'*  it  is  good  for  Uiem  to  be  afilicted."— Bishop  Mant. 


Docton  or  Teachen  ihey  of  Ph^ck  ore, 
(Whether  by  pen  they  do  it,  or  in  choir 
"With  hxeij  TOTce,)  that  teach  the  way  to  know 
Man'a  nature,  health,  and  sickuesa,  and  do  show 
Diseaaoa,  cauae,  and  cure :  but  they  who  spend 
Their  lile  in  Yisits.  and  whose  labour)  end 
In  taking  fees  and  giving  paper  scrowla, 
Faclort  of  phyaick  are,  and  none  but  owla 
1*0  court  Kuch  doctors,  th^t  no  Latin  know, 
Irom  whence  that  name  did  to  our  language  flow. 

Thus  wrote  William  Rowland,  the  coadjutor  of  Culpe- 
per  in  some  of  his  numerous  works  on  medical  subjects ; 
and  from  the  tone  of  satire  in  whicli  Uie  hues  are  written, 
the  reader  would  naturally  suppose  that  this  Rowknd 
was  a  genuine  "doctor,"  and  not  a  mere  "factor  of  phy- 
sick."  Yet  we  are  tempted  to  smile  when  we  see  what 
were  the  ideas  of  such  men  respecting  the  effects  of 
medicines  on  the  human  body,  and  how  strangely  they 
mixed  up  astrology  with  the  medical  art.  If  we  select 
almost  any  simple  herb, — rosenimy  for  instance, — ^we 
shall  find  that  they  attribute  to  it  virtues  which  would 
very  much  gladden  the  hearts  of  invalids,  could  we  only 
believe  them  to  be  true.  Rosemary,  Culpeper  tells  us; 
will  cure,  or  at  least  "help*'  cold  diseases,  rheum, 
swimming  of  the  head,  drowsiness,  stupidity,  dumb 
palsy,  lel^bargy,  falling  sickness,  tooth-ache,  bad  breath, 
weak  memory,  dim  sight,  yellow  jaundice,  pestilence, 
cough,  ptisick)  consumption,  benumbed  joints,  and  a 
host  of  other  personal  evils,  both  internal  and  external. 
He  also  informs  us  that  "the  sun  claims  privilege  to  it, 
and  it  is  under  the  celestial  Ram." 

These  whimsicalities  would  be  calculated  merely  to 
amuse,  were  it  not  that  uneducated  persons  arc  often 
disposed,  by  the  perusal  of  the  works,  or  the  popular 
dissemination  of  the  opinions,  of  such  men  as  Culpeper 
and  Rowland,  to  form  a  very  erroneous  estimate  of  the 
tomparative  state  of  medical  knowledge  in  past  and 
present  times.  The  reputed  properties  of  any  particular 
herb  or  medicament,  however  astounding  they  may  be, 
are  laid  down  by  our  old  herbalists  in  such  positive  and 
undoubted  terms,  that  many  readers  fear  it  would  be  a 
kind  of  presumption  to  doubt  the  truth  of  what  is 
asserted.  This  is  an  evil,  since  it  is  difficult,  and  often 
impossible,  to  bring  the  mind  into  a  fit  state  for  the  re- 
ception of  truths  riecently  discovered,  if  it  is  pre-occupicd 
by  doctrines  which  partake  of  the  marvellous,  and 
which  are,  principally  on  that  account,  eagerly  caught  up 
by  the  multitude. 

We  could  easily  collect  numerous  examples  of  medi- 
cinal herbs,  which  are  now  used  for  the  most  simple  pur- 
poses only,  but  which  were  once  lauded  for  curative 
properties  almost  innumerable.  Some  preparations, 
formerly  much  vaunted,  are  now  utterly  unknown,  while 
others,  although  still  admitted  into  the  healing  art, 
occupy  a  far  humbler  station  than  that  which  they  once 
filled.  There  is  a  curious  history  respecting  the  subject 
of  Hungary  Water,  a  preparation  from  Rosemary, 
which  will  illustrate  some  of  the  remarks  offered  above, 
and  will  show  that  persons  moving  even  in  the  highest 
circles  were  once  not  exempt  from  the  belief  in  medicines 
and  remedies  of  a  marvellous  character. 

Hungary  tvatet  is  spirit  of  wine  distilled  upon  rose- 
mary, and  therefore  imbued  with  its  oily  and  strongly  - 
scented  essence.  It  used  to  be  brought  principally  fr  m 
France,  particularly  from  Beaucaire,  Montpellier,  a  nd 
other  places  in  Languedoc,  where  rosemary  grew  in 
great  abundance.  The  name  by  which  it  is  known , — 
FEau  de  la  reine  tTHonsrrie'jSeems  to  imply  that  it  was 
first  kaoym  or  used  in  Hungary,  and  such  appears  on 
investigation  to  have  been  the  case.  Several  books  ave 
been  written  on  the  subject,  in  which  it  is  stated  that 
the  receipt  for  making  this  medicine  was  given  to  : 
queen  of  Hungary  by  a  hermit,  (some  say  by  an  an  el  - 
who  appeared  to  ber  in  a  garden,  all  entrance  to  w  hich 
was  shut.     One  writer  says  that  this  queen  was  Q  ueen 

546—2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[  Januabt  2, 


St.  Isaber.a,  but  anotaer  states  it  to  nave  been  Elizabeth, 
wife  of  Charles  Robert,  king  of  Hungary,  daughter  of 
Uladislaus  II.,  king  of  Poland,  and  he  goes  on  to  say, 
that  by  often  washing  with  this  spirit  of  rosemary,  she 
was  cured  of  gout  and  lameness,  at  the  age  of  seventy 
years ;  that  she  lived  to  the  age  of  eighty,  and  became 
again  so  renovated  in  youth  and  beauty,  through  the 
effects  of  this  wonderful  preparation,  that  she  was  ad- 
mired by  the  king  of  Pokuid  at  that  time,  who  was  then 
a  widower,  and  who  wished  to  make  her  his  second  wife. 
Many  indistinct  allusions  were  made  by  different 
writers  to  a  book,  or  breviary,  containing  a  receipt, 
written  by  the  queen  of  Hungary,  in  letters  of  gold,  for 
the  preparation  of  this  famous  medicine.  But  the  first 
dear  account  of  it  was  given  by  John  Prevot,  in  a  medi- 
cal work  published  about  two  centuries  ago.  The  sub- 
stance of  his  information  on  this  point  was  as  follows : — 
In  the  year  1606,  Prevot  happened  to  see,  among  the 
books  of  Francis  Podacather, — a  man  of  noble  family 
with  whom  he  was  intimate, — a  very  old  breviary,  which 
Podacather  held  in  high  veneration.  This  breviary  had 
been  griven  by  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Hungary,  to  one  of 
the  ancestors  of  Podacather,  as  a  testimony  of  the  friend- 
ship that  existed  between  them ;  and  at  the  beginning 
of  it  is  the  following  entry,  in  the  queen's  own  hand : — 

I,  Elizabeth,  queen  of  Him^ary,  being  veiy  infirm,  and 
much  troubled  with  the  ^out,  m  the  seventy-second  year  of 
my  age,  used  for  a  year  this  receipt,  given  to  me  by  an  ancient 
liermit,  whom  I  never  saw  before  nor  since,  and  was  not  only 
onied,  but  recovered  my  strength,  and  appeared  to  all 
80  remarkably  beautiful,  that  the  king  of  Poland  asked 
me  In  marriage,  he  beinG"  a  widower  and  I  a  widow.  I, 
however,  refused  him  for  uie  love  of  my  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
from  one  of  whose  angels  I  believe  I  received  the  remedy. 
The  receipt  is  as  follows  :•— 

Take  of  aqtui  Tite,  four  times  distilled,  three  parts,  and  of 
the  tops  and  flowers  of  rosemary  two  parts:  put  these  toge« 
ther  in  a  close  vessel:  let  them  stand  in  a  gentle. heat  fifty 
hoars,  and  then  distil  them.  Take  one  dnun  of  this  in  the 
morning,  either  in  your  food  or  drink,  and  let  yoor  free  and 
the  disMsed  limh  he  washed  with  it  every  morning.    . 

It  renovates  the  strength,  brightens  the  spirits,  purifies  the 
maiTOW  and  nerves^  restores  and  preserves  the  sight,  and 
prolongs  life. 

If  we  were  to  judge  of  this  strange  document,  taking 
the  tone  of  modem  opinion  as  a  standard,  we  should  be 
inclined  to  doubt  its  authenticity ;  but  when  we  consider 
the  character  of  the  times  (about  the  year  1380),  and 
the  allusions  made  to  it  by  so  many  writers,  we  may 
admit  its  truth,  by  supposing  the  queen  to  have  been 
a  woman  of  a  vain  and  rather  weak  mind. 

An  account  of  the  mode  of  preparing  Hungary  water 
was  published  by  Zapata,  in  1586,  in  his  Mirabdiaf  sen 
Seer  eta  Medic  O"  Chirurgica  *.  The  writer  commences 
by  alluding  to  the  wonderful  cures  performed  on  one 
Anaxagoras  by  the  use  of  this  Hungary  water,  and  then 
describes  the  mode  in  which  it  was  prepared  .by  Arnold 
of  Villa  Nova: — <<  Take  some  good  must,  such  as  yields 
a  ley  of  his  own  accord,  before  the  grapes  are  bruised. 
Put  it  into  a  vessel,  and  add  the  sprouts  and  leaves  of 
rosemary,  of  each  ten  parts;  and  when  it  has  steeped 
in  spirit,  let  it  be  shut  up  in  a  perforated  vessel,  in  order 
that  it  may  effervesce,  and  extract  the  virtues  of  the 
rosemary.  When  the  process  has  been  thus  far  con- 
ducted, let  some  more  must  and  rosemary  be  put  into  a 
glass  cucurbit,  and  distilled  five  times:  when  it  boils  let 
the  result  of  the  fifth  distillation  be  drawn  out;  and  after 
\t  shall  have  been  distilled  in  the  other  vessel  of  must 
and  rosemary,  (in  which  fermentation  has  been  going  on,) 
both  are  to  be  added  together.  Then  add  a  small  quan- 
tity of  the  fifth  distillation,  or  quintessence,  so  that  the 
must  may  be  developed  from  it  more  frequently  and  effi- 
caciously  **     It  must  be  confessed  that  a  modem 

practitioner  would  be  somewhat  perplexed  to  have  to  pro- 
duce Hungary  water  by  such  a  description  as  this. 

*  This  was  a  hook  which  treated  of  '*  the  wo&dfln  or  secrato  of  the 
BMdical  and  sorgical  profession,'* 


The  time  has  now  gone  by  when  Hungary  water  was 
deemed  a  specific  against  severe  diseases;  and  it  has 
taken  its  rank  among  the  simpler  preparations  from  vege- 
table bodies.  In  preparing  this  liquid,  the  leaves  and 
tops  of  the  rosemary  yield  their  fragrance,  in  a  g^reat 
degrree,  to  the  ardent  spirit,  leaving  behind  the  greatest 
share  both  of  their  flavour  and  pungency.  The  mode 
of  preparing  it  usually  adopted  is,  by  distilling  one  gal- 
lon of  proof  spirit  of  wme,  in  which  a  pound  and  a  half 
of  fresh  rosemary-tops  have  been  placed.  In  order  to 
make  it  in  perfection,  the  spirit  must  be  very  pure,  and 
the  leaves  at  their  full  growth,  gathered  without  bruising. 
If  the  flowers  are  suspended  in  the  retort,  and  a  gentle 
heat  applied,  just  sufficient  to  raise  the  spirit  in  the  form 
of  vapour,  this  vapour,  by  lightly  percolating  through 
them,  is  said  thereby  to  increase  ihe  fragrance.  The 
custom  used  to  be,  in  order  to  produce  Hungary  water 
of  the  finest  kind,  to  distil  the  spirit  several  times  with 
the  rosemary ;  but  the  commoner  sorts  were  often  nothing 
more  than  cheap  brandy,,  with  a  little  of  the  essence  or 
the  oil  of  rosemary  added  to  it. 

Hungary  water  is  now  regarded  as  nothing  more  than 
an  agreeable  perfume,  possessing  nearly  the  same  quali- 
ties as  the  simple  herb  from  which  it  is  produced.  The 
wondrous  properties  attributed  to  this  liquid  by  the 
queen  of  Hungary,  as  well  as  the  equally  marvellous 
virtues  attributed  to  rosemary  itself  by  the  herbalists, 
are  now  known  to  have  had  their  chief  foundation  in  the 
operation  of  the  human  mind.  The  gradual  develope- 
ment  of  truth  makes  sad  havoc  in  glowing  and  highly- 
coloured  descriptions,  whether  of  medicinal  cures  or  of 
any  other  subject  in  which  the  public  is  deeply  interested. 


An  article  has  appeared  in  some  of  the  daily  journals,  in  which  the  toI- 
cano  of  Kiraueh,  (there  called  Kireca,)  in  the  island  of  Hawaii,  or 
Owhyhee,  is  qmken  of  as  a  newly  formed  crater.  It  was,  howerer, 
riaitoi  many  years  since  hy  Mr.  EUia;  and  the  foUowing  account 
given  by  Mr.  Douglas,  corresponds  so  closely  with  its  present  state, 
as  recently  laid  before  the  Geographical  Society,  that  it  may  not  be 
uninteresting  to  our  readers. 

THE  VOLCANO  OF  OWHTHEB. 

The  late  Mr.  Douglas,  who  visited  Kiraueh  in  1833,  has 
described  the  scene  presented  by  the  interior  of  its  crater  as 
singularly  awfiil  and  magnificent.  He  descended  to  a 
ledge  at  the  depth  of  1062  feet  in  this  fearful  pit;  where  a 

re  about  five  miles  in  diameter,  was  covered  with  lava, 
whole  of  which  had  apparently  been  recently  in  a  state 
of  fusion,  though  some  portion  was  at  that  period  hardened. 
This  igneous  mass  appeared,  in  the  process  of  ooolinff,  to 
have  hdea  rent  into  pieces  of  every  form  and  size,  firom 
gigantic  roUs,  like  enormous  cables,  to  the  finest  threads. 
Over  this  part  of  the  pit  were  dispersed  numerous  small 
cones,  or  chimneys,  which  continually  emitted  smoke ;  and 
besides  these  little  cones  there  were  tnree  remarkable  pyra- 
midal masses,  measuring  about  900  feet  at  the  base,  and 
bein^  from  20  to  25  fbet  m  height.  These  cones  had  lateral 
openmes,  like  the  doors  of  a  baker's  oven,  to  which  they 
altogether  bore  a  close  resemblance.  By  kneeling  down  on 
the  ledge  it  was  posable  to  peep  into  these  openings,  and  to 
witness  "a  terrific  vacuity,  a  red-hot  atmosphere,"  varied 
only  by  the  occasional  ejection  of  volcanic  matter  through 
a  lateral  opening.  The  remaining  portion  of  this  pit  con* 
sisted  of  two  lakes  of  liquid  lava :  one  about  900  feet  in 
diameter,  and  the  other  above  3000  feet  in  length,  and 
nearly  2000  feet  in  widUi.  Both  these  lakes  of  fire  flowed 
in  a  continued  stream  towards  the  south  end  of  the  pit,  at 
which  point  vras  exhibited  one  of  the  most  appalling  and 
magnificent  spectacles  in  nature, — a  vast  cauldron  of  laya, 
in  furious  ebullition,  rolling  and  tumbling  in  fiery  waves, 
sometimes  spouting  up  to  tne  height  of  00  or  70  feet,  and 
rapidly  hurrying  along:,  until  it  precipitated  itself  through 
an  arch  about  400  feet  in  width,  and  40  feet  in  height,  into 
a  yawning  chasm  of  unknown  depth.  From  this  tr«-> 
mendous,  but  unseen,  laboratory  of  nature,  immense  masses 
were  thrown  back  with  great  violence,  and  literally  spun 
into  minute  p;lass-like  filaments,  which  were  carried  Dy  the 
wind  in  all  directions.    The  sound  issuing  from  this  arch- 


IMl.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 
TURKEY   AND   THE   TURKISH    PROVINCES 


The  Tnrkigh  government  has  many  pecuUaritieE  that 
distinguish  it  from  European  states,  and  foremost  of 
these  is  the  admiuiatration  of  its  provinces  by  means  of 
Pachas.  This  institution,  though  in  its  principle  perhaps 
not  very  different  from  that  of  the  suzerainties  of  the 
feudal  system,  presents  such  a  systematic  course  of  ex- 
tortion, bribery,  and  rebellion,  and  is,  as  a  whole,  so  little 
like  Mjthin)!  that  the  history  of  Christendom  offers  to 
oar  notice,  that  it  is  of  itself  sufficient  to  impress  upon 
the  country  a  distinct  character,  and  without  some  ac- 
quaintance with  the  system,  any  account  of  Turkey  must 
be  but  imperfectly  comprehended.  We  accordingly  Air- 
nish  a  sketch  of  the  career  of  a  Turkish  pacha,  the 
substance  of  which  we  borrow  from  Colonel  Napier. 

The  Sultan,  seldom  removing  from  Constantinople,  is 
there  surrounded  by  a  cabinet,  termed  the  Divan,  which 
■ppoints  ss  the  governor  of  a  distant  province,  that  one 
among  the  numerous  class  of  the  Sultan's  personal  attend- 
ants, who  either  bribes,  or  promises  to  bribe,  them  most 
largely.  The  government  b  sometiineB  not  even  vacant 
when  the  post  is  sold,  but  should  the  pacha  have  become 
obnoiious  to  the  sultan  or  his  government,  a  messenger  a 
despatched  to  bowstring  him  and  bring  his  head  to 
Constantinople ;  this,  if  the  governor  be  weak  or  taken 
by  surprise,  is  often  accomphshed  without  cUfficulty :  but 
in  other  cases,  the  messenger  is  waylaid  and  murdered, 
and  the  event  oi^  serves  to  wring  a  bribe  from  the  in- 
tended victim.  Tne  purchaser  then  has  to  wwt  an  indefi- 
nite time  till  further  steps  are  taken,  which  he  very 
patiently  does,  well-knowing  that  the  bowstring  would  be 
the  reward  of  any  other  conduct. 

When  he  at  length  gains  possession,  his  first  measure 
is  to  solve  what  is  said  to  be  the  grand  problem  of  Turk- 
iafa  government,  namely,  how  far  he  may  plunder  his  sub- 
jects without  occasioning  a  rebellion  too  formidable  for 
tim  to  put  down.  This  point  settled,  his  tribute  remitted, 
and  his  promised  bribes  to  the  Divan  punctually  pud, 
with  a  handsome  additional  sum  as  a  retaining  fee,  the 
new  pacha  is  generally  allowed  to  go  on  peaceably,  as 
in  u  regards  the  Porte,  for  a  few  years.     Then  similar 


r    JOAXKIKA. 

means  to  those  toat  procured  his  riw  are  employed  to 
work  his  downfall.  His  subjects  have  fmta  the  fir^t 
preferred  complaints  against  nim,  and  now  that  he  is 
presumed  to  be  rich,  these  are  regarded.  His  government 
IS  in  the  market,  and  he,  aware  of  the  fact,  endeavours 
to  meet  the  danger  by  bribing  more  largely  than  before. 
At  length,  having  reached  the  point  of  endurance,  he 
atttempts  to  condliate  bis  people  by  relaxing  somewhat 
of  his  eitortious;  and  these,  knowing  that  the  arrival  of 
a  new  govemoris  invariably  followed  by  greater  oppres- 
sion than  ever,  are  sometimes  induced  to  make  common 
cause  with  hmi.  His  bribes  now  become  less  than  before; 
his  government  is  sold,  and  a  messenger  despatched  for 
his  head,  who,  however,  not  unfrequently  loses  his  own. 
Next  comes  the  new  pacha,  with  an  army,  if  he  can 
raise  one ;  and  then  follows  a  war,  which  usually  ends  by 
one  party  outwitting  the  other,  and  putting  him  to  death, 
with  drcumstances  of  treachery  and  cruelty  of  which 
European  readers  can  form  no  adequate  conception. 

This  matter  premised,  we  may  now  proceed  to  the 
description  of  Joannina,  once  the  capital  of  Ali  Pacha, 
whose  eventful  life,  of  which  we  may  one  dw  give  a 
sketch,  well  exhibits  the  blood-stained  and  checkered 
career  of  a  Turkish  governor. 

THE  PA8HALIC  OF  JOANNINA. 
Joannina  is  the  chief  town  in  a  paahalic  of  the  same 
name,  situated  in  Albania,  a  province  near  the  north- 
west boundary  of  European  Turkey.  It  owes  nearly  all 
the  celebrity  which  it  has  attuned,  to  the  power  and  in- 
fluence of  Ali  Pacha,  who  made  it  bis  residence.  The 
town  is  not  far  from  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Adriatic, 
and  is  in  the  immediate  vianity  of  some  of  the  Ionian 
Islands. 

At  a  distance  of  about  sixty  miles  north-west  of  the 
Moreo,  a  small  gulf  branches  out  from  the  Adriatic, 
called  the  Gulf  of  Arta;  at  the  entrance  of  which  is  a 
commercial  town  of  some  importance,  called  Prevesa. 
Forty  miles  northward  of  Prevesa  stands  the  town 
of  Joannina,  the  approach  to  which,  from  the  south,  is 


6 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE* 


[January  2, 


described  by  travellers  as  beiug  very  beautiful.  Dr.  Hoi  - 
land  thus  describes  the  scene  which  presents  itself,  when 
the  traveller  has  approached  within  two  miles  of  the  city. 

A  large  lake  spreads  its  waters  along  the  base  of  a  lofly 
and  precipitous  moimtainy  which  forms  the  first  ridge  of 
Pindus,  on  this  side,  and  which,  as  I  had  afterwards  rea^n 
to  believe,  attains  an  elevation  of  more  than  2500  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  plain.  Opposed  to  the  highest  summit  of 
this  mountain,  and  to  a  small  island  which  lies  at  its  base, 
a  peninsula  sti-etches  forward  into  the  lake  from  its  western 
shore,  terminated  by  a  pei-pendicular  face  of  rock.  This 
peninsula  forms  the  fortress  of  Joannina ;  a  lofty  wall  is  its 
barrier  on  the  land  side ;  the  waters  which  lie  around  its 
outer  clifis,  reflect  from  their  surface  the  irregular,  yet 
splendid  outline  of  a  Turkish  seraglio,  and  tlie  domes  and 
minarets  of  two  Turkish  mosques,  environed  by  ancient 
cypresses.  The  eye,  receding  backwards  from  the  fortress 
of  the  peninsula,  reposes  upon  the  whole  extent  of  the  city, 
as  it  stretches  along  the  western  borders  of  the  lake : — ^re- 
pose, indeed,  it  may  be  called,  since  both  the  reality  and 
the  fancy  combine,  m  giving  to  the  scenery  the  character  of 
a  vast  and  beautiful  picture,  spread  out  beiore  the  sight. 

The  length  of  the  lake,  on  the  borders  of  which  the 
town  of  Joannina  is  situated,  is  about  six  miles,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  two ;  but  at  the  point  where  the  penin* 
sula  juts  out  into  the  lake,  the  breadth  of  the  latter  is 
very  small.  The  city  extends  along  the  greater  part  of 
the  western  shore  of  the  lake,  and  stretches,  in  width, 
from  the  lake  to  a  row  of  low  eminences,  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  distant  from  it.  The  interior  aspect  of  the 
town  is  said  to  be  rather  gloomy,  except  at  some  parti- 
cular spots.  The  streets  are  very  tortuous,  so  as  to 
give  a  stranger  a  great  deal  of  embarrassment  in  rea  Ling 
any  destined  part  of  the  town;  and  those  in  which  the 
lowest  classes  of  the  inhabitants  dwell,  contain  little  but 
wretched  mud-built  cottages,  and  are  in  the  outskirts  of 
the  city.  The  habitations  of  the  middle  ranks  make  a 
nearer  approach  to  comfort,  being  constructed  of  wood) 
with  a  small  open  gallery  under  the  projecting  roof; 
altogether  dissimilar  to  the  cottages  of  Switzerland. 
The  dwellings  of  the  higher  classes,  both  Greeks  and 
Turks,  partake  more  of  an  Oriental  character,  being 
quadrangular  structures  surrounding  an  open  court,  and 
having  wide  galleries  running  round  the  sides :  the  con- 
struction of  these  houses  is  such  as  to  be  extremely  con- 
venient in  a  warm  climate;  but,  externally,  they  have 
more  the  appearance  of  prisons  than  of  houses,  for  they 
present  little  more  to  the  eye  than  lofty  walls,  with  mas- 
sive double  gates,  and  wmdows  (if  any*)  at  the  top  of  the 
building. 

The  bazaars  form,  in  Joannina,  as  well  as  in  other 
Turkish  towns,  the  most  bustling  and  attractive  feature 
in  the  place.  They  consist  of  ten  or  twelve  streets,  in- 
tersecting each  other  at  irregular  angles :  they  are  narrow, 
and  are  rendered  rather  dark  by  the  low  projecting  roofs, 
and  by  the  large  wooden  bootns  in  which  the  goods  are 
exposed  for  szue.  Each  bazaar  is  appropriated  to  the 
sale  of  one  particular  class  of  goods ;  for  instance,  there 
is  one  occupied  by  those  who  deal  in  jewellery,  and  other 
ornamental  articles ;  a  second,  by  the  dealers  in  pelisses, 
Turkish  shawls,  and  other  articles  of  dress ;  a  third,  by 
the  retailers  of  common  cotton  goods ;  a  fourth,  by  the 
dealers  in  grocery,  tobacco,  dried  fruits,  &c. ;  a  fifth,  by 
those  who  sell  hookah  and  Meerschaum  pipes,  wooden 
trinkets,  &c.;  a  sixth,  by  the  dealers  in  coloured  leather, 
and  Turkish  slippers ;  and  one  or  two  others.  Some  of 
these  bazaars,  especially  those  in  which  jewellery  and  arti- 
cles of  dress  are  sold,  are  richly  and  abundantly  furnished. 

Joannina  contains  sixteen  mosques,  each  standing  on 
an  open  space  of  ground,  and  generally  surrounded  by 
large  cypresses.  There  arc  also  about  seven  or  eight 
Greek  churches,  Joannina  being  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
archbishop. 

The  seraglios,  or  palaces  of  the  pacha,  are  very  large 
and  important  buildings.  The  chief  one  is  lofty  in  itself, 
and  situated  on  the  most  lof^y  spot  in  the  city:  it  is 


principally  built  of  wood,  but  b  supported  and  sur- 
rounded by  high  and  massive  stone  walls,  on  dififerent 
parts  of  which  cannon  are  mounted.  The  palace  itself 
is  built  entirely  in  the  Turkish  style,  with  roofs  project- 
ing far  beyond  the  face  of  the  building;  windows  dis- 
posed in  long  rows  underneath;  and  walls  richly  deco- 
rated with  paintings,  occasionally  landscape,  but  more 
generally  what  is  merely  ornamental,  and  without  any 
uniform  design.  The  entrai\oe  to  the  seraglio  is  very 
mean,  being  under  a  broad  wooden  gateway,  within 
which  is  a  large  irregular  area,  two  sides  of  which  are 
formed  by  the  buildings  of  the  seraglio.  On  crossing 
this  area,  a  dark  stone  staircase  leads  to  an  outer  hall, 
from  which  an  entrance  leads  into  a  long  and  loity 
apartment,  contiguous  to  the  audience  chamber  of  the 
pacha.  This  last  mentioned  apartment  is  decorated 
in  a  somewhat  gaudy  style,  the  nrcvailing  colours,  as 
well  of  the  walls  and  ceiling  as  of  the  furniture,  being 
crimson,  blue,  and  yellow.  Tlie  ceiling  is  divided  into 
squares  by  woodwork  very  curiously  and  delicately  carved, 
the  interior  of  each  square  being  decorated  in  crimson 
and  gold.  Pilasters  are  arranged  at  equal  distances  round 
the  walls,  and  on  these  are  hung  sabres,  daggers,  nistols, 
&c.,  all  profusely  ornamented  with  gold  and  jewels.  A 
carpet  covers  the  floor;  and  round  three  sides  of  the 
room  are  ranged  dwans^  or  platforms,  about  fifteen 
inches  high,  and  covered  with  cushions  of  crimson  satin. 
A  hearth,  for  burning  wood  fiiel,  is  situated  at  one  side 
of  the  room,  and  over  it  is  a  projecting  chimney,  rising 
in  the  form  of  a  conical  canopy,  superbly  ornamented 
with  gilding.  This  description  of  the  style  of  decoration 
in  the  audience  chamber,  will  serve  to  convey  a  general 
idea  of  all  the  state  apartments,  in  which  a  strange  mix- 
ture of  gaudiness  and  barbarity  is  observable,  but  very 
little  real  taste. 

Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  structure  in  the  town  is 
the  pavibon  of  the  pacha,  situiited  in  the  northern  suburb. 
This  pavilion  is  in  the  middle  of  a  garden,  and  consists 
of  a  great  saloon^  two  hundi^  and  forty  feet  in  circum- 
ference; its  outline  is  not  a  perfect  circle,  but  is  formed 
by  the  curves  of  four  separate  areas  or  recesses,  which  are 
all  open  to  the  great  circular  area  that  occupies  the  centre 
of  the  building.  The  curve  of  each  recess  contains  nine 
windows ;  and  there  are  two  also  at  the  entrance  hato  the 
pavilion.  The  pavement  is  of  marble,  with  a  large  and 
deep  marble  baisin  in  its  centre:  in  the  midst  of  this 
basin  stands  the  model  of  a  pyramidal  fortress,  mounted 
with  numerous  cannon,  from  each  of  which  a  jei  d'eau 
issues,  meeting  the  other  jets  from  cannon  on  the  outer 
circumference  of  the  basin.  Attached  to  one  of  the  pil- 
lars of  the  pavilion  is  a  sinall  organ,  which  plays  while 
the  water  is  flowing* 

The  peninsula,  of  which  we  have  before  spoken, 
widens  as  it  advances  into  the  hike,  and  is  terminated  by 
two  distinct  promontories  of  rock;  on  one  of  which 
stands  a  large  Turkish  mosque^  its  lofty  minaret^  and 
extensive  piazzas,  shaded  by  the  cypresses  surrounding 
it.  On  the  other  promontory  is  situated  the  old  seraglio 
of  the  pachas  of  Joannina,  inhabited  by  them  previous 
to  the  erection  of  the  one  which  we  have  described,  but 
now  chiefly  inhabited  by  officers  and  soldiers  of  the 
pacha's  guard  The  whole  of  the  peninsula  is  fortified, 
so  as  to  form  a  little  town  in  itself,  insulated  from  the 
rest  of  the  city  by  A  lofty  stone  wall,  and  a  broad  moat 
which  admits  the  waters  of  the  lake. 

The  banks  of  the  lake  are  studded  with  numerous  ob- 
jects of  a  picturesque  nature,  such  as  the  Great  Seraglio, 
which  seems  to  rise  directly  from  the  shore ;  a  painted 
kiosk,  projecting  over  the  water,  below  the  rocks  of  the 
old  seraglio;  a  convent  of  dervishes,  shaded  by  trees,  to- 
wards the  north.  But  the  most  attractive  object  is  one 
which  owes  nothing  to  the  hand  of  man,  viz.,  the  moun- 
tain ridge  which  backs  the  city,  and  which  rises  to  ^ 
height  of  nearly  three  thousand  feet:  this  range  forms 
a  continuous  boundary  to  the  valley  ia  which  the  lake  ia 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


situatcdi  rising  from  the  water's  edge,  in  the  part  oppo- 
site to  Joannina,  with  an  abruptness  and  majesty  of  outline 
which  has  much  of  the  sublime  in  it:  its  precipitous 
front  is  intersected  by  the  ravines  of  mountain  torrents, 
the  borders  of  which,  expanding  as  they  approach  the 
lake,  are  covered  with  wood,  and  form  the  shelter  to 
many  small  villages. 

The  lake  is  rather  inconsiderable  in  depth,  and  is  ter- 
minated at  each  extremity  by  low  marshy  land;  there  is 
an  outlet  towards  the  north,  by  which  the  water  of  the 
lake  flows  to  another  small  lake  about  six  miles  distant 
from  the  city.  The  water  which  thus  flows  from  one 
lake  to  the  other,  after  having  passed  through  the  second 
lake,  suddenly  enters  a  subterranean  passage  underneath 
some  limestone  hills,  and  appears  again  at  a  considerable 
distance.  The  supply  of  water  to  both  lakes,  is  derived 
from  springs,  and  from  the  various  mountain  torrents 
which  descend  into  them. 

There  is  a  considerable  amount  of  trade  carried  on  at 
Joannina.  The  chief  article  of  importation,  is  cloth  of 
French  and  German  manufacture :  this  reaches  them  by 
way  of  Leipsic,  and  the  demand  for  it  is  very  consider- 
able, since  all  the  rich  Greeks  and  Turks,  not  only  in 
Albania,  but  also  in  parts  of  Roumelia,  and  the  Morea, 
purchase  at  Joannina  the  cloth  for  their  loose  robes  and 
winter  pelisses.  \^thin  the  last  few  years,  English 
cloths  nave  also  found  a  maricet  at  this  place.  The 
articles  of  exportation  are,  oil,  wool,  com,  and  tobacco, 
for  the  Italian  ports ;  and  for  inland  circulation,  through 
Albania  and  Roumelia,  spun  cottons,  stocks  of  guns  and 
pistols  mounted  in  chased  silver,  embroidered  velvets, 
stuffs,  and  cloths.  Large  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  and 
droves  of  cattle  and  horses,  are  collected  from  the  Alba- 
nian hills,  and  sold  at  an  annual  fair  held  near  the  town : 
the  horses  are  generally  sold  again  to  inhabitants  of 
Albania;  but  the  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats,  usually  go  to 
the  Ionian  Islands. 

In  concluding  this  slight  description  of  Joannina,  we 
must  remark  that  the  town  was  the  scene  of  many  des- 

Serate  conflicts  between  the  Turks  and  the  Albanians, 
uring  the  latter  part  of  the  life  of  Ali  Pacha,  and  that 
these  contests  have  probably  made  some  alterations 
in  the  buildings  and  arrangement  of  the  town;  but  as 
there  have  been  very  few  recent  travellers  to  that  part  of 
Turkey,  we  are  not  exactly  in  a  position  to  state  what 
these  changes  or  alterations  may  have  been.  Every- 
thing relating  to  the  natural  beauties  of  the  spot,  must, 
however,  be  nearly  or  quite  the  same  as  they  were  before, 
whatever  be  the  turmoils  and  strifes  of  ambitious  men : 
the  palaces  and  houses  made  by  meUi  may  be  destroyed 
by  them;  but  the  mountains  and  valleys  remain,  enduring 
witnesses  of  the  power  of  the  Ghreat  Creator  who  formed 
them. 


LovB  OF  Home. — ^Whiitever  strengthens  our  attachments 
is  favourable  both  to  individual  and  national  character. 
Out  home,— our  birth-place, — our  native  land !  Think  for 
a  while  what  the  virtues  are  which  arise  out  of  the  feelings 
connected  with  these  words ;  and  if  thou  hadst  any  intellec- 
tual eyes,  ihou  wilt  then  perceive  the  connection  between 
topography  and  patriotism.  Show  me  a  man  who  cares  no 
more  for  one  place  than  another,  and  I  will  ^ow  vou  in  the 
same  person  one  who  loves  nothing  but  himself!.  Beware 
of  those  who  are  homeless  by  choice !  Yon  have  no  hold 
on  a  human  being  whose  affections  are  without  a  tap-root. 
Vagabond  and  rogue  are  convertible  terms ;  and  witn  how 
much  propriety,  any  one  may  understand  who  knows  what 
are  .the  habits  of  the  wanaering  classes,  such  as  gipsies, 
tinkersy  and  potters^ — The  Doctor, 


Thz  history  oi  creation  is,  itself,  the  history  of  God's 
government ;  and  nothing  short  of  absolute  idiotism,  rather 
than  mere  ignorance,  could  believe  it  possible  that  this 
hu«leulably  complicated,  multi&rious,  and  inconceivably 
extended  unirerse^  could  preserve  its  order  without  a 
government.— Hacculloch.  ^ 


ON  CHESS. 

I.     Origin  and  Antiquity  of  the  Game. 

The  origin  of  the  game  of  Chess  has  been  the  subject  of 
very  laborious  research  and  warm  argument;  and,  al- 
though the  results  are  by  no  means  satisfactory,  yet  the 
inqiiiry  has  afforded  a  good  deal  of  valuable  and  amusing 
information ;  a  selection  from  which  will  probably  be  in- 
teresting to  the  general  reader,  as  well  as  to  the  amateurs 
of  this  noble  and  scientific  game. 

Some  historians  have  referred  the  invention  of  chess 
to  the  philosopher  Xerxes;  others  to  the  Grecian  prince 
Palamedes;  some  to  the  brothers  Lydo  and  Tyrrhene; 
and  others,  again,  to  the  Egyptians.  The  Chinese,  the 
Hindoos,  and  the  Persians,  also  prefer  their  claims  to  be 
considered  as  the  originators  of  chess,  but  the  testimonies 
of  writers,  in  general,  prove  nothing  except  the  very 
remote  antiquity  of  the  game. 

In  examining  the  testimonies  of  various  writers,  on  a 
subject  so  obscure,  wo  must  always  make  considerable 
allowance  for  that  prejudice  in  favour  of  certain  opinions 
which  habit  and  locid  circumstances  apart  from  sound 
reasoning  have  tended  to  confirm.  Thus,  a  historian 
who  has  passed  much  of  his  time  in  India,  studying  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  tiative  tribes,  tracing  out 
their  history,  translating  their  legends,  and  copying  their 
monuments,  would  almost  unconsciously  support  against 
any  other,  the  claims  of  such  a  people  t«  any  remarkable 
invention.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  historian  of 
the  Chinese,  of  the  Egyptians,  of  the  Greeks,  and  other 
ancient  nations ;  and,  accordingly,  we  find  that  each  of 
these  nations  has  its  advocate  in  English  literature. 

The  first  writer  that  we  shall  mention,  is  Mr.  James 
Christie,  who  has  written  a  quarto  volume,  entitled.  An 
Inquiry  into  the  Ancient  Greek  Game,  eupposed  to 
have  been  invented  by  Palamedes^  antecedent  to  the 
Siege  o/*  TVoy.  It  is,  however,  generally  agreed  that 
the  clauns  of  the  ancient  Greeks  to  the  invention  are 
unfounded.  Palamedes  lived  during  the  Trojan  war, 
and  was  so  renowned  for  his  sagacity,  that  almost  every 
early  discovery  was  ascribed  to  him.  The  whole  of  the 
claim  of  Palamedes  rests  upon  the  definition  of  tlie 
game  of  pebbles,  irrrpcia,  as  played  by  the  Greeks. 
This  game  was  played  with  white  and  black  pebbles,  and 
was  invented  by  Palamedes,  as  appears  by  a  line  in  the 
first  book  of  Homer  s  Odyssey. 

The  claim  of  the  Romans  is  equally  unfounded:  a 
game,  something  like  dice,  is  spoken  of  by  their  writers, 
which  has  been  mistaken  for  chess. 

Mr.  Irwin,  in  a  letter  to  the  Earl  of  Charlemont,  pub- 
lished in  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy y 
supports  the  claims  of  the  Chinese,  in  whose  Concunif  or 
Annals,  appears  the  following  passage: 

Three  hundred  and  seventy-nine  years  after  the  time  of 
Confucius,  or  1966  years  ago,  Hung-cochu,  king:  of  Kiang- 
nan,  sent  an  expedition  into  the  Shen-si  country,  under  the 
command  of  a  mandarin,  called  Uan-sing,  to  conquer  it. 
After  one  successi'ul  campaign,  the  soldiers  were  put  into 
winter  quarters;  where,  findmg  the  weather  much  colder 
than  what  they  had  been  accustomed  to,  and  being  also  de- 
prived of  their  wives  and  families,  the  army,  in  general, 
became  impatient  of  their  situation,  and  clnmorous  to  return 
home.  Ilan-sing,  upon  this,  revolved  in  his  mind  the  bad 
consequences  of  complying  with  their  wishes.  The  neces- 
sity of  soothing  his  troops,  and  reconciling  them  to  their 
position,  appeared  urgent,  in  oi*der  to  finisli  his  operations 
m  the  ensumg  year.  He  was  a  man  of  genius,  as  well  as  a 
good  soldier;  and,  havmg  contemplated  some  time  on  the 
subject,  he  invented  the  c^ame  of  chess,  as  woll  for  an 
amusement  to  his  men,  in  their  vacant  houw,  ns  to  inflame 
their  military  ardour, — ^the  game  being  wholly  founded  on 
the  principles  of  war.  The  sti-ataj^em  succeeded  to  his  wish. 
The  soldiery  were  delighted  with  the  game ;  and  forgot,  in 
their  daily  contests  for  victory,  the  inconveniences  of  their 
post.  In  the  spring,  the  general  took  the  field  again ;  and 
in  a  few  months,  added  the  rich  country  of  Shcn-si  to  tlio 
kingdom  of  Kiang-non.  Hung-coohu  assumed  the  title  of 
emperor^  and  Chou-payuen  put  an  end^  his  life  in  despair. 


8 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[January  2,  1841. 


In  the  Chinese  game  of  chess,  (which  is  called  Chong- 
key  or  the  Royal  Game,)  the  board  is. divided  by  a  river 
in  the  middle,  to  separate  the  contending  parties.  The 
powers  of  the  king  are  very  limited:  he  is  intrenched  in  a 
fort,  and  moves  only  in  that  space  in  every  direction. 
There  are  also  two  pieces  whose  movements  are  distinct 
from  any  in  the  European  game:  viz.,  the  Mandarin, 
which  answers  to  our  bishop  in  his  station  and  sidelong 
course,  but  cannot,  through  age,  cross  the  river:  and  a 
Rocket-boy  stationed  between  the  lines  of  each  party, 
who  acts  with  the  motion  of  a  rocket,  by  vaulting  over  a 
man,  and  taking  his  adversary  at  the  other  end  of  the 
board.  Except  that  the  king  has  two  sons  to  support 
him  instead  of  a  queen,  the  game  is  like  ours. 

From  these  considerations,  Mr.  Irwin  infers  that  the 
game  of  chess  is  probably  of  Chinese  orig^in ;  that  the 
confined  situation  and  powers  of  the  king,  resembling 
those  of  a  monarch  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  world, 
favour  the  supposition,  and  that  the  agency  of  the  prin- 
ces, in  lieu  of  the  queen,  bespeaks  forcibly  the  nature  of 
the  Chinese  customs,  which  exclude  females  from  all 
power.  The  princes,  in  the  passage  of  the  game  through 
Persia,  were  changed  into  a  single  vizier,  or  minister  of 
state,  with  the  enlarged  portion  of  delegated  authority 
that  exists  there ;  instead  of  whom,  the  European  nations, 
with  their  usual  gallantry,  adopted  a  queen  on  their  board. 
Mr.  Irwin  further  infers,  that  the  river  between  the  par- 
ties is  expressive  of  the  general  face  of  China,  where  a 
battle  could  scarcely  be  fought  without  encountering  an 
interruption  of  this  kind,  which  the  soldier  was  here 
taught  t<^ overcome;  but  that^  on  the  introduction  of  the 
game  into  Persia,  the  board  changed  with  the  nature 
of  the  region,  and  the  contest  was  decided  on  land. 

Sir  William  Jones,  Dr.  Hyde,  and  others, .  favour  the 
claim  of  the  Brahmins  of  India,  and  adduce,  the  testi- 
mony, of  the  Persians  (who  acknowledge  that  they  re- 
ceived the  game  from  India  in  the  sixth  century,)  as  well 
as  of  certain  ancient  treatises  on  chess  in  .the  Sanscrit. 
The  Brahmins  relate,  that  one  of  their  body  contrived 
chess  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  to  divert  the  melancholy  of  a  love-sick  princess ; 
but  the  more  popular  story  is  as  follows : 

At  the  commencement  of  the  fifth  century  of  the 
Christian  eraj  there  lived  in  the  Indies  a  very  powerful 
prince,  whose  kingdom  was  situated  towards  where  the 
Ganges  discharges  itself  into  the  sea.  He  took  to  him- 
self the  proud  title  of  King  of  the  Indies ;  his  father  had 
forced  a  great  number  of  sovereign  princes  to  pay  tribute 
to  him,  and  submit  themselves  under  his  empire.  The 
young  monarch  soon  forgot  that  the  love  of  the  subjects 
for  their  king  is  the  only  solid  support  of  his  throne:  he 
oppressed  the  people  by  his  tyranny ;  and  the  tributary 
princes  were  preparing  to  throw  off  the  yoke.  A  Brahmin 
named  Sissa,  touched  with  the  misfortunes  of  his  country, 
and  resolved  to  make  the  prince  open  his  eyes  to  the  fatal 
tendency  of  his.  conduct,  invented  the  game  of  chess, 
wherein  the  king,  although  the  most  considerable  of  all 
the  pieces,  is  both  impotent  either  to  attack  or  to  defend 
himself  against  his  enemies,  without^the  assistance  of  his 
subjects. 

The  new  game  soon  became  so  famous,  that  the  king 
wished  to  learn  it.  The  Brahmin  Sissa  was  selected  to 
teach  it  him,  and  under  the  pretext  of  explaining  the  rules 
of  the  game,  and  showing  him  the  skill  required  to  make 
use  of  the  other  pieces  for  the  king's  defence,  soon  made 
him  perceive  and  relish  important  truths,  which  he  had 
hitherto  refused  to  hear.  The  king  rigidly  applied  the 
Brahmin's  lessons  to  his  o^  circumstances,  and  feeling 
that  his  real  strength  must  consist  in  his  people's  confi- 
dence and  love,  averted,  by  a  timely  alteration  of  his  con- 
duct, those  misfortunes  which  seemed  to  be  coming  upon 
liim. 

Out  of  gratitude  to  the  Brahmin,  the  prince  left  him  to 
choose  his  own  reward.  The  Brahmin  requested  that  a 
number  of  grains  of  com,  equal  to  the  number  of  the 


squares  of  the  chess  board,  might  be  given  iiim,  one  for 
the  first,  two  for  the  second,  four  for  the  third,  and  so  on, 
doubling  always  to  the  sixty-fourth.  TLe  king,  astoni- 
shed at  the  seeming  modesty  and  reasonableness  of  the 
demand,  granted  it  immediately;  but  when  his  officers 
had  made  a  calculation,  they  found  that  the  king's  grant 
exceeded  the  value  of  all  his  treasures.  The  Brahmin 
availed  himself  of  this  opportunity,  to  show  how  neces- 
sary it  was  for  kings  to  be  upon  their  guard. 

The  game  of  chess  has  b^n  known  from  the  time  of 
its  invention  or  introduction  in  Hindustan,  by  the  name 
of  Chaturangay  or  the  four  members  of  an  army,  viz., 
elephants,  horses,  chariots,  and  foot-soldiers. 

Sir  William  Jones  informs  us,  that  by  a  natural  corrup- 
tion of  the  pure  Sanscrit  word,  it  was  changed  by  the  old 
Persians  into  Chairang;  but  the  Arabs,  who  soon  after 
took  possession  of  their  country,  had  neither  the  initial 
or  final  letter  of  that  word  in  their  alphabet,  and  conse- 
quently altered  it  further  into  Shatranj,  which  soon  found 
its  way  into  modem  Persian,  and  at  length  into  the  dialects 
of  India,  where  the  true  derivation  of  the  name  is  known 
only  to  the  learned ;  and  thus  has  a  very  significant  word 
in  Uie  sacred  language  of  the  Brahmins  been  transformed 
by  successive  changes,  into  Axedrez,  Scacchiy  Echecsy 
Chess,  Our  learned  author  thinks  that  the  simpler 
game,  as  now  played  in  Europe  and  Asia,  was  invented 
by  a  single  effort  of  some  great  genius,  and  not  com- 
pleted by  gradual  improvements.  He  informs  us  that 
no  account  of  the  game  has  hitherto  been  discovered  in 
the  classical  writings  of  the  Brahmins,  though  it  is  con- 
fidently asserted,  that  Sanscrit  books  on  chess  exist. 
He  describes  a  very  ancient  Indian  game  of  the  same 
kind,  but  more  complex,  and,  in  his  opinion,  more  modem 
than  the  simple  chess  of  the  Persians. 


Anbcdote  01?  Sir  Ralph  Abxrcrombie. — ^When  ^  Ralph 
Abercrombie  was  commander-in-chief  of  Ireland,  he  visited 
Kilkenny,  and  stopped  a  few  days  there.    In  early  life.  Sir 
Ralph  had  been  quartered  there,  then  a  subaltern  officer. 
He  was  in  the  habit  of  goine  down  the  river  to  fish ;  there 
was  a  young  man  and  his  wife,  of  the  name  of  Dunfy,  who 
invariably  invited  him  into  their  cabin,  near  the  river,  and 
were  so  partial  to  him,  they  gave  him,  on  many  occasions, 
the  best  fare  they  had,  such  as  potatoes,  eggs,  and  milk, 
which  he,  with  pleasure,  partook  of  with  them.     His  regi- 
ment left  Kilkenny,  and  he  never  had  an  opportunity  of 
visiting  it  after,  until  this  period.    The  day  after  Sir  Ralph 
arrived,  he  walked  down,  unaccompanied  by  any  one,  to 
his  old  haunt,  and  stopping  at  the  door  of  his  once  kind 
friend,  Dunfy,  found  him  and  his  wife  living,  then  an  old 
couple,  with  a  family  grown  up.    Sir  Ralph  asked  them  if 
their  names  were  Dunfy :  they  replied  in  the  affirmative  • 
he  then  said,  ''Do  you  recollect  an  officer  of  the  name  of 
Abercrombie,  that  frequently  visited  your  cottage  when 
fishing  in  the  river  some  years  ago?"    "Recollect/^ said  the 
old  man,  "  we  do,  indeed,  sir,  and  often  inquired  for  him  ; 
at  last,  we  heard  he  was  dead,  and  heartify  sorry  for  him 
we  were,  for  he  was  a  good  creature,  and  had  no  pride :  he 
used  to  sit  down  with  us  in  our  poor  cabin,  and  sometimes 
taste  our  humble  fere."    "In  troth,"  said  the  old  woman 
"we  would  share  with  him  now,  was  he  alive" — at  the 
same  time  giving  an  expressive  look  at  her  husband,  as  if 
in  sorrow  for  him.    To  tneir  great  surprise  and  joy,  he  told 
them  that  he   was  the  same  Abercombie  that  they  had 
known.     He  then  put  a  one  hundred  pound  note  into  the 
old  man's  hand,  and  wishing  him,  his  wife,  and  familv,  all 
happiness,  expressed  his  grateful  sense  of  lus  former  kind- 
ness to  him.    Judge  their  suiprise,  on  going  into  the  to\%-n 
of  Kilkenny,  to  hear  that  their  kind  benefactor  was  then 
commander-in-chief  of  Ireland. — The  Veteran, 

What  is  unknown  admits  of  an  interminable  phraseology 

while  real  knowledge  can  be  condensed  in  a  few  words. 1 

Maoculloch. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAND. 
Pdbusbsd  nf  WiexKLT  NuMBBM,  micB  Ohm  Vmnvr,  Ays  tn  Hoktiix,y 

Parts,  prics  Sixpxnck. 
JSold  by  ftU  BooknUon  ud  Newivendai  In  the  Kingdom* 


£alttrlrd|f       im^^im^ 


N9.  547. 


JANUARY 


9T?,  1841.; 


ON   ANCIENT   CRYPTS 


r    L^tTIXSBAM   CBVKCR,    TOKKSMIBX, 


Th  detaili  reiatmg  to  architecture,  we  meet  vith  fre- 
qticDt  mention  of  a  portion  of  an  eccleaiastical  edifice 
called  the  Cr^i.  This  name  appears  to  hare  raried 
somewhat  in  its  application;  for  several  of  the  places 
which  we  now  call  crypts,  differ  m  some  respects  from 
those  which  in  former  times  bore  that  name.  Generallv 
tpeaUng,  however,  we  may  say  that  a  crypt  (the  Greek 
word  signifies  a  place  of  eoncfalment)  is  a  subterraneous 
vault,  or  chapel,  constructed  beneath  the  high  altar,  or 
eastern  end  of  many  cathedral,  abbey,  and  collegiate 
churches,  for  nreserving  the  bodies  of  martyrs  and  holy 
persons,  and  for  the  peHbrmance  of  Divine  Worship, 

Catacombs,  or  subterraneous  places,  used  among  the 
andents  for  the  burial  of  their  dead,  were  resorted  to  by 
the  primitive  Christians  as  places  of  security  from  their 
persecutors,  and  this,  doubtless,  from  the  knowledge  that 
aiich  receptacles  were  deemed  sacred  and  inviolable,  and 
might  therefore  be  expected  to  afford  them  a  sure  retreat. 
Some  authors  have  maintained  the  strange  idea  that  the 
Christians  themselves  were  the  excavators  of  the  cata- 
combs ;  but  the  vast  extent  of  these  subterranean  gal- 
leries, as  they  exist  at  Rome,  Naples,  Syracuse,  Ac,  and 
the  insbihty  of  the  persecuted  flock  to  carry  on  such 
nadertskuigs,  have  only  to  be  considered,  to  make  this 
opinion  appear  very  extravagant  and  absurd. 

Doubtless,  the  Christiana  took  these  catacombs,  as 
they  natorallv  presented  themselves  at  places  of  retreat : 


they  became  their  places  of  abode,  their  churches,  and 
tbeir  burial-places;  and  aromid  the  tombs  of  the  earlier 
saints  and  martyrs,  there  deposited,  they  met  together,  , 
to  encourage  each  other  in  their  holy  iaith,  and  to  per- 
form  the  rites  of  their  religion.  When  the  persecution 
ceased,  and  they  were  no  longer  obliged  to  hide  them- 
selves from  the  malice  of  enemies,  hut  were  at  hbertv  to 
raise  public  edifices  for  the  performance  of  Divine  Wor- 
ship, they  naturally  chose  out  such  situatioas  for  thia 
purpose  as  should  mark  the  remains  of  their  mar^rred 
relatives  or  friends  which  lay  beneath ;  and  gradually  aa 
these  remains  came  to  be  considered  as  endowed  with 
peculiar  sanctity,  it  became  the  rule  never  to  consecrate 
an  altar  till  the  remains  of  some  saint  were  placed 
within  its  bosom,  or  under  its  base.  When  churches 
were  required  at  places  distant  from  the  catacombs,  simi- 
lar excavations,  but  smaller  in  extent,  were  made  beneath 
the  altars,  and  relics  transferred  to  them.  The  exca- 
vation just  alluded  to  was  the  crypt,  or  vault,  which  waa 
partly  raised  above  the  level  of  the  floor,  and  partly 
sunk  beneath  iL  The  descent  to  the  crypt  was  by  a 
number  of  steps  in  the  nave,  or  transept,  and  other  steps 
ascended  from  it  to  that  part  of  the  sanctuary  immedi- 
ately over  the  crypt.  The  contents  of  the  crypt  were 
seen  from  above,  through  grated  apertures;  and  over 
the  tomb  of  the  saint  was  placed  the  altar.  These  crypts 
were  likewise  furnished  with  all  the  requisites  for  wor- 
1147 


10 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[January  9, 


ship;  and  ia  flko  writiag^  q|  W^^^bi  ^lipim  ^e  wvfb 
of  Canterbury,  mention  i»  made  rf  ^  particular  9alteot 
to  be  said  in  the  service  performed  in  crypts.  T^i\8  the 
crypt,  as  well  as  being  the  depository  of  the  bqdiea  or 
limbs  of  departed  saints  (for  where  the  whole  body  coul^ 
not  h^  obtained,  a  limb  was  regarded  by  the  devotes, 
with  almost  equal  reverence),  was  also  a  sort  of  sub^r- 
raneous  church  or  chapel,  and,  according  to  the  reputa- 
tiou  far  sanctity  borne  bjr  the  person  whose  reroaiwa  it 
enclosed,  was  thronged  with  worshippers,  and  honoured 
with  exterior  embellishments  in  the  grandeur  of  the 
edifice  raised  above  it.  The  church  of  San  Martino,  at 
Rome,  was  raised  in  the  year  500,  by  Pope  Syii(im^chi^s, 
over  a  subterraneous  chjipeV  qt  cryptji  whi^^  cont^ine^ 
the  body  of  Pope  Syly^ter;  a^d  m.  P€W»»  *^  Rom^p, 
was  built  above  the  cryp^  9I  ^he  qup^iy ^a  tliat  ia.ffiBred  Va 
the  circus  of  Nero^. 

Crypts  are  s^Uo  fbund  ui^pcxi^n^cted  ^ith  ^y  r^lig^ou^ 
edifice;  but  fon[uing  ^  t)\emselves  both  temple  andl 
tomb.  Abpnt  a  quar^ej^  otf  ^  mile  narii\\Y^T4  ^  Laodi- 
cea,  in  Syria,  are  ^ev^r^)  s^ch  crypts,  pr  sey^khr^ 
chambers,  hollowed  in  the  roct^y  gro\indi  4^d  V^^yiujf 
from  ten  to  thirty  ^\  sqvia^r^.  |n  mpist  of  thea^  cryp^ta 
there  is  a  range  of  narrow  G^\a,  each  V^^ g^  ^no^gh  Ux 
receive  one  col^n  ia  widthi  *nd  twoi  or  three  in  lei\gthn 
In  one  crypt,  named  after  S|.  T<^^U,  is  a  fountx^n,  to 
which  the  Greek  Christians  vised  to  bring  diseased  per- 
sons, for  the  anticipated  recovery  oX  their  heaUhi  hy 
ablution  m  the  fountain.  Jerusalem  ^nd  its  neighbouTr 
hood  contains  many  crypts,  in  which  are  stone  benches, 
instead  of  cells,  for  the  rweption  of  ^ffins.  How  far 
sepulchres  of  this  kind  were  in  use  ii\  Syria,  before  the 
Christian  era,  is  uncertain ;  but  the  sepulchre  in  which 
our  Saviour  was  laid  is  described  by  tne  Evangelists  ^8i 
being  hewn  out  of  a  solid  rock;  and,  from  the  circum- 
stance that  Mary  and  John  had  to  stoop  down,  in  order 
to  look  into  the  sepulchre,  we  may  infer  that  the  sepul- 
chre was  below  the  level  of  the  ground.  There  aye 
many  sepulchres  in  and  around  the  Mount  of  Olives^ 
which  appear  to  have  been  used  as  burial-places  for  holy 
persons. 

This  custom  of  placing  the  ks^  earthy  remains  of 
inspired  or  holy  men  apart  from  thpse  of  other  persons, 
was  adopted  by  the  Church  of  Rome ;  but  with  many  of 
those  debasing  and  irreligious  infringemeii^ta  which  that 
church  made  in  the  iniddle  ages,  and  by  which  ^he 
Romish  Calendar  became  crowded  with  saints  of  human 
creation.  When  the  Gothic  cathedrala  of  Europe  wer€ 
built,  the  construction  of  a  crypt,  probably  for  some  such 
purpose  as  we  have  indicated,  was  very  common;  and 
among  them  are  the  crypts  beneath  Canterbury,  York, 
and  Winchester  Cathedrals,  and  those  beneath  the 
churches  of  Grimbald^  Christ  Church,  Wimbum,  Dor- 
chester, Grantham,  Peterborough,  Waverley,  Wells,  Ac. 

In  Protestant  countries  the  crypts  are  seldom  now 
used,  either  for  sepulchres  or  for  chapels ;  indeed  so  long 
have  most  of  them  been  disused,  that  many  writers  are 
in  doubt  whether  they  were  originally  designed  for  se- 
pulchres or  for  chapels.  In  Buildwas  Abbey  Church, 
Shropshire,  there  is  a  crypt,  beneath  the  north  transept, 
extending  the  whole  length  of  the  transept  from  east  to 
west,  and  about  half  its  width  from  north  to  south.  The 
principal  entrance  to  this  crypt  was  at  the  west  end,  by 
a  flight  of  steps  out  of  the  cloister  t  and  there  seems  to 
have  been  also  a  doorway  in  the  northern  wall  of  the 
crypt.  This  subterranean  vault,  whatever  may  have 
been  its  original  destination,  has  long  been  used  as  a 
cellar. 

Canterbury  Cathedral  contains  a  vast  vault,  or  rather 
series  of  vaults,  which  is  called  the  crypt,  or  undercroft, 
and  which  is  supported  by  numerous  piers  and  massive 
columns.  This  crypt,  if  such  be  its  real  nature,  appears 
to  be  much  larger  than  the  generality  of  such  vaults. 

Other  crypts,  as  we  have  said,  are  to  be  found  be- 
neath many  cathedrals  i^nd  ancient  churches ;  but  it  will 


he  8a€Scien(  f^r  wi  httP9  W^y*tcv*n^ce  ^t  Vh^^h  is 
represented  i^  the  wo^-cut  at  the  head  of  this  f^rticle, 
ai^d  which  is  the  erypt  beneath  the  ancient  church  of 
(.astingham,  in  the  north  riding  of  Yorkshire. 

Ls^tingham  Church  is  situated  about  five  miles  from 
Kirhy  Moorside,  in  the  mountainous  part  of  the  fiorth 
riding,  and  i^  99  aQcieQi  that  great  diversity  of  opinioa 
^ists  as  to  many  points  connected  with  its  history. 
According  to.  Sedei  a  small  monastery  was  founded  on 
this  spot  by  Bishop  Cedd,  during  the  time  of  the  Hep- 
t^chy,  bo.th  4s  ^  place  of  worship  and  as  a  sepulchre. 
When  the  bishop  died,  he  was  buried  on  the  outside  of 
Ae  inon^teji'y ;  but  in  proK^eas  of  ^e*  %  atone  church 
was  built  ill  the  pAonastery,  and  the  h^Ay  of  ih?  prelate 
Yi9ft  huried  at  the  right-h^4  ^4^  ^  the  altair* 

Durh^  the  two  centuries  which  ipimediat^  preceded 
the  Nonnan  co][iquest  of  Englaiids  Y^  little  ia  IpiiqwQ  of 
Lastingham  Monastery  \  hnt  it  ia  8^p|lJ0Jied  t^  hi^Ye  been 
ruined  i^nd  deatroyeq  duruig  the  pani&h  ^^X^  9^  ^ose 
t^nea^  We  find  th^t  i^  ^Q78  !(4^lti^gha^(  ^^i^  hl^cluded 
^  th?  Toyal  demesne,  wd  thfti  Steyhe^  ?^hhqt  «f  Whitby, 
solicited  penni^io*.  \o  e«^taW.i8h  i  *W  wo^w^t^y  it 
<^aaU?f  feaw>  o^i  a90Q^nt  9^  *W  wpa^^e.  irf  Whitby 
Abbey  tp  pwt^a  s^^d  robheri.  Frcw^  th^^i  ^«  scarcely 
j^^iy  tl^ng  ia  toown  of  t-aatwgha?ft  ftlenaa^y  w  Chur^h^ 
Xhft  latter  h^caiPK^^  f^  paroc^jaj  church  9,\  ^/m»  avihse- 
quenl  perio4a  Wt  at  wha^  tipiie  la  xiot  ^ow  tepw9* 

The  Vry^»t  wdf»r^««^th  ^hia  church  hi^  hj  wwy  pr- 
sona  been  auppo^4  to  h^  of  Saxon  ooi^a^ifviction,  the 
ren^^i^it  of  the  ii[ipni^tic  church  built  before  the  Con- 
q\ieat)  hut  Mr.  ^itto^  oooaiolera  H  te  he  ft  ape^imen 
of  the  car)y  >Jprinan  atyl^i  ftf\d  ^o  Wvc  for^^^d  par^  of 
the  moii^stery  Wilt  hj  the  ahhc\t  of  Whithy*  9mT  his 
removal  to  iJ^atinffham,  since  \^  c^r^iqigt^^  with  other 
knowi^  crypta  of  the  Nonii(iai;i  m^  in  the  piaaaiv^  cha- 
racter, forina  and  or^apnenta  ^  {tie  oolwQinat  1^4  the 
simplicity  ef  the  groinipg  an4  flTches.  X^e  crypt  is 
ahout  fprtytoi^e  ^t  in  lengthy  ^n^  eaiat  V*  wwtj  mi 
twenty-two  in  widths  from  north  to  aoutht  t%^  present 
entrance  deacenda  hy  ^  trap^Qor  aii^d  figh^  gi  steps 
iron^  the  west  end  of  the  nay^  ^f  ^  ohui^  \  h\^i  iWre 
was  formerly  another  entrance  i^im^  %  Yi^ul^  I^M^age 
on  the  north  aide,  which  waa  traditkmaUy  r^port^  io 
have  extended  to  a  distance  of  tvo  9.r  thrfe  V^Hs^  ftom 
the  churchj  \^idergrexuid^  0^  Wte^^  ttie  «yp.ti  how- 
ever, by  the  present  ^trance,  at  the  we^t  end,  we  come 
to  a  square  Tauh,  measuring  about  twenty-one  feet  each 
way,  the  roof  being  supported  by  four  massive  columns, 
nearly  equidistant.  On  the  eastern  side  of  th^s  squar^ 
portion^  and  close  to  the  north  and  south  walls,  are  two 
loop-holes,  which  serve  for  windows.  Between  thes^ 
loop-holes  is  an  opening  leading  to  another  portion  of 
the  vault,  nearly  semi-circular,  and  measurmg  ehput 
eighteen  feet  by  thirteen.  At  the  eastern  extremity  pf 
this  portion,  and  of  the  whole  vault,  is  another  loop-hole, 
serving  to  admit  a  dim  light  to  the  crypt. 

The  sight  of  this  and  similar  stnustures  may  well 
serve  to  recal  to  our  minds  the  period  and  the  sufferings 
which  first  made  it  necessary  for  those  who  boje  the 
name  of  Christ  tp  seek  for  subterraneous  places  of 
worship ;  nor  can  we  do  this  without  remembering  our 
own  superior  privileges,  and  the  reason  we  have  grate- 
fully to  follow  the  faith  of  those  who  witnessed  9  good 
confession  in  the  midst  of  so  many  difficulties,  and  at  a 
time  when,  to  use  the  language  of  our  homilies,  ''  They 
had  but  low  poore  conventicles,  and  simple  oratories, 
yea,  caves  under  the  groiUK^  called  crypta,  where  they 
for  feare  of  persecution  assembled  secretly  together.** 


CnaisTXANiTV  recommends  itself  to  na  at  first  s^ht  by  this 
peculiar  presumption  of  its  beii\g  the  true  religion,  tnat  it 
makes  application  to  men  as  reasonable  creatures,  and 
claims  our  assent  on  account  of  (h^  proofs  which  it  offers. — 
AncHBisHOf  Shckkr. 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


11 


CALCULATmO  MACHINEfl 
I.  Napibr's  Bone8» — The  Ancient  Abactts. 

A  LARGE  portion  of  Ihose  labours  lo  which  the  human 
mind  is  directed,  have  tor  their  object  the  more  speedy 
attainment  of  someihinjg^  which  can  already  be  attained 
by  slow  means:  what  wb  tenn  a  new  invention,  a 
new  process,  or  a  new  Art,  is  not  always  a  means  of 
doing  something  which  could  not  be  effected  before,  or 
without  it,  but  is  oftentimes  only  an  improvement  by 
which  a  giv^tt  nbjfect  6sx\  be  altaiiied  better  and  tAofe 
speedily;  Thfe  ikmt,  to  a  certain  extoeht,  may  be  sAid  of 
the  processes  of  arithmetic:  multipUeation  is  not  a 
tbtally  differ^ht  process  from  addition, — ^It  is  Aot,  there- 
fore, a  tneand  of  eflfectlng  that  which  could  not  be 
effected  without  it,  but  it  is  a  speeditr  means  of  effect- 
ing that  which  is  within  thfe  scope  of  additioii.  Wheh 
we  multiply  Ti  by  8,  we  ih  efifect  add  Up  12  eight  times ; 
but,  by  tue  aid  of  the  multiplication  tablte,  ^-e  lose  sight 
of  the  process  bf  Addition,  and  at  once  conclude  that  l2 
multiplied  by  8  equals  96.  So,  likewise,  division  is  but 
&  speedier  kind  of  subtraction;  Ibr,  if  Vire  have  to  divide 
24  by  6,  we  in  cfiect  subtract  6  four  times  over,  by 
whi<ih  W6  separate  24  into  four  parcels  of  6  each. 

To  on6  who  has  the  multiplication  table  committed  to 
memory,  the  performance  uf  this  process  ife  as  easy  as 
that  bf  Addition;  but,  where  this  is  not  the  case,  the 
process  of  multiplication  becomes  rather  tedious,  as  bUr 
for^f Alhers  200  yeArs  ago  very  generally  felt  it  to  be :  they 
were  not  then  taught  frotm  in&ncy  the  multiplication 
table,  up  to  12  times  12,  any  t^ote  thau  we  now 
commonly  learn  it  beybnd  that  step. 

It  was,  therefore,  to  afford  them  sdd  that  the  celebrated 
Naplef,  the  inventor  of  Logarithms,  devised  the  little 
instrument,  or  series  bf  instruments,  known  as  •*  NApier'b 
rods,*'  or  "  Napier's  boned  ;**  the  mode  of  constructing 
which  is  as  follows: — Provide  several  slips  of  card, 
wood,  or  metal,  about  nine  times  as  long  as  they  are 
broad;  And  divide  each  bf  them  into  9  equal  squared. 
Inscribe  at  the  top  squAre  of  each  slip  one  of  the  num- 
bers of  the  natural  Series,  1,  2,  3,  4,  &c.,  to  9  inclusive. 
Then  divide  each  of  the  remaining  squares  into  two  parts 
by  a  diagonal  line  drawn  from  the  upper  right  hand 
comer  to  the  lower  left  hand  comer;  and  inscribe  in 
each  of  these  triangukr  divisions,  proceeding  downwards, 
the  double,  triple,  quadmple,  &c.,  of  the  number  in- 
scribed at  the  top ;  takihg  care,  when  the  multiple  con- 
sists of  only  one  ngure,  to  place  it  in  the  lower  triangle, 
And  wheU  it  cortslsts  of  two,  to  place  the  units'  figure  in 
the  lower  tru^gle,  and  the  ten's  itt  the  Upper  one.  It 
Will  be  necessArV  to  have  one  of  these  slips  or  rods,  the 
Squares  bf  whicn  are  hot  divided  by  A  diagonal,  but  in- 
scribed with  the  Uatural  liumbers  from  1  to  9 :  this  oUe 
is  called  the  index-roA.  It  will  be  proper  also^to  have 
Several  slips  bf  each  kind,  so  thAt  there  may  be  one  for 
each  particular  figure. 

The  n>ds  being  prepared,  let  us  trace  the  process  of 
multiplying,  for  instance,  the  number  6785399.  Arrange 
ieven  of  tne  rods  or  slips  inscribed  at  the  top  with  the 
figures  dose  to  each  other,  and  apply  tb  them  on  the  left 
hand  the  index-rod.  The  arrangement  will  then  be 
as  in  the  anUeked  figure,  A  Uttle  inspection  of  which  will 
show  thAt  we  have  a  tAble  of  all  the  multiples  of  each 
figure  in  the  multiplicAnd;  and  scarcely  anything  more 
will  be  necessary  than  to  transcribe  them.  Thus,  for 
example,  to  multiply  the  above  number  by  6:  looking  for 
6  on  the  ixiciex-rod,  and  opposite  to  it  in  the  drst  square 
on  the  right  hand,  we  iSnd  54 :  write  down  the  4  found 
in  the  lower  triangle,  and  add  the  5  in  the  upper  one  to 
the  4  in  the  lower  triangle  of  the  next  square  on  the 
left,  which  makes  9:  write  down  the  9,  and  then 
add  the  5  in  the  upper  triangle  of  that  square  to 
^he  8  in  the  lower  triiuigle  of  the  next  one  to  the  left. 
Proceed  in  this  manneri  taking  care  to  carry  as  in  com- 


mon addition;   and  We  shall   find   the  result  to.  be 
40712394,  or  the  product  of  6785399  multiplied  by  6. 


lfAP»E*S  BOM  OB  BoNtt. 

A  little  reflection  will  show  that  the  same  instrumeUC 
would  be  available  for  a  larger  multiplier.  Suppose 
that  the  same  multiplicand  is  to  be  multiplied  by 
839938.  Write  down  the  multiplicand  and  the  multi- 
plier below  it,  in  the  usual  manner;  and  as  the  first 
figure  of  the  multiplier  is  8,  look  for  it  in  the  indet-rod, 
and  by  adding  the  different  figures  in  the  triangles  of 
the  horizontal  column  opposite  to  it,  the  result  will 
be  54283192,  or  the  product  of  the  above  number  by 
8.  Then  find  the  result  of  the  figures  in  the  horizontal 
column  opposite  to  3.  and  write  the  sum  down  as  before, 
but  carrying  it  one  place  farther  to  the  left.  Continue 
in  this  manner,  until  all  the  figures  of  the  multiplier 
have  been  used;  and  if  the  sevend  partial  products  be 
then  added  as  usual,  the  total  product,  5699314465262, 
will  be  the  same  as  that  resulting  from  common  multi- 
plication. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  process  of  multiplica- 
tion, as  performed  by  Napier's  rods,  is  nothing  more 
than  a  series  of  additions ;  so  that  a  person  totally  igno- 
rant of  multiplication  may  perform  processes  coming 
under  that  rule.  The  rods  may  also  be  made  occasion- 
ally serviceable  in  shortening  the  process  of  division, 
especially  when  large  sums  are  to  be  oft;en  divided  by 
the  same  division.  Thus:  if  the  number  1492992  is  to 
be  divided  by  432,  and  if  the  same  division  were  fre- 
quently to  occur,  construct,  in  the  manner  before  dA- 
scribed,  a  table  of  the  multiples  of  432  by  all  the  uiiits. 

432)1492!)92(3456 
1290 

19C9 
1728 

2419 
216D 


I  times  432 

=  432 

«    „ 

» 

«  864 

3    „ 

$» 

•«1296 

4    « 

99 

«rl728 

5    H 

»> 

»21G0 

6    » 

99 

=2502 

7     „ 

n 

=3024 

8    » 

91 

=3466 

9    „ 

99 

»38aB 

2692 
2692 

.  •  * 


^  Since  432  is  not  containedl  iU  the  first  three  figures  of 
the  (Hvidend,  some  multiple  of  it  must  be  contained  in 
the  first  four  figures,  viz.,  1492;  To  find  this  multiple, 
look  at  the  table,  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  next  less 
multiple  of  432  is  129G,  which  stands  opposite  to  8. 
Write  down  3  in  the  quotient,  and  1296  under  1492; 
thcti  subtract  the  former  from  the  latter,  and  there  will 
remain  196,  to  which  if  the  next  figure  of  the  dividend 
be  brouffht  down,  the  result  will  be  1969.  Again  re- 
ferring to  the  table,  we  find  that  1728,  which  sUnds 

547—2 


12 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[[January  &» 


opposite  to  4,  is  the  greatest  multiple  of  43S  contained 
in  1969:  write  down  4  therefore  in  the  quotient,  and 
subtract  as  before.  By  continuing  the  operation  in  .this 
manner,  it  will  be  found  that  the  other  figures  of  the 
quotient  are  5  and  6,  and  that  there  is  no  remainder. — 
We  will  here  again  remind  the  reader,  that  he  must  not 
test  the  excellence  of  such  an  expedient  as  this  by  the 
present  state  of  knowledge  on  arithmetical  subjects,  but 
by  the  wants  of  society  at  the  time  when  Napier  Uved, 
more  than  two  hundred  years  ago. 

A  mechanical  contrivance  for  facilitating  the  processes 
of  arithmetic  to  uneducated  persons,  under  the  name  of 
the  Abacus,  has  been  known  in  various  countries  for  a 
long  period.  The  principle  of  the  instrument  is,  to  ex- 
press numbers  by  the  relative  position  of  beads  sliding 
upon  wires,  or  of  counters  placed  between  lines.  The 
Chinese  abacus,  called  ihwan-pan,  consists  of  several 
series  of  beads  strung  on  brass  wires,  stretched  from 
the  top  to  the  l»ottom  of  the  instrument,  and  divided  in 
the  middle  by  a  cross-piece  from  side  to  side.  In  the 
upper  space  every  string  Has  two  beads,  which  are  each 
counted  for  5,  and  in  the  lower  space  every  string  has 
five  beads,  of  different  values,  the  first  being  counted  as 
1,  the  second  as  10,  the  third  as  100,  &c  This  appara- 
tus is  commonly  used  in  the  shops  of  China,  and  the 
natives  are  very  expert  in  the  working  of  it.  The 
Grecian  abacus  was  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the 
Chinese,  except  that  little  ivory  balls  were  used  instead 
of  beads.  The  Roman  abacus  differed  a  little  from  the 
Grecian,  in  having  pins  sliding  in  grooves,  instead  of  beads 
or  balls  sliding  on  wires.  The  abacus  used  at  the  present 
day  in  some  European  countries  is  made  as  follows: 
— small  counters  are  provided^  and  a  sheet  of  paper  is 
ruled  with  parallel  lines,  each  two  being  at  such  a  dis- 
tance as  may  be  at  least  eaual  to  twice  the  diameter  of 
the  counter.  Then  the  value  of  the  lines  thus  drawn, 
and  of  the  spaces  between  them,  increases  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest  in  a  tenfold  proportion:  thus: — 
counters  placed  upon  the  first  line  signify  so  many  units 
or  ones ;  on  the  second  line,  tens ;  on  the  third  line,  hun- 
dreds ;  on  the  fourth  line,  thousands ;  and  so  on.  In  like 
manner,  a  counter  placed  in  the  first  space,  between  the 
first  and  second  lines,  denotes  5 ;  on  the  space  next  above 
it,  50 ;  on  the  third  space,  500,  on  the  fourth  space,  5000; 
and  so  on.  So  that  there  are  never  more  than  four  count- 
ers placed  on  any  line,  nor  more  than  one  in  any  space; 
this  being  of  the  same  value  as  five  counters  on  the  next 
line  below.  Thus,  47382  is  indicated  in  this  manner: — 
two  counters  on  the  lower  line  implying  units  2 ;  three  on 
the  second  line,  and  one  in  the  space  above  it,  indicating 
conjointly  80;  3  on  the  third  line,  for  300;  2  on  the 
fourth  line,  and  1  in  the  space  above  it,  for  7000;  and 
4  on  the  fifth  line  for  40,000. 

Numerous  contrivances  have  been  from  time  to  time  in- 
troduced, bearing  resemblance  more  or  less  to  the  abacus, 
or  to  Napier's  rods.  Mr.  Gamaliel  Smethurst,  in  the 
forty-sixtn  volume  of  the  Philosaphieal  Transactions^ 
described  a  variation  of  the  Chinese  shwan-pan,  which 
appeared  to  him  to  increase  its  usefulness;  for  besides 
teaching  arithmetic  to  persons  ignorant  of  it,  he  deemed 
it  useful  "  to  examine  accounts  by ;  for,  as  the  person  will, 
by  the  shwan-pan,  work  it  in  quite  a  different  way,  it 
wiU  serve  as  if  another  person  had  gone  through  the 
account;  if  it  proves  right  with  the  written  one,  they 
may  rest  assured  the  work  is  true."  Many  other  indi- 
viduals have  likewise  directed  their  attention  to  this  sub- 
ject Sir  Samuel  Moreland  published,  in  1 673,  an  account 
of  two  arithmetical  machines,  the  construction  of  which 
however,  he  did  not  explain.  Leibnitx,  Poleni,  Perrault, 
Lespine,  Boistissandeau,  and  others  devised  machines, 
having  a  similar  object  in  view.  As  there  is  a  good 
deal  of  similarity  between  many  of  these  contrivances, 
we  will  not  stav  to  describe  them,  but  will,  in  another 
article,  speak  of  the  ingenious  means  by  which  Dr.  Saun- 
derson,  uie  blind  madematidani  estid^lished  a  kind  of 


palpable  arithmetic ;  and  also  of  a  calculating  machine 
mvented  by  Pascal. 

The  reader  should  know  that  the  words  <*  calculate*' 
and  *' calculation"  are  derived  from  the  Latin  word  ccd- 
eulust  a  counter,  or  pebble :  hence,  among  the  Romans, 
accoimtants  were  called  calculatores. 


THE  BURNT  PILLAR  AT  CONSTAN- 
TINOPLE. 

Various  writers  have  described  a  remarkable  column 
standing  in  the  city  of  Constantinople,  but  I  have  not 
found  two  that  give  the  same  account  of  it.  In  order  to 
describe  it  as  I  found  it,  I  must  differ  from  them  all.  It 
is  situated  in  one  of  the  principal  streets  of  Stamboul, 
(Constantinople,)  near  the  Chatladi  gate,  and  is  said  to 
have  derived  its  modem  name  from  having  been  burnt 
by  fire.  There  is  a  story  current,  both  among  the 
Franks  and  Turks,  that  some  Jews  burnt  it,  and  melted 
the  gold  plates  with  which  it  is  said  to  have  been  covered; 
but  the  story,  though  universally  believed,  is  not  worthy 
of  the  slightest  credit,  as  nothing  like  authority  or  date 
can  be  given  for  it.  Hobhouse  says  it  is  called  the 
Burnt  Pillar  from  its  burnt  appearance,  and  certainly  to 
a  casual  observer  it  does  appear  as  if  it  had  been  burnt  by 
fire ;  yet,  on  a  close  and  careful  examination,  I  could  not 
find  one  vestige  of  fire  ever  having  touched  it ;  in  fact 
it  owes  its  black  and  burnt  appearance  to  time  and  the 
elements.  The  first  time  I  visited  it,  there  were  houses 
built  on  two  sides  of  it;  the  other  two  were  open,  and 
dug  round  for  the  purpose  of  building:  and  on  my  second 
visit,  a  few  months  after,  I  found  a  new  and  elegant  white 
stone  gUard-house,  giving  to  its  base  the  appearance  in 
the  engraving.  In  consequence  of  the  ground  being  dug 
all  around  it,  I  had  an  opportunity  of  observing  the  nature 
of  the  foundation  as  well  as  the  pedestal,  which  I  found 
of  the  most  solid  structure. 

The  pillar  consists  of  six  blocks  of  red  granite  or  por- 
phyry, each  about  ten  feet  high,  and  six  in  diameter.  The 
capital  consists  of  twelve  rows  of  masonry,  and  the 
whole  is  crowned  by  a  square  row  of  stones  about 
eighteen  inches  high. 

Hobhouse  calls  it  ninety  feet  high,  but  I  think  that  an 
actual  measurement  with  instruments  would  bring  it  very 
close  upon  one  hundred  and  five,  as  I  was  very  careful  in 
comparing  one  point  with  another,  and  measuring  it.  It 
is  encircled  with  fourteen  iron  hoops,  of  a  much  more 
modem  date  than  the  pillar  itself,  and  these  have  evi- 
dently been  put  on  to  prevent  the  stone  coining  off  in 
large  scales,  as  it  appears  prone  to  do:  in  fact,  at  the 
time  I  saw  it,  there  were  various  loose  fragments  which 
were  only  held  to  the  body  of  the  column  by  these  hoops» 
and  many  places  from  wnich  other  pieces  had  fallen. 

Hobhouse  says  that  these  hoops  conceal  the  joints  of 
the  pillSr,  but  in  that  he  is  mistaken,  as  the  joints  are 
marked  by  the  wreath  of  laurel,  about  twelve  ineliea 
deep,  round  the  bottom  of  each  block  of  stone.  He  is 
correct,  however,  in  saying  that  the  hoops  are  of  irony 
and  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  how  Wheler  made  such  a 
mistake  as  to  call  them  brass. 

Toumefort,  who  visited  Constantinople  in  1700,  aays 
that  it  is  composed  of  "porphyry  stones,  the  junctures 
hid  by  copper  rings."  If  such  were  the  case  in  his  day  the 
rings  must  have  been  taken  away,  as,  with  the  exception 
of  the  iron  hoops,  there  is  no  metal  about  it  Pococke  says 
that  it  originally  consisted  of  ten  blocks,  and  that  seven  of 
these  now  remain;  and  he  describes  the  masonry  on 
the  top  so  accurately,  that  there  is  no  doubt  it  remains 
now  as  in  his  day ;  yet  there  are  only  six  blocks.  The 
inscription  upon  the  top  is  in  Greek,  much  dilapidated, 
and  too  high  to  be  read  from  the  street 

When  there  is  so  much  discrepancy  in  the  accounts  of 
those  who  say  they  have  seen  this  pillar,  we  can  hardly 
expect  a  very  correct  historical  account  of  it.  The 
column  is  said  to  have  been  originally  120  feet  high,  and 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


THK    XVUfI    PILLAB   *T   CD>»TAXTlXOri.K. 


to  haYe  npported  a  bronze  statue  of  the  Trojan  Apollo, 
nippoMd  to  h&ve  been  the  work  of  Phidias,  (b.c.  450)i 
it  was  of  colosaal  height,  bore  a.  aceptre  in  its  right 
hand,  a  plobe  in  its  left,  and  a  crown  of  glittering  rays 
upon  it«  head.  Although  originally  modelled  for  Apollo, 
Constantine  called  it  after  his  own  name. 

Glycas  aivB  that,  towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of 
NicephoruB  Botoniatea,  (a.d.  1080,)  the  pillar  waa  struck 
by  lightning,  and  the  statue  thrown  down — and,  accord- 
ing to  the  inscription  upon  it,  which  is  given  by  Wbeler, 
it  appear*  to  have  been  repaired  by  the  Emperor  Manuel 
Conmenus  (a.d.  1180.) 

Whalever  the  pillar  once  was,  it  is  now  an  ugly  un- 
ihapelv  mass ;  and  however  grand  the  object  niay  have 
been  for  which  it  waa  raised,  it  is  unregarded  by  its 
present  possesaon,  who  seemed  to  consider  that  the  time  I 
*as  engaged  in  eumining  it  would  have  been  much 
Wtter  employed  in  smoking  a  pipe  at  the  neighbouring 
cife,  and  I  waa  asked  more  than  once  if  I  was  going  to 
t>ie  it  away,  as  those  around  me  could  not  understand 
the  motive  for  what  appeared  to  them  so  much  useless 
libour.  There  was,  however,  one  middle-aged  Turk 
vho  asked  me  to  smoke  a  pipe  with  him,  and  when  we 
lud  got  fairly  sealed,  he  patronisingly  recommended  me 
Hot  to  employ  my  tame  on  such  old  ugly  pillara  as  the 
one  beside  us,  but  said,  if  I  wished  lometning  good  to 
paint,  that  then  were  some  very  fine  new  ones,  prettily 


gilded  ana  painted,  on  the  top  of  the  new  palace  on  fh« 
Bosphorua; — the  tasteful  Turk  was  describing  to  me, 
as  works  of  high  art,  the  chimnev-tops  of  the  Sultan't 
kitchen !  '  W. 


THE  MISSI8IPP1  SCHEME. 

The  pages  of  the  Sattirday  3fagasine  are,  for  obvious 

reasons,  kept  clear  of  thoae  exciting  topics  which  engage 
the  attention  of  politicians ;  still,  there  have  been  events 
in  the  past  history  of  nations  which  are  now  viewed 
pretty  nearly  in  the  same  light  by  all  thinking  persons, 
and  which  are  capable  of  affording  instructive  lessons. 
One  such  event  was  the  mania — the  national  insanity, 
we  may  almost  term  it — which  seized  on  the  French 
people,  at  the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  in  favour 
of  a  speculation  known  as  the  Miaaisippi  Scheme,  the 
professed  object  of  which  was  to  insure  lai^  fortunes 
in  a  very  little  time;  a  plan  which  b  nearly  always 
attended  with  ruinous  consequences. 

The  author  of  this  delusive  scheme  waa  one  John 
Law,  who  was  bom  at  Edinburgh,  in  the  year  1671,  of 
wealthy  parents;  and,  after  receiving  a  good  education, 
during  which  he  was  known  to  pay  much  attention  to 
matters  connected  with  political  economy,  ran  into  pro- 
fligacy and  dissipatJOB.     He  was  sentenced  to  death  for 


14 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAEINE. 


[January  9, 


having  killed  in  a  duel  a  gentleman  whose  domestic 
peace  he  had  destroyed,  hut  was  respited,  and  afterwards 
made  his  escape  from  prison,  and  fled  to  Holland, 
where  he  became  secretaiy  to  the  British  resident.  He 
found  means  to  return  to  his  own  country  about  the 
year  1700,  without  molestation,  and  began  to  promul- 
gate a  scheme  for  relieving  Scotland  from  some  financial 
diflBculties,  by  the  issue  of  paper  money  on  landed 
security.  .This  plan  was  rejected  by  the  parliament,  and 
Law  returned  to  the  Continent. 

He  then  became  a  gambler,  and  such  was  his  skill 
and  address  that,  by  the  year  1714,  he  was  master  of 
1 10,000/.,  and  had  managed  to  gain  the  good  opinion  of 
the  King  of  Sardinia,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  Prince, 
of  Conti,  the  Duke  de  Vendome,  and  other  foreigners  of 
distinction.  France  at  this  time  was  in  a  desperate 
state :  the  expensive  wars  in  which  Louis  the  Fourteenth 
had  been  engaged,  and  the  extravagaiit  proceedings 
of  the  court,  had  so  reduced  the  national  finances,  that 
it  was  proposed  to  sponge  out  the  whole  of  the  national 
debt.  The  disgraceful  expedient  was  however  rejected 
by  the  regent  Orleans,  and  a  committee  was  appointed  to 
inquire  what  course  could  be  adopted.  This  was  just  the 
8tat«  of  aifairs  to  suit  Law,  and  he  was  not  slow  in  taking 
advantage  of  it.  He  proposed  to  liquidate  the  nationsu 
debt  by  issuing  notes  secured  upon  landed  property  and 
the  roval  revenues  This  plan  being  rejected.  Law  pro- 
cccdcdi  to  establish  a  bank  of  his  own,  assisted  by  those 
who  chose  to  join  him;  but  after  two  years,  the  regetit 
seeing  that  the  new  plan  promised  success,  took  it  into 
his  own  hands,  and  formed  a  royal  bank,  of  which  he 
made  Law  the  director-general. 

The  time  was  now  ripe  for  the  famous  Missisippi 
scheme,  a  scheme  as  stupendous  as  it  was  extravagant. 
France  possessed  the  extensive  country  of  Loiiisiana,  iti 
North  America,  which  is  watered  throughout  its  whole 
extent  by  the  river  Missisippi ;  but  as  comtnerce,  navi- 
gation, and  manufactures,  were  at  a  stand  fbr  waiit  of 
funds,  this  colony  was  of  very  little  use.  Law  proposed 
to  remedy  all  these  evils  at  once,  by  vesting  the  whole 
of  the  privileges,  ellects,  and  possessions  of  all  the 
foreign  trading  companies,  the  great  farttis^  the  miiit, 
the  royal  revenues,  and  the  property  of  the  bank,  in  otie 
great  company,  who,  having  thus  in  their  hands  all  the 
trade,  taxes,  and  royal  revenues,  might  multiply  the 
notes  of  the  bank  to  any  extent  they  pleased,  doubling 
or  even  tripling  at  will  the  circulating  medium  of  the 
kingdom,  and,  by  the  immensity  of  their  funds,  carry 
the  foreign  trade  and  the  improvement  of  the  colonies 
to  a  height  unattainable  by  other  means.  The  principles 
of  national  wealth  were  but  little  understood  at  that 
time ;  and,  however  wild  and  chimerical  such  a  scheme 
may  how  appear,  it  was  received  with  avidity  by  persons 
of  all  classes  in  France,  as  a  sovereign  panacea  for  the 
distresses  of  the  nation.  Letters-patent  were  granted 
to  the  company,  under  the  title  of  the  "Company  of 
the  West,"  and  they  were  authorized  to  raise  a  capital 
of  100,000,000  livres.  The  company  first  had  a  grant 
of  the  whole  province  of  Louisiana;  then  the  fanning 
of  the  revenues  on  tobacco  was  made  over  to  them,  on 
the  payment  of  a  large  sum  into  the  national  treasury. 
Afterwards  they  became  in  succession  the  proprietors  of 
the  Senegal  Company,  the  East  India  Company,  the 
China  Company,  the  South  Sea  Company,  and  others, 
and  the  company  changed  its  name  to  the  "  Compatiy  of 
the  Indies."  In  July,  1718,  the  mint  was  made  over  to 
them,  on  the  payment  of  50,000,000  livres  within  fifteeti 
months ;  and  afterwards  the  whole  receipt  of  the  revenue 
was  placed  in  their  hands,  for  a  lurther  advance. 

The  company  had  thus  actually  obtained,  in  the  course 
of  a  few  months,  all  that  Law  had  promised ;  for  they 
concentrated  in  themselves  nearly  all  the  public  and 
joint-stock  wealth  of  France.  The  reader  may  naturally 
inquire  what  effect  this  extraordinary  movement  pro- 
duced.    The  100,000,000  livres,  which  constituted  the 


original  capital,  was  raised  by  200,000  shares,  of  500 
livres  each ;  and  after  some  of  the  extraordinary  grants 
had  been  mdde  to  the  company,  the  expectation  of  enor- 
mous pi*ofitB  was  do  geni^ral,  that  people  were  desirous  of 
becoming  sKdreholders  on  any  terms.  The  competition 
for  shares  spelwiily  raised  their  price  from  five  hundred 
to  a  thousand  livres^  so  that  those  who  had  purchased 
the  original  shares  were  now  enabled  to  get  cent,  per 
cent*  bh)fit  btt  them.  But  when  the  royal  revenues  were 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  company,  the  competition  for 
shares  amounted  almost  to  fVenzy,  insomuch  that  the 
price  speedily  h)8e  to  6000  livres  per  share.  All  classes, 
peers,  princes,  statesmen,  magistrates,  clergymen,  me- 
chanicdj  all  sct'aped  together  what  ready  money  they 
possessed,  And  the  competition  for  shares  was  so  great, 
that  the  price  at  last  rose  to  10,000  livres  per  share. 
The  effect  of  this  state  of  things  may  in  some  degree  be 
imagined.  If  a  purchaser  of  the  original  shares,  at  500 
livres  each,  sold  them  a  few  months  afterwards  for 
10,000,  he  had  a  clear  profit  of  2000  per  cent  But  this 
was  not  all*  When  the  company  was  about  to  be  formed, 
shareholders  were  permittea  to  pay  for  their  shares  in  a 
depreciated  paper  currency,  called  billets  d'itaiy  which 
were  not  then  worth  above  one-third  of  their  nominal 
value,  but  the  subsequent  price  of  10,000  livres  was 
payable  in  metallic^  currency ;  so  that  in  less  than  twelve 
months,  shared  were  sold  at  sixty  times  the  sum  they 
originally  cost. 

The  consequences  of  thlfi  hipid  transmission  of  money 
f^om  hand  to  hand,  were  tliost  startling,  and  ludicrous 
stories  are  related  of  the  effects  of  the  sudden  fortimes 
made  by  humble  individuals.  Cook-maids  and  waiting- 
women  appedred  at  the  onerft  bedizened  in  jewels ;  and 
a  baker's  son  purchased  the  whole  contents  of  a  jewel- 
ler's shop.  As  to  Law  himself,  he  became  in  many  re- 
spects the  first  matt  in  trance  \  he  was  made  comptroller 
general  of  the  financed,  he  possessed  the  confidence  of 
the  regent^  and  WdS  courted  by  princes,  peers,  and  mar- 
shals, who  waited  at  his  levees  as  If  he  had  been  a  sovc- 
reigUi  He  ainassed  such  immense  property,  that  he  w^as 
enabled  to  purchase  no  less  tbah  fourteen  estates  with 
titles  annexed  tb  thettt. 

But  such  iari  Unnatural  state  of  things  could  not  last 
long;  no  «i?w  wealth  had  been  produced  by  this  scheme, 
which  was  nothing  hut  a  change  of  money  from  one 
hand  to  another,  by  artificial  means.  The  first  circum- 
stance which  indicated  the  rottenness  of  the  scheme  was 
the  continual  demand  on  the  bank  for  gold  and  silver 
specie:  the  original  purchasers  of  the  shares  converted 
their  newly  acquired  property  intb  goldj  and  siPrtt  it  out 
of  the  kingdom,  as  a  security  against  the  approaching 
storm ;  it  was  estimated  that  not  less  than  500,000,000 
livres  in  specie  were  conveyed  out  of  France.  This 
alarmed  the  government,  and  it  was  ordered  that  small 
payments  only  should  be  made  in  specie, "and  soon  after- 
wards that  no  person  should  keep  more  than  500  livres  in 
their  possession,  the  bulk  of  their  money  being  in  notes. 

But  the  finishing  stroke  was  brou|:ht  on  by  thb  follow- 
ing circumstanced      The  bank,  acting  ih  concert  with 
this  all-engrossing  company^  had  issued  papet*  money 
with   such   rapidity,   that   by   the   month   of   May    it 
amounted  to  2,600,000,000  livres,  while  the  whole    of 
the  metallic  specie  of  the  eUipire  amounted  to  ohlv  about 
half  that  sum.     It  was  proposed)  therefore,  either  that 
the  value  of  a  paper  livre  should  be  diminished  one-half, 
or  that  the  value  of  a  livre  in  specie  should  be  doubled, 
in  order  to  equalize  the  ^dper  fcurreUcy  with  the  metallic. 
This  proposal  Law  opposed,  but  it  was  carried  against 
him;  and  the  people  were  thunderstruck  at  hearing    that 
the  value  of  the  notes  was  reduced  one  half.  The  efiect  cf 
this   breach   of  national  faith  was   instantaneous;    the 
notes  became  mere  waste  pap^r ;  those  ^'ho  had   gold, 
feeling  that  tha  government   which   had  reduced    the 
value  of  the  notes  to  one  htdf,  might  proceed  still  fur- 
ther, refosed  to  Exchange  theur  gold  for  notes  on  any 


1841.3 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


15 


terms;  and  tbe  holders  of  tlM  notes  (amounting  to 
90,000,000/.  sterling  English)  were  reduced  to  beggary. 

John  Law  at  once  fell  from  the  height  of  power  and 
became  an  object  of  esecration»  and  his  life  was  in 
danger  from  the  rage  of  the  unfortunate  note-holders. 
He  escaped  from  France,  and  his  immense  possessions 
were  confiscated  to  the  crown  aa  having  been  acquired 
through  unfair  ipueans.  He  wandered  firom  country  to 
country,  and  experienced  a  truth  which  more  worthy 
men  have  often  bitterly  felt, — ^that  friends  in  time  of 
prosperity  become  strangers  with  cold  hands  and  hearts, 
when  adversity  oyertakes  those  whom  they  formerly 
flattered.  Law  was  persecuted  nowhere  out  of  France, 
but  he  was  neglected  everywhere,  and  died  a  poor  man, 
in  the  year  1729,  before  he  had  passed  the  middle  period 
of  life. 

Thus  ended  the  Missisippi  Scheme ;  and  France  had 
for  many  years  to  lament  the  short-sighted  policy  which 
bad  subjected  her  to  such  severe  distress. 


HISTORY   OF  THE    SMALL-POX,   AND    OF 
THE  MEANS  FOR  ITS  PREVENTION. 

I. 

^ORIGIN   AND    PROGRESS    pF    THE   SMALL-POX. 
INTRODUCTION    OF   INOCULATION. 

Although  the  details  of  subjects  connected  with  the 
practice  of  medicine  can  seldom  be  laid  with  advantage 
before  the  general  reader,  yet  all  persons  aspiring  to  a 
liberal  education  should  make  themselves  acquainted 
with  the  historical  and  literary  portions  of  these,  fur- 
nishing, as  they  frequently  do,  matter  of  an  interesting 
and  instructive  character.  Of  all  subjects  of  this  kind 
the  Smcdl-pox  is  that  igrhioh  should  interest  an  English- 
man most,  as  it  is  from  the  exertions  of  his  countrymen 
that  all  the  attempts  at  removing  or  alleviating  this 
scourge  of  the  huinan  race  have  emanated,  lliis  is 
literally  the  case,  whether  we  consider  the  improved 
modes  of  treating  the  disease,  introduced  by  Sydenham 
and  Culleii,  the  introduction  of  inoculation  into  Europe 
by  Lady  Montagu,  or  the  discovery  of  vaccination  by 
Dr.  Jenner. 

The  origin  of  small-pox  is  involved  in  much  obscurity, 
and  has  given  rise  to  many  discussions.  While  some 
believe  it  to  be  identical  with  the  plague  of  boils  and 
blains  inflicted  upon  the  Egyptians,  and  with  many  of 
the  diseases  described  by  the  Qreek  and  Roman  authors, 
others  consider  these  analogies  to  be  £uiciful.  Accord- 
ing to  the  reports  of  Du  Halde  and  others,  this  disease 
has  been  known  in  China  for  1300  years  prior  to  the 
Christian  era,  under  the  name  of  Tai-toVy  or  "  Venom 
from  the  mother*8  breast.'*  In  Hindostan,  also,  the 
Brahmins  declare  that  the  disease  has  been  recognised 
from  the  remotest  antiquity,  and  that  the  k^edas  contains 
a  form  for  the  adoration  of  a  tutelar  dqity  of  the  small- 
pox. Wherever  the  disease  may  have  originated^  the 
flrst  distinct  account  we  possess  of  its  existence  is  of  its 
breaking  out  among  the  Arabians,  at  thecdmmencem.nt 
of  the  seventh  century.  This  epoch  (622)  was  most 
favourable  for  its  dissemination,  being  that  in  which 
Mahomet  led  forth  his  followers,  animated  with  fana- 
tical zeal,  to  the  conquest  of  various  countries.  In 
thirty  years  he  and  his  successors  had  conquered  Syria, 
Egypt,  and  Persia,  and  diffused  the  disease  over  all  these 
countries.  So  freely  did  this  diffusion  of  the  malady 
take  place  over  the  Mohammedan  empire,  that  the  Sara- 
cen physicians  founded  their  treatment  on  the  theory 
that  it  arose  from  a  natural  change  in  the  human  consti- 
tution. It  spread  into  Europe  during  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, after  the  conquest  of  Spain  and  Sioily ;  and  in  731 
the'  Saracens  crossed  the  Pyrenees,  and  invaded  France 
They  were  repulsed  before  the  walls  of  Tours,  by 
Charles  Martel,  yet  they  left  the  inffection  of  the  small- 


pox and  measles  behind  them.  Mead  and  others  nave* 
attributed  the  introduction  of  small-pox  into  Europe  to 
the  returned  crusaders;  but,  although  these  may  have 
brought  fresh  irruptions  of  the  disease,  it  was  known 
two  centuries  prior  to  that  epoch.  The  examination  of 
some  old  Irish  MSS„  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  has  led 
Dr.  O'Connor  to  believe  that  the  ravages  of  small-pox 
were  known  in  Ireland  as  early  as  679  and  742.  How- 
ever this  may  be.  Great  Britain  could  not  escape  for 
long  a  contagion  which  had  overspread  Europe ;  but  the 
earliest  accounts  antiquarians  can  discover  of  its  exist- 
ence here  refer  to  the  commencement  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. In  the  Harleian  and  Cotton  MSS.,  at  the  British 
Museum,  are  preserved  prayers  and  exorcisms  employed 
against  the  small-pox,  showing  the  great  terror  that  ^en 
prevailed  upon  the  subject.  Amulets,  consecrated  to 
St.  Nicaise,  (who  had  himself  suffered  from  the  disease, 
when  Bishop  of  Rheims,)  were  worn  as  protectives  by 
the  nuns.  Holinshed  is  the  first  English  historian  who 
expressly  mentions  the  disease:  speaking  of  the  year 
1 1366,  he  says,  "  Also  manie  died  of  the  Small  Pocks, 
both  men,  women,  and  children."  The  disease  was 
transported  to  the  continent  of  America  by  the  followers 
of  Columbus. 

Considerable  difSculty  exists  in  judging  of  the  extent 
of  the  rav^es  of  small-pox  in  former  times.  The  ob- 
scurity of  early  medical  records,  and  their  admixture 
with  nionkish  fkbles  and  miracles,  prevent  our  deriving 
much  information  from  these  sources.  Again,  as  Dr. 
Moore  has  observed,  the  term  "  plague"  or  "  pestilence" 
was  formerly  of  much  more  vague  and  general  applica- 
tion than  in  our  own  day,  and  almost  every  considerable 
epidemic  was  so  designated:  thus,  in  translating  the 
Arabic  writers  upon  this  subject,  the  w^ord  plague  was 
long  used  to  express  the  term  small-pox,  and  two  very 
different  diseases  were  confounded  under  the  same  title. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  some  of  the  pestilences. of  fire, 
so  frequently  raging  in  France,  were  attacks  of  small- 
pox, and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  disease  was 
frequent  in  its  recurrence,  and  terrible  in  its  mortality.  In 
more  modem  times  our  accounts,  of  course,  are  more 
authentic.  Dr.  Jurin  has  calculated  that  one  out  of 
every  fourteen  bom  died  of  small-pox,  and  that  one  out  of 
every  five  or  six  affected  with  the  disease  perished.  Dr. 
Lettsom  proved,  from  the  Bills  of  Mortality,  that  the 
average  number  of  deaths  from  166?  to  1722  was  to 
the  whole  numbe^^  as  72  is  to  1000,  and  from  1731  to 
1772  as  89  to  1000. 

But  in  its  epidenuc  visitations  this  disease  is  more 
destructiTe  of  human  life  than  the  plague  itself;  and  if, 
as  Condamine  sts^t^s,  it  decimates  in  civilized  life,  it 
almost  depopulates  when  carried  among  comparatively 
uncivilized  races.  Thus  the  capital  of  Thibet  was  after 
an  epidemic  deserted  for  three  years,  and  Dr.  Robertson 
and  subsequent  writers  have  described  whole  nations 
exterminated  by  this  disease  in  America.  In  Russia 
two  millions  are  said  to  have  died  of  small-pox  in  one 
year,  and  one  half  of  the  persons  atti^cked  at  Const/ui- 
tinople  perished.  Dr.  Lettsom  has  calculated  that  not 
less  than  210,000  fell  annually  victims  to  it  in  Europe, 
and  Beraouilli  estimates  that  not  less  than  15,000,000 
of  human  beings  thus  perished  in  a  quarter  of  a 
century.  The  dSscase  seems  to  have  been  as  fatal  at  the 
North  Pole  as  under  the  Une,  for  in  1707  about  16,000 
persons  were  carried  off  in  Iceland,  and  in  1733  Green- 
land was  nearly  depopulated  by  it. 

It  may  readily  be  supposed  that  so  severe  a  disease  as 
small-pox  has  called  forth  numerous  proposals  for  it? 
treatment.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to  allude  to  these. 
We  will  only  observe  that  most  of  the  plans  put  into 
force  originated  with  the  Arabic  physicians,  or  were  the 
offspring  of  the  dominant  theory  of  the  day,  until  the 
seventeenth  century,  when  Sydenham,  after  describing 
the  disease  with  an  exactitude  which  has  never  been 
surpassed,  and  distinguishing  it  from  the  measles,  with 


16 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Jamttart  9>  184L 


which  it  had  been  confounded,  laid  down  principles  of 
trealaieiit,  wfaieb/'were  founded- In  oommoa  sense  and 
exact  obienratk)n«  We  wOl  pass  on  at 'once  to  the  in- 
troduction of  the  practice  of  inoculation.  The  principle 
upon  which  this  practice  is  founded  is  this, — ^that  small- 
pox rarely  occurs  twice  in  the  same  individual,  and  if 
the  disease  be  communicated  purposely  to  persons,  by 
inserting  some  of  the  matter  of  the  disease  into  their 
skin,  they  become  subjected  to  a  much  milder  disease, 
which  is  nearly  equally  as  efficacious  in  protecting  them 
from  a  second  attack  as  when  it  occurs  spontaneously  in 
its  severer  form.  It  would  seem  that  for  some  centuries 
the  custom  of  what  is  called  '< sowing  the  small-pox" 
has  been  known  in  China,  and  the  Brahmins  are  said 
long  to  have  been  in  the  habit  of  following  this  practice, 
accompanying  the  operation  with  solemn  prayers,  ad- 
dressed to  the  deity  of  the  small-pox.  The  Circassians 
and  Greorgians,  again,  call  it  *<  buying  the  small-pox," 
and  are  accustomed  to  make, a  small  nominal  present  of 
fruit  to  the  person  from  whom  the  matter  is  received. 
It  is,  however,  from  Constantinople .  that  we  directly 
received  our  information.  •  Notices  of  the  practice  of 
''engprafting  the  small-pox,"  as  it  was  then  called,  as  per- 
formed in  that  city,  were  published  in  London  and 
Venice,  in  1 703,  by  persons  who  had  witnessed  its  suc- 
cess; but  it  obtained  little  or  no  notice  until  1717,  when 
the  celebrated  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu,  who  had 
accompanied  her  husband,  then  ambassador  to  the  Otto- 
man Court,  attracted  general  attention  to  it  in  one  of 
her  letters.  In  this  she  informed  the  public  that  a  num- 
ber of  old  women  were  in  the  habit  of  conducting  the 
operation  at  Constantinople,  with  Uttle  inconvenience 
and  the  happiest  results.  Her  own  children  were  inocu- 
lated, as  also  were,  shortly  after,  those  of  the  Princess  of 
Wales.  The  practice,  now  become  fashionable,  extended 
among  persons  of  high  rank.  It  was,  however,  soon 
discovered  that  the  reports  from  Constantinople  had  been 
exaggerated,  and  it  was  foimd  that  the  inoculated  small- 
pox was  occasionally  a  severe,  and  sometimes  a  fatal, 
disease.  Some  deaths  occurring  after  inoculation,  though 
in  a  very  much  less  proportion  than  after  the  natural 
disease,  a  most  determined  opposition  was  organized 
against  the  practice.  Many  memcal  men  opposed  it,  as 
an  unjustifiable  experiment,  and  several  divines  as  an 
immoral  proceeding,  in  attempting  thus  to  arrest  the 
decrees  of  Providence,  and  consenting  to  the  aelf- 
infliction  of  a  disease,  which  in  its  course  might  carry 
the  individual  prematurely  before  his  Maker.  The  most 
eminent  of  the  faculty  of  physic,  however,  approved  of 
the  practice,  and  several  celebrated  divines,  among  whom 
were  Bishop  Maddox  and  Dr.  Doddridge,  having  con- 
vinced themselves  of  the  efficiency  of  inoculation,  pro- 
claimed it  as  a  Christian  duty  to  endeavour  by  its  means 
to  diminish  the  fatality  of  small-pox.  So  slow  at  first, 
however,  was  the  progress  of  inoculation,  that  only  897 
persons  were  inoculated  in  eight  years;  and  after  a  some- 
what further  trial,  the  practice  seemed  to  be  about  to  be 
relinquished,  when  news  arrived  of  the  wonderful  success 
which  had  followed  its  adoption  among  the  Indians  of 
South  America  and  the  inhabitants  of  South  Carolina. 

These  successes  determined  public  opinion  much  in 
favour  of  inoculation,  and,  in  1746,  the  small-pox  hos- 
pital was  established  for  conferring  the  benefit  upon  the 
poorer  classes,  which  had  hitherto  been  confined  to  the 
wealthy.  The  operations  in  S.  Carolina  were  performed 
by  the  planters  themselves,  and  it  has  been  remarked  that 
these  were  frequently  more  successful  when  conducted 
by  non-professional  persons.  This  is  supposed  to  have 
arisen  from  the  costom  which  then  prevailed  among  the 
profession  of  encumbering  the  practice  with  a  number  of 
needless  precautions  and  restrictions,  and  the  administer- 
ing an  unnecessary  quantity  of  drugs.  This  opinion 
would  seem  to  be  confirmed  by  the  success  which  at- 
tended the  practice  of  the  Suttons,  two  empirics,  who, 
by  simplifying  the  treatment  adopted,  met  with  few  fatal 


cases,  and  were  the  means  of  rendering  inocnktion  ex* 
tremely  popmar  in  this  country. 
.  On  the  Contneatjtlie  practice  of  inocnlatioii  met  with 
great  opposition.  In  France,  after  a  vigorous  resistance 
on  the  part  of  the  clergy  and  of  the  faculty  of  medicine, 
it  was  partially  introdnoed  in  1755,  and  the  families  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  and  several  of  the  nobility  were 
inoculated.  An  extraordinarily  fatal  epidemic  of  small- 
pox, however,  appearing  in  Paris  in  1 763,  the  government, 
believing  the  number  of  inoculations  had  caused  the 
spreading  of  the  disease,  prohibited  the  practice*  In 
Hanover,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  the  populace  long  resisted 
its  introduction,  and  it  made  slow  progress  in  Prussia 
and  Germany.  Catherine  of  Russia,  desiring  to  set  her 
subjects  an  example,  had  her  own  child  inoculated,  and 
the  practice  soon  spread  in  that  country ;  but,  owing  to 
a  due  want  of  caution  in  separating  the  inoculated  from 
the  rest  of  the  community,  the  small-pox  was  thereby 
increased,  and  Sir  A.  Crichton  states,  that  prior  to  the 
introduction  of  vaccination,  one  child  in  seven  died  from 
this  terrible  disease. 

The  flattering  hopes  entertained  at  the  introduction  o« 
inoculation  were  not  destined  then  to  be  realized.  It  is 
quite-  true  that  the  inoculated  disease  was  found  to  be 
infinitely  less  fatal  than  the  natural,  for  while  in  this 
latter,  one  in  six  died,  in  the  former,  one  in  fifty,  and 
after  the  improvements  introduced  by  the  Suttons,  only 
one  in  two  hundred  died.  It  is  also  quite  true  that  the 
natural  small-pox  very  seldom  attacks  those  who  have 
been  inoculated.  But  the  fact  which  was  lost  sight  of 
is,  that  the  inoculated  small-pox  is  just  as  contagious  as 
the  natural,  and  can  impart  to  another  as  virulent  a 
diseasje;  so  that,  by  thus  diffusing  inoculation,  the  num- 
ber of  centres  orjoci  of  infection  were  increased,  and 
the  disease  spread  over  a  wider  surface;  and,  although 
iAdividuals  received  security  from  inoculation,  the  com- 
munity at  large  suffered.  Thus,  at  the  commencement 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  one-fourteenth  of  the  mortality 
arose  from  the  small-pox,  while  during  the  last  thirty 
years  of  that  century,  when  inoculation  was  in  full  vogue, 
that  proportion  arose  to  one-tenth.  In  the  epideioic  of 
1796,  3549  persons  lost  their  lives  in  London;  and  just 
before  the  introduction  of  vaccination,  the  total  number 
of  deaths  in  England  from  this  disease  was  estimated  at 
45,000  annually.  In  Sweden  and  Spain,  into  which 
kingdom  inoculation  was  scarcely  admitted,  the  deaths 
fron^  small-pox  were  fewer  than  in  those  countries  into 
which  it  had  been  more  freely  introduced.  This  result 
could  never  have  been  prevented  but  by  the  adoption  of 
two  systems,  both  of  which  were  impracticable,  vis., 
universal  inoculation,  or  where  this  was  partial,  the 
entire  seclusion  of  those  subjected  to  the  operation. 


Though  Justice  has  been  called  an  ^'hobbling  old  dame, 
who  cannot  keep  pace  with  Generosity,"  yet  it  is  the  hob- 
bling old  dame  who  creates  confidence,  ana  confidence  lathe 
firmest  root  of  love,  respect,  and  gratitude.  Grenerosity  may- 
come  with  holiday  gifts,  but  iustioe  fills  our  cup  with  every- 
day comfort.  ^We  cannot  uve  upon^ts;  if  we  do  vre 
are  degraded.  *  Justice  offers  nothing  but  what  may  be 
accepted  with  honour ;  and  lays  claim  to  nothing  in  return, 
but  what  we  ou^ht  not  even  to  wish  to  withold. —  Wanum's 
Rights  and  Duhes. 

Thb  rubbing  of  the  eves  doth  not  fetch  out  the  mote,  bat 
makes  them  more  red  and  angry;  no  more  doth  tiie  dis- 
traction and  fretting  of  the  mind  discharge  it  of  any  ill- 
humours,  but  rather  makes  them  more  abound  to'  vex  ua. 
—Bishop  Patrick. 


LONDON;: 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAND. 

Pmunno  nr  Wbsklt  Nombbm,  prjob  Omb  Vflmrr,  Airo  in  MoirTKi.T 

Pabts,  pRiea  Bizpsircs. 
Sold  by  sll  Boolmntw  and  Ngwiyendew  in  tfc»  Kingiton. 


N?  548.  JANUARY  16™,  1841  {o».'"?S.r. 


BENEFICBNCB,    BY   CAKOVA 


IS 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Jakuart  16, 


CANOVA  AND  HIS  WORKg. 

Architecture  s^nd  Sculpture,  in  consequeBc^  pf  t)^ 
intimate  relations  which  subsist  between  them,  have  bepQ 
represented  as  twin  sisters;  though  i^  point  of  antiquity 
architecture  must  take  the  precedence  of  aU  the  other 
fine  arts.  The  period  at  which  sculpture  (in  the  ordi- 
nary sense  of  the  wprd,  as  referring  to  representations 
of  animated  existence)  began  to  be  first  practised,  is 
unknown.  But  there  has  existed  throughout  its  known 
history,  a  remarkable  degree  of  harmony  with  the  state 
of  its  sister  art.  The  sculptured  figures  of  Egypt  and 
of  India  exhibit  the  same  qualities  of  simple  originality 
and  ponderous  dignity  with  the  architectural  monuments 
of  those  countries;  the  remain^  of  Grecian  art  harmo- 
nize together  in  grace  and  beauty;  and  the  boldness  of 
Roman  edifices  expresses  the  99me  character  with  the 
gladiatorial  figures  and  equ^ftpi^n  statues.  The  grand 
style  of  architecture  of  t}i0  mi^le  ages  met  with  its  cor- 
responding degree  of  excpll^ppe  in  statuary;  and  the 
yaned  beauties  of  the  mof)^f )[^  f^yle  of  architecture  have 
been  kept  pace  witb>  (^FR^gl^  f^e  revival  in  sculpture 
which  has  taken  place  aluE^pst  in  our  own  times. 

I^rom  the  days  of  Michael  4^gelo,  to  the  latter  part 
of  the  last  century,  sculpture  gradually  declined  until 
it  feacl^ed  what  may  be  cfi|)ed  its  second  childhood; 
but  here  the  advances  of  dec^y  were  cl^ecked,  and  new 
vigour  communicated  to  the  aiPt  by  the  uipearance  of  the 
sculptor  whose  life  and  work^  are  tq  ferfn  the  fubject 
of  this  and  two  subsequent  articles. 

Amid  the  recesses  of  those  l^ills  w)iic}i  form  the  last 
undulations  of  the  Venetjan  Alps,  as  |bey  subside  into 
the  plains  of  Treviso,  lie}  (he  i^seufa  }f}\\fige  pf  Pos- 
aagm,  shut  in  by  nature  %{{|  general  pbs^j^H^pn,  and 
too  insignificant  in  itself  tq  vpiffii  m^  f^^^f^  fH(  having 
been  the  birth-place  of  Apton^  Canqva. 

(n  this  obscure  situatiop  wa^  the  fiiture  8Ci}}p|f^f  born 
on  the  1st  of  November,  1^67.  |Iis  fathiif,  Pietro 
Canova,  was  by  occupatioi|  ^  stoi^^-cutter,  ^fi4  his 
mother  was  in  nowise  distinguished  from  the  s^i^^pl^ 
females  of  the  hamlet.  Antj^nio  was  (he  only  chii4  9f 
this  marriage,  and  when  but  three  yeas^  of  age,  h^  Iq^ 
his  father,  who  is  described  as  having  been  a  lyum  of 
melancholy  habits,  and  weaklv  constitu^on.  His  mptbof 
soon  formed  a  second  marfiage,  §p4>  r^oc^oving  tp  ^ 
neighbouring  village,  left  4P^M<^  ^  ^  <^^"^  of  Ms 
granofo'^her,  Pasipo  Ganova.  also  a  ^tone-cutter,  wfao, 
wit^  (lis  wifie  Catterina,  watched  ovef  his  in£uicy  apd 
amply  supplied  the  loss  of  hi|  re§l  parents.  The  afleo; 
tionate  tplicitude  of  Catten^^  was  gratefully  remem- 
bered by  Canova  tbrougli  li&;  (N}^,  in  after  vears,  he 
proved  his  sens?  pf  former  ))pneto,  by  t|ldng  her,  then 
a  widow,  to  reside  with  hm  ^  4ome,  a^^  Raying  her 
that  fespect  and  attention,  which,  |rhile  it  ^ia  boiiqi^  (p 
his  pwp  icielings,  pp¥|tri))ttted  to  t|ie  )^piness  and 
soothed  the  dectipp  of  his  a^d  r^l^^ve. 

The  romantic  pbaractpr  of  the  scenery  n^  Possagno, 
and  the  fine  §ir  ffom  tlie  inountains  wMpH  refreshed  ^hP 
neighbouring  country,  Ipd  to  the  choicp  pf  spveral  spots 
in  that  viciiuty  for  the  sumpf^pf  residei^pps  of  the  Vene- 
tian nobility.  In  t^  i^irs  apd  minoir  pmbelUsbipents 
of  these  yillas>  tl^p  granqiathpr  fff  Cappva  W^  occasion- 
ally employed,  ai^d  ne  soon  recommended  himself  among 
his  patrons  for  bis  4Uig^^ce  and  ingenuity.  Canpva 
often  accompanipp  Pa^ii^P  on  t)iese  occasions,  and  exhi- 
bited, at  a  vpry  early  age,  a  dpcided  taste  for  modelling, 
and  for  tbp  more  prnameptal  parts  of  the  work  on  whicn 
his  grandfather  was  epgaged.  The  workshop  became, 
even  during  iu^ncy,  his  place  of  amusement;  and  so 
little  interest  did  he  take  in  the  sports  usual  to  childhood, 
that  he  became  known  among  the  youthful  villagers  as 
the  sullen  Tonin*.  Gentleness,  rather  than  sullenness, 
however,  was  the  characteristic  of  Canova,  and  it  was 
«  Tonin  is  th«  prorincial  diminutive  of  Antomo. 


more  congenial  to  his  te^aper  to  8eek.recreatioi|  apd  in- 
struction iv^  the  tales  find  ballads  feftitefi  to  hiip  by  his 
grandmpth^f ,  thap  tp  jpin  t)ip  noisy  circle  of  his  young 
compeers.  Accordingly  he  was  ever  to  be  found  in  the 
workshop  of  his  grandfather,  or  hanging  at  the  side  and 
Ustenipg  to  tl^e  legendary  lore  of  his  grandmother,  who 
was  sometimes  sorely  annoyed  to  find  proofs  of  bis 
attachment  left  in  the  shape  of  tiny  hand-marks  im- 
pressed in  modelling-clay  on  various  parts  of  her  dress. 

The  grrandfather  of  Canova  was  a  self-teught  artist, 
and  considering  the  situation  in  which  he  was  placed, 
his  talento  appear  to  have  been  far  from  despicable. 
He  possessed  some  knowledge  of  architecture;  designed 
with  neatness  and  facility;  and  showed  considerable 
taste  in  the  execution  of  ornamental  works  in  stucco  and 
even  in  marble.  At  nine  years  of  age»  Canova  was 
taken  as  his  regular  assistant,  and  before  that  time  he 
had  shown  marked  indications  of  skill  in  the  execution 
of  models  in  clay,  and  in  fashioning  the  larger  fragments 
of  marble-cuttings  into  omamento  of  various  kinds. 
Two  small  shripes  of  Carrera  marble,  inlaid  with 
coloured  stones,  are  still  preserved  as  specimens  of  his 
primitive  labours  in  sculpture.  Until  lus  twelfth  year 
Canova  appears  to  have  laboured  at  his  humble  occupa- 
tion in  complete  obscurity,  and  to  have  made  ose  of  his 
momente  of  Ipisure  ip  cultivating  his  taste  for  drawing* 
But  the  time  had  now  arrived  wbPII  bis  taints  were  to 
become  known  to  those  who  werp  bt^tter  able  tQ  appreci- 
ate them,  than  the  inhabitants  pf  his  native  vilWe. 

S|fff}^r  Giovanni  Falier»  the  proprietor  of  t^  villa 
d^A^^fq^  ]3^ar  Possagno,  was  ope  of  t^sp  Qoblp  Vene- 
tians ^  fv^m  we  have  already  sppken.  He  sppi^  f  few 
month^  ^  ^h  year  among  the  Alps,  and  was  cpptent 
tP  avail  ^fmself  of  the  assistancp  pf  Pasmo's  sl^ill  ii)  the 
rppair  of  his  villa,  instead  of  sending  for  artists  froip  the 
capitalf  T^o  old  man's  gpod  qualities  had  rendere4  him 
pn  pspepial  fayourite  at  the  villa,  and  no  seaspii  passed 
irithput  his  being  inyited  |p  spend  a  few  days  liiere, 
even  when  tbef«  was  ]ittle  t^  require  his  labours*  The 
young  Canqva  now  accompif^jed  his  grandfather  ou 
these  visits,  and  soon  l)pc|j[np  a  universal  &vp|irite. 
*'  Few  indeed,'*  says  \\^  biogmher,  ^*  cpuld  at  {^ia  time 
((pqw  the  i^p^iable  ai)4  nnas^Uipag  boy,  without  filing 
an  affectipfi  for  hii^,  (lis  IjffJAt  and  gracefol  Agip*c — 
^is  finely  ^rmed  and  expres^^vp  couptenance,  bpaming 
at  once  w||b  sensibility  and  fiippi  interested  at  first  aight; 
while  tl^e  unaffected  simplipi^  of  his  ad4l^8a|  the 
modest  4i|pdence  but  not  awkwani  timidity  of  his  man- 
npTi  hit  liipdness  of  heart,  93^  ingenuous  dispoaition, 
could  not  ^1  to  improve  these  favpurablp  impfpsaions.*' 

Sigpor  jp'alier  thought  he  p^ceived  in  this  y^^uthful 
artist,  talents  that  prgfoiat 4  glUf  ^  >  ^^^  bpUpvipg  that  a 
(ittle  encpuragement,  and  inore  eitensivp  tuition,  ^^ould 
pljcit  the§^,  or*  at  all  eventSi  better  qualify  )iim  tp  ei^cel  in 
^|p  )}usi{^$is  of  his  grandfiither,  he  gpnerpus|y  tpp^  him 
fnader  hii  ^mpiediate  protection,  and  sought  X6  obtain  for 
hin^  suitable  tuition.  An  incidpnt  occurred  a^  this 
juncture  frh^ch  tended  still  further  to  impress  t)ie  patron 
pf  panpvf  with  an  idea  of  his  talents,  though  it  is  not 
true,  as  generally  related,  that  it  was  the  means  of  his 
first  intrqduction  to  the  Falier  tafniiy, 

At  a  fostival  which  was  celebrated  at  the  villa,  and 
attended  by  a  numerous  assemblage  of  the  Venetian 
npbility,  tiia  domestics  had  neglected  tp  prpvi4^  an  orna- 
ment for  the  dessert,  and  did  not  discover  their  omission 
till  the  moment  it  was  requirpd  to  be  supplied*  Terrified 
at  the  thought  of  their  master's  displeasure,  they  applied 
to  Pasino,  who  happened  to  be  in  the  house,  accompanied 
by  his  grandson.  The  old  man  was  unable  to  sug-gest 
any  remedy,  but  our  yoimg  artist,  seemg  the  necessity 
of  the  case,  ordered  some  butter  to  be  brought  to  bim, 
and  from  that  material  presently  carved  a  lion  of  such 
admirable  proportions,  and  effective  appearance,  that  it 
excited  the  attention  and  applause  of  all  the  company. 
An  inquiry  was    made;    the   whole   affair  oop&saed, 


IS410 


THB  SATURDAY  MAOAKiKE 


19 


and  Tonm  Canava  declared  the  ooDiri^er  of  the  oma* 
ment.  Tonin  was  then  called  for,  and  was  ushered  into 
the  brilliant  assembly  covered  with  blushes,  and  expect- 
ing a  rebuke,  instead  of  the  warm  approbation  and  kind 
Caresses  he  met  with. 

It  happened  about  this  time  that  a  Venetian  sculptor 
of  some  eminence  took  up  his  abode  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  I^ossagno.  This  was  Giutitppe  Bernard^ 
sumamed  TorettOf  who  withdrew  to  this  retirement  for 
a  time  in  order  to  complete  various  works  of  embellish- 
ment on  which  he  was  engaged.  Bemardi  having  been 
employed  bv  the  trailer  family,  was  well  known  to  them 
as  a  skilful  artist,  and  was  accounted  worthy  of  the 
charge  of  instructing  Canova;  who  was  soon  settled 
imder  his  tuition,  and  recommended  to  the  especial 
notice  of  his  new  master  by  the  benevolent  senator 
Falier.  ^mardi,  or  as  he  is  mote  generally  called^ 
Toretto,  quickly  discovered  that  his  pupil  possessed  no 
ordinary  talents;  and  while  paying  every  attention  to  his 
charge,  united  the  affection  and  esteem  of  a  friendy  with 
the  discipline  of  a  tutor. 

Canova,  from  his  early  years  to  the  latest  period  of  his 
life,  was  remarkable  for  his  unceasing  industry :  he  did 
not  trust  to  the  native  talent  which  )ie  must  have  felt 
conscious  of  possessing,  but  applied  himself  earnestly 
and  perseveringly  to  study.  Many  drawings  and  models 
are  preserved  by  the  Falier  family,  which  exhibit  his 
gradual  improveitient  under  Tofetto.  Two  drawings  in 
chalk,  one  representing  a  Venns,  and  the  other  a  Bac- 
chus, are  much  valued^  as  they  were  executed  onhr  a  few 
days  after  their  author  had  been  placed  with  Toretto, 
and  therefore  show  the  degree  of  perfection  which  he 
had  been  able  to  attain  under  his  grandfather's  care. 
As  the  performances  of  a  boy,  not  exceeding  twelve  years 
of  agev  these  are  said  to  discover  considerable  talent; 
being  sketched  ui  a  bold  style  and  with  great  correctness 
of  outline. 

The  works,  howeyer,  which  at  this  period  most  de-> 
lighted  the  friends  of  young  Antonio,  and  which  excited 
the  utmost  surprise  m  hi?  master,  were  the  models  in 
clay  of  two  angeis,  executed  during  a  short  absence  from 
Toretto,  and  without  assistance  from  any  similar  figures.- 
These  therefore,  were  the  first  really  original  perform- 
ances of  our.  artist.  They  were  finished  in  secresy  and 
haste,  and  then  placed  in  a  conspicuous  situation  in  the 
workshop,  against  the  ei^pected  return  of  Toretto.  Off 
bis  arrfvalf  Canova  watched  the  direction  of  his  master's 
eyes  with  mingled  hope  and  fear:  at  length  they  rested 
on  these  new  creations  of  the  trembling  ^y ;  and  stand- 
ing for  a  moment  fixed  in  astonishment,  he  exclaimed^ 
JBcco  un  ia0or  vern^Mnte  maravigUoso!  ^This  is  in 
truth  ft  mpst  astonishing  work  I);  and  scarcely  could  he 
persuade  himself  that  so  perfect  a  work  had  been 
executed  by  his  pupil; 

Caaovs  appears  to  have  made  his  first  essays  in  the 
representation  of  the  human  form  in  marble,  when. he 
had  nearly  attained  his  fourteenth  year;. but  these  per- 
formances were  of  a  diminutive  sise,  and  merely  under- 
taken as  presents  to  his  friends.  Two  o^  these  statues, 
about  a  foot  high,  are  still  in  the  villa  Falier.  These 
attempts  coofstitnted  his  amusement  and  recreation  from 
the  more  mechanical  labours  of  his  profession.  Thus 
diligently  employed^  the  time  passed  rapidly  with  our 
young  artiit^  and  through  life  he  was  accustomed  to 
speak  of  this  period  as  one  of  peculiar  happmess.  The 
family  of  his  patron  spent  the  winter  in  Venice;  but  the 
younger  son^  betWeeA  whom  and  Canova  a  sincere 
friendship  existed,  was  left  alt  Pofisagao  with  a  clergy- 
man who  conducted  his  education.  In  the  company  of 
the  young  Falier,  and  in  visiting  his  grandmother  snd 
the  good  old  Pasino,  were  spent  every  hotiday,  and  eyery 
interval  not  devoted  to  stnay.  The  outlines  of  his  cha- 
racter, such  aai  with  very  little  change  it  existed  through 
life,  were  folly  marked  at  this  early  period,  and  are  thuti 
(described.    *'  Open^  sincere,  ingenuoiisy  he  was  himself 


unconscious  of  dissimtxlationt  and  could  hardly  conceiye 
deceit  to  exist  in  others.  Full  of  vivacity  in  the  socie^ 
of  his  friends,  he  delighted  them,  at  once  by  the  origi- 
nality of  his  observations,  and  by  the  native  elegance 
of  a  delicate,  though  still  untutored  mind.  Among 
strangers,  from  a  natural  timidity,  which  subsequent  in- 
tercourse with  mankind  never  entirely  oyercamOi  he  was 
reserved,  yet  seldom  failed  to  strike  observers  as  pos- 
sessing a  mind  of  no  ordinary  stamp,  or  to  ^x,  those  im- 
pressions, even  on  a  casual  interview,  which  commoa 
minds  never  leave." 

Canova  was  shicerely  anxious  to  excel  in  his  profes* 
sion,  though  as  yet  there  was  no  definite  intention  hat 
he  should  do  more  than  follow  the  employment  of  hil 
grandfather.  But  a  period  was  now  at  hand,  which 
wa9  to  decide  his  future  prospects. 

Toretto,  who  had  now  completed  the  engagements 
which  for  a  period  of  nearly  three  years  had  detained 
him  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Possagno,  determ  ned  oA 
fe-establishing  his  residence  at  Venice :  in  a  few  months 
after  returning  thither  he  died,  through  th^  pressure  of 
infirmities  rather  than  of  old  age.  Toretio  evinced  a 
sincere  regard  for  Canova,  in  proof  of  which  he  declared 
him  his  son  by  adoption,  with  permission  to  bear  the 
name;  a  privilege  which  ^as  never  made  use  of,  and 
which,  except  as  a  pleasing  mark  of  apprebation,*  was 
productive  of  no  advantage. 

At  the  death  of  Toretto,  Canova  fotmd  hhnself  once 
more  on  the  point  of  being  established  in  the  Workshop 
of  Pasino,  and  to  all  appearance  doomed  to  irksome  toil, 
and  io  the  obscurity  of  his  natiye  village.  The  Falier 
family  were  at  that  time  absent  from  Asola^  and  Canova 
had  no  other  firiends  capable  of  atdvancing  his  interests* 
But  the  dejection  which  naturally  clouded  his  youAg  and 
ardent  mind  at  such  a  prospect,  was  suddenly  changed 
into  transports  of  joy,  m  consequence  of  ftn  invitation 
from  his  benevolent  patron  to  repair  immediately  to 
Venice,  to  consider  the  Falier  palace  as  his  home,  and 
£o'  trust  to  his  friends  there  for  everything  which  con- 
cerned his  education  and  maintenance. 

The  frontispiece  which  adorns  our  article  represents 
a  group  in  the  monument  of  the  Archduchess  Maria 
Christina,  wife  of  Prince  Albert  of  Saxony.  The  mo- 
nument was  executed  in  1805,  when  Canova  was  at  the 
height  of  his  fame.  It  was  justly  considered  as  one  of 
the  finest  conceptions  of  his  mind,  and,  as  such,  will  be 
particularly  described  in  a  future  article.  The  group 
in  question  represents  Benificence  supporting  an  aged 
and  infirm  old  man,  and  ascending  the  steps  leading  to 
the  tomb.  A  funeral  wreath  unites  this  group  with  the 
rest  of  the  procession. 


Thrre  is  not  a  more  gloomy  study  than  the  histoiy  of  the 
concluding  scenes  of  Ifoman  greatness.  Nearly  all  ages  and 
sexes  appeared  to  contend  with  each  other  in  the  rapidity 
of  their  descent  down  the  steeps  of  vice.  Under  the  empe- 
rors, tyranny  and  crime,  in  all  their  fla^tious  and  appalhog 
aspects ;  every  suspicion  that  could  embitter  existence,  and 
loosen  the  bonds  of  society ;  every  hateful  sentiment,  and 
every  baneful  passion,  had  pervaded  the  unwieldy  empire. 
The  history  oppresses  our  mind  like  a  frightful  oream :  it 
is  hard  not  to  associate  the  notion  of  external  ^loom  with 
the  moral  ruin,  and  clothe  the  fiu»  of  nature  with  the  dis- 
mal hue,  the  sullen  stillness  of  a  gathering  storm ;  we  seem 
to  behold  the  coming  ^planetary  plague,'* 

"When  Jove 
Shall  o*er  some  high-viced  oity  hang  his  poison 
In  the  si^k  air. 

In  the  descriptions"  of  thefar  gorgeous  splendc^,  a»^  thefer 
baleful  revolutions,  their  joys  appear  like  demoniac  wild^ 
neas ;  theur  sobriety,  the  broodmgs  of  oonspiracy  or  ftar. 
To  pursue  inquiry  through  such  ages  would  he  useless;  the 
manners  of  a  people  sinking  into  ruin  from  their  o^vn  cor- 
ruption, will  never  be  app^ed  to,  either  for  evidence  of 
what  is  natural,  or  authority  far  what  id  useful. —  WomaifM 
BigkU  and  Dutisi. 


THE  SATDHDAY  MAGAZINE. 


CJanuahi  16, 


ON  CHESS. 
Obigin  and  Antiqditt  qf 


acqnauited  irith  chess,  or  at  least  with  ■  game  bearinff 
•ome  doae  affinity  therewith.  VvTy  slight  inquiry, 
-hoiraTer,  is  mtScient  to  show  that  the  game  represented 
oD  tlte  Egyptian  moDuments  is  nothing  more  than  a 
Bpecies  of  dnughts.  The  players  are  represented  sitting 
on  the  ground,  or  on  chairs,  and  the  pieces,  or  men, 
being  ranged  in  rank,  at  either  end  of  the  table,  were 
probal.ly  moved  on  a.  cheqiiered  board;  but,  the  game 
beang  Mways  represented  in  profile,  the  exact  appear- 
ancie,  or  the  number  of  the  squares,  cannot  be  given. 

The  pieces  were  all  of  the  same  size  and  form,  tliough 
tlMy  varied  on  differoit  boards,  some  l>eing  small,  others 
laiga,  with  round  summits:  many  were  of  a  lighter  and 
neater  shape,  like  small  nine-pins, — probably  the  most 
bshionable  kind,  since  they  were  used  in  the  palace  of  Kinc 
Bemeaes.  Tliese  last  seem  to  have  been  about  one  inch 
and  a  half  high,  standing  on  a  circular  baae  of  half  an  iiich 
in  diameter;  and  one  in  my  posaes^n,  wllich  I  broQsht 
from  Thebes,  of  a  nearly  simifor  taste,  is  one  inch  and  a 
qiuBter  in  height,  and  litUe  more  than  half  an  inch  broad 
M  the  lower  end.  It  is  i^  hard  wood,  and  was  doubtless 
painted  of  some  colour,  like  those  occurring  on  the  Egyptian 


They  were  all  of  equal  size  upon  tlie  same  board,  one 
set  black,  the  other  white  or  red,  standing  on  oppoute  ndee ; 
and  each  player,  raising  it  with  the  finger  and  thumb, 
advanced  tnis  piece  towards  those  of  his  op^nent;  but 
thongti  we  aic  unable  to  say  if  this  was  done  m  a  direct  or 
dia>wial  line,  there  is  reaaoa  to  believe  tbey  could  not  take 
baoKwards,  as  in  the  PoUsh  game  of  draughts,  the  men 
being  mixed  together  on  the  b^rd. 

It  was  an  amnaement  common  in  the  houses  of  the 
lower  classes,  and  in  the  mansions  of  the  rich;  and  King 
Kemcses  ia  himself  pourtrayed  on  the  walls  of  lus  palace 
at  Thebes  engaged  in  the  game  of  ilranghts" 


cerptt 


We  copy  the  following  figure  from  Bubton's  Ste 
rpta  Iiieroglyphica. 


The  modem  Egyptians  have  a  game  of  draughtt  very 
ainular,  in  the  appearance  of  the  men,  to  that  of  their 
aflcestora,  which  they  call  ddmeh,  and  play  much  in  the 

The  most  impartial  authorities  are  strongly  inclined  to 
&TOur  the  assumption  that  chess  was  originally  invented 
in  India,  and  thence  transmitted  to  the  nations  of 
Europe,  by  means  of  the  Persians  and  Aralu.     The 


imtfumenU  <k  its  introduction  to  the  western  world  are 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  crusaders;  but  u 
this  supposition  necessarily  excludes  aU  knowledge  of 
the  game  previous  to  the  year  1100,  it  is  liable  to  very 
formidable  objecdoDs, 

An  eastern  historian  iDformi  na  that  the  game  wu 
known  at  Constantinople  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  802. 
At  that  period  the  Emperor  Niccphorus  began  bis  reign, 
and  made  a  pointed  allusion  to  the  game  of  chess  in 
an  epistle  to  the  Caliph  Ilaronn  al  Raachid.  "  The 
queen,"  said  he,  speaking  of  Irene,  the  mother  of  Coo- 
itantine,  "to  whom  I  have  succeeded,  considered  you  as 
a  rook,  and  herself  as  a  pawn.  That  pusillanimoos 
female  submitted  therefore  to  pay  to  thee  a  tribute,  the 
double  of  which  she  ought  to  have  exacted  from  thyself." 
The  game  being  thus  familiar  at  Constantinople  at  that 
early  period,  it  is  extremely  probable  that  the  knowledge 
of  it  was  speedily  transmitted  to  other  parts  of  Europe; 
and  the  intercourse  maintained  between  the  c 


Constantinople  and  France  renders  it  extremely  probable 
that  the  tatter  kingdom  was  <me  of  the  first,  if  not  the  very 
first,in  Western  Europe,  to  become  acquainted  with  chess. 
It  is  singularly  confirmative  of  this  supposition  that  a  set 
of  ivory  chess-men,  of  great  antiquity,  are  still  pre- 
served m  the  Cabinet  of  Antiquities,  in  the  Bibliotli^ue 
du  Koi,  at  Paris,  and  that  m  the  history  o!  the  Abbe; 
of  ijt.  Denis,  where  they  were  formerly  deposited,  there 
should  be  found  the  following  notice: — "L'Empereur  & 
Roy  de  France,  Sainct  Charlemagile,  a  donne  au  Tbre- 
sor  de  Sainct  Dteys  un  jeu  d'eschets,  avec  le  tablier,  te 
tout  d'yvoire;  iceui  cachets  hauts  d'une  pauline,  fort 
estimez;  le  dit  tablier  et  une  partie  des  eschets  out  csl£ 
perdus  par  succession  de  temps,  ct  est  bien  vray  sembkble 
qu'ils  out  eflt£  apportea  de  I'Orient,  et  sous  lea  groa 
eschets  11  y  a  des  caract^res  AraiKsques."  The  dresses 
and  omamenta  of  the  two  principal  figures  in  this  set  are 
declared  by  Sir  F.  Madden  to  be  in  strict  keeping  with 
the  costume  of  the  Greeks  in  the  ninth  century,  so  that, 
having  examined  the  engravings  given  of  the  king  and 
queen,  he  is  persuaded  that  these  chess-men  really  belong 
to  the  period  assigned  to  them  by  tradition,  and  believes 
them  to  have  been  executed  at  Constantinople,  by  an 
Asiatic  Greek,  and  sent  as  a  present  to  Charlemagne, 
either  by  the  Empress  Irene,  or  by  her  successor  ^ice- 
phorus.  Embassies  were  frequently  despatched  by  the 
rrankiidi  monarch  to  the  court  of  Constantinople,  and 
that  sort  of  friendly  intercourse  was  maintained  which 
increases  the  probability  of  the  above  supposition.  The 
size  and  workmanship  of  the  chess-men  prove  them  to 
have  been  designed  for  the  use  of  some  noble  personage, 
and  from  the  decided  style  of  Greek  art  visible  in  the 
figures,  it  is  inferred  that  they  came  to  Charlemagne 
from  a  sovereign  of  the  Lower  Empire,  and  were  not 
the  gift  of  the  Moorish  princes  of  Spain,  or  evcu  from 
the  Caliph  Ilaroua  al  Raschid,  whose  costly  gifts  to  the 
Emperor  of  the  West  are  particularly  described  by 
German  historians. 

The  old  French  romances  abound  with  references  to 
the  game  of  chess,  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  In  one 
of  these,  called  Guerin  de  MontgUxut,  the  whole  story 
turns  upon  a  game  of  chess,  at  which  Charlemagne  lost 
his  kingdom  to  Guerin,  tlie  latter  having  proposed  a 
game  at  which  the  stake  waa  to  be  the  kingdom  of  France. 
Another  romance,  describing  the  arrest  c^Dnke  Richard 
of  Normandy,  says  that  he  was  playing  at  chess  vith 
fvonoet,  son  of  R^naut,  and  the  officers  came  up  to 
him,  saying, — "  Aryae  up,  Duke  Rycliarde;  forindispite 
of  Charlemayne,  that  loveth  you  ao  muche,  ye  shall  be 
hanged  now. '  "  When  Duke  Rycharde  saw  that  these 
sei^a^eauntee  had  him  thus  by  tbe  arm,  and  helde  iu  his 
hande  a  tady  {liame)  of  ivery,  where  w>  he  would  have 
g^ven  a  mate  to  Yonnet,  he  withdrew  his  arme,  and  gave 
to  one  of  the  sergeauntes  such  a  stroke  with  it  into  the 
forehead  that  he  made  him  tumble  over  and  over  at  his 
feet;  and  then  he  took  a  rooke,  (roe,')  and  smote  another 


841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


ft 


v^  all  upon  his  head,  that  he  all  to  broat  it  to  libe 

brayne." 

Instances  may  be  multiplied  to  dispTore  the  common 
opinion  that  chess  was  not  introduced  into  Europe  until 
after  the  first  crusade.  We  will  quote  one  more  exam- 
ple, and  this  is  from  the  Epistles  of  Damiano,  Cardinal 
Bishop  of  Ostia,  who  died  in  1080.  In  a  letter  to 
Pope  Alexander  the  Second,  (1061-1073,)  he  mentions 
an  incident  which  occurred  between  himself  and  a  bishop 
of  Florence. 

Whilst  we  were  dwelling  together,  haTina^  arriTed  in  the 
•▼ening  at  a  resting-place,  I  withdrew  myself  to  the  neigh- 
bouring cell  of  a  priest ;  but  he  remainea  with  a  crowd^  of 
people  m  a  lam  house  of  entertainment.^  In  the  morning 
my  servant  in&rmed  me  that  the  bishop  had  been  pkyinff 
at  the  s^me  of  chess ;  which  thing  when  I  heard,  it  pierced 
to  my  neart  like  an  arrow.  At  a  convenient  hour  I  sent 
for  him,  and  said,  in  a  tone  of  severe  reproof,  "The  hand  is 
stretched  out ;  tiie  rod  is  ready  for  the  back  of  the  offender." 
''Let  the  fiinlt  be  proved,"  said  he,  "and  penance  shall  not 
be  reiuaed."  "Was  it  well,"  rejoined  I,  "was  it  worthy  of 
the  character  you  bear,  to  sp^id  the  evening  in  the  vanity 
of  cheas-play,  and  defile  the  hands  and  tomrue  which  ought 
to  be  the  mediators  between  man  and  the  Deity?  Are  you 
not  aware  that,  by  the  canonical  law,  bishops  who  are  mcc- 
players  are  ordered  to  be  suroendedl"  He  however,  seeking 
an  excuse  from  the  name  oi  the  same,  and  sheltering  him- 
self under  this  shield,  suggested  that  dice  were  one  thm^and 
ehess  another ;  consequently  that  dice  alone  were  forbidden 
by  the  canon,  but  chess  tacitly  allowed.  To  which  I  replied 
thus, — ^"  Chess  is  not  named  in  the  text,  but  is  compre- 
hended under  the  gener^  term  of  dice.  Wherefore,  smce 
dice  are  prohibited,  and  chess  is  not  expressly  mentioned,  it 
follows  without  doubt  that  both  kinds  of  play  are  included 
undei'  one  term,  and  equally  condemned."  To  this  the  poor 
prelate  could  make  no  reply,  and  was  ordered  by  his  supe- 
rior, by  way  of  penance  fi>r  his  o£fence,  to  repeat  the  Psalter 
over  thrice,  and  to  waah  the  feet  of,  and  give  alms  to,  twelve 
poor  persons. 


GmcuiisTAKCES  are  the  rulers  of  the  weak;  thev  are  but 
the  instruments  of  the  wise. — Loveb. 


Tbe  cultivation  of  the  affections  comes  next  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  bodily  senses ;  or  rather  they  may  be  said  to 
begin  together,  so  early  does  the  infant  heart  receive  im- 
pressions.— Mrs.  Child. 

A  oaNTLKMAN  of  Marseilles,  named  Remonsat,  shortly  before 
his  death,  desired  that  his  numerous  family  might  be 
assembled  about  his  bc^l.  He  acknowledged  the  delight 
which  his  children  had  afforded  him  by  their  affection  and 
attachment,  and  especially  for  the  tender  love  which  they 
bore  to  one  another.  "  But,"  continued  he,  "  I  have  a  secret 
to  disclose,  which  will  remove  one  of  vou  from  this  circle. 
iM>  lone  as  I  had  any  hopes  of  living  1  kept  it  from  you, 
bat  I  dure  not  violate  your  rights  in  the  division  ot  the 
property  which  I  leave  you.  One  of  you  is  only  an 
adopted  child — ^the  child  of  the  nurse  at  whose  breast  my 
own  chUd  died.  Shall  I  name  that  child?"  "No,  no,^* 
said  they  with  one  accord,  "let  us  all  continue  to  be  brothers 
and  sisters." 

The  Almighty,  who  gave  the  dog  to  be  companion  of  our 
pleflsures  and  our  toib,  hath  invested  him  with  a  nature 
noble  and  incapable  of  deceit.  He  forgets  neither  friend 
nor  foe— remembers,  and  with  accuracy,  both  benefit  and 
iiy  oiy.  He  hath  a  share  of  man's  intelligence,  but  no  share 
or  man's  fSalsehood.  You  may  bribe  a  soldier  to  slay  a  man 
^ith  his  sword,  or  a  witness  to  take  life  by  fidse  accusation, 
hat  you  cannot  make  a  hound  tear  his  bene&ctor.  He  is 
the  friend  of  man,  save  when  man  justly  incurs  his  enmity. 
— Waltcb  Scott. 


RsjBCT  the  society  of  the  vicious ;  shun  the  agreeable  infidel 
and  the  accomplished  profligate.  Lay  it  down  as  a  fixed 
rule,  that  no  brilliancy  of  connexion,  no  allurement  of  rank 
or  feshion,  no  agreeableness,  no  wit  or  flattery,  shall  tempt 
von  to  associate  with  profligate  or  openlj^  irreligious  men. 
Make  this  an  absolute  rule.  It  is  impossible  not  to  suffer 
by  its  neglect.  If  you  do  not  fall  into  their  vices,  still  your 
heart  wiu  be  estranged  fi^m  the  love  of  God. — Greslbt. 


HISTORY  or   THE  SMALL-POX. 

U. 

Discovery    of   Vaccination — Its  Progress   on 
THE  Continent — Re-vaccination. 

The  same  century  which  witnessed  the  introduction  of  <  he 
practice  of  small-pox  inoculation,  also  witnessed  its  utter 
abandonment ;  for  it  was  in  the  year  1 798  that  Edward  Jen- 
ner  announced  to  the  world  his  discovery  of  vaccination 
— ^the  fruits  of  twenty  years'  experiment  and  deliber^icm. 
A  short  biographical  sketch  of  this  great  and  good  man 
has  appeared  already  in  the  pages  of  the  Saturday 
Magazim/*;  we  have  no  intention  of  repeating  what  has 
already  been  said,  and  will  therefore  confine  our  notice 
to  some  particulars  of  his  life  which  have  relation  to  his 
discovery.     Jenner  was  hardly  dealt  with  by  his  cotem- 
poraries,  and  he  adds  another  nanoe  to  the  rather  nume- 
rous list  of  wise  men  who  have  been  more  honoured  in 
foreign  countries  than  in  their  own.     The  posterity  of 
entire  Europe,  nay,  of  the  entire  world,  wiU  yet,  however, 
do  him  ample  justice.     If  the  philosophical  and  perse- 
vering pursuit  of   a  laborious   and  intricate  train  4)f 
inquiry;  if  a  consummate  sagacity  which  explained  difli- 
culties  with  deamess,  and  anticipated  wi&  exactness 
conclusions  which  subsequent  experience  has  verified; 
if  the  being  actuated  to  this  by  the  most  philanthropic 
disinterestedness,   which    manifested   itself  in  fervent 
thanksgiving  to   Almighty  God  for  having   rendered 
him  an  instrument  of  conferring  good  upon  his  fellow- 
men;  if  these  qualities  may  d^Ienge  the  admiration 
and  grratitude  of  the  world,  then  has  the  diseoverer  of 
vaccination  an  entire  right  to  do  so.     We  aay  advisedly 
and  emphatically  diacoeerer,  because  it  has  been  foolishly 
argued  that  Jenner  was  not  the  discoverer  of  the  practice 
in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word — An  exposure  of  the 
fallacy  of  this  objection  will  at  once  bring  us  to  the 
history  of  the  subject. 

It  has  been  observed,  that  in  dificrcnt  parts  of  the 
world,  when  large  numbers  of  cows  had  been  congregated 
together,  an  epidemic  disease  has  appeared  among  them 
at  irreg^ular  and  rare  intervals.  This  disease  manifests 
itself  by  the  appearance  of  pustules,  (pimples  containing 
matter,)  and  especially  on  the  udders  of  these  animals. 
The  disease,  from  the  resemblance  it  bears  to  the  small- 
pox in  the  human  subject,  has  been  called  the  cow'pojt; 
indeed,  recent  experiments  have  proved  that  it  and 
small-pox  are,  as  anticipated  by  Jenner,  merely  mild 
and  malignant  varieties  of  the  same  disease.  It  had  long 
been  observed  that  this  disease  from  the  cow  was  com- 
municable to  the  hands  of  the  milkers,  producing  in  them 
a  mild  and  local  eruption.  Moreover,  it  had  long  been 
popularly  observed,  in  the  dairy  counties,  that  persons 
who  had  contracted  this  disease  from  the  cow,  were  in  a 
remarkable  manner  exempt  from  attacks  of  pmall-pox. 
It  is  therefore  true,  in  the  limited  acceptation  of  the 
term,  that  Jenner  did  not  discover  the  protective  power 
of  vaccination.  But  the  mere  fact,  which  was  passed  by 
unheeded  and  unimproved  by  the  other  medical  prac- 
titioners in  the  county  where  he  resided,  (Gloucester,) 
struck  his  observant  mind  even  in  his  youth ;  and,  for 
^ears  and  years  after,  the  developement  of  this  fact,  and 
its  conversion  into  a  means  of  practical  utility,  were  the 
grand  objects  of  his  life«  He  devoted  some  years  to  the 
minute  observance  of  the  disease  in  the  cows,  and 
among  the  milkers,  and  satisfied  himself  of  its  true< 
nature,  and  of  the  means  of  distinguishing  it  from  other 
spurious  affections  which  resembled  it.  He  made  no 
secret  of  his  investigations,  and  in  1 780  he  visited  Lon- 
don, with  the  hope  of  being  able  to  excite  the  attention 
of  some  of  the  learned  men  of  the  metropolis.  He  there 
met  with  little  or  no  encouragement,  and  was  thrown 
upon  his  own  intelligent  perseverance;  indeed,  at  a  sub- 
sequent period,  when  he  proposed  presenting  a  memoir 
upon  the  subject  to  the  Royal  Society,  he  was  cautioned 

•  Sea  Vol.  VI.  p.  60. 


I 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[January  .6, 


not  to  riik  losing  Aid  i^piitation  he  Ead  acquired  in  that 
body  on  account  of  his  researches  in  natural  history. 
He  persevered,  and  in  1 796  he  vaccinated  a  child  with 
some  matter  taken  from  the  hands  of  a  milker ;  this  child 
was  afterwards  inoculated  for  the  small-pox,  and  re- 
sisted that  disease  successfully :  he  continued  his  experi- 
ments, and  in  1798  announced  his  grand  discovery  to 
the  ^orld,  detailing  twenty*three  cases  of  its  successful 
application. 

His  state  of  mind,  after  the  first  success  of  his  experi- 
ments, is  thus  depicted  In  his  Journal. — He  was  in  the 
habit  of  meditatmg  much  upon  the  subject  among  the 
meadows  adjoining  Berkeley  Castle. 

While  the  vaccine  discovery  was  prcMiressing,  the  jov  I 
felt  at  the  prospect  before  me  of  being  the  instrument  de»- 
tined  to  take  away  from  the  world  one  of  its  greatest  calami- 
ties, blended  with  the  fond  hope  of  enjoying  independence 
and  domestic  peace  and  happiness,  was  often  so  excessive, 
that  in  pursuing  my  favourite  subject  among  the  meadows, 
I  have  sometimes  round  myself  in  a  kind  of  reverie.  It  is 
pleasant  to  me  to  recollect  that  these  reflections  always 
ended  in  devout  acknowledgments  to  thai  Being  from  whom 
this  and  all  other  mezcies  now. 

His  announcement  was  received  with  so  much  Scepti- 
cism at  first,  that  no  subject  could  be  obtained  in  London 
for  some  months,  whereon  to  demonstrate  the  experi- 
ment. This  having  at  last  been  satisfactorily  accom- 
plished, the  practice  was  soon  followed  with  avidity  alid 
precipitation.  Mr  Cline  and  other  friends  urged  Jenner 
to  settle  in  London,  assuring  him  that  a  large  fortune 
would  await  him.  Attached  to  the  charms  of  a  rural  life, 
and  of  the  most  limited  desires  in  pdint  of  fortune,  he  re- 
fiised.  But  peace  and  quiet  were  no  longer  to  be  hid 
portion ;  from  this  period  all  his  energies  were  requir  d, 
not  only  to  defend  vaccihation  from  the  attacks  of  in- 
terested opponents,  but,  in  a  far  greater  degree,  from  the 
exaggerated  and  indiscriminate  view  of  it  taken  by  many 
of  its  supporters.  Forgetting  the  laborious  investiga- 
tions Jenner  had  gone  through,  and  the  rules  he  had  laid 
down  for  the  adoption  of  the  practice,  numbers,  believing 
the  operation  to  be  much  simpler  than  it  is,  by  neglect- 
ing the  requisite  precautions,  propagated  an  affection 
resembling,  but  less  protective  than,  the  true  One.  A 
calamitous  event  of  this  kind  occurred  at  the  Small-pox 
Hospital,  where,  by  inadvertency,  the  true  vaccine  virus 
became  contaminated  with  small-pox  matter,  and  in  this 
state  was  distributed  over  the  country  and  abroad,  giving 
rise  to  inefficient  protection  and  much  disappointment. 
Dr.  Jenner  was  unceasing  in  endeavouring  to  correct  these 
errors,  and  in  spreading  correct  ideas  upon  the  subject; 
but  in  many  of  his  professional  rivals  he  found  much  evil 
spirit  and  bstinacy  that  disheartened  him,  and  he  ob- 
tained much  more  efficient  assistance  from  non-profes- 
sional persons,  especially  ladies,  who  were  not  too  self- 
sufficient  to  listen  to  and  follow  the  instructions  of  a 
man  who  had  devoted  his  life  to  the  inquiry.  The  re- 
peated blunders  which  occurred,  and  the  conduct  of  some 
who  wished  to  divert  all  the  honour  and  emolument  of 
the  practice  to  themselves,  at  last  obliged  him  to  repair 
to  the  metropolis. 

Vaccination  extended  most  rapidly,  in  that  forming  a 
remarkable  contrast  to  the  history  of  inoculation.  As 
early  as  1799  the  Duke  of  York,  seeing  the  great  im- 
portance of  the  practice,  caused  its  general  adoption  in 
•  the  army,  and  both  he  and  his  brother,  our  late  king, 
were  always  warm  patrons  of  the  practice.  By  1801 
6000  persons  had  been  vaccinated  in  England,  and  most 
of  them  tested  with  the  small-pox. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  practice  was  received  with 
much  more  avidity,  and  much  more  abundantly  employed 
on  the  Continent  than  in  the  country  of  its  oirth.  Dr. 
De  Carro  most  extensively  introduced  it  throughout 
Germany,  and  Dr.  Sacco,  in  Italy,  in  eight  years  vacci- 
nated himself  600,000  patients,  and  by  deputy  700,000 
others.     Vaccination  was  introduced  into  Russia  by  the 


empresd-^mother,  whd  prefteiii«d  Jenner  with  a  handsome 
diamond,  and  wrote  an  excellent  letter  to  him.  The 
first  child  vaccinated  was  called  Vaccinoff,  and  was  pen- 
sioned for  life.  In  Sweden  and  Denmark  it  was  soon 
adopted,  and  rendered  compulsory,  with  the  happiest 
effect.  Owing  to  our  unfortunate  differences  with  France, 
the  vaccine  matter  was  not  introduced  into  that  country 
until  1800,  when  it  was  adopted  with  enthusiasm.  After 
the  practice  was  introduced  into  Spain,  Dr.  Balmis 
obtained  from  the  queen  a  commission  to  extend  the 
blessing  to  all  the  Spanish  colonies  in  Asia  and  America; 
and  a  well-appointed  expedition^  having  on  board  a  hum* 
bef  of  young  children,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  supply  of 
matter^  circumnavigated  the  globe,  not  foi*  the  purpose  of 
effecting  bloody  conquests,  or  Introducing  among  unci- 
vilized nations  corrupt  Manners,  but  for  diffusing  the 
antidote  to  the  greatest  bane  of  those  portions  of  the 
human  race.  .  It  was  conveyed  to  the  United  States  hi 
1 799,  and  thence  gradiially  to  the  native  Indians.  Jenner 
was  most  anxious  to  transmit  the  vims  to  the  Fast, 
wherein  the  Small-pox  raged  with  virulence ;  but  failure 
after  failure  occurred,  until,  by  the  inffcnuity  of  De 
Carro,  it  was  enclosed  in  wa*  balls,  and  conveyed  to 
Bombay,  by  way  of  Constantinople,  and  quickly  diffused 
over  India.  The  Marquis  of  Wellesley  exerted  himself 
actively  in  its  propagation^  and  in  removing  the  preju- 
dices which  many  of  the  Hindoos  felt  against  it,  from  its 
originating  with  the  cow.  We  will  not  pursue  farther 
the  detail  of  the  progress  of  vaccination ;  suffice  it  to 
say,  that  in  little  more  than  six  years  it  became  diffused 
over  the  habitable  globe. 

The  effects  of  this  extensive  diffusion  were  striking 
and  satisfactory.  In  many  countnes  small-pox  was  infi« 
nitely  diminished  in  frequency  and  mortality,  and  in 
others  seemed  to  be  exterminated.  Ceylon  resembled 
formerly  a  deserted  place,  after  an  epidemic  of  small- 
pox, and  Dr.  Christie  states,  that  on  tne  most  moderate 
calculation,  the  small-pox  swept  off  one  sixth  of  the 
population.  After  the  introduction  of  the  vaccine  by 
the  English,  in  1800,  the  mortality  from  this  source 
became  trifling.  In  SwedeQ  and  Denmark,  by  1805,  it 
seemed  entirely  subdued.  In  the  district  of  Anspach, 
in  Bavaria,  out  of  a  population  of  300,000,  only  six 
deaths  from  small-pox  occurred  in  1809,  and  from  thence 
to  1818  only  one;  while  in  the  contiguous  state  of  Wur- 
temburgh,  in  which  the  precautions  were  more  lax,  the 
disease  raged  epidemically  in  1814-17.  In  the  epidemic 
at  Berlin^  in  1823,  only  nve  persons  died,  while  in  one 
prior  to  the  introduction  m  vaccine,  1600  persons 
perished. 

In  "concluding  this  article  it  may  be  desirable  to  pre- 
sent a  slight  sketch  of  the  presetit  state  of  taccination. 
For  several  years  after  its  introduction  it  was  believed  to 
be  a  complete  preventive  of  the  small-pox,  and  Jenner 
fondly  hoped  that  the  disease  would  by  its  means  become 
exterminated.  Further  experience  has,  however,  shown 
that  small-pox  does  occasionally  occur  after  yaccrnationi 
and,  although  the  disease  so  produced  is  usually  ren- 
dered much  milder,  yet  has  death  even  sometimes  re- 
sulted. The  small-pox,  too,  which  for  the  first  ten  or 
twelve  years  after  the  introduction  of  vaccination  was 
much  subdued,  has  of  late  years  broken  out  again  with 
violence,  and  although  its  ravages  have  been  much  less 
extensive  than  heretofore,  and  chiefly  fallen  upon  the 
unprotected,  yet  has  much  alarm  been  thereby  excited. 
It  is  true  that  where  vaccination  has  least  extended,  the 
disease  has  raged  most ;  thus,  Ireland  has  suflered  from 
this  cause  less  than  England,  and  portions  of  this  latter 
country,  in  which  vaccination  has  been  well  attended  to, 
have  received  an  entire  immunity.  Sb,  too,  in  the  army 
and  navy  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  has  been  very 
ihuch  diminished.  Still,  in  countries,  as  Sweden,  Russia, 
Italy,  Ceylon,  in  which  vaccination  had  been  mtfst  effect- 
ually practised,  and  in  which  the  small-pox  for  a  While 
ceased  to  appear,  that  ditease  hatf  of  late  recun^  and 


J841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAQAZIKX. 


M 


attacked  many  of  the  vaadnated,  and  luofa  cases  are  on 
the  increase. 

The  reason  of,  and  remedy  for,  this  diminiflhed  pro- 
tective power  of  the  vaccine  virus  have  occupied  much 
attention  of  late  years,  hoth  at  home  and  abroad.     Its 
failure  has  been  attributed  by  some  to  the  deterioration 
arising  from  the  matter  having  passed  through  so  many 
individuals;  but  the  experience  of  the   Vaccine  Board 
and  Small-pox  Hospital  leads  to  the  opinion  that  the 
same  virus  which  has  passed  from  person  to  person  to 
the  number  of  1500  or  1600,  still  produces  as  active 
and  as  protective  a  disease  as  at  first.   This  would  seem 
to  prevent  the  necessity  of  again  having  recourse  to  the 
cpw,  wluch  however  has  in  some  instances  of  late  beep 
done  with  success.     Another  reason  has  been  sought  in 
the  imperfect  manner  in  which  the  proeess  of  vaccina- 
tion has  often  been  conducted,  and  the  spurious  and 
only  partially  protective  virus  thus  diffused.     This,  as 
anticipated  by  Jenner,  has  led  to  many  evils,  and  it  is 
even  said,  that  no  person  vaccinated  by  him  has  been 
known  thus  to  suffer;  still  its  influence  has  been  ex- 
aggerated, and  the  small-pox  has  imdoubtedly  frequently 
occurred  in  persons  who  have  been  vaccinated  with  the 
greatest  care   and  with  the  purest  virus.     The  most 
generally  entertained  opinion  upon  the  subject  is,  that 
the  influence  of  vaccination  is  only  temporary,  and  that 
it  requires  renewal.     Many  facts  are  in  support  of  this 
opinion,  and  it  has  been  most  extensively  acted  upon  on 
the  Continent.     It  has  been  attempted,  but  with  little 
success,  to  fix  the  exact  period  when  the  influence  thus 
wears  out,  in  order  to  determine  when  re-vaccination 
should  be  instituted.      It  would  seem,  however,  that 
those  who  h^ve  been  vaccinated  in  infancy  often  re-ac- 
quire the  susceptibility  to  small-pox  as  they  approach  the 
period  of  manhood,  and  especially   when  they  change 
the  climate  to  which  they  have  been  habituated.     The 
proportion  of  those  in  whom  vaccination  thuq  loses  its 
influence  is  not  known,  but  is  still  very  inconsiderable, 
although  on  the  increase. 

In  epidemics  the  small-pox  has  been  found  to  be  re- 
sisted by  the  vaccinated  u\  proportion  as  they  were 
young,  while  they  became  more  liable  to  it  as  they  re- 
ceded &om  the  period  when  the  operation  was  performed. 
So,  too,  re-vaccination  (the  i^uccess  of  which  has  been 
regarded  as  evidence  of  the  susceptibility  to  small-pox 
being  renewed,)  has  been  found  to  succeed  on  the  aault 
but  not  on  the  child.  )n  the  Prussian  army  47,000 
soldiers  were  re-vaccinated  in  1837,  and  a  i^U  effect 
resulted  in  24,000;  not  one  of  these  took  the  small- 
pox, although  it  was  extensively  preyalent.  In  Wurtem- 
berg  44,24o  w^re  re-vaccinated,  and  only  one  became 
affected  with  the  small-pox.  In  the  Qrand  Duchy  of 
Baden,  the  small-pqx  attacked  niany  who  ha4  been  yac- 
cinatedy  a  decree  for  universal  re>va(M^ination  ws^  issued, 
and  the  disease  disappeared.  Of  216  children  re-vacci- 
nated at  the  Foundling  Hospital,  only  eleven  succeeded. 
At  all  events,  ^he  practice  of  re-vaccination  should  be 
put  in  force ;  it  is,  at  least,  harmless,  and  either  sup- 
plies the  valuable  information  that  the  protective  power 
of  the  origin^  vapcination  is  not  worn  put,  or  where  this 
b  the  case,  it  renews  it. 

Even  with  the  qualification  that  experience  has  placed 
upon  the  degree  of  benefit  to  be  derived  from  vaccina- 
tion, yet  it  continuesL  one  of  the  greatest  boons  ever  pre- 
sented to  the  human  race.  It  must  be  recollected  that 
the  small-pox  itself  sometimes  occurs  a  second  time,  as 
it  does  also  after  inoculation ;  and  although,  perhaps,  it 
occurs  more  frequently  after  even  properly  performed 
vaccination,  yet  pe  difference  is  not  so  great  as  supposed. 
But  the  important  fact  must  be  noticed,  that  while  the  mor- 
tality from  the  natural  small-pox  was  about  twenty-five  in 
the  hiindiedf  thi^t  where  the  disease  occurs  after  vaccina- 
tion, it  is  hul  pine.  Of  the  advantages  conferred  by  the 
practieey  the  diminished  amount  of  mortality  and  in- 
creased dantion  of  humanlife  testify :  thus,  while  in  1780 


the  annual  mortality  was'  one  in  forty,  m  1821  it  was 
about  one  in  fifty-eight.  This  is  more  striking  still  when 
applied  to  children, — ^the  frequent  victims  heretofore  of 
smaU-pox.  Mr.  Edwards  states,  that  prior  to  the  intro- 
duction of  vaccination,  gii^ty  per  cent,  in  Londop,  and 
forty  per  cent,  in  all  England  died,  while,  during  the 
twenty  years  ending  with  1 830,  these  numbers  have  been 
reduced  respectively  to  thirty  and  t^venty  per  cent.  Jt 
is  true  that  the  whole  improvement  cannot  be  attributed 
to  the  diminution  of  small-pox,  but  H  may  be  fairly 
stated,  that  a  large  portion  of  it  paay,  especially  as  that 
dreadful  disease,  even  where  it  did  not  terminate  fatally, 
laid  the  seeds  fpr  purny  future  maladies.  It  is  a  jninor, 
but  yet  an  important  consideration,  that  the  amount  ot 
personal  disfigureifient,  the  loss  of  eye-sight,  &c„  froni 
small-pox  have  immensely  diminished.  In  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  between  40,000  and  50,00Q  persons  were 
formerly  supposed  ^o  perish  of  small-po?,  a^d,  in  pror 
portion  to  the  increase  of  population,  that  number,  but 
for  vaccination,  would  probably  now  amount  to  80,000. 
In  London,  wherein  the  mortality-  was  usually  200Q  or 
3000  annually,  only  277  died  in  1827.  Through  the 
neglect  of  v^cination,  small-pox  has  prevailed  severely 
in  Great  Britain  this  last  year,  the  number  of  death?  fof' 
six  months  amounting  to  60PO. 

There  is  no  probability  that  the  disease  will  be  eradi- 
cated, but  its  yi^Hlence  may  be  diminished,  and  its 
sphere  conty^cted-  This  will  be  best  brought 'aboi^t  by 
an  extensive  system  of  vaccination.  No  one  who  ha^ 
qot  ex4pined  into  the  subject  can  imagine  the  numbe;' 
of  unprotected  persons  yet  in  this  country.  Vaccination, 
adopted  ahnpst  ttuiversally  by  the  wealthy  and  educated 
cesses,  has  been  opposed  by  the  ignorance,  carelessness^ 
indolence,  and  prejudices  of  their  poorer  brethren.  I^ 
is  not  until  the  scourge  arrives  aniong  them  that  it  is 
discovered  to  how  great  a  degree  precautions  i^ainst  i^ 
have  been  neglected.  Cpn^pnlsory  vacpinatipn  would  h§ 
contrary  to  the  genius  and  habits  pf  this  cpuntry,  but 
fapilities  should  be  offered  with  unbounded  liberahty ;  and 
it  is  with  that  view  that  the  Vaccination  Qill  was  intror 
duced  into  parliament  last  session  by  Lord  EUenborpugh, 
and  is  now  part  of  the  law  of  the  land.  By  it  gratuitous 
vaccination  is  everywhere  offered  to  the  poorer  classes  of 
the  community;  but,  for  its  successful  carrying  put,  the 
advice  and  persuasions  of  their  more  fortunate  neigh- 
bours will  be  required,  and  will,  we  are  persuaded,  not 
be  found  wanting.  Another  provision  of  this  bill  is 
the  punishinent,  as  a  misdemeanour,  of  the  inoculation  for 
the  smai}-pox.  The  persistence  in  this  injurious  prac- 
tipe  has  tended  much  to  maintain  the  disease  among  us, 
i^pd  its  prohibitipn  cannot  hut  be  of  the  greatest  service. 

J.C. 

▲N  nilTATlON  FBQM  I.  KXN6S  XIX.,  U,  18. 

He  passed,  and  hii^  terrors  before  him  were  sent. 
Beneath  tbe  strpng  tempest^  the  mountains  were  rent; 
It  crumbled  to  pieces  the  rocks  as  it  passed 
In  its  strength ;  but  Jehovah  was  not  in  the  blast. 

By  internal  convulsions  her  terror  expressed, 

The  earth  the  approach  of  her  Maker  confeieed, 

In  the  power  of  the  servant,  the  Master  adored. 

For  the  might  of  the  earthquake  contained  not  the  Lord. 

The  fire  of  the  Lord  from  his  presence  has  gone. 
With  the  light  of  his  coming  the  firmament  shone. 
As  the  smoke  of  a  furnace,  the  mountain  became. 
But  the  Lord,  but  Jehovah  was  not  in  the  flame. 

Where  then  was  Thy  presence  ?    The  earth  is  all  stUl, 
The  elements  hushed  are  subdued  to  Thy  will. 
One  still  small  voice  only  was  heard  in  that  hour. 
When  thy  prophet  adored  thee,  and  worshipped  thy  power. 

F.  W.  M. 

Nothing  can  overcome  him  that  is  not  first  overcome  by  his 
own  isM^giqaUoxui  and  psssioas,— Bishop  Pahuck. 


34 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[jANUiIRT    16,   1841. 


VELVET. 

VEbvpT^k  on#.of  thd«i08t  bfiauttiulproduclions  of  the 
silk-loom.  It  haa  been  known  in  Europe  for  sercral 
centuries;  but  the  secrets  of  its  manufacture  were  for  a 
long  time  confined  to  some  of  the  chief  cities  of  Italy. 
From  this  country  the  French  learned  the  art,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  improving  it.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  ••brought  numerous  French  refugees  to  England, 
about  the  year  1685,  who  settled  in  Spitalfields,  and 
practised  the  art  of  weaving  velvet. 

The  reader  is  probably  aware  of  the  process  of  plain 
weaving  with  the  common  loom.  A  large  number  of 
threads,  forming  the  lengthy  or  warp,  of  the  intended 
cloth,  are  wound  upon  a  cylindrical  beam  or  roller,  and 
pass  from  thence  through  a  harness^  composed  of  move- 
able parts,  called  heddles.  Each  of  these  heddles  re- 
ceives its  portion  oi  the  threads  of  the  warp,  and  is 
alternately  moved  up  and  down,  so  that  the  threads  of 
the  warp  are  alternately  raised  and  lowered.  Each  time 
the  warp  is  opened  by  the  separation  of  its  alternate 
threads,  a  shuttle,  containing  the  woqff  or  transverse 
thread,  is  thrown  across  it,  and  this  thread,  being  driven 
into  its  place  by  a  frame  called  a  /ay,  gradually  forms 
by  its  repeated  crossing  the  material  to  be  woven.  In 
the  weaving  of  velvet,  however,  in  addition  to  the  warp 
and  woof,  there  is  a  soft  sha^  or  pile,  produced  by 
inserting^  short  pieces  of  silk-thread,  doubled,  under  the 
woof,  and  these  stand  up  in  so  large  a  number,  and  so 
dompactly,  as  to  conceal  the  interlacings  of  the  warp  and 
woof  which  are  seen  in  plain  weaving.  This  silky  pile 
imparts  to  velvet  its  peculiar  softness  to  the  touch,  as 
well  as  beauty  to  the  eye ;  but  the  production  of  these 
results  depends  in  great  measure  upon  the  uniform 
evenness  of  the  pile.  To  insure  this  latter  quality,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  all  the  threads  of  the  pile  of  equal 
length,  which  requires  some  skill,  and  much  patient 
attention  on  the  part  of  the  weaver 

In  weaving  vdivet,  the  loom  is  first  prepared  as  in  the 
ordinary  process  of  plain  weaving:  another  set  of  threads 
is  then  prepared  to  go  in  the  direction  of  the  threads  of 
the  warp,  which  set .  is  kept  distin^  from  the  warp  by 
being  stretched  diagonally  as  shown  in  the  figure,  wliicn 


•BCTXON,  BXaiBITXKO  tBB  STBOCTUXB  OF  VILVBT. 

represents  the  structure  of  velvet,  and  the  plan  adopted 
to  combine  the  threads  of  the  woof  with  the  pile.  At 
a  a, 'are  the  threads  of  the  warp,  and  the  dots  placed  in 
the  loops  show  the  section  of  the  woof  threads :  at  6  are 
the  threads  intended  for  the  pile,  and  these  threads 
meet  those  of  the  warp  in  the  angle  c.  The  weaver 
places  in  this  angle  a  brass  w^ire  of  the  same  length  as 
the  breadth  of  thp  piece  of  woven  stuff,  so  that  fdl  the 
pile  threads  are  above  the  wire,  and  those  of  the  warp 
below  it.  Bv  the  action  of  the  treadles  the  alternate 
threads  of  tne  warp  are  raised,  the  shuttle  is  thrown, 
and  passes  over  the  pile  threads,  and  the  alternate  threads 
of  the  warp,  which  are  depressed;  the  batten  is  then 
made  to  strike  up  against  the  woof,  the  interlacing  of  the 
warp  and  woof  is  effected,  and  a  loop  of  the  pile 
thread  is  formed  over  the  wire  as  at  da.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  pass  the  shuttle* thrice  between  each  insertion  of 
the  wire:  the  thread  for  the  first  woof  is  coarser  than 
that  employed  for  the  other  two,  and  the  action  of  the 
batten  forces  the  wire  into  its  proper  position.  The 
upper  part  of  this  wire  has  a  groove  running  along  it : 
by  means,  therefore,  of  a  sharp-edged  tool,  called  a 
trencUf  passed  along  the  groove,  the  loops  dd  are  divided, 
the  wire  is  liberated,  the  pile  is  formed  as  at  ee,  and 
thus  the  process  of  weaving  velvet  is  completed. 

The  weaver,  however,  finds  it  necessary  to  employ 


two  wires,  one  of  which  remains  in  the  texture,  while 

the  other  is  put  ouj^:  tbt  i^as^  for  tlui  isj^hat  llite.pile 
thread!  mufivSt  Wlibiralea  «|)(f the  vvbob  piAws  de- 
ranged; bttfos  otte  wire  is  seimred  >y  the  thu  <!■  of  the 
woof,  the  pile  threads  are  prevented  from  being  set  at 
liberty  while  the  loops  are  being  cut.  As  soon  as  the 
wire  IS  liberated  from  the  first  loop  d,  it  is  agiun  inserted 
in  the  angle  c;  and  when  it  has  been  secured  aa  befof^ 
the  wire  forming  the  second  loop  d  in  the  figure,  bat 
now  the  first  loop,  is  cut  out,  and  so  on  alternately.  At 
one  time  the  richest  velvets  were  formed  of  thirty-eight 
loops  to  the  inch,  but  this  beautiful  substance,  velvet, 
has  been  so  much  in  demand,  and  persons  are  willing  to 
pay  such  high  prices  for  the  richest  productions,  that 
now  as  manyas  fifty-five  loops  are  woven  into  an  inch 
of  velvet.  This  circiunstance  will  enable  the  reader  to 
form  some  idea  of  the  extremely  tedious  process  of 
velvet-weaving.  The  wire  requires  to  be  inserted  and 
cut  out  again  fifty-five  times  in  the  space  of  an  inch, 
that  is,  a  strip  of  velvet  one  inch  broad,  and  whose 
length  is  equal  to  that  of  the  breadth  of  the  piece.  And 
when  we  consider  that  the  threads  of  the  woof  are  of 
differept  decrees  of  fineness,  rendering  two  shuttles 
necessary;  which  roust  be  exchanged  atlfroquent  but  un- 
equal intervals,  we  can  form  ah  estimate  of  the  incessant 
care  and  vigilance  necessnry  on  the  part  of  the  w^eaver 
in  conducting  thele  yarious  operations.  Much  caution 
and  dexterity^  Uks  ate  requir^  in  cutting  the  loops:  for 
however  simple  thp  operation  of  pAssing  a  knife  along  a 
straight  edge  msnj  appear,  yet  tins  part  of  the  process 
can  only  be  ocqutiiea  oy  long  practki^ ;  for  the  smallest 
deviation  from  the  straight  line  would  injure  the  appear- 
ance, of  the  velvets  The  weaver  being  thus  occupied  in 
so  many  distinct  operations  in  rapid  succession,  finds  his 
work  to  increase  very  slowly,  and  he  has  been  very  in- 
dustrious if  at  the  end  of  a  long  day*s  work  he  has  woven 
a  yajrd  of  phin  vel^t. 

k  will  be  seen  from  what  we  have  stated  that  the 
richness  of  velvet  depends  upon  the  number  of  threads 
forming  the  pile:  the  degrees  of  richness  are  accordingly 
indited  in  this  way,  and  the  manufacturer  speaks  of 
velvet  of  two,  four,  or  six  threads,  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  the  pile  thnBads  inserted.  The  striped  velvet,  with 
which  waistcoats  are  sometimes  made,  is  produced  by 
leaving  uncut  a  number  of  the  pile  loops. 

The  peculiarly  rich  effect  of  velvet  results  from  the 
absorption  of  the  light  which  falls  upon  its  surface,  and 
hence  too  arises  the  sombre  effect  when  much  of  this 
substance  meets  the  eye. 

A  ro<mi  hung  ronnd  with  black  cloth  or  velvet,  and  a 
cofiin,  on  which  is  shed  the  light  of  wax-tapers,  is  an  im- 
pressive spectacle.  The  light  falling  upon  the  cloth  or 
velvet,  is  absorbed ;  and  the  feeling  of  ffloom  aanaes  from  the 
circumstance  that  nothing  seems  to  renect  light.  Whereas, 
in  a  room,  whose  sides  are  covered  with  mirrors,  reflecting 
the  various  lights ;  where  music  and  merry  voices  mingle  In 
concert,  how  diffu'ent  is  the  scene !  Even  in  tlie  absence  of 
human  beings  and  especially  happy  and  innocent  ones, 
whose  presence  hieeses  and  enlivens  almost  every  scene,  the 
room  yet  appears  cheerful,  in  conse<[uence  of  the  abundance 
of  refiected  light,  the  absence  or  absorption  of  which,  is,  in 
general,  attended  by  a  gloomy  profl|»ect. — ^Tohuksok's 
Students  Manual  of  Jvatural  Philosophy. 


*  9mS9lvrdap 


',  ToL  xtI!^  p.  9$. 


It  should  be  impressed  on  the  minds  of  persons  in  genend 
that  those  nlants  which  afford  the  most  efficacious  medicine 
in  the  hands  of  the  skilful  practitioner,  are  the  most  dan- 
gerous in  those  of  the  ignorant,  and  should  therefore  nev^r 
be  used  aa  a  domestic  remedy. — Phillips. 

Endeavour  yourself  to  do  good  to  all  men,  and .  nerer 
speak  evil  of  them  that  be  absent. — Sir  Thomas  Smith. 


•  LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKEK,  WEST  8TBAKX>. 

PuliU*U»  D  IN  WkkKLY  N  VMBVRf,  Pmtrc  OKK  PSNItV«  AH»  IM  UoWtBUX  VjLKTm, 

pRlfTV     BtXPVKCK 

-JSO&4  by  ftn  BookeoUvra  h»U  ^tf«rsT«lldcn  ioiht  Kiof4o«« 


£a4iir^d|l        Mns^int, 


NS549. 


23^?,  1841. 


THE  TOWN  OF  LYNN,  NORFOLK. 


UINT  nCHOLU  CUPBI,  LTNN. 


Ih  iHe  flontishinc  town  of  Lvnn,  Norfolk,  stands  the 
Ch^l  of  St.  Nicbolu,  (sud  to  be  ttie  lirgeit  parochial 
elupel  in  the  kingdom,)  of  the  architcctonJ  embellish' 
ntoiti  of  which  we  pre  our  readers  a  specimen  n  the 
»b»™  Tiew  of  the  Hnithera  porch. 

Lynn  u  sitnated  chiefly  on  the  east'  m  bank  of  the 
iTer  Onw,  abont  twelve  miles  from  the  sea,  where  that 
iiTer,  having  ^adually  widened  its  channel,  becomes 
Vry  eonriderable,  and  nearly  equal  to  the  Thames  above 
Lndon  Bridge.  This  important  stream  is  sometimes 
aUed  tlw  Great  Oute,  to  distin^ish  it  from  the  Letter 
Oiut,  which  ia  one  of  ita  tiibutaries.    It  is  also  called 

Vol,  XYin. 


the  'Etutem  Oust,  to  distingush  it  from  the  2VorlJiern 
or  Yorkshire  river  of  that  name.  To  this  river  tho 
town  of  Lynii  owes  its  chief  importance,  for  by  it  com- 
mercial intercourse  is  carried  on  with  the  interior  of  the 
country  to  a  great  extent,  and  a  communication  wiih 
the  sea  is  formed.  It  would  be  interesting  to  trace  the 
course  of  this  river  from  the  place  of  its  rise  on  the 
borders  of  Northamptonshire  and  Oxfordshire,  throiig'h 
the  midland  counlies,  of  which  it  traverses  a  coiisldori- 
ble  part,  to  its  junction  viith  the  sea.  Many  nncient 
halls  and  noble  edifices  grace  its  banks  and  tliose  of  its 
tributary  streams,  and  the  fsnny  and  marshy  districts 


26 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


[  Januabt  23, 


through  which  it  flows  have  also  their  own  peculiar 
interest.  But  we  are  now  to  speak  of  the  town  of  Lynn 
itself,  and  of  the  edifice  we  have  selected  for  description. 

Lynn  is  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  Marshland, 
and  of  the  Great  Level  or  Fen  Country,  and  has  been 
called  the  great  metropolis  of  the  Fens.  It  was  an- 
ciently called  Bishop's  Lynn,  having  been  imder .  the 
jurisdiction,  both  temporal  and  spiritiml,  of  the  Bishops 
of  Norwich,  who  had  a  palace  where  Gaywood  Hall 
now  stands.  The  episcopal  authority  was  surrendered 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  and  from  that  time 
the  tQ,wn  was  called  fcng's  Lynn.  During  the  contest 
between  John  and  the  barons,  Lynn  was  remarkable  for 
its  constant  adherence  to  the  king,  who  remained  there 
for  some  time,  and  at  the  prayer  of  the  bishop  made 
the  town  a  free  borough;  he  presented  to  the  inhabitants 
a  silver  cup,  weighing  seventy-three  ounces,  richly  gilt, 
and  enamelled,  which  is  still  preserved  by  the  corpora- 
tion. 

The  trade  of  Lynn  appears  to  have  been  considerable 
as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  town  had 
risen  to  such  a  height  of  commercial  importance,  that 
the  revenue  paid  to  the  crown  was  two-thirds  of  that 
arising  from  the  trade  of  the  port  of  London.  The 
harbour  is  extensive,  and  can  accommodate  three  hundred 
sail,  but  th  ■  entrance  is  somewhat  dangerous  from  the 
shifting  of  the  sands  which  accumulate  there,  and  the 
anchorage  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  by  the  rapidity  of  the  tide,  which  rises  to  the  height 
of  twenty  feet.  The  situation  of  the  port  of  Lvnn  ren- 
ders it  a  place  of  much  foreign  and  coasting  trade :  it  im- 
ports wine  from  Spain  and  Portugal ;  timber,  deals,  hemp, 
and  tallow  from  the  Baltic ;  corn  from  the  northern  parts 
of  Europe ;  oil-cake  from  Holland ;  and  timber  from 
America.  It  supplies  the  neighbouring  districts  with 
these  imported  articles,  as  well  as  with  agricultural  pro- 
duce, by  means  of  its  extensive  coasting  trade.  White 
sand  of  a  particular  sort  is  sent  to  the  glass  manufacto- 
ries of  Newcastle  and  Leith;  and  lai^  quantities  of 
shrimps  are  conveyed  from  this  coast  to  the  iLondon  mar- 
kets. Not  less  thui  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  chal- 
drons of  coal  are  annually  brought  into  this  port,  for  the 
distribution  of  which  in  the  neighbouring  counties,  the 
Ouse  and  its  tributaries,  with  the  various  canals  com- 
municating with  them,  afford  great  advantages.  That 
the  reader  may  Judge  of  the  extent  of  traffic  connected 
with  this  port,  we  may  mention,  that  in  the  year  1626, 
sixty  British  and  one  hmidred  and  twenty  foreign  ships 
entered  inwards  from  foreig^n  parts,  and,  twenty-one  Brit- 
ish, and  one  hundred  and  ten  foreign  vessels  cleared  out- 
wards. Several  ships  used  to  be  fitted  out  annuallv  for 
the  Greenland  whale  fishery,  but  this  branch  of  the  ousi- 
ness  has  of  late  years  greatly  declined.  Ship-building 
has  been  carried  on  at  Lynn  from  an  early  period,  but 
is  not  at  present  of  very  considerable  note. 

King's  Lynn  comprises  the  parishes  of  All  Saints, 
St  Margaret's,  and  St.  Edmund.  Of  ths  churches  of 
Lynn,  St.  Margaret's  being  undoubtedly  the  most  im- 
portant edifice,  first  demands  our  attention.  This  church 
was  founded  about  the  close  of  the  eleventh,  or  com- 
mencement of  the  twelfth  century,  by  Herbert  de  Lo- 
zinga,  bishop  of  Norwich.  According  to  an  old  record, 
lie  commenced  building  it  at  the  request  of  the  men  of 
the  town  of  Lynn,  but  the  contributions  proving  in- 
adequate to  the  magnitude  of  the  work,  he  had  recourse 
to  the  unworthy  expedient  of  offering  indulgences,  or 
pardon  of  crimes  for  forty  (Ws,  to  all  who  would  con- 
tribute to  the  undertaking.  This  plan  proved  eminently 
successful  in  raising  money  sufficient  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  edifice;  "the  work,"  says  the  historian  of 
Lynn,  "went  on  prosperously,  was  soon  finished  in  a 
magnificent  style,  and  the  indulgence  effected  what  an 
appeal  to  the  most  pious  considerations  would  probably 
have  failed  to  accomplish.'* 


The  church,  in  its  original  state,  was  of  larger  dimen- 
sions, and  more  magnificent  than  at  present;  but  it  still 
presents  a  noble  appearance.  The  western  tower  dis- 
play different  styles  of  architecture,  and  the  lower  part 
of  them  is  evidently  very  ancient  The  interior  consists 
of  a  nave  with  aisles,  a  chancel,  or  choir,  with  aisles,  and  a 
transept.  A  tall  spire  once  adorned  one  of  the  western 
towers,  but  this  spire  fell  in  1741,  and  did  much  damage 
to  the  body  of  the  church.  Soon  after  that  event,  the 
lofty  tower,  or  lanthom,  which  rose  above  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  cross  aisles,  was  taken  down  through  fear  of 
a  mmilar  misfortune. 

The  chapel  of  ease  to  St,  Margaret's  is  St.  Nicholas, 
an  elegant  chapel,  built  upon  the  site  of  one  much  more 
ancient,  and  elaborately  decorated  in  many  of  its  parts. 
The  south  porch  may  be  seen  by  our  engraving  to  be 
covered  with  a  variety  of  minute  ornaments.  The  roof  of 
the  porch  is  handsomely  groined  with  stone,  and  at  the 
intersection  of  the  ribs  are  some  heads  and  figures  in  bold 
relief,  but  much  obscured  by  whitening.  The  interior  of 
the  chapel  of  St.  Nicholas  consists  of  a  lofty  nave,  with 
two  side  aisles :  its  architecture  is  thus  described  by  the 
Rev.  Edward  Edwards. 

The  distinguishing  characters  of  this  structure,  as  seen 
from  within,  are  lightness,  simplicity,  and  perfect  uniformity 
of  style,  the  tower  alone  being  of  earlier  date  than  the  rest 
of  the  &bric.  The  piUars  are  slender,  having  the  horizontal 
section  of  the  shaft  nearly  in  the  form  of  a  truncated 
lozenge,  relieved  by  shallow  flutings,  and  raised  about  four 
feet  from  the  ground  by  corresponding  bases.  They  have 
no  capitals,  but  small  brackets,  which  support  the  inner 
ribs  ot  the  arches.  Opposite  the  arches,  in  the  side  aisles, 
are  an  equ^  number  of  windows:  between  the  windows 
are  niches  or  canopies.  The  east  and  west  windows  are 
very  large,  with  a  pleasing  mixture  of  curved  and  rectilinear 
tmcery,  and  embattled  ornaments  upon  the  transoms.  More 
ornament  has  been  bestowed  on  the  doors  than  on  any  other 
part  of  the  buildine.  The  western  door- way,  in  particular, 
IS  divided  by  a  muTlion,  which  supports  an  el^ant  niche, 
and  is  adorned  with  other  sculpture  in  stone.  The  small 
south  door>way  is  in  the  same  style,  as  is  also  the  larger 
door- way  towards  the  north.  The  &t>nt  of  the  Scniih  Porch 
is  stm  more  elaborate. 

The  original  chapel  is  said  by  Parkin  to  have  been 
founded  by  William  Turbus,  or  De  Turbe,  bishop  of 
Norwich,  who  was  consecrated  in  1 146,  and  died  in  1 174. 
He  gave  it  to  the  monks  of  the  Priory  of  Norwich,  but 
forbade  the  rights  of  baptism  and  marriage  to  be  per- 
formed in  it,  in  order  to  mark  its  dependency  on  the 
church  of  St.  Margaret's.  Attempts  were  made,  at 
various  times,  to  raise  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  parochial 
church,  but  it  has  ever  remained  annexed  to  St.  Marga- 
ret's as  a  chapel  of  ease. 

The  edifice  appears  to  have  been  rebuilt  in  its  present 
state  during  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Third,  and  until 
lately  a  figure  closely  resembling  the  usual  portraits  of 
that  monarch,  with  three  crowns  on  his  sceptre,  embel- 
lished the  centre  of  the  west  window.  The  ornaments 
above  the  canopied  niches  at  the  west  door  are  also  said 
to  appear  very  much  like  the  crest  of  the  same  king,  as 
represented  on  his  first  gold  coin,  the  quarter  florin. 

The  churches  of  All  Saints  and  of  West  Lynn  have 
nothing  remarkable  in  them  to  require  description,  and 
the  church  of  North  Lynn,  or  Lynn  St.  Edmund's,  was 
swept  away  by  an  irruption  of  the  tide,  or  by  the  inun- 
dation of  fresh  waters,  caused  by  the  addition  of  the 
Grant,  the  Ouse,  and  the  Nene,  to  the  other  rivers  which 
had  their  passage  to  the  sea  near  this  town. 

At  a  small  distance  from  the  town  of  Lynn  stands  a 
very  singular  little  building,  called  the  Chapel  of  Our 
Lady  on  the  Mount.  ^'  If  other  buildings  attract  notice 
by  uieir  magnitude,"  says  the  author  before  qiioted, 
<Hhis  deserves  it  from  its  peculiar  smallness.  It  is  so 
well  proportioned,  yet  so  extremely  diminutive,  that  it 
seems  like  a  beautiful  model  for  a  much  larger  edifice, 
or  it  may  not  improperly  be  denominated  a  cathedral  for 
Lilliputians."     The  history  of  this  chapel  is  involved  in 


1841.] 


IHE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


37 


much  obscurity.  There  are  records  extant  of  offerings 
made  by  devotees  at  the  chapel  of  the  Virgin  Mary  at 
the  Mount,  but  the  uses  to  which  the  building  has  been 
applied  at  various  periods,  subsequent  to  the  date  of 
these  records,  have  been  of  a  very  opposite  character. 
In  1638  we  find  it  to  have  been  used  as  a  store-house  for 
gunpowder:  in  1643  it  became  a  place  of  arms,  and 
bad  a  regular  bastion  thrown  up  in  front  of  it,  and  it  is 
supposed  that  a  cistern,  visible  until  a  few  years  since, 
in  the  lower  apartment,  was  used  as  a  reservoir  for 
water*  In  1665  it  was  used  as  a  pest-house,  and  in 
1 783  the  use  of  the  chapel  was  granted  to  a  teacher  of 
Davigation  for  an  observatory. 

There  are  still  existing  the  remains  of  several  other 
ecclesiastical  edifices  at  Lynn.  A  tower,  ninety  feet 
high,  remains  of  the  monastery  of  the  Grey  or  Fran- 
ciscan Friars,  and  serves  as  a  landmark  to  vessels 
entering  the  harbour.  Several  other  signs  of  former 
monastic  institutions  are  also  to  be  met  with  in  the 
town.  Lynn  has  four  alms-houses,  and  many  charitable 
institutions,  an  endowed  grammar-school,  national  and 
Lancasterian  schools,  a  mechanics'  institution,  a  paro- 
chial and  a  subscription  library.  The  population  of  the 
borough  was,  in  1831,  13,370. 


Thx  name  of  a  countnr  may  be  obliterated  from  a  map,  the 
deeds  of  heroes  be  emiced  from  the  annals  of  the  world ; 
the  pursuit  of  truth  can  only  cease  when  man  is  no  more : 
its  light  may  be  veiled  by  iterance,  craft,  or  cupidity,  but 
it  cannot  be  extinguished.  The  cities  that  gave  burth  to  the 
illustrious  philosophers  of  old  have  long  ceased  to  exist,  yet 
the  immoi-tal  worKs  of  those  sages  that  have  escaped  the 
ravages  of  time,  are  still  as  fresh  and  luxuriant  as  when 
their  glorious  oratory  enchanted  and  captivated  their  disci- 
ples' ears. — Millinoem's  OuriasUiea  qf  medical  Experience, 


Great  mental  capacity  alone,  will  never  raise  either  indi- 
viduals or  nations  to  ereatness  or  happiness.  It  is  not  mere 
mental  power,  but  tne  right  aopHcation  of  it,  that  brings 
our  species  to  perfection.  We  Know  how  possible  it  is  ^r 
men  to  possess  powerful  abilities  and  extensive  knowledge, 
and  yet  live  a  curse  to  their  own  country  and  to  themselves. 
But  what  then,  it  may  be  said,  is  become  of  the  boasted 
alliance  between  knowledge  and  virtue?  The  alliance 
is  indeed  strong,  but  it  is  not  because  there  is  a  necessary 
connexion  between  the  bare  knowledge  of  facts  and  moral 
emotions.  It  is  because,  moral  sensibility  being  a  part  of 
our  nature,  we  cannot  dwell  long  upon  any  subject^  nor 
investigate  all  its  relations,  without  discerning  in  it  some 
circumstances  that  touch  on  moral' nature,  and  awaken  a 
sentiment.  No  one  is  destitute  of  all  moral  feeling,  but 
some  people  have  very  little  by  nature,  or  it  may  have  been 
destroyed  by  the  strength  and  Indulgence  of  their  passions ; 
and  in  such  cases  the  most  thorough  knowledge  of  the  facta 
that  move  others  to  admiration  and  love,  will  have  no 
effect  upon  them.  It  is  not  the  philosopher's  laborious 
analyns,  nor  the  fulness  of  his  demonstration  of  the  times 
and  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  that  have  a  moral 
effect.  It  is  the  perception  of  order  and  contrivance  of 
beauty,  and  of  infinity  teeming  with  existence,  which 
kindles  within  him  feelings  of  admiration  inherent  in  his 
nature.  In  like  manner,  when  we  study  the  sciences 
that  relate  to  human  life,  it  is  not  the  logical  proof,  that 
certain  means  will  produce  certain  results,  that  causes  our 
emotions,  but  that  sympathy  with  the  good  of  mankind  is 
implanted  within  us ;  and  pictures  of  their  Rood,  laid 
sti-onely  befoi-e  us,  move  that  affection.  The  cold  and  the 
sordid  w^ill  not  feel  it,  however  perfectly  they  leain  the 
s.-ience. 

The  tendency  of  knowledge  and  study,  therefore,  cer- 
t^iinly  is  to  promote  right  feeling  and  conduct  in.  general, 
by  occupying  tlie  mind  always  about  the  true  and  the 
useful ;  but  a  tendency  is  not  a  certainty,  for  it  may  be 
overruled  by  opposine  circumstances;  and  the  mass  of 
mankind  are  made  selfish  and  stolid  by  their  gross  habits  of 
life. 


Physic,  for  the  most  party  is  nothing  else  but  the  subititute 
for  exercise  or  temperance.— Addibov. 


GARDEN  HERBS. 
CHAMOMILE. 

The  generic  name  of  this  herb  is  Anthemii,  derived,  as 
ancient  story  tells  us,  from  a  virgin  shepherdess,  named 
AthemiSf  who  kept  her  fiock  near  Cuma,  and  not  far 
from  the  cave  where  one  of  the  Sibyls  delivered  her 
oracles.  Athemis  was  frequently  required  to  assist  in 
the  mystic  ceremonies,  and  on  one  of  these  occasions 
was  so  overcome  with  terror  that  she  died  on  the  spot, 
and  was  immediately  transformed  into  a  plant  bearing 
flowers,  which  received  her  name. 

This  herb  was  also  called  Leucanthemis,  or  Ijeucan' 
themtUf  from  the  whiteness  of  the  double  blossom; 
Eranthemon,  because  it  flourished  in  the  spring;  and 
ChanuBmelon  (from  which  the  English  name  is  derived), 
because  its  savour  was  said  to  resemble  that  of  an  apple. 

The  genus  of  plants  to  which  chamomile  belongs  is  of 
the  compound-flowered  order.  It  is  distinguished  by 
having  the  scales  that  surround  its  flower-heads  mem- 
branous at  the  border,  like  those  of  a  chrysanthemum, 
from  which  genus  it  differs  chiefly  in  the  receptacle  of 
the  flowers  being  provided  with  little  chaffy  projections. 

The  wild  chamomile  is  found  more  efficacious  for  the 
purposes  to  which  the  herb  is  applied  than  the  culti- 
vated sorts.  It  is  frequent  on  many  of  the  commons 
of  England,  and  its  finely  cut  leaves,  scarcely  elevating 
themselves  above  the  level  of  the  earth,  and  rich-looking 
flowers,  of  which  the  ray  is  white,  but  the  disk  deep 
yellow,  have  a  pleasing  effect  amidst  the  scanty  herbage 
of  such  situations.  The  whole  plant  is  intensely  bitter, 
especially  the  yellow  flowers  composing  the  disk.  In 
the  cultivated  sort  the  white  flowers  of  the  ray  almost 
supersede  the  yellow  ones :  the  disk  becomes  extremely 
small,  and  thus  the  flowers  possess  the  bitter  principle 
in  a  less  powerful  degree.  Besides  the  principle  for 
which  chamomile  is  chiefly  celebrated,  it  has  been  found 
by  chemists  to  contain  tannin,  camphor,  and  a  volatile 
oil,  of  a  beautiful  blue  colour.  The  description  of  this 
herb,  given  by  Gerarde,  is  exceedingly  accurate,  and 
gives  a  better  idea  of  it  than  anything  we  could  say. 

The  common  cammomile  hath  many  weak  and  feeble 
branches  trailing  upon  the  ground,  taking  hold  of  the  top 
of  the  earth  as  it  runneth,  whereby  it  greatly  increaseth. 
The  leaves  are  very  fine,  and  much  jagged,  and  deeply  cut, 
of  a  strong  sweet  smell;  among  which  come  forth  the 
flowers  like  unto  the  field  daisy,  bordered  about  the  edge 
with  a  pale  of  white  leaves:  the  middle  part  is  yellow,  com- 
posed of  such  thrums  close  thrust  together  as  is  that  of  the 
iWsy.    The  root  is  very  small,  and  thready. 

The  may-weed  (^Anthemis  cotula)  greatly  resembles 
cLvnomile,  but  is  erect  of  growth,  of  a  branching  habit, 
anc\  exceedingly  disagreeable  in  its  odour. 

l*He  most  ancient  recommendation  of  chamomile,  as  a 
medical  herb,  was  made  by  Asclepiades,  the  Bithynian, 
who  was  renowned  for  his  great  skill  in  physic,  and 
lived  to  a  very  advanced  age,  without  ever  having  expe- 
rienced a  day  s  illness.  Pliny  tells  us  that  he  pledged 
himself  to  cease  to  act  as  a  physician  if  he  should  be 
ever  known  to  be  sick.  This  celebrated  man  was  en- 
treated by  Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  to  reside  at  his 
court,  and  was  even  visited  by  ambassadors  on  the  part 
of  the  king,  with  offers  of  reward  if  he  would  comply 
with  the  request;  but  Asclepiades  had  determined  to 
exercise  his  skill  in  Rome;  and  there  accordingly  he 
went,  and  became  the  founder  of  a  sect  in  physic,  which 
was  called  after  his  name. 

Recommended  by  such  high  authority,  it  is  no  wonder 
that  the  herb  chamomile  was  highly  esteemed  among 
the  Romans.  An  extract  from  the  flowers  and  leaves 
was  made  into  lozenges,  for  the  relief  of  spasmodic 
disorders,  as  weU  as  for  the  jaundice,  and  liver  com- 
plaints; the  powder  of  the  dried  flowers  was  administered 
in  intermitting  fevers;  the  leaves  were  given  as  a 
dijgestive,  emollient,  and  diuretic  medicine;  and  the 
whole  plant  was  pounded,  as  a  remedy  against  the  sting 

549—2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


CJamdaht  as, 


of  nerpents  and  other  reptiles.  The  plant  was  also  used 
ia  garlands,  and  even  auring  winter  a  plentiful  supply 
was  to  be  hod  in  ita  dried  stale  for  this  purpose,  as  well 

Gerards  quotes  from  Galen  concerning  the  virtuea 
of  chamomib,  and  adds  his  own  testimony  that  it 
is  of  force  to  digest,  skcken,  and  rarify;  that  it  is  a 
special  help  against  wearisomeneas,  caaeth  and  miti- 
gatctb  ptuD,  moUifieth  and  suppleth ;  is  good  against  the 
colic,  and  various  other  diseases,  and  is  mixed  with  good 
success  with  all  those  things  that  are  applied  to  mitigate 
pain;  "and  all  these  operations,"  saitn  he,  "are  in  our 
vulgar  canunomile,  as  common  experience  teacheth,  for 
it  heateth  moderately,  and  drieth  Utile  " 

Culpeper  says — 

A  deooction  made  of  camomile,  and  drank,  tsketii  away 
all  p^n*  and  stitches  in  the  side ;  the  flowers  of  camomile, 
beaten,  and  mode  up  into  bails  with  gil,  drive  away  all 
sorts  of  aeoes,  if  the  part  grieved  be  anointed  with  ttiat 
oil,  takenfrtun  the  flowers,  from  the  crown  of  tho  head  to 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  afterwards  laid  to  sweat  in  bed, 
and  that  he  sweats  well :  this  is  Nechessor,  an  Egyptian's 
medlsine.  It  is  profitable  for  all  sorts  of  agues  that  come 
either  of  phlegm,  or  melancholy,  or  from  an  inSammation 
of  the  bowels ;  and  there  is  nothing  more  profitable  for  the 
sides  and  r^on  of  the  livor  and  ^leen  toon  it.  It  com- 
fbrteth  the  aioews  that  be  overstrained,  mollifleth  oil  swel- 
lings: it  moderately  con^ortelh  all  parts  that  have  need  of 
warmth,  and  digesteth  and  disaolveth  whatsoever  hath  need 
thereof  by  a  wonderful  speedy  property.  Sji'mp  made  of 
the  juice  of  camomile,  with  the  flowers,  m  white  wine,  is  a 
remedy  against  the  jaundice  and  dropey ;  the  juice  of  the 
iloweis  is  good  to  wash  the  head,  and  comfort  both  it  and 
the  brain:  the  oil  made  of  the  floweia  of  cnmomile  is  much 
used  against  nil  hard  swellings,  pains  or  aches,  shrinking  of 
the  sinews,  cramps  or  peuns  m  the  joints,  or  any  other  port 
of  the  body.  Nicheasor  aaith,  the  Egyptians  dedicated  it 
to  the  sun,  because  it  cured  tmea,  and  they  were  like 
enough  to  do  it,  for  they  are  the  arrantest  apes  in  their 
religion  I  ever  read  of. 

In  more  modem  times  Dr.  James  speaks  of  chamo- 
mile as  a  plant  of  many  virtues,  being  stomachic,  hepatic, 
nervine,  emollient,  and  carminative,  and  as  affording  a 
useful  fomentation  in  cases  of  inSammation  and  tumour. 

In  later  medical  books  we  find  these  uses  of  the  herb 
slightly  mentioned.  The  external  use  of  it  ia  said  to  be 
little  preferable  to  a  simple  fomentation  with  hot  or 
warm  water,  and  the  powder  of  ciiamomile  is  scarcely 
used,  on  account  of  the  inconvenient  bulk  of  a  roquisite 
dose.  As  a.  domestic  remedy,  the  well-known  stomachic 
virtues  of  a  cup  of  cold  chamomile  tea,  taken  fkating,  are 
alluded  to,  and  the  extract  of  chamomile  isrect^ized  as 
a  good  simple  hitter,  and  a  useful  vehicle  for  other  tonics, 
when  given  in  pilis.  Forty-eight  pounds  of  this  extract 
are  obtained  from  a  hundred -weight  of  good  flowers. 

We  have  mentioned  this  herb  as  producing  an  oil  of 
a  beautiful  sky-blue  colour.  This  colour  is  not  perma- 
nent, and  is  only  seen  in  the  recently- distilled  product. 
The  oil  of  chamomile,  which  we  obtain  at  the  shops,  is 
generally  foreign,  and  haa  become  yellow,  or  brownish 
yellow,  and  grows  viscid  by  age.  Antispasmodic  pro- 
perties have  been  attributed  to  this  oil,  and  hence  it  is 
occasionally  added  to  cathartic  pills  and  powders.  In 
Germany  this  oil  rubbed  up  with  powdered  sugar  is  a 
favourite  stomachic  remedy,  but  a  very  unpalatable  one. 

The  cultivators  of  herbs  in  the  vicinity  of  London 
produce  the  chief  supply  for  the  market.  There  are 
upwards  of  twenty  varieties  known  to  English  gardeners, 
one-fourth  of  which  are  native  plants.  They  differ 
considerably  iu  their  qualities,  but  those  are  the  most 
esteemed  which  strongly  exhale  their  peculiar  fragrancy 
when  rubbed.  The  large  double  flowers  are  sometimes 
preferred,  but,  as  wc  liave  already  said,  the  bitter  prin- 
ciple is  most  powerful  in  the  disk,  or  ytdlow  centre;  and 
the  single  flowers  arc  therefore  the  best. 

Chamomile  is  a  hardy  perennial,  and  sprcada  rapidly. 
It  is  easily  propagated  by  parting  the  roots  iu  spring. 


CALCULATING  MACHINES. 

2.    The-  ArrAKATDB  of  Saundekbon,  Gbkitsh, 

AND  Pascal. 

In  our  last  article  on  this  subject,  we  promised  to 
describe  an  ingenious  contrivance  of  Dr.  Saunderson,  for 
performing  arithmetical  processes  in  darkness.  This 
remarkable  individual,  who  woa  bom  in  1682,  furnished 
an  instructive  example  of  the  extent  to  which  energy 
and  perseverance  may  be  made  to  overcome  evils  of  a 
formidable  and  distressing  nature.  When  only  a  year 
old,  he  lost  his  eyesight  by  an  attack  of  small-pox ;  and 
being  thus  deprived  of  the  blessing  of  light  while  yet 
an  infant,  hia  ignorance  of  its  nature  and  properties  was 
afterwards  nearly  as  great  as  if  he  had  been  oom  blind. 
Yet  such  was  the  natural  strength  and  intelligence  of 
hia  mind,  that  he  mastered  all  the  usual  branchea  <€ 
school  learning,  and  became  eventually  Professor  of 
Mathematics  in  the  Universitv  of  Cambridge,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  intellectual  offices  in  England. 

In  the  course  of  his  mathemati(»l  duties,  he  had  ta 
perform  many  elaborate  calculations ;  and  still  more  was 
this  necessary,  before  he  could  complete  a  treatise  which, 
considering  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  pro- 
duced, must  be  ranked  among  the  most  singular  works 
publiahed,  viz.,  his  Treatae  on  Algebra,  in  two  large 
volumes.  As  the  usual  modes  of  writing  with  pen  or  pen- 
cil must  obviously  have  been  valueless  to  him,  he  hM  to 
devise  a  method  hy  which  he  could  feel  the  flgurea  which 
he  was  arranging,  or  to  establish  a  palpable  arithmetic. 
We  proceed  to  describe  the  plan  which  he  adopted. 

His  calculating  table  was  a  smooth  thin  board,  about 
a  foot  square,  raised  on  a  small  frame,  so  as  to  lie 
hollow.  The  board  was  marked  with  a  great  number  of 
parallel  lines,  which  were  crossed  at  right  angles  br 
another  series  of  parallel  lines,  by  which  each  square 
inch  of  the  surface  of  the  board  was  divided  into  100 
Uttle  squares,  each  square  subdivided  into  four.  At  every 
point  of  intersection  a  perforation  was  made,  capable  of 
receiving  a  pin;  and  he  always  kept  at  hand  two  boxes 
filled  with  pins  of  two  different  sixes,  or  at  least  having 
heads  of  two  different  aizea ;  since  it  was  by  feeling;  the 
heads  of  the  pins  that  he  was  enabled  to  perfoim  cal- 
culations. 


Flf.  I 


Fi(.l 


21,186 
41,793 
M,3M 
03,968 
71,880 
7S,668 


The  particular  portion  of  a  pin,  or  of  two  pins  with 
regard  to  each  other,  indicated  a  particular  figure;  and 
for  this  purpose  four  little  squares  were  appropriated  to 
each  figure,  in  the  mauuer  shown  in  fig.  1.     A  large  pin 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


29 


was  placed  in  the  centre,  for  every  figure  or  digit,  except 
1,  when  its  place  was  occupied  by  a  small  one.  For  the 
digits  0  and  1,  no  pins  surrounded  the  central  one;  but 
for  all  the  digits  from  2  to  9  inclusive,  a  small  pin  was 
placed  near  the  central  one,  and  the  position  of  this 
second  pin  determined  the  digit  indicated  by  it;  when 
over,  under,  or  at  the  side,  of  the  central  pin,  the  even 
numbers  2,4,6,8,  were  indicated;  but  when  placed 
diagonally,  the  odd  numbers  3,  5,  7,  9,  were  expressed. 
All  this  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  by  inspecting  fig.  1. 

The  symbol  for  each  dig^t  being  thus  established,  it 
is  easy  to  conceive  that  every  quantity,  large  or  small, 
might  be  expressed  by  an  assemblage  of  such  symbols. 
This  tablet  was  large  enough  to  contain  a  great  many  such 
symbols ;  for  the  space  devoted  to  each  was  one-fifth  of  an 
inch  square,  a  narrow  vacant  line  separating  it  on  every 
side  fix)m  adjacent  symbols.  The  great  pins  which  usually 
occupied  the  centres,  and  which  were  most  frequently 
equidistant,  were  a  guide  to  direct  him  in  keeping  the 
line,  to  ascertain  the  limits  of  every  figure,  and  to  pre- 
vent any  ambiguity  that  might  otherwise  arise.  As 
three  of  the  vertical  parallels  were  sufficient  for  a  single 
digit,  so  three  of  the  horizontal  ones  sufficed  for  a  line 
of  figures;  and  the  next  three  for  another  line,  and  so  on. 
If  one  symbolical  arrangement  on  the  right  signified  the 
unit's  digit,  that  immediately  adjoining  it  on  the  left  was 
the  ten's  digit,  and  so  on ;  and  when  the  figures  or  digits 
were  thus  expressed,  it  is  obvious  that  any  of  the  usual 
computations  could  be  performed,  in  the  same  order  as 
with  pencil  or  pen,  provided  the  sense  of  touch  were 
sufficiently  delicate  to  detect  at  once  the  relative  positions 
of  the  pins,  and  whether  the  central  one  were  large  or 
small.  In  this  respect  the  blind  are  often  remarkably 
expert ;  for  having  one  medium  with  the  external  world 
quite  shut  out,  their  attention  is  directed  with  greater 
intensity  to  those  which  remain.  Saunderson  could 
place  and  displace  the  pins  with  incredible  quickness  and 
facility ;  he  could  also  break  off  in  the  middle  of  a  cal- 
cuIatioQ,  and  resume  it  when  he  pleased, — ^recalling  to 
mind  the  condition  of  the  computation  by  merely  draw- 
ing his  fingers  gently  over  the  table. 

Fig.  2  represents  a  portion  of  a  table  which  was  left 
by  Dr.  Saunderson,  and  which  he  appears  to  have 
arranged  for  his  own  use.  The  surface  of  the  tablet  is 
seen  to  be  divided  into  minute  squares,  of  which  one 
hundred  areieontained  in  a  square  inch;  and  if  we  sepa- 
rate these  lines  into  parcels  of  three  in  width  and  three 
in  height,  each  parcel  will  be  devoted  to  one  symbol  or 
figure.  We  then  have  eight  lines  of  figures,  one  under 
another,  each  line  containing  five  figures,  or  expressing 
tens  of  thousands.  So  long  as  the  arrangement  of 
the  pins  was  undisturbed,  it  is  obvious  that  such  a  table 
would  be  a  permanent  one,  which  could  be  referred  to 
at  any  time,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  for  such  pur- 
poses that  this  method  was  peculiarly  valuable  to  Saun- 
derson. After  Saunderson's  death  there  were  found 
four  t  blets,  eleven  inches  long,  five  and  a  half  broad, 
and  half  an  inch  thick,  divided  by  lines  in  the  manner 
before  described,  and  perforated  at  the  points  of  inter- 
section of  the  lines.  On  these  tablets  pins  were  arranged, 
so  as  to  form  small  tables,  having  apparently  a  con- 
nexion with  the  sines,  tangents,  and  secants  of  angles. 
He  also  made  use  of  his  tablets  for  geometrical  dia- 
grams, by  sticking  pins  in  at  certain  points,  and  winding 
a  piece  of  fine  thread  or  silk  from  one  pin  to  another: 
thr:  pins  indicated  angles  or  comers,  and  the  thread 
indicated  right  lines:  a. rough  approximation  to  curved 
lines  could  also  be  produced,  by  placing  the  pins  very 
dose  together. 

Such  is  a  slight  outline  of  the  means  by  which 
the  professor  sought  to  effect  that  which  might  be 
thought  almost  unattainable  by  a  bUnd  man.  It  will  be 
readily  seen  that  many  other  kinds  of  palpable  or  tangi- 
ble arithmetic  might  be  devised,  beanng  resemblance, 
i&ore  or  less,  to  that  of  Saunderson.    We  shall  there- 


fore not  enlarge  on  this  subject,  but  shall  proceed  to 
speak  of  methods  in  which  machinery  is  brought  in  aid 
of  calculation.  What  we  have  hitherto  described  are 
merely  instrumentSf  but  there  have  been  other  con- 
trivances deserving  the  name  of  machines^  by  which 
calculation  was  sought  to  be  fiacilitated.  Several  ma- 
chines of  such  a  kind  were  contrived  during  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries,  but  the  only  two  of  them 
which  have  been  clearly  described  were  that  of  Profes- 
sor Gersten,  of  which  he  himself  gave  a  description  in 
an  early  volume  oi  t\ie  Philosophicnl  Transactions,  and 
that  of  Pascal,  which  Diderot  described  in  the  Enci/clo^ 
pidie  Mithodique, 

It  would  be  scarcely  possible  to  give  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  the  mechanism  by  which  Uie  process  of  compu- 
tation was  performed  in  tnese  machines:  even  engraved 
representations  of  the  several  parts,  elucidative  as  they 
often  are  of  written  description,  woidd  in  these  instances 
be  embarrassing  to  a  general  reader.  We  will  therefore 
endeavour  briefly  to  indicate  the  kind  of  movements 
which  it  is  necessary  to  produce,  instead  of  detailing  the 
various  positions  of  wheels,  pinions,  levers,  screws,  &c. 

If  we  notice  the  manner  in  which  quantities  are,  as 
it  were,  buili  up  in  the  common  system  of  numeration, 
we  find  each  figrure  is  worth  ten  times  as  much  as  it  • 
would  be  worth,  if  occupying  a  position  one  place  to  the 
right  of  it.  Thus :  1 728.  Although  8  is  greater  than 
2,  yet  the  2  in  this  position  stands  for  a  larger  sum 
than  the  8,  because  it  occupies  a  position  to  the  left  of 
it.     The  quantities  really  expressed  then  by  the  fig^ures 

flOOO) 
7001 
nQ?t  but  in  common  practice  we  leave  out 

the  cyphers,  and  place  the  significant  figures  side  by 
side,  taking  care  to  keep  them  in  the  proper  position 
from  the  right  hand. 

Now,  if  we  have  a  wheel  on  whose  axis  is  a  pinion, 
with  leaves  or  teeth, — -if  these  teeth  work  into  another 
set  of  teeth  on  the  periphery  of  another  wheel,  and  if 
the  teeth  on  the  latter  are  just  ten  times  as  numerous  as 
those  on  the  pinion,  the  pinioned  wheel  will  revolve  just 
ten  times  as  fast  as  the  other*.  Here  we  have  a  certain 
sort  of  analogy  between  the  decimal  notation  and  the 
working  of  the  wheels :  it  takes  ten  imits  to  make  up  one 
figure  or  unit  in  the  second  place  in  common  numera-* 
tion,  and  it  requires  ten  revolutions  of  the  pinioned 
wheel  to  impart  one  revolution  to  the  other  wheel.  Now 
this  analogy  applies  to  the  niiachines  to  which  we 
allude.  There  are  generally  several  dial-faces,  each 
marked  with  figures  from  1  to  10.  These  dial-faces 
are  fixed  upon  wheels,  the  teeth  of  which  work  into 
the  pinions  of  other  wheels,  on  which  are  similarly 
divided  faces  or  disks.  Then,  while  one  face  indicates 
units,  another  will  indicate  tens,  another  hundreds,  and 
so  on.  The  mode  in  which  these  wheels  are  made  avail- 
able in  computations  depends  on  the  particular  construc- 
tion of  the  machine ;  but  the  principle  to  which  we  have 
just  alluded  is  observable  in  all.  In  M.  Grersten's  instru- 
ment, for  instance,  if  32  were  to  be  added  to  59,  two 
disks,  or  dial-faces,  had  to  be  turned  by  hand,  until  two 
index-points  pointed  to  the  two  figures  5  and  9,  one  on 
each  plate:  tnen  two  slides  were  adjusted,  until  two 
indices  pointed  to  the  figures  3  and  2,  one  on  each  slide. 
Both  the  disks  and  both  the  glides  were  connected  with 
toothed  rack-work,  which,  interlocking  one  with  another, 
turned  another  dial-plate  in  such  a  direction  as  to  show 
91  on  its  face,  which  is  the  sum  of  32  and  59.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  it  were  required  to  subtract  59  from  91, 
indices  would  be  pointed  to  9  and  1,  on  two  separate 
disks,  and  to  5  and  9,  on  two  separate  slides,  and  the 
movement,  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  former,  of 
these  disks  and  slides,  would  turn  another  wheel,  so  as 

•  See  ao  ntide  on  ttte  "Wheel  and  Aale/  in  Vols  XV.,  p.  181,  of  thie 
work* 


3o 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Januabt  25, 


to  show  32  on  its  face,  tne  difference  between  59  and  91. 
The  process  of  multiplication  was  effected  by  a  kind  of 
reiteration  of  additions,  and  that  of  division  by  a  succes- 
flion  of  subtractions. 

In  the  machine  constructed  by  Paacal,  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  parts  was  to  facilitate  performance  of 
certain  numerical  calculations  connected  with  the  duties 
of  an  office  held  in  Upper  Normandy  by  Pascal's  father. 
These  calculations  had  reference  to  pecuniary  matters, 
which  were  reckoned  in  the  currency  of  France,  as  ex- 
isting at  that  time:  the  denier  wheel  had  twelve  teeth, 
representing  the  number  of  deniers  in  a  soL  The  sol 
wheel  had  twcntv  teeth,  equal  to  the  number  of  sols  in 
a  livre,  above  which  each  wheel  had  ten  teeth,  indicating 
10,  100,  1000,  &c.  livres.  Each  wheel  in  the  series 
carried  a  cylindrical  barrel,  on  which  were  engraved  the 
ten  arithmetical  characters.  The  wheel  which  expressed 
each  order  of  figures  or  units  was  so  connected  with 
the  wheel  which  expressed  a  superior  order,  that  when 
the  former  passed  from  9  to  0,  the  latter  was  advanced 
one  figure. 

Although  this  mechanism  seems  to  have  been  adapted 
to  one  particular  purpose,  there  is  no  evidence  that  it  was 
ever  brought  into  practical  use.  It  was  intended  for  the 
performance  only  of  particular  arithmetical  operations, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  even  those  could  be  performed 
by  it  so  readily  as  by  the  pen  of  a  ready  computer.  It 
is  however  important  to  remark  that  the  principle  of  con- 
struction observable  in  those  instruments  was  the  fore- 
runner of  a  modern  instrument,  which  not  only  eclipsed 
all  the  calculating  instruments  or  machines  before  con- 
structed, but  is  deemed  to  be  one  of  the  most  splendid 
pieces  of  mechanism  that  any  age  or  country  has  pro- 
duced :  we  allude  to  Mr.  Babbage's  calculating  machine. 
We  shall  give  a  brief  account  of  this  machine  in  our 
next  paper,  but  wish,  in  the  mean  time,  to  draw  attention 
to  the  fact,  that  it  is  by  the  action  of  one  toothed  wheel 
upon  another,  making  it  revolve  slower  or  faster^  that 
the  process  of  computation  is  conducted. 


THE  SPRING  FAIR  AT  PEST, 
Hungary. 

As  I  happened  to  be  at  Pest,  durinc;  the  great  Spring  Fair, 
I  was  not  only  provided  with  ample  materials  for  amuse- 
ment, but  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  motley  population 
of  nartives  and  strangers,  which  are  usually  attracted  on 
this  occasion ;  for  though  the  Magyars,  who  have  pven  their 
name  to  Hungarv,  are  the  greatest  landed  proprietors,  and 
hold  the  reins  oi*  government,  yet  they  are  inferior  in  nu- 
merical force  to  the  Sclavonians,  (or  "totoks,)  the  original 
inliabitants.  These  are  divided  into  at  least  half  a  dozen 
separate  tribes,  each  speaking  a  different  patois ;  and  if  to 
them  we  add  the  colonies  of  Gennans,  Wallachians,  Greeks, 
Armenians,  French,  Italians,  Jews,  and  Gipsies,  speaking 
their  own  languages,  and  retaining  their  national  manners, 
customs,  and  religions,  we  may  term  Hungary  a  miniature 
picture  of  Europe. 

My  first  lounge  was  through  the  fair,  which  afforded  as 
many  groups  for  the  painter  as  for  the  observer  of  life  and 
manners ;  the  Babel-liKe  confusion  of  tongues  was  endless, 
and  the  costume  and  appearance  of  the  motley  tribes  could 
not  have  been  equalled  m  variety  by  any  other  fair  in  Europe, 
or  even  by  the  most  entertaining  maskers  that  ever  trod  the 
Piazza  San  Marco,  or  the  Corsoat  Rome ;.  because  here  each 
performed  his  natural  character.  The  most  prominent 
figures  in  the  group  were  ever  the  proud  Magyai-s,  particu- 
Liffly  those  just  arrived  from  the  provinces.  The  dress  of 
some  of  these  noblemen  was  indeed  singular,  consisting  of  a 
tight  sheep-skin  coat,  or  mantle,  the  woollv  side  inwards ; 
while  the  other  was  gaudily  embroidered  all  over  with  the 
gayest  flowers  of  the  parterre,  in  coloured  silk,  among 
which  the  tulip  was  ever  the  most  prominent.  Those 
whose  wealth  permitted  it,  were  to  be  seen  habited  in  their 
half-military,  naif-civil  costume;  and  you  might  in  truth 
&ncy  from  their  haughty  demeanour,  that  you  were  behold- 
ing a  feudal  lord  of  our  own  country  of  the  middle  ages,  as, 
mounted  on  their  fiery  steeds  and  armed  with  sword  and 
pistols,  they  ^Edloped  through  the  parting  multitude,  upon 


whom,  when  the  slightest  interraption  oocuiied,  they  glanced 
with  scorn  and  contempt. 

Among  crowds  of  Jews,  Turks,  Greeks,  ArmeniaiUy 
Tyrolians,  Germans,  Sclavonians,  Italians,  and  Hungarian 
peasants,  were  groups  of  Gipsies,  their  black  matted  locks 
bhading  their  wild  sun-burnt  countenances,  exhibiting  their 
dancing-dogs,  bears,  and  monkeys,  or  playing  a  lively 
time  for  the  amusement  of  the  surrounding  multitude,  these 
itinerants  being  the  popular  musicians  of  Hungary.  In 
another  part  of  the  fair,  mountebanks  on  elevated  platforms 
were  relating  the  exploits  of  the  famous  robber,  Schrubar, 
in  the  gi*eat  forest  of  Bakony ;  or  the  ravages  committed  by 
the  dreadful  monster,  half  serpent,  half  flying  dragon,  that 
lately  rose  out  of  the  Balaton  lake,  together  with  the  most 
veritable  history  of  the  reappearance  of  the  renowned 
Alerman,  who  had  inhabited,  for  the  last  two  years,  his  o^vn 
extensive  domain,  the  Hansag  marshes.  All  these  astonish- 
ing marvels,  besides  hundi'eds  of  others,  were  listened  to  by 
the  peasants,  not  only  with  attentive  ears,  but  open  mouths, 
and  were  ilhistrated  oy  paintings  as  large  as  life,  depicting 
the  extraordinary  wonders,  executed  in  a  style  which  set 
all  imitation  at  defiance. 

Bread,  cakes,  cheeses,  vegetables,  &c.,  were  heaped  on 
high  in  the  streets,  with  the  owners  of  each  separate  pile 
squatted  in  the  midst.  The  savoury  odour  of  frying 
sausages  attracted  some  gourmands ;  whilst  others  feasted 
on  the  lighter  refireshments  of  pastry,  which  the  accom- 
plished cuisiniers  were  preparing  for  their  gratification. 

But  the  popular  viana  was  evidently  the  cray-fish,  which 
all  ranks,  however  otherwise  engaged,  were  incessan^y  con- 
suming; nor  did  they  in  this  manifest  any  deficiency  in 
ffoHUy  as  the  flavour  of  the  little  dainties  was  really  excellent, 
and  I  have  rarely  sc-en  them  exceeded  in  size.  Indeed,  to 
thread  the  mazes  of  this  great  Hungarian  fair,  so  as  to  obtain 
a  view  of  its  rarities,  was  an  undertaking  of  no  little  diffi- 
culty, on  account  of  the  immense  pyramids  of  wool,  hides, 
tobacco,  and  other  raw  materials,  wnich  ever  stood  in  the 
way ;  and  as  these  articles  were  most  tempting  baits  to  the 
cupidity  of  the  Jewish  traders^  they  mi^t  constantly  be 
seen  making  use  of  all  their  cajoling  eloquence,  while  pre- 
vailing upon  the  artless  peasant  to  dispose  of  his  w(u^  at 
a  price  tittle  more  than  nominal.  When,  however,  the 
case  was  reversed,  and  the  gaudy  merchandise  of  the  Jew^ 
and  Armenian  traders  induced  the  peasant  to  become  a  pur- 
chaser, the  balance  of  trade  was  considerably  gainst  him. 

But,  perhaps,  of  all  the  groups  over  whicn  my  eye  wan- 
dered, none  more  strongly  arrested  my  attention  than  the 
Saxon  colonists :  these  were  attired  in  the  same  costume  in 
which  their  ancestors,  some  centuries  gone  by,  hod  emi- 
grated firom  their  father-land,  their  blue  eyea  and  hea>y 
quiet  coimtenances  forming  a  striking  contrast  to  the  vivid 
glances  of  the  half- Asiatic  people  around  them.  Nor  were 
their  moral  traits  less  distmctly  defined ;  for  the  prudent 
Grerman,  well  knowing  he  was  in  the  society  of  some  of  the 
most  accomplished  pickpockets  on  the  Continent,  wisely 
determined  that  they  should  not  prey  upon  him,  for  he  did 
not  once  remove  his  hand  from  his  pocket,  while  his  good 
woman  never  fiedled  to  keep  watch  behind,  attended  by  her 
little  ones,  who,  on  the  approach  of  the  half- wild  Gipsy, 
timidly  covered  their  flaxen  heads  in  the  many  folds  of 
mama  s  cumbrous  petticoat. 

I  would  above  all  things  recommend  every  traveller  who 
may  visit  Pest  during  the  Spring  Fair  not  to  leave  it  with- 
out taking  a  mornings  ramble  through  the  town.  lie  will 
then  see  thousands  of  men,  women,  and  children  lying 
about  the  streets,  beneath  the  piazzas,  or  in  the  numerous 
barks  on  the  river,  with  no  other  covering  save  the  canopy 
of  heaven  and  their  own  sheep-skin  mantles:  he  will  also, 
still  more  to  his  surprise,  behold  them  anointing  their  per- 
sons with  lard,  in  order  to  protect  themselves  during  the 
day  from  the  effect  of  heat,  and  the  bites  of  yermln  and 
insects. — Spencer's  JVavels  in  Circassia,  S^, 


Benevolence,  animated  by  Christian  motives  and  directed 
to  Christian  ends,  shall  in  no  wise  go  unrewarded ;  here,  by 
the  testimony  of  an  approving  conscience ;  hereafter,  by  the 
benediction  of  our  blessed  Redeemer,  and  a  brighter  inherit- 
ance in  His  Father's  house. — Bishop  Majht. 

As  it  is  in  all  cases  necessary,  on  the  one  hand,  to  guard 
against  the  intrusion  of  empirics ;  so,  on  the  other,  it  is  expe- 
dient that  we  attach  not  ourselves,  by  undue  prejudice,  to 
any  system  of  things,  merely  on  account  of  a  long  acquaint- 
ance with  it. — Maund, 


IS41.1 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


ai 


THE  MAGPIE,  (Conms  pica,  Linn.) 

This  shy  and  distrostful,  but  very  beautiful  bird,  is 
generally  found  at  no  great  distance  from  human  dwell- 
ings. To  judge  of  the  beauty  of  the  magpie  we  must 
not  be  contented  with  a  view  of  the  bird  in  confinement, 
for  under  such  circumstances  it  is  seen  to  great  dis- 
advantage; the  plumage  is  soon  deprived  of  its  brilliancy, 
and  has  a  dull  and  dirty  appearance;  the  bird  loses  much 
of  its  lively  and  restless  character,  and  has  not  the 
same  arch  and  animated  expression  of  the  eye,  for 
which,  in  its  natural  state,  it  is  so  remarkable.  At  the 
same  time  it  becomes  familiar  and  attached  to  its  owner 
when  tamed,  and  its  natural  disposition  to  chatter,  rather 
increases  than  diminishes;  so  that  when  taken  young,  it 
may  be  taught  to  pronounce  words  and  even  sentences, 
and  will  readily  imitate  any  singular  noise. 

The  body  of  the  magpie  is  rather  short  and  round, 
but  with  the  addition  of  tbe  tail  measures  about  eighteen 
inches  in  length :  the  stretch  of  the  wings  is  nearly  two 
feet;  the  weight  of  the  bird  nine  ounces.  The  wings 
are  not  calculated  for  long  flights,  but  are  better  adapted 
for  ascending  and  descending.  They  are  broad  and 
rounded,  and  the  flight  of  the  magpie  appears  to  be 
accomplished  with  some  difficulty.  To  a  superficial 
observer,  the  colour  of  the  plnmage  of  this  bird  appears 
simply  black  and  white.  On  a  more  careful  inspec- 
tion, however,  it  will  be  found  that  various  beautiful 
hues  and  reflections,  green,  blue,  purple,  violet,  &c., 
adorn  the  wing-feathers  and  tail,  enlivenmg  the  sombre 
plumage,  and  giving  it  a  rich  and  glossy  appearance. 
Tbe  white  on  the  breast,  belly,  and  inside  of  the  wing- 
feathers,  is  remarkably  pure.  Occasional  varieties  in 
colour  have  sometimes  been  observed,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  allied  species ;  the  more  remarkable  are  pure  white 
plumage,  or  white  streaked  with  black,  and  also  pale  buff, 
or  cream  colour.  The  female  magpie  differs  from  the 
male  in  being  smaller,  and  having  a  shorter  tail. 

The  magpie  is  common  in  England,  France,  Germany, 
and  most  other  countries  of  Europe.  It  has  been  seen 
in  China,  in  Kamschatka,  in  Hudson's  Bay,  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  Missisippi.  The  fact  of  its  being  thus 
widely  dispersed,  proclaims  the  hardy  nature  of  the  bird, 
and  the  capability  which  it  has  of  accommodating  itself  to 
varieties  of  climate.  In  whatever  part  of  the  world  it  is 
found,  the  character  of  the  bird  is  the  same.  Like  the 
jackdaw,  it  is  renowned  for  its  prying,  pilfering  disposi- 
tion, and  is  the  subject  of  many  an  anecdote  illustrative 
of  thievish  propensities.  It  is  also  regarded  as  a  bird  of 
good  or  evil  omen,  according  to  the  situation  or  circum- 
stances in  which  it  is  observed.  The  tree  in  which  it 
nestles  is  seldom  uprooted  by  the  most  violent  gale  of 
^ind,  and  this  circumstance,  which  arises  from  the  care- 
M  choice  made  by  the  bird  of  a  thick-branched  and 
firmly-rooted  tree,  is  looked  upon  as  a  sign  of  the  mys- 
terious influence  of  the  nu^ie.  The  house  on  which  a 
magpie  perches  is  said  to  be  safe  from  falling,  and  this 
superstition  is  evidently -derived  from  the  former  one, 
though  without  the  same  common-sense  reason  being 
applicable  to  it.  We  have  read  of  a  man  who  was 
accustomed  to  go  to  a  particular  spring  or  well  for  water 
erery  day,  and  was  always  followed  thither  by  a  tame 
magpie ;  but  it  happened  that  one  sultry  day  in  summer, 
the  fountain  was  almost  dried  up,  and  yielded  a  very 
scanty  supply.  The  ignorant  and  superstitious  water- 
carrier,  having  observed  that  on  this  occasion  the  mag- 
pie had  hopped  on  before  him  instead  of  following  in  his 
asiul  manner,  and  that  the  bird  had  perched  himself  near 
the  well,  and  was  looking  down  into  it,  and  then  looking 
up  at  his  master  in  a  very  sagacious  manner,  immediately 
conceived  the  idea  that  it  was  through  the  agency  of  the 
magpie,  that  the  water  had  disappeared,  and  that  the 
conning  bird  was  enjoying  his  trouble  and  annoyance. 
Possessed  with  this  idea,  he  pelted  poor  Madge  with 
stones,  and  though  he  contrived  to  elude  his  vengeance 


at  the  time,  yet  he  never  forgave  the  bird  for  this  sup- 
posed injury,  or  ceased  to  regard  him  with  superstitious 
fear  and  dislike.     It  is  common  to  hear  the  appearance 
of  magpies  spoken  of  as  lucky  or  unlucky,  according  as 
their  number  is  an  even  or  an  odd  one.     If  they  perch  on 
a  beast,  it  is  a  sign  of  evil  to  the  animal,  and  for  this, 
there  is  occasionally  some  reason.     Like  the  raven  and 
the  crow,  the  magpie  is  very  discerning,  and  quickly 
ascertains  the  symptoms  of  disease  and  death.     Before 
the  fact  may  have  been  observed  by  man,  these  birds 
are  able  to  discover  signs  of  decay,  and  watchfully  notice 
the  sickly  among  the  flock.    Lambs,  and  even  sheep,  arc 
attacked  by  them,  when  in  a  weakly  state ;  and  they  in- 
variably commence  the  assault  by  aiming  at  the  eyes  of 
the  animal.     But  their  prey  more  frequently  consists  of 
smaller  animals,  such  as  young  birds,  field-mice,  leverets, 
young  poultry,  fish,  insects,  &c.     Fruit  of  all  descriptions 
appears  agreeable  to  them,  and  when  nothing  else  is 
within  reach,  they  content  themselves  with  grain.   They 
are  loud  and  clamorous  birds,  and  it  is  said  that  they 
frequently  deprive  the  fowler  of  his  sport,  by  givmg  the 
alarm  to  all  the  other  birds  with  their  noisy  chatter ings« 
Though  not  a  bird  adapted  for  high  and  powerful  flights, 
the  magpie  is  of  so  restless  a  character,  that  it  seldom 
remains  still  for  any  length  of  time,  but  flies  from  tree 
to  tree,  or  skips  from  one  branch  to  another,  shaking  its 
long  tail  almost  incessantly. 

No  birds  display  greater  industry  in  the  formation  of 
their  nests  than  magpies :  they  generally  select  a  tree 
with  thick  branches,  as  being  best  calculated  for  the  pro* 
tection  and  concealment  of  their  large  nest;  and  they 
are  often  found  to  choose  one  which  is  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  a  farm-house.  The  situation  chosen  by  these 
birds,  however,  is  not  always  of  this  description.  The 
tall  tangled  hedge-row,  the  fir-grove,  or  the  old  well- 
wooded  inclosure,  are  spoken  of  by  Mr.  Knapp  in  the 
Journal  of  a  NaturaUsty  as  being  the  places  in  which  it 
delights  to  build :  a  lofty  elm  or  thorn-bush  or  apple-tree, 
at  some  distance  from  dwellings,  are  mentioned  in  the  Or- 
nithologia  as  the  places  most  likely  to  contain  its  solitary 
nest:  other  writers  describe  the  magpie's  nesting-place 
as  being  the  tall  hedge,  or  thick  tree,  near  the  cottage, 
and  Rennie  tells  us  from  his  own  observations,  that  *'  in 
the  north,  almost  every  farm  has  its  denizen  pair  of 
magpies,  which  incubate  in  their  hereditary  nest  on  the 
old  ash  tree,  year  after  year,  precisely  like  an  hereditary 
colony  of  rooks."  In  the  business  of  building  their  nest, 
the  male  and  female  both  take  their  part.  They  begin 
this  work  together  in  February,  placing  the  nest  in  such 
a  position  that  it  shall  be  completely  enveloped  and  sur- 
rounded with  branches,  and,  when  the  leaves  appear, 
quite  concealed  from  sight.  In  this  respect  they  differ 
greatly  from  the  rooks,  who  seem  at  no  pains  to  hide 
their  progeny,  but  place  their  nests  in  situations  where 
they  can  be  plainly  observed  from  beneath,  and  where 
the  bickerings  constantly  going  on  among  the  different 
members  of  the  community  in  the  vicinity  of  the  nests, 
often  afford  amusement  to  those  who  watch  their  pro- 
ceedings. 

The  magpie's  nest  is  very  large;  for  although  the 
diameter  of  the  mside  of  the  nest  does  not  exceed  six 
inches,  it  is  upwards  of  two  feet  on  the  outside.  It  is 
made  of  small  branches,  interlaced  together,  and  having 
at  the  bottom  a  matting  of  soft  flexible  roots.  The 
twigs  are  continued  over  the  top  of  the  nest  as  a  sort  of 
dome,  but  this  dome  seems  rather  a  protection  from 
enemies,  than  a  defence  against  the  weather.  The  only 
opening  is  at  the  side,  and  the  distance  from  this  opening 
to  the  central  hollow  of  the  nest  where  the  eggs  are  de- 
posited is  considerable,  so  that  the  female  in  the  process 
of  incubation  has  room  for  her  long  tail.  The  order  hi 
which  the  construction  of  the  nest  is  carried  on,  is  said 
to  be  this:  first  the  hawthorn  branches  which  are  to 
compose  the  body  of  the  nest  are  arranged  in  their 
proper  order ;  then  a  lining  of  fibrous  roots  and  long 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Jahuaht  23,  164. 


grass  is  kid  in,  and  afterwards  a  smooth  plAstering  of 
mud  and  clay.  After  the  nest  is  so  far  completed,  and 
mode  firm  and  commodious,  the  canopy  which  is  to  de- 
fend it  above,  is  added.  The  sharpest  thorns  are  chosen 
for  this  purpose  and  woven  tog'ether  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  deny  all  entrance  except  at  the  door.  So  carefully 
and  patieutly  do  these  birds  proTide  all  that  is  in  their 
power  for  the  safety  and  well-being  of  their  young  I 

The  Reverend  John  Hall  gives  a  remarkable  instance 
of  a  low  situation  chosen  by  magpies  for  the  construction 
of  thdr  neat. 

On  the  road  between  Huntly  and  Portsoy,  he  says,  I 
obserred  two  magpiea  hopping  ronnd  a  gooseberry  bush,  in 
a  smaU  garden,  near  a  poor-lookine  house,  in  »  peculiar 
manner,  and  flying  oat  and  into  the  bush.  I  stepped  saide 
to  see  what  they  were  doing,  and  found,  from  the  poor  man 
■nd  his  wife,  that  these  magpiea,  several  succeeding  years, 
had  built  their  nest  and  brought  up  tlieir  young  in  this 
bush,  and  that  foxes,  cats,  hawks,  &c.,  might  not  interrupt 
them,  tliey  had  barricaded,  not  only  their  nest,  bat  had  en- 
circled the  bush  with  briars  and  thorns,  in  a  formidable 
manner,  nay,  so  completely,  that  it  would  have  cost  a  hx, 
cunning  as  he  ia,  aame  days'  labonr  to  get  into  the  nest. 
The  maieriala  in  the  inside  of  the  neat  were  soft  and  warm, 
bat' all  on  the  outside  so  rou^h,  so  strong,  and  firmly  en- 
twined with  the  bush,  that  without  a  hedge-knife,  hatch- 
bill,  or  something  of  the  kind,  even  a  man  could  not,  with- 
out much  pain  and  trouble,  get  at  theii  young,  for  fiom  the 
outside  to  the  insidaof  the  nest  extended  as  long  as  my  arm. 
The  magpies  had  been  faithfiil  to  one  another  for  several 
■anuners,  and  drove  off  their  young  aa  well  as  every  one 
else  that  attempted  to  take  poBaesuon  of  the  nest.  This 
they  carefiilly  repaired' and  fortified  in  the  ^ring,  with 
Strong  rough  prickly  sticks,  that  they  sometimes  brought 
to  it  by  uniting  their  force,  one.  at  each  end,  pulling  it 
along  when  they  were  not  able  to'lift  it  from  the  ground. 

Tbfi  indastrioas  and  sagacious  Jiabits  of  the  magpie  are 
well  illustrated  by  the  above  aiiecdote,  and  we  may  hire 
observe^  that  if  the  birds  be'disturbed  during  the  building 
of  a  nest,  or  if  the  nest  be  destroyed' immediately  on  its 
completion,  they  do  not  enter  upon  the  construction  of 
anollier,  (which,  indeed,  would  be  a  wearisome  under- 
taking, if  we  are  to  betiere  the  account  which  says,  that 
they  are  occupied  two  months  in  forming  their  neat,) 
but  easily  content  themselves  with  an  old  nest  of. their 
own  species,  or  the  vacated  nest  of  a  crow,  which  they 
repair,  and  render  available  for  their  purpose. 

Magpies  have  in  general  only  one  brood  in  the  year, 
but,  if  their  young.be  destroyed,  they  sometimes  have  a 
second,  or  even  a  third  brood.  The  number  of  eggs  is 
usually  six  or  seven,  of  ayeUowiah-white  colour, spotted 
with  brown  and  grey.  The  male  and  female  sit  alter- 
nately for  about  fourteen  days,  when  the  young  ones  are 
hatched,  and  become  the  objects  of  their  parents' unceasing 
care  and  attention  for  a  considerable  time.  When  firat 
hatched  they  are  blind,  and  continue  so  for  several  days. 
In  supplying  the  wants  of  their  young,  magpies  are  very 
much  addicted  to  plundering  the  nests  of  other  birds  of 
their  eggi. 

Advantage  is  sometimea  taken  of  this  circumstance  to 
worry  the  poor  magpie,  espeually  when  her  nest  is  near 
a  dwelling,  and  bos  attracted  tAe  attention  of  school- 
boys.  An  egg  is  emptied  of  its  contents  by  blowing, 
and  bird-lime  is  introduced  to  fill  the  vacancy;  the  ef^ 
ia  then  laid  in  some  place  where  it  is  sure  to  attract  the 
notice  of  the  bird ;  and  poor  "  Madge"  soon  approaches, 
cantionsly  bopping  in  various  directions  to  see  that  all  is 
safe.  She  then  advances  to  the  egg,  and  dashes  her  bill 
into  it,  in  her  usual  manner,  to  convey  it  away  to  her 
brood;  but  as  the  shell  ia  already  broken,  the  bill  pene- 
trates very  deep,  and  the  shell  ia  forced  up  towards  the 
eyes,  where  adhering,  by  reason  of  the  bird-lime,  it 
forms  a  complete  blind,  and  prevents  the  bird  from 
seeing  her  way.  She  takes  flight  however,  and  knocks 
herself  against  the  twigs  and  branches  of  trees,  in  a 
ridiculoua  manner,  before  she  can  disengage  herself  from 
the  egg-shell.     This  foolish  sport  must  h«  the  occasion 


of  much  pain  and  inconvenience  to  the  poor  bird,  aa  well 
as  to  her  young,  who  are  deprived  of  her  care  while  she 
is  labouring  with  her  annoyance. 

The  connctia  which  magpiea  appear  to  hold  together, 
at  particular  seasons,  commonly  called  "fotkmotes,"  are 
associated  in  the  minds  of  many  with  superstitious  and 
ominous  notions.  The  innocent  objects  of  terror,  while 
meeting  tt^ther  most  probably  for  the  purpose  of 
choosing  mates,  ara  supposed  to  be  conspiring  and  club- 
bing their  wits,  for  the  weal  or  woe  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  neighbouring  village.  If  they  are  of  an  even  num- 
ber and  carry  on  tbeir  cheerful,  noisy  chatter,  it  is 
supposed  to  betoken  good  to  old  and  young — butif  there 
is  an  odd  magpie  perched  apart  from  the  rest,  silent, 
and  disconsolate,  the  reverse  of  this  is  apprehendied,  and 
mischievous  consequenoes  are  inevitably  expected.  The 
sudden  silence  which  sometimes  pervaxies  a  folkmote,  or 
assemblage  of  magpies,  is  owing  to  their  perc^tion  of 
the  approach  of  a  hawk  or  falcon.  All  their  lively  hop- 
pings  and  chatteringa  are  immediately  at  an  end,  and 
they  remain  motionless  on  the  ground,  as  if  all  their 
faculties  were  absorbed  in  apprehension  of  their  danger. 
When  bushes  are  im'mediately  at  hand  they  creep  into 
them  for  shelter  from  their  enemy;  and  where  large 
hawks  are  frequently  seen,  it  has  been  observed  tliat  the 
magpies  uniformly  select  some  spot  for  their  place  at 
rendesvous,  which  is  closely  surrounded  by  broom,  or 
furze,  or  low  shrubs  of  fonte  description,  to  wbiob  they 
may  betake  themselves. 


CniDtTUTy  b  afar  greater  source  of  error  tlian  superstition, 
for  the  latter  must  Be  always  more  limited  in  it«  influence, 
and  can  exist  only,  to  any  considerable  extent,  iu  the  moat 
ignorant  portions  of  society,  whereas  the  former  dlEFosM 
itaelf  through  the  minds  of  all  classes,  by  which  rank 
and  dignity  are  degraded,  its  valuable  labours  confoundMl 
with  the  rain  pretensions  of  empiricism,  and  iniorance  is 
enabled  to  claim  for  itself  the  prescriptive  right  of  delivering 
oracles,  amidst  all  the  triumphs  of  truth  and  the  proereas 
of  philosophy.  Credulity  tas  been  justly  defined,  fa/i^ 
tnUoitf  muim,  while  seeptidsm,  its  opposite,  is  rwuim  wUh- 
out  hdi^,  and  the  natuial  and  invuiable  consequence  of 
credulity ;  for  it  may  bo  observed  that  men  who  believe 
wilhont  reason  are  succeeded  by  others  whom  no  rcasoniog 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKEK,  WEST  STRAIfT>. 


N?  550.  JANUABY 


30^.?,  1841.  {ok^^. 


TURKEY  AND  THE  TURKISH  PROVINCE& 


THB  SVUOT  1 


THE  SULIOT  HILLS, 
Albania. 

Is  «  former  article  we  gave  a  brief  illuitrafion  of 
the  wretched  lystem  which  prer^ls  in  the  govcrnmeDt 
of  TurVey,  in  regard  to  the  appointment  and  subse- 
quent conduct  of  the  Pachas ;  and  fbllowed  up  our 
resarka  by.ka  account  of  the.  Pachalic  of  Joaiuuna,  io 
it*  tc^>ographical  and  commercial  features.  Ai  it  is  our 
intentioQ,  to  present,  from  time  to  time,  nich  sketches 
as  wiH  illastrate  Turkey  and  the  Turks  in  their  most 
inl«rektiDg  point  of  view,  we  will  avail  ourselves  of  the 

E resent 'opportunity  to  give  an  account  of  the  Suliolt,  a 
rare  but  persecuted  bwid  of  men,  who,  living  under  the 
Pachi  of  Joannina,  may  bedeemed  subjects  of  the  Turk- 
ish EmiHre.  A  description  of  the  small  disLriut  known 
as  the  Snliot  HiUa  will  be  neceasary  to  a  due  apprecia- 
tion of  the  history  of  the  tribe. 

At  a  distance  of  a  few  miles  south-west  from  the  city 
of  Joannina  are  the  Suliot  Hills,  among  which  four 
Tillages,  named  Suli,  Avarico,  Ki:tffa,  and  Samoniva,are 
.he  chic-f  seats  of  this  tribe;  but  as  circumstances,  which 
wc  eball.  detail  in  the  nest  paper,  have  made  sad  changes 
in  the  condition  of  the  Suliota;  we  will  describe  their 
home  and  tbeir  costons  as  ther  existed  a  few  years  ago. 
The  four  vjllagea  were  situated  on  a  plain  elevated  2000 

Vol..  xvm. 


feet  above  the  neighbouring  river,  Acheron ;  frith  a  per- 
pendicular cliff  descending  to  the  ttvgt  on  one  side,  and  a 
chain  of  lofty  mountains  on  the  other.  From  the  banks 
of  the  river,  a  -winding  and  intricate  path  led  up  to  tho 
villages ;  and  this  path  was  st  intervals  commanded  by 
strong  forts,  so  that  the  Suliot  plain  formed  one  of  tlw 
most  inaccessible  spots  in  Europe.  Here  the  Buliota 
^elt,  and  cherishea  that  love  of  liberty  which  so  often 
distinguishes  mountaineers.  Among  these  men  wero 
seen  some  of  the  finest  of  human  forms;  and  their 
continual  exposure  to  sun  and  wind  had  given  to  thmr 
complexion  a  swarthy  tint,  not  unsuited  to  our  idea*  of 
a  brave  and  vigorous  people.  When  they  left  thdr 
vills^B  on  warlike  expeditions,  they  took  no  tents  with 
them :  they  slept  on  their  own  capotes,  or  cloaks,  and  had 
the  sky  for  a  canopy.  The  greater  part  of  them  were 
almost  bom  soldiers,  for  they  wore  arms  from  a  very 
eariy  age ;  and  ^eir  bravery  was  so  well  known  and  ap- 
preoated,  that  a  real  Suliot  was  regarded  by  his  nrigh- 
bonrs  in  somewhat  the  same  light  as  the  ancient  Spartan* 
were  by  the  rest  of  the  Greeks. 

The  Suliots  were  Christians  belonging  to  the  Gredt 
chureh,  the  same  fiiith  to  which  the  Russians  belong ; 
and  this  drcumstance  has  led  to  much  correspondence 
and  treaty  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Russians,  during 
the  stnunrle  of  the  former  to  shake  off  the  Turkish 
550 


S4 


THE  BATURDAY  magazine. 


[Jakuaat  SQi 


yoke.  The  Suliots,  when  their  little  republic  was  still 
entire,  had  do  written  laws;  but  nmny  eustotns,  handed 
down  from  time  immemorial,  served  to  regulate  their 
conduct.  T)ie  date  of  their  establi^hmenjb  among  these 
hills  is  placed  by  fradition  in- the  17th  century,  when 
some  goat  and  swine  herds,  having  led  their  animals  to 
feed  upon  the  heights  of  Kiaffa,  were  struck  with  the 
eli^^ibility  of  the  situation,  and  occupied  it  with  their 
families.  It  is,  however,  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Hughes, 
that  the  mountains  afforded  refuge  to  some  of  those 
Albanians  who  fled  from  Turkish  despotism  after  the 
death  of  Scanderbeg. 

By  whatever  mode  the  district  became  peopled,  the 
villages  themselves  were  exceedingly  simple:  the  houses 
were  low,  and  rudely  built,  and  no  attempts  were  any- 
where made  at  display.  The  life  which  the  men  led, 
when  not  actually  engaged  at  war,  was  simple  and  hardy; 
and  to  aid  in  forming  the  character  of  the  men  to 
bravery  and  fearlessness,  the  women  had  precedence  at 
the  wells  and  fountains  according  to  the  character  which 
their  husbands  bore  for  bravery;  and  if  a  woman 
happened  to  be  married  to  a  man  of  a  weak  and 
cowardly  mind,  she  was  obliged  to  stand  at  the  well's 
side  till  the  rest  of  the  women  had  filled  their  pitchers. 
The  effect  of  this  custom  was,  that  the  men  could  more 
easily  brave  the  enemy  than  the  reproaches  which  were 
poured  on  them  by  their  wives,  if  the  latter  had  been  sub- 
ject to  this  ignominious  treatment.  The  females  were 
held  in  the  highest  esteem ;  and  a  curious  law  is  men- 
tioned bv  travellers,  that  no  man  was  allowed,  under 
the  severest  penalties,  to  interfere  in  the  women's 
quarrels,  lest  by  accident  a  woman  mighl  be  killed ;  and 
that  whoever  committed  murder  on  a  woman  was  put  to 
death  with  the  execrations  of  his  fellow  men,  not  only 
as  a  murderer,  but  as  a  patricide. 

Although  the  chief  seat  of  this  tribe  was  in  the  four 
villages  which  we  have  mentioned,  vet  there  were  nu- 
merous others  gradually  incorporated  with  one  another. 
A  century  or  two  back,  the  tribe  had  attained  sufficient 
importance  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  neighbouring 
chiefs,  and  to  carry  on  war  with  the  Beys  of  l^ramithia 
and  Margariti,  and  with  the  Pachas  of  Joannina  and 
Arta.  The  almost  inaccessible  and  impregnable  nature 
of  their  position  effectually  shielded  them  from  attack 
from  without,  while  the  boldness  and  bravery  of  the 
mountaineers  enabled  them  to  take  numerous  posses- 
sions from  the  hands  of  their  opponents,  and  gradually 
to  extend  thpir  little  republic.  At  one  time  it  consisted 
of  sixty-six  villages,  containing  several  thousand  inha- 
bitants. These  inhabitants  were  divided  into  sections 
called^roff,  each  fara  containing  a  certain  number  of 
families,  commanded  by  a  chief  or  captain  :^-thus,  just 
previous  to  Ali  Pacha's  war  with  the  Suliots,  the  village 
of  Siili,  (from  which  they  derived  their  appellation,) 
contained  nineteen  faras,  and  four  hui^dred  and  twenty- 
five  families.:  Kiaffa,  four  faras,  and  sixty  families;  Ava- 
rico,  three  faras,  and  fifty -five  families;  and  Samoniva^ 
three  faras,  and  thirty  families.  The  sixty-six  villages 
of  which  we  have  spoken  were  considered  as  tributary 
or  conquered  possessions,  and  the  inhabitants  were  not 
admitted  to  the  righto  of  citizenship.  Of  the  subordi- 
nation in  which  they  were  held  by  the  Suliots  of  the 
four  federal  villages,  an  example  was  given  in  the  follow- 
ing incident: — on  one  occasion,  the  inhabitanto  of  the 
four  towns  having  increased  beyond  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence, a  certain  number  of  them  was  quartered  or  colo- 
nized in  seven  of  the  tributary  villages,  where  they  were 
exempted  from  paying  either  forced  contributions,  or 
the  regular  tribute  which  the  other  inhabitants  of  those 
villages  paid,  and  which  amounted  to  one  tenth  of  all 
produce. 

In  the  few  and  simple  judicial  matters  which  had  to 
engage  their  attention,  the  judge  was  either  the  captain 
of  the  fara  in  which  die  matter  in  dispute  occurred;  or 
in  more  important  affairs^  a  council  of  chiefs  assembled 


from  all  the  four  towns  at  Suli,  and  decided  the  matter. 
But  warlike  deed*  were  the  chief  etaiplojpnent  of  the 
tribe,  as  they  are  of  most  infant  states.  The  Suliots 
had  a  band  of  one  thousand  chosen  troops,  oalled^a/tArari, 
all  citizens  of  the  four  towns;  as  well  as  fifteen  hundred 
troops  levied  from  the  dependent  villages.  Their  mode 
of  warfare  was  such  as  is  customary  among  a  people  but 
little  advanced  in  the  arts  of  civilized  Me;  that  is,  it 
consisted  more  in  skirmishes  than  in  pitched  battles — -in 
daring  expeditions,  sudden  attacks,  and  quick  retreats. 
It  is  said,  that  they  had  a  rather  extraordinary  custom  in 
their  wars,  of  sending  out  a  small  body  of  troops 
against  a  superior  force ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  a  large 
body  against  a  small  one:  in  the  first  instance,  they  in- 
timidated their  foes,  who  knew  they  were  prepared-  to 
conquer  or  to  perish  on  the  field  of  battle ;  in  the  latter, 
they  were  able  to  secure  more  prisoners,  and  gain  a 
larger  ransom  for  the  purchase  of  arms  and  ammunition. 

Martial  exercises  formed  the  chief  education  of  this 
rude  but  vigorous  people.  Their  amusements,  the  dance 
and  the  song,  were  calculated,  the  one  to  contribute  to 
the  increase  of  their  bodily  strength,  and  the  latter  to 
warm  their  national  enthusiasm,  which  was  one  of  the 
chief  traits  in  their  character.  The  Suliot  women  con- 
tributed very  powerfully  to  the  maintenance  of  a  martial 
spirit  among  the  men,  not  only  by  the  custom  at  the 
wells  and  fountains,  to  which  we  before  alluded,  but  also 
by  their  readiness  to  share  all  the  hardships  and  perils  of 
war  with  their  husbands  :  troops  of  women  attended  upon 
the  soldiers,  to  carry  provisions  and  ammunition,  to 
assist  the  wounded,  and  even  in  some  cases  to  engage  in 
the  battles : — ^these  characteristics  strongly  remind  us  of 
the  state  of  manners  and  customs  among  the  anciitnt 
SpartanSk 

This  description  of  the  Suliot  villages,-^the  institu- 
tions which  bound  the  inhabitants  into  a  fraternity, 
and  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  two  sexes, — must  be 
considered  as  applying  to  a  period  forty  or  fifty  years 
ago.  Since  then  sad  reverses  have  occurred:  families 
have  been  rooted  out  after  a  desperate  resistance ;  vil- 
lages have  been  burned  to  the  ground ;  and  the  Suliots 
have  been  for  forty  years  a  scattered  people.  The  cir- 
cumstances which  led  to  these  resultl  will  be  brieflj  de- 
tailed in  the  next  article  on  this  subject* 


THE  BOAT  LAUNCH. 


The  bark  that  is  launched  on  the  bosom  of  Ocean^ 
Holds  gloriously  onward  her  queenly  career; 

She  dreads  not  the  billow  nor  tempest's  commotion. 
The  storm,  though  it  lash  her,  brings  with  it  no  fear. 

But  soon — soon  she  finds  that  her  vaunted  defiance. 

Her  pride  and  her  might  alike  are  but  vain. 
That  her  strength  in  the  trial  affords  no  reliance, 
«     Her  efforts  are  nought  when  opposed  to  the  main. 

And  thus  'tis  in  life,  when  youth  and  its  gladness 
Spread  visions  of  happiness  full  in  our  view ; 

We  fear  not,  we  think  not,  that  sorrow  and  sadness 
Must  tinge  all  these  pleasures  a  different  hue. 

That  the  storm  of  afiliction  and  tbe  dark  hour  of  angnisb 
Shall  come  and  these  phantoms  must  vanish  away; 

That  the  brightest  and  best  must  speedily  languish. 
The  fidrest  of  all  can  but  boast  of  tthday! 

How  fondly  the  heart  then  should  look  for  the  morrow. 
And  wait  for  that  time,  when  its  troubles  shall  cease; 

When  tho*  shattered  and  tossed  it  shall  end  all  its  sonx>w, 
And  find  in  the  Heavens  its  haven  of  peace. 

Youghal,  Ireland.  8.  H. 

If  you  are  often  imquiet,  and  too  nearly  touched  by  the  crosa 
accidents  of  life,  vour  devotion  is  not  of  the  right  standard ; 
there  is  too  much  alloy  in  it.  That  which  is  right  and  un- 
mixed taketh  away  the  sting  of  everything  that  would  tron* 
Me  you.  It  is  like  a  healing  balm,  tliat  e^tlnguifiheth  the 
sharpmas  of  the  blood.  So  this  aofteneth  qxm  diasolvith 
theaiitiiiikgfttotaujidi — Tk^  Lw(/$  Nm  Y0m's  0i/k  \ 


1641.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAQAXINB 


85 


USE  OF  TEA  IN  CHINA. 
Wx  possess  abundant  information  upon  the  culture  and 
preparation  of  the  tea-plant,  and  upon  the  period  when 
it  was  first  employed  in  Europe,  but  very  little  as  to 
when  it  came  into  general  use  in  China  itself.  M.  Klap- 
roth  has  contributed  some  interesting  particulars  upon 
this  point  to  the  Journal  Asiatigue.  He  says  that  the 
Chinese  works  convey  but  little  information  upon  the 
subject.  The  practice  of  taking  tea  as  a  beverage,  how- 
ever, would  seem  to  have  commenced  during  tne  Tsin 
dynasty,  and  Wang-mung,  a  minister  of  public  works, 
at  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century,  brought  it  much 
into  vogue,  being  himself  a  g^reat  consumer,  and  treating 
all  his  visitors  liberally  wiUi  it.  The  historian  of  the 
Say  dynasty  states  that  the  Emperor  Wass-te,  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign,  was  much  tormented  by  severe 

Suns  in  the  head,  for  which  he  was  recommended  by  a 
uddhist  priest  to  drink  an  infbsion  of  the  leaves  of 
the  plant  termed  mm^  or  eha,  (tea,)  which  effected  a 
cure.  The  character  was  so  written  as  to  be  pronounced 
anciently  either  as  cha  or  too,  and  it  is  oonjectured  that 
the  European  word  tea  is  the  Malay  ImA,  which  is  pro- 
bably dsrived  from  the  old  Chinese  too.  The  Japanese 
have  a  tradition  which  ascribes  a  miraculous  origin  to 
the  tea-plant.  This  states  that  a  most  pious  prince, 
named  Darma,  came  from  India  to  China,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  century,  and  endeavoured  to  excite  a 
higher  d^^ree  of  religious  feeling  among  the  inhabitants 
than  then  existed.  He  exposed  himself,  as  an  example, 
t(»  severe  privations  and  mortifications,  living  in  the  open 
air,  and  spending  the  whole  night  in  prayer  and  exhor- 
taion.  After  contii^uing  this  course  of  discipline  for 
sone  years,  he  happened  one  night,  overcome  by  fatigue, 
to  fall  asleep.  Horror-struck  at  this  accidental  violation 
of  a  vow,  by  which  he  had  bound  himself  to  refrain 
fn  m  such  indulgence,  he  cut  off,  as  a  means  of  expiating 
th)  offence,  and  preventing  its  repetition,  his  eyelids, 
a:.d  buried  them.  Next  cbiLy  he  found  sprouting,  from 
the  spot  where  he  had  interred  them,  a  plant  hitherto 
anknown.  He  tasted  some  of  the  leaves,  which  en- 
livened him  wonderftilly,  and  restored  to  him  the  vigour 
he  had  long  lost.  He  invited  his  followers  to  partake 
of  so  Excellent  an  herb,  and  its  reputation  soon  spread  all 
over  China.  Ksempfer  has  presented  to  the  world  a 
copy  of  the  portrait  of  this  saint,  who  enjoys  a  great 
celebrity,  both  in  Japan  and  China. 

In  780,  during  the  Tang  dynasty,  a  duty  of  ten  per 
cent,  was  levied  upon  all  tea  brought  from  beyond  the 
mountains  where  it  grew.  In  the  reign  of  Moor-tsang, 
(a.  d.  824,)  the  government  being  short  of  money,  this 
duty  was  raised  to  the  enormous  sum  of  fifty  per  cent. 
When  it  was  proposed  to  Ta-tsoo,  the  founder  of  the 
Sung  dynasty,  to  raise  the  price  of  tea,  as  a  means  of 
supplying  his  exchequer,  he  replied  benevolently,  "  Tea 
is  an  excellent  article,  which  must  not  be  rendered 
dearer,  or  the  poor  will  be  oppressed."  In  the  reign  of 
Jin-tsung,  (1023-1063,)  large  factories  were  established, 
and  at  that  period  two  separate  kinds  were  prepared,  viz., 
pe^a-chay  in  which  the  leaves  were  dried  by  the  fire,  and 
formed  .  into  a  solid  mass  ;  and  Man-chat  wherein  they 
were  dried  and  powdered.  In  the  reign  of  Shin-tsung, 
(1068-86,)  Le-Khe  proceeded  to  the  country  of  the 
ohoo,  to  procure  tea,  and  then  bartered  it  in  various 
cities  for  horses.  Extensive  transactions  of  the  same 
kind  were  carried  on  under  the  Sungs  with  the  Tibetan 
nations  on  the  frontiers.  Under  the  Ming  dynasty, 
horses,  &c^  were  also  exchanged  for  the  commodity  with 
the  Mongols. 

The  use  of  tea  was  introduced  into  Tibet  in  the  ninth 
oentury,  when  Chang-loo  was  sent  there  as  ambassador. 
The  Tibetans,  observing  the  preparation  of  this  beverage 
in  his  tent,  inquired  concerning  its  nature.  "  It  is," 
said  Chang-loo,  "  a  drink  which  relieves  thirst  and  dis- 
sipates sorrow.**  The  Tibetan^  paturfi41y  desiring  tp 
hecome  pcNwessed  of  so  valuable  a  plant,  he  distributed 


several  packets  among  them.  Although  the  use  of  tea 
was  known  in  Japan  in  810,  the  phint  itself  was  not 
introduced  until  8]«»i,  when  two  Buddhist  priests,  from 
the  monastery  of  Toga-no-o,  brought  seme  young  shoots 
from  China.  These  thrived,  and  the  use  of  tea  soon 
became  general  in  Japan. 

Tea  is  the  common  beverage  of  the  Chinese,  of  inhich 
they  are  passionately  fond,  believing  that  it  unites  to  its 
agreeable  qualities  valuable  medicinal  properties.  They 
always  present  it  to  their  guesU.  Every  one  takes  it 
three  times,  but  some  even  ton  times,  daily.  It  is  said 
by  most  authors  to  have  proved  a  peculiarly  beneficial 
gift  to  China,  as  tending  to  correct,  in  some  measure, 
the  nature  of  the  water  of  that  country,  which  is  both 
unwholesome  and  nauseous.  The  herb  is  usually  kept  a 
year  before  employing  it,  as  when  used  too  fresh  it  pro- 
duces a  narcotic  or  stupifying  effect.  The  Chinese  pour 
boiling  water  over  the  tea,  and  leave  it  to  **  stand/'  or 
infuse,  as  we  do,  but  they  drink  it  without  any  admixture 
of  sugar  or  milk,  some  of  them,  however,  holding  a 
small-piece  of  sugar-candy  in  the  mouth  the  while.  The 
common  people  use  a  very  coarse  tea,  and  as  its  virtues 
are  not  very  volatile,  or  easily  extracted  by  inAjsion, 
they  boil  it  for  some  time.  A  vessel  filled  with  water  is 
hung  over  the  fire  betimes,  in  the  morning,  into  which 
the  tea,  enclosed  in  a  bag,  or  small  basket,  is  placed. 
When  sufficiently  boiled,  they  draw  it  off*,  as  their  com- 
mon and  frequent  beverage  during  the  day.  The  impe- 
rial, or  best  tea,  is  preserved  in  porcelain  vases,  or  in 
leaden  or  tin  canisters,  covered  with  bamboo  mats.  The 
commoner  tea  is  kept  in  narrow-mouthed  earthen  pots, 
and  the  coarsest  kind,  (the  flavour  of  which  is  not 
easilv  injured,)  is  packed  up  in  baskets  of  straw. 

TKc  Japanese  use  powdered  tea,  diluted  with  water  to 
the  consistence  of  thin  soup.  The  box  containing  the 
powder  is  produced,  and  the  cups  are  filled  with  hot 
water:  a  quantity  of  powder  is  taken  upon  the  point  of 
a  knife,  and  thrown  into  the  cup,  and  stirred  briskly 
round.  It  is  sipped  while  warm.  Du  <  Halde  says  the 
same  mode  is  followed  in  some  of  the  Chinese  provinces. 

J.  C. 

THE  SALT  MOUNTAINS  OF  ISCHIL^ 

IK  U|>P£R  AUSTBIA. 

We  landed  at  Ebens-see,  a  small  village  at  the  southern 
end  of  the  Gmunden  Lake,  and  in  reply  to  our  inquiries, 
they  informed  us  that  the  salt  was  manufactured  at  this 
place,  but  that  the  salt-mmes  were  several  miles  in  the 
mterlor.  I  had  supposed  that  the  salt  was  dug  in  a  solid 
state  from  the  roountam,  and  was  therefore  surprised 
when  they  took  us  to  a  large  building,  in  which  was  a 
sheet-iron  pan,  about  sixty  feet  in  diameter,  and  two  in 
depth,  with  a  brisk  fire  kept  up  beneath.  Water  was 
flowing  into  it  from  two  large  cocks,  and  workmen  were 
employed  in  shovelling  salt  out  from  the  bottom  on  to  a 
draining  board,  from  which  it  was  afterwards  removed  to 
small  cone-shaped  vessels,  with  holes  at  the  bottom  for 
further  draining.  In  these  it  was  suffered  to  remain 
until  it  became  solid,  when  it  was  turned  out,  and  the 
moist  end  of  ihe  cone  being  cut  off",  it  was  ready  for 
transportation.  Each  lump  contained  about  thirty-three 
pounds. 

From  Ebens-see  we  followed  the  windings  of  a  deep 
valley  for  nine  miles,  when  we  arrived  at  Ischil,  a  pretty 
little  village,  frequented  by  valetudinarians  for  the  benefit 
of  its  salt  baths.  These  are  in  a  new  and  very  hand- 
some edifice,  with  a  Grecian  colonnade  in  front,  and  an  in- 
scription. In  Male  et  sele  omnia  exUtvnL  The  salt  moun- 
tains are  about  three  miles  to  the  southward  of  Ischil. 
Tliey  form  part  of  a  high  and  broken  rarge  extending 
eastward  and  westward,  and  in  the  exterior  are  not  to  he 
distinguished  from  other  parts  of  the  range,  the  vegeta- 
tion on  every  part  being  equally  luxuriant.  About 
half-way  to  the  summit,  we  arrived  at  the  residence  of 


36 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


UARY  30 


the  superintendent,  and  having  here  obtained  permission 
to  enter  the  mines,  were  conducted  to  a  house  a  few 
hundred  yards  below,  and  provided  with  suitable  dresses. 
Here  is  one  of  the  entrances,  of  which  there  are  twelve 
in  all:  they  informed  us  that  salt  is  found  in  an^  part 
of  the  mountain  when  they  take  the  trouble  of  digging 
for  it  Our  course,  after  entering,  was  along  a  narrow 
horizontal  gallery,  openings  occurring  at  intervals,  along 
which  we  heard  the  dashing  of  water:  at  our  feet 
also  were  wooden  pipes  for  water,  with  branches 
running  off  into  the  various  lateral  galleries.  Having 
proceeded  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  we  came  to  a  halt  just 
where  some  bare  logs  rose  in  a  slanting  direction,  from 
a  cavity  whose  depth  we  could  not  ascertain.  A  guide 
straddled  this  log,  and  directing  me  to  do  the  same,  and 
hold  on  by  him,  he  raised  his  feet,  and  away  we  went, 
sliding,  or  rather  darting  down,  on  the  smooth  log,  and, 
excepting  the  glinunering  light  from  our  lantern,  en- 
veloped in  total  darkness.  The  guide  kept  himself 
upright,  and,  holding  fast  to  him,  I  presently  found 
myself  deposited  in  safety  on  a  heap  of  soft  earth,  and 
turned  to  enjoy  the  eqiuil  astonishment  and  fright  of  my 
companions. 

We  were  now  at  the  bottom  of  a  chamber  of  irreg^ar 
shape,  but  averaging  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 
diameter,  and  from  four  to  ten  feet  in  height ;  the  ceiling 
in  some  parts  being  supported  by  blocks  of  sulphate  of 
.lime,  piled  up  in  the  form  of  rude  columns.  The 
gangue  of  the  salt,  if  the  word  may  be  used,  is  composed 
chiefly  of  a  clayey  earth,  mixed  up  with  irregular  blocks 
of  sulphate  of  lime:  the  salt  is  mingled  with  these, 
usually  in  strata  of  from  six  inches  to  two  feet  in  thick- 
ness, forming,  however,  every  variety,  shape,  and  di- 
rection. It  was  generally  of  a  reddish  colour,  and 
though  mixed  with  impurities,  very  strong.  The  strata 
were  very  distinct  on  the  ceiling  of  the  chamber,  which 
looked  not  unlike  marbled  paper,  the  salt  itself  presenting 
a  gpreat  variety  of  colours,  and  its  g^gue  scarcely  a 
smaller  number.  The  surface  of  the  salt  presented  to 
us  was  rough  and  honey-combed. 

We  now  for  the  ^rst  time  learnt  the  mining  process, 
which  certainly  is  very  simple,  and  sufficiently  econo- 
mical. In  the  first  place,  a  small  chamber  is  formed  by 
the  pick-axe  and  shovel,  and  arrangements  having  been 
made,  by  means  of  pipes,  for  conducting  water  to  and 
from  it,  the  outlet  is  stopped  up,  and  tiie  chamber  is 
filled  with  fresh,  water,  of  which  the  mountain-streams 
furnish  them  with  abundance.  In  a  few  weeks  the  water 
in  the  chamber  is  saturated  with  salt:  it  is  then  let  out, 
and  conducted  by  aqueducts  to  Ebens-see,  a  distance  of 
twelve  miles,  where  the  water  is  evaporated  artificially, 
and  the  salt  is  shipped  for  the  store-house  at  Gmunden, 
When  the  chamber  has  become  sufficiently  dry,  the  work- 
men descend  into  it,  clear  it  from  the  stones  and  dirt 
which  have  been  loosened  by  the  water,  and  fallen  from 
the  ceiling,  and  the  chamber  is  then  ready  for  another 
flooding.  The  large  chamber  we  were  in,  as  the  guides 
informed  us,  requires  one  month  for  the  process  of  filling, 
and  fifteen  days  more  for  completing  the  saturation. 
It  holds  80,000  German  emers;  is  filled  four  times  a 
year,  and  has  been  in  use  thirty  years:  one  hundred 
pounds  of  water  furnish  twenty-six  and  three-fourths 
pounds  of  salt.  .There  are  thirty-four  chambers  in  all, 
in  which  two  hundred  men  are  employed,  working  night 
and  day,  six  hours  at  a  time.  They  work  four  days  in 
a  week,  and  get  forty-eight  cents  per  week.  When  the 
chambers  are  approachmg,  so  as  to  threaten  a  breach 
from  one  into  the  other,  the  further  encroachment  of  the 
water  in  that  direction  is  prevented  by  a  compound 
formed  by  the  clay  and  pulverized  rock,  which  is  beaten 
against  the  wall,  so  as  to  form  an  effectual  barrier.  At 
intervals,  in  the  descent  of  the  mountain,  are  three 
reservoirs,  into  which  the  water  is  successively  dis- 
charged, I  believe  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  the  vio- 
lence of  the  descent. 


There  is  a  chain  of  six  or  seven  very  beautiful  lakes 
in  this  neighbourhood,  two  of  which  we  visited,  after 
leaving  Ischil,  and  on  the  29th  August  stopped  for  a 
short  rest  at  Salzburg.  Our  consul  at  Vienna  had 
described,  in  glowing  terms,  the  beauUful  scenery  at 
Berchtsgaden,  a  short  day's  journey  to  the  south  of 
Salzburg ;  and  as  it  had  also  a  salt  mountain,  I  deter- 
mined to  pay  it  a  visit  There  are  also  salt-mines  at 
Hallein,  south  from  Salzburg,  which  I  did  not  examine, 
but  which  I  was  informed  are  worked,  and  are  about  ai 
productive  as  those  of  IschiL 

Berchtsgaden  is  now  comprehended  in  the  kingdom 
of  Bavaria.  The  royal  family  were  there  on  a  visit  at 
this  time:  they  had  just  been  inspecting  the  mines,  and 
I  found  many  parts  of  the  interior  ornamented  in  a  fan- 
ciful manner,  the  richest  crystals  of  the  salt  and  gypsum 
having  been  collected  and  disposed  so  as  to  form  grot- 
toes, devices,  &c.  Some  of  the  former  were  large  and 
perfectly,  transparent,  but  a  deep  red  or  brown  is  the 
prevailing  colour.  This  mine  appeared  to  me  to  be 
richer  than  that  of  Ischil.  In  some  parts  the  salt  forms 
r^rular  solid  strata,  several  feet  in  thickness,  and  so  free 
from  foreign  matter  as  to  be  fit  for  use  without  any  puri- 
fying process.  In  these  places  it  is  mixed  by  the. aid  of 
gunpowder;  and  the  guides,  after  placing. us  in  secure 
pku^,  allowed  us  to  witness  two  or  three  explosions. 
Generally,  however,  the  mine  differs  very  little  from 
that  of  Ischil.  We  entered  by  a  horizontal  gallery,  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  leng^,  and  then  came  to  brancluDg 
galleries,  along  which  pipes  were  conducted,  for  filling 
the  chambers  with  water,  or  emptying  them.  One  hunr 
dred  and  ninety  men  are  employed,  and  the  yearly 
product,  I  was  told,  is  8134  tons. — Silliman's  JoumaL 


PRAYER. 


Go  when  the  rooming  shineth, 

Go  when  the  moon  is  bright ; 
Go  when  the  eve  decliueth,    * 

Go  in  the  hush  of  night. 
Go  with  pure  mind  and  feeling. 

Fling  earthly  thoughts  away ; 
And  in  thy  chamber  kneeling. 

Do  thou  in  secret  pray. 

Remember  all  who  love  thee. 
All  who  are  loved  by  thee; 

Pray  too  for  those  who  hate  thee. 
If  any  such  there  be. 

Then  for  thyself  in  meekness 

A  blessing  humbly  claim; 
For  strength  to  aid  thy  wedmess, 

In  thy  Redeemer's  name. 
Through  Him  thy  secret  breathing. 

Shall  reach  the  realms  above, 
As  sacred  incense  wreathing 

Where  all  is  Truth  and  love. 


Ikvums&ablv  are  the  diseases  that  arise  from  our  busy  ftncy. 
We  are  all  subject  to  the  tyrannic  sway  of  imagination's 
empire.  Under  this  mighty  influence  man  displays  energies 
which  lead  him  boldl  v  to  dare  danger  and  compucated  suf- 
ferings, or  he  is  reduced  to  the  most  degraded  state  of 
miserable  despondency.  These  diseases  are  the  more  fearful 
since  they  rarely  ^eld  to  physical  aid,  and  it  is  seldom  that 
moral  influence  is  suflicienUy  persuasive  to  combat  their 
inveteracy.  It  is  idle  to  tell  the  timid  hypochondriac  that 
he  LB  not  ill.  The  mere  circumstance  of  his  believing  him- 
self  sick  constitutes  a  serious  disorder.  His  constant  appre- 
hensions derange  his  functions,  until  an  organic  affection 
arises.  The  patient  who  fancies  that  he  laoours  under  an 
affection  of  the  heart  disturbs  the  circulation,  which  is  ever 
influenced  by  our  moral  emotions,  till  at  last  this  disturb- 
ance occasions  the  very  malady  which  he  dreaded.  These 
aberrations  of  the  mind  arise  from  various  causes, — ^mental 
enactions,  constitution,  climate,  diet,  hereditary  disposition, 
education.  Tertullian  called  Philosophy  and  Medicine  twin 
sisters :  both  may  become  powerful  i^nts  in  controlling 
our  iinagination. — ^Mxllikoek. 


1814.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 
ON   CHESS,    m. 


As'ciENT  Che88-mbk  discovebed  in  the  Isle  or 

Lewis. 
Is  the  year  1831  an  announcement  made  in  the  Scottish 
newspapers   excited  the   attention   of  antiquaries   to  « 

curious  discovery  made  in  Scotland  in  the  Isle  of  Lewis 
on  the  sea-shore,  in  the  parish  of  Uig,  of  a  considerable 
number  of  chess-men  of  excellent  workman  ship.  ITiey 
vcre  discovered  by  a  peasant  of  the  isiand,  whilst  digging 
an  «  sand-baiik,  noar  to  a  ruin  of  some  note,  and  having 
been  purchased  by  tho  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum, 
these  figures  now  form  part  of  our  national  collection  of 
antiquities,  together  with  a  bone  or  ivory  fibula,  and 
fourteen  table-men,  or  draught-men,  which  were  found 
with  them.  The  chess-men  are  sixty-seven  in  number, 
forming  the  materials  of  six  or  more  sets,  but  the  pieces 
are  of  such  various  sizes,  that  it  is  difficult  to  select 
two  sets  which  correspond  exactly.  Of  the  total  number, 
six  are  king^,  five  queens,  thirteen  bishops,  fourteen 
knights,  ten  warders,  and  nineteen  pawns.  The  largest 
king  is  4^  inches  high,  and  6j  inches  in  circumference; 
the  largest  queen  3}  inches  in  height,  and  5|^  in  circum- 
ference; the  largest  bishop,  knight  and  warder,  (the 
latter  holding  the  place  of  the  rook  or  castle,)  are 
respectively  5  inches  in  height;  and  the  largest  pawn  if 
belies.  For  the  sake  of  distinction,  part  of  these  pieces 
were  originally  stained  of  a  dark  red  or  bcetrroot  colour, 
bat  from  the  action  of  salt-water  for  many  centuries,  the 
colour  is  in  most  cases  nearly  discharged. 

There  is  little  variation  in  the  form  or  attitude  of  the 
KiXGS.  They  are  nil  represented  as  old  men  with  large 
■pade-shaped  beards,  moustaches,  and  hair  tailing  in 
plaits  over  their  shoulders.  They  have  on  their  heads 
low  quatrefoil  crowns,  either  plain  or  ornamented  with  a 
border,  and  sit  on  square-formed  chains,  having  high 
bicka  richly  carved  with  various  scrolls,  figures  of  ani- 
mals, intersecting  arches,  and  tracery-work  in  the  best 
style  of  art  of  the  twelfth  century,  as  seen  on  monuments, 
anrl  in  manuscripts.  Their  dress  consists  of  an  upper 
and  an  under  robe,  the  former  of  which,  that  is,  the 
inaatle  or  clamys,  b  thrown  in  folds  over  each  arm, 
and  left  open  on  the  right  side  as  high  as  the  shoulder, 
(where  it  ia  fastened  by  a  cksp,)  for  the  purpose  of 
leaving  the  arm  free.  Each  of  the  figures  holds  a 
swnrd,  with  both  hands  across  his  knees,  as  though 
in  the  act  of  drawing  it,  according  to  the  old  mode 
assigned  to  royal  personages.  The  swords  are  broad 
and  short;  the  scabbards  are  marked  either  with  a  simple 
longitudinal  line,  or  with  lines  placed  diagonally.  In  the 
different  figures,  there  are  some  slight  variations, 
in  one  the  hair  is  not  plaited,  but  spreads  over  the  back 
in  six  loag  wreaths :  too  ornaments  of  the  chains 
alio  diversifed;  one  of  them  exhibits  an  intersection  of 


micircular  arches,  as  seen  in  some  of  our  early  Nor- 
m  churches. 

The  QuEKNS,  who  are  also  crowned,  are  represented 
sitting  iu  chairs,  ornamented  in  a  style  similar  to  those 
of  l.he  kings.  From  the  back  of  the  head  of  each  hangs 
a  species  of  hood,  which  spreads  over  the  shoulders,  and 
accords  with  what  was  luiiversally  worn  by  ladies  of  rank 
he  middle  ages;  as  is  proved  by  manuscripts  and 
monuments  of  various  nations.  From  the  shoulders  to 
the  feet  hangs  a  long  mantle,  which  shows  in  front  on 
under  garment  or  gown.  The  sleeves  of  this,  like  those 
of  the  Saxons  and  Norman-French,  are  short,  with  a 
worked  border ;  and  from  the  elbows  to  the  wrists  are  a 
series  of  plaits,  resembling  bands,  which  probably  were 
I  round  the  arm.  Most  of  these  figures  are  repre- 
•A  in  a  contemplative  posture,  the  head  resting  upon 
■ight  arm,  which  is  supported  by  the  left.  One  of 
I  (represented  in  the  cut)  holds  a  curiously-shaped 
drinking-horn  in  the  left  hand.  In  the  different  figure* 
there  are  some  variations  in  the  forms  of  the  crowns 
and  hoods :  and  in  one  a  striped  petticoat  and  the  feet  ara 
visible,  which  are  covered  in  ottwr  instances:  the  chur- 
back  of  the  latter  piece  furnishes  also  another  example 
of  round  and  intersecting  arches. 

The  Bishops.  Five  of  these  pieces  are  represented  in 
ornamented  chairs,  and  the  remaining  eight  ii  a  standing 
position.  All  the  sitting  figures,  and  four  of  the  stand- 
ing ones,  wear  the  chasuble,  dalmatic,  stole,  and  ttmic, 
of  the  form  anciently  prescribed,  and  corren ponding  with 
representations  of  much  greater  antiquity;  the  remainder 
have  a  cope  instead  of  a  chasuble,  but  the  stole  and  dal- 
matic are  omitted.  The  mitres  are  very  low,  and  in 
some  instances  quite  plain,  but  have  the  double  band, 
or  tn/u/(P,  attached  behind.  The  hair  is  cut  short 
round  the  head.  They  hold  a  crosier  with  one,  or  with 
both  hands:  and  in  the  former  instances  the  other  hand 
holds  a  book,  or  is  raised  in  the  attitude  of  benediction; 
On  the  hacks  of  the  chasuble .  and  stole  are  various 
crosses  or  ornaments.  In  the  details  both  of  the  habits 
and  other  work,  there  are  numerous  minute  variations. 

The  Knights  are  full-length  figures  moimted  on 
horseback,  and  are  probably  the  most  interesting  portion 
of  the  whole.  They  are  habited  in  long  coaU  or 
gambesons,  which  descend  in  folds  to  the  feet;  the 
sleeves  have  a  cuff  or  border  at  the  wrist.  The  leg  has 
apparently  a  covering  of  some  sort  down  to  the  ankle, 
where  it  is  met  with  a  species  of  half-boot  without  spur.  ■ 
Their  helmets,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  of  a  conical 
shape,  and  mostly  with  nasals  and  round  flaps  to  protect 
the  nose,  ears,  and  neck.  All  the  figures  have  mou- 
staches and  lai^  round  beards,  except  one,  which  hati 
the  beard  separated  into  three  forks.  A  long  kite-formed 


?« 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINp;. 


[  jAOTiAf  19, 


ghield,  suspended  from  the  neck,  hangs  on  the  left  side 
of  each,  ornamented  with  various  devices,  approa<;hing 
in  some  instances  very  closely  to  heraldic  distinctions. 
Beneath  the  shield  appears  the  sword,  which  is  fastened 
round  the  waist  by  a  belt,  and  in  the  right  hand  each 
knight  carries  a  massive  spear.  The  horses  are  capari- 
soned in  high  saddles,  plain  or  ornamented;  saddle-cloths 
curiously  bordered ;  stirnips  and  bridles ;  the  mane  is  cut 
short,  and  tfie  hair  suffered  to  grow  down  on  the  fore- 
head. On  one  side  of  the  shield^  is  a  cross,  bearing  a 
lozenge,  plain;  on  another  is  an  ornamented  lozenge; 
and  the  remainder  are  variously  indented  with  crosses  and 
other  ornaments. 


It  is,  I  think,  conclusive  that  mankind,  from  a  very  early 
period,  have  their  minds  prepared  for  supernatural  occur- 
ences by  the  consciousness  of  the  existence  of  a  spiritual 
world.  But  imagination  is  apt  to  intrude  its  explanations 
and  inferences,  founded  on  inadequate  evidence,  sometimes 
our  violent  and  inordinate  passions,  originating  in  sorrow 
for  our  friends,  remorse  for  our  crimes,  our  eagerness  of 
patriotism,  or  our  deep  sense  of  devotion ; — these  or  other 
violent  excitements  of  a  moral  character,  in  the  visions  of 
the  night,  or  the  rapt  ecstasv  of  the  day,  persuade  us  that 
we  witness  with  our  eyes  anci  ears  an  actual  instance  of  that 
Bupernatuml  communication,  the  possibility  of  which  can- 
not be  denied.  At  other  times  the  coi-poreal  organs  impose 
upon  the  mind,  while  the  eye  and  the  ear,  diseased,  deran^d, 
or  misled,  convey  false  impressions  to  the  patient.  Very 
often  both  the  mental  delusion  and  the  physical  deception 
exist  at  the  same  time ;  and  men's  belief  of  the  phenomena 
presented  to  them,  however  erroneously,  by  the  senses,  is 
the  firmer  and  more  readilv  granted,  that  the  physical  im- 
pressions corresponded  witn  we  mental  excitement. — Sir 
YfjLhtsK  Scott. 


There  existed  among  the  ancient  Epyptians  a  singular  custom 
oi  introducing,  during  or  after  their  teasts,  either  a  skeleton 
or  a  wooden  imiige  in  the  form  of  a  human  being,  sometimes 
erect,  and  sometimes  extended  on  a  bier,  as  a  solemn  warn- 
ing of  the  brevity  of  life,  and  the  vanity  of  all  sublunary 
enjoyments.     The  discovery  of  a  skeleton-figure  in  the  ban- 

2uet-room  after  the  close  of  a  brilliant  entertainment  is  thus 
escribed  by  one  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  stranger- 
guest  at  one  of  those  olden  leasts. 

There  was  a  female  who  paiiicularly  attracted  my  at- 
tention, on  whose  head  was  a  chaplet  of  dark-coloured 
flowers,  and  who  sat  veiled  and  silent  during  the  whole  of 
the  banquet.  She  took  no  share,  I  observea,  in  what  was 
passing  around ;  the  viands  and  the  wine  went  bv  her  un- 
touched ;  nor  did  a  word  that  was  spoken  seem  addressed  to 
her  ear.  This  abstraction  from  a  scene  so  sparkling  with 
gaictv,  though  apparently  unnoticed  by  any  one  but  myself, 
BtrucTk  me  as  mysterious  and  strange.  I  inquired  of  my 
fair  neighbour  the  cause  of  it,  but  she  looked  grave  and  was 

•ilent I  returned  to  the  banquet-room,  which 

was  now  dim  and  solitary,  except  that  there,  to  my  astonish- 
ment, still  sat  that  silent  figure,  which  had  awakened  my 
curiosity  so  strangely  during  the  night.  A  vogue  feeling  of 
awe  came  over  me  as  I  now  slowly  approached  it.  Here 
was  no  motion,  no  sound  of  breathing  in  that  form,  not  a 
leaf  of  the  dark  chaplet  on  its  brow  stirred.  By  the  light 
of  a  dying  lamp  which  stood  before  the  figure,  I  raised,  with 
a  hesitating  hand,  the  veil,  and  saw^what  my  fancy  had 
already  anticipated^that  the  shape  beneath  was  lifeless, 

was  a  skeleton  I 

This  custom  among  the  Egyptians,  of  placing  a  mummy, 
or  skeleton,  at  the  banquet-teble,  had  been  for  some  time 
disused,  except  at  particular  ceremonies ;  and  even  on  such 
occa^ons,  it  had  been  the  practice  of  the  luxurious  Alexan- 
drians to  disguise  this  memorial  of  mortelity  in  the  manner 
just  described.  But  to  me,  who  was  wholly  unprepared  for 
such  a  spectacle,  it  j^ave  a  shock  from  which  my  imagina- 
tion did  not  speedily  recover.  This  silent  and  ghastly 
witness  of  mirth  seemed  to  embody,  as  it  were,  the  shadow 
in  my  own  heart.  The  features  of  the  grave  were  now 
stamped  on  the  idea  that  haunted  me,  and  this  picture  of 
what  Twos  to  be  mingled  itself  with  the  sunniest  aspect  of 
what  /  was, Funt, 


A  GIPSY  VILLAGE. 


After  advancing  some  little  way  through  the  defile^  oni 
attention  was  attracted  by  a  tremendous  uproar,  and  on 
turning  a  c^rve  of  the  roan,  we  came  at  onoe  upon  a  ^psy 
village,  presenting  a  scene  not  easily  paralleled.  Bern 
were  bellowing,  monkeys  and  chilmn  screaming,  dogs 
barking,  drums  beating,  pipers  playing,  women  scolding, 
men  fighting,  and  smiths  and  tmken  hammering, — alto- 
gether formmg  a  charivari,  which|  fortunately  for  men's 
ears,  does  not  often  assail  them,  ^or  was  the  appearance 
of  these  people  less  remarkable  thim  their  noise.  The  ma* 
jority  of  the  children  were  entirely  naked,  and  their  parents 
nearly  so,  having  no  covering  but  a  pair  of  wide  trousers, 
those  of  the  women  differing  btit  little  in  form  and  colour 
from  those  of  the  men.  The  whole,  whether  baskine  in 
the  sun,  or  at  work,  were  incefsantlv  smoking  from  little 
short  pipes  made  of  box-wood.  lu  shorty  they  exhibited  a 
picture  of  human  degradation  a|id  misery,  such  as  I  havd 
not  often  witnessed,  even  among  the  most  savage  trib^ 
Their  dwellines  consisted  merely  of  scattered  tents^  and 
holes  burrowed  into  the  mdes  or  the  soft  limestone  rocks 
that  towered  above  them.  Thehr  habits  appeared  filthy  in 
the  extreme,  for  besides  the  stench  arising  mm  the  nume- 
rous animals  with  whom  they  lived  in  common^  the  im- 
mense volumes  of  tobacco-smoKe,  and  the  smell  of  onions 
and  garlic,  formed  an  odour  altogether  so  unsavoury,  thst 
we  heartily  wished  ouiselves  out  of  ito  vicinity. 

On  hearing  the  sound  of  our  horse&  tlie  whole  motley 
multitude  started  on  their  legs  and  rushed  towards  us ;  when 
pipers,  drummers,  fiddlers,  dancing  don  and  boon,  tumbling 
monkeys  and  naked' children,  young  fortune-tellers  and  old 
witchps, — all  performed  before  us  in  their  respective  charac- 
ters. A  few  nandfub  of  kopecks,  for  which  they  most 
reverently  kissed  the  hem  of  our  garments,  and  wished  us 
a  happy  journey,  delivered  us  from  their  importunities. 

In  the  midst  of  all  this  wretehedness,  I  could  not  help 
remarking  the  well-formed  proportions  of  the  men, — their 
fiery  eyes  and  animated  countenances.  Nor  were  the  fine 
features  of  the  women — ^the  huge,  full,  dark  eye,  and  jet 
black  hair,  hanging  down  in  natural  curls  on  weir  shoul- 
ders— less  admirable ;  and  although,  from  continual  exposure 
to  the  weather,  they  were  near^  as  dark  as  Indians,  yet 
those  still  young  were  really  beautiful.  But  this  distinction 
does  not  lon^  characterise  the  women  of  the  East,  particu- 
larly this  migratory  people,  for  those  mors  advanced  m 
life  were  the  veriest  personifications  of  what  you  might 


imagine  witehes  to  be, — ^ha^^garc^  withered,  and  wrinkled. 
^'s  Travek  in  Ckreoista,  JTHsi  T^rtaryt  S^e, 


■  ■  u ' 

SfBliCEB* 


9 

To  think  too  meanly  of  .mankindis  dangerous  to  our  reve- 
rence of  virtue, 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS. 

JANUARY. 

The  most  ancient  of  all  bodily  exercises  were  probably 
field  sports.  In  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  man  was 
compelled,  as  a  necessary  matter  of  self-defence,  to  main- 
tain a  continual  warfare  with  such  of  the  animals  as  were 
in  a  state  of  hostility  to  him ;  nor  could  he  preserve  the 
fhiits  of  his  industry,  the  crops  he  had  planted,  the 
flocks  and  herds  he  had  reared,  without  such  continued 
warfare. 

This  practice,  at  first  urged  on  him  by  imperious 
necessity,  was  soon  found  to  have  ite  advantages.  The 
flesh  of  many  wild  animals  was  found  to  supply  whole- 
some food,  and  the  skins  of  nearly  all  were  valued  as 
clothing,  so  that  self-interest  would  not  fail  to  prompt 
him  to  the  pursuit  of  such  animals  as  best  supplied  his 
wants.  His  reason  and  ingenuity  were  now  employed 
to  devise  the  most  successful  methods  of  entrapping  his 
prey.  The  rude  pit-fall,  the  trap  of  simple  form,  the 
noose  or  snare,  the  club,  the  javelin,  and  the  spear,  the 
simple  sling,  the  various  kinds  of  bow,  gradually  suc- 
ceeded each  other,  until  the  comparatively  recent  period 
when  the  invention  of  fire-arms  threw  all  other  weapons 
into  the  shade,  and  presented  a  more  certain  and  death- 
insuring  method  of  procuring  game. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  destruction  of  animals, 
during  the  early  age  of  the  world,  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  followed  as  a  pastime.  It  was  a  matter  of 
necessity,  and  in  so  fkr  as  it  supplied  mankind  with 
food,  was  in  accordance  with  the  Divine  command. 


184L] 


THE  SArORDAY  MAGAZINE. 


d9 


After  the  deluge,  man  was  encouraged  to  take  and  eat 
of  the  animals  around  him :  "  Every  moving  thing  that 
liveth  shall  he  meat  for  you,  even  as  the  green  herb  have 
I  given  you  all  things."     (Gen,  ix.  3.) 

On  Noahy  and  in  hub  on  all  mankind, 
The  charter  was  oonferred,  by  which  ve  hold 
The  flesh  of  animals  in  fee,  and  claim 
O'er  all  we  feed  on  power  of  life  and  death. 
But  read  the  instrument,  and  mark  it  well  t 
The  oppression  of  a  tyrannous  control 
Can  find  no  warrant  Uiere. 

Among  the  andeni  Greeks  and  Romans  very  different 
opinions  prevailed  at  different  times  as  to  the  utility  of 
field  sports.  Xenophon  wrote  a  treatise,  enlarging  upon 
the  advantages  of  these  exercises,  as  inuring  the  body 
to  hardships  and  privations,  and  promoting  courage, 
strength,  and  swiftness.  In  ibA  time  of  Sdllust,  hunting 
was  held  in  sovereign  contempt)  and  abandoned  to  slaves. 
Solon  forbade  the  Athenians  to  hunt,  because  it  enticed 
them  from  more  useful  pursuits.  When  the  Goths  and 
Vandals  over-ran  and  subjugated  the  Roman  empire, 
they  appropriated  the  privilege  of  hunting  to  their  own 
chiefs  and  nobles,  and  ceased  to  acknowle<%e  the  natural 
right  which  all  men  were  previously  considered  to  have, 
of  participating  in  field  sports. 

It  seems  likely  that  tiie  earliest  animals  subjugated 
to  the  use  pt  man  were  sheep  and  kine,  and  that  their 
skins  formed  his  olothing';  while  the  milk  derived  from 
them  proved  an  abundant  source  of  nutriment  Yet 
these  highly  valuable  animals  were  of  no  assistance  to 
him  in  the  conquest  of  other  and  more  ferocious  crea- 
tures. The  exquisite  powers  of  scent  and  vision,  with 
other  remarkable  qualities  possessed  by  the  dog,  seem  to 
have  pointed  him  out  at  a  very  early  period  as  man's 
assistant  in  the  pursuit  of  wild  animals. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  proceed  with  the  history  of 
the  successive  appropriation  of  different  animals  by  man 
to  the  objects  of  the  chase ;   or  of  the  modes  by  which 
the  capture  of  animals  was  facilitated  from  time  to  time ; 
far  less  shall  we  attempt  to  show,  that,  in  an  age  of 
refinement  like  ours,  when  the  necessity  imposed  upon 
barbarians  no  lonffer  exists,  the  enthusiam  with  which 
field  sports  are  followed,  and  inoffensive  creatures  pre- 
ierved  for  the  express  nurpose  of  being  hunted  to  death, 
IS  worthy  the  national  character  for  intellectual  supe- 
riority and  generous  feeling.     Yet,  taking  advantage  of 
the  very  general  interest  which  such  subjects  are  wont 
to  excite,  we  propose  to  give,  in  this  and  the  followmg 
articles,   notices   of   the   sports    prevalent  during  the 
month,  with  an  especial  reference  to  the  natural  history 
of  the  animals  forming  the  objects  of  pursuit.    It  cannot 
he  expected  that  we  should  select  on  all  occasions  the 
sport  which  is  the  most  universally  followed  at  the  time 
we  write,  for  many  favourite  pastimes  of  this  nature, 
prevail  for  several  months  in  succession,  and  we  should, 
in  consequence,  be  bound  to  keep  to  one  subject  for  a 
corresponding  length  of  time :   we  shall  therefore  take 
such  particular  sports  for  description  as  our  attention 
niay  be  directed  to  at  the  time,  and  as  are  more  or  less 
followed  during  the  month-. 

In  the  present  cold  and  bleak  season  of  the  year, 
when  some  of  our  field  sports  are  necessarily  suspended, 
there  ia  yet  an  occupation  for  the  gunner,  which  is  con- 
sidered to  possess  peculiar  attractions,  and  which  has 
drawn  noany  a  sportsman  from  his  home  for  weeks 
together.  This  is  the  shooting  of  wild-fowl  of  various 
kinds ;  an  occupation  fraught  with  much  difficulty,  and 
even  danger,  and  in  the  pursuit  of  which,  the  miseries 
of  cold  and  hunger,  the  necessity  of  traversing  half- 
frozen  marahes  and  ditches,  the  pelting  of  storms  of  hail 
or  snow,  are  all  cheerfully  endured  by  the  zealous  lover 
«f  the  sport. 

The  capture  of  wild  ducks  is  that  of  which  we  shall 
»t  present  speak,  as  being  the  chief  branch  of  the  sport. 
Many  of  the  rivers  of  our  southern  shores  present,  at 


thdr  junction  with  the  sea,  extensive  deposits  of  soil 
and  of  animal  matter  which  are  alternately  covered  and 
left  dry  by  the  tide.     The  autumnal  rains  sweep  a  vast 
quantity  of  little  animals  and  animal  remains  from  the 
upper  country,  while  numerous   aquatic  animals  of  a 
minute  kind  also  resort  to  the  brackish  waters  of  such 
situations,  on  account  of  the  warmer  temperature  which 
those  waters  possess  over  both  the  sea  water,  and  fresh 
running  streams.     Where  the  soil  of  the  surrounding 
country  is  rich,  and  the  descent  of  the  river  gradual, 
these  deposits  present  to  the  whole  race  of  dabbling  birds 
the   grandest  attractions.      Where  the   stream   comes 
dashing  from   a  rocky  soil,  or  is  very  limited   in  its 
course,  its  termination  is  never  found  to  be  an  estuary 
favourable  to  the  birds  in  question.     On  looking  at  the 
map  of  England,  we  shall  see  that  several  of  our  southern 
rivers  are,  as  it   respects  the  length  of  their  course, 
and  the  nature  of  the  country  and  of  the  soil  they 
traverse,  especially  calculated  for  the  resort  of  wild-fowl. 
In  consequence,  the  capture  of  these  birds  is  carried  on 
to  a  great  extent,  and  in  a  systematic  manner,  and  the 
quantity  taken  is  very  considerable.   The  most  successful 
method  of  catching  is  Hby  the  decoy,  which  is  a  pond 
sheltered  by  reeds,  and  containing  a  permanent  net  in 
which  the  birds  are  entrapped.     Tame  birds  arc  trained 
to  entice  the  wild  ones,  and  are  called  decoy-ducks. 
Into  the  details  of  this  mode  of  bird-catching  we  cannot 
now  enter.     A  more  hazardous  method  is  pursued  by 
men  who  partly  depend  on  wild-duck  shooting  for  their 
subsistence,  and  also   by  sportsmen  who  consider  the 
pleasure  rather  enhanced  than  lessened  by  the  difficulties 
and  risks  they  incur.     These  pursue  their   occupation 
principally  in  small  punts  or  boats,  and  are  called  punt- 
shooters,  or  punt-gunners.     Sea-fowl  usually  come  down 
to  feed  by  night  in  the  oozy  ground  before  described. 
Towards  evening,  therefore,  the  fowler  runs  up  his  boat 
into  a  creek,  and  lies  in  patient  expectation  of  his  prey. 
Gilpin,   describing  the   coast   of  .Hampshire  and  the 
fowler's  employment  there,  says  that  the  fiight  of  wild 
ducks  as  they  approach  the  feeding-place,  may  be  com- 
pared to  a  pack  of  hounds  in  full  cry,  so  noisy  are  they 
m  their  language.     The  gunner  listens  attentively  to 
ascertain  which   way  they  bend   their  flight,  and  has 
perhaps  the  mortification  to  find  that  they  have  alighted 
at  too  great  a  distance  to  allow  of  his  getting  a  shot  at 
them;  but  if  he  happens  to  be  more  fortunate,  and  finds 
them  alighting  on  the  plain,  to  the  edge  of  which  he  has 
moored  his  little  boat,  he  primes  both  his  pieces, — ^for  he 
generally  carries  two,->and  again  endeavours  to  find  out 
the  situation  of  the  birds  by  listening,  the  nights  favour- 
able to  the  fowler's  sport  being  exceedingly  dark.     The 
birds  are  silent  while  feeding,  but  the  motion  of  such  a 
number  as  generally  feed  together  is  sufficient  to  produce 
certain  indistinct  sounds,  by  which  the  fowler  is  guided 
where  to  take  aim.     He  fires  at  a  venture,  and  imme- 
diately takes  up  the  other  gun  and  discharges  it  where 
he  supposes  the  affrighted  flock  to  be   rising  on   the 
wing.     This  concludes  his  chances  of  success  for  that 
night,  and  he  has  now  nothing  more  to  do  than  to  tie 
to  his  feet  flat  pieces  of  board,  called  mud-pattens,  and, 
thus  protected  from  sinking  in  the  ooze,  to  grope  about 
in  the  dark  in  quest  of  his  booty,  which  may  consist  of 
many  birds,  or  may  be  almost  nothing.     The  danger 
attending  this  employment  is,  lest  the  fowler  should  get 
fixed  in  the  mud  so  as  to  be  unable  to  extricate  himself, 
and  thus  get  overtaken  by  the  returning  tide.     Tlie  cold 
is  also  so  severe  as  to  expose  the  less  inured  follower 
of   the    pursuit,    to.  ill    consequences    to    his   health. 
Even  in  the  day-time,  the  risk  of  such  expeditions  is 
considerable,  as  the  following  anecdote  will  be  sufficient 
to  show : — 

Mounted  on  his  mud-pattens,  a  fowler  was  once  tra- 
versing one  of  these  oozy  plains  in  search  of  ducks,  andj 
being  intent  only  on  his  game,  suddenly  found  the  water; 
whim  had  been  accelerated  by  some  peculiar  circumstance 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


In  till 


aflectinK  Uia  tide,  bad  made  an  alarmin);  |)rofrr<' 
htm,  and  he  found  himselt  oompletelv  eutircU'd. 
desperate  dtuation  an  idea  struck  lum  as  .the  biuj  iiu>i° 
of  safety.  Ue  Tetired  to  thut  part  wbidi .  Ecemed  tlie 
highest,  from  it«  being  yet  uncovered  liy  water,  and  strikuig 
the  barrel  of  bis  long  g\m  deep  into  the  ooze,  he  resolved  to 
hold  fust  by  it,  as  well  for  a  support  as  a  tircurity' agaiuKt 
tlie  waves,  and  to  wait  the  ebbing  of  the  tidf.  lit  had 
reason  to  believe  a  common  tide  would  not  have  flowed 
above  bis  middle  ;  Imt  ui  the  midst  of  his  reoEoning  on  the 
subject,  the  water  had  now  reached  him.  It  rippled  oyer 
his  feet,  it  gained  hia  knees,  his  wabt,  button  after  button 
was  swallowed  up,  until  at  lengtli  it  advaneed  over  his 
shoulders.  With  a  palpitating  heart  he  cave  himself  up  for 
lost.  Still,  however,  ne  held  faat  bj-  his  anchor ;  hia  eye 
was  eagerly  in  search  of  some  boat  which  might  accidentally 
he  pasaing,  but  none  appeared.  A  hejid  upon  the  surface 
ofthBn   ■  ■  -^   ■ 


r,  and  that  sometimes  ci 


object  to  be  descried  from  the  land,  at  the  distance  of  half 
a  league;  nor  could  he  exert  any  sounds  of  didtress  that 
could  be  heard  so  fiir.  While,  as  tne  exigence  would  allow, 
he  was  thus  making  up  hU  mind  to  ccrtnin  destruction,  his 
attention  was  caught  by  a  new  object.  Ue  thought  he  saw 
the  uppermost  button  of  his  coat  begin  to  appear.  No 
mariner  floating  on  a  wreck  could  behold  approaching 
luccour  with  greater  transport  than  he  felt  at  tlus  transient 
view  of  the  button  ;  but  the  fluctuation  of  the  water  was 
such,  and  the  turn  of  the  tide  so  alow,  that  it  was  yet  some 
lime  ere  he  durst  venture  to  assure  lumsetf  tiiat  the  button 
was  &irly  above  the  level  of  the  flood.  At  length  a  second 
button  appearing  at  intervals,  liis  sensations  may  rather  bo 
conceived  than  described,  and  his  joy  guve  him  spirit  and 
Btrength  to  support  his  situation  four  or  five  hours  longer, 
until  tlie  waters  had  fully  retired. 

It  might  have  been  imagined  that  dangers  such  as 
these,  would  cause  excursions  of  this  nature  to  be  under- 
taken by  those  alone,  who  get  their  liveUbood  by  selhng' 
wild-ducks ;  but  this  is  so  far  from  bcinp;-  the  case,  that 
we  find  a  practiced  sportsman  referring  witli  enthusiasm 
to  what  he  calls  his  "wild-fowl  shooting  mania,"  when 
he  used,  after  spending  many  hours  ef  the  day  on 
Lewes  Levels,  and  pursuing  his  spOrt  with  an  ardour 
which  he  confesses  himself  unable  to  defend,  inasmuch 
as  it  risked  the  health  and  life  of  both  liim  and  hia 
servant,  to  return  again  in.  the  evening  to  watch  the 
niglit-flights,  and  still  to  carry  on  his  sport.  .  Nay,  so 
fascinating  is  the  pursuit  of  these  birds,  that  he  assures 
us  from  his  own  knowledge,  that  some  persons,  in  order 
to  enjoy  the  sport  in  greater  perfection,  have  fitted  up 
a  small  sailing  smack  with  sleeping  berths,  cookings  con- 
veniences, suitable  attendants,,  a  row  boat  for.  creeks,  a 
puQt  for  oozes,  two  or  three  water-dogs,  &c^  and  thus 
equipped  have  made  a  coasting  voyage  half  round  our 
island.  When  we  remember  the  season  of  the  year 
during  which  this  sport  is  chiefly  practised,  viz,  from 
about  the  middle  of  October  to  the  end  of  February,  we 
■hall  b6  able  to  appreciate  the  extraordinary  degree  of 
enthusiasm  necessary  to  carry  a  man  through  such  an 
expedition.  By  a  recent  Act  of  Parliament,  it  is  made 
illegal  to  kill  wild-fowl,  either  young  or  old,  from  the 
last  day  of  March  to  the  flrst  day  of  October. 

The  common  wild-duck  is  the  largest  in  size  of  the 
species  that  frequent  this  country.  The  general  name 
duck  is  takei^  from  the  female,  the  male  being  the 
mallard,  at  drake,  and  the  young  birds,  flappers.  The 
length  of  a  full-grown  mallard  is  nearly  two  feet,  the 
stretch  of  the  wings  three  feet,  and  the  weight  about 
two  pounds  and  a  half.  The  head  and  neck  are  of  a 
fine  dark  glossy  green  colour ;  a  white  collar  encircles 
the  throat ;  and  below  it,  the  neck,  breast,  and  shoulders 
are  of  a  purplish  brown.  The  scapular  feathers  are  a 
mixture  of  silver-white  and  rust  colour,  streaked  with 
brown.  The  wing-coverts  are  ash-coloured  with  black 
and  white  tips.  The  wing-spot  is  rich  purple,  with 
reflections  of  blue  and  green.  The  lower  part  of  the 
back  is  black,  and  the  four  middle  tail-feathers  are  curled 
up  in  the  mallard.  The  under  part  of  the  body  is 
whitish  grcyi  with  slight  mottlings  of  brown.  The  duck 
ia  considerably  smaller  than  the  mallard,  and  has  not  the 


green  and  white  on  the  head  and  neck.  She  is  auo 
witliout  the  curled  feathers  on  the  tail. 

Wild-ducks  are  not  inferior  to  many  other  hires  in  a 
remarkable  instinct  for  the  preservation  of  their  younp, 
or  of  their  mates.  Captain  Back  relates,  in  his  Arctk 
Land  Tijrpedilion,  that  one  of  his  companions  havine 
killed  a  female  duck,  fired  agun,  and  as  he  thought 
disabled  its  companion,  a  fine  drake.  Accordinglv, 
leaving  the  dead  bird,  which  he  had  the  mortification  of 
seeing,  in  a  few  minutes  afterwards,  carried  off  by  one  of 
the  white  beaded  eagles,  he  waded  after  the  drake,  which, 
far  from  being  alarmed,  remained  motionless,  as  if  wait- 
bg  to  be  taken  up.  As  he  drew  nearer,  it  glided  easily 
away,  through  innumerable  little  oooki  and  wint^gs. 
Several  times  he  extended  his  arm  to  catch  it;  and 
having  at  last  with  great  patience  managed  to  coop  it  up 
in  a  comer,  from  whence  there'  appeared  to  be  ho  escape, 
he  was  triumphantly  bending  down  to  take  it,  whea  to 
his  utter  astonishment,  after  two  or  three  flounders,  it 
looked  round,  cried  "quack,"  and  flew  off  so  atronglj 
that  he  was  convinced  he  had  never  hit  it  At  alL  The 
object  of  the  bird  had  evidently  been  to  draw  away  hii 
attention  from  its  companion,  of  whose '  fate  it  was 
ignorant. 

,  The  nest  of  the  wild-duck  is  ia  general  artfuJlv  con- 
cealed among  herbage,  in  the' vicinity  of  .water.  "It  bia 
been  known,  however,  to. build  in  trees,  and. in  bushei. 
The  ducklings  are  nuinMOua  ;  often  as  many  as -sixteen 
are  hatched  at  once,  and  unlMs  some  .caauity  happeai 

the  nest,  there  is  only  one  brood  during  the  season. 

There  are  about  twenty-eight  species  of  ducks  which 

3  seen  more   or   less  frequently  in  different  parts  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and   principally  diii'ing  the 
winter  season.      Many  of  these  visiUnis  are,  evidenllj 
natives  of  northern  countries,  andappear.in  great  num- 
bers on  our  northern  coasts ;  but  of  the  fli^bts  'which 
appear  stiil  more  abundantly  in  the  fenny  districts;  such 
as  those  of  Lincolnshire,  Cambridge,  and  Martin  Mere     I 
in  Lancasliire,  on  the  borders  of  many  rivers  in  Wales,     I 
and  on  the  southern  flat  shores  and  estuaries  of  England,     | 
we  a»e  not  well  informed  as  to  their  retrcata  when  thev     | 
quit  our  shores. 

■  In  this  family  of  birds  there  are  many  species  besidei     i 
the  wild -duck  commonly  so  tailed,  which  deserve  to  In 
spoken   of  particularly.' .  These   we   must   leave   for  a     ' 
future  occasion,   together   with    several   other  notices,    j 
relating  to  wild-fowl  in  general. 


>,  Mnoi  Batrkoi,  LlKK) 


Ths  force  of  an  argument  ia  not  increased  by  the  excite- 
ment of  the  feelings  or  theidisplsy  of  temper.— }iIiccL'Li/>C!ti 


Iba^tur^dif        im^^im. 


NS  551.        SUPPLEMENT, 


JANUARY,  184i;  "  {(J^SU 


OVERLAND  JOURNEY  FROM  INDIA  TO  ENGLAND. 


nuAHnB,  HI  xosibbbh  muu. 


JPISST^SOUTE. 


Bt  *4.r  • 


Otrx  of  Uie  moat  extnordinuy  featoRS  in  the  political 
K«ognpbj[  of  the  present  t^  it  the  poweeeion  by  Gre«t 
Britain'of  ■  vut  empire  situated  manj  thontaad  tnilea 
from  tbe  parent  country',  and  separated  from  it  by  cenntriea, 
•ome  of  which  are  monntainous  and  inhoroitftble,— others 
porehed  and  tandyi — and  others  inhabited  bv  oations  and 
tribes  hostiie  to  Briti«h  interest.  Such  is  India,  or  the 
Eatt  Indies.  The  British  empire  in  India  b  iocomparabiv 
lai^et  aiid  more  popitloos  thiu  the.  whole  of  the  British 
Isles;  and  it  may^AeU  be  BUpposed  that  the  eetablishmcnt 
of  a  rapid  mode  «f  communj cation  froin  India  to  England, 
ie  TCf^arded  as  a  matter  of  high  importance  by  tbe  govern- 
ment.' This  Communication,  so  &r  as  r^ards  the  transport 
of  troops,  of  military  stolea,  of  OTticles  of  commerco,  &C., 
must  obrioQsly  be  mode  by  sea ;  rince  snch '  conveyance 
cannot  be  made  thrpoith  the  teiritoiiee  of  othw  nations. 
The  eetubliahment  of  steam  navigation  round  the  cooat  of 
Africa ; — the  project  for  coooecting  the  Persian  Gnlf  with 


of  a  more  speedy  wat«-«miTeTance  from  India  to  England. 

But  it  has  often  h^^iaiea  in  the  past  history  of  our 
Indian  at&in,  that  Bntuh  officers  hare  been  despatched 
overland  from  India  ta  inland,  tUhtsr  for  the  sake  of 
greater  expedition,  or  for  diplomatic  servicee  at  the  conrt  of 
eomcone  of  the  Oriental  prmcea  whose  dominuHia  larin  the 
line  of  route.    These  overland  travels  are  among  tne  nuat 

Vol.  XVni.    . 


likewise  went  by 


iatereBtine  narrativas  which  we  have  of  the  ■,,    

the  Asiatic  towm  and  cities,  and  of  the  monnen  and 
customs  of  the  inhabitanta ;  and  we  have  long  thonght  that 
the  readers  of  our  Magazine  would  welcome  a  Inief  ind 
popnho'  aceonnt  of  saeh  routes.  The  modes  in  whidl 
varietu  efGcen  have  proceeded  from  India  vaiy  gnatly. 
Sir  Alexander  Bunee  proceeded  fiwn  the  norUt-west  of 
India  to  Bokhara,  and  from  thence  to  the  sonthero  Aon  of 
the  Caspian  Sea : — Sir  James  Alexander-  went  by  sea  from 
Bombay  to  the  Penian  Gulf,  and  from  thence  through 
Feina  and  Ana  Minor  to  Constantinople : — Cqitain  Eeppel 
from  Bombay  t*  the  Penian  Gnu; 
^  through  Persia,  GeergiOf  and  tba 

^nseian  empire  to  St.  Peteniburg  : — Lieutenant  Lnmadoi, 
ftCter  landing  on  the  ahore  of  the  Fernan  Gulf,  proceeded 
through  Persia  and  Armenia,  round  the  northern  shore  of 
the  lusck  Se^  and  through  Austria  and  fiance  to  ^ig- 
land :— Ctdenel  ntzdanace  (now  Earl  of  Hunstar)  went 
by  sea  from  Bombay  to  the  Red  Sea,  landed  at  Coeseir,  and 
travelled  through  Egypt  to  the  Hedittrranean ;  a  rimilar 
route  to  that  pursued  a  Mw  years  aftcrworda  by  His.  Charles 
Luihingion.  Other  travellers  and  officers  have  gone  west- 
ward from  India  to  Perwa,  through  the  imperfectl  v-known 
r^iouB  which  separate  them.  From  this  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  term  "overland  journey  to  England"  ia  cqiabla 

of  many   ■igniflffinnrL 

We  propoee  to  select  some  one  particular  route,  and 
conduct  the  reader  through  it,  deacribing  the  most  in> 
objects  which  occur  by  the  wur.  By  this 
nt,  each  Supplement  will  be-complets  in  itoelf ; 
and  we  may  devote  as  many  Supplements  to  the  topognphy 
of  Ceatiol  and  Western  Asia  fibr  such  in  reality  is  tb* 
nature  of  this  subject)  as  tbe  intowst  of  tbe  details  will 


4i 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


warrant.  On  the  present  occaaion  we  wiU  select  the  route 
by  sea  fi-om  Bombay  to  the  Penion  Gulf;  and  thence  over^- 
land  through  Persia,  Georgia,  and  Russia,  to  St.  Peters- 
bui-g;  from  whence  a  ship  conveys  the  traveller  to 
England  by  way  of  the  Baltic  Sea. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  the  reader  to  liave  a  tolerably 
clear  idea  of  tlie  situation  of  India  with  regard  to  the 
western  parts  of  Asia ;   and  the  inspection  of  a  map  will 

g'eatly  aid  him  in  forming  this  idea.  Aft-ica  is  separated 
om  the  south-eastern  point  of  Asia  by  the  Indian  Ocean  ; 
and  into  tlie  northeni  part  of  this  ocean  juts  the  peninsula 
of  India,  or  Hindostan,  which  extends  northward  to  the 
Himalaya  mountains.  Westward  of  India  are  the  countries 
of  Beloocliistiui,  Caubul,  Bokhara,  &c.,  forming  the 
western  boundary  of  India,  and  separating  it  ii'om  the 
Peraian  empire.  Fn)m  tlie  north-western  part  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  issue  two  seas,  the  Persian  Gulf  and  tlie 
Red  Seii,  each  pi-ocee<ling  nearly  in  a  north-westerly  direc- 
tion, and  including  between  them  a  large  peninsula  which 
constitutes  Arabia.  Northward  of  the  Persian  Gulf  is 
Persia,  which  extends  upwards  as  far  as  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Northward  of  Arabia  is  Turkey  in  Asia,  which  brings  us 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Seas.  Between  the  Caspian 
and  Black  Se<i8,  is  a  mountainous  district  occupied  by 
Georgians,  Armenians,  Circassians,  and  other  tribes,  and 
fonning  a  general  though  ill-defined  boundary  between  the 
Pei*sLan  and  Russian  empires.  The  river  Euphrates,  whidl 
empties  iti^elf  into  the  Persian  Gulf,  is  navigable  to  a  point 
so  near  the  Mediterrane^m,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Aleppo, 
th.it  propo<i.ils  have  l>een  made  to  cut  a  canal  of  commu- 
nication fi-om  one  to  the  other.  From  the  Caspian  Sea  to 
the  n&irest  point  of  India,  in  a  sti*aight  line,  is  about  one 
thous^uid  miles ;  fi-om  the  northern  part  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  about  twelve  or  thirteen  hundred  ;  from  the  eastern- 
most point  of  the  Black  Sea,  about  two  thousand  miles. 
To  tr<ivel  from  India  to  Turkey,  therefbro,  by  land,  is  a 
long  and  wearying  journey,  even  if  the  political  situation  of 
the  interjacent  countries  offers  no  obstacle.  It  is  for  this 
reAson  that  the  greater  numl)er  of  "overland"  travellers 
pi-oceed  by  ship  either  to  the  Persian  Gulf  or  to  the  Red 
Sea;  and  from  thence  reach  Europe  by  land. 

Where  the  pas&ige  fi*om  India  to  Persia  is  made  by 
water,  the  point  of  eml)ai*kation  is  generally  Bombay.  The 
British  empire  in  India,  being  too  extensive  to  be  governed 
by  one  officer,  is  divided  hi  to  three  presidencies,  of  which 
tfie  chief  cities  ai*e  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay.  Each 
presidency  is  under  one  governor  or  chief  officer,  but  the 
governor  of  Calcutta  is  superior  in  authority  to  the  other 
two,  and  pt)SSL'8ses  the  title  of  Governor-general  of  India. 
Of  the  tlirce  principal  cities  just  named,  Calcutta  is  at  the 
noi-th -eastern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  Ilindostan; 
Mi-ylras  is  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  peninsula,  opposite 
the  Burman  empire ;  and  Ik>mbay  is  on  the  western  shores 
mid  consec|ucntly  nearer  to  Europe  than  either  of  the  other 
two  presidencies.  Shipping  is  found  in  considerable  extent 
At  l3oinbay  ;  and  this  is  tiie  port  from  whence  the  "over- 
land" tmvellers  proceed  to  the  Persian  Gulf  or  to  the  Red 
Sea. 

.  From  Bombay  to  the  mouth  of  the  Persian  GuJf  is  a 
distance  of  a1)out  thirteen  hundred  miles  in  a  straight  line ; 
and  probably  fourteen  or  fifteen  hundred  in  the  direction 
whicn  a  ship  would  take.  We  will  therefore  imagine 
Ourselves  to  oe  embarked  on  board  a  ship  at  Bombay,  and 
to  have  traversed  the  Indian  Ocean  which  separates  India 
from  the  Persian  Gulf. 

The  first  land  at  which  we  arrive  is  Arabia,  which  forms 
tlic  wostLi'n  mancin  of  the  entrance  to  the  gulf.  This 
mai«gin  proceetls  in  a  tolerably  straight  line  for  about  four 
hundrecl  miles  in  a  nortli-wcsteiii  direction,  when  it  brings 
us  to  the  narrow  strait  which  forms  the  immediate 
opening  into  the  gulf,  having  Persia  on  the  right  hand,  and 
Anibia  on  the  left.  About  midway  on  this  north-western 
cotMt  is  the  Arabian  port  of  Musiaty  one  of  the  most  im-, 
portant  l)elonging  to  ttiat  country.  Muskat  is  the  capital 
of  the  Arabian  pn>vinoc  of  Oman,  which,  if  not  the  most 
celebrated,  is  tlie  most  flourishing  and  prosperous  part  of 
the  countjy.  Muskat  was  taken  by  Albuquerque  in  1607, 
and  remained  subject  to  Portugal  till  1648,  when  the 
natives  drove  out  the  Portuguese.  The  province  is  now 
governed  by  an  Imaum,  or  spiritual  chief,  who  seems  to 
exercise  his  power  in  a  very  judicious  manner ;  and  the 
port  of  Muskat  is  »iid  o  be  the  best  managed  of  any  in 
Amhia  or  Persia ;  for  the  merchandize  of  the  East  may  be 
leil  undisturbed,  or  its  wharfs  and  quays  without  molesta- 
tion,—«  degree  of  security  due  to  the  easeeUeatpolioe  of  the  ^ 


flace.  All  the  ports  upon  this  coast  are  trilmtai^  to  the 
maum  of  Mnskat ;  and  he  has  also  establiihed  •  conaidenble 
trade  with  the  biterior  by  means  of  earavans.  High  rocks 
on  one  side,  and  the  island  of  Muskat  on  the  other,  form  a 
spacious  and  securo  harbour.  The  town  is  surrounded  by 
a  strong  wall,  within  whose  precincts  none  but  Arabs  and 
Banians  are  allowed  to  reside ;  all  stnuoAers  being  obliged  to 
remain  in  houses  outside  the  wall.  The  town  contains  a 
bazaar  or  market,  covered  in  at  the  top  to  protect  the 
wares,  which  are  exposed  for  sale  on  open  platforms  in  front 
of  the  shops.  A  large  colony  of  Indians,  principall  v  from 
the  banks  of  the  Indus,  carry  on  the  whoienle  ana  retail 
trade.  The  houses  aro  flat-roofed,  and  built  of  unhewn 
stone.  The  streets  are  extremely  filthv,  and  so  narrow, 
that  by  extending  Uie  arms  across,  both  sides  may  frequently 
be  touched.  The  inhabitants  are  affected  witn  a  neculitf 
inflimAmation  of  the  eyes,  arisinff,  it  is  said,  frt>m  tne  Hght 
particles  of  sand  blown  from  um  Bea>shore.  Mr.  Buck- 
ingham estimated  the  population  at  10,000 ;  while  Captain 
Keppel  some  years  afterwards  reduoed  the  number  to 
2000 ; — such  is  the  uncertainty  which  often  exists  xeapectuig 
the  population  of  Oriental  towns. 

On  embarking  again  at  Moakat,  we  proceed  north- 
westerly  tiU  we  arrive  at  Cape  Musssldom,  the  entrance  to 
the  Persian  Gulf.  Nearly  opposite  this  ci^  is  Ormuz, 
once  the  seat  of  a  very  extensive  eommeroe^  and,  in  the 
time  of  Albuquerque,  one  of  the  meet  splendid  cities  of  the 
East.  Subsequent  conquests  completely  ruined  it;  and 
when  it  came  into  the  nands  of  the  preaent  poaseawrs,  it 
did  not  contain  twenty  houses. 

Entering  the  Persian  Gulf,  we  pass  by  the  celebrated 
peari  banks  of  Bahrein,  near  the  coast  of  Arabia;  and 
opposite  to  Hiis,  on  the  Persian  coast,  la  the  town  ot 
Bushire,  where  travellers  often  land  who  wish  to  proceed 
to  the  eastern  parts  of  Persia.  As  our  route,  however, 
carries  us  to  the  regions  of  the  Tigris  and  the  iBuphrstes, 
we  will  leave  Bushire,  and  proceed  up  the  gulf  which  leads 
to  them.  These  two  rivers,  of  wnich  we  hate  aariier 
records  than  of  almost  any  other  rivers  in  the  world,  empty 
themselves  into  the  Persian  Gulf  by  mouths  common  to 
both  rivers,  and  thereby  form  a  delUi  similar  to  those  at 
the  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  Uie  Niloi  and  the  Miiaisippi. 
Proceeding  a  little  way  up  the  lar^^est  of  these,  we  come  to 
Basaora,  a  town  of  mucti  commercial  in^rtancOy  where  ws 
will  land. 

Bassora  absorbs  nearly  all  the  foreign  eommerce  of 
Persia  and  the  Euphrates.  It  b  seven  miles  in  circum- 
ference, a  great  part  of  which  space  Is  laid  out  in  gardens 
and  plantations ;  and  is  Intersected  by  canals  navigable  for 
smaA  vessels.  Its  most  important  trade,  being  that  with 
India,  is  carried  on  partly  by  British,  but  chiefly  by 
Arabian  vessels,  of  which  those  of  five  hundred  tons  burden 
can  ascend  the  river  to  this  pomt.  The  inhabitants  are 
estimated  at  60,000 ;  a  heterogeneous  mixture  of  Arabs, 
Turks,  Indiana,  Persians,  and  all  the  people  of  the  East. 
They  have  not  expended  much  of  their  wealth  in  the 
embellishment  of  ttie  city ;  for  travellers  describe  it  as 
having,  generally  speaking,  a  mean  and  dirty  ^pearance. 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  appearance,  the  coetume, 
&C.,  of  the  inhabitants,  we  will  describe  the  public  entrance 
of  a  Pacha,  which  took  place  while  CapUun  Keppel  was  in 
Bassora.  A  body  of  armed  men,  forming  an  advanced 
guard,  announced  their  approach  by  a  contmued  discharge 
of  muskets,  and  passed  at  a  slow  trot.  Then  came  another 
party,  who  occasionally  halted,  and  danced  in  a  circle; 


I 


etty  chiefs,  on  horseback :  each  of  them  had  carried  before 
lim  a  laige  red  and  green  ffaff.  The  Zobeir  Arabs  are 
meroenai'y  troops,  and  acknowledge  a  kind  of  subjection  to 
the  governor.  They  are  small  mean-looking  men,  with  an 
Indian  cast  of  features ;  they  carried  either  fire-arms,  or 
swords  and  shields;  and  wero  habited  in  various  ways 
— some  having  on  robes  bound  at  the  waist  vrith  a  girdle, 
others  a  loose  shirt.  After  these  Arabs  came  the  Toofun^ees, 
or  personal  troops  of  the  Pacha,  distinguishable  by  fiir  ci^ 
nearly  a  yaid  in  diameter.  Then  the  Pacha's  led  horses, 
richly  comparisoncd  ;  and  after  these  a  troop  of  mounted 
Tschousses,  or  messengers,  beating  small  drums  placed  at 
the  saddle-bow.  These  were  followed  by  the  native  ofiicers 
of  the  English  factory,  mounted*  Then  came  the  Cnpitan 
Pacha,  the  Cadi,  and  the  Mufti:  and  lastly,  the  Pacha 
himself,  who^  with  his  hand  on  Jiis  breast^  acknowledged 
(ha  shOtttB  of  the  hy-ataatest    A  troop  ef  Janisaaiiea 


STJPPLBMENT  FOR  JANUARY,  1841. 


49 


brohirlit  up  the  re«r,  amid  the  ftrinff  of  nraBkets,  the  beating 
of  touitomsy  the  rude  ringing  of  tne  soldiery,  the  music  of 
the  JanisBaries,  and  the  dmeking  of  groups  of  women. 

From  BasBora  we  proceed  along  the  Tigris  to  the  far- 
fiuned  citj  of  Bagdad,  the  scene  of  so  much  legendary  interest. 
The  usuiu  mode  of  proceeding  from  one  town  to  the  other, 
is  on  board  one  of  a  fleet  of  boats  which  go  in  company,  in 
order  to  protect  the  passengers  finom  the  attacks  of  the 
tribes  of  wandering' Arabs  who  infest  the  banks.  Some- 
times, howeyer,  a  party  of  travellers  hire  a  Bughalow, 
which  is  a  Tessel  sixty  feet  long,  fourteen  wide  at  the 
broadest  part,  and  having  a  low  cabin  about  ten  feet  square. 

Proceeding  up  the  river  by  either  one  of  these  modes  of 
eonveyance,  we  come  to  the  point  of  confluence  of  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  the  former  being  the  easternmost 
of  the  two.  The  banks  of  the  river,  between  Bassora  and 
Baffdad,  a  distance  of  between  three  and  four  hundred 
miles,  are  occulted  by  tribes  of  Arabs,  in  the  same  stattvof 
primitive  simplicity  as  these  remarkable  people  have  ever 
diown ;  living  in  mat  huts,  capable  of  being  moved  at  a 
short  notice ;  dressed  in  a  brown  sliirt  with  open  sleeves, 
and  bound  round  the  loins  with  a  leathern  ffirale ;  almost 
as  nnacQuainted  with  Europeans  as  the  inhabitants  of 
Central  Africa  :-HBUch  are  the  Arabs  on  the  banks  of  the 
Tigris. 

Farther  up  the  river  we  come  to  a  tract  of  country  which^ 
though  now  a  desert,  was  once  beautified  by  laige  and 
populous  cities.  Among  these  we  find  the  ruins  of  Seleucia 
and  Ctesiphon.  The  former  of  these  fi>unded  its  grandeur 
an  the  ruin  of  the  more  ancient  city  of  Babylon,  and 
contained  at  one  time  600,000  inhabitants.  Seleucia  was, 
in  its  turn,  superseded  by  Ctesiphon ;  but  both  have  been 
sinev  so  utterly  destroyed,  that  nothing  but  ruins  attest  what 
they  once  were.  These  ruins,  together  with  sandy  deserts, 
and  occa^onally  a  jungle  tenanted  by  wild  beasts,  fill  np  the 
interval  from  Bassora  to  Bagdad :  we  will  therefore  suppose 
imnielves  now  to  have  arrived  at  the  last-named  city. 

The  ttact  of  land  wliich  separates  the  Tigris  from  the 
Euphrates,  during  the  lower  portion  of  their  course,  is 
rather  narrow,  ana  verv  flat  and  level ;  so  that  in  the  rainy 
season  the  two  rivers  nequently  overflow,  and  irrigate  the 
land,  whereby  it  becomes  very  luxuriant.  It  is  probably 
this  circumstance  whidi  gave  to  this  strip  of  lana  so  high 
importance  in  ancient  times.  Under  the  names  of  Babyto- 
ttii^  Chaldea,  and  Mesopotamia,  it  was  a  region  covered 
With  fiunous  cities^  which  were  celebrated  both  in  sacred 
and  profime  history.  Of  these  large  cities,  the  only  one 
wiiicn  is  at  present  a  place  of  much  importance  is  Bagdad, 
a  spot  whicn  is  not  connected  with  the  times  mentioned  in 
tile  Sacred  Records,  but  which  some  centuries  afterwards 
became  the  seat  of  the  Caliphs. 

The  city  of  Bagdad  stands  on  both  flides  of  the  Tigris, 
tile  western  or  ancient  part  being  now  r^;arded  as  a  kind  of 
suburb  to  the  more  modem  part,  which  stands  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  river.    The  fonn  of  the  new  city  Is  an 
irregular  oblong,  about  1600  paces  in  length,  and  800  in 
breadth ;   and  a  brick  wall,  nve  miles  in  circumference, 
encloses  the  two  towns,  which  have  a  wretched  bridge  of 
eommunication  between  them,  formed  of  pontoons.   At  the 
principal  angles  of  the  wall  are  round  towers,  with  smaller 
tower*  intervening  at  short  distances :  and  on  these  towers 
batteries  ofcannons  are  placed.  There  are  three  entrance-gates 
through  this  wall  to  tlie  town ;  one  on  the  south-east,  one  on 
the  north-east,  and  a  third  on  the  north-west.    Intricate  as 
are  the  streets  in  most  Oriental  towiisj^  they  are  still  more  so 
b  Bagdad  ;  for,  with  the  exception  or  the  oazaars  and  some 
open  sf^nares,  the  interior  is  bttle  else  than  a  labyrinth  of 
aUeys  and  passages.    The  streets  are  unpaved,  and  in  manv 
places  BO  narrow  that  two  horsemen  can  scarcely  pass  each 
other ;  and  as  it  is  seldom  that  tlie  houses  have  windows 
towarda  the  street,  and  as  the  doors  are  small  and  meai^ 
they  present  on  both  sides  the  gloomy  anptsoranoe  of  dead 
wafis.     All  the  buildings,  both  public  and  private,  are  con- 
structed of  fumace-bumed  bricks,  of  a  yellowish  red  colour, 
taken  chiefly  frt)m  the  ruins  of  tlie  neighbouring  ancient 
cities.    A  house  is  generally  laid  out  in  ranges  of  apartments 
opening  into  a  square  interior  court,  and  furnished  with 
Bubtenmiean  rooms,  into  which   the  inhabitants  retreat 
during  Uie  day  for  shelter  from  tlie  intense  heats  of  summer. 
The  tops  of  the  houses  have  terraced  roofs,  on  which  the 
mmates  take  their  evening  meal^  and  often  sleep  in  the  open 
air.    As  the  houses  are  out  thinly  scattered  over  tlie  area 
enclosed  by  Uie  city  wall,  there  is  a  lai^  extent  of  garden 
cround,  which  produces  pomegranates,  grapes,  figs^  olives, 
wtes^  aiid  other  Oriental  nmitB  in  great  penection*    As  in 


all  Mohammedan  cities  the  mosques  are  conspicuous,'  so  ana 
they  in  Bagdad,  where  the  number  in  tbiul  to  amount  to  as 
many  as  one  hundi*ed.  Tlieae  moucjiies  ai*e,  in  their  ex- 
ternal and  internal  fetitures,  mucli  like  thosi*  of  Turkey 
generally ;  but  a  deficiency  of  S])!endour  is  observable  in 
most  of  them.  The  khans  or  caravanserais  amount  to 
about  thirty  in  number ;  the  baths  or  hummums  to  about 
fiflv  ;  and  there  are  several  bazaars. 

The  manners  and  customs  of  the  inhabitants  closely 
resemble  what  we  are  accustomed  to  meet  with  in  Oriental 
cities.  An  English  officer  and  his  friends  having  solicited 
the  honour  of  an  interview  with  the  Pacha,  the  Pacha's 
secretary  sent  some  of  his  sei-vtmts  to  accompiuiy  the 
visitors.  On  entering  the  gates  pf  the  ))alace,  they  cnnie 
into  a  spacious  court,  where  the  Pacha's  troops  were  dntun 
up,  to  present  arms  to  the  English  visitors.  On  arrivin^r  at 
the  gates  of  the  inner  court,  they  dismounted  ;  the  prineiijol 
officei's  of  the  palace  then  ushered  them  through  a  dounle 
row  of  Janissaries,  into  the  presence  of  the  Pucha.  The 
hall  of  audience  was  fitted  up  in  the  usual  Oriental  style, 
and  decorated  with  numerous  small  looking-glasses.  In 
one  comer  of  the  room  was  seated  the  Pucha,  supjioi-ted  by 
cushions.  Chairs  were  placed  for  the  visito» ;  who  wei-e 
likewise  favoured  by  being  allowed  to  keep  on  tlieir  huts 
and  shoes.  With  reganl  to  this  latter  custom  we  may 
remark,  that  tlie  removal  of  shoes  from  the  feet  on  entering 
an  Eastern  apartment  is  not  so  wholly  ridiculous  as  Euit)- 
peans  are  sometimes  apt  to  suppose  ;  for  as  the  meals  ara 
served  up  on  trays  laid  on  the  floor,  there  is  obviously  a 
reason  for   keeping   the  floor  as    dean   and   unsoiled   oa 

Sossible.     The  visitors  were  then   regaled  with  the  usual 
elicacies  of  an  Eastern  city  ;   and  took  their  leave  after  a 
couilcous  reception  from  the  Pacha. 

We  must  now  leave  Bagdad  for  the  north,  and  will  take 
the  same  route  as  Captain  Reppel,  who  went  eome  dist^mce 
eastward  of  the  direct  course,  in  order  to  visit  the  royal  city 
of  Teheran,  near  the  southern  coast  of  the  Casj>iun  Sea. 
The  manner  in  which  Captain  Kcppel  and  his  friends 
travelled,  was  to  fomi  a  kind  of  cai-Jivan  among  themselves. 
They  purchased  three  tents,  hired  twenty-four  mules  to 
carry  tiieir  servants  and  baggage,  and  provided  then isel vet 
with  two  saddle-horses  eacli.  They  then  proieeded  on 
their  journey,  having  received  a  flrman  fi-oni  the  Pacha, 
exempting  them  from  all  tolls  and  exactions  till  they 
reached  the  fit)ntiers  of  the  Persian  empiitj. 

After  leaving  Bagdad,  we  arrive  at  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Artemita,  the  favourite  city  of  Chosit)e8^ 
king  of  Persia,  in  the  time  of  lleraclius.  The  first  ruin 
seen,  is  a  square  mound  of  bricks,  facing  the  cardinal  points^ 
which  was  probably  the  site  of  some  temple  in  the  suburbs 
of  the  city.  A  mile  beyond  this  mound  are  nuniei'ous 
others,  arranged  with  such  regularity  as  to  seem  to  indicate 
a  succession  of  streets  at  some  foi-mer  period.  At  the 
western  extremity  of  these  ruins  is  a  mound  larger  than 
the  rest,  supposed  to  have  formed  the  foundation  for  the 
royal  residence.  Before  and  about  this  mound  are  several 
large  grassy  plats,  which  appear  not  to  have  been  built 
upon,  and  which  were  nrobatly  gardens  belonging  to  the 
palace.  The  whole  of  tne  mounds  are  surrounded  by  what 
appear  to  be  the  vestiges  of  a  wall,  with  circular  bastions; 
and  here  and  there  vacancies  which  were  probably  occupied 
by  gates.    This  place  is  now  called  by  the  Arabs  Kumstur. 

]^x)ceeding  northwaid  ft-om  Kumstur,  we  come  to 
Shelireban,  a  town  situated  in  such  an  unprotected  plain, 
tliat  it  is  liable  to  repeated  attacks  from  the  marauding 
Arabs  and  Koords  living  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  citv, 
therefore,  which  had  been  some  time  previously  one  of  the 
mpst  flourishing  in  the  Poslitdic  of  Biigdad,  contained  only 
three  families  at  the  time  Captain  Keppel  and  his  friends 
visited  it.  Near  Kui-ustur  is  a  singular-looking  building, 
formed  of  bricks  about  fouileen  inches  8(|uare,  and  connected 
together  by  a  hard  and  beautiful  cement.  The  eustem 
sioe  of  this  building  presents  sixteen  well-foi-med  liastions, 
twelve  of  which  are  yet  entire  ;  and  the  eastem  fiice  shows 
a  flat  wall,  with  a  regular  ascent  up  to  each  bastion.  Each 
bastion  is  about  thirty  feet  high ;  and  the  spaces  between 
the  bastions  are  fifty-eight  feet.  What  was  the  original 
purpose  of  this  building  we  cannot  now  letim  :  the  Arabs, 
witn  their  usual  love  of  the  supernatural,  stite  thnt  it  is 
inliabited  by  peniu  ^vho  cut  off  the  henrls  of  all  who 
pi'esume  to  enter  within  terUiin  loop-holes  which  are  visible 

m  the  walls.  * 

Shortly  after  passing  this  place,  we  anive  at  tJie  boundary 
between  the  Turkish  and  Pereian  empires,  and  winch  was 
likewise  the  boundary  between  the  celebrated  empires  of 

55 1—2 


44 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


Afltyria  and  Media,  upwards  of  2000  yean  ago.  Here  aa 
incident  ooeuned  to  tne  partj  of  C^tain  Kenpe!,  which, 
as  it  illturtrates  the  predatonr  habits  of  the  inhabitants  of 
those  districts,  and  tne  nefiinous  agreements  often  entered 
into  between  Uiem  and  the  governors  of  Turkish  or  Persian 
provinces,  we  will  relate  in  that  centleman's  own  words :— 
''Soon  after  daybreak,  as  Mr.  Lamb  and  I  were  riding 
together,  some  nandred  yuds  in  advance  of  our  forty, 
three  men  on  horseback  came  suddenly  into  the  road  from 
amonff  the  rocks,  at  one  of  the  narrow  passes  of  the  moun- 
tain, fifty  paces  in  advance  of  us,  and  seemed  to  regard  us 
with  no  small  degree  of  attention.  He  who  appeared  to  be 
the  chief  of  the  party,  was  mounted  on  a  black  horse. 
They  continued  to  march  a  short  distance  before  va  for 
several  mUes,  frequently  slackening  their  pace  till  we  came 
up,  and  then  moving  on  more  briskly. 

**  When  we  axrt  v^  near  the  end  of  our  stage,  they  turned 
back,  and  allowed  us  to  pass,  giving  the  usual  traveller's 
salutation  of  'Peace  I'— a  phrase  little  in  consonance  with 
their  hostile  intentions.  After  we  had  passed  them  some 
distance,  they  struck  into  the  mountainig,  and  were  soon 
out  of  sight. 

"Our  conjectures  respecting  them,  aa  it  afterwards  ap- 
peared, were  not  without  foundation.  On  our  airival  at  Ker- 
manshah,  a  younff  Arab  chieftain  informed  us,  that  twenty 
Koords  of  the  (Mor  tribe,  one  of  the  most  numerous  and 
poweriul  of  Koordistan,  had  followed  us  from  Khanaki, 
for  the  express  purpose  of  plundering  our  party,  and  of 
murdering  us  if  we  made  any  resistance ;  of  this  party 
twelve  were  on  horseback,  and  eight  on  foot,  armed  with 
matchlocks.  The  chie^  who  he  told  us  rode  a  black  horse, 
exactly  coincided  in,  description  with  the  person  we  had 
seen.  The  Arab  said  they  had  been  watching  night  and 
day  for  a  fevourable  opportunity  to  put  their  plan  into  exe- 
cution ;  but  always  finoing  us  so  much  on  our  guard,  had 
never  thought  fit  to  make  the  attempt,  and  had  been  ulti- 
mately obliged  to  abandon  their  purpose,  on  arriving  at  the 
mountain  pass  of  Pac-Tackht^  where  a  military  force  was 
stationed. 

"Their  chief  inducement  to  attack  us,  was  the  intelli- 
gence they  had  received  from  Bagdad,  that  our  party  con- 
sisted of  an  ambassador  and  his  suite,  travelling;  with  a 
large  treasure ;  the  danger  we  were  led  into  by  this  honour 
is  another  of  the  obligations  we  owe  to  Aga  Sakeis.  They 
were  deterred  from  attempting  their  purpose,  by  the  dread 
of  the  European  officers  at  Kermanahah  revenging  our 
deaths,  and  tneir  extravagant  notions  of  European  prowess 
and  skill  in  arms;  which  (notwithstanding  their  numbers) 
made  them  consider  the  roult  of  an  attack  too  doubtftil  to 
hazard,  even  for  the  abundant  harvest  they  expected  to 
reap."  On  Questioning  the  informant  fiurther,  it  was  found 
that  he  was  nimsetf  an  intimate  friend  of  the  leader  of  the 
band,  but  had  divulged  their  secret  from  a  sense  of  grati- 
tude to  the  English  for  services  received  from  Mr.  Rich, 
British  resident  at  Kermanahah ;  and  also  that  the  band 
was  under  the  protection  of  one  of  the  principal  courtiers 
at  Kermanshah,  who  shared  in  its  booty,  ana  ahielded  it, 
through  his  influence  in  that  corrupt  government. 

We  now  approach  the  city  which  we  have  lately  fre- 
quently mentioned,  and  proceied  to  give  a  description  of  it, 
chiefly  from  the  observation  of  Mr.  Jbuckingham. 

Kermanshah  is  situated  on  three  or  four  gentle  hills,  at 
the  foot  of  a  range  which  is  passed  on  i^proaching  it  fiK>m 
the  west;  so  that  it  contains  within  its  waUs  some  shght 
and  some  steep  ascents,  with  eminences  of  different  heights^ 
and  their  corresponding  valleys.  To  the  north  and  east 
it  is  bounded  by  a  beautiful  and  extensive  plain;  and 
on  the  other  side  it  is  enclosed  by  a  range  of  mountains. 
The  form  of  the  town  is  irr^rnlar,  approaching  to  a  circle 
of  about  a  mile  in  diameter.  The  wall  which  surrounds  it  is 
flanked  with  circular  bastions,  with  turrets^  loop-holes, 
ports,  &c.;  and  this  wall  is  pierced  with  five  Rates.  One  of 
these  gates  has  the  name  of  Durwaz^  Nedjef  Asheref,  mean- 
ing the  ''gate  at  which  a  saint  dried  up  the  sea."  The 
legend  connected  with  this  name,  and  behoved  by  the  igno- 
rant inhabitants  of  the  town,  is  this: — ^Ih  the  time  of 
Imaum  All,  there  was  a  lai^  lake  here,  l^  the  side  of 
which  a  poor  man  was  sitting,  shaving  the  hair  from 
his  1^  and  body,  when  his  razor  and  stone  fell  into  the 
water.  The  Imaum  cominff  by  at  the  time,  and  witnessing 
his  distress,  inquired  into  tne  cause  of  it ;  and  finding  that 
the  Fa^ueer  was  a  holy  man,  ordered  the  lake  to  be  dried 
1^,  whi(4i  it  instantly  became  at  his  word,  and  has  remained  , 
dry  land  ever  smce. 

Sixty  years  ago,  Kermanahah  was  nothing  ^ora  than  a 


lar^  village,  the  inhabitants  of  which  subsisted  chiefly 
their  agricultural  labours  in  th^  own  plain,  and  by  the 
feeding  of  their  oattle  on  the  neighbouring  pastures.  As  a 
frontier  town  in  the  west  was  wantinj^,  however,  as  a  safe- 
guard in  case  of  a  war  between  Persia  and  Turkey,  Ker- 
manahah waa  fixed  upon  as  the  residence  of  one  of  the 
Shah  of  Persia's  sons.  Since  that  period  the  town  has  gra- 
dually increased  in  size,  in  population,  and  in  affluence. 
During  the  visit  of  M.  Rosseau,  French  consul  at  Ker- 
manshah, in  1807,  he  estimated  the  inhabitants  at  sixteen  or 
eighteen  thousand.  Twenty  years  afterwards  BCr.  Buck- 
ingham estimated  them  at  more  than  thirty  thousand. 

The  prince  holda  aovereign  sway  over  the  neighbouring 
territory ;  and  is  said  to  be  as  powerfril  a  governor  aa  the 
Shah  himself.  Being  in  a  maimer  the  founder  of  the  town 
in  its  present  state  of  opulence,  he  takes  a  pride  in  em- 
belliahmg  it  with  public  works.  A  large  palace,  near 
the  centre  of  the  city,  for  himself  a  country-house  sur- 
rounded by  gardens,  for  his  harem,  and  a  q>aoious  mosque 
near  his  own  palace  for  the  public  use,  have  been  built 
from  his  own  funds,  without  any  extraordinaiy  contri- 
butions. The  whole  range  of.  streets,  bazaars,  caravanse- 
rais, batha^  &c,  recently  erected,  are,  however,  built  from 
fimds  advanced  by  their  future  occupiers,  in  loans  to  the 
prince,  on  the  feith  of  his  promise  that  the  sums  shall  be 
aooonnted  for  in  their  annual  rents.  The  prince  is  there- 
fore the  great  owner  of  the  land  and  buildings;  and,  aa  Ids 
will  is  law,  there  is  littie  doubt,  as  Mr.  Buckingham  re* 
mario^  that  the  rents  will  be  so  regulated  aa  to  return  him 
an  enormous  profit;  in  which  case,  instead  of  a  munificent 
adomer  of  a  oity  of  his  own  founding,  he  csn  only  be 
regarded  aa  a  monied  speculator,  in  possession  of  an  unre- 
ftrained  monopoly. 

The  prince  s  palace  is  atuatod  on  one  side  of  a  large 
maidan,  or  open  square,  the  other  three  sides  of  which  are 
occupied  by  slu^  stalls^  and  entrances  to  bazaars.  The 
palace  front  ia  about  a  thousand  feet  in  length,  and  the 
ascent  to  its  centre  is  by  an  inclined  plane.  jLeading  off 
from  the  top  of  this  ascent  are  two  long  causeways  or  galle- 
ries, going  ful  along  the  front  of  the  building,  at  tiie  height 
of  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  from  the  level  of  the  aquare  below. 
The  whole  of  the  front  is  a  plain  brick  wal^  excepting 
only  the  centre,  where  two  or  tnree  stories  rise  over  the  door 
of  entrance.  Above  this  entrance  is  the  public  divan, 
which  has  an  open  balcony,  looking  out  on  the  square,  and 
from  which  the  view  of  tne  town  and  the  countiy  ia  com- 
manding and  agreeable.  Here  the  prince  sits  for  an  hour 
or  two  early  in  the  day,  to  transact  public  business  and 
receive  visita ;  but  as  the  sun  shines  strongly  on  it  at  that 
period,  it  u  then  always  covered  by  a  perpendicular  awning 
or  curtain. 

The  interior  fittings  of  the  palace ;  the  baths,  with  the 
process  (so  long  and  complicated  to  an  European)  of 
bathing ;  the  mosques ;  the  bazaars,  &c.,  at  Kermananah, 
so  nearly  resemble  what  we  are  accustomed  to  read  of 
Oriental  towns  generally,  that  we  pass  over  those  details, 
^uit  the  town,  and  conduct  the  reader  onvrard  in  his 
journey.  ^ 

The  direct  route  from  Kermanshah  northward  would 
leave  Teheran  on  the  right ;  but  as  that  city  is  the  residence 
of  the  Persian  Shah,  wo  will  accompany  Captain  Keppel  in 
the  route  to  Russia  vid  Teheran.  At  aoout  five  dayr  jour- 
ney from  Kermanshah,  we  arrive  at  Hamadan,  another 
conaiderable  town,  the  inhabitants  of  which  may  be  charac- 
terized by  a  brief  description  of  the  chief  visitors  who  came 
to  welcome  Captain  Keppel's  party,  on  the  morning  after 
their  arrivaL  The  first  was  the  Prince  of  Hamadan's 
physician,  an  elderly  man  of  very  amiable  manners,  and 
possessing  a  dmee  of  liberality  of  opinion  and  general 
information  rarely  to  be  met  with  in  an  Oriental  physician ; 
he  frankly  acknowledged  the  superior  skill  of  the  Euro- 
pean phyincians,  and  begged  a  medical  genUeman  forming 
one  of  tne  party  to  prescribe  for  him.  A  Jewish  Rabbi 
then  paid  them  a  visit,  and  gave  an  affecting  detail  of  the 
persecutions  which  the  Jews  sufiered  from  the  Mohimune- 
dans:  his  bitter  complaints  were  directed,  not  so  much 
against  the  sovereign  authority  of  the  place,  as  against  the 
petty  and  incessant  iU-usage  ot  the  mass  of  the  Mohammedan 
people.  Then  came  the  cliief  of  the  Armenians  resident  in 
the  town :  the  Armenians,  as  the  reader  b  probably  awarc^ 
are  Christians  belonging  originally  to  the  districts  at  the 
south-east  of  the  Black  Sea ;  and  this  visitor  gave  a  detail 
of  ill-usage  and  cruelty  similar  to  that  of  the  poor  Jewish 
Rabbi, — ^for  the  '^  unbelieving  Jew,"  and  the  **  Christian 
dog/'  are  equal  objects  of  hati«4  among  the  Mohammedan% 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  JANUARY,  IMI. 


tzc^  that  tha  tompotsl  power  and  inflTMnce  ponened  by 
(Jm  EoTopeui  Cluutuiw  make  them  objects  of  fear  to  the 
Mohmtmedana.  The  next  vintor  was  a  diatinjouhed 
FeiMaa,  who  had  been  bnaily  eunged  in  a  eesrch  for  the 
"philoaophar'a  atone ;"  and  who  ^mcicd  that  the  Bnglish 
tnTalleiB  wen  eDsag^  in  «  umilar  pursuit ;  aince  lie 
heart  that  they  had  been  exploring  old  mine,  and  bad  by 
them  certain  acida  and  chemical  teata  with  which  thev 
dctormlDed  the  geological  character  of  ftagments  of  rock 
which  they  frcnn  time  to  time  collected.  They  soon  nn- 
deeeired  him ;  and  endeavoured  to  convince  fiini  of  the 
Dttcr  wotthhaaneaa  of  the  pursuit  in  which  he  was  engaged. 
The  laat  TUtor  we  shall  name  was  a  money-lender,  whom 
we  shall  introduce  to  show  the  estimation  in  which  the 
Eaglidi  diaraeUr  is  held  in  Persia  for  probity  and  honour 
b  commercial  dealinn.  One  of  the  party  widiing  to  draw 
a  bill  on  Bagdad,  and  to  get  it  cashed  at  Hamadon,  sent  to 
inqqire  liow  that  mifht  be  done.  A  miaerable-Iooking 
man  bood  ^ipeared,  who  from  beneath  his  tattered  garmenta 
drew  &ith  a  bag  containing  the  requisite  quantity  of  gold 
coin.  Thia  he  readily  ^ve,  and  received  in  exchan^ 
nothiiw  moi*  than  a  piece  of  paper  with  an  order  (m 
Dogliah)  for  payment  at  Bagdad.  The  party  wondered  at 
■ach  a  proof  of  unlimited  confidence,  for  the  man  could  not 
read  a  word  of  the  order ;  and  were  not  a  little  gratified  to 
btar  him  aay  in  explanation: — "The  Ingreea  (Enslish) 
have  never  been  known  to  deceive."  Sir  John  Malcolni 
had  been  aome  time  resident  in  Persia,  and  had,  by  his  high 
penonal  character,  contributed  greatly  to  ibis  lavourable 
unpreanon  concerning  the  honour  of  an  Englishman.  We 
Dwyiay  in  connexion  with  this  subject,  that  British  officers 
nsdent  in  Penia,  recommend  English  travellers  in  that 
toontry  to  wear  English  costnme,  as  it  generally  meeta 
with  remect. 

From  Hajnadan  a  pleasant  district  conducts  the  traveller 
to  Ttieran,  the  usual  residence  of  the  court  of  the  Shnh  of 
PfisiQ.  This  city  occupiee  a  Doaitioa  once  forming  part  of 
the  ancient  empire  of  tbe-Ueae«,  near  the  southern  shores 
dT  the  Caspian  Sea.  Ita  political  importance  as  the  seat  of 
KTenunent  is  more  striking  than  the  beauty  of  its  situation ; 
loT  the  nnmetooa  spring  torrents,  which  pour  from  the 
•djaccDt  heights  at  the  twginning  of  the  warm  season,  satu- 
isle  the  low  ground  about  the  town,  sink  into  ita  vaults, 
and  send  up  such  vapours  and  dampness  as  to  render  the 
fpot  very  ioaalubrious  during  that  season  of  the  year, 

Teheran  ia  aumniuded  by  a  deep  ditch,  towers,  and  a 
nod  wall,  embracing  a  circuit  of  about  eight  thousand 
Jtnjs.  There  are  four  entrance  gates,  lesdins  respectively 
(a  Iniahan,  Tabriz,  and  two  monntoinous  districta :  they 
m  pbin  in  atructure,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  oma- 
nwDtal  blua  and  green  tiles.  The  streets  of  the  city  are 
extremely  narrow,  and  full  either  of  dost  or  mnd,  accord- 
iaglo  the  aaaaou;  the  limited  width,  too,  is  rendered  more 
ii»«Qveoient  by  the  prevalent  custom  of  the  nobles  to  ride 
thnogfa  them  attended  by  thirty  or  forty  servanta  on  horse- 


back ;  and  by  the  frequent  passa^  of  loaded  camels,  mules, 
aeaea,  and  sometimes  the  royal  elephants.  The  imperial  palac* 
splendid  as  it  is  within,  presents  a  similar  want  of  external 
elegance  to  most  other  Persian  dwellings;  it  is  situated  in 
the  citadel,  a  distinct  quarter  of  the  city,  occupying  a  square 
of  twelve  hundred  yaids,  and  surrounded  by  its  own  bul- 
warks, which  adjoin  the  north  wall  of  the  town.  At  one 
particular  part  of  the  city  is  a  targe  open  space  or  square, 
full  of  wide  and  deep  excavations,  or  rather  pits,  sunk  in 
the  ground.  Within  the  abaft  of  these  well-like  places, 
and  round  ils  steep  sides,  are  numerous  apertures,  leading  to 
subterraneous  apartments ;  some  the  sojoum  of  poor  bouBc- 
less  human  beings,  and  others,  a  temporary  stabling  for 
beasts  of  burden. 

After  illustrating  the  extremely  narrow  and  confined 
arrangement  of  the  streets.  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter  obst  rves : 
"  Where  any  place  does  present  a  Mttle  more  room  than 
ordinary,  or  under  the  covered  wavs  attached  to  the  shop^ 
wegenerallyfindone  of  the  national  ston'-tellerB,  surrounded 
by  groups  of  people,  some  well  clad,  otners  in  ra^  and  not 
a  few  nearly  naked,  attending  with  the  most  lively  interest 
to  tales  they  must  nave  heard  a  thousand  times  before.  Ha 
recounts  them  with  a  change  of  gesticulation,  and  a  varied 
tone  of  voice,  according  to  his  subject ;  wheUier  it  t>e  the 
loves  of  KhosToo  and  Shireene,  the  exploits  of  Rustum  thi^ 
favourite  herOp  or  any  number  of  historic  couplets  from 
Terdousi,  the  Homer  of  their  land.  From  the  humblest 
peasant,  to  the  head  that  wears  the  diadem,  all  have  the 
aame  pasdon  for  this  kind  of  entertainment." 

On  leaving  Teheran,  the  route  conducts  us  along  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  western  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
through  a  district  of  a  very  mountainous  character,  ima 
inhabited  by  rude  mountaineers,  who  have  cost  Russia  more 
trouble  and  campaigning  than  any  other  of  her  suhjcc  a. 

There  is  no  particular  town  after  leaving  Teheran  till  we 
^rrive  at  Cesbin,  about  a  hundred  miles  distant.  This  town 
u  the  residence  of  a  Priuce  Govetnor,  and  was  once  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  ;  it  has  undergone  a  great  diange  of 
fortune,  but  is  saSiciently  populous  to  carry  ou  a  tolerably 
extensive  trade.  We  have  taken  a  few  opportunities  of 
illustrating  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Persiana  as  we 
proceeded ;  and  the  following  account  of  the  viut  of  an 
Engliih  officer  to  the  Prince  of  Casbin  will  illustrate  the 
fondness  of  the  Eastern  courtiers  for  fiattery  and  adulation. 
"  I  did  not  stipulate  for  my  privilege,  as  an  Englishman,  to 
be  seated  in  the  prince's  presence,  fearing  tha^  if  I  did,  I 
should  not  obtain  an  interview ;  eo  I  was  obliged  to  stand 
before  him.  I  was  presented  by  his  mebmandar,  whose 
motions  of  reverence  I  imitated.  His  highness's  manner 
WBB  haughty,  but  it  seemed  habitual  and  not  assumed.  He 
asked  me  several  questions,  mostly  respecting  himself.  To 
these  I  always  tried  to  give  a  reasooable  auswer ;  but  tlie 
mebmandar,  preteadioK  to  attribute  my  plainness  of  lan- 
guage to  ignorance  of  idiom,  turned  everything  1  aaid  into 
extiavagant  compliment  to  the  prince,  and  then  aaked  me  i/ 


46 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


that  was  not  what  I  intended  to  say.  To  dissent  was  im- 
possible ;  so  1  let  him  have  his  own  way,  and  thus  all 
parties  were  pleased." 

Proceeding  onwards  in  the  road  from  Teheran  to  Tabriz, 
we  arrive  at  the  ruins  of  Sultomeh.  This  was  once  a 
considerable  and  beautiful  city  ;  but  nothing  now  remains 
of  it  but  ruinous  vestiges,  of  which  tbe  chief  is  the  palace 
of  tbe  Sultan  Khodabundab,  by  whom  the  city  was  built 
600  yejirs  ago.  A  little  firtbor  northward  is  Zinjaim,  a 
lar^re  and  populous  town,  forming  tbe  capital  of  tlic  district 
of  Khumseh,  and  governed  by  one  of  the  king's  sons.  This 
to^^'n  is  provided  with  bazmirs  equal  to  those  of  almost  any 
town  in  the  Persian  empu*e ;  one  of  them  extends  from 
the  eastern  to  the  western  gate,  and  is  covered  throughout 
the  whole  length  ;  the  shops  and  stalls  being  provided  with 
all  the  usual  articles  of  consumption.  From  this  bazaar 
another  branches  out,  and  terminates  at  the  other  end  in 
the  maidan,  or  great  square. 

We  now  approach  that  mountainous  .region  which  sepa- 
rates the  Caspian  from  the  Black  Sea.  A  few  miles  beyond 
Suit  imeh  a  orick  bridge  crosses  the  river  Kizil  Oozan, 
which  separates  the  provinces  of  Irak  Ajemi  and  Azerbijan. 
The  scenery  in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  bridge  is  ex- 
ceedingly wild  and  rugged  ;  immediately  below  the  bridge, 
the  river  passes  by  a  narrow  channel  between  lofty  preci- 
pitous mountains,  which  rise  almost  perpendicularly  in  rude 
rugged  niiisses.  At  a  little  distance  below  the  bridge  are 
the  remains  of  an  ancient  fort,  standing  on  a  detached  rock 
of  an  irregular  form. 

In  this  immediate  neighbourhood  is  Mount  Ararat, 
Certiinly  the  most  celebrated  mountain  in  the  world,  since 
it  is  that  on  which  the  Sacred  Record  informs  us  the  Ark 
of  Noah  rested  when  the  waters  of  the  Delua^e  had  partly 
subsided.  In  the  present  day,  this  mountain  is  remai-kabfe 
as  being  a  point  where  three  of  the  most  extensive  empires 
in  the  world  meet  each  other : — the  Russian  empire,  which 
threads  to  the  frozen  regions  on  the  north ; — the  Persian 
empire,  which  extends  almost  to  the  frontiers  of  India ; — 
ana  the  Turkish  empire,  which  brings  us  to  the  central 
states  of  Europe ;    all  meet  at   Mount  Ararat,  the  onl^ 

Soint  where  tnis  confluence  occurs.  Mount  Ararat  is 
escribed  as  being  most  difficult  of  access.  A  Pacha  of 
B  iy«izid,  some  years  ago,  tried  to  make  the  ascent  to  the 
higliest  summit.  He  departed  from  Bayazid  with  a  large 
party  of  horsemen,  at  tne  most  fovourable  season ;  and 
ascended  the  mountain  on  the  Bayazid  side,  as  high  as  he 
could  on  horseback.  He  caused  three  stations  to  be  marked 
out  on  the  ascent,  where  he  built  huts  and  collected  pro- 
visions, lie  Iiad  no  difficulty  in  crossing  the  region  of 
snow  near  the  upper  part  of  the  mountain  ;  but  when  he 
came  to  the  gi'eat  cap  of  ice  that  covers  the  top  of  the  cone, 
he  could  proceed  no  farther,  because  several  of  his  men 
wei-e  there  seized  with  violent  oppressions  of  the  chest, 
from  the  great  rai*efdction  of  the  air.  He  had  before 
offered  large  rewards  to  any  one  who  should  reach  the  top  ; 
but  thougli  many  Koords  who  live  at  its  base  have 
attempted  it,  all  have  been  equally  unsuccessful.  Besides 
the  gi-eat  rarefaction  of  the  air,  his  men  had  to  contend 
with  dangers  arising  from  falling  ice,  large  pieces  of  which 
were  constantly  detaching  themselves  from  the  main  body 
and  rolling  down.  An  immense  chasm  extends  nearly  half 
way  down  the  mountain,  in  the  deep  recesses  of  which  are 
vast  masses  of  ice. 

We  have  gone  somewhat  out  of  the  route,  for  the  sake 
of  mentioning  a  spot  so  celebrated  as  Mount  Ararat.  We 
must  now  transport  oui-selves  somewhat  eastward,  where 
the  to^vn  of  Tabriz  lies  in  our  line  of  route.  Tabriz  is 
about  three  miles  and  a  half  in  circumfei-ence,  and  is 
sun-ounded  by  walls  built  of  sun-burnt  brick,  with 
towera  of  kiln-burnt  brick,  placed  at  in-egular  distances 
along  the  walls.  There  ai-e  seven  gates,  at  eiwh  of  which 
guards  are  stationed  ;  and  they  are  closed  an  hour  or  two 
after  sunset,  and  not  opened  again  till  the  morning. 
Tabriz  was  formerly  the  second  city  of  Persia,  in  size  and 
importance ;  but  it  is  now  greatly  diminished  in  wealtli 
and  population.  The  Ark  All  Shah  (citi\del  of  AH  Shah) 
is  a  structure,  which  was  originally  intended  for  a  palace ;  but 
the  prince  afterwards  convei*ted  it  into  a  citadel.  It  contains 
within  its  limits,  the  remains  of  a  mosque  about  eighty 
feet  high,  at  the  top  of  which  are  three  small  chambers, 
from  wh  -nee  a  panoramic  view  of  the  surrounding  country 
is  obtained.  When  Mr.  Morier  was  at  Tabriz,  a  number  of 
Kui'opean  workmen  were  fitting  up  the  Ark  Ali  Shall  as  an 
arsenal.  In  the  front  ^ard  was  a  range  of  euns  and  all  the 
accompaniments  of  artillery.    A  numerous  pody  of  carpen- 


ters and  wheelwrights  were  at  work  with  European  tools, 
superintended  by  an  European  mechanic.  Partner  on  wns 
a  blacksmitli*8  foiye,  worked  with  charcoal  for  want  of 
coal.  Then  in  another  yard  were  piles  of  shot,  with  men 
filling  cartridges,  &c.  Next  succeeded  a  range  of  apartments, 
in  which  were  saddlers,  and  workers  of  leather  ;  and  store- 
rooms for  articles  of  various  kinds. 

To  undei*stand  the  motives  for  such  an  establishment,  we 
must  bear  in  mind  that  we  are  now  near  the  frontiers  of 
Russia,  between  which  country  and  Persia  frequent  hosti- 
lities have  taken  place  within  the  last  twenty  or  thirty 
years ;  insomuch,  that  the  effeminate  habits  and  proceedings 
witnessed  in  Southern  Persia  would  be  utterly  unable  to 
compete  with  such  a  vigorous  nation  as  Russia. 

As  we  shall  soon  take  leave  of  Peraia,  we  will  give  Mr. 
Morier's  description  of  one  or  two  features  characteristic  of 
most  Peraian  towns :— "  There  are  noises  peculiar  yy  every 
city  and  country ;  and  none  are  more  distinct  ana  charac- 
teristic than  those  of  Persia.  First,  at  the  dawn  of  day, 
the  mueszins  are  heard  in  a  great  yai'iety  of  tones,  calling 
the  people  to  prayers  from  tne  tops  of  the  mosques. ;  these 
are  mixed  with  the  sounds  of  cow-boms,  blown  by  the 
keepers  of  the  hummumSf  to  inform  the  women,  who  l>athe 
before  the  men,  tliat  the  hatha  are  heated,  and  ready  for 
their  reception.  The  cow-horns  set  all  the  dogs  in  the 
city  howling  in  a  fiightfy  manner.  The  asses  of  the  town, 
generally  thinning  to  hiay  about  the  same  time,  art 
answered  by  all  the  asses  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  a  thou* 
sand  cocks  then  intrude  their  shrill  voices ;  which,  vn\h 
the  other  subsidiary  noises  of  persons  calling  to  each  other, 
knocking  at  doors,  cries  of  children,  complete  a  din  very 
unusual  to  tlie  ears  of  an  European.  In  the  summer  season, 
as  the  operations  of  domestic  life  are  mostly  performed  in 
the  open  air,  every  noise  is  heard.  At  night,  all  sleep  on 
the  tops  of  their  houses,  their  beds  being  spread  upon  their 
terraces,  without  any  other  covering  over  their  heads  than 
the  vault  of  heaven.  The  poor  seldom  have  a  screen  to 
keep  them  from  the  gaze  of  passengers;  and  as  we 
generally  rode  out  on  horseback  at  a  very  early  hour,  we 
perceived,  on "  the  tops  of  the  houses,  people  either  still  in 
oed,  or  just  getting  up ;  and  certainly  no  sight  was  ever 
stranger.  The  women  appeared  to  be  always  up  the  first, 
while  the  men  were  frequently  seen  lounging  in  bed  long 
after  the  sun  had  risen.  We  may  remark  that  there  are 
many  passages  in  Scripture  which  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
custom  of  sleeping  on  Uie  housetop  prevailed  in  the  Jewish 
nation,  and  in  other  parts  of  Western  Asia. 

When  Captain  Keppel  was  at  Tabriz,  he  once  dined  at 
the  house  of  the  Russian  Charge  d' Affaires ;  and  mentions 
it  as  a  singular  instance  of  the  way  in  which  natives  of 
different  countries  find  their  way  into  foreign  lands,  that 
although  all  the  party  were  Christians,  and  did  not  exceed 
twenty,  there  were  present  natives  of  France,  Spain,  Italy, 
Germany,  Holland,  Russia,  England,  Greece,  Sclavonia, 
Armenia,  Georgia,  Arabia,  and  Persia;  and  among  the 
servanta  in  attendance  were  a  Russian,  a  Persian,  an  Indian, 
a  Turk,  and  a  Kalmuk  Tartar. 

From  Tabriz,  different  routes  may  be,  and  frequently  are, 
taken  to  Europe ;  but  that  which  we  shall  follow  ap- 
proaches pretty  near  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  touches  it  at 
two  points,  Baku  and  Astraklian. 

Tne  river  Araxes  foims  the  boundary  between  the 
Russian  and  Persian  empires,  at  that  part  where  Captain 
Keppel  and  his  party  crossed  it.  The  nver  is  here  about  a 
hundred  yards  in  width  ;  over  which  the  party  crossed  in  a 
boat  made  of  the  hollow  trunk  of  a  tree,  the  fiores  of  which 
formed  a  rope  to  secure  it  to  the  bank.  In  this  frail  bark 
the  men  ana  the  baggage  were  transported  over  the  river, 
while  the  horses  were  made  to  swim  over.  .  On  crossing  the 
river  the  party  entered  a  tent,  before  which  a  number,  of 
women  were  busily  engaged,  some  in  manufacturing  carpets^ 
others  in  milking  cattle,  and  others  in  making  bread. 

About  half-way  between  Tabriz  and  Baku,  is  the  town  of 
Sheesha,  contaimng  about  two  thousand  houses,  of  which 
three-fourtlis  are  inhabited  by  Tartars,  and  the  remaind^ 
by  Armenians.  The  present  town  was  built  about  a  century 
ago  by  a  Tartar  prince,  but  the  remains  of  an  older  town 
ai-e  visible  at  the  foot  of  an  opposite  hill.  The  lower  parta 
of  the  houses  are  built  of  stone,  and  have  shelving  roofs  of 
sliingle.  The  town  and  fort  are  sun*ounded  by  a  wall ; 
but  the  natural  advantages  of  the  situation,  on  the  top  of 
an  almost  inaccessible  rock,  liave  left  little  occasion  for 
artificial  defence.  The  language  spoken  is  a  kind  of  Turk* 
ish  dialect ;  but  the  inhabitants  re«d  and  write  in  Pei-sian  ; 
the  costume  also  bears  a  nearer  resemblance  to  the  Pez^ian. 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  JANUARY,  1841. 


» 


Bftkti  is  situfttod  on  a  «maU  promontory  which  juts  out 
into  the  Ca^ian  Sea.  It  ia  a  neat,  though  small  sea-port 
town,  built  entirely  of  stone ;  and  suirounded  by  a  deep  ditch 
and  double  wall  of  stone.  The  roois  of  the  houses  arc  flat, 
and  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  naphtha.  The  town 
contains  ono  Armenian  church,  and  twenty  mosques,  with 
only  one  Russian  church.  The  bazaar  is  small,  but  neat, 
and  is  much  more  cleanly  than  the  generality  of  Asiatic 
bazaars.  The  population  is  computed  at  about  four  thousand 
persona,  of  whom  nearly  all  are  Tartars.  The  principal 
articles  of  commerce  are  common  silk  and  various  small 
wares  of  Russian  manu&cture.  On  the  site  of  this  town 
once  stood  a  city,  celebrated  in  the  time  of  the  Persian  iire- 
worshippers  for  its  sacred  temples,  on  the  altars  of  which 
blazed  periM*tuai  flames  of  fire,  produced  by  ignited  naphtha. 
Thousands  of  pilgrims  used  to  pay  an  annual  visit  to  this 

Siace,  before  the  rapid  spread  of  Mohammedanism  had  re- 
uced  to  insignificance  the  religion  of  ancient  Persia.  Cap- 
tain Keppel  found  at  this  spot  the  remains  of  a  temple  of 
this  kind,  attended  by  tribes  who  presented  a  singular  mix- 
ture of  Tartar  and  Indian  habits.  Enclosed  within  a  penta- 
gonal wall,  and  standing  nearly  in  the  centre  of  a  court,  was 
a  fire  temple, — a  small,  square  building,  with  three  steps  lead- 
ing up  to  it  from  each  &ce.  Three  l^lls  of  different  sizes 
were  suspended  from  the  roof.  At  each  comer  was  a 
hollow  column,  higher  than  the  surrounding  buildings, 
firom  the  top  of  which  issued  a  bright  fiame ;  and  in  the 
middle  of  the  court  was  a  large  fire  of  ignited  naphtha.  The 
pentagon,  which  on  the  outside  forms  the  wall,  comprises 
m  the  interior  nineteen  small  cells,  each  inhabited  by  a  devo- 
tee. These  devotees  were  Hindoos ;  but  their  language  and 
manners  had  such  a  strong  tinge  of  the  Tartar  race,  that 
their  Hindoo  origin  was  lumost  concealed.  A  Brahmin 
was  found  engaged  at  his  devotion  in  one  of  the  cells ;  in 
another  cell  was  an  ofiiciating  priest  of  a  particular  sect  of 
the  Hindoos.  These  devotees  were  pilgrims  who  came  from 
different  parts  of  India,  and  who  were  accustomed  to  relieve 
each  other  every  two  or  three  years  years  in  watching  the 
sacred  fire,  as  they  deem  it.  We  may  remark  that  every 
part  of  the  soil  in  the  neighbourhood  is  strongly  impr^- 
nated  with  naphtha. 

The  next  town  of  any  note  is  Kuba,  once  the  residence 
of  a  Tartar  khan,  but  now  garrisoned  by  the  Russians.  It 
eontaina  about  fkve  thousand  inhabitants,  one  third  of 
whom  are  said  to  be  Jews.  Still  fiurther  to  the  north  is  the 
town  of  Durbund,  the  capital  of  one  of  the  Russian  pro- 
vinces. The  walls,  which  are  very  ancient,  divide  the  town 
into  three  portions,  of  which  the  higher  comprises  the 
citadel,  the  middle  constitutes  the  town ;  and  the  lowest  is 
principally  occupied  by  gardens.  Here  is  shown  the  found- 
ation of  a  house  built  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  visited  the 
to%m  soon  after  it  had  come  into  the  hands  of  Russia.  The 
walls  of  the  city  are  buijt  of  a  compact  stone  of  a  dark 
colour;  and  sixty  bastions  protrude  at  regulai*  intervals. 
One  of  tlie  gates  has  an  inscription  in  Russian ;  another  has 
an  inscription  in  Persian :  ono  among  many  proofis  of  the 
mixed  cnaracter  of  the  place.  Durbund  has  been  succes- 
aively  in  the  hands  of  Turks,  Tartars,  Arabs,  Persians,  and 
Russians,  and  manifests  the  heterogeneous  effects  resulting 
from  this  circumstance.  Hero  one  of  our  English  travellers 
paid  a  visit  to  the  Russian  commandant  and  nis  lady ;  and 
nys : — *^  On  my  return  to  the  room,  the  company,  consist- 
ing of  the  officers  of  the  regiment  and  the  staf^omcers  of  the 
garrison,  were  thronging  in.  I  here  saw,  for  the  first  time, 
the  Russian  salutation.  Every  officer,  on  entering,  took 
the  right  hand  of  the  hostess  and  pressed  it  to  his  lips; 
while  she  at  the  same  moment  kissed  his  cheek.  Dinner 
was  pre&ced  by  a  glass  of  brandy  and  a  piece  of  salt  fish. 
Tiie  ladiefly  of  whom  there  were  several,  seated  themselves 
together ;  the  poet  of  honour  next  our  fair  hostess  was 
assigned  to  me  as  the  stranger.  The  band  played  during 
dinner ;  adfter  which  the  company  (with  the  exception  of 
mvself,  who  took  a  siesta)  sat  down  to  cards.'* 

Ipartlier  northward  we  come  to  Kizliar,  standing  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Terek,  at  about  forty  miles'  distance 
from  the  Caspian.  This  town  and  the  dependant  villages 
contain  about  twenty  thousand  inhabitants ;  of  whom  the 
greater  numbers  are  Tartars,  and  nearly  all  t^e  remainder 
Aimeniansy  (for  we  have  now  pretty  well  lost  all  traces  of 
the  Persian  race.)  Tliis  town  is  a  kind  of  limit  between 
two  different  districts,  as  respects  the  mode  of  travelling ; 
for  the  routes  just  describea  have  been  performed  almost 
wholly  on  horseback,  whereas  the  joumev  northward  from 
Kizliar  to  St.  Petersburgh,  by  way  of  Astrakhan,  is  per- 
Somned  by  cotriage.   These  caxTiages— at  least  those  em- 


ployed between  Kizliar  and  Astrakhan,— are  four-wheeled 
open  carriages,  without  springs,  about  five  feet  and  a  half 
lonp:,  three  feet  broad,  and  three  deep ;  and  drawn  by  three 
horses  abreast,  general ly  in  as  rude  and  inelegant  a  condi- 
tion as  the  carriage  itseff. 

The  district  froni  Kizliar  to  Astraklum  is,  for  the  most 
port,  di*eary  and  sterile;  over  which  the  Taiiar  driven 
conduct  tlieir  vehicle  in  a  fearless  and  vigilant  manner. 
Arrived  at  Astraklmn,  the  English  party  whohi  wc  have 
hitherto  accompanied,  and  whom  we  shall  now  leave,  were 
ushered  to  the  residence  of  a  Scotch  missionary,  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Glen,  whose  pious  and  benevolent  demeanour  made  a 
deep  impression  on  Capt^vin  Keppel,  who  remarks : — ^'*At 
no  period  of  my  life  do  I  I'omcniber  to  have  been  impressed 
with  so  strong  a  feeling  of  devotion  as  on  this  evening.  Few 
persons  of  the  same  genenU  habits  will  understand  my  par- 
ticular feelings.  Few  have  ever  been  placed  in  the  same 
situation  under  similar  circumstances.  Quitting  countries 
once  the  most  rich  and  populous,  now  tlie  most  desolate  and 
lone,  fulfilling  in  their  calamities  the  decrees  of  Divine  Pro- 
vidence ;  safe  from  the  dangers  of  the  desert,  and  ii-om  the 
barbarian  tribes  with  whom  every  crime  was  common,  I 
found  myself  in  a  religious  sanctuary  among  my  own 
countrymen,  in  whose  countemmces,  whatever  were  the 
trivial  errors  of  their  belief^  might  be  traced  the  purity  of 
their  lives,  and  that  enthusiasm  in  the  cause  of  religion, 
whicli  has  caused  them  to  become  voluntary  exiles :  whoso 
kindness  promised  me  every  comfort,  and  whose  voices 
were  gratefully  mised  to  Heaven  in  my  behalf." 

The  city  of  Astrakhan  is  the  most  celebrated  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Russian  empii'e,  being  so  situated  as  to 
command  the  commerce  of  tlie  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  situ- 
ated near  the  mouth  of  the  great  river  Volga,  at  a  distance 
of  about  eiglit  hundred  miles  south-east  of  Moscow ;  and 
from  it  there  is  an  uninterrupted  water  conveyance  to  St* 
Petersburgh,  twelve  hundred  miles  distant.  It  ranks  as 
the  eighth  city  in  the  Russian  empire,  liaving  a  population 
of  forty  thousand  persons.  The  town  is  irrettulai-ly  built, 
and  the  houses  present  a  singuhir  medley  of  European  and 
Asiatic  taste ;  they  are  constructed  principally  of  wood,  and 
are  between  four  and  five  thousand  in  number.  There  are 
four  Armenian  churches,  twenty-five  Greek  churches  (the 
national  church  of  Russia),  nineteen  Mohammedan  mosqutfs^ 
besides  places  of  worsliip  for  various  sects,  botli  European 
and  Asiatic.  There  is  an  academy  for  marine  cadets;  a 
Greek  seminary  for  ecclesiastics;  a  high  school;  a  dis« 
trlct  grammar  school;  and  four  inferior  schools.  The 
Kremlin,  or  citadel,  is  a  large  and  beautiful  building,  con- 
taining the  cathedral  and  the  barracks;  the  fomier  of 
which,  like  most  ecclesiastical  edifices  in  Russia,  consists  of 
a  massive  parallelogram  with  four  small  cupolas  on  the  roof, 
and  a  large  one  in  the  centrc,  from  which  the  building  re- 
ceives its  light :  the  interior  is  splendidly  decorated ;  and  is 
prized  among  the  Russians  for  containing  a  costly  effigy  of 
the  Viigin, — six  mitres  inlaid  with  pearls  and  precious 
stones  of  large  size, — a  baptismal  font  of  massive  silver, 
ninety-eight  pounds  in  weight, — ^and  other  costly  articles. 
One  of  the  mest  remarkable  buildings  is  a  mosque  rccently 
erected  by  a  private  wealthy  Mohammedan,  but  shaped 
like  the  Cnristian  churches  of  the  East. 

No  city  of  Asia  presents  more  striking  features  of  Europe 
and  Asia  combined,  than  Astmkhan.  The  Russians  form  a 
considerable  amount  of  tlie  population,  mid  are  engaged  in 
trade.  The  Tartars,  belonging  to  thrce  different  classes  or 
races,  amount  to  about  10,000,  and  take  up  their  abode  in 
distinct  suburbs  of  the  city.  The  Anncnians  are  among 
the  most  wealtliy  of  the  poj)ulation,  and  have  now  nearly 
abandoned  their  peculiar  national  mode  of  drcss,  and  have 
adopted  the  costume  of  Europe.  The  women,  however, 
still -i^^alk  abroad,  covered  from  head  to  foot  witii  an  enor- 
mous white  veil,  which  conceals  the  whole  person,  except  a 
small  part  of  the  face.  The  Georgians  ot  Astraklum  are 
mostly  mechanics,  or  persons  filling  humble  stations  in  life. 
The  Hindoos  and  Chinese  to  be  found  at  Astrakhan  are 
only  occasional  visitors,  with  the  exception  of  three  or  four 
hundred  of  the  fonner,  whose  occunation  is  to  lend  out 
money  at  usurious  interest ;  and  as  tneir  accumulations  are 
seconded  by  the  utmost  simplicity  and  parsimony  in  their 
mode  of  living,  these  Hindoos  nse  quickly  into  affluence. 
Although  the  regular  population  of  Astrakhan  is  estimated 
at  40^000,  j^et  it  is  supposed  that  at  one  particular  season  of 
the  year,  i.e.,  the  fishing  season,  there  are  no  less  than 
80,000  additional  visitors  at  Astrakhan,  dra%vn  thither  prin- 
cipally on  commercial  pursuits.  At  this  season  the  city 
pteisents  a  highly  interestii^g  scene  of/ gaiety  and  budtle* 


48 


THE  SATUBDAY  MAGAZINE. 


Having  thus  bHn^iIit  our  fbllow-tnTellen  to  AstnkhAn, 
ire  muy  nuike  a  few  mnarka  on  the  exttsordioaiy  district 
which  MparateB  it  from  the  ccntnl  parts  of  Feraia.  If  we 
draw  a  Btraieht  line  from  Astrakhan  to  the  sonth-weet  cor- 
ner of  the  Caspian  Sea,  another  straif  ht  line  &om  this  Idst 
point  to  ibo  eastemmost  point  of  the  Btack  Sea,  and  a  third 
aom  the  Black  S«ft  to  Astrakhan,  we  shall  endose  ■  trian- 
g[ular  district,  whose  longest  side  (along  the  Caspian)  is 
about  700  miles,  and  the  other  two  about  COO  e«ch.  This 
district  is,  in  a  political  sense,  one  of  the  most  Rmaikable 
in  Asia.  It  contains  the  bonndaiy-Unes  between  the  ttd«n- 
sire  empires  of  Russia,  Tnrkeir,  and  Peroa,  and  contains  a 
population  who  care  but  little  for  the  sapreme  anthority  of 
either  of  thoee  countries.  Georgians,  Mingtelians,  Circa*- 
sians,  Armenians,  Tartars,  Koords,— all  are  to  be  met  with 
in  this  district,  forming  a  kind  of  bonndary  between  the 
more  effeminate  Perwans  on  the  south,  and  the  rude  Cos- 
sacks and  Tartars  on  the  north.  Their  religion  raiiea  as 
much  nstlieir  origin  and  habits;  Mohammedaiis,  Armenian 
Christians,  Russian  Christians,  Fire  Worshippers,  Worship- 
pers of  the  Great  Idma  of  Thibet, — all  are  to  be  found 

These  circnmstancee  gire  a  strangely  mixed  character  to 
the  towns. situatod  In  this  district.  Gradually  they  «re 
lodng  their  Pernan  or  Turkish  character,  and  are  becoming 
erery  year  more  and  more  Russian,  occasioned  bv  the  steady 
progress  of  this  power  in  that  direction.  Still,  howerer, 
the  old  institutions  and  habits  are  not  done  away  with.  A 
mosque  maV  be  found  next  to  a  Rusuau  guanl-honse,  or  a 
flat-roofed  Persian  house  maybe  near  a  Russian  church ; 
while  both  Russians  and  Persians  are  required  to  be  con- 
stantly on  the  alert,  to  repel  the  bold  mountaineers  who 
repeatedly  attack  them,  and .  who,  deeming  themselves  the 
rightful  owners  of  the  country,  look  upon  both  the  others 
as  enemies.  The  persevering  energy  of  the  Rusuan  govem- 
ment  has,  however,  overcome  so  many  difficulties  and  obsta- 
cles in  this  quarter,' tlut  the  bounduy  between  Russia  snd 
Persia  does  not  differ  widely  from  the  line  which  we  have 


supposed  to  be  drawn  from  the  east  end  of  the  Black  Sea 
to  tJie  south-west  extremity  of  the  Cai^ian.  Whether  or 
not  this  boundary  will  be  driven  still  wther  southward,  is 


a  question  whicn  the  future  history  of  Central  Asia  can 
alone  determine. 

From  Astrakhan  to  St  Petersbnrgh  is,  as  we  have  sud,  a 
distance  of  about  twelve  hundred  miles.  There  are  two 
rcMons  why  it  will  not  be  neceeesry  for  ns  to  follow  our 
tnrellers  ^ong  this  road:  Ist.  We  have  made  a  point,  in 


our  details  hitherto,  to  unli  mtetiiiff  on  nhjeeto  frhiA 
hare  already  been  described  in  the  SatHrdmi  Magd*m»:  saj 
re&ain  nom  entering  it 


a  pursuance  of  this  plan,  we  will  r 


number  of  articles  were  devoted  to  t)  ..  ._.^ 

volumes.  2nd.  There  is  no  country  in  Eortnie  or  A^ 
presenting  fewer  points  of  interest  than  the  flat  eonntiT 
from  Astrakhan  to  St.  Pet«reburgh.  No  grcat  dty,  exc^ 
Moscow,  is  met  with  in  this  immense  distance ;  and  the  u- 
habitants  an  so  extremely  scanty  that  nothiiwean  be  tnm 
drearv  than  many  parts  <n  this  lonte.  Naanv  all  Enriidi 
travellen  who  take  this  route  try  to  got  uuon^  it  m 
rapidly  as  possible,  koowing  that  tnere  is  little  to  intsMt 
them  on  tne  way.  Colonel  Conolly,  a  few  yean  ago,  b 
mnlriTig  the  overland  journey,  hired  a  cairia^  for  tin 
Russian  route,  which  he  fitted  np  for  dav  or  night  trsrel- 
ling ;  stored  it  with  provisions ;  provided  nimself  with  ftui 
and  warm  clothing,  and  lived,  boarded,  and  slept  in  his  car- 
riage during  the  greater  portion  of  a  yvtj  nftid  journey  bom 
St.  Petersbnrgh  to  the  Persian  frontier.  Inns  are  so  feir 
the  road,  and  provisions  so  bad,  that  some  such  pliuM 


this  is  necessary  to  keep  the  demon  of  hanger  aw^.    dot 

V 1  J — ! — 1  good  portion  of  his  joninmr,  adopted  a  ^ 

many  occasions  to  be  tnankfol  f      ' 


Keppel,  during  a  good  pbrtion  of  his  joni 

which  he  had  many  occasions  to  be 

&stened  a  (M^hMb  to  the  saddle  of  his  horse;  and  triunent 
he  could  not  obtain  warm  beverage  any  other  way,  bi 
would  put  a  little  tea  and  sugar  into  his  kettle,  obtsin  mat 
milk  if  possible,  add  a  requisite  quantity  of  water,  snd 
managvto  boil  a  cup  of  tea  in  a  very  few  minutes:  quit* 
willing  to  di^«nse  with  the  numerous  conreniBices  of  s 
tea-service.  Overland  travellers  must,  indeed,  reckon  m 
being  deprived  of  many  of  the  comforts  found  on  ship-bosfd ; 
but  the  excitement  attending  scenes  of  travel  frequoitlynioN 
than  compensates  for  this  deprivation. 

We  thus  end  our  first  overland  route ;  which  may  be  Ihiu 
summed  up.  From  Bombay  across  the  Indian  Ocean,  to 
the  Persian  Gulf  is  about  thirteen  hundred  miles : — £rein  the 
south  to  the  north  of  the  Persian  Gul^  six  or  seven  luD- 
dred ; — from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Mount  Ararat,  seven  hun- 
dred ; — &om  thence  to  Attraldtan,  probably  five  hondrcd  ;— 
from  Astrakhan  to  Moscow,  eight  hundred ; — and  fion 
thence  to  St.  Petersbnrgh,  four  hundred : — making  sbant 
four  thousand  five  hundred  miles.  These  distances  m 
estimated  very  roughly ;  and  do  not  take  in  the  tunungiwl 
windings  of  the  roads  necessarily  taken ;  but  they  may  Mm 
to  convey  something  like  an  idea  of  the  real  diataDOS  pal 


KASTBAH  DounroBT  OR  IHK  Boms-Toh 


tONIlON    I'ubluhtJbjJOHN  W    PARKED,  Wi:*T  S 


>,  ndHld  lij  sn  Bo^nlliai. 


N°  552.  FEBHUAEY  6T?,  1841.  {(ta^rSxr. 


Vol.  X^TII. 


50 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


u<« 


[February  6, 


.CANOYA  AND  HIS  WORKS* 

11. 

We  left  our  young  artist  at  that  period  of  his  history 
when  his  eager  aspirings  after  distinction  in  his  profeilion 
were  encouraged  by  the  invitation  of  his  benevolent 
patron,  the  senator  Falier,  to  repair  immediately  to 
Venice.  The  reception  he  met  with  at  the  Falier  palace 
was  most  kind  and  hospitable,  and  he  thus  found  him- 
self, at  the  age  of  fifteen,  in  a  situation  which  opened  a 
new  and  ample  field  for  observation  and  improvement. 
The  love  of  independence,  which  had  ever  strongly 
marked  the  character  of  Canova,  would  not,  however, 
permit  him  to  be  entirely  dependent  on  the  bounty  of 
others.  He  justly  considered  himself  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced in  the  mechanical  department  of  his  profession 
to  entitle  him  to  some  recompense  in  labouring  for 
another;  he  therefore  resolved  to  engage  himself  as 
assistant  to  some  eminent  master,  and  was  not  long  in 
entering  into  an  agreement  with  Giuteppe  Ferrari^ 
the  nephew,  or  grand-nephew,  of  his  former  friend 
Toretto,  and  sometimes  kno¥m  by  that  surname. 
Canova  engaged,  for  a  very  slender  consideration,  to 
work  during  the  latter  half  of  each  day  for  Ferrari. 
••  1  laboured,"  says  Canova,  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  "  for 
a  mere  pittance, — ^but  it  was  sufficient.  It  was  the  fruit 
of  my  own  resolution;  and,  as  I  then  flattered  myself, 
the  foretaste  of  more  honourable  rewards,  for  I  never 
thought  of  wealth."  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that,  young 
and  inexperienced  as  Canova  then  was,  his  own  exertions 
did  in  part  minister  to  his  necessities  on  his  first  arrival 
at  Venice. 

Canova  remained  under  the  direction  of  Giuseppe 
Ferrari  nearly  a  year,  and  then  left  his  employment,  and 
became  his  own  master..  But  we  must  not  pass  over  h  s 
space  of  time  without  noticing  his  deportment  amidst 
the  novelties  and  allurements  which  presented  them- 
selves in  a  great  city.  Whatever  might  have  been  the 
fears  of  his  friends  for  a  youth  of  lively  sensibility  and 
little  experience,  they  were  quickly  dispelled  by  the  strict 
propriety  of  conduct  maintained  by  Antonio. '  From 
his  first  arrival  in  Venice,  he  made  an  exact  distribution 
of  his  time,  and  allotted  to  each  division  its  proper 
employment*  The  mornings  were  devoted  to  the  stu- 
dies of  the  Academy,  or  to  those  of  the  Fan^iti  gal- 
lery ;  the  latter  part  of  the  day  was  passed  in  the  labours 
of  the  workshop;  and  after  these  were  concluded,  the 
remainder  of  the  evening  was  allotted  to  intellectual 
pursuits,  and  improvement  in  those  branches  of  educa- 
tion in  which  he  felt  himself  particularly  deficient. 

The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Venice,  though  far 
inferior  to  what  it  has  since  become,  possessed  at  this 
time  some  good  casts  from  the  antique,  and  a  larger 
number  from  the  most  celebrated  modem  productions. 
The  students  in  this  Academy  were  directed  in  their 
studies  by  professors  of  some  eminence.  The  Farsetti 
gallery,  in  which,  as  we  have  said,  Canova  also  studied, 
was  in  the  Farsetti  palace,  and  was  thrown  open  to 
students  in  the  fine  arts,  and  abundantly  supplied  with 
every  requisite  for  their  use.  The  constant  attendance 
and  assiduity  of  Canova  at  this  place  were  such  as  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  noble  owiier,  and  from  thence 
the  young  artist  received  his  earliest  commission,  which 
led  to  the  first  performance  for  which  money  was  paid. 
This  earliest  of  Canova*s  public  labours  consisted  of 
two  baskets  filled  with  different  fruits  and  flowers,  sculp- 
tured in  white  marble.  They  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the 
balustrade  of  the  grand  stair,  but  they  present  no 
striking  marks  of  proficiency,  or  indications  of  future 
talent. 

An  undertaking  of  greater  importance  had  for  some 
jtime  occupied  his  leisure  hours.  This  was  commenced 
at  the  instigation  of  Falier,  and  was  to  comprise  a  group 
on  the  subject  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice.  The  model 
for  the  statue  of  Eurydice  was  first  executed,  and  as 


the  Falier  family  w^r^  aUut  to  }eave^town,  for  their 
usual  summer  retreat  at  Asok,  Canova  accompanied 
them,  carrying  with  him  eveijthing  necessary  for 
the  completion  of  <  that  part  of  his  work.  At  the 
Villa  Falier,  therefore,  was  Canova's  first  statue  com- 
pleted, when  he  was  in  his  sixteenth  year.  It  was 
executed  in  pUtiXL  tU  CoitHf  a  species  of  soft  stone,  \ 
found  near  Vicenza.  Canova  is  said  to  have  been  but 
little  satisfied  with  this  first  effort;  but  his  Eurydice 
was  generally  applauded  as  a  work  of  great  merit,  and 
gave  so  mucn  satisfaction  to  his  patron  that  the  young 
sculptor  was  declared  sufficiently  instructed  in  his  pro- 
fession to  present  himself,  without  fear,  on  the  public 
stage  of  life.  We  may  here  relate  a  pleasing  aneicdote, 
illustrative  of  the  kindness  of  Canova's  disposition. 
During  the  time  he  was  labouring  at  the  statue  of  Eury- 
dice, a  domestic  of  the  Falier  family  had  waited  on 
him,  and  rendered  occasional  assistance,  in  connexion 
with  the  object  of  study,  thus  becoming  for  the  time  a 
friend  and  companion  of  the  young  artist.  Nearly  forty 
years  afterwards,  when  Canova,  loaded  with  honours, 
and  bearing  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Ischla,  visited  the 
Villa  Falier,  he  recognized  the  same  domestic,  now  aged 
and  infirm,  as  he  entered  the  apartment,  in  attendance 
upon  the  company.  Canova  immediately  rose  from  his 
seat,  and  going  up  to  the  old  man,  in  p)resence  of  the 
assembly,  most  cordially  embraced  him,  recalling  with 
delight  every  little  incident  of  their  early  acquaintance, 
and  suggesting  many  endearing  recollections.  True 
nobility  of  mind,  united  with  the  gentle  virtues  was 
remarkably  displayed  in  Canova,  and  made  him  as  much 
beloved  as  his  talents  caused  him  to  be  admired* 

But  we  must  return  to  the  completion  of  his  Eury- 
dice, and  the  commencement  of  hit  professional  career 
on  his  own  account.  Canova's  first  workshop  was  a 
vacant  cell  in  the  monastery  of  the  Augustine  Friars, 
attached  to  the  church  of  St.  Stefano,  which  through  the 
kindness  of  the  monks  was  gratuitously  assigned  for  his 
use.  There,  in  an  indifferently  lighted  apartment,  on 
the  ground-floor  of  the  inner  cloister,  Canova  worked 
industriously  for  the  space  of  four  years.  An  apartment 
was  still  appropriated  to  his  use  in  the  dwelling  of  his 
patron,  so  that  he  did  not  remain  in  his  cell  after  the 
nours  of  labour.  During  the .  first  three  years  of  this 
period  he  was  employed,  in  addition  to  his  ordinary 
studies,  on  the  statue  of  Orpheus,  and  in  executing  a 
bust  of  the  Doge  Renter,  He  was  regular  in  his 
attendance  on  the  studies  of  the  Academy,  but  his  pro- 
gress appears  to  have  been  chiefly  promoted  by  bis 
assiduous  study  and  faithful  imitation  of  nature.  At 
this  period  the  simplicity  of  nature  was  generally  con- 
sidered as  poverty, — devoid  of  elegance  or  grace : 
instead,  therefore,  of  a  faithftil  imitation  of  the  object 
of  study,  the  artists  of  that  period  drew,  or  modelled, 
the  figure  before, them,  with  such  additions  or  corrections 
of  nature  as  their  own  capricious  fancies  su^ested. 
These  departures  from  simpUcity  and  truth  were  turned 
from  with  disgust  by  the  better  taste  of  Canova,  and  he 
determined  to  take  nature — ^simple  nature  only — for  his 
model. 

The  science  of  anatomy  now  occupied  a  large  portion 
of  the  attention  of  our  young  sculptor,  and  though  he 
was  at  first  obliged  to  rest  satisfied  with  the  information 
to  be  derived  from  books  and  puUic  lectures,  it  was  after- 
wards his  constant  practice  to  study  from  the  human 
subject,   dissecting  with   his  own   hands,  and  making 
sketches  or  models  of  every  important  part.     He  justly 
regarded  a  knowledge  of  this  science  as  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  his  art,  and  therefore  continued  to  study 
it  to  a  late  period  of  his  life.     His  profession  so  con- 
stantly engaged  his  thoughts  that  even  when  walking 
in  the  streets,  where  that  exercise  could  be  enjoyed    in 
Venice,  he  was  always  ready  to  mark  whatever  he  saw 
that  was  interesting  in  expression,  or  striking  in  attitude. 
'<  He  would  often  stop  before  the  workshop  of  some 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


tl 


LTtisan,  to  remtrk  the  forcefiit  yet  easy  position  into 
nrhich  the  body  was  thrown  in  different  occupations." 
His  steps  were  frequently  arrested,  as  he  traversed  the 
long  succession  of  wliarfs  which  formed  a  favourite 
place  of  exercise  to  him,  to  observe  with  admiration  the 
well-formed  trunk  or  sinewy  limbs  of  a  porter  in  power- 
ful exertion.  Yet  so  much  did  he  love  simplicity,  that, 
on  being  observed  by  those  who  had  been  the  objects  of 
his  contemplation,  he  immediately  passed  on,  knowing 
that  his  attentive  regard  would  produce  constraint  in 
their  actions.  Appearances,  thus  hastily  caught,  were 
so  cleverly  retained,  and  fixed  by  the  sculptor  in  his 
mind,  that  when  his  subject  required  it  he  could  make 
use  of  them  in  a  way  seldom  perceived  in  the  artificial 
and  studied  positions  of  academical  figures.  His  appli- 
cation was  at  this  period  unremitting ;  and  none  could 
witness  such  unwearied  exertions,  united  with  so  much 
talent,  without  anticipating  for  our  artist  a  high  degree 
of  future  excellence  and  eminence.  Nor  did  he,  while 
closely  engaged  in  studies  immediately  connected  with 
his  profession,  pass  by  in  disregard  those  collateral 
branches  of  knowledge  which  might  give  correctness  to 
the  subordinate  embellishments  of  sculpture.  To  use 
the  words  of  his  friend,  the  younger  Falier, — '*He 
knew  how  to  instruct  himself  in  every  kind  of  informa- 
tion connected  with  literature  and  the  arts,  at  the  veir 
moment  when  his  heart  and  hand  were  occupied  with 
such  exquisite  address  in  giving  to  marble  life  and  move- 
ment." He  studied  ancient  and  modem  history,  espe- 
cially the  former.  Through  the  medium  of  translations, 
he  became  acquainted  with  most  of  the  classic  writers 
of  Greece  and  Italy ;  he  was  well  read  in  works  of  anti- 
quity, taste,  and  the  philosophy  of  the  arts,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  the  Spanish  and 
French  languages.  Respecting  the  former  there  appears 
some  doubt,  but  the  latter  he  studied  with  assiduity,  and 
spoke  with  fluency  and  elegance. 

This  general  plan  of  professional  study  was  followed 
by  Canova  during  nearly  seven  years,  tnree  of  which 
had  now  elapsed  since  the  production  of  his  statue  of 
Eurydice.  As  might  have  been  expected,  the  progress 
in  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  artist,  was  strongly 
marked  in  the  completion  of  the  group.  His  Orpheus 
which  now  appeared,  was  evidently  superior  to  its  com- 
panion, and  exhibited  wonderful  correctness,  with  the 
utmost  simplicity  and  closest  imitation  of  nature.  It 
was  wrought  in  soft  stone,  but  the  execution  was  such 
that  it  might  easily  have  been  taken  for  marble  tinted 
by  age.  There  was  a  custom  at  Venice  for  such  artists 
as  had  recently  finished  any  meritorious  performance,  to 
exhibit  it  publicly  in  the  square  of  St.  Marks,  at  the 
annual  festival  of  the  Ascension.  Induced  and  encou- 
raged by  his  friends,  Canova  so  far  overcame  his 
natural  diffidence  as  to  present  here  his  statue  of 
Orpheus.  As  this  was  his  first  attempt  to  bring  him- 
self into  public  notice,  his  feelings  were  proportionably 
agitated ;  but  his  apprehensions  as  to  the  result  of  this 
step,  were  soon  dissipated.  Though  the  style  of  his 
production  was  altogether  different  from  that  which  was 
generally  followed  at  that  period,  yet  the  simplicity  and 
truth  conspicuous  in  it,  called  forth  the  approbation  of 
every  person  of  genuine  taste  and  feeling,  while  the 
obscurity  of  the  author  shielded  him  from  the  envy  of 
rivals. 

From  this  period,  1776,  must  be  dated  the  commence- 
ment of  Canova's  success  and  reputation.  The  approba- 
tion bestowed  on  the  Orpheus,  bv  the  Venetian  public, 
was  ever  gratefully  remembered  by  Canova,  as  that 
which  made  him  a  sculptor.  After  an  interval  of 
many  years,  on  reading  a  letter  which  had  been  written 
at  this  period  and  in  which  his  success  was  recorded,  he 
appeared  greatly  affected,  and  exclaimed,  **  O  cari  amici! 
0  grati  tempi!  quindi  aono  divenuto  scutlore.**  (O 
dear  friends  I  O  delightful  times !  by  these  have  I  been 
rcnderei  a  iculptor.)    Nearly  half  a  century  after  this 


period,  and  when  his  fame  stood  so  high  that  we  might 
almost  expect  him  to  forget  the  circumstances  reiatii>g 
to  his  first  group,  he  shewed  his  gratitude  to  his  early 
patron  by  adopting,  when  Marquis  of  Ischia,  the  armo- 
rial bearings  of  the  serpent  and  (yr«,  the  mythological 
symbols  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice.  "  In  my  armorial 
bearings,"  'he  writes  to  the  younger  Falier,  '*  I  have 
adopted  the  emblems  of  Orpheus  and  Eurydice  in 
memory  of  these  my  first  two  statues,  ordered  of  me  by 
your  most  estimable  father,  from  which  statues  I  ought 
to  acknowledge  the  commencement  of  my  own  civil 
existence.'* 

After  the  exhibition  of  the  Orpheus,  Canova  found 
his  professional  employment  rapidly  increase.  The 
senator,  Grimani,  ordered  a  copy  of  that  statue,  in 
smaller  dimensions,  which  was  completed  about  a  year 
after  the  former,  in  Carrara  marble.  The  accommodation 
afforded  to  our  artist  by  the  kind  monks  of  St.  Stefano 
was  now  found  insufficient,  and  he  therefore  removed  to 
a  better  lighted  studio  in  the  street  or  lane  San  Mauii" 
zio,  where  he  continued  till  his  departure  from  Venice. 
The  following  year  he  produced  his  statue  of  Esculapiue 
in  proportions  larger  than  life.  This  work  was  comm  »i- 
sioned  by  the  MarchianeM  Spinolaf  but  from  a  change 
of  circumstances,  the  lady  was  obliged  to  relinquish  the 
contract;  thereby  causing  serious  inconvenience  to  the 
artist,  who  was  long  in  finding  another  purchaser. 
Canova  on  seeing  this  statue  in  after  years  is  said  to 
have  been  greatly  surprised  at  the  taste  and  mechanical 
skill  displayed  in  it,  and  to  have  regretted  that,  during 
half  a  vi  ntury,  his  progress  had  not  more  nearly  corre- 
sponded with  these  early  indications  of  excellence. 

The  most  important  and  celebrated  production  that 
had  yet  appeared,  was  completed  in  Canova's  twenty- 
second  year.  This  was  the  group  of  Daedalus  and 
Icarus,  executed  in  Carrara  marble,  at  the  request  of  the 
senator,  Pisani,  who  designed  it  for  a  niche  between  the 
double  entrance  doors  of  the  palace  fronting  the  grand 
canal.  Such  was  the  beauty  of  the  production,  however, 
that  it  was  deemed  too  valuable  to  be  thus  exposed,  and 
was  placed,  with  some  chefi  d^auvres  of  the  sister  art,  in 
an  inner  gallery  of  the  palace.  This  group  was  the  last 
work  of  importance  executed  by  Canova,  at  Venice. 
Highly  as  his  merits  were  now  estimated  in  that  city,  he 
felt  that  it  did  not  present  a  field  for  the  exercise  of  his 
abilities,  nor  afford  the  means  of  more  extensive  and 
refined  acquirements.  He  therefore  resolved  to  repair 
to  Rome  and  to  attempt  an  establishment  there.  To  aid 
this  enterprise,  his  friends  petitioned  the  Venetian  state 
for  a  pension,  that  he  might  be  thus  enabled  to  prosecute 
his  studies  without  embarrassment.  Canova  did  not 
wait  the  result  of  their  endeavours  in  his  behalf,  but 
leaving  this  affair  in  their  hands,  set  out  for  the  banks  of 
the  Tiber. 

Among  the  numerous  productions  of  our  artist,  th* 
specimens  of  his  skill  in  basso-relievo  must  not  be  over- 
looked. Our  frontispiece  represents  one  of  these,  being 
a  pleasing  group  illustrative  of  the  benevolent  offices  of 
Instruction. 

The  bassi-relievi  of  Canova  frequently  represent  the 
figures  of  the  natural  size,  and  though  exhibiting  great 
beauty  of  form,  delicacy  of  finish,  and  precision  of  out- 
line, are  said  to  be  often  deficient  in  strength,  from  the 
degree  of  relief  being  disproportionate  to  their  dimen- 
sions. They  have  been  compared  to  a  fine  picture,  where 
the  light  is  too  equally  diffused  over  the  whole  surface 
without  the  just  equivalent  of  shade.  "  In  lines  of  such 
extent,**  says  Memes,  "  it  would  have  been  well  if  the 
contours,  instead  of  losing  themselves  in  the  plain  of  the 
tablet,  had  been  rounded  off  to  a  certain  altitude ;  then 
cut  square,  as  in  many  of  the  most  admired  relievos  of 
antiquity :  a  bolder,  firmer,  and  deeper  shadow  is  thus 
cast,  and  a  more  vigorous  effect  produced." 


652-*9 


M 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


[Fbbruaht  6| 


CALCULATING  MACHINE& 
IIL    Babbagb*0  Calculating  Engine. 

In  the  present  paper  we  ihall  ilnwh  our  notice  of  calcu- 
lating machines,  hy  referring  to  Mr.  Bahbage*8  engine, 
and  in  doing  so  we  shall  consider,  first,  the  necessity  for 
such  a  machine, — secondly,  the  mathematical  principle 
on  which  it  is  constructed,— and,  thirdly^  the  sort  of 
mechanism  hy  which  it  performs  its  office. 

1.  Persons  whose  avocations  require  the  constant  aid 
of  arithmetical  or  other  tables  are  liable  to  be  led  into 
fluent  and  increasing  error,  unless  those  tables  be 
rigorously  correct.  In  the  nayigation  of  a  shin,  or  in 
the  preparation  of  an  almanac,  for  instance,  tables  are 
employed  to  an  extent  inconceivable  by  those  to  whom 
such  employments  are  foreign ;  and  in  the  higher  branches 
of  astronomy  the  extent  of  the  use  of  tables  is  still 
greater.  Now  these  tables,  being  the  work  of  human 
heads  and  hands,  are  liable  to  all  the  defects  incident  to 
inch  productions ;  and  it  is  accordingly  found  that  every 
table  which  has  been  yet  published  has  been  disfigured 
by  error  of  more  or  less  magnitude.  Tables  of  multi- 
pucation,  of  powers  and  roots,  of  trigonometrical  ele- 
ments, of  logarithms,  of  the  solar,  lunar,  and  planetary 
motions,  &C.,  have  been  computed  and  published  in 
various  oouiltries,  to  the  extent  of  many  hundred 
volumes;  and,  notwithstanding  the  extraordinary  care 
which  has  often  been  bestowed  on  their  preparation, 
there  is  scarcely  one  of  them  free  from  error,  more  or 
less.  In  a  multiplication  table,  (as  far  as  100  times 
1000,)  constructed  by  Dr.  Hutton  for  the  Board  of 
Longitude,  forty  errors  were  discovered  on  one  single 
page,  taken  at  random.  In  the  solar  and  lunar  tables 
from  whence  the  computations  were  formerly  made  for 
the  Nautical  Almanac,  more  than  five  hun^ured  errors 
were  found  by  one  nerson.  In  the  "Tables  requisite  to 
be  used  with  tiie  Nautical  Almanac"  more  than  one 
thousand  errors  were  detected  by  a  single  individual. 
In  certain  tables,  published  by  the  Board  of  Longitude, 
a  table  of  errata,  containing  eleven  hundred  errors,  was 
affixed  I  It  was  afterwards  found  necessary  to  have  an 
errata^  the  errata  1 1  and  one  instance  has  been  known 
of  an  erratum  of  the  errata  of  the  errata  1 1 1 

Now  such  a  mass  of  error  seriously  affects  the  com- 
putations into  which  these  tables  enter,  and  it  is  of 
course  desirable  to  devise  the  means  of  diminishing  the 
amount  of  such  error.  But  the  sources  of  error  are  so 
numerous  that  it  is  difficult  to  counteract  or  remedy 
them  all ;  for  instance,  some  result  from  falsely  computing, 
and  others  from  falsely  transcribing;  some  from  the 
compositor  taking  wrong  types,  and  others  from  a  dis- 
placement of  the  types,  by  the  inking-ball  used  by  the 
printers,  and  then  by  a  faul^  replacement  of  such 
types  by  the  pressman.  Mr.  Babbage  himself  published 
a  set  of  logarithmic  tables,  in  which,  notwithstanding  a 
degrree  of  care  which  had  perhaps  never  before  been 
bestowed  on  such  a  subject,  errors  were  detected*  even 
after  the  tables  were  stereotjrped. 

2.  These  circumstances,  amounting  almost  to  an  im- 
possibililT  of  producing  correct  tables  by  the  common 
method,  led  Mr.  Babbage,  about  twenty  years  ago,  to 
devise  a  mode  of  computing  and  printing  off  matiiema- 
tical  tables  by  a  machine;  for  it  was  found  that,  however 
correct  the  computation  might  have  been,  errors  of  the 
press  would  always  exist  under  the  common  method. 
Nearly  all  tables,  such  as  logarithms,  squares,  cubes, 
square  roots,  cube  roots,  sines,  tangents^  Ac,  consist  of 
numbers  which  either  increase  or  decrease,  according  to 
some  general  law,  and  it  is  therefore  for  the  most  part 
found  that,  whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  table,  it  can 
be  computed  by  a  continued  series  of  additions,  so  as 
to  come  within  the  scope  of  mechanical  action.  The 
formation  of  tables  by  a  constant  sucoessioti  of  additions 
depends  on  a  mathematical  property,  called  the  method 
of  differenceSf  which  we  must  endeavour  briefly  to 
explain. 


Let  us  take  a  series  'of  square  numbers,  that  is,  the 
squares  of  the  natural  numbers,  beginning  from  1. 


Km. 

Bqutfct. 

utDur. 

SBd.I>iff. 

1 
2 

1 
4 

3 
6 

7 

9 

11 

2 

S 

9 

3 

4 

16 

3 

6 

2ft 

3 

6 

36 

Thete  results  the  series  of  squares  1,  4,  9,  16,  25, 3$. 
Subtract  each  number  from  the  one  next  below  it,  that 
is,  1  from  4,  4  from  9,  &c  and  there  results  the  series 
3,  5,  7,  9,  11,  called  Ut  differences.  Again,  subtract 
each  one  of  these  last  obtained  numbers  from  the  one 
next  below  it,  land  we  shall  obtain  the  constant  number  2, 
called  2nd  differences.  Now  it  is  found  that  in  almost 
every  table,  consisting  of  numbers  increasing  or  de- 
creasing  according  to  some  general  law,  we  can  arrive  &i 
a  constant  difference,  bv  continual  subtraction.  Here  is 
another  example,  which  is  a  short  table  of  the  cubes,  or 
Zrd  powers  of  numbers : — 


NOfL 

Cubes.    '        D^ 

1 

D« 

D» 

1 

2 
3 

4 
6 
6 

7 

8 
9 

1 
8 

27 
64 

125 

216 
♦343' 

612 

729 

7 

19 

37 

61 

91 
127 
1  9 

217 

\ 

1 

12 
18 
24 
30 
36 
♦42 
48 

■ 

6 
6 
6 
6 

6 
•6 

Bv  subtracting  the  cubes  successively  one  from 
another,  we  get  a  series  of  numbers  forming  the  1st 
order  of  differences.  By  subtracting  similarly  the 
terms  of  this  series,  we  obtain  another  series,  fonnin^ 
the  ihid  order  of  differences,  and,  by  proceeding  in  like 
manner  a  third  time,  we  come  at  length  to  a  3rd  order 
of  differences,  in  which  the  terms  are  all  equal,  and 
which  is  the  constant  difference.  Something  more  or 
less  analogous  to  this  will  occur  in  almost  all  tables 
increasing  or  decreasing  according  to  a  certain  lav,  and 
we  can  now  show  how  these  differences  enable  us  to 
arrive  at  the  successive  terms  of  a  table,  by  mere  addi- 
tion. For  instance,  having  ascertained  in  the  preceding 
table  that  the  constant  difference  is  6,  that  there  are 
three  orders  of  differences,  and  that  their  first  terms  are 
6,  12,  and  7  respectively,  we  can  construct  the  2nd 
differences  by  adding  6  to  12,  and  then  6  to  this  sum, 
time  after  time.  Then  the  1st  differences  may  be 
obtained  by  adding  the  terms  in  the  2nd  differences  to  7, 
term  by  term,  and  so  on  until  we  at  length  arrive  at 
the  required  numbers,  nothing  being  necessary  through- 
out but  a  continual  process  of  addition.  In  some  tables 
it  is  found  that  we  arrive  at  a  column  of  differences 
which  remains  constant  for  a  certain  number  of  terms, 
and  then  acquires  a  slight  increase  or  decrease ;  but  even 
in  such  a  case,  a  periodical  change  of  the  constant  dif- 
ference will  be  all  that  is  necessary. 

Mr.  Babbage,  after  carefullv  considering  the  various 
properties  of  numbers,  selected  this  one,  viz.,  the  method 
of  differences,  as  the  basis  of  his  machine;  since,  after 
having  g^iyen  the  few  early  terms  of  a  series,  and  the 
first  term  of  each  of  the  several  orders  of  differences, 
the  subsequent  construction  of  the  table  depends  wholly 
on  a  continued  succession  of  additions,  a  process  which 
is  more  readily  within  the  power  of  machinery  than  any 
other.  In  fiact,  as  exemplifying  the  necessity  for  such  a 
machine,  in  order  to  insure  accuracy  in  the  unceasing 
and  monotonous  operations  of  addition,  we  will  relate  a 
curious  but  weU-known  ftjti. 
^  During  the  time  of  the  French  republic,  it  was  decided 


:b4io 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


ft3 


upon  by  the  goyernment  of  tliat  country,  to  eonitraeta 
vast  system  of  logarithmic  and  trigonometric  tables,  such 
as  did  not  then  exist,  and  which  might  serve  as  a  store 
of  calculation  for  ever.  M .  Prony,  who  was  appointed  to 
preside  over. this  undertaking,  adopted  with  success  the 
useful  principle  of  the  division  of  labour.  He  distri- 
buted the  persons  engaged  in  this  undertaking  into  three 
sections :  die  first  consisted  of  half-a-dozen  of  the  most 
eminent  analysts,  whose  duty  it  was  to  investigate  the 
most  convenient  mathematical  formulas,  which  should 
enable  the  computers  to  proceed  with  the  greatest  expe- 
dition and  accuracy  by  the  method  of  differences.  These 
formulae,  when  decided  upon  by  the  first  section,  were 
handed  over  to  the  second,  which  consisted  of  about  ten 
properly  qualified  mathematicians.  It  was  the  duty  of 
this  second  section  to  convert  into  numbers  certain 
general  or  algebraical  expressions  which  occurred  in  the 
formulae,  so  as  to  prepare  them  for  the  computers.  They 
were  then  given  to  the  third  section,  who  formed  a  body 
of  nearly  a  hundred  computers,  whose  office  it  was  to 
make  up  the  numbers,  finally  intended  for  the  tables, 
and  those,  who  in  this  case  committed  fewest  errors, 
were  those  who  understood  nothing  but. mere  addition! 
This  shows  that,  as  such  persons  were  little  better  than 
machines,  so  a  regular  machine  would  achieve  its  work 
one  degree  better,  that  is,  by  ensuring  perfect  accuracy. 

The  body  of  tables  thus  calculated,  contained  in  manu- 
script seventeen  folio  volumes,  but  were  never  published. 
The  printing  of  them  was  commenced,  and  a  small  por- 
tion was  actually  stereotyped:  but  soon  after  the  com- 
mencement of  this  undertaking,  the  sudden  fall  of 
the  assignats,  rendered  it  impossible  for  the  printer 
to  fulfil  his  contract  with  the  government.  The  British 
government  offered  5000/.  towards  the  completion  of  this 
work,  but  political  circumstances  perhaps  prevented  its 
re-ad(mtion,  and  it  has  never  been  resumed. 

3.  The  fact,  therefore,  stands  clear,  that  persons  who 
knew  only  addition,  worked  throughout  nearly  correct ; 
and  that  a  machine,  which  acts  only  by  performing 
addition,  is  throughout  guiie  correct.  We  therefore  now 
proceed  to  take  a  cursory  glance  of  the  mechanism  of  Mr. 
Babbage's  machine. 

He  provided  as  many  dial-faces  as  tnere  were  orders 
of  differences,  plus  the  origial  series,  in  the  particular 
table  which  he  desired  to  construct,  multiplied  by  the 
number  of  figures,  to  which  each  term  would  extend:  for 
instance,  if,  as  we  have  supposed  in  the  annexed  figure, 
each  term  should  extend  to  four  places  of  figures,  and  if 
the  series  of  terms  had  three  orders  of  differences  be- 
sides the  original  series  itself,  there  would  be  sixteen  dial- 
faces  arranged  in  a  square.  Each  dial  is  marked  with 
the  ten  digits  arranged  round  in  a  circle,  and  above  each 
disc  is  a  mark  which  serves  as  an  index.  Each  dial  is 
also  fixed  on  the  face  of  a  wheel,  whose  circumference 
is  cither  toothed,  or  provided  with  projecting  pins  which 
can  be  inserted  into  an  adjoining  wheel.  The  object  to 
he  attained  then  is  to  make  the  dials  above  any  particu- 
lar order  of  differences  revolve,  in  proportion  to  the 
number  contained  in  the  order  of  differences  next 
below  it. 

For  the  sake  of  illustration,  we  shall  therefore  sup- 
pose that  the  table  to  be  calculated  shall  co:*.sist  of  num- 
bers not  exceeding  two  or  three  places  of  figures,  and 
that  the  difference  of  the  third  order  is  the  constant 
difference,  as  in  the  last  preceding  table.  When  the 
dials  revolve,  the  numbers  passu  as  they  increase,  under 
the  index  over  each  dial,  that  is,  from  left  to  right. 

Now  we  will  suppose  that  the  line  dMs  to  be  added  to 
the  line  T.  To  effect  this,  the  dials  on  the  line  d^  re- 
main still,  while  those  on  the  line  t  are  so  moved,  that 
as  many  divisions  on  each  dial  shall  pass  under  its  index, 
as  there  are  units  in  the  number  at  the  index  just  below 
it  If  o  be  at  any  index  on  d\  the  dial  above  it  does 
not  more.  In  like  manner,  the  d'  is  added  to  the  lin« 
n*.    When  two  figures  added  together  make  more  than 


9,  a  carrying  of  1  has  to  be  madd;  and  the  dial  to  the 
left  is  accordingly  advanced  one  division :  Hence,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  machine  from  being  burthened  with 
more  mechanism  than  is  necessary,  the  additions  are  per- 
formed in  two  successive  periods  of  time,  and  the  carry- 
ings in  two  other  periods  of  time,  thus : — If  one  com- 
plete revolution  of  the  axis,  which  moves  the  machinery, 
makes  one  complete  set  of  additions  and  carryings,  the 
Jir»t  quarter  of  a  turn  of  the  axis  will  add  the  second 
and  fourth  rows  to  the  first  and  third,  without  carrying, 
which  will  be  effected  by  the  second  quarter  of  a  turn. 
The  third  quarter  of  a  turn  will  add  the  second  and 
third  rows  together,  and  the  Jburth  will  carry  if  neces- 
sary. 

In  the  miniature  representation  which  accompanies  this 
slight  description,  we  will  suppose  a  computation  to  have 
proceeded  as  fiur  as  the  cube  of  7  which  is  343,  This 
number  appears  therefore  in  the  highest  row,  and  the 
several  differences,  as  far  as  the  third,  which  is  constant, 
are  shown  in  the  successive  rows  of  dials  beneath.  In  the 
last  preceding  table,  which  concurs  with  these  dials,  the 
differences  alluded  to,  are  noarked;  and  by  comparing  the 
table  with  the  dials  it  will  be  seen  how  the  process  goes 
on,  and  that,  at  the  completion  of  one  revolution  of  the 
axis  of  the  machine,  the  row  t  will  giue  0512,  d'  0217» 
D*  0048,  D»  0007. 


The  machine  occupies  a  space  about  ten  feet  broad, 
ten  feet  high,  and  five  feet  deep.  In  the  foregoing 
description  we  have,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  somewhat 
varied  from  the  actual  mechanism.  There  are,  in  fact, 
seven  vertical  axes  in  front  of  the  machine,  each  con- 
taining eighteen  wheels,  with  their  edges  presented  to 
the  eye ;  and  round  the  edge  of  every  wheel  the  liumbera 
from  0  to  9  are  written.  The  eighteen  wheels  are  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  a  computation  as  far  as  eighteen 
places  of  figures ;  and  the  seven  wheels  in  width  are  for 
constructing  tables  which  have  as  many  as  six  orders  of 
differences.  Seven  other  axes  are  placed  behind  the 
front  ones,  and  are  mounted  with  wheels  connected  with 
the  moving  parts  of  the  machinery.  The  dials  are 
placed  vertically  one  below  the  other,  and  read  from  top 
to  bottom:  their  axes  are  vertical,  and  their  planes 
horizontal.  This  arrangement  saves  space,  and  lessens 
the  amount  of  friction.  The  wheels  of  the  last  column, 
which  g^ves  the  constant  difference,  always  remain  still, 
and  are  of  course  adjusted  by  the  hand,  when  the  cal- 
culation of  a  new  table  is  about  to  commence.    When 


54 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


[FxBRUAjtr  €, 


anything  goes  wrong,  or  any  new  adjustment  has  to  be 
made,  the  machinery  rings  a  bell  1 

The  reader  would  perhaps  desire  to  learn,  and  we 
should  be  happy  to  describe,  were  it  possible,  the  actual 
movements  by  which  all  these  axes  and  wheels  effect  the 

Srocess  of  computation;  but,  when  we  state  that  the 
rawings  of  the  various  parts,  constructed  by,  or  under, 
Mr.  Babbage,  cover  one  thousand  square  feet  of  surface, 
and  that  the  machine  is  one  of  the  most  complicated 
assemblage  of  parts  that  the  hand  of  man  has  ever  de- 
visedt  it  is  obvious  that  we  must  not  attempt  such  a 
task.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  every  kind  of  mechanical 
agent  is  brought  more  or  less  into  effect:  cog-wheels, 
ratchet-wheels,  bolts,  teeth,  claws,  racks,  levers,  wedges, 
screws, — all  are  employed;  and  in  such  vast  number, 
that  none  but  persons  accustomed  to  inspect  machinery 
can  avoid  being  bewildered  by  their  enumeration. 

Perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  part  of  the  machine 
is,  that  it  prints  the  tables  as  fast  as  it  calculates  them. 
When  one  of  the  dial-wheels  is  in  such  a  position  as  to 
indicate  any  particular  figure  of  the  table,  some  mechan- 
ism at  the  back  raises  a  curved  arm,  containing  several 
figure-punches.  A  plate  of  copper  is  brought  near  the 
bent  arm,  and,  by  a  sudden  blow,  an  impression  of  the 
required  figure  is  punched  in  the  copper;  and  the  figure 
80  punched  always  corresponds  witn  that  indicated  on 
the  dial.  The  plate  is  shifted  from  place  to  place,  until 
it  is  punched  all  over  with  figures  arranged  in  a  tabular 
form.  The  plate  thus  stamped  may  be  either  used  as 
*an  engraved  copper-plate,  and  printed  from  in  that  form ; 
or  may  be  used  as  a  mould,  from  whence  stereotyped 
plates  may  be  produced. 

When  Mr.  Babbage  had  advanced  some  way  in  the 
construction  of  a  model-machine,  and  had  ascertained 
that  the  principle  on  which  he  was  proceeding  was  capa- 
ble of  effecting  the  desired  object,  the  subject  was  taken 
up  by  government,  and  made  a  national  concern,  on  the 
ground  that  no  private  individual  could  reap  from  such 
an  invention  a  return  adequate  to  the  necessary  outlay ; 
and  on  the  ground,  also,  that  government  were  desirous 
of  affording  to  the  navy  all  possible  means  of  obtaining 
correct  tables  for  the  computation  of  latitude,  longitude, 
&c.  The  government  applied  to  the  Royal  Society  to 
report  on  the  degree  of  progress  which  Mr.  Babbage 
had  made,  and  on  the  probability  of  the  machine,  when 
completed,  effecting  all  that  had  been  anticipated  from 
it.  The  report  was  very  favourable,  conveying  the 
opinion  of  the  scientific  men  composing  the  committee  of 
inquiry,  that  the  proposed  end  was  desirable ;  that  it  was 
attainable  on  the  plan  adopted  by  Mr.  Babbage;  and 
that  that  gentleman  was  fully  equal  to  the  task  of  carry- 
ing it  out. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  machine  as  if  it  were  com- 
pleted, or,  at  least,  as  it  is  intended  to  be  completed. 
But,  in  fact,  it  is  not  yet  in  operation,  nor  even  near 
completion.  More  than  twenty  years  have  elapsed  since 
the  first  commencement  of  the  model,  during  the  whole 
of  which  time  new  difficulties  have  occurred,  and  have 
been  conquered  one  by  one.  Still,  however,  the  machine 
is  not  completed,  and  we  are  not  exactly  aware  what  are 
the  causes  of  the  long  delay ; — whether  it  results  wholly 
from  the  unprecedented  difficulties  of  the  undertaking, 
or  whether  pecuniary  difficulties  have  retarded  the  pro- 
gress; but  every  lover  of  astronomy,  of  navigation,  or  of 
general  science,  must  ardently  desire  the  completion  of 
so  noble  a  specimen  of  genius  and  perseverance.  We 
believe  that  the  machine,  so  far  as  it  is  yet  constructed, 
is  national  property;  and  that  Mr.  Babbage  has  neither 
received,  nor  desires  to  receive,  any  pecuniary  benefit 
from  the  invention.  If  this  be  really  the  case,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  a  more  honourable  position  than  that 
which  the  inventor  must  occupy  in  the  estimation  of  all 
to  whom  the  well-being  of  society,  and  its  advancement 
in  knowledge,  is  a  desirable  object. 


BROCADE. 


Some  o'er  hec  lap  their  careful  plumes  dUplaj'd, 
Trembling,  and  conscious  of  (he  rich  brocade. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  a  favourite  but 
costly  stuff  for  dresses  was  formed  of  gold,  silver  and 
silken  threads,  enriched  with  flowered  ornaments  of  the 
same  materials :  this  was  called  brocade.  At  the  present 
day,  however,  all  stuffs,  grograms,  satins,  taffetas,  and 
lustrings  are  called  brocades,  if  they  are  adorned  with 
flowers  or  other  figures. 

In  the  preparation  of  gold  brocade  many  ingtnious 
devices  have  been  resorted  to  for  diminishing  the  costli- 
ness of  the  article,  by  employing  as  small  a  quantity  as 
possible  of  the  precious  metals.  In  the  preparation  of 
the  threads  for  the  brocade,  a  flattened  silver-gilt  wire  or 
riband  was  spun  on  silk  which  had  been  previously  dyed 
as  near  as  possible  of  a  gold  colour ;  and  the  chief  merit 
in  preparing  gold  threads  was  so  to  regulate  the  convo- 
lutions of  the  metallic  covering  of  the  silk,  that  its 
edges  should  be  in  close  contact  and  form  a  continuous 
casing  without  any  overlapping  or  interstices. 

In  all  manufactures  a  great  demand  for  an  article 
is  a  sufficient  stimulus  to  ingenious  persons  to  contrire 
the  very  best  possible  methods  for  its  production ;  and 
accordingly,  we  find  that  at  the  time  when  gold  brocade 
was  much  in  request,  the  manufacture  of  the  thread, 
upon  which  branch  much  of  the  brocade  depended,  was 
in  a  state  of  great  excellence,  and  some  manufacturers 
were  so  jealous  of  their  skill  as  to  keep  their  pro- 
•  cesses  strictly  secret.  Among  others,  there  existed  at 
Milan  a  large  manufactory,  where  by  a  secret  process, 
flattened  wire,  gilt  on  one  side  only,  was  made.  Nurem- 
burg,  the  great  toy -shop  of  Europe,  furnished  an  infe- 
rior description  of  thread,  made  by  spinning  gilt  copper 
wire  on  flaxen  or  hempen  threads.  The  economical 
Chinese  employed  slips  of  gilt-paper  twisted  upon  silk: 
— sometimes  they  even  twisted  the  paper  without  any 
internal  support,  into  long  spiral  rolls  and  introduced  it 
into  their  dresses.  But  as  these  golden  tissues  were  by 
no  means  permanent  when  worn  about  the  person,  the 
Chinese  confined  their  use  chiefly  to  the  tapestries  and 
internal  decorations  of  their  houses. 

About  the  thirteenth  century  a  very  flourishing  manu- 
facture of  brocades  existed  at  Lucca ;  but  in  the  year 
1310  the  artisans  being  oppressed  by  the  government, 
fled  to  Venice,  where  they  were  encouraged  to  resume 
their  trade,  and  for  a  long  period  they  continued  to 
carry  it  on  with  considerable  success. 

The  Venetians  invented  a  new  form  of  brocade  which 
they  named  damatquitte.  Although  it  contained  no 
more  than  half  the  quantity  of  gold  and  silver  usually 
employed  in  making  brocade,  yet  its  appearance  was  far 
more  costly  and  beautiful.  The  flattened  wires  were 
not  placed  so  closely  together  on  the  silk  threads,  and 
the  number  of  these  threads  in  weaving  was  diminished. 
But  the  great  secret  of  the  economy  seems  to  consist  in 
passing  the  manufactured  stuffs  in  a  peculiar  manner 
between  rollers  with  great  pressure,  so  as  to  partially 
crush  the  wire  threads;  by  this  means  the  ornamental 
pattern  appeared  like  one  entire  brilliant  surface  of  gold 
or  silver. 

This  process  was  long  kept  a  secret ;  but  about  (he 
middle  of  the  last  century  the  spirit  of  commercial 
rivalry  prompted  the  French  Government  to  attempt  a 
similar  manufacture.  In  this  attempt  they  were  as- 
sisted by  M.  Vaucanson,  so  celelebrated  for  his  automalie 
achievements,  who  erected  machinery  at  Lyons,  and  pre- 
sented an  account  of  his  proceedings  to  the  French 
Academy  in  the  year  1757. 

The  rollers  employed  by  M*  Vaucanson  wore,  the 
upper  one  of  wo(k1,  and  the  lower  one  of  copper,  the 
latter  being  made  hollow,  for  the  insertion  of  iron  heaters. 
In  the  early  attempts  it  was  found  that  the  united  force 


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THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


M 


of  ten  men  was  acarce«y  sufficient  so  to  work  the  rollers 
as  to  extend  the  pkting  of  the  wire  threads;  and  the 
great  amount  of  force  so  deranged  the  machinery  in 
which  the  rollers  were  placed,  that  the  effects  of  pressure 
on  the  cloth  were  always  varying.  Among  many  other 
inconveniences,  the  wooden  rollers  were  constantly 
splitting  or  warping,  in  consequence  of  the  mode  of 
forcing  the  rollers  together.  M.  Vaucanson,  therefore, 
contrived  a  method  whereby  the  pressure  should  always 
adjust  itself  to  any  inequalities  in  the  stuff,  or  in  the 
bearings  of  the  machine.  The  axis  of  the  copper  roller 
he  made  to  turn  between  anti-friction  rollers,  while  the 
wooden  roller  was  forced  upwards  by  levers  at  the  ends. 
Each  lever  had  its  short  arm  supported  on  the  frame  of 
the  machine,  and  the  long  arm  was  drawn  up  by  an  iron 
rod  communicating  with  the  short  arm  of  a  horizontal 
lever,  to  which  at  its  long  arm  was  hung  a  weight;  and 
these  levers  were  so  proportioned  that  thirty  pounds  only 
would  produce  a  pressure  between  the  rollers  equal  to 
17,000  or  18,000  pounds.  This  force  was  found  suffi- 
cient, and  it  was  so  effectual  that  the  efforts  of  four  men 
in  turning  the  rollers  answered  the  purpose  better  than 
ten  men  in  the  former  case. 

The  copper  roller  was  heated  by  the  insertion  of  four 
red-hot  iron  bars.  After  two  or  three  pieces  of  cloth 
had  been  rolled,  a  fresh  wooden  roller  was  employed, 
since  the  heat,  if  long  continued,  was  sure  to  split  it. 
The  heated  wooden  roller  was  wrapped,  as  soon  as  it 
was  removed,  in  cloths,  and  placed  in  an  atmosphere 
from  which  it  might  acquire  moisture.  The  heat  and 
pressure  thus  employed  to  extend  the  gilding  were  found 
greatly  to  improve  the  brilliancy  of  white  and  yellow 
silks,  but  to  impair  that  of  crimson,  green,  and  other 
colours. 

It  will  be  seen,  from  what  we  have  already  stated, 
that  brocade  was  a  very  costly  article  of  dress ;  not  only 
from  the  amount  of  precious  metal  employed,  and  the 
tedious  and  expensive  mode  of  manufacture,  but  also 
from  its  evanescent  nature.  A  brocade  dress  was  very 
liable  to  become  tarnished;  when  such  was  the  case,  the 
mode  of  washing  was  also  costly.  A  soft  brush,  dipped 
in  warm  spirits  of  wine,  is  said  to  be  the  only  method  of 
restoring  tarnished  brocade.  Brocade  powders  were  in 
vogue  at  the  time  this  sumptuous  dress  was  in  fashion, 
but  they  were  ineffectual,  because,  from  the  extreme 
thinness  of  the  metal,  it  was  easily  scratched  or  worn 
away  by  the  friction  even  of  the  most  impalpable  powder. 

Brocade  continued  to  be  used  in  ornamenting  drawing- 
room  furniture,  long  after  it  had  ceased  to  adorn  the 
persons  of  beaux  and  belles.  In  1798  some  brocade 
chair-bottoms,  for  Carlton  House,  were  produced  at 
Spitalfields,  and  are  said  to  be  still  in  existence.  There 
IS  no  doubt  that  should  the  vane  of  that  wecithercock. 
Fashion,  again  point  out  gold  and  silver  brocade  as  a 
desirable  article  of  attire,  our  modem  manufactures 
would  soon  equal,  if  not  surpass,  the  costliest  productions 
of  former  days.  To  those  who  are  anxious  for  such  a 
result  let  us  recommend  the  remarks  of  the  Spectator, 
which,  though  written  a  hundred  and  thirty  years  ago, 
are  still  applicable,  because  they  refer  to  one  of  the 
weaknesses  of  human  nature. 

A  furbelow  of  precious  stones,  a  hat  buttoned  with  a  dia- 
mond, a  brocade  waistcoat  or  gown,  are  standing  topics  of 
conversiition.  In  short,  they  only  consider  the  drapery  of 
the  species,  and  never  cast  away  a  thought  on  those  orna- 
ments of  the  mind,  that  make  pemons  illustrious  in  them- 
selves and  usefttl  to  others.  When  persons  are  thus  per- 
petually dazzling  one  another's  imaginations,  and  filling 
their  heads  with  nothing  but  colours^  it  is  no  wonder  that 
thoy  are  more  attentive  to  the  superncial  parts  of  life  than 
the  solid  and  substantial  blessings  of  it. 


The  love  of  novelty  often  leads  us  firom  old  established 
fiivourites  to  less  interesting  objects;  and  when  Fashion 
poinU  the  way,  we  follow  as  if  this  tyiaat  directress  were 
mcnpable  of  error. — ^Philups. 


POISONOUS  ARTICLES  OF  FOOD. 

I. 

MUSHROOMS. 

Maky  hundred  species  of  the  Agarieusy  or  mushroomt 
are  enumerated  by  botanists,  as  being  distributed  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  g^reat  part  of  Asia* 
Africa,  and  America.  Of  these,  the  people  of  thii 
country  esteem  but  three  as  eatable,  but  the  inhabitants 
of  various  parts  of  the  Continent  make  use  of  a  much 
greater  number,  and  it  is  said  that  in  the  Tuscan  markets 
not  less  than  three  hundred  different  species  are  offered 
for  sale.  Almost  all  writers  agree  in  considering  mush* 
rooms  as  very  difficult  of  digestion,^  and  hence  an 
improper  article  of  diet,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  most 
wholesome  kinds  will  sometimes  produce,  in  those  not 
accustomed  to  them,  symptoms  of  indigestion,  of  a  most 
distressing,  and  often  alarming  kind. 

Dr.  Christison  and  others  believe  that  they  may  be 
rendered  less  unwholesome  by  more  attention  being  paid 
to  the  cookery  than  is  usual,  but,  as  every  medical 
opinion  must  have  its  opposite.  Dr.  Schwcegnochen,  of 
Leipzig,  declares  they  are  only  innocent  when  eaten  raw, 
and  states,  as  a  proof  thereof,  that  during  his  botanical 
excursions  he  has  always  been  accustomed  to  diet  him- 
self like  the  peasants,  viz.,  upon  crude  mushrooms  and 
bread,  and,  so  far  from  finding  them  disagree  with  hun, 
he  has  always  on  these  occasions  gained  flesh.  Pallas 
states  also  that  the  inhabitants  of  many  districts  of 
Asiatic  Russia  live  almost  exclusively  during  Lent  on 
bread  and  fungi,  which  they  eat  almost  indiscriminately, 
and  without  evil  consequences.  Mushrooms  formed  a 
favourite  dish  among  the  ancient  epicures,  and  frequent 
mention  is  made  of  them  by  Horace,  Juvenal,  and 
Martial. 

Dr.  Greville  enumerates  twenty-six  species,  growing 
abundantly  in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  most  of 
which  are  considered  as  eatable  abroad.  We,  however, 
reject  all  but  three,  as  dangerous  or  poisonous:  these 
are,  1,  Agaricus  campestrisy  the  common  mushroom, 
so  well  known  by  its  fragrant  odour,  and  button-like 
form,  when  young;  2,  Agaricus  Georgiiy  which  some- 
times reaches  an  immense  size ;  3,  AgaHcut  pratensis,  or 
Scotch  bonnet,  occurring  in  the  patches  termed  fairy 
rings.  It  is  very  possible  by  this  limitation  we  may  reject 
several  kinds  which  might  be  safely  eaten,  yet  is  such 
an  error  much  safer  than  the  too  indiscriminate  use  of 
this  vegetable  on  the  Continent,  for  the  French  medical 
journals  record  no  less  than  one  hundrnd  deaths  from 
eating  mushrooms,  as  occurring  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris, 
during  the  space  of  thirty  years,  viz.,  between  1 749  and 
1783.  Severe  epidemics  have  been  also  sometimes 
traced  to  the  same  source.  It  has  been  sometimes 
attempted  to  explain  the  deaths  arising  from  eating  mush- 
rooms, as  depending  upon  some  peculiarity,  or  idiosyn- 
cracy,  as  it  is  termed,  in  the  individuals  affected,  which 
disposes  them  to  be  injuriously  affected  by  articles  of 
diet,  which  in  their  general  operations  are  harmless,  or 
even  beneficial,  to  others ;  or  again,  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  mushrooms  may  have  become  minglea  with 
some  poisonous  matter,  by  being  cooked  in  copper  ves- 
sels. Undoubtedly,  both  tnese  causes  may  have  produced 
injurious,  or  even  fatal  effects,  in  some  cases,  but  an 
immense  number  of  experiments  and  observations  have 
proved  beyond  doubt,  that  a  truly  poisonous  substance, 
(the  nature  of  which  is  however  not  known,)  is  con- 
tained in  several  species  of  mushrooms.  As  a  proof, 
however,  either  that  some  constitutional  peculiarities 
sometimes  influence  the  operation  of  this  vegetable 
upon  the  system,  or  that  climate  and  situation  modify 
its  properties,  we  may  mention  that  the  Agaricus  piper- 
iliSf  or  pepper  mushroom,  which  is  thought  by  us  to  be 
very  hurtful,  is  largely  consumed  in  Russia.  The  Agari- 
cus muscariuSf  the  red,  or  bug  (so  called  from  its 
destroying  this  animal)  mushroom,   which  is   deemed 


M 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[FxBRUART  6;  iMa 


rankly  poisonous  in  Britain,  is  used  by  the  Russians  and 
Kamschadales  for  the  pumoses  of  intoxication.  Dr. 
Lang^orff  says  the  Asiatic  .Russians,  who  call  it  mucho" 
morgef  use  it  dry  in  the  form  of  pills,  and  that  one 
large,  or  two  small  mushrooms  are  enough  for  a  day's 
debauch.  In  an  hour  or  two  the  same  symptoms  which 
with  us  follow  taking  wine  manifest  themselves,  and  a 
surprising  degree  of  muscular  activity  and  energy  is 
developed  for  a  while.  The  Konacks  use  it  as  a  tonic 
for  invalids,  much  as  we  do  wine. 

That  mushrooms  were  occasionally  poisonous,  was  well 
known  in  ancient  times,  and  the  writings  of  the  Greek, 
Roman,  and  Arabian  physicians,  contain  many  cautions 
and  precepts  upon  the  subject.  They  have  even  been 
criminally  given  in  order  to  produce  this  effect,  and  thus 
Agrippina,  the  mother  of  Nero,  is  said  to  have  poisoned 
Claudius  by  their  means,  to  accelerate  the  succession  of 
her  son,  who  called  them  *'food  for  the  gods,"  and 
frequently  had  recourse  to  them  for  similar  purposes, 
during  his  iniquitous  reign.  The  instances  of  accidental 
poisoning  in  modem  times  are  unfortunately  but  too 
frequent.  The  symptoms  are  often  five  or  six  hours 
before  they  maniiest  themselves,  even  fifteen  or  twenty- 
four  have  sometimes  elapsed:  the  fatal  substance  having 
undergone  the  process  of  digestion,  and  mingled  with 
and  corrupted  all  the  juices  of  the  body,  before  exhibiting 
any  external  signs  of  its  presence:  these  even  are  often 
obscure  and  unintelligible  at  first;  an  irrepressible  pro- 
pensity to  laughter  and  general  exhiliration,  usually 
herald  in  the  vomiting,  griping,  and  diarrhoea;  then  follow 
sooner  or  later,  fainting,  stupefaction,  and  death.  The 
effects  of  the  poison  are  as  slow  in  their  progpress  as  in 
their  onset,  and  the  patient  may  linger  days  before  the 
fatal  moment. arrives.  The  musician,  Schobert,  and  his 
family,  together  with  a  friend  and  a  physician,  having 
partook  of  a  dish  of  mushrooms,  gathered  near  Paris, 
were  all  poisoned.  Mr.  Brande  has  related  the  case  of  a 
man  who  gathered  some  small  mushrooms  in  the  Green 
Park,  the  Agaricus  semi-'globcUtu  of  Withering,  and 
Agaricui  glutinonu  of  Curtis.  Himself,  wife,  and  four 
children,  were  all  severely  affected,  but  by  the  use  of 
appropriate  measures  recovered.  Mr.  Parrot  relates 
also  the  case  of  a  family  of  six,  who  supped  on  stewed 
mushrooms :  the  father  and  mother  eventually  recovered 
after  a  severe  illness,  but  three  of  the  children  were 
carried  off  after  lingering  a  few  days.  The  noxious 
species  of  mushrooms  are  equally  huitful  to  man  as  to 
animals,  and  no  kind  of  culinary  treatment  seems  to 
deprive  them'  of  their  dangerous  properties.  A  very 
small  admixture  of  a  bad  with  a  good  species  suffices  to 
produce  ill  effects. 

In  regard  to  the  treatment  of  persons  poisoned  by 
inushrooms,  or  indeed  by  any  other  description  of  dele- 
terious food,  it  cannot  be  too  generally  known  thai  the 
prompt  administration  of  an  emetic  is  the  best  remedy. 
This  may  consist  of  a  spoonful  or  two  of  mustard,  or  a 
scruple  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  mixed  with  water.  As  the 
poison  of  the  mushroom  is  so  slow  in  its  operations,  the 
use  of  the  emetic  will  often  be  attended  witn  the  happiest 
results.  The  subsequent  treatment  of  the  case  will 
depend  upon  many  circumstances,  of  which  we  need 
g^ve  no  account,  as  it  should  only  be  undertaken  under 
the  superintendence  of  a  professional  man. 

An  important  and  difficult  point  has  properly  occupied 
the  attention  of  many  observers,  viz.,  the  sig^s  by  which 
we  can  distinguish  the  dangerous  from  the  innocent 
species  of  mushroom.  The  botanical  definitions  are  very 
minute,  yet  not  sufficiently  directed  to  this  point,  while 
the  sensible  differences  between  the  esculent  and  the 
noxious  kinds  depend  sometimes  upon  such  shades  of 
distinction,  as  to  be  quite  inappreciable  by  those  little 
accustomed  to  such  investigations.  Nevertheless,  some 
facts,  gathered  from  practical  observation,  have  been 
accumulatedi  which  render  considerable  assistance  to  the 
en<|uirer. 


Miller  thus  describes  'the  common  mushroom  >« 
"When  young  it  appears  of  a  roundish  form,  smooth 
like  a  button,  which  with  its  stalk  is  white,  especially  thi 
fleshy  part  of  the  button :  the  gills  within,  when  broken, 
are  livid.  As  it  grows  larger,  it  expands  its  head  by  d^ 
gprees  into  a  flat  form :  the  gills  aro  at  first  of  a  pale  flesk 
colour,  but  become  blackish  by  standing." 
•  Professor  Orfila  says, — "  All  those  growing  in  moist 
and  marshy  grounds,  in  the  shade,  as  in  forests,  must  be 
rejected  as  bad;  they  are  always  found  too  soft,  porous, 
and  moist,  and  have  a  dirty  disagreeable  appearance. 
Those  which  change  colour  when  cut,  have  a  strong 
pungent  odour,  or  are  of  a  shining  or  varied  colour,  are 
dangerous ;  so  are  those  which  insects  have  bitten  and 
left,  or  which  have  bulbous  or  soft  stems,  or  fragments 
of  skin  glued  to  their  surface.  Those  of  very  rapid 
growth  and  decay  are  bad.  Although  many  are  said  to 
lose  their  poisonous  properties  when  dried,  this  obserra- 
tion  will  apply  only  to  some  species." 

A  recent  writer  upon  the  subject  states,  that  all  mush- 
rooms  having  the  following  characters  are  poisonous: 
1st,  when  the  cap  is  very  thin  in  proportion  to  the  gilb; 
2nd,  when  the  stalk  grows  from  one  side  of  the  cap; 
3rd,  when  the  gills  are  of  equal  length;  4th,  when  a 
milky  juice  is  present;  5th,  those  which  soon  run  into  a 
dark  watery  liquid;  6th,  when  the  collar  surrounding 
the  stalk  is  thrc»idy,  or  resembling  a  spider  s  web. 

De  CandoUe  declares  that  all  kinds  may  be  eaten, 
with  the  exception  of  the  following: — 1st,  coriaceous  or 
ligneous  kinds;  2nd,  those  which  have  collars  in  their 
stems;  3rd,  those  which  have  an  &crid  taste;  4th,  those 
which  turn  blue  on  being  cut*   . 

Dr.  Greville  recommends  collectors  to  taste  all  thej 
gather,  and  to  reject  those  which  produce  an  acrid  or 
astringent  sensation,  as  also  those  which  have  a  pungent 
or  disagreeable  smeU.  The  importance  and  difficulty  of 
this  point  may  be  judged  of  by  the  ciroumstance  of  some 
of  the  continental  nations  having  found  itpecessary  to 
pass  formal  decrees  upon. the  subject.  -  Thus  it  has  been 
ordered  in  Austria,  that  the  inspector  of  the  market  must 
produce  proof  of  haying  attended  lectures  upon  the  sub- 
ject, and  familiarized  himself  with  the  botanical  distinc- 
tions of  the  various  species  of  mushrooms,  while  works 
upon  the  same  topic,  must  be  in  the  possession  of  the 
magistrate.  Similar  decrees  were  issued  in  France  in 
the  time  of  Napoleon. 

'  INFANTILE  POEM, 

WRITTEV  rOK   LORD    HASTIWGS'  CHILDREtf 
BT  Z.A.DT  VLOIU.  HAflTXKOS. 

6xT  up,  little  sister,  the  morning  is  bright, 
And  the  birds  are  all  singing  to  welcome  tiie  light; 
The  buds  are  all  opening — the  dew's  on  the  flower  f 
If  yon  shake  bat  a  branch,  see  there  &Us  quite  a  shower. 

By  the  side  of  their  mothers,  look,  under  the  trees, 
How  the  young  fawns  are  skipping  about  as  they  please  t 
And  by  oil  those  rings  on  the  water,  I  know 
The  fisbes  are  merrily  swimming  below. 

The  bee,  I  dare  say,  has  been  long  on  the  wing. 
To  get  honey  from  every  flower  of  the  spring  > 
For  the  bee  never  idles,  but  labours  all  day. 
And  thinks,  wise  little  insect,  work  better  than  play^ 

The  ]ark*s  singing  gaily ;  it  loves  the  bright  sun, 
\nd  rejoices  that  now  the  gay  spring  is  begun ; 
For  the  spring  is  so  cheerful,  I  think  'twoi^d  be  wreng 
If  we  did  not  feel  happy  to  hear  the  lark's  song. 

6  t  up,  for  when  all  things  are  merry  and  gh&d, 
6  od  children  should  never  be  lazy  and  sad ; 
For  God  gives  us  dayhght,  dear  sister,  that'we 
May  rejoice  like  the  lark,  and  may  work  like  the  bee. 


LONDON  : 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKEB,  WEST  STRAND. 

PUBLIMID  Ul  WbIXLT  N  VMBSIM.  PbIOI  On  FW«r»  AITD  Ur  UcU-iBLW  PAMT9, 

Pkios  Sixrmok 
Bold  bj  aU  BookMlIm  And  Vwmt^nA&a  la  tht  Kiafdmn, 


^dturlTdif       im^u^im. 


N9..553. 


FEBBUABY 


f        PWOT 

XOm  FBon 


TURKEY  AND   THE  TURKISH   PROVINCES 


ALI  PACHA,  AND  THE  SULIOTS. 
Havino,  in  a  former  article,  brieSy  described  the 
titoatioD  ajid  nature  of  the  aiaall  tract  of  country  forming 
Hk  native  habitAtion  of  the  Suliots,  aa  also  the  character 
and  mode  of  life  of  the  inhabitants ;  we  shall  now  take  a 
cursory  glance  at  the  changes  which  hare  occurred  in 
the  political  position  of  this  little  republic  within  the 
last  fifty  years. 

With  the  exception  of  Mehemet  All,  the  present 
Pacha  of  Kgypt,  few  Turkish  governors  of  recent  times 
have  eiiualled  in  vigour  and  successful  cunning  Ali 
Pacha  of  Joannina,  a  man  who  raised  himself  from  a 
very  humble  situation  to  that  important  post.  Ali  wa« 
bom  in  the  small  town  of  Tepeleni,  in  Albania,  in  the 
year  1750.  His  father,  Vely  Bey,  at  the  head  of  a 
band  of  robbers,  had  gained  possession  of  Tepeleni  by 
force,  and  gradually  acquired  a  kind  of  sovereignty  over 
the  surrounding  district.  Vely  had  two  wives,  of  whom 
Khamco,  the  mother  of  Ali,  was  a  woman  of  uncommon 
talent,  undaunted  resolution,  and  great  cruelty;  the 
Ittter  quality  she  displayed,  hy  poisoning  her  rival,  and 
the  son  of  the  latter,  soon  idler  her  husband's  death, 
thus  iBcuring  the  governing  power  to  her  own  son  Ali. 

Under  sach  a  mother,  young  Ali  did  not  fail  to  make 
npid  progress  in  those  manly  acts  which  are  so  much 
Meemed  in  a  rude  state  of  society :  he  became  the  best 
horseman,  the  swiftest  runner,  and  the  most  expert 
muksm&n  of  the  district  which  he  governed.  By  the 
raited  efforts  of  his  mother  and  himself,  he  gradually 

Vol.  XVJII. 


extended  the  sphere  of  his  power,  and  became  an  object 
of  fear  and  distrust  to  the  beys  and  agaa  of  the  neigh- 
bouring territories.  He  was,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than 
what,  in  other  Eurt^ean  countries,  would  have  been 
termed  a  Captun  of  Banditti;  but  the  state  of  govern- 
ment in  Turkey  is  such,  that  pashas,  beys,  and  agas,  are 
often  but  little  removed  from  that  character.  In  battle, 
Aii  possessed  undaunted  courage  and  great  ability;  and 
in  intrigues,  a  sagacious  and  wily  keenness;  and  these 
combined,  enabled  him  by  degrees  to  lifl  himself  into  the 
high  office  of  Pasha  of  Joaunina,  about  the  year  1785. 
He  now  looked  forward  to  the  establishment  of  an  inde- 
pendent sovereignty  for  himself  in  Albania  and  Epirua. 

The  means  which  he  resolved  to  take  for  the  completion 
of  this  plan,  (»yf  the  Rev.  Mr.  Unghes  in  his  interesting 
Travels  in  Albania, )  were  to  amass  treBsures,  to  keep  agents 
in  pay  at  the  Ottoman  court,  to  infuse  suspicion  of  other 
powers  into-  the  minds  of  the  divan,  to  render  himself  useful 
to  whatever  European  state  was  moat  able  to  return  his 
services,  and  finally  to  seize  upon  the  property  of  his  neigh- 
bours whenever  and  by  whatevermelhods  he  could.  In  the 
execution  of  these  measures,  his  rapacity  was  boundless,  his 
penetration  deep,  his  aggTeaBions  innnmerablc,  his  perfidy 
more  than  Pnnic,  and  his  success  for  a  time  complete. 

We  are  not  here  writing  an  account  of  Ali'a  life,  but 
only  so  much  of  it  as  is  necessary  to  show  the  en  use  of 
the  ruin  of  the  little  republic  of  the  Suliots.  Passing  on 
then  to  the  year  1792,  we  find  the  Suliots  attacking  and 
harassing  Ali  in  the  southern  part  of  his  territorv.  from 
a  deep  hatred  of  the  tyranny  which  he  was  ^i-'adually 
introuuciiig.  To  root  out  the  Suliots  became  therefore 
U3 


58 


THE  SATU^I^^.^  MAGAZINE. 


[February  IS, 


one  of  his  plans.  He  collected  an  army  of  10,000  men, 
and  while  his  ^p reparations  were  making,  he  sent  letters 
to  the  two  chief  captains  of  the  Suliots,  endeavouring  to 
eptrap  them  into  a  treacherous  compact.  The  treachery 
was  half  suspected;  the  seizure  of  seventy  unarmed  Suhots 
soon  afterwards  confirmed  it ;  and  the  SuLots  then  deter- 
mined on  a  firm  resistance. 

The  Pasha  advanced  with  his  army  towards  the 
Suliot  villages,  when  a  proof  was  given  how  stout  a 
defence  might  be  made  at  the  passes  of  the  rock  leading 
from  the  river  side :  the  defiles  and  narrow  inlets  speedily 
became  choked  with  the  dead  bodies  of  the  Turks;  and 
it  was  not  until  the  ammunition  of  the  Suliots  failed, 
that  they  receded  to  their  villages.  An  act  of  female 
heroism  now  occurred,  which  has  seldom  had  a  parallel 
in  any  age  or  country.  The  Suliots  were  retreating  to 
Suli,  when  Mosco,  the  wife  of  Captain  Tzavella,  rushed 
out  of  the  town  sword  in  hand,  accompanied  by  many 
other  women  similarly  armed,  and  persuaded  the  troops 
once  more  to  oppose  the  advancing  Turks,  This  act 
roused  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Suliots  to  such  a  degree, 
that  they  fell  on  the  Turks  with  irresistible  fury.  Mosco 
soon  found  the  dead  body  of  a  favourite  nephew ;  when, 
kissing  his  cold  lips,  she  crie4,  "  Since  I  have  not  arrived 
in  time  to  save  thy  life,  I  wilj  yet  avenge  thy  death," 
these  words  were  followed  by  another  attack  so  over- 
whelming, that  Ali  was  forced  to  retreat  after  having 
lost  nearly  all  his  troops,  and  the  whole  of  his  baggage, 
ammunition,  and  arms.  A  peace,  very  advantageous  to 
the  Suliots,  terminated  this  event. 

For  about  eight  years  after  this  period,  Ali  was  en- 
gaged in  a  busy  scene  of  war  and  irltrigue,  mixing  him- 
self up  in  the  various  political  riegociations  between 
Russia,  Turkey,  J^Vance,  and  Venice ;  and  endeavouring  to 
advance  his  own  interests  by  cheating  all  of  them  in  turn. 
•At  length!  about  the  year  1800,  he  resojved  on  a  second 
attack  of  thfe  Suliots:  he  contrived  to  make  Botzari,  their 
captain,  a  traitor  to  his  companions ;  and  gained  over  the 
neighbouring  agas  and  beys  by  causing  a  sheick  to  give 
such  a  translation  of  certain  passages  in  the  Koran  as 
should  give  a  sort  of  religious  air  to  the  contest.  The 
treacherous  Botzari  did  infinite  mischief  to  the  Suliots, 
and  then  deserted  them  just  *  at' the  moment  of  attack, 
leaving  only  3000  Suliots  to  defend  themselves  against 
18,000  Turks.  The  attack  was  commenced  at  different 
points,  but  resolutely  met.  at  all ;  the  infamous  Botzari 
himself  headed  one  of  the  attacks,  but  was  repulsed  so 
tgnominiously  that  he  died  soon  after  of  disappointment. 
For  two  days  the  contest  between  the  Suliots  and  Al 
continued,  and  ended,  as  before,  in  the  complete  defeat 
bf  the  latter.  On  one  occasion,  owing  to  the  pecu- 
liar nature  of  the  rocky  defiles  as  a  natui'al  defence,  200 
Suliots  completely  defeated  3000  Turks,  with  the  loss  of 
only  twenty  men." 

Ali  now  determined  to  blockade  the  Suliots,  by  placing 
five  strong  bodies  of  troops  in  the  principal  defiles  leading 
up  to  the  villages.  These  five  bodies  were  promptly 
confi'onted  by  an  equal  number  of  Suliot  bands,  to  each 
of  which  was  attached  a  troop  of  females,  to  provide  the 
food,  to  relieve  the  sentinels  occasionally  when  on  duty, 
to  supply  ammunition,  and  even  to  engage  in  the  con- 
tests. The  defence,  in  short,  was  so  energetic,  that  Ali 
found  the  siege  hopeless.  He  then  turned  it  into  a 
blockade,  with  the  hope  of  starving  out  the  Suliots ;  but 
they  were  acquainted  with  paths  unknown  to  his  troops, 
and  were  enabled  to  bring  in  supplies  of  food.  Foiled 
at  all  points,  he  attempted  to  make  a  treacherous  truce ; 
and  having  got  seventeen  Suliots  into  his  hands, 
threatened  to  torture  them  to  death  if  the  place  was  not 
surrendered ;  but  such  a  people  was  not  likely  to  be 
moved  by  fear  of  death,  and  his  threat  was  repelled  with 
scorn.  He  then  resolved  to  try  bribery ;  and  sent  an 
offer  of  a  large  sum  of  money  to  Captain  Zerva,  one  of 
the  most  taliant  of  the  Suliots,  if  he  would  betray  the 
Bepublic.    The  answer  of  Zerva  is  worthy  of  record: — 


"  I  thank  you,  vizier,  for  the  kind  regard  vou  express 
towards  me;  but  )L  beseech  you  not  to  send  the  purses, 
for  I  should  not  know  how  to  count  thera :  and  i/  1  did, 
believe  me  that  one  single  peW)I,e  belopging  to  pay  coun- 
try, much  less  that  country  itself,  would,  in  my  ey^'s, 
appear  too  great  a  return  for  them.  Equally  vain  are 
the  honours  you  offer  to  bestow  on  me.  TJie  honours 
of  a  Suliot  lie  in  his  arms.  With  these  I  hope  to 
immortalize  my  name  and  preserve  my  country.** 

Every  stratagem  on  the  part  of  All  failed ;  but  as  the 
blockade  was  still  continued,  the  Suliots  began  to  feel 
the  fearful  effects  of  hunger ;  they  were  obliged  to  live 
upon  acorns,  herbs,  and  roots,  and  to  grind  and  mix  up 
the  bark  of  trees  with  a  small  proportion  of  meal.  This 
distress,  however,  did  not  lead  them  to  forget  the  nature 
of  the  struggle  in  which  they  were  engaged :  they  knew 
that  if  once  Ali  gaified  possession  of  their  territorj', 
their  position  would  pQ  jaumiliating  in  the  extreme. 

For  more  than  tVeJve  months  did  this  Jblockade  con- 
tinue; Ali,  in  the  mean  time^  employing  al)  the  arts  of 
cunning  and  persuabion  to  induce  some  of  tlie  Suliot 
chiefs  to  come  over  to  his  cause.  These  reiteratid 
attempts  were  generally  unsuccessful;  but  at.lergth  he 
wearied  out  the  iSuliots  with  the  length  of  the  blockade 
and  with  his  unceasing  stratagems;  and,  on  December 
J  2,  1603,  they  capitulated,  and  obtained  leave  to  emigrate 
to  other  lands.  But  the  basest  treachery  was  here 
shown:  the  Suliots  were  divided  into  two  bodies,  one  of 
which  was  to  go  to  the  neighbouring  town  of  Par^a,and 
the  other  to  Santa  Maiira,  one  of  the  Ionian  Jslands; 
but  Ali's  troops,  in  defiance  of  t)ie  compact  agreed  on, 
fell  on  them, "and  massacred  large  niiinljers  of  the  women 
and  children ;  and  only  a  portion  oj*  't)ie  guliots  reached 
their  destination.'  Even  these  'wore  further  persecuted 
by  Ali  and  his  emissaries,  an4  hecamcat  length  mere 
wanderers  in  Corfu,  Santa  Maiira,  and  Farga. 

After  the  Suliots  became  extinct  as  a  nation,  we  find 
that  for  many  years  they  made  feeble  "struggles, — now  aid- 
ing the  French, — and  now  some  of  the  "beys  and  pashas 
who  were  hostile  to  All— hut  always  Vithout  regaining 
their  ancient  homel  fhus  they  continued  until  nearly 
fwenty  years  afterwar4s,  when, '  through  tlie  complex 
nature  of  the  politics  ofsouth -eastern  ]pur6pe*,  they  found 
themselves  fighting  by  the  side  of  their  old  enemy  Ali. 
The  Greeks  of  the  Morea,  were  struggling  to  throw  off 
the  Turkish  yoke, — ^the  Turks  were  determined  to  resist 
them  to  the  last, — the  Suliots  were  anxious  to  get  back 
to  their  native  hills, — and  Ali  was  grasping  for  power 
and  wealth  wherever  they  were  to  be  obtained.  It  is 
therefore  not  easy  to  trace,  in  a  brief  space,  the  circum- 
stances which  led  to  a  compact  between  the  Suliots  and 
their  deadly  enemy;  but  it  must  suffice  to  say,  that  in 
the  year  1822,  the  Greeks,  the  Suliots,  and  Ah,  were  all 
leagued  together  against  the  Turks.  This  league  ter- 
minated by  the  death  of  Ali ;  and  s6on  afterwards  the 
brave  but  unfortunate  Suliots  were  rgain  compelled  to 
leave  their  mountain  home,  and  seek  for  refuge,  under 
the  English  flag,  in  the  Ionian  Islands:  3C0O  Suliots 
accepted  this  refiige,  and  the  rest  dispersed  themselves 
among  the  neighbouring  tribes. 

During  the  subsequent  contests  between  the  Turks 
and  the  Greeks,  the  Suliots  were  frequently  found^erving 
as  volunteers  in  the  ranks  of  the  latter ;  and  at  the  siege 
of  Missolonghi,  and  the  other  engagements  ^hich  tock 
place  during  that  war,  the  Suliots  were  highly  dis- 
tinguished for  their  skill  and  bravery.  The  corps  of 
500  hundred  men,  raised  and  equipj)ed  by  Lord  Byron 
at  his  own  expense,  was  composed  of  Suliots,  for  whom 
he  had  a  great  admiration.  Since  the  termination  bf 
these  contests,  the  Suliots  have  been  restored,  in  a 
partial  degree,  to  their  former  liberty;  but  their  numbers 
have  become  so  wasted,  that  they  no  longer  constitute  the 
once  formidable  band  of  mountdn  heroes : — they  must 
be  spoken  of  as  an  heroic  race  whose  deeds  have  out- 
lived their  perpetrators. 


1841.J 


tat  8ATU&0AT  MAGAZINE. 


5d 


ON  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  DESIGNS 
BY  STAMPING. 

The  general  use  of  stamps  among  civilised  nations, 
and  especially  in  our  own  country  at  the  present  day, 
renders  any  detail  as  to  the  mode  of  their  production  in 
metal,  peculiarly  interesting;  and  the  more  so,  because 
it  is  generally  supposed  that  these  stamps  are  produced 
by  secret  processes,  which,  if  revealed,*  would  tend  to 
encourage  forgery,  and  s6  occasion  loss  to  the  revenue. 
This,  however,  is  so  far  from  being  the  case,  that  the 
modes  of  producing  the  stamps  are  well  known  to  artists, 
and  may  be  almost  equally  well  ifnderstood  by  the 
general  reader.  The  6liief  security  against  forgery  con- 
sists in  the  talent  aild  ability  of  the  artists,  employed  to 
produce  these  stamps ;  and  that  it  should  be  so,  seems 
pretty  evident,  when  we  inflect  that  it  is  now  next  to 
impossible  long  to  maintahi  secrecy  in  mechanical  pro- 
cesses. Hence,  attempts  at  forgery  seem  to  be  precluded 
by  consMerations  of  tikc  inability  to  command  the  requi- 
site talent,  as  well  ds  of  th^  danger  and  worthlessness  of 
a  far-off  imitation. 

In  the '  malnufacture  of  dies  for  stamping,  the  most 
careful  attention  is  necessary  to  be  given  to  the  kind  of 
metal  best  adapted  to  the  purpose: — ^steel  is  generally 
preferred  to  all  other  metals ;  and  this  must  be  not  only 
of  the  very  b^st  quality,  but  of  a  peculiar  kind,  altogether 
different  from  that  employed  in  cutlery.  It  should  be 
rather  finely  grained,  and  of  a  perfectly  even  and  uniform 
texture.  The  choice  of  the  steel,  however,  depends  so 
much  on  the  experience  of  the  die-forger,  which  is  ac- 
q aired  only  by  practice,  that  no  general  rules  can  be 
offered. 

The  Sest  description  of  steel  having  been  selected,  it 
is  formed  into  the  rough  die  by  forging.     It  is  then 
softened  ty  being  carefully  annealed;  that  is,  the  die  is 
embedded  in  a  crucible,  full  of  animal  charcoal  in  coarse 
powder,  anc[  so  brought  to  a  red  heat;  it  is  then  allowed 
Xo  cool  very  gradually,  the  effect  of  which  process  is,  to 
make  the  metal  very  soft^  so  that  it  easily  yields  to  the 
tools  of  the  engraver.     The  die  is  then  smoothed  exter- 
ually,  and  a  flat  table  worked  on  it  at  the  turning-lathe. 
The  engraver,  being  furnished  with  the  design,  com- 
mences by  working  out  the  device  with  small  steel  tools ; 
and,  as  tbe  work  proceeds,  he  frequently  takes  impres- 
sions in  clay  or  casts  of  type-metal,  until  he  is  satisfied 
with  the  general  effect  and  correctness  of  his  work,  as 
compared   with  the  original  design,  fiimished  to  him  by 
the  artist.     A  first-rate  engraver  will  frequently  devote 
many  weelts,  and  even  mouths,  to  the  preparation  of  an 
important  die:  we  may  easily  conceive,  therefore,  how 
valuable  it  becomes,  and  what  care  is  necessary  to  con- 
duct it  safely  through  the  subsequent  operatioUs.     Un- 
fortunately, the  next  process,  that  of  hardening,  is  as 
difficult  as  it  is  important;  and  it  should  be  entrusted  to 
those  only,  who  have  acquired  considerable  experience 
in  the  art. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  properties  of  steel,  is  its 
cjp«ibih'ty  of  being  made  hard  or  soft,  according  as  it 
is  rapidly  or  slowly  cooled  after  being  heated.  At  the 
first  view,  nothing  appears  so  easy  as  to  make  a  piece  of 
soft,  malleable,  and  ductile  steel  red  hot,  and  then  sud- 
denly cool  it  in  cold  water  i  whereby  it  becomes  hard, 
fragile,  x^id  brittle.  But  as  a  die  is  a  mass  of  steel 
necessarily  of  somewhat  large  dimensions,  the  process  of 
hardening  is  attended  with  peculiar  difficulties,  not  the 
least  of  which  is,  the  preservation  of  all  the  delicate 
touches  of  the  engraver's  skill.  To  meet  this  object, 
the  engraved  face  of  the  die  is  protected  with  a  covering 
*of  oil,  thickened  ^Hth  powdered  charcoal;  sometimes 
pipe -clay  is  added  to  this:  some  employ  a  pulp  of  garlic: 
but  pure  lamp-black,  mixed  with  linseed  oil,  is  the  best 
protecting  composition.  A  thin  layer  of  it  is  spread  on 
the  engraved  part  of  the  die,  which  may  also  be  further 
guarded  by  a  projecting  iron  ring.    The  die  is  next  placed 


with  its  ftice  downwards  m  a  crucible  filled  with  powdered 
charcoal,  and  then  heated  to  redness :  it  is  afterwards  by 
means  of  a  pair  of  tongs  taken  out,  and  plunged  into  a 
large  volume  of  cold  water,  and  rapidly  moved  about  so 
long  as  a  bubbling  hissing  noise  continues:  it  is  left  in 
the  water  till  it  becomes  quite  cold  :  if  a  singing  noise 
should  continue  after  the  bubbling  and  hissing  have 
ceased,  the  operator  is  tolerably  well  assured  that  the 
work  of  the  engraver  is  thrown  away;  for  the  die  has 
cracked. 

The  action  of  this  process  upon  the  die  is  rather  to 
case-harden  it,  than  to  harden  it  tht'oughouL  The  in- 
terior parts  of  the  die  seemed  to  be  held  in  a  forced  state 
of  dilation,  while  the  external  parts  are  permanently 
dilated.  The  theory  of  the  process  of  hardening  steel  \s 
intricate;  but  it  is  well  illustrated  by  an  experiment 
recorded  ill  Tomlinson's  Manual  of  Natural  Philosd- 
phtf,  A  cylindrical  steel  die,  such  as  is  used  for  medals, 
was  made  to  fit  exactly  a  hollow  cylinder  of  its  owh  dia- 
meter: the  die  was  then  hardened:  and  it  was  thu< 
found  impossible  to  make  it  enter  the  cylinder.  But 
when  the  cylirtder  and  the  die  contained  within  it  had 
been  both  subjected  to  the  process  of  hardening,  the  sub- 
stance of  the  cylinder  being  such  as  not  to  display  the 
usual  effects  of  hardening,  this  latter,  upon  being  cooled, 
merely  returned  to  its  former  dimensions,  while  the  die, 
in  dilating  and  remaining  permanently  dilated,  became 
distorted  in  a  manner,  as  if  it  had  been  violently  driven 
infb  a  space  much  smaller  than  itself:  a  ridge  of  metal 
was,  in  fact,  raised  around  the  two  end-wise  circum- 
ferences of  the  die,  and  it  was  thus  kept  fixed  within  the 
cylinder  by  an  enormous  force.  This  remarkable  fact 
has  been  thus  explamed  by  M.  Biot: — ft  is  supposed, 
that  the  instant  when  the  steel,  being  strongly  heated, 
is  suddenly  cooTed,  the  cooling  effect  is  first  experienced 
by  the  exterior  layers  of  the  metal,  which  become 
moulded,  as  it  were,  and  fixed  upon  a  centre,  still  strongly 
heated  and  dilated;  by  which  means  the  die  is  made  to 
occupy  larger  dimensions  than  it  would  have  done,  if  it 
had  been  allowed  to  cool  gradually.  The  molecules 
near  the  centre  of  the  mass,  cool  at  a  later  part  of  the 
process;  but  the  eiterior  layers,  having  already  acquired 
a  fixed  state,  retain  the  interior  particles  in  a  condition 
of  great  expansion,  and  thus  determine  the  volume  which 
they  occupy,  and  prevent  thexii  from  approaching  so  near 
to  each  other,  as  they  would  have  done,  had  the  whole 
n&ass  been  allowed  to  cool  gradually. 

When  the  process  of  hardening  the  die  has  been  sue- 
cess^lly  performed,  other  protective  measures  are 
adopted:  sometimes  a  mild  description  of  tempering  is 
employed,  which  consists  in  placing  the  die  in  cold  water^ 
heating  it  to  the  botHng  point,  and  then  allowing  it  to 
cool  very  slowly.  This  process  makes  the  die  less  liable 
to  crack  in  very  cold  weather.  Sometimes  the  die  is 
protected  by  being  thrust  into  an  iron  ring,  which  exactly 
fits  it  when  red-hot,  and  in  cooling  binds  the  die  wid^ 
very  considerable  force ;  thereby  preventing  the  spreading 
of  external  cracks  and  fissures,  and  allowing  a  greater 
and  more  effectual  power  to  be  exerted  upon  it  in  the 
subsequent  process  for  obtaining  punches. 

Supposing  now  that  the  die  has  been  properh'  hardened 
and  that  the  protecting  composition  has  fulfilled  its 
object  in  preserving  the  design  from  injury  and  fronu 
the  action  of  the  fire;  it  is  then  cleaned  ard  polished^ 
and  constitutes  what  is  technically  called  a  Matrix. 
This  is  used  as  the  parent  t  of  numerous  punches,  or 
steel  impressions  for  producing  stamps  in  relief.  For 
this  purpose  a  block  of  steel  is  chosen  of  the  same  qua- 
lity, and  with  the  same  precautions,  as  in  foiniing  the 
original  die;  and  this  steel,  being  carefully  softened,  is 
turned,  like  the  matrix,  with  a  perfectly  fiat  table  at  the 
bottom,  being  left  broad  and  conical  at  the  top.  By 
means  of  powerful  machinery,  a  strong  pressing  force  is 
applied  at  the  conical  surface  of  the  punch,  and  the  matrix 
being  very  hard,  soon  causes  the  soft  steel  table  of  the 

563—2 


THE  SATUHDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[FZUKCAKY  13i 


punch  to  receive  the  first  ferros  of  a  perfect  impretsion : 
but  in  this  proceBS  of  compresBion,  the  Bteel  itself 
becomes  hard,  and  requires  to  be  repeatedly  annealed, 
or  softened,  during  the  operation ;  otherwise,  its  surface 
would  split  into  small  cracks,  or  be  likely  to  injure  the 
Diatrii.  By  repeated  blows,  therefore,  in  the  die-press, 
and  by  frequent  annealing,  the  punch  is  at  length  com- 
pleted; and  after  being  examined  by  the  eDgraver,  it  is 
turned,  hardened,  and  furnished  with  an  iron  collar,  like 
the  matrix,  of  which  it  is  a  perfect  copy  in  all  respects, 
except  that  the  design  is  lunft,  instead  of  being  raited) 
— that  is,  the  punch  is  an  intaglio,  while  the  matrix  is  a 
cameo;  and  consequently,  the  copies  &om  the  punch  on 
paper  will,  like  the  original  matrix,  be  cameos  also. 

The  original  matrix  is  in  general  too  valuable  to  be 
used  in  making  further  punches:  these  are  multiplied 
by  tneans  of  another  matrix,  formed  from  the  first  per- 
fect punch,  and  all  of  them  being  fac-umiles  of  the 
original  matrix,  may  be  used  in  the  production  of  stamps 
to  any  amount.  For  this  purpose,  a  screw-press  is 
usually  employed,  in  which  the  punch  is  made  to  descend 
with  great  force  upon  a  die  which  it  accurately  fits,  and 
the  paper  being  placed  between,  receives  the  impression. 

Such  then  is  a  general  account  of  the  various  processes 
for  producing  stamped  designs  t»  reUefi.  upon  paper. 
We  do  not  of  course  pretend  to  have  described  anything 
more  than  the  general  practice  of  this  branch  of  art : 
there  may  be  many  vanations  in  practice,  which  we  do 
not  undertake  to  develop ;  the  common  principles  of  the 
processes  in  use  being  enough  for  the  information  of  the 
general  reader. 

"WnssB  there  ia  most  love  of  God,  there  will  there  be  the 
truest  and  moat  enlarged  philanthmphy.  No  other  tbunda- 
tion  is  secure.  There  is  no  other  means  whereby  notions 
can  be  reformed,  than  that  by  which  alone  individuals  can 
be  regenerated.  In  the  laws  of  God,  conscience  is  made  the 
basis  of  policy  ;  and  in  proportion  as  human  laws  depart 
from  the  groundwork,  error  and  evil  are  the  sure  result. — ' 

SODTHBT. 


Be  sure  to  mend  that  in  thyself  which  thou  observeet  doth 
exceedingly  displease  thee  m  othera. — Bibbof  Patkick. 


EvsBT  nieculation  which  tends  to  suppress  a  consideration 
of  the  Supreme  Power  and  Plrst  Cause,  has  a  pernicious 
moral  eSeot,  while  the  evil  is  aiibalsnced  by  any  philt>- 
aopbical  good,  rather  indeed  tending  to  chedc  the  pursuits 
of  ecieiice.^H>ooin>LocB . 


own  minda  to  -some  fixed  and  determinate  principles  of 
action.  The  world  is  a  vast  labyrintb,  in  which  almost 
every  one  is  running  a  different  way,  and  almost  every  one 
manifesting  hatred  to  those  who  do  not  mn  the  same  way. 
A  few  indeed  stand  motionless,  and  not  seeking  to  lead 
themselves  or  others  out  of  the  maze,  laugh  at  Uie  feilures 
of  their  brethren,  yet  with  little  reason  ;  for  more  grosdy 
does  he  err,  who  never  aims  to  n>  right.  It  is  more  honour- 
able to  the  bead,  as  well  as  to&e  heart,  to  be  misled  by  our 
eagerness  in  the  pursuit  of  tmth,  than  to  be  safe  from 
blnnderiuK  bv  contempt  of  it.  The  hqininees  of  mankind 
is  the  end  of  virtue,  and  truth  is  the  knowledge  of  the 
inean*  ;  which  he  will  never  seriously  attempt  to  discover, 
who  has  not  habitually  interested  himself  in  the  welfart  of 
othert.  The  Boarcher  after  troth  must  love  and  be  beloved  j 
for  general  benevolence  is  a  necessary  motive  to  constancy 
of  pursuit ;  and  this  general  benevolence  is  begotten  and 
rendered  permanent  by  social  and  domratic  affections.  Let 
■as  beware  of  that  proud  philosophy,  which  affects  to  incul- 
cnte  philanthrophy,  while  it  denounces  every  home-bom 
feelinff  by  which  it  is  produced  and  nurtured.  The  paternal 
and  hlial  duties  discipline  the  heart,  and  prepare  it  for  the 
love  of  all  mankind.  The  intensity  of  private  attachments 
encourages,  not  prev«nt«,  univ^ed  nenevolence.  The 
nearer  we  approach  tbe  sun,  the  more  intense  his  heat,  yet 
what  comer  of  the  system  doea  he  not  cheer  and  vivify. * 


ON  CHESS. 

IV.  AKCIXNT  CflKSa-MBK  DiacOTEBED  IK   THE  IlLI 

OF  Lewi*.    (Comclused.') 


The  Warders  are  armed  warriors  (ffrdkr  in  Ice- 
bmdic),  which  here  take  the  place  of  the  rook,  or  castle, 
and  are  represented  in  a  standing  attitude,  wearing 
helmeU,  of  various  shapes,  but  chiefly  conical,  some  with, 
and  others  without,  flaps ;  but  all  wanting  the  nasal-piece. 
The  coat,  or  gambeson,  which  most  of  them  wear, 
descends  to  the  feet;  yet,  in  lieu  of  this,  others  have  a 
coat  of  mail,  .with  a  hood  which  covers  the  head.  They 
aU  hold  a  sword  in  one  hand,  and  a  shield  in  the  other; 
but  the  position  is  varied;  the  shields  in  some  instances 
being  borne  in  front,  and  in  others  at  the  side.  The 
shields  all  bear  distinctive  marks,  Uke  those  of  the 
knights ;  but  some  of  them  are  of  a  broader  shape,  and 
less  elongated.  In  general  the  warders  ore  more  varied 
from  each  other  than  the  similar  figures  of  the  other 
pieces.  One  peculiarity  in  the  figures  of  three  of  the 
warders  tends  to  strengthen  the  belief  of  their  being  of 
Norwegian  or  Icelandic  workmanship,  and  that  is  the 
singular  manner  in  which  they  are  represented*  (iftW 
their  shields. 

Now  this  was  a  characteristic  of  the  Scandinavian 
Bersbrkar,  who  were  unarmed  warriors,  subject  to  fits 
of  madness  on  the  eve  of  battle,  under  the  influence  of 
which  they  performed  the  most  extraordinary  feata. 
They  are  thus  described  by  Snorre ; — "  The  soldiers  of 
Odin  went  forth  to  the  combat  without  armour,  raging 
like  dogs  or  wolves,  biting  their  shields,  and  in  strength 
equal  to  furious  bears  or  wolves.  Their  enemies  they 
laid  prostrate  at  their  feet;  neither  fire  nor  weapon 
harmed  them :  this  frenzy  was  called  Berserksgangr. 

The  Pawns  are  of  various  shapes  and  sizes,  but 
chiefly  octagonal,  with  conical  termina^ons:  on  one  is  a 
fret-like  ornament,  and  on  another  some  scroll-like 
adornment :  the  others  are  plain. 

The  shields  of  the  knights  and  warders  are  highly 
curious,  as  presenting  a  series  of  devices, — the  inunediale 
precursors  of  hereditary  armorial  bearings, — in  greater 
variety  than  is  to  be  tbund  on  any  other  existing  monu- 
ments of  such  an  early  period.  The  Gothic  nations, 
however,  from  the 'earliest  times,  were  accustomed  to 
pamt  their  shields  of  various  colours ;  and  from  the  Ro- 
mans they  might  easily  have  learned  to  adopt  difierent 
insignia.  From  some  passages  in  the  Voluspoy  Saxo, 
and  Egir»  Saga,  it  has  been  assumed  by  many  of  the 
northern  antiquaries,  that  the  ancient  Scandinavians 
adorned  their  shields  with  represenUtions  of  their  ex- 
ploits; but  Sperlingius,  in  his  "Collections"  on  the 
subject,  argues  strongly  against  it,  and  affirms  that 
before  the  twelfth  century  no  traces  of  any  devices  on 
shields  are  to  be  fonnd  among  them.  The  only  device 
on  shields  noticed  by  Snorre  is  that  of  a  cross,  which 
Sperbngm*  conjectures  wu  first  introdnced  by  King 


18410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


61 


Olaf  the  Saint,  at  the  commencement  of  the  eleventh 
century.  Most  of  the  shields  depicted  in  the  Bayeux 
tapestry,  hear  crosses  of  different  shapes;  and  this  is 
likewise  the  case  with  those  of  the  chess  figures :  some 
of  the  former  also  exhibit  a  species  of  dragon. 

The  ancient  chess-men  discovered  in  the  Isle  of  Lewis 
have  been  made  the  suhject  of  an  extremely  beautiful 
and  learned  essay  on  the  introduction  of  chess  into 
Europe,  by  F.  Madden,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  published  in  the 
twenty-f>u:fh  volume  of  the  ArcluBologicu  Mr.  Mad- 
den supp3<;es  these  chess-men  to  have  been  executed 
about  the  m'.ddle  of  the  twelfth  century,  by  the  same 
extraordinary  race  of  people  who,  at  an  earlier  period  of 
time,  undi^r  the  general  name  of  Northmeny  overran  the 
greater  part  of  Europe,  and  whose  language  and  man- 
ners are  still  preserved  among  their  genuine  descendants 
in  Iceland.  For  the  confirmation  of  his  opinion,  he 
refers  to  the  material  of  which  they  are  composed,  to  the 
general  costume  of  the  figures,  and  the  peculiar  forms  of 
some  of  them,  to  the  locality  in  which  they  were  found, 
and  to  the  testimonies  of  numerous  writers  in  ancient 
and  modem  times,  touching  the  existence  of  the  game 
of' chess  in  Scandinavia,  and  the  skill  of  the  natives  in 
carving  similar  figures. 

And  first,  with  regard  to  their  material,  Mr.  Madden 
assumes  on  good  evidence,  that  they  are  formed  out  of 
the  tusks  of  the  animal  called  in  Icelandic  Rostungr, 
or  Rosmar,  and  in  other  parts  of  Europe  by  the  names 
of  morse,  walrus,  or  sea-horse.  The  peculiarities  of 
structure  in  the  tusk  of  this  animal  are  shown  in  a 
remarkable  manner  throughout  the  entire  series  of  the 
chess-men,  and  most  unequivocally  so  in  the  draught- 
men,  which  were  necessarily  cut  transversely  through 
the  tusk.  The  economy  of  the  artist  is  likewise  visible 
in  fashioning  his  figures  according  to  the  portions  of  the 
teeth  best  calculated  to  serve  his  purpose. 

The  estimation  wherein  the  tusks  of  the  walrys,  from 
which  these  chess-men  were  unquestionably  carved,  were 
held  by  the  northern  nations,  rendered  them  a  present 
worthy  of  royalty;  and  this  circumstance  is  confirmed  by 
a  tradition  preserved  in  the  curious  Saga  of  Kroka 
Ref;  or  Kroka  the  Crafty.  It  is  there  related,  that 
Gunner,  prefect  of  Greenland,  wishing  to  conciliate  the 
favour  of  Harald  Hardraad,  king  of  .  Norway,  (a'.d. 
1046 — 1067,)  by  the  advice  of  Harder,  a  Norwegian 
merchant,  sent  to  the  king  three  of  the  most  precious 
gifts  the  island  could  produce :  these  were,  Jirst^  a  full- 
grown  white  tame  bear;  second^  a  chess-table,  or  set  of 
chess-men,  exquisitely  carved;  thirdy  a  skull  of  the 
ros-tungr,  with  the  teeth  fastened  in  it,  wonderfully 
sculptured,  and  ornamented  with  gold. 

The  ancient  Norwegians,  and  more  particularly  the 
natives  of  Iceland,  seem  to  have  been  at  a  very  early 
period  famous  for  their  skill  in  carving  implements  and 
figures  in  bone ;  and  this  talent  was  exerted  chiefly  in 
sculpturing  chess-men  from  the  tusks  of  the  rosmar. 
The  archbishop  of  Upsala,  in  his  Antiquarian  History 
of  the  Norij^em  Nationsy  informs  us  that  it  was  usual 
amongst  them  to  cut  the  teeth  of  the  morse  in  the  most 
artificial  manner  for  the  purpose  of  making  chess-men. 
Olaus  Wormius,  writing  about  a  century  later,  states 
that  the  Icelanders  were  accustomed,  during  the  long 
nights  of  winter  by  their  fireside,  to  cut  out  various 
articles  from  "  whales'  teeth."  "  This,"  he  continues, 
''  is  more  particularly  the  case  with  chess-men  (at  which 
game  they  excel);  anld  I  possess  some  specimens  of 
these,  distinguished  by  being  of  two  colours,  white  and 
green,  which  are  scydptured  so  exquisitely,  that  each 
piece  expresses  in  feature,  dress,  and  attitude,  the  per- 
sonage it  is  designed  to  represent."  Thus,  also,  in  the 
figures  discovered  in  the  Isle  of  Lewis,  the  costume,  &c., 
of  every  piece  has  been  especially  attended  to,  and,  so 
iar  as  that  mode  of  proof  can  be  admitted,  evince  them 
to  have  been  executed  in  the  twelfth  century. 
The  spot,  on  which  these  figures  were  found,  favours 


in  eveiy  respect  the  hypothesia  adopted  by  Mr.  Mad- 
den. The  Hebrides,  or  Southern  Isles,  were  subject  to 
the  invasion  of  the  Vikingr..  or  Sea-kings,  from  the  end 
of  the  eighth  century,  and  during  the  reign  of  Harald 
Harfager,  about  the  year  875,  were  rendered  tributary 
to  the  throne  of  Norway.  The  outer  range  of  the  He- 
brides, in  which  that  of  Lewis  is  comprehended,  was 
chiefly  peopled  by  Scandinavians ;  and  they  continued  to 
have  princes  of  their  own,  until  the  period  of  King 
Magnus  Barefoot's  expedition,  in  1096,  who  ravaged  the 
Isle  of  Lewis  with  fire  and  sword,  and  added  the  He- 
brides to  his  own  dominions,  thenc^orth  to  be  governed 
by  a  dependant  lord.  These  islands  remained  under  the 
seignory  of  the  kings  of  Norway,  until  the  year  1266, 
when  they  were  formally  ceded  to  King  Alexander  the 
Third,  of  Scotland,  by  Magnus  the  Fourth,  in  consider- 
ation of  the  yearly  pajrment  of  one  hundred  marks^  and' 
the  additional  sum  of  four  thousand  marks,  payable 
within  four  years. 

Between  those  islands  and  the  northern,  as  well  as 
the  western,  coast  of  Scotland  and  Iceland,  the  closest 
intercourse  existed  for  many  ages.  As  the  communi- 
cation was  kept  up  in  small  vessels  ^called  *<  Byrdinga" 
by  the  Icelanders),  the  chances  of  shipwreck,  in  case  of 
a  storm,  were  great;  and  accordingly,  many  instances 
are  on  record  of  the  destruction  of  ships  coming  from 
Norway  to  the  isles. 

It  would  appear,  therefore,  most  probable  that  the 
chess-men  and  draught-men  discovered  in  the  Isle  of 
Lewis,  formed  part  of  the  stock  of  an  Icelandic  kaup^ 
manny  or  merchant,  who  carried  these  articles  to  the 
Hebrides,  or  tp  Ireland,  for  the  sake  of  traflSc,  and  that 
the  ship,  in  which  they  were  conveyed,  being  wrecked, 
these  figures  were  swept  by  the  waves  on  shore,  and 
buried  beneath  the  sand-bank,  which,  for  the  space  of 
nearly  seven  centuries,  contrived  to  accumulate  before 
the  fortunate  discovery  took  place  which  restored  them 
to  light. 

SINGULAR  CASE  OF  SOUNAMBULTSX. 

In  one  of  my  rftmbles,  I  met  witli  a  very  singular  instance 
of  somnambulism,  in  the  daughter  of  a  Ciicassian  noble, 
Noahai  Selim  Guarrai,  near  the  river  Ubin.    The  girl  was, 

Erohably,  about  twelve  years  of  age,  and  had  been  suffering 
rom  the  disease  for  the  last  two  years.  During  the  prevalence 
of  the  fit,  which  generally  lasted  from  one  to  three  weeks, 
she  was  accustomed  to  employ  herself  at  embroidery,  suig  to 
her  lute,  or  deliver  extempore  poetry  in  a  singine  tone,  always 
prophetic  of  some  event  that  was  to  occur,  of  unportance  to 
the  country ;  but,  except  on  these  occasions,  she  never  utteied 
a  word,  nor  answered  a  <^uestion,  and  seemed  to  address  her 
warnings  rather  to  some  mvisible  spirit,  than  to  the  peisons 
around  her ;  she  also  prescribed  for  the  sick,  whom  she 
mentioned  by  name,  gave  counsel  to  the  warrior,  reproved 
the  wicked,  and  assured  her  countrymen,  that  in  their 
contest  with  Russia  they  would  be  ultimately  successful ; 
not  one  word  of  which  remained-  in  her  recollection  when 
she  awoke  from  her  magnetic  sleep.  While  this  aberration 
of  her  fiusulties  continued,  her  features  wore  an  unnatunJiy 
serious  expression  for  so  young  a  girl :  her  smell,  also,  was 
so  acute,  that  she  could  discover  the  approach  of  any  person 
she  knew  at  a  considerable  distance,  to  whom  she  evinced 
the  most  capricious  dislike  or  partiality :  her  health  ap- 
peared to  suffer  materially  from  these  attacks,  as  she 
mvariably  awoke  from  her  trance  pale  and  evidently  much 
fiatigued. 

These  somnambulists,  or  as  the  French  call  them,  clair- 
wyantesy  so  peculiar  to  mountainous  countries,  seem  to  form 
a  phenomenon  in  animal  magnetism  not  yet  perfectly  un- 
derstood. I  met  with  a  similar  case  some  years  since, 
during  a  fishing  excui*8ion  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lindau, 
on  the  banks  oi  the  lake  of  Constance,  in  the  person  of  the 
daughter  of  the  Baron  von  Rader :  she  was  about  the  same 
age  as  our  Circassian  Cassandra,  and,  like  her,  gifted  with 
prophecy.  The  duration  of  the  fit,  and  the  symptoms  of 
the  patient,  were  also  similar,  except  that  the  young  Grer- 
man  lady  frequently  remained  cataleptic  for  severalliourB, 
which  I  did  not  observe  in  the  other.-^SpBNCBs's  Tfxmh  in 
OirvasHa,  . 


<2 


THB  SATURDAY  MAG  AZINfe. 


[Februaet  18, 


ON  AUTOMATON  FIGURES. 

I. 

Among  the  various  ways  in  which  human  ingenuity  has 
displayed  itself,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  is  the  con- 
struction of  machines  which  shall,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  imitate  the  motions  and  actions  of  a  living  being. 
We  are  sometimes  led  to  regret  that  such  extraordinary 
powers  of  invention  should  be  expended  on  the  produc- 
tion of  a  machine  possessing  no  real  utility  to  society : 
but  still  it  is  so  far  useful,  that  it  keeps  alive  a  spirit  of 
mechanical  invention,  which,  at  an  after  period,  may  be 
of  incalculable  benefit.  Most  of  the  great  specimens  of 
automatic  mechanism,  to  which  the  general  name  of 
autoinata  is  applied,  were  produced  at  a  time  when  there 
were  no  railroads, — few  canals, — few  tunnels, —  still 
fewer  steam-engines, —  no  locomotive  carriages, — no 
power-looms, — no  spinning-jennies, — and  what  is  of  more 
importance,  when  there  was  not  diffused  among  society 
in  general  that  thirst  for  manufacturing  improvements 
which  so  greatly  distinguishes  the  present  age.  A  really 
ingenious  mechanical  inventor  at  the  present  day  has 
many  ways  of  bringing  his  ingenuity  to  a  profitable 
market,  by  applying  it  to  manufacturing  machinery,  and 
we  do  not  consequently  hear  so  much  at  the  present  day, 
as  in  bygone  times,  of  the  production  of  elaborate  play- 
things, requirino:  years  for  their  producflon,  and  possess- 
ing no  commercial  value.  We  can  therefore  admire  the 
results  of  ingenuity  shown  by  the  older  mechanists, 
without  judging  them  too  harshly  for  not  doing  that 
which  the  spirit  of  their  times  scarcely  afforded  them  a 
field  for  doing. 

We  propose  to  present  here  a  brief  description  of  such 
automata,  or  self-moving  figures,  as  have  gained  for 
themselves  a  reputation  among  ingenious  men. 

In  the  Saturday  Magazine,  vol.  iii.,  p.  156,  is  a 
description  of  the  very  remarkable  automatic  figures  ia 
the  great  clock  of  Strasburg  cathedral.  We  will  now 
present  some  details  of  other  clocks  remarkable  for  the 
ingenuity  of  the  figures  connected  tvith  them.  In  the 
fourteenth  century,  James  Dondi  constructed  for  the  city 
of  Padua  a  clock  which  was  long  considered  the  wonder 
of  the  age.  Besides  indicating  the  hours,  it  represented 
the  motion  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  as  well  as 
pointed  out  the  different  festivals  of  the  year. 

The  clock  at  the  cathedral  at  Lyons  was  long  cele- 
brated as  being  one  of  the  most  ingenious  ever  con- 
structed. We  do  not  know  whether  it  still  exists,  but 
in  its  most  perfect  form  the  following  was  the  nature  of 
its  construction.  It  exhibited,  on  different  dial-plates, 
the  annual  and  diurnal  progress  of  the  sun  and  moon, 
the  days  of  the  year,  their  length,  and  the  whole  calen- 
dar, civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical.  The  days  of  the  week 
were  indicated  by  sjrmbols,  fitted  to  the  purpose,  and  the 
hours  were  announced  by- the  crowing  of  the  cock,  thrice 
repeated,  after  it  had  flapped  its  wings,  and  made  other 
movements.  When  the  cock  had  ceased  crowing,  angels 
were  made  to  appear,  who,  by  striking  various  bells, 
performed  the  air  of  a  hymn.  The  annunciation  of  the 
Virgin  was  also  represented  by  moving  figures,  and  by 
the  descent  of  a  dove.  When  all  this  ceremony  was 
concluded,  the  clock  struck  the  hour.  On  one  of  the 
sides  of  the  clock  was  an  oval  dial -plate,  where  the  hours 
and  minutes  were  indicated  by  means  of  an  index,  which 
possessed  the  peculiar  power  of  lengthening  or  shorten- 
ing itself,  so  as  to  adapt  its  length  to  the  various  diame- 
ters of  the  oval  plate.  This  clock  was  made  by  Lippius 
de  Basle,  and  was  repaired  in  the  seventeenth  century 
by  NourisBon. 

The  royal  apartments  at  Versailles  once  contained  a 
singular  clock,  constructed  by  Martinot.  Before  it  struck 
the  hour,  two  cocks,  on  the  comers  of  a  small  edifice, 
crowed  alternately,  clapping  their  wings.  Shortly  after 
this,  two  lateral  doors  of  the  edifice  opened,  at  which 
appeared  two  figures,  bearing  cymbals,  beat  uj^on  with 


clubs  by  two  sentinels.  When  th^se  fibres  had  retired 
the  centre  door  was  thrown  open,  and  a  pedestal,  sup- 
porting an  equestrian  statue  of  Louis  the  Fourteenth 
issued  from  it,  while  a  group  of  clouds,  separating,  gave 
a  passage  to  a  figure  of  Fame,  which  came  and  hovered 
over  the  statue.  A  tune  was  then  performed  by  bells; 
after  which  the  two  figures  re-entered ;  the  two  sentinels 
raised  up  their  clubs,  which  they  had  lowered,  as  if  from 
respect  for  the  presence  of  the  king;  and  the  hour  was 
then  struck. 

Many  other  specimens  of  ingeniously-constructed 
clocks  have  been  recorded;  but  these  will  be  suflScient 
here :  we  will  therefore  proceed  to  other  automata. 

it  is  difficult  properly  to  estimate  the  statements  of 
ancient  writers  on  this  subject.  Mention  is  made,  that, 
so  long  ago  as  400  years  B.C.,  Archytus  of  Tarentum,  a 
Pythagorean  philosopher,  made  a  wooden  pigeon  that 
could  fly.  The  writers  who  have  recorded  tnis  seem  to 
have  known  but  little  respecting  its  truth.  One  said 
that  if  the  pigeon  fell,  it  could  not  rise  again  by  itself: 
another  says  that  it  flew  by  mechanical  means,  being 
suspended  by  balancing,  and  animated  by  a  secretly- 
enclosed  spring. 

The  imitations  of  various  animals  have  been  very 
numerous,  and  we  have  records  of  several,  the  authen- 
ticity of  which  is  undoubted.  One  mechanist  constructed 
the  figiire  of  a  swan,  as  large  as  life,  which  gracefully 
curved  its  neck,  or  turned  it  round,  as  if  to  dress  the 
plumage  of  its  wings  or  body :  having  done  this,  it  bent 
down  its  head,  and,  taking  a  metal  fish  in  its  bill,  swal- 
lowed it.  Another  person  constructed  a  peacock,  which 
could  erect  or  depress  its  crest,  and  unfold  its  tail :  it 
could  likewise  lift  a  piece  of  money  iii  its  bill,  and  per- 
form many  of  the  movements  peculiar  to  a  peacocL 
But  Maillardet,  a  Frenchman,  surpassed  these  efforts, 
by  producing  machines  in  which  complicated  actions  were 
to  be  concentrated  in  a  small  space.  He  constructed  an 
oval  box,  about  three  inches  in  length.  The  Kd  sud- 
denly flying  open,  a  bird  of  beautiful  pluniagc,  not 
larger  than  a  humming-bird,  started  up  from  it^  nest 
within  the  box.  The  wings  began  to  flutter,  and  its  bill 
opening,  with  the  tremulous  motion  peculiar  to  singing- 
birds  it  began  to  warble.  After  producing  a  succession 
of  notes,  whose  sound  well  filled  a  large  apartment, 
it  darted  down  into  its  nest,  and  the  lid  closed  again. 
The  time  that  i  'ccupied  to  perform  its  routine  of 
actions  was  about  tour  minutes,  and  it  produced  four 
distinct  kinds  of  warbling.  Maillardet  ftlso  constructed 
an  automatic  spider,  a  catei'pillar,  a  mouse,  and  a  ser- 
pent, all  of  which  exhibited  the  peculiar  movements  of 
the  living  originals.  The  spider  was  made  of  steel,  and 
the  legs  were  levers  which  were  successively  advanced 
by  springs  within  the  body  of  the  animal. '  It  rati  on  the 
surface  of  a  table  for  three  minutes,  and  its  coarse  was 
so  devised  as  to  tend  inwards  tdwards  the  middle  of  the 
table.  The  serpent  constructed  by  the  same  artist 
crawled  about  in  ev6ry  directioti,  opened  its  mouth, 
hissed,  and  darted  out  his  tongue. 

John  Midler,  of  Nuremburg,  is  said  to  have  con- 
structed a  wooden  eagle,  which  flew  frottf  the  city  of 
Nuremburg,  aloft  in  the  air,  met  the  Emperor  Maximi- 
lian a  good  way  off,  saluted  him,  and  preceded  him  back 
to  the  city  gates;  and  to  have  also  c6nstructed  an  iron 
fly,  which  in  the  midst  of  a  party  of  friends,  flew  from 
Midler's  hand,  and  passed  round  from  guest  to  guest. 
But  from  some  contradictions  in  the  accounts  left  by 
Baptista  Porta,  Kircher,  &C.,  we  may  justly  be  allowed 
to  doubt  these  narrations. 

About  a  century  and  a  half  ago  Truchet  constructed, 
for  the  amusement  of  Louis  the  Fourteenth,  an  automa- 
ton, which  the  king  called  his  little  o^pera.  It  was  about 
sixteen  inches  long,  thirteen  inches  high,  and  one  inch 
and  a  quarter  deep.  It  represented  dn  opera,  in  five  acts, 
changing  the  decorations  at  the  commencement  of  each. 
.  The  actors  performed  their  parte  ifi  paatomiiner  and  the 


^S41.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


63 


representation  could  be  stopped  at  pleasure,  and  made 
to   recommence.     Another  contrivance,   made   for  the 
amusement  of  the  same  monarch — who  had  a  strange  mix- 
ture of  the  great  and  the  small  in  his  character — ^must 
have  been  worked  by  very  elaborate  mechanism.     There 
was  a  small  coach  drawn  by  two  horses:  a  lady  sat  in  the 
coach,  and  a  servant  and  a  page  stood  behind  it.     This 
coach  being  placed  oh  a  t^lc  at  which  the  king  was  seated, 
the  coachman  smacked  h'lsVhip,  and  the  horses  immedi- 
ately began  to  move,  l^eir  legs  advancing  in  the  proper 
succession.    \Vhen  the  cavalcade  reached  the  edge  of  the 
table,  it  turned  at  a  rigbt  angle,  iarid  proceeded  along  that 
edge.  When  it  arrived  opposite  to  tAe  place  where  the  king 
was  seated,  it  stopped  and  the  page  got  down  and  opened 
the   do€r,   upon  which '  the  l^ily  afighted,  and,  with  a 
curtsey,  presented  a  petition  fo  tne'king.     After  waiting 
some  time,  she  again  curtseyed,  and  re-entered  her  car- 
riage: the  page  then  resumed*  his  place,  the  coachman 
whipped  his  horses,  which  begun  \p  move,  and  the  foot- 
man, running  after  the  carriage,  jumped  up  behind.    This 
was  made  by  M.  Camus,  who  wrote  a  description  of  the 
general  nature  of  the  mechanism  employed:  but  his  de- 
tails wer^  nol  sufficiently  minute   to  account  for  the 
almost  inconceivable  movements  of  the  figures.    We  have 
frequently  seen  in  the  public  streets  of  London  an  exhi- 
bition in  which  a  carriage  rolled  rapidly  round  a  circular 
table,  the  horses'  feet  moved,  and  the  coachman  smacked 
his  whip :  ^ut  tliere  was  no  dismounting,— no  curtseying, 
— no  presentatipn  of  a  petition, — ^no  footman  running 
after  the  carriage,  &c.      * 

Perhaps  one  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  auto- 
matic mechariism  ever  constructed' was  the  duck  of  Vau- 
cansoii.  This  machine  in  external  form  exactly  resembled 
a  real  duckV  the  wings  bein^  anatomically  correct  in  every 
part-  But  not  onjy  was^e  exterior  an  exact  copy  of  the 
original;  tjie  resemblance  was  also  carried  to  internal 
pans :  every  bone  in  the  real  duck  had  its  representative  in 
the  automaton ;  cavities,  curvatures,  protuberances,  were 
all  imitated.  This  duck  imitated  the  actions  of  a  real  one 
to  an  extent  that  surpasses  all  we  have  yet  detailed.  It 
exhibited  those  quick  motions  of  the  ^ead  and  throat  so 
peculiar  to  the  living  duck:  it  produced  the  quacking 
sound;  it  drank  water  in  that  manner  peculiar  to  billed 
animals:  it  swallowed  food  with  avi4ity,  and  jfctually 
digested  the  food  in  t}ie  stomacbi  This  latter  remark  is 
so  astonishing  that  we  must  make  one  additional  observ- 
ation concerning  it,  in  order  that  it  may  be  believed  at 
all.  The  stottmch  contained  some  chemical  substance, 
whichaCted  oil  the  food'UiWoduceci  into  it,  so  that'  the 
foodlefttfie%od^'of  the'ai'fifirtal'duckin  a  fomi'very 
differeni  ft^om  't^  fn  ^Jiich  ij  enteretj.  TJie  authenticity 
of  this  narration  is  uiidisputiBd.  'fhe  automaton  was 
seen  in  action  by  ]\|ontuc{a,  the  eminent  French  mathe- 
matician, who  wrote  an' account  of' it. 

There  are  inany  other  Instances  of  similar  ingenuity 
on  record;  ^ch  a^  a  sheep  wfiich'imitated  the  bleating" of 
a  natural  one,'  iCnd  a  'dog  wktching  a  basket  of  fruit : 
when  any  one  attempted '  to  purloin  the  fruit,  the  dog 
gnashed  his  teeth  andbarked;  and  if  the  fruit  were  ac- 
hiaHy  taken  away,  }ie  did  not  cease  parking  till  it  was 
restored.  But  we  have  stated  sufficient  to  give  some 
idea  of  the  mannner  in  whidi  ingenuitv  has  been  di- 
rected to  this  subject  in  the  imitation  of 'fcirds,  Ac.  In 
another  article  we'  fehajl  dfeiscribe  sbine'of  the  principal 
androidesy  or  niach'lnes'reseniblin^  the  human  figure, 
and  so  contrived  as  to  imitate  certain  movements  of  a 
living  being.  Py  referring  to  the  Saturday  U^agaziney 
vol.  viii.,  p.  151,  the  reader  will  find  an  account  of  a 
Tery  ingenious  automaton  ship  and  sea. 

It  is  not  either  fineness  of  wit,  or  abundance  of  wealth,  or 
any  such  like  inward  or  outward  ornament,  that  makes  the 
difference  between  men,  and  renders  the  one  better  than  the 
other ;  but  tH*  firmness  of  good  principles,  the  scttledness  of 
the  ^iiity  an4i)^o  l^iet  ofinmd.— — ^bisaop  f  atjkick. 


THE  JERBOA, 


This  pretty  little  animal  belongs  to  a  genus  which 
approximates  considerably  to  the  rats,  proj)erlY  so 
called,  but  is  suflficiently  distinguished  by  the  shortness 
of  the  fore-legs,  and  the  length  of  the  hinder  cxtrcnii-. 
ties.  Owing  to  an  error  long  prevalent  among  natu- 
ralists, who  imagined  that  these  animals  marie  use  of 
their  hind  feet  only  in  walking,  and  never  employed  tlie 
fore  feet  for  that  purpose,  the  genus  was  namecl  dipns^ 
or  two-legged.  A  more  attentive  consideration  of  the 
structure  of  these  animals  has  proved  that  the  Jerboa  is 
incapable  of  sustaining  itself  for  any  length  of  time  on 
its  hind-feet,  though  commonly  seen  in  that  posture. 
When  alarmed,  or  wishing  to  proceed  at  a  rapid  rate,  it 
takes  prodigious  leaps  and  falls  upon  its  fore-feet,  but 
elevates  itself  again  with  so  much  rapidity,  that  it  almost 
appears  as  if  it  constantly  maintained  the  erect  posture. 
The  fore-feet  are,  however,  chiefly  employed  as  the 
means  of  rest,  and*  of  conveying  food  to  the  mouth. 

There  is  much  in  the  appearance  of  the  Jerboa  to  re- 
mind us  of  the  kangaroo.  The  form  of  the  body  bears 
a  general  resemblance;  the  hinder  limbs  are  much 
strouger  than  the  fore-part;  the  tail  is  very  long;  the 
ears  are  pointed  and  elongated;  and  the  eyes  are  large 
and  round.  Still  there  are  important  differences  between 
these  animals,  which  sufficiently  prove  that  it  would  be 
incorrect  to  follow  Erxleben  in  classing  kangaroos  with 
Jerboas,  under  the  name  Jaculus  giganteus. 

The  body  of  the  Jerboa  is  covered  with  soft  silken 
hairs ;  the  tail  also  is  usually  covered  with  smooth  hairs 
to  its  extremity,  which  is  terminated  by  a  tuft.  The 
general  colour  of  the  animal  is  a  clear  fawn  on  the  upper 
part,  and  white  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body ;  in  the 
males  the  tints  are  less  deep  than  in  the  females;  the 
size  of  the  former  is  also  smaller  than  that  of  the  latter. 
The  tail  is  indispensable  to  the  Jerboa  for  the  per- 
formance of  those  extraordinary  leaps  for  which  the  ani- 
mal is  so  remarkable :  it  is  likewise  necessary  for  them  in 
raising  themselves  on  their  hind- legs ;  and  when  for  the 
sake  of  experiment,  they  have  been  either  wholly  or 
partially  deprived  of  their  tails,  they  have  had  their 
powers  diminished  proportionably,  being  in  the  one  case 
unable  to  run  or  leap  at  all,  and  in  the  other,  very  much 
limited  in  their  motions. 

The  species  which  has  been  the  best  observed  is  the 
Gcrbo,  or  Egyptian  Jerboa,  living  in  troops  and  digging 
burrows  in  Egypt.  In  the  hot  and  sandy  regions, 
and  amid  the  ruins  which  surround  modern  Alexandria, 
these  animals  arc  commonly  seen.  Without  being 
exactly  wild  or  ferocious  in  their  character,  they  are  ex- 
tremely unquiet  and  wary.  They  come  abroad  in  search 
of  food,  wluch  consists  of  com,  nuts,  roots,  &c.,  but  at 
the  least  noise  re-enter  their  holes  with  precipitation. 
Their  burrows  consist  of  several  galleries,  and  the  Arabs 
have  a  mode  of  taking  these  animals  alive,  by  closing  up 
the  issues  of  the  different  galleries,  with  the  exception  of 
one  through  which  they  must  go  out.  They  hunt  them 
for  their  flesh,  which,  although  not  the  best  of  meat,  is 
in  considerable  request  among  the  Egyptians.  Their 
skins,  likewise,  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  ordi- 
nary fur. 

Another  species  is  the  Alactaga,  under  which  name 
some  naturalists  describe  Jerboas,  having  ^f^  toes  on 
the  hind- feet,  as  a  genus  distinct  from  that  of  the  Jer- 
boas having  but  three.  The  Alactaga  is  about  the  size  of 
a  common  squirrel.  The  fur  is  very  soft  and  pliant,  of 
a  yellowish  fawn  colour  over  the  body,  varying  with  a 
grayish  brown.  The  under  part  of  the  body,  and  the 
interior  of  the  limbs  are  white.  The  tail  is  longer  than 
the  body,  covered  with  similar  hair  for  two-thirds  of  its 
length,  and  terminating  in  a  tuft,  half  white  and  half 
black.  This  species  is  found  in  the  deserts  of  Tartary, 
on  the  sand-hills  which  border  the  Tanais,  the  Volga, 
and  the  Irtisch.     Gmelin  says  that  these  animals  collect 


M 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


Lt^EBRnABT  13,  1S41. 


herbs  and  roots  during  Mitnmer,  form  them  into  separate 
heaps,  and  transport  tnnn  by  degrees  to  their  burrows, 
when  they  are  suffioiently  dried  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
They  seek  their  provisions  by  night,  and  besides  herbs, 
succulent  plants,  fruits,  and  roots,  they  feed  on  insects 
and  small  birds.  They  are  said  also  to  devour  one  an- 
other, always  commencing  with  the  eyes  and  brain.  To 
the  west  of  Tartary  lie  eitensive  deserts,  where  the 
bulbs  of  tulips  and  of  various  other  plants  growing 
abundantly  in  that  arid  soil,  afford  nourishment  for  the 
Alactaga.  In  preparing  its  burrow,  this  animal  scrapes 
away  the  earth  with  great  activity,  excavating  with  its 
fore-paws,  and  tearing  away  the  roots  with  its  teeth.  It  is 
able  to  foresee  the  approach  of  the  cold  or  rainy  season, 
and  closes  its  burrow  with  surprising  punctuality.  It  is 
remarkably  seositive  of  cold,  and  a  very  slight  change  of 
temperature  will  reduce  it  to  its  lethargic  state.  A  great 
desree  of  heat  likewise  produces  a  similar  effect. 

The  swiftness  of  these  animals  when  pursued  is  so 
great  that  they  scarcely  appear  to  touch  the  earth,  and  it 
is  said,  that  even  a  man  on  horseback  cannot  overtake 
them.  It  is  very  difficult  to  preserve  them  in  captivity, 
unless  they  are  provided  vrith  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
They  may  be  fed  with  carrots. 


earth  or  sand  to  dig 
fruit,  cabbage,  bread,  &c. 
The  Jerboas  of  India  e 
wicke  OS  being  very 
particularly  destructi' 
burrows  of  this 


13  species  ai 


e  described  by  General  Hard- 

rous  on  oiltivatcd  lands,  and 
0  wheat  and  barley  crops.  The 
e  very  spacious,  and  the  animals 
Jay  up  considerable  hoards  of  ripening  com,  which  tbey 
cut  just  beneath  the  ears,  and  convey  entire  to  their 
common  subterraneous  repository,  which  when  filled  is 
carefully  closed,  and  not  opened  again  till  supplies  abroad 
become  distant  and  scarce.  Their  favourite  food  raay  b' 
considered  the  different  sorts  of  grain,  bnt  when  tnesi 
foil  they  have  recourse  to  roots,  &c. 

Abont  the  close  of  the  day,  (says  Hardwicke,)  thev 
Issae  from  their  burrows,  and  traverse  the  plains  in  all 
directions  to  a  consideralile  distance ;  they  run  fast,  but 
oftener  leap,  making  bounds  of  four  or  five  yards  at  a  time, 
carrying  the  toil  extended  in  a  horizontal  direction.  When 
eating;  they  mt  on  their  hind  legs  like  a  squirrel,  holding 
the  &od  between  their  fore-feet.  They  never  appsK  ' 
day,  neither  do  they  commit  depredations  within  doon 
have  observed  their  manners  by  night,  in  moonlight  nights, 
taking  my  station  on  a  plain,  and  Temaining  for  soma  time 
with  as  httlo  motion  as  postdbla  I  was  soon  surrounded  by 
hundreds,  at  the  distance  of  a  few  yards ;  but  on  risins  from 
my  seat,  the  whole  disappeared  in  an  instant,  nor  did  they 
venture  forth  again  for  ten  minutes  after,  and  then  witli 
much  caution  and  circumspection.  A  tribe  of  low  Hindoos, 
called  Kunjers,  whose  occupation  is  hunting,  go  in  quest  of 
these  animals  at  proper  seasons,  to  plunder  their  hoards  of 
grain ;  and  often,  within  the  space  of  twenty  yards  square, 
find  as  much  com  in  the  ear  as  could  be  crammed  into  a 
common  bushel.  They  inhabit  dry  situations,  and  are  often 
found  at  the  distance  of  some  miles  out  of  the  reach  of 
water.  In  confinement,  this  animal  soon  becomes  recon- 
ciled to  its  situation  and  docile,  sleeps  mnch  in  the  day, 
but  when  awake  feeds  as  A'eely  as  by  night.  The  Hindoos 
above  meAioned,  esteem  them  good  and  nutritious  food. 


It  is  probable  that  as  the  country  becomes  better 
known,  Australia  will  not  be  fmrad  deficient  in  animals 
which  though  numerous  in  other  piirts  of  tiie  world, 
have  not  yet  been  discovered  there,  and  are  said  not  to 
exist  in  that  extensive  continent. 


It  was  for  a  long  ti 
Jerboa  is,  on  extensive  si 
new  continent,  yet  that  ii 


i  believed  that  common  as  the 
indy  plains  of  both  the  old  and 
1  similar  tracts  in  Australia  no 
)  be  found.  It  has  now,  however, 
been  satisfactorily  ascertained  that  these  animals  do  exist 
in  Australia.  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell  in  his  "Three 
Veai-i  Expeditions  into  the  Interior  of  Auttralia," 
describes  an  animal  found  in  the  reedy  plains  near  the 
junction  of  the  Murray  and  the  Murrumbidgee,  on  the 
northern  boun<l,-iries  of  Australia  Felix.  Its  fore  and 
hind  legs  resembed  those  of  a  kangaroo,  and  it  usEd 
the  latter  liy  leaping  on  its  hind  quarters  in  the  same 
manner.  It  was  not  much  larger  than  a  field-mouse, 
but  the  tail  was  longer  in  proportion  than  even  that  of 
a  kangaroo,  and  terminated  in  a  hairy  brush  about  two 
inches  long.  i 


BlIILr  KISIKO. 


It  is  related  tliat  King  George  the  Hiird,  who  made  the 
cause  of  longevity  a  suliitct  of  invest igoti on,  procured  two 
persons,  eacli  considerabry  above  a  hundred  years  of  age,  to 
dance  in  his  presence.  lU  then. requested  them  to  relate  t» 
him  their  modes  of  livine,  that  he  might  draw  from  them, 
if  possible,  some  clue  to  the  causes  of  their  vigorous  old  m. 
The  one  had  been  a  shepherd,  remarkably  temperate  oad 
circumspect  in  his  diet  and  regimen;  tlie  other,  a  hed-fr, 
had  U'tii  noted  for  his  irregularity,  exposure,  and  intempt- 
rance.  The  monarch  could  draw  no  inference,  to  guide  nis 
inquiries,  from  such  different  modes  of  life  tenninatine  in 
the  snme  result;  but,  on  further  inquiry,  he  learned  that 
both  men  were  alike  distinguished  by  a  tranquU  eamness  of 
temper,  active  bflbita,  and  eablt  nisi.vo. 


What  is  there  of  an  exciting  nature  in  the  common  events 
of  hfe,  and  the  usual  course  and  uniformity  of  nature? 
Very  little.  However  wonderous  the  works  of  the  crMlion 
may  be,  habit  has  so  accustomed  us  to  behold  Uiero,  thst 
they  ore  familiar  to  our  eyes ;  they  become  matter  of  fiid, 
and  science  has  taught  us  to  comprehend  the  nature  of  many 
phenomena,  which  mightothcrwiso  have  appeared  incredible. 
But  when  we  seek  for  an  unattainable  ohject,  however  falU- 
cioua  its  attraction  may  bi',  the  mind  is  roused  to  ener^ie 
action.  In  our  vain  pursuits  of  ideal  perfection,  the  mind 
may  be  compared  to  a  focus  in  which  our  burning  thoughls 
are  concentrated  until  wo  are  consumed  by  digappoinlin'ent. 

False  doctrines  and  fallacious  opinions,  need  all  the  aid  nf 
imagination's  vivid  colours  to  disguise  tbeir  real  form  with 
agoodly  outaide.  We  may  in  general  conclude  that  enthu- 
siasts are  at  first  deceived  themselves,  to  become  in  turn 
deceivers.  Seldom  does  man  dispky  sufficient  humility  to 
admit  that  he  lias  erred  in  his  favourite  doctrines,  and  how 
much  less  will  he  be  disposed  to  confess  bis  deviation  from 
rectitude,  when  imposture  becomes  the  source  of  wealtli, 
and  power  and  hypocrisy  a  trade. 

It  is,  however,  fortunate  that  errors  generally  assist  the 
devclopcment  of  truth.  The  progreas  of  5ie  Christian  faith, 
was  mnteriallj^  forwarded  by  the  absurdities  and  fallndes  of 
all  other  religions;  and  HeJvetius  has  truly  olwicr\-ed,  that 
if  we  could  for  a  moment  doubt  the  truth  of  Cbristianilv,  i 
its  divine  origin  would  bf  proved  by  its  having  survived  tlie 
horrors  of  popciy.  False  theories  "led  Coiumbus  to  correct  ' 
geographic  conclusions,  and  Galileo's  discoveries  overthrew 
his  own  former  theories. — Millikoxm. 


LONDON: 
_  JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STHAND. 
Prnmaii  is  ^Tieut  Nin»»a.  nic*  Om  PimT,  ^kd  m  Mo«mu.» 


N?  354.  FEBRUARY  20^?,  1841.  {cfS,,. 


Vol.  XMII,  W 


66 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Februabt  20, 


CANOVA  AND  HIS  WORKS- 

At  the  period  of  Canova's  arrival  at  Rome,  painting 
and  sculpture  were  at  a  very  low  ebb.  The  spirit  <rf 
improvement  which  had  begun  to  distingruish  the  age,  in 
other  respects,  had  not  yet  extended  its  influence  to  these 
arts.  Canova  was  received  in  the  most  gracious  man- 
ner by  the  Venetian  ambassador,  and  entertained  in  his 
palace.  This  statement  is  supported  by  the  letters  of 
Canova  himself  and  by  those  of  the  younger  Falier ;  so 
that  the  accounts  which  have  appeared  of  his  distress, 
and  of  the  neglect  which  he  suffered  on  his  first  arrival  at 
Rome,  are  not  to  be  received  as  correct.  The  ambassador 
at  that  time  was  the  Cavaliere  Zuliani,  an  enlightened  and 
generous  protector  of  the  arts.  Wishing  to  judge  for  him- 
self of  the  merits  of  the  sculptor,  he  sent  for  the  model  of 
Daedalus  and  Icarus;  and  invited  the  most  celebrated 
artists  and  connoisseurs  to  inspect  a  new  work  of  art. 
Canova  accompanied  these  individuals  into  the  apart- 
ment where  stood  his  last  performance;  and  previously 
to  its  examination,  was  introduced  to  them  as  the  author 
of  the  work.  The  company  stood  around  the  group 
surveying  it  with  strict  scrutiny;  and  for  some  time 
maintained  a  profound  silence.  The  style  was  so  differ- 
ent from  that  of  existing  art,  that  each  seemed  reluctant 
to  venture  an  opinion  on  its  merits.  At  length  Hamil- 
ton the  painter  advanced,  and  cordially  embraced  the 
trembling  artist,  congratulating  him  on  his  work,  and 
advising  him  to  prosecute  the  course  he  had  so  evidently 
pursued  of  constantly  referring  to  nature,  and  in  addi- 
tion, to  pay  assiduous  attention  to  the  works  of  anti- 
quity. 

The  merits  of  the  young  sculptor  were  now  fully 
acknowledged,  and  his  patron  Zuliani  soon  g^ve  him  an 
opportunity  of  commencing  what  he  had  long  desired, 
a  group  on  some  heroic  subject.  The  material  was 
ordered  by  the  ambassador,  and  the  subject  was  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  artist.  Canova  selected  that  of  The- 
seus vanquishing  the  Minotaur,  and  a  mass  of  statuary 
marble,  value  300  crowns  (about  63/.  sterling),  soon 
arrived,  and  filled  Canova  with  delight.  His  letters  of 
this  period  are  full  of  the  praises  of  the  ambassador  and 
admiration  of  the  beautiful  marble  on  which  he  was 
about  to  work.  Canova  laboured  with  great  diligence 
but  with  secrecy  at  this  important  task,  in  an  apartment 
of  the  Venetian  palace  to  which  no  one  was  permitted 
to  have  access.  His  ostensible  employment  was  a 
statue  of  Apollo,  about  half  the  natural  size,  which  on 
its  completion  was  exposed  to  public  inspection  at  the 
same  time  with  one  of  the  best  works  of  Angelini,  who 
was  then  ranked  among  the  best  sculptors  of  Italy. 
Notwithstanding  this  circumstance,  which  might  have 
been  expected  to  operate  imfavourably  for  our  young 
sculptor,  his  performance  was  very  much  admired  and 
even  compared  with  the  Minerva  of  Angelini  in  a  man- 
ner unfavourable  to  the  latter.  Meanwhile  the  secret 
labours  of  Canova  approached  their  termination,  and 
his  Theseus  in  all  its  beauty  was  to  surprise  the 
people  of  Rome.  The  ambassador  gave  a  grand  enter- 
tainment to  the  most  distinguished  characters  in  that 
city,  and  while  they  were  engaged  in  disputes  concerning 
a  model  of  the  head  of  Theseus,  whicn  had  been  pur- 
posely left  in  the  reception  room, — some  maintaining 
that  it  represented  one  personage,  some  another,  but  all 
agreeing  that  the  cast  must  have  been  taken  from  a 
work  of  Grecian  sculpture — Zuliana  exclaimed,  "  Come, 
let  us  tenninate  these  disputes  by  going  to  see  the  origi- 
nal." All  were  astonished,  and  eagerly  followed  to  the 
spot  where  Canova's  Theseus,  victorious  over  his  cruel 
foe,  was  placed  in  the  most  advantageous  light.  Pleasure 
and  stonishment  pervaded  the  whole  assembly,  and  the 
wor'<  was  unanimously  pronounced  to  be  the  most  perfect 
which  Rome  had  beheld  for  ages.  Canova  was  after- 
wards heard  to  say  that  death  itself  could  scarcely  be 


more  terrible  than  th«  cental  safferings  he  mdared, 
while  the  Earlier  of  these  occurences  was  passiiig. 

We  must  not  omit  to  stele  that  the  applieation  of 
Canova's  early  patron  to  the  Venetian  government  was 
successful  in  procuring  for  him  a  pension  of  300  ducats, 
Hmited  to  a  term  of  three  years,  that  he  might  in  Rome 
perfect  himself  in  his  pro&ssion  and  reflect  honour  on 
the  republic.  This  pension,  though  of  great  importance 
to  the  sculptor,  did  not  much  exceed  60^  sterling  per 
annum. 

Canova  was  now  selected  to  erect  a  monumoit  io 
honour  of  Clement  XIV.,  but  hesitated  to  undertake  the 
work  on  account  of  this  pension,  which  he  c<«tidered  as 
placing  his  time  and  occupations  under  the  disposal  of 
the  republic  He  therefore  repaired  to  Venice  and  laid 
the  subject  before  his  patrotis,  who  generously  left  him 
to  direct  his  application  to  whatever  subjects  he  deemed 
most  conducive  to  his  future  improvement  and  welfare. 
Canova  now  permanently  established  himself  at  Rome; 
but  the  ambassador  Zuliani,  having  been  recalled  by  the 
senate,  in  order  to  become  Plenipotentiary  to  the  Otto- 
man Porte,  the  Venetian  palace  was  no  longer  open  to 
our  artist,  and  he  therefore  opened  a  studio  in  the  Sirada 
Bahbuino* 

Canova  was  in  his  twenty-fifth  year  when  he  thus 
took  up  his  abode  in  Rome;  and  was  decidedly  the  most 
accomplished  artist  of  the  day.  He  now  began  to  be 
exposed  to  the  hostility  and  misrepresentations  of  envious 
rivals; — some  were  envious  of  the  applause  bestowed  on 
his  Theseus, — others  were  jealous  at  his  good  fortune  in 
obtaining  the  monument  on  which  he  was  now  employed, 
— ^while  both  classes  feared  the  effect  his  rising  fame 
might  have  on  their  fortunes.  Though  these  circum- 
stances could  not  fedl  to  wound  the  feelings  of  one 
endued  with  Canova's  sensibility,  yet  his  modesty  of 
deportment,  and  dislike  of  retaiation  carried  him 
through  the  trial.  Praise  or  blame  fiiiled  to  injure  the 
tone  of  his  mind.  "To  praise,"  he  used  to  say,  *<what 
can  I  answer;  to  the  censures  of  wdl-wishers,  I  must 
listen  in  silence;  for,  if  wrong,  their  feelings  would  be 
hurt  by  telling  them  so, — if  correct,  I  endeavour  to 
profit  by  their  remarks."  When  urged  to  refute  some 
injurious  remarks  which  had  been  made  on  his  worb, 
in  some  of  the  literary  joumab,  he  replied,  "My  worb 
are  before  the  public,  and  that  public  has  every  right  to 
judge  them ;  but,  for  my  own  part,  my  resolution  is  not 
to  reply  to  any  critical  observation  whatsoever,  otherwise, 
than  by  exerting  every  effort  to  do  better."  Two  years 
were  passed  by  Canova  in  arranging  the  design  and 
composing  the  models  for  the  tomb  of  GanganeSi 
(Clement  XIV.),  and  two  years  more  in  the  exeoution« 
His  labours  were  most  exhausting,  for  at  that  time  he 
could  not  afford  to  avail  himself  of  the  services  of  others* 
This  long  expected  work '  was  exposed  to  the  public 
in  1787,  and  was  found  sufficient,  of  itself,  to  establish 
the  fame  of  Canova,  as  the  greatest  artist  of  modem 
times. 

Canova's  prcffessional  engagements  now  multiplied 
rapidly.  Numerous  productions  of  minor  importsnce 
employed  his  leisure,  while  his  principal  attention  was 
bestowed  on  another  monument,  which  he  was  com- 
missioned to  execute,  to  the  memory  of  Rezsonico, 
Clement  XII.,  to  be  placed  in  St.  Peter's.  This  beauti- 
ful production  occupied  five  years  of  diligent  study, 
and  it  is  worth  while  to  mention,  as  a  proof  of  Canova*s 
careful  method  of  working,  that  the  two  lions  repre- 
sented in  the  moniunent  were  not  finished  without  long 
and  repeated  observation  of  the  forms  and  habits  of 
the  living  animals.  Wherever  lions  were  to  be  seen, 
Canova  constantly  visited  them  at  all  hours,  to  ascertain 
their-  natural  expresssion  in  different  states  of  action  and 
repose,  of  ferocity  or  gentleness ;  and  one  of  the  keepers 
was  even  paid  to  bring  information,  lest  any  favourable 
occasion  should  pass  unimproved.  One  of  the  most 
faultless  and  classical  of  Canova's  works  was  a  statue 


1841.] 


THE  SATOliDAY  MAGAZINE. 


6» 


of  Psyche,  et^cuted  about  thit  time,  and  designed  as  a 
present  to  the  Ambassador  Zuliani,  who  died  while  the 
statue  was  on  its  way  to  Venice.  This  celebrated  figure 
afterwards  became  the  property  of  Napoleon,  by  whom 
it  was  presented  to  the  queen  of  Bavaria. 

Two  different  groups  of  Cupid  and  Psyche  also  occu- 
pied the  talents  of  our  artist»  and  by  these  and  other 
proofs  of  genius  his  ntiM  and  reputation  became  widely 
extended.  He  receitied  a  flattering  invitation  from  the 
Russian  court,  pressing  his  removd  to  St.  Petersbui^h, 
which  oflbr  he  mteAiUy  decUned*  A  mcmument  to 
Admiral  Emo,  of  Venice,  was  the  next  important  work 
in  which  Canova  wia  engaged,  and  afterwaraa  the  much 
admired  group  of  the  (Murtiiig  of  Venus  and  Adonis. 
The  revolution  thraugliottl  iSirope  now  checked  tof  a 
time  the  progren  of  Im  ixtt  arts,  and  compelled  Cuiova 
to  seek  a  retreat  from  scenes  which  so  much  excited  his 
abhorrence,  in  the  quiet  of  his  own  native  village  of 
Possagno.  There  he  remained  a  year,  and  occupied  him- 
self chieflr  in  painting. 

Soon  aner  his  return  to  Rome,  i4>peared  the  PerssuB 
of  Canova.    It  was  a  grand  and  clawdcal  production,  and 
was  called  **Il  Consolatore"  (the  consoler),  beeause  it  ap- 
peared at  a  ^me  when  Rome  was  mourning  the  plunder  of 
her  galleries  and  museums.    lu  1 803  Canova  presented  to 
Italy  the  celebrated  group  of  Creugcu  and  Damaxenus^ 
which  was,  like  the  Perseus,  purchased  by  the  papal 
government  and  plaeed  in  the  Vatican.  Among  Canova's 
heroic  compositions,  we  must  likewise  mention  his  statues 
of  Paris;  of  Palamede;  the  combat  of  Theseus  with  Uie 
Centaur;  the  Hector  and  Ajax;  and  the  Hercules  and 
Lychas;  which  last  was  considered  the  most  terrible 
ooncepticHi  of  Cimova's  mind.     The  varied  exerilenoe  of 
these  performances  eannot  be  here  dwelt  upon,  though 
each  deserves  particular  notice.     Yet,  highly  as  we  may 
esteem  Canova's  attempts  at  the  grand  and  terrible,  it 
appean  evidait  thai  hia  chief  excellence  consisted  in  the 
feithfid  repres^italkm  of  graoefol  and  el^^ant  subjects* 
Hence,  his  favourite  eubjects  were  those  of  youth  and 
beauty :  and  henoe  the  ftine  which  resulted  from  his  pro- 
duction  ef  the  Ckupid  tmd  Ptffcke^  the  Heke^  the  Dancing 
N^mpht,  and  above  all,  the  Ghrtusea,    When  Italy  was 
stripped  of  its  moat  valuable  sculptures,  Florence  was 
deprived  of  its  celebrated  '^  Venus   de  Medicis,"  and 
Canova  waa  engaged  to  aupj^y  a  auccessor.     Having 
stipulated  that  the  atatne  to  be  produced  riiould  not  oe- 
OBpy  the  vaeast  pedest^  ef  the  absent  goddess,  or  be 
considered  as  a  presumptuous  attempt  to  copy  tfauit  sub- 
Ume  production,  he  undertook  tlie  work.     The  Venus 
of  Oaxtova  is  elegantly  conceived,  and  has  a  noble  ex- 
pressicM;  but  lepresents  liie  woman  rather  than  tiie 
goddess.     His    rimfef  Vioiaruna  afforded  him  greater 
satiafiuHiott.     This  was  a  statue,  the  head  of  which  was  a 
portrait  ef  Pnlina  Buonaparte^  Princess  Borghese,  whose 
fine  style  of  eoaatenattce  harmonized  admirabl  v  with  the 
ideal  iigwe.     The  Awakened  Nymph  was  of  a  some- 
what sasfiar  character,  and  was  purchased  by  his  late 
majesty,  Greorge  the  Fourth. 

We  have  not  been  able  to  arrange  tSiese  performances 
of  our  artist  precisely  according  to  chronological  order, 
hut  we  mut  ncrw  return  to  the  year  1802  when  Canova, 
at  the  request  of  the  First  Consul,  repaired  to  Paris,  and 
earefuily  modetted  from  life  the  bust  of  Napoleon.  On 
thia  oceaaioii  he  was  entertained  ^th  munificence,  and 
varioofl  honours  were  conferred  upon  him.  Indncements 
were  also  held  tnt  to  tempt  him  to  take  up  his  residence 
in  Parian  Imt  the  prospect  of  the  most  flattering  distinc- 
tions ootdd  nei  wean  him  from  his  beloved  Italy. 
He  also  disliked  F^!ench  taste:  "  They  are  not  inspired," 
he  would  say)  ^irith  genuine  love  of  art:  it  is  merely  a 
love  of  diajilay."  Highly  interesting  conversa^ons 
passed  between  Napoleon  and  Canova,  during  the  stay 
ot  the  latter  in  Paris.  Hie  humanity  of  Canova*s  dis- 
position made  him  a  decided  lover  of  peace,  and  he 
took  every  epportomty  of  declaring  his  true  sentiments. 


Buonaparte,  who  delighted  in  the  conversation  of  men 
of  genius,  often  listened  with  calmness  and  attention  to 
his  views,  but  when  these  went  near  to  implicate  his  own 
actions,  he  would  exclaim,  "  Come,  citizen  Canova,  par- 
late  senza  tema,"  (How!  citizen  Canova,  you  speak 
without  fear.)  «  Parlo  da  nom  sincero,"  (I  speak  without 
flattery,)  was  the  laconic  reply.  By  the  particuLu*  desire 
of  Napoleon,  he  examined  the  Mus^  of  the  Louvre 
that  he  might  suggest  any  improvements  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  those  treasures  of  which  other  collections  had 
been  despoiled.  Being  then  asked  by  the  consul  if  he 
did  not  think  them  judiciously  arranged,  he  answered, 
«  They  were  certainly  better  placed  in  Italy."  The  bust 
of  Napoleon  was  a  noble  performance,  and  faithfully 
represented  the  features  of  that  remarkable  man,  though 
as  years  passed,  the  increasing  obesity  of  the  emperor 
diminished  the  likeness.  It  is  now  in  the  possession  of 
the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Of  the  funeral  monuments  executed  by  Canova,  one  of 
the  grandest,  most  solemn  and  imposing,  was  the  monu- 
ment of  the  Arch-Duchess  Maria  Christina,  daughter 
of  Maria  Theresa,  and  wife  of  Prince  Albert  of  Saxony. 
It  is  placed  in  the  church  of  the  Augustines  at  Vienna, 
and  consists  of  nine  figures,  a  lion,  and  medallion,  all  of 
the  natural  size.  The  groundwork  is  a  pyramid  of 
grayish  marble  on  a  plain  square  basement,  from  which 
two  steps  lead  to  a  doorway  in  the  centre  of  the  tomb. 
A  train  of  mourners  is  approaching  this  doorway.  Ftr- 
tuey  a  young  female  of  afflicted,  yet  dignified  mien, 
accompanied  by  two  young  vimns,  is  carrying  in  an  urn 
the  ashes  of  the  deceased.  Then  follows  Beneficence 
supporting  an  aged  and  infirm  old  man,  behind  whom  is 
a  child  in  the  attitude  of  prayer.  Opposite  to  these  is 
the  genius  of  Saxony,  resting  on  a  couchant  lion,  and 
mournfully  regarding  the  train.  Above,  FeUcity  with 
an  attendant  <3ierub  is  transporting  to  heaven  the  por- 
trait of  the  princess. 

In  the  more  simple  class  of  sepulchral  marbles,  one 
of  the  most  pathetic  is  the  grand  relievo  on  the  tomb 
for  the  daughter  of  the  Marchese  di  Santa  Croce. 
This  voung  lady  was  cut  off  by  sudden  illness  on  the 
very  day  appointed  for  her  marriage.  The  way  in  which 
Canova  treated  the  death  scene,  and  the  unutterable  woe 
expressed  in  the  countenance  of  the  afflicted  mother,  was 
so  touching  that  numbers  were  surprised  into  tears  at 
the  sight,  and  a  lady  who  had  suffered  a  similar  loss 
actually  fainted  away  on  beholding  it. 

In  1813,  when  it  pleased  the  Allied  Powers  to  restore 
to  Italy  the  treasures  of  art  of  which  she  had  been 
despoiled,  Canova  was  entrusted  with  the  superintend- 
ence of  their  removal,  and  as  soon  as  this  important 
commission  was  completed,  he  set  out  on  a  visit  to  the 
British  metropolis.  Here  he  received  the  most  brilliant 
welcome  from  the  Prince  Regent,  and  from  the  nobility 
and  men  of  talent.  Canova  always  spoke  with  great 
satisi^Lction  of  this  visit,  and  his  friends  considered  his 
reception  in  England  as  the  highest  in  ius  long  list  of 
honours. 

On  his  return  to  Rome  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Ischia 
was  conferred  on  him,  with  a  pension  of  3Q00  crowns 
per  annum.  This  elevation  in  rank  was  received  by 
Canova  with  his  accustomed  simplicity  and  modesty.  He 
attributed  every  vicissitude  in  his  own  lot,  as  weu  as  in 
that  of  others,  solely  to  the  dispensations  of  an  all-wise 
and  good  Providence.  His  mind  appeared  to  become 
more  and  more  susceptible  of  serious  impressions,  and 
he  now  proposed  gratuitously  to  exercise  his  skill  on  a 
colossal  statue  of  Religion.  The  model  filled  Italy  with 
admiration,  but  owing  to  a  <£sagreement  among  cardi- 
nals and  princes  as  to  the  site  it  was  to  occupy,  the 
obstacles  opposed  to  it  caused  him  to  relinquish  the 
Work.  Canova's  income  arising  from  his  new  dignity 
was  appropriated  by  him  entirely  to  benevolent  purposes. 
He  patronized  poor  artists,  relieved  distress,  and  dealt 
his  bounty  liberally  among  the  peasants  of  his  native 

554—2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


village,  Possigno.  In  1619  he  repaired  to  that  spot, 
and  fflve  the  necestitry  directioni  for  ths  erectiau  of  a 
beautiful  church  at  his  own  expense,  and  everr  succeed- 
ing autnmn  repeated  his  visit.  In  the  intervala  between 
these  visits  he  still  continued  bis  labours,  and  by  over- 
exertion at  this  period  is  supposed  to  have  hastened  his 
end.  The  wiater  of  1821-23  witnessed  a  more  than 
ordinary  amount  of  labour.  Visiting  Naples  in  con- 
nexion with  his  equestKan  statue  of  Ferdinand,  the 
reigning  sovepeign,  that  climate  which  hadalways  proved 
uncongenial  to  Urn,  iocrcased  a  slight  illness  from  which 
he  was  suffering.  He  partially  recovered  on  his  return 
to  Rome,  and  on  the  succeeding  autumn  set  out  for 
Possagno.  This  journey  appeared  to  increase  his  malady; 
and  on  leaving  that  viSLige  to  return  to  Rome,  he  was 
miable  to  proceed  farther  than  Venice,  where,  at  the 
house  of  his  friend  Franceseoni,  he  breathed  his  last 
His  perfect  calmness  and  resignation  prevented  his 
friends  from  seeing  his  real  danger.  He  appeared  ab- 
■orbed  in  meditation,  and  spoke  little.  Thus  when  his 
friends  were  admiring  the  radiant  and  sublime  expression 
of  his  countenance,  lie  died  on  the  morning  of  Sunday, 
the  13th  of  October,  1S22.  He  was  buried  at  Possagno 
witli  great  solemnity,  and  the  news  of  his  decease  was 
received  throughout   Europe  with    demonstrations    of 


Dn.  Malkik,  formerly  master  of  tlie  Grammar  Scliool  at 
Bury,  in  Suffolk,  lias,  in  a  Faiher't  MemoirM  of  hit  Child, 
rclatcJ  facts  ao  astonishing  of  his  son,  that,  though  some 
allowance  must  be  made  for  the  partiality  of  a  parent,  they 
fktmish  abuniiant  evidence  of  extraordinaty  and  precocious 
talent. 

Thomas  Williams  Malkin  was  two  years  old  before  he 
bitffan  to  talk,  but  he  was  familiar  with  the  alphabet  almost 
bnlf  a  joat  sooner.  Before  he  could  articulate,  when  s 
lettw  was  named,  he  immediately  pointed  to  it  with  his 
finger.  From  the  lime  that  he  was  two  yean  old,  when  the 
aeqaisition  of  speech  seemed  to  pnt  him  in  possession  of  all 
the  instruments  necessary  to  the  attainment  of  knowledge, 
he  immediately  began  to  read,  spell,  and  write,  with  a 
rapidity  that  would  scarcely  be  credited  by  any  but  thoee 
who  were  witnesses  of  its  reality.     Before  he  was  three 

!-mta  old  he  hitd  tnnght  himself  to  make  letters,  first  in 
mitotion  of  ^rint,Bnd  sfterwurda  of  handwriting,  and  that 
without  any  in3tmcti()n,  for  he  was  left  to  follow  his  own 
course  in  pursuits  of  this  nature.  On  his  birth-day,  when 
he  hod  attained  the  agenf  three  years,  he  wrote  a  letter  to 
his  mother  in  pencil,  and  a  few  montlu  afterwards  addressed 
others  to  some  of  his  relatives.  At  four,  he  had  learned  the 
Greek  alphabet,  and  made  such  piogren  in  Latin  as  to 
write  an  exereise  evenf  day,  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
accuracy.  Befiire  he  had  reached  his  fifth  year  he  not  only 
r«od  &igl[sh  with  perfect  flnency,  "bnt,"  says  his  father, 
"understood  it  with  critical  precision."  He  hod  acqnireil  a 
happy  art  of  copying  maps  with  neatness  and  accuracy:  he 
had  a\Ma  made  copies  from  some  of  Raphael's  heads,  so  mnch 
in  unison  with  the  stylo  and  sentiment  of  the  originals,  as 
to  induce  good  judges  to  predict  that  if  he  were  to  parsne 
the  arts  as  a  profession,  ho  would  one  day  rank  among  the 
most  distinguished  of  their  votaries. 

In  his  seventh  year  he  wrote  fablw,  and  made  one  or  two 
respectable  attempts  at  poetical  composition  :  hut  the  most 
ringular  instance  of  a  fertile  imagination,  united  with  the 

Kwer  of  mating  all  he  met  with  in  books  or  conversation 
>  own,  is  yet  to  be  noticed.  This  was  the  idea  of  on 
imaginary  country,  called  Allcatone,  which  was  so  strongly 
impressed  on  his  mind  as  to  enable  him  to  fiimish  an  intel- 
ligible and  lively  description.  Of  this  deUghtfhl  country 
he  considered  himself  as  king.  He  had  formed  the  plan  of 
writing  its  history,  detached  parts  of  which  he  had  actually 
executed.  He  drew  a  map  of  this  country,  giving  names 
of  his  own  invention  to  the  principal  mountains,  rivers, 
fiities,  sea-ports,  villain  and  trading  towns.  Tliis  whs  one 
of  the  last  efforts  of  his  eenius,  for  this  youthful  prodigy  of 
learning  died  before  he  nad  completed  the  seventh  year  of 
blai^. 


THE   PORCUPINE, 
Hyslrix  eris/ala. 


Variously  modified  as  are  the  substances  which  form 
the  covering  of  animals,  yet  they  may  in  general  be 
referred  to  three  primitive  types,  t,*^  hur,  feathers,  and 
acales.  We  are  therefore  somewhat  surprised  to  find  s 
covering  of  a  perfectly  distinct  nature,  possessed  by  a 
tribe  of  animals,  small  in  number,  and  unimportant  ia 
their  position  and  character.  The  Porcupine,  hedge- 
hog, and  a  few  other  animals,  though  not  partieularly 
exposed  beyond  others  to  hostile  attacks,  or  of  a  nature 
to  make  aggressions  on  the  animals  around  them,  an 
yet  provided  with  formidable  weapons,  in  the  thick 
and  bristling  spines  with  which  they  are  covered,  and 
which  present  an  impregnable  barrier  to  their  enemies. 
The  Porcupine  belongs  to  the  o'der  rodenfia,  or 
gnawers,  of  which  we  have  lately  given  several  example^ 
in  the  squirrel,  dormouse,  A-e.  Ithaslongbeennatnraliied 
to  the  south  of  Europe,  whither,  aa  Agrieola  informs  as, 
it  was  brought  either  from  Africa  or  India.  It  differs, 
from  ^e  Porcupine  now  seen  in  Africa,  only  in  having- 
the  spines  rather  shorter  and  less  powerful.  The  Euro- 
pean variety  is  found  chiefly  in  the  kingdom  of  Kaple«, 
and  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Roman  states.  It  is  oar 
of  the  largest  animals  of  the  Roman  atates.  It  is  one  of 
the  largest  animals  of  the  rodentia  order,  meaanring  from 
to  the  tail  nearly  three  feet. 


It  has  a  dull,  heavy,  and  somewhat  nnpleusnt  apprai 
;  the  eyes  are  extremrfy  small,  the  nostrils  thid 


lid:, 


and  the  muizle  obtuse.  Beside  the  spines,  the  body  ii 
provided  with  two  sorts  of  hair,  one  long  and  bristly, 
the  other  curly  and  woolly.  The  head  and  neck  are 
furnished  with  the  long  and  bristly  kind  of  hair,  and  the 
animal  has  the  power  of  erecting  it,  in  the  same  way  aa 
the  spines.  These  latter  eonsUtnte  most  fomittable 
we&pons ;  they  are  the  largest  and  strongest  on  the  sides 
of  the  animal ;  and  have  the  structure  of  the  shafts  of 
feathers,  covered  with  enamel,  and  tapering  to  a  sharp, 
hard,  and  fine  point  The  belief  that  Porcupines  lave 
the  power  of  darting  their  apinea  against  those  who 
attack  them,  is  altogether  unfounded. 

The  habits  of  the  Porcupine  are  peaceable  and  retired. 
It  avoids  populous  parts,  and  chooses  some  solitary  spot, 
where  the  soil  is  dry  and  stony,  and  expoaed  to  tbe 
south-east  or  south,  for  the  formation  of  ita  barrow. 
The  short  muscular  limbs,  and  powerful  claws  of  the 
porcupine,  are  well  adapted  for  making  the  necessary 
excavation.  This  is  generally  very  deep,  and  has  two  or 
three  outlets.  In  this  retreat  it  nybemotea  during  the 
colder  months,  but  does  not  fall  into  so  deep  a  lethargy 
as  some  of  the  other  genera.  On  the  first  fine  day  of 
spring,  it  mav  be  found  awake  again,  and  in  searcn  of 
food,  Its  extreme  timidity  causes  it  to  remain  in  its 
burrow  during  the  day-time,  and  the  time  for  procurii^ 
its  food  is,  therefore,  from  evening  twilight  till  sunrise. 
As  darkness  approaches,  it  cautiously  draws  near  to  the 
principal  entrance  of  the  burrow,  and  looks  around  to 
see  that  all  ia  safe;  nor  will  it  venture  itself  entirely  out- 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


69 


side  while  there  is  any  reason  to  apprehend  danger. 
When,  in  the  search  after  food,  it  meets  with  an  un- 
expected attack,  it  always  endeavours  to  regain  its  bur- 
row ;  but  if  this  is  impossible,  it  turns  away  its  head,  and 
presents  its  side,  where,  as  we  have  said,  the  spines  are 
strongfest.  It  has  likewise  the  power  of  rolling  itself  up  into 
a  ball,  in  the  manner  of  the  hedge-hog,  and  thus  present- 
ing to  its  adversary  an  uninterrupted  surface  of  spears. 
Notwithstanding  the  anxiety  which  it  always  evinces  to 
Keep  its  head  from  injury,  uiere  are  few  animals  that  can 
bite  harder,  or  inflict  more  deep  and  dangerous  wounds. 
The  power  of  its  teeth  may  be  observed  in  its  efforts  to 
escape  when  kept  in  confinement.  The  thickest  and 
hardest  boards  soon  yield  to  its  constant  gnawing,  and 
even  strong  iron  wire  is  insufficient  to  keep  it;  the  cage, 
therefore,  is  generally  lined  with  sheet-iron. 

The  senses  of  the  Porcupine  appear  to  be,  with  the 
exception  of  smell,  extremely  obtuse:  the  ears  are  but 
little  developed,  the  eyes  small,  and  the  tongue  but  little 
extensible.  The  food  of  this  animal  consists  of  roots, 
fruits,  and  tender  leaves.  Thunberg  states,  that  its 
usual  food,  near  the  Cape,  is  the  root  of  a  beautiful 
plant  called  Calla  ^thiopiea^  which  grows  even  in  the 
ditches,  about  the  gardens;  but  he  adds  that  it  will  fre- 
quently deign  to  put  up  with  cabbages  and  other 
vegetables,  and  sometimes  c-ommits  great  depredations 
in  those  gardens. 

The  oi^dinary  powers  of  inferior  animals,  are  in  general 
wholly  insufficient  to  avail  against  the  spines  of  the 
Ponmpine:  it  has,  therefore,  in  fact,  few  enemies  to  fear 
but  man,  who  esteeming  the  flesh  of  this  animal  as  good 
and  agreeable  to  the  palate,  frequently  hunts,  or  seeks 
it  out  for  the  gratification  of  his  appetite.  Porcupines 
are  commonly  brought  to  the  markets  at  Rome  and  sold 
for  food,  lliey  are  eaten  roasted  by  the  Brazilians,  the 
Brazil  rariety  being  generally  fat,  and  its  flesh  white. 
The  negroes  of  Guinea  make  gpreat  use  of  them,  and  they 
are  also  used  as  food  at  the  Cape.  The  method  of 
taking  them  is  often  as  follows.  The  breach  by  which 
this  depredator  enters  gardens  is  first  discovered;  a 
musket  is  then  loaded,  cocked,  and  placed  opposite  to 
the  breach.  To  the  trigger  of  this  musket  a  string  is 
tied,  and  led  along  the  barrel  to  the  muzzle,  where  a 
carrot  or  turnip  is  fixed.  The  porcupine,  by  taking  this 
bait,  pulls  the  trigger  and  is  shot. 

Porcupines,  properly  so  called,  are  distributed  through 
India,  Southern  Tartary,  Persia,  Palestine,  the  south  of 
Europe,  and  dl  parts  of  Africa.  They  are  called  Hys' 
trixy  by  the  Greeks  and  the  ancient  Italians ;  Istriccy  by 
the  modem  Italians;  PorcSpiCf  by  the  French;  and 
StacheUehwein,  Domschwein^  and  Porcopicky  by  the 
Germans;  all  these  names  arising  from  their  harsh 
bristly  hairs,  like  those  of  the  hog.  The  specific  name 
criiUUoy  (ti^d,  crested,  Lat.,)  was  given  by  Linnaeus, 
on  account  of  a  sort  of  mane  on  the  neck  and  back  of 
this  species. 

The  Canada  Porcupine,  (^Hystrix  dorsata  of  Linnseus, 
and  Urson  of  Bufibn,)  is  a  very  sluggish  animal,  with 
remarkably  long  hair,  and  short  spines ;  the  latter  are 
scarcely  discoverable  through  the  hair,  except  on  the 
head,  crupper,  and  tail.  They  are,  however,  strong  and 
sharp,  and  are  said  to  be  so  formed,  as  to  appear  when 
magnified  as  if  barbed  at  the  tip  with  numerous  reversed 
pomts  or  prickles.  Like  the  spines  of  the  common  por- 
CQpine  they  are  but  slightly  attached  to  the  skin,  and 
can  be  loosened  with  gpreat  ease:  the  animal  is  so  far 
aware' of  this  circumstance,  that  when  annoyed  or  dis- 
turbed it  will  sometimes  brush .  against  the  legs  of  the 
offending  party,  and  leave  severd  of  the  spines  sticking 
in  the  skin.  Tliese  spines  often  prove  fatal  to  .woIvcsl 
and  dogs  in  the  countries  where  this  animal  abounds. 

Their  points,  (says  Dr.  Richardson,)  which  are  pretty 
sharp,  have  no  sooner  insinuated  themsdves  into  the  skin  of ' 
an  assailant,  than  thev  gradually  bury  themselves  and 
tiavel  onwaids  until  iney  cause  death  by  wounding  some 


vital  organ.  These  spines,  which  are  detached  from  the 
porcupine  by  the  slightest  touch,  and  probably  by  the  will 
of  the  animal,  soon  nil  the  mouths  of  the  dogs  who  worry 
it,  and  unless  the  Indian  women  carefiilly  pick  them  out, 
seldom  fail  to  kill  them. 

The  larger  kinds  of  snake  are  great  enemies  to  the 
porcupines;  but  at  the  same  time  destroy  themselves  by 
this  prickly  kind  of  food.  The  snake  seizes  the  porcu- 
pine by  the  head,  and  sucks  it  in ;  the  quills  which  were 
flattened  down  while  the  body  was  going  in,  afterwards 
become  erect  and  kill  it.  An  enormous  snake  has  been 
found  dead  with  the  quills  of  the  porcupine  sticking 
through  his  body. 

The  haunts  of  the  Canada  Porcupine  are  easily  dis- 
coverable by  the  appearance  of  the  trees  in  the  vicinity, 
the  bark  of  which  is  its  favourite  food.  It  feeds  on  the 
bark  of  several  of  the  fir  tribe,  and  on  the  buds  of 
various  kinds  of  willow;  it  is  said  also  to  be  fond  of 
sweet  apples  and  young  maize,  which  it  eats  in  a  sitting 
posture,  holding  the  food  to  its  mouth  with  the  fore-paws. 
It  makes  its  retreat  under  the  roots  of  trees,  and  sleeps  a 
great  deal.  It  has  been  observed  to  dislike  being  wetted ; 
but  the  vicinity  of  water  is  requisite  to  it,  since  it  drinks 
freely  in  summer,  and  when  streams  are  no  longer  acces- 
sible it  swallows  the  snow. 

The  flesh  of  this  animal  is  said  to  taste  like  that  of 
the  pig;  it  is  relished  by  the  American  Indians,  but  soon 
becomes  exceedingly  distasteful  to  Europeans.  The  fur 
is  likewise  used;  being  first  deprived  of  the  spines,  which 
are  employed  by  the  women  as  pins.  They  are  also 
dyed  of  various  bright  colours,  and  worked  into  belts, 
shoes,  shot-pouches,  &c. 


well  as  the  whole  of  the  body,  is  covered  with  spines. 
It  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of  South  America,  and  is 
formed  for  living  in  trees.  It  is  a  sluggish  animal^  and 
appears  to  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  Canada  Por- 
cupine, living  in  woods,  sleeping  by  day,  and  feeding  on 
fruits  and  bark  by  night.  It  climbs  trees  by  means  of 
its  prehensile  tail  and  of  its  claws,  but  is  observed  to  use 
the  former  chiefly  in  descending.  When  on  the  ground 
the  motions  of  this  animal  are  awkward,  and  it  appears 
quite  out  of  its  element,  but  when  hunger  rouses  it  to 
action  it  seeks  for  sustenance  in  trees,  and  climbs  with 
some  degree  of  activity.  The  cry  of  the  Prehensile 
Porcupme  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  a  sow;  and  in 
defenc&ng  itself  from  its  enemies,  it  uses  its  spiny 
covering  in  the  same  manner,  and  with  similar  efiect  to 
that  of  the  species  before  described. 


Thb  practice  of  a  bad  man  is  contradicted  by  the  voice  of 
his  own  heart.  When  he  has  committed  a  fiiult  it  declares 
to  him  that  he  might  have  chosen  a  contrary  part :  when  he 
has  done  a  virtuous  action  it  inspires  emotions  of  joy  which 
render  him  conscious  that  he  is  a  fi^$e  agent.  This  voice 
within  is  anterior  to  aU  reasoning,  and  as  incapable  of  being 
invalidated  as  any  other  consciousness. — ^F. 


ON  AUTOMATON  FIGURES. 

.2. 

In  a  former  article,  we  have  described  several  singular 
machines  which  the  ingenuity  of  mechanists  had  devised, 
by  which  the  actions  of  living  creatures  were  more  or 
less  imitated.  We  proceed  to  speak  of  others,  in  which 
the  human  figure  and  movements  were  the  object  of 
imitation. 

Whether  or  not  it  be  true,  as  is  stated,  that  Dadalus 
made  a  statue,  which,  if  not  detained,  would  run  away,  is 
not  easy  now  to  determine;  we  will  therefore  proceed  to 
later  dates.  More  than  one  Androides  has  been  con- 
structed, in  which  the  figure  wrote  and  drew.  The 
figure  was  placed  at  a  table,  with  a  pen  or  pencil  in  its 


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THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[February  20, 


hand,  and  paper  before  it.  The  spectator  was  desired  to 
dictate  any  word  at  pleasure,  which  was  instantly  written 
down  by  the  androides  in  a  fair  and  legible  hand.  But 
in  such  a  case,  there  is  a  certain  degree  of  cheating 
employed ;  for  there  is  an  assistant  behind  a  partition 
near  the  figure:  the  assistant  can  hear  the  question 
asked,  and  puts  in  action  some  machinery  of  levers,  8lc^ 
connected  with  the  hand  of  the  figure,  by  which  the 
words  are  written  down.  Still,  there  is  something  much 
more  elaborate  in  this,  than  in  the  deception  called  the 
Invisible  Girl,  the  nature  of  which  was  described  in  the 
Saturday  Magajsiney  vol.  1.,  p.  61. 
Some  years  afo,  Mr.  CoUinson,  in  a  letter  which  ho 
■  wrote  to  Dr.  Hutton,  after  describing  some  very  in- 
genious automata  constructed  by  M.  Droz,  of  Neufcnatel* 
says: — 

Permit  me  to  speak  of  another  automat<»i  of  DroE's^  whioh 
several  years  since  he  exhibited  in  England,  and  which, 
from  my  personal  acquaintance,  I  had  a  commodious  oppor- 
tunity of  particularly  examining.  It  was  the  figute  of  a 
man,  I  think  the  size  of  life.  It  held  in  Its  hand  a  metal 
style  r pencil),  a  card  of  Dutch  vellum  being  laid  under  it. 
A  sprmg  was  touched,  which  rrieased  the  internal  eloek- 
worK  from  its  etop,  when  the  figure  immedialeijr  began  to 
draw.  M.  Droz,  nappening  onoe  to  be  sent  fi>r  in  a  great 
hurry  to  wait  upon  some  fx>niiideiBble  personage  at  the  west 
end  of  the  town,  left  me  in  possession  of  the  keys  which 
opened  the  recesses  of  all  his  machinery,  fie  opened  the 
drawing-master  himself,  wound  it  m^,  explained  its  leading 
parts,  and  taught  me  how  to  make  it  obey  my  requirines, 
as  it  had  obeyed  his  own :  Dioz  then  went  away.  After  the 
first  card  was  finished,  ^f.e.,  after  the  fint  drawing  was 
finished,)  the  figure  restoa.  I  put  a  second,  and  so  on,  to 
five  separate  caras,  all  different  subjects ;  but  five  or  six  was 
the  extent  of  its  delineating  powers.  The  first  card  con- 
tained, I  mav  truly  say,  elegant  portraite  and  likenesses  of 
the  king  ana  queen,  facinjg;  each  other ;  and  it  was  curious 
to  observe  with  wliat  precision  the  figure  lifted  up  his  pencil, 
in  the  transition  of  it  from  one  point  of  the  draft  to  another, 
without  making  the  least  slur  wnatever ;  for  Instance,  in  pass- 
ing from  the  forehead  to  the  eye,  nose,  and  chin,  or  from  the 
waving  curls  of  the  hair  to  the  ear,  &«•  I  have  the  cards 
now  by  me.   > 

It  is  evident  from  this  description,  that  the  drawings 
Were  made  by  a  strictly  automatic  figure^  without  the 
aid  of  a  concealed  associate. 

A  still  better  figure,  of  a  somewhat  similalr  kind,  was 
afterwards  constructed  by  Maillardet.  This  was  the 
figure  of  a  boy,  kneeling  on  one  knee,  and  holding  a 
pencil  in  his  hand,  with  which  he  executed  not  only 
writings,  but  also  drawings  of  great  excellence.  When 
the  figure  began  to  work,  an  attendant  dipped  the  pencil 
in  ink,  and  laid  the  paper  on  a  brass  tablet,  which  was 
adjusted  to  a  proper  position.  On  touching  a  spring,  the 
figure  began  to  write,  and  when  the  line  was  finished,  the 
1*8  were  crossed  and  the  Ts  dotted  by  distinct  movements 
of  its  penciL  In  this  way  it  executed  four  beautiful 
specimens  of  writing,  in  iFrench  and  English,  each  con- 
sisting of  several  lines,  tt  also  drew  three  laodscapeis 
which,  with  the  writing,  occupied  about  an  hour. 

The  same  mechanist  constructed  an  aatomatie  eooth- 
sayer,  which  gave  answers  to  questions  asked.  He  held 
a  wand  in  one  hand,  and  a  book  in  the  other.  The 
questions  were  engraved  on  oval  medallions.  When  a 
spectator  put  one  of  these  into  an  open  drawer,  situated 
near  the  figure,  it  instantly  closed  with  a  spring.  The 
figure  then  rose,  bowed,  drew  circles  with  his  wand,  and 
consulted  his  book.  Having  spent  some  time  in  iq)pa- 
rent  study,  he  lifted  his  wand,  and  striking  with  it  the 
wall  above  his  head,  two  folding  doors  flew  open,  and  dis- 
played an  inscription  denoting  the  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion. Should  the  drawer  be  empty  when  shut,  the 
soothsayer  rose,  consulted  his  book,  shook  his  head,  and 
sat  down  again:  the  doors  did  not  fiy  open.  If  two 
medallions  were  put  in  together,  an  answer  was  given 
to  the  lower  one.  It  was,  we  believe,  undoubted,  that 
this  exhibiUon  was  strictly  automatic,— 4hat  no  concealed 
confederate  was  at  work. 


Some  beautiful  imitataona  of  musical  performers  hare 
been  constructed.  The  most  celebrated  was  Vaucan- 
son's  flute  player.  This  was  exhibited  at  Paris  jost 
about  a  century  ago.  It  consisted  of  a  figure  capable 
of  playing  several  ain  on  the  German  flute,  with  a  pre- 
cision  and  delicacy  nearlv  equal  to  that  displayed  by  i 
living  performer.  The  ngure  was  about  five  feet  and  a 
half  high,  and  was  situated  on  a  ft«gment  of  rock  fiied 
upon  a  souare  pedestal,  four  feet  and  a  half  high,  by 
three  and  &  half  broad.  Vaucanaon,  with  a  candour 
that  does  not  ctften  distinguish  inventon  of  this  kind, 
published  a  work  in  which  every  part  of  the  machinery 
was  minutely  described.  The  machinery  consisted 
of  a  series  of  bellows,  pipes,  levers,  cranks,  wheeh) 
springs)  &e.,  of  such  extreme  complication,  that  anj 
attempt  to  describe  it  here  would  be  tedious  and  uie« 
less.  We  will  merely  say  that  the  flute  was  a  bond/Ui 
one,  that  wind  was  propelled  into  the  embouchure  or 
mouth  hole  from  the  lips  of  the  figure,  and  that  the 
finger  holes  of  the  flute  were  covered  by  the  fingers  of 
the  figure  in  exact  accordance  with  the  changes  in  the 
notes  desired  to  be  produced.  The  machine,  altogether 
was  so  scientific,  that  it  excited  the  admiration  of  philo- 
sophers, even  more  than  of  mere  loven  of  the  manel- 
lous. 

The  same  individual  afterwards  oonstructed  a  pipe  snd 
tabor  player.  This  was  a  figure  mounted  on  a  pedesUl,  snd 
dressed  like  a  shepherd,  and  was  capable  of  playing  tbout 
twenty  minuets,  country  dances  and  other  tunes,  on  a  pipe 
and  tabor.  These  were  instruments  better  known  among 
the  pastoral  tribes  of  bygone  days,  than  by  the  present  age. 
The  tabor  was  a  kind  dT  tambourine,  6tm<^  not  wi^  the 
hand,  but  with  a  stick.  The  pipe  was  a  kind  of  flageolet 
with  only  three  finger-holes,  so  that  one  hand  only  is 
required  to  play  it.  Its  simplicity,  however,  is  accompa- 
nied by  a  circumstance  which  renders  the  aut4>ttifttic  per- 
formance of  it  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty ;  for  as  there 
are  only  three  finger  holes,  a  large  share  of  the  diversi^ 
of  tones  produced  is  effected  by  varying  the  intensity  ^ 
the  breath  or  air  blown  into  the  instrument.  This  is 
difficult  to  effect  by  machineiT»  consequently  Vaucanson's 
pipe  and  tabor  player  gained  almost  as  much  admiration 
as  his  flute-player. 

About  thirty  years  ago,  Maillardet  exhilHted  an  auto- 
maton piano-forte  player.  Tliis  was  an  elegant  female 
figure,  seated  at  a  piano-forte,  on  which  she  played 
eighteen  tunes.  Besides  the  execution  of  the  music^ 
which  was  produced  by  the  actual  pressure  of  her  fingers 
on  the  keys,  all  her  movements  were  elegant,  graceful,  and 
almost  lifb-like.  Before  beginning  a  tune,  ahe  made  a 
gentle  inclination  with  her  head  to  the  auditors:  her 
bosom  heaved ;  and  her  eyes  followed  the  motion  of  her 
fingers  over  the  finger-board.  The  hands  played  Ae 
natural  notes,  and  the  feet  played  the  flats  and  sharps  by 
means  of  pedals,  lliis  machine  was  strictly  automatic, 
for  when  once  wound  up,  it  would  continue  playing  for 
an  hour;  and  the  principal  part  of  the  machinery 
employed  was  freely  laid  open  for  inspection. 

The  latest  automatic  musician  with  which  we  are 
acquainted,  is  one  constructed  by  Maelzel,  the  inventor 
of  the  metronome,  or  time-beating  instrument.  This 
automaton>  as  described  in  the  Journal  des  Modes,  was 
as  follows: — From  a  tent  M.  Maelzel  led  out  a  fine 
manly-looking  martial  figure,  in  the  unifbrm  of  a  trum- 
peter of  the  Austrian  dragoons.  After  the  figure  had 
been  pressed  on  the  left  shoulder,  it  played  not  only  the 
Austrian  cavalry  march,  and  all  the  signals  for  the 
manosuvres  of  the  army,  but  also  a  march,  and  an 
allegro  by  Weigl.  After  this,  the  dress  of  the  figure 
was  completely  changed  into  that  of  a  French  trum- 
peter of  the  guard.  It  then  began  to  play  the  French 
cavalry  march,  also  all  the  sigrals  ci  the  French  cavalry 
manoeuvres,  as  well  as  a  mardi  by  Duss^  and  an  alle- 
gro by  Pleyelv  The  sound  of  the  trumpet  was  said  to  be 
pure,  and  more  agreeable  than  eren  me  ablest  nauBioiaii 


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THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


^71 


eould  produee  from  ihat  ingtmment, 'because  %ae  breath 
of  a  man  gives  the  inside  of  the  trumpet  a  moisture 
which  is  prejudicial  to  the  purity  of  the  tone. 

This  same  Maelsel  ^as  the  inventor  of  several  instru- 
ments, of  which  inferior  imitations  are  seen  in  the 
London  streets  at  the  presept  day;  that  is,  a  machine  in 
which  imitations  of  a  great  number  of  musical  instru- 
ments aro  combined.  In  one  which  Maelael  exhibited 
at  Vienna,  pieces  of  Turkish  music  were  produced,  as  if 
played  by  a  band  of  flutes,  pipes,  cymbals,  triangle, 
double  drum,  and  four  trumpets.  The  trumpet  sound 
was  admirable.  It  was  produced  fW>m  real  trumpets, 
blown  by  a  blast  of  air  within  the  machine.  A  double 
bellows  fumiahed  the  wind,  and  a  wheel,  acted  on  by  a 
weight,  set  the  whole  in  motion.  The  modem  instru- 
ment to  which  we  have  alluded  is  a  kind  of  hand  organ, 
with  a  feeble  imitation  of  two  or  three  other  instru- 
ments. 

The  most  difficult  automata  destined  to  produce  sound. 
nc  those  which  imitate  speech.     A  thorough  anatomical 
examination  of  the  organs  of  voice  is  necessary  to  suc- 
ceed in  these  attempts.     M.  Kempelen,  of  Hungary,  and 
ui  our  own  day  Mr.  Willis,  of  Cambridge,  have  shown 
th&t  it  is  possible  to  produce  instruments  capable  of 
imitating  the  sounds  of  the  human  voice.     But  we  are 
not  aware  how  far  a  strictly  automatic  speaking  figure 
has  been  produced;  yet  it  is  said  that  a  machine  con- 
structed by  Kempelen  was  able  to  utter  these  words  and 
sentences : — opera,  —  astronomy,  •—  Constantinople,'^^ 
Vous  ites  mon  ami, — Je  vous  aims  de  tout  mon  c<eur, — 
Leopoldus    Secundus,''^Romanum  mperator  semper 
Auguttta,     In  our  own  day  the  subject  has  been  ti^en 
up  by  Professor  Wheatstone,  who  exhibited  a  speaking 
automaton  at  the  Dublin  meeting  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion for  the  advancement  of  science.     In  consequence  of 
the  recent   and  important   discoveries   respecting  the 
mechanism  of  the  human  voice,  it  will  not  be  hazarding 
too  much  to  say  with  Sir  David  Brewster,  that  <*  before 
another  oenturv  is  completed,  a  talking  and  a  singing 
miichine    wiU   De  numbered  among  the   conquests   of 
science." 

The  last  automaton  which  we  can  find  room  to 
describe,  is  a  rope-dancer,  exhibited  iu  London  some 
years  ago.  This  was  a  little  figure,  a  few  inches  high, 
seated  on  a  slender  steel  rod,  which  he  grasped  with  both 
hands.  When  a  spring  was  touchei,  the  figure  descended, 
but  still  hung  suspended  by  the  hands.  After  several 
oscillations,  the  tumbling  begai,  which  consisted  in 
aii.^uming  a  great  variety  of  attitudes,— sometimes  closing 
the  feet  and  hands  together,  and  swinging  with  great 
velocity  around  the  rod.  During  the  tumbling,  a  musical 
instrument  played  by  means  of  other  parts  of  the  machi- 
nery. After  going  through  all  the  evolutions,  the  figure 
rose  up,  seated  itself  on  the  rod,  and  bowed  to  the  spec- 
tators. An  elegant  and  beautiful  automaton  of  this  de- 
scription is  now  shown  at  the  Gallery  of  Practical 
Science. 

We  hope  the  reader  will  not  entertain  the  idea  that 
many  of  these  details  are  too  magical  to  be  true.  The 
magic  employed  is  a  very  extensive  knowledge  of  mecha- 
nical details,  an  intimate  examination  of  the  manner  in 
which  sounds  are  produced  by  air  passing  through  pipes, 
and  very  likely,  the  attractive  force  of  magnetism.  All 
these  are,  in  one  way  or  other,  employed  in  the  production 
of  the  startling  effects  here  detailed. 


ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  GLUE. 

The  preparation  of  this  useful  article  forms  a  curious 
and  important  branch  of  national  industry.  The  chief 
Q^  of  glue  is  for  binding  or  cementing  pieces  of  wood 
together,  as  practised  by  Uie  carpenter  and  cabinet-maker, 
in  which  trades  very  Jarge  quantitieB  are  constantly 
employed. 
Glue  (which  is  nothing  more  thaa  gelatine  in  a  dry 


state)  is  obtained  from  the  hides,  hoofs,  and  horns  of  ani 
mals ;  the  refuse  of  the  leather-dresser,  and  the  offal  of 
the  slaughter-house ;  ears  of  oxen,  calves,  sheep ;  parings 
of  parchment,  old  gloves;  and,  in  short,  animal  skin  aui 
(by  a  late  improvement)  bones,  are  all  employed  for 
making  glue. 

The  first  process  in  this  manufacture  is  to  free  the 
materials  from  dirt,  blood,  and  other  matters  which  do 
not  afford  glue.  For  this  purpose  they  are  steeped  in 
lime  and  water,  and  then  placed  in  baskets,  and  rinsed  by 
the  action  of  a  stream  of  water.  They  are  then  re-i 
moved  to  a  sloping  surface,  and  allowed  to  drain,  and 
whatever  lime  remains  is  deprived  of  its  caustic  property 
by  the  re-absorption  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmo- 
sphere, since  the  presence  of  lime  would  prove  injurious 
in  the  subsequent  processes. 

The  gelatine  is  removed  from  the  animal  matter  by 
boiling.  This  process  is  effected  in  a  somewhat  shallow 
boiler,  which  is  provided  with  a  false  bottom,  pierced 
with  holes,  and  elevated  a  ffew  inches,  thus  serving  as  a 
support  to  the  animal  matter,  and  preventing  it  from 
burning  by  the  heated  bottom  of  the  boiler.  TTie  boiler 
is  filled  about  two-thirds  with  soft  water,  and  then  the 
animal  substances  are  added:  these  are  piled  up  above 
the  brim  of  the  boiler,  because  soon  after  boiling  dbm- 
mences,  they  sink  down  below  the  level  of  the  liquid. 
The  contents  of  the  boiler  are  occasionally  stirred  up 
and  pressed  down,  while  a  steady  boihng  is  maintainea 
throughout  this  part  of  the  process. 

As  the  boiling  proceeds,  small  portions  of  the  gelatine 
are  drawn  off  into  egg-shells,  when,  in  the  course  of  a 
few  minutes,  if  the  liquid  gelatine  becomes,  by  exposure 
to  the  cool  air,  a  clear  mass  of  jelly,  the  boiling  process 
is  complete, — ^the  fire  is  smothered  up,  and  the  contents 
of  the  boiler  left  to  settle  for  ten  or  twenty  minutes. 
The  stop-cock  is  then  turned,  and  the  gelatine  flows  into 
a  deep  vessel,  kept  hot  by  being  surrounded  with  hot 
water,  and  thus  it  remains  for  several  hours,  during 
which  time  it  deposits  any  solid  impurities.  It  is  then 
drawn  off  into  congealing  boxes,  and  prepared  as  we  shall 
soon  explain. 

The  undissolved  matter  in  the  boiler  is  treated  with 
boiling  water  a  second,  and  even  a  third  time,  and  the 
above  process  continued  until  nothing  more  can  be  ex« 
tracted.  The  subsequent  solutions  are  often  too  weak 
to  be  made  into  glue,  but  they  are  economically  used 
with  fVesh  portions  of  animal  matter. 

A  clear  idea  may  be  formed  of  this  part  of  the  manufac- 
ture by  the  annexed  illustration  (fig.  1 .),  which  represents 
a  section  of  three  vessels,  on  different  levels.  The  upper- 
xnost  vessel,  which  is  heated  by  the  waste  heat  of  the 
chimney,  supplies  the  animal  matter  contained  in  the 
second  vessel  with  warm  water :  the  third  vessel  receives 
the  liouid  gelatine,  and  retains  it  in  a  fluid  state,  while 
the  solid  impurities  are  being  deposited. 

The  gelatine  is  drawn  off  from  this  third  vessel  into 
buckets,  and  conveyed  to  the  congealing  boxes.  These 
boxes  are  of  deal,  of  a  square  form,  but  somewhat  nar- 
rower at  bottom  than  at  top.  The  liquid  glue  is  poured 
through  fimnels,  provided  with  filter-cloths,  into  the 
boxes  until  they  are  entirely  filled.  This  process  is 
conducted  in  a  very  cool  and  dry  apartment,  paved  with 
stone,  and  kept  very  clean,  so  that  any  glue  which  may 
be  spilt  may  be  recovered;  In  twelve  or  eighteen  hours 
the  liquid  glue  becomes  sufliciently  firm  for  the  next  pro- 
cess, which  is  performed  in  an  upper  story,  furnished 
witb  venti  ating  windows,  so  as  to  admit  air  on  all  sides, 
llie  boxes  are  inverted  on  a  moistened  table,  so  that  the 
cake  of  jelly  may  not  adhere  to  it :  this  cake  is  cut  into 
horizontal  layers,  by  means  of  a  brass  wire,  stretched  in 
a  frame,  and  is  guided  by  rulers,  so  disposed  as  to  regu- 
late the  thickness  of  the  cake  of  glue.  The  slices  thus 
formed  are  care^lly  lifted  off,  and  placed  on  nets 
stretched  in  wooden  frames.  As  these  frames  are  filled 
they  are  placed  over  each  other>  with  an  interyal  of  about 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[FEBHDAaT  20,  I84t- 


three  inclies  between  every  two  framea,  so  that  the  air 
may  have  free  access.  Each  frame  is  so  arranged  as  to 
slide  in  and  out  like  a  drawer,  to  allow  the  cakes  to  be 
turned,  which  is  done  two  or  three  times  every  day. 

An  experienced  writer  on  manufactures  thus  observea, 
concerning  this  part  of  the  process; — 

me  drying  of  the  glne  is  the  most  precarious  part  of  the 
monnfoctuie.  The  least  disturbance  of  the  weather  may 
injure  the  glue  during  the  two  or  three  first  d*ys  of  its  ex- 
posure. Should  the  temperature  of  the  all  rifle  considerably, 
the  gelatine  may  turn  bo  soft  as  to  become  unshsMly,  and 
even  to  run  through  the  meshes  upon  the  pieces  below,  or  it 
may  get  attached  to  the  strings  and  surround  them,  bo  as 
not  to  be  separable  without  plunging  the  net  into  boiling 
water.  If  frost  supervene,  the  water  may  frrese,  and  form 
numerous  cracks  in  the  cakea.  Such  pieces  must  immedi- 
ately be  re-melted  and  re-formed.  A  slight  fog  even  produces 
upon  glue  newly  exposed  a  serious  deterioration,  the  damp 
condensed  upon  its  surbce  occasioning  a  general  mouldiness. 
A  thunderstorm  sometimes  destroys  the  coagulating  power 
in  the  whole  UmirE  at  once,  or  causes  the  glue  to  turn  on 
the  nets,  in  the  language  of  the  mannfitctuier.  A  wind  too 
dry  or  too  hot  may  cause  it  to  dry  so  quickly  as  to  prevent 
it  irom  contracting  to  its  proper  size,  without  numerous 
cracks  and  fissures.  In  this  predicament  the  dosing  of  all 
the  flaps  of  the  windows  is  the  only  means  of  abating  the 
mischief.  On  these  accounts  it  is  of  imporfance  to  select 
the  most  temperate  season  of  the  year,  such  as  spring  and 
antmnn,  for  tne  glue  mannfactnre. 

When  the  glue  is  properly  dried  a  gloss  is  imparted  to 
each  cake,  by  dipping  it  in  hot  water,  and  passing  over  it 
a  brush,  also  wetted  with  hot  water,  fhe  cakes  are 
then  placed  on  a  bardie,  dried  in  the  stove-room,  or  in 


the  open  air,  if  the  weather  be  snlEciently  dry  and  wans 
It  is  then  packed  in  casks  for  sale. 

A  few  years  ago  Mr.  Yardley,  of  Camberwell,  obtained 
a  patent  for  manufacturing  glue  from  bones,  of  which 
nearly  one-half  the  weight  consists  of  solid  gelatine. 
'  In  this  patent  process  the  bones  are  thoraugfaljr 
cleansed  by  being  washed  in  water  and  lime  for  Utree  v 
four  days :  they  are  then  placed  in  the  globolar  veesel,  called 
an  txtractor,  of  which  the  annexed  cut  (fig.  2)  is  a  lectioiL 
The  aperture  through  which  the  bones  pass  into  the  vei. 
gel  is  at  a,  which  aperture  is  closed  by  screwing  up  lo 
internal  plate  tighdy  against  the  interior  snrftee  of  tbt 
vessel.  The  extractor  turns  upon  a  horiiontal  axis,  coo* 
sisting  of  a  strong  tube,  which  at  the  centre  of  the 
vessel  proceeda  downwards,  and  conveys  steam  belo* 
the  grating  upon  which  the  bones  rest.  Steam,  of  the 
pressure  of  about  fifteen  pounds  on  the  square  inch,  ii 
admitted  from  a  boiler,  by  turning  the  cock  ft,  and  passing 
along  the  tube,  which  is  furnished  with  a  safety-valve  il 
r,  it  passes  to  the  bottom  of  the  extractor,  then  rises  ii|i 
through  the  grating  and  amongst  the  bones,  and  expeU 
all  the  air  from  the  vessel,  through  a  stop-cotk  it  i, 
which  being  closed  the  extractor  soon  becomea  charged 
with  steam.  The  extractor  is  moved  slowly  round  by 
means  of  the  wheel-work  at  w,  to  shift  the  position  a 
the  bones,  and  allow  the  steam  to  act  more  perfectly. 
When  at  rest,  a  quantity  of  the  fluid  glue  coUecte  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  is  drawn  off  at  the  cock  c. 
The  steam  continues  to  act  upon  the  bones  for  about  id 
hour  before  the  liquid  gelatine  is  drawn  off.  After  eveiy 
drawing  off  the  steam  is  admitted,  and  the  process  cos- 
tinued  as  before.  The  gelatine  is  collected  in  an  en- 
porating  vessel,  and  heated  until  sufficiently  thick  Id 
solidify  when  cold:  it  is  then  prepared  in  tbe  moil 
manner. 

It  has  been  found  bjr  eiperiment  that  when  two  cylin- 
ders of  dry  ash,  one  mch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  ven 
glued  together,  and  after  twentyrfour  hours  torn  asundef, 
a  force  of  1260  poundo  was  required  to  produce  tbe 
separation,  thus  making  the  force  of.  adhesion  equal  n 
715  pounds  per  square  inch.  Another  experiment  mide 
the  force  of  adhesion  to  equal  4000  pounds  on  the  square 
inch. 

A  delicate  kind  of  glue  is  prepared  by  gently  buling 
shreds  of  parchment  in  water,  in  the  proportion  of  ooe 
pound  of  parchment  to  six  quarts  of  water,  until  it  be  | 
reduced  to  one  quart.  It  is  then  strained  and  boiled  tc 
the  consistence  of  glue.  Isinglass  glue  is  best  prepand 
by  gently  heating  uiat  substance  in '  stnrit. 


I.DKDOK  t  riiblDicd  b;^  iOHH  W,  FAKKEB,  \Vf  ar  6t|«S'i^  «4«ld  by  iS 


Sdtnrlrd^       imt^^^im. 


m  655. 


FEBRUABY 


27™,  1841. 


TURKEY  AND  THE  TURKISH  PROVINCES. 


KOUKT   OnA. 


iMOUNT  OSSA,  &c,  IN  THE  PROVINCE  OF 
TRIKHALA. 

Thb  foregoing  sketcli  represents  a.  view  of  Mount  Ossa, 
in  Greece,  widi  the  villa^  of  Baba,  leading  to  the  town 
of  Ainpelachia,  and  sUoding  on  the  river  Salynipria,  in 
the  vale  of  Tempe.  All  these  are  in  the  province  of 
Trikhala,  in  European  Turkey.  As  the  present  aspect 
and  condition  of  these  spota,  so  celebrated  in  ancient 
hbtory  and  poetry,  must  be  generally  interesting  to  the 
lover  of  literature,  we  propose  to  say  a  few  words  about 
the  mountain, — the  town, — the  river, — and  the  vale. 

Mount  Ossa  is  in  that  part  of  Greece  which  has  all 
along  I  ome  tbe  name  of  Tlieasaly,  though  now  included 
in  one  of  the  Turkish  provinces.  This  mountain  was 
once  tbe  mideiice  of  the  Centanrs,  of  whom  we  have 

S'len  an  account  in  the  511th  number  of  this  work, 
aunt  Ossa  was  formerly  joined  to  Mount  Olympus, 
but  Hercules,  according  to  ancient  story,  separated  them, 
and  made  between  them  the  celebrated  valley  of  Temp6. 
This  separation  of  the  two  mounbuns  was  probably 
effected  by  an  earthquake,  which  happened  about  1 900 
Kara  before  the  Christian  era.  Ossa  and  Olympus, 
Pelion  and  Pindus,  are  famed  in  ancient  &ble,  as  being 
tbe  mountuns  which  the  giants,  in  their  wars  against 
Ihe  goda,  heaped  up,  one  on  the  other,  to  scale  tbe 
heavens  with  niore  facility.  Mount  Ossa  is  said  to  con* 
tain  a  coarse  bluiih-graj  marble,  with  veins  of  a  finer 
(piaiity.  The  mountain-ranges  of  this  country  are 
represented  aa  oflbrding  to  the  traveller  the  appeenutce 
rf  walls,  aepanting  one  diatrict  from  the  other. 


The  town  of  Ampelachia,  which  is  described  as  hang- 
ing upon  the  sides  of  Mount  Ossa,  is  supposed  to  he  the 
ancient  Atracla,  which  was  built  by  Atrax,  an  early  king 
of  Theasaly.  This  town  was  once  so  famous  in  all  the 
country  round,  that  "  Atracian"  and  "Tbessalian"  were 
synonymous  terms.  The  town  now  contains  about  four 
hundred  houses;  and  Dr.  Holland  says  of  it:— 

Nothing  can  be  more  picturesque  than  the  various  gTonpa 
of  buildings  which  compose  it.  Biring  out  of  the  thi& 
foliage  of  woods,  overhanging  the  deep  mvines  of  the  moun- 
tain, their  open  galleries  and  projecting  rooft  render  the 
effect  of  situation  still  more  sin^lar  and  imposing  to  the 
eye.  The  oak,  olive,  and  eyprem  spread  over  the  broken 
surfiuw  on  which  the  town  stands,  and.  intermix  with  the 
foliage  of  vineyards;  while  the  loftier  ridges  of  the  moun- 
tain, receding  towards  tbe  south,  are  covered  with  long  rowf 
of  pines.  A  few  of  the  honses  are  built  and  furnished  in 
the  European  manner. 

The  town  of  Ampehcbia,  which  is  south-west  of  the 
Turkish  village  of  Baba,  is  arrived  at  from  this  latter 
place  by  an  irregular  cork-screw  road,  in  some  places 
cut  in  the  rock,  and  in  others  carried  along  the  channel 
of  mountain -torrents.  Mount  Ossa,  with  tbe  fore- 
named  town  and  village,  is  south  of  the  river,  which  flowa 
eastward,  while  Mount  Olympus  is  northward  of  the 
stream.  Thn  same  respectable  authority  which  we 
have  before  quoted  informs  us  that  Ampelachia  is  in- 
teresting, not  only  for  the  scenery  which  surrounds  it, 
but  for  the  kind  manners  of  its  inhabitants.  They  are 
nearly  all  Greeks,  and  though  the  seat  of  their  habitation 
is  in  a  spot  comparatively  secluded  and  remote,  they  have 
been  n<Aed  for  many  years  for  the  ettent  of  tbeir  com* 
fiSS 


74 


THE  SATUfelDAV  UAGAZHHL 


tl^EBRVAllT  ilj 


mercial  undertakings,  and  for  a  character  of  active  intel- 
ligence and  enterprise,  which  has  procured  them  a  high 
repute  among  the  different  communities  of  modem 
Greece.  Most  oi  the  merchants  of  Ampelachia  have 
visited  or  resided  in  the  principal  commercial  cities  Of  the 
Continent,  and  established  connexions  there^  the  extent 
and  success  of  which  are  manifested  in  the  w^th  liianj 
of  them  have  acquired.  They  are  chiefly  connected 
with  Germany,  but  they  also  trade  with  Constantinople, 
Smyrna,  and  other  mercantile  places  of  the  Levant. 

The  commerce  of  Ampelacma  is  founded  in  manuiac- 
ture,  and  the  population  of  the  place  is  actively  engaged 
in  the  various  processes  of  making  and  dyeing  cotton 
thread,  the  staple  commodity  of  the  country.  This  is  like- 
wise the  general  employment  pursued  in  the  other  towns 
and  villages  of  this  district.  Most  of  the  cotton  rrown  on 
the  plains  of  Thessaly  is  brought  hither  for  the  use  of 
the  manufacturers.  It  is  calculated  that  the  town  of 
Ampelachia  furnishes  annually  about  three  thousand 
bales  of  dyed  cotton  thread,  each  bale  being  reckoned  at 
250 lbs.  Of  this  quantity  nearly  the  whole  is  trans- 
mitted by  land-carriage  to  Germany, — a  traffic  which  is 
well  regulated,  and  carried  on  with  much  activity  by  the 
Ampelachian  merchants.  The  inhabitants  of  this  town 
have  likewise  acquired  much  respect  by  their  general 
cultivation  df  mind,  and  by  the  aids  they  have  s^orded 
to  the  literatul*e  of  their  country.  There  is  also  a  con- 
siderable Oreek  school  here,  which  is  said  to  be  in  a 
flourishing  state. 

The  river  now  called  Salympritt^  but  in  ancient  times 
the  Pgneui,  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  two  streams, 
which  flow  down  from  the  mountains  of  t^ndus,  and 
unite  at  the  Khan  of  Malakossij  near  the  ftite  of  the 
ancient  ^ginium.  The  course  of  tliis  river  is  eastwaJrd, 
and  it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Saloniki*.  tt  Is  said  that 
the  Peneus  anciently  inundated  the  plains  of  I'hes&aly, 
till  the  earthauake  separated  the  mountains  Ossa  tod 
Olympus,  imd  fbtmed  the  beautiful  vale  df  T^lnpf, 
where  the  waters  formerly  stagnated.  The  laurel  wa6 
once  abundant  on  the  banks  of  this  rirtor.  The  valley 
of  the  Peneus,  throughout  its  whole  course,  is  extremely 
picturesque  and  interesting,  but  some  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary scenery  which  it  presents  is  that  of  the  rocks 
of  Meteora,  already  described,  No.  530. 

The  valley  of  Temp6  was,  with  the  poets  of  old  times, 
the  beau  idial  of  a  rural  and  voluptuous  retirement.  It 
is  described  by  them  as  the  most  delightful  spot  on  the 
face  of  the  earth.     Here  were  to  be  found-*- 

Cool  grots,  and  living  lakes,  the  floweiy  ]^de 
Of  meads,  and  streams  that  through  the  vallegr  glifl% 
And  shady  groves,  that  easy  sleep  invite^ 
And,  after  toilsome  days,  a  soft  repose  at  night 

Here  were  verdant  walks,  which  the  warbling  of  birds 
rendered  more  pleasant  and  romantic,  and  which  the 
gods  often  honoured  with  their  presence.  If  this  were 
happiness,  well  might  the  poet  continue  his  aspirationsi 
and  wish  to  be  transported  to  this  land  of  ^'Drowdr- 
head." 

My  next  desire  is,  void  of  care  and  strife^ 

To  lead  a  soft,  secnre,  inglorions  Ufe — 

A  country  cottage,  near  a  crystal  flood, 

A  winding  valley,  and  a  lofty  wood. 

Some  god  conduct  me  to  the  sacred  shades, 

Where  bacchanals  are  sung  by  Spartan  niaid% 

Or  lift  me  high  to  Hemos*  hilly  crown, 

Or  in  the  plahis  of  Temp^  lay  me  down» 

Or  lead  me  to  some  solitary  pUioe, 

And  coyer  my  retreat  from  human  race  f.  ^ 

With  the  race  of  the  poets  it  came  to  pass,  in  process 
of  time,  that  all  valleys,  plains,  and  woody  glens,  that 
were  pleasant,  either  for  their  situation  or  the  mildness 
of  their  climate,  were  called  by  the  name  Of  Temp6.    It 

•  Rce  Ko.  S30  of  tUs  work.  At  p.  130,  col.  1,  Um  10,  te  <*  tnonmttsd/' 
iMd  f*  tranaimited.**  * 

f  Virga,  dnd  QtorfU. 


is,  however,  probable  that  the  vale  6f  Temp6  was  cele- 
brated by  poets  who  hiUl  never  seen  it,  and  the  imagina- 
tion, therefore,  amplified  its  etcellenci^s.  Temp§,  pro- 
perly 80  clilled,  consists  of  a  celebrated  pass  or  defile 
between  Mounts  Ossa  and  Olympus.  This  pass  is  fiye 
or  sii  milM  iti  length,  and  is  biest  described  in  the  wordi 
of  l)r.  Clarke:— 

The  Peneus  occupies  the  whole  of  the  valley  firom  side  to 
side,  with  the  exception  only  of  the  narrow  pass  afforded  br 
the  old  paved  causeway  of  the  military  way,  which  ext«n({3 
along  the  right  bank  of  the  river.  Fragments  of  the  Atn- 
cian  marble  f^peared  in  different  parts  of  this  pavement: 
to  afford  space  fbr  it,  even  the  solid  rocks  were  cut  awar 
from  the  side  of  the  Peneus.  Here  the  scenery  nosaessu 
the  utmost  grandeur.  The  precipices  consist  of  najced  per- 
pendicular rocks,  rising  to  a  prodigious  heiipht,  so  that  the 
soectator  can  scarcely  behold  them  from  below  without  gid- 
oiness.  Li^s  descriotion,  therefore,  in  addition  to  its  in- 
trinsic grancteur,  has  all  the  majestv  of  truth.  The  variom 
colours  which  adorn  the  surfaces  of  these  rocks  can  only  be 
expressed  by  painting ;  and  how  beautiful  would  the  eflfect 
be  if  these  masses  were  fiuthfiilly  delineated  in  all  their  difr- 
tinct  or  blended  hues,  of  ashen  Rrav,  and  green,  and  white, 
and  ochreous  red,  and  brown,  and  black,  and  yellow  I  Such 
description  by  the  pen  suggests  no  distinct  image  to  the 
mind.  Upon  their  utmost  peaks,  both  to  the  rieht  and  left, 
we  saw  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  fortress,  once  the  bnlviirk 
of  the  defile^  whose  walls  were  made  to  traverse  the  preci- 
pices in  a  surprising  manner,  ouite  doWn  to  the  road.  The 
clifls  are  so  perpendicular,  ana  the  goige  is  so  nanow,  thflt 
it  would  he  absolutely  impossible  fbr  an  ahny  to  paM  while 
the  strait  was  gtiarded  by  these  totifieationd. 

Clarke  deseribes  this  defile  as  reMmbling  the  pass  of 
tCiilicrankie,  ill  Bootlahd)  and  that  <^  bovedale,  in  Der- 
byshire, but  Upon  a  much  fffftnder  scale.  MThen  Heptane, 
ac<;ording  to  one  of  the  fuilet,  opened  this  outlet  for  the 
rivef)  by  striking  the  mountains  iHth  his  trident,— 4)r 
When  the  Oarthquake  or  othet  coovulsion  of  nature 
oeeufrMl)— ^Olyllipus  and  Ossa  w«l<o  separated  firom  each 
others  and  bo  fbrtbed  this  tast  ddt,  at  the  bottom  of 
Which  tho  t^etis  obtldiis  its  lrtl^et<  That  a  sea,  once 
covering  the  whole  of  lllossfcl^,  Was  drained  by  the 
opening  of  this  chasm,  is  not  otily  evident  from  the  posi- 
tion of  the  strata  on  either  side,  but  the  fact  has  been 
regularly  handed  down  by  tradition,  thus  forming  a  tlieme 
of  poetical  allusion,  if  not  an  authentic  piece  of  history. 

in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Holland,  the  scenery  of  Tempe 
is  correctly  represented^  on  a  smaller  scale,  by  St  Vin- 
cent's Rocks,  near  Bristol.  The  Peneus,  as  it  Hows 
through  the  defile,  is  not  much  wider  than  the  Aroo. 
and  the  channel  between  the  cliffk  is  of  similar  contracted 
dimensions ;  but  the  cliffy  of  the  Thessalian  mountaiiL< 
are  loftier  and  more  precipitous,  towering  in  some  places 
to  sit  or  eight  hunared  feet  above  the  river,  and  pro- 
jecting their  vast  masses  with  the  greatest  abniptness 
Over  the  hollow  below. 

Where  the  surface  renders  it  possible,  the  summits  and 
ledges  of  the  rocks  are  for  the  most  part  covered  with  small 
wood,  chiefly  oak,  with  the  arbutus  and  other  shrubs.  On 
the  banks  of  the  river,  wherever  there  is  a  small  inten'sl 
betwee|i  the  water  and  the  difl^  it  is  covered  with  the  rich 
and  widely-spreading  foliage  of  the  plane,  the  oak,  and  other 
fbrest  trees,  which  in  these  situations  have  attained  a  le- 
markable  sise,  and  in  various  places  ejttend  their  shade  Car 
over  the  channel  of  the  stream.  The  ivv,  windinff  ronn^ 
many  of  them,  may  bring  to  the  mind  of  the  trav^er  the 
beautiM  and  accurate  description  of  :£lian2  who  has  done 
more  justice  to  the  scenery  of  Temp6  than  any  other  writer 
of  antiquity. 

The  village  of  6aba  stands  at  the  western  extremitr 
of  the  defile,  which  would  therefore  be  at  the  left  band 
of  the  picture.  In  conclusion,  we  must  remark  that  the 
topogpraphy  of  these  ancient  Greek  n^ons  is  not  erea 
now  well  understood,  and  is  often  laid  down  with  littl6 
certainty  of  correctness. 


n 


1841.] 


I  THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


75 


ICEBERGS. 


The  term  Iceberg,  writteu  Tiberg  by  tbe  Dutch,  signi- 
fies ice-mountain.  It  is  commonly  applied  to  the 
glaciers  of  Greenland,  Spitzbergen,  and  other  Arctic 
countries;  but  is  as  often  extended  to  tbe  large  peaks, 
mountains,  oc  islets  of  ice,  that  are  fbund  floating  in 
the  sea.  Tlie  first,  or  fixed  bergs,  are  prodigious 
lodgments  of  ice,  wbich  occur  in  yalleys  adjoining  the 
coast  of  the  Polar  seas.  The  largest  ieeberg  of  this 
description,  seen  by  Captain  Scoresby,  is  that  a  little  to 
the  northward  of  Horn  Sound,  which  occupies  eleven 
miles  in  length  of  the  sea  coast  It  rises  precipitously 
from  the  sea  402feet  high,  and  extends  backwards  towards 
the  summit  of  the  mountain,  to  about  four  times  that 
elevation.  Its  surface  forms  a  noble  inclined  plane 
of  smooth  snow,  and  has  a  beautiful  appearance;  but 
the  lower  parts^  in  the  latter  end  of  ^very  summer, 
present  a  bare  surfsu^  of  ice.  The  front  sni^ioe  of  ice- 
bergs, generally,  is  glistening  and  unevw.  IVb^fover 
a  part  has  been  recently  broken  off,  the  fresh  fhuctore  is 
of  a  beautiful  greenish-blue  colour,  approaching  to 
emerald  green;  but  such  parts  as  bay0  b(^  long 
exposed  to  tbe  atmosphere,  are  of  a  greepjsh-gr^ 
colour,  and  fh>m  a  distance  have  the  appearance  of  clifra 
of  whitish  marble.  These  icebergs  are  wholly  produced 
from  rain  or  snow,  the  period  of  their  founoation,  or 
first  stratum,  being  frozen,  being  nearly*  coeval  with 
the  land  on  which  they  are  lodged:  the  subsequent 
increase  is  produced  by  the  congelation  of  tbe  sleet  of 
summer  or  autumn,  and  of  the  snow  aecumulated  in 
winter,  whicb>  being  partly  dissolved  by  tbe  summer 
sun,  becomes  oonsoUdatedy  and,  on  tbe  decline  of  tbe 
summer  b^^  froxen  into  a  new  layer  of  ice.  This 
yearly  ioerease  continues  until  the  mi^  beeomes  oumn- 
teittous,  an4  ri^M  to  the  elevation  of  the  surrounding  eliffs. 
The  mfillipg  ^  the  snowy  which  is  afterwards  depodted 
QQ  these  enormous  blod^s,  liH^wise  contributes  to  tbair 
growths  ^d  l|y  fiffii^  up  ti^  crevices  renders  the 
whole  solid.  Where  such  a  pass  has  risen  to  the 
height  of  1000  or  3000  feet,  the  lUseuinulatMl  weif^t, 
agisted  by  the  action  of  the  ocean  i^  its  baso)  plunges  it 
into  the  sea*  and  it  is  .driven  southward  bv  the  winds  and 
currents,  and  known  to  mariners  under  tW  name  of  ice- 
berg; and  from  its  canities  the  whalevs  fill  theif  esydu 
with  pure  fresh  water. 

Icebergs  occur  in  many  pUises  in  ihe  Aretic  and 
Antarctic  r^onsi  in  Hudson's  StmH,  Dmis's  Strait» 
sod  Baffin's  Bay,  they  are  frequently  of  astonishing 
msgaitttdeb  Ellis  describes  them  as  smetimes  occurring 
of  500  <M*  600  yards  thickness.  Frobisher  saw  one  ice- 
berg which  he  judged  to  be  ^^  near  fourscore  fathoms 
above  wat«^*'  Captain  Middleton  saw  bergs  three  or 
four  miles  in  curcnmference)  100  fethoms  under  water, 
and  a  fifih  or  sixth  part  above.  Captain  Ross  observed 
multitudes  of  icebergs  in  Davis's  Strati  and  Baffin's 
Bay:  at  one  time,  near  Waygate,  or  Hare  Island,  he  s  w 
700  icebergs,  some  of  them  of  prodig^ns  sine  and  ex- 
traimiinnry  form*  One  berg  is  described  by  Captain 
Ross  as  being  40  feet  high,  and  1000  feet  long;  anothnr 
85  feet  high,  and  1200  feet  in  circumference;  another 
325  feet  high,  and  1900  feet  long:  another  aground  m 
150  fathoms  water,  and  several  together  aground  in  250 
fathoms ;  one  berg,  of  which  the  dimensions  were  given  in 
bj  Captain  Parry,  had  nine  unequal  sides,  was  aground 
in  60  fathoms,  and  measured  4169  yards  long,  3689 
yards  broad,  and  61  feet  high.  The  weight  of  tMa  iee- 
lerg,  taken  at  somewhat  smaller  dimam<»8,  was  esti- 
mated at  1,292»897»673  tons.  One  of  the  largest  bergs 
represented  in  Captain  Ross's  Jourmaly  is  perforated  in 
an  arched  form,  beneath  which  some  of  the  crew  cUsem- 
barked  on  the  ioe. 

Floating  icebergs  are  seen  in  greater  number  in 
Baffin's  Bay  than  elsewhere  in  the  Arctic  regions. 
Thence  they  constantly  make  their  way  southward,  down 
Davis's  Sicaity  and  are  seattersd  abroad  in  the  Atlantic. 


They  also  occasionally  crowd  the  banks  of  Newfound- 
land, "  btyond  which,"  says  Captain  Scoresby,  "  they 
are  sometimes  conveyed,  by  the  operation  of  the 
southerly  under-current,  as  low  as  latitude  40®  north, 
and  even  lower,  a  distance  of  at  least  2000  miles  from 
the  place  of  their  origin." 

Icebergs  are  fre<]^uentlv  of  fantastic  shapes,  but  their 
most  general  form  is  with  one  high  perpendicular  side, 
the  opposite  side  very  low,  and  the  intermediate  surface 
sloping  gradually.  Some  have  regular  flat  surfaces,  but 
they  have  most  commonlv  different  acute  summits. 
Some,  as  that  figured  by  Captain  Ross,  are  perforatedi 
or  contain  caverns,  or  clefts  and  cracks  in  the  most 
elevated  parts,  so  as  to  resemble  distinct  spires  'On 
some  bergs  there  are  hollows,  or  pools,  in  which  snow 
or  water  accimiulates ;  others  are  smooth  and  naked; 
their  sides  being  sometimes  filled  with  smaJl  holes  as 
regrular  as  if  formed  by  art.  The  base  of  floating  ice- 
bergs is  commonly  larger  in  extent  than  their  uppe^ 
surftce. 

Hence,  (says  Scoresby,)  the  proportion  of  ice  i^>pefiriiw 
above  wat^,  is  seldom  less  in  elevation  than  one-sevenS 
of  the  whole  thickness;  and^  i^hen  the  summit  is  conicaL 
or  of  the  steeple  form,  the  elevation  above  water  is  fre- 
quently one-fourth  of  the  whole  depth  of  the  bergs,  llie 
waves  break  against  them  in  a  high  sea,  and  in  a  swell 
they  make  a  tiemendous  noise  in  rising  and  fiilling;  and 
they  rip  up  and  divide  fields  of  ioe  of  great  thickness. 
The  breaking  up  of  icebergs  is  usually  caused  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  or  a  temperate  atmosphere :  they  then  become 
hollow  and  fragile ;  large  pieces  break  ofi^  and  fall  into  the 
sea  with  an  astounding  crash.  Hiis  is  technically  termed 
calving :  the  iceberg  loses  its  equilibrium,  sometimes  turns 
on  one  side,  and  occasionally  is  inverted.  The  sea  is  thereby 
put  into  commotion ;  fields  of  ice  in  the  vicinity  are  broken 
\ky)  the  waves  extend,  and  the  noise  is  heard  to  the 
distance  of  several  miles ;  and  sometimes  the  rolling  motion 
of  the  berg  not  ceasing,  other  pieces  eet  loosened  and^ 
detached^  until  the  whole  mass  feus  asunder,  like  a  wreck. 

The  general  colour  of  icebergs  has  been  referred  tO| 
but  their  appearance  varies  with  their  solidity  and  dis* 
tance,  and  their  mixture  with  earth,  gravel,  or  sand. 
The  state  of  the  atmosphere  also  affects  their  appear- 
^ce:  they  glisten  in  the  SHn*s  rays,  and  even  et  nigh^ 
are  dbcemible  at  a  distance,  by  their  natural  efiulgence; 
and,  in  foggy  weather,  by  a  peculiar  blackness  in  tbe 
atmosnhere.  Captain  Ross  tells  us  that  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  imagine  anything  more  exquisite  than  the 
variety  of  tints  which  icebergs  display:  by  night,  as  well 
as  by  day,  they  glitter  with  a  vividness  or  colour  beyond 
the  power  of  art  to  represent.  While  the  white  por- 
tions have  the  brilliancy  of  silver,  their  colours  are  as 
various  and  splendid  as  those  of  the  rainbow.  By  these 
means  the  danger  of  icebergs  to  the  navigator  is  much 
diminished;  but  it  is  still  requisite  to  be  on  the  watcb 
fbr  them.  They  sometimes  occur  in  extensive  diains, 
in  which  vessels  get  involved  in  the  night,  during^ 
storms,  when  fatal  accidents  occur.  Ships  are  not  un- 
firequently  moored  to  bergs ;  but  if  the  latter  be  over- 
turned, or,  while  fioating  in  a  tide-way,  their  base  be 
arrested  by  the  ground,  they  fall  with  the  noise  of  thun- 
der, and  crush  whatever  objects  they  encounter  in  their 
descent.  "  Thus  have  vessels  been  often  staved  by  the 
fsSL  of  their  icy  moorings;  while  smaller  objects,  such 
as  boats,  have  been  repeatedly  overwhelmed,  even  at  a 
considerable  distance,  by  the  vast  waves  occasioned  by 
such  events.''  Again,  in  the  temperate  season,  when 
the  bergs  become  fragile,  and  are  struck  for  the  mooring 
anchor,  they  split  asunder,  and  the  masses  bury  boats 
and  men.  ^  The  awful  effect  produced  by  a  solid  mass, 
many  thousands,  or  even  miUions,  of  tons  in  weight, 
changing  its  situation  with  the  velocity  of  a  falling 
body,  whereby  its  aspiring  summit  is  in  a  moment  buried 
in  the  ocean,  can  oe  more  easily  imagined  than  de- 
scribed." 

Captain  Scoresby  concludes  that  most  of  the  ice- 
monntains^  or  ietbergs,  that  eocur  in  the  Arctic  region^f 

555—2 


7« 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


are  clerived  from  the  land  icebergs,  or  glaciers,  and 
are  consequently  the  product  of  snow  or  rain-water.  The 
same  writer  also  allows  that  some  iceberfrs  may  be 
formed  in  coves  and  bays  in  the  polar  countries;  and 
these,  having  their  bed  in  the  ocean,  must  be  partly  the 
product  of  sea-water,  and  partly  that  of  snow  and  rain- 
water. From  the  evidence  of  a  Russian  voyager  of  the 
last  century,  there  is  reason  to  infer  that  some  icebergs 
have  their  origin  in  the  wide  expanse  of  the  ocean;  and 
he  describes  a  continent,  so  to  speidc,  of  monntainotu 
ice  existing,  and  probably  increasing  in  the  ocean,  at  a 
distance  of  between  300  and  400  lules  from  any  known 
land. 

The  buoyancy  of  icebergs  is  referable  to  the  consi- 
derable increase  of  bulk  which  water  undergoes  in  con- 
flation; ice  being,  bulk  for  bulk,  lighter  than  water. 
TTiis  buoyancy  produces  remarkable  effects,  not  only 
Soata  the  icebergs,  but  with  lliem  heavy  bodies,  as 
ttrata  of  earth  and  stene,  and  beds  of  rock  of  great 
thickness,  wAich  are  thus  transported  from  the  moun- 
tainous shores  of  high  latitudes  to  the  bottom  of  distant 
teas,  where  the  ice  is  dissolved.  Such  ice-islands,  before 
they  are  melted,  have  been  known  to  drift  from  Baffin's 
Bay  to  the  Azores,  and  from  the  South  Pole  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Cape. 

Icebergs  not  unfrequently  ground  on  reefs  or  shal- 
lows, and  thus  remun  stationary  for  some  years.  Fs^ 
bricius  and  Crauti  mention  two  immense  icebergs  having 
grounded  and  remained  in  South-eaat  Bay  for  sevenJ 
years.  From  their  vast  size  they  were  named  by  the 
Dutch.  Amsterdam  and  Haarlem. 


To  prolong  lay  days  I  will  neither  ask  the  elixir  of  life  from 


the  alchemist. 


lultiplied  prescriptions  from  the  phjr. 
regimen  tends  to  abridge  life,  and  multi- 


od  privationB  give  a  sadnese  to  the  spirit,  more  noxious 
thaa  the  prescribed  remedies  are  salutary.  Besides,  what  is 
physical,  without  moral  life ;  that  is  to'say,  without  improve- 
ment and  etgoymenti — Fuit. 


a   STO&T-TKLLBBS   Of   NAPUtS. 

The  streets  of  Naplee  are  chaiBeterized  by  extraordinary 
stir  and  bustle.  One  of  the  most  inCerestins  features  of  this 
scene  is  the  great  number  of  very  young  ciiildren.who  are 
already  of  use  to  their  parents.  lousee  little  boys  andrirls 
as  busily  employed  as  tbeir  elders ;  one  is  the  bearer  of  his 
&ther's  br.-aMast  te  the  fields:  another  carries  a  pick-axe 
orspade,  which  you  woald  hardly  think  him  strong  enough 
to  lift.  Another  drives  an  ass,  with  vegetable^  to  market ; 
and  you  may  oft«n  see  a  little  creature  standing  on  a  chair, 
griuaing  a  knife,  while  another,  still  younger,  turns  the 


n  of  both  sexes,  where  tiiey  are  educated,  fed,  and  taught 
Buuie  handicraft.  Some  are  in  the  nature  of  workhouscH, 
and  employ  a  multitude  of  indigent  persona,  while  others 
are  devoted  entirely  to  children,  educated  principally  for 
music  The  latter  institutious  have  produced  many  of  the 
great  performers  and  masters  of  the  art,  who  have  figured 
m  the  churches  or  on  the  stages  of  the  different  capitals  of 
Europe  for  the  last  century. 

An  amusement  almost  peculiar  to  Naples  is  that  afforded 
by  story-tellers,  or,  as  they  are  called,  the  improntatori.  M. 
SosB,  a  recent  traveller,  savs; — "These  men  are  seen  Bur- 
rounded  by  audiences  of  tne  lower  classes.  They  have  a 
square  place  railed  in,  with  a  few  planks  for  seats.  Some 
ait, — outers  stand, — and  numbers  Le  on  the  ground ;  but  all 
evince  profound  attention.  One  man  relates  stories  of  his 
own  invention,  at  tines  convulsing  his  hearers  with  laugh- 
ter, and  at  others  drawing  the  teare  of  sensibility  from  their 
eyes.  Farther  on  is  one  who  recites  from  Anoato,  Taaso, 
or  other  Italian  poets;  and  often,  after  reading  a  paaeaoe, 
he  puts  the  book  under  his  arm,  and  proceeds  to  an  expLi- 
nation,  with  very  appropriate  action  and  gesture.  The  voice 
and  manner  of  the  improvisatore, — the  interest  excited  in 
the   audience, — every  one  appearing  fearful  of  breathing. 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS. 
FEBRUARY, 


lo  Tifai  tadh  sutli  hg  bill,  Iba  daon  ue  iwnd 
ImpngbibU, 'Ow  !■  tbecorert  icfe; 
HapAub  ftv  punrur.     Hiirk!  vb«t  iood  ihmli 
Ka-ww  thmi^  thA  ativab!  habnaki  nnj; 
ShriU  honu  procUim  oil  fliMhL     Rmrh  itrinliiig  hotu 
8miBfl<i'a  Uia  lawn  to  nub  tb«  dutunt  pua : 
'Xii  biiunph  >U  ■a'  '—  " 


THi  CUHHOV  lox,  {Vitlpa  eulgani.) 

TiTRouoHOUT  the  habitable  regions  of  the  earth,  we  fiad 
that,  as  the  empire  of  civilized  man  gradually  extends, 
predatory  animals  are  proportionablr  induced  in  number, 
until  in  particular  countries  or  districts  the  most  formid- 
able  species  become  completely  extincL  Thus,  thit 
andent  marauder  the  wolf,  formerly  so  much  the  object 
of  dread  and  superstition  throughout  our  land,  has  been 
extirpated  from  it,  though  he  is  still  roaminz  at  large  on  ' 
many  parts  of  the  Continent.  But  while  thu  is  the  com 
with  such  animals  as  have  proved  themselves  inimical  ta 
the  safety  of  the  human  race,  it  is  not  so  with  the  Foi, 
whose  propensities,  however  rapacious,  are  exercised  odIt 
on  creatures  lower  in  the  scale  of  existence  than  itaelt 
This  animal  is  permitted  to  remain  amongst  us  for  tbe 
sake  of  the  sport  which  it  affords;  its  depred^ons  are 
tolerated,  ana  pains  are  even  taken  to  keep  up  the 
supply  tit  the  species. 

In  no  other  country  of  the  world  is  the  hunting  of  tht 
fox  pursued  with  the  same  ceal  and  success  as  is 
England.  It  is  a  favourite  diversion  with  all  ranks  of 
people,  and  is  greatiy  lauded  by  its  advocates  as  a  meua 
of  keeping  up  the  hardihood  of  the  English  character,  u 
well  as  of  promoting  a  kindly  feeling  between  the  sere- 
ral  classes  meeting  together  on  such  occasions.  The 
breed  of  horses,  it  is  aiso  said,  would  soon  degencratfi 
were  the  stimulus  removed  which  now  induces  persons 
to  go  to  the  expense,  trouble,  and  risk  of  rearing  hortM 
for  tbe  chase.  Whether  this  he  the  case  or  not,  the 
enthusiasm  with  which  this  sport  is  followed  is  Tery  re- 
markable, and  is  by  no  means  confined  to  tlie  actual  mem- 
bers of  the  hunt.  It  is  amusing  to  wibiess  the  excite- 
ment which  pervades  a  village  in  the  hunting  districU 
when  the  inhabitants  become  aware  of  the  approach  of 
the  hounds.  Old  people  seem  to  regain  a  portion  of 
their  juvenile  feelings,  and  may  be  seen  hastening  with 
unwonted  activity  to  view  the  sport;  labouring  men  for- 
get their  usual  measured  pace,  and  appear  as  if  impelled 
towards  the  scene  of  action  by  some  irresistible  impulse; 
others  necessarily  confined  to  their  tasks,  show  by  their 
eager  looks  that  they  would  willingly  throw  aside  the 
implements  of  husbandry  and  join  the  chase;  light  and 
active  persons  frequently  follow  the  hounds  on  foot,  and 
traverse  the  country  for  miles  with  a  degree  of  speed 
and  ardour  unknown  to  them  at  other  times;  all  indeed 
is  buttle  and  excitement,  and  ill  fares  the  work,  domestic 
or  of  the  Geld,  when  reynard  chooses  to  lead  the  huotSi 
men  aqd  tbe  hounds  in  the  ricinity  of  a  village. 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


77 


The  pleasurable  excitement  connected  with  this  diver- 
sion is  doubtless  greatly  enhanced  by  the  sagacity  and 
and  wiliness  of  the  aninial  pursued,  and  by  the  innumer- 
able stratagems  which  it  employs  to  elude  the  menaced 
ruin.  The  history  of  the  fox  is  full  of  interest,  and 
will  repay  us  for  the  attention  we  may  be  disposed  to  give 
to  the  subject. 

The  family  to  which  our  common  fox  belongs  is  gene- 
rally considered  as  only  a  variety  of  the  extensive  genus 
CaniSf  which  comprises  dog^,  wolves,  and  jackals.  Nor 
is  the  organisation  of  the  fox  Very  different  from  that  of 
the  dog.  The  number  of  toes  on  the  fore  and  hind-feet, 
and  the  number  and  position  of  the  incisor,  canine,  and 
cheek  teeth  correspond  in  each,  though  the  teeth  of 
the  fox  are  sharper  and  better  fitted  to  inflict  a  mortal 
wound  at  a  single  bite,  without  mangling  its  prey,  than 
those  of  the  dog.  There  are,  however,  some  remarkable 
differences  between  the  animals,  as  there  are  also  between 
the  fox,  and  all  other  members  of  the  same  family.  The 
pupil  of  the  eye  in  the  fox,  if  observed  during  the  day, 
or  under  the  influence  of  a  strong  light,  is  seen  to  close 
in  a  vertical  direction,  instead  of  contracting  equally  in 
the  form  of  a  circle,  and,  therefore,  as  in  the  case  ox  the 
cat,  the  ftculty  of  vision  can  be  exercised  with  a  very 
small  proportion  of  light.  Yet  is  the  animal  by  no 
means  deficient  in  sight,  even  when  exposed  to  the  noon- 
tide glare ;  as  those  who  have  followed  in  his  track  can 
abundantly  testify.  Another  point  of  difference  is  in  the 
shape  of  the  muzsle,  which  in  the  fox  is  much  more 
elongated  and  pointed  than  in  others  of  the  same  family. 
The  tail  is  also  longer,  more  bushy,  and  more  thickly 
covered  with  fur ;  tiie  skin  is  altogether  covered  with 
closer  and  finer  fur,  and  is  in  some  varieties  of  great 
beauty  and  high  value. 

The  habits  of  the  fox  are  more  distinct  than  its 
organisation  from  those  of  other  animals  of  the  canine 
species.  The  form  of  the  eye  enables  it  to  see  prey 
when  above  it,  and  thus  the  perches  of  pheasants  and 
other  g^allinaceous  birds  are  assailed  by  the  nocturnal 
marauder.  Its  predacious  habits  know  no  bounds,  and 
its  stealthy  and  cautious  manner  of  approaching  and  of 
securing^  its  prey  enables  it  to  commit  the  most  destruc- 
tive havoc  in  the  farm-yard,  and  to  carry  off  its  booty 
with  impunity.  It  is  peculiar  to  foxes  to  be  quite 
fiolitary  in  their  operations,  never  joining  in  numbers  to 
make  common  cause  against  their  enemies,  and  so  to 
compensate  for  the  want  of  individual  strength ;  but  en- 
countering alone  whatever  dangers  assail  it,  and  op- 
posing tbem  at  first  with  all  the  cunning  of  its  sagacious 
nature,  and  when  this  fails,  with  the  most  desperate  and 
unyjelding  courage,  fighting  to  the  last  extremity. 

Foxes  are  common  in  various  parts  of  the  globe,  but 
most  numerous  in  temperate  and  cold  climates.  There 
is  not  much  difference  in  their  general  aspect,  except 
such  as  arises  from  variety  in  colour  and  markings. 
Their  means  of  subsistence  vary  with  the  localities  in 
which  they  are  found.  In  some  places  they  are  known 
to  subsist  chiefly  on  fish,  in  others  they  fatten  on  the 
fruit  of  the  vine ;  the  lesser  beasts  and  birds  are,  however, 
their  principal  prey,  especially  rabbits,  game,  and  domes- 
tic poultry.  They  perform  an  essentiad  service  in  Scot- 
land by  destroying  the  moor  mice,  which  sometimes  in- 
crease to  such  an  extent  as  to  destroy  the  vegetation  of 
the  moors,  to  the  great  loss  of  the  shepherd.  At  the 
season  of  the  vintage  in  France  and  Italy,  these  animals 
do  much  damage,  and  feed  on  the  grapes  till  they  be- 
come faty  and,  as  it  is  said,  good  for  eating.  Foxes  are 
not  migratory  animals  in  any  country,  nor  do  they  often 
shift  Uieir  quarters  with  the  seasons :  they  are  hardy  and 
healthy  creatures,  and  it  is  a  rare  occurrence  to  find  one 
of  their  number  that  has  died  a  natural  death. 

The  common  fox  is  about  a  foot  high,  and  from  the 
muzzle  to  the  other  extremity  of  the  body  it  averages 
about  two  feet  and  a  half.  Shaw  describes  it  as  having 
1^  broad  head,  sharp  snout,  ^at  forehead;  and  a  straight 


and  bushy  tail.  The  colour  is  a  yellowish  red  or  brown, 
mixed  with  white  or  ash-colour  on  the  forehead,  shoidders, 
hind-part  of  the  back,  and  outside  of  the  hind-legs ;  the 
lips,  cheeks,  and  throat  are  white,  and  a  stripe  of  the 
same  colour  runs  along  the  under  side  of  the  legs ;  the' 
breast  and  belly  are  whitish  gray;  the  tips  of  the' 
ears  and  the  feet  black;  the  tail  externally  reddish- 
yellow,  with  a  black  tinge;  internally  yellowish-white, 
with  the  same;  the  tip  of  the  tail  perfectly  white. 
According  to  circumstances  the  fox  kennels  either  above 
or  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Where  the  soil  is 
wet  and  clayey,  he  finds  a  retreat  in  thick  bushes  or  in 
hollows  at  the  roots  of  trees ;  in  drier  situations  he  makes 
an  excavation  to  a  convenient  depth  in  the  earth,  often 
beneath  the  protection  of  a  high  bank  where  roots  of  trees, 
&C.  prevent  the  soil  from  falling  in,  and  also  form  a 
shelter  to  his  dwelling.  He  does  not  always  take  the 
trouble  to  make  a  hole  for  himself,  but  gets  accommodation 
by  dispossessing  the  badger.  Wherever  he  takes  up  his 
abode  ne  always  provides  a  number  of  outlets  to  give 
means  of  escape  from  danger.  The  young  of  the  fox 
are  from  three  to  eight  in  number,  and  are  produced  only 
once  in  the  year,  Le.  about  the  latter  end  of  March.  The 
female  prepares  a  bed  for  them  of  leaves  and  hay,  and 
manifests  the  most  tender  solicitude  in  their  behalf. 
The  cautious,  prudent  character  which  belongs  to  her  by 
nature,  seems  entirely  lost  when  she  has  young  ones  to 
nurse  and  protect  If  she  perceives  the  place  of  her  re- 
treat to  be  disoovered,  she  will  carry  off  her  cubs  one  by 
one,  till  she  has  put  them  all  in  a  situation  which  pro- 
mises greater  security.  She  has  even  been  known  to  bear 
away  a  cub  when  the  hounds  were  out,  and  thus  risk  her 
own  life  in  attempting  to  save  that  of  her  offspring. 
The  cubs  are  bom  like  dogs,  covered  with  hair,  and 
having  their  eyes  shut.  Their  growth  is  completed  at 
eighteen  months,  and  the  period  of  their  natural  lives  is 
probably  thirteen  or  fourteen  years. 

In  the  days  of  his  inexperience  (says  a  modem  writer) 
a  favourite  lure  will  ensnare  the  fox,  but  when  apprised  of 
its  nature,  the  same  expedient  becomes  unavailmg.  He 
smells  the  very  iron  of  the  trap,  and  careAiUy  sliuns  it.  If 
he  perceives  that  the  means  of  ambush  are  multiplying 
around  him,  he  quits  his  ulace  of  residence  and  retires  into 
more  secure  quarters.  Man  with  all  his  reasonings  and 
machines,  requires  himself  much  experience  not  to  be  over- 
reached by  this  wily  quadruped.  If  all  the  issues  of  the 
kennel  are  beset  with  snares,  the  occupant  scents  and  recog- 
nises them,  and  ratlier  than  fisdl  into  them,  exposes  himself 
to  the  most  cruel  and  protracted  privation  of  food.  He  is 
comparativel  V  ignorant  and  careless  of  his  conduct  when  no 
war  is  waged  against  him ;  but  when  the  apprehension  of 
pain  or  death,  exhibited  under  various  forms,  has  produced 
multiplied  sensations,  which  become  fixed  in  his  memory, 
and  give  rise  to  comparisons,  judgments,  and  indications, 
he  acquires  skill,  penetration,  and  cunning.  If  the  impru- 
dence and  thoughtlessness  of  youth  frequently  make  nim 
deviate  from  the  riffht  path,  the  experience  of  age  corrects 
his  wanderings,  ana  teaches  him  to  discriminate  true  from 
false  appearances. 

The  skin  of  the  fox  we  have  already  spoken  of  as  fu/- 
nishing  a  soft  and  warm  fur.  '  This  is  much  used  in 
various  parts  of  Europe,  for  muffs  and  for  the  lining  of 
clothes.  In  the  Valais,  and  the  Alpine  districts  of  Swit- 
zerland, great  numbers  of  foxes  are  taken  on  this  account. 
Vast  numbers  of  skins  are  likewise  imported  from  New- 
foundland and  Hudson's  Bay. 

In  order  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  foxes  in  this  coun- 
try, they  are  sometimes  imported  from  the  Continent, 
but  these  are  said  not  to  show  equal  sport  with  our  own. 
The  waste  of  foxes  is  not  attributed  altogether  to  the 
hunting  which  is  carried  on,  but  to  the  prepossession 
against  reynard  which  exists  among  the  owners  of  exten- 
sive domains,  where  the  preservation  of  winged  game  is 
an  object  of  importance.  It  is  affirmed,  however,  that 
if  coverts  were  provided  in  ground  favourable  to  the  bur- 
rowing of  rabbits,  the  foxes,  who  prefer  rabbits  to  any 
other  foody  would  supply  themselves  from  this  source^ 


78 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[FsBBUAXiy  37| 


without  molesting  either  pheasants,  partridges,  or  bares; 
and  this  statement  is  confirmed  by  facts,  for  in  some 
manors,  thus  provided  with  the  favourite  food  of  the  fox, 
this  anixnal  is  found  with  hares  and  pheasants  in  equal 
plenty. 

In  the  night  which  precedes  a  fox-hunt  the  well-known 
business  of  earth-stopping  is  performed  by  perions  con- 
nected with  the  huntmg  establishment.  This  consists  in 
stopping  up  the  earthsy  as  they  are  called,  while  tbe  foxes 
are  absent  in  search  of  their  prey,  so  that  when  they  re- 
turn to  their  lodging,  they  find  themselves  shut  ou^ 
Thorn  or  furze-bushes,  intermixed  with  earth,  are  used 
to  close  the  entrances  to  these  subterranean  dwellingSi 
and  when  the  chase  is  over,  the  earths  are  unstoppedi 
that  the  foxes  may  not  be  deprived  of  their  UAtural  ken- 
nel, and  driven  to  seek  others  elsewhere. 

The  season  of  fox-hunting  is,  or  ought  to  be^  now 
nearly  at  an  end.  It  has  been  reoommendedi  M  &  means 
of  repairing  the  scarcity  of  foxes,  that  no  country  be 
hunted  later  than  February.  As  a  further  means  of  sup- 
plying the  requirements  of  the  chasey  the  4omc»tip 
rearing  of  foxes  is  frequently  resorted  to.  Some  littera 
are  procured,  carefully  removed,  and  placed  in  a  coave« 
nient  apartment,  where  they  are  fed,  and  nourished  up 
with  milk,  wheat,  and  water,  until  they  are  old  enough  tQ 
try  their  strengUi  against  weasels,  polecats,  &c.  A  kan- 
nii  is  then  prepared  for  these  young  foxes,  and  they  ar« 
forced  into  it,  one  by  one,  and  kept  there  by  wA^ching 
and  supplying  them  with  sufScient  food  within  the 
entrance.  Where  rabbits  are  plentiful  the  cuba  soon 
learn  to  catch  the  young  ones  in  the  neighbourhoods 
they  likewise  find  plenty  of  beetles,  chaffers,  and  wormsi 
and  if  properly  managed  there  is  very  littls  doubt  of 
their  taking  to  the  kennel  and  remaining  there. 

The  habits  of  the  fox  afford  sul^ect  for  a  niuch  longer 
notice  than  we  can  give,  but  they  have  been  so  frequently 
illustrated  by  anecdotes,  or  brought  under  actual  Qbaer- 
vation,  that  to  a  large  proportion  of  our  readers  they 
are  doubtless  su^ciently  familiar.  While  this  animal  is 
reared  and  prized  by  the  huntsman,  he  is  unjustly  h^ted 
and  despised  by  many  persons,  in  consequance  of  the 
natural  tendencies  which  belong  to  him.  We  cannot 
join,  for  instance,  in  such  language  as  the  following, 
where  the  animal  is  represented  as  a  thief,  conscious  of 
the  wrong  and  robberv  he  is  committing,  and  expecting 
the  just  vcn^ance  of  his  pursuers. 

As  stmggling  aimles  at  the  trnmpefa  voioe 
Press  to  their  Blandard,  hither  all  r^Mur, 
And  hunry  through  the  woods,  with  hasty  sWp, 
Bustling,  and  full  of  h(^ ;  now  driven  on  iMajj^ 
They  push,  they  strive ;  while  from  the  kennel  sneakB 
The  conseious  villain.'    See  I  he  skulks  along. 
Sleek  at  the  shepherd's  cost,  and  plump  with  meals 
Purloined :  so  thrive  the  wioked  here  below  I 
ThiM^h  Ijiiffh  his  brush  he  bear ;  though  tipt  with  white 
It  gaily  shue,  yel  e*er  the  sua  deolined 
Reoal  the  ■hades  of  night,  the  pampeped  regae 
Shall  rue  his  fate  reversed,  and  at  his  heeb 
Behold  the  just  avenger,  swift  to  seize 
His  forfeit  head,  and  thirsting  for  his  blood. 

Somebvillk's  Ch«i9$^ 


ON  CHESa 
V. 


Iv  there  were  no  other  sign  of  the  perverseness  of  the  mind 
of  man,  this  woidd  be  a  sufficient  one,  that  about  spiritual 
things  almost  every  one  is  satisfied  with  himself,  and  thinks 
himself  as  wise  and  as  holy  as  need  is,  whereaa  about  tem- 
poral things  nobody  is  contented  with  his  state  and  condi- 
tion, but  would  &in  be  greater  and  richer  every  day.  If  we 
were  really  wise  we  should  not  be  so  greedy  of  temporal 
tbings,  considering  wo  have  as  much  as  nature  requires. 
What  is  beyond  the  need  of  nature  b  a  clog  to  gmce.  But 
in  spiritual  things  the  greatest  share  we  have  is  the  least  of 
what  an  In&iitemingis  able  and  willing  to  giira.-^Lvx>OLX. 


•^ 


ORIOIN   OF   THE  KAME8   OF   CHESS-MEK. 

Av  inquiry  into  the  various  muttons  which  the  game 
of  chess  has  undergone  in  ita  passage  through  dijRerent 
nations,  afibrds  much  curious  information*  Althougk 
the  nature  of  the  game  itself  never  seems  to  luive  been 
essentially  changed,  jet  ii\e  names  and  powers  of  ih^ 
pieces  have  b^n  subject  to  much  variation:  the  military 
character  of  the  game  has  often  been  lost  sigbt  of;  sad 
it  may,  in  ita  present  state,  be  typical  not  so  much  of 
a  miUtary  commnnity  ^  of  a  waU-pegulatad  society,  i« 
which  we  ^nd  kings,  queens,  bishop«i  knigbts,  and 
peasants. 

The  king>  the  principal  piece  in  Ijm  gamey  has  always 
preserved  his  title;  but  his  consort,  the  queen,  bas  beea 
raised  to  her  nresent  digwty  by  a  series  o^  m^ftrkftblt 
changes,  whicn  can  be  traced  with  tolerable  ^zactnesSi 
The  original  name  for  this  piece  se^ns  tp  have  been  the 
Eastern  word  PhtrMf  that  is,  a  counsellor,  or  general  of 
an  i^rmy.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  similarity  of 
sound  between  the  words  Ph4r»  and  Vwrge^  oQcasioaed 
the  introduction  of  the  latter  term  ainong  the  Europeans; 
but  th^t  the  extravagant  YenenitiQn  of  .uie  timea  towards 
the  Holy  Virgin,  caused  the  term  Vierge  to  be  ohangsd 
into  Fisrp0  or  Fer^,  the  old  Norman  and  English  term 
for  the  queen,  and  thus  the  military  character  of  the 
game  became  at  once  Ipst  sight  of,  la  anoUlLatiB 
poem  the  queen  is  called  VirgQ* 

M.  Freret,  after  remarkmg  that  among  Eastern 
nations  the  move  of  this  piece  is  only  from  square  to 
square,  observes,  that  the  romantic  epirit  of  the  tiaies 
disdained  this  very  contracted  motion  a*  too  much 
resembling  the  slavery  of  the  Asiatic  fonalos,  and  con- 
trary to  the  priTileges  o^oyed  by  those  in  Europe,  on 
which  account  they  rendered  it  aa  free  as  pussihJe,  by 
making  it  the  most  important  of  all  the  pieces.  But 
this  remark  does  not  agree  with  Mn  Bannngton's  ioge* 
nious  observations.    He  says:— <• 

In  moat  df  these  (the  Esstefn)  govenunenta,  the  kmgs 
are  rather  iadolant  mooerohsy  and  oMwequeBtlr  this  mece 
soaroely  moves  at  all,  but  is  mmty  to  ba  defended  m>m 
attacks.  The  f»mperoir  himself  being  thus  indokiit^  neces- 
sarily requires  a  minister  or  ^and»  who  can  F«tect 
his  mastjBr  by  vigorous  and  extensive  motions  egainat  distant 
insults,  in  the  most  remote  parts  of  the  boar£  Tbepiieca 
therefore  of  the  greatest  importance,  was  by  the  Jrersians 
styled  Pharz  ox  wnerai,  Obeas  hath  universally  b^en  con- 
stdered  as  an  engagement  between  two  armie^  and  if  the 
piece  of  the  greatest  in^Mrtanee  is  termed  the  Gfmrn^  this 
allusion  is  properiy  oBxried  en* 

Mr»  Douce  remarks  s-^ 

Although  the  title  of  9iMm  cannot  be  traced  so  fkr  hack 
as  that  of  jfirw,  it  is  oi  oonsiderable  antiquity,  as  it  is  to 
be  met  with  in  French  manusoripts  of  the  thirteenth  mo- 
tnry  I  and  in  the  Gufm  Bomamrum,  a  colkcttoa  of  stories 
compiled  t^bout  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  teaiwy, 
this  piece  is  called  re^ua. 

About  the  year  1408,  John  Lydgate,  the  monk  of 
St.  Edmonsbury,  wrote  a  poem  which  he  dedicated  to 
the  admirers  of  the  game  royal  at  ehess,  from  which  the 
foUowing  extract  is  preserved  by  Dr.  Hydes-.-. 

To  all  foUcys  vertuouae 
That  gentU  bene,  and  ameronae, 
Which  love  tbe  &ir  pley  notahla^ 
Of  the  cheese,  most  delytable, 
Whith  all  her  hoole  full  entente, 
To  them  this  boke  y  wUl  preaente ; 
Where  they  ehaU  fynde  and  aon  aneone 
How  that  I  nat  yore  agoone, 
Waa  of  a  Fers  ao  fortunat, 
Into  a  eorner  drive  and  Meat. 

The  last  two  lines  become  intclligrible  if  we  read  them 
thus,  "  The  king  was  by  a  fortunate  queen  (of  the  ad- 
versary,) driven  into  a  corner  of  the  chess-board  and 
chedc-mated.'*    We  introduce  the  quotation  however  to 


1841.3 


trtfi  SATURDAY  MAGA21Mfi. 


7d 


show  tbat  Mr.  Douce  is  not  correct  in  supposinff  it  *'not 
possible  to  trace  the  term^ri  in  the  English  language 
beyond  the  time  of  Chaucer*.*'  But  the  term  queen 
seems  to  have  come  into  general  use  by  the  year  1474, 
when  Caxton  printed  the  second  edition  of  his  Book  on 
ChesSf  for  he  describes  the  queen  in  the  following 
terms : — "  Thus  ought  the  queue  be  maad.  She  ought 
to  be  a  fayr  lady,  sittyng  in  a  chayer,  and  crowned  with 
a  corone  on  her  head,  and  cladde  with  a  cloth  of  gold, 
and  above  furrid  with  ermynes."  We  also  find  the  same 
term  continued  in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Seventh,  as 
appears  from  a  passage  in  the  Vulmria  of  W.  Herman, 
printed  at  London^  1519.  **We  shoulde  have  II 
kpgis,  and  II  quyens,  llll  alfyns,  IIII  knyghtis,  lUI 
rokis,  and  XVI  paunys." 

Mr.  Madden  thinks  that  from  the  pieces  found  in  the 
Isle  of  Lewis  f,  and  also  by  the  set  of  chess-men  belong- 
ing to  Charlemagne,  of  the  eighth,  of  beginning  of  the 
ninth,  century,  the  very  early  appearance  of  the  queen 
on  the  European  chess-boards  is  proved,  and  conse- 
quently we  must  reject  the  theory  which  ascribes  thid 
introduction  to  the  French,  from  the  fmcied  similarity 
between  Ecrce,  or  Fers,  and  the  Persian  Phetz.    That 
it  is  io  the  Greeks  we  should  rather  '^  ascribe  the  merit 
or  blame  of  metamorphosing  the  minister  into  the  queen, 
and*  by  that  means,  of  introducing  so  strange  aii  ano- 
maly as  the  promotion  of  a  foot-8ol£er  to  be  a  lady.*'   Mr. 
Bamngton  also  observes,  ''  Another  impropriety  arises 
from   me  pttwn^s  becoming  a  queen,   when  he  hath 
reached  the  last  square  of  the  adversary's  camp ;  as  it  is 
a  suitable  reward  to  the  pawn  (or  foot-soldier)  to  make 
him  a  general,  if  he  penetrates  so  far  through  the  ene- 
my's troops;  but  certainly  no  prowess  on  his  part  can 
entitle  him  to  be  transformed  into  a  queen." 

Dr.  Hyde  states,  that  in  Poland  and  Russia  the  chess- 
queen  is  sometimes  called  the  old  wotnan,  or  nurse. 

The  Bishop.  Among  the  Persians  and  Arabs,  the 
original  name  of  this  piece  was  PU,  or  Phil,  an  ele- 
phant; under  which  form  it  was  represented  on  the 
eastern  chess-board.  It  appears  that  the  Spaniards 
borrowed  the  term  from  the  Moors,  and  with  the  addi- 
tion of  the  article  al^  converted  it  into  alfil,  whence  it 
became  varied  by  Italian,  French,  end  English  writers 
into  arfil^  ay^Brez^  aJphUuSf  cdftno,  cUpkino,  al/lere, 
ou/inf  iUfynf  owfyn^  and  alph^n.  It  is  quite  uncertain 
at  what  period  the  bishop  first  took  the  place  of  the 
elephant.  Mr.  Madden  brings  together  a  number  of 
authorities  to  show  that  the  term  bishop  was  in  use  so 
early  as  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century.  It  waa  in 
common  nse  in  the  time  of  Elisabeth,  as  appears  from 
Rowbotham's  Pleaeanni  and  wiUie  PUofe  of  the 
Cheaste  renewed,  I2mo,  London^  1562.  He  says  of  it, 
"  The  Bishoppes  some  name  Alphins,  some  fooles,  and 
some  name  tnem  princes:  other  some  call  them  Archers, 
and  thei  are  fashioned  accordinge  to  the  wyll  of  the 
workemen:"  and  again.  Of  the  biehopf  or  archer:  "In 
the  aundent  t3rme  of  the  Frenchmen  named  him  Foole, 
which  seemeth  vnto  me  an  improper  name.  The  Span- 
iardes  named  him  Prince,  witn  some  reason;  and  some 
uame  him  Archer;"  and,  of  its  form  among  the  English, 
he  tells  UB,  "  The  Bishoppe  is  made  with  a  sharpe  toppe, 
and  cloven  in  the  middest,  not  muche  vnlyke  to  a 
bishop's  mytcn'* 

The  French,  at  a  very  early  period,  called  this  piece 
Foi,  an  evident  corruption  of  jFiL  Hence,  also,  the 
French  name  Ibr  the  piece  Fou,  or  the  fool,  a  natural 
perversion  of  the  original,  when  we  eenaider  that,  at  the 
time  it  was  inede,  the  court  fool  was  a  nsual  attendimt 
on  the  king  and  Queen :  or,  as  Mr.  Barrington  observes, 
"This  piece,  standing  on  the  sides  of  the  king  and 

*' Chancer  tfani  introduce  th«  piece  in  questkm: 
8h«  fttale  on  me  and  tolie  my  ken, 
And  when  I  Mwe  mj  fbetn  vwvj, 
Alas,  I  wttttie  no  Mferplay! 

^  8m  Seimiajf  iiagojrine,  toI.  zriiL,  p.  a9^,  M. 


queen,  some  wag  of  the  times,  from  this  circumstance, 
styled  it  llie  Fool,  because  anciently  royal  personages 
were  conmionly  thus  attended,  from  want  of  other  means 
of  amusing  themselves." 

It  is  difficult  to  say  why  this  piece  should  have  been 
named  the  archer,  unless,  as  Mr.  Douce  remarks, 
"  Archefs  were  formerly  the  body-guards  of  monarchs, 
and  tnight  have  beeti  thought,  by  some,  more  proper 
persbnages  in  the  game  of  chess  than  fools,  especially  if 
they  Were  inclined  to  give  it  a  military  turn."  This  piece 
has  also  been  called  the  Secretary.  The  Russians  and 
Swedes  fetaiu  the  orighial  appellation  of  Elephant;  the 
Germans  call  it  LMufbr,  or  the  Leaper,  from  the  ancient 
modd  ef  taking  over  an  intervening  piece;  and  the  Poles 
call  it  Pdp,  Papa,  or  PHest.  The  Icelanders  and  Danes 
appear  always  to  have  called  it  Biskup,  or  Bishop. 

The  Knight.  This  piece  has  been  subject  to  little 
or  no  variation.  It  is  likely  that  in  early  times  the 
knight  was  represented  on  horseback,  and  hence  the 
pieee  has  often  been  called  the  Horse.  On  the  Eu- 
ropean board  this  piece  denoted  the  nobility;  but  Dr. 
Myde  states,  that  among  Charlemagne's  chess-men  it  is 
represented  under  the  form  of  a  centaur.  From  the 
pecidiar  leap  df  this  piece  the  Germans  call  it  the 
Springer:  the  Russians  continue  to  call  it  the  Horse. 

_  • 

Kbugion  b  the  key-stone  of  the  arch  of  the  moral  univevse. 
On  religion  are  founded  those  sublime  relations  which  exist 
between  the  visible  and  the  invisible  world, — those  who  still 
sojourn  here,  and  those  who  have  become  citizens  of  the 
eoontry  beyond  us.  It  is  the  poesy  of  existence, — ^the.basis 
of  all  nigh  thought  and  virtuous  feeling,  of  charities  and 
moxalfl^— «nd  the  veiy  tie  of  social  existence. — F. 

Axx  the  generous  and  tender  affections  acquire  a  new  chann 
in  alliance  with  religious  ideas.  In  the  same  maimer  as 
objects,  beautiful  in  themselves,  receive  a  new  lustre  when 
a  pnre  light  is  thrown  u^n  them.  Filial  piety  beo<«nes 
more  touching  in  those  children  who  pray  with  iervour  for 
the  preservation  of  the  life  of  a  mother ;  and  let  a  pious 
courage  but  guide  the  visitor  of  the  sick,  and  he  becomes 
the  angel  of^consolation,  as  he  visits  the  abodes  of  misery. 
Even  virtue  itself  does  not  receive  its  celestial  impresi^ 
except  in  alliance  with  religions  sentiments. — F. 


FAITH  AND  HOPE. 


O  Thou  I  who  for  oar  fieillen  laoe 

Didst  lay  thy  crown  of  glory  by. 
And  quit  Uiy  heavenly  dwelling-plaoe. 

To  clothe  Thee  in  mortality; 
By  whom  our  vesture  of  decay. 

Its  frailty  and  its  pains  were  worn ; 
Who,  sinless,  of  our  sinful  clay 

The  burdens  and  the  griefii  hast  borne ; 
Who,  stainHesB,  bore  onr  guilty  doom, 

Upon  the  cross  to  save  us  bled. 
And  who,  ^triumphant  from  the  tomb^ 

Captivity  hast  captive  ledy— 
Oh  I  teach  thy  ransomed  ones  to  know 

Thy  love  who  diedst  to  set  them  free; 
And  bid  their  torpid  spirit  glow 

With  love,  which  centres  all  in  Thee ; 
And  come,  triumphant  Victim  !  come, 

V  the  brightness  of  thy  holy  love, 
And  make  this  earth  our  purchased  home^ 

The  image  of  thy  courts  above. 
Dimly,  O  Lord !  our  feeble  eyes 

The  dawning  rays  of  glory  see; 
But  brightly  shall  the  morning  rise 

Which  bids  creation  bend  to  Thee. 
Rise,  Sun  of  Righteousness  1  and  shed 

Thy  beams  oi  scorching  light  abroad; 
That  earth  may  know  (her  darkness  fled) 

Her  King  in  Thee,  Incarnate  Godl 
And  oh !  while  yet  thy  mercy  speaks, 

So  may  the  words  of  love  prevail, 
That  when  the  mom  of  Judgment  breaks, 

Manif  may  thine  appearing  hail. 

liADT  FtOBA  HjSTXXas. 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Febbcart  27,  1841. 


figure  do 


I  Uiej  Ibnn,- 


s  mviniUrruI  lima  in  liaw  nttam  in  mil  hariTTegului. 
ritiy  of  Bballi;  such  a  dilTemicA  of 'colour  aad 
coiiravfj  longf  luDAt«d,  drmwn  roimd'  in  h  cirelfl, 

■onH  wnolilBd,  toolbvd,  itriatfd,  Ui4  poiDt  TanouslT  inlorlAl,  the  moolh 
|K»nU(llikt  ftdflgKpr,  roldeJ  bark,  bmt  luwards !  All  Ume  crefttur«,  sod 
mvxj  mare,  fUrnuh  Ht  ODC«  novelty,  elegance,  uid  ipecuUlioD.  Wliilel 
thus  coDtempUted  timluK  ibe  vrought  in  ma  kpenuHuon  Ibst  1  ihonld  look 
upon  nuthii^M  Incredible  ibatnUlud  la  her. — FLtMY. 

The  greHt  abundance  of  these  very  bcantiiiil  shells 
has  rendered  them  less  esteemed  than  they  deserve  to  be, 
and  has  led  ub  to  pass  them  by  for  the  more  rare,  but 
not  less  rentarkable,  specimens  of  our  cabinets.  The 
family  of  molluscs,  to  which  cowries,  belong  is  calledby 
concnologists  Cyprteida,  and  is  well  known  in  commerce 
from  one  of  the  species  being  used  in  many  parts  of  the 
East  instead  of  money.  Cowries  abound  in  several  parts 
of  the  Old  and  New  World,  but  are  most  numerous, 
and  attain  the  greatest  size,  in  hot  climates.  They  are 
especially  abundant  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, and  are  fished  for  by  a  curious  process  of  which 
we  shall  presently  speak. 

Situated  directly  in  the  route  of  shipa  coming  firom 
Europe  and  hound  for  Ceylon,  is  an  extensive  coral  chain 
of  inntunerable  isles  and  reefs,  extending  from  north  to 
.south  for  a  distance  of  466  geographical  miles,  though 
in  breadth  it  is  notithought  to  exceed,  in  any  part,  4tj 
miles.  This  remaAable  barrier  of  isles,  whidi  spreads 
out  over  90  lai^e  an  extent  of  the  western  face  of  India 
and  Ceylon,  was  one  of  the  earliest  discoveries  of  the 
Portuguese  in  the  Eastern  seas,  and  considering  the 
situation  it  occupies,  and  the  dangers  to  which  it  exposes 
those  who  navigate  in  its  vicinity,  has  been  singularly 
little  known  and  explored  until  within  a  short  period. 

Theseislanda  arecalledtheilfaUtt'iu,  or  JfWi/tVM,  the 
word  mat  in  the  Malabar  language  signifying  a  thousand, 
or  on  uncountable  number,  and  divii,  on  island.  John 
de  Barros  tells  us,  that  although  there  are  openings  in  this 
group,  from  five  to  twenty  leagues  wide,  yet  in  other 
places  it  is  so  crowded .  as  to  give  the  idea  of  a  half- 
drowned  orchard,  the  depth  of  the  water  in  the  intervals 
being,  however,  sufficient  for  the  largest  vessel,  while  the 
space  in  them  is  not  sufficient  for  her  yards  and  sails. 

The  productions  of  the  Maldive  Islands  are  minutely 
enumerated  by  the  above  anthor,  and  among  them  he 
mentions  cowry  shells  as  being  very  abundant  and  beau- 
tiful. Indeed,  the  particular  kind  of  shells  used  as 
money  are  chiefly  found  among  these  islands,  and  con- 
stitute their  principal  article  of  export.  They  are  also 
found  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  on  the  coast  of 
Congo.  The  method  of  fishing  for  cowry  shells  is  as 
follows.  The  branches  and  leaves  of  the  cocoa-nut  (also 
abundant  in  these  islands),  are  lashed  together  in  bundles 
about  the  size  of  a  wheat-sheaf,  two  of  which  constitute 
what  is  called  a  baUa,  or  float.  On  these  balsas  the 
natives  take  a  number  of  trot  lines,  with  short  threads 
attached  to  them  at  every  five  or  six  inches,  to  each  of 
which  a  bit  of  meat  is  firmly  tied  as  a  bait.  The  shell- 
fish, both  cowries  and  other  valuable  sea  species,  swallow 
these  baits,  knot  uid  alt,  and  are  hauled  up  by  the  trot- 


line  till  the  balsas  have  a  sufficient  load,  when  ihey  are 
paddled  on  Acre,  and  the  shells  buried  in  the  earth  till 
the  decomposition  of  the  fish  within  them  .is  completrd. 
They  are  then  thoroughly  washed,  and  are  fit  for  export- 
ation. Another  method  is  spoken  of  by  some  authors, 
as  that  by  which  cowries  are  obloined.  The  fishing  for 
them  is  said  to  be  the  occupation  of  womeu,  after  the 
periodof  the  high  tides,who  take  them  in  baskets,  together 
with  a  quantity  of  sand,  which  is  washed  out,  and  the 
shells  heaped  together  on  the  shores  until  the  fish  dir. 
Both  methods  ore  probably  pursued  as  occasion  offers. 

The  value  of  cowries  as  currency  varies  in  different 
countries.  On  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  along  the  banb 
of  the  Niger,  they  are  worth  from  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  a 
ton,  and  in  the  vicini^  of  the  river  just  named  they  form 
the  only  currency.  In  England  the  value  of  cowries  ii 
about  twenty  pounds  the  ton. 

The  natural  history  of  the  cowry  is  rendered  inte- 
resting by  the  manner  in  which  the  shell  is  formed, 
and  the  power  possessed  by  the  fish  of  quitting  its 
habitation  '  whenever  it  becomes  inconvenient,  and  of 
forming  a  new  dwelling  of  more  capacious  dimen- 
sions. Besides  the  organs  belonging  to  other  animali 
with  univalve  shells,  the  cowry  has  two  wide,  mem- 
braneous appendages  at  the  sides  of  the  body,  with 
which  it  can  completely  cover  itself,  and  which  contri- 
bute greatly  towards  tne  formation  of  the  shell.  The 
very  thin  and  brittle  substance  which  constitutes  the 
inferior  part  of  the  shell,  is,  like  other  shells,  the  result  of 
a  secretion  from  the  body  of  the  animal ;  but  there  is  a 
distinct  operation  by  which  the  exterior  layers  of 
enamel  are  formed,  and  this  is  by  the  use  of  the  append- 
ages or  wings.  In  the  first  stages  of  their  growth 
cowries-  are  .  thin  and  transparent,  but  they  giraduallj 
acquire  solidity  by  means  of  the  extemu  ia.yers  it 
enamel  which  the  animal  successively  applies.  These 
layers  appear  to  be  a  translation  from  the  wings,  and 
have  such  markings  as  clearly  to  show,  on  the  convei 
surface  of  the  shell,  the  manner  .  in  which  thej  are 
formed.  The  longitudinal  line,  which  divides  the  shpll 
into  two  unequal  parts,  is  made  by  the  junction  of  nhat 
we  have  called,  for  want  of  a  better  term,  the  wings  of 
the  animal,  and  plainly  indicates,  by  the  feintness  of  (he 
tint,  that  the  colouring  juice  was  deficient  in  that  part. 

The  most  singular  part  of  this  animal's  history,  how- 
ever, is  its  ability  to  quit  the  shell. at  any  time  when  it  is 
found  desirable  to  do  so,  and  to  form  another  better 
suited  to  its  increasing  size.  Even  while  the  animal  is 
forming  its  shell  for  the  first  time,  its  own  growth  maha 
the  labour  almost  a  vain  one,  for  by  the  time  the  shell  in 
finished,  as  it  admits  of  no  subsequent  enlargement,  it  is 
scarcely  fitted  for  the  bulk  of  its  occifpant,  and  is  there- 
fore soon  deserted.  As  the  body  of  the  animal  is  of  a 
consistence  between  the  tendinous  and  the  mucilaginou^ 
it  is  probably  no  difiScult  operation  to  disengage  itself 
from  the  shell.  This  being  effected,  the  tender  creature 
is  immediately  exposed  naked  and  defenceless  to  the 
action  of  the  saline  element  by  which  it  is  surrounded. 
But  the  hinder  parts  of  the  body  soon  begin  again  to 
furnish  their  testaceous  matter,  which  concretes  upon  the 
surface,  and  at  length  the  shell  appears  of  the  con- 
sistence of  paper,  and  the  mouth,  which  at  that  time  is 
very  wide,  soon  contracts  to  its  proper  shape.  The 
teeUi  which  are  seen  at  the  edge  of  the  mouth,  t<>gether 
with  the  beautiful  enamel  forming  the  opaque  and 
highly  polished  surface,  are  alike  produced  from  and 
by  the  action  of  the  wing-like  appendages;  the  spots 
which  adorn  this  enamel  in  the  full-grown  specimens, 
make  the  different  species  of  cowry  the  more  easily  dis- 
tinguishable, from  each  other. 


LONDON ; 
JOHN  WIHIAM  PAHKEB,  WEST  STRAND. 

BiddbT*llBooknUtnndt^*«miideniBllwXlirkm.     . 


N?  556.  SUPPLEMENT, 


PEBBUAEY,  1841.  ■     {o^^S^.- 


SOME  ACCOCNT  OF  COINS,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN. 


It   THB   HAKPIBS, 


TlinHgli  clinKt  ud  igB,  b«ra  c«ch  fbtm  utd  nBiiie ; 
Oodi,  EnpwCTt,  UaroH,  Sagi*,  Btulis  Us. — Popi. 

hrntoDTJcnos. 
A  pKOLOR'aED  attention  t«  the  etudy  of  antiqiuriui  objects 
gnwnlly  aflbrds  a  theme  for  laughter  and  derision,  to  thoM 
who  expect  palpably  beneficial  results  from  every  intellectual 
exertion.  A  lonff-oontinued  study  of  one  object  or  eet  of  ob- 
jects prejndicM  the  ntind  in  favour  of  it,  causes  the  student  to 
^eak  with  enthusiam  on  his  ferourite  subject,  and  disp<wes 
faun  to  undervaloe  othei'  mental  employments.  Hence,  the 
pcfiular  eatimate  of  the  ralue  of  a  pursuit  being  often 
nmudedon  theexhibitionofescesson  thepart  of  its  votaries, 
is  natnialljr  mixed  up  with  ridicule ;  and  no  subject  perhaps 
is  so  open  t«  the  attacks  of  the  satiiist  as  antiquities : — their 
real  value  can  only  be  ^preciated  by  considerable  study ; 
and  as  they  do  not  appear  to  oSer  any  immediate  relation  to 
the  happinen  or  convenience  of  mankind,  they  are  disre- 
garded: bat  the  historian,  the  architect,  the  artist,  the 
man  of  litaratnre,  and  the  man  of  tjwte,  all  derive  ineatlmo,- 
ble  advsutagea  fiwn  the  records  of  past  ageejandi-byabith- 
fal  interpretation  of  them,  these  aavantages  are  given  to  the 
world  :  M  that  our  conduct  for  the  future  may  be  to  Acertun 
extent  guided  by  the  experience  of  the  pest. 

We  nave  thought  it  necessary  to  preface  our  account 
of  AiicmfT  'and  Moduui  Coins  with  this  apology,  in 
Order  to  piodi^oee  the  Reader-  in  favour  of  a  really  useful 
subject.  In  our  motto,  the  Poet  exprcmes,  in  his  usual 
roncise  langu^ie,  some'  of  the  usee  of  coins;  we  shall  en- 
deavour to  avoid  the  abuse  of  tbeio  which  called  forth  the 
censure  from  the 'same  satiric  pai : — 

Willi  (b«TpsB*d  (iglit  Htfl  uHiqiuriB  pan, 
TbeinKripdouiiFuc.W'tbo  luit  idorc: 
IhJM,  the  blue  T^jimh,  ihax,  iLa  grMn  vndMin, 
Tha  HcrnL  rmt  of  twtcs  ten  buadr«il  jfArs- 

Ooe  gmn  *  Cecropa  in  HstAlic  irfmna ; 

Vnr  VtdHu,  long  wilh  kamt'd  iploea  dn-ourpd, 

Cu  UiU  DO  pltMun  NDca  hli  ■hiald  win  ■esond. 

When  k  peraeu  is  looking  over  a  collection  of  coins,  he 
fayentl^Bx^w—M  surprise  at  theii  comparative  Tnlues, 


m^neutly  btoc—m  i 


n-lkich,  judging  from  his  every  day  use  of  money,  appear 
often  to  have  no  sort  of  relation  to  the  modem  system  of 
exchanges : — a  silver  coin  is  often  of  more  value  than  one 
of  Eold ;  and  a  brass  coin  fetches  perhaps  a  higher  price  thau 
either.  The  difficulty,  however,  disappears  as  soon  as  wo 
begin  to  look  upon  a  cabinet  of  medals,  not  as  a  treasure  of 
money,  but  one  of  knowledge;  and  not  for  charms  in  the 
gold,  but  in  the  figures  and  inscriptions  which  adorn  it. 
Thus,  Addison  well  remarks: — "The  intrinsic  value  of  an 
old  coin  does  not  consist  in  its  metal,  but  in  its  erudition ;  it 
is  the  device  that  has  raised  the  species;  so  that  at  present 


or  a  drachma :  and  a 

penny  fifteen  hundred  years  ago,  may  be  now  rated  at  fifty 

crowns,  or  perhaps  a  hundred  guineas." 

So  anxious  have  many  antiquarian  writers  been,  to  state 
in  the  fullest  possible  terms  the  usefulness  of  the  study  of 
ancient  coins,  that  it  becomes  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to 
select  those  more  obvious  uds  to  history  and  art,  which  this 
study  has  supplied.  Addison,  however,  in  bia  pleasant 
dialogue  on  the  subject  makes  one  of  his  characters  expreaa 
himself  in  terms  sufficiently  concise  for  quotation ;  so  that 
we  select  the  pasasKe.  The  uses  of  old  coins  are  inquired 
after ;  when  Philander  ssys : — "  The  first  and  nujst  obvious 
one^  is  the  showing  us  the  faces  of  all  the  great  persona  of 
antu^uity.  A  cabinet  of  medals  is  a  collection  of  pictures 
in  nuniature.    Juvenal  calls  them  very  humoionsly 

Coacuiun  Br^BatDai  in  titalofl,  ficiAqun  minutu*- 
"  You  here  see  the  Alexanders,  Ciesars,  Pompeys,  Trajans, 
and  the  whole  catalogue  of  heroes ;  who  have  many  of  Uke^ 
BO  distinguished  themselves  firom  the  rest  of  mankind,  that  we 
almost  look  upon  them  as  another  species.  It  is  an  agreeable 
amusement  to  compare  in  our  own  thoughts  the  &ce  of  a 

Ct  roan  with  the  character  tliat  authors  have  given  us  of 
,  and  to  try  if  vre  can  find  out  in  his  looks  and  features 
either  the  haughty,  cruel,  or  merciful  temper,  that  discovers 
itself  in  the  history  of  his  actions.  We  find,  too,  on  medals 
the  representations  of  ladies  that  have  given  occasion  to 
whole  volumes,  on  account  only  of  a  fiice.  We  have  here 
the  pleasure  to  examine  their  looks  and  dreews,  and  survey 

*  SUrar  •Uiiip«il  with  UiIn  ud  nlolatDTt  portnils. 

656 


82 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINB. 


at  leisure  those  beauties  that  have  sometimes  bees  the 
happiness,  or  the  misery,  of  whole  kingdoms.  Nor  do  you 
only  meet  the  frees  of  such  as  aie  &moua  in  hisloiy,  but  of 
Jeveial  whoee  names  are  nol  to  be  Ibund  anywhere  excc^ 
6n  medals.  Some  of  the  emperors,  for  example,  have  had 
wives,  and  some  of  them  children,  that  no  authom  have 
mentioned.  We  are,  therefore^  obliged  to  the  study  of  ooine 
for  having  made  new  discoveries  to  the  learned,  and 
given  them  information  of  such  persons  as  are  to  be  met 
with  on  no  other  kind  of  records.  •  •  •  ^  You  have 
on  medals  a  long  list  of  heathen  deities,  distinguished  from 
each  other  by  tneir  proper  titles  and  omamentsu  You  tee 
the  copies  oi  the  sevex^  statues,  that  have  had  the  politest 
nations  of  the  world  &11  down  before  them.  You  have  here, 
too,  several  persons  of  a  more  thin  and  shadowy  nature,  as 
Hope,  Constancy,  Fidelity,  Abundance,  Honour,  Yfartue^ 
Eternity,  Justice,  Moderation,  Happiness^ — and  in  shorty  a 
whole  creation  of  the  like  imaginaiy  substances.  To  theee 
you  may  add  the  genies  of  nations,  provinces,  cities^  high- 
ways, and  the  like  aUegorical  beings.  In  devices  of  Una 
nature  one  sees  a  pretty  poetical  invention,  and  may  often 
find  as  much  thought  on  the  reverse  of  a  medal,  aa  in  a 
canto  of  Spenser." 

Another  author*  has  well  observed, — ^'^From  the  same 
source  we  derive  a  knowledge  of  many  customs  of  a  more 
private  nature :  of  the  ceremonies  which  accompanied  their 
marriages  and  funerals:  of  the  various  sacrifices  which  they 
performed  in  privacv  and  retirement :  a  sort  of  information 
which  deserves  all  tne  attention  the  antiquarian  can  bestow 
upon  it :  for  while  the  greater  and  more  public  customs  give 
the  general  outline  of  a  people,  these  pomt  out  many  nicer 
features  in  their  character,  represent  their  particular  incli- 
nations aiid  fiivourite  pursuits^  and  transport  ua  into  the 
most  delightful  scenes  of  domestic  life. 

"  There  cannot,  perhaps,  be  a  more  certun  test  of  the  real 
state  of  pnerfection,  to  wluch  the  fine  arts  in  oeneral  have 
advanced  in  any  country,  than  the  beauty  of  weir  medals. 
The  unrivalled  el^^ance  of  the  Greek  medals,  the  pronriety 
of  their  design,  and  the  spirit  of  their  execution,  are  sufficient 
to  convince  us  that,  amongst  a  people  who  could  produce  such 
perfect  models  in  a  partic\iiar  flort,  every  other  ornamental  art 
must  have  flourished  in  the  highest  splendour :  nor  shall  we 
hesitate  to  pronounce,  upon  comparing  the  medals  of  Rome 
with  tiiose  of  her  provinces  that  the  arts  of  the  ciq;>ital  had 
not  extended  their  influence  to  every  part  of  that  vast 
empire. 

''The  medals  of  the  Greek  cities  preserve  some  iaint 
iraces  of  Grecian  jurisprudence  as  well  m  the  public  decrees 
and  conventions,  as  in  the  private  ordinances  which  thev 
record.  To  the  civU  institutes  of  the  Romans  their  medau 
are  the  most  certain  gmdes :  for  every  law  which  the  interest 
of  private  families  procured  for  the  people,  for  every  decree 
of  an  emperor,  which  was  calculatea  to  promote  the  wel&re 
of  the  empire,  the  senate  adopted  this  as  the  best  mode  of 
expressing  their  gmtitude,  and  delivering  the  remembrance 
of  *it  to  future  ages.-  The  study  of  the  civil  law,  therefore, 
has  always  been  found  to  have  a  great  connection  witii  the 
study  of  medals,  and  to  receive  illustration  from  them  in 
many  of  its  most  abstruse  parts.'* 

SECTION  L 

lOEDiLia  AKD  COINS  DISTIKOinSBED— MSTALS  OV  WHICH  THEr 
ARK  HADB — FECULIABITIES  OF  OOIKTKO— SUBS— PAHTB  OF 
▲  MEDAL — SUBJECTS  OF  MEDALS — PORTBAITS — nEVERSXS 
OF  MEDALS — ^REMARKABLE  COINS— TITLBS  OX  COINS  AND 
MEDALS. 

Bt  the  term  medai  we  are  to  understand  a  pieee  of  metal 
in  form  of  a  eoin^  designed  to  preserve  to  posterity  the  por^ 
<  trait  of  some  great  man,  or  the  memory  oi  some  lUustnous 
action.  Ck>ins,  in  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  life^  serve  the 
purposes  of  exchange,  and  are  the  representatives  of  value. 
When  they  cease  to  serve  this  oflice,  and  are  still  treasured 
up,  they  come  under  the  denomination  of  msdais;  so  that, 
in  this  paper,  the  two  terms.  Coins  and  Medalb,  will  be 
treated  of  synonymously,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

The  metals  of  which  medals  and  coins  have  been  in  all 
times  ordinarily  made,  are  gold,  silver,  and  copper:  under 
this  last  head,  are  included  all  the  brau  coins  which  have 
.  come  down  to  our  times,  as  well  as  those  of  copper.  Other 
substances  have  been  used  by  different  nations,  for  money ; 
such  as  leather,  wood,  sheila,  beads^  &c.,  but  with  these  we 
have  nothing  to  do. 

In  order  to  eaUmate  the  fineness  and  purity  of  gold,  the 
•  HaI'I'}  Oxford  Prise  Euay  on  MeioU, 


pound  Tror  is  considered  to  be  divided  nito  hrmlji  fum 
parts,  called  murm,  mA  eaeh  eaMt  into  four /tyiAm. 

The  meet  ndent  gold  coins,  whkh  are  those  of  Lydis, 
and  other  states  in  Asia  BfiBor,  are  net  oip  the  pnraat  gold. 
SoMie  of  tile  very  ancient  coins  are  formed  of  a  compound 
of  gold  and  silver,  called  eteOrum;  one  part  aold,  and  four 
silvnr.  But  "very  fine  aold  eoins  began  to  be  formed  b.c. 
960,  by  Philip,  Sing  of  Macedon;  from  the  gold  obtained 
from  the  mines  of  Philippi,  in  Thiace.  The  coins  of  Alex- 
ander and  of  succeeding  prinees  an  also  beautiful  jmeGimens 
of  ancient  coining ;  thoee  of  the  Ptolemies  of  £^3rpt  are 
twenty-three  can^  three  giains  fine ;  or  only  ,*,  part  alloy! 
The  Roman  gold  coina^  is  veiv  pure  from  tne  earliest 
times^  and  continued  so  till  the  reign  of  Severus,  a«d.  211. 
The  proportion  of  alloy,  that  is,  an  inferior  metal,  such  as  cop- 
per, mixed  with  the  gold,  in  order  to  harden  it,  was  varioiu 
m  diferent  eountrici^  and  lias  varied  much  in  diifeient 
wee:  but  in  MneraLthe  aneieni  goM  coins  had  not  moie 
^  than  ft  part  alloy.  The  Romans,  however,  in  the  later  ages 
first  began  to  eonsiderably  debase  the  precious  metals. 

The  most  ancient  silver  was  also  leas  pure  than  that  of 
inoceedinff  limes,  and  particularly  so  with  the  Greeks.  The 
Roman  silver  was  likewise  inferior  to  ours;  and  very  bad 
silver  began  to  be  put  out  in  the  reign  of  Sevems.  It  is 
thought  that  the  Mlver  coins  of  .£gina,  having  on  one  side 
a  turtle,  or  tortoise,  and  showing  the  ^de  marks  of  the 
eoiner^s  blows  oil  the  other,  are  the  most  ancient  known. 

The  brass  of  the  ancients,  when  rood,  which  is  rather 
uncommon,  consisted  of  two  sorts;  tiie  red,  or  what  they 
ealled  Op>n<m  brass, — f.e.  copper;  and  the  yellow,  or  brass. 
With  the  Romans^  brass  was  double  the  value  of  copper; 
and  the  Greeks  probably  followed  the  same  rule. 

The  ancients  nad  also  numerous  coins  made  of  mixed 
metals.  The  first  sort  was  tiiat  of  the  dectruMy  just  moi- 
tioned.  The  next  were  those  of  Carinihian  brass,  which 
depended  upon  certain  qualities  or  proportions  in  which  the 
copper  and  ainc  were  mingled  to  produce  the  brass.  Of 
Egyptian  coins  struck  under  the  Roman  emperors,  some 
were  at  first  of  good  silver ;  but  by  degrees  they  d^enerated 
into  a  metal  called  by  the  French  poHny—e^  mixture  of 
wpper  and  tin  with  a  little  silver.  Some  coins  were  made 
or  what  is  now  called  poC-^neUiiy  or  bell-metal,  A  comage 
of  brass  mixed  with  silver  was  authorised  by  the  Roman 
state  about  a.d.  260.  The  coins  spoken  of  by  some  writers^ 
of  lead  or  copper,  plated  with  gola  or  silver,  are  supposed  to 
have  resulted  from  Roman  foigeiy;  but  leaden  coins  have 
been  found  of  undoubted  antiquity.  An  ancient  writer  in- 
forms us  that  tin  money  was  issuea  by  Dionysius,  one  of  the 
Sicilian  tyrants;  but  no  such  coins  have  oeen  discovered) 
though  medals  of  lead  have  been  found  of  the  unperial  sort; 
but  these  are  chiefly  trial-pieces^  to  enable  the  artist  to  ju(^ 
of  the  progress  of  the  die.  Lastly,  some  medals  were  com- 
posed of  two  different  metals,  not  by  meltina  them  togetbei^ 
but  either  by  plating  over  brass  or  iron  with  silvei^  or  by 
laying  a  rim  of^ a  difrerent  metal  round  the  edge  of  a  medal: 
the  former  was  a  sort  of  fiilse  money,  which  had  its  onpA 
during  the  triumvirate  of  Augustus. 

None  of  the  ancient  money  was  cast  in  moulds^  excq»t 
the  most  ancient  and  very  large  Roman  brass,  commonly 
called  ueights;  neither  did  the  ancients  impress  legends  on 
the  edees  of  their  money,  as  often  done  on  modem  eobu^ 
particularly  on  the  orown  and  half-crown  piecea  of  the  lait 
century;  but  some  of  their  pieces  are  found  ctrsfMrt^^  i.«. 
notched  round  the  edges.  This  is  the  case  with  some  ef  th# 
Syrian  coins,  with  some  of  the  Roman  consular,  and  a  few 
other  early  ones:  the  chief  object  of  it  was  to  prevent  fo^ 

Medals  may  likewise  be  disUnguished  by  their  tieea.  The 
sizes  of  ancient  medals  are  from  three  incnes  to  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  Those  of  the  largest  size  are  commonly 
called  medallums.  The  others  are  usually  ranked  into  larpe^ 
middle,  and  small;  and  the  class  is  determined  not  so  much 
bpr  the  breadth  and  thickness  of  the  medal  iteelf,  as  by  the 
size  of  the  head  that  is  stamped  upon  it.  The  shape  of 
medals  is  rather  elliptical,  or  not  perfectly  round.  The  fiist 
regular  Greek  coins  were  small  pieces  of  silver,  while  the 
Roman  were  lai^  masses  of  copper :  the  former  were  struck, 
the  latter  cast  in  moulds.  The  frontispiece  shows  a  medal- 
lion belonging  to  the  heavy  bmss  species.  It  cannot  be 
later  than  the  time  of  Servius  Tullius,  who  governed  Rome 
about  650  b.c.  Tills  kins  coined  nothing  but  brass.  The 
piece  in  question  is  of  the  actual  size  represented  in  our 
cut,  and  weighs  nineteen  ounces  and  three  quarters.  It  was 
probably  cast  in  a  mould. 

The  subject  of  it  is  Huoulbs  aud  «hb  Habpt.    Thb 


SUPM-EMENT  FOR  FEBRUARY,  1841. 


hero  w  liiU  ont  bj  Ae  aietKita  ■■  ft  tni«  paUam  nt  Tirtiw 
knd  piety;  *iid  u  ]tu  whoia  life  waa  einploy«d  for  Um  miq- 
mon  benefit  of  mookind,  we  need  not  be  Burpiised  that  his 
etfigy  should  be  found  upon  coins  and  medali.  He  seemi  to 
havK  nourished  about  1230  years  a-c.  The  twelve  labours  of 
Btrcule*  are  well  known  in  FrofiuM  Uuitoiy.  His  sixth 
Ittbour  aeems  to  bare  ooiuicteil  in  ridding  the  nrigbbourhood 
ol  the  lake  Stymphalu*,  in  Arottdia,  where  wm  a  town  of 
the  same  name,  of  a  number  of  Toneioua  birda,  like  cnuies  or 
storks,  which  I«d  upon  hnman  flcah.  The  poeta  ^equently 
represent  them  m  winged  monstan,  hsriBg  tha  face  of  a 
-woman,  with  tlia  body  of  a  vulture,  ana  their  feet  an4 
fingers  anned  with  shairp  dawi. 

The  luedullioa  at  the  head  of  ooj  paper  is  evidently 
intended  to  commemorate  the  rictury  ofUwcules  overthese 
beings.  On  the  one  side  is  Hercules  clotlied  (as  ubuaI  )  with 
the  skin  of  the  NemKan  lion, — the  result  of  his  tint  labour- 
On  the  other  side  is  a  Harpy.  It  has  been  well  remarked 
that  Uaipies  are  &)r  the  ntoat  ^rt  badly  represented  by  the 
nmilitade  of  cherubs,  with  a  ml  and  young  human  Uee.^ 
According  to  Collina's  Zhetioaary,  "they  are  feinted  to  be 
fowls  with  a  riigin'i  fiice,  and  bear's  eara,  their  oodles  like 
rultores,  aad  their  hands  like  theti  crooked  talons."  Our 
medallion  marki  the  han<y  as  a/mol; — itgivn  the  beak  of 
the  mAur^~the  JItWMin  we — the  ears  of  ute  tear— and  on 
the  bnait,  the  ihsgey  /ealieriof  of  the  large  bird.  The 
picked  poinia  u>on  the  nape  of  tiie  neck  seem  Ut  denote 
■omewhat  of  a  uw-aeated  crest*. 

The  pattt  of  a  medal  are  the  two  ^es,  <^  which  one  is 
called  the  fitee,  htad,  or  oherie;  the  other  ia  termed  the 
mtrM.  (m  each  side  is  the  ana,  or  JUld,  which  is  the 
middle  of  a  medal;  the  rtfs,  or  border;  and  the  exergue, 
which  is  baneatb  the  ground  whereon  the  flsure*  reraa- 
•ent«d  are  placod.  On  each  of  ibe  two  sides  are  oiatiiiguished 
the  ^pe,  and  the  legend  or  tnwf^tMw.     The  type. 


this  writing  is  frequently  in  the  area,  and  it  called  Um 
nueripti'm. 

That  which  ii  in  the  exargoe  is  oflen  no  nut*  than  mmi» 
initial  lett«f^  the  meaning  of  which  is  not  always  very 
plain :  but  it  moat  uiaally  contains  either  the  dale  <d  tlu 
coin,  ix^  m  wliat  coDsnlsliip  of  the  empeior  it  was  atrucic, 
if  a  Soman  coin,  and  eotaetunes  it  Kgnifiea  the  place  when 
it  ivas  struck,  and  to  which  the  ema  properiy  belonged]  at 
other  times,  perhaps  the  name  of  a  provinoe  ia  impteased, 
the  reduction  of  which  the  madal  is  deeiBned  to  eelebiata. 

On  the  bees  of  nudals  ne  oommoiuy  th«  porbaita  of 
"  ■,  but      ■     ■ 


;  usually,  I 


t  not  always  i« 


iAiSsB.    Three  heads  are  ooearionaUy  found  on  one  ^doj 
but  all  sueh  coins  are  very  rare  and  Taloable. 

The  chief  ornament  of'^medallie  portraits  is  the  diadem, 
called  in  Latin  titUt.  This  was  a  riiwud  worn  abont  tha 
haad,  and  tied  in  a  flowing  knot  behind;  in  ancient  timea 
the  simple  but  e^reeeive  badge  of  regal  power.  It  appeaia 
Mt  the  Greek  medals  of  kings,  from  the  earliest  to  the  UtMt 


The  Romans  having  for  ages  an  utter  abhorrence  of  taj 
thing  which  savoured  of  kingly  distinction,  their  emperoia 
venhired  not  for  two  centuries  to  assume  the  diadem,  though 
they  wore  the  mdiated  crown  peculiar  to  the  gods.  But, 
in  the  time  of  Constuktine,  about  a.d.  310,  tha  diadem 
began  to  be  worn,  ornamented  on  either  side  with  a  row  of 
ptaria  and  various  oUier  decorations.    The  radiated  oowa 


was  first  used  as  a  token  of  deification  in  the  posthmnoui 
coins  of  an  emperor ;  but  was  soon  put  upon  the  emperor^ 
heads,  on  their  medals,  during  their  life-time.  The  crown 
of  laurel,  the  honourable  distinction  of  conquerors,  was 
afterwards  worn,  at  least  on  the  medals,  by  all  the  Roman 
emperors  from  Julio*  Cesar.  In  later  times,  the  laurel  is 
held  by  a  hand  above  the  head,  as  a  mark  of  piety.  Be^dea 
the  diadem,  the  Greek  {Minces  sometimes  mpear  with  the 
laurel  crown.  The  Aisacide,  or  kinga  of  Parihia,  wear  a 
kind  of  sash  round  the  head,  with  their  hair  in  rows  of  curia 
like  a  wig.  Tigianes,  and  the  kings  of  Armenia,  wtsr  the 
tiara.  The  successois  of  Alexander  the  Great  assumed  dif- 
ferent symbols  of  daty  on  the  busts  of  their  medals.  Tha 
helmet  also  appears  on  coins,  as  on  those  of  Uacedon  under 
the  Romans,  whidi  have  Alexander'a  h«d  sometimes 
oovered  with  a  helmet.  It  occurs  also  mi  aome  of  the  eoiot 
of  Probus  and  Constantine;  as  also  oa  a  coin  of  Herod, 
kii^  of  Judca,  which  cireumstaaoe  was  «onHd«red  as  a  mark 
of  Eia  pride  and  ambition. 


s  are  found: 

._  _.         .,!»  the  eorUest 

monarch  whose  medals  have  bean  discovsted.  Then  follow 
the  kings  and  queens  who  mgned  in  Cypnu,  Sicily,  6(0.; 
then  the  aeries  of  the  kings  oif  Egypt,  ^yno,  &c.>  which 
extends  from  the  time  of  Alszander  ths  Great  to  the  birth 
af  Christ,  including  a  period  of  about  330  yean.  The'  last 
seri^  of  ancient  kmgs  descends  to  the  fourth  centnry  of 
the  Christian  era.  The  portraits  on  all  tb^  series  of  medals 
ate  accompanied  with  Greek  writing. 

Tlien  IS  a  very  perfect  series  of  medals  of  tha  Roman 
emperon  from  Julius  Ciesar,  the  first,  to  the  destruction  of 
Borne  by  the  Gioths ;  or  even  to  a  much  later  period,  if  the 
coins  after  this  were  sot  so  rude  as  to  destroy  the  beauty  of 
the  series,  though  they  enhance  its  complet^iees.  Till  the 
third  omtury  after  Christ,  the  faces  on  Roman  medals  vrere 
represented  in  profile.  After  this,  for  some  time,  we  se« 
Gothic  front  faces  filling  the  whole  Add  of  medals. 

The  kinga  upon  Greek  coins  have  generally  the  diadem 
without  any  other  ornament.  The  sloe  face  u  alwa^  pre- 
Kuted ;  thoQgb  upon  very  andent  Greek  coins  of  cities,  and 
Roman  CMisuUr  coins,  full  fiuM  are  found  of  amaitng  relief 
and  expression.  Sometimea  several  heads  are  found  on  the 
same  coin,  either  impnaed  on  both  sidea,  or  only  upon  one. 
Sometimes  two  or  more  heeds  are  found  npon  one  side, 
»^iile  the  other  hews  a  reverse  in  the  usual  wav :  snch 
fafads  ore  either  advene,  that  is,  opposite  to  each  otner,  &ce 
to  face;  or  jotited,  both  looking  one  way;  of  this  latter  sort 
sre  some  of  the  &iest  Greek  corns.  Real  portraits  are  some- 
times found  joined  with  ideal  ones :  such  as,  Carausius  and 
A^Uo,  Posthnmus  and  Hercules;  CamuslusondPosthumus 
being   names  of  living   character^  the   others  of  fobulous 

*  W(  Bi  fadriitad  ftr  Oi*  M^aDsMai  to  On  Ber.  B.  Sdn,  of  laks 

Hdoh,  B«u  Sslkbnrr,  as  M  ' 


Ths  diadem  also  adonta  the  heads  of  the  Greek  qneeni. 
The  queens  of  Egypt  usnally  have  the  sceptre.  The  Roman 
smpreeses  never  appear  with  the  diadem,  tne  variety  of  their 
heod-dresees  compensating  for  the  want  of  it ;  the  minuted 

Cof  which  are  often  remarkable  en  their  coins.  Tha 
of  an  empress  is  sometimes  supported  by  a  crescent, 
which  probably  denoted  that  ^e  was  the  moon  as  her  hu»< 
band  was.the  sun,  of  the  state.  There  are  other  symbolic 
ornaments  of  the  head  to  be  seen  on  some  Roman  coins ;  tha 
principal  of  which  is  the  twV  used  in  the  oouaeciation  of  an 
emperortor  emprese ;  anch  coins  are  valuable  for  theix  rwity. 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


Tlui  "  sloTT,"  or  oircttlar  line,  in  later  timM  nsnolly  pat 
lipon  the  headE  of  a^ta,  was  in  old  timet  wplied  to  e 
Tan,  snd  i^ipears  on  some  of  their  coins.  The  biut 
figure  is  the  only  part  usually  mren  on  ancient  coina;  but 
soiaetimeB  lialf,  or  the  whole,  of  the  body;  in  which  caaee, 
the  hands  appear  with  some  ensi^  of  majesty  in  them : 
such  as  the  globe,  said  to  hare  been  introduced  by  Augustus 
as  exprosaing  possession  of  the  world ;  the  sc^tre,  some- 
times oonfounded  with  the  consular  staff;  the  roll  of  parch- 
ment, indicating  l^islative  power;  and  the  handkerchief, 
with  which  the  emperor  gave  the  signal  at  the  pnblic  game*. 
',Some  princes  hold  the  thunderbolt,  shewing  that  their 
power  on  earth  was  equal  to  that  of  Jupiter  in  heavet^ 
others  hold  an  image  of  Victory. 

The  rcTSTsee  of  medals  contain  figures  of  deities,  at  whole 
length,  with  their  attributea  and  symbols ;  pnblic  buildings 
anddlTeraiona ;  allegorical  representations ;  civil  and  relivioua 
ceiwnoniee;   important  events;  figures  of  statues;  piants, 


anintii]*^  (md  other  nilijeetA 
with  their  inagnia:  and,  b 
nature  and  art.  Some  reversee  l>ear  the  portrait  of  thi 
<]tleen,  the  son,  or  the  daughter  of  the  prince  who  appcan 
on  the  obverse :  such  coins  are  particularly  yalnable,  becansc 
they^  identify  the  perannu^  on  the  reverBe  to  have  been  th< 
wife,  son,  or  daughter,  ofa  particular  prince,  and  thus  help 
to  adjust  a  series.  Some  medal*  have  a  portrait  on  each  side. 
The  ancient    Athoiian   coins  are  remarkable    for   the 


ancient  coins  no  reverse  is  fonnd,  exc^  a  rude  nurk  struck 
into  the  metal,  as  of  an  iostrunmit  with  fi)ur  blunt  pointi, 
on  which  the  coin  was  struck.  Soon  after,  by  dwreeo, 
then  anpeara  some  little  form  of  a  dolphin,  or  other  ammal, 
inserted, within  the  rude  mark,  or  in  a  nollow  squai«.  Next 
follows,  perhaps^  a  perfect  rereno  of  a  horse,  or  the  like, 
and  all  the  mde  marics  gradually  disappear.  Some  of  tlie 
Greek  reverses  are  in  intaglio,  tHat  is,  sunk ;  not  in  conuo, 
that'  is,  raised,  or  in  relief.  When  complete  reverses  appear 
on  the  GrtMk  coins,  about  600  B.C.,  thej  are  of  exquurite 
relief,  minnte  finish,  and  beauty.  The  vcrymusclea  of  men 
and  animals  are  seen,  and  n^  bnr  inspection  with  the 
lanest  raa^ifying  glass. 

The  subject  of  Uie  reverses  of  Roman  coins  till  about  the 
vear  100  b.c.  was  the  prow  of  a  ship,  a  car,  or  such  like ; 
but  about  this  time  various  devices  appear  on  their  con- 
sular coins  in  all  metals.  The  variety  and  beauty  of  the 
Imperial  Roman  reverses  are  well  known.  Such  as  have  a 
large  number  of  figures  within  the  area  of  the  reverse,  are 
much  valued :  there  is  a  small  gold  coin,  no  larger  than  a 
sixpence,  containing  on  the  reverse  the  "  Daughters  of 
Faustina," — twelve  figures !  There  are  othefB  of  a  similar 
Bort.     Some  also  have  small  figures  on  both  sides. 

The  figures  of  gods  and  goddessps  on  Roman  coins,  usually 
have  their  names,  as  well  as  their  peculiar  attributes ;  the 
names  serving  as  a  l^end,  when  coupled  with  some  exprea- 
aire  adjective,  declaring  the  office  or  quality  of  the  deity 
represented :  but  in  the  Greek  cobs,  the  name  of  the  deity 
is  not  expressed,  but  left  to  the  easy  interpretation  of  fixed 
symbols.  This  remarkable  difference  is  observable  in  the 
earliest  coins  of  the  two  countries,  on  which  ouly  the  bust 
of  the  deity  is  ifiven.  The  Romans  have  almort  always  the 
name;  while  the  Greeks  are  satisfied  with  afibrdingto  each 
deity  its  distinguishing  Hyml>ol. 

We  now  proceed  to  give  an  account  of  the  symbtila  fbund 
on  two  remarkable  coins,  which  are  not  Immediately  illus- 
trated by  a  l^nd. 

In  the  reign  of  Archelans,  King  of  Uacedon,  8.0.  S40, 
there  occurs  on  the  reverw  of  s  coin  of  that  king,  the  head 


of  a  ^oot,  having  only  one  hom.    Wa  hare'  gtYen  two 
vaiiettea  of  this  coin.    Thla  sort  of  ooimi,  having  the  squm 


qwkco  of  before,  ia  ancient ;  and  ecmtaining  the  one-homed 

goat  referred  to  in  the  Sacred  Book  of  DuiM,  which. gMl 

—  ..   1 1 .  i,!_j   -c 1  pf  ^ijg  Grecian  kin^ 


>  have  been  a  kind  of  e 


The  titles  that  are  fonnd  on  the  /ooss  of  medius  tit 
usually  titlea  of  honour ;  aa  ImptnOor  (Emperor),  Gov 
Amgtattu,  givcm  to  all  the  Romaii  ■mperors  anw  Jmins  tnl 


AngnstuB.  The  title  of  Domitnu,  Lord,  was  firat  assmned 
by  Aurelian,  A.n.  270.  Various  other  titlea,  epithets,  lad 
terms  of  diniity  were  assumed  by  the  pride  and  ambitica  of 
the  chief  rulora  of  Uie  Roman  empire,  until  at  Ia5t  tjie  lernii 
BAXIAErz  King,  and  &E2nOTHS  Despot,  are  Ibund  m 
Iwends  npon  their  coins.  Other  titles  are  the  names  of 
officers ;  as  COS.  for  eonttd,  with  a  number  annexed  to  il, 
signifying  how  many  times  the  person  had  been  tliui 
elected.  TRIB.  POT.  the  year  of  his  tribmiititd  owWitr. 
the  number  l)einEr  added  to  the  preceding  words.  P.M.  de- 
notes the  office  of  Poiilt^  Mamimui,  or  high  priest:  thii 
title  was  taken  by  the  emperors,  and  expressed  among  their 
other  titles,  from  Angustns  to  ConstanUne. 

On  the  reBcrtet  of  the  laive  early  copper  coina  tiien  u 
only  the  word  ROUA.  Afterwards,  on  the  reverMs  of 
what  are  called  "consular  coins,"  occur  the  pecoliar  dmig. 
nations  of  public  officers  ;  white  the  obverse  bearB  the  heal 
of  a  deity,  generallv  vrithout  a  l^nd.  In  time,  the  maea- 
tntea  put  ute  head  of  some  illustrious  ancestor  on  thecoma 
with  bis  name.  Ciesar,  when  made  Perpetual  Dictator,  wu 
the  first  Roman  who  put  his  own  head  on  his  coins,  with 
the  legend  of  names  and  titles  on  the  obverse,  and  not  on  tht 
reverse,  as  before.  Before  this  time  the  portrait  of  no  liring 
personage  appears  on  a  Roman  medal ;  and  even  the  plan  of 
engraving  on  coins  the  names  of  great  men  and  magistrstts 
was  only  introduced  about  the  year  80  B.C. 

"  In  the  earliest  and  more  simple  days  of  Rome,"  [«f3 
Akcrman  in  his  Numimatie  Manual,)  "  the  portruts  of  m 
living  personage  appeared  on  the  public  money ;  the  heada 
were  those  of  their  deities,  or  some  peisonage  who  had 
received  divine  honours.  Julius  Cesar  was  Uie  first  who 
obtained  the  express  permiseion  of  the  senate  to  place  his 
portrait  on  the  coins ;  and  the  example  was  soon  followed  by 
others.  The  heads  of  Lepidus,  and  of  Antony,  appear  on 
their  denarii,  and  even  the  money  of  &utus  with  uie  two 
ap  of  liberty,  bears  on  the  obveree  the  head  of 
Icilled  his  friend  because  he  had  assumed  the 
r^;al  power  and  authority.  We  have  no  evidence,  however, 
thiat  this  money,  which  is  of  great  rarity,  was  struck  with 
the  knowledge  and  sanction  of  Brutus ;  and  it  is  possible 
that  it  is  a  posthumous  coin." 

Medals  are  sometimes  dug  up  singly,  or  in  amoll  numben, 
'here  they  seem  to  have  been  thrown  by  accident,  or  rather 
>  have  Iwen  buried;  hut  the  principal  stores  of  ancient 
line  are  found  in  tombs,  or  in  places  where  fear,  avarice,  cr 
superstition  had  depouted  them  tot  the  sake  of  security. 
SECTION  U. 

nr   A   CtBIKET — QRXBK    VBDAU — TBBm 
I  MOKAaCEICAL— GKUK  IlirE- 

RIAL   OOIirS — BOHAN    HXSAIS CXHAULAH    AltD  nCERIAL — 

COLONIAL   OOIUfr— OOIHS   OP   OTMKR  MATIOira — BRACTRAirES. 

Vr  mutt  now  take  a  cunory  view  of  Heuau,  as  ai- 


SOPPtEMENT  FOR  FEBRUARY,  1841. 


86 


xtagtd  in  Uie  odluiMt  of  the  antiquary,  noticing,  as  we  pro- 
ceed, the  principlcB  and  ruke  wlucb  direct  him  in  making 

suirh  on  armngemant. 

Gbebk  Mbsau  claim  the  first  place  in  a  cabinet,  by 
reason  of  their  antiquity  and  their  workmanship.  Coiuaffe 
began,  perhaps,  about  1000  B.c.~for  before  that  time,  loeigkt 
was  the  only  principle  of  estimating  money,  as  we  leam 
from  the  Scriptures  and  other  ancient  writings.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  stages  of  the  proaresB  of  coinage:  1.  Ckiina, 
or  mere  pieces  of  metal  withont  any  impresaion. 
Those  which  have  a  hollow  indented  mark  or  marks  on 
side,  and  an  impression  in  relief  on  the  other ;  this  sort  of 
coinage  was  used  from  about  900  to  700  b.c.  a  Such  as 
have  an  indented  square  divided  into  segments,  with  a 
■nail  Bt(BM  in  one  of  tlie  aeftments,  the  rest  being  vacant ; 
and  imprenions  on  the  obveise  as  usual.  This  sort  of  coin- 
age lasted  till  about  600  b.c.  4.  Those  which  are  struck 
hollow  on  the  reTerse,  while  the  ohverse  is  in  relief,  usuallv 
with  the  same  figure ;  whicli  coins  are  perhaps  corral  witn 
those  of  the  last  class.  B.  Coins  in  which  a  square  dye  is 
used,  cither  on  one  or  both  ddes :  these  lasted  till  alwut 
420  B.C.  fi.  Comiilete  coins,  both  as  to  obTerse  and  re- 
Tcrse :  such  occur  in  Sicily,  where  the  art  was  carried  to 
gTFnt  perfection  as  early  as  ^0  B.C. 

The  best  informed  sntiquariea  consider  that  the  moat 
ancient  coins,  as  well  of  Greece  as  of  other  countries,  are 
distinguishable  by  the  following  marks: — 1.  They  have  a 
sort  of  oval,  sweUing  circumference  :—2.  Their  letters  are 
of  an  antique  character: — 3.  Part  of  the  legend  is  in  the 
common  style,  while  the  next  is  retrograde : — 1.  They  have 
the  indented  square : — B.  The  process  of  their  comaee  is  of  a 
simple  character : — 6.  Many  of  them  are  hollowea  on  the 
reverse,  and  have  the  imago  impressed  on  the  front: — 7. 
The  dress,  symbols,  &c.,  are  often  of  the  nidest  design  and 
execution.  Among  other  coins  which  bear  marks  of  great 
antiquity,  are  some  Persian  pieces,  with  the  archer  upon 
one  side,  and  the  hollow  square  upon  the  other.  At  one 
thne,  indeed,  many  of  the  coins  and  medala  of  Athens  were 
■qoare ;  and  all  over  Aaia  and  Africa  there  once  circulated 
not  only  square,  but  octagon  money.  A  kind  of  square 
money  of  red  copper,  was  used  in  France,  in  the  time  oTthe 
Fjnperor  Honoiius,  A.D.  420,  Though  the  Athenians  pos- 
sessed mines  of  copper,  yet  they  were  so  onwilling  to  employ 
this  metalas^ecia^  that  they  preferred  grati^ing  their  taste 
or  vanity  hy  cQtting  diver  Into  such  small  pieces,  that  they 
were  oometimes  mist^en  for  scales  of  fianes.  Gold  was 
also  very  scarce  at  this  time,  when  a  copper  coinage  had  not 
fet  been  adopted. 

In  the  course  of  time,  the  Greeks  acquired  _  great 
el^ance ;  evincing  strength,  beauty,  and  relief  in  their  im- 
piCTBioBu.  The  modem  medallist  distinguishes  the  early 
Greek  medals  into  civic  and  monarchiaU;  or  eitiei  and  ti^t : 
those  otf  cities  being  generally  the  most  ancient.  The  civic 
medala  are  usually  stamped  on  the  obverse,  with  the  head 
ot  the  genius  of  tne  dty,  or  of  some  fevourite  deity ;  while 


the  reveiae  often  presents  some  symbol  used  by  the  city,  at 
the  time  when  the  niece  was  struck.  The  Ifvend  contains 
the  initials,  monogram,  or  whole  characters  of  the  name  of 
the  dty.  The  civic  coins  interest  by  their  variety,  and  are 
puticiQarly  useful  in  elucidating  ancient  geography.  They 
present  ns  with  a  view  of  the  customs,  law^  and  religion 
of  ancient  cities;  and  likewise  shew  the  wealth  and  power 


of  each  city  and  c( 


ntry. 


a  spirit  and  boldness  both  in  deaign  and  execu^on,  with 
irtiLch  many  of  the  more  elaborate  productions  of  modern 
times  will  not  bear  comparison.  Hie  rude  and  often  mis- 
shapen Inmp  of  niver,  upon  which  these  types  are  impressed, 
contraata  moat  singular^  with  the  wonderful  freedom  and 
qarit  of  the  deMgn.  Armour,  weapons,  animals,  plants, 
utcnnl^  asd  the  inost  graceful  representations  of  the  nnman 
fignn  appev  in  in&uta  and  astonishing  variety  within  a 


^ace  K  circomscribed,  that  the  artists  of  antiquity  wtnild 
seem  to  have  sometimes  vied  with  each  other  in  the  produi^. 
tion  of  the  most  striking  representation  within  the  smalleat 
possible  limits." — Akebhah. 

The  monarchical  coins  of  Greece  are  ofl«n  c'  '~  ame 
construction  with  the  civic ;  oiUy  that  they  bear  the  name 
of  the  prince  .on  the  roTerse.  They  usually  have  die  bust 
of  some  deity  in  front ;  and  seldom  the  image  of  the  prince. 
These  coins  chiefly  interest  by  tlieir  portraits,  and  are  im- 
portant in  clearing  up  ancient  History.  The  most  ancient 
series  ts  that  of  Sucedon,  commencina;  about  SOO  B.C.  By 
the  time  Philip  II.  became  king,  the  Macedonian  coina 
bt^au  to  be  beautilHil :  those  of  Alexander  the  Great,  about 
350  a.c,  are  wonderfiil;  for  in  his  time  the  art  seema  to 
have  attained  ita  highest  perfection.  It  is  to  the  Greek  coins 
that  were  struck  before  the  dties  and  sovereignties  of  the 
Greeks  were  included  in  the  Roman  empire,  that  th* 
highest  praise  of  the  best  judges  has  be«i  award«l. 


The  Grecian  imperial  coins  are  those  which  were  struck 
when  Greece  formed  part  of  the  Roman  empire ;  but  it  Is 
usual  to  condder  thoae  Greek  coins  of  cities,  which  have 
the  head  of  an  emperor  or  empreaa,  as  Imperial  Greek  coins ; 
while  those  which  have'  no  such  imprcsdons,  are  da^d 
with  Grecian  civic  coins,  though  struck  nuder  the  Roman 
power.  Of  imperial  Greek  coins  none  occur  in  gold ;  but 
there  are  in  silver,  those  of  Antioch,  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  other 
trading  citiee  in  Uie  then  opulent  and  commercial  cities  of 
Western  Ada :  of  thia  sort  are  the  coins  of  Epbesus,  many 
of  which  bear  a  representation  of  the  celebnrted  temple  of 
Biano,  referred  to  in  the  nlnetMUth  chq>ter  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apoatlee. 


The  Greek  imperial  brass  coins  are  Tvy  abundant.  Thoaa 
of  Antioch,  which  commonly  have  a  Latin  legend  on  the 
obverse,  and  Greek  on  the  reverse,  are  so  numerous  as  to 
fiimiah  a  series  of  almost  all  the  emperors ;  being  apparently 
struck  for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  Roman  forces  in  the 
East. 

We  shall  not  attempt  to  specify  the  precise  values  of  coins, 
whether  Greek  or  Roman ;  first,  because  it  would  be  some- 
what tedious  and  uninteresting ;  and  secondly,  becanae  sui^ 
values,  in  English  moiiey,are  evennowopentodispute.  We 
must,  therefore,  content  oureelvea  with  observing,  that  as 

aht  originally  served  for  the  principle  of  eatimating  money ; 
in  settling  very  large  sums  weight  continued  to  be  token 
as  the  standard,  long  mer  coined  money  came  to  be  used. 
Hence  the  Mina  and  TbZentton,  the  former  containing  100 
nlver  Attic  drachms ;  and  the  latter  60  mine.  The  minn 
and  talent  were  therefore  estimated  by  weight :  but  of  the 
eoiiud  money,  there  were  three  chief  sorts; — the  obolns 
(brass)  worth  nearly  1  ^d.  English;  the  drachm  (sUrer)  9<2.; 
and  the  Philip  C^'d)  nearly  17«. 
The  tenn  "FUlip"  beoime  in  the  course  of  time  a  general 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


DsiM  af  gold  moiur  in  Greece,  Ibr  vaaay  jeu*  afUr 
Fltilip,  Ki^  of  HAcedoD,  in  whose  reign  nicb  gold  piecce 
■wen  coined.  But  the  raiuea  of  the  obolns,  the  dnchm, 
and  the  Philip,  were  varioas  in  different  itstMOf  Greece  [ 
■fid4bereweie  likewise  manjr  multipke  end  diTiauwe  of  the 

RoMiH  Hsptu  d«im  the  next  place  in  the  MluiMt  ef  the 
jmtiqnBrv.  The  fint  Bomen  coin*  were  large  pieov  of 
knee  niaelj  impnaeed,  and  only  on  one  aide,  with  tne  figure 
of  an  ox,  8  Tsm,  or  eome  other  animal ;  whence  monej  wae 
termed  paeutua,  from  the  lAtin  word  jienu,  cattle.  In  pro- 
een  of  time  tlue  impreaaion  waa  changed  to  that  of  a  biut 
of  Jannt  upon  the  front,  and  the  prow  of  a  ahip  iqton  tbe 
rererae ;  ana  for  more  g^uml  nae,  piecee  <rf  in&nor  weight 
and  value  were  coined. 

The  grand  distinction  which  marka  tha  BomMi  coin^ 
•onsidered  a*  medala  in  a  cabinet.  Ilea  between  tha  Cbwfar 
and  fmptri/tl,  'tha  Roman  consular  coins  seldom  or  nerer 
bore  the  namea  or  titles  of  consuls  till  towards  the  close  of 
that  Bort^f  government;  but  they'are  neTeriheleas  properly 
called  ronju/ar,  because  they  were  struck  in  the  consnlar 
times  of  Rome.  Those  of  the  later  at  are  also  often  called 
(oint  itf/amiliet,  from  the  circumstance  that  the  namea  of 
many  of  the  principal  familiesof  Rome  were  placed  upon  the 
fields  of  the  coins, — and  they  are  always  arranged  alphabeti- 
cally in  families,  according-  to  the  namea  which  appear  on 
them.  The  braet  cansuiar  coins  are  not  very  interesting ;  as 
y  pieces,  with  types  of  in- 
■e  any  imagery  or  symbol. 


they  consist  chiefly  of  large  unwieldy  p 
mpid  similarity.   Few  of  them  have  ar 


however, 


;   the  Romans  at  fint  coined   in   lead,   and 


afterwarda,  in  the  reign  of  Num^  in  copper,  before  neing 
s  about  26e 


i  brata,  b^.  fi&O. 


brass.  Servina  Tulli 
The  tilrf  coinage  began  at  Ro 
denarius  wo*  the  first  and  last  form  which  it  asinmed, 
for  the  otlier  sisea  are  so  scarce,  that  »eiy  few  seem  to  have 
been  struck.  On  the  later  consular  meilals  is  seen  mach  of 
that  fine  personification  afterwards  displayed  on  the  impe- 
rial coins.  About  62  years  after  the  coining  of  nlver,  ffold 
began  to  be  coined  at  Rome.  Of  the  consular  cnina  and 
medals  in  copper  and  brass,  there  may  be  nearly  fiOO ;  about 
aOOOhi  silver;  and  about  160 in  gold.  Host  of  the  gold 
coRSular  coins  are  of  gnat  beauty  and  high  value. 

The  Roman  imperuil  ooins  claim  our  attention  more  par- 
tieularly,  owing  to  the  extent  of  the  Roman  empire  and 
onr  own  connexion  with  it;  interesting  us  therefore  as  much, 
or  more  than  those  of  our  own  country.     Theae  coins  are 


•nded  A.D.  800;  the  lower  empire  lasted  from  thence  to  tha 
taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  i.o.  14S3.  All  the 
Imperial  medals  up  to  this  dste  are  usuallv  nekoned  among 
the  antique;  and  yet  there  are  none  oi  any  consideMbla 
beauty  later  than  the  age  of  Heraclius,  who  died  a.B,  Ml, 
After  the  time*  of  Heiuclius,  Italy  became  a  pray  to  the 
barbarians ;  to  that  the  coins  and  medals  which  apMored  op 
to  his  time,  seem  to  finish  the  set  or  seriea  ot  imperii 
nledala.  To  theae,  however,  are  added  the  coins  and  medab 
of  'the  Greek  emperors  who  reigned  at  CoaatautinMile,  to  a 
later  date.  The  Gothic  medals  are  likewise  oonaidered  to 
make  part  of  the  imperial  iHiet ;  thev  are  so  called,  as  having 
been  struck  in  the  times  «f  the  Gotha,  and  in  thedeclenuon 
of  the  empire,  and  savouring  of  the  ignoianceand  barbarity 
of  the  afe. 

The  imperial  series  of  bran  ooins  begins  of  course,  with 
Julius  CEsar ;  but  some  elegance  and  variety  were  exhibited 
In  this  coinage  fifty  years  Mfore  Cesar's  time.  It  is  of  three 
lat^  middle,  and  small.  The  laryt  broaa  ooins 
-  -2riee  of  surprising  beauty  and  vast  expense.     In 

B  the  various  colonn  of  the  potwia,  or  oxidation, 

have  the  finest  effect ;  and  the  great  size  of  the  portraits  and 
figure*  conspiree  to  render  it  the  moat  important  of  all  the 
Roman  coinage  :  so  that  it  erui  exceeds  the  gold  in  value, 
though  the  intrinsic  value  of  each  piece  is  only  about  two- 

Snce  English.  The  series  of  the  tniddU  bras*  coins  exceeds 
at  of  the  lar^  brsss,  but  has  not  such  elegance  of  work, 
or  of  types.  Many  corns  are  common  in  this  series,  which 
are  rare  in  the  other  ;  and  but  very  few  examples  occur  to 
the  contrary ;  heuce  this  series  is  not  so  valuable  as  the  first. 
There  are,  uowever,  some  rare  and  curious  ooins  amons 
them,  particularly  such  as  relate  to  the  ancient  hist4»y  ^ 
this  island,  among  which  are  some  tiiat  personify  the  country 
Srilmmia,  in  a  manner  similar  to  what  we  have  it  on  the 
G<^iper  coins  of  the  present  day.    The  smoS  brass  Mriea  has 


many  curious  corns,  and  pirtieukrly  of  the  ORupan  in  tla 
latter  days  of  the  Roman  empire. 


.  The  brass  coins  are  distinguished  by  the  letter*  S.C. 
Staat&t  CotMtiAo,— by  a  Decree  of  the  Senate ;  becauM  th 
senate  alone  had  the  power  of  striking  brass,  while  the  em- 
peror himself  had  that  of  gold  and  silver.  If,  tberefiM 
the  S.C.  be  found  wanting  on  any  brass  coin,  it  is  suppoM 
that  such  coin  was  once  plated  for  the  purpose  of  forjjwy. 
The  law:  brass  coins  are  at  the  size  of^our  crown-pisoa; 
the  middle  brass  ore  of  the  nze  of  our  half-crowns ;  and  thi 
small  brass  coins  are  not  bin^r  than  our  shillings,  sod  on 
also  smaller.  The  small  brass  series  extends  frem  the 
beginning  to  the  close  of  the  It<Hnan  EmpirCL  <v  to  sbait 
670A.D. 

The  *ihmr  in^wriol  eouis  ore  very  numeroiia  and  vniou. 
This  series  is  as  complete  as  any,  and  of  fiu- cheaper  purthsn, 
as  very  few  of  the  emperors  are  acaice  in  silver.  HMt  tyiM 
of  even  the  lar^  brass  and  the  gold  are  fbund  in  the  •ilTO', 
which  thus  unites  the  advanti^ee  of  all  the  metals-  Seo*- 
times  the  silver  and  gold  corns,  as  bong  of  one  ue,  m 
struck  from  the  some  dye.  But  the  imperi&l  gold  bimi  ( 
series  of  wonderful  beauty  and  perfection,  attaioabls  oolf 
by  men  of  princely  fortunes,  ta  tbeee  the  worknunihf 
is  carried  to  the  greatest  height ;  and  the  richncM  of  tk 
metal  is  surpassed  by  that  of  the  tvpee.  As  gold  does  not 
suffer  from  nut,  the  coins  are  for  tne  most  part  in  the  msi 
state  as  they  came  from  the  romt.  Mr.  Pijikertoii  iafa* 
that  the  number  of  Roman  gold  imperial  coins  may  amoust 
to  fiOOO ;  the  silver  to  10,000;  and  the  brau  to  30,000;  uJ 
that  all  the  ancimt  coins  together  may  re«ch  to  the  auuW 
of  80,000:  but  this  calculation,  he  says,  cannot  be  Ttry 
accurate. 

We  coma  now  to  the  Coi/>Nial  coins  of  Rome,  ii 
Roman  coloniea  were  settled  in  various  parte  of  the  euoiirt, 
their  coin*  hava  sometimes  Greek,  and  aometimea  even  Risk 
legends ;  though  generally,  the  legend  on  we  aide  of  twi 
coma  ia  I«tin :  but  those  with  Latin  leyanl*  only  h* 


fax  more  numerous.  The  colonial  coin*  are  only  in  bivs: 
some  of  them  are  elegant;  though  most  of  them  are  rude  anJ 
unintereeting.  They  begin  with  Julius  Cesar  and  Anthony. 
The  only  foitisb  Roman  colony  which  had  ite  own  coin^ 
was  tliat  of  Camalodunum,  supposed  to  be  Maldon  or  Col- 
chester, in  Essex.  This  species  of  coin  is  one  of  Claudia), 
about  i.D.  60 ;  on  the  reverse  i*  a  team  of  oxen,  with  COL 
CAMALODON.  AUG. 

On  tha  reverie*  of  Roman  colonial  coinL  easily  distio* 
niished  by  their  rude  fabric,  and  the  name  of  the  colony  cs 
them,  commonly  beginning  with  COL,  where  an  ensigli 
Stands  alone,  and  without  any  perstm^  it  ahews  a  ooion; 
drawn  Irom  one  legion ;  but  whantheeusigns  or  bannen  stand 
together,  they  avmce  the  colony  to  have  bean  drawn  froB 
aamany  I^ous  as  there  are  ensigns. 

Tha  subjoined  is  a  representetion  of  a  a*!a  Mea^ng  1« 
Gadora,  one  of  the  towns  of  the  Deo^rali*^  of  which  we  read 
intheGospelsof  St.  Uatthewaud  St.Mark.  TheDec^Mlii 
wafieastward  of  the  I^keof  Tiberias,  and  Gadai&wat  the  chief 
city  of  the  BotDon  province  of  Perea.   The  iniub^tt,  beU« 


fiUFFLEHENT  FOR  FEBRDARY,  1841. 


87 


Hdi,    ient 

Yenataan,  wlwn 

WBuut  Jnimti,  and  gsre   np 

tnii  itranf  city  te  him.    The 

dtip,    which  ooonn  m    fn- 

I^nentl}' upon  aueienteoiiu,  u 
mdicstiye  of  eMnmom  ;■■■{>- 
pesn  likewiM  <n  the  Fhce- 
niotan  coin  M  p.  B8. 

The  Roman  eohuhaT*  ba«n 
ma*t  a^tsoaiiwl  V  iprMd :  eoiDe 
of  tbam  h»Te  Seni  fonnd  In 

the  Orkney l8laikb;u)d they 

■»iiA«i  ''*"  liktwiee  been  dieoovered 

'  In  great  nambers  in  the  moat 

tonot*  put*  of  Evope,  A«a,  ud  Africa,  at  that  tine 
loMwii. 

The  Rmmvs,  at  the  MiBmeno«»enl  of  tiwiv  cItU  polity, 
NckuBcd  money  by  wdgkl,  m  we  obeerred  belbre.  Their 
chief  ctuned  money  waa  the  m  ht  brHW,  the  imttrim  In 
eilTer,and  the  aamu  in  gold.  The  aa  waa  worth  nthn 
mora  thfoi  threa  ftwthingt  of  our  money,  the  denAiins 
almtat  8A,  and  tlie  saieaa  rather  move  tlion  30*. 

-It  haa  been  wellabewyed  that  the  mUHarygenhMBf  the 
Bomana  ta  DaT»  mon  iftpaNnt  than  In  tholr  medide ;  in  the 
wBiiika  eabteiiia  wfaiob  are  constantly  to  be  fbnnd  opMi 
them :  m  the  6«qnent  repreaentatiouB  of  h>nBffnee  to  their 
aoldion ;  and  of  rewards  Rurmiljtaiywn'ieM.  Weaiceon- 
Ttneed  by  the  aama  meani  of  (heir  axtmivgant  aopentition, 
frmn  Ihefraqneat  prooftof  thedeificstienof  thriFemperon^ 
MMuIa,  and  numtratea,  of  the  sitperb  tamplea  which  were 
■rroted  to  their  nononr,  and  the  eaarifieM  which  wen  regu- 
larly paid  to  their  nemoiy."— -Hall. 

We  pa«  on  now  to  make  a  few  brief  obeerrmtiotu  on  the 
coinaand  medala  of  other  natiana,  uanally  termed  tnrtenii)!, 
premiainjtthatjby  oMcJait  coins,  all  before  the  ninth  century, 
or  a;^  of  Charlemagne,  ar«  meant;  all  after  that  {teriod 
bei)^  deemed  mtodtm.  Ko  coina  are  fonnd  of  Babylonian  or 
Aa^man  kii^;  the  oMeat  fonnd  in  those  carta  being 
P«iiiian,  and  aunilarto  the  Greek,    The  Greeks  seem  to 


tridin^  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon  weighed  their  money;  and 
caiuage  waa  long  nnknown  in  £<^pt ;  for  the  thin,  tirowl 
pieces  of  sold  fonnd  in  the  mouths  of  mnmmiea,  and  put 
there  for  the  purpose  of  paying  thp  passage  of  the  souls  into 
the  hifernal  s^one,  hare  no  mark  upon  them.  India  and 
China  hare  no  early  coinage.  The  Lydlan  coins,  therefore, 
seem  to  be  the  most  ancient  in  Asia, 

©Next  to  these  are  the  Persian,  well 
known  by  the  ram,  under  which 
figure  that  atute  is  alluded  to  in 
Scripture,  in  the  book  of  Daniel;  aa 
also  by  the  archer,  Xoue  of  these 
coina  can  be  older  than  fi70  B,CjjWhen 
the  Persian  empire  began.  The  fa- 
mous Danes  were  issued  by  DhtIus 
'•■">■"  Hyataspes,  who  began  to  reign   621 


W.  They  m 

hlsnce  to  t  c     . 

Darica^  from  their  extreme  scarcity,  a 


ir  both  in^ld  and  rilver,  t_ 
hlsnce  to  the  coins  of  .£gina,  before  mentioned. 


The 


bcenmcltad  down  by  Alesandar  the  Gnat  for  Ua  awn 
fioinage>  when  he  oonqnend  Peiaia.  The  gold  Oadoa  were 
worth  rather  more  uan  the  English  gninea,  and  wwa 
preferred  throughout  the  East  for  Uie  fiuoiMS  of  th^  gold. 
There  la  a  second  series  of  the  Penian  coina ;  that  w  the 
SaaaanidM,  which  bmns  about  a.d.  220,  whu  Aita»rxea 
OTertunied  the  Parthian  monarchv.  Th«  Paittuan  ooina 
have  all  Greek  legenda,  but  the  later  Persiaii  bear  only 
Penlan  oharacteni  Uiey  are  large  and  thin;  with  the 
king's  bust  DO  one  side,  and  the  altar  of  Mithias  an  the 
othar,  ganerally  with  a  human  fignce  on  eaoh  aide.    The 


letten  en  Persian  soina  seem  to  pwtake  of  tha  an^ot 
Greek,  Gothic,  and  Alanlc.  The  later  Persian  eoins  eztand 
to  the  year  a.d.  63d,  when  Penia  was  conquered  by  the 
Ambian  caliphs. 

The  Hebrew  shekels  are  of  sUver.  Thay  were  originally 
didrachms  (li.  3d.y,  but  after  the  time  of  the  Hadeabaee, 
about  B.C.  140,  viien'the  liebrew  nation  first  struck  men^ 
for  itaelt  they  were  coined  of  the  value  of  the  Greek  tetn- 
drachm,  (it.  M.)  The  braes  corns  with  the  Samaritan  aha- 
mcters,  are  many  of  them  earlier  than  the  Cliristian  era,  but 


were  not  eorreiK  nnQl  ^ler  the  retnm  from~tEe~Bab]4onlBh 
Captirity,  B.C.  fi36.    Host  of  the  Jewish  coina  have  the 

Sng  on  one  side,  and  the  vase  on  the  other,  as  on  the 
ekel ;   the   aprlg   bearing  reference  to  Aaron's  rod  that 
bndded,  and  the  vase  to  the  oeoser  of  incense'. 

The  coina  of  the  heathens  were  usually  atamped  with  the 
symbols  of  their  idolatruua  worahip,  to  use  which  was  a 
source  of  continual  affliction  to  the  Jews.  In  the  time  of 
Simon  i^ey  were  released  from  this  grievance ;  and  we  find 
that  on  their  own  national  coins,  there  is  no  representation 
of  man  or  other  creature  upon  it ;— no  portrait  of  any  per- 
son, prince,  or  deity.  In  the  annexed  coin  the  ears  of 
wheat  are  emblematic  of  the  fertility  of  Canaan,  and  the 
tent  refen  to  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles. 


There  is  also  a  cmioua  old  medal,  which  atteata  the  tmth 
of  History,  by  referring  to  certain  privileses  which  the  Jewa 
received  trom  the  Syrian  monarcu  in  the  time  of  Simon, 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


140  II.O.    On  the  front,  u 

'  "  At/onrtA  year,"  and  on 
«nM.of  Jenualem." 

The  FhoenicisD  coina,  which  begin  to 
appMJ  aboDt  400  B.C.,  and  of  which  we 
inv«  one  referring  by  the  legend  to  the 
Sidonian  ^oddeea,  XitArte,  aa  alao  the 
CarUuginiao,  are  randerad  intoieating  by 
the  ancient  civilization  and  great  powar 
of  tboae  nationa:  their  dphabeta  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  Syriac,  Chaldai&and 
Hebrew.  Coina  of  Palmyra,  the  "  Tad- 
mor  in  the  wildemesa" — or  "  City  of  tlie 
Palme,"  have  likewise  been  found  with  a  »iiTiil»y  mixed 
alphabet.  The  Tuacau  coins  are  inscribed  with  a  character 
connected  with  the  old  Greek  and  Latin.  The  ancient 
Spaniah  coins  httva  a  diameter  belonging  to  old  Qreek, 
Punic:  they  are  ancient,  and  not  alfetrnck  by  the  Punic 
colonies ;  for  the  lesenda  are  in  different  chancters.  The 
ancient  coins  of  Gaiu  are  alao  nnnteioni,  and  many  of  theni 
in  base  gold;  but,  unhappily,  the  most  ancient  hare  no 
lemnda  at  all. 

It  seems  that  our  ancient  British  anceetora  used  branL 
^tparently  coined,  aa  a  saperiM  metal,  aa  more  advanoed 
nations  oaed  gold ;  and  alao  iron. rings  for  money,  examined 
and  Rdaced  to  a  ceriun  weight.  Rnde  coina  of  copper, 
mneh  minsled  with  tin,  are  frequently  found  in  England, 
and  are  pe^we  the  copper  coins  used  by  our  fore&thera  in 
the  days  of  old.  We  bave  many  coins  of  Cunobeline  who 
waa  king  of  the  Trinobantee,  and  wae  educated  at  BWe,  at 

-the  court  of  Aoguetua.  .  Theae  coins  of  Cunobeline  ore  the 
only  ones  apparently  ancient  &itiah.    Hoat  at  them  have 


at  least,  CVNO  on  one  ride,  with  an  ear  of  wheat,  a  hone, 
a  kind  of  head  of  Janus,  or  some  such  symbol ;  and  oflMi- 
timea  CAMV,  thought  to  be  the  initials  of  Canudoluiiun, 
the  chief  city  of  his  kingdom,  on  the  other  side,  with  a 
boar  and  tret,  and  a  variety  of  other  badges. 

It  seems  that,  after  the  arrival  of  the  Romans  in  this 
island,  the  BHtons  imitated  them,  coining  both  gold  and 
tdlver,  with  the  imwes  of  their  kings  stamped  on  them ;  but 
when  the  Romans  had  subdued  the  kings  of  the  Britons, 
they  also  suppressed  their  coin^  and  bronght  in  their  own, 
wiiidi  were  current  here  from  tne  time  of  Claudius  to  that 
of  Valentiman  the  Younger,  about  400  aji.  There  are 
some  coins  of  Antoninus  Plus,  about  i.D,  160,  the  reverses 
of  which  present,  as  we  before  observed,  almost  the  same 
type  aa  that  which  we  have  on  our  present  copper  coin^«. 

AH  the  kings  of  France  down  to  Cliarlemagne  range  in 
this  division.  Liuva  I.,  who  beMn  his  reign  ^.n.  C67,  and 
the  other  kings  of  the  Western  Goths  in  Spain,  appear  upon 
their  coins,  encircled  with  Roman  characters.  Other  GoUiia 
kings,  who  reigned  in  Italy  sod  oth«r  countries,  after  the 


&I1  of  the  Roman  emi^  in  the  West,  likewise  use  tlw 
Roman  language  in  their  coinage.  They  most  commonly 
occur  in  the  sise  of  madal^  termed  SMofl  bran.  Miay 
coins  also  occur  with  l^nds,  which  though  meont  icr 
I^tin  characters,  and  in  imitation  of  Idtin  coins,  are  m 
to  be  ill<^le :  such  are,  in  general,  tennej 


perverted  ai 

\   AfUrthe 

coins  tennec  _ _ ,  .  _.  

EuiopMn  states.     Thtte  were,  aa  tl 
coins,  and  belong  properiy  to  the  m 


Before  quittii^  the  mbjeot  of  andent  *MifoI^  we  nuut 
notice  some  of  a  remarkable  character,  which  hsTc  been 
introduced  into  this  pqier.  One  of  these  waa  struck  b; 
the  Senate  in  honour  of  Hadrian,  the  Roman  cmperat, 
about  130  A.n.,  in  commemoration  of  the  great  ben^t^ 
which  he  had  conferred  on  the  empire.  This  medal  ii  gira 
at  p.  86,  and  haa  for  ita  l^end— ^To  the  Restorer  a  Om 

Constantine  the  Great  was  the  first  Roman  E 


the  coins  struck  apon  thia  oocamon,  is  given  below 

presents  on  the  obverae  tha  emperor  in  his  robe^  dovud 
vrith  a  wreath  of  laoral,  with,  the  legmd,  "  The  Emperat 
Constantine,  I^ous,  Hamy,  Auguat."  On  the  reverse  is  ■ 
fiill  length  figure  of  him,  cloaked,  holding  in  his  ri^ 
hand  a  globe,  and  in  his  left  B  rod  or  wand,  with  the  Iqi^ 
"To  Constantine,  the  Kons,  Anguat,  bofn  in  Pfytitr  * 
The  lett«n  in  the  exergue  are  sa^  to  imply  that  thcxiedal 
waa  oeitttd  at  Londoifi  but  this  is  objeotM  to. 


uDu.  TO  coBimcoaiva  tbb  urd 

Another  medal  struck  in  honour  of  Hadrian  is  given  si 
the  conclusion  of  this  paper.  Under  this  emperor,  a  tebellion 
against  the  Roman  authority  broke  oat  in  Judco,  hesdot 
by  the  famous  impostor,  Barchochab  (Son  of  the  Star),  who 
set  himself  upfor  the  Messiah.  This  war  lasted  threeyean 
and  a  half.  The  Jews  were  completely  subdued,  sad  for 
bidden  to  even  enter  the  City  of  Jerusalem.  They  pur- 
chased with  money  the  liberty,  not  of  enteaing  the  nolf 
city,  but  only  of  looking  at  a  distance  on  it,  and  going  to 
mourn  its  fall  and  desolation.  On  the  reverse  of  ttus  medal 
is  represented  Jiukaa,  kneeling  in  submisrion  to  the  empeni^ 
and  three  children  imploring  mercy  of  him. 

In  another  Supplement,  we  shall  enter  npon  Uoraw 
Coins  and  Medals,  and  continue  the  anbject  down  to  tb 
present  time. 


MBDit  OP  HADRUK,  COJIMKliOnXTIBO  BIB  TICTOBT  OTKE  IHB  tWm. 


LONDON:  PabUJ«dbr  JOHN  W.  PABKEB,.Wait  St»a»=,  SDd«>ld  br»ll  BoetasU.* 


90 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[March  6, 


^     KNOLE  IN  KENT. 

Sm  vith  BMJntie  toride,  the  work  «f  jrttn, 
IM  r%1^e]«nd  ftipnt  m«  tutftly  tnttttum  tMrsi 
Within  whoM  lunple  spaea  dw  eye  surreys 
The  labour 'd  excellence  of  former  da  js ; 
The  model  whose  perfections  art  supplies, 
Sculpture's  light  touch  and  Painting's  deathless  djes. 

BoKBOoan's  J5wJir. 

Trg  stately  mansion  of  Knolef  or  KnowU^  in  Kent, 
possesses  much  intrinsic  interest,  and  by  its  great  extent 
and  the  magnificence  of  its  internal  decorations  attracts 
numerous  visitors;  it  accordingly  holds  a  distinguished 
place  in  the  second  volume  of  Mr.  Nash's  beautiful  and 
instructiTs  work»  the  MwMwn9  ^  fh^  Qid  NhMii^. 
Througk  the  kindness  and  libsralHy  of  its  potaenor^ 
the  publie  curiosity  is  gratified  With  a  view  of  the  house 
and  groundB>  and  as  this  mansion  stands  at  no  great 
distance  finom  the  metropolis,  it  forms  a  most  attractivo 
object  of  interest  to  numbers.  The  house  is  erected 
principally  in  the  Elisabethan  style  of  architectural  and 
has  an  advantage  over  many  of  the  other  seats  of  the 
nobility,  owing  to  the  situation  it  occupies  on  a  com- 
manding and  healthy  eminenoa,  near  Uie  town  of 
SevenodU*  The  building  itself  covers  a  space  of  ground 
said  to  be  nearly  three  acres  and  a  quarter,  and  the 
park  is  very  extensive  and  beautifuUy  varied  in  its  fea- 
tures. There  is  a  luxuriant  growth  of  timber,  especially 
of  oak  and  beech  trees,  fbr  which  the  soil  is  naturally 
adapted  (  the  girth  of  one  of  these  venerable  oaks  is  no 
less  than  thirty  feet.  Much  assiduity  and  taste  have 
been  displayed  in  the  arrangement  or  the  plantations; 
the  trees  are  not  diepoeed  in  solitary  clumps,  but  in  broad 
and  undulating  nyoses,  which  rise  and  fail  with  the 
varying  nature  of  the  surface. 

Two  points  of  view  in  this  noble  park  are  particularly 
recommended  to  the  attention  of  the  visitor:  the  one 
from  the  wnd  of  a  valley  which  lies  in  a  south-west 
direction  from  the  house ;  the  other  from  a  rising  ground 
in  the  satttt  valley*  The  first  view  prasents  a  grove  of 
majestic  trees  rising  on  each  side;  many  of  them  beeches 
of  the  laif^est  sise^and  feathered  to  the  bottom;  the 
mansion,  with  its  towers  and  battlements,  and  a  bsck- 
ground  of  hills  covered  with  wood,  terminating  the  vista. 
— The  oUier  view  is  of  a  verv  diiewnt  description:  on 
gaining  the  summit  of  the  hill,  a  prospect  of  great  extent 
bursts  at  onoe  upon  the  i%ht;  woods,  iiettths»  towns, 
villages,  and  hamlets,  at«  all  dis|^yod  m  bright  con- 
fusion. The  eye  commands  the  greater  part  of  west 
Kent,  a  considerable  portion  of  Sussex,  and  a  distant 
view  of  the  hills  of  HampshirSb  lb  foreground  is 
woody,  ^  whitened  steeple  nsing  everywhere  among 
the  trees»  with  fSttUemett*s  seats  sesfelored  rsund  in 
great  abundance. 

The  beauty  c^lln  l«ech  trees  in  Kmib  Paric,  is  so 
remarkable  as  to  attract  Um  notice  dT  all  who  have  a 
taste  for  richly-wooded  acsBetr*  Among  the  cdebrated 
persons  who  have  admired  nd  appreciated  this  feature 
of  the  scenes  Mrs.  RaiddiA  may  be  quoted  as  an  un- 
doubted jsfdfii^. 

In  the  park,  abounding  with  noble  beech  geerei^  (says 
this  giasd  Isdjr).  is  o«^  on  ^  lea  of  the  toad  leading  to 
the  hous^  which  ibr  amss  and  ovetteppmg  pemp,  exoels 
even  any  In  Windsor  perk,  when  viewM  as  you  descend 
from  the  p«rk  gate^  whence  shade  rises  abovo  shade  with 
amazing  m  maguifieeat  grandeur.  In  tibia  msm  of  wood 
is  one  beach,  that  slifetches  upwards  its  my  limbs^  among 
the  light  fe«th«y  feline,  to  a  height  and  with  a  majesty 
that  is  sublime.  Over  a  6Sttt»  ^aeed  round  its  bole,  it 
spreads  eut  a  liflht«  yet  umbrageous  fan,  most  gracefol  and 
beautifid.  With  sil  its  grmdeur  and  luxuriance,  there  if 
nothing  in  this  beech  heavy  or  fbrmal,  it  is  airy,  thou£:h 
vast  and  mi^jestN^  and  suggests  an  idea  at  once  of  uie 
strength  and  fire  of  a  hero!  I  should  call  a  beech-tree — 
and  thisbeedhaboveevery  other— the  hero  of  the  ferest,  as' 
the  oak  is  osDed  the  ' ' 


The  principal  portions  of  the  mansion  of  Knole  form 
a  spacious  quadrangle,  built  in  the  castellated  style,  with 
several  square  towers.     The  front  of  the  building  is  not 


distinguished  by  ornamental  details,  but  has  an  air  of 
great  plainness  and  simplicitf  •  The  admirer  of  archi- 
tectural grandeur  will  probably  bo  disappointed  at  the 
first  view  of  Knole,  ana  will  look  with  curiosity  rather 
than  pleasure  on  the  incongruous  mass  of  buildings  which 
make  up  the  extensive  pile.  Still  more  will  he  be  sur- 
prised on  entering  the  building  to  observe  the  extraDrdi- 
nary  number  of  rooms,  galleries,  staircases,  &C.,  which 
surpass  all  modem  conceptions  of  utility  or  convenience. 
Yet  all  these  things  are  invested  with  peculiar  interest, 
when  we  view  them  in  connection  with  the  times  and 
modes  of  life  for  which  they  were  adapted,  so  different  to 
tha  mMUwra  and  eusloms  of  our  own  day.  The  number 
of  visttaaU  hospitably  entertained  at  the  old  baronial  resi- 
dences, and  the  extent  of  the  retinue  aoeompanying  such 
guests,  must  be  taken  into  consideration^  ere  we  leeakof 
Uiese  ancient  edifices,  as  displaying  a  mare  love  of  osten- 
tatious grandeur  on  the  part  of  those  who  reared  them. 

The  manor  and  mansion  of  Knole  were  in  possession 
of  tho  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  during  the  reigns  of 
Henry  the  6ixth«  Seventh,  and  Eighth,  but  in  the  last 
of  thoae  reigns,  Uiey  were  voluntaril  v  surrendered  to  the 
crown  bv  Archbishop  Cranmer.  Aner  passing  through 
the  hands  of  several  possessors  it  was  finally  bMtowed  in 
the  reign  of  EUxaheth,  on  Thomas  Sadcvills,  £sq^ 
afterwards  Baron  Buckhurst  and  Earl  of  Dorset*  The 
estate  has  continued  almost  uninterruptedly  in  this  noble 
family  of  Sackville  up  to  the  present  time;  and  in  the 
reign  of  George  the  First,  Lionel  Cranfield,  the  aeventh 
Earl  of  Dorset,  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  ^  duke. 
By  the  meUmcholy  death  of  the  late  duke,  a  young 
nobleman  of  gentle  disposition  and  promising  talents, 
who  was  killed  in  hunting,  when  he  had  only  just  attained 
his  majoritVi  the  manor  devolved  on  liia  sisters  and  co- 
heiresses, the  Countesses  of  Plymouth  and  De  Lawarr. 
His  grace  is  succeeded  in  his  titles  by  Charles  Sackville 
Germaine,  Viscount  Sackville,  and  Baron  Bolebroke. 

It  would  be  in  vain  to  attempt  to  deacribe  the  interior 
of  this  noble  mansion  of  Knole,  so  as  to  give  our  readers 
any  just  idea  of  its  extent  and  magnificence.  We  there- 
fore confine  ourselves  to  one  of  Mr.  Nash's  admirable 
views  of  this  mansion,  and  select  on  the  present  occasion 
the  gallery  over  the  hall,  at  the  same  time  directing 
those  who  would  desire  to  see  a  faithful  representation 
of  other  portions  of  this  interesting  building,  to  Plates 
17,  18,  19,  20,  22,  and  23,  of  the  second  series  of 
Nash's  Matuiam  in  ih€  Olden  Time.  These  represent 
the  rich  and  picturesque  Stairtaee  which  adjoins  the 
Hall,  being  a  fine  example  of  the  style  of  the  early  part 
of  the  reign  of  James  the  First;  the  characteristic  a.part- 
ment  called  the  Broom  GuHery^  with  its  ceiling  of  intri- 
cate design;  the  i?ooin  leading  to  ike  Chapek  supposed 
to  be  of  the  date  of  Henry  the  Sixth  (ur  Seventh;  the 
Spemgled  Bedroom^  with  its  antique  furniture;  the 
CaHocn  GaUeryy  a  splendid  and  stately  apartment  with 
rich  carved  and  painted  pilasters  and  panels,  an  elegant 
cefling  and  gorgeous  himgings,  pictures,  and  furniture; 
the  SeMt  of  nome  dimensions,  with  its  fine  old  screen,  a 
specimen  (^  the  wood-carving  of  the  reign  of  James  the 
Firsa;  and  the  Gallery  ^  from  which  we  have  taken  the 
frontispieoe  to  our  present  Number. 

l%e  purposes  to  which  this  gallery  waa  formerly  appli^ 
cannot  now  be  ascertained,  but  from  its  enriched  ceiling 
smd  tapestry-hangings,  there  is  reason  to  suppose  it  was 
a  room  of  some  importance. 


X  jiave,  in  T.ne  aosence  oi  any  prooaoie  conjecture,  supi'vicx^^ 
it  to  be  a  place  of  exercise  for  the  family.  The  boy  pulling 
the  io|}e  is  playing  at  the  ancient  dumb-bells ;  a  contrivance 
consisting  of  a  roller  resting  on  two  supports  in  the  roof 
above,  and  having  ei^ht  bars  projecting  at  right  angles,  armed 
with  heavy  balls  of  lead:  being  set  in  motion  by  pulling  the 
rope  it  revolves  with  great  velocity,  and  constitutes  a  pretty 
strong  exerdse.  One  of  these  "  dumb-bells"  is  actually  in 
existence  at  Knolci  and  la  occaaonally  used  to  this  di^« 


.8410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


Bl 


POISO]!fOVS  ARTICLES  OF  FOOD. 

II. 
Animal  Food. 
Animal  food  may  become  poisonous,  either  by  some 
diseased  state  of  its  system  having  existed  in  the  animal 
prior  to  death,  or  by  its  having  advanced  to  a  state  of 
putrefaction  before  being  made  use  of  as  an  article  of  food. 
The  mere  over-driving  of  animals  before  they  are 
slaughtered  produces  important  changes  in  their  condi- 
tion, for,  although  it  is  not  proved  Uiat  any  diageirous 
symptoms  have  resulted  from  partaking  A  them,  yet 
when  any  of  their  blood  or  raw  flesh  oomes  into  oontact 
with  a  scratch  or  wound  a  dangerous  or  even  fatal  inflam- 
mation reiults,  and  bv  becoming  inoculated  thus  by  the 
juices  of  the  diseasea  animals  the  persons  engaged  in 
slaughterhouses  have  frequently  lost  their  lives.  In  Ger- 
many an  epidemic  disease,  termed  Mitibrand,  frequently 
affects  the  cattle,  producing  extensive  destruction  among 
them,  and  the  flesh  of  those  Which  die  while  under  its 
influence  acts  as  a  virulent  poison  upon  persons  who 
swallow  it,  while  the  mere  handling  the  sKin,  entrails,  &c., 
produces  the  same  eflect.  It  has  been  a  point  of  discus- 
sion whether  the  putrefaetion  of  animal  food  renders  it 
poisonous  to  man,  but  it  has  been  pretty  generally 
answered  in  the  afflrmative.  It  is  true  that  the  epicure 
preftrs  his  game,  venison,  &c.,  **higfa,"  or  in  other  words, 
in  an  incipient  state  of  putrefaction,  and  that  many 
savage  nations  will  consume  rancid  oil  and  puttid  meat 
with  avidity.  But  much  must  be  allowed  to  the  force  of 
habit,  for  it  is  well  known  that  those  who  are  un- 
accustomed to  **  high  food"  loathe  it,  and  often  suflbr 
severely  if  they  partake  of  it,  while  persons  who  have 
been  driven  by  hunger  to  feed  upon  rotten  fish,  eggs,  or 
meat,  have  frequently  perished  in  consequence,  as  the 
histories  c^  several  famines  and  sieges  prove.  A  species 
of  poison  is  generated  in  some  articles  of  diet  in  Ger- 
many. Thus  the  smoked  iatuages  so  much  consumed 
in  Wirtemburg  are  often  the  cause  of  fatal  poisoning;  so 
that,  from  1793  to  1827,  234  persons  were  affected,  of 
whom  110  died, — the  symptoms  coming  on  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  hours  after  eating  the  sausage.^  The 
same  has  occurred  in  a  less  degree  in  Paris,  and 
neither  the  investigations  of  the  police  nor  of  able  che- 
mists could  detect  the  nature  of  the  poisonous  ingredient. 
Those  parts  of  sausages  which  did  the  most  harm  were 
made  of  liver;  and  it  has  often  been  observed  that  the 
iatemal  organs  of  animals  produced  serious  mischief, 
while  the  ordinary  flesh  might  be  consumed  with  safety. 
Seoresby  says  that  the  flesh  of  the  bear  is  wholesome 
and  delicious,  but  its  liver  produces  dangerous  symptoms. 
The  sausages  were  always  boiled  before  they  were  cured, 
and  the  bsbd  svmptoms  produced  by  eating  them  did  not 
oecur  until  slight  putrefaction  had  commenced.  The 
German  ebemists  suppose  this  poison  to  reside  in  a  fkt 
acid  which  is  then  generated.  Cheese  and  hacon  are 
other  articles  which  in  Germany  also  often  produce 
poisonous  effects,  and  there  being  no  difference  in  their 
smell  or  taste  perceptible,  fatal  mischief  sometimes  en- 
snes  befbre  the  corrupted  articles  are  suspected.  Poison- 
ous effects  are  said  to  be  produced  in  some  of  the  farms  in 
Cheshire,  when  the  curds  are  retained  too  long  before 
tbev  are  made  into  cheese.  In  France  and  Switzerland, 
miMr,  especially  that  of  goats  and  sheep,  has  produced 
at  various  periods  symptoms  resembling  cholera,  or  even 
death  itself- 

Poisonous  Fish.  Fish,  of  all  species  of  animal  food, 
firnishes  us  with  the  most  frequent  and  marked  examples 
of  poisoning.  Exaggeration  and  difference  of  opinion, 
u  upon  most  other  subjects,  have  prevailed  upon  this; 
for  while,  on  the  one  hand,  sailors  and  other  persons  have 
oftpn  conceived  an  unreasonable  and  undiscriminating 
prejudice  against  various  innocent  speciiss  of  fish,  other 
persons  deny  that  the  instances  of  death  from  eating 
tlieso  animals  result  from  any  poisonous  principle  they  con- 
tain, but  are  rather  produced  by  some  peculiarity  of  consti- 


tution in  the  persons  affected.  Abundant  proof,  however, 
exists  that  the  eating  of  certain  fish  acts  as  a  poison 
both  on  man  and  animals,  at  certain  seasons ;  these  fish, 
however,  are  usually  innocent  at  other  times,  while  in 
some  constitutions  the  most  harmless  species  will,  even 
in  small  quantities,  always  produce  deleterious  effects. 
It  is  in  the  tropical  regions,  and  almost  exclusively  in  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  that  poisonous  fish  abound:  these  are 
especially  the  barracuda,  the  snapper,  the  dolphin,  the 
king-fish,  the  conger  eel,  and  the  yellow-billed  sprat :  all 
these,  with  the  exception  of  the  last,  are  only  poisonous 
at  certain  periods  of  the  year,  namely,  the  hottest  months. 
The  yellow-billed  sprat  is  virulent  almost  beyond  belief, 
for  Dr.  Chisholm  relates  that  both  the  whites  and 
the  negroes  of  the  Leeward  Islands  have  been  known 
to  expire  with  the  fish  yet  unswallowed  in  their  mouths. 
In  our  own  country  several  species  of  fish,  when 
eaten  out  of  season,  are  very  indigestible,  and  some- 
times even  produce  alarming  symptoms;  the  flavour 
and  odour  distinctive  of  the  particular  fish,  depending 
upon  the  presence  of  an  aromatic  oil,  are  then  very 
deficient.  This  applies  to  the  salmon,  mackerel,  herring, 
and  shell-fish  in  general ;  but  muscles  and  oysters  are 
the  species  most  remarkable  for  occasionally  producing 
ill  effects.  There  would  seem  to  be  good  foundation  for 
the  saying,  that  neither  of  these  are  wholesome  during 
the  months  which  do  not  contain  an  r;  these  being  the 
hottest,  during  which  fish-poison  has  always  been  found 
most  virulent.  Instances  of  poisoning  by  muscles  are 
numerous ;  but  we  need  allude  only  to  that  related  by 
Dr.  Combe  as  occurring  at  Leith  in  1827,  and  which 
produced  such  consternation  there  that  the  inhabitants 
of  Leith  and  Edinburgh  have  since  almost  refrained 
from  eating  this  fish.  There  were  thirty  people  of  the 
lower  ranks  of  society  seriously  and  alarmingly  affected 
by  eatmg  muscles,  wmch  had  been  scraped  from  off  the 
bar  of  the  dock-yard:  two  €i  these  died,  but  the  others 
recovered  by  judicious  treatment.  Neither  in  taste  nor 
smell  did  these  muscles  differ  from  their  ordinary  state. 
Salting  or  cooking  fish  has  not  been  found  preventative 
of  the  mischief;  but  M .  de  Rondeau  asserts,  that  if 
muscles  be  boiled  in  vinegar  and  water  containing  a 
small  portion  of  cayenne  pepper,  evil  never  results  from 
eating  them :  this  is  denied  by  others. 

The  symptoms  from  eating  poisonous  fish  are  very 
varied,  according  to  the  species  employed.  In  some, 
they  cause  violent  oppression  of  breathing,  awelkd 
face,  insatiable  thirst,  convulsions,  and  inaeaaibility;  in 
others,  symptoms  very  like  those  of  cholera.  A  very 
common  effect  is  to  produce  a  degree  of  palsy,  while  the 
shell-fish  are  especially  liable  to  cause  the  troublesome 
disease  of  the  skin  called  nettle-rash,  which,  owing  tp 
the  sympathy  existing  between  the  alimentary  canal  and 
the  akin,  very  often  occurs  from  various  other  iajiuioua 
articles  of  diet.  The  late  Dr.  Clarke  remarked  that 
women  after  childbirth  who  indulged  in  eating  oysters, 
were  very  liable  to  convulsions  and  apoplexy.  The 
manifestation  of  these  symptoms  is  both  more  severe  and 
more  rapid  in  the  tropical  regions,  and  wiUi  us  sometimes 
several  hours  elapse  before  anything  serious  is  suspected. 
An  emetic  and  brisk  aperient  should  be  at  once  given, 
and  in  this  climate  will  usually  succeed  in  preventing 
fatal  mischiefs,  although  severe  symptoms  may  stiU 
ensue,  as  it  is  surprising  how  small  a  portion  of  a  bad 
fish  will  cause  them. 

The  nature  of  the  poison  thus  contained  in  these  fish 
has  given  rise  to  numerous  conjectures.  Thus,  a  very 
popular  opinion  has  been,  that  the  fish  were  poisoned  by 
feeding  near  copper  banks,  or  the  bottoms  of  ships ;  but 
inquiry  has  discovered  the  fish  where  copper  did  not 
exist,  and  no  traces  of  such  impregnation  have  been  found 
on  the  examination  of  the  bad  fish  by  chemical  tests. 
Again,  various  articles  of  food  of  the  fish -tribe,  as  holo- 
thurisB,  medusae,  and  manchineol  apple,  have  each  been 
charired  with  producing  the  change  in  them,  but  without 
/  557—2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


any  good  evidence.  M.  de  Beume  siipposes  the  EpBwn 
of  tne  Sletla  marina  wHict  lod^s  in  the  muscle,  is  tlie 
cause  of  the  miscliief.  The  opinion  generally  enter* 
tained  is,  that  a  poison,  tui  generiw,  is  generated  in  the 
Bystem  of  the  fish  at  particular  seasons,  one  marked 
effect  of  which  is  to  produce  the  early  putrefaction  of 
the  animal,  upon  which  much  of  its  deleterious  nature 
depends;  for  persons  who  have  eaten  of  a  fish  with  im- 
punity on  one  day,  have  been  poisoned  by  it  the  next) 
although  it  has  been  salted  in  the  mean  time.  Autenrieth, 
tracing  the  analwy  between  this  poison  and  that  ton* 
tained  in  the  old  cheese  and  rancid  sausages  before-men- 
tioned, believes  he  has  det«cted  it  in  a  bitter  principle 
faaai  in  combination  with  a  rancid  fatty  matter. 


THAMK-UFFERIKG. 

Iv  erery  place,  in  ever;  hour, 

WImU'er  raj  wajwsird  lot  may  be, 
In  jojr  or  gnef,  in  sun  or  shower, 

Faiher,  and  Lonl  I  I  turn  to  thee. 
Thee,  when  the  iacense-brealhing  flowers 

Pour  forth  the  worship  of  the  Bpring, 
With  the  Rlad  tenants  of  the  bowers. 

My  treinbliag  accents  slrive  to  sing. 
Thee,  when  upon  the  frozen  strand. 

Winter,  begirt  with  storms,  descends ; 
Thee,  Lord !  I  hail,  whoso  gracious  hand 

O'er  all  a  guardian  core  extends. 
Thee,  when  the  golden  harvests  yield 

Thee,  when  through  ether's  gloomy  field 

The  lightnings  flash,  the  tbtitider*  roar. 
Thee,  when  athwart  the  azure  sky. 

Thy  starry  hosts  their  mazes  l^d. 
And  when  thou  aheddest  from  on  liigh 

Thy  dew-drops  on  the  llowety  mead. ' 
Thse,  when  my  cap  of  bliss  o'erflows — 

Thee,  when  inj  heart's  beet  joys  ore  fled ; 
Thee,  when  my  lieart  exulting  glows — 

Thee,  while  I  bend  beaide  the  dead. 
Alike  in  joy  and  in  distrees. 

Oh !  let  me  trace  thy  hand  divine, 
Rigliteoiis  in  chastening,  prompt  to  bless, 

StUl,  Father,  may  Thp  will  be  muie. 

Lady  Floba  Eaitih 


assoLcnoN. 
TsH,  of  all  the  qnalifications  of  a  great  man,  is  perhaps  the 
most  efficient  and  important.  A  retentive  memory,  a  lively 
imagination,  an  acute  judgment,  and  strong  passions,  may 
be  all  useful  as  tjuolities  of  a  great  man ;  but  they  all  need 
reiolution  to  brmg  them  to  a  point.  As  in  the  case  of  a 
hnming-glass,  the  ray  would  not  hum  without  the  glass, 
nor  the  glass  transmit  heat  unless  it  had  the  property 
of  collecting  the  rays  into  a  focus,  so  it  is  molution  which 
combines  and  powerfully  wplies  the  other  taJenta,  Some 
an  prolific  in  scnemea  of  itsemlness,  but  are  miserably  poor  in 
eatciMoa.  Like  some  trees,  they  n>end  themselves  in 
blosiom,  and  never  yield  fruit.  A  gentleman,  last  summer, 
showed  me  a  fine  tree  in  his  grounds,  which  he  said  he 
bad  resolved  to  cut  down ;  for,  although  for  years  it  bad 
produced  a  finer  blossom  than  any  other  tree  in  his  orchard, 
or  garden,  yet  it  never  bore  fruit.  He  mentioned  this  to  a 
friend,  who  said, — "  The  fact  is,  the  tree  tpendt  itttlf  in 
blottoau.  I  advise  you  to  cut  the  rind  otf  it,  nearly  hal^av 
Tonnd,  and  it  will  probably  have  less  blossom,  but  it  will 
bear  fruit."  He  did  so,  and  the  result  was,  that  it  after- 
wards produced  more  and  better  fruit  than  any  other  tree 
in  the  garden.  Let  me,  therefore,  advise  you  to  cut  some  of 
the  rind  from  your  schemes,  that  they  may  not  spend 
themselves  in  hloaaoms,  hut  may  work  out  into  ihe  fruitsof 
usefulness.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  is  said  to  have  declared,  that 
he  did  not  consider  himself  to  possess  any  advantage  over 
other  men,  except,  that  whatsoever  he  considered  of  suHi- 
cient  importance  to  begin,  he  had  sufficient  resolution  to 
continue  till  he  hod  accomplished  his  object.  Dr.  Johnson, 
on  the  other  hand,  confessed  and  lamented,  that  he  was  as 
deficient  in  this  necessary  qualification,  ttiat  he  could  never 
do  anything  till  he  was  farced  to  it,  either  by  his  appetite 
or  his  creditors.  7'ry,  Uierefore,  to  acquire  the  habit  of 
reeol  ution. — Griffi  m. 


THE   STURGEON, 
(Aeeipenter  ttvrto.J 


Thk  Sturgeon*  belongs  to  that  order  of  cutilBgiiKiii 
fishes,  at  the  head  of  which  stand  the  sharks  and  np, 
and  which  includes  the  largest  and  most  fimnidable  of 
the  whole  class.  In  consequence  of  the  peculiv  ttmfr 
ture  of  the  skeleton  of  these  fishes,  theyeontdonetogro* 
as  long  as  they  live,  so  that,  inhabiting  the  wide  oeeu. 
and  meeting  but  few  enemies,  they  attain  •ach  m  a""- 
mous  siie,  that  their  weight  and  dimensions  sppf 
almost  incredible. 

Sturgeons  (^Stttrionidte,")  of  whicli  only  one  genm  >> 
known,  are  distinguished  by  being  defended,  u  it  were, 
by  armour,  the  body  being  covered  by  hard  bony  taba- 
cles  in  longitudinal  rows,  sometimes  bearing  a  considR- 
able  resemblance  to  the  shells  of  limpets,  and  st  othK 
times  keeled  or  produced  into  spines,  lie  bead  ii  sIk 
armed  with  bony  plates:  the  mouth  is  small,  and  initcsd 
of  teeth,  it  is  furnished  with  a  homy  prolongation  of  im 
jaws.  The  mouth  is  so  formed,  as  to  be  protruded  uo 
retracted  at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal.  The  gil!-««M 
is  an  oval  radiated  plate ;  but  the  aperture  is  small,  ui 
iU  cover,  by  being  edged  with  a  membranaceous  bmiBi 
closes  the  aperture  so  accurately,  as  to  exclude  the  w- 

The  common  Sturgeon  grows  to  a  very  large  n«: 
specimens  have  been  taken,  that  measured  more  vJi 
twenty  feet  long.  Its  form  is  lengthened  and  slender; 
the  snout  very  long  in  some  species ;  and  the  moutki  ■< 
in  most  of  the  cartilaginous  fishes,  placed  beMstn. 
Several  cirri,  or  worm-like  appendages,  are  seated  be- 
neath the  mouth,  and  near  the  muxile :  this  latter  orgu 
consists  of  a  transverse  oval  orifice  without  teeth,  ui<l 
containing  a  thick  strong  tongue;  it  is  bordered  sbon 
and  below  by  a  strong  cartilaginous  edge  or  lipi  «■'" 
can  be  retracted  and  closed  at  the  vrill  of  the  animsl- 

Sturgeons  inhabit  the  seas  of  Northern  Europe  wi 
America:  they  inigrate  during  early  summer,  bto  tH 
tai^r  rivers  and  lakes,  and  after  depositing  their  sps'i'i 
return  again  to  the  sea.  In  North  America,  stm^M" 
may  almost  be  called  fresh-water  fishes,  since  ihef  u* 
seldom  caught  at  any  great  distance  from  the  shore- 
Pennant  slates,  that  in  some  of  the  rivers  of  Virguut 
thejr  are  so  plentiful,  that  six  hundred  have  been  tswo 
within  two  days,  merely  by  putting  a  pole  into  the  watMi 
with  a  stout  hook  at  the  end,  and  drawing  it  up  »gw 
on  perceiving  that  it  rubbed  against  a  fish.  B'g"'*' 
sturgeon  fisheries  are  carried  on  durii^  snimner  W 
Pillau,  and  in  the  river  Garonne  on  the  coast  of  Fraw- 
In  the  Canary  Islands,  Sturgeons  are  so  common,  u  w* 
to  be  valued.  In  our  own  countrv,  the  rivers  Eske  wa 
Eden  are  noted  for  Sturgeon;  and  from  the  former  <" 
taken  one  which  weighed  4G0  pound«. 

the  London  market  commonly  n~   ~ 


eight  feet,    and  sometimes  weigh    nearly    '• 


Those  brought 
from  four  te 


_     _  pound". 

Notwithstanding  ite  formidable^ppearMce,  the  »tnig«" 

gni!t,i».ii«T»i«".'r; 

.1.  : IL..I  li.r.nW  lH"" 


'  ThAfl^iDologToTlhs  wi 
tliu  the  otmnatiin  Gih  ii 
tluhr  tignifjiiig  ^mf.   0th 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


99 


is  said  to  be  mild,  and  ey^n  cowardly  in  its  disposition.  I 
Its  food  is  small  fish  and  worms. 

As  an  article  of  commerce  the  sturgeon  is  peculiarly 
valuable.     It  was  in  high  repute  among  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans.     iHiny  states,  that  it  was  brought 
to  table  with  much  pomp  and  ornamented  with  flowers ; 
the  slaves  who  carried  it  being  also  adorned  with  gar- 
lands,  and  accompanied  by  music.     The  flesh  of  the 
animal,  pickled,  is  sent  all  over  Europe,  and  is  a  great 
delicacy.     Caviar  is   prepared  from  the  roe:  this  is 
£reed  from  its  membranes,  then  washed  in  vinegar  or 
white  wine,  and  dried  by  being  spread  on  a  board  in  the 
air.     It  is  afterwards  well  salted ;  the  salt  being  rubbed 
in  with  the  hand ;  it  is  then  put  into  a  bag,  and  the 
liquor  pressed  out ;  it  is  finally  packed  in  kegs,  and  is 
then  ready  for  sale.     This  is  the  method  of  preparing 
caviar  at  the  mouths  of  the  Volga,  Danube,   Dnieper, 
and  Don.     In  1833,  the  quantity  of  caviar  shipped  from 
the  ports  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azof  alone, 
exceeded  a  million  and  a  half  English  pounds  weight, 
and  this  was  but  a  very  small  part  of  the  annual  supply, 
because  in  consequence  of  the  three  annual  seasons  of 
fasting  in  Russia  the  consumption  is  very  great.     The 
principal  exports  are  to  Italy ;  the  demand  for  caviar  in 
England  being  small.     The  best  caviar  is  dry  and  of  a 
brown  colour :  it  is  eaten  on  bread  with  oil  and  lemon- 
juice,  or  vinegar. 

Mr.  Long,  in  his  Travels  in  North  Americay  speaks 
highly  in  favour  of  sturgeon  broth,  and  suggests  that 
fish-broths  in  general  have  not  met  with  the  attention 
they  deserve.  He  states  that  at  Albany,  the  sturgeon  is 
so  common,  that  it  is  sold  at  a  penny  per  pound,  and  is 
called  Albany  beef.  Many  persons  have  noticed  the 
resemblance  of  some  parts  of  the  Sturgeon  to  beef;  but 
the  resemblance  of  the  white  parts  to  veal  is  striking, 
and  generally  admitted.  Mr.  Donovan  in  his  Domestic 
Economy f  says: — 

Slices  of  sturgeon,  nicely  dressed  in  the  manner  of  a  veal- 
cutlet,  are  only  to  be  distmrmshed  from  the  latter  by  the 
superiority  of  the  meat,  and  a  certain  superadded  flavour, 
which  iuipears  to  me  most  to  resemble  tnat  of  the  scallop 
shell-fish,  and  which  exists  barely  in  a  recognizable  degree. 
This  resemblance  to  veal  is  equidly  observable  in  the  appear- 
ance of  the  flesh,  both  raw  and  fried,  as  well  as  in  the  taste. 
It  is  usual  to  make  Sturgeon  pies,  and  these  are  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  meat-pies.  Were  animals  to  be  classed 
accorSng  to  their  qualities  as  food,  the  Sturgeon  would 
certunlv  be  removed  from  the  fishes,  and  placed  amongst  the 
land  animals:  even  the  back-hone,  if  such  it  may  be  called, 
it  being  mere  cartilage,  has  the  appearance  and  taste  of  the 
harder  csartilages  in  veal.  I  believe  the  Stuigeon  is  the  only 
fifth  which  is  roasted  on  a  spit  like  meat. 

The  Sturgeon  is  in  season  during  the  winter  quarter 
and  part  of  spring.  It  sells  in  London  at  Is.  or  1#.  9d,  per 
pound,  but  does  not  often  a]ppear  in  the  market.  It  should 
be  firm  ;  if  flabby,  ito  value  is  greatly  lessened.  The  xoe  in 
the  recent  state  is  little  sought  after' in  this  cotmtry. 

A  smaller  species  of  Sturg^eon,  called  the  sterUty 
found  in  Russia,  is  in  much  higher  esteem  for  the  table, 
than  the  common  species.  The  soup  of  this  fish  formed 
one  of  the  frivourite  luxuries  of  that  gigantic  epicure, 
prince  Potemkin  of  Russia,  who,  as  Dr.  Shaw  relates,  in 
seasons  when  this  fish  happened  to  be  unusually  dear, 
was  content  to  purchase  it  at  a  price  so  extravagant  that 
a  single  tureen,  forming  the  mere  prelude  to  his  repast, 
cost  him  the  sum  of  three  hundred  rubles :  "  a  sum,"  says 
Swunson,  "  which,  had  it  been  expended  in  promoting 
the  happiness  of  his  miserable  serfs,  might  have  called 
down  blessings  on  the  head  of  this  worthless  sensualist." 

The  best  isinglass  is  furnished  by  the  Sturgeon. 
It  is  extensively  prepared  in  Russia  by  the  follovring 
method.  Tlie  membranes  of  the  fish,  especially  its  air- 
bladder  and  sounds,  which  are  remarkably  large,  are 
taken  from  the  fish  while  fresh,  slit  open,  washed  in  cold 
water,  and  exposed  for  a  short  time  to  the  air  in  order 
to  stiffen ;  the  outer  skin  is  then  taken  off  and  rejected. 
The  other  portions  arc  formed  into  rolls  about  the  thick- 


ness of  a  finger,  and  in  length  according  to  the  intended 
size  of  the  staple ;  a  thin  membrane  is  usually  selected  from 
the  centre  of  the  roll,  round  which  the  rest  are  folded 
alternately,  and  about  half  an  inch  of  each  extremity  of 
the  roll  is  turned  inwards.  The  proper  dimensions  being 
thus  obtained,  the  two  ends  of  what  is  called,  ''short 
stople"  are  fastened  together  by  means  of  a  small 
wooden  p^;  the  middle  of  the  roll  is  then  pressed 
downwards,  which  gives  it  the  form  of  a  heart,  and  thus 
it  is  hung  up  to  dry.  The  sounds  which  form  the  ''long 
steple"  are  of  a  longer  size,  but  the  workman  can  add 
to  the  length  by  interfolding  the  ends  of  several  pieces 
of  the  sounds.  The  ends  are  fastened  with  a  peg  as 
before,  but  the  middle  part  of  the  roU  is  more  consider- 
ably bent,  and  in  order  to  preserve  the  shape  of  the 
three  angles  thus  formed,  a  piece  of  stick  is  fastened  in 
each  angle:  when  sufiicientJy  dry,  the  pegs  and  sticks 
are  removed  and  the  drying  completed ;  lastly,  the  pieces 
of  isinglass  are  collected  in  rows  by  passing  a  thread 
through  the  peg-holes  for  convemence  of  package 
and  exportation.  The  ''  long  steple"  is  the  best  isin- 
glass, and  is  used  in  confectionary  and  at  the  teble.  The 
common  sorte  of  isinglass,  called  ''book"  and  "ordinary 
steple,"  are  composed)  of  membranes  which  do  not 
admit  of  being  formed  into  rolls ;  the  pieces,  therefore, 
after  their  sides  are  folded  inwardly,  are  bent  in  the 
centre  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  opposite  sides  resemble 
the  cover  of  a  book,  whence  its  name. 

Isinglass  is  one  of  the  purest  and  finest  of  the  animal 
glues  and  has  no  particular  smell  or  teste.  Beaten  into 
threads,  it  dissolves  in  boiling  water  or  milk,  and  yields  a 
mild  nutriment.  Isinglass  is  gelatine  nearly  pure. 
Four  parte  of  it  convert  one  hundred  parte  of  water  into 
a  tremulous  jelly,  and  it  is  thus  employed  to  enrich  many 
soups  and  sauces.  It  is  also  used  with  gum  to  give 
lustre  to  ribbons  and  other  silk  articles:  dissolved  in 
alcohol  with  gum  ammoniac,  it  forms  the  celebratea^ 
diamond  cement,  so  called  because  the  Turks  employ  it 
in  setting  tiieir  precious  stones  or  jewellery,  and  if  well 
made,  the  cement  preserves  ite  transparency  after  the 
setting.  Diamond  cement  is  much  used  in  our  own 
country  for  the  humbler  purpose  of  joining  broken  pieces 
of  glass  and  china. 

Isinglass  is  also  used  for  "fining"  various  liquors: 
the  brewer  uses  it  extensively  for  making  his  beer  trans- 
parent, for  which  purpose  crude  isinglass  is  dissolved  in 
sour  beer  and  thus  poured  into  the  cask,  where,  as  it  is 
commonly  supposed,  the  floating  particles  are  entangled 
by  the  fining  stuff  added;  and  the  whole  is  carried  down, 
as  if  by  a  net,  straining  the  liquor  from  the  top  to  the 
bottom. 

Court  plaster  is  made  by  covering  taffety  or  thin 
silk  with  a  coat  of  isinglass.  Post  office  stamps  are 
also  made  to  adhere  by  means  of  a  similar  coating. 
Isinglass  has  also  been  made  to  perform  the  office  of 
window  glass.  Sheets  of  wire  gauze  set  in  window  or 
lamp  frames,  and  plunged  into  a  limpid  solution  of 
isinglass,  when  cold  have  the  appearance  of  glass.  If 
one  dip  be  not  sufficient  to  make  a  proper  transparent 
plate,  several  may  be  given,  taking  care  to  allow  one 
film  to  dry  before  another  dip  is  made*  The  outer 
surface  should  be  varnished  to  protect  it  from  damp  air. 
In  the  maritime  arsenals  of  France,  these  panes  of  gela- 
tine are  usefully  employed  for  lamps  instead  of  horn; 
they  possess  the  advantage  of  being  almost  as  trans- 
parent as  glass  ¥rithout  being  so  brittle. 

Thb  ancient  philosophers  comprised  their  wisdom  in  short 
maxims.  To  have  made  a  wise  maxim  was  to  acquire  re- 
nown. Thus  in  discoursing  on  prudence,  one  of  ^em  shows 
his  wisdom  in  uttering  these  precepte:  **  Begin  nothing  of 
which  you  have  not  loeU  considered  the  end**  "  Take  care  of 
irrecoverable  deeds**  Crito,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of 
Greece,  declared,  that  the  highest  human  wisdom  was  that 
sagacity  which  discerned  in  the  present  that  which  the  future 
would  disclose. — S, 


04 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


[March  ( 


THE  SEVEN  WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD. 

AncieKt  <writeir9  relate  the  existence  of  certidti  master- 
pieces of  art,  which,  for  their  vastness  or  beauty,  have 
been  denominated  wonders.  Every  age  has,  doubtless, 
contributed  its  own  wonders  to  these  records  of  human 
ingenuity;  and,  to  this  day,  every  country  of  the  world 
has  its  own  class  of  wonders.  But,  the  earliest  authors 
have  conferred  a  celebrity  upon  certain  monuments  of 
astounding  labour,  which  the  productions  of  subsequent 
ages  have  not  exceeded  in  vastness  or  magnificence  of 
character.  These  are  distinctively  termed  the  Sbvsk 
WoNDfiRS  OF  THE  WORLD;  and  though,  different 
writers  raise  different  productions  to  such  pre-eminence, 
the  following  may  be  received  as  the  most  accredited 
enumeration  of  these  wonders: 

1.  The  Great  Pyramid  of  Egypt. 

2.  The  Walls  of  Babylon. 

3.  The  Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon. 

4.  The  Pharos  of  Alexandria. 

5.  The  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus. 
6*  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes. 

7.  The  Tomb  of  Mausolus. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  concealed,  that  the  desorip- 
tions  of  these  worths  are  so  interspersed  with  ftibulous 
history,  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  fact  from  fiction, 
especially  as  vastness  is  uniformly  the  characteristic  of 
the  objects  described.  Their  proportions  may  have 
become  more  gigantic  by  that  love  or  exaggeration  which 
may  be  too  frequently  detected  in  the  records  of  the 
works  of  man,  by  early  writers.  Contemporaries,  who 
first  chronicled  tnese  wonders,  may  have  been  accurate 
in  their  details,  and  their  successors  may  have  imposed 
upon  the  credulity  of  mankind ;  and,  in  most  instances, 
the  truth  would  be  extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
t  to  determine.  However  their  monuments  of  art  may 
have  ministered  tu  human  vanity,  it  must  be  allowed, 
that  the  imperfections  of  their  history,  and,  more  than 
all,  their  disappearance,  or  present  ruinous  condition, 
furnishes  an  eloquent  rebuke  to  the  vain  glory  of  their 
founders,  and  leads  man  from  the  admiration  of  these 
crumbling  prodigies  of  art  to  the  contemplation  of  the 
nobler  works  of  him  whose  omnipotence  reigneth  for 
ever. 

The  Great  Pyramid  op  Egypt  usually  ranks 
as  the  first  wonder.  This  gigantic  structure  is  named 
after  its  founder  Cheops,  King  of  Egypt,  whose  tomb  it  is 
supposed  to  be.  Its  building  is  stated  by  Pliny  and  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus,  to  have  occupied  360,000  men  for  tw  nty 
years.  It  is  700  feet  in  the  side  of  its  base,  and  500  in  per- 
pendicular height,  and  stands  on  eleven  acres  of  ground. 
A  better  idea  to  all  acquainted  with  London  is  the  fact, 
that  the  base  of  this  Pyramid  is  the  size  of  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields,  and  its  beiffht  127  feet  greater  than  the  cross 
of  St.  Paul's  Cathedralf  or  e^ual  to  the  spire  of  Salis- 
bury Cathedral. 

The  Walls  of  Babylon,  (for  ages  the  most  famous 
city  in  the  whole  world,)  rather  resemble  the  bulwarks  of 
nature  than  the  workmanship  of  man.  Their  extent  is 
computed  by  Major  Rennell  at  34  miles,  or  8i  on  eadi 
side.  They  were  so  broad,  that,  as  ancient  historians 
relate,  six  chariots  could  be  driven  on  them  abreast ;  or, 
a  chariot  and  four  horses  might  pass  and  turn.  Their 
height  was  50  cubits,  or  75  feet,  having  been  reduced 
to  their  dimensions  from  the  prodigious  height  of  350 
feet.  Yet  these  walls  are  so  "  utterly  broken,  that  it  can- 
not be  determined  with  certainty  that  even  the  slightest 
vestige  of  them  exists.  Mr.  Buckingham,  a  few  years 
since,  discovered  on  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  ruins  of 
Babylon,  on  the  summit  of  an  oval  mound  from  70  to 
80  feet  in  height,  and  from  300  to  400  feet  in  circum- 
ference, "  a  mass  of  solid  wall,  about  30  feet  in  length, 
by  12  or  15  feet  in  thickness,  yet  evidently  once  of 
much  greater  dimensions  each  way;"  and  this  heap,  Mr. 
Buckingham  conjectured  to  be  a  part — ^the  only  part, 


if  such  it  be,  that  can  be  dlieovtred  of  the  walls  ef 

Babylon. 

The  Hakgivo  GAnDEKs  or  Babtloh  were  dis- 
f tngulshed  by  their  romantic  gituation  and  vaat  extent 
Their  form  was  square^  and,  according  to  Diodorus 
and  Strabo,  each  side  was  400  feet  in  length,  so  that 
the  area  of  the  base  was  nearly  four  acres.  They  were 
made  to  rise  with  terraces,  curiously  constructed  in  the 
form  of  steps,  and  supported  by  stone  pillars  to  the  height 
of  more  than  800  feet,  gradually  diminishing  upwards. 
This  building  was  constructed  by  vast  stone  beams  placed 
on  pillars  of  stone,  (arches  not  being  then  invented,)  which 
were  again  covered  with  reeds,  cemented  with  bitumen, 
and  next  was  laid  a  double  row  of  bricks,  united  bj 
cement.  Over  these  were  laid  plates  of  lead,  which 
effectually  prevented  the  moisture  from  penetrating  down- 
wards. Aoove  all  was  laid  a  coat  of  earth,  sufficiently 
deep  for  plants  to  grow  in  it,  and  the  trees  here  plantei 
were  ranged  in  rows  on  the  side  of  the  ascent,  as  well 
as  on  the  top,  so  that,  at  a  distance,  it  appeared  as  an 
immense  p3rram id  covered  with  wood;  and  being  situated 
upon  the  banks  of  the  river  Euphrates,  water  was  sup- 
plied from  thence  by  machinery,  for  the  fountains  and 
other  sources  for  cooling  the  air  and  waterings  the 
garden.  The  different  groves  and  terraces  also  con- 
tained parterres,  seats,  and  banquetting  rooms,  and  pre- 
sented retirement  in  the  midst  of  civic  mirth  and  din; 
thus  combining  the  splendour  and  luxury  of  eastern 
magnificence  ki  art,  with  the  simple  pleasures  of  ver- 
dant and  beautiful  nature,  the  prospect  from  these  ele- 
vated gardens  was  grand  and  delightful.  From  the 
upper  area  was  obtained  not  only  a  view  of  the  whole 
city  of  Babylon,  and  the  windings  of  the  Euphrates, 
which  washed  the  base  of  the  superstructure  30O  feel 
below,  but  of  the  cultivated  environs  of  the  city  and 
surrounding  desert,  as  far  as  the  eye  could  reach. 

This  surprising  and  laborious  experinient,  (Mr.  J.  ICason 
observe^)  was  a  strain  of  complaisance  in  King  Nebuehad- 
nez2ar  to  his  Median  queen,  who  could  never  be  reconciled 
to  the  flat  and  naked  appearance  of  the  province  of  Babvlon, 
but  ireauently  regretted  each  rising  hill  and  scattered  forest 
she  had  formerly  delighted  in.  The  king,  who  thought 
nothing  impossible  for  nis  power  to  execute,  nothing-  to  be 
unattempted  for  the  gratification  of  his  beloved  consort, 
determined  to  raise  woods  and  terraces  even  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  tlie  city,  equal  to  thoso  by  which  her  native  land 
was  diversified. 

Yet,  many  writers  doubt  the  existence  of  these  gar- 
dens: Quintus  Curtius  refers  to  their  deseription  as 
** fabulous  wonders;'*  and  Herodotus,  who  describes 
Babylon  minutely,  does  not  mention  the  Hanging  Gar- 
dens; and  the  only  author  who  speaks  of  tlipm  on  bis 
own  testimony,  is  Berosus.  The  most  reasonable  cob- 
clusxon  at  which  the  moderns  have  arrived,  tt^m  these 
and  other  eonfiicting  testaments,  is,  that  ^y  were  a  vast 
hill  cut  into  terraces,  and  phmted;  and  some  late  travel- 
lers have  fancied  that  they  could  discover  traces  oi  such 
a  woric.  The  immense  height  of  the&e  gardens,  and 
their  projecting  ia  terraces,  probably  suggested  the 
epithet  of  hanging* 

The  supposed  remains  of  theae  gaidens  strt  detaded  por- 
tions of  a  wall,  wiiich  probably  composed  the  piers  or 
buttresses  of  the  terraces.  In  the  ruins^  lines  of  long 
passages  and  square  chambers  may  be  easily  traced,  which 
commanded  a  view  of  the  city.  Amongst  these  rains  stands 
a  solitary  tree,  of  a  species  altogether  strange  to  this  country. 
It  bears  every  mark  of  high  antiquity,  its  originally  enor- 
mous trunk  "being  worn  away,  and  sliattered  by  time, 
while  its  spreading  and  evergreen  branches  are  |>articuJarIy 
beautiful,  and  adorned  with  long  tress-like  tendrils ;  proba- 
bly the  hut  descendant  of  those  hanging  gardens,  which 
were  numbered  among  the  wonders  of  the  world*. 

The  Pharos  of  Alexandria  was  aoelebrated  watch- 
tower,  built  upon  the  islet  of  Pharos  f.     It  was  finished 

•  Hbbbkm's  Mithrical  SeseareheM. — Miatic  NaOont,  toI.  n. 
f  See  Saturday  Magasine,  toI.  z3.,  pp.  40,  908. 


1841-] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


95 


in  the  first  year  of  the  Te\gn .  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus ; 
it  having  been  begun  several  years  before  by  order  of 
Ptolemy  Soter.  The  tower  was  a  large  square  structure 
of  white  marble,  and  is  stated  to  have  been  visible  a 
hundred  miles  distant.  It  consisted  of  several  stories 
and  galleriesy  with  a  lantern  at  top,  in  which  a  light  was 
continually  burning,  for  the  direction  of  sailors. 

Ptolemy  Evergetea,  the  aucceasor  of  Ptolemy  Philadel- 
phus, is  stated  by  several  ancient  writers  to  have  placed  ia 
this  Pharos,  a  mirror  which  represented  aceurately  every* 
thing  which  was  transacted  throughout  Egypt;  and 
some  writers  affirm,  that  with  this  mirror  an  enemy's 
fleet  could  be  seen  at  the  distance  of  100  leagues.  It  is 
Scarcely  necessary  to  observe  the  powers  of  this  mirror 
must  be  strangely  exaggerated;  on  which  account  the 
existence  of  the  mirror  has  been  disbelieved.  Abulfeda, 
however,  describes  the  mirror  to  have  been  of  Chinese  iron, 
and  adds,  that  soon  after  Mohammedanism  prevailed,  the 
Chinese  destroyed  it  by  stratagem.  Buffon  thinks,  that 
by  Chinese  iron,  Abulfeda  meant  polished  steel;  but 
there  seems  more  plausibility  in  the  conjecture  of  an 
acute  writer  in  the  PhilosophiceU  Magaxinef  1805,  who 
supposes  the  metal  to  have  been  what  is  known  to  us  by 
the  name  of  iutanag,  a  Chinese  metallic  compoimd, 
which  might  be  valued  then,  as  it  now  is,  for  the  high 
polish  it  receives.  A  French  writer.  Father  Abbat, 
attempts  to  explain  the  exaggeration  of  the  powers  of 
this  mirror,  by  observing  that^^ 

If  it  existed,  it  is  probable  that  ft  was  the  only  one  of 
its  kind,  and  that  no  other  means  had  been  then  round  of 
viewing  distant  objects  distinctly.  It  must,  therefore,  have 
been  considered  as  a  great  wonder  in  those  times,  and  must 
have  filled  vnth  astonishment  all  who  saw  its  effects,  which, 
had  they  not  been  greater  than  those  of  a  small  telescope, 
could  not  fail  to  be  regarded  as  a  prodigy.  Hence  it  is 
natoial  to  think,  that  these  effects  were  exaggerated  beyond 
all  probability,  and  even  possibility.  If  we  abstract  these 
from  the  accounts  of  the  mirror  of  Ptolemy,  the  evident 
exi^ggerations  of  ignorance,  nothing  will  remain  but,  that 
at  some  distance,  provided  nothing  was  interposed  between 
the  objects  and  the  mirror,  those  objects  were  seen  more 
distinctly  than  with  the  naked  eye;  and  that  with  the 
mirror  many  objects  were  seen,  which,  because  of  their 
diatancey  were  imperceptible  without  it*. 

Of  the  once  splendid  Pharos,  not  a  vestige  remains  at 
this  day ;  the  traveller  only  finding,  instead,  an  irregularly 
built  castle,  from  the  middle  of  which  rises  a  tower  whico 
serves  as  a  lighthouse,  but  not  to  remind  the  spectator, 
except  by  contrast^  of  the  beauty  and  grandeur  of  the 
ancient  structure. 

The  Temple  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  the  capital  of 
loni^,  la  Asia  Minor,  is,  by  many  olden  writers,  con- 
sidered to  have  been  the  most  surprising  of  these  won- 
ders. It  was  the  great  boast  of  the  Ephesians,  the 
principal  ornament  of  their  city,  and  the  depository  of 
the  imag«  of  their  tutelary  goddess,  Diana. ' 

This  superb  structure  was  situated  between  the  town 
and  harbour  of  Ephesus.  It  seems  to  have  been  several 
times  (Pliny  says  seven  times,)  ruined  and  rebuilt,  a 
circumstance  which  occurs  in  ancient  writers  as  to  the 
dates  and  descriptions  of  these  sucoessive  erections.  One 
of  them  is  expressly  affirmed  by  Li  vy  to  have  been  com- 
pleted in  the  reign  of  Servius  Tuilius,  who  flourished,  at 
the  latest,  500  years  before  Christ.  Another  is  described, 
which  was  originally  designed  by  Ctesiphon,  a  Cuossian 
artist,  541  years  before  the  Christian  era,  whose  plan 
was  continued  by  Demetrius,  a  priest  of  Diana,  and  at 
length  completed  by  Daphnis  of  Miletus,  and  a  citizen 
of  Ephesus.  One  of  its  destroyers  was  the  notorious 
Erostratus,  356  B.C.,  who  set  fire  to  the  building  on  the 
night  of  the  birth  of  Alexander  the  Great,  his  only 
object  in  burning  the  temple  being  to  perpetuate  his 
iiame.  The  temple,  however,  was  rebuilt  with  greater 
magnificence  than  ever,  by  the  Ephesians,  whose  women 

*  TnatbM  Drom  Lei  Amu$men$  FhilotophifHet,  M«iBeiU«.  1763. 


contributed  their  trinkets  towards  the  general  funds 
raised  for  this  purpose.  The  architect  was  the  celebrated 
Dinocrates,  who  also  built  the  city  of  Alexandria. 

The  dimensions  of  the  temple  were  420  feet  long,  by 
220  feet  broad.  It  had  127  columns,  each  60  feet  high, 
which  were  donations  from  kings.  Thirty-six  were 
carved;  the  order  Ionic.  It  had  eight  columns  in  front. 
The  folding  doors  were  of  cypress  wood,  which  had  been 
treasured  up,  highly  polished,  for  four  generations ;  and 
they  were  found  as  fresh  and  beautiful  400  years  after, 
us  when  new.  The  ceiling  was  of  cedar;  arid  the  steps 
for  asoending  the  roof,  of  a  single  stem  of  a  vine. 
The  whole  altar  was  full  of  the  works  of  Praxiteles. 
The  offerings  were  inestiknable ;  and,  among  them  was  a 
picture  by  Apelles,  representing  Alexander  armed  with 
thunder;  for  which  the  painter  was  paid  twenty  talents 
in  gold,  about  38,650/. 

This  last  temple  was  plundered  by  Nero,  who  carried 
off  an  immense  quantity  of  gold  and  silver ;  afterwards,  ia 
the  time  of  Gallieous,  by  Goths  from  beyond  the  Danube^ 
who  obtained  a  prodigious  booty ;  but  the  particulars  of 
its  final  distribution  are  not  on  record.  Its  ruins  are 
now  the  residence  of  cowherds  and  their  cattle:  from 
their  minute  examination  by  recent  -travellers,  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  cased  and  encrusted  with  rich  marbles. 
The  once  splendid  city  of  Ephesus  is  a  poor  village, 
called  Aiaioleik. 

Although  -we  find  the  frequent  destruction  of  the 
temple  of  Diana  narrated  in  history,  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive that  an  edifice  of  stone  could  have  been  entirely 
destroyed  by  fire,  or  if  destroyed,  that  it  could  have  been 
replaced  by  the  Ephesians,  when  we  find  that  all  the 
cities  of  Asia  Minor  contributed  towards  the  original 
building,  which  occupied  220  years  in  its  erection.  The 
narratives  of  its  destruction  may,  however,  possibly  relate 
to  the  burning  of  the  roof,  certain  roomS;  sacred  utensils, 
and  the  injury  of  the  costly  embellishments.  It  was,  at 
length,  sacked  of  its  valuables,  many  of  which  arc  stated 
to  adorn  the  mosques  of  Constantinople  to  this  day. 

The  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  was  a  gigantic  brasen 
image  of  Apollo,  whom  the  Rhodians  considered  their 
tutelar  deity.  Muratori  reckons  its  history  among  the 
fables  of  antiquity,  and  it  so  abounds  with  contradictions, 
that  it  would  be  a  more  tedious  than  useful  task  to 
attempt  to  reconcile  the  conflicting  statements. 

The  first  artisan  employed  upon  this  prodigious  statue 
is  said  to  have  been  Chares,  the  disciple  of  Lysippus, 
300  years  b.c.  He  had  scarcely  half  finished  the  work, 
when,  finding  that  he  had  expended  all  the  money  he  had 
received  for  the  whole,  he  was  overwhelmed  with  despair, 
and  hanged  himself.  Laches,  his  fellow  countryman, 
finished  the  work  in  the  space  of  three  Olympiads,  or 
twelve  years.  The  statue  was  placed  with  its  feet  upon 
the  two  moles  which  formed  the  entrance  of  the  harbour 
of  Rhodes ;  and  ships  passed  in  full  sail  between  its 
legs.     Its  height  was  70  cubits,  or  105  feet. 

A  winding  staircase  ran  to  the  top,  whence  could 
easily  be  discerned  the  shores  of  Syria,  and  the  ships 
that  sailed  on  the  coast  of  Egypt;  some  accounts  state 
that  in  the  right  hand  was  a  large  lantern,  from  which 
circumstance  the  statue  is  supposed  to  have  served  as  a 
light-house.  It  had  stood  scarcely  60  years,  when  the 
figure  was  thrown  from  its  place  by  an  earthquake,  and 
broken  off  at  the  knees.  Thus  it  remained  for  the  space 
of  894  years,  although  the  Rhodians  received  large  con- 
tributions to  repair  it;  but  they  divided  the  money 
amongst  themselves,  and  cunningly  frustrated  the  expect- 
ations of  the  donors,  by  saying  that  the  oracle  of  Delphi 
forbade  them  to  raise  the  statue  up  again  from  its  ruins. 
At  length,  a.d.  684,  it  was  sold  by  the  Saracens,  who 
then  became  masters  of  Rhodes,  to  a  Jewish  merchant 
of  Edessa,  the  value  of  the  brass  being  estimated  at 
36,000  pounds  English  money. 

Some  antiquarians  have  thought  that  the  fine  head  of 
the  sun,  which  is  stamped  upon  the  Rhodian  medals,  is 


96 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[March  6,  1841. 


a  representation  of  that  of  tlie  Colossus ;  and  the  con- 
jecture is  reasonable. 

The-  seventh  wonder  was  the  Tomb  of  Mausolus, 
king  of  Caria,  which  was  built  by  his  queen,  Artemisia, 
in  Halicamassus,  351  b.c.;  and  whence  a  superb  tomb 
is  to  this  day  called  a  Mausoleum.  The  principal  archi- 
tects of  Greece  laboured  on  this  magnificent  structure. 
It  was  an  oblong  square,  411  feet  in  compass,  and  1 30  feet 
high.  The  principal  side  was  adorned  with  36  columns, 
and  24  steps  led  to  the  entrance.  The  top  was  conical, 
and  surmounted  with  a  chariot  drawn  by  4  horses, 
sculptured  by  Pythes.  Bryaxes,  Scopas,  Leochares,  and 
Timotheus  made  the  decorations  on  the  four  sides;  and 
Vitruvius  thought  that  it  was  enriched  by  the  sculptures 
of  Praxiteles.  Artemisia  died  before  the  completion  of 
the  monument,  but  the  artists  finished  it  without  com- 
pensation, that  they  might  not  be  deprived  of  the  honour 
of  their  labour.  The  expenses  of  the  building  were  so 
immense,  as  to  have  occasioned  the  philosopher  Anaxa- 
goras  to  exclaim,  when  he  saw  it,  "How  much  money 
changed  into  stonea  1 " 


THE  CHINESE  FEAST  OF  THE  LANTERNS. 

Tkk  commencement  of  the  year  in  China  is  observed  as  the 
greatest  festival  in  the  empire,  and  l^e  lyhole  of  the  first 
month  is  a  season  of  continued  rejoicings.  Of  these  the  most 
splendid  is.  the  Feast  of  the  Lanterns,  which  is  held  on  the 
mteenth  day,'  when  there  is  such  a  profusion  of  lanterns 
hung  out  of  the  houses  that,  to  a  stranger,  the  whole  empire 
has  the  appearance  of  fiury  land.  All  ranks  contribute  to 
this  national  festival.  The  grandees  reti<ench  daily,  and 
reduce  ^e  expenses  of  their  table,  equipage,  and  dress,  in 
order  that  thev  may  expend  more  on  their  lanterns,  some  of 
which  are  said  to  cost  two  thousand  crowns.  The  niiddle 
classes  wiU  expend  fifty  or  sixty  crowns  on  the  occasion,- and 
even  the  poor^  will  exert  themselves  to  join  the  illumina- 
tion. In  short,  in  city  and  countiy,'--^n  the  coast  and  on 
the  rivers,  every  person  lights  up  his  painted  lanterns. 

These  lanterns  are  of  various  forms  and  sizes.  Some  of 
them  are  so  capacious  as  to  resemble  mansions,  whereui 
the  Chinese  eat,  lodge,  receive  visits,  have  baHs,*  and  act 
plays.  Those  which  are  hung  firom  the  houses  are  framed 
of  wood,  richly  gilt,  lapaimea,  and  carved  and  decorated 
with  streamers  of  silk  or  satin.  Over  these  frames  is 
stretched  fine  transparent  silk,  on  which  are  painted  rarious 
devices,  as  human  figures,  quadrupeds,  birds,  trees,  flowers, 
&c,j  the  colours  of  which  are  very  brilliant,  when  the  lan- 
tern is  lit  by  lamps  or  wax  candles.  The  largest  lanterns 
frequently  exhibit  figures  which  are  set  in  motion  by  hidden 
threads.  In  this  manner  the  spectators  outside  the  lanterns 
are  often  amused  by  the  epectacle  of  horses  galloping,  ships 
sailing,  and  armies  in  full  march.  Some  lanterns  are  lit  by 
serpents,  illun\inated  within  from  the  head  to  the  tail^  and 
contrived  to  writhe  about' as  if  they  were  aliyc.    ' 


Many  persons  pass  much  of  their  time  in  a  state  of  inqui- 
etude and  constant  irritation,  although  they  are  in  heidth, 
and  have  the  means  of  satisfying  the  common  wants  of  life, 
and  even  abundantly.  As  to  the  present,  they  Imve  some 
unreasonable  desire,  which  cannot  be  satisfied,' or  which 
cannot  be,  without  causing  a  sufiering  more  intolerable  than 
the  unsatisfied  desire.  As  to  the  past,  they  dwell  on  the 
memory  of  some  good  which  they  tnink  nught  have  been 
obtained,  or  on  some  wrong  or  blunder  by  which  some 
good  was  lost.  As  to  the  future,  they  dread  some  possible 
evil,  and  the  more  because  of  the  uncertainty  of  its  nature, 
and  of  the  time  and  maimer  of  its  coming,  and  which  may 
never  come.  Tliere  are  many  persons  who  are  habitually 
discontented.  They  find  everything  goes  wrong.  The 
weather  is  bad ;  their  food  is  not  as  they  would  have  it ; 
no  one  does  anything  in  the  right  time,  or  in  the  right 
manner;  or  that  is  done  which  should  not  be,  or  tliat  is 
omitted  which  should  be  done.  Such  persons  are  alwjU's 
groaning,  sighing,  or  grumbling.  They  dislike  everybody, 
and  everybody  dislikes  them ;  and  particularly,  their  abun- 
dant adcice  is  disliked,  and  their  manner  of  giving  it.— S. 


THE  FETISH. 

Thb  term  FeHsh  is  derived  either  from  the,  word  feUuey  a 
block  adored  as  an  idol ;  ov  from  fsticzeiraj  an  enchautres. 
The  Portuguese  first  gave  this  name  to  the  idols  of  the 
negroes  on  the  Senegal ;  and  afterwards  the  word  received 
a  more  extensive  meaning.  The  general  application  of 
^fetish  now  seems  to  be  to  an  object  worshipped,  not  represent- 
iBg  a  Uvixig  figure.  Such  a  figure  is  more  nroperly  ^>eakint, 
an  idol.  Hence,  stones,  arms,  vessels,  plants,  &c.,  wluoi 
are  objects  of  worship,  aiefaisheg. 

Among  the  natives  of  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa,  tlie  so- 
perstition  of  the  fetish  prevails  to  a  baneful  extent.  The 
fetishmen,  so  cidled  from  their  being  supposed  to  possess 
supernatural  powers,  infuse  into  the  minds  of  the  people 
the  belief  of  its  influence,  with  the  view  of  being  consulted 
on  every  occasion  of  trouble.  An  individual  who  has  Ixren 
robbed,*or  has  experienced  some  other  calamity,  immedi- 
ately consults  a  fetishman  to  discover  the  thief,  or  cause  of 
the  evil ;  who,  i^ter  making  use  of  some  pretended  magic 
art,  and-  havli^  obtained  answers  to  questions  put  by  him  to 
ibe  applicant,  unhesitatingly  denounces  some  unlortmiatd 
being  as  the  robber  or  witch.  The  fetishmen  are  without 
difficulty  bribed,'  and  they  accept  thfe  bribe  under  the 
cloak  of  having  first  consulted  the  deity,  who  had  agreed  to 
receive  a  certain  sum.  They  w^ill  afterwards  demand  more 
money  in  the  name.  of>  the,  fetish,  whom  they  will  state  as 
not  being  satisfied.  So  ^g^reat  is  the  dread  of  the  natives  to 
oflend  the  fetish,  that  tbey  even  pawn  their  own  children 
to  raise  tlie  means  of  appeasing  his  wrath.  When  a  person 
is  afflicted  with  any 'alarming  disease,  application  fbr  relief 
is  made  to  the  fetisnman,'  who,  perhaos,  wiU  order  an  egg 
near  hatch^g,or  a  chioken,-  to  be  laid  on  a  certain  spot  in 
some  highway,  .in  order  to  transfer  the  complaint  to  the 
person  who  mieht  unthinkingly  tread  upon  it.  Fasseogen 
noticing  any  of  these  chaiims  lying  in  their  way,  carefully 
avoid  them,  and  no  one  will  dare  to  remove  them  out  of 
their  path. 

At  Capo  Coast,  the  wom^n,  who  are  generally  employed 
in  celebrating  the  yam  harvest,  make  public  ofieiings  in  a 
body  to  the  great,  letish;  which  is  a  large  rock  lying  close 
to  tne  walls  of  the  castle.  It  breaks  the  great  waves  of  the 
sea  that  incessantly  d^  against  it,'  and  thus  preserves  the 
fortification  firom  injury  by  the  euige.  Another  grent  fetish 
which  they  have  is  a  salt  pond,  in  which  laxge  and  delicious 
mullets  are  taken. 

"  Previous  to  the  ofFerine;  to  the  fetish,  consisting,  generally, 
of  yams,  eggs,  palm  ou,  and  tlio  blood  of  some  animiJ, 
being  made,  the  women  with  their  faces  and  Ihnbs  chiUked, 
parade  the  town  in  a  body,  each  carrying  her  own  portion 
m  a  calabash,  or  earthen  Vessel..  They  men  visit  Uie  rock, 
on  which  they  deposit  their  oblations;  and,  no  sooner  do 
they  depart  than  the  turkey  buzzards,  apparently  aware 
of  what  is  going  on,  aipproach  iLnd  devomr  the  offer- 
ings; and  it  is  considered  a  great  ofiPeade  to  the  fetish  to 
destroy  any  of  these  birds. 

'  All  families  of  consequence  have  also  their  own  private 
fetish, .  which  they  keep  concealed  in  their  houses,  but 
denote  its  presence  there  by  signs  hung  outside  on  the  doors. 
This  has.  a  great  eflFect  in  deterring  thieves  from  the 
premises*.  ' 

Captain  Tuckey  describes  a  fetish  which  he  saw  at  m- 
booma,  on  the  River  Congo.  It  was  about  the  sixeoU 
large  doll,  and  the  most  grotesque  figure  im^inable.  1  li^se 
fetishes  are  indifferentiy  carved  out  of  wood,  or  made  oi 
xags,  the  eyes  and  teeth  are  of  sliells,  and  the  whole  apF^ 
ance  as  hideous  as  the  workmansliip  is  clumsy.  They  are 
such  things  as  children  would  contrive  in  sport.  ^^^'^  t 
less,  they  are  unceasingly  worshipped  and  pra3'ed  to,  thong 
with  no  great  ceremony  or  devotion.  When  a  gl«ss  o 
brandy  is  given  to  an  African,  he  puts  it  to  his  lips,  tiw» 
raises  his  fetish,  into  whose  face  he  puffis  his  breath  onw  or 
twice,  with  a  blovring  whistling  noise ;  and  then  he  swaltow 
the  dram.  A  similar  action,  or  a  whisper  in  the  ear,  takw 
place  whenever  the  fetish  is  consulted. 

•  Communicated  by  M^jor  Ricketts  to  the  Littrary  Gatette. 


.LONDON : 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAXD-    ^ 

PUBUWSD  IN  WKKKI.Y  KUMMM,  VKtCM  OsR  TjeNNV,  ^NP  ••"«  MOSTltt 

Parts,  prick  Sispsmcm. 
Bold  by  aU  BookMUon  and  Kewftvendors  Is  tba  Kiaydom. 


^ 


Sdlurlra^ll        Mu^mnt. 


m.  558. 


MABCH 


13™.  1841.  {„„»^^_ 


THE    PHILOSOPHER    LEIBNITZ. 


The  above  cut  represents  a  house,  which,  however 
remarkAble  for  its  form  and  appearance,  derives  its  chief 
interest  from  having  been  the  residence  of  Godfrey 
\Villiam  Leibnitz,  an  eminent  natural  philosopher  and 
mathematician  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Leibnitz  was  bom  at  I^cipsic,  in  the  year  1646.  His 
father,  secretary  of  the  University,  dyinr  whep  Godfrey 
was  only  six  years  old,  the  latter  was  pUced  at  school, 
where  he  distinguished  hinuelf  by  the  ardour  with  which 
he  studied  the  classical  writers;  and  he  performed  his 
task  with  sucb  ease  and  quickness  that  he  used  to  have 
time  to  assist  his  less  precocious  school-fellows  in  the 
prepvation  of  their  lessons.     At  the  age  of  fifteen  he 

"Voi-  XVIIL 


went  to  the  University  of  Leipsic,  afterwards  to  that 
of  Jena,  and  agun  to  Leipsic.  Here  he  studied  philo- 
sophy and  mathematics,  and  also  became'  so  familiar 
with  the  writings  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  other  Greek 
philosophers,  that  be  used  to  ramble  about  the  woods  for 
a  whole  day  at  a  Urae,  pondering  on  what  he  had  read, 
and  endeavouring  to  reconcile  the  discordant  doctrines 
of  his  favourite  writers. 

'  His  advancement  in  the  study  of  law  was  as  raj^d'as' 
that  in  classical  learning,  insomuch  that  at  the  sfc  of 
twenty  he  was  made  Doctor  of  Laws  in  the  University 
of  Altorf,  and  was  offered  the  Professorship  of  Law  in 
the  same  university.     I<eibnit2  declined  the  laiter  offifXt 


98 


THE  SATUBDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Mahch  la. 


aud  went  to-  Nureinburg,  where  he  became  secretary  to 
a  society  of  alchemists.  The  reader  is  awj^re  that  the 
chemistry  of  those  days  consisted  principally  in  attempts 
to  discbvdr  Che  jjxchni  oC  capverting  Haser  metals  into 
gold,  and  of  effecting  other  wonders  which  are  now 
known  to  be  unattainable.  Leibnitz,  however,  did  not' 
remain  long  in  this  capacity;  fbr  having  gained  the 
favour  of  an.  influential  man  at  Mayerice,  he  was  advised 
to  apply  himself  to  the  study  of  history  and  jurispru- 
dence, with  a  view  to  qualify  himself  for  some  creditable 
office  at  Frankfort.  Here  he  soon  gave  another  instance 
of  the  versatility  of  his  talents,  by  writing  an  admirable 
treatise  on  the  best  method  of  teaching  and  learning 
jurisprudence.  This  work,  and  another,  written  about 
the  same  time,  caused  him  to  be  appointed  Councillor  of 
the  Chamber  of  Revision,  in  the  cnancery  of  the  electo- 
rate of  Mayence. 

While  he  filled  this  last-mentioned  office,  his  compre- 
hensive mind  was  employed  on  subjects  so  very  diverse 
that  none  but  such  a  genius  as  his  could  have  had  any 
success  in  them  all.  He  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  against  a  Polish  writer  who  had  im- 
pugned that  doctrine.  He  wrote  two  treatises  on  mecha- 
nics, which  astonished  the  philosophers  of  that  age,  by 
the  boldness  and  tMig^nality  of  the  ideas  developed  in 
them;  and  he  also  planned  a  new  Encyclopaedia  of 
General  Knowieige. 

At  diis  time  the  military  successes  of  Louis  the 
Fourteenth  had  ttmde  his  capital  the  centre  to  which 
distinguished  men  firom  various  countries  resorted ;  and 
Leibnitz,  "who  had  a  strong  desire  to  visit  Paris,  was 
enabled  to  do  so  as  a  companion  to  the  son  of  his 
patron.  Here  his  genius  took  a  new  turn,  by  being 
applied  to  the  study  of  mathematics,  a  science  to  which 
he  had  hitherto  paid  but  a  small  share  of  attention. 
Huyghens,  wlto  had  written  a  valuable  treatise  on  the 
oscillation  of  pendtdums*  was  then  at  Paris,  and  an 
intimacy  arose  )»etween  him  and  Leibnitz,  which  led  the 
latter  to  attend  to  numerous  questions  in  natural  philo- 
sophy. At  this  time  also  he  gave  an  honourable  proof 
of  the  steadiness  with  which  he  adhered  to  protestant 
religious  principles;  for  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Paris,  appreciating  his  distinguished  talents,  offered  him 
a  seat  in  their  body,  provided  he  would  profess  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion :  this  he  declined  to  do. 

His  patron  dying  in  1673,  Leibnitz  came  to  England, ' 
where  he  was  received  with  much  distinction  by  the 
philosophers,  who  corresponded  and  conversed  with  him 
on  many  subjects  of  science.  But  his  prospects  re- 
ceived a  sudden  check  by  the  death  of  the  elector  of 
Mayenoe,  ttnd  the  consequent  discontinnanoe  of  the  pen- 
sion which  Leibnitz  had  received.  The  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick now  testified  lus  respect  for  the  phfloaopher,  by 
granting  him  an  oftce  and  a  pension,  with  liberty  to 
devote  as  ismt^  of  his  time  as  he  pleased  to  study. 
Leibnitz  then  devoted  upwards  9i  a  }^Bar  to  the  unre- 
mitting study  of  mathematics,  and  then  proceeded  to 
take  his  residence  at  Hanover,  the  capital  of  the  Duke 
of  Brunswick's  territory,  where  he  wrote  a  treatise  on 
the  national  law  of  the  Germanic  empire.  When  the 
duke  died,  his  successor  (afterwards  King  George  the 
First  of  England)  continued  to  Leibnitz  the  favours 
which  had  already  been  awarded  him,  and  ako  directed 
bim  to  write  a  history  of  the  house  of  Brunswick.  This 
work  he  commenced  on  such  an  immense  scale  that  the 
main  body  of  the  history  has  never  been  published :  he 
spent  three  years  in  traversing  Germany  and  Italy,  for 
the  collection  of  materials,  and  the  published  portions 
throw  great  light  on  the  early  history  of  the  Germanic 
tribes  in  general,  though  circumstances  prevented  him 
from  completing  that  portion  which  related  to  Bruns- 
wick. 

Leibnitz  was  a  man  of  am'able  mind;  and  being  dis- 
tressed at  the  sufferings  whidi  the  Huguenots,  or 
French   protestants,  experienoedy  h^  9aA  Bossuet,  a 


learned  French  Catholic  prelate,  entered  into  a  corres- 
pondence, with  a  view  of  trying  whether  the  differences 
between  the  two  fojrmt^c^  £|^th  pighf  no^  l^  ^econdled. 
In  this  correspondence  Leibnitz  displayed  as  extensive 
a  knowledge  of  theology  as  he  had  previously  shovvn  of 
other  subjects :  but  the  attempt  failed  in  its  object 

Leibnitz  having  been  chosen  a  felloe  of.  the  Ro^-al 
Society  of  London,  and  seeing  how  much  such  a  society 
tended  to  the  advancement  of  science,  he  recommended 
the  king  of  Prussia  to  found  a  similar  society  at  Berlin, 
which  was  accordingly  done  in  1701,  Leibnitz  himself 
being  appointed  president,  with  liberty  to  reside  either 
there  or  elsewhere.  The  Czar  of  Russia  and  the  Em- 
peror of  Germany  also  consulted  him  on  subjects  which 
related  to  the  progress  of  science,  and  he  became  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in  Europe. 
In  his  correspondence  and  literary  productions  he  em- 
ployed either  the  Latin  or  the  French  language,  because 
those  were  the  two  which  were  most  likely  to  be  under- 
stood by  the  learned  men  to  whom  his  writings  were 
addressed:  the  consequence  was  that  his  mother  tongue, 
the  German,  became  so  much  neglected  by  him,  that  the 
few  pieces  which  he  wrote  therein  were  in  very  inferior 
style. 

A  very  profound  and  diffoult  braadi  of  the  mathe- 
matics, called  the  differential  calciilitt»  tke  nature  of  which 
can  hardly  be  explained  tx)  general  readerS)  was  invented 
both  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  by  Ldbnitz,  each  one  pro- 
ceeding in  a  path  different  firom  tlie  other.  Long  con- 
troversies were  carried  on  between  the  plnlosophers  of 
England  and  France,  as  to  which  of  the  inventors 
deserved  most  honour ;  but  in  modern  times  the  acrimony 
which  distinguished  this  controversy  has  died  away,  and 
men  now  know  how  to  do  honour  tcr  both  those  great 
mathematicians,  without  striving  to  place  one  on  a  higher 
level  than  the  other. 

The  personal  or  devnestic  eharaeter  of  Leibnitz  does 
not  yield  those  points  of  interest  which  so  fi^uentljr 
arise  from  the  contemplation  of  a  distinguished  man  in 
the  bosom  of  his  family.  Leibnitz  was  never  married. 
One  of  his  biographers  says : — **  At  the  i^  of  fifty  he 
had  some  thoughts  of  forming  a  matrimonial  coimexion; 
but  as  the  lady  he  wished  to  espouse  desired  time  to 
t^onsider  his  proposal,  Leibnitz  also  made  his  own  re- 
flections on  the  subject,  and  nnlnckiiy  came  to  the 
conclusion  that,  though  marriage  is  a  good  thing,  a 
wise  man  ought  to  consider  of  it  all  his  me^  Leibnitz, 
ilthough  of  a  strong  constitution,  gradually  sank  under 
ihe  immense  mental  -exertions  to  which  he  subjected 
himself.  He  died  on  the  14th  of  November,  1716> 
the  age  of  seventy,  In  person  he  was  of  a  middle  sta- 
ture, and  had  a  sweet  expression  of  countenance,  blended 
with  a  studious  air.  tie  was  short-sighted,  bat  his 
vision  continued  excellent,  even  to  his  last  moments, 
enabling  him  to  read  the  smallest  print,  and  to  write  in 
a  small  fine  character.  He  was  of  a  thin  habit,  but  of 
a  vigorous  temperament ;  drank  little,  supped  plentifiJlV) 
and  retired  to  rest  immediately  afterwards, — a  plan  whicbi 
in  most  cases,  would  be  evidently  detrimental  to  health. 
He  remained  in  bed  only  a  few  hours,  and  sometimes  he 
would  even  sleep  in  his  chair,  and  on  awaking  would 
proceed  to  his  studies,  whatever  hour  it  might  be.  MTien 
deeply  immersed  in  study,  he  was  known  to  have  scarcely 
left  his  chair  for  days  together. 

There  have  been  few  men  who  have  approached  so 
near  as  Leibnitz  to  the  rank  of  a  universal  genius 
Theology,  classical  learning,  jurisprudence,  history,  w*" 
thematics,  natural  philosophy, — all  occupied  his  atten- 
tion in  turn,  and  all  received  the  stamp  of  has  powcrftd 
mind,  and  made  him  the  wonder  of  his  age.  But  the 
reader  must  not  infer  that  the  possession  of  universal 
genius  is  necessary  to  advance  a  man  to  an  eminent 
position  among  his  fellow-men.  A  clear  and  steady  mind, 
devoted  assiduously  to  one  subject,  will  often  prodnce  re- 
sults more  valuable  to^  soeiety  than  if  it  were  dii*ected  to . 


W 


1841.1 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


99 


several ;  and  the  reason  wliy  sncli  is  the  case  will  readily 
be  understood.  An  attention  to  one  subject  concentrates 
and  systemizes  the  knowledge  which  we  possess  on  that 
subject,  and  renders  it  more  available  and  valuable.  It 
has  been  observed  of  Leibnitz,  that  though  it  is  difficult 
to  name  any  department  of  human  knowledge  which  has 
not  profited  by  his  labours,  or  received  fresh  illustration 
from  his  genms,  yet  his  reputation  would  perhaps  have 
been  more  solid  and  permanent  had  he  less  ambitiously 
grasped  the  whole  circle  of  human  science.  He  has 
been  excelled  in  theology,  in  classical  learning,  in  juris- 
prudence, in  history,  in  mathematics,  and  in  natural 
philosophy,  by  others  who  have  devoted  their  whole  at- 
tention to  one  or  other  of  these  subjects ;  whereas  he 
might  probably  have  placed  himself  on  a  pre-eminent 
position  in  some  one  of  them,  had  he  more  especially 
devoted  himself  to  it.  While,  therefore,  we  admire  the 
wonderful  range  of  his  genius,  and  respect  his  memory 
for  the  large  accession  which  he  made  to  the  sum  of 
human  knowledge,  we  must  not  think  any  the  more 
meanly  of  those  members  of  society, — ^wheUier  in  past 
or  present  ages, — ^in  our  own  or  any  other  country, — 
^ho,  with  a  less  gigantic  grasp  of  intellect,  ha^  e  devoted 
their  powers  to  one  particular  department  of  study, 
making  others  subordinate  to  it 


Ths  world  amnmd  ns,  with  all  its  ehaiige»-<-4he  shariness  of 
oar  stay  here — ^the  uncertaintj^  of  all  things  with  which  we 
are  conversant  in  this  transitory  life,  from  the  seed  that 
folleth  into  the  ground  to  die  and  burst  into  new  life  with 
the  return  of  spring,  to  the  varied  scenes  of  that  busy  theatre 
on  which  man  himself,  lord  of  created  nature,  acts  his  little 
day — all  these  things  teach  us  plainly  that  tlds  is  but  a  life 
of  tmly— thai  this  vain  earth  is  not  our  rest. DAnsvirsr. 


CuBions  aneodotea  an  related  of  the  effect  of  music  upon 
animals.  Thorville  has  given  the  following  amusing  aocoixnt 
of  his  experiments.  **  While  a  man  was  pbying  on  a  trump- 
marine,  1  made  my  observations  on  a  cat,  a  dog,  a  horse,  an 
ass,  a  hind,  some  cows,  small  birds,  and  a  cock  and  hens,  who 
were  in  a  yard  under  the  window.  The  cat  was  not  the  least 
affected ;  the  horse  stopped  short  from  time  to  time,  raising 
his  head  up  now  and  tlien,  as  if  he  were  feeding  on  mss ; 
the  dog  continued  for  above  an  hour  seated  on  his  hind-legs, 
looking  stedfastly  at  the  player;  the  ass  did  not  discover 
the  le^  indication  of  his  oeing  touched,  eating  his  thistles 
peaceably;  the  hind  lifted  up  her  hu^e  wide  ears,  and 
seemed  very  attentive ;  the  cows  stopt  a  little,  and,  after 
gazing  at  us,  went  forward  ;  some  little  birds  that  were  in 
an  ayiaryy  and  others  on  trcKes  and  bushes,  almost  tore  their 
little  throats  with  singine ;  but  the  cock  who  minded  only 
his  hma,  and  the  hens  who  were  soldy  employed  in  scraping 
a  neighbouring  dunghill,  did  not  show  in  any  manner,  that 
the  frump-marine  aSforded  them  pleasure." 

That  dogs  have  an  ear  for  music  cannot  be  doubted: 
Steibelt  had  one  which  evidently  knew  one  piece  of  music 
from  the  other;  and  a  modem  composer  had  a  pug  dog 
that  frisked  merrily  about  the  room,  when  a  lively  piece 
was  played;  but  when  a  slow  melody  was  performed, 
particulajrly  Dussek's  Opera,  15,  he  would  seat  himself 
down  by  the  piano  and  prick  up  his  ears  with  intense 
attention,  until  the  player  came  to  the  fprty-eighth  bar ; 
but  as  the  discord  was  struck  he  would  yell  most  piteously, 
and  with  drooping  tail  seek  refuge  from  the  unpleaaaitt 
sound  under  Uie  chairs  or  tables. 

Eastcot  relates  that  a  hare  left  her  retreat  to  listen  to 
some  choristers,  who  were  nngiuf  on  the  banks  of  the 
Mersey,  retiring  when  they  ceased  singiof  ,  and  reappear* 
in<;  as  tliey  recommenced  their  strains.  6ossuet  asserts» 
lliat  an  officer,  confined  in  the  Bastille,  drew  forth  mice  and 
spiders  to  begoile  his  solitade  with  his  flute;  and  a  moun- 
tebank in  Paris,  had  taught  rats  to  dance  on  the  rope  in 
perfect  tinoe.  Chateaubriand  states  as  a  positive  fiict,.that 
he  lias  seen  the  xsaltle-snake,  in  Upper  Canada,  appeased  by 
a  mnacian  ;  and  the  concert  given  m  Paris  to  two  elephants 
in  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  leaves  no  doubt  in  regard  to  the 
effect  of  harmony  on  the  brute  creation.  Every  instrument 
seemed  to  operate  distinctly  as  the  several  modes  of  pieces 
were  alow  or  lively,  until  the  excitement  of  these  int^gent 
<^reatuTes  had  been  carried  to  such  an  extent  thai  farther 
experiments  were  deemed  dangerous^— Milldi oxn. 


SILK  FROM  SPIDERS. 

The  extensive  use  which  is  made  of  silk  goods,  and  the 
value  they  have  acquired  in  all  civilized  countries,  have 
led  to  various  experiments  amongst  ingenious  persons, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  a  subst&ce  or 
substances  might  not  be  obtained  from  other  sources, 
which  should  answer  the  same  purpose  as  that  to  which 
the  production  of  the  silk  caterpillar  is  at  present  so 
widely  applied. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  a  method  was 
discovered  in  France  of  obtaining  silk  from  the  nests  of 
some  species  of  spiders.  It  is  well  known  that  besides 
the  ordinary  web  of  spiders,  there  is  a  small  silky  bag 
spun  by  particular  species,  for  the  protection  of  their 
eggs.  These  bags  may  often  be  found  in  the  comers  of 
windows,  under  the  eaves  of  houses,,  in  cellars  and 
vaults,  in  hollow  trees,  and  in  similar  protected  situ* 
ations,  where  neither  wind  nor  rain  can  reach  them* 
They  are  much  stronger  and  more  durable  in  their  tex- 
ture than  the  webs  formed  to  entrap  the  spider *s  prey, 
And  in  shape  they  resemble  the  silkworm's  cocoon  when 
it  is  prepared  for  the  distaff.  When  £rst  formed,  these 
spiders'  bags  arc  of  a  gray  coloui*,  but  by  exposure  to 
the  air  and  dust  they  soon  acquire  a  blackish  hue. 

It  was  from  the  bags  thus  formed  by  spiders  around 
their  eggs  that  silk  was  procured,  at  the  time  above 
stated,  by  a  M.  Bon,  whose  dissertation  on  the  naode  of 
obtaining  and  preparing  the  silk  is  extremely  interesting. 
An  abstract  from  this  dissertation,  together  with  the 
observation.^  made  by  M.  Reaumur,  and  other  celebrated 
naturalists,  on  the  means  which  the  spider  possesses  of 
furnishing  the  material  in  question,  noay  not  be  unac- 
ceptable to  our  readers. 

The  method  of  classing  spiders  is  usually  according 
to  their  different  colours,  whether  black,  brown,  yellow, 
&c.,  or  sometimes'  by  the  number  and  arrangement  of 
their  eyes,  some  sliders  possessing  as  many  as  ten  of 
these  organs, — others  eight, — and  others  again  six.  M. 
Bon  notices  only  t^ro  kinds  as  silk-producing  spiders, 
and  distinguishes  then%  from  each  other,  as  having  either 
long  or  short  legs,  the  latter  producing  the  finest  qua- 
lity of  raw  silk. 

The  spider  is  prorid'td  wiUi  fine  papillae,  or  small 
nipples,  placed  in  the  hi'«ider  part  of  its  body,  which 
are  like  so  many  wire-dra\fing  irons,  to  form  and  mould 
a  glutinous  liquor,  with  wiUch  the  insect  is  provided, 
and  which,  on  being  drawn  out  through  these  papillas, 
and  exposed  to  the  air,  im. mediately  dries,  and  forma 
silk.  Each  of  these  papillsB  consists  of  a  number  of 
smaller  ones,  so  minute  as  n  ot  to  be  discernible,  and 
only  made  evident  by  the  effects  produced.  Several  dis- 
tinct threads  issue  from  each,  th  e  number  of  whioh,  on 
account  of  their  extreme  finenei^s,  cannot  be  counted 
with  any  accuracy.  The  prindptU  papillae  are  ^vq  in 
number;  but  these  being  made  up  of  innumerable 
smaller  ones,  and  each  of  these  smi  wer  ones  emitting  a 
beautiAilly  fine  thread,  the  total  n'umber  of  threads 
uniting  to  form  the  filament  used  by  the  spider  is  asto- 
nishingly great*  By  this  beautiful  arrangement  the 
tfareack  can  be  applied  in  a  greater  or  less  number, 
according  to  the  strength  required  in  th^  spider's  work; 
and  when  all  these  threads  unite  md  form '.  one,  as  they  do 
at  the  distance  of  about  the  tenth  of  an  incl  \  from  the  body 
of  the  insect,  the  tenacity  of  the  principai^  thread  is  in- 
creased, and  its  strength  is  g^reater  than  h^  it  were  not 
thus  composed  of  many  individual  filaments  • 

In  proceeding  to  notice  M.  Bon's  attei  npt,  and  in 
giving  his  opinions  on  the  subject,  it  is  neces:  ^ary  to  pre- 
mise that  that  gentleman,  deUghted  with  his  -discovery, 
and  determined  to  pursue  it  under  all  difSci  dties,  was 
unconsciously  led  to  exaggerate  the  advantages  c  onnected 
with  it,  and  to  make  comparisons  between  the  s  ilkworm 
and  the  spider,  as  nlk-producing  animals,  whii  ^h  were 
not  wholly  founded  on  fhct. 

A  quantity  of  the  spiders'  bags  were  first  coi  looted 

558—2 


100 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Mauch  13. 


by  M.  Bon,  and  then  treated  in  the  following  manner. 
Twelve  or  thirtc^eu  ounces  of  the  bags  were  beaten  with 
the  hand  or  by  a  stick,  until  they  were  entirely  freed 
fi'OTn  dust.  They  were  next  washed  in  warm  water, 
which  was  continually  changed,  until  it  no  longer 
became  clouded  or  discoloured  by  the  bags  under  pro- 
cess. After  this  they  were  steeped  in  a  large  quantity 
of  water,  wherein  soap,  salt-petre,  and  gum-arabic  had 
been  dissolved.  The  whole  was  then  set  to  boil  over  a 
gentle  fire,  during  three  hours,  after  which  the  bags  were 
rinsed  in  clear  warm  water,  to  discharge  the  soap.  They 
were  then  set  out  to  dry,  during  several  days,  and  the 
carding  operation  was  then  performed,  with  cards  differ- 
ing from  the  usual  sort  only  in  being  much  finer.  Thus 
was  a  peculiar  ash-coloured  silk  obtained,  which  was  spun 
without  difficulty,  which  took  readily  all  kinds  of  dyes, 
and  might  have  been  wrought  into  any  kind  of  silken 
fabric.  M.  Bon  had  stockings  and  gloves  made  from  it, 
some  of  which  he  presented  to  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Paris,  and  others  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 

The  silk  was  affirmed  by  M.  Bon  to  be  stronger  and 
finer  than  the  common  sort,  and  according  to  his  state- 
ment, spiders  were  much  more  productive  than  silk- 
worms, and  there  were  besides  the  following  advantages 
relating  to  them :  spiders  hatch  spontaneously,  without 
any  care,  in  the  months  of  August  and  September,  the 
old  spiders  dying  soon  after  they  have  laid  their  eggs  : 
the  young  ones  live  for  ten  or  twelve  months  without 
food,  and  continue  in  their  bags  without  growing,  until 
the  hot  weather,  by  putting  their  viscid  juices  in  motion, 
induces  them  to  come  forth,  spin,  and  nin  about  in 
search  of  food. 

The  only  obstacle,  therefore,  to  establishing  a  consider- 
able manufacture  from  these  spider  bags,  that  is,  the  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  them  in  sufficient  abundance,  was 
attempted  to  be  obviated  by  breeding  young  spiders  in 
convenient  apartments  on  a  large  scale.  M.  Bon  com- 
missioned a  number  of  persons  to  collect  and  bring  to  him 
all  the  short-legged  spiders  they  could  possibly  obtain, 
lliese,  as  he  received  them,  he  inclosed  in  paper  coffins, 
or  in  pots  covered  with  papers,  which  papers,  as  well  as 
the  coffins,  were  pricked  over  fheir  surface  with  pin- 
lioles,  to  admit  air  to  the  prisoners.  The  spiders  were 
duly  fed  with  flies,  and  after  s^me  time  it  was  found  on 
inspection  that  the  greater  part  of  them  had  formed 
their  nests.  It  was  contended  that  these  nests  afforded 
much  more  silk  in  proportion  to  their  weight  than  those 
of  the  silkworm,  in  proof  of  which  it  was  asserted  that 
thirteen  ounces  yielded  nearly  four  ounces  of  pure  silk, 
two  ounces  of  which  were  sufficient  to  make  a  pair  of 
stockings;  whereas,  stockings  made  of  common  silk 
weighed  seven  or  eight  ounces.  It  had  been  objected 
by  some  persons  that  the  spider  was  venomous,  and 
tliai  this  evil  quality  extended  to  the  silk  obtained  from 
it.  M.  Bon,  in  aniwer  to  this  prejudice,  affirmed  that 
he  had  several  times  been  bitten  by  spiders,  when  no 
injury  had  followed;  and  that  the  silk,  so  far  from 
being  pernicious,'  had  been  found  useful  in  stanching 
and  healing  woimds,  its  natural  gluten  acting  as  a 
kind  of  balsam.  Willing  to  extract  every  possible  good 
from  his  favourite  pursuit,  he  subjected  the  spider- 
silk  to  chemicAl  analysis,  and  obtained  from  it  a  volatile 
salt,  preparing  which  in  the  same  manner  used  for  the 
once  celebra^d  Guttm  Anglicaruit,  he  produced  drops, 
which,  as  he  believed,  possessed  vet  greater  efficacy: 
he  called  this  preparation  MontpeUer  dropSy  and  pre- 
scribed its  use  in  all  lethai^ic  diseases. 

M.  Bon's  establishment  for  the  rearing  of  spiders,  at 
length  engrossed  a  considerable  share  of  public  attention, 
and  the  subject  being  considered  worthy  a  serious  inves- 
tigation, M.  Reaumur  was  deputed  by  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy of  Paris  to  inquire  into  the  merits  of  this  new 
silken  material.  From  the  patient  examinations  of  this 
eminant  naturalist,  it  appeared  that  there  were  many 
seric/us  objections  to  this  plan;  and  such  as  were  likelv 


to  prove  quite  insurmountable*  In  the  first  place,  the 
natural  fierceness  of  spiders  renders  them  unfit  to  U 
bred  together.  On  distributing  four  or  five  thousand 
of  these  insects  into  cells  or  companies  of  from  fifty  to 
one  or  two  hundred,  it  was  found  that  the  larger  spiders 
quickly  killed  and  ate  the  smaller,  so  that  in  a  short 
space  of  time,  the  cells  were  depopulated,  scarcely  more 
than  one  or  two  being  found  in  each  cell.  In  the  next 
place,  the  silk  of  the  spider  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  silk* 
worm  both  in  lustre  and  strength;  and  produces  less 
material  in  proportion,  than  can  be  made  available  for 
the  purposes  of  the  manufacture.  The  filament  of  the 
8ptder*s-bag  can  only  support  a  weight  of  thirty-six 
grains,  while  that  of  the  silkworm  will  sustain  a  weight 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  grains.  Thus  four  or  five 
threads  of  the  spider  must  be  brought  together  to  equal 
one  thread  of  the  silkworm,  and  as  it  is  impossible  that 
these  should  be  applied  so  accurately  over  each  other  as 
not  to  leave  little  vacant  spaces  between  them,  the  light 
is  not  equally  reflected,  and  the  lustre  of  the  material 
is  consequently  inferior  to  that  in  which  a  solid  thread 
is  used.  A  third  great  disadvantage  of  the  spider's  silk 
is,  that  it  cannot  be  wound  off  the  ball  like  that  of  the 
silkworm,  but  must  necessarily  be  carded.  By  this 
latter  prcicess,  its  evenness,  which  contributes  so  mate- 
rially to  its  lustre,  is  destroyed.  That  the  silk  articles 
produced  from  this  material  are  really  deficient  in  that 
glossy  appearance  which  constitutes  the  principal  beautr 
of  silk^  is  fully  confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  M. 
le  Hire,  who,  when  the  stockings  of  M.  Bon  were  pre- 
sented to  the  Royal  Academy,  immediately  noticed  tlieir 
want  of  lustre.  The  last  objection  we  shall  notice 
against  the  raising  of  spiders,  was  one  containing  a  cal- 
culation considered  to  be  an  exaggerated  one,  and  it  has 
been  regretted  that  M.  Reaumur  should  have  taken  ex- 
trefme  cases,  if  not  actually  improbable  ones,  to  confute 
a  system  so  little  likely  to  advance  itself  as  that  of  M. 
Bon.  The  advantages  of  the  culture  of  silk  from  silk- 
worms when  compared  with  its  production  from  spiders, 
must  be  too  apparent  to  every  reflecting  person  to  render 
it  necessary  to  dwell  long  on  them,  or  in  any  way  to 
exaggerate  them.  M.  Reaumur's  comparison  is  to  this 
effect.  The  largest  cocoons  weigh  four,  and  the 
smaller  three  grains  each ;  spider-bags  do-  not  weigh 
above  one  grain  each ;  And,  after  being  cleared  of  their 
dust,  have  lost  two-thirds  of  this  weight ;  therefore  the 
work  of  twelve  spiders  only  equals  that  of  one  silkworm; 
and  a  pound  of  spider-silk  would  require  for  its  produc- 
tion 27,648  insects.  But  as  the  bag^s  are  wholly  the 
work  of  the  females,  who  spin  them  as  a  deposit  for 
their  eggs,  it  follows  that  55,296  spiders  must  be  reared 
to  yield  one  pound  of  silk:  yet  this  will  only  be  obtained 
from  the  best  spiders ;  those  large  ones,  ordinarily  seen 
in  gardens,  &c.,  yielding  not  more  than  a  twelfth  part  of 
the  silk  of  the  others.  The  work  of  280  of  these  would 
therefore  not  yield  more  silk  than  the  produce  of  one 
industrious  silkworm,  and  663,552  of  them  would  only 
furnish  one  pound  of  silk ! 


An'oM  philosophical  ^ntleman  had  grown,  from  experience, 
very  cautious  in  avoiding  ill-natured  people.  To  endea- 
vour to  ascertain  their  disposition  he  made  use  of  his  legs 
one  of  which  was  remarlkabl  v  handsome,  the  other,  by 
some  accident,  crooked  and  deformed.  If  a  stranger  at  the 
first  interview  r^arded  his  ugly  leg  more  than  his  hand- 
some one,  he  doubted  him,  but  if  he  spoke  of  it,  and  took 
no  notice  of  his  huidsome  leg,  that  was  sufficient  to  deter- 
mine the  philosopher  to  have  no  further  acquaintance  with 
him.  Every  boay  has  not  this  two-legged  instrument ;  but 
everv  one.  with  a  little  fttteiiHon.  mAv  nfMwrve  richs  of  tins 


avoiding  the  acquaintance  w*  ».<>,»»  . . 

I  therefore  advise  those  querulous,  discontented,  unhappy 
people,  ifiithey  wish  to  be  re^>ected  and  beloved  by  others, 
and  happy  in  themselves,  to  ieave  ^  looking  iU  th  vgfy  l^g-" 
Dr.  Franklin, 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


101 


ON  CHESS. 

VI.  Origin  of  the  Names  op  the  Chess-men, 

concluded. 

The  Rook.  The  most  ancient  form  of  this  piece  after 
the  introduction  of  the  game  into  Europe  is  uncertain : 
but  it  was  probably  that  of  an  elephant,  as  appears  by 
Charlemagne's  chess-men :  and  this  form,  with  or  without 
a  tower,  has  been  retained  by  the  modem  Germans, 
Russians,  and  Danes. 

The  ^aniards,  Italians,  French  and  English  (as  Mr. 
Madden  remarks),  in  more  recent  times  adopted  a  tower  or 
castle  as  an  epitome  of  the  figure  (in  the  same  manner  as 
they  took  a  norse's  head  for  the  knight),  and  hence  arises 
the  strange  anomaly  of  a  castle  representing  the  swiftest 
piece  on  the  chess-board. 

The  earliest  form  of  the  chess  rook  is  preserved  on 
toe  ancient  seals  of  those  fiunilies  both  in  England  and 
Germany,  who  bear  chess  rooks  for  their  arms,  on  which 
subject  there  is  much  curious  information. 

Before  the  general  introduction  of  cards  the  game  of 
chess  was  a  great  fayourite  with  our  ancestors,  and  we 
gain  some  idea  of  the  high  esteem  in  which  it  was  held 
from  the  fact  that  no  fewer  than  twenty-six  English 
families  have  emblazoned  chess-boards  and  chess-rooks 
in  their  arms :  it  must  therefore  have  been  considered  a 
most  valuable  accomplishment.  Gwillim  in  his  Display 
of  Heraldry  endeavours  to  show  that  the  arms  borne 
by  distinguished  persons  contain  representations  of  im- 
plements or  instruments  which  generally  have  some  re- 
ktion  to  the  occupation  or  talents  of  the  first  owner  of 
those  arms.  After  speaking  of  the  peculiar  implements 
represented  in  various  arms,  he  proceeds :— - 

All  these  have  sundry  instruments,  which  may  be  (and 
doubtless  have  been)  borne  in  coat-armour ;  but  because  they 
are  not  usual  I  will  refer  them  to  each  man's  own  observa- 
tion, and  will  rive  some  instances  in  the  last  kind  of  arts  of 
delight,  which  we  call  Phyin^^  which  comprehendeth 
either  theatrical  recreation  or  other  games  whatsoever. 

And  forasmuch  as  their  first  institution  was  good,  and 
timt  they  are  in  themselves  the  commendable  exercises^ 
either  of  the  body  or  of  wit  and  invention  (and  if 
there  be  in  them  any  evil,  it  is  not  in  them  jer  m, 
but  per  eucidens^  because  they  are  abused  by  those  that 
do  practise  and  exercise  them),  I  have  thought  good  to 
annex  them  unto  the  same :  such  are  table  playing,  chess^ 
dice,  racket,  balloon,  &c.  The  things  wherewith  these  games 
are  practised,  are  borne  in  coat-armour,  as  by  these  examples 
following  may  appear. 

After  describing  the  arms  of  a  family  whose  shield 
contains  three  backgammon  boards,  he  proceeds  to  speak 
of  the  arms  of  the  Bodhenam  family. 

It  beareth  azure^  a  fess  between  three  chess  rooks  w^  by 
the  name  of  Bodenhamy  and  was  borne  by  that  great  lover 
and  promoter  of  heraldry,  Sir  Winfield  ^odenham,  Knt.  It 
teemeth  these  were  first  called  rooks,  for  being  the  defence 
of  all  the  rest;  and  therefore  they  stand  in  the  uttermost 
comers  of  the  chess-board,  as  frontier  castles.  This  is  a 
game  of  noble  exercise  for  the  mind,  as  requiring  much 
forecast  and  understanding.  King  William  the  Conqueror 
w»  much  addicted  to  this  deligh^  and  lost  great  lordships 
St  this  play.  And  indeed,  were  it  not  too  serious  a  recrea- 
tion, and  going  beyond  tlie  nature  of  games,  it  might  well 
Wcm  a  King,  because  therein  are  comprised  all  the  strata- 
gems of  war  or  plots  of  civil  states. 


It  beareth  ardent  on  a  chevron  engrailed  between  three 
chess  rooks  eahhy  as  many  crescents  or^  by  the  ntnnc  of 
Walter,  and  was  granted  to  Sir  Robert  Walter,  Lord  Mayor 
of  York,  1st  of  October,  1603,  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign 
of  King  James  the  First.  The  said  Sir  llobert,  upon  re- 
ceiving the  king  when  he  came  out  of  Scotland,  received  the 
dignity  of  knighthood. 

Azure^  a  fess  argent^  between  three  chess  rooks  or,  is 
borne  by  the  name  of  rooks,  and  was  attested  (under  an  es- 
cutcheon of  the  same  painted  on  vellum)  to  belong  to 
George  Rooks  of  London,  by  Sir  John  Burrough,  Garter, 
18th  of  liay,  1640. 

Arms  of  the  fiunily  of  Orrook.  Argent^  a  chevron  guUs^ 
between  three  chess  rooks  sable; — ^But  now  he  gives  sahle 
or  a  chevron  or^  between  three  mullets  argent,  as  many 
chess  rooks  on  the  field. 


It  beareth  \argetUy  six  chess  rooks,  three,  two,  and  one 
sabley  by  the  name  Rokwood^  and  is  borne  by  Nicholas 
Rockwood  of  Kirby,  in  Suffolk,  Esq. 

Smith  of  Methuen :  azure,  a  burning  cup  between  two 
chess  rooks  in  fess  w. 

Many  other  families  have  chess  rooks  and  chess  boards 
engprafted  on  their  arms ;  such  as  the  Rookewoods  of  Nor- 
folk, the  Rooks  of  Kent;  the  Rockwoods,  Rokewoods, 
Rokeles,  Rocklifies,  Rokes,  Rockes  and  Rocolds ;  but  these 
examples  will  suffice  to  show  the  high  esteem  in  which 
chess  was  held  until  it  was  to  a  certain  extent  superseded 
by  cards.  It  was  never  pretended  that  cards  were  superior 
to  chess,  but  they  were  preferred  because  unskilful 
players  had  a  better  chance  of  winning.  Before  the  in- 
troduction of  cards,  chess  was  in  such  vogue  that  both 
the  kings  of  Spain  and  Portugal  pensioned  the  great 
players,  whilst  they  also  staked  considerable  sums  on  the 
event  of  a  game.  Silvio  speaks  of  three  Italians  who 
set  out  from  Naples  for  the  court  of  Philip  the  Second, 
where  there  was  a  famous  player,  and  by  concealing  their 
strength  won  very  large  sums  of  money.  Circumstances 
of  this  kind  threw  discredit  on  chess,  and  as  it  was  then 
the  fashion  to  degrade  this  noble  game  by  playing  for 
money,  persons  became  afraid  to  play  when  they  did 
not  know  the  precise  strength  of  their  antagonist,  and 
thus  the  game  went  into  disuse.  Hyde  also  states  that 
chess  was  much  played  both  in  Wales  and  Ireland, 
especially  in  the  latter,  where  estates  often  depended  on 
the  event  of  a  game. 

Augrustus,  Duke  of  Brunswick  Lunenburg,  was  an 
ardent  admirer  of  chess.  He  published  a  work  on  tl  e 
game  at  Leipsic,  in  1617,  under  the  fictitious  name  of 
Gustavus  Selenus.  He  also  named  one  of  his  towns 
Rokcstet  with  a  chess  rook  for  its  arms.  This  town 
was  also  obligated  to  give  to  every. new  bishop  a  silver 
chess-board  with  silver  men,  one  set  of  which  was  gilt. 

The  forked  head  of  the  rook  shown  in  the  preceding 
figures  was  supposed  by  Dr.  Hyde  to  represent  the  two 
hunches  of  the  rwcA  or  dromedary,  under  which  figure  this 
piece  occurs  on  the  Eastern  chess-board.  In  Iceland  the 
piece  is  called  Hrokr,  a  brave  warrior  or  hero,  which  seems 
to  have  been  the  meaning  of  the  ancient  Persian  term  ap- 
plied to  this  piece,  viz.,  rokh^  a  valiant  hero  seeking  after 
military  adventures,  in  which  character,  says  D'Herbelot, 
it  was  mtroduced  into  the  game.  Some  have  attempted 
to  derive  the  term  rook  from  i*uch  or  roey  the  fabulous 
bird  of  the  Eastern  tale :  while  Sir  William  Jones  states 
thiit  the  rook  is  to  be  deduced  from  roth'  of  the  old 


102 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[March  13, 


Hindoo  game  of  chess,  wtiich  was  an  armed  chariot; 
this,  he  says,  the  Persians  changed  into  rokht  the  etymo- 
logy of  which  latter  word  has  given  rise  to  so  much 
discussion. 

The  modem  French  term  for  this  piece  is  la  iour^  and 
tho  English  sometimes  call  it  the  eo-ftie.  In  the  earir 
Italian  treatises  it  is  represented  as  a  castle,  although 
called  il  roccho.  This  term  having  been  confomided 
with  roccOf  a  fortress,  has  given  rise  to  much  conjecture. 

The  Pawn.  The  pawns  appear  always  to  have  been 
so  called  by  the  English.  In  the  middle  ages  the  French 
used  a  multiplicity  of  terms,  such  aBpaoTt^paonnetfpaon- 
nez,  paonniers,  p^onsy  poonnes,  and  pionnew.  In  aa 
old  French  romance  they  are  called  "gardens."  Dr. 
Hyde  derives  our  pawn  from  the  Spanish  peon  or  French 
pion,  which  he  thinks  a  contraction  of  egpiofiy  a  spy,  or 
petouy  a  footman.  Mr.  Douce  thinks  all  the  foregoing 
terms  derivable  from  pecUmes,  a  barbarous  Latin  term 
for  foot-soldiers,  which  in  this  game  were  represented  by 
the  pawns.  By  the  Italians  they  were  called  pedone, 
by  the  Spaniards  peones.  The  Russians  and  Poles 
make  them  also  foot-soldiers:  but  the  Germans,  Danes, 
and  Swedes  have  converted  them  into  peasants  (Bauem). 


Bbattttfttllt  is  it  said  in  the  Bible,  that  **  God  has  set  one 
thing  over  against  another ;" — has  balanced  the  real  advan- 
tages of  different  human  conditions.  Were  I  called  npoa 
to  select  the  condition  which  I  should  deem  most  eongoiial 
to  happiness,  I  should  find  myself  in  doubt  and  diffienlty. 
I  should  have  to  balance  abundance  of  food  on  the  one  hand^ 
against  abundance  of  appetite  on  the  other;  the  habit  super- 
induced by  the  necessity  of  being  satisfied  with  a  little,  with 
the  habit  of  being  disgusted  with  the  trial  of  much.  There 
are  joys,  numerous  and  vivid,  peculiar  to  the  rich;  and 
others,  in  which  none  but  those  m  the  humbler  conditioiia 
of  life  can  participate. 

In  the  whole  range  of  the  enjoyment  of  the  senses^  if 
there  be  any  advantage,  it  belongs  to  the  poon  The  laws 
of  our  being  have  surrounded  human  enjoyment  with 
limits,  which  one  condition  can  no  more  overleap  than 
another.  It  is  wonderful  te  see  this  admirable  adjustment, 
like  the  universal  laws  of  nature,  acting  everywhere  and  upon 
everything.  Even  in  the  physical  world,  what  is  granted 
to  one  country,  is  denied  to  another;  and  the  wanderer  who 
has  seen  many  strange  lands  and  cities,  in  different  climes, 
only  returns  to  announce,  as  the  sum  of  his  experience  and 
the'  teaching  of  years,  that  lifl'ht  and  shadow,  comfort  and 
discomfort,  pleasure  and  pain.  Tike  air  and  water,  are  difFiiBed 
in  nearly  equal  measure  over  the  whole  earth. — ^F. 


Triples. — Tliere  are  a  fifreat  many  trifles  in  this  life,  when 
considered  as  a  whole ;  it  is  a  common  failing  to  magni^ 
them  into  serious  matters.  They  may  relate  to  dress,  food, 
visitings,  insignificant  purchases,  management  of  children, 
treatment  of,  and  remarks  upon,  domestics,  and  a  multitude 
of  little  matters  on  which  difference  of  opinion  arises. 
Now,  it  may  not  be  of  the  least  possible  consequence  in  the 
long  run,  whether  the  matter  dc  disposed  of  in  one  way 
or  another,  provided  no  moral  duty  be  broken;  yet  a 
sudden  observation,  in  an  ungentle  voice,  will  produce  an 
irritating  reply,  and  this  a  severe  rejoinder,  and  presently 
the  affair 

Hesembles  Ocean  into  tempest  wrought, 
To  waft  a  feather,  or  to  drown  a  fly. 

This  ungentleness,  when  exhibited  in  parents,  ha3  a  mourn- 
ful effect  on  the  character  of  children.  It  is  wholly  useless, 
and  worse  than  useless,  in  asserting  authority ;  it  can  only 
be  clnssed  among  those  sad  mistakes  which  tend  to  make 
this  a  misemble  world.  How  can  any  two  rational  beings, 
who  must  live  in  familiar  intercourse,  whUe  they  do  Uve,  so 
misapprehend  the  purposes  of  life,  as  habitually  to  torment 
CM  oh  other  on  insignificant  trifles!  If  any  one  should  be 
unliappily  betrayed  into  an  unbecoming  expression,  silenoe 
best  becomes  those  who  hear  it. 


It  is  with  our  judgments  as  our  watehes :  none  go  just 
alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own. — ^Popb. 


THE  SiLPmUM. 
A  North  Africak  Plant. 


The  SSphium  appears  to  have  been  a  plant  beMH 
much  repute  by  tne  andents,  from  the  accounts  of  it 
which  have  been  handed  down  by  Pliny  and  otherg. 
When  Captain  Beechy  was  travelling  in  Northern  Africa, 
he  met  with  the  plaa^  or  at  least  <Hie  which  he  suppoHii 
to  be  the  Silphium,  and  takes  the  opportunity  of  collect- 
ing together  much  useful  information  respecting  it.  To 
his  valuable  narrative  we  shall  be  principally  indebted  for 
our  account  of  this  plant. 

Captain  Beechy  introduces  his  remarks  concerniB; 
8ilpmum  in  thefdlowing  manner:— 

It  may  here  be  proper  to.  mention  that,  on  the  third  dajr 
after  our  departure  from  Meige,  we  obsorved  a  plsnt  about 
three  iMt  m  height  rtarj  VMch  resembling  hemlock,  or, 
mors  properlj  speaking,  perhaps,  the  dallcal^  or  wild  ami 
We  were  told  that  it  was  usually  fkial  to  the  camels  wiu 
ato  of  it,  and  that  its  juice,  if  applied  to  the  flesh,  would 
fester  any  nart  where  there  was  the  slightest  excomtion 
This  phmt  had  much  more  resemblance  to  the  Silphium  of 
ancient  times  (as  it  is  expresed  on  the  coins  of  Gyrene)  th^ 
any  which  we  had  hitherto  seen-:  although  its  stem  is  much 
more  sloider  than  thai  which  is  there  represented^  and  the 
blossoms  (for  it  has  several,)  more  open.  In  some  paits  of 
the  routo  from  Merge  to  Gyrene  we  loet  sight  of  this  plsnt 
altogether ;  while  at  others  we  found  it  in  oossidersble  qunn- 
titles,  growing  chiefly  wherever  there  was  pasturage.  Im- 
mediately  about  (>rene  we  observed  it  in  great  abundance; 
and  soon  ceased,  from  its  frequent  occurrence,  to  pay  anr 
attontion  to  it.  It  is  extremely  probable  that  the  pbint  here 
mentioned  is  the  laserpiHum  or  sUphium  in  such  repute 
among  the  ancients. 

It  appears  that  the  silphium  was  described  by  Theo- 
phrastus  as  a  plant  with  a  large  and  thick  root;  and  the 
stem  he  tells  us,  resembled  that  of  tlie,/»ni/a,  and  wa»of 
about  the  same  thicbiess.  The  leaf  resembled  that  of 
Parsley  I  the  seed  was  broad  and  ftoliaceous ;  and  the 
stem  annual,  like  that  of  the  ferula.  Hiny  says,  tliat 
the  first  appearance  of  the  silphium  in  Cyrenacia  (a  dis- 
trict in  Northern  Africa)  was  occasioned  by  a  sudden  ar.d 
heavy  fall  of  rain,  which  completely  drenched  the  ground, 
and  that  the  silphium  which  grew  on  the  spot  extended 
itself  over  a  space  of  4000sUdia,  and  that  its  nature 
was  wild,  and  unadapted  to  cultivation,  retiring  towards 
the  desert  whenever  it  was  too  much  attended  to.  Ho« 
much  of  this  is  true  is  now  not  easy  to  decide. 

Silphium  appears  to  have  been  eaten  in  various  ways. 
The  stem  and  the  root  were  eaten  much  in  the  same  way 
that  we  eat  celery.  It  was  so  much  esteemed,  that  it 
constituted  a  material  part  of  the  commerce  of  Gyrene' 
In  the  time  of  Pliny,  Silphium  had  become  so  scarce  in 
the  market,  that  a  single  stalk  of  it  was  presented  to  the 
Emperor  Nero  as  a  present  of  extraordinary  value;  and 
Strabo  tells  us,  that  the  barbarous  tribes  who  frequented 
the  country  about  Cyrene  had  nearly  exterminated  tk 
plant  altogether  (in  an  irruption  which  they  made  on 
f  ome  hostile  occasion),  by  pulling  it  up  designedly  by  tbe 
roote;  as  this  was  evidently  done  to  injure  the  inhabit- 
ante,  it  proves  that  silphium  waa  regarded  as  valuable. 

Alexander  the  Great  discovered  a  «  bill  of  fare,"  ^* 
graved  on  a  brass  column  in  the  royal  palace  of  the 
kings  of  Persia;  and  among  the  good  things  that  fornied 
the  daily  provision  of  the  monarch's  table,  was  a  talent 
weight,  (about  sixty-five  pounds,  according  to  Captain 
Beechy,)  of  the  silphium  plant,  and  two  pounds  of  the 
extract  or  juice  of  the  silphium,  termed  by  Pliny  ^<^^' 
This  laser  seems  also  to  have  been  used  as  a  drug)  ^ 
to  have  commanded  a  high  price. 

The  silphium  appears  to  have  sprung  up  in  the  pss- 
ture  lands ;  and  the  sheep  are  reported  to  have  been  so 
fond  of  it  that  whenever  they  smelt  it  they  would  run 
to  the  place,  and  after  eating  the  flower,  would  scratch 
up  the  root  and  devour  it  with  the  same  avidity;  on  thw 
account,  as  Arrian  statoa,  some  of  the  Cyreneaiis  usea 
to  drive  their  sheep  away  from  the  parts  in  which  tfls 


1841.] 


JHE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


109 


silphium  was  produced;  and  otkerg  surrounded  their 
land  with  hedges,  through  which  the  sheep  were  not  ahle 
to  pass,  when  they  chanced  to  approach  near  the  plants. 
As  to  the  effect  which  the  plant  produced  on  them,  it 
appears  to  have  been  somewhat  contradictory.  According 
to  Pliny,  a  sign  that  a  sheep  had  eaten  silpnium  was  that 
he  fell  asleep,  while  a  goat,  under  similar  circumstances, 
began  sneezing.  It  appears,  generally  speaking,  to  have 
acted  first  medicinally  upon  animals,  and  afterwards  to 
have  fattened  them;  giving  at  the  same  time  an  excel- 
lent fiavour  to  the  flesh.  Whenever  they  were  ill,  it 
either  speedily  restored  them  or  else  destroyed  them 
altogether;  but  the  first  of  these  effects  was  most  usuaL 

It  is  probable,  however,  (says  Captain  Beechy,)  that  it 
only  agreed  with  those  animals  which  were  accustomed  to  it ; 
at  least  the  plant  now  observable  in  the  Cyrenaica,  which 
answers  to  the  description  of  the  silphium,  is  vetr  frequently 
productive  of  fatal  effects  to  the  ammah  (particularly  the 
camels)  who  [ate  of  it,  not  beino;  accustomed  to  the  soiL 
One  of  the  reasons  advanced  by  the  son  of  Shekh  Hadood, 
AboU'Buckra,  for  putting  a  hi^  price  upon  his  camels  at 
Merge  was,  that  they  were  eomg  into  tne  countiy  where 
the  slphium  was  found,  whicn,  he  said,  was  very  dangerous 
for  them  to  eat ;  and  the  camels  which  were  sent  to  us  from 
B^igazie,  when  we  were  about  -to  leave  Grennay  were  kept 
oiazzled  during  the  whole  time  of  their  stay  in  those  parts 
where  the  plant  was  known  to  be  produced. 

As  for  the  effects  of  silphium  upon  the  human  frame, 
if  we  are  to  judge  from  Hollands'  translation  of  Pliny, 
made  about  tiie  year  1600,  they  were  truly  marvellous; 
indeed,  at  this  time,  when  the'  qualities  of  plants  were 
made,  by  the  false  science  of  Astrology,  to  depend  upon 
planetary  influence,  it  is  no  wonder  that  those  qua- 
lities should  be  so  exaggerated  as  to  appear  to  us  ex- 
tremely ridiculous. 

Of  the  Uuer^  a  syrup  of  silphiuniy  we  aw  told  that, 

It  redaceih  Hioee  to  their  natural  health  who  are  starven 
aod  benumbed  with  extreme  eold.  Taken  in  drinke  it 
allaieth  the  accidents  and  grief  of  the  nerves.  *  A  gieat  res- 
torative it  is  with  meat,  and  qui<^ly  setteth  them  on  foot 
vlio  have  lien  long,  and  been  brought  low  by  sick- 
nesse.  Taken  in  dnnke  it  doth  extix^ish  the  venome 
left  in  the  bodie,  either  by  poieened  dart  or  seipent's  sting, 
fieing  laid,  too,  wilh  rue  or  honey,  it  is  exoeuent  for  the 
carbuncle  and  the  biting  of  dogs.  Being  ineorponte  with 
sal-nitra,  luid  weU-wrooght  wiwall  beforehand,  and  se  ap- 
plied, it  tak«th  away  the  hajrd  horns  and  dead  corns  arising 
in  the  feet.  It  is  an  excdlent  drawer  to  the  outward  parts 
f<»r  to  fill  up  the  skin  and  make  a  bodie  fat. 

If  any  one  have  a  hoarseness,  let  him  (if  he  can,)  get 
itrnie  silphium  syrup,  for  it 

Presentlv  scowretn  the  pipes,  clearethe  the  voiice  agune, 
and  maketn  it  audible. 

But  this  is  not  all : — 

Taken  in  a  broth  or  thin  supping,  it  is  good  for  the 
pleurisy,  especially  if  the  patient  purpose  to  drinke  wine 
after  it.  It  is  given  with  leekes  and  vmegre  to  thoee  that 
▼heeze  in  their  chesty  and  be  short-winded,  and  have  an  old 
oongh  sticking  long  by  them ;  likewise  with  vinesie  alone, 
to  sach  as  have  supped  off  and  dmnke  quailed  milke  which 
is  cluttered  within  their  stomacke. 

Let  us  he  cautious  how  we  u^e  silphium  when  we  are 
afflicted  with  the  tooth-ache  :-^ 

I  would  not  give  counselle  (as  many  writers  doe  prescribe), 
fur  to  put  it  in  the  concavitie  or  hole  of  a  decayed  tooth, 
^d  BO  to  stop  up  the  place  close  with  wax,  for  fear  of  that 
which  might  ensue  thereupon :  for  I  have  seen  the  fearful 
^{uele  of  that  experiment,  in  a  man,  who  upon  the  takiiip 
"f  tlut  medicine,  tlirew  himself  headlong  from  an  hi^h  loft 
•  nd  broke  hiB  necke ;  such  intolerable  pains  he  sustamed  of 
the  toothach :  and  no  marvell ;  for  doe  but  anoint  the  mnssle 
^  noj^e  of  a  bull  therewith^  it  will  set  him  on  a  fire  and 
uuke  him  home  nud. 

Lastly,  we  may  state,  for  the  consolation  of  those 
^ho  may  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  had  a  flogging, 

tliut, 

A  liniment  thereof  made  with  wine  and  oile  is  a  most 
^^inULir  and  agreeable  medicine  for  the  Uack  and  blue  marks 
R&udning  afto:  stripes. 


SONG  OF  BIRDS. 


Wb  rose  one  morning  early,  while  Hesperus  was  yet  in 
heaven,  and  the  dew  lay  heavy  on  the  grass,  while  a  few 
constellations  c-Kttered  towards  the  south,  and  ^ay  twilight 
gave  unspeakable  serenity  to  the  face  of  nature.  The  cattle 
were  reposing  on  the  meadows^  and  as  yet  no  curling  smoke 
i^peared  among  the  trees. 

We  station^  ourselves  beside  an  aged  tree,  whose 
branches  waved  over  the  dark  and  troubled  wat^^  that 
gushed  beneath  them  ;  but  as  the  morning  began  to  break, 
we  went  down  into  the  valley,  and  again  ascended  a  woody 
path  that  led  to  the  summit  of  a  neighbouring  hill,  listening 
to  the  song  of  the  wakeful  nightin^es  whose  sweet  melli- 
fluous notes  resounded  through  the  woods.  He  occupied 
an  acacia,  that  sprung  from  out  a  rugged  bank,  surmounted 
with  i^d  beech-trees,  which  in  other  days  kept  off  the  cold 
east  wind  from  a  stately  mansion,  of  which  only  broken  walls 
and  roofless  chambers  remained.  There  he  concealed  him- 
self where  all,  beside  the  gray  old  ruiny  seemed  bursting  into 
life  and  beauty,  and  there  he  seemed  to  warble  an  imknown 
drama,  intermingled  occasionally  with  the  most  extravagant 
bursts  of  joy,  and  plaintive  notes  of  recollection.  Strange^ 
that  such  a  powerful  voice  can  reside  in  so  small  a  bii'd, 
such  perseverance  in  so  minute  a  creature.  At  one  moment 
he  drew  out  his  note  with  a  long  breath,  now  diverging  into 
a  different  cadence;  now  interrupted  by  an  unexpected 
transition.  Sometimes  he  seemed  to  murmur  within  him- 
self, and  now  again  his  note  was  full,  deep,  and  clear. 

At  length  all  was  still ;  the  rushing  of  a  torrent  came 
from  a  distance  on  the  ear,  and  the  wood-lark,  which  also 
loves  the  silence  of  the  night,  poured  fourth  her  music 
These  sounds  had  scarcely  been  neard  before,  so  entirely  is 
the  ear  entranced,  when  listening  to  the  fiill  deep  melody  of 
the  unrivalled  nightin^e* 

But  now  the  morning  began  to  dawn.  Tlie  stem  old 
ruin  was  brightened  bv  the  first  beams  of  the  sun,  and 
threw  its  long  gray  shadows  over  the  young  ^en  foliage  of 
the  beautiful  acacia.  The  lark  rose  high  m  air,  bearing 
his  song  towards  the  gates  of  heaven,  raising  his  note 
as  he  ascended,  till  lost  in  the  immensity  of  space ;  vet  still 
his  warblings  came  remotely  upon  the  ear,  though  the  little 
musician  was  himself  unseen.  Presently  he  descended 
with  a  swell  frx>m  the  clouds^  still  sinking  by  degrees  as 
he  ai^roached  his  nest,  the  spot  where  «ul  his  affections 
were  centered,  and  which  had  pi'ompted  all  his  joy. 

How  delightful  are  the  feelings  which  the  song  of  the 
lark  calls  forth,  whether  we  include  under  this  genei^ 
appellation  thoee  birds  of  this  species  which  soar  tnrough 
tne  clouds,  or  delight  in  the  shelter  of  'the  woods ;  ox 
as  the  titlark,  in  mossy  lanes  and  hedges^  though  dis- 
tinyiiflhed,  rather  by  the  variety,  than  the  sweetness  of 
their  notes.  The  aocomoaniments  of  the  landscape,  the 
golden  break  of  day,  the  fluttering  from  branch  to  branch,, 
the  quiverinff  in  the  air,  and  the  answering  of  their  young, 
associate  with  the  song  of  these  wakeful  bird%  an  indescri- 
bable feelinff  of  hilarity,  which  tends  to  elevate  the  mind  to 
a  state  of  tne  hifhest^  and  yet  most  harmless  exultation. 
How  often  on  we  breezy  common  that  rises  from  my 
native  villagei  have  I  listened  to  the  cheerful  notes  of  the 
common  liffl^  when,  as  Walton  well  observes,  he  cheers 
himself  and  those  that  hear  him,  and  then  quitting  iJie 
earth,  and  singing,  he  ascends  higher  in  the  air,  till  luivinff 
ended  his  heavenly  employment,  he  grows  mute,  and 
concerned  to  think,  that  he  must  descend  to  the  duU  earth, 
which  he  would  not  touch  but  from  necessitv.  And  now 
the  blackbird  and  the  throstle  with  their  melodious  voices 
bade  welcome  to  the  early  morning,  and  bodied  forth  such 
enchanting  notes,  as  no  instrument,  nor  sweet  sound  of 
warbling  voice  could  imitate.  Other  wakeful  birds  were 
heard  in  all  directions :  the  laverock,  the  titlark,  the  little 
linnet,  and  honest  robin,  who  loves  mankind  both  alive 
and  dead.  The  note  of  ^e  contented  cuckoo  was  also  heard, 
monotonous,  yet  cheerful.  It  is  a  note,  which  more  than 
any  other  of  the  feathered  race  calls  up  the  recollections  of 
early  youth.  Something  of  melancholy  is  occasionally 
blended  w^th  it,  but  it  is  a  melancholy  that  may  lead  to  a 
review  of  our  past  lives,  and  the  lives  of  those  with  whom 
we  have  been  acquainted.  While  endeavouring  to  recall 
the  changes,  whicn  a  gradual  progress  from  childhood  to 
youth,  and  from  youth  to  manhood,  has  occasioned  in  our 
firiends,  we  are  taught  to  place  less  confidence  in  ourselves, 
and  in  those  connections  wnich  are  rapidly  being  dissolv^ed* 

[.From  the  Progr^u  c/  Creation,  by  Maky  Eose&ts. 


104 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[March  13,  1841. 


PERSIAN  AMUSEMENTS. 

Thb  every-day  life  of  the  King  of  Persia  has  many  interest- 
ins  peculiarities  for  the.  European  reader.  '  Of  these.  Sir 
Joim  Malcolm  presents  an  entertaining  picture,  in  his 
Sketches  of  Persia, 

The  religious  duties  of  the  King  of  Persia  require  him  to 
rise  early.  On  leaving  the  interior  apartments  of  the 
palace,  he  is  met  by  officers  in  waiting,  and  proceeds  to  one 
of  his  private  hidk,  where  all  the  young  princee  of  the  blood 
attend  his  morning  levee.  After  tliis  is  over,  he  calls  for 
breakfast.  The  preparing  his  meals  is  superintended  bv 
tlie  nauzir,  or  chief  steward  of  the  household.  The  vianos 
are  put  into  dishes  of  fine  china,  with  silver  covers,  and 
placed  in  a  close  tray,  which  is  locked  and  sealed  by  the 
steward.  This  tray  is  covered  with  a  rich  shawl  and  carried 
to  the  king,  when  the  steward  breaks  the  seal,  and  places 
the  dishesoefore  him.  The  chief  physician  is  invariably  in 
attendance  at  every  meal.  '  His  presence  is  deemed  neces- 
sary, the  courtiers  say,'  tliat  he  may  prescribe  an  instant 
remedy,  if  anything  should  disa^e  with  the  monarch ;  but 
this  precaution,  no  doubt,  owes  its  origin  to  other  suspicions. 
When  his  public  duties  are  performed,  the  kinff  usually 
retires  to  the  harem,  where  he  sometimes  indulges  in  a 
short  repose.  Before  sunset,  he  x^ppears  in  the  outer 
apartments,  and  either  again  attends  to  public  business,  or 
takes  a  ride.  His  dinner  is  brought  between  eight  and  nine, 
with  the  same  precautions  and  ceremonies  as  at  breakfast. 
He  eats,  like  his  subjects,  seated  upon  a  carpet,'  and  the 
dishes  are  placed  upon  a  richly  embroidered  cloth.  Some 
of  the  former  kings  used  to  indulge  openly  in  drinkinz 
wine;  but  none  of  the  reigning' family  nave  yet  outraged 
the  religious  feelings  of  their  subjects,  by  so  flagrant  a 
violation  of  the  laws  of  Mahomed. '  Bowls  filled  with  sher- 
bet, made  of  every  species^  of- fruit,  furnish  the  beverage 
of  the  royal  m^als^  axid  there  are  few  coimtries  where  more 
pains  are  bestowed  to'. ^tify  the  palate  with  the  niost 
delicate  viandb.' '  After  dinner,  the  king  retires  to  the  interior 
apartment,  where  it  is  said,.Uiat  he  is  often  amused  till  a 
late  hour,'  by  .'the'  singers  and  dancers  of  his  harem. 

The  roy^  family  not  only  attend,  personally  to  public 
business,  out  aro'continually  practising  manly  exercises, 
and  ardently  eng^  in  field  ^brts.  The  present  king  is  an* 
expert  msErlcsman  and  excellent  horseman ;  'fidw.  webks  |ku»; 
without  his  par£akin^  of  the  pleasur^s'of  the  chase.  The  king 
has  always,  a.  histonographcr, '  and  a  chi^f  poet.  The  oiie 
writes  the  annals  of  Ills  reign  ;  the  other,,  who  has  a  high' 
rank  at  court,  composes  odes  inprais^'of  the.  royal  munifi- 
cence. A  giant,  and 'a.  dwarf  were  at  .one' period .  of  the 
present  reign  part  of  the  royal  establidiment;-'and.  it.is 
never  without  a  jester,. at  whose  witticisms'  it.'is 'courtly  to- 
langh,  even- when  they  are.  most  severe.'  There  -  is"  little 
difference  between  the  office  of  jester  at  Uie  ^modern  court 
of  Persia,  and-  that  which,  some  centuries  ;agoy'existed  at 
every  court. in  Europe.  -  »     '  .  *   ^ 

In  the.  court,  th^re  is  jul  ways  a  person  who  bears  the  name 
of  "  story-teller  to.his  majesty;*'  and  the'duties  of  his  office.' 
call  for  a  man  of  no  n^ean  ac<}uiremehts.  .*  Though  passion-' 
ately  fond  of  jpubUc  exliibitions,"the  Persians  have  none 
that  deserve  the  name  .of  theatrical  eiitertainments;  but, 
though  strangers  to  tl^e  regular  drama,  their  stories  are  often 
dramatic;  and  those  whose.  pccup^ti6n'it-is,to  tell  them,' 
sometimes  display  so  extraordinary  a'skill,'andjBuph  varied 
powers,  that  we' can  hardly.  belieye,"wliile.we  look  on  their' 
altered  countenances  'and  Usten  to  theirchanfed  tones,'  that 
it  is  the  same '  person,  who  'at 'one  moment  tdls  a  plain  nar- 
rative in  his*  natural  voice,  then'  speaks'  in  Uhe  hoarse  and 
angry  tone  ^  of :'6ffended  authority, '  and  \  next  subdu^'  the 
passions  he  has  excited  by  the  softest  so^ds  of  feminine 
tenderness.  The/ art  of  relating  stdrfes  is  attended  both 
with  profit  and  reputlttion.^  Great  numbers  attempt  it,  but 
few  succeed*;      .•-..'•  •..     ; 

The  story-teller  is'always  in^aitendance  upon  his  majesty. 
It  is  oqualjyhis  duty  to  beguile  the  fatigue  of  a  long  march, 
and  to  sooth  the  mind  wh^n  disturbed  by  the  toils  of  public- 
affairs ;  and  his  tales  are  artfully  made  to  suit  the  disposition 
and  momentary  humour  of' the  monarch.'  Sometimes  he 
recites  a  story-  of  the  genii ;  at  others,  he  recounts  the  war-' 
like  deeds  of  former  sovereigns^'or  the  love  of  some  wander-, 
ing  prince.  .*'..'..•' 

Air.  Buckingham  relates  that  he  saw  in  the  streets  of 
Ispahan  a  little  boy  who  was  sincinnf,  witli  the  notes  pi  the 
Lu'k,  in  the  clearest  and  most  delightful  strain.  iHis  voice 
was  one  of  the  most  melodious  that  the  fastidious  ear  could 
desi  e ;  but  the  thrill  of.  it,  which  charmed  at  a  distance, 
was  produced  by  quick  and  violent  tbmsts  of  the  ^nd  of  the 


fore-fincer  against  the  windpipe;  while,  from  the  leiuth  of 
time  which  some  of  these  notes  were  held,  the  bo^  bee 
was  swollen  to  redness;  everv  vein  of  his  throat  seemed 
ready  to  burst ;  and  his  fine  black  eyes^  which  were  sw-im- 
ming  in  lustre,  appeared  as  if  about  to  start  fi^)m  their 
blood-stained  sockets.  Yet,  with  all  this,  no  one  could  wisk 
to  interrupt  such  charming  music. 


CHINESE  DINNERS. 

A  FESTIVAL  given  at  Canton  by  one  of  the  Hong  merchants, 
or,  as  he  is  more  generally  termed,  ''the  squire,"  to  a  select 
party  of  English,  b  thus  described  by  one  of  the  party. 

We  sat  down  in  number  about  fifteen.  First,  was  handed 
to  us  bird's-nest  soup  in  small  china-ware  cups.  '  Then 
were  about  twenty  courses,  and  dishes  innumerable.  I 
counted  sixty  on  the  table  at  one  tinie:  they  consisted 
chiefly  of  small  bauns,  or  cups,  of  the  most  beautiful  chiDA- 
ware,  and  were  arranged  in  three  rows  down  the  centre  of 
the  table.  .  We  were  told  we  had  the  bi^piness  to  partake 
of  stewed  pigeon's  eggs,  wild  cat,  fricassied  frogs,  diied 
worms,  (particularly  recommended  as  a  iofifM^^Mfc^  for 
wine  at  dessert,)  sea  slugs,  sliark's  fins,  and  otheir  delicacies, 
which,  whatever  they  may  really  have  been,  were  rendered 
extremely  palatable  by  the  ap|>licatiou  of  a  Utile  Japan  si>y. 
All  the  meat,  pheasants,  partridge,  and  venison  were  minced, 
and  Served  to  us  in  small  cups,  which^  considering  that  we 
had  no,  knives  or  forks,  but  simply  a  brace  lof  roUnd  smooth 
and  slippery  chopsticks,  made  of  ivory,  tipped  with  silver,  was 
extremely  embarrassing.  All  their  dishes  are  remarkably 
rich ;  so  much' so,  that  it  is  requisite,  to  drink  with  them 
salebdng,  a'  kind  of  wine,  or  raUier  spirit  of  wl^ite  colour, 
and  not  unpleasant  taste ;  the  little  cup  out  of  which  it  ii 
drunk,*  is  about  the  size  of  ^one^  belonging  to  a  doll's  tea- 
service;  the  ceretnony  of  drinking  healtn'is  to  take  up  the 
cup  with'  both-  hands,^  bow,  and- shake  heads  at  each  other 
for  some  tune,  drink  off  the  wine,  and  show  your  friend  the 
bottom  of  the  ciip  to  o6nvin.ce  liiin  that  it%  empty. 
.  Another  giilnd. dinner;  with  a.sing-aong,  or  pii\|r,  is  thus 
d<sQribed'iby:the  same  writer.  The  ^plAoe.'in  wmch  it  was 
giyen;  was  an  immense  hall,  one  endof  .wiiich  was  occnpi^ 
by  the  ^tage^'and  the  other  with  the  dinner  t^blss.  i  The  sing- 
song .commenced  directly  ^we  sat  down,  andr.ooptinued  till 
we  came  away.'  The  plav  opened  with  tiie  music  of  cymhsls. 

gongs,  bells,  trumpets,'  &c.  The  p^r£>imiUice.  waft  a  kind  of 
istorical  pantomime:  for  the  first,  hour  it  was  ome  continued 
battle  of  various  suooeas.  The  warriors  were  very^l^^^b' 
apparelled,  and  some  were  decorated  withhttle  flags;  they 
were  armed  with  shields,  bovrs,  battle-axes, '  &c.  The^ 
heroes '  rushed  to  the  combat  with  a  rotatory  moj^on,  like 
our  modem  rockets,  and  went  whizzing  roimd  and  round 
with  great  velocity,  brandishing  their,  weapojos  in  everY 
direction,  and  yet  contriving  to  pass  without  touching  each 
othor.  .The  subject  of  the.  pantomime  appejared  to  be  the 
setting  up,  crowning,  and  pulling  down,  and  .killing  of  em- 
perors. The  next  eudbition  was  a  kind  of  comedy,  or  farce, 
m  which  the  characters  and  scenes  were  more  modem  sod 
in^lligible."  Between  the  acts,'  tumbling  was  iiitroduceji' 
There  twaa  one  very  singular  feat:  they  placed  a  table  io 
the  middle  of  the  stage,  and  the  whole  tioop,  to  the  num- 
ber, of  ^.between  twenty,  and  thirty,  threw  themsclyw  orerit 
•  head '  foremost,  one  after .  another  as  fiist  as  possible,  and 
^soioietimes  three  and  four. plunging  over  at  the  sjame  timfl' 
^Another  feat  was  the  foimation  of  a  human  pyramid,  the 
n^en  standing  upon  one  pother's  shoulders ;  which  when 

complete,  whirled  round  with.wdnHerfiil  r^idity* 
'Tea-drinking    in    China"  materially  "differs  .  from  the 

custom  "of  this  country.  Green  tea  is  thought  very  highlj 
of  by  the  Chinese,  and  is  but  rarely .'drankl*  ** Indeed, 
says  the  writer  just  quoted,  "diiring' the  ^hole  time  I  ^ 
m  China,  I  never  once  tasted  green  tea,  black  b6ing  the  wuy 
kind  drunk  by  the  Europeans  as  Well  as  the  Chinese.  Ths 
latter  are  eternally  driuKlng  tea :  in  e^ftiy  shop  there  are 
always  some  small  tea-cups  on  the  counter  ;'tliey  put  tns 
tea-leaves  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup,  pourhot  water  on  them, 
put  acover  over,  and  let  it  stand  till  ready;  they  never  add 
milk,  and  seldom  sugar." 

-    ^  LONDON: 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STBAXD. 
PDBLnuBo  IN  Wksklt  Numbbm,  prics  Orb  PBinrr,  axs  w  MovtuI'T 

Partb,  pi  ^b  Bixpsivcb. 
Sold  b7  bU  Doc<&aeUetB  an4  KcwBrendetB  la  the  XlngdoBb 


106 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


[March  20 


JOHN  FLAXMAN  AND  HIS  WORKS. 

I. 

First,  elder  Sculpture  tangbt  her  tUntet  art 

Correct  desiga  where  great  ideas  shone, 

And  in  the  secret  trace  expression  spoke: 

Tuiii^lit  her  the  graceful  attitude;  tito  turn. 

And  bou'itecuLs  airs  of  head;  the  naliro  act, 

Or  bold,  or  easy;  and,  cast  free  behind, 

The  swelling  niantleB  well-adjusted  flow.^— Thomsojc 

We  arc  told  that  the  father  of  John  Flaxman  waa  a 
sculptor,  or  rather  a  "moulder  of  figures,"  and  that, 
when  he  was  pursuing  his  vocation  in  the  city  of  York, 
the  subject  of  this  narrative  was  born  on  the  6th  of 
July,  1755.  When  only  six  months  old,  the  younger 
John,  who  was  named  after  his  father,  was  removed  to 
London,  together  with  his  brother  William,  who  was 
afterwards  eminent  for  his  skill  in  carving  wood.  The 
elder  Flaxman  was  skilful  and  industrious  in  his  busi- 
ness :  he  worked  for  sculptors  who  employed  him,  and 
likewise  kept  a  shop  in  the  Strand,  for  the  sale  of  plaster 
figures. 

The  younger  Flaxman  was  slightly  deformed  from 
his  birth,  and  ih  his  earliest  years  of  a  weak  and  ailing 
constitution ;  but  his  temper  was  quiet,  and  his  mind  i  n- 
thusiastic.  Hence  he  felt  a  propensity  to  shun  the  society 
of  boys  of  his  own  age,  and  to  seek  amusements  for  him- 
self. These  amusements  were  naturally  of  a  m  ntal  de- 
scription. At  the  counter  of  his  fathers  shop,  he  usually 
sat,  during  the  day,  sometimes  engaged  in  reading;  at 
other  times  in  drawing  in  black  chalk.  By  his  grave,  but 
cheerful  deportment ;  by  his  desire  for  knowledge,  and 
his  love  of  drawing,  he  attracted  the  notice  of  people 
who  frequented  his  father's  shop.  They  saw  that  he 
was  no  common  child ; — ^that,  in  these  tender  years,  he 
took  delight  in  poets,  sculptors,  and  heroes; — ^that  he 
not  only  copied  figures  around  him,  but  that  he  also 
referred  at  once  for  the  antique  to  Homer,  tnd  attempted 
to  think  and  design  for  himself. 

At  the  age  of  from  ^vt  to  seven  years  he  seems  to 
have  shown  a  decided  predilection  for  everything  which, 
in  any  way,  exhibited  a  sculptured  device.  He  was  fond 
of  examining  the  seals  of  every  watch  he  saw,  and  en- 
deavoured to  obtain  an  impression  of  any  one  which 
pleased  him.  When  he  was  reminded  of  this,  after  he 
had  become  eminent  in  his  art,  he  gravely  observed  that 
"  we  are  never  too  young  to  learn  what  is  useful,  or  too 
old  to  grow  wise  and  good.'* 

In  boyhood  he  waa  very  much  noticed  and  befriended 
by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Mathew,  who  found  in  him  a  natural 
courtesy  and  deference  to  others,  such  as  he  evinced  to- 
wards mankind  at  large,  when,  in  after  days,  his  fame 
had  spread  finr  and  wide.  His  hours  were  given  to  his 
books  and  models ;  and  he  produced  a  great  number  of 
such  models  in  plaster  of  IHiris,  wax,  and  clay;  some  of 
these  specimens  of  inborn  talent  are  still  preserved,  and 
have  considerable  merit.  They  were,  certainly,  promises 
of  that  genius  which  he  displayed  in  after  years. 

By  the  tihie  he  had  arrived  at  the  age  of  ten  yearS) 
a  great  change  for  the  better  took  place  in  his  con- 
stitution. He  had  been  hitherto  weak  and  sickly  i  long 
fits  of  illness  had  repeatedly  interrupted  bis  studies,  and 
he  had  enjoyed  little  of  the  air,  and  exercise,  and  active 
sports,  which  are  so  common  and  so  salutary  to  boys  of 
his  age.  But  now  health  seemed  to  come  upon  him  all 
at  once:  he  grew  strong,  lively,  and  active,  and  the 
crutches  were  thrown  aside,  never  to  be  resumed. 

We  are  told  by  one  of  his  biographers,  that  the  In- 
vigorating excitement  of  health  seemed  to  fill  him  with  a 
new  spirit,  and  that  for  a  while  he  could  think  of  nothing 
but  adventures,  such  as  happened  to  heroes  of  romance ; 
and  he  longed  for  opportunities  of  showing  his  gene- 
rosity and  courag-e.  This  feeling  was  produced  oy  the 
perusal  of  Do]i  Quixote. — 

He  was  so  much  delighted  with  the  aniiable>  though 
eccentric  hero,  (writes  one  of  his  biographers,^  and  his 
account  of  the  duties  and  honourable  perils  of  knight- 


errantry,  that  he  thought  he  could  not  do  better  than  sallv 
forth  to  right  wrongs,  and  redress  grievances.  AccordiMly, 
one  mommg  early,  unknown  to  any  one,  armed  with  a 
little  French  awon^  ^®  ^  ^^U  without  a  squire,  in  search 
of  adventures  which  he  could  not  find.  .Alter  wanderimr 
about  ;Hyde  Park  the  whole  day,  without  meeting  enchanter 
or  distressed  damsel,  he  returned  home  rather  ashamed  of 
his  romantic  flight,  and  never  asrain  sought  to  emulate  the 
exploits  of  him  of  La  Mancha,  mough  he  always  retained  a 
great  admiration  of  his  character. 

We  are  told  by  Allan  Cunningham,  the  clear  spirited 
writer  of  the   lives   of  the   British  artists,  that,  when 
health  and  strength  came  upon  him,  Flaxman  made  up 
his  mind  to  follow  sculpture  as  a  profession.     He  mo- 
delled and  drew  very  assiduously :  his  father's  shop  wis 
his  only  academy,  and  the  antique  statues  which  stood 
there,  imparted  to  him  form  and  proportion :  the  sero- 
nity  of  sentiment  which  they  presented,  accorded  with 
the  emotions  of  his  own  mind.     Hence,  it  was  particu- 
larly painful  and  mortifying  to  him  to  have  to  eRcountpr 
the  snot  of  ridicule.     In  a   moment  of  confidence  he 
showed  a  drawing  of  a  human  eye  to  a  friend : — **  U  it 
an  oyster  ?"  inquired  the  other.     This  joke  made  a  deep 
impression  upon  him,  and  he  resolved  to  exhibit  in  future 
with  more  care  and  caution  his  attempts  with  the  model- 
ling tool  and  the  pencil.     His  confidence  in  his  ovn 
natural  abilities  was  not  be  dashed  by  a  few  light  words, 
and  accordingly  he  had  already  resolved  to  attempt  some- 
thing by  which  his  name  might  be  honourably  continued 
to  the  world. 

When  he  was  about  teti  years  old,  his  mother  died, 
and  upon  his  father's  second  marriage,  he  seems  to  have 
been  fortunate  in  a  step-mother,   who  showed  herself 
prudent  and  kind,  consulted  her  husband's  interests,  and 
treated  his  sons  with  great  tenderness.    Mr.  Mathew. 
his  friend,  now  introduced  him  to  his  wife,  a  gifted  aoJ 
agreeable  woman,  and  the  companion  of  Mrs.  Montague, 
Mrs.  Chapone,  and  Mrs.  Barbauld.     In  the  company  ot  i 
these  distinguished  ladies  he  frequently  passed  his  even-  i 
ings.     He  was  always  a  welcome  visitor,  and  heard  Mrs. 
Mathew  read  Homer  and  Virgil,  and  discourse  upon  j 
sculpture  and  verse.     Here  he  was  encouraged  in  his 
study  of  the  dead  languages,  so  necessary  to  him  in  his  ^ 
profession :  thus  he  learned  to  think  with  the  authors. 
and  to  embody  the  ideas  of  the  old  Greek  poets  in  such  a 
manner  as  no  modem  artist  has  ever  yet  exceeded.  His 
mode   of  education  ,was,  consequently,  of  a  desultory  I 
character ;  he  gathered  his  knowledge  from  many  sources;  J 
and  mastered  what  he  was  deficient  in  by  some  of  thos^' 
ready  methods,  which  seem  to  form  part  of  the  inspira- 
tion of  genius. 

The  talent  of  the  sculptor— that  which  was  inlai<l  m 
the  mind  of  Flaxman — consisted  in  the  ready  ability  to 
personify  or  embody  the  characters  and  descriptions  ot 
poetic  fancy.  Such  of  his  j  uvenile  productions  of  Hom<J 
as  still  exist,  are  marked  with  the  quiet  loveliness  and 
serene  vigour  manifested  long  afterwards  in  his  to°?* 
illustrations  of  the  same  poet-  He  now  began  tc  obtzu 
praise,  and  friends  arose  to  foretell  .his  future  eminj^f* 

Flaxman  became  a  student  in  the  Royal  AcadejDy 
when  he  reached  his  fifteenth  year.     His  artistical  dis 
tinction  hitherto  had  been  greater  with  the  pencil  (wi 
with  the  modelling-tool :  he  was,  at  first,  a  better  painty 
than  sculptor.     In  1770,  he  exhibited  a  wax  ^^J^y 
Nentune;  and  by  the  time  he  was  twenty  7^^?^ 
he  had  sent  only  ten  pieces  to  the  Academy.    His  su 
cess  in  pictures  was  so  great  during  these  early  ye^rii 
and  before   the   spirit  of  sculpture  completely  />^^. 
shadowed  him, — ^that   one   of  Kis  productions,  i^^ 
colours,— (Edipus  and  Antigone,— was  lately  sold  o 
auction  for  a  Belisarius  of  Dominichino.    It  seenuj.^ 
many  instances,  to  have  been  Flaxman's  wish  to  see 
his  designs  looked  in  colour,  before  he  modelled 
It   is   the   opinion  of  Wilkie   and  other  distinguisnp 
painters,  that  such  was  the  practice  of  the  old  c  ^ 
artists    they  began  first  to  learn  to  paint,  and  then 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


work  in  marble;  as  painters  of  the  present  day  frequently 
model  figures  before  they  paint  them. 

He  was  now  known  at  the  Academy,  as  an  industri- 
ous and  enthusiastic  student,  and  he  began  to  be  spoken 
of  as  one  from  whom  much  waa  to  be  expected.  In  bis 
fifteenth  year  he  gained  the  silver  medal,  and  he  becamQ, 
in  due  "time,  a  eandidate  for  the  gold  one,  the  reward  of 
the  highest  merit.  The  name  of  tiie  student  who  was 
opposed  to  him  was  Englehoart.  A  subject  for  model- 
ling was  given  by  the  council:  the  students  delivered 
each  his  specimen ;  and  the  prise— the  gold  medal — was 
awarded  by  the  President^  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  to 
Englehoart. 

By  the  concurrent  testimony  of  his  biographers,  the 
subject  of  this  contest  is  the  only  unpleasant,  inauspicious 
part  of  a  narrative  of  the  life  of  Flaxman:  <<  in  n  ^  o  h  -r 
story,"  says  Cunningham,  ^'has  conceit  ever  been  coup- 
led with  his  name."  This  seems  to  be  true:  for  he  is 
reported  to  have  felt  ever  after  great  humility  in  regard 
to  his  own  merits,  and  to  have  looked  on  his  disappoint- 
ment as  a  fortunate  humbling  of  a  spirit  pufied  up  with 
pride.  But  still,  we  feel  bound  to  consider  this  subject 
a  little  further,  with  reference  both  to  the  competitors, 
and  to  the  adjudicator  of  the  prize. 

WTien  Flaxman  gave  in  his  model,  (we  use  his  own 
words,)  he  believed  the  medal  was  his  own.  He  had 
made  up  his  mind  that  he  was  to  win,  and  had  even  in- 
vited some  friends  to  cheer  themselves  at  his  table  till  he 
should  return  from  the  Academy  with  the  prize  J  He 
determined,  he  says  afterwards,  to  redouble  his  exertions, 
and  to  put  it,  if  possible,  beyond  the  power  of  any  one, 
io  make  mistakes  for  the  future.  This  alludes  to  Sir 
Joshua's  decision.  His  biographers  tell  us  that  he 
thought  himself  injuriously  treated,  and  that  he  was 
incensed  at  the  decision.  They  then  go  on  to  reflect 
upon  the  conduct  of  the  president  of  the  Academy,  and 
to  accuse  him,  if  not  of  positive  partiality,  at  least  of 
want  of  penetration  and  judgment.   ^ 

It  is  tLe  opinion  of  persons  best  informed  on  the  subject 
of  education  in  all  its  branches,  an  opinion  borne  out  by 
the  general  experience  of  the  world,  that  a  prize,  or  other 
scholastic  honour,  gained  in  the  days  of  vouth,  is  not  ne- 
cessarily to  be  taken  as  the  passport  of  excellence  in  a 
man.     Such  stimulants  are  useful,  as  they  foster  a  spirit 
of  industrious  excellence.  Thus,  no  one  would  have  known 
Engleheart,  the  gainer  of  the  prize,  but  for  the  publica- 
tion of  the  biography  of  Flaxman;  and  all  of  us  have 
come  to  know  Flaxman,  who  lost  the  prize.     It  might 
have  been,  in  spite  of  the  biographers,  that,  at  the  time, 
Engleheart  surpassed  Flaxman ;  though  the  latter,  by  his 
natural  genius  and  untiring  industry,  eventually  outshone 
the  former.     It  is  only  agreeable  to  human  nature,  and 
accordant  with  self-love,  that  the  adjudication  of  a  prize 
should  leave  the  unsuccessful  discontented,  and  expose 
the  judge  to  charges  affecting  either  his  head  or  his 
heart.     There  was,  perhaps,  never  a  prize  awarded  in 
any  age  or  country,  where  the  competitors  appeared  in 
the  plural  number,  without  raising,  and  perhaps  prolong- 
ing, the  feelings  we  have  alluded  to.     All  this  occurred 
to  our  artist  between  his  fifteenth  and  twentieth  year, — 
^  time  of  life  when  self-sufficiency  is  not  likely  to  be 
corrected  by  experience. 

Soon  after  this,  Flaxman  was  profitably  and  agreeably 
employed  in  making  sketches  and  models  for  the  pottery 
of  the  Wedgcwoods.  Before  this  time  the  porcelain  of 
England  had  little  external  beauty  to  recommend  it. 
1  he  Tuscan  vases  and  the  architectural  ornaments  of 
^Jreece,  supplied  him  with  the  finest  shapes:  these  he 
fiibellished  with  his  own  inventions;  and  a  taste  for 
t^^le^ant  forms  began  to  spread  over  the  land.  Rude  and 
uuicpmly  shapes  were  no  longer  tolerated;  the  eye 
?^ew  accustomed  to  elegance,  and  desired  to  have  it  at 
the  table. 

Though  be  continued  at  this  time  to  model  and  sketch 
for  all  who  employed  him,  he  was  by  no  means  ai;  yet 


107 

distinguished  as  a  worker  in  marble :  so  that,  when  com- 
missioned,  about  this  time,  to  make  a  statue  of  Alexan- 
der the  Great  in  marble,  he  employed  another  hand  to 
complete  tjie  work. 

During  the  ten  years  preceding  his  marriage  in  1 782. 
he  had  exhibited  about  thirteen  works  at  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy, including  five  portraits  in  wax  or  in  terra-cotta.  The 
others  were  models  of  ancient  historical  subjects :  some 
were  terra-cottas  and  in  relief;  others  were  in  plaster 
of  Pans ;  and  one  m  cay.  These  seem  to  show,  at 
least,  his  early  pecuniary  difficulties;  for,  if  patronage 
had  smiled  upon  him,  the  plaster  model  would  have  been 
converted  into  marble,  and  his  proficiency  herein  the 
sooner  attained. 

While  labouring  for  Wedgewoods,  during  these  years, 
he  produced  his  celebrated  chess  models.  Occasionally 
when  his  daily  task  was  over,  he  would  work  at  the  bust 
of  a  friend;  but  it  was  his  chief  delight  to  make  designa 
from  the  poets,  from  the  Bible,  and  from  the  PilgrinCM 
Progrese. 

We  have  thus  passed  through  the  days  of  the  youth 
of  our  artist:  we  will,  in  our  next  paper,  enter  upon  the 
scenes  and  productions  of  his  manhood. 

TATTOOING. 

Few  of  the  practices  of  semi-barbarous  tribes  are  more 
strikinfi^  than  the  mode  of  ornamenting  their  skins.  It  cor- 
rwonds  with  the  love  of  finely  and  extraneous  ornament, 
which  is  indulged  by  polished  nations:  while  the  ingenuity 
of  the  aboriginal  decoration,  and  the  elaborate  beauty  of  iU 
figures,  are  scarcely  reconcileable  with  the  crude  notions  of 
savage  life. 

The  process  of  tattooing  merits  description.  It  is  generally 
practised  in  the  Pacific  Islands ;  but  none  are  bdieved  to 
have  carried  the  art  of  tattooing  to  so  high  a  degree  of  per- 
fection as  the  natives  of  the  Washington  Islands.  The 
operation  is  performed  by  certain  persons  who  gain  their 
liveliliood  by  its  practice;  and  those  who  perform  it  with 
the  greatest  dexterity,  and  evince  the  best  taste  in  the 
choice  of  ornaments,  are  as  much  sought  after  and  encour- 
aged as  the  best  tailors  are  in  civilized  countries. 

The  principal  strokes  or  patterns  of  the  figures  to  be  tat- 
tooed are  first  sketched  upon  the  body,  with  the  same  dye 
that  is  afterwards  rubbed  into  the  punctures  or  piercings, 
and  to  make  the  latter,  they  use  the  wing-bone  of  a  ti*opical 
bird,  which  is  jagged  and  pointed  at  the  end  like  a  comb, 
and  of  various  foims,  according  to  the  required  figure. 
This  instrument  is  fixed  into  a  Damboo  handle,  about  the 
thickness  of  the  fin^r,  with  which  the  punctui-er,  by  means 
of  another  cane,  strikes  so  dexterously,  that  it  only  pierces 
through  the  skin,  to  allow  the  blood  and  lymph  to  ooze 
through  the  orifices,  over  which  is  rubbed  a  thick  dye, 
composed  of  ashes  from  the  kernel  of  the  burning  nut 
mixed  with  water.  This,  at  first,  occasions  slight  smarting 
and  inflammation ;  It  then  heals,  and  after  a  few  days  the 
figure  appears  in  bluish-black  lines. 

In  the  Washin^n  Islands,  many  of  the  natives  seek  as 
much  to  obtain  distinction  by  the  symmetry  and  regularity 
witb  which  they  are  tattooed,  as  the  people  of  more  refined 
nations  do  by  the  elegance  of  dress ;  and,  although  no  real 
elevation  of  rank  is  designated  by  the  superiority  of  these 
decorations,  yet,  as  only  persons  of  rank  can  afford  expen- 
sive or  elaborate  ornaments,  it  becomes,  in  fact,  a  badge  of 
distinction.  As  soon  as  a  youth  of  these  islands  approaclteg 
manhood,  the  operation  is  commenced,  and  this  is  considered 
a  memorable  period  of  his  life.  In  the  first  year,  only  the 
outlines  of  the  principal  figures  upon  the  breast,  arms,  back, 
and  thighs,  are  laid :  some  addition  is  constantly  made  to- 
ihem  at  intervals  of  from  three  to  six  montlis,  and  this 
is  sometimes  continued  for  thirty  or  forty  years  before  the 
whole  tattooing  is  completed. 

The  women  of  the  Washington  Islands  are  very  little 
tattooed,  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  inliabitants  of  the 
other  South  Sea  Islands.  The  hands  are  punctured  from 
the  ends  of  the  fingera  to  the  vnrists,  which  produces  an 
appearance  like  that  of  gloves;  on  the  feet  ana  ancles  the 
tattooing  resembles  hiffhly-omamented  half  boots ;  and  the 
arms  are  decorated  witn  long  stripes,  and  with  circlets  which 
have  the  appearance  of  bracelets  worn  by  Eurooean  ladies. 
The  patterns  for  the  tattooer  are  selected  witn  great  care. 
They  consist  of  sketches  of  men,  birds,  dogs,  and  varioua 

559—2 


103 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


[March  20, 


aninials;  squares,  circles,  crescents,  &^^9  diamonds,  and, 
in  short,  of  every  variety  of  form.  The  head  of  a  man  is 
nsuaUy  tattooed  m  every  part  The  common  ornament  for 
the  breast  is  a  shield-like  ngore,  and  that  for  the  back  is  a 
large  cross,  beginning  at  the  neck :  on  each  side  of  the  calf  of 
the  leg  is  an  oval  figure.  We  may  add,  that  the  observer 
can  scarcely  &il  to  be  struck  with  the  similarity  of  effect 
which  exists  between  the  tattooed  decorations  of  the  South 
Sea  Islanders,  and  the  armour  of  the  warriors  of  antiquity. 
The  tattooing  of  persons  in  middle  life  is  performed  m 
houses  erectedfor  the  purpose,  and  the  expense  varies  with 
the  number  and  intricacy  of  the  chosen  decorations.  A 
common  mode  of  payment  is  by  hc«8 ;  but  the  poor  islanders, 
who  have  not  a  superabundance  of  swine  thus  to  dispose  of 
luxuriously,  but  tnemselves  live  chiefly  upon  bread-fruit, 
are  tattooed  by  novices,  who  take  them  at  a  very  low  price, 
as  subjects  for  practice;  but  their  works  are  easily  distin- 
guishable from  those  of  an  experienced  artist.  Amoi^  the 
rich  isl^ders,  the  addition  of  ear-ornaments  to  a  fenude,  or 
a  bracelet  tattooed  about  her  arms,  is  often  the  occasion  of  a 

joyous  feast. 

in  New  Zealand  the  art  of  tattooing  has  been  brought  to 
great  perfection,  and  is  as  much  admired  as  superb  clothing. 
When  a  chief  throws  off  his  mats,  he  seems  as  proud  of 
diq>laying  the  beautiful  ornaments  figured  on  nis  skin, 
as  any  civilized  votary  of  fashion  is  in  displaying  himself 
in  his  last  modish  attire.  Tattooing  is  likewise  as  essential 
a  part  of  warlike  preparations  in  ^w  Zealand  as  are  the 
accoutrements  of  an  European  soldier.  Mr.  Earle  describes 
a  whole  district  thus  preparing,  and  an  inffenious  artist  en- 
gaged to  tattoo  the  warriors.  He  was  considered  by  his  coun- 
trymen a  perfect  master  of  his  art,  and  men  of  the  highest  rank 
and  importance  were  accustomed  to  make  loiijg  journeys  to 
put  their  skin  under  his  hands.  Aliighly  finished  fiice  of  a 
chie^  tattooed  by  this  artist,  is  as  greatly  prized  in  New 
Zealand  as  a  head  finom  the  hands  of  a  celebrated  nainter  is 
among  us ;  and  a  wamor,  having  killed  a  chief  wnom  this 
artist  had  tattooed,  appreciated  me  work  so  highly,  that  he 
skinned  the  cMefifun  s  thighs,  and  covered  his  cartouch-box 
with  it. 

POISONOUS  ARTICLES  OF  FOOD. 

m 

Poisonous  Honxt. 

HoNET  would  seem  to  vary  much  in  its  nature  and 
the  effects  it  produces  on  the  animal  economy,  accord- 
ing to  the  description  of  flowers  whence  it  is  procured. 
Delicious  in  its  taste,  and  usually  harmless  in  its  effects, 
it  has  been  found  iii  various  parts  of  the  world  to 
possess  poisonous  qualities.  Mr.  Abbot,  writing  to 
the  Zoological  Society  from  Trebizond,  says,  that  he 
has  there  seen  the  identical  symptoms  produced  by  eating 
the  honey,  procured  by  the  bees  from  the  odorous 
Azalea  ponticay  which  were  described  by  Xenophon  and 
Diodorus  Siculus  as  affecting  those  of  the  army  of  the 
Ten  Thousand,  who  ate  the  honey  in  the  fields  during 
the  siege  of  Trebizond.  The  persons  so  affected  act  just 
like  men  inebriated  by  strong  drink.  Dr.  Barton  states, 
that  after  the  removal  of  several  hives  from  Pennsylvania 
to  the  savannahs  of  New  Jersey,  where  the  kalmia  was 
the  principal  flowering  shrub,  the  bees  themselves  throve 
exceedingly  well,  but  that  every  one  who  partook  of  their 
honey  became  as  if  intoxicated,  and  seized  with  dim 
vision,  vertigo,  and  delirium,  followed  in  a  few  cases  by 
death.  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  Dioscorides,  mention  that 
at  certain  times  of  the  year,  the  honey  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Caucasus  becomes  poisonous.  Toumefort 
says,  that  a  constant  tradition  has  prevailed  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  that  the  honey  collected  from 
the  azalea  is  dangerous;  and  Guldenstaedt,  the  com- 
panion of  Pallas,  says  the  honey  thence  derived  is  dark 
and  bitterish,  and  produces  insensibility.  Roulox  Borro, 
in  his  voyage  to  the  Brazils,  mentions  that  the  Tapuies 
make  an  intoxicating  beverage,  called  ^ram?^,  from  wild 
honey.  Seringe  relates,  that  Swiss  herds  naving  eaten 
of  honey  procured  from  the  wolfsbar  »,  were  convulsed 
and  delirious.  M.  Augustus  de  St.-Hilaire  gives  an  in- 
teresting account  of  the  escape  of  himself  and  com- 


panions from  the  effects  of  the  honey  of  the  Lcchcgum 
wasp,  of  which  they  had  eaten  in  the  Brazils :  he  saya, 
there  are  two  species  of  honey  produced  by  it,  one  white 
and  harmless,  another  dark  and  frequently  deleterious. 

Poisonous  Grain. 
Wheat  is  sometmies  rendered  black  by  disease  of  the 
ears,  when  it  is  said  to  cause  cholic  and  other  diseases,  if 
made  into  bread;  and  the  same  effects  are  said  to  result 
in  various  parts  of  France,  when  unpropitious  weaiber 
compels  the  fanner  to  cut  his  wheat  before  it  is  entirely 
ripe:  the  wheat  which  is  cut  in  this  country  before 
ripening,  does  not  however  produce  similar  effects.  Com 
has  more  frequently  been  rendered  hurtful  by  the  acd- 
dental  admixture  with  it  of  some  of  the  seeds  of  the 
darnel  grass  {Lohum  tremuUntum)^  the  only  poisouous 
species  of  the  natural  order  of  the  gprasses.  Several 
years  ago,  eighty  persons  were  seized  with  alarming 
symptoms  in  the  Sheffield  work-house,  from  bavii^ 
breaidasted  upon  oatmeal  porridge,  contaminated  by  this 
herb.  A  similar  accident  took  place  at  the  house  of 
correction  at  Freyburg 

Spurred  Rye. 
Rye  has  produced  the  most  unquestionable  and  highly 
poisonous  effects.  Triflingly  as  it  enters  into  the  articles 
of  consumption  of  the  people  of  this  country,  little  is 
known  here  practically  about  the  diseases  it  engenders, 
but  the  accounts  we  have  of  the  various  severe  epide- 
mics which  have  prevailed  in  France  and  Germany  from 
its  use,  supply  us  with  abundant '  information.  In  its 
natural  state  rye  furnishes  an  useful  article  of  food, 
though  of  a  very  inferior  nourishing  power  compared  to 
wheat,  but  it  becomes  by  disease  converted  into  a  black- 
ened substance  termed  ergot,  or  spur  of  rye,  which, 
when  used  in  small  quantities,  forms  a  valuable  medidne, 
but  wnen  entering  into  the  composition  of  bread  proves 
a  dangerous  poison.  The  production  of  the  ergot  or 
spur  of  rye  {Secdle  corttuturn)^  has  been  referred  to 
various  causes :  some  suppose  it  to  consist  in  a  diseased 
state  of  the  juices  of  the  plant;  De  Candolle  belieTes  it 
caused  bv  the  growth  of  a  parasitic  mushroom  of  the 
genus  Scleroticum^  while  the  majority  of  obacrrers 
assert,  that  it  is  the  production  of  an  insect.  This  last 
opinion  has  been  confirmed  by  the  observations  of 
General  Field,  of  Vermont,  who  has  seen  small  flies 
puncturing  the  ear  of  the  rye,  while  in  a  milky  state:  he 
imitated  the  process  himsebT  in  other  instances  with  a 
needle,  and  the  black  spur  was  grradually  formed. 

Epidemics  arising  from  the  admixture  of  this  spurred 
with  good  rye,  have  occurred  at  various  periods  m 
Europe,  and  although  some  of  these  have  been  attributed 
rather  to  the  famines  caused  by  poverty  and  misery,  yet 
there  is  ample  evidence  to  show  that  the  rye,  on  many 
occasions,  has  been  instrumental  in  producing  them; 
while  direct  experiments  have  at  the  same  time  shown 
its  poisonous  effects  upon  the  lower  animals.  From  the 
symptoms  which  the  imperfect  records  of  the  time  de- 
tail, it  is  very  probable  that  many  of  the  epidemic  visita- 
tions of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centunes,  known  ffi 
France  under  the  names  of  St.  Anthony's  Fire,  the  Sacred 
Fire,  and  the  «  Mai  des  Ardens,"  were  produced  by  this 
grain;  but  the  earliest  positive  accounts  we  have,  relate 
to  an  epidemic  which  occurred  in  1596,  in  Saxony. 
There  are  numerous  records  of  similar  occurrences  from 
time  to  time,  during  and  after  the  seventeenth  century, 
in  France,  Siberia,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Lombar^> 
and  in  1661  the  disease  appeared  in  England.  Towards 
the  end  of  last  century,  in  consequence  of  the  investiga- 
tions which  the  various  states  instituted  into  the  subject, 
and  of  the  improved  conditions  of  the  lower  orders,  tw 
epidemic  attacks  of  Ergotisme  (as  it  is  called  by  the 
French)  became  much  less  frequent  and  less  severe,  ye| 
have  several  visitations  occurred  even  during  the  ?J®^ 
century  in  France  and  Germany.  The  rye  chiefly  ^ 
comes  spurred  in  wet  seasons*  and  in  moist  cUycy  soiw? 


IMI.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


and  thus  the  diBtrict  of  Sologne,  aitnated  betneen  the 
riven  Loire  and  Cher,  is  found  to  be  the  portion  of 
Fnnce  by  far  the  most  frequently  affected.  The  Abb6 
Tessier,  who  in  1777  nude  a  careful  investiffation  of  the 
subject,  found  that  a  forty-eighth  part  of  tae  thrashed 
com  was  ergutiied,  and  that  in  bad  seasons  the  propor- 
tion mounted  up  to  one-third  or  one-fourth  of  the  whole 
quantity.  Similar  observations  as  to  the  localities 
&voumble  to  its  production  have  been  made  in  Germany, 
and  Wildenow  says,  this  diseased  state  of  the  rye  may  at 
any  time  be  induced  by  sowing  the  com  in  rich  damp 
soil,  and  watering  the  plants  profiisely  in  warm  weather. 
It  19  not  our  intention  to  describe  minutely  the  symp- 
toms which  result  from  the  use  of  spurred  rye,  but  we 
may  notice  the  curious  fact  that  they  vary  so  much  in 
different  epidemics,  that  the  French  writers  denote  th^m 
under  two  distinctive  appellations,  namely,  Convulsive 
Erotism,  and  Gangrenous  Ergotism, — in  the  first,  a 
great  disposition  to  convulaive  and  spasmodic  diseases 
manifests  itself;  in  the  latter,  various  parts  of  the  bodies 
of  those  who  eat  the  bread  containing  the  damaged  rye, 
are  destroyed  by  gangrene  or  mortifik^ation,  from  which 
cause  these  unnappy  victims  frequently  lose  a  band,  a 
fiMt,  or  the  nose.     In  Germany,  the  disease  is  popularly 

1  be  liable  to  a  siniilar 
disease  in  Columbia,  and  while  in  that  state,  produces  a 
loss  of  hair  and  teeth  of  those  who  partake  of  it. — J.  C. 


THE  ICHNEUMON. 


TiiB  bttle  animal  we  ara  about  to  describe'  was  well 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  much  celebrated  in  their 
fables.  It  was  held  in  such  high  estimation  by  the 
Egyptians  that  funds  were  set  apart  for  its  support;  it 
vas  tended  with  great  solicitude,  and  fish,  bread,  and 
milk  were  supplied  to  it  as  food.  It  was  also  a  forbidden 
thing  to  lull  it;  and,  on  its  death,  honours  were  paid  to 
it,  as  to  an  object  of  worship.  Elian,  and  other  ancient 
writers,  celebrate  the  combats  of  the  ichneumon  and  the 
aspis:  Pliny  describes  its  stratagems  against  the  croco- 
dile, and  it  is  on  account  of  the  reputation  it  has  for 
diminishing  the  numbers  of  these  formidable  creatures, 
that  the  ichneumon  has  gained  so  much  celebrity. 
According  to  the  statements  of  the  above  writers,  the 
ichneumon  had  the  sagacity  to  arm  itself,  previous  to 
the  battle,  with  a  coating  of  mud.  If  mud  were  not  at 
hand,  it  bathed  itself  in  water,  and  then  rolled  itself  in 
the  sand,  and  as  the  nostrils  were  the  most  vulnerable 
part,  it  took  care  to  cover  them  by  the  sinuosities  of  its' 
tuL  Aristotle  still  further  vaunts  the  wisdom  of  the 
ichneumon  by  stating  that  it  never  goes  to  battle  without 
first  summoning  its  friends  and  allies.  Pliny  relates  the 
itratagem  it  employs  against  the  aspis  as  we  give  it  from 
Hdhnd:— 

Now  when  he  is  lulled  as  it  were  font  asleepe  with  this 
phunre  and  cwtentment  of  his,  the  rat  of  India,  or  ichqen- 


mon,  spieth  his  advantage,  and  seeing  him  lie  tbns  broad 

Sping,  whippeth  into  nia  mouth,  and  shooteth  himself 
wne  bis  throat  as  quicke  as  an  arrow,  and  tlien  gnaweth 
his  bowels,  eateth  a  hole  through  liia  body  and  so  killeth 

It  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  above  extravagant 
notions  of  this  animal,  for  there  is  nothing  in  its  charac- 
ter or  habits,  as  at  present  described  by  naturalists,  that 
can  warrant  them.  The  ichneumon  is  diminutive  in  size, 
timid  in  disposition,  jind  has  neither  the  courage  nor  the 
r  to  attack  serpents  or  crocodiles,  whether  they  be 
asleep  or  awake.  It  is  fond  of  mice,  rats,  small  birds, 
&<:.,  and  is  particularly  destructive  to  eggs.  In  this  way 
it  is  of  great  service ;  for  bv  feeding  on  the  eggs  of  cro- 
codiles, serpents,  and  the  larger  kind  of  lizards,  it  re- 
duces the  numbers  of  these  formidable  creatures.  At 
the  close  of  day,  it  glides  through  the  ridges  and  incqtu- 
lities  of  the  soil,  and  shows  much  prudence  in  searching 
after  its  prey,  and  in  endeavouring  at  the  same  time  to 
evade  danger.  It  possesses  great  perseverance,  and  will 
remain  for  hours  in  the  same  place,  attentively  watching 
for  the  animal  it  has  marked  out  as  its  prey.  When  it 
has  made  its  way  into  some  unknown  spot  it  immediately 
explores  every  hole  end  comer,  and  its  chief  power  of 
research  seems  to  lie  in  its  sense  of  smell,  which  is  un- 
commonly powerful  and  acute;  the  other  senses  appear 
comparatively  feeble,  Cuvier  thus  notices  the  animal, 
which  he  places  with  the  civets,  and  the  genets,  interme- 
diate between  foxes  and  hyienas  in  the  system. 

The  man^outte  of  Egypt,  so  celebrated  under  the  name 
ichneumon,  (  Viverra  icinewnon,  Linn.) 

Grey,  with  a  long  tail  terminated  by  a  black  tnft,  larger 
than  our  cats,  as  slender  as  our  martens.  It  searches  nccn- 
liarly  for  the  e«gs  of  crocodiles,  but  also  aubaista  on  all  kinds 
of  small  anim^.  Domesticated  in  houses,  it  hunts  mice, 
reptiles,  &c.  The  Europeans  at  Cairo  call  it  PAarooA'iraf; 
the  people  of  the  country,  Xemt.  What  the  ancients  re- 
lated of  its  jumping  down  the  throat  of  the  crocodile  to  put 
it  to  death  is  &bulou8. 

Hasselquist,  speaking  of  the  ichneumon  of  the  Nile, 
says  that  it  is  met  with  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt 
living  during  the  inundations  of  the  Nile  in  gardens 
and  near  the  villages,  but  in  the  dry  season  dwell- 
ing in  the  fields  and  near  the  banks  of  the  river. 
It  creeps  slowly  along,  as  if  ready  to  seize  its  prey,  and , 
feeds  on  plants,  eggs,  and  fowls,  killing  the  latter  in  the 
night,  when  it  frequents  the  villages.  He  mentions 
likewise  its  services  in  Upper  ^:ypt  in  searching  out 
the  crocoililes'  e^s  that  lie  hid  in  the  sand,  and  devour- 
ing them. 

The  execution  committed  by  the  ichneumon  among 
young  animals  may  be  judged  of  by  the  fact,  that  when 
a  dozen  full-grown  rats  were  turned  into  a  room  in  the 
Tower  of  Loudon,  sixteen  feet  square,  with  one  of  these 
animals,  the  ichneumon  killed  them  all  in  less  than  a 
mtuute  and  a  half. 

The  haunts  and  habits  of  the  members  of  this  sub- 
genus are  nearly  all  alike.  Wherever  they  abound,  the 
country  is  subject  to  periodical  overflowings  of  water, 
and  a  consequent  abundance  of  aauatic  animals;  so  that 
the  office  of  the  ichneumon  in  the  economy  of  nature 
seems  to  be  the  keeping  of  such  animals  within  due 
bounds  by  preying  on  their  eggs.  From  M.  F.  Cuvier 
we  have  a  description  of  an  ichneumon,  brought  from 
the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  and  from  Dr.  Horslield  an 
account  of  the  ichneumon  of  Java,  Of  these  two  species, 
therefore,  we  proceed  to  give  a  brief  notice. 

The  mangouste,  or  ichneumon  of  IMalacca,  is  rather 
more  than  a  foot  in  length,  the  tail  about  a  foot,  and  the 
height  at  the  most  elevated  point  of  the  back  five 
inches  and  a  half.  Owing  to  a  peculiar  faculty  which  it 
possesses  of  elongating  or  shortening  the  body  by  some 
inches,  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  measure  it  correctly. 
The  colour  of  this  animal  is  a  dirty  grey,  resulting  from 
a  succession  of  black  and  whitish  yellow  rings  which 
cover  the  hairs ;  the  circumference  of  the  eye,  the  ear 


no 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


[March  SO, 


and  the  extremity  of  the  muzxle  are  naked,  and  of  ft 
violet  colour;  the  tail  is  the  same  colour  as  the  body, 
very  thick  at  the  root,  aud  terminating  in  a  point  with 
yellowish  hairs.  This  ichneumon,  though  extremely 
tame,  permitting  itself  to  be  handled,  and  taking  pleasure 
in  caresses,  grew  extremely  ferocious  at  sight  of  those 
little  animals  which  constitute  its  prey.  It  was  particu- 
larly fond  of  birds,  and  when  they  were  put  into  a  large 
cage,  it  v7ould  spring  forward  with  a  rapidity  that  the 
eye  could  not  follow,  seize  them,  break  their  heads,  and 
then  devour  them  with  the  utmost  voracity ;  as  soon  as 
its  appetite  was  satisfied,  it  would  lie  down  in  the 
most  obscure  comer  of  its  retreat.  When  irritated  the 
hairs  of  its  tail  would  bristle  up.  Its  cleanliness  was 
remarkable. 

These  little  animals  are  said  to  inhabit  holes  in  the 
walls,  or  burrows  in  the  vicinity  of  habitations,  and  to 
perform  much  the  same  part  in  India  that  weasels  and 
polecats  do  among  ourselves,  destroying  great  numbers 
of  young  animals  and  committing  much  devastation. 

The  mangouste,  or  ichneumon  of  Java,  differs  but 
slightly  from  that  of  Malacca.  It  is  somewhat  larger, 
and  its  fur  is  a  mixture  of  black  and  brown  instead  of 
black  and  white.  It  is  known  in  Java  by  the  name  of 
garangan,  and  is  found  there  most  abundantly  in  the 
large  teak  forests;  its  agility  is  greatly  admired  by  the 
natives ;  it  is  reported  among  them  tbat  it  will  attack  and 
kill  serpents,  and  that  when  the  snake  involves  it  in  its 
folds  the  ichneumon  inflates  its  body  to  a  considerable 
degree,  and  when  the  reptile  is  about  to  bite,  again  con- 
tracts, slips  from  between  the  folds,  and  seizes  the  snake 
by  the  neck. 

It  is  very  expert  in  burrowing  in  the  ground,  which 
process  it  employs  ingeniously  in  the  pursuit  of  rats :  it 
possesses  great  natural  sagacity,  and  from  the  peculiari- 
ties of  its  character  willingly  seeks  the  protection  of  man : 
it  is  easily  tamed,  and  in  a  domestic  state  is  docile, 
becomes  attached  to  its  master,  and  follows  him  like  a 
dog;  it  frequently  places  itself  erect  on  its  hind  legs, 
regarding  every  thing  which  passes  with  the  greatest 
attention ;  it  is  of  a  very  restless  disposition,  and  always 
carries  its  food  to  a  very  retired  place  in  order  to  consume 
it,  and  if  it  is  disturbed  there,  it  exhibits  great  anger. 
One  of  the  principal  articles  of  food  among  the  Java- 
nese is  the  common  fowl ;  and  as  the  ichneumon  is  very 
artful  in  surprising  and  catching  young  chickens,  it  is 
not  to  the  interest  of  the  people  to  keep  it  in  the  doipes- 
tic  state.  They  are  likewise  very  fond  of  cats,  and 
are  unwilling  in  most  cases  to  be  deprived  of  their 
society  for  the  sake  of  introducing  the  ichneumon 


A  mother's  love. 

The  bird  may  leave  its  nestled  young, 
The  sun  may  cease  to  shine  above, 

Man  may  forget  his  native  tongue. 
But  who  can  change  a  mother's  love  1 

The  flowerets  may  withhold  their  bloom, 
And  gentleness  forsake  the  dove  ; 

Man  may  forget  the  blighting  tomb, 
But  cliangcleas  is  a  mother's  love. 


Every  one  admits  that  the  mind,  and  moral  faculties,  are 
to  be  developed  and  strengthened,  and  made  to  do  the  best, 
by  exercise.  This  is  equally  trae  of  physical  power.  Every 
action  which  it  can  be  proi)er  to  do  at  all,  ought  to  be  done 
in  the  best  way ;  oUierwisc  the  end  of  being  is  not  answered. 
In  the  vegetable  and  animal  departments,  all  proper  care 
and  cultivation  tend  to  use  and  beauty.  Is  there  any  reason 
why  the  physical  powers  of  man  should  not  have  care  and 
cultivation  to  the  same  ends?  Those  who  prefer  a  stooping, 
iQunging,  awkward,  graceless,  figure  and  motion,  may  be  on 
one  side  of  the  question  ;  those  who  think  that  it  was  in- 
tended that  man  should  be  an  upright,  easy,  fi^ank,  comely, 
and  convenient  being  to  himself,  and  pleasant  to  all  within 
whose  obsenratioii  he  may  oome,  will  be  on  the  other, — S, 


i      USE  OF  TEA  IN  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

The  plants  employed  as  tea  in  different  countries  do  not 
resemble  each  other  so  much  as  their  general  deDomi. 
nation  might  lead  the  reader  to  imagine.  Their  external 
varieties  are,  however,  exceeded  by  the  modes  of  making 
beverage  from  them :  for,  it  is  curious  to  observe,  that 
in  scarcely  any  two  countries  where  tea  is  drunk,  is  it 
prepared  precisely  in  the  same  manner.  That  of  China 
approaches  nearest  to  the  fashion  of  our  own  country. 

The  Emperor  Kien-long,  the  royal  poet  of  China, 
composed  an  ode  eulogising  tea.  He  first  describes  the 
mode  of  drawing  tea,  which,  when  divested  of  his  pecu- 
liar and  methodical  phraseology,  is  nearly  the  same  as 
our  own.  **  On  a  slow  fire,"  he  says,  '<  set  a  tripod,  whose 
colour  and  texture  show  its  long  use.  Fill  it  with  clear 
snow  water.  Boil  it  as  long  as  would  be  sufficient  to 
turn  fish  white  and  crayfish  red.  Throw  it  upon  the 
delicate  leaves  of  choice  tea.  Let  it  remain  as  long  as 
the  vapour  rises  in  a  cloud,  and  leaves  only  a  thin  mist 
floating  on  the  surface.  At  your  ease  drink  this  precious 
liquor,  which  will  chase  away  the  five  causes  of  sorrow. 
We  can  taste  and  feel,  but  not  describe  the  state  of  r^ 
pose  produced  by  a  liquor  thus  prepared."  The  Chinese, 
however,  drink  their  tea  simply,  without  the  addition  of 
sugfar  or  milk.  The  common  people,  who  have  a  coarser 
tea,  boil  it  for  some  time  in  water,  and  make  use  of  the 
liquor  for  usual  drink.  Early  in  the  morning  the  kettle, 
filled  with  water,  is  regpilarly  hung  over  the  fire  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  tea  is  either  put  into  the  kettle,  inclosed 
in  a  bag,  or  by  means  of  a  basket  pressed  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  that  there  may  not  be  any  hindrance  in 
drawing  off  the  water.  The  Bantsjaa  tea  only  is  used 
in  this  manner;  its  virtues,  being  moje  fixed,  would  not 
be  so  fully  extracted  by  infusion. 

One  mode  of  using  tea,  among  the  higher  ranks  in 
China,  is  by  grating  into  the  cup,  balls  made  of  the 
most  valuable  leaves,  cemented  together  by  some  kind  of 
tasteless  gum. 

Neither  the  Chinese,  nor  natives  of  Japan,  eTer  use 
tea  before  it  has  been  kept  at  least  a  year;  because,  when 
fresh,  it  is  said  to  prove  narcotici  and  to  disorder  the 
senses.  The  Japanese  reduce  the  tea  into  a  fine  powder, 
by  grinding  the  leaves  inahandmill;  they  then  mix  them 
with  hot  water  into  a  thin  pulp,  in  which  fbrm  it  is 
sipped,  especially  by  the  nobility  and  wealthy  persons. 
It  is  made  and  served  up  to  compluay  in  the  following 
manner: — the  tea-table  furniture,  with  the  powdered  tea 
inclosed  in  a  box,  are  set  before  the  company;  the  cups 
are  then  filled  with  hot  water,  and  a  smdl  quantity  of 
the  powder  is  taken  out  of  the  box,  put  into  each  cup, 
and  then  stirred  together  with  a  curious  notched  instru- 
ment till  the  liquor  foams,  in  which  state  it  is  handed  to 
the  company,  and  sipped  while  warm.  Du  Halde  states 
this  method  to  be  used  in  some  provinces  of  China,  as 
well  as  in  Japan.  To  make  tea,  and  to  serve  it  in  a 
genteel  and  graceful  manner,  is  an  accomplishment^  in 
which  persons  of  both  sexes  in  Japan  are  instructed  by 
masters,  in  the  .same  manner  as  Europeans  are  in 
dancing,  and  other  branches  of  polite  education^ 

Tea  is  also  the  common  beverage  of  all  the  lahouring 
people  in  China,  one  scarcely  ever  sees  them  represented 
at  work  of  any  kind,  but  the  tea-pot  and  tea-cup  app^^ 
as  their  accompaniments.  Reapers,  threshers,  and  all 
who  work  out  of,  as  well  as  within,  doors,  have  their 
attendants.  In  public  roads,  and  in  all  places  of  much 
resort  in  Japan,  and  even  in  the  midst  of  fields  and 
frequented  woods,  tea-booths  are  erected;  as  most  tra- 
vellers drink  scarcely  any  other  beverage  on  the  roadi 

The  tea  drunk  by  the  working  people  in  China,  how- 
ever, must  not  only  be  of  an  inferior  class,  but  VC17' 
weak;  as  the  native  attendants  on  Lord  Macartney's 
embassy  were  continually  begging  the  refuse  leaves, 
which  had  been  already  used  by  the  English,  bo  tluit 
they  night  pour  fresh  water  over  them,  and  thus  obtaiP 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


ill 


a  bettor  beverage  tban  they  usually  enjoyed.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  tea  presented  by  the  Emperor  Kien 
Long  to  Lord  Macartney,  was  found  to  want  somewhat 
of  the  astringency  which  the  British  tea-drinker  values 
in  the  infusion. 

Thrice  at  least  in  the  day,  every  Chinese  dnnks  tea, 
but  all  who  possess'  the  means  enjoy  the  refreshing 
beverage  oftener:  it  is  a  constant  ofifering  to  a  g^est, 
and  forms  a  portion  of  every  sacrifice  to  their  idols. 

Mr.  Ellis,  in  an  account  of  one  of  Lord  Amherst's  visits 
of  ceremony  to  Kwang,  a  mandarin  of  high  rank,  says, 
"  The  tea  served  round  was  that  only  used  on  occasions 
of  ceremony,  called  Yu-tien:  it  was  a  small  leafed 
highly-flavoured  green  tea.  In  Lord  Amherst's  and 
Kwang  s  cups  there  was  a  thin  perforated  silver  plate, 
to  keep  the  leaves  down,  and  let  the  infusion  pass  through. 
The  cups  used  by  the  mandarins  of  rank,  in  form,  re- 
semble coffee  cups,  and  are  placed  in  a  wooden  or  metal 
eaucer,  shaped  like  the  Chinese  boats." 

Tea  has  long  been  conmion  in  South  America,  and 
is  grown  in  large  quantities  in  Paraguay,  the  tree  called 
Yerva  Mate,  being  nearly  peculiar  to  that  district.  We 
find,  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  that  this 
plant  was  in  general  use ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  but 
the  Indians  taught  it  to  the  Ptotguayans.  The  quantity 
used  by  a  person  who  is  fond  of  this  tea  is  an  ounce. 
In  Paraguay,  La  Plata,  Peru,  and  Quito,  it  is  made  at 
all  hours  of  the  day,  by  putting  a  handful  into  a  tea-pot, 
from  the  spout  of  which,  the  hot  liquid  is  drunk ;  some 
mix  sugar  with  it,  and  others  add  a  few  drops  of  lemon- 
juice.  Five  millions  of  pounds  are  annually  obtained 
from  Paraguay,  half  of  which  is  sent  to  Chili,  whence 
Lima  and  Quito  are  supplied :  the  rest  is  consumed  in 
the  viccroyalty  of  Buenos  A  vres.  The  people  of  South 
America  attribute  innumerable  virtues  to  this  plant:  it 
is  certainly  aperient  and  diuretic;  but  the  other  qualities 
a«crihed  to  it  are  doubtful.  Like  opium,  it  produces 
some  singular  and  opposite  effects;  it  g^iyes  sleep  to  the 
restless,  and  spirit  to  the  torpid.  Those  who  have  once 
contracted  the  habit  of  drinking  it,  do  not  find  it  easy  to 
discontinue  its  use,  or  even  to  drink  it  in  moderation ; 
though  when  taken  to  excess,  it  brings  on  similar  dis- 
orders to  those  which  are  produced  by  the  inunoderate 
use  of  strong  liquor. 

Dr.  Walsh,  in  his  Noticei  ofBrazif^  describes  what 
i^  by  some  considered  another  plant,  named  the  conhonga, 
^hich  Is  used  universally  as  tea.  It  grows  in  marshy 
places,  and  resembles  an  orange  tree:  the  leaves  are 
dried,  or  rather,  roasted  on  twigs  before  the  fire,  where 
they  crackle  like  cannel,  and  are  then  reduced  nearly  to 
powder,  and  kept  in  pots.  Dr.  Walsh  drank  this  tea 
prepared  in  three  different  ways:  either  an  infusion  of 
fresh  leaves,  or  made  with  the  dried  leaves  like  China 
tea,  or  boiled  with  sugar,  and  then  drained  off.  The  clear 
mfusion  resembles  that  of  common  green-tea,  but  has 
neither  its  flavour,  odour,  ^or  refreshing  qualities. 

Brick  tea  is  much  used  by  the  Mongols,  and  most 
of  the  people  of  Middle  Asia:  it  serves  them  both  for 
food  and  drink.  The  Chinese  carry  on  a  great  trade  in 
this  kind  of  tea,  but  never  drink  it  themselves.  It  con- 
sists of  the  dry,  dirty,  and  rejected  leaves  and  stalks  of 
the  tea,  which  are  mixed  with  a  glutinous  substance, 
pressed  into  moulds,  and  dried  in  ovens:  these  blocks 
being  called,  on  account  of  their  shape,  brick  tea.  The 
mode  of  using  it  is,  to  pound  a  piece  in  a  mortar  made 
for  the  purpose,  and  throw  the  powder  into  a  cast-iron 
vessel  full  of  boiling  water,  which  is  suffered  to  stand  a 
long  time  over  the  fire,  during  which  salt  and  milk,  and 
sometimes  flour  fried  in  oil,  are  added.  This  tea,  or 
broth,  is  called  Satouran,  and  is  believed  to  be  very 
nourishing. 

Throughout  the  continent  of  Europe,  tea  is  compara- 
tively but  little  used,  coffee  being  the  almost  universal 
beverage  as  a  luxury,  or  necessary  of  life.  In  Germany; 
tea  is  so  seldom  drank,  that  it  acts  like  a  medicine  when 


taken  by  a  native;  and,  in  that  country,  persons  have 
been  known  to  decline  a  cup  of  good  bohea,  with  the 
excuse,  "  No,  I  thank  you;  I  am  quite  well  at  present." 
In  Bavaria,  it  is  the  practice  to  flavour  the  tea  with  a 
few  slices  of  lemon,  so  that  it  resembles  bad  lemonade. 
Even  in  France,  the  making  of  tea  is  but  ill  understood 
or  managed;  and  in  Great  Britain  only,  in  Europe,  can 
this  beverage  be  drunk  in  perfection.  Nevertheless  the 
tea  purchased  on  the  Continent  is,  generally  speaking, 
both  good  and  cheap.  The  Russians  are  fastidious  in 
tea-making  and  tea-drinking,  and  understand  both  arts 
fully  as  well  as,  if  not  better  than,  the  English.  Their 
tea-urn  is  quite  a  piece  of  machinery.  The  perfume  and 
stimulant  quaUties  of  their  best  sort  of  tea  is  said  to 
have  a  distressing  effect  upon  the  nerves.  The  teas 
used  in  St.  Petersburgh,  reach  that  market  direct  from 
from  China  overland ;  and  it  is  presumed  that  from  the 
circiunstance  of  its  not  travelling  by  sea,  the  Russian 
tea  retains  all  its  bloom  and  strength,  which  the  English 
tea  loses  during  a  long  sea-voyage;  but  this  does  npt 
appear  probable. 

The  mode  of  making  tea  in  England  is  too  well  known 
to  need  description ;  but  a  few,  notices  of  its  introduction 
may  be  more  acceptable.  From  a  single  sheet  found  in 
Sir  Hans  Sloane's  Library,  in  the  British  Museum,  it 
appears  that  tea  was  known  in  England,  in  the  year 
1657,  though  not  then  in  general  use.  The  writer  of 
this  paper  says,  ''that  the  vertues  and  excellencies  of 
this  leaf  and  drink  are  many  and  great,  is  evident  and 
manifest  by  the  high  esteem  and  use  of  it,  (especially 
of  late  years,)  among  the  physicians  and  knowing  men 
in  France,  Italy,  Holland,  and  other  parts  of  Christen- 
dom; and,  in  England,  it  hath  been  sold  in  the  leaf  for 
six  pounds,  and  sometimes  for  ten  pounds  the  pound 
weignt;  and  in  respect  of  its  former  scarceness  and  dear- 
ness,  it  hath  been  only  used  as  a  regalia  in  high  treat- 
ments and  entertainments,  and  presents  made  thereof  to 
princes  and  grandees,  till  the  year  1657." 

Mr  Samuel  Pepys,  Secretary  to  the  Admiralty,  in  his 
Diary,  makes  the  following  entry:  "Sept  25,  1660. 
I  did  send  for  a  cup  of  tea  (a  China  drink,)  of  which  I 
never  had  drunk  before,  and  went  away  ;*'  but  the  writer 
does  not  say  where  he  had  his  drink.  In  1662,  tea 
appears  in  an  advertisement  of  a  coffee  house,  in 
Exchange  Alley;  which  refutes  the  commonly  received 
statement  that  it  was  first  brought  into  this  country  from 
Holland,  by  Lord  Arlington,  in  the  year  1666.  In  a 
letter  from  Mr.  Henry  Savill,  from  Paris,  dated  August 
12,  1678,  the  writer  refers  to  "  friends  who  call  for  tea, 
instead  of  pipes  and  bottles  after  dinner;  abase  unworthy 
Indian  practice,  (adds  he,)  the  truth  is,  all  nations  have 
grown  so  wicked  as  to  have  some  of  their  filthy  cus- 
toms." 

In  1678,  the  year  in  which  the  above  letter  is  dated, 
the  East  India  Company  began  the  importation  of  tea 
as  a  branch  of  trade,  the  quantity  received  at  that  time 
amounting  to  47 1 3  pounds.  The  trade  did  not,  however, 
considerably  increase  during  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  for  the  importation  between  the  years 
1700  and  1710,  amounted  to  less  than  800,000  pounds. 
It  was  still  a  scarce  luxury,  confined  to  the  wealthy:  it 
was  made  in  small  pots  of  the  most  costly  China,  hold- 
ing not  more  than  half  a  pint,  and  drunk  out  of  cups, 
which  held  little  more  than  a  table-spoon.  In  the 
century  between  1710  and  1810,  the  teas  imported  into 
this  country,  amounted  to  upwards  of  750,000,000 
pounds;  between  1810  and  1828,  the  total  importation 
exceeded  427,000,000  pounds,  averaging  23,000,000 
and  24,000,000  a  year;  and,  in  1831,  the  quantity 
imported  was  26,043,223  pounds. 

The  uses  of  tea,  as  a  beverage,  were  at  first  so  little 
understood  in  England,  that  instances  are  related  of  the 
herb  having  been  served  at  table  as  a  vegetable,  with  a 
sauce  of  melted  butter,  the  water  in  which  it  was  boiled 
being  thrown  away  aa  useless. 


112 


TriE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Mahca  20,  mi 


Tlie  beneficial  results  of  the  introduction  of  tea  and 
coffee,  have  been  strangely  overlooked  or  underrated. 
It  has  been,  however,  well  described  as  leading  '^  to  the 
most  wonderful  change  that  ever  took  place  in  the  diet 
of  modern  civilized  nations, — a  change  highly  important 
both  in  a  moral  and  physical  point  of  view.  These 
beverages  have  the  admirable  advantage  of  affording 
stimulus  without  producing  intoxication,  or  any  of  its 
evil  consequences.  Lovers  of  tea  and  coffee  are,  in  fact, 
rarely  drinkers ;  and  hence  the  use  of  these  beverages 
has  benefited  both  manners  and  morals  *." 

*  Maccdllocii,  in  Did.  Commerce, 


CHINESE  FUNERALS. 

Thb  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  Chinese  have  many  interest- 
ing peculiarities,  wliich  are  highly  descriptive  of  the  man- 
ners and  customs  of  this  extraoi*dinaxy  people.  They  keep 
dead  bodies  above  ground  for  a  very  long  time :  the  ricn 
delay  the  funeral  even  for  a  year,  or  longer,  the  time  de- 
noting their  degree  of  resp.ect  and  reverence  for  the  deceased. 
When  the  body  lies  in  state,  it  is  placed  in  the  largest  room 
of  the  house,  entirely  hung  round  with  white,  which  is  the 
Chinese  colour  for  moui-nins.  The  coffin  is  ornamented 
with  painting  and  gilding,  and  is  made  during  the  life-time 
of  the  deceased :  indeed  it  b  the  practice  of  the  poorest 
Chinese  to  reserve  a  sufficient  sum  tp  secure  a  reputable 
shelter  for  their  lifeless  bodies. 

On  the  d<iy  of  the  funeral  the  relations  walk  in  procession 
to  the  crave.  The  corpse  is  preened  by  musicians,  playing 
melancholy  airs  upon  various  instruments,  and  by  persons 
bearing  painted  scrolls  and  silken  banners,  on  which  are  in- 
scriptions indicative  of  the  rank  and  character  of  the 
deceased.  Incense-bearers  foUow  these ;  and  then,  under  a 
white  canopy,  the  coffin,  covei^d  with  a  white  pall,  is  borne 
by  men. '.  Upon  each  side  of  it  are  persons  employed  in 
burning  pieces  of  paper  and  pastebosurd,  with  inscriptions 
upon  them :  some  are  circular,  and  some  ai'e  cut  into  fantastic 
iignres,  all  which,  it  is  believed,  are  wafted  upwards  with  the 
soul,  and  accompany  it  in  its  next  state  of  existence,  either 
as  coin,'  bread,  or  whatever  else  the  inscription  denotes. 
After  the  corpse  come  the  relatives  of  the  deceased,  in  white 
clothes,  whicn  are  soiled,  dirty,  and  unomamented ;  or,  the 
eldest  son,  wearing  a  canvass  frock,  having  his  body  bent, 
and  leaning  on  a  staff,  follows  near  the  comn ;  behind  him 
are  his  brothers,'  in  couples,  leaning  on  crutches,  as  if  unable 
to  support  themselves.  In  some  funerals,  every  mourner 
has  a  friend,  or  supporter,  on  each  side,  and  a  servant  bearine 
over  him  a  huge  umbrella  with  a  deep  white  fringe,  which 
nearly  screens  the  mourner  from  the  public  gaze.  If  women 
follow,  they,  are  borne  in  small  coaches  similar  to  our 
sedans.  The  procession  is  closed  by  the  friends  of  the  de- . 
ceased.  The  mourners  often  howfand  shriek  most  vehe- 
mently, and  fill  the  air  with  their  loud  lamentations. 

The  burial-places  are  erected  in  the  usual  sliape  'of  grot- 
toes, without  the  towns.  >  They  are  divided  into  small  cells, 
in  each  of  which  a  coffin  is  laid,  and  as  soon  as  the  cells  are 
filled,  the  sepulchre  is  closed.  No  religious  service  takes 
place;  the  coffin  is  deposited  in  its  receptacle  with  great 
solemnity,  and  the  procession  returns.  At  a  short  distance 
from  the  tomb  are  halls,  where  tables  are  spread  with  provi- 
sions for  the  mourners  and  attendants.  If  the  deceased  | 
were  a  grandee  of  the  empire,  his  relations  do  not  leave  the  | 
tomb  for  a  month  or  two,  but  reside  in  apartments  prepared 
for  thein,  and  renew  their  respects  to  Uie  dead  daily.  The 
maffuificence  of  these  funerals,  of  course,  varies  with  the 
rank  of  the  deceased.  That  of  one  of  the  emperor's  bro- 
thers was  attended  hy  upwards  of  sixteen  thousand  persons. 

Distinguished  persons  ai'e  generally  buried  in  mountains 
and  solitary  places ;  and  if  the  tomb  be  erected  in  a  valley 
or  ))lain,  a  large  heap  of  earth  is  raised  over  it  and  covert 
with  white  plaister.  In  the  vault,  an  altar  is  built,  whereon 
are  placed  meats,  incense, '  lighted  tapers,  and  figures  of 
slaves  and  animals,  wliich  are  believea  to  be  of  service  to 
the  dead  in  another .  world. 

If  the  deceased  held  any  important  office,  his  most  vir- 
tuous actions  are  sculptured  on  marble  and  fixed  up  in 
front  of  the  tomb,  about  which  also  are  ranged  figures  of 
officers,  eunuchs,  horses,  stags,  camels,  lions,  and  elephants. 
About  the  tomb  are  planted  cypress-trees,  which  add  to  the 
solemnity  and  gloom  of  the  scene. 

Other  means,  beside  the  erection  of  tombs,  are  taken  to 


perpetuate  the  viriues  of  the  great.  Each  &inily  of  res- 
pectability lias  erected  on  its  estate  a  laige  building  calk-d 
the  Hall  of  AneestotBy  against  the  wall  of  which  is  placed  a 
table  which  bears  the  figures  of  the  most  distinguisncd  an- 
cestors ;  or  the  names  of  the  &mily,  with  their  ages  and 
dignities,  are  merely  inscribed  on  tablets. 

The  Chinese  have  likewise  periodical  ceremonies  to  che- 
rish the  memory  of  the  dead.  In  spring,  the  relations 
assemble  at  the  nmily  hall,  where  the  we^thiest  of  ihm 
prepare  a  banquet ;  bat  none  of  the  viands  are  touched  till 
an  offerinff  has  been  made  with  due  solemnity.  The  poorer 
classes,  who  have  no  hall  wherein  to  honour  their  ancestor, 
place  the  names  of  the  deceased  in  the  most  frequented  part 
of  their  houses. 

The  Chinese  likewise  consider  it  an  imperious  duty  to 
visit  the  tombs  of-  thekr  ancsstdn  onoe  or  twice  aryear,  when 
they  pluck  away  the  weeds  from  about  the  grave,  and  place 
wine  and  provisions  upon  the  tomb,  whilst  oUiers  freshen, 
with  paints  of  different  colours,  the  charaeters  of  the  epi- 
taphs. 

rfo  corpse  is  allowed  to  enter  the  gates  of  Pekin  without 
an  impeiial  order,  because  it  is  said  a  rebel  entered  in  i 
coffin  m  the  reign  of  Kienlung.  However,  even  at  Canton, 
and  in  all  other  cities  of  the  empire,  no  corpse  is  permitted 
to  enter  the  southern  sate,  because  the  emperor  of  Chini 
ascends  his  throne  with  nis  fiice  towards  the  south. 


THE  SMOKE-JACK  AND  THE  SMOKE, 

A  Fabub. 

There  was  a  nobleman  who  had  much  money  and  built  i 
fine  house,  and,  being  fond  of  company,  he  made  a  laige 
kitchen,  which  was  fitted  up  with  a  spacious  fire-place,  an 
excellent  smoke-jack,  and  every  thing  else  that  could  tend  to 
make  the  department  perfect.  Dinner  parties  followed  in 
<^uick  succession,  and  the  feasting  gave  universal  satisfiu:- 
tion.  Each  day  as  the  spits  were  taken  from  the  fire,  the 
praises  and  mutual  congratulations  of  the  cooks,  at  the 
admirable  roasting  of  the  points,  ascended  in  grateful  accents 
to  the  ears  of  the  smoke-jack ;  and  as  it  so  hsjrpened  that 
the  kitchen  chimney  passed  up  the  wall  of  the  dming-room, 
the  pleasing  strain  was  continued  by  the  approbation  ove^ 
heani  from  the  guests  as  each  haunch  of  venison,  or  sirloin  of 
beef,  or  Norfolk  turkey,  graced  the  table.  Pnuses  often  re- 
peated will  make  the  best  of  us  giddy,  and  the  heads  of  smoke 
jacks  have  proverbially  a  tendency  to  turn  round !  so  was  the 
nsult  with  the  jack,  the  hero  of  this  fable.  Elated  bv  the 
applauses  which  greeted  him,  he  exclaimed  with  impssaoned 
energy,  "How  great  is  my  influence  and  how  extensive  my 
powers  of  pleasing  1  not  only  do  I  excite  the  admiration  of  th« 
menials  below,'but  I  enable  my  noble  master  to  exercise  his 
hospitality  and  call  forth  the  lavish  commendations  of  the 
illustrious  friends  who  throng  his  table  I  mine  would  be  a 
great  and  enviable  position  were  it  not  for  this  filthy  smoke^ 
.which  is  constantly  puffin?  in  v^y  face  and  covering  in« 
with  blacks  and  soot  I  I  will  allow  it  no  longer;  therefore, 
smoke !  I  warn  you  off  my  premises  immediately." 
'  The  poor  smoke,  checked  by  this  repulse,  meekly  changed 
his  current  and  curling  up  the  opposite  side  of  the  chimney 
was  soon  lost,  among  the  clouds  and  vapours  of  the  sky. 
For  the  neact  day  a  laige  dinner  party  was  invited,  but  who 
can  describe  the  consternation  oi  the  poor  cooks  when  pre^ 
paring  for  the  feast,  they  found  the  smoke-jnck  irarooveaWe. 
lerkiiig,  poking,  shaking,  oiling,  proved  alike  in  vain.  My 
lord  was  complained  to,  a  smith  was  summoned,  and  the 
jack,  beinff  pronounced  useless,  was  quickly  taken  down  and 
sold  for  old  iron. 

But  even  u*on,  old  and  rusty  though  it  be,  may  yield  « 
moral  for  pur  use ;  it  may  teach  the  ncti  and  great,  that  their 
power,  however  vast,  is  not  independent  of  the  ^^'J  ^^ 
beings  by  whom  they  are  surrounded.  They  m^Y  ,y^ 
contamination  and  renounce  their  fellowship,  but  ii  tw 
working  current  of  the  poor  be  withdrawn^the  power  of  tw 
rich,  must,  like  the  smoke-jack,  stop,  and  lacking  ^eans  to 
call  it  into  action,  its  influence,  must  cease.  This  W"^"^ 
may  excite  a  sense  of  pride  in  the  poor  man's  mind,  ^wt  i« 
him  hot  forget,  that  when  the  smoke  had  quitted  iw 
alliance  and  the  guidance  of  the  jack,  he  was  left  to  follow^ 
course  through  which  impurity  marked  his  progress  to 
unprofitable  end. *— — 

LONDON :  ^ .  ^„ 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STBANl'. 

POUIMBDIM  WUELT  NUMBKRH.  PbiCK  OXK  l»f|l«r.  AJI»  »"  MoXTUtT 

pBlOt  SlXFRKCIC.  .       ,  ^ 

Sold  by  bU  DookicUen  and  N0WiT«ad«rs  la  tht  KiBf  doi"* 


Jbatnr^AH  i       m^^^^im^ 


N?  660. 


27™,  1841.  :,    {o.^'^l.r. 


WUi  ^  m  £" 


m     \0 


n 


l^T"^ 


.^  ^    t    >(lt   ^    ^    ^ 
^  ^^'    t    %^   ft    '»P  ^f 


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^    K   %  ^  M 

W     ^    II  s|)t  ^i- 

^  ^iti"  -iT 


a 


114 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


[March  27, 


THE  CHINESE  INVENTORS  OF 
PANK'KOTJje. 

It  18  weir  understood,  that  Aa  Chinese  discovered  the 
properties  of  the  magnet;  that  they  not  only  invented 
writing  materials,  hut  the  art  of  vrin^g;  and  were  the 
first  to  manufacture  silk,  porcelain,  and  gunpowder. 
But  it  is  not  so  well  known  that  they  were  Uie  original 
contrivers  of  a  paper  purrency. 

The  most  striking  trait  in  the  general  charaeter  gf 
the  Chinese  is  their  aversion  to  every  scHrt  of  improve- 
ment or  progress*  They  helieve  that  their  social, 
moral,  and  political  institutions,  are  perfect;  and  their 
laws  absolutely  forbid  the  least  alteration.  Thus  it  is 
that,  though  toe  Chinese  were  the  first  to  use  a  ma- 
riner's compass,  they  are  ignorant  of  navigation:  though 
they  invented  gunpowder,  they  prefer  bows  and  arrows 
to  guns ;  and  lastly,  although  the  invention  of  paper- 
money  has  been  traced  to  them,  their  commercial  deal- 
ings possess  none  of  tliose  facilities  which  a  paper 
currency  affords. 

Most  authorities,  when  consulted  as  to  who  were  the 
inventors  of  paper-money  ?  answer  the  Mongols.  This 
is  a  mist|ike,  (insiiig  from  a  passage  of  the  celebrated 
Venetian  traveller,  Mateo  Polo,  who  first  made  known 
to  Europe  the  existence  of  credit-papers,  which  were 
used  in  his  time  by  the  Mongols,  the  then  masters  of 
China.  These  people  afterwards  introduced  a  repre- 
sentative currency  into  Persia,  where  it  was  extensively 
employed  In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 

The  error  of  attributing  to  the  Mongols  what  really 
belong^  to  the  Chinese  is  one  of  those  misapprehensions 
which  an  advanced  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  lang^uage, 
and  the  industry  of  M.  Klaproth,  have  effectually  re- 
moved. That  learned  orientalist,  in  a  paper  addressed 
to  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Paris*,  has  mrnished — from 
several  of  the  elaborate  native  historical  works  with 
which  China  abounds — some  very  interesting  particulars 
concerning  the  origin  of  paper-money,  which  fixes  the 
invention  of  it  upon  the  Chinese. 

It  appears  that  ibr  Jbnr  cmturies  and  a  half  before 
the  time  at  which  modem  historians  usually  date  the 
invention  of  paper-money,  a  species  of  nominal  currency 
was  in  use  among  the  Chinese,  namely,  in  the  year 
119  B.C.  The  native  annals  of  thai  date  contain  the 
most  ancient  record  of  a  financial  speculation  ever  yet 
discovered.  During  the  reign  of  Ou-^i,  nn  emperor 
of  the  Han  dynasty,  the  expenses  of  the  state  outran  the 
imperial  revenues;  to  make  up  this  deficiency,  the  mi- 
nister of  Ou-ti  caused  the  skins  of  certain  white  stage 
that  were  fed  in  the  imperial  park  to  be  cut  up  into  pieces 
a  foot  square,  ornamented  with  paintings  and  inscrip- 
tions, and  issued  as  a  currency:  each  slnn  passing  for 
40,000  deniers,  or  about  12^  lOf.  They  were  called 
phi-pij  or  "  value  in  skins;"  ,but  only  circulated  among 
the  courtiers  and  grandees  of  the  empire.  Whoever  was 
invited  to  the  repasts  and  ceremonies  at  the  palace  was 
obliged  to  cover  the  tablet  they  held  before  the  face,  in 
presence  of  the  emperor,  with  one  of  these  phi-pi. 

But  the  first  instance  of  a  regular  paper-currency 
occurs  in  the  history  of  the  reign  of  Hian-tsoung,  of  the 
Thang  dynasty  of  Chinese  monarchs,  towards  a.d. 
807.  The  preceding  reigns  had  been  marked  by  the 
utmost  anarchy  and  confusion,  so  that  the  regular  cur- 
rency was  so  much  neglected  that  all  sorts  of  things 
were  used  for  money ;  such  as  small  round  pieces  of 
iron,  clothes  cut  up,  and  even  pasteboard.  Copper 
coins  having  become  exceedingly  scarce,  Hian*tsoung 
forbad  anv  kind  of  utensil  to  be  made  of  that  metal,  and 
obliged  all  merchants  visiting  the  capital,  and  certain 
rich  native  families,  to  contribute  to  the  public  coffers. 
For  these  contributions,  bills   were  exchanged  called 

"thsian,  or  "  voluntary  money."   In  the  year  960  a.d.. 


ft  new  kin4  of  x^t^  ppE|  i98i)ed|  ^riv^  ften  the 
privilege  grtint^d  to  mprehants  ^  deposit  their  goods 
m  the  variouff  puhlio  ^a^riet ; ,  piecisely,  it  would 
appei^,  upon  Ike  principle  of  pawnbroking  as  at  pre- 
sent practised.  In  acknowledgment  of  the  deposit  of 
their  wares,  the  merchants  received  a  paper  answering 
to  the  **  duplicate,"  which  was  cailed pian-thsian,  or  ''ac- 
commodation money,"  and  negociable;  being  received 
everywhere  with  eagerness. 

Tne  two  last-mentioned  notes  were  manufactured  of 
such  paper  as  was  in  general  use  among  the  Chinese  at 
the  period;  namely,  that  derived  from  the  bark  of  a 
species  of  mulberry-tree,  known  to  the  natives  as  the 
tchu,  and  to  naturahsts  as  the  Moms  paptfrifera.  The 
notes  were  of  a  large  size,  being,  like  the  phi-pi^  a  foot 
square;  their  current  value  was  legibly  printed  on  them, 
and  an  official  seal  was  also  attached. 

These  securities  can  hardly  be  called  a  nominal  cur- 
rency, because  an  intrinsic  value  equal  to  the  sum  tliej 
represented  was  deposited  in  the  public  treasuries;  and 
it  was  not  till  between  the  years  99*1  and  IP22  Uiata 
true  system  of  artificially  representing  wealth  was  intro- 
duced. At  that  time,  China  proper  was  divided  into 
several  separate  states:  the  large  province  now  known 
as  Saru'tchuen  was  one  of  these,  and  called  the  Kingdom 
of  Chon.  Here  a  certain  Tchang-^oung  introduced  a 
credit-paper  called  tchi-Ui,  or  *'  cheques,  to  feplace  the 
iron-money  then  in  use,  which  was  heavy  and  inconve- 
nient. Out  of  these  a  new  system  of  credit-currencj 
arose,  and  to  which  may  be  traced  the  origin  of  bills  of 
exchange;  for  the  "cheques"  were  succeeded  by  Aruwh 
tsu  or  "  changes,"  which  bore  a  date  and  were  payable 
every  three  vears :  thus  in  sixty -five  years  there  necessa- 
rily occurred  twenty-two  "  changes"  or  terms  of  payment. 
A  regular  banking  systexQ  may  now  be  sfiid  to  have 
commenced.  The  monarch  deputed  sixteen  of  the  most 
opulent  merchants  to  superintend  the  new  currency,  and 
these  actually  became  bankers.  This  company  lailed, 
and  the  sovereign,  Tchang-yang^  was  obliged  ^  ^^ 
the  whole  affair  into  his  own  luindsi  which  he  did  by 
establishing  a  bank  of  issue  at  Y-tch6oa.  The  kiao- 
tsu  was  equivalent  in  value  to  1000  deniers,Q|:  an  ounce 
of  pure  silver.  We  subjoin  a 
drawing  of  a  Chinese  "  ci^h|" 
the  modem  denier.  Theinao-isu 
were  of  the  same  manufacture 
and  appearance  as  the  former 
notes;  only  their  dates  of  issue 
and  expiration  were  in  ^  pro- 
bability printed  in  additiep  to 
the  amount  they  represented. 

Forgeries  first  make  their  ap- 
pearance in  Chinese  history  in  1068,  for  spurious  Awo- 
tsu  were  then  found  to  be  in  circulation.  Though  this 
was  a  new  offence  not  contemplated  by  the  unalterahle 
Chinese  statutes,  the  innovation  of  a  new  law  was  not 
attempted  to  provide  against  it;  but  the  punishment  de- 
nounced against  those  who  counterfeited  the  imperial 
seal  was  also  made  the  reward  of  forging  bank-notes*  ^f 
the  conmienc«nent  of  the  twelfth  century,  a  banking 
system  had  spread  itself  all  over  China,  and  there  ^ 
scarcely  a  province  without  its  bank  and  its  pap«r 
«  changes;"  but  the  notes  of  one  district  weie  not  cur- 
rent in  another.  The  terms  of  payment  and  modes 
of  circulation  were  frequently  changed. 

Under  the  Emperor  Kao-isoung,  (of  the  Soun? 
dynastv,)  the  Hon-pon,  or  minister  of  the  treasuryi  hit 
upon  the  expedient  of  paying  some  of  the  public  creditors 
in  a  new  security;  but  this  not  succeeding,  another  was 
tried  in  1160,  called  hoei-tsu  or  "  contracU,"  of  1000 
deniers  value;  and,  in  1163,  under  Btao-tsoungt  others 
were  issued  for  the  several  sums  of  400,  300,  and  200 
deniers;  so  that  in  1166  the  existing  issue  amounted  to 
28,000,000  ounces  of  silver !  Besides  these,  particular 
provinces  had  tfaeb  particular  issues,  and  the  country  w^ 


18410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


lis 


inundated  with  paper«mdney.  The  Tdiie  of  each  note 
deteriorated  from  day  to  oaj ;  and,  despite  a  new  secu- 
rity was  made,  called  yu-kouan  or  "  money-bonds,"  and 
many  expedients  to  lessen  the  national  embarrassments 
occasioned  by  the  glut  of  paper-money,  the  Mongols, 
who  put  an  end  to  the  Soung  native  dynasty  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  foimd  the  monetary 
affairs  of  their  new  subjects  in  the  utmost  confusion* 

By  these  statements,  the  Chiaese  historians  prorfe  thai 
the  Mongols  were  not  the  inrentors  of  paper-money. 
On  the  contrary  they  found  in  the  country  innumerable 
bank-notes  and  banks :  the  Chinese  had  had  their  mone- 
tary crises,  and  their  bankrupts,  and  their  forg^ers:  in 
short,  OTory  good  and  evil  attendant  upon  paper-issues. 
The  conquerors  increased  leather  than  rectified  the  em- 
barrassments of  the  Chinese. 

In  1^84,  JToudfot-Ar^n,  the  first  ef  the  new  dynasty, 
ordered  the  mandarin  Lou-eM-joung  to  prepare  a  plan 
for  the  establishment  of  a  new  paper-circulation.  This 
appeared  in  (and  indeed  was  confined  to)  the  year  1287 ; 
for  the  new  plan  was  a  fidlure,  and  the  emperor  was 
simply  obliged  to  increase  the  quantity  of  those  bills 
called  pao^chhao^y  or  '^preeious  paper-money,"  calling 
in  as  many  as  possible  of  the  old  notes  of  tne  Souang 
dynasty.  These  notes,  though  similar  to  former  ones, 
were  most  elaborately  ornamented.  In  1S51  the  entire 
8j8tem  had  become  so  rotten  that  A^sh  changes  were 
iDade,  but  without  nosing  the  funds;  and  when  the  Mon- 
gols were  driren  fnnn.  Chinai  they  had  entirely  ruined 
it  by  their  paper-money* 

The  Ming  (natiTe  dynasty),  which  sucoeeded  that  of 
the  Yooan  or  Mongols,  caused  a  total  reyision  of  the 
teAAao,  and  issued  six  different  sorts  of  notes,  respectiTely 
for  « strings''  of  1000,  500,  400,  800,  20Q,  and  100 
deniers.  But  though  every  expedient  was  ^ed  to  keep 
up  their  ralue,  sucn  as  forbidding  the  people  to  traffic 
in  gold,  silrer,  and  precious  articles^  the  Tahie  of 
lerenteen  **  strings"  in  paper  was  soon  only  eqnal  to 
thirteen  in  copper^  At  length,  in  1448»  only  ihr%B 
deniers  could  be  obtained  for  a  note  for  en«  thouiond/ 
This  seems  to  hare  brought  about  the  final  crisis.  But 
the  goremnMnt  was  unwilling  to  giye  up  the  point  with- 
out the  most  strenuous  efforts;  metal  coin  was  forbidden 
to  be  passed,  and,  in  1465,  the  public  taxes  were 
decreed  to  be  paid  in  iehhaof  which  had  now  become 
a  <<  substitute  for  metal-mooey."  All  wae^  however, 
of  no  avail;  paper  gradually  disappeared  from  the 
ciicnlation,  and  nothing  more  is  mentioned  about  it 
in  the  minute  Chinese  histories  aflev  the  last-named 
yesr. 

We  prefix  to  this  article  an  engraving  ef  abank-note^ 
or  tchhaoy  issued  by  the  Mings, 

The  upper  division  may  be  called  the  obverse,  and  the 
lower  one  the  reverse,  of  the  note;  fof,  hke  the  kftv^s 
which  fom  Chinese  books,  it  is  doubled  back  and  pasted 
together,  so  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  having  beeti 
printed  on  both  sides.  The  writing  at  the  top  deifies 
that  it  is  a  (Pao-tchhao)  note  of  the  Emperor  Zong- 
King,  of  uie  Ming  dynasty;  that  within  the  bdr<kr 
states  the  amonnt  for  which  it  is  to  pass,  namely,  a 
string  of  1000  deniers.  The  following  hr  a  translatiofi 
of  tfae  writing  in  the  lower  half  or  reverb  of  the  note : 
At  the  petUhn  of  the  treeunty  boards  U  U  ordamed 
^  the  paper^maneff  thue  marked  with  the  eeal  of  the 
imperial  dynaaty  of  the  Minge^  ehall  have  currency,  and 
^  u$ed  til  nU  reepeett  as  if  it  were  copper 'iMmey, 
f^hoeeer  diwhey  will  ha»e  their  heade  cut  off!  It  is 
Qot  recorded  whether  this  terrible  penalty  was  ever  en- 
forced; bttt  in  spite  e^  it,  as  we  hikve  already  seen,  these 
notes  became  as  waste-paper. 

At  the  present  timoy  it  would  appear  that  a  system 
of  paper-currency,  upon  a  better  foundation  than  any 
^therto  tried,  is  sl<rwly  gaining  ground.     This  system 


is  still  in  its  infancy,  and  the  bad  state  of  pnblie  and 
private  credit  in  China  interposes  many  obstacles  to  its 
ever  coming  to  maturity.  In  lai^e  trading  cities  there 
are  numerous  banks  both  of  deposit  and  issue.  They 
are  not  controlled  by  government,  but  conducted  by 
private  indiridnals,  Who  issue  notes  in  the  nature  of 
checks  or  couponSf  like  the  pian'theian  before-men- 
tioned ;  for  the  document  is  cut  in  half,  one  portion  being 
presented  to  the  depositor  for  circulation,  and  the  other 
retained  as  a  check  by  the  bankers.  Bills  of  exchange 
have  been,  in  few  instances,  found  convenient  by  the 
Chinese ;  but  bad  faith  has  hitherto  hindered  their  ex- 
tensive employmentf . 

^  China  Ofened,  by  the  Ret.  CnAmLis  Omtmn,  tdI.  ii.,  p.  dl. 


*  The  word  iekhao  eignifles,  "  tabstatate  for  metal"  or  moaey.and  is  the 
§»  mf  tnt  ot^epst-vaoaey  ifi  (He  Ch&eie  kngoage. 


If  ever  household  affections  and  loves  flfli  gMjefoi  ihinn 
thev  are  graceftil  in  the  poor.  The  ties  that  bind  the  weidwj 
and  the  ^mmd  to  home  may  be  f^ifged  on  earthy  but  those 
which  Imk  the  poor  man  to  his  humble  hearth  are  of  Uie 
tme  metal  and  mar  the  stamp  of  heaven.  The  man  of  high 
descent  may  love  the  halls  and  lands  of  his  inheritance  as  a 
part  of  himself,  as  thiphies  of  his  birth  and  power ;  the  poor 
man's  attachment  to  tne  tenement  he  holds,  which  strangers 
have  held  before,  and  may  to-morrow  occupy  a«un,  has  a 
worthier  rooty  struck  deep  mto  a  purer  soil.  Mis  oousehold 
gods  are  of  fiesh  and  blood,  with  no  alloy  of  silver,  gold,  or 

Erteious  stones ;  he  has  no  property  but  in  the  affections  o« 
is  own  heart ;  and  when  they  endear  bare  floors  and  walls, 
despite  of  rags,  and  toil,  and  scanty  meals,  that  man  has  his 
love  of  home  irom  Grod,  and  his  rude  hut  becomes  a  solemn 
place.— DiGKBRS. 

■  fall    I 

ThIckb  is  one  In  the  world  who  feels  tor  him  who  Is  sad,  a 
keener  nang  than  he  feels  for  himself;  there  is  one  to  whom 
nnSeeted  joy  is  better  than  that  which  comes  direct ;  there 
is  one  who  rejoices  in  another's  hoviour,  more  than  in  any 
which  is  one's  own ;  there  is  one  on  whom  another's  trans- 
cendent ^dknce  sheds  no  bean  but  ihtt  of  deliaht ;  liiere 
is  one  who  hides  another's  infinniUes^  mom  fiuthndly  than 
one's  own;  there  is  one  who  loses  all  sense  of  ee^m  the 
sentiment  of  kindness,  tenderness,  and  devotion  to  another. 
That  one  is  Woman. — S. 


In  lelerenee  to  the  periods  which  merit  tiie  varione  stages 
of  the  i»egxeas  of  Oie  enckoo  through  the  ssaseni  I  hire 
somewhere  met  with  the  following  eosyletft-" 

In  April, 

Gemehe  will. 

In  May, 

He  sings  all  day. 

In  June^ 

He  altera  his  ttme. 

In  July, 

He  prepares  to  fly. 

Come  Angnst, 

Ge  he  masi-^-^TAliliiai* 


THE    RAINBOW. 


0OVT  fl^owhig  In  tfMertaia  hkHhg 

'Twixt  Natofe's  smiles  an4  tean^ 
The  bow,  O  LordI  which  tbou  halt  beut^ 

Bright  in  the  cloud  appean. 
The  portal  of  thy  dwelUng-placei 

That  pure  arch  seems  to  be^ 
And,  as  I  bless  its  inystio  light. 

My  spirit  turns  to  Thee. 

Thus  gleaming  o'er  a  guilty  world. 

We  hail  the  ray  of  love; — 
Thtis  dawns  upon  the  contrite  sonl 

Thy  mercy  f3pom  nbove ; 
And  as  thy  fatthfnl  promise  speaks, 

Kepentant  sin  forgiven, 
la  homble  hope  we  bless  fhe  beam 

That  points  the  way  to  heaven. 

Ladt  Floba  HASTiirei, 


560—2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


Mabcu  37. 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS. 
MARCH. 


The  MghM  boa  lam*  bi 


That  branch  of  hunting  in  which  the  dogg  employed 
pnnue  their  game  by  sight,  and  not  by  Kent,  is  denomi' 
nated  "  coursing,"  and  is  a  practice  of  nigh  antiquity  and 
considerable  celebrity.  There  is  reason  to  belleTB  that 
a  dog,  quick  of  sight,  and  somewhat  swift  of  foot,  was 
known  to  the  ancienta  nearly  4000  yean  ago ;  and  in  the 
time  of  Arrian,  who  flourished  A.D.  150,  the  practice  of 
coursing  had  been  reduced  to  a  systematie  form.  Yet 
the  early  representations  of  d(^  employed  in  coursing 
the  hare,  present  little  conformity  with  the  elegant  make, 
and  limbs  so  especially  adapted  for  fleetoess,  which  dis- 
tinguish our  modem  grevhound. 

Of  the  latter  animal,  nowever,  it  has  been  truly  said 
that,  "Admire  him  as  much  as  we  will,  when  we  examine 
him  on  anatomical,  physiological,  and  true  philosophical 
principles,  we  must  be  constrained  to  consider  him  aa 
wholly  an  artificial  auimaL"  The  coursing  of  the  an- 
cients was  of  a  bolder  and  more  masculine  character 
than  that  of  our  own  times,  for  the  stag,  wolf,  wild  goat, 
fox,  and  other  swift  animals,  were  thus  pursued;  and 
heiides  the  employment  of  fleet  dogs  of  rarioua  kinds, 
the  huntsmen  were  provided  with  suitable  weapons,  such 
as  hows,  spears,  darts,  &c  The  modem  practice  of 
courung  is  confined  to  the  pursuit  of  the  bore  only,  and 
is  followed  either  in  its  simple  form,  or  with  the  addi- 
tional stimulus  of  matching  the  dogs  of  different  individu- 
als against  each  other,  audadjudging  priies  to  the  victors. 

Simple,  or  unmatched  courting,  though  originally 
considered  a  sufficiently  interesting  employment,  and 
still  possessing  many  advocates,  is  too  monotonous  in 
its  character  to  please  the  lealous  admirer  of  more  en- 
livening sports.  An  old  writer  calls  "  hunting  of  the 
hare  with  greyhoundes  a  ryght  good  solace  for  men  that 
be  studiouse,  or  tbeim  to  whom  nature  hath  not  geven 
personage  or  courage  apte  for  the  warxes ;  and  also  for 
gentilwomen  which  feare  nether  sonne,  nor  wynde,  for 
appayyring  their  beautie ;  and  peradventure,  (adds  he,) 
they  shall  be  therat  lesse  idelV  than  they  shold  be  at 
home  in  their  chambers."  Arrian's  panegyric  of  this 
sport  is  OS  follows: — "Concerning  coursing  with  grey- 
houndes— the  which  is  doubtlesse  a  noble  pastime,  and 
as  meet  for  nobility  and  gentlemen,  as  any  of  the  others 
before  declared,  especially  the  course  of  the  hare,  which 
is  a  sport  continually  in  sight,  and  mode  without  any 
great  travoile ;  so  that  recreation  is  therein  to  he  found 
without  immeasurable  toyle  and  payne:  whereas,  in 
hunting  with  hounds,  although  (he  pastime  be  great,  yet 
many  tiroes  the  toyle  and  payne  is  also  exceeding  great; 
and  then  it  may  well  be  culed  eyther  a  piJniiill  pastime, 
or  a  pleaunt  payne." 


The  practice  of  eonrsing  has  been  decried  even  more 
perhaps  than  that  of  hunting,  on  account  of  its  in- 
humanity; the  chances  of  escape  for  the  hare  being 
fewer,  and  the  speed  to  which  she  is  nushed  far  greater. 
But  it  is  by  no  means  considered  in  tois  light  fay  sports- 
men themselves.  They  hold  it  unfair  and  unsportsman- 
like to  pursue  thor  game  at  a  great  disadvantage,  and 
therefore  make  it  a  nile  that  a  brace  of  greyhounds  onlj 
shall  be  nted  in  the  purtuit  of  a  nngle  hare,  and  tkit 
when  a  hare  is  [found  on  her  form,  it  is  disgraceful  to 
put  her  up  without  withdrawing  the  dogs  to  a  fair  di). 
tance,  so  that  the  pursners  snd  the  purvaed  may  be 
nearly  on  a  par.  Three  greyhounds  to  one  hare  «u 
even  in  olden  time  considered  against  the  laws  of  eonr- 
sing, seeing  that  "  a  brace  of  dogges  is  enow  for  such  a 
poor  beaste." 

Match  conning  is  a  much  more  exdting  puranit  thin 
the  one  we  have  jnst  alluded  to,  inasmuch  as  it  inchidn 
something  of  the  competition  and  anxiety  which  attodi 
in  a  still  greater  degree  to  horse-racing.  The  chase  of 
the  hare  is  in  this  case  entered  on  principally  as  a  trial 
of  speed  in  greyhounds  matched  against  each  other;  snd 
these  animals,  by  the  exertion  of  that  fleetness  for  which 
they  are   so  remarkable,  earn  a  sporting  celebrity  for 


various  places,  for  the  promotion  of  this  sport. 

But  we  must  turn  onr  attention  from  the  punnun 
to  the  pursued,  and  examine  the  history  of  the  timid  snd 
inoffensive  ■nJTnal,  tiius  made  the  object  of  interest  tad 
eager  contention.     The  genus  Leput,  to  which  the  hsre 


lalia.  Hares,  properly  so  called,  or  a 
allied  sub-genera  agreeing  well  with  them  in  their  main 
characters,  are  distribnted  over  most  countries  on  the 
face  of  the  earth ;  being  found  alike  in  warm  regions,  on 
tbemai^insof  deserts,  in  wild  and  hilly  countries,in  culti- 
vated lands,  and  on  the  verge  of  perpetual  snow.  All 
the  species  are  perfectly  defenceless,  and  find  their  onlr 
chance  of  safety  in  the  fleetness  of  their  movemenli; 
they  are  all  alike  under  the  influence  of  an  almoat  per- 
petual fear,  and  their  quick  perception  of  sonnds,  wMch 
would  be  inMidible  to  many  other  animals,  renders  than 
watchfiil  and  alive  to  danger.  This  excessive  timidilT 
and  apprehension  caimot  be  regarded  as  otherwise  thin 
painful  to  the  animal,  and  it  has  been  remarked  by  one 
of  our  naturalists  that  "  all  but  sportsmen  must  pity 
creatures  which  exist  constantly  under  the  excitement  <d 
acute  fear." 

Tlie  common  hare  is  sufficientiy  known  as  to  its  general 
figure,  which  is  fivned  for  extraordinary  powen  of  loco- 
motion. The  fore-legs  are  much  shorter  and  more  slender 
than  the  hind-legs,  and  by  this  peculiarity  greatly  assist  the 
saltatory  motion  of  the  animal.  It  is  a  singularity  of  thii 
spedes  to  have  the  palms  of  the  feet  covered  with  hair, 
which  protects  them  from  the  injury  they  would  be  likely 
to  receive  tnxm  the  rough,  dry  soil  they  prefer,  and  in 
some  measure  compensates  for  the  want  of  that  elastic 
padding,  which  in  the  dog  and  other  animals  affords  so 
good  a  security  to  its  possessors.  The  eyes  of  the  hue 
are  admirably  adapted  to  its  habits  and  necessities. 
They  are  vetr  prominent,  and  the  pupil  is  elongated  m 
a  horiiontal  direction.  Thus  the  field  of  vision  is  suffi- 
ciently large  to  allow  the  animal  to  keep  its  pursuers  in 
view,  without  altering  the  position  of  the  head.  As  it 
is  impossible,  however,  that  the  hare  can  look  in  two 
directions  at  the  same  time,  it  bos  been  known  to  run 
into  the  very  danger  it  was  seeking  to  avoid.  The 
upper  lip  of  the  hare  is  cleft.  The  nostrils  are  circular, 
and  almost  hidden  in  a  fold,  by  which  means  they  are 
capable  of  being  CiOsed.  The  tonrne  is  thick  and  loll- 
The  great  kngdi  of  the  ears,  and  ueir  mobility  in  every 


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117 


direction,  are  very  faronnble  to  t]ie  reception  of  Mund, 
and  the  anatomy  of  these  organs  shows  that  they  are 
particularly  calculated  to  receive  such  sounds  as  come 
from  behind.  Like  the  nostrila,  they  are  capable  of 
being'  closed,  and  tbos,  in  a  state  of  safety  and  repose, 
the  animal  has  the  power  of  lessening  that  acute  percep- 
tion of  sounds  which  would  be  unnecessary,  as  well  as 
irksome  at  such  a  time. 

Besides  these  characters  which  are  common  to  all  the 
genus,  the  hare  has  certain  peculiarities  as  a  species,  the 
most  prominent  of  which  is  colour.  This,  in  the  natural 
state  of  the  animal,  is  always  grayish-brown,  with  the 
exception  of  some  of  the  Ah)ine  species,  whose  colours 
change  with  the  seasons.  Tiie  tail  is  invariably  white 
on  the  under  side,  and  blackish  on  the  upper  part. 
There  is  a  spot  over  or  around  the  eye,  in  many  cases 
white,  and  always  Ughter  coloured  than  the  surrounding 
fur,  and  this  spot  is,  in  a  state  of  nature,  never  want- 
ing. The  under  part  of  the  body  is  white,  and  the  tips 
of  the  ean  are  black ;  the  body,  especially  the  upper  part, 
is  covered  with  two  aorts  of  hair,  the  one  long  and 
silky,  the  other  short,  fine,  and  woolly : — the  latter  is 
extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oats  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  hair  of  the  beaver,  to  which,  however,  it  is 
greatly  inferior  in  durability  and  in  retention  of  the 
colour  given  by  dyeing.  Id  those  countries  of  Middle 
and  Southern  Europe,  which,  compared  with  our  own 
country,  are  but  thinlv  peopled,  and  indifferently  culti- 
vated, the  number  of  hares  taken  annually  is  immense, 
■0  that  their  skins  form  an  important  article  of  commerce, 
being  exported  for  the  use  of  the  hat  manufacturer,  as 
well  as  employed  locally  as  warm  articles  of  clothing. 
It  is  understood  that  the  small  kingdom  of  Bohemia 
alone  furnishes  nearly  half  a  million  skins  in  the  course 
of  the  year,  Austria  Proper  nearly  doable  that  number, 
and  Russia  and  Western  Siberia  a  still  larger  proportion. 
Hares  multiply  rapidly,  and  if  undisturbed,  it  is  sup- 
posed their  increase  would  prove  greater  than  that  of 
most  other  quadrupeds.  A  tuft  of  grass,  or  heather,  or 
a  mere  hollow  formed  on  the  bare  ground,  is  often  the 
birth-place  and  dwelling  of  the  young  leverets,  until  they 
■re  old  enough  to  provide  for  the  supply  of  their  own 
«ants.  The  young  are  suckled  by  the  dam  for  little 
more  than  thi«e  weeks,  and  then  begin  to  separate  and 
make  their  own  forms.  They  arrive  at  maturity  in  one 
year,  and  the  term  of  their  natural  lives  is  supposed  to 
be  eight  or  nine  years. 

Hajres  do  not  burrow  like  rabbits  beneath  the  earth; 
tbey  merely  look  for  a  convenient  hollow  place  in  a  fur- 
row, where,  by  their  similarity  in  colour  with  the  soil 
around  them,  they  escape  the  notice  of  all  but  esperienoed 
eyes.  Hiis  is  called  wAr  seat,  and  here  they  pass  the 
greater  part  of  the  day,  till  the  approach  of  evening  gives 
them  cwurage  to  go  abroad  in  search  of  sustenance. 
They  have  been  observed  by  shepherds  and  those  who 
are  in  the  habit  of  watching  their  proceedings,  to  change 
their  seat,  according  to  tint  weather,  generally  seeking 
the  more  ^vated  ground  when  rain  prevails.  In  severe 
neather  they  repair  to  the  woods,  where  they  will  prey 
OB  the  bark  of  almost  every  tree,  and  are  often  very 
injurious  to  young  plantation*.  Their  food  consists  of 
vegetables,  and  tbey  show  the  greatest  relish  for  milky 
and  succulent  plants. 

The  hare  is  commonly  considered  to  possess  no  great 
degree  of  intelligence,  yet  the  way  in  wnich  it  doubles 
to  avoid  its  pursuers  seems  to  evince  much  sagacity. 
Fearful  as  these  animals  are  in  their  natural  state,  they 
have  yet  been  soothed  by  gentle  treatment  into  a  degree 
afconfidence  and  boldness  quite  unexpected  in  creatures 
of  such  acknowledged  timidity.  A  French  naturaUst 
describes  one  of  these  animals  as  having  become  entirely 
domesticated  in  his  house,  and  having  lost  its  natural 
wlldness,  with  respect  to  all  the  inmates;  but  showing 
tokens  of  fear  on  the  approach  of  strangers.  In  winter, 
it  sat  before  the  fire  between  two  large  Angora  cats,  and 


a  sporting  dog,  with  whom  it  lived  on  the  best  of  terms ; 
at  table  it  was  generally  close  to  its  master  looking  for 
food,  and  if  thwarted  lu  its  expectation  would  beat  with 
its  fore-paws  on  the  hand  and  arm  of  the  person  so  treat- 
ing it. 

The  age  of  the  hare  is,  as  we  have  said,  reckoned  to 
extend  to  eightornineyears;  but  one  of  Cowper's  favour- 
ites lived  eleven  years  and  eleven  months.  Of  this  ani- 
mal he  speaks  in  the  following  lines. 

' One  sheltered  liars' 

Has  never  heard  the  Banguinaty  yell 
Of  cruel  man  exulting  in  her  woes- 
Innocent  partner  of  my  peaceful  home. 
Whom  ten  long  jeiav  experience  of  ray  care 
Has  made  at  lost  &miliar;  she  has  loet 
Much  of  her  vigilsnt,  instinctive  dread, 
Nor  needful  here  beneath  a  roof  like  mine. 
Yea,  thou  may'st  eat  thy  bread,  and  lick  die  hand 
That  feeds  thee ;  thou  may'st  frolic  on  the  floor 
At  evening,  and  at  night  retire  secure 
To  thy  straw  couch,  and  slumber  unalarnied  ; 
For  I  have  gained  thy  confidence,  have  pledged 
All  that  is  human  in  me  to  protect 
Thy  imiBuspeoting  gnttltude  and  love. 
If  I  sorrive  thee,  1  will  dig  thy  grave ; 
And,  when  I  place  thee  in  it,  sighing  say, 
I  knew  at  least  one  hare  that  h^  a  friend. 


GARDEN  HERBS. 


Hon  did  lb*  drop  a  tettr^ben,  in  IhiipUcVi 

m  Kt  ■  tank  of  rue,  nor  iierb  ot  gna; 

Boa  ««  (in  Tiitb.  han  ihonlj  ili^  be  eeen, 

In  tba  temembimDOg  of  ■  ««ipiit(  queen. — SBiuraiaa. 

Thx  name  herb  of  grace,  given  to  this  plant  in  the 
above  lines,  was  in  common  use  in  Gerard's  time,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  arisen  from  the  custom  of  the  Romish 
clei^  of  sprinkling  holy  water  from  bundles  of  bitter 

Rue  belongs  to  an  extensive  natural  order  of  plants 
called  Rvtactee,  inhabiting  widely  different  situations 
from  each  other,  and  forming,  as  they  are  thus  united, 
an  interesting,  but  somewhat  heterogeneous  group. 
This  order  contains  thirty-seven  genera,  or  families, 
most  of  which  are  strong-scented  plants.  Some  of  them 
are  shrubby  in  their  habit,  some  arborescent !  many  of 
them  possess  medicinal  qualities,  as  the  Guaxacwnt, 
(one  species  of  which  yields  also  the  lignum  vita  of 
commerce) :  others  are  favourite  plants  in  greenhouses, 
as  the  Diotmai,  and  are  very  easy  of  cultivation.  Com- 
mon garden  rue  is  the  type  of  the  order.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  South  of  Europe,  and  is  said  to  have  been  first 
cultivated  in  this  country  in  1562,  but  writers  of  that 
period,  and  of  a  still  earlier  date,  make  mention  of  it  as 
of  a  common  and  well-known  plant.  Thus  we  find 
Tusser,  who  wrote  before  that  time,  saying,— 

What  savour  is  belter. 

For  places  infected,  than  wormwood  and  rue  I 

The  plant  is  accurately  described  in  the  quaint  lan- 
guage <k  Gerard. 

Gaidcn  Tue,  or  planted  me,  is  a  shrub  fall  of  branches, 
now  and  then  a  yud  high,  or  higher ;  the  Malkei  whereof 


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[March  S7» 


be  green:  the  leAvee  liereof  eonslst  of  dlyen  parte,  and 
are  covered  with  a  whitish  harke,  the  branchee  are  more 
divided  into  wings,  about  which  are  certaine  little  ones,  of 
an  odd  number,  something  broad,  more  long  than  round, 
smooth,  and  somewhat  fat,  of  a  gray  colour,  or  greenish 
blew  :  the  floures  in  the  tops  of  the  branches  are  of  a  oale 
yellow,  consisting  of  four  little  leares,  somethhig  hollow, 
in  the  middle  of  which  standeth  up  a  little  head  or  button, 
four^uare,  seldom  five-square,  containing  as  many  coffen 
as  it  hath  comers,  being  compassed  about  with  divere  little 
yellow  threds,  out  of  which  hanff  pretie  fine  tips,  of  one 
colour.  The  seed  gToweth  In  the  little  coffers :  the  root  is 
woody,  and  fiutened  with  many  strings.  This  rUe  hath  a 
very  strong  and  rank  smell,  and  a  biting  taste :  it  joyeth  m 
sunnie  and  open  places:  it  prospereth  in  rough  and  brickie 
ground. 

Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  this  herb  was 
held  in  great  esteem.  The  Greeks  used  it)  together  with 
parsley,  for  the  bordering  of  their  garden^,  and  as  the 
gardens  could  not  be  entered  without  passing  this  border, 
it  became  a  proverb  among  them,  when  any  persons  were 
about  to  enter  on  an  undertaking,  but  had  not  yet  taken 
any  steps  towards  it,  "  You  are  not  yet  arrived  at  the 
parsley  and  rue.'*  The  uses  to  which  the  ancients 
applied  this  plant  were  many  of  them  very  superstitious, 
and  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  efficacy  of  the 
plant  was  enhanced  by  stealing  it  ft'om  a  neighbour's 
garden.  In  Aristotle's  time  rue  was  worn  about  the 
neck  as  a  charm  against  witchcraft. 

That  rue  was  planted  to  a  considerable  extent  among 
the  Romans  appears  from  the  directions  of  Pliny  to  rue 
gatherers, — ^that  they  keep  their  hands  well  gloved,  to 
avoid  the  blisters  which  the  pungency  of  this  herb  is 
apt  to  produce.  The  same  author  notices  the  poisonous 
nature  of  the  juice  of  rue,  when  taken  in  too  great 
quantity,  especially  that  drawn  from  the  rue  which  grew 
in  Macedonia,  about  the  river  Aliacmon,  and  in  Galatia, 
and  states  that  juice  of  hemlock  destroys  this  poisonous 
quality.  The  juice  of  rue  was  kept  in  boxes  made  of 
brass  or  copper,  and  was  used  against  the  sting  of  ser- 
pents, scorpions,  bees,  hornets,  &c^  and  for  the  bite  of 
mad  dogs.  It  was  employed  to  foment  the  limbs  of 
persons  benumbed  with  cold :  it  was  drunk  with  wine  to 
cure  the  head-ache :  it  was  taken  likewise  to  prevent  the 
consequences  of  excess  in  drinking.  The  leaves  were 
eaten  by  engravers,  carvers,  and  painters,  as  a  preserva- 
tive to  the  eye-sight :  others  just  touched  the  comers  of 
their  eyes  with  the  juice,  to  cure  weakness  of  vision. 
A  drink  was  made  from  it  for  the  cure  of  all  complaints 
incident  to  four-footed  animals :  its  reputed  virtues  are, 
in  fact,  too  numerous  And  too  contradictory  to  be  re- 
counted here. 

Besides  the  medicinal  uses  for  which  this  herb  was 
valued  among  the  Romans,  it  was  also  esteemed  on 
account  of  the  fiavour  it  imparted  to  theii^  winea.  Colu- 
mella, in  speaking  of  it,  says, — 

And  me,  which  the  Palladian  berries'  taste  excels ; 

and  Pliny  informs  us  that  ^hen  Cornelius  Cethegua  was 
chosen  consul  with  Quintius  Flaminiua,  he  gave  to  the 
people,  after  the  election,  a  largess  of  new  wine,  aroma- 
tized with  rue.  This  would  probably  be  very  repugnant 
to  modern  taste,  for  this  herb  is  intolerably  bitter. 

The  leaves  of  rue  are  said  to  have  formed  a  principal 
ingredient  in  the  famous  antidote  to  poison,  used  by 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus*  This  antidote^  with  slight 
alterations,  has  been  in  use  for  nearly  nineteen  centuries, 
and  is  still  employed  on  the  Continent.  It  has  been  ex- 
ploded in  Britain,  and  laughed  at  as  an  absurd  farrago, 
ever  since  Dr.  Heberden  published  his  AntUheriaca* 

Pliny  tells  us  that  the  weasel  is  so  well  acquainted 
with  the  virtues  and  powers  of  rue,  that  before  he 
attacks  the  serpent  he  eats  the  herb  to  prevent  the  poison 
from  taking  effect.  Macer,  who  wrote  his  Latin  poem 
about  twenty  years  before  the  Christian  era,  notices  the 
same  thing,  and  an  old  naturalist  haa  giren  the  Avowing 
translation  of  th*  lines  s— • 


And  weezela  teach,  it  can  withstand  strong  poywn^s  spite. 
Which,  when  they  are  about  with  serpenu  bhick  to  fight. 
In  wondrous  sort  do  first  of  all  rue  nibble,  eat,  and  bite. 

If  we  look  into  the  writings  of  the  old  medical  prac- 
titioners and  herbaliats  of  our  own  country,  we  shall  find 
the  qualities  of  this  plant  described  in  much  the  same 
exaggerated  strain  that  we  have  noticed  in  the  ancient 
authors  of  Greece  and  Rome.  One  tella  us  that  the 
very  smell  of  me  has  been  known  to  preberve  from 
infection  during  pestilence,  and  therefore  we  are  to  wear 
a  nosegay  of  it  whenever  we  visit  a  person  ill  of  any 
contagious  disease;  and  that  if  we  would  be  still  farther 
secured  from  danger^  we  must  chew  some  of  the  leaves, 
or  eat  of  a  conserve  of  rue.  Another  affirms  that  by 
eating  the  leaves  of  rue,  persons  may  enre  themselves  ii 
the  king's  evil.  A  third  tella  ua  that  the  juice  of  rue. 
made  hot  in  the  rind  of  a  pc«iegranate»  and  dropped 
into  the  ears,  ia  a  oure  for  the  ear-ache,  and  is  also  a 
remedy  fbr  shingles,  St*  Anthony's  fire,  and  ether  dis- 
orders; that  the  herb  itaelfi  a  little  boiled  or  scalded* 
kept  in  pickle,  and  eaten,  is  good  for  dimness  of  the 
e]rea»  and,  boiled  in  vinegar,  relieves  shortness  of  breath 
and  pain  in  the  chest}  side*  or  joints*  A  fourth  ascribei 
to  it  the  virtue  ^  curing  gout  and  dropsy,  and  of  re- 
moving ritigworm,  Wirts,  and  all  diseases  of  the  ^io. 
A  fifth  pronounces  it  to  be  excell^it  in  all  illnesses  of 
the  stomach  which  proceed  from  a  cold  cause»  and  only 
datigerous  in  the  too  frequent  use  of  it;  and  a  sixth  is  w 
full  of  its  praiaes)  that  %X  the  dose  of  hia  remarks  he 
declares  that  the  greatest  eommendation  he  Can  bestow 
upon  it  falla  abort  of  its  merita* 

But  we  would  not  have  our  feadefs  misled  by  these 
extravagant  eulogiums,  Or  induced,  by  this  alight  mention 
of  them,  to  employ  the  herb  in  the  way^  or  for  the  pur- 
poses above  niimed.  Let  them  rather  attend  to  the 
opinions  of  modetti  and  better-skilled  persons,  who 
assure  us  that  its  tiaefiilneaa  is  uncertain  and  unimpor- 
tant, and  who  At  the  same  time  acquaint  Us  that  large 
and  liepeated  doses  produce  parching  thirsty  burning 
pain  of  the  stomaeh  and  bowels,  head-ache,  deUriura,  aod 
death. 

Wild  rue  is  much  more  energetic  in  its  action  than 
the  cultivated  sort,  and  therefore  more  caution  is  rs« 
quired  in  using  it  Gerard  declares  it  to  be  virulent  and 
pernicious,  and  aays  that  it  sometimes  '*  fiuneth  out  s 
vapour  or  air,  to  hurtful  that  it  acorcketh  the  face  of 
him  that  looketh  upon  it,  raising  up  blisters^  whealee,  snd 
other  acddentss  it  venotoeth  thenr  hands  that  touch  it, 
and  will  infiM^  tli«  face  alsO)  if  it  be  touched  with  them 
before  they  bo  clean  washed,  wherefore  it  ia  not  to  be 
admitted  into  moat  or  medicine." 

Rue  is  a  hardjr  shrubs  and  ia  easily  cultivated  bj 
planting  the  loeda,  or  slips,  or  cuttinga,  teriy  in  tbs 
spring  months.  It  blosaoma  in  July  and  August,  or,  if 
it  be  in  A  warm  dcmntry)  or  in  a  skeltered  situation,  still 
cwriier.  According  to  PUny,  theiv  ia  such  friendship 
between  it  and  the  ig^tiee  that  it  prospers  nowhere  so 
well  as  Undet  a  fig-tree.  I^utarch  notes  the  aame  dr- 
cumstanoe  in  hia  first  booke  of  the  Sympotiacka  or  Feasts, 
and  savB  it  becomes  more  vweet  and  mild  in  such  situa- 
tions, DOfMUse  it  tokes  away  tome  of  the  sweetness  of 
the  fig-treo,  and  (Mtfta  with  eome  <if  ita  own  bitttf 
flavour. 


rflMta 


CHRistiAKiTlf  Is  not  a  latituditiarian  religion,  'pfoposing  a 
variety  of  independent  doctrines,  and  leaving  to  the  choios 
of  its  pnifeseoi's,  which  they  will  embrace,  and  which  they 
will  tejeet:  but  ft  ia  a  religion  predas  and  defiaite;  it  pro- 
poses a  system  of  tmtiia^  mntually  connected  with  and  de- 
pendent on  each  other;  it  repreaanta  thoaa  trutha  aa  the  fit 
objects  of  a  Christian's,  fiuth ;  and  to  a  sincere  and  oonsoiett- 
tious  belief  and  profesuon  of  them  it  promises  happiness;  on 
a  wilful  disbelief  and  rejection  of  them  it  deneunees  woe. 
—Bishop  Mazvt. 


■ate 


1841  J 


THE  SATURDAY^MAGAZINR 


lift 


Introduction. 


EMk  miiig  flham  Um  bounteow  ttrtiin  baitowi. 
The  gran  that  Uiickeaa,  and  the  flower  that  blowf. 
And  while  the  vale  the  humid  wealth  imhihes. 
The  tetorii^  wave  •astains  the  ftnny  tribea: 
The  carp,  with  foldeo  acaUiB,  in  wanton  play , 
The  trout  in  crimsoD-speckled  glory  gay ; 
Ithe  red-finned  roach,  the  ailTer-coated  eel'; 
Tha  Dike,  whoaa  haunt  the  twirted  sooli  oonoeali 
The  haalii^i  teach,  the  ipidgeon,  perch,  and  hreva; 
And  all  the  sportiTe  natives  of  the  stieain.^ 


When  we  consider  that  water  occupies  more  than  two* 
thirds  of  the  globe,  we  shall  have  no  difficulty  in  admit- 
ting the  statement  made  by  naturalists,  that  fishes 
constitute  by  far  the  most  numerous  class  of  vertebrated 
animah,  botn  as  respects  the  number  of  individuals  and 
the  variety  of  their  forms.  Indeed,  the  constant  acces- 
sions which  are  being  made  to  our  knowledge  of  fishes, 
and  other  considerations,  lead  us  to  suppose  that  pot 
more  than  half  the  existing  species  are  known  and 
described.  The  natural  history  of  fishes  is  more  imper- 
fect than  that  of  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  insects,  because 
their  native  abode  is  of  vast  dimensions,  and  can  to  a 
very  limited  extent  only  be  explored  by  man,  from  whose 
cunous  eye  fishes  can  easily  withdraw  themselves  into 
haunts  inaccessible  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  land;  thus 
the  study  of  Ichthyology,  interesting  and  beautiful  as  it 
is,  presents  more  difficulties  than  any  other  department 
of  natural  history. 

Fishes  were  arranged  by  Linneus  in  six  principal 
orders,  and  subdivided  into  several  tribes,  rour  of 
these  were  marked  by  the  position  of  their  ventral  or 
belly  fins,  and  two  by  their  gills»  But  the  most  ap- 
proved arrangepient  is  that  of  Cuvier,  who  places  fishes 

the  fourth  class  of  organic  beings,  the  first  three 


m 

comprising  beasts,  birds,  and  reptiles.  The  class  of 
fishes  he  divides  into  %wq  sub-classes,  vis.,  Ist,  cartila- 
ginous, and  2nd,  osseous  fishes,  hi  the  former  the 
bones  are  gristly,  and  in  the  latter  firm,  although  fiur  less 
compact  than  in  the  higher  orders  of  animals. 

The  general  form  of  fishes  is  cylindrical,  pointed  more 
or  less  at  each  end,  and  slightly  compressed  at  the 
sides ;  but  this  form  is  subject  to  many  extraordinary 
variations,  adapted  to  the  economy  of  the  ^nimal;  some 
fish  are  short  and  round — others  ar^  elopgated ; — some 
are  compressed — others  depressed:  the  most  common 
form,  however,  is  that  first  given,  a  familiar  example  of 
which  is  presented  by  the  maekerel,  which  exhibits,  as 
Mr.  Yarrell  remarks, ''  );he  highest  degree  of  elegance 
in  shape,  and  when  recently  takei)  from  the  water,  is  so 
rich  and  so  varied  in  its  colour,  as  to  be  fairly  entitled 
te  be  considered  one  of  the  most  beautiful  among 
British  fishes." 

It  is  almost  superfiuous  to  remark  that  the  forms  of 
fishes  are  admirably  adapted  to  their  general  habits  and 
economy,  because  we  know  how  much  gpracious  provision 
is  made  by  the  Almighty  for  all  His  creatures.  This 
hst  is  so  constantly  witnessed  by  the  naturalist,  and  he 
sees  it  illustrated  in  so  many  thousand  ways,  almost  at 
every  advancing  step  which  his  improving  knowledge 
leads  him,  that  while  it  constitutes  a  principal  charm  in 
the  study  of  natural  'history,  it  often  brings  up  to  his 
mind  the  gentle  monition  of  the  Saviour,  that  God,  who 
ibrgetteth  not  the  sparrows,  who  feedeth  the  ravens  and 
\  clotheth  the  grass  of  the  field,  will  not  discontinue 
His  watchful  care  over  those  whom  He  has  declared  to 
be  far  better  than  they. 

The  external  form  of  fishes  tends  to  celerity  and  ease 
of  motion :  man  has  imitated  this  modelling  in  the 
build  of  those  ships  in  which  the  quickest  despatch  is 
needful ;  but  human  competition  against  the  perfection 
of  nature's  works  always  fails,  for  all  the  lai^^  fishes 

I  can  not  only  overtake  the  fastest-sailing  vessel,  but  play 
vound  it,  ^parently  without  any  nnusual  effort. 


Most  fishes,  'm  addition  to  the  great  fin  on  the  tail» 
are  furnished  with  two  pairs  of  fins  upon  the  sides,  two 
single  fins  upon  the  back,  and  one  upon  the  belly,  or 
between  the  belly  and  the  tail.  These  fins  are  highly 
important  as  organs  of  motion,  and  they  enable  the 
naturalist,  by  their  structure,  position,  and  number,  to 
distinguish  orders,  families,  and  genera.  But  the  chief 
instrument  of  velocity  is  the  tail,  aided  by  the  strengtJi 
and  pliancy  of  the  l>ack-bone:  by  the  impulse  of  thia 
organ  alone  the  animal  darts  through  the  water  with  the 
swiftness  of  an  arrow,  the  wedge-shaped  head  enabling 
it  to  divide  the  water  with  ease.  But  whether  in  pursuit 
of  prey  or  avoiding  an  enemy,  the  smaller  fins  are  all 
laid  close  to  its  body :  these  fins  are  too  minute  and 
flexible,  compared  with  the  animal's  weight,  to  impel 
it  so  quickly;  their  peculiar  office  is  to  adjust  and 
modify  the  motion  imparted  by  the  energy  of  the  tail. 
The  ventral  and  dorsal  fins  keep  the  fish  in  its  proper 
position,  and  by  means  of  the  former  fin  the  fish  is  pro- 
bably assisted  in  raising  or  depressing  its  body  in  the 
water.  The  pectoral  fins  assist  and  regulate  progp'essive 
motion :  by  extending  them,  the  progress  is  stopped  when 
swimming  rapidly;  and  by  folding  either,  while  the  other 
continues  to  play,  the  turn  to  the  left  or  right  is  accom- 
plished. The  balancing  use  of  the  fins  has  been  shown 
by  experiments  on  several  large-headed  fish, 

Fisnes  are  fUmished  with  certain  protecting  organs, 
which  have  been  divided  into  the  three  distinct  processes 
of  skin,  scales,  and  spines.     The  skin  consists  of  the 
dermis,  or  true  skin,  a  mucous  tissue,  and  an  epidermis, 
or  cuticle.     The  mucous  tissue,  which  in  all  animals  is 
the  seat  of  colour,  is  remarkable  in  fishes  for  its  brilliant 
tints  and  iridescent  refiections.     The  cuticle  is  generally 
covered  with  a  mucous  secretion,  which  also  extends  to 
the  scales.     The  scales  when  viewed  by  the  microscope 
present  a  wonderful  and  beautiful  construction:  they 
serve  many  important  purposes  in  the  general  economy 
of  fishes.     The   sharp  spinous  appendages,  which  are 
placed  in  different  parts  of  the  body  in  different  fishes, 
seem  intended  as  weapons  either  of  defence  or  of  offence. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  waters  as  well  as  those  of  the  land 
depend  upon  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  for  respira- 
tion :  the  quantity  of  air  necessary  to  sustain  the  life  of 
a  fish  is  smaller  than  that  required  by  warm-blooded 
animals ;  but  a  greater  or  less  supply  of  air  is  essential  to 
every  living  being.    The  death  of  fish  in  a  severe  frost  is 
in  consequence  of  the  congelation  of  the  surface  of  the 
water,  whereby  the  external  air  is  excluded:  the  poor 
animals  below  the  sheet  of  ice  must  perish  unless  an 
opening  be  made  to  admit  the  air :  we  see  the  fishes 
themselves  bear  witness  to  the  fact  that  they  cannot  live 
without  air,  in  the  eagremess  with  which  the  suffocating 
creatures  crowd  round  any  opening  made  in  the  ice* 
The  inconvenience  they  suffer  is  so  great  as  to  deprive 
them  on  these  occasions  of  their  natural  timidity,  for 
they  can  be  caught  by  the  hand  without  difficulty.     The 
peculiar  motion  of  the  fish's  mouth  and  gill-lids  as  if  in 
the  constant  act  of  drinking,  (whence  the  vulgar  saying, 
"  as  thirsty  as  a  fish,")  is  nothing  more  than  the  act  of 
respiration.     The  gills,  which  act  the  part  of  lungs,  are 
placed  externally :  they  may  be  described  as  consisting, 
in  the  bony  fishes,  of  four  arched  bones  placed  in  suc- 
cession close  behind  the  mouth  on  each  side,  and  covered 
by  an  operculum  or  gill-lid.     On  these  arched  bones  are 
spread  out  several  fine  laminae,  or  thin   membranous 
folds,  in  which  the  artery  bringing  the  blood  from  the 
heart,  spreads  itself  out  into  very  numerous  and  minute 
ramifications.     The  operculum  is  moveable  by  means  of 
muscles  attached  to  it.     The  fish  in  respiring  takes  a 
mouthful  of  water,  and  passing  it  to  the  back  of  its  mouth 
allows  it  to  remain  there  a  moment  in  contact  with  the 
gills,  through  which  at  the  same  time  the  blood  is  pass- 
ing freely.     Water,  exposed  to  the  air,  always  contains 
a  portion  of  that  fluid,  and  the  air  thus  dissolved  by  the 
water  acts  upon  the  fish's  blood;  the  fish  then  lifts  its 


120 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[March  27,  1841. 


operculum  and  causes  tbe  water  to  be  dischargred  back- 
wards. The  blood  being  thus  aerated  is  again  collected 
from  vary  fine  braaohes  into  trunks,  which,  running 
from  each  of  the  branchial  ribs,  finally  unite  and  form 
tbe  aorta  for  conveying  tbe  blood  to  the  whole  body- 
From  this,  the  blood  is  returned  by  the  veins  to  a  simple 
auricle,  thence  it  passes  into  a  single  ventricle,  which,  in 
turn,  drives  it  into  the  branchial  artery,  and  so  back  to 
the  gills  again.  '*  From  what  we  have  said  of  the  mode 
of  respiration,  it  is  clear  that  a  trout,  before  it  attempts 
to  breathe,  must  turn  its  head  up  against  the  stream. 
Were  it  to  attempt  this  operation  facing  down  tbe  stream 
it  would  in  vain  try  to  let  out  the  water  from  its  gills, 
for  as  soon  as  it  had  lifted  its  operculum,  the  current 
would  pour  in  water  from  behind,  in  place  of  suffering 
it  to  discharge  what  was  there.  It  therefore  becomes 
part  of  the  angler's  art,  to  keep  the  head  of  the  trout  he  has 
hooked  down  the  stream,  in  which  situation  it  cannot 
attempt  to  breathe,  and  is  therefore  the  sooner  ex- 
hausted."    (Lord's  Popular  Physiology.) 

Many  fishes  are  furnished  with  a  bladder  filled,  with 
air,  and  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen  close 
against  the  spine;  this  has  been  thought  to.  assist  the 
function  of  respiration.  It. is  however  more  probable, 
that  the  air-bladder  is  destined  to  assist  the  animal's 
movements;  for  we  find  it  largest  in  such  fishes  as  move 
with  great  velocity.  This  organ  is  wanting  in  flat-fish, 
where,  however,  the  large  lateral  fins  supply  its  place; 
also  in  the  lamprey,  which,  in  consequence,  moves  but 
slowly  along  the  bottom  of  the  water.  There  seems 
however  but  little  doubt  that  this  organ  enables  fishes  to 
maintain  and  adapt  their  specific  gravity  to  the  various 
depths  of  the  element  in  which  they  move. 

In  whatever  way  then  we  regard  fishes,  we  see  that  by 
their  internal  structure  and  outward  shape  they  seem 
equa.lly  well  furnished  with  the  means  of  enjoying  life  as 
birds  or  quadrupeds.  When  the  senses  of  fishes,  and  other 
faculties  pertaining  to  their  organization  are  examined,  we 
find  that  nature  having  intended  them  for  less  perfect 
beings  has  been  proportionably  sparing  in  her  endow- 
ments. The  brain  is  very  small.  The  organs  of  smell 
and  the  nerves  supplying  them,  are  perceptible  in  most 
fishes;  but  as  air  is  the  only  medium  for  the  difiusion  of 
odours,  we  can  scarcely  suppose  that  residing  in  the 
water  they  are  affected  oy  them;  but  it  has  been  sup- 
posed that  the  olfactory  membrane  serves  them  instead  of 
a  distinguishing  palate,  in  the  same  way  as  we  distinguish 
by  our  taste. 

The  taste  of  fishes  must  be  imperfect,  if  its  delicacy 
arises  from  the  softness  of  the  organ;  since  the  whole 
mouth  of  most  fishes  is  covered  with  a  hard  bony  sub- 
stance, by  which  they  cannot  discriminate  bodies  by 
the  palate.  Salt-water  fishes  have  been  known  to  swallow 
the  fisherman's  plummet  instead  of  the  bait:  indeed,  the 
greediness  of  the  inhabitants  of  salt-water  is  prodigious : 
the  lines  of  the  fishermen  are  coarse  and  clumsy ;  the 
baits  are  seldom  more  than  a  piece  of  fish  or  the  flesh 
of  some  quadruped,  stuck  on  the  hook  in  a  rude  manner. 
On  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  the  hook,  which  is  only 
hidden  by  the  entrails  of  the  animal  last  taken,  is  dropped 
into  the  water,  the  cod  seizes  it  at  once,  and  the  fisher- 
men have  but  to  pull  up  as  fast  as  they  can  throw  in : 
but  it  is  otherwise  in  fresh  water,  for,  as  Mr.  Daniel 
observes,  ^'  The  lines  must  be  drawn  to  a  hair-like  fine- 
ness, be  tinctured  of  the  peculiar  colour  of  the  stream, 
the  bait  must  be  selected  with  care,  or  formed  with  the 
nicest  art,  and  still  the  fishes  approach  with  diffidence, 
and  often  swim  round  it  with  disdain,  while  hours  are 
wasted  in  fruitless  expectation,  and  the  patience  of  an 
angler  passes  into  a  proverb." 

The  eyes  of  fishes  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  vision  in 
so  dense  and  highly  refractive  a  medium  as  water.  The 
outer  surface  of  this  organ  is  flat,  and  the  internal  one 
spherical :  the  flat  cornea  sustains  less  injury  than  a  pro- 
jecting one,  especially  in  the  absence  of  eyelids  and  other 


projecting  coverlids:  this  flatness,  howeyer,  is  compen- 
sated by  the  greater  signifying  power  of  th»  crystal- 
line lens.  But  the  particular  form  and  situation  of  the 
eyes  of  fishes  toary  in  diffei«nt  special  wecm^m^  to  their 
position  in  the  waters,  their  general  habits,  and  the  mode 
in  which  they  pursue  their  prey.  When  we  look  upon 
the  surface  of  the  waters,  .and  our  eye  seeks  in  vaio  to 
penetrate  the  depth,  we  must  not  suppose  that  their 
inhabitants  are  similarly'  circumstanced  with  respect  to 
us.  When  we  are  on  the  outside  of  a  room,  we  know  how 
difficult  it  is  to  distinguish  objects  within,  especially 
when  the  solar  light  falls  obliquely  upon  the  glass :  but 
those  within  the  room  have  no  such  difficulty :  they  can 
see  clearly  all  that  passes  without;  and  this  we  may  fairly 
presume  to  be  the  case  with  fishes — ^they  can  see  clearly 
objects  out  of  the  water,  while  we  cannot  often  see  them 
in  the  water.  Much  light  is  absorbed  below  certain 
depths  from  the  surface,  and  we  find  that  those  fishes 
which  dive  deep  have  very  large  organs  of  sight. 

It  18  a  very  common  error  to  suppose  that  fishes  are 
deslitute  of  hearing:  those  which  have  the  gills  free 
have  no  external  openings  for  the  ears,  but  two  such 
openings  are  discovered  in  fishes  which  have  fixed  gills. 
In  both  cases,  however,  internal  provision  is  made  for 
this  very  important  function :  indeed,  the  custom  is  as 
old  as  the  ancient  Romans  to  keep  pet  fish  in  ponds,  and 
train  them  to  swim  to  a  certain  spot,  at  the  sound  of  a 
bell,  to  be  fed.  Mr.  Swainson  tells  us,  as  "a  well-authen- 
ticated fact,  that  the  Chinese,  who  breed  great  numbers 
of  gold-fish,  call  them  together,  at  the  time  of  feeding, 
by  a  whistle ;  and  the  same  mode  of  summoning  other 
species  by  a  noise,  in  aquatic  preserves,  is  upon  record." 

The  teeth  of  fishes  are  so  constant  and  permanent  in 
their  characters  as  to  be  second  only  to  the  fins  in  deter- 
mining character.  The  fobd  of  most  fishes  is  of  an 
aninuil'  nature,  and  they  seem  as  if  impelled  by  urgent 
and  constant  necessity  to  pursue  their  prey.  'This  appe- 
tite surpasses  both  in  strength  and  activity  those  bounds 
which  in  other  orders  of  the  animal  kingdom  Nature 
seems  to  have  prescribed.  Every  aquatic  animal  falls  a 
victim  to  the  indiscriminate  voracity  of  fishes.  Insects, 
worms,  or  the  spawn  of  other  tenants  of  the  waters, 
sustain  the  smaller  tribes,  which,  in  their  turn,  are  pur- 
sued by  larger  and  more  rapacious  enemies. 

From  their  extraordinary  voracity,  (sa^  Yarrell,)  their 
rapid  digestion^  and  the  war  of  exterminatiqn  they  carry  on 
among  themselves^  the  greater  and  more  powerful  fishes 
consuming  the  smaller  and  weaker,  &om  the*  hugest  to  the 
most  dimmutive :  add  to  this,  the  constant  and  extensire 
destruction  effected  by  the  numerous  sweeping  nets  of  ruth- 
less man,  and  it  is  probable  that  comparatively  but  fe^ 
fishes  die  a  natural  death. 

The  same  talented  naturalist  remarks  that  ''the 
wounds  of  fish  heal  rapidly;  and  they  appear  to  have 
but  few  diseases,  probably  owing  to  Uie  uniformity  of 
the  temperature  in  the  medium  in  which  they  reside." 

We  have  thus  far  given  a  brief  and  general  view  of 
the  structure  and  habits  of  fishes.  We  are  about  to 
invite  the  reader's  attention  to  the  principal  individuals 
which  inhabit  fresh  water;  and,  in  a  course  of  illustrated 
articles,  we  propose  to  state  the  natural  history  of  each 
fish,  so  far  as  it  is  well  authenticated  by  the  united 
observations  of  credible  naturalists:  at  the  same  time, 
we  shall  avail  ourselves  of  such  curious  antiquarian  and 
anecdotal  information  which  will  tend  to  illustrate  the 
state  of  knowledge  as  it  existed  in  former  days. 

He  who  looks  not  beyond  this  world,  cannot  feel  pleastrre 
in  anything  which  tends  to  disturb  his  comforts,  or  thvrart 
his  will. — H.  W.  B.  Daubenet. 


LONDON: 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PAEKER,  WEST  STRAND. 
FoBLiBiuto  m  W]aBu.T  Kombsm,  prics  OMfl  Pnnnr»  A»n  ijc  llo^fruvt 

TAVn,  PBICB  8lSPJUR». 

Bold  b7  »U  BookMUio*  and  M«wpT««d«sla  tiM  XiBg4Ba« 


N?  561.  SUPPLEMENT, 


MARCH.   1841.  {oiK.. 


OVERLAND   JOURNEY    FROM    INDIA    TO    ENGLAND. 


TOKAT,   IH  ASIA    K 


SECOND  ROUTE. 


In  inTittng.  our  readen  to  accompany  na  in  a  second  orer- 
land  joimiej  from  India  to  England,  wa  deem  it  neceasaiy 
to  rec^  att«ntioii  to  the  different  routes  itmially  taken,  in 
order  t«  axtilunitheaTrangement  nlilch  ne  sliall  adopt. 
Some  troTellen  embark,  at  Calcutta,  Madraa,  or  Bombay; 
•oil  acroee  tbe  Indian  Ocean  to  tbe  Red  Sea ;  ascend  that  sea 
to  a  port  on  the  western  shore ;  travel  acroea  a  sandy  desert 
to  the  Nile ;  and  follow  this  river  to  its  exit  in  the  Mediter- 
nnean.  Another  rotite,  is,  toascend  the  Persian  Gulf  in~ 
•lead  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  to  travel  overland  to  the  northern 
part  of  Peina;  from  whence  three  distinct  routes  conduct 
the  traveller,  to  Europe:. 1st.  northward  through  Russia; — 
Sod.  along  the  south  shore  of  the  Black  Sea  to  Constsnti- 
Dople; — :M..BlQugthenortl)  shore  of  tbe  same  sea  to  Russia, 
Aostna,  &c.  tflstlr,  the  route  which  is  most  correctly 
termed  "  orerland,''  is  that  wherein  the  traveller  sets  out 
bom  the  north-west  frontier  of  India ;  traverses  the  domi- 
uoiu  of  the  Sikhs,  the  Afghans,  the  Bokhariana,  the  Uzbeks, 
and  other  semi-civilized  tribes;  and  finally  arrives  at  the 
diores  of  the  Ca^ian,  from  whence  he  lakes  one  of  the 
homeward  routes  already  mentioned.  With  regard  to  the 
route  bj  way  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Eeypt,  we  do  not  deem  it 
iK«essary  U>  devote  a  Supplement  thereto,  since  the  only 

"overland"   P '"         ""    "  — '     "~  ""      ' '  '' 

Vou  XVlfl 


Red  Sea,  to  Dendera,  on  the  banks  of  Uio  Nile,  o  distance 
of  less  than  100  miles.  The  otherroutes  may  be  bo  arranged 
as  to  give  a  tolerably  complete  notion  of  the  subject  in  three 
Supplementa.  We  have  already  traced  the  coorse  from 
Bombay  t«  Basaora  by  sea,  touching  at  Itluscat;  then 
tbrougfi  Persia,  by  way  of  Bagdad,  Kermanshah,  Teheian, 
and  Tabriz;  and  thence  over  Mount  Caucaaus  to  Europe, 
Captain  Keppel  being  our  chief  travelling  companion.  On 
the  present  occasion  we  propose  to  land  at  Bushire  instead 
of  BasBOra ;  to  proceed  by  way  of  Shiraz  and  Is|iahan  to 
Northern  Persia ;  and  thence  westward  through  Asia  Minor 
to  Constantinople;  availino;  ourselves  chieflv  of  the  dea- 
criptions  by  Sir  James  Alexander  and  Mr.  Bailie  Fraser. 
Another  Supplement,  treating  of  the  route  by  way  of  the 
Afghan  country,  will  complete  the  subject. 

Ships  proceeding  from  Bombay  to  the  Persian  Gulf  put 
in  very  frequently  at  Bushire,  and  the  passengers  proceed 
thence  by  land  through  Persia.  Tliis  sca-pott  ia  situated  on 
a  sandy  beach,  in  a  dead,  flat  counlry;  eastward  are  a  few 
date  trees,and  at  the  distance  of  forty  milesrisca  a  lofly  range 
of  dork  blue  mountains.  The  town  has  been  said  to  present 
the  appearance  of  a  half-built  city,  from  tlie  incomplete 
state  in  which  many  of  the  hou!*a  arc  left.  A  curious 
practice  prevails  in  the  constniciion  of  the  houKs,  for  alle- 
viating the  excessive  heat  of  the  air  in  summer:  on  tho 
flat  roofs  of  the  honses  are  square  tn'nd  towera,  sometimes 
riung  to  the  height  of  »3cty  or  a  hundred  feet,  and  piercrf 
on  each  side  with  three  or  foux  longitudinal  openings,  lluougb 


122 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


which  every  breath  of  wind  is  conre^td  to  the  sitting  apart- 
mente  beneath.  Those  who  ore  aQCUStomed  to  the  domestio 
comforts  of  an  Ei^lish  city  will  be  surprised  to  hear  that 
BO  water  fit  for  drinkUig  can  he  pfOOirQd  witliin  three  miles 
of  Bushire,  and  that  Arab  w<»Qen  fetch  the  whole  of  the 
water  required  by  the  inhabitants,  carrying  it  on  their  backa 
in  sheep-skin  bags  or  pouches. 

The  mode  of  travelling  throughout  Persia  is  almost  ex- 
clusively by  horse  or  mule,  for  the  want  of  roads,  and  the 
attacks  of  predatory  tribes,  render  vehicles  ill-fitted  for 
such  a  country.  Accordingly,  travellers,  on  leaving  Bushire, 
bargain  with  the  hone  and  mule  dealers  for  the  hire  of  these 
animals  at  so  much  per  diem.  Sir  James  Alexander's  party, 
when  he  made  the  overland  journey  in  1825,  consisted  of 
about  twenty  persons,  including  servants.  The  gentlemen 
purcluised  hoi-ses  for  themselves,  and  hired  mules  for  their 
servants  and  baggage ;  and  the  mode  of  travelling  which 
they  arranged  was  as  follows : — To  leave  the  halting  places 
every  evenm?  an  hour  and  a  half  before  sunset,  strike  the 
tent,  and  pack  up  all  the  utensils ;  march  on  with  one  ser- 
vant and  a  horse-keeper ;  completing  a  march,  generally  of 
sixteen  or  eighteen  miles,  by  ten  o'clock;  sleep  on  the 
ground  till  sunrise,  by  which  time  the  baggage  mules  would 
have  ai'rived,  the  tent  pitched,  and  arrangements  made  for 
visiting  the  surrounding  country  during  the  day.  By  this 
arrangement  the  time  of  travelling  was  oon&ied  to  the 
cool  hours  of  evening. 

On  leaving  Bushire  for  Shiraz  and  PersepoUs,  the  traveUer 
passes  through  a  country  presenting  few  pomts  of  attraction. 
The  sandy  sod  is  in  many  parts  covered  with  salt  marshes ; 
here  and  there  are  to  be  seen  fields  of  beuded  wheat,  and 
wells  for  the  refreshment  of  the  traveller ;  but  the  districts 
between  the  villages  are  generaUy  rather  sterile.  At  one 
spot  several  naph&a  and  sulphureous  streams  issue  from 
the  hills,  round  the  bases  of  wnich  the  road  winds»  and  croas 
the  path :  this  impregnated  water  is  lukewarm  at  the  foun- 
tain-head, and  leaves  a  sediment  of  whiUsh-gray  earth, 
which  is  of  an  acid  and  saltish  taste^  and  ia  0004  by  the 
Persians  for  acidulating  shnrbet. 

Alonff  this  road  are  several  mall  towna.aad  viUegei,  most 
of  whicn  are  provided  with  caravaBsmii.  Most  of  our 
readers  are  prooably  aware  that  these  are  hovses  of  accom- 
modation H>r  man  and  horse»  in  Oriental  oountries.  In 
general,  the^  have  the  form  of  a  hollow  squaie,  the  interior 
&ces  of  which  consist  of  rooms  fur  tiaveUert;  and  ia  the 
comers  are  passages  leadiaa:  to  Msra  of  staUbif  behixid  tha 
apartments  of  tiie  travelbfe.  Ilie  entraiMa  gateway  » 
always  in  the  side  feeing  the  rafed;  and  kk  SMaa  eases  there 
is  an  underground  aDajtBUttl  in  the  ceatia  of  the  square 
court,  to  which  travellers  may  leiiie  whsn  tlM  weather  is 
oppressively  hot.  It  is  a  eoomea  pnetlce  to  sleep  en  the 
roof  of  the  caranuiseiai,  with  no  ather  eovering  thaa  a 
light  curtain  to  keep  away  the  »eeqnitoes»"-the  vmml  a^ 
tenddnts  of  an  Oriental  tisavellerw 

The  sterile  and  sandy  district  of  which  we  have  lately 
spoken,  is  succeeded  by  a  mountainous  country,  in  which 
are  the  ruins  of  a  once  celebrated  city  named  Shahpoor. 
These  ruins  are  distant  about  100  miles  from  Bushire,  and 
at  one  part  is  a  cave  noted  for  its  sculptured  rocks.  The 
sculptures  are  supposed  to  commemorate  the  triumph  of  the 
Persian  king  Shaiipoor  over  the  Roman  emperor  valerian. 
The  king  is  on  horseback,  with  a  crown  surmounted  by  a 
globe  on  his  head ;  a  Roman,  extended  on  his  hack, bunder 
the  horse's  feet ;  and  the  emperor,  kneeling  on  one  knee  in 
an  attitude  of  submission,  with  a  helmet  on  his  head,  and 
dressed  in  the  Roman  costume,  is  immediately  in  front. 
Many  Persian  cavalry  and  infantry  are  introduced  in  close 
order,  above  and  to  the  richt  and  left  of  these  principal 
figures ;  and  Victory  is  di^J^ying  the  scroll  of  Fame  over 
the  king.  The  rock  on  whose*^  face  this  device  is  sculptured, 
is  of  coarse  jaspar,  but  bears  a  high  polish.  Numerous 
other  remains  of  antiquity  are  found  near  the  same  spot,  but 
all  are  now  most  desolate  and  dreary,  giving  the  same  indi- 
cations, as  so  many  other  parts  of  Persia  afford^  of  the  fallen 
state  of  that  once  great  empire. 

At  intervals,  along  the  route  which  we  are  here  follow- 
ing, and  which  proceeds  north-east  from  Bushire,  are  several 
Tillages,  of  which  about  a  dozen  intervene  between  that 
town  and  Shiraz,  a  distance  of  150  miles.  These  villages 
bear  a  considerable  resemblance  to  each  other,  and  are  mostly 
of  a  poor  and  humble  character.  We  shall,  therefore,  pass 
them  over,  and  proceed  to  Shiraz,  one  of  the  most  important 
places  in  the  southern  part  of  Persia. 
,  •  Shifwg,  or  SMrauz^  tnongh  neither  veiy  ancient  nor  ray 
•xtensiTey  haa  long  been  one  of  the  hoaate  of  Peni%  from 


the  beauty  of  its  environa  and  the  polished  gaietv  el  its  in- 
babititnts.  It  haa  besii  th#  Isvouike  Mai  ef  t&e  Persian 
muses^  and  near  it  are  buried  Hc^mA  ^^^mkI^  the  diief  of 
the  national  poeta^  Its  wines  are  celebrated  as  the  most  ▼»- 
luaMe  in  the  East ;  and  it  is  the  seat  of  a  considerable  and 
increasing  trade ;  but  since  it  ceased  to  be  the  residence  of 
Kurr^em  Khm^  the  inhabitants  have  lost  their  character  fbr 
taste  and  refinement. 

Shiraz  lies  in  a  valley,  and  is  surrounded  bv  a  brick  will 
havinff  laige  baations  at  the  gateways,  of  whidi  &ere  m 
six.  Few  Oriental  cities  possess  such  a  fine  street  as  the 
bazaar  Vakeel  of  Shiraz.  This  b  a  very  long  vaulted  avenue, 
about  sixteen  feet  wide,  with  good  shops  on  both  sides,  holes 
in  tlie  centre  of  the  arch  for  the  emission  of  smoke,  and  win- 
dows in  the  sides  for  the  admission  of  light  In  the  centre  is 
a  sort  of  rotundiH  with  bazaars  branching  off  to  the  right  and 
left.  Among  the  publio  buildings  of  the  dtv  is  the  tomb 
of  the  poet  Hafiz,  which  b  a  single  block  of  Tabriz  marble, 
inscribed  with  verses  from  the  works  of  the  poet  and  from 
the  Koran ;  the  tomb  b  in  a  garden^  and  b  surrounded  bj 
beautiful  cypress  trees,  but  b  now  environed  by  commoo 
eraves,  and  b  no  longer  adorned  aa  formerly  with  a  copj  of 
Hafiz's  poems. 

One  of  the  governors  of  Shiras,  some  yesrs  ago,  erected 
two  buildings  to  the  memory  of  pious  and  diitineiiished 
men,  called  the  Huft  Tun,  and  the  Chehel  Tun.  Tbeseaie 
a  kind  of  pleasure^houses  belonging  to  the  governor,  and  aie 
decorated  with  paintines  of  ver^  mediocre  character,  in- 
tended as  memoriab  of  distinguished  deceased  men.  The 
other  points  of  mterest  in  Shiraz  are  similar  to  those  which 
are  found  in  most  Eastern  cities,  such  aa  the  palaces,  gardeo^ 
baths ;  and  there  b  also  a  similar  want  of  cleanliness  and 
comfort  in  the  streets^  for  the  traveller  frequently  finds  the 
accumulation  of  dry  mud  and  dust  so  great  that  the  lerel 
of  the  court-yards  of  the  houses  b  aeT«ral  feet  below  that 
of  the  streets. 

(Quitting  Shiraz  (which  has  more  than  once  sai!ered  from 
earUiquakes)  we  bend  our  way  towards  the  far-femed  niuu 
of  Persepolia,  distant  about  thirty  miles.  In  the  cow  « 
thb  journey  we  oiosa  the  Bend,  or  Bund  Emir,  thusalluded 
i^  in.  LaUa  Rookk. 

Thaw's  «  bowOT  of  kim  hj  'Bnukmittit'%  •traam, 
And  tfta  iBghtiii|EBl«  nnn  round  it  all  Um  dij  iMg 
In  lh»  Ham  of  mj  childbood  'tmn  Uka  a  wsel  ~ 


w 


T»  sit  fai  Om  roMfit,  and  bMT  IM  Wip4*« 
That  \tmm  mmI  iti  wmm  I  mmm  btmit 
nm  aft  vtwa  sImm  la  ais  UoMa  «r  lie  y 
I  Ifefak.  b  ^  iWHtopin  ibriag  tfiew  yat» 
▲w  th*  soMi  fMdl  M|^  %j  tti  eshu  B«DdHasw7 

Fneepolk  wm  a  city  of  oonsiteable  impertaBce  in  an- 
eieDt  itiMa :  a^d  althoagh  the  date  of  He  erection  is  now 
nnknowB,  theia  seema  evidence  that  it  was  taken  and  if* 
diwed  to  ruins  by  Alexander  the  Grest  These  rainscoii- 
ibi  eUefly  of  nillaie  and  doorways,  aa  if  forming  paijfo^ 
■ena  noble  buiidiagSb  They  are  surrounded  bv  a  pW 
when  viewed  from  which  they  present  a  very  noble  ap?^' 
ance,  being  situated  on  a  platform  fifty  feet  m  height.  Tbe 
length  of  thb  pbtform  is  about  1500  feet,  and  it  is  ap- 
proached from  the  north  by  a  double  flight  of  easy  steps  ot 
blue  marble  veined  with  quartz.  At  the  top  of  *^®.*^ 
are  four  walls^  surmounted  by  colossal  figures  of  yroi^ 
bulls,  with  remnants  of  four  pillars  between  the  walls,  tne 
whole  seeming  to  have  formed  a  gateway.  Near  thb  is  a  stow 
cistern  for  water;  and  frirther  southward  b  another  double 
flight  of  steps,  on  the  front  of  which  are  sculptured  an  im- 
mense number  of  figures  in  procession.  On  seceding  toss* 
steps^  we  come  to  an.  aasemblage  of  pillan,  the  vestiges  ot 
which  numt)er  about  forty.  The  pillars  which  still  wnwij 
are  veiy  elc^^ant  and  lofty,  with  fluted  shafts,  and  are  forniea 
of  a  beauti&l  gray  marble.  Tradition  states  these  pillan  ^ 
have  once  sustained  a  roof,  and  to  have  formed  part  of  * 
temple.  Southward  of  these  pillars  are  seen  the  remains  <n 
apartments  consisting  of  square  endosuree  with  sculpture 
doors,  and  formed  of  bhick  marble.  Through  different  ^ 
of  the  pktform  run  narrow  subterranean  passages,  originaiij 
perhaps  aqueducts ;  and  near  the  platform  is  an  i™*"^^ 
stone  enclosure,  which  seems  to  nave  been  the  P'^PJ 
residence.  The  whole  platform  must  have  been  a  ^^^ 
immense  labour,  for  it  is  built  up  of  large  blocks  of  cwrse 
black  marble,  extremely  well  cut  and  fitted  to  each  othf 
The  steps  leading  to  tne  platform  are  more  than  W  m 
number,  and  are  so  shallow  in  proportion  to  their  widtn, 
that  a  man  can  make  the  ascent  on  horseback.  Th^  sciaip- 
tures  and  inscriptions  on  various  parts  of  these  rnins  have 
•ngaged  the  attention  of  many  travellen,  but  we  hsTs  noi 
space  to  enter  forttisir  Ato  the  snhijeet  iitt6« 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  MARCH,  1841 


123 


From  Penepolk  to  Tsptibisaf  tlw  lonn«r  capital  of  Perriay 
is  a  distance  or  about  two  hundred  miles ;  but  presenting  so 
few  points  of  attraction,  tliat  most  trayellers  hasten  orer 
the  journey  as  quickly  as  possible.  Sir  James  Alexander 
pursued  this  route  in  the  month  of  July,  when  the  tempe- 
rature of  the  air  was  so  ezceasiTelj  high  as  to  throw  manj 
of  the  part^  into  a  fever ;  and  he  ^ves  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  mode  in  which  the  mTalids  were  conveyed : 
— **  In  the  evening  I  was  so  ill  with  a  slow  fever,  that  I 
could  not  sit  on  horseback^  and  was  obliged  to  proceed  in  a 
ca^fava*  These  are  nanniers  made  of  wood,  with  plank 
bottoms,  and  covered  with  doth:  a  mule  carries  two  of 
them.  The 7  are  four  feet  in  length ;  therefore  the  person 
carried  is  forced  to  remain  in  an  upright  sitting  jxisturs 
during  the  whole  jouniey,  with  the  constant  risk  of  getting 
his  head  broken  against  the  sides  of  the  conveyance^  than 
which  a  more  disagreeable  one  I  never  tmvelled  in.  The 
kdU-i^rawan  is  comparatively  a  pleasant  vehicle ;  it  oonsiBts 
of  a  frame  similar  to  that  of  the  ocff^oeo,  with  a  round  top, 
and  is  covered  with  doth ;  it  is  carried  by  two  mules  on  a 
couple  of  poles.  Spare  mules  accompany  it  to  change  as 
occasion  reauires;  on  one  of  these  the  dnver  rides ;  and  a 
man  walks  oy  the  side  of  the  vehider  to  steady  it  where  Uie 
xoad  is  rough." 

It  was  while  passing  through  this  district  that  Lieut. 
Lnmaden,  a  few  years  before,  met  a  procesnon  which  illus- 
trates one  of  the  usages  pertaining  to  the  Mohammedan 
iaiUi.  He  espied  an  extensive  oompanr  or  caravan,  at  the 
rear  of  whicn  were  several  mulee  lacTen  with  coffins,  the 
odour  frwn  which  indicated  the  presence  of  dead  bodies. 
This  was  a  party  of  pil^prima  proceeding  from  Central 
Persia  to  Mecca  and  Medina.  When  a  wealthy  Persian 
Mohammedan  dies,  his  relations  frequently  inter  him  in 
some  neighbouring  burying-place,  until  the  usual  time  for 
the  departure  of  a  pilgrim  caravan ;  at  which  time  the  body 
is  removed  from  the  grave  and  transported  to  a  reputed  holy 
place  near  Mecca,  whore  it  is  finally  deposited. 

The  city  of  Ispahan,  the  former  capital  of  Persia,  has  been 
very  frilly  described  in  No.  149  of  our  Magazine.  We  shall 
therefore  dispense  with  any  account  of  it  here ;  and  shall 
merely  give  an  outline  of  the  mode  in  which  a  Persian 
noble  entertained  a  party  of  English  officers,  since  this  wiU 
illustrate  the  nature  of  the  diet  to  which  wealthy  Persians 
are  accustomed.  At  six  in  the  evening  the  party  went  to 
the  FerBian's  house,  and  spent  about  an  hour  in  smoking, 
ttid  eating  fruit, — the  usual  prepamtive  for  a  mote  substan- 
tial meal.  The  party  then  seatea  themselves  eroas-lmed  on 
the  ground,  by  the  side  of  a  long  coloured  table-cloth, 
wBshed  their  hands  in  water  served  to  them  by  attendants, 
and  began  their  meal.  This  consisted  of  pillau,  rice,  kababs^ 
fslioea  cf  roasted  meat  kept  warm  between  two  cakes,) 
fowls  over-roasted,  in  order  that  they  might  more  easily  be 
pulled  to  pieoea,  and  other  solids;  wnile  Mtween  every  two 
gaesta  were  pla^  veflsels  containing  iced  sherbeL  rose-water, 
milk,  and  oUier  liquids,  laded  up  Dy  means  of  large  pear- 
tiee  spoons.  Each  gnesl  had  two  cakes  of  bread  placed 
before  him,  one  ki^ge  and  soft,  to  serve  as  a  plate,  bsm  the 
other  bard-baked,  to  eat.  When  the  repast  was  over,  hot 
water  was  introduced  for  washing  hands,— a  process  pecu- 
liarly •CMptable  to  Etigliahmen,  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
knivea  and  forks :— smoking  was  again  Introduced,  and 
lasted  till  half-past  eight,  when  the.  visitors  took  fhefa* 
leave. 

Nothing  oan  seem  more  strange  to  a  reader  accustomed  to 
the  re|^;uLar  and  systematic  mode  of  government  adopted  in 
our  own  country,  than  the  utter  lawlessness  which  prevails 
80  extensively  in  Persia.  Sir  James  Alexander,  in  the  ex- 
pedition to  which  we  have  frequently  alluded,  accompanied 
Colonel  Maodonald,  who  was  sent  as  envoy  from  the 
Governor-Greneral  of  India  to  the  court  of  Teneran.  The 
embassy  consisted  of  a  considerable  number  of  pereons, 
among  whom  were  the  envoy's  lady  and  her  servants. 
During  the  progress  northwtffd  fr^m  Ispahan,  repeated 
instances  occurred  of  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country. 
Some  of  the  khans  or  lords  of  the  districts  through  which 
they  passed,  vinted  the  travellers  on  their  route,  and  con- 
versed with  them.  One  of  them,  Asud  Oohlah  Khan,  in 
answer  to  some  questions  from  Colonel  Macdonald  respecting 
the  revenue  and  resources  of  the  country,  unblushingly 
answered; — ^*^0f  what  use  is  it  to  tell  lies  to  Europeans? 
myself  and  a  neighbouring  khan  contrive  every  year  to  cheat 
hiji  majesty  out  of  a  great  portion  of  the  revenue,  tdlumdtdlilah 
(thanka  to  Heaven  I  )'*  But  recollecting  himself,  he  begged 
the  colond  not  to  say  anything  about  it  at  court. 

On  anoth«  occosion  the  townspeople  of  Kordahoor  at- 


tacked the  servants  who  had  diaige  of  the  treasury  of  the 
envoy,  and  a  severe  encounter  ensued,  which  did  not  termi- 
nate till  the  townspeople  had  had  one  man  killed  and  many 
wounded,  and  the  embassy  twelve  men  wounded  and  several 
horses  killed.  An  incident  occunred  on  this  occasion  which 
was  a  subject  of  some  merriment  to  the  party.  Mrs. 
Macdonald's  maid,  and  a  Hindoo  tailor,  occupied  two  et^fawu 
or  panniers  on  the  back  of  a  mule,  and  were  somewhat 
seimrated  from  the  rest  of  the  party.  Three  of  the  towns- 
people came  up  to  them,  thrust  their  hands  into  the  cajava 
which  contained  the  young  woman,  and  attempted  to  pull 
her  out.  The  valiant  tailor  slunk  back  into  a  comer  of  his 
pannier,  and  though  cdled  upon  by  his  companion  to  fire  a 
pistol  which  he  had  for  their  mutual  defonoe,  he  endeavoured 
to  conceal  himself.  The  distressed  damsel  thereupon  de- 
fonded  herself  with  a  tin  kettle,  until  tiie  appearance  of 
some  of  the  muleteers  caused  the  insurgents  to  decamp. 
The  tailor,  upon  being  afterwards  reproached  with  hie 
cowardice,  stoutly  asserted  that  he  courageously  jumped 
fit>m  his  cajava,  and  cocked  his  pistol,  upon  seeing  which  the 
insuigents  instantly  fled.  After  he  had  nnished  his  oration,  a 
muleteer  came  up  and  contradicted  every  word  he  had 
uttered. 

We  shall  now  pass  over  a  considerable  eactent  of  country 
without  entering  into  any  minute  description,  for  two 
reasons :  1st,  that  Persian  towns  and  villages,  and  the  sandy 
tracts  which  frequently  separate  them,  beu*  rach  a  similarity 
(me  to  another,  that  an  idea  of  the  whole  may  be  obtained  from 
a  description  of  a  few; — 2nd,  that  in  our  former  Supplement 
we  earned  the  reader  through  a  considerable  extent  of  Pei^ 
sian  territory,  in  the  route  from  Bassora  to  Teheran.  We 
shall  therefore  traverse  this  route  nearly  at  right  angles,  and 
suppose  our  feUow  travellers  to  have  performed  the  journey 
from  Ispahan  to  Tabriz,  a  distance  of  about  five  hundred 
miles.  Tabriz  is  in  the  midst  of  a  mountainous  country, 
inhabited  by  Koords,  a  semi-barbarous  nation ;  and  from 
thence  the  course  is  nearly  westward  to  Constantinople^ 
along  the  northern  part  of  Asia  Minor;  the  distance  between 
the  two  cities  beinr  probably  about  twelve  or  thirteen 
hundred  miles.  A  short  description  of  Tabriz  was  given  in 
the  last  Supplement ;  and  we  snail  now  take  our  departuiB 
from  thence  in  the  way  to  Constantinople. 

Mr.  Fraser,  who  travelled  from  Tabriz  to  Constantinople 
in  the  midst  of  a  severe  winter,  performed  the  first  hundred 
miles  of  the  journey  in  two  days,  through  a  rocky  and 
mountainous  country,  which  everywhere  snowed  indications 
of  the  unsettled  state  arising  from  the  contiguity  of  three 
great  empires,  Russia^  Persia,  end  Turkey.  The  termina- 
tion of  this  stage  is  iUioe,  a  fortified  town  of  considerable 
sizi,  with  an  extensive  bazaar,  and  a  number  of  good 
houses.  The  town  is  environed  by  pleasant  gardens,  and  Is 
dtuated  in  a  cultivated  plain  at  tne  foot  of  a  chain  of 
mountains. 

Khoe  is  near  the  frontiers  of  Persia  and  Turkey,  having 
the  Penian  province  of  Azerbijan  on  the  east,  and  the 
Turkish  province  of  Armenia  on  the  west.  All  around  this 
district,  however,  the  inhabitants  are  such  as  are  little  dis- 
posed to  respect  either  Persian  or  Turkish  authority :  they 
are  Koords,  possessing  much  of  the  independent  spirit  so 
often  observable  in  mountaineers.  The  nLoords,  or  Kurds^ 
are  the  same  people  known  under  the  ancient  name  of  Oar^ 
duehif  through  whom  Xenophon  so  hardly  fought  his  way, 
when  conductinff  the  fomous  retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand. 
They  have  stOl  the  same  name,  and  are  the  same  people ;  the 
bolcfest  and  the  rudest  in  all  Asia.  Those  pastoral  pursuits 
which,  on  the  high  table  plains  of  Tartary  and  Penia,  vary 
and  soften  the  habits  of  war  and  plunder,  are  impracticable 
in  a  region  which  presents  little  else  than  ragged  steeps^ 
frightiFh!  ravines,  and  narrow  vaUeys.  The  Koords,  thoug:h 
much  addicted  to  plunder,  have,  however,  the  characteristic 
virtue  of  barbarians,  a  frank  hospitality,  and  also  a  pride  of 
pCKJigree  founded  on  a  national  existence  which  may  be 
tnu^  to  a  high  antiquity.  Through  this  region  the 
traveller  finds  nis  way  as  well  as  he  can,  passing  through 
rocky  defiles,  over  mountain  passes,  along  the  banks  of 
streams,  and  through  thinly  scattered  villages,  hiring  horses 
or  mules  from  one  station  to  another,  and  taking  his  chance 
for  a  cottage  or  bam  to  sleep  in  at  night.  In  part  of  this 
district,  almost  within  view  of  Mount  Ararat,  is  a  singular 
mountain  strong-hold  or  fortress  called  Makoo,  situated  on 
the  brink  of  a  ravine  through  which  a  stream  flows.  On 
the  left  bank  of  the  stream  tne  rock  rises  perpendicularly 
to  a  height  of  five  hundred  feet ;  and  from  a  point  about 
fifty  feet  below  the  summit  of  the  rock  is  a  cavern  or 
recess,  formed  by  an  inward  sloping  of  the  rock,  measuring 

661—2 


1-24 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


six  hundred  feet  by  one  himdred.  Across  this  recess  has 
been  built  a  wall  of  stone,  enclosing  a  portion  of  ground 
which  constitutes  a  fDrt.  A  garrison  can  thus  be  placed  at 
a  height  of  three  or  four  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
stream  below.  There  is  besides  this  a  second  recess  in  the 
pei-pendicular  fiwe  of  the  rock,  leading  to  apartments  and 
granaries,  where  a  large  reserve  of  soldiers  and  of  provisions 
can  be  kept  concealed.  It  is  supposed  that  this  strong-hold 
was  the  work  of  the  Armenians  m  past  ages,  when  they  had 
to  defend  themselves  from  persecution. 

Leaving  Mount  Ararat  on  the  north-east,  we  come  to  the 
town  of  Bayazid.  This  is  a  singular-looking  place ;  being 
built  among  the  clefts  on  either  side  of  a  nigh  rugged 
mountain,  while  a  projecting  rock  is  crowned  by  the  castle. 
Mr.  Fraser  remarks  concerning  its  singular  position : — "  You 
do  not  Sf^  half  of  it  until  you  climb  up  and  get  into  it  as 
into  a  bird*8  nest.  One  wonders  what  tempted  men  to  choose 
a  spot  so  unpromising  for  a  city,  even  in  regard  to  security ; 
for  not  only  is  it  commanded  on  all  sides,  but  the  inhabit- 
ants themselves  have  a  most  difficult  ascent  to  surmount 
every  time  they  leave  and  return  to  their  homes,  with  the 
thousand  other  inconveniences  that  must  attach .  to.  so  lofty 
a  dwelling.  Except  in  India,  I  never  saw  so  sharp  and 
Tile  an  ascent  to  a  fort ;  and  the  pathways  being  covered 
with  ice,  it  was  a  miracle  how  our  smooth-shod  horses  got 
up,  and  that  we  escaped  fietlls." 

Bayazid  being  almost  close  to  the  frontiers,  had  been'  re- 
cently visited  by  a  Russian  force,  which  had  gjeatly  devas- 
tated it.  Mr.  Fraser  found  scarcely  one  house  in  a  hundred 
inhabited :  of  these  few  were  in  renair ;  and  the  neat  maga- 
zine of  fuel  for  the  people  of  the  place  was  the  oeams  and 
wood-work  of  the  abandoned  dwelling  It  is  necessary  to 
give  a  brief  explanation  of  the  political  condition  of  thia 
town,  to  estimate  the  cause  of  such  disasters.  All  the 
regions  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Ararat  are  in- 
haoited  by  Koords,  rude  mountaineers,  who  have  but  few 
ties  of  sympathy  either  with  Turkey,  Persia,  or  Russia. 
But  it  so  happens,  that  in  consequence  of  the  mutations 
which  those  empires  have  undeigcme,  all  three  now  meet 
at  or  near  Mount  Ararat ;  and  the  dwellers  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  feel  the  effects  of  this  most  sorely.  Bayazid  is 
properly  a  Koordish  city,  although  nominally  within  the 
Turkian  dominions;  but  about  twenty-five  yean  affo,  the 
troops  of  the  neighbouring  pacha  of  Erzeroum  attacked  the 
city  and  carried  off  many  of  its  treasures.  When  the 
town  had  somtwhat  recovered  from  the  effects  of  this  inroad, 
it  had  a  similar  visit  from  the  Persiana  who  took  away  most 
of  what  the  Turks  had  left.  Still  the  population  remained 
in  the  city,  howev^  much  injured  and  robbed ;  but  a  third 
visit  from  the  third  neighbouring  empire — ^the  Ruasians^- 
was  incalculably  more  calamitous  thim  the  other  two,  and 
occurred  about  ten  or  twelve  years  ago.  More  than  ten 
thousand  Armenians  and  Koords  were  driven  frt)m  the  city 
and  carried  to  the  Russian  provinces,  where  many  of  them 
perished.  Mr.  Fraser  remarks: — ''The  finishing  blow  was 
reserved  for  Russia,  who,  by  utterly  depopulating  both  town 
and  country,  and  pillaging  the  little  that  nad  been  collected 
since  past  misfortunes,  deprived  both  of  the  means  of  reno- 
vation, while  they  wantonly  destroyed  what  they  could  not 
carry  off.  It  is  scarcely  possible  that  the  place  can  be  re- 
peopled." 

As  the  reader  never  now  hears  of  an  Armenian  king 
and  government,  it  may  be  well  to  state  what  are  the  events 
whicu  have  rendered  tnis  people  distinct  from  Turks,  Per- 
aians^  and  Russians.  Armenia  once  formed  a  considerable 
kiogdom,  including,  but  principally  to  the  south-west  of, 
Mount  Ararat ;  and  comprising  districts  now  divided 
between  the  three  empires.  The  Armenians  trace  their 
origin  back  to  a  remote  period  in  history;  indeed  they 
have  a  tradition  that  the  nrst  ruler  of  that  coun^  was 
the  great  grandson  of  Japhet,  the  son  of  Noah.  "Be  this 
as  it  may,  Uie  Armenians  appear  to  have  been  for  some 
centuries  governed  by  their  own  kings,  who  were  occasion- 
ally conquered  by  the  powerful  monarchs  in  their  neigh- 
bourhood. It  then  became  a  Grecian  province,  afterwards 
a  Roman  one ;  then  became  divided  between  the  Romans 
and  the  Persians ;  and  the  inliabitants  suffered  bitter  perse- 
cutions for  having  embraced  Christianity,  which  was  hateful 
to  tlie  Persian  worshippers  of  2k>roaster.  At  length  the 
decline  of  the  Persian  power  and  the  rise  of  the  &racens 
transferred  tlie  contest  to  new  parties;  and  Armenia 
suffered  repeatedly  from  attacks  on  all  sides ;  its  native 
princes  being  supported  or  deposed,  as  best  suited  the  in- 
terests of  the  contending  parties.  When  the  Turks  sallied 
ftoiA  Central  Asia  towards  Constantinople,  Armenia  was  in 


their  direct  line  of  route;  and  the  attaeka  of  the  Toika 
became  so  fearful,  that  about  the  year  1400,  the  persecuted 
Armenians  resolved  to  abandon  their  country  altogether. 
Since  that  time  they  have  never.been  known  as  a  c<Mlected 
nation;  but,  sometmng  like  the  Jews,  have  become  wander- 
ers and  traders  in  other  countries.  They  have  retained  an 
imperfect  form  of  Christian  faith  throughout  all  their 
troubles,  and  are  generally  respected  in  private  life.  Aa  mer- 
chants they  are  found  in  eveiy  part  of  Aaa,  and  in  almost 
every  part  of  Europe;  a  genml  spirit  of  toleration  bemg 
shown  towards  them^  -  although  they  have  no  longer  a 
distinct  countiy.  When  the  roader  therefore  hears  of  Ar- 
menians, he  must  not  conclude  that  they  are  inhabitants 
of  Armenia ;  but  Asiatic  Christians,  descended  from  thoee 
who  once  inhabited  the  kingdom  of  Armenia,  now  a  Turk- 
ish province. 

It  may  likewise  be  desirable  to  state,  in  explanation  of 
the  situation  of  the  district  we  have  now  reached,  that  the 
Koords  are  in  general  the  inhabitants  of  the  mountainous 
district  near  the  frx>ntiers  in  Turkey  and  Persia.  Part  of 
the  Koordish  territory,  or  Koordistan,  is  included  in  Persia, 
and  the  other  part  in  Turkey :  but  the  hardy  mountaineers 
view  all  the  three  neighbounng  empires  very  much  in  tiie 
light  of  hostile  states,  and  follow  few  laws  but  the  law  of 
the  strongest.  Bayajdd  has  been  more  properly  a  Koordidi 
city  than  a  Turkish  one ;  but  the  disasters  which  it  has 
experienced  show  in  how  precarious  a  position  the  Koords 
are  placed.  There  are  not  wanting  indications  that  this 
part  of  Armenia  will  one  day  belong  to  Russia,  whose  giant 
empire  is  almost  yearly  increanng  in  extent.  For  our  pre- 
sent purpose,  however,  we  may  inake  thia  summary  for  the 
reader*s  guidance: — ^that  the  counUy  at  which  we  have 
arrived  is  nominally  Turkish ;  that  it  is  properly  a  portion 
of  Armenia ;  and  that  the  principal  inhabitanta  are  and 
have  long  been  the  rude  hardy  Koords. 

We  now  leave  Bayazid,  and  proceed  westward  on  our 
jouiTiey.  Mr.  Baillie  Fraser  visited  Asia  Minor  and  Persia, 
during  the  winter  of  1834,  on  political  business  connected 
with  the  English  government ;  and  the  necessity  for  tra- 
velling as  rapidly  as  possible,  in  spite  of  unfavourable 
weaUier,  frequently  led  him  into  very  dreanr  scenes ;  for 
although  the  latitude  of  Armenia  and  tne  neignbouring  dis- 
tricts is  as  far  south  as  the  warmest  parts  of  Italy,  yet  the 
elevated  position  of  the  country  causes  the  temperature  to 
be  very  cold,  especially  in  the  winter.  It  is  thus  that  we 
read^  in  that  gentleman's  narrative,  of  piercing  winds^  over- 
wh^ming  &&  of  snow,  icy  paths,  and  inclement  tempera- 
ture. We  shall  therefore  avail  ourselves  likewise  of  the 
assistance  of  those  travellers  who  have  performed  the  jour- 
ney in  more  coxi^nial  weather. 

A  few  miles  from  Bayazid,  Mr.  Fraser  sought  shelter  in 
a  Koordish  cabin,  almost  buried  beneath  the  ground.  After 
descending  through  a  sort  of  irr^;ular  passage,  he  says: — 
«Our  peregrinations  terminated  m  a  s^rt  of  little  hole^ 
scantily  lighted  by  a  small  orifice  in  the  roof,  with  a  chim- 
ney, in  wnich  was  smothering  a  fire  of  wet  dun^^-cakea. 
It  seemed  to  be  the  domicile  of  a  fiivourite  horse  and  a  pet 
ewe:  the  latter  we  ousted;  the  former^ still  retained  ita 
berth  behind  a  sort  of  bar,  so  contrived  as  to  prevent  further 
intrusion  on  its  part,  and  mark  the  boundaiy  of  our  domain, 
where  it  chewed  its  hay, — a  veiy  unoffending  neighbour. 
After  my  eyes  had  become  somewhat  accustomed  to  the 
dark  and  smoky  atmosphere,  I  left  our  den,  to  peer  about  a 
little.  In  one  neighbouring  cavern  were  stabled  a  number 
of  horses;  in  another  were  congrmted  a  collection  of  most 
unlovely  women,  children,  and  sheep ;  from  a  tliird  there 
was  pouring  forth  a  multitude  of  cows  and  year-olds  that 
nearly  upset  me.  There  was  not  much  pleasure  inall  this, 
so  I  returned  to  our  room,  where  mumeos  had  been  ^read ; 
but  scarcely  was  I  seated  when  in  rushed  a  ^reat  he-eoat, 
with  a  boimd  and  a  ^baa-a-a!'  followed  by  his  two  wives, 
probably  the  rightful  occupants  of  some  comer  usurped  by 
us,  who  stopped  short  when  he  saw  us,  and  seemed  disposed 
to  do  battle  tor  his  privileges."  Mr.  Fraser  found,  on  many 
such  occasions  as  this,  that  he  could  purchase  the  good  ser- 
vices of  the  inmates  by  a  cup  of  tea,  a  beverage  to  which 
they  were  but  little  accustomed.  He  carried  a  stock  of  tea 
ana  sugar  with  him ;  and  after  having  refreshed  himself 
with  the  beverage,  he  boiled  and  re-boiled  the  leaves,  adding 
an  extra  dose  of  sugar  to  compensate  for  the  want  ox 
strength.  , 

From  Bayazid  to  Erzeroum  the  traveller  meets  with  little 
but  Koordish  villages,  scattered  at  wide  intervals  through  a 
mountainous  district,  Uio  cold  of  which,  in  winter,  is  far 
greater  than  is  any  where  experienced  in  Britain.     On 


iSUPPLEMENTFOR  MAHCH,  184J. 


A   FEBGIjIH   BBEAXFASr. 


mching  Erzeroum,  the  traTeller  enters  the  first  fanportAnt 
TnrkisE  town  in  this  part  of  Asia  Minor,  Sir  Robert  Ker 
Porter  describes  this  town  as  containing  a  population  of 
sbont  siity  thousand,  of  whom  fifty  thousand  are  MohMn- 
mcdsns.  It  contains  forty-fire  moaquee  and  two  charches. 
Two  of  the  most  ancient  mosques  are  fancifnJly  ornamented 
with  bricks  and  coloured  tiles.  The  lofty  domes  of  these 
Bioeqnes,  together  with  the  glittering  minarets  of  others, 
rising  above  the  fortified  walls  of  the  governor's  palace,  give 
adelnave  splendour  to  the  appearance  of  the  town  when 
teen  from  b  little  distance.  Tfie  whole  town  is  defended  by 
h^  double  walls,  mil  built,  and  additionally  strengthened 
With  lofty  towers;  the  outer  wall  being  supported  by  a 
dem  ditch. 

The  dresses  of  the  inhabitants  are  often  exceedingly  gay, 
and  indeed  the  rank  of  the  wearer  is  scarcely  discernible 
tiirongh  the  showy  texture  of  his  dress.  Sir  Robert  Ker 
Porter  observes:  "The  well-known  flowing  garment  and 
li^  turban  of  the  Turk,  are  common  alike  to  the  trades- 
people and  highest  classes ;  the  chief  difference  lying  in  the 
oiloiire  and  materials  ;  but  the  gaiety,  and  even  splendour, 
of  them  all  often  exceed  imagination,  and  so  completely 
tonfuse  ranks  to  the  eye,  that  an  inexperienced  foreigner, 
gsiing  at  a  procession  of  these  stately  personages,  moving 
wilemnly  along  in  their  motley  attire,  could  not  possibly 
Jistingnish  the  degree  of  one  from  another.  I  remember, 
on  entering  the  town  of  ICars,  (a  little  eastward  of  Erxe- 
nnim,)  meeting  a  most  gorgeously  apparelled  gentleman, 
whiL  from  his  gravity,  and  majest^calJy-slippeTed  walk,  1 
mkht  have  mistaken  for  the  pacha's  viirier,  nad  not  a  string 
of  little  tallow  candles  in  one  hand,  and  a  plate  of  sour 
ntani  in  the  other,  procliumed  his  title  to  some  humbler 
calling." 

Bnl  since  the  last-mentioned  traveller  visited  these  c«nn- 
Irws,  Erzeronm  has  been  doomed  to  suffer  the  misery  atten- 
Jwt  on  hostile  attacks.  It  wna  a  flourishing  place  of  trade 
until  1829,  when  the  Russian  Count  Pascovitch  overran  the 
eonntry,  and  partly  by  petsuaaion,  partly  by  force,  caused 
wariy  one  hundred  thousand  Turks,  Armenians,  and 
Koords,  to  leave  their  native  oountrj',  nnd  pass  into  the 
ntusian  territory.  Of  tliis  number  seven  thousand  were 
™n  Erieroum;  and  the  misery  and  cruelty  which  they 
*sp«ienced  from  ttie  Rusaiuns  have  given  rise  to  a  deadly 


hatred  on  the  part  of  the  natlTea.  Indeed  it  ia  lamenUUa 
to  see  the  state  of  feeling  existinr  in  and  around  this  dittrict : 
let  the  reader  look  at  a  map  of  that  part  of  Aelm  utnsted 
near  the  south-east  margin  of  the  Black  Se*,  and  he  will, 
find  a  region  where  Turks,  Eoords,  Pernaus,  and  RnsajmS 
mutually  detest  each  other,  and  only  join  intereela  occasion- 
ally, when  two  of  Uiem  are  attacked  by  a  third  more  power- 
ful than  themselves. 

As  we  depart  westward  from  Erzeronm,  we  Icare  by  de- 
grees the  region  inhabited  by  the  Armenian  Koords,  whosa 
villages  are  tbrened  of  honses  built  under  gnmnd,  the  earth 
that  IS  excavated  being  heaped  about  the  walls  to  aid  in  the 
exclusion  of  wintry  cold.  As  darkness  closes  in,  a  plentiful 
supply  of  wood  enables  the  inmates  to  keep  np  »  blazing 
fire ;  but  when  they  require  light  for  other  purpoeec,  they 
make  use  of  the  same  sort  of  candle-fir,  or  splint«ra  of  fiit 
turpentine  pine,  which  are  nsed  in  the  highlands  of  Seo^ 
land.  These  portions  of  the  wood  are  produced  by  »di«a»B 
in  the  common  fir,  which  produces  a  congestion  of  its  re- 
sinous juices  to  the  part  afiected ;  and  the  tree  is  cut  down 
for  the  sake  of  this  done,  or  the  part  is  cnt  out,  leaving  the 
rest  to  decay  of  itself.  The  domestic  economy  of  then 
wretehed  hovels  may  be  estimsted  &i>m  the  pangi^h 
quoted  from  Mr,  Eraser,  respecting  his  night's  sojoam  ia 
one  of  them. 

Travellers  inthispsrt  of  the  Turkish  territory  frequently 
perform  their  journey  by  TatSr,  that  is,  accompanied  by  c 
government  courier  or  guide,  called  a  TatSr,  and  ttaveUmg 
on  horseback  with  ns  few  stoppages  as  possible.  Theae 
TatSrs  are  to  be  hired  at  the  chief  cities,  and  an  men  «t 
wonderftil  enewy  and  hardiness.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
escape  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  the  British  Con- 
sul at  Constantinople  hired  a  TatSr  to  convey  the  infunna- 
tion  to  the  British  Consul  at  Demavnnd,  a  place  about  siit^ 
miles  beyond  Teheran  in  Perwa.  The  man  mounted  hia 
horse,  and  _performed  the  whole  journey,  over  mountains, 
and  through  valleys  and  plains,  in  seventeen  days,  the  di«> 
tance  being  about  2000  miles.  It  was  with  such  a  guide, 
and  on  suchaplanas  this,  that  Mr.  Eraser madehis  journey; 
and  it  is  thus  that  the  term  "TatSr  ionmey"  is  given  to 
his  narrative.  There  are,  besideB,  other  guides,  not  con- 
nected with  the  military  or  government  departments,  but 
attached  to  the  Tnritish  post-houses,  and  hired  by  tiavellen. 


18# 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGA8mE. 


Trained  from  childhood  tmOAg  th«  aninuds  of  whidi  they 
have  the  care,  ihey  are  good  grooms  and  admirable  lidcn: 
and,  accustomed  to  brave  the  road  and  its  dangen  hi  all 
weathers,  they  become  bold,  intrepid^  and  akilfdl  afaides  ia 
this  part  of  the  country.  These  men,  who  are  called  JSho* 
rajeeSf  are  as  remarkable  in  appearance  as  in  character. 
They  wear  large  shulwar^  or  riaing-breeches^  often  highly 
embroidered  ;  a  abort  Turkish  or  Munlnc  jacktty  fireqnently 
of  coloured  velvet,  and  decked  with  ftbded  finely;  a  striped 
silk  or  cotton  ves^  the  skirts  of  which  are  stated  into  the 
trousers;  huge  pistols,  or  a  yatagan,  or  both,  protnidlnff 
from  their  bioad  leathern  girdle  and  sash.  On  the  heaa 
they  wear  a  turban,  wound  rather  loosely ;  and  they  wiw 
their  legs  and  feet  in  pieces  of  nuf,  cotton,  or  woollen,  wina- 
Ing  them  over  and  over  again,  like  soi^ical  bandages  on  A 
fractured  Umb.  Over  these  bandages  are  laige  boots^  or 
laced  sandals  made  of  raw  hide. 

With  such  guides,  then,  we  proceed  on  onr  Jonmey,  and 
a  few  miles  after  leaving  Erzeroum,  we  cross  the  western* 
most  branch  of  the  upper  Euphrates,  that  noble  river  which 
flows  into  the  Pentan  Gulf  by  the  same  mouth  as  the 
Tigris.  Here  we  come  to  the  boundary  of  what  is  genenlly 
deemed  Armenia,  and  enter  on  the  Turkish  province  of 
Pontus,  a  country  of  much  notoriety  in  ancient  time^  hav- 
ing lieen  the  seat  of  a  flourishing  kinvdom,  under  Mithri- 
dates  the  Great.  The  kingdom  of  Pontus  was  conquered 
by  Julius  Cttsar,  and  made  a  Roman  province,  but  it  was 
often  governed  by  monarchs  who  were  tribntaiy  to  the 
power  of  Rome. 

At  about  thirty-eix  miles  from  Eneroom  la  Ashkala,  a 
pretty  villsee  Inhabited  by  a  small  number  of  Ikmilies ;  and 
further  on  tt  a  similar  viUage  called  Kara  Kookk,  the  scene 
of  many  conflicto  Iwtween  the  asBil-barbarous  tribes  of  the 
neighbourhood.  At  another  villagi^  named  Mama  Khatonn, 
are  some  remarkable  buildings^  which  Mr.  Morier  was  told 
were  built  as  a  love-token  by  a  wealthy  Turk  to  htsauaireas. 
These  buildings  an  sttnated  doae  to  tne  rilla§e»  and  eonaSet 
of  a  caravanserai,  a  mosque,  a  bailL  and  •  tomb^  aU  ooih 
structed  of  fine  white  free-etone,  and  finished  in  a  ireiy  «« 
cellent  manner.  The  caravanserai  is  a  hollow  square,  with 
a  gate  on  the  eastern  face ;  round  the  court  are  built  small 
rooms  arched  in  a  very  solid  and  symmetrical  style ;  and 
there  ara  also  two  vaulted  chamben^  each'  fifty  yards  knff 
by  forty  broad,  for  the  accommodation  <^  w  noraes  and 
mules  of  tmvdlera.  In  the  middle  of  the  square  is  an 
arched  chamb«v  erected  probably  as  *  cod  retreat  in  sum- 
mer. The  mosque  is  situated  on  the  right  of  the  caravan- 
serai, and  is  entered  by  a  small  court  yard,  from  which  a 
vaulted  peristyle  leads  under  the  dome  into  the  principal 
chamber,  where  is  a  stone  pulpit. '  The  fine  materials  imd 
admirable  masonry  of  this  dome  are  said  to  contrast  strik- 
ingly with  the  general  character  of  Turkish  building  in 
this  part  of  the  country.  Close  to  the  caravanserai  is  the 
bath ;  and  on  the  ether  side  ara  the  remains  of  another 
building.  Nearly  fiicing  the  caravanserai  is  a  small  round 
templci  supposed  to  be  a  tomb,  enclosed  by  a  circular  wall, 
which  is  entered  by  a  gateway  of  Saracenic  architecture. 
The  interior  of  the  round  temple  is  arched,  and  carved  with 
a  variety  of  ornaments. 

In  various  parts  of  Ada  Minor  ara  towns  bearing  Uie 
name  of  Kara  Hiaaar.  Thia  implies  *' black  castle,''  and  ia 
generally  applied  to  a  fortress  bmlt  on  a  hill.  One  of  theos 
IS  found  on  the  road  which  we  ara  now  traveraing.  The 
position  of  the  fortress  seems  inaccesETible,  the  rock  on  which 
it  stands  resembling  that  of  the  Castle  of  Edinburgh,  but 
nearly  twice  as  high.  It  spreads  entirely  over  the  summit 
of  the  hill ;  but  the  most  formidable  of  its  towera  appear  on 
the  northern  point.  Beneath  the  western  brow,  and  just 
on  the  slope  of  the  rock  where  the  declivity  is  leak  abrupt, 
the  greatest  part  of  the  town  is  built.  The  houses  are  mostly 
of  two  stories,  and  stand  in  ranges  one  over  the  other,  aa 
seen  from  a  distance ;  two  mosques  and  one  minaret  rise 
from  among  them.  Sir  Robert  Ker  Porter  describes  the 
mountain  scenery  in  the  vicinity  of  this  hill  fortress  as 
being  among  the  most  sublime  which  he  had  met  with  in 
the  East ;  as  a  country  **  of  the  wildest  character ;  the  whole 
consisting  of  endless  ranges  of  dark,  stupendous  mountains^ 
hurled  together  in  the  most  nigged  fi>rm8  of  chaotic  con- 
trasts. But  this  august  assembly  of  Nature's  vastest  ma- 
terials expanded  to  even  a  terrible  sublimity  as  we  approached 
a  higher  region,  where  some  tremendous  convulsion  of  the 
earth  seemed  to  have  rent  its  mountain  piles  with  more  than 
ordinary  rase.  Heights  and  depths,  and  yawning  daricnesa, 
affrighted  the  eye  in  our  advance,  though  I  thought  it  not 
improbable  that  tiie  closing  gloma  of  the  evening,  added  to 


the  natural  bkekneta  of  tha  moo^tainL  mighty  by  confi^ 
tiie  outlinea  of  objects,  and  mingling  anadowa  with  reality, 
exaggerate  the  awnd  appeannoe  befora  flM.** 

At  the  varioiia  villafas  which  we  have  named,  and  it 
othen  of  a  atanUar  kind,  aie  post-hovasa^  which  aie  liktvin 
the  only  inns  in  the  pboe;  and  the  IbUowiag  dMcription 
will  convey  an  idea  oi  the  sort  ef  eatertainnent  for  tnrd- 
len  at  these  poet-hooses.  Travellen  and  awants  hin  to 
sqoat  down  to  the  aame  board  with  the  peepleof  the  house, 
mm  the  keeper  to  the  meanest  traachcr^kaMr;  andmiiiglt 
UmIt  ftagen  in  the  mat  fsneral  dish.  This  bugs  mce 
stands  in  the  middle  of  a  tray,  on  a  low  eovukr  table  osoaIIj 
laid  oat  with  aa  many  pieces  of  bread  aa  tbsra  an  goati 
The  other  ineredients  cdf  the  meal  (bteaktel)  an  eommonlj 
thickened  muk«  with  two  platea  of  curdy  aoat's  eheeie,  i 
little  honey,  and  aoBM  grape  synip.  AtmiMay,bnidaDd 
dried  or  npe  frolt  ara  given.  At  snwert,  a  kind  of  loup, 
and  a  alewof  muttoi^  or  goat's  flash,  mixed  with  swMtcoeii 
gravy  or  oniona,  and  a  pillau  of  wheat.  TIm  didm  » 
served  in  rotation,  and  pUMed  in  the  middle  ef  the  tnj; 
ra«nd  which  the  eaten  ait  en  their  heel^  fea4y  with  their 
ilngen  or  i^oona  to  dip  into  the  dish.    Such  is  post-hoiue 

The  town  of  Nlzar  ia  wproaehed  by  a  road  desoeiidiiig 
the  declivity  of  a  menntam.  Mr.  Moiisr  aays  that  no  de- 
scription b  adequate  to  paint  the  briUiaiaciy  and  laxnrianoe 
of  vegetation,  and  the  picturesque  forma  of  this  rofioo. 
Trees  of  every  denomination  grow  here  in  the  wildest  pn- 
fnsion,  whilst  their  roots  an  embaiflaed  by  the  edour  of 
mrriada  of  flowers.    Sir  R.  K.  Porter  likewUt  apeaki  of  tiie 


**  The  whole  seene  gave  laa  an  idaa  ef  aome  ef  the  finest 
parts  of  Switaerland;  a  remembrance  whkh  had  Mver  been 
awakened  in  me  before,  by  any  landaBajia  of  the  East;  ind 
it  may  iMt  be  irrrievant  to  recollect  hsN^  that  it  was  6tna 
Cerasunt,  on  this  sfaora  of  the  Enzlne  (Ittaok  8aa),  tbit 
LncuUus  tranroknted  eheny-traec  tete  Italy;  sad  thenoe, 
in  little  more  than  a  century  after,  they  mat  embellished 
the  gardens  of  Great  Britain.^' 

A  little  beyond  this,  and  at  about  one-third  of  the  dis* 
tance  from  Eraeronm  to  Constantinople  is  a  laige  sad  opea 
town  called  Tokat,  (supposed  to  be  the  ancient  Co^ 
PontietifJ  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  lofty  mouataio,  or 
rather  pair  of  mountain^  with  a  cleft  between  thiiB> 
Numerous  houses  appear  crowded  together  at  the  haws  <h 
the  twin  raountaina,  varied  here  and  there  by  moeqaei  aad 
minareta.  The  town  Waa  aaid  thirty  yeanago,  to  hs^^,^ 
tained  one  hundred  thouaand  inhabitanta;  but  thia  ia  in  lu 
probability  a  gross  exaogeration.  The  basaara  were  ho«^ 
ever  very  numerous,  anas  verything  common  to  Turkey  and 
its  wanta  aeemed  to  be  found  there  in  plenty.  Blr.  FrmJi 
many  yean  afterwards,  proceeded  on  this  route  with  tarn 
rapidity,  frequently  performing  one  hundred  and  tweet/ 
miles  in  a  day,  that  he  had  not  time  to  pay  much  *^^^ 
to  the  objects  and  scenery  among  which  he  paaaed ;  but  im 
^eaks  of  Tokat  aa  a  noble  old  place,  which,  with  lis  w 
castellated  rock  and  picturesque  mountains  behind,  IM^ 
extrunely  grand  in  the  moonUsht,  and  <^>Deared  to  be  fO 
extensive  phoe^  situated  on  a  wA-culUvated  countiy*  f*^ 
city  is  seated  on  the  banks  of  tiie  Jekil-ermak,  the  ascieia 
Iris.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  extensive  inland  trade  to  aw 
from  all  parts  of  Asia.  Here  are  manu&ctoraes  of  blue  Mo- 
rocco, silk  stufis,  and  copper  vessels  of  all  kinds.  M  ^ 
town  the  exemplary  and  lamented  missionary,  oe^rf 
Martyn,  died  on  Lis  way  to  Constantinople,  October  6^  loih 
in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his  age. 

The  next  important  place  at  which  we  airiye  is  ^^ 
the  ancient  capital  of  Cappadocia,  and  the  birth-pi^.'^ 
Strabo.  The  city  stands  m  the  nanowest  part  oftM 
valley  of  Amasia,  and  in  the  midst  of  bdd,  wild,  and  ro- 
mantic scenery.  Alons  the  bottom  of  this  ralley  ^^TTIhl 
river  Yekil-Irmak ;  and  the  town  flfNreads  over  both  vm» 
On  one  side  of  the  river  rises  a  magniiioent  pile  of  row*  .** 
the  nearly  pyramidal  summit  of  which  lie  the  »<»^^ 
towera  of  the  ancient  citadel,  surmounting  the  ^T^ 
openings  into  the  royal  tombs,  which  are  exoaTated  0  ^ 
&ce  of  the  hilL  On  entering  the  city,  an  £o^^>^^T^ 
is  struck  with  the  appearance  of  the  ruins  of  •j^^JTj, 
chureh,  part  of  which  are  mouldering  to  dust,  ^,^^j 
mainder  used  as  a  Mohammedan  mosque^— a  ^"^t^JL 
transformation  from  good  to  evil.  The  streets  «(J'**JJ  ^J 
are  narrow  and  disn^^reeable,  9S  is  frequentl^tbe  eais 
Turkey ;  and  the  houses  wen  eetiinated  by  Sir  B.  J^  ^^^^ 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  MABCH,  1541. 


127 


at  a1>otit  SIX  ihoiifland.  Bat  the  most  interesting  object  to 
a  visiter  is  the  rocky  fortress,  mentioned  by  Strabo  nearly 
two  thousand  years  ago.  Passing  over  a  bridge  at  one  ex« 
tremity  of  the  city,  we  begin  to  ascend  a  steep  paved  road 
leading  np  to  the  fortress^  and  soon  arrive  at  some  monlder- 
ing  mms,  once  a  range  of  battlements  and  towers.  Ascend- 
in?  twenty  or  thirty  paces  higher,  we  pass  through  apQ^n^ 
hollowed  into  the  solid  rock,  to  the  lenfifth  of  six  or  eignt 
yards ;  the  entrance  of  which  bears  the  marks  of  some 
former  grated  defence.  This  dark  avenue  leads  to  a  ledge 
of  rock,  about  six  ftet  in  width,  and  hewn  out  of  the  side  of 
the  cliffy,  up  which  it  leads  like  a  kind  of  ladder.  After  a 
farther  ascent  of  about  twenty  yards,  we  come  to  the  first 
sepulchral  excavation,  hewn  m  the  rock  to  a  depth  of  seven- 
teen feet,  forming  a  passage  four  feet  wide  by  thirty-five 
high.  Beyond  this  is  a  small,  vaulted  chamber,  with  suffi- 
cient space  to  contain  a  laige  coffin  or  sarcophagus.  Nume- 
rous other  tombs  are  fi>und  sepulchre  in  the  solid  rock ; 
and  it  is  supposed  that  they  were  excavated  during  the 
period  when  Cappadocia,  of  which  Aroaaia  was  the  capital, 
Vras  a  province  or  Persia  under  Darius  Hydaspes. 

We  cannot  stop  longer  at  these  ruins,  but  must  proceed 
westward  to  the  pass  of  Drekler^Daugh,  in  the  direct  route 
to  Constantinople.  A  spur  of  the  rocx  terminates  In  a  bold 
perpendicular  cliff  twelve  hundred  feet  high,  at  the  foot  of 
which  a  rapid  stream  runs ;  and  midway  in  air,  across  the 
&ce  of  this  rock,  and  at  a  height  of  about  five  hundred  feet 
above  the  torrent,  a  pathway  has  been  cut.  This  path  is 
about  ten  Ibet  broad,  with  a  veiy  low  and  precarious  para- 
pet at  the  outer  edge.  This  path  is  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  lon^,  with  a  steep  declivity  at  each  end.  Along  such 
a  path  did  filr.  Fraser  travel  in  the  depth  of  winter,  when 
every  spot  of  rock  was  covered  with  slippery  ice,  and  the 
cold  so  intense  as  almost  to  benumb  the  fiiculties.  Hum- 
boldt passed  over  much  higher  and  narrower  mountain 
passes  ;  but  he  had  not,  except  in  some  few  cases,  to  conduct 
Lis  mules  over  a  solid  icy  path.  Immediately  after  passing 
tiiia  rock,  Mr.  Fraser  traversed  another  still  more  awful,  as 
may  be  judged  fiiom  the  following  vivid  description : — ^"Our 
approach  to  it  seemed  to  be  through  the  very  oowels  of  the 
mountain,  in  the  bed  of  a  furious  torrent,*where  no  man 
could  have  imagined  a  path  to  have  existed;  and  from 
which,  turning  up  a  narrow  fissure,  we  scrambled  on  in  tiie 
darkness,  (it  was  nine  o'clock  on  a  winter's  night!)  leav- 
ing all  to  the  instinct  of  our  horses,  till  we  emerged  far 
above,  upon  the  very  brink  of  a  black  abyss,  along  which 
we  still  continued  ascending  by  a  narrow  rocky  zig-zag  path, 
paved  here  and  there,  but  witnout  any  parapets,  mr  a  height 
of,  I  suppose,  six  or  seven  hundred  feet.  It  was  a  frightful 
tag.  You  must  know  that  the  Turks  do  not  /ftMf,  or 
sharpen  their  horsei^  shoes,  as  we  do,  to  keep  them  fit)m 
slipping  on  the  ice,  and  here  all  was  ice  and  melting  snow ; 
and  the  track  was  on  the  very  verge  of  the  Inrecipice;  there 
was  no  getting  off  to  lead  the  horses,  or  walk :  we  did  not 
even  dare  to  stop.  It  was  neck  or  nothing ;  a  breathless 
scramble  ^ip-up ;  often  holding  on  by  the  mane  to  keep  from 
slipping  off  beAmd.  Nothing  but  the  conviction  of  this  and 
of  my  own  belDlesmess,  embarrassed  with  great  boots  glued 
to  the  stirrups  Vf  ^»  ^^^  <>^ur  heavy  cloaks  frozen  as  rigid 
as  a  boud  in  their  folds,  could  have  kept  me  in  the  sadcUe. 
The  descent  was  not  so  long,  but  fully  as  dangerous,  and 
even  more  horrible ;  for  there  you  were  constantly  looking 
down  into  the  black  yawning  gulf,  from  whence  the  fiff-off 
sound  of  the  winter  torrent  came  roaring  up  in  fits  as  the 
wind  sighed  down  the  glen. 

How  different  are  our  impressions  of  scenery  according  to 
the  season  when  we  view  it!  That  which  is  all  lovely  and 
attractive  when  clothed  in  sraing  garments,  beeooMS  cheer* 
less  and  dull  in  winter.  W estwnd  of  the  mountain  pass 
which  we  have  just  described  are  the  valley  and  town  of 
To*na,  which  Mr.  Frazer  traversed  twice  dving  his  Tatar 
journey,  going  and  retunng.  On.  one  oeoasion,  all  was 
ioe-bouiid,  eoul,  and  diMsy,  aad  his  ibevghts  were  only 
directed  to  his  onward  pwywii.  On  the  other  oooaskxii 
he  was  cnraptuied  witk  t£»  haaaty  of  th#  vAUeyv  ^ 
q>lendid  enkivatioii,  ka  green  pSetttMma  Wi»  and  Hi 
multitude  of  wateit.  The  — ighbonyfaaoa  of  tlw  town  waa 
laid  out  into  little  fields  and  paddocks,  intowpefSDd  with 
<yrcliards  and  gardens,  divided  by  walls  and  hedges;  the  first 
built  of  mud  and  thatched,  and  partly  overgrown  with  herb- 
age ;  the  latter,  formed  of  barbary  bushes  and  other  thorns^ 
with  pollard  elms,  oaks,  and  willows.  In  the  town  too,  all 
looked  attractive ;  the  mosques  and  many  of  the  houses  con- 
atnieted  of  stone,  and  lisinff  one  above  another  in  irregular 
groups  and  terrocee,  ahowM  to  mnch  adTanlage. 


Near  about  this  part  of  the  country  the  traveller  frequently 
meeta  with  Angora  goats,  so  well  known  in  Europe  for 
their  white  and  silvery  coats.  The  town  from  which  they 
take  their  name  is  situated  about  fifty  miles  southward  of 
the  direct  path  which  we  are  folio wii^ ;  but  many  of  the 
valleys  ana  villages  all  around  Angora  display  larse  numbei:s 
of  these  goats,  the  sides  of  the  mountains  affording  a  rich 
pasture  for  them,  and  the  viUa^pers  being  employed  in  dress- 
ing and  weaving  hair.  Around  this  district,  too,  are  many 
kinds  of  manuficicture,  carried  on,  it  is  true,  in  a  very  pri- 
mitive manner,  and  to  a  small  extent;  but  still  it  is  plea- 
sant to  have  a  req»ite  from  the  details  of  oriental  turbulence, 
and  to  hear  of  industry  and  its  effect.  At  a  pretty  little 
town  called  Chirkiss,  the  inhabitants  are  celebrated  for  the 
bread  and  the  honey  which  they  produce,  and  which  are 
regarded  as  great  luxuries  by  the  travellers  who  pass  that 
way.  At  another  small  town  called  Garidi,  are  manufac- 
tories of  copper  ut^isils,  and  others  for  tanning  and  stain^ 
ing  a  stout  and  durable  kind  of  leather.  Great  quantities 
of  this  leather  are  sent  to  Constantinople  to  be  made  up 
into  boots  and  saddle-bags. 

While  travelling  over  the  open  country  in  the  neigbour- 
hood  of  the  town  of  Boll,  Sir  B.  K.  Porter  witnessed  a 
scene  which  illustrates  the  wasteful  and  thoughtless  con- 
duct of  Asiatics.  The  wood-cutters  are  accustomed  to 
kindle  a  few  dried  branches  to  form  a  fire  for  their  nightly 
bivouac ;  and  this  object  once  served,  they  are  heedless  as  to 
the  consequence  of  leavine.the  wood  unextinguished,  parti- 
cularly if  the  wind  be  blowing.  Sir  Robert  found  the 
forest  on  fire,  the  flames  bursting  up  with  the  iqipearance « 
of  volcanic  eruptions,  and  producing  a  scene  of  horrid 
sublimity  by  tnrowing  a  red  light  over  distant  objects. 
The  wind  was  roaring  amongst  the  adjoining  woods  with  a 
noise  like  the  sea  in  a  storm,  and  increased  the  impressive 
effect  on  the  senses  of  the  spectator* 

Boll  is  the  iancient  HadnanopoUs,  The  modem  town  is 
a  poor  place,  consisting  of  about  a  thousand  houses,  chiefly 
innabited  by  Turks.  There  are  a  few  Armenians,  but  no 
Greeks,  altnough  the  villages  in  the  vicinity  are  filled  with 
them.  It  is  the  residence  of  a  pasha  of  two  tails.  The 
plain,  at  the  extremity  of  which  it  stands,  is  rich  and  fertile. 
About  four  miles  to  tne  south-east  of  the  town,  at  a  viliaffo 
called  Valajah,  are  some  mineral  baths,  to  which  the  Turks 
resort  in  Jfreat  numb«*s.  There  is  nothing  else  remarkable 
in  the  neighbourhood. 

We  are  now  approachins^  rapidly  towards  Constantinople, 
and  find  the  towns  and  villages  losing  much  of  their  rude 
character.  Ismit,  or  Is  Nickmid,  is  the  ancient  town  of 
Nicomedia,  and  has  always  been  a  place  of  some  importance. 
It  was  an  early  residence  of  the  kings  of  Bithynia ;  but  its 
highest  ereatness  began  under  Diocletian,  who  made  it  the 
metropolis  of  the  Roman  empire ;  the  wealth  of  which  he 
lavished  in  raising  it  at  once  to  a  rivalry  with  Rome.  In 
this  character  it  was  soon  supplanted  by  Constantinc^le, 
and  many  of  its  ornaments  were  probalJly  canied  off  to 
embellish  this  new  residence.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city 
are  still  visible ;  but  very  few  Europeans  have  visited  them  for 
tho  purposes  of  study.  The  present  appearance  of  the  town 
is  highly  picturesque;  with  its  curious  old  tenements,  rising 
high  as  they  do  from  the  very  shore  of  the  gulf,  up  to  the 
side  of  a  steep  mountain,  in  terraces,  ridges,  and  ravines,  all 
surrounded  by  vineyards  and  orchards,  and  interspersed  here 
and  there  by  picturesque  burial-grounds,  planted  as  usual 
with  C3rpress  trees. 

At  length  we  reach  Scutari,  the  sea-port  town  immedi- 
ately opposite  Constantinople.  In  any  other  situation  Scu- 
tari would  rank  as  an  important  city,  out  standii^  as  it  does 
in  the  vicinity  of  Constantinople,  it  is  considerea  merely  a 
suburb  to  that  great  city.  It  stands  on  the  Asiatic  side,  in 
a  beautiful  and  cuHivated  plain,  and  presents  a  picturesque 
eppeanmce  from  the  mixture  of  trees  and  minarets.  It  car- 
ries on  a  very  cbnsidetable  csaravan  trade  with  the  interior 
of  Asia*  A  great  forest  near  it  contains  the  moat  splendid 
oswetvy  of  the  empire,  as  an  the  grandees  of  Constantinople 
flsek  to  depomt  tiieir  remains  in  Asia,  which  they  consider 
as  a  BjBly  Land,  m  tha  pownssion  of  true  believers,  while 
Europe  is  alvM*!  entirely  ^  prey  of  *Hhe  infidel."  In  this 
yicimty  is  siinatod  the  castle  of  the  seven  towers,  used  by 
government  as  a  state-prison.  And  here  we  must  beg  the 
reader  to  consider  for  a  moment  the  remarkable  position  of 
Constantinople.  It  is  at  the  very  extremity  of  Euro]^ ; 
but  it  is  essentially  an  Asiatic  city ;  and  its  position,  in  a 
commercial  point  of  view,  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
North-east  of  Constantinople  is  the  Black  Sea,  south-west 
u  the  Smi  of  Ifamova;  and  the  two  are  connected  only  by 


iSd 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


a  nuTOw  neclc  of  wb  called  the  Stndts  of  Conatantinople, 
or  the  BoniliorouB.  The  sea  of  Hannoia  aMin,  is  connected 
with  the  Mediterranean,  still  fiirther  to  the  south-weEt,— 
only  W  the  nanttw  strait  called  the  Dardanellea,  anciently 
the  Hellespont.  Hence  Constantinople  commands  the 
whole  intercourse  between  the  Heditemuean  and  the  Block 
Sea,  with  the  noble  riven  flowiug- into  the  latter,  Buch  as  the 
Danube,  the  Dniester,  the  Dnieper,  and  the  Don ;  hence  the 
importaiice  of  Constantinople  as  the  capital  of  the  East«ni 
empire  and  afterwards  of  the  Ottoman  empire;  and  hence 
the  anxiety  of  tlie  cabinets  of  Europe  at  the  present  mo- 
ment rnmecting  the  future  fate  and  poweBaorship  of  that 
city.  To  the  east  and  south  of  Constantinople  is  the 
laige  and  beautiM  country  of  A^a  Minor,  through  which 
we  hare  jnst  condncted  the  reader,  and  the  whole  of  which 
is  possessed  bv  Turkey ;  north-weat  is  the  lat^  country  of 
£hiropean  Turkey  ;  and  south-west,  after  passmg  through 
the  sea  of  Hormora,  is  the  Levant  or  Archipelago,  a  lai^ 
bay  stretching  northward  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  sep». 
tating  Greece  from  Asia  Minor,  studded,  too,  with  nameroiis 
islands.  Whenever  our  readers  meet  in  the  public  journals 
with  a  notice  of  political  or  diplomatic  occurrences  between 
the  Tariona  European  powers  at  Constantinople,  it  may  be 
uaeful  to  remember  tnat  this  Archipelago,  or  cluster  of 
small  islands,  aa  well  as  the  Dardanelles  and  the  Sea  of 
Uarmora,  must  be  traversed  before  communication  of  a 
maritime  nature  can  be  held  with  Constantinople.  He  will 
also  be  able  to  form  some  idea,  especially  with  a  m^  before 
him,  of  the  reason  why  so  great  unportance  is  attached  by 
-these  pawera  to  the  Dardanelles.  Tliis  narrow  strait  ia,  in 
fact,  the  key  to  Constantinople  and  the  Black  Sea. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  our  First  Route  we  con- 
ducted the  reader  to  Astrakhan  in  the  Caq>ian  Sea,  and  there 
dismissed  in  a  few  words  the  remaining  port  of  the  journey 
through  Snaaia.  We  shall  foUow  a  somewhat  similar  plan 
on  the  preaeht  ocea^on,  for  the  following  reasons.  We  hope 
ihorUy  to  accompany  our  readers  in  a  steam  voyage  down 
the  Innnbe,  through  the  Austrian  and  Turkish  Empires ; 
and  have  also  in  hand  a  course  of  p^>era  on  Turkey  and  the 
Turkish  provinoea.  These  will  collectively  afford  a  tolera- 
bly clear  mmght  into  Turkish  topogr^hy,  and  thus  save  the 
necessity  of  treading  that  ground  on  the  present  occauon. 
With  r^ard  to  Constantinople  itself;  Its  mosques  and 
baxaais;  its  seraglio ;  its  oriental  castoms  and  peculiarities ; 
here  are  abundant  materials  for  two  or  three  of  our  num- 
bers, and  must  therefore  be  passed  over  here.  A  ft  w  gene- 
nl  remarks,  then,  will  conclude  our  present  route. 

English  travellers  proceeding  from  Persia  to  England,  by 
way  of  Constantinople,  pursue  different  routes  after  leaving 


that  city.  Lieut  Lnnuden,  in  1820,  retained  }>y  wtj  ol  | 
Odessa  on  tho  Black  Sea,  Lemberg,  Ctacow,  Vienna,  Hunid, 
Switzerland,  end  France,  to  England.  Sir  Jamea  Alexm- 
iler,  in  1B2C,  passed  through  ConBtantinople,  Shuniia,  But- 
hareat,  Viemiv,  Frankfurt,  and  so  through  Belgium  to  In- 
land. Mr.  Fraser,  in  183J,  after  leaving  Con9taiitiiio|ik, 
come  by  way  of  Adriaiiople,  through  Bulgaria  and  Senii 
into  Austria,  and  thence  through  Belgium  to  EngUnd. 

Let  us  endeavour  to  determine  the  number  of  miles  am 
which  our  journey  has  carried  us.  When  a  tiaveller  is  pn- 
ceeding  with  great  rapidityon  horseback,  through  countnti 
where  lie  knows  not  how  soon  he  may  be  attacked  b/dtpn- 
dators,  where  he  lias  to  traverse  mountain  and  valley,  fortil 
and  plmn,  where  he  meets  with  few  inns,  and  thiceft* 
badly  provisioned,  where  scientific  inatrnments  sod  Uoti 
must  be  dispensed  with,  and  where  nothing  analogoni  to  u 
English  coach-road  exists, — we  cannot  look  for  a  veiy  vai- 
rate  measurement  of  road  gone  over,  and  must  not  bt  mr- 
priaed  if  the  eetimataa  of  different  tiavellen  are  Eomnliil 
at  variance.  In  such  a  case  we  may  take  a  mean  betveei 
the  estimates  aa  the  nearest  approach  we  can  make  to  cur- 


Lieutenant  Lumadea  eatimates  the  journey  by  aes  fram 
Bombay  to  Muskat,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Pamn  Gulf, 
1Z80  nules ;  from  Muakat  to  Bushiro  400 ;  from  Boshire  to 


estimates  the  last  four  distances,  respectively,  at  about  130, 
280,  6e0,  and  160.  As  Sir  James  took  a  somewhat  cimuiQu 
route  in  some  parte,  we  may  perhaps  estimate  Uie  disUna 
from  Bnshire  to  Mount  Ararat  at  about  eleven  huDdred 
miles,  or  from  Bombay  two  thousand  eight  hundred.  Frum 
this  point  to  Constantinople,  along  the  northern  port  of 
Asia  Minor,  is  estimated  by  Sir  J.  Alexaitder  at  aboot  tbi^ 
teen  hundred  miles,  and  by  Sir  R.  Porter  at  about  (weUe 
hundred ;  taking  the  latter,  we  have  fbur  thooeand  nilet 
from  Constantinople  to  Bombay.  Neither  Porter,  Alei- 
onder,  nor  Fraser,  gives  an  itinerary  from  Constantinople 
to  London,  but  Lieutenant  Lumsden  estinuites  the  dlMuiix 
from  Odessa  on  the  Black  Sea,  through  Russia,  Auslria, 
Bavaria,  and  Ftaace,  to  London,  at  about  seventcm  hun- 
dred miles.  The  route  here  taken  is  probably  two  hunind 
miles  longer  than  the  usual  route  fi-om  Constantinople  tw 
Vienna  and  the  Netherlands,  to  London. 

We  may  therefore  perliaps  estimate  the  distance  bom 
Bombay  to  Loudon,  by  our  present  overland  route,  by  w.i)' 
of  Buahire,  Sliiraz,  I^ahan,  Tabriz,  Mount  Ararat,  T-nf- 
roum,  Constantinople,  and  Vienna,  at  somen  here  aliuul  !;■ 
thousand  five  hundred  miles. 


PAnrr  of  koobm 'fixEBcniHo, 


LOSDOW ;  FMiOM  bj  JOHN  W.  PARKER,  Wasi  Sia^B,  aad»U  by  .11  BooImJI^. 


THE  SATtJRDAt  MAGAZINE. 


[Apbh  t, 


tiTII-ECOATESi  wfLtS. 

We  £ave  again  tfi«  pleasure  of  presenting  to  ^r  readers 
a  cut  from  one  df  the  tieautilul  prints  in  Mr.,  I^sah't 
Matuiona  of  England  tn  tht  Olden  Timi,  representing 
one  of  those  ricn  interiors  which  form  such    sttiKing 

features  In  thnt  work 

The  Mall  represented  in  our  frontispiece  forms  psjt  of 
the  mansion  of  LiUtecnl,  or  Litt/ecoaitt,  the  residence 
of  General  Popham;  and  is  situated  partly  in  the  pariah 
of  Chilton- Foliot,  and  partly  in  that  of  'ftanubury, 
Wiltshire.  The  house  was  erected  in  the  early  part  of 
the  Bixtafnlh  century,  by  the  family  of  the  DuTelatand 
was  iome  years  afternards,  sold  to  Sir  John  PQpham, 
Chirf  Justice  if  the  Coirt  of  King's  Bench  in  the 
reign;  of  Queen  fiU^aheth  tiii  King  Jaines  the  First. 
The, family  of  tlie  Pophams  was  very  arident,  and  of 
grea^.  note..,  They  were  first  raised  to  the  rank  of 
nobiliU'  (>y  ss  Matilda  and  her  sou  Henry  the 

Second. ,  C  in  was  styledi  on  account  of  the 

office^  he  Gl  imceUr  of  Normandy,  Capitaine  of 

Vernb^le,  ol  of  Susan,  and  Bayon,  Tresoror  of 

the  jK^ing's  L"  -  His  body  wu  buried  in  the 

Chvter-Hcus^Churchi  London;  aiid  his  effigy  was  fixed 
over  the  3ooj;  jf  bC  Scjiulchre's  Church,  he  having  con- 
tributed '^gjjBuroft  towards  |its  erection,  He^is  said  by 
Leiand  to  have  len ''  a  yerj  great  treasure^  in  strange 
coynes."  Sif  John  Popliain,  the  chief  Justice  to  whose 
hinds  Littlecoates  passed,  was  among  the  most  eminent 
branches  of  the  famSy,  having  adorned  his  high  station 
equally  by  his  ability  and  hfa  integrity.  The  descendants 
Qf  this  gentleman,  in  tl^  male  line,  inherited  the 
mansion  till  the  beginning  of  the  Present  century,  when 
it  passed  by^  will  to  General  Edward  Leyboume,  who 
thereupon  assumed  itte  name  of  Popham.  In  the  family 
of  this  gentleman,We  believe  the  estate  still  remains. 

The  mansion  of  Littlecpaj^s  was  built,  as  has  been 
remarked,  "  about  the  time  of  the  termination  of  feudal 
war&re,  ,when  defence  carne  no  longer  to  be  an  object  in 
s  country  ^^a^9i^Ml,''  I'he  pari  in  which  it  is  situated 
comprises  ah  area  of  aboyt  four  acres  in  extent,  and  Is 
adorned  mth  groups  of  heautijUl  trees.  On  one  side  of 
it  rises  a  lofty  hill,  crowned  witli  wood,  and  forming  a 
fine  contrast  with  the  luxuriant  and  level  meadows  spread 
along  the  banks  of  th^  river  Kennet;  a  branch  of  which 
river  runf  through  the  garden,  and  there  constitutes  a 
preserve  for  fi^h. 

Considerable  al^r^^n^have  been  made  in  the  exterior 
of  tba^iqansion,  i^  modern  tiroes;  but  the  interior  pre- 
sents many  of  the  features  which  it, exhibited  two  or 
three  centuries  agol  tin  the  first  floor  of  the  building  is 
a  noble  picture  gallery,  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  long, 
and  hung  with  many  curious  portraits,  painted  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seyenteeritb  centuries;  among  which  ia 
one  of  Ch^ef  justice  Ppphajn,  and  one  of  Nell  Gwynne, 
bjr  Vewiist.  There  is  also  preserved  here  a  curious 
piece  of  Deedlew^rl(|  r^resenting  a  large  Roman  tessa- 
lated  pgvement,  which  wa^  discovered  m  the  adjoining 
park  by  Mr.  Gegrge,^  steward  to  the  estate,  in  1728. 
The  Society  of  Antiq^uaries  caused  a  plate  of  it  to  be 
enftraved  by  Vertue,  aiid  a  description  to  be  vrritten  by 
FrofesBor  Ward.  This  pavement  measured  about  fbcty 
feet  by  t^rty-three,  and  ^  seems  to  have  formed  the  floor 
of  a  temple,  ti  consiste'd  of  two  divisions,,  (he  templum 
and  sacrafjutQi  antiwermg  to  the  nave  a!nd  chaiicet  of 
our  churches.  The,  templum,  or  outer  pfrt,  which 
was  nearltr  square^  was  ornamented  with  a  comput; 
ment  of  figures  inlaid,  in  tBe  centre  of  which  was 
a  large  tw,o  bandied  cup,  supported  by  two  sea-monsters 
with  fishes  tails,  and  behind  each  a  dolphin  uid  two 
conchte,  or  shell-fiah,  probably  in  allusion  ia_  Neptune,' 
Opposite  was  a  border,  with  a  similar  cup,  supported  by 
two  tigers.  The  floor  of  the  sacrarinm  was  a  square, 
enclosing  a  circle.  Within  this  circle  was  a  smaller  one, 
in  which  was  a  figure  of  Apollo  playing  on  the  harp; 


and  in  four  inrrotindSg  compaitoentsi;  four  fptuie 
figure  rept^senUng  the  Seasoi^,  riding  k\  m  syecd 
One  was  exhibiled  bolting  a  flower  In  Ket  hand,  and 
seated  on  a  deer,  to  represent  Spring;  the  sncnd 
appeared  seated  on  ■  panther,  and  holding  a  iwan,  at  u 
emblem  of  Summer;  the  third,  who  rested  her  um  odi 
branch  of  a  Tine,  rode  on  a  bull,  and  personified  Autunm; 
and  the  fbarth,  seated  on  a  goat,  without  anythbg  bhet 
band,  denoted  the  barrenness  of  Winter.  Exterior  to  ihi 
circle  enclosing  these  figures  were  three  compartio»nl«i 
each  displaying  a  foce  of  the  sun,  emitting  bright  aad 
extended  rays  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle ;  many  am- 
jectures  have  been  offered  respecting  the  nature  and  pur- 
port of  this  remarkable  specimen  of  ancient  art;  but  w* 
need  not  dwell  on  them  bere. 

We  hare  said  that  the  piece  of  tapestry,  or  needle»oil, 

3 resenting  this  pavement,  is  preserved  in  thp  1dt>; 
lery  ou  Die  first  story.  On  tne  ground  fioor  is  in 
apartment  still  inore  attractive  as  a  relic  or  menoriil  of 
Id  times;  we  mean  the  Great  Hall,  represented  in  odf 
frontispiece.  This  ball  is  very  spacious,  paved  nidi 
■tone,  and  lighte<l  by  large  and  very  Ioi\y  windoni.  It 
measures  forty-six  feet  in  length,  twentv-four  in  nidib, 
and  twentj^-five  ui  height ;  and  its  wallj  are  hung  nitli  | 
numerous  relics  of  ancient  armour,  such  as  coati  of 
mail,  helmets,  cross-bows,  old-fashioned  pialols,  csrbiiKii 
leather  jerkins,  and  other  defensive  and  offensive  3ccouIn> 
ments.  Here  b  also  a  pair  of  elk's  horns,  raeasuri'ig 
seven  feet  six  inches  ftom  tip  to  tip.  "the  old  furDilure 
of  the  room  is  preserved  nearly  ia  the  s^e.Btale  as  il 
was  in  by-gone  days,  and  Mr.  Nash  has  nrbscnted  tlfa 
with  his  accustomed  fidelity.  Amon^  tnese  articles  rf 
furniture  is  an  old  arm-chair,  said  to  have  been  used 
by  Chief  Justice  Popbam ;  it  is  constructed  of  "ood, 
curiously  turned,  and  has  a  very  lofty  back,  and  i  iri' 
angular  seat.  The  centre  of  the  hall  is  occupied  bv  i 
large  oai  table,  reaching  nearly  from  one  eilremitvUi 
the  other.  This  table  probably  formed  the  bospiiable 
board  on  which  in  days  of  yore,  the  vassals  wereftisltd 
by  their  lord.  Mr.  Nash,  however,  has  represented  ibit 
table  as  b«ing  the  scene  oif  the  game  of  "  shovel-to^Td,'' 
a  favourite  pastime  among  the  higher  classes  in  tb«  tiix 
of  Charles  the  Second;  and  it  appears  not  unlikely  tbi> 
the  same  table  might  serve  both  purposes. 

As  the  game  here  alluded  to  is  now  quite  osbolete,  lb 
reader  may  not  deem  a  few  remarks  concerning  it  •"P*'" 
fiuouB.  Shovel-bnard  was  an  inferior  kjnd  of  billiards. 
in  which  a  small  object  was  struck  or  thrown,  so  as  »  ■ 
pass  to  a  particular  part  of  the  table.  Strutt  remarks, 
that  the  residences  of  the  nobility,  or  the  mansions  of 
the  opulent  were  not  thought  to  be  complete  wiltoui  a 
shovel-board  table ;  and  this  ftsbionable  piece  of  furaiii";' 
was  usually  statianed  in  the  great  hall.  Dr.  Flott,  id  bi' 
History  of"  Slajvrdihire,  says: — 

Itis  remarkable  that  in  the  hall  at  Chartley.tiieiix/^ 
board  table,  [it  appears  to  have  been  spelt  both  wajSiJ 
thpugh  ten  yards  one  foot  and  an  inch  long,  is  nuule  Dp  <'' 
awtut  two  hundred  and  Axty  pieces,  which  are  P"*™'! 
about  eighteen  inches  long,  soine  few  only  excepted,  ''"' 
are  scarce  a  foot ;  which,  being  laid  on  longer  boaids  ii* 
mpport  midemeath,  are  so  accurately  jbyned  and  gle"*^ 
together,  that  no  ahuffla-board  whatever  ts  freer  from  "'• 
or  castings.  Tbere  is  a  icynt  also  in  the  shufBe-boud  u 
Made!/  Manor  exquisitew  wdl  donel 

The  general  width  rf  theae  tables  is  about  three  feA 
and  the  sur&ce  is  as  level  and  smooth  as  it  can  be  made- 
The  player  stands  at  one  end  of  the  table,  and  near  IM 
other  end  is  a  maii  which  determines  the  success  of  lb* 
player.  This  marlt  or  line  is  drawn  across  the  table  at ' 
Sstanco  of  three  or  four  inches  from  the  end,  wbicb  e"* 
is,  unprovided  with  any  ledge  or  stay,  and  at  about  i"^ 
&t  i&'taiioe  frwn  ^s  mark  or  line  anoflier  is  i""J; 
parallel  to  iL  The  toys  with  which  the  game  ii  pl>.^ 
are  flat  metal  weights,  of  which  each  player  has  w"' 
Each  one  in  turn  impels  a  weight  from  tbe^iesr  to  "^ 
remote  end  (rf  the  table;  and  hu  object  Sio  vat  luco 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


m 


degree  of  force  at  sball  lodge  the  weight  in  the  narrow 
space  betwe^'  the  farthest  mark  uid  t«e  remote  (Md  of 
the  table.  If  the  force  is  too  weik  to  oaitv  the  weight 
beyond  the  nearest  line,  or  if  it  is  sopoMrnil  as  to  drive 
the  weight  off  the  table  at  the  other  end »  it  counts  for 
nothing;  if  the  weight  rMts  on  the  farthest  line,  or  in 
any  part  of  the  space  between  the  two  lines,  the  player 
counts  one:  if  it  rests  in  the  space  between  the  farthest 
line  and  the  edge  of  the  iable,  he  reckons  twtf;  and 
finally,  if  it  peaches  the  edge  So  exlietly  as  to  indine 
a  little  over  without  falling,  it  is  deemedihe  fi&est  kind 
of  plav,  and  ooants  as  threob  Each  person  plays  in'tnm ; 
and  when  two  ontt  are'playin|f,  eleven  is  *'game;"  but 
when  four  play,  the  number  to  form  game  is  higher. 

Such  was  a  feyourite  indoor  amusement  tVo  or  three 
centuries  ago;  and  though  far  inferior  to  Billiifrdt,  it 
required  some  skill  to  attain  success  at  it.  In  one  of  the 
Harleian  IV^anuscripts  is  a  passage  which  introduces  us  to 
Prince  Henry,  son  of  King  James' the  First,  playing  at 
this  game:— ^ 

Once  when  the  prince  wasphmng  at  shoffle-board,  and  in 
his  pTay  changed  sundry  pieces,  his  tutor  being  desirous  thift 
eren  in  ti-lfles  he  should  hot 'be  new-fangled,  said  to  him, 
that  he  did  ill  to  change  so  oft;  and' therewith  took  8  piece 
In  his  hand,  and  saving  that  -he  would  play  ^elT  enough 
therewith  without  changeing,  threw  tiii  piece  oik' tiie  bbard  j 
yet  not  see  wdl,  but  the  prince,  smiieiiig  thereat,  8iid,'^Weli 
throwne,  sir*  Wh^retpon,  Master  Nevrton  telHnghiiar  tfaoit 
he  would  not  strive  with  a  prince  at  shoffleboard,  he  ansW^e^, 
You  gownsmen  should  be  best  at  such  exercises,  being  not 
nieete  for  those  that  are  more  stirrings  Yes,  qiioth  l&ster 
Newton,  I  am  meete  for  whipping  of  ooyes.  And  hereupon 
the  prince  answered.  You  need  not  vaunt  of  that  wtifc-h  a 
plou^man  or  cart*driver  can  doe  better  tihan  you.  Yet 
QUI  I  doe  more,  said  Master  Newton,  fbr  I  cim  ^veme 
foolish  children.  The  prince  respectinff  him,  even  tn  jestinff, 
came  from  the  further  end  of  tne  table^  and  sBijHng  said, 
while  he  passe^y  hira,  Hee  had  need  be  a  wise  man  him* 
self  that  cbulcf  dice  that.  *     ' 


AFTUOT^q^ 

As  a  traveller,  who  harinff  Just  escaped  the  fury  of  a  Uon, 
eucmmteTS  hnmediateW^  afterwards  an  angiy  bear. 

And  who,  ddtvered  from  his  new  peril,  and  thankfully  reach- 
ing^ his  own  gate,  ' 

Should  no  sooner  rest  his  hand  npon  the  wall,  than  a  serpent 
shonid  dart  forth  from  it,  and  bite  him, 

80  does  one  affliction  after  another  tie  in  wait  for  me ; 

And  the'Mcst  tbit  I  ftU  into  alws^  seems  t^  most  griavcns 
to  endure. ' 

St.  Oacooar;  Book  of  ihs  Fathtrt. 


Tai;  most  Imposing  object  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  the 
solemn  foresL  Single  trees  on  a  plain,  or  a  sufficient  number 
to  form  a  grove,  are  objects  of  beauty,  and  consequently  of 
pleasure.  The  dark,  close  forest  carries  the  mind  back 
through  an  indefinite  lapse  of  time,  and  conveys  to  it  a 
eenttment  of  the  actual  presence  of  tne  work  of  the  Creator, 
as  it  came  from  his  hand  nnchanged  by  any  act  of  man. 

With  this  seeming  stamp  of  originality  on  it,  yet  tiie 
long-endoring  forest  which  apnears  ever  the  same,  is  silently 
and  houriy  submitting  to  the  laws  of  Nature,  ever  varyiii 
and  changing ;  and  though  iijfe  among  its  membon^  like  lite 
among  the  members  of  the  humaii  mmily,  has  its  limits, 
and  within  some  definite  term  not  one  of  all  that  are  seen 
will  remain,  yet  it  is  still  the  same  forest  to  the  human  eye. 
From  the  most  deep-rooted  and  long-enduring  of  this  YBBi 
asetemhly,  down  to  the  many  perfect  vegetables  which  are 
iarisible  to  the  naked  eye,  tnere  are  general  laws  of  begin- 
ninir,  continuing,  and  ending  the  term  of  life. 

Yet,  between  these  extremes  there  are  manv  genera,  or 
kinds,  capable  of  precise  and  well-understood  classification. 
Aniong  these  classes  each  has  its  own  order  of  bein^ ;  and 
th(sc  are  again  subdivided,  and  known  by  distinctions  of 
form,  internal  structure,  and  in  folifu^,  in  m>wer8.1n'frul^ 
ill  jnices,  and  fragrance.    Each  of  -tfiem  tfe4m% toTiu  "''* 


HYPOpHQNpjlIACISM. 


Of  the  miseries  the  hypochondriac  expepenfes,  the  fol- 
lowing extract  of  a  lettei:  to  a 'physician,  wul  afford  a 
specimen: — "My  popr  borf^  is  a  burning  furnace,  my 
nerves  red-hot  coals,  Ay  blooJf  is  boiling  oil;  all  sleep 
has  fled,  and  I  am  suffentfg  iEiluiyrdom.  I  am  in  agony 
when  I  lie  on  my  back;  TcApiSpt  lie  on  either  side;  and 
I  endure  excruciating  tPTttirfe  Vhen  I  seek  relief  by 
lying  on  my  stomachy  and,  to  add  to  my  misery,  I  can 
neither  sit,  stand,  nor  walk."  Tlie  fancies  of  hjrpochou- 
driacs  are  frequently  of  the  most  extraordinary  nature; 
one  patient  ima^nes  that'he  is  in  such  a  state  of  obesity 
as  to  prevent  his  passing  through  the  door  of  his  chamber 
or  his  house;  anotiier  impressed  with  the  idea  that  he  is 
made  of  glass,  will'iiot  sit  dbwn  for  V(^ar  of  cracking;  a 
third  seems  convinced  that  his  head  is  empty;  and  an 
intelligent  American,  holding  a  Wh  judicial  seat  in  our 
West  Indian  colonies,  could  not  divest  himself  of  the 
occasional  conviction  of  his  being  transformed  into  a 
turtle. 

The  most  melancholy  record  of  the  miseries  of  hvpo- 
chondriadsm  is  to  be  found  in  the  di^  of  Dr.  Wafder- 
stein  of  Gottingen.  '  He  was  a  ndah  knuch  deformed  in 
person,  and  his  mind  seemed  as  dist&rted  as  his  body. 
Although  of  deep  learning  and  research,  and  con- 
vinced of  the  absnrdi^  of  ms  impressions,  yet  he  was 
unable  to  resist  their  mne&d  rnft^ence. 

My  misftrttme;  f  says  the  d(«Btor,)  is  that  I  never  exist  in 
this  world,  but-iatlierin'possible  combinations  created  by 
my  imagination  to  my  conscience.  Tl^qy.  occupy  a  laige 
portion  of  my  time,  and  my  reason  has  not  the  power  to 
iMmish  them.  The  malady,  in  fact,  is  the  faculty  of  extrsct- 
ing  poison  flKmyeverV  cimimstaneetnUfi^^  so  much  so  that 
I  often  felt  the'inost' wfeiched^'bMng,  becai^  1  nad  not  been 
able  to  sneecQ  ^hree  times  together.  Qne  night  when  I  was 
in  bed  I'falt  a  sudden  fear  of  fire,  and  gtsudSaXfy  beoune  as 
much  opprteed  by  innnnnary  heat  as  tmnfffa  njy  room  wers 
in  flamos.  While  fb  wis  sttuatidh,  a  fire^ell[  m  the  neigh- 
boui'hood'souxided,  and  added  to  my  Intense  sUfieringat  I 
do  not  blush  at  what  misfit*  he  c^led  superstition,  any 
more  tjian  I  should  bhish  m  ^knowledgiiigtbi^  mj  senses 
inform  me  that  the  earth  does  not  move.  Hy  crrqr  forms 
the  io€^6f  niy  judgment,  and  I  thank  God  Uiat  he  liiis 
given  it  k  soul  capable  of  correcting 'it.  When  1  have  been 
perfectly  free  from'  pain,  as  i^  i^ot  unfreijuentfy  the  case 
wiien  I  am'in  bed,  my  tense  of  this  happiness  has  broughf 
tean  of  gntitudeinmyeyes.'  I  once  dreamt,  (adidB^nd; 
dersteia,)  that  I  was  Condemned  to*  be  burnt  alive.  I  wa 
very  calm,  and  reasoned  coolly  durina  the  exertion  of  my 
Sentence.  '  Now  '  I  s^d  to  myself,  *  1  am  buming,  but  not 
yet  burnt ;  and  by-and-bv  1  shall  be  reduced  to  a  cinaer? 
this  was  all  I  thought,  and  I  did  nothiiu;  but  think.  When, 
upon  awakinff^  T  reflected  npon  my^  oream,  I  was  by  no 
metfis  pleased  with  it,  for  I  was  afraid  I  should  become  a^ 
thmghty  and  nofuUng. 

It  is  strange  that  this  fear  of  thought,  assuming  a 
corporeal  form  in  deep  affliction,  had  occurred  to  our  poet 
Rowe,  when  he  exclaims,  In  the  Foir  Penitent^ 

Turn  not  to  Thought  my  brain. 


that  Uie  whole  world  is  a  mere  machine,  expressly  formed 
to  make  me  feel  my  sufferings  in  every  possible  manner. 

What  a  fearfiil  srvowal  from  a  reflecting  and  intelligent 
man.  Does  it  not  illnstrals  Honsseaus  definition  of 
i^ason — ike  Icnowledg'e  of  ourfolfy. 

rMiLLXKOBif*s  CurioiUiei  of  Medical  Experiefut.l 

"•  ill  ,ii'iTn'i-'»'!«|'.i 

n"  '^*     '\^»  4.V<*i«'«^    Irilfi,') 
^JW/      fi'HU-.ll'nl      kljI'J*        .'irilMj     'ijlj     'it, 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Aprii,  t, 


ON  CHES§. 

TIL      CHUt-WBITZKI  AMD  FLATUI. 


And  B'<r  a*  nH  Ibiir  pauir  ■nr'™  **■" 
ODBMteBm  iHp,  m^MJealfy  (loir, 
Thn  gnnlir  nnai  md  dnn  tlw  dmg'niB  ft* 
ir  •■r  ter  odl;  te  wauUidtiMtcmmri^i— 
And  di*  irilh  i^on  if  Ih^  wn  Ifarir  li^ 
On  Um  Ilia  ^tacT  of  lb*  dif  dipoA : 


Thi  knowledge  of  the  game  of  chess  hu  been  ezten- 
nvelr  diffoted  for  nuny  eenturiea  put,  u  tna^  be  seen 
1)y  i£q  numerous  manuscripts  and  printed  treatises  which 
luTe  appeued  on  the  subject.  The  hitter  have  been 
mitten  in,  or  transla,ted  into,  nearly  all  the  European 
bnguages,  and  several  of  the  Oriental  ones ;  and  it  tattj 
perltiaps  prove  interesting  to  such  of  our  readers  as  hare 
not  met  vith  any  notice  of  these  woAs,  to  take  a  cursory 
slaaca  at  them,  and  at  the  playen  >iid  modes  of  play 
uiey  c(jebrale. 

As  early  as  the  commencement  of  the  ninth  century, 
the  game  of  chess  was  in  such  high  repute  in  the  East, 
that  Al  Amin,  Khalif  of  Bagdad,  is  said  to  have  com- 
manded  the  different  provinces  of  his  empire  to  send  to 
his  court  all  such  persons  as  were  the  most  expert  at 
chess,  to  whom  he  allowed  pen8tons>  and  passed  the 
most  considerable  part  of  his  time  among  them.  On 
one  occasion,  when  he  was  playing  at  ^ess  with  his 
freed-man  Euthar,  without  the  least  i^prehension  of  im- 
pending danger,  Al  Mamun's  forces  pushed  the  si^«  of 
Bagdad  with  so  much  vigour,  that  the  city  was  upon  the 
point  of  being  carried  by  assault.  On  being  warned  of 
his  danger,  Al  Amin  cried  out  "  Let  me  alone  I  for  I  see 
cneck-mate  against  Kuthar."  This  anecdote  is  quoted 
by  Dr.  Hyde  from  an  Arabic  history  of  the  Saracens. 
At  this  period  (about  the  year  608),  chess  was  not  un- 
known to  the  monarchs  of  the  West.  Charlemagne  is 
represented,  in  the  curious  and  ancient  French  romance 
called  GiMTin  </e  Sfonlglave,  as  being  exceedingly  fond 
of  the  game.  This  romance  was  sJluded  to  in  our 
Bittory  oftht  Origin  of  Chen,  and  the  anecdote  there 
Ijo^'^^''^'^^'"  — "  ^  ^''"  **'^  ^'^  emperor  to 

some  very  J^b  stake?'  "Done,"  repliedjSttWJi^J'.XislraJ 
play,  proqdeit'Mily  you  bet  against  me  Your  kingdom  of 


France."  "  Very  good,  let  us  see,"  said  Chsrlemagiu, 
who  fancied  himself  to  be  strong  at  chess.  They  plav 
forthwith,  Charlenuigne  loses  his  kingdom,  but  Ungb 
the  matter  off  as  a  joke.  Goerin,  however,  is  notdispcMed 
to  view  it  in  this  light,  and  swears  by  St.  Martin  and  ill 
the  Saints  of  Aquitaine  that  he  must  reoeive  awne  con- 
Tbe  emperor. then  gives  him. permission  to 


conquer  MontgUye  f  Lyon^  &om  the  Sancens,  aod  >ar> 
renders  to  Guerin  all  Ins  right  in  that  city. . 

Other  romances  of  that  period  contain  notices  of  th« 
game  of  chest,  and  it  is  in  fahuloos  histories  that  m 
get  the  first  mention  among  western  authors  of  thii 
celebrated  amusement.  There  is  nothing  to  induce  the 
supposition  that  at  this  time,  the  European  players  hid 
attuned  any  great  degree  of  skill  at  chess;  but  we  fisd 
mention  made  of  a  ^yer  at  TripoU,  in  Syria,  who  in 
the  year  970  was  famed  for  going  througa  the  game 
blind-fold.  This  man,  Jusuph  Tchelebi  by  name,  vu 
accustomed  to  use  very  large  chess-men,  and  to  pUynot 
by  naming  the  moves,  but  by  feeling  the  men,  and 
placing  them  in  the  squares  or  removing  them  from  tha 
board  as  occasion  required.  At  the  period  we  are  now 
speaking  of,  the  chess-table  seems  often  to  have  been 
the  scene  of  fierce  dispute,  and  violent  anger.  Two  ot 
three  fistal  a&ays  are  represented  by  the  French  ro- 
mancers to  have  taken  place,  in  consequence  of  the  ter- 
mination of  a  game  of  chess,  and  though  we  are  pie- 
pored  for  highly.coloured  pictures  in  works  of  thJi 
description,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  some  measure  of 
truth  is  to  be  found  in  such  recitals,  and  that  they  had 
their  foundation  in  the  customs  of  the  times.  In  a 
book  published  at  Stockholm  in  the  Icelandic  language, 
King  Canute,  so  celebrated  for  his  wisdom,  is  described 
as  resenting  very  deeply  a  provocation  received  at  chea«. 
The  passage  runs  thus : — 

As  King  Canute  and  Eaii  Ulf  were  playing  at  cbcM,  Iha 
Idiu  mode  •  Use  move^  in  consequence  of  which  the  esil 
took  one  of  his  knights;  but  the  kin^  would  not  allow  thi% 
and  nplacing  the  piece,  inusted  on  hu  playing  differcntlj. 
The  earl  waxed  angiy,  overturned  the  cheae-board,  and  wm 
Ming  away,  when  the  king  called  after  him,  sayinr  "Dl^ 
thoa  coward, dost  thon  fleet"  The  earl ntnmed to ttie docs', 
and  said, "  You  would  hare  token  a  lougar  flight  in  the  rini 
Helga,  bod  I  not  ran  to  your  oasstonce  when  the  SwedM 
beat  yon  like  a  doa;  you  did  not  then  call  me  Ulf  ths 
cowara."  The  eerl  then  retired,  and  the  next  moming  tbe 
king  ordered  him  to  be  killed. 

Of  the  fondness  of  the  Danei  fbr  cheoe  and  dice  we 
have  an  instance  in  the  &ct  that  when  Bishop  Etfaerie 
came  to  Canute  the  Great  on  important  business,  and 
entered  the  royal  presence  at  midnight,  he  found  the 
king  and  his  courtiers  busily  o^aged  at  tbese  gamei, 
even  at  an  hour  which  in  those  early  times  must  have 
been  considered  a  most  unseasonable  <aie  for  the  puiposet 


In  on  old  book,  called  the  Anatomy  tf  MetatuAolg, 
where  chess  is  recommended  as  "a  good  and  wittie 
exercise  of  the  mtnde  for  some  kinde  of  men ;  but  too 
troublesome,  too  fVill  of  anxiety,"  and  "all  but  as  bad  as 
study"  to  others,  it  is  given  as  an  iUustration  of  its  ten- 
deuCT  to  promote  a  testy  choleric  feeling  in  him  thit 
losetii  the  mate,  that  "  William  the  Conqueror  in  hi> 
younger  years  while  playing  at  chess  with  uie  prince  of 
France,  lost  a  mate,  and  was  so  provoked  thereat,  that 
he  knocked  the  chess-board  about  his  adversary's  psic, 
which  was  a  cause  afterwards  of  much  enmity  between 
them."  The  chess  contest  seems  to  have  been  afterwards 
carried  on  in  much  the  same  spirit  between  their  soos, 
for  we  find  that  towards  the  close  of  William's  reigo 
(1087),  he  appointed  his  two  sons,  Robert  and  Henry, 
joint  governors  of  Normandy,  and  these  going  t<^tlii:t' 
to  visit  the  French  king  were  entertained  with  a  variety 
f>i^,fW^t,,  Henry  clayed  with  the  Dauphin  (LouJ9  le 
f«e»>,ififil!f»%fm.S9?r*ifiWBidfiWtIf  Wft  of  .money 
of  him,  which  so  much  trritiWilMbjibatAietlkcemwt 
chess-men  at  Henry's  head,  uung  at  the  same  time 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


183 


offensiye  language  towards  lum.  Henry  retaliated  mth 
blows ;  and  ti^e  quarrel,  it  is  said,  reached  such  a  height, 
that  but  for  the  interference  of  the  Prince  Robert  it 
might  have  terminated  fktally.'  John  of  Salisbury  relates 
that  in  a  batde  between  the  French  and  English  in  1 1 1 7, 
an  English  knight  seising  the  bridle  of  Louis  le  Gros, 
and  crying  out,  "The  king's  tacen.''  Loms  strucc  nnn  to 
the  ground  with  his  sword,  saying  "Ne  scais  tu  pas 
qu'aux  6checs  on  ne  prend  pas  le  roy?^  **  Dost  thou  not 
know  that  at  chess  the  king  is  neyer  taken?"     -j^  - 

We  now  approach  the  period  when  the  first  regular 
treatise  on  chess  made  its '  appearance.  This  was  the 
work  of  Jacobus  de  CossoUis,  or  Cesolis,  presumed  to 
have  been  written  before  the  year  1200.  Verci  says 
that  Ute  original  wo  A  was  written  either  in  Latin  or  in 
French,  and  that  the  Latin  manuscript  is  still  preserved 
in  the  University  of  Pladua.  Two  manuscript  copies  of 
this  work  are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum.  Ine  first 
is  entitled  lAb^r  tnortdis  de  Ludor  SeaccoTf  and  it  is  a 
quarto  of  fifty  leaves  of  parchment,  twenty-nine  lines  on 
a  page.  The  first  page  has  a  miniature  border,  in  gold  and 
colours,  representing  fiowers,  a  peacock,  and  other  birds, 
with  two  angels.  The  first  letter,  which  is  a  Gothic  M  of 
about  an  inch  square,  is  ornamented  with  a  king  plajdng 
at  chess  with  a  monk.  The  colours  are  vivid  and  the 
drawing  is  good;  eleven  more  capitals  are  embellished 
with  flourishes  in  gold,  and  the  writing  is  neat  and  well- 
preserved.  The  other  copy  is  written  on  paper,  and  un- 
ornamented.  The  work  at  Cesolis  was  translated  into 
English  by  William  Caxton,  in  1474,  but  previous  to 
that  time  there  had  appeared  a  curious  manuscript  of 
which  we  must  first  take  account.  It  was  called  A 
Maralihf  on  Chess^  and  was  ascribed  to  Pope  Innocent 
ni.,  but  seems  to  have  been  written  by  an  English  monk 
named  Innocent,  about  the  year  1400.  As  it  is  not  with- 
out its  merits,  and  boldly  points  out  the  abuses  which 
creep  into  the  highest  offices^  we  give  it  at  full  length ; 
observing,  however,  that  the  description  of  the  moves  of 
the  king  and  queen  does  not  agree  with  that  in  the 
modem,  game,  while  the  bishop's  move  is  restricted  to 
three  squares,  as  in  the  "courier"  game^  which  we  shall 
have  to  notice  hereafter. 

This  whole  world  is  nearly  like  a  chess-board,  of  which 
the  noints  are  alternately  ^Hhite  and  Mack,  figuring  the 
doable  state  of  life  and  death*  grace  and  rfn. 

The  families  of  this  chess-o^ird  axe  like  the  men  of  this 
woild ;  they  aU  come  out  of  one  bog,  and  are  placed  in 
difierent  stations  in  life.  They  have  different  appellations : 
one  is  called  king,  another  queen,  the  third  rook,  the  fourth 
kiufht,  the  fifth  alphin  (bishop),  the  sixth,  pawn. 

The  condition  ofthe  same  is,  that  one  piece  takes  another ; 
snd  when  the  game  u  finished,  they  are  all  deposited 
toeether,  like  man  in  the  same  place.  "Neither  is  there  any 
dmerenoe  between  the  king  and  the  poor  pawn :  for  it  often 
hspoens  that  when  the  pieces  are  thrown  pronuscuously  into 
the  oagy  the  kins;  lies  at  the  bottom;  as  some  of  the  great 
will  find  themselves  after  their  transit  from  this  worM  to 
thenext. 

In  this  game  the  king  ^s  into  all  the  circumjacent 
places  and  iakes  everything  m  a  direct  line,  which  is  a  sign 
that  the  king  must  never  omit  doing  justice  to  all  uprightly, 
for  in  whatever  manner  a  king  acts  it  is  reputed  just»  and 
what  pleases  the  sovereign  has  the  force  of  law. 

The  queen,  whom  we  call  Fen^  goes  and  takes  in  an  oblique 
line;  because  women  being  of  an  avaricious  nature,  take 
whateyer  they  can ;  and  often,  being  without  merit  or  grace, 
veguilty  of  rapine  and  injustice. 

xhe  rook  is  a  judge  who  perambulates  the  whole  land  in 
&  straight  line,  and  snoYild  not  t^e  anything  in  an  oblique 
nuEmer,  bjr  bribery  or  corruption,  nor  spare  any  one ;  else 
they  rerify  the  saving  of  Amos,  "  Ye  have  turned  justice 
ioto  gaU,  and  the  fruit  of  righteousness  into  hemlock." 

Bat  the  knight  in  taking,  goes  one  point  directly,  and  then 
takes  an  oblique  circuit,  m  sign  that  knights  and  lords  of 
the  land  may  justly  take  the  rents  due  to  them,  and  their 
just  fines  firom  those  who  have  forfeited  them,  according 
to  the  eadgetooe  oC  the  ease.  Their  third  point  beiqg  oblique 
^M  tt^Uigipa^lintflois^cwdieivtheyTiDip^^  v.i 

The  poor  pawn  goes  directly  forward  m  his  simplicity; 


but  whenever  he  will  take  he  does  so  obliquely.  Thus 
man,  while  he  is  poor  and  contented,  keeps  within  compasa 
and  lives  honestl v ;  but  in  search  of  temporal  honours  he 
&wns,  cringes,  and  forswears  himsdf,  and  thus  goes  obliquely 
till  he  gains  a  superior '  degree  on  the  chess-board  of  the 
world,  when  the  nawn  attains  the  utmost  in  his  power,  he 
dianges  to  Fers^  and  in  like  manner  humble  poverty  becomes 
rich  and  insolent. 

The  alphins  are  the  Various  prelates  of  the  church,  pope^ 
archbishop,  and  their  subordinate  bii^ps,  who  rise  to  their 
sees  not  so  much  by  divine  insipiration  as  by  royal  power, 
interest,  entreaties,  add  read^  money.  These  alphins  move 
and  take  obliquely  three  pomts,  for  the  minds  of  too  many 
prelates  are  perverted  by  love,  hatred,  or>  bribery,  not  to 
reprehend  the  guilty  or  bark  against  the  vicious,  but  rather 
to  absolve  them  from  their  sins:  so  that  those  who  should 
have  extirpated  vice,  are,  in  consequence  of  their  own 
covetousness,  become  promoters  of  vice  and  advocates  of  the 
devil. 

In  this  chess  game  the  devil  says  ''  check"  whenever  he 
insults  and  strikes  one  with  his  dart  of  sin ;  and  if  he  that 
is  thus  struck  cannot  immediately  deliver  himself,  the 
devil  resuming  the  move  says  to  him  **  mate,"  carrying  his 
soul  along  with  him  to  prison,  from  which  neither  love  nor 
money  can  deliver  him,  for  from  hell  there  is  no  redemption. 
And  as  huntsmen  have  various  hoimds  for  taking  various 
beasts^  so  the  devil  and  the  world  have  different  vices,  which 
differently  entangle  mankind,  for  aU  that  is  in  this  world  is 
lust  of  the  flesh,  lust  of  the  eyes,  or  proud  living." 


ON  THE  CUSTOM  OF  THE  MAUNDY. 

The  reader  may  probably  have  noticed,  in .  Almanacs, 
that  the  day  immediately  preceding  Good  Friday  in 
every  year  is  called  Maundy  Thursday.  The  old 
customs  connected  with  this  day,  and  still  partially  ob- 
served, are  very  curious,  and  well  .worthy  of  general 
attention  at  this  seiason-  of  the  year.  But,  before  we 
proceed  to  detail  them,  it  will  be  proper  to  state  the 
opinions  given  as  to  the  origin  of  the  term  maundy. 

Oiir  old  writers,  about  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
apply  this  word  to  the  commands^  then  written  <*  com" 
maundf,'*  of  Christ,- which  He  delivered  to  his  disciples 
on  the  day  before  his  crucifixion.  These  commands  of  our 
Blessed  Lord  related  to  the  faith  and  practice  of  the  future 
apostles  while  upon  earth,  and  of  the  Christian  church 
throughout  all  ages.  -  He  ordained  the  Holy  Communion 
of  His  body  and  blood,  to  be  observed  by  them  and  all 
faithful  Christians  till  His  second. coming.  He  washed 
the  feet  of  the  disciples,  (a  common  and  necessary  service 
in  the  East,  which  the  climate  renders  desirable  to  be 
done,)  in  token  of  that  humility  .which  it  behoved  them 
to  imitate;  and  He  laid  His  affectionate  injunctions  upon 
them,  that  they  should  love  one  another  as  he  had  loved 
them.  Christ  was  put  to  death  on  the  Fridav:  the  day 
before  is  thus  tenhed  "  Maundy  Thursday, '  as  being 
the  day  of  the  last  commands  of  our  Lord,  before  the 
fulfilment  of  those  suffeiingrs  in  His  own  person,  which 
should  cleanse  us  from  all  sin. 

Following  the  other  authority,  we  find  that  Maundy 
Thursday  is  so  named  from  the  maunds,  wherein 
were  formerly  contained  gifts,  which  the  king  was  wont 
to  distribute  on  that  day,  to  a  certain  number  of  poor 
persons  at  Whitehall.  The  Saxon  word  '<  maud,"  which 
afterwards  became  maundy  is  the  name  for  a  haskety 
(French  manne^)  and  by  consequence  for  any  gift,  or 
offering,  contained  in  the  basket.  The  sort  of  basket 
just  referred  to,  is  an  open  one  with  handles. 

The  day  of  which  we  speak  was  likewise  once  called 
Shere  Thursday,  (and  by  corruption  Chare  Thursday,) 
because  as  we  are  told,  in  ancient  times,  "  people  would 
that  day  shere  theyr  hedes  and  clypp  theyr  berdes,  and  so 
make  tnem  honest  agenst  Easter-day."  In  the  miracu- 
lous legend  of  St.  Brandon,  it  is  related  that  he  sailed 
with  his  monks  to  the  Island  of  Sheep,  about  the  year 
565  A.D.  This  island,  which  abounded  in  sheep,  was 
'a«;.491?A>,ip,J*^i  «AP^ef^  |m|4^,,;jii^^.^he.,p^ddle,,qf  ,thp 
Atlantic  Ocean^  near  the  Equator.    Here  on  "shere' 


134 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[April  3, 


ihumdaye,  after  souper,  he  wesshe  theyr  feet,  and  kyssed 
them  lyke  as"  our  lorde  dyd  to  hi^  dyscyples," 

We  propose  now  to  notice  several  celebrations  of  the 
Manndy,  beginning  With  the  practice  of  it  in  the  reign 
of  h«;r  present  Majesty,  Queen  Victoria,  and  going  back 
into  previous  reigns,  as  far  as  our  means  will  allow; 
concluding  with  notices  of  foreign  observances  of  this 

day. 

In  the  Times  newspaper  of  April  16th,  1838,  we 
observe  the  following  account  of  her  Majesty's  Mailndy 
donations : — 

The  Queen's  royal  alms  were  distributed  on  Saturday 
by  Mr.  Hanbv,  at  the  almonry  office,  to  the  Maundy  inftft 
and  women  placed  on  the  supernumerary  lists,  owing  lo  the 
difference  of  the  ages  between  the  late  king  and  her  present 
Majesty.  Both  men  and  women  receive  2/.  I0».,  ana  nine- 
teen silver  pennies,  (being  the  age  of  the  queen.)  Td  the 
men,  woollen  and  linen  clothing,  shoes,  and  stockings  wer^ 
nven ;  and  to  the  women,  in  lieu  of  clothing,  \l,  15^.,  each. 
The  Maundy  men  and  women  also  received  1/.  idtf.,— « 
coram utatioUy  instead  of  the  provisions  heretofore  dis- 
tributed. 

As  the  foregoing  comprises  a  substantial  account  of 
the  present  celebration  of  the  Maundy,  we  tieed  not 
dwell  further  upon  it,  except  to  make  a  few  remarks  on 
the  silver  penny,  which  is  now  coined  expressly  for  this 
occasion. 

Before  the  year  1 672  there  was  no  legitimate  copper 
coinage  in  England:  on  which  account  the  pecuniary 
donations  of  the  sovereigns  of  England  on  Maundy 
Thursday  were  usually  made  in  silver ; — the  silver  pen- 
nies then  in  common  use ; — as  many  silver  pennies  being 
given  to  each  individual  as  the  years  of  tne  monarch's 
age;  besides  clothes  and  food,  as  will  be  presently 
related.  Mr.  Till,  an  experienced  numismatist,  passes  a 
high  eulogium  on  the  beauty  and  production  of  the 
small  pieces  termed  Maundy  money.  He  considers 
them  as  finely  executed,  and  well  struck  up ;  in  some 
instances  being  like  proofs ;  jndgring  from  the  specixiien 
now  before  us,  they  certainly  merit  this  eulogium. 
The  Maundy  pennies  are  x'l  ^^  &n  ii^ch  in  diameter. 
They  are  by  order  of  Government  declared  current 
coins  of  the  realm ;  so  that  they  could  not  be  refiised,  if 
tendered  in  payment:  still,  they  are  not  in  reality  in- 
tended for  that  purpose.  Besides  the  pennies,  fonr- 
penny  pieces,  three-penny  pieces,  and  two-penny  pieces 
are  struck  as  Maundy  money,  and  also  used  as  presents 
for  various  officers  attached  to  the  crown,  as  well  as  to 
others. 

We  have  seen  that  the  practices  of  the  Maundy  are 
now  considerably  pared  off  1  but,  in  order  to  give  the 
reader  some  idea  of  the  ancient  customs  of  tMs  day,  w^ 
will  select  a  few  instances  of  the  observances  of  by-goh^ 
years. 

On  Maundy  Thursday,  1814,  the  royal  donations 
were  distributed  at  the  Chapel  Hoyal,  Whitehall,  accord- 
ing to  annual  custom.  In  the  morning,  Dr.  Carey,  the 
sub-almorier,  and  Mr.  Hanbv,  secretary  to  the  lord  high 
almoner,  together  with  otfiers  belonging  to  the  lord 
chamberlain's  office,  and  a  party  of  the  yeomen  of  the 
guard,  distributed  to  seventy-five  poor  men,  and  the  likfe 
number  of  women,  (heing  as  many  as  the  king  Was  years 
old,)  a  quantity  of  salt-fish,  consisting  of  salmon,  cod, 
and  herrings,  pieces  of  very  fine  .beef,  five  loaves  of 
bread,  and  some  ale  to  drink  the  king's  health.  At  three 
o'clock  they  assembled  again,  the  men  on  one  side  of  the 
chapel,  and  the  women  on  the  other.  A  procession 
entered  of  those  engaged  in  the  ceremony,  consisting  of 
a  party  of  yeomen  of  the  guard,  one  of  them  carrying  a 
large  gold  dish  on  his  head,  containing  one  hundred  and 
fifty  bags,  with  seventy-five  silver  pennies  in  each,  for 
the  poor  people,  which  was  placed  in  the  royal  closei. 
They  were  followed  by  the  sub-almoner  in  his  rbbeS, 


secretary,  and  another  gentleman,  with  Bimilar  sashes, 
aiid  ail  carrying  large  oonegays.  The  churdi  eveningr 
service  was  then  peHbrmedr  at  the  conclusion  of  whici 
the  silvei'  pennies  were  distributed,  together  with  wooUea 
cloth,  linen,  shoes,  and  Etoekings;  and  a  cup  of  wine  wu 
given  to  each  to  dripk  the  king's  health. 

The  provisions  were  given  away  in  }arge  woodn 
bowls;  tile  drinking-cup  was  made  of  maple.  The  begi 
containing  the  Maundy  money  were  made  of  white  kid: 
when  gold  was  given  away,  it  was  put  into  a  small  rd 
bag. 

The  ceremonial  of  the  Manndy,  aa  practised  in  1731, 
consisted,  hoi  distributing  at  the  Banquetting  Housq 
^^Ikitehall,  to  forty-eight  poor  men,  and  forty-^ight  poor 
women^  (the  king^s  age  being  forty-eight,)  boiled  beef 
and  shoulders  of  mutton,  with  small  bowls  of  ale,  which 
is  called  dkmer :  after  that,  large  wooden  platters  offish 
and  bread;  viz.,  one  larg«  old  ling,  and  one  large  dri^d 
ood;  .twelve  red-herribgs,  and  twelve  white-herrings,  all 
nndres^ed;  and  four  half-quartern  loaves.  Each  person 
had  one  platter  of  this  provision;  after  whiefa  they  re* 
ceived  shoes,  stockings,  linen  and  woollen  cloth,  and 
leathern  bags,  with  one  penny,  tWo-penny,  three-pennyi 
and  four-penny  pieces  of  silver,  and  shUlings;  to  eadi 
about  four  pounds  in  value.  His  grace,  the  Lord  Arch* 
bishop  of  York,  lord  high  almoner,  performed  the  annual 
ceremony  of  Washing  the  feet  of  a  certain  number  ol 
poor  in  &e  royal  chiipel,  Whitehall,  which  was  formerly 
done  by  the  kings  ^emselves,  in  imitation  of  our  Blessed 
Saviour's  pattern  of  humility.  James  II.  is  said  to 
have  been  the  last  of  our  monarchs,  who  performed  this 
eeremony  in  person. 

In  the  ^r  1572,  which  was  the  thirty-ninth  year  of 
Queen  Elisabeth's  age,  besides  bestowing  her  maundy, 
her  Majesty,  as  the  kin  s  and  queens  of  England  had 
done  bdEbre  her,  washed  and  kissed  the  feet  df  as  many 
poof  men  and  women  as  she  herself  was  years  old. 
This  was  done  at  Greenwich,  on  which  occasion  the  feet 
of  the  poor  persons  were  first  washed  by  the  yeomen  of 
the  laundiy  with  warm  water  and  sweet  herbs ;  afler^ 
wards  by  the  almoner  and  snb-ahnoner;  and  lastly,  in  a 
silver  iSasin  by  the  queen  herself; — ^the  person  who 
washed,  making  each  time  a  cross  on  the  pauper's  foot 
above  the  toes,  and  kissing  it.  This  ceremony  was  per- 
formed by  the  queen,  kneeling,  being  attended  by  thirty- 
nine  ladies  and  gentlewomen:  the  queen's  part  of  tbe 
business  took  |)laoe  after  singing  and  prayers,  and  the 
reading  of  the  Gospel,  which  describes  the  fact  thai 
imitated.  Her  Majesty  theti  distributed  clothes,  victuals, 
and  money ;  the  rest  m  the  proceedings  being  similar  to 
those  in  the  cases  mentioned  before. 

It  appears  that  the  money  given  to  the  maundy 
people,  in  addition  to  the  pennies,  was  meant  fibr  the  re* 
demption  of  the  sovereign's  garments,  which,' according 
to  the  ancient  order,  it  was  tisual  to  give  away.  Queeii 
Elizabeth  redeemed  her  gown  by  ^ving  twenty  shillings 
in  a  leathern  purse  to  each  person. 

The  ceremony  of  the  archbishop  washins  the  feet  of 
the  apostles,  is  performed  in  great  style  at  Moscow,  n 
Russia,  on  the  Thursday  before  Easter.  The  priests 
appear  in  their  most  gorgeous  apparel.  Twelve  monks 
designed  to  represent  the  twelve  apostles,  are  placed  in 
a  semicircle  before  the  archbishop.  The  ceremony 
takes  place  in  the  cathedral,  which  is  crowded  with  spec- 
tators. The  prelate,  who  performs  all,  and  much  more 
than  is  related  of  our  Saviour  in  the  13th  chapter  of  Stl 
John's  gospel,  takes  off  his  robes,  girds  up  his  loins  with 
a  towel,  and  proceeds  to  wash  the  feet  of  them  all,  until 
he  comes.to  the  monk  Who  represents  St.  Peter,  wbo  rises 
up,  and  holds  the  same  discourse  with  the  archbishop 
which  is  recorded  as  having  taken  place  between  our 
Blessed  Lord  and  that  apostle. 

Dr.  Bright  tells  us  that,  in  Austria,  this  singular 
'Of^fono^'  is  !(5e^lv*Aei.iaA'rV^9fl|^,i\)y,.tih^',;ff)^^tl!1  JJ 
is  kiiowii;  ill  'Q«riiuiily^>«fnoBg}«tfh^  hyitti^ 


1841] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


135 


epithet  of  the  ''  wasliing  of  the  feet."  After  soitoble 
preparations  ore  made,  twelve  men  and  twelve  women 
are  selected  £rom  the  oldest  and  most  deserving  paupers* 
After  attending  mass,  the  emperor  and  enqnress,  with 
the  whole  court,  enter  to  the  sound  of  solemn  music,  and 
approach  the  tables  where  the  paupers  are  sitting,  whom 
they  serve  with  different  courses  of  meats,. and  with 
wine.  The  tablea  ate  then  removed,  and  silver  howls 
are  placed  beneath  the  feet  of  the  men  and  women;  the 
emperor  washing  the  feet  of  the  former,  and  the  empress 
the  feet  of  the  latter,  while  the  grand  chambwiain,  in  a 
humble  posture,  pours  water  upon  the  feet  of  each  one 
in  sacoeflsiett  from,  a  golden  urn.  This  rite  concludes 
amidst  the  sounds  of  sacred  music. 

In  Spain,  one  of  the  pdblic  sights  of  the  town  of 
Seville  on  Maundy  Thursday^  is  a  -splendid  cold  dinner 
which  the  ardibishop  gives  to  twelve  paupers,  in  com- 
memoration of  the  apostles.  The  dinner  is  to  be  seen 
hid  out  on  tables  filling  up  two  larffe  rooms  in  the 
palace.  Having  partaken  of  a  more  homely  dinner  in 
ihe  kitchen,  these  guests  are  furnished  with  large  baskets 
to  take  awav  the  splendid  commons  allotted  to  eadi  in 
separate  dishes,  which  they  sell  to  the  gourmands  of  the 
town.  Each,  besides,  is  allowed  to  dispose  of  his  napkin, 
curiously  made  up  into  the  figure  of  some  bird  or  qua* 
draped,  which  people  buy  as  ornaments  to  their  china 
capboards,  and  as  specimens  of  the  perfection  to  which 
some  of  the  poorer  nuns  have  carried  the  art  of  plaiting. 

At  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  the  archbishop,  at- 
tended by  his  chapter,  repairs  to  Uie  cathedral,  where  he 
performs  the  ceremony  oi  washing  the  feet  of  the  twelve 
paupers  in  a  large  silver  basin:  they  are  seated  on  a 
]4atform  erected  before  the  high  altar,  and  the  prelate, 
stripped  of  his  silk  robes,  and  kneeling  successively  be- 
fore each,  goes  through  a  pompous  and  ostentatious  imi- 
tation of  our  blessed  Lord  s  real  humiUty. 

In  Rome,  the  Pope  commemorates  the  washing  of 
the  disciples'  feet  by  officiating  in  person.  In  this 
case,  there  are  thirteen^  inatead  of  twelve,  representatives 
of  the  apostles,  the  additional  one  representing  the  angel 
that  once  came  to  the  table  of  twelve  that  St.  Gregory 
was  serving.  The  twelve  are  old  priests,  but  he  who 
represents  the  angel  is  very  young.  They  are  all  dressed 
in  loose  white  gowns,  and  white  caps  on  their  heads,  and 
clean  woollen  stockings,  and  seat  themselves  in  a  row 
aloQg^  the  wall,  under  a  canopy.  When  the  Pope  enters 
and  takes  .  his  seat  at  the  top  of  the  room,  the  whole 
company  kneel  in  their  places  and  turn  towards  him ;  and, 
on  his  hand  being  extended  in  benediction,  they  all  rise 
and  reseat  themselves.  The  splendid  garments  of  the 
Pope  are  then  taken  off;  and,  clad  in  a  white  linen  robe 
which  he  wears  under  the  others,  and  wearing  the  bishop's 
mitre  instead  of  the  tiara,  he  approaches  these  pilgrims, 
as  they  are  called;  then,  taking  from  an  attendant  cardi- 
nal a  silver  bucket  of  water,  he  kneels  before  each  of 
them  successivelv,  wets  each  foot,  and  touches  it  with  a 
square  fringed  cloth ;  he  then  kisses  the  leg,  and  gives 
the  cloth,  together  with  a  sort  of  white  flower  or  feather, 
to  the  pilgrim.  This  ceremony  is  done  so  quickly,  that 
it  consumes  scarcely  two  minutes.  .  The  Pope  then 
returns  to  his  throne,  puts  on  his  robes  of  white  and 
lilver  again,  and  proceeds  to  the  dining- hall;  the  thirteen 
priests  are  then  seated  in  a  row  at  Uie  table,  which  is 
spread  with  a  varietyof  dishes,  and  adorned  with  a  pro- 
fusion of  flowers.  The  Pope  gives  the  blessing;  and 
walking  along  the  aide  of  the  table  opposite  to  them, 
hands  each  of  them  bread,  plates,  and  cups  of  wine. 
They  regularly  rise  up  to  receive  what  he  presents ;  the 
Pope  then  goes  through  the  forms  of  service,  gives  them 
his  parting  benediction,  and  leaves  them  to  finish  their 
dinner.  Thev'  cairry  away  what  they  cannot  eat,  and 
receive  a  small  present  in  money  besides. 

The  custom  of  the  Maundy  is  supposed  to  have  been 
of  great  antiquity,  as  it  is  first  referred  to  Augustine, 
who  lived  about  the  year  400  A.  n.    It  has  been  ordi- 


narily confined  to  royalty,  but  in  the  E^rl  of  Northum- 
berland's Househoid  Book,  which  belongs  to  the  early 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  we  find  mention  made  of 
"  Al  maner  of  thyngs  yerly  yeven  by  my  lorde  of  his 
maundy,  ande  my  laidis,  ande  his  lordshippe's  childeren." 


SILK  FROM  SHELL-FISH. 

We  have  lately  noticed  an  attempt  made  to  procure 
silk,  adapted  for  the  purposes  of  the  manufacturer,  from 
spiders'  nests.  We  have  now  to  speak  of  a  similar,  and 
rather  more  successful,  attempt  with  respect  to  shell- 
fish. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  common  edible  muscle  has 
the  power  of  affixing  itself  to  rocks,  or  to  the  shells  of 
other  muscles,  with  great  firmness;  and  it  haa  been 
ascertained  that*  if  the  animal  is  accidentally  torn  from 
its  hold,  it  has  the  power  of  replacing  the  threads  of 
viscous  matter,  by  which  it  thus  attaches  itself  to 
different  objects.  The  threads  issue  from  the  part  of  the 
shell  where  it  naturally  opens,  and  though  each  in  itself 
is  too  delicate  to  possess  much  strength,  yet  the  almost 
infinite  number  which  are  put  forth,  acting  as  so  many 
small  cables,  keep  the  fish  steady  in  its  position,  amidst 
all  the  power  of  the  waves. 

It  is  not  to  the  muscle,  however,  that  we  refer  as  a 
silk-producing  animal,  but  to  a  fish  belongring  to  the 
same  order,  and  in  many  respects  resembling  it.  This 
is  the  pmnay  a  much  larger  fish  than  the  muscle,  its 
shell  being  sometimes  found  two  feet  long.  The  shell 
is  bivalve,  fragile,  and  furnished  with  a  beard;  the  valves 
hinge  without  a  tooth.  The  pinna  like  the  muscle 
attaches  itself  to  rocks;  it  is  also  .found  with  the  sharp 
end  of  its  shell  embedded  in  mud  or  sand,  while  the  rest 
of  the  shell  is  left  free  to  open  in  the  water.  Like  the 
muscle,  it  has  the  power  of  spinning  a  viscid  matter  from 
its  body;  but  the  threads  of  the  pinna  are  of  great 
delicacy  and  beauty,  being  scarcely  inferior  to  the  single 
filament  of  the  silkworm.  Both  the  pinna  and  the  muscle 
are  furnished  with  an  organ,  which  is  sometimes  called  a 
tongue,  sometimes  a  foot,  from  its  performing  the  offices 
of  both  those  members.  The  latter  of  these  offices  is 
denied  to  it  by  some  naturalists,  who  affirm'  that  the 
pinna  always  remains  in  the  same  place;  but  though  its- 
powers  of  locomotion  are  very  limited,  yet  it  appears 
that  an  occasioiial  change  of  situation  is  effected  by 
means  of  the  organ  we  have  alluded  to.  The  extremity 
of  the  foot  (as  we  may  then  call  it,)  is  fixed  to  some 
solid  body,  and  being  contracted  in  its  length,  the  whole 
fish  is  necessarily  drawn  tow.ards  the  spot  where  it  has 
fixed  itself;  and  by  a  repetition  of  these  movements  the 
animal  arrives  at  its  destination.  The  principal  use  of 
this  organ,  however,  appears  to  be  that  of  forming  the 

SssuSf  which  is  the  name  given  to  the  collection  of 
reads  by  which  the  animal  attaches  itself  at  various 
points  to  some  fixed  spot.  The  formation  of  these  threads 
is  exceedingly  curious  and  remarkable.  *  They  are  not 
spun,  like  those  of  the  spider  and  of  the  silkworm,  by 
being  drawn  out  of  the  body,  but  they  are  cast  in  a 
mould,  where  thev  remain  until  they  have  acquired  a 
certain  degree  of  hardness  and  consistency.  This  mould 
is  contained  in  the  tongue  of  the  animal,  and  forms  a  deep 
longitudinal  furrow  extending  from  the  root  to  the  cir- 
cumference, having  its  sides  so  constructed  as  to  fold 
over  it,  thereby  making  it  into  a  canal.  On  the  outside, 
this  canal  appears  like  a  crack,  being  almost  covered  by 
the  flesh  on  either  side,  but  internally  it  is  wider,  and 
surrounded  with  circular  fibres.  The  tongue  is  fur- 
nished with  glands  for  the  secretion  of  the  peculiar 
liquor  which  forms  the  byssus,  and  from  these  it  is  puured 
into  the  canal,  where  it  dries  into  a  solid  thread.  When 
it  has  acquired  sufficient  tenacity  the  animal  protrudes 
its  foot,  and  applies  and  fixes  the  end  of  the  thread  to 
the  surface  of  some  object  in  its  vicinity :  the  whole  length 
of  the  canal  is  then  suddenly  opened,  and  the  thread. 


186 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


[April  3, 1841. 


which  is  fixed  by  one  end  to  the  tendon  at  the  base  of  the 
foot,  and  by  the  other  to  the  solid  surfiee  in  questiftn,  is 
disengaged  from  its  mould.  The  canal  is  now  ready  to 
ree^ve  another  portion  of  the  Tiscid  secretkm,  (which 
secretion  exists  in  great  abundance  in  this  animal  as  well 
as  in  muscles,)  and  the  process  is  gone  through  as  befot«. 
Thread  after  thread  is  thus  formed,  and  anplied  in 
different  directions  round  the  shell,  and  it  nas  been 
observed  that  the  animal  puts  each  thread  in  succession 
to  the  test,  by  swinging  itself  round  and  stretching  it. 

Thus,  as  Keaumur  has  observed,  the  workmanship  of 
the  land  and  sea  animals,  in  forming  the  same  pro- 
duction, is  very  different.  Spiders,  caterpillars,  &&, 
form  threads  of  any  required  length,  by  making  the 
viscous  liquor  of  which  the  filament  is  formed  pass 
through  fine  perforations  in  the  organ  appointed  foir 
spinning.  But  the  pinna  and  muscle  form  their  threads 
in  a  mould  situated  within  the  organ,  and  which  determines 
the  length  of  each  filament.  The  work  of. the  land 
animals  therefore*  may  be  likened  to  that  of  the  wire- 
drawer,  while  the  labours  of  the  sea-animals  may  be  com- 
pared to  those  of  the  foimder  who  casts  metals  in  a 
mould. 

It  was  at  first  supposed  that  the  pinna,  as  well  as  the 
muscle,  had  the  power  pf  transferring  the  threads  thus 
formed  from  one  spot  to  another ;  but  subsequent  obser- 
vation has  proved  that  wherever  the  animal  takes  up  its 
position,  there  it  must  remain,  unless  by  any  accident 
the  threads  become  severed,  when  it  immediately  begins 
to  form  others,  and  every  fibre  employed  in  fixing  itself 
in  a  fresh  situation  is  newly  formed  at  the  time  it  is 
required. '  The  old  threads  appear  quite  useless,  and 
have',  by  way  of  experiment,'  been  cut .'  away  from  the 
body  as  close  as  was  considered  safe  to  the  animal,  when 
they  were  replaced  by  .others,  in  as  short  a  space  of  time 
as  that  employed  by  others  not  so  mutilated.  We  learn 
from  Poli,  that  the  byssus  in  silk-producing  fish  Is  of  the 
same  structure,  as  hair,  and  that  at  the  extremity  it  is 
furnished  with  little  cups,  or  suckers,  by  which  it  adheres 
firmly.  In  the  pinna,  the  liquid  matter  is  produced 
slowly,  not  more  than  four  or  five  threads  being  formed 
in  the  course  of  a  day  and  night.  It  is  so  exceedingly 
glutinous  in  its  nature,  that  it  will.take  a  firm  hold  on  the 
smoothest  bodies.  When  the  animal  is  disturbed  in  its 
operations,  the  threads  are  more  hastily  formed,  and  in 
consequence  possess  less  strength  than  those  which  are 
produced  at  the  ordinary  rate. 

The  pinna  is  found  on  the  coasts  of  Italy  and  Pro- 
vence, and  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  largest  and  most 
remarkable  species  inhabits,  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It 
is  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  many  enemies,  especially  of 
the  cuttle-fish,  which  is  its  deadly  foe.  It  is  said,  (and 
the  alleged  fact  has  been  celebrated  in  poetry,)  that  the 
pinna  is  warned  of  approaching  enemies  by  a  faidiful 
ally,  which  is  ever  at  hand  to  afford  its .  important  ser- 
vices. This  ally  is  a  small  animal  of  the  crab  kind, 
which  takes  reiage  in  the  shell  of  the  pinna,  and  com- 
pensates by  its  quickness  of  sight  for  the  deficiency 
which  the  pinna,  in  c(Hnmon  with  the  rest  of  its  species, 
experiences  in  that  respect.  There  is  so  much  that  ap- 
pears fabulous  in  this  reputed  friendship  of  the  pinna  and 
the  crab,  that  we  willingly  omit  the  several  details,  and 
proceed  to  notice  the  method  employed  to  procure  the 
byssus,  and  the  uses  to  which  that  substance  has  been 
applied. 

Although  the  fineness  and  beauty  of  this  remarkable 
production  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  silkworm's 
thread,  and  has  procured  for  the  animal  that  forms  it 
the  common  name  of ''  the  silkworm  of  the  sea,"  yet, 
when  attached  in  filaments  of  almost  innumerable  extent 
to  the  rocks  below  the  surface  of  the  sea,  it  require?  con- 
siderable force  to  disengage  the  tuft  of  threads.  At 
Toulon,  an  instrument  called  a  cramp  is  employed  by 
the  fisherman  for  this  purpose.  This  is  an  iron  fork, 
with  prongs  eight  feet  in  lengthy  and  six  inches  apart; 


the  prongs  are  placed  at  right  angles  with  the  handle, 
the  length  of  which  is  fegulated  by  .the  deptJi  of  the 
water,  and  varies  from  fifteen  to  tfaiirty  feet  The  pimue 
are  seiied,  separated  fram  the  rock,  and  brougiit  to  the 
suiface  by  means  of  this  instrument. 

.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  term  byssus,  as  used  hj 
ithe  anoients,  is  always  applicable  to  this  psrtilailar  sub- 
stance. Aristotle  speaks  of  byssus  as  bemg  made  from 
the  beard  of  the  pinna,  and  it  is  certain  that  this  kind  of 
silk  was  employed  in  ike  manufacture  of  owtain  fabrics 
in  very  ancient  times.  But  it  is  also  said  that  by  ti^ 
name  of  byssus,  the  ancients  meant  indiscriminately  any 
material  that  was  spun,  the  quality  of  which  was  &m 
and  more  valuable  than  woollen  threads.  Sometimes  the 
produce  of  the  pinna  is  distinctly  mentioned  as  being 
wrought  into  articles  of  dress;  thus  Procopius  speaks  of 
a  robe  composed  of  byssus  of  the  pinna,  as  having  been 
-presented  by  the  Roman  emperor  to  the  satraps  of  Ar- 
menia. This  substance,  is  .evidently  referred  to  bv  a 
writer  of  the  year  1782,  who  says :— *^  The  andenta  had 
a  manufacture  of  silk,  and  which  about  forty  years  ago 
was '  revived  at  Tarento  and  Regie  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples.  '  It  consists  of  a  strong  brown  silk,  belonging  to 
some',  sort  of  shell,  of  which  they  make  caps,  gloves, 
stockings,  waistcoats,i8(c.,  warmer  than  the  woollen  stuffs, 
and  brighter  than  .common  silk.  I  have  seen  such  kind 
of  shells  myself;  I  think  it  was  of  the  pecten  kind,  but 
cannot  be  sure."  ,     ; 

.  On  the  shores  where  the  larger  kind  of  pinnis  aboond, 
the  manufacture  above  alluded  to  is  still  carried  on.  At 
Palermo  the  silk  is  wrought  into  various  articles  of  dress 
of  a  beautiful  description.  The  stockings  maiiufactared 
from  this  material  are  so  fine,  that  a  pair  !of  .them  can  be 
easily  enclosed  in  a  snuff-box  of  the  ordinary  size,  and 
yet  their  warmth  is  such,'  that  they  are  'said,  to  be  more 
useful  in  gouty  and  rheumatic  cases,  than  appropriate 
for  common  wear.  This  material  will  probably  remain 
a  rarity,  except,  in  the  countries  where  it  is  produced, 
for  it  cannot  be  obtained  in  sufficient  abundance'  to  ren- 
der it  a  commodity  for  exportation.  In  England  it 
merely  forms,  a  curious  addition  to  some  of  our  cabinets, 
while  its  .existence  as  an  article  of  manufacture  is  un- 
known. 

To  the  objection  that  philosophy  and  the  study  of  natare 
are  proved  by  experience  to  lead  to  disbelief  in  revelation, 
the  answer  is  easy.  They  are  not  ifnends  to  &]ae  views  of 
religion;  and  this  b  the  point  of  soreness.  They  are  con- 
versant with  truths,  and  eenemte  a  discernment  for  truth: 
they  detect  falsehood,  and  are  oondenmed  because  fiilsehood 
fears  them.  If  ever  they  have  led  to  so  fhlse  a  conclusion 
as  religious  disbelief,  the  reason  is  not  that  they  have  been 
pursued,  but  that  they  have  not  been  pursued  ha  enoujrh. 
Partial  studies  may  be  injurious:  tiiey  have  led  to  doubt 
and  error;  but  the  real  cause  is  then  no  other  than  that  it 
has  been  under  superficial  inquiries  into  xevelation;  it  is 
ignorance  united  to  vanity.  In  each  case  alike  the  cure 
must  be  sought  in  more  knowledge,  as  this  is  ever  the 
remedy  for  the  evils  which  follow  from  a  little.— M^ccuLLocti. 


Habit  is  the  kindest  friend  or  crudest  foe  to  human  wel- 
fare. When  it  assumes  the  latter  character,  it  comes  ever 
in  the  most  delusive  and  seductive  forms.  It  soon  substi- 
tutes its  own  irresistible  wiU,  for  that  of  its  victim;  and 
triumphantly  points  to  the  gulf  to  which  it  been  him.  The 
fly,  caueht  in  the  epider's  web,  is  a  faint  illustration  of  the 
power  of  habit.  The  flv  knows,  from  the  first  moment, 
his  destiny,  and  struggles  to  escape.  The  gambler,  the 
drunkard,  die  felon,  where  and  how  do  they  learn  that  they 
have  been  caught  in  the  web  of  nabiti— S. 


ILONDON: 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKEB,  WEST  ffTRAKD. 
pDiuuiBo  »  "Wmwmt  VvMmum,  rtaea  Omu.fmmint,  jun  a  MoKtrnx 

Pastc,  FMoa  Baramtmm 
Md  bar  all  Beokniltnaaa 


1641.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


189 


very  lean,  showing  an  immense  head,  spotted  all  over 
^ith  black  and  brown  spots,  and  the  belly  almost  black ; 
tne  other  bright  and  silvery,  without  spots,  and  the  head 
small.  Their  flesh  was  compared  at  table,  and  while 
that  of  the  one  was  white,  flabby,  and  bad,  without  curd, 
that  of  the  other  was  of  the  brightest  pink,  and  fuU  of 
dense  curd. 

The  process  of  depositing  the  spawn  occupies  eight 
or  twelve  days,  and  the  ova- is  then  carefully  oovered 
with  gravel  and  stones.  The  fish  then  leaye  their  nume- 
rous eggs  or  spawn,  (estimated  at  fit>m  17,000  to  20,000,) 
and  retire  to  some  neighbouring  part  of  the  stream, 
where  the  water  is  deeper,  and  more  refreshing  to  them. 
In  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks  after  this,  the  male  fish 
sets  out  on  his  return  to  the  sea,  leaving  the  female 
behind  to  watch  the  spawning  ground,  which  she  conti- 
nues to  do  till  towards  the  time  of  the  ova  being  hatched. 
The  females  are  the  first  to  leave  the  sea,  and  the  last 
to  return  to  it.  For  some  time  both  before  and  after 
the  spawning  season,  salmon  are  unfit  for  food;  and  thus 
being  leas  sought  for,  the  continuation  of  the  species  is 
insured. 

The  period  during  which  salmon  are  oat  of  season 
is  indicated  by  a  dificurence  in  their  appearance,  the  males 
being  at  that  time  a  reddish-brown  on  the  back,  and  the 
females  of  a  dusky  gray.  The  fish  descend  to  the  sea 
by  short  stages,  and  wim  much  less  vigour  and  anima* 
tioD  than  tbev  display  at  the  time  of  ascending.  The 
coldness  of  tne  weather  at  the  time  of  their  return,  in- 
duces them  to  keep  in  the  middle  of  the  stream,  at  a 
considerable  depth,  which,  owing  to  the  water  being 
wanner  than  the  air,  is  the  situation  best  suited  to  their 
feelings.  In  their  ascent  tliey  are  frequently  seen  in 
the  shallows,  or  near  the  surface,  from  the  very  same 
sensibility  to  the  weather  which  makes  them,  in  winter, 
choose  the  opposite  situation.  Thus  they  reach  the 
estuaries,  and  there  lingering  again  in  the  brackish 
water,  an^l  finding  an  abwudant  supply  of  food,  they 
quickly  regain  their  sise  and  strength,  and  proceed  to 
&eir  unknown  abode  in  the  reoesses  of  the  ocean.  We 
most  now  return  to  the  young  fry  m  the  spawningw-bed, 
and  state  their  progress  from  the  time  of  their  learing- 
tbe  egg  to  that  ^  their  joining  the  rest  of  their  nee  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  ocean. 

At  whatever  period  of  the  autumn  ike  spawn  may  have 
been  deposited,  the  time  of  its  being  katehed  is  always 
the  »me  is  the  same  river.      Thus,  supposing  one  pair 
of  salmon  to  have  arrived  long  before  the  rest,  and  that 
many  weeks  occur  between  the  spawning  of  the  female, 
and  that  of  the  others  frequenting  the  same  stream,  yet 
on  the  arrival  of  the  more  genial  season,  the  eggs  kuit 
<leposited  are  hatched  at  the  same  time  with  the  first : 
hence,  it  is  impossible  to  specify  the  exact  time  which 
intervenes  between  the  spawning*  season,  and  the  vivifies^ 
tion  of  the  eggs,  the  influence  of  the  season  being  the 
aole  cause  of  the  latter  circumstance*    According  to  the 
state  of  the  weather,  therefore,  the  young  fry  eomeforl^ 
at  an  earlier  or  later  period.     The  months  of  March  and 
April  are  the  usual  period  of  their  appearance,  and  thev 
Itave  the  ova  in  succession,  for  the  manner  in  which 
the  spawn  is  deposited  prevents  the  under  part  of  the 
TB3SS  from   experiencing   the    eflfects    of  the    wanner 
weather,  until  those  at  the  upper  part  have  burst  the 
eg^s.     The  young  sahnon  remam  for  a  few  days  in  the 
sand  and  gravel,  the  egg  still  adhering  to  them,  and 
affording  them  nourishment,  but  they  soon  begin  to  force 
their  way  upwards,  and  appear  through  Utt  sand,  shoot- 
injr  up  lie  young  plants.     They  are  now  about  half  an 
inch  in  length,  and  remain  for  some  time  in  the  shallow 
parts  of  the  stream.     Their  earliest  food  is  not  very  well 
known,  but  the  abundance  of  small  living  creatures  with 
which  the  waters  begin  to  be  filled  at  that  season  of  the 
J«ir,  must  prevent  any  chance  of  want  in  this  respect. 
Thev  grow  very  rapimy,  and  in  the  course  of  a  week  or 
ten  oayS)  they  nave  more  than  doubled  tiieirformer  siae. 


As  their  strength  increases,  they  resort  to  the  deeper 
parts  of  the  stream,  and  move  towards  the  sea.  Spring 
floods  frequently  carry  them  rapidly  onwards,  and  by  the 
month  of  June,  the  rivers  are  pretty  well  cleared  of 
tmeliy  as  the  young  fish  are  called.  On  their  arrival  at 
the  sea,  or  rather  at  the  brackish  water,  (for  during  the 
first  season  they  seldom  leave  the  estuaries  and  offings,) 
their  growth  is  exceedingly  rapid.  Isaac  Walton  says, 
<*  the  age  of  a  salmon  exceeds  not  ten  years;  and  let  me 
next  tell  you  that  his  growth  is  very  sudden ;  it  is  said 
that  after  he  is  got  into  the  sea,  he  becomes  from  a  sam- 
let, not  so  big  as  a  gudgeon,  to  be  a  salmon,  in  so  short 
a  time  as  a  gosling  becomes  a  goose."  This,  our  author 
informs  us,  has  been  ascertained  by  tying  a  riband,  or  tape, 
in  the  tail  of  some  young  salmons  which  had  been  taken 
in  weirs  as  they  were  swimming  towards  the  salt  water ; 
and  then  by  taking  part  of  them  again,  having  this  known 
mark,  at  their  return  from  the  sea  some  months  after. 

The  young  salmon  are  the  first  to  ascend  the  rivers ; 
and  towards  autumn  they  are  frequently  found  of  the 
weight  of  six  pounds.  These  are  termed  grilse,  while 
those  under  two  pounds  weight  are  called  '*  salmon-peal." 
They  breed  during  the  first  seas<m,  and  are  said  gene- 
rally to  ascend  £he  same  rivers  in  which  they  were 
spawned. 

Salmon  are  supposed  to  go  farther  out  to  sea  as  they 
get  older,  but  they  cannot  seek  their  food,  as  many  sea- 
fishes  do,  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  They  are  formed 
for  straightforward  motion,  and  not  for  ascent  or  descent. 
The  situation  of  the  fins,  and  the  upward  direction  of 
the  eyes,  in  what  are  called  **  bottom  fishes,**  are  pecu- 
liarly fitted  for  the  purpose  of  plunging  to,  and  ascending 
from,  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  but  in  the  salmon  the 
lateral  direction  of  the  eyes,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
fins,  is  equally  fitted  for  uniform  progression. 

In  a  future  article  we  shall  mention  the  most  cele- 
brated  salmon  rivers,  the  different  methods  employed  in 
taking  kne  fish,  and  various  other  particulars  relative  to 
this  interesting  subjeot* 


HOPE. 

What  is  hope  ?    The  beaalecns  win, 
Which  oolonn  aU  it  shines  upon 
'^    ThebeneoBof  Ufe%drettiy«e% 
The  star  of  immortaKty  I 
Fountahi  of  feeling,  young  and  warm ; 
A  day-beam  bursting  through  the  storm  ; 
A  tone  of  melody,  whose  birth 
Is,  obi  too  sweet,  too  pare,  for  esoih  r 
A  blossom  of  that  radiant  tree, 
Whose  fruit  the  angels  only  see  I 
A  beanty  and  a  ehiuin,  whose  power 
Is  seen    nijtrrtnl    mrrV-^  eadii  hour  I 
A  portion  of  that  world  to  coney 
When  earth  and  ocean  meet  the  last  o'erwhalmug  aoom. 


To  those  who  perform  the  duty  of  the  day  '^ff^V^}^. 

institution,  SunV  is  a  day  <>f,«^«*^'*ft^ 
is  rest  to  the  poor,  ndaxation  to  the  nch,  comfort  to  the 
Sfl^edTaid  ^nitionto.theproeperoi^  ^J  Ttr^d 
in  our  calling,  onr  duty  is  thapksgivmg ;  if  distressed, 
Sa^a;  ^  wSlthv.  Eiafitude;  if  poor,  resignation.  An 
^M^Sinitv  for  J5  these  duties  U  afforded  in  public  wor- 
^rtd^tfc  worship  is  best  suited  to  the  weakness  of 
T^n^nJ.  for  all  stanf  in  need  either  o^  ^f ^P^"/, 
IhelT  fervency,  or  «horUtion  to  advance  th^r  P^^^^ 

mutual  confomity  to  V^^^^^'I  ^ZT^'mTiSd^ 
tendance  upon  the  P-Wj^,^^;;^ 

^^^^^a^'di^^Sr^t  without  indolence  re- 
S^SShSSl^rutene^and  conversation  without 
^i^^  4Tday  a  day  of  blessing  to  all  who  feel  th«^ 
P^  S,  and  sTrious  condud,  aflfo^^  P^^^^^^ 

Sie  vicious  ever  experience  in  the  mdnlganoe  oi  uowiw 
ness  or  tumuHnous  loys.— Dn^Vwcmir. 

"        '        563—2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


BEJAPOOR,  IN  HINDOSTAN, 


Bkjapoor  is  the  lume  of  a  Urge  prorince  in  India,  of 
one  of  the  diniions  of  that  proTince,  and  alio  of  it* 
principal  dtj.  The  province  of  Bcjapoor  is  aitnated  in 
the  touth-weatem  part  of  Hindostan,  and  if  about  330 
milei  long  and  200  broad:  it  is,  however,  to  the  eify  of 
Bejapoor  that  we  propose  to  direct  oar  attendon  in  this 

The  dtf  of  Bejapoor  was  formerly  of  great  note. 
When  the  Emperor  Aorungiebe  captured  it,  in  1 689,  the 
fortifications,  according  to  the  detcription  tranimitted  to 
US,  appear  to  have  been  of  immense  extent;  for  between 
the  wall  of  the  fort  and  the  outer  wall  of  the  old  city  there 
was  said  to  hav6  been  room  for  15,000  cavalrr  to  encamp. 
Wthin  the  citadel  or  inner  fort  were  the  king's  palace, 
the  houses  of  the  nobility,  and  large  magaiinea,  besides 
extensive  (tardens,  and  round  the  whole  a  deep  ditch, 
always  filliid  with  water.  "  It  is  still  asserted  by  the 
nadvea,"  saya  Hr.  Hamilton, "  with  their  usual  proneness 
to  exaggeration,  that  Bejapoor,  while  flourithing,  con- 
tained 984,000  inhaUted  houses,  and  1600  mosques." 

Bejapoor  now  has  the  appearance  of  a  record  of  other 
days,  for  by  inteeUne  conmotions  and  revolutions,  it  is 
now  little  ebe  than  a  heap  of  ruins,  studded  with  splen- 
did bat  unoccupied  bvildings.  From  a  distance  even  of 
fourteen  mites,  numerous  domes,  apirei,  cupolas,  and 
minarets  present  themselves  to  the  eye ;  but  a  nearer 
^proach  dispels  the  illusion  which  they  are  calculated  to 
raise,  for  it  is  very  little  better  than  a  vast  expanse  of 

About  five  miles  from  the  city  is  a  village  called 
Toorvee,  where  are  to  be  seen  the  remains  of  a  royal 
palace,  a  mosque,  and  other  buildings.  To  the  eaat  of 
this  stands  a  Mohammedan  mosque,  still  the  resort  of 
devotees ;  and  near  it  are  the  remains  of  an  ele^nt 
mausoleum  and  mosque,  belonging  to  the  minister  of 
one  of  the  bygone  sovereigns  of  Bejapoor.  Numerous 
other  Qtausolea  and  mosques  are  met  withfVom  hence  to 
the  present  city,  among  which  the  most  celebrated  are 
the  maoaoleum  and  mcisque  of  Ibrahim  Adil  Shab:  these 
were  built  about  the  year  1620,  and  are  said  to  have  cost 


700,000/.,  and  to  have  occupied  6533  workmen  fbr  ibirt^- 
■ix  years.  They  are  built  tq>on  a  basement  one  bundm 
and  thirty  yards  in  length,  and  fifty-two  in  breadth,  ai 
raised  fifteen  feet.  The  mausoleum  is  a  room  fifty-wvoi 
feet  square,  enclosed  by  two  verandahs,  thirteen  fM 
broad,  and  twenty.two  feet  high.  The  central  chimber 
of  the  latter  is  qiute  plain,  as  is  also  the  interior  of  tbe 
mosque,  but  in  other  respects  these  buildings  excel  jn 
elaborate  architectnral  elegance.  The  fretwork  of  lie 
ceilings  of  the  verandahs,  their  panels  covered  with  pw- 
sagea  of  the  Koran,  in  ba«-re^,  and  atone  trmix^ 
pierced  with  a  meshwork  of  Arabic  characters,  are  ul 
m  tbe  highest  style  of  Oriental  Bou^>ture. 

BejiUKioT  itself  may  be  considered  as  two  dties  idju*- 
ing  eacn  other,  that  which  is  called  Mneforf  Iving  to  tbe 
east,  and  the  old  city  to  the  west.  Ae  old  city  «"■ 
tained  the  buildinrs  which  we  have  just  described.  Tbe 
fort  waa  surnmnoBd  by  a  wall,  eight  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  though  decayed  in  many  parts,  there  is  not 
yet  a  complete  breach  throi^h  any  part  of  it.  0^'^ 
were  mounted  on  it,  and  sentinels  pUoed  at  the  gates,  M 
late  as  1819.  There  are  seven  gatea,  one  of  which  '■ 
now  shut  up,  and  the  others  are  open,  vis.,  the  H^* 
Shahpoor,  Bhaminy,  Padshapoor,  Allahpoor,  and  Fnttffl 
gates.  There  were  formerly  a  ditch,  a  covered  way, »« 
a  glacis,  on  the  eastern  face,  but  scarcely  any  vestiga  « 
them  are  now  to  be  seen.  , 

_  within  the  fort,  (or  present  existing  city,) « 
Bejapoor,  a  scene  of  mingled  splendour  and  ruin  preseiiti 
itself.  There  is  still  one  entire  and  very  regular  st^rt^ 
three  miles  in  length,  and  fifty  feet  wide,  paved  thronghoul, 
contuning  many  stone  buildings,  both  private  °"\ 
ings  and  mosques.  Another  street,  nearly  equal  in  leog''' 
■  this,  also  exists,  but  its  buildings  are  rather  in  a  ruin'™' 
-_ite.  The  most  remarkable  edificei  still  remaining  W 
the  tombs  of  Abdul  Resa  and  Shah  Newani,  the  Jum" 
Mtujeed,  or  great  mosque,  the  mausoleum  of  ""'^ 
Mahmood  Shah,  the  bowlee  of  the  Nao  Bagb,  b^idn 


innumerable  mosque 

low  Hindoo  temple,  supported  by 


There  is  «1»  » 


I84I0 


THE  SATURDAY- MAGAZINE. 


141 


nng-le  Btones,  in  tile  euUeat  and  rndmt  style  of  Brah- 
miaica!  architecture,  supposed  to  have  been  the  vork  of 
the  Pandoos ;  and  this  ia  almoat  the  onljr  Hindoo  stracture 
extant  in  or  about  Bejapoor;  for  the  country,  though  in 
the  he&rt  of  HindoBtan,  long  belonged  to  the  Mahnttas, 
who  were  Mohammedana. 

The  inhabited  part  of  the  fort  ia  chiefly  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  great  moiqne.  There  are  alio  groups  of  bousea 
8(»ttered  over  its  immense  area,  while  mud  hovels  are 
interspersed  among  its  splendid  ruins.  There  are  some 
enc1a»ed  and  cultivated  Gelds;  but  generally  speaking, 
the  neighbouring  district  ia  a  ruinoua  wilderness,  inter- 
spersed with  trees  and  shrubs.  There  is  a  well  frequented 
bazaar,  neatly  built  of  atone,  without  the  western  gate  ; 
this  forma  nearly  the  only  part  of  what  is  called  the  old 
city  that  is  still  inhabited.  On  the  aouthem  side  of  the 
fort  there  are  no  traces  of  any  ancient  buildings,  or  of 
the  city  walls,  the  walls  of  the  fort  being  the  ultimate 
boundary  of  Bejapoor  in  that  direction.  Most  of  the 
large  edifices,  (the  palaces  in  the  citadel  excepted,} 
^pear  to  have  little  or  uo  wood  used  in  their  construc- 
tion, the  prevailing  diaracter  of  their  ardiitecture  being 
massive  solidity,  rather  than  elaborate  workmansbip  or 
elegant  design. 

The  cause  of  the  ruinous  state  in  which  this  once 
nugnificent  city  now  exists  is  to  be  found  in  the  repeated 
contests  fur  soveteignty  which  have  taken  place  in  that 
part  of  Hindostan.  The  district  or  country  which  con- 
tains Bejapoor  was  under  the  dominion  of  Hindoo  sove- 
reigns until  1579,  when  the  Mohammedan  princes  of 
Southern  India  captured  it.  Tbey  retained  it  until  1 689, 
when  the  Emperor  Auruugiebe  conquered  it.  After 
this  the  powerful  tribe  or  nation  of  the  Mahrattas  got 
possession  of  the  country,  and  retained  it  almost  without 
intennission  until  modem  times.  But  by  about  the 
year  1604,  the  province  of  Bejapoor  exhibited  an  extra- 
ordinary scene  of  anarchy.  Although  the  country  was 
nomioally  under  the  chief  of  the  Mahrattas,  his  autho- 
rity  scarcely  eitended  beyond  the  city  of  Poonah,  and 
was  resistea  by  every  petty  head  of  a  village :  the  dif- 
ferent cbiefa  and  leaders  of  banditti  by  whom  the  coun- 
try was  occupied  were  almost  innumerable.  At  length, 
in  IS18,  Bejapoor  was  finally  conquered  by  the  British, 
and  it  is  now  probable  that  it  will,  under  British  protec- 
tion, gradually  improve  in  many  respects. 

Mr.  Hamilton  (to  whose  work  we  have  been  chiefly 
indebted  for  these  detaiU)  says: — 

There  are  some  enonnons  guns  still  remuninx  here, 
eonvsponding  with  the  Cvclopeau  magnitude  of  the  fort. 
Fomerly  there  were  twelve,  but  tn  1820  only  the  ^reat 
brass  gnn,  (cast  in  1540,)  and  the  long  iron  one  renuuned. 
For  the  calibre  of  the  first,  an  iron  bullet,  weighing  2846 
piiunda,  would  be  required.  In  1823  the  Bombay  govern- 
ment was  extremely  desirons  of  sending  It  to  Englaiid,  as  a 
present  to  the  king,  but  until  the  roods  are  improved,  it 
would  be  almost  impossible  to  transport  such  a  ponderous 


TncTH  b  the  most  powerful  thin^  In  the  world,  dnce  even 
fiction  itafllf  must  be  governed  by  it,  and  can  only  please  by 
ita  naembknce.— HiLUMOBir. 


SHOE-BUCKLES.  _ 
If  we  were  to  inquire  into  the  influence  of  fashion 
and  taste^  in  manu&ctures,  it  would  be  found  that  the 
link  which  connects  them  is  very  close,  and  that  the 
well-being  of  the  working  classes  is  aingularly  dependent 
thereon.  Persona  who  view  these  matters  only  on  the 
surface,  are  apt  to  imagine  that  changes  of  fashion  are 
no  further  important  than  as  means  of  gratifying  the  eye ; 
but,  so  far  from  this  being  the  case,  every  change  of 
&8hion  brings  some  kind  of  mechanical  labour  or  skill 
into  exertion,  and  throws  out  others. 

A  singular  example  of  this  is  shown  in  the  rise,  pro- 
gress, and  decline  of  that  apparently  very  simple  article 
of  dress,  the  ihoe-bvefcU,  a  deeorwon  which,  however 
much  out  of  use  at  the  present  day,  was  indiapenaable 
to  the  appearance  of  a  gentleman  two  or  three  gene- 
rations  ago.  ' 

The  buckle  waa  preceded,  and  haa  been  superseded, 
by  other  forms  of  shoe-fastening.  "  I^haps  the  shoe, 
in  one  form  or  other,"  says  Mr.  Hntton,'  of  Birming- 
ham, "  ia  nearly  as  ancient  aa  the  foot.  Jt  originally 
appeared  under  the  name  of  'sandal';  thia  waa  no  other 
than  a  sole  without  an  upper  leather.  That  fashion  has 
since  been  inverted,  and  we  now,  eometimeft,  see  an  upper 
leather  nearly  without  a  sole.  But,  whatever  waa  the 
cut  of  the  shoe,  it  always  demanded  a  fastening."  Under 
the  house  of  Ptantagenet,  the  shoe  ahot  forward  bori- 
lontallf  from  the  foot  to  an  enormous  length,  so  as  to 
require  the  extremity  to  be  fastened  to  the  knee,  some- 
times with  a  silver  cWn,  at  other  times  with  a  silk  lace, 
and  even  with  a  piece  of  common  packthread.  This 
enormous  .beak  to  the  shoe  became  the  subject  of  legis- 
lative enactment;  forwe  find  that,  in  1465,  an  order  of 
council  waa  issued,  prohibiting  the  wearing  of  shoes 
whoae  beaks  projected  more  than  two  inchea  in  front  of 
the  foot,  on  pain  of  a  fine  to  the  king,  and  even  of  ex> 
communication. 

When  thia  fashion  changed,  the  rose  shoe-toe  sprang 
up,  in  compliment  to  the  houses  of  Lancaster  and  Tudor. 
This  rose  in  its  turn  gave  way  to  shoe  laces  and  strings, 
which  were  often  made  of  silk,  tagged  and  fringed  with 
silver.  At  length,  in  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary, 
the  shoe-buckle  made  its  appearance ;  or  as  Mr.  Hutton 
quaintly  expresses  it,  "  the  Revolution  wis  remariiable  for 
the  introduction  of  William,  of  liberty,  and  the  minute 
buckle."  This  mode  of  fastening  the  shoe  became  very 
generally  adopted,  in  foreign  countries  aa  well  as  our 
own;  and  the  town  of  Birmingham  became  celebrated 
for  the  large  number  as  well  aa  the  excellence  of  the 
buckles  made  there. 

Seventy  years  ago,  the  kind  of  buckle  most  in  demand 
was  made  of  Pinchbeck — an  alloy  of  copper  and  brass,  so 
called  from  the  name  of  the  person  who  so  employed  it. 
Another  variety  was  the  plated  buckle:  this  was  cast  in 
pinchbeck,  with  the  pattern  on  its  sniface,  and  a  silver 
coating  was  laid  on  by  means  of  a  flux  of  turpentine  and 
resin;  and  the  auiface  was  finally  chased  or  stamped. 
A  third  andmorevaluable  quality  was  the  "close-plated" 
buckle.  A  form  of  buckle  extensively  made  for  foreign 
sale,  waa  produced  ftaai  a  compound  metal  known  among 
the  workmen  as  Tutannia,  and  cast  in  moulds.  It  is 
-said  that  in  Germany,  this  article  was  manufactured  in 
the  open  streets,  so  Uut  a  passenger  might  choose  his 
pattern,  aeethe  process  of  making,  and  march  off  equipped 
with  shoe-buckles,  in  the  course  of  five  or  ten  minutes. 
Each  form  of  buckle  hsd  at  that  tdme  some  fanciful  name, 
by  which  it  was  known  in  the  trade ;  such  as  "  Bull's  eye," 
the  "Marquis  of  Granby."  the  "  Whim-wham,"  "Job's 
fancy,"  the  "Crow's  foot,"  and  others. 

About  the  year  1778,  an  impulacr  was  ^ven  to  the 
buckle  trade  at  Birmingham,  Walsall,  end  Wolverhamp- 
ton, by  the  invention  of  plating  upon  tin  or  composition 
foundations.  The  buckles  were  cast  singly  by  hand,  in 
tin  or  copper  moulds,  the  silver  being  first  pressed  into 
the  moiud,  and  the  comporition  then  ponred  over  it. 


142 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Aphil  10^ 


The  intimate  union  of  the  metals  was  aided  hy  the  ose 
of  corrosive  sublimate.  Different  metals  were  employed, 
such  as  copper,  steel,  spelter,  and  others,  to  give  hard* 
ness  to  the  tin.  This  plan  g^ave  birth  to  many  elegant 
devices  in  the  shoe-buckle,  as  the  union  of  the  sUver 
with  the  metal  beneath  was  so  complete  as  to  admit  of  a 
varied  range  of  patterns  and  arrangement  of  ornaments; 
particularly  that  of  inlaying  yellow  chased  ornaments  on 
the  surface  of  the  silver. 

A  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  chapet  a  part  of  the 
buckle  which  fastened  the  shoe,  enabled  the  manufacturer 
to  give  almost  any  size  to  the  buckle,  and  to  adopt  a 
▼arietyof  shapes,  such  as  round,  octagonal,  oval,  oblong, 
&C.  The  competition  among  the  makers  now  became 
very  active;  and  a  consequence  resulted  which  too  fre- 
quently  deteriorates  the  credit  of  those  employed:  the 
materials  and  mode  of  workmanship  became  worse  in 
qualitv,  in  order  that  the  selling  price  might  be  low.  It 
is  said,  that  for  many  years  the  consumption  of  buckles 
in  the  metropolis  was  so  enormous,  that  half  the  luggage 
of  the  coaches  going  from  Birmingham  to  London  was 
Bttpposed  to  consist  of  buckles. 

Soon  after  this  period,  a  further  change  took  place  in 
the  mode  of  manufacture,  by*  making  the  shell  or  foun- 
dation of  one  metal,  placing  a  layer  of  tin  on  that,  and 
plating  the  exterior  surface  with  silver.  Another  kind 
was  the  silvered  buckle,  in  which  the  exterior  layer  of 
silver  was  excessively  thin.  The  buckle  being  past  in 
some  cheap  metal,  fine  silver  was  dissolved  in  aqua*fortis, 
and  precipitated  in  a  powder ;  a  few  chemical  ingredients 
were  added,  and  the  whole  brought  into  a  liquid  state, 
and  spread  over  the  buckle  with  a  brush,  llie  buckle 
was  then  placed  on  a  gentle  fire  till  the  ingrecfients  were 
fused,  and  after  a  few  other  processes,  the  buckle  acquired 
a  silvery  whiteness.  This  silvery  surface  would  bear 
burnishing,  and  had  a  good  appearance ;  but  it  was  soon 
rubbed  off  'by  wear.  So  large  was  the  demand  for  buckles 
coated  with  silver,  that  one  Birmingham  maker  produced 
for  one  foreign  house  four  thousand  pounds  worth  in  the 
space  of  six  months. 

Mr.  Luckcock  of  Birmingham,  who  wrote  on  this 
subject,  says  that  many  a  princely  fortune  was  acquired 
during  the  efforts  and  fluctuations  in  the  buckle-trade,  and 
not  a  few  as  profusely  squandered.  No  anticipation  was 
contemplated,  of  any  fallmg  off  in  the  demand.  But  the 
time  was  approaching  when  the  buckle  was  to  be  super* 
seded  by  another  form  of  shoe-tie.  ^*  Abont  the  year 
1790,  the  foe  commenced  an  insidious  attack;  and  how- 
ever insigrnificant  the  agent  might  at  first  appear,  the 
ihoe-string  was  destined  to  accomplish  the  mignly  revo- 
lution. For  a  long  time  the  advances  were  inconsiderabley 
and  hope  was  sanguine  that  the  whim  would  be  but  of 
short  continuance.  Every  manufacturer  gradually  felt 
the  ground  falling  from  beneath  his  feet,  but  suU  sup- 
posed that  his  competitors  were  doing  better  than  him- 
self; till  confidence  itself  at  length  g^ve  way  to  the  general 
panic,  and,  if  one  may  so  express  it,  those  were  best  off 
at  last  who  got  out  first."  The  manufacturers,  as  gene- 
rally happens  in  such  cases,  thought  themselves  aggrieved ; 
but  by  whom  was  not  an  easy  question  to  answer.  They 
first  tried  ridicule,  in  a  way  which,  it  must  be  confessed, 
was  sufficiently  weak  and  foolish ;  via.,  to  parade  an  ass 
through  the  streets  of  Birmingham,  with  shoe-bows  at- 
tached to  his  fetlocks.  A  more  rational  course  adopted, 
was  to  send  a  deputation  of  master  manufacturers  up  to 
London,  to  wait  on  the  Prince  of  Wales  (afterwards 
George  the  Fourth;  at  Carlton  House,  and  solicit  the  aid 
of  his  countenance  and  support.  The  Prince  received  the 
deputation  courteously,  and  promised  to  do  all  which  his 
personal  influence  could  effect,  to  discourage  the  use  of 
the  shoe-tie.  But  all  to  no  effect;  taste,  fashion,  opinion, 
call  it  what  we  will,  had  taken  such  a  decided  turn,  that 
from  that  time  (1791)  the  use  of  the  shoe-bu^e  declined 
every  year  more  and  more. 

Mr.  Luokeock,  who  had  himself  been  in  the  buokle 


trade,  estimated  the  number  of  persons  engaged  thereb 
in  and  about  Birmingham,  at  upwards  of  four  thousand, 
when  the  manufacture  was  in  the  zenith  of  its  proeperitj; 
and  he  made  the  followmg  calculations  to  show  the  in- 
portance  of  this  trade.  Suppose  the  weekly  earnings  of 
these  persons,  young  and  old,  to  have  averaged  ten  shil* 
lings  each:-^ 

This  would  produce £2000 

Materials,  say      2000 

Profit  of  manitflMturer,  retailer^  &c  .    .    2000 


Weeks  IB  the  year 


6000 
62 


£312,000 


And  Bupposmg  the  buekles  to  sell,  on  the  avenge,  at 
Hi.  6tL  per  pair,  (this  may  now<«-days  seem  a  higii 
average  ;  but  a  guinea  or  upwards  -was  not  an  nnnsual 
price  for  gentlemen's  buckles  at  the  period  of  which  ve 
are  speaking,)  this  would  show  2,496,000  pairs  as  the 
quantity  annually  made.  Taking  the  populatioa  of 
Great  Britain  at  that  time  to  be  twelve  millions,  and 
suppose  half  of  them  to  wear  buckles,  this  would  allov 
each  wearer  a  new  pair  every  three  years,  and  ahout 
half  a  million  of  pairs  for  exportation,  which  is  deemed 
no  improbable  supposition.  On  this  calculation,  every 
workman  would  make  625  pairs  during  the  year,  about 
two  pairs  per  day,  excluding  Sundays.  These  calculations 
are  of  course  only  approximative ;  but  they  furnish  cu- 
rious evidence  oi  the  fluctuations  to  which  manufacturw 
are  liable,  and  they  are  valuable  as  showing  how  neces- 
sary provident  habits  are  to  the  workman,  since  he  can 
never  tell  how  soon  a  change  may  occur  which  will 
compel  him  to  turn  his  talents  into  some  new  depart- 
ment of  labour. 

We  will  conclude  by  quoting  a  remark  from  Mr. 
Luckcock,  who  wrote  in  1824:— «« Of  all  the  mutotions 
and  revolutions  which  this  town  has  experienced  within 
the  last  fifty  years,  none  appear  to  be  so  remarkahle  or 
extraordinary  as  those  connected  with  its  ancient  and 
apparentlv  invaluable  shoe-buckle  trade.  To  those  of 
the  inhabitants  who  remember  its  vast  extent  and  im- 
portance, it  seems  almost  to  mock  at  recollection;  and 
as  to  the  present  generation,  if  the  fact  was  not  authw- 
ticated  while  some  few  of  the  surviving  witnesses  rcmainj 
it  must  soon  have  appeared  incredible,  that  at  one  penod 
there  were  not  fewer  than  four  thousand  persons  em- 
ployed in  the  town  and  neighbourhood  in  this  article,  aj 
that  time  so  much  admired,  though  now  neglected  and 
almost  unknown.  The  universality  of  the  deniand 
seemed  to  bid  defiance  to  the  future  caprice  of  fashion: 
and  our  daily  bread  appeared  quite  as  likely  to  fail  in  its 
supply,  as  that  orders  should  totally  cease  for  this  ele- 
gant and  imagined  necessary  ornament.** 


WIRE-DRAWING. 
I.  Historical  Notice. 

Among  the  various  modes  by  which  metallic  substances 
are  brought  into  a  form  fitted  for  manufacturing  purposesi 
few  are  more  remarkable  than  the  process  of  wire-iii'^^' 
ingy  whereby  the  metal  is  made  to  assume  an  equahlei 
smooth,  and  cylindrical  form,  and  a  diameter  varying 
through  extensive  limits.  It  seems  highly  probable,  that 
in  early  periods  metals  were  beaten  with  a  hammer  ^sX^ 
thin  plates  or  leaves,  which  were  afterwards  divided  into 
narrow  slips  by  means  of  some  instrument  resembliQ? 
scissors ;  and  that  these  slips  were  by  a  hammer  and  nl^ 
rounded  so  as  \o  form  threads  or  wire. 

All  the  anient  writings,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  this 
subject,  seem  to  support  this  opinion.  In  describing  tw 
holy  garments  of  Aaron  (Exodus  xxxix.  3,)  the  inspired 
historian  uses  these  words : — *'  And  they  did  boat  tne 
gold  into  thin  plates,  and  cut  it  into  wires  to  work  it  ^ 


1841.] 


THE  JSATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


143 


the  blue,  aiid  in  the  purple,  and  in  the  scarlet,  and  in  the 
fine  linen,  with  cunning  work*" 

The  profane  writers  speak  similarly  of  slips,  cut  and 
beaten,  as  forming  wires.  Homer  makes  Vulcan  repair 
to  his  forge,  and  form  on  his  anvil,  by  means  of  hammers 
and  files,  a  net  as  delicate  as  a  spider's  web*  Beckmann 
supposes  that  the  first  employment  of  metals,  in  a  form 
at  lil  analogous  to  this,  was  by  aewing  slips  of  gold  upon 
the  clothes,  and  particularly  on  the  seaiaai  but  that 
people  afterwards  began  to  weave  or  knit  drcsaes  entirely 
of^ld  threads,  without  the  addition  of  any  other  mate- 
rial. Of  such  a  kind  are  supposed  to  have  been  the 
maotle  taken  from  the  statue  of  Jupiter  by  Dionysius,a$ 
mentioned  by  Cicero  and  Valerius  Maximus ;  and  also 
the  tunic  of  Heliogabalus,  described  by  Lampridius. 
This  appears  to  have  been  drap  (Tor  in  the  proper  sense 
of  the  term,  for  the  more  modem  tissue  known  by  that 
name  was  a  species  of  cloth,  the  threads  of  which  were  of 
siik,  wound  round  with  gilt  silver  wire* 

Pliny  ascribes  the  weaving  of  such  gold  threads  into 
cloth,  as  the  invention  of  King  Attains;  but  later  writers 
trace  it  to  an  earlier  date,  and  it  is  supposed  that  Attains 
merely  applied  gold  threads  to  the  surface  of  cloth  in  the 
manner  of  embroidery.  The  employment  of  silver  for  a 
similar  purpose  seems  to  be  of  much  later  date.  Vopis* 
cus  states  that  the  Emperor  Aurelian  was  desirous  of 
abolishing  the  use  of  gold  for  gilding  and  weaving,  be- 
cause, though  there  was  more  gold  than  silver,  the 
former  had  become  scarce  by  its  frequent  use  for  these 
purposes.  Saumaise  has  proved  that  sQver  threads  were 
interwoven  in  cloth  in  the  time  of  the  last  Greek  em- 
perors ;  but  it  is  not  known  how  long  this  custom  had 
then  existed. 

At  what  time  the  mode  of  making  threads  or  wires  of 
metal  assumed  a  form  analogous  to  that  at  present 
adopted,  has  been  matter  of  dispnte.  It  is  extremely 
probable  that  the  first  experiments  in  wire-drawing  were 
made  upon  the  most  ductile  metals ;  and  that  the  drawing 
of  brass  and  iron  to  the  form  of  wire  is  of  later  date. 
As  long  as  the  work  was  performed  by  the  hammer,  the 
artists  at  Niimbere  were  called  "  wire^miths;*'  but  after 
the  invention  of  me  modem  process,  they  were  called 
"w'ure-drawers"  and  "wire-millers.''  As  both  these  ap- 
pellations ocXswt  in  the  histories  of  Augsburg  and  Niim- 
berg  about  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  it  is 
deemed  probable  that  the  invention  of  wire-drawing  may 
be  placed  in  the  early  part  of  that  century. 

VVhen  gold  lace, — ^that  is,  silk  thread  enveloped  in  a 
golden  covering, — was  first  brought  into  use,  it  appears 
that  the  gold  wire,  used  as  the  envelop,  was  round,  or 
cylindrical,  and  that  the  flattening  was  introduced  from 
motives  of  ecc  uomy,  since  flat  wire  will  go  three  times 
as  far  as  cylindrical  wire,  when  used  merely  as  a  cover- 
ing. Of  the  wire-work  of  the  ancients,  few  remains  are 
known.  In  the  museum  at  Portici,  which  contains  a 
variety  of  articles  discovered  at  Herculaneum,  are  three 
metallic  heads,  with  locks  in  imitation  of  hair:  one  of 
them  has  fifty  locks  made  of  wire  as  thick  as  a  quill,  bent 
into  the  form  of  a  curl ;  and  on  the  other  the  locks  are 
flat,  like  small  slips  of  paper  which  have  been  rolled  to- 
gether with  the  fingers,  and  afterwards  entangled.  A 
figure  of  Venus  has  on  the  arms  and  legs  golden  brace* 
leta,  formed  of  wire.  Among  the  insignia  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  is  the  sword  of  Sabt  Maurice,  the  handle  of 
which  is  wood,  bound  round  with  strong  silver  wire. 
Such  are  a  few  instances  of  ancient  workmanship  at  pre- 
sent remaining. 

llie  present  mode  of  making  wire,  as  we  shall  here- 
after explain,  is  by  drawing  small  slips  of  wire  through 
circular  holes  in  a  hardened  steel  plate;  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  this  method  was  first  constructed,  if  not  in- 
v»^nted,  by  Rudolph,  a  native  of  Niimberg,  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  Conrad  Celtes  states  that  the  son  of 
the  inventor,  cajoled  by  avaricious  people,  discovered 
to  them  the  whole  secret  of  the  macmnery;  which 


so  incensed  the  father  that  he  would  have  put  the  incau- 
tious son  to  death,  had  he  not  precipitately  escaped. 
Whether  or  not  this  was  really  the  mode  of  promulga^ 
tion,  it  appears  certain  that  the  an  of  wire^drawing  soon 
attained  a  high  degree  of  excellence  at  Niimberg.  8eve«- 
ral  improvements  were  from  time  to  time  made  by  diffe- 
rent persons,  who  received  exclusive  patents  for  using 
them,  somethnes  fit^m  the  emperor,  and  sometimes  from 
the  councti,  and  which  gave  rise  to  many  tedious  law*' 
suits. 

Dr.  Hirsching  has  collected  many  cnrious  details  re- 
speeting  the  ear^  progress  of  this  art.  In  the  year  1570, 
a  Frenchman,  named  Anthony  Foumier,  first  brought 
to  Niimberg  the  art  of  drawing  wire  exceedingly  fine,  and 
made  considerable  improvements  in  the  apparatus  em- 
ployed for  that  purpose.  In  1592,  Frederick  Hagelshei- 
mer,  a  citisen  of  Niimberg,  began  to  prepare  fine  gold  and 
silver  wire,  such  as  could  be  used  for  spinning  round 
silk  and  for  weaving,  and  which  before  that  period  had 
been  manufactured  only  in  Italy  and  France.  He  re- 
ceived from  the  Kiirnberg  magistrates  an  exclusive 
patent,  by  the  terms  of  which  no  other  person  was 
allowed  to  make  or  imitate  the  fine  works  which  he 
manufactured,  for  the  term  of  fifteen  years ;  and  this  term 
was  afterwards  further  extended  for  a  similar  period,  on  the 
ground  of  the  large  capital  expended  in  the  manufactory. 
He  afterwards  obtained  a  patent  for  the  production  <^ 
copper  wire  coated  with  gold  or  silver;  and  he  seepus  to 
have  received  high  marks  of  favour  from  the  Emperot 
Rodolphus  the  Second,  and  the  Emperor  Matthias. 
When  the  patents  finally  expired,  in  1621,  the  family  of 
Hagelsheimer  entered  into  an  agreement,  in  regard  to 
wages  and  other  regulations,  with  the  master  wire-^^wers 
and  piece-woticers  of  Niimberg. 

Augsburg  was  also  celebrated  for  thet.  production  of 
wire,  the  finer  sorts  of  which  were  made  by  men  in** 
vited  from  Italy,  particularly  Gabriel  and  Vmcent  Mar- 
teningi.  In  France,  iron  wire  is  called  Jil  d*Archal, 
and  the  artists  there  have  an  idea  that  this  appellation 
took  its  rise  from  one  Richard  Archal,  who  either  in- 
vented or  first  established  the  art  of  drawing  iron  wire  in 
that  country.  The  expression y?/  de  Richard  is  also  used 
among  the  French  wire-drawers.  Menage,  however, 
thinks  thatjil  d'ArcMh  compounded  of  the  Latin  words 
filufn  and  ourichalcum. 

But  little  is  known  respecting  the  introduction  of  wire- 
drawing into  England.  It  has  however  been  stated  that 
all  the  English  wire  was  manufactured  with  the  hammer, 
until  certain  foreigners  introduced  the  improved  method, 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Christopher  Schults, 
a  native  of  Annaberg,  in  Saxony,  came  to  this  country 
under  the  permission  given  by  that  sovereign  to  strangers, 
to  dig  for  metallic  ores ;  and  it  is  to  him  that  the  intro- 
duction of  iron  wire-drawing  is  attributed  in  the  year 
1565.  In  a  book  published  by  John  Houghton,  however, 
in  172Z«  it  is  intimated  that  the  art  was  brought  to 
England  at  a  later  period ;  and  that  the  first  wire-drawing 
establishment  was  opened  at  Esher,  in  Surrey,  By  two 
foreigners,  named  Jacob  Momma  and  Daniel  Demetrius. 
Before  the  period  here  indicated,  the  English  iron  wire 
is  said  to  have  had  so  little  reputation,  that  the  greater 
part  of  what  was  used  in  the  kingdom,  as  well  as  the  in- 
struments employed  by  the  wool-combers,  were  brought 
from  other  countries.  By  the  time  of  Charles  the  First, 
however,  the  manufiicture  had  risen  to  some  importance ; 
and  we  meet  with  a  proclamation  by  that  monarch,  in  1 630, 
to  the  following  effect: — 

That  Iron-wire  is  a  manufacture  long  practised  in  the 
realm,  whereby  many  thousands  of  our  suDJects  have  long 
been  employed ;  and  that  English  wire  is  made  of  the  tough- 
est and  best  Orsmund  iron,  a  native  commodity  of  this  king- 
dom, and  is  much  better  than  what  comes  from  foreign  parts, 
especially  for  making  wool-cards,  without  which  no  good 
cloths  can  be  made.  And  whereas  complaints  have  been 
made  by  the  wir»>drawers  of  this  kingdom,  that  by  reason 
of  the  great  quantities  of  foreign  iron  wire  lately  imported. 


144 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[April  10,  ,1841. 


our  said  subjects  csanot  be  set  at  work ;  therefore  we  pro- 
hibit the  importation  of  foreim  iron  wire,  and  wool-cards 
made  thereof  as  dso  hooks  and  eye&  and  other  inannfaotnres 
9iiade  of  f<»eign  wire,  Neither  shall  anytranaiate  and  trim 
up  any  old  woolssardsy  nor  seli  the  same  at  home  or  abroad. 

It  may  appear  to  a  modem  reader,  that  the  mention  of 
'<  hooka  and  eyes"  in  the  above  proclamation  was  a  very 
trivial  affair;  but  such  was  not  tlie  case,  for  these  small 
articles  were  used  in  such  quantities  at  the  time  in 
question,  as  to  render  the  consumption  of  wire  in  their 
manufacture  yery  large. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  occupation  of  wire- 
drawing became  firmly  established  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Bamsley  in  Yorkshire;  partly  on  account  of  the 
proximity  of  the  woollen  manufacture  (the  cards  for 
which  are  made  of  wire),  and  partly  on  account  of  the 
presence  of  coal  and  iron-stone  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Since  that  period,  great  improvements  have  taken  place, 
and  the  manufacture  is  now  established  in  different  parts 
of  the  North  of  England. 

Having  thus  briefly  traced  the  history  of  the.  art  of 
wire-drawing,  we  shall  in  a  second  paper  describe  the 
processes  by  which  various  kinds  of  wire  are  produced. 


HOT  CROSS-BUNS. 


The  popular  cry  of  Hot  Cross-Buns  on  Good  Friday, 
IS  80«fkmiliar  to  all  who  have  lived  in  a  town,  whether 
large  or  small,  that  the  reader  might  incline  to  wonder, 
upon  the  first  view  '  of  the  case^  why  so  apparently 
trifling  a  subject  should  be  brought  before  his  notice ; 
but  it  is  our  duty  to  suggest  two  considerations  on  this 
head;  first,  that  ages  upon  ages  have  rolled  away,  and 
cross-buns  have^been  regiilarly  made  at  the  Paschal  season 
of  the  year ;  and  that  which  is  ancient  in  its  origin,  will 
naturally,  if  only  on  account  of  its  antiquity,  attract  our 
curiosity  as  it  passes  down  the  long  extended  river  9f 
time.  * 

In  the  second  place,  though  cross-buns^  will  be  found 
to  be  heathenish  in  their  origin,  popish  in  their  progress, 
and  common  in  their  continuance;  they  nevertheless 
bear  reference  to  the  Cross  of  Christ, — ^the  fountain  of 
salvation  to  all  who  look  to  it,  in  reliance  on  the  merits 
of  their  Redeemer 

Cecrops,  one  of  the  kings  of  Greece,  about  sixteen 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  is  said  to  have  first 
offered  up  to  the  Divinity  the  sacred  cross-bread,  called 
a  bun,  (Greek  /Sowy)  which  was  made  of  fine  flour  and 
honey.  The  prophet  Jeremiah,  who  flourished  about 
600  years  b.c.,  notices  this  kind  of  offering,  when  he 
speaks  of  the  Jewish  women  at  Pathros  in  Egypt,  and 
of  their  base  idolatry, — ^the  cakesy  which  they  offered 
up  to  the  moon,  the  queen  of  heaven. 

This  cake  or  bun,  which  the  Greeks  called  /Sovr,  from 
the  representation  upon  it  of  the  two  horns  of  an  ojt,  is 
therefore  a  species  of  bread,  which  originally  used  to  be 
offered  to  the  gods,  and  it  was  usually. purchased  by  the 
worshippers  at  the  entrance  of  the  temple,  and  taken  in 
by  them,  and  eaten  at  the  feast  of  thie  remaining  parts 
of  the  sacrifice ;  to  which  St.  Paul  alludes  in  1  Cor.  x.  28. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  at  Herculaneum  were 
found  two  small  loaves  of  about  five  inches  in  diameter, 
marked  with  a  cross,  within  which  were  four  other  lines ; 
and  so,  we  are  told,  the  bread  of  the  Greeks,  was  marked 
from  the  earliest  periods.  Sometimes  it  had  only  four 
lines  altogether,  and  then  it  was  called  qtuidra.  This 
bread  had  rarely  any  other  mark  than  a  cross,  which  was 
on  purpose  to  divide  and  break  it  more  easily.  Similar 
loaves  were  discovered  in  a  bake-house  at  Pompeii. 
These  towns  were  overwhelmed  and  destroyed  by  the 
volcanic  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  a.d.  79. 

In  the  course  of  time  we  find  the  Christian  Church 
using  cakes  or  buns,  such  as  we  have  already  referred 
to,  and  consecrating  them:  these  were  bestowed  in  the 
chu/^h  as  alms;  and  likewise  to  those  who,  from  any  im- 


pediment, could  not  receive  the  ho$if  or  conaecnted 
wafer,  at  the  usual  time  of  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
supper.  These  buns  were  made  from  the  dough,  from 
which  the  host  Itself  was  taken,  and  they  were  given  bj 
the  priest  to  the  people  after  mass,  just  before  the  con- 
gregation was  dismissed ;  and  they  were  kissed  before 
they  were  eaten.  They  were  also  marked  with  the  cross, 
just  as  our  present  Good  Friday  buns  are.  This  bim  is 
the  most  popular  symbol  of  the  Roman  Catholic  reUgion 
in  England  that  the  Reformation  has  left  to  us. 

Hot  cross-buns  have  the  usual  form  of  buns;  but 
they  are  inwardly  distinguished  from  other  buns  bj 
having  a  sweeter  taste,  and  the  flavour  of  allspice;  tad 
outwi^dly  they  are  known  by  the  mark  of  tne  cross, 
which,  as  our  readers  know,  has  been  greatly  insisted 
on  in  Papal  worship  and  devotion,  from  the  days  of 
Constantino  the  Greint,  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth 
century,  to  the  present  hour. 

We  see,  therefore,  that  the  bun  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
crossed,  to  represent  the  horns  of  the  ox  which  was 
sacrificed,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  more  readily 
breaking  it,  was  adopted  by  the  Christians  and  used 
as  the  only  food  on  the  day  of  the  Crucifixion,  because 
it  possessed,  ready  at  hand,  a  symbol  of  that  solenrn 
event. 

Many  superstxttons  are  connected  with  this  species  of 
bun.  In  some .  counties  of  England,  great  care  is 
taken  to  preserve  some  of  these  cakes  or  buns,  whicb 
being  grated  after  they  are  dry,  are  esteemed  by  the 
credulous  as  infallible  cures  for  many  diseases.  They 
have,  however,  been  often  found  beneficial  in  bowd 
complaints. 

In  the  houses  of  some  ignorant  people,  a  Good  Friday 
bun  is  still  kept  '^for  luck;"  and  sometimes  there  hangs 
from  the  ceiling  a  hard  biscuit,  like  cake  of  open  cross- 
work,  baked' on  a  Good  Friday,  to  remain  there  till  dis- 
placed on  the  n^xt  Good  Friday  by  one  of  similar 
make: — ^this  is  also  supposed  to  preserve  the  house  from 
fire. 

Thus  then  the  cakes  or  buns  of  Good  Friday  are 
marked  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  in  remembrance  of 
the  Crucifixion  of  our  Saviour,  who,  haying  taken  upoo 
him  the  nature  of  man,  suffered  on  this  day  for  our  re- 
demption. The  appellatran  of  **Good,"  wluch  has  been 
conferred  upon  this  day,  is  peculiar  to  the  Church  of 
England,  and  is  accounted  for,  by  referring  to  the 
blessed  effects  purchased  for  us  by  our  Lord's  sufferings. 
The  ancient  title  of  the  day  was  *'Jffo^  Friday;"  and 
the  week  in  which  it  happens,  is  still  deinominated  **Ilofy  " 
or  ^*  Passion  week!' 


Thbre  is  a  beautiful  analogy  between  vegetable  and  hnmaii 
life  in  early  stages.  ,  No  enduring  and  valuaUe  fruit  Uee 
springs  at  once  from  the  earth  to  maturity.  It  must  go 
tnrough  a  period  of  time,  when  it  yields  no  fruit,  and  when  it 
is  an  object  of  continual  care  and  attention.  Its  nature  must 
be  considered,  the  earth  around  it  must  be  kept  in  a  fit  state  to 
promote  its  growth ;  its  useless  shoots  must  be  cut  off;  its  dis- 
eases, whether  generated  in  itself,  or  caused  by  some  invading 
foe,  must  be  met  and  overcome.  It  may  be  let  abne,  and  live^ 
an  incumbrance  to  the  land,  producing  nothkig  worUi  gaUier- 
ing;  or  it  mav  be  an  object  on  which  the  eye  rests  with 
pleasure,  which  its  owner  may  be  thankful  for,  and  ration- 
ally proud  to  show.  There  is  as  much  difference  in  the 
cares,  anxieties,  and  duties,  of  raising  a  fruit  tree,  and  bring- 
ing a  human  being  to  manhood,  as  the  llfi^  of  man  is  mon 
precious  than  that  of  a  tree.— S. 


Nothing  stren^hens  a  child  in  goodness,  or  enables  him  to 
overcome  a  fiftult,  so  much  as  seemg  his  efforts  excite  a  sud- 
den and  earnest  expression  of  love  and  joy. — Mbs.  Chilix 

LONDON : 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAND. 
PoBUtaiD  ur  WsBXL V  N VMBsiit,  Pbio  K  On  PsHMT.  Avn  III  MoMi uLx  r^  *^    . 

PUOB  SlZPKVOK.       ^ 

Sold  hj  all  BoQkveUera  rad  NewtTvndon  ia.tiM  Klsf dom..t 


^^nrtian  ^       M^U^^int^ 


N?.  564. 


17T.»,  1841.  {o 


MKBTIMO  OW  BKCTOB  AMD  AXDEOMACHl,  »T  rLAVIAII. 


146 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


April  17| 


JOHN  FLAXMAN  AND  HIS  WORKS. 

n. 

n  ...  % 

Scnlptnra,  in  h«r  torn, 
Girea  bond  bi  stone  and  ever-duiing  bnai 
To  guard  theni)  and  to  inunoztalize  her  trust"— Cowraa. 

Wrkn  Flaxman  was  twenty-seven  yean  M  he  ventured 
to  enter  upon  business  for  himself,  and  apart  from  his 
father.  Among  other  preliminaries  to  the  new  regula- 
tion of  his  career,  he  united  himself  in  marriage  with 
Anne  Denman,  a  woman  whom  he  had  long  loved,  and 
who  well  deserved  his  affection.  This  step  was  taken  by 
our  artist  from  a  belief  that,  in  the  society  of  h^r  whom 
he  loved,  he  should  be  able  to  work  with  an  Intenser 
spirit.  But  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  looked  upon  this  mat- 
ter in  a  very  different  light.  **  So,  Flaxman,"  said  the 
president,  one  day,  as  he  chanced  to  meet  him,  **  I  am 
told  you  are  married:  if  so,  sir,  I  tell  you  you  are  ruined 
for  an  artist  I "  It  is  said  that  Flaxman  went  home,  sat 
down  beside  his  wife,  took  her  hand,  and  said  with  a 
smile,  '*!  am  ruined  for  an  artist.**  ''John,'*  said  she, 
''how  has  this  happened?  and  who  has  done  it?*'  "It 
happened,"  he  answered,  "in  the  church,  and  Ann  Den- 
man has  done  it :  I  met  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  just  now, 

and  he  said  that  marriage  had  ruined  nie  in  my  profes- 
•     It 
•ion. 

So  unfavourable  an  opinion,  coming  from  an  authority 
so  high  and  reputed,  seemed,  like  a  cloud,  to  dull  the 
prospect  before  them, — but  it  was  a  cloud  that  passed 
away,  and  left  "the  sunshine  of  the  breast"  clear  as  it 
was  before  j  for  they  very  wisely  considered  the  opinion 
of  the  president  to  be  no  more  than  the  unguarded  and 
peevish  remark  of  a  wealthy  old  bachelor.  The  course 
of  experience  soon  showed,  and  confirmed  him  in  the 
belief,  that "  wedlock  is  for  a  man's  good,  rather  than  for 
his  harm."  How  could  it  be  otherwise  in  his  case? 
His  wife  was  amiable  and  accomplished,  had  a  taste  for 
art  and  literature,  and  considerable  knowledge  of  French, 
Italian,  and  Greek.  But,  what  was  more  grateful  than 
all  in  a  wife,  she  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  his 
genius, — she  cheered  and  encouraged  him  in  his  moments 
of  despondency,  and  regulated  modestly  and  prudently 
his  domestic  economy.  "That  tranquillity  of  mind,  so 
essential  to  those  who  live  by  thought,  was  of  his  house- 
hold; and  the  sculptor,  happy  in  the  company  of  one 
who  had  taste  and  enthusiasm,  soon  renewed  with  double 
xeal  the  studies  which  courtship  and  matrimony  had  for 
a  time  interrupted." 

Flaxman's  household,  soon  after  his  marriage,  is  thus 
described  by  one  who  respected  and  admired  his  genius 
and  worth. 

I  remember  him  well ;  so  do  I  his  wife,  and  also  his  hum- 
ble little  house  in  Wardour-street.  All  was  neat— nay, 
ele^tr— the  figures  from  which  he  studied  were  the  finwt 
antiaues — ^the  nature  which  he  copied  was  the  fidiest  that 
could  be  had — and  all  in  his  studio  was  propriety  and  order. 
But  what  struck  me  most  was  that  air  of  devout  quiet 
which  reigned  everywhere :  the  models  which  he  made,  and 
the  dosigns  which  he  drew,  were  not  more  serene  than  he 
was  himself,  and  his  wife  had  that  meek  composure  of 
manner  which  he  so  much  loved  in  art.  Yet,  better  than 
all,  was  the  devout  feelinsr  of  this  singular  man:  there  was 
no  ostentatious  display  of  piety— nay,  he  was  in  some  sort 
a  lover  of  mirth  and  8ociality,-.but  be  was  a  reader  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  a  worshipper  of  sincerity;  and,  if  ever 
Punty  vwted  the  earth,  she  redded  with  John  Flaxman. 

By  incessant  study  and  labour,  for  five  years  from  the 
time  of  his  marriage,  Flaxman  accumulated  the  means  of 
visiting  Italy,  in  order  to  study,  in  the  Roman  school 
the  productions  of  ancient  and  modem  artisU.  During 
those  five  years  he  exhibited  only  seven  works,  nor  were 
these  his  best  One  of  his  first  monuments  was  in  me- 
mory  of  Collins,  the  poet,  for  Chicthester  cathedral*.  It 
represents  the  poet  sitting  and  reading  ihe  Bible,  while 

•  ^-Saturday  Magaxm.YoL  V.,  p.  27. 


his  lyre  and  poetical  compositions  lie  neglected  om  the 
ground.  '*!  have  but  one  book,  sir,**  siod  Collins  to 
Johnson,  "but  that  is  the  best." 

His  monument  to  Mrs.  Morley;  ih  Gloucester 
cathedral,  is  considered  to  be  a  work  of  high  order, 
though  belonging  to  Flaxman's  early  years.  This  lady 
perished  with  h^  child  at  sea,  and  is  poetically  repre- 
sented as  called  up  by  angels,  with  her  babe,  from  the 
waves,  and  ascending  into  heaven.  The  effect  is  spobn 
of  by  Cunningham  as  inexpressibly  touching — elevating 
the  mind,  and  not  without  tears.  It  is  a  work  of  more 
than  mortal  loveliness,  expressing  the  sentiment  of  im- 
mortality, and  possessing  a  serene  simplicity  which 
accords  with  holy  thoughts.  Of  the  grouping  of  angels 
in  another  work  of  this  date,  the  lame  biogranher  le- 
marks  that,  "if  ever  figures  were  capable  of  rismg  from 
earth,  these  are,  for  they  are  buoyant  without  any 
effort." 

In  the  year  1787  he  set  out  for  Rome,  in  compuy 
with  his  wife.  His  departure  was  thus  alluded  to  in  the 
newspapers: — ^"  We  understand  that  Flaxman,  the  sculp- 
tor, is  about  to  leave  his  modest  mansion  in  Wardour- 
street  for  Rome." 

In  Rome  he  sojourned  for  about  seven  years,  admiring, 
studying,  labouring,  and  thus  supporting  himself  ud 
his  wife.  He  seems  to  have  imbibed  the  idea  of  illus- 
trating divine  ReveUtion  by  his  works,  when  he  should 
return  to  tl^  land  of  his  birth.  In  the  mean  whik  it 
was  necessary  for  him,  as  for  many  others  of  the  chil- 
dren of  genius,  to  seek  his  bread,  by  practising  his  art 
in  accordance  with  the  inclinations  of  those  who  employed 
him.  The  space  to  which  we  are  here  neoesurily 
limited  prevents  us  from  entering  into  a  detail  of  the 
illustrations  of  Homer,  of  ^schylus,  and  of  Dsute, 
which  he  executed  by  commission:  they  were  all  dis- 
charged from  his  mind  on  the  purest  principles  of  nature 
and  the  antique,  and  finished  off  with  the  nicest  adjust*  , 
ments  of  manual  skill. 

Flaxman  spent  about  seven  years  at  Rome,  which  he 
turned  to  the  best  account.  Mfore  his  return  home  be  i 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  academies  of  Florence  and 
Carrara.  Napoleon  Buonaparte  had  just  begun  to 
attract  the  attention  of  mankind,  and  the  events  in  the  ' 
north  of  Italy  probably  quickened  our  sculptor's  retum* 
"  I  remember,  a  night  or  two  before  my  departure  firom 
Rome,"  he  once  observed  to  a  friend,  "that  the  ambas- 
sador of  the  French  proudly  showed  us,  at  an  eveiiisg 
partv,  a  medal  of  Buonaparte.  'There,'  said  he,  'is 
the  hero  who  is  to  shake  the  monarchies  of  the  earth, 
and  raise  the  gh>ry  of  the  Republic'  I  looked  at  the 
head,  and  said  at  once, '  This  citisen  Buonaparte  of  jours  j 
is  the  very  image  of  Augustus  CsBsar.'  'Imageofa 
tyrant!'  exclaimed  the  Frenchnum,  'no,  indeed:  I  tell 
you  he  is  another  sort  of  a  man — he  is  a  young  enthusi-  | 
astic  hero,  and  dreams  of  nothing  but  liberty  ana 
equality  ! ' "  Reflecting  men  on  this  side  the  Chanoel* 
as  well  as  on  the  Continent,  more  incredulous  than  the 
Frenchman,  soon  began  to  suspect  Buonaparte  to  be  tie 
enemy  of  all  who  opposed  him,  and  the  tyrant  of  all  who 
obeyed  him.  .. 

On  his  return  to  Engknd  Flaxman  established  hifflseit 
in  Buckingham-street,  Fitzroy-square,  where  he  at  oucc 
became  known  by  his  monument  in  memory  of  the  h&r 
of  Mansfield.  This  work  had  been  commissioned  dunog 
his  residence  at  Rome. 

The  judge  u  seated,  and  in  his  robes;  Wisdom  ia  on  od« 
side.  Justice  on  the  otiier;  and  behind  is  a  recumbent  jou^ 
whom  the  common  accounts  of  the  monument  descnoe  as 
Death,  but  who  is,  nevertheless,  more  like  an  UM^^Pf  J!  T^ 
tal  on  whom  sentence  hoA  been  passed,  and  by  "/"/' . 
delivered  up  to  Justice.  For  this  magnificent  work  he  m 
2500/.  ,. 

The  statue  of  Mansfield  is  calm,  simple,  severe,  and  soli- 
tary, he  siU  alone,  'above  aU  pomp,  aU  passion,  a^d ju' 
pride ;'  and  there  is  that  m  his  look  ^hich  would  embower 
the  imiooent|  and  strike  terror  to  the  guilty. 


AC 


S4I0 


THS  SATURDAY  MAttAZINE. 


14f 


Thft  fifoi  of  fltc  eontoUMJ  youth  is  Mrttfadj  a  Ibe 
ronception.  Hope  has  fonaken  nim,  md  already  in  hia 
ears  is  the  thiokeniiig  ham  of  the  multitiide^  eager  to  see 
luin  make  his  final  account  with  time.  This  work  raised 
high  expectations.  Banks  said,  wh^i  ha  saw  it»  'This 
little  man  cuts  us  all  out  I* 

While  he  was  engaged  on  the  statue  of  Mansfield,  he 
designed  with  pen  and  pencil  a  series  of  allegorical  re- 
presentations, in  which  the  chief  adventurer  is  the 
Knight  of  the  Burning  Cross*  a  Christian  hero,  whose 
fortitude,  faith,  and  courage,  make  him,  though  at  first 
sorely  assailed  and  almoat  vanquished,  the  conqueror  in 
the  end.  These  designs  were  executed  as  a  trihute  of 
affection  to  his  wife,  in  whose  society  he  had  now  lived 
fourteen  years,  and  enjoyed  the  purest  domestic  happi- 
ness that  could  fall  to  the  lot  of  man. 

In  1797  he  was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  in  the  same  year  he  sent  to  the  exhihiUon 
three  sketches  in  has-relief  from  the  New  Testament, 
along  with  the  monument  of  Sir  William  Jones*  This 
monument  now  stands  in  the  chapel  of  University  College, 
Oxford;  it  is  a  bas-relief,  and  represents  the  accomplished 
judge  engaged  with  some  venerable  Brahmins  in  a  digest 
of  the  Hindoo  code  of  laws.  It  is  not  considered  that  Flax- 
man  excelled  in  works  of  this  sort;  he  cannot  be  said  to 
have  had  the  art  of  givinsr  mce  or  beauty  V>  modem 
dresses,  or  to  modern  looks.  The  sketches  before 
alluded  to  were  from  scriptural  designs,  and  were  dia- 
tingaished  for  their  elegance  of  grouping,  and  the  clear 
language  which  they  spoke.  One  was  Christ  raising  the 
daughter  of  JairOs:  the  figures  are  one  fourth  the  size  of 
life,  and  but  slightly  raised;  but  for  perfect  innocence  and 
serene  loveliness,  nothing  can  compete  with  them.  He 
afterwards  earved  this  in  marble,  on  an  enlarged  seale,  for 
a  monument.  The  second  was  scaroeiy  inferior,  and 
might  be  said  to  have  for  its  text,—"  Comfort  the  feeble- 
minded, sunport  the  weak.**  (1  Thoss.  v.  14.)  Minis- 
tering angeii  attend,  in  order  to  alleviate  human  sorrow. 
The  third  sketch  is  "  Feeding  the  Hungrv."  In  the  year 
1800  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
on  this  occasion  present^  4o  the  collection  of  the  insti- 
tution a  marble  g^oup  of  Apollo  and  Marpessa. 

Flaxman  longed  to  be  employed  on  some  national 
work ;  and  accordingly  he  proposed,  when  the  subject  of 
the  grand  naval  pillar  was  agitated,  to  make  a  statue  of 
Britannia,  200  leet  high,  and  place  it  on  Greenwich 
Hill.  This  proposal,  iMwever,  was  coldly  received,  and 
allowed  to  ilrop9-— one  critie  aoeused  him  of  wishing  "  to 
hew  Greenwich  Mill  into  a  woman  large  enough  to  grace 
a  eouple  of  goats  in  her  lap,"  while  another  gave  notice, 
— ''  There  is  to  be  a  show  at  Greenwich  of  little  Flaxman 
and  big  Britannia.'^ 

The  many  noble  works  which  now  came  from  the  hand 
of  Flaxmau  made  many  people  feel  that  a  soulptor  had 
•t  length  appeard  to  vindMsato  the  dignity  of  onr 
nationtd  genius.  One  of  these  was  a  monument  in 
memory  of  the  fhmily  of  Sir  Francis  Baring,  for 
Micheldean  Church,  in  wampshire ; — an  excellent  work, 
and  said  to  be  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  motionless 

rlry  in  the  land.  It  embodies  the  words, — "  Thy  will 
done — thy  kingdom  come-— deliver  us  from  evU." 
To  the  first  motto  belongs  a  devotional  figure,  as  large 
is  life,  a  perfect  image  of  piety  and  resignation  s  this  figure 
forms  the  frontispiece  or  our  ibmer  article,  p.  105.  On 
I  ene  side — ^^  Thy  kingdom  come'*-^a  mother  and  daughter 
ftsceod  to  the  skies,  welcomed,  rather  than  supported  by 
togels;  and  on  the  other — ^** Deliver  us  from  evil* 
-^  male  figure  in  subdued  agony  ^>pears  in  the  air, 
^ile  spirits  of  good  and  evil  oontend  for  the  mastery. 
It  was  well  said  by  Flaxman  that  '*  the  Christian  religion 
t^THents  personages  and  subjects  no  less  favourable  to 
jp^ting  and  sculptnre  than  the  ancient  clas8ic$." 

We  cannot  stay  even  to  catalogue  the  other  works  of 
tearlj  equal  beauty,  though  not  of  such  extent,  which 
followed  this  ^)lendid  monument.  Of  historical  works 
ke  executed  several;  but  they  are  not  thought  to  be  his 


ablest  performances.'^  Hucb  cf  his  poetic  invention 
seems  to  have  forsaken  him,  when  he  approached  subjects 
of  modem  days.  Hence  it  was,  that,  in  such  works, 
there  was  an  occasional  absence  of  true  proportion,  which 
no  emendation  could  completely  remedy.  This  is  said 
to  have  resulted  from  his  habit,  in  the  former  part  of 
his  life,  of  working  his  marbles  from  half-sized  models, 
— a  system  which  is  injurious  to  true  proportion;  as  the 
defects  of  the  small  model  are  much  more  than  propor- 
tionally aggravated  in  the  full-sized  marble.  A^en 
Flaxman  latterly  became  sensible  of  the  advantage  of 
using  large  models,  the  change  for  the  better  was  con« 
spicuous  in  several  of  his  historical  works,  bolh  ancient  and 
modem ;  but  still  his  spirit  followed  after  the  grace  and 
beauty  of  ckusic  antiquity,  and  seemed  to  slumber  in  the 
representations  of  ordinary  modem  life. 

The  subject  of  our  frontispiece  is  the  meeting  of 
Hector  and  Andromache,  in  one  of  the  scenes  of  the 
Trojan  war,  as  described  by  Homer  in  the  sixth  book 
of  the  Hiad.  Tliis  production  of  Flaxman 's  is  spoken 
of  as  exhibiting  a  severer  kind  of  beauty — a  mixture  of 
manliness  and  matronly  love.  The  quiet  dignity  of  the 
hero  is  truly  wonderful. 

"With  haste  to  meet  him  sprang  the  joyful  fair. 
His  blameless  wife  Action's  wMlthy  heir. 
The  nurse  stood  near,  in  whose  embraees  pressed 
His  only  hope  hung  smiling  at  her  breast, 
Whom  eaoh  soft  charm  and  early  gnee  adom. 
Fair  as  the  new-born  star  that  gUds  the  mom. 

Silent  the  warrior  smiled,  and  i^eased,  resigned 
To  tender  passions  all  his  mighty  mind  i 
His  beauteous  princess  casts  a  moumiiil  look. 
Hung  on  his  hand,  and  then  dejected  spoke  ; 
Her  bosom  laboured  with  a  boding  sigl^ 
And  the  big  tear  stood  trembling  in  her  sye. 


When  the  peace  of  Amiens,  in  the  year  1802,  opened 
the  way  to  France,  Flaxman  visited  Paris,  to  see  the 
splendid  collections  of  paintings  in  the  Louvre.  These 
had  been  taken,  by  the  right  of  conquest,  from  the 
states  of  Italy,  but  were  restored  by  the  decision  of  the 
allies  at  the  downfall  of  Buonaparte.  Whatever  pleasure 
our  artist  might  have  felt  in  his  professional  visit  to 
France,  he  seems  to  have  been  anything  but  delighted 
with  the  ruling  spirits  of  the  coming  empire.  He  held 
it  to  be  unsafe,  or  at  least  unwise,  to  keep  company  with 
persons,  however  clever  and  brilliant,  whose  moral  and 
religious  opinions  were  inimical  to  the  natural  law  of 
mercy  and  loving •iLindness,  and  to  the  religion  revealed 
by  heaven.  He  returned  the  civilities  of  the  First  Consul 
with  stately  courtesy,  refused  to  be  introduced  to  him, 
and  left  France  with  a  confirmed  opinion,  that  the  phy- 
siognomy of  Buonaparte  corresponded  with  that  of 
Augustus,  aud  that  ere  long  he  would  openly  play  the 
part  of  a  tyrant. 

At  this  time,  Flaxman,  though  a  professing  member 
of  the  EsUblished  Church,  had  long  listened  to  the 
doctrines  of  Swedenborg,  and  was  become  all  but  a  pro- 
selyte. He  did  not,  however,  openly  associate  with  this 
sect;  though  it  was  evident  that  he  coloured  hiiB  conver- 
sation and  way  of  life,  to  a  certain  eiitent,  with  the 
raystietam  of  ^is  visionary.  Flaxman  was,  in  religion, 
certainly  of  a  devout  and  quiet  imagination:  but  still 
his  domestic  character  was  gay,  cheerful,  and  companion- 
able. In  the  next  paper  we  will  describe  ^o  latter 
scenes  of  die  sculptor's  life. 


It  may  be  said  that  there  Is  a  connexion  between  clean- 
liness and  moral  feclinj.  Perhaps  it  may  be  gohig  too  far 
to  say,  that  those  who  habitually  disregard  cleanliness, 
and  prefer  to  be  dirty,  have  no  moral  perception ;  but  it 
it  may  be  truly  said,  that  those  who  are  morally  senative, 
are  the  more  ao  from  respecting  this  vfartue.  There  u  a 
close  Mai^  between  moral  d^ravity  and  physical  de- 
gradation.-5.  ^^^^ 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[ApIilIT,   I 


ON  CHESS), 

!  WEITBB8    AHD   PLAYEBI,    (eomibttui,') 


criDunat  cues,    the  knli^ta  *»  on  koTaehti^  in  full 
armour.      The  ntHa,  fegate*,  or  \itan,  are  nwn  « 
horseback,  quite  unarmed.      The    description 
pawns  i    '  "~  ' 


I  CRIM  QCIBN.  A*  mUOIOD  ■' 


Tin  QiwmH.Biiuiaiig,  MM  thrir  cmuoili  tU 
Kuh  ben  ■  dadl;  MeUon  in  har  tund: 
Nw  bm.Binr  dmv,  thaj  benai  irilb  ftirio 
And  thlD  tlu  ITcnibling  nolu  6mi  lida  to  n 
Swift  u  Cunilb  fljinA  o'n  the  ruin, 
Or  li^llf  ildunning  on-  Ibe  dnrf  plain; 
Renn  n  ihBJ  aetra,  some  bold  plpbeiui  ^a 
Hnj  irisna  UHir  lUsId,  or  nop  their  lUl  ei 


Wb  have  already  spoken  of  the  appearance  of  a  regular 
treatJRe  on  chess,  by  Jacobut  d«  CetoUi,  about  the  year 
laOO.  This  Cesolis,  (whose  name,  we  may  observe,  is 
vpelt  in  upwards  of  twenty  different  ways,)  is  said  to 
hare  been  a  native  of  the  village  of  Cessoles,  near  the 
frontiers  of  I^cardy  and  Champairne.  His  manuscript 
^tas  translated  into  G«rnian  verse  by  CottraH  Ammen- 
kufen,  a  monk  of  Stettin,  in  1337.  After  the  invention 
of  printing,  the  work  of  Cesolis  went  through  n 
editions  and  translations.  Editions  in  Xjttin,  German, 
Dutch.  French,  Italian,  and  English,  appeared  within  a 
short  period  of  each  other.  The  English  trandation,  by 
William  Caiton,  printed  in  1474.  is  a  small  folio  of  144 
pages,  dedicated  "to  the  right  noble,  right  excellent,  and 
vertnous  Prince  George,  Due  of  Clarence,  Erie  of  War- 
wyk  and  of  Salyshurye,  grete  ChamberJavn  of  Englonde, 
and  leutenant  of  Irelond,  oldest  broder  of  Kynge 
Edirard  (IV.)"  It  begins  thus ; — "I  have  put  me  mde- 
vour  to  translate  a  lityll  book,  late  comen  in  to  myn 
handes,  out  of  frensh  in  to  enghshe,  in  which  I  find 
thauctoriles,  dictees,  and  stories  of  auncient  doctours, 
philosophes,  poetes,  and  of  other  wyse  men  which  been 
recounted,  and  applied  nnto  chesse." 

This  translation  of  Caxton's  is  the  more  interesting 
on  account  of  its  being  the  second  book  ever  printed  in 
England,  and  the  first  in  which  metal  types  were  em- 
ployed. The  forms  and  names  of  the  chess-pieces,  as 
given  by  Cesolis,  are  as  follows : — The  king  sits  on  his 
Uirone,  with  a  crown  on  his  head,  a  sceptre  in  his  right 
hand,  and  a  globe  in  his  left.  The  queen  on  a  chair, 
with  a  mantle  of  ermine.  The  alfin,  or  bishop,  is  re- 
presented as  a  lawyer,  seated,  with  a  hook  outspread  on 
his  knees;  and  the  distinction  is  drawn  that  he  on  the 
white  ai^uare  is  for  uvil,  and  he  on  the  black  aquare  for 


of  tb 
however,  the  moat  rematkable,  on  acnnmt  tf 
the  variety  in  their  form,  and  in  the  offices  anigoed  U 
them.  Irie  king's  pawn  has  a  pair  of  scales  in  hk  rigbt 
hand,  in  hi*  left  a  measuring  wand,  and  a  puree  haigiig 
g  wtust-b&nd.  The  queen*s  pawn  b  a  man  watd 
...  „  arm-chair,  with  a  book  in  one  hand,  a  visl  in  the 
other,  and  various  surgical  instruments  stuck  in  iii 
girdle.  This  personage  represents  a  physician,  who,  to 
be  perfect,  ought,  accordii^  to  our  author,  to  be  a  gnm- 
marian,  logician,  rhetorician,  astrologer,  arithmelicijii, 
geometrician,  and  musician.  The  king's  bishop'i  pin 
is  a  man  with  a  pair  of  shears  in  one  hand,  a  knife  in  lit 
other,  an  inkhom  at  bis  button-hole,  and  a  pen  behind 
his  ear.  The  queen's  bishop's  pawn  is  a  man  lUndiiE 
at  his  own  door,  with  a  glass  of  wine  in  one  hand,  i  W 
in  the  other,  and  a  bunch  of  keys  at  bis  girdle,  The 
king's  knight's  pawn  is  a  smith,  with  hammer  and 
trowel.  "Die  queen's  knight's  pawn  carries  Itjt,  ai 
compasses,  and  an  open  purse.  The  kmg's  rook  s  pam 
b  a  husbandman,  with  bill-hook  in  hand,  and  a  pnmiif 
knife  at  his  girdle.  The  queen's  rook's  pawn,  viti 
dishevelled  hwr,  and  in  rags,  dbplays  four  dice  b  m 
hand,  and*  crust  of  bread  in  the  other,  a  bag  being  «»■ 
peuded  from  hb  shoulder.  All  these  pawns  are  defi»i 
by  Caxton  to  represent  the  following  descripticffl  of  no- 
Bona: — 

lAbonrers,  and  tillage  of  the  erthe. 

Smythes,  and  other  werkes  in  yron  and  nwUli. 

Drapers,  and  inakera  of  cloth  mi  notaries. 

Marchannte  and  chaungeia. 

Phisieyena  and  cini^ens,  and  apotecariea. 

Tavemers  and  faosteleTB, 

Gaides  of  the  (utiee  and  tollen  and  cnatom^s- 

Ribatdda,  playen  at  dyae,  and  the  mcssagen. 

The  aecond  edition  of  71«  Gaim  md  i%<«/^ 
CKem,  (such  was  the  title  of  Caxton's  book,)  sp[«m« 
in  1490.  It  is  decorated  with  seventeen  prints,  m^ 
a  curious  preface,  which,  with  the  conolnding  pM^"r 
uf  the  woii,  also  written  by  Caxton,  we  now  lay  brfm 
our  readers. 

The  holy  appostle  and  doctonr  of  the  peple,  S«ynt  P'"^'' 
snyth  in  his  epystlB,  Alle  that  is  wryten  is  wiyt«n  imtoW 
doctryne,  and  for  onr  servying.  Wherfiirs  BtnT  WW 
clerkee  have  Midevoyied  them  to  wryte  and  ewnpy"  »V 
notable  werkya  and  historyes  to  the  ende  that  it  mm' 
come  to  tiie  knowledge  and  underatondying  of  sudie  «  * 
ygnoraunt  of  which  the  nombre  ia  infenyte,  and  a"""?-^ 
to  the  same  saith  Salamon  that  the  nombre  of  "'» l*  % 
fenyte,  and  emong  aUe  other  good  werkys  it  us  ■'«'*,_ 
ryght  special  ttcomendacion  to  enforme,  and  to  ■**'  , 
Btonde  wysedom  and  vertuo  unto  them  tiiat  be  not  W»J"; 
ne  can  not  dysceme  wysedom  fro  folye.  Thaw  bW^ 
whom  there  was  an  excellent  dortour  of  dyvynyte  in  i" 
royanme  of  frannoe  of  the  ordre  of  thoapytal  of  "'J»'T, 
of  ihemsalem  whiche  entended  the  same  and  hflth  ■n*^_ 
book  ^f  chesse  moralysed,  which  at  such  tune  » '  f*"r, 
dpnt  in  Bradgys  in  the  counte  of  flaunders  cam  m'o^ 
handes,  which  whnn  i  had  redde  and  overseen,  ""^^^ 
fij  necessaiye  for  to  :be  had  m  engliaehe,  and  m  «''"'™! 
of  ydlenes.  And  to  thende  that  some  "hiihtow  "" 
seen  it  ne  undtrstonde  frenssh  ne  iatyn,  i  delybered  in  ^ 
self  to  tranriate  it  into  o"-  —-*-—-'  *™«»  and  w'™' 


a  maternal  twige,  and  when  il 


acheyved  the  said  traaslaeion  i  did  doo  sett  in  ™?'T?"j 
certyn  nombre  of  them,  which  anone  were  "«|Pf5'!;i^ 
u,]&.  Wherfoie  by  canaethisaaid  bokeisfiJofh^ 
w^om  and  requysyte  unto  every  estate  """/^^SaKh 
pnrpoBed  to  emprynte  it  shewing  therfore  the  fipires  oi  ^^ 
persones  ss  longen  to  the  playe,  in  whom  al  "f^^lf,?"  t, 
^  ben  comprysed,  beeechen  al  them  that  f"» ''"'^a, 
shall  see,  here,  or  rede,  to  hove  me  for  excused  »''?!  ^ 
and  symple  makyng  and  reducyng  into  onr  ^W^TTj,,,!,^ 
whereas  ia  de&ate  to  correcte  and  amende  *"'', '?,_,'!« 
they  shall  deserve  meiyte  and  thanke,  and  i  shail  F^  ^^ 
them,  that  god  of  his  grete  mercy  shal  rewarde  t"^  „. 
everlastyng  blisse  in  heven,  to  the  whiche  he  wyni 
that  wyth  hb  pteciona  blood  redwaed  ns  Amen, 


184LJ 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


149 


The  elosing  paragraph  18  as  follows : — 

And  a  man  that  Ivveth  in  this  worlde  without  vertnes 
liireth  not  as  a  man,  but  as  a  beste.  Thenne  let  euery  msn 
of  what  eond ycion  he  be  that  redyth,  or  herith  this  litel 
book  ledde,  take  thenby  ensample  to  amende  hym. 

The  work  of  Cesolis,  though  it  went  through  so  many 
editions  and  translations,  gave  no  rules  for  the  playing 
of  the  game.     This  deficiency  was  soon  after  supplied  in 
the  treatises  of  Vicent  and  of  Lucena,  (both  ascribed  to 
the  year  1495,)  but  more  completely  by  Uiat  of  Damiano, 
a  Portuguese,  in  1512.     The  latter  work  was  originally 
written  in  Spanish  and  Italian,  and  consists  chiefly  of 
the  openings  of  the  game  known  as  the  Giuoco  Piano. 
The  "  Ends  of  Games"  and  «  Problems"  difficult  of  solu- 
tion, which  conclude  his  volume,  are  many  of  them  taken 
from  the  work  of  Lucena.     His  small  book  is,  however, 
deficient  in  the  principal  openings,  and  expatiates  chiefly 
on  games  where  advanti^  is  given.     The   work  of 
Damiano  was  reprinted  under  the  direction  of  D.  Antonio 
Porto,  who  unjustly  prefixed  his  own  name  as  the  au- 
thor, although  he  had  not  made  the  slightest  addition  to 
the  volume,  or  alteration  of  it.    In  1527  Mark  Jerome 
Vida,  of  Cremona,  bishop  of  Alba,  published  a  Latin 
poem  on  chess,  called  Scace?Ua  Luduss  which  has  gone 
through  many  editions  in  Latin,  Italian,  French,  and 
English.     Pope  notices  this  author  in  his  Easay  on 
Criticism  : — 

Immortal  Vida,  on  whose  honoured  brow, 
The  poet's  bays,  and  critic's  ivy  grow. 

And  Warton,  in  his  Essa^  on  Popey  speaks  of  Vlda's  poem 
in  the  following  terms: — *'  It  was  a  happy  choice  to  write 
a  poem  on  chess ;  nor  is  the  execution  less  happy.  The 
various  stratagems  and  manifold  intricacies  of  this  in- 
^nious  game,  so  difficult  to  be  described  in  Latin,  are 
here  expressed  with  the  greatest  perspicuity  and  elegance, 
so  that,  perhaps,  the  game  might  be  learned  from  this 
description."  That  ttas  poem  was  valued  and  admired 
hj  contemporary  authors  is  plain  from  the  language  of 
Pasqnier,  who  wrote  in  1560,  and  thus  speaks  : — **^  Jerom 
Vida  represented  this  fine  game  of  chess  in  the  form  of 
a  battle,  and  his  Latin  verses  are  in  the  true  spirit  of 
Virgil."  Specimens  of  the  various  English  versification 
of  this  work  are  given  by  Twiss,  but  they  do  not  appear 
to  us  sufficiently  interesting  for  insertion  here. 

In  1561  appeared,  in  Spanish,  the  <*  Book  of  the  liberal 
Invention  and  Art  of  the  Game  of  Chess,  by  Ruy  Lopez 
<ie  Sigura,  clerk,  inhabitant  of  the  town  of  Cafra.  Di- 
rected to  the  illustrious  lord,  Don  Garcia  de  Toledo." 
This  work  is  said  to  have  added  little  to  the  knowledge 
of  chess ;  and  the  author,  while  censuring  Damiano,  and 
speaking  contemptuously  likewise  of  all  the  Italian 
players,  was  himself  guilty  of  many  errors,  which  were 
»till  further  increased  by  his  translator  and  printer.  A 
few  years  after  the  publication  of  this  book,  the  vanity 
of  the  author  met  with  a  severa  check  in  the  defeat  he 
suffered  in  the  presence  of  Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain,  as 
the  following  anecdote  will  show: — A  yoimg  man  of 
Cutri,  in  Calabria,  named  Leonardo,  went  to  Rome, 
during  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  XIII.,  to  study  the 
law;  but  gave  his  attention  much  more  to  the  study 
of  chess,  in  which  game  he  became  so  skilful,  that  though 
very  young,  and  therefore  called  //  PutHno^  the  boy, 
he  soon  conquered  all  the  best  players.  Ruy  Lopez,  who 
was  an  ecclesiastic,  and  at  that  time  considered  the  first 
chess-player  in  Europe,  came  to  Rome  at  this  time,  to 
solicit  the  pope  for  a  benefice  which  had  then  become 
▼acant  at  the  court  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  Having  heard 
of  the  young  Leonard's  fame,  he  sought  his  acquaintance, 
and  conquered  him  two  following  days;  which  vexed 
lieonardo  so  much  that  he  immediately  went  to  Naples, 
^d  devoted  himself  to  the  study  and  practice  of  chess 
for  the  space  of  two  years.  Returning  from  thence  to 
his  native  place,  he  learned  that  his  brother  had  been 
taken  by  corsairs,  and  chained  to  the  oar.    Iieonardo  set 


out  to  ransom  him,  and  agreed  with  the  reis  or  captain 
of  the  galley  on  the  price  of  his  dismissal,  which  was 
to  be  two  hundred  crowns.  Finding  that  the  captain 
understood  chess,  Lebnardo  engaged  him  in  play,  and 
succeeded  in  winning  from  him  the  price  agreed  on  for 
his  brother's  ransom,  and  two  hundred  crowns  besides. 
With  this  he  returned  to  Naples ;  from  thence  he  sailed 
to  Genoa,  Marseilles,  and  Barcelona,  playing  with  and 
conquering  all  he  met ;  and  then  travelled  to  Madrid, 
where  he  soon  revenged  himself  on  his  old  antagonist, 
Ruy  Lopez,  by  beating  him  at  chess  in  the  presence  of 
the  king.  On  this  occasion  Philip  presented  Leonardo 
with  a  thousand  crowns,  besides  jewels,  furs,  &c.  The 
victor  then  went  to  Lisbon,  where  success  and  honours 
likewise  attended  him,  and  where  he  received  the  title  of 
knight-errant.  On  revisiting  Calabria,  at  a  subsequent 
period,  he  was  poisoned  by  some  envious  person  in  the 
palace  of  Prince  Bisignano,  and  died  in  the  forty-sixth 
year  of  his  age.  Such  are  some  of  the  particulars  of  the 
life  of  Leonardo  of  Cutri,  as  given  in  the  work  // 
Puttinoy  published  by  Salvio,  of  Naples,  of  whose 
reputation  as  a  master  of  chess  we  shall  speak  in  due 
order. 


Churches  ik  London. — Place  yourself  on  the  sunmiit  of 
that  magnificent  church  which  crowns  our  imperial  city; 
from  thence,  survey  the  pros^ct  unfolded  to  your  ken. 
Immediately  below  you  are  thickly  spread  the  monuments 
of  former  munificence  and  piety, — ^those  numerous  churches 
reared  by  kings,  and  nobles,  and  merchants,  and  religious 
bodies.  Direct  your  view  a  little  farther,  and,  gradually, 
thuey  the  most  interesting  features  of  the  landscape,  are 
found  to  disappear,  until,  at  length,  it  is  only  here  and  there 
that  some  soDtary  tower  or  steeple  breaks  the  monotonous 
expanse  of  house-tops,  showing  us  that  God  is  not  tittefly 
forgotten,— that  some  few  among  his  creatures  still  possess 
the  privilege  of  worshipping  their  great  Creator. 

So  situated,  while  <uiove  all  seems  fair  and  bright,  and 
below  aJl  is  gilded  bv  the  sunshine,  I  behold,  on  the  veige 
of  ti^e  horizon,  a  dark  belt  of  angry  clouds,  slowly  but 
surely  ^*  gathering  blackness,"  fram  whence,  ere  long,  there 
will  burst  forth  the  tempest  and  the  storm, — "  hail-stones 
and  coals  of  fire." — ^Bishop  Blompibld. 


Vaccination. — ^Most  people  now  have  their  children  vacci- 
nated ;  but  all  are  not  aware  that  care  and  attmUion  are  re- 
quired in  order  that  it  shoiild  really  be  a  preventive  from 
tnat  dreadful  disorder,  the  small-pox.  If  a  gentleman's 
child  is  vaccinated,  great  care  is  taken  to  preserve  the  arms 
from  being  rubbed^  or  in  any  way  disturbed  afterwards.  It 
is  seen  again  by  the  doctor  on  the  very  day  he  desires  to  see 
it :  if  only  one  place,  of  tlie  several  places  where  it  is  vacci- 
nated, takes,  that  place  is  not  touched  or  opened,  but  left  to 
dry  away ;  and  if,  after  all,  the  doctor  is  not  satisfied  that  it 
has  talen,  after  a  time  the  child  is  vaccinated  again.  Great 
attention  is  also  paid  in  all  eases  by  the  doctors,  that  the 
matter  should  be  in  a  fit  state,  and  taken  at  the  proper  time. 
It  is  a  general  complaint,  however,  that  the  lower  classes 
will  not  pay  attention  to  the  most  important  part  of  the 
business,— letting  the  doctor  see  the  child  a^ain  on  the  very 
day  he  fixes,  and  taking  care  to  prevent  the  arm  beine 
touched  or  rubbed  in  any  way.  **  It  has  been  vaccinated,** 
and  tbey  think  it  safe ;  do  not  keep  away  firom  small-pox 
(which  even  afier  inoculation  should  be  avoided,  if  possible^ 
as  many  have  had  it  again);  and  are  astonished  that  it  is 
taken,  and  that  vaccination  has  **  failed,"  which,  with  care, 
it  very  seldom  does;  and  even  if  people  do  take  the  small- 
pox, they  have  it,  after  vaccination,  very  slightly.  At  first, 
thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  it  was  not  so  well  understood,  and 
perhaps  some  mistakes  were  made  which  are  now  corrected. 
One  place  only  was  vaccinated,  and  that  place  opened. 
Perhaps,  in  such  cases,  it  would  be  safer  to  vaccinate  again. 
Doctors  can  tell  by  the  marks,  if  vaccination  took  or  not. 
If  parents  who  did  not  take  their  children  to  the  doctor  as 
desiied,  a  second  time,  would  now  have  the  marks  examined 
very  carefully,  it  miffht  save  their  children  from  risk,  as,  if 
necessary,  they  could  be  vaccinated  again. 

[Prom  UmM  HinU,  Second  Serie$;  publithed  hj 
the  Labourer's  Friend  Society  J 


150 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Apia  ITi 


THK   LAHBflCAPEff— •XHOLISM  ANl>  I9D1AK* 

I  STOOD  upon  an  Cnglish  hill, 

And  saw  the  far  meandering  rill, 

A  rein  of  liquid  silrer,  ran 

Sparkling  in  the  summer  sun  ; 

While  adown  that  green  hill's  side, 

And  along  the  vallej  wide, 

Sheep,  like  small  clouds  touched. with  light^ 

Or  like  little  hreakers  bright 

Sprinkled  o'er  a  smiling  se% 

Seemed  to  float  at  liberty. 

Scattered  all  around  were  seen 
White  cots  on  the  meadows  green, 
Open  to  the  sky  and  breeze, 
Or  peering  through  the  sheltering  treeSi 
On  rustic  gateways,  looeely  swun^ 
Laughing  children  idly  hune: 
Ofl  their  glad  shouts,  shrill  and  dear. 
Came  upon  the  startled  ear, 
Blended  with  the  tremulous  bleat 
Of  truant  lambs,  or  voices  sweet. 
Of  birds  that  take  us  by  surprise. 
And  mock  the  quickly-searching  eyes. 

Nearer  sat  a  bright-haired  boy, 
Whistling  with  a  thoughtless  joy ; 
A  shepherd's  crook  was  in  his  hand, 
Emblem  of  a  mild  command ; 
And  upon  his  rounded  cheek 
Were  hues  that  ripened  apples  streak. 
Disease^  nor  pain,  nor  sorrowing. 
Touched  that  small  Arcadian  lang. 
His  sinless  subjects  wandered  free — 
Confusion  without  anarchy. 
Happier  he  upon  his  throne. 
The  breezy  hill— though  all  alone— 
*      Than  the  grandest  monarchs  proud, 
Who  mistrust  the  kneeling  crowd; 
For  he  ne'er  trembles  for  his  fate. 
Nor  groans  beneath  the  cares  of  state. 

On  a  gently  rising  ground, 
The  lovely  valley's  farthest  bound, 
Bordered  by  an  ancient  wood, 
The  cots  in  thicker  clusters  stood  ; 
And  a  church  uprose  between, 
Hallowing  the  peaceful  scene. 
Distance  o*er  its  old  walls  threw 
A  soft  and  dim  cerulean  hue, 
While  the  sunlit  gilded  spire 
Gleamed  as  with  celestial  fire  1 

I  have  crossed  the  ocean-wave 
Haply  for  a  foreign  grave->- 
Haply  never  more  to  look 
On  a  British  hill  or  brook — 
Haply  never  more  to  hear 
Sounds  unto  my  childhood  dear  { — 
Yet  if  sometimes  on  my  soul, 
Bitter  thouglits  beyond  control 
Throw  a  shade  more  dark  than  night, 
Soon  upon' the  mental  sight 
Flashes  forth  a  pleasant  ray. 
Brighter,  holier,  than  the  day ; 
And  unto  that  happy  mood 
All  seems  beautiful  and  good. 

Though  from  home  and  friends  we  part, 
Nature  and  the  human  heart 
Slill  may  soothe  the  wanderer's  car^ 
And  his  Gud  is  everywhere ! 

Seated  on  a  bank  of  green, 
Gazing  on  an  Indian  scene, 
I  have  dreams  the  mind  to  cheer. 
And  a  feast  for  eye  and  ear. 
At  my  feet  a  river  flows. 
And  its  broad  face  richly  glows 
With  the  glory  of  the  sun, 
Whoso  proud  race  is  nearly  run. 
Ne'er  before  did  8<'a  or  stream 
Kindle  thus  Ik^neath  his  beam. 
Ne'er  did  miser's  eye  behold 
Such  a  glittering  mass  of  gold  ! 
'Gainst  the  gorgeous  radiance  floAt 
Darkly,  many  a  sloop  and  boat^ 


While  in  each  ih«  flgotM  Moa 
like  the  shadows  of  a  dreon  ; 

Swift,  yet  passively,  they  gUde 
As  sliders  on  a  froaen.tide. 

Sinks  the  son — the  raddsn  night 
Falls,  vet  still  the  scene  is  bright. 
Now  the  fire-fly's  living  spark 
Glances  through  the  foliage  dark, 
And  along  the  dusky  stream 
Myriad  lamps  with  mddy  gleam 
Oa  the  small  waves  float  and  quli^M*^ 
As  if  upon  the  favoured  rivar, 
And  to  nark  the  sacred  hour. 
Stars  had  fallen  in  a  shower. 
For  many  a  mile  is  either  shore 
Illumined  with  a  countless  store 
Of  lustres  ranged  in  glittering  rows  ; 
Each  a  golden  column  throws, 
To  Ught  the  dim  depths  of  the  tida ; 
And  the  moon  in  all  her  pride, 
Though  beanieonsly  her  regloaa  glow» 
y  iows  a  scene  as  fiur  below  *. 

Never  yet  balh  waking  vision 
Wrought  a  picture  more  Elyisiui  ^ 
Never  gifted  poet  seen 
Aught  morO  radiant  and  oarene ! 
Though  upon  my  native  shore 
Mid  die  hallowed  haunts  of  vore 
There  are  scenes  that  oould  unpart 
Dearer  pleasure  to  my  heart. 
Scenes  thai  in  the  soli  light  glaa«i 
Of  each  unforgottan  dream, 
Yet  the  soul  were  dull  and  cold^ 
That  its  tribute  oould  withhold 
When  enchantment's  magio  wand 
Waves  o'er  this  romantic  land  I 

*  TMa  dflici4pti<m  has  nfefcnee  to  the  night  of  tons  Hasten  Mf^ 

[RtCRAaDsoir's  Literary  Leatet.^ 


• 

We  cannot  comprehend  the  wonders  of  ereaiiany  much  lea 
those  of  the  resurrection.  For  our  belitf  in  the  posBibility 
of  this  stupendous  mystery,  we  trust  to  reason;  tot  thec•^ 
taint ff  of  ti,  to  revdatum;  for  the  perfwrnanet  tf  it  ^ 
Ontjiipotehce  /— Daubsmbt. 

Unjustifiablbnsss  of  Rbvbnge. — Let  eveiy  one  bevwe 
how  he  indulges  the  idea  of  returning  evil  for  eril.  1^ 
such  deplorable  contests,  it  is  alwava  he  who  comes  off,* 
he  may  think,  the  conqueror,  that  is  the  most  really  to  be 
pitied. — St.  Gregory. 

If  the  very  great,  the  enormcue  power  of  the  Deity  ^ 
sometimes  urged,  from  a  comparison  with  the  feebleness  ima 
littleness  of  man ;  if  his  insignificance  in  the  impfrecmi 
extent  of  creation  is  pointed  out;  it  is  still,  for  the  pmT|o« 
of  comparison,  not  with  a  design  to  debase  him.  Man  him- 
self is  a  great  efibrt  of  power ;  the  more  extnuirdinszy  that 
Power  which  could  perform  so  much  morei.  The  us***** 
of.  the  world  are  as  dust  in  the  balance  t  but  the  poet  u^ 
tended  to  magnify  God,  to  whom  even  nations  could  be  sj 
that  dust  which  is  unfelt.  Yet,  nevertheless,  He  is  "mindful 
of  man.  This  is  to  understand  our  just  relations  to  Him. 
The  lesson  which  natural  history  conveys,  from  the  extent 
and  the  population  of  the  unbounded  universe,  ^  "^ 
lesson  of  despair.  The  same  argument  which  had  depw«w 
us,  serves  to  elevate  us  again  when  it  is  justly  ^^^^'^^^Pf^' 
When  man  looks  above  at  the  boundkse  heaven  of  orbBftOQ 
their  incomputable  iohabitants,  he  shrinks  before  t&e 
thought ;  when  ne  inspects  the  myriads,  of  incalcuJaWe 
smallness,  and  utter  apparent  inaisnificance,  beneath,  w 
rises  again,  secure  that  He,  who  thinks  for  them,  as  ne 
erected  them,  thinks  also  for  him,  thmks  and  caws  forau. 
But  I  have  fallen,  unawares,  into  the  aigument  ^^^^^  «! 
highest  authority  which  we  haw  known  on  earth.  V^zl 
appealed  to  natural  Watoiy  is  a  warranty  for  the  chj>K«.'»|^ 
made;  that  Hia  arguments  w«e  those  of  natiuwl »h«»^ 
ought  to  prove  that  He  thought  this  study  worthy  Qi  vm, 
when  He  thought  it  not  beneath  Himselt— Macculwcb- 

AawTiPPUg  very  properly  replied  to  a  man  ^'^^^ J^^^^ffr^ 
his  reading,—"  It  is  not  those  who  eat  the  most  ^'^"L 
hale  and  healthy,  but  those  who  can  best  digest  --^ 
lxngbn'b  Bxpertence. 


2641.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAQAZINS.^ 


Ml 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  GLOVES^ 

Ancient  and  Mopsrk. 

When  we  draw  upon  our  hands  the  comfortable  and 
useful  articles  termed  Gloves,  we  are  apt  to  think  them 
an  invention  of  modem  luxury  or  convenience,  and 
need  to  be  reminded  that  they  were  much  in  use  in  very 
early  times.  We  intend,  therefore,  to  consider  this  sub- 
ject with  r^erence  both  to  the  ancient  and  to  the  modem 
condition  of  the  world. 

A#  the  Old  Testament  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
bo<^  now  ezistingt  we  naturally  look  first  to  it,  for 
some  ailutHMis  to  the  subject  under  consideratioa.  In  the 
book  of  Ruth  (ch.  V9^  v.  7))  the  custom  is  noticed  of  a  nian 
taking  off  his  shoe,  and  giving  it  to  his  neighbour,  as  a 
pledge  for  redeeming  or  exchanging  any  thing.  The 
events  of  the  book  of  Ruth  belong  to  the  year  1245  b*c.| 
uid  the  word  in  this  text  usually  translated  shoe  by  the 
Chaldee  paraphrast  is  in  this  place  rendered  gUve.  A  like 
supposition  is  offered  with  regard  to  the  passage  at  Ftelm 
cviii.  9,  where  the  royal  prophet  declares  he  will  east 
his  shoe  over  Edom.  The  expression  occurs  likewise  at 
Psahn  Lt*  8|  and  both  these  religious  hymns  were  com- 
posed aboot  the  year  1040  b.c,  Casaubon  is  of  opinion 
ihtXghvee  were  worn  by  the  Chaldeans,  from  the  word 
used  in  the  book  of  Ruth  being  explained  in  the  Talmud 
Lexjcoa  by  U^^hthing  of  the  kemd, 

Xenopbcon  tells  us  thai  the  ancieat  Persians  used 
gloves:  when  describing  their  manners,  he  cites  this  as 
a  proof  of  their  effeminacy.  Homer  describes  Laertes, 
the  father  of  Ulysses,  as  working  in  his  garden  with 
{gloves  OB  his  hands,  to  secure  them  from  the  thorns. 
Now  Homer  lired  about  900,  and  Xenophon  about  400 
jears  &xx 

Varro,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Cicero,  tells  us  of 
their  long-standing  use  among  the  Romans.  He  wrote 
a  book  on  "  Rural  Business,*'  wherein  he  tells  us  that 
olives  gathered  with  the  naked  hand  are  preferable  to 
those  gatliered  with  gloves.  Athenaeus  speaks  of  a  cele- 
brated glutton,  who  alwi^ys  came  to  table  with  gloves  on 
his  hands,  that  he  might  be  able  to  handle  and  eat  the 
meat  while  hot,  and  devour  more  than  the  rest  of  die 
company. 

Tlius  f^r  it  would  seem  that  gloves  were  not  so  much 
aa  ordinary  covering,  as  a  protection  used  for  specidc 
purposes:  the  use  of  them  among  the  ancients  was 
therefore  not  so  oommon  aa  among  the  modems.  In  a 
hot  dimata  the  wearing  of  i^ores  implies  a  considerable 
degree  of  eflbminacy,  so  that  Uie  early  use  of  gloves  can 
be  more  clearly  traced  among  northern  nations.  When 
the  primitive  smiplicity  of  Rome  had  passed  away,  the 
philosophers  were  fbimd  to  rail  at  the  prevailing  use  of 
gloves.  Pliny  the  younger  informs  us,  in  his  account  of 
his  uttcle'e  journey  to  Vesuviuai  that  his  secretary  sat  by 
him,  ready  to  write  down  anythinsr  remarkable  that 
oecorred;  and  that  he  had  gloves  on  his  hands,  that  the 
coldness  of  the  weather  might  not  impede  his  business. 

It  is  curious  to  find  that  Musonius,  a  philosopher  who 
lived  at  the  close  of  the  first  century  of  Christianity, 
among  other  invectives  against  the  corruption  of  the 
age,  save: — **Il  is  sham^ul  that  persons  in  perfect 
healdi  sAould  clothe  their  hands  and  feet  with  soft  and 
hairy  coverings." 

The  use  of  tfaefe  articles  kept  on  progressing,  until,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century  after  Christ,  the 
chnrdi  began  to  lay  down  regulations  for  this  part  of 
dress.  At  the  Council  of  Aix  it  was  ordained  that  the 
monks  should  wear  gloves  made  of  sheep-skin.  Surius 
tells  us  a  Romish  legend  respecting  St.  Gudula,  the 
patroness  of  Brussels,  that,  as  she  was  praying  in  a 
church,  without  her  shoes,  the  priest  compassionately 
put  his  gloves  under  her  feet;  but  she  threw  them  away, 
and  they  miraculously  hung  in  the  air  for  the  space  of 
aa  hour,-^whether  in  compliment  to  the  saint  or  the 
priest  does  not  appear. 


Gloyes  have  been  used  on  aeveral  great  and  solemn 
oeeasioBS,  aa  in  the  eeremony  of  investitures,  in  bestow* 
ing  lands,  or  in  conferring  dignities.  Giving  possession 
by  delivering  a  glove  has  prevailed  in  several  parts  of 
Christendom  in  later  ages.  Bishops  have  been  instituted 
to  their  sees  by  means  of  the  glove;  and  it  was  thought 
so  necessary  a  part  of  the  episcopal  habit,  that  when 
some  abbots  in  France  presumed  to  wear  gloves,  the 
Council  of  Poitiers  interposed,  and  forbad  themt  as 
peculiar  to  the  bishop  alone. 

The  custom  of  blessing  gloves  at  the  coronation  of 
the  kings  of  France  is  a  remnant  of  the  Eastern  practice 
of  investiture  by  a  glove.  The  influence  of  this  notion 
is  exhibited  in  the  case  of  the  unfortunate  Conradin, 
who  was  deprived  of  his  orown  and  life  by  the  usurper 
Mainfroy.  When  he  had  mounted  the  scaffold  the  in* 
jured  prince  lamented  his  hard  fate,  asserted  his  right  to 
the  crown,  and,  as  a  token  of  investiture,  threw  his  glove 
among  the  crowd,  intreating  it  might  be  conveyed  to 
some  of  his  relations,  who  would  avenge  his  deaUi.  It 
was  taken  up  by  a  knight,  and  carried  to  Peter,  king  of 
Arragon,  who,  in  virtue  of  this  glove,  was  afterwards 
crowned  at  Palermo,  in  Sicily. 

To  deprive  a  person  of  his  ^oves  was  a  mark  of 
divesting  or  depriving  him  of  his  offioe.  When  the  Earl 
of  Carlisle,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Second,  was  im* 
peached  of  holding  a  correspondence  with  the  Scots,  and 
was  condemned  to  die  as  a  traitor,  his  spars  were  cutoff 
with  a  hate-het,  and  his  giovee  and  shoes  were  taken  off. 

In  former  ages  the  throwing  down  of  a  glove  eonsti* 
tuted  a  challenge,  which  he  accepted  who  took  it  up. 
Such  sort  of  single  combat  was  meant  as  a  trial  of  inno- 
cence>  and  was  likewise  often  practised  for  deciding 
rights  and  property.  This  custom  was  continued  down' 
to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  A  dispute  concerning  some 
lands  in  the  county  of  Kent  wa^  appointed  to  be  settled 
by  duel  in  Tothill-fields,  in  the  year  1571.  The  plain- 
tiffs had  appeared  in  court,  and  demanded  single  combat. 
One  of  them  threw  down  his  glove,  which  the  other 
party  immediately  taking  np,  carried  off  on  the  point 
of  his  sword,  and  the  day  of  fighting  was  appointed: 
but  this  aflkir  was  adjusted  by  the  judicious  interference 
of  the  queen. 

In  Germany,  on  receiving  an  affront,  to  send  a  glove 
to  the  offending  ptfty  is  a  challenge  to  a  duel;  and  this 
method  of  daring  a  person  to  fight,  has  been  in  use  even 
in  this  country,  where  local  circumstances  made  fends 
and  animosities  eommon ;  as  the  following  narradon  will 
show. 

Bernard  Gilpin  was  a  fhith&l  .eeelesiastic  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  whose  spiritual  work  was  carried  on 
among  the  northern  borderers.  On  a  certain  Sunday 
going  to  preach  in  those  parts  wherein  deadly  fends  pre* 
vailed,  he  observed  a  glove,  hanging  up  on  nigh  in  the 
church.  He  demanded  of  the  sexton  what  it  meant, 
and  why  it  hunpf  there.  The  sexton  answered  that  it 
was  a  glove  which  one  of  the  parishioners  had  hung  up 
there  as  a  challenge  to  his  enemy;  signifying  thereby, 
that  he  was  ready  to  enter  into  combat  hand  to  hand, 
with  him,  or  any  one  else,  who  should  dare  to  take  die 
glove  down.  Mr.  Gilpin  requested  the  sexton  to  take  it 
"  Not  I,  sir,"  replied  he,  « I  dare  do  no  such 


lown. 


thing."  Then  Mr.  Gilpin,  calling  for  a  long  tftaff,  took 
down  the  glove  himself,  and  put  it  in  his  bosom.  By 
and  by,  when  the  people  came  to  church,  and  Mr. 
Gilpin  in  due  time  went  up  into  the  pulpit,  he  in  his 
sermon  reproved  the  barbarous  custom  of  challenges, 
and  especially  the  custom  which  they  had  of  making 
challenges  by  the  hanging  up  of  a  glove.  "  I  hear,'* 
said  he,  'Hhat  there  is  one  amongst  yon,  who  even  in 
this  sacred  place,  hath  hanged  up  a  glove  to  this  pur- 
pose, and  threateneth  to  enter  into  combat  with  whoso- 
ever shall  take  it  down.  Behold,  I  have  taken  it  down 
myself."  Then,  plucking  out  the  glove»  he  ehowed  it 
openly,  and,  inveighing  against  mdtk  prictices  ^ 


m  anv 


152 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE/ 


[April  17, 1841. 


man  that  professed  himself  a  Christian,  endeavoured  to 
persuade  them  to  the  practice  of  mutual  love  and 
charity. 

At  the  coronation  of  George  IV.,  in  1821,  the  cere- 
mony was  performed,  prohably  for  the  last  time,  of  chal- 
leng^ing  hy  a  glove  any  one  to  dispute  the  right  of  the 
sovereign  to  the  crown.  His  migesty's  champion  entered 
Westminster-hall  completely  armed  and  mounted,  and 
threw  down  his  glove. 

Gloves  were  also  particularly  used  for  carrying  the 
hawk,  which  princes,  and  other  great  men,  formerly  took 
much  pleasure  in  doing;  so  that  some  of  them  have 
chosen  to  be  represented  in  this  attitude. 

Judges  were  formerly  forbidden  to  wear  gloves  on  the 
bench ;  but  both  they  and  the  rest  of  the  court  receive 
gloves  from  the  sheriff,  whenever  the  session  or  assiae 
concludes  without  any  one  receiving  sentence  of  death : 
this  is  a  custom  of  great  antiquity. 

It  appears  likewise  to  have  been  a  custom  not  to  enter 
the  stables  of  princes,  or  other  great  men,  without  pull* 
ing  off  the  gloves,  under  the  penalty  of  forfeiting  them, 
or  of  redeeming  them  by  a  fee  to  the  servants.  This 
custom  is  likewise  observed  in  some  places  at  the  death 
of  the  stag ;  in  which  case,  if  the  gloves  are  not  taken 
off,  they  are  redeemed  by  money  given  to  the  keepers 
and  huntsmen.  The  King  of  France  always  pulled,  off 
one  of  his  gloves  on  this  occasion ;  but  the  reason  for 
this  custom  seems  to  be  lost. 

Gloves  are  usually  presented  at  weddings  and  funerals. 
By  the  term  glove-mon^y  is  meant  money  given  to  ser- 
vants to  buy  gloves :  this  was  done  because  they  were 
more  expensive  formerly  than  they  are  now.  Gloves 
were  also  a  customary  new-years  gift.  >  When  Sir 
Thomas  More,  as  lord  chancellor,'  decreed  in  favour  of 
Mrs.  Croaker  against  Lord  .Arundel,  she,  on  the  follow- 
ing New  Year's  day,  in  token  of  her  gratitude,  presented 
him  with  a  pair  of  gloves  containing  forty  angels.  <'  It 
would  be  against  good  manners,"  said  the  chancellor, 
*<  to  forsake  a  gentlewoman's  New  Year's  gift,  and  I 
accept  the  gloves ;  their  lining  you  will  be  pleased  other- 
wise to  bestow."  .        .       .       , 

A  person  in  company,  who  first  sees  the  new  moon,  and 
thereupon  salutes  his  fair  companion,  has  a  claim  upon 
her  for  a  pair  of  new  gloves.  .  This  custom  is  peculiar 
to  some  of  the  northern  parts  of  England. 

It  appears  that  gloves  did  not  form  part  of  the  female 
dress,  until  after  the  Reformation.  In  the  time  of  Queen 
Anne  they  were  richly  woriied  and  embroidered. 

Some  of  the  oldest  gloves  extant  exist  in  the  Denny 
family.  At  the  sale  of  the  Earl  of  Arran's  goods,  April 
6,  1 759,  the  gloves  given  by  Henry  VIII.  to  Sir  Anthony 
Denny  were  sold  for  38/.  17#.;  those  given  by  James  L 
to  his  son  Edward  Denny,  for  22/.  4«. ;  the  mittens  given 
by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  Sir  Edward  Denny's  lady,  25/.  4«.; 
all  which  were  bought  for  Sir  Thomas  Denny  of  Ire- 
land, who  was  descended  in  a  direct  line  from  the  great 
Sir  Anthony  Denny,  one  of  the  executors  of  the  will  of 
Henry  VHI. 

The  principal  leather  glove  manufiictures  in  England 
are  at  Worcester,  Woodstock,  Yeovil,  Leominster,  Lud- 
low, and  London.  The  number  made  in  the  town  and 
neighbourhood  of  Worcester  annually,  has  been  estimated 
at  more  than  six  millions  of  pairs.  At  YeovU  about 
two  thirds  of  that  quantity  are  supposed  to  be  produced, 
and  the  number  of  persons,  including  men,  women,  and 
children,  engaged  in  the  manufactures  at  these  places,  is 
said  to  be  regularly  increasing.  Of  late  years,  cotton  or 
Berlin  gloves  have  been  much  in  use ;  and  foreign 
leather  gloves,  principally  of  French  manufacture,  have 
been  imported,  the  duty  on  the  latter  of  which  has 
amounted  to  30,000/.  per  annum.  Owing,  however,  to 
the  increased  use  of  gloves,  the  English  trade  at  home 
is  said  to  have  experienced  some  increase.  Silk  gloves 
are  chiefly  made  in  the  town  of  Derby :  this  department 
of  the  manufacture  is  connected  with  that  of  silk  stock- 


ings. A  simple  and  ingenious  apparatus  is  used  for 
performing  the  process  of  glove-sewing,  with  accurscj 
and  dispatchy  when  the  respective  pieces  have  been  cot 
out. 


POISONOUS  FLIES. 


Nkab  this  place  ^Castle  of  Golubaes)  we  found  a  rBDgc  of 
caverns,  fSamous  tor  producing  the  poisonous  fiv,  too  well 
known  in  Servia  and  Hungary,  under  the  name  o^the  Gok- 
baeser  fly.  These  singular  and  venomous  insects,  somewhit 
resembling  musquito^  generally  make  their  ^peanmoe, 
during  the  first  great  heat  of  summer,  in  such  numbenas 
to  seem  like  vast  volumes  of  smoke ;  their  attacks  are  al- 
ways directed  against  eveiy  description  of  ouadmped,  and 
so  potent  is  the  poison  the^  communicate,  ^t  even  an  ox 
is  unable  to  withstand  its  influence,  for  he  always  expira 
in  less  than  two  hours.  This  results,  not  so  unch  from  the 
virulence  of  the  poison,  as  that  every  vulnerable  part  is 
simultaneously  covered  with  these  most  destructive  bisects; 
when  the  wretched  animals,  frenzied  witJi  pain,  rush  vild 
through  the  fields,  till  death  puts  a  neriod  to  their  suffer- 
ii^  or  they  accdeiate  dissolution  oy  phmging  headlong 
into  the  rivers. 

The  shepherds  of  these  countries,  taught  by  experience 
the  time  of  their  i^proadi,  anoint  everjr  l^  of  their  flocks 
and  herds,  unprotected  bv  nature,  witn  a  strone  deoK;- 
tion  of  wormwood,  to  which,  it  appears,  these  flies  have 
a  great  antipathy.  In  addition  to  this,  the  ah^herdi 
keep  immense  fires  constantly  biasing,  amnnd  wb^hthe 
poor  animals,  aware  of  their  danger,  tremblifigly  and  pa- 
tiently oongnwate.  Kind  Nature  has,  however,  meici- 
fuUy  ordained  that  their  existence  shall  be  most  eplieptiralf 
for  the  slightest  variation  in  the  weather  isBOmcieDtto 
destroy  the  whole  swarm ;  hence  they,  seldom  live  beyond 
a  few  days :  indeed  their  very  production  seems  to  depeu<i 
upon  the  state  of  the  weataer:  for,  in  those  aununen 
when  the  thermometer  continues  low,  they  never  make 
their  appeanu^oe .  exc«|>t  in  diminished  numbefs;  wbeieas 
when  great  heat  and  drought  prevail  during  the  whole  of 
that  season,  they  have  been  known  to  swarm  two,  or  eveii 
three  times,  altnough  even  then  their  exist^ce  is  always 
extremely  brief. 

Their  ravages  are  principally  confined  to  the  soiroundii)^ 
countries  of  Servia  and  the  Hungarian  Banate ;  but  op  some 
occasions  they  have  been  known  to  extend  their  flight  as 
fax.  as  the  neighbourhood  of  Presbuig,  when  their  attacks 
were  fiital  to  numbers  of  cattle.  The  peasants  for  tliis,^ 
for  every  other  phenomenon,  have  resorted  to  a  miracle  fc^ 
explanation,  ana  tell  us,  that  in  these  caverns  the  reno^ 
champion,  St.  George,  killed  the  dn^^n,  whose  decompoaed 
remains  have  continued  to  generate  these  insects'  down  to 
the  present  day.  The  probaUe  suppoeitioii,  howeveri  »> 
that  when  the  Danube  rises^  which  it  aluvays  doea  in  tbe 
early  part  of  summer,  the  caverns  are  flooded,  and  the  water 
remaining  in  them  becomes  putrid,  and  prodaoes,  dum? 
the  heat  of  summer,  this  noxious  fly.  The  inhabita^  « 
the  country,  many  years  since,  closed  up  the  mouths  of  tne 
caverns  with  stone  walls,  for  the  j^urpose  of  P**^^^ 
their  egress ;  but  the  expedient  availed  nothins,  sad  !&« 
rushmg  of  the  waters  agaonst  the  sides  of  the  rocka,  in  P^ 
cess  of  time,  destroyed  the  useless  defence;  so  that  it  vm 
be  evident,  either  that  the  insects  axe  not  generated  heze,  ^ 
that  the  caverns  have  subterraneous  communiostions^ 
some  other  outlets  at  present  unknown*— Spkkcsb's  Tmfff* 
in  Oircassia. 

If  there  be  any  one  who  feithfidly  exammes  t^®.  ^^.f 
Nature,  and  the  book  of  Revektion,  to  ascertain  the  to**^ 
just  as  ho  would  inauire  into  the  reasons  and  ppobabiUtjff 
on  which  he  must  found  the  expectation  of  any  tempo* 
benefit;  if,  after  having  done  this,  he  find  no  assurance,  ana 
stUl  doubt,  let  him  ask  himself  the  question:  AJthoogn 
these  things  are'not  proved  to  my  mind,  ia  it  proved  to  » 
that  these  things  cannot  be  sol  If  they  may  be  flo,  now 
earnestly  does  it  concern  me  to  live  as  though  they  wen? 
most  clearly  demonstrated. — S. 

LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKEB,  WEST  STRA>T 
PcBuuuD  or  Wjobuv  lYuMUBf,  nucB  On«  Famnr,  iKOf'^  ^'"^ 

PASn,  nUCB  SULPAIIOS. 

Sold  V  sU  BggkMUen  and  NewsvendKi  IB  the  Xtafde0> 


Sdctitrtrdji 


N?665. 


24^,1841.1  ■       {o.??S;„. 


TUEKEY  AND   THE   TURKISH    PROVINCES. 


MOLDAVIA  AND  THE  MOLDAVIANS. 

Moldavia  is  the  most  northern  provinoe  in  Turkey. 
It  if  bounded  on  the  east  bjr  BeBBarUHt,  a  province  which 
Cbrmad  put  of  Turkey  until  1 81 3,  when  it  was  ceded  to 
Russia;  on  the  Bonthby  Wallachta;  and  on  the  west  and 
north  by  proTinces  of  the  Anstrian  empire; — the  pro- 
wince  forminf^  a  oompact  territory  about  200  miles  in 
length,  and  120  in  breadth. 

Moldavia  formed  part  of  the  Byiantine  or  Eastern 
Empire,  and  suffered  greatly  from  Uie  incursions  of  the 
rude  hordes  which  infested  Europe  in  the  middle  ages. 
About  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  province 
iras  governed  by  Bogdau,  a  Slavonic  chief ;  and  for  lome 
time  afterwards,  the  military  leaxter,  or  Vogvode,  of  MoU 
dawia,  was  generally  independent  of  superior  autJiority. 
At  length,  the  Turks  conquered  Constantinople  from  the 
Greek  emperors;  and  Moldavia,  by  a  timely  submisiiion, 
vreA  enabled  to  obtain  favourable  treatment  from  the 
conquerors.  The  sultan  was  to  protect  the  province ; 
the  inhabitants  were  to  pay  an  annual  tribute  for  this 
protection;  Turks  were  prohibited  from  interfering  with 
Cixe  tiative  inhabitants ;  the  Vovrodes  were  to  be  Mected 
by  tfae  prindpal  cIbiot  and  nobles,  uncontrolled  by  the 
■nltwi;  the  Voyvode  had  power  of  life  and  death,  peace 
axs*l  war,  without  consulting  tiie  sultan;  and  no  Molda- 
vian! wa>  compelled  to  leave  his  provinoe,  to  enter  into 
t2s^  Boltan's  service. 

The  Voyvodes  governed  with  the  assistance  of  a 
conncil,  or  divan,  composed  of  twelve  members  appointed 
a^anually  by  faim.    Tm  lam  were  framed  after  tin  Jus- 


tinian code;  and  the  Voyvode  kept  up  an  army  of  6000 
men.  The  annual  tribute  paid  to  the  sultan  waa  not 
large;  but  the  inhabitants  suffered  from  certain  oppres-. 
sive  commercial  regulations.  Wheat,  timber,  cattle,  and 
other  articles,  were  exported  to  Constantinople,  and  sold 
at  a  fixed  price,  which  was  not  above  one  fourth  of  the 
current  majiet  price. 

In  this  situation  did  Moldavia  remain  for  twoicenturies, 
disturbed  occasionally  by  the  wars  between  Turkey  and 
Poland.  At  length,  the  ambitious  Czar  of  Russia  di- 
rected his  attention  to  this  province;  and  after  several 
attempts, Russia  succeeded,  in  1774,  in  gaining  the  posi- 
tion of  a  kind  of  intercessor  between  the  sultan  and 
the  Moldavians,  by  which  certain  advantages  were  given 
to  the  latter.  In  1792,  fresh  advantages  were  granted 
to  the  Moldavians  by  the  sultan,  at  the  instance  of 
Russia.  In  1812,  the  latter  power  succeeded  in  getting 
possession  of  that  part  of  Moldavia  called  Bessarabia, 
situated  eastward  of  the  river  Pruth ;  and  at  subsequent 
periods  she  has  frequently  interfered  between  the  sultan 
and  the  Moldavians,  to  gain  advantages  for  the  latter, 
but  whether  with  any  vdterior  object  time  will  show. 
Certain  it  is,  that  by  the  Treaty  of  Adrianople,  in  1829, 
Moldavia  has  been  placed  in  a  more  independent  position, 
with  regard  to  the  sultan,  than  it  has  yet  occupied.  The 
Voyvode,  called  also  Hotpodar,  is  elected  by  the  inhabit- 
ants for  life;  the  oom,  provisions,  cattle,  and  timber, 
are  exempted  from  the  vexatious  regulations  formerly 
existing:  and  various  other  regulations  have  secured  to 
the  Moldavians  a  degree  of  liberty  scarcely  found  in  any 
other  part  of  the  lurkish  empire. 

565 


154 

The  inbabitanta  of  Moldavia  amount  to  about  half  a 
milUou,  and  Qoa^ist  of  AatiTe  Molda^ia^a,  Jws*  Ana^ 
nians,  and  CTprie?.  Mr.  WBUnson,  vho  ^  British 
coAaol  at  Bukhoreat  h^ia^  th*  i^|^prot•m♦■^  had  taken 
place  in  the  government  and  condition  of  the  province, 
repr^se^^d  the  humbler  classes  as  ground  down  bv  ©?• 
p^^ftsive  pQVr?r,  and  as  having  M|u)re4»  tbtough  the 
effect  of  this  oppression,  a  dispirited  and  dejected  tone 
of  mind :  being  accustomed  to  a  state  of  oppression,  they 
had  become  unable  to  form  hopes  of  a  better  condition, 
and  had  acquired  a  sort  of  stuj^T  or  afathy  which  ren- 
dered them,  to  a  great  degree,  mdifferent  to  the  future, 

Hence,  it  mt^  be  inferrod,  says  that  gentleman,  that  they 
are  a  quiotand  hanoiefls  people.  Their  mode  of  living  is,  in- 
deed, with  regard  to  the  intcpcouree  among  themselves  an 
nnhaterrupted  calm.  Although  the  male  part  are  given  to 
drinking,  quan^  an4  %hting  are  almost  unknown  among 
them ;  ana  they  are  so  much  used  to  blows  and  all  kinds  of 
ill-treatment  ftom  their  superiors,  that  they  approach  with 
the  greatest  reaped  and  submission  any  who  bear  upon 
themselves  the  least  external  mark  of  superiority. 

There  are  grounds  for  hope  that  this  sad  picture  may 
be  relieved  by  the  subsequent  improvement  in  the  rela- 
tions between  the  Turkish  government  and  the  Molda- 
vians* 

The  reader  is  probably  prepared  to  expect,  that  though 
Moldavia  forms  part  of  the  Turkish  dominions,  the 
Moldavians  are  not  Mohammedans  They  profess  the 
religion  of  the  Greek  church,  a  superstitious  and  corrupt 
form  of  Christianity,  professed  also  by  the  Russians. 
Persons  who  have  not  received  baptism  by  the  rites  of 
the  church  are  not  deemed  Christians;  and  A^uency  of 
confession  and  commuuion,  Icfeth^  with  Ih^  punctual 
observance  of  a  vast  number  el  fkst  da^^  during  the 
year,  are  prescribed  with  teverity  s  the  mts|^ided  P^P^^ 
believe  that  an  exact  adherence  to  these  rit^  is  sufficient 
to  expiate  the  heaviest  crimes,  particularly  ai^er  the 
confessor's  absolution,  which  ia  said  to  be  obtainable  in 
most  cases  by  means  of  a  good  fee.  Preaching,  and  the 
perusal  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  are  almost  wholly  unat" 
tended  to;  and  though  we,  as  Christians,  may  feel  a 
momentary  pleasure  on  hearing  that  the  Moldavians  ara 
not  Mohammedans,  vet  there  is  but  little  cause  for  satis- 
&ction,  when  we  reflect  on  the  gross  and  mutilated  form 
in  which  the  doctrixies  of  Chriatianitity  lure  presented  to 
the  people. 

It  is  a  natural  result  of  those  fonna  of  religious 
teaching  which  do  not  appeal  to  the  heart,  that  auperati. 
tion  should  prevail  widely.  The  Moldavians  firmly 
believe  in  all  sorts  of  witchcraft,  in  apparitiona  of  th^ 
dead,  in  ghosts,  and  in  miracles  performed  by  the  ivMgea 
of  saints.  In  illness,  they  pla^e  an  image  near  the^i ; 
and  when  they  recover,  though  it  were  tturovgh  the  aid 
of  the  ablest  physician,  they  attribute  the  recovery  to 
the  efficacy  of  the  image  alone«    No  prayera  or  thanka* 

flving  are  offered  up  either  to  the  Deity  or  to  the 
aviour;  but  the  Virgin,  ai^d  a  large  number  of  9ainta» 
are  thoae  whose  names  ar#  invoked  wh^iiever  i^furiitual 
aissistance  is  required. 

The  towns  and  sj^-porta  of  Moldavia  partake  of  that 
mixed  and  European  character  resulting  from  the  intmc-t 
course  between  merchants,  dealers,  ^c;  but  the  viUagea 
represent  the  real  characU^r  of  Moldavian  lift.  The 
peasants'  huta  ar^  all  built  uearly  of  the  swme  aiae  «iid 
style. — The  waUa  ar^  of  clay»  and  tbe  roofs  thatehed 
with  straw,  neither  of  wMoh  ia  ealoulated  to  pvotCM^  the* 
inmates  from  the  inclemenoy  of  bad  weataer.  The 
^ound  floors  ar^  however,  ocoupied  as.  long  aa  the 
weather  will  permit;  and  in  winter  the  inmates  retire  to 
cells  under  ground,  easily  kept  warm  by  means  of  a 
little  fire  made  of  dried  dung  and  some  branohea  of 
trees,  which,  at  the  same  tiaoie,  serves  for  cooking  their 
scanty  food.  Each  family,  however  numerous,  sleeps  ia 
one  cf  these  aubt^rwieoua  habitationa,  tiie  beda  being 
formed  of  coarse  wodlen^  dniggeli^ 


THE  SATUHOATF  MAGAZINE. 


[April  24, 


THe  principal  food  of  the  peasantry  consists  of  akmd 
rf  doi;^  ci^U^d  mamfm  ffngok  w^d9  tf  tha  flour ofln- 
dian  whaat,  aometimes  t^iiti^  ivith  milk.  The  Mwon  of 
Lent  is  kept  by  them  with  rigorous  severity;  andfbrtbe 
first  two  or  Uiree  days  after  its  termination,  they  spar- 
ITigW  indulge  tbem^lves  with  a  little  meat;  HiJim 
of  them  are  too  poor  to  obtain  this  indulgiwoe,  imd  cw- 
t^t  themselves,  in  addition  to  their  ordinary  food,  with 
eggs  fried  in  butter. 

Their  dress  bears  some  resemblance  to  thatof  tlie 
Daoiaaa  in  the  time  e^  the  Remans,  and  has  probably 
suffered  but  little  change  for  centuries.  Their  feet  are 
covered  with  sandals  made  of  goat  skin.  They  wear  a 
kind  of  loose  pantaloon,  whic^  is  fastened  to  the  waist 
by  a  tight  leather  belt,  and  closes  from  the  knee  dovn- 
wards-  The  upper  part  of  the  dress  is  composed  of  a 
tight  waistcoat,  and  a  short  jacket  over  it,  of  coarse 
cotton  stuff;  in  winter  they  add  a  white  sheep  skin,  which 
is  hung  over  the  sh<mlders  in  the  manner  of  a  hussar's 
pelisse.  The  hair  is  twisted  round  the  back  of  the  head, 
and  covered  with  a  cap,  generally  of  sheep  skin.  The 
women  are  generally  clothed  from  the  neck  to  theaoiles, 
in  a  long  gown  of  light-coloured  thick  cotton,  made  tight 
at  the  waist,  which  they  cover,  on  holiday  occasions,  with 
a  ahorter  dress,  buttoned  f^m  the  neck  to  the  waist,  and 
ornamented  with  one  or  two  rows  of  beads.  Under  or- 
dinary civemnstances,  the  poorer  elasses  go  hsrefooted, 
and  use  no  covering  for  the  head  except  a  handkerchief. 

Abnoat  every  village  has  a  small  church,  or  chapel 
belonging  to  it,  and  one  or  more  priests  who  s^ 
euratea.  The  eccksiastiea  of  thia  order  are  ebosen  tm 
amongst  the  ordinary  peasants,  from  whom  theywe  wk 
diatiuguiahed  in  appearance  by  a  Iwst  beard.  They  jead 
th^  aame  sort  of  life,  and  Mim  the  smt  sj^f  "^ 
when  net  engaged  in  the  eiercise  of  their  tkrm  m- 
tions;  but  they  are  exempted  U^m  tfce  wiWio  m^^ 
and  pay  nothing  vrnre  «han  an  aanual  tnbuie  of  iutte° 
piaatrea  to  the  metropolitan  archbiahofu  Tkegsi^^y 
of  them  can  neither  read  nor  ^rite;  they  Isarn  thefor- 
muba  of  the  senice  li^y  rotes  a»d  if  a  bM  is  •««  »> 
their  chapela»  k  is  more  to  ornament  then  use. 

Perhaps  the  most  extvaordinary  feature  in  the  itructui« 
of  society  in  Moldavia  is  the  vast  number  of  ^'^ 
residing  there.  Their  bodily  conatitution  is  «*«>«? /^^ 
they  are  so  hardened  from  oonatant  exposure  i»  aU  u>e 
rigours  of  the  weather,  that  they  appear  fit  for  any  la- 
bour or  fatig^a;  but  tkeir  natural  avwsian  tealB«  » 
induato^  ia  in  general  aagrea^  tbai  they  V^fZ 
miaeries  of  tndlg^tee  to  the  eojoymMA  of  cQHifcrt»«» 
are  to  he  reaped  by  pen»vering  exerlMn. 

Both  men  and  woom  ve  mfter  finely  fri«W'  ^ 
are  <Aeeedmg1y  dtety  i»  th»r  hahita  and  sppea'*?^; 
They  acknowledge  no  particular  religion,  nor  oo  W7 
think  of  fbUowln^tha  precep**  «f  any*  unless  ce©peii^ 
nor  «  tlMKa  any  fan»  <rf  matewonial  tie  between  w 


The  teta^oiifewhiAtlwyttodtethesem^ 
the  inbabitanta  ia  asort  o£  mi4i»sle4slavery>Bgot«^ 
meat  and  the  noblea  ekiwing  ptopeHy  «^."*^^-a. 
akvery,  howevw>  so  far  aa  the  government  is  «««*^"^ 
i.  nothing  wow  than  a  phNlg*  not  ta  kave  Aep^^ 

and  the  paymoat  o£  a  smaU  annual  tnbut^  J"^,^ 
tkny  dispose  ef  aa  they  phase,  staKiiling  akoa* thec^^ 

tiyfandjitehint  th«ir  tente  near  the  towns^^JJl 
KMids.    Aeirchietf  oeciipntion,inAiavagfanthfe^ 

li^  in  making  common  iron  tnob>  baskets,  sna  w«- 
cheap  articks.  But  their  indnaJrv  and  gain  are  od««^ 
to  what  ia  abaolutaly  n«Besaai7  *»  Focurmg  tti^ 

maana  of  auhniatenoe.  Th^  P«"»®",^"***!^,^ 
and  qniehneaa  in  acquiring  tiie  *ai«»^®"8«  J^^^,  to 
•nnmlMv  a£  nftTOAiM.  kfvwever.  «ho  deieie  meaJ***^*^ 


to  which  ihey  give  the  prefoanee^  ^ 

attend  the  wina^Mnuen  and  tnvena»  and  are  -      ,  ^ 

eaUndtoth^haiMaaar  tka  anUe^when  a  oonoefti> 


1641.] 


THl  0ATUBDAY  MAOAZINE. 


I6f 


be  given.  When  any  public  works  are  to  be  constructed, 
the  goyemment  gypsies  who  are  acqualnied  widi  ma- 
sonry are  called  in  to  assist  as  labourers^  receiving  food» 
but  no  wages,  except  that  a  small  deduction  is  UUub  fkvtt 
their  annual  tribute. 

Those  gypsies  who  are  deemed  the  property  of  the 
nobles  are  chiefly  employed  either  as  household  sertants* 
or  as  vineyard  labourers.  As  they  are  not  considered 
as  free  servants,  no  wages  are  given  to  themt  but  the 
filthy  and  disorderly  habits  in  which  they  indulge,  greatly 
diminish  the  supposed  advantage  of  having  servants  at 
so  economical  a  rate.  Instruments  of  punishment  are 
kept  in  the  houses,  by  means  of  which  the  gypsies  are 
corrected  when  in  fault,  which  is  very  frequently  ;-^a 
fact,  slavery,  in  all  its  fbrms,  brings  retributioti  with  it| 
in  some  way  or  other. 

We  have  in  the  present  paper  confltied  our  attenttou 
principally  to  the  humbler  classes  of  Moldavians*  In 
aaother  article,  on  Wallachia  and  ths  Wallachia&s»  wa 
Shan  gite  a  brief  account  of  the  upper  classes  of  society 
m  the  two  provinces,  which  are  eonttgttOttSi  aad  tery 
much  resemble  each  other. 


HAVE   HOPS* 


Ths  Viraal  wiad  thai  whispers  o^er  the  ieii 
From  swioy  climss,  and  plays  amcna  the  tree%. 
S«ith|  with  the  gentle  music  of  its  breesei 

Have  hopSk 

The  rese,  that  wept  its  withered  flowers'  &11|    * 
When  rain  and  storm  had  forced  Its  funeral} 
Bids  its  yoang  bud  say  unto  me  and  all. 

Have  hope. 

The  desert  sands,  so  wildly,  sternly  bare, 
W^hers  eye  and  heart  Unk  *neath  the  tdflfl  gUMi 
Hath  yet  a  fountain  cool  to  mormur  therci 

Have  hopob 

Tbe  tide  thai  ebbing  leaves  the  native  shore^ 
And  baekward  rolls  as  If  Ibr  evermorei 
Saith}  as  it  flows  where  it  had  flowed  before^ 

Have  hope. 

the  night,  when  darkness  Is  around  tho  eartbi 
And  Nature  sesros  to  fed  the  eheerlcsB  dearthi 
fiaitbf  with  Itl  slstlight  and  the  fisir  moon's  IMk^ 

Havehiqpe. 

The  dnasBf  when  geardtan  angels  watdi  om*  siaspi 
And  •'er  tlU  lrani|ail  soul  fire&  vjaiotts  ersSpi 
Y^im^eni^  in  tender  asoeaSh  soft  and  deep^ 

Have  hope. 

The  uMify  nMlm»  whan  la  its  pttlde  can 
It  le^ie  the  hrighteaing  heaven*s  eastern  bar« 
Waves  on  its  beaming  banner  floating  far. 

Have  hope  I 

[&.&P.»  in  tbe  DtMn  UmvwtUif  MafwtlMe.] 


Tn  Cmij>«'-A  child  is  a  man  in  a  smaU  letter^  yet  the 

best  copy  of  Adam  before  he  tasted  of  the  applei  and  he  is 

happVi  whose  anall  practice  in  the  world  can  only  write 

hia  character.     He  is  ffature's  fresh  picture  newly  drawn 

in  oil,  which  time  and  much  handling  dims  and  defaces. 

Hi5  soul  is  vet  a  white  Mpet  unscribbkd  with  obserrdtions 

of  the  world,  wherewith  at  length  it  bscomes  a  blurred 

note-booki     He  !S  purely  happy,  b^atlse  he  knOws  no  evil^ 

nor  hath  made  means  1^  sin  to  be  aoqnainted  with  m!ssry< 

He  arrives  not  at  the  misshief  of  beina  wise,  nor  endntas 

trila  to  oeaae  \y  feieseeing  ihem.     He  Jusses  sod  loves  aU| 

aad|  when  tile  aooart  of  we  rod  is  oast,  smiles  en  his  beater. 

Nature  ana  his  j^arents  alike  dandle  himi  and  entice  him  on 

with  a  bait  of  sugar  to  a  draught  of  wormwood.    He  plays 

Tef,  til^e  a  Vcmiig  appf6nties  the  first  day,  and  Is  not  come  to 

ms  task  or  tael&choly.     AH  the  langoage  h^  speaks  yet  is 

tears,  aftd  they  IferVe  hM  Wetl  OlMffh  td  eitpresS  ioA  tteceS- 

1^.    His  luadsst  khoof  is  his  ioi^fa%  as  if  he  wers  loth 

to  use  so  deoaiilbl  to  ailtei;  sad  he  is  best  oompanj  with 

it  when  ke  cea  piaitle*    W^  laugh  at  his  foolish  sports^  bat 

hk  game  ia  ovr  tanM»t»  and  his  diumsi  rattle%  and.hobby* 

hoxsea^  bft^tlis  smMama  and  mockln|[  of  n^en  s  h^uu&sss. 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHa 

APBIL. 

Tbb  ili«  too,  litialad  from  the  hnd,  whtn  loqg 
j  He  reomd  the  brendiiii^  mouareh  of  the  ^l^lM^ftt, 
Befln*  OM  temp«t  drittto.    At  Sfit,  in  epeed 
He,  ipiiahklj,  pnis  faU  aith  j  ead,  raued  hj  k§r, 
OiYM  ellhii  iwin aSrial booI  to  flight. 
Agiltat  the  hrsese  he  darti,  thst  waj  the  mora 
To  leete  the  keeening  mtirdnoiis  crew  hehind.' 
Dteeptloii  ihort!  though  fleeter  then  the  windi 
Be  bunfei  the  thiekete,  oluicee  through  ii»  ghube, 
Anii  plungei  deep  infen  £e  wildest  wood. 
If  elDW,  yet  eote,  adhesive  to  the  tnck, 
Hot-BteeiDtiig,  up  behind  him  oome  again 
The  tnhiuiian  tuut,  aild  flrom  the  shady  depth 
Eipel  lihn,  circling  thmugb  his  every  shift 
He  sweeps  the  lUrest  uftt  and  iobbiiig  aces 
Hie  glades,  mild  upeahig  to  the  gulden  day, 
Where  in  kind  eotttest  with  his  butting  frieMI 
fie  wont  lo  struggle,  or  hfai  loves  ei^oy. 
Oft  ia  the  AiU  deewmdittg  flood  he  tries 
To  kM  the  eeeni.  sml  lits  his  bumiug  sldei| 
"ft  Meb  the  herdi  th«  watchftd  herd,  aknoMd!, 

llh  HUUh  ears  Stoid  abrother'i  woe. 
lat.ihall  hi  M    His  ones  to  TlWd  tmHt^ 
irw  hill  o(  btiojriihl  ipiHti  Hdw  tw  more 
tttttdtS  m  ebuftii  bitt  Sdtiling  blwthless  ftA^ 
M»i,  tiA:m  OU  hb  hIMrt:  he  stands  at  baf, 
'M  Sttti  hU  last  weak  reftige  hi  despair. 

'he  Itg  fouiid  loan  run  itowtt  hit  diqmled  iuB; 

te  groabs  in  anguish,  while  the  growuiig  peak* 
^lood4iatm#»  hang  at  Die  fiur  JutUug  chett. 
AaA  asrk  hk  beauteous  chequered  sidee  itith  gdM. 

.    TaoictoM. 

Itf  ancietit  times,  wheti  this  country  was  clothed  with 
extensite  forests^  the  Shooting  of  deer  fbrtned  the  occupar 
tion  of  kings*  feudal  lords^  and  their  tassals,  and  seems 
to  hare  constituted  their  chief  amusement.  The  number 
of  these  animals  was  at  that  period  immense,  for  we 
have  it  on  the  authority  of  Leslie,  that  from  five 
htdldrM  to  t  thousand  were  sometimes  slalfl  dt  one 
geta«tsl  himtiilg-niatch)  at  the  termlniltidh  of  which  i 
gratid  fonisoti  feSst  was  prepared  fot  the  asseittblcd 
htint^S.  Tho  dhase  df  the  stag  was  also  popuki'  amoh^ 
the  lAiUes  ^  firitaini  who  held  their  huntltig-partici 
indepondently  of  the  gentlenifetl.  An  illuminated  menu* 
scf ipt  of  the  early  part  of  th^  foui'teellth  C«ntu^  repf^^ 
sents  one  of  these  felilal6  hunts*  wh^re  one  of  the  ladici 
is  cheefitig  on  hef  dog  with  the  sound  of  the  horni  while 
another,  with  a  bow  in  her  hand,  has  just  taken  silre  aim 
at  the  Staff,  and  has  planted  tat  afroW  between  hit  antlers. 
We  may  here  mention  an  opinion,  entertaiiied  by  some 
wi'iters,  that  it  was  in  the  intrstLit  of  the  deer  man  itti 
was  led  to  the  invention  of  the  bow. 

The  hunting  of  deer  was  a  much  more  exciting  sport 
ifl  tottnet  times  than  it  is  at  the  present  day:  it  eveii 
ssftumed  somewhat  of  a  martial  character,  and  was 
attended  with  a  degtee  of  perilous  hasard  that  rendered 
it  especially  attractive  to  the  bold  sportsmen  of  that  age. 
*«When  the  stag  turned  to  fcay,"  says  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
'Hhe  ancient  hunter  had  the  perilous  task  of  goitg  In 
upofi,  and  killing  or  disabling,  the  desperate  animal.  The 
task  was  dangerous,  and  to  be  adventured  upon  wisely 
and  wdrily^  either  by  getting  behifld  the  stag  while  he 
was  gasing  oil  the  hounds,  6r  by  watching  an  opportu- 
tiity  to  gallop  roundly  in  upon  him,  and  kill  him  with 
the  swbrd**' 

Few  |)erson8  &fe  utiaCqtiaifited  with  the  famous  old 
ballad  of  Chevy  Chase,  and  still  fewer  nerhaps  are  igno- 
rant of  the  storvof  Robin  Hood  and  his  Dand  in  Sherwood 
Forest.  In  these,  dnd  fliAny  more  of  the  ancient  ballads 
arid  fbmances,  whether  true  at  fictitious,  the  pursuit  of 
deer  is  a  favourite  theme,  and  the  personal  prowess  of 
those  who  excelled  in  it  a  fhiitftil  source  of  admiration. 
In  the  days  of  chivalry  it  often  happened  that  the  hero 
most  renowned  for  deeds  of  arms  was  also  celebrated  for 
his  skill  and  courage  in  the  chase.  Thus  Gaston  de 
Foix  was  the  mightiest  hunter  of  his  day,  and  wrote  a 
book  on  hunting,  worthy  of  note  for  the  accuracy  of  its 
details.  This  celebrated  duke  is  sud  to  have  kept  six- 
teen hundred  hounds, 

565^2 


THE  SATDTtDAY  MAiflAZIKB. 


Swtlud  ud  the  border  countnei  wem  to  baT«  been  I 
muly  oelebnted  for  tneir  great  huntingi ;  uid  in  tlie  rarly 
luatory  of  that  couotry,  u  well  u  of  our  own,  the  chaae 
mi  »  mfttter  of  «er)ouB  importance,  as  aupplying  the 
want*  of  the  iohabitants  in  food  and  clothing.  Even  a* 
kt«  ai  the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  the  Highland 
huntsman  found  most  of  his  wants  supplied  by  the  deer 
which  he  lulled.  A  Highlander,  in  exptuning  the  tenn 
"  Rough-footed  Scots,"  addressed  the  king  aa  follows: — 
"We  go  a-huDting,  and  after  we  have  slain  red  deer, 
m  flay  off  the  skin  bv-and-b*.  and  setting  of  our  bare 
foot  on  the  inside  thereof,  for  want  of  cunning  shoe* 
makers,  by  your  grace's  pardon,  we  play  the  coblen, 
compassing  and  measnring  so  much  thereof  aa  shall 
reach  up  to  our  ankles,  pricking  the  upper  part  thereof' 
with  holes,  that  the  water  may  repass  where  it  enters, 
and  stretching  it  up  with  a  thong  of  the  same  above  our 
aaid  anldes.  So,  and  piease  your  noble  graoe,  we  make 
our  shoes.  Therefore,  we  uabg  such  manner  of  shoes, 
the  rough  hairy  side  outwards,  in  your  grace's  dominions 
ot  England,  we  be  called  ■  Rough-footed  Scots.'" 

The  Anglo-Saxons  and  the  Normans  hunted  the  deer 
with  bows  and  arrows,  spears,  and  nets,  aa  well  as  with 
dogs.  To  the  king  and  bis  favourites,  among  the  latter 
people,  was  reserved  the  exclusive  right  of  hunting  wild 
animala,  but  especially  the  deer,  for  the  pnqiagatioa  of 
which  large  tncts  of  land  were  unjustly  appropriated, 
and  flourishing  villages  lud  waste;  while,  to  protect  the 
deer  within  these  mclosures,  heavy  fines  were  exacted, 
and  severe  punishments  inflicted.  These  laws  led  to 
much  crime  and  misery,  and  were  found,  notwithstand- 
ing their  severity,  wholly  inadequate  to  prevent  the 
practice  of  deer-stealing. 

Owing  to  the  progress  of  agricultural  improvement  in 
Great  Britain,  the  quantity  of  deer  is  exceedingly  dimi- 
nished. During  the  last  centurv  numerous  forests  were 
inclosed,  which  were  formerly  well-stocked  with  red-deer, 
ftllow-deer,  and  roe-bucks.  Windsor  Forest,  which 
extended  over  seventeen  parishes,  and  in  many  districts 
was  full  of  deer,  was  disafforested  in  1814,  part  of  it 
bdng  allotted  to  the  crown  for  a  park,  and  other  parts 


given  in  compensation  fbr  nghti  of  paatnn,  ftC)  to  (>■ 
several  poriines 

The  modem  practice  of  stag-nundng  mpy  be  cuw- 
dered  under  two  heads,  J. «.,  the  hnntfaig  of  the  >» 
ttag,  as  it  exidted  undl  late  yean  in  EngUnd,  snd  m 
exists  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  the  InmtiDg  cfw 
earf^d  ttag,  so  ca.led  because  he  is  taken  to  the  spp«W| 
spot  in  a  cart.  The  latter  is  the  method  of  huntinf  ™ 
stag  practised  in  England  at  the  preaoit  dsy;  and,  «*- 
wi^stan^g  the  grandeur  and  sptoidid  accompsaineDta 
which  occasionally  invest  it  with  attnctioBa,  it  is  i*f*'^ 
by  many  sportsmen  with  supreme  eontenpt,  at  efai^ 
little  variety  or  excitement  and  being  nnwortlff  * 
manly  character  of  en  Engliilimui.  audi,  ■"^''M 
appears  to  be;  for  the  st^,  previooely  nourished  up,  n^ 
fostered  in  parks  with  the  beet  food,  is,  «hM  oonndnrf 
in  proper  condition  for  the  chaM,  oonveyed,  ■*  **  7]! 
said,  to  the  place  appointed,  turned  ant  to  Ae  v"'^* 
the  huntsman's  horn,  allowed  an  interval  of  tioe,  wM 
law,  and  then  vigorously  pursned  by  huntwen  *» 
bound*.  The  distance  passed  over  in  the  punoit  of  tK 
deer  ii  often  greater  than  that  tnverMd  \j  tte  toi- 
hunter;  hot  the  oarted  stag,  having  been  eftca  huWH 
befon,  (for  in  this  kind  of  hunting  the  deedi  of  y* 
animal  is  not  sought,  be  beii^  pretemd  forflUnrenV^ 
ries,)  generally  fallow*  the  eana  tradi.  travenM  w 
tame  lanes  and  fields,  and  lave*  in  the  iHne  stwMi-  ^ 
toe  regular  siag-lumta  a  change  of  deer  is  oAn  >■>*''' 
to  avoid  this  tameneis  of  prooedore.  The  dnef  i*<^ 
mendttion  of  thi*  sport  appean  to  be  that  it  «■  " 
enjoyed  when  no  ouer  chase  of  coiUeaaenee  on 
pnrcned.  We  have  not  space  to  notioe  ue  fcniil^  "* 
Mow-deer,  which,  vbeAer  the  animal  be  '"■|^f 
fsmale,  is  in  common  language  called  kudfif'*^ 
We  therefore  proceed  to  the  natmal  bistorv  of  the  t«f< 
as  we  gain  it  from  Cuvier  and  the  beet  antnorities. 

The  gemu  to  which  the  etagbdnigs  (otrvw)  («>^ 
of  rummant  »»i«»nTn«ii«|  the  males  of  which  b*ve  >»'' 
honu,  or,  more  propeny  speaknwi  antlers,  WJ^ 
entirely  of  bone,  without  any  *haa£isg  of  bony  ""'l^ 
whicb  are  Iftewise  deciduous,  and  annually  reprodiiM^ 


mi  2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


157 


The  animals  of  this  genus  are  in  general  renuuiuible  for 
the  elegance  of  thdr  forms,  the  lightness  of  their  pro* 
portions,  and  the  Telocity  of  their  movements.  The  legs 
are  slender  and  firm,  the  body  round  and  compact,  the 
neck  long,  and  head  well-shaped.  Their  look  is  meek,' 
yet  confidant,  wild,  yet  curious;  the  colours  of  thieir  coat, 
dean,  brilliant,  and  agreeable.  Thiey  belong  rather  to 
wild  than  to  cultivated  nature ;  for  although  some  of  the 
species  are  comparatively  tame,  and  one  of  them,  the 
rein-deer,  of  Noi^em  Europe,  in  a  state  of  entire  domes- 
tication, yet  generally  speiddng  they  fade  away  before 
ihe  progress  of  -cultivation,  and  become  diminished  in 
numbers,  as  the  seclusion  they  love  is  broken  in  upon. 

The  stag  (eertnu  elaphug)^  also  known  as  the  hurt  and 
red-deer  is  the  deer  par  excellence  of  all  our  writers  on 
the  chase,  and  of  all  the  histories  of  bold  foresters  of 
former  days.  This  animal  is  by  lAuch  the  kurgest  of 
European  deer,  and  blears  horns  with  a  round  beam 
slighUy  bent  inwards  at  the  summits,-  three  branches 
pointing  to  the  front,  and  the  snags  of  the  crown  issuing 
from  a  common  centre.  The  adults,  male  and  female,  in. 
the  summer,  have  the  back,  flanks,  and  outside  of  the 
thighs  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  with  a  blackish  line 
nmiung  along  the  spine,  marked  on  each  side  with  ful- 
voos  spots.  The  colour  deepens  with  age,  and  changes 
with  tae  seasons.'  There  are  breeds  common  in  the 
German  woods  which  are  of  a  very  deep  colour,  nearly 
approaching  to  black;  The  hair  of  the  steg  is  remark- 
ably brittle,  and  holds  to  the  skin  only  by  a  small  pellicle ; 
his  eyes  .have  an  elongated  pupil,  and  his  muzale  w  very 
broad,  the  tongue  is  soft,  and  ears  middle-sized  and 
pointed.  In  addition  to  the  possession  of  horns,  the  stag 
differs  fomi  tiie  hind  in  the  long  bristly  hair  of  his  throat, 
and  in  the  canine  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw.  The  young 
fawns  are  extremely  b«uitiful,  imd  of  a  colour  that  is 
very  pleasing  to  the  eye.  They  are  of  a  rich  yellowish 
brown,  dappled  with  white  spots,  and  from  them  a  pecu- 
liar sha^  of  colour,  intermediate  between  brown  and 
yellow,  receives  its  name.  At  first,  the  young  of  the 
stag,  whether  male  or  femalei  are  called  calves:  after  six 
months  the  bossets  or  protuberances,  of  the  horns  become 
visible  in  the  young  males,  which  gradually  develop  two 
simple  cylindrical  knobs.  During'  the  second  year  the 
horns  assume  the  figure  of  dags,  or  spikes,  and  the  ani- 
mal is  then  named  a  brocket •  ,The  third  year  his  new 
horns  throw  out  two  or  three  tynes,  or  snags,  when  he  is 
termed  a  epo^ad*  .The  crown,  or  surroyid,  appears  on 
the  Buminit  in  the  fourth  year,  and  then  he  is  a  etaggard. 
The  fifth  year  he.  becomes  a  stag,  in  the  sixth  a  Aar/> 
and  so  r«mains  the  rest  of  his  life.  .  The  female  likewise 
passes  through  a  succession  of  changes  but.they  are  less 
important,  and,  moreover,  regular  sportsmen  never  hunt 
the  female  deer.  In  the  first  vear  the  female  is  called 
a  ealfi  in  the  second  a  brocket  e  mter,  in  the  third,  and 
ever  after,  a  fund. 

The  hind  produces  but  one  fawn  or  calf  in  the  year ; 
and  tius  takes  .place  in  May,  or  the  beginning  of  June. 
She  seeks  retirement  and  concealment  during  the 
smnmer  months,  and  attends  to  her  calf  with  truly 
maternal  aoUci^de,  exposine  herself  to  the  pursuit  of 
dogs,  when  neeesswy*  in  order  to  draw  them  away  from 
her  young.  At  the  same  time  the  stags,  are  in  seclusion 
m  other  pastures,  being  comparatively  defenceless  whUe 
shedding  their  horns  during  the  growth  of  the  new  ones. 
Staga  w§e»  or. shed  their  horns  in  the  early  part. of  the 
spring,  and  this ia  technically  called  ''losing  their  attire." 
It  is  not  until  the.month  of  August  that  the  new  antiers 
are  completed,  when  the  animal  ruba  off  the  skm  or  velvet 
which  covers  them  against  the  steins  of  trees. 

Furious  batties  between  harts  of  the  same  age  are 
not  unoosBmon  during  autumn;  they  run  at  each  other 
with  the  heads  low,  and  with  such  violence  that  some- 
times the  honia  get  entangled  sq  as  to  become  inextrica- 
Vkt  and  the  two  are  held  together  till  thev  die.  Even 
.after  deatiiy  tiie  skulls  have  remained  locked,  together, 


without  the  possibility  of  being  severed;  a  circumstance 
of  not  unfrequent -occurrence  among  rein-deer. 

It  was  the  ancient  belief  that  the  stag  was  remarkable 
for  longevity,  but  later  observers  have  reckoned  its  age 
as  seldom  exceeding  twenty  years.  This  animal  is  found 
more  or  less  throughout  Europe,  where  there  is  cover 
adapted  for  it,  except  in  the  extreme  north,  or  in  very 
hot  places  near  the  sea.  It  is  also  met  with  in  Western 
Asia,  in  some  of  the  mountainous  islands  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  of  Atlas, 
in  Northern  Africa,  where  it  is  supposed  it  was  imported 
by  the  Romans.  In  that  part  of  uie  world,  however,  it 
ia  considerably  degenerated.  The  size  is  smaller,  the 
colour  lighter,  and  the  antiers  terminate  in  forks,  instead 
of  the  numerous  snags  they  display  in  colder  climates. 
•'  The  vast  number  of  stags'  horns  found  in  the  fossil 
state  must  not  lead  us  to  the  error  of  supposing  that 
there  has  been  an  equal  number  of  stags;  for  supposing 
a  stag  to  complete  his  twentieth  year,  he  famishes  fifteen 
sets  of  horns;  and,  making  allowance  for  casualties,  per- 
haps vre  may  conclude  there  are  ten  times  as  many  sets 
of  horns '  as  there  have  been  stags.  Nevertheless,  the 
numbers  of  deer  in  this  kingdom,  and  throughout  Europe, 
must  have  been  very  great  in  former  days.  These  noble 
animals  are  now,  as. we  have  already  intimated,  few  in 
number  in  England;  but  the  case  is  different  in  the  moun- 
tainous parts  of  Scotland,  especially  in  the  central 
Grampians,  between  Athol  on  the  south,  and  Badenoch 
and  Strathspey.  The  forest  of  Athol  is  one  of  the 
largest  set  apart  for  red-deer,  and  forms  a  noble  and  ex- 
tensive deniesne,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
modem  descriptioni-^  " 

The  eastern  part  of  the  Forest  of  Athol,  or,  more  strictiy 
speaking,  the  Forest  of  Minigag,  contains  some  of  the  lofti- 
est mountains  in  Scotland,  and  it  gives  rise  to  various 
branches  of  the  rivers  Bee  and  Don,  towards  the  eastern  side, 
of  the  Spev  towards  the  north,  and  of  the  Tay,  more  etfpe- 
dally  the  Bxuar  and  the  Tilt,  towards  the  south.  Thrae  are 
extensive  natural  forests  <^  pine,  in  the  upper  glens  and 
valleys  of  the  eastern  riven,  out  the  deer  are  not  quite  so 
abundant  there  as  they  are  in  the  south,  where  the  exposure 
is  warmer,  and  the  pasture  better.  Glen  Tilt  and  Glen 
Bniar.  especially  the  former,  are  the  principal  winterings; 
but  the  aeer,  altogeiher,  have  not  less  than  a  hundred 
thousand  English  acres  of  hill  to  range  over.  The  Duke  of 
Athol  has  greatly  benefited  this  vast  tract  bv  the  extent  of 
his  treeplimting.  The  number  of  deer,  old  and  young,  is 
not  fewer  than  seven  or  eig^t  thousand ;  and  the  great  himts, 
or  rather  siaughters,  most  frequently  take  plMe  in  Glen 
Tilt,  thouffh  the  more  laborioua  occupation  or  deer-stalking 
is  pursued  in  other  places.  On  the  peat  hunts,  they  are 
driven  by  a  circuit  of  people,  who  bring  them  to  a  pass  or 
narrow  where  the  maivsmen  are  posted,  so  that  they  can 
select  and  make  sure  of  their  victims.  This  is  not  a  very 
manly  sport,  but  it  is  very  e£Bcient  **  pof*  hunting ;  and  the 
nature  of  the  ground  renders  it  impossible  to  lulopt  any 
more  sportanan-like  mode.  It  is  understood  that,  mm  the 
care  b^towed  upon  them  by  the  proprietors,  red  deer  are 
becoming  more  numerous  on  those  mountains;  and  though 
the  hill  is  quite  op^i,  and  the  keepers  are  but  few,  there  is 
comparatively  little  poaching;  and,  indeed,  it  is  rendered 
unnecessary,  because  the  ideer  are  always  straying  so  far  out 
upon  the  spurs  of  the  hills,  that  any  one  who  is  so  indined 
may  occasionally  have  a  shot;  and  to  attempt  shooting  deer 
on  the  open  Grampians,  as  a  matter  of  pront,  Is  nearfy  out 
of  the  question* 

Whokvxb  shall  review  his  life,  will  generally  find  that 
the  whole  tenor  of  his  conduct  has  been  terminated  by 
some  accident  of  no  apparent  moment,  or  by  a  combination 
of  inconsiderable  circumstances,  acting  when  his  imagina- 
tion was  unoccupied,  and  his  judgment  unsetUed ;  and  that 
his  principles  and  actions  have  taken  thor  colour  £Fom  some 
secret  infusion,  mingled  without  design  in  the  current  of  his 
ideas.  The  desires  that  piedominate  in  our  hearts  are  in- 
stilled by  imperceptible  communications,  at  the  time  we  look 
upon  the  various  scenes  of  the  world,  and  the  different  em- 
ployments of  men,  with  the  neutrality  of  inexperience, 
ana  we  come  forth  from  the  nursery  of  the  school,  inva- 
riably destined  to  the  pursuit  of  great  acquisitions  or  petty 
accomplishments.'— Im  JoRyson. 


168 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[APMbUi 


AMICABLE  CEREMONIEa 
Friendly  Salutatiows — ^Cbrxmoniss  of  Rbspict 

— ^KiBSiMG  Hands. 

All  the  eeremonies  wliich  are  used  in  different  countries 
between  individuals,  and  which  are  of  an  amicable  cha- 
racter, may  be  reduced  to  two  sorts, — salutations,  and 
reverences, — ^both  of  which  are  usually  accompanied  by 
touching  some  part  of  the  body;  but  whether  this  be 
done,  or  any  other  sort  of  ceremony  be  practised,  matters 
not:  every  nation  thinks  that  it  alone  uses  the  most 
reasonable  customs  of  this  nature;  but  all  are,  perhaps, 
equally  simple;  and  are  certainly  not  ridiculous,  merely 
because  they  are  strange. 

We  shall  first  speak  of  the  modes  of  talutatunh  which 
are  evidently  so  much  influenced  by  climate,  situation, 
and  the  habits  of  a  people;  though  they  rise  originally 
from  respect,  humility,  fear,  and  esteem,  which  are  ex- 
pressed much  in  a  similar  manner,  being  the  natural 
consequences  of  the  organiiation  of  the  body. 

As  nations  fall  off  from  their  ancient  simplicity)  the 
meaning  of  salutations  becomes  less  ostensible;  so  that 
the  external  acts  often  become  empty  civilities,  and  imply 
nothing;  which,  however,  must  not  be  omitted,  lest  inten- 
tional  affront  may  seem  to  be  conveyed  by  the  neglect* 

With  primitive  nations,  or  in  the  primitive  stages  of 
society,  ike  affectionate  touching  of  the  person  who  is 
saluted,  is  an  expression  of  tenderness  and  regard;  as 
we  shall  see  illustrated  by  the  following  examples;  and, 
indeed,  the  general  justness  of  the  remarks  which  we 
have  already  made,  will  be  vindicated  as  we  proceed. 

The  Greenlanders  laugh  when  they  see  an  European 
uncover  his  head,  and  bend  his  body  before  his  superior: 
—the  climate  would  naturally  deter  the  natives  from 
adopting  such  a  form. 

some  of  the  islanders  in  the  Eastern  seas  take  the 
hand  or  foot  of  him  they  salute,  and  gently  rub  their 
face  with  it. 

The  Laplanders  rub  their  noses  up  against  the  persons 
whom  they  salute. 

At  New  Guinea,  in  the  Eastern  seas,  they  place  on 
the  heads  of  those  whom  they  salute,  the  leaves  of  such 
trees  as  are  symbols  of  friendship  and  peace. 

Houtman,  a  Dutch  navigator  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  tells  us  that  they  saluted  him  in  a  very  grotesque 
manner,  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipe- 
lago. They  raised  his  left  foot,  which  they  passed 
gently  over  the  right  leg,  and  thence  over  his  face. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Philippine  Islands  bend  the 
body  very  low,  place  their  hands  on  their  cheeks,  and 
raise  at  the  same  time  one  foot  in  the  air  with  their  knee 
bent. 

An  Ethiopian  takes  the  robe  of  another,  and  ties  it 
about  his  own  waist  so  that  he  leaves  his  friend  half 
naked. 

Sometimes  persons  inore  or  less  undress  themselves 
before  friends,  in  token  of  humility.  The  Japanese, 
when  they  salute,  only  take  off  a  slipper :  the  people  of 
Aracan,  near  the  mouths  of  the  Ganges,  take  off  their 
sandals  in  the  street,  and  their  stockings  in  the  house. 

When  they  wish  to  salute  each  other  in  a  respectful 
way,  in  the  Japan  islands,  the  person  so  saluting  bends 
himself  down  to  the  earth,  then  rises  and  turns  his  back 
upon  his  friend ;  which  latter  proceeding  is  designed  to 
intimate  that  the  person  so  turning  away  is  unworthy 
to  look  upon  the  other. 

Negroes  of  distinction  in  the  interior  of  Africa  salute 
each  other  by  snapping  the  middle  finger  three  times. 

AthencBus,  who  died  at  the  end  of  Uie  second  century 
after  Christ,  tells  us  that  the  inhabitants  of  Carinena,  to 
show  a  peculiar  mark  of  esteem,  would  let  blood  and 
present  it  as  a  beverage  to  their  friends. 

The  Franks  would  tear  the  hair  from  their  heads,  and 
present  it  to  those  whom  they  saluted:  the  flave  would 
cut  his  hair  and  offer  it  to  his  master. 


In  Otaheite,  an  island  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  they  nk 
their  noses  together  by  way  of  salutation. 

The  Dutch,  who  are  considered  as  great  eaten,  bare 
a  morning  salutation  common  amongst  all  raob^ 
*^  SmaaJc^yk  tstgn.**  May  you  eat  a  hearty  dinner. 
Another  is,  ^^Hoe  vaart  awef*  How  do  you  uil?-^ 
adopted,  no  doubt,  in  the  early  periods  of  the  state,  wba 
they  were  all  navigators  and  hshermen. 

The  usual  salutation  at  Cairo  is, — **How  do  yoa 
sweat  ?"^^  dry  hot  skin  being  a  sure  indication  of  a 
destructive  ephemeral  fever. 

The  Spaniard  saysr— "  CofM  §sta  ?**  How  do  jqq 
stand :  while  the  Frenchman  addresses  his  friend  with 
"  Comment  vou$  porUjrHfous  ¥'  How  do  you  carry  your- 
self ?  It  has  been  observed  that  the  former  phrase  geeas 
to  imply  a  proud,  steady  and  solemn  gait,  such  as  is  pecu* 
liar  to  the  Spaniard;  while  the  latter  is  expressive  of  the 
gay  motion  and  incessant  action  of  the  Frenchman. 

The  common  salutation  in  the  southern  provisoes  d 
Chins,  amongst  the  lower  ordersi  is«-<<  Have  you  eates 
your  rice  ?" 

The  ChUiese  are  verr  affected  in  their  personal  civili^ 
ties*  They  even  calculate  the  number  of  their  revocs* 
ces.  The  men  move  their  hands  in  sn  affectionate  masneri 
while  they  are  joined  together  on  the  breast,  and  bov 
their  heads  a  little.  If  they  respect  a  person,  tbey 
raise  their  hands  Joined,  and  then  lower  them  to  th« 
earth,  in  bending  the  body*  If  two  persons  meet  afier 
a  long  separation,  they  both  fall  on  their  knees,  and  bend 
their  faces  to  the  eaith,  repeating  the  ceremony  two  or 
three  times, 

If  a  Chmese  be  asked  how  he  finds  himself  in  health, 
he  answers,  **  Very  well;  thanks  to  your  sbundast  feli« 
city*"  If  one  would  tell  another  that  he  loob  well,  hi 
says,  ^  Prosperity  is  painted  on  your  ftoe;"  or  ^  Yoot 
air  announces  your  happiness." 

If  one  receive  a  semoe  irom  another,  he  ssyi,  ^Uy 
thanks  shall  be  immortal."  One  who  is  praised  aays  to 
the  other,  '*  How  shall  I  dare  to  persuade  myself  of  whu 
vou  say  of  me?"  When  a  guest  departs  they  Mji  "Wt 
have  not  treated  you  with  sufficient  distinction*'' 

All  such  answers  are  prescribed  by  the  Chinese  ritoilf 
or  the  Academy  of  oompliments*  By  this  are  dete^ 
mined,  the  number  of  bows;  the  expressions  to  be  eo* 
ployed;  the  genuflexions,  and  the  inclinations  wfaicb  an 
to  be  made,  to  the  right  or  left  hand;  the  salutationi  of 
the  master  before  the  chair  where  the  stranger  i>  ^  ^ 
seated*  for  he  salutes  it  most  profoundly,  and  wipei  tbi 
dust  away  with  the  skiru  of  his  robe:  all  these s&doUitf 
things  are  noticed,  even  to  the  silent  gestures  by  whieb 
a  person  is  entreated  to  enter  the  house.  Th^  lo**| 
classes  of  people  are  equally  nice  in  these  punctilios;  tf< 
ambassadors  pass  forty  days  in  practising  thesBy  before 
ther  are  enabled  to  appear  at  court.  "^^^  P^^ J^^!^ 
tribunal  of  ceremonies,  which  often  issues  very  odd  «• 
creea,  to  which  the  Chinese  implicitly  submit* 

Marks  of  honour  are  frequently  arbitrary  :-;-*«  "J 
seated  is  with  us  a  mark  of  repose  and  ftmiliarity;  m 
to  stand  up  shows  respect  There  are  countries,  boweve , 
m  which  princes  wffl  only  be  addressed  by  persons  ^ 
are  seated;  and  it  is  considered  as  a  fktoor  to  be  per* 
mitted  to  stand  in  their  presence*  . 

The  use  of  "  Your  humble  servant,"  came  first  ff^ 
France  into  England  on  the  marriage  of  Queen  Hennewj 
Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of  France^  to  Cw^ 
the  First,  when  Prince  of  Wales.  The  uaosl  sslutatiw 
before  that  time  was  "  God  keep  you !"  txA  *^^^ 
vulgar,  •'  How  dost  do?"  with  a  thump  on  ^y^. 

To  bite  the  ear  was,  anciently,  an  exprewion  of  €flfl«^ 
ment;  and  it  is  still  so  far  retained  by  the  Fresen,  w 
to  pull  a  man  gently  by  the  ear  is  the  most «»'«  ^7."  . 
good  will.  The  French,  likewise  solute  each  <^^^^^ 
—The  gentlemen,  and  others  of  the  male  set,  ^^^ 
on  the  shoulders,  and  touch  the  sides  (tf  ^•fv.^to 
cheek;  but,  on  being  hitrodueed  to  a  lady,  ts«y  »7 


1S41.] 


JTHE  SATURDAY  MA^AXIHtE. 


159 


her  fktber,  brother,  'or  friend^  ^^JWrn^MtXHno^**  and 
salute  each  of  her  cheeks. 

As  one  of  the  most  remarkable  meihods  of  doin^ 
reverencB  eonaista  in  the  custom  of  kissing  hands,  we 
propose  to  famish  a  general  account  of  it  from  the 
earliest  times,  remarking,  by  the  waj,  that  this  custom 
is  not  only  very  ancient,  and  nearly  universal,  but  it 
has  been  practised  both  in  religion  and  by  society. 

From  the  remotest  times  men  saluted  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars,  by  kissing  the  hand.  To  this  sort  of  idolatry 
Job  assures  us  that  he  was  not  adcBcted:  see  xrtu  27. 
This  patriarch  is  considered  to  have  lived  about  21  SO 
years  b.c* 

Lneian,  who  lived  about  150  years  after  Christ,  says 
that  the  poor,  who  could  not  afford  to  offer  up  sacrifices 
to  the  gods,  adored  them  by  the  simpler  compliment  of 
kissing  their  hands.  He  tells  us  that  Demosthenes, 
when  taken  off  as  a  prisoner  by  the  soldiers  of  Antipater, 
asked  leave  to  enter  a  temple.  When  he  had  entered 
he  touched  his  mouth  with  his  hands,  which  the  guards 
took  for  an  act  of  religion, — ^kissing  hands  to  the  god. 
He  did  it,  however,  more  securely  to  swallow  the  poison 
which  he  had  prepared  fbr  such  an  occasion. 

Among  the  Romans  persons  were  treated  as  atheists 
who  woiud  not  kiss  their  hands  when  they  entered  a 
temple. 

We  are  told  that  the  earliest  Christian  bishops  save 
their  hands  to  be  kissed  by  the  ministers  who  served  at 
the  altar;  but  that  the  custom  declined  with  paganism. 

The  flatterers  and  suppliants  of  ancient  times  were  in 
the  habit  of  kissing  the  hands  of  their  patrons>  till  they 
obtained  the  favour  which  they  solicited.  In  Homer, 
Priam  is  represented  kissing  the  hands  and  embracing 
the  knees  of  Achilles,  while  he  supplicates  for  the  body 
of  Hector. 

This  custom  prevailed  in  ancient  Rome,  but  it  varied 
at  different  times.  In  the  firsi  ages  of  the  Republic  it 
seems  to  have  been  only  practised  by  inferiors  towards 
their  sopeiiars:  equals  gave  their  hands  and  embraced. 
In  the  progress  of  time  even  the  soldiers  refused  to 
show  this  mark  of  respect  to  their  generals,  and  their 
kissing  the  hand  of  Cato,  when  he  was  obliged  to  quit 
them,  was  regarded  as  an  extraordinary  circumstance, 
at  a  period  of  such  refinement.  The  great  respect  paid 
to  the  tribunes,  consuls,  and  dictators,  obliged  indivi- 
duals to  behave  towards  them  in  a  more  distant  and 
respectful  manner;  and^  instead  of  embracing  them  as 
heretofore,  they  considered  themselves  fortunate  if 
allowed  to  kiss  their  hands.  Under  the  emperors, 
kissing  hands  became  a  duty,  even  for  the  great  them- 
selves: infferior  courtiers  were  obliffed  to  be  content  to 
adore  the  purple^  by  kneeling,  touching  the  robe  of  the 
emperor  with  the  right  hand,  and  carrying  it  to  the 
mouth.  Even  thb  was  thought  too  free,  and  at  length 
they  saluted  the  emperor  at  a  distance,  by  kissing  their 
hands,  in  the  same  manner  as  when  they  adored  the  gods. 

The  custom  of  which  we  are  now  speaking  is  practised 
hi  every  known  country,  in  respect  to  sovereigns  and 
superiors,  even  amongst  the  negroes  and  the  inhabitants 
of  the  New  World.  Cortez  found  this  custom  prevailinff 
at  Mexico,  where  more  than  a  thousand  lords  saluted 
him,  by  touching  the  earth  with  their  hands,  which  they 
afterwards  kissed. 

Thus,  whether  the  custom  of  salutation  is  practised 
by  kisdng  the  hands  of  others  fVom  respect,  or  by 
bringing  one's  own  hand  to  the  mouth,  it  nas  been  of 
all  customs  the  most  universal  in  point  of  time  or  place. 
In  ordinary  practice,  however,  it  is  now  considered  to  be 
too  gross  a  familiarity  and  a  meanness  to  kiss  the  hands 
of  those  with  whom  we  are  in  habits  of  intercourse. 
But  in  affairs  of  state  and  solemnity  at  court,  this  prac- 
tice ia  still  retained^  and  at  an  appointment  to  office,  or 
on  a  personal  introdiuetion  to  the  sovereign,  the  favoured 
indiridua,!  ia  allQW^  to  h&ve  the  honour  of  kissing  the 
royal  hand. 


GINGERBREAD. 


Trs  mannfactnre  of  gingerbread  is  carried  on  to  a  con« 
siderable  extent  in  London,  both  to  supply  the  home 
demand,  and  to  furnish  the  requisite  quantity  for  exporta- 
tion. It  forms  a  distinct,  and  a  lucrative,  branch  of 
trade,  and  the  art  is  attended  with  less  trouble  than  even 
the  making  of  ordinanr  bread. 

This  article  is  held  in  high  estimation  among  our 
Anglo-Indian  brethren,  and  is  exported  in  large  quanti- 
ties for  their  use.  In  hot  climates,  the  natives  of  Europe 
suffer  !Vom  a  relaxed  state  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
stomach,  and  therefore  stimulating  food  is  highly  accept- « 
able  and  even  beneficial  to  them:  thus  we  find  most  men 
that  have  been  long  in  India,  to  have  acquired  the  habit  of 
smoking,  and  of  taking  highly  seasoned  food,  spices,  and 
other  stimulants.  The  best  sort  of  gingerbread  forms 
to  such  an  agreeable  and  wholesome  article  of  diet;  and 
it  is  this  finest  description  of  the  article,  which  is  so 
largely  exported  to  Inaia.  It  is  made  in  London,  and 
formed  into  cakes  about  a  foot  long,  six  inches  wide,  and 
an  inch  and  a  half  thick :  these  are  packed  in  boxes,  and 
so  transmitted  to  their  place  of  destination. 

The  price  of  the  best  description  of  gingerbread  is  too 
high  to  allow  of  its  being  very  generally  consumed  in 
England;  and  the  quality  of  the  inferior  sorts  is  oflen 
so  bad  as  to  make  them  not  only  distasteful,  but  posi- 
tively injurious.  The  pain  (F^iee^  or  spiced  bread  of 
France  is  generally  esteemed  in  that  country;  but  the 
taste  for  gingerbread  seems  to  be  at  its  height  in  Hol- 
land. There  it  is  the  business  of  every  family  to  pro- 
duce this  article  in  perfection ;  and  it  is  affirmea  that  the 
familyreeipc  for  making  gingerbread  descends  as  an  heir- 
loom from  father  to  son,  and  is  kept  a  secret  beyond  the 
family  circle.  So  far  is  this  taste'  carried,  that,  accord- 
ing even  to  Dutchmen  themselves,  the  success  of  a  per- 
son who  wishes  to  ingratiate  himself  with  a  family,  often 
depends  in  no  small  degree  on  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  presents  he  xhakes  them  in  gingerbread.  Shops 
are  devoted  exclusively  to  the  sale  of  this  commodity ; 
and,  indeed,  throughout  the  country,  we  find  the  article 
of  which  our  paltry  figure  and  gilt  gingerbread  is  a  very 
distant  imitation,  in  common  use  and  general  estimation. 

It  is  a  peculiarity  in  the  manufacture  of  gingerbread 
that  the  dough  cannot  be  fermented  by  means  of  yeast. 
Every  attempt  at  this  sort  has  proved  unsuccessful,  and 
though  there  has  been  occasionally  a  slight  appearance 
of  fermentation  in  the  dough,  yet  when  the  gingerbread  is 
baked  it  is  as  solid,  hard,  and  compact,  as  a  piece  of  wood. 

The  ingredients  commonly  used  in  making  ginger- 
bread are  flour,  treacle  or  molasses,  butter,  common 
potashes,  and  alum.  When  the  butter  is  melted,  and 
the  potashes  and  alum  are  dissolved  in  a  little  warm 
water,  these  three  ingredients,  together  with  the 
treacle,  are  poured  among  the  flour  which  is  to  form 
the  body  of  the  bread.  The  whole  is  then  incorpo- 
rated by  mixture  and  kneading  into  a  stiff  dough.  Of 
these  five  constituents,  the  alum  could  be  best  dis- 
pensed with,  as  its  properties  are  hurtful,  although  it  is 
found  useful  in  making  the  bread  lighter  and  crisper 
than  it  would  otherwise  be,  and  hastening  tiie  whole  pro- 
cess>  for  gingerbread  dough  has  a  further  peculiarity,  in 
almost  invariably  requiring  to  stand  over  for  the  ^ace 
of  from  three  or  four  to  eight  or  ten  days^  Experience 
haa  shown,  likewise,  that  it  may  be  allowed  to  stand  over 
for  aa  much  as  three  weeks,  rather  with  advantage  than 
loss.  On  some  occasions,  however,  and  from  causes  not 
well  understood  by  the  baker,  it  is  fit  for  the  oven  at  a 
much  earlier  period  than  at  others^ 

Dr.  Colquhoun  in  endeavouring  to  trace  the  causes 
of  the  peculiaritiea  which  attend  the  process  of  ginger'* 
bread  making,  tried  several  experimente,  which  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  mutual  action  of  the  treacle  and  pot- 
ashes on  each  other,  is  the  source  of  the  gasefying  prin? 
oiple  in  gingerbread.     His  experiments  may  be  thus 


160 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[April  24,  1841. 


briefly  noticed:— Fmt»  a  iiiasb  of  dough  was  made 
ready  with  all  the  usual  uigredients  of  gingerbread  except 
butter.  This  was  allowed  to  stand  the  usual  time,  then 
baked ;  and  when  taken  from  the  oven  it  proyed  to  be  a 
well-raised  gingerbread  loaf.  It  was  plain,  therefore, 
that  butter  had  no  influence  in  making  it  light  and 
porous.  Next,  several  pieces  of  dough  were  prepared, 
having  all  the  usual  ingredients  except  the  carbonate  of 
potash.  One  of  these  pieees  was  baked  immediately, 
others  stood  over  for  intervals  of  diffSerent  duration;  but 
in  whatever  way  it  was  managed,  it  always  came  from 
the  oven  in  a  heavy  solid  mass.  The  next  experiment 
was  made  by  leaving  the  treacle  itself  out,  and  substituting 
dissolved  loaf  sugar  while  the  carbonate  of  potash  and  all 
the  other  ingredients  were  present.  I)ere  again  the 
bread  returned  from  the  oven  in  a  heavy  mass,  without 
being  in  the  least  degree  porous  or  vesicular.  From 
these  experiments  it  seemed  clear  that  the  simultaneous 
presence  of.  the  treacle  and  the  carbonate  of  potash,  and 
their  mutual  action,  must  be  quite  essential  to  the  forma- 
tion of  g^ood  elastic  gingerbread. 

The  nature  of  the  action  of  the  treacle  and  alkaline 
carbonate,  is  not  very  easy  to  discover;  but  it  is  probably 
due  to  a  certain  portion  of  uncombined  acid  in  treacle, 
which  unites  with  the  alkali  of  the  carbonate,  and  releases 
a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  thereby  rendering  the 
gingerbread  light  and  elastic.  Dr. ,  Colquhoun  found 
that  carbonate  of  magnesia  and  tartaric  acid  might  re- 
place the  potashes  and  alum  with  great  advantag^e. 
The  quantity  of  potash  which  it  is  necessary  to  use  in 
the  ordinary  process,  g^ives  a  distinct  disagreeable  alka- 
line flavour  to  the  bread  unless  it  be  well  disg^uised  with 
some  aromatic  ingrredient,  and  is  likely  also  toprove  in- 
jurious to  persons  of  delicate  constitution.  Tne  incon- 
veniences attending  the  lengthened  nature  of  the  process 
have  likewise  to  be  considered,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  saving  of  time,  and  other  advantages  gained  by  em- 
ploying the  magrnesia  and  tartaric  acid,  more  than  counter- 
balance the  trifling  additional  cost.  The  recipe  as  given 
by  Dr.  Colquhoun  is  as  follows : — Take  a  pound  of  flour, 
a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  carbonate  of  magpiesia,  and  one 
eignth  of  an  ounce  of  tartaric  acid ;  mix  the  flour  and 
magnesia  thoroughly  first,  then  dissolve  and  add  the 
acid:  let  the  butter,  treacle,  and  spices,  be  added  in  the 
usual  manner,  melting  the  butter  and  pouring  it  with  the 
treacle  and  acid  among  the  flour  and  magnesia.  The 
whole  must  be  then  incorporated  into  a  mass  of  dough 
by  kneading,  and  then  set  aside  for  a  period  varying 
from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour.  It  will  be  then  ready  for 
the  oven,  and  should  not  be  delayed  on  any  occasion 
longer  than  two  or  three  hours  before  it  is  baked. 
When  taken  from  the  oven  it  will  prove  a  light,  pleasant, 
spongy  bread,  with  no  ingredient  in  it  that  can  prove 
injurious  to  the  most  delicate  constitution. 

The  recipe  for  an  extremely  agreeable  gingerbread,  to 
be  made  in  the  form  of  thin  **  parliament  cakes,"  is  as 
follows: — Of  flour  take  one  pound,  of  treacle  half  a 
pound,  of  raw  sugar  a  quarter  of  a  pound,  of  butter 
two  ounces,  of  nutmeg  one  ounce,  of  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia a  quarter  of  an  ounce,  of  tartaric  acid,  of  cinna- 
mon, and  of  ganger,  each  one  eighth  of  an  ounce. 

To  produce  very  light  gingerbread  is  a  desirable  thing, 
and  this  result  is  now  easily  obtained  by  the  gingerbread- 
bakers,  by  secretly  using  sesqui-carbonate  of  ammonioj 
or  common  smelling  salts,  instead  of  the  magnesia  and 
tartaric  acid,  or  the  potashes  abovementioned.  This 
salt  is  entirely  dissipated  by  the  heat  in  bddng,  and 
leaves  no  taste.  The  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  the  ammo- 
niacal  gas  of  which  the  salt  is  composed,  in  forcing  their 
way  out,  expand  and  perforate  the  most  tenacious  dough, 
and  give  lightness  to  the  richest  and  heaviest  materials. 
The  proportion  of  sesqui-carbonate  of  ammonia  to  be 
used  in  making  gingerbread,  is  half  an  ounce  to  every 
three  pounds  of  materials,  including  flour,  treacle,  spices, 
butter,  &c. 


The  plamest  kind  of  thin  gingerbread  for  duldrai 
may  be  thus  made.  Fine  floor,  two  pouiida  and  a  qo&r- 
ter;  treacle,  ten  ounces;  finely  sifted  giqg^r,  an  ounce 
and  a  half;  carraway  seeds,  half  an  ounce;  sesqui-carbos- 
ate  .of  ammonia,  half  an  ounce.  The  whole  to  be  veil- 
mixed  and  kneaded,  then  placed  in  a  pan  near  the  fiie 
and  covered  over  during  an  hour.  It  is  then  rolled  out 
into  thin  cakes  with  straight  lines  drawn  across  them  in 
the  direction  they  are  afterwards  to  be  separated.  Before 
they  are  baked  a  little  white  of  egg  is  brushed  over  the 
suiiace,  which  glases  it  and  improves  the  appearance  of 
the  g^ingerbread. 

Various  recipes  might  be  given,  but  as  these  differ 
little  fitmi  the  above  except  in  the  -addition  of  butter, 
spices,  candied  orange-peef  eggs,  Ac,  which  any  one 
may  add,  according  to  taste.  We  conclude  our  notice  with 
directions  for  m^ng  French  spice-cakes..  A  pint  of 
treacle  is  set  over  the  fire  and  to  it  are  added  the  follow- 
ing ingredients ; — ^half  a  pound  of  good  firesh  butter;  tt 
ounce  of  powdered  ginger;  the  same  of  powdered  dsai- 
mon ;  powdered  allspice,  coriander  seeds,  and  small  or- 
damum  seeds,  each  a  quarter  of  an  ounce;  candied  lemon* 
peel  finely  chopped,  two  ounces;  tincture  of  Vanilh, sx 
drops;  when  well  mixed,  let  these  ingrrediente  boil  id 
once,  stirring  all  the  whUe,  th^n  set  them  aside  to  cooL 
When  cold,  mix  in  as  much  floiir  as  will  convert  them  into 
a  stiff  paste.-  Butter  a  tin  baking  dish,  and  lajon  it 
with  a  spoon  portions  of  the  paste  of  the  ,sixe  required 
for  the  nuts  or  cakes.  For  these'  small  forms  of  gip^r- 
bfead,  the  sesqui-carbonate  of  ammonia  is  seldom  lued; 
but  if  it  be  preferred,  a  small  proportion  may  be  added 
to  the  above  ingredients. 

BVENING. 

*Twis  eve :  the  tality  heat  of  noon  was  gone, 
•    .  And  a  soft  breese  stole  through  the  munnnriog  woods; 
The  nioon  was  rising  in  her  lofty  throne^ 

Undimmed  by  vapour,  unobsciired  by  douds; 
And  many  a  fountam  in  its  grot  of  stone. 

Poured  on  the  thirsty  ground  its  cooling  fioode, 
Or  brightly  sparkliiu:  in  the  rocky  cell, 
With  ceaseless  splash  in  crystal  basin  fell. 

Sweet  was  the  ^e,  and  sweet  the  scene  arouid,' 
Amid  each  misty  dell  and  palmy  grove 

There  was  a  general  calm-*and  not  a  sound 
Was  heard — as  if  the  peace  that  reigned  above 

Had  shed  its  influence  there :  upon  the  ground 
The  nightly  dews  were  rising — ^in  th'  idoovs 

Formed  by  tne  spreading  branches,  no  alsom 

Of  distant  footsteps  broke  the  maeio  charm. 

21^  Pilgrim. 

What  is  thai  principle  of  reproduction  which  hetongi  toiD 
the  vegetable  kingdom?  How  is  it  that  the  aoom,  bnned 
in  the  cold  ground,  comes  forth  in  a  form  which  beers  O0 
resemblimce  to  what  was  buried,  and  rises  with  recunifl; 


hea^  till  its  roots,  searching  .__  . •        «« 

its  limbs  graduallv  rising  and  expanding,  can  resiet  for  ip 

the  ordinary  violence  of  the  storm?    '^d  haenot  ere^^ 

vegetable  product  in  some  form  the  germ  of  reprodncti^' 
And  by  whose  care  is  it  that  aU  are  preserved,  and  coptiDDt^, 

and  fitted  for  duration  each  one  in  its  own  line  of  sn^^ 
rion,  through  thousands  of  years?  t^ 

Can  he,  who  sees  no  divinity  in  the  flower  which  k«  ^"T 
beneath  his  foot,  make,  by  his  own  power,  the  f^^f'^JZ 
duct  of  tiie  vegetable  race?    Can  he^  «n«f!*«^.^y  .rjf^J 


by  the  teeming  earth,  how  long  would  the  mortal  &""*.*! 
unirrateful  and  thoughtless  man  be  saved  from  sungW  ^"^ 


ungrat 

its Idndred  dust?— £ 


LONDON:  ^  .^,vn 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKEft,  WEST  WJ^  'j^ 

8oM  by  aU  BookMllM*  aad  N«rt«mdm  is.ttt  Xli|d"» 


S^tur^ac^       Md^^mt^t. 


1S9.  566.  SUPPLEMENT, 


SOME  ACCOUNT -OF  COINS,  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN,  (CmdutMj 


±  .UkamnxD  c 


r  THE  CEOWN,  OB  TBIAL-PIBCB,  OF  TnOMAI  B 


SECTION  UI. 

■ODIBII    coins FORBION   GOim— ANOLO-OILLIC   COllnL 

Modern  coina  nad  modali)  are,  as  we  before  reroarked,  those 
which  reckon  from  about  the  ninth  century.  In  these  later 
>t^  of  tlie  world  the  digtinction  between  coins  and  inediils 
berome'!  more  clear  and  definite.  We  must,  tlicrefore,  con- 
aider  the  subject,  first,  under  the  head  of  modem  eotnt,  and 
then  under  UlBt  of  nodem  nedalt. 

Until  tho  b^inning  of  the  IBth  century,  when  literature 
l«S»''  to  revive  from  the  mental  lethiir^  of  the  middle 
a«e>,  modem  coins  ue  so  very  rude,  .that  curiosity  sug^^ests 
<h«  chief  induoeinent  to  examine  them.  Without  dates,  or 
qmclis  they  scarcely  serve  one  purpose  of  utility.  The 
f-irttaits  on  them  are  likewise  very  uncouth.  But  yet, 
wiien  they  furnish  monuments,  relating  to  peraons  or 
Htiona,   in    the   glory   of  which    tlie   national   vanity   is 


nof 

, J  .„^_„ „ attcut 

tieynnd  the  finest  productions  of  Greece  or  Rome- 
Whatever  WB  may  hereafter  say  re«pecting  the  corns  of 
tiv  own  or  of  otlier  eonntrie*,  will  relate  to  them  as  dia- 
p<wfd  in  a  cabinet :  for  their  commercial  value  we  must  refer 
'mr  readers  to  other  sources.  Before  entering  upon  the  sub- 
jetl  of  modem  British  coins,  we  shall  t*ke  a  brief  survey 
nt  the  cotnsige  of  the  other  chief  countriea  of  the  world. 

Begiuiing  with  the  moat  eastern  ptirt  of  Asia,  the  coins 
"f  Jiipan  first  attract  notice,  as  thin  plat«s  of  gold  and  silver, 
laiRe  and  oval,  and  stamped  with  little  omamenta  and  cba- 
laf  (ers.  In  this  country,  as  in  any  other  where  the  art  of 
coining  is  in  a  rude  state,  the  practice  is,  to  stamp  first  the 
obverse,  then  a  reverse ;  whereas,  with  ns,  both  obverse  and 
nversc  are  achieved  at  once,  and  with  a  single  blow.  The 
flnly  coina  of  China  are  tncopper,  ahoiitthesiieof  afcrthin^, 
with  a  square  hole  through  the  middle,  in  order  to  their 
IfinE  strung  for  the  convenience  of  counting  or  carrying. 
They  are  called  "cash,"  and  bear  nn  inscription  in  Chinese 
rliarat tcrs,  eicpresning  the  year  of  the  prince's  reif^,  without 
hi*  name,  distinguished  as  the  "ffit/i^  year,"  tiie"Tlliu- 
Irioiu  year,"  and  the  like.  It  is  taii  that  the  emoeror 
Canghi,  who  died  in  1722,  tud  fomied  a  eomplet*  caWet 
Vol.  XVm, 


of  Chinese  coins.  The  coins  of  Tortary  are  rude  and  gene' 
rally  present  only  inscriptions  ;  the  like  may  be  said  of  the 
Ins  of  Thibet,  "g",  and  Siam,  and  of  other  smaller  states 
Eastern  Asia.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  Indian  coins 
exist  before  the  time  of  the  Moguls,  or  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. Old  coins  have  been  found  near  Calcutta,  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  tin,  all  niineled  in  one  base  metal.  On  one  side 
they  bear  a  warrior  with  a  sword,  and  on  the  other  an  Indian 
female  idol.  The  later  coins  of  India  are  thick,  like  the  old 
Egyptian,  and  in  obedience  to  the  Mohammedan  precept,  bear 
no  representation  of  a  living  creature.  The  EngfiEh,  French, 
Portuguese,  and  Dutch,  sometimesstruck  coins  in  their  east- 
ern settlements,  with  Persian  inEcriptiotis  on  one  side  and 
I^tin  on  the  other.  The  portcullis  coins  of  Elizabeth  were 
issued  in  rivalship  of  the  Spanisli  king,  for  the  service  of 
the  East  India  Company  intheirsettlementHabroad.  They 
are  of  different  siies  fnim  the  crown  downwards,  and  are 
readily  distinguished  by  the  portcullis  on  the  reverse.  The 
modem  coins  of  Persia  contLnue  on  the  model  which  the 
Arabian  caliphs  once  imposed  on  them,  and  bear  on  both 
sides  inscriptions  from  the  Koran.  The  Persian  copper  has, 
however,  trie  sun  and  tion,  the  arms  of  Persia,  on  one  side. 
Of  the  Arabian  coins,  Uie  older  sort  are  on  the  obverse  mere 
copies  of  some  Roman  coins,  while  the  reverse  contains  some 
Arabic  inscription  :  the  later  coins  bear  the  name  and  titlea 
of  the  prince  on  one  side,  mid  n  sentence  from  the  Koran  on 
the  other.  The  coins  of  Turkey  ato  similar,  having  merely 
inscriptions  on  both  sides;  and  the  coins  of  the  northem 
kingdoms  of  Africa  are  likewise  upon  the  Hohafttmedan  plan 
of  mere  inscriptions. 

Passing  over  the  other  kingdoms  of  Africa  as  little  known, 
and  the  original  empires  of  America,  Mexico,  and  Peru, 
where  coinage  wasnot  practised,  we  will  proceed  to  the  coina 
of  Europe,  after  having  called  the  reader's  attention  to 
the  curious  fact,  that,  in  many  places  in  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America,  where  metal  money  has  been  wanting,  tha  natives 
use  ehelU,  and  different  sorts  of  permanent  fruits,  as  a  cir- 
culating medium.  The  shell  thus  used  as  money, 
esteemed  to  be  valuable,  may  be  reckoned  a'     '  "   ' 


t  about  the 


After  the  downfil  of  ttie  Western  Roman  Empire  in  tho 
fifth  and  uxth  centuries,  the  viceroys  of  the  Byiantme  em- 
peiow  coined  copper  at  Ravenna  in  lUly,  vthere  they  held 


1«3 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


the  Tice-Tfgal  court ;  but  for  gold  and  sUver  money,  that  of 
the  Greek  eml^roca  sufficed  for  Italy.  The  Beiant  WM  a 
gold  coin  struck  at  Comtiuitiiiople,  by  the  emperors  of  that 
city,  which  wae  anciently  called  Bjicanlium.  From  the 
niuth  to  the  fourteenth  century,  it  was  the  chief  gold  coin 
in  currency  tiiroughout  Europe.  It  Beems  to  have  paasad  in 
England  till  the  time  of  Edward  III,,  in  tbe  first  half  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  coinaj^e  of  the  English 
noble  drove  it  out  of  use.  The  ConstantinopoUtan  beiant 
is  the  coin  which  we  still  see  in  our  cabinets  m  gold,  in  the 
form  of  a  dish,  and  frequently  beorinR-  the  portrait  of  onr 
Saviour.  Its  value  was  about  nine  sMllinga.  Camden  tells 
na  that,  at  the  court  of  England,  the  piece  of  gold  valued 
at  ISl.,  which  the  king  woa  anciently  nccuatomed  to  offer 
on  high  festival  days,  was  called  a  SUaniine.  After  Charie- 
ntagne,  about  the  year  780,  had  made  a  great  revolution  in 
It^y,  there  were  coins  of  him  struck  in  Rome  and  Milan. 
In  tie  next  century  the  modem  coins  of  Italy  b^in  with  the 
mlTer  pennies  of  various  states.  The  papal  coins  bOTni.n. 
772.  In  the  middle  ages  the  chief  hishops  of  England, 
France,  and  Italy  struck  coins  as  well  as  the  Pope.  The 
coins  of  Milan  begin  witb  Charlemagne ;  those  of  Naples  in 
the  ninth  oentury.  The  coinage  of  Venice  begins  m  the 
tenth  centuiy  with  silver  pennies.  Florence  snrpaieet  all  the 
cities  of  Italy  in  coinage;  some  silver  pieces  occur  before  the 
twelfth  oentury  j  but  in  1252  the  famous  gold  coins  appeared, 
o^ed  Flojitu,  from  the  flower  of  the  lily  upon  them :  they 
were  imitated  by  the  popes,  and  by  France  and  England ;  for 
during  the  five  centuries  preceding  no  gold  had  be*n  struck 
in  Europe.  oThe  florins  coined  by  other  states  have  the  same 
types  aa  the  original  florins,  but  different  legends.  They 
were  said  to  weigh  a  dram,  to  tie  24  carats  fine,  and  to  be 
worth  1X(.,  though  now  their  intrinsic  value  would  be  much 
greater,  on  account  of  the  difierence  in  the  value  of  sold. 

The  oolns  of  Genoa  and  Savoy  b^in  in  the  twelftn  cen- 
tury. France  had  a  gold  coinage  fr^m  Qovis  in  490  to  the 
year  761  x.  d.  which  belongs  properly  to  the  class  of  ancient 
coins.  The  coins  of  the  second  race,  beginning  with  King 
Pepin  in  750,  and  extending  to  Hugh  Capet  m  D87,  com- 
mence the  moderu  class :  the  latter  are  barbuous ;  the  former 
are  elegant.  The  third  race  begins  a.  d.  987,  and  extends  to 
the  Revolution.  Spain  vies  with  France  in  the  el^anee  of 
her  early  series  ofcoma;  but  the  influence  of  the  Mohanunedsn 
Mth  in  Spain  for  several  centuries  of  Moorish  domination, 
present*  us  with  insipid  Araliio  in»criptioiU  on  lx>th  sides  of 
thi  coins.  The  coinage  of  Giermany  Iwgins  with  Charle- 
magnej  and  that  of  Denmark  with  Canute  the  Great,  t.i>. 
1014.  The  Swedish  coinage  is  said  to  have  begun  early  in 
the  ninth  century,  and  tliat  of  Norway  in  the  middleof  the 
tenth.  Of  Denmark,  Sweden,  uid  Norway,  there  are  also 
ecclidaatical  coins  struck  by  the  chief  bishops.  The  coinage 
of  Bohemia  and  Poland  begins  with  the  tenth  century,  and 
follows  the  model  of  the  German.  Thecoinsof  Russia  are 
none  of  them  more  ancient  than  the  thirteenth  oentury. 
The  first  Russian  coins  have  rude  figures  of  animals  on  one 
side,  and  a  man  standing  with  a  bow  or  spear  on  the  other. 
Soma  have  St.  Gieoige  and  the  dragon,  and  various  other 
types :  such  are  the  Aopeit,  or  silver  pennies.  The  RoMt, 
or  dollar,  and  its  half,  began  under  Ivan,  or  John,  In  I£47. 
In  1230,  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic  order  having  conquered 
the  pagan  inhabitants  of  Prussia,  coined  silver  pennies  on 
the  German  plan  at  Culm.  The  coins  of  Brandenburg  and 
Poland  are  the  later  coins  of  Prussia. 

There  was  also  money  struck  in  France  by  English 
princes,  while  that  country  was  wholly,  or  partially,  under 
English  domination.  Of  AuKlo-Galiio  silver  coins  we  have 
deniers  of  Eleanor,  wife  of  Henry  II.,  as  duchess  of  Aqui- 
taine,  with  deniers  and  half-denieis  of  Henry  II.,  and  pen> 
nies  and  half-pennies  of  Aquitaine,  and  pence  of  Poitou  and 
Rouen  of  Richard  I.  Of  John  and  Henry  III.  there  is  no 
Anglo-French  money;  but  there  is  a  lion  of  billon  of  Ed- 
ward I.,  coined  during  the  lifetime  of  his  fother,  after  he 
hod  received  Gascony ;  and  abundant  series  of  silver  and 
billon  coins  of  Edward  III.,  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 
of  Kchard  II.,  Henry  IV.,  V.,  and  VI.  The  denominations 
of  the  silver  were  tne  hardi,  the  double  hwdi,  groat,  half- 
fovat,  penny,  and  half-penny.  To  this  class  also  belong  the 
Calais  groats  and  halfvroats  of  the  sovereigns  of  En^and 
from  Edward  III.  to  Henry  VJ.,  and  the  Toumay  groats 
of  Henry  YIII.  Edward  HI.  was  the  first  of  the  English 
princes  who  struck  gold  money  in  Prance :  the  denomina- 
tions were  guiennois,  leopard,  chaise,  and  raouton ;  to  these 
Edward  the  Black  Prince  added  the  hardi  of  gold  and  the 
pavilion,  and  Heniy  V.  salutes  and  half-salutes.  Henry  VI. 
wined  lalntfet  ugelote,  wid  frinca  in  gold.    The  doubtful 


specimen  of  silver  coin  s 
liargatet  of  Burgundy  fti^'E 
nfened  to  the  Ajiglo-Q^c  series. 

SECTION  IV. 

aSOLO-tiXON  cows BCCLESliSTICAI.  COIKB— MORMiJI  CCU^- 

rstan's  pkncb — ooihs  csao  m  snOLUfD  nix  tbe  bei9i 
I  oncK  vssn  fob  lboal  fkes— coir 

-Bin  BTATB   OF  TBB  COIHIOB  IT  Ml 

I  UMON — urmoDscTien  of  ibb  uu 

ANn    SCBBW COWEB    MOBBI—iLLOr    OF    MBTli*-«OMl 


We  shall  now  give  a  brief  notice  of  the  coins  of  fciUin. 
The  U^ptarchic  coins  are  of  two  sorts ;  the  mlver  ifa««B,> 
penny,  and  the  copper  oi  biUon  ityea,  the  latter  beitu;  kiowg 
only  in  Northiunbria,  and  being  i 
very  small  piece  worth  iloM.  t 
mite:  the  word  " bilkm"  im^ 
(^a>^  copper  wmM  wM  hAht.  Ik 
*^ipJ  Myei  penny  may  be  ragsidiil » 
SiS^  thegen^lIeptarchinealB.  Tb 
^mthiuB.  Bkeattas  were  struck  In  Kent  mi 
the  other  states  of  the  HepUwij, 

MO  to  700.     No  Heptarchic  pennies  of  iminspl 

current  occur,  however,  till  after  the  year  700 :  but  ilntW    . 
are  found  with  the  name  of  EthelWt  I-,  kii^ofKii^    I 


Henry  VIII.;  for  it  was  one  of  the  chaigea  «^*  ^ 
thatbehiid  put Uw cudinal's  hat  upon tiK g"™* *" 


pennies  are,  J^.,  v 
almost  all  of  ll«»*!^ 
century,  or  &oni  i« 
liU  8^  when  Ep*n 
terminated  the  b"" 
kingdoms.  The  «"" 
ofiaie  chief  moDird' 
then  pieswrt  ato«l  ' 
I  eomplete     serira   i^ 

fliem  bear  rude  portW" 
and  sometimeB  curiae* 
inscriptions.  OftuiC'- 
bald.  A.n.Bfi7,MJ&I- 


10le,theIeawMW■* 

W    TfheMchbi.hopsw'l'^ 
-^      hay.  retoin«l  l""*.!^  Ji 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  APRIL,  1841. 


101 


Ifrosls,  luiied  from  the  mint  at  York,  of  wMch  placii  he 
was  prelate.  On  the  reverse  of  all  these  coins,  which  has 
freqnently  the  name  of  the  city  where  they  were  coiiicd, 
there  is  somelimas  a  crow  so  deeply  impreBsed,  thst  the 
coin  might  be  easily  parted,  and  broken  Into  halves,  which, 
so  broken,  were  half-penee;  or  into  foot  piirta,  or  /arihingi. 
In  regard  to  the  money  struck  by  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
Akprman  observes  tliat,  "In  tha  year  1520,  amona'  other 
artides  exhibited  against  Cardinal  Wolsey, 

E 
charge  was  not 
merely  the  placing  of  the  hat  npon  his  money,  but  the 
striking  of  coins  of  a  larver  denomination  and  volne  than 
the  penny,  "he  bebie  the  only  prelate  who  struck  groata 
and  half-groats;  but  tnis  conjecture  ia  groondlees,  as  there 
are  half-groats  of  the  other  prelates  with  their  initials.  It 
was  cle»ly  the  hat  which  gave  the  offence." 

With  tha  Anglo-Saxons  gold  seeTM  to  have  passed  (nrrent 
by  weight;  at  least,  no  gold  coin  of  their  monarchs  has 
been  dueorered.  They  computed  by  ponnd^  shillings, 
peitee,  and  finthings ;  twelve  pence  making  one  ahilling,  and 
twenty  shillings  one  ponnd,  as  at  the  present  day.  Bnt 
there  were  two  kinds  of  penny,  the  greater  and  the  less :  of 
the  fbnner  five  mode  a  shilling,  and  of  ttie  latter,  the  skeatta, 
twenty  were  required.  The  greater  penny  always  went  by 
the  name  of  penning.  The  Anglo-Saxons  derived  their 
knoirledge  of  the  art  of  coining  from  the  Roman  ecclesias- 
tics, who  -had  the  privilege  of  coining  money  equally  with 
(he  king.  It  is  some  sort  of  proof  that  the  Aiilo-Saxons 
were  not  so  civilised,  or  accoatomed  to  trade,  as  the  ancient 
British,  who  nsed  both  gold  and  ^ver  coins,  while  the 
Bft*ons  had  silver  only. 

The  Norman  conquest  in  1066  made  no  alteration  in  the 
Kn^lish  penny,  or  anglieut,  which  wna  a  coin  celebrated  all 
oier  Enrope  in  the  middle  agca,  and  was  almost  the  only 
money  known  In  the  northern  kiiu;doms.  In  neatness  of 
(aliric,  and  in  pnrity  of  metal,  it  U  superior  even  to  the 
lulian  and  French  coins  of  that  period.  The  seHes  of 
Ewlish  pennies  extends  almost  wiihont  any  bilnre  from 
Egbert  to  Victoria.  The  kiius  wanting  are  John  and  Ri- 
chard I.     The  Goiui  of  WilQam  Bnfoa  and  of  Heniy  J. 


have  some  tbnilarity;  bnt  of  Henry  the  Fiirt's  pennies  the 
types  aie  as  various  as  upon  those  of  any  monarch  of  the 
Boglith  series :  the  reverses  bear  the  name  of  the  mint  and 
the  coiner.    Thl^  which  ww  the  Saxon  practice,  continued 


tin  the  nign  of  Edward  I.  Huwy  11.  is  said  to  hare  had 
hot  on«  type  for  his  poiiw  [  bnt  it  teem*  prol>nble  that  the 
peoDies  which  are  usually  thought  to  Iraloug  to  the  first 
Goioage  of  King  Henry  IIL  are  in  nality  tha  la«t  ooinage 
of  Henry  n,  »t  the  titva  h«  Mfonaed  the  national  money, 


,  IWdes  th<  prindpal  eccknaitics,  it  !•  said  that  the  chief 
E^'ons  Ds^  to  ttnke  Uieir  own  coin ;  bnt  as  none  has  been 


J*on3  Ds^  to  ttnke  Uieir  own  coin ;  but  as  none  has  been 
"Ond  with  their  ma^s,  it  ia  snopoied  that  this  was  done 
■^ly  in  tJi""  of  anarahy,  and  tiat  it  w»*  re^iMiad  by  a 
P^fbrfal  MTmiKn,  tn  an  ■Kaoaehmitrt  on  tha  royal  pw»o. 


gative.  There  are,  however,  many  coins  of  English  bishops 
and  of  St.  Peter's  pence,  bearins  STPETR  on  them.  Theaa 
pence  originated  with  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  engaging  to  pay 
the  soveroisfn  pontiif  a  yearly  sum  for  the  support  of  an 
English  college  at  Rome ;  and  to  raise  the  money,  he  im- 
posed the  tax  of  one  penny  on  each  house  pOMessed  of  thirty 
pence.  This  imposition,  afterwards  levied  on  all  England 
was  denominated  "  Peter's  pence." 

Half-pennies  and  farthings,  regnlarly  made  of  silver,  were 
first  struck  by  Edward  I.,  about  1280,  for  general  circulation. 
After  these  came  the  groat,  so  called  from  the  French  grot, 
a  large  piece,  which  was  introduced  by  Edward  III,  in  I3S4, 
and  continues  in  use  to  this  day,  under  the  name  of  the 
foitrpmny  pUce:  that  which  was  issued  for  circulation  in 
1836  is  of  a  different  type  from  the  ordinary  eroat.  Them 
was  formerly  a  holf-groat  in  circulation.  I^ie  testoon,  or 
shilling,  was  first  coined  by  Heniy  VII.  in  1603.  The  ap- 
pellation of  "  tostoon"  originated  m  the  Utte,  tfte,  or  head  of 
the  king  upon  it.  Tlie  shilling  was  first,  as  it  would  seem, 
a  German  appellation,  tefieUing;  coins  of  which  name  had 
been  struck  at  Hambun;hinl407.  Henry  VIII.  first  made 
the  crowns  of  silver,  which  had  formerly  appeared  in  gold. 
In  France,  they  were  for  a  long  time  the  lori^st  gold  coins, 
and  wore  worm  10«.  They  were  so  called  from  the  crown 
being  onca  stamped  on  one  side.  Edward  VI,  coined  half- 
crowns,  sixpenoBB,  and  threepenoes ;  and  Eltaabeth  put  out 
three-hal^nny  and  three-farthing  pieces. 

When  coins  are  found  which  have  mora  than  one  head  on 
the  obTeree,  they  are  most  usually  winarf,  thiMs,  looking 
the  same  wai^  as  on  the  money  of  William  anOlary ;  but 
the  ooins  of  Philip  and  Mary,  which  were  probably  struck 
from  treasure  brought  here  by  that  king,  are  Femarkable  for 
bearing  their  portraits,  except  in  one  btstanoe,  facing  each 
other,  which  ciwunistanoe  called  forth  the  fiillowing  couplet 
of  Hadlbmv>- 

Still  Brn'raiii,  uid  tmd,  and  UIIii«, 
like  Philip  nod  Mbj  on  Aibilfing. 

Though  onr  space  will  not  allow  as  to  describe  fiiUy  the 

inaf^  with  its  cbangei^  Id  bU  the  diStrent  reigns  of  Eng- 
lish hirioty ;  yet  we  moat  not  omit  to  particulwiso  some  of 
the  more  important  coins  which,  from  their  value  or  long 
UM,  were  well  knows  and  esteemed  until  tha  seventeenth 
century.  The  reader  should  remember  tiist,  from  an  early 
period,  the  circulation  of  foreign  money,  of  various  ooim- 
triee,  was  not  only  adopted,  but  even  legalised,  in  England. 
Thia  was  the  ease  with  the  bezant,  already  spoken  of;  and 

e  pnoeed  to  notioe  a  ftw  others. 

The  croum  <^  (Me  tun  was  a  French  cotn,  fifst  struck  by 
LouU  XI.  of  Frajice  in  147C.  Heniy  VIII.,  in  the  four- 
teenth year  of  his  reign,  by  proclamation  ordered  that 
crowns  of  the  son,  ducata,  and  crowns  of  gold  not  of  the 
'je  received  In  currency;  the  crowns  of  the  sun  not 
d  to  go  at  foQr  ahillings  and  four  pence  sterling. 
EldwMd  VI,,  inlMfl.theywere  ordered  by  proclama- 
tion to  pass  for  seven  shiAlngs,  but  were  reduced  to  pass 
for  six  ahillings  and  four  pence,  by  a  subsequent  procLuna- 
tlon.    They  were  also  at  this  value  in  the  reign  of  Unota 

The  coin  ealled  the  Angel  was  not  struck  in  En^Und  till 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  it  being  originally  a 
gold  coin  of  Fiance,  where  it  was  first  coin^,  at  least  by 


clipped 


angel  Ti 


e,  in  1 340.     In  France,  where  the  lialf  and  quarter 
n  used,  it  was  alwavs  of  fine  gold,  but  not 


lets)  are  the  only  gold  ci 
first  introduced,  the  angel  was  valued  at  Of.  Bd.,  and,  thus 
agreeing  with  the  noble,  was  sometimes  called  the  nobU- 
angel.  In  the  course  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  and  his 
successor,  the  value  of  the  angel  was  rwaed  to  8«.  In  Q,ueen 
Mary's  time  it  went  for  10*,,  which  value  it  kept  till  the 
end  of  the  rdgn  of  pharles  I.  who  was  the  hut  monarch 
who  coined  Ute  angel.    The  naual  device  npon  tha  obversa 


of  thiao 


IS  the  figu 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE.' 
uf  the  angel  SU  MicliBcl  Btand- 


jiirr  upon  the  dragon,  and  piercing  him  through  the  mouth 
withaspear,  the  upper  end  ot  which  tcrinhmted  in  a  kind 
of  cross.  The  reverse  of  the  eaili.Tones  liod  a  ship,  with  a 
lante  cross  for  a  mast,  with  tlic  ruval  arms  in  front.  The 
oui^U  of  James  I.  and  Chwle*  I.  have  the  mfl«t  of  the  sllU- 
with  a  maintop  and  no  cross.  The  obverse  hnd  the  king's 
titles  surrounding  the  device.  There  ivere  different  legends 
aad  inscriptions  used  in  different  reigns. 

The  marl,  and  its  Imlf,  the  noble,  (tlie  Utter  so  called  fwrn 
its  inuteriftl  being  the  finest  gold  ubed  in  coinv^e,)  s^m  to 
have  been  the  most  general  ideal  form  of  money  m  fonder 
aires;  the  former  rating  at  ]3i.  W.,  and  the  hitter  at  C*.8rf. 
The  noble  was  pubhshed  as  a  substitute  for  the  flonnih,  on 
accountof  ti>e  inconvenient  value  of  the  ktter,---fi«.  llie 
obverse  of  the  noble  reprewnts  tlie  king,  tdvvi.nl  III.,  st^d- 
iiur  in  a  vessel,  asserting  the  dominion  of  tlic  sea.  Ihis 
coin,  sometimes  caUed  the  rwe  ncble,  together  with  its  divi- 
BionLcoiiUnued  the  onlv  gold  coin  tiU  the  issue  of  the  angels 
before  described.  In  Henry  the  Sixth's  time,  it  was  made 
to  pass  for  10..,  under  tlie  new  name  of  rj/al.  Henry  VII. 
issued  the  double  ryal,  or  sovereign,  of  20*.,  accouipamed 
by  the  double  sovereign.  Uenry  Vlll.  coined  gold  crowns 
and  half-crowns  of  the  present  value;  but  liis gold  waamuch 
debased.  The  rose  noble  was  so  termed  in  consequence  of 
botli  sides  being  impaled  in  an  undulating  cirale  resembling 
the  outline  of  an  eitpanded  rose. 

The  torereigni,  called  at  the  accession  of  James  I.  tmUa, 
and  Mroetiius  tceptre-pitKa,  were  valuedat  20*.;  they  were 
nearly  tw^ic.lies  in  diameter,  being  ptoportionably  thin. 
They  were  called  a^ptrt-pieccs  from  the  figure  of  the  kin^ 
on  tlie  obverse  sitting  on  his  throne  with  his  sceptre  in  his 
Unnd.  The  Bovereigna  were  considered  to  bo  double  ryal* 
when  the  ryal  was  reckoned  at  10*.  Spur-ryala,  a  gold 
coin  of  Elizabeth,  finrn  a  reiy  handsome  sort  of  money: 


Oolil  Spu-llTil  of  Q 


>B;xUub«ih. 


the  obverse  is  the  queen  with  her  sceptre,  sitting  in  a  ship 
in  the  sea,  and  in  tJie  centre  of  the  revetso  is  the  stAr-pointod 
fignre  of  a  spur,  whence  the  name  of  the  coin :  these  pieces 
went  at  IS».  There  was  also  a  gold  coin  in  use  in  the  (bur- 
teenth  century  called  the  chaUe  [this  is  the  French  word, 
for  a  chdr  or  seat) ;  but  this  was  an  Anglo^Gallic  piece  of 
Edward  the  Block  Prince,  and  does  not  strictly  belong  to 
the  English  series.  It  received  the  name  of  the  "chaise" 
from  the  prince's  appearing  on  the  obverse  seated  in  a  chair 
of  state. 

We  must  not  omit  to  speak  of  the  Louis,  or  Louis  d'or, 
wUch  was  a  gold  coin  in  the  old  system  of  France,  and  first 
Btmck  under  Louis  XIII.,  in  1641.  It  has  been  considered 
as  a  ciurent  coin  in  most  parts  of  the  continent,  though  in 
England  it  has  been  only  sold  as  mercliandise,  wliere, 
at  different  periods,  according  to  the  demand,  its  price  has 
fluctuated  from  lSs.M.  tfl  21  f. sterling.  About  half  a  ccn- 
tuiV  ago,  among  other  changes  brought  alKint  by  the  Revo- 
lution, tile  old  teckoning — by  deniers,  sous,  livres,  6nis 
(crowns),  and  louis— was  abandoned,  and  the  decimal  reckon- 
ii^  was  resorted  to,— centimes,  d<5ciraes,  francs,  twenty  franc 
pieces.  Upon  the  return  of  the  Bourbon  Jomily  into  France, 
the  twenty-franc  pieces,  struck  by  Louis  XVLII.  in  imita- 
tion of  the  N^oleons,  received  the  name  of  Lonis^  or  Lonia 
d'or, — a  designation  which  is  likewise  given  occasionally  \a 


the  like  coin  struck  bv  King  Louis  Phnippe,  but  which 
more  ordinarily  called  "  twenty -fiwic  pieces." 

It  may  now  perhaps  occur  to  the  reader  to  pel  

originated  the  definite  amount  of  certain  legal  and  other 
pnblic  fees  and  payments.  Every  one  haa  heard,  for  ins 
tanee,  of  the  attorney's  charge  of  3*.  id.,  6t.  8J.,  13*.  id. 
for  certain  services  rendered  to  the  party  consulting  him 
but  it  rB^nirea  a  little  acqaalntonce  with  the  state  of  tbean 
neat  coinage,  to  satisfy  one's  a«lf  that  he  wold  not  well 


ruse  or  ank  his  charge  abOTS  or  below  the  psrUcnlai  ilai 
in  question.  In  the  daya  of  our  fbrefsthem,  tlie  labomsflf 
the  legal  functionary  were  remunerated  by  the  paymentrf 
particular  coins,  according  as  the  service,  or  tlie  nature  if 
the  case,  might  be.  When  the  Liwyer  had  to  receive  &.  M, 
his  dicnt  paid  him,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  Vl.,at  the  bepn- 
ninst  of  the  fifteenth  century,  an  angelet,  or  lialf  an  sngd; 
the  angel  leii^'  then  valued  at  6*.  8d-  though  it  afterwudi 
rose  to  10».  and  the  noble  took  the  place  of  the  angel.  It 
that  ths  pieces  of  money  just  referred  to  ha»e  » 
exiaUnce  at  the  present  day ;  but,  as  the  foregoing  tftiUs 
cliarges  still  exist  in,  and  are  authorised  by,  the  prafliM  o. 
■  courts  of  kw,  lawyers  cannot  help  making  them,  itA 
„^  cannot  help  hearing  about  them,  it  is  also  a  ruk  or 
custom  to  pay  a  fee  of  lit.  iSd.  (tlie  ai^l  or  noble)  W  th* 
minister  of  a  parish,  on  account  of  an  extra-paiofliul 
funeral,  the  origin  of  which  fee  we  TO»y  trace  to  «>iitiil«t 

To  'particularise  further  the  coins  of  all  these  diffeiwt 
reigns  would  not  perhaps  be  very  interesting  to  the  woml 
reader.  We  may,  tlierefore,  content  ourselves  with  otrim- 
ing  that  the  coinage  was  of  gold  and  ailver;  for,  ejorMj 
the  Saxon  tlycai  mentioned  before,  couper  com  contiuunl 
to  be  waiitmg  in  the  English  authorised  money  till  lhevt»r 
1G72.  Grwits,  testvons  (shilUngs),  crowns,  florins,  notlis, 
and  marka,  were  the  principal  pieces  of  money  in  diEertnt 
reigns.  Gold,  though  first  corned  by  Henry  III.,  »l»ui 
12o7,  who  Btmck  a  gold  penny,  value  20d.,  was  not  uiiuif 
current  until  the  reign  ot  Edward  III.,  in  1344,«lieiiHJt 
prince  first  coined  florins,  which  were  soon  succeeded  by  lie 
nobles,  and  otlicr  coins  already  spoken  of.  The  lost  ma 
farthing  was  coined  iii  the  reign  of  Kdword  VI.,  nnil  ll* 
tost  silver  halipcmiy  in  the  days  of  the  Commonweallh.  «( 
pan  on,  therclore,  to  the  slate  of  the  coinage  under  CharlM  U. 

In  Boiue  Tcieus  prior  to  that  of  Charles  II.,  the  vslut  oi 
silver  was  to  that  of  gold  as  1  to  1 :  hence,  the  noLlf  li 
Edward  III.,  spoken  of  before,  and  published  at  &■  W, 
might  be  now  worth  a  guinea,  on  account  of  the  jirtMii 
higher  price  of  gold.  The  ancient  rebtive  value  of  s.m  W 
silver  was  as  11  to  1  :  but  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  the  pw 
pprtional  value  of  silver  hod  sunk  down  as  1  to  13j.  ^^ 
dard  silver  b  now  to  standoi'd  gold, as  1  to  14^.  'lliew'' 
which  were  in  use  before  the  present  coinage  was  sdopiw. 
soon  after  the  war  which  terminated  in  18ifi,  were,  ^nftiJlJ 
spooking,  such  as  were  established  by  Charies  II.  riittj;" 
hammered  money  of  former  reigiia  was,  in  his  time,  da-  : 
carded.  ThogoldandsilvCTmoncy  had  all  along  been  in"^  I 
thin,  because  it  was  necessary  to  moke  the  inferior  piw-'i  ' 
at  least,  of  a  certain  size,  in  order  that  tliey  might  l«  t>»-  i 
vouiently  tangible  for  use.  Thus,  the  gold  penny,  beiin 
spoken  of,  was  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  dhimetcr.  JW 
"  sovereign, "  or  "  brood  piece,"  in  use  in  the  reign  ai  Jw" 
I.,  and  called  in  the  republican  condition  of  tie  coiuitr)',  | 
the  "twenty-shilling  piece,"  gave  way  in  the  reip  "i 
Charles  II.,  to  the  guinea,  so  called  from  the  Guiae'P*' 
o^t  of  which  it  was  first  struck.  This  gold  was  IniuglH 
from  Guinea  by  the  African  comoony.  In  order  to  i^ 
rage  this  company  to  import  gold,  they  were  permitted  ") 
charter  to  hove  tne  figure  of  an  elephant  stamped  oa  ""* 
pieces.  The  guinea  was  proclaimed  in  1663  to  pass  for  Wj 
but  from  ita  intrinsic  superiority  over  the  (bnner  piJ 
money,  italways  fetched  21»., and  was  styled  the  "P'"'^. 
This  popular  decision  was  accordingly  afterwards  rstn^ 
by  government.  Five  guinea  pieces,  doubJe  K^'^'^.yl 
and  quarter  guineas,  were  struck  at  different  times;  butiw 
obvious  reasons,  none  but  the  guinea  and  li*!^-?'"''??,,?, 
tained  general  circulation;  is  likewise  the  gold  seTen-sH"'^ 

^'Tt  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  in  1688,  Uie  ail'"  '^ 
of  the  country  was  in  a  very  bad  state ;  so  that  by  the  vea» 
1696,  the  value  of  the  guinea  had  ristai  to  30i.  eorKM^ 
"  Clipping  and  felsa  coining  had  for  some  tune  iwa  wn^ 
on  to  anSarming  extent,  and  at  length  roused  the  af"T 
of  Parliament,  who  appointed  a  committee  to  enqu"*  "t^ 
the  abuse.  The  committee  recommended  agenei*  '"f^-^ 
age  as  a  remedy  for  the  evU ;  when  the  rew^^ifr:^ 
was  debated  in  the  house  and  finally  adopted,  "i' *j  „, 
recoinsge  occupied  nearly  four  years,  and  was  coinp"'™ 
1699.   ''The  total  amount  of  silver  corned,  was 

"In  the   Tower   Mint  jeG,091,121    7    7 
In  the  Country  Mints     1,791,787120 

Total  6,882,908  19   7 
" The  Mint  chaises  amounted  to  £179,131  6«,  anJ^' 
cliAiBes  and  wnssiuent  loosei  are  roppowd  to  M«  <«■ 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  APRIL,  1841. 


Njual  to  £2,700,000.  lu  out  own  time  the  extenure  coin- 
iijod  in  the  Toyalmintfrom  the  year  1816  to  1822,  amouuted 
-o  i:r,402,236  11*.  CJ."— AKEWiiM. 

Ill  the  course  of  a  few  years  after  this  re-coinBge,  the 
;iiincu  fell  to  its  original  value  of  21*.  The  old  gold  coins, 
liu  Jacobua  or  unite  {25#.),  the  Corolus,  (£3».J,  and  thf 
iniod  piiM^  (21«.  or  22i.),  were  not  called  in  till  the  year 
1773. 

As  the  coinage  existing  in  our  own  limes  is  a  great 
mprovement  upon  that  of  George  III.,  and  hie  prede- 
csH^rs;  so,  that  of  Ciurleall.  wua  an  improvement  upon 
he  thin  liammered  money  of  previous  reigns.  The  improve- 
nent  in  the  slate  of  our  coins  in  the  sevcnteeath  century, 
vnH  due  to  the  employment  of  more  skilful  artists  in  tlus 
ine,  and  in  porticuMr  of  Thomas  Simon,  the  celebrated  en- 
rav«r,  of  whose  fcnious  trial-piece,  we  have  given  a  repre- 
t'libttion  at  tiie  head  of  this  article.  This  work,  a  speci- 
jcn  of  the  silver  crown,  was  performed  in  order  to  interest 
hti  king  in  liis  behalf,  and  to  prove  to  his  majesty  Charles 
I.  nut  only  that  talent  did  not  lie  with  fureignera,  hut 
hat  Englishmen  de^<c^vud  to  be  encouraged  t>oth  irom 
atriotic  motives  and  for  their  superior  sklO.  Simon  was  a 
iitive  of  Yorkshire :  when  he  grew  up,  his  natural  abilities 
i^conunended  him  to  the  notice  of  Nicholas  Uriot,  engraver 
f  the  Mint  to  Charlea  I.  Briot  l>eing  ordered  to  go  to 
^liiihurgh,  to  engrave  some  dies  for  medals  and  coins,  in 
<>u^  met  with  Simon,  toulc  him  under  his  care,  and  taught 
iiii.  Wiien  Sir  K.  Hurley  was  master  of  the  Mint,  he  re- 
.•'iiMiended  Simon  as  on  engraver.  Tlie  first  public  gieci- 
ii'U  of  his  talents  was  the  Admiralty  seal,  engraved  in  1636, 
rhon  tlie  Enrl  of  North umberland  was  lordhigh  admiral : 
1  is  of  exiLuisite  workmanship,  the  ship  Ijcing  finished  with 
istuiiisliing  minuteness.  Wlien  Briot,  who  wus  a  French- 
nan,  Ktunwd  to  his  native  conntry,  Simon  succeeded  him 
IS  liead  eitgnivcr  at  the  Muit,  in  1040.  When  the  civil 
-nminutions  broke  out,  Simon  incurred  the  king's  (Ii»pl( 


;  and  throughout  the  interregnum  Simon  produced 
jiaiiy  hundred  seals,  medals,  coins,  &c.,  of  various  kinds : 
loiac  uf  which  liave  rarely  been  e<iualled  for  minutenrss  of 
■xwution.  After  Cromwell's  death,  Simon  engnived  the 
^reiit  seal  for  Uiclianl  Cromwell;  and  the  coronation, 
uJiciul,  and  other  seals  of  Charles  II.  At  length,  Rotiers, 
I  Dutchman,  in  Hifl2,  was  appointed  to  tlie  Mmt;  and  this 
[ave  rise  to  the  celebrated  trial-piece.  The  front isjiiece, 
vliich  represents  this,  is  n  magnified  view  of  that  which  is 
iriwintho  possesion  of  Thomas  Ilollis.  Esq.,  F.R.  and 
k.  SS.  Round  tile  c<)ge  of  this  coin  is  tho  following 
'etition : — "Thomas  Simon  most  humbly  prays  your 
tajesty  to  compare  this  his  Tryal-Piece  with  the  Dutch,  and 
f  more  traly  drawn  and  emboas'd,  more  graceftUly  ordcr'd, 
ml  more  accurately  engraven,  to  relievo  him."  This  fine 
iece  of  workmanship  did  not  however  profit  him,  except 
y  Hdding  eventually  to  his  fiune,  and  the  Rotiers  were  still 
r>ntinned  in  employment.  Il  b  even  said  that  the  Rotiers 
-ore  called  over  in  1GC2,  by  the  directors  of  the  Hint,  as 
irnon's  works  proceeded  too  slowly.  It  is  supposed  tliat 
ilium  died  of  the  great  phiguc  in  IGG5;  us  nothing  is 
iiown  of  htm  after  that  year,  when  he  engraved  a  medal  for 
'li.irk.j  II.,  commemorating  the  victories  of  England  over 
[I'llland.  As  en;;niver  to  the  Mint,  Simon  received  an 
niiual  salary  of  50/.  He  is  deemed  by  tho  most  competent 
iilees  to  have  lieen  tho  best  engraver  of  modern  times. 

We  have  elsewhere  alluded  to  the  tliinness  of  the  old 
ifiney,  us  reuniting  from  the  use  of  tlie  haminor  in  coinflKe. 
'lie  use  of  the  liammer  in  fiibricating  money,  being  the  only 
letbod  hrtit  known,  was  of  easy  management  and  small 
xpence ;  and  hence  the  vast  nnmber  of  mints  in  almost 
vtry  city  of  England,  and  the  number  of  mcn^/eri  whose 
amea  appear  on  early  corns,  sometimes  amounting  to  more 
mn  a  hundred,  upon  tliosc  of  one  prince.  The  moneyer 
rus  the  coiner,  who  in  early  times  piit  his  name  on  the  coin, 
n<l  often  the  name  of  Uie  town.  These  persons  frequently 
nivi-lled  about  with  the  kings,  in  order  to  coin  money  upon 
mergencies. 

A  consequence  of  the  thinness  of  modem  coins  was  their 
iTce  size  m  respect  of  tJieir  value ;  so  tiiat  no  relief  could 
rcll  be  given  to  tlie  iniprossiim.  We  are  told  that  Constan- 
ine  the  Great  ordered  the  Itoniiui  coin  to  be  struck  tliin, 
nd  with  small  relief,  in  order  that  (he  common  fraud  of 
"vcrinK  lead  or  copper  with  gold  or  wlver,  which  we  know 
ha  thickness  of  the  ancient  coin  led  to,  might  be  pre- 
Pnlcd.  But,  in  fiict,  the  money  became  thinner  by  the  de- 
iiaa  of  the  art  both  before  and  a&ex  the  tune  of  Constantino ; 


No  improvement  was  made  in  the  metliod  of  coinage, 
until  the  power  of  the  screw  was  applied  to  it  in  the  French 
mint  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  new  invention  was 
admitted  into  the  Enghsh  mint  about  the  year  1501,  when 
it  was  used  together  witli  the  hammer,  until  the  ktter  was 
wholly  ^loid  aside  in  1662.  The  advantaco  of  the  new 
machine',  known  by  the  name  of  the  mill  and  tcrae,  over  the 
old  mode  of  striking  with  a  hammer,  consists  chiefly  in  the 
increase  of  force,  which  is  so  great  as  to  raise  the  impression 
at  one  blow.  Tlie  ed^es  of  the  hammered  money  were 
left  in  a  rude  and  unfinished  state,  which  exposed  them  to 
depredation  by  clipping.  By  means  of  the  mill,  a  graining 
was  applied  to  money,  so  as  to  form  a  regnbr  circle  on  the 
outside, of  the  legend,  ^uite  to  the  edge  of  the  coin.  Tho 
earhest  specimens  uf  Elizabeth's  milled  money  exhibit  in- 
stances ot  this  invention.  A  legend  was  now  imprinted 
upon  the  edc;es  of  the  lai'ger  coins,  and  a  graining  lecuiically 
termed  milling,  was  applied  to  the  outer  exttemity  of  the 
smaller;  the  present  double  sovereign  and  crown  piece  are 
examples  of  the  former,  and  all  our  smaller  pieces  are  speci- 
mens of  the  latter*. 

Briot,  the  French  artist  before  mentioned,  was  the  person 
who  established  the  use  of  the  mill  in  tliis  kingdom,  by 
wliich  means  the  ai't  of  coining  was  caiTied  to  such  a  per- 
fection as  it  liad  not  before  reached.  Uonee,  tho  works  of 
Simon,  Briot's  scholar,  perlinps  excel  any  of  modem  times. 
Under  Simon,  the  old  awkward  broad-piece  begins  firet  to 
assume  tlie  more  decent  form  of  the  guinea;  ai^the  whole 
coin  to  become  mora  solid  and  compact.  Tlie  coin  went  on 
improving  during  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  ciglitcenth  centuries.  The  artist  who  ranks 
next  to  Simon  is  Croker,  chief  engraver  at  the  Mint  in  the 
reign  of  Qileen  Anne.  After  his  time  the  chief  part  of 
the  coinage  of  the  kingdom  fell  into  a  bad  state,  &om  which 
it  did  not  wholly  emerge,  until  some  years  of  the  present 
century  had  passed  over  our  heads. 

In  former  years  the  coining  of  money  at  various  local 
mints  was  either  permitted  or  connived  at  hy  the  government 
of  the  country.  In  the  reim  of  Queen  Eliiabcth  no  mint 
waa  allowed,  except  in  the  Tower  of  London,  which  prac- 
tice was  continued  till  the  civil  wars  compelled  Charles  I. 
to  coin  money  at  most  of  the  principal  towns  which  took  up 
the  royal  cause:  hence  the  square  and  rhomboidol  iwob- 
}Aece3.  It  is  remarkable  that,  in  all  his  diflieultiCB,  tliis 
monareh  never  debased  the  coin  which  he  issncd ;  a  proceed- 
ing, of  wiiich  BO  many  other  more  fortunate  monarciis  have 
t)een  guilty.  Money  waa  afterwards  again  ordinarily  coined 
at  the  Tower,  tilt  the  erection  of  the  present  Mint  withm 
tliese  few  years. 

In  Akeruam's  Numismatic  Manual  we  read  that  ilio 
Commonwealth  struck  money  during  the  life-lhne  of  the 
king,  (Cliorles  I.)  with  his  name  and  titles;  hut  that  after 
his  death  now  dies  were  ordci-cd  to  be  mode.  The  coins 
issued  are  diBtinguished  Iromnll  others  in  the  English  scries. 
The  types  furnished  the  cavaliers  with  subiccts  for  much 
joke  and  ribaldry.  The  double  shield  on  the  reverse,  was 
called  "the  breeches  for  the  rump."  In  allusion  to  the 
legends,  God  and  the  commonwealth  were  said  to  he  on 
opposite  Mdes.     A  wag  launched  the  following  cpigmm  at 


The  witty  Fuller  says,  "  I  hope  hereafter,  when  the  <(uestioi 
is  asked  of  our  coiners,  wliose  image  and  supei-seription  i 
thisi  It  will  be  returned.  The  Cksu's  of  England!" 


Silver  pennies  were  still  much  used  till  the  close  of  Uio 
reign  of  George  I.,  but  they  ai'e  now  not  at  all  comiiiun, 
being  principally  coined  to  be  given  to  pour  persons  on 
Maundy   Thursday,  as    we  have   aheady  noticed   in   our 

•  For  u  •canint  of  Ihs  meem  at  Caiinxo  at  Iba  Wafti  Hist,  im 
StlvrioM  Mofuim,  VoL  V'lII,  pp.  US  w>d  139. 


IM 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


description  of  the  ** Custom  of  the  Maundy;"  see  No.  562, 

p.  13,3. 

For  the  derivation  of  the  word  CMh  some  people  have 
referred  to  a  common  copper  coin  of  China  and  India,  which 
is  so  cdled :  others  say  that  the  term  "  cash"  is  now  trans- 
feiTed  hy  usa^e  from  the  case  which  holds  the  coin,  to  the 
coin  itself.  According  to  the  latter  eajplanatlon,  the  word 
would  he  derived  from  the  French,  caissc,  a  box,  case,  or 
chnst ;  also  a  merchant's  or  banker's  cash-box,  or  counter. 
The  term  "  hard  cash"  means  coin,  in  contradistinction  to 
hills,  notes,  or  paper-money :  but  a  very  peculiar  sort  of 
"  hard  casli"  were  "  Musket  balls,  fiiU  bore,"  which  were 
a  legal  tender  in  Massachusetts,  in  1656,  ana  were  cnrrent 
for  a  flushing  a  piece,  provided  no  man  were  compelled 
to  take  above  twelve  at  a  time  of  them. 

Till  the  time  of  Charles  II.  a  regnlar  copper  eobage 
was  not  nsed,  from  a  dislike  towards  copper;  this  being 
the  metal  cliiefiy  used  in  counterfeiting^  the  gold  ana 
silver  coins:  such  counterfeits  were  termed  "black  money,** 
in  contradistinction  to  "  white  money,"  or  ffood  silver  coin. 

But  it  appears  that  there  ^ere  two  kinds  of  black 
money, — ^the  counterfeit,  and  the  authorised  money  of  billon : 
the  .latter  was  very  much  used  in  France  and  also  in  Ire- 
land. The  want  of  a  lower,  but  well  tangible  sort  of  money 
was  long  felt,  and  in  consenuence  of  the  increase  of  trades- 
men's tokens  (see  VoL  XvII.,  p.  63)i  the  government  of 
Queen  Elizabeth  had  attempted  to  efrcct  a  copper  coinage ; 
but  the  queen  being  averse,  the  scheme  was  given  up. 
King  James  in  1613  issued  royal  farthing  tokens;  out  these 
were  not  wdl  received.  Charles  I.  issued  the  like ;  but  at  his 
death  counterfeits  and  tokens  increased  so  much,  that  in  1672 
government  took  the  matter  regularly  in  hand,  and  issued 
mrthings.  Tin  farthingns  were  ukewise  used  with  a  stud  of 
copper  m  the  middle.  In  1693  the  tin  was  all  called  in,  and 
the  copper  coinage  of  fiirthings  and  half-pence  went  on  im- 
proving. For  the  farthings  of  Queen  Anne,  which  were 
chiefly  trial-pieces,  we  refer  the  reader  back  to  Vol.  XVII., 
p.  76.  The  present  copper  coinage  has  been  all  executea 
within  the  last  fifty  years. 

It  does  not  appear  that  England  has  been  singular  in  its 
long  abstinence  orom  a  copper  coinage.  *'  It  is  worthy  of 
observation/'  says  Pinkerton,  **  that  while  copper  money 
was  in  Greece  of  very  ancient  date,  and  in  Rome  two  cen- 
turies older  than  silver,  yet  in  almost  all  the  nations  of 
modem  Europe  it  arose  a  thousand  years  later  than  silver." 

Thus  we  see  that  the  established  metals  for  coining  in 
modem  times,  are  ^Id,  sUver,  and  copper;  and  that  all 
other  materiahs  of  coinage  were  regarded  in  a  spurious  light. 
We  should,  however,  except  the  metal  platinum,  which  the 
Russians  employ  in  striking  some  of  their  money.  This 
fine  and  valuable  metal  is  extracted  from  the  mines  of  the 
Uralian  mountains,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  rather  exceed- 
ing that  of  gold. 

The  quantity  of  alloy  for  gold,  in  order  to  harden  the 
coin,  ana  make  it  wear  well,  is  two  carats  out  of  the  twenty- 
four  :  that  is,  one-twelilh  of  the  c^old  money  is  alloy.  Tlie 
alloy  for  silver  is  three  parts  in  forty.  The  for  ^ii^  pro- 
portions relate,  however,  to  the  English  coinage.  In  France 
the  l^^l  proportions  of  the  different  coins  are  as  follow : — 
silver  coin^  9  parts  silver,  1  copper ;  copper  money,  4  parts 
copper,  1  silver ;  gold  coin,  9  parts  gold,  1  copper.  In  the 
next  place,  the  quantity  of  ^old  used  in  forming  a  sovereign, 
is  ratner  below  the  proportional  value  of  20^.,  in  order  that 
no .  inducement  may  exist  to  melt  down  the  national  coin 
for  the  purposes  of  trade.  Hence  it  is,  that  an  English  sove- 
reign, which,  by  the  tabular  values  of  the  respective  coins,  is 
equal  to  24  francs,  fetches  26  francs,  and  sometimes  more,  at 
the  foreign  mints. 

The  coinage  of  Scotland  did  not  commence  before  the 
twelfth  century ;  there  being  silver  pennies  of  Alexander  I. 
A.D.  1107.  Though  the  Scottish  money  was  originally 
tlie  same  as  that  of  England  in  size  and  value,  many 
causes  had  brought  it  so  low,  that  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, it  was  only  one  twelfth  part  value  of  corresponding 
English  money ;  and  so  it  continued  till  the  union  of  the 
kingdoms  cancelled  the  Scottish  coiniue. 

In  regard  to  the  money  of  Scotlano,  it  was  for  the  most 
part  fabricated  after  the  mshion  of  the  English.  The  copper 
coinage,  though  more  ancient  than  that  of  England,  was  not 
earlier  than  tne  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,- and  seems  to 
have  boon  derived  from  the  French. 

By  the  articles  of  the  Union,  which  took  place  at  the 
beginning  of  tJie  last  century,  it  was  appointed  that  all  the 
coins  should  be  reduced  to  the  English,  and  the  same 
accounts  observed  tliroughout.    Till  that  period,  the  Scots 


had,  as  we  have  just  said,  their  pounds,  Bhilllnga,  an^ 

?ience,  as  in  England ;  but  their  pound  was  twenty  pence 
English,  and  the  others  were  in  proportion.  Accordingly, 
their  mark — IQs,  4<l.,  Scottish— was  current  in  England  at 
13}^.;  and  their  noble  in  pronortion.  Besides  these,  thej 
had  their  Tumorer  pence  and  nalfpence ;  their  penny  being 
one-twelfth  of  that  of  England,  as  noticed  before ;  besides 
base  money  of  aohisons,  Iwube^  and  placks :  tile  boddle, 
one  sixth  of  the  penny,  one  fourui  of  the  achiaon,  one-third 
of  the  baubee,  and  one  half  of  the  plack. 

In  Ireland,  the  coins  are  as  in  England ;  viz.  shilling!^ 
pence,  &c,,  with  this  difference,  that  their  shilling  is  but 
equal  to  ll^jjd,  sterling ;  or  a  shilling  Ensdish  is  equal  to 
26  hal^ence ;  whence  theur  pound  is  only  18ff.  4  id.  of 
English  money. 

The  Danes  seem  to  have  originated  the  Irish  eoins^ 
about  A.D.  930.  The  harp,  the  present  distinguishingman 
of  Irish  money,  Is  not  observed  till  the  reign  of  Hcnrr 
YIII.,  when  the  difference  in  value  between  English  and 
Irish  coin  became  apparent  and  much  base  monev  was 
thrust  upon  Ireland.  Both  Henry  VIII.  and  Queen  Eliza- 
beth coined  base  money,  approacning  to  billon,  for  the  use 
of  this  country.  In  1601,  Ireland  obtained  a  regular 
copper  comage.  In  1635,  a  mint  was  established  in 
Dublin  by  Cliarles  I.  Since  the  abolition  of  this  mint  m 
1040,  in  consequence  of  the  Massacre  and  disturbances  in 
that  country,  no  legal  gold  or  silver  coins  have  been 
struck  with  the  Irish  badffe ;  but  copper  only.  James  II. 
arriving  in  Ireland  ft^m  France  in  1689,  instituted  a  mhit, 
and  issued  shillings  and  half-crowns,  struck  of  all  the  refuse 
metal  that  could  be  procured ;  for  this  purpose  some  brasi 
guns  were  used,  so  that  this  coinage  is  generally  termed  j^vn- 
tnoney.  Pennies  and  half-pennies  of  kad,  mixed  with  tin, 
were  issued  in  1690;  and  crowns  of  gun-metal,  of  the  size 
of  our  half-crowns,  upon  some  occasions  in  the  last  centuir, 
some  private  individuals  obtained  patents  for  executing  t£« 
copper  coinage  for  Ireland.  In  1722,  William  Wood 
obtained  from  Geon^e  I.  the  fomous  patent  which  excited 
such  discontent  in  Ireland.  It  was  for  coining  halfpence 
and  farthings.  The  patentee  aimed  at  making;  a  vast  profit 
by  the  diminished  size  of  the  pieces.  In  this  afiiur  Swift 
distinguished  himself  in  opposing  the  government.  These 
coins  are  of  ve^  line  copper  and  workmanship,  and  have  the 
best  portrait  of  (Jeorge  t.  anywhere  found.  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton, then  at  the  head  of  the  Mint,  said  they  Y^ere  superior  to 
Englidi  forthings  in  everything  but  size.  Those  issued  in 
1737  were  coined  of  just  size  and  weight,  with  the  haip  only 
on  the  reverse,  and  are  the  patterns  of  those  used  at  the 
present  day.  There  being  now  no  mint  in  Irel^dj  their 
copper  coins  are  stnick  in  London,  and  sent  over* 

In  the  year  1760,  there  was  a  great  scarcity  of  copper  coin 
in  Ireland  ;  upon  which,  a  society  of  Irish  eentlemeu  applied 
for  leave,  upon  proper  conditions,  to  coin  nalipence ;  wnich 
being  granted,  they  appeared  with  a  very  lid  portrait  of 
George  II.,  and  the  leffend  VOCE  POPUlil,  Tlie  bust 
bears  a  greater  resemblance  to  the  Pretender  than  to 
George  IT.;  and  it  is  not  certain  that  %\^s  &ct  was  not 
premeditated;  it  was  said  that  these  pieces  weve  issued 
without  any  leave  being  asked  or  obtained. 

The  reader  will  see  that  our  limits  will  not  sufier  us  to 
enter  into  a  description  of  all  the  various  species  of  money 
now  used  in  Europe  and  America,  together  with  an  enume- 
ration of  tlie  respective  values  of  each  piece :  for  information 
of  this  sort,  so  useful  to  the  mercantile  adveniurei^  we  must 
refer  him  to  treatises  on  the  article  Monst. 

SECTION  V, 


IfODBBN    nDJkU— PAPAL     MBDAXA-HV AlfiaH     AHP 

lfXDALa-«-<]0MPA]tI80N  OP  AXOIBNI  AVS  MODBXK  1UI»AI*— 
XHGU8H  MXDAIA— iXmONATION  MBDAIA 

In  the  middle  ages  Mbdau  seem  to  have  been  quite  un- 
known. Till  the  fifteenth  century,  no  medals  appear  of  any 
countiy  in  Europe;  excepting  of  Scotland,  whicn  has  gold 
medaJfl  of  David  n.,  m  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  These  were  struck  in  England  during  his  captivity. 
The  medal  of  John  Huss,  tlie  fiimous  refbrmer,  which  was 
struck  in  1415,  seems  to  have  led  the  wav  for  the  series  of 
med^  which  afterwards  sprang  up  in  the  different  conn- 
tries  of  Europe.  The  papa)  medals  are  not  only  the  most 
elegant,  but  the  most  ancient  series  in  Modem  Enropc. 
Paul  II.  created  pope  in  1464,  is  the  first  pontiff  Who 
has  medals  of  his  own  time.  After  Paul  II*  coeval 
med^  are  found  of  all  the  popes.  As  it  is  the  especial 
object  of  medals  to  commemorate  among  the  people  of  the 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  APaiL,  1841. 


fxiiting  generttiea,  and  of  thOM  who  come  after,  Bome 
illustrious  penou,  or  some  imporUut  event,  no  more  proper 
occasion  could  hare  ever  arisen  for  exercising  this  honour- 
able privU«e,  than  the  diwovery  of  America  by  Columbua 
in  1492,  and  the  ezteosion  of  tliis  discovery  hood  aflcr  by 
Amerigo  Veapocoi. 


The  Spanish  medala  begin  in  1603,  and  manr  it  them 
■re  ciinooi  and  interesting.  Germanv  and  Spain  were  aa 
one  empin  under  Chules  V.,  of  wnom  there  are  many 
medals :  but  the  German  ones  b^n  with  Frederic  III.,  of 
whom  there  is  one  itruck  at  Rome,  A.n,  14fi3,  Besides  the 
p«pal  medals,  then  are  many  belonging  to  the  various  states 
of  Italy.  Denmark,  Sweden  and  Holland  have  likewise 
Dgnaliied  themselvee  by  medallic  Bchievemcnta. 

Next  to  Italy,  Fnmoe  ia  the  most  remarkable  coimtry  for 


medals :  but  the  French  medals  are  neither  fine  nor  nume- 
roDs  tiU  the  reign  of  Louia  XIV.,  In  tho  middle  of  the 
seveDteeDth  century.  There  are  idso  aeries  of  fine  medals, 
compriaing  thoae  which  were  struck  under  the  consulate 
and  the  empire  of  Napoleon,  down  to  the  reign  of  the  present 
king.  The  Napoleon  collection  at  Boulogne  contains  one  of 
the  medals  intended  to  commemorate  the  threatened  invasion 
of  England.  It  repreaenla  a  Herculean  figure  disabling  and 
cmshins  a  monster,  half  man  and  half  fish,  which  latter  is 
meant  to  represent  the  British  nation.  The  legend  ia  DES- 
CENTB  EN  ANGLETERRE.  On  the  eierguo  U  fVappi 
a  Loadret,  en  1804.  Th!s  was  probably  done  to  excite  tlie 
confidence  and  vanity  of  the  French  people ;  but,  as  the 
tcheme  of  invasion  was  either  a  feint  or  a  failure,  thi»e 
medals  were  almost  all  soon  euppresaed,  and  no  opportunity 
afforded  for  giving  the  shadow  of  truth  to  the  excise  of 
the  medal — "  Struci  at  London,  in  1804!" 

As  soon  as  medals  began  to  revive,  in  the  fifteenth  centuiy, 
they  were  made  to  serve  the  purpose  of  satire,  until  the 
printshope  took  to  the  buBiness.  Many  satiric  medals  passed 
between  Philip,  king  of  Spain,  and  Elizabeth,  queen  of 
Englaitd.  Satu^  seems  lo  have  been  unknown  to  the  ancient 
mint :  but,  in  these  later  ages,  a  great  number  of  medaia  have 
been  struck  for  private  men  of  eminent  learning  or  talents ; 
and  ID  tbis  respect  modem  medals  excel  those  of  the  an- 
cients. As  to  the  execution  of  modem  medals  in  comparison 
with  ancient  ones,  in  all  that  relates  to  portraits,  human 
figures,  and  other  detached  objects,  the  ancients  for  exceed 
the  modenisincharactcr,truth,and  taste:  but  in  landscape, 
and  all  that  belongs  to  perfective,  the  modems  are  superior: 
when,  for  instance,  we  have  on  an  ancient  medal  the  view 
of  a  building,  we  see  only  its  elevation;  but  on  a  modem 
medal  tli«  perspective  isalso  afforded.  An  especial  &ult, 
however,  too  often  occurs  in  modern  portraits  and  reverses, — 
that  the  laannera  of  the  time  and  country  are  very  often 
totally"  perverted.  Personifications  are  of  aU  ages,  countries, 
and  ianfpiXDga :  heathen  gods  and  goddesses  thrust  themselves 
upon  Christian  medals,  and  attract  the  adoration  of  coonois- 
leuni !  The  like  objection  also  applies,  in  great  measure  to 
our  caui«g<9 ;— but  the  fault  hen  completed  vfb  largely 


167 

partaken  in  by  the  atts  of  fi^ntltig  Bik3  Mulpture  t  though 
it  must  bo  admitted  that,  with  every  generation,  the  publio 
taste  b  herein  improving. 

The  first  English  medal  was  of  brass,  a.d.  1480.  Hem? 
VIII.  stmok  one  of  gold  in  lG4fi ;  and  the  first  coronation 
medal  was  that  of  Edward  VI,  The  medals  of  Simon,  in 
the  seventeenth  centuiy,  are  admirable.  The  medsis  of 
Queen  Anne  are  illustrative  of  the  achievements  of  Marl- 
borough )  and  those  of  the  English  Idngs,  executed  soon 
after  oy  Dasuert  a  native  of  Geneva,  are  very  good :  the 
latter  are  thiity-nx  in  number,  and  are  stmck  in  fine 

The  devices  on  the  English  coronation  medals,  are  usnally 
n  the  one  aide  a  representation  of  the  sovereign,  and  on 
the  other,  some  emblem  of  the  clrcumitooces  of  the  period  ; 
but  not  {jways  in  the  best  taste. 

At  the  coronation  of  George  UI.,  the  rkin^s  gold  and 
silver  medals  were  struck  by  Laurence  Nattier,  and  were 
ornamented  on  one  side  with  his  majesty's  bust,  and  the 
inscription,  Gboboivs  III.  D.G.U.  Brtt.  Fiu.  kt  Hib, 
Rbx.  F.  D,;  and  on  the  reverse,  was  a  figure  of  the  sove- 
reign seated,  with  Britannia  holding  a  crown  above  his 
heul,  and  the  Inscription,  Patkub  Ovanti  (To  hi»  countrv 
triun^hing),  Coson.  xxii.  Sept.  KDCciJti, — Silver  medak 
of  the  queen  were  also  thrown  into  tho  scaffolding,  and 
amidst  the  populace.  On  one  side  was  represeuted  her 
bust,  with  the  inscription,  Cbarlotta  D.G.M.  Br.  Fb.  s 


Bin.  Rboima  ;  and  on  the  other  side  her  figure  appeared  at 
'  "  '  igtb,  standing  by  an  altar,  with  a  seraph  abont  to 
uer;    the   whole   being    encircled   by   the   motto. 


SECTION  VI. 

COINS    AHD    HEnALS PEHBSOKS     COLLECTIOl*^ 

0*'   HEDALS COVNTHBFEIT    »IBDA1S— CiBlBETS— • 

AHn    UEDALET9. FRESEBVAnOH  OF  COINS  ANn 

UEDALS. 

History  informs  us  that  cabinets  and  series  of  Greek  coins 
were  foimed  by  the  Roman  senators,  as  choice  treasured : 
this  was  natnral,  con^derine  that  the  Romans  respected  the 
skill  and  talent  of  the  Greeks  in  all  the  arts  and  embellish- 
ments of  life.  Some  of  these  sets  of  medals  and  coins  of 
cities  have  come  down  to  our  times :  but  yet  it  must  be 
owned,  that  the  taste  of  the  Romans  was  rather  for  genu  than 
for  medftllio  specimeos.  When,  however,  literature  began 
to  be  cultivated  in  Italy,  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
the  study  of  medals  was  found  conducive  to  the  knowledge 
of  ancient  geography  and  history,  and  of  ancient  literature 
generally.  Xn  the  succeeding  century,  cabinets  began  to  be 
formed  uuiverBolly  by  people  whose  minds  were  awakened 
to  the  increasing  hgbt  of  knowledge.  Hence  we  have,  lika- 
wiss,  ancient  orthography  and  customs  elucidated,  and  the 
lives  of  tho  gieat  men  of  antiquity  enriched  vrith  their  por- 
traits. Tn  tue  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Goltz,  a 
printer  and  engraver,  travelled  over  Europe  in  search  of 
coins  and  medois,  for  the  benefit  of  certain  works  relatuig 
to  them,  which  he  was  about  to  publish.  Excepting  Italy, 
mors  ancient  coins  seem  to  have  l>een  found  in  Britain  than 
in  any  other  country.  Camden  is  thought  to  have  been  the 
first  English  writer  who  produced  medals  in  his  literary  co™- 


Henry,  prince  of  Wales,  eldest  son  of  James  I.,  left  to  his 
brother  Charles  I.  his  collection  of  coins  and  medals,  amount- 
ing in  number  to  about  30,000.  This  cabinet  was  broken 
up  and  lost  during  tho  civil  wars  of  his  reign. 

It  would  take  us  too  long  to  enumerate  the  different 
pubhc  and  private  cabinetsnow  existing:  but  we  arc  tempted 
to  observe  that  one  of  the  finest  collections  in  the  world  ia 
that  of  Thomas,  tlie  eighth  earl  of  Pembroke,  who  died  in 
1733,  and  who  was  the  collector  of  the  statues,  flee,  at  Wilton 
House,  South  Wilts.  This  collection  is  vested  in  tmstoes, 
and  deposited  in  the  Bank  of  England,  for  sole,  where  they 
oven  now  wait  a  pnrchaser  who  can  command  aboiit  30,000/. 
'Hiey  were  publjsned  in  a  huge  octavo  volume  in  the  year 
1746. 

As  ancient  architecture,  scnlpture,  and  poetry,  have  tended 
to  improve  the  taste  of  modem  times,  so  the  study  of  coirs 
and  medals  assists  in  promoting  the  same  end;  being  parti- 
cularly useful  in  guiding  the  judgment  and  views  of  the 
lovers  of  sndi  arts  and  sciences  as  we  just  mentioned.  Be- 
sides the  ancient  portraits  on  the  obverse,  wliich  are  likely 
to  lujtdle  the  admliation  of  the  pwntei  and  the  sculptor, 


THE  satuhday  magazine. 


the  nKhitect,  aa  well  as  tbe  p^Ur,  has  on  the  lerene  ex- 
quidte  views  of  ancieot  edifices,  which  are  fbnud  in  perfect 
preservation  on  medals.  Triumphal  arche^  temples,  foun- 
t«ns,  aqueducts,  amphitheatres,  circuses,  hippodromes, 
palaces,  basilicas,  columns  and  obelisks,  baths,  sea-ports, 
pharoBCfl,  end  the  like,  are  all  found  on  the  reverses  of  ancient 
nicdala. 

To  a  person  of  poetical  imagination,  the  Bontan  coins  are 
verv  entertain! nfr,  on  account  of  the  fine  personifieationa 
and  symbols  which  are  to  be  found  on  their  reverses.  What 
can  the  additional  experience  of  the  world,  dnrinx  2000  yean, 
add  to  the  personification  of  Hopb  found  on  the  reverse  of 
an  ancient  medall  She  is  there  represented  as  a  sprightly 
damsel,  walkingqoickly, and  looking  straight  forwud;witL 
her  left  hand  she  lilts  up  her  garments,  that  they  raay  not 
hinder  the  rapidity  of  lier  pace;  while  in  her  right  hand 
she  holds  forth  a  rose-bud,  an  emblem  infinitely  more 
fine  than  the  trite  one  of  an  andtor,  whir.h  is  the  symbol 
of  Palienee,  not  of  Hope.  Happiness,  Abundance,  Secu- 
rity, Piety,  Modesty,  and  the  like,  are  all  shadowed  out 
ouder  similar  apposite  emblems,  springing  out  of  Nature 
herself,  and  therefore  just  and  true.  Many  passages  of 
Sacred  History  are  likewise  illustrated  or  explained  bj^  refer- 
ence to  medals.  The  Mosaic  account  of  the  Deluge  is  con- 
firmed by  D  coin  struck  at  Apamea  in  Ada  Minor,  in  the 
reign  of  Philip  I.,  a1x)nt 
6fi0  B.  c.  On  the  reverse 
of  this  medal  is  a  chest 
iloating  upon  the  waters : 

coming  out  upon  dry  land. 
Above  it   hovers   a   dove 
with  an  olive-branch ;  and 
onotlier    bird    b  perched 
upon  the   roof.  .   On  the 
front  port  of  the  chest   is 
the  word  KOE  in  Greek 
characters.    Seven  or  eight 
of  these  medals  are  ex- 
tant, and  they  are  admitted  by  the  best  medallists  to  be 
genuine. 
On  some  medals  of  Commodns,  who  lived  nt  the  latter 

e.rt  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  Supreme 
fit^  ia  represented  under  the  form  of  a  hull,  as  indicative 
of  his  supreme  power.  On  the  reverse  of  some  of  the  medals 
of  Mnrcua  Aurelius,  who  reigned  Bomewhat  earlier,  are  seen 
the  bull  and  serpent.  On  the  medals  of  Persia,  and  in  the 
works  of  Zoroaster,  this  worship  was  practised.  He  repre- 
senlfl  God  under  the  figure  of  the  serpent,  and  describes  him 
as  "tho  master  of  all  things — exempt  from  death — eternal 
in  his  duration — without  beginning,  and  without  parts.'' 

On  the  medftla  of  Tartary  we  find  the  figure  of  the  ser- 
pent :  on  tho  reverse  of  a  medal  of  Tyre  we  find  the  serpent 
encircling  an  egg ;  and  we  see  the  same  figure  on  the  medals 
of  Japan:  this  people,  in  their  cosmogony,  say  it  was  the 
wann  breath  of  the  serpent  that  called  into  life  the  first 

As  those  coins  and  medals  which  are  scarce,  are,  from 
that  cause,  the  more  valuable,  whether  they  be  the  old 
Roman  coins  of  lead, — or  coins  and  medals  in  copper,  brais, 
silver,  or  gold,— the  metal  itself  merely  affecting  the  value 
according  to  its  weight, — it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
that  a  considerable  part  of  the  science  of  numismatics  should 
conast  in  enabling  the  medallist  to  detect  forged  imitations 
of  tho  objects  of  his  regard.  This  art  of  forging  is  said  to 
have  arisen  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  it 
has  since  prevailed  to  a  great  degree.  Counterfeit  medals 
come  under  six  heads ;  1.  Medals  known  to  be  modem 
imitations  of  the  ancient,  but  valuable,  because  executed  by 
the  best  Italian  masters:  2.  Medals  cost  from  the  former; 
3.  Medals  cast  in  moulds  taken  from  the  antique:  4,  An- 
cient medals  retouched,  and  the  obverses  or  reverses  altered ; 
5.  Medals  ini|)rcsaed  witli  new  devices,  or  soldered :  fi.  Coun- 
terfeit medals  which  have  clefts,  or  which  ore  plated.  When 
the  art  of  imitating  the  genuine  anti([ue  coins  besan  to  be 

{ractiscd,  it  was  at  first  ivithout  any  intention  of  deceiving, 
ut  merely  t«  fiicililate  the  study.  The  very  clever  imita- 
tions, however,  of  tlie  artists  of  Italy  soon  passed  for  genuine, 
and  became  an  oiticle  of  a  trade,  which  has  continued  to 


Cabinets  of  medals  arc  usually  ranged  into  three  dis^ct 
sizcsL  1.  Tliot  which  contains,  or  is  intended  to  contain, 
every  issue  of  the  mint,  in  every  age  and  country.  Such  a 
cabinet  belongs  only  to  natioual  museums,  princes,  and 


others  who  have  the  eomfiiand  of  great  wealth.  The  Fni- 
broke  Cabinet,  befpro  ^ken  of  is  one  of  those.  2.  Tin 
smaller  cabinet  contains  several  sequracei^  or  paiticulD 
series  of  medals,  from  the  earliest  to  the  hteA  tiniN ;  ollin 
medals,  or  such  as  belong  to  other  sets,  being  received  km 
curiosity  and  in  order  to  give  variety  to  the  collKtii'ii. 
3.  'Ilie  sniailest  cabinet,  usually  callea  a  coiittlofniediL', 
includes  all  little  collections  ot  coins;  in  which,  pnbqi^ 
not  more  than  one  sequence,  or  series,  can  well  be  fonunt 
The  coins  of  the  Middle  Ages  form  the  deparlm^t  of  stsdi 
now  chiefly  poisued,  with  a  view  to  the  elndditiim  t! 
history. 

Medaluons  and  Mbdalets  belong  likewise  to  the  Ismil; 
of  medals.  Medallions  were,  in  former  tirae«,  medab  ofi 
size  larger  than  ordinary ;  such  a  one  is  that  which  form! 
the  fttjntispiece  of  our  former  paper.  They  were  nHtr 
current  coins,  as  medals  were;  but  were  struck  le  serve u 
public  monuments,  or  to  be  presented  by  a  moDsrch  tu  iu! 
friends,  or  by  the  mint-makers  to  a  monarch,  as  n 
of  fine  workmanship.  Medallions  were  commoi 
upon  the  commencement  of  a  new  reign,  as  ci 
medals  are  in  these  later  days,  Medalets  were  smaii  cum^ 
scattered  among  the  people  on  solemn. occasions;  thej  ■ft' 
also  struck  for  the  use  of  slaves,  and  served  as  coanto!  i 


It  is  the  opinion,  however,  of  some  medallic  scbolai!^  tbil  | 
the  medalets  of  lead,  alluded  to  in  our  former  paper,  nn 
a  species  of  mock  money,  used  at  the  time  of  tbe  Kaniii 
Saturnalia,  when  all  the  different  uKeges  and  cnstoiii!  rf' 
society,  whether  good  or  bad,  were  ridiculed  and  pModjeJ. 
Among  many  whimsical  n^lations  made  to  f^tify  iIm 
Boman  popnJace,  during  tliis  week  of  geneml  licenn,  ki^ 
one  which  forbad  the  use '  of  money :  if  any  one  offered  i 
legal  coin  in  payment,  it  was  to  be  condemned  aa  on  act  n 
madness,  and  tbe  man  was  brought  to  liis  senses  by  a  peiii- 
tential  fast  for  that  day.     To  ridicule  the  idea  of  mw*;,  | 
the  mob  rulers  stamped  this  leaden  circulating  medival  ^'^  , 
the  moet  grotesque  figures  and  the  oddest  lievios,  suili^  i 
a  sow,  a  jackass,  a  fabulous  bird,  a  general  in  his  car  ";ili 
a  monkey  l)ehind  him,  &c.     As  all  this  was  done  in  idm'-  | 
ery,  this  base  metal  was  stimpcd  with  the  letters  S.C.  w  i 
p.  86,  col,  2.     Pinkerton,  referring  to  these  lead  (owi.  « 
tietett,  regrets  that  "such  curious  remains  have  almottts- 
caped   the   notice   of  medallists,  and   have  not  yet  k") 
arranged  in  one  cIbm,  or  named,     A  special  work  on  fto  j 
would  be  highly  acceptable." 

When  a  medal  is  in  tbe  least  de&ced  in  figures  or  in  lc(r«4 
the  medallist  will  reject  it,  hardly  excepting  even  (lie  m™ 
coins.  Hence,  it  becomes  of  importance  to  preserve  mc^  i 
in  their  original  perfection,  or  as  nearly  so  as  poaaHf. 
Nothing  contributes  so  much  to  preserve  biasB  snl  copp" 
coins,  as  the  fine  rust,  called  in  Latin  rerugo,  which  ^"i  j 
like  varnish  on  them,  and  which  depends  for  the  aeJtol  rt  | 
upon  the  particular  situation  or  soil  in  wliich  the  cou  m  , 
medal  may  have  been  lying  for  ^es.  There  are,  therffw, 
different  kinds  of  rust;  but,  as  Pinkerton  says,  "T|i« 
rusts  are  all,  when  the  real  product  of  time,  as  h>™  '^ 
the  metal  itself,  and  preserve  it  much  better  this  3ij 
artificiBl  varnish  could  have  done;  concenhnii,  «'  '"* 
same  time  not  the  most  minute  particle  of  the  imprsafO 
of  the  coin."  In  the  case  of  gold  and  silver,  ^\P"^ 
these  metals  are,  the  cleaner  and  freer  from  WemisI".  aw 
the  more  mint-like  will  they  be,  wherever  foniiJ,  wJ 
whenever  we  may  have  to  examine  them :  but  the  bcflt^  «i 
the  medallists  must  be  consulted  by  him  who  wishf*  "> 
prosecute  this  subject,  and  who  may,  therefore,  desiie  ww 
need  to  acquaint  himself  further  with  all  the  spl*-  ^'j 
mishes,  and  tarnishes,  which  obscure  or  adorn  medals,  a" 
the  means  prescribed  for  safely  removing  them 

An  examination  of  the  medal-room  of  the  British  Moaoin, 
together  with  a  perusal  of  mom  extended  and  sj-rfeiftw 
works  on  Numismatics,  or  the  Science  of  Coini,  "'■."''; 
promote  and  improve  the  taste  of  the  reader  for  a  5Il^J™ 
so  interesting  to  the  poet,  the  pwnter,  the  orrhiteri7  "" 
historian,  and  the  man  of  literature  generally. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKEE,  WEST  STRAKD. 


N?667.  MAY  is;  1841.  {^^^^ 


170 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


t  • 


[MayI, 


JOHN  FLAXMAN  AND  HIS  WORKa 

III. 


or  forming  artimaflbiitifln-fliuhed.— Thom 


HOMMW. 


Sfi^BHA't  et^tues,  designed  to  ooxm^^morato  the  dltftiQ** 
gbisbed  pei^sbns  of  his  time,  now  ^dame  from  the  l^and 
of  Flaxman.  That  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  is  one  of 
Ilk  ittu  and  but.  The  painter  is  inade  to  bold  hie 
Discourses  on  Art  in  his  right  hand,  while  the  tips  of 
the  fingers  of  his  left  reach  the  top  of  a  pedestal,  or 
altar,  on  the  side  of  which  is  a  portrait  of  the  saint  he 
professed  to  worship*r--Ml9b»9l  Anftlor  Tbvw  ii  in 
this  work  much  tnwquil  difnity  of  loofcf  4  PoIoimI  figure 
of  Sir  John  Moore  w»8  next  mad^  in  brpnao  for  the  city 
of  Glasgow ;  and  the  statue  of  Pitt  wai  aet  up  in  tb^ 
Town  Hall  of  the  same  placa.  It  ia  eurioualy  obaenred 
respecting  tbia  laat  ptrfannanoei  that  *<both  man  and 
dress  are  too  real  ana  literal  to  excite  that  loftiness  of 
feeling  wbieh  iii  or  ongbt  le  ))e,  the  grand  aim  of  noble 
works  of  art."  •*  Why  ao  ? "  the  reader  may  probably 
ask.  Let  bia  hiograpner  apeak  in  extenuation  of  th*e 
sculptor's  (bilings;  <*nere  is  a  apeoimen  of  |Ha  achool  of 
taitor-scttlpture !  the  eapaa,  cuifs,  seams,  buttons,  and 
but(on«boleai  are  all  in  w^a  way  of  dignity:  indeed  il  ia 
a  difficult  matter  to  treat  them  tastefully,"  So  true  it 
is  that,  in  the  nineteenth  century, — at  two  thousand 
years'  diatance  of  timoi^-^the  feeling  ia  still  abroad,  that 
a  British  mamber  of  parliament,  in  Older  to  inipiro 
respect,  ahould  be  decorated  with  the  Roman  togal 

9ut  the  worka  which  were  grateAil  to  Flaxman  were 
those  which  embodiod  poetical  paaaages  in  the  Bible,  and 
wi^h  suob  ha  vaa  ^vor  raady  to  commemorate  the  dead« 
Such  soripiunil  commanta  m  marble  wera  readily  ad* 
mitied  in  churohaa,  and  in  this  way  statues  and  groupa 
from  his  han4  were  spread  abroad  m  India,  Italy,  Scot* 
land,  Ireland)  and  the  Weat  Indies.  He  made  a  statue 
of  the  Ri^*ab  of  Tai\jore,  and  a  monument  to  the  mis> 
sioix^ary  Schwarta,  both  of  which  are  now  in  the  East, 
an({  have  bean  noticed  in  tba  journala  of  Bishop  Heben 

In  the  year  1810  the  Royal  Aoademy,  after  some  con- 
sideratioui  created  a  promasorsbip  of  sculpture,  and 
bestowed  it  upon  Flaxman*  Ha  proceeded  to  flilfil 
th^  duty  ot  hia  oftce  with  entbnsiaain  and  knowledge; 
an4  to  bis  ftrat  lecture,  deliverod  in  1811,  dopked  acade- 
micians, Btudentai  and  connoiasaura.  Hi«  worka  and 
his  reputation  beapoka  respectful  attentiont  Hla  leaturea 
wqre  ten  in  numlar,  an4  with  these  Ipoturaa  both  the 
sculptor  an4  the  paiptor  ahonid  be  ikmiliar:  tha  aubjaota 
are — 1,  EngUah  Baulptnre;  g,  tlm  Egyptian)  8i  tba 
G^cian  \  4,  Selanaa ;  5,  Beauty )  fl,  Cnmpoaition ;  7, 
Style;  a,  DriM^ryi  9i  Anoiant  Art;  10,  Modem  Art. 

9oin«  of  Ua  UlnaUfttipna  of  tha  Pilgrim'a  Propaaa, 
belonging  to  thia  itm«t  m  Hid  to  equal  that  valfjfioua 
romance  la  almpU^Ui  and  to  fcr  aurpaaa  it  in  loftineaa. 
The  lika  may  ba  aai|  of  Ma  daafapia  for  SoAoby'a  trans- 
lation of  Obermit  fiiit  tha  author  who  moaj^  delighted 
th^  fanny  of  Flaxman  ma  |ieaio4>  of  whom  there  are 

thirty rsix  iHuatrttionai  anil  thaaa  Ibr  aimpUcityi  loveli- 
ness, and  grapoi  ftdriv  rival  a^y  of  his  other  works. 
They  embpay  Iba  atoi^  of  Fedora,  and  show  the  effeota 
of  her  daaaonl  tP  the  airth*  One  of  these  the  artist 
thought  ao  well  of  that  ba  modaUad  it  in  relief,— Mer<- 
cury  eondnetlng  Pandof»  (Voin  haa^aQ  to  aartb»  and 
skimmmg  with  Aia  chargo  through  the  air  like  a  bird. 

In  tha  year  1899  ima.  Fiaxman  diadi  after  having 
lived  with  her  hoaband  thirty-^bt  f  aara  \  the  biographera 
piake  no  mention  of  a  fitmily)  90  {nat  we  oonolude  that 
no  sculptor  tn  the  aaoond  ganavA^on  aapirea  to  the 
gloriea  of  bis  aire. 

He  waa  now  aix^^siY  yaara  fddi  and  waa  awrmuodad 

with  the  applause  of  the  world.  His  two  chief  works 
at  this  period  were  the  Archangel  Michael  vanquishing 
Satan,  and  (he  Shield  of  Achilles.    The  latter  waa  exe- 


fpt^d  by  commission  from  Randall  and  Bridge,  the  emi- 
nent  silversmiths ;  and,  a^it  is  considered  to  bei^neof 

the  artift's  tnoat  aAeeaaaftU  #oykai  wa  skill  da  wfU  in 
dwelling  a  l{ttla  ttpon  tha  d^aoription  af  it* 

Th^  dataii  of  fhe  various  designs  worked  upes  tlie 
exterior  Bur£ace  of  the  shield  of  Achilles  is  found  in  the 
eighteenth  book  of  Homer's  Iliad.  This  work  of  Hme 
is  so  named  because  it  relates  to  /Son,  or  Troj.  The 
poat  lived  about  eight  hundred  years  B.C.,  and  the  destruc- 
tion Vt  Troy  took  place  nearly  two  hundred  yean  befon 
Homer's  time.  The  occasion,  in  the  poem,  for  the  de- 
scription of  the  shield,  is  when  Vulcan,  by  desire  of  Tb^ 
tis,  the  mother  of  Achilles,  makes  the  hero  a  new  shield, 
together  with  a  new  aet  bf  arms ;  as  Achilles,  btving 
lent  Patroclus,  his  (Hand,  his  own  armour,  had  lost  it  all, 
in  oonaequenee  of  Patroclus  being  slain,  and  then  stripped 
by  Hactor, 

The  deaoription  of  the  poet,  which  we  shall  preseotly 
apitomiae,  ii  intereatfaig,  aa  affording  a  picture  wandeDt 
llib  and  manners,  and  a  oharming  view  of  nature  in  the 
aarly  atagea  of  aooiaty.  It  shows,  moreover,  that  the 
art  of  design,  and  of  working  in  metals,  bad  attuned  a 
very  high  degree  of  parfeotion  among  the  Greeks,  at  a 
period  of  which  wa  hava  no  poaitively  authentic  records. 

It  was  the  intention  of  the  noet,  aa  Pope  justly 
obaarvea,  *Ho  draw  the  picture  of  Uie  whole  world  in  the 
pon^pasa  of  this  ahiald.    We  aee  firat  the  universe  in 

S moral  1  tha  heavens  are  apraad;  the  stars  are  him;  up; 
e  aarth  la  atratobad  forth;  the  aeaa  are  poured  roaod. 
We  next  aee  tha  world  in  a  nearer  and  mora  imrtieular 
view;  tha  cities  dalightftil  in  peace  or  formidable  in  var; 
the  laboura  of  the  country,  and  tha  fruit  of  those  lahours 
in  the  harvesta  and  the  vmtages;  the  pastoral  life  in  its 
pleasures  and  its  dangeras  in  a  word,  all  the  occopatioDs, 
all  the  ambitions,  and  all  the  diversions  ^  mankind." 

The  shape  of  this  celebrated  ahield  was  circuUr,  and 
moat  probably  four  feet  in  diameter.  Flaxman  has, 
however,  reduced  the  diameter  to  three  feet.  Hound 
the  border  he  firat  wrought  the  acMt,  in  breadth  abont 
three  fingers,  wave  foUowmg  wave  in  ouiat  undulation. 
On  the  central  boas  he  has  represented  Apollo^  or  the 
Sun,  in  hia  chariot:  the  horaes  seem  atarting  forward^ 
and  tha  god  bursting  out  in  beauty,  to  give  light  to  the 
universe  around  him.  The  drcfe  of  which  Apollo  is 
the  centre  ia  in  diameter  little  more  than  a  foot  On 
the  twelve  scenes  which  fill  the  space  between  the  ocesn- 
border  and  the  general  representation  of  the  universe  he 
shed  all  his  learning  and  skill.  These  scenes  we  viH 
now  briefly  describe. 

Ah&r  the  dalineation  of  the  heavens  with  the  son  and 
Aill  moon,  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  and  other  principal 
Qonatellations  of  die  northern  sky,  we  have  a  representa- 
tion of  tvo  beautiful  cities,  one  in  a  state  of  peacei  and 
tha  oUier  in  a  state  of  war.  In  the  citv  at  peace  ve 
have  throe  distinct  aeenaa,  and  we  have  the  like  in  the 
city  at  war. 

The  first  scene  in  the  peaeefhl  eitv  represents  a  mar- 
riage festivity,— the  second  a  trial  for  murder,  and  tbc 
fixing  of  the  homicidal  fine,— and  the  third  a  debate  m 
the  senate. 

The  first  scene  in  the  warlike  d^  exhibits  the  fonna* 
tion  of  an  ambush  on  the  part  of  the  besiegers,  and  a 
sally  on  the  part  of  the  besieged  1  the  second  shows 
shepherds  with  their  cattle  falling  mto  an  ambosoade,- 
and  the  third  presents  the  battle. 

Am  the  earliest  oocupations  1^  mankind  consisted  in 
agrieulture,  and  tha  tending  of  cattle,  we  are  next  pi«- 
aented  with  a  aet  of  views  of  agricultural  and  pastoral 
life  among  the  ancients,  The  firat  of  tha  three  agricul- 
tural aoenaa  aahibita  the  tillage  of  the  groand,-^^ 
aeoond  tha  barvaati^^Hind  the  tiiird  the  vmtage.  y^ 
firat  of  the  paatoral  aaenea  presents  ua  with  a  view  of  a 
herd  of  Men  attacked  by  lions,  in  spite  of  the  keepei^ 
and  their  dogs;  the  second  scene  is  that  of  sheep  witb 
the  shepherds,  together  with  the  folds  a^d  h^tsyr^^ 
the  last  a  dance,  or  rustic  merrimentt 


1641.] 


*BB  «AttlR&AY  MAOA««fi. 


171 


In  Flatman't  Abrign.  tlie  llgures  are  generidly  about 
six  inches  high,  and  Tary  in  relief  from  the  smallest 
fisible  iwell  to  hBff  an  Ineh.    There  ik  a  conteiity  of 
six  inches  from  the  pUne,  and  the  whole  contains  upwards 
of  a  hundred  huinaii  iguf  es.     Of  this  superb  work  our 
artist  was  justlj  proucL    He  recelyed  BUOL  tot  the  draw- 
ings andmedet    Hm  first  eaatf  in  ailtar  ^Ity  price  SOOO 
giHneasf  was  plioed  by  King  George  the  rouHh  on  his 
own  side^boanls  a  soeond  waa  presented  by  him  lo  his 
brother,  the  Dukft  of  York;  k  third  Was  ttad«  for  Lord 
Lonsdale  { and  afburth  for  the  Dtlke  of  NorthutuberUind. 
Two  casts  in  bronze  were  made  by  the  proprietors  for 
thenuelvesi  and  three  were  prepared  in  pUsterg^-one  for 
the  Rof  al  Aeademy«  another  for  Sir  Toemaa  loiwien^ 
and  a  third  for  Flaiman  himselfi 

It  is  eonridered  that  Boma  of  ikb  llobbat  of  FUunnas'a 
works  belong  to  his  latter  days ;  foi>  Alttptei  \M  Piyehe^ 
his  I'astoral  Apollo,  tho  stiltued  of  Michael  Angelo  and 
Raphael,  and  tne  nroup  of  the  Archangel  Mlrhael  and 
Satan,    tlie  P&ydie  and  the  Pastoral  Apollo  have  a 
certain  austere  composure  about  them.    The  Michael 
Angelo  and  the  ttaphael  are  described  as  "poetic,  yet 
r^f;  heroic,  fet  ramillar;  and  theif  costume,  though 
not  afltioue,  is  at  once  historic  and  picturesque**'    The 
group  of  Michael  and  Satan  is  spoken  of  as  "a  tirork  of 
the  highest  merit — ^the  Conception  Is  eplci — ^the  gronping 
grand,  and  the  action  godlike.  « The  good  angd  Is  tri- 
umphantly trainpiing  Uie  evil  on^  und^r  his  feet^  and 
from  the  subdued  agony  of  tha  latter,  ire  may  see  that 
he  has  felt  the  heavenly  spear."     In  this  groilp  there  is 
1  divine  composure:  '*all  is  elevated — ^ther6  is  nothing 
low — there  is  much  to  excite  awe,  and  nothing  to  disgust. 
In  the  year  1825  Allan  Cunningham  and  Flaxman 
>ecame  personally  acouainted.    Ine  sculptor  ^as  making 
I  statue  of  Burn9,  whose  poetry  he  was  tery  fond  oi; 
nd  his  prospective  biographer,  beinsr  invited  to  sec  it, 
(rhile  in  progress,  visited  the  artist  in  nis  studio. 

In  the  succeeding  year,  during  which  he  was  OCeasion- 
lly  ailing,  a  very  singular  circumstance  occurred  to  him. 
)n  Saturday,  the  second  of  December,  he  rose  about  nine 
'clock  in  the  moming«  and  found  a  stranger  Waiting  to 
!e  him.  '<  Sir,**  said  the  visitant,  pre8enting(  a  book  as 
Q  Spoke,  *'  thb  work  waa  sent  to  me  by  the  author,  an 
alian  artbt,  to  preset  to  you,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
lolc^ixe  for  its  extraordinary  dedication.  In  truth.  Sir, 
was  so. generally  believed  throughout  Italy  that  you 
ere  dead,  that  my  friend  determined  to  show  the  world 
>w  much  he  ifSteemed  yoUr  genius,  and  hatrbg  thlft  book 
adjr  for jpttblication,  he  has  inscribed  it '  Al  Ombra  di 
laxman.  (To  the  shade  of  flaxman.)  No  sooner 
IS  the  book  publiahed  than  the  story  of  your  death  was 
ntradicted,  and  the  author,  affected  by  his  mistake, 
lich  netertheleia  be  hjoicea  al»  b^^a  you  wiU  receive 
I  work  and  his  apology «*' 

On  this  day  Our  artist  felt  well  aiid  cheerful.     On  the 
ftt  6mj  he  went  to  chtureh,  took  cok^  refused  medicine, 
i  went  to  bed^     On  Monday  he  siud  thai  be  felt  him<* 
f  well  enough  io  rvemve  his  frknda  to  dinner  whom 
had  invitedi    They  Came,  but  were  touched  with  the 
tnge  in  hia  looks,  though  they  l($ft  him  without  feeling 
i  apprehensfion  of  seeing  him  no  more.    An  inflam- 
ition  of  Iha  lungs  was  the  result  of  the  eold  which 
»cted   him  on  l^ndat,  and  the  disorder  apfsad  with 
al  rnpiditr.   He  fbUnd  himself  unable  to  breathe  when 
a^  in  heldf  and  >> JVite  of  ill  that  oould  be  doAe  for 
a,    he    died    on  Thnrsday  momirig,  December   7f 
26.      Hia  bo^waa  aeeompmuad  to  &b  dhnfchyard  of 
OilM«hi-th0«FleMe,  W  the  preaid«iDt  and  eeuddl  of 
Rojad  Academy,  on  m  fiflMiith  ef  the  sadae  month, 
c  followlfig  la  inaerilied  en  his  tomb^^<  Jolm  FbHi- 
n,  R.  A.P.8.^  Whose  mortal  life  waa  a  oonataat  pTe- 
ation   fbr  a  blessMl  Immortality  x  hia  adgelie  spirit 
timed  to  tha  tHtine  Oivor  on  the  7th  Decemberi 
iSf  in  tht  a^vimty-^eWiMt  year  of  Ua  ige." 

•  PMteMV  or  SedplBW  in  Um  Boyd  AMdny. 


We  will  noi^  conclude  otif  notice  Of  the  life  of  Flax- 
man,  by  briefly  summing  up  his  artistic  character  in  the 
Words  of  his  excellent  biographer: — 

Of  his  works  there  are  four  kinds, — ^the  religious,  tha 

Eoetic,  the  classic,  and  the  historical.  In  each  of  these  ha 
aalen  specimens  which  gitre  him  hii^  raftk  among  tha 
sons  of  genius,  but  iu  all  of  Ihem  he  baa  not  attained  tha 
same  degree  of  axeellenee :  in  the  historical  he  was  embaiM 
raased  with  the  unpoeti^  costume  of  these  days  of  buttons 
add  aapeSi  in  the  classic  he  was  compelled' to  obey  the 
antique;  but  iu  the  poetic  and  the  religious  he  has  beensur-, 
passed  in  purity  ana  simplicity  by  no  modem  sculptor. 


ON  CHESS. 
IX.  CHsaa  Writerb  Ajxb  Players.  (ConHmnd.) 


Tclioia  four  Arehen*t  Mger  to  sdrstte*, 

BtbA  m  light  reed,  Mid  hada  #ita  dd^kttg  f^amt 

Titto'  tnglc*  tfrer  they  mwiU  tkeir  fcee. 

Tnio  (Otho  oolov  wliich  at  first  tber  choee. 

Su  WxLtXAK  JoatS. 


jii. 


Our  laat  account  of  Chess  players  and  writers  broug&t 
ua  to  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, — a 
period  when  many  excellent  players  of  the  game  an ^ 
several  chess  autkors  flourished*  Among  tne  former 
waa  no  less  a  personage  than  John  Frederick,  elector  of 
Saxony,  who  in  1547  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Emperor 
Charles  the  Fifth,  and  condemned  to  suflfer  death  by 
being  beheaded.  Dr.  Robertson,  the  historian  of  Charles 
the  FifUi,  8ays^«— 

This  deeree  waii  intimated  to  tha  elector  While  amusing 
himaelf  in  playingat  chess  with  Ernest  of  Brunswick,  hia 
fellow  ppsoner.  He  paused  for  a  moment,  though  wiuout 
diseovenng  any  symptom  either  of  surprise  or  terror;  and 
after  taking  notice  of  the  bxegularity  as  well  as  Injustice  of 
the  empdroi^s  proceeding — **  It  is  easy,"  continued  he,  ^  io 
comprehend  his  scheme.  I  must  die  because  Wittemberg 
Will  not  surflMar ;  and  I  shall  lay  down  my  life  with  nlea- 
enfi,  if,  by  that  saerifioe,  I  can  preserve  the  dignity  of  my 
houaa^  and  transmit  to  my  postteity  the  inheritanee  Whicn 
belolip  to  tbem«  Would  to  God  Uuit  this  sentence^  may 
not  imct  my  wile  and  children  more  than  it  intimidatea 
me,  and  that  they,  for  the  sake  of  adding  a  few  days  to  a 
life  already  too  long,  may  not  renounce  hoUouiti  and  tmlto- 
rieSy  whicn  they  were  bom  to  possess.'*  He  then  turned  to 
his  antagonist,  whom  he  challenged  to  contlhiie  tne  gam^. 
Ha  played  with  his  usual  attention  and  in|fnuity,  and 
baring  beat  I^Mt,  expressed  411  the  satiafaetion  whieh  is 
commonly  felt  on  gaining  such  victories^  AfMr  thii  he 
willidi^W  to  hia  own  anarunent)  that  he  might  employ  the 
rest  of  hia  time  ia  aucn  religious  ezeroiaea  aa  were  proper  in 
hia  aituation. 

He  waa  not,  however,  pmt  to  death,  Ibf  in  15§8f 
^'belbre  Charles  left  Inaptuck,  he  withdrew  the  guarda 

Slieed  on  the  degraded  elector,  Whom,  during  five  yearsf 
e  had  carried  about  wi^  him  asa  ^riaoner,  aild  aot  him 
entirely  at  liber^." 

Paolo  Boi^  a  Sicilian,  of  the  city  of  Syracuse,  ia  one 
of  the  most  diatingniabed  cfa6ts-players  of  this  tilnei 
The  best  account  of  him  is  contaiiied  in  Carrera'a 
elaborata  JVeatUe  on  Ohmi  (of  whidi  we  ahall  presently 
speak,)  and  it  ia  from  Mn  Lewie's  tfanaktion  of  that 
rare  work  that  we  gath»  the  substance  of  tb^  foUowhig 
naitativO.  Paolo  Boi  waa  borri  of  a  rich  and  good 
fteily,  and  wh^n  a  boy  dispkyed  great  quickness  ef 
ajiprehenaion,  so  that  he  made  considenfblo  progress  in 
literature  at  an  aarly  aga.  It  waa  soon  diacotered  thnt 
he  had  ii  WOndCrrftd  talent  fbr  the  game  of  chesa,  so  that 
he  could  easily  tieat  all  the  pliers  of  hia  native  city 
At  this  time  the  Ikme  of  the  Spanish  players,  and  the 
honours  and  ffewards  bestowed  on  them  by  Philip  the 
Second,  who  was  oxeccdingly  fond  of  the  game,  excited 
die  emulaiiott  Of  the  youth,  and  he  resolved  to  go  to 

•TbeUabimwtitaMrlTcanodtliotreber.  See^niff.p.  70. 
•  667—2 


172 


THE  SATURPAY  MAGAZINE. 


[May  L 


Spain,  but  first  travelled  through  Italy,  trying  his  skill 
^ith  the  best  players  that  country  could  afford.  Amongst 
others  he  played  with  « II  Puttino,"  and  had  the  honour 
of  being  considered  his  equal,  so  that  the  two  were 
spoken  of  as  the  light  and  glory  of  the  game  of  chess. 
Paolo  became  the  favourite  of  many  of  the  Italian 
princes,  particularly  of  the  Duke  of  Urbino,  several  of 
the  cardinals,  and  even  of  Pope  Pius  the  Fifth,  who 
would  have  given  him  a  considerable  benefice  if  he 
would  have  become  a  priest,  but  this  he  declined.  Paolo 
was  nevertheless  a  rig^d  observer  of  the  forms,  and  par- 
took largely  of  the  superstitions  of  the  Romish  church, 
as  appears  from  the  following  circumstance.  When  at 
Venice  he  played  with  a  person  whose  name  is  not 
recorded,  and  lost  every  game.  Upon  reflection,  and 
after  having  examined  the  games  with  great  care,  he 
found  that  he  ought  to  have  won ;  and  not  being  able  to 
account  for  his  want  of  success,  he  began  to  suspect  his 
adversary  of  using  some  secret  art,  whereby  he  was  pre- 
vented from  seeing  the  moves.  To  counteract  these 
evil  arts,  he  therefore  resolved  to  play  again  with  his 
antagponist,  and  to  arm  himself  for  the  encounter  with 
a  rosary,  rich  in  the  valuable  relics  of  great  saints,  and 
1^80  by  previously  receiving  the  sacrament.  Having 
done  this  he  conquered  his  adversary,  who,  after  his 
defeat,  is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  "  Thine  is  more  potent 
than  mine." 

At  length  Paolo  arrived  in  Spain,  where  he  played  in 
the  presence  of  Philip  the  Second,  who  gave  him  the 
revenue  of  certain  offices  in  the  city  of  Syracuse,  of 
the  value  of  five  hundred  scudi  a  year.  Boi  was  a 
bold  and  daring  character,  and  was  very  desirous  of 
being  employed  in  the  service  of  the  brother  of  the 
king,  Don  Giovanni  d* Austria,  on  which  account  the 
king  wrote  a  letter  of  recommendation  in  favour  of  Boi, 
fVom  which  we  learn  that  Paolo  had  before  served  the 
king,  though  it  is  not  stated  on  what  occasion.  The 
i^ext  notice  we  have  of  Boi*s  chess  achievements  is,  that 
lie  played  with  some  of  the  principal  persons  of  the 
kingdom  of  Portugal,  and  won  eight  thousand  scudi  in 
one  day.  He  also  played  with  Sebastian,  king  of  Portu- 
gal, who  not  only  took  delight  in  the  game,  but  played 
it  himself,  and  was  reputed  a  good  player.  They  often 
played  three  or  four  hours  a  day,  and  it  is  mentioned  as 
an  especial  mark  of  the  king's  condescension,  that  once 
when  the  king  was  standing  playing,  and  the  Syracusan, 
(as  was  his  duty,)  with  one  knee  on  a  cushion,  having 
played  a  long  time,  and  being  desirous  of  resting,  the 
idng  assisted  with  his  arm  to  raise  him,  that  he  might 
kneel  on  the  other  knee. 

'  Thus  honoured  by  kings,  Paolo  Boi  was  highly  es- 
teemed by  many  noblemen  of  Sicilv,  Rome,  Naples,  and 
other  places,  and  highly  rewarded  by  them.  He  also 
went  to  Hungary,  where  he  played  with  the  Turks, 
who  are  particularly  fond  of  the  game,  playing  by  me- 
mory when  riding  on  horseback.  Boi  was  in  foreign 
countries  during  twenty  years,  so  that  in  his  own  coun- 
try he  was  supposed  to  be  dead,  for  he  unwillingly  gave 
any  account  of  himself.  When  he  returned  to  Sicily 
he  had  no  fixed  place  of  residence,  for  he  was  oft;en 
going  from  one  city  to  another,  either  for  his  own  plea- 
sure, or  to  please  some  prince.  On  one  of  these  occa- 
sions he  met  with  his  death,  for  when  iu  Syracuse  he  was 
invited  to  Naples  by  the  Princess  of  Stigliano,  who,  as 
well  as  her  father,  highly  esteemed  him.  Three  hundred 
scudi  of  gold  were  sent  to  him,  to  defray  his  travelling 
expenses;  but  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  that  city  he 
was  seized  ^ith  a  complaint  in  his  stomach,  brought  on 
by  the  exertion  of  hunting,  and  died  in  the  year  1598, 
having  attained  his  seventieth  year.  His  body  was  in- 
terred in  the  church  of  St.  Francesco  di  Paolo,  his 
obsequies  being  sumptuously  celebrated  in  the  presence 
of  Prince  Stigliano,  and  other  Neapolitan  cavaliers.  This 
is  Carrera's  account  of  his  death,  but  Salvio  says  he  was 
poisoned  b^  his  servant  for  the  sake  of  the  wealth  he 


had  acquired.     The  description  of  Boi's  person  and  ciur 
racter  are  thus  given  by  Carrera:^^ 

I  knew  him  in  my  yonth^  when  I  was  at  the  dtv  of  P«- 
lermo,  in  the  year  1507 :  his  hair  was  quite  white,  his  fom 
robust,  his  mind  finn«  He  dressed  vezy  fiishionably.  like  a 
young  man,  and  was  very  c^ricions ;  nevertheless  ne  ha^ 
many  good  qualities:  he  was  exemplaiy  in  his  condaet, 
— was  extremely  liberal  and  munificent — very  charitable^ 
— ^he  attended  mass  every  day,  always  giving  alms  to  the 
priest  that  officiated,  whoever  he  might  be,--he  confeaed 
and  took  the  sacrament  frequently,  and  was  veiy  partial  to 
religious  persons.  He  never  would  allow  any  portrait  to 
be  taken  of  him,  and  the  drawines  of  him  that  are  nov 
seen  were  made  without  his  knowledge.  He  never  wooU 
be  persuaded,  even  in  his  old  age,  to  fix  his  residence  in  his 
own  country  or  elsewhere.  In  stature  he  was  rather  t^ 
weU-proportionedy  handsome,  lively ;  eloquent  in  convmi- 
tiouy  and  gay  and  aflRible  with  every  one.  He  left  sone 
writings  on  the  game  of  chess,  which  I  have  not  seen.  I 
have  tnought  it  proper  to  give  a  full  account  of  such  a  mai^ 
that  his  name  may  oe  known  to  posterity. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  writings  h^re  spoto  of 
were  ever  printed. 

Catherine  de  Medicis  is  spoken  of  as  being  a  obey- 
player,  and  Paolo  Boi  much  wished  for  an  opportunity 
of  playiAg  with  her,  but  was  disappointed*  Queen  Elisa- 
beth also  seems  to  have  known  something  of  the  game, 
and  on  a  particular  occasion,  when  Sir  Charles  Blount, 
(afterwards  Lord  Mountjoy,)  had  distinguished  himself 
at  a  tilting-match,  she  sent  him  as  a  present  a  chess-queen 
of  grold,  at  the  same  time  highly  enamelled.  Her  successor, 
James  the  First,  may  be  likewise  ranked  among  the  rojil 
chess-players,  though  he  warns  his  son  against  the  game, 
"  because  it  is  over-wise."  This  counsel  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  acted  on,  for  we  find  a  magnificent  bag  and 
elegant  set  of  chess-men,  which  belonged  to  Charles  tk 
First,  spoken  of  by  Barrington  as  having  been  exhibited 
to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 

During  the  sixteenth  century  many  passages  in  con- 
temporary writers  seem  to  show  that  chess  was  practised 
more  or  less  in  England.  A  kind  of  comedy,  bv  Mid* 
dleton,  on  the  g^ame  of  chess  was  frequently  acted  at  the 
Globe  theatre  on  Bankside.  It  was  a  sort  of  religion 
controversy,  the  game  being  played  by  a  member  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  another  of  the  Church  of  R«ne, 
and  the  former,  in  the  end,  gaining  the  victory.  The 
play  was  considered  too  political,  and  the  autnor  vv 
committed  to  prison,  from  which,  however,  he  obtamed 
his  release  by  the  following  petition  to  the  king:— 

A  hazmleas  game,  ooyned  only  for  delight, 
'Twas  played  betwixt  the  blade  honae  and  the  white; 
The  white  house  won — ^yet  still  the  black  doth  hragt 
They  had  the  power  to  pot  me  in  the  hag. 
Use  but  your  royal  hand ;  'twill  set  me  free^— 
'Tis  but  removing  of  a  man— -that's  me. 
This  century  ^as  likewise  distinguished  by  the  pro- 
duction of  a  Latin  poem  on  chess.   Marcus  riieronymns 
Vida,  of  Cremona,  bishop  of  Alba,  wrote  a  po«n  m 
praise  of  chess,  called  Scctechia  Ludug^  (the  game  of 
chess.)     Of  this  work  an  extraordinary  number  of  edi- 
tions have  been   printed  in  various  languages.    Mi* 
Walker  enumerates  no  fewer  than    twenty-four  ne* 
editions  or  reprints  of  this  work  in  Latin,  eleten  m 
Italian,  five  in  French,  and  several  in  English. 

The  year  preceding  Boi's  death  (1597)  Horatio  G^- 
nutio  published  his  Treatise  on  Chese^  at  Turin.  Tbis 
book  is  extremely  rare,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
remarkable  for  merit.  Dr.  Alessandro  Salvio's  vorii 
which  was  published  in  1604,  is  fiu:  superior.  Sajno 
was  considered  the  most  ingenious  master  of  his  tiine^ 
and  his  openings  of  games  are  said  to  evince  the  fertility 
of  his  genius  and  his  promptness  at  resource.  **  Unfor- 
tunately," says  Sarratt,  "most  of  his  openings  are  oi 
little  use  in  countries  where  the  king  is  limited  in  hjs 
castling.  Salvio,  when  he  had  the  moye,  commonly 
castled  in  a  manner  which  is  not  allowed  in  this  kingdom, 
tliat  is  to  say,  he  moved  Wb  king  to  his  rook's  squarf, 


X8410  -  ;■ 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


and  his  rook  to  iai  Idug's  equare."  Sjilvio's  book,  It 
Puttino,  contains  a  hutorical  account  of  the  game  of 
chess,  and  of  pUyera,  with  upwards  of  sixty  games. 

Don  Retro  Carrera,  of  MiUtello,  in  Sicily,  was  the 
next  chess  writer  of  importance.  His  work  appeared  in 
Ifil  7,  a  qu&rto,  of  six  hundred  pages,  containing  an  ac- 
count of  chess  and  chess-players,  a  description  of  the 
pieces,  and  a  number  of  games.  Among  his  rules  or 
cauUons  for  playin^f,  the  following  are  distinguished  both 
by  oddnesa  and  sagacity : — 

He  who  pUys  must  not  have  his  mind  oompied  else- 
irhere,  perhaps  in  thines  of  importance,  becaoM,  without 
doubt,  he  will  then  be  the  loser. 

WhocTer  is  to  play  an  iimxirtant  game  mn»t  avoid  filling 
his  belly  with  snpei^nons  food,  because  fulnees  is  contrary 
to  speculation,  and  ofFuscatee  the  sig-ht,  so  tlut  it  is  neces- 
siuy  he  should  observe  strict  sobriety.  Those  people  are 
prMse- worthy,  who,  previous  to  playing,  clear  their  head  by 
medicines  which  have  the  virtue  of  rendering  tba  spirits 
pure  and  subtile,  by  which  mssns  they  may  enter  into  the 
consideistion  and  acnteness  of 'the  mores,  with  the  greater 
intennon. 

Carrera  invented  two  new  pieoes,  to  be  added  to  the 
right  OT^linal  chest-men.  That  which  he  calls  Campione 
was  placed  between  the  king's  knight  and  <;^t]e:  its 
move  is  both  that  of  the  castle  and  of  the  knight.  The 
other,  named  centaur,  between  the  queen's  knight  and 
castle  has  the  move  of  the  bishop  and  knight  united. 
Eac4i  of  these  pieces  has  its  pawn,  and,  of  course,  the 
board  mnst  contain  two  more  squares  on  each  side, 
which  will  angment  their  number  to  eighty.  This  inven- 
tion appears  to  have  died  with  the  inventor.  Carrera 
was  the  author  of  works  on  divers  other  subjects,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  more  versed  in  Sicilian  antiquities  than 
in  chess.  We  may  here  quote  a  portion  of  his  recom- 
mendatory chapter  on  chess;  he  says: — 

I  do  not  deny  that  the  time  which  is  spent  in  playing, 
might  be  better  spent  in  holy  and  praiseworthy  works,  but 
bnman  weakness  does  not  permit  ns  to  find  ease  in  the 
constant  practice  of  virtue ;  so  we  are  easily  inclined  to 

fi■BUTC>l,  to  vanities,  and  to  vices ;  and  in  order  not  to  be 
into  theia  and  offend  the  Creator,  we  choose  to  ^)ply 
ourselves  to  exerdaee  of  the  body  and  mind.  Whence,  that 
;oath  who  employs  himself  at  chess,  though  he  may  have 

ted  all  day,  will  have  eained  thus  much,  that  he 
not  played  at  dice,  and  tuat  he  has  eschewed  idleness, 
which  abounds  in  sins.  As  to  remuning  with  the  eyes 
fixed  on  the  cheoe-board,  it  not  only  doea  not  cause  fatigue, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  gre&t  delight,  and  those  who  imagine 
it  tires  the  Intdlect,  are  greatly  mistaken,  the  solace  and 
food  of  onr  mind  being  nteculatlon ;  for  the  truth  of 
which  I  q>peal  to  those,  who,  being  pnssionBtely  fond  of 
study,  remain  for  many  houra  without  lifting  their  eyes  o^ 
their  books. 


LILTf  OF  THE  VALLEY,  ConvaUaria  Majalit. 

i  bloMonw  of  nair, 

D  lK«  mild  biwt  tn»  Ibor  ilaiB; 

I,  thT  bMutiat  I  lo'a, 

AbooD  Ifae  krn^'ft  coronet  drcled  wi^  genu. 
Thm't  nu  tunsl  ihrnt  tfaee,  to  mln  Ib«  nDiir  bri^t, 

S«Bet  lilf !  ihj  lonliiHH  a'  ia  tbbw  im, 
And  thr  txnmj  bvUv,  dMDglmg  He  pun  ud  ue  li^t. 

ProcUuB  th«  Uw  tlirst  o'  Flon'i  bright  tntn. — J.  L.  S. 

Thb  flowery  month  of  May  produces  no  plant  of  more 
exquisite  fragrance,  or  more  delicate  form,  than  the 
Lily  of  the  Valley. 

In  floral  language  it  is  made  to  represent  a  return  of 
happiness,  because  it  announces  by  its  elegance  and  its 
odour  the  happy  season  of  the  year. 

The  graceful  manner  in  which  these  perfumed  bells 
are  suspended  on  the  stem,  and  the  agreeable  contrast 
which  uieir  broad  leaves  of  bright  green  afford  to  the 
snowy  corolUs,  could  not  escape  the  notice  of  our  poeta. 
Bernard  Barton  thus  speaks  of  this  flower: — ■ 
And  sweetest  to  the  view. 
The  lily  of  the  vale,  whose  virgin  flower 
Trembles  at  every  breeze  beneath  ita  leafy  bower. 
Mr.  Leigh  Hunt  calls  them : 

The  nice  leaved  leaser  lilies. 
Shading,  like  detected  ligfat, 
Their  bttle  green-tipt  lamps  of  white. 
Keats  says : — 

No  flower  amid  the  garden  fairer  grows 
Than  the  sweet  lily  of  the  lowly  vala 
Hqrdis  moralizes  on  this  flower  that  flourishes  so  loelt 
in  the  shade,  where  gayer  plants  would  not  exist  :— 
To  the  carious  eye 
A  Uttle  monitor  presents  her  page 
Of  choice  instruction ;  with  her  snowy  beHs, 
The  lily  of  the  vote.    She  nor  affects 
The  pvbUc  walk,  nor  gazeof  inid'4aysnn: 
Bhe  to  no  state  or  dignity  aspires. 
But  silent  and  alone  puts  on  her  soil,' 
And  sheds  her  lasting  perfume,  but  for  whidi 
We  hod  not  known  therQ  was  a  thing  so  sweet 
Hid  in  the  gloomy  sliade.    So  when  the  blast 
Her  mster  tribes  confoundf^  and  to  the  earth 
Stocpe  th«r  high  beads,  tlist  vainly  were  exposed. 
She  feeb  it  not,  but  flonrisheB  anew. 
Still  sbdtered  and  secure.    And  as  the  storm. 
That  makea  the  high  elm  conch,  and  rends  the  oak) 
The  bumble  lily  spares, — a  thoDsand  blows 
liiat  shake  the  lofty  monarch  on  his  throiie. 
We  lesser  folks  feel  not.     Keen  are  the  pain& 
Advancement  often  brings.     To  be  secure. 
Be  humble  j  to  be  h^py,  1»  content 
When  poets  thus  sweetly  endeavour  to  reconcile  us  to 
humble  stations,  their  works  may  be  compared  to  lilies 
of  the  valley,  which  give  pleasure  to  all  that  behold 
them,  and  ean  never  he  found  offensive  by  any  rank  or 
station   of  men.     Prior,  after  looking  at  this  flower. 

Why  doee  one  climate  and  one  muI  endne 
The  blnshing  poppy  with  a  crimson  hn^ 
Yet  leave  the  lily  pale,  and  tinge  the  violet  Uue. 
These  are  reflections  which  flowers  bring  to  our  con- 
templation, and  which  must  always  end  in  our  admiration 
of  the  infinite  ^sdom  of  the  Creator,  who  formed  man 
with  mind,  and  the  lily  with  fragrance. 

This  elegantly  modest  plant  formerly  grew  in  our 
woods  and  valleys  in  great  abundance,  but  the  increase 
jn  the  number  of  our  gardens,  and  the  high  state  of  cul- 
tivation of  the  country  in  general,  have  rendered  the 
plant  rare  in  its  naturu  state;  yet  it  is  cherished  in  the 
garden  by  all  the  admirers  of  good  flowers.  Gerard 
tells  us  as  late  as  1597,  that  it  then  grew  abundanUy  on 
Hampstead  Heath,  also  on  "  Busbie  heath,"  now  Bushy 
Park,  likewise  near  Lee  in  Essex,  and  it  has  been  found 
in  most  counties  of  England,  and  is  indigenous  to  most 
parts  of  Europe  from  Italy  to  Lapland:  it  grows  abun< 
danlly  in  tlje  woods  of  France  ana  Germany. 


m 


tna  MATtmDAY  KAO^ 


/in 


CMAt  i 


Thd  liafiid  of  lily  baa  bden  very  iist»r«p^ly  gitVB  to 
ibis  species  of  CoiiTalkri««  m  it  has  not  tht  least 
affinity  with  the  lily  either  in  its  nm^  fhnt*  or  flower. 
We  presume  that  it  was  oalled  a  lily  from  the  {mrity  of 
its  white  eorolla^  for  eren  at  the  present  time»  notwith* 
staoding  we  have  otango  and  searlet  lili^  Wt  attach  an 
idea  of  deli<iAcy  to  the  very  iiame  of  lily.  At  It  prows 
spontaneously  m  shady  valleys,  it  is  natural  to  call  it  the 
lily  of  th6  valley.  11m  naiiie  of  C^tunUarim  is  derived 
from  GonvalliS)  a  valley.  It  waa  oaUad  Miy  Uly  from 
the  month  in  which  it  flowered. 

The  propor  sitoatioii  for  this  Jilaat  in  tile  garden  is 
the  most  rural  aiid  rustic  party  where  it  is  partially 
shaded  by  shrubs  and  trees}  and  it  flowers  Oven  bettor 
in  a  norui  aspect  than  when  folly  exposed  to  the  noon- 
day sun.  It  wUl  grow  in  almoat  any  earthy  but  it  pnn 
duces  most  flowers  in  a  koae  sandy  iml  iliat  is  ratlier 
poor  than  otherwise;  for  when  planted  in  a  rich  garden 
mould,  the  roots  spread  and  mtdtiply  rapidly,  Init  tiie 
plants  give  hut  few  flowers,  and  like  most  other  creeping 
rooted  plants,  it  seldom  praduces  seed  Whed  it  eka  pro- 
pagato  itdelf  so  l^eadily  }^  the  fiatnre  of  He  iwte. 

The  lily  of  the  valley  is  a  desirable  ere^per  foi>  the 
shady  banks  of  ^kes  and  ornamental  streams,  and  we 
love  to  meet  its  gratefill  fragranoe  beneath  the  pendulous 
branches-  of  the  Babylonian  willow,  idthough 

Nympha  and  shepherds  daaoe  no  mere 
By  sandy  XAdmi's  liUed  banks^ — Miiitov. 

The  autumn  is  4he  proper  season  for  placing  these 
perennial  fibrous  roots  in  the  ground,  when  they  should 
be  covered  with  about  two  indies  of  earth,  and  not  be 
disturbed  oftener  than  every  third  or  fourth  year,  as  they 
seldom  flower  strong  or  plentifully  after  being  removed. 
The  plants  should  bb  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  the  roots 
thinned  once  in.  three  or  four  yean,  aecording  to  ibe 
nature  of  the  soili  and  the  iaoreaee  of  the  pUmta.St 

The  lily  of  the  valliy  is  one  of  the  flowen  that  bears 
forcing  in  poto,  and  aa  but  Psw  planta  aiw  mdre  agree- 
able for  the  hdnae  lA  the  iUbnths  of  Mareh  and  April, 
this  mdd^  of  flow^dg  the  ConvaUatia  Majalis  should 
never  be  oioitted  by  the  florist  who  lias  the  opportunity 
of  doing  it  s  and  we  strongly  recommend  the  potting  of 
their  plants  abundantly  for  the  towni  whioo  at  any 
reasonaUe  pride  wiU  never  retam  vniold  llrdm  the 
market,  for  It  is  a  flower  worthy  of  Ftawdim  iwi 
Whoever  a  ime  epiuura  wotild  be 
May  thee  find  dbta^  and  vinttotis  raxttfy«*^Oowi«sT. 

These  plahts  are  so  numerous  in  the  woods  of  Bile- 
riede,  in  the  neigbonrnood  of  Hanover,  Om  the  ground 
in  many  places  is  completelv  covered  with  them,  and  the 
dr  scetitid  for  a  considerable  distance  by  theii^  agi''eeable 
perfume.  l*hese  woods  are  regularly  visited  on  "Whit- 
Monday  by  numerous  parties  froin  Hanover,  who  go  td 
gather  these  May-flowers,  and  the  forest  on  that  day  i^ 
a  scene  of  festivity  and  mirth.  Cottages  are  erected  fof 
the  sale  of  coffee  and  other  refreshments,  and  neith^^  the 
pleasures  of  tobacco,  nor  the  twlrliiig  WaltiS.  are  omitted 
on  that  occasion.  The  roads  leading  to  tne  fot«st  are 
thronged  throughout  the  day  bypfersons  of  all  ages,  and 
few  are  the  houses  !n  the  city  of  Hanover  that  are  not  fur- 
nished with  the  Whitsuntide  bouquet  of  lilies  of  the  Valley. 

And  ye  whose  lowlier  pride 
In  sweet  seclusion  seems  to  shrhik  from  view; 
Yon  of  the  valley  named,  no  longer  bide 
Yonr  blossoms  meet  io  iwfaie  the  brow  of  parest  brfde. 

The  finglish  gardetis  fiow  possess  sevef^l  varieties  oi 
ihe  lily  of  tha  valley,  amofljfst  which  i»  th^  wbita  with 
double  floweri,  the  riiigle  and  double  fod,  and  a  variety 
trith  latg^f  ^roUlis  thlit  af«  variegated  with  pnrple« 
Thiii  latter  kind  is  |(x^ailv  «steetti^ifl  Fafia,  frotti  whenae 
it  was  fitii  brought  to  this  eountry ;  bttt  as  it  does  not  In* 
crease  so  fast  as  the  Othef  varieties,  it  still  iieiMins  more 
rare  than  We  could  wish  to  find  it  iii  thci  codfiify  iii  |«ilond4 

fAtnidaed  Aom  VmLUn*  Flora  ffuionea,] 


ntEBH^WATBB  FI8HL 


BllvftliAL  of  our  English  riVen  were  Ibrtne^ly  tele* 
brated  ftirtha  neollOnt  flavour  of  fbe  salmon  Ibmid  ia 
thfoni  though  In  point  of  the  number  of  the  fish,  th» 
wore  nrobably  ahraya  iiifMor  to  the  riven  of  BcotiawL 
8ir  Walter  Soott  regahM  tiie  poaaeaiion  of  inyneasi 
qnantltiaa  of  tlda  rioh  and  vAlukbio  flah  aa  an  advaotige 
which  nature  baa  allotted  to  430otland)  as  aohio  ootiipeu 
salion  for  the  great  Inferiority  of  soil  and  idknato  to  the 
liatar  kingdom  I  since  whefo  the  earth  is  mbat  sterilsy 
the  sea  is  often  remarked  to  bo  teost  fhutf^.  T^tkra 
lltogeth«^  fho  mUsh  liUM  are  hold  mip^dr,  with 
respect  to  theit*  lafanoti  ^sheries,  to  aily  other  laad, 
though,  as  the  progress  of  invention  and  itumufaeture 
advances^  many  of  our  streams  are  rendered  obnoxious 
to  the  fisn,  and  are  almost  deserted  by  them. 

The  aecomplished  author  of  Suimokith  or  />flgw  oj 
Fiif'^fkhiikg^  had  an  opportnnity  of  observing  the  state 
of  most  of  the  salmon  rivers  of  the  north  of  Ettrope. 
He  fiahad  in  several  o£  the  Norwegian  rivera,  a&d  fotaid 
salmon  in  all  of  them$  but  thos^  he  took  were  aiAiJl, and 
never  exeeeded  a  pound  in  weight.  This  waa  fai  the 
month  of'  Jnly  \  in  Aognat  he  visited  Sweden^  aftd  fiahsd 
hi  the  magnificent  Gottaa,  below  the  grand  fall  Trolhetta, 
whiah  to  seOf  Me  deelaroii  is  wOfth  a  voyage  from  Eng* 
land;  but  ho  never  raised  any  &h  wte  wofth  takings 
Anothar  river,  eallea  the  Falkensteinf  aboundod  with 
salmon  of  good  siae*  He  Mppobes  the  saW^aiUs  of 
Norway  to  be  the  e«ile  of  the  indifferent  supply  of  ssl- 
mon  in  thai  eonatry,  for  the  quantity  of  sawniast  whidi 
floala  in  the  watey  mnst  be  deatraetive  to  the  fish,  bj 
somotimefe  dkoloag  their  gilk  and  interfering  with  their 
respiration.  In  Gennaay,  he  tiever  fished  for  saUnoiv 
for  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser  were  too  foul  for  fly-fishing, 
and  in  the  Rhine,  in  Switeerland^  and  its  tributsry 
atreamsi  Iw  iiever  saw  a  salmon  rise*  Among  English 
rivto^  ha  corinnenda  the  Derweilt,  flowii^  fttm  die 
beantifbl  lake  of  Keawidi,  the  Hadder»  at  WhHwell.  ttd 
fiba  bellutif^  btit  icAfitil^  stocked  rivef  Avdn.  Small 
sal^tion  are  to  be  itlet  with  likewise  in  most  of  the  con- 
siderablo  Welsh,  Devonsldfe,,and  Coroldh  streams,  and 
occasionally  in  the  rivers  o^  Northumberland.  The 
Thames  waa  formerly  mucti  praised  for  its  salmon ;  Sdd 
Walton  tells  na  that,  in  his  tinle^  it  Waa  fknoMBiila  abora 
all  the  other  rivors  of  t<hg1ahd^  for  the  fine  fUvonr  of 
the  saltton  aaught  to  it  At  proftentj  Uio  takk^  of  a 
aalilion  in  the  "niaiilii^  ft  edtti{>ahttively  mre. 

The  most  considerabte  siibnofl  riVei^,  as  We  have  al- 
feady  intimated,  are  iii  Scbtlarid:  ihe  Tweed,  the  Tay, 
the  Don,  the  Dee,  and  most  of  the  streams'  along  tne 
coast,  afford  a  good  supply.  The  Irish  rivers  also  are 
celebrated,  especially  the  Erne,  at  Ballyshannon,  the 
Moy,  the  Bann,  the  Ekdewater,  and  the  Shannon. 

^otwitstanding  large  exportations  of  fish  from  Scot- 
land, the  supply  was  forttteily  so  very  abundant  in  that 
country,  that  a  large  well  M  salmon,  perhaps  about 
twelve  pounds,  could  be  procured  for  sixpence;  and  do- 
mestics going  to  hire  tticmeelv^s,  made  an  agreement 
with  their  masters,  thkt  they  should  not  be  fed  on  salmon 
more  than  three  times  a  week.  Forty  or  fif^  years  ago, 
the  art  of  packing  salmon  in  ice  fbr  the  London  markets 
was  brought  to  perfection,  and  sinda  that  period  the  value 
of  the  fisheries  has  risen  incalculid>ly;  tne  salmon  hare 
become  dear  in  proportion ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
counties  through  wiueh  salmon  rivera  flow,  see  them  taken 
and  packed  up  for  the  metropolis^  by  hundreds,  without 
having  it  in  their  power  to  purchase  a  pound  for  their  own 
tables.  An  inducement  was  held  out  ftr  the  practice  of 
new  modes  of  catehinff  the  fish,  and  great  industnr  was  ex- 
erted in  a  trade  whldi  had  become  so  profitable.  Had 
not  a  certain  check  been  placed  on  these  proceedings  bj 
the  laws  and  regulations  made  for  the  preservation  of 
the  sahnon  tril^,  w^  AottM  ptdbaHy,  tfi  (Usi  have  lost 


JMl.] 


THB  SATUItDAY  HAQA$Jm^ 


Vi 


the  adyantafe  of  thaiv  viiiti  to  mif  rireM;  and  even  a« 
it  is,  they  appear  to  be  gradually  deserting  some  of  the 
southern  rivers  of  Scotland  where  the  supply  was  for- 
merly very  abundant. 

The  causes  of  this  unwelcome  desertion  of  their  old 
haunts  by  the  salmon,  are  still  in  operationy  anl  it  is 
eoufidsnUy  foretold  by  experienced  anglers,  that  eye  long, 
many  of  Ab  onceAmed  salmon  rivers  will  be  destitute 
of  this  fish.  In  noticing  the  more  prominent  of  thwe 
causes,  we  take  the  nnitod  testimony  of  Bir  Humphry 
Davy  and  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  saying  that  the  ahange 
produced  in  the  rivcfs  and  brmriu  i^.  £^^land  and  Sfioi- 
land  during  the  last  twenty  years,  by  the  general  system 
of  drainage,  has  l^een  a  great  cause  of  the  diminution  of 
fish  in  those  streams.  The  moist,  spongy,  or  peaty, 
soils  which  once  composed  a  great  part  ot  the  high  lanoa 
of  England,  and  the  extensive  movasses  which  covered 
the  southern  bills  of  Scotland,  used  to  receive  and  retain, 
like  sponges,  the  quantities  of  mn  wbich  fell  upon  them, 
and  the  moisture  soaking  from  thmoe  by  slow  degrees 
into  rivulets  and  streamlets,  was  gradually  transmitted 
to  the  main  body  of  the  river.  'Hius  the  rivers  were 
slower  m  rising  to  flood  than  they  are  at  present,  and 
slower  in  subsidlxig  from  that  state;  and  their  fiill  and 
equable  stream  aUowed  the  salmon,  at  almost  all  times, 
to  pursue  their  course  towards  the  upland  souross.  But 
now  that  the  work  of  drainage  has  been  so  extensively 
oarried  on,  the  moisture  is  no  Ifmger  retained  in  the 
same  degree  by  a  spongy  soil,  but  being  carried  off  by 
numerous  channels  to  the  principal  stream,  this  latter 
becomes  suddenly  swollen,  and  rushes  onward  with  a 
rapid  current  which  forces  the  fish  into  pools  and  dams, 
and  in  its  subsidence,  which  is  also  sudden,  leaves  them 
there,  unable  to  aicr^nd  higher,  and  thus  diey  aro  taken 
in  great  numbers.  These  remarks  apply  more  especially 
to  Scotland,  but,  in  a  limited  d«Ree,  they  describe  the 
state  of  English  rivers  also.  IHiere  is  another  way  in 
which  drainage  is  supposed  to  be  injurious  to  the  fisning 
mterest.  The  food  on  which  the  salmon  and  other  fisn 
principally  subsist,  is  lessened  in  quantity  by  that  cause. 
Sir  Hiimphry  Davy  says, 

I  atmbute  the  change  of  the  oiuntitjr  of  flies  hi  rivers  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  country.  Most  of  the  bogs  or  nuumhea ' 
which  fed  many  conriderable  streams  are  dunned ;  and  the 
consequence  is  that  they  are  more  likelv  to  be  affiwted  by 
severe  droughts  and  great  floods,  the  first  killing,  and  i& 
second  vrashing  away,  the  larvw  and  aurelias. 

In  many  cases,  the  system  of  drainage  has  been  indis* 
criminate^  carried  on,  and  its  good  results,  even  to  the 
proprietor  of  the  land,  are  extremely  questionable^  Judi- 
dous  persons  will,  in  time,  be  led  to  qualify  its  excess, 
and  tlus  will  doubtless  improve  the  state  of  the  rivers, 
by  restoring  to  them  a  more  equable  stream. 
_  The  other  main  cause  of  the  deficiencv  of  the  salmon 
arises  from  moral  circumstances,  for  wnich  it  is  to  be 
feared  there  is  no  remedy.  The  privil^e  of  fishing  for  sal- 
mon does  not  necessarily  follow  the  possession  of  land 
on  one  or  both  banks  of  a  salmon  riyart  The  cases  are 
numerous  where  the  right  of  fishing  in  any  particular 
part  of  the  stream  has  bfton  conferred  by  charters  or 
royal  granti  on  buUvidwib  who  ve  noithor  ownen  nor 
occupiers  of  the  land  In  the  vicinity*  By  whatever 
means  aucb  right  has  been  obtained,  eaob  proprietor  is 
anxioua  to  mflke  the  moit  of  bil  part  of  the  nver,  and 
is  a)^^  much  interested  19  the  practices  of  those  who 
occupy  (be  portions  above  nr  below  him*  The  proprie- 
tors of  the  upper  part  of  the  riyer  receive  great  injury 
if  the  means  employed  in  the  lower  fisheries  are  such  as 
to  prevent  the  ascent  of  the  salmon  to  them;  and  the 
lower  proprietors  aM  equally  aggrieved  if  the  salmon 
are  destroyed  during  the  breediuf^  season  when  they  re- 
pair to  tba  upper  parts  of  the  stream  to  deposit  their 
spawn.  Between  ttie  upper  and  lower  proprietors,  there- 
fore, there  should  ever  ^^t  ^  good  understanding  as  to 
their  re^oetive  rights,  and  a  careful  mnintonMloo  «f  such 


regulationi  an  are  be#t  adapted  to  secure  the  supply  of 
fisbs  for  each  is  so  much  concerned  in  the  actions  of  his 
neighbour,  that  to  look  only  to  present  individual 
interest  is  to  ensure  future  individual  and  general  loss. 
Owing  to  tbo  great  demand  for  salmon,  and  the  improved 
methods  of  taking  that  favourite  fish,  there  is,  at  the  pre- 
sent time,  a  degree  of  activity  and  success  in  the  means 
adopted  in  tbe  Ipwar  fisheries,  which  has  a  considerable 
eSect  in  intercepting  the  salmop  in  their  progress  from 
the  sea  to  the  upp^r  parts  of  the  river.  This  occasions 
the  value  <^  the  upper  fisheries  to  be  greatly  diminished, 
and»  eonaequently,  renders  the  upper  proprietors  indif- 
ferent to  the  preservation  of  the  fish.  During  the  whole 
breeding  season,  or  close-time,  it  is  ordained  by  law  that 
the  fish  should  remain  undisturbed,  and  be  allowed  to 
ascend  to  the  baads  of  the  streams  uninjured;  and,  as 
we  have  already  stated,  they  are,  at  that  time,  unwhole- 
smno  and  unfit  for  food.  These  laws  are  enforced  with 
vory  high  penalties,  and  it  might  be  supposed  that  the 
temptation  to  infringe  them  would  not  be  great,  consider- 
ing the  inferiority  of  the  fish  at  that  season*  Yet  we 
^re  told  that  the  spawning  fish  are  destroyed  in  tne 
upper  parts  of  the  river* 

We  must  now  proceed  to  describe  the  various  means 
employed  for  the  capture  of  salmon,  in  the  different  parts 
of  the  river,  during  the  legally  established  season,  which, 
in  Scotland,  extendi  from  the  first  of  February  to  the 
fourteenth  of  Septen^ber,  Sundays  excepted. 

The  tkAe-net  i^ords  the  most  advantageous  means 
fer  taking  salmon  %%  tbe  mouth  of  the  river.  This  net 
was  first  introduced  on  the  Solway,  about  a  hundred 
years  ago,  and  was  called  a  <<  raise'*  or  *<  rise''  net.  At 
first  it  was  nearly  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  and  was 
featened  to  two  stakes.  It  rose  with  the  flow  of  the 
tido>  voA  the  sabnon  were  taken  only  at  the  ebb.  Im- 
provements were  afterwards  made,  which  rendered  it 
available  during  tbe  flood  as  well  as  the  ebb-tide.  When 
stake-nets  became  general,  they  were  found  to  be  exceed- 
iaf^y  advantageous  in  increasing  the  quantitv  of  fish 
taken;  and  such  was  the  success  with  which  they  were 
usodt  that  as  manv  as  fiva  hundred  salmon  and  grilses 
Imve  been  secured  in  one  pf  them,  at  the  same  time. 
These  nets  are  not  adapted  for  any  other  situation  than 
die  mouths  of  rivers,  and  are  cmly  used  when  the  tide  is 
idways  ebbing  and  flowing,  the  atakes  being  firmly  driven 
into  the  rocky  ground  on  tho  banks  of  the  river.  The 
neta  are  fixed  between  high  and  low^water  mark,  and  do 
not  interfere  with  the  return  of  tbe  fish  from  the  upper 
stroamSf  Sabnon  fresh  from  the  sea  are  as  often  to  be 
fbund  in  the  shallow  as  in  the  deep  water,  but  those 
which  are  descending  from  the  spawning  ground  are 
weak  and  out  of  condition,  and  always  keep  the  middle 
of  the  stream*  There  is  another  sort  of  net  used  on  the 
coast,  or  the  tideway  of  a  river,  but  it  is  nearly  super- 
seded by  the  one  just  described.  It  is  called  aato^a-n^/, 
and  requires  tbo  constant  attendance  of  fishermen,  on 
the  top  of  a  stage  or  platferm* 

At  a  higher  portion  of  the  river  the  eoble^nst  is  used 
with  much  efl^sct*  The  fishermen  go  out  in  fiat-bottomed 
boats,  oalbd  oQbhit  and  get  their  chief  supply  from  the 
pools  of  tbe  river,  to  which  tbe  salmon  freely  resort.  In 
dragging  their  nets  along  tbe  bed  of  the  river,  or  pool, 
l^ey  frequently  rake  up  the  spawning-bed,  or  injure  Uie 
young  f^,  so  that  this  mode  of  fisning  is  deemed  in- 
jurious, beai^  taking  tbe  fish  in  a  less  perfect  manner 
tban  by  the  stake-net.  The  salmon  are  frequently 
bruised  in  being  dran^d  along  in  the  net,  and  pot  being 
immediately  packed  in  ice,  are  often  inferior  in  flavour 
to  those  proonred  at  the  mouth  of  the  stream. 

Another  method  of  taking  salmon  on  a  large  scale  for 
public  consumption,  is  by  means  of  an  artificial  space  or 
dyke  in  the  river,  <ttlled  a eruive.  'This  cruive  is  formed 
of  stones,  projecting  in  such  a  manner,  that  the  fish,  in 
ascending  tne  river,  ar^  lad  into  them,  and  inclosed,  as  it 
wert,  in  a  tr^pt    fho  omiyo  ia  considered  aa  liable  t^k 


■THE  SATUltDAY  MAGAZIKG. 


tM*T  i,m. 


prei 


ie,  since  it  can  essiW  be  formed  m  Euch  ■  way  as  to 
Tcnt  the  Bsceat  of  the  fish  towards  the  stream  head. 


In  itill-fi^ing,  as  it'  is  called,  one  end  bf.the  net 
held  by  a  man  or  the   shore,   another  by  a  fisherman  in 
his  boat.     As  a  tish  approaches,  it  is  Burrounded  by  the 
bet  and  pulled  ashore. 

A  variety  of  other  means  are  employed  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  river,  some  of  which  can  only  be  practised 
daring  flood-time,  and  others  are  common  in  ordinary 
fishing.     We  majr  mention  one  or  two. 

Banting  the  water,  or  leitfering,  is  a  common  prac- 
tice. A  large  number  of  nets  are  spread  in  every  direc- 
tion in  the  upper  portion  of  the  river,  and  one  or  two 
personTi  stand  m  a  boat,  with  leisters  in  their  hands.  A 
third  individual  stands  in  the  rcntre  of  the  boat  with  a 


The  halve-net  is  a  net  fined  to  the  end  of  a  pole,  four- 
teen or  sixteen  feet  in  length.  The  fisherman  carries 
the  net  on  his  shoulder  to  the  river  or  frith,  and  placing 
it  under  water,  waits  the  entrance  of  the  fish. 

Spearing  is  praetiaed  in  nearly  all  our  salmon  rivers, 
but,  as  generally  conducted^  is  considered  illegal.  The 
fish  are  speared  late  in  the  evening  in  their  resting 
places,  with  a  ten -pronged  inst^ment. 

Withm  the  last  fifty  years  the  transmission  of  salmon 
to  all  parts  of  the  country,  has  been  wonderfully  facili- 
tated by  the  plan  Of  packing  the  fish  in  boxes  with 
ice,  and  also  by  the  improved  means  -  of  conveyance 
tiiroughout  the  kmgdom.  Before  that  period  the  BU{ipb 
of  salmon'  in  the' London  market  was  at- all  times' 
•canty,  and  in  warin  weather  had  ahnost  wholly  ctased. 
It  was  packed  in  straw,'  and  sent  chiefly  fn)m  the  cliKr- 
ent  salmon '  rivers  of  England.  ■  If  anything' occurred 
tn  delay  the  vessel,  the  fish  was  obliged  to  be  boiled 
and  pickled  before  it  waj  sent  ofl',  and  a  supply  of 
ftesh-taken  fish  was  put  into  the  ship,  as  it  was  on 
the  point  of  sailing.  At  the  present  time,'in  addition 
to  the  advantages  above  mentiofied,  wc  have'  steam- 
boats regularly  arriving  from  all  the  great  sahnon 
nvers,  bringing  their  cai^  with  nearly  as  much  cer- 
tainty and  precision  as  a  stagei^»>ach  would  do,  and 
allowing  us  to  receive  salmon  in  perfection,  or  rather  in' 
good  condition,  from  a  distance  of  five  hundred  miles. 
The  produce  of  the  fine  rivers  of  Scotland  is  thus  regu- 
larly conveyed  to  our  markets,  and  the  supply  of  salmon 
sent  to  London  in  one  year  alone  (1835),  amounted  to 
42,000  boxes,  each  box  weighing  on  an  average  one  hitn- 
dred-weight.  Even  on  a  reduced  estimate  tihe  tjuantity 
brought  to  market  that  season  is  said  to  have  been  20,000 
tons,  or  4,480,000  pounds ;  which-at  ten-pence  per  pound 
would  give  186,^66/.  The  salmon  are  delivered  tocom- 
mission-Bgents,  who  charge  five  per  cent.,  and  take  the 
risk  of  bad  debts.  This  business  is  a  lucrative  one,  and 
is  in  very  few  hands. 

So  long  as  seventy  or  eighty  years  ago,  the  value  of 
salmon  fisheries  was  very  great,  and  in  consequence  of 
the  great  demand  for  this  fish,  it  has  gone  on  increasing. 
At  the  above  period,  as  Pennant  informs  us,  there  were 
forty-one  considerable  fisheries  on  the  river  Tweed  alone, 
extending  upwards  about  fourteen  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  which  were  rented  for  about  MOOt  per 
annum.  The  expenses  attending  the  servant's  wages, 
nets,  boats,  &c,  amounted  to  5000/.  more,  which,  to- 
gether made  up  the  sum  of  I0,400t  Twenty  times  the 
sum  of  fish  must  have  been  caught  to  defray  that  expense, 
therefore,  the  salmon  taken  in  the  Tweed  at  that  time 
must  have  been  about  208,000  in  one  year.  For  th« 
seven  years  preceding  1824,  the  rental  of  the  Tweed 
fisheries  averaged  about  12,000t  One  of  the  fisheries 
on  the  river  Spey  has  been  let  at  the  enormous  sum  of 
scoot  a  year,  and  the,  expenses  are  supposed  to  have 
been  40001.  more. 

We  have  scarcely  mentioned  the  law  respecting 
'Weekly  cloee-time  on  sahnon  rivers,  wh|c^  forbids  iJt 


fishing  operations,  as  well  as  the  eiiatence  of  any  nbst). 
Cles  to  the  ascent  of  the  fish,  from  twelve  o'clndi  ii 
night  on  Saturday  to  the  »ame  hour  oh  Sundav.  Wm 
it  not  for  this  short  respite,  the  salmon  woiiid  kcim\ 
ever  reach  the  upper  streams  of  those  rivert  when  sucii 
vigilant  means  are  used  to  entrap  them,  and  consequeiili 
the  trade  in  such  rivers  would  soon  fail,  Thiu  ibe  it 
terest  of  all  parties,  as  well  as  the  venention  due  to  dr 
Sabbath,  demand  this  time  of  rest.  Sir  Hunipb; 
Davy  in  his  Sahnonia,  remaib  on  the  stnctnew  «  t» 
Scotch  in  their  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  and  mtrodun 
in  his  dialogueadiscussion  respecting  the  maonerofput- 
ing  the  day  in  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  cooilnct 

We  cannot  omit  the  opportunity  of  placing  befon  ou 
rtaders  the  admirable  reasoning  of  Sir  Walter  Scoti  u 
this  subject,  who,  in  noticing  the  ai^mnent  abovealluiM 
to,  gives  his  own  opinion  in  the  following  word);— 

If  we  believe  in  the  divine  origfin  of  the  commsnilitrat, 
the  Sabbath  is  institute  for  the  expiCMpnnx>Me°f '*''!''''■ 
The  time  Bet  apart  is  the  "  Sabbath  of  the  Lord ;"  «  dav  cd 
which  we  are  not  to  work  our  own  works,  or  think  onrown 
thonghts.  The  pr^ept  is, positive,  and  the  puipoaecku. 
For  our  eternal  benefit  a .  certain  space  of  eve^  vtA  a 
appointed,  which,  sacred  fi-om  all  other  avocations,  an 
those  imposed  by  nccesBity  and  mercy,  is  to  be  cmtiiovni  in 
religious  duties.  The  Roman  Catholic  church,  whicD  iin 
so  much  force  on  observances  merely  ritual,  may  coosistoillj 
suppose  that  the  time  claimed  is  more  than  samcientfortlit 
occasion,  and  dismiss  the'peasaats,when  n 


game  or  gmnbol  which  failcy  inay  dictate,  leaving  it  witbtlis 
priests  to  do  on  behalf  of  the  conRrcgstiou,  what  further  " 
necessary  for  the  woriiing  out  of  tiieir  salvation.    But  tli 


TBregatiou,  what  furtlio  'a 
Uieir  salvation^  But  lliij 
doctrliie,  though  it  may  be  irnitaled  4 
Protestant  churches.  He  who .  1^  to  accomplish  his  oo 
salvation,  must  not  carry  to  tennis-courts  and  skittle-gro^ni 
the  train  of  reflections  which  ought  ncceesarily  to  be  escW 
bv  a  serious  discourse  of  religion.  .  The  religioa'  ?<"  °' 
the  Sunday's  exercise  b  not  to  be  con«dei^  «s  s  biiM 
medicine,  the  taate  of  which  is  as  soon  aa  posuble  tu  t<  i^ 
moved  by  a  bit  of  sugar.  On  the  contrary,  our  demcapoiii 
through  the  rest  of  the  day  ought  to  be,  not  Rulleiifcrtiuii';! 
or  morose,  but  serious  and  tcnding'to  instruction.  Give  tout 
world  one  half  of  the  Sunday,  and  you  will  find  religi""  1^ 
no  strong  hold  of  the  other.  Pass  tlicmoming  atctiii™i 
aitd  the  eveniiig,  according  to'  your  taate  or  rank,  in  Ik 
oricket-fieid,  or  at  the  opera,  and  you  will  soon  find  ihoufbo 
of  the  evening  hazards  and  beta  intrude  themEtlvw  on  u" 
sermon,  and  that  recollections  of  the  popular  melodies  inli^ 
fere  with  the  psalms.  Religion  is  thus  treated  like  Lev.t" 
whom  his  uagratefHil  daughlen  first  doiied  one  half  of  ^' 
stipulated  attendance  t  and  then  made  it  a  question  whettt 
they  should  grant  him  any  shore  of  wh«tw      '  ~' 


LONDON : 
JOHW  WILLIIM  PABKEB,  WEST  STBlHP. 


SeU.tir  lU  BesknUn  ud  tUmmuimh  la  iW.K 


N?  568.  MAY 


8T«  1841.  {o^TSi 


BRITISH    GUYANA 


i  HOnmuNB,  BUTISB  OUTANA 


I.  A  Shobt  Account  of  Gdyama 
IN  General. 
It  IB  curioaa  to  obKire,  on  glancing'  at  a  map  of  Asia, 
Africa,  or  America,  how  many  spots  occur  which  are 
possessed,  more  or  less  completely,  by  European  DatioDS. 
Fen  circumstances  are  more  indicative  than  this,  of  the 
poner  and  civilizatian  of  the  European  states.  The 
greater  purity  of  ideas  on  matters  of  religion,  the  en- 
Urprising^  and  industrious  habits  of  the  people,  and  the 
kDowledro  of  the  variouB  arts  and  sciences  di^sed  among 
them,  all  tend  to  bring  about  this  state  of  affairs. 

America  once  presented  features  such  as  these,  to 
*  very  remarkaUe  extent.  Canada  was  claimed  by 
France;  the  eastern  portion  of  what  now  constitutes  the 
United  States,' was  an  English  colony;  the  immense 
country  of  Braxil  was  subject  to  Portugal;  while  nearly 
all  the  remainder  of  South  America,  as  well  as  Mexico 
ind  Florida,  were  possessed  by  Spain,  Great  changes 
have,  however,  occurred  in  uie  political  condition  of 
these  regions,  England  has  lost  the  United  States; 
Spain  has  lost  her  immense  possessions ;  Portugal  haa 
lo^t  Brazil ;  while  the  possession  of  Canada  haa  been 
transferred  from  France  to  England.  The  general 
clfect  of  these  changes  has  been  to  render  the  whole  of 
North  America,  southward  of  the  great  lakes  and  the 
river  St.  Z<aurence,  independent  of  European  control ; 
Mif  likewise  the  whole  of  South  America,  except  a  small 
cuuDtry  or  cvgion  towards  the  north-east  border. 

Ttu;  Can«i£an  and  Rusnaa  territories  in  North  Ame- 

"Vou  XVUI. 


rica,  we  do  not  propose  to  allude  to  farther  here ;  but 
we  wish  to  draw  tiie  reader  s  attention  to  the  portion  of 
Sou^  America  just  referred  to,  and  which  is  called 
GMi/tma,  Guiana,  or  Guayana;  a  region  of  which 
very  little  notice  haa  been  taken  in  our  works  on  geo- 

TTie  upper  part  of  South  America  is  divided  into 
great  basins,  by  the  rivers  Orinoco  and  Amazon,  both 
of  which  flow  eastward  into  the  Atlantic ;  and  the  name 
of  Guyana  used  formerly  to  be  given  to  the  whole  of 
the  region  between  these  two  mighty  rivers,  a  surface  of 
country  more  than  equal  to  three  times  that  of  France. 
But  in  recent  times  the  name  has  been  applied  to  a 
district  not  more  than  one  sixth  of  this  extent;  Because 
Braril  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  republic  of  Venexuela 
on  the  other,  have  appropriated  more  than  five-aixtha 
of  the  former  Guyana.  Even  in  its  present  limited 
extent,  the  boundaries  of  Guyana  are  tut  ill  defined; 
but  there  seems  to  have  been  a  sort  of  agreement  to 
determine  the  limits  by  this  arrangement:— that  all  that 
part  of  ancient  Guyana  which  is  drained  by  secondary 
rivers  flowing  into  the  Amazons,  shall  form  part  of 
Braiil:— that  the  portion  which  is  drained  by  rivers 
falling  into  the  Orinoco,  shall  form  part  of  the  republic 
of  VenenieU;  and  that  part  only  whose  rivers  flow  at 
once  into  the  Atlantic,  shall  continue  to  receive  the 
name  of  Guyana.  This  limited  district  has  a  sea  coast 
about  four  hundred  miles  in  extent,  from  the  easlem 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  to  the  river  Ojapock. 


178 


THE  SATUfiDAX  MAGAZINE- 


[May  8, 


Yet  this  country,  limited  as  it  is  compared  witll 
former  times,  is  divided  into  three  parte,  owned  rotpec- 
tively  by  the  British,  the  Dutch,  and  the  French; 
British  Guyana  being  the  most  westerly,  near  the  re- 
public of  Venezuela-;  French  Guyana  the  most  easterly, 
near  Brazil ;. and  Dutch  Guyana  between  the  other  two. 
It  is  not  possible,  nor  is  it  indeed  bf  .B\uch.  iniportenoe 
at  present,  'to  determine  how  far  inland  the  territory 
of  Guyana  extends ;  for  scarcely  an  Euronean  foot  has 
trodden  any  piirts  except  those  Immediately  contiguous 
to  the  coast.  Until  the  Geographical  Society  employed 
Mr.  Schomburghk,  a  few  years  ago,  to  explote  the  in- 
land parts  of  British  Guyana,  the  authorities  knew  but 
little,  and  attended  to  but  little,  except  the  towns  esta- 
blished on  the  coast  for  commercial  purposes  $  while 
the  portions  of  Guyana  belonging  to  the  Frenoh  and  the 
Dutch  are  still  less  known* 

The  possessions  of  the  three  countries  aie  separated 
from  each  other  by  rivers  \  and  it  aeems  to  be  under- 
stood that  Guyana  extends  to  the  sources  of  these  rivers, 
wherever  thev  may  be.  Beginning  from  the  eaat,  we 
find  French  Guyana  separated  horn  Bratil  by  the  river 
Oyapock,  the  extent  of  which  is  bat  little  known.  Than 
follows  the  river  Marony,  which  serves  as  a  boundary 
between  French  and  Dutch  Guyana  i  thii  is  a  con* 
siderable  river,  rising  in  the  Sierra  Aoaoayt  and  having, 
for  a  considerable  distance  from  its  mouthy  an  avenge 
width  of  a  mile  and  a  half.  In  the  middle  crfT  the  Dutch 
territory  we  meet  with  tl|0  river  Surinam^  wbieh  neat 
its  mouth,  is  about  a  mile  in  widthi  and  is  navigable  fbr 
vessels  of  considerable  staa  beyond  tti«  town  of  Para- 
maribo. On  approaehing  the  boondary  between  the 
Dutch  and  British  possessions,  we  meet  with  the  river 
Courantin,  which  has  been  better  exnlor^d  than  those 
hitherto  named.  It  has  been  ascended  to  a  considerable 
distance  towards  ite  source,  to  a  point  where  two  fine 
cataracts  occur,  each  nearly  one  hundred  feet  in 
height  As  it  Li  more  than  nine  hundred  feet  wide  at 
this  point,  the  infbenee  is  drawn  that  the  source  of  the 
river  is  much  forther  inland.  From  the  oataract9  the 
river  nfns  north-east  (  and  after  presenting  several 
rapids,  becomes  navigable  at  a  distance  of  a  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  from  the  sea.  For  forty  miles  from  the 
mouth  its  width  is  as  much  as  one  mile ;  near  the  mouth 
it  is  four  miles ;  and  at  the  estuary  or  actual  mouth, 
ten  miles. 

Farther  westward,  in  the  British  territory,  is  the 
river  Demerara,  whose  length  Is  known  to  be  at  least 
two  hundred  miles,  and  is  supposed  to  be  much  more : 
as  it  affords  an  easy  means  of  transport  l^st  goods,  there 
are  many  settlements  on  its  banks.  Lastly,  we  may 
mention  the  river  Essequibo,  which  traverses  British 
Guyana,  and  which  has  been  ascended  to  a  distance  td 
two  hundred  and  thirty  miles  from  its  mouth.  During 
its  course  it  receives  the  river  Rupemoony>  more  than 
two  hundred  miles  in  length;  and  afterwards  another 
river,  the  Siparoony,  whose  sonree  has  net  j«t  been 
ascertained.  On  approaching  near  its  xnottUi,  the 
Essequibo  is  farther  augnienteil  by  the  waters  of  the 
Mazaroony  and  the  Cuyuni,  two  large  rivers  which 
unite  about  eight  miles  above  their  junction  with  tibe 
Essequibo.  This  last-named  river  contains,  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  its  course«  numM'ous  rapids,  and  also 
many  small  rocky  islands,  and  banks  of  mad  and  sand, 
which  render  the  navigation  somewhat  dangerous.  From 
the  source  of  the  Rupemoohv  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Essequibo,  is  a  continuous  water  eommnnieation  nearly 
Ave  hundred  miles  in  length. 

All  these  rivers  have  a  course  more  or  less  north- 
east, by  which  they  empty  themselves  into  the  Atlantic, 
and  divide  Guyana  into  several  sections.  The  country 
is  farther  divided  into  two  sections  by  a  hilly  region 
running  nearly  parallel  to  the  shorp,  and  at  a  distance  of 
from  forty  to  seventy  miles  from  iU  Northward  of  t^s 
dividing  belt  is  a  flat  low  country,  fbnning  that  which 


has  alone  been  attended  to  by  the  nations  who  have 
established  colonies  thevo';  while  the  district  fionth  of 
the  mountain  belt  has  been  but  tittle  explored. 

The  low  sea-girt. land  he^  alluded  to^  is  n^srlj una 
level  with  the^sea  at  high  water,  and  requires  unremittiDg 
attention  to  the  embankments  and  sluices  necessary  to 
keep  out  the  tta.  .  The  greatest  part  of  this  low  plaiois 
covered  with  a  soil  of  strong  blue  clay,  highly  impreg- 
nated with  marine  and  vegetable  salt,  and  with  veg^ 
table  matter  in  a  very  divided  state.  Hie  soil  is  rm 
fertile,  and  thereby  repays  the  outlay  incurred  for 
Embankments  jmd  sluices.  Other  parts  of  the  plain  are 
open  savannahs,  that  is,  plains  fit  for  pasturage,  but  not 
for  farm  cultivation;  while  some  few  districts  distast 
from  the  rivers  are  unfit  for  cidtivation,  being  without 
trees  or  shrubs,  and  entfrely  overgrown  with  fern. 

The  southern  boundary  of  tSio  maritime  plain  ii 
formed  of  a  ranm  of  hiUsi  varying  f^om  fifty  to  two 
hundred  feot  in  naif  ht  \  tnd  then  aucceeds  a  series  of 
more  elevated  plainsi  divided  at  tntorvals  by  ridg«s  of 
hills  running  nearly  paraUel  with  the  sea-shore.  At 
difibrent  parts  of  these  lidgea  aro  insttlated  bills,  as  weU 
as  elevated  temcesi  at  nsights  of  aoven,  ninsi  tvel?e, 
and  fifteen  hundred  fcei  respeetively.  After  passing 
■everal  of  these  ran|[ea  of  mils  towards  the  sooth,  we 
^proach  some  eatensivo  savannahs  coveted  with  grasses 
and  plants  I  the  winding  oourses  of  the  river  slcme  being 
marked  by  a  border  of  trees*  In  some  plsces  the 
savannahs  present  a  broad  belt  of  good  soili  hut  without 
anyvegetation. 

The  general  ellmate  of  Guyana  may  be  indicated 
by  saying  that  there  are  two  rainy  seasons  and  two  dry 
seasons.  One  of  the  rainy  seasons  is  longer  than  ^ 
other,  and  begins  about  the  middle  of  April*  At  M 
the  showers  come  only  at  Intervals  i  but  as  the  sea^ 
advances  they  are  more  continuous,  until  at  length,  in 
the  month  of  June,  the  rain  pours  down  In  torrenU. 
It  then  gradually  subsides,  and  ceases  altogether  by  the 
end  of  August.  Then  commences  the  long  dry  seasos, 
which  continues  throughout  September,  October,  and 
November.  December  and  January  constitute  the  short 
wet  season^  doringwhich  a  moderate  quantity  of  rain 
falls ;  and  lastly,  rebruary  and  March  constitute  the 
short  dry  season*  During  the  long  rainy  season,  the 
rain  often  falls  for  several  hours  widiout  cessing;  after 
which  the  remainder  of  the  day  is  fine.  Other  thnes  occur 
in  which  a  few  days  will  pass  over  without  any  rain  falling* 
The  heat  is  not  so  great  as  might  bo  ioppescki  from  the 
almost  equatorial  situation  (from  about  3^  to  8*  N. 
latitude,)  on  nceoimt  of  the  trade  wiaadai  whidn  fu»4 
over  the  whole  breadth  of  the  Atkntia  ftom  AiHoa  to 
America,  reach  the  ooast  of  Guyana  loaded  witk  bmhs- 
ture,  and  the  wind  and  moisture  thus  r^wder  the  (0B- 
peraturo  of  tho  air  more  supportable  thsn  it  voaU 
otherwise  be*  Then  is  Vkemm  an  ateeraaliMi  ^  ^ 
and  eea-breeses,  whidv— as  the  sea-^veeses  are  cokief 
and  blow  in  the  day,  and  tho  land-breeaes  diiriof  ^ 
night,— -oontribnte  greatly  to  maintain  aa  eqsahie 
ienmmturc*  The  thermometer  aeUom  rises  shave  9(fi 
or  falls  below  75S  so  that  the  tempentnrs  tlKOughout 
the  whole  year  is  aodi  as  we  ahenld  term  "susuotf 
heat."  Thnnderotorms,  i^tcn  violcni  but  atldois  t^ 
deetruetivf^  oocnr  during  the  rainy  soMoni;  the  dretd- 
ftil  horricanet  of  the  West  tndaa  isknds  beiBg  wbollj 
onknown  here*  . 

It  has  been  said  that  few  countries  on  the  surface  « 
the  globe  can  be  compared  widi  Guyana  for  vigooraDA 
kaurianoe  of  vegetatm^  wUsk  shawa  itself  especiaUyiA 
the  great  wnaber  of  kidlgenous  plants,  and  the  laif 
forest  trees,  which  cover  not  lesa  than  one  half  of  its 
surfiacew  Many  of  the  trees  produce  exceUcBt  timber; 
others  are  used  for  the  makssg  of  Imrniturs;  each  is  the 
mahoganv  tree;  or  to  furnish  log-wood,  while  otheff 
are  valuable  on  acoonnt  of  thehr  fruit.  Indisn  com  m 
rice  are  coltivatod  to  raoh  an  oxtent,  that  Am  cropaa 


\S4\,Z 


THfi  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


119 


(he  former,  and  two  of  the  latieiv  have  bedti  obtained 
m  one  year  iVom  some  fertile  pieoes  of  pH>uiid.  It  was 
observed  by  Humboldt,  and  nas  since  been  oonfirmed 
by  others,  that  wheat  and  similar  grain  do  not  succeed 
%\  clj  in  Guyana,  since  the  altitude  of  the  ground  is  too 
small ;  an  intertropical  latitude  requiring  a  eonsiderable 
elnation  for  the  growth  of  these  productions. 

The  territory  of  Guyana  is  Inhabited  by  Europeans, 
African  slaves^  and  native  Americans.  The  Europeans 
Went  into  this  country  as  colonists,  at  di£K»rent  periods 
in  past  history;  the  Africans  were,  as  in  other  and 
equally  disgraceful  instances,  kidnapped  fWnn  their 
houses  and  sold  into  slavery.  The  European  settlers 
are  principally  descendants  of  the  original  Duteh 
colonists;  the  number  of  British  and  French  being 
smaller.  The  native  Americans  of  Guyana  are,  generally 
speaking,  more  civilized  than  the  other  aborigines  of 
America.  They  cultivate  Indian  corn,  Cassava,  and 
some  other  roots;  but  they  are  still  attached  to  a 
wandering  life,  and  a  slight  inducement,  or  sometimes 
only  fancy,  leads  them  to  abandon  a  well-cultivated 
piece  of  gpround,  and  to  remove  to  a  wilderness,  where 
thev  undergo  much  toil  in  rooting  out  the  forest  trees, 
anrf  m  preparing  a  new  piece  of  ground.  Some  erf  these 
natives  work  for  the  European  settlers  as  day-labourers. 
Their  colour  varies  from  that  of  a  I^Mmiard  or  Italian, 
to  a  very  dark  copper  hue. 

Hiese  details  relating  to  Guyana  are  to  be  taken  as  a 
whole,  without  reference  to  its  division  among  the 
three  European  possessions.  It  was  necessary  to  take 
this  general  view  of  the  country,  in  order  to  understand 
the  relation  between  the  different  Gnyanas.  But  ftom 
this  point  we  shall  dismiss  the  Duteh  and  French 
settlements,  and  confine  our  attention  to  the  British 
territory,  which  is  indeed  the  only  part  of  which  much 
Is  known  in  this  country.  We  will  merely  state  in 
conclusion,  that  Dutch  Guyana  is  frequently  odled 
Surinam,  the  capital  being  Paramaribo ;  and  that  French 
Guyana  is  called  by  them  Cayenne,  with  a  eapital  of  the 
same  name. 


ON  THE  PLEASURE  AND  PROFIT  ARISING 
FROM  CULTIVATING  PLANTS  AND 

FLOWERS. 

It  was  a  saying  of  the  celebrated  Sterne,  *'that  most  people 
haye  their  hobby-horse  or  amusements  ;*'  the  literal  mean- 
iog  of  which  I  take  to  be,  that  most  people  have  their  favo- 
ni&  pursuits  or  amusements ;  and  so  long  as  these  pursuits 
are  compatible  with  our  duty  to  God  as  Christians,  and 
militate  not  against  the  welfare  of  onr  fellow-men,  so  fhr 
are  they  innocent,  rational,  and  profitable.  Among  all 
the  various  amusements  which  this  fascinating  world 
holds  out,  I  think  none  it  more  innocent,  more  rational, 
or  more  profitable  than  the  cultivation  of  flowers  s  those 
beautiful  gems  with  which  our  divine  Creator  has  studded 
our  meadows,  and  kindly  furnished  to  beautify  our 
gardens ;  whose  brilliant  colours  vie  with  the  rainbow, 
and  infinitely  surpass  the  most  costly  tints,  and  whose 
balmy  fragrance  scents  the  surrounding  atmosphere  with 
perfumes  more  agreeable  than  the  spices  of  Arabia! 
^Mio  can  behold  their  exquisite  symmetry;  who  can 
admire  their  diversified  yet  splendid  colours ;  or,  who 
can  feast  his  senses  on  the  aromatic  sweets  which 
emanate  from  their  beautiful  blooms,  without  feeling  a 
sort  of  sacred  pleasure  stealing  impereeptibly  into  his 
n>ry  soul,  and  leading  its  finest  feehngs  willing  captives 
to  their  inimitable  charms  ? 

It  is  said,  and  very  truly  too,  that  the  study  of  astro- 
nomy, that  Sublime  sdence,  which  teaches  Uie  tarious 
re\'olutions  of  those  spheres  which  nightly  bespangle  the 
nocturnal  heavens,  is  admirably  calculated  to  lead  the 
mind  from  Nature  up  to  Nature's  God.  And  if  the 
contemplation  Of  those  lumtnaries,  placed  as  they  are  at 
inch  immessmrable  diatanees;  am  whMi  em  $nt  only 


upon  the  ocular  nerves,  has  this  tendency ;  how  mucii 
more  ought  the  beauties  of  Flora,  producing  as  they  do, 
a  threefold  evidence  on  the  senses  f    Yes 

The  blushing  tint,  the  crimson  streak. 
The  powers  of  heavenly  wisdom  speak; 
'And  all  their  balmy  fragrance  join. 
To  show  (heir  Author  is  divine. 

In  ftict,  there  is  not  a  blade  of  gptws,  or  a  wild  fiower 
that  decks  our  lawns,  but  which  is  replete  with  instruc- 
tion, and  shows  forth  the  handy-work  of  the  Great  and 
glorious  Creator  of  the  universe. 

Not  a  tree, 

A  plant,  a  leaf,  a  blossom,  but  eontains 
A  folio  volume.     We  may  read,  and  read, 
And  read  again,  and  still  find  something  newy— 
fiomethhig  to  please,  and  something  to  instruct, 
£*en  in  the  noisome  weed. — HtrApis. 

Solomon,  the  wisest  man,  was  a  great  admirer  of  the 
beauties  of  the  floral  kingdom.  And  our  blessed  Re- 
deemer expressly  commands  us  to  "  consider  the  lilies  of 
the  field ;"  and  if,  with  an  example  like  that  of  Solomon 
before  us,  and  after  receiving  a  command  from  our 
Saviour  himself,  we  can  still  remain  insensible  to  their 
dumns — ^still  refuse  to  contemplate  their  inimitable  beau- 
ties, we  must  lack  much  of  that  spirit  of  refinement 
which  purifies  the  gro^sness  of  depraved  human  nature, 
and  makes  man  fit  for  the  society  of  Heaven. 

■    ••««*••■«•••.  The  men 

Whom  nature's  works  ean  oharm,  with  God  himself 

Hold  converse :  grow  familiar  day  by  day, 

With  his  conceptions;  act  upon  his  plan; 

And  form  to  hls»  the  reUsh  of  their  souls. Axsksidx* 

Among  all  the  productions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
there  is  not  a  single  individual  but  which  has  its  uses; 
even  those  very  mbes  which  daily  remind  us  of  man's 
awful  fall,  and  the  curse  pronounced  upon  the  earth  for 
his  sake;  have  in  them  properties  of  peculiar  usefulness, 
and  prove  beneficial  to  the  wants  ot  man. — God  hath 
made  nothing  in  vain! — some  are  for  use,  others  for 
ornament,  and  not  a  few,  perhaps  all,  are  possessed  of 
medicinal  properties.  Properties!  without  which,  life 
itself  would  be  a  burden  i  and  which,  if  utterly  deprived 
of,  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  for  man  to  exist. 

Since  then,  there  is  such  innocent  amusement,  such 
rational  pleasure,  and  such  mental  improvement  in  the 
cultivation  of  plants  and  flowers,  and  since  it  is  so  well 
oalculated  to  enhance  our  spiritual  interests,  and  render 
UB  more  fitting  for  the  society  of  beings  of  a  higher 
order  than  ourselves,  and  especially  for  the  society  of 
our  divine  Maker,  let  me,  for  one,  disdain  more  ignoble 
and  trifling  pursuits,  let  me  fly  from  the  deluded  votaries 
of  mere  sensual  gratifications,  and  in 

•    ••....•    f    •  The  oahn  retreat! 
(Far  from  the  noisy  haunts  of  sordid  men,) 
Where  Flora  trains  her  lovely  ofiBpring  up, 
To  captivate  and  charm  I    There  let  me  muse  I 
Surrounded  by  her  rich  and  dazzling  train. 
Till  lost  in  ecsta^,  my  soul  takes  wing; 
And  soars  from  nature  up  to  nature^  God ! 
There  may  I  lie,  wraf^ied  in  the  fiowoy  viet 
Of  silent  n4>ture,  tall  my  soul  breaks  forth. 
And  in  the  language  of  the  immortal  bard, 
Who  avng  the  fatal  fall— transported  cries, 
^  These  are  thy  glorious  works.  Parent  of  good! 
To  us  invisible,  or  dimly  seen 
In  these  thy  lowest  works ;  yet  these  declare 
Thy  goodness  beyond  thought,  and  power  divine  f 
rFrom  RAaai^M't  FloricuUund  Cahinft.^ 

A  Miim,  by  knowing  itself,  and  its  own  proper  })oW6T8  and 
virtues^  becomes  free  and  independent.  It  sees  its  hinder- 
ances  and  obstructions,  and  finds  they  are  wholly  from 
itself,  and  from  opinions  wrong  conceived.  The  more  it 
conquers  in  this  respect,  (be  it  in  the  least  particular,)  the 
more  it  is  Its  own  master,  feels  its  own  natural  libertv,  and 
congiatnlatea  with  itself  on  its  own  advancement  and  pro;^ 

pi^y.-p4«atviBmrur« 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


Viat, 


WIRE-DRAWING. 
2.  Mandpacturino  DsTAItS 


Ik  our  former  article  on  tlus  subject  we  give  b  alight 
sketch  of  the  wire-mumfacture,  from  early  times  to  the 
present.  The  mode  of  manufacture  jaay  now  fittingly 
be  brought  under  our  notice. 

In  detailing  the  steps  by  which  this  branch  of  manu- 
facture was  improved  in  Germany,  we  had  occasion  to 
allude  to  Rudolph's  invention.  The  machine  by  which 
he  manufactured  wire  was  similar  to  that  represented  in 
the  aonesed  cut,  fig-  1;  in  whi<:h  A  ia  an  inclined  plane, 
at  the  lower  end  of  which  is  placed  a  drawing-plate,  per- 
forated with  one  or  more  holes;  n  is  a  jointed  shank, 
terminating  at  the  lower  end  in  a  pair  of  pincers,  and  at 
the  other  connected  with  a  lever  c ;  the  twl-piece  of  this 
lever  being  so  placed  as  to  be  pressed  down  by  the  arms 
of  the  rotating  cam,  d.  By  this  means  the  pincers  are 
drawn  back,  and  the  wire  gradually  forced,  or  rather 
pulled,  through  the  holes  in  the  drawing-plate,  thus 
assuming  the  form  and  size  of  the  hole  through  which 
it  is  made  to  pass. 

On  many  parts  of  the  Continent,  most  iron  wire 
until  the  last  few  years,  made  by  a  machine  somewhat 
resembling  this.  But  there  are  many  faults  in  wire 
thus  produced;  in  the  first  'place,  every  piece  of  wire 
exhibits,  at  intervals  of  a  few  inches,  the  marks  of  the 
pincers ;  and,  in  consequence  of  the  wire  bebg  drawn 
by  a  succession  of  jerks,  the  >ur£ice  becomes  more  or 
less  unequal. 

But  by  .the  improved  modem  processes,  the  wire 
acquires  a  surface  and  consistency  almost  mathematically 
uniform.  Let  ns  suppose  that  iron  is  the  metal  ik 
which  the  wire  is  to  be  made.  A  square  bar  of  iron 
is  first  worked  ioto  a  cyhnder,  by  being  pasted  between 
rollers.  These  rollers  are  turned  or  cast  with  grxMves 
on  their  peripheries,  at  right  angles  to  the  axes;  the 
grooves  being  made  of  different  sizes,  so  as  gradually  to 
reduce  the  bar  to  the  required  thickness.  These  rollers 
ore  made  of  hardened  steel,  and  are  generally  about 
^ht  inches  in  diameter.  When  a  pair  of  rollers, 
with  corresponding  grooves,  are  made  to  revolve  three 
or  four  hundred  times  in  a  minute,  a  bar  of  steel,  an  inch 
square,  and  thirty  inches  long,  is  drawn  from  the  heating 
furnace  at  a  Strang  red  heat,  and  placed  in  one  of  the 
grooves.  By  the  aid  of  machinery  it  is  speedily  drawn 
through  the  laigest  groove.  Being  then  introduced 
into  the  next  used  groove  it  is  further  reduced  in  size; 
until,  after  having  passed  through  eight  grooves  in  about 
a  minute,  it  is  increased  from  two  and  a  half  to  thirty 
or  fijrty  feet  in  length,  and  from  a  square  to  a  cylindrical 
form.  As  the  bar  passes  through  any  one  of  the 
grooves,  it  comes  in  contact  with  a  third  roller,  so 
placed  as  to  turn  the  end  of  the  bar  backwards,  and 
drive  it  into  the  next  smaller  groove:  the  bar  is  thus 
performing  a  serpentine  path  backwards  and  forwards, 
between  the  rollers.  The  iron  is  thus  reduced  to  the 
size  of  a  sixth  or  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  is 
then  \txA  in  coils,  which  are  sold  to  the  wire-drawer 
for  farther  reduction  into  wire  of  any  required  degree  of 
fineness. 

For  some  purposes  the  iron  is  prepared  by  tilting  in- 
stead of  rolling.  A  faggot  of  small  bars  is  welded 
together  bv  being  heated,  and  then  foiged  with  a  large 


tilt  hammer,  weighing  a  hundred  pounds,  aod  mila^ 
one  hundred  and  thirty  strokes  per  minute.  Wben  n 
iron  bar  of  proper  quality  it  thus  formed,  it  hu  b  k 
worked  into  rods  of  a  proper  size  for  tbe  wire^dnia; 
and  for  this  [purpose  tbe  workman  heats  lix  or  dgh 
inches  of  the  end,  and  works  it  regularly  under  itnullo 
tilt  hammer,  weighing  about  fifty  pounds,  tod  mikn; 
twenty  strokes  per  minute.  By  a  succession  t^ttraka, 
and  re-heatings,  the  iron  becomes  reduced  to  tlie  pnpa 
diameter,  and  acquires  greater  tenacity  or  toughneu  thu 
if  prepared  wholly  by  the  rollers,  a  quality  veiy  idiit  | 
tageous  for  some  purposes. 

The  square  bar  of  iron  being  reduced  to  a  cjlimlrinl 
rod,  the  wire-drawer  commences  his  operationi.  Bit 
drawing-plate,  by  which  the  thickness  of  the  win  ii 
determined,  is  generally  a  stout  piece  of  the  best  shai 
steel,  about  six  inches  in  length,  an  inch  and  a  bilfii 
diameter,  and  with  two  opposite  sides,  one  fiat,  uid  iLe 
other  roundish.  Numerous  holes  are  punched,  ii  i 
tapering  form,  so  as  to  be  larger  at  the  fiat  ihsB  U 
the  round  side  of  the  plate.  ITiis  plate  is  set  np  i«  i 
vertical  position,  and  a.  force  is  applied  to  dnv  ibe 
rod  successively  through  the  various  sized  hole«.  Tlis  I 
force  is  either  hand,  steam,  or  water  power,  accordiog  to 
ciroumatances. 

Supposing  the  power  to  be  manual  labour,  the  von- 
man  proceeds  as  follows: — The  point  of  the  cod,  iftf 
being  sharpened  to  some  distance  from  the  ead,  b; 
hammering  or  filing,  is  inserted  through  the  krgeitliiw. 
and  the  drawing-plate  is  placed  behind  two  stout  irw 
pins  on  the  work-bencb.  A  pair  of  nippers,  atlMbedit 
a  short  chain,  is  made  to  grasp  the  point  of  the  rod,  ind 
this  chain,  by  means  of  a  lever,  is  drawn  back,  touio 
drag  the  rod  a  small  distance  through  the  hole  ia  lti> 
plate.  When  a  certain  quantity  is  thus  pulled  tiiron^ 
the  workman  attaches  it  to  the  surface  of  a  conicsl  <« 
cvlindrical  drum,  placed  vertically  in  front  of  the  drawing- 

Elate.  This  drum  is  made  to  revolve  on  a  verticsl  w^ 
y  a  lever  springing  horizontally  from  its  upptt  nil: 
and  the  workman  sets  this  drum  in  rotation  by  mliiDf 
round  his  low  work-bench,  and  pushing  the  lever  beto 
him.  The  coil  of  rod  or  thick  wire  is  held  in  one  hui 
the  tapered  end,  after  passing  through  the  draw-phi'- 
is  attached  to  the  drum,  and  the  man,  by  fordog  ij* 
drum  to  revolve,  at  once  draws  the  wire  through  tw 
hole  in  the  plate,  and  winds  it  in  a  coil  on  the  inm^ 
When  all  the  wire  has  been  in  this  way  pulled  or  inf 
through  one  hole,  the  whole  process  is  repealed  wilt  ' 
hole  of  smaller  diameter;  and  so  on,  until  thevire  bii 
been  reduced  to  the  required  thickness.  When  it  In- 
comes BO  fine  that  little  power  is  required  to  draw  it,  vi 
workman  adopts  an  easier  arrangement  of  maeWiif fj' 
and  winds  the  wire  on  an  iron  cylinder,  which  h«  » 
lever  capable  of  being  moved  round  by  hand,  iostesd  of 
requiring  from  the  workman  a  circuit  round  his  «o"" 

When  the  wire  is  drawn  by  steam,  water,  or  h^ 
power,  instead  of  by  manual  labour,  a  somewhat  oiw'' 
ent  arrangement  is  adopted,  as  in  the  adjoining  fip"<' 


A  is  a  horizontal  shaft,  set  in  rotation  by  the  morin; 
power  supposed  tfi  be  situated  at  the  right  hand  of  tk 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


181 


cut.  A  vertical  bevel  wheel)  B,  on  this  shaft,  catches  in 
the  teeth  of  a  horizontal  wheel,  connected  with  a  vertical 
spindle,  whereby  the  conical  drum,  c,  fixed  to  the  upper 
end  of  this  spindle,  is  set  in  rotation.  On  a  stool  near 
the  draw-bench  is  a  tub,  e,  containing  starch-water,  or 
stale  beer  grounds,  in  which  the  wire,  coiled  upon  the 
reel,  d,  is  dipped,  to  remove  the  oxide  that  may  adhere 
to  the  surface.  Between  the  reel  and  the  drum  is  seen 
the  draw-plate,  through  holes  in  which  the  wire  is  drawn 
by  the  revolution  of  the  drum.  The  reel  is  so  placed  in 
or  on  the  cask  as  to  be  able  to  revolve  as  the  wire  is 
unwound  from  it.  By  a  succession  of  drawings  through 
holes  of  different  sizes,  the  wire  is  at  leng^  reduced  to 
the  desired  size. 

The  manufacture  of  the  draw-plates  has  always  been 
deemed  a  matter  of  great  importance,  since  the  too  rapid 
abrasion  of  the  edges  of  the  holes  would  cause  consider- 
able inconvenience  and  loss  to  the  manufacturer.  The 
French  pay  particular  attention  to  their  plates,  and  pro- 
duce them  in  the  following  manner.  A  band  of  iron  is 
forged  two  inches  broad  and  one  inch  thick;  and  about 
a  foot  in  length  is  cut  off  and  heated  to  redness  in  a 
charcoal  fire.  It  is  then  beaten  on  one  side  with  a 
hammer,  so  as  to  work  the  surface  into  furrows  or 
groves,  in  order  to  aid  the  retention  of  a  substance  called 
potiny  which  is  to  be  welded  on  one  side  of  the  iron. 
This  potin  is  nothing  but  fragments  of  old  cast-iron  pots. 
These  fragments  are  broken  on  an  anvil,  and  mixed  with 
pieces  of  white-wood  charcoal. .  The  mixture  is  put  into 
the  forge,  and  heated  till  melted  into  a  kind  of  paste. 
Fusion  and  cooling  are  repeated  ten  or  twelve  times,  by 
which  the  qualities  of  the  cast-iron  are  changed,  and 
made  nearly  analogous  to  those  of  steel;  yet,  so  far  from 
becoming  brittle,  it  will  yield  to  the  blows  of  the  hammer 
and  the  punch. 

The  bar  of  iron  which  is  to  make  the  draw-plate  is 
covered  with  a  layer  of  prepared  potin,  on  the  side  which 
is  farrowed,  and  the  thickness  of  about  half  an  inch. 
The  whole  is  then  wrapped  up  in  a  coarse  cloth,  which 
has  been  dipped  in  clay  and  water,  and  then  put  into 
the  forge.  The  potin  is  more  fusible  than  the  forged 
iron,  and  melts  more  quickly:  during  this  fusion  the 
plate  is  withdrawn  from  the  fire  occasionally,  and  the 
potin  is  gently  hammered,  to  make  it  melt  and  amal- 
gamate with  the  iron.  This  process  of  heating  and  ham- 
mering is  f^quently  repeated,  to  render  the  union  more 
perfect. 

The  union  being  effected,  the  plate  is  again  heated 
and  forged  by  two  men,  by  which  it  is  expanded  to  the 
dimensions  required.  Cast-iron,  when  used  alone,  can- 
not be  forged;  but,  in  the  present  instance,  the  alloy  of 
cast  with  wrought-iron,  and  the  repeated  fusion  with 
charcoal,  give  to  the  plate  the  property  of  mallea- 
bility. While  the  plate  is  still  hot,  the  holes  are 
pierced.  This  is  effected  with  a  well-pointed  punch  of 
German  steel,  applied  on  that  side  of  the  plate  which 
was  not  covered  with  potin.  The  plate  requires  to  be 
heated  four  times  in  the  fire  before  the  punching  is 
effected;  and  at  every  heating  a  finer  punch  is  em- 
ployed, so  as  to  produce  a  taper  hole.  The  holes  are 
not  punched  quite  through  by  the  plate-makers ;  but  the 
wire-drawers,  when  the  plate  is  quite  cold,  finish  the 
piercing  by  means  of  sharp  tools,  and  give  to  the  holes 
what  size  they  please.  Each  plate  is  pierced  with  a 
great  number  of  holes,  all  of  which  are  conical,  the  apex 
of  the  cone  being  on  that  side  of  the  plate  which  was 
coated  with  potin,  and  which  is  harder  than  the  other. 
In  some  manufactories  the  draw-plates  are  made  of 
common  hardened  steel,  without  the  peculiar  prepara- 
tion here  described. 

During  the  process  of  reducing  the  size  of  wire,  by 
drawing  through  a  series  of  holes  decreasing  in  dia- 
meter, the  iron  or  other  metal  is  liable  to  become  very 
stiff  and  hard,  and  requires  to  be  repeatedly  softened. 
The  iron  is  heated  red-hot  in  a  dosed  furnace,  and  then 


placed  in  a  vessel  containing  acid  liquor:  this  immersion 
causes  the  scale  produced  by  the  heating  to  come  off,  on 
the  wire  being  afterwards  laid  in  stale-wort,  or  the 
grounds  of  ale,  and  then  well  scoured. 

The  different  metals  require  somewhat  different  modes 
of  treatment,  during  their  reduction  to  the  form  of  wire ; 
but  the  above  details  will  convey  a  general  idea  of  the 
processes. 

The  quantity  of  wire  used  in  our  manufactures  is 
enormous.  Besides  the  strings  of  musical  instruments, 
pins,  and  needles,  and  countless  other  small  wares,  the 
Cards  for  the  cotton  manufacture  consume  a  very  large 
quantity.  These  cards  are  strips  of  leather  covered 
with  small  wires ;  and  Professor  Barlow  has  adduced  a 
remarkable  proof  of  the  quantity  of  wire  used  for  making 
these  cards.  Machines  have  been  invented,  by  the 
action  of  which  the  wires  are  cut,  prepared,  and  fixed 
in  the  leather,  at  the  rate  of  130  per  minute ;  and  con- 
sidering a  working-day  to  consist  of  eleven  hours,  85,800 
inches  of  wire  are  worked  up  by  each  machine.  There 
are  one  hundred  of  these  machines  in  the  manufactory  of 
Mr.  Dyer  of  Manchester ;  and  these  machines  will  there- 
fore work  up  8,850,000  inches  of  wire  per  day,  or  to 
the  amount  of  about  thirteen  miles  and  a  half  in  length. 


MEMORY. 


Say  whence  the  chann  that  those  sweet  scenes  impart. 
To  raise  at  ODoe,  and  to  snbdue  the  heart — 
To  paint  sweet  fiction  in  the  hues  of  light, 
And  lead  the  mind  through  ages  wrapt  in  night? 
Whence  the  soft  power  that  speaks  alike  to  all. 
And  binds  the  sternest  in  her  thrilUng  thrall  t 
Tis  thine,  dear  Memory,  thus  to  fiU  the  soul,— 
Thus  o'er  the  heart  to  exercise  control, — 
To  wrest  from  time  some  portion  of  Ids  prey. 
Breathe  life  in  dust,  and  animate  decay  I 

No  joy  we  boast,  but  which  the  coming  hour 
Kay  whelm  in  sorrow,  or  with  pain  overpower. 
Still  former  scenes  sweet  recollection  claims — 
Still  bum  the  embers  of  our  former  flames — 
Still  every  cloud  fond  memory  tints  with  light. 
And  gilds  with  stars  the  mind's  obscurest  night ; 
O'er  life's  rude  storms  a  rainbow  hue  she  casts,— 
Her's  is  the  beam  that  every  olond  outlasts. 

Thus,  when  the  traveller  quits  his  native  shora, 
The  scenes  he  leaves  seemed  ne'er  so  dear  before; 
As  less  and  less  its  fading  traces  grow,  , 

His  heart  is  grieved  with  unavailing  woe — 
His  anxious  eye  he  strains  across  the  main, 
To  view  those  native,  long-loved  scenes  again. 
So  by  thy  light,  sweet  Memory,  we  survey 
Youth's  hours  of  bliss,  and  childhood's  happier  day-^ 
So  once  again,  while  tears  the  eyes  bedew, 
Beflected  in  thy  glass  these  scenes  we  view. 
Sweet  childhood  I  still  we  mourn  those  halcyon  hours 
When  guileless  peace  and  innocence  were  ours — 
When  every  change  could  only  add  to  joy, 
"Which  ndther  woe  could  blight,  nor  cai-e  destroy  I 
When  life  was  sweet,  and  every  sorrow  feigned. 
The  elastic  mind  defied,  and  soul  disdained ; 
When  all  was  pure  as  Eden's  lovely  bowers. 
And  every  smiling  path  was  strewn  witli  flowers. 
Delightful  days]!  alas,  ye  bluslied  to  fade— 
Your  bloom  *neath  sorrow's  blighting  breath  decayed; 
The  flower  which  smiles  amid  the  summer  gales, 
When  autumn  blows,  its  short-lived  lustre  fails ; 
The  leaf  that  spring  beholds  so  bright  and  green, 
A  few  short  months,  and  sad  and  sear  'tis  seen  : 
The  opening  buds  that  brightly  meet  the  mom. 
Oft  from  their  stem  by  evening  bhists  are  torn : 
So  does  keen  anguish  smite  the  woe-worn  brow, 
And  grief  its  empire  is  maintaining  now. 
And  must  the  withered  leaf  alone  be  here! 
Must  every  smile  be  followed  by  a  tear! 
No  I  still  that  eye  one  kindling  spark  relumes— 
Its  wonted  fires  it  once  again  restimes  : 
As  the  warm  brilliance  of  the  sunbeam  shines. 
And  melts  the  snow  that  crowns  the  Apennines— 
Thus  lights  the  heart  sweet  Memory's  genial  ray. 
Thus  gilds  its  woes,  and  smiles  its  cares  away.       T.  A, 


rs2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[May!, 


GARDEN  HERBR 
Wormwood. 

CoMMOK  Wormwood,   (ArUmisia  absinlhium)^  ia  a 

E)rennial  herb,  growing  wild  in  numy  parts  of  Great 
ritain;  but  also  onltivated  for  medicinal  purposes. 
Many  speeies  of  Artemisia  are  reared  in  gardens,  but 
their  virtues  were  never  less  called  into  action  than  at 
present.  A  &vourite  plant  of  this  family  is  the  South- 
ernwood (Artmnisia  o^otontcm),  seldom  absent  from 
the  cottager's  garden,  where  it  is  known  by  one  of  its 
common  names,  oidnmm^  mmd*$  delighU  &o«  This 
aromatic  herb  is  of  a  shrubby  habit,  growing  to  the 
height  of  three  or  four  feet,  but  seldom  producing 
flowers  in  this  ooimtry.  In  warmer  climates  it  puts 
forth  an  abundance  of  small  yellow  blossoms*  It  will 
exist  in  the  densest  parts  of  a  crowded  eitv,  where  the 
rays  of  the  sun  seldom  visit  it,  and  where  the  air  i&very 
impure.  It  was  formerly  used  in  medicine;  and  the 
tincture  it  affords,  being  employed  in  the  form  of  a 
lotion  or  ointment,  is  said  to  remove  cutaneous  eruptions, 
and  also  to  prevent  the  hair  from  falling  off.  The 
woody  part  of  this  plant  yields  a  yellow  dye.  We  must 
pass  by  the  other  species,  and  confine  our  remarks  to 
the  subject  of  the  present  article. 

The  root  of  the  common  wormwood  is  branched  and 
woody ;  the  stems  rise  to  two  or  three  feet,  are  branch- 
ing, angular,  and  furrowed.  The  lower  leaves  are  bi- 
pinnate;  the  upper  digitate  with  oblong,  obtuse,  very 
entire  segments.  The  flowers  are  pediceUated,  nodding, 
hemispherical,  and  of  a  brownish-yellow  colour.  The 
florets  of  the  disk  are  numerous,  but  those  of  the  ray 
few;  and  the  receptacle  is  covered  with  white  silky 
hairs,  shorter  than  the  calyx.  The  botanist  will  recog- 
nise it  from  the  above  description,  as  belongmg  to  the 
natural  order  Composing  i  in  which  It  is  a  member  of 
the  Cor^mb\ferous  tribe. 

The  generic  name  of  this  plant  is  said  to  have  been 
conferred  by  Queen  Ariemisia,  a  Carian  princess,  who 
adopted  the  plant,  and  changed  the  appellation  from  Par- 
thetM  to  that  ef  her  own  name.  The  knowledge  and  use 
of  this  herb  is  of  high  antiquity.  The  Egyptians  made 
great  use  of  it  in  their  worship  of  Isis.  Branohes  of  it 
were  carried  by  the  priests  of  this  goddess  in  their 
solemn  and  rel^ous  processions,  when  they  recited  in 
verse  the  arts  which  had  been  taught  by  this  deity. 
The  Romans  also  made  use  of  wormwood  in  their 
solemnities  and  sacrifices,  particularly  during  the  fbstival 
called  Latin» ;  when  those  who  gained  the  prise  in  the 
chariot  race  and  other  games,  had  the  decoction  of  this 
herb  presented  to  them  to  drink;  which  honourable 
rewara  was  devised,  according  to  Pliny,  to  secure  the 
good  health  of  the  victorious  charioteer,  seeing  that  his 
success  had  rendered  him  worthy-  of  long  life. 

The  bitterness  of  this  herb  nas  been  noticed  In  the 
sacred  Scriptures;  and  we  find  wormwood  mentioned, 
in  a  figurative  manner,  to  express  that  "  evil  and  bitter 
thing,''  the  departure  from  God,  and  from  his  command- 
ments ;  and  also  to  represent  the  woe  consequent  there- 
on.    We  quote  a  few  passages : — 

Lest  there  should  be  among  you  man,  or  woman,  or 
fimiily,  or  tribe,  whose  heart  tumeth  away  this  day  to  go 
and  serve  the  gods  of  these  nations ;  lest  there  should  be 
among  you  a  root  that  beareth  gall  and  wormwood. — Deu- 
teronomy xxix.  la 

^  Ye,  who  turn  ludgment  into  wormwood,  and  leave  off 
righteousness  in  the  earth. — Amos  v,  7. 

And  the  Lord  saith.  Because  they  have  foi'saken  my  law 
which  I  set  before  them,  and  have  not  obeyed  m  v  voice,  nei- 
ther walked  therein;  but  have  walked  after  the  imagination 
of  their  own  heart  and  after  Baalinu  which  their  Others 
taueht  them.  Therefore  I  will  feed  them,  even  this  people, 
with  wormwoood,  and  give  them  water  of  gall  to  dinnk.— 
Jeremiah  ix.  13, 14, 16. 

The  nauseous  flavour  of  wormwood  has  caused  it  to 
be  ncarlv  discarded  from  modem  use,  although  it  is  one  I 


of  cur  most  powerftil  bitters.  Its  bitteness  is  derived 
from  what  is  usually  called  extraefcive  matter,  and  ii 
retained  by  the  decoction  after  long  boiling.  A  pound 
of  the  herb  yields  about  five  onnoes  of  ihts  eatraet  Tbe 
taste  of  the  Romans  must  have  been  extremely  iaSmA 
firom  ours,  or  they  mvst  have  had  sach  a  BBpmBs  regard 
for  their  health  as  to  take  willingly  what  was  repu^nnt 
to  them,  for  Pliny  tells  us,  that  wormwood  was,  is  hii 
days,  a  common  drink  among  the  people,  and  ktld  in 
high  esteem.  It  was  considerad  astringent  and  dinretie, 
and  was  said  to  prevent  sea«eiokiiess,  and  to  ereatsappt* 
tite.  It  was  als6  givea  as  a  remedy  for  janndics,  luied 
with  honey  and  nitre  for  the  cure  of  tlw  quinsy;  asd 
as  a  fomentation  for  chilblains.  The  small  of  the  Iwib 
was  thought  to  procure  sleof  to  invalids.  The  aoMti 
also  put  it  into  their  ink  to  prereot  mice  horn  9tAB§ 
their  writings;  laid  it  in  wardrobes  to  ptessffe  tkeii 
garments  from  the  mothi  and  bnmt  it  to  drive  aw^ 
gnats.  The  ashes  of  the  phmt  were  ouxed  witk  aU 
of  roses,  and  used  to  blacker  the  hair  of  the  hasd. 

All  the  old  writers  agree  in  sayiiig,  that  the  faciei 
of  wormwood  which  growa  on  the  se»-ooast  is  nrj  ad^ 
vantageous  to  cattle,  and  that  sheep  in  partioalar,  wImb 
fed  on  it,  fatten  yery  rapidly*  ^  As  wo  aU  know,"  lajl 
Philips,  **  that  the  feeding  on  savoury  heri>s  gifaa  i 
relish  to  the  flesh  of  animids,  it  is  woraiy  the  toial  of 
those,  who  feed  fiooks  on  the  ooMit,  to  sow  a  plot  with 
this  hardy  plant.  It  may  bo  loised  «poii  any  aoil,  ailbtf 
by  seeds  or  slips  in  Mavd^  and  the  seses  ripas  ii 
August." 

Wormwood  is  semetimn  spoken  of  am  aui  aadaspum^ 
die,  and  the  olden  writers  eaLtel  it  as  a  vonnifugo;  balit 
deserves  little  attention  at  the  preeent  digr  m  eithar  ti 
these  eharaeters.  The  Freneh  am  ifmA  of  iki  u^ 
spoil  some  of  their  excellent  liqueurs  wiUi  its  fla^ntf* 
The  beverage,  called  eau  d'aksmO^  employed  by  !«»>;' 
mands  to  increase  their  appetite,  b  prepared  from  ^ 
plant,  hx  the  addition  of  akohol,  and  subsequent  diatilla* 
tion.  Some  of  onr  publicans  sell  a  Uqaer»  oalMjwfi 
which  is  said  to  be  all  seasoned  with  the  tops  of  voni^ 
wood. 

This  herb  shonld  be  gathered  when  in  seed,  as  tliat 
is  the  time  when  its  virtues  most  aboond«  Dr*  I^^>^ 
thought,  that  the  roots  might  be  appUod  to  semeuidiil 
purpose;  their  vhrtne  residee  ehiefly  ia  the  cortical  pari; 
sad  Nctifled  spirito  extzaot  their  flavour  better  thaa 
watery  liquors.  The  oil  of  wormwood  being  nibbed  oa 
fomiture,  is  said  to  prevent  the  attacks  t>fina«^.  Tb 
oil  is  obtained  by  distillation,  ono  hundred  weight  of 
the  frei^  herb  yielding  iqion  an  average  four  <»u>^ 

Before  the  hop  had  become  so  well  known  and  faigUj 
prised,  great  use  was  made  of  wormwood  in  tbe  oa^ 
position  ef  beer.  When  properly  managed*  the  flavotf 
given  to  malt  liquor  by  this  nerb  is  said  to  be  satflT 
equal  to  that  of  hops,  and  has  been  by  some  penoos 
even  preforred.  For  this  purpose  the  plant  is  gatherrd 
when  in  seed,  and  hung  up  in  small  bundles  to  d^j 
When  thoroughly  dried,  a  certain  quantity  of  ^ 
strong  malt  liquor  is  to  be  impregnated  with  ii  ^^ 
is  set  by  for  use,  to  add  to  the  beer  when  brewed;  area- 
ably  to  the  taste,  or  the  time  it  is  required  to  be  »?(• 
This  method  is  mentioned  iH  the  Phihiophictd  T^ 
aeiionsy  and  it  is  also  added,  that  the  wormwood  mtend^ 
for  this  purpose  should  have  Its  seeds  carefully  preseitea 
in  drying,  and  it  is  best  wh«i  not  used  till  the  y9^i»^ 
it  is  gathered.  Perhaps  it  was  from  the  above  use  ai 
wormwood  in  the  preservation  of  ale  that  a  coansflj 
speeies  (ArtmiMa  tmlgani)  obuined  the  n^ ^ 
Mugwyrt.  This  species  was  also  formerly  cawa 
Cingulum  Sancti  Johanni,  because  it  was  foolJ«"J 
hnagined,  that  if  a  crown  was  made  of  this  herb  wa 
worn  upon  the  eve  of  St.  John,  (a  time  when  many  o^ 
superstitions  were  practised,)  it  would  secuic  ^J^Tt 
who  should  wear  it  and  afterwards  throw  it  into  the  tt^ 
uttering  oertain  words,  from  all  diseeaes  aad  iaiaftft«D«^ 


1841.] 


THfi  BATURDAY  MAOA2IN& 


166 


for  the  fpUowiog  jear.  Mugwort  was  also  sotpended 
over  the  doors  of  houaeSf  to  preyent  evil  from  happeoing 
to  the  inhabitants  I  it  was  worn  by  traTellera  to  save 
them  from  weariness  durixig  their  journey;  and  was  said 
to  purify  even  a  pestilentaf  air.  For  this  latter  notion 
there  seems  some  ground,  since  we  are  told  by  Philips, 
that  a  gentleman  at  the  bar,  to  whom  he  recommended 
it,  assured  him  that  ho  had  experienced  its  reviving 
qualities  in  heated  courts,  as  bemg  nearly  equal  to  a 
change  of  air.  Some  persons  are  of  opinion  that  the 
fabulous  and  superstitious  notions  concerning  this  plant, 
all  took  their  origin  in  virtues  which  really  exist  in  it ; 
and  that  the  custom  of  travellers  to  provide  themselves 
with  this  herb  arose  from  th^  relief  it  affords  when  used 
to  bathe  the  feet  that  are  weakened  or  galled  by  over 
exertion.  The  testfanony  of  our  modem  PharmacopaBias 
is,  howevtry  different  from  this;  for  it  is  expressly  stated 
that  as  an  external  application,  infusion  of  wormwood 
has  BO  advantage  over  warm  water. 

There  is  a  sort  of  wormwood,  common  in  China, 
which  furnishes  the  mojra  used  by  them  as  a  eaatery. 
This  is  a  soft  woolly  substance,  prepared  from  the  young 
leaves  of  the  plant  by  beating  tbem  when  thoroughly 
dried,  and  rubbing  them  in  the  hands  till  the  fine  fibres 
only  are  left.  A  little  cone  of  this  substance  is  laid  on 
a  diseased  part,  previously  moistened,  and  is  then  set  on 
fire  at  the  top.  It  thus  bums  slowly  down,  producing  a 
dark  spot  on  the  skin,  which  ultimately  sloughs  and 
produces  a  scar.  This  mode  of  treatment  is  much  used 
in  Eastern  countries. 

Culpeper  devotes  a  long  astrological  essay  to  the  sub- 
ject of  wormwood,  and  is  more  than  usually  droll.  We 
give  a  few  extracts  from  him,  as  tending  to  illustrate  the 
state  of  knowledge  of  the  time  in  which  he  wrote. 

I  wouM  willingly  teach  astrologers  and  make  them 
physician^  if  I  knew  how,  for  they  are  most  fitting  for  the 
oaUiaffi  if  jou  will  not  believe  me,  ask  Dr.  Hippocrates 
and  Ilr.  GaJeOf  a  couple  of  gentlemen  that  our  College  of 
Physicians  keof  to  vapour  with,  not  to  follow.  In  this 
herb  I  shall  give  the  pattern  <Kf  a  ruler,  the  sons  of  art 
roufh  cast,  yet  as  near  the  truth  as  the  men  of  Benjamin 
could  throw  a  stone ;  wheieb^  my  brethren,  the  astrologers, 
know  by  a  penn;^  how  a  shilling  is  <^ined.  As  for  the 
Ck>Ueee  of  PnjrslQians^  they  are  too  stately  to  leam,  and  too 
proud  to  eentinue.  They  say  a  mouse  is  under  the  domi- 
nion  of  the  Moon,  and  that  u  the  leseon  that  it  feede  in 
the  night )  the  heme  of  ths  Moon  is  Cancer ;  rats  are  ef 
the  same  natuie  with  mk)e,  only  they  are  a  little  bigger ; 
Man  receives  his  fiill  in  Gmc«r,  eryv^  wormwood  being  an 
herb  of  Mais^  ia  a  present  remedy  m  the  biting  of  rats  and 
mice. 

Wheals^  pushes^  black  and  Uue  spots  oominff  either  by 
braisss  or  beaiingSi  wonnwoocL  an  nerb  of  Man,  he^s, 
beoanae  Man  (as  bad  as  you  iove  him,  and  as  you  hate 
him)  will  not  bnak  your  head,  but  will  give  you  a 
plai^.  If  he  do  but  teadi  you  to  know  yoonelyes^  his 
coartH/  is  greater  tbaa  hia  disoourteagr. 

Culpeper  winds  up  his  Essay  thus: — 

He  thai  nads  this  and  understands  what  he  reads,  hath 
I  jewel  of  more  worth  than  a  dianumd:  he  that  understands 
it  Doty  is  m  little  fit  to  give  plmic  There  lies  a  hey 
ia  theie  words  which  will  unleck  (if  it  be  turned  by  a  wise 
hand)  the  cabinet  of  phyuc*  I  have  delivered  it  as  plain 
as  I  durst ;  it  is  not  only  upon  wormwood  as  I  wrote,  but 
upon  all  plw^  iiees^  «ad  herbs ;  he  that  understands  it 
not,  is  unfit,  in  my  opmloa,  to  rive  physic  This  shall  live 
when  I  am  dead ;  and  thus  I  leave  it  to  the  world,  not 
Gsring  a  farthing  whether  they  like  or  didike  it.  The 
grave  equals  all  men,  imd  therefore  shall  equal  me  with  all 
princes ;  until  whidli  time  the  eternal  Providence  is  over 
me ;  .then  the  tU  tongue  of  a  ptatiag  fellow,  or  one  that 
bath  more  tongue  thai  wit,  or  more  proud  than  honest, 
fchall  never  trouble  me.  "Wisdom  is  justified  by  her  chil- 
^en.    And  so  much  for  wormwood. 


Wit  loses  its  xespeoi  with  the  good  when  seen  in  ee«n- 
pany  with  malice;  and  to  smile  at  the  jest  which  plants  a 
thominanathsp^abyeas^  ia  to  beeeme  «  prisfcipal  in  the 
luischieL — Sherioan. 


SOLUBLE  GLASS. 

Sbvbeal  ancient  writers  speak  of  a  Roman  architect 
who  discovered  the  means  cf  so  fiy  altering  the  nature 
of  glass  as  to  render  it  maUeahUf  but  the  Emperor 
Til^rius,  fearing  lest  the  value  of  gold  might  be  lowered 
by  the  ^scovery,  caused  the  architect  to  be  beheaded, 
and  thus  his  secret  died  with  him.  A  similar  discovery 
is  said  to  have  been  made  in  Franee,  in  the  reign  of 
Louis  the  Thirteenth.  The  inventor  presented  a  bust 
formed  of  malleable  glass  to  the  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and 
was  rewarded  for  his  ingenuity  by  perpetual  imprison- 
ment, lest  the  French  glass  manufaeturers  should  be 
injured  by  the  discovery.  In  our  own  day  a  description 
of  glass,  perhaps  more  f  emaikable,  and  ceitahily  far  more 
valS^3l  than  matteahle  glass,  has  been  discovered  by  M. 
Fuchs,  the  curious  properties  and  important  applications 
of  which  we  propose  briefly  to  notice. 

Soluble  elass  is  a  union  of  silica  and  an  dkall  which 
has,  in  addition  to  some  of  the  properties  of  common 
glass,  the  property  of  dissolving  in  boiling  water.  The 
preparation  of  soluble  glass  does  not  greatly  differ  in  its 
early  stages  from  that  of  common  glass,  an  account  of 
the  manufacture  of  which  will  be  found  in  the  third 
volume  of  this  work,  to  which  we  refer  the  reader. 

When  sand  and  carbonate  of  potash  are  heated  toge- 
ther, the  carbonic  acid  is  not  entirely  driven  off,  unless 
the  sand  be  in  excess,  but  the  whole  of  the  gas  may  be 
expelled  by  the  addition  of  powdered  charcoal  to  the 
mixture. 

Carbonate  of  potash  and  pure  sand  being  taken  in  the 
proportion  of  two  to  three,  four  parts  of  charcoal  are 
added  to  every  ten  parts  of  potash  and  fifteen  of  sand. 
The  charcoal  "accelerates  the  fusion  of  the  glass,  and 
separates  from  it  all  the  carbonic  acid,  a  small  quantity 
of  which  would  otherwise  remain,  and  exert  an  injurious 
effect.  In  other  respects  the  same  precautions  that  are 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  common  glass  are  to  be 
observed.  The  materials  must  first  be  well  mixed,  then 
fritted,  and  finally  melted  at  a  high  heat,  until  a  liquid 
and  homogeneous  mass  be  obtained.  This  is  removed 
by  means  of  an  iron  ladle,  and  the  glass  pot  filled  with 

fresh  frit. 

The  crude  glass  thus  obtained  is  usually  f\ill  of  bub- 
bles :  it  is  as  hard  as  common  glass :  it  is  of  a  blackish 
gray,  and  more  or  less  transparent  at  the  edges.  ^  Some- 
times it  has  a  whitish  colour,  and  at  others  is  yellowish 
or  reddish,  indicating  thereby  that  the  quantity  of  char- 
coal has  been  too  small.  Exposed  to  the  air  for  several 
weeks,  it  undergoes  slight  changes,  which  tend  rather  to 
improve  than  injure  its  qualities.  It  attracts  a  Kttie 
moisture  from  the  air,  which  slowly  penetrates  its  mass 
without  changing  its  aggregation  or  appearance,  except 
that  it  cracks,  and  a  slight  efllorescence  appears  at  its 
surface.  If  after  this  it  be  exposed  to  heat,  it  swells  up, 
owing  to  the  escape  of  the  moisture  it  has  absorbed. 

In  order  to  prepare  the  glass  for  solution  in  water  it 
must  be  reduced  to  powder  by  stampers.  One  part  of 
the  glass  requires  from  four  to  five  of  water  for  its  solu- 
tion. The  water  is  first  boiled  in  an  open  vessel,  the 
powdered  glass  is  added  gradually,  and  is  continually 
stirred,  to  prevent  its  adhesion  to  the  vessel.  The  boiling 
must  be  continued  for  three  or  four  hours,  until  no  more 
glass  is  dissolved.  If  the  boiling  be  checked  before  the 
fiquor  has  thus  attained  the  proper  degree  of  concentra- 
tion, carbonic  acid  will  be  absorbed  by  the  potash  from 
the  air,  and  produce  an  injurious  effect.  When  the  solu- 
tion has  acquired  the  consistence  of  syrup,  and  a  density 
of  1'24,  it  is  fit  for  use.  It  is  then  allowed  to  repose, 
in  order  that  the  insoluble  parts  maybe  deposited:  while 
it  is  cooling  a  film  forms  on  the  surface,  which  after 
some  time  disappears,  or  may  be  dissolved  by  depressing 

it  in  the  liquor. 

Soluble  ghiss  being  employed  only  in  the  liquid  state, 
it  is  preserved  for  use  in  solution.  No  particular  care 
is  necessary  to  preserve  ^e  liquid,  as,  even  after  a  long 


184 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[May  8, 1841. 


space  of  time,  it  undergoes  no  perceptible  change,  if  the' 
solution  have  been  properly  prepared. .-  The  only  precau- 
tion  is  not  to  allow  too  free  an  access. of  air  to  it. 

Soluble  glass  may  be  prepared  by  using  carbonate  of 
soda,  instead  of  that  of  potash.  This  glass  has  th^ 
same  properties  as  the  other,  but  is  more  valuable  in  its 
applications.  The  solutions  of  these  two  kinds  of  glass 
.may  be  mixed  in  any  proportion,  and  the  mixture  is 
sometimes  more  usefiu  than  either  of  the  solutions  sepa- 
rately. 

The  solution  of  soluble  glass  is  viscid,  and  when  con- 
centrated becomes*  turbid  or  opalescent.  The  solution 
unites  with  water  in'  all  proportions.  At  a  density  ofi 
1*28  it  contains  nearly  28  per  cent  of  glass,  and  if 
the  concentration  be  carried  beyond  this  point,  it  becomes 
so  viscid  that  it  may  be  drawn  out  in  threads  like  molten 
glass.  When  the  solution  is  applied  to  other  bodies,  it 
dries  rapidly  in  the  air,  and  forms  a  coat  like  a  varnish; 
a  property  which  leads  us  to  notice  some  of  the  nume- 
rous and  varied  applications  of  this  curious  preparation. 

It  is  well  known  that  all  sorts  of  vegetable  matter, 
such  as  wood,  cotton,  hemp,  linen,  paper,  &c.,  are  com- 
bustible, but  in  order  to  bum  them,  two  conditions  are 
necessary, — an  elevated,  temperature,  and  free  access  of 
air  to  supply  the  oxygen  necessary  to  their  conversion 
into  water  and  carbonic  acid.-  When  once  inflamed  their 
own  combustion  supplies  the  heat  necessary. to  the  che- 
mical action,  provided'  they  be  in  contact  with  the  air. 
If  deprived  of  such  contact,  and  made  red-hot,  thev  will 
yield  inflammable  volatile  products,  but  the  residual  car- , 
bon  will  not  bi^rn,  because  deprived  of  air;  and  thus  the 
combustion  will  cease  of  itself.  .  Such  is  the  property  of 
all  the  fixed  fUsible  salts,  if.  they  be  coniposed  of  sub- 
stances incapable  of  yielding  their  oxygen  at  a  low  red ' 
heat,  either  to  carbon  or  hydrogen,     ouch  salts  melt  as 
the  vegetable  matter  becomes  heated:  they  form  upon  it 
a  coating  impermeal)le,byair,  and  either  prevent  or  limit 
the  combustion.  ^  The  j^osphate  and  borate  of  ammo- 
nia have  such  a  character,  but  they  are^o  readily  soluble 
ill  cold  water  as  to  be  liable  to  objeciibns  which  are  not 
found  in  soluble  glass.;  This  last-named  substance  forms 
a  solid  and  durable  coating.  Which  suffers  no  change  by 
exposure  to  the  air  (since  soluble  glass  possesses  the 
valuable  property  of  being  almost  entirely  unaffected  by 
cold  water):  it  does  not  involve  any  gpreat  expense,  and  is 
easy  of  application.  .  But  in  order  that  it.  may  not  fail, 
particular  care  must  be  taken,  both  in  preparing  and 
employing  it.     To  cover  wood  and  other  bodies  with  it 
the  solution  must  be  made  of  a  pure  glass,  otherwise  it 
would  effloresce  and  fall  off.     But  still  a  slight  degree  of 
impurity  is  not  injurious,  although  after  a  few  days  a 
slight  efflorescence  vrill  appear:  inis  may  be  washed  off 
by  water,^  and  will  not  occur  a  second  time.     When  a 
durable  coating  is  to  be  applied  to  wood,  the  first  solution 
must  not  be  too  strong,  for  if  it  be  it  will  not  be  ab- 
sorbed: it  will  not  displace  the  bit  from  the  pores,  and 
consequently  will  not  adhere  strongly.     A  more  concen- 
trated solution  may  be  employed  for  the  after-coats,  but 
each  coat  must  be  dry  before  another  is  applied,  and  the 
drying,  in  the  most  favourable  weather,  will  occupy  at 
least  twenty-four  hours.    When  the  glass  is  made  with 
potash  the  coating  is  liable  to  crack:  this  defect  does  not 
apply  to  glass  made  with  soda. 

Although  soluble  glass  is  of  itself  a  good  preservative 
from  fire,  yet  it  fulfils  the  object  better  when  mixed  with 
incombustible  powders,  such  as  those  procured  from  clay, 
whiting,  calcined  bones,  powdered  glass,  &c.  In  apply- 
ing soluble  glass  to  the  woodwork  of  a  public  building 
at  Munich  ten  per  cent  of  yellow  clay  or  yellow  eart£ 
was  added.  After  six  months  the  coating  had  suffered 
but  little  change :  it  was  damaged  only  in  a  few  places 
where  it  had  need  of  some  repair.  This  arose  from  the 
very  short  time  allowed  for  the  preparation  and  implica- 
tion of  the  glass. 

None  of  the  methods  hitherto  nroposed  for  making 


cloth  fire-proof  appear  so  advantageous  as  the  appBoitiao 
of  soluble  glass,  for  it  does  not  act  upon  vegetable  mat* 
ter,  and  completely  closes  the  spaces  between  the  threads: 
it  fixes  itself  into  the  web  in  such  a  way  that  it  cannot 
be  separated,  and  increases  the  durability  of  the  fabric. 
cThe  firmness  which  it  g^ives  to  stuffs  does  not  injure  then 
for  use  as  curtains,  because  it  does  not  prevent  theni 
from  being  rolled  easily.  The  application  of  soluble 
glass  to  cloths  is  not  a  difficult  operation,  bat  still  it  is 
not  so  easy  as  might  at  first  be  supposed.  It  is  not  sof. 
ficient  to  coat  or  dip  them  in  itie  solution:  theyrtin 
require  aft«r  this  operation  to  be  subjected  to  pressure. 
M.  Dumas  suggests  that  this  object  might  perhaps  be 
best  attained  by  passing  them  between  rollers  plim^ia 
the  solution.  When  a  cloth  is  only  coated  with  soluble 
glass,  and  put  into  the  fire,  it  will  remain  incandescent 
afler  it  is  taken  out.  This  is  not  the  case  when  it  has 
been  properly 'impregnated  with  the  solution.  A  still 
better  purpose  is  answered  in  this  case,  when  litharge 
has  been  added  to  the  solution :  the  stuff  in  drying 
yields  to  the  shrinking  of  the  'mixture,  and  becomes  in- 
separable from  it,  which  is  the  reverse  of  what  happeos 
when  applied  to  wood.  \  A  single  part  of  lithiiri^  in  fine 
powder  is  'sufficient  for  fourteen  parts  of  ooncentrated 
liquor.  ■  .  "    '     '  '     ' 

•  Soluble  glass  is  capable  of,  many  other  applications, 
and  paxtici^arly  as  a  cement:  fortius  purpose  it  is  sup^ 
rior  to  all  those  which  have. hitherto  been* eknplojed for 
uniting  broken  glass,  porcelain,  &c. ,  It  may  be  used 
instead  of  glue  or  isinglass  in  applying  colours,  althougli 
when  employed  by  itself'it  does  not  ms^e  a  varnish  capa 
bi6  of  preserving  its  transparency  when  in  contact 


■air. 


A  PBom  man  is  a  fool  in  f ennentation,  that  swells  and  boils 
over  like  a  porrtdge-pot.  He  sets  out  his  ftathers  like  sn 
owl,  to  swell  and  Obem  bigger  than' he  is.  ^  He  is  troubled 
with  a  tumour  and  inflammation' of  self-coneeit,  that  rendes 
every  part  of  him^stiff  find  nneflfey.  .  He  commits  idolaiiy  to 
himself,  andworships  hisown  image ;  thotiigh  there  is  no  soul 
living  of  his  church  but  himself  vet  he  be&ves  as  the  choicli 
believes,  and  maintains  his  &itn  with  the  6bstinacyofi 
fanatic.  He  is  his  own  favourite;  and  advances  himself  dM 
only  above  his  merit,  but  fdl  mankind ;  is  both  D&mon  m 
Pythias  to  his  own  dear  self,  and  valuer  his  crony  above  bis 
soul.  He  gives  place  to  no  mian  but  himsdf,  and  that  with 
very  great  distance^  to*  all  others,  whonk  'he  OBteems  id 
worthy  to  approach  him.  He  believes  whatever  he  btf 
receives  a  value  in' being  his;  as  a  horse  m  a  nobleman s 
stable  vnill  bear  a  greater  price  than  in  a  common  market. 
He  is  so  proud,  that  he  is  as  hard  to  be  acquainted  witA 
himself  as  veith  others;  for  he  is  very  apt  to  forget  who  be 
is,  and  knows  himself  only  superficially ;  therefore  he  trei^ 
himself  civilly  as  a  stra^jier,  with  ceremony  and  oomp"- 
ment,  but  admits  oi  no  pnvacy.  He  strives  to  look  bistf 
than  himself  as  well  as  others;  and  is  no  better  uian 
a  parante  and  flatterer.  A  little  flood  will  make  Ashallo'^ 
torrent  swell  above  its  banks,  and  rage,  and  foam,  and  yi«)<| 
a  roaring  noise,  while  a  deep  silent  stream  glides  ^aietlr<^) 
so  a  vain-gloriousy  insolent,  proud  man,  sw^ells  with  a  li^ 
frail  prosperity,  grows  big  and  loud,  and  overflows  bis 
bounds,  and  when  he  sinks,  leaves  mud  and  dirt  behind  bm* 
Hb  carriage  is  as  glorious  and  haughty,  as  if  ^®T^!^^ 
vanced  upon  men's  shoulders,  or  tumbled  over  their  h«» 
like  KnippeTdoUinff.  He  fancies  hunself  a  Colosse ;  asd  ? 
he  is,  for  his  head  holds  no  proportion  to  his  body,  andW 
foundation  is  lesser  than  his  upper  stbries.  Wc  can  nw^ 
rally  take  no  view  of  ourselves,  unless  we  look  downwrj 
to  teach  us  what  humble  admirans  we  ought  to  be  of  ov 
own  value.  The  slighter  and  less  solid  his  matemis  «*> 
the  more  room  they  take  up,  and  make  him  swell  the bj««r. 
as  feathers  and  cotton  will  stuff  cushions  better  than  mp 
of  more  close  and  solid  parts. — ^Butieb. 


W 


JOHN  WILLIAM' PABKEB,  WEST  STEAKD. 
POBLfauo  IN  WsBUT  NmiBSM,  nucs  Ojia  PMirr,  AnDin  Moannt 

Pabib,  riiicB  Sopsjfos. 
BolAliyaUBockitftonand  2i0i»iTHidmSntli»Kiatdoiih 


Sa^r^dif        m^ti^mt. 


N5  569. 


15™,  1841. 


r     Pw<» 

\0n  PxNxr. 


BRITISH  GUYANA 


mnnrTAiM  o» -ArARkitv. 


II.    History  of  British  Gdyaha. 

We  mutt  BOW  endeftvonr  to  give  a  sketch  of  tlie  hiitair 
of  Britiih  Guyana,  in  order  to  bIi6w  the  itepi  bj  which 
the  Britiih  became  posseased  of  land  in  thii  quarter. 

In  the  year  1580  the  Dutch  attempted  to  form  lettle- 
liWDti  along  this  coast,  on  the  hanks  of  the  great  riTers, 
ud  they  established  a  factory  or  station,  <»lled  Jnauw 
Zealand  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pomeroon,  with  liber^ 
^om  the  State*  General  of  Holland  to  establish  a  traje 
there.  The  Spaniards,  who  possessed  the  neighbouring 
territory,  viewed  these  proceedings  with  jealousy,  and, 
aided  by  tbe  natives,  drove  the  Dutch  from  their  settle- 
iMnt.  The  leader  id  the  latter  parfy,  however,  an  enter- 
prising man,  named  Jooit  Van  Den  Hoog,  succeeded  in 
frrining  poaaesnon  of  a  small  island  at  the  confluence  of 
the  rivers  Maasaroony  and  Cu3runi.  A  few  years  afler- 
virds  Jan  Van  Peere,  a  native  of  Rushing,  made  another 
attempt  at  oolonising,  and  after  a  few  skirmishes  with 
Ibe  Spaniards,  established  a  party  on  the  territory 
between  the  Berhice  and  Conrantin  rivers,  where  they 
wen  supplied  by  the  Dutch  government  with  slaves  from 

'    About  the  middle  ot  tbe  f<^wing  oeniury  Charles 
Vol.  XVHL 


the  Second  made  over  to  Lord  'Willoughbv,  governor  of 
Barhadoes,  the  whole  of  this  territory,  although  really 
possessed  by  the  Dutch.  The  earl  named  it  Sfureyham, 
iu  honour  of  the  earl  of  Surrey,  a  name  afterwards 
altered  to  Surinam.  We  find,  nowever,  that  such  ar- 
rangements were  subsequently  made  as  confirmed  the 
possession  to  the  Dutch.  In  the  wars  which  ensued,  the 
colony  was  attacked  and  taken, — sometimes  by  the 
English,  and  sometimes  by  the  French, — but  re-captured 
by  the  Dutch.  Towards  the  latter  end  of  the  century 
the  colony  was  transferred  to  the  Dutch  "West  India 
Company,  and  the  Government  at  home  contracted  to 
supply  slaves  from  Africa  at  the  rate  of  2601.  each! 
Such  was  the  light  in  which  traffic  in  human  beings  was 
rerarded  at  that  time. 

In  1720  the  proprietorH  of  the  colony,  not  having  a 
sufficient  capital  for  the  cultivation  of  lands,  made  cer- 
tain commercial  arrangements  in  respect  of  shares,  by 
which  money  was  rvised,  and  the  farther  improvement 
of  the  colony  insured.  Twenty  years  afterwards  the 
settlers  on  the  Essequibo,  tbinlung  that  tbe  low  lands 
near  the  coast  would  be  more  advantageous,  obtained 
permission  to  form  a  colony  on  the  banks  of  the  Deme- 


186 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[May  15. 


rara,  which  they  effected.  The  island  •£  Borsdea  ^8 
namffd  lh#  iMtt  of  gdrmmtmt;  but  Stobroek^  now 
George  Town,  at  Ihe  eHit  point  of  ih^  Mouth  of  tho 
tiver,  afterwards  lupersedoil  it. 

From  1781  to  1814  a  repeated  series  of  changes  to^k 
place  in  the  possession  of  the  colony,  arising  oiit  <if  th« 
hofltilities  between  England,  Frmiio0,'anil  Holland,  th« 
result  of  which  was,  that  all  that  part  of  tiuyana  Vf9$k 
of  the  river  Courantin  became  the  property  of  the  British, 
&e  colony  <^  Surinam  remaining  in  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch.  The  British  territory  comprised  the  colonies  of 
Demerara,  Essequibo,  and  Berbice,  all  three  .of  which 
were,  in  1831,  united  into  one  colony,  Cslled  British 
Guyana,  in  which  form  it  still  remains. 

British  Guyana  is  now  under  a  governor-general  and 
commander-in-chief,  who  includes  in  the  same  govern- 
ment the  islands  of  St.  Lucia  and  Trinidad.    The  actual 

« 

administration  of  affairs  is  in  the  hands  of  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  who  resides  in  George  Town,  Demerarat  as* 
sisted  by  a  legislative  council,  including  the  chtef*juitioei 
high-sheriff,  attorney-general,  and  ten  other  penrani* 
Justice  is  administered  by  three  chief-justices  and  Ibur 
puisne  judges  in  Demerara  and  Essequibo,  and  one  puisne 
judge  in  Berbice.  There  are,  besides,  six  '^proteotors  of 
Indians,"  whose  offices  correspond  to  this  designatioiit  and 
also  sixteen  special  justices,  who  were  appomted  on  the 
passing  of  the  act  for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  in 
1834,  and  whose  duty  it  is  to  watch  over  ^e  exeeuliom 
cf  the  law  on  behalf  of  the  apprenticed  slaves. 

The  population  of  the  colony  is  nearly  as  follows,-— 
or  rather  was  so  a  short  time  previous  to  the  commence* 
meiit  of  the  operation  of  the  emanoipation  aet»  In  £ss«* 
quibo  and  Demerara,  whites,  three  thousand;  Aree 
coloured  population,  six  to  seven  thousand;  slaves, 
seventy  thousand.  In  Berbice,  whites,  lix  hundred; 
free  coloured  people  seventeen  hundred;  slaves,  twenty 
thousand, — making,  therefore,  for  the  whola  colony, 
about  three  thousand  six  hundred  whites,  seven  or  eight 
thousand  free  coloured,  and  ninety  thousand  slaves.  The 
number  of  the  negroes  in  respect  of  whom  oompensatioa 
was  awarded,  under  the  provisions  of  the  emancipation 
act,  was  69,579,  and  the  portion  of  the  twenty  millions 
sterling,  so  nobly  awarded  by  the  British  nation  as  the 
purchase-money  for  negro  fireedom*  which  wss  paid  in 
respect  of  British  Guyana  amounted  to  4,268,809/. 

The  towns  of  British  Guyana  are  few.  New  Amster- 
dam, the  capital  of  Berbioej  was  commenced  building  in 
1796;  the  position  of  the  former  town  Old  Amater&m^ 
which  was  higher  up  the  river  Berbice,  being  found  in- 
convenient. It  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Qeie 
bice,  immediately  above  the  junction  with  the  Caujee 
river,  where  it  is  intersected  by  (^anals^  and  has  all  fhe 
advantages  of  the  tides.  It  extends  about  a  mile  and  a 
half  along  the  Berbice,  and  each  house  has  an  allotment 
of  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  completely  insulated  by  trenches. 
The  government  house  is  of. brick,  in  the  Europemi 
style,  and  has  been  deemed  the  finest  building  in  the 
colony.  The  other  inhabitants  of  the  district  of  Ber- 
bice are  scattered  in  small  villages  a  short  distance  up 
the  river. 

The  capital  of  British  Guyana  is  George  Town,  situ- 
ated amidst-  dense  foliage  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river 
Demerara,  about  one  mile  and  a  half  from  a  small  forti* 
fication,  built  of  mud  and  fascines,  with  two  low  plat- 
forms, and  termed  Fort  William  Frederick, 

It  has  been  remarked  by  Mr.  Montgomery  Martin, 
that  if  it  were  not  for  the  tropical  scenery  around  George 
Town,  it  might  be  mistaken  for  a  Dutch  city.  Except 
close  to  the  river,  the  houses,  raised  on  supports,  to  pre- 
vent dampness,  are  widely  scattered,  built  of  wood  dfter 
the  Dutch  style,  with  a  Mtattpi  coloured  according  to  the 
taste  of  the  owners,  surrounded  by  a  garden  and  lofty 
trees,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  canals,  dykes, 
or  mud  embankments.  The  most  ancient  part  of  the 
capital,  Stabroek,  runs  back  from  tlie  river  towards  the 


forest,  consisting  of  two  IV>wa  of  houses,  full  a  M!e  long, 
with  A  broid  in!  shaded  rdad  bvl^re^il  Ch»n,  i&d  a  canal 
ki  the  rea^  tff  eieh  lia#  of  >(n9<%  s<Kh8l|^iiking  ^ih 
the  rl^r.  In  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  fresli 
water^  each  house  is  provided  with  a  laige  cistern,  and 
pipes  leading  into  it,  for  the  preservation  of  rain  ^ater> 

Th^  barfa4sks»  hospitals,  and  public  biuldings  eri&tt 
the  taste  and  munificence  of  the  colonists,  at  whose  cost 
they  have  been  erected.  George  Town  is  divided  into 
^  follewing  districts :  Kingston,  joining  Fort  William 
Frederick;  Cumingsburgh,  north  and  south;  Vlissengen, 
f^ich  is  subdivided  into  Rob's  Town  and  Lacey's  town; 
Blabroek,  pari  of  the  old  Dutch  capital;  also  £a,  Rust, 
and  Charles  Town,  which  are  bounded  by  the  plantation 
of  La  Penitence. 

Eastward  of  Fort  William  Frederick  is  situated  Camp 
House,  the  residence  of  the  governor,  a  few  hundred  yards 
to  the  east  of  which  is  the  residence  of  the  ordnance  store* 
keeper.  Between  Camp  House  and  the  Ordnance 
department,  a  little  to  the  south,  are  two  fine  hospitals, 
with  the  necessarr  buildings  for  domestics  and  attendants, 
and  opposite  to  these  are  barracks,  said  to  be  equal  in 
aoeommodation  to  any  in  the  British  Dominions.  East- 
ward of  ^e  Ordnance  department  are  the  quarters  of 
the  engineers,  and  the  York  and  Albany  barracks,  bailt 
by  the  colony.  Facing  the  river,  in  the  district  of  Sta- 
broek, new  public  buildings  of  brick,  stuccoed,  have 
been  eieoted  by  the  colony  to  accommodate  all  the 
publio  oAcers.  Near  these  buildings  is  the  Scotch 
church,  a  very  handsome  modem  structure,  to  the  east 
of  whidi  are  the  town  guard*house,  &o« 

The  commerce  of  Guyana,  so  fkr  as  regards  exports, 
is  oonfined  principally  to  sugar,  rum,  moUsses,  coffee, 
and  eotton.  Of  these  commodities,  the  Quantity  ex- 
ported in  1 836  was  nearly  as  fbllows : — a  hundred  million 
pounds  of  sugar,  tiiree  million  gallons  of  rum,  four 
million  gallons  of  molasses,  six  million  pounds  of  coffee, 
and  half  a  million  pounds  of  cotton, — ^the  valne  of  the 
whole  being  about  two  millions  sterling. 

Such  is  a  brief  sketch  of  the  colony,  with  respect  to 
government  and  commerce;  and  before  we  proceed  to 
tne  topographical  features  oif  the  country,  we  may  refer 
to  a  few  remarks  by  Mr.  Martin  on  the  state  of  British 
Guyana  with  respect  to  colonisation* 

The  social  oondition  of  the  mass  of  the  population  is  nov 
in  too  great  a  state  of  tmnsltion  from  slavery  to  freedom  to 
admit  of  much  speculation  as  to  the  future,  and  I  coDclufl* 
with  observing  that  British  Guyana  offers  a  wide  and  froit- 
ful  area  for  the  industry  of  the  emigrant,  the  enterprise  ox 
the  merchant,  and  the  science  of  the  geoloffist>and  natuial 
phaosopher.  Millions  of  acres  of  fertile  land,  now  lying 
waste,  are  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  every  tropical  pro- 
duct of  which  the  mother-countiy  stands  in  n^ed.  Tobacco, 
eotlon,  opium,  silk^  Mpper^rice^  indigd^  limber,  dmgs,  dm 
end  apioes,  i»«v  be  rmmi  and  exported  te  en  inealealsbie 
extent^  with  benefit  to  fdl  who  engage  in  these  Donuitii 
Surrounded  as  British  Guyana  is  by  the  continenial  posses 
sions  of  Franc^  Spain,  Holland,  Fortiigal,  &c.,  it  behoves 
the  British  nation  to  view  with  Interest,  and  even  «^^S[ 
iji(*  progress  of  our  colonial  power  on  one  of  the  most  digible 
spots  of  the  American  h^nnSphera. 

The  next  article  of  this  series  will  introduce  us  to  the 
topographical  besuties  of  the  country 


^i^i*- 


Supposing  the  body  of  tiie  eartih  were  a  great  mass  or  ball  o' 
the  finest  sand,  ahd  that  a  single  gr$hi  or  particle  of  tms 
sand  should  be  aninhflat^  etety  thoustoid  reats.   wp- 

Sosing  then  tliftt  you  had  it  In  y Otfr  ehoies  «  be  hsppt  »» 
lie  mile  tlds  pMdigfous  uiase  of  land  was  oonsumunrt  ^ 
lihis  slew  metW,  uHtil  time  wiu  not  a  fittiA  ef  it  ^U^ 
eenditieBi  f&$.  were.te  be  miserable  for  ever  after ;  orsvp- 
posing  that.you  might  be  hajnpy  for  ever  after,  on  conditiou 
you  would  be  miserable  untu  the  whole  niass  of  sand  v^ere 
thus  annihilated,  at  the  rate  of  one  sand  in  a  thous^ 
years;  which  of  these  two  cases  would  you  make  ywff 


1841.3 


TSB  (JATyjHI^lf^^OAJEINR 


187 


DRUIDICAL  REMAINS  IN  ENGLAND. 

The  rough  abd  unliewn  stone^  monumenls  found  in 
many  localities  in  England  are  generally  attributed  to  the 
Druids,  and  with  justice,  for,  as  regards  antiquity,  all 
remains  of  a  time  prior  to  the  nativity  of  our  Saviour, 
are  entitled  to  be  so  distinguished.  It  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  assign  any  precise  period  for  the  erection  of 
these  curious  structures,  for,  in  fact,  they  were  not  all 
erected  at  one  time ;  but  still  it  must  be  evident  to  all 
that  they  were  built  by  a  people  ignorant  of  architecture 
and  sculpture,  and,  in  all  probabiUty,  of  ^emented  walls; 
though  this  latter  invention  appears  to  have  been  known 
in  very  remote  ages:  however,  we  may  safely  say  that 
they  were  erected  as  early  as  feur  or  fiv«  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  ^ra* 

Structures  of  this  kind  are  in  India  known  by  the 
appellation  of  Pandoo  Koolies,  and  a  fabulous  being 
named  Pandoo,  and  his  children»  are  believed  to  have 
been  their  authors }  we  find  like  evectiont  also  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  globe,  and  to  doubt  for  a  moment 
of  their  having  had  the  same  origin  would  be  absurd,  as 
they  all  bear  the  same  striking  characteristics,  whether 
they  be  in  India,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  in 
France,  Denmark,  in  Sweden  or  Norway,  or  on  the 
coast,  or  in  the  interior  of  our  isl^d. 

The  priesthood  of  the  people,  by  whom  Uiese  extra- 
ordinary structures  were  raised,  are  known  by  the  name 
Druids^  a  term  properly  sigpnifying  $aori^09t9  under 
oakSf  for  which  trees  they  had  much  veneration,  and 
from  the  remains  of  their  temples,  and  their  tenets  and 
superstitions  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  we  may 
infer  with  some  degree  of  probability,  that  they  were 
the  descendants  of  a  tribe  of  Brahmins,  who  at  some 
distant  period  emigrated  from  the  peninsula  of  India  to 
the  nortnem  and  western  shores  of  Europe. 

The  structures  of  the  aborig;inal  inhabitants  of  Eng- 
land 9eenx  to  form  themselves  Into  the  six  following 
classes. 

1.  Single  stones  or  pillars. 

2.  Temples  and  drcies  of  stones. 
9.  Tolmens. 

4.  Cromlechs,  or  stones  of  sacrifice. 

5.  Logman,  or  rocking  stones. 

6.  Cairns,  or  heaps  of  sdiall  stones. 

The  single  stones  which  stand  at  the  head  of  the  above 

list,  are  evidently  of  patriarchal  origin,  and  the  earliest 

account  of  such  erections  is  to  be  found  in  Genesis  zxviii., 

where  Jacob  we  are  told  set  up  a  pillar,  anointed  it,  and 

called  it  Sethely  that  is,  Ood$  house;  but  it  is  probable 

that  pillars  of  this-  description  were  in  use  iu  ralestine 

many  years   previously,  to   commemorate  Remarkable 

events  by  a  people  ignorant  of  t^o  use  qS  letters ;  and} 

cousequeatly  we  find  then  isk  the  Soripluree  also  called 

Hon4$  of  vMrnormt*     Among  the  eajiy  Qreekay  piBan 

erected  upon  the  eentre  of  the  tumulus  or  mound  of  earth 

raised  over  the  body  of  the  deceased,  were  their  only 

sepulchral  monuments :  in  the  same  manner,  we  rea^ 

Jacob    erected   one    to   the   memory   of   his  gloved 

wife  Rachel:  the  name  given  to  these  pillars  by  the 

Greeks  was  fianik^  which  by   some  is  considered  n^ 

corruption  of  the  word  Bethel.    In  after  years  the 

upright  pillars,  or  obelisks,  were  worehipped  as  typical 

of  the   solar  heam^    and   some    suppose    the  rmsnd 

towers  of  Ireland  to  have  been  built  with  the  same 

view,   though   undoubtedly    at   a    subsequent   periods 

The  most  remarkable  piUar  of  this  description  is  one  in 

|ue  churchyard  of  t)]e  village  of  Rydstoue  on  t^  Wolds^ 

iu  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  at  no  great  distancfl 

from  the  coast:  its  height  is  about  twenty-lour  feet  above 

the  ground;  and,  acco»&g  to  the  aocount  of  Mr,  Pegg»i 

in  tlie  fifth  volume  of  the  Archaologith  its  depth  under 

;   ground  is  equal  to  its  height  above ;  its  width  is  about  six 

I   feet,  and  ita  thickness  two  feet  six  inches,  the  material 

^  a  coarse  Jkind  of  rag-stone,  and  its  weight  i^  eovputed 


at  eighty  tena.    Jt  appears  more  than  probable  that  the 
village  of  Rhudstone  derived  its  name  from  this  pillar," 
Jiudt  or  Rhuddj  meaning  both  in  the  British  and  Saxon 
dialects  red. 

The  first  mention  we  find  of  a  circle  of  stones  is  at 
the  time  when  the  children  of  Israel  crossed  the  Jordan 
dryshod,  and  Joshua  commanded  one  man  of  each  tribe 
to  take  a  stone  frpm  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  to  set  it 
up  at  the  place  where  the  ark  was  about  to  rest  for  the 
ni^ht;  that  they  were  arranged  in  a  circular  form  is 
evident  from  the  name  Gilgal  or  Galgal  which  was 
given  to  the  spot^  gal  beln^  the  Hebrew  for  a  circle  or 
wheel,  the  r^dfu^Ucation,  according  to  the  eastern  custom, 
serving  to  give  it  eminence,  that  is  to  say,  J'he  circle, 

however,  these  oirolea  nave  reference  to,  and  were 
used  as,  temples  ip  the  solar  worship.  The  circle  of 
nineteen  stones  at  Boscaweuy  in  Cornwall,  might  have 
referred  to  the  lunar  cycle,  which  consisted  of  nineteen 
Years;  circles  of  nineteen  stones  also  occiu  m  many  other 
localities,  and  others  of  twelve  and  thirty,  the  former 
referring  to  the  monthst  the  ]aiU:\  to  the  davs  of  Uiii 
solar  month;  many  circles  of  other  numbers  also  occur i 
as  to  the  number  of  stones  composing  which,  but  little 
light  can  be  thrown  at  this  present  time,  so  far  remote 
from  the  age  of  their  coQstruction.  There  is  a  circle  oi 
this  description  at  Rollrich  in  Oxfordshire,  and  anoth^ 
near  Keswick  in  Cumberland,  of  whioh  the  stones  are 
only  from  two  to  six  &et  in  height)  those  of  Stanton 
Drew  are  from  eight  to  twelve  feet;  but  the  most  mag- 
nificent temples  (^  this  kind  in  England  are  those  of 
Abury  and  Stoneheuffe.  The  temple  of  Abury  is  in  the 
form  of  a  serpent  ana  orb,  a  figure  we  see  so  often  re^ 
peated  in  the  sculptures  <^the  ancient  Egyptians;  and 
antiquaries  are  of  opinion  tliat  it  was  dedicated  to  the 
worship  of  the  serpent,  as  symbolical  of  the  evil  demon, 
ft  worship  very  prevalent  iA  Egypt  and  the  East:  the 
nuo^ber  of  stones  composing'thb  temple,  was,  according 
to  Stukely,  652,  among  which  there  were  two  circles 
of  twelve,  and  two  of  thirty  stones,  the  length  of  the 
serpent  is  about  two  miles.  There  are  also  the  remains 
of  a  temple  of  the  serpentine  form  at  C-amac,  in 
Brittany,  still  surpassing  Abury  in  magnificence,  of 
which  It  is  computed  that  as  many  as  four  thousand 
stones  stiU  remain.  The  immense  block  of  which  Abury 
was  constructed,  appears  to  have  been  brought  from  the 
neighbouring  hills,  and  the  whole  edifice  was  fbrmerly 
surrounded  by  a  trench  and  mound. 

Stonehenge,  though  less  in  magnitude  than  Abury, 
has  from  its  position  received  a  much  greater  share  of 
notoriety*;  it  is  situated  on  Salisbury  plain,  about  eight 
mfles  ft^m  Salisbury,  and,  from  the  greater  art  displayed 
in  its  construction,  appears  to  have  been  erected  at  a 
later  period  than  that  of  the  former  temnle.  So  many 
descriptions  of  this  temple  have  appeared  in  print,  that 
we  will  here  confine  ourselves  to  a  comparative  notice 
of  the  relative  sizes  of  Abury  and  Stonehenge. 
Number  of  stones  at  Abury    .     .    .     652 

Stonehenge .    .     140 
Extent  of  Abury    .     .     .  8750  cubits. 
Stonehenge      .     240 

The  largest  of  the  stones  of  Abury  is  double  that  of 
the  largest  of  Stonehenge  m  superficial  measure ;  the 
stones  of  the  outer  circle  of  Stonehenge  are  as  lofly  as 
those  of  Abury,  but  much  narrower. 

We  now  come  to  the  Tolmeftf  which  signifies  the 
hole  of  stone.  This  was  either  an  immense  stone 
poised  upon  the  points  cft  a  rock,  so  as  to  admit  of  the 
passage  of  the  body  of  a  child,  or,  in  some  cases,  of  a 
man,  or  a  huge  portion  of  rock,  with  a  passage  bored 
through;  anciently  great  effects  were  produced,  or 
believed  to  be,  by  being  passed  through  these  aper- 
tures; and,  in  some  parts  of  Cornwall  at  no  veiy 
distant  period,  children  afllicted  with  weakness  in  their 
limbs  were  passed  through  the  apertures  of  the  Tolmen 

*  Sm  Salwdaff  Magwnntt,  toL  I.,  p.  IS5. 

569—2 


188 


THE  SATUmiAY  MAGrAZOfE. 


[Mat  rs, 


to  be  cared.  There  are  two  of  these  stone  deities  in  the 
Scilly  Islands,  but  the  most  remarkable  is  one  situated 
in  the  tenement  of  M^u,  in  the  parish  of  Constantino, 
Cornwall ;  it  is  a  vast  pebble  of  oval  form,  placed  upon 
the  points  of  two  natural  rocks;  it  is  placed  due  north 
and  south,  and  its  longest  diameter  is  ttiirty-three  feet. 

CromUch  is  a  name  derived  from  the  Hebrew,  and 
signifies  a  devoted  stone;  they  were  used  as  altars 
for  the  sacrifice  of  human  and  other  victims,  and  the 
northern  countries  they  are  denominated  hlody  that 
is,  blood  stones.  The  cromlech  Is  generally  a  large  oval 
ritem  supported  upon  others,  and  is  to  be  met  with  in 
many  places  in  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  other  spots  in  Eng- 
land and  Ireland.  One  is  in  existence  near  the  Kennel 
avenue  of  Al^ury ,  and  another  at  Rollrich ;  but  the  one 
best  known  is  that  called  Kit's  Cotty-house  on  the  downs 
between  Maidstone  and  Rochester.  Some  antiquaries, 
however,  suppose  these  stones  to  have  been  a  distinct 
ckss  from  the  altars,  and  to  have  been  used  for  giving 
oracular  responses,  like  those  of  Delphos  and  Dodona; 
and  there  is  a  tradition  respecting  the  upper  stone  of  a 
Coifnwall  cromlech,  which  was  removed  to  serve  as  a 
bridge  over  a  neighbouring  brook,  which  gave  to  it  the 
power  of  speech,  but,  at  one  time,  when  making  '^an 
oracular  effort  it  cracked,  and  has  ever  since  been 

silent.        . 

Lograny  or  rodring-stones,  are,  if  possible,  still  more 
curious  than  any  of  fiie  preceding  classes ;  some  of  them 
are  enormous  masses  of  stone,  placed  upon  the  peaks  of 
rocks,  others  are  placed  upon  the  level  ground,  and 
others  again  on  rocky  eminences,  both  on  the  coast,  and 
in  the  interior;  many  of  them  vary  from  eighty  to  one 
hundred  tons;  but  are  yet  so  accurately  poised  as  to 
vibrate  upon  the  slightest  pressure  of  the  hand,  or  even 
a  strong  puff  of  wind.  They  were  in  all  probability  used 
as  ordeals  for  the  detection  of  criminals,  the  priests 
having  sufficient  dexterity  to  persuade  the  ignorant 
multitude  that  these  stones  were  inspired  by  the  deity* 
Mason  alludes  to  this  in  his  6bractoct».'-^ 

Behold  yon  huge 
And  unhewn  mass  of  living  adamant, 
Which  poised  by  magio  rests  its  central  wttght 
On  yonder  pointed  rock. — Fixed  as  it  seems. 
Such  are  its  strange  and  virtuous  properties. 
It  moves  obseqaioos  to  the  slightest  touch 
Of  him,  whose  breast  is  pore;  but,  to  the  traitor! 
Although  a  giant's  prowess  nerved  his  arm. 
It  stands  as  fiim  as  Snowdon* 

The  most  celebrated  Logan  is  one  situated  near  the' 
Land's  End,  Cornwall,  which  some  years'  back  was  dis- 
placed by  a  Lieutenant  Goldsmith,  the  commander  of  a 
revenue  cutter,  and  some  of  his  men ;  but  in  consequence 
of  the  general  indignation  excited  in  Cornwall  in  conse- 
quence of  this  mischievous  frolic,  it  was  replaced  with 
much  difficulty  and  labour  by  the  same  Lieutenant,  and 
now  rocks  as  before.  It  is  an  enormous  block  of  granite, 
weighing  between  eighty  and  ninety  tons. 

Cairns.  In  many  parts  of  the  British  Isles,  and  more 
particularly  in  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  also 
in  other  northern  countries,  are  conical  heaps  of  small, 
irregular  stones,  generally  surmounted  by  a  flat  stone  of 
larger  dimensions ;  the  name  is  derived  by  Rowland  from 
the  Hebrew  KereW'Nedy  a  cooped  heap:  they  are  some- 
times sepulchral  monuments,  but  more  generally  we 
believe  as  altars,  upon  which  in  olden  times  the  fires 
were  kindled  in  honour  of  Beal  or  Apollo  on  May  Eve, 
and  the  other  Druidical  festivals,  and  in  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland,  and  in  some  parts  of  Ireland  May-day  is 
still  called  JBealtine,  or  La  BeaUine, 

We  have  now  briefly  reviewed  these  extraordinary 
remains  of  the  ancient  6ritons;  but  as  the  subject  is  one 
of  great  interest,  we  may  possibly  refer  to  it  again. 

Charles  Barclay  Woodham. 


ON  CHB88. 
X.  Chesi  Writxra  and  PLATBRi,  (comlSiMel) 


L 


f  HI  CHUt  XKIGBT*  AS  DBUOMBO  BT  VUIXIUV. 

Then  firar  l>bld  Kniohte  far  oountge  fiuned  tnd  ^eed, 

Each  Knight  ezaltad  on  «  pnndng  steed : 

Their  axching  coune  no  vaJgar  Hmit  loMms, 

Transrene  Uiey  leap,  and  aim  iaaldioas  Uowt; 

Nor  friends  nor  Ibea  their  rapid  fiiroe  reatrain, 

By  one  qtuck  hoond  two  changing  squares  thej  gam; 

Fiom  Twying  hnea  renew  the  fierce  attack, 

Aai  rush  from  black  to  white,  from  white  to  black. 

Sib  W.  Josn. 

• 

The  year  during  whicb  Carrera's  Treatise  on  Chen 
appeared,  was  productive  also  of  tbe  work  of  GustaTW 
Selenus.  This  is  a  fictitious  name  adopted  by  tbe 
author,  Augustus,  duke  of  Brunswick  Lunenberf. 
This  work  which  is  a  large  quarto  of  550  pages,  was 
printed  at  Leinsig,  in  1616.  He  appears  to  have  been 
an  indefatigable  player:  he  has  analysed  with  greit 
perseverance  and  attention  some  of  his  favourite  gamn; 
and  he  occasionally  displays  considerable  skfll  in  Im 
deviations  from  the  moaels  Uud  down  by  other  playen. 
He  strongly  reproves  several  of  Damiano's  moves;  bat 
Sarratt  is  of  opinion  that  the  duke  has  committed  ^ 
same  mistake  as  Ruy  Lopez  in  venturing  to  criticise  a 
better  player  than  himself. 

A  considerable  portion  of  his  work  is  occupied  bra 
long  and  uninteresting  description  of  the  game  called 
the  Battle  of  Numbers,  or  RhythmomachaL 

It  also  contains  some  futile  attempts  to  improve  tht 
game  of  chess ;  and,  among  these,  there  is  one  which  is  e 
remarkable  as  it  is  ridictuous.  It  is  extracted  from  a 
work  (deservedly  consigned  to  oblivion),  written  in  Gcnnffl 
verse  by  James  Mennels,  and  published  at  CoetenU  ui 
1607.  Mennels  has  fiivonied  the  world  with  many  situa- 
tions in  which  cheok*ma|te  is  effected  by  a  pawn:  someot 
these  present  a  ludicarous  appearance ;  one  niutv  having  4^ 
and  sometimes  MOSfi  queens;  but  it  must  be  observed,  tiiat 
this  same  Mennels  has  deemed  it  meet  to  deprive  the  qne^i 
of  her  horizontal  and  peipendicular  powers:  he  allows  ber 
to  move  only  in  a  diagonal  direction ;  so  that  supposmg  tne 
kmg  to  be  on  his  own  square,  if  the  adversaiy's  qoeen, 
properly  supported  should  take  the  knag's  bishop's  ps^ 
givmg  chedc,  the  king  by  removing  to  Ks  biahop'ssinMiJ 
or  to  his  own  second  square^  wul  be  secore  from  au 
danger !    Sjjuu.n.  ^ 

•  Gustavus  Selenus  also  men^ns  the  method  of  ^W^ 
the  courier  game  as  practised  at  Slrobeck,  a  ▼iN' 
situated  between  Halberstadt  and  Brunswick,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  six  miles  from  the  former  place;  ^^ 
celebrated  for  some  centuries  on  account  of  its  inw- 
bitants  being  good  chess-players.  , 

The  introduction  of  chess  into  this  village,  is  doe  ta 
the  following  cireumstance:— Towards  the  end  of  tw 
fifteenth  century,  a  dignitary  of  the  <^^J, 
Halberstadt  was  exiled  to  Strobeck ;  and  being  dcsertea 
by  his  former  friends,  he  becvne  the  more  attocbed  w 
the  inhabitants  of  the  village,  who  had  received  him  80 


J841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


189 


Jdndly  that  he  was  at  a  loss  how  to  testify  his  gratitude. 
..-After  much  consideratiou  he  determined  on  teaching 
^hem  the  game  of  chess.     He  did  so,  and  was  delighted 
^o  find  that  they  hecame  partial .  to  it,  and  made  grreat 
progress  in  it.    He  soon  felt  amply  rewarded  for  the 
trouble  he  had  taken,  for  not  only  did. they  become  pro- 
ficients in  the  game,  but  it  afforded  him  many  opportu- 
nities of  improving  their  morals  and  behayiour,  which 
improvement  became  apparent  in  their  intercourse  with 
their  neighbours.      After  some  time,   the    exile  was 
tionourably  recalled  to  his  cathedraj,  and  eventually 
became  Bishop  of  Halberstadt.     His  prosperity  did  not 
make  him  forget  his  village  friends — his  Strobeck,  as 
he  used  to  say — but  on  the  contrary,  he  often  went 
there  and  conferred  many  benefits  on  the  community, 
amongst  which  he  founded  a  free-school.     A   special 
injunction  was  laid  on  the  masters  of  this  school,  to 
instruct  all  their  pupils  in  chess,  and  to  distribute  prizes 
(consisting  of  chess  boards  and  sets  of  pieces)  at  the 
end  of  every  year,  to  the  best  players.     In  thus  encou- 
raging the  game   of  chess,  the  worthy  bishop  had  a 
higher  object  than  mere  amusement:  he  saw  that  by 
encouraging  a  game  which  draws  so  largely  on  the 
mental  powers,  his  villagers   would  not  be   attracted 
by  games  of  cbanooy  nor  injured  by  the  vices  and 
dissipations  which  accompany  them.     His  object  was 
happily  gained ;  and  we  cannot  but  express  a  hope  that 
ere  long,  the  study  of  chess  will  be  considered  a  neces- 
sary   part    of   education,    and,   as    such,    introduced 
universally  into  schools  of  every  description.     It  would 
be  indeed  delightful  to  see  the  same  effect  produced  in 
our  vilh^s  by  the  introduction  of  this  g^ame,  as  was 
witnessed  at  Strobeck.  .  The  villagers  devoted  most  of 
their    leisure  time    to   chess:    the   knowledge   of  the 
game  became  hereditary:   mothers  taught  it  to  their 
daughters ;   fathers   to  their  sons ;    the   old  men  be- 
queathed the  paternal  chessrboard  to   their   children; 
there  was  an  innocent  emulation  among  families,  each 
trying  to  surpass  the   other.     The  fame  of  Strobeck 
extended  throughout  Germany,  and  many  a  chess  player 
visited  it  to  .try  his  skilL     It  is  said  that  the  villagers 
generally  proved  victorious.      After  a  time   the   evil 
custom  of   playing,  for    money  was    introduced — ^the 
villagers  grew  vain  of  their  skill,  and  wanted  such  a 
lesson  as  was  given  to  them  by  the  celebrated  Silber- 
schmidt,  who  visited  them  as  a  stranger,  and  agreed  to 
play  a  match  .for  a  considerable  sum  of  money.     He 
vanquished  their  champion  elect, '^and  the  villagers  paid 
the  money,  but  would  not  grant  a  certificate  required 
by  the  conqueror  attesting  their  defeat.      "Take  the 
gold,"  said  they,  "but  leave  us  our  glory."     "Good 
people,"  replied  Silberschmidt,  "the  money  I  have  won 
from  you  1  give  to  your  poor  and  to  your  school ;  but 
on  one  condign,  namely — ^you  must  swear  that  you  will 
never  more  play  for  money.     The  noble  science  of  chess 
carries  its  mterest  in  itself;  a  single  game  won,  is  a 
treasure  of  satisfaction  to  the  winner."     The  villagers 
took  the  oath,  gave  the  certificate,  distributed  the  money 
^is  was  proposed,  and  never  again  staked  any  thing  but 
%beir  slall  on  the  chess  board. 

Mr.  Lewis  visited  this  interesting  village  in  1831. 
^e  describes  it  as  lying  in  a  hollow  about  a  mile  from 
^he  high  road,  and  containing  about  one  hundred  and 
^wen^  houses.  Mr.  Lewis  walked  to  the  village  and 
i^atroduced  himself  to  the  resident  clergyman,  whom  he 
^ound  an  obliging  and  well  educated  man:  the  inha- 
k>itant8  were  then  in  the  fields  gathering  in  the  harvest, 
kut  a  subsequent  day  was  named  for  a  trial  of  skill. 

He  infonncd  me,  (says  Mr.  Lewis,)  thai  the  game  is  still 
^aneh  played  there,  and  that  they  have  several  strong 
^^Isyen ;  though  himself  no  player  of  the  game,  yet  he  is 
^0  perBoaded  of  the  advantage  of  cultivating  i^  that  he 
^SDooozi^iea  the  children  who  attend  the  school,  to  practise 
^t  at  proper  times,  and  has  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  grant 
^^f  a  amall  sum  annually  from  the  community,  for  the 
^^Qxdbase  of  six  chess  boards  and  men  to  be  given  to  the 


best  nz  playen  among  the  seholan,  the  number  of  whom 
amounts  to  forty-eight;  the  method  of  ascertaming  who 
are  the  best  is,  in  the  first  instance,  to  have  two  seta  o£ 
ticketsy  each  numbered  from  one  to  twenty-four;  these  are 
drawn  by  the  boys ;  then  the  two  ones,  two  twos,  &c.,  &c.. 
play  together ;  those  who  lose  go  out,  and  the  rcmainiue 
twenty  four  draw  numbers  in  a  similar  way,  and  so  on 
until  only  six  winnm  remain,  to  whom  the  bosids  are 
given. 

In  part  of  the  village  public  house,  Mr.  Lewis  ob- 
served the  sign  of  a  chess-board  in  the  wall ;  it  was 
rudely  made  up  of  stone :  in  the  public  room  were  hung 
up  three  boards, — one  the  common  chess-board,  and  the 
others  larger  for  the  use  of  those  who  play  the  courier 
game. 

At  his  next  visit,  Mr.  Lewis  called  on  the  syndic 
of  the  village,  who  accompanied  him  to  the  public  house 
and*  showed  him  the  old  chess-board  and  men,  which 
were  kept  carefully  locked  up. 

The  board  is  of  large  size,  being  above  two  feet  square, 
mcludmg  the  border,  which  is  about  four  inches  broad  • 
on  the  border  is  a  representation  of  the  village  of  Stropcke! 
(it  is  spelt  thus,)  but  not  in  bos  relief,  according  to  Mi! 
Suberschmidt's  account,  but  rather  in  rude  Mosau; ;  there 
appear  to  have  been  at  that  time  three  towers  or  ateeples  in 
the  village,  two  only  of  which  now  remain,  the  third  having 
been  taken  down,  and  the  building  converted  into  a  saw 
mill.  According  to  an  ipscription  on  the  board,  it  wpeais 
to  have  been  presented  to  the  village  by  the  He^r  of 
Brandenburg,  on  the  15th  of  May  1651 ;  on  the  other  side, 
the  board  is  divided  into  ninety-six  squares,  (twelve  by 
eight,]  this  is  intended  fi)r  the  courier  game,  which  is 
played  with  the  usual  chess-men,  to  which  are  added  for  each 
nlayer,  finir  pawns,  two  couriers,  a  man  and  a  fool,  which 
last  two  are  now  called  state  counsellors. 

The  said  elector  also  made  them  a  preeent  of  two  sets  of 
chess-men,  one  of  ivory,  and  the  other  of  silver,  half  of 
which  were  gUt ;  the  latter  set  is  lost,  havmg  been  lent  to 
the  dean  and:  chapter  at  Halberetadt,  who  forgot  to  return 
them ;  this  occurred  so  long  rince,  that  no  one  now  living 
recollects  having  seen  them :  the  ivonr  set  is  much  too 
small  for  the  board ;  the  pieces  are  in  tolerable  preserration, 
and  have  nefffly  the  same  shape  as  those  commonly  played 
with ;  the  upper  part  of  the  bishop,  instead  of  bemg  shaped 
like  a  mitre,  has  the  form  of  a  scoop.  They  have  only  two 
works  on  chess,  one  of  them  an  imperfect  copy  of  Gustavus 
Selenus,  the  other  Koch's  Codex  der  J^iachipielktmit, 
in  two  volumes ;  the  former  they  have  had  a  long  time ; 
the  latter  was  presented  to  them  some  years  since  by  their 
present  worthy  pastor. 

Mr.  Lewis  played  three  games  of  chess  with  one  of 
the  villagers  of  Strobeck,  and  won  them  all.  He  con- 
sidered his  antagonist  a  weak  player,  and,  from  what  fell 
in  course  of  conversation,  doubted  whether  there  are 
any  pkyers  in  Strobeck  to  whom  a  first  rate  player 
could  not  give  a  knight. 

One  of  the  most  distinguished  players  that  we  have 
next  to  notice  in  the  order  of  time  is  Gioachino  Greoo^ 
commonly  called  the  Calabrian,  from  Calabria,  ihe  place 
of  his  birth.  He  was  of  very  low  extraction ;  but  having 
accidently  learned  the  game  of  chess,  he  improved  so 
rapidly,  that  Don  Mariano  Marano,  a  celebrated  player, 
being  informed  of  his  aptitude  for  chess,  received  him 
into  his  house,  and  treated  him  as  one  of  his  family;  and 
under  his  tuition,  Greco  soon  improved  so  much  as 
nearly  to  equal  his  master.  Bayle  spedcs  of  him  in  these 
terms: — 

Greco  played  at  chess  so  skilfully  that  it  cannot  be  thought 
strange  that  I  consecrate  to  him  a  httle  article.  Allthosewho 
excel  in  their  profession  to  a  certain  degree^  deserve  that 
distinction.  This  player  did  not  find  his  match  anywhere. 
He  went  to  all  the  courts  in  Europe,  and  simalized  himself 
there  at  chess  in  a  most  surprising  manner.  He  found  famous 

Siyers  at  the  court  of  France,  such  as  the  Duke  of  Nemours^ 
.  Amaud,  Chaumont,  and  La  Salle;  but  though  they  pre* 
tended  to  know  more  than  others,  none  of  them  were  able  to 
nlay  with  him,  nor  could  they  cope  with  him  altogether. 
He  was  at  chess  a  bravo,  who  sought  in  all  countries  some 
famous  knight  with  whom  he  mignt  fight  and  break  a  lance^ 
and  he  found  none  whom  he  did  not  overcome. 


196 


Ti»  SAYUfOAY  MA«A3INE. 


[MAyJ4 


Mr.  LewU  (who*  e^iimof  Gmm  ia  llie  teC) Ihudui 
this  ia  certainly  an  exaggerated  ai;couBt  of  Greco'a  skills 
but  his  work  exhibits  so  much  skill  and  ingenuity,  and 
abounds  with  so  many  brilliant  and  instructive  situation^, 
that  we  kno^  of  no  mor^  fascinating  work  for  the  student 
Ip  chess: — 

It  does  not  oftwi  happen  (s^  M»,  Lewb),  thai  Gosoo^ 
method  of  attacking  can  be  much  improTed,  for  in  thai  part 
of  the  game  he  is  eminently  skilful,  but  the  like  maise 
i»nnot  begiven  to  his  pystem  of  defence;  it  must^  ind^d. 
be  erident  that,  as  most  of  his  games  are  won  by  brilliant 
mores^  the  defence  is  necessarily  imperfect. 

There  have  been  many  editions  of  Greco's  work.  The 
first  English  edition  was  published  in  London,  by  Her- 
yingman,  in  1656,  and  is  very  imperfect.  In  1750 
appeared  an  edition,  *<  so  contrived  that  any  peraon  ma^ 
learn  to  play  in  a  few  days  without  any  further  assistance. 
On  this  assurance,  Mr.  Lewis  very  properly  remarks  :— 

Let  not  any  one  be  led,  by  this  promising  title,  to  sup^se 
that  60  difficult  a  game  as  chess  is  to  be  learned  m  a  few 
days;  considerable  practice  is  necessary  to  form  even  a  mo- 
derate player^  but  to  become  a  first-rate  player,  genius  and 
much  siudy  are  indispensable  requisites. 

Greco  died  in  the  East  Indies  at  an  advanced  age  and 
bequeathed  all  his  property  to  the  Jesuits. 

In  1 672  was  published  *'  The  fiamous  game  of  chesse* 
play,  being  a  princely  exercise,  whereby  the  learner  may 
profit  more,  by  reading  of  this  small  book  than  by  play* 
ing  of  a  thousand  mates."  The  author  of  this  book,  one 
Artliur  Saul,  introduces  some  doggrel  verses  laudatory 
of  his  game : — 

All  you  that  at  the  fkmous  game 

Of  chcsse  desire  to  play. 
Come  and  peruse  this  little  booke. 

Wherein  is  taught  the  way. 

The  hidden  slights  to  understand 

That  no  man  yet  hath  shonne. 
Which  other  authors  speak  not  of 

And  still  remained  unknown. 

Even  all  thioBs  that  ooncam  this  gamei 

And  may  tnee  exoelleht  make. 
Therein  was  oanso  that  me  did  inovo 

This  paines  to  undertake. 

&c.  &c.  &C. 

Among  bia  rules  and  laws  «f  the  gams^  ia  the  &llow* 
ing  advice: — 

Doe  not  at  la^O  tin\e  that  ihou  plaj^  al  thiagvne  (iimtof 
a  conceit  as  I  said,  that  anything  becomee  thee,  well)  ^taad 
fiingin^,  whistling,  knocking  or  tinkering  wherel^  tp  disr 
turbe  the  minde  of  thy  adversary,  and  hinder  hi^  projectgi 
neither  keepe  thou  a  calling  on  him  to  pleve,  or  hasienlnc[  of 
him  thereunto,  or  a'shewingof  much  qisllke  that  hee  plav- 
eth  not  fast  enough ;  remembering  with  thyself,  that  besi^s 
that  this  h  a  silent  gape,  when  thy  tume  is  to  play,  thou 
wilt  take  thy  owne'  leaoure ;  and  that  it  is  the  loyall  law 
10  to  deal  with  another^  as  thyself  wouldst  be  dealt  withall. 

PaBJunxcB  is  an  equivocal  term ;  and  may  as  well  mean 
right  opinions  taken  upon  trust,  and  deeply  rooted  hi  the 
mmd,  as  false  and  absurd  opinions  so  derived,  and  gtown 
into  it.— *HuBSi. 


Wb  find  this  great  precept  often  iiei>eated  in  Plato,  J)o  thim 
own  tcorkf  ana  know  thjfself;  of  which  two  parts,  both  the 
one  and  the  other  generally  comprehend  our  whole  duty, 
and  eousequently  do  each  of  them  complicate  and  involve 
the  other;  for  he  who  will  do  his  own  work  aright,  will 
find  that  his  first  lesson  is  to  know  himself  ana  he  who 
rightly  understands  himself,  will  never  mistake  another 
man's  work  for  his  own. — ^Montaioits. 


Tub  majdm,  **in  vino  veriUu^-^  man  who  is  well  wanned 
with  wine  will  speak  truth,"  may  be  an  aigument  for 
drinking,  if  you  suppose  men  in  seneial  to  be  liars;  but, 
sir,  I  would  not  keep  company  with  a  fellow,  who  lies  as 
long  as  he  is  sober,  and  whom  you  niust  make  drunk 
before  you  cs^  ge^  ^  wo^^  ^  tiH A  »»*,  oi  WiPrrJ.W»fow, 


gHJ^ISTIAW   COirSOLATlOlf   M   :^HB   VtAXH  OF 

vaiBVDB. 

It  has  been  said,  and  I  believe, 
llieagh  tean  of  natural  aorrow  start^ 

TSa  mist  with  phM«ire  vhea  wa  grieve 
Ear  those  the  deareat  to  the  heairtb 
F^rop  wbom  loB^oved  at  length  wa  part; 

As  by  a  Ohiiatian'a  feelings  led 

We  Uff  them  ia  their  peapeful  bed. 

Yet  sfimk  I  not  of  those  srho  go 

The  allotted  pilgrimage  on  eieiht 
With  earthhom  passiona  grovelling  low, 

Epslaved  to  honour,  avarice,  mirth. 

Unconscious  of  a  nobler  birth ; 
But  such  as  tread  with  loftier  scope 
The  Christian's  path  with  Ohriatian  hope^ 

We  grieve  to  think  that  they  again. 

Shall  ne'er  in  this  world's  pleasure  share : 

But  swaet  the  thought  that  this  world's  pain 
No  more  is  their's ;  that  this  world's  care 
It  IS  no  more  their  lot  to  bear. 

And  suraly  in  this  soene  below 

The  joy  la  halanoed  by  the  woe. 

We  grieve  to  see  the  lifeless  fbnn. 

The  livid  cheek,  the  sunken  ay*  i 
But  sweet  to  thmk  cormptkn^  wcsm 

The  tiviag  spirit  can  defy. 

And  daim  its  fcindised  with  the  elgr. 
Lo  (  where  the  earthen  veesel  Uea  t 
Aloft  the  embodied  tenant  flies. 

We  giieva  to  think,  oar  iQFea  no  more 
That  fonn,  these  featorea  Wved,  ahall  tiaes 

But  swaet  it  i#  fcom  memory^a  storo 
To  oall  each  fondly-cherished  grace. 
And  fold  them  in  the  heart's  embrace* 

No  bliss  *mid  worldly  crowds  is  bred, 

like  musing  on  the  sainted  dead ! 

"^a  grieve  to  see  expired  the  noe 
They  ran,  intent  on  works  of  love : 

But  sweet  to  think,  no  mixture  base, 
Which  with  their  better  nature  strove^ 
Shall  mar  their  virtuous  deeds  above.  ' 

Bin  0^  their  eoul  has  last  hie  hold. 

And  left  Ihem  with  thsir  earthly  moaM  I 

We  grieve  to  know  that  we  must  it>em 
Apart  fit>m  them  eadi  wonted  spot: 

But  sweet  to  tUak,  that  they  a  hettie 
Have  gained;  a ifiur  and  goodly  le^ 
Ihiduriag,  and  that  chaogeth  pot. 

And  who  t^t  home  of  freedom  there 

Will  with  this  prison-hguae  oompsire? 

'Tis  grief  to  IM,  that  wsa  behind, 
SeveMd  fron  thoet  «e  )«va  ramau|» 

'Tb  joy  to  hop^  tSbat  we  al^ai  find, 
ExeoD^t  torn  aon»iqr,  fear»  and  pain« 
With  them  «nr  dwelKng-place  again. 

'Tis  but  like  {.hem  to  sipk  to  rest, 

With  them  to  waken  and  be  blesL 

Q  ThoUft  who  form'at  thy  creature's  mind 
With  thoughts  that  dtiasten  and  thai  cbeerj 

Grant  me  to  fill  my  space  assigned 
For  sojourning  a  stranger  here 
With  holy  hope  and  filial  fear. 

Fear  to  be  banished  Ur  from  Thee, 

And  hope  thy  &oe  unveiled  te  seel 

There  before  Thee,  the  Great,  the  Good, 
By  angel  myriads  compassed  round. 

Made  perfect «  by  the  Saviour^i  blood, 

«<  With  vhrtue  olothed,  with  hoaonr  oowaea, 
«  Hie  ai^ritB  of  the  jnal'*  are  found  £ 

There  leaxa  i^o  mora  ^  sorrow  starts 

Pain  fiiea  the  unmolested  heart,  .    . 

Aadlife  iabliss  nnitw  whom  death  no  more  shaiip*' 

[BuBor  Maxt's  SHHtk  Momiht,} 


18410 


TMfi  SAtUllbAY  MAeAilkB. 


191 


PRESH-WATBR  PlStt.    III. 

The  Trout.    (Salmofario,  Linn.) 

Btumld  you  Inn 
Prcan  Us  dark  haimt^  beneath  tba  taugled  roots 
or  pendant  trees,  Qie  monarch  of  the  broolr, 
Baho««a  ytm  «Mn  Ut,  ply  yomr  Meat  art. 
l4Mag  time  he,  fiUowing  caotaoos,  seans  the  iy; 
And  oft  attempts  to  seise  it,  bat  aa  oft    ' 
The  dimpled  water  apealn  his  jealous  fear. 
At  last,  while  haply  o'er  die  shaded  son 
Biaaes  •  doad,  he  deapenta  talcea  the  death, 
With  soUen  plunge.    At  ooee  he  d«ts  alonff , 
Seep^tmefc,  and  runs  out  aO  the  lengthened  line; 
T%fln  aeeks  the  ftrtheat  oose,  the  shelteriiw  weed, 
The  cvnm'd  bank,  Ms  eld  eecore  abode; 
And  Bm  akft,  and  ffeanoaaitNiod  the  pool 
Indignant  of  the  inule.    With  yiiMhw  hand, 
That  feds  hia  stifl,  yet  to  Ma  lUrioua  course 
Gites  way,  you  now  retiring,  lillowing  new 
Acroas  the  stream  exhaust  bis  idle  n^; 
Till  llociting  bmad  upon  his  breatlilpus  side, 
And  to  his  fhte  sbandon'd,  to  the  shoM 
You  gaily  drag  yonr  umesinting  pilxe.— ^.Tromson 

Piiig  beautiful  fish  Is  much  priced  and  tought  ifter, 
lot  only  on  account  of  tiie  flfcilf  and  patience  required  for 
ts  capture;  for  the  trout,  Says  Izaaft  Walton,  "  is  more 
harp-sighted  than  any  hawk,  and  more  watchful  and  timi- 
ous  than  your  highniieltied  m^Un  is  bold;"  but  also 
br  the  estimation  in  which  it  is  held  as  an  article  of 
bod :  "  he  may  justly  contend  with  all  fresh-water  fish, 
5  the  mullet  may  with  all  sea-fish,  for  precedency  and 
laintiness  of  taste;  and  that,  being  in  right  season,  the 
ttost  dainty  palates  have  allowed  precedency  to  him." 

The  trout  is  known  among  ichthyologists  as  the  yellow 
Tay  salmon  with  red  spots,  having  the  under  jaw  somt* 
rhat  longer  than  the  upper.  It  varies  in  appearaaoe^ 
ecording  to  the  locality  in  which  it  is  fmnid ;  so  mueh 
0  as  to  induce  the  belief  that  several  species  exist.  Mr. 
rarrell  thinks  it  probable  that  more  than  one  species  of 
he  common  trout  may  exist  in  this  country;  but  con- 
idering  the  various  geological  strata  traversed  by  rivers 
\  their  course,  the  effect  these  variations  of  soil  must 
roduce  upon  the  water,  and  the  influence  of  the  water 
n  the  fish, — ^remembering  also  the  great  variety  of  food 
forded  by  difierent  rivers,  and  the  effeot  whioh  ^bet^ 
rosea  m  various  degrees  are  likely  to  produce, — ^we  need 
ot  be  surprised  at  the  variations  both  in  size  and  colour 
rhich  are  found  to  occur.  In  the  midland  counties, 
here  the  trout  thrives  according  to  its  habit  of  feeding, 
nd  the  nature  of  its  food,  its  figure  is  subject  to  slight 
ariations;  but  the  greatest  variety  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Inge  both  of  its  ground  colour,  and  spots.  Its  general 
mgth  is  from  twelve  to  about  sixteen  inches;  its  weight 
uita  uncertain.  Oecasionally  it  haa  been  taken  ^  ten 
nd  twelve  pounds  weighty  and  sometimea  more;  but  at 
ir.  Blaine  remarks,  "  a  foor  or  five  pounds'  trout  in  con* 
idered  a  very  ffood  sized  fish,  and  one  more  often  sought 
w  than  taken.  *  Its  colour  is  yellowish  gray,  darker  or 
rowner  on  the  back,  and  marked  on  th6  sides  by  several 
ather  distant,  round  bright  red  spots,  each  surrounded 
y  a  tinge  of  pale  blue  gray.  Sometimes  the  ground 
olour  of  the  body  is  a  purplish  gray,  the  red  tpoli 
QQch  larger,  more  or  less  mingled*  with  bbok,  and  the 
he  belly  of  a  white  or  nlvery  cast.  The  fins  are  of  a 
*le  purplish  brown,  the  dorsal  fin  marked  with  several 
t^ker  spots :  the  head  is  rather  large,  the  scales  small, 
Ad  the  lateral  line  straight.  The  female  fish  is  of  a 
brighter  and  more  beautiful  appearance  than  the  male. 

The  trout  seema  to  appreciate  the  slightest  changes  in 
be  weather,  and  shifts  its  ground  with  variations  in  lam* 
^rature.  Nothing  can  surpasa  the  quickness  of  its  ex« 
Pensive  eye ;  which  is  assisted  by  what  may  be  termed  a 
'nsibility  of  feeling,  whleh  enables  it  to  detect  the  slight- 
^  agitation  of  the  water.  A  shadow  moving  over  the 
»ream,  the  footstep  of  the  passenger  along  the  bank,  and 
utny  similar  trifles  do  not  eicape  the  notice  of  the  trout. 
*^^B  is  tme  feason  whr  trout-fishing  is  so  favmirite  a 


tport;  skill,  not  strength,  k  required;  so  that  those  who 
love  ft  quiet  employment  among  the  retired  and  beautiful 
s(^ene9  eif  nature,  will  continue  to  throw  their  line  amid 
the  sunny  nooks  which  Walton  describes  so  well? 

Turn  out  of  the  way  a  little,  good  scholar!  toward  vondet 
hlghhoneyatxckle  hedge ;  there  we'll  sit  down  and  sing,  whilst 
ikh  shower  fells  so  gently  upon  the  teeming  earth,  and  gives 
jrat  a  sweeter  smell  to  the  lovely  flowers  that  adorn  tiiose 
VBidant  xneadewB. 

Lookl  under  that  broad  beeoh  tree  I  sat  down,  when  I 
was  last  this  way  a  fishing  i  and  the  birds  in  tfio  adjoining 
grove  seemed  to  have  a  fnendly  contention  with  an  echo, 
whose  dead  voice  seemed  to  live  in  a  hollow  tree  near  to  tho 
brow  of  that  primrose  hill.  There  I  fiat  viewing  the  silver 
streams  glide  silently  towards  their  centre,  the  tempestnous 
aea ;  but  Sometimes  opposed  by  rugged  roots  and  pebbJe-stones^ 
which  broke  their  waves,  and  turned  them  into  foam.  And 
sometimes  I  beguiled  time  by  riewing  the  harmless  kmba; 
fome  leaping  securely  in  the  cool  shade,  whilst  others  sported 
themselves  in  the  cheerful  sun;  and  saw  others  craving com^ 
fort  from  the  swollen  udders  of  their  bleating  dams.  As 
thus  I  sat,  these  and  other  sights  had  so  fully  possessed  my 
soul  with  content,  that  I  thought  as  the  poet  has  happily 
expressed  it, 

I  was  for  that  time  lifted  above  earth; 

And  possessed  Joys  not  promised  in  my  Mrth. 

We  have  said  that  the  appearance  of  the  trout  varies 
according  to  the  localitv  in  which  it  is  found;  and  these 
variations  depend  for  the  most  part  on  difference  of  soil 
and  of  food.  That  trout  should  differ  within  a  limited 
locality  is  not  so  easily  explained.  Mr.  Yarrell  suggests 
that  a  close  examination  of  those  parts  of  the  fish  which 
afford  the  most  permanent  characters  should  be  made  in 
order  to  determine  whether  the  subject  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered only  as  a  variety,  or  be  entitled  to  rank  as  a  dis- 
tinct species.  In  some  of  the  lochs  of  Scotland,  great 
Variation  has  been  observed  in  the  trout  according  to  the 
(quality  of  the  water.  In  some  of  them,  where  the  water 
is  clear,  the  fish  are  reddish  or  silvery:  in  others,  where 
ti&e  loch  receives  the  drainings  from  boggy  moorSi  they 
are  nearly  black,  and  of  small  size.  The  most  brilliant 
and  beautifiil  trout  are  generally  found  in  streams  that 
flow  rapidly  over  gravelly  or  rocky  bottoms.  They  are 
finest  m  appearance  and  flavour  from  the  end  of  May 
till  towards  the  end  of  September:  an  effect  produced 
bv  the  greater  quantity  and  variety  of  nutritious  food 
obtainea  during  that  period.  An  experiment  was  made 
some  years  ago^  to  ascertain  the  relative  value  of 
diflte-ent  kinds  of  AmnI,  which  is  thus  related  by  Mr* 
Btoddart  !-^— ; 

f'ish  were  placed  in  three  separate  tanks,  one  of  which 
was  supplied  daily  with  worms,  another  witli  live  minnows, 
and  a  third  with  tnose  small  darlc-coloured  water-flics  wliich 
are  found  moving  about  on  the  surface,  under  banks 
and  sheltered  places.  The  trout  fed  on  worms  grew  slowly, 
And  had  a  lean  appearance ;  those  nourished  on  minnows, 
which,  it  was  observed^  they  darted  at  with  much  voracity, 
became  mueh  larger;  while  such  as  wero  fattened  upon  flies 
only>  attained,  in  a  short  time,  prodigious  dimensions,  weigh- 
ing twice  as  much  as  both  the  others  together,  although  the 
quantity  of  food  swallowed  by  them  was  in  nowise  great. 

The  spawning  time  of  the  trout,  according  to  Sir 
Humphry  Davy*  is  from  the  middle  of  November  till  the 
begrinning  6f  January;  their  maturity  of  roe  depending 
upon  the  temperature  of  the  season,  as  well  as  on  the 
nature  and  quantity  of  their  food.  Mr.  Blaine  has  ob- 
served, that  the  largest  individuals  of  the  speeiea  spawn 
the  first.  At  the  close  of  September  they  quit  the  deep 
water  to  whidi  tiiey  had  retircMi  during  the  latter  part  of 
Slimmer,  and  make  great  efforts  to  gain  the  source  of 
the  eurrents !  ^*  he  will  get"  as  Walton  says,  <'  almost 
miraculously,  through  weirs  and  floodgates  against  the 
streams ;  even  through  such  high  and  swift  places  as  is 
almost  incredible  i"  and  having  got  to  the  end  and  sides 
of  a  stream,  or  ^e  gravelly  bottoms  of  lakes  not  yet 
destitute  of  weeds,  they  make  beds,  and  deposit  their  ova 
therein. 


l»f 


THE  SATURDAY  MAQAZIME. 


tMAT  15,  1341. 


At  toe  apawnii^;  time  tne  trout  slwttld  not  be  takoi : 
a  remark  vhieh  wpliea  generally  to  all  fish;  ttunr  flesh 
is  then  insipid,  and  the;  afford  but  liUle  ar  no  eport.  At 
other  times,  when  the  trout  is  in  good  condition,  the 
head  is  small,  aod  the  body  oval,  the  flesh  of  a  deep  red, 
and  the  general  colour  that  of  a  deep  oli*e  above,  and  of 
a  bright  silver  below :  the  spots  are  alio  brilliant  and 
distinct.  "  A  hog-back  and  a  little  head  to  either  trout, 
salmon,  or  any  other  fish,  is  a  sign  that  that  fish  ia  in 
season,"  is  Walton's  homely  rule. 

Sir  Humphry  Davy  says  that  the  red  hne  of  trout, 
salmon,  and  char,  ia  to  be  attributed  to  a  pecuUar  coloured 
oil,  and  that  the  colour  m^  be  extracted  by  alcohol. 
This,  perhaps,  will  account  for  the  decrease  in  the  red 
colour  of  trout,  when  they  are  emaciated  by  spawuing, 
or  when  they  iiduibit  waters  that  are  not  suited  to  them. 

The  weight  and  dimensions  of  this  fish  are,  as  we 
have  said,  subject  to  much  variation.  Some  remarkable 
instances  are  recorded  of  very  large  individuals  of  the 
■pedes  being  caught.  One  was  taken  on  the  1 1th  of 
January,  1822,  in  a  little  stream  ten  feet  wide,  branching 
trom  the  Avon,  at  the  back  of  Castle-street,  Salisbury, 
whose  weight  was  twenty-five  pounds.  Mrs.  Powell,  at 
the  bottom  of  whose  garden  the  fish  was  first  discovered, 
placed  it  in  a  pond,  where  it  was  fed:  it  lived. four 
months,  and  at  the  time  of  ita  death  it  had  decreased  in 
weight  to  twenty-one  pounds  and  n  quarter.  Atroutwas 
taken  in  September,  L832,  in  the  n^ij^hbonrbood  of  Great 
Driflleld,  which  measured  tljir^-otae  intbes  in  length, 
twenty-one  in  girth,  and  weighed  seventeen  poDnds. , 

In  its  habits  the  trout  is  sdHtary  and  preaacioug.  It 
avoids  man ;  although  there  arc  instances  in  which  it  has 
lost  much  of  its  wildness  by  domestication.  Mr.  Daniel 
relates  an  anecdote  in  proof  of  the  familiarity  of  the 
trout.     He  says : — 

The  ^urisOD  of  Dumbarton  Castle,  in  Scotland,  was 
rin  ISOej  thrown  into  general  lamentation  by  the  sudden 
lose  of  its  oldut  TtUran,  who  had  served  therein,  a  geneial 
ftvonrite  of  the  various  raiments  who  aonnally  change  theii 
qnarten,  while  he  remoinud  on  permanent  duty,  without 
any  alteration  in  rank  or  condition,  for  the  long  period  of 
twenty-^ht  yean.  He  was,  however,  always  decmn)  id  odd 
fish,  being  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  trout,  which  having 
been  caught  by  an  oRiccr  in  the  nver  Leven,  was  brought 
alive  end  put  into  the  garrison  well,  that  flows  to  the  surface, 
where  in  time  it  became  bo  tame  as  to  receive  Its  food  of 
bread,  ficc,  from  the  hands  of  the  soldiers,  in  the  water, 
when  fliBt  taken  it  weighed  little  more  than  a  pound,  and 
(from  the  qnalitj  of  water,  as  is  suppoeed,)  it  never  nflet^ 
wards  increased  In  site.  The  loss  of  tins  extiaotdluuy 
&Toniltc,  was,  we  are  told,  much  regretted  by  theee  wbe 
compose  the  present  garrison  of  Dumbarton  Osatle,  and  wiU 
probably  be  so  by  many  others,  who  in  former  years  have 
been  equally  diverted  by  the  pleasing  intercouree  with  their 
aquatic  comrade. 

The  sensitiFe  nature  of  the  trout  makes  it  very  choice 
in  the  quality  of  its  pasture,  and  causes  it  to.be  affected 
by  any  impurity  to  which  its  haunts  may  be  subjected. 
It  cannot  endure  salt-water,  and  any  mineral  impregna- 
tion is  also  unfavourable  to  it.  A  few  lumps  of  lime 
thrown  into  a  pool  will  soon  destroy  all  the  trout  con- 
tained in  it;  they  depart  also  from  the  brooks  which 
flow  through  fielcb  which  sje  manured  with  lime.  They 
die  in  the  water  in  which  flai  is  steeped,  and  the  drain- 
age of  a  mine  is  often  sufficient  to  banish  all  the  trout 
from  a  considerable  stream. 

In  Ireland  the  gillaroo  or  giEzard  trout  is  much 
esteemed.  They  are  found  in  the  Irish  lakes,  such  as 
those  of  Galway,  and  are  particularly  remarkable  for 
the  great  thickness  of  their  stomachs,  which  bearing 
some  sUght  resemblance  to  the  oi^;ans  of  digestion  in 
birds,  are  called  girzards.  Their  food  is  chiefly 
shell-fish  and  snails,  but  they  rise  readily  at  a  fly.  In 
Canada  there  are  trout  of  an  enormous  sise,  some  of 
them,  according  to  Mackenaie,  measuriDg  five  feet  in 
length;  yet  of  a  delicate  flavour.  In  Lake  Superior, 
trout  hare  been  taken  of  fifty  pounds'  weighL 


The  trout  ihonU  to  cooted,  if.pBarihH  ontbeiiii 
on  which  it  ia  ought,  and  be  kept  M  wA  as  possible 
until  everything  is  ready  for  cooking.  A  lai^  Wjful 
of  salt  must  be  pnt  into  a  kettle  of  water,  and  whni  tins 
boils  the  fish  is  to  be  pnt  in.  A  trout  of  about  a  pegod 
weight  will  be  properly  cooked  in  about  ten  minute*,  li 
should  be  served  up  immediately,  and  eaten  with  naitiri 
and  vinegar  only. 


PsxsBHT  time  and  future  may  be  con^dered  as  rivali;  *A 
he  who  solicits  the  one,  must  expect  to  be  di9M)ont«mi|nJ 
by  the  other. — Hettmum. 


£v£nT  man  is  rich  or  )>oor,  according  to  the  proporlicii 
between  his  desires  and  enjojTnents.  Of  riches,  lu  of  eirj- 
thing  olse,  the  hope  is  more  than  the  enjoyment:  vhile  n 
oonmder  them  as  the  means  to  be  und  at  scnnt  nitnre  timt 
for  the  attainment  of  felicity,  ardour  after  them  Becum  u 
from  weariness  of  onreelvee,  but  no  sooner  do  we  nt  ian 
to  fnjoy  ynr  Requisitions  than  we  find  tltam  insafiiciBil  i° 
Ell. up  the.VBcuities  of  life.  Katuie  .makes  us  pporonly 
when  we  want  neofvoriea,  bnt  custom  Rives  tbe  dvu  ''^ 

Kvertv  to  the  want  of  superfluities.  It  ii  tlte  g«M  pti"- 
jcofpovtnty  to  be  happy  unenvied,  to  be  feioHby  willing 
physic,  secure  without  a  guon),  ani  to  obtain  fran  tlf 
bounty  cf  nature  what  the  great  and  weritt^y  ue  cotsptlM 
to  procare  by  tiiie  help  of  art.  Adveraty  haa.evei  been  «■>' 
»dered  as  tne  state  ui  which  a  man  moat  easily  bMoniA 
ticquaintod  with  himself,  particularly  being  free  Tram  ^• 
terers.  Prosperity  is  too  apt  to  prevent  us  from  twminiiT 
onr  conduct,  out  as  adversity  leads  us  to  think  property  « 
our  state,  it  is  most  beneficial  to  ns. — JoBinon. 


A  Hjih  who  has  been  brongbt  np  among  books;  and  iitUl  | 
to  tdk  of  nothing  else,  is  a  very  indiflci«nt  compsiuoa,  vi 
what  we  call  a  pedant  But  we  riunild  enlarge  tbs  ^  I 
and  give  it  to  eTU^r  one  that  doee  not  know  bow  to  thiu:  I 
out  ^  his  profession  and  particular  way  of  life.  What  i<  • 
giQaUr  pedant  than  a  mere  man  of  the  town  I  Baihimw  | 
play-houses,  a  catalogue  of  the  reigning  beauties,  and  v<n 
strike  him  dumb.  The  military  pedant  always  lalb  inj 
camp,  and  in  storming  towns,  making  lo^emeut*,  *"' 
fiphting  battles  fiom  one  end  of  the  year  to  the  i/i^- 
EveryUiing  he  speaks  smells  of  gunpowder;  if  ye"  ''■' 
away  his  artillery  from  him,  be  has  not  fi  word  to  MJ  ^ 
himself.  The  law  pedant  is  perpetually  putting  cues,  r^ 
peating  the  transactions  of  Westminster-baD,  wriMliDF  "'>'' 
you  upon  the  most  indifferent  circumstances  of  lile,  wii^ 
to  be  convinced  of  the  distance  of  a  place,  or  of  the  mi* 
trivial  point  in  conversation,  but  by  [dint  of  atgonim- 
The  state  pedant  is  wimt  up  in  news,  and  lost  in  P"''"^ 
If  you  mention  either.of^the  sovereigns  of  Eorops,  ne  »»* 
very  notably;  but  if  you  go  ont  of  the  gasette,  y«  «"P 
him.  In  short,  a  mere  courtier,  a  mere  scbolsr,  i  ^ 
anythinft,  is  an  insipid,  pedantic  character,  and  efsiUJ 
rimculons, — The  SIptiMor. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  8TBAKR 

■LmDia  Wu■I.v^^lnu^  PmniOnhsBr, 


Satttt*"*!?       m»s»iint. 


N9. 570. 


MAY 


BRITISH    GUYANA, 


t   OM    THB   VAUUItVONT,   WTTB   V 


III.  Voyage  up  the  Mabbarooni  River. 
Having,  inourfint  article,  pven  an  outline  of  Guyuis, 
in  its  whole  Bit«nt,  (tnd  in  the  lecond  e  sketch  of  the 
historical  aad  political  ereota  nhich  have  brought  British 
Gayona  to  its  present  itate,  together  with  a  notice  of 
the  seat  of  goverament,  &c.,  we  proceed  to  visit  the 
interior  of  the  country. 

It  is  a  fart  observable  in  all  infant  colonies,  that  the 
banks  of  the  rivers,  as  well  as  the  sea-shore,  become  the 
parts  first  settled;  and  the  object  of  this  arrangement  is 
sufficiently  obvious.  One  consequence  of  this  is,  that 
if  we  fallow  the  course  of  the  principal  rivers,  we  shall 
meet  in  snccession  with  roost  of  the  objects  worthy  of 
notice.  We  shall  adopt  this  plan  on  the  preaeut  occa- 
sion. British  Guyana  comprises  the  three  provinces 
of  Essequibo,  Demerara,  and  Bcrbice,  named  from 
three  rivers  bearing  thqse  appellations:  and  nearly  all 
the  settlements,  except  those  inhabited  by  the  native  In- 
dians, are  situated  on  the  banks  of  these  rivers.  We 
^11  begin  with  the  Essequibo. 

The  Essequibo  empties  itself  into  the  Atlantic  by  a 
iiouth  fourteen  miles  wide ;  but  this  is  separated  into  four 
channels,  by  three  low  islands,  one  of  which  is  seven 
biles  in  length.  These  islands,  as  well  as  many  others 
"■nr  the  mouth  of  the  river,  are  covered  with  sugar 
plantations.  For  more  than  thirty  miles  the  river  is 
^t  miles  in  width,  and  is  described  as  appearing  almost 
lie  a  lake  studded  with  numerous  wooded  islands, 
^"xmded  on  either  side  by  a  dens*  >ad  almost  impenetra- 

Vot.  xvni. 


ble  forett,  rich  in  all  the  exuberant  verdure  of  a  fruitful 
soil  under  a  tropical  sun.  We  soon  arrive  at  the  point 
whero  the  united  rivers  <^  the  Cuvoni  and  the  Maaaa- 
roony  fall  into  the  Essequibo.  We  will  turn  into  the 
latter  river,  and  after  tradng  its  cotirse,  return  to  the 
Essequibo. 

Mr.  Hillhouse  voyaged  up  the  Maisaroony  some  years 
ago,  and  was  joined  by  another  gentleman,  and  the  two 
hired  a  canoe  and  a  small  hunting  boat,  whieh  they 
manned  with  twenty-three  Indians.  They  took  wita 
them,  besides  articles  for  their  own  use,  various  others 
with  which  to  purchase  the  good  will  of  the  natives,  such 
as  beads,  needles  and  pins,  raiors,  looking-glasses,  &c. 
The  provisions  consisted  of  rum,  sugar,  Balt,liams,  rice, 
butter,  biscuit,  salt  fish,  and  other  articles. 

The  lower  part  of  the  course  of  the  river  is  divided 
into  ten  or  twelve  channels,  by  innumerable  islands 
stretching  parallel  to  the  banks.  Here  too  are  a  number 
of  rapids,  which  are  ascended  by  the  natives  in  their 
canoes  thus : — The  rapids  do  not  fall  in  one  sheet  over  a 
level  ledge,  but  force  themselves  through  a  number  of 
fissures,  large  intermediate  blocks  of  granite  dividing 
the  different  shoots  of  the  fall.  At  the  base  of  these 
blocks  is  an  eddy,  into  whieh  the  canoe  is  forced,  where 
it  becjmes  stationary,  having  no  current  either  way. 
The  crew  now  spring  upon  the  rock,  and  wade  as  far  up 
as  they  can  find  footing.  By  means  of  a  long  and 
stout  rope  they  then  pull  the  canoe  into  one  of  the 
shoot*  of  the  fall,  where  there  ii  water  enough  to  float 
570 


194 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


[May  22, 


her,  and  by  main  strength  haul  her  up  the  ascent.  Tkcy 
then  take  her  out  of  the  curreat,  «Bd  lay  her  trtel^ 
against  tlie  top  of  the  rock,  frtm  vrhone  twttom  they 
have  jost  monnted,  with  her  head  right  np  t^  Btream, 
and  at  a  given  signal  they  spring  into  her,  and,  pulbng 
with  all  their  strength,  endeavour  to  cross  diagooally 
the  different  currents  till  they  get  imto  another  edd^ 
This  is  the  time  of  greatest  danger  in  ascendmg,  for  rf 
the  men  are  not  acUve  in  seizmg  the  paddles,  tiie  head 
of  the  canoe  is  taken  by  the  current,  and  she  drifts 
broadside  down  the  fall,  where  she  must .  be  inevitably 

upset.  .,     , 

Mr.  Hillhouse's  party  ascended  numerous  rapids  by 
such  means  as  these,— voyi^ng  during  the  day,  from 
seven  o'clock  till  about  four,  and  forming  a  bivouac  «i 
land  during  the  night,  under  tents  formed  of  sail-cloth. 
Whenever  a  party  of  friendly  Indians  was  encountered 
the  travellers  purchased  cassava  bread,  or  any  other 
provisions  which   happened  to  be  attainable.      It  waa 
found  that  the  natives  had  a  very  curious  mode  of  catch- 
ing fish,  by  driving  them  to  the  surface  as  an  oscape 
from  the  effects  of  a  v^etoWe  thrown  into  the  water- 
A  kind  of  vine,  called  the  hai-wrry,  has  a  root  about  tw« 
inches  in  diameter,  filled  with  a  narcotic  ^ummy  milk. 
The  natives  beat  tbe  wwt  with  heavy  sticks,  till  it  is 
shreded   like  coarse  hemp:   they  then   immerse   it  in 
water,  which  speedily  becomes  whitened  with  the  juice. 
This  infusion  is  then  thrown  on  the  surface  of  the  river, 
and  in  about  twenty  minutes  every  fish   at  that  spot 
rises  to  the  surface,  where  it  is  eitlier  taken  ^  ha«d«t 
shot  with  arrows.    A  onbie  foot  «f  Ae  ro«t  wfll  )md»ee 
this  effect  over  an  acre  of  water ;  and  what  is  remark- 
able, the  fish  are  not  found  to  be  deteriorated  k  quality 
by  this  proceeding.     A  fish  called  the  />«co«,  averaging 
seven  pounds  in  weight,  is  captured  by  ikoe  means, 
aided  by  the  following :  when  the  natives  fmA  ft  part  «f 
the  river  abundan%«iqpfla6d  with  this  fish,  diey  enclo« 
it  with  a  waJl  «r  Imm  stoflwa,  ft  fe^  i*«WJ  iIm  MtHkoe 
of  the  waAeiv  V»Kiij  tm^  «r  thwe  w^mm  AmU  teft  feeft 
broad,  f or  tke  6fih  to  enter.     Far  tlMe  lyaceaOiey  j««- 
pare  wooAeft  luirdles,  and  alMftt  tw»  kmirt  MSare  day- 
break they  proceed  oiteiifly  to  ift«p  Ifca  «pertnre«  witti 
them.     The  fish  are  dms  enclosed  in  ft  iM^raryjpottd, 
which  is  inspected  at  day-break,  and  an  infnsioft  rf  bai- 
arry  is  poured  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Mr.  Hillhouse  and  his  companions  found  it  quite  a 
relief  when,  after  having  proceeded  for  many  days  op 
the  river,  they  got  rid  of  the  innumerable  islands,  rapids, 
and  falls,  and  came  to  a  spot  where  the  river  presented 
an  open  and  placid  aspect.  It  appeared  like  an  inland 
lake,  and  at  a  distance  of  sixty  miles  was  discerned  the 
summit  of  a  mountain  called  Arthur's  Table,  five  or  six 
thousand  feet  in  height.  The  migratory  habits  of  the 
Accaway  Indians,  who  inhabit  this  region,  were  strikingly 
exemplified  during  the  voyage:  a  populous  village  one 
year  is  often  totally  deserted  the  next,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants some  hundred  miles  away.  In  1830  Mr.  Hillhouse 
had  met  with  an  Indian  settlement,  consisting  of  about 
two  hundred  persons,  and  when  he  visited  the  same  spot 
in  1831,  with  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  supply  of  provi- 
sions, he  found  the  place  wholly  deserted. 

When  they  had  been  twenty-six  days  on  the  river  our 
ti-avellers  came  to  the  fall  of  Macrebah,  on  the  Corolung 
creek,  which  empties  itself  into  the  Massaroony. 

The  features  are  so  totally  dissimilar  (says  Mr.  Hillhouse) 
to  those  which  are  generally  described  as  beautiful  and 
romantic,  that  I  can  only  state,  whatever  was  the  cause, 
m  V  chief  sensation  was  on  oppression  of  the  senses,  from 
vehich  I  was  gl«l  to  escape.  In  the  first  place,  the  water  of 
the  creek,  though  perfectly  transparent,  is  a  deep  dioooiate 
colour,  and  the  sands  are  reflected  in  i^  of  a  bng^t  doret 
or  purple.  The  creek  winds  about  La  the  most  opposite 
directions,  and  at  every  turn  a  large  and  bold  spit  oT  white 
sand  projects,  which  contrasts  most  unpleasantly  with  the 
surrounding  water.  There  is  uniformly  no  midole  ground 
for  the  loAoacape;  but  from  the  dark  and  still  creek,  with 


its  nniform  fringe  of  trees,  starts  up,  as  if  by  magu^4  ptr- 
pendicnlar  i3^%  of  «»  TlSiOftB«d  or  fiAeen  hunbea  feet 
fcight,  whi^  yon  iaao w  isdistoiit^  biA  wliiA  yon  fed  as  if 
inyour  most  daftgwons  proximity;  eadaa  ywHeejUanjuLd 
you  detached  tnasses,  apparently  torn  from  these  gigaLtk 
walls  of  nature,  you  expect  every  moment  to  see  one  tf 
them  blocking  uplhe  creek  before  you,  or  cnt&ig  off  vow 
retreat.    Every  two  or  three  hours  you  come  to  an  immens! 
block  of  granite,  to  pass  which  you  have  a  channel  barely 
wide  enough  for  your  craft:  then  the  channel  widens  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  yards,  and  you  are  in  a  daret-coloured 
lake,  so  shallow  that  you  can  scarcely  swim.    At  the  v«)- 
last  yon  eaiter  a  capacious  basin,  as  black  as  ink,  surroundeil 
by  a  bold  extensive  sand,  as  white  as  chalk,  and  you  hear  a  M 
of  water  before  you,  but  perceive  no  current,  though  thex 
is  a  foam  like  yeast  on  the  Buriace,  which  remains  the  wii(  k 
day  without  any  visible  alteration.     On  a  more  attentive 
examination  you  perceive  at  a  distance  a  broken  white  K 
struggling  thiougn  a  cluster  of  granite  rocks,  at  the  base  of 
two  quartz  cUffis  of  a  mixed  chaiscter;  and  this  is  the  faJ 
of  liUKsrebah. 


At  some  distance  from  this  fall  la  «afe  more  coosideri- 
ble  height,— that  of  CooBaaarow,  «ke  body  of  water 
falling  through  the  immense  deptk  rf  aix  hundred  feet 
After  leaving  thiafidl  Mr.  HiUiiottaeMl  in  wHkahi^ 
narty  of  Indians,  with  forty  or  fifty  boiU*,  engaged  in 
fisyng  by  the  aid  of  the  narcotic  infoaiMi.  Men,  wonai. 
and  chiWren,  with  bows  and  arrows,  knvea,  and  acts, 
were  chaang  the  intoxicated  fish  in  all  dixectiona,  Mr. 
HillhoHse  himself,  with  the  aid  of  one  mm  and  a  net, 
captured  a  hundred  aaad  fifty-four  fish,  averaging  four  or 
five  pounds'  weight  taA.  The  party  Haan  landed,  m 
coinloyed  tiietteelv«a  fiar  tM  daya  andiMghta  in  aaokin; 
and  curing  the  fish,  T>y  which  they  ciltiaiMii  «i  abundac: 
supply  for  the  remainder  of  their  jouiwifw  The  natives 
of  the  surrounding  districts  brought  ahiiaAwinr  of  yaifi* 
and  cassava  bread,  which  the  travellera  %ifcgiy  F 

chased.  ^    ^  ^  ^^     , 

Here  the  travellers  were  within  tn^  daj«  tWe  «  \xx 
wnmea  of  the  Ma»amMiy»  baft  «  llie  nivr  aaaaaani 

alwatt  to  com^fcenoe,  the  party  ttShmMA.  HKiwdei: 
which  these  regions  are  oddbitod  way  be  iiiftittd frame 
answer  given  by  the  lurtma  to  Mtv.  HtHhouse,  »1» 

asked  whether  the  MUMitaww  wew  inhabited.  Tfaw 
repUed,  «No:  whana  ^mmHA  tbe  |>eo|Ae  fsd  ^«t«>'-  'I 
appears  then  that  the  scanty  population  are  to  be  fouu*! 
only  near  the  creeks  which  fall  into  the  large  rivers. 

The  natives  here  alluded  to  are  generally  very  inoffa- 
sive  in  their  behaviour,  though  in  a  very  low  stageef 
civiKiation.  Sir  J.  E.  Alexander,  while  gomg  i»p  j® 
river,  aaw  "a  family  of  natives  croswng  it  in  their  li| 
canoe:  he  paddled  after  them,  and  teided  w»fe«? 
locttst-treea,  where  he  fatoA  a  native  acttlenient.  Ik 
logics  were  sheds,  open  all  round,  «id  covered  irith  w 
leaves  of  the  troo!y  pahn,  «ome  of  them  twenty-foor  w^ 
long;  and  suspended  from  the  bamboo  timbers  of » 
roof  were  hammocks  of  net- work,  in  ^duch  themca  vere 
larily  swmging.  One  or  two  of  thoee  who  were  a«i» 
were  makmg  anow-hcads  ont  of  hard  wood.  Ike  ■« 
and  children  were  entirely  naked,  with  the  exceptwa « 
a  cloth  round  the  lo«w,  bat  the  women  had  blue  p*»- 
coats  and  braided  hair.  They  were  employed  m  s^!^ 
the  root  of  the  cassava  tree  into  a  trough  of  bark: » 
shreds  are  then  put  into  a  long  press  «f  »^^^' 
and  the  poisonous  juice  expressed,  after  which  the  ^ 
farina  is  baked  on  an  iron  plate.  The  oM  '^o"*'"^ 
weaving  square  aprons  of  beads,  together  with  anaj^ 
and  ankle  ornaments.  Some  were  fabrieating  «^^ 
pots,  and  all  the  females  seemed  to  be  actively  «^P^ 
They  offered  their  visitor  a  red  liquor  called  t^x^ 
prepared  from  the  sweet  potatoe,  also  ptwarry,  ^a\^' 
eating  beverage  made  by  chewing  the  cassava,  ^^*^' 
ing  it  to  ferment.  At  some  of  their  feasts  Ae  In«»» 
prepare  a  small  canoe  fhll  Of  this  nqnor,  bv  the  s^^  » 
which  the  cntertauners  and  iheir  guests  roll  ^^^^^ 
a  state  of  brutal  intoxication  for  two  or  three  davs»  ^ 
helpmates  lookmg  aft«f  them,  and  piwenti»g  the  s» 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


19& 


from  getting  into  their  moatha.^  This,  is  certainly  a  prao 
tice  sufficiently  debasing,  but  the  liquor  is  not  so  baneful  as 
ardent  spirits,  and  the  natives  are  well  again  after  a  night's 
rest.  Fish,  which  the  men  had  shot  with  their  arrows^ 
and  birds*  were  brought  out  of  the  canoe,  and  svoke- 
dricd  on  a  gating  of  bamboos  over  a  fire. 

We  shall  here  terminate  our  notice  of  the  Massaroony, 
and  in  the  next  paper  resume  our  route  on  the  Essequibo^ 
from  the  spot  where  the  Massaroony  enters  it,  and  then 
proceed  up  that  river  towards  its  Bource. 


AMICABLE  CEREMONIES. 

a 

SaIutations. — Reverences. 

Iir  a  former  article,  at  page  158  of  this  volume,  we  en- 
tered into  a  description  of  various  amicable  ceremonies 
used  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  We  here  resume 
the  subject*  in  order  to  extend  still  further  our  descrip- 
tive notice  of  Salutations. 

As  we  have  before  shown,  salutations  consist,  for  the 
most  part,  of  certain  gestures ;  and  oftentimes  an  ex- 
press assurance,  or  wish,. is  added  to  such  mute  signs  of 
feeling.  The  difference  in  the  forms  of  salutation  often 
extends  so  far,  that  one  nation  considers  that  a  mark 
of  rudeness,  which  aoothisr  etteems  a  mark  of  civility. 

In  most  Germaiv  countries,  for  instaooe,  it  is  an  act  of 
politeness  to  kiss  the  hands  of  ladies :  but  in  Italy,  this 
is  regarded  as  a  mark  of  familiarity  which  is  permitted 
only  to  the  nearest  relations.  In  Kussia,  however,  the 
ladies  allow  not  only  ihd  hand  to  be  kissed*  but  even  the 
forehead,  and  would  consider  themaelves  insulted  by  the 
omission  of  this  ceremony. 

Instead  of  the  customary  salutation  in  the  protestant 
countries  of  Germany — *^  Good  morning," — **  Your  ser- 
vant," &c^  the  lioman.  Catholic  of  these  parts  of  the 
world  was  aecnstomed  to  salute  in  the  manner  prescribed 
by  the  Pope,  Benedict  XIII.,  in  1718,— «<  Praised  be 
Jesus  Christ ;"  to  which  the  answer  is, — **  For  ever, 
Amen." 

The  military  sahitations  introduced  among  the  Ger- 
mans, at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  consist 
in  touching  the  hat  or  c^,  lowering  the  standards  and 
the  sword,  or  raising  the  musket. 

The  usual  salutation  oi  the  miner  is-^*'  Good  luck  to 
you." 

Vessels  out  at  sea,  whe»  they  meet,  s^ute  each  other 
by  a  discharge  of  cannon,  by  striking  the  flag,  or  by  the 
cheers  of  the  sailors,  &c. 

In  one  of  the  larger  Cyclades  (islands  of  the  Archi- 
pelago), persons  saluting  reciprocally  moisten  each 
other's  hair. 

The  salutation  of  the  Hindoos  in  Bengal  consists  in 
toaching  the  forehead  with  the  right  hand,  and  bending 
the  head  forwards.  They  first  place  the  right  hand  on 
the  breast  with  a  profbuiid  inclination,  then  touch  the 
ground,  and  finally,  the  forehead  with  the  same  hand ; 
calling  theHMeLves  all  the  while  the  moat  homUe  slaves 
of  him  whom  they  so  sidute. 

The  mhabitant  of  the  island  of  Sumatra,  when,  he 
salutes,  bends  the  body  jwpfoundly,  begs  the  left  foot  of 
him  whom  he  addresses,  kneels  on  the  ground,  and 
applies  this  foot  to  his  own  crown,  forehead,  breast,  and 
luaee ;  finally*  be*  tiHicbes  the  ground  with  his  head,  and 
remains  for  some  moments  stretched  out  at  fuU  length. 
At  an  entertainment  in  Persia,  the  host  goes  a  con- 
nderaUe  dtataace  to  meet  h»  gueafts,  bids  them  welcome 
with  the  moat  respectful  compliments,  then  returns 
lustily  tc  the  door  of  his  own  house,  and  waits  their 
arnval  to  repeat  the  same  demonstrations  of  respects 

Mr<  Russell,  in  his  pleasant  sketches  of  the  domestic 
sanners  pf  the  Turks,  says, — 

A  bashaw  xiaei  from  his  seat  on  the  entxanoe  of  imdaoI 


Uie  iwnoi^  personages^  b«t  neceiTesaH  other  visitors  sitting. 
Otlier  pexsoDS  of  distinction  usually  rise  to  welcome,  orbS 
farewell,  to  their  guests.  As  sooa  as  the  visitor  has  taken 
his  phce,  a  string  ofpages  make  their  appearance,  preceded 
by  an  officer,  called  Kahwagee,  distinguished  by  a  large  silk 
^ron,  who  carries  a  round  salver,  covered  with  red  cloth, 
ie  the  middle  of  which  salver  is  pfaced  a  coffee  pot,  suf- 
loonded  with  half-a-dozen  small  cups  mveraed.  The  firsfc 
page,  carrvinff  a  laige  silk  or  embroiGbred  nap^  dnm 
down  on  nis  Knees,  aod»  resting  on  his  h^ms,  spreads  the 
'  najikin  over  tlie  stranger'a  robe,  so  as  to  prevent  its  being 
accidentally  soiled.  A  second,  in  the  same  attitude,  m*esents 
the  sweetmeat  in  a  crystal  cup,  together  with  a  smaU  spoon, 
with  which  the  guest  helps  nimselt  A  third,  having  re- 
ceived a  cup  from  the  Kahwagee,  stands  ready  with  the 
oofiee ;  he  does  not  kneel,  but  stoopinff  gently  forward,  tot 
low^erine,  thenquicldy  advancing  the  nand,  deliventhe  cup 
wiih  a  dexterity  to  be  acquired  only  by  practice.  A  fourth 
brings  tlie  lighted  pipe,  and  first  laying  down  an  utensil, 
called  niffida,  for  preserving  the  carpet,  upon  which  the  bowl 
of  the  pipe  is  placed,  he  presents  tiie  other  end  of  the  pipe, 
bv  an  easy  movement  of  one  arm,  while  the  other  hand  is 
placed  on  the  breast.  The  moment  the  coffiee  is  finished,  a 
page  is  ready  to  receive  the  emptv  cup,  ^riiich  he  catches, 
as  it  were,  between  both  hands,  the  left  palm  turned  up : 
another  page,  kneeling  also,  removes  the  napkin,  and  the 
cofiee  cup  being  replaced  on  the  salver,  the  Kahwagee.  re- 
tires, while  the  pages,  one  hand  laid  on  the  girdle,  and 
crossed  by  the  otner  in  the  attitude  of  humble  attendance 
remain  at  a  little  distance. 

In  China,  some  salutations  are  peculiar  to  men,  and 
others  to  women :  but  the  latter  are  not  allowed  to  salute 
the  former.  Children,  in  saluting,  fall  on  their  knees 
before  their  parents,  and  servants  before  their  master  or 
mistress. 

In  one  of  the  Japan  islands^  the  inferior,  of  two  per- 
sons saluting,  takes  off  his  sandak,  puts  his  right  hand 
into  his  left  sleeve,  permits  his  hands,  thus  crossed,  to 
sink  slowly  upon  bis  knee,  passes  the  other  person  with 
short  measured  steps»  and  a  rocking  motion  of  the  body, 
exclaiming  with  a  feaxful  countenance  "  Augh !  aughT' 
(Do  not  hurt  me !) 

The  women  of  Siams  even  when  advanced  in  age,  ave 
saluted  with  the  names  of  the  mosl^  beautiful  and  most 
precious  objects  in  nature,  bnt  not  without  the  additionel 
word  ^^ young";  as  "young  diamond,"  "young  gold," 
"  young  heaven,"  "  young  flower,"  &c. 

In  Ceylon,  when  persons  salute,  they  raise  the  palm  of 
the  hand  to  the  forehead,  and  make  a  low  bow. 

The  greeting  of  the  common  Arabian  is  "Salim. 
alikum  "  (Peace  be  with  you)> — a  salutation  which  has 
been  long  in  use  among  the  Jews.  At  the  same  time, 
he  places  his  left  hand  upon  his  breast,  as  a  sign  that 
this  wish  comes  from  his  heart.  The  reply  is,  "  Alikum 
essalam"  (With  you  be  peace),  *  But  Arabians  of  dis- 
tinction embrace  each  other  two  or  three  times,  kiss 
each  other*s  cheeks,  and  inquire  two  or  three  tiroes  afler 
each  other's  health :  at  the  same  time,  each  kisses  his 
own  hand.  Tlie  Arabs  of  the  Desert  shake  hands  six 
or  eight  times.  In  Yemen,  a  province  of  Arabia, 
persons,  of  distinction,  after  a  long  refusal,  allow  their 
fingers  to  be  kissed. 

The  negroes  of  Sierra  Leone  bend  the  right  elbow, 
so  that  the  hand  touches  the  mouth:  the  person  saluted 
dpes  the  same :  they  then  put  their  thumb  and  forefingev 
together,^  and  withdraw  thei^  slowly.  Other  negroes 
snap  their  fingers  on  meeting  each  other,  pull  the  comb 
out  of  their  hair,  and  replace  it. 

In  Lowev  Guinea,  the  saluting  person  seiaea  the 
fingera  of  the  other,  brings  them  lAto  a  particular  posi 
tion,  presses  them,  and  cracks,  them  hastily,  calling-^ 
"  Akkio,  Akkio»"  (Thy  servant,  tby  servant).  Cracking 
the  fingers  appears  to  be  a  genuine  negro  mark  of  friend- 
ship, with  the  expressions — "  Ausi,  Auzi,' '  (Good  day, 
Good  day):  or  "Bere,  Bere,"  (Peace,  Peace).  If  the 
Mandingoes»  in  Western  Guinea,  salute  a  female, 
they  take  her  hand,  raise  it  to  their  nose,  and  smell 
it  twice.. 

670—2 


\M 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Mat  22, 


The  king  of  Dahomeyy  a  district  of  Guinea,  when 
wishing  to  salute  foreignersy  sends  a  messenger  with  a 
band  of  negro  soldiers.  The  officers  of  the  corps 
approach  the  visitors  with  drawn  swords,  which  they 
brandish  over  their  heads  with  curious  gesticulations  and 
motions.  They  then  place  their  swords  upon  their  bodies, 
and  after  a  repetition  of  these  ceremonies,  the  messen- 
ger presents  them  his  hand,  and  drinks  to  their  health. 

When  a  native  of  Morocco  wishes  to  salute  a 
foreigner,  he  rides  full  speed  towards  him,  as  if  about 
to  run  him  down ;  he  then  suddenly  stops,  and  discharges 
his  pistol  over  the  head  of  the  stranger.  Persons  of 
equal  rank  salute  each  other  nearly  in.  the  European 
way :  they  shake  hands,  and  kiss  each  other's  face  and 
beard,  particularly  if  they  are  friends. 

The  Egyptians,  in  saluting,  extend  their  hands,  place 
them  upon  their  breast,  and  bend  their  heads.  The 
greatest  act  of  politeness  is  to  kiss  their  own  hand,  and 
afterwards  to  place  it  upon  their  heads.  They  only  kiss 
the  hands  of  men  of  distinction ;  not  of  women.  Infe- 
rior officers  hold  the  stirrups  of  their  superiors  when 
mounting  on  horseback.  In  the  divan,  the  inferior 
takes  off  the  slipper  of  the  superior,  places  it  by  his 
side,  and  receives  the  same  salutation  from  the  latter. 

•  In  some  countries  of  Africa  people  take  off  their 
clothes,*  fall  on  their  knees,  bend  their  heads  to  the 
ffround,  and  cover  their  head  and  shoulders  with  sand. 
In  others,  they  seize  the  right  hand  of  him  for  whom 
they  wish  to  show  respect,  and  raise  it  to  their  mouth. 

The  salutations  between  the  different  tribes  in  the 
north-west  of  America  are  very  ceremonious.  If  two 
tribes  meet,  they  stop  at  the  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty 
steps,  throw  themselves  on  the  ground,  and  remain  for 
some  moments  in  this  position.  The  two  eldest  of  each 
party  then  advance,  and  relate  very  circumstantially  the 
dangers  they  have  encountered.  As  soon  as  they  have 
finished  their  relaticms,  they. all  begin  to  sigh.  These 
sighs  are  finally  changed  into  a  yell,  in  which  the  young 
girls,  partieolarly,  endeavour  to  outdo  the  others  of  the 
tribe.  With  these  manifestations  of  svmpathy  both  par- 
ties approach,  but  each  sex  separately.  Tobacco-pipes 
are  handed  about,  and  their  affliction  is  soon  changed  into 
merriment. 

m 

The  savage  of  Louisiana  territory,  when  saluting  a 
person  of  distinction,  begins  a  load  howl :  in  the  hut  he 
repeats  the  salutation,  holding  his  hands  above  his  head, 
and  howling  three  times.  He  returns  thanks  with 
another  howU  when  the  superior  invites  hbUt  with  a  sign, 
to  sit  down. 

The  manner  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  South  Ame- 
rica salute  each  other,  is  short.  Their  address  is — 
"Ama  re  ka,"  (Thou);"  and  the  answer— "A,"  (Yes). 

The  people  of  the  Society  and  Friendly  Islands,  who^ 
in  saluting,  touch  the  ends  of  each  others'  noses*  return 
the  salutation  by  each  rubbing  the  hand  of  the  other  on 
his  own  nose  and  mouth. 

The  inhabitant  of  Otaheite,  in  choosing  a  friend,  pre- 
sents him  sometimes  with  a  part  of  his  dress,  and  some- 
times with  the  whole. 

We  shall  conclude  this  subject  by  detailing  a  few 
salutations,  which  partake  more  largely  of  the  character 
of  reverence  J  remarking,  by  the  way,  that  the  tendency 
to  slavish  salutations  and  abject  rsvsrencbs  has  always 
prevailed,  and  still  eminently  prevails,  in  the  Eastern 
regions  of  the  globe. 

The  Russian  throws  himself  on  the  ground  before  his 
master,  clasps  his  knees,  and  kisses  them:  this  is  a  very 
ancient  custom,  and  is  still  prevalent  in  the  East,  where 
they  usually  kiss  the  feet  of  their  superiors. 

The  Pole  bows  to  the  gpround,  and  the  Bohemian 
kisses  at  least  the  gown  of  any  one  for  whom  he  wishes 
to  express  his  profound  respect. 

•  The  Turk  crosses  his  hands,  places  them  upon  his 
breast,  and  bows. 

In  China  if  two  persons  meet  on  horseback,  the  infe- 


rior in  rank  dismounts  from  his  horse  before  the  supe- 
rior, and  remains  standing  until  he  has  passed. 

In  Siam,  the  inferior  throws  himself  on  the  ground 
before  his  superior.  The  latter  then  sends  one  of  bij 
attendants,  wno  are  very  numerous  in  the  case  of  per- 
sons of  distinction,  to  examine  whether  he  has  eaten,  or 
carries  with  him,  anything  of  an  offensive  smell:— if  so, 
he  receives  a  kick  ^om  the  superior,  and  must  retire 
immediately :  otherwise,  the  servant  lifts  him  up. 

In  Ceylon,  an  inferior  throws  himself  on  the  ground 
before  a  superior,  continually  repeating  his  name  and 
dignity ;  while  the  latter  very  gravely  passes  on,  and 
hardly  deigns  to  utter  a  word  of  reply. 

The  Abyssinians  and  some  other  people  of  Africa 
fall  on  their  knees  before  their  superiors,  and  kiss  the 
ground. 

Thus  have  we  given  our  readers  a  tolerably  full 
description  of  the  various  modes  of  saluting  and  of  shov- 
ing respect,  which  are  in  vog^ue  in  different  parts  of  the 
world;  and  we  cannot  help  remarking  that,  though  such 
modes  are  for  the  most  part  singular,  and  often  appa- 
rentltf  ridiculous,  they  are  perhaps  more  referrible  to 
nature,  than  we  may  at  the  first  view  be  led  to  suppose. 


KELIGIOK. 


As  when  upon  some  dismal  night 

The  wanderer  wends  his  way, 
Some  star  appears  to  guide  aright. 

And  lead  him  on  till  day — 
So  is  the  hope,  O  God !  that's  given 
By  thee  to  man  of  future  heaven ; 
like  that,  it  shines  when  all  is  drear. 
And  'mid  our  darkness  shows  most  dear. 

When  on  the  foaming  btUows  toased. 

The  mariner  destruction  fears* 
Yet  shall  his  vessel  not  be  lost — 

A  lighthouse  on  the  rock  appears. 
And  thus,  when  near  the  rock,  O  God^ 
The  rock  of  sin,  and  guilf  s  abode— 
Thy  word,  a  lighthouse  to  the  soul, 
Shall  warn  us  ^  the  dangerous  ahoaL 

Or,  if  through  lonely  deserts  straying. 

Oppressed  with  toil,  fatigue,  distress. 
We  see  a  distant  fountain  playing, 

AU  once  again  is  happiness. 
Bo  shall  thy  word,  great  Father,  give 
Thy  children  hope,  and  bid  them  live; 
A  fountain  springs  on  Oalvaiy/ 
And  they  who  dnnk  shall  never  die. 

Yes,  ever  there^  till  time  shall  end, 

Thy  promise  ever  lives— 
Thrice  happy  we,  if  Grod  befiriend. 

And  every  &ult  forgives; 
And  here,  though  earthly  woes  combine, 
Thy  word  shall  always  Inrightly  shine ; 
And»  God,  be  thou  for  ever  thus, 
A  fountain^  star,  and  light  to  us. 


T.A. 


As  we  see  some 


itaied, 


ne  flTounds  that  have  longlidn  idle  and  uiitiU«<^ 
when  grown  rant  and  fertile  by  res^  to  abound  ^^^  # 
spend  their  virtue  In  the  product  of  innumerable  soitt  « 
weeds  and  wild  herbs,  that  are  unprofitable,  and  of  no  wbo^ 
some  use ;  even  so  it  is  with  wits,  whioh  if  not  applied  to  80in« 

certain  study  that  ma^  fix  and  restrain  them,  run  wo 
thousand  extravagancies,  and. are  eternally  roving  here  tf^ 
there  in  the  inextricable  labyrinth  of  lestless  imagination*- 

MOMTAIOKB. 


Fruoalett  may  be  termed  the  daughter  <>^P"^®"5^ns 
sister  of  temperance,  and  the  parent  of  liberty.  **^'^^ 
extravagant  will  quickly  become  poor,  ^^J^V^^^q^ 
enforce  dependence,  and  invite  corruption.  It  ^/^^ 
always  produce  a  passive  compliance  with  the  wicJmqp 
of  others,  and  there  are  flaw  who  do  not  learn  by  <m«^ 
to  practise  those  cximes  which  they  cease  to  oensoR* 
Josmoir. 


1841.] 


THE  SATUBDAY  MAGAZINE. 


197 


EUEAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS. 
MAY. 

TbM  nibtls  plondam  at  tba  baim  kind. 
Fv  *£,  perups,  wimv  utdoit  ildm  ihadfl 
The  deep  itill  pool,  within  HiDa  luUoir  tnoik 
ContnTn  hii  wiclcvr  «Hch :  whan  he  vjm^ 
Hii  limg  purlieu,  lurd  of  tha  ttnun,  and  ill 
Tb*  Son  J  ihoila  hh  otil— On  ihs  mA  nod 
fill  thmi  liii  ml  ii^iiiiiir  «iiil  iiii  ilnl  l»iit 
Behold  tba  ^ua<i«  ^oib!  hair  Bten  fllh, 
BoJmi,  OiB,  nd  bones,  thB  lenl>«i  of  hit  taM, 


Thi  Onu,  lUwtala  Ivfra.) 

Ottsk -hunting,  though  faHen  nito  comparatire  disuse,  is 
Tct  rafficiently  practised  to  make  it  desirable  that  we 
should  notice  it  among  our  other  sports.  It  was  formerly 
a  fiTourite  British  pastime,  ana  during  the  rei^n  of 
Qneea  Eliiabeth  Urge  packs  of  otter-hounds  were  kept 
in  Tarioas  parts  of  the  kingdom  for  the  diversion  of  the 
young  nobles.  These  hunts  were  attended  with  certain 
fonnajities  duly  to  be  observed.  The  dresses  of  the 
hvinters  were  of  a  gay  description,  consisting  of  a  green 
vert,  bordered  or  turned  up  with  red ;  a  cap  of  &r,  en- 
circled by  a  gold  band,  and  occaaioitally  snrmounled  with 
a  mull  dy^  ostrich  feather;  waterproof  boots,  orna- 
mented with  red  or  gold  tassels.  A  disorderly  sort  of 
bunt  was  also  carried  on  by  the  lower  orders  when  a 
whole  village  crew  or  township  united  to  pursue  the 
otter.  On  these  latter  occasions  weapons  of  alt  descrip- 
tions and  dogs  of  various  kinds  were  employed. 

Otter-hnnting  is  pursued  at  a  season  when  fox-hunting 
and  hare-huntmg  are  given  up,  and  consequently  haa  its 
advocates  among  those  who  can  ill  bear  the  tedium  of 
waiting  for  the  return  of  the  more  popular  sports. 

The  return  of  warm  weather,  which  inntes  the  sports- 
nun  to  thii  diversion,  likewise  diminishes  the  risk  attend- 
ant on  it.  The  otter-hunter  is  considered  unfit  for  his 
occupation  if  be  fears  the  consequences  of  a  "diickinz;" 
and  if  he  is  lucky  enough  to  spear  the  otter,  he  usually 
pluoges  into  the  stream  without  hesitation,  and  raises  his 
prey  out  of  the  water,  while  his  hounds  press  eagerly 
arotrnd  hhn  to  give  a  few  more  shakes  to  the  tough  hide 
of  the  animal. 

The  weapoaa  formerly  naed  in  the-  chase  of  the  otter 
*fre  a  forked  spear  with  small  barbs,  and  a  single  spear 
*ith  a  slight  barb,  a  mere  ashen  pole,  pointed  at  one 
™il,  being  in  use  among  the  peasantry.  At  the  present 
■ime  a  more  efficient  weapon  is  used  by  the  best  otter- 
<^ha3ers;  this  is  the  modem  spring  barb,  which  is  so  con- 
'l^ucted  as  to  secure  the  otter,  and  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  escape  when  once  be  is  struck  with  this 
^^pon.  The  pursuit  of  this  animal  b  commenced 
^aa  early  hour  in  the  morning,  as  the  game  may  then 
'^  more  readily  tracked  to  hii  coach  or  kennel.    This  ia 


generally  formed  in  a  bank  by  the  side  of  a  river,  brook, 
or  pon^  and  artfiilly  concealed  by  having  its  opening 
behind  a  bush,  beneath  some  overhanging  ridge  of  earth, 
among  twisted  roots,  or  in  some  equally  unsuspected 
place.  Sometimes  the  otter  leaves  its  couch  as  soon  as 
it  becomes  sensible  of  the  approach  of  the  hounds,  and, 
diving  under  water,  makes  its  way  up  the  stream,  so  as 
for  a  time  to  distance  its  enemies.  The  water  is  now 
carefiiUy  watched  by  the  sportsmen,  and  when  they  hare 
tracked  the  animal,  either  by  means  of  the  mud  he  stirs  up, 
or  by  the  air-bubbles  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  all  is 
animation,  and  the  dogs  are  encouraged  in  their  busy 
search,  while  the  huntsmen  watch  their  opportunity  to 
take  um  with  their  spears  when  the  animal  next  presents 
himself  to  view.  If  within  reach,  the  dexterous  sports- 
man transGies  the  animal  with  a  lunge;  if  not,  he  ulbIs 
bis  spear  at  him,  and  when  not  successful  in  his  aim,  has 
either  to  wade,  or  swim  after  the  spear,  as  it  remains 
imbedded  in  the  mud.  Sometimes  the  weapon  is  thrown 
with  80  steady  an  aim  that  it  passes  directly  through  the 
otter,  when  both  are  brought  to  the  wafer's  edge  in 
triumph,  as  we  have  before  stated;  sometimes  the  oiler 
escapes  the  spear  altogether,  and  becomes  personally 
engaged  with  the  dogs.  Here  a,  vehement  struggle 
arises,  and  the  animal  is  not  o^en  killed  before  he 
has  inflicted  severe,  if  not  fatal,  wounds  on  some  of  the 
dogs. 

The  quantity  of  fish  destroyed  by  otters  is  enormous, 
for  it  is  known  to  kill  many  more  than  are  necessarj-  for 
its  sustenance,  and  it  appears  to  prefer  the  head  of  the 
fish,  leaving  in  many  cases  the  body  untouched. 

Rapine  end  spoil 
Hannt  e'en  the  lowest  dcepa  :  sens  liare  tlieir  sliarlia 
Rivera  and  poniia  enclose  (lie  ravenous  pike; 
He,  in  his  turn,  becomes  a  prey — on  hiiu 

The  amphibioua  oiler  feasts 

.     1 Nor  ipean 

That  bristle  on  his  back,  defend  the  perch 
From  hi*  wide  greedy  Jkws;  nor  bun ished  mail 
The  yellow  catp;noraU  bis  arti  can  save 
The  insinuatiog  eel,  that  hides  his  lieod 
Beneath  the  sluny  mud ;  nor  yet  escapes 
The  crimson-spotted  trout,  the  river's  pride, 
Aud  beanty  of  the  stream.    Wiihoot  remorse 
This  midnig-ht  pillager,  raging  around 
Initiate  swalkiwa  alJ.     The  owner  monnu 
The  nnpeopled  rivulet,  and  gladly  heua 


The 

Otter-honting  is  pursued  with  much  ardour  in  Scot- 
land and  in  Ireland.  In  the  latter  country,  where  the 
grossest  superstition  still  prevails  amongst  a  large  class 
of  the  peasantry,  a  strange  creature  is  reported  to  in- 
habit their  lakes  and  rivers,  which  they  call  the  master- 
oiler.  He  is  supposed  to  be  endued  with  amaxing  vir- 
tnes.  Where  a  portion  of  his  skin  is,  the  house  cannot 
be  burned,  or  the  ship  cast  away,  and  neither  steel  nor 
bullet  will  harm  the  man  who  possesses  an  inch  of  the 
precious  material.  The  narratora  cannot  depose  to  their 
ever  having  been  fortunate  enough  to  see  one  themselves, 
but  there  is  a  story  current  among  them  of  one  having 
been  killed  by  three  brothers  called  Montgomery,  who 
from  poverty  became  immensely  rich,  and  whose  descend- 
ants are  opulent  to  this  very  day.  At  Dku-hill  one  of 
these  animals  is  reported  to  have  been  seen  about  sixty 
years  ago,  attended  by  about  one  hundred  common- 
sized  otters,  who  waited  upon  the  master  like  dutiful  and 
loyal  beasts. 

The  ravages  committed  by  otters  make  it  necessary  to 
have  recourse  to  other  methods  of  taking  them,  when 
hounds  trained  for  the  purpose  are  not  at  hand.  As  the 
animal  rejects  every  kind  of  bait,  a  trap  is  employed 
which  is  covered  with  mnd,  and  rendered  invisible  to 
lim.  This  is  placed  near  the  landing  'place  of  the  otter, 
which  may  always  be  detected  by  the  scales  and  other 
portions  of  fish  scattered  about.  As  soon  as  the  trap 
strikes,  the  otter  plunges  into  the  water  carrying  it  with 


19^ 


TH£  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[May  22, 


him,  and  is  soon  carried  by  its  weight  to  the  bottom  of 
the  stream. 

There  is  not  enough  of  variety  in  the  details  of  otter- 
hunting  to  make  it  necessary  for  us  to  dwell  further  on 
them ;  we  therefore  proceed  to  the  natural  history  of  the 
otter.  From  the  nature  of  the  otter's  food,  and  from 
the  animal  being  so  much  an  inhabitant  of  the  water,  it 
has  been  a  question  among  those  who  possessed  but  little 
knowledge  of  natural  history,  whether  he  w^as  of  the 
nature  of  a  land  animal  or  a  fish.  Thus  w^e  find  the 
following  conversation  between  one  of  Isaac  Walton's 
anglers  and  a  huntsman  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
otter :  "  I  pray,  honest  huntsman,"  inquires  Piscator, 
**  let  me  ask  you  a  pleasant  question ;  do  you  hunt  a 
beast  or  a  fish?"  "  Sir,"  replies  the  otter  hunter,  "  it  is 
not  in  my  power  to  resolve  you ;  I  leave  it  to  be  resolved 
by  the  college  of  Carthusians,  who  have  made  vows 
never  to  eat  fiesh.  But,  I  have  heard,  the  question  hath 
been  debated  among  many  great  clerks,  and  they  seem 
to  differ  about  it;  yet  most  agree  that  her  tail  is  fish; 
and  if  her  body  be  fish  too,  then  I  may  say  that  a  fish 
will  walk  upon  land ;  for  an  otter  does  so,  sometimes  five 
or  six  or  ten  miles  in  a  night  to  catch  for  her  young 
ones  or  to  glut  herself  with  fish.  And  I  can  tell  you, 
that  this  dog-fisher,  for  so  the  Latins  call  him,  can  smell 
a  fish  in  the  water  a  hundred  yards  from  him."  The 
above  allusion  to  the  Carthusians,  relates  to  the  fact, 
that  the  brotherhood  of  that  monastery  at  Dijon,  though 
prohibited  the  use  of  animal  food,  were  permitted  to  cat 
the  fiesh  of  the  otter  on  maigre  days. 

The  place  assigned  to  the  otter  in  Cuvier's  system  is 
near  the  sub-division  of  polecats  and  martens,  from  which 
animals  it  presents  but  little  deviation,  except  that  the 
teeth  are  more  developed  in  certain  parts,  the  feet  webbed, 
and  adapted  for  swimming,  and  the  tail  flattened  horizon- 
tally. Otters  are  aquatic  in  their  habits,  but  are  incor- 
rectly termed  amphibious  animals,  since  they  arc  not 
furnished  more  than  otlier  animals  with  the  power  of 
breathing  both  air  and  water  in  the  same  stage  of  their 
existence.  They  feed  principally  on  fishes,  but  they 
sometimes  prey  on  the  smaller  mammalia,  which  inhabit 
the  banks  of  lakes  and  streams.  The  flattened  tail 
of  these  animals  appears  to  be  rather  an  organ  of 
ascent  and  descent  than  a  propelling  organ,  and  the 
forward  motion  is  effected  chiefly  by  strokes  of  the 
feet.  The  otter's  tail  is  covered  with  longer  and  coarser 
far  than  the  body,  but  there  are,  generally  speaking,  two 
kinds  of  fur,  one.  consisting  of  long  shining  hairs,  mostly 
of  a  brownish  colour,  the  other  woolly,  much  shorter  and 
thicker,  and  generally  of  a  greyish  hue.  The  character 
of  the  fur,  however,  differs  with  the  climate :  the  farther 
north  the  animal  is  found,  the  more  valuable,  because 
the  more  dense  and  silky  is  its  fur.  Otters  are  in  a 
great  measure  indifferent  to  cold  and  moisture.  Their 
&ir  has  the  same  property  as  the  feathers  of  diving  birds 
in  not  becoming  wetted.  On  the  occasion  of  a  rapid 
frost  in  cold  countries,  they  are  sometimes  driven  out 
from  their  recesses,  and  are  then  hunted  with  much 
success. 

The  Common  Otter  (Mustela  Lutra)  is  found  in 
all  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the  colder  parts  of  Asia  and 
America.  It  averages  about  two  feet  in  the  length  of 
its  body  from  the  nose  to  the  tail,  and  the  tail  itself  is 
sixteen  inches  long.  It  is  very  short  on  the  legs,  and 
has  a  singular  aspect,  owing  to  its  large  flat  head  and 
short  ears.  The  eyes  are  very  small,  and  placed  near 
the  nose ;  the  neck  is  thick ;  the  general  colour  of  the 
animal  is  blackish  brown,  with  a  white  spot  under  the 
chin  and  a  small  one  on  each  side  of  the  nose.  The 
nostrils  are  provided  with  an  apf)aratus  which  prevents 
the  water  from  entering  when  the  animal  moves  speedily 
alonnr. 

"  The  otter,"  says  Pennant,  "  shows  great  sagacity  in 
forming  its  habitation ;  it  burrows  under-ground  in  the 
banks   of  some  river  or  lake,  and  always  makes  the 


entrance  (^  ita  hok  under  water,  working  upvardi 
towards  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  before  it  readies 
the  top,  it  adopts  the  fashion  of  builders  of  houses  for 
ourselves,  who  make  several  floors  to  accord  with  the 
necessities  and  conveniences  of  the  occupants.  It  finisLcj 
its  lodge  by  making  a  minute  oiific©  for  the  admission  of 
air,  and  the  more  effsctually  to  conceal  ita  retreat  it  con- 
trives to  make  even  these  little  air-holes  in  the  midst  of 
some  thick  bush.**  Though,  this  dwelling  of  the  otter  is 
always  in  a  mois^  aiAaadon,  the  ammal  takes  eare  to  hare 
a  dry  place  to  which  it  can  resort ;  ai>d  thus,  when  the 
water  rises  and  overflows,  pa^t  of  ila  Im}>iti|tion,  it  has 
only  to  take  to  an  upper  skMy.  Theugib  the  limbs  of 
the  otter  seem  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  water,  yet  it 
moves  with  facility  on  shore  likewise,  and  may  even  be 
said  to  run  rapidly. 

The  young  otters  first  make  their  appearance  about 
the  beginning  of  April.  They  are  generally  four  in 
number,  and  are  attended  by  the  mother  with  great 
assiduity  and  caution.  The  affection  of  the  female  otter 
for  its  young  is  so  great,  that  she  will  often  suffer  her- 
self to  be  killed  rather  than  desert  her  progeny.  Pro- 
fessor Steller,  informs  U8»  that  when  the  young  oneiare 
taken  away  from  the  laother,  the  latter  will  follow  tbe 
person  carrying  them,  off,  ^nd  mamfest  he*  sorrow  by 
crying,  almost  like  a  hujaan  being,  while  the  yoniigottfrs 
also  cry  out  for  aid  in  a  tone  o€  voice  weiy  mnch  resem- 
bling tne  crying  of  children* 

On  one  occaaio»»  (he  writes,)  wheft  1  kax^  ^^ftf«d  an 
otter  of  her  progeny,  I  retaarued  to  the  piece  eight  dftvs 
after,  and  found  the  female  sitting  bv  the  rivsi^  }Mm  bikI 
desponding,  who  aiiifiered  me  to  kill  Iter  mi  tlie  n)ot, 
witliout  making  any  attempt  to  escape.  On  skinning  her, 
I  found  she  was  quite  wasted  away  with  sorrow  for 
the  loss  of  her  young.  Another  time  I  saw  an  old  female 
otter  sleeping  by  the  aide  of  a  young  one,  aboiit  a  Vear  old. 
As  soon  aa  the  mother  pereeived  us,  idie  awoke  the  voung 
one,  and  enticed  him  to  betake  himself  to  the  river;  buiu 
he  did  not  take  the  hint,  and  seemed  inclined  to  probng  his 
sleep,  slie  took  him  up  in  her  fore-paws,  and  pmaged  him 
into  the  water. 

The  otter  is  naturally  of  a  very  ferocious  di^sitioOt 
but  when  taken  young,  and  properly  treated,  there  have 
been  instances  of  its  becoming  so  tame  as  to  be  en^lojc^ 
in  Ashing  for  its  master.  We  find  an  allusion  to  tk 
taming  of  the  otter  in  tbe  following  lines* 

Shonld  chance  within  this  dark  cecesa  hetnij 
I'he  tender  young,  bear  quick  the  prijw  awa^. 
Tamed  by  thy  care  the  useful  bcood  shall  joia 
The  watery  dmse,  and  add  their  toils  to  tliiae. 
From  each  close  lurking  hole  shall  force  away, 
And  drive  within  their  nets  the  silver  prey: 
As  the  taught  hound  the  timid  stag  subdues, 
And  o*eT  the  dewy  plain  the  panting  hare  pnrsnes. 

In  taming  the  otter,  the  disposition  of  the  animal  sreoM 
greatly  to  depend  on  the  sort  of  food  with  which  he  is 
proviied.  If  he  is  supplied  with  animal  food,  especially 
his  favourite  food  of  fish,  at  too  early  an  age,  he  becoraeJ 
sulky,  disobedient,  and  vicious ;  but  if  he  is  suckled  alopg 
with  young  puppies,  as  is  sometimes  done,  or  fed  upon 
bread*  and  milk,  he  remains  gentle  and  docile,  and  will 
even  show  considerable  attachment,  with  some  knowledge 
of  places  and  persons.  In  proof  whereof  we  give  the 
following  anecdotes. 

A  person  near  Inverness,  procured  a  young  otter,  and 
brought  it  up  on  milk  diet.  It  became  so  tame  as  to  fel- 
low him  wherever  he  chose,  and,  if  called  hy  ita  nsme, 
it  immediately  obeyed.  When  fearful  of  danger  from  dogs, 
it  sought  the  protection  of  its  master,  and  would  seek  to 
spring  into  hiis  arms  for  greater  security.  It  was  fre- 
quently employed  in  taking  fish,  and  would  sometiincs 
take  eight  or  ten  salmon  in  a  day.  If  not  prevented,  ij 
always  made  an  attempt  to  breal^  the  fish  behind  the  anal 
fin,  which  is  next  the  tail ;  and  as  soon  as  one  was  taken 
away,  it  always  dived  in  pursuit  of  more.  It  was  equally 
dexterous  at  the  sea-fishing,  and  took  great  numbers  ox 


1841.] 


THE  BATUBDAY  MAGAZINE. 


199 


yoTtng  «od  and  otlier  ^fish  there.  Wken  tired  it  would 
refuse  to  ish  any  ionger,  and  vae  then  rewarded  with 
as  much  as  it  could  devour.  Having  satisfied  its  appe* 
tite,  it  always  coiled  itself  round,  and  fell  asleep,  in  which 
state  it  was  generally  carried  home.  Another  person 
kept  a  tame  otter  with  his  dogs,  and  the  animals  were 
upon  the  most  friendly  terms.  It  is  not  a  little  remark- 
able, that  even  dogs  trained  to  hunt  the  vtter  would  not 
offer  this  tame  one  the  least  molestation,  and  even 
showed  no  reluctance  to  hunt  any  other  otter  while  their 
favourite  was  in  their  company. 

Bishop  Heber  relates  that  in  India  he  saw  a  number 
of  otters  tethered  to  stakes  along  the  edges  of  the  water 
and  made  use  of  as  hunters  of  the  fiah,  which  they  pur- 
sued so  adroitly  as  to  drive  them  into  the  nets  and  there 
only.  The  lai^st  fish  they  laid  hold  of  and  brought  to 
the  ^ore« 


FRESH-WATER  nSH. 
No.  IV.    The  Jack  or  Piks. 


Our  inflDtoom  vImDM  ft  tbrous  raoo  wappfyf 
The  brighi«7ed  perch  with  fins  of  Tariout  dye; 
The  silver  eel,  in  shining  Tolumes  roll'd ; 
The  yellow  osrp,  in  seeks  Ijedrupt  with  gold ; 
6wilt  troolB,  direnified  with  crimson  stains. 
And  pikes,  the  grants  of  thfe  watexy  pbins^^Pon. 


'<  Tub  mighty  Luce  or  Pike,"  says  Walton,  '<  is  taken 
to  be  the  tjnnant,  as  the  salmon  is  the  king,  of  the  fresh 
waters."     The  aspect  of  the  pike  is  repulsive :  it  is  a 
ragged,  savage,  ugly  looking  fish;  the  head  large  and 
very  much  depressed ;  the  upper  jaw  broad  and  shorter 
than  ibe  lower,  which  turns  up  a  little  at  the  end,  and  is 
Biarked  with  minute  punctures;  the  teeth  are  very  sharp, 
^sposed  in  the  upper  jaw  only  in  front,  but  in  both  sides 
of  the  lower,  as  well  as  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and 
often  OB  the  toague;  the  number  being  said  to  be  no 
less  than  seven  hmidred,  without  reckom'ng  the  farthest 
of  aA,  or  those  nearest  the  throat ;  those  situated  on  the 
jaws  are  alternately  ^^ed  and  moveable;  the  eyes  are 
small;  the  gape  very  wide,  so  that  the  pike  can  seize  and 
swallow  brge  prey.     The  pectoral  fins  are  situated  im- 
mediately behind  the  gill  openings ;  the  ventral  fins  are 
about  the  middle  of  the  body ;  and  the  dorsal  and  anal 
arc  far  back  near  the  tail,  which  is  very  stout,  slightly 
forked  or  rather  lunated.     The  whole  structure  of  the 
fish  shows  that  the  posterior  part  of  the  body  is  the 
grand  agent  which  enables  it  to  rush  with  great  velocity 
direct  upon  its  prey.     The  usual  colour  of  this  fish  is  a 
pale  olive  "gray,  deepest  on  the  back,  and  marked  on  the 
sides  by  several  yellowish  spots  or  patches ;  the  abdomen 
is  white,  spotted  sli^tly  witil  blsck:  when  in  its  highest 
perfection  the  colours  are  often  more  brilliant,  the  sides 
being  qf  a  bright  olive,  with  yellow  spots,  the  back  dark 
green,  and  the  beMy  silvery:  the  gills  too  are  of  a  very 
bright  red,  indsealsve  of  a  vigorous  circulation.     The 
pike  is  said  te  iioeur  in  Holland  of  an  orange  colour, 
laarked  with  Vbxk  spots;  with  rather  small,  hard,  and 
oblong  sealM.     The  stomach  of  the  pike  accords  with 
its  voracioctt  habits,  it  being  composed  of  membranous 
folds  whereby  it  is  capable  of  great  dilation. 

The  names.  Jack  and  Pike^  apptied  lo  this  Ash,  are 
mere  verbal  ^nitiMtioBS*  IW  genus  or  rather  fkmily  to 
^hidi  Aie  pike  belongs  comprises  three  divisions,  the 
i&diviAaids  in  one  division  being  very  unlike  those  of 
Mother,  These  divisions  are  iSlrar,  the  pike,  properly 
^  called;  Belonty  the  garfish,  and  ExocetuSy  the  fiying 
fish. 

The  most  prevalent  character  of  all  the  fishes  that  have 
^'^<^  classed  among  the  pikes,  is  that  of  the  donal  fin  being 
PUoed  veiy  hx  b^kward,  so  as  to  be  close  to  the  caudal ; 
^Hile  the  anal  fin  is  immediately  below  it.  The  unusual 
^^)osLtion  of  these  fins  iufiuenoes  tliat  of  the  others :  the 
j^entroU  are  thus  plaoed  in  the  middle  of  the  body,  or  about 
'^^^aj  beiwMn  the  pectoral  and  the  caudal;  the  latter  ia 


idways  forked ;  and  the  foxmer,  in  general,  pointed.  The 
whole  of  these  fishes  are  excessively  voracious,  and  destruc- 
tive to  others:  hence  Lacepede  has  justly  said  of  the  common 
pike,  that  it  is  the  shark  of  our  ponds  and  rivers.  We  ac- 
cordingly find  the  mouth  to  be  particularly  large,  the  snout 
often  greatly  lengthened,  and  the  teeth,  in  nearly  all  in- 
stances, numerous  and  sharp.  There  is  no  instiuice  of  a 
second  dorsal  or  adipoae  fin,  as  in  the  salmons ;  or  of  the 
belly  being  riiarp  or  serrated,  as  in  the  herrings.  As  to 
other  parts  of  their  structure,  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  the 
margin  or  edge  of  the  upper  jaw  is  formed  by  the  intermax- 
illary bones ;  or,  at  least,  when  this  is  not  the  case,  the 
maxillories  are  without  teeth,  and  partially  concealed. 
Excepting  the  common  pike,  and  a  few  others  nearly  allied 
to  it,  the  vdiole  of  the  remainder  are  marine  &hes.— « 

SWAINSON. 

In  the  Saturday  Magazine,  vol.  ix.,  p.  153,  several 
instances  of  the  voracity  of  Ihe  pike  are  recorded,  to 
which  we  may  add  a  few  more. 

The  following  anecdote  is  related  in  Fuller's  Wor* 
thiet:-^ 

A  cub  fox,  drinking  out  of  the  river  Amus,  in  Italy,  had 
his  head  seized  on  by  a  mighty  pike,  so  that  neither  could 
free  themselves,  but  were  ingrappled  together.  In  tins  con« 
test,  a  young  man  runs  into  the  water,  takes  them  out  both 
alive,  and  canrieth  them  to  the  Duke  of  Florence,  whose 
palace  was  hard  by.  The  porter  would  not  admit  him, 
without  a  promise  of  sharing  his  full  half  in  what  the  duke 
should  give  him ;  to  which  he,  (hopeless  otherwise  of  en- 
trance,) condescended.  The  duke,  highly  afiected  with  the 
rarity,  was  about  givina;  him  a  good  reward,  which  the 
other  refused,  desiring  his  highness  would  appoint  one  of 
his  c^iards  to  give  him  a  hundrod  laahes,  thai  so  his  porter 
mignt  have  finy  according  to  his  composition.  And  here 
my  intelligence  leaveth  me,  how  much  further  the  jest  was 
followed. 

The  voracious  appetite  of  the  pike  causes  it  to  fill  its 
stoHUich  with  whatever  it  can  find  in  the  way  of  food: 
no  sort  of  offal  is  refused;  every  kind  of  animal  sub- 
stance both  living  and  dead  is  received;  it  will  even 
swallow  the  plummet,  and  the  clay  and  bran  groundbait 
of  the  angler:  it  preys  upon  rats,  mice,  and  frogs,  as 
well  as  the  young  of  ducks,  geese^  swans,  and  other 
aquatic  birds.     We  read  that 

In  the  year  1798,  as  two  gentlemen  were  anfl}iBg  in  a 
pond  near  Wamham,  in  Sussex,  a  pike,  of  only  aoout  seven 
pounds  weight,  seized  a  dog  that  was  lapping  the  water  and 
was  fairly  landed,  holding  on  by  the  dog  ;  so  also  in  the 
Blackwater,  near  Youghsil,  a  yearling  calf  was  seized  by  a 
pike,  and  succeeded  in  landing  him :  and  there  could  be  no 
greater  proof  of  hu  voracity,  than  this  attempt  to  swallow  a 
calf,  when  his  stomadi,  upon  being  opened,  was  found  to 
contain  a  large  perch  and  a  water-rat^  both  entire. 

The  pike  is  so  much  accustomed  to  overcome  and  de- 
vour every  other  fish  that  it  encoonters,  that  it  seema 
almost  to  have  lost  the  instinct  of  discrimination,  for  it  wiU 
devour  its  own  progeny  with  as  little  reluctance  as  any 
other.  It  has  also  been  known,  when  excited  by  hunger, 
to  contend  with  the  otter  for  its  prey ;  but,  as  Walton 
says,  '<  It  is  a  hard  thing  to  persuade  the  belly,  because 
it  has  no  ears."  The  digestive  powers,  too,  of  the  piko 
are  as  remarkable  as  its  greediness.  Walton  savs,  that 
a  pike  will  devour  a  fish  ^  his  own  kind  **  that  shall  be 
bigger  than  his  belly  or  throat  will  receive,  and  swallow 
a  part  of  him,  and  let  the  other  part  remain  in  his  mouth 
till  the  swallowed  part  be  digested,  and  then  swallow 
that  other  part,  that  was  in  his  mouth,  and  so  put  it 
over  by  degrees."  It  cannot  perhaps  be  denied  that  the 
pike  sometimes  appears  thus  with  the  tail  of  a  fish  hang- 
ing from  its  mouth,  for  the  portion  that  enters  the  sto- 
mach is  quickly  dissolved,  and  the  rest  soon  follows; 
but  still  the  act  of  respiration  must  be  carried  on,  for 
which  purpose  sufficient  space  must  be  left  within  the 
mouth  for  its  action  to  inhale  the  water,  and  to  pass  it 
through  the  gill-fringes  with  freedom,  without  which, 
strangulation  would  ensue.  "  We  therefore  conceive," 
says  Mr.  Blaine,  "  that  such  a  bait  could  be  only  thus 
partially  swallowed,  as  would  not  obstruct  the  action  of  the 
mouth  and  gills.     Indeed  there  are  not  wanting  instances 


soo 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Mat  32,  IMI. 


in  whicli  both  pike  and  jock  have  been  effectu&Uy  choked 
by  too  lar^  a  bait." 

With  abundance  of  food  the  pike  ^rowg  rapidly ;  oflen 
attains  an  enormous  aiie,  and  is  scarcely  injured  by 
any  foulnesa  of  the  water.  The  famous  pike  caught  by 
Colonel  Thornton,  in  one  of  the  Scotdi  takes,  in  the 
year  1784,  measured  four  feet  four  inches  ikim  eye  to 
fork,  and  weired  nearly  6fty  pounds.  The  colonel  had 
him  upon  the  line  for  an  hour  and  a  quarter  before 
his  strength  was  exhausted,  and  the  tackle  would  not 
have  held  him  if  the  colonel  had  not  been  in  a  boat, 
BO  as  to  humour  him  by  rowing:  the  colonel  says,  that 
OQ  Opening  hia  jaws,  "  so  dreadful  a  forest  of  teeth,  or 
tasks,  1  think  I  never  beheld."  In  some  of  the  Irish 
rivers,  pike  of  seventy  pounds'  weight  have  been  caught. 
Major  Bingham  relates,  that  a  pike  was  taken  from  the 
Shannon,  which,  when  weighed,  "  somewhat  exceeded 
ninety  two  pounds."  But  these  and  many  other  ei 
pics  of  extraordinary  dimensions  of  pike  are  exceptions  to 
the  general  average.  The  natural  term  of  their  lives  is 
not  known ;  but  Mr.  Blaine  says,  that  individual  fish 
have  been  familiar  to  personsforty  or  fifty  years.  Their 
majority,  he  adds,  should  be  computed  from  the.  time 
they  change  their  diminutive'  title  of  jack  for  that  of 
pike,  which  is  stated  to  take  place  when  they  have  at- 
tained to  a  linonr  measurement  of  twenty-two  inches,  oi 
to  a  bulk  equal  to  three  pounds;  but  it  is  more  common 
among  anglers  to  call  all  under  five  pounds  jacX:,  and  all 
above  pike. 

During  the  summer  months  the  digestive  oigans  of 
the  pike  and' jack  are  somewhat  torpid;  and  their  ab! 
nence  is  no  less  singular  at  this  time  than  their  voracity 
at  other  times.  It  is  remarkable  too  that  this  abstinence 
occurs  at  about  the  season  of  spawning;  and  the  ctrcum- 
Stance  is  fortunate,  as  Mr.'  Btaine  remarks,  for  were  thi 
appetite  as  usual,  few  young  fry  could  escape:  "  during 
the  summer  they  are  listless,  and  affect  the  surface  of 
the  water,  where,  in  warm  sunny  weather,  they  teem  to 
bask  in  a  sleepy  state  for  hours  together;  and  at  these 
times  they  frequently  get  snared  by  the  wire^halter  of 
the  poacher.  It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  also,  that 
smaller  fish  appear  to  be  aware  when  this  abstinent  state 
of  their  foe  is  on  him ;  for  they,  who  at  other  times  are 
evidently  impressed  with  an  instinctive  dread  at  his  pre- 
sence, are  now-  seen  swimming  around  him  with  total 
unconcern.  At  these  periods  no  baits,  however  tempt- 
ing, can  allure  him ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  retreats 
from  everything  of  the  kind.  Windy  weather  is  alone 
capable  of  exciting  the  dormant  powers;  and  thus,  if  a 
cool  sharp  breeze  springs  up,  he  may  be  sometimes 
tempted  to  run;  but  even  then  he  will  rather  play  with 
the  bait,  and  may  be  seen  even  sailing  about  with  it 
across  his  mouth ;  after  doing  which  he  commonly  ejects 
it.  This  inaptitude  to  receive  food  with  the  usual  keen- 
ness, continues  from  the  time  they  spawn,  until  the  time 
of  their  recovery  fh>m  the  effects  of  it;  and  thus  pike 
and  jack  fishing  are  not  often  productive  of  much  sport 
between  March  and  October."  Mr.  Blaine  is  disposed 
to  think  that  the  decreased  voracity  of  these  fish  during 
the  heats  of  summer,  is,  in  some  measure,  likewise  in- 
fluenced by  the  increase  of  temperature.  The  animal 
thrives  best  in  frigid  climes,  and  the  further  we  proceed 
north  within  certain  limits,  the  larger  is  his  growth; 
thus,  in  the  Canadian  lakes,  the  pike  exists  in  vast 
numbers,  and  grows  to  the  length  of  four  and  five  feet; 
and  he  does  the  same  in  the  cold  waters  of  Lapland  also, 
disappearing,  according  to  Wahlenburg,  in  geographical 
distribution  with  the  spruce  fir. 

The  spawning  time  of  the  pike  and  jack  is  March  or 
April,  according  as  the  season  is  more  or  less  advanced, 
and  depending  also  on  the  sitnation  of  the  water.  They 
proceed  in  pairs  from  the  rivers  to  the  creeks  and 
ditches:  but  when  confined  in  still  water  tbey  seek  the 
moat  retired  part,  oflen  a  weed.bed,  or  remain  near  the 
shallows  and  deposit  their  ova  among  aquatic  plants. 


such  as  the  reed  and  the  rush.  When  the  openUiiii)  ii 
complete  they  retire  to  the  deeper  waters,  leavii^  ibm 
spawn  to  supply  new  races  of  their  kind,  or  as  a  prejio 
many  aquatic  aniniali  snch  ai  the  duck,  which  ii  parti. 
cularlv  fond  of  the  spawn  of  the  pike.  It  ii  tsid  Ibt 
this  bird  not  only  consumes  great  quantities  of  it,  tut 
carries  it  off  adhering  to  the'feathers,  withoot  itibeiif  ; 
injured  or  having  its  vitality  destroyed;  by  which meui  ' 
pikes  have  ofWi  appeared  in  ponds  where  there  im 
none  before;  a  fact  which  gave  rise  to  many  conjeclnm 
before  this  simple  explanation  was  discovered. 
.  The  pike  are  fond  of  dull,  shady,  and  unfreqanltd 
waters,  with  a  sandy,  chalky,  or  clayey  boltao.  Ii 
summer  they  are  found  among  or  near  nags,  bulnislws, 
and  water  docks.  They  neldom  seek  a  rapid  ttiem; 
their  favourite  retreat  being  in  the  vicinity  of  a  nhiri- 
pool  or  sharp  bend  of  the  stream.  In  winter  theytelirt 
into  the  depths,  under  clay  banks,  or  under  a  projectiif 
stone  or  stump  of  a  tree. 

The  young  fry  grow  rapidly  and  are  said  to  attain  llit 
weight  of  two  pounds  during  the  first  year,  and  to  ^n 
a  pound  or  more  every  subsequent  year.  Tfaismt]' per- 
haps be  true  up  to  a  certain  stage  of  growth ;  tal  w 
plentiful  are  tales  of  wonder  in  Natural  History  llit  it 
becbmes  necessary  to  exclude  a  variety  of  newsp^ 
and  other  relations  of  pike,  as  well  as  of  other  umiak 
remarkable  for  size  and  weight  as  well  as  extraordiiiir; 
age  or  sagacity.  This  exclusion  may,  it  is  tnie,nubD! 
often  lose  a  good  story,  which,  however,' unless  ircom- 
panied  with  a  caution,  (and  this  generally  spoili  "^ 
story,)  had  better  be  left  untold.  The'  story  told  bi 
Gesner  is  often  repeated,  that  a  pike  was'  once  caufhl  it 
Heilbrun,  in  Germany,'which'had  a  brass  ring  alBcW  , 
to  it,  intimating  that  it  was  put  into  the  bke  in  therm 
1230;  BO  that  being  captured  in  1497  it  must  hsvebKi 
267  years  old.  | 

"  One  would  have  been  Incredulous  on  this  subject,  (up 
Mr.  S'((^meon,)batGeMierfarthera8MrtsthattheebeIHM, 
nineteen  feet  in  length,  was  long  preserved  at  ManhBro* 
a  groat  curiosity.  It  would  be  well  worth  the  tronblt  i 
inquiry,  if  any  fiwneots  of  this  gigantic  jaoosSei  «"  j" 
in  eiistence,  or  if  any  records  regarding,  it  exist  »t  ™  j 
place :  for  ourselves,  we  confess  our  entire  disbelief  iha  , 
such  a  pike,  and  of  snch  an  age,  ever  exutcd.  I 

There  is  a  curious  method,  according  to  PeniiMi',«f 
t^mg  pike  in  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire.  The  fiiheroM 
use  a  basket  open  at  the  top  and  bottom;  this  fj'? 
plunge  down  behind  the  stem  of  their  punts  or  fo>- 
boats,  and  by  poking  with  a  stick,  ascertain  whether  tlif  f 
is  a  fish  or  not;  if  there  is  one  tbey  immediatelj  m" 
the  basket,  and,  throwing  the  fish  into  the  pnnl,  1"*" 
the  basket  tu  catch  another. 


LONDON; 

JOmr  ■WILLIAM  PABKER,  WEST  BTBAKR 
"  rnrt.  Am  ttHtit^ 

la  tte  Sli«i«>>- 


Sdturtran        m^^^^im^ 


N?  571. 


>V,  1841. 


THE    BANKS   OF    THE    THAMES. 


Thoa,  loo,  KKBt  il.ll.Br  or  the  Brilidi  flood. 
With  jortiJ  pride  .urrey'.!  du,  lofty  iH«d., 

And  flitun  iMrin  on  Ih^  iLoni  ippeei, 
Not  NrptQH.'.  »lr  bom  idl  her  >U»j»  rwei 
A  vesllbiFi  tribute  Uiim  to  thine  he  ritcil 

No  •«•  »  rieii. 
No  kk.  «  gmil 
NorPoBBrelli 
WltOeledalDOS 

■ogEy«obei,k.,pp«r, 
,  iDd  DO  ipnng  u  cleur, 
the  Ikbling  poet'.  li.y>, 

lhedD«hi.c<>rreDtnnr> 

How  many  and  varietl  are  the  asaociationa  which  the 
name  of  the  river  Thames  Bugg^stg  to  the  mind !  How 
proudly  may  we  compare  this  river  with  those  which 
water  foreigli  landB,  and  point  to  its  commeTcial  im- 
portance as  %  compensation  for  its  comparatively  limited 
siie!  It  is  no  ezi|^Tation  to  say,  that  more  wealth 
floats  oa-ttte  bosom  of  this  river  than  on  any  ot^er  in 
the  woriB,  and  that  no  other  river  is  visited  by  the 
native*  of  w  many  climes. 

But  it  is  not  only  in  a  commercial  point  of  view  that 
the  Thames  demands  our  notice.  Its  banks  are  studded 
irith  beautiful  towns,  villages,  iields,  gardens,  and  coun- 
try residences,  giving  to  the  scenery  all  those  character- 
istics which  mark  a  highly  cultivated  country.  These 
objects  are  well  worthy  of  a  little  attention,  and  we  pro- 
pose, in  the  course  of  a  series  of  articles,  to  take  a  rapid 
flanee  at  the  chief  object*  of  interest  which  preaent 
themselves,  from  Uie  lource  of  the  river,  in  Gloucester' 

Vot.  XVIII. 


shire,  to  ita  taminaUon  in  the  English  Channel,  as  also 
the  assooiations  connected  with  places  situated  on  its 

The  general  course  of  the  Thames  is  from  west  to 
east,  passing  through  or  between  the  counties  of  Glouces- 
ter, Wilts,  Berks,  Oxford,  Buckingham,  Surrey,  Mid- 
dlesex,  Essex,  and  Kent.  It  derives  its  origin  from  a 
conious  spring,  called  the  Thames  Head,  about  three 
miles  south-west  of  the  town  of  Cirencester,  in  Glouces- 
tershire. The  river  is  generally  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Isia,  until  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Thame  in 

Oxfordshire,  aller  which  it  is  called  the  Thntnea, a 

name  supposed  to  be  compoimded  of  the  other  two. 
From  its  source  it  flows  as  a  small  rivulet  to  Cricklade, 
in  Wiltsiiire,  near  which  it  receives  several  tributary 
■treams,  from  whence  its  course  leads  towards  Lechiade, 
a  town  situated  near  the  confines  of  Berkshire,  Glouces- 
tershire, and  Oxfordshire,  where  it  receives  the  waters  of 
the  Lech  and  the  Colne,  and  becomes  navigable  for  ves- 
sels of  a  hundred  tons'  burden,  although  at  a  distance, 
measured  along  the  river,  of  a  hundred  and  forty  miles 
above  London.  The  river  then  passes  in  succession  the 
towns  of  Buscot,  Farringdon,  Stanton  Harcourt,  and 
Ensbam,  imtil  it  reaches  the  city  of  Oxford,  ita  coursa 
hitherto  having  l>een  somewhat  northward.  It  then 
takes  a  sudden  bend  towards  the  south ;  and,  after  passing 
near  Ifley  and  Nuneham,  receives  the  river  Thame  on  ita 


202 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[May  29, 


northern  shore.  Forming  the  boundary  between  the 
counties  of  Buckingham  aod  Berks,  it  passes  through  a 
beautiful  country,  apDroaching  more  or  l^sa  nfear  to  the 
towns  of  Wallingfbrd,  Mapledurkam,  Readbag,  Denley, 
Great  Marlow,  Uliefden,  Kfaidenhead,  Windsot,  Etodp 
Staines,  &c.  We  then  come  to  the  counties  of  Middle- 
sex and  Surrey  where  the  banks  of  the  river  s^w  U3 
in  succession  Chertsey,  Sunbury,  Hampton*  Kingston, 
Twickenham,  Richmond,  and  Kew.  From  this  point 
may  be  said  to  commence  the  commercial  character  of 
the  river,  its  banks  being  occasionally  diversified  with 
mills  and  manufactories  of  various  kinds,  till  we  ar- 
rive at  the  Metropolis.  Passing  the  forest  of  masts 
and  the  dense  masses  of  houses  which  here  present 
themselves,  we  come  in  succession  to  Deptford,  (rreen- 
wich,  Woolwich,  Erith,  Purfieet,  Gravesend,  and  a  few 
other  towns, — till  at  length  the  river,  now  presenting  a 
majestic  breadth,  pours  its  waters  into  the  sea,  after  a 
course  of  somewhat  more  than  two  himdred  miles. 
Such  being  the  course  which  the  rivei^  pursue^,  we  pro- 
ceed to  notice  the  objects  met  with  by  the  way. 

The  spring  to  which  the  river  owes  its  origin  rises  in 
a  field  in  the  parish  of  Cotes,  Gloucestershire.  The 
infant  rivulet  flowing  from  the  spring  passes  under  th^ 
road  leading  from  Cirencester  to  Bau,  and  is  join^  by 
several  other  springs  sin^ilar  to  itself,  by  which  its  widtti 
is  increased  to  about  twelve  yards,  and  a,%  the  village  of 
Cotes  it  is  crossed  by  the  first  brid(^,  formed  of  a  few 
large  stones,  laid  iti  piles. 

A  course  of  about  ten  or  twelve  mites  brin^  the 
stream  to  Cricklade,  a  pteasant  town,  containing  about 
sixteen  hundred   inhabitants,  and  rendered  £amou9  by 
many  contests  which  took  place  near  it  in  the  times  pf 
the  Saxons :  it  consists  prinpipally  of  one  long  street*  iu 
the  midst  of  a  tevel  country  on  the  south  side  of  the 
stream.     A  further  course  of  about  eight  miles  brings 
us  to  Lechlade,  or  Leachlade,  a  spot  described  by  Leland 
as  a  "praty  old  village,  with  a  stone  spire  to  the  church." 
The  name  is  compounded  of  two  Saxon  words,  lech  and 
ladiatit — the  former  signifying  a  stone,  and  being  the 
name  given  to  a  small  river  which  flows  into  the.  {sis  at 
this  part,  and  the  waters  of  which  have  a  slightly  petri- 
fying quality, — the  latter  being  the  Saxon  verb  to  empty, 
in  allusion  to  this  confluence.     The  town  is  situated  on 
the  margin  of  the  river,  is  neatly  built,  and  consists 
principally  of  one  long  and  wide  street,  inhabited  by 
about  twelve  hundred  persons.     The  river  begins  to  be 
of  importance  at  this  place,  for  Lechlade  is  a  stopping- 
place  for  wagons,  laden  with  cheese  and  other  commo- 
dities from  Wiltshire  and  Gloucestershire,  the  rest  of 
the  transfer  to  the  Metropolis  being  effected  by  naviga- 
tion.  Vessels  of  sixty  tona*  burden  are  capable  of  reach- 
ing this  spot,  but  the  frequent  deficiency  of  water  in  the 
cummer,  as  well  as  the  floods  in  winter,  have  rendered 
the  navigation  of  the  river  rather  uncertain,  and  not  so 
▼aluable  to  the  inhabitants  as  it  would  otherwise  have 
been.     About  half  a  mile  on  the  London  side  of  the 
town  is  St.  John's  bridge,  considered  to  be  one  of  the 
most  ancient  bridges  on  the  Thames,  and  built  at  the 
time  when  a  priory  was  flourishing  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood,  several  centuries  ago;  the  bridge  is  of 
very  curious  form  and  of  great  strength. 

Still  continuing  our  course,  pretty  nearly  in  an  eastern 
direction,  we  pass  about  midway  between  the  towns  of 
Farringdon  and  Hampton,  the  former  lying  southward, 
in  Berkshire,  and  the  latter  northward,  in  Oxfordshire. 
Farringdon  is  a  very  ancient  town,  small,  neat,  well-built, 
and  paved,  and  the  navigation  of  the  neighbouring 
river  furnishes  a  medium  for  the  conveyance  of  coal  and 
other  heavy  articles  from  Gloucestershire  and  Somerset- 
shire to  London.  The  Great  Western  Railway,  how- 
ever, which  has  a  station  near  Farringdon,  is  likely  to 
affect  considerably  the  navigation  of  the  Thames  at  this 
part.  Farringdon  is  not  far  from  the  celebrated  Vale  of 
the  White  Horse,  a  name  derived  from  the  figure  of  a 


white  horse,  cut  in  the  chalky  soil,  and  kept  clear  from 
grass.  The  popular  opiiMon  zespectinff  this  figuce  is 
tiiat  it  waa  formed  in  commemoration  of  a  victorj  ob- 
^ined  by  Alfred  the  Great  over  the  Danes. 

Ba,mpton,  situated  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  rirer, 
is  a  very  ancient  town,  containing  about  fifteen  hundred 
inhabitants,  and  situated  near  the  banks  of  the  mer, 
on  which  there  are  man]^  convenient  whaift. 

The  road  from  Farringrdon  to  Hampton  crosses  the 
Thames  at  Radcote  bridge,  an  object  not  only  pictu- 
resque in  appearance,  and  curious  from  its  antiquity,  bot 
interesting  alsd  from  historical  recollections.  It  was  the 
soene  of  a  remarkable  b&ttle,  fought,  in  the  year  1387, 
between  the  Earl  of  Derby,  afterwafds  King  Henry  the 
Fourth,  and  De  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford.  The  latter  was 
defeated,  but  saved  his  life  by  plunging  on  horseback 
into  the  Thames,  and  swimming  to  the  opposite  bank,— 
an  exploit  which  has  been  commemorated  in  the  follow- 
ing stanza  of  the  poem  of  The  Thame  and  the  Itis. 

Here  Oxford*a  hero,  famous  for  his  boar, 
While  clashing  swords  upon  his  taiget  sound. 
And  sbowers  of  arrows  from  his  breast  rebonnd, 
Prepared  for  worst  of  fates,  undaunted  stood, 
And  Hinged  his  beast  into  the  rapid  flood : 
The  wavea  in  triumph  bore  him,  and  were  proud 
^0  sink  beneath  their  honourable  load. 

Mr.  Ireland*  who  described  the  Thames  half  a  centniy 
ago,  when  projects  of  canal-cutting  were  as  much  in 
favour  as  the  construction  of  railroads  at  the  present  daj. 
regretted  the  deserted  appearance  presented  by  the 
Thames,  in  consequence  of  the  removal  of  its  traiSc  to 
tae  canals.     He  says, — 

Useful  to.  the  commerce  of  the  country,  and  kadaUe  ^ 
the  enterprise  of  forminff  navigable  canals  all  over  tbe  king- 
dom must  be  acknowledged  to.  b^^  it  is  still  with  son)e  re- 
gret wo  view  the  old  stream  &Iling  almost  into  total  neglect 
and  disuse.  Such,  however,  in  this  neighbourhood,!'''' 
near  Radcote  9ridge,3  dvu^ing  the  summer  months  i<«  the 
^tuation  of  tnis  noble  river*  which  is  then  shallow  in  wat^r. 
and  oveigrowi:^  with  osiers  and  weeds ;  its^  locks  and  wein 
are  fast  falling  into,  decay ;  and  in  xnan^  places  we  find  onlj 
a  few  old  timVers  4]cemamihg,  to  mai:!^  wkia,  ^ick  aids  to 
n^Tigation  weire  oji^ce  ^o^i^^t  of  u,tiU^« 

The  toeirs  here  alluded  to  are  a  primitive  kind  of  lock- 
gates,  frequently  seen  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  Thames. 
They  are  artificial  dams  or  banks,  carried  across  the 
river  in  order  to  pen  up  the  water  to  a  certain  height, 
for  the  services  of  the  mill,  the  fishery,  or  navigation. 
A  large  range  of  frame-work,  which  resembles  the  rail- 
ing of  a  bridge,  rises  from  the  bank  below,  and  supports 
a  number  of  small  flood-eates,  sliding  in  grooves,  and 
connected  with  a  sill  in  ike  bottom.     When  these  are 
drawn  up,  the  whole  body  of  the  stream,  being  collected 
into  a  narrow  space,  rushes  through  with  great  rapiditf* 
and  gives  a  temporary  depth  to  the  shallows,  or,  bv  the 
power  of  the  current,  forces  the  barges  over  them.  These 
weirs  add  much  more  to  the  beauty  of  the  landscape  than 
the  more  still  and  mechanical  locks  of  a  canal.  Theya^ 
generally  connected  with  various  accessory  and  diversi- 
fying circumstances ;  a  mill,  a  fisherman'e  hut»  or  the 
cottage   of  a  toll-collector,  sometimes  embowered  hi 
trees  on  the  bank  of  the  river,  heighten  and  vaiy  ^^® 
beauties  of  the  scene.     The  weir,  in  its  most  simply 
state,  breaks  the  line  of  the  river,  produces  a  kind  ol 
waterfall,  and  gives  activity  and  eody  to  the  current: 
but  when  the  river  is  high,  the  overflow  of  the  water 
forms  a  large  cascade.     The  upper  stream  continuously 
forces  its  way  onwards,  "in  some  parts,"  as  it  has  been 
observed,  "spouting  through  the  apertures  of  the  flood- 
gates; in  others  fretting  through  the  moss-grown  tfi^ 
hers,  or  rushing  over  the  aquatic  plants  that  ding  tottt<^ 
frame  work;  and  thus,  broken  into  a  thousand  vanotts 
rills,  falls  into  the  lower  water,  and  continues  to  enliven 
the  course  of  the  river." 

We  now  arrive  at  a  part  cf  the  river  which  receives 
the  vaten  of  the  Windroah,  a  alream  which  travenes 


1941.3 


TBE  fiATURDAT  MAGAZINE. 


208 


Oxfordshire,  ad  poses  ibe  f&tm  ef  Witney  before  dis* 
charging  itself  into  the  Tfassies.  Witney  has  long 
been  famous  for  the  bhinkets  manofactmed  there,  and  it 
has  been  supposed  that  the  whiteness  of  these  bhinkets 
is  due  to  the  large  quantity  of  nitre  wh.ch  is  found  in 
the  water  of  the  Windrush*  Farther  on  we  come  to 
Stanton  Harcourt,  a  small  town  celebrated  for  the  events 
which  occurred  there  many  centuries  ago,  and  for  the 
Tenerable  residence  of  the  Harcourt  fanuly.  This  man* 
sion  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Harcourts  for  more 
than  six  hundred  years,  the  representative  of  the  family 
being  created  a  baron  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  and 
an  earl  in  the  year  1749.  The  mansion  has  been  greatly 
altered  in  modsm  times.  A  small  chapel  belonging  to 
the  building  had  a  tower  containitw  three  apartments, 
the  uppermost  of  which  was  called  Pope's  study,  from 
the  circumstance  of  the  poet  having  occupied  it  during 
a  whole  summer  which  he  spent  at  the  mansion.  .  Here 
he  finished  his  translation  cf  the  fifth  book  of  Homer's 
Uiad,  which  circumstance  he  recorded,  with  a  diamond 
on  a  pane  of  red  glass,  subsequently  preserved  with 
great  care  by  the  owner  of  the  mansion. 

Proceeding  further  eastward  on  our  journey,  we  come 
to  Ettsham  Bridge,  an  object  surrounded  wit^  pictu- 
resque scenery.  The  river  expands  considerably  about 
this  part,  and  meanders  amid  the  neighbouring  meadows, 
fertile  in  pasture,  and  Screened  by  the  contiguous  hills, 
which  form  a  gentle  slope  towards  its  mfaTgin.  On  the 
northern  ade  the  various  breaks  in  the  distant  scenery, 
the  happy  combination  of  viUages  with  pastoral  country, 
give  great  beauty  to  the  landscape. 

A  little  eastward  of  this  bridge,  the  river  takes  a  very 
Budden  bend  towards  the  south  near  the  town  of  Wool- 
vercott;  increasing  both  in  width  and  depth  towards 
Oxford,  and,  to  use  the  words  of  an  old  topographer, 
"  seems  proudly  urging  its  course,  to  pay  its  tribute  to 
that  ancient  and  noble  seminary  of  learning,  whose  vene- 
rable towers  and  lofty  domes  all  happily  unite  to  form  a 
general  mass  of  objects  superior  to  anything  which  this 
country  can  boast." 

We  have  apprbadied  a  part  of  the  river  nearly  paral- 
lel with  Woodstodk  and  Blenheim^  at  a  few  mHes  froib 
the  northern  bank;  but  these  celebrated  places,  and 
thrir  historical  recollections,  we  must  lieave  for  our 
second  paper. 


ON  OPTICAL  ILLUSIONS. 
No.  I. 

It  wofAA  be  -a  curious  inquiry,  and  one  frtfitfiil  in  valuable 
hrfbrma^oo,  to  mvestigate  the  instances  in  which,  and 
the  causes  by  which,  natural  objects  appear  to  be  what 
Ihey  are  o6t.  Such  an  inquiry  would  lead  to  many 
mnarfsable  results,  and  would  serve  to  furnish  some  evi- 
dence of  the  manner  in  which  t>ur  notions  of  form  and 
<H>nfignration  originate.  We  wish  to  draw  the  attention 
of  those  readers  who  have  but  recently  entered  on  the 
study  of  science,  to  this  subject,  assuring  them,  at  the 
outset,  that  they  will  be  amply  repaid  for  the  time  em- 
ployed in  the  inquiry. 

If  we  analyse  our  notions  of  form  and  figure,  we  shall 
find  that  we  depend  almost  entirely  on  the  kind  and 
^f^^ree  of  light  which  is  reflected  to  the  eye  from  any 
object  under  consideration.  If  we  have,  for  instance, 
^  niarble  bust,  and  a  chalk  or  Indian  ink  drawing  of  the 
satnc  individnatl,  how  do  we  know,  without  touching  them, 
^for  that  is  a  species  of  evidence,  which  we  exclude  from 
^^^'  present  inquiry,)  that  one  is  ti  raised  bulk,  while  the 
<^Her  is  a  fiat  surface?  Principally  from  the  degree  of 
^^?ht  which  comes  to  the  eye  from  the  difierent  parts  of 
^^  object.  We  know — experience  has  taught  us — ^that 
^<iTy  projectioto  or  elevation  reflects  more  light  from 
^^at'side  which  is  nearest  to  a  window,  or  to  a  lighted 
^^dle,  than  from  the  other  side ;  and  upon  placing  one 


of  the  obje<*t8  above  altiided  to  in  different  positions  with 
regard  to  the  window,  if  we  find  that  the  dark  side  of 
every  elevation  in  the  face  is  directed  from  the  window, 
we  immediately  conclude  that  that  is  the  bust  and  not 
the  drawing;  but  if  we  find  that,  when  we  place  it  at  one 
side  of  the  room,  the  shaded  part  of  the  nose,  or  of  any 
other  prominent  part,  is  towards  the  window,  but  that 
when  it  b  on  the  other  side  of  the  robm  the  shaded  part 
is  from  the  window,  we  immediately  conclude,  without 
placing  the  hand  on  either  object,  that  we  are  looking  at 
tlie  drawing,  and  not  at  the  bust.  And  this  would  be 
tJie  case  if  the  drawing  were  coloured  precisely  to  imitate 
the  bust.  This  is  a  circumstance  which  should  always 
be  attended  to  in  placing  a  portrait  in  a  room;  if  the 
painted  shadows  do  not  correspond  with  the  positions  of 
the  real  shadows  on  that  side  of  the  room  the  illusion  is 
greatly  lessened. 

These  remarks  apply  to  elevations  above  the  common 
surface  of  an  object,  but  our  notions  of  depression  are 
formed  exactly  in  a  similar  way.  We  should  find  thai 
if  we  could  change  the  appearance  of  every  spot  in  a 
raised  ob||ect  ft'om  light  to  dark,  and  from  dark  to  light 
respectively,  the  mind  would  at  once  determine  that  we 
were  then  looking  at  a  depressed  or  hollow  cavity,  the 
exact  type  of  the  raised  object  which  we  were  before  re- 
garding; we  sdiould  find  that  no  other  element  would  be 
called  for  in  fixing  our  ideas. 

Sir  David  Brewster  has  beautifully  illustrated  this 
singular  fact  by  referring  to  the  effect  produced  on  the 
appearance  of  an  intaglio  (sunken  device),  or  a  cameo 
(raised  device),  when  viewed  through  a  microscope,  or  any 
assemblage  of  lenses  which  inverts  the  object. 

If  a  common  seal,  or  intaglio,  be  held  near  a  window, 
the  parts  farthest  from  the  window  receive  most  light; 
while  if  the  cast  or  impression  produced  from  that  seal, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  cameo,  be  similarly  viewed, 
the  parts  nearest  the  window  will  receive  most  light ;  and 
it  is  in  that  way  tiiat  we  immediately  know  the  elevated 
from  the  depressed  image. 

Now,  the  effect  of  viewing  this  same  seal  through  a 
microscope,  is  to  invert  the  posdtion  of  the  object;  and 
consequently,  if  we  <$onfine  our  attention  to  any  given 
depressed  p<nnt  of  the  seal,  we  should  find  that  the  light 
and  the  dark  sides  of  that  depression  had  changed  places, 
Itnd  the  shaded  side  of  every  little  elevation  and  depres- 
sion would  be  exactly  in  the  same  position  as  if  we  were 
viewiiig  a  cast  of  the  seal  without  a  microscope. 

It  will  even  be  found  that  a  very  slight  effort  of  the 
mind  will  be  sufficient  to  produce  this  effect  'without  any 
leases  whatever:  suppose  an  intaglio  be  viewed  at  night, 
with  a  candle  at  the  left  of  the  observer;  let  him  then 
fabcy  that  the  candle  is  on  his  right  hand,  and  the  idea 
that  he  is  viewing  a  cameo  will  immediately  impress 
itself  on  his  mind.  That  the  direction  of  the  shadow  is 
the  real  evidence  on  which  we  form  our  (pinion  as  to 
the  character  of  the  surface  which  we  are  viewing,  is 
farther  home  out  by  this  fact :  that  if  we  hold  an  intag- 
lio and  a  cameo  exactly  opposite  to  the  source  of  illu- 
minatiott,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  one  from  the  other, 
as  both  sides  of  every  elevation  or  depression  are  nearly 
equally  illuminated. 

If  we  consider  for  a  moment,  in  what  way  we  distin- 
guish a  concave  from  a  convex  surfiice,  we  shall  find  that 
it  merely  consists  in  a  different  distribution  of  light  and 
shade:  those  parts  which  are  light  in  the  one,  being 
shaded  in  the  other  and  vice  versd;  the  deception  pro- 
duced in  objects  of  this  form,  by  inverting  the  position 
of  the  image,  is  most  striking,  and  affords  one  of  the 
best  instances  of  the  fallacy  of  our  reasoning,  when  we 
lose  one  of  the  data  on  which  we  ground  our  inferences. 

If  we  take  any  bright  convex  or  concave  surface,  no 
matter  what  the  material,  and  place  it  between  the 
window  and  the  eye,  so  that  the  eye  sees  it  by  looking 
downwards  at  an  angle  of  from  20®  to  60**,  there  is  a 
certain  distribution  of  light  and  shade  on  the  object, 

571—2 


204 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[May  29, 


which  enables  the  eye,  from  habit,  co  determine  whether 
it  be  convex  or  concave ;  if  we  can  now  invert  the  posi- 
tion of  the  edges  of  the  object,  with  reference  to  the 
eye  and  the  window,  the  shaded  parts  assume  just  the 
position  which  would  be  assumed  by  the  opposite  curva- 
ture. This  inversion  may  be  done  without  any  lenses 
whatever.  Take  a  common  Wedgwood-ware  evaporating- 
dish,  or  a  common  tea-saucer,  a  basin,  or  any  object 
which  is  concave  on  one  side  and  convex  on  the  other-^ 
a  watch-glass  even  will  do, — and  place  it  on  a  table 
between  the  observer  and  the  window,  with  the  concave 
side  upwards;  then  hold  a  piece  of  common  glass  (with 
the  under  side  blackened)  in  such  a  position  that  an 
image  of  the  object  will  be  reflected  from  its  surface  to 
the  eye.  The  laws  of  optical  reflection  teach  us,  that  the 
rays  from  the  farther  edge  and  those  from  the  nearer 
ed^e  cross  each  other  in  their  passage  to  the  eje^  and 
assume  an  inverted  position ;  and  it  will  now  be  seen  that 
the  object  has  every  appearance  of  being  a  convex  sur- 
face, and  if  the  angle .  of  observation  be  well  chosen, 
(which  depends  partly  on  the  height  of  the  window,)  the 
illusion  is  so  strong  that  it  can  scarcely  be  removed  from 
the  mind.  If  a  convex  mirror  be  substituted,  and  its 
position  well  adjusted,  the  distortion  will  present  all  the 
appearance  of  a  concave  mirror. 

It  is  not  essential  to  this,  experiment  that  the  reflector 
should  be  black  on  its  under  surface,  although  it  is  more 
favourable  for  the  purpose;  any  polished  surface  will 
suffice,  provided  it  receives  the  rays  at  a  large  angle  of 
incidence :  it  can  be  seen  very  well  by  reflection  from  one 
of  the  faces  of  a  prism,  and  a  singular  effect  is  produced 
by  a  particular  adjustment  of  the  prism,  by  which  two 
images  of  the  same  object  may  be  conveyed  to  the  eye 
within  a  short  distance  of  each  other ;  one  is  the  regular 
refracted  and  transmitted  image,  and  the  other  a  reflec- 
tion from  one  of  the  internal  faces  of  the  prism :  one  of 
these  images  will  appear  convex,  and  the  other  concave, 
and  their  juxtaposition  forms  a  very  remarkable  appear- 
ance— one  being  prismatically  coloured  and  convex,  and 
the  other  of  its  natural  colour  and  concave. 

If  the  student  in  optics  carefully  considers  the  law  that 
"  the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection  are  always  equal," 
and  will  carry  out  that  principle  to  its  fullest  extent,  he 
will  find  that  every  one  of  the  phenomena  of  which  we 
have  been  treating  depends  almost  solely  on  the  operation 
of  that  law;  if  he  considers  the  position  of  the  source  of 
illumination,  the  degree  of  curvature  of  the  surface  on 
which  any  ray  falls,  and  the  angle  at  which  the  eye 
receives  the  reflection,  he  can  clearly  show  that  that  law 
determines  what  part  of  the  object  will  appear  bright  and 
what  part  shaded. 

In  a  memoir  submitted  by  JProfessor  Wheatstone  to 
the  Royal  Society,  two  or  three  years  ago,  he  enters  at 
considerable  length  into  the  causes  and  nature  of  many 
phenomena  connected  with  vision ;  and  among  them  are 
the  relative  appearances  of  an  intaglio  and  a  cameo. 
But  the  results  to  which  that  gentlemen  arrived,  and 
which  we  shall  briefly  explain  in  a  future  paper,  do  not 
disturb  the  results  described  in  the  last  few  paragraphs: 
we  are  treating  of  that  class  of  illusions  arising  from 
shadows,  and  their  relative  position  with  regard  to  the 
light  parts  of  an  object;  but  Mr.  Wheatstone's  experi- 
ments relate  to  a  more  extensive  and  highly  curious 
comparison  between  the  phenomena  observed  with  one 
eye  and  those  observed  when  both  eyes  are  open.  But 
more  of  this  hereafter:  the  details  of  our  present  article 
are  equally  true,  whether  one  eye  or  both  eyes  be 
employed. 

The  optical  law  to  which  we  have  alluded,  namely,  that 
«<  the  angles  of  incidence  and  reflection  are  always  equal," 
determines  the  production  of  another  phenomenon,  as 
remarkable  and  much  more  beautiful  than  the  former. 
If  we  take  a  plate  of  looking-glass,  and  sprinkle  a  few 
grains  of  dust  upon  it,  and  view  it  perpendicularly  with 
^  ^ye  at  a  few  inched  distance,   tne  dust  appears 


arranged  in  a  most  beantifiil  radiating  star,  of  which  the 
eye  is  the  centre;  it  matters  not  how  unequaUyitis 
scattered;  the  symmetry  is  invariable. 

Now  in  such  a  case  as  this,  before  we  begin  to  theoriie, 
it  is  proper  to  extend  the  experiment  to  other  objects;  and 
in  accordance  with  this,  it  will  be  found  that  if  the  object 
be  a  polished  8ur£ue  of  steel,  of  silver,  of  mercury,  or 
any  substance  but  silvered  glass,  no  such  radiating  appear- 
ance presents  itself;  if  now  the  student  reverts  to  the 
law  above  alluded  to,  he  will  at  once  detect  the  cause; 
when  the  dust  is  scattered  on  the  surface  of  silvered 
glass,  an  image  of  each  little  particle  is  reflected  firon 
the  mercurial  surfacej  through  the  glass  again  to  the 
eye;  as  the  angle  at  which  we  view  any  particle  increases, 
so  must  the  apparent  distance  hetween  it  and  its  image 
increase,  until  we  arrive  at  45^  which  gives  the  maximum 
of  distance. 

Now  the  particle  and  its  reflected  image  are  in  the 
same  vertical  plaine  which  passes  through  the  eye  and 
the  image  of  the  eye ;  the  particle,  its  image,  and  the 
image  of  the  pupil  of  the  eye  appear,  therefore,  to  be  io 
the  same  right  line,  and  as  the  same  applies  to  ereiy 
particle,  as  the  line  which  joins  the  |>article  and  its  image 
would  pass,  if  produced,  through  the  ioiage  of  the  pupil 
of  the  eye,  wherever  the  particle  be  placedj  the  pupil 
appears  to  be  a  nucleus  or  centre  from  which  all  these 
double  images  extend  radially  outwards. 

When,  however,  a  polished  metal  b  used,  there  is  no 
reflecting  surface  from  which  a  second  image  can  be 
obtained,  and  we  therefore  see  the  particles  themselves 
unaccompanied  by  any  reflected  image,  and  the  symme, 
trical  appearance  is  not  then  produced.  The  employ- 
ment of  a  concave  mirror  affords  an  excellent  proof  that 
this  beautiful  radiating  appearance  is  the  effect  of  reflec- 
tion. If  we  hold  the  eye  at  the  focus  of  the  mirror- 
that  is,  at  the  centre  of  the  sphere  of  which  the  mirror  is 
a  section — ^we  see  none  of  these  radial  lines,  but  as  ve 
approach  near  to  the  mirror,  they  gradually  develope 
themselves ;  this  arises  from  the  circumstance,  that  when 
the  eye  is  at  the  centre  of  the  sphericity,  incidence  and 
reflection  are  both  perpendicular  to  the  mirror,  or  rather, 
the  reflected  image  is  concealed  by  the  particle  itself,  asd 
therefore  cannot  reach  the  eye ;  but  when  we  approach 
nearer,  the  images  of  the  lateral  particles  become  visible, 
and  the  starry  effect  begins  to  appear. 

In  a  convex  mirror  the  effect  is  veir  beautiful,  on 
account  of  the  increased  obliquity  which  its  cunrature 
gives  to  the  incident  ray,  and  tne  non-existence  of  a 
focal  point  in  front  of  the  mirror. 

The  effect  is  greatly  heightened  by  mixing  powders  of 
two  different  colours, — ^red  and  green,  or  blue  and  orange, 
for  instance, — as  those  colours  which  are  complementary 
to  each  other  produce  a  singularly  pleasing  effect  by  their 
juxtaposition.  A  very  slight  sprinkling  of  milk,  or 
any  coloured  liquid,  likewise  produces  this  symmetrical 
effect 

Instead  of  using  glass,  we  may  use  two  fluids  of  different 
densities  and  different  refractive  powers,  but  the  tvo 
which  best  answer  the  purpose  are  water  and  mercon'i 
if  a  little  powder  be  sprinkled  on  the  water,  it  will  be 
reflected  from  the  mercury  under  the  water,  and  the 
same  effect  produced  as  with  glass,  but  the  latter  is  the 
more  convenient  of  the  two. 

If  the  eye  be  directed  to  one  comer  of  the  glass,  the 
particles  will  have  the  appearance  of'  an  expanded  fani 
emanating  from  that  comer. 

Thus  may  the  same  simple  law  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  whole  of  the  appearances  which  we  have  now 
detailed :  in  all  these  instances  an  object,  or  an  assem- 
blage of  objects,  appear  to  be  what  they  are  not,  simplj 
from  our  neglecting  to  seek  for  an  explanation  from  the 
only  sources  to  which  we  should  apply  in  such  cases, 
namely,  the  unerring  laws  of  Nature,  the  simplicity  of 
which  is  as  conspicuous  as  their  beauty  and  their  urn- 
versal  applicationt 


1S4I.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


BRITISH    GUYANA. 


N  THE  E3IEQDIBO. 


IV.  Abcbnt  op  tiib  Ebsequibo.  ' 
In  our  last  paper  on  Guayana  we  traced  the  principal 
objects  wurthy  of  note  on  the  river  Massarooiiv.  We 
now  start  from  the  point  where  that  river  enters  the 
l^ssequibo,  and  accompany  Mr.  Schomburghk  in  the 
ascent  of  the  latter  river. 

This  gentleman  was  accompanied  by  two  other  Euro- 
peans, nine  negroes,  and  ten  Indians,  who  embarked   in 
three  cooriaU,  or  caooes.     The  party  proceeded  up  the 
river,  meeting  with  but  few  traces  of  man's  works,  but 
abundant  examples  of  the  beauties  of  natural  objects. 
Here  a  rapid  occurs, — there  a  sand-bank  gives  a  tortuous 
course  to  the  rirer, — farther  on  are  banks  covered  with 
luxuriant  vegetation.     Opposite  a  small  island  in  the 
river,  called  Hoobucuroo,  there  is  one  dense  mass  of 
foliage,  arising  from  trees  of  almost  innumerable  fijowths ; 
aiDoiig  which  are  the  majestic  mora,  with  its  dark-leaved 
branches, — the  mimosa,  whose  wood  is  almost  equal  to 
oak  for  ship-building, — the  stately  saouari,  which  bears 
a  rich  and  nutritious  nut, — the  sirwabally,  excellent  for 
p'anking  vessels  and  resisting  the  attack  of  worms, — the 
water  guava,  which  replaces  the  mangrove  of  the  sea- 
!hore,  and  yields  an  aromatic  leaf,  useful  as  a  medicine. 
Mid  many  others.     Mr,  Schomburghk  also  observed  how 
^r^ucntly  small  parasitical  plants  had  wound  themselves 
refund  lai^r  stems.    The  wild  vine,  or  bush-rope  of  the 
'^'^lonists  is  seen  at  times  twisted  like  a  corkscrew  round 
'i^e  loftiest  trees,  intertwin:;d  like  the  strands  of  a  cable, 
('l  en  drooping  to  the  ground,  and  again  taking  root,  and 
til    us,  as  it  were,  securely  anchoring  the  tree  against  the 
f''    ry  of  the  sweeping  blast.     Sometimes  too  may  be  seen 
'h     e  wild  fig-tree,  an  unusual  parasite,  taking  root  in  some 
'S^  the  topmost  branches  of  the  mora,  deriving  nourish- 
'^OKut  from  its  sap,  and  being,  in   its  turn,  entwined  by 
varieties  of  the  climbing  vine. 

Firther  up  the  river  the  travellers  met  with  a  party 
of  natives,— men,  women,  and  children:  the  women  were 
fiiiplayed  spinning  cotton  fvr  hammocks,  in  a  but  open 


on  all  sides,  and  badly  roofed  with  palm-trees.  Cotton, 
dipped  in  bees'-wax,  afforded  artificial  light  in  the 
evenings. 

About  twelve  years  ago  Lieutenant  Gullifer  and  Mr. 
Smith  ascended  the  Essequibo,  and  met  with  :omo  of 
the  natives  under  circumstances  which  show  how  griev- 
ously low  is  the  state  of  their  civilization.  We  must 
remark,  however,  that  the  individuals  to  whom  the  fol- 
lowing narrative  relates,  were  not  the  regular  American 
Indians  of  Guyana,  but  hdonged  to  the  more  fierce  tribes 
called  Caribs. 

The  travellers  being  received  courteously  by  the  chief 
of  the  tribe,  a  dish  of  fish,  witb  savoury  sauce,  was 

E laced  before  them,  which  being  removed,  two  human 
ands  were  brought  in,  and  a  steak  of  human  flesh.  The 
travellers,  as  may  be  supposed,  declined  to  cat  of  such 
food,  but  the  chief  picked  the  bones  of  the  hands,  appa- 
rently with  great  relish;  and  he  afterwards  said  to  his. 
visitors — "Human  flesh  makes  the  best  sauce  for  any 
food:  these  hands  and  the  fish  were  all  dressed  together. 
You  see  these  Macooebee  men,  our  slaves;  we  lately 
captured  these  people  in  war,  and  their  wives  we  eat  from 
time  to  time."  The  travellers  were  horrified,  but  thought 
it  prudent  to  conceal  their  feelings,  and  before  they  re- 
tired for  the  night  they  remarked  that  the  Macoosheo 
females  were  confined  in  a  large  logic,  or  shed,  sur- 
rounded with  a  stockade  of  bamboos  j  and  the  whole  as- 
pect of  affairs  afforded  reason  to  believe  that  the  sicken- 
ing recital  was  but  too  true. 

It  is  instructive  to  observe  how  generally  and  almost 
universally  prevalent  is  the  idea  that  at  some  past  period 
in  the  history  of  the  world  the  surface  of  the  globe  was 
inundated  by  a  deluge.  An  instance  of  this  kind  is  fur- 
nished by  the  Arawaks  of  Guyana,  Their  tradition  of 
the  Creation  is  that  the  Great  Spirit  sat  on  a  silk  cotton- 
tree,  and  cut  off  pieces  of  bark,  which  he  threw  into 
the  stream  below  him,  and,  becoming  animated,  they 
assumed  the  forms  of  all  animals  i  that  man  was  last  of 


806 


^•HS  SAtURDAt  MAGAZmE. 


[May  29, 


all  created;  that  a  deep  sleep  fell  upon  him;  that  he  was 
touched  hy  the  Great  Spirit,  and  found,  when  he  awoke, 
a  wife  by  his  side.  The  world  becoming  desperately 
wicked,  was  drowned  by  a  flood,  only  one  man  being 
saved  in  a  canoe,  from  which  he  sent  out  a  rat,  to  dis- 
cover if  the  waters  had  subsided,  and  it  returned  with  a 
head  of  Indian  com.  Such  is  the  strange  manner  in 
which  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  Creation  has  been  mu- 
tilated and  mixed  up  with  absurdities,  and  thus  handed 
down  as  a  tradition  among  these  people  1 

In  proceeding  up  tl^  Essequibo  our  travellers  found 
a  curious  custom  V6  ^Vail  among  the  Indians  who  navi- 
gated the  canoeSf  m^Ns^ver  they  came  to  a  place 
which  the  Indians  hiA  'H^  visited  before,  they  had  tobacco- 
juice  squeezed  'o¥  tpifrrirted  into  Uteir  eyes, — to  avert  the 
Evil  Spirit  1  tVi^  W  dofiffe  m  tite  occasion  of  arriving 
at  a  remarkable  pi^  YJf  iat^  fraAife  boidders,  near  the 
banks  of  t!te  river.  t%e  %om<!erk  rise  perpendicularly 
to  the  iieiglit  o!P  about  i  tiundv^  feet,  and  iippea^  \6  en- 
close a  larg«  ^vity,  picMf  ^^M^  by  a  wfakte  mass  of 
granite. 

Among  ^  i!i>difncV<oM>^  im  ^ilants  found  m  this 
neighbour^^oiOfift,  is  that  w^kti  produces  the  gum  elastic ; 
the  wood  ^^  ^hich  has  much  the  appearance  of  the  syca- 
more. The  gum  is  contained  in  the  bark ;  and  when 
the  latter  is  cut  through,  the  gum  oozes  out  very  freely : 
it  is  quite  white,  and  looks  as  rich  as  cream.  It  hardens 
almost  immediately  on  issuing  from  the  tr^ ;  bo  that  it 
is  very  easy  to  collect  a  ball,  by  forming  the  juice  into 
a  globular  shape  as  flist  as  it  comes  out.  It  turns 
nearly  black  on  being  exposed  to  the  air,  and  becomes 
real  Indian  rubber  without  any  ferther  preparation. 

Waterton  speaks  in  enthusiastic  terms  of  lite  scenery 
on  the  banks  of  the  Essequibo.  At  one  spot  is  a  savan- 
nah at  the  edge  of  a  forest,  which  he  thought  excelled 
in  beauty  any  park  in  England.  It  consists  of  about  two 
thousand  acres  of  grass,  with  here  and  there  a  clump  of 
trees,  and  a  few  bushes  and  single  trees,  scattered  up 
and  down  by  the  hand  of  nature.  The  ground  is  diver- 
sified with  moderate  undulations ;  and  near  the  middle  is 
an  eminence,  gradually  rising  from  every  side,  and 
occupied  by   Indian  huts :— > 

This  beautiful  paric  of  nature,  (says  he,)  is  quite  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  hills,  all  arrayed  in  superheat  garb  of  trees ; 
some  in  the  form  of  pyramids,  others  like  sugar-loaves, 
towering  one  above  the  other,  some  rounded  off  and  oUiers 
as  though  they  had  lost  their  apex.  Here,  too,  hiUs  rise 
up  in  spiral  summits,  and  the  wooded  line  of  commu- 
Btcation  betwixt  them  sinks  so  gnulually  timt  St  forms 
a  crescent;  and  there  the  ridges  of  others  resemble  the 
waves  of  aa  agitated  sea.  Beyond  these  appear  others,  and 
others  past  them;  and  others  still  farther  on,  till  ihey  can 
scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the  clouds. 

Amid  scenes  such  as  these,  diversified  with  rapids, 
falls,  shoals,  and  small  islands,  the  traveller  up  the  Esse- 
quibo finds  himself;  seeing  no  relics  or  traces  of  the 
"  white  man,"  but  meeting  here  and  there  with  small  par- 
ties of  the  natives.  At  one  part  of  his  voyage  Mr. 
Schomburghk  met  two  canoes  ftiU  of  natives  going  to 
trade  at  the  Demerara  river.  Their  canoes  were  loaded 
with  hammocks,  large  balls  of  spun  cotton,  bows,  tobacco 
leaves,  parrots,  macaws,  and  other  articles  for  barter. 
The  chief,  as  a  distinguishing  mark,  wore  a  crown  of 
macaw  feathers ;  and  trafficked  with  the  travellers,  ex- 
changing some  of  his  commodities  for  scissors  and 
knives. 

When  we  arrive  at  a  distance  of  about  two  hundred 
and  forty  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  we  meet 
with  the  river  Rupunoony,  which  empties  itself  into  the 
Essequibo.  Up  this  river  Mr.  Schomburghk  proceeded, 
and  met  with  many  picturesque  groups  of  natives.  At 
one  spot,  in  a  fine  savannah,  he  saw  a  dome-shaped  hut, 
and  two  smaller  open  ones,  which  were  prepared  for  a 
piwarry  feast  among  the  natives.  The  men  all  came 
forward,  and  greeted  him  by  waving  the  band.  He 
then  looked  in  at  one  of  the  open  huts,  where  he  saw 
women  and  children  occupied  in  baking  fresh  cassava 


bread.  At  his  appearance,  children,  dogs,  fowls,  parrots, 
all  set  up  a  cry  of  a£fright ;  so  he  left  them  and  vrent  to 
inspect  the  dome-shaped  hut.  It  consisted  of  pak 
leaves  plaited  neatly  together,  with  a  plastered  entranoe. 
The  interior  resembled  a  cupola  or  dome,  supported  by 
three  beams  and  several  oblique  posts.  Around  it  the 
hammocks  were  slung,  and  the  different  implements  of 
the  kitchen  and  chase  ranged  againslb  ^e  walls.  The 
middle  was  occupied  by  a  wooden  h^tigh,  carved  and 
painted  in  the  Indian  fashion,  thd  jlltcfd  with  toiwarrj,  of 
which  it  contained  as  itaiidtk  t!k  ^xtJf  ^fotts.  The 
guests  assembled  for  thie  9e^  mtk  ^Ihiag  theh*  hanunocb 
partly  in  the  circuliA'  ml^  jj^rt^y  th  Mi  of  &e  open 
tmt8>  while  others  MoMfd  t6^d^im^  etu^  party  being 
attended  by  a  persoh  liighty  Mifti^  "ktiA  onMUfented  for 
the  occasion,  to  iMring  WefA  Vt^  Ihtoxicating  liqMt  when 
wanted.  On  a  aignal  given  \ilf  ^e  \msL  tit  one  of  the 
gttests,  the  calabash  wtS  ftll^  ^d  handra  to  the  persoo 
who  desired  it :  il  waa  Itiieto  f^Vt/t  to  hn  n^xt  neighbour, 
and  so  on  till  IMnptM^  aAter  %)tf<^il  1v»s  iiM again, 
and  the  same  h>un^  ^PCniiTO.  T^  was  vostioDed 
until  the  trougtk  was  tttpHlefd^  ilte^  i^lMa  %  ^«  supply 
was  made,  and  the  men  V^^^Mra  ^dxtekft^g  vtatiltbey 
became* — first  highly  elated  and  boastf^-^-«&d  then 
torpid  and  sleepy. 

Mr.  Schomburghk,  after  8peaU|%  lltV^i^j  of  the 
behaviour  of  the  Indians  towards  mSt  ^dhildren,  says,- 

They  e^ow  much  more  atMjMiMs  ^  ^hfelfr,  wiva  th&n  I 
should  have  expected  froA  IfmA  I  mfl  YetAf  I  allniieto 
the  CaribbeeB,  where  Im  W6Mllk  i|p»etir  kibm  consideied 
more  as  comAaaM^^  ^vtm  mMik  ni^  tj^rtunly  most 
w6iichard(  Oft ttllelh '<^iiSr tM fk4^^ 
to  ctittiV^fce  9t^  a^^  ^  bMM|  ^^  &i^  t§^  but  they  are  br  do 
means  the  low  slaves  aha  drudges  which  they  have  been 
represented.  There  is  one  great  foiling  which  unfortuiuteljr 
appears  to  prevail  among  aU  the  trib^ — ^neglect  of  old  pe> 
sons,  and  tne  sick :  they  are  stowed  away  in  a  small  conief 
of  the^ouse,  neglected,  and  left  to  l^emselves;  and  wbm 
weakness  keeps  them  to  their  hammocks^  perhaps  ofisi 
without  the  necessaries  of  life. 

During  the  journey,  the  travellers  occasionally  crossed 
the  savannahs,  hills,  and  forests,  to  visit  any  renuurkable 
spot,  and  on  some  of  these  occasions  they  had  opp^ff* 
timities  of  seeing  the  mode  of  march  known  as  ^*  Indian 
file."  The  party,  on  one  occasion,  consisted  of  eigbtca 
individuals;  and  as  the  path  leading  througb  the 
savannahs  was  not  more  ihan  six  or  eight  inches  vi<]ci 
each  person  had  to  follow  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  the 
one  before  him.  Sometimes  the  path  was  lost,  or 
became  still  narrower  than  that  here  indicated,  but  thii 
was  immaterial  to  the  Indians;  for  their  peculiar  metbod 
of  walking  with  the  toes  inward  enables  them  to  valk 
the  smallest  path  with  ease.  They  ridicule  the  £urq)eao 
mode  of  walking,  observing  that  in  a  wood  we  take  »p 
too  much  bush-room. 

The  exploring  party  ascended  the  Essequibo  to  a 
point  where  a  fine  cataract  became  visible,  which,  so 
cording  to  the  opinions  of  all  the  Indians  present,  bad 
never  before  been  visited  by  a  white  man  The  ri^er 
contracted  considerably  at  this  part:  the  hills  approa^^^ 
each  other  ft-om  both  sides ;  and  the  indentations  of  the 
opposite  shores  were  so  exactly  matched,  that  the  cbao* 
net  appeared  to  have  been  the  work  of  art  Af^^ 
paddling  up  the  river  in  canoes,  the  cataract  was  sfeo 
by  the  travellers.  Numerous  conical  hills  of  gr^\^ 
about  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  covered  vit^ 
luxuriant  verdure,  contract  the  river  to  a  width  of  uitf 
yards,  where  the  whole  body  of  water  dashes  ^^^^J 
precipice  of  fifteen  feet;  then  foams  over  a  rugged  b« 
of  rocks  for  about  twenty  yards ;  and  again  precipita>«s 
iUelf,  ten  feet,  to  the  basin  below.  The  rich  vegeUtion 
luxuriating  in  all  the  fertility  of  a  tropical  clime,— the 
masses  of  granite  projecting  into  the  river,  and  hemming 
it  in  to  its  narrow  limits,— and  the  foaming  waters  m 
the  background,  bearing  away  everything  opposed  to 
their  progress, — combined  to  form  a  scene,  more  pictu- 
resque and  beautiful  than  had  b^n  met  with  by  m 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


207 


travellers  in  any  part  of  their  journey.  Mr.  Sctoni- 
burghk  named  this  cataract  after  King  William  the 
Fourth,  who  was  at  that  time  patron  of  tibe  RoyaX 
Geographical  Society,  by  vthon^  ibas,  ei^pedition  waa 
planned,  and  to  whio^e  vi^uabl^  Journal  we  are  indebted 
for  the  illustrations  to  the  present  series. 

When  the  traTellers  had  returned  nearly  to  the 
point  whence  they  set  out,  many  of  their  specimens 
of  Natural  History  were  lost  by  the  upsetting  of  a  boj^t; 
respecting  which  Mr.  Schomburghk  observes, — 

lliifl  is  too  frequently  the  lot  of  the  traveller.  After 
having  amassed  ti^asures  of  Natural  Science,  and  having 
taken  eveiy  pains  to  preserve  them,  i^eather,  accident, 
negligence,  and  malice,  often  conspire  to  deprive  him  of 
tliem.  How  frequently  was  I  obliged  to  u»se  every  per- 
suasion to  induce  the  Indian  to  carry  the  Greologieal  sped- 
mens  collected  during  our  pedestrian  tours  I  I  might  nave 
loaded  him  with  provisions,  wearing  apparel,  &c.,  and  ke 
would  not  have  objected  to  it ;  but  to  mcxease  his  burden, 
hy  adding  rocks,  he  thought,  could  only  be  done  out  of 
mischief ;  therefore  I  had  been  more  tlian  once  under  the 
necessity  of  carrying  the  q>ecimens  myselfl 

Nearly  all  the  specimens  here  alluded  to,  as  well  as 
many  specimens  of  plants  and  animalsi  were  lost  or 
spoiled  by  the  disaster  with  the  boat 

We  need  not  trace  the  route  of  the  travellers  to  the 
sea  shore.  SufBlce  it  to  say,  that  the  banks  of  the  Esse- 
quibo  and  the  Rupunoony  present  dense  forests,  rich 
savannahs,  a  luxuriant  display  of  animal  and  vegetable 
life ;  but  that  the  few  inhabitants  consist  wholly  of  the 
coloured  races. 


EULER,  THE  MATHEMATICIAN. 

There  are  but  few  chapters  in  Biography  more  strik- 
ingly illustrative  of  the  ardent  love  of  knowledge,  and 
its  pursuit  under  circumstances  of  jpain  and  difficulty, 
than  that  supplied  by  the  life  of  Leonard  Euler  the 
maHiematician. 

This  great  man  was  bom  at  Basle,  in  Switzerland, 
on  the  15th  of  April,  1707.  His  father  was  minister 
of  the  village  of  Riechen,  where  Euler  passed  his  earliest 
years.  Alter  receiving  a  good  education  from  his 
father,  he  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Basle,  where  he 
soon  became  distinguished  for  his  extraordinary  memory 
and  the  uncommon  celerity  with  which  he  accomplished, 
bis  academical  tasks.  He  devoted  all  his  leisure  to, 
geometry,  which  was  his  favourite  pastime.  His  pro^ 
giess  in  this  noble  department  of  science,  gained  for 
him  the  notice  of  John  Bernoulli,  then  the  first  mathe- 
matician in  Europe,  as  also  the  friendship  of  Daniel  and 
Nicholas  Bernoulli  who  were  already  emulous  of  the 
fame  of  their  illustrious  father.  In  1723  Euler  delivered 
a  discourse  in  Latin  on  the  occasion  of  taking  his  degree 
as  Master  of  Arts,  and  the  subject  of  his  theme  was  the 
philosophy  of  Newton  in  comparison  with  the  Cartesian 
system.  This  effort  gained  its  author  great  applause. 
He  afterwards  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  theology 
and  the  oriental  languages  with  considerable  success; 
but  as  his  ruling  taste  led  him  to  prefer  geometry  to  all 
other  pursuits,  he  obtained  his  father's  consent  to  adopt 
this  in  preference  to  any  other.  He  continued  on  terms 
of  friendly  intimacy  with  the  Bemoullis,  and  one  con- 
sequence of  this  connection  wi^s  his  subsequent  removal 
to  the  Academy  of  Petersburg,  an  institution  projected 
W  Peter  the  Great,  and  executed  by  Catherine  the 
First.  The  two  young  fiemoullia  being  invited  to 
Petersburg  in  1 725,  promised  Euler,  who  was  anxious  to 
accompany  them,  to  exert  themselves  to  obtain  for  him 
a  settlement  in  that  city.  In  the  mean  time  he  adopted 
their  advice,  and  applied  hmiself  with  ardour  to  the 
study  of  physiology  and  several  branches  of  physical 
science.  He  also  wrote  a  niemoir  on  the  propagation  of 
sound;  and  an  essay  in  answer  to  a  prize  question 
concerning  the  masting  of  shins,  to  which  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  in  17A7>  a4i<id8^  ^  aecQ^d  nnls. 


Th,e  splendid  taknts  of  Euler  would  easily  have  pro- 
cured for  him  an  honourable  preferment  in  his  native 
city,  had  it  not  been  that  both  civil  and  academical 
l^onoura  vr^re  distributed  there  by  lot.  Having  failed 
in  hia  attempt  to  obtain  a  certain  situation  at  Basle,  he 
Wi?nt  to  Petersburg,  where  he  became  joint  professor 
with  his  countrymen,  Hermann  and  Daniel  Bernoulli, 
in  the  university  of  that  city.  He  soon  added  many 
valuable  memoirs  to  the  academical  collection ;  and  this 
excited  a  noble  emulation  between  him  and  the  Ber-  * 
noullis,  which  always  continued  without  the  least 
interfbrence  of  envy  or  the  disturbance  of  their  friend- 
ship. In  1730  he  became  professor  of  natural  philo- 
sophy; and  in  1733  succeeded  Daniel  Bernoulli  in  the 
mathematical  chair :  about  this  time  also  he  married  a 
Swiss  lady  named  Gsell.  In  1 735  the  academy  p]:oposed 
a  problem,  to  which  a  speedy  solution  was  required,  but 
for  which  several  eminent  mathematicians  had  required 
several  months.  To  the  astonishment  of  every  one, 
]p)uler  solved  it  in  three  days ;  but  the  effort  produced  a 
fever  which  deprived  him  of  the  use  of  his  right  eye 
and  nearly  of  his  life.  The  Academy  of  Sciences  at 
Paris,  in  1738,  awarded  the  prize  to  Euler,  for  his 
memoir  on  the  nature  aud  properties  of  fire ;  and  pro- 
posed for  the  year  1740  the  important  subject  of  the 
tides;  a  problem  the  solution  of  which  required  the 
most  arduous  calculations,  and  included  the  theory  of 
the  solar  system. 

Euler's  discourse  on  this  question  was  considered  as  a 
master-piece  of  analysis  and  geometry ;  and  it  was  more 
honourable  for  him  to  ^are  the  academical  prize  with  such 
illustrious  competitors  as  Colin  Maclaunn,  and  Daniel 
Bernoulli,  than  to  have  carried  it  away  from  rivals  of 
inferior  reputation.  Rarely,  if  ever,  did  such  a  brilliant 
competition  adorn  the  annals  of  the  academy ;  and  no 
subject,  perhaps,  proposed  by  that  learned  body,  was  ever 
Seated  with  such  accuracy  of  investigation  and  force  of 
genius  as  that  which  here  displayed  the  philosophical 
powers  of  these  three  extraordinary  men. 

In  1741  Euler  received  an  invitation  from  the  king 
of  Prussia  to  visit  Berlin ;  and  being  anxious  to  escape 
from  the  scene  of  those  nolitical  intrigues  which  under 
a  suspicious  and  tyrannical  government  then  agitated 
Russia,  he  gladly  accepted  it.  When  he  was  introduced 
to  the  Queen  Uowager  she  was  so  surprised  at  hia 
taciturnity,  that  she  required  an  explanation  of  it,  and 
he  told  her  that  he  had  just  come  from  a  country  where 
those  who  spoke  were  hanged.  He  contributed  five 
memoirs  to  the  "Berlin  Miscellanies,"  and  a  large 
number  on  important  subjectsi  to  the  transactions  of  the 
Prussian  Academy  on  the  deepest  parts  of  mathematical 
science,  always  containing  new  views,  often  sublime 
truths,  and  frequentiy  important  discoveries.  At  the 
same  time  he  did  not  neglect  to  contribute  largely  to  the 
memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Petersburg,  which  m  1 742 
granted  him  a  pension.  He  also  acceded  to  the  request 
of  the  princess  of  Anhalt  t>essau,  to  write  for  her  own 
use  a  work  on  Natural  Philosophy.  On  his  return  to 
Petersburg  in  17^6,  he  published  his  celebrated  Letters 
to  a  GermatL  Princess^  in  which  he  discusses  with 
clearness  the  most  important  principles  of  Mechanics, 
Optics,  Sound,  and  Astronomy. 

In  the  midst  of  all  these  absorbing  pursuits,  Euler 
did  not  neglect  the  ties  of  kindred,  nor  cease  to  be  a 
dutiful  son  as  well  as  an  affectionate  husband.  On  the 
dearth  of  his  father  he  went  to  Frankfort,  in  1 750,  and 
returned  with  his  widowed  mother  to  Berlin,  where  she 
lived  until  1761,  enjoying,  with  the  feelings  of  a  parent, 
the  high  distinctions  which  her  son  had  attained  by  his 
genius  and  untiring  activity.  In  1760  a -circumstance 
occurred  which  shows  how  greatly  Euler  was  esteemed. 
The  Russians  having  entered  Brandenburg,  proceedei 
to  Charlottenburg,  where  they  plundered  a  farm  be« 
longing  to  Euler.  When  General  Tottleben  was 
informed  of  the  name  of  the  owner,  he  ordered  immediate 
reparation  to  be  made  to  au  amount  far  above  the  injury 


208 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[May  29, 1841. 


sustained,  to  which  the  Empress  Elizabeth  added  the 
additional  sum  of  4000  florins. 

In  1766  Euler  accepted  the  invitation  of  the  Empress 
to  return  to  Petersburg;  but  he  experienced  no  small 
difficulty  in  obtaining  permission  from  the  king  of 
Prussia  to  quit  his  territory,  so  much  was  he  esteemed 
by  that  sovereign,  who,  although  he  spoke  of  Euler  as 
being  ^^only  a  mathematician,"  yet  had  sufficient  dis- 
crimination to  perceive  that  he  added  lustre  to  a  court 
which  aspired  to  science  and  literature.  On  his  return 
to  Petersburg,  Euler  was  afflicted  with  a  severe  illness 
which  terminated  in  the  total  loss  of  his  sighL  A 
cataract  formed  in  his  left  eye  which  he  had  injured  by 
too  severe  mental  application.  In  this  distressing  situa- 
tion he  dictated  to  his  servant,  a  tailor's  apprentice  and 
quite  ignorant  of  mathematics,  his  Elements  of  Algebra^ 
a  work  as  admirable  for  clearness  and  method,  as  for 
the  distressing  circumstances  under  which  it  was  com- 
posed. The  amanuensis  is  said  to  have  acquired  a  good 
knowledge  of  Algebra,  in  the  course  of  merely  taking 
down  what  Euler  spoke. 

The  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Paris  elected  Euler  to 
the  honourable  post  of  foreign  member  of  their  body, 
and  adjudged  the  prize  to  three  of  his  memoirs,  '^Con- 
cerning  the  Inequalities  in  the  Motions  of  the  Planets." 
The  two  prize  questions  proposed  by  that  academy  for 
1770  and  1772  were  designed  to  obtain  from  astronomy 
a  more  complete  theory  of  the  moon.  With  the  assist- 
ance of  his  son,  Euler  competed  for  these  prizes,  and 
obtained  both.  In  his  last  memoir  he  reserved  for  fur- 
ther consideration  several  inequalities  of  the  moon's 
motion,  which  he  could  not  determine  in  his  first  theory, 
on  account  of  the  laborious  calculations  in  which  his 
method  had  involved  him.  But^  with  the  assistance  of 
his  son  and  two  other  gentlemen,  he; carefully  revised 
his  theory,  constructed  tables,  and  published  the  whole 
in  1772.      ^  ^ 

• 

All  these  means  of  investigation,  employed  with  such  art 
and  dexterity  as  could  only  be  expectea  from  anal^'tical 
genius  of  the  first  order,  were  attended  with  the  greatest 
success ;  and  it  is  impossible  to  observe  without  admiration 
such  immense  calculations  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other 
the  ingenious  methods  employed  by  this  great  man  to 
abridge  them,  and  to  facilitate  their  application  to  the  real 
motion  of  the  moon.  But  this  admiration  will  become 
astonishment  when  we  consider  at  what  period,  and  in  what 
circumstances,  all  this  was  effected.  It  was  when  he  was 
totally  blind,  and,  consequently,  obliged  to  arrange  all  his 
computations  by  the  sole  powers  of  his  memory  and  his 
genius ;  when  he  was  embarrassed  in  his  domestic  circum- 
stances b^  a  dreadAil  fire,  which  had  consumed  the  greater 
part  of  his  substance,  and  forced  him  to  quit  a  ruined  nouse, 
every  comer  of  which  was  known  to  him  by  a  habit  that  in 
some  measure  supplied  the  place  of  sight ; — ^it  was  in  these 
circumstances,  ana  under  tnese  privations,  that  Euler  com- 
posed a  work,  which  alone  is  sufficient  to  render  his  name 
immortal.  The  heroic  patience  and  tranquillitv  of  mind 
which  he  displayed  need  no  eulogy  here :  and  he  derived 
them  not  only  from  the  love  of  science,  but  from  the  power 
of  religion.  His  philosophy  was  too  genuine  and  sublime  to 
stop  its  analysis  at  mectianical  causes ;  it  led  him  to  that 
divine  philosophy  of  religion  which  ennobles  human  nature, 
and  is  alone  capable  of  forming  a  habit  of  true  magnanimity 
and  patience  under  suffering*. 

After  this  great  work  was  completed,  Euler  was 
couched  by  the  celebrated  oculist  Wenzell,  and  restored 
to  sight ;  but  the  delight  occasioned  by  thisr  successful 
operation  did  not  long  continue.  Partly  by  the  neglect 
of  bis  medical  attendants,  and  partly  by  his  own  impatience 
to  exercise  his  re-acquired  powers  he  again  became 
totally  blind, '  and  the  relapse  was  accompanied  by  in- 
tense pain.  This  misfortune,  however,  did  not  check 
the  ardonr  of  his  genius.  He  had  engaged  to  supply  the 
academy  of  Petersburgh  with  a  sufficient  number  of 
memoirs  to  complete  its  Transactions  for  twenty  years 

*  Enqftlopaiia  Briianniea, 


after  his  death,  and,  accordingly,  with  .the  assiituice  of 
his  son  and  two  other  gentlemen,  he  sent  to  the  academy 
seventy  memoirs  within  the  space  of  seven  years,  and 
left  above  two  hundred  more,  which  were  revised  and 
completed  by  the  biographer  of  Euler,  from  whom  ve 
have  just  quoted. 

If  we  consider  the  great  extent  to  which  Euler  carried 
his  researches  in  mathematics  and  astronomy,  we  shall 
be  surprised  to  find  that  he  was  also  skilled  in  tbe 
sciences  of  medicine,  botany,  and  chemistrv;  that  bevas 
moreover  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  had  read  with 
attention  and  taste  not  only  the  principal  Latin  authors 
but  had  made  himself  familiar  with  the  civil  and  litenur 
history  of  all  ages  and  all  nations.  We  learn  also  tkt 
intellectual  foreigners,  who  had  previously  become  ac- 
quainted with  his  mathematical  and  physical  researches 
and  discoveries,  were  astonished  on  visiting  him  to  find 
that  he  also  possessed  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  the 
most  interesting  branches  of  literature.  This  w^onderful 
memory  doubtless  made  the  acquisition  of  every  kiiid  of 
knowledge  easy  to  him:  as  an  example  of  the  powers  of 
his  memory  it  is  stated  that  he  could  repeat  the^neid 
of  Virgil  without  hesitation  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end,  and  even  name  the  first  and  last  line  of  every  page 
of  the  edition  which  he  used. 

In  September,  1783,  he  made  some  calculations  on  the 
motions  of  balloons,  then  liewly  invented.  On  the  7tli 
day  of  that  month  he  dined  with  Lexell  and  conversed  on 
the  subject  of  the  newly  discovered  planet  iierschellanil 
while  his  grandchild  was  at  tea,  he  began  to  play  with  it. 
when  he  was  struck   with  apoplexy,'  and  died  without 

pain.  '        '     •  '       . 

.Condbrcet  has  left  an  eloquent  and  just  ^sununarvof 
the  character  of  Euler,  which  is  thus  quoted  in  the 
article  before  referred  to : — 

Euler  was  one  of  those  men  whose  genius  was  eqnaJlr 
capable  of  the  gi^eatest  efforts,  and  of  the  most  continoi^i 
labour ;  who  multiplied  liis  productions  beyond  whatniiirl: 
have  been  expected  from  human  strength,  and  who,  notwith- 
standing, was  original  in  each;  whose  head  was  alwayj 
occupied,  and  whose  mind  was  always  calm.  The  natures 
his  pursuits,  by  wiUidrawing  him  from  the  world,  preserrw 
that  simplicity  of  manners  for  which  he  was  originallv  in- 
debted to  his  character  and  his  education  ;  and  he  cniplovdil 
none  of  those  means  to  which  men  of  real  merit  have  some- 
times recourse,  in  order  to  enhance  the  importance  of  their 
discoveries.  It  is  true  that  fecundity  such  as  his  renderj 
unnecessaiy  all  the  little  calculations  of  self-love ;  but  stiU 
great  lucimty  of  mind,  and  uprightness  of  character,  w« 
necessary  to  trace,  as  he  has  done,  the  history  of  hii 
thoughts,  even  when  his  investigations  have  proved  fruitl^ 
or  the  results  disappointed  the  expectations  which  he  had 
formed.  Eulei^s  constitution  was  uncommonly  vi^roo^' 
his  health  was  good ;  and  the  evening  of  his  long  life  was 
serene,  being  sweetened  by  the  fame  which  follows  genius 
the  public  esteem  and  respect  which  are  never  withhes'- 
from  exemplary  virtue,  and  several  domestic  comforts, 
which  he  was  capable  of  feeling,  and  therefore  deserved  to 
enjoy. 


Pleasures  are  like  poppies  spread. 

You  seize  the  flower,  its  bloom  is  shed; 

Or  like  the  snow-falls  in  the  river, 

A  moment  white — then  melts  for  ever; 

Or  like  the  borealis  race. 

That  flit  ere  you  can  point  their  place : 

Or  like  the  rainbow's  lovely  form 

Evanishing  amid  the  storm— 

Nae  man  can  tether  time  or  tide. 


BciJf** 


LONDON : 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAND. 

PVBLIMIXDIM  WlBSLT  NVMBSR*.  PbIC  K  Om»  PkWIIY,  AK©  19  MoKTHtl  !**»* 

PmCB  SiZPKKCIC. 

8ol4  hf  «U  BeokwUen  «nd  NewsTaaden  ia  the  Xiagdon. 


L 


N?  572.         SUPPLEMENT, 


MAY,   1841.  {okTS..; 


OVERLAND   JOURNEY    FROM    INDIA    TO    ENGLAND, 


L  UJAS  AMD  HB  YitUM, 


THIRD  ROUTE. 
tr  n-AT  OF  LiHOOB,  Cadbul,  Baueh,  Boxhaba,  Toork- 

NAKi^  Kborasam,  and  Persia,  to  ihb  Black  Sea. 
Ve  now  inTito  the  reader  to  accompanr  us  in  oar  third 
verland  journey  from  India,  during  wnich  we  propo^a  to 
"averse  some  of  the  countries  of  Central  A^ia,  Bitiiat«d 
ctween  Hindoatanand  the  Caspian  Sea.  Our  fellow  travel- 
trs  TviU  beprincipally  Sir  Alexander  Bornes,  Mr.  Elphin- 
orie,  and  Colonel  Conolly. 

If  we  examine  a  map  of  Asia  we  find  that  the  river 
:idus  forms  a  general  boundary  between  Hiudostan  and  the 
iiuitries  westward  of  it.  Beginning  from  the  south,  where 
>at  riverdischargesilself  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  we  find  that 
oth  sides  of  the  river  are  in  tile  dominions  of  Sinde,  which 

bounded  on  the  east  by  Rajpootona,  or  the  country  of 
le  Itjijpoots,  and  on  the  west  by  Beii>ochisUin.  But  when 
e  n.-K-end  higher  up  the  river  we  find  that  it  forms  a  gene- 
1  boundary  between  tha  Punjnnli,— recently  under  the 
ilo  of  Runjeet  Singh, — and  Caubal  or  Afghanistan. 

Now,  every  British  officer  wiio  orossea  the  Indus  in  hia 
Ay  overland  to  England,  must  pass  through  territories  not 
■kniKing  to  the  Bntinh  crown  fefore  he  reaches  the  Indus. 
I  »l  ist-ussing  the  political  reUtiona  of  Ataa  it  would  undoubt- 
lly  appear  odvantogieons  to  England,  if  the  bonks  of  the 
idus  were  in  her  possession ;  but  this  is  a  matter  with 
Iiich.  WD  have  nothing  hero  to  do,  and  shall  therefore 
erely  stale  the  fact.  After  crossing  the  Indus,  some  tra- 
rlien*  proceed  directly  through  Caubul  and  Khoroaan,  to 
e  Caspian  .Sen;  but  we  slinll  find  more  objects  of  interest 

Vot~  XVIIL 


by  taldiw  A  tnon  noithnly  Muto  through  the  north-east 
part  of  Caubul,  and  thonce  through  Bolkh  to  Bokhara; 
from  whence  we  shoU  proceed  by  Hushed  and  Astrahad,  to 
the  Caspian. 

On  leaving  Delhi,  the  former  capital  of  Eindoslan,  but 
now  under  British  dominion,  our  route  takes  ua  north-west 
towarda  the  river  Sutledie,  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
Punjaub.  This  name,  "  Punjaub,"  is  singularly  expressive 
of  the  nature  of  the  country  to  wliich  it  is  applied.  It 
means,  in  Oriental  langut^,  "  five  rlvens"  and  designates  a 
triangular  district  watered  by  live  rivers,  which  ultimately 
combine  and  form  the  Indus.  Alexander  the  Great  tra- 
versed this  country  in  his  career  of  conquest,  and  his  histo< 
rians  speak  of  it  in  tliese  terms : — "  The  greater  part  of  this 
countiy  is  level  and  champaign,  which  is  occasioned  chiefly, 
ns  some  suppose,  by  the  rivers  wasliing  down  quantities  oi 
mud  during  their  overflowings,  insomuch  that  many  coun- 
tries have  ^rrowed  their  very  names  from  the  rivers  which 
pass  throuj;h  them."  This  country  is  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Seiks  or  Singhs,  tlie  descendants  of  a  sect  of  priests  estab- 
lished in  the  fifteenth  century.  These  Seiks  were  enewetio 
men;  and  Mr.  Foraler,  writing  in  1783,  said  :  "Shonidany 
future  cause  call  forth  the  combined  efforts  of  the  Seiks,  to 
mdntoin  the  existence  of  empire  find  religion,  we  may  sea 
some  ambitious  chief,  led  on  by  his  KCnius  and  success,  ab- 
sorbing the  power  of  his  associates,  display  from  the  ruins 
of  their  commonwealth  the  standard  of  monarchy,"  This 
aogacious  remark  has  been  amply  justified  in  tha  subsequent 
career  of  Bunjeet  Singh,  who  waa  bom  about  the  time  that 
Forater  made  this  prediction.  The  powerful  kingdom  oi 
«72 


210 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


chiefdom  raised  by  this  extraordinaiy.man,  as  well  as  the 
persoiitd  qualities  of  the  ruler;  faaye  ahready  occupied  our 
attention  in  a  fonner  volume  ^ 

Through  this  country,  then,  we  proceed.  On  crossing  the 
river  Sutledge,  the  mighty  Himalaya  mountains  are  dimly 
visible,  at  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  clothed 
in  snow  almost  from  base  to  summit,  and  forming  a  striking 
contrast  with  the  pleasing  verdure  of  the  plains  of  the  Pun- 
jaub.  Near  the  banks  of  the  river  are  numerous  villages,  the 
nouses  of  which  are  terrace-roofed,  and  formed  of  sun-dried 
brick  on  a  wooden  frame- work.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
Hindoos,  but  among  them  are  a  small  number  of  Moham- 
medans. In  the  upper  parts  of  the  river  the  inhabitants 
are  exclusively  agricultural ;  but  lower  down  their  habits 
are  more  predatory.  When  Sir  Alexander  Burnes  entered 
the  first  Punjaub  village,  he  was  met  by  a  crowd  of  females 
and  children  who  approached  to  welcome  him,  and  who  had 
perhaps  never  before  seen  an  European.  The  boys  of  the 
Tillage  also  assembled  to  gratify  their  curiosity :  while  the 
party  was  approachinff  they  were  silent  and  looked  with 
attention ;  but  when  it  had  paued,  all  was  bustle  and  up- 
roar, running  and  filling,  jumping  and  laughing,  till  tne 
head  man  and  his  troopers  cailea  the  urchins  to  order.  The 
first  town  beyond  this  village  is  Puttee,  containinff  about 
5000  inhabitants.  The  houses  are  constructed  of  brick, 
as  are  also  the  pavements  of  the  streets. 

On  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  Ravee,  some  distance 
west  of  the  Sutledge,  stands  Lahore,  the  capital  of  the  Pun* 
jaub.  Lahore  is  oistinguished  into  the  old  and  new  cities, 
of  which  the  former  extended  from  east  to  west  for  a  dis- 
tance of  five  miles,  and  had  an  avenge  breadth  of  three. 
The  mosques  and  tombs,  which  were  more  substantiaUy 
built  than  the  houses,  remain  in  the  midst  of  the  cultivated 
fields,  as  caravanserais  for  travellers.  The  modem  city  oc- 
cupies the  western  ansle  of  the  ancient  capital,  and  is 
encii^led  by  a  strong  wall.  The  houses  are  very  lofty,  and 
the  streets,  which  are  narrow,  are  rendered  dirty  and  un- 
pleasant by  open  ^tters  which  run  along  them.  The  king's 
mosque  is  a  canacious  buUding  of  red  sandstone,  which  luid 
been  brought  oy  Aarungaebe  from  near  Delhi.  Its  four 
lofty  minarets  9x^  still  stonding ;  but  the  temple  itself  has 
been  converted  into  a^powder  magazine.  On  the  opposite 
aide  of  the  river  Havee  is  the  Shah  Dura,  or  tomb  of  the 
emperor  Juhangeer,  a  monument  of  great  beauty.  It  is  a 
quadrangular  building,  with  a  minaret  at  each  comer  rising 
to  the  height  of  seventy  feet;  it  is  built  chiefly  of  marble 
and  red  stone,  which  are  alternately  interlaced  in  all  parts 
of  the  buildii^.  The  sepulchre  is  of  chaste  workmanship. 
wiUi  its  inscriptions  and  ornaments  amnged  in  beaatifol 
mosaic.  The  garden,  which  once  belonged  to  the  same  em- 
peror, is  a  magnificent  remnant  of  Mo^  grandeur.  It  is 
about  half  a  mile  in  length,  with  three  successive  terraces, 
one  above  the  level  of  the  other;  a  canal,  which  is  bronght 
from  a  great  distance,  intersects  this  beautiful  garden,  and 
throws  up  its  water  in  nearly  fiive  hundred  fountains,  to 
cool  the  atmosphere. 

Referring  to  the  articles  before  alluded  to,  for  friTther 
information  respecting  the  dominions  of  Bunjeet  Singh, 
and  the  character  of  tne  inhabitants,  we  will  proceed  in  our 
journey,  in*a  north-western  direction  from  Lahore.  Sir  A. 
Bnmes  was  treated  with  the  greatest  kindness  and  hospi- 
tality by  Oeneral  Allard,  and  with  magnificent  familiarity 
by  Knnjeet,  who  detained  the  party  for  a  few  weeks,  which 
were  devoted  to  sport  and  merriment.  He  then  proceeded 
on  his  journey,  and  fell  in  with  an  Eastern  philosopher, 
who  harangued  the  travellers  in  the  following  terms  : 
^  The  world  possesses  three  difierent  atoms,  all  excellent, 
and  all  of  which  enter  into  the  noblest  work  of  God, 
—man.  Neither  the  ^m  nor  the  precious  metals  can 
multiply  or  increase  their  size  or  numoer ;  in  their  beauty 
we  find  their  excellence.  In  the  vegetable  kingdom,  we 
see  the  trees  and  plants  sucking  moisture  from  <the  earth, 
and  moulding  it  to  their  nature,  increase  in  size  and 
glory.  In  the  animal  kingdom  we  see  the  beasts  of  the 
neld  cropping  those  plants  which  afford  them  nourishment, 
and  avoidmg  those  which  are  noxious.  In  man  alone  have 
wp  every  excellence ;  he  possesses  the  beauty  and  ornament 
of  the  gem ;  understands  and  Wields  the  properties  of  the 
yegetable  kingdom ;  and,  to  the  instinct  of  the  animal  crea- 
tion, he  adds  reason  and  looks  to  futurity." — ^Tliis  philoso- 
phical disquisition  was  of  a  character  to  gain  the  Eastern 
sage  a  very  high  place  in  the  estimation  of  his  countr3rmen. 
■  The  traveller  whom  we  have  had  occasion  to  name,  and  a 
few  companions,  travelled  in  1832,  through  the  Punjaub  and 

*  Saturday  Magagine,  YoL  XII.,  pp.  389,  347. 


Caubul  to  Bokhara;  and  it  may  be  interestiixig  to  state  the 
provisions  thev  made  to  avoid  danger  in  passing  thivogh 
these  half-civi&sed  countries.  They  decided  that  the  best 
chuice  of  safety  was  an  appearance  of  poverty.  They  pat 
away  all  their  European  clothing,  and  adopted  the  costmne 
of  Asiatics:  a  flowing  Afghan  robe,  sash,  sword,  shaved 
head,  ponderous  turban,  and  slippers.  They  gsTe  away 
tents,  beds,  and  boxes ;  Imowing  that  a  hut,  at  ^t,  would 
generally  be  their  bed-room,  and  a  coarse  carpet  or  mat  the 
bed.  A  blanket  served  to  cover  the  saddle  by  dsy,  and  to 
sleep  under  by  night :  and  a  saddle-bag,  thrown  across  a 
horse,  was  the  depository  of  the  wardrobe.  All  the  little 
comforts  to  which  Europeans  are  accustomed,  were  dis- 
pensed with,  and  it  was  remarked, — <*  It  is,  nevertheleaS) 
a  curious  feeling  to  be  sitting  cross-legged,  and  to  pen  a 
journal  on  ones  knees.  Custom  soon  habituated  us  to 
these  changes;  and  we  did  not  do  the  less  justice  to  oar 
meals,  because  we  discarded  wine  and  roirits  in  every  shape, 
and  ate  with  our  fingers  firom  copper  aishes  without  kni^ 
and  forks." 

The  five  rivers  which  gvf%  the  name  to  the  PoBJaiib  are 
successively  crossed,  in  proceeding  towards  Caubul;  and  ai 
the  banks  of  the  one  of  them,  the  Jelum, — called,  whai 
Alexander  the  Great  crossed  it,  the  Hydaspes,— is  a  reir 
remarkable  salt  mine.  It  is  situated  near  the  ootsde  of  a 
range  of  hiUs,  in  a  valley  cut  by  a  rivulet  of  saltv&ter. 
The  entrance  to  the  mine  la  at  the  side  of  a  hill,  about  two 
hundred  feet  above  its  base.  After  proceeding  in  an  incliDe<i 
direction  three  or  four  hundred  yards  into  the  body  of  the 
hill,  we  arrive  at  a  eayem  of  irregular  dimensions,  escanted 
entirely  in  salt  The  mineral  is  deposited  in  strata  of  the 
utmost  r^pilarity,  ocearring  in  vertical  layers.  None  of  the 
layers  exceed  a  foot  and  a  naif  in  thickness,  and  each  is 
distinctly  separated  from  its  neighbour  by  a  deposit  of 
argillaceous  earth  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  whicji 
lies  like  mortar  between  the  strata.  Some  of  the  aaltoccon 
in  hexaffonal  crystals,  but  oftener  in  masses;  the  whole  ofi: 
is  tinged  with  red,  varying  from  the  slightest  shade  to  th« 
deepest  hue.  When  our  travellers  visited  this  mine,  tbeit 
were  about  a  hundred  persons,  men,  women  and  chlldb«D,st 
work  thei-e ;  and  their  small  dim  lamM  were  reflected  vitli 
a  glittering  lustre  from  the  sides.  The  salt  is  hard  d 
brittle,  so  as  to  splinter  when  struck  with  the  sledge- 
hammer and  pickaxe.  The  rock  is  never  blasted  with  gun- 
powder, irom  fear  of  the  roof  falling  in,  and  aocideDtsji 
this  kind  sometimes  happen  even  in  the  present  simDleiDod^ 
of  excavation.  The  mmerslive  in  villages  amonfftaehilii; 
and  receive  a  rupee  for  every  twenty  maunds  of  sut  brought 
to  the  surface,  a  task  which  may  be  performed  by  a  mao, 
his  wife  and  child,  in  two  days,  in  those  parts  of  the 
mine  where  the  mineral  is  near  the  surface,  it  is  hewn  'uAj> 
blocks  of  four  maunds,  two  of  which  load  a  camel;  but^ 
is  usually  broken  in  small  pieces.  This  salt  holds  a  \m 
reputation  throughout  India  with  native  j)ractitioners,&^ 
its  medical  virtues.  It  is  not  pure,  having  a  considerabk 
mixture  of  some  substance  (probably  magneaa)  vhick 
renders  it  unfit  for  curing  meat. 
.  The  country  near  which  we  have  now  arrived  is  the  na- 
mediate  scene  of  the  conflicts  between  Alexander  snd  Vcn^ 
Our  traveller  remarks : — ^**In  our  search  for  the  remnantsj 
Alexander's  cities,  we  are  led  into  reflections  on  the  state  d 
the  country  in  those  days ;  and  it  is  curious  to  compare  them 
with  our  own  times.  We  are  informed  that  Poms,  yi^ 
whom  Alexander  fought  on  the  banks  of  this  liv^  [^ 
Hydaspes),  maintained  a  force  of  30,000  infantry,  and  *^«i 
cavahy,  with  200  elephants,  and  300  war  chariot^  a*^ 
that  he  had  subdued  all  his  neighbours.  Now,  if  ^ 
change  the  war  chariots  into  guns,  we  have  precisely  tne 
regular  force  of  Runjeet  Singh,  the  modem  Pcrus,  ^ho  ^ 
likewise  overwhelmed  all  his  neighbours,  the  same  coxm 
will  generally  produce  the  same  number  of  troops,  »  'j* 
population  be  not  reduced  by  adventitious  circumstances. 

We  now  enter  the  country  of  Potewar,  uihabited  by 
tribe  of  people  called  Gukers,  famed  for  their  beanty,*n^ 
claiming  a  Rajpoot  origm.    "  The  credulity  of  these  peop « 
is  asgreatasmother  parts  of  India.    A  grave  and  rwp«  * 
able  man  assured  me,  (says  our  traveller,)  that  he  had  see 
a  kke,  called  Ruwaesir,  in  the  hill  district  of  Mundee,  on 
the  Sutlege,  which  had  three  small  islets  floating  upon  u- 
These  are  a  place  of  Hindoo  pilgrimage ;  and  my  infonnani 
assured  me  that  they  approach  to  receive  the  votaries  wn 
embark  upon  them,  and  are  floated  out  with  their  offennp- 
It  is  obvious  that  there  must  be  some  delusion  or  decepti^ 
which  is  practised  with  no  small  dexterity,  as  the  place  ^r 
tains  its  character.    A  native  told  me  that  he  had  heara 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  MAY,  1841. 


211 


was  an  artificial  heap  of  soil  plaoed  oyer  reeds ;  but  he 
had  not  yisited  the  spot,  and  seemed  to  proffer  his  informa- 
tion firom  hearing  my  doubts  as  strongly  expressed  as  I  felt 
them.  In  the  valley  of  Cashmeer  there  are  moveable  beds 
of  melons,  which,  in  some  degree  may  be  considered  in  the 
light  of  islands.  The  ingenious  people  of  that  valley  spread 
a  thick  mat  on  the  surface  of  their  lake,  and  sprinkle  it  over 
with  soil:  it  soon  acquires  a  consistency  from  the  grass 
growing  upon  it.  On  the  following  year  they  sow  melons 
and  cucumbers,  and  reap  the  harvest  nom  a  boat ;  and  thus 
turn  to  account  the  very  sur&ce  of  the  lake  in  their  rich 
countiy.  The  melon  islands  of  Cashmeer  may  have  sup- 
plied a  hint  to  the  Hindoo  priests  of  Mundee.'* 

Proceeding  onwards,  through  a  country  replete  with 
associations  of  other  times,  we  come  to  the  fortress  of  Rotas : 
''  As  we^  wound  through  the  dismal  defiles,  and  might  be 
ruminating  on  the  various  expeditions  which  had  traversed 
this  verjr  road,  the  fort  burst  upon  our  view  like  the  scene 
of  a  mag^c  lantern.  It  had  been  hidden  from  us  by  towering 
precipices.  We  approached  its  ponderous  walls  by  a 
straggling  path  which  time  had  chiselled  in  the  rock,  and 
soon  reached  its  lofty  gateway.  The  black,  hoa^  aspect  of 
the  fort,  and  the  arid  sterility  of  the  suirouncung  rocks, 
inspired  us  with  no  favourable  idea  of  the  neighbourhood, 
which  has  been  the  resort  of  many  a  decorate  buid." 
From  Rotas  we  enter  into  a  mountainous  and  rusged  coun- 
try, of  great  strength,  and  the  road  is  among  ravmes.  The 
chiws  ot  rocks,  their  vertical  strata,  terminatinj^  in  needles 
from  decomposition,  the  round  pebbles  that  lay  imbedded  in 
tlie  sandstone,  and  the  wild  scenery^  make  this  an  interesting 
neighbourhood. 

We  pass  through  the  village  of  Manikyala,  which  stands 
on  a  sfpacious  plam  with  a  remarkable  raneml  monument, 
called  a  **  tope,  distinguished  at  a  distance  of  iiixteen  miles, 
and  arrive  at  the  town  of  Rawil  Pindee :  this  is  pleasantly 
situated  within  twelve  miles  of  the  snow-covered  mountains. 
^We  were  now  fiast  leaving  Hindostan,  and  its  customs, 
behind  us.  The  dandelion  nad  become  a  common  weed. 
At  Manikyala,  we  halted  next  door  to  a  bakery,  where  the 
whole  bread  of  the  village  is  cooked,  and  we  were  glad  to 
be  considered  cnstomera  of  the  village  oven.'* 

About  fifteen  miles  from  Rawil  Findee  we  pass  the  defile 
of  Mjugulla^  and  gain  a  view  of  the  mountains  beyond  the 
Indus.  This  b  a  narrow  pass  over  the  low  hiUs,  and  is 
paved  with  blocks  of  stone  for  160  yards.  A  Persian  in- 
Bcrintion  let  into  the  rock,  commemorates  the  fiime  of  the 
civuized  emperor  who  cut  the  road.  The  defiles  continue 
for  about  a  mile,  when  a  bridge  across  a  rivulet  conducts  the 
traveller  to  the  next  capavanserai.  **We  continue  our  march 
aboat  twenty  miles,  and  arrive  at  Osman.  which  stands  on 
a  plain  at  the  mouui  of  a  valley  close  to  the  base  of  the  out- 
lyine  hills.  Its  meadows  are  watered  by  beautiful  crystal 
nvulets,  flowing  from  the  mountains.  Some  of  them  are 
conducted  by  artificial  means  through  the  village,  and  turn 
little  water-mills  that  grind  flour.  Up  the  valley  stands 
the  fort  of  Khanpoor,  with  some  beautiful  gardens;  and 
over  it  snow-clad  mountains  rear  their  peaks.  The  fields  of 
this  fruitful  valley  lie  neglected,  firom  the  exorbitant  assess- 
ment of  the  person  who  &rms  it.  The  peasants  have  no 
hope  of  redress  but  by  such  an  expedient ;  and  this  entire 
suspension  of  the  labours  of  the  husbandmen  may  open  the 
unaerstanding  of  the  misguided  governor." 

We  now  f^proach  towards  the  fortress  of  Attock :  a  jplace 
deriving  its  importance  from  several  circumstances ;  it  is  on 
the  banks  of  the  Indus,  formmg  the  north-western  extre- 
mity of  Hindostan;  it  is  on  the  great  road  from  India  to 
Tartary ;  and  it  is  situated  at  the  boundary  between  the 
Punjaub  and  Afghanistan.  The  Indus  is  here  divided  into 
three  branches ;  and  our  travellers  determined  to  ford  across 
it  on  the  back  of  an  elephant,  which  had  been  placed  at 
their  disposal  for  this  purpose  by  Runjeet  Singh^  officers. 
"  We  mounted  one  of  the  chiefs  elephants,  and,  accompa- 
nied by  himJself  and  200  horsemen,  passed  a  few  miles  down 
the  river  to  the  village  of  Kyrakhuel.  I  did  not  like  the 
appearance  of  the  torrent ;  ana  though  I  said  nothing,  would 
h^ve  willingly  turned  hack ;  but  how  could  that  be,  when  I 
lud  been  the  foremost  to  propose  iti  The  chief  rallied  his 
escort  round  him,  threw  a  niece  of  nlver  money  into  the 
river  aocording  to  custom,  ana  dashed  into  it.  We  followed, 
and  the  whole  of  our  party  reached  in  safety."  Some 
atra^lers  who  attempted  to  follow  them  met  with  a  melan- 
choly fiite»  Instead  of  crossing  at  the  exact  point  where  the 
others  had  effected  the  passage,  they  passed  a  few  yards 
lower  down,  with  the  water  but  kne^^ep ;  yet  venr  rapid, 
^e  whole  seven  wei«  uiihorsed  in  a  moment^  ana  iwept 


into  the  sfream.    The  ferryman  nm  to  their  assistancey'and 
extricated  them  all  but  one  man  and  two  horses. 

We  have  now  arrived  in  the  country  of  Caubul,  inhabited 
for  the  most  part  by  Afghans  ;  but  the  region  a  short  dis- 
tance on  either  side  of  the  Indus  is  governed  by  the  Punjaub 
ruler.  Runjeet  Singh  had  a  curious  method  of  crossing  the 
Indus  at  Attock  with  his  army.  He  kept  there  a  fleet  of 
thirty-seven  boats;  which,  when  required  to  be  used,  were 
anchored  in  the  stream,  at  a  short  distance  from  one  another. 
A  communication  was  then  made  from  one  to  another  by 
means  of  planks.  Skeleton  frame-works  of  wood,  filled 
with  stones,  to  the  weight  of  25,000  lbs.,  and  bound  strongly 
by  ropes,  were  let  down  from  each  boa^  to  the  number  of 
four  or  six:  these  served  as  anchors,  to  prevent  the  boats 
from  bein^  carried  down  by  the  rapidity  of  the  stream.  It 
is  not  a  httle  remarkable,  as  indicating  the  similarity  of 
Oriental  customs  in  different  ages,  that  Alexander  the  Great, 
more  than  two  thousand  years  ago,  crossed  the  Indus  at  this 
very  nlace  in  a  manner  almost  exactly  resembling  that  here 
described. 

We  are  now  quitting  the  territories  of  Hindostan,  and 
entering  on  a  land  where  covetousness  of  a  neighbour's 
goods  IS  the  ruling  passion.  Our  travellers  tlierefore 
marched  with  their  baggage,  and  divided  their  few  servants 
into  regular  watches  for  the  night.  "  We  were  now  living 
as  natives^  and  had  ceased  to  renine  at  the  hardness  of  the 
CTound  and  the  miserable  hovels  in  which  we  sometimes 
halted.  I  had  also  disposed  of  my  own  valuables  in  what 
then  appeared  to  me  a  masteiiy  manner :  a  letter  of  credit 
for  five  thousand  rupees  was  fastened  to  my  left  arm,  in  the 
way  that  the  Asiatics  wear  amulets.  My  polyglot  passport 
was  fixed  to  my  right  arm,  and  a  bag  of  ducats  was  tied 
round  my  waist.  1  also  distributed  a  part  of  my  ready 
money  to  each  of  the  servants,  and  so  perfect  was  the  check 
that  had  been  established  over  them,  that  we  never  lost  a 
single  ducat  in  all  our  journey,  and  found  most  faithful 
servants  in  men  who  might  have  ruined  and  betrayed  us. 
We  trusted  them,  and  they  rewarded  our  confidence.  One 
man,  Ghoolam  Hoosun,  a  native  of  Surat,  followed  me 
throughout  the  whole  journey,  cooked  our  food,  and  never 
uttered  a  complaint  at  tne  performance  of  such  duties,  foreign 
as  they  were  to  his  engagements."  This  man  remained 
in  England  with  Sir  A.  Bumes. 

Af^ianistan,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Indus^  is  a  large 
country  inhabited  by  a  vigorous  and  warlike  race,  but  dis- 
iractea  and  torn  by  internal  dissensions.  At  the  time  when 
Mr.  Elphinstone  visited  this  country,  in  1809,  it  was  wholly 
under  the  rule  of  a  powerfrd  monarch,  Ahmed  Shah  Doora 
nee.  But  since  that  time,  through  the  contests  of  rival 
claimants  to  the  throne,  the  monarchy  has  been  utterly 
dbmembered :  one  chieftain  seized  on  this  province ;  another 
on  that ;  the  ruler  of  the  Punjaub  on  a  third,  and  so  on,  till 
it  is  now  scarcely  possible  to  say  whether  there  is  an  Afghan 
kingdom  or  not.  When  Sir  Alexander  Bumes  visited  the 
countiy  in  1832,  the  more  valuable  part  of  the  country 
were  in  podsesnon  of  four  chieftains^  wno  assumed  sovereign 
authority  over  the  territories  which  they  seized,  and  who 
made  their  respective  capitals  at  the  cities  of  Peshawar, 
Caubul,  Gand^iar,  and  Herat.  At  a  still  later  period,  the 
British  government  in  India  found  it  necessary  to  interfere 
in  the  political  relations  of  this  countr}' ;  and  the  events  of 
the  year  1839,  which  shed  such  lustre  on  the  British  arms, 
had  immediate  reference  to  the  contests  between  rival 
claimants  for  the  Afghan  throne.  The  reader  wHl  therefore 
see  reason  why  we  should  pass  over  briefly  the  general  cha^ 
racter  of  the  Afghan  nation.  Our  route  takes  us  only  across 
the  north-eastern  part  of  the  country,  and  we  shall  soon  get 
into  other  dominions. 

The  first  town  of  importance,  after  crossing  the  Indus  at 
Attock,  is  Peshawar.  At  this  place.  Sir  A.  Bumes  was 
received  with  much  attention  by  the  chief,  who  sent  out  his 
son,  on  an  elephant^  to  welcome  the  English  travellers ;  and 
aft^^ards  invited  them  to  a  feast.  '*I  need  not  state," 
says  our  traveller,  **  that  we  ate  with  our  hands ;  but  we 
soon  ceased  to  wonder  at  a  nobleman  tearing  a  lamb  in 
pieces  and  selecting  the  dioice  bits,  which  he  lield  out  for 
our  acceptance.  A  long  roll  of  leavened  bread  was  spread 
in  front  of  each  of  us  as  a  plate;  and,  since  its  size  dimin- 
ished as  the  meat  disappeued,  it  did  its  part  well.  Pilaoe 
and  stews,  sweets  and  sours,  filled  the  trays  ;  but  the  honne 
bouehe  of  the  day  was  a  lamb^  that  had  never  tasted  aught 
but  milk.  A  bitter  oranee  had  been  squeezed  over  it,  and 
made  it  very  savoury,  four  trays  of  sweetmeats  followed 
with  fruit;  and  the  repast  c<»icluded  with. sherbet,  mixed 
with  mow.  the  sight  ot  which  delighted  us  as  much  as  our 

672—2 


Slfi 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


new  friends."  On  the  day  following  this  repast,  many  of 
the  m6st  distinguished  persons  in  Peshawar  paid  visits  to 
the  travellers,  who  found  them  rather  intelligent  persons, 
and  of  very  huoyant  spirits.  During  conversation,  many 
of  them  rose  up  and  prayed  in  the  room,  when  the  stated 
hours  for  Mohammedan  worship  arrived.  The  chief,  or 
shah,  would  sometimes,  durine  the  month  in  which  the  tra- 
vellers Bojounied  there,  pay  them  an  unexpected  yiwt,  and 
throwing  off  the  restraints  of  state,  enter  into  familiar  con- 
versation. 

On  the  departure  of  the  travellers,  the  shah  adopted  a 
line  of  conduct  which  places  the  Afghans  in  a  favourahle 
light  as  to  generosity  and  courtesy.  He  sent  a  Persian 
gentleman  to  accompany  them  to  Cauhul;  and  gave  them, 
in  addition  to  letters  of  recommendation  to  distin^ished 
persons  on  the  route,  six  hlank  sheets  of  paper  bearmg  hu 
seal,  which  he  hegged  them  to  fill  up  with  the  names  of  any 
persons  wliom  they  helieved  could  assist  them.  In  return 
for  these  favours  ne  could  scarcely  be  prevailed  upon  to 
accept  the  smallest  present  from  the  travellers. 

In  proceeding  through  the  ^huns  irom  Peshawar  to 
Caubul,  we  pass  through  a  plain  where  the  pestilential 
wind  called  "simoom"  is  frequently  experienced.  The 
natives  of  this  country  say  that  the  simoom  is  generallpr 
fatal.  Travellers,  who  Imve  recovered,  remark  that  it 
attacks  them  like  a  cold  wind,  which  makes  them  senseless. 
Water,  poured  with  gi-eat  violence  into  the  mouth,  some- 
times recovers  the  patient ;  and  a  fire  kindled  near  him,  has 
a  good  effect.  Sugar  and  the  dried  plums  of  Bokhara  are 
also  given  with  advantage.  Horses  and  animals  are  subiect 
to  tlic  effects  of  the  simoom  as  well  as  man ;  and  the  flesh 
of  those  who  fall  victims  to  it  is  said  to  become  so  soft  and 
putrid,  that  the  limbs  separate  from  each  other,  and  the  hair 
may  be  pulled  out  with  the  least  force.  It  is  as  malignant 
in  ita  efl^ts  during  night  as  in  the  day ;  and  in  summer  no 
one  ever  thinks  of  travelling  while  the  sun  is  above  the 
horizon.  In  a  party  of  thirty  or  forty  individualB,  one  only 
may  be  attacked,  nor  are  those  who  eacape  sensible  of  any 
chcuige  in  the  atmosphere* 

After  passing  through  a  country  varied  by  alternate  hills 
and  plains,  we  arrive  at  Caubul,  the  nominal  capital  of  the 
whole  country,  though  of  late  years  shorn  of  some  of  its 
importance  by  the  establishment  of  independent  governments 
at  Pediawar,  Candahar,  and  Herat.  Caubul  is  a  busy  and 
populous  city.  There  is  a  hill  near  the  £mperor  lEabcr's 
tomb,  from  the  summit  of  which  a  very  extensive  view  of 
the  city  and  its  environs  can  be  obtained.  A  plain,  about 
twenty  miles  in  circumference,  laid  out  with  gardens  and 
fields  m  pleasing  irregularity,  intersected  by  three  or  four 
rivulets,  which  wind  through  it  by  a  serpentine  course,  and 
wa^  innumerable  little  forts  and  villages,  presents  itself 
before  the  view.  The  great  bazaar  of  the  city  is  an  elegant 
arcade,  six  hmidred  feet  long,  and  divided  into  four  equal 
parts.  Its  roof  is  painted,  and  over  the  shops  are  the  houses 
of  some  of  the  citizens.  In  the  evening  it  is  said  to  present 
1^  very  interesting  appearance :  each  shop  is  lighted  up  by  a 
lamp  suspended  in  front,  which  gives  the  city  an  appearance 
of  being  illuminated.  The  number  of  shops  for  tne  sale  of 
dried  fruits  is  remarkable,  and  their  arrangement  tasteful. 
At  some  of  the  shops  may  be  purchased  pears,  grapes,  apples^ 
melons,  quhioes,  and  other  fruits:  at  others,  snipes,  par- 
tridges, ducks,  plovers,  and  game ;  in  a  third  range,  books, 
and  Russian  paper;  and  many  others.  In  the  month  of 
May,  a  favourite  white  jelly,  called  falodeh^  is  sold  in  great 
abundance  at  the  bazaar:  it  b  strained  from  wheat,  and 
drunk  with  sherbet  and  snow :  a  pillar  of  snow  stands  on 
one  side  of  the  sellers,  and  a  fountain  plays  near  it,  which 
gives  these  places  a  cool  and  clean  appearance.  In  the  most 
crowded  parts  of  the  city  there  are  generaUv  story-tdlers 
amusing  the  idlers,  or  dervbhes  procluming  the  glories  and 
deeds  of  the  prophet.  There  are  no  wheeled  carriages  in 
Caubul ;  but  as  the  streets  are  kept  in  a  clean  state  in  dry 
weather,  and  are  intersected  by  small  covered  aqueducts  of 
dean  water,  the  city  is  much  more  cleanly  in  its  appearance 
than  the  generality  of  Oriental  towns.  Most  of  the  houses 
are  built  of  sun-dried  bricks  and  wood,  and  few  of  them  are 
more  than  two  stories  in  height.  Caubul  is  particularly 
celebrated  for  its  fruit,  which  is  exported  in  mat  abund- 
ance to  India.  Its  vines  are  so  plentiful  that  tne  grapes  are 
given,  for  three  months  of  the  year,  to  cattle.  There  are 
ten  different  kinds  of  grapes  grown  there ;  and  the  people 
apply  them  to  man^  uses,  besides  making  wine  of  the  juice. 
They  use  its  juice  m  roasting  meat ;  and  during  meals,  use 
grape-powder  aa  a  pickle :  procured  by  drying  the  grapes 
before  they  get  quite  ripe,  and  grinding  them:  this  powa«r 


has  the  appearance  of  Cayenne  pepper,  and  has  a  pleasi&t 
acid  taste. 

From  Caubul  our  route  takes  us  in  a  north-westerij 
direction,  over  the  mountains  of  Hindoo  Coosh  to  the  dtr 
of  Balkh,  between  two  and  three  hundred  miles  from  Caabol 
These  mountains  are  very  lofty,  and  being  covered  deeply  in 
snow  through  many  months  of  the.  year,  afibrd  a  fonmdabk 
barrier  to  the  passage  of  the  traveller  northward.  On  tb 
road,  we  come  to  ffiuneean,  once  a  celebrate  city,  but  now 
celebrated  only  for  the  colossal  idols  which  are  presented 
to  view.  A  Mil  in  the  middle  of  the  valley  of  Bameean  is  quite 
honeycombed  by  excavated  caves,  which  ramify  in  ereiy 
direction*  The  hills  on  both  sides  of  the  valley  are  (omA 
of  indurated  clay  and  pebbles,  which  render  their  excaTatioo 
a  matter  of  little  difficulty ;  but  the  great  extent  to  which  it 
has  been  carried,  excites  surprise.  The  excavated  caves  hare 
no  pretensions  to  architectural  ornament,  bein^  nothing  more 
thim  holes  du^  in  the  hills.  But  the  gi^ntic  idols  are,  in- 
deed, astonishing  monuments  of  ancient  times.  They  consist 
of  two  figures,  a  male  and  a  female,  cut  ill  alto  reU^To  on  tht 
face  of  a  hUl ;  the  larger  of  the  two  bein^  a  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  high.  The  male  figure  is  mutilated ;  botli  legs 
having  been  fractured  by  cannon,  and  the  counteoance 
above  the  mouth  is  destroyed.  The  lips  are  very  Luge;  tlie 
ears  long  and  pendant ;  and  there  appears  to  have  been 
a  tiara  on  the  nead.  The  figure  is  covered  by  a  mantle, 
which  hangs  over  it  in  all  parts,  and  has  been  fonned 
of  a  kind  of  plaster.  The  figure  is  without ^Tnmetnr, 
nor  is  there  much  elegance  in  tlie  draper}'.  The  hands, 
which  held  out  the  mantle,  have  both  been  broken.  The 
female  figure  is  much  smaller  than  the  other,  but  similar  to 
it  in  most  respects.  At  the  lower  part  of  each  figure  m 
openings  whicn  lead  to  different  caves  or  excavations  in  the 
hill ;  and  through  these  there  is  an  ascending  road,  vhich 
leads  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  figures*. 

In  travelling  across  the  Hindoo  Cooah  range,  &  A. 
Humes  and  his  companions  were  firequently  in  danger  of 
being  robbed  and  seized  by  the  rude  inhabitants,  who^—half 
Afghans,  half  Tartars,— owned  no  legitimate  ruler,  and  lired 
in  a  predatory  manner.  Yet  the  buoyancy  of  an  entmnang 
spirit  enabled  that  officer  to  overcome  all  difficulties.  He  says: 
^  The  life  we  now  passed  was  far  more  agreeable  than  a  detail 
of  its  circumstances  would  lead  one  to  believe,  with  our 
dangers  and  fiitigues.  We  mounted  at  daylight,  and  gene- 
rally travelled  without  intermission  till  two  or  three  in  the 
afUonoon.  Our  day's  progress  averaged  about  twenty  miles ; 
but  the  people  have  no  standard  of  measure :  and  mila, 
coses,  and  tursukhs,  were  equally  unknown,  for  th^ 
always  reckon  by  the  day's  journey. .  "We  often  breakfestw 
on  the  saddle,  on  dry  bread  and  cheese ;  slept  always  on  the 
ground,  and  in  the  open  air ;  and  after  the  night  a  march, 
sat  down  cross-legged,  till  night  and  sleep  overtook  as. 
Our  own  party  was  everything  that  could  be  wi^ed,  for  the 
Nazir  and  his  amusing  tellow-traveller  were  very  obligiog' 
We  were  quite  happy  in  such  scenes,  and  at  the  novelty  o\ 
everything;  and  it  was  also  delightful  to  recognise  acme  old 
ft'iends  among  tlie  weeds  and  shrubs.  The  hawthorn  andsireet 
briar  grew  on  the  verge  of  the  river ;  and  the  rank  hemlock, 
that  sprang  up  under  their  shade,  now  appeared  beantinut 
from  tne  associations  which  it  awakened.  Our  society',  too, 
was  amusing ;  and  I  took  every  favourable  occasion  « 
mingling  with  the  travellers  whom  we  met  by  the  ^Vt 
and  at  the  haltinp^-places.'*  , 

Journeying  on  m  this  way,  we  suppose  our  fellow-traw- 
lers to  have  arrived  at  Balkh.  This  city,  which  gives  its 
name  also  to  a  surrounding  district,  is  of  the  higheat  unt 
quity.  It  was  known  to  Uie  Greeks  in  the  time  of  Alexwj 
der  by  the  name  of  Bactia;  but  it  had  been  the  capital  » 
Persia  at  a  far  earlier  period,  having  been  fixed  on  as  tne 
royal  residence  by  Khosroo,  supposed  to  be  the  8^*  ** 
Cyrus  the  Great.  All  the  Asiatics  are  impressed  with  the  id* 
of  its  being  the  oldest  city  in  the  world,  and,  in  consm^ 
distinguish  it  by  the  title  of  Omool  Bekud,  the  **Motwr 
of  cities."  This  ancient  metropolis  is  now  reduced  to  v^ 
significance.  Its  ruins  still  cover  a  great  eartcnt,  and  are 
surrounded  by  a  wall ;  but  only  one  comer  is  inhabited. 

Balkh  is  one  of  those  cities  which  have  become  a  sort  « 
football  among  conquerors;  now  belonging  to  ]^"*  °*"?J 
now  to  that.  A  century  or  two  ago,  it  was  under  *  *™r 
dommion ;  then  under  that  of  the  Afghans ;  afterwards  un^^ 
the  chief  of  Khoondoog ;  and  at  the  time  ^"/"  ??^ 
Bumes  wrote,  it  was  included  in  the  kingdom  <^*^^^^ 
The  ruins  of  the  city  occupy  an  area  of  ground  twen  / 

*  A  dnwing  of  ihia  odlflMtl  idol  is  giTen  in  S^vd^  ^'''"^ 
yoLIZ^p.lKU(. 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  MAY,  IS4]. 


OVUM  K19I0IIU  DAKCB. 


miles  in  circnmfemice,  and  conaut  of  Mien  mofiqiies  and 
decajred  tombs.  Built  of  sun-dried  brfeka.  In  ita  «ide  area 
the  city  appears  to  have  mclosedionnmerablegardens,  which 
increased  iti  ^e  without  adding  to  its  population.  It  con- 
tains the  remains  of  three  large  coll^w,  now  in  a  state  of 
dway,  with  desolate  cells  or  roonu.  A  mnd  wall  Hurrounds 
■  portion  of  the  town ;  but  it  must  be  of  late  age,  since  it 
Mclndes  the  niiaa  on  every  side  for  about  two  miles. 
The  city,  like  Babylon,  has  tecome  a  perfect  mineof  bricks 
fiTthe  Burronnding  country;  these  are  of  an  oblong  shape. 
Host  of  the  old  gwdens  are  now  neglected  and  overgrown 
with  weeds ;  the  aqueduciA  are  dried  up ;  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  city  looks  more  like  a  monummt  of  departed 
greatness,  than  an  important  Oriental  town.  The  modem 
popolation  and  bnildtngs  of  Balkh  are  not  sufficiently  of 
importsnce  to  need  any  descriptive  dettuls  here ;  we  will 
tnpreforB  proceed  onwards, 

BaJkh  IS  situated  at  some  miW  distance  from  the  Oxus, 
a  river  noted  in  the  campmgns  of  Alexander,  and  moreover 
of  commercial  importance  in  our  own  day,  as  leading  to  I^ke 
'-'  -  " -      -  jjg^      ..__.   ...  _._, 


Im. 


a  little  eastward  of  the  Caqiiai 


Along  the  road 


illowing  manner. — The   horses   were   eichan^d   „. 

camels,  over  each  of  which  two  panniers,  called  "kujawas," 

were  thrown.     One  person  got  into  one  pannier,  and  one  in 

the  other,  by  which  a  balance  wss  nuuntained, — a  mode 

which  waa  at  firat  very  incommodions  to  the  travellers,  for 

the  panniers  were  but  four  feet  long,  and  two  and  a  half 

vide,  so  tiiat  it  required  some  suppleness  and  in^uity  to 

Jilace  the  body  in  a  comfortable  posture.     At  tmies  they 

jitehed  their  camp  for  the  night  on  the  gronnd,  in  the  im- 

Inediate  vicinity  of  the  Toorkman  tents.     "We  had  now  no 

tents,  nor  shelter  of  any  kind,  hut  a  coarse  single  blanket, 

"vhich  we  used  to  stretch  across  two  sets  of  panniers.    Even 

■Wiia  flimsy  covering  sheltered  us  from  the  sun's  rays,  and 

^  night  we  had  it  removed,  and  slept  in  the  open  air.     Out 

Vood  now  consisted  of  bread  and   tea,  for  the  Toorkmans 

^'ften  object  to  dlspoae  of  their  sheep,  since  it  injure*  their 

^•staie;  and  we  could  only  look  on  their  countless  flocks- 

^^th  a  desire  to  possess  a  single  lamb,  which  often  could 

^*iot  be  gratified.     Enropeans,  who  are  so  much  accustomed 

^^  animal  food,  are  sensible  of  the  change  to  a  diet  of  bread, 

^"t  we  found  it  tolerably  nutritive,  and  had  much  refreah- 

^nt  from  the  tea,  which  we  drank  with  It  at  all  honre. 

'  ibimd  that  ahaUnence  from  wine  and  spirits  provd  rather 

Hliitaiy  than  otherwise;  find  1  doubt  if  we  could  have  v.w 


dergone  the  vicissitudes  of  climate  had  we  used  such  stimn- 

The  river  Oxus,  at  the  part  where  it  is  approached  from 
BoUch,  is  broad  and  noble,  and  is  crossed  in  a  curious  man- 
ner. The  travellers  ijet  into  a  boat,  to  which  are  yoked  two 
horaes  by  the  hair  of  the  mane.  The  bridle  is  then  put  on 
OS  if  the  horses  were  to  be  mounted ;  the  boat  is  pushed  inUt 
the  river;  and,  without  any  other  assistimco  than  the  horses, 
is  ferried  direct!  v  across  the  river.  A  man  in  tlie  boat  holds 
the  reins  of  each  horse,  and  allows  tHcm  to  play  loosely  in 
the  mouth,  urging  the  animal  to  swim,  and,  tlius  guided^  he 
advances  without  difficulty.  There  is  not  an  oar  to  aid  in 
impelling  the  boat,  and  the  only  assistance  from  those  on 
board  consists  in  manosuvring  a  rough  pole  at  the  stem,  to 

E>vent  the  vessel  from  wheeling  in  the  current,  and  to  give 
th  horses  clear  water  to  swim.  They  sometimes  use  four 
horses,  in  which  case  two  are  fixed  to  the  stem  of  the 
boat.  These  horses  re^^uire  no  prenaratory  training,  unce 
the  natives  yoke  indiscriminately  all  (that  cross  tile  river. 
B^  this  ingenious  mode  a  rapid  river,  nearly  half  a  mile  in 
width,  is  croned  in  fifteen  minutes. 


:hing  the  northern  bank  of  the  Oxus,  we  find  our- 
selves m  Toowistan,  the  native  country  of  the  Uzbek  Tar- 
tars, and  the  region  from  whence  Genghis  Khan  and  Tamer- 
lane ponred  down  their  armies  of  rude  barbarians  on  South- 
ern Asis.  The  route  to  Bokhara,  about  half  wav  between 
Boikh  and  the  Aral  Sea,  lies  not  far  from  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Oxus,  and  along  this  route  we  proceed.  The  mode 
of  traveUing  in  this  region,  for  persons  going  to  Bokhara, 
is  to  start  ^nt  six  in  the  evening,  and  go  over  a  stage  of 
about  twenty-five  miles,  by  seven  or  eight  in  the  morning, 
the  camels  moving  at  a  steady  pace,  at  the  rate  of  about  two 
miles  an  hour.  At  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  the 
merehants  who  travel  this  route,  and  who,  whether  they 
belong  to  Bokhara,  Persia,  Bolkh,  or  Afghanistan,  are  gene- 
rally Mohammedans,  halt  to  repeat  their  prayers.  At  other 
times  also  they  halt  to  give  drink  to  the  camels. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  Oxus  is  so  noble  a  river,  the 
countrr  on  cither  aide  of  it  is  little  better  than  a  de»ert, 
fbr  a  distance  of  a  h<indred  miles,  and  over  this  desert  not  a 
town  OT  a  tree  is  to  be  seen.  On  the  route  from  Balkh  to 
Bokhara  the  first  considerable  town  met  with  is  Kunhee. 
Igling  place,  a  mile  in  length,  with  a  considerable 
about  ten  thousand  inhabit^ts,  who  live  in  fiat- 
roofed,  nMan-looking-housee.  A  roud  fort,  surreunded  by  a 
wM  ditch,  iianu  »  reepectoble  defence  m  the  louth-weet 


di4 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


side  of  the  town.  A  rirer,  which  rises  from  Shuhur  Subz, 
about  fifty  miles  distant,  and  &mous  as  the  birth-place  of 
Timourthe  Tartar,  passes  north  of  Kurehee,  and  enables  its 
inhabitants  to  form  numerous  gardens,  shaded  by  lofty  trees. 

The  city  of  Bokhara,  to  which  we  at  len^  arrive,  is  one 
of  the  most  important  cities  of  Asia,  being  situated  in  a  cen- 
tral spot,  hayinc"  Russia  on  the  north,  the  Caanpian  on  the 
west,  Persia  and  Caubul  on  the  south,  and  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire on  the  east ;  thus  forming  a  medium  of  communication 
for  merchants  trading  from  one  country  to  the  others.  The 
city  is  of  a  triangular  shape,  and  enclosed  by  an  earthen 
wall,  in  which  are  eleven  gates  built  of  brick,  with  a  round 
tower  on  either  side.  The  widest  street  in  the  city  measures 
but  seven  feet  in  widtli,  and  the  narrowest  only  three  or 
four.  The  houses  are  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  on  a  frame- 
work of  wood,  and  are  all  fiat-roofed.  They  are  arranged 
in  the  Oriental  manner,  presenting  towards  the  street  a  mere 
wall,  without  windows,  with  a  gate  in  the  middle,  leading 
to  a  court-yard,  round  which  the  rooms  are  placed,  which, 
generally  receive  light  through  the  doors.  The  town  is  in- 
tersected by  canals,  which  receive  water  from  a  neighbouring 
river,  the  water  being  afterwards  distributed  to  about  seventy 
wells  or  cisterns,  eacli  a  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in  circum- 
ference. The  Royal  Palace  stands  on  a  conical  hill,  and  is 
inclosed  by  a  wall  sixty  feet  high,  which  has  but  one  gate, 
opening  into  a  large  corridor.  This  corridor,  built  over 
vaults,  leads  to  the  flat  top  of  the  hill,  where  the  buildings 
stand  in  which  the  king  and  his  court  are  lodged.  These 
edifices  consist  of  a  mosque,  the  dwellings  of  the  king  and 
hb  children,  the  harem, — surrounded  by  a  garden  and  con- 
cealed by  trees, — and  the  vizier's  house.  Bokhara  contains 
three  hundred  and  fifty  mosques,  the  principal  of  which 
atands  opposite  the  royal  palace^  occupying  a  square  of  three 
hundred  leet,  with  a  dome  a  hundred  feet  high.  The  bricks 
forming  the  front  are  of  different  colours,  and  are  so  disposed 
as  to  form  different  designs  of  flowers  tied  together.  Attached 
to  this  mosque  is  the  minaret  of  Mirgharab,  nearly  two 
hundred  feet  in  height,  with  a  base  seventy  feet  in  circum- 
ference. 

The  city  contains  a  great  number  of  colleges,  amounting 
to  about  sixty,  of  which  one  third  contain  upwards  of 
seventy  students  each.  These  edifices  are  generally  in  the 
form  of  a  parallelogram,  two  stories  high,  and  inclose  a 
spacious  court-yard.  In  each  story  are  two  rows  of  cham- 
bers, one  having  its  windows  towards  the  court-yard,  and 
the  other  towaras  the  street.  These  chambers  are  sold  to 
the  students,  who  in  this  manner  acquire  a  claim  to  a  certain 
yearly  maintenance  from  the  college.  The  colleges  have 
considerable  revenues,  the  whole  of  the  bazaars  and  baths  of 
the  city  having  been  erected  by  pious  persons,  and  left  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  colleges  and  mosques.  The  number 
of  the  baths  here  alluded  to  is  eighteen,  some  of  which  are 
of  lai^  dimensions,  and  consist  of  several  vaulted  chambers^ 
built  round  a  large  basin  filled  with  warm  water. 

There  are  fourteen  caravanserais  in  Bokhara,  all  built  on 
a  similar  plan,  each  consisting  of  a  range  of  square  build- 
ings of  two  stories,  inclosing  a  court  yara,  and  having  rooms 
round  the  court  yard  used  as  warehouses,  and  let  to  mer- 
chants. The  baaaars  are  numerous  and  extensive,  some  of 
them  being  upwards  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length.  In 
the  shops  witJi  which  they  are  lined  on  both  sides,  every 
sort  of  merchandize  is  exposed  for  sale,  with  the  exception 
of  woven  goods,  which  are  sold  in  large  edifices  built  for 
that  purpose ;  several  of  these  edifices,  each  consisting  of 
some  nundreds  of  small  shops,  contain  only  the  silk  goods^ 
which  are  manu&ctured  in  the  town ;  while  others  contain 
the  cottons,  linens,  and  brocades  of  England,  Russia,  Persia, 
and  India.  The  number  of  shops  in  the  great  square  of  the 
city  is  very  considerable.  Tents  of  different  colours  are 
filled  with  the  more  common  manu&ctures  of  the  country, 
but  the  greater  part  of  this  open  square  is  a  market,  in 
which  the  fruits  of  the  country,  consisting  of  grapes,  me- 
lons, apricots,  apples,  peaches,  pears,  and  plums,  are  sold,  as 
well  as  the  more  important  necessaries  of  life.  This  great 
square  is  a  place  of  great  bustle  and  animation,  where  a 
stranger  may  meet  with  Persians,  Jews,  Turks,  Russians, 
Chinese,  Toorkmans,  Mongols,  Cossacks,  Hindoos,  Afghans, 
and  Uzbecks.  These  are  principally  merchants  carrying 
on  the  extensive  trade  of  which  Bokhara  is  the  centre ; 
importing  tea,  porcelain,  silk  goods,  raw  silk,  rhubarb, 
and  silver,  from  the  Chinese  dominions ;  cochineal,  spices, 
sugar,  tin,  sandal-wood,  woollen-cloth,  leather,  wax,  iron, 
copper,  steel,  small  looking-glasses,  otter-skins,  pearls,  oast- 
iron  utensils,  needles,  coral,  cotton-velvet,  and  numerous 
9ther  artioles^  by  w^y  of  Russia ;  shawls,  girdles,  carpets^ 


and  turquoise  stones,  from  Persia;  and  shawls,  brocade, 
muslins,  pearls,  precious  stones,  indigo,  and  other  articles, 
from  India. 

Sir  Alexander  Bnmes  resided  some  time  at  Bokhara,  vA 
appears  to  have  been  much  struck  with  the  bustling  appei> 
ance  of  the  city.    He  says ;  ^  In  every  part  of  the  open 

S[uare  there  are  people  making  tea,  which  is  done  in  Inge 
uropean  urns,  instead  of  teapots,  and  kept  hot  by  a  metal 
tube.  The  love  of  the  Bokharees  for  tea  u^  I  believe,  with- 
out parallel,  for  they  drink  it  at  all  times  and  placet,  and 
in  half  a  dozen  ways :  with  and  without  sugar,  with  aod 
without  milk,  with  fat,  with  salt,  &c  Next  to  the  vendon 
of  this  hot  beverage  one  may  punshase  *  ntrut-i-jau/ or 
the  *  delig^ht  of  life/ — gnp6  Jelly  or  syrup,  mixed  up  with 
chopped  ice.  This  abundance  of  ice  is  one  of  the  emtest 
luxuries  in  Bokhara,  and  it  may  be  had  till  the  oold  wei- 
ther  makes  it  unnecessary.  It  is  pitted  in  winter,  and  sold 
at  a  price  within  the  reach  of  the  poorest  people.  No  ooe 
ever  thinks  of  drinking  water  in  Bokhara,  without  ieeio^ 
it,  and  a  beggar  may  be  seen  purchasing  it  as  he  prockuos 
his  poverty  and  entreats  the  bounty  of  the  passenger.  It 
is  a  refreshing  sight  to  see  the  huge  masses  oi  it,  with  tlie 
thermometer  at  90°,  coloured,  scraped,  and  piled  into  heaps 
like  snow." 

The  king  of  Bokhara  Is  a  more  snlightened  man  ibtti  the 
generality  of  Asiatic  monarohs;  yet  he  is  not  firee  from  that 
piunf  ul  distrust  which  arises  from  fear  of  poisoning  or  aa- 
sassination.  The  water  which  he  drinks  is  Drought  m  akina 
from  the  river,  under  the  charge  and  seal  of  two  officen;it 
is  opened  by  the  vixier,  first  tasted  by  his  people  aod  then 
by  nimself,  when  it  is  once  more  sealed  and  despatched  to 
the  king.  The  daily  meals  of  his  majesty  undeigo  a  like 
scrutiny  ;  the  minister  eats,  then  ffives  to  those  around  him 
who  wait  for  an  hour  to  judge  of  the  effect,  of  the.  food; 
after  which  the  viands  are  locked  up  in  a  box  and  forwarded 
to  the  king.  His  majesty  has  one  key  of  the  box,  and  the 
vizier  another. 

We  now  leave  the  city  of  Bokhara,  and  proceed  towaids 
Mushed,  on  the  frontiers  of  Persia.  From  the  city  to  the 
Oxus  is  a  sandy  desert,  which  ean  only  be  crossed  bv  can- 
vans,  supplied  with  the  means  of  support  and  of  aefeooe 
against  marauders.  A  great  part  of  the  distance  is  occupied 
by  vast  fields  of  soft  sand,  formed  into  ridges  which  W 
some  resemblance  to  those  on  many  sea  shores.  The  belt 
of  these  sand  ridges,  lying  between  Bokhara  and  the  Oxas.  is 
about  twelve  or  fifteen  mues  in  width ;  they  are  utterly  desti- 
tute of  vegetation,  and  present  a  remarkable  uniformity  of 
shape,  generally  that  of  a  norse  shoe.  On  the  southern  aide  of 
the  Oxus,  likewise,  a  similar  character  pervades  the  conntrr. 
Here  few  towns,  and  those  far  between,  are  met  with;  aad 
the  traveller  has  but  a  weary  time  of  it.  While  Sir  A. 
Bumes  and  his  companions  were  travelling  across  this  sandy 
tract  they  met  seven  Persians,  who  had  been  captured  by  the 
Toorkmans,  and  who  were  then  on  the  road  to  Bokhara  to 
be  sold  as  slaves.  Five  of  them  were  chained  together,  and 
trod  their  way  through  the  deep  sand.  Tb^re  was  a  gene™ 
expression  oi  compasmon  among  the  travellers  in  the  caia- 
van ;  and  the  sympathy  did  not  fail  to  affect  the  poor  creft* 
tures  themselves.  They  cried,  and  gave  a  longing  look,  u 
the  last  camel  of  the  caravan  passed  onwards  toward  F^* 
sia,  their  native  country.  They  had  been  seized  by  the 
Toorkmans  near  Mushed,  a  few  weeks  before,  when  the 
culture  of  their  fields  had  led  them  beyond  the  thresholdof 
their  homes. 

The  arrangement  of  the  numerous  persons  and  caffiea 
forming  a  caravan  through  the  Toorkman  desert  gives  ocor 
sion  for  the  display  of  much  kindly  feeling,  vbich  is 
almost  universally  shown.  If  a  single  camel  throwa  its 
load,  all  the  caravan  waits  till  it  is  replaced.  It  has  been 
observed,  "  A  caravan  is  an  interesting  scene  at  all  tini»  J 
and  the  shifts  of  the  pious  to  prevent  its  detention  m  tne 
Toorkman  desert  are  not  unworthy  of  notice.  The  liw^ 
ffenerally  too  extensive  to  sound  a  halt  for  prayer^  hot » 
uie  appointed  time,  each  individual  is  to  be  seen  onthe  bacK 
of  his  cainel,  or  in  his  pannier,  performing  his  ozisonS  ^ 
the  beet  manner  which  he  could  accomplish  them.'' 

After  passing  through  these  sandy  deserts^  we  come  to  tw 
town  of  Merve,  and  next  to  Shurukhs.  These  towns  bong 
situated  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Peruan  empire,  have  often 
suffered  from  the  incursions  of  the  ruthless  Toorkmans » 
the  north,  and  the  inhabitants  seized  and  sold  as  au^Oj 
The  Toorkmans  are  divided  into  several  tribes,  bot  th^^ 
pursue  nearly  the  same  course  of  life.  In  small  P*'***^i 
gangs^  they  approach  Persia  by  short  and  esey  stageSr  ^ 
after  xeaohiog  the  frtmtiaBy  Uiey  will  hi9fm  ii^^^ 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  MAY,  1841. 


815 


Bight  of  a  forty  watoliiiig  for  a  &Tourable  opporttmity  of 
capture.  If  none  present  itself,  they  make  a  dash  upon  the 
fields  in  the  morning,  while  the  shepherds  and  husbandmen 
are  pursuing  their  occupations,  and  bear  off  with  speed 
whoever  they  may  be  able  to  seize.  If  hotly  pursued,  they 
relinquish  a  spare  horse  wiUi  which  eye^  two  individuals 
are  provided,  and  gallop  off  to  a  place  of  safety.  In  such 
expeditions,  the  fleetness  of  his  horse  is  the  chief  guarantee 
which  the  Toorkman  has  for  bis  success,  and  he  accordingly 
bestows  the  utmost  attention  on  his  beast.  The  Toorkmans 
are  accustomed  to  subject  the  horses  to  severe  exercise  after 
a  long  abstinence  from  food  and  water,  which  brings  the 
animals  to  a  state  of  great  hardihood.  They  are  coarse- 
looking  animalsy  with  none  of  the  sleekness  seen  in  Euro- 
pean horses;  but  the  manner  in  which  they  are  trained 
enables  them  to  bear  great  fatigue.  On  one  occasion,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  town  of  Merve  were  attacked,  and  Bai- 
ram  Khan,  with  700  followers,  were  captured  by  a  large 
troop  and  carried  to  Bokhara ;  upon  whidi  the  wives  and 
daughters  of  the  prisoners  embodied  and  appeared  In  the 
field  as  soldiers,  performing  such  feats  as  have  caused  their 
names  to  be  handed  down  m  songs  and  legends. 

Shurdkhs  is  a  Toorkman  settlement,  consisting  of  a  small 
and  weak  fort,  situated  on  a  hillock,  unaer  cover  of  which 
most  of  the  inhabitants  have  pitched  their  tents.    There  are 
a  few  mud  houses,  which  have  been  built  by  the  Jews  of 
Mushed,  who  trade  with  this  people.    But  the  Toorkmans 
ihemselves  live  in  the  conical  nouses  peculiar  to  their  tribe : 
they  are  constructed  of  wood,  surrounded  by  a  mat  of  reediL 
and  roofed  with  felts,  blackened  with  soot.    Two  thousand 
fimiilies  are  here  domiciled,  and  about  an  equal  number  of 
horses.     If  their  town  be  attacked  by  a  force,  either  from 
Persia  on  the  south,  or  from  Khiva  on  the  north,  which  they 
are  unable  to  resist,  they  flee  to  the  desert,  and  remain  there 
till  the  storm  is  over.    Sir  A.  Bumes  heard  of  an  incident 
at  Shurukhs,  which  illustrates  the  dreadful  state  of  enmity 
between  the  people  on  either  side  of  this  frontier.    A  Per- 
sian youth,  who  had  been  captured  by  the  Toorkmans, 
dragged  out  a  miserable  life  of  servitude  at  Shurukhs.    He 
was  resolved  to  be  free',  and  chose  the  opportimity  of  his 
master  being  at  an  entertainment,  to  effect  nis  object.    He 
saddled  the  t>est  horse  in  the  stable ;  and  on  the  very  eve  of 
departure  was  discovered  by  his  master's  daughter,  who 
attempted  to  give  the  alarm.    He  drew  his  sword,  and  put 
the  girl  to  death.     Her  cries  alarmed  the  mother,  whom  he 
also  slew:  and  as  he  was  bidding  his  final  farewell  to  Shu- 
rukhs, the  master  himself  arrived.    The  speed  of  the  horse, 
which  had  so  often  been  employed  in  the  capture  of  his 
countrymen,  now  availed  this  fugitive,  who  was  pursued, 
but  not  overtaken :  and  thus,  by  an  exertion  of  desperate 
boldness,  did  he  r^pain  his  liberty,  leaving  the  master  to 
deplore  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  his  daughter,  his  slave  and 
his  horse. 

As  we  shall  soon  leave  the  Toorkmans,  we  will  give  a  brief 
description  of  one  of  their  entertainments  when  guests  are  in- 
vited. Cakes  are  baked,  about  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  an 
inch  thick,  of  the  coarsest  flour,  mixed  up  with  slices  of  pump- 
kin*   When  the  party  assembles,  a  clotais  spread,  and  each 
Eerson  crambles  down  the  piece  of  oake  which  is  laid  before 
im.    The  meat  is  then  brought,  which  generally  consLsts  of 
rae  entire  sheep,  boiled  in  a  huge  Russian  pot.    They  sepa- 
rate the  flesh  from  the  bones,  and  tear  it  into  as  small 
pieces  as  the  bread,  with  which  it  is  then  mixed.    A  dozen 
or  more  onions  are  then  shred,  and  the  whole,  including 
meat,  bread,  and  onions,  is  thrown  into  the  hot  liquor,  or 
soup  in  which  the  sheep  was  boiled.    The  mess  is  then 
served  out  in  wooden  bowla^  one  of  which  is  placed  before 
e^eiy  two  persons.    Each  guest  then  fills  his  open  hand  from 
the  bowl,  and  commencing  from  the  wrist,  licKsup  the  soup 
like  a  dog,  holding  his  hand  and  head  over  the  bowl,  whicn 
3«ceives  all  that  falls.    Each  of  the  two  in  his  turn  fills  his 
hand,  and  holds  his  head  over  the  bowl.    Melons  follow, 
find  the  banquet  concludes  with  a  pipe  of  tobacco.    Such  is 
4m  example  of  the  manners  of  these  children  of  the  desert. 
We  now  reach  Mushed,  the  capital  of  Khorasan,  and  one 
«f  the  most  important  cities  in  the  Persian  empire.    The 
'^hole  city  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  which  is  said  by  the 
inhabitants  to  be  twelve  miles  in  circumference ;  but  Mr. 
^^^Fraaer  does  not  estimate  it  at  more  thani>ne-half  that  extent. 
^The  wall,  however,  incloses  many  vacant  spaces,  which 
^^Qce  the  parts  actually  inhabited,  to  a  much  smaller  limit. 
^The  whole  city  appears  from,  the  first  to  have  been  built  of 
n-dried  bricks  or  mud,  so  that  everything  assumes  the 
ondtonous  gray  earthy  colour  common  to  all  Persian 
ovns.    The  approach  to  the  houses  is  generally  through 


dark  lanes  and  narrow  alleys,  ''guiltless  of  the  smallest 
attention  to  cleanliness  or  convenience."  Most  Oriental 
towns  are  deficient  in  broad  streets,  and  Mushed  is  not  an 
exception  to  this  rule.  The  only  street,  worthy  of  the  name^ 
is  that  which  extends  from  north-west  to  south-east.  In 
the  centre  of  this  street  runs  a  canal,  the  edges  of  which 
were  once  faced  with  stone ;  while  large  slabs  of  the  same 
material  were  laid  across  at  intervals  as  bridges :  but  many 
of  them  have  fallen  in,  and  the  whole  is  greatly  out  of  re- 
pair. A  few  trees  are  ranged  along  at  the  sides  of  the  canal, 
and  houses  occupy  both  sides  of  the  street. 

The  most  important  public  building  in  Mushed  is  fhb 
Mausoleum  of  Imaum  Reza,  described  as  being  one  of  the 
most  splendid  structures  to  be  found  anywhere  m  the  East : 
it  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  the  roads  leading 
from  all  parts  of  the  adjacent  country,  meet  at  this  spot. 
The  first  thing  that  strikes  the  eye  on  arriving  at  this  point, 
is  a  noble  oblong  square,  inclosing  an  area  a  hundred  and 
sixty  yards  in  length,  and  seventy-five  in  breadth,  built  in 
the  manner  of  a  caravanserai,  having  two  stories  of  apart- 
ments all  round,  which  open  in  friont  into  a  handsome 
arcaded  gallery.  In  the  centre  of  each  side  and  end,  there  is 
a  maanificent  and  very  lofty  gateway,  serving  as  entrances. 
The  large  square  inclosed  m  this  manner,  which  is  called 
the  Scthn,  is  nagged  with  &;rave-stones,  which  form  almost  a 
continuous  pavement,  and  under  which  lie  tiie  bodies  of 
Persians  of  noble  birth.  Three  of  the  gateways  lead  from 
the  city  itself,  while  the  fourth,  on  the  south-west  of  the 
square,  is  the  entrance  to  the  grand  mausoleum. 

This  mausoleum  comprises  a  mass  of  buildings  of  an  octa- 
gonal form,  and  covers  an  area  not  much  less  than  that  of 
the  Sahn.  A  silver  ^te  admits  the  devotee  into  a  passage 
which  leads  to  the  chief  apartment,  beneath  a  gilded  cupola. 

This  apartment  is  of  magnificent  dimensions,  rising  into 
a  lofty  dome  above,  and  branching  out  below  into  the 
form  of  a  cross,  the  whole  being  ornamented  with  polished 
tiles,  covered  with  azure  and  gold.  The  four  lateral  arch- 
ways from  this  central  apartment  lead  to  shrines  of  most 
costly  character.  The  arch  at  the  north-west  leads  to  a 
richly-carpeted  room,  in  one  comer  of  which  is  the  shi-ine 
containing  the  ashes  of  the  Caliph  Haroun-al-Raschid : 
the  shrine  is  surrounded  by  a  massy  gr&ting  of  fine- wrought 
steel,  within  which  is  a  railing  of  solid  gold,  and  a  door 
leading  to  the  shrine  is  plated  with  gold  and  covered  with 
jewels.  Opposite  to  this  jewelled  door,  an  archway,  screened 
by  a  curtain,  leads  to  another  octagonal  apartment,  domed, 
and  lined  with  coloured  tiles.  This  contains  the  bones  of 
many  great  men.  From  the  south-west  archway  in  the 
great  central  chamber  a  broad  passage  leads  to  a  court 
oelonging  to  a  very  beautiful  mosque.  Both  sides  of  this 
court  are  formed  of  buildings  similar  to  those  of  the  JSalin, 
having  two  stories  of  niches  or  compartments :  it  is  paved 
with  flag-stones,  and  in  the  centre  is  a  small  tank,  which, 
¥dth  several  jars  in  different  comers,  is  kept  full  of  water, 
for  the  purposes  of  ablution,  or  for  quenclung  thirst.  The 
mosque  in  the  middle  of  this  court  has  but  one  dome  and 
one  archway,  which  rises  to  a  great  height,  in  a  noble  screen, 
that  conceals  the  neck  of  the  dome.  At  either  end  of  this 
screen  rise  minarets  of  a  beautiful  form,  and  the  whole  is 
richly  decorated  with  coloured  tiles.  On  each  side  of  the 
space  beneath  the  dome  there  are  arcaded  apartments,  with 
matted  floors,  for  the  use  of  the  moolahs,  and  those  who 
retire  to  pray  or  to  read  the  Koran :  there  is  also  before  the 
archway  a  large  platform,  matted  for  the  convenience  of  devo- 
tees, but  the  greatest  number  of  these  pray  under  the  oppo- 
site archway  of  the  mausoleum,  or  the  niches  on  either  side, 
which  are  nttcd  up  tor  the  purpose. 

But  it  is  necessary  now  for  us  to  leave  Mushed  and  its 
gilded  mausoleum,  and  proceed  on  our  journey. 

Mushed  is  situated  south-east  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the 
route  by  which  Europe  may  be  reached  is  generally  by  way 
of  Astrabad,  on  the  shores  of  that  sen.  This  distance  is 
passed  through  a  country  beset  with  dangers  of  the  same 
kind  as  those  which  occur  nortli-eest  of  Mushed.  The  Toork- 
mans of  the  Caspian,  as  they  are  called,  have  nearly  the  same 
love  of  plunder  as  their  brethren,  and  the  traveller  has  to 
look  sharply  about  him  while  on  this  route.  Sir  A.  Bumes 
had,  through  an  interview  with  the  Prince  Royal  of  Persia, 
at  Mushed,  gained  the  assistance  of  a  laige  escort  in  his 
future  journey.  Some  Toorkmans  had  entered  the  Persian 
service,  and  the  following  incident,  related  by  that  travel li-r, 
will  farther  illustrate  the  manners  of  this  people.  'Hhi 
winding  through  tlie  valley  we  had  an  opportunity  of  wit- 
nessing an  interesting  sight,  in  the  welcoming  of  a  chief, 
or  ^  Aksukal,'  who  }  ad  accompanied  us  from  Koochan.  We 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


had  onlr  known  him  as  a  wild  Tootlcman,  and,  foi  my  own 
part,  I  had  scarcely  noticed  him ;  but  here  he  was  a  noble, 
and  what  U  greater,  a  patriarch.  He  had  been  summoned 
by  the  Prince  Royal,  Mid  now  returned  to  his  home.  For 
miles  before  reacliing  the  camp  the  Toorkmaos  crowded 
about  ns  to  bid  him  welcome :  all  of  them  were  on  horae- 
bock,  men,  women.and  children,  and  several  of  them  criedaa 
they  kissed  bis  hand.  At  lenath,  in  a  shady  and  picturesqne 
part  6f  the  valley,  a  party  which  appearen  more  respectaole 
than  the  others,  hiid  dismounted  and  drawn  up.  This  was 
the  family  of  the  chief:  he  leuied  upon  the  ground  with  the 
enthusiasm  of  a  youth,  rushed  forward,  and  kissed  in  suc- 
cession four  boys,  who  were  his  sons.  The  scene  was  pa- 
thetic, and  the  witty  Persians,  who  had  before  been  imitatmg 
some  of  the  actions  and  exclamations  of  the  Toorkmaas, 
were  silenced  by  this  fervent  flow  of  affection.  Three  of 
the  boys  were  under  ten  years  of  age,  yet  they  mounted 
their  horses  with  spirit,  and  joined  the  cavalcade. ' 

Through  a  country  inhabited  by  Toorkmans,  but  subject, 
nominally  at  least,  to  the  power  of  Persia,  we  trarel 
onward  to  the  shores  of  the  Caspian ;  during  the  course  of 
which  route  we  pass  through  a  faw  towns,  but  none  of  im- 
portance till  we  reach  Astrahad. 

Astrabod  is  the  capital  of  a  small  province,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Toorkman  Desert,  oo 
tlie  south  hy  the  Eiburz  mountains,  on  the  west  by  Mazon- 
deran,  another  Persian  province,  and  on  the  east  by  the  river 
Gourgan.  The  capital  is  not  above  ten  miles  from  the 
shores  of  the  Caspian,  and  is  believed  to  owe  its  origin  to 
Yezxid  ibu  MetJoob,  on  Arab  general,  who  built  it  towards 
the  end  of  the  first  century  of  the  Molinnimcdan  era.  The 
circumferenceof  the  town  isnbout  three  miles  and  a  half,  the 
whole  beine  Bunounded  by  a  high  and  thick  wall,  which  is 
now  inarumouB  condition.  Tlic  streets  are  generally  paved, 
and  their  cleaiiliness  is  promoted  by  a  drain  which  runs 
tlirough  the  centre  of  them.  The  town  contains  but  few 
public  buildings  worthy  of  note.  When  Sir  A.  Bumes  passed 
throuKh  it,  he  found  it  devastated  by  the  plague  which  had 
visited  it  a  short  time'  before.  Half  tlie  shops  and  houses 
were  closed,  literally  for  want  of  masten;  and  the  whole 
town  prescuted  a  very  dreary  and  desolate  appearance. 


From  Astrabad  we  proceed  tlirongh  the  province  of 

Astrabad  and  Mazanderan,  to  Teheran,  the  present  capital 
of  Persia.  Thin  district,  like  many  utbera  m  the  l^st,  it 
frequently  attacked  with  the  plague,  which  produces  nd 
devastation.  An  English  traveller  was  informed  by  sn  in- 
habitant of  one  of  the  towns  that  he  had  lost  a  son  by  the  dis. 
ease,  and  that  he  and  his  wife  had  both  been  attacked.  Sht 
wasnnningachildatthe  time;  and  though  aha  continued  to 
suckle  it,  the  infant  escaped  uie  danger.  The  man  stated 
that  he  had  had  the  horror  to  see  his  own  child  drt^ged  to 
the  door  by  eight  or  ten  cats,  whom  he  with  dtfficnltT 
scored  away;  and  affirmed  itas  his  belief,  that  more  p«apb 
were  killea  by  dogs  and  cats  on  the  occasion,  or  died  &oa 
hunger,  than  firomthe  disease  itself. 

Teheran  is  approached  from  the  east  either  by  hersei  or 
mules,  throngh  a  conntry  which  ptcsenlE  few  natural  pointt 
of  interest. 

Here  we  take  leave  of  our  jonmey.  We  have  befoit 
described  T^eran,  and  on  two  former  occasions  haie 
traced  the  overland  route  from  about  Teheran  to  Europe, 
1  St. — through  the  provinces  between  the  Caspian  and  Blik 
Seas,  and  thence  through  Ruseia:  and  2nd. — elot^  "i" 
northern  shore  of  Asia  Minor  to  Constantinople,  ft  will 
not  be  necessary,  therefore,  to  go  again  over  tJiia  grouDJ. 
The  countries  throueh  which  we  have  passed  have  bwn 
very  rarely  indeed  visited  by  Europeans,  and  arc  iobabitnl 
by  nations  possessing,  generally  speaking,  considenble 
vigour  of  chiiracter.  The  Seikhs  of  the  Pnnjrab,  the 
A&hans  of  Csubul,  the  Uzbeks  of  Balkh  and  Bokhan. 
ana  the  Toorkmans  of  the  sandy  desert  fcrmiuR-  the  nonb- 
em  boundary  of  Caubul  and  Khorasan,  ore  oil  dtstinffniihej 
by  such  chmncteristics  as  make  a  journey  among  them  no 
light  matter.  The  overland  journey  is  sometimes  madt  in 
a  direction  somewhat  more  southerly,  from  Delhi  to«iird] 
Moultan  new  the  Indus ;  thence  to  Cnndahar,  ia  the  middb 
of  Caubul ;  thence  to  Herat,  at  the  boundary  between  Caubul 
and  Persia;  and  from  Herat  to  Mnshed.  But  the  nutuR  of 
the  travelling  along  this  route,  and  the  objects  met  with  br 
the  way,  do  not  differ  much  in  character  fcmni  those  wkici 
have  here  engaged  our  attention. 


L  TOORSMIX  CU(P. 


LONDON)  PubluhcdbjJOHN  W.  FARKEB,  Wast  Buikd,  nndwUhr  all 


^aturlTdif        m^^^^im. 


N?  673. 


6t«  1841. 


BRITISH    GUYANA. 


i  HOT  AND  CAKOBI. 


V,    Thk  Demekara  AMD  Berbicb,  Rivers. 
Haviko   described  the   sceneiy  and  chief  points   of 
interest  on  the  Eswquibo  river  and  its  tributaries,  we 
shall  be  able  to  dismiBs  in  a  narrower  space  our  notice 
of  the  remaining  rivers. 

The  river  Demerara  is  situated  between  the  Essequibo 
and  the  Berbice,  and  b  navi^ble  for  ships  of  burden  to 
a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  miles.  For  thirty  miles 
from  the  mouth  the  country  on  the  banks  consists  of 
extensive  level  meadows ;  then  succeed  numerous  sand- 
hills; and  lastly  a  hilly  region  occurs,  which  gives  rise 
to  cataracts  ind  rapids,  at  a  distance  of  about  a  hundred 
miles  from  the  source.  The  banks  of  the  river  present 
Hearty  the  same  appearance  as  those  before  spdien  of, 
and  the  while  inhabitants  become  more  and  more  scat- 
tered the  farther  we  ascend  the  river.  The  natives  have 
many  habits  and  usages  peculiar  to  this  part  of  the  coun- 
try,  and  among  them  we  may  mention  the  remarkable 
mode  of  catching  birds  by  the  "blow-pipe." 

A  reed  grows  in  Guyana  to  the  length  of  twelve  or 
fourteen  feet,  perfectly  straight  and  uniform  throughout 
its  whole  length,  hollow,  free  from  knots  or  joints,  of  a 
brijht  yellow  colour,  and  perfectly  smooth  inside  and  out. 
Aoolher  kind  of  reed  or  stem  also  giows  there,  which  is 
brown,  knotted  at  intervals,  and  susceptible  of  a  fine 
poU)b.  The  nutives  collect  one  of  each  of  these  kinds, 
extract  the  pith  from  tho  larger  stem,  and  insert  the 

Vol.  XVIII. 


reed  within  it,  thus  giving  strength  to  the  reed.  This 
forms  the  blow-pipe  pf  the  Indian,  into  which  he  inserts 
a  short  arrow,  ana  applies  one  end  to  his  mouth,  to  blow 
the  arrow  out.  The  arrow  is  about  ten  inches  long,  and 
is  made  out  of  the  leaf  of  a  species  of  palm-tree,  hard 
and  brittle,  and  pointed  as  sharp  as  a  needle.  The  mid- 
dle of  the  arrow  is  bound  round  with  cotton,  to  make  it 
nearly  fit  the  tube:  one  end  is  scorched,  to  make  it 
harder,  and  the  other  end  is  poisoned.  A  quiver  is  pro- 
vided which  wilt  hold  five  or  six  hundred  arrows. 

With  a  quiver  of  poisoned  arrows  slung  at  his  back, 
and  the  blow-pipe  in  his  hand,  the  bird-hunter  advances 
cautiously  lo  the  woody  region  where  the  birds  are 
located.  When  he  espies  a  bird  within  arrow-distance, 
he  takes  a  poisoned  arrow  from  his  quiver,  puts  it  in  the 
blow-pipe,  directs  the  tube  towards  the  bird,  applies  it 
to  his  mouth,  and  blows  strongly  and  suddenly  through 
it.  Seldom  does  he  miss  the  object  of  his  aim.  If  the 
bird  be  struck,  or  if  the  skin  merely  be  pierced,  it  is 
generally  dead  within  three  minutes  afterwards.  The 
bow  and  poisoned  arrows  are  also  employed  by  the 
natives  in  their  search  for  large  birds  and  quadrupeds. 

The  river  Berbice,  which  is  eastward  of  tlie  Deraerara, 
was  but  little  known  until  explored  by  Mr.  Schomburghk, 
in  1836-7.  When  this  part  of  the  colony  waa  in  the 
hands  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  there  were 
wttlementa  on  the  banks  of  the  river  to  a  distance  of 
573 


218 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[June  5, 


sixty  miles  from  the  sea,  but  now,  from  various  causes, 
there  are  but  few  white  inhabitants  met  with  above  the 
town  of  New  Amsterdam.  At  one  spot  Mr.  S.met  with 
a  neat  cottage,  the  proprietor  of  which  (a  Dutchman) 
cultivated  rice,  and  received  the  travellers  very  kindly. 
Farther  on  he  met  with  a  large  wood-cutting  establish- 
ment, belonging  to  a  Mr.  M*Cullum,  and  employing 
about  two  hundred  Indians  and  fifty  negroes :  these  men 
fell  the  trees,  and  square  the  timber.  The  Indians  were 
kindly  treated  by  their  employer,  and  are  said  to  be  ex- 
cellent working  servants,  but  there  are  some  proprietors 
of  land  who  act  unfairly  and  ungenerously  towards  these 
tribes:  they  supply  an  Indian  with  articles  on  credit, 
sometimes  to  a  large  amount,  provided  ht  U  able  to  work, 
being  aware  that  the  Indian  deems  himself  m  duty  bound 
to  work  for  his  creditor  until  the  debt  is  paid :  but  many 
wood-cutters  use  every  means  to  prevent  his  getting  out 
of  debt,  by  constantly  supplying  him  with  more  goods 
and  large  quantities  of  rum,  whereby  the  poor  Indian  is 
kept  in  a  state  of  bondage.  To  lessen  this  evil,  a  pro- 
tector of  Indians  has  been  appointed. 

The  natives  pass  on  the  shallow  parts  of  this  river  in 
very  fiat,  shallow,  light  canoes,  called  woodskins.  They 
are  made  of  a  single  piece  of  the  tough  bark  of  the  mu^ 
rianara  tree,  which  grows  to  a  very  large  size:  an  inci- 
sion is  made  in  the  bark  to  the  extent  required,  and  it 
is  then  removed  by  driving  in  wedges:  when  loosened 
from  the  wood  the  bark  is  kept  open  by  cross-sticks,  and 
is  supported  at  the  extremities  upon  two  beams*  Vertical 
incisions,  about  two  feet  asunder,  and  a  few  inches  in 
depth  arc  then  made,  and  the  parts  secured  by  over- 
lapping. This  frail  boat,  although  one  man  can  carry  it 
with  ease  on  his  head,  frequently  holds  three  persons  and 
a  quantity  of  luggage,  in  passing  through  the  shallow 
parts  of  the  Berbice  river. 

High  up  the  river  the  party  came  to  a  spot  where  the 
contracted  stream  forms  an  entrance  to  a  natural  basin > 
bordered  by  hills,  and  here  occurred  a  fall,  not  very 
deep,  but  of  too  great  rapidity  to  permit  the  canoes 
and  boats  to  be  forced  up  it,  which  was  done  in  many 
other  instances.  The  party  therefore  hauled  up,  and 
conveyed  the  baggage  by  hand  to  the  head  of  the  fall, 
but  the  large  canoes,  or  corialiy  were  forced  through  the 
rushing  water.  Hendrick,  a  courageous  Indian,  gained 
onetpf  the  rocks  in  the  middle  of  the  cataract,  and 
seized  the  end  of  a  boat-rope  which  was  thrown  to  him. 
He  then  carried  it  to  a  loss  dangerous  place,  to  which 
some  of  the  other  Indians  had  arrived  by  swimming ;  and 
the  whole  party  then  drew  the  corial  by  main  strenarth 
up  the  opposing  current.  In  effecting  the  same  object 
with  another  corial  Hendrick  lost  his  footing  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  cataract,  and  was  swept  away,  but  being  just 
enabled  to  grasp  tightly  a  rope  thrown  out  to  him,  he 
was  fortunately  saved. 

This  part  of  the  river  abounds  in  kaymans^  or  large 
alligators,  animals  which  appear  to  be  very  tenacious  of 
life.  On  one  occasion  a  ka3rman  was  shot,  the  ball 
taking  off  the  end  of  the  snout:  another  ball  was  lodged 
in  the  hinder  part  of  the  skull;  and  after  the  Indians 
had  beaten  the  animal  till  life  appeared  to  be  extinct,  it 
was  lifted  out  of  the  water,  and  placed  in  the  bow  of  the 
corial.  When,  soon  afterwards,  the  corial  had  to  be 
drawn  up  a  rapid,  the  kayman  was  in  the  way,  and  two 
men  took  it  up,  to  move  it  to  a  more  convenient  place ; 
but  scarcely  had  they  done  so  when  it  suddenly  leaped 
into  the  water.  On  another  occasion,  when  a  kayman 
had  been  shot  and  taken,  a  piece  of  the  windpipe  three 
inches  in  length  was  cut  out,  to  ensure  the  death  of  the 
animal,  but  it  was  still  found  living  the  next  day,  and 
was  only  finally  despatched  by  piercing  the  bram  with  a 
sharp  knife. 

Snakes  of  rather  a  fearful  size  are  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  river.  One  measuring  sixteen  feet  in  length  and 
twenty-eight  inches  in  circumference  was  seen  by  the 
party  close  to  the  shore.     Hendrick  jumped  ashore,  and 


dexterously  slipped  a  noose  round  its  head,  and  was  on 
the  point  of  securing  it,  when  the  snake  turned  round 
and  made  a  motion  as  if  to  dart  at  hisl.  At  this  attad 
all  his  courage  forsook  bitn,  and Jiei retreated  wtthpred- 
pitation  over  bushes  and  rocks  into  the  water.  The 
other  Indians  stood  petrified,  and  could  not  be  persuaded 
to  put  a  finger  to  the.  rope  by  which  the  snake  yns^ 
held.  At  this  juncture  a  timely  shot  from  one  of  the 
party  despatched  the  snake  and  redeemed  the  rope. 

It  was  on  the  1st  of  January,  1837,  that  Mr.Schom- 
burghk,  somewhat  dispirited  at  the  toils  and  difficulties 
which  he  had  encountered,  met  with  that  wouderfiil 
fiower  which,  at  his  request,  was  named  after  Her 
Majesty,  and  which  the  reader  will  call  to  mind  as  the 
Victoria  regia.     He  says: — 

Some  object  on  the  southern  point  of  the  basin  attracted 
my  attention :  I  could  not  form  any  idea  of  what  it  might 
be,  and  I  hurried  the  crew  to  increase  the  rate  of  their  pad- 
dling :  in  a  short  time  we  were  opposite  the  object  of  oor 
curiosity, — a  vegetable  wonder.  All  calamities  were  for- 
gotten ;  I  felt  as  a  botanist,  and  felt  myself  rewarded.  A 
gigantic  leaf,  irom  five  to  six  feet  in  diameter,  salver^baped, 
with  a  broad  rim  of  a  liffht  green  above,  and  a  virid  mm- 
son  below,  rested  upon  the  water:  quite  in  character vt& 
the  wonderful  leaf  was  the  luxuriant  flower,  consisting  of 
many  hundred  petals,  passing  in  alternate  tints,  from  poK 
white  to  rose  and  pink.  The  smooth  water  was  coTered 
with  them,  and  I  rowed  from  one  to  the  other,  ohaerriog 
always  something  new  to  be  admired. 

Mr.  Schomburghk  then  proceeds  to  describe  more 
minutely  the  botanical  features  of  the  flower,  bat  this 
description  we  must  pass  over. 

Our  travellers  espied  a  large  herd  of  kmrounini  or 
Indian  hogs,  and,  as  their  stock  of  prorisioni  «u 
ffetting  low,  an  attack  on  the  herd  was  resolved  on.  The 
hogs  were  wallowing  in  a  pool  of  muddy  water,  ooe 
being  left  as  sentinel  to  give  the  alarm  if  an  enemj  ap* 
proached.  This  sentinel  was  fired  at,  and  immediatel? 
the  whole  herd  of  two  hundred  scampered  off  in  an  opposite 
direction.  The  party  dispersed  in  various  directions  to 
shoot  some  of  the  hogs  during  thdr  retreat,  but  it  so 
happened  that  the  Indians  unintentionally  drove  the  herd 
towards  the.  spot  where  Mr.  Schomburghk  was  standing 
alone. 

I  heard  a  rushing  noise  (he  says)  like  a  whirlwind,  ap- 
proaching  through  the  bushes :  the  peculiar  growl,  aad  that 
awful  clapping  of  the  teeth,  did  not  leave  me  lon^  in  donbt 
as  to  its  cause :  it  was  evident  that  the  herd  had  divided, 
and  were  coming  directly  towards  me.  I  stood  alone,  un- 
armed, and  had  not  even  a  knife  to  defend  myself.  I  ^^^ 
not  yet  how  I  climbed  the  lower  part  of  a  mora  tree,  when 
by  tney  rushed^  their  muzzles  almost  sweeping  the  gronod, 
and  their  rough  bristles  on  the  back  standing  erect.  Thef 
came  past  like  a  whirlwind,  and  before  I  had  recovered  from 
my  astonishment  I  heard  them  plunge  into  tiie  river,  and 
swim  over  to  the  opposite  bank. 

When  the  party  had  explored  the  river  Berbice  abnost 
to  its  source,  they  returned,  and  on  approaching  near  the 
settlements  Mr.  Schomburghk  lost  by  death  an  enter- 
prising young  companion  who  had  snared  his  dangers 
and  toils.  On  February  1 1  this  gentleman,  Mr.  Reuss, 
suddenly  became  low-spirited,  and  stud  "  be  knew  w 
should  die  young."  On  the  following  day  the  corialshad 
to  be  directed  down  a  rapid  and  cataract  by  the  skill  of 
some  of  the  Indians.  Mr.  Heuss  determined  to  mak 
one  of  the  party,  against  all  the  solicitations  of  Mr. 
Schomburghk.  The  corial  was  launched  down  the 
rapid,  Mr.  Reuss  standing  when  he  ought  to  have  b^^ 
seated,  and,  by  some  bad  management  the  corial  became 
upset,  and  all  the  crew  precipitated  into  the  river.  Mr. 
Reuss  was  drowned,  and  his  companions  had  the  inelan- 
choly  task  of  interring  him  on  the  banks  of  the  river 

TTie  travellers  had  not  seen  a  human  habitation  of  any 
kind  for  the  space  of  two  months,  when,  on  the  20th  Feb- 
ruary they  arrived  at  some  Indian  huts.  From  thence 
they  proceeded  to  the  European  settlements,  and  finally 
came  to  New  Amsterdam,  from  whence  they  started. 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


219 


We  now  conclude  our  notice  of  British  Guyana. 
There  are  one  or  two  other  rivers  which  we  have  not 
particularly  noticed,  but  the  notable  objects  presented  by 
them  so  nearly  resemble  others  which  have  already  en- 
gaged our  attention,  as  to  preclude  the  necessity  for 
farther  description.  The  reader  will  gather  from  these 
details,  that  British  Guyana  is  a  beautiful  and  fruitful 
country,  abounding  in  animals  atld  plants  of  various 
kinds, — ^thinly  inhabited  by  dark-skinned  natives,  who 
are  generally  of  a  peaceful  character, — and  by  colonists 
at  a  few  towns  situated  near  the  mouths  of  three  or  four 
rivers  flowing  northward  into  the  Atlantic. 


DO  STONES  GROW? 

The  opinion  that  stones  grow  and  increase  in  size  is 
very  popular,  and  very  erroneous.  We  hear  it  stated 
by  many  persons  with  all  the  certainty  of  a  Well  attested 
fact,  and  yet  there  are  few  vulgar  errors  which  rest  upon 
a  more  flimsy  foundation. 

A  writer,  who,  by  the  ease  and  familiarity  of  his  style 
flrst  attempts  to  render  a  very  difficult  subject  popular, 
often  runs  the  risk  of  diffiising  error  as  well  as  truth. 
M.  de  Tournefort,  the  immediate  predecessor  of  Lin- 
naeus, deprived  botany  of  much  of  its  forbidding  aspect, 
and  greatly  promoted  its  study  by  a  new  system  of 
classification  and  a  new  and  easier  method  of  description. 
In  1702,  after  returning  from  his  travels  in  the  Levant, 
he  wrote  an  account,  among  other  objects,  of  the  botanical 
productions  which  he  had  examined  during  his  travels. 
In  surveying  the  labyrinth  of  Crete  he  observed  that  the 
names  which  visitors  had  engraved  upon  the  rock  were 
not  formed  of  hollow  but  of  prominent  letters,  like  basso- 
relievos.  He  supposes  that  these  letters  were  at  first 
hollowed  out  by  knives;  that  the  hollows  have  since 
been  filled  up  by  the  growth  of  the  stone ;  and  hence  he 
indulges  in  the  fancy  that  stones  increase  in  size  like  the 
productions  of  the  vegetable  world  which  constituted  his 
favourite  study. 

The  pleasing  style  of  Tournefort's  Travels  caused  his 
book  to  be  much  read,  and  hence  arose  the  popular  error 
that  stones  grow.  It  would  be  satisfactory  to  be  well 
assured  that  the  letters  were  at  first  hollowed,  before 
attemptmg  to  account  for  their  prominency ;  but  assum- 
ing the  fact  to  be  as  he  states  it,  we  proceed  to  state 
a  few  of  the  conditions  necessary  to  the  gp*owth  or 
enlargement  of  matter. 

The  various  objects  of  the  material  world  are  conve- 
niently arranged  into  two  great  classes,  the  organized 
^ind  the  unorganized:  the  former  includes  animals  and 
plitnts,  and  the  latter  minerals.     In  animals  and  plants 
we  observe  a  system  of  organs,  gpradually  rising  from  a 
very  simple  to  a  very   complex  method  of  arrange- 
ment, and  destined  to  the  performance  of  certain  vital 
functions.     In  minerals  we  find  none  of  these  organs, 
and  consequently  there  cannot  exist  in  them  the  vital 
principle  which  is  the  distinctive  character  of  the  former. 
We  readily  admit  also  that  vitality  was  not  present  in 
minerals  during  their  formation ;  but  the  slightest  trace 
of  organization  in  any  natural  body  is  a  clear  proof 
that  life  does  exist  or  has  existed  in  it.     Unorganized 
bodies  are  made  up  of  elementary  atoms,  or  of  proximate 
principles,  in  which  elementary  atoms  are  united  in  cer- 
tain definite   proportions.      When   these  are  brought 
.ogether  in  a  gradual  manner  by  the  force  of  affinity 
Vom  a  state  of  solution  or  of  fusion,  they  assume  various 
eometric  forms  called  crystals.      These  crystals  can 
nly  increase  in  size  by  the  addition  of  other  atoms  to 
heir  external  surfaces,  and  it  often  happens  that  this 
icrease  goes  on  to  an  indefinite  extent;  the  original 
r}'stalline  form  being  constantly  maintained.     Should 
le  circumstances  under  which  these  crystalline  forms 
'e  produced  cease  to  operate,  the  atoms  may  still  unite 
id  form  shapeless  masses  which,  however,  possess  the 
ime  definite  character  of  composition  as  if  they  had 


been  recently  crystallized.  Rocks  and  stones,  the  ocean 
and  the  atmosphere,  are  mixtures  of  simple  minerals,  or 
of  the  simple  substances  of  which  the  latter  are  formed. 
The  earth  itself,  and  probably  the  various  heavenly 
bodies,  are  regarded  as  large  masses  of  mineral  or  un- 
organized matter. 

Although  an  animal  or  a  plant  is  in  substance  com- 
posed of  the  same  simple  atoms  as  those  which  com-  * 
pose  minerals,  yet  they  are  eminently  distinguishable 
from  the  latter  by  the  manner  in  which  they  increase  in 
bulk.  The  various  organs  of  such  bodies  are  not,  as  in 
the  structure  of  minerals,  similarly  composed  throughout; 
they  increase  by  the  assimilation  of  food,  which  being 
received  into  tne  system  through  certain  cavities  or 
vessels,  is  formed  by  peculiar  processes  into  specific 
compounds,  adapted  to  the  nutrition  and  growth  of  the 
animal  or  plant.  Now,  in  the  example  furnished  by 
Tournefort,  the  protuberancy  of  the  characters  cannot  be 
called  growth,  nor,  as  he  terms  it,  vegetation;  because 
it  is,  in  no  respect,  eflected  by  a  process  similar  to  the 
vegetation  of  a  plant.  Vegetation  supposes  vessels  con- 
taining fluids  and  growth  by  expansion ;  but  would  any 
one  contend  for  a  moment  for  tne  existence  of  vessels  in 
a  stone ;  of  fluids  moving  in  them ;  or  of  the  different 
parts  expanding  and  swelling  like  the  branch  or  trunk  of 
a  tree  ?  Even  the  fact,  as  stated  by  Tournefort,  proves 
nothing;  for  he  doe^  not  pretend  that  the  rock  itself  is 
increasing  in  bulk,  but  only  that  a  few  insignificant  hol- 
lows have  become  filled  up  with  fresh  stony  particles 
which  project  a  little  beyond  the  general  surface  of  the 
rock.  This  filling  up  may  be  explained  by  referring  to 
the  process  by  which  stalactites  are  formed.  When 
water  saturated  with  calcareous  matter  is  exposed  to  the 
air,  the  water  evaporates,  and  the  calcareous  earth  remains 
behind  and  gradually  jiardens  into  stone. 

The  popular  notion  that  stones  grow,  has  led  to  the 
practice  of  watering  coals  and  keeping  them  wet  for  a 
long  time  before  they  are  used.  The  eflect  of  this  prac- 
tice is  simply  this :  When  the  Vet  coals  are  thrown  upon 
the  fire  they  cannot  bum  until  the  greater  part  of  the 
moisture  is  converted  into  steam,  and  thus  dissipated ;  a 
large  portion  of  the  heat  which  would  otherwise  warm 
the  apartment  is  now  lost;  for  it  combines  with  the  water 
to  form  steam,  which,  with  the  smoke,  ascends  the  chim- 
neyinstead  of  radiating  into  the  apartment. 

The  distinctions  which  we  have  pointed  out  between 
organized  and  unorganized  matter  will  be  sufficient  to 
show  that  a  negative  answer  must  be  given  to  the  ques- 
tion, ^*  Do  stones  grow  ?  "  The  precise  limits  between 
minerals  and  organized  bodies  may  be  considered  as  as- 
certained; but  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two 
kingdoms  of  organized  nature  is  by  no  means  precise. 
However  simple  the  questions  may  appear,  "  What  is  a 
plant?"  and,  "What  is  an  animal?"  naturalists  have 
found  great  difficulty  in  answering  them  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  satisfy  all  the  conditions  under  which  organized 
matter  is  found.  For  a  long  time  it  was  considered 
satisfactory  to  define  a  plant  as  "  a  being  with  life  and 
without  the  power  of  locomotion,"  and  an  animal  as  "  a 
being  possessing  life  and  the  power  of  locomotion ;"  but 
such  definitions  lost  their  value  when  it  was  found  that 
some  of  the  lower  tribes  of  animals  had  not  the  power 
of  moving  about  from  place  to  place;  and  that  some 
plants  could  do  so  to  a  certain  extent.  Perhaps  the 
most  constant  distinction  between  these  two  great  classes 
is  the  presence  in  animals  of  internal  sacs  or  stomachs 
for  the  reception  of  food;  organs  with  which  plants  are 
not  furnished. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  admitting  that  plants,  in 
common  with  animals,  possess  vital  energy,  which  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  inert  matter,  and  displays  itself  by 
its  effects.  If  we  would  extend  the  inquiry  beyond  the 
examination  of  these  effects,  and  seek  to  know  what 
vitalUff  is,  we  are  soon  brought  to  a  pause,  and  admit 
the  inefficiency  of  our  means  to  penetrate  those  mysteries 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[JmiiS, 


which  the  Alnughty  hu  concealed  from  uf.  We  see 
that  vitality  and  org&niiation  accompany  each  other;  but 
vitality  does  not  depend  on  mere  structure;  it  is  not 
produced  hy  respiration  alone,  although  this  proceu 
seems  necessary  to  it;  it  is  not  heat,  for  this  is  only  an 
effect  of  vitality,  although  a  certwn  degree  of  temperature 
favours  it;  our  moat  refined  chemistry  scarcely  leads  us 
one  step  nearer  to  the  cause  of  this  vondrous  principle; 
vitality  resists  those  combiuations  in  orgonixed  bodies 
Yrbich  so  unerringly  occur  when  life  is  extinct.  The 
flights  of  imaginatioo  as  well  as  the  sober  reasonings  of 
philosophy,  fail  to  inform  us  of  its  nature:  we  can  only 
regard  its  effects  in  silent  admiration,  and  think  of  it  as 
that  divine  emanation  from  the  Almighty,  first  commu- 
nicated t«  man  when  "  He  breathed  into  hia  nostrils  the 
breath  of  life." 


ON  CHESS. 
XI.  Chebs-Writxrs  akd  Platbri,  (continiud.) 


Brii^t  in  die  fhml  Ow  dumUni  loUlen  niM 
Their  polnhed  ipaui :  thrir  dnllj'  lulBeb  Uoe. 
Picpuvd  thejr  lund,  the  dering  foe  to  etrik*, 
Dinct  Iheir  progm,  but  Ihrir  woondi  ahliqne. 

Sa  ViLLUM  Jonu. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  Captain 
Joseph  Bertin  obuiaed  a  distinguished  rank  among  chess 
players.  He  seems  intitled  to  the  merit  of  having  in- 
vented the  "Three  pawns'  gambit:"  which  being  after- 
wards adopted  by  the  celebrated  player  Cuuningham,  it 
was  named  by  Pbilidor  "  the  Cunningiiam  gambit,"  by 
which  term  it  has  since  been  known;  but,  as  Mr. 
Walker  remarks,  from  its  construction  involving  a 
sacrifice  of  three  pawns,  it  is  more  correct  to  term  it 
the  Three  pawai  gambii.  In  1735  Captain  Bertin 
published  a  small  work,  entitled  "  The  noble  Game  of 
Chess."  "  Printed  for  the  Author,  and  sold  only  at 
Slaughter's  Coffee-houae,  in  Sl  Martin's  Lane."  This 
work  contains  the  laws,  twenty-six  games,  and  twelve 
endings.  Among  his  rules,  the  author  makes  a  remark 
which  every. chess  player  will  appreciate: — "I  wish  I 
could  give  rules  to  avoid  OTeraights." 

Mr.  Cunningham,  the  critic  and  editor  of  Horace,  a 
gentleman  of  taste  and  learning,  had  moreover  the  re- 
putation of  being  the  first  chess-player  in  Europe.  His 
acquirements  gained  him  the  friendship  of  many  distin- 
guished persons.  It  is  said  that  while  Lord  Sunder- 
land and  Mr.  Cunningham  were  at  the  Hague,  they 
frequently  played  at  chess,  and  after  continuing  to  play 
for  some  time  nia  lordship  discovered  that  if  either  one 
before  playing  was  jolted  in  the  carriage,  in  passing  over 
the  rough  streeta  of  the  Hague,  he  was  generally  the 
loser.  For  this  reason  his  lordship  discontinued  going 
to  Cunningham,  but  for  some  time  sent  for  him.  Under 
this  new  arrangement  Mr,  Cunningham' found,  to  his  no 


small  aatonishment,  that  he  lost  most  of  his  gomes;  ui 
when  the  plan  was  at  length  revealed,  he  insisted  dul 
the  visits  should  be  reciprocated.  This  new  ar^aIlg^ 
ment  is  said  to  have  restored  the  former  ratio  of  tncteu 
between  them  ;  but,  as  was  remarked  to  Mr.  Twigs,  lbo« 
who  believe  in  this  anecdote  must  think  that  the  hnd 
of  a  chess  player,  before  he  plays,  must  be  moved  ai  an- 
fully  as  a  bottle  of  old  port  before  it  be  decanted. 

During  Mr.  Cunningham's  residence  at  the  HigiH,  f 
German  prince,  having  heard  of  his  great  skill  al  cbtti, 
sent  bim  an  invitation  to  go  and  play  on  a  certain  day. 
Mr.  Cunningham,  who  had  acquired  an  European  re- 
putation in  chess,  did  not  choose  to  risk  it  if^it  t 
stranger,  and  therefore  asked  Mr.  Ogilvie,  a  Scottiii 
gentleman  in  the  Dutch  service,  to  pay  a  visit  Id  llit 
princess  Mr.  Cimningbam's  pupil.  Tbia  was  agreed  to, 
and  Mr.  Ogilvie  waited  upon  the  prince  with  a  noU 
from  Mr.  Cunningham  to  the  effect  that  he  could  not 
avail  himself  of  the  honour  of  accepting  tbe  piince'i 
invitation  for  the  hour  named,  hut  that  he  had  teal  (m 
of  his  pupils  to  attend  in  his  place,  and  in  the  event  of 
his  being  beaten,  Mr.  Cunningham  wouldhimselfiHenil 
and  play  with  the  prince.  Mr.  Ogilvie  beat  the  pnnce 
in  every  game;  which  so  greatly  mortified  him,  ibt, 
thinking  the  master  would  vanquish  him  still  mon 
easily  tlian  the  pupil,  left  the  Hague  on  the  folki«mg 
morning  without  even  waiting  to  see   Mr.  Cunningbaa. 

This  distinguished  player  died  in  his  native  couatryi 
Scotland,  in  1732,  more  than  eighty  years  of  age. 

The  next  player  of  eminence  is  Philippe  Stamou,  ilia 
styles  himself  "  native  of  Aleppo  in  Syria,  and  inter- 
preter of  the  oriental  languages  U>  the  King.of  Giut 
Britain."  He  published  at  Paris  in  1737  a  small  vort 
containing  a  hundred  situations  or  ends  of  games:  mm)' 
of  these  are  very  instructive,  and  ought  to  be  kno'D  If 
every  chess  student;  others,  says  Sarratt,  there  ii  ecerj 
reason  to  believe,  never  occurred  in  the  courtetift 
ganie,  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  they  could  ocou. 
We  may  odd  that  the  same  remark  also  applies  to  mmf 
of  the  chess  problems  of  our  own  day. 

In  an  edition  of  this  work  in  French,  pubhsbed  b/ 
Stamma  at  the  Hague  in  1741,  and  dedicated  to  L«n 
Harrington,  we  find  the  following  arousing  anecdote 
among  the  rules  and  cautions  which  he  gives  to  the  clw» 
student; — 

Be  very  careful  how  you  capture  a  piece  idiidi  p^ 
adversary  offers  you  for  nothing :  for  he  intends  eitbff  to 
win  one  of  your  superior  pieces,  or  to  give  yon  check-iul'' 
This  stratagem  is  frequently  ptactised  among  good  Anbim 
plwers. 

It  u  related  that  a  young  man  of  this  countrv,  still  under 
paternal  autboritj^,  havins  learnt  the  game  of  cdm^  took  h 
much  pleasure  in  it  that  he  n^lected  everything  else.  ?" 
father  having  often  reprimanded  htm  without  ^^ 
became  at  last  so  angry  that  he  threatened  one  day  ^ 
kill  him.  The  sou  fell  on  his  knees,  demanded  pu^aD|iw 
stated  that  this  game  was  more  useful  than  lus  wi'^ 
seemed  to  think  it;  but  that  ho  would  continue  to  pliy  m 
more.  After  a  moment's  reflection  the  father  denucJed 
the  use  of  such  a  game,  for  he  could  aee  none,  Ht^' 
it  were  to  encourage  idleness.  *My  fetiier,"  ^'^ 
the  son,  "  this  game  teaches  me  many  things  tlist  *vl 
be  very  useful  to  me  during  my  future  life.  If  fo'  ^' 
good  of  mv  country  I  were  required  to  go  to  the  wan,  ibn 
game  teacnea  me  how  to  tight  with  advantage.  If  I  "^ 
on  a  journey,  and  robbers  were  to  attack  me,  I  shooldkw" 
better  how  to  defend  myself  than  one  who  has  not  acfuirn 
skill  in  this  game." 

"Tellme  how  this  is  posdHe,''swd  the  father,  •I°> 
must  put  me  to  the  proof;"  responded  the  son.  Tbo  fitbtf 
did  BO :  he  sent  his  son  on  a  distant  Journey,  with  a  luS* 
sum  of  money  to  buy  merchandise. 

When  the  young  man  waa  on  his  road,  tbe  gtberMn 
fonr  men  after  bim  to  rob  him.  When  the  son  found  hint* 
self  opposed  to  these  robbers,  he  dismounted  quickly,  J>«' 
doned  his  horse,  and  taking  rcfnee  behind  walls  and  Iiedp* 
eacoped.  He  then  accomplished  the  object  of  hisjonrMji 
ood  succeeded  in  brinsing  his  merchandise  safely  home. 

H«  then  nlated  to  hia  &tber  what  hod  happened.   '» 


1641.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


221 


soon  BB I  wM  attacked,'*  aaid  h^  ^1  bethought  myaelf  of  an 
expedient  iieqaenthr  adopted  at  chessy  vis^  to  sacrifioe  my 
horse  to  sare  my  lift  and  my  money ;  in  the  same  way  aa  at 
cheas  I  sometimes  sacrifice  my  knight^  in  <»dertaaaye  my 
king  or  m  v  queen.** 

'nie  fiither  was  so  much  pleased  with  the  skill  and 
address  of  his  son,  that  he  not  only  foigaTO  him,  but  deter* 
mined  to  learn  the  game.  This  Bttle  story,  says  Stamma, 
is  fiur  more  pleasantfy  related  in  the  Arabic,  in  whieh  laa- 
g;iiage  the  knight  is  called  the  hoiae. 

Stamput  was  in  London  in  1745,  and  published  an 
improved  edition  of  his  treatise,  which  has  since  been 
edited  with  notes  by  Mr.  Lewis.  In  1747,  Stamma 
tried  his  skill  against  Philidor  in  a  match  of  en  games ; 
Philidor  giving  him  the  move,  and  allowing  a  drawn 
game  to  be  a  lost  one.  With  these  advantages  Stamma 
won  only  two  games,  of  which  one  was  a  drawn  game* 

As  it  is  our  intention  to  conclude  these  brief  notices 
of  chess  players  and  writers  with  an  account  of  Philidor, 
we  proceed  to  notice  a  few  of  the  prindpal  satellites 
which,  during  a  considerable  portion  of  the  last  century, 
hovered  round  the  greatest  luminary  that  ever  threw 
lustre  on  the  science  of  chess. 

In  1750,  a  treatise  entitled  *'  Practical  and  Theoretical 
observations  on  the  Game  of  Chess,**  was  published  at 
Mbdena.     ^  The  author/'  says  Sarratt,  '^  chose  to  con- 
ceal his  name,  and  it  is  difficult  to  assign  a  satisfactory 
reason  for  his  diffidence,  for  it  is  unquestionably  a  pub- 
lication of  gpreat  merit  and  real  utdity."     For  many 
years  the  author  of  this  book  was  referred  to  as  '^  The 
Anonymous  Modenese,'*  but  it  is  now  known  that  Dr. 
Ercole  del  Rio  was  the  author.    In  1820,  Mr.  Bingham 
published  *'  The  incomparable  Game  of  Chess  developed 
after  a  new  method  of  the  greatest  facility,  from  the 
first  elements  to  the  most  scientific  artifices  of  the 
game.**     This  high  sounding  title,  which,  like  all  such, 
promises  more  than  it  performs,  is  applied  to  a  work 
which  professes  to  be  a  translation  from  the  Italian  of 
Del  R  io,  whereas  the  real  author  is  Domenico  Canonico 
Ponxiami,  an  advocate  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Courts,  and 
a  friend  of  Del  Rio,  who  was  an  advocate  in  the  Civil 
Courts.     Mr.  Bingham  has  translated  the  third  edition 
of  this  book,  published  at  Venice  in  1812,  which  is 
greatly  inferior  to  the  second,  published  at  Modena  in 
1782,  the  third,  as  Mr.  Cochrane  thinks,  being  probably 
a  reprint  of  the  first     In  the  advertisement  to  the 
second  edition,  Poniiani  is  distinctly  stated  to  be  the 
author,  and  is  said  to  have  been  assisted  by  his  fneud 
Del  Rio,  in  the  composition  of  the  work. 

The  work  of  Del  Rio  received  a  commentary  from 
the  labours  of  Lolli  in  1763.  This  commentary,  (a 
folio  volume  of  632  pages,)  '^  like  that  of  Coke  upon 
Littleton,  or  of  a  Dutch  scholiast  upon  a  classic,  exceeds 
a  hundred-fold  the  bulk  of  the  original  work."  The 
siie  of  this  book,  adds  Mr.  Cochrane,  was,  on  its  first 
publication,  ridiculed  in  Baretti's  Frmta  Literaria.  It 
18,  howerer,  the  most  complete  and  valuable  treatise  on 
chess  which  has  hitherto  appeared.  This  high  praise 
was  given  by  Mr.  Cochrane  in  1822,  and  although  many 
valuable  works  on  chess  have  appeared  since  that  time, 
Mr.  Walker,  in  the  third  edition  of  his  excellent  treatise, 
(1841,)  does  not  hesitate  to  pronounce  Lolli's  ^  the  most 
doMiical  work  on  chess  extant."  > 

We  conclude  the  present  article  with  an  amusing 
anecdote,  related  of  the  Duke  de  Nivemois : — 

When  this  accomplished  nobleman  was  ambassador 
to  England,  he  was  going  to  Lord  Townsend's  seat, 
at  Rainham  in  Norfolk,  on  a  private  visit,  en  diehaMUet 
and  with  only  one  servant,  when  he  was  obliged  by  a 
very  heavy  shower  to  stop  at  a  farm-house  in  the  way. 
The  master  of  the  house  was  a  clergyman,  who,  to  a 
>niall  curacy,  added  the  care  of  a  few  scholars  in  the 
neighbourhood;  which  in  all  might  make  his  living  about 
eighty  pounds  a  year:  this  was  all  he  had  to  maintain  a 
^e  and  six  children.  When  the  duke  alighted,  the 
c^c^gynuui,  not  knowing  his  rank,  begged  him  to  come 


in  and  dry  himself;  which  the  other  accepted,  by  bor- 
rowing a  pair  of  old  worsted  stockings  and  slippers,  and 
warmmg  himself  by  a  good  fire.  iSttxt  some  conversa- 
tion,  the  duke  observed  an  old  chess-board  hanging  up ; 
and,  aa  he  wais  passionately  fond  of  the  game,  he  asked 
the  clergyman  whether  he  could  play.  The  latter  told 
him,  that  he  could  play  pretty  tolerably ;  but  found  it 
difficult  in  that  part  of  the  country  to  get  an  antagonist. 
''  I  am  your  man,"  says  the  duke.  '^  With  all  my  heart," 
answers  the  clergyman ;  **  and  if  you  will  stay  and  take 
pot-luck,  I  will  see  if  I  cannot  beat  you.'*  The  day 
continuing  rainy,  the  duke  accepted  his  ofier ;  when  his 
antagonist  played  so  well,  that  he  won  every  game. 
This  was  so  mr  from  fretting  the  duke,  that  he  was 
pleased  to  meet  a  man  who  could  give  him  so  much  en- 
tertainment at  his  favourite  game.  He  accordingly 
inquired  into  the  state  of  his  family  affairs ;  and  making 
a  memorandum  of  his  address,  wiwout  discovering  his 
title,  thanked  him,  and  departed. 

Some  months  elapsed,  and  the  clergyman  thought  no 
more  of  the  matter,  when,  one  evening,  a  footman  rode 
up  to  the  door,  and  presented  him  with  a  note. — ^^  The 
duke  de  Nivemois'  compliments  wait  on  the  Rev.  Mr. 
;  and  as  a  remembrance  for  the  good  drubbing 
he  gave  him  at  chess,  begs  that  he  will  accept  the  living 
of  ,  worth  400/.  per  annum ;  and  that  he  will 

wait  upon  his  Grace  the  Duke  of  Newcastle  on  Friday 
next,  to  thank  him  for  the  same." 

The  good  clergyman  was  some  time  before  he  could 
imagine  it  to  be  any  more  than  a  jest,  and  hesitated  to 
obey  the  mandate ;  but  as  his  wife  insisted  on  his  making 
a  txial,  he  went  up  to  town,  and,  to  his  unspeakable 
satisfaction,  found  the  contents  of  the  note  literally  true. 


ON  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER. 

When  we  consider  how  large  a  quantity  of  timber  is 
necessary  to  the  construction  of  a  ship,  and  when  it  is 
stated  that  the  average  durability  of  the  vessels  of  the 
Royal  Navy  does  not  exceed  fifteen  years,  we  readily 
admit  the  vast  importance  of  any  successful  means  of 
counteracting  those  deteriorating  influences  to  which 
laige  combinations  of  wood-work  are  peculiarly  liable. 

Vegetable  matter,  in  common  with  all  organic  sub- 
stances, is  subject  to  decomposition  and  decay,  as  soon 
as  life  becomes  extinct ;  and  although  the  process  is  com- 
paratively slower  in  its  commencement  and  progress  in 
vegetable  than  in  animal  matter,  it  is  not  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  the  less  certain.  During  the  existence  of 
a  plant,  its  various  organs,  under  the  influence  of  the 
mysterious  principle  of  life,  perform  their  respective 
functiona  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  which  we  are 
more  readily  conscious  in  the  animal  frame.  The  plant 
absorJM  its  food  from  the  soil  and  the  surrounding  air;  it 
digests  that  food  under  the  influence  of  respiration,  and 
prepares  rich  and  nutritive  juices  which  circulate  through- 
out its  whole  vegetable  frame,  and  deposit  materials  of 
growth  wherever  they  are  wanted;  it  sheds  its  leaves  in 
Autumn,  undergoes  a  season  of  torpor,  and  again  becomes 
active  and  vigorous :  thus  it  is  clad  in  fresh  leafy  honoura 
in  the  following  Spring.  All  this  is  the  effect,  or  rather 
the  result,  of  vitality.  The  plant  dies ;  and  then  its  con- 
stituent parts  gradually  assert  their  individual  existence, 
and  resume  their  original  affinities.  Some  pass  into  the 
air;  some  form  new  compounds;  and  others,  which  during 
the  life  of  the  plant  ministered  to  its  healthy  action, 
now  work  energetically  and  destructively  on  each  other: 
so  that  the  original  mass  gpradually  decomposes  under  the 
influence  of  various  causes.  The  first  step  to  decay  is  a 
process  of  fermentation,  which  is  more  or  less  rapid,  in 
proportion  as  heat  and  moisture  are  more  or  less  present- 
In  the  abaence  of  damp  air,  even  the  vegetable  mass 
will  of  itself  supply  moisture;  for,  according  to  Count 
Rumford,  the  best  seasoned  timber  retaina  one-fourth  of 
its  weight  of  water.    A  certain  extent  of  moisture  Ja 


222 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


[June  5 


essential  to  vegetable  fermentation ;  but  a  complete  satur- 
ation appears  inimical  to  it,  A  temperature  not  so  low 
as  to  produce  freezing,  nor  so  high  as  to  produce  rapid 
evaporation,  is  also  favourable  to  it.  The  humidity  of 
the  air  in  ships,  and  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  free 
circulation  of  air,  contribute  greaUy  to  this  fermentative 

process. 

The  chemical  constitution  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
yields  to  analysis  only  three  or  four  ultimate  elements, 
viz.,  oxvi^en,  hydrogen,  and  carbon ;  and  sometimes  nitro- 
gen. The  most  active  agent  in  the  process  of  decompo- 
sition is  the  oxygen  contained  in  the  dead  plant,  whether 
such  decomposition  proceed  under  the  rapid  influence  of 
fermentation,  or  be  produced  more  slowly  by  the  opera- 
tion of  the  law  which  renders  decay  the  necessary  con- 
sequence of  organization.  As  soon  as  the  tree  is  felled 
the  oxygen  begins  to  be  liberated  and  to  act  upon  the 
woody  fibre,  combining  with  its  carbon  and  producing 
carbonic  acid  gas.  The  tenacity  of  tlic  several  parts  is 
thus  gradually  destroyed.  After  timber  is  felled,  and 
during  the  process  of  seasoning,  a  gradual  diminution  of 
strength  may  be  remarked.  The  effect,  however,  of 
seasoning  is  to  deprive  the  wood  of  superabundant 
moisture,  aud  of  those  vegetable  juices  which  would 
otherwise  induce  a  rapid  decomposition. 

In  addition  to  the  natural  decay  of  timber,  the  decom- 
position is  often  accompanied  by  the  apparently  sponta- 
neous vegetation  of  parasitical  fungi,  inducing  a  species 
of  decay  to  which  the  term  "  dry  rot"  is  applied,  proba- 
bly in  consequence  of  the  attendant  phenomena;  the 
wood  being  converted  into  a  diry  friable  mass,  destitute 
of  fibrous  tenacity.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the  seeds  of 
these  fungi  exist  in  a  dormant  state  in  the  juices  of  the 
timber,  and  wait  only  until  the  first  stages  of  decompo- 
sition furnish  them  with  a  nidus  favourable  to  their 
growth;  or  whether  they  float  in  the  atmosphere  and 
settle  in  places  favourable  to  their  vegetation.  It  is 
found,  however,  that  badly  seasoned  timber  is  peculiarly 
subject  to  this  species  of  decay ;  and  hereby  the  former 
of  the  two  suppositions  just  advanced  is  favoured. 

From  the  moment  when  timber  is  felled  the  process 
of  decay  commences,  and  although  so  slowly  in  many 
cases  tliat  we  are  not  conscious  of  it,  yet  there  is  a  limit 
to  the  existence  of  the  most  durable  articles  of  wood, 
however  carefully  preserved.  Dryness,  cleanliness,  a 
free  circulation  of  air,  or  the  entire  exclusion  of  it,  are 
among  the  best  checks  to  vegetable  decomposition ;  while 
damp  accumulations,  and  a  vitiated  atmosphere,  rapidly 
induce  it. 

Unseasoned  timber  should  never  be  used  in  ship -build- 
ing, and  the  best  seasoned  timber  should  be  used  only  in  a 
dry  state.  Diseased  and  decayed  portions  of  the  wood 
should  be  cut  out,  together  with  the  sap-wood,  which, 
being  more  soft  and  porous  than  the  spine,  is  more 
liable  to  fermentation. 

The  iron  fastenings  used  about  timber  frequently  cause 
its  premature  decay.  Iron  under  the  influence  of  mois- 
ture becomes  rusty, — that  is,  oxygen,  either  from  the 
air  or  from  the  wood  itself,  unites  with  the  metal,  form- 
ing an  oxide,  which,  in  its  turn,  acts  upon  the  woody 
fibre,  and  gradually  destroys  its  tenacity.  The  iron  is 
Further  subject  to  attack  from  the  acid  juices  of  the 
wood:  this  effect,  however,  varies  in  different  woods. 
Oak  contains  a  smaller  proportion  of  oily  or  resinous 
particles  than  many  other  kinds  of  wood ;  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  vegetable  acid  common  to  most  woods, 
oak  contains  an  acid  peculiar  to  itself,  called  gallic  acid : 
in  teak,  on  the  contrary,  the  quantity  of  acid  is  not  only 
smaller,  but  the  resinous  particles  are  very  abundant,  and 
these  form  a  sort  of  protecting  covering  to  the  iron  fast- 
enings. Mackonochie  states,  on  the  authority  of  the 
shipping  built  in  India  and  used  in  the  India  trade,  that 
the  average  duration  of  an  iron -fastened  teak  ship  is 
th  rty  years ;  and  that  it  is  a  misapplication  of  expense 
to  ;use  copper  fastenings  with  teak,  as  the  additional  ad- 


vantage gained  is  not  at  all  commensurate  with  the  addi- 
tional expense.  But  it  is  different  with  oak :  the  actioB 
of  oak  on  copper  is  by  no  means  so  destructive  as  oa 
iron,  and  the  reaction  of  the  metal  on  the  wood  is  not 
80  destructive. 

The  methods  which  have  been  from  time  to  tin» 
adopted  for  the  preservation  of  timber  are  so  nulD^ 
rous  that  a  slight  sketch  of  them  would  probably  fill  a 
good-sized  volume.  .  We  will  name  a  few  of  the  most 
successful,  and  terminate  this  notice  with  a  descriptioa 
of  the  method  now  in  practice. 

Mackonochie  recommends  all  the  iron  fasteniiigs  to  be 
provided  with  a  protecting  paint,  and  to  impregnate  the 
timber  with  some  oily  preparation,  which  he  proposes  to 
effect  thus :  the  wood  is  to  be  placed  in  a  steam-tight 
chamber,  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  steam,  byviiidi 
the  air  will  be  expelled  from  the  timber.  Then  by  ««• 
densing  the  steam,  and  repeating  the  nrocess  until  all 
the  elastic  fluids  are  withdrawn  from  the  wood,  aud  its 
juices  converted  into  vapour,  the  wood  becomes  ficed 
from  them;  and  if  plimged  into  oil,  and  subjected  to 
atmospheric  pressure,  all  the  internal  cavities  of  \lie 
wood  will  be  filled  with  oiL  In  this  way  Mackonochiii 
had  in  daily  use  a  steam-chamber  capable  of  contaiDcig 
twenty  or  thirty  planks  of  timber,  forty  feet  long,  ia 
which,  while  the  planks  were  steaming,  to  render  th^ 
flexible,  they  were  impregnated  with  teak  oil.  He  says  the 
oil  may  easily  be  procured  from  the  cnips  and  saw-dost 
used  for  the  fuel  of  the  steai^-boilers;  for  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  Malabar  teak  contains  such  a  quantitj 
of  oleaginous  (oily)  or  terebinthinous  (turpentine)  mat- 
ter, that  the  chips  from  the  timber  and  planks  of  a  skip 
built  of  it  will  yield,  by  a  proper  process,  a  sufficioii 
quantity  of  tar  for  all  its  own  purposes  including  tbe 
rigging ;  and  that,  although  oak  timber  does  not  contaia 
so  much  of  these  substances,  the  chips  of  the  fir  alone 
consumed  in  the  Royal  Navy,  would  be  more  than  su£' 
cient  to  supply  tar  to  saturate  the  oak. 

There  have  been  many  other  proposals  to  satunis 
timber  with  different  substances;  the  most  succefs^ 
of  which,  up  to  the  process  of  Mr.  Kyan,  was  that  of 
M.  Pallas,  whose  plan  was  to  saturate  the  timber  ia  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and  then  precipitate  the 
salt  by  means  dT  lime-water.  About  the  year  1822  Mr. 
Bill  produced  samples  of  timber  impregnated  througboot 
with  a  substance  resembling  asphaltum.  These  samples 
were  subjected  to  a  trial  of  five  years  in  the  dry-rot  pit 
at  Woolwich,  and  withstood  the  fung^-rot  perfectly. 
Sir  John  Barrow  recommends  kreosote^  which  he  saj^ 
"  in  a  vaporous  form  penetrates  every  part  of  the  largest 
log^,  and  renders  the  wood  almost  aa  hard  as  iron,-^ 
hard  as  not  easily  to  be  worked." 

Mr.  Kyan's  plan,  now  so  universally  adopted,  is  to 
soak  the  timber  in  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  xnercoiyi 
commonly  called  corrosive  sublimate. 

Aware  of  the  established  affinity  of  coirouve  sabliioa^ 
for  albumen,  Mr.  Kyan  applied  that  substanca  to  soluuoia 
of  vegetable  matter,  both  acetous  and  saccharine,  on  ^bicfi 
he  was  then  operating,  and  in  which  albumen  was  a  consti- 
tuent, with  a  view  to  preserve  them  in  a  quiescent  and  in- 
corruptible  state;  and  obtaining  a  confirmation  of  ai$ 
opinions  by  the  fact,  that  during  a  period  of  three  y^ 
the  acetous  8oluti<>n,  openly  exposed  to  atmospheric  ^;^ 


not  become  putrid,  nor  liad  the  saccharine  decoction  y 
to  the  vinous  or  acetous  stages  of  fermentation,  hut  ^J* 
in  a  high  state  of  preservation,  he  concluded  that  corrosive 
sublimate,  by  combination  with  albumen,  was  a  prrt«tJon 
against  the  natural  changes  of  vegetable  matter.  ^V^' 
oei  ved,  therefore^  if  albumen  made  a  part  of  wood,  the  tetie 
would  be  pfotected  by  convertrng  that  albumen  >»*?  •^^ 
pound  of  protochlori^  of  mercury  and'Wbnmen  >  •^r  "*  Q 
ceeded  to  immerse  piecea  of  wood  id  this  aolutio*^  *»J 
obtained  the  same  result  as  that  which  he  had  ascertainca 

with  regard  to  the  vegetable  decoctions. ^BuikbbcK' 

It  halving  been  found  that  the  precipitate  caused  bv  the 
Kyanization  was  soluble  in  salt  water,  Sir  WilliaH^  ii*""' 
nett  has  ktely  substituted  chloride  of  zinc  for  corrosi> 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


223 


siiLlimate,  and  the  resulting  compound  which  this  forms 
with  the  albuminous  portion  of  the  wood,  effectually 
resists  the  action  of  salt  water. 


THE  CADDIS,  or  SPRING  FLY. 

Great  is  the  variety  of  insects  to  he  observed  at  this 
season  of  the  year,  in  the  vicinity  of  pools  and  shallow 
streams  of  water.  The  labours  of  naturalists  have  taught 
us  to  distinguish  many  of  these  beauti^l  forms,  and  to 
refer  thepi  to  their  respective  families;  but  how  impos- 
sible does  it  appear  for  an  ordinary  observer  to  attain 
to  more  than  a  very  superficial  acquaintance  with 
them,  or  to  view  without  bewilderment  the  diversi- 
fied shapes  and  colours  of  aquatic  insects  only.  Among 
their  numerous  tribes,  few  can  be  found  more  Interesting 
to  the  angler,  than  the  may-flies  and  caddis-flies  which 
form  some  of  his  most  important  living  baits :  these  in- 
sects are  highly  curious  in  their  larva  state  on  account 
of  the  singrular  nature  of  the  covering  with  which  they 
invest  themselves.  Some  particulars  relative  to  the 
Phr^ganea  or  caddis-fly  will  doubtless  prove  acceptable 
to  many  of  our  readers. 

Tlie  larva  of  the  caddis  insect  may  be  seen  crawl- 
iog*    upon   suhaquatic  plants,   or  lying  passive  at  the 
bottom  of  our  clear  streams,  enclosed  in  a  case  of  its 
own  construction,  the  materials  of  which  are  very  differ- 
ent in  different  species.     In  many,  popular  descriptions 
of  insects  caddis-worms  are  spoken  of  as  constituting 
but  one  species,  and  as  selecting  indifferently  from  the 
materials  around  them,  those  best  adapted  to  form  a 
protection  to  their  bodies.   The  Linnaean  genus  Phryga- 
nea,  has,  however,  been  found  to  contain  about  two  hun- 
dred British  species,  and  it  is  little  doubted  by  our  best 
authorities  but  that  each  of  these  has  its  own  method  of 
working,  and  consequently  its  own  particular  form  of 
case.     Izaak  Walton  was  not  ignorant  of  this,  for  we 
find  him  speaking  in  his  chapter  on  baits,  of  "  divers  kinds 
of  cadis  or  case-worms  that  are  to  be  found  in  this 
nation,  in  several  distinct  counties  and  in  several  little 
brooks  that  relate  to  larger  rivers."     Respecting  these 
varieties  of  caddis  he  has  many  directions  to  give,  and 
of  three  of  them  he  enters  into  a  particular  description. 
The  first  he  calls  a  piper y  "  whose  husk  or  case  is  a 
piece  of  reed  about  an  inch  long,  or  longer,  and  as  big 
about  as  the  compass  of  a  two-pence."   This  description 
of  caddis- worm  is  commended  by  the  worthy  angler  as 
a  choice  bait  for  chub  or  chavender,  or  indeed  for  any 
great  fish.     "  There  is  also,"  he  continues,  "  a  lesser 
cadis-worm,  called  a  cock-spur,  being  in  fashion  like  the 
spur  of  a  cock,  sharp  at  one  end ;  and  the  case  or  house 
in  which  this  dwells  is  made  of  small  husks  and  gravel 
and  slime  most  curiously  made  of  these,  even  so  as  to 
^    be  wondered  at,  but  not  to  be  made  by  man,  no  more 
than   a  kingfisher's  nest  can,  which  is    made  of  little 
fishes'  bones,  and  have  such  a  geometrical  interweaving 
^ »  and  connexion  as  the  like  is  not  to  be  done  by  the  art  of 
,    nian.     This  kind  of  cadis  is  a  choice  bait  for  any  float- 
^^h.     There   is  also  another  cadis,  called  by  some   a 
^traw-worm  and  by  some  a  ruff'-coat,  whose  house  or 
Case  is  made  of  little  pieces  of  bents  and  rushes  and 
s>traw8  and  water- weeds,  and  I  know  not  what;  which  are 
s  o  knit  together  with  condensed  slime,  that  they  stick 
a^hout  her  husk  or  case  not  unlike  the  bristles  of  a  nedge- 

The  faculty  is  indeed  worthy  of  our  admiration  which 
^^ahlea  these  little  worms  to  provide  for  their  own  safety 
^"t  a  period  of  their  being,  when,  their  bodies  being  very 
^fl  and  tender,  they  would  be  exposed  to  more  than 
^^dlnary  danger.  The  cases  of  all  caddis-worms  have 
^^'iie  feature  in  common,  that  is,  they  consist  of  a  cylin- 
\^\es\  tube  open  at  both  ends.  Some  of  these  tubes  are 
'^  mply  formed  of  a  slender  and  narrow  bit  of  grass, 
^^hich  is  rolled  in  a  tu  autiful  spiral  direction;  others  are 


concealed  by  a  drapery  of  leaves  falling  over  them  in  a 
natural  and  graceful  manner;  and  otlicrs  are  entirely 
covered  with  shells,  some  of  which  occasionally  contain 
living  snails  fixed  in  that  position  without  the  power  of 
moving.  The  worm  keeps  possession  of  its  case  by 
means  of  two  hooks  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the 
body,  and  so  finnly  do  these  hooks  maintain  their  hold, 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  separate  the  insect  from 
its  case  without  injuring  lU  The  caddis-worm  has  a 
long  body,  and  the  legs,  six  in  number,  are  situated  on 
the  first  three  segments  near  the  head.  These  are  the 
only  portions  which  are  generally  exposed  in  walking, 
and  tney  differ  from  the  rest  of  the  body  in  being  firm 
and  hard  and  little  liable  to  injury.  Mr.  Rennie  made 
repeated  experiments  with  caddis-worms  to  ascertain 
their  mode  of  building.  He  deprived  them  of  their 
coverings  and  furnished  them  with  materials  for  con- 
structing new  ones,  watching  their  proceedings  through- 
out. He  describes  them  as  working  at  the  commence- 
ment in  a  very  clumsy  manner,  attaching  a  great  num- 
ber of  chips  to  whatever  materials  may  be  within  their 
reach  with  loose  threads  of  silk,  and  thus  surrounding 
themselves  with  materials  many  of  which  are  never 
used  in  the  perfect  building.  Unskilful  as  their  efforts 
may  at  first  appear,  there  is  much  wisdom  in  this  aggre- 
gation of  all  the  substances  within  their  reach,  before  their 
dwelling  is  actually  commenced ;  for  when  these  prepara- 
tions are  completed,  they  are  able  to  devote  their  whole 
attention  to  the  building,  and  to  select  the  requisite  ma- 
terials from  the  heap  close  at  hand.  The  natural  cement 
used  by  the  caddis-worm  to  unite  together  the  rushes, 
sticks,  stones*  &c.,  of  which  its  house  is  composed  is 
said  to  be  superior  in  standing  vtAieTf  to  poj^zolana,  the 
celebrated  cement  prepared  of  volcanic  earth,  or  larva« 
As  soon  as  the  dwellings  are  sufficiently  advanced,  the 
larvae  shut  themselves  up  in  them  and  do  not  again  protrude 
more  than  the  half  of  their  bodies  to  procure  materials. 
It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  caddis- worm  is  regu- 
lated in  its  choice  of  a  proper  covering  for  its  body,  sim- 
ply by  the  instinct  oi  self-preservation  from  danger: 
this  little  creature  has  an  instinctive  knowledge  that 
when  -the  covering  is  made  of  stones,  sticks,  or  shells 
glued  together,  the  dwelling,  owing  to  its  specific  gra- 
vity, remains  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  where  the  food 
of  the  species  inhabiting  these  kinds  of  houses  is  mostly 
to  be  found;  and  again,  other  kinds  of  caddis  are  endued 
with  instinct  to  choose  materials  that  shall  be  lighter 
than  water,  to  float  on  the  top  that  they  may  seek  their 
food  from  thence. 

When  tho  larvsB  have  attained  their  full  size,  they  pre- 
pare for  the  change  they  are  about  to  undergo,  into  the 
pupa  state.  In  the  first  place,  they  make  their  cases 
secure  from  being  carried  away  by  the  stream :  this 
they  accomplish  by  spinning  threads  from  their  bodies, 
and  attaching  them  to  the  case,  and  also  to  some  large 
stone.  They  likewise  secure  the  mouth  of  the  case 
from  the  entrance  of  insects  by  a  beautiful  net-work  of 
these  threads,  the  meshes  of  which  are  sufficiently  close 
to  exclude  extraneous  substances,  but  yet  allow  a  free 
passage  to  water.  This  grating,  or  net- work,  consists  of 
a  small,  thickish,  circular  lamina,  of  brown  silk,  becom- 
ing as  hard  as  gum,  which  exactly  fits  the  aperture  of 
the  case,  and  is  fixed  a  little  within  the  margin.  It 
is  pierced  all  over  with  holes  disposed  in  concentric  cir- 
cles, and  separated  by  ridges  which  go  from  the  centre 
to  the  circumference,  but  often  not  quite  so  regularly  as 
the  radii  of  a  circle,  or  the  spokes  of  a'  wheel.  These 
radii  are  traversed  again  by  other  ridges,  which  follow 
the  direction  of  the  circles  of  holes;  so  that  the  two 
kinds  of  ridges  crossing  each  other  form  compartments, 
in  the  centre  of  each  of  which  is  a  hole.  When  the 
larva  sheds  its  skin,  it  appears  for  a  time  as  a  quiescent 
pupa,  inclosed  in  a  distinct  case:  the  head,  however, 
is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  curved  mandibles,  which 
appear  to  serve  no  otiier  use  than  that  of  making  a 


in 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


CJdkbS,  1641. 


])ust^e  through  the  open-worlc  grating  of  silk  at  the  time 
the  insect  is  about  to  assume  its  perfect  state.  When  this 
time  arrives  the  insect  is  endowed  with  power  of  motion 
far  greater  than  are  possessed  by  any  other  incomplete 
pupa :  BO  that  it  not  only  cuts  through  the  grating  of 
silk,  but  creeps  out  of  the  case,  leaves  tbe  water,  and, 
throwing  off  its  skin,  appears  as  a  caddis-fly. 

The  character  of  the  tribe  of  insects  to  which  the 
different  species  of  caddis-fly  belong,  are  as  follows : — 
the  mouth  nearly  obsolete,  the  mandibles  being  either 
eudrely  wanting,  or  minut«  and  membranous,  as  are 
also  the  under  jaws  and  lips ;  the  palpi  are  however  pre- 
sent, the  posterior  wings  are  generally  larger  than  the 
superior,  and  folded  longitudinally  woen  at  rest;  the 
eyes  are  prominent  and  globular ;  the  legs  are  long  and 
slender.  The  whole  inaect  is  of  a  small  or  moderate 
siie,  and  generally  of  an  obscure  pale  brownish  colour. 
The  different  species  are  found  flying,  chiefly  after  sun- 
set, about  streams,  ponds,  &c.,  and  are  very  similar  to 
each  other  in  general  appearance.  Like  the  may-flies, 
these  insects  appear  in  auccessional  groups,  and  tiiough 
they  are  commonly  called  Spring-flies,  some  of  their  spe- 
cies are  to  be  seen  even  in  the  autumnal  season,  tbus 
affording  food  for  fishes,  birds,  4c.,  all  through  the 
Summer  months.  The  most  prominent  variety  of  caddis- 
fly  is  the  Pkryganea  grandit.  or  stone-fly  of  anglers, 
dotton,  the  friend  and  disciple  of  Walton,  gives  a  de- 
scription of  this  insect  as  follows : — "  His  body  is  long  and 
pretty  thick,  and  as  broad  at  the  tail  almost  aa  in  the 
middle:  his  colour  is  a  very  fine  brown  ribbed  with  yellow, 
and  much  yellower  on  the  belly  than  the  back:  he  has 
two  or  three  whisks  also  at  the  tag  of  his  tail,  and  two 
little  horns  upon  his  head;  his  wings  when  full  grown 
are  double,  and  flat  down  his  back,  of  the  same  colour, 
hut  rather  darker  than  his  body,  and  longer  than  it, 
^ough  he  makes  but  little  use  of  them,  for  you  shall 
rarely  see  him  flying,  though  often  swimming  and 
paddling  with  several  feet  he  has  under  his  belly,  upon 
the  water,  without  stirring  a  wing."  Thia  fly  la  much 
recommended  by  anglers  as  a  bait  both  for  trout  and 
grayling,  but  is  more  successfully  used  late  in  the  even- 
ing than  at  midnlay.  Some  of  the  caddis-flies  are 
remarkable,  like  certain  moths,  for ,  tbeir  long  antennn, 
and  these  are  often  actively  employed  when  the  insects  are 
at  rest.  These  organs  have  b^n  observed  moving  about 
in  all  directions,  as  if  by  their  means  the  fly  was  exploring 
everything  that  occurred  in  its  vicinity.  Cadois-flies 
mav  be  distinguished  from  the  lesser  moths  b^  the  curi- 
ously wrought  reticulated  structure  of- tbeir  wmga,  gene- 
rally destitute  of  the  powdery  appearance  of  the  moth; 
also  by  their  palpi,  or  feelers,  and  by  the  stemmata  on 
tlie  top  of  their  heads. 


FORGET-ME-NOT, 
on  Mou*k-Eak-Scorpion-G>&ii, 
(^Afyototit  paltmlrU,') 
This  beautiful  little  flower,  which  enamels  thebrinkiiif 
our  rivers  with  its  corollas  of  celestial  blue,  has  becomt 
celebrated  by  a  German  tale,  full  of  melancholy  romasn. 
It  is  related,  that  a  young  couple,  who  srere  on  the  en 
of  being  united,  whilst  walking  along  the  bsnki  d  tlx 
Danube,  saw  one  of  these  lovely  flowers  floating  on  liu 
waves,  which  seemed  ready  to  carry  it  away.  Tic 
affianced  bride  admired  the  beauty  of  the  flower,  ud 
regretted  its  destiny,  which  induced  the  lover  to  precipi- 
tate himself  into  the  water  to  secure  the  flower.  Ht 
hod  no  sooner  done  so,  than  he  sank  into  the  flood,  k 
making  a  last  effort,  he  threw  the  flower  upoa  the  iben, 
and,  at  the  moment  of  disappearing,  exclaimed:  V«^li 
mieht  nieht;  since  which  time  this  flower  has  be«u  mii 
emblematical,  and  taken  the  name  of  "  FoTget-me-ncl-' 

The  Myotnti*  paluttru  is  seen  nowhere  in  gmUi 
perfection  and  abundance,  than  on  the  banks  of  istreim 
m  the  environs  of  Luxembourg,  which  is  known  bjtiic 
name  of  the  Fairies'  Bath,  or  the  Cascade  of  tk  £t' 
chanted  Oqk.  The  romantic  banks  of  this  streimi/^ 
covered  with  these  pretty  blue  flowers,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  July  until  the  end  of  August,  and  being  reBtctri 
in  the  pur«  waters,  appear  more  numerous  than  tbej 
really  are.  To  thia  favourite  spot  the  young  girls  oflm 
descend  from  the  nimpartsof  the  town  to  spend  the  leiiUK 
hours  of  their  holidays  in  dancing  on  the  borders  of  tl.3 
stream,  where  they  are  seen  covered  with  tha  flo«!" 
which  the  waters  afford  them.  .  The  stream  \t  calltdii" 
Cascade  of  the  Enchanted  Oak,  from  the  circuiniUiiR 
of  the  spring's  escaping,  with  a  murmuring  noise,  fron 
the  root  of  an  oak,  of  great  antiquity. 

For  some  years  past  this  little  dower  has  been  »1- 
tivated  in  France  with  the  greatest  care,  and  when  woi 
to  the  Parisian  markets,  it  finds  a  more  ready  sale  iti^ 
any  exotic  pUnt.  The  pots  being  filled  withyoung  ml' 
tings,  that  readily  take  root  and  blossom,  present  sucm 
mass  of  these  delicate  little  flowers,  as  must  surpnf 
those  who  have  not  seen  them  thus  treated. 

The  generic  name  of  this  plant  is  derived  from  U^i' 
^ven  it  by  the  ancients,  who  called  it  Mouse-ear,  fi^ 
the  form  of  the  leaves ;  and  the  French,  on  the  suw 
account,  call  it  OrMU  de  Rat,  Rat's-ear.  Itfrequentlt 
flowers  in  May,  and  continues  to  give  out  a  suwessw 
of  blossoms  until  the  end  of  AugusL  It  is  mcreuedbi 
separating  the  roots,  and  planting  them  in  a  moiit  ^^ 
fifee  earth;  and  when  planted  ttuckly  on  the  banb  « 
borders  of  streams  or  ornamental  Uhes,  it  is  Htii  |° 
peculiar  advantage.  MTien  cultivated  in  pots,  it  A"^ 
be  shaded  until  Uie  slips  have  taken  fresh  root;  >^ 
which  the  pots  should  be  placed  in  an  open  and  free  ur. 
giving  them  water  when  the  weather  b  dry.  When  u  , 
blossom,  they  may  be  taken  into  the  house,  where  thss  ' 
elegant  little  blue  flowers,  with  their  bright  yellow  ey^ 
cannot  fail  to  attract  all  the  admirers  of  nature's  chva^ 

We  earnestly  recommend  the  cultivation  of  this  li""  ' 
beauty,  and  particularly  so  to  those  cottiers  who  u>^ 
near  towns,  as,  by  transplanting  the  trailing  ^^ 'j 
fW>m  th«r  borders  into  small  poU,  they  would  bm  J 
profitable  to  send  them  to  market;  for  few  people  "w" 
withstand  the  temptation  of  purchasing  these  iHuf^f 
flowers.  , 

In  the  Netherlands,  it  is  common  to  make  ■  *S^^^ 
the  juice  of  the  myosotis;  which  is  given  a 
agwDft  consumptive  coughs. 

lTvtiiur%'  Flara  HiilwiM.) 


isaiwaPlj 


tXtNDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STEANr. 


Jba^r^^H ,       m^i^^im. 


m.  574. 


JtJNE 


12™,  1841. 


THE    BANKS    OF   THE    THAMES.    U. 


TiHw  or  aftut  1 


Ihodt  first  tirticle  on  thie  subject,  we  conducted  the 
reader  to  a  part  of  the  Thunei  nearly  par&Uel  with  the 
indent  town  of  Woodstock,  and  the  magnificent  seat  of 
Blenheim; — the  one  carrying  us  back,  in  imagination, 
(o  Lbe  dayi  of  the  Edwards  and  Henrys,  and  &e  other 
to  the  thnes  of  Qneen  Anne. 

The  town  of  Woodstock,  conudered  in  a  commercial 
point  of  Tiew,  is  not  of  much  note;  but  the  record*  ot 
English  history  make  fVequent  mention  of  it.  It  is  said 
that  Woodstock  Park  was  a  royal  residence  as  early  as 
the  time  of  King  Alfred,  and  that  this  monarch  resided 
tWe  while  translating  Boetiua.  Camden  states,  that  in 
tte  time  of  King  Ethelred,  father  of  Edward  the  Con- 
^lor,  it  was  to  considerable  a  place,  that  be  there  held 
*  convention  of  the  states,  and  enacted  several  statutes. 
''^e  park  is  supposed  to  have  been  enclosed  by  a  atone 
*■!!  in  the  time  of  Henry  the  First;  and  in  the  reign  of 
Heary  the  Second,  Woodstock  was  the  scene  of  Fair 
'loumond's  brief  but  eventfiil  history.  The  story  of 
"■U  maidMi,  of  the  monarch's  affection  for  her,  and  of 
%«ea  Eleanor's  rerenge,  bare  been  woven  into  a  kind 

Vol.  XVm. 


legend,  the  truth  of  which  cannot  now  be 
determined;  but  it  is  probable  that,  like  the  story  of 
Joan  of  Arc,  the  maid  of  Orleans,  the  groundwuK  is 
correct,  but  die  detuls  have  been  highly  coloured  during 
the  lapse  of  time.     Be  that  as  it  may,  of  the  bower  ana 
the  masy  labyrinth,  furnishing  the  scene  of  the  story, 
no  vestiges  now  remain.     It  has  been  asked-^ 
What  art  can  tnce  the  visbnarj  aceDes^ 
The  flowery  groves  and  eveiiaatiog  green. 
The  babbling  scunds  that  mimic  Echo  plajs, 
The  fairy  shade  and  its  eternal  moie?   , 
In  Woodstock  Park,  Geoffry  Chaucer,  the  "  father 
of  English  poetry,"  is  said  to  have  been  horn  in  the 
early    part   of  the    fourteenth   century;   and    to   have 
resided  there  a  considerable  time,  in  a  house  near  the 
area  before  the  grand  entrance  to  the  palace. 
Here  he  dwelt — 
For  many  a  chperTul  day  tliese  ancient  walls 
Have  often  beard  him,  while  his  legends  blithe 
He  snng,  of  love,  or  knighthood,  or  the  wilra 
Of  homelj  life,  through  each  estate  and  age. 
The  fashions  and  the  follies  of  the  world 
With  canning  hand  pourtrnTing. 
Woodstock  Palace,  two  centuries  afterwards,  was  the 
scene   of  the   imprisonment  of   Elizabeth,    during   the 
reign    of   her  unnatural   sister  Queen   Mary,   and  it 
is   said  that  the   royal  prisoner  wrote   the  following 
lines,  with  charcoali   on    the  window-shutter  of   her 
apartment ;— * 

S74 


226 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


[JUME  12» 


Oh,  F«rtiine!  bow  thy  restleBs  layering  etato 
H^A  frttaffht  wilb  oarti  thjr  trottW Jd  irUI. 
iWiWeai  thl»  p*««ent  priloilir,  whilhtf  J^ 
dbuli  b^artte,  Atl4  tb§  Jb>«  I  4iiit. 
Thou  causedftt  the  guilty  to  be  losed 
From  bands  wherein  are  innocents  inclosed, 
CSausing  the  guiltless  to  be  stndtes  reserved, 
Atid  freeing  those  that  death  well  destrredf 
But  by  her  malice  nothing  dih  be  Wrdtlght*, 
So  God  send  to  my  foes  aU  they  have  thoughte. 
Anno  Doih.  15M.  Bi.i«awth,  pri«onw. 

In  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  Woodstock  Manor, 
toffether  with  the  dilapidated  ^lace>  were  granted  to  th* 
Duke  of  Marlborough,  as  an  acknowledgment  for  his 
brilliant  services  in  the  continental  wars-  The  nation 
also  built  for  him  the  splendid  palace  of  Blenheim, 
named  after  a  village  ili  Gfermatit,  neat  ijhich  be 
had  gained  a  splendid  victory.  To  defieribe  this  man- 
sion at  length,  mmAA  be  out  of  place  in  our  nrcflent 
course  of  papers ;  but  we  maV  say  that,  m  spite  of  nume- 
rous  architectiiWli  defbets,  ft  forms  one  of  the  most 
maffnificent  residences  in  the  kitiffdom.  The  frand 
entrance  froitl  Woodstock  is  thfottgh  t  triumphal  «re{i ; 
and  Mr  Ireland  says  :-^ 
It  is  from  this  di«tatt«»  the  stately  pile  is  ttost  tepptb^ 

▼iewed  5  ite  fltfiOtls  tOWttfc  rising  ^S^^^ 
fully  break  the  tttSSSjr  and  more  JHiWWWIi  form  it  We« 
on  i  nearet  appl^  the  titfdiiK/  tUt  •JJjJli^^ihlS 
on  which   it  SttttdSjtll*  SttteiottI  W  tt^ri^J?^*"**^ 

towards  tHa  rich  ^i^^JS^i^^^^^^  JW* 

water,  weathia  tne  appeMimm  ik  iWbW  riteh,  termiili. 

by  a  spaulous  SU^  Midpi;  (*»*«  ^"^.•'^  «i  which  is  «* 
sunerior  dUM^Otls  i»  the  feihed  Ri^ta  M  Yenice,  beibir 

groves  and  nlani*lhM»  tt,  the  disflKfe  fohtt  a  featitiftil 

S«p  cl*«s3>  tini^iiii 

this  or  anj^  dtiiSf  d0^ilttjr«  ^   i  »  i  j     *. 

The  etpansa  of  ^ter,  hei«  Afltt«W  toj  W^  iMifi<;ia% 
form^ }  tod  tirowtt)  tf*  landWibe-g*f dener  ^bn  Jilanned 
it,  was  sb  nf dtti  «rf  its  )mA^i  Aa4  be  was  wotit  to  sajD 
<<  that  thtiTh^nMsWfitiMilMVttfAtftpftttiiikifof  what  hi 

had  done  ilt  Bli>ilfc«»i»    ^     .       i        .  ^4    .  a 

We  niiist  faO#  m¥«  WcHMllto^k  ^A  fileiih«fifl)  aili 
return  to  ttie  ttettJWij  Wkich  ftows  past  OnfM  fk  k 
distance  oif  eight  <♦#  ttlne  miles  from  Blenbeiin  PAiace, 
If  we  were  Uhabie  to  enter  ttlintttely  lilto  the  detiUs  bf 
tnis  noble  building,  how  much  less  can  we  do  justice 
to  this  seat  of  education,  with  its  numerous  colleges 
and  hallSj  and  the  aSSoailtidns  with  which  it  is  so 
ihtiinaifciy  connected^  and  bjr  whi^  we  ean  traee  baiik 
its  exisi^hee  fbf  ^ofe  IMto  a  thonsafld  y^rl; 

Ozfi^d  is  Mtiiated  at  the  6ohflneiice  ^  the  Illft  Md 
thfe  ChftrW^llj  thfe  hitll!i»  of  whiiJh  iiVers  iewi  sOttthwaM 
through  OkfoHsHire  to  the  i^inht  of  jtihcHon  With  the 
former.  The  diiitfed  strtaAs  wind  theif-  WAy  thrduf h 
verdant  scenery  to  tlw  Tilldg«  of  Ifiey;  about  ft  mile  and 
a  half  belew  the  eltjr;  This  tillige  is  Sitiiiied  on  a 
beautiAil  eihitaeiibe;  cott^iliidih^  H  diiilAilt  pf bspect  which 
includes  ahnost  eterjr  btiildhig  in  the  tinitersity. 

The  rlter  nnw  floWs  ahnost  dlretlly  southward,  ffom 
(hford  te  Kuneham  Coutienay)  a  distance  of  about  sii 
miles  $  and^  at  the  last-mentioned  spot.  We  meet  with  the 
seat  ttf  the  Earl  of  Harcourt,  the  representative  of  a 
very  ancient  ftohily.  Th&  heiress  of  tlds  manor  married, 
in  1214,  Robert  db  Cobrtenay,  baron  of  Okehampton, 
and  the  infthdlf  thehee  acdUired  the  name  of  Nuneham 
Courtehay.  The  estate  ahei'wards  cftme  into  various 
hands,  untit  it  finally  becanie  the  property  of  the  Earl 
of  Harcourt.  Of  the  ground  surrounding  the  house, 
Mr.  Brewer  remarks  t — 

The  park  contains  nearly  twelve  hundred  acres^  and 
vinces,  in  every  division^  great  richness  of  natural  circum- 
stance, improved  by  the  hand  of  reverential  rather  than  of 
presumptuous  aft.      I*erhaps  the  talent  of  Brown*,  Who 
assisted  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ground^  wM  nett^  dis- 

*  This  individual  was  A  celebrated  la&daoape  gixSstigIt,  ebpllcfyed  !n  tiiS 
early  part  of  the  last  century  in  laying  out  the  grounds  bdihiefaie  Wiiiaii^ 
distu^iijibid  BafUsh '■ 


blayed  to  greater  advantage.  Eacn  artifice  to  hu^ten 
pictorial  e^t  is  io  jndicTouslf  eo»Be^d|  that  thfe  whole 
seems  graceful  in  the  siihplicity  of  haturtj  thobgh  no  tope^ 
abundance  dbstrUeta  the  Wi^es  sf  i'Cfined  tSstet  From 
tariouS  bointS  «to  obtained  views  of  the  Witenham  hills,  of 
a  part  ef  Buckinghamsliire,  and  the  high  elevations  above 
the  Vale  of  White  Horse.  A  drive  is  formed  which  coft- 
ducts  to  the  chief  objects  of  interest  in  the  fwrki  and  toft- 
tittues  thrdtigh  a  WOod  that  felis  with  a  ste^p  deteent  tx)  the 
riter  Isis,  the  bank  of  which  is  here  very  abruptly  and  finely 
broken  by  steep  and  b^  projeetiens. 

In  the  ffrounds  of  Nuneham  Courten»jr,  is  a  tree 
known  tb  Ac  country  people  by  the  taame  of  Bab't  <r«, 
the  history  of  which  marks  the  kind  and  considente 
feeling  which  so  often  existe  between  the  country  nobility 
and  their  tenants.  This  tree  was  planted  by  one  Bar- 
bahi  Wyatt,  who  was  so  much  attached  to  it  and  to  her 
hnittble  tesldence  near  it,  that  when  the  village  of  Nme- 
hidh  Cottrtenay  was  removed  to  its  present  site,  some 

etterations  back*  she  petitioned  for  leave  to  remain  in 
f  old  habitation.  Her  request  was  complied  with,  and 
1M  Itottage  not  pulled  down  till  after  her  death.  A 
P^m  was  written  on  this  subject  by  Whitehead,  and 
Itib^  oh  a  seat  beneath  the  tree. 

ftWh  Nunehain  Cottrtenay,  a  distance  of  sbout  four 
«ife«  tattirs  us  to  Abingdon*  a  considerable  town  on  the 
fiferkshifre  side  d#  the  river.  Ttiis  town  is  said  to  trace 
its  i-ecofds  as  fkr  bad  fts  the  time  of  the  ancient  Bntons, 
Wbfeh  it  was  a  tnWll  of  considerable  ittportance,  and 
distinguished  M  ft  »)ral  residen^i  whither  the  people 
f esdrted  tl^  ftmH  ftl  thi  great  <iouiibili  of  thfe  natioii.  ^V e 
neit  leafft)  All  II  ftei|dired  the  batne  nf  Abbendos  (the 
town  rf  ill*  Abkf ,)  dn  tb  tttoOtal  hitherj  m  the  year 
680,  o^  ft  ttttttftstW  iiistittttioni  to  whidi  the  Um  be- 
\m^  Atttig^db  afterwards  be^toe  ft  favourite  wi- 
dfehc«i  df  Sbibi?  of  the  flaxoti  ibonarchsi  «nd  William  the 
Gonquetor  nlaced  hii  mi  ttWify  ttnder  thj»  l«^  of  the 
monks  df  the  abbfef ,  fef  hifc  ^dneftlietl.  The  stobaequcnt 
hMm  rf  Itkd  WWI  WftI  6i  thftt  IhWtiifttihg  ehar«:tff, 
Whieh  id  f^ttiAlty  fUttlied  fttin  the  poUtka  of  tiie 

b#ridi )  bdl  m  fLtm  fi»l  li*ee  it  t^mm. 

AbititfdWl  il  pteftlftftriy  situated  ft!  the  jbnction  of  the 
teall  river  Oek  with  the  Tbainelj  6h  i^thet,  the  Isa: 
it  is  handsomely  btiitt,  fcdiisistlng  df  several  spanow 
streets,  diverging  from  a  central  market-place;  well  pave<i 
and  lighted,  and  amply  supplied  with  water.  The  nnnB- 
facture  of  woollens,  formerly  carried  on  here  to  a  gretf 
extent,  has  quite  declined.  Malting  is  now  the  pnnapM 
business,  and}  together  with  the  dressinf  of  hemp,  m 
the  making  df  Seeking  ftbd  saiUftlbth,  constitute  tn* 
chief  employment  of  the  labouring  classes.  The  nnni- 
ber  of  iHMbitants  is  between  flte  and  six  thobsand. 

Kmg  ttenry  the.  riflh,  about  the  b^nhteg  of «« 
fifteenth  century,  built  two  bridges  over  the  Ttuubo 
near  Abingdon,  at  Culbam  and  at  Burford;  sad  «»«* 
bridges  added  much  to  the  commercial  impoirljncc  <«  «»^ 
town.  Ashmofe  gives  a  translation  of  so&b  Latin  una 
relating  to  these  bridges : — 

Kint  Hibflr  the  Fifth,  hi  the  ifth  of  Bis  ymga. 
At  Burford  and  Cnlham  did  bridges  bbiW  tw««»» 
Between  these  two  places,  but  fifom  AWngdon  mwi, 
The  king's  highways  now  may  be  easily  pa«t?      . 
In  one  thousand  four  hundred,  and  ten  more  by  »*i 
This  so  pious  work  did  his  Majesty  fix; 
Ye  passengiBi*  now  Who  shall  traVel  this  ^, 
be  Sure  that  yod  nrfnd  fbr  thii  fbnnder  to  pray* 

The  following  appear*  to  rekto  to  one  of  the  bri<3g«^ 
but  is  in  English  of  a  more  ancient  ddte: — 

King  Henry  the  Fltte,  in  his  fodlrlh  fen,     .^^.^ 
flo  hath  y'found  fbi-  his  foflte  a  btM  je  fai  B^k»*"«' 
Fdr  cartis  with  feariage  taay  gwo  ahd «»"»  w«^.^ 
That  many  waters  aftnre  were  faatred  uk  the  ffltfw 
And  sbxh  ouk  of  her  sadt^  fleete  tt>  the  gnmnde 
Went  forthe  in  the  wiktet  wist  no  man  wharci 
Five  wekys  after,  orj  they  were  y'foimde,  ^^ 

fier  kyn  and  her  kpowlwh  catight  hem  bp  wift  »^ 


1841.] 


THB  SATURDAY  MAGA8INE. 


9fly 


The  appearance  which  the  rirer  presents  depends  a 
good  deal  OB  the  proximity  of  considerable  towns.  In 
the  open  country,  where  green  fields  descend  yearly  to 
the  water's  edge,  an4  country  re8i4enpes  ^|^  seen  at  a 
distance,  many  picture^qUP  and  bai^uti^l  s^i^es  pffsent 
themselves,  which  lu^v^  often  form94  9tii4ies  in?  the 
landscape  paintiiy.  Ih  fhose  parts,  on  (be  oontv^ryi 
where  a  market  town  llv*4#  ot\  i^^  iHWk*  rf  the  river, 
the  Than^es  voyager  tees  wharfs  aud  other  epininercii^ 
indicatio|i%  wh^i^by  thp  th^'ughts  of  a  qiinh^ture  I^oodpn 
are  pres^pt^  to  bia  vmi-  Abingdon,  Rooiling,  Henley, 
Great  l^arlofr,  i^d  other  towns,  oeonri  in  this  way,  at 
intervals  fdong  the  loute;  but  it  cannot  be  4^'ubted  that 
the  oc^a^om^fvi^W  pf  commercial  in4u8try,  ^lemating 
with  more  sereno  natural  objects,  giv^  f^  vftH^ty  to  the 
scene  whiph  fifre^Uy  enhances  its  inteveil,  We  cannot 
fully  ippreciato  |he  b^ty  ^  ntture's  produetioas, 
unless  we  oooo^onA^y  compare  tbm  iriA  Um  ru4pr 

works  of  man. 

WAXEN  FRUJT, 

Haviiyci  rhowB  in  a  former  avtiele*  the  method  of 
prepwug  wrl^hM-Jhrn^rs  im  mur,  we  propose  here  to 
disojoao  the  usual '  process  of  produoing  Fruit  tud 
other  objects  in  Wax.  We  must,  thevefbve,  speak  ^*i 
of  the  moulds ^tt-mcoih/^,  of  the  castings— and  ihirdijf, 
of  the  eolouripf. 

1  •  Beforo  we  can  prooeod  to  work  in  making  tho  maukhj 
it  is  aeooaaary  to  have  the  ftillowiag  artieles  at  ha^d^^* 
a  little  grease  and  some  superfine  piaster  of  Pkris, 
together  with  a  baaio,  a  spoim,  a  table^ifis,  a  pot  ftiU 
of  damp  aand,  some  thin  tinned  ivwi,  whieh  nust  be  out 
into  stripe  of  three  inches  wide,  and  some  string. 

Now,  if  we  wish  to  make  a  mould  fbi  an  apple,  fbr 
mstance,  wo  of  oourse  take  a  real  one  to  mpula  from. 
We  press  down  the  apple  into  the  damp  sand,  until 
nearly  ono-half  of  it  is  buriedy-^-that  is,  until  the  sand 
reaches  the  thickest  paft>  whish,  ta  an  appl^.  Is  near  |he 
middle;  and  in  a  pear,  near  one  end.  A  peav  may  be 
inserted  sidewavs;  but  an  apple  mast  not:  because  the 
latter  would  not  then  deUv^r; — that  is,  when  the  upper 
part  is  surrounded  with  the  havdened  plaster,  as  It  soon 
will  bo,  it  cannot  be  drawn  out,  on  aoeount  of  the  de- 
pressioa  at  the  stalk  and  eye  of  the  apple  $  hut,  by 
plaemg  it  with  the  stalk  or  eye  end  downwards,  this 
difficulty  is  avoided.  la  making  moulds  of  every  dor 
sariptioB,  it  is  neeessary  above  all  things  to  sot  out  with 
precautions  of  this  nature. 

Whea  the  apple  is  nearly  h^lf  auak  in  ^e  sand, 
bend  one  of  the  piooes  of  tin  into  a  hoop,  so  as  to  he  aa 
inch  or  tkweabouts  larger  aeross  thau  the  apple;  tie  a 
pieoe  of  string  round  it,  and  place  it  over  the  anple, 
fiureing  its  lower  edge  into  Uie  sand,  so  as  to  hold  it 
irmly.  Ait  water  to  some  plaster  of  Paris  in  the  basin, 
so  as  to  make  the  miature  ii  the  consistence  of  thick 
cream  >7-it  will  thus  run  into  every  minute  depressioa, 
and  rompletoly  cover  up  the  half  of  the  apple  exposed 
above  the  sand,  while  it  will  be  prevented  firom  flowing 
away  by  the  rim  of  tin  around. 

In  a  minute  or  two  the  plaster  will  beeome  sufllciently 
uty  or  hardened,  to  be  handled.  When  this  is  the  oas^, 
remove  the  tin,  and  take  up  the  fruit  out  of  the  sand 
altogether,  there  botng  now  one  half  of  the  mould  cast. 
This  must  be  trimmed  with  a  hni^»  ^^  the  sake  of 
appearanoei  aad  particularly  where  the  sand  has  touched, 
cat  careftiHy  smoqth  at  the  eiact  half  pf  the  fruit;  fbr 
it  will  have  been  observed,  that,  as  the  apple  was  not 
qaite  half  buried  In  sand,  the  part  of  the  paould  now 
oast  will  be  rather  inore  tiian  half,  a  small  part  being 
allowed  Ibr  cutting  away  evenly.  Now  make  a  hole  or 
two,  or  a  few  notches,  on  one  sid^  of  the  cast,  where  ^he 
other  is  to  join  it;  grease  this  part  welli  holes  and  all, 
tad  tie  round  it  tightly  ono  of  the  pi^c^s  of  tin:  the 

•  Bit  S^titnUiv  diMgagtne,  YoL  ZYL,  p.  904. 


fruit  will  now  be  in  the  same  position,  in  respect  to  the 
half-mould,  as  it  was  when  in  the  sand,  except  that  it  la 
now  the  other  end  upwards.  Now  pour  plaster  upon 
this  o^er  end,  and  the  mould  will  be  complete,  except  a 
little  trimming,  which  it  will  require.  The  parts  will 
easily  separate  at  the  joining,  aqd«  on  takinff  out  the  real 
fruity  a  cavity  will  of  course  be  fsund  of  Ue  exact  siio 
and  shape,  re^y  for  filling  up  with  wax* 

Those  miits  which  have  hard  or  rough  aklas,  require 
greasing,  to  prevent  the  plaster  from  stioking  to  themt 
this  is  the  case  with  the  peach,  apricot,  and  walnut^^ 
the  ahnond,  &c.  A  fr w  fruits  require  die  mould  to  be 
in  thr^  pieces, — such  as  the  melon,  mulberry,  and 
bladkben^.  Other  fruits  are  never  thus  imitated  ia 
wax;  aq  grapes,  currants,  and  many  mere  of  the  smaller 
kinds,  oi}  account  pf  the  trouble  of  joining  them  together 
afterwards  in  bunches. 

9.  In  order  to  enter  upon  the  prooess  of  earlihi^,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  in  readiness  several  small  pipkins, 
somf  white  w^  or  spermaceti,  a  basin  of  cold  water,  and 
the  ibilowing  colours: — the  palest  chrome  yellow,  Prus- 
sian blue,  burnt  umber,  red  lead,  flake  white,  and  lake, 
all  ip  powder,  or  riither,  ground  up  with  oU»  as  used  lor 
painting. 

The  process  of  pasting  all  of  the  larger  fruits  Is  (ho 
same :  bi)t,  a^  lye  may  suppose  opr  apple*mould  to  have 
been  prepared,  ^e  will  proceed  with  the  prooess  of 
casting  th^  wa^. 

Melt  some  of  the  waY  slowly  over  a  small  flre;  and 
when  naelted,  add  a  little  chrome  yellow,  and,  if  we 
would  choose  tp  have  a  green  apple,  we  must  put  a  very 
little  Prussian  blue  along  with  it.  While  this  is  going 
on,  the  mould  should  h^  soaking  in  the  basin  of  water. 
When  the  wax  is  ready,  take  the  mould  out  of  the  water 
and  wipe  the  inside  of  it  dry  with  a  cloth.  Pour  the 
mel^d  wax  into  it,  holding  one  half  of  the  mould  in  the 
hand,  until  it  is  nearly  full ;  put  the  other  half -mould 
over  in  its  exact  position,  which  will  be  indicfited  by  the 
various  notches  or  hqles  cut  in  the  sides.  Next,' hold 
the  two  parts  tightly  together,  and  turn  them  over  and 
over,  until  the  malted  wa^  within  has  spread  itself  on 
every  part  of  the  inside  of  the  mould.  Thus  continue 
it  in  motion,  until  the  wax  is  completely  set,  or  con- 
gealed, which  will  be  after  a  minute  or  two,  and  may  be 
kpown  to  be  the  case,  when,  by  shaking  the  mould,  no 
noise  of  a  liquid  is  heard  within.  When  thus  partly 
hardened,  it  must  be  placed  for  some  minutes  in  the 
basin  of  cold  water,  when  most  probably  the  mould  will 
separate  of  its^;  iif  it  does  not,  very  little  trouhlo  will 
sufloo  la  remove  it  from  off  the  apple,  whioh,  as  to  ita 
castipff,  is  now  complete,  and  will  of  course  be  ftmnd 
more  or  less  hollow  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  if$x 
empJQYpd, 

Ip  imitating  largo  friui,  the  hot  air  within  tha  inpulda 
having  HP  vent,  wmI  spmetipies  mahe  the  wax  snprt  froio 
the  jeia|9  thi«  is  to  bo  avdded  by  hqldiuff  tha  41 W 
HMald  upright  ^  Ibw  seoonds  before  turning  it  about. 
The  edge  around  the  east  friiit  wfaero  the  two  sides  of 
th^  tpould  joined,  inust  be  pared  off  careAilly  with  a 
l^nife.  Afl  *^  foregoing  process  nuiy  be  fbliowed  up 
ip  c^tipg  qrapges,  lemons,  eggSj  yellow^plpipa,  walnuts, 
ppa^ds,  capsicupMi  ftc* 

3,  In  Iho  Uftt.-pafned  fruits  due  regi^rd  ?pust  of  course 
be  had  to  the  variation  of  colour.  If  the  fruit  bo  partly 
coloured  in  the  process  of  casting,  much  care  in  after 
painting  is  requisite. 

Suppose  we  wish  to  have  a  red  blush  on  the  apple,  % 
little  dry  \dk^  ir  taken  up  with  a  bit  of  flannel,  and  rub-, 
bod  ovenly  on  the  side  of  the  fruits  If  a  Streaked  «pplo 
be  wanted,  mix  a  little  lake  with  spirit^  of  turpeptme: 
than,  t^ing  a  npall  quantity  in  a  short-haired,  stiff 
brush,  jerk  it  out  (rfthe  brush  on  to  the  fruit,  when  it 
will  run  down  the  sides  and  produce  the  desired  effect. 
If  any  peculiar  marks  are  to  be  imitated,  they  may  bo 
painted  with  any  of  the  above-named  colours,  mixed  with 

574—2 


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THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


mattic  Tamiih.  ThU  Tumuh  is  also  used,  woen  it  is 
desired  that  the  fruit  should  be  Terr  ■hining,  a*  cherriei 
are:  but,  if  rough-coated  fruit  be  wanted, — aa,  for 
example,  the  peach, — it  must  be  cast  tt  usual,  then 
coloured  on  one  side  with  dry  lake,  vanusbed,  and,  im- 
mediately after  vamiahing,  sifted  OTer  nitb  paper  powder. 
The  bloom  of  red  plums,  and  of  dark  grapes,  is  made  by 
dusting  over  them  powder-blue  from  a  muslin  bag- 
Strawberries,  ciierries,  and  other  small  fruit,  are 
always  cast  solid;  that  is,  after  the  mould  is  made, 
instead  <^  pouring  in  the  was  to  the  one-half  of  the 
mould,  and  putting  the  edier  half  on  it,  a  hole  i*  made 
at  the  orack  between  the  two  halves,  and  the  mould 
"baog  held  upright,  wax  is  poured  in,  until  it  is  full. 

Grapes  are  formed  of  glass  globes  made  on  purpose ; 
these  are  of  different  sizes,  and  have  each  a  small  noixle 
or  mouth  like  that'of  a  phial.  To  fit  them  up  in  hunches 
take  some  pieces  of  iron  wire;  twist  a  piece  of  sewing 
cotton  near  one  end  of  each  wire,  so  as  to  fit  the  mouth 
of  a  certain  grape;  dip  it  into  melted  wax,  and  insert  it 
into  the  mouth,  when  it  will  become  fixed  there:  then 
dip  the  grape  thus  formed  into  melted  wax  coloured 
lightly  with  green:  by  taking  it  out  instantly  it  will  dry, 
having  a  coat  of  the  wax  upon  it,  which  makes  it  look 
verr  much  like  a  real  grape.  These  grapes  should  be 
tiea  together  in  bunches  of  about  thirty  in  a  bunch. 
Currants  are  made  with  smaller  glass  globes,  but  in  a 
nmilar  manner:  to  give  them  the  peculiar  appearance  of 
the  opaque  lines  seen  upon  them,  a  piece  of  sewing  cotton 
is  to  be  wound  in  sections  round  the  fruit  previous  to 
dipping.  The  remains  of  the  flower  at  the  end  of  an 
apple,  pear,  &c^  is  imitated  hy  a  clove  being  thrutt  into 
the  waxen  image. 

Anatomical  preparations,  of  which  many  are  ao  com- 
plex, and  so  finely  illustrative  of  morbid  anatomy,  cuta- 
neous disorders,  Scc^  are  all  effected  according  to  the 
directions  given  for  waxen  truit,  and  coloured,  after 
casting,  with  common  oil  colours  by  precise  similar 
methods.  Hence  it  is,  that  a  consideration  of  the  pro> 
oesses  before  described,  cannot  be  deemed  to  be  a  waste 
of  time. 

The  principal  objects  raannfactured  in  wax  for  orna- 
ment, are  fruits,  various  articles  of  pastry,  eggs,  pet  ~  '~ 
the  pod,  capsicums,  dolls,  miniature  busts,  nov 
leaves,  &c.  Miniature  busts  and  wax  dolls  are  coloured 
with  flake  white  and  lake;  and  they  are  also  much 
better,  if  a  little  Canada  balsam  be  mixed  with  the  wax. 


B0D11.T  labour  is  of  two  kinds,  either  that  which  a 
■nbmits  to  for  his  livelihood,  or  that  which  he  nndergoea 
for  his  plaasnre.  The  latter  of  them  gcnerallj  changea  the 
name  of  labour  for  that  of  exercise,  but  diffen  only  from 
ordinary  labour  as  it  rises  from  another  motive.  A  conn- 
tiy  life  abounds  in  both  these  kinds  of  labour,  and  for  that 
reaaon  gives  a  man  a  greater  stock  of  health,  and,  con- 
sequently, a  more  perfect  enjoyment  of  himssl^  than  any 
other  way  of  life.  I  consider  the  body  as  a  system  of 
tobea  and  elands,  or,  to  use  a  more  nutie  phraa^  a  bundle 
of  pipes  and  strainen,  fitted  to  one  another  atter  so  wtmdetAil 
a  manner  as  to  make  a  proper  engine  for  the  soul  to  work 
with.  This  description  does  not  only  comprehend  the 
bowels,  bones,  tendons,  veins,  nerve*,  and  arteriesj  but 
every  muscle  Emd  eveiy  ligature,  which  is  a  composition  of 
fibres,  that  are  so  many  imperceptible  tubes  or  pipes 
interwoven  on  all  udes  with  inviuble  glands  "'  -'  ' 
AnnisoH. 


I  know  not;  but  of  tome 
degrees  of  both,  we  have  many  lively  impresnons,  by 
delight  on  the  one  side  and  sorrow  on  the  other,  and 
therefore  we  may  distinguish  them  by  the  nai 
pleasure  end  pain.  Happinna  in  its  Aill  extent, 
utmost  [ileasure  we  are  capable  of,  and  the  lowest  de- 
gree of  it,  so  much  ease  from  idl  pain,  and  so  much 
pleasure,  as  without  which  one  cannot  be  content,  we 
therefora  jndge  that  whoever  ia  contented  ia  huppy.— 
LocKx. 


OPTICAL  ILLUSIONa  II. 


FaoHT  Tiav.  Sua  viiv. 

Wk  resume  our  consideratimi  of  thoae  cnriou  pkno- 
mena  connected  with  optical  science,  where^  obiediirf 
made  to  appear  under  a  different  form  from  thit  vhidi 
we  know  tiiey  really  possess.  One  remarkable  cUu  of 
■ueh  phenomena  includes  those  in  which  a  npilj  nk- 
ting  body  appears  to  be  stationaiy. 

Professor  Wheatstone,  in  the  Philotophieal  TVmu- 
tion*  for  1 834,  describes  a  series  of  experiaieiiti  W 
which  it  appears  probable  that  the  electric  fluids  m  pura; 
through  a  conducting  wire  from  one  side  of  a  ebii^ju 
to  the  other,  rush  through  the  conductor  with  a  tekidiT 
equal  to  about  576,000  miles  in  a  second  of  titDe.  Thii 
velocity  is  so  great  tliat  the  roost  rapid  motion  which  oi 
be  produced  by  art  appears  to  be  actual  rest  when  ko- 
paredwithit.  A wheelrevolvingwithceleri^sufficieniu  1 
renderits  spokes  invisible,  when  illuminated byafluiit'' 
lightning,  is  seen  for  an  instant  with  all  its  spokes  disliic:  | 
as  if  it  were  at  rest ;  because  however  rapia  the  routiot 
may  be,  the  light  has  come,  and  has  already  ceased  brfon 
the  wheel  has  liad  time  to  turn  through  a  sensible  tput- 
Any  one  who  has  an  electrical  machine  may  peifonn  1 
similar  experiment.  Provide  a  disk,  similar  to  ikt 
shown  in  Fig.  1,  the  sur&ce  of  which  is  dirideil  n'° 
black  and  red  spaces.  If  this  disk  be  connected  vitb  > 
multiplying  arrangement,  aa  shown  in  the  same  figun.  u^ 
be  rotated  rapidly,  the  black  will  vanish  and  tiie  diil 
appear  entirely  red;  for  the  black  reflects  no  light,  a^ 
the  reflection  proceeds  only  from  the  red.  If  the  diii  1 
be  made  to  rotate  before  a  Leyden  jar  in  such  a  mUDr  1 
that  it  may  be  viewed  by  the  light  of  the  electric  d» 
charge,  the  black  and  red  spaces  become  as  appaivDl  <^  I 
when  the  disk  ia  perfectly  ftatioiuuy.  It  malteis  oA 
of  course,  what  device  is  painted  on  the  disk,  dot  bn 
rapidly  soever  it  ia  turned  round ;  it  appears  to  be  if^ 
motionless  whenever  the  electric  flash  illuminates  it.  ^' 
have  performed  the  experiment  during  a  thunder  aUn 
by  night,  when  the  broad  and  distinct  flashes  of  lighiiif 
caused  a  series  of  rapidly  rotating  disks  to  appetr  tfO^ 
stationary,  to  the  admiration  of  those  who  witneued  lU 
remarkable  experiment.  These  results  are  belter  tppr*- 
ciated  in  a  darkened  room ;  but  the  presence  of  utiinl 
or  artificial  light  does  not  interfere  with  their  prodnciiO' 
Mr.  Tomlinson  has  found  that  similar  effects  cu  ^ 
produced  with  pbosphuretted  hydrogen,  exhibited  ia 
bubbles  from  pnospnuret  of  lime,  in  water.  TlrM 
bubbles  produce  a  sudden  and  transient  light,  and  'i"^ 
they  come  up  slowly  without  interrupting  each  otiH. 
the  light  which  they  shed  on  the  rotating  disk  cauus  ux 
latter  to  appear  stationary;  but  when  ^e  bubbles  cow 
up  too  quickly,  the  black  and  red  spaces  exhibit «  wri « 
dancing  motion,  sometimes  two  black  spaces  seei!iin|[lo°' 
joined  into  one,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  intervening  red. 
and  vice  versL  So  also  with  a  disk  on  whick  "ordfc 
such  as  AT  REST,  are  inscribed;  if  the  bubbln  of  ^ 
.  start  up  T^ularly  ud  slowly,  the  words  are  preient*' 


18410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


to  the  eye  in  Unit  proper  fonn;  but  if  too  quickly  the 
words  seem  to  ctosb  each  other  in  tujour  directions,  and 
confusion  is  exdtad,  by  a  second  impression  being'  pro- 
duced on  the  retina  before  preceding  impressions  hiTe 
deputed.  A  rapid  succession  of  sparks  m>m  a  magnet, 
as  also  a  tlrtam  of  electricity  instead  of  a  discharge, 
will  similarly  produce  confusion  in  the  ftppearance  of  Sie 
device  or  inscription. 

Any  chemical  actimi  by  wluch  a  Hidden  and  transient 
light  is  produced,  will  show  aimilar  effects.  Soap  bubbles, 
blown  with  hydn^^en  or  the  mixed  gases,  and  fired  by 
means  of  a  filament  of  cotton  passed  through  a  small 
tube,  and  wetted  with  alcohol;  gunpowder,  wrapped  up 
in  the  form  of  a  common  cracker;  fulminate  of  mercury, 
struck  on  an  anvil;  and  many  other  manipulatioos,  will 
produce  flashes  of  light  fitted  for  this  pnrpose. 

In  all  these  cases,  the  effect  is  produced  by  the  follow- 
ing circiunslance;  that  the  light  comes  and  goes  in  a 
nwce  of  time  too  short  for  the  disk  to  have  rotated 
through  any  sensible  space.  Supposing  the  disk  to  be 
tit  inches  in  diameter,  and  consequently  about  half  a 
yard  in  circumference,  and  that  it  rotates  twenty  times  in 
a  second,  then  any  point  of  the  circumference  will  move 
through  18x20=360  inches  in  a  second.  And  if  we 
fitrther  suppose,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  that  a  flash  of 
light,  produced  in  any  of  the  ways  explained  above,  has 
a  duration  of  only  ,,'t(  of  a  second;  then  any  point  in 
the  circumference  of  the  disk  will  only  move  through 
mte-tenth  of  an  inch  during  the  existence  of  the  light,  a 
space  too  small  to  produce  any  considerable  effect  on  the 
apparently  stationary  position  of  the  disk.  Now,  small 
as  is  this  fraction  of  a  second,  we  know  that  the  real 
duration  of  the  flashes  of  light  produced  as  above  must 
be  much  smaller,  for  the  disk  may  have  a  greater  velocity 
given  to  it  than  that  here  supposed:  indeed,  so  far  as 
electrical  light  ts  concerned,  IVofessor  Wheatstone  has 
shown  that  its  duration  cannot  be  so  much  as  the  mil- 
lionth part  of  a  second  I 

Mr.  Tomlinson  has  also  cUscovered  a  very  curious  and 
pleasing  class  of  phenomena,  (linked  in  some  respects 
with  those  given  above,)  in  which  a  rotating  object  ap- 
pears stationary,  and  at  the  same  time  the  straight  lines 
occnrring  in  the  device  appear  curved. 

There  are  two  modes  in  which  these  experiments  may 
be  performed ;  I  st.  Procure  a  circular  disk  of  pasteboaro, 
twelve  or  thirteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  cut  a  narrow 
sUt  m  it,  extending  from  the  centre  nearly  to  the  circum- 
ference. Fix  this  disc  to  a  multiplying  machine,  and 
place  a  lamp  behind  it.  Let  the  smaller  machine,  with  the 
painted  or  written  device,  be  placed  in  front  of  the  larger, 
and  while  both  are  rotating,  the  light  from  the  lamp 
passing  through  the  slit  once  and  only  once  in  each  revo- 
ration,  will  fall  suddenly  and  transiently  on  the  coloured 
di^  producing  effects  which  we  shall  presently  describe. 
Sod,  Dispense  with  the  lamp,  and  stand  behind  the 
slitted  disk;  while  in  front  of  it,  at  a  distance  of  two  or 
three  feet,  place  the  radiated  disk,  and  cause  both  to 
revolve.  When  the  two  (hsks  are  thus  made  to  rotate, 
all  the  radii,  excepting  those  which  for  the  time  being 
>re  vertical,  appear  curved,— wtitoardf  if  the  eye  of  the 
observer  is  above  the  axis  of  the  slitted  disk,  and  down- 
leardt  if  below.  This  effect  takes  place  when  the  two 
^ska  are  revolving  in  similar  directions.  The  order 
will  be  inverted  if  the  disks  move  in  opposite  directions, 
and  a  change  will  likewise  take  place  in  the  Section  of 
the  curvature  of  the  radii,  according  to  the  angle  at 
>hich  the  eye  is  placed. 

In  order  to  convey  to  the  mind  of  the  reader  a  clear 
idea  of  the  effete  produced,  it  will  be  desirable  to  give 
Jlluitrative  figures;  but  here  we  meet  with  this  difficulty, 
that  the  effects  produced  are  different  according  to  the 
Illative  sixes  of  the  disks, — their  relative  velocities, — 
their  respective  rotations  being  in  the  same  or  in  opposite 
directions, — the  sitoation  of  the  slit, — and  the  part  of 
the  slit  to  which  the  eye  ia  applied.     To  g^va  a  determi- 


S29 

nate  character  to  the  experiments,  therefore,  it  will  be 
better  to  mate  a  slit  in  the  disk  which  is  the  object  of 
eiperiment,  and  to  view,  with  tKe  eye  placed  behind  this 
slit,  the  image  of  the  rotating  figure  reflected  in  a  station- 
ary plane  mirror,  placed  in  front  of  the  disk,  at  a  distance 
of  about  two  feet.  Thus,  by  considering  the  revolving 
image  as  a  second  revolving  disk,  the  following  conditions 
are  fulfilled :  1 ,  The  two  disks  are  of  equal  size :  2,  They 
rotate  with  equal  velodties:  3,  They  rotate  in  the  same 
direction. 

With  such  an  apparatus  as  this  many  pleasing  ezpe^ 
riraents  may  be  performed,  by  fixing  to  the  multiplying 
wheel  disks  having  different  devices.  One  which  we 
have  used  is  such  as  is  represented  in  the  disk,  a  front 
view  of  which  is  shown  in  the  multiplying  wheel  at  the 
head  of  this  article.  The  disk  is  covered  with  a  star, 
consisting  of  six  black  and  six  red  radial  hands,  and  a 
slit,  A  B,  occupies  nearly  a  semidiameter  in  the  centre  of 
one  of  the  bands.  The  eye  is  placed  behind  the  disk,  so 
tlwt  the  front  of  the  disk  may  be  seen  reflected  in  the 
mirror,  which  occurs  once  diiring  one  revolution  of  the 
disk;  and  if  the  disk  perform  more  than  six  revolutions 
per  second,  a  tolerably  nninterrupted  view  of  the  image 
IS  obtained,  on  account  of  the  persistence  of  impressions 
on  the  retina. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  disk  assumes  the  ap- 
pearance represented  in  the  annexed  figure,  (Fig.  3,) 


subject  to  vsriations  in  the  curvature  of  each  radius, 
according  to  the  position  of  the  eye  with  reference  to  the 
inner  or  outer  end  of  the  slit.  When  the  eye  is  near 
the  inner  end  of  the  slit,  and  consequently  near  the  centre 
of  the  disk^  the  radii  appear  congregated  much  nearer 
the  point  A,  while  at  and  about  b  the  interval  between 
the  two  upper  radii  is  greatiy  increased,  but  if  the  eye 
be  held  near  the  outer  end  of  the  slit,  the  radii  appear 
less  curved,  and  their  distribution  more  equable.  But  at 
whatever  part  of  the  slit  the  eye  be  applied,  this  nle  is 
con  Stan  tr— that  the  point  a,  towards  which  the  curves 
tend,  is  seen  at  the  axial  end  of  the  slit,  in  consequence 
of  the  slit  being  only  at  one  side  of  the  axis,  and  the 
radial  band  occupying  that  position  is  of  the  same  colour 
as  that  which  contains  the  sUt.  If,  however,  the  slit, 
instead  of  occupying  the  centre  of  one  radial  band,  be 
on  a  line  of  division  between  two  bends,  a  line  of  divi- 
sion will  occupy  the  central  position  which  in  the  former 
case  was  occupied  by  a  band,  and,  in  the  latter  case,  the 
bands  a  be,  will  be  opposite  in  colour  to  dajiia  shown 
in  the  figure. 

In  another  paper  we  shall  show  other  curious  effects 
produced  on  disu  of  various  kmds. 


As  it  is  not  enough  for  a  man  to  have  a  diamond  tmleas  it 
la  polidied  and  cut  ont  into  ita  due  angles,  and  a  foil  be  set 

, u  _!. — !._:. '*•-'-"-- ^»namit  and  vibrate 

it  be  sufficient  for  a 
I  mattt^  unless  the 

. ling  be   not  only  polished  and   clear,   but 

jidetset,  and  holpen  a  little  with  toose  figures,  tropes,  and 
nlours,  which  rhetoric  affbrda^  where  there  is 
uasion.— Lonn  I' 


fiSO 


THB  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


fjumia, 


ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING. 

That  the  aneiento  eieelled  the  modemt  in  perktia 
artistical  pursuits,  and  that  they  were  adepts  in  pro^ 
cesses  now  lost,  or  imperfectly  known,  seeau  generally 
admitted.  Among  such  pursuits,  we  may  reckon  the  art 
ef  EvcAUSTio  Paiiii?i»0,  which  seems  to  have  been 
eompletely  lost  during  several  ages  between  the  time  of 
Piinv  and  the  eighteenth  century. 

Tne  art  of  painting  in  encaustic  is  a  manner  ai  paint« 
ing  which  is  executed  by  the  operation  of  five.  Ancient 
autl^ofs  often  make  mention  of  this  species  of  painting, 
which  if  it  had  been  descriiied  simply  by  tne  word 
f*  encaustic,'*  which,  signifies  •xnutad  \jf  fLrm^  might 
be  supposed  to  ^ve  been  a  sort  of  eaowMlppainting. 
But,  in  the  kind  of  painting  which  we  are  eonsidemng, 
wax  was  employed  to  give  a  gloss  to  the  colours,  and 
permanence  to  the  work:  these  colours  were  fixed  by 
fire,  and  preserved  by  means  of  the  wax  from  being  in* 
Jured  by  the  air.  This  mode  ef  perpetuating  colours  in 
all  their  original  .splendour  by  heated  or  burnt  wax,  was 
practised  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  and  is  joitf 
to  have  been  in  use  at  Venice  even  to  the  time  of  Titian. 
By  one  writer  we  are  tpld  that  various  specimens,  of 
ancient  encaustic  painting  have  been  preserved  in  the 
East  I  while  another  says  that  we  have  no  ancient  pic- 
tures of  this  description  s  but  the  questions  hpre  probably 
are, — ^what  ipecies  of  pictures  are  meant  ?  and  b  jyond 
what  point  of  time  does  antiquity  refer  ? 

We  must  not,  however,  omit  to  notice  three  species  of 
encaustic  painting,  described  by  Pliny,  who  flourished  in 
the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era : — 

1.  That  in  which  they  used  tho  graver,  and  painted 
on  ivory  or  polished  wood;  for  which  purpose  they  drew 
the  outlines  on  a  piece  of  this  wood  or  ivory,  previously 
soaked  or  imbued  with  some  certain  colour :  the  point  of 
the  style  or  graver  served  for  this  operation,  and  the 
broad  end  to  scrape  off  the  iimall  fijiaments  that  rose 
from  the  outlines;  and  they  continued  forming  outlines 
with  the  point,  till  they  were  finished. 

2.  It  seems,  in  this  case,  that  the  wax  was  previously 
impregnated  with  colour,  and  spread  oyer  the  surface  of 
the  picture  with  the  style;  the  polours  thus  preparad 
being  fprmed  into  sn^iU  cylinder^  fpr  use.  By  the  side 
of  tne  painter  w^  a  brazier  for  keeping  the  styles  con- 
tinually hot,  with  the  points  of  which  they  laid  on  the 
colours  when  the  outlmes  were  fbished,  apd  then  spread 
them  smooth  with  the  brpad  end;  {ind  thus  they*  pro- 
ceeded till  the  picture  was  ^i$hed. 

3.  This  process  was  by  pfdnting  with  a  pencil  in 
wax  liquefied  by  fire:  by  tnis  methc4  the  colcTurs  con- 
tained a  considerable  hardness,  and  cpuld  not  be  dam- 
aged either  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  or  the  action  of  sea- 
wate^.  It  was  thus  that  they  painted  their  ships  with 
emblems  and  ptber  pictures;  ^nd  therefore  it  obtained 
tlie  name  of  ship-painting*  The  last  prpcefs  was  to 
sipooth  i^nd  polish  tne  picture. 

The  first  persons  of  mpdem  tiipes  who  n^tde  experi- 
ments in  this  branch  of  art  were  Count  Oaylus  {^nd  Af . 
Bachelier.  The  former  is  spoken  of  in  tne  letters  of 
Lady  Mary  W.  Montagu.  These  experiments  were 
begun  to  l^  made  about  the  year  1749.  Som^  y^ars 
after,  Count  Caylus  presented  to  the  Academy  of  Part- 
ing at  Paris,  his  ideas  and  experiments  oq  the  subject  of 
the  ancient  manner  of  painting  in  encaustic.  In  1754 
the  count  had  a  head  of  Minerva  painted  by  M.  Vien, 
^fter  the  process  described  by  himselff  mi  pr^^nted  ii 
to  the  Acaden^y  of  Sciences  in  the  following  y^art 
This  success  induced  M.  Bacbelier  to  recommend  (uf 
experiments,  in  which  he  succeeded  better  than  faefovei 
but  his  manner  of  painting  in  encaustic  diflSered  horn,  that 
pf  the  ancients,  as  described  by  Pliny ;  and,  therefere^  he 
was  unsuccessful,  inf^much  »s  he  did  not  discover  ^he 
r^al  ancient  mode  as  used  in  all  narticvlarp  fpr  producing 
the  desired  effects.    After  this  ne  made  some  other  e\- 


perim^ntt  on  the  same  subject,  4ii^rh^f  ftwm  ^e  pro. 
eess  as  described  by  Caylus  and  others. 

Thu  process  punued  by  M.  B^elier  Ibr  neilDAnB| 
the  operation  ef  inuj^fi,  ov  burning  in,  which  is  Uie  naii 
ehanteteristic  of  the  pneaustia  painttng,  waa  as  folbw i: 
— rThe  cloth  or  wood  dMignad'  ibr  the  basis  ef  the  pl& 
ture,  is  waxed  pvev,  by  immIv  vubbiMf  it  with  a  pisei 
of  bees'  wax;  the  wood  or  cloth  is  sIm«4>^  on  a  fiwne, 
and  held  befbiw  a  iM,  at  iveh  a  distanoe  duit  thf  ma 
may  gradually  nelt,  while  it  is  tubbed  as,  difius^  itn^ 
penetrate  the  body,  uid  fill  the  intentieai  qi  the  textun 
ef  the  cloth,  which,  when  cold,  is  fit  to  paint  upos. 
But,  aa  water-eoleuvs  will  not  adhere  to  the  wtt,  thi 
whole  ]^cture  nust  int  be  rubbed  ovev  with  flpasiik 
ehalk  ev  white,  and  then  the  oolouM  applied  te  its  wb<s 
the  picture  is  dry>  it  is  put  near  the  fire,  wher^  tin 
wax  melts,  and  abaorba  all  the  eolonra. 

Several  improvementa  in  this  art  wove  pvepetid  )j 
Mr.  J.  H.  Munti.  When  the  painting  is  In  dotk,  m 
directs  it  to  be  prepaf>ed  by  stretching  it  en  a  ftaais,ud 
rubbing  one  side  sevefal  times  ever  with  bees*  wu,  op 
virgin  wax,  till  it  is  eevered  with  a  oeat  of  eonsidmbh 
thickness.  In  fine  linen  this  is  the  only  operation  iwo»- 
sary,  previous  to  paintings  but  coarse  eloth  nnul  be 
rub1>eo  gently  on  the  unwaxed  side  with  a  pipnice-otooi) 
to  take  off  all  those  knots  which  would  prevent  the  frw 
and  accurate  working  of  ilie  peneiL  Then  the  Bubjod 
is  to  be  painted  on  the  unwaxed  side  with  witer^eeloon} 
and,  when  the  picture  is  finished,  it  must  be  bNogbt 
i|ear  the  fire,  that  the  w^  may  neit,  »iid  fix  the  eeleuii. 
This  method)  however,  c^n  only  he  applied  to  M^ 
paper,  or  other  substances,  thrpugb  wkieh  the  wu  eia 
pass;  but  in  wood,  stone,  metals,  or  plaster,  the  aetbod 
Defore  described,  may  be  observed. 

In  the  ye^r  1767  Miss  Greenland,  m  amttew  <f 
painting,  comn^unicated  to  the  Society  of  Arts  the  kaov- 
ledge  of  this  art,  which  she  had  aoquired  dnnng  btf 
residence  at  Florence,  and  at  the  same'  time  nsd^  a  pr^ 
sent  to  the  Society  of  a  picture  executed  by  herself)  lor 
which  she  revived  the  honorary  i«ward  <tf  »  goU 
pallet  This  pif^ture  is  still  preserved  in  the  ^^ 
rooms  at  the  AdelphI,  and  Is  worth  the  attention  of  Qm 
artist.  This  clever  ^nd  ingenious  lady  appean  t^ 
wards  under  the  name  oi  Mrs.  Hooker, 'of  Rettioffiwi, 
in  the  county  of  8ussex.  ^e  fbllowing  are  her  in«tni^ 
tions:^ 


Tfkk#  mi  o^no9  of  white  wax,  ai^  the  9W0  we^bl  of 

gum  mwtifi,  pQwderodi    Put  the  wax  In  a  s]B^,^m 

vessel,  oyw  ft  very  slow  fire,  and  when  it  is  juite  diasol^coj 
throw  in  uie  nialtick|  a  tittlebat  a  time,  sturing  the  "^ 
centinuolly  until  the  whole  quantity  of  gnm  T^vtiMf 
melted  bxA  incemoniUd :  then  throw  the  ppsto  into  ^ 
watev,  and  when  it  is  havd  take  it  put  of  the  water,  fip«  i^ 
diy,  and  heat  it  in  one  of  Mr.  Wedgwood's  wQii^iS  <^ 
wring  ^  poi^nd  i^  f^Tf^  '\^  <^  liK^i^  plotl^  to  absorb  am^  o^ 
<i  winter  Uia^  wi)l  remain  in  the  p^irte,  »n4  pr^vpnt  the  m 
fibiUty  pi  reducing  it  tp  ^  pow^^T,  wMch  taiist  pe  sow 
a§  tq  p^iss  through  ^  thick  eauze.  It  enould  bo  pounded  iQ 
a  col(f  pface,  and  bj^t  a  little  while  at  a  time,  as  after  loi^ 
hefitififf  the  friction  will  in  a  degree  soften  the  wax  sad  tftj 
gum,  and  instead  ef  their  beooming  a  powdea,  thtyjnU 
retum  toa  paste.  Mal(e  strong  gunitAinbie  imter,  aa4  Ybf 
yon  paint  Uk^  a  little  «f  Iha  ^9^^h  f^®  aabur,  m^ 
t)iei^  togedier  w^th  the  gupi^water,  Xjgl^t  coloors  i^^^ 
but  a  apwdl  quantity  of  tne  powder,  hut  monfe  of  it  must  w 
pi^t  in  nrppprtipn  tP  the  body  fyid  dfurKness  of  the  coW 
4Qd  to  Dl^cktheie  must  be  annoat  as  much  or  the  powder 
as  colour.  Having  siixed  the  coloprs,  and  no  more  totf 
can  be  used  before  they  get  dnr,  paint  with  IMr  ^^<f 
is  pmetised  in  painting  irttfa  sirater-i^cdoan,  a  ffo^^  ^ 
Uia  wood  httag  llrat  planted  of  aome  praptf  oabmr,  F"; 


wy  WgWy  toi«b?d,  (jtRerwise,  whei|  varniab^d,  the  tmu 
ill  no^  appear  united.    When  the  painting  u  V^^.  ^! 
with  rather  a  hard  hrqah.  peasipg  it  one  way,  tanuea 
with  whii^i  MPW^  whiali  flievld  ba  fit  hiM  » 


yefy 

will 


1641.] 


THB  SATURDAY  MAOAZINE 


281 


is  vamiihwly  ^a^eIi^  gnrt  eare  toaJk  the  w«t  does  not  boil. 
Afterwards  hold  the  picture  before  the  fire,  near  enongh  to 
melt  the  wax,  but  not  to  mal^  it  nut;  and  when  the 
▼amish  is  entirely  cold  and  hard^  Pah  it  g^tlj  with  a  linen 
cloth.  Should  the  yamish  blistiS^.W&HH  the  picture  again 
▼erjr  slowly,  and  the  bubbles  Wi)l  stibfltde.  When  the 
picture  is  mrty,  it  need  only  be  ¥Mied  witil  cold  water. 

Nearly  all  tftie  colours  thai  tt*e  tMd  in  oil-painting 
may  be  exdpit))l!d  Hi  Um  enciMiilMo  iMthodi  ihd  likewise 
many  whieR  ISillHM  IM  idttitkd  ili  ol)>^tmg,  as  red 
lead,  red  arpiinteti  erjrateli  of  tef^Uffis,  and  red  oxide 
of  mercury.  The  craycms  used  ill  tSis  ItH  of  painting 
are  the  same  as  those  used  in  thtf  C^HIiritm  Wt^  of  crayon 
painting,  excepted  those  that  ifti  bl  t)iei)r  lomposition 
too  tenacious,  MA  ihe  lllinn^  nf  tlitak  th^in  Is  the  same 
in  both  dkses.  fiilii^ttld  paitttitl^  fias  mMky  peculiar 
advantaged :  thotlsk  ^  colours  tiiVe  iloi  thd  iiatural  va  - 
nish  or  shinihg  toi^  inquire  with  liiH  th^  kave  ail  the 
strength  of  paiilliilK  in  oil»  and  all  ttus  airiness  of  water- 
colours,  without  )i&rtaking  of  thik  ip}iarent  character  or 
defects  of  either.  They  may  be  ¥toWed  in  any  light  and 
in  any  situation^  without  any  falsi  |flft^i  the  colours  are 
firm,  and  will  bear  Washing}  fthd  H  pictui^$  idPter  having 
been  smoked,  and  thto  ex)>6sed  to  the  dew,  becomes  as 
clean  as  if  it  had  just  been  painted.  In  re-touching,  the 
new  colours  unite  with  the  old  ones. 

The  Chevalier  Lotfftia  hfts  d^pl)r  iilVi^fiiffaMl  fh6 
siiBject  ^  encaustic  pamtiiig.  tie  s^emd  to  fflink  that 
the  paH  o^  the  art  in  which  the  modems  fail  f^latM  ttt 
the  wiMr  uBed  id  the  process*  He  thinks  that  we  have 
never  the^iif^ily  knewn  the  iMtuM  ei  the  Pwatc  Wax, 
which  uma  aneieiltly  used,  and  whieh,  after  all,  waft  the 
esseniiAl  iilgr^diiliil  ef  the  AiiedSnt  pidnttilg  m  encavstiei 
Now  Pliny  describes  the  inethod  Of  ptepSlAhjg  thitf  timxi 
but  Lorgn4  sa^s  thdt  the  Hitm  Whieh  the  Roman  nfttur-* 
alist  sp^lks  of  is  hot  the  moderh  nitte,  prdperiy  io  culled, 
but  the  nairon  of  the  ancients,  or  the  native  Mi  which 
is  foand  crystallised  in  the  north  of  Africa,  in  figypt* 
and  UEI  othor  hot  countries)  in  sands  surrounding  lakes 
of  salt  water:  it  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  natron  of 
the  new  nomenclature  of  our  College  of  Physicians, 
wkich  is  ih^  new  iteme  of  the  ininehA  alkalis 

As  the  thittff  chiefly  h!g«tded  m  eiiea«ttie  painting 
was  the  secufmg  of  t)6fikiaiiei]ii!li  ftttA  duhitnHty  by  the 
application  of  fife,  the  wdfd  '^diitSaustiti"  had  beeii  ap- 
plied«  in  a  very  genend  sense,  to  olhdf  ^fbd^dses,  ih 
wiii(^  bMh  the  matefiid  and  the  mode  ot  implying  the 
heat  an  eiitiMy  AilereDtfroin  the  ancient  nmterials  and 
moS^.  T^e  Word  baa  bc^  used^  hot  enly  ef  wax-paint« 
ing  tst,  eartheh  V^seli^  i^  Sii  werka  iil  metali  where 
gold  a)id  «ilvtf  Wdfe  mhM,  fltelted^  ta  kid  M)  aMi  ef 
everTthinf  which  wa§  ^It  6f  Sil^fed  by  firt,  Whidi  Was 
calied  goU  or  fitvtr  encausHc.  fh^  )aiddeftiS  hftVe  alSd 
oaed  tie  ti^Wi  Hn*  paintiag  on  porcelain,  and  worldiig;  in 
enAinel^  ind  ifl  tin  sane  Way  it  was  given  io  the  painting 
oil  gHiaa  &I  this  ttiddie  ages»  sUeh  at  is  bow  i^n  in  the 
winddW^  df  Gothic  i^h^Kdiei;  AU  tlieaB  have  nothing 
to  db  with  the  WAt-^Ufij^  of  ^  attH^»tt« 

Mady  persons  hive  m^d^  fttt^Hipts  iH  this  aA  dttrltif 
the  present  century,  i.  G.  Wallef ,  id  Berlin,  ind  ft^- 
fessor  J.  fteux,  in  tieidelberg,  have  recei^tlv  giveii  theii' 
atten^n  to  these  Wax-paintings^  some  o^  which  are  said 
to  have  been  Sttecessfully  executed^  Mr.  Peter  Kraft, 
at  Vleiiiii^  his  illD  Iftttiy  painted  seTerai  pieeeii  on  walla, 
in  whieh,  hoWl^er,  otiiy  the  Warmed  gtbttnd  wae  eovered 
with  wax»  ind  the  cdottfs  miitid  with  bil  df  tuPt^ehtine 
laid  on  it;  Mofltaterlli  proems  is  said  td  heir  i  greatet 
resemblance  to  encaustic  paintihg,  prbfierly  do  called. 
The  laying  on  is  nearly  in  the  manner  just  mentioned, 
but  a  wax  varnish  Is  spre&d  Otet  the  colours,  and  melted 
in  by  means  of  a  kind  of  iMrfiii^n  A  series  of  paintings 
has  been  executed,  afti^  hii  difeiMoiii,  d^  the  walls  of 
the  royal  pali6e  ii  Mttftfoh,  sinCb  1881,  but  even  here, 
all  Uie  difienitiea  with  respect  io  ihe  durability  of  the 
|rroiuid  and  the  colours  have  not  been  overcome. 


PhoflMiOt  R^iiia^lD  is  iiid  to  possess  a  pamtiog  of 
Gleopatfa;  e«e€(ited  iti  encaastie,  whieh  is  valued  at 


TMg  HORNBEAM,  (Carpinw  hetulus.) 

Hum  Momh^fh  is  prineipaUy  cultivated  in  Britain  as  a 
shrub  and  underwood,  ahd  is  excellent  for  fbrming  tall 
hedges  \df  sereetis  in  nursery  grounds  of  dmamentd 
^i^efiSt  It  is  net  ctntthionlv  fbund  as  a  limber  tree, 
thotigh  II  tilfcy  be  waited  fcf  this  purpose,  and  t»ill  groW 
to  a  Mh^lderibl^  height.  li  is  a  tree  of  quick  growth, 
ind  has  a  glossy  verdiure  which  is  vety  pleasing  to  the 
eye, ,  £velyni  speaking  ot  the  Hornbeam,  says,  that  the 
wood  is  whitei  toughs  and  flexible^  and  that  it  is  useful 
ibr  niU'wortE,  handles  of  tools,  and  various  o^er  pur* 
pesasi    Heals^siys  thit)— 

fieinff  plinied  in  small  (bases,  or  trenches,  at  half  a  foot 
interval,  and  in  ihd  single  row,  it  makes  the  noblest  and  the 
stateliest  hedges  for  long  walks  in  gardens,  or  parkd^  of  any 
tree  whatsoever,  whose  leaves  are  deciduous,  and  forsake 
their  branches  in  winter;  because  it  grows  tall,  and  so 
Sturdy  as  not  to  be  Wrotiged  bv  the  winds.  Besides^  it 
will  fielirish  td  the  very  foot  of  the  stem,  and  flourlshea 
with  a  glossie  and  polished  verdure^  which  is  exceeding 
delightful,  01  long  continuance,  and  of  all  other  of  the 
harder  woods,  the  speediest  grower;  maintaining  a  slender 
Upright  Stein^  which  does  not  eome  to  be  haice  and  sticky  is 
many  yearSt 

Bouteher,  of  ^dinbtllrgh^  in  his  work  on  trees, 
minutely  details  the  best  mode  of  cultivating  and  propa- 
gating this  tree,  when  intended  to  form  a  hedge.  The 
common  Hornbeam  should  be  propagated  by  seeds, 
which,  being  ripe  in  Autumn,  ought  first  to  be  spread  in 
a  loft  till  dry,  and  then  mixed  with  sand  till  the  following 
spring.  They  may  then  be  sown  thin  on  beds  of  fresh 
earth,  three  and  a  naif  feet  broad,  with  paths  or  alleys 
eighteen  ihches  wide  between  the  beds;  and  covered 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  deep  with  mould.  These  seeds 
will  remain  a  year  in  the  ground  before  the  plants  appear; 
during  which  time  the  earth  must  be  kept  clean.  In  the 
following  February  the  surface  of  the  beds  should  be 
loosened  with  a  short-toothed  fake,  so  as  not  to  disturb 
the  seeds,  and  a  gentle  covering  of  fresh  mould  thrown 
over  them :  in  this  state  they  may  remain  for  two  years, 
if  not  too  thick:  since  the  plants  make  slow  progress  ^e 
first  season,  and  are  naturally  well  rooted. 

From  the  seed  bed  they  are  to  be  removed,  about  the 
month  of  October,  into  any  fresh  spot  of  ground^  even 
of  indi^erent  quality )  the  supe^uous  roots  are  then  to 
be  reduced,  cuCiing  away  sxxdi  as  cross  one  another;  and 
alter  this  they  are  te  be  planted  in  rows,  two  feet  and  a 
half  asunder,  and  a  foot  distance  in  the  row.  Thus  they 
are  to  remain  three  years,  digging  the  greimd,  between 
the  row^,  annually,  fiy  this  time  the  plants  will  be  in 
a  6t  state  for  hedgea,  in  a  spot  where  immediate  shelter 
is  required,  or  to  he  mixed  with  other  young  trees  to  form 
woods. 

But  if  they  are  f^quired  for  a  hedge  which  is  to  form 
an  ornamental  houndanr  or  enclosure,  a  different  plan 
inust  be  adopted.  If  the  hedge  is  to  be  seven  or  eight  feet 
high,  remove  the  younff  plants  ih-om  the  former  nursery 
to  aiiother,  and  place  them  in  rows,  the  rows  being  ten 
feet  asunder,  and  the  plants  five  feet  asunder  in  each  row. 
These  should  then  be  trained  annually  in  the  regular 
hedge  form,  but  always  observing  to  keep  them  light  and 
thin  at  the  top.  Alter  remaining  in  this  state  about 
four  years  they  may  be  taken  out,  and  planted  as  a  hedge 
at  die  spot  where  they  are  intended  to  remain :  by  this 
time  they  will  have  acquired  such  abundance  of  roots  as 
to  be  able  to  defy  ihe  strongest  winds;  and  they  will  now 
require  no  farther  expense  and  trouble  than  to  keep  their 
roots  clean  for  three  or  four  years. 

Those  straighter  plants  which  may  be  intended  for 
single  trees,  may,  at  raising  them  from  the  first  nursery, 
be  separated  from  those  for  hedges,  and  planted  in  rows, 


232 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


CJ0111 13, 1841. 


five  feet  asunder,  and  two  feet  distance  from  each  other 
in  the  row :  these  are  then  to  be  annually  pruned  in  their 
proper  form,  and  from  hence  they  may  be  removed  to 
the  places  where  they  are  intended  to  remain,  after  three 
or  four  years'  standing.    Mr.  Boutcher  remarks, — 

Though  1  am  no  advocate  for  the  Hornbeam  tree  in  orna- 
mental plantations,  or  in  generous  soils  and  sheltered  situa- 
tions, yet  its  being  one  of  the  hardiest  trees  known,  the 
many  good  qualities  of  the  wood,  and  the  sudden  shelter 
and  warmth  which  hedges  formed  of  it  are  calculated 
to  afford,  appear  to  give  it  some  claim  to  our  attention, 
particularly  m  the  cold  exposed  parts  of  the  country.  It 
will  grow  surprisingly  on  the  coldest  hills,  and  in  the  stifiest^ 
barren  and  otherwise  worthless  ground ;  nor  do  I  know 
any  useful  timber  tree  that  maintains  itself  so  stoutly 
against  the  winds ;  so  that,  being  of  quick  growth,  and  clad 
in  its  numerous  leaves  all  the  winter,  it  is  certainly  one  of 
tlie  fittest  plants  to  nurse  and  rear  up  other  valuable  or 
delicate  trees.  This  likewise,  of  all  trees  yet  known, 
best  preserves  itself  from  the  bruttings  of  deer;  so  that 
clumps  of  them,  in  deer-parks,  would  be  no  small  improve- 
ment, both  in  point  of  beauty,  and  for  shelter  to  these 
animals. 

The  Hornbeam  affords  excellent  stakes  and  posts ;  and 
the  timber  produced  by  it  may  be  ranked  with  those  of 
the  beech  and  sycamore.  It  has  been  stated  by'  other 
writers  as  well  as  Evelyn,  that  the  wood  of  the  Horn- 
beam is  useful  for  many  manufacturing  purposes ;  but  a 
French  writer  speaks  of  it  as  being  too  brittle  for  caM-< 
net  work.  Its  trunk,  according  to  him,  is  seldom  regfu- 
larly  grained,  and  still  more  rarely  well  rounded.  The 
.  texture  of  its  fibres  is  singular :  its  annual  layers  are  not 
uniformly  circular  as  in  most  other  trees,  but  assume  an 
undulated  or  zig-zag  form:  and  its  transverse  fibres, 
which  pass  from  the  circumference  to  the  centre,  have 
considerable  intervals  between  them ;  the  wood  is  conse- 
quently refractory  under  the  workman's  tool,  and  apt  to 
break  into  splinters.  Its  principal  superiority  is  said  to 
consist  in  its  excellences  for  the  purpose  of  screen  fences 
for  sheltering  gardens,  nursery  grounds,  plantations,  &c., 
from  the  severity  of  bad  seasons,  &c.  It  bears  cutting 
in,  pruning,  and  clipping,  extremely  well ;  and,  from  its 
retaining  its  leaves  during  the  winter  season,  becomes 
particularly  close  and  impenetrable  to  winds  and  storms, 
keeping  up  a  very  steady  temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
about  the  plants  which  it  shelters.  On  this  account,  also 
it  is  found  beneficial  to  be  planted  in  mixture,  or  in  occa- 
sional rows,  with  many  tender  sorts  of  trees  in  high  ex- 
: posed  aspects,  in  the  manner  of  the  birch,  to  which  it  is 
preferable,  as  affording  greater  warmth  in  the  winter. 

The  botanical  characteristics  of  the  common  Horn- 
beam are  chiefly  these: — Trunk  tolerably  straight,  but 
often  imperfectly  cylindrical: — Baric  even,  whitish, 
marked  with  grrey  spots;  branches  numerous: — Leaves 
about  three  inches  long  and  two  broad,  alternate,  petioled, 
ovate,  acuminate,  doubly  serrated,  smooth,  wrinkled 
above,  with  straight  and  parallel  veins  below,  remaining 
on  the  tree  in  a  withered  state  during  the  whole  winter. 
Male  catkins  about  an  inch  long,  lateral,  solitary, 
appearing  in  Spring  a  little  before  the  leaves;  scales 
ferruginous,  concave,  ciliated*  Femtde  catkins  terminal, 
solitary,  peduncled,  loose;  scales  green,  smooth,  with 
three  lanceolate  lobes,  of  which  the  middle  one  is  largest ; 
nut  small,  ovate,  lenticuarly  compressed,  striated,  with 
longitudinal,  filiform  ribs ;  crowned  with  six,  or,  accord- 
ing to  Scopoli,  four  teeth,  seated  at  the  bottom  of 
the  permanent  enlarged  scale.  Our  cut  represents 
that  part  of  the  plant  connected  with  the  flower,  such 
as  the  male  and  female  catkins  (flower  sheaths),  &c. 

Mr.  Gilpin,  who  was  accustomed  to  view  trees  with  an 
eye  always  in  search  of  the  picturesque,  did  not  think 
that  the  Hornbeam  had  much  in  its  natural  form  to  excite 
pleasing  ideas ;  but  he  adds  that  still,  as  a  botanical  anti- 
quary, he  could  not  look  upon  it  without  a  certain  degree 
of  pleasure,  when  he  remembered  that  our  ancestors  used 
it  for  producing  an  artifical  climate  around  their  ancient  I 


castles,  by  planting  it  in  long  linei,  and  trimming  it  into 
v^[etable  walla  of  the  mott  mathematical  exactitode. 


I  WOULD  advise  all  the  professors  of  the  art  of  stny- 
telHng,  never  to  tell  stories,  but  as  they  seem  to  grow  oat 
of  the  subject-matter  of  the  conversation,  or  as  tney  serre 
to  illustrate,  or  enliven  it.  Stories,'  that  are  venr  ownmon, 
are  generally  irksome ;  but  may  be  aptly  introduced,  pro- 
vided they  be  only  hinted  at,  and  mentioned  by  wiy  of 
allusion.  Those  that  are  altogether  new,  should  never  be 
ushered  in,  without  a  short  and  pertment  chancier  of 
the  chief  persons  concerned;  because  by  that  meaitf^^voo 
make  the  company  acquainted  with  them;  and  iti^^ 
certain  rule,  that  slight  and  trivial  accounts  of  tho«  vho 
are  familiar  to  us,  administer  more  mirth  than  thebrigbtfft 
points  of  wit  in  unknown  characters.  A  little  circumstance 
m  tlie  complexion  or  dress  of  the  man  you  are  talking  oi; 
sets  his  image  before  the  hearer,  if  it  be  chosen  apUy  for  the 
story. — Steels. 

An  obstinate  man  does  not  hold  opinions,  but  the);  hdd 
him ;  for  when  he  is  once  possessed  with  an  error,  it  is  u»« 
a  devil,  only  cast  out  with  great  difficulty.  Whatjoewr 
he  lays  hold  on,  like  a  drowning  man,  he  never  loses,  thou^ 
it  do  but  help  to  sink  hun  the  sooner.  His  ignorance  is 
abrupt  and  inaccessible,  impregnable  both  by  art  and  sam 
and  will  hold  out  to  the  last,  though  it  has  nothtog  but 
rubbish  to  defend.  It  is  as  dark  as  pitch,  and  sticks  as  W> 
to  anything  it  lays  hold  on.  His  scull  is  so  thick,  that  >i 
is  proof  against  any  reason,  and  never  cracks  but  on  vif 
wrong  side,  just  opposite  to  that  against  which  the  imp^ 
sion  m  made,  which  surgeons  say  does  happen  veiy  W" 
quently.  The  slighter  and  more  inconsistent  his  opmiaw 
are,  the  faster  he  holds  them,  otherwise  they  ^0^^.  .r" 
asunder  of  themselves :  for  opinions  that  are  nlse  ougu  » 
be  held  vrith  more  strictness  and  assurance  than  Uiosetb^ 
are  true,  otherwise  they  wiU  be  apt  to  betray  their  ownai 
before  Uiey  are  aware.  He  delights  most  of  aU  to  differ  uj 
things  indi  fferent,  no  matter  how  frivolous  they  m,  tfte) 
are  weighty  enough  in  proportion  to  his  weak  jndgmem, 
and  he  ifnll  rather  suffer  self-martyrdom  than  V^J^^ 
the  least  scruple  of  his  freehold ;  for  it  is  imp^blc  to 
dye  his  dark  ignorance  into  a  lighter  colour.  He  w  1^ 
solved  to  understand  no  man's  reason  but  his  ?^)*^^! 
he  finds  no  man  can  understand  his  but  himself.  ^ 
wits  axe  like  a  sack,  which  the  French  proverb  says  is  tiw 
faster  before  it  is  fuU  than  when  it  is ;  and  his  ofim<m  «» 
like  plants  that  grow  upon  rocks,  that  stick  hai  tfiottfn 
they  have  no  rooting.  His  understanding  is  hardened  ni^e 
Pharaoh's  heart,  and  is  proof  against  all  sorts  of  judgmenw 
w^hatsoever. — ^Butler. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKEB,  WEST  STBAND. 
PoBuauD  HI  WxxuT  Nommers,  pricb  Omb  Pnnnr,  ajtp  J«  Moiiw 

Pabts,  PBica  81ZPKMCB. 
Sold  bj  aU  Bookidlen  aad  KewiTcntaB  la  fteKiqgdsB. 


^ 


Jbatitr^a^ 


N°  575. 


19T?,  1841.  {cfSSU. 


THE   BANKS  OF   THE   THAMES.    HI. 


SircH  ii  the  qoaiDt  and  not  inapplicable  inscriptloa  wbicli 
it  pbced  beneath  afij^reof  Deatli,  in  the  church  of  Long 
Wlttenham,  where  we  resume  our  Thames  journey.  This 
little  vi\Uge  is  situated  three  or  four  miles  from  Abing- 
don, on  the  London  side;  and  from  that  point  the  river 
take*  ft  sudden  bend  towards  the  north-west,  in  the 
diiectioD  of  the  village  of  Cliflon,  in  Oifordshire.  From 
thence,  another  bend  leads  the  river  between  Little 
Wlttenham  in  Berkshire  and  the  Tillage  of  Dorchester 
in  Oifordshire;  near  which  latter  village  the  river 
Thame  joins  the  lais,  and  with  it  forms  the  future 
Thames. 
Of  this  tributary,  the  Thame,  Dr.  Plot  said:— 
The  banki  of  tha  Thame  are  BO  well  sated  with  some  If  ind  of 
■cid,  that  no  well  water  in  tha  whole  town  of  the  name  (mean- 
ing the  town  of  Thama  in  Oxfordshire,  through  which  it 
floirj)  will  either  brew  or  lather  with  soap'.  But  none  of 
these  give  a  tincture  so  high  that  they  can  be  perceived  by  the 
DKWt  exquinte  palate,  but  only  bo  far  forth  as  may  conduce 
to  a  duB  fermentation,  and  to  keep  them  living ;  and  yet 
without  doubt,  from  hence  it  is  that  the  Tharae  s  water,  at 
lea,  in  eight  months'  time  ai^qnires  lO  spirituons  and  active 
•  quality  that  upon  opening  some  of  the  casks,  and  holding 
the  candle  near  the  bung-hole,  the  steams  have  taken  fire 
like  spirit  of  wine,  and  sometimes  endangered  firing  the 

Some  portion  of  these  remarks  are  corroborated  by 
laif-r  experience;  but  there  teems  little  doubt  that  the 
case  is  greatly  overrated. 

*  F'T  ttMaiTMiputouofbr  Di.  Fletwa  mat  ^bably  md  cubuaol* 
V  mlytiat«  of  lime  in  ■olntiiHi. 

Vol.  XVHL 


Much  discussion  has  taken  place  respecting  the  pro- 
priet3r  of  applying  the  name  Thames  to  that  part  only  of 
the  river  which  is  below  the  junction  with  the  Tharae. 
Mr.  Brewer  states  that  in  several  Saxon  documenta  still 
ejisting,  the  name  of  Thames  is  applied  to  the  river  far 
above  the  point  of  junction  here  alhirled  to,  and  that  the 
term  lais  for  the  higher  parts  of  the  river  is  a  modem 
innovation.  This  question,  however,  is  merely  a  nominal 
one,  and  need  not  demand  our  further  notice. 

From  the  point  where  the  Thnme  joins  the  Isis,  till 
we  arrive  at  the  town  of  Wallingford,  the  voyager  down 
(he  Thames  meets  with  a  succession  of  beautiful  scenery; 
the  easy  sloping  hills  on  the  Brrkshire  aide  are  crowned 
with  a  variegated  combination  of  aj-lvan  objects;  while 
an  occasional  break  in  the  chalky  clilf  givet  a  strikingly 
diversified  character  to  the  view.  Wallingford,  which 
is  about  ten  miles  from  Abingdon,  is  an  ancient  town. 
It  was  originally  a  Roman  fortification ;  and  passed  sue- 
cessively  into  the  hands  of  the  Salons  and  the  Danes, 
aAer  which  it  became  a  royal  prescriptive  borough  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  The  Castle  of 
Wallingford,  to  which  the  town  owes  its  origin,  became 
in  after  ages  the  scene  of  many  important  events  ;  but 
during  the  wars  of  the  Commonwealth  it  was  completely 
demolished.  The  town  is  situated  on  the  road  between 
Reading  and  Oxford,  and  has  a  remarkably  neat  and 
clean  appearance.  It  consists,  principally,  of  two  streets, 
well-paved  and  lighted.  Of  the  old  briilge,  which  stood 
when  Mr.  Ireland  wrote,  he  says: — "  The  antiquity  of 
the  bridge,  from  its  appearance,  seems  to  vie  with  tha 
oldest  structure  of  the  kind  on  the  Thames ;  it  is  truly 
I  gothic,  and  of  immense  strength.  The  pointed  angular 
575 


234 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[JUVE  19, 


sterlings  on  the  upper  side  are  so  well  oontCructed,  u  to 
be  capftbla  of  rstistinff  the  most  violent  torrent  of  water 
froxD  the  winter  floods.*'  8inc«  that  tioM*  however,  a 
very  elegant  stone  bridge  has  been  built  across  the 
Thames  at  Wallingford.  Among  the  natives  of  Walling- 
ford  was  Richard,  abbot  of  the  monastery  which  for- 
merly existed  here;  he  was  the  inventor  of  a  curious 
clock,  which,  according  to  Leland,  represented  not  only 
the  course  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  principal  stars,  but 
also  the  ebbing  and  flowing  of  the  sea.  This  machine, 
the  most  ingenious  of  its  kind  at  that  time  in  England, 
he  presented  to  the  Abbey  church. 

Mr.  Brayley  some  years  ago  described  a  farm,  aitoated 
two  or  three  miles  from  the  river,  near  Wallingford,  as 
having  once  been  reputed  the  largest  and  most  compact 
in  England.  It  was  called  ChoUey  farm,  and  had  be- 
longed to  the  Abbot  of  Reading  before  the  dissolution 
of  monasteries.  The  great  bam,  wherein  he  is  said  to 
have  deposited  his  tithes,  measured  three  hundred  fleet 
long  by  fifty  or  sixty  in  breadth.  The  roof  was  sup- 
ported by  seventeen  pillars  on  each  side,  each  pillar 
about  four  feet  ii^  diameter.  These  pillars  elevatea  the 
roof  to  a  great  height  in  the  centre ;  but  it  descended 
gradually  towards  ^e  walls,  which  were  not  more  than 
eight  feet  in  height. 

The  river  presents  many  beautlftil  protpMU  while 
passing  between  Berkshire  and  Oafbrdshtre.  Pope 
speaks  of  many  of  the  tributary  streams  here  poured  ietto 
the  Thames,  in  the  following  finest — 

From  hit  eeay  heft 
Old  Father  TAomMalvaaoad  his  vsvVend  beail  $ 
His  tresses  dropped  with  dews,  end  o'er  the  stieem 
His  shining  boras  diffiiaed  a  aoldiHi  gleam  i 
Graved  on  liis  nrn  appeared  uie  moon,  that  guides 
His  swelling  waten,  and  alternate ' tides  t 
Tlie  figured  streams,  in  waves  of  silver  relied^ 
And  on  her  banks  Augusta,  robed  in  gold ; 
Around  his  throne  the  sea-bom  brothers  stood* 
Who  swell  with  tributary  urns  his  flood : 
First,  the  famed  authors  of  his  andent  eems^ 
The  winding  I§it,  and  the  fruitful  Thames 
The  Kermet  swift,  for  silver  eels  renowned  i 
The  Loddon  slow,  with  verdant  alders  crowned ; 
CoUj  whoM  dark  streams  his  flowery  islands  lave  | 
And  chalky  Wey,  that  rolls  a  milky  wave; 
The  blue  transparent  Fandaiis  appean; 
The  gulfy  Lea  his  sedgy  tresses  rears; 
And  sullen  M0I4,  that  hides  his  diving  flood ; 
And  silent  Dargni^  stained  with  Danish  blood. 

From  Wallingford,  proceeding  in  our  course  down  the 
river,  we  come  first  to  Brightwell,  not  far  distant  from 
that  town;  then  to  Mongewell,  a  pretty  spot  on  the 
Oxfordshire  side  of  the  river;  then  to  the  village  of 
Moulsford,  backed  by  the  hills  of  Oxfordshire;  and  soon 
after  to  the  village  of  Goring,  <*  whose  romantic  and 
sequestered  situation,*'  it  has  Wn  observed,  *'  it  is  not 
possible  for  the  eye  of  observation  to  pass  unnoticed: 
the  Berkshire  hills  form  a  rich  variegated  back-ground, 
and  the  easy  ascent  of  the  lawns  in  front  happily  intersect 
the  principal  objects,  and  give  a  charming  relief  to  the 
whole.*'  Opposite  to  this  village,  on  the  Berkshire  side 
of  the  river,  we  meet  with  the  village  of  Streatiy,  and 
further  on,  those  of  Basselden  and  Pangboum,  near 
which  latter  place  the  river  widens  considerably,  and  is 
much  frequented  by  anglers,  ''who  occasionally  find 
equal  cause  for  an  exertion  of  their  patience  ana  of 
their  skill." 

Several  other  pretty  villages  occur,  on  both  banks  of 
the  river,  until  at  length  we  arrive  at  Reading,  the  prin- 
cipal town  in  Berkshire.  This  town  is  supposed  by 
Camden  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  great  quan« 
tities  of  fe)*n  that  grew  in  the  neighbourhood,  the  ancient 
name  of  which  was  redyng.  All  writers  agree,  that 
this  is  a  very  ancient  town,  although  they  do  not  agree 
as  to  who  was  its  founder.  It  appears  to  have  been  held 
in  succession  by  the  Saxons  and  the  Danes,  and  to  have 
been  the  seat  of  a  nunnery,  eetaWshed  hf  Ellriday  mother* 


fai-law  of  Edward  the  Martyr.  An  abbey,  afterwards 
Tery  celebratedf  was  founded  here  by  Henry  the  First, 
for  the  maintenanee  of  two  hii&dred  Benedietint  nonks, 
about  the  year  1120.  The  abbot  and  monks  vere 
bound,  by  an  obligation  in  their  charter,  to  provide  the 
poor  and  all  travellers  with  necessary  entertainme&t; 
whilct  on  the  other  hand,  they  were  invested  vith  tk 
power  of  trying  criminals,  and  with  the  privilege  of 
exemption  for  all  tolls  or  customs  for  the  lands  whick 
they  held. 

The  abbots  are  said  to  have  paid  rather  more  sties- 
tion  to  their  own  g^ood  living  than  to  the  support  of  tk 
poor;  and  an  odd  incident  is  told  by  Fuller,  as  hsring 
occurred  in  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth.  This 
monarch,  having  been  hunting  in  Windsor  Forest,  went 
down  about  dinner-time  to  the  abbey  of  Reading,  where, 
designating  himself  as  <me  of  the  king's  guard,  be  vas 
invited  to  the  abbot's  table.  His  appetite,  being  shar- 
pened by  exercise,  he  fed  so  heartily  from  ajointof  be^, 
as  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  master  of  the  oeremonies. 
«*  Well  fare  my  heart,"  quoth  the  abbot,  ^  I  would  gire 
a  hundred  pounds  *f  I  could  feed  so  heartily  on  beef  is 
thou  dost.  Alas  I  my  weak  and  squeasie  stomach  will 
hardly  digest  the  wing  of  a  chicken.*'  The  monarch, 
having  appeased  his  hunger,  thanked  the  abbot  for  his 
good  cheer,  and  departed  undiscovered.  8ome  weeb 
afterwards  the  abbot  was  arrested »  conveyed  to  Loodoo, 
sent  to  the  Tower,  and  allowed  no  food  for  several  days 
but  bread  and  water.  This  treatment,  together  vith  his 
fears  for  the  consequence  of  the  king's  displea8are,sooa 
reduced  his  pampered  condition  i  um^  et  last,  wben  a 
Joint  of  beef  was  laid  b^re  hinu  he  ate  like  a  famished 
ploughman.  When  he  bed  finished  hit  Hieelt  the  kiog. 
who  nad  been  a  hidden  spectator,  broke  ftcm  bis  con- 
cealment. ''My  lord,*'  said  he,  laughieg,  PpreseDtlr 
deposit  your  hundred  pieces  of  gold,  or  mse  ao  going 
hence  all  the  days  of  your  life.  I  bewe  been  ike  physi- 
cian to  cure  your  soueasie  atomachs  and  now,  as  I 
deserve,  demand  my  rer  for  so  doing.'*  The  abbot  paid 
this  enrioua  physician's  tm\  glad  to  obtain  his  libertj 
from  such  an  equivocal  host  as  Henry. 

Reading  is  situated  on  two  small  eminences,  vhose 
gentle  declivities  fall  into  a  pleasant  vale,  through  which 
the  branches  of  the  riyer  &ennet  flow  calmly  UQ  ^ 
unite  with  the  Thamee  et  the  extremity  of  tbe  ^vb. 
The  surrounding  country  is  agreeably  diversified  viu 
an  intermixture  of  hill  and  dale,  wood  and  water,  m 
ornamented  with  a  number  of  elegant  seats.  The  pro- 
spect from  the  Forebury,  (a  corruption  of  Fanxbowgi) 
a  beautiful  outwork  on  the  north-east  side  of  the  towa, 
is  very  extensive,  commanding  a  fine  view  over  a  ^' 
siderable  part  of  Oxfordshire. 

The  town  of  Reading,  being  the  chief  place  in  the 
county,  is  too  considerable  to  he  described  here;  andte 
shall  probably  devote  a  separate  article  to  It  hereafter. 
We  therefore  proceed  in  our  eastward  journey  along  the 
Thames. 

Afler  the  confluence  of  the  Kennet  with  the  Thiffl««. 
a  distance  of  three  miles  brings  us  to  Sunning  Bridge* 
which  is  situated  near  a  small  but  ancient  village  of  »^^ 
name.  Still  further  on  we  arrive  at  the  village  of  ^*'' 
grave ;  a  short  distance  from  which  is  seen  the  tovi 
of  Henley,  on  the  Oxfordshire  side  of  the  river.  W 
18  a  clean  and  cheerful  town,  situated  near  the  base  a  * 
cluster  of  hills,  in  one  of  the  most  agreeable  windiogf « 
the  Thames.  The  buildings  in  the  principal  street  tf* 
handsome  and  capacious,  though  far  from  r^lar. 
more  ancient  tenements,  in  the  several  minor  *^^"^ 
which  diverge  from  the  great  thoroughfare,  are  m^ 
and  incommodious ;  but  the  beauty  of  the  situation  ow 
induced  many  private  femilies  to  erect  elegant  h(W*es. 
and  a  spirit  of  improvement  is  manifested  ^^^^^r'al 
The  church  is  an  irregular  Gothic  structure,  chj«^ 
remarkable  for  a  punning  epitaph  on  Mr.  and  Mrs*  ^^'^ 
natives  of  the  town; 


IS410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINK 


ThU  Bhu,  In  jmis  and  wortk  wdl  imuM^ 
DeMh  kt  the  appointed  time  ovl  douM, 
The  ivy  fadea,  her  propp  onoe  gone  ; 
Thus  fallne,  both  lye  under  this  sUme. 
Butlye,  >Srr»b  to  spring,  gro^,  spread, 
When  evei7  tree  shall  riae  that's  dead. 
It  it  w«ll  known  how  fondly  erery  admirer  of  geniui 
estimatea  any  scrip  of  writing;  frnm  the  hand  of  a  dis- 
tinguished man;  and  it  ii  from  such  a  feeling  that  Hen- 
lev  praservei  the  memory  of  a  few  lines  written  by 
Snenatooe.     The  poet  nrote  with  a  diamond,  on  a  pane 
of  giMB  b  a  window  of  the  Red  Lion  Inn,  adjoining  the 
Thvoeai  tho  fallowing  lines: — ■ 

T«  thea,  &ir  Fteedom  1  I  retire^ 

From  flatteiT,  cardi,  and  dtcei  and  din. 
Nor  art  thou  found  in  maowona  highar 
Than  the  low  cat  or  country  inn. 
One  0f  the  moat  striking  objects  for  which  the  vidnity 
lit  Henley  ia  eelebralc<l,  is   Park  Place,  a  beautiful  seat 
in  the  oniikirts  of  the  town.     The  mansion  was  first  the 
reoidenee  of  Lord  Archibald  Hamilton,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  laat  oentnry;  and,  at  a  subsequent  period,  it  was 
inhabited  by  Prince  Frederic,  the  father  of  King  George 
ttaa  Third.     Marshal  Conway  and  the  Earl  of  Malmsbury 
became  in  succession  its  proprietors;  and  each  one  in- 
crcttsed  the  beauties  of  a  spot  which  hai  been  deemed 
on«  of  the  finest  of  the  kind  in  England.     It  haa  been 
laid  of  Park  Place,  that,  "  iU  sueceasive  and  erer-Tarying 
projectiona,   with    their    intervening    valley*,  ita  rich 
woods,  ipadous  groves,  wide-spreading  lawns,  and  bold 
dei^livities,  are  in  a  style  and  form  which  the  landscapea 
that  ar«  enlivened  and  reflected  by  the  Thames  do  not 
display  in  any  other  part  of  ita  course.     Nature  has  done 
much,  nor  has  taste  done  less:  the  genius  of  the   place 
ha*  everywhere  be«n  consulted,  and  the  resulting  con- 
formities completed.     Marshal   Conway  seems  ever  to 
have  had  in  view  the  precepts  of  Pope,  who  bad  himself 
broken  from  th«  formality  of  fashion,  and  stolen  a  peep 
of  nature  in  his  garden  at  Twickenham ; — 
To  build,  to  plant,  wbato»er  yon  Intend 
To  rear  ^e  eolomn  or  the  arch  to  bend. 
To  swell  the  lerraoe  or  to  sink  the  grot; 
In  aJl,  let  natnre  never  be  foi^t. 
Bnt  treat  the  goddess  like  a  roedeal  tuir. 
Nor  ever-dress,  nor  leave  her  wholly  bare; 
Let  not  each  bemty  eTetywhere  be  spied. 
Where  half  the  skill  is  decently  to  bide ; 
Be  gains  >U  points  who  pleasingly  confonnd^ 
Sarprises,  varies,  and  conceals  the  hounds. 
Oonault  the  genius  of  the  place  in  all, 
•        Tliat  tells  the  waten  or  to  rise  or  fall, 

Orhelpa  th'  ambicloos  htti  the  heav'ns  to  scale. 
Or  scoDpi  in  drellng  thectrea  the  vale, 
Cbll*  in  the  eountr?,  oatehM  ep'irtng  gladee, 
Joins  williBg  woods,  and  varies  shades  from  shade* ) 
Hew  breaks,  or  now  direela  ih'  intending  lins^ 
And  in  one  whole  involves  the  &ir  deeigna. 


It  has  been  a  maxim  with  me  to  admit  of  an  ea^  lecon- 
eiliation  with  a  person,  whose  offence  proceeded  from  no 
depraritT  of  heart ;  but  where  I  was  convinced  it  did  so,  to 
forrgo,  ^r  my  own  sake,  all  opportunitie*  of  revenge;  to 
foi^t  th*  persona  of  my  enemies  as  moch  at  I  was 
able,  and  to  call  to  remembrance,  in  their  place,  the  more 
pltasinx  idea  of  mv  Mends.  I  am  convinoed  that  I  hare 
'    iredno  small  share  of  h^pineai  bom  this  prinoipte.— 


Is  «tory-tellii^,  besides  the  marking  distinct  characters, 
and  selecting  pertinent  circamstances,  it  Is  likewise  neces- 
mjy  tn  leave  off  in  time,  and  end  smarth'.  So  that  there 
ia  n  kind  of  drama  in  the  forming  of  a  etory,  and  the 
mnnner  of  conducting  and  pointing  It  h  the  same  as  In  an 
epiETim.  It  is  a  miserable  thing,  after  one  hath  raised  the 
npectation  of  the  company  by  homoroas  charaetera,  and  a 
pnt'y  conceit,  to  pursue  the  matter  too  &r.  There  ia  no 
tttTvM  ing,  and  how  poor  is  it  for  a  eloryteller  to  end  his  re- 
lation by  saying  "that's  alll " — Stekle. 


OPTICAL  ILLUSIONS    IH. 
n«l>  Kg.B. 


iper  on  this  mbject,  we  de»cribed  several 
experimenta  which  ihow,  that  bodies  in  rotation  may, 
under  certain  circumstancea,  appear  to  the  eye  to  be 
atationary,  and  that  by  a  further  modification  of  the 
apparatus  employed,  the  straight  lines  constituting  or 
forming  part  of  that  object,  may  appear  as  if  curved. 
In  illustration  of  the  latter  fact,  we  gave  cuts  showing 
the  curved  forms  given  to  the  twelve  radii,  six  red  and 
■ix  black,  of  which  a  star-like  disk  is  formed.  We  now 
proceed  to  other  figures. 

A  beautiful  bat  very  simple  change  in  the  apparent 
figure  of  a  glrialed  diss,  is  made  by  merely  causing  it  to 
revolve,  and  viewing  it  in  the  usual  way  without  re- 
flexion from  a  mirror.  Fig.  4,  represents  a  disk  painted 
in  this  way  with  fifteen  stripes,  eight  white  and  seven 
black,  but  of  course  any  two  colours  would  do.  If  this 
be  made  to  rotate,  it  presents  the  appearance  of  Fig.  5, 
in  which  we  have  a  centra!  white  spol,  surrounded  by 
six  concentric  circles,  three  white  and  three  black.  The 
law  which  regulates  the  production  of  theae  rings 
is  probably  as  follows; — Whatever  tint  predominates 
at  any  point  of  the  disk,  (he  rapidity  of  rotation 
causes  the  same  tint  to  appear  at  every  other  point 
equidistant  from  the  ceatre;  and  to  ascertain  what  that 
tint  would  be,  describe  a  concentric  circle  throngh  that 
point,  and  b^  adding  the  dark  portiona  through  whith  it 
would  pass  mto  one  series,  and  the  light  portiona  into 

refe^  wiii 

result.  The  outlines  are,  as  may  be  supposed,  not 
clearly  defined,  but  melt  into  each  other. 

In  the  instance  represented  in  our  cut,  the  dark  stripes 
fbrm  an  odd  number,  and  the  proportion  of  white  ia 
greater  than  that  of  the  black ;  from  which  result  the 
production  of  rings,  alternately  light  and  dark.  But 
suppose  the  proportions  of  the  two  colours  to  be  exactly 
equal,  that  the  disk  is  poised  exactly  on  its  centre,  and 
that  it  be  veiy  carefiilly  rotated  without  the  slightest 
eicentricity  of  motion, — then  the  stripes,  radii,  chec- 
qucrs,  or  whatever  figures  occupy  the  surface  of  the  disk, 
(except  concentric  circles,)  blend  into  one  uniform  tint, 
midway  between  the  coloun  of  the  disk,  and  entirely 
free  from  rings. 

From  this  experiment  we  may  deduce; — 

1.  That  when  a  disk  ia  so  divided,  that  with  any 
radius,  a  circle  would  pass  through  equal  portions  of  the 
two  colours  with  which  the  disk  is  painted,  an  universal 
blending  of  colour  will  result: 

2.  l^at,  if  at  any  part  of  the  disk  a  balance  of  colour 
be  not  observed  at  opposite  side*  of  the  centre,  concen- 
tric rings  will  result : 

6.  That,  as  the  non-existence  of  that  balance  depends 
upon  a  definite  mode  of  construction,  the  number  and 
breadth  of  the  rings  can  be  computed  : 

4.  If  the  equipoise  be  disturbed  by  extraneous  causes, 
such  as  imperfect  division,  or  excentricity  of  adjuatment, 
the  ring's  are  unoertain,  and  not  eaaily  computed. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  many  pleasing  experiment* 
may  be  made  with  rotating  diaka,  even  wben  viewed  in 
a  common  way.  We  now  revert  to  the  use  of  the  re- 
flecting mirror. 

675—8 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Jtm  19, 


When  the  BtrUted  disk  spoken  of  above,  is  Been  by 
means  of  the  mirror  apparahis,  it  assumes  the  form  of 
fig.  6,  The  surface  is  laid  out  in  curved  concentric 
biuidB  of  the  greatest  symmetry,  the  number  and  breadth 
of  which  are  the  same  as  in  the  rectilinear  striss.  The 
centre  of  these  concentric  segments,  which  is  at  the  axial 
end  of  the  slit,  is  either  at  or  exterior  to  the  edge  of  the 
disk,  according  to  the  position  of  the  eye.  The  figure 
here  delineated  is  produced  when  the  slit  cuts  the  striee 
at  right  angles.  '  When  the  slit  is  parallel  with  the  strix, 
the  figure  is  totally  changed ;  for  the  bands  appear  all 
rectilinear;  but  their  parallelism  to  each  other  is  de- 
■troyed,  as  thCT  all  seem  to  diverge  from  a  point  situate 
at  the  axial  end  of  the  slit.  When  the  slit  is  inclined 
at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  striie,  the  image  presents  the 
■bell-like  form  represented  in  fig.  7. 

Fig.  B  Fig.  •. 


A  little  consideration  will  show  that  changes  similar 
ta  these  in  principle,  but  modified  in  detail  according  to 
.  UTCumstsQces,  would  follow  from  the  uae  of  any  other 
symmetrical  figure-  We  shall  therefore  content  our- 
■elves  with  giving  illustrations  of  one  more  example. 
Fig.  8  represents  a  chequered  diek,  which,  when  viewed 
■imply  while  rotating,  preaenta  a  series  of  rings  some- 
what resembling  those  in  fig.  5,  the  only  difference 
being  a  more  gentle  blending  of  the  tints  of  the  concen- 
tric rings;  but,  when  the  image  is  viewed  through  a 
slit  in  the  disk,  as  reflected  from  the  mirror,  it  presentE 
the  appearance  of  a  tesselated  globe,  the  illusion  occa- 
sioned by  which  is  so  perfect,  that  an  effort  of  the  mind 
is  required  to  preserve  the  idea  of  a  flat  surface.  The 
appearance  of  the  chequers,  when  viewed  through  a  slit 
parallel  with  the  rectilinear  divisions,  is  such  aa  is  repre- 
sented  in  fig.  9;  evidently  partaking  of  the  character  of 
fig.  G,  the  difference  being  due  to  the  division  of  the 
Btrise  into  squares.  If  the  slit  he  inclined  45°  from  the 
^visions,  all  the  diverging  lines  proceeding  from  C  cut 
the  diagonals  of  the  chequers,  instead  of  marking  their 
boundaries. 

Every  change  in  the  mode  of  forming  the  slit  in  the 
disk,  produces  a  new  modification  of  figure ; — thus. 

If  the  disk  be  diametrically  divided  into  two  halves, 
exactly  alike,  and  the  slit  be  on  the  line  of  division, 
the  figure  is  altogether  unchanged ;  but,  if  it  be  at  right 
angles  to  that  line,  the  half  which  contains  the  slit 
encroaches  on  the  other  half,  by  giving  a  curvature  to 
the  line  of  division ;  thus  presenting  the  gibbous  form  of 
a  three-quarter  moon. 

All  the  figures  produced  by  this  mirror  apparatus  are 
the  same  in  principle  as  those  produced  by  two  revolving 


disks,  the  latter  arrangement  prcsentinir  fifrures  moiiN 
in  every  imaginable  way,  by  one  or  more  of  the  fivctto. 
ditions  before  stated.  As  an  insUnce,  we  may  mcntiot, 
that,  when  two  disks  are  rotating  with  unequal  velodiifs, 
the  nucleus  towards  which  the  curves  tend,  or  baa 
which  they  seem  to  spring,  oscillates  to  and  fro;  mi  lit 
curves  themselves  vary  in  their  number  and  respectin 
distances  from  each  other. 

The  mode  in  which  the  phenomena  before  desoibrd, 
i.t.,  the  Btationary  appearance  of  a  rapidly  rotating  dill, 
was  explained,  will,  with  some  modifications,  apply  here. 
In  the  former,  the  light  comes  and  goes  before  lie  diii 
baa  time  to  move  through  any  sensible  space;  but  in  tk 
experiments  where  the  light  of  a  lamp  flaabea  upon  ibt 
painted  disk  through  the  slitted  disk;  or  where  the  m 
is  placed  behind  the  slittcd  disk,  and  lookB  through iiu 
the  painted  one;  or  where  the  eye,  placed  behbdihe 
disk,  looks  through  tbe  slit  at  the  image  reflected  fm 
the  mirror, — the  duration  of  the  light  is  greater  thus  iht 
electric  light,  or  than  that  from  the  phosphuretted  hf- 
drogen,  &C.,  and  the  disk  doet  pass  through  a  krM 
space  during  that  time.  Now,  as  the  circumferenre  rf 
the  disk  necessarily  moves  quicker  than  the  centrt,  that 
is,  as  the  velocity  decreases  from  the  circumference  to 
the  centre,  a  particular  spot,  black  for  example-  sw  " 
one  point  of  the  circumference  will  have  moved  ihroufi 
several  degrees,  as  the  slit  passes  the  eye;  uhile,  ii 
or  near  the  centre,  the  space  gone  through  is  smwIj 
appreciable.  This,  t<^ther  with  the  peraiatence  of  im- 
pression on  the  retina,  will  account  for  the  cuniiim 
given  to  tbe  image  of  the  lines. 

An  amusing  modification  of  the  experiment  inijM 
made  in  the  following  manner : — In  a  plain  disk,  nl  • 
■lit  radially  nearly  from  tbe  centre  to  the  circuoifemft- 
Below  and  at  right  angles  to  tbe  slit  write  in  htp  cii- 
ractera  any  word  or  words,  such  as  "LIGHT,  a  " 
inverted  position,  so  that  when  seen  in  a  plane  reiiwr- 
the  reflected  image  may  be  erect,  and  in  its  wm 
position.  On  placing  the  eye  behind  the  disk,  Ihe  wed 
will  be  seen  through  the  slit  uninterruptedly,  provided  at 
dUk  perform  more  than  six  revolutions  per  second,  h  i 
this  case,  the  word  is  seen  m  a  curved  fono,  wbichu 
evidenUy  due  to  the  principle  before  explained,  and  tw 
letters  are  all  of  the  same  size.  Whereas,  if  the  'i"  "  ' 
parallel  with  the  order  of  the  letters,  the  latter  >pp«'  I 
gradually  to  increase  in  siie,  from  the  axis  io  the  ogttr 
end  of  the  slit.  .        | 

In  these  experiments,  the  disks  ahould  be  illnminiitei 
by  a  direct  light  falling  upon  tbem ;  and  their  bacb,  •W" 
tbe  eye  is  placed,  should  be  blackened  all  over. 

I  LOOK  upon  every  mm  m  a  anicide  from  the  nmn"*}  ■ 
he   takes   tbe   diceboi   desperately  in   his  hand,  wJ  « 

that  foUowB  in  bis  career  from  that  fatal  time  u  ""J  , 
sharpening  the  dagger  before  he  strikes  it  to  bia  MBl--  , 
CniiBEKi.u«n. 

Whk.  I  walk  in  the  street^  I  nse  the  foUowiM  n«WnJ 
maxim,  (viz^  that  he  is  the  true  poaeessor  of  a  thing  "     i 
enjoys  it,  and  not  ha  that  owns  it  without  the  enjojn"^   , 
of  it,)  to  convince  myself  Uiat  I  have  a  ptoptrty  lO  IK 
gay  part  of  aU  the  gUt  chariots  that  I  meet,  whi«"  ";   ' 
eiai  as  amnaementa  designed  to  delight  my  eyes,  mu  '" 
unagination  of  those  kind  people  who  sit  b  them  p". 
attired  only  to  pleaae  me.     I  have  a  real,  and  they  wi}^ 
imaginaiy  pleasure   from   their  exterior  embeliw™^ 
Upon  the  same  principle,  I  have  discovered  that  i  ^1^ 
natural  proprietor  of  ail  the  diamond  necklaces,  the  ooW 
stars,  hrocaaea,  and  embroidered  clothes,  which  1  fj 
birth-night,  as  riving  more  natural  delight  to  the  «p«;iu»' 
than  to  those  that  wear  them.     And  I  look  on  Uie  t<«"> 
and  ladies  »  so  many  paroquets  in  an  aviary,  or  ti"''^  ^ 
garden,  dengned  purely  for  my  diversion.    A  P""^  j 
pictures,  a  cabinet,  or  fibrary,  that  I  have  free  accesa  lo, 
think  my  own.     In  a  word,  all  that  1  desire  is  the  iif  " 
things,  let  who  will  hav«  the  keeping  of  Ibera.    "."  ™  . 
maxTm  I  am  grown  one  of  the  richest  men  in  GreJil  '>""V 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAlf  MAGAZINE. 


237 


ON  CHESS. 
Xn.  Biographical  Skbtch  ov  Phiuopr. 


OBXSS-FAWN,  AS  DBtlOMBD  BT  FLAXMAN. 


Tha  TBliant  guards,  their  mindi  on  baToe  bent, 
nn  the  next  square,  and  watch  the  royal  tent: 
Though  weak  their  spears,  though  dwar&ih  be  their  height, 
Compaet  tfaej  more,  the  bulwadc  of  the  fight 

'    Suft  William  Jonxs. 


It  lias  been  remarked,  as  a  curioos.  circumstancey  that 
while  the  talent  for  playing  chess  bears  no  relation  to 
the  general  talent  of  the  player,  yet  that  every  one  has 
an  individual  maximum  of  talent  for  chess,  to  which,  by 
study  and  practice  he  may  be  brought  but  beyond  which 
he  cannot  pass. 

This  remark  ought  to  be  extended  to  every  mental 
pursuit,  for  it  expresses  a  principle  of  our  nature,  in- 
stead of  a  curious  solitary  fact.  Those  whose  chief 
object  it  is  to  improve  their  mental  powers,  always  find 
delightful  occupation  in  striving  after  excellence.  We 
are  most  fortunately  denied  the  power  af^r«seeing  how 
far  our  faculties  will  carry  us  in  the  cultivation  of  a  parti- 
cular subject,  but  by  slow  degrees  we  gradually  get  nearer 
and  nearer  to  a  certain  point,  beyond  which  we  find  we 
do  not  advance.  Before  this  point,  however,  is  attained, 
we  can  appreciate  the  powers  of  the  great  masters  in  the 
thing  studied,  for  doubtless  it  requires  a  certain  portion 
of  the  same  faculties  to  appreciate  excellence  as  to  attain 
it,  and  if  we  cannot  equal,  we  are  at  least  qualified,  to 
adnure. 

The  general  progress  of  knowledge  is  for  the  most 
part  made  by  those  gifted  men  who  appear  at  intervals 
tew  and  far  between,  and  excel  all  others  in  the  particular 
pursuit  to  which  their  inclination  leads  them.  We  look 
back  upon  such  men  with  respect  and  admiration:  we 
desire  to  know  their  history, — their  modes  of  study, — 
their  general  conduct  in  the  world  and  in  private  life, — 
and  we  thus  fondly  imagine  that  by  endeavouring  to 
imitate  them  we  may  gain  some  of  the  skill  for  which 
thej  were  so  famed.  It  would  be  unwise  to  check  such 
feelings,  but  it  is  necessary  that  young  people  should  be 
cautious  in  the  choice  of  their  models :  they  should  re- 
member that  the  most  eminent  men,  notwithstanding 
their  eminence,  have  still  the  errors  and  weaknesses  of 
oar  nature,  and  that  these,  being  often  mistaken  for  the 
offshoots  of  genius,  are  more  easily  adopted  than  their 
better  parts,  and  prove  exceedingly  injurious  to  their 
imitators. 

The  subject  of  our  present  notice  is  known  to  us  only 
as  a  kind,  amiable  man,  who,  had  he  not  been  the  best 
chess  player  of  his  own,  and,  perhaps,  of  any  other  time. 
Would  probably  have  been  known  as  an  eminent 
musician. 

Andrk  Danican  Philidor  was  bom  in  the  year 
1726»  at  DreuXy  a  small  town  about  forty-five  miles 


from  Paris.  His  grandfather,  whose  name  was  Danican, 
was  celebrated  as  an  oboe  player  at  the  court  of  Louis 
the  Thirteenth.  An  Italian  musician  named  Philidor 
was  admired  at  that  court  for  his  performance  on  the 
same  instrument;  and  after  his  departure  the  king  gave 
M.  Danican  the  soubriquet  or  nickname  of  Philidor, 
which  afterwards  continued  as  an  appendage  to  the 
family  name.  The  father,  and  several  of  the  brothers 
of  Philidor,  belonged  to  the  band  of  Louis  the  Fourteenth 
and  Louis  the  Fifteenth. 

At  the  age  of  six  years  Philidor  was  admitted  into 
the  choir  of  the  Chapel  Royal  at  Versailles,  where  being 
obliged  to  attend  daily,  he  had  an  opportunity  of  learning 
chess  from  the  musicians  in  waiting,  of  whom  there  were 
about  eighty.  Games  of  chance  not  being  allowed  in 
the  sanctuary,  a  long  table  inlaid  with  six  chess-boards 
was  provided,  with  which  they  amused  themselves  during 
their  leisure  hours. 

In  1737,  when  Philidor  had  only  completed  his 
eleventh  year  he  produced  a  motet  for  a  full  choir, 
which  so  much  pleased  the  grand  monarque  that  he 
gave  him  f^ye  louis,  and  thanked  him  for  nis  perform- 
ance: this  encouraged  the  lad  to  compose  four  more 
motets ;  but  we  do  not  learn  that  the  royal  condescension 
was  followed  by  any  more  solid  acknowledgment;  for 
at  the  age  of  fourteen,  when  his  voice  began  to  change, 
and  he  quitted  the  band,  we  find  him  submitting  to  tiie 
drudgery  of  copying  music  for  his  subsistence,  and 
giving  a  few  lessons.  When  he  left  the  chapel  he  had 
the  reputation  of  being  the  most  skilful  chess  player  of 
the  whole  band.  In  1740  several  motets  of  his  composi- 
tion were  performed  at  the  famous  concert  spirituel,  esta- 
blished by  his  uncle  in  1726,  and  these  were  favourably 
received  by  the  public  as  the  productions  of  a  child,  who 
was  already  master  of  music  and  of  chess.  At  this  time 
Philidor  might  have  established  for  himself  a  lucrative 
practice  as  teacher  of  music;  but  the  fascinations  of  the 
chequered  field  caused  him  to  neglect  his  musical  pupils, 
and  they,  in  consequence,  soon  procured  other  more 
attentive  masters.  This  induced  Philidor  to  pursue  the 
study  of  chess,'  rather  than  that  of  music.  At  this  time 
the  game  was  played  in  almost  every  coffee-house  in 
Paris.  M.  de  Kermur,  sire  de  LegaUe,  was  then 
esteemed  the  best  chess  player  in  France,  and  young 
Philidor  sought  every  opportunity  of  receiving  his  in- 
structions, by  which  he  improved  so  essentially,  that  in 
three  years  he  played  as  well  as  his  master. 

M.  de  Legalle  once  asked  Philidor  whether  he  had 
ever  tried  to  play  by  memory  without  seeing  the  board. 
The  pupil  replied  that  he  had  calculated  moves,  and 
even  whole  games  at  night  in  bed,  and  he  thought  he 
could  do  it.  He  immediately  played  a  game  with  the 
Abb6  Chenard,  which  he  won  without  seeing  the  board, 
and  without  hesitation  upon  any  of  the  moves.  This 
circumstance  was  much  talked  of  in  Paris,  and  con- 
sequently he  often  repeated  this  method  of  playing. 

Finding  it  so  easy  to  play  a  single  game  without 
seeing  the  board,  he  offered  to  play  two  games  at  the 
same  time.  This  feat  he  performed  in  a  public  coffee- 
room,  and  won  both  games.  In  the  middle  of  one  of 
the  games  a  false  move  was  designedly  made,  which 
after  a  great  number  of  moves,  he  discovered,  and 
placed  the  piece  where  it  ought  to  have  been  at  first. 

In  1745  Philidor  went  to  Holland  to  join  some 
musical  brethren  in  a  scheme  for  giving  concerts  to  the 
Dutch;  but  the  death  of  one  of  the  party  terminated  the 
plan,  and  Philidor  found  himself  alone  in  a  foreign  land 
without  means  to  support  himself.  His  skill  in  chess 
and  in  Polish  draughts  procured  him  enough  to  supply 
his  wants:  he  gave  lessons  in  chess  to  the  Prince  of 
Waldeck,  who  then  commanded  the  Dutch  army,  and 
after  remaining  about  a  year,  chiefly  at  the  Hague,  he 
left  Holland. 

In  1747  he  visited  England  for  the  first  time.  The 
principal  London  chess  club  then  held  its  meetings  at 


fiSS 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Jcim  19» 


Old  Slaughter's  cofee-bonae  ia  St  Martin's  Laa«.  8hr 
Abraham  Janssen  was  then  the  best  player  in*  England, 
and  with  the  exception  of  M.  de  Legalle,  probably  the 
best  player  Philidor  ever  encountered.  After  remaining 
about  a  year  in  England,  Philidor  returned  to  Holland, 
where  he  composed  his  celebrated  Anafynsofike  Game 
of  Chess.  At  Aix-la-Chapelle  he  was  advised  bv  Lord 
Sandwich  to  visit  Eyndhoven,  a  village  between  Bois-le- 
duc  and  Maestricht,  where  the  British  anny  was  en- 
camped. He  there  had  the  honour  of  playing  with  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  who,  not  only  himself  subscribed 
liberally  for  a  number  of  copies  of  the  work,  but  pro- 
cured many  other  subscribers.  The  analysis  was  pub- 
lished in  French,  in  London,  1 749,  and  has  been  since 
reprinted  or  translated  in  almost  every  capital  of 
Europe*. 

Phuidor  frequently  played  chess  at  the  house  of  the 
French  ambassador,  the  Duke  of  Mirepoix,  who  gave  a 
weekly  dinner  to  the  lovers  of  the  game,  at  which  he 
himself  was  expert.  The  king  of  Prussia  also  enjoyed 
the  reputation  of  being  a  chess-player,  and  in  1 7dl  Phili- 
dor visited  Berlin,  by  invitation  of  that  monarch,  who 
took  great  interest  in  seeing  Philidor  play,  although  he 
did  not  encounter  him  himself. 

During  these  chess  excursions  Philidor  did  not  neglect 
his  musical  profession.     In  1 758  he  set  to  music  Con- 

Cjve's  Ode  to  Harmony^  which  was  performed  in 
ndon.  The  great  Handel  was  present  at  the  per- 
formance, and  approved  of  the  choruases,  but  thought 
the  melody  defective.  Two  years  afler  he  returned  to 
Paris  with  the  intention  of  devoting  himself  entirely  to 
his  musical  profession :  he  composed  some  sacred  music, 
and  solicited  the  appointment  of  maitre  de  la  chapeUsy 
but  as  his  productions  were  thought  bv  the  Court  to 
savour  too  much  of  the  Italian  style,  his  application 
was  unsuccessAil. 

It  would  be  out  of  place  here  to  follow  Philidor 
through  his  musical  career.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  his 
compositions  comprise  more  than  twenty-five  complete 
operas,  some  of  which  were  performed .  with  eminent 
success,  besides  numerous  other  musical  publications. 
M.  de  Laborde,  in  his  voluminous  Essay  on  Music,  does 
not  hesitate  to  pronounce  Philidor  one  of  the  greatest 
of  French  composers. 

Philidor  visited  England  for  the  fourth  time  in  1769. 
He  found  chess  had  now  become  ikshionable :  a  new 
club  had  been  formed  at  the  Salopian  Coffee  House, 
where  he  frequently  played.  Anotner  club  was  after- 
wards formed  in  1^.  James's  Street,  next  door  to  the 
Thatched-house  Tavern.  The  members  of  the  latter 
club  formed  a  subscription  among  themselves  in  order 
to  remunerate  Philiaor  for  attending  their  meetings. 
The  best  players  in  this  club,  and  at  that  time  in  London, 
were  Count  Bmhl,  the  Hon.  H.  ConwaV  afterwards 
Lord  Henry  Seymour,  Lord  Harrowby,  Mr.  Bowdler, 
and  Mr.  Jennings.  In  playing  over  the  board,  the  pawn 
and  two  moves,  or  the  knight  in  exchange  for  the  first 
two  moves,  were  the  fair  odds  between  these  gentlemen 
and  Philidor  f. 

The  first  match  played  by  Philidor  in  public  without 
seeing  the  board  is  recorded  in  the  Mortiing  Post,  of 
May  28,  1782.  This  notice  is  curious  as  showing  the 
great  sensation  occasioned  by  an  exhibition  which  was 
then  regarded  as  equally  new  and  wonderful. 

The  celebrated  M.  Philidor,  whose  unrivalled  cxoellenee 
at  the  game  of  chess  has  long  l)een  distinguished,  invited 
the  members  of  the  chess  club,  and  the  amateurs  in  general 

^  Philidor  brought  out  a  Mcond  ftditkm  of  this  work  In  1777,  with 
oonaiderable  idditionB.  Of  the  ncuMrons  translatiimi  of  tkb  work  into 
EnglMbk  the  editioQ'bj  Mr.  George  Walker  is  the  best 

+  Mnny  of  the  games  thusplajed  were  preserved  in  MSS.  hj  ihe  Rev. 
Georjte  Atwood,  a  pnpil  of  Pinfidor.  These  MSS.  a  kiw  yetcn  ago  came 
fiiriumit«;lT  into  the  poeaeasion  of  Mr.  George  Walker,  who  has  prepared 
frofn  them  a  small  volume  which  every  amateur  ought  to  pwieraB      It  ia 


entitled,  ** Games  at  Chess,  played  bj  Philidor  and  his  Contemporaries: 
with  Note*  and  Addfttiopa.    9f  Qmug$  WtOm,    LooAoo,  IdM^ 


of  that  arduous  amusement  to  be  present  on  Saturday  last 
at  a  spectacle  of  the  most  curious  kind,  as  it  was  to  display 
a  very  wonderful  fiKulty  of  the  human  mind,  which  fiRulty, 
howevery.  is  perhaps  at  present  exdustvely  his  own. 

In  consequence  of  this  invitation,  thirty  gentlemen  and 
three  ladies  attended  M.  Philidor,  at  Parsloe's,  in  St.  James*! 
street,  where,  in  their  presence,  with  his  eyes  dosed,  he 
contended  with  two  gentlemen  at  the  same  time,  who  had 
each  a  chess  hoard,  and  who  may  be  deemed  amone  the  first 
players  in  Europe  next  himself.  Count  Bmhl  was  his  adver- 
sary at  one  board,  and  Mr.  Bowdler  at  the  other,  and  to 
each  was  allowed  the  first  move.  The  games  lasted  ona 
hour  and  forty  minutes.  The  game  with  the  Count  wu 
drawn,  and  Mr.  Bowdler  won  the  other,  owing  to  the  exact 
similarity  in  the  openings,  for  if  the  two  games  had  less  re- 
sembled each  other,  M.  Philidor  woul(^  iiave  preserved  a 
distinct  recollection. 

The  idea  of  the  intelleetual  labo^  that  was  passing  in  the 
mind  of  M.  Philidor  suggested  a  gainful  perception  to  the 
spectator,  which,  however,  was  quite  unnecessary,  as  h^sd- 
dom  paused  half  a  mintaej  and  seemed  to  undergo  little  men- 
tal &tigue,  being  somewhat  jocose  through  the  whole,  and 
uttering  occasionally  many  diverting  pleasantries.  The 
whole  passed  in  the  F i^ench  language. 

When  the  intrinsic  difficulty  of  the  game  is  oonsiderBd, 
as  well  as  the  great  skill  of  his  adversaries,  who  of  coorae 
conducted  it  with  the  most  subtle  complications,  this  exer- 
tion seems  absolutely  miraculous,  and  certainly  deserves  to 
be  recorded  as  a  proof,  at  once  interesting  and  astonishipg, 
of  the  power  of  human  intelligence. 

The  periodical  called  The  World  of  the  same  date, 
after  giving  similar  details  of  the  match  concludes  thus : 

This  brief  article  is  the  record  of  more  than  spori  and 
(kshion :  it  is  a  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  man,  and  n 
should  be  hoarded  among  the  best  samples  of  humaa 
memory,  tiU  memory  shall  be  no  more. 

The  ability  of  fixing  on  the  mind  the  entire  plan  of  two 
chess-tables,  with  the  multiplied  vicissitudes  of  two-and- 
thirty  pieces  in  possible  employment  upon  each  table^  that 
a  man  ^ould  maintain  the  two  games  at  onM,  witheit 
seeing  either,  but  merely  from  the  report  of  move  after 
move  upon  both ;  and  tnis  contendina  not  with  bad  SAJ 
inexperienced  play,  but  with  two  oi  the  best  and  most 
practised  pla^rers  in  Europe, — all  this  makes  un  a  wonder 
of  such  magnitude  as  could  not  be  credited,  pernaps  would 
not  be  crediole,  without  reneated  experience  of  the  iad. 

This  has  been  had  irom  If.  Philidor  again  and  again,  but 
never  with  more  stmggle,  for  his  antagonists  were  Coast 
Brahl  and  Mr.  Bowdler.  They  never  were  nnnv  soK^kBi: 
how  much  resource  there  was,  and  guarded  entcvpsiae,  inay 
be  imagined  from  the  time  Uiey  took  in  placing.  Duiiaf 
the  whole  of  that  period  the  memory  oi  thia  astoni^itf 
man  was  never  for  a  moment  absent  nor  confused :  he  madt 
not  one  mistake. 

These  wonderful  performances  procured  Philidor 
more  fatne  than  profit;  and  he  himself  seems  to  hare 
been  roused  to  the  conviction  that  his  exertions  would 
have  been  better  directed  had  he  acquired  a  competence 
for  himself  and  family  instead  of  such  unrivalled  skill 
in  chess:  for  we  are  told  that  he  would  never  allow  any 
one  of  his  numerous  family  to  learn  the  game.  M'^ith  a 
wife  and  nineteen  children  entirely  dependent  upon  his 
labours  for  support,  he  found  it  difficult  for  many  years 
to  procure  them  more  than  a  very  meagre  income. 

During  the  latter  years  of  Philidor*s  life  he  continued 
to  reside  in  LfOndon  in  the  winter,  and  with  his  family 
at  Paris  in  the  summer,  occasionally  playing  matches  in 
public  without  seeing  the  board,  and  generally  winning 
of  the  best  players  opposed  to  him.  The  following 
notice  appeared  in  the  London  newspapers  in  May,  17 S3: 

Yesterday  at  the  cheas-club  in  St.  James's  Street,  Mr. 
Philidor  pmormed  one  of  those  wonderful  exhibitions  for 
which  he  is  so  much  celebrated.  He  plaved  three  different 
games  at  once  without  seeing  either  of  the  tables  His 
opponents  were  Count  Bmhl,  Mr.  Bowdler,  (the  two  besf 

flayers  in  London)  and  Mr.  Maseres.  He  defeated  Conn. 
Iruhl  in  one  hour  and  twenty  minutes,  and  Mr.  Maseres  in 
two  hours;  Mr.  Bowdler  reduced  his  game  to  a  drawn 
battle  in  an  hour  and  three  quarters.  To  those  who  under- 
stand chess,  this  exertion  of  M.  Philidor's  abilities  mn^t 
appear  one  of  the  greatest  of  which  the  human  memory  is 


1341.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


239 


susceptible.  He  goes  thiougli  it  with  astoniabing  •ccuracy 
and  often  corrects  mistakes  in  those  who  ha?e  the  board 
before  them. 

Between  the  years  1788  and  1798  Philidor  played 
eight  smitlar  matches,  each  match  coaaisting,  in  general, 
of  three  games;  and  m  1792  two  such  matches  were 
played  m  the  presence  of  the  Turkish  ambaasadof .  In 
1 795  when  he  was  at  the  age  of  aixty-nine  he  played 
three  blindfold  matches  in  pubhc,  the  last  of  vhidi  was 
thus  announced  in  the  daily  papers: 

Chess  Clttb,  ITJS,  Parsloe's,  St.  James's  SmEBT.-By 
|»rticular  desire.  Mens.  Philidor,  positively  for  the  very  la/t 
tune,  wiU  play  on  Saturday,  the  20th  of  June,  at  2  o^lock 
precisely,  three  games  at  onoe  against  three  good  ches^- 
Fi  ^!f .'J*^?  *^f  ^^®°*  withoutseemg  either  of  the  Wds,  and 
tlic  tJiud  looking  oyer  the  table.    He  most  respectfully 

-?u^u  .  *^^  members  of  the  chosHjlub  to  honour  him 
With  their  presence.  Ladies  and  gentlemen  not  belonginir 
to  the  club  may  be  proFided  with  tickets  at  the  above-ielS 
tioned  house  to  see  the  match,  at  five  shillings  each. 

On  Saturday,  August  29th,  1795,  the  fbUowing  sad 
mteUigence  appeared  in  the  daily  papers. 

Moffs.  Philidor,  the  Chess-Platsb. 

Op  Monday  last,  the  24th  of  August,  this  long  cdebnted 
foreigner  made  his  last  move—into  the  other  world.  For 
two  months,  he  was  kept  alive  merely  by  art  and  the  kind 
attentions  ot  an  old  and  worthy  friend.  To  the  last  moment 
of  his  existence  he  enjoyed,  though  nearly  seventy  yeaw  of 
JNge,  a  strong  and  retentive  memory,  which  long  rendered 
him   remarkable  m  the  circle  of  his  acquamtance  in  this 

M.  PhUidor  was  a  member  of  the  chess-dub  near  thirty 
yea«,  and  was  a  man  of  those  meek  quaUties  that  lendered 
turn  not  less  esteemed  as  a  companion,  than  admired  for 
extraordinary  skdl  m  the  mme  of  chess,  for  which  he  was 
pre-emmenUy  distmguish^. 

^Ja^?^^^  ^'^^  T""^^  ^""^  ^^  P^*yed  two  games  blind- 
fold at  the  same  time,  against  two  excellent  cless-playere. 
and  was  decbred  the  victor.  He  was,  besides,  an  adkiibk 
musicuui  and  a  composer. 

What  seemed  to  have  shaken  the  poor  old  man's  constitu- 
tion, and  to  have  precipitated  his  exit,  was  not  beingable 


mated  to  him  Uiat  he  was  denounced  by  the  blood-Siisty 
ajmmittee  of  French  Revolutionists  as  ^nupeeUdekarauJ. 
i?rom  the  moment  he  was  made  acquainted  with  this  cir- 
^msUnce  he  became  a  martyr  to  grfef-his  philosophy  for- 
■ook  hua— his  tears  weie  mcesaant-and  he  sank  mto  the 
grave.  ^^  ^^  "*■ 


We  caanot  conclude  the  first  part  of  oor  course  of 
articles  on  chess  without  offering  a  few  remarks  to  the 
young  player. 

^  While  we  estimate  chess  as  decidedly  the  best  of  Rames. 
inasmuch  jus  it  gives  a  wholesome  exercise  and  discipline 
to  the  mind,  and  is,  at  the  same  time,  a  recreation  from 
other  pursuits,  we  must  also  c<nifess  that  there  was  much 
teith  m  the  remarit  of  James  the  First  that  chess  is 
overwise.  When  played  scientifically  it  cerUinly  is 
too  absorbing  and  difficult  a  subject  for  mere  amusement. 
aome  studious  persons  find  rest  and  refreshment  in  a 
change  of  pursuit,  even  though  it  be  from  one  diffi- 
cult subject  to  another  equally  difficult;  but  there  are 
ie«r  such.  We  would  therefore  advue  our  younr 
mders  to  restrict  themselves  in  the  time  they  devote 
to  chess^  lest  this  fascinating  game  become  the  great 
object  of  study  and  set  aside  other  and  more  impor- 
^t  pursuits.  Every  age  does  not  produce  its  PhiUdor, 
nor  would  it  generally  speaking  be  a  wise  application 

el!r      '  ^u?°*  to  ahn  at  reachmg  his  stindard  of 
excellence  m  this  game. 


ON  THE  ORIGIN  AND  USE  OF  COUNTERS. 

Few  persons  at  the  present  day,  when  they  see  small 
flat  pieces  of  metal,  resembling  coins,  and  called  couhters, 
are  aware  of  the  purpose  to  which  they  were  originally 
employed.  They  are  memorials  by  which  we  may  mea- 
sure the  advance  of  arithmetical  knowledge  among  the 
bulk  of  the  people,  in  other  countries  as  well  as  our 
own.  Counters,  as  the  name  imports,  were  intended  to 
assist  m  countmgf  in  a  manner  which  we  will  endeavour 
to  describe. 

Before  arithmetic,  as  a  science  of  the  mind,  was  dif- 
fused through  the  nations  of  Europe,  a  kind  of  tangible 
arithmetic  was  employed,  in  performing  the  operations 
of  addition  and  subtraction.  In  a  recent  paper  on  Cal- 
cukAing  Machines  (Sat.  Mag.,  Vol.  XVIIL,  p.  12.)  we 
have  spoken  oi  the  Roman  abacus  and  the  Chinese 
schwan-pan,  and  these  are  some  of  the  means  by  which 
tangible  arithmetic  was  performed.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  the  Roman  abacus  was  a  frame,  across  which 
several  wires  were  stretched,  and  that  small  beads,  strung 
on  these  wires,  were  made  the  instruments  of  calculation, 
according  to  the  rektive  positions  which  they  occupied. 
The  Chinese  schwan-pan  and  the  Russian  Shtchota  were 
different  varieties  of  the  same  instrument. 

But  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  the  same  effect  might 
be  produced  by  drawing  lines  on  a  board  or  table,  and 
placing  pebbles,  coins,  or  any  small  objects,  on  or 
betweeu  them.  This  was  done,  and  from  thence  sprang 
the  custom  of  using  counters.  It  appears  that  the 
Greeks  used  for  this  purpose  small  flat,  rounded,  polished 
pebbles,  which  they  called  xn4^h  and  from  which  they 
termed  the  process  in  which  these  were  used  xti^^^P*^* 
hence  arise  our  terms  cypher  and  ofpheiing.  When  the 
Romans  came  to  adopt  a  similar  plan,  they  called  the 
counting  pebbles  ca/cuUj  from  whence  we  obtain  our 
terms  calculate^  calculating^  &c.  Many  centuries  after 
this,  small  flat  pieces  of  metel  were  employed  for  this 
purpose  instead  of  pebbles:  they  appear  to  have  been 
first  used  in  France,  and  were  called  jetton^,  from  the 
verb  jetieTy  or  jete^-,  to  cast  or  move,  in  allusion  to  the 
lateral  or  vertical  movement  which  they  nuide  on  the 
counting-board:  the  funihar  eipression,  to  caH  up  a 
sum,  or  to  jsatt  an  account,  is  a  renmant  of  the  timei 
when  these  pieces  of  metel  were  cast  or  moved  from  one 
line  on  the  casting-board  to  another.  When  the  Dutch 
began  to  adopt  this  plan  they  applied  the  term  hgpen- 
ning  or  kgget  (lay-penny,  or  lay-money,)  to  the  small 
pieces  of  metal,  from  the  verb  leggen^  to  lay,  in  allusion 
to  the  laying  or  placing  of  them  on  the  counting-board. 
In  Germany  the  piece  of  metal  acquired  the  name  of 
Reeheftpfenpug,  reckoning  ppnny,  and  lastly  in  Eug« 
land  they  were  called  countersj  appropriately  indicating, 
as  did  likewise  the  German  *<rechnen,"  the  purpose  of 
counting  or  reckoning  to  which  they  were  applied. 

It  will  thus  he  seen  that  many  terms,  more  or  less 
familiar  to  us,  have  become  current  through  the  early 
use  of  counters  in  arithmetical  computation. 

The  reader  must  bear  in  mind  that  these  pieces  of 
metal  did  not  assume  any  particular  value  in  the  compu- 
tation on  account  of  their  intrinsic  worth  as  metal,  but 
merely  from  the  position  they  occupied  on  or  between 
the  lines  marked  on  the  board  or  table  used  for  counting. 
Here  again  we  have  the  origin  of  another  term  in  fami- 
liar use:  a  shop-cotift/tfr  was  originally  the  board  on 
which  the  computations  between  the  buyer  and  seller 
were  made  out;  and  though  this  custom  has  long  since 
become  obsolete,  yet  the  word  ** counter"  is  still  applied 
in  this  sense. 

The  pieoes  of  metal  used  by  the  modems  for  the  pur- 
pose of  computation  were  originally  circular,  flat,  well- 
polished,  and  quite  plain.  But  anerwards  they  were 
adorned  with  ornaments,  devices,  and  legends,  which 
make  them  highly  curious  memoriak  of  past  times,  for 
some  of  them  contain  tha  naaie  c^  the  person  by  whom 


no 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


CJdne  19,  1841. 


or  for  whose  use  they  were  made, — ^the  sovereign  in 
whose  reign  they  were  employed, — or  the  particular  town 
or  corporation  to  which  they  belonged.  A  brief  descrip- 
tion of  some  specimens  will  show  the  general  character 
of  these  metallic  counters. 

For  some  centuries  previous  to  the  reign  of  Louis  the 
Twelfth  counters  were  struck  m  France  in  great  num- 
bers, and  they  are  alluded  to  by  various  writers  under 
the  names  of  gects,  gectz^  geieorf,  getoirs,  geitotrs,fec' 
toerSf  jectoirsy  jetoirs^  gieUy  gietonst  and  gitoneSf  all  of 
which  are  evidently  derived  from  the  same  verb  as  jet^ 
ionsy  and  are  merely  different  modes  of  spelling  the 
same  term.  Some  of  these  jettons,  still  in  existence, 
bear  legends  purporting  that  they  were  made  for  the 
use  of  such  and  such  a  person, — ^the  Seigfneur  de  Bers- 
sele,  Monsieur  le  Chancellier,  the  Prince  de  Castelle, 
Monsieur  de  Berg,  &c.  Others  purport  to  have  been 
intended  for  the  use  of  some  of  the  public  offices,  such 
as  the  Bureau  de  Finances,  and  many  others.  Many  of 
them  contain  legends  of  an  admonitory  character,  serving 
as  maxims  to  encourage  correct  reckoning,  such  as 
Gardez-vous  de  mescomptesy — Be  on  your  guard  against 
mis-counting;  Jettex  bien,  que  voua  ne  perdriex  rien^^^ 
Cast  well,  that  you  may  lose  nothing;  Qui  bienjettroy 
le  compte  trouveray — He  who  casts  well  will  find  his 
account;  Si  vous  JhUleZy  le  recomptezy — If  you  fail, 
count  again ;  Bon  compte  nefont  a  nulle  hontey — Good 
counting  brings  shame  to  no  olie ;  Compiez  ei  jettez  jutte^ 
menty  craignant  le  divin  jttgemeniy — Reckon  and  cast 
justly,  fearing  the  divine  judgment. 

A  large  number  of  these  jettons  had  legends  in  Latin, 
denoting  in  most  cases  the  persons,  cities,  or  official 
bodies,  for  whose  use  they  were  struck.  Those  made 
in  Holland  had  not  so  frequently  admonitory  mottoes, 
but  had  such  legends  as  the  following; — Leggelt  van 
der  Munters  van  Holland, — ^lay -money  for  the  coiners 
of  Holland; — Leggelt  der  Stadt  van  Brussely^^lAy" 
money  for  the  city  of  Brussels.  Nuremburg  in  Ger- 
many appears  to  h^ve  been  particularly  distinguished  for 
the  number  of  jettons,  or  as  we  must  heire  term  them^ 
rechenpJennigSy  made  there.  These  contained,  in  some 
instances,  the  arms  of  the  city;  in  others,  the  bust  of 
some  public  character;  in  others,  an  allegorical  subject; 
in  others,  the  name  of  the  parties  by  or  for  whom  they 
were  issued ;  and  in  most  of  them  an  inscription  of  Some 
kind  or  other.  On  one,  of  which  a  representation  is 
now  before  us,  there  is  *'  Cornelius  Lauffer,  in  Nurnberg;" 
and  on  the  other  side,  Gluckbeechert  ist  ttnverwehrtf — 
What  is  allotted  by  fortune  is  not  forbidden.  It  would 
appear  that  the  family  of  Lauffer  was  of  considerable 
importance  in  the  town  of  Nuremburg;  for  we  find  many 
counters  bearing  that  name ;  on  one  is  inscribed  Chouroi 
Lauffer  Numb^  and  Anfang  bedenkt  ^nde'-^^ihe 
beginning  considers  the  end ;  on  another,  Maiheus 
Lauffery  Numb^  Soli  Deo  Gloriay — Glory  to  God 
alone;  on  another,  Woelf  Lauffery  Rechenpfennig ;  and 
Goltes  Segen  macht  reichy — God's  blessing  makes 
rich.  One  contains  the  legend  Gluck  von  Gott  iet, — 
Fortune  is  from  God ;  another,  Fleiseige  Rechnung  macht 
Rivhtigkeity — ^Diligent  reckoning  produces  correctness ; 
and  within  the  border  which  is  formed  by  this  legend 
are  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet;  the  obverse  represents 
a  man  standing  before  a  counting-table  or  board,  and 
performing  a  computation  by  means  of  counters.  One, 
purporting  to  be  made  by  Hans  Krauwinckel,  bears  the 
legend,  Arbeit  und  Tugend  maclien  dich  edel, — Industry 
and  virtue  make  thee  noble. 

It  became  a  practice  in  the  fifteenth  century,  to  distri- 
bute jettons  as  Etrennes,  or  New  Year*s  Gifts,  at  the  pub- 
lic expense,  in  Holland.  To  the  most  considei^able  officers 
of  the  United  Provinces,  such  as  the  Governor  General, 
the  governor  of  each  separate  province,  the  Inspector  of 
the  Canal  at  Brussels,  &c.,  were  presented  a  certain 
number  of  silver  and  copper  jettons,  which  were  put 
either  into  a  splendid  purse,  or  into  a  silver  box.     The 


value  of  these  jettons,  given  away  as  new  year's  pre- 
sents, varied  from  seven  hundred  to  three  thousand 
pounds  per  annum,  according  to  the  number  of  persons 
to  whom  they  were  presented.  To  every  person  thus 
honoured  was  given  a  Jetty  or  a  particular  number  of 
jettons  necessary  for  the  performance  of  computatm 
This  custom  of  presenting  jettons  in  the  form  of  a  nev 
year  8  gift,  was  continued  long  after  the  disuse  of  jet- 
tons in  calculation ;  and  was  norwards  regarded  so  k 
as  a  prescriptive  right,  that  the  Dutch  officers,  down  to 
the  latter  part  of  the  last  century,  received  a  certain 
sum  of  money  annually  in  lieu  of  the  jett  of  jettooi 
given  in  earlier  times. 

It  appears  that  the  Nuremburg  artists  had  mills  at 
which  Uiese  counters  were  made,  and  that  the  greater 
part  of  the  counters  used  in  .Europe  was  made  bj 
them.  In  nearly  all  cases,  these  counters  were,  for 
cheapness,  made  of  copper;  but  the  wealthier  classes 
had  them  of  silver,  and  even  of  gold.  Corporations, 
abbeys,  monasteries,  and  churches,  whose  revenues  re- 
quired a  good  deal  of  computation,  were  frequently  pro- 
vided with  counters  appropriated  to  their  own  use;  and 
it  is  thus  that  we  are  to  explain  the  meaning  of  **  abbey- 
nieces,"  applied  to  some  kinds  of  counters,  .frequently 
found  among  the  ruins  of  abbeys.  The  diffasion  of  the 
knowledge  of  arithmetic  among  all  the  countries  of 
Europe,  has  however  led  to  the  abandonment  of  this 
mode  of  computation;  and  we  may  now  r^ard  cousten 
merely  as  monuments  of  old  times. 

Touch-pieces  were,  a  sort  of  coins,  of  which  the  king, 
when  he  touched  a  person  in  order  to  cure  the  evil,  used 
to  hang  one  round  the  neck  of  the  p»atient.  English 
touch-pieces  usually  bore  the  device  of  St.  Michael  and 
the  Dragon  on  one  side,  and  a  ship  on  the  other.  This 
is  a  very  ancient  superstition.  The  latest  of  these 
pieces  are  of  James  II.,  Queen  Anne,  and  the  Pretender. 


A  SHARK  is  one  whom  all  other  means  have  &iied,  and 
now  he  lives  of  himself.  He  is  some  needy  cashiered  fdlow, 
whom  the  world  hath  ofl  flung  off,  yet  still  clasps  again, 
and  is  like  one  a  drowning,  fa^ns  upon  anything  tluit  is 
next  at  hand.  Amongst  other  of  his  shipwrecks  he  has 
lost  shame,  and  this  want  supplies  him.  No  man  pnts 
his  brain  to  more  use  than  he,  for  his  life  is  a  daily 
invention,  and  each  meal  a  new  stratagem.  He  has  an 
excellent  memory  for  his  acquaintance:  though  then 
passed  but  how  do  you  betwixt  them  seven  years  ago,  it 
shall  suffice  for  an  embrace,  and  that  for  money.  He  ofStn 
vou  a  pottle  of  sack  out  of  joy  to  see  you,  and  in  requital  o^ 
nis  courtesy  vou  can  do  no  less  than  pay  for  it.  He  is 
fumbling  with  his  purse-strings,  as  a  schoolboy  with  his 
points,  when  he  is  going  to  he  whipped,  till  tne  master, 
wear^  with  long  stay,  forgives  him.  When  the  reckonii^ 
is  paid,  he  nys,  it  must  not  be  so,  yet  is  straight  jpaci£ed, 
and  cries^  What  remedy?  His  bcsrowings  are  lue  snb- 
sidies,  eacn  man  a  shilling  or  two,  as  he  can  well  difi)eDd; 
which  they  lend  him,  not  with  a  hope  to  be  repaid,  but 
that  he  will  come  no  more.  He  holds  a  strange  tynsnj 
over  men,  for  he  is  their  debtor,  and  they  fisar  him  as  their 
creditor.  He  is  proud  of  any  employment,  though  it  b( 
but  to  cany  commendations^  which  he  will  be  sore  to 
deliver  at  eleven  of  the  clock.  They  in  courtesy  bid  bin 
stay,  and  he  in  maimers  cannot  deny  them*  If  he  find  but 
a  good  look  to  assure  his  welcome,  he  becomes  their  half- 
boarder,  and  haunts  the  threshold  so  long,  tall  he  forres 
good  nature  to  the  necessity  of  a  quarrel.  Public  iavita* 
tions  he  will  not  wrong  with  his  absence,  and  ia  the  best 
witness  of  the  sheriff's  hospitality.  Men  shun  himj^ 
lengUi  as  they  would  do  an  infection,  and  he  is  never  cros^ 
in  nis  way  if  there  be  but  a  lane  to  escape  him.  He 
has  done  with  the  age  as  his  clothes  to  him,  hung  on  as 
long  as  he  could,  and  at  last  drops  off.— Bishop  Earls* 

LONDON ! 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAND. 

PUBLtniBOIN  WSSKLV  NOMBKM.  PKIOK  Okv  PbITMT,  A«»  IN  lfoimi.1  PaXTI 

pRtOK  SixmiOK. 
Sold.by  all  BodkMlkn  and  NawiT0iid«n  la  flw  Klafdoiit 


b. 


£atttr^d$ 


]V°  576. 


26^    1841.  {o^'Smt. 


THE   BANKS  OF  THE   THAMES.    IV. 


ETON  COLLBOE. 


Ht  tjt  ilfBoiiadiDg  from  tb*  hiU,  nz^vjt 
Wbos  TTnwm  miiui«  tba  vmtDn  nllcn  atnji. 
namfi,  tba  moit  Innxl  ut  ill  ih«  Ocewi'i  Knu 
Br  bb  old  ^»,  to  Ilk  «ml>iM«  run* ; 
Himing  to  pv  bu  trilnia  to  lbs  Ma, 
Like  mailil  lift  to  nwM  ctomitj. 
Tbongh  wiih  IboM  itnwn  he  no  naemhlinct  boM, 
Vboae  (iwm  i*  mmber,  ta&  thoir  grBvel  gold, 
Hi»  gmuine  ud  l«a  guillj  w««lth  I'eiplore, 

O'n  which  he  kindlf  spivAdi  his  Hpacioua  viiig, 
■And  hitcha  plflotj  far  tba  ^niiii^  tpiii^. 

PsocuDiHo  eastward  from  tie  town  of  Henley-upon- 

Thunes,  to  which  we  had  conducted  the  reader  in  the 

la»t  paper,  we  arrive  at  the  spot  where  the  Thames 

leaves  Oxfordshire,  and  begins  to  skirt  Buckinghamshire; 

although  it  still  continues  to  form  the  northern  boundary 

of  Berkshire.     The  scenery  between  Henley  and  Great 

Marlow,  one  in  Oxfordshire  and  the  other  in  Buckiug- 

iaauhire,  but  both  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  river, 

Aa«-  often  been  celebrated  for  its  beauty.     It  is  literally 

9ta«lded  with  gentlemen's  seats,  embosomed  in  fertile  and 

lov«ly    spoU.      Near   Henley  is   the  pretty  village  of 

Hambleton,  in  the  church  of  which  are  the  following 

line-  s,  forming  part  of  the  epitaph  to  Sir  Cope  D'Oyley, 

whcadiedin  1633!  — 

Ask  not  of  me,  who's  bnried  here  I' 
Goe  aak  the  Commons,  ask  the  Sheire, ' 
Goe  ask  the  Cburch,  they'll  UU  thee  who, 
Aa  well  as  blubbered  eyes  can  do. 
Goe  ask  the  heraulds,  aak  the  poore. 
Thine  can  shall  hear  enough  to  ask  no  more. 
Then,  if  thine  eyes  bedev  this  Bacrod  ome, 
Each  drop  a  pearl  will  tune 
VOL.XVIU. 


T'adoni  his  tombe,  or  if  thon  canst  not  vent. 
Thou  bring'st  more  marble  to  his  moniunent. 
Close  to  the  river,  about  midway  between  Henley  and 
Great  Marlow,  stand  the  remains  of  the  small  abbey  of 
Medenham,  founded  in  the  reign  of  King  John,  as  a  cell 
to  the  Cistereian  monks  of  Wobum,  in  Bedfordshire; 
but  which  was  so  reduced  in  after-times,  that  at  the 
dissolution  of  the  monasteries  it  only  contained  two 
monks.  Nearly  opposite  this,  on  the  southern  bank  of 
the  'river,  is  Hurley  Place,  once  a  monastery  of  Bene- 
dictine monks,  founded  in  the  time  of  William  the  Con- 
queror. The  property  in  later  times  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Lovelace  family,  who  built  a  mansion  on 
the  site  of  the  old  monastery.  A  subterraneous  vault 
beneath  the  house,  once  the  burial  vault  of  the  monks, 
is  carefully  preserved,  and  pointed  out  as  the  spot  where 
Lord  Lovelace  and  other  nobles  met  in  private,  in  the 
year  1 688,  preparatory  to  the  arrival  of  the  Prince  of 
(Grange,  ana  the  abdication  of  James  the  Second- 
Great  Marlow,  to  which  we  next  arrive,  is  a  pleasant 
town,  of  great  antiquity.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  market-town  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons,  and  possesses 
many  records  of  antiquity.  The  old  bridge  at  Marlow, 
which  was  taken  down  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  was 
mentioned  m  grants  during  the  reigns  of  Edward  the 
Third,  Richard  the  Second,  and  Henry  the  >ourth, 
empowering  the  bailie  to  take  toll  of  all  goods,  wares, 
merchandise,  and  cattle,  passing  over  or  under  the 
bridge;  the  receipts  to  be  expended  in  repairs.  Part  of 
the  bridge  was  destroyed  by  the  army  of  Major-General 
Brown  in  1642;and  Parliuaent  ordereda  county-rateto 

m     • 


242 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Jun26, 


be  levied  for  iU  repara-tioiL     A  new  bridge  was  built  by 
subscript ipQ  about  forty  jrears  ago. 

At  the  part  of  the  Thames  between  Ottfbrd  and 
Marlow,  there  were  in  the  time  of  Queen  Blitabeth 
seventy  locks,  sixteen  flood-gates,  and  seven  weirtii  all 
of  which  were  so  much  out  of  repair,  that  frequent  acci- 
dents happened  from  the  sudden  yielding  of  the  timbers ; 
and  an  application  was  made  to  the  lord-high-treasurer, 
who  caused  the  offending  parties  to  be  amenable  to  the 
laws.  Mr.  Ireland,  speaking  of  a  lock  which  existed  at 
Marlow  in  his  time,  says  :-^ 

Between  this  lock  and  Battersea,  which  is  a  distance  of 
about  fifty  miles,  in  all  the  deep  waters,  the  lampreys  are 
cauffht  in  great  plenty  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  and  are 
sold  to  the  Dutch  as  bait  for  their  turbot  and  other  fisheries. 
In  one  season,  it  is  said,  there  have  been  sold  not  less  than 
&Ye  hundred  thousand.  The  price  of  the  lamprey  was  forty 
shillings  per  thousand ;  but  tne  Dutch  havinff  lately  con- 
tracted for  an  increased  quantity,  at  sixty  shulings,  it  has 
rendered  them  so  scarce,  as  to  raise  the  price  for  our  own  use 
to  nearly  six  pounds.  The  Thames  has  sometimes  furnished 
upwards  of  a  million  of  these  fish  annually. 

How  far  this  state  of  things  Is  maintained  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  we  are  not  aware* 

Not  far  from  Great  Marlow  it  Little  Marlow;  and 
about  five  miles  inland  is  a  plaee  which  has  acquired  an 
imperishable  name  as  the  temporary  resldenoe  of  John 
Milton:  this  is  the  village  of  Chalfont  St  Giles.  While 
the  plague  was  raging  In  London  in  the  year  I668i  the 
great  poet  retired  to  Chalfbnt)  where  he  finished  his 
Paradise  Lost  in  a  house  whloh  is  still  standing.  It  is 
said  that  Elwood  the  Quaker,  the  oompanion  of  his  re- 
tirement, after  perusing  the  tnanusoript  of  this  poenit 
returned  it  to  him  with  the  remarki  "  Thou  hast  said  a 
great  deal  on  Paradise  lost,  but  what  hast  ihou  to  sey  on 
Paradise  found?**  Milton  made  no  answeri  and|  after  a 
short  silence,  began  a  conversation  on  another  subject; 
but  a  considerable  time  afterwards  he  presented  his  friend 
with  the  Paradise  Regained;  saying,  in  a  pleasant  tone 
of  voice,  "This  is  owing  to  you;  for  you  made  it  the 
subject  of  my  thoughts,  by  the  question  you  put  to  me 
at  Chalfont."  Waller,  the  contemporary  of  Milton, — a 
more  fortunate  though  a  less  gifted  poet, — lived  at  Bea- 
consfield,  another  village  not  far  from  Chalfont. 
,  When  we  approach  within  two  mil  s  of  Maidenhead, 
we  come  to  the  village  of  Cookbam.  Here  the  river, 
which  is  of  a  considerable  breadth,  is  divided  by  a  num- 
ber of  little  islands.  The  view  embraces  no  very  distant 
object,  but  those  which  compose  it  are  of  great  indivi- 
dual beauty,  and  from  their  contrasted  shapes  and  cha- 
racter collectively  form  a  very  delightful  picture.  The 
Thames  branches  off  into  three  diflterent  channels,  form- 
ing several  islands,  one  of  which  contains  fifty-six  acres, 
mostly  embowered  in  large  masses  of  foliage  i  the  others 
are  covered  with  alders  and  osier.  To  the  right  is  Cook- 
ham  church  and  part  of  the  village,  and  beyond  it  Cook- 
ham  House,  with  its  lofty  elms.  On  the  left  is  a  large 
level  mead  of  pasturage,  enlivened  by  herds  of  cattle^ 
and  the  uplands  of  Buckinghamshire  rising  beyond  it. 

Nearly  opposite  Cookham,  on  the  Buckinghamshire 
side  of  the  river,  is  Cliefden,  the  estate  of  the  Chandos 
family  in  bygone  times.  A  splendid  mansion  was  built 
on  this  spot  by  George  Villiers,  duke  of  Buckingham,  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  the  Second,  and  made  the  scene  of 
his  dissipated  pleasures.  After  his  death  it  became  the 
property  of  the  Earl  of  Orkney,  and  afterwards  of  Fred- 
erick, prince  of  Wales,  father  of  King  George  the 
Third.  This  splendid  mansion  was  burnt  down  in  the 
year  1795;  but  from  the  following  description  by  an  eye- 
wntness,  the  grounds  must  have  been  very  beautif\il. 

The  gardens  and  pleasure-grounds  were  suited  to*  the  cha- 
racter of  the  edifice,  while  the  woods  are  of  a  form  and 
extent  to  confirm  the  grandeur  of  the  place.  This  elevated 
situation  commands  a  vast  expanse  of  country,  and,  though 
not  bounded  by  mountains,  or  varied  by  features  of  peculiar 
distinction,  it  is  nevertheless  magaifioent  from  its  space^  as 


L 


well  as  pleasing  from  the  variety  of  cultivation  that  mt- 
spreads  it ;  and  should  the  ejfe  be  satiated  with  the  a&vhried 
luzurianoe  of  the  more  distant  lanoicape.  It  tanis  irith  nev 
delight  to  retraee  the  Thaines,  Winding  Uireitgh  iti  tncids, 
and  refleoting  tile  woods  that  hauf  down  the  declivities  to  its 
silver  margin.  The  long  rane^e  of  wood,  from  the  variety  of 
its  trees,  the  richness  of  its  foliage,  the  irregularity  of  its 
surfhce^  and  the  inequality  of  its  heights,  connected  aln 
with  other  characteristic  circumstances,  must  be  cdnsidered, 
in  whatever  point  of  view  it  may  be  seen,  as  afineoombiofr 
tion  of  granaeur  and  beauty. 

Maidenhead,  at  which  we  next  arrive,  is  a  pleasant 
town  on  the  Beriuhire  side  of  the  river.  Its  consequence 
has  been  attributed  to  the  building  of  the  bridge,  aboot 
the  time  of  Edward  the  Third,  by  which  means  the  great 
Western  road  was  carried  through  the  town.  Previous 
to  this  travellers  usually  crossed  the  river  at  a  fern, 
about  two  miles  ftirther  up  the  river.  The  bridge  thus 
alluded  to  was  built  of  wood,  and  lasted  till  the  latter 
end  of  last  century,  when  a  new  stone  bridge  was  built 
in  its  stead. 

Within  a  very  short  distance  of  Maidenhead  is  tbe 
Bray,  to  which  a  curious  kind  of  celebrity  has  been 
attached,  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  a  vicar 
accommodated  his  conscience  to  the  changes  of  tbe 
timet  in  religious  matters.  It  has  been  doubted  by  iDasj 
)>erBons  whether  this  personage  ever  really  existed.  The 
story  teetna  to  have  been  first  given  in  print  by  Fuller, 
in  his  SnglM  Worthiei.    He  sayt  h* 

iTlnt  we  will  dispatoh  that  sole  pmverb  of  thli  coimtr, 
vtt.,  '^The  viear  of  Bm/  will  be  vicar  of  Biey  still/'  The 
VivaeiouB  vicar  hereof,  living  under  King  Benry  the  Eishtis, 
King  £d ward  the  Siitthi  (^ueen  Marjr»  and  Queen  filiaabeth, 
was  nnt  a  papisti  then  a  protestan^  then  a  papist,  then  i 
protestunt  again*  He  ha4  aeen  lome  martyri  burnt  {tvo 
miles  off)  at  Windsor,  and  found  this  fire  too  hot  for  his 
tender  tempeti  Thia  vieer  being  laned  bv  one  for  hmz  s 
turncoat  and  en  uneonstant  changeling,  <<Kot  m)|*'  said  he, 
''for  I  alwaies  kept  my  prltieiole^  wbieh  ia  thi%  to  lireaud 
die  the  vicar  of  Bray.'^  iueh  VMXkV  now  adayea  who, 
thoufi^h  they  cannot  tum  the  windi  WiU  ium  ineir  mils,  and 
set  them  so  that,  wheresoever  it  bloweth*  their  grist  shall 
certainly  be  grinded. 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Second  that  Fuller 
wrote  this  story,  during  which  reign  another  mention  is 
made  of  a  vicar  of  Bray,  as  follows.  Charles  had  been 
hunting  in  Windsor  Forest,  and  in  the  chase  was  sepa- 
rated from  his  attendants.  In  returning  he  lost  bis 
road,  and  came  to  Bray  after  it  was  dark,  where,  on 
inquiring  for  the  vicar  s  house,  and  being  introduced,  be 
told  him  that  he  was  a  traveller  who  had  lost  his  way, 
and  having  spent  all  his  money,  begged  that  be  {^ 
vicar)  would  render  him  assistanee  to  proceed  on  hL« 
journey,  and  that  he  would  soon  punctually  repay  the 
loan.  The  vicar  told  him  he  was  an  impostor,  and  rndelj 
bade  him  to  go  out  of  his  house.  But  the  oarate,  who 
was  with  the  vicar,  felt  pity  for  the  traveller,  and  lent 
him  a  little  money.  The  king  then  made  known  who 
he  was,  and  upbraiding  the  viear  for  his  inhumanitf) 
said,  "The  vicar  of  Bray  shall  be  vicar  of  BraysHU 
but  the  curate  shall  be  canon  of  Windsor.**  The  king  I' 
said  to  have  made  good  his  word. 

It  is  probable  that  in  this,  as  in  other  cases,  the  storv 
is  true  in  fbundation,  but  has  received  additions  from  the 
various  persons  by  whom  it  hAs  been  related.  Be  this 
as  it  may,  we  must  proceed  onward  in  our  journey. 

After  leaving  Bray  the  course  of  the  river  brings «» 
to  the  villages  of  Domey  and  Lower  Bovency,  on  the 
Buckinghamshire  side,  and  to  those  of  Water  Oakley 
and  Clewer  on  the  Berkshire  side  of  the  river;  till  at 
length  we  come  to  that  celebrated  part  of  the  ritfr 
which  presents  to  us  Windsor^  With  all  its  old  associa- 
tions, on  the  southern  bank,  and  Eton  aad  Slough,  the 
one  celebrated  for  its  classical  seminarvt  and  the  other 
for  being  the  residence  of  the  distinguished  family  of 
the  Herschels,  on  the  northern. 

From  this  point  we  must  resume  our  journey  at  another 
opportunity. 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAOAZIKG. 


&4a 


GARDEN    HERBGL 


Savory,  (SatureU^) 

^'Thbrb  be  two  kinds  of  sarouriet  the  one  endureth 
winter,  and  is  of  long  oontinuaQoe,  the  other  an  annual 
or  yearly  plant  resembling  hyssop,  but  lower,  more 
tender,  and  brittle  i  it  bringeth  forth  very  many  little 
branches;  compassed  on  every  side  with  narrow  and 
sharp«pointed  leaves,  longer  than  those  of  thyme  i  among 
which  grow  the  flowers  from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  out 
of  small  husks,  of  eolour  white,  tending  to  a  light  purple. 
The  root  is  hard  and  woody,  as  is  the  rest  of  the  plant. 
Summer  savourie  groweth  up  with  a  slender  brittle 
stalk  of  a  foot  high,  divided  into  little  branches.  The 
flowers  stand  hard  to  the  branches,  of  a  light  purple, 
tending  to  white."     Gbrardb,  1597, 

The  above  accurate  description,  written  at  so  early  a 
period,  seems  to  prove  that  the  herb  Savory  was  well 
known  in  England  previous  to  the  time  usuafly  assigned 
for  its  introduction  here.  Indeed  we  can  scarcely 
doubt  that  this  and  the  other  herbs  of  Southern  Europe, 
which  familiar  use  had  made  almost  necessary  to  the 
Romans,  were  cultivated  during  their  residence  in 
Britain. 

The  generic  name  of  this  plant  is  most  probably 
derived  from  the  Latin  word  saturoy  to  cram  or  satisfy, 
in  allusion  to  its  use  in  seasoning  broths,  soups,  and 
stewed  meats.  The  English  name  is  also  evidently 
taken  from  the  relish  imparted  by  the  herb  to  prepara- 
tions of  that  kind. 

Savory  is  supposed  to  have  grown  abundantly  near 
Troy,  in  a  place  called  Thymbra.  Both  the  winter  and 
rammer  variety  are  natives  of  the  South  of  Europe, 
and  are  noticed  by  Virgil  among  the  fragrant  herbs  and 
shrubs  that  are  desirable  to  be  planted  near  a  bee-hive. 

The  verdant  lavender  must  there  abonnd, 
There  savory  shed  its  pleasant  sweets  around. 

The  Romans  employed  this  herb  In  a  different  manner 
from  ours.  Among  them,  it  is  used  as  a  kind  of  spice 
to  give  warmth  to  lettuce  and  cool  salads,  and  also  as  an 
ingredient  in  their  acid  sauces.  "  Certainly/'  says 
Phillips,  '*  a  more  rational  way  of  taking  this  hot  acrid 
herb,  than  the  present  method  of  usin?  it,  to  give  heat 
to  our  already  too  inflammatory  dishes.'  Dodoens  tells 
uiy  that  savory  in  its  operations  resembles  thyme,  and  is 
very  good,  and  necessary  to  be  used  in  meats. 

Both  kinds  of  savory  are  propagated  by  seeds.  Those 
of  the  annual  plant  are  raised  on  any  light  soil,  early  in 
April.  When  of  a  sufficient  height  the  plants  are  to  be 
thinned  out  to  about  five  or  six  inches  apart,  and  allowed 
to  remain  for  use.  After  being  once  cut,  they  produce 
no  succession  of  shoots,  therefore  the  whole  plant  may 
be  pulled  up,  more  advantageously  than  taking  cuttings 
from  several.  If  required  for  drying,  this  herb  may  Be 
treated  in  a  similar  manner  to  others,  except  that  the 
plant,  after  cutting  off  the  extreme  roots,  is  to  be  pre- 
served, "  Keep  It  dry  by  you,  all  the  year,'*  says  Cul- 
pper,  "  if  you  love  yourself  and  your  ease,  and  it  is  a 
hundred  pounds  to  a  penny  if  you  do  not;  keep  it  dry, 
niake  conserves  and  syrups  of  it,  and  withal  iake  notice 
that  the  summer  kind  is  the  best.** 

Winter  savory  may  be  propagated  by  slips  as  well  as 
^y  seeds.  If  the  slips  or  cuttings  are  planted  in  spring, 
they  will  readily  take  root,  and  become  strong  plants, 
^'hich  in  autumn  may  be  taken  up,  with  plenty  of  mould 
^t  their  roots,  and  transplanted  out  in  beds  or  rows  at  a 
foot  distance  from  each  other.  They  should  be  planted 
in  a  poor  soil:  in  rich  earth  they  imbibe  too  much 
Moisture  to  stand  the  severity  of  our  winters.  When 
pUccd  in  a  congenial  soil,  winter  savory  grows  to  a 
<^on«iiderable  sized  shrub. 

There  are  other  speeies  of  savory  now  cultivated  in 
^hi<?  country,  but  they  generally  require  the  protection 
^f  a  greenhouse,  and  are  not  in  use  as  culinary  herbs. 

Savory  has   a  very  hot,  penetrating,  and  aromatic 


taste.  It  is  an  exeellent  seasonmg  for  fkrkaoeous  food, 
as  peas,  beans,  &c.,  preventing  wind  in  the  stomach. 
It  was  formerly  much  more  used  in  made-dishes  than  at 
present,  and  was  also  an  ingredient  in  cakes,  puddings 
sausages,  &c.,  being  thought  inferior  to  none  of  the 
European  aromatics,  for  pleasantness  of  smell  and 
flavour.  Savory  belongs  to  the  natural  order  JUtbiatat 
and  to  the  Linn^an  class  and  order  Didj^namia  Gi^m 

HoREHouNp*  (Marrubium*) 
*<  White  Horehound  (Marrubiutn  album),  bringeth 
forth  very  many  stalks,  four-square,  a  cubit  high,  covered 
over  with  a  thia  whitish  downiness;  whereupon  are 
placed  by  couples  at  certab  distanoes  thiek  whitish 
leaves,  somewhat  round,  wrinkled,  and  nicked  on  the 
edges,  and  eovered  over  with  the  like  downiness,  from 
the  bosoms  of  which  leaves  eome  forth  small  flowers  of 
a  faint  nurplish  colour,  set  round  about  the  stalk  in 
round  whorls,  which  turn  into  sharp  prickly  husks  after 
the  flowers  be  past.  The  whole  plant  is  of  a  strong 
savour,  but  not  unpleasant;  the  root  Is  thready."     Ge- 

RARDB. 

The  above  Is  an  admirable  deseription  of  the  common 
sort  of  horehound,  which  grows  so  plentifully  not  only 
in  our  gardens,  but  on  waste  ground,  in  various  parts 
of  England,  in  hot,  dry,  and  dusty  situations.  The 
English  name  is  supposed  to  be  given  on  account  of  the 
hoary  or  frosty  appearance  of  the  surface  of  the  plant, 
and  also  from  the  resemblance  of  the  herb  to  the  common 
hound*s-tongue,  a  plant  which  is  said  to  have  an  odour 
like  that  of  a  kennel  of  hounds. 

Besides  the  common  horehound,  there  are  many  other 
species  of  Marrubium  cultivated  in  this  country. 
Eleven  are  noticed  in  the  Hortus  Kewensis,  and  Miller 
enumerates  flfteen. 

This  herb  was  much  extolled  by  the  ancients  for  its 
eflicacy  in  removing  obstructions  of  the  lungs.  Accord- 
ing to  Riny,  the  Romans  thought  it  one  of  the  most 
valuable  herbs  used  in  medicine,  and  chiefly  for  the 
disease  above-named,  though  they  also  made  use  of  it  as 
a  remedy  for  the  ringworm,  and  an  antidote  against 
poison.  The  juice  was  likewise  employed  to  mitigate 
diseases  of  the  eyes. 

Horehound  doubtless  possesses  some  share  of  medi- 
cinal power ;  but  Its  virtues  do  not  appear  to  be  clearly 
ascertained,  and  it  is  now  very  rarely  prescribed  by 
physicians.  It  has,  however,  its  domestic  reputation  for 
relieving  asthmas,  obstinate  coughs,  and  pulmonary  con- 
sumptions. Its  use  is  also  thought  beneficial  in  affections 
of  the  liver.  Lozenges  made  of  the  juice  of  this  herb 
and  sugar,  form  a  common  remedy  for  colds.  When 
recently  dried,  horehound  has  an  aromatic  flavour,  which 
it  loses  when  kept. 

In  the  modem  Pharmacopoeias,  we  find  statements 
somewhat  varying  in  their  nature  respecting  the  virtues 
of  this  herb.  According  to  one  of  these,  it  was  formerly 
regarded  as  a  tonic,  expectorant,  and  diuretic,  and  was 
used  in  asthmas  and  coughs.  In  large  doses  it  was  also 
employed  as  a  slight  aperient;  but  it  is  altogether  unim- 
portant in  any  of  these  respects.  Another  informs  us, 
that  horehound  is  tonic,  stimulant,  deobstruent,  expecto- 
rant, and  vermifuge;  excellent  in  humoral  asthma, 
obstructions  of  the  viscera,  and  violent  salivation ;  and 
that  although  it  is  falling  into  disuse,  it  appears  to  be  as 
good  as  many  other  bitters  in  fashion.  'The  dose  is  half 
a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of  the  powder,  half  an  ounce  to  an 
ounce  of  the  expressed  juice,  or  two  ounces  of  the  infu- 
sion, three  times  a  day. 

Horehound  is  an  annual  plant,  and  may  be  raised  by  - 
sowing  the  seed  in  any  of  the  spring  months.  The 
downy  appearance  of  the  plant  and  its  strong  but  not 
very  agreeable  odour,  make  it  distinguishable  from  oiber 
herbs.  It  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Lnhiat/p^  r.iul  to 
Class  XIV,  Order  1,  {Didynamia  Gymnospemiid),  of 
the  Linnaean  system. 

576—2 


244 


,THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[  Juw  26, 


ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  ARTIFICIAL 

FLOWERa 

The  distinction  between  use  and  ornament  should  ever 
be  borne  in  mind,  in  estimating  the-  relatiye  importance 
of  different  employments ;  but  even  when  all  necessary 
allowance  is  made  for  this  difference,  there  still  remains 
much  which  is  worthy  of  our  notice,  in  the  arts  con- 
netted  with  the  production  of  articles  of  decoration  and 
ornament  The  processes  involved  in  these  manufac- 
tures are  often  as  ingenious,  and  require  as  much 
practical  skill,  as  those  by  which  more  important  articles 
are  produced. 

We  are  led  to  make  this  remark  by  a  consideration  of 
the  mode  in  which  artificial  flowers  are  produced.  Every 
one  knows  that  attempts  are  made  to  imitate  flowers 
and  leaves,  by  various  means,  as  ornaments  for  female 
dress,  and  that  some  of  these  attempts  are  remarkably 
successful;  and  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the 
reader  to  trace  in  a  general  manner  the  mode  in  which 
these  flowers  are  made. 

The  Italians  appear  to  have  been  the  first  Europeans 
who  excelled  in  the  art  of  fabricating  artificial  flowers. 
By  degrees  the  art  found  its  way  from  thence  into 
France,  a  country  whose  people  are  singularly  skilled  in 
the  arts  calling  for  taste  and  delicacy.  Before  excellence 
was  attained  in  the  art,  many  different  substances  were 
employed  as  the  material  of  which  the  flower  was  made. 
At  first,  ribands  of  different  colours  were  used,  plaited, 
curled,  and  twisted  as  nearly  to  the  desired  form  as 
possible.  This  mode  of  imitation  gave  place  to  the 
employment  of  feathers,  which  are  more  delicate,  and 
more  easily  worked  into  desired  forms.  To  supply  the 
colours  which  are  not  generally  found  in  feathers  of 
European  birds,  it  was  necessary  to  paint  them ;  but  the 
blending  of  the  tints  was  seldom  effected  with  the  desired 
accuracy.  It  is  said  that  the  savages  of  South  America, 
taking  advantage  of  the  gorgeous  plumage  of  inter- 
tropicid  birds,  succeed  in  producing  therewith  admirable 
imitations  of  flowers. 

The  Italians  afterwards  employed  silk,  as  obtained 
from  the  cocoons.  No  substance  takes  colour  better, 
nor  retains  it  longer  than  silk ;  while  its  transparency 
and  softness  imitate  pretty  closely  the  velvet-like  texture 
of  the  petals.  They  also  employed,  but  with  less 
success,  Italian  gauze,  as  the  material  for  the  imitative 
flowers.  Different  artistes  have  tried  in  succession, 
shells,  wax,  and  paper ;  but  all  have  had  some  defect 
which  rendered  them  unfitted  for  the  production  of 
flowers  for  sale.  About  twenty  years  ago  a  French 
manufacturer  devised  a  mode  for  making  these  articles 
from  whalebone ;  but  the  substances  which  have  been 
most  generally  employed  are  those  which  we  are  about 
to  describe. 

The  exercise  of  this  art  is  now  carried  on  both  in 
France  and  England ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  modes 
of  proceeding  are  nearly  the  same  in  both.  We  will 
therefore  describe  the  general  practice  in  France,  taking 
a  rose  as  an  example  of  flower  to  be  imitated. 

The  petals  are  formed  of  the  material  called  boHste, 
and  the  leaves  of  Florentine  taffety.  The  batiste  is 
chosen  of  a  very  fine  quality,  and  is  first  pressed,  then 
calendered,  in  order  to  render  the  surface  as  level  and 
smooth  as  possible.  The  piece  of  cloth  for  each  petal 
is  then  cut  out,  punched,  or  stamped,  by  means  of  a 
cutting  tool  having  exactly  the  contour  required,  so  that 
no  scissors  are  necessary.  A  great  number  of  these 
cutting  tools  are  kept  by  the  artificial  florist,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  various  sizes  of  the  petals,  and  also  with 
the  shapes.  When  the  petals  are  thus  all  cut  out,  they 
are  prepared  for  painting.  The  pigment  employed 
(supposing  the  flower  to  be  a  rose)  is  carmine  in  an 
alkaline  solution,  generally  salt  of  tartar.  The  florist 
takes  up  each  petal  separately,  by  grasping  it  at  one 
extremity  by  means  of  a  sort  of  pincers,  represented  at 
a  Figp  J,  and  plunges  it  into  the  coloured  solution ;  thep 


immerses  it  into  pure  water,  in  order  that  the  slight 
whitening  of  the  tints  at  the  edges  may  be  produced  bj 
the  partial  action  of  the  water.  The  deeper  tint  of  the 
middle  of  the  petal  is  then  given  by  means  of  a  p^, 
in  the  manner  of  painting ;  and  where  the  variety  of  the 
flower  requires  it,  a  striped  succession  of  tints  is  pro- 
duced. The  colour  is  purposely  made  very  faint  and 
delicate ;  and  if  the  tint  resulting  therefrom  be  too  light, 
a  second  immersion  deepens  it.  Any  peculiar  tints,  or 
disposition  of  tints,  belonging  to  the  flower  to  be  imit^ 
are  given  with  the  pencil,  since  the  immersion  merely 
gives  the  general  colour  to  the  whole  of  the  petal. 


« 


We  have  now  to  attend  to  the  leaves.  The  tafletj  d 
which  the  leaves  are  made,  is  coloured  in  pieces  about  a 
yard  long,  before  being  cut.  When  it  is  painted,  the 
taffety  is  stretched  over  a  frame,  and  left  to  dry.  A^« 
this,  a  solution  of  gum  arabic  is  laid  on  one  side  of  the 
taffety,  to  produce  the  glossy  appearance  usnally 
observable  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves.  The  peculiar 
dull,  soft,  velvet-like  appearance  of  the  under  surface,  is 
then  imitated  with  a  coloured  solution  of  amidou,  appN 
with  a  pencil,  and  having  the  desired  tint  and  strength: 
the  art  in  this  process  consists  in  using  the  amidou  in 
such  a  state  that  it  shall  dry  without  gloss.  When  the 
peculiar  velvet  texture  of  the  under  side  of  the  l«f 
admits  of  it,  the  taffety  is  coated  with  a  sprinkling  of 
fiocky  or  shreds  of  woollen  cloth  cut  up  into  the  minutest 
fragments ;  the  taffety  being  first  gummed,  and,  whea 
half  dried,  coated  with  the  flock. 

Those  leaves  and  leaflets  of  which  both  surfaces  ire 
nearly  destitute  of  gloss,  are  treated  in  a  way  accordist 
with  their  appearance,  tiie  taffety  being  coated  with  the 
amidou  rather  than  with  g^^mi. 

When  the  taffety  is  dry  after  these  operations,  it  is 
cut  out  into  the  requisite  forms  by  stamps  stmilu'  ^ 
those  used  for  the  petals;  different  sizes  and  shapes 
being  employed  for  leaves  differently  situated  with 
respect  to  the  flower.  The  taffety,  when  about  to  he 
cut,  is  laid  on  a  block  of  wood,  a  piece  of  sheet  lead,  or 
a  sheet  made  of  an  alloy  of  lead  and  tin.  AfUr  this,  a 
curious  process  is  performed,  in  order  to  give  imitatioos 
of  the  veined  appearance  of  the  leaf.  Moulds  are  pre- 
pared, consisting  of  two  parts,  similar  in  effect  to  those 
employed  for  pressing  butter  into  small  ornamental 
forms.  The  mould  is  made  of  copper,  and  the  inside  of 
the  bottom  contains  an  engraved  representation  of  ooe 
side  of  the  leaf.  The  stamp,  forming  the  other  part  of 
the  instrument,  is  made  of  iron,  and  has  on  its  Iot^ 
surface  an  engraved  copy  of  the  upper  side  of  the  le«^ 
the  raised  parts  being  represented  by  elevations,  ^ 
vice  versa.  Several  leaves  are  then  placed  one  on  the 
other  in  the  mould  adapted  to  their  form;  and  the  stanip| 
previously  heated  to  a  moderate  degree,  is  then  pressed 
down  upon  them,  and  left  in  contact  with  them  i^^  ^ 
short  time.  This  process  gives  -to  the  leaves  not  onlj 
the  veined  appearance,  but  also  the  curves  and  bentw 
which  we  find  in  nature.  In  Fig.  2,  h  the  intenor 
appearance  of  one  of  the  moulds  is  represented,  as  saea 
in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  it ;  and  at  a,  the  stampuig' 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


245 


iron,  fixed  to  a  handle :  e  and  d  are  two  other  implements 
employed  to  produce  marks  on  the  taffisty,  one  being 
surrounded  by  ridges  or  rings,  and  the  other  being 
terminated  by  a  disk, 

Fig.  3. 


a 


The  buds  are  formed  of  little  pieces  of  taffety  or  some 
similar  substance,  filled  with  cotton,  silk  filaments,  or 
flour,  and  made  to  the  requisite  shapes.  They  are  then 
bound  with  silk  to  small  pieces  of  iron  wire,  and  stuck 
into  a  basin  of  sand  (by  Fig.  1,)  where  they  remain  till 

The  stamens  are  made  of  little  bits  of  silk,  fixed  to 
the  end  of  a  small  piece  of  brass  wire,  and  dipped  in 
size  or  glue  to  give  them  a  requisite  degpree  of  firmness ; 
the  different  filaments  being  kept  carefully  separated 
during  the  subsequent  drying.  When  they  are  dry, 
the  end  of  each  little  filament  is  moistened  with  paste 
made  of  wheat  flour  and  gum  arabic,  and  dipped  into  a 
basin  containing  bran  coloured  yellow.  Each  filament 
or  stamen  thus  takes  up  on  its  point  a  particle  of  bran, 
which  forms  the  anther. 

The  separate  parts  being  thus  made,  the  artificer 
proceeds  to  put  them  together.  The  leaflets  are  cemented 
or  sized  round  their  points;  the  petals  likewise  are 
cemented  around  each  other,  the  smaller  within  and  the 
larger  without;  a  curved  shape  being  given  to  them 
when  required  by  appropriate  tools.  Then  follows  the 
calyx,  which  encloses  the  ends  of  all  the  petals,  and 
also  tbe  leaflets  enveloping  the  bud.  All  the  parts  are 
cemented  in  their  proper  places  with  cement  made  of 
flour  and  gum.  The  stalk  is  made  of  one  or  more  pieces 
of  iron  wire,  attached  to  the  little  piece  of  brass  wire 
which  holds  the  stamens :  the  wire  is  enveloped,  first  in 
Cotton,  and  then  in  serpentine  strips  of  paper  having  the 
necessary  green  tint. 

The  leaves  are  mounted  upon  a  piece  of  copper  wire. 
These  are  arranged  in  threes,  as  presented  by  a 
natural  rose ;  the  most  yellow  and  the  smallest  in  size 
Wing  nearest  the  centre.  The  stalk  of  the  leaves  is 
iiiade  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  flower,  and  is 
iUo  united  to  it  in  a  similar  mannert 

Fif&  8. 


In  the  course  of  these  operations,  the  contour  of  the 
several  parts  are  given  by  tools  called  mandrinsy  of 
which  three  are  represented  in  Fig.  3.  They  are  cylin- 
drical, conical,  pvramidal,  ellipsoidal,  &c.,  according  to 
the  purpose  to  which  they  are  to  be  applied. 

Such  is  the  general  mode  of  making  an  artificial  rose ; 
and  it  may  easily  be  conceived  that  the  processes  for 
producing  any  other  flower  will  be  nearly  the  same, 
varied  only  in  the  colours  with  which  the  batiste  and 
taffety  are  painted,  and  in  the  form  of  the  stamps  and 
moulds  by  which  Uie  requisite  forms  are  given. 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS. 

JUNE, 


When  with  his  Hvelj  raj  the  potent  sun 

Has  pierced  the  streams,  and  rotned  the  finny  race, 

Then,  isauing  cheerful,  to  tfaj  sport  repair; 

Chief  should  the  western  hreezes  cnrlins  play, 

And  light  o'er  ether  bear  the  shadowy  clouds, 

High  to  their  ftmnt,  this  day,  amid  the  hill*, 

And  woodlands  warbling  round,  trace  up  the  brooksj 

The  next,  pursue  their  rocky  channel'd  maze^ 

Down  to  the  river,  in  whose  ample  wave 

Their  little  naiads  love  to  sport  at  large. 

Just  in  the  dubious  point,  where  with  the  pool 

Is  mix'd  the  trembling  stream,  or  where  it  boijs 

Around  the  stone,  or  ntmi  the  hollow'd  bank 

Reverted  plays  in  undulating  flow. 

There  throw,  nicejudging,  the  delusive  fly; 

And  as  you  lead  it  round  in  artful  curve. 

With  eye  attentive  mark  the  springing  game. 

Straight  as  above  the  surface  of  the  flood 

They  wanton  rise,  or  urged  by  hunger  leap, 

Then  fix,  with  gentle  twitch,  the  barbed  hook^ 

Some  lightly  tossing  to  the  grassy  bank 

And  to  tbe  shelving  shore  slow  dragging  soroe^ 

With  various  hand  proportioned  to  their  force. 

If  yet  too  young,  and  easily  deceived, 

A  worthless  prey  scarce  bends  your  pliant  lod. 

Him,  piteous  of  his  youth  and  the  short  space 

He  has  eiyoyed  the  vital  light  of  Heaven, 

Soft  disengage,  and  back  into  the  stream 

The  specUted  captive  throw. — Thomson. 


Unlike  the  sports  which  have  occupied  our  attention 
during  the  preceding  months,  the  practice  of  Angling 
is  of  a  quiet  and  contemplative  nature,  and)  while  it 
leads  to  scenes  of  the  most  picturesque  description,  it 
leaves  the  mind  of  its  advocate  at  liberty  to  enter  into 
the  enjoyment  of  them,  and  gives  him  leisure  to  mark 
their  peculiar  features.  He  does  not  hurry  through  the 
scene  of  his  sport  in  eager  and  exciting  pursuit  of  game, 
but  lingers  for  days  together  among  the  windings  of 
some  romantic  river,  and  only  needs  the  eye  of  a  poet 
or  a  painter,  to  gather  materials  from  the  scene  around 
him,  that  shall  enliven  many  an  after-hour,  and  afford 
him  sincere  pleasure  when  the  amusement  which  gave 
birth  to  these  ideas  may  be  no  longer  practicable.  Thus, 
when  the  sport  itself  has  not  answered  the  expectation 
of  the  angler,  he  is  seldom  found  to  acknowledge  that 
his  time  has  been  wholly  wasted.  He  is  ready  to  say 
with  an  old  writer  (Lady  Juliana  Barnes)  on  his 
favourite  art,  that 

Atte  the  leest,  he  hath  his  holsom  walk,  and  mery  at  his 
ease,  a  swete  a;p«  of  the  swete  savoure  of  the  meede  flouies 
that  maky th  him  hun^ ;  he  hereth  the  melodyous  armony 
of  fowles;  he  seeth  the  yonge  swannes,  heerons,  duckes, 
cotes,  and  many  other  fowles,  wyth  theyr  brodes;  whyche 
me  seemyth  better  than  aUe  the  noyse  of  hoimdys,  the 
blastes  of  hornys,  and  the  scrye  of  fonlis,  that  hunters,  and 
&wkener8,  ana  foulers  can  make.  And  if  the  angler  take 
fysshe ;  surely,  thenne  is  there  noo  man  merier  than  he  is 
in  his  spyryte. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  term  angUng  applies  to  the 
practice  of  taking  fish  with  a  rod,  line,  and  baited  hook, 
in  contradistinction  to  all  other  methods  of  fishing. 
Of  the  antiquity  of  this  practice  we  .have  proof  in  the 
early  mention  made  of  the  implements  used  in  angling, 
in  the  Scriptures.  The  book  of  Job  contains  several 
allusions  to  the  use  of  the  hook  and  the  line ;  <<  Canst 


246 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[JinlBM, 


thou  draw  out  leriathan  with  a  hook,  or  his  tongue  with 
a  cord  which  thou  lettest  down,"  &c.  SimiUr  alluaioni 
are  likewise  made  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  Exekiel,  Amos, 
and  Habakkuk.  Nor  is  it  in  the  sacred  writings  alone 
that  we  find  these  incidental  notices  of  the  angler's  art. 
lliroughout  the  writings  of  the  ancients,  there  are  suffi- 
cient evidences  to  prove  its  existence  at  a  very  early 
period,  and  figures  connected  with  this  art  are  Ulso 
round  on  some  of  the  most  ancient  sculptured  relics. 

It  is  smusing  to  observe  the  way  in  which  Isaac 
Walton  attempts  to  exalt  and  justify,  from  the  charge 
of  cruelty,  this,  his  favourite  amusement.  He  speaks  of 
the  sanction  given  to  the  art  by  the  practice  of  so  many 
devout  and  contemplative  men  as  the  patriarchs  and 
prophets  of  old,  taking  it  for  granted,  we  know  not  why, 
that  Moses  and  Amos  were  both  anglers.  He  dwells 
on  the  fact  of  our  Saviour  having  chosen  four  of  his 
apostles  from  among  simple  fishermen,  whom  he  never 
reproved  for  their  employment  or  calling,  as  he  did  the 
scribes  and  the  money-changers. 

And  it  is  observable,  ^continues  our  honest  enthusiast,) 
that  it  was  our  Saviours  will  that  these  four  fishermen 
bhould  have  a  priority  of  nomination  in  the  catalogue  of 
his  twelve  apostles :  as,  namelv,  Peter,  Andrew^,  James  and 
John,  and  then  the  rest  in  their  order.  It  is  also  to  be 
believed,  that  all  the  other  apostles  after  they  betook  Uiem- 
selves  to  follow  Christ,  betook  themselves  to  be  fishermen 
too ;  for  it  is  certain  that  the  greater  number  of  them  were 
found  together,  fishing,  by  Jesus  after  his  resurrection. 

Without  attempting  to  follow  the  worthy  angler 
through  all  his  laudatory  remarks,  we  may  still  pronounce 
angling  to  be  a  very  faseinating  pursuit,  and  one  which, 
without  being  either  dangerous  or  expensive,  is  pro- 
ductive of  much  interest  and  amusement,  so  that,  while 
many  may  prefer  the  more  exciting  diversions  of  the 
chase,  there  will  ever  be  found  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons equally  devoted  to  this  quiet  and  solitary  sport. 

Simple  as  the  practice  of  angling  may  appear  to  those 
who  have  never  personally  engaged  in  it,  yet,  in  order 
to  pursue  it  successfully,  much  patience  and  address  are 
requisite,  together  with  a  peculiar  skill  and  dexterity  of 
hand,  somewhat  difficult  to  be  obtained,  and  impossible 
to  be  described. 

There  must  be  a  certain  ouickness  of  eye  to  judge  where 
the  fish  lies — n  precision  ana  neatness  of  hand  to  cast  the  line 
lightly,  and  with  such  truth  and  address  that  the  fly  shall 
M\  on  the  very  square  inch  of  the  Stream  whioh  you  aimed 
at,  and  that  with  as  little  splash  as  if  it  were  the  descent  of 
the  natural  insect ;  there  is  a  certain  delicacy  of  mimipular 
tion  with  which  you  must  use  the  rod  and  reel  when  (happy 
man ! )  you  actually  have  hooked  a  heavy  ^^h  ;  dl  of  which 
requisites  must  combine  to  ensure  success.  There  are  th© 
same  personal  qualities  requisite  in  shooting,  billiards,  and 
other  exercises  of  skill,  in  the  use  of  the  turning  lathe,  and 
in  the  management  of  philosophical  experiments.  If  thou 
hast  any  of  this  species  of  alertness  of  hand  and  truth  of  ere 
in  thee,  go  forth,  gentle  reader,  with  JSkUmonia  in  thy 
pocket,  and  return  with  thy  basket  more  or  less  heavy  in 
proportion  to  thy  perseverance.  But  if  thou  wantest  this 
peculiar  knack,  we  doubt  if  even  the  patience  that  is  exer- 
cised in  a  punt  above  Chelsea  bridge  would  greatly  mend 
thy  day's  work :  though  thy  dinner  depended  upon  it,  thou 
mayest  f?o  on  flogp^lng  the  water  from  morning  tin  midnight, 
entangling  the  hook  now  In  a  bush,  now  in  a  stem,  now 
driving  it  through  the  nose  of  some  brother  of  the  angle,  and 
nowthroughthin6own,butnotafinwiltthou  basket,  whether 
of  full-trout  or  minnow ;  and  thou  must  content  thee  with 
half  the  definition  of  an  ander,  and  be  the  fool  at  one  end 
of  the  stick  and  string,  without  the  gndgeon  at  the  other*. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  construction  of  the 
angler's  implements.  It  is  well  for  all  who  enter  with 
ardour  into  this  amusement  to  become  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  the  formation  of  fishing-tackle.  By  this 
means  they  will  not  only  be  able  to  repair  such  articles 
as  are  accidentally  injured  during  their  excursions,  but 
will  be  -able  to  judge  of  the  relative  value  of  those  offered 

•  From  Sir  Waltbb  Scott's  reyiw  of    Sia  Bvuvkkt  Dayt's 

Haimopia,  in  the  Qitfirierly  lUvUw,  Vol.  88. 


for  sale,  and  to  males  thtitihirchaaet  tabett^advtntafre, 
A  very  important  implement  to  the  angler  is  the  fishiflg- 
rod.  This  is  made  of  variouB  degrees  of  strength  uii 
elasticity,  and  is  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  liiod 
of  fishing  for  which  it  is  required.  Thus  there  is  the 
bottom,  the  fly,  and  the  trolling  rod,  the  single  and  tiie 
double-handed  rod,  the  bag  rod,  the  walking-stick  rod, 
and  many  smaller  varieties.  Much  depends  on  a  just 
adaptation  of  the  different  degrees  of  elasticity  in  the 
several  pieces  of  wood  of  which  a  rod  is  composed,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  materials  employed,  before 
we  can  depend  upon  the  uniform  flexure  of  the  rod  as  a 
whole  piece.  This  is  especially  needful  in  a  fly  rod, 
which  should  be  solid  throughout,  and  should  be  adjui^ted 
so  that  the  several  joints  shall  have  a  just  grsdation  of 
elastic  properties,  the  butt  being  the  lowest,  and  the 
point  the  highest  in  the  scale  of  elasticity.  Ash,  hiccorr, 
lance-wood,  and  split  bamboo,  succeeding  each  otiier, 
and  surmounted  by  a  splicing  of  whalebone,  are  said  to 
form  a  good  elastic  rod. 

The  materials  used  in  making  lines  for  angling  are, 
first,  as  being  most  esteemed,  the  intestines  of  the  silk- 
worm, then  silk,  horse-hair,  bristles,  cow-hair,  and  also 
Indian  and  other  grasses.  These  substances  are  em- 
ployed singly  or  two  or  more  together,  and  the  lines  majbe 
either  purchased  or  fabricated  by  the  angler.  The  difo- 
ent  varieties  of  hooks  necessary  to  the  completenesa  of 
fishing  apparatus  are  too  numerous  for  description.  The 
principal  kinds  in  favour  with  English  anglers,  are  known 
as  the  Limerick,  Kendal,  Sneckbend,  and  Kirbj  hooks. 
The  float,  the  reel,  and  the  various  descriptions  of  aiti* 
ficial  fly,  might  fiimish  us  with  matter  for  much  ohseTra* 
tion,  but  we  are  chiefly  concerned  with  the  sport  itself, 
and  the  seasons  at  which  it  is  pursued. 

Although  there  is  not  a  month  in  the  year  in  whifh 
the  angler  must  necessarily  discontinue  his  sport,  for 
even  the  winter  may  afford  some  opportunities  to  tho« 
who  can  brave  its  severities,  yet  the  period  from  April 
to  October  is  found  by  experience  to  be  the  most 
advantageous  time,  and  is  therefore  considered  the  regu- 
lar angling  season.  The  London  angler  has  not  the 
privilege  of  fishing  in  the  Thames  until  the  beginnlD? 
of  June,  and  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  interests  d 
fishers  in  general  would  be  promoted  were  the  spavninf 
fish  equally  protected  in  otner  rivers  during  the  earlj 
spring  months.  While  the  heat  of  summer  lasts,  the 
experienced  angler  will  pursue  his  sport  at  a  very  earlf 
hour  in  the  morning  and  will  return  to  it  again  in  the 
cool  of  evening.  As  the  season  advances  towards  the 
colder  months,  the  middle  of  the  day  may  be  considered 
preferable.  In  winter  any  part  of  the  day,  when  the 
weather  is  open  and  mild,  may  be  taken  advantage  » 
— ^for  in  frosty  weather  no  hour  is  good.  It  is  ^ 
knoWn  that  on  dark  lowering  days  during  summer,  m 
are  well  disposed  to  take  the  bait,  especially  in  poQ^ 
and  still  waters.  When  there  is  a  prolibility  « 
thunder,  the  angler  has  little  cause  to  hope  for  suecess. 
An  electrical  state  of  the  atmosphere  is  prejudicial  to  the 
appetite  of  fishes.  On  a  bright  sunny  day,  if  «  w^ 
breeze  prevails,  all  fish  are  likely  to  be  alert  The  sootfc 
and  south-west  winds  are  most  favourable  to  the  spo^ 
and  an  east  wind  the  most  decidedly  unfavourable. 

Many  fishing  enterprizes  are  defeated  through^' 
of  caution  in  approaching  the  water.  Salter,  in  Jj* 
Angler  9  Guide,  gives  a  very  necessary  warning  on  tbs 
head : — . 

After  you  have  made  choice  of  a  place  to  fish,  first  plora 
the  depth  truly  and  with  as  little  disturbance  to  the  wat^r" 
may  be ;  let  your  line,  with  the  plummet  to  it,  remain  mu 
water  while  you  make  and  cast  the  ground  bait,  by  ^  | 
time  the  line  will  be  softened  and  stretched,  conPeaiipnt^>. 


to  work,  for  fish  have  so  many  enemies  that  they  «u* 
picious  of  everything  they  see,  feel,  and  hear;  even 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


247 


shaking  the  liank  of  a  iriTar  (under  which  fish  frequentlv 
lie),  will  alarm  barbel,  chub,  &c^  and  spoil  the  angler's 
cport :  this  oocnrs  frequently  by  strangers  walking  to  and 
fro,  to  see  and  Inquire  what  sport,  &c.,  and  also,  when  two 
or  three  anglers  are  fishing  near  eaoh  other ;  therefbre  avoid 
agitating  the  water  by  trampling  on  the  bank  unneoeflsarily  t 
drop  your  baited  hook  in  the  water  gently,  and  you  will 
kill  more  fish  Ulan  two  or  three  anglers  who  act  differently. 

Thus,  everything  must  be  avoided  which  is  likelv  to 
attract  the  attention  of  the  fish.  The  angler  will  endea- 
vour not  to  let  his  own  shadow  or  even  that  of  his  rod 
fall  upon  the  water.  He  will  take  care  that  there  be 
nothing  glaring  in  his  dress,  but  will  consider  in  this 
respect  What  is  the  prevailing  oolour  of  the  spot  in 
which  he  means  to  flsn.  If  it  be  a  rich  pasture,  a  dark 
dress  will  not  be  unsuitable,  but  if  he  Is  going  to  stand 
on  a  sandy  or  pebbly  soil,  the  more  nearly  he  can  assimi* 
late  himself  to  it  by  wearing  something  of  a  drab*coloured 
suit  and  hat  the  better. 

The  baits  used  by  anglers  are  varied  with  the  seasons, 
the  locality,  the  hour  of  the  day,  and  other  circumstances. 
There  seems  to  be  a  particular  intelligence  among  the 
finny  tribes,  guiding  them  to  choose  only  a  seasonable 
repast.  The  most  tempting  flies  presented  to  a  fish  when 
they  are  out  of  season  will  scarcely  entice  his  appetite, 
and  the  bait  that  will  prove  effectual  at  one  part  of  the 
day,  will  be  offered  in  vain  a  few  hours  later.  It  is  im- 
possible therefore  to  be  an  accomplished  angler  with- 
out studying  the  natural  history  of  insects  and  worms 
of  various  kinds,  and  as  they  exhibit  themselves  in 
different  localities.  The  flies  which  attract  fish  are  not 
the  same  in  all  parts  of  England.  In  some  districts,  the 
May-fly,  that  especial  favourite  of  anglers,  is  wholly 
unknown.  The  distribution  of  insects  is  affected  by 
causes  connected  with  climate  and  cultivation,  and  these 
must  be  considered  in  our  selection  of  baits.  It  is  im- 
possible to  give  general  directions  on  this  head,  but  some 
attention  to  the  nabits  and  natural  history  of  insects  as 
it  may  be  acquired  by  reading  and  observation  will  soon 
teach  the  young  angler  to  seek  and  employ  the  most 
killing  baits.  Where  it  can  be  effected,  the  use  of  arti- 
ficial, instead  of  natural  baits,  it  muoh  to  be  preferred. 
It  can  add  no  pleasure  to  the  sport  to  know  that  we  are 
unnecessarily  inflicting  pain. 

In  order  to  remove  A^m  the  mind  of  the  angler  any 
suspicion  that  he  may  be  engaged  in  a  cruel  sport,  the 
author  of  Salmonia  urges  that  in  all  probability  fishes 
are  less  sensitive  than  man. 

Under  the  favour  of  such  high  authority  (says  Scott),  this 
is  a  point  which  none  can  know  but  the  fish  himselfl  The 
variety  of  modes  in  which  the  trout  endeavours  to  escape 
from  the  hook  certainly  seem  to  show  that  his  apprehensions 
are  extreme,  and  the  hurry  and  vivacity  of  his  motions  in- 
dicate irritation  and  pain.  Being,  however,  a  denizen  of 
another  element,  onr  sympathiea  are  not  so  stiengly  excited 
by  the  sufierings  of  a  fish)  as  of  creatuxes  that  uiare  the 
same  element  with  us. 

As  the  natural  history  of  Fresh-water  Fishes  already 
forms  the  subject  of  a  course  of  articles  In  this  Work, 
'we  have  departed  from  our  usual  practice  of  describing 
the  animal  to  which  the  sport  refers  i  and  must  therefore 
direct  onr  readers  to  those  articles  for  a  particular  notice 
of  the  moFS  distinguished  members  of  the  finny  tribe 
inhabiting  our  streams. 


^  To  miss  the  good  which  may  be  got  by  suffering  evil,'* 
Bfliys  one  of  our  old  divines,  ^  is  the  woivt  of  evils ;  to  lose 
that  gain  which  should  be  gotten  by  losses,  is  of  losses  the 
fiTeatest ;  but  to  grow  worse  with  suffering  evil,  is  perdition 
Itself."  Men  aie  often  found  under  this  condemnation  t 
-vromen,  I  thmk,  but  seldom.  The  sons  of  perdition  are 
more  numerous  than  the  daughters.  If  women  are  not 
made  of  finer  clay,  there  has  been  more  of  the  dew  of  hea- 
ven to  temper  it.  Or  is  it  that  ''though  the  dews  of  divine 
^frace  U\\  everywhere,  yet  they  He  longest  in  the  shade," 
i^-liile  men  brave  the  wind,  seek  tte  sunshine,  and  are  ex- 
po«»ed  to  all  weatheisl — Soqthet. 


FRESH  WATER  FISH. 
V. 


The  common  Perch  is  regarded  as  the  type  of  a  very 
extensive  family  of  Acanthoptervgious  fishes;  that  is, 
fishes  having  bony  skeletons)  with  prickly  spinous  pro- 
cesses in  the  dorsad  fins.  They  all  more  or  less  approach 
the  common  perch  in  general  form,  whence  this  fish  is 
called  the  type  of  the  family. 

The  perch  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  our  fresh 
water  fishes.  Its  body  is  deep,  the  scales  verv  rough, 
the  back  much  arched,  and  the  side-line  approaclies  near 
to  it:  the  irides  are  golden  yellow;  the  teeth  small, 
)Ointed,  and  curving  backwards,  and  disposed  in  the 
,  aws  and  on  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  which  is  large ;  the 
ongue  is  smooth ;  the  edges  of  the  covers  of  the  dlls 
are  serrated,  and  on  the  lower  end  of  the  largest  is  a 
sharp  spine.  When  the  perch  is  in  good  condition  its 
colours  are  brilliant  and  striking ;  the  back  and  part  of 
the  sides  being  of  a  rich  greenish  brown,  passing  below 
into  golden  vellowish  white,  with  five  or  six  broad  dark 
bands  pointmg  downwards,  owing  to  which,  the  fish 
when  in  the  water  appears  very  dark  coloured  with 
lightish  stripings,  but  when  taken  out  of  the  water  it  is 
altogether  of  a  greenish  cast.  The  first  dorsal  fin  is 
brown;  the  membrane  connecting  the  rays  is  partly 
spotted  with  black :  the  ventral  fins  are  of  a  bright  ver- 
milion; the  anal  fins  and  the  tail  (which  is  a  little 
forked,)  are  of  the  same  colour,  but  rather  paler. 

The  perch  is  furnished  with  two  orifices  to  each  nos- 
tril, surrounded  with  three  or  four  large  pores,  destined 
apparently  for  the  discharge  of  a  viscous  secretion,  which 
defends  tne  skin  firom  the  action  of  the  water. 

This  distribution  of  the  mucous  orifices  over  the  head,  is 
one  of  those  beautiful  and  advantageous  provisions  of  nature, 
which  are  to  be  so  often  observed  and  admired.  Whether 
the  fish  inhabits  the  stream  or  the  lake,  the  current  of  the 
water  in  the  one  instance,  or  progression  through  it  in  the 
other,  carries  this  defensive  secretion  backwards,  and  spreads 
it  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  body.  In  fishes  with  small 
scales,  this  defensive  secretion  is  in  proportion  more  abun- 
dant: and  in  those  species  which  have  tne  bodies  elongated, 
as  the  eels,  the  mucous  orifices  mav  be  observed  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  lateral  line. — iarrell. 

The  perch  has  been  known  in  all  ages  and  in  most 
civilised  countries.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  were  well 
acquainted  f^ith  it,  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that 
m  most  countries  of  Europe  its  name  does  not  greatly 
differ  from  the  specific  name  given  to  it  by  Aristotle. 
It  is  very  generally  diffused  throughout  Europe  and  the 
corresponding  latitudes  of  Asia ;  but  it  probably  thrives 
better  iU  cold  than  in  warm  climates ;  since  it  is  stated 
that  perches,  three  or  four  feet  long,  are  taken  in  Sweden 
and  Lapland;  while  in  England  and  in  France  they 
seldom  exceed  a  foot  and  a  half. 

LinnsDus  has  noticed  a  deformed  variety  of  perch,  with 
the  back  greatly  elevated  and  the  tail  distorted,  as  occur- 
ring at  Fahlun  in  Sweden,  and  in  other  lakes  in  the  north 
of  Europe*  Mr.  Daniel  mentions  still  more  singular 
perch  taken  by  him  in  the  docks  at  Blackwall ;  these  had 
each  a  solid  mass  of  fat  placed  on  the  ribs,  but  not 
adherent  to  them ;  the  stomach  was  apparently  closed 
and  impervious,  and  had  not  been  distended  by  food 
for  some  time*  He  also  mentions  another  singpilar 
kind  of  perch  found  in  Malham  water,  not  far  from 
Settle^  in  Yorkshire :  these  grow  to  five  pounds  and  up- 
wards in  weight,  yet  are  all  blind  of  one  or  both  eyes, 
*'and,  therefore,"  as  Mr.  Blaine  remarks,  <' might  have 
been  advantageously  seised  on  by  the  punster,  who 
observed  of  his  friend's  monocular  dog,  that  he  needs 
must  prove  an  excellent  guard,  because  he  would  have 
an  r^tf  out  on  all  occasions."  Specimens  of  perch  almost 
entirely  white,  have  been  found  in  the  waters  of  parti- 
cular soils. 

The  perch  grows  slowly,  but  its  increase  depends 
greatly  on  the  nature  of  its  habitation :  in  ponds  and 


S4d 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[JUHE  26,  IS4I. 


other  small  gtag;nant  waters  it  seldoms  attaina  any  great 
size :  but  in  river»  and  estuariea,  and  eapecially  in  such 
waters  as  are  subject  to  the  risiag  tide,  although  without 
current,  they  grow  quickly,  and  become  very  fat.  In 
large  stagnant  waters,  if  there  be  plenty  of  insect  food, 
and  the  young  fry  of  other  fish,  they  multiply  rapidly. 
In  rivers  they  prefer  the  aides  of  the  stream  rather  than 
the  rapid  parts  of  the  current,  and  feed  indiscriminately 
upon  insects,  worms,  and  small  fishes.  "  They  delight 
to  lie  about  bridges  and  mill-pools;  in  and  near  locks; 
about  shipping,  l^rges,  and  floats  of  timber;  in  navigable 
rivers,  canals,  and  in  wet  docks  ,  aho  in  the  still  parts  of 
rivers,  and  in  the  back-water  of  mill-streams,  as  well  as 
in  deep  gentle  eddies,  in  ponds  about  sluices,  and  the 
mouth  of  outlets  and  flood-gates,  commonly  affectingthe 
gravel,  or  sandy  parts  of  the  pood." 

They  spawn  in  April  or .  May,  according  to  the 
season  or  climate,  and  deposit  their  eggs  ugually  among 
aquatic  plants,  such  as  the  stems  of  reeds  ana  rushes. 
The  eg^s  are  enveloped  in  a  kind  of  glutinous  reticular 
band.  In  leas  than  a  fortnight  the  eggs  burst,  and  the 
young  fry  appear.  Perch  will  breed  in  small  vases  of 
water,  if  properly  fed.  A  perch,  of  only  half  a  pound 
weight,  has  been  found  to  contain  280,000  ova.  The 
weight  of  three  pounds  is  considered  large  for  this  fish. 
Donovan  speaks  of  one  of  five  pounds.  Montague  took 
one  from  the  Avon,  in  Wiltshire,  of  eight  pounds ;  and 
Pennant  says  that  one  was  caught  in  the  Serpentine 
River,  Hyde  Park,  of  nine  pounds. 

Most  predatory  animals  are  solitary,  but  the  perch  is 
a  remarkable  exception  to  the  rule.  This  fish  is  gre- 
garious ;  a  number  of  tljem  will  herd  together,  as  if  by  a 
sort  of  .cDinpact.  In  fine,  tranquil  weather,  they  may  be 
observed  in  troops  in  a  lake,  river,  or  even  in  a  large 
ditoh,  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  quite  motionless. 
But  their  perceptions  being  very  acute,  they  are  disturbed 
by  the  smallest  unaccustomed  sound,  and  will  disappear 
with  great  celerity  into  some  hole  which  is  the  common 
dwelling  of  the  troop.  "  And,  as  one  has  wittily  obser- 
ved," says  Walton,  "  if  there  be  twenty  or  forty  in  a 
hole,  they  may  be,  at  one  standing,  all  catched  one  after 
another;  they  being,  as  he  says,  like  the  wicked  of  the 
world,  not  afraid,  though  their  fellows  and  companions 
perish  in  their  sight." 

The  perch  is  veiy  voracious.  It  devours  with  avidity 
the  young  and  weak  of  moat  animals  of  its  cUsa,  as  also 
water  lizards,  frogs,  small  snakes,  aquatic  insects,  worms, 
naked  molluscs,  &c  The  perch  may  be  noticed  in 
Bommer,  springing  from  the  auriace  of  the  water  In  pur- 
suit  of  gnats  and  flies ;  and  it  will  even  fasten  on  ani- 
mals whose  means  of  defence  are  too  eflfectual  for  it. 
Thus,  it  sometimes  swallows  the  stickleback,  the  strongest 
spines  of  whiah  fasten  in  the  gullet,  so  that  the  perch 
can  neither  get  it  up  or  down,  and  consequently  it  is 
starved  to  death.  It  is  also  in  its  turn  subject  to  the 
attacks  of  poweri\il  enemies,  notwithstanding  the  formid- 
able character  of  its  dorsal  spines :  it  frequently  falls  a 
prey  to  pike,  large  eels,  and  iraat,  as  well  as  to  the  web- 
footed  and  wading  birds.  The  pike,  however,  is  fre- 
quently wounded  hy  the  dorsal  spines  of  the  perch,  and 
has  been  seen  to  snake  its  prey  out  of  its  mouth,  appa- 
rently in  great  pain.  Walton  says  that  the  pike  will  not 
attack  the  perch  unless  excited  by  extreme  hunger;  "  for 
to  affright  the  pike,  and  save  himself,  the  perch  will  set 
up  his  fins,  much  as  a  Turkey-cock  will  sometimes  set 
up  his  tail." 

The  perch  is  also  subject  to  the  attacks  of  a  small  ani- 
mal, appropriately  named  by  Dr.  Nordmann,  Aethertt 
Percarum,  or  Put  of  the  Parch.  It  is  found  in  fresh 
water,  and  attaches  itaelf  to  the  common,  and  another 
species  of  the  perch  genus,  and  takes  its  station  usually 
within  the  mouth,  fixing  itself  by  means  of  a  sucker,  wiu 
which  it  is  provided,  in  the  celliilBr  membrane  so  deeply, 
that  it  cannot  disengage  itself,  or  be  extracted  by  ex- 
ternal force,  without  rupturing  what  are  called  the  arms 


attached  to  the  sucker,  and  leaving  the  animal  beU. 
This  animal  often  fixes  itaelf  to  the  palate,  and  even  w 
the  tongue. 

When  we  consider,  (safs  Mr.  Kirby,)  that  these  predi- 
ceoos  fishes  often  gorge  their  prey,  swaUowiiig  it  entin, 
we  see  how  necessary  it  was  that  our  parasite  should  l>e  Ibii 
fitted  to  fix  itaelf  firmly,  and  root  itaelf  aa  it  wen,  ttut  11 
may  be  enabled  to  withstand  the  pressure  and  violent  tctim 
of  uie  bodies  that  pass  over  it,  for  the  pslate  and  tongue  ti 
a  perch  must  be  a  perilous  station.  This  purpoee  Bceni 
further  uded  by  a  quantity  of  saliva,  usually  formed  moaiti 
it.  These  pests  of  the  perch  are  thflmsclTea  subject  U  Uk 
incursions  and  annoyance  of  animals  still  more  mianle  'im 
themselves.  A  small  ^>eciea  of  mite  makes  tbem  its  [ret, 
and  when  the  saliva  just  mentioned  is  removed,  the/  at 
often  found  quite  covered  by  a  q>ecie8  of  lufnsoiy,  beloi^ 
to  the  genus  Vorticella. 

The  perch  is  tenacious  of  life,  and  will  live  for  son 
hours  out  of  the  water.  It  will  even  bear  a  jouraei  of 
forty  or  fifty  miles,  if  carried  steadily,  and  wWred  ooi- 
sionally.  Perch  are  constantiy  expcMcd  for  sale  in  tk 
markets  of  Catholic  countries,  and  if  not  sold  ibej  la 
taken  back  to  the  ponds  from  which  they  were  Twmd 
in  the  morning,  to  be  reproduced  another  day.  Ai  u 
article  of  food,  this  fish  is  firm,  white,  delicate,  anil  nil 
tasted.  It  is  not  common  in  the  London  voAk, 
although  it  is  taken  of  good  quality  in  the  Thsmce. 
-  The  Ituffe,  or  Pope,  is  a  fresh  water  fish,  closely  iW 
'  to  the  perch.  The  term  rufie  (ro)^h)  is  well  ^{M 
on  account  of  the  harsh  feel  of  iU  denticulated  te^. 


TBI  PiBCB,  'Pot 


Thb  power  of  every  wise  parent  is  tempered  with  Ifs^ 
neaa  towards  children ;  and  requires  such  acts  of  obediaiH 
only  as  are  fit  for  their  condition,  and  such  ss  w> 
along  with  them  dteir  own  motives  to  compliance.- D"' 
Stahhofe, 


A  MAM  will  often  call  it  acting  according  to  his  eonsaiW 
when  he  acts  according  to  his  present  peisna^oo,  '''^ 
ever  examining  how  he  came  hy  that  persua^on ;  wbtw 
through  wrong  education,  custom,  or  example ;  or  what'' 
from  some  secret  lust,  pride,  or  prejudice,  rather  thsnfio" 
the  rule  of  God's  written  word,  or  from  a  principle  of  rwo> 
reason.  This  cannot  justly  be  called  keeping  s  p»d  ''™\ 
Bcience  ;  for,  we  ought  not  to  take  up  felsa  pefsuasioia  «i  "jl 
adventures,  and  then  to  make  those  petBuasions  onr  nile « 
life,  instead  of  that  rule  which  God  hath  givw  u  to  n* 
by. — Watbalakd. 

No  chains  bmd  so  hard,  no  fetters  aie  so  heary,  M  ** 
which  fasten  the  corrupted  heart  to  this  treacberoni  wW^ 
no  dependence  is  more  contemptible  than  that  under  «''"' 
the  v^nptuous,  the  covetons,  or  the  amhitknis  moE  ues-''^ 
the  means  of  pleasure,  gain,  or  power.  Yet  this  u  i"' 
boasted  Uberty  which  vice  promises  «  ^'^^  ttcouipfn*  •>' 
setting  us  free  from  the  salutary  rertraints  of  virtue.— Bu"  , 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PAEKER,  WEST  STEAIfD^ 


Jba^turlrail       m^^mnt. 


N9.  577.  SUPPLEMENT. 


JUNE.  1841.  {oJI'SIk, 


A     BRIEF     ACCOUNT    OF     THE     HANSEATIC     LEAGUF„ 


Mm  in  nddj  U  like  ■  <)dt« 
Blown  in  iti  oUin  b«d  Ttis  1 
Hii  faculdn,  sipondcd  io  fill 
Shine  out :  lliris  onljr  Knrli  t 


BcDcatb  oat  head,  for  poipfHe*  of  nbr, 
Like  fiovcriBirlL-cteil  bom  the  rest,  and  bo 
Aod  bumllnl  doH  u  fill  ■ome  croodsd  vi 
Fade!  i^idlj.  a 


Hausa  ehanand  bomURlB  an  aacli  public  plagnM; 
And  boT^bfin,  mm  imnucnlalo  pBrbopt 
Id  all  their  piiiats  ftmcliaa),  once  combiiwd. 
Become  a  loBlhunDe  hodj,  anlj  fit 


EncgrpDntcd,  ■eem  at  tm 


For  mercf  and  lie  common  i 
Build  facloriea  xilh  blood,  o 


I.    HiSIOBICAL   iNTnODUCTlOX. 


Thh  rrader  is  probably  nware  that  daring;  the  early  cetitn- 
Ti(4  of  tliG  CliriRtmn  era,  nearly  all  Europe  was  inchidei) 
niiW  the  tetin  "Koman  Empire ;" — the  various  province*  of 
I'-ily,  Greece,  portions  of  what  is  now  called  Turkey,  Spain, 
i'lirtugnl,  France,  England,  and  parta  of  Germony,  all  fell 
under  the  dominion  of  the  lUmum  emperora;  the  porta 

Vol..  xvrii. 


IUTH>HOSSE   AT   LUBBCK. 

vrliicli  were  not  so  includtd  lieliii^  iulialjited  hy  tribes 
BC^ely  if  at  all  removed  from  bacliarisni.  But  the  divet- 
Eity  of  materials  of  which  this  empire  was  formed,  its  gigan- 
tic extent,  the  distance  of  some  of  the  provinces  from  the 
centre  of  government,  and  above  all,  the  luxurious  eSerai- 
nacy  into  which  the  Romana  liad  fallcD  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  all  conspired  to  lead  to  a  dismemberment  of 
tlie  empire.  It  is  probable  that  even  if  no  irruption  of 
barbarians  had  taken  place,  internal  dissensions  would  have 
mined  the  empire ;  for  the  Romans  had  become  altogether 
onworthy  of  the  high  name  wiiiuh  they  had  attained  before 
nnd  at  the  time  of  Julius  Ccaar.  But  it  was  the  influx  of 
barbarians  of  various  Irihes, — Goths,  Huns,  Vandals,  Franks, 
&c., — into  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire,  which  brought 
it  BO  suddenly  to  ruiD.  These  barbarians  appear  to  have 
come  fiom  all  the  countries  which  are  now  included  under 
the  names  of  Hungary,  Germany,  Russia,  Poland,  Denmark, 
&c. ;  and  the  cause  of  their  irruption  seems  to  have  been 
not  so  much  an  enmity  towards  the  Romans,  as  a  March 
for  the  means  of  subsistence.  They  lived  chiefly  by  hunting 
and  fishing,  manufactures  were  scarcely  known  among  Uteta, 
and  agriculture  was  in  a  very  rude  state.  Under  such 
circumstances  love  of  country  scarcely  existed  amongst 
them :  their  numbers  increased  faster  than  the  means  of  sub- 
sietence;  and  when  they  liad  exhausted  one  territory,  they 
went  to  another.  They  acknowledged  few  laws  but  lliose  of 
physical  force;  and  that  which  they  were  strong  enough  to 
seize,  they  appropriated  to  their  own  use  without  compunc- 
tion. The  horror  which  we  fed  at  tlio  details  of  barbarian. 
warfare  arises  from  our  judging  it  by  a  civilized  standard  : 
we  censure  unsivilued  men  Ki  the  wtuit  of  tiiat  sense  of 


577 


250 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


^ 


justice  and  right  which,  from  the  very  rudeness  of  their 
natures,  they  are  inciipable  of  understanding. 

One  army  of  barbarians  succeeded  another  in  their  inroads 
on  the  various  provinces  of  the  empire  ;  the  city  of  Rome 
itself  was  more  tlian  once  pillaged  by  them ;  and  by  the  end 
of  the  fifth  century,  the  empire  was  wholly  destroyed,  the 
last  emperor  being  deposed  by  invaders.  The  whole  of 
Europe  was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  conquerors,  and  an 
universal  chaos  prevailed.  After  dispossessing  the  original 
inhabitants  of  tlieir  territory,  they  proceeded  to  divide  it 
among  themselves.  The  kings  or  chiefs  of  the  various 
tribes  of  barbarians  assumed  a  show  of  sovereign  power, 
and  took  a  share  of  territory  larger  than  that  which  fell  to 
others.  But  the  subordinate  geaerab  and  officers  received 
their  quota  of  land,  as  did  also  many  of  the  meaner  rank. 
As  there  was  no  general  policy  by  which  the  whole  were 
governed,  each  proprietor  oegan  to  deem  himself  a  little 
sovereign  over  tne  domain  which  had  £&llen  to  his  share, 
and  the  dependants  and  serfs  which  he  graduallv  collected 
around  him  looked  up  to  him  as  a  guide  and  superior. 
Tliese  dependants  were  often  email  proprietors  of  land, 
who  were  too  weak  to  defend  themselves,  and  there- 
fore clung  to  some  one  more  powerful,  yielding  up  their 
small  possession  to  him,  ana  receiving  it  again  from 
his  hands  as  9kfiefy  feud^  or  leased  property.  This  was  the 
origin  of  the  Feudal  SyHem^  which  so  strikingly  charac- 
terized Europe  during  the  middle  ages : — the  barbarians  who 
had  actually  overturned  the  Roman  Empire  received  the 
conquered  land  as  booty,  divided  into  pai-cels :  these  parcels 
of  land,  from  various  causes, — sometimes  intermarriages, 
sometimes  superior  tact,  and  sometimes  actual  violence, — 
became  gradually  combined  into  larger  portions,  fewer  in 
number*  The  owners  of  these  large  estates  constituted  the 
class  of  proud,  haughty,  warlike  Barons,  of  whom  we  read 
in  the  history  of  almost  every  country  in  Europe. 

But  it  was  only  in  the  open  country  that  these  Barona 
exercised  their  peculiar  sway :  in  cities  and  towns  their  in- 
fluence was  much  smaller.  The  circumstances  which  dis- 
tinguish town  from  country  life  are  sufficientlv  marked  to 
show  the  origin  of  all  civic  communities.  Where  articles 
are  manufactured,  a  number  of  persons  must  be  congre- 
gated together,  and  if  their  city  be  on  the  searcoaat,  or  on 
the  banks  of  a  river^  shipping  and  boats  would  resort  to 
it,  for  the  conveyance  of  the  manufactured  goods  to  other 
parts  of  the  country.- 

The  state  of  Europe  then,  from  the  seventh  to  the  tenth 
century,  (for  it  was  not  till  the  seventh  century  that  the 
irruptions  of  fresh  hordes  of  barbarians  ceased,)  was  this: — 
The  land  was  possessed  chiefly  by  Feudal  Barons,  who  had 
under  them  a  lai'ge  number  of  vassals  and  serfii,  whoee  lives 
and  properties  had  become  almost  solely  at  the  disposal  of 
their  lords ;  the  baron  decided  the  disputes  of  his  vassals  in 
his  own  baronial  hall :  he  called  them  out  whenever  he  went 
to  war ;  and  was,  to  all  practical  purposes,  their  sovereign. 
The  monarch  of  the  country  had  a  general  sovereiimty  over 
the  whole :  but  it  was  more  in  name  than  in  reality.  In 
England  the  contests  between  the  Danes  and  Saxons  and 
afterwards  the  Normans,  made  many  changes  in  the  sove- 
reignty; but  throughout  these  chanffes  the  nobles  were 
more  powerful  than  the  monarch  or  the  people.  In  Scot- 
land the  spirit  of  clan- ship  prevailed  down  to  a  recent 
period.  In  France,  the  barons  were  more  powerful  than 
m  any  otlier  country  of  Europe,  and  left  to  the  reigning 
monarch  only  the  shadow  of  authority.  In  Germany 
there  were  certain  great  lords  who  assumed  sovereign 
authority  within  their  own  petty  dominions ;  and  Charle- 
magne was  almost  the  only  emperor  during  t^is  period 
who  liad  a  real  supremacy.  In  Italy,  the  country  was 
broken  up  into  a  number  of  little  independent  states, 
some  monarchical,  some  aristocratic,  and  others  demo- 
cratic. In  Spain,  there  was  a  continual  strife  between 
the  Moors  and  the  Christians  for  the  possession  of  the 
country ;  and  when  a  military  chief  sueceeded  in  wresting 
a  portion  of  territory  from  the  Moors,  he  immediately  xnade 
himself  sovereign  over  it ;  and  thus  Spain  became  broken 
up  in  to  a  number  of  petty  principalities. 

The  consequences  of  this  state  of  things  were  many  and  im- 
portant. National  laws  scarcely  existed!  for  a  baron  adopted 
on  his  own  domain  those  lawa  which  suited  him  best.  If 
one  feudal  lord  had  a  quarrel  with  another  he  took  the  law 
into  his  own  hands,  and  revenged  himself  by  force  of  arms. 
Again,  if  one  baron  made  depredations  on  the  domain  of  a 
neighbouring  baron,  captured  his  castle,  and  plundered  his 
adlierents,  the  sovereign  had  seldom  power  sufficient  to 
^ee  justice  rendered,  but  a  scene  cf  reprisal  aad  matual 


attack  followed,  each  vassal  and  serf  being  bound  by  oath 
to  follow  the  plans  of  his  loid,  -however  iniquiioub  tb«y 
might  be,  ana  thus  all  became  involved  in  a  petty  but 
ferocious  war. 

But  it  was  not  only  the  domains  of  neighbouring  barons 
that  suffered  irom  the  lawless  usages  of  the  times:  the 
cities  and  towns  experienced  the  evil  likewise ;  and  we  hm 
begin  to  have  a  glimpse  of  the  necessity  for  some  sQch 
institution  as  the  HanseaHe  League.  Whatever  wealth 
resulted  from  the  possession  of  laige  estates  belonged  to  the 
barons,  but  all  that  which  resulted  from  manufacturing  and 
commercial  industry  belonged  to  the  cities  and  towns, 
which  were  generslly  favourable  towards  the  monarciu, 
and  the  monsdrchs  towards  the  citizens.  Each  was  likely 
to  be  benefited  by  a  regular  government  which  coald 
preserve  order  and  redress  grievances;  and  each  felt  a  do- 
trust  of  the  power  of  the  barons.  This  is  the  chief 
point  in  the  history  of  charters  of  incorporation,  wm- 
cipal  privileges,  &c.  When  a  sovereign  wanted  bb  trea- 
sury replenished,  it  was  the  citizens,  and  not  the  btrom, 
to  whom  he  looked,  and  his  authority  as  a  Bovereign 
was  generally  more  readily  acknowledged  by  the  former 
than  by  the  latter.  As  a  return  and  encouragement  for 
this  &vounible  feeling,  the  monarch  granted  certain  pri- 
vileges to  the  citizens,  allowing  them  to  choose  from  among 
themselves  the  municipal  officers,  to  sovem  the  financial 
matters  relating  to  the  city,  to  establish  tolls,  dues,  &c^ 
and  many  more  of  a  similar  kind.  This  was  the  mode  in 
which  a  certain  degree  of  mutual  support  was  established 
between  monarchs  and  cities,  and  the  time  had  arrived  when 
that  support  was  needed.  The  barons  frequently  had  (heir 
castles  m  the  immediate  vicinity  of  popiuoos  towna,  and 
those  who  were  least  restrained  by  principles  of  honottr  and 
justi(;e,  or  who  were  possessed  of  most  power,  made  freq&eC. 
depredations  on  the  townsmen,  attaekin^  them  at  unguarded 
hours,  and,  when  attacked  in  turn,  intrenching  themselTes 
in  their  castles.  About  the  year  a.d.  1000  sovereign  povtr 
was  hollow  and  unreal  in  Europe ;  baronial  power  was  rast 
and  overbearing ;  citizens  were  advancing  siowly  uid  gn- 
dually  in  manufiicturing  and  commercbl  enterpruse,  ml 
in  municipal  rijghta,  but  were  troubled  by  the  exsctione  and 
depredations  ot  the  barons,  and  also  by  Scandinavian  pinites, 
who  at  tiiat  time  infested  all  the  ports  of  the  Baltic  and 
German  Seas;  and  lastly,  the  Romish  Chuich,— almost  tlst 
only  one  then  acknowledged  in  Europe, — was  too  compt 
and  demoralized  to  improve  the  minds  ot  conduct  of  oen. 
It  was  in  such  a  state  of  things  that  the  cities  sod  coin- 
mercial  towns  in  the  north  of  Germany  b^gan  to  oombifi« 
together  for  mutual  protection. 

II.    FORMATIOV  OF  THE  HaNSEATIC*  liBAGUEi 

The  city  of  Hambui^,  situated  on  the  river  Elbe,  in  the 
north  of  Germany,  was  originally  a  militair  fort,  built  br 
the  Emperor  Charlemagne,  for  the  defence  of  his  empire  from 
the  pirates  who  infested  the  Baltic.  As  this  fort  was  situ- 
ated at  the  northern  part  of  the  empire  it  was  fcneraliy  tiie 
first  to  suffer  from  the  incursions  of  the  lawless  bands  of 
Scandinavians,  and  it  was  more  than  once  sacked  and  burned 
by  them.  For  four  centuries  it  underwent  various  vicissi- 
tudes, but  continued  on  the  whole  to  increase  in  importaoc« 
and  in  population.  The  inhabitants  therefore  formed  alli- 
ances witn  various  towns,  for  mutual  protection.  Ow 
of  the  first  of  these  alliances  of  which  the  nature  hub  beta 
recorded,  was  made  with  the  city  of  Liibeck,  in  the  ve^ 
1241.  Liibeck  was  a  considerable  commercial  city,  atdiort 
distance  north-east  of  Hambuiv,  and  the  treaty  of  ailiaoce 
declared  that  the  two  towns  shoidd  jointly  clear  the  counti^ 
between  Hambui^  and  the  river  Trave  of  robbers,  and  pre- 
vent pirates  from  cruisins;  on  the  Elbe, — ^that  the  ^'^y^[ 
should  be  borne  equally  by^  them, — ^that  everything  whicA 
might  tend  to  the  benefit  of  the  two  cities  should  beco^ 
certed  in  common, — and  that  their  forces  should  always  v^ 
imited  to  maintain  their  liberties  and  privili^ges. 

The  alliance  of  1241  was  probably  a  separate  proceeding 
between  Liibeck  and  Hamboig,  without  relation  to  otiia 
cities,  for  there  was,  as  early  as  lllj9,  a  compact  between 

*  With  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  word  Hanae  two  opiiiioDS  preni^ 
Aooordiog  to  one,  this  term  is  derived  firom  two  Gensan  wonbt  ^" '''' 
sigailying  on  the  ua,  because  the  first  Hanse  towns  iten  all  litiisted  tc 
the  aea-coest  of  HoUand  and  Germanj,  and  hence  the  aodetj  a  »^^ 
have  been  ariginalljr  called  Am  $ee  ttenen,  or  Cities  on  the  ua,  vA  ts^ 
wards,  by  abbieTialion,  Hamee  and  Hante.  But  the  other  and  mtt  ^ 
bable  opinion  is  that  the  woid  kanu  isanobaolBle  HJ^DatchorT«ai>»» 
word,  baring  the  si^niflcatioo  oT  alUanet,  eonfederaiion,  or  tf»n*''^ 
and  hflioe  the  torn  Marut  towm  ha^liid  Cvnfii/tr^tti  «miw 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  JUNE,  IMl. 


351 


tvv.'lve  towns  on  the  Baltic  shore,  for  mutual  defence  against 
piiMtes:  these  towns  were  Lubeck,  Wismar,  Rostock,  Stral- 
bujid,  Grypeswald,  Anclam,  Stettin,  Colberg,  Stolpe,  Dant- 
zic,  Elbiug,  and  Konigsberg.  It  appears  to  have  been  a 
standing  rule  of  this  first  confederacy  that  no  town  should 
hiilong  to  it  but  such  as  was  either  situated  on  the  sea  or  on 
some  navigable  river  commodious  for  maritime  commerce. 
Another  rule  was,  not  to  admit  any  towns  which  did  not 
keep  the  keys  of  their  own  eates,  and  did  not  moreover 
jxercise  civil  jurisdiction  wiSiin  themselves ;  it  was  at 
the  same  time  permitted  that  the  towns  sliould  in  other 
•espects  acknow-ledge  some  superior  lord  or  prince.  The 
id  vantages  of  this  confederacy  were  so  great  that  other 
»wns  gladly  entered  into  it;  indeed,  so  rapidly  did  the 
nfluence  oi  the  confederation  increase,  that  neighbouring 
>rinces  and  barons  were  often  glad  to  cultivate  the  good 
Opinion  of  the  confederated  powers,  and  even  referred  their 
lisputcs  to  them  for  arbitration.  When  this  extension 
>f  the  confederation  took  place,  something  akin  to  a  ge- 
leral  government  became  necessary,  since  the  united  efforts 
»f  a  body  composed  of  many  parts  are  valueless  unless 
tome  system  is  observed  bjr  the  whole.  It  appears  that 
vhen  tne  inland  towns  of  the*  north  of  Germany  swelled  the 
lumbers  of  the.  confederates,  the  whole  were  divided  into 
bur  classes,  over  which  a  certain  city  presided.  At  the 
lead  of  the  first  class,  and  also  of  the  whole  league,  was 
[^ubeck,  the  rich  and  potent  leader  in  the  confederacy  :  this 
;las8  contained  the  towns  of  Pomerania;  and  to  the 
lustody  of  Liibeck  were  committed  the  common  stock  and 
•ecordb  of  the  confederacy.  The  second  class  comprised  the 
owns  in  Westphalia,  Cleves,  Overyssel,  Gueldcrland,  and 
ilark,  with  Cologne  at  its  head.  The  third  class,  with  Bruns- 
vick  as  the  chief  town,  compreliended  the  towns  of  Saxony. 
The  fourth  and  last  class,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Dantzic, 
Deluded  the  Piiissian  and  Livonian  towns. 

The  general  assemblies,  for  the  management  of  the 
affairs  of  the  confederacy,  were  held  at  Lubeck;  and  an 
xtraordinary  general  assembly  was  held  every  ten  yeai-s,  at 
vhich  they  solemnly  renewed  their  union,  admitted  new 
nembers,  excluded  old  ones  if  refractory,  &c.  The  con- 
ederacy  also  chose  a  protector  or  president,  in  order,  to  give 
lignity  to  their  proceedings;  and  the  choice  of  their  pro- 
ector  had  a  marked  iniluence  on  the  wel&re  of  the  league  ; 
?e  must  briefly  explain  the  position  of  the  persons  who,  for 
he  long  period  of  three  centuries,  were  the  chosen  protec- 
ors  of  tne  league.  The  country  which  we  now  call  I'mssia, 
vos  very  little  removed  irom  barbarism  at  the  end  of  the 
welfth  century ;  and  in  order  to  protect  Poland  ^  which  was 
hen  a  considerable  kingdom,)  from  invasion,  the  King  of 
'oland  granted  a  strip  of  couutrv  on  the  shore  of  the  Baltic  to 
be  Teutonic  Knights,  or  Knights  of  the  Cross,  on  condition 
hat  they  would  subdue,  and,  as  far  as  they  could,  civilise  the 
ude  inliabitants.  These  warlike  knights  not  only  succeeded 
a  this  attempt,  but  established  towns  of  much  importance  on 
he  Baltic  coast,  which,  under  the  names  of  Dantzic,  Thorn, 
fee,  afterwards  became  well  known  to  Western  Europe. 
The  knights  formed  this  tern  to  ty  into  a  republic,  of  which 
be  grand  master  of  the  order  was  president.  Now  the 
ise  and  progress  of  this  republic  were  nearly  coeval  with 
he  Ilauseatic  league ;  and  there  were  many  reasons  why 
he  two  should  be  on  good  terms.  The  knights  owed  most 
f  their  influence  to  the  maritime  towns  on  their  coast ;  and 
h«  commeroe  of  those  towns  could  not  be  better  promoted 
ban  by  joining  the  oommereial  league.  Again,  the  con- 
titution  of  the  league  was  essentially  republican,  and  there- 
ore  more  nearly  allied  to  the  dominion  of  the  knights  than 

0  that  of  an  emperor  or  king.  These  were  some  of  the 
ausea  which  ledthe  confederacy  to  choose  as  its  protector 
he  crand  master  of  the  Teutonic  Knights;  a  custom 
vhicB  continued  more  than  three  centuries.  By  this 
:ood  understanding  with  the  knights,  the  Hanse  Towns  be- 
ame  posseased  of  all  the  commerce  of  the  south  shores 
^f  the  Baltic,  from  Denmark  to  the  bottom  of  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  containing  countries  intersected  by  many  lax^ 
ivers  flowing  into  the  Baltic,  and  producing  many  of  the 
lecesaaries  of  life  in  great  abundance. 

III.  Commercial  Advantaoss  ov  thb  Leaovb. 

About  the  year  1252,  the  Hanse  Towns  had  commenced 

1  brisk  commerce  wiUi  the  various  towns  of  Flanders;  but 
be  duties  and  exactions  laid  on  them  in  that  comitry  ren- 
'ered  the  dealings  vexatious.  Hamburg  therefore  represented 
Ji»^  istate  of  Flemish  commerce  to  a  general  assembly  of  the 
^^ue  at  Liibeck ;  and  it  was  resolved  to  send  a  deputation 
ruu:^  Hamburg,  to  Margaret,  countess  of  Flanders,  to  treat 


of  naore  moderate  duties,  and  of  other  commeretal  matters. 
Their  wishes  were  acceded  to ;    and  shortly  afterwards  a 
similar  deputation  to  Albert,  duke  of  Saxony,  led  to  simikr 
results.    These  points  illustrate  the  mode  in  which  the 
league  gradually  acquired  its  power:  the  complaints  of  a 
single  town  might  not  have  been  attended  to ;  but  the  asso- 
ciated merchants  of  many  towns  gave  a  weight  to  the  repre- 
sentations, which,  from  that  time  forwards,  monarchs  and 
princes  listened  to  respectfully.    The  opening  of  a  commerce 
with  Flanders  was  productive  of  important  results.    The 
league  fixed  upon  the  city  of  Bruges,  as  a  ampUAry  counts 
ing-house,  or  ractory,  for  forwarding  the  commercial  tians- 
actions  of  the  league ;  and  this  proved  of  incalculable  advan- 
tage by  opening  a  commimication  between  Northern  and 
Southern  Europe.    The  inhabitants  of  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Turkey  knew  but  little  of  the  countries  near  the  Baltic,  and 
were  ignorant  of  the  productions  of  those  regions ;  but  the 
spi-ead  of  commerce  under  the  league  brought  the  two  ends 
of  Europe  together,  as  it  were,  in  a  circle.    The  naval 
stores,  the  iron,  copper,  com,  flax,  hemp,  timber,  &c.,  of  the 
Baltic  regions  became  objects  of  desire  to  Southei*n  Europe; 
while  the  taste  for  the  luxuries  of  Southern  Europe  began 
to  spread  in  the  North,  as  barbarism  gradually  wore  away. 
Overland  carriage  was  at  that  time  rude  in  the  extreme ; 
and  the  conveyance  of   commodities  from  Northern    to 
Southern  Europe  was  by  shipping  belonj^ing  to  the  Hanse 
Towns;  which  proceeded  from  tne  Baltic  into  the  Gei-man 
Ocean,  through  the  English  Channel,  across  the  Bay  of 
Biscav,  and  so  round  the  coast  of  Portugal  and  Spain  into 
the  Mediterranean.    But  as  the  mariners'  compass  was  not 
yet  in  use,  the  voyage  was  difficult  and  dangerous ;  and  the 
passage  from  tlie  Baltic  to  the  Mediterranean  and  back 
a^ain,  was  deemed  too  much  for  one  summer.    It  became, 
therefore,  desirable  to  have  a  half-way  station,  port,  factory, 
or  store-house,  to  which  traders  from  both  seas  should  bring 
their    respective    merchandise    in    summer.     Now    there 
were  no  towns  so  favourably  situated  for  this  purpose  as 
those  of  Flanders,  from  their  central  situation,  and  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  long  established  manufactures  of 
woollen  and  linen  were  at  that  time  veiy  flourishing  in 
Flanders.    To  Bruges,  therefore,  most  European  nations 
sent  their  merchandise,  and  brought  from  thence  the  pro- 
duce of  other  nations,  of  which  they  had  need ;  so  that  this 
city  soon  became  the  general  magazine  of  merchandise  for 
all  Europe  ;  and  from  this  circumstance,  Flanders  generally 
acquired  a  great  increase  of  wealth  and  prosperity. 

About  the  year  1260  a  great  accession  of  power  accrued  to 
the  league,  by  the  formation  of  the  '*  steel-yard"  in  London. 
London  was  never  a  Hanse  Town,  properly  so  called ;  but 
the  merchants  belonging  to  those  towns  had  certain  import- 
ant privileges  granted  to  them  for  conducting  business  in 
London;  and  hence  London  became  considered  as  a  sort  of 
ally  of  the  league,  though  not  itself  included  among  the 
Hanse  Towns.  The  Grerman  merchants  settled  in  London, 
who  may  be  deemed  as  a  colony  or  college  of  Hanseatics,  had 
their  place  of  business  in  a  building  called  the  "  Steel-yard ;" 
and  hence  they  acquired  the  name  of  the  "  Steel-yard  Com- 
pany.** This  company,  by  reason  of  their  wealth  and  con- 
nexion with  the.  Hanseatic  Towns,  were  of  frequent  service 
to  the  Kings  of  England;  and  Edward  the  First  gave  them 
a  diploma,  which  exempted  them  from  any  additional  toll, 
custom,  or  tribute  wliatsoevcr ;  which  diploma  was  acted  on 
by  the  succeeding  monarchs  for  a  long  period.  The  general 
warehouse  of  the  company  was  in  Thames  Street ;  and  the 
name  of  "  Steel-yard,'*  was  applied  to  it,  as  some  allege,  on 
account  of  iron  and  steel  being  among  the  principal  articles 
of  their  commerce;  but,  as  others  think,  from  a  gradual 
corruption  of  the  word  "staple,**  {stapely  gtafely  stael.  Heel,) 
« stapel"  implying  a  general  warehouse  for  keeping  mer- 
chandise. As  a  return  from  the  privileges  which  the  Steel- 
yard company  received  from  the  English  kings,  iliey  were 
bound,  if  at  any  time  London  should  be  besieged  by  a 
foreign  enemy,  to  bear  ona  third  part  of  the  expense  of 
guaroing  and  defending  Bishop8gi»te,  then  one  of  the  gates  of 
the  city ;  and  were  also  bound  to  keep  that  gate  in  repair. 

In  the  year  1280,  we  find  the  Hanseatics  showing  the 
extent  of  theur  power  by  a  remarkably  bold  proceeding 
ag^nst  the  King  of  Norway.  That  monarch,  influenced 
either  by  interested  counsel,  or  by  a  belief  that  the  interesta 
of  his  kingdom  demanded  it,  suspended  the  great  privileges 
which  the  Hanse  Towns  had  obtained  from  former  Kings  of 
Norway.  No  sooner  was  this  resolution  made  known  to  them, 
than  they  blockaded  with  their  fleets  all  the  porte  in  tho 
kingdom,  so  that  nothing  could  be  imported  into  the  coun- 
tryby'sea.    The  Norwegians,  accustomed  to  the  corn  and 

577 — 2 


252 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


otlier  produce  of  Germany,  in  exchange  for  their  own  diied 
fish,  threatened  a  general  insurrection  if  the  blockade  were 
not  discontinued.  The  king  was  forced  to  vield  bock  to 
the  Hanse  Towns  the  privileges  which  they  had  acquired, 
and  also  to  pay  them  a  considerable  sum  of^  money.  This, 
it  must  be  owned,  looks  very  much  like  a  stret^'h  of  power; 
for  it  is  not  easy  to  perceive  what  right,  except  that  of  the 
strongest,  the  Hanscatics  had  to  proceed  to  such  measures. 

The  year  1300  witnessed  the  leaguers  growing  in  power 
and  influence.  The  city  of  Hamburg  obtained  from  the 
Earl  of  Holstein  a  great  increase  of  privileges;  and,  in 
several  contests  whicn  the  towns  haa  with  the  feudal 
barons,  the  united  strength  of  the  former  j^enerally  enabled 
tliem  to  conouer.  But  power,  wherever  it  exists,  is  liable 
to  abuse  unless  checked.  We  find  Eilward  the  Second 
complaining  to  the  King  of  Norwajr  for  having  suffered 
several  En^ish  merchants  to  be  imprisoned  and  tneir  goods 
seized,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Hanse  merchants,  "  who,'' 
says  the  king,  ''  by  all  possible  ways,  strive  to  obstruct 
the  advantages  of  the  English  merchants.*'  Indeed  it  seems 
pretty  clear,  that  the  Ilanseatics  acted  on  the  Baltic  as 
if  none  but  themselves  had  a  right  to  the  adjacent  countries 
of  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Sweacn, 

Another  contest  shortly  afterwards  ensued  between  the 
Hanseatics  and  the  Danes.  Denmark,  although  wholly 
separated  from  Sweden,  is  at  one  port  divided  from  it  only 
by  a  narrow  clianncl  called  the  Sound,  on  whose  western 
bank  are  the  cities  of  Copenhagen  and  Elsineur;  and  through 
this  Sound  all  vessels  have  to  proceed  to  and  from  the  Baltic 
and  the  German  Ocean.  Now  it  appears,  that,  in  1848,  the 
Danish  fleet  in  the  Sound,  having  inteiTupted  the  navigation 
of  the  Hanseatics  hy  demanding  toll,  was  attacked  and  de- 
feated by  the  combined  fleet  of  the  Hanse  Towns;  most  of 
the  Danish  ships  were  destroyed ;  and  the  king  was  forced 
to  assign  to  the  Hanseatics  the  fine  province  of  Schonen, 
for  the  space  of  sixteen  years,  as  an  indemnification  for  the 
expenses  wli ich  they  had  incurred.  This  is  the  first  mention 
which  we  have  met  with,  of  a  toll  being  demanded  by  the 
Danes  for  the  passage  of  ships  to  and  mm  the  Baltic :  it 
has  been  adhered  to,  more  or  less,  to  the  present  day ;  and 
has  been  a  finiitful  source  of  disagreement  among  the 
Northern  nations. 

In  the  year  1861,  a  naval  contest  of  a  more  extensive 
character  occurred  on  tlie  Baltic,  in  which  the  Hanseatics 
played  a  conspicuous  part.  Waldemar  the  Third,  King  of 
Denmark,  attacked  the  city  of  Wisbui^,  in  tlie  isle  of  Goth- 
land,— an  extensive  commercial  emporium  at  that  time,— - 
and  carried  off  a  large  booty.  As  Wisbui^  was  a  Hanse 
Town,  or  was  at  least  closely  connected  with  them,  the 
Hanseatics  were  greatly  excited :  they  seized  on  the  Danish 
ships  and  mercliondise  everywhere;  declared  war  against 
Denmark ;  and,  having  made  an  alliance  with  the  King  of 
Norway,  Uie  Duke  of  Mccklenbui^,  and  the  Earl  of  Hol- 
stein, they  attacked  Copenha^n.  The  Lubeck  squadron 
was  under  a  commander,  appointed  by  the  citizens ;  and  all 
the  rest  of  the  fleet  was  commanded  by  the  Earl  of  Holstein. 
The  allies  succeeded  in  capturing  the  castle,  and  destroying 
the  town  of  Copenhagen ;  but  tnev  failed  in  an  attempt  on 
Helsinbuig.  The  Danes,  in  their  turn,  sent  a  fleet  to 
Lubeck,  and  defeated  its  squadron,  taking  six  of  their  ships, 
burning  others,  and  forcingthe  rest  to  take  refuge  in  tne 
harbour  of  Travemund.  The  contest  ended  without  any 
satisfiictory  termination  of  the  difficulties  for  which  it  com- 
menced;  and  this  circumstance  seems  to  have  led  to  a 
frequent  renewal  of  hostilities  between  them,  in  most  of 
which  the  fleets  of  the  confederacy  were  victorious.  In 
1864,^  three  years  afler  the  last  contest,  the  Danes  received  a 
total  overthrow  in  or  near  the  haven  of  Wismar,  where 
their  whole  fleet  was  destroyed,  and  their  admiral  made 
prisoner,  by  the  Hanseatic  fleet,  usually  stationed  at  that 
once  famous  haven. 

Four  years  afterwards  we  find  the  confederacy  in  alliance 
with  Albert,  king  of  Sweden,  against  the  Danish  monarch : 
the  allies  attacked  him  on  the  coast  of  Schonen,  and  took 
several  Danish  towns.  As  Denmark  was  at  ^e  same  time 
attacked,  on  distinct  grounds,  by  the  people  of  Holstein 
and  Jutland,  he  found  it  necessary  to  make  peace  with 
the  Hanse  Towns,  by  granting  them  new  and  great  privi- 
leges all  over  Denmark.  But  even  the  concession  seems  to 
have  been  insufficient  to  allay  the  hostile  feeling  between 
the  parties;  for,  in  the  following  year,  the  confederates 
attacked  Denmark  >vith  such  vigour  as  to  drive  the  king 
out  of  his  dominions;  they  took  the  castle  of  Copenhagen, 
as  well  as  many  other  castles,  and  made  prisoners  of  many 
of  the  nobility. 


IV .    ExmiT  AHD  Intkbnal  GorBBVMBMT  ov  THi  Lsion. 

Historians  generally  agree,  that  the  period  to  which  n 
have  now  arrived  (about  the  year  1870),  was  that  at 
which  the  Hanseatic  league  was  at  the  zenith  of  its  glory 
and  power.  It  will,  tiierefore,  be  desirable  here  to  expUo 
somewhat  more  fully  the  extent  and  internal  govenuneDt 

of  the  league. 

The  largest  number  of  cities  and  towns  that  everactuallf 
belonged  to  the  league  was  84^  of  which  we  hen  gire  u 
alphabetical  list. 

Anclam,  Elbarg,  Konigtlmig,  Salzvcdel, 

Andernach,  Eminericli,  Kraoow,  SeehnM, 

Asehentoben,  Frankibit,  Kiiim,  Sdert, 

BerHn,  Oolnow,  Lmgo,  SUrd, 

Bemn,  Gotlar,  Tii«hfiini,  Stnsvi 

Biebfeld,  Gottiogni,  Liiback,  StaTcns, 

Bobwvit,  Griefrwald,  Liinebnrg,  Stettio, 

Bnmdenbierg,  Groningen,  Mtgdaburg,  Slciukl, 

Bnun^baiff,  Halle,  Mindra,     '  Stolpe, 

Bfumwick,  Htlbentadt,  Mnuter  StnJnml, 

Bramoi,  Uambuig,  Ninegmo,.  Tbon, 

BaxtelmdA  Homdn  Nordbein,  Vflolitf, 

Casnpen,  HainiD,  Osnabriick,  VdUcr, 

Diintzic,  Han<w«r.  OsterVurg,  Uniu, 

Demmim,  Harderwyck,  Paderborn,  Warlwj 

DereDter,  Helnutadt,  Qiudlinboigp  Waim, 

Dorpat,  Herroiden,  Bevel,  WcmI, 

DortmiuMl,  Hildciheim,     .     Kiga,  Wisbui. 

Duisbiug,  Kiel,   •  Boatock,  Wisiair 

Einbeek,  Kolberg,  Riigeywalda,  Zdtphtt. 

Elbing,  Kologne,  Ruremond,  ZvoEL 

But  besides  thes&»  which  were  oU  Hanse  Towns  in  the 
proper  acceptation  of  the  term,  there  were  numerous  othen,- 
comprising,  indeed,  nearly  all  the  principal  cities  in  Eu- 
rope,— which  were  allied  to  them,  for  the  mutual  protec- 
tion of  commerce  and  navigation:  among  these  wm 
Amsterdam,  Utrecht,  Stockholm,  Antwerp,  RotterdiiD, 
Bruges,  Ostend,  Dunkirk,  Calais,  Rouen,  St  Malo,  Boar- 
deujc,  Bayonne,  Marseilles,  Seville,  Cadiz,  Barcelona,  Lisbon, 
Leghorn,  Naples,  Messina,  and  London.  These  towns  were 
merely  related  to  the  confederacy  for  the  convenieDce  ani 
safety  of  commerce;  but  the  real  Hanseatics  subscribed  to  i 
common  fund,  out  of  which  the  salaries  of  officers,  the 
expenses  of  meetinffs,  &c.,  were  defrayed.  Liibecku^ 
Cologne,  as  being  the  chiefe  of  the  league,  paid  the  Urgfij 
quota  towards  this  common  fund;  and  tne  other  towns pai^ 
accordmg  to  their  rank  or  size.  The  fleets  were  not  Ttm- , 
tained  out  of  this  fund ;  but  each  town  furnished  its  o^  \ 
whenever  wanted. 

We  have  before  observed  that  the  confederacy,  for  «»■ 
venience  of  business,  was  divided  into  four  distncts,  at  tbi 
head  of  which  were  tiie  towns  of  Liibeck,  Cologne,  Bruiij- 
wick,  and  Dantzic.  All  business  occurring  in  each  resp-^v^ 
tive  district,  which  was  not  of  ffreat  ana  immediate  k- 
portance,  was  usually  left  to  be  determined  at  the  gcntnl 
assemblies  of  the  whole  confederacy,  annually  held  at  t.ie 
head  city  of  that  district,  where  the  records  and  docnmcDts 
of  the  district  were  deposited.  But  if  the  matter  happened 
to  be  of  great  importance  to  their  commerce,  freedom,  &Ci 
it  was  reserved  for  the  triennial  meeting  of  the  whole  repi*- 
sentatives  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  usually  held  at  Lub^k, 
where  the  journals,  archives,  and  records  of  the  whole  coic- 
munity  were  kept. 

Bruges  has  been  spoken  of  as  a  place  where  the  le^ 
established  a  comptair,  or  ^neral  warehouse,  for  the  recep- 
tion and  sale  of  commodities  belonging  to  all  the  cities  w 
the  league.  Various  causes  led  to  the  removal  of  this  cm^ 
toir  from  Bruges  to  Antwerp,  where  the  Hanse  merchants 
had  a  magnificent  old  house,  resembling  a  college,  ^f' 
rounded  by  shops  and  warehouses.  The  next  compto^ 
established  was  tiiat  at  London,  to  which  we  have  woit 
alluded,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Steel-yard,"  or  the  "Gcrfl!^ 
Guildhall."  Anotlier  comptour  was  established  at  Gre^ 
Novogorod,  anciently  a  &mous  commercial  city  and  repul'iif> 
tributaiy  to  Russia.  A  fourth  comptoir  was  at  Bergen,  m 
Norway.  Each  of  these  comptoirs  was  governed  bv  a  coip^- 
rate  powe^  which  superintended  all  the  commercial  arran^f] 
ments  of  tne  league  in  the  coimtry  where  the  conapt'  ir  "^^ 
situated.  At  B^n,  the  comptoir  consisted  of  twent.r-onr 
large  buildings;  at  the  head  or  each  of  which  was  an  orer- 
seer,  who  gave  judgment  on  the  different  causes  which  canw 
before  him :  above  nim  was  a  council  of  merchants,  consi»' 
inff  of  one  or  two  aldermen,  and  eighteen  counsellors;  ifl< 
aldermen  being  chosen  at  Liibeck,  and  sent  out  for  ii^' 
years.  The  comptour  at  Bruges,  from  its  central  situatjon, 
was  more  important.  It  included,  at  one  time,  three  hun- 
dred merchants,  who  lived  at  diilerent  parts  of  the  tow 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  JDNE,  1841. 


253 


Countries,  bnt  made  Binges  their  centre  of  traffic :  when  the 
merchants  had  been  thus  employed  for  a  number  of  years, 
they  had  acquired  such  habits  oi  business  and  such  general 
knowledge,  that  the  directors  and  magistrates  of  the  comp- 
toir  were  generally  chosen  from  among  them.  The  president 
was  elected  annually,  and  took  an  oath  to  attend  to  the 
interests  and  prospentv  of  the  confederacy.  The  comptoir, 
or  ''steel-yard,"  at  London,  was  governed  in  a  manner 
nearly,  but  not  altogether,  analogous  to  the  others.  The 
steel-yard  was  surrounded  by  a  strong  high  wall ;  all  the 
persons  employed  were  bound  to  reside  within  this  wall, 
where  they  lived  under  a  discipline  as  strict  as  that  of  a 
monk  in  his  cell,-— celibacy  being;  one  of  the  regulations 
imposed  upon  them.  Each  district  of  the  league,  on  the 
last  day  of  each  year,  elected  four  deputies,  who  were  sent 
to  represent  that  district  at  the  London  comptoir ;  and  from 
these  deputies  a  president  was  chosen.  All  these  officers  of 
the  league,  on  entering  office,  swore  to  obey  all  the  regula- 
tions and  statutes  of  the  confederacy, — ^to  administer  justice 
among  the  merchants  under  their  control, — and  to  do  all  in 
their  power  to  monopolise  the  commerce  of  England  in  the 
hands  of  the  league ;  for  this  appears  to  have  been  a  standing 
object  of  the  confederates.  As  the  wealth  of  the  Uanse 
merchants  was  frequently  desired  by  the  monarchs  where 
the  comptoirs  were  situated,  the  confederates  easily 
gained  privileges  which  were  reiy  repugnant  to  the 
feelings  as  well  as  to  the  interests  of  the  national  mer- 
chants ;  and  it  was  to  defend  themselves  from  outrage  re- 
sulting from  this  ill-feelinff,  that  the  London  comptoir  was 
surrounded  by  strong  walls ;  and  a  system  of  internal  dis- 
cipline introduced,  which  has  had  few  parallels  in  the  his- 
tory of  society. 

About  the  year  1384,  the  leaguers  distinguished  them- 
selves by  destroying  a  nest  of  pirates  which  infested  the 
Baltic.  The  Queen  of  Sweden,  the  Danish  nobility,  and 
the  Hanseatics,  signed  an  agreement  to  act  together  in  the 
attainment  of  this  object.  In  this  agreement  it  was  stipu- 
lated, among  other  points,  that  when  the  confederates  should 
take  any  castle  from  the  pirates,  it  should  remain  in  the 
custody  of  the  Hanseatics  until  they  should  be  reimbursed 
the  expense  of  the  war.  From  this  it  may  be  readily  in- 
ferred that  the  Hanseatics  frimishedby  fiur  the  largest  share 
of  assistance  on  this  occasion.  Indeed,  so  great  had  become 
the  maritime  strength  of  the  Hanse,  that  although  Queen 
Margaret  had  become  sovereign  of  aU  the  three  kingdoms  of 
Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  yet  the  Hanseatics  were 
frequently  an  overmatch  for  her,  and  had  more  shipping  and 
more  wealth  than  all. the  three  kingdoms  put  together. 
Tfot  only,  too,  were  the  towns  formidable  in  maritime 
affairs;  but  their  power  was  also  shown,  though  in  a 
smaller  degree,  on  land.  The  feudal  lords,  being  j^ous  of 
their  power,  frequently  jnolested  the  towns,  and  went  to 
war  with  them ;  hut  tne  forces  which  the  league  brought 
against  the  nobles,  were  generally  sufficient  to  subdue 
them. 

V.  MoKOFOUZiNO  Spirit  of  thb  Hanse  Mebchants,  and 

ITS  Consequences. 

The  engrossing  spirit  in  which  the  Hanse  merchants 
sought  to  extend  their  trade,  frequently  led  to  disagreements 
with  the  monarchs  of  the  various  European  countries.  In 
1398,  complaints  were  made  by  the  English  merchants 
trading  to  the  Baltic,  that  the  Hanse  Towns  interfered  with 
their  traffic,  and  committed  many  acts  of  injustice  against 
them.  Whereupon  Henry  the  I*ourth  issued  a  declaration, 
that,  **  Whereas  ihe  privileges  and  freedom  of  commerce 
eranted  to  the  German  merchants  in  England,  t.e.,  of  the 
i^t«el-yard,  London,  were  on  condition  that  the  Englisli 
should  enjoy  the  like  in  Grermany;  wherefore  the  said 
Hanse  Towns  are  thereby  summoned,  either  personally  or 
by  deputies,  to  answer  before  the  king  and  council  for  the 
said  injuries,  and  to  make  due  satisraction  for  the  same." 
The  declaration  was  also  accompanied  by  a  threat,  tliat  if 
the  abases  continued,  the  privileges  of  the  "  Steel-yard" 
would  be  discontinued.  As  England  was,  even  in  that  day, 
possessed  of  much  power,  the  Il^nseatics  were  more  willing 
to  accede  to  terms  with  this  country  than  with  the  weaker 
Northern  powers.  Indeed,  on  one  occasion,  when  some 
Enp^liah  ships  seized  on  a  vessel  laden  with  wine,  belonging 
to  the  Hanseatics,  the  Bruges  comptoir,  in  a  letter  to  the 
English  king  for  redress,  used  a  style  of  adulation  hardly  to 
le  expected  from  such  a  sturdy  body. 

But  depredations  still  continued  between  the  Hanse 
merchants  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  English  on  thet>ther. 
The  English  ships  made  captures  df  many  Hanseatic  shius. 


and  even  killed  some  of  their  crews.  The  Hanseatics  were, 
at  the  same  time,  accused  of  liaving  captured  or  daniajred 
many  vessels  belonging  to  the  niercliants.of  Newcastle, 
York,  Hull,  London,  Lynn,  Yarmouth,  Norwich,  and  other 
places  in  England.  As  the  English  and  Hauseatic  mer- 
chants mutually  complained  of  these  aggi-essions,  King 
Henry  the  Fourth  sent  some  commissioners  to  Dort,  in 
Holland,  where  they  were  met  by  other  commissionei-s 
appointed  by  the  Hanse;  and  an  agreement  was  signed, 
by  which  each  party  consented  to  make  good  the  damage 
done  to  the  other.  But  it  does  not  appear  that  this 
congress  ensured  amicable  relations  between  England  and 
the  Hanseatics;  for  we  find  that  in  1411  King  Henry 
arrested  in  the  port  of  Boston  certain  Hanseatic  mei-chants, 
until  satisfaction  should  be  made  for  injuries,  losses,  and 
murders,  sustained  by  the  English  merchants  in  their  inter- 
course with  the  Hanseatics  on  the  slioi-es  of  Norway :  the 
merchants  could  only  obtain  their  liberty  on  giving  two 
thousand  marks  as  security  for  their  reappearance  when 
required.  A  farther  attempt  was  made  to  settle  these  differ- 
ences by  a  treaty  between  England  and  the  Hanse  in  1417, 
by  wliich  each  party  was  to  make  amends  for  injuries  com- 
mitted on  the  other.  As  an  instance  of  the  unwarrantable 
violence  which  often  distinguished  Uie  Hanseatics  in  these 
contests  we  are  told  that,  about  the  year  1407,  "  one  hun- 
dred fishermen  of  Cromer  and  Blakeney,  in  Norfolk,  flying 
fi-om  their  enemies  into  the  port  of  Windfiord,  in  Norway, 
were  assaulted  by  five  hunored  armed  men,  belonging  to 
the  Hanseatics  residing  at  Beiven,  who  bound  tine  poor 
Englishmen  hand  and  foot,  and  threw  them  into  the  sea, 
where  they  all  perished." 

The  intercourse  between  the  Hanseatics  and  the  English 
app^rs  to  liave  been  disfigured  by  great  bickering  and 
unfriendly  feeling,  probably  because  the  English  were  power- 
ful enough  to  resist  the  encroaching  spirit  of  these  monarch- 
merchants.  But  on  the  continent  the  Hanseatic  power  was 
more  frequently  felt  and  submitted  to.  Its  force  had  become 
so  formidable  that  in  the  year  1418  the  emperor  Sigismund 
requested  a  conjunction  of  the  Hanseatic  fleet  with  his  own, 
in  a  war  in  which  he  was  then  engaged.  The  League,  in 
the  same  year,  interfered  as  mediator  .in  a  dispute  between 
Eric,  king  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  and  the 
princes  of  the  house  of  Holstein.  Fourteen  years  afterwards 
a  fleet  of  two  hundred  and  six  ships,  (as  it  is  said,  but  scarcely 
to  be  credited)  having  twelve  thousand  men  on  boai-d,  left 
the  port  of  Wismar  for  an  attack  on  the  city  of  Copenhagen. 
This  Wismar  was  a  kind  of  neutral  port  in  the  Danish 
dominions,  where  the  Hanseatics  frequently  contrived  to 
raise  up  strife  against  the  King  of  Denmark.  The  attack  on 
Copenhagen  failed,  and  Eric  contrived  to  sow  the  seeds  of 
disunion  among  some  of  the  Hanse  Towns,  and  greatly 
lessened  their  arrogance  by  threatening  to  give  to  other 
nations  the  same  privileges  which  tiie  Hanseatics  had  hitherto 
enjoyed  in  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 

The  singular  relation  between  the  English  monarchs  and 
the  Hanseatic  merchants  was  such,  that  though  they  conti- 
nually quarrelled  they  could  not  do  without  eacn  other. 
We  find  that  treaties  and  disputes  succeeded  each  other  with 
great  fr-equency.  In  1437  there  was  a  treaty  between  Henry 
the  Sixth  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  consuls  and  proconsuls 
of  the  Hanse  Towns  on  tne  other,  for  renewing  the  trea- 
ties then  in  force ;  but  scarcely  three  yeara  elapsed  before  the 
old  complaints  were  renewed. 

The  time  was  now  by  slow  degrees  approaching  when  the 
Leaguers  were  checked  in  their  domineering  progress  bythe 
commercial  advancement  of  other  nations,  particularly  Hol- 
land. The  Hanse  Towns  which  bordered  on  the  Baltic 
(being  also  the  originators  of  the  Hanse)  tried  every  possible 
means  of  keeping  the  commerce  of  thiat  great  sea  entirely 
in  their  own  hands,  and  pretty  well  succeeded.  But  still 
they  were  not  a  manuractunng  community:  they  were 
dealers:  they  did  not  produce,  to  any  great  extent,  manu- 
factured commodities,  but  they  bought  and  sold  after  others 
had  manu&ctured.  Now  the  situation  of  Holland  rave  her 
great  fecilities  for  manufacture,  andthe  Dutch  gradually  esta- 
blished a  commerce  with  other  lands  independent  of  the 
Hanse,  simply  because  she  had  within  herself  resources  for 
carrying  on  manufactures.  The  owners  of  freight  ships, 
finding  that  a  foreign  trade  was  establishing  in  Holland, 
settled  in  that  country,  and  the  Hanseatics  were  no  longer 
the  universal  carriers  for  Europe.  This  change  of  prospects 
was  not  met  in  a  friendly  way  by  the  Hanse,  and  we  find  that 
serious  diffei'ences  soon  occurred.  In  1441  the  Hollanders 
and  Zealanders,  having  lost  to  the  value  of  fifty  thousand 
guilders  on  the  high  seas^  by  the  depredations  of  the  Baltic 


254 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


Hanaeatics,  and  being  nnable  to  obtain,  in  an  amicable  way, 
any  satisfaction  for  tnose  losses,  the  towns  of  Dort,  Haerlem, 
Amsterdam,  Gouda,  Rotterdam,  Hoome,  Enchuysen,  Mid- 
dleburgh,  Veere,  Flushing,  and  Annuyden,  fitted  out  a 
number  of  warlike  ships.  Having,  by  tiie  aid  of  this  fleet, 
twice  beaten  the  Hanseatics  at  sea,  and  taken  great  riches 
from  them,  they  compelled  the  Hanse  to  sign  a  very  advan- 
tageous treaty,  which  was  to  hold  good  for  twelve  years  after 
the  year  1444. 

Tnis  event  was  followed  by  many  others  in  which  England 
vrns  an  interested  party.  Some  English  ships  having 
attempted  to  fish  and  trade  on  the  cojist  of  Iceland,  against 
the  positive  prohibition  of  the  Danish  king,  the  governor 
happened  to  be  killed  in  an  affray  with  them;  and  in  the 
following  year  (1448)  the  Danes,  by  way  of  reprisal,  seized 
four  English  merchant-ships  laden  with  commodities  from 
the  Baltic.  The  tlngUsh  considered  this  act  to  have  been 
suggested  by  the  Hanse  mercliants,  and  the  **  Steel-yard" 
merchants  were  seized  as  hostages  till  reparation  was  made. 
On  this  occasion  an  instance  occurred,  which  was  by  no 
means  the  only  one,  of  a  defection  of  some  towns  from  the 
common  band ;  the  "  Steel-yard"  merchants  from  Cologne 
and  other  western  Hanse  towns  contrived  to  get  their  own 

foods  and  persons  excepted  from  this  seizure,  leavinc^  their 
rethren  from  the  eastern  towns  to  get  out  of  their  difficul- 
ties in  the  best  way  they  could  :  indeed,  the  town  of  Cologne 
more  than  once  broke  faith  with  the  Hanse,  and  humbly 
sued  to  be  forgiven; — a  delinquency  which  was  never 
charged  against  Liibeck, — the  first,  the  only,  and  the  never- 
flinching  leader  of  this  extraordinary  confedeiacy. 

These  wrangling  disputes  between  England  and  the 
Hanseatics  were  allay ea  for  a  time,  by  a  treaty  for  eight 
years,  made  in  1456 ;  out  the  friendly  feeling  was  hollow  and 
transient,  for  we  find  King  Edward  the  fourth,  in  1466, 
calling  in  question  the  validity  of  the  powers  of  the  Steel- 
yard merchants  of  London ;  and  the  merchants  had  to  pre- 
sent him  with  a  large  sum  of  money  for  the  renewal  of  the 
charter.  Another  ciiarter  waa  given  in  1470,  by  which  the 
Steel-yard  privileges  were  given  for  five  years  to  the  Cologne 
section  of  merchants  atone^  probably  ror  some  pecuniary 
assistance  rendered  in  that  quarter.  The  Steel-yard  mer- 
chants are  frequently  spoken  of  by  our  historians  as  an 
usurping  body,  who  often  went  oeyond  their  charter. 
Always  trading  in  a  bodv,  they  easily  ruined  single  traders 
by  underselling  them :  those  merchants  who  were  connected 
with  the  cities  of  Binges  and  Hamburg  were  very  influ- 
ential in  the  Steel-yard,  and  indeed  almost  fixed  their 
own  prices  at  will,  both  for  exports  and  imports.  This  influ- 
ence was  somewhat  checked  auring  the  stormy  period  of  the 
wars  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster ;  but  at  the 
termination  of  the  strife,  compensation  was  made  to  the 
Steel-yard  merchants  for  some  injuries  they  had  suflered 
during  that,  period;  and  a  new  charter  was  given  to 
them  by  Edward  the  Fourth,  in  1472.  This  charter 
was  confirmed,  two  years  afterwards,  in  a  still  more  ex- 
tensive form,  by  Act  of  Parliament ;  whereby  tlie  Hanse 
merchants  were  freely  to  trade  in  England,  and  the  English 
in  the  Hanse  Towns ;  and  various  facilities  were  afforded 
for  the  commercial  arrangements  of  the  Hanse  merchants. 
This  compact  appears  to  have  been  acted  on  for  a  con- 
siderable number  of  years  in  a  friendly  spirit:  we  will 
therefore  now  turn  to  the  continental  proceedings  of  the 
Hanse. 

The  confederacy  frequently  showed  itself  an  overmatch 
for  the  neighbouring  princes.  On  one  occasion,  we  find  the 
King  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  the  Marquis  of  Brandenberg, 
the  Duke  of  Mecklenberg,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  and 
other  princes,  leagued  together  against  the  Hanse  ;  but  their 
measures  proved  abortive.  At  another  time  the  power  of 
the  confederacy  was  shown,  by  its  interposition  being  asked 
by  the  King  of  Denmark,  for  the  settlement  of  a  dispute 
between  that  monarch  and  the  King  of  Sweden.  Shortly 
afterwards  they  were  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  Dukes  of 
Brunswick  and  Lunenberg,  whom  they  defeated  and  com- 
pelled to  make  a  humiliating  peace. 

We  have  said  that  Bruges  was  one  of  the  cities  at  which 
a  comptoir  or  factory  had  been  established  by  the  Hanse. 
But  this  docs  not  imply  that  Bruges  was  one  of  the  Hanse 
Towns ;  it  was  placed  in  the  same  relation  as  London  with 
the  confederacy,  and  therefore  had  power  to  ally  itself  or 
not  with  the  confederacy,  for  particulu' purposes.  We  find 
that  in  1471  a  treaty  of  commerce  was  concluded  between 
*he  Hanse  and  the  city  of  Bruges,  which  stipulated  that  all 
the  merchandise  of  the  Hanse  should  be  brought  to  Bruges 
•nly,  as  the  soIib  '"wehouse  for  idl  the  NetherUods ;  for 


which  end,  certain  ships  should  be  pkoed  at  Amsterdam 
and  Sluys,  which  the  merchants  of  both  parties  should  use; 
and  which  were  also  to  be  well  armed  against  pirates.  Five 
years  after  this  event,  the  Hanse  showc^d  its  power  by  dis- 
franchising the  city  of  Cologne,  on  account  of  the  gelfi<di 
manner  in  which  that  city  had  consulted  its  own  interests 
in  certain  transactions,  without  considering  those  of  the 
confederacy  to  which  it  belonged ;  and  it  was  only  at  the 
intercession  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  the  Third  and  the 
Elector  of  Treves,  that  Cologne  was  again  admitted  int^o  tlie 
confederacy.  A  similar  instance  occurred  in  1478,  when 
the  confeileracy  sent  a  notice  to  the  King  of  England,  for  the 
information  of  English  merchants,  "That  the  city  of  Colber?:, 
in  Pomerania,  had  separated  itself  from  the  Hanseatic  con- 
federacy, and  is,  therefore,  utterly  incapable  of  participatins 
in  the  privileges  of  this  league  in  England,  until  the  sud 
league  shall  certify  that  Colberg  is  again  reconciled  to  it" 

VI.    Decline  and  Fall  ov  the  Hansbatic  Lbague. 

As  we  approach  nearer  to  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  centciy, 
we  find  many  symptoms  that  a  decrease  in  the  power  of  the 
Hanse  was  approaching.  The  various  countries  of  Europe, 
in  proportion  as  their  commerce  extended,  interfered  with 
the  exorbitant  privileges  of  the  Hanse  merchants.  In  the 
year  1 486,  serious  difrerences  occurred  between  the  league 
and  the  French,  with  whom  they  had,  generally  speaking, 
been  on  amicable  terms.  In  1491,  a  solemn  assembly  of 
the  whole  Hanseatic  confederacy  was  held  at  Antwerp,  is 
great  pomp,  in  order  to  adjust  disjmtes  which  were  at  the 
time  pending  with  En^lana  and  with  Holland.  All  parties 
were  actuated  by  grasping  motives,  and  no  satisfactory  Rsalt 
followed  this  meeting;  ror  Holland,  as  well  as  England, 
began  to  feel  that  commerce  could  be  well  carried  on  itith 
out  the  aid  of  the  confederacy,  and,  indeed,  in  spite  of  its 
authority. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  these  partial  dlscomfitorea,  the 
leag:ue  was  still  formidable :  in  1492  (the  year  in  which 
Columbus  discovered  America, — an  event  which  had  much 
influence  on  the  future  fortune  of  the  league),  seventy-two 
cities  and  towns  sent  representatives  to  the  general  assemblT 
at  Lubeck.  Their  old  enemies,  the  Dukes  of  Brunswick 
and  of  Lunenberg,  were  again  defeated  by  them  aboat  the 
same  period.  Four  years  afterwards,  they  were  involved  in 
disputes  with  John,  king  of  Denmark,  on  account  of  certain 
political  events  between  the  latter  and  the  Regent  of  Sw^ 
den.  The  King  of  Denmark  had  been  driven  out  of  Sweden 
by  the  Regent ;  and,  in  order  to  punish  the  Swedes,  be 
requested  the  Hanse  merchants  to  retire  altogether  ta 
Sweden.  The  merchants,  however,  little  caring  for  the 
political  struggles  of  others,  resolved,  at  a  general  asseniWy 
at  Lubeck,  that  they  could  not  consent  to  limit  their  own 
commerce,  merely  because  one  monarch  had  baffled  anotlier. 
They  refused  to  accede ;  but  still  the  Danish  king  showed 
himself  sufficiently  powerful  to  be  a  formidable  ri^al  to  the 
mercliants;  for  his  ships  now  be«in  to  traverse  the  Baltic 
without  fear  of  the  Haaseatics.  Still  more  rapidly  did  the 
power  of  the  Hollanders  increase,  as  was  shown  in  an  erent 
which  took  place  in  the  year  161 1.  A  fleet  of  Dutch  abips 
homeward  bound  from  tne  eastern  shores  of  the  Baltie,  and 
consisting  of  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  inerchantr 
men,  and  four  ships  of  war,  appeared  in  sight  of  the  city  of 
Lubeck.  The  Lubeckers  thought  this  a  feir  opportunity  to 
be  revenged  on  the  Hollanders  for  invading  the  commerce  of 
the  Baltic,  which  the  arrogant  mei-chants  claimed  as  the 
exclusive  right  of  tlie  Hanse.  The  Lfibeck  vessels  attacked 
those  of  Holland,  took  some,  burned  others,  and  drove  the 
rest  into  the  harbour  of  Bomholm,  where  a  large  Danish 
fleet  lay.  The  Danes  then  assisted  the  Dutch  in  repelling 
the  attack  of  the  Llibeckers,  and  driving  them  into  their 
own  port.  The  Danish  fleet  had,  in  the  previous  year, 
ranched  over  the  Baltic,  taken  all  the  Hanseatic  ships  it 
could  meet  with,  burned  the  suburbs  of  Traveniund,  the 
port  of  Lubeck,  and  destroyed  many  small  towns  belonging 
to  the  Hanse.  It  therefore  appears  that  the  supremacy  of 
the  Hanse  was  now  seriously  attacked  in  the  Baltic,  both 
by  the  Danes  and  by  the  Hollanders. 

An  event  which  occurred  in  the  year  1515,  will  throw 
some  light  on  the  overbearing  system  of  commerce  pursued 
by  the  Hanse.  The  Danish  merchants,  who  carried  the 
produce  of  Denmark  to  the  Hanse  Towns  for  sale,  com- 
plained to  their  sovereign,  that  they  were  not  permitted  to 
nx  the  price  of  their  commodities ;  the  Hanse  magistrates 
assumea  a  power  of  arbitrarily  setting  a  fixed  price  tnereon ; 
and  those  magistrates,  being  themselves  merchants,  took 
advantage  of  their  own  regulation.    The  eonsequence  was, 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  JUNE,  1841. 


255 


that  the  Danes  were  frequently  obliged  to  sell  at  a  losing 
price ;  as  they  were  not  permitted  to  re-export  their  mer- 
chandise from  those  towns  after  they  had  once  exposed  it 
for  sale :— or,  if  that  were  not  the  case,  they  were  at  least 
compelled,  if  tliey  refused  the  proffered  price,  to  lodge  their 
commodities  in  warehouses,  there  to  remain  until  the  prices 
changed  in  their  favour.  Every  one,  at  all  fiuniliar  with 
the  principles  which  regulate  commercial  transactions,  must 
at  once  see  that  such  arbitraiy  measures  as  these,  are  utterly 
inconsistent  with  freedom  of  commerce,  and  subversive  of 
the  very  principles  on  which  it  rests.  The  Hanseatics  were 
not  long  m  experiencing  the  bad  effects  of  this  system ;  for 
the  king  ordered  that  all  Danish  merchandise  should  be 
exposed  for  open  sole  at  Copenhagen  instead  of  being  carried 
to  the  Hanse  Towns.  Two  results  followed  this  order: 
Copenhagen  became  the  emporium  for  the  whole  of  Den- 
mark ;  and  the  Hanse  Towns  received  a  blow  which  hastened 
their  fall,  now  rapidly  approaching. 

Had  Sweden  and  Denmark  remained  at  peace  with  each 
other,  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  Hanse  would  have  been 
more  rapidly  humbled  by  them.  But  for  centuries  there 
were  repeated  contests  for  the  crowns  of  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  Norway ;  and,  as  the  Hanse  Towns  had  always  numerous 
shipping  at  their  disposal,  the  various  candidates  for  the  dis- 
puted thrones  were  trequently  &;lad  to  borrow  or  purchase 
the  aid  of  the  Hanseatics,  by  which  the  lattet  gained  great 
influence  which  would  not  otherwise  have  been  possessed. 
At  one  time, — about  the  year  1525, — the  Liibeckers  actually 
offered  to  tell  the  Kingdom  of  Denmark  io  Henrv  the 
Eighth,  of  England,  for  a  certain  sum;  but  that  sfirewd 
monarch  reserved  his  money  until  it  should  appear  that  the 
Liibeckers  were  able  to  do  what  they  prcyfessed* 

The  year  1552  -Witnessed  tlie  first  serious  attempt  io  break 
down  tne  monopoly  of  the  Steel-yard  merchants  at  London, 
aft«r  it  had  existed  300  years.  These  merchants  had  ^^reater 
facilities  and  privileges  than  the  English  mercluuits  them- 
selves, and  complaints  against  the  monopoly  now  became 
general.  The  Steel-yard  merchants  usually  set  what  price 
they  pleased  on  both  their  Imports  and  exports ;  and  having 
the  command  of  all  the  marxets  in  England,  with  Joint- 
stock  banks  or  funds,  they  mined  the  native  merchants. 
They  were  also  accused  of  defrauding  the  customs,  by  taking 
under  their  own  names  (as  they  paid  little  or  no  custom) 
great  quantities  of  the  merchandise  of  other  foreigners  not 
entitl^  to  their  immunities.  It  is  said  that  they  liad  suc- 
ceeded in  monopolizing  English  commerce  to  such  an  ex- 
tent, that  while  they  exported  44,000  pieces  of  woollen  cloth 
in  one  year,  all  the  English  merchants  together  had  not  ex- 
ported more  than  1100  pieces.  A  charge  was  also  brought 
against  them  of  having  repeatedly  exceeded  the  charter 
granted  to  them,  and  of  having,  by  a  ^tuity  to  the  monarch, 
retailed  privileges  which  were  not  m  their  charter,  and  of 
tliei-eb^'  injuring  the  English  merchants  generally.  In  con- 
sequence of  these  complaints,  the  privy-council  investigated 
the  whole  matter,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Sixth,  ex- 
amining the  modes  in  which  the  various  privileges  had  been 
gnuited,  the  parties  to  whom  granted,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  favoured  merchants  had  conducted  themselves. 
The  result  was  unfavourable  to  the  Steel-yard  merchants ; 
for  it.  was  ordered,  "  that  the  privileges,  liberties,  and  fran- 
chises, claimed  by  the  said  merchants  of  the  steel-yard, 
tiliall  from  henceforth  be  and  remained  seized  and  resumed 
into  the  King's  Grace's  hands,  until  the  said  merchants  of  the 
Steel-yard  shall  declare  and  prove  better  and  more  sufficient 
matter  for  their  claim  in  the  premises :  saving,  however,  to 
the  said  merchants  all  such  lioerty  of  coming  into  this  realm 
and  trafficking,  in  as  ample  manner  as  any  merchant-stran- 
gers have  witiiin  the  same." The  last  clause  shows  that 

t  liere  was  no  unfur  or  illiberal  spirit  actuating  the  council : 
\'*:t  the  result  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  confederacy ;  for,  from 
var ioujs  causes,  the  comptoirs  at  Bruges,  Bersen,  and  Novogo- 
rod  liad  greatly  declined,  and  London  was  the  chief  place  to 
^vliich  they  looked  as  the  centre  of  their  commerce.  The 
-oiiipioir  at  Bruges  had  lost  its  importance  in  consequence 
>f  t  ue  rising  importance  of  the  Dutch :  that  at  Novogorod 
ii£krl  sunk  under  the  growing  power  of  the  Czar  of  Russia, 
t'^'lxo  onceremoniously  seized  the  goods  of  the  Hanseatio 
rii€^rcliantB :  that  at  Beiven  fell  when  the  power  of  the 
^  >a.iiish  kings  became  settled ;  for,  independent  of  the  spread 
>^  a  commercial  spirit  among  the  inhabitants  of  Norway, 
tlif>  king  tried  to  get  rid  of  the  Hanse  merchants  by  a  rather 
cm  vrorthy  trick.  An  ancient  toll  had  been  long  recognised, 
>f'  a  gold  rose-noble,  for  every  Hanse  sail  that  entered  the 
^^Y^ur :  this  word  '^sail"  was  always  meant  to  imply  a 
'^^j!>,  but  the  king  of  Denmark  anc|  Norway  now  put  a  new 


construction  on  it  by  obliging  all  ships  to  pay  a  gold  rose- 
noble  for  every  sail  in  or  belonging  to  each  ship. 

The  finishing-blow  to  the  influence  of  the  Hanse  Towns 
in  England  was  the  imposition  of  a  duty  of  20  per  cent, 
on  all  the  goods  in  which  they  trafficked,  instead  of  the 
1  per  cent,  which  had  been  the  rate  for  300  years.  This 
duty,  which  was  determined  on  in  Queen  Mary's  reign,  did 
more  than  any  forcible  proceedings  to  put  an  end  to  the 
Steel-yard  company.  They  did  not  however  yield  their  privi- 
leges without  a  fierce  struggle ;  for  when  Elizabeth  succeeded 
to  the  throne,  they  applied  to  the  Emperor  Rodolph  to 
compel  her  to  reinstate  them  in  their  old  and  unreasonable 
immunities,  especially  that  of  paying  only  1  percent,  duty. 
The  emperor  expostulated  with  the  queen ;  but  ^he  replied 
that  she  had  done  the  merchants  no  wronff  :  all  had  been 
determined  in  a  regular  and  constitutional  manner.  The 
Hanseatics  hereupon  expelled  all  the  English  merchants 
from  Hamburg,  a  step  which  greatly  injured  their  cause ;  for 
the  queen  immediately  made  such  orders  in  council  as  reduced 
the  Steel-yard  merchants,  not  only  to  the  level,  but  below  it, 
of  her  own  subjects, — prohibiting  them,  among  other  things, 
from  exporting  wool.  The  Hanseatics,  bent  on  revenge, 
laid  a  duty  of  7f  per  cent,  on  all  English  goods  entering 
Hanseatic  ports ;  but  this  did  them  harm,  for  the  queen 
laid  an  equal  duty  on  all  Hanseatic  commodities. 

The  result  of  tliese  proceedings  was  that  the  revenue  and 
commerce  of  England  were  both  much  enlarged,  while  the 
Steel-yard  merchants  were  deprived  of  those  .privileges 
which  had  hitherto  given  them  so  much  power.  The 
Hanseatics  complained  to  the  Diet  of  the  empire,  and  recom- 
mended, as  the  only  way  of  "bringing  the  queen  to  terms,*' 
that  all  English  merchants  should  be  banished  out  of  the 
empire,  ana  to  prohiint  English  woollen  goods  fi'om  being 
imported  into  any  German  to>vns.  The  Hanse  merchants 
were  listened  to  by  the  Diet,  and  Elizabeth  so  far  relaxed 
from  her  former  resolution  as  to  allow  the  Steel-yard  mer- 
chants to  trade  in  England  on  the  same  terms  as  her  own 
subjects,  provided  English  merchants  were  allowed  to  trade 
unmolested  at  the  Hanse  Tow^ns.  The  queen  being  at  that 
time  at  war  with  Spain,  gave  due  notice  to  the  Hanse  Towns 
not  to  carry  into  Spain,  Portugal,  or  Italy,  any  provisions, 
naval  stores,  or  implements  of  war.  for  the  use  of  the  King 
of  Spain,  on  pain  of  forfeiture  of  the  ships  so  employed. 
In  defiance  of  this  injunction,  sixty  Hanseatic  fly-boats 
conveyed  wheat  and  waiiike  stores  to  Spain :  they  had  pro- 
ccedea  by  way  of  the  Orkneys  and  Ireland,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  queen's  fleet,  but  they  were  taken  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  near  Spain,  and  all  the  cai^oes  seized.  This  sciziii-e 
led  to  much  bitter  correspondence  between  Elizabeth  on  the 
one  part,  and  the  Emperor  and  the  Hanse  Towns  on  the 
other.  A  general  assembly  of  the  Hanse  sent  a  letter  to 
Elizabeth,  but  allowed  themselves  to  be  betrayed  into  so 
much  warmth  that  the  queen  sent  them  a  contemptuous 
answer.  Hereupon  the  emperor  sent  a  message  to  lier,  and 
she  sent  a  special  messenger  to  explain,  candioly  and  fairly, 
all  the  circumstances  of  the  quarrel.  Thus  tenninated  the 
contest;  for  although  the  Hanse  merchants  petitioned  to 
have  the  Steel-yai-d  privileges  restored,  the  English  nation 
had  become  too  wise  to  allow  English  interests  to  be 
trustrated  by  these  monopolizing  Hanseatics. 

Meanwhile  the  League  showed  increasing  symptoms  of 
feebleness,  in  its  dealings  with  continental  states.  Tlie  Kings 
of  Denmark  and  Sweden,  who  had  formerly  been  so  often 
forced  to  yield  to  the  Hanseatics,  now  bearded  them  in 
their  turn.  In  1691  the  Leaguers  endeavoured  to  force  the 
town  of  Elbing,  in  Prussia,  to  discountenance  Englisli  mer- 
ciianta,  by  forbidding  their  resort  to  that  town ;  but  the 
Elbingers  had  had  too  many  proofs  of  the  advant^iges  of 
commerce  with  Enijland  to  be  led  to  this  step  :  thejr  wrote 
to  Elizabeth,  acquainting  her  with  the  proposal  which  had 
been  made  to  them,  and  also  their  detei-mination  to  continue 
their  friendly  relations  with  the  English  merchants,  as  did 
also  the  King  of  Poland.  But  the  Emperor  and  the  Hanse 
succeeded  in  compelling  the  English  merchants  to  leave  the 
town  of  Staden,  as  well  as  several  other  towns  in  Germany, 
whereupon  the  Dukes  of  Brunswick  and  of  Holstein,  and 
about  a  dozen  towns  in  the  Netherlands,  sent  letters  to 
Elizabeth,  expressive  of  their  friendly  wishes  towards 
English  commerce,  and  the  queen  at  the  same  time  ordered 
the  lord  mayor  to  shut  up  the  Steel-yard,  and  to  expel  the 
turbulent  merchants  altogether  from  London. 

Wheeler,  who  wrote  about  tlie  year  1600,  says,  that  the 
Hanseatics  "are  now  so  much  decayed  in  power  and  strength, 
as  that  the  state  need  not  greatly  to  fear  theni.  For,  as 
the  causes  which  made  the  Hanse  Towns  of  estimation  and 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


account  in  old  tim«a,  were  the  mulUtade  of  their  ship 
and  sea  trade,  whereby  they  stored  all  coontries  with  tneir 
Eastern  cammoditiea,(i^.,  naval  stores, flax,hemp,  linen,  iron, 
copper,  com,  &c.)>  and  served  princes'  turns  with  their  laige 
nnd  stout  ships  in  time  of  war;  we  shall  find  at  this  time, 
that  they  have  in  a  manner  lost  both  one  and  the  other  long 
aeo,  when  compared  with  what  they  formerly  were.  And 
if  her  Majesty  should  forbid  all  trade  into  Spain,  after  the 
example  of  other  princes,  they  would,  in  a  short  time,  be 

Juit  of  the  rest ;  for  that  trade  is  their  chicfest  support  at 
lis  instant.  Besides,  of  the  seventy-two  confederate  Hanse 
Towns,  BO  much  vaunted  of,  what  remains  almost  but  the 
report?  And  those  which  remain,  and  appear  by  their 
deputies,  when  there  is  any  assembly,  are  they  able,  unless 
with  much  ado,  to  bring  up  the  charges  and  contributions 
for  the  defence  and  maintenance  of  their  leacne,  privilf^es, 
and  trade,  in  foreign  parls  and  at  home?  Snrely  no ;  for 
most  of  their  teeth  ate  out,  and  the  rest  but  loose. 

Wheeler  was  right :  the  process  of  decay,  which  he  sig- 
nificantly indicates  by  the  "-teeth  being  out,"  was  ranidly 
goinr  on :  the  confederacy  had  lived  to  realise  all  the  Dene- 
fit  which  such  an  association  was  calculated  to  confer  on 
society;  and,  like  a  worn-out  frame,  it  was  now,  by  a 
natural  process,  sinking  into  insignificance.  In  1604,  they 
had  a  general  assemhly,  and  determined  on  a  solemn  embassy 
to  the  various  couutnes  of  Kurope,  for  the  renewal  of  their 
mercantile  privileges.  But  the  day  was  gone  by:  the 
English  king,  James  the  First,  would  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  embassy ;  and  the  King  of  Fiance  gave  empty 
promisee,  but  nothing  else.  In  1612  the  King  of  Denmark, 
to  support  the  expenses  of  a  war  in  which  he  was  engaged 
with  Sweden,  raised  the  toll  or  duties  at  the  Sound,  on 
vessels  passing  to  or  from  the  Baltic.  These  increased  tolls 
were  equally  vexatious  to  the  Hanseatics  and  to  the  Dutch ; 
and  these  two  powers  coalesced,  almost  for  the  fust  time,  in 
an  attack  on  the  Danes,  in  order  to  lower  the  Sound  duties : 
Holland  was  to  pay  scven-eiahtha,  and  Lubeck  one-eighth 
of  tlie  expense  incurred ;  and  the  other  Hanse  Towns  were 
allowed  to  join  the  alliance  or  not  at  pleasure.  This  cir- 
cnmstance  showed  that  the  confederacy  v/aa  no  longer  one 
united  wtiole.  influenced  by  uniform  councils.  Theae  dts- 
pules  with  Denmark  lasted  for  a  long;  series  of  years;  for 
as  the  Sound  duties  constituted  qn  important  part  of  the 
Danish  revenues,  the  king  would  not  lessen  his  demands,  so 
Jong  as  he  bad  the  smallest  means  of  enforcing  them. 


The  year  1630  w 


mblyofil' 


dissolved,  having  no  longer  power  to  make  their  coilitioii 
advantageous  to  the  constituent  towns.  But  LBbect,  Han- 
burg,  and  Bremen  united  anew,  in  a  limited  cotJeitratJ, 
for  mutual  assistance  and  protection:  and  this  cooMax; 
appears  to  have  existed,  with  scarcely  any  inlerrupliwi! 
until  1810,  when  the  French  armies  disturbed  the  anaMf 
menta  oi  those  cities,  as  well  as  of  Germany  geneislly.  Al 
the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  however,  the  lesgue  lifl"BJ 
Lubeck,  Hamburg,  ana  Bremen  was  re-established,  sni!  m 
exists.  These  cities  are  called  the  "free  cities,"  or,  mw*' 
length,  "  the  republics  and  free  Hanseatic  cities  of  lulwt, 
Hamburg,  and  Bremen."  This  confederacy  has  th«  an" 
kind  of  power  (but  smaller  in  degree,)  as  that  which  be- 
longs to  the  various  kingdoms,  principtui ties,  and  duktJonu, 
of  Germany ;  that  is,  it  r^ulatea  its  own  internal  iS^ 
fiiroishea  a  contingent  of  troops,  and  haa  one  vote  in  'I" 
general  diet  or  parliament  of  the  empire. 

In  conclufflon,  we  maj^  remark,  that  the  birth,  m«tt, 
and  decay  of  the  Hanseatic  League  fiirmed  natural  linb  Lo 
the  progress  of  European  society.  The  good  which  it  i«i- 
dered  in  the  thirteentn  cejitury  was  immense,  but  the  sc^n- 
teenth  required  not  its  aid.  Themthleesattacksof  piralM,inn 
the  unjust  depredations  of  the  feudal  bamns,  gave  birth  lo 
the  Le«ane;  but  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  ceatnri" 
preaentea  events  which  turned  commerce  into  olh" 
channels.  By  the  discovery  of  America,  Spain  bfo^' 
a  great  power,  and  established  a  trafiic  with  which  U' 
Hanse  Towns  had  nothing  to  do.  By  the  discoveiy  « 
the  maritime  route  to  India,  Portugal  became  powerful,  >f» 
Lisbon  was  the  emporinm  of  Indum  comment.  Bt  ux 
improvements  in  navipition,  each  country  was  enabltd  W 
sr^nd  its  own  commodities  in  its  own  stuiM  to  forego  P*'^ 
without  the  aid  of  a  central  port,  such  as  Bruges.  By  uo 
growth  of  the  Russian  power,  that  supremacy  whicb  u* 
Hanse  had  had  in  the  Baltic  now  passed  Into  the  lundj  •» 
Russia :  and  lastly,  by  the  posaeesion  of  great  po*"?  ^ 
four  centuries  the  Hanse  had  graduaUy  acquired  habiUJ 

Cping  ambition,  to  which  the  advancing  inteUigenc*  ot 
ope  would  no  longer  submit.  These  were  some  of  0" 
causes  which  led  to  the  d«cay  of  the  Himseatic  Leagn*,  *»' 
we  see  clearly  from  them  that  the  time  had  •'"™'^ 
the  continuance  of  such  an  alliance  would  no  loaga  bene» 
generally  or  the  Hanse  Towns  individnally. 


END   OF   TUB   EIGHTEENTH    VOLVME. 
f.O>'DON  1  rnUiditd  hj  JOHN  W.  FABKEit,  Wht  BtUMD,  snlscU  hf  all  BolAnlhn, 


THE 


SATURDAY    MAGAZINE 


VOLUME  THE  NINETEENTH. 


JULY    TO  DECEMBER. 


M.DCCC.XH. 


LONDON: 

JOHN  WILLIAM    PARKER,  WEST  STRAND. 


INDEX 


TO  TUB 


NAMES    AND    SUBJECTS    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    VOLUME, 


Apotiov,  eztraeto  from.  99, 79 
Africa.  T«ffBUbhr  butter  of.  166 

onlgrmntt*  flnt  Sabbath  in,  168 

Afikaltural  Chemistry  :— 

I.  On  the  intpicbaufa  of  erops,  6 

II.  Uo  tho  intorehaago  of  ciopi,  aad 
on  manures,  79 

Aim6  Martin,  remark  hv,  66 

Aliion.  estraet  flrum.  133 

Alps  aftar  tuoAOt.  133 

Amarkan  Indiaut    buffalo   dance  of 

ttie.  US 
A  nacharsia,  the  Scythian.  lOi 
Aoi.  example  of  the.  190 
Aaiioeh  and  its  Ttdnit^,  1 13 
Archipelago,  the  Grecian,  and  Its  ma- 

rinera.  S33 
Araonrvr.  Thumaa  Canon,  tho.  164 
Aitofdeeiphorlog  effaced  inieriptions 

on  cotni^  945 
Aaiitance  in  reeolvinf  doubta,  198 
Anociaiion  of  ideas,  178 
Aitronomy,  S9 
Aofttst.  rural  sports  for,  71 
Aothority.  dependence  upon,  945 
AathoTs,  old  scientific,  stndy  of,  16 
■  perusal  of  fine,  190 

Banks  of  the  Thames.  V.,  S5— VI.,  65 
-Vll..  97— Vlll..  145-lX .  185- 
X,  SOI 

Barbel,  the,  93 

Batil.  67 

Beatde,  extract  fWim.  938 

Bedawia.  honcatv  of  tlte,  91 

Bee,  man  likened  to  the,  61 

Beet-root  Sugar  ^-* 
J.  Varieties  and  cnltivatioa  of  the 
beet.  83 

II.  Baily  modes  of  praduelnf  beet- 
root sugar  f^om  the  beet,  31 

III.  Intruduction   of  the  mannfae- 
tnrs  into  France,  65 

rv.  Present  mode  of  preparation  U 

France,  69 
Beetles,  oil  and  blistering,  97 
Belief  In  supernatural  assistance,  39 
Benefits,  material,  of  science,  30 
Beserolent  feelings,  cultivation  of,  87 
Befel-chewers  of  the  East,  77 
Bible,  the.  94 
Bible  and  hour-glau.  93 
Bic^trv,  scene  in  the.  % 
Binocular  Tision.  163.  189.  920 
}irth.4laT  lines,  by  Mrs.  Uemaas,  33 
Slaae,  Bishop.  70 
Slotting*,  diffusion  of,  91 
ilighc.180 

Niadoess  to  our  own  ikults,  77 
lUstering  beetle,  the,  27 
Joitk.  silver,  of  tile  Oospels,  895 
looks.  39. 79 
lorage,  68 
lowles,  lines  by,  93 
ln>vster,  extracts  firom,  UO.  118, 140 
Ironu.  casting  of  statues  in,  906 
Iroern,  Dr.  Thomas,  extract  fkom,  70 
trunelleschi.  Memoir  of.  I.,  144—11., 

179 
•nfiUo  dance  of  the  American  Indians^ 

149 
»aflbn.  extract  from,  33 
ulgaiia  and  the  Bulgarians^  73 
orka.  remark  by,  14 
amett.  extract  irom.  943 
orton,  extract  ttom,  900 
otter,  Tegetable,  of  Africa,  156 

amel.  th*.  109 

— —  and  dromedary,  116 

airo.  Sketches  of.l..  50-11..  8»-IlI.. 

106-IV.,  130 
aaadian  foliage.  189 
arhle.  extrieU  from,  109,  114 
■•rp.  the.  39 
arr.  extract  from.  89 
ashmen  Shawls : 

I.  The  Goat  of  Cashmere  and  the 
natiTv  maanlkctnre,  3 

II.  Attempts  to  introduce  the  Cash- 
mere goat  and  the  shawl  menu- 
ftetnrv  into  Bngland.  13 

isting  of  statues  in  bronse,  906 
tat  Is  of  Pt^f  ntMpy.  157 

Warwick.  57 

fialmers.  extracu  fr<im,  70,  80 
uira.ier  of  ••  Paindtae  Lost,"  70 

of  Milton's  wtitiu^B.  96 

■  Jiidinneiit  of, by  children,  159 

i«rity  tchuuls.  195 
>«a^.  Agrknltoral,  6, 79 


Chenril,  930 
Chess  :— 
X1I1.,XIV.,XV..XVI..  XVII..  the 
Aiititmaton  Cbem  Player,  4,  91. 
60.75,110 
XVI 1 1.,  XIX.,  On  the  Powers  of  the 

Pieces  and  Pawns.  115.  150 
XX..   Ancient    games    from    which 
Chess  is  supposed  to  hare  been 
derived,  i65 
XXI.  Uriffin  of  the  powers  of  the 

pieees.  191 
XXII..  XX HI.,  The  Knight's  Mots. 

904,998 
XXIV   Chess  without  the  Board.  943 
Childhood,  prayer  in,  181 
Children  of  one  great  Father,  174 

■  as  Judges  of  character,  159 
China  :— 

XII.  Island  of  Chusan;  military 
occupation :  houses  and  ofBees  of 
the  Chinese,  109 

XI I I.  Island  of  Chnsan ;  appearance 
of  the  conntrv;  respect  for  the 
dead ;  Jos  )ionses  s  Budbisls ; 
mandarins,  143 

Chinese,  their  stationary  character,  903 
Christian  minister,  offloe  of  tlie,  69 
Christianitv,  infidel  testimonies  in  fk* 

Toor  of,  39 
Coins,  efface<i  inscriptions  on,  945 
Coke,  Sir  Edward,  924 
Coleridge,  extracu  (h»m,  94,  119 
Commerce  of  leeches,  133 
Confederacy  in  virtue,  40 
Confldenee  in  the  Divine  protection,  39 
Contemplation,  piotu,  of  the  works  of 

nature,  80 
Copying  of  celebrated  pictnies,  187 
Cotugcs  of  Swilaerland.  137 
Courts,  splendour  of,  reproved,  35 
Cowley,  extract  from,  187 
Crabfae.  extracts  from.  37*  70, 78»  136 
Creation,  man  Its  masterpiece,  156 
Creator,  testimony  of  the  creature  to 

the,  87 
Credit  and  metallic  currency.  903 
Credulity  and  scepticism  defined.  836 
Croly.  extract  from.  93 
Crops,  on  the  interehacge  of,  6,  79 
Crowe,  extract  fh>m,  935 
Cultivation  of  bencTolent  feelings.  37 
Curaon,  Thomas,  the  armourer,  164 

Dance  of  the  American  Indians,  149 
Danger  and  dutress,  hymn  for  times 

oi;  114 
Dark  and  light  mornings,  997 
Davies,  extracU  from,  99,  94 
Dead,  the,  199 
Dead  swallow.  908 
Death  at  sea,  56 

■  sudden,  96 
Dcath.bed  fortitude.  9S8 
December,  mral  sposts  Ibr,  947. 
Deep  research,  remits  ot  140 
Dehon,  extract  fhim,  91 
Deity,  omnipotsnoe  of  the,  51, 96 

■  ■  omnipresence  of  the,  119 
Desert,  uninvited  gnesta  in  the,  183 
De  Tocqueville,  extract  ftom,  909 
Diflhsion  of  blessings.  91 
Diminution  of  friction.  936 
Disfoiutran  of  the  earth,  196 
Division  of  labour,  168 
Dogs,  sagacity  of,  144 
Doubts,  assistance  in  retolving,  198 
Dredffing,  63 
Dresd(Bn.  aeconnt  oC  161 
Drinking  of  healths,  131 
Dromedary  and  camel,  110 
Drowning,  self-preservation  fh>m,  37 
Durham,  extract  ttom,  131 
Duty,    speculative  acquaintance  with 

tho  rules  ot  166 

Earth,  dissolution  of  the,  196 
Bast,  betel-chewera  of  the,  77 
Economy  of  marine  life,  147 
Education,  ends  of.  945 
Bvypt,  stone  quarries  of,  189 
EmiKranU'  first  Sabbath  in  Africa.  169 
Emplovmeot.  78 
English  Navigators,  Old  >— 

I.  Cabot.  10 

II.  WilloughbT.     Chaneelor,     and 
BnrrouKhs,  199,  935 

Entrance  into  the  Tropics,  948 
Eventide.  133 

Evidences  of  revelation,  996 
Example  of  the  ant,  190 


Fables  of  the  aneienU,  996 

Faith.  119 

Fame,  19 

Fateof  Jnebel.  109 

Fatlier  Long  Legs,  151 

FaulU.  114 

blindness  to  our  own,  77 

Fearlets  contemplation  of  the  future, 

166 
"  Fifteen  Years  ago,"  164 
Fine  ArU.  a  Brief  History  of  the,  I.,  41 

—11, 198-111.210 
First  landing  in  the  Western  Ind,  184 
Floating  isUnds.  941 
Florence,  Cathedral  of  S.  Maria  del 

Fiore.  I.  148—11..  179 
Foliage,  Canadian,  189 
Force  and  motion,  900 
Forbes,  extract  firom,  153 
Forster,  remark  by,  100 
Fortitude,  death-bed,  938 
Fresh-water  Fi«h  :^ 

VI.  The  Carp.  39 

VI L  The  Barbel,  93 

VI I L  The  Tench,  139 

IX.  The  Gudgeon.  184 
Friction,  means  of  diminishing,  937 
Friendship,  worldly,  156 
FruiU  of  Singapore,  116 
Fnegianii,  account  of  the.  134 
Fuller,  extracts  from.  55, 164, 997 
Future,  fearless  contemplation  of  the, 

166 
Futnrity  and  the  present  life,  996 

Gainsborough  aad  his  Works,  I..  178— 

11.918 
Gainsborough's  pietaro  of  The  Put, 

179 
Garden  Herbs  >- 

Basil— Borage,  67 

Hyssop.  993 

Tansey,  930 
Gardening,  79 
Gause.  wire.  68 
Goat,  Cashmere,  the,  3^  13 
God  our  only  hope,  80 
Godliness,  power  of.  real,  33 
Good  manners  defined.  55 

missionary,  the,  91 

Gospel,  the  silver  book  of  the,  995 

Gmtitude.  75 

Grey.  Lady  Jane,  translation  of  lines 

by.  70 
Gudgeon,  the.  184 
Gnrney,  exUaets,lKom,  184,  948 

Halford.  Sir  H..  remark  by.  166 
Hall,  Capt.  Basil,  extiacU.f^om,  188i 

196 

Robert,«KtnetB  fkom,  166^  190, 903 

Hamilton,  remark  by,  87 
Hankinson,  lines  by.  946 
Hasting  to  be  rich,  37 
Hawk-motii,  the,  101 
HealUu,  drinking  cO,  131 
Heart  of  man,  906 
Heber,  Bishop,  extract  from.  1 14 
Hemans.  Mrs.,  poems  by.  1^  39 
Honesty  of  the  Bedawln,  91 
Houey.dew.  195 
Hooker,  extmct  horn,  78 
Hope,  18 

God  our  only,  80 

Horeb  and  Sinai,  mounts,  96 
Home,  Bishop,  extracU  from,  51. 166 
Hone,  Russian's  kindness  to  his.  140 
Houses  of  aU  Nations.  II.,  196—111., 

849 
Human  body  a  world  in  miniature.  89 
life  likened  to  the  growth  of  a 

plant.  94 
Hymns.  94,  114 
Hyssop,  993 

Ideas,  association  of,  178 

Idle  obifections  to  established  tmtlis, 
996 

<*  I  have  lost  a  day.**  140 

Ind,  Western,  first  landing  in,  184 

Illusions.  Optical,  IV..  53— V.,  95— VI., 
141— Vll..  163— VIII.,  189-lX., 
990 

Imposture  and  superstition.  153 

India,  a  steam  voyage  to,  89 

Infidel  testimonies  in  favour  of  Christi- 
anity. 33 

Influence  uf  pure  religion,  903 

Inscriptions  on  coins,  945 

Intercnange  of  cro|>s,  6,  |9 

Islands^  floating,  948 


Jesse,  extracts  ttom,  144 

Jezehel  fate  of.  103 

Jocelyn.  Lord,  extracts  flron  hti  vodt 

on  China.  109,  143.  391 
Johnson.  Dr.,  extracu  from.  56b  80. 190. 

198,3^.345  ^ 

Judtcion«  quotations,  value  of,  100 
July,  rural  spoils  fur.  119 

Kaimes,  Lord,  extract  ttom,  79 
Kindness  of  the  Russian  peasant  for 

his  horse,  140 
King.  Capt.,  his  account  of  the  Foe-  * 

gians,  134 
Knight's  move  at  Chess,  904. 990 
Knowledge,  848 
Knox,  extract  from,  61 

Labyrinths.  63 

Lauding,  first,  in  the  Western  Ind.  184 

Last  look,  the.  243 

Learniog.  14 

Leeches,  commerce  of,  133 

Library,  the,  900 

lines  ou  his,  by  Dr.  Southey, 

Light  and  dark  mornings,  997 
Literature,  sacred,  830 
Lloyd,  extract  from.  384 
Long- legs,  father,  151 
Luxury,  94 
progress  of,  70 

Mackintosh,  extracts  from.  65 
Maintenance  of  truth.  843 
Man.  the  heart  of,  306 
likened  to  the  bee,  51 

—  the  masterpiece  of  ereattoo,  166 
Manchoo  Tartary.  891 

Manna,  93 

Manners,  good,  defined,  65 

Manures,  on,  79 

Maps  and  Mapping,  I.,  108— IL,  lifh* 

III.,  116 
Marcus  Antoninus,  remarks  by,  39, 83 
Marine  life,  economy  of,  147 
Mariners  of  Ibe  Grecian  ArehipelngOb 

933 
Married  life,  948 
Material  beneflu  of  science.  30 
Maxim  of  Marcus  Antoninns,  39 
Mecca  and  its  inhabitanU,  account  of. 

153 
Mechanical  processes  of  scnlptare,  988 
Medina,  account  of  the  city  of,  197 
Melancholy,  70 
Melancthon,  remark  by,  943 
Memoir  of    the    lata    Dr.    Thomas 

Yonng,  I.,  139— 11.,  159    ' 
Metallic  currency  and  credit,  903 
Milton,  writings  uf,  characterised,  96 
Miuister.  oflicer  of  the  Chriatlan,  79 
Montgomery,  J.,  extract  fkom.  19S 
Montgomery.  R..  extract  fh>m»  96 
Months^  Rural  Sporto  for  the  :— 
VII.  July,  99 
VI IL  AufU8t.70 

IX.  September.  119 

X.  October.  167 

XI.  November.  907 

XII.  December,  347 

Moralities  of  life,  their  mutoal  de- 
pendence. 80 

Mornings,  Ught  and  dark,  897 

Moth,  the  hawk.  101 

Mouth  organ,  or  I'andean  pipes.  7 

Mountain  of  Sepulchres  in  Persia,  183 

Mounts  Hoieb  and  Sinai,  application 
of  the  names.  96 

Motion  and  force,  300 

Mudie.  extract  from.  147 

Murillo  and  his  Works.  I..  8-lL,  18 

Museum,  visit  to  a,  319 

Nakshl  Roustam,  or  the  Mountain  of 

Sepulchres.  193 
Nations,  Houses  of  aU.  IL,  169—111. 

949 
Nature,   pious    contemplation  of  the 

works  of,  80 

-  study  of,  39 
Negligence.  80 

NorUiampton,  Lady,  lines  by.  55 
November,  rural  sports  for,  907 
Nuremberg,  9 

ObJections.idle.toesUblU1iedtrntbs,996 
October,  rural  sports  fur,  167 
Office  of  t)ie  Christian  minister,  79 

of  woman.  30 

OU  beeUe^  the,  8? 


INDEX  TO  THE  NINETEENTH  VOLUME. 


Old  Gnslii^i  Navigators  .•*• 

I.  Cabot.  10 

I I.  Willniiirhby.  Cluinaelor.  and  Bur* 
roiisUs.  199 

Oniiii|>oteuc«  of  th*  Deity.  51, 96 
Omiiiiiresf  nci*  or  the  Dciiy,  US 
Opii*.  Mrt.  extract!  from.  US 
Opinions,  popular.  243 
— — ^  pr.Tonceiv»«d,  23S 
Optiral  niu»l.m».  IV..  52— V.  95— VI., 
141-VU.,  163-VUI..    lt»-IX.. 

Organ,  moath,  Ihe.  7 
Ouzel,  the  water,  SSl 

Pa,impst>f tf.  S3S 

P-iniltmn  pi|>es.  or  moath  onran,  7 

I'antoifiaph.  the,  description  of.  70 

raradi«e.  commnu  Imo^poatioa  of,  15 

— —  Lost,  cliatac'cr  of,  70 

rant.  Dr..  eatract  from.  836 

Pat«];onUni.  aRCuaut  of  the,  99 

P:iti«uce.  51 

Pawns,  at  Clieu,  powers  of  the,  U5 

Peace.  75 

Peg  top,  philosophy  of  a,  19 

I'Mrdiiii  Diom.  149 

Permaneuce  of  liuoki,  39 

PersiM.  Mountain  of  Sepulchres  in,  193 

Perusiil  of  flue  auihnr^,  190 

Pi'veufi-y  Caslli*.  157 

Philosophy  of  a  \>e)S  top,  19 

Pictures,  copying  of  celebrati>d,  187 

Pieces  and  pasfrns,  at  Chess,  powers  of, 

115.  150 

Pipes.  I^nmiuan.  or  mouth  orxan,  1 
Plant,  human  Hfo  likcueil  to  the  growtn 

of  a.  94 
Pope,  ptoliable  origin  of  the  doctrine  of 

the  Ruprcm-try  «  f  ihe,  61 
Portcus.  Utshop,  extracts  from,  89.  91 
Potter,  extrnci  I'lxim.  246 
Power  of  rf.il  vodiiuess,  39 
Powers  of  pieces  aud  pawns  at  OheM, 

116.  150 
Praise,  voice  of.  238 
Prayer  iu  childhood,  161 
Precouceive<l  opmi^os.  836 
Present  life  autl  luturitv.  9S6 
Priugle,  extracU  from,  $1. 16f 


Proeesses,  nM>ehanleal,  of  scalptnre^*938 

Prolan ity,  93 j 

Progress  of  luxnnr,  70 

Pro  ectiun,  cunfltfence  ia  the  DItIim,  39 

Pro%ii<eiice,  blessiogs  of.  39 

— —  relianre  on,  6d 

Pure  religion,  influence  of,  903 

Quarries  of  Kgypt,  189 
Quotiitions,  va.ue  of  judieiooi,  100 

I( allies,  extract  from.  943 
Rfliauce  on  Provideitee,  68 
Kelief,  voluntary,  of  porerly,  117 
Reli:;iua.  influence  of  puif.  803 
Results  of  <ioeu  researcli,  140 
Itesiirrection.  the,  91 
UeTulntioii,  evidences  of,  896 
Hieli.  Iiaitiuy  to  be,  3? 
Kicharilson,  extract  fVon,  70 
Uobitisou.  extracts  from,  91,  99,  %6, 

iUi,  116.  133 
Roseoe.  extract  from.  988 
lluril  SiHifts  for  the  Months  t^ 

Vil.  Jalv.29 

VI U    August.  71 

IX    SeptcmlH-r.  119 

X.  October.  167 

Xi.  No\ ember,  207 

Xtl.   Deremner,  947 
Russian    peasant's    kindness    to    his 
horse.  140 

Sabbath,  emi^auls*  first,  in  Africa,  169 

Sticred  literature,  931 

S.i^aciiy  or  iiui;«,  144 

Saxony.  Dresden,  ia.  161 

Sceui<  in  the  liic6tro.  35 

Scepiici<m  and  cri'dullty  defined,  986 

Science.  ni:itt<ri  tl  iMnieii'ts  of,  30 

use  of  sp*'RiUnttons  in,  118 

ScientiQc  author*,  stady  of  old,  16 
•Srorpiuo,  the  water,  112 
Scntue.  e-; tracts  firom.  118,  903 
S  ythian,  Auacharsid,  tlie,  104 
Sea.  deatii  at,  56 
Seeker,  extracts  from,  77 
Setf-knowledjie.  63 
Self-preser>-aiioD  from  drowaing,  87 
September,  rural  spqris  for,  119 


Shawls,  CasluBera.  S*  13 

Sheituck,  extract  from,  945 

Sho<»tiui;  stars.  9i9 

Siege-niecrs.  92 

SiUvr  Qu«>k  of  the  Gospels,  99| 

Sinai  and  I^oreb,  applicatlou  of_lhe 

names.  96 
SIngapora,  fruits  of,  116 
Sketches  of  Cairo.    I,  50->II^  89— 

111..  106— IV..  130 
Solitude.  55 

Soul  and  body,  union  lietween,  84ft 
Soutliey,  rstracu  from.  75.  147 
SpacuUtions  in  seiruee,  llieir  nee*  U8 
Splemtour  of  courts  reproved,  85 
Stars,  shooting,  999 
St  It  lies,  easting  of  brants^  886 
isteam  voyage  to  India.  81 
Sioue,  triinsport  of  large  wmsh  sf,  187 
Sltiutf  quHrries  of  Kgypt,  182 
Strung,  exuraet  frum/37 
Study  ot  nature,  32 
— — — ^  old  scieuiifle  anthon,  16 
Sudden  death.  96 
Sugar.  Ueet-niot,  88, 81.  85, 69 
Supernatural  assistanee.  belief  in.  88 
Superstition  ami  impfsture,  153 
Supremacy  of  the  Pope,  probable nrigia 

of  the  doctrine,  61 
Swallow,  the  dend.  208 
Swimming.  87 

Swiiserlaud.  eotlagea  ol^  137 
Sympathy.  8«6 

Talent,  true  U9«  oC  84 

Tausev,  930 

TarUry.  Manchoo.  891 

Taylur,  Jeramy.  extract  iran.  906 

Tei'gnmiMith.  Lord,  euraet  from. 

Tench,  the.  132 

Tesiimoov  of  the  ertnUiM  to  the  Cien* 

tor.  37 
Testiroottiea.  Infidel,  in  favow  of  Ghrie> 

tiauity.  32 
Thames,  li-iiiks  nf  thn.  V..  85— VI.,  65. 

VII..  97-*Vill..  lift— IX,,  18^ 

X.801 
Tliouj{hts.  109 
Thyer.  extrnets 
Touie,  extract  ftom,  94 


Transport  of  laTft  masses  efslaM^U; 
Triumph,  ultimate,  of  truth.  110 
Tropics,  entrance  into  tlie.  Stt 
True  use  of  la.ent.  24 

—  konwledge.  848 

—  wisfiom,  943 

Truth,  ultimate  triumph  of,  1 10 

weigh  I  of,  78 

Turltey  and  the  Turkish  Pntiflm^- 

VI.  Wallackia  and  the  WslUeiiiiai 
S3 

VII.  BnlgaiiaaodlheBHlfsmin.;} 
VI  tl.  Antiueli  mud  its  viciuiii,  U 
IX.  Mecca  and  iit  iHhalaiMii.  iH 
X   M«dina.  197 

XL  The  Archiptisfn  and  iU  mI 
uers,  338 

Uuinvited  guests  In  Iks  d«t«wt,  U9 
Uuiuu  between  soul  and  hedy,  M 

Value  of  words.  75 

luaicioua  qnnlnliear.  W 

VegeUble  butter  of  Afiiea.  194 
Vice  aud  virtue  due  appnciauesalS 
VisMNi.  biiMMulnr.  163,  lli».  S» 
Visit  to  a  museum.  919 
Voice  uf  praistf.  888  * 

Voluntary  reUef  of  poverty.  127 
Vo\age,  steam,  Xo  India,  8i 

WallachU  and  the  WnllachiaMiSI 
War.  235 

Wamick  casllr,  17 

WatchmsklDf.  166 

Water  scorpion,  tbo.  111 

Weight  of  traih.  78 

Western  Ind,  n  first  lantfiag  iBlks.l)t 

WhatUblisht?  180 

— — -  hoaay-^ew  I  185 

—  kuowlcdve  ?  248 
Whewell,  extract  from,  246 
Wilcox,  extract  ttom,  51 
W'ire-gaoxe,  68 
Woman,  ofllen  of,  89 
Wurda.  value  «f,  7ft 
Worldly  trieodahip.  136 

Young.  Ur.  Thoaui»  If «wil  fl(  L 


INDEX  TO  THE  ENGRAVINGS. 


Aoeionft  BUiei,  figums  vspceteuiing, 

165 
Antioch.  in  Sjria.  113 
Autioiie  he»a  In  tbo  Britieb  Moaeuni* 

125 
Aphis  Rosw.  180 

Apparatus  for  diminlsblaf  friction,  9S7 
Anbia.  Meeea.  iu^  153 

Medina.  Iu.  197 

Arqua.  Petrarch's  house  at,  176 
Automat  J  u  Uhcu^pUyef,  4,  ft,  81,  fiO, 

76.77 

Barbel,  ilio.  68 

Bearded   Uaoebuf,  tonmnnl   bead   of 

thf.  198 
Beetles.  9S 

Beyn-el.Kasveyn.  in  Cairo,  (Oft 
Blighted  branch,  a,  196 
Blistcriug  beetle.  S8 
Boulac.  landing  ploos  at,  81 
Bridce  at  Hampton.  97 
Britain.  Roman  coin  for,  94& 
Bulgaria,      ruined     eatnTUiMnl     at 

Uafsa,  in,  73 

Cairo,  views  in  :— 

Beyn-el-Kasraya,  105 

Klian  el-Klialeelee.  199 

Landing-place  at  Boulae.8l 

fitreet  aoene,  49 

Turkish  eflTendee  viitliif  n  Wirnin 
rial.  89 
Caravanserai,  at  Ilafiia,  73 
Carp,  the,  40 
Cashmere  goats.  13 
Castle  of  .N  uremlMsrit.  0 
■■  iN'vrnsey.  157 

~ Worwitk,  57 

■  WiutUor,  25 

Cniliedralor  i'lurenee,  149 

Chess  player,  automaton,  4,  6,  91,  60, 

76.  7; 
Coin.  Roman,  for  Britain.  943 
Colo  sal  Eg)'piiau  statue.  44 
Colossus,  removal   of,  by  the  uelent 
Ugypiiaus,  18i 


Cottages  in  SwitxerUmi,  187 

Davy's  safety  lamp,  68 
DiaKrams  of  tona,  19,  96 
Dredging  mselitne.  64 
Dresden,  in  Saxony,  161 

Egyptian  colossal  statue.  44 
Euglislk  manor  house.  1Q8 
ElrnacaQ  pttera,  4ft 

Father  Long-legs.  Ifif 

Flgurea  lepreseuling  aMieot  fnqif* 

165 
Plonling  IsUods.  Uke  of  the.  841 
Plorvnce.  cathoilril  of.  14/ 
Forluue,  goddess  of.  191 
Friction,  apparatug  fordlauiiiabiftf.837 

Oainsboroogh,  pictoioe  by,  177. 817 
Games,  ancient,  fijinres  re|irreeiilifig,i6l 
Goats,  Cashmere,  13 
Goddess  of  Fortune,  191 
Grenada,  in  ftpfiin.  1^ 
Gudgeon,  the.  184 

Ha&a.  ruined  caravanserai,  at,  73 
Hampton  britlgs  at,  V. 

Oourt.  145 

1 1  area,  an  Indian.  956 
High  Priest  of  the  Magians.  194 
House,  interior  of  an  OrieBtal.  249 
""  old  Buglish  manor.  169 
'  ■    'Of  Peuareh,  at  Arqu««  176 

Illusions,  Optical,  illustrations  oC  53, 
96  141,  142.  163,  164, 189.  190 

Illustratious  of  Map-making.  108, 100, 
116,  117.  118 

of  the  Koigbt'e  moye  at 

Cheaa.  804,  2U5 

Indian  liarem,  236 

mountain  dwelling,  853 

lUly,  Petrarch's  bouse  at  Arqoa,  in,  176 

Khwol  Khalfelee.  Cairo,  19 
Kiagston-on*Tbames,  185 


Lake  of  the  Floating  Ishindlb  Ui 
Lamp,  Davy's  safety,  69 

I«iaittnir-phtce  ut  Boulac,  81 
Long-legs.  Father,  159 
Loom,  wire-gause,  68 

MaelUne  for  spoon-diodgisf,  64 
M.ig{aii  high'priest.  194 
Manor  house,  old  English.  169 
Map- making,  illustratious  oC  108, 109, 

116.117.118 
Market- cart,  from  a  pleture  by  Qaing- 

borough.  217 
Mecca,  street  in,  153 
Milk-girl,    from  a  pi«t«rt  by  Qaliu* 

borough,  177 
Moldavia,  travelling  post  b>.  33 
MounUtn  of  Sepulehres,  io  Penia,  193 
Mouth-organ,  or  Viyu's  pipes,  8 
Murillo,  pietitrca,  by,  1,  l7 

Nakshi'Soogtaa.  or  tho  MonntaJQ  of 

Sepulidires.  193 
Kuremberf .  castle  oC  9 

Oil  beetle.  98 

Old  English  manrtf  house.  169 

Optical  lUiisious,  illustrationj  of,  fi3 

9d.  141,  142.  163.  164. 189, 190 
Oriental  house,  iuterior  (ft  au,  $49 

Pan.  terminal  figure  of,  41 

Pan's  p.pes,  8 

Pautograph,  the,  1ft,  16 

Partridges.  190 

i*atera,  EtriVKao.  45 

Persia.  Mountain  of  Sepulchres,  la,  193 

Petrarch's  house  at  A^qun.  176 

Pevensey  Castle,  157 

I'hocion.  statue  of,  41 

Phytolacca  decandm.  824 

Pointer  aud  Setter,  99 

Pompeii,  ttonan  paintlnf  fconi,  809 

Red  Grouse,  79 

Removal  of  a  Colossus  by  tho  aacient 
Egyptians.  188 


Richmond  hill,  new  of  tb«  TtaM 

rvom,  901 
Rovaa  coin  for  Brttuo,  919 

painting,  from  Poviidifll 

Ruined  caravanserai  at  Hubs*  19 


Saxony,  Dresden,  In,  161 
j^corpion.  tho  water,  119 
Better  and  pointer.  99 
Siege  pieces,  92.  93 
Snipe,  the,  203 
S)iain,  Grenada  In.  173 
Siianish  Flower 
Tinker 


illfltel 


:^W.£:% 


Sphinx  Nerioa,  I9|. 
8poon-ared|^ng-maclilBe.'  64 
Staines'  stone,  65^ 
Btatne.  colossal  Egyn|iait,44 

'     oC  Phooio^  41 
Street  icene  iii  Cwr^  49 

In  Mecca.  Ift) 

Sues,  view  oC  88 
Swiss  coiiagea,  VSf 
Syria,  A.Btloch«  la,  lift 

Tench,  the.  139 

Termini^  6gnw  of  P«««  4^^  .  -i- 

. -hAi  of  thg  beaiM  tttAM. 

128  - .   ^ 

Thames,  views  oa  Ae  hgab  ifiK' 

65.  97. 14ft.  l».  801    ^   „ 
Tinker.  Spanfsh.  ftom  tfarflls^  17 
Tops,  diagrams  of,  19.  90         ^  ^ , 
Travelling  pMtia  MoluAVb  ^ai^*^ 

lacbia.  Si 
Tnrktsh  eflbndee  wtfUag  ai 

Victory,  froia  m  Bogua  pifaitMr*"^ 
at  PompeO,  909 

Wallaehlaa  poet  canlj|Ch  81 

Warwick  Cagtle,ft7 
Water  seorpiop.  lli||»  U8 
WindoDi  CaslUt,  96 
Wire-gauio  loon,  68 

Zebn.  thib  86 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


tJuiT  3, 


MURILLO  AND  HIS  WORKSi,    I- 

If  it  be  t^^e  \h^^  pWAtcri  ppFtray  ^lieiWiel^s  i«  |heir 
works,  if  theiit  paii^tiogt  ei(hibit  theiv  own  g^iub  theif 
propensities,  affections,  and  the  dispositions  qf  their 
minds,  the  works  of  Murillo  bear  a  great  anajegy  tq 
his  yir^ues,  and  the  gentleness  of  his  character.  llMt 
4  i^Q  pf  g^us  should  be  insensible  ta  those  aUurenumts 
which  so  gpreatly  affect  vulgar  minds  ought  not  to  excite 
Bi\rprise,-^we  ought  rather  to  be  surprised  when  a  great 
mind  displays  the  qualities  of  a  mean  and  narrow  capa- 
city. Believing,  as  we  do,  in  the  purifying  influence  of 
intellectual  exertion,  it  is  cheering  to  point  out  the  ex- 
amples whi^  9()  frequently  occur  gf  gfei^tuess  united 
to  gof^^s,  TltPse  qi^lities  ought  ever  to  accompany 
each  f^ih^  |m4  fufiPA  th^  rule,  the  exceptions  to  which 
ougl^l  ra^hf!^  ^  b^  regarded  as  accidents  insufficient  to 
castf^  slnr  HP09  ^^e  exertions  of  intellect.  We  have 
recei^lW  pf^^ti^i^  (he  )if^  pf  Salvatoh  Rosa  in  which 
genius  ((A^  fr^^J^  Wfre  strangely  mingled — a  life  in 
whici^  4hI  ffii^jF  faulting  from  the  gratification  of 
capnWWI  pw»i<m  WW  acutely  felt.  We  have  also  been 
deli^^ti^  ffl  ik^  P<Mli|?s^  presented  by  the  amiable  and 
<!L<^o)|||^9h^  P4Wf)¥A,  and  we  now  propose  to  WYI^ 
atteqljqn  \^  \\^  \\fi^  mpd  works  of  an  artist  whot^  9^z 
duct  n^  hftik  }m  Wffflf^  for  ^^  the  title  of  "  the  tender 
and  \\i^  M$^nA  MVi^i-i-o-'' 

BmPtolfmW  lhl^\wi  Murillo  was  bom  at  S^vQ)^  in 
1613^  1^^  f^lt  ^^Sftended  from  an  ancient  faii(^ih^  m^o 
had  i^ffm^^  M4  Mftf^ie  possessions  in  the  pro^)«^  uf 
And^lws«h  *  Vim  ivm  ^1  Castillo  a  painter  qf  i«|pe 
celebritjh  WW  \^  W^i  and  had  established  an  aca4my 
at  Seville  yf\^A  f^ni^^T^  considerable  reputation. 

In  9<mm^  wm  W^^  persons  wfco  l«Yfi  aMMwA 
emine^p^  W  WJ  fW^PWHt,  Murillo  gave  y^f  wAf  Mli<^« 
tions  «f  \^  m^9i^  fewt  «f  his  gem»i  A*  ^  <*fl4  fca 
was  con^^^tb  iltmp  tt^  TmKffm  9i  Ma  scfa^wd  \mkh. 
the  w^^  «l^wb«t^^W  p?^pe?  Wm  Piit^  Wa  hun^  vH^ 
draw^^^gak,  ft  W  ^1*1  rtw^a  th^i^  ff^W^t^  upprecinte  JWt<y 
these  ^r^Vf^ftlmm  «f  wtm^  twil  91  tl^  iwwat  inaMw^ 
the  pa^tfl  «f  WWlte  fwter^  ^Miu»  «f  Aw  AiWt 

taught  tfflft  ^  ?w4 1»*  writer  wd  tm«  <w*  Mm  \^  ^^ 

galle^w  ^tvfft  WWte  JWMft  ♦^Ijl'  ilislp^eled  ^  4||lp|ll4^^*a 
art.  (^iH<)WW1ll^lrt».Wti»^liwmSke>i^ 

^esigpms  lAllmit^  mi  an^  w«|i)«wi«if  v^  bii  Hioi^-i]|^ 

The  b,^  ^jHft  |W<te  W^<i  <^'^«»  ^  W«»  vo«^  ^  ?^ft^^ 
of  ^U  WhkfrWi^wW  le<k  W  on  ^w^J  an*  fwMj  i^^  %» 
pr»n<^ptel  «#  W*  fT>i  IWr  did  be  \m\^  ^  fmt)  %««»«!♦, 
of  tl^  ««eh«ml  *priment8-,ri^%  9M^te  MW  iw  I4a 
own  TOlte^|i,^^e^ffi  \a  own  brust#%r:4fifM^  iw  ffi^ 
and  fffVfUff^  W»  canvass. 

Sq  y^  ^  Murillo  profit  by  t)ie  b^<"»TOrttegw  of  Cl*-. 
tillo  ^^^  ^  *  *w  years  he  exh^uste^  ^1  ^ae^ meqieaU 
of  th^^  T9m^:  fl^  ^hw  F«»te4  tvoi  bMuw,  th^  e0«# 
in  th<fc  9km^T^  9t  A^  Conxf^^l  ^.  ^eq^  WWWWlfl^ 
the  Vi||ffl  wd  S^?^  francw^^  |m4  tl#  9fk»  W  MWHrtWF 
cotive^£  t^  9^^  bein^  Qi(^  |^  ^  Kw«m  wHh 
Santoi  B^^PWRP^  The  man9«f  ^  Qll^  i»  «9i9eiWl^ 
in  bo|^, 

Abwt  ^>^  ^n^  ©Pfttillo  re^m^  %  C«4^  ka^W« 
Muril^  ^tlb9^t  ^  miM^  aud  ^tlWA  eeettfiiMM».  He 
was  so  |«¥iwr  t^^  Wiw  ?ff#  <J^-  ¥ft  ^VH  l^itcheft  of  a  con- 
vent, th^  cook  sa^  w^J^ffl^  |WI  W^  so  experl^  paray 
do  paint  swnething  ftw^  |j^,^  m^  WfJWt  ^!  ha^ve 
no  canvass^  and  w(iat  b  woaw^  1^^  m«w)Kiiay  t^  km 
any."  The  cook  held  his  diskH^toA^  SifiuiJitcN  ^^^k  i^ 
and  pamted  this  hi^ad  of  Christ  upon  ^  #  a  beautiftil  ai^ 
finished  s^yV. 

Tk^  i^veJTly  ^  oiftr  9ii¥4«i(  9om9«]M  Van  %i>  seek  ti# 
Feria*  ^  9^»  ^  p^  wk^i^wr  «Akt^a  w«?^  9ff4w4 

and  n«.v  ^»;^m  <i9<?<m.<)^bw)d^ cli&m  ud£n&2a»^u^l7S3ja? 
pnrchuse.   The  inhabitants  of  this  district  ara  mostly  arBsts  and  mechi^ 
ic»,  who  provide  nearly  all  Andalnala  with  Hufu  ymductaow;  WMQkttc  k 
With  picturea,  painted  genernUy  in  ao  bad  a  atyle  that  eyery  bftaiy^ntS 


(  of  b^ni.  Here  he  continued  for  sibme  time  engaged  is 
(iupplying  wares  to  this  market  pf  Romisli.s^ou,  aod 
eonsiderably  impro¥e4  his  readipess  to  invent,  to  drav, 
f^pd  to  dispose  and  arrange  any  given  subject. 

After  spending  a  few  years  in  this  way,  and  in  prirate 
i(u4yi  ^  circumstance  occurred  which  had  great  inilueDn 
fm  tSie  mind  of  Murillo.  One  of  his  fdlow  scbohn, 
Pedro  de  Moym»  influenced  by  a  strong  desire  to  tnrfi 
in  foreign  countries,  had  abandoned  the  school  of  Ca»> 
tillo,  and  gone  to  Flanders  as  a  private  soldier,  bet 
happening  to  see  many  of  the  pictures  of  Vandjck,  all 
bis  love  for  his  foimer  profession  returned,  and  he  vis 
most  anxious  to  become  a  pupil  of  that  celebrated  master. 
Moya  accordingly  went  to  London,  where  VajMhck 
resided,  became  his  pupil,  and  soon  succeeded  in  working 
in  the  style  of  his  master;  but  his  improvement  wis 
checked  by  the  death  of  Vandyck,  and  Moya  retimed 
to  Spain.  Murillo  saw,  and  was  surprised  at  that  chaste. 
and  to  him  hitherto  unknown  manner,  which  Moya  had 
acquired,  and  became  anxious  to  visit  Flanders  or  Itaij. 
in  order  to  obtain  the  same  advantages.  But  his  peco- 
niary  means  were  very  limited, — ^he  was  without  fneods 
and  patrons, — men  of  greater  name  or  pretension  bad 
hitherto  stood  between  him  and  reputation.  But  be 
worked  diligeiitly  for  a  short  time,  and  produced  BtTtn! 
wo^Ss  which  he  sol4  $it  the  Feria,  and,  without  commu- 
nicating 1^1  intefitHws  ^  Any  one,  he  quitted  Seville  for 
Italy  in  the  tfreq^'-sfourth  year  of  his  age. 

When  ^f\^pillc|  ayrived  at  Madrid  he  visited  hit  coon- 
tryiMn>  Jio%  DiegQ  Velasques  de  Silva,  first  painter  d 
the  camera  tq  |t\e  Kipg,  with  whom  he  was  not  acquamted 
except  by  fafHfii  an4  requested  of  him  letters  of  intro- 
^ction  to  Hfffii^.'  VelasqueSj  pleased  with  the  mild  aod 
gentle  denn^mwt?  ^  Munlloi  inquired  of  him  about  bis 
pOIMiiectioiiHi  m^  femily, — of-  his  school  and  his  master. 
— and  the  motives  which  induced  him  to  quit  his  cons- 
try,  and  ui^^take  so  distant  ^  journey.  Murilk>  repli^ 
with  so  muck  ingenuousness  that  Yelaaqnes  was  charDed 
with  him, — ^told  him  t4>  stay  where  he  wes, — ^to  consvleT 
Yelasquex  as  his  friend,  and  that  boi^e  as  his  hone. 

Murillo  gn^lf^lly  aecepted  the  generous  ofer  ct 
Velasquez,  an^  mved  himself  wurlh^  9$  this  hbcnhty 
by  diligent  s|ii^,  ignd  eonsequeilt  immTfPWt,  He 
copied  some  Mintings  of  Yaxidyeki  eyf  ltiWv«s  ni  ^^ 
Ye^aquez.  These  o^iea  Yel««^^M^  jlfWimM  ^  the 
king,  and  ^y  vere  af^an^M  li^  fU  tki^  fwfc%  ^^ 
PQ^^oisseiffi  of  the  oomrt.  ^V  jlwHfilWi  fkm  ^^ 
Murillo  Yf^  ahp  approve  m  wA^m^  Hw^e  m^' 
celehrate4K  |he  one  for  his  exqtnMl^  f^km^m^^^^ 
for  his  peir^^eliQn  in  the  claro  ohammk  l»4  dirtW^^ 
the  spirit  a«  iiell  as  truth  to  Ve  •mk  ^  W*  pN*»*»^' 
and  Murillo  ^f«a  advised  to  cetty  M  #>»  1P»I«^  ^\ 
cause  these  ^leiold  enable  him  i«  iMriR  %  fiwi  ^m^^ 
flooring,  a  Ability  ^  )||A#fff^  Vkti  %  fVWWft^^ 
1«^w<ng> 

IV  IHfM  progre^d  «f  M^tto  smforMl  Ml  pf^- 

|)W^  he  iiM  HOW  ^pM^MM  tOk  Wftdei^k^  ^  kPHWf  ^J 
Rome,  ^  oAM  M»  IrttW*  •*  |tfsiiW>»<i»h<WH  •»; 
fAher  i^«nte«««  *im  %  «ipf  i  Hll^  ^'^I^S^She 

thffiiift  SiAiaBlais^uM  eAeik  ami  eiaMHBMr  hasMlf  11  f^T 
flHoa  vlttB  !■«.  -* 


Benin 


B  authbrityorS SpaiAh  writer^ 


to  tiiebMp^ 


i^^qnole 

onidex,  who  Iim  ooatribotad  mach  fhat  U  intenitmir  to  tbe  DMpq^ 
oiHuafob  VWIriDSPNpkBcatiiotioMorUiisartbt  eoUietsdlTCi^ 
£dward  Dcriet  will^  fraud  inlanrting. 


w\.^ 


THM  SATURdAf  MASAIIKe. 


8 


respectful  termi,  he  ftcqoaiiited  his  tnalf tfr  and  benefactor 
with  his  desire  to  return  to  Seyille*  Velasquet  regretted 
this  resolution,  because  he  foresaw  the  high  degree  of 
perfection  to  which  Murillo's  geniks  in  the  art  of  paint- 
ing was  capable  of  attaining  at  lloihe,  but  he  did  not 
interfere  with  his  design,  and  MuHllo  returned  to  Seville, 
in  the  year  1645. 

About  this  time  a  proposal  was  thade  to  adorn  the 
small  cloister  of  the  ooBreni  of  SU  Francis,  at  Seville, 
with  eleven  historical  pictures,  the  figures  of  the  full 
size ;  but  the  proposed  renlutteration  was  scant j,  it  being 
the  result  of  small  collections  made  from  the  inembers 
of  the  convent,  and  amounting  to  so  small  a  sum  that 
all  the  paintefg  of  Seville  refused  to  paint  ^etures  at  so 
mean  a  priee*  Mnrillo,  however^  who  hfli  a  deputation 
to  acquire,  undertook  the  work,  and  tiis  services  were 
accepted  simplj  because  those  of  no  other  painter  were 
to  be  had. 

The  subjects  of  these  pictures  were  chiefly  from  the 
Romish  lagpnda»  and  need  not  be  described.  Aa  works 
of  art  their  ehaHMitel-  is  very  highi  Murillo  Worked  at 
theai  with  oai«  md  dnigolmif  and  the  distmal  of  his  ^m- 
ployers  was  ^rftdtially  conVortied  itita  iho  diosi  heafty 
gratiication  and  d?light»  But  the  astoxiishtneiil  of  the 
artists  and  eomtoisseore  of  Seville  kii^w  no  boufids  i  hei^ 
vera  eleven  fine  pietufes^  arranged  and  eiteented  Wilhotlt 
the  knowledge  of  any  one  of  theae  ^'dlredftoi^  of  the 
public  taate/'  and  by  an  aftisf  whotn  no  one  had  heard 
ef !  suffice  it  to  say  that  in  a  shoft  time  Mnrlllo  was 
acknowledged  as  the  ehlef  of  the  Sevillian  sehool^  Wattae 
the  genins  of  the  paintef  enabled  hlni  ib  appeal  tb  the 
feelings  and  afll^ctt&its  of  oui^  eomlnoh  liature,  by  pre- 
senting truth  in  all  her  dimple  pufity. 

Murillo  now  became  celebrated :  the  greftt,  the  power- 
falt  and  amateurs  ii)  tift  eoorted  his  fh^hntttyi  ^rid  desired 
to  be  piunted  by  him.  His  rising  talents  ^iiocured  hiih 
an  introduction  to  Dona  Beatrie  de  Cabrera  y  Solo 
flavor,  a  lady  of  distinction  and  fortune  ttt  Pilas^  to 
whom  he  was  married  in  the  yeaf  1048.  Mufillb  tiow 
became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  citiaens  6f  Seville, 
and  his  hoaj^e  was  the  resort  of  persons  of  iiiiluence,  of 
taste,  and  talerit  ih  the  atis. 

The  fronftispieee  to  our  prfes^nt  article  is  copied  from 
a  picture  in  the  Dulwich  Gall(*ty,  which  is  commended 
by  Dr.  Waagen  in  the  following  tcntts:-^"  A  girl,  with 
g^reat  simplieitj  of  eiJJi'ession,  holds  some  roses  ifi  hef 
handkerchief,-*-*  choice  example  ef  the  Very  peculiar 
contrasts  and  accords  of  colours  by  which  many  of  Mtl- 
rillo  8  pictufes  bave  such  a  magical  effect.  iTie  back- 
giHmad  4  Ismdaeape;" 


.  CASHMERE  SHAWLS. 

h 

The  Goat  of  CxaHMEREy  and  the  Native 

Manufagtuhe* 

Cashmbrb  has  been  celebrated  from  very  eatly  periods, 
Por  the  beaaty  of  its  sitnation,  the  comeliness  of  its  in- 
habitants, afid  the  products  obtained  thence.*  It  is  the 
name  both  6f  a  country  and  the  capital  city  therein. 
The  country  is  a  feftlle  valley,  entirely  inclosed  by  lofty 
mountains,  in  the  north-west  extremity  of  India.  The 
countries  which  stirround  it  are  those  of  the  Seiks,  of 
he  Afghans,  of  the  Tibetians,  and  of  the  Chinese  Tar- 
ars.  It  appeara  In  early  ages  to  have  had  Hindoo 
•ove reigns,  but  to  have  been  conquered  by  a  Moharame- 
hn  usurper  about  five  or  six  hundred  years  ago.  The 
I'Xt  conqueror  was  the  Mogul  emperor  of  Illndostan, 
llumayoou,  in  whose  family  the  sovereignty  remained 
ill  the  rise  of  the  powerful  Afghan  dynasty  in  the  last 
ntury,  when  Cashmere  became  a  province  of  Afghan- 
•5 fan.  During  the  present  century,  when  the  contests 
>f  rival  cbumants  to  the  Afghan  crown  had  reduced  the 
[nonarchy  to    a   shadow,  Runjeet  Singh,  the  powerful 


i*hief  df  itw  Beikiy  sgiae^  CasHmdre;  arid  We  believe  thdt 
Ifi  still  fethaihs  under  the  sovef-eigtity  of  his  successor; 

Thfeughetifi  this  seties  of  changes,  Cashmer^  appears 
Id  hate  been  highly  taluedj  on  aticouilt  of  the  large 
revenue  defivaWe  fFom  its  produce;  the  city  of  Cash- 
Inere  is  very  lai'g^,  containing  nearly  two  hundred 
thousand  inhabit^hts ;  but  the  f\*atiire  for  which  the 
valley  has  beeti  prieed  is  th<»  great  productiveness  of  the 
soil,  and  ftlso  the  {)^oductly^  industfjr  of  the  iiihahitants. 
The  CashiheHahs  bave  become  celebrated,  hot  only 
throughout  Asia,  but  in  feurope  likewise,  for  the  beau- 
tifiil  shdtth  Which  they  produce;  At  the  time  when  the 
Hdnburable  Mountstuart  Blphirisione  Visited  the  Afghdn 
dominions.  Cashmere  was  (Considered  to  possess  sixteeh 
thousand  shawl->looms,  eac5h  giving  employment  to  three 
tneh.  A  recent  writer  in  the  Sncychpadia  BHtdrtrticti 
reftiarks :— !*'  For  a  long  Jieriod  the  district  of  Cashmere, 
^  pt^vince  of  Hindostauj  formerly  subject  to  the  king 
of  Candahar  (Caubul),  produced  at^icles  of  this  desbrii)- 
iion  in  such  perfection  as  to  make  them  highly  nri2ed 
both  in  Europe  and  Asia.  The  date  at  which  this 
i^annfaeture  took  its  rise  is  not  known ;  but  ever  sitice  the 
British  established  themselves  iH  Ihdia,  Cashmere  shawls 
have  been  considered  one  of  the  most  valuable  manufad- ' 
tbires  of  the  East;  These  shawls  are  made  both  long  and 
square,  the  fortner  measuring  generally  fifty-fouf  Ihches 
wide  and  a  hundred  and  twenty-six  long ;  the  lattet  are 
from  sijtty-three  to  seventy-two  inches  square.  The 
finest  of  them  are  composed  of  a  material  exquisitely  soft 
and  wartn,  surpassing  in  this  respect  probably  any  other 
material  that  has  ever  been  fabricated  into  clothing.'' 
From  the  observations  of  Bemier,  Strachey,  and  other 
writers,  we  gather  the  following  particulars  respecting 
the  mode  of  manufacturing  the  shawls,  as  well  as  the 
general  arrangements  connected  with  the  manufacture,  in 
Cashmere. 

It  appears  that  the  shop^  occupied  by  the  shawl 
makers  consist  of  a  frame-wotk,  at  which  the  persons 
employed  sit  on  a  bench.  ITie  number  employed  on  one 
shawl  is  two,  thtee,  or  four ;  generally  three.  On  plain 
shawls  two  persons  only  are  employed,  the  weaving 
being  eifected  with  a  long,  iiaf-row,  and  heavy  shuttle; 
but  those  shawls  of  whidh  the  patter li  is  variegated  are 
Worked  with  wooden  needles  instead  of  a  shuttle,  there 
being  a  separate  needle  fof  the  thread  df  each  colour. 
The  operations  are  consequently  slow,  proportionate  to 
the  quantity  of  work  which  the  pattern  may  require*  It 
is  not  unusual  for  a  shop  to  be  occupied  v/ith  the 
manufacture  of  one  single  snawl  for  a  whole  year,  if  it 
be  a  remarkably  fine  one;  and,  in  those  which  are  most 
elaborately  worked,  not  one  quarter  of  an  inch  is  com- 
pleted in  one  day  by  three  persons.  Sometimes,  in  order 
to  expedite  the  production  of  a  shawl,  it  is  made  in 
separate  pieces  at  different  looms,  and  the  worked  pieces 
are  afterwards  sewed  together. 

The  Oostand,  or  head  workman  at  each  loom,  super- 
intends the  operation  on  the  shawl,  while  the  other  per- 
sons are  employed  near  him  immediately  under  his 
direction.  Should  the  pattern  which  is  about  to  be 
worked  in  the  shawl  be  new,  or  one  with  which  the  work- 
men are  not  familiar,  the  Oostand  directs  them  as  to  the 
figures,  colours,  and  threads,  which  they  must  employ; 
keeping  before  him  a  paper  pattern  of  tne  device  which 
is  to  be  produced.  During  the  operation  of  making, 
the  rough  or  inferior  side  of  the  shawl  is  uppermost  on 
the  frame,  or  nearest  the  eye;  notwithstanding  which, 
the  Oostand  preserves  the  pattern  with  the  utmost 
accuracy.  The  mode  of  operation  in  this  respect  seems 
to  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  the  mode  of  producing 
tapestry  in  the  old  times,  when  the  rooms  of  the  noble 
and  the  wealthy  were  hung  with  that  production  instead 
of  with  painted  or  printed  paper. 

A  merchant  who  enters  largely  into  the  traffic  in 
shawls,  frequ  ntly  engages  a  number  of  shops,  situated 
near  one  spot,  where  he  employs  men  to  work  for  him ; 

578—2 


A 


THE  SATORDAYM  AGAZINB. 


or  else  he  wppliei  tte  Ooitands  or  head  worboen  with 
thteitd  which  hw  been  previously  Bpun  by  women  «nd 
■fterwarda  dyed,  and  they  Miry  on  the  manufacture  at 
thnr  own  hotuei,  having  previously  received  inttruction* 
from  the  merchant  respecting  the  quality  of  the  goods 
be  may  require  their  coloori,  pattemi,  Ac.  Under  nich 
drcumatancei,  the  employer  finding  all  the  materiala,  an 
Ooatand  receives  from  six  to  eight  pie«  per  day  aa 
wages,  and  a  conunon  workman  from  one  to  four  pite, — 
■  oics  being  a  small  coin  in  Cashmere,  worth  about  three 
half-peocB  English  money.  After  the  shawls  are  com- 
pleted, the  merehant  sends  them  to  the  custom-office, 
where  each  shawl  is  stamped;  and  he  there  pays  a  cer- 
tain duty,  the  amount  of  which  varies  with  the  quality 
and  value  of  the  shawl.  The  duty  is  reckoned  at  one- 
fifth  of  their  value;  but  the  government-officers  generally 
muuge  to  fix  the  value  at  more  than  the  goods  are  redly 
worth,  for  the  purpose  of  increasbg  the  pcr-centage 
payable  into  the  treasury  of  the  state.  In  most  Eastern 
countries,  where  a  province  is  governed  by  a  pacha,  a 
aatrap,  a  lemindar,  or  other  vice-regal  personage,  the 
amoont  of  duty  levied  on  merchants  and  traders  is  too 
often  left  at  the  mercy  of  the  governor,  who  seldom  fails 
to  appropriate  a  portion  to  his  own  private  use. 

liie  wool  of  which  the  Cashmere  shawls  are  made  is 
imported  principally  from  Tibet  and  Tartary,  in  which 
countries  the  kind  of  goat  which  produces  this  wool 
thrives  better  than  in  most  others.  That  which  is 
brought  fhim  Rodauk  is  deemed  the  best,  its  price  in 
Cashmere  being  from  ten  to  twenty  rupees  for  a  turruk 
of  twelve  pounds.  It  is  to  the  peculiar  beauty  and  fine 
texture  of  this  wool  that  the  Cashmere  shawls  owe  the 
high  estimation  in  which  they  are  held.  The  wool  forms 
the  inner  coat  with  which  the  goat  is  covered ;  sjid  the 
dark  gray  colour  which  belongs  to  it  in  a  natural  state, 
is  removed  from  it  by  a  bleaching  process  to  which  it  is 
auhjected  in  Cashmere,  and  which  is  effected  principally 
by  a  preparation  of  rice-flour.  When  this  bleaching  has 
been  completed,  the  wool  is  spun  into  yam,  and  d^ed  of 
various  colours.  The  weavmg  then  proceeds,  in  the 
frames  of  which  we  have  before  spoken ;  and,  after  being 
woven,  the  piece  is  washed  once;  and  the  border,  ~ 
which  is  displayed  a  variety  of  figures  and  colours, 
attached  to  the  shawls  in  so  dextrous  a  manner  that  the 
junction  can  scarcely  be  detected.  The  price  va 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  from  a  sum  equal  to  about 
ten  shillings  English,  up  to  fifty;  but  when  the  flowered 
work  is  unusually  elaborate,  the  price  is  increased  to  five 
or  sis  pounds.  This  rate  of  charge  does  not  appear 
large,  to  us  who  are  familiar  with  BriUah  muiufacture; 
but,  when  we  take  into  account  the  very  small  daily 
wages  of  these  Cashmere  weavers,  the  proportionate  prico 
ia  Uien  considerable. 

When  Cashmere  was  tributary  to  Afghanistan,  a  con- 
uderable  portion  of  the  public  revenue  was  exacted  in 
shawl*,  instead  of  money.  Many  of  the  shawls  are 
exported  in  an  unwashed  state,  and  in  the  western  parts 
of  Asia  they  are  worn  also  in  that  state ;  but  in  India 
there  is  no  market  for  unwashed  shawls,  and  therefore 
they  are  washed  and  packed  at  Umritsir,  a  town  near  La- 
hore, where  the  process  of  washing  is  more  carefully 
attended  to  than  at  Cashmere. 

With  regard  to  the  extent  of  the  shawl  manufacture 
in  Cashmere,  nothing  more  than  an  approximate  estimate 
can  be  made.  Two  hundred  ycora  ago,  it  was  supposed 
that  there  were  forty  thousandlooms  in  Cashmere.  Mr. 
Strachey,  however,  in  1 809,  stated  the  number  at  sixteen 
thousand;  and  adds,  "It  would  perhaps  be  difficult  to 
determine  with  accuracy  the  quantity  of  shawls  manu- 
factured annually;  supposing,  however,  that  five  of  all 
kinds  are  on  an  average  made  at  each  shop  or  loom  in 
tne  course  of  a  year,  the  number  would  be  eighty  thou- 
pand,  which  is  probably  not  far  from  the  truth." 


ON  CHESS.    No.  XIII. 
The  Automaton  CHMi-PtAYER.  I. 


loltaBt,wtaiIllhifaa 
umvncfaL 

FaoBABLT  no  contrivance  of  the  fertile  genius  of  bu 
ever  exdted  so  much  wooder  and  delight  for  upwaiditf 
half  a  oentttry  as  the  Aut(»natan  Cheaa-player,  Hun- 
nouncement  and  subsequent  production  w  a  msdim 
which  i4)peared  so  to  vary  its  operationa  and  mcxki  d 
action  as  to  suit  the  ever-varying  circumstance*  <f ) 
game  of  cheas  were  sufficient  to  account  for  this  tidlt- 
mmit  throorhout  Europe. 

The  iwnuta  of  automatie  machinery  in  genersl  wk 
to  interest  the  mind  stnmgly  so  aoon  ta  the  eSectt  pn>- 
duced  by  it  are  clearly  traced  to  well-eetahtishtd  phraal 
causes.  The  wind  which  turns  the  aaila  of  a  wiaanill: 
the  flowing  stream  which  give*  motion  to  awater-vlKt!; 
and  the  elastic  steam  which  elevates  and  deprewet  ilta- 
nately  a  piston,  are  simple  resolts  of  aelf.«videDt  dills' 
These  prune  moven  may  impart  motion  to  more  or  Iw 
complicated  machinery,  so  as  to  produce  the  vsriegalRi 
carpet  which  adorns  our  rooms,  or  the  sheet  of  ftxf 
upon  which  we  write,  but  itill  the  mind  is  sstitfied  u>i 
these  results  are  prodjioed  by  machinery  in  motion,  vliicb 
motion  is  imparted  pnd  sustained  by  some  well^mtn 
force.  So  also  in  machines  which  imitate  roaajr  of  ^ 
motions  and  attributes  of  animaU  the  mind  is  som  "^ 
fied  that  the  cause  is  mwlmnii-jil,  ud  resides  witbii  tl" 
automaton  itself,  since  by  a  alight  observation  it  is  k<^ 
that  the  automaton  is  adequate  to  the  perforniaDce  ool.' 
of  a  verv  limited  routine  of  actions  which  arc  slwajri  "■ 
peated,  like  the  tunes  on  a  barrel-organ,  in  the  »■' 

Automata  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,— tu-,  <'* 
timple,  the  cotnpound,  and  the  ipvriout-  The  fintcb^ 
comprises  those  insulated  automata,  the  moveDDOit*  " 
which  result  from  mechanism  alone,  by  the  aid  of  *>>'''' 
thev  perform  certain  actions,  and  contmue  them  to  li*! 
as  the  moving  force  is  kept  in  an  active  sUU.  i' 
iples  we  may  cite  the  trumpeter  of  MaeUe!,  llie  ""tt" 
of  VaucansoD,  the  self-acting  piano-forte,  ■  &(■ 
id  class  includes  those  automata  whidi,  W 
the  former  are  moved  by  machinery,  but  powessmf  " 
the  same  time  a  secret  communication  with  tuW 
agency,  are  enabled  to  change  the  regular  order  Mfl  '*■ 
cession  of  their  movements  according  to  existing  "'^' 
stances,  and  hence  ia  some  manner  to  assume  tlK  '■'' 
racter  of  living  beings.  ^^ 

The  third  class  contains  those  automaU  "'■■'^'''.T! 
the  semblance  only  of  mechanism,  are  wholly  diK*" 
and  controlled  by  a  concealed  human  agent 

Now  it  must  be  at  once  perfectly  clear  to  even'  m'"' 
ligcnt  reader  that  the  Automaton  Che9S-ptav«  n"""" 
belong  to  the  first  clasa,  because,  great  and  Burprising' 
the  powers  of  mechanism  assuredly  are,  the  motfiwn. 
which  result  from  it  are  necessarily  limited  M-i  u"'''"''' 
Those  who  know  anything  of  the  difficulties  snd  iTin^[ 
cica  of  chess  wUI  readily  admit  that  intellect,  aJid  W"' 

•  TbU  du«  of  AulDiula  te  dcMribod  in  Salt^'t  «'l"'^  ^ 
XVUL,  pp.  03  sod  W, 


player  0 
The  I 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAT  MAGAZINE. 


of  no  mean  order,  is  alone  equal  to  the  task  of  managing 
this  game ;  that  machinery  can  never  usarp  and  exercise 
the  faculties  of  mind,  and  therefore  that  the  Chess  Auto- 
maton, which  in  its  day  encountered,  and  often  conquered, 
some  of  the  first-rate  professors  of  chess,  cannot  be 
admitted  into  the  class  of  nmph  automata.  Its  claims 
to  a  place  either  in  the  second  or  in  the  third  division  the 
reader  wHl  easily  decide  upon  after  a  perusal  of  the  fol- 
lowing details. 

The  Chess  Automaton  was  the  invention  of  Wolfgang 
de  Kempelen,  a  native  of  Hungary,  Aulic  councillor  to 
the  royu  chamber  of  the  domains  of  the  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  mechanics.  In 
the  year  1769  de  Kempelen,  being  at  Vienna  on  business 
relative  to  his  office,  was  ordered  to  court  to  be  present 
as  a  scientific  witness  of  some  magnetic  games  or  per- 
formances which  one  Pelletier,  a  Frenchman,  was  to 
exhibit  before  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa.  During  the* 
exhibition.  Her  Majesty  having  condescended  to  enter 
into  familiar  omversation  with  de  Kempelen,  he  was 
induced  to  hint  that  he  thought  himself  capable  of 
making  a  machine,  the  effects  of  which  would  be  more 
surprising,  and  the  deception  more  complete  than  any- 
thing Her  Majesty  had  seen  during  this  magnetic  exhibi- 
tion. The  empress  took  him  at  his  word,  and  expressed 
so  earnest  a  desire  to  see  his  project  carried  into  execu- 
tion that  she  obtained  a  promise  of  him  to  set  about  it 
immediately.  He  kept  his  word,  and  in  six  months  again 
appeared  at  the  Court  of  Vienna  in  company  with  the 
Automaton  Chess-player. 

It  majr  readily  be  supposed  that  this  automaton  excited 
the  admiration  and  surprise  of  every  one  who  either  saw 
it  play  or  played  with  it.  An  account  of  the  invention 
soon  spread  through  a  great  part  of  Europe ;  the  news- 
papers and  joumids  were  eager  to  announce  its  marvel- 
lous powers;  the  smallest  scrap  of  information  respecting 
it  was  read  with  avidity;  and  Uie  result  of  all  this  excite- 
ment was  that  these  accounts  bectmie  daily  more  exagge- 
rated and  contradictory.  Even  an  intimate  friend  of 
the  inventor,  who  had  repeated  opportunities  of  witneas- 
ing  the  performances  of  the  automaton,  expresses  himself 
in  the  following  high-flown  terms. 

Hie  boldest  idea  that  ever  entered  the  brain  of  a  me(;hanic 
was  doubtlesBi  that  of  oonstructinf^  a  machine  to  imhate 
man,  the  master-pieoe  of  the  Creation,  in  something  more- 
than  figure  and  motion.  M.  de  Kempelen  not  only  con- 
ceived tnis  idea,  but  also  carried  it  into  execution ;  his  Chess- 
player being  beyond  oontindiction  the  most  astonishing  auto- 
maton that  ever  existed.  Never  before  did  any  mere  mecha- 
nical figure  unite  the  vis  motrix  with  the  vis  diredrix^  or  to 
speak  more  clearly,  the  power  of  moving  itself  in  different 
directions  as  circumstances  unforeseen  and  depending  on  the 
will  of  any  person  present  might  require.  Was  a  wooden 
figure  ev«r  before  seen  playing  at  the  most  difficult  and  com- 
pOcated  of  all  games,  ne^uently  beating  the  most  consum- 
mate adapL  and  setting  hun  right  if  ever  he  deviated  firom 
the  rules  of  the  games 

The  same  writer  published  a  series  of  letters  to  a 
friend  descriptive  of  all  the  **  externals"  of  the  Chess 
Automaton*.  These  Jetters  are  extremely  interesting, 
not  only  on  account  of  the  admiring  simplicity  with 
which  he  speaks  of  the  invention  of  his  friend;  but  for 
the  information  they  give  as  to  the  mode  of  exhibition 
adopted  by  de  Kempelen  from  the  very  first.  Our  au- 
thor writes  to  a  friend  at  a  distance  from  Vienna,  and 
begs  him  to  set  bounds  to  his  curiosity,  "  for  he  cannot 
gratify  it;"  and  although  he  admits  the  automaton  "  must 
be  a  deception,"  yet  **  he  is  forced  to  the  humiliating 
avowal  that  it  is  as  incomprehensible  to  himself  as  to 
the  person  he  addresses."  He  is,  however,  kept  in  coun- 
tenance by  the  fact  that  "  others  endowed  with  much 

•  The  title  of  this  book  Is  nmarkable,  and  displays  the  spirit  'of  cirnl? 
lity  with  which  it  was  written.  It  is  as  follows  >—Ii(ANinatb  Reason  ; 
or  a  eirenmaianlial  Accimnt  of  thai  ationUhing  piece  of  Meehanitm,  M. 
df  KempeUnt  Che§9^layer.  Bj  M.  Chablbs  Oottlisb  db  V^t'indisch. 
This  gentleomn  b  q^oJwi  ni,  dsewharB,  as  the  leqpeetable  author  of  The 
HiMiory  and  Geography  of  the  Kingdom  of  Hungary,  aod  the  intiaiate 
ftiead  md  wwiulryiiimqirMi  df  Kfyciw^ 


superior  knowledge  and  quicker  penetration  have  not 
been  more  successful  than  himself  in  developing  the 
mystery."  And  then  growing  warm  with  his  subject  he 
exclaims,  '^  It  is  a  deception  ! — granted:  but  such  an  one 
as  does  honour  to  human  nature;  a  deception  mora 
beautiful,  more  surprising,  more  astonishing  than  any  to 
be  met  with  in  the  different  accounts  of  mathematical 
recreations." 

In  our  next  article  on  this  subject  we  will  describe 
particularly  the  appearance  and  performances  of  the 
Chess  Automaton.  We  will  conclude  our  present  notice 
with  two  extracts  froin  the  author  already  quoted. 

^  The  first  Idea  that  strikes  you  on  a  superficial  examina- 
tion of  this  chess-player  is  a  sospicion  that  its  movements 
are  e£fected  by  the  unmediate  impulse  of  some  human  being. 
I  myself  fell  into  this  mistake.  When  I  first  saw  the  in- 
ventor shove  his  automaton,  fixed  to  a  kind  of  large  cup- 
board, out  of  an  alcove,  I  could  not  any  more  than  the  rest 
of  the  companv  avoid  suspjecting  that  this  cupboard  cer- 
tainly contained  a  child,  whidi  mm.  the  size  of  it  I  supposed 
might  be  firom  ten  to  twelve  years  old.  lilDuiy  of  the  com- 
pany were  so  fully  persuaded  of  it  that  they  made  no  scru- 
Ele  to  declare  it.  I  assented  only  in  silence  to  their  opinion, 
ut  was  not  less  confused  when  I  saw  M.  de  Kempelen 
tuck  up  the  dress  of  the  automaton,  take  out  the  drawers, 
and  open  all  the  drawers  of  the  cupboard,  and  in  this  situa- 
tion roll  it  round  the  room  on  the  castors  which  it  goes  upon, 
turning  it  in  every  direction  so  as  to  enable  each  person  pre- 
sent to  examine  it  on  all  mdes.  You  may  be  sure  that  I  was 
not  a  little  eager  to  gratify  my  curiosity.  I  examined  even 
the  minutest  comer  of  it^  without  bemg  able  to  find  any- 
thing throughout  the  whole  capable  of  concealing  an  object 
the  size  of  my  hat.  My  vanity  was  grievously  mortified  to 
see  my  hypothesis,  which  at  first  sight  appeared  so  plausible, 
instantaneously  disproved. 

I  know  not  whetner  the  whole  company  were  affected  in 
the  same  manner :  but  I  thought  I  could  perceive  in  many 
of  their  countenances  marks  of  the  greatMt  surprise,  oine 
old  ladv  in  particular  who  had  not  foigotten  the  tales  told 
her  in  her  youth,  crossed  herself,  and  sighing  out  apious 
ejaculation  went  and  hid  herself  in  a  window  seat,  as  distant 
as  she  could  fin>m  the  evU  spirit^  which  she  firmly  believed 
possessed  the  machine. 

Our  author  being  thus  fairly  put  upon  a  wrong  scent 
has  recourse  to  the  idea  of  a  secret  communication  be- 
tween the  automaton  and  some  neighbouring  apartment. 
This  leads  him  to  describe  the  residence  of  M.  de  Kem- 
pelen thus — 

M.  de  Kempelen  resides  here  at  Presburg.  and  occupies 
with  hb  fimiily  the  first  floor  of  his  house;  his  little  work- 
shop toffether  with  his  study  where  the  automaton  is  placed, 
are  on  uie  second  floor.  When  the  automaton  is  exhibited, 
the  company  assemble  in  the  lower  apartment,  from  whence 
they  are  conducted  up  stairs.  In  passing  through  the  work- 
shop which  serves  as  an  antechamber  to  the  study,  you  see 
nothing  but  joiner^s^  smith's  andjdockmaker's  tools,  lying  in 
heaps  m  that  confusion  so  characteristic  of  the  abode  of  a 
mechanical  genius.  The  walls  of  the  study  are  in  part  hid 
by  large  presses,  some  containing  books,  others  antiques, 
and  the  remainder  a  small  collection  of  natural  history:  the 
intermediate  spaces  are  decorated  with  paintings  or  prints, 
the  performances  of  the  master  of  the  house. 

The  writer  satisfies  himself  that  no  communication 
can  possibly  exist  between  the  automaton  and  an  adjoin- 
ing room;  this  was  indeed  proved  by  the  machine  being 
carried  for  exhibition  to  the  Imperial  Palace. 


4b  slvrstuii  of  tii0  AulOBMtoD,  «•  ym^pnm  tMhiad. 


tm  HAttJttDAY  MA0A21NE. 


[JntI, 


AGRICtJLTURAL  CHfiMlSTftY. 
L    On  the  lHTBBCHAHa«  ot  Crops* 

Af  one  oTfbtt  meetingB  of  tfaa  Cbmiicil  Siettim  df  U»  BflllA  AaodatiM 
far  the  aaruicaiiMnt  of  Sdmioei  tl»  prapAntkn  of  a  Baport  Dd  Or|piu« 

Chemistry  was  UMigned  to  Dr.  Justus  Liebig,  Professor  of  Chenustry 
in  tliM  Unlrenity  of  GieMeQ.  This  R«pbrt  his  bean  ajited  by  Dt. 
Lyon  Play  fair,  and  reoentlj  published  under  the  title  of  '*  OlRalM  €»». 
mislry,  \a  ita  applicationa  to  Agricnltura  and  Physiology."  From  this 
work,  which  is  one  of  the  most  profound  and  useful  oontributionstu  science, 
we  propose  to  select  a  few  iutjects  capable  of  being  prbentod  to  Cnt 
reader  in  a  popolar  imn. 

It  has  long  been  known  to  the  agricultarlBt  thai  the 
growth  of  annual  plants  it  impeded,  and  the  pfodiuM 
rendered  less  ttbunchint,  by  cultivating  them  during  suc- 
cessive years  on  the  same  soil,  and  that,  notwithstanding 
the  loss  of  time,  a  larget-  quantity  of  grain  is  obtained 
when  a  field  is  allowed  to  remain  uncultivated  for  a  year. 
During  this  interval  of  repose,  the  soil,  in  a  great  met^ 
sure,  regains  its  fertility. 

Experience  has  also  led  to  the  observation  that  oertidn 
plants,  such  as  peas,  clover,  and  flan,  flourish  on  the 
same  soil  only  after  a  lapse  of  years ;  whilst  others,  such 
as  hemp,  tobacco,  fye,  and  oats,  may  be  cultivated  lil 
close  succession.  It  has  been  also  found  that  several  of 
these  plants  improve  the  soil,  whilst  others,  and  these 
are  the  most  numerous,  impoverish  or  exhaust  it,  Fal* 
low  turnips,  cabbage,  beet,  spelt,  suiUmer  and  winter 
barley,  rye,  and  oats,  are  supposed  greatly  to  impoTerish 
the  soil  {  whilst  wheat,  hops,  maddef-,  late  turnips,  hemp, 
poppies,  teasel,  flax,  weld,  and  licorice,  are  supposed  to 
exhaust  it  entirely. 

From  the  earliest  times  manure  has  been  employed  to 
increase  the  fertility  of  soils }  and  experience  has  proved 
that  manures  restore  certain  eonstituenta  to  the  soili 
which  have  been  removed  by  the  plants  grown  upon 
it ;  but  it  has  been  observed  that  crops  are  not  always 
abundant  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  manure  em- 
ployed, even,  although  it  may  have  been  of  the  most 
powerful  kind:  that  the  produce  of  many  plants  di- 
minishes hi  spite  of  the  apparent  replacement  of  the 
substances  removed  from  the  soil  by  manure,  when  they 
are  cultivated  on  the  same  field  for  several  years  in  sue* 
cession. 

It  has  been  remarked,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  field 
which  has  become  unfitted  for  a  certain  kind  of  plants 
was  not  on  that  account  unsuited  for  another ;  and,  upon 
this  observation,  a  system  of  agriculture  has  been  gra- 
dually formed,  the  ehief  object  of  whieh^  is  to  obtain 
the  greatest  poHMi^  pnNluee  with  thti  l^ast  expense  of 
manure. 

It  was  deduced  from  the  fbregoiUg  facts  that  pknts 
require  for  their  growth  difl!erent  constituents  of  soil^  and 
it  was  very  soon  perceived  that  an  alternation  of  the 
plaUts  cultivated  maintained  the  fertility  of  a  soil»  quite 
as  well  as  leaving  it  at  real  or  falUw.  It  was  erideBl, 
therefore,  that  all  plants  must  give  bdck  to  the  toil  in 
which  they  grow,  different  proportions  of  certain  sub- 
stances, which  are  capable  of  being  used  as  food  by  a 
succeeding  generation. 

Many  explanations  have  been  offered  respecting  the 
cause  of  the  favourable  effects  of  the  alternation  of  crops; 
but  the  theory  of  De  Candolle  is  the  one  which  has 
received  the  greatest  share  of  attention. 

This  distinguished  botanist  supposes  that  the  roots  of 
plants  imbibe  soluble  matter  of  every  kind  from  the 
soil,  and  thus  necessarily  absorb  a  tfuoiber  of  substances 
which  are  not  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  nutrition,  and 
must  subsequently  be  expelled  by  the  roots,  and  returned 
to  the  soil  as  excrements.  Now,  as  excrements  cannot 
be  assimilated  by  the  plant  which  ejected  them,  the  more 
of  these  matters  which  tho  soil  contains,  the  mol%  un- 
fertile must  it  be  for  plants  of  the  same  sp^iea»  These 
exorementitiotts  mstten  mAy,  heWevery  alill  b«  capable 
of  assimilatioA  by  another  kind  of  plants,  which  would 


thUt  i^move  them  from  ths  soil,  and  ronder  ft  $pk 
fertile  for  the  first.  And^  if  the  pknts  last  grown  alss 
enpel  subetaUoes  from  thtfir  roots^  which  dan  be  appro* 
priAt^d  as  f^d  by  tho  lbniier»  they  will  improve  the  mhI 
in  two  wttyst 

This  view  of  the  sttbjool  is  oOUntonanfeed  by  masj 
welUknotm  faots^  Bvery  ganlener  knows  that  a  fmh* 
tree  will  not  grow  on  the  samo  spot^  wheiis  another  of 
the  same  species  has  stood;  at  least  not  till  itfleri  lapse 
of  several  years.  Before  new  vino«stocks  ai«  planted  in  a 
tlneyard  fh>m  whioh  the  old  haVe  bo#tt  rOoted  out j  etbel 

Elanti  are  cultivated  on  the  soil  for  st^eiFal  yeAH*  l\ 
lis  also  been  femarked,  that  SereWU  plants  thfire  best 
when  growing  beside  ono  another  i  aad,  onthecontrarr) 
that  others  mutually  prevent  Mich  othei^s  grcnHL 
WhexlOe  it  Wis  conelud#d,  that  the  beneficial  ibfltieneeiB 
the  fdfm^  (iaso  depended  on  A  natural  interehait^  of 
nutriment  between  the  plants,  and  the  injurious  one  in 
the  latter  on  a  peisonotts  action  of  the  ^cn^e&ta  of 
each  on  the  oth^r  tespectitely. 

But  the  theory  ef  M«  De  CandoUe  has  been  cofiJSfmed 
in  a  satisfactory  manner  by  a  series  of  Admirable  experi' 
mentil  by  M.  Maeairo  which  we  will  briefly  dttiiili 

The  roots  of  the  ChdndriUd  mwraiu  were  careftiOr 
cleaned  and  immersed  in  filtered  rain  water:  the  pisct 
continued  to  flourish,  and  put  f^h  it§  blossoms,  and  at 
the  end  of  eight  days  the  WAter  Was  of  a  reIIoYri»b 
eoloU^  indicating  to  the  smell  and  tAste  the  presence  of 
a  bitter  nahHHie  8ubitanoe«  similaf  to  that  of  opinnir- 
a  result  which  was  further  confiHned  by  Usbg  efaemical 
tests,  and  by  a  roddlsh-brown  i^sidunm  Which  refiiained 
aftei"  cfvaporating  IhA  wAtef*  It  WaA  aseettained  fhtt  nei- 
ther the  roots  not  stems  of  the  samo  plants^  when  com' 
pletely  detached  and  plAced  in  Watei^  oonld  produee  (bu 
effect,  which  seems  to  be  the  I^Csull  of  an  exudslion 
from  the  roots,  necessary  to  the  healUk  of  the  plant  Bj 
comparing  the  r^UltS  of  tAHotts  etperimenls  on  tlie 
quantity  of  matter  thitrwn  off  by  the  foots  of  the  Freneli 
bean,  by  night  imd  by  day,  it  WA0  f^nd  to  he  niucli 
more  considerablA  by  ttightr-««n  etfeH  which  it  is  natural 
to  r^er  to  the  inteiruption  of  the  action  of  the  Icarp* 
when  deprived  of  lightf  And  when  the  eorfesponding  ab- 
sorption by  the  roote  is  also  susp^dedL  Thb  was  oos- 
firmed  by  the  resull  ef  some  oxperiibcitts  made  m  tls 
same  plants  by  placing  th^m  during  the  day  in  s  dark- 
cto^  room,  when  the  etcretion  from  the  roots  w»  found 
to  be  much  increased;  but,  ^ven  when  exposed  to  tbe 
light,  there  is  always  some  exudation,  though  in  small 
quantity,  going  on  from  the  roots. 

By  this  excretory  process  plants  are  enabled  to  get  rid 
of  any  nOxious  matters  which  they  may  have  absorbed 
inm  the  soil^  This  was  proTed  by  experiments  on  several 
plAUts,  among  which  was  the  common  cabbage.  Tbe 
foot  of  the  cabbage  wAs  washed  clean,  and  the  fibres 
separated  info  two  biinche*,  one  of  which  was  immerjcd 
in  a  weak  solution  of  acetate  of  lead,  and  the  other 
bunch  in  pure  water,  contained  in  a  sepante  vc?sei. 
After  A  few  days,  during  which  the  plants  vegeta'csi 
tolerably  well,  an  appreciable  quantity  of  acefafc  of 
lead  was  found  in  the  vessel  which  contamed  at  first  only 
pure  water.  In  order  to  prove  that  the  poison  was 
actually  absorbed  into  the  body  of  the  plant  the  experi- 
ment was  raried :  the  plant  was  first  allowed  to  remain 
with  its  roots  immersed  in  a  solution  of  acetate  of  lea'l- 
it  was  then  removed  and  carefully  washed,  m  order  to  gti 
rid  of  all  traces  of  the  sohitiott  from  the  surface  of  the 
roots,  after  which  it  was  plAced  in  a  vessel  containir.? 
pure  water,  which  in  two  days*  time  became  contani- 
nated  with  acetate  of  lead.  Similar  results  were  ob- 
tained when  lime-water  and  a  solution  of  common  i?ait 
were  substituted  for  the  acetate  of  lead. 

M.  Macaire  also  found  that  the  water  in  which  certain 
plants  had  been  kept  was  injurious  to  other  plants  of  the 
same  species,  while  it  produced  decidedly  bencfical 
effects  on  plants  of  a  ditferent  kind^ 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


When  substanoes  which  cannot  from  their  nature  be 
employed  in  the  nutrition  of  a  plant  exist  in  the  matter 
absorbed  by  its  roots  they  must  be  again  returned  to  the 
6oi]  &a  excrements,  which*  however,  may  be  serriceable, 
or  even  indispensable,  to  the  existence  of  several  other 
plants*  Substances,  however,  that  are  formed  by  the 
reg^etable  organs  during  the  process  of  nutrition,  which 
are  produced  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  woody 
fibre,  starch,  albumen,  gum,  acids,  Ac,  cannot  again 
serre  in  any  other  plants  to  form  the  same  constituents 
of  vegetables. 

The  matter  thrown  off  by  the  roots  of  plants  as  exore- 
ments,  undergoes  during  autumn  and  winter  a  useiHil 
change  from  the  action  of  air  and  waters  its  putrefaction, 
and  at  length  by  continued  contact  with  the  air,  which 
tillage  is  the  means  of  procuring,  its  decay,  are  effected ; 
and  at  the  commencement  of  spring  it  has  become  con- 
rerted,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  into  a  substance  which 
lupplies  the'place  of  humus^,  by  being  a  constant  source 
of  carbonic  aoid. 

The  quickness  with  which  this  decay  of  the  excrements 
of  plants  proceeds,  depends  on  the  composition  of  the 
soil,  and  on  its  greater  or  less  porosity.  It  will  take 
place  very  qoiekl  j  in  a  calcareous  soil ;  but  H  requires  a 
longer  time  in  heavy  soils,  consisting  of  loam  or  clay. 

The  same  plants  can  be  cultivated  with  advantage  on 
one  soil  after  the  second  year,  but  in  others  not  until  the 
fifth  or  ninth,  merely  on  account  of  the  change  and  des- 
truction of  the  excrements,  which  have  an  injurious  in4u  * 
etice  on  the  plants,  being  completed  in  the  one,  hi  the 
second  year;  in  the  others  not  until  the  fifth  or  ninth. 

In  some  neighbourhoods  clover  will  not  thrive  till  the 
sixth  year;  in  others  not  till  the  twelfth;  flax  in  the 
second  or  third  year.  All  this  depends  on  the  chemical 
nature  of  the  soil;  fbr  it  has  been  fbund  by  experience, 
that  in  those  districts  where  the  intervals  at  which  the 
same  plants  can  be  cultivated  with  advantage  are  very 
long,  the  time  cannot  be  shortened  even  by  the  use  of 
the  most  powerful  manures.  The  destruction  of  the 
peculiar  excrements  of  one  crop  must  have  taken  place 
before  a  new  crop  can  be  produced. 

Flax,  peas,  clover,  and  even  potatoes,  are  plants,  the 
excrements  of  which  in  clayey  soils  require  the  longest 
time  fbr  their  conversion  into  humus ;  bnt  the  use  of 
alkalies  and  burnt  Hme,  or  even  small  quantities  of  wood 
ishefi,  (which  have  not  been  wetted  so  as  to  remove  the 
alkah  contained  in  them,)  must  enable  a  soil  to  permit 
the  cultivation  of  the  same  plants  in  much  less  time. 

A  soil  lying  fallow  owes  its  earlier  fertility,  in  part,  to 
the  destruction  or  conversion  into  humus  of  the  excre- 
ments contained  in  it,  which  is  effected  during  the  fallow 
season,  at  the  same  time  that  the  land  is  exposed  to  a 
further  disintegration.  In  the  soils  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Rhine  and  Nile,  which  contain  much  potash,  and 
where  crops  can  be  obtained  in  close  succession  from 
the  same  field,  the  •allowing  of  the  land  is  superseded 
hy  the  inundation.  The  artificial  irrigation  of  meadows 
effects  the  same  purpose.  It  is  because  the  water  of 
rivers  and  streams  contains  oxygen  in  solution,  that  it 
effects  the  most  complete  aj»d  rapid  putrefaction  of  the 
excrcmenta  contained  in  the  soil  which  it  penetrates,  and 
in  which  it  is  continually  renewed.  If  ft  was  the  water 
alone  which  Brodueedtfals  effect^  mavshy  meadows  should 
be  the  most  fertile. 

A  fertile  soil  oiiigkt  to  afbrd  to  a  plant  aS  the  inor- 
ganic bodies  necessary  to  its  existence  ki  sufficient 
quantity  an4  m  such  ecmdition  as  aUows  their  absorption. 
All  plants  veqwire  alkalies^  and  these  are  contained  in 

*  Woodj'  filxre,  in  a  state  of  decay,  is  called  humust  and  is  the  principal 
conslifiiienl  m  nKMddb  Humtu  aote  in  the  sane  mamicr  m  a  sou  perme- 
able  to  air  aa  in  the  air  itself;  ib  i%  a  eeMllwied  sooroe  of  carbonic  acid, 
which  it  emits  rery  slowly.  An  atmosphere  of  carbonic  acid  formed  at 
the  expoose  pCil|#  on^^m  of  th»8lr  soniHwd*  fvtiy  parljbla  of  dp^ying 
tuiouM.  XbocvIiiyfttioaqClaiid'Vy  taJlw94od  Ipoaaoingtl^eso^ 
s  free  nod  unohstmcted  accesa  otw'  A^  alpnosphere  of  carbonic  acid  as 
Uicreifire  conjaoieil  in  vijttj.  ^tile  soil,  ao4  ill  tfeii  6^aff4.q»oi(.i0>portant 
food  for  the  yoong  plants  which  grow  in  it 


some  plants  (as  in  the  grasses)  in  the  form  of  silicates ; 
in  others  in  the  form  of  tartrates,  citrates,  acetates,  or 
oxalates.  Some  species  of  plants  require  phosphate  of 
lime,  or  phosphate  of  magiiesia,  and  several  do  not 
thrive  without  carbonate  of  lime. 


THE  PANDEAN  PIPES,  OR  MOUTH-ORGAN. 

The  rural  ditUa  were  iM)t  mute, 

Tempered  to  the  oaten  flute, 

Bough  satyn  danoed,  and  fauns  with  cloven  heel 

From  the  glad  soqnd  would  not  be  absent  long, 

And  old  Bamsotas  loved  to  hear  our  song. — ^-Milton. 

Among  the  musical  instruments  familiarly  known  to  us 
at  the  present  day,  there  is  one  which,  tboUgh  it  has 
acquired  a  sort  of  a  character  fbr  vulgarity,  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient  of  all.  Ws  allude  to  the  Mouth-orgarif 
known  to  classical  readers  by  the  names  S^rifup^  and 
FitHila  Panisy  or  Pan's  Pipes. 

The  formation  and  the  mode  of  playing  musical  in- 
struments among  the  ancients  have  formed  the  subject 
of  considerable  research;  great  difficulty  behig  expe- 
rienced in  knowing  the  proper  interpretation  or  transla- 
tion to  be  given  to  certain  terms  used  by  the  classical 
writers.  The  first  attempt  at  a  wind  instrument  seems 
to  have  been  the  employment  of  the  shell  of  some  par- 
ticular fish,  or  the  horn  of  a  quadruped.  To  this  pro- 
bably succeeded  the  use  of  the  Arena,  or  single  oaten 
stalk ;  the  Cnlamtts,  or  single  reed ;  and  the  S^Hnx  or 
FUhtkh  a  number  of  reeds  of  different  sizes,  ranged  side 
bj  side,  each  one  stopped  at  the  lower  end.  It  was  the 
opinion  of  Dr.  Bumey,  that  such  simple  instruments  as 
these,  in  which  each  pipe  is  employed  to  yield  but  one 
note,  preceded  the  employment  of  those  which  were  pro- 
vided with  foramina,  or  holes,  and  which,  by  stopping 
one  or  more  ef  these  holes  with  the  fingers,  coula  be 
made  to  yield  several  notes.  When  this  latter  method 
became  known,  a  great  advance  in  the  mnsical  art  re- 
sulted ;  and  the  artificers  gradually  attained  the  skin  to 
make  such  instruments  of  box-tree,  laurel-wood,  brass, 
silver,  and  even  gold. 

Flutes  or  pipes,  called  IXbiaf,  were  much  used  in 
the  theatrical  exhibitions  of  the  ancients,  some  of  them 
approaching  nearly  to  the  fbrm  of  a  shepherd's  pipe,  as 
represented  in  old  pictures,  and  indeed  all  of  them  bear- 
ing more  resemblance  to  a  fiageolet  than  to  a  modem 
fiute.  Bnt  with  regard  to  the  instnmient  now  called  a 
mouth-organ,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  similarly 
employed.  It  is  a  circumstance  not  a  little  remarkable, 
that  the  god  Pan  is  almost  invariably  represented  as 
playhig  on  this  instrument ;  a  fact  which,  whatever  may 
have  been  its  source,  is  strongly  indicative  of  the  familiar 
use  of  such  an  instrument  among  the  early  Greeks.  In 
some  of  the  pictures  wherein  F^n  is  introduced,  the  syrinx 
on  which  he  appears  to  be  playing,  is  composed  of  tubes  or 
pipes  havhig  a  square  sectional  area ;  while  in  others  the 
pipes  are  at  cylindrical  form.  In  the  cut  at  the  end  of 
this  article,  the  pipes  are  six  in  number,  and  of  a  square 
fbrm.  This  representation  is  taken  from  an  ancient 
basbo-reHevo  of  Greek  sculpture,  in  the  Giustiniani 
Palace  at  Rome,  the  sculpture  pourtraying  the  nursing 
ofjupiter  by  Amalthea.  Pan  is  holding  the  syrinx  in 
his  left  hand,  while  in  his  right  he  grasps  a  hom,  re- 
sembbng  the  shawm,  represented  upon  the  Arch  of  Titus, 
among  the  instruments  supposed  to  have  been  copied 
from  those  brought  by  this  emperor  f^oro  Jerusalem. 

A  French  writer  of  the  last  century  relates  his  having 
seen  at  Rome,  on  a  monument  in  the  Farnese  Palace,  a 
syrinx  with  eleven  pipes;  the  first  five  being  of  equal 
lengfths,  and  consequently  producing  notes  of  the  same 
pitch ;  with  six  others  of  equal  diameter,  but  of  different 
lengths  from  the  fi-jst  ^e.  "  I  confess,*  says  he,  "  that 
!  I  am  unable  to  conceive  the  use  of  the  five  first  reeds  or 
pipes  of  the  same  length  for  no  two  of  them  could  be 
mada  to  someid  at  once.    Is  it  not  possible  that  these 


8 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


[July  8,  1841. 


five  pipes  were  half  tones,  and  differed  from  each  other 
in  len^  so  little,  as  to  seem  all  of  a  len^i^h?  or  perhaps 
they  differed  in  diameter,  and  may  have  all  produced 
diilerent  tones,  though  of  equal  length/*  But  to  this 
supposition  it  has  heen  objected,  that  the  ancient  Greeks 
had  no  succession  of  regular  semitones  in  their  musical 
scale. 

Without  dwelling  longer  on  the  early  history  of  the 
syrinx,— except  to  remark  that  this  word  is  the  Greek 
name  for  the  instrument,  ihsX  Fistula  Patiis  is  the  Latin 
name,  that  Pan*s  Pipes  is  the  English  translation  of 
this  latter  name,  and  that  mouth-organ  is  a  name  in 
some  degree  expressive  of  the  mode  in  which  the  instru- 
ment is  played, — ^we  will  describe  the  acoustical  principles 
on  which  this  instrument  acts. 

When  we  blow  into  an  open  tube,  that  is,  a  tube  of 
cylindrical  bore  with  both  ends  open,  we  merely  send  a 
forcible  current  of  air  from  one  end  of  the  tube  to  the 
other,  and  produce  a  windj  which  is  nothing  more  than 
a  slightly  audible  agitation  of  the  air.  But  when  one 
end  of  the  tube  is  stopped,  and  we  blow  into  the  open 
end  in  an  oblique  manner,  with  the  lips  compressed,  so 
as  to  give  a  forcible  impetus  to  the  breath,  a  musical 
fMts  results,  which  is  more  or  less  pleasing  according  to 
circumstances.  Now  the  difference  between  a  sounds 
such  as  that  resulting  from  the  mere  emission  of  breath, 
and  a  musical  nqte^  consists  in  this,  that  in  the  latter  case 
a  current  of  air  is  set  into  regular  vibration,  performing  a 
certain  number  of  regular  oscillatory  movements  in  a 
certain  space  of  time.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment, 
that  a  note  having  the  same  piteh  as  the  middle  A  of  the 
treble  clef,  is  the  result  of  420  vibrations  in  a  second, — 
a  number  indicating  an  astonishing  degree  of  rapidity  in 
the  successive  changes  in  the  conditions  of  the  air. 

The  vibrations  here  spoken  of  may  be  excited  either 
by  the  agitation  of  a  musical  string,  or  of  a  column  of 
air  in  a  pipe ;  the  piteh  depending  on  the  absolute  fre- 
quency of  vibration,  and  not  upon  the  manner  in  which 
those  vibrations  are  excited.  In  the  case  now  before  us, 
we  blow  in  a  tube,  the  lower  end  of  which  is  stopped,  and 
thus  excite  a  rapid  oscillatory  motion  of  the  particles  of 
air  within  the  tube,  which  motion  is  communicated  to  the 
external  air,  and  thence  to  the  ear. 

But  it  is  a  very  remarkable  part  of  the  phenomenon, 
and  one  on  which  the  construction  of  the  mouth-organ 
mainly  depends,  that  the  pitch  of  the  note  resulting  from 
these  vibrations  varies  with  the  length  of  the  pipe ;  a 
shorter  pipe  yielding  a  more  acute  or  elevated  tone  than 
a  long  one.  The  mode  in  which  this  difference  arises  is 
as  follows.  The  vibration  of  the  column  of  air  in  the 
tube,  takes  a  certain  time  to  travel  to  a  certain  distance, — 
viz.,  at  the  rate  of  1125  feet  per  second;  so  that  the 
time  which  it  takes  to  travel  from  end  to  end  of  the 
tube  will  depend  simply  on  the  length  of  the  tube,  or 
on  the  proportion  which  that  length  bears  to  1125  feet. 
Consequently  a  short  tube  permite  the  transference  of 
this  agitation  from  end  to  end,  in  a  shorter  time  than  a 
long  tube ;  and,  as  a  consequence  of  this,  the  repetition 
or  succession  of  these  impulses  occurs  with  greater  ra- 
pidity. The  air  will  vibrate  twice  as  fast  in  one  tube 
as  in  another  tube  of  twice  the  length ;  because  the 
agitation  has  only  half  the  distence  to  travel  in  each 
separate  vibration. 

There  is  a  curious  connexion  between  the  relative 
lengths  of  two  pipes,  and  the  relative  piteh  of  the  notes 
which  are  yieldea  by  them.  Let  us  suppose  that  we 
have  one  which  yields  the  A  before  mentioned,  that  is, 
the  note  resulting  from  420  vibrations  in  a  second.  If 
the  other  be  of  such  a  lengtli  as  to  give  840  vibrations 
in  a  second  (and  this  will  result  if,  other  things  being 
the  same,  it  be  only  half  as  long  as  the  other);  then  the 
note  yielded  will  be  A,  one  octove  higher  than  the  A  of 
the  other  pipe.  If  the  second  one  be  so  much  longer 
that  it  only  gives  210  vibrations  in  a  second,  then  it 
yields  a  note  one  octave  lower  than  the  ▲  firit  spoken 


of,  and  two  octaves  lower  than  the  other  a.  But  if  tLe 
lengths  of  the  two  pipes  be  in  any  less  simple  proportioo, 
the  notes  produced  wiH  form  intermediate  steps  in  tlic 
musical  scale ;  thus  256  vibrations  in  a  second,  bebg 
equal  to  -f-  of  420,  will  yield  the  note  c,  a  major-sixth 
(in  musiod  language)  below  the  former.  If  we  consider 
Uiis  c  as  a  kind  of  standard  note,  we  shall  find  tbat  tlie 
following  fractions,  representing  the  comparative  fre- 
quency of  vibration,  1,  f,  f,  4,  f,  f,  y,  2;  or  the 
numbers  256,  288,  320,  841^^  384, 416|,  480,  512,vill 
represent  the  vibrations  necessary  to  prcKiuoe  the  succes- 
sion of  notes  of  the  natural  scale,  c,  d,  b,  f,  g,  a,  b,  c. 
By  producing  a  number  of  vibrations  greater  than  any 
here  indicated,  we  shall  produce  a  higher  note ;  and  with 
a  less  number,  a  lower  note. 

On  these  principles  the  mouth'organ  is  constraclei 
It  consists  of  a  number  of  hollow  canes  or  reeds,  ranged 
side  by  side,  and  secured  by  cross  bands  of  cane.  The 
bottom  of  each  pipe  is  stopped,  either  by  one  of  the 
natural  jointe  of  the  cane,  or  by  wax  or  some  similar  sab- 
stanoe ;  while  the  upper  end  is  open.  The  lengths  of  the 
pipes  decrease  gradually  from  one  end  to  the  other,  the 
longer  being  also  generally  the  wider  pipes.  This  incretse 
of  diameter  is  intended,  not  so  much  to  affect  the  pitch 
of  the  note,  as  to  give  a  greater  roundness  and  richness 
to  the  tone  of  the  lower  notes.  The  length  of  the  pipe 
is,  as  before  steted,  the  circumstance  which  principallj 
regulates  the  piteh ;  and  this  length  is  arranged  on  the 
principles  just  explained.  It  is  very  probal^  that  the 
maker  of  the  instrument  is  ignorant  of  the  principles 
on  which  he  is  proceeding ;  but  his  proceedings  are  not 
the  less  grovemed  by  principles.  He  endeavours  so  to 
regulate  the  lengths  of  the  pipes  as  to  produce  the  suc- 
cession of  notes  forming  the  regular  Diatonic  scale;  id 
in  so  doing,  he  finally  settles  on  such  lengths  as  vill 
will  yield  the  numbers  of  vibrations  indicated  aboTe,  or 
at  least,  the  proportions  of  those  numbers ;  for  the 
actual  number  will  depend  on  the  octave  which  forms  the 
main  part  of  the  instrument. 

The  mouth-organ  is,  from  its  nature,  not  very  likely 
to  get  out  of  order,  since  the  lengths  of  the  pipes,  gd 
which  the  piteh  of  the  notes  depends,  are  less  likely  to 
yield  from  changes  of  temperature  than  the  other  dimen- 
sions. It  must  be  obvious  to  any  one  at  all  acquainted 
with  the  action  of  organ  pipes  in  general,  that  the  reeds 
of  a  mouth-organ  bear  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
them,  inasmuch  as  they  produce  sounds  by  the  loDptu- 
dinal  vibration  of  a  column  of  air.  Hence  the  popular 
name  of  the  instrument. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STEAKR 
POBtHKio  xv  WnuT  N  VMBiBt.  Pwo  s  On  Ptmnr.  aii»  w  Utgrwu  P*»>* 

Fbmib  Snmtos. 
Bold.by  an  Boolwdkn  ui4  N«irmnaflff  la  Om  Miafism; 


N»579.  -roi-y 


IOTP.  1841.  {oJS:«. 


NUREMBERG 


TBK  ounx  OF  iruKKMBBwr. 


[~HK  town  of  Nuremberg,  or  Niirobeiv,  in  BavuiA, 
bough  fallen  from  its  uicient  wealth  and  coniequence, 
nd  become,  in  a  conuoercial  Mnte,  a  dull  and  imat- 
ractive  spot,  will  nerertheleas  be  pleasing  to  the  tra- 
eller  of  taatC)  and  will  fully  repay  the  attention  he  maj 
e  induced  to  bestow  on  ita  euminalion.  In  former 
my»  it  waa  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  included 
a  the  Hanseatie  league,  and  wai  reckoned  among  the 
kMt  wealthy  of  the  free  Imperial  dtiea.  It  was  the 
saidence  of  emperors,  the  seat  of  diets,  and,  before  the 
-■de  with  the  East  Indies  took  a  new  direction,  the 
*cus  of  commerce  between  Asia  and  Europe.  Nor 
ere  these  its  only  advantages:  the  manufactures  of 
Turemberg  were  long  and  justly  celebrated,  and  brought 
Inr^  accession  of  wealth  to  the  town.  Various  ma- 
lematical  and  musical  initruments  were  invented,  and 
le  first  pocket-watchei  made  in  that  town.  The  raanu- 
cture  of  these  articles,  as  well  as  of  hardware  of  all 
ads,  ajid  toys  of  brass  and  wood,  caused  Nuremberg 
'  be  highly  celebrated.  The  trade  in  such  wares  is 
ill  very  considerable,  and,  owing  to  the  cheapness  of 
ic  toys  in  particular,  half  the  children  in  Europe  are 
ipplied  with  playthings,  called  Dutch  toys,  from  that 
>urce-  These  toys  are  chiefly  made  by  the  peasants  of 
le  Thtiriagian  forest,  who  emplov  themselves  and  their 
milies  on  such  labours  during  tne  winter,  and  by  their 
mple  «ad  frugal  habits,  are  able  to  produce  them  at  a 
■rprisiiigly  low  price.  For  the  sale  of  Nuremberg 
ares  an  annual  fair  ii  held,  at  which  much  business  is 
Vofc.  XIX. 


transacted.  '.  Yet*  compared  with  its  andent  traffic— W 
extensiTe  as  to  give  rise  to  the  proTerh, 
Nnremberg'B  band 
G«ea  through  every  land^~' 
de  of  Nuremberg  m^y  be  < 
le  condition  of  the  city  is  also  greatly  altered. 
The  outward  aspect  of  Nuremberg  has  not  partaken 
much  of  the  decay  which  has  fallen  on  its  commercial 
interests,  and  it  is  in  the  appearance  of  the  dty,  as  it 
stands  sorrounded  by  feudal  wails  and  turrets,  and  in- 
closed within  arched  gates,  with  massive  cylindrical 
watch-towers,  that  the  traveller  may  recognise  its 
ancient  grandeur  and  strength ;  while,  as  he  examines 
the  quaint  buildings  of  the  city,  and  wanders  through  its 
irregular  streets,  he  may  tkncy  himself  carried  back  to 
a  distant  century.  Most  of  its  churches  are  in  a  state 
of  beautiful  preservation,  and  have  escaped  in  a  manner 
that  seems  almost  miraculous,  the  storm  of  repilar  war- 
fare, and  the  outbreaks  of  mistaken  Mai.  The  prind- 
ples  of  the  Reformation  were  early  embraced  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Nuremberg;  but  the  churches  were  not, 
as  in  too  many  other  instances,  despoiled  of  their  archi- 
tectural embellishments.  The  private  dwellings,  many 
of  them  of  a  palace-like  extent,  and  built  of  stone,  are 
likewise  in  eicellcnt  preservation,  and  are  in  some  in- 
stnnccs  still  inhabited  by  the  families  whose  forefathers 
originally  constructed  them. 

Nuremberg  is  celebrated  as  the  hirth-place  of  Albert 
Diirer,  called  the  Raphael  of  Germany:  of  the  famous 
679 


10 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


July  10 


sculptor  Peter  Vischer,  the  poet  Hans  Sachs,  and  the 
gallaai  knight  Beham,  Iho  frknd  of  ColumbttB. 

8t.  Sebttld's  church)  a  rety  Wuliftil  Gothic  edifice, 
contains  the  master-piece  of  art,  of  ^vhich  OonKiany  ii 
justly  proud,  the  Shrine  of  St.  SebalHus,  executed  by 
Peter  Vischer,  after  a  design  by  Albert  Diirer.  Tte 
sculptor,  asiisted  by  his  five  sons,  Spent  thirteen  years 
of  labour  on  this  work,  and  completed  it  in  1519.  It  is 
a  miniature  Gothic  chapel  in  bronse,  consisting  of  a 
rich  fretwork  canopy,  supported  on  pillars.  The  figures 
of  the  Apostles  occupy  twelve  niches  around  the  shrine, 
and,  for  their  grace,  expression,  and  varied  action,  are 
justly  extolled  by  every  person  conversant  with  fine 
sculpture.  Above  these  arc  twelve  smaller  fig^ures  of 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  and,  scattered  around,  among 
foliage  and  flowers*  are  about  seventy  fanciful  represen- 
tations of  mermen,  jinimals,  Itc.  The  relics  of  the 
saint  are  enclosed  in  an  oakott  ohest,  encased  in  silver, 
which  is  most  elaborately  worked  in  has  relief.  Finally, 
at  that  end  of  the  shrine  wkleh  fkees  the  altar,  is  an  ad- 
mirable statue  of  the  artist  himself,  in  a  mason's  dress, 
with  aoron  on,  and  chiiet  in  hand;  and  at  the  opposite 
end  a  figure,  equally  excellent,  of  St.  Sebald.  The  same 
church  idso  contains  *'  The  Descent  from  the  Cross," 
'   painted  by  Albert  Diirer. 

The  church  of  8t  Lawrence  is  considered  to  be  the 
finest  church  hi  Nuremberg.  It  is  of  a  noble  Gothic 
architeeture,  and  ts  Yery  rion  in  decorations.  The  win- 
dows are  exquiiitely  painted,  and  one  of  them,  the 
Volkamer  window,  {or  Uie  depth  and  brightness  of  its 
colours,  and  the  exoellenoe  of  its  design,  is  said  to  be 
scarcely  equalled  throughout  Europe.  This  ehuroh 
contains  the  celebrated  SaerafMnt-hattschen,  or  taber* 
nacle  for  the  reception  of  the  sa<»amental  wafbr^  deli« 
cately  executed  in  the  form  of  a  spire,  of  Gothic  open- 
work, by  Adam  Kraft ;  the  whole  of  the  exquisite  stone 
structure,  which  tapers  to  the  height  of  sixty-four  fbet» 
is  supported  by  three  figures,  representing  himself  and 
his  apprenttoes* 

The  castle  of  Nuremberg  occupies  the  moet  northern 
and  elevated  position  within  the  town.  It  it  of  great 
antiquity,  so  that  no  precise  date  can  be  assigned  for  its 
erection.  It  is  built  on  a  rock  of  red  stone,  unlike  any 
other  found  in  the  country,  and  tradition  attempts  to 
account  for  this  in  the  same  way  that  it  explains  many 
other  curious  facts,  by  attributing  it  to  the  work  of  a 
magician.  The  rock  and  castle,  say  the  superstitioua  of 
Nuremberg,  were  both  transported  from  the  neighbour* 
hood  of  the  Rhine  in  one  night*  This  edifice  towers 
above  all  the  other  buildings,  and  commands  the  best 
Tiew  of  Nuremberg!  and  of  the  country  around.  It 
appears  to  have  received  few  modem  additions,  and  is 
therefore  mteresting  as  a  specimen  of  the  ancient  style. 
The  emperors  of  Germany  made  the  castle  of  Nurem* 
berig  at  Various  periods  their  residence:  they  took  plea* 
sure  in  the  prosperity  of  the  dty,  knowing  its  import* 
Imce,  and  they  found  its  situation,  nearly  in  the  centre 
of  their  dominions,  well  adapted  for  their  oonrenienoe. 
The  imperial  regalia  were  deposited  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  for  nearly  three  centuries,  bttt  are  now 
removed  to  Vienna.  The  castle  has  two  towers,  sup- 
posed to  be  of  extreme  antiquity,  the  Pentagonal  tower, 
and  the  Heathen  tower,  so  called  from  some  carved 
figures  upon  it.  said  to  be  idols.  It  also  contains  two 
very  remarkable  chapels,  one  supported  by  low  and  thick 
arches,  and  assigned  to  the  tenUi  century ;  the  other,  or 
upper  chapel,  resting  on  slight  marble  pillars,  with  Co* 
rinthian  capitals,  and  also  very  ancient.  The  Corin- 
thian pillars,  says  tradition,  were  brought  fh)m  Rome  by 
the  evil  one,  who  had  laid  a  w«^r  with  the  almoner 
that  he  would  carry  them  in  less  time  than  mass  could 
be  performed.  Three  pillars  were  safely  deposited,  and 
the  spirit  had  just  arrived  at  the  chapel  with  the  fourth, 
when  lie  found  the  clerk  putting  out  the  candles,  and 
mass  concluded.    This  put  him  in  such  a  f\iry,  that  he 


dashed  the  pillar  to  the  ground,  and  broke  it  in  tuo 
pieces.  Lett  tjxf  one  ahonM  ^rosmne  to  doafal  the 
truth  of  the  itorjr,  the  fractttrea  ata  ihown  whos  the 
pillar  was  cemented  together,  and  an  unage  of  the  devil's 
head  is  fixed  in  the  wall  facu3g  the  door  of  the  chapel. 

Briefly  to  notlde  some  of  the  other  public  boildicifrt  of 
Nuremberg,  the  BcUh-hauSf  or  town-hall,  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  Germany.  It  is  built  in  the  Italian  style,  and 
oontaina.  aiuonff  otber  cq^xoskibs*  a  BttBioeir  ok  nsotiofla 
some  of  which  are  by  Albert  Diirer,  and  have  suffered 
much  by  time,  having  in  some  cases  been  injudicioosly 
restored*  In  the  upper  story  of  the  Rath-haua  is  a  sin- 
gular representation,  in  stucco,  of  a  tournament  held 
there  in  1434,  the  figures  as  large  as  lift. 

The  church  of  St.  i£gidius  ii  a  handsome  modem 
building,  in  Uie  Italian  style.  It  succeeded  a  chapel 
originally  founded  in  1 140  for  tome  Scotch  Benedictine 
monks.  This  church  contains  a  fine  altar-piece,  repre- 
senting Christ  lying  dead  in  the  arms  of  the  Vlivin,  bj 
Vandyke.  Near  tlus  church  stands  the  gynmaaiiim,  or 
high  school,  founded  by  Melancthon,  wEDSe  statue  is 
erected  in  front  of  it. 

The  church-yard  of  St.  John  desenrea  to  be  Men- 
tioned, as  having  been  the  burtal^nlaoe  of  many  noted 
persons.  There  are  about  three  tnottiaad  grave-stones 
m  this  church-yard,  all  regularly  numbaredi  and  mostly 
decorated  with  bronse  plateey  bearlnfr  conta  of  arms,  and 
devioee  of  deceased  patricians*  No«  649  Is  Albeit 
Dttrer's  grave.  No.  603  Hans  Saeht*!  a  oolebrated  cob- 
bler and  poet)  whose  poemsi  mostly  of  a  latiricftl  sort, 
exceed  six  thousand  in  nunilier»  oandrmoh  and  Adam 
Kraft  also  lie  interred  here.  Thta  burial-place  is  situ- 
ated about  a  mile  from  the  town^  and  between  It  and  the 
town  gate  are  stationed,  at  regular  ijlstancesi  seven 
ttone  pillars,  eaoh  bearing  a  rtpreeentatlon»  in  bas- 
relief,  of  a  scene  b  the  paashm  of  our  Saviour.  These 
pilhirs  were  set  up»  aceordtiuf  to  tfidittoni  by  a  citizen 
of  Nurembei^,  named  Martm  Ketieli  aa  a  represenu- 
tion  of  the  Dolorous  Wayi  in  Jemaalcin,  along  vhicli 
our  Saviour  ia  iuppoeed  to  haTO  paieedi  in  going  from 
Pilate's  house  to  C&ilTnry* 

There  are  many  welHMmducted  puhUo  institutions  in 
Nuremberg^  such  as  a  polytechnic  institution,  a  gymni- 
slum,  numerous  schools,  a  society  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  manufactures,  &c.  The  public  paper,  called 
the  Nuremberg  Correspondent^  is  one  of  the  most 
widely-cinmlated  in  Germany.  At  one  period,  tbe 
proprietori  editor,  and  printer  were  all  females. 

We  will  conclude  our  notice  of  this  city  by  mentioB- 
ing  the  date  of  the  most  important  inventions  sscribed 
to  its  inhabitants.  The  first  watches  (called  Nurember? 
egfs)  were  made  by  Feter  Hole  in  1500 ;  the  gnn^od 
by  a  person  not  known)  about  1517 1  the  air^gnn  bj 
Lobsinger,  in  15^  \  tiie  clarfonet  by  Christopher  Defi- 
ner,  in  1690t  wire^lrawfBg  machine  by  Rudolph}  i& 
1560(  brtwft  by  Erasmus  Ebneri  in  155a 


OLD  ENGLISH  NAVIOATOR& 

For  ArtlWit  chM; 
It  «B»  wnfTtd,  widi  atttr-diredted  |irow» 
To  dare  the  middle  deep,  and  drive  anuied 
To  distant  natloftt  Uinmgh  the  pathlen  nafai. 
Chief;  Ut  ttieif  fetfloM  hettta  tm  f^ixOf  ir«tti» 
Long  oNiDtlis  from  land,  while  the  bbick  atonqr 
Around  them  ragea,  on  the  groaning  mast 
With  unshook  m»  to  know  tfaeif  giddy  waj; 
To  wag,  unqaelled,  and  ti»  Imbteg  watt; 
To  laugh  at  danger.    Theiia  the  txiiiiBph  be 
By  deep  Invention  ■  keen  per\'adlttg  eje, 
The  heart  of  Courage,  and  the  hand  of  ToQ. 
Kach  eooquenii  xmem  atainiiv  with  their  Mood, 
Instead  of  treasure,  robhed  bf  ruAau  war. 
Round  social  earth  to  circle  foir  exchange, 
KttA  bind  the  nMlMife  111  a  golden  ohate-^TaoiiMir 

As  the  naval  glory  of  England,  whether  in  the  8«i 
necessity  of  war,  or  in  the  laudable  end^voor  to  promote 


18415 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


II 


ih«  op«N!lioM  of  eommeree  and  ffeogrtphicml  Beienoe, 

must  be  t  subject  of  intereet  geBenuly  to  the  inhnbitaiits 

of  the  Britkh  Islandi ;  and  as  inaritime  diseoveries,  like 

ether  aobtevenieiits  of  the  huniaii  raoe»  have,  under  the 

giH<)anee  or  pemisnon  of  Providenoe,  progressed  g^radu- 

tlly,  sone  notiee  ^i  the  liyes  of  those  emfaient  indMduals 

who,  in  former  dajrs,  contributed  to  the  establishment 

of  British  credit  on  the  highway  of  the  seas,  may  be 

generally  acceptable.     We  propose,  therefore,  to  devote 

4  series  of  artieles  to  the  lives  of  the  old  English  navi- 

gvtors, — men  who  have  so  largely  contributed  to  the 

(riWlisation  of  the  human  race  by  rendering  easy  and 

fcmtliar  ^e  passage  of  the  ocean,  which,  up  to  the 

beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  was,  very  generally  re- 

^rded  with  these    feelings  which  guided  the  pen  of  an 

old  writer  in  the  following  passage!-^ 

The  ocean,  (he  remarks,)  encircles  the  ultimate  bounds 
of  the  inhabited  earthy  and  all  beyond  it  is  unknown.  No 
one  has  been  able  to  verify  anything  concerning  it,  on 
aoeoont  of  its  difficult  and  perilous  navigation,  its  great 
obscurity,  its  profound  depth,  and  frequent  tempests; 
tbrouffh  fear  of  its  mighty  n^es^  and  its  hamphtv  winds; 
yet  there  are  many  islands  in  it,  some  of  which  are 
peopled,  and  others  uninhabited.  Tliere  is  no  mariner 
who  dares  to  enter  into  its  deep  waters ;  or  If  any  have  done 
80,  they  baw  merely  kept  along  its  coasts,  foarfol  of 
depsrtinff  from  them.  The  waves  of  this  oeean^  although 
they  roll  as  high  as  mountains,  yet  nuUntain  themselves 
widiont  hraaking;  for  if  they  hrake,  it  would  be  impossible 
for  a  ship  to  plough  tbemt 

CABOT. 

The  history  of  this  great  navigator  baa  been  so  much 
clouded  in  obscurity  or  misrepresented,  that  H  would 
appear  at  first  'sight  doubtful,  whether  we  should  put 
Cabot  at  the  head  of  the  naval  worthies  of  oifr  country; 
but  the  promrnent  parts  of  ^e  following  narrative  idll, 
'we  trust,  satisfy  the  reader  that  we  are  justified  in  the 
course  which  we  have  taken. 

SEBASTIAN  Cabot,  the  subject  of  this  narrative,  was 
the  sou  of  John  Cabot,  or  Gabotto,  as  his  name  is  some- 
thnes  found  written.  The  elder  Cabot  was  undoubtedly 
a  native  of  Venice,  who  f^uented  England  on  com- 
mercial affairs ;  but  little  more  is  known  of  him  than  that 
he  was  a  wealthy,  intelligent  merchant,  and  fond  of  mari- 
time discoverr*  When  his  business  caused  him  to 
ujoam  in  this  country,  his  residence  was  at  Bristol, 
vrhere  Sebastian  was  bom  in  the  year  1477.  The  young 
Cabot  was  early  instructed  in  geography,  navigation, 
and  mathematics.  When  only  nineteen  years  of  ^e,  be 
vsB  inchidod  with  bis  two  brothers  in  a  patent,  dated  5th 
of  March,  \AWy  and  granted  by  Henry  the  Seventh  to 
John  Cabot,  his  father,  for  the  dlacovery  and  conquest  of 
unknown  lands.  The  object  of  this  expedition  seems  to 
have  been,  to  find  out  new  countries  in  a  north-westerly 
direction,  and  above  all,  a  shorter  and  more  convenient 
passage  to  the  East  Indies. 

It  is  remarkable,  as  showing  the  zeal  and  enterprise  of 
these  navigators,  that  this  expedition,  consisting  of  five 
ships,  was  equipped  at  the  sole  expense  of  the  adventu- 
rers, which  was  probably  the  reason  why  tbepe  mariners 
did  not  set  sail  till  the  spring  of  the  following  year. 
The  ship  which  the  Cabots  ssdled  in,  was  equipped  at 
Bristol,  and  named  **  the  Matthew.*"  On  the  morning  of 
the  24th  of  June,  they  first  saw  the  coast  of  North 
America,  probably  the  part  now  called  Labrador, 
about  56^  N.  It  does  not  appear  that  there  is  any 
farther  account  of  this  ^scovery;  but  it  seems  probable 
that  the  expedition  returned  to  England  inmiediately,  in 
order  to  re-visit  the  newly  discovered  countries,  with 
more  definite  objects  of  traae  and  empire. 

In  the  privy  purae  espenaea  of  Henry  the  Seventh  is 
found  a  very  curious  item^—^*  lOtb  Auguat,  1497:  To 
hym  that  found  tbo  now  lalo  £10."  Thia  iale  is  sup- 
posed to  be  Newfoundland,  which  is  to  the  south-east  of 
Labrador.  This  seems  probable;  fbr  in  another  patent, 
granted  to  John  ^  Kabotto,"  be  is  permitted  to  take  six  • 


ships  in  any  haven  of  the  realm,  of  the  burden  of  900 
tons  and  under,  <<  to  convey  and  kde  to  the  Londe  and 
Isles  of  late  founde  by  the  seid  John,  in  owro  name,  and 
by  our  commaundemeate,*'  &c.  At  this  time  SebaatiaA 
seems  to  have  been  esteemed  as  the  most  scientific  navi- 
gator of  the  family.  When,  about  this  period,  the 
great  discovery  of  Columbus  began  to  be  talked  of  ia 
England,  as  a  thing  almost  more  divine  than  human, 
the  offset  of  it  upon  young  Cabot*s  imagination  was  to 
excite  "a  mighty  longing,'*  to  use  his  own  words,  "and 
burning  desire  in  his  heart  that  he  |oo  should  perform 
some  illustrious  action."  For  some  reason  or  other  the 
elder  Cabot  did  not  head  the  expedition  just  referrad  to; 
but  it  devolved  on  Sebastian,  whose  progress  in  naval 
science,  aided  by  his  father's  example  and  instruction, 
had  been  very  great.  Our  mariner,  at  this  time,  could 
not  have  been  more  than  twenty«two  years  of  ag«. 
About  this  time,  t.  •.,  in  1499,  John  Cabot  itied  \  but  there 
is  no  record  of  his  death,  nor  is  anything  whatever 
known  of  Sebastian  Cabot  for  the  next  twelve  years. 

In  making  the  voyage  above  referred  to,  Cabot  sailed 
from  England  in  the  summer  of  1498,  and  directing  his 
course  by  Iceland  soon  reached  Newfoundland,  which  he 
called  T^rra  de  Baeeaihao*,  or  land  of  cod-firii,  from  the 
great  quantity  of  that  sort  of  fish  found  there. 

Of  this  remarkable  voyage  a  short  account  is  pre- 
served by  Petnr  Martyr,  the  historian  of  the  New 
World,  a  writer  of  high  authority,  and  an  Intimate  friend 
ef  the  navigator,  who,  at  the  time  be  wrote,  was  in  the 
habit  €f  paying  bim  f^quent  visits  at  bis  houso*- 

Martyr  tells  us  that  the  northern  seaa,  between 
Europe  and  Amerioa,  were  navigated  and  explored  by 
Sebastian  Cabot,  who  fitted  out  two  ships  in  England  at 
bia  own  cost,  and  with  three  hundred  men  directed  his 
course  so  far  towards  the  North  Pole,  that,  even  in  the 
month  of  July,  he  'found  great  heaps  of  ice  'swimming 
in  the  sea,  and  almost  continual  daylight.  In  our  sum- 
mer the  sun  does  not  set  at  the  North  Pble  for  several 
months  together;  which  curious  ikct  is  illustrated  and 
oxpltttned  In  a  Supplement  on  Astronomy,  in  a  former 
part  f3t  this  work  [No.  411]. 

Martyr  goes  on  to  say  that  Cabot  saw  the  land  cleared 
of  ice,  which  had  been  melted  by  the  heat  of  the  sun; 
and,  seeing  eueh  masses  of  ice  drifting  down  before  him, 
he  was  compelled  to  turn  his  sails,  and  follow  the  west, 
then  coasting  still  by  the  shore,  he  was  brought  fbr  into 
the  south  by  reason  of  the  land  bending  so  much  soutbr 
ward.  As  he  passed  along  the  coasts,  called  by  him 
BetcealhaoSf  he  afiirmed  that  he  found  the  same  current 
of  the  waters  towards  the  west,  which  the  Spaniards  met 
with  in  their  southern  navigations,  with  the  single  diflPer- 
ence  that  they  flowed  more  gently.*  To  account  for 
the  phenomenon  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean  moving  west- 
ward, which  was  of  course  first  observed  in  the  Atlantic, 
Martyr  conceived  that  there  must  exist  between  the  Old 
and  New  Hemispheres  of  the  globe,  certain  great  gaps 
or  open  places,  through  which  the  waters  continuaAy 
pass  from  east  to  west.  The  cause  of  this  natural  phe- 
nomenon, however,  Cabot  was  expected  to  elicit; — ^thc 
question  at  issue  being  simply  this: — Why  the  seas  in 
that  part  ran  with  so  swift  a  current  from  the  east  to 
the  west? 

Our  more  advanced  knowledge  of  physical  ^corraphy 
and  astronomy  enables  us  to  explain  the  phenomenon 
just  referred  to.  The  principal  currents  are  produced 
by  the  movement  of  the  waters,  perpetually  setting  from 
the  polar  regions  towards  the  equator*  and  by  the  nro- 
gp*e88ion  of  the  tropical  seas  towards  the  west ;  botn  gf 
which  are  occasioned  bv  the  earth's  rotation  on  its  axis. 
By  the  laws  of  mechanics,  any  fluid  body  in  rotation  has 
a  tendency  to  accumulate  in  a  heap  at  the  part  in  moat 
rapid  motion ;  and  accordinglv,  we  find  the  waters  of  the 
polar  circles  naturally  flowmg  from  their  own  stiller 
region,  to  that  of  the  more  rapidly  revolving  equatorial 
zone      Strong  currents  are  thus  formed,  which,  in  some 

679—2 


12 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  H 


infttances  bear  with  them  vast  massTes  of  ice.  These  are 
carried  to  a  greater  or  less  distance,  according  to  local 
circumstances.  Now  the  water  which  arrives  among  the 
equatorial  regions  from  the  north,  has  not  a  rotatory 
motion  of  eqvud  yelocity  with  that  of  this  portion  of  the 
globe ;  and  conseqnentlyy  it  has  an  apparent  motion  from 
east  to  west. 

Martyr  informs  us  that  at  Newfoundland,  the  cod-fish, 
which  the  navigators  took  for  tunnies,  were  so  numerous, 
that  they  actually  impeded  the  sailing  of  the  ships  1 
The  inhabitants  o/ those  regions  were  found  covered  with 
the  skins  of  beasts;  but  yet,  not  without  the  use  of 
reason.  He  also  relates  that  there  are  plenty  of  bears 
in  those  parts  which  feed  upon  fish.  It  is  the  habit  of 
these  animals  to  throw  themselves  into  the  midst  of  the 
shoals  of  fish,  and  seizing  their  prey,  to  bury  their  daws 
in  their  scales,  drag  them  to  land,  and  there  devour  them. 
On  this  account,  he  says,  these  bears  seldom  disturb 
men. 

After  sailing  down  southward  with  a  view  to  a  passage 
to  the  Indies,  and  discovering  the  coast  of  Florida,  Cabot 
returned  home,  chiefly  through  want  of  provisions.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  Hennr  the  Seventh,  he  was  sent  for 
by  Ferdinand,  king  of  Spain,  in  which  country  he  arrived 
in  September,  1512,  and  immediately  received  the  title 
of  Captain,  with  a  liberal  salary.  It  appears  from  Spanish 
authorities,  that  Cabot  had  felt  disg^ted  with  the  want 
of  consideration  shown  him  in  England;  but  this  seems 
to  have  been  mainly  owing  to  the  civil  disturbances  in 
England,  and  the  preparation  for  war  with  Scotland. 

£i  the  year  1515,  Cabot  was  appointed  to  revise  the 
maps  and  charts  in  use  among  Spanish  navigators:  he 
was  also  preferred  to  the  station  of  member  of  the  council 
of  the  Indies.  He  was  also  selected  to  conduct  an  im- 
portant expedition  for  making  new  discoveries  towards 
the  west;  but  this  plan  was  interrupted  by  the  king's 
death.  The  new  king  of  Spain,  Charles  the  Fifth,  was 
occupied  elsewhere,  and  did  not  reach  Spain  for  some 
time,  during  which  the  court  was  a  scene  of  abominable 
intrigue.  Fonseca,  the  enemy  of  Columbus,  was  in 
authority,  and  the  insults  offered  by  him  and  his  creatures 
to  Cabot,  caused  the  return  of  the  latter  to  England. 
In  r517  he  was  employed  by  Henry  the  Eighth,  in  con- 
nexion with  Sir  Thomas  Perte,  to  xnake  another  attempt 
at  a  north-west  passage.  In  this  voyage  he  seems  to 
have  reached  lat  67^*  N.,  and  to  have  entered  Hudson's 
Bay,  and  given  English  names  to  many  places  therein. 
From  this  expedition  he  was  obliged  to  return  sooner 
than  he  intended,  through  the  malice  or  timidi^  of 
Sir  Thomas  Perte,  and  the  mutinous  conduct  of  his 
crew. 

After  this  voyage  Cabot  again  visited  Spain,  where  he 
was  named,  by  Charles  the  Fifth,  Pilot  Major  of  the 
kingdom,  and  entrusted  with  the  duty  of  examining  all 
projects  of  voyages  of  discovery.  The  Molucca  islands, 
in  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  at  this  time  very  much  en- 
gaged the  attention  of  mankind.  The  pope  had  pre- 
sumed to  give  away  the  newly  discovered  countries  of 
the  world  between  Spain  and  Portugal;  and  the  latter 
power  having  earnestly  represented  that  the  limits, 
assigned  to  her  by  the  pope  in  his  division  of  the 
New  World,  would  include  the  Moluccas,  it  was 
resolved  that  a  solemn  conference  should  take  place, 
in  which  all  parties  should  state  their  claims,  and 
experienced  men  should  attend  for  the  purpose  of  refer- 
ence. At  the  head  of  this  list  was  Cabot,  and  Ferdinand 
Columbus,  son  of  the  great  navigator.  The  conference 
was  held  at  Badajos,  in  April,  1524,  and  by  the  end  of 
May,  sentence  was  pronounced  that  the  Moluccas  were 
within  the  Spanish  division  of  the  world.  The  Portu- 
guese retired  in  disgust,  and  threatened  an  expedition  to 
destroy  any  Spanish  or  other  vessels  trading  within  the 
disputed  territory.  Immediately  after  the  decision,  a 
company  was  formed  at  Seville  to  prosecute  the  trade 
to  the  Moluccas,  and  Cabot  was  appointed  to  the  command 


of  the  first  expedition  sent  out  by  the  company.  Ua* 
fortunately,  the  ofBeers  under  Cabot  were  persoaiUj 
hostile  to  him.  The  expedition  set  sail  in  April,  1526, 
and  proceeded  to  cross  the  Atlantic.  On  the  Brasiliis 
coast,  a  daring  mutiny,  excited  by  his  officers,  omipeQed 
him  to  resort  to  the  extremity  <Mf  putting  on  shore  the 
three  ringleaders,  who  were  aetnally  the  persons  named 
to  succeed  him  in  command,  in  case  of  his  death.  Cabot 
explored  the  river  La  Plata  and  some  of  its  tributaries, 
erected  forts,  and  endeavoured  to  colonise  the  eooDtiy. 
He  sent  to  Spain,  and  solicited  the  permission  of  tbe 
Emperor  Charles  to  efiect  his  object;  as  also  a  supply  of 
ammunition,  provisions,  &c.,  which  request  was  £iTOQr- 
ably  regarded. 

AnoUier  expedition  Arrived  in  the  Plata  in  the  sub- 
sequent year,  commanded  by  Diego  Garcia.  After 
some  disputes  with  Cabot,  Grarcia  quitted  the  coimtij, 
but  left  behind  him  some  of  his  followers,  who  were 
guilty  of  acts  which  incensed  the  natives.  In  conie- 
quence,  the  whole  nation  burst  with  fury  on  the  feeble 
colony,  and  Cabot  was  compelled  to  put  to  sea.  He 
returned  to  Spun  in  1531,  where  he  resumed  his  old 
office,  and  made  several  other  voyages.  In  1548  be 
resolved  to  return  to  his  native  country. 

The  throne  of  England  was  then  filled  by  Edward 
VI.,  who,  being  very  solicitous  about  mauritime  alEun, 
conversed  with  Cabot,  and  recdved  fron^  him  some  ex- 
planation about  the  variation  of  the  compass,  lint 
noticed,  or  at  least  first  particularly  attended  to,  by  oar 
navigator.  Edward  granted  him  a  pension  of  250 
marks  a  year  (I€6/L  ld#.  4<^.)r— a  munificent  reward  in 
those  days,  and  deservedly  bestowed.  He  also  made 
him  Pilot  Major  of  the  kingdom.  Cabot  remained 
high  in  the  young  king's  favour,  and  was  consulted  in  ill 
affairs  relating  to  trade  and  navigation.  The  advice  and 
influence  of  Cabot  in  directing  an  expedition  to  thenortb, 
opened  to  England  the  valuable  trade  with  Russia:  be 
was  made  governor  of  the  company  of  merchant- adren- 
turers,  by  whom  the  expedition  was  fitted  out;  and  the 
instructions  delivered  by  him  to  the  commander,  Sir 
Hugh  'Wllloughby,  evince  good  sense,  knowledge,  and 
humanity. 

The  journal  of  Stephen  Burroughs,  who  was  dec- 
pitched  as  commander  of  a  vessel  in  the  Russian  trade, 
m  the  year  1556,  shows  the  character  of  Cabot  in  a  very 
favourable  light.  Speaking  of  a  visit  to  the  vessel  tt 
Gravesend,  before  her  departure,  he  says, — <'  the  gooA 
olde  gentleman.  Master  Cabota,  gave  to  the  poore  most 
llberidl  almes,  wishing  them  to  pray  for  the  good  fortone 
and  prosperous  successe  of  the  Serchthri^  our  pinnesse." 

In  the  reign  of  Mary,  the  *maps  and  documents  of 
Cabot  were  consigned  to  the  custody  of  one  Williani 
Worthington,  who  was  associated  with  him  in  his  pen* 
sion  in  the  year  1557.  It  is  supposed  that  all  Cabot's 
nautical  papers  were  by  these  means  either  destroyed,  or 
put  into  the  possession  of  Philip  of  Spain,  the  husband 
of  Mary:  certain  it  is,  however,  that  they  are  no  longer 
to  be  found. 

The  time  and  place  of  Cabot's  death  are  not  known; 
although  his  friend  Eden  gives  some  account  of  it. 
Speaking  of  a  mode  of  finding  the  longitude,  he  tells  us, 
*'  Cabot,  on  his  death-bed,  tolde  me,  that  he  had  the 
knowledge  thereof,  by  divine  revelation,  yet  so  that  he 
might  not  teache  any  man.'*  We  are  told,  howerer,  hj 
Eden,  that  he  thought  that  *<the  good  old  man  in  that 
extreme  age  somewhat  doted,  and  had  not  yet,  eren  in 
the  article  of  death,  utterly  shaken  off  all  worldlje  raine 
glorye." 


Fax*,  fame;  thou  eanst  not  be  the.stay 

Unto  the  drooping  reed, 
The  oool  fresh  fonntain^  in  the  day 

Of  the  8oiil*8  feverish  noed  ; 
Where  must  the  lone  one  tun  or  flee  f 
Not  onto  thee,  oh  I  not  onto  thee.— Mas.  HsicAyfi 


THE  SATQIlDAY  MAGAZINE. 


CASHMERE. SHAWLS. 


AtTEIfTTS  TO  IITTSODVCI  THI  CAIHKZftl  GoAT  AlTD 

TBI  Shawl  MAVDrACTUui  ikto  Eitolavd. 

Thi  Caihmere  goai  U  not  conBued  pirticnkrlf  to 
the  vaUey  of  Cashmere;  but  is  found  in  vuious  parta 
of  Centr^  Asia,  between  the  Himalaya  mountaiiu  and 
tiu  Black  Sea.  The  principal  points  in  the  most  ap- 
proTcd  breeda  of  the  Cashmere  goat  are  large  ears, 
ilender  and  cleanlj-formed  limbs,  homi  slightly  twisted, 
and,  above  all,  a  long,  straight,  ailky,  white  fleece.  The 
<]iiiiitity  of  the  down  procured  bj  each  goat  does  not 
aceed  a  few  ounces  in  weight ;  so  that  the  cost  of  shawls 
maaufictured  irom  this  substance  must  ever  be  high. 

In  a  fonner  arUcle  we  gave  an  account  of  the  mode  in 
which  shawls  are  manufaiAured  in  Cashmere  from  goat's 
dawn,  ■)  also  a  few  particulars  respecting  the  goat  itself. 
We  will  now  detail  the  circumstances  under  which  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  introduce  this  source  of  indi- 
vidual wealth  into  England. 

In  the  year  1828,  a  gold  medal  was  presented  by  the 
Society  of  Arts  to  C.  T.  Tower,  Esq.,  of  Weald  Hall, 
Essex,  for  having  reared  a  flock  of  Cashmere  goats,  and 
having  had  a  shawl  manufactured  from  their  down,  and 
00  that  occasion  a  paper,  published  by  the  Society,  fiir- 
nisbed  some  interesting  facts  on  this  subject.  Unsuccess- 
ful attempts  had  been  made  in  former  years  by  two  or 
three  persons  to  obtain,  through  British  interest  in  India, 
a  few  of  the  Cashmere  goats,  in  order  to  ascertain  whe- 
ther the  breed  could  be  naturaliied  in  this  country,  and 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Society  had,  for  some  years,  been 
offered  with  the  same  view,  m  order  to  keep  the  public 
utention  fixed  on  the  subject.  It  is  to  France,  however, 
tbit  we  owe  the  first  successful  attempt  to  bring  over  the 
mts  to  Europe,  and  to  rear  them.  Two  agents,  MM. 
Fernaus  and  Jaubert,  were  sent  out  by  the  French  govern- 
mmt,  about  twenty  years  ago,  to  Persia,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  purchases  of  goats  in  the  north-eastern  pro- 
vinces of  Persia,  and  bringing  them  to  Europe.  A  consi- 
derable number  of  these  animals  was  procured,  and 
itthoughmany  of  them  died  in  their  long  and  wearisome 
Burch  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  in  their  passage  thence  to 
Prince,  yet  a  certain  number  survived,  and  were  brought 


Mr.  Towi 


,  lappening  to  he  in  Paris  at  the  time  of 
Ike  arrival  of  the  goats,  succeeded  in  purchasing  four 
of  them,  two  males  and  two  females,  and  in  conveying 
ttem  safely  to  hia  residence  in  Essex.     In  the  park  at 


W«^  Hall  the  animals  continued  in  health,  and  multi- 
plied steadily,  the  number  having  mcreased  to  twenty- 
seven  by  the  year  1838.  The  goats  showed  no  impatienoa 
of  cold,  and  were  very  healthy,  requiring  only  the  occa- 
sional shelter  of  a  sned  in  very  rough  weather.  In 
spring,  summer,  and  autumn,  they  graied  like  sheep,  and 
were  fbd  during  winter  with  hay  and  refuse  vegetables 
from  the  garden;  but  their  favourite  food  was  i^egortt, 
{UUx  Ewropmu,)  which  they  devoured  eagerly,  without 
being  annoyed  by  it*  prickles. 

I^  coat  pnMbiced  by  these  goats  is  a  mixture  of  long 
ootree  hair  and  of  short  fine  down.  The  down  b^ins 
to  be  loose  early  in  April,  and  is  collected  easily  and 
expeditiously  by  combing  theanimtls  two  or  three  times 
with  a  comb  such  as  is  used  for  dressing  horses'  manes.  A 
good  deal  of  the  long  hair  comes  off  at  the  same  time, 
but  this  is  afterwards  carefully  separated.  The  down 
produced  by  a  male  is  about  four  ounces,  and  of  a  female 
two  ounces.  Two  pounds  of  down,  as  it  comes  off  the 
goat's  back,  is  estimated  as  sufficient  to  make  one  shawl, 
fifty-four  inches  square,  and  it  will  therefore  require  ten 
goats,  male  and  female,  to  tumish  materials  for  one 
shawl.  Mr.  Tovrer,  in  1828,  had  three  shawls  made  of 
the  down  produced  by  hit  goats,  the  yarn  being  spun  by 
Messrs.  Pease,  of  Darlington,  and  the  shawls  being 
woven  by  Messrs.  Miller  and  Sons,  of  Paisley.  One  of 
these  shawls  was  examined  by  the  Committee  of  Manu- 
facture, of  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  was  found  to  be 
superior  to  others  made  of  the  French  shawl-goat  down, 
taken  fkim  the  progeny  of  the  goats  brought  over  from 
Persia.  This  snawl,  together  with  a  pair  of  the  goats, 
were  subsequently  presented  by  Mr.  Tower  to  his  late 
Majesty,  King  William  the  Fourth,  as  a  memorial  of  the 
success  which  had  attended  this  attempt.  In  the  year 
1833  Mr.  Tower,  in  a  letUr  to  the  Society  of  Arts, 
speaks  of  the   progress  of  his  flock  in  the  following 

Aa  to  my  flock  of  {[oata,  I  have  to  report  most  &vonrabIy 
of  its  increase  in  pomt  of  numbers,  and  good  condition. 
I  have  now  npwaida  of  fifty,  and  should  in  fact  have  had 
connderably  above  mxty,  had  1  not  lost  ten  or  a  dozen  early 
laat  summer,  from  the  mjudicioas  supply  pvm  to  them,  in 
my  absence  bom  homo,  by  the  party  attending  them,  of 
la^  qoantfties,  which  proved  too  succulent,  and  caus^  a 
leas  to  the  above  extent,  oy  diarrhces.  The  very  small  pro. 
duce  of  the  pure  Thibet  wool  rendered  it  almeet  hopeleaa 
(m  the  quantity  has  not  been  found  to  be  increased  in  this 
oonntryttbat  they  could  be  mads  to  pay  as  an  article  of 
profit.  When  it  is  considered,  however,  that  the  first  crop 
of  the  Angora  quintuples  the  quantity,  and  promises  rather 
to  improve  the  adaptation  of  it  to  the  mauubcture  of  shawl^ 


14 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[JUIT  10, 


we  hare  only  to  import  the  Ani^orA  females,  and  the  object 
is  attained,  whether  for  cultivation  in  thie  countxyi  or 
export  to  Australia. 

From  the  foregoing  details  we  mav  gather,  that 
although  the  Cashmere  goat  appears  able  to  thrive  in 
England,  yet  the  small  quantity  of  down  yielded  by  each 
goat  will  render  the  manufacture  unprofitable  as  a  com- 
mercial speculation.  We  turn,  therefore,  to  the  subject 
alluded  to  in  the  last  sentence  of  Mr.  Tower's  letter. 

Mr.  Riley,  a  gentleman  many  years  resident  in  New 
South  Walea,  directed  his  attention  to  the  best  meani  of 
establishing  a  growth  of  fine  wool  in  that  country;  and 
in  pursuance  or  this  object  he  transported  to  that  terri- 
tory, in  the  year  1S96  and  1828,  two  flocks  of  fSie  finest 
Saxon  sheep  procurable  in  (jermanr.  The  result  vrored 
fa:vourable,  for  the  wools  of  New  South  Wales,  derived 
from  those  fioci^s,  beoame  eagerly  pnrebaaed  by  mans* 
facturcrs  who  were  able  to  appreciate  their  exeetleBce. 
Encouraged  by  this  saccess,  Mr.  Riley  next  contem- 
plated the  introdaodon  into  the  colony  of  the  Cashmere 
goat,  anticipating  a  rwult  both  favourable  to  himself 
and  ultimately  advantageous  to  the  country  generally; 
The  son  of  this  gentleman  thereupon  diireefeed  hti 
attention  towards  the  pnrchaae  of  some  of  the  CmAi- 
mere  goats  which  were  known  to  be  tfcen  eifisting  In  '■ 
France,  the  result  of  the  mission  of  MM.  Temaux  and 
Janbert. 

Mr.  Riley,  on  inspecting  the  flock  of  Cashmere  goals 
imder  the  care  of  M.  Ternaux,  found  tliat  ike  quantity 
t>f  down  on  each  goat  was  ao  extremely  small — ^net 
averaging  above  three  onnces'^that  he  deemed  the 
animal  wholly  unfit  for  the  object  in  vtew.  The  pro- 
ject of  sending  over  vome  of  these  goats  to  AnstmMa 
was  therefore  abandoned.  Mr.  Riley,  however,  was 
reeommendod  to  visit  the  flock  of  M.  Poloncean,  at 
Versailles,  a  gentleman  who  has  succeeded  in  introdnelng 
an  imponrtant  improvement  m  relation  to  ^{«  eebject. 
M.  Poloncean  was  among  the  first  to  purchase  a  chosen 
selection  of  the  Cashmere  goats  brought  over  by  Ter- 
naux; and  having  accidentally  seen  an  Angora  goat 
whose  hair  had  an  extraordinary  silky  appearance,  re- 
sembling long,  coarse,  but  very  soft  down,  the  idea 
struck  him  that  ftrom  these  two  varieties  of  goat  there 
might  result  a  third  variety  possessing  in  many  respects 
the  joint  qualities  of  the  other  two.  The  Angora  goats 
were  a  peculiar  breed  introduced  into  Fiance  a  few  years 
after  the  introduction  of  the  Cashmere  goat.  M.  Polon- 
ceau  made  the  necessary  arrangements  for  testing  the 
correctness  of  the  idea  which  he  had  fiormed;  ai^  he 
had  soon  the  pleasure  of  seeing  springing  up  around 
him  a  little  progeny  of  Cashmere- Angora  goats,  whose 
coats  contained  a  considerable  quantity  of  long,  fine, 
Boft,  and  glossy  down,  in  every  respect  fitted  for  l3ie 
purposes  of  shawl-weaving.  In  1826,  the  (5oci6t6 
Koyale  et  Centrale  d'Agriculturc  d©  Paris,  acquainted 
with  the  intesting  result  of  M.  Polonceau's  flodc,  being 
at  that  time  in  the  third  generation ;  and  considering 
that  the  down  of  this  new  race  was  more  valuable  than 
those  of  the  East,  and  that  it  was  the  most  beautifhl 
filaceous  material  known,  as  it  combines  the  softness  of 
Caslimere  with  the  lustre  of  sift,  awarded  him  their 
large  gold  medal. 

M.  Polonceau  sold  four  of  his  goats  to  the  King  of 
Wirtemburg,  fbr  the  sum  of  3400frane8;  but  as  he  was 
not  willing  at  that  time  to  dispose  of  any  more  of  his 
flock,  Mr.  Riley  returned  to  England  without  effecting 
any  of  his  projected  purchases.  At  a  subsequent  period, 
however,  this  gentleman  succeeded  in  obtaining  from 
M.  Polonceau  ten  female  and  tiiree  male  Cashmene- 
Angora  goats,  which  were  safiely  conveyed  to  Eogknd 
for  shipment  to  Australia.  We  believe  those  animals 
were  forwarded  to  their  Easfem  destination;  and  that  it 
was  intended,  not  only  to  rear  this  valuable  variety  of 
the  goat,  but  also  to  produce  another  variety,  interme- 
diate between,  or  combining  the  joint  properties  of  die 


Cashmere-Angora  goat,  and  the  common  goat  of  Aos- 
traliit 

Mr.  Sfley's  eooMBanieation  to  the  Society  of  Arts,  m 
tke  time  be  reoelved  a  faU  medal  for  his  importatioii  of 
the  Caslmeri^ABfom  goats  huto  tiiis  eoimtiy  was  maiie 
we  believe  abooit^e  time  when  the  goata  were  about  to 
be  shipped  off  to  AuflrtUa;  and  as  we  am  not  acquaint^ 
with  tke  rmaUt  of  tUs  interesting  oqierinient,  we  vill 
•tale  briefy  %  fiiw  atrtteriirs  resfiecting  the  down,  re- 
sultingrfrom  M.  FolottOflaii^  merienee. 

M.  PotoMtiB  haa  fotti  whick  have  yielded  u  rmj 
m  thirty  mmom  at  down  in  one  simoni  and  he  state 
that  tlM  whole  of  Us  herd  prei—e  on  m  tfirage  froa 
twelfie  to  twenty  mmom  «Ml^  thos  diowiof  ti»  great  ad- 
vantages which  this  bused  hu  orar  the  pnre  Otshmere, 
which  never  yield  more  than  fciir  ennceef  and  frequently 
net  nore  than  two  ounoes  of  down  per  goat  M.Po1od- 
oean  § tates  that  the  Cashmere- Angorne  afe  more  robust 
and  more  ttflOy  nourished  than  the  cominoo  fsat,  and  thit 
they  ars  lest  oipHoious  and  man  easily  ocmducted  in  a 
flodu  They  prafcr  the  laif«  of  ^reea,  as  do  all  other 
goato,  bat  tbqr  thvivie  etther  mi  hsv  or  straw,  or  green 
fodder*  ir  in  seadowa.  Thej  also  fsed  with  eqoil 
hoUOtf  on  lieatlis,  and  oil  Ae  most  abrupt  declivitia, 
where  sheep  would  perish.  For  the  first  year  or  tio 
of  M.  Polonceau's  experiment  he  thought  it  prudent  to 
give  them  aiomatie  nerbs  from  Umm  to  time,  but  lie 
afterwards  deemed  a  continuance  in  that  course  unneces- 
sary. During  the  course  of  six  or  eight  vears  he  could 
never  discover  any  partiettlar  disease  to  wueh  iks  foitf 
were  nable,  fbr  they  contfaitted  in  robust  health. 

The  down  coaunenoes  to  grow  on  the  |pAt'«  ^  ^ 
the  month  of  Siq;)teBiber,.and  developes  itself  progrei- 
sivelv  until  the  end  of  Mareh,  when  it  ceases  to  gro7. 
and  aetaches  itself  naturally,  unless  ertificially  removej]. 
To  collect  the  down*  M.  Poloncean  waits  for  the  pe   ' 


noG 


when  it  begins  to  detaob  itself,  and  then  the  loob  of 
down  which  sqiarate  from  the  skin  with  little  forc«  ai« 
taken  off  by  hand.  The  down  is  taken  from  the  iniioal' 
every  three  or  four  days.  In  general  it  firs!  h^^y 
fall  from  the  neck  and  shoulders,  and  in  the  f»llowlnr 
four  or  five  days  from  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  coHef- 
tion  is  completed  in  the  space  of  eight  or  ten  days: 
sometimes  the  entire  4iown  43an  be  taken  off  at  one  W 
and  almost  in  an  unbroken  fleece.  The  whole  of  it«t" 
also  be  removed  from  the  animal  at  one  shearing  ^^^^ 
it  begins  to  loosen.  The  shearixig  has  the  advantage « 
preserving  more  perfectly  the  paraUeliam  of  the  ind'^' 
dual  fikmentSf  which  muoh  increases  the  facility  f>' 
combing  and  preparing  the  down  for  manufiicture. 

Both  as  regards  ]£)gland,  considered  as  a  manu&f* 
luring  Gountrv,  and  Australia,  ma  a  country  whoie  i^ 
sources  are  only  just  beginning  to  he  developedf  ve  dfe^ 
the  fiirtfaer  proseGUtion  of  tbs  experiments  hrieHy  ^ 
tailed  above  to  be  a  matter  of  considerable  iniporUQ<!^> 
and  well  worthy  of  the  attention  of  those  who  are  farour- 
ably  placed  for  prosecuting  them. 


Wn  an  but  teo  apt  to  eonalder  tilings  In  the  t^^ 
which  w»  find  them,  without  saffieiently  ad wtiag^* 
eanses  by  which  they  ha^  bean  pradnasd*  tfid  P*"*"*^ 
may  he  upheld*  Nothing  is  woie  <wtm  thso  m»J^ 
mannersy  oar  civilijEation.  and  all  the  good  thil^  ^"^ 
are  connected  with  civilization,  have,  in  ^'^.^"'^ 
world  of  ours,  depended  for  ages  upon  two  principiw  J  "J^ 
were  indeed  the  resuH  of  both  combhwd;  1  '^^^"ij: 
spirit  of  a  gentleman  and  tfce  spirit  of  '^^^'^'^vj! 
noWllty  and  the  elergy,  the  one  by  wvofteskm,  flie««ij^  \ 
petraaage,  kept  leamiDg in  eaisteii^ eten  ia  thamid^J^ 
sma  and  ooiiteion,  end  whBat  %omjmmimt  wei»  f^^ 
in  their  causes  than  formed.  Lanmiagpaid  ^^.^^' 
received  to  nobility  and  priesthood,  andnaidif  fith  "^.i.' 
bv  enhuging  ihdr  idea^  and l^y&nui£uigtkeiJiiuA<i^ 


IMl.J 


THE  8ATUKDAY  MAGAZINE. 


15 


THE  PANTOGRAPH. 


Thk  Pantograph  is  an  ingenious  and  useAil  instntm«nt, 
employed  by  architects,  draughtsmen,  surreyors,  and 
others,  fbr  copying  drawings,  either  on  the  same  scale 
as  the  original,  or  in  any  given  proportion  to  it,  larger  or 
smaller. 

If  we  have  a  representation — sayi  of  a  building ;  and 
wish  to  make  anothvr  copy  of  it  on  a  separate  piece  of 
paper,  and  on  a  similar  scale,  we  can  do  so  by  the  aid 
of  ordinary  drawing  instruments,  ^uch  as  a  scale  of 
inches  aad  parts  of  an  inch)  a  pair  of  compasses,  a  pro- 
tractor or  sector  for  measuring  angles,  a  psjallel-ruler,  a 
square,   &c     But,   when   a  copy   is   to   be  made,  for 
instance,  only  one-half  or   one-fourth  the   size  of  the 
ong^nal  drawing,  the  difficulty  becomes  much  increased, 
because  every  linoi  long  or  short,  vertical,  horiaontal,  or 
diag^onal,  must  be  reduced  in  the  Just  proportion.    It  is 
to  meet  such  cases  as  these,  that  the  instrument  called  a 
Pantograph  has  been  invented;  its  name  is  derived 
from  the  Greek*  and  implies  a  ttniversal  desoribers  and 
we  proceed  to  the  principle  on  which  this  instrument 
acts* 

A  By  BC,.ns»  sr^  (4if,  1>)  are,  respectively,  four 
straight  rods,  jointed  or  hinged  together  at  the  comers 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  parallelogram,  bfds»  all 
the  angles  of  which  are  oapable  of  {dterinff  with  a  very 
slij^ht  moving  force.  The  joints  are  maae  with  great 
care,  in  order  that  one  ruler  or  rod  may  slide  round  on 
the  other  with  ease  and  regularity.  In  instruments  of 
the  best  construction,  there  is  a  small  metal  cock  screwed 
to  the  lower  bar  of  each  jointi  which  supports  the  upper 
end  of  the  axis  upon  whioh  it  Iiivbb* 


Siq>po8e  the  drawing*  and  the  copy  to  be  made  ^m 
it,  to  occupy  separate  pieces  of  paper :  then  the  two 
papers  are  laid  flat  down  on  a  table»  side  by  side,  and 
the  inatrument  is  made  to  trav«ne  the  surface  of  both,  of 
them  (  a  pointed  tnoer  being  made  to  pasa  over  and 
fclong  eTery  Kne  in  the  original  draught,  and  a  pencil 
>eing  at  the  same  time  employed  in  drawing  shnilar 
fles  on  the  copy-paper.  Tlie  intention  of  the  instm- 
»aU  then»  is  to  produce  lines,  by  the  pencil,  exactly 
x^iikur  in  posatiooy  and  bearing  a  certain  fixed  proportion, 
^he  linea  followed  by  the  tracer.  These  purposes  are 
i^cted  in  the  following  ingenious  manner. 

At  the  point  c,  in  the  biur  b  c,  is  fixed  a  small  tube, 
intended  for  the  reception  of  a  tracer  or  tracing-point ; 
he  tracer  bein^  so  fitted  into  the  tube  as  to  move  freely 
Aithin  it,  but  witlHHit  ehakhig.  liie  bars  a  b  and  d  e 
ire  each  provided  with  tubes,  shaped  somewhal  similar 


to  that  at  o,  but  atteched  to  a  little  apparatus  which  is 
capable  of  sliding  along  the  bar,  and  of  being  screwed 
firmly  to  it  at  any  desired  part  of  its  length.    The  differ- 
ence between  the  tube  at  c  and  those  at  o  and  a  is 
that  the  former  is  for  the  reception  of  a  tracinff-point! 
and  each  of  the  UUter  for  the  reception  of  a  pencil ;  also 
that  the  former  is  fixed,  while  each  of  the  latter  is 
moveable  along  the  bar  to  which  it  belongs.     The 
pencil,  placed  in  one  of  the  tubes  g,  a,  has  frequently  a 
little  cup  at  the  top,  for  the  reception  of  weighta  to  keep 
the  pencil  down  upon  the  paper  when  the  instrument  is 
in  use.     The  circular  piece  seen  at  a  is  a  flat  leaden 
weight  with  a  brass  stem  rising  fh)m  it,  which  fits  in 
tfte  tubes,   m  the  same  manner  as  the  pencil  or  the 
teacing^point.     This  leaden  weight  has  three  or  four 
fine  pointe  on  ite  under  surface,  to  keep  it  from  shiftinir 
upon  the  paper :  and  under  whatever  tube  it  is  placed,  it 
forms  a  fulcrum,  round  which  the  whole  instrument  moves. 
The  httle  weighte  in  the  cup  at  the  top  of  the  pencil  keep 
the  latter  pressing  down  upon  the  paper,  in  a  position  to 
make  a  pencil  mark  whenever  the  instrument  is  moved  • 
but,  whenever  it  is  desired  to  lift  the  pencil  from  the 
paper,  it  can  be  effected  by  the  following  means :— A 
silk  cord  is  attached  to  the  pencil  stem,  carried  through 
eyes  made  for  the  purpose  at  the  joints  e,  b,  and  f, 
and  fixed  in  a  noteh  at  the  upper  part  of  the  tracer ;   so 
that  when  the  silk  cord  is  pressed  down  by  the  thumb, 
the  pencil  is  immediately  lifted  from  the  paper. 

Such  being  the  arrangement  of  the  instrument,  let  us 
assume  that  the  drawing  is  to  be  copied  on  the  same 
scale  as  the  original,  all  the  lines  of  the  one  being  of  the 
same  length  aa  the  corresponding  Ibes  of  the  other. 
Then,  the  point  c,  where  the  tracer  is  placed,  being 
pwmnnent,  the  two  tubes  a  and  o  are  slid  along  their 
respective  bars  until  the  pointe  a,  o,  and  c  are  all  m 
a  straight  line,  and  the  distance  ao  is  equal   to  the 
distance  o  o,  that  is,  until  the  tube  o  is  exactly  midway 
between  a  and  o.     The  pencil  is  then  fixed  in  the  tube 
A,  and  the  leaden  weight  is  atteched  to  the  tube  o. 
In  this  mode  of  arrangement,  every  part  of  the  instru- 
ment  revolves  round  o  as  a  centre,  the  tracer  c  passing 
in  contact  with  the  lines  of  the  drawing,  and  the  pencU 
passing  over  the  paper  which  is  to  receive  the  copy. 
Then  whatever  line  the  tracer  c  be  made  to  pass  over, 
the  pendl  at  a  will  make  a  similar  and  equal  line. 
That  the  line  will  be  equal  is  demonstrable  from  the 
mathematical  construction  of  the  instrument ;  for,  if  the 
line  B  B  bo  in  tho  first  instence  equal  to  n  e,  and  d  b  be 
equal  to  sr,  then  b  b  d  f  is  a  parallelogram,  and  will 
remain  so,  however  the  fbur  angles  may  be  altered.    In 
our  diagram  b  and  n  are  acute  angles,  and  bf  obtuse; 
but,  if  the  reverse  of  this  were  the  case,  the  whole 
figure  would  still  form  a  parallelogram.    Neither  is  it 
neoessary  that  all  four  sides  should  be  of  equal  length ; 
for  if  oppoiif  sides  are  equal,  m.,  b  b  equal  to  d  f,  and 
DM  equal  to  b  f,  the  parallelogram  wUl  still  be  preserved. 
It  woold  be  somewhat  tedious  to  follow  out  the  mathe- 
matical reaeonittg  by  which  it  is  shown  that  the  lines 
drawn  by  the  pencil  are  equal  in  length  to  those  gone 
over  by  the  tracer  5  but  it  will  not  be  difficult  for  a 
reader^  who  knows  a  little  of  geometry,  to  trace  the 
ooneequenccs,  first,  of  the  parallelism  of  the  opposite 
bars  of  the  frame  b  1  d  f,  and,  secondly,  of  the  position 
of  the  foloium  o>  half-way  between  the  tracer  c  and  thfe 
pencil  A* 

In  (he  next  place,  we  will  assume  that  the  copy  is  to 
be  exactly  one-half  the  dimensions  of  the  original  draw- 
ing. TTie  amngement  of  the  instrument  will  then  be 
such  as  is  represented  in  oor  diagram,  where  the  leaden 
weight,  which  constitutes  the  ftilcrum-^r  rather  in- 
dicates tiie  position  of  the  folcrum— is  atteched  to  the 
arm  a  b  at  the  point  a,  instead  of  being  atteched  at  g. 
The  folcrum  and  the  pencil  have,  in  fact,  changed  places, 
without  any  change  being  made  in  the  relative  distances 
of  A  from  o>  and  of  G  from  c.    The  instrument,  turmng 


16 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  10  IWl. 


round  A  as  a  fulcrum,  leads  to  this  necessary  result, 
that  the  point  g,  to  which  the  pencil  is  attached,  moves 
through  only  one  lialf  of  the  space  which  the  point  c 
traverses  in  consequence  of  the  distance  being  only  half 
as  great  from  a  as  c  is  from  a.  Whatever  length  of 
line,  therefore,  the  tracer  c  passes  over,  the  pencil  o 
will  describe  a  line  of  just  half  that  length.  Here,  then, 
the  required  effect  is  produced ;  for  the  maintenance  of 
parallelism  in  the  opposite  bars  is  just  as  certain  here  as 
in  the  former  case;  and  the  copy  resulting  from  the 
action  of  the  instrument  will  exactly  resemble  the 
original,  on  a  scale  one-half  the  siae.  U  is  necessary  to 
observe,  however,  that,  when,  the  pencil  is  between  the 
fulcrum  and  the  tracer,  as  in  the  present  instance,  the 
copy  is  seen  in  the  right  direction  or  position;  but, 
when  the  fulcrum  is  between  the  pendland  the  tracer, 
as  in  the  former  instance,  the  copy  is  reversed,  the  right 
hand  side  of  the  original  being  represented  at  the  left 
hand  side  of  the  copy,  and  vice  versd. 

As  a  third  example  of  the  action  of  the  instrument, 
let  us  suppose  that  the  copy  is  to  be  on  a  scale  only  one- 
fourth  of  .that  of  the  original ;  in  such  case  the  pencil  6 
will  still  be  between  the  fulcrum  and  the  tracer,  but 
both  pencil  and  fulcrum  wiU  be  moved  and  adjusted  to 
different  positions  on  the  bars  to  which  they  respectively 
belong..  The  adjustment  must  be  such,  that  while  c,  g^ 
and  a, — ^the  tracer,  the  new  position  of  the  pencil,  and 
the  new.  position  of  the'  fulcrum, — are  all !  in  a  right 
line,  the .  distance  from  a  to  c  shall  be  four  times  as 
great  as  the  distance  from  ato  gg  or,  which  amounts 
to  the  same  thing,  the  pencil  shall  be  only  one-fourth  as 
far  distant  from  the  fulcrum  as  the  tracer  is.  Bearing 
in  mind  what  has. been  before  stated,  it  will  be  under- 
stood that  all.  the  lines  which  are  drawn  by  the  pencil 
will  now  be  just  onerfourth  of  the  length  of  the  corre- 
sponding lines  in  the  original. 

Any  other  proportion. may  be  chosen  in  a. similar  way, 
and  the  instrument  adjusted  to  that  proportion  by  this 
formula ;-^As  the  distance,  of  the  pencil: from  the 
fulcrum  is  to  the  distance  of  the .  traoer  from  the 
fulcrum,  so  is  the  size  of  the  copy  to  that  of  the  original. 
But  in  using  the  pantograph  it  is  seldom  necessary  to 
make  any  calculation  in  this  respect;  for.  the  arms  to 
which  the  pencil  and  the  fulcrum  are  attached  are  so 
graduated  as  to.  comprise  all  the  proportions  likely  to  be 
required  in  practice. 

The  instrument  is  supported  on  six  castors,  one  under 
each  joint,  which  move  freely  over' the  sur&ce.of  the 
paper,  and  give  the  joints  a  fadlity  of  adjusting  them- 
selves to  the  motion  of  the  peneiL  But,  however 
carefully  the  instrument  may  be  made,  it  is  difficult  to 
use,  on  account  of  these  numerous  joints  and  castors, 
which,  while  they  make  the  instrument  heavy  for  the 
hand,  also  render  it  difficult  to  mark  the  minute  and 
gently  curving  lines,  which  often  require  to  be  copied. 

To  remedy  in.  some  respects  these  defects,  a  panto- 
graph has  been  constructed  of  the  form  represented  in 
the  annexed  cut,  (fig.  2.)  Here  we  see  five  bars, 
moving  freely  on  each  other  by  means  of  six  joints. 
F  is  the  fulcrum,  attached  to  the  central  cross-bar,  and 
capable  of  sliding  along  it  to  any  one  of  a  scale  of 
divisions  engraved  on  &e  bar.  2>  is  the  tube  which 
carries  the  tracer,  and  b  a  moveable  tube  carrying 
the  penciL  Then,. supposing  a  copy  has  to  be  made  the 
exact  size  of  the  original,  me  fulcrum  is  screwed  down 
exactly  at  the  centre  of  the  cross-bar,  as  in  the  diagram ; 
and  the  pencil  b  is  so  adjusted  that  d  f  and  b  shall  all 
be  in  one  straight  line.  The  construction  of  the  in- 
strument involves,  as  a  consequence,  that  the  fulcrum 
will  be  exactly  midway  between  the  other  two  points ; 
and,  as  a  second  consequence,  that  .the  lines  drawn  by 
the  pencil  shall  be  just  as  long  as  those  gone,  over  by 
the  tracer.  If  the  copy  is  required  to  be  only  half  as 
large  as  the  original,  the  fulcrum  f  is  slid  up  to^  twice 
as  far  from  the  bottom  of  the  bar  as  from  the  top ;  and 


when  the  pencil  b  is  adjusted  to  the  position  5,  where  it 
will  be  in  a  rirht  line  with  d  and  f^  then  the  distance/ 
b  will  be  equal  to  one-half  the  distance  y*D,  and  the  lioei 
of  the  copy  will  be  only  one-half  as  long  as  the  cone- 
sponding  Imes  of  tho  onginla. 


It  is  obvious  at  a  glance  that  this  instrument  h  mofe 
simple  in  its  construction  than  the  former,  prindpillj 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  fulcrum  is  alvajs 
attached  to  the  central  bar.  When  the  copy  u  to  be  of 
the  same  size  as  the  original  the  fulcrum  is  fixed  nndvtj 
between  the  tracer  and  the  pencil ;  when  it  is  to  be 
larger  than  the  original,  the  fulcrum  is  to  be  nearer  to 
the  tracer  than  to  the  peocil ;  when  smaller  than  the 
original,  the  fulcrum  is  to  be  nearer  to  the  pencil  than 
to  the  tracer. 


Our  home  is  not  in  this  mortal  dime. 
Our  life  hath  not  its  boonds  in  time ; 
And  death  Ss  but  the  doud  that  liaa 
Between  our  souls  and  pamdisev 


Jtiinr  persons  deprecate  the  study^  of  the  older  anthon  on 
scientinc  subjects,  as  a  waste  of  time  and  mental  eneigr. 
To  a  certain  extent,  this  is  correct.  To  seek  in.  them  for 
that  knowledge  which  they  had  no  means  of  sttamlng, 
would  be  obviously  al^surd.  No  one  expects  to  frod  i 
microscopical  description  of  the  tSasues  of  the  organind  bodr 
before  the  era  of  the  invention  of  that  instrument  But  a 
will  often  occur  that  men  of  original  views  suggest  thongbts 
which  they  have  no  power  of  following  out, — ^which,  ai«|ia 
fiict,  in  advance  of  their  time ;  and  these  may  be  pro- 
fitably taken  up  at  a  subsequent  period.  ^  Moreover  intbo* 
departments  in  which  the  phenomena  aie  coastantl^  pR- 
senting  themselves  to  inspection,  an  acute  oheenrer  will  fie- 
quenUy  seize  almost  intuitive]^  the  essential  detail^  and 
transmit  to  posterity  accounts  ot  them  which  mav  be  higbl/ 
valuable  as  oases  for  further  inquiries.'  Thus  tne  desoip- 
tions  of  diseases^  founded  on  symptoms  alone^  left  ns  bf 


descriptions  of  various  species  of  animals^ 
merely  their  external  form,  hut  their  fa&teraal  stnctaRi 
which  were  drawn  up  under  the  diieetion  <iiAjaMkt  )< 
not  actu^y  by  hun,  would,  if  attended  to  by  sabse^wnt 
natuzidlsts,  have  saved  them  fiom  many  emaa,  ^"^^ 
them  egregious  ones.    We  by  no  means  nooBmad  tbt 


study  (J  bygone  authors  to  those  who  deairs  mo^to  *a- 
quaint  themselves  with  the  present  state  of  the  scieaes  the; 
are  pursuing  ;'since  to  them  it  would  be  general^ a  bukD' 


ployment  of  time.  But  on  those  who  ■'?  P^"|^P(|v! 
path  of  original  inquixy  in  any  department  upon  wtucbtutf 
means  of  investigation  were  withm  the  reach  of  their  pI^ 
deceasors^  we  would  urge  a  careful  research  into  tbeb  con- 
tributions, whether  of  fisct  or  opinion,  as  a  matter  of  ii^ 
as  weU  as  of  duty.  They  will  frequenUj  thus  be  tW«.» 
start  from  a  more  advanced  position ;  they  will  ofUa  re^^ 
valuable  assbtance  in  their  progress ;  and,  >hen  1^  har« 
completed  their  work,  they  will  be  able  to  rephr  more  50^ 
ceesftilly  to  the  attacks  of  those  who  repment  their  di«o«- 
ties  as  **  nothing  ne w."— ^rJM«&  and  I^orm^  IMeat  K^ 


vistff. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  W*^^'   , 

PAATS,  rJUOB  SUVBMGB. 


18 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  17 


MURH-LO  AND  HI8  WOKKS. 

II. 

Tub  most  interesting  period  in  the  life  of  a  man  of 
genius,  is  that  which  includes  the  struggles  of  his  earlier 
yeargi  w^  follow  him  through  all  the  difficulties  of  his 
career^  and  our  sympathy  is  so  much-  excited  that  we 
almost  feel  our  own  destiny  to  he  united  with  his.  We 
rejoice  at  his  success;  sorrow  at  his  hopes  deferred;  but 
we  experience  a  feeling  somewhat  akin  to  disappointment, 
when,  having  attained  the  object  of  his  desires,  his  life 
moves  on  unchequered.  We  sigh  for  more  adventures ; 
and  because  we  look  for  the  false  excitement  of  romance 
in  the  soberness  of  biographical  truth,  we  often  cease  to 
be  interested  in  the  remaining  chapters  of  a  life  which  no 
longer  deals  in  stirring  events. 

The  "  gentle  Murillo"  appreciated  too  well  the  plea- 
sures of  calm  and  studious  retirement  to  furnish  the 
materials  of  personal  narrative  to  his  biographer.  Our 
artist  having  attained  that  distinction  which  he  merited, 
has  recordea  his  life  in  his  works,  and  to  them  we  must 
now  fefer  for  the  completion  of  our  sketch;  but  so 
numerous  are  the  pictures  of  this  great  man,  that  the 
notice  of  a  very  brief  selection  must  suffice:  the  reader, 
at  all  Interested  in  the  subject,  will  not  find  it  difficult  to 
obtain  a  view  of  seversl  of  Murillo's  pictures  contahied 
in  many  of  the  Galleries  of  England,  especially  Dulwich 
Gallery,  which  is  open  to  the  public  by  means  of  tickets 
furnished  gratuitously  at  the  principal  print  shops* 

It  is  probably  a  consequence  of  not  studying  in  Italy 
that  a  national  peculiarity  of  air,  habit,  and  countenance, 
pervades  all  the  pictures  of  Murillo:  nothing  of  the 
academy  is  to  be  discovered  in  his  groupes ;  all  his  Ma- 
donnas and  Saints  have  the  Spanish  cast  of  features;  and 
though  he  adopts  a  beautifully  natural  expression,  yet 
there  is  generally  a  peasant-like  simplicity  in  his  ideas, 
holding  a  middle  place  between  the  vulgarity  of  the 
Flemings,  and  the  elegant  taste  of  the  Italians.  In  his 
rustics  we  behold  life  itself,  with  a  minute  attention  to 
costume.  Many  of  his  figures  of  the  Saviour  are  of 
magic  lustre  and  transparency  of  hue;  but  still  there 
IS  a  certain  cast  and  expression  of  features  which  appear 
strikingly  provincial  to  any  one  to  whom  Andalusian 
countenances  are  familiar.  His  Baptist  and  his  Saints, 
pai  ticularly  San  Francisco  Xavier»  are  noble  and  often 
sublime  pictures ;  but  the  sublimity  of  Murillo  neither 
forces  nor  enlarges  nature;  ^ruth  and  simplicity  always 
prevail;  the  painter  {^rosents  what  he  sees,  and  not  what 
he  conceives.  Iferein  be  is  distinguishable  from  his 
preceptor  Velasques :  that  great  nmster»  by  his  courtly 
habits  and  intercourse  with  the  great>  contracted  a  more 
proud  and  swelling  character,  to  which  the  simple  and 
chaste  pencil  of  Murillo  never  sought  to  aspire;  a  plain 
and  pensive  cast,  sweetly  tempered  by  humility  and 
benevolence,  marks  his  canvass;  and  wherever  bis  cha- 
racters are  impassioned,  it  is  by  the  zeal  of  devotion 

never  by  the  guilty  passions  ♦•  i 

One  of  the  finest  pictures  of  Murillo,  vii,,  San 
Thomas,  of  Villa  Nueva,  distributing  sJms  to  the  sick 
and  the  poor,  was  exhibited  a  few  years  ago  at  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  Society  of  British  Artists. 

This  fine  picture  (says  Or.  Waagen)  was  formerly  in  the 
Church  of  the  Franciscans,  at  Genoa.  It  is  of  the  second 
period  of  the  master,  in  which,  after  his  return  from  Madrid 
vnth  a  lively  recollection  of  the  pictures  of  Velasquez,  he 
united  ^freat  fidelity  to  nature  in  the  design,  and  precision 
in  the  single  forms.  The  subject  was  a  peculiarly  happy 
one  for  Murillo.  In  the  head  of  the  saint,  m  which  priestly 
dignity  and  mravity  are  admirably  expressed,  he  has  proved 
how  equal  he  was  to  such  religious  subjects,  from  the 
l^ends  of  the  monkish  saints.  The  cripples  and  the  sick 
afforded  hira,  on  the  other  hand,  an  ample  field  to  show  his 
skill  m  representations  from  common  life,  which  we  so 
highly  admire  in  his  beggar  boys.  The  calm  intcUectiial 
acUon  of  the  samt  forms  a  striking  contrast  with  the  lively 
•  S«t  Cumb»»land'8  Anecdota  of  Eminent  Painifn  in  JSp 


lain. 


excitement  of  the  distressed,  whose  whole  QonscioiuQeis  b 
concentrated  in  their  eagerness  for  the  momentaiy  satltiiac- 
tion  of  their  bodily  necessities. 

Murillo  appears  never  to  have  quitted  Spain,— he  did 
not  even  make  a  second  journey  to  Madrid:  be  was  so 
much  averse  to  pretension  and  display,  that  by  tlie  time 
he  had  attained  his  fifty-seventh  year,  his  productions 
were  scarcely  known  in  that  courtly  city.  But^  ia  tk 
year  1670,  one  of  his  pictures  was  exhibited  there  in  the 
great  procession  of  Corpus  Christi,  to  the  admiratioa 
and  surprise  of  the  whole*  court  and  city.  The  King, 
Charles  the  Second,  invited  Murillo  to  Madrid,  and  pro- 
mised to  appoint  him  one  of  the  royal  artists,  fist 
Murillo,  whose  love  of  retirement  and  attachment  to  bis 
native  city  of  Seville  could  not  be  superseded  byanr 
considerations  of  interest  or  ambition,  excused  himseif 
from  the  proposal  on  account  of  his  age.  He  was  tbeo 
requested  to  send  to  Court  some  specimens  of  hb 
performances,  equal  in  merit  to  the  picture  he  bd 
exhibited  at  the  solemnity  before  mentioned,  and  wa- 
promised  munificent  rewards  if  he  accepted  the  conmm- 
sion.  Murillo  could  oppose  no  absolute  excuse  to  \m 
request,  but  at  the  same  time  evaded  an  immediate  com- 
pliance by  requiring  a  longer  space  of  time  for  executing 
the  commission  than  the  impatience  and  curiosity  of  tk 
king  could  dispense  with.  His  majesty,  therefore,  em- 
ployed an  agent  to  buy  up  the  pictures  of  Murlllo»  and 
thus  some  of  the  finest  works  ox  this  artist  found  tbdr 
wi^y  into  the  royal  collection. 

Murillo  contributed  largely  to  the  adornment  of  the 
churches  of  his  country.  Among  others,  there  is  a  fioe 
picture  at  Seville,  in  the  Christening  Chapel  of  the 
Church  of  the  Miraculous  Paduan,  representing  the 
Saviour  and  St.  Antonio  under  a  glory  of  cberubims, 
the  back  ground  giving  the  perspective  of  part  of  a  tem- 
ple ;  and  by  the  side  of  the  saint  is  a  table  on  which  is 
placed  a  jar  with  lilieS)  so  accurately  represented,  that 
the  monks  relate  the. story  of  a  small  bird  attempting  t? 
rest  upon  the  flowers,  to  pick  the  seeds ;  a  complimen: 
which  has  often  been  paid  to  many  an  inferior  artist,  kt 
which  the  monks  enlarge  upon  with  rapture.  But,  in 
the  present  case,  it  would  be  unfortunate  if  the  fame  cf 
Murillo  depended  at  all  upon  such  a  trifle,  because  the 
whole  back  ground  of  this  picture,  including  the  lilie?, 
was  put  in  by  Valdez,  a  cotemporary  artist. 

To  Murillo  also  is  due  the  five  grand  compositions 
exhibiting  different  periods  in  the  life  of  Jacob.  TLeje 
pictures  were  originally  in  the  collection  of  the  Marqui' 
de  Villamaurigne.  The  first  design  was  to  embody  the 
life  of  David  with  the  landscapes  or  back  grounds:,  bj 
Ignacio  Iriarte,  of  Seville,  who  excelled  in  that  brancl: 
of  the  art.  Murillo  desired  Iriarte  to  paint  the  land- 
scapes,  and  he  would  afterwards  add  the  fig^ures:  Iriarte^ 
on  the  other  hand,  contended  for  Murillo's  placing  the 
figures  before  he  filled  up  the  back  grounds : — ^to  remedy 
this  difficulty,  Murillo  executed  the  whole  without  Iri&rte's 
assistance,  taking  Jacob's  History   instead  of  DavidV. 

The  character  of  Murillo  and  the  terminstion  of  ^^ 
life,  are  thus  described  by  Mr.  Richard  Cumberland.— 

Murillo  was  in  his  person  grac^ul,  of  a  mild  and  humbi' 
deportment,  and  an  expressive  handsome  countenance ;  to 
the  allurements  of  interest  or  ambition  he  was  eaually  in- 
sensible ;  he  resisted,  as  we  have  seen,  the  offers  of  Charles, 
and  at  his  death  was  found  possessed  of  one  hundred  ids 
which  he  had  received  the  day  before,  and  sixty  dollars  in 
a  drawer :  he  was  in  his  seventy-third  year,  when  mountir:: 
a  scafibld  to  make  a  painting  of  St.  Catherine,  for  the  ct^n- 
vent  of  Capuchins,  at  Cadiz,  he  fell  and  bruised  himaelf  ^ 
much  as  to  bring  on  a  violent  increase  of  a  disorder  whiclt 
already  existed ;  but  such  was  the  delicacy  of  his  natunr, 
that  being  unwilling  to  expose  lus  Infirmity  to  the  exanu- 
nation  of  a  surgeon,  he  suiiered  in  silence ;  and,  afi«r  S''^^^ 
days'  anguish,  a  mortification  taking  place,  with  peJ'f^^^t 
composure  he  resigned  a  life,  tinged  with  no  other  excess 
but  that  of  an  inherent  modesty,  to  which,  havin^^  repeat- 
edly sacrificed  what. is  generally  esteemed  most  valuahle  in 
life^  he  Isstly  gave  up  life  itsel/. 


^ 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


19 


THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  A  PEG-TOP. 

We  trust  that  our  young  readers  ^ill  not  be  disposed  to 
spin  their  tops  with  less  zest  when  we  assure  them  that 
this  toy  presents  a  very  difficult  problem  to  the  Natural 
Philosopher :  that  the  theory  of  its  motions  has  engaged 
the  attention  of  very  eminent  men,  and  that  the  ques- 
tions arising  thereiVom  are  by  no  means  satisfactorily 
answered.  The  bov  wh«  loves  his  peg-top  because  it  is 
an  ingietiious  toy,  will,  we  hope,  be  taught  by  the  present 
article  to  regard  it  Vrith  a  higher  degree  of  interest;  and 
the  man  (if  such  there  be)  who  despises  the  peg-top 
because  it  is  a  toy,  will  have  an  opportunity  of  learning 
that  much  philosophy  may  be  gathered  from  childiBh 
things. 

The  simple  contrivance  whereby  a  top  is  set  spinning, 
need  not  be  particularly  described.  The  string  which 
13  wound  round  the  top  and  suddenly  uncoiled  with  a 
jerking  Knd  of  action,  has  the  effect  of  imparting  circular 
motion  to  the  top.  Now  circular  motion  is  always  the 
result  of  two  forces,  one  of  which  attracts  the  body  to 
the  centre  aronnd  which  it  moves,  and  faenee  is  called 
the  cenfripetat  force ;  and  tiie  other  itnpels  it  to  move 
off  in  a  right  line  from  the  cetitre,  and  this  constitutes 
the  centrifugal  force.  In  all  circular  motion,  these  two 
forces  constantly  balance  each  other :  if  it  were  not  so, 
the  revolving  body  must  evidently  approach  the  centre 
of  motion  or  recede  from  it,  according  as  one  or  the 
other  force  prevailed.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
action  of  a  «ling.  When  a  stone  is  whirled  round  in  the 
sling",  a  projectile  force  is  imparted  to  the  stone ;  but  it 
is  prevented  from  flying  off  on  account  of  the  counter- 
acting or  centripetal  force  of  the  string;  the  moment, 
however,  that  the  string  is  unloosed,  the  stone  ceases 
to  move  in  a  circle,  but  darts  off  in  a  right  line ;  because, 
bv^ing  released  from  confinement  to  the  fixed  or  oentral 
point,  it  is  acted  on  by  one  force  oni^,  whkh  alwa^ 
prnduces  motion  in  a  right  tine. 

We  need  scarcely  inform  onr  yomig  reader  that  it  is 
impossible  for  him  to  set  up  his  top  so  that  it  shall 
stand  steadily  on  its  point  without  spinning  it.  He  can 
never  keep  the  line  of  direction  within  its  narrow  base : 
but  when  die  rotating  motion  is  once  established,  there 
is  DO  difficulty  in  preserving  it  for  a  time  in  its  erect 
position.  Why  is  this?  When  a  top  is  spinning  we 
have  an  example  of  circular  motion  round  a  central 
axis ;  and  the  more  rapidly  the  top  spins,  the  greater  is 
the  tendency  of  all  its  parts  to  recede  from  the  axis ;  or, 
in  other  words,  the  greater  is  the  centrifugal  force :  the 
parts  which  thus  revolve  may  be  regarded  as  so  many 
powers  acting  in  a  direction  perpendicuhir  to  the  axis; 
but  as  these  parts  are  all  equal,  and  as  they  pass  with 
great  rapidity  round  the  axis,  the  top  is  in  equilibrio  on 
the  end  of  its  axis,  or  point  of  support,  and  thus  its  erect 
position  is  maintained.  But  the  top  soon  falls,  on  account 
of  two  great  impediments  to  its  motion ;  viz.,  the  friction 
of  the  p^  on  the  ground,  and  the  resistance  of  the  air. 
If  the  top  could  be  made  to  revolve  on  a  point  without 
friction,  and  in  a  vacuum,  it  would  continue  to  revolve 
for  ever,  and  always  maintain  the  same  position.  But  as 
it  is  imposBible  to  comply  with  these  two  conditions,  let 
iis  see  what  results  have  followed  the  attempts  to  reduce 
the  retarding  forces  as  much  as  possible. 

About    the  middle  of  the  last  century  Mr.   Serson 

on t  rived  %  top,  which,  instead  of  the  usual  pear  shape 

^f  the  common  peg-t<^,  presented  a  horizontal  surface 

ioftilar  to  what  we  should  obtain  by  {Mercii^  the  centre 

f  ;^  disk  of  wood  with  an  axis  or  peg.     The  upper  sur- 

ICC-?   of  this  top  was  polished,  and  it  presented,  while 

MT  -ining,  a  tme  horizontal  plane.     It  continued  to  spin 

r    thirty-five  minutes.     On  being  spun  (after  the  manner 

-  ^  pi  lining  a  humming-top),  on  the  table  of  an  air-pump, 

Jh-^.v^  covered  with  a  glass  receiver,  from  which  the  air 

*x^  then  removed,  and  the  top  continued  to  spin  during 

i^^  spaioe  of  two  hours  and  sixteen  minutes. 

Mr.  Roberts,  of  Manchester,  a  few  years  ago  made  a 


top  which  would  spin  in  the  air  forty-two  fxiinutes.  He 
made  another  top,  and,  in  order  to  give  it  a  neat  appear* 
anoe,  covered  it  with  lacquer;  when  he  found  it  would 
not  spin  more  than  seventeen  minutes ;  he  removed  the 
lacquer,  and  the  top  continued  to  spin  as  long  as  at 
first.  He  found  that  the  lacquer,  although  it  improves 
the  appearance  of  surfkces,  yet  it  imparts  to  them  a  vast 
numfoi^  of  minute  roughnesses,  scarcely,  if  at  all,  appre- 
ciable by  the  touch,  yet  sufficient  to  offer  so  much 
additional  resistance  to  motion  in  the  air. 

The  accompanying    figure 
represents  a  top  made  by  Mr. 
Evans,  of  Swansea.     Its  shape 
is  that  of  a  disk  of  about  four 
and  a  half  inches  in  diameter, 
bat  rather  thicker  at  the  centre 
than  at  the  edges  t  the  central 
part  through  which  the  spindle 
passes   is    about    an   inch   in 
thickness;  and  at  the  edge  the  thickness  is  about  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch.     The  top  is  put  in  motion  like  a 
common  hunmiing-top,  by  means  of  a  yard  of  cord  passed 
through  the  hole  in  the  upright  spindle.     A  rim  of  lead 
passes  round  the  top  and  is  inserted  to  the  depth  of 
about  three-fourths  of  an  inch.     The  steel  peg  on  which 
the  top  spins  is  about  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  long;  it 
is  not  brought  to  a  very  fine  point,  because,  in  spinning, 
it  is  apt  to  drill  a  hole  through  the  surface  upon  which 
it  is  placed.     The  spindle  or  axle  is  of  wood,  and  nearly 
two  inches  long:  the  cord  is  wound  tightly  round  this 
spmdle;  one  person  holds  the  two  handles  firmly,  and  a 
second  draws  out  the  cord  to  its  full  length.     The  cord 
should  not  be  drawn  out  too  rapidly  at  first,  but  with  a 
speed  gradually  increasing.     The  best  surface  to  spin  it 
on  would  probably  be  a  small  agate  cup,  but,  in  the 
absence  of  this,  we  may  employ  a  plate  or  saucer,  over 
which  a  little  oil  has  been  rubbed.     Mr.  Evans  says, 
"  that  by  a  simple  contrivance,  namely,  sticking  a  knit- 
ting-needle through  a  reel  of  fine  cotton,  containing  250 
yards,  and  attaching  it  to  the  top  at  full  speed,  I  have 
been  enabled  to  ascertain  to  a  great  nicety  the  speed  of 
mine  that  spins  forty  minutes ;  the  cotton  was  run  off 
the  reel  in  somewhat  less  than  one  minute;  and  from 
frequent  trials,  I  find  it  makes  no  less  than  4500  revo- 
tions  in  the  minute." 

We  will  now  return  to  the  common  form  of  the  peg- 
top,  and  endeavour  to  explain  the  means  by  which  the 
top  is  enabled  to  rise  from  the  oblique  position  (which  it 
always  more  or  less  assumes  when  first  set  spinning,) 
into  the  truly  vertical  position  which  produces  the  effect 
called  sleeping,  where  the  motion  is  so  steady  that  it 
scarcely  seems  to  move. 

When  the  top  is  sleeping^  its  centre  of  gravity  is 
situated  perpendicularly  over  its  point  of  support;  but, 
in  rising  from  an  oblique  to  a  vertical  position,  the  top 
must  have  its  centre  of  gravity  raised.  The  force  which 
effects  this  change  has  been  a  subject  of  contest  in  the 
philosophy  of  the  peg-top,  and  we  believe  that  Dr.  Paris 
was  the  first  to  offer  a  satisfactory  explanation  thereof. 
He  considers  it  to  depend  upon  the  form  of  the  extremity 
of  the  peg,  and  not  upon  any  simple  effect  connected 
with  the  rotatory  or  centrifugal  force  of  the  top.  If  the 
peg  were  to  terminate  in  a  fine,  that  is  to  say,  in  a 
mathematical  point,  the  top  never  could  raise  itself.  " 
liCt  A,  B,  c,  {^g,  %)  be  a  top  spinning  in  an  oblique  posi- 
tion, having  the  end 
of  the  peg  c  on  whidi 
it  spins  brought  to  a 
fine  point.  It  will 
continue  to  spin  in 
the  direction  in  which 
it  reaches  the  ground, 
without  the  least  ten- 
dency to  rise  into  a 
more  vertical  posi- 
580—2 


10 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  17, 


tibn»  and  it  is  by  its  rotating  or  centrifugal  force  that  it 
is  kept  in  this  original  position:  for  if  we  conceive  the 
top  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  A  and  b,  by  a  plane  pass- 
ing through  the  line*  x  c»  and  suppose  that  at  any  mo- 
ment during  its  spinning  the  connexion  between  these 
two  parts  were  suddenly  dissolved,  then  would  any  point 
in  the  part  a  ily  off  with  the  given  force  in  the  direction 
of  the  tangrent,  and  any  corresponding  point  in  the  part 
B  with  an  equal  force  in  an  opposite  direction;  whibt, 
therefore,  these  two  parts  remain  connected  together, 
during  the  spinning  of  the  top,  these  two  equal  and 
opposite  forces,  a  and  b,  will  balance  each  other,  and  the 
top  will  continue  to  spin  on  its  original  axis.  Hence  the 
rotating  or  centrifugal  force  can  never  make  the  top 
rise  from  an  oblique  to  a  vertical  position. 

But  in  order  to  be  satisfied  that  the  change  in  position 
depends  on  the  bluntness  of  the  point,  let  a  b  c  (fig.  3),  be  a 
top  spinning  in  an  oblique  position  terminating  in  a  very 

Fig.  8. 


X 


short  point  with  a  hemispherical  shoulder  p  a  M.  It  is 
evident  that  in  this  case,  the  top  will  not  spin  upon  a, 
the  end  of  the  true  axis  x  a,  but  upon  p,  a  point  in  the 
circle  p  m  to  which  the  floor  1 7  is  a  tangent.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  revolving  upon  a  fixed  and  stationary  point, 
the  top  will  roll  round  upon  the  small  circle  p  m,  on  its 
blunt  point,  with  very  considerable  friction,  the  force  of 
which  may  be  represented  by  a  line»  o  p,  at  right  angles 
to  the  floor  i  p,  and  to  the  spherical  end  of  the  peg  of 
the  top :  now  it  is  the  action  of  this  force,  by  its  pressure 
on  one  side  of  the  blunt  point  of  the  top,  which  causes 
it  to  rise  in  a  vertical  direction.  Produce  the  line  o  P 
till  it  meets  the  axis  c;  from  the  point  c  draw  the  line 
c  T  perpendicular  to  the  axis  a  x,  and  t  o  parallel  to  it; 
and  then,  by  a  resolution  of  forces,  the  line  t  c  will  re- 
present that  part  of  the  friction  which  presses  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis,  so  as  gradually  to  raise  it  in  a  verti- 
cal position;  in  which  operation  the  circle  pm  gradually 
diminishes  by  the  approach  of  the  point  p  to  a,  as  the 
axis  becomes  more  perpendicular,  and  vanishes  when  the 
point  p  coincides  with  the  point  a,  that  is  to  say,  when 
the  top  has  arrived  at  its  vertical  position,  where  it  will 
continue  to  sleep  without  much  friction,  or  any  other 
disturbing  force,  until  iU  rotatory  motion  fails,  and  its 
aide  is  brought  to  the  earth  by  the  force  of  gravity. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  explanation  is  correct, 
and  however  difficult  it  may  appear  to  the  general  reader, 
yet  it  is  worthy  an  attentive  consideration.  The  follow- 
mg  remarks  by  Dr.  Amott  will  greatly  tend  to  illustrate 
and  simplify  the  theory  of  Dr.  Paris. 

While  the  top  is  quite  upright,  the  extremity  of  its  peg, 
bemg  directly  under  its  centre,  supports  it  steadily,  and 
although  turning  so  rapidly,  and  with  much  friction,  has  no 
tendency  to  move  from  the  place ;  but  if  the  top  incline  at 
ail,  the  edffe  or  side  of  the  peg,  instead  of  its  very  p<nnt,  is 
m  contact  with  the  floor,  and  the  peg  then  becoming  as  a 
tumuiff  httle  roller,  advances  quickly,  and  describes  a  curve 
aomewhat  as  a  skaiter's  foot  does,  until  it  come  directly 
imder  the  body  of  the  top  as  before.  It  thus  appean  that 
the  very  fact  of  the  top  inclining,  causea  the  pomt  to  shift 
Its  place,  and  to  continue  moving  until  it  come  again  di- 
lectljr  under  the  centre  of  the  top.  It  is  remarkable  that 
even  in  philosophical  treatises  of  authoritv  the  standinir  of 
a  top  IS  still  vaguely  attributed  to  cerUrifuffol  force.    An4 


some  persons  believe,  that  a  top  sjunning  in  a  wreigUng 
scale,  would  be  found  lighter  than  when  at  rest;  and  othen 
most  erroneously  hold  that  the  centrifugal  force  of  the 
whirling,  which  of  course  acts  directly  away  from. the 
axis,  and  quite  equally  in  all  directions,  yet  becomes, 
when  the  top  inclines,  gmter  upwards  than  downwards,  so 
as  to  counteract  the  gravity  of  the  top.  The  way  in  which 
centrifugal  force  really  helps  to  maintain  the  spinning  of  a 
top  is  that  when  the  body  inclines  or  begins  to  fi&ll  in  one 
direction,  its  motion  in  tHat  direction  continues  until  the 
point  describing  its  curve,  like  the  foot  of  a  skaiter,  has 
forced  itself  under  the  body  again. 

The  gyrationa  of  the  peg-top  depend  upon  the  same 
principle  as  that  which  produces  Uie  precession  of  the 
equinoxes;  viz.,  an  unequal  attractive  force  exerted  upon 
the  revolving  mass.  In  the  one  case,  this  is  known  to 
arise  from  the  action  of  the  sun  and  moon  on  the  eicesi 
of  matter  about  the  equatorial  regions  of  the  earth;  in 
the  other,  from  the  parts  of  the  top  being  uneqoallj 
affected  by  gravity  while  it  is  spinning  in  an  inclined  or 
oblique  position.     Sir  John  Herschel  says:— ^ 

The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  consists  in  a  real,  bat 
very  slow  motion  of  the  pole  of  the  heavens  among 
the  stars,  in  a  small  circle  round  the  pole  of  the  eclip- 
tic. Now  this  cannot  happen  without  prodncing  cono- 
ponding  changes  in  the  apparent  diurnal  motion  of  tbe 
sphere,  and  the  aspect  whicn  the  heavens  must  present  at 
very  remote  periods  of  history.  The  pole  is  nothing  more 
than  the  vanishing  point  of  the  earth's  axis.  As  this  point, 
then,  has  such  a  motion  as  described,  it  necessarily  follova 
that  the  earth's  axis  must  have  a  conical  motion,  in  viitne 
of  which  it  points  successively  to  evezy  part  of  the  small 
circle  in  question.  We  may  form  the  best  idea  of  such  a 
motion  by  noticing  a  child's  peff-top,  when  it  spins  not  up- 
riffht,  or  that  amusing  toy  the  te-to-tum,  which  when 
delicately  executed,  and  nicdy  balanced,  becomes  an  elegant 
philosopnical  instrument,  and  exhibits  in  the  most  heautafol 
manner,  the  whole  phenomenon,  in  a  way  calculated  to  give 
at  once  a  dear  conception  of  it  as  a  &ct,  and  a  considerable 
insight  into  its  physical  cause  as  a  dynamical  effect. 

The  following  ingenious  and  useful  remarks  ve 
borrow  from  Dr.  Paris. 

If  a  top  could  be  made  to  revolve  on  a  point  withont 
friction,  and  in  a  vacuum,  in  the  case  of  its  velodtjr  ban; 
infinite^  it  would  continue  to  revolve  for  ever,  in  the  ssme 
position,  withont  gyration.    If  the  velocity  were  l&it^  it 
would  for  ever  remain  unchanged  in  position,  in  the  event 
of  the  centre  of  gravity  being  directly  over  the  point  of 
rotation.    In  any  other  position  (supposing  its  velocity  verr 
great,  although  not  infinite)  there  would  arise  a  continu^ 
uniform  gyration,  the  line  which  passes  through  the  point 
of  rotation  and  the  centre  of  gravity  always  maldng  tb« 
same  anele  with  the  horizon,  or  describing  the  same  eirde 
roimd  the  senith.    But  in  all  artificial  experiments  tiie 
cixonmstances  are  very  remarkably  changed ;  if,  indeed,  tiie 
centre  of  gravity  happens  to  be  situated  perpendicularlT 
over  the  point  of  rotation,  the  top  will  continue  quite 
steady,  or  sleeping,  as  it  is  tenned,  tul  nearly  the  whole  of 
its  velocity  of  rotation  is  expended.    In  any  other  position 
the  top  begins  to  gyrate,  but  reclining  at  afl  times  on  the 
outside  of  its  physical  point  of  gyration,  the  top  ts  nni- 
foimlv  impelled  inwards,  and  this,  (when  the  vdodt^  is 
considerable,  and  the  point  broad,)  acts  with  force  safficient 
for  cairying  the  top  towards  its  quiescent  or  sleeping  point ; 
but  when  the  velocity  is  much  diminished,  this  power 
becomes  feeble,  the  gyrations  increase  in  diameter,  and  the 
top  ultimately  falls. 

As  the  peculiar  office  of  man  is  to  govern  and  defend  society; 
that  of  woman  is  to  spread  virtue,  affection,  and  gentleness 
through  it :  she  has  a  direct  interest  in  softening  and 
humanizing  the  other  sex.*  Man  is  too  rugged  to  beeren 
just  towards  those  whom  he  only  loves,  but  does  not  re- 
spect: he  is  too  powerful  to  be  swayed  by  thoso  whom  he 
only  respects,  but  does  not  love.  The  empire  of  woman 
must  be  won,  not  solely  through  his  sense  of  justice,  but  bj 
the  grace  and  delicacy,  the  tenderness  and  purity  she  dif- 
fuses through  life  ;  but  her  rights  will  neither  add  dignity 
to  her  social  influence,  nor  bring  practical  security  to  her 
domestic  station,  except  as  they  are  fi>und  really  to  promote 
the  virtue  and  happiness  of  society. — fVomtuCs  R%^  ^ 
DtOiss, 


1841.} 


TUS  SATURDAT  MAGAZINE. 


^1 


ON  CHESS.    No.  XIV. 

Tbb  Ahtomatom  Chess-Playeb. 

Pig.>. 


Fi|t.4. 


A  nrtiul  HClkin  oftha  Chai^ 

We  propose  on  the  present  occasion  to  describe  the 
cit^rna]  sppearance  snd  the  mode  ofperibrmuice  of  the 
chera  BDtonutton,  as  detailed  by  M.  Wmdisch  soon  after 
it*  first  introdaction  to  the  pnblic.  The  reader  will  fancy 
himself  a  Tisitor  to  M.  de  Keinpelen's  study,  as  described 
in  onr  last  article. 

The  first  object  that  catches  the  ^e  on  entering  this 
room  is  the  automaton,  placed  opposite  the  door.  The 
chest  to  which  it  is  Gi,ed  is  three  and  a  half.feet  long, 
two  Feet  deep,  and  two  and  a  half  feet  high.  It  stands 
upon  fonr  castors,  by  which  means  it  may  be  easily 
moved  ^m  one  place  to  another.  Behind  this  is  a 
figure,  the  size  of  life,  dressed  in  the  Turkish  fkshion, 
seated  in  a  wooden  chair,  attached  to  the  chest,  and 
vhich  moves  with  it  when  it  is  wheeled  about  the  room. 
This  figure  leans  with  its  right  arm  upon  the  table,  and 
In  its  left  hand  holds  a  Turkish  .pipe,  in  the  attitude  of 
a  person  who  has  just  been  smoking.  It  plays  with  its 
left  hand, — a  circumstance  which  the  inventor  says  was 
due  to  his  own  inattention,  and  not  discovered  until  the 
work  was  too  far  advanced  to  rectify  it.  "  But  what 
does  it  signify,"  asks  Windisch,  "whether  Titian 
painted  with  his  left  hand  or  his  right  7  "  Before  the 
automaton  is  a  chess-hoard,  screwed  down  to  the  table, 
to  which  its  eyes  ara  constantly  directed.  M.  de  Kempe- 
len  opens  the  front  door  of  the  chest  and  takes  out  the 
drawer  at  the  bottom.  The  chest  is  divided  by  a  parti- 
tion into  two  unequal  parts :  that  on  the  left  hand  is  the 
narrower  ;.it  occupies  little  more  than  one-third  of  the 
chest,  and  is  filled  with  wheels,  cylinders,  levers,  and 
other  pieces  of  clock-work.  In  that  on  the  right  are 
alto  seen  some  wheels,  spring-barrels,  and  two  horiion- 
tal  quadrants.  There  is  also  a  box,  a  cushion,  and  a 
tablet,  on  which  are  traced  some  characters  in  gold. 
The  ioventor  takes  out  the  box,  and  places  it  on  a  small 
table  itandins  near  the  machine :  he  alto  removes  the 
tablet,  which  is  to  be  placed  on  the  cheu-board  •■  woa 


as  the  game  is  over,  to  enable  tlie  antomaton  to  answer 
such  questions  as  may  be  put  to  him. 

In  the  drawer  above-mentioned  are  red  and  white 
chesa-men  on  a  board,  with  which  they  are  taken  out  and 
placed  on  the  side  of  the  chess-board.  There  is  also  a 
small  oblong  box,  containing  six  small  chess-boards,  each 
showing  the  end  of  a  game.  Any  one  of  these  aitua- 
tion*  being  set  up  on  the  automaton's  chess-board,  he 
undertakes  to  win,  whether  he  play  with  the  red  or  the 
white  men. 

In  showing  the  interior  of  the  machine  the  inventor 
not  onlv  opens  the  front  hut  also  the  hack  doors  of  the 
chest,  -by  which  the  wheel-work  becomes  so  exposed  as 
to  afford  the  most  thorough  conviction  that  no  living 
being  can  poasibly  be  concealed ;  and  in  order  to  m«ke 
this  exposure  more  complete,  the  inventor  generally 
places  a  wax  light  in  the  chest,  so  as  to  illuminate  every 
comer  of  iL  He  then  lifU  up  the  automaton's  robe, 
and  turns  it  over  his  head,  so  as  to  display  the  internal 
structure,  which  consists  of  levers  and  wheel-work,  of 
which  the  body  of  the  automaton  ia  so  fiill  that  there  is 
not  room  to  hide  a  kitten.  Even  his  trousers  have  a 
little  door  in  them,  which  is  opened  to  remove  even  the 
shadow  of  suspicion. 

M.  de  ^^ndisch  assures  us  that  the  inventor  does 
not  shut  one  door  as  soon  as  he  opens  another, — "  no, 
you  see,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  the  uncovered  auto- 
maton, with  his  garments  tamed  up  ;  the  drawer  and  all 
the  doors  of  the  chest  open."  In  this  state  the  inventor 
moves  it  about,  and  submits  it  to  the  inspection  of  the 
curious. 

After  allowing  suficieiit  time  to  examine  it  closely 
he  shuts  all  the  doors,  and  places  it  behind  a  balustrade, 
which  prevents  the  company  from  shaking  the  machine 
by  leamng  upon  it  while  the  antomaton  is  at  play,  and 
l^ves  room  for  the  inventor  to  walk  about,  and  approach 
the  cupboard  on  either  side,  but  be  never  touches  it 
except  to  wind  up  the  works.  He  then  introduces  his 
hand  into  the  body  of  the  automaton,  in  order  to  arrange 
the  movements  properly,  and  concludes  by  placing  a 
cushion  under  that  arm  of  the  automaton  with  which  he 


plays. 
Theii 


inventor  places  the  little  box  (before  spoken  of) 
on  a  table  near  the  machine:  there  is,  however,  no 
visible  communication  between  the  automaton  and  the 
table  or  the  little  box  ;  but  while  the  automaton  is  play- 
ing, the  inventor  frequently  opens  this  box,  to  examine 
its  contents,  which  are  unknown  to  the  companv.    It  waa 

Emerally  supposed  that  this  bos  was  merely  a  plan  calcu- 
led  to  distract  the  attention  of  the  spectators,  but  the 
inventor'  assured  M.  de  Wudisch  that  it  was  so  indis- 
pensable that  the  automaton  could  not  play  without  it. 

We  are  now  prepared  to  see  the  machine  play.  When 
the  automaton  is  about  to  move  he  lifts  his  arm  Imsurely, 
and  directs  it  to  the  piece  which  he  intends  to  play  :  he 
suspends  his  hand  over  it, — opens  the  fingers, — takes  it, 
— places  it  on  the  proper  square, — and  again  removes 
his  arm  to  the  cushion.  In  capturing  a  piece  he  first 
removes  his  adversary's  man,  and  then  substitutes  one 
of  his  own.  A  slight  noise  of  wheel-work,  somewhat 
resembling  that  of  a  repeater,  is  heard  during  every  move 
of  the  automaton.  This  noise  ceases  as  soon  as  a  move 
is  made  and  the  automaton's  arm  replaced  on  the 
cushion;  and  not  till  then  can  the  adversary  make  a 
fresh  move.  The  automaton  always  claims  first  move, 
and  moves  bis  head  so  as  to  look  over  the  whole  board 
whenever  the  adversary  makes  a  fresh  move.  He  nods 
his  head  twice  when  the  adverse  queen  is  attacked,  and 
thrice  when  check  is  given  to  the  king.  ' 

If  the  adversary  makes  a  wrong  move,  the  automaton 
shakes  his  head,  returns  the  piece  to  the  square  from 
which  it  had  moved,  and  then  plays  his  move ;  so  that 
the  adversary  loses  bis  move  as  a  punishment  for  his  in- 
attention or  wilful  mistake  :  this  often  happens,  from  a 
desire  on  the  part  of  the  player  or  the  company  present. 


22 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


[July  17, 


to  see  the  automaton  detect  a  mistake,  and  take  advan- 
tage of  it  This  condition  is  one  among  others  which 
facilitates  the  winning  of  games  by  the  automaton. 

The  inventor  requests  those  who  play  with  the  auto- 
maton to  be  careftil  to  place  the  pieces  exactly  in  the 
middle  of  the  squares,  lest  the  automaton  in  opening  his 
hand  to  take  the  piece  should  miss  it,  or  receive  some 
damage.  A  move  once  made  on  either  side  is  not 
allowed  to  be  retracted. 

The  machine  cannot  make  above  ten  or  a  dozen  moves 
without  being  wound  up  again ;  but  it  is  evident  that  the 
simple  operation  of  winding  up  the  springs  of  the  arm 
of  the  machine  can  produce  no  other  effect  than  that  of 
restoring  to  it  the  vis  mo/)*iJr,  without  having  ahy  influ- 
ence on  its  vis  directrix*  In  this  latter  quality  consists 
the  principal  merit  of  the  machine,  and  here  also  lies  the 
mystery:  for  the  operation  of  winding  up  is  the  only  one 
the  inventor  is  seen  to  perform,  and  this  Uie  only  time 
when  he  touches  the  machine.  Mathematicians  of  all 
countries  have  examined  it  with  the  most  scrupulous 
attention  without  being  able  to  discover  the  kast  trace 
of  its  mode  of  operation. 

I  have  frequently  been  in  the  apartment,  (says  Windisch,) 
where  the  automaton  was  at  play,  with  twenty  or  thirty- 
more  persons,  who  kept  their  eyes  rivetted  on  the  inventor. 
We  never  saw  him  approach  within  two  or  three  vards  of  the 
machine,  nor  do  aught  else  than  look  occasionally  into  the 
box  before  mentioned ;  nor  ever  betray  himself  by  the  least 
motion  which  to  us  appeared  capable  of  influencing  the 
machine  in  any  shape  whatever* 

To  show  also  that  magnetism  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  movements  of  the  chess  automaton,  the  inventor  per- 
mits any  one  to  place  the  most  powerfiEil  magnet  on  the 
machine. 

The  automaton  also  performs  the  feat  of  moving  the 
knight  over  the  sixty-four  squares  of  the  chess-board  in 
as  many  leaps*  One  oi  the  spectators  places  a  knight 
on  any  square :  the  automaton  immediately  tske%  it,  and 
observing  the  knight's  peculiar  move,  begins  at  the  square 
occupied  by  the  knight,  aild  causes  the  piece  to  cover  the 
sixty-fonr  squares  in  the  same  number  of  moves  without 
missing  one,  and  without  touching  one  square  twice: 
this  is  ascertained  by  one  of  the  spectators  putting  a 
counter  on  each  square  he  touches. 

Such,  then,  is  an  account  of  the  appeamnoe  and  per- 
formances of  the  chess  automaton,  as  exhibited  sbon  after 
its  first  invention.  We  havie  fiven  our  description  in 
the  present  tense,  as  being  better  calcolated  to  aflbrd  the 
reader  an  idea  of  the  extraordinary  senaatioD  omsed  by 
this  very.remariEable  machine. 

Of  adi  his  inventions  M.  de  Kempelen  prided  himself 
least  on  his  automaton  chess  player.  He  frequently  moke 
of  it  as  a  mere  trifle,  and  Uiough  considering  it  merely  as 
a  machine,  (without  reference  to  the  plan  adopted  for 
putting  it  in  motion,)  it  certainly  possessed  some  mecha- 
nical  merit,  yet  that  the  greater  part  of  the  reputation  it 
had  acquired  was  owing  to  a  happy  deception. 

M.  de  Kempelen  was  &r  from  coveting  the  celebrity 
which  his  automaton  obtained  for  him,  nor  did  he  desire 
that  it  should  be  considered  as  a  prodigy.  He  wished  it 
to  be  understood  that  the  wonderful  effects  of  his 
machine  were  due  to  a  certain  boldness  of  thought  on  his 
part,  and  a  happy  choice  of  means  employed  in  the  de« 
caption.  He  was  unwilling  to  part  with  his  secret,  and 
refused  considerable  offers  made  to  him  by  persons  who 
hoped  to  make  their  fortune  by  exhibiting  it.  He  even 
threw  aside  the  automaton  in  order  to  devote  his  mecha- 
nical abilities  to  new  researches  and  inventions  of  a  more 
sorious  nature,  and  more  calculated  for  public  utility ; 
and  althougii  frequently  visited  by  travellers  from  difle- 
fpnt  rountries,  who  wished  to  see  his  famous  automaton, 
ho  declined  showing  it,  stating  that  it  had  received 
damage  in  being  moved  about  from  place  to  place.  He 
hnd,  in  fact,  partly  taken  it  to  pieces,  and  left  it  for  some 
years  in  a  dilapidated  state,  in  which  condition  it  would 


have  remained,  but  for  the  following  drcumstanee: — ^tho 
Grand  Duke  Paul  of  Russia,  with  his  consort,  under  trie 
travelling  titles  of  the  Count  and  Countess  du  Nord, 
paid  a  visit  to  the  Emperor  Joseph  the  Second,  at  the 
Court  of  Vienna,  who,  wishing  to  gratifv  as  much  as 
possible  his  distinguished  guests,  bethought  himself  or* 
de  Kempelen's  machine.  In  compliance,  therefore,  with 
the  desires  of  his  sovereign,  de  Kempelen ^ot  the  auto- 
maton into  working  order  within  the  space  of  five  wet k.-. 
It  excited  the  greatest  surprise  and  admiration  in  the 
minds  of  the  Count  and  Countess,  who,  as  well  as  the 
principal  nobility,  advised  the  inventor  to  send  it  to  some 
of  the  chief  cities  of  Europe.  The  emperor  approved  of 
this  plan,  and  gave  de  Kempelen  leave  of  absence  for  two 
years  for  that  purpose.  The  chess  automaton  was.  there- 
fore despatched  on  its  travels.  In  1783  it  first  ap- 
pealed at  Paris  with  the  greatest  applause :  it  was  beaten 
at  chess  by  the  professors  at  the  Cafe  de  la  R%ence,hut 
this  circimistance  by  no  means  detracted  from  the  merit 
of  the  machine,  if  such  we  may  call  it ;  nor  did  it  tend 
to  elucidate  the  mystery  which  was  the  grand  cause  of 
the  excitement,  which  everywhere  attended  the  presence 
of  this  automaton. 

De  Kempelen  found  the  automaton  so  profitable  an 
exhibition^  in  Paris  that  he  determined  to  ^isit  London, 
where  we  hope  to  find  him  in  our  next  article  at  No.  8, 
Savile  Row,  Burlington  Gardens. 


In  no  province  of  science,  in  no  part  of  the  vast  and  diver- 
sified scenery  of  nature,  are  the  various  attributes  of  God 
more  wonderfully  and  impressively  displayed  than  upon 
the  bright  field  of  astronomy.    In  tne  contemplation  of  the 
brilliant  scenery  of  the  starry  heavens,  the  man  whoee  mind 
is  stored  with  the  rich  and  varied  results  of  modem  dis- 
covery has  an  advantage  over  those  who  are  uninitiated  into 
these    sublime  mysteries  of  nature,  attended  with  coire- 
spondent  obligations  of  piety  and  devout  admimtion.     When 
an  ignorant  and  uninstrucied  ponon  looks  up  to  the  ethereal 
concave,  he  sees  nothing  but  a  vast  canopy  mantling  the 
globe  on  which  he  dwells,  and  studded  with  so   many 
spanglinff  points.    To  him  it  is  nothing  but  a  scene  of 
gay  confusion,  in  which  he  can  discover  no  law  beyond 
that  of  a   periodical   appearance   above  the  horizon,  nor 
conceive  any  end  suitable  to  the  variety  and  the  magni- 
tude of  the  means  which  seem  to  have   been  employed. 
But  the  man  of  science  sees  with  other  eyes ;  he  looks*  op 
to  that  ^orious  theatre  of  wonders,  which  has  been  spread 
above  bun  and  around  him,  with  other  notions^  and,  unless 
his  mind  be  blinded  by  prejudice^  imd  incased  in  impiety, 
he  cannot  fail  to  be  led  to  otlier  reflections.    Where  t&e 
untaught  eye  saw  nothing  but  a  promiscuous  assembhige  of 
twinkling  lights,  he  beholds  the  most  perfect  regubirity, 
harmony,  and  order.    Where  the  Ignorance  of  the  former 
could  perceive  only  the  dispositions  and  amangements  of 
chance,  his  knowledge  can  trace  the  (botsteps  of  the  roo^ 
oonsnmmate  design.    To  his  enliahtened  vision  the  ^leck 
enlarges  into  a  worid,  and  the  spazK  swdla  into  a  luminary. 
While  conducted  bv  the  hand  of  science,  he  ranges  over  the 
fiel(k  of  ether,  and  follows  ih&  planets  in  their  course ;  Avhile 
he  contemplates  these  vast  bodies  wheeling  through  the  sky, 
under  the  influence  of  a  combination  of  forces,  which  can 
be  reduced  to  the  laws  of  the  most  rigid  demonstration, 
spinning  each  upon  its  own  axis,  and  at  the  same  time  tra- 
velling Willi  inconceivable  velocity  along  its  orbit;  while 
he  passes  on  from  star  to  star,  from  svstem  to  system,  the 
centre  of  one  being  probably  only  a  planet  moving  with  its 
attendant  satellite  around  some  more  distant  centre:  and 
when  the  line  of  scientific  observation  having  now  foiled 
him,  his  imagination  takes  the  helm  and  conducts   him 
amoi^  those  remoter  worlds,  which  as  he  advances  are  fonnd 
to  rise  in  thicker  clusters  over  the  fece  of  the  abyss;  while 
he  is  engaged  in  this  voyage  of  discovety,  or  mtlier  in  this 
bour  of  observation  over  the  manifold  works  of  God,  at  eT«T 
stM>  must  be  rising  hi^er  his  conoeptions  of  the  power 
and  majesty,  of  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  that  Being,  the 
very  thre^<^d  of  whose  dominions  he  has  scarcely  l-cea 
able  to  pass.    Overwhelmed  with  the  immensitv  and  vari- 
ety of  tne  objects  of  his  contemplation^  he  siiils  do^ni  ii 
the  conscious  acknowledgment  oi  his  littleness,  and  seeks 
repose  to  his  wearied  faculties  in  the  homage  of  silent  ado- 
ntion«^-DavzB8's  Handmmid. 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


23 


BEET-ROOT  SUGAR. 

1,  Tzis  Varieties  and  Cultivation  of  thr 

BfiBT. 

Wr  often  find  that  plans  formed  by  individuals  for  the 
gratification  of  their  own  private  ends  lead  to  results 
which  they  little  contemplated,  and  which  frequently  tend 
to  the  public  g^oodi  thus,  Bonaparte,  influenced  by  bitter 
hatred  towards  England,  strove  to  cripple  her  commerce 
by  endei^vouring  to  render  France  quite  independent  of 
the  British  eolonies  in  obtaining  a  supply  of  the  necessa- 
ries of  life.  One  of  his  plans  was  to  obtain  sugar  from 
Beet-root,  and  although  the  feeling  with  which  this  plan 
was  prosecuted  has  long  since  passed  away,  yet  the  re- 
sults of  numerous  experiments  made  in  conformity  with 
it  belong  to  the  cause  of  science,  and  can  neither  be  for- 
gotten nor  despised. 

Nearly  a  century  ago,  Margraf,  a  German  chemist, 
found  that  sugar  may  be  obtained  from  the  white  beet- 
root in  greater  quantity  than  from  any  other  European 
plant.  Achard  and  other  experimentalists  subsequently 
investigated  the  subject,  with  a  view  to  determine  the 
best  mode  of  obtaining  sugar  from  the  beet.  It  will, 
therefore,  be  desirable  to  preface  our  notice  of  this  branch 
of  industry  with  a  brief  account  of  the  principal  varieties 
of  the  beet,  in  order  to  indicate  the  qualities  in  which  the 
white  variety  diflfers  from  the  others. 

The  botanical  name  for  beet  is  Seta,  so  called  from 
the  resemblance  which  the  plant  is  thought  to  bear,  while 
the  seed  is  swelling,  to  the  form  of  the  Greek  letter  /9. 
Itb  ranked  among  the  class  Pentandria  ;  order  Digynia, 
There  are  three  or  four  species,  each  of  which  presents 
several  varieties.     The  oeta  cicla,  or  common  culinary 
beet,  includes  the  common  green-leaved  beet,  the  large 
white  beet,  and  the  chard,  or  great  Swiss  beet.     The 
Beta  major,  or  Great  German  Beet,  commonly  called 
Mangel-wurzel,  presents  the  dark-green-leaved,  the  light- 
greea-leaved,  and  the  red- veined-leaved  varieties.   Lastly, 
there  is  the  Beta  rubra,  which  includes  the  common  red 
beet  and  two  or  three  other  varieties  nearly  allied  to  it. 
The  principal  features  presented  by  these  three  species 
are  the  following : — The  Beta  cicla  has  a  small  oblong 
white  root,  producing  from  its  crown  many  large,  oblong, 
succulent  leaves,  on  broad  foot-stalks,  and  erect  branch- 
ing seed;  stems  two  or  three  feet  high,  garnished  with 
close  setting  leaves,  and  long  spikes  of  greenish  flowers, 
"which  are  succeeded  by  plenty  of  ripe  seed  in  autumn. 
The  Beta  major  has  a  large,  long,  reddish,  or  sometimes 
whitish-red  root ;  and  very  large,  oblong,  thick,  succulent, 
leaves.     The  Beta  rubra  presents  a  large  red  eatable 
Toot,  crowned  by  many  large,   oblong,  reddish-purple 
leaves;  and  when  it  shoots,  sends  up  erect  stalks  and 
branches,  terminated  by  long  spikes  of  flowers  and  seed. 
The  purposes  to   which  these  varieties  of  beet  are 
applied,  or  rather,  we   should  say,  the  modes  in  which 
they  have  been  applied  as  food,  are  many.     In  some  in- 
stances the  .root  itself  is  cut  up  and  eaten ;  in  others,  the 
(Stalks  and  mid-rib  of  the  leaves  are  stewed  and  eaten  like 
asparagus;  in  a  third  kind  the  leaves,  being  large  and 
succulent,  are  occasionally  used  in  the  manner  of  common 
beet,  and  particularly  to  boil  as  spinach,  or  to  put  into 
soups.     As  food  for  cattle,  the  variety  termed  mangel- 
tcurzel  has  been  much  used   of  late   years;  and  the 
reader  may  frequently  see,  on  the,  pier  or  quay  of  Hun- 
g^erford  market,  immense  heaps  of  this  root,  landed  from 
barges  and  vessels,  for  the  London  market. 

It  does  not  form  part  of  our  plan  to  extend  farther 
the  notice  of  beet  generally ;  but  we  shall  now  proceed 
to  the  consideration  of  the  mode  in  which  one  particular 
variety  of  the  plant  is  cultivated,  for  the  production  of 
sugar.  The  researches  of  Achard  and  Gottling  have 
combined  to  educe  a  regular  and  systematic  train  of 
ojierations, 

Achard  recommends  that  the  soil  for  the  growth  of  the 
beet  should  be  one  in  which  wheat  has  been  grown.     A 


low  situation,  not  exposed  to  gpreat  or  lasting  drought, 
is  to  be  preferred.'  The  ground  should  be  ploughed 
thrice  over,  and  as  deep  as  the  nature  «f  the  soil  will 
admit  Immediately  after  the  third  ploughing,  which 
should  be  done  in  April  or  the  beginning  of  May,  the 
ground  is  to  be  brought  smooth  by  the  harrow ;  and  by 
means  of  a  rake,  whose  teeth  are  distant  from  nine  to 
twelve  inches,  lines  are  to  be  traeed  along  the  surface. 
Then,  by  drawing  the  rake  in  transverse  lines  across 
these,  the  ground  becomes  divided  into  squares,  measured 
by  the  distances  of  the  rake's  teeth.  Into  each  inter- 
secting point  of  the  lines  thus  drawn,  one  capsule  con- 
taining several  seeds  is  to  be  inserted,  to  the  depth  of 
an  inch ;  a  process  which  may  be  easily  attended  to  by 
children.  When  the  plants  have  germinated  and  six  or 
eight  leaves  are  formed,  the  ground  must  be  weeded,  and 
if  the  young  plants  be  too  much  accumulated  on  a  par- 
ticular spot,  the  superabundant  ones  are  to  be  pulled 
out.  After  the  ground  has  been  once  cleared  of  the 
weeds,  the  plants  grow  up  so  speedily,  that  their  leaves 
soon  completely  cover  the  ground;  and  thus  absolutely 
prevent  the  growing  of  any  more  weeds.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  circumstance,  an  acre  of  ground  cultivated 
with  beet  occasions  no  more  trouble  till  the  time  of 
gathering;  which  circumstance  greatly  facilitates  the 
cultivation,  because  the  time  of  the  cultivator,  who  is  then 
busied  in  his  com  harvest,  is  not  required  to  be  at  all 
employed  on  this  object. 

Respecting  the  choice  of  seed,  care  must  b^  taken 
that  it  be  not  obtained  from  roots  which,  after  their  ger- 
mination, have  been  transplanted  on  seed-beds;  but 
from  such  as  remained  on  the  spot  where  they  grew  from 
the  capsules,  till  autumn,  and  which  likewise  have  pro- 
duced the  true  oblong,  thin,  conical  roots,  the  best  suited 
for  preparing  sugar.  This  is  necessary,  because  the 
seed  of  untransplanted  beet  produces  roots  more  par- 
taking of  the  spindle  form,  which,  as  we  have  remarked, 
is  that  which  has  been  found  most  profitable. 

Among  those  varieties  of  the  beet  which  have  that 
shape  of  root  deemed  most  favourable  for  the  produc- 
tion of  sugar,  Achard  enumerates  four  of  different 
colours.  Some  have  a  pale  red  rind,  and  are  internally 
quite  white ;  others,  witn  a  rind  usually  of  a  deeper  red, 
have  internally  reddish  stripes ;  others  again,  of  a  more 
or  less  deep  red,  have  red  circles ;  and  lastly,  there  are 
some  which,  with  a  rind  almost  white,  have  the  internal 
parts  yellow.  These  varieties  have  different  degrees  of 
value,  in  the  preparation  of  sugar.  That  which  is  white, 
with  a  light  red  rind,  deserves  the  preference  above  the 
others,  yielding  much  sugar,  and  an  agreeably  sweet  syrup. 
The  red-striped  or  circled  roots,  whose  rind  is  of  a  darker 
colour  than  the  kind  just  spoken  of,  afford  sugar;  but 
the  syrup  is  bad,  on  account  of  its  retention  of  the 
taste  of  the  root,  which  cannot  be  removed  but  by  expen- 
sive chemical  processes.  Those  with  a  white  rind  and 
yellow  interior  afford  much  crystallizable  sugar ;  but  are 
not  calculated  for  the  production  of  moist  or  raw  sugar, 
on  account  of  the  exceedingly  disagreeable  taste  of  the 
syrup. 

Achard  made  some  very  ingenious  inquiries  into  the 
effect  of  light  on  the  developement  of  a  saccharine  prin- 
ciple in  the  beet.  It  is  known  that  asparagus  becomes 
more  sweet  and  pleasant  to  the  taste  when  kept  excluded 
from  the  light  than  when  exposed  to  it.  Endive,  too, 
has  a  tough  harsh-tasted  leaf  when  exposed  to  the  free 
action  of  light ;  whereas,  when  the  inner  leaves  are  de- 
fended, by  tying  the  outer  ones  together,  they  change 
their  colour,  which  passes  from  green  to  yellow;  the 
firmness  of  their  texture  is  weakened;  they  become 
tender,  soft,  brittle,  and  full  of  juice ;  and  their  taste, 
which  was  before  exceedingly  disagreeable,  becomes  mild 
and  pleasant.  Reasoning  from  these  facts,  he  inquired, 
not  only  whether  any  particular  principle,  such  as  the 
saccharine,  was  affected  by  light,  but  also  whether  all 
parts  of  a  plant  were  similarly  affected,  or  whether  differ- 


24 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  17,  1841. 


ent  members  of  the  plant.  His  researches  led  him  to 
these  two  conclusions: — 1.  That  the  absence  of  light 
augments  the  saccharine  liquor  in  almost  all  roots,  or  in 
the  genus,  arising  therefrom;  that  its  presence  diminishes 
it;  and  that  to  shade  the  whole  surface  of  a  piece  of 
ground,  on  which  such  roots  are  raised,  adds  very  much 
to  the  increase  of  their  saccharine  matter.  2.  That 
light  has  not  the  same  effects  on  the  different  parts  of 
the  same  plant;  for,  in  the  case  of  ihe  fruity  so  far  from 
being  influenced  in  the  same  way  as  the  root,  the  saccha- 
rine matter  is  augmented  by  the  presence  of  light,  and, 
on  the  contrary,  is  not  only  retarded  but  diminished  by 
the  absence  of  light.  As  a  further  support  of  his 
opinion,  he  states  that  the  upper  parts  of  carrots,  par- 
snips, beet,  and  other  vegetables,  which  are  not.  covered 
by  the  earth,  lose  the  sweet  taste  naturally  belonging  to 
them;  while  the  root,  which  is  enveloped  in  the  ground, 
possesses  much  of  the  saccharine  principle. 

The  way  in  which  Achard  proposes  to  take  advantage 
of  these  effects  is,. to  shield  as  much  as  possible  the  beet 
root  from  the  action  of  light  during  growth,  and  to  ex- 
pose the  upper  part  of  the  plant  freely  to  its  influence, 
jn  order  that  the  saccharine  principle,  naturally  belong- 
ing to  the  plant  as  a  whole,  m^y  settle  down  more  and 
more  completely  in  the  root.  It  is  for  a  similar  reason, 
that  he  prefers  the  spindle-shaped  roots  to  those  of  a 
more  globular  form,  as  being  more  likely  to  keep  from 
the  influence  of  light.  Of  the  different  varieties  of  root 
which  were  tried,  Achard  found  sugar  to  'result  more 
abundantly  from  those  whiQh  were  of  small  siae,  and 
oonsequentiy  had  gprown  near  one  another;  or  whose 
heads  had  been  buried  underground ;  or  which  had  flat 
heads,  and  therefore,  from  which  the  leaves  had  not 
been  taken  off;  or,  finally,  which  possessed  a  conical  or 
spindle-shape,  and  had  not  been  transplanted,  but  had 
received  their  full  growth  in  the  places  where  they  ger- 
minated from  seed.  On  the  contrary  it  was  found  that 
only  pulp  and  ill-tasted  syrup  were  formed  from  roots 
which  were  strong  and  thick,  and  consequently  grew  at 
a  greater  distance  from  one  another,  or  from  those  whose 
heads  were  large  and  round. 

It  therefore  appears,  that  in  order  to  produce  roots 
which  shall  yield  a  remunerating  quantity  of  saccharine 
matter,  the  pUnts  should  be  planted  with  that  degree  of 
proximity  to  each  other,  that  the  leaves  shall  spread  over 
the  wnole  surface  of  the  ground,  and  form  a  kind  of 
umbrageous  canopy.  These  leaves  are  not  to  be  cut 
until  about  the  month  of  September  or  October,  when 
the  root  itself  is  taken  up. 

The  reader  will  then  understand,  that  according  to  the 
experience  of  Achard,  the  cultivation  of  the  beet  for  the 
production  of  sugar  is. not  a. difficult  process^  considered 
in  an  agricultural  point  of  view ;  but  that  care  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  root  excluded  from  the  action  of  light. 
The  plant  will  then  attain,  by  the  month  of  October, 
the  condition  which  is  required  for  this  purpose.  We 
shall  in  another  paper,  Uierefore,  trace  the  routine  of 
processes  by  which  the  sugar  is  obtained  from  the  beet- 
root. 

HTMM. 

God  of  Nature,  God  of  love  I 

Seen  below,  around,  above, 

Traced  in  every  varied  form, 

Heard  in  every  awful  storm; 

Glorious  in  the  noondayiight. 

Mild  and  beautiful  in  night; 

Now,  O  bounteous  Lord  !  to  Thee, 

Low  we  bend  the  suppliant  knee. 

•Tis  thy  goodness  glows  around. 

Decks  the  fields,  and  clothes  the  ground ; 

'Tis  thy  breath,  in  gentle  galds, 

Sweeps  along  the  dewy  v^es ; 

*Tis  thy  bounteous  hand  distils 
Healthful  waters  from  the  hills; 
To  Thee,  O  Grod  1  our  lives  we  owe, 
And  every  blessing  here  below. 


THB   TRUE  USE  OF   TALENT. 

There  can  be  no  doabt  that  the  great  piimtry  end,  to 
which  eveiy  man  of  talent  should  consider  his  powers,  in 
whatever  line  of  Intellect  or  attainment  thev  nay  predomi- 
nantly lie,  as  solemnly  and  sacredl  v  pledged,  is  the  promo- 
tion of  the  gloiT  of  the  great  Antnor  of  his  bdng.  This 
-was  the  very  object  for  wnich  such  an  order  of  mind  ins 
bestowed  upon  him,  and  proportioned  to  the  superior  eoofj 
and  capability  of  that  mind  is  unquestionably  the  force  of 
the  obbgation  by  which  he  is  bound  to  oivB  its  ezertiou  « 
sound  and  salutary  direction.  This  is  the  central  point,  to 
which  every  ray  throughout  the  whole  cade  or  hnmaa 
endowments  should  stiSdily  and  uniformly  conveige.  It 
is  true  indeed  that  the  object  may  be  promoted  in  ysiious 
ways— that  it  may  be  advanced  by  different  habits  and  mo- 
difications of  intellectual  exercise.  In  estabUshbir  the 
gl<Mry  of  the  Deity  as  the  great  standard  to  which  aU  the 
efforts  of.  the  mind  should  be  ultimately  referred,  there  ii 
no  necessity  that  the  feculties  should  be  cramped  m  their 
exercises— 4hat  they  should  be  confined  in  thdr  attainmenti^ 
partial  in  their  ^plication,  and  timid  in  their  resesichei 
With  this  object,  on  the  oontrsry,  their  most  unfettered 
developementr--their  most  extensive  and  loftiest  exconioii^ 
so  fer  firom  beinff  incomnatible,  are  in  the' highest dqpee 
conffenial.  In  the  grana  syston  of  the  moral  uniTcne^ 
whue  the  glory  of  its  Author,  as  the  sun,  occnpies  the 
centre,  there  is  range  enough  both  for  the  flaming  comet, 
which  wheehi  through  its  distant  round— etUl  nowera 
paying  the  homage  ofa  strict  and  undeyiating  gravitation- 
and  for  Uie  niilder  planet,  which  appears  to  pursue  a  moie 
FM^ular  and  uniform  course.  Whatever  may  be  the  anioiut 
ot  the  talents  whidi  any  individual  has  received,  there  is 
abundant  scope  for  their  exercise,  and  for  carrying  on  sadi 
a  profitable  negotiation  in  the  varied  intercourse  of  hnnun 
sodety,  as  may  enable  him,  on  the  great  day  of  aocoimt 
while  he  feels  himself  to  be  at  best  an  unprofitable  sery^nt^ 
to  return  them,  in  4>e  language  of  the  paxa}>Ie,  with  nsoir 
to  Him  that  gave  them.  As  the  scenes  of  nature  are  iafi- 
nitely  diversified— as  its  laws  require  to  be  investigated  and 
its  beauties  to  be  displayed, '  by  the  exercise'  of  appropriate 
powers  of  mind,  uid  as  the  attributes  of  Deity  admit  of 
various  modes  of  illustratipn,  there  is  obviously  opportomty 
afforded  for  the  developement  of  every  order  of  talent,  m 
fi>r  the  indulffence  of  every  pure  ana  weU-regulated  taste, 
while  the  end  is  still  unifenn  and  the  same.  Science,  Im* 
tory,  philosophy,  poetry,  and  the  fine  arts  may  be  cultivated 
in  all  their  departments  with  all  the  enthusiasm  which  the 
most  devoted  adherent  of  these  pursuits  may  desire,  with- 
out any  necessary  dereliction  of  that  primary  design  to 
which  they  must  all  be  subordinate.  The  intellect  may 
prosecute  its  researches  and  delight  itself  with  the  disco- 
veries of  truth ;  the  judgment  may  arrange  her  materials 
and  form  them  into  trains  of  reasoning ;  the  memoi^  may 
accumulate  her  treasures  and  make  still  firesh  additions^ 
her  stores;  the  imagination  may  embody  her  viaons, «m 
fancy  may  weave  her  garlands ;  while  the  eye  of  the  ooind  u 
still  firmly  fixed  upon  that  which  gives  a  character  of  aati- 
ness  to  every  effort.  All  that  is  really  wanted  is  simphcny 
of  purpose  and  a  sublime  rectitude  of  aun.  The  spirit  ofmaj 
was  never  desiffned  to  be  stretched  upon  a  Procrustean  brf, » 
the  form  and  dimensions  of  which  the  elastic  powers  of  t^e 
soul  are  to  be  rigidly  adapted  and  measured.  But  while 
the  mind  may  jnstiy  assert  its  native  liberty  of  •ctw^ 
while  it  may  refuse  to  have  its  kindling  enerpes  smotherw 
beneath  the  choking  layers  of  anti^uat^  notion^  and  pre- 
dilections, and  toshape  its  conceptions  into  a  serrile  «»' 
formity  to  the  model  of  prevading  and  ordinary  scao- 
ment— whUe  it  is  privileged  to  expatiate  with  fireedom  ow 
the  varied  field  of  thought,  there  must  still  be  a  pwnt  wiin 
which  it  will  be  found  to  move  in  harmony.  Thou«s » 
may  rise  above  the  influences  of  earth,  there  must  wJJ"* 
luminary  in  the  heavens— there  must  be  a  **??»•  ?!^ 
varying  ragaid  to  the  glory,  the  majesty, Jhe  ^JJ^  ^ 
purposes  oi       "       *  -  .    •«" 

reservedly 

i^^lfwightas  STfebled  Phaeton  of  directing  the  cl 
of  the  sun. — ^Daviss's  Handmaid, 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  S^^/JfJ^at 

Pabts,  PBica  SizrsMCS.         ^^  _^^ 
Sold  bxaUBoQkMitan  and  ZYewvreDtenlnthtSiPfdflB. 


Jbatuttiiiil 


N?581. 


JULY 


241?,  1841.  {oJ^. 


THE   BANKS  OF  THE  THAMEa    V. 


WINDME  CUTLS. 


Not  ctuiM-lika  iDg«ih«r  cnuhgd  ud  bruiud, 
BdI.  m  Iha  WDcld.  bi  '      ' 


■oufamU  tU 


I  pan  VAViuud  thfl  dAJ  ; 

D  lainu  and  wmiDf^  ffl*^. 
I  •ban  Hch  oU»n'  iIudH. 


Eno  th*  wild  bauh  diqpl^a  hu  paiple  djca, 
And  ^dit  ths  dant  frnitAil  Baldi  «u«, 


liM  iDfii  boMt  bar  ^tnta,  nor  adfj  « 

~~      '  JubdnrtiH, 

pndoM  la*d>  I 


.  .  •fins  inkK  or  tbs  liabiT  tm, 
WUb  W  MB  uki  dw  pndoM  la*d>  m  boru. 
And  iitnM 


When  Mr.  Ireland  wrote  his  deacription  of  the  Thamei, 
aeariy  half  a  century  ago,  he  Nnd,  "  Were  I  to  fix  on  a 
■pot  for  a  inctare,  it  should  be  at  tumiog  the  bend  of 
-Jie  river  at  Clewer,  when  by  the  eveninr  sun  the  parts 
tre  so  beautifully  discriioinated,  and  so  happily  massed 
ly  the  shadows,  a*  to  form  a  splendid  object,  in  which 
>eauty  and  dirnity  are  equally  combined."  How  Hr 
he  progress  of  builiUng  during  the  last  fifty  years  may 
lave  leasened  the  picturesque  beauty  of  the  scene,  would 
>erbaps  be  eatimated  di&rently  by  different  persons; 
>ut  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  view  of  Windsor 
Castle,  and  other  places  near  Clewer,  is  one  of  the  most 
nterestinK  which  the  banks  of  the  llames  afford.  The 
Vol.  XIX. 


whole  ndghbonrhood  teems  with  usociations :  Wndaor 
Castle,  the  residence  of  so  many  sovereigiis;  Eton, 
with  its  distinguished  seminary;  Datchet  Meads,  and 
Heme's  Oak,  with  their  Shaksperian  associations;  all 
arrest  the  attention  of  the  Thames  tourist  at  this  spot. 

The  Thames  passes  between  Windsor  and  Eton, 
having  the  former  town  on  the  south  bank,  and  the 
latter  on  the  north.  The  town  of  Windsor  has  tte- 
quently  the  additional  epithet  of  "  New  "  attached  to  it, 
to  distingnisfa  it  from  Old  Windsor,  a  village  a  mile  or 
two  distant.  Like  many  other  towns  in  England,  it 
seems  to  have  owed  its  origin  to  the  castle  built  near  it. 

The  Castle  was  commenced  hy  William  the  Conqueror, 
who  chose  the  summit  of  a  lofty  hill  for  the  site,  partly 
as  a  matter  of  security,  and  partly  for  the  pleasantness 
of  the  situation.  He  enclosed  parks,  made  large  forests 
for  hunting,  and  enacted  laws  for  the  preservation  of 
game.  Henry  the  First  added  a  chapel  and  other  apart- 
ments, as  well  as  walls  and  ramparts.  This  monarch, 
as  well  at  John,  and  the  first  two  Edwards,  made  Wind- 
sor a  frequent  place  of  residence.  Edward  the  Third 
pulled  down  neaHy  the  whole  of  the  Castle,  and  erected 
the  greater  part  of  the  present  splendid  structure.  The 
work  was  accomplished  under  the  direction  of  William 
of  Wykeham,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Winchester,  and 
one  of  the  most  able  architects  of  his  time.  He  re- 
ceived ttvtn  thillmgt  per  meek  as  his  professional 
emolument, — a  large  sum  in  those  days.  It  is  said  that 
be  waa  on  the  brink  of  di^jace  by  having  cut  in  a  stone 
581 


26 


THE  SATURaA¥  MAGAZINE. 


[July  24, 


of  the  new  bujlding  the  words,  "  This  made  Wykehaip,*' 
asentpnce  c^p^Jile  of  ft  dpuble  njeaning,  |>u^  whip^i  he 
explained  as  Intended  |q  imply  ^ht  the  castle  wa^  the 
miOiinff  of  his  fbrtupe.  Bt,  George's  Chapel  was  begun 
by  Edward  the  Third,  and  finished  by  Edward  the  Fourth, 
whQ  iff^  buried  there,  and  whose  remains  were  found  in 
}9S9t  in  a  aqifin  beneath  his  monument. 

Nearly  all  the  successive  monarchs  down  to  the  time 
of  Elizabeth  made  some  additions  or  improvements  to 
the  Castle;  and  indeed  the  same  may  be  said  of  subse- 
quent sovereigns.  Henry  the  Seventh  made  additions 
to  the  chapel  and  upper  ward;  Henry  the  Eighth  rebuilt 
the  principal  gateway ;  Elizabeth  constructed  the  terrace 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Castle ;  and  Charles  the  First 
also  made  some  alterations.  During  the  fury  of  the 
Republicans,  the  Castle  suffered  much  damage;  but 
Charles  the  Second,  on  his  reston^tion,  repaired  the  in- 
juries which  it  had  sustained,  furnished  the  royal  apart- 
ments in  a  costly  manner,  formed  a  collection  of  paint- 
ings, and  also  a  fnagaa ine  pf  arina« 

Passing  over  the  iptefmediate  monarchs,  we  come  to 
the  time  pf  Q^orgp  tlie  Third,  who  made  very  great 
alteration!  mi^f  tha  superintendence  of  Mr.  James 
Wyatt,  Tt^ese  ec^isisted  chiefly  in  rendering  the  apart- 
ments htbiU^blpi  and  iiitroducing  the  more  modern  com- 
forts in^  theif  arrangements ;  in  the  rpbuUding  of  the 
great  B^irqi9#;  thp  pestorfition  pf  the  pointed  s^yle  of 
architeotuvpy  Wftic])  ChsM^tef  the  Second  had  displaced  for 
othera  InPQY^ftMtent  ^ith  ^e  general  chm'i^pt^r  of  tb« 
building;  ihe  thprftuffh  repair  of  St,  Georgp*8  Chapel; 
and  the  preparatipn  or  a  mausoleum  fbr  his  Majesty  and 
his  de|K)p|id^ts<  After  the  death  of  that  monarch,  his 
successflf  Qmn  ^  ^V^  pl«nne4  f^^  and  still 
more  eiEfpnajfp  MHmff^i  upW»  wWc*»  8i»  Jeftf  Wjltf iU«i 
was  engigp4  AmWAMt  thu  Uw'l  Wmt  Sveh  since 
that  perindi  pim9i<wf^b|p  filter^ppn^  naye  been  ini|4e9 
and  greal  putlay  has  beeR  inPWFf^  ii  mikiM  tbn  jwhu* 

fit  for  the  mif^pe  of  ibp  i^vpmgii  of  %  g^  wnwtry. 

The  buildiiiif  PAmpptiny  t^f  C^^tle  |«p  pbout  a  mile 
in  circumference,  ^^  9^  cfHlUlined  in  Of  lunrpunded  by 
three  wards  or  courts.  The  upper  ward  contains  on  the 
north  side  the  state  apartments,  and  the  hall  and  chapel 
of  St.  George.  On  the  east  and  south  sides  are  the 
sovereign's  private  apartments  and  those  of  the  royal 
household.  The  old  principal  gateway,  being  low  and 
inconvenient,  was  replaced  by  a  new  one,  of  noble  and 

HBBV^ilg  »|iyfllWW>Pft  opposite  tp  tbft  ginod  eniranee  of 
th^  s^te  ppartinpDts,  t^d  dtreotly  in  a  line  with  the 
img  W«lk  in  ^e  Great  Park»  whiob  tbiif  forms  a  mag- 
aifio^^  avvmia  in  the  approiu^  to  the  Castle«  On  either 
side  of  t^e  gateway  l^  a  tpwert  one  called  York  and  the 
pthpf  l4M»paster  tower.  Around  thp  fouth  and  east 
udes  of  the  court  runs  %  flop  eorridor*  more  than  five 
hnndred  fee^  m  length,  forming  a  medium  of  communi- 
catipn  botwoen  the  differait  buildings  $ad  afiartmoRts 
lyhiob  surroi|o4  it 

Aa  we  cannot  itt«inp^  in  thia  pla4Ni  to  doaeribe  the 
ftfitp  apartmeiite  which  «ur«pttiid  tho  upper  ward*  va 
shall  p^9«  to  ^  lowor  ward*  This  is  much  more  spa- 
cioHv  thaR  tbo  other.,  and  is  divided  into  two  parU  by 
St.  Georgp  f  Qiapel,  behind  which  •««  the  reatdenoes  of 
the  dean  aod  PMOfit.  Tho  apariaiients  of  the  minor 
canons,  clerM^  and  othor  eodesiaatioal  officen*  an  situ- 
ated  at  thp  west  pod  of  die  ehapel,  in  what  ara  tennad 
the  Hor^shoe  Cloislera.  Hia  ooUai^  chapel  of  fit 
George,  considered  as  an  aeolasiaatical  estabUshnenft, 
ponstsu  pf  a  doiiii  twplve  aaaoni,  sevan  minor  canons, 
thirteen  ky  clprks,  tjsn  choristers,  a  stevavd,  a  troasiisar, 
^nd  inferior  offioers.  Various  towers*  appropriated  to 
di^erent  purposes,  occupy  portions  of  the  buildings 
surrounding  the  lower  ward* 

The  middle  ward  is  occupied  almost  solely  by  the 
oelebrated  Keep,  or  Round  Tower,  the  most  conspicuous 
object  in  the  Castle.  It  contains  the  apartments  of  the 
constobh^  or  governor  ef  t^  CasUi^  who  his  ibaeom- 


mand  of  the  Castle,  its  garrison,  and  magazine  of  arms, 
holds  a  court  of  rpcord,  apd  is  juiJge  of  th?  pleas  between 
parties  within  the  precipet^  of  Windsor  Fqres^.  In 
ancient  times  the  custody  of  distinguished  state  pri&o&cr) 
was  committed  to  his  care.  John,  king  of  France, 
David,  king  of  S(:ptland,  the  Earl  of  Surrpy,  the  Lad 
of  Lauderdale,  the  Earl  of  Lindsay,  and  the  Mar^U 
de  Belleisle,  are  among  the  distinguished  men  who  verc 
at  ditferent  periods  confined  in  this  keep.  Id  the  Tit-w 
enjoyed  from  the  battlements  of  this  tower,  the  wind- 
ings of  tlie  Thames,  with  the  succession  of  Tillage. 
mansions,  and  detached  farm-houses,  the  luxuriant  knc- 
scape  of  the  parks  and  forest,  the  bird's-eye  prospect  of 
the  town,  and  a  vast  tract  of  country  extending  to  the 
hills  in  the  remote  distance,  combine  to  form  a  panorama 
which,  for  beauty  and  magnificence,  is  considered  to  be 
almost  unequalled.  I'welve  counties  are  included  witiiin 
the  range  of  view,  via.:  Middlesex,  Essex,  HenfonL 
Bedford,  Buckingham,  Berkshire,  Oxfordshire,  Wiltshire, 
Hampshire,  Surrey,  Sussex,  and  Kent. 

Two  parks  are  attached  to  the  royal  domain.  Hie 
Little  Park  contains  abont  five  hundred  acres,  and  is  four 
miles  in  circumference,  extending  on  the  north  and  east 
sides  of  the  Castle  to  the  river  Thames.  It  was  enclosed 
with  tk  brick  wall  by  William  the  Third,  and  is  chie^r 
stocked  with  sheep,  cattle,  and  a  small  herd  of  red  deer. 
In  this  park,  which  abounds  with  hares,  George  the  Tbini 
frequently  took  the  diversion  of  coursing;  and  on  the 
south-east  side  of  it  stood  a  venerable  tree,  known  by 
th^  name  of  Kernels  Oak,  and  which,  according  to  tra- 
dition, was  the  identical  tree  mentioned  by  Shakspere. 
«( Master  Psge  "  informs  us  that 

There  H  an  old  tale  goes,  that  Heme  iSkm  honter, 
fioine  time  a  keeper  here  in  Wimhor  iV>rest, 
poth  all  t)ie  viute^  tiuie,  at  »U11  uiiduight, 
vfajtk  rouud  abtmt  aii  cm^k  with  p«at  nif;^  bona. 
And  there  )ie  blasts  the  tree,  and  taktit  wn  caulei 
And  makei  nilch-ltlpe  yfeM  blood,  and  aliaVes  a  chlWi 
In  a  meet  hideeua  and  dreadful  inaaner. 

It  has  been  said  that  If #rae,  ml^  ^^  ^p^  9f  ^^^ 
forest  in  the  time  of  Queen  ^Uf^t)|i)|§?|ligi^<WMi^^^f^ 
some  great  offence,  was  h^ng  pn  tliis  |fp^;  apd  tbat  (ta 
credulity  of  the  times  easily  worked  on  the  minds  of 
the  ignorant  to  suppose  that  his  ghost  should  haunt  \k 
spot.  It  was  cut  down  a  few  years  ago,  and  converted 
into  various  little  articles  of  furniture  and  ornament,  a> 
Shaksperian  relics.  Frogmore  Lodge,  formed j  beloof- 
ing  to  Queen  Charlotte,  and  afterwards  the  property  acJ 
residence  of  the  Princess  Augusta  SophiSy  is  separated 
from  the  Little  Park  only  by  the  London  road. 

The  Great  Park  adjoins  the  south  side  of  the  town. 
At  one  time  it  consisted  of  four  thousand  acres,  ^^  ^^ 
fourteen  miles  in  circumference;  but  King  Geoi^  the 
Third  set  apart  about  half  of  it,  fof  the  formation  of 
experimental  farms,  and  other  purposes  connected  viin 
agriculture.  The  scenery  of  this  park,  which  is  stocked 
with  several  thousand  heads  of  deer,  is  both  varied  and 
picturesque.  It  is  intersected  by  several  roads,  the  pnn- 
cipal  of  which,  known  as  the  Long  Walk,  skirted  hv  an 
avenue  of  majestic  trees,  commences  at  the  new  entrance 
gateway  of  the  upper  w^d,  and  extending  nearly  tiiree 
miles  in  length,  terminates  at  the  summit  of  a  bold  n^< 
commanding  a  superb  view  of  the  Castle,  Eton  College  on 
thfi  other  side  of  the  river,  and  the  couatry  beyond  tbes* 
At  various  parts  of  the  paric  have  been  erected  lodgft 
or  Dottages,  as  retired  sumaec  residences  fbr  difreffn| 
ttembers  of  th«  royal  family;  among  whkh  vere  the 
Royal  Lodge  and  Cumfaerland  Lodge.  One  of  tbe 
rides  in  the  park  forins  the  principid  approacii  to 
Virgiaiai  Water,  a  beautiful  lake  at  die  soothem  »^^'j[ 
of  the  park,  and  terminating  at  a  fanciful  botldiof  ^^^ 
the  fishing  temple.  This  spot  was  a  lavourice  resort 
of  his  Majesty  George  the  Fourth ;  and  was  by  m 
adorned  with  miniature  frigates  and  pleasure  boots. 
Several  bridges,  one  of  then  wkh  a  smgie  srch  of  a 
I  hnndred and sis^-five feet  spaoy  cross  tiiis^  pi^^ 


■1841.] 


ttii  SATURl)At  i*A6A^INE. 


2r 


water,  wliicli,  pear  the  road  to  Basingstoke,  forms  d 
beautiful  cascade,  and  then  flows  on  in  a  stream  that 
winds  through  the  western  part  of  Surrey,  and  falls  into 
the  Thames  near  Chertsey. 

To  enumerate   the   various   points  of   interest   and 
attraction  presented  by  Windsdr  Castle,  would  be  wholly 
out  of  place  in  a  series  of  articles  such  as  the  present ; 
we  must  therefore  proceed  onward  in  our  tour.     Passing 
under  Windsor  Bridge,  and  along  the  margin  of  the 
playing  fields  of  Eton  College,  the  bend  of  the  Thames 
presents  a  fine  view  of  the   north   front  of  Windsor 
Castle.     Winding   round   the   Little    JE^ark,   the   river 
pursues  its  course  to  Datchet,  a  pretty  village  on  the 
northern  shore ;  at  a  short  distance  from  which  is  Ditton 
Park,  the   residence  of  Lord  Montagu.     The  original 
mansion,  a  venerable  structure  which  had  beeii  enlarged 
at  various  times  since  its  first  erection  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  the  Third,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1812.     On 
its  site  has  been  built,  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  Atkinson, 
a  handsome  castellated  edifice,  with  turrets  and  battle- 
ments, surrounded  by  a  moat,  and  having  its  principal 
entrance  defended  by  an  embattled  gateway,  flanked  with 
towers.     A  drawbridge  crossing  the  moat,  connects  the 
house  and  grounds  with  the  park. 

On  the  opposite  bank  of  the  river  soon  appears  Old 
Windsor,  which  has  been  termed  a  "  village  of  villas." 
Near  the  margin  ot  the  river  is  situated  Old  Windsor 
Manor  House,  partly  surroundedby  a  moat,and  exhibiting 
OQ  the  water-front  the  appearance  of  an  ancient  manorial 
edifice.  But  the  most  conspicuous  object  at  Old  Windsor 
is  Beaumont  Lodge,  built  a  few  years  ago  on  the  site  of 
an  older  structure  erected  in  the  early  part  of  the  last 
century.  The  mansion  is  remarkable  as  presenting  a 
specimen  of  what  has  been  terined  a  hew  style  of  archi- 
tecture, viz.  the  British.  The  principal  front  is  of  con- 
siderable elevation ;  its  chief  feature  is  a  corridor  con- 
sisting of  coupled  columns,  or  father  columns  in  imita- 
lion  of  twin  trees  growing  from  one  root ;  between  the 
stems  is  introduced  the  shield  of  a  knight;  and  the 
capitals  are  formed  after  the  caps  worn  by  the  Knights 
of  the  Garter,  the  star  of  the  order  forming  a  centre; 
and  the  whole  is  finished  with  Ionic  volutes,  and  emble- 
matic figures  of  the  arms  of  England*  The  metopes 
are  ornamented  by  the  George  and  Collar;  the  decora- 
tions of  the  frieze  over  the  columns  are  composed  of 
ostrich  feathers,  tied  with  ribbons  and  blended  with 
acorns ;  while  the  continued  frieze  is  made  up  of  naval 
and  military  trophies.  This  attempt  to  form  a  national 
style  of  architecture  was  made  by  a  Mr.  Emlyn  of 
AVmdsor;  but  it  does  not  appeiau:  to  have  met  with 
encouragement. 

THE  OIL-BEETLE  AND  THE  BLISTERING-^ 

BEETLE. 

The  genus  of  coleopterous  insects,  named  Melos  by 
Lmnaeus,  belonging  to  the  section  Heteromera  and  the 
family  Cantharids,  includes  some  very  remarkable  in- 
sects, which  may  be  generally  described  as  having  the 
body  large  and  distended,  the  wings  entirely  wanting,  and 
the  elytra  short,  oval,  and  folding  partially  over  each 
other   at  the  base:  the  antenna)  are  eleven-jointed,  of 
nearly  equal  thickness  throughout,  or  dilated  and  knotted 
in  a.  singular  manner,  or  elbowed  in  the  centre,  espe- 
cia  Ily  in  the  males.     The  body  b  generally  of  a  deep 
hla^k,  bordering  in  many  species  on  bluish  and  violet, 
an«i^  very  much  punctuated.     These  insects  are  of  a  com- 
P^i^^tively  large  size:  they  are  very  inactive,  crawling 
^hi^^gishly  upon  the  ground,  in  the  fields,  tilled  lands,  on 
flm       edges  of  highways,  or  among  low  herbage  upon 
\vJi£;^  ch  they  feed;  but  they  seem  to  prefer  sandy  or  cal- 
\ir^;:^Qij^g  places  exposed  to  the  sun.    When  seized  or  dis- 
'^rfcsoed  they  emit,  from  the  articulations  of  each  knee  of 
^"^ir  legs,  a  viscous  fluid,  similar  to  oil,  of  a  yellow 
v.\v.^vir  and  disagreeable  odour.  This  oil  was  once  highly 


celebrated  !br  its  isupposed  eftcacy  in  rheumatic  pains 
when  used  as  an  embtw^tion  to  the  parts  aflFected:  for 
this  puti)bBe  alsd  oil  was  obtained  by  crushing  the  insectii 
In  a  pf»4«  This  oil  was  also  used  as  a  specific  against 
ihiidheisi  And  farHers  in  toiHe  cases  employed  oil  iii 
which  thfege  insects  had  been  macerated.  These  insects, 
of  which  eight  dir  nine  species  occur  in  Britain,  are 
most  frequent  in  sprihff  and  autumn,  ana  some  of  themi 
especially  the  type,  HMoe  pro9carahafutt  are  not  uncoma 
mbn.  They  possess  tb  a  certain  extent  the  vesicatory 
powers  of  ^e  Cantharidiss,  and  are  used  in  dome  parti 
of  SpAin  instead  of  the  true  bUstei-.fly.  The  fbmale^ 
when  filled  with  eggs,  become  grbatly  dilated,  andekceea 
the  males  in  size.  Go6dArt  preserved  a  feihale  prosca- 
rabaeus,  and  fed  it  with  anemone  and  ranunculus  leaves. 
Between  the  12th  o^.  May  and  the  iSth  t»f  June  it  laid 
2212  eggs^  besides  about  al  many  more  which  were  not 
counted.  These  eggs  Were  produced  at  two  aeparattt 
times,  the  insect  depositing  the  eggs  in  a  hole  in  the 
ground,  which  it  had  niade  with  the  posterior  extremity 
of  its  belly.  These  eggs  were  yellow,  and  resembled 
small  grains  of  sand  pressed  together.  The  larvaa,  ac-» 
cording  to  this  observer,  have  the  body  long,  cylindricAl^ 
sprinkled  with  hairs,  composed  of  eleven  rings,  ahnort 
equals  and  with  an  oval  head,  furnished  with  two  eyeft 
and  two  longiah  antehnsB.  They  have  six  legs,  of  hither 
lar^  HiBe,  coinpAred  With  the  body^  Which  it  terminated 
With  two  Ibng  appendages,  in  the  fbrm  of  silky  hairs. 
Gb^'dart  was  not  able  to  rear  .the^e  larvae,  although  he 
fed  them  with  a  vainety  of  animal. ai^d  vegetable  matter. 
This  want  of  success  nas  attended  the  efforts  of  tnanf 
other  entomologists! 

These  larvie  are  aupposed  by  some  obsehri^rs  to  bA 
parasitical  on  the  bodiAs  of  Wlngled  insects.  Degeer 
having  noticed  that  a  §trbng  resemblance  existed  between 
the  larva  of  Melo^  and  a,  ^mall  insect  which  he  found 
adhering  to  the  body  of  a  fly  resexnbling  the  humble  bee, 
placed  some  domestic  flies  amoiig  the  larvae  of  the 
Mielbe,  And  found  that  in  less  than  half  An  hour  a  very 
g^reat  number  of  thesA  lA^vas  had  bAcbme  attached  to  the 
breast  Atld  belly  of  the  fceS.  After  sbihe  vain  efforts  to 
get  rid  of  thA  larvas  the  filed  lierished  on  the  second  or 
third  day,  and  the  larVdd  Abandoned  the  body.  Having 
been  furtiished  during  ihany  days  with  living  flies,  they 
fastened  \^n  thein.  As  Sbbh  as  a  Ay  passed  near  Uieoi 
there  were  always  some  which  directly  seized  it  by  the 
fbot  of  wihg.  And  hevAr  quitted  theiir  hold  until  in  a 
fhvourable  situation  to  attack  the  hody.  t)egeer  foUnd, 
however,  thAt  they  did  not  increase  in  size,  and,  neglect- 
ing to  sujpbly  them  with  victimd,  they  all  died. 

Otheir  bbs^rvAIrs  hairA  Cbntended  that  the  larvae  spokea 
of  AbovA  weirA  tiot  thole  of  the  Aieloe,  but  of  some 
other  insect;  but  as  the  information  does  tiot  rest  upon 
Degeer's  information  alone,  the  early  history  of  the 
Meloe  must  be  considered  a§  quite  unsettled. 

The  Meloe  vesicdtoriits  of  Linnaeus  (  Caniharis  oJuA* 
nalis  of  Geoffrey)  is  the  celebrated  blister-fly,  or  Spaniah 
fly,  so  much  used  in  medicine.  It  is  distinguished  gene- 
Hcally  by  the  bossessioil  of  complete  wings  and  wing- 
covers,  oy  having  the  joints  of  the  tarsi  entire,  and  not 
bilobed,  and  the  thorax  nearly  ovoid :  the  body  is  long 
and  harrow.  With  thA  heAd  rather  longer  than  the  thorax : 
the  Second  joint  of  the  Antennae  is  very  small.  This  in- 
sect varies  very  much  in  its  lize,  being  sometimes  not 
more  than  half  ad  inch  long,  while  others  are  twice  that 
length.  It  is  of  a  rich  gteen  And  golden  colour,  very 
shining,  and  delicately  punctured,  with  the  antennae 
(except  the  first  joint)  black.  It  id  very  rare  in  this 
country,  but  has  been  seen  occasionally  near  Cheltenham 
and  elsewhete. 

The  Canthaxia  ia  one  of  thoaA  inseeta  which  have  been 
most  anciently  and  most  universally  known.  PhyaiciaQ^ 
who  were  the  first  natural  philosophers,  and  the  first  ob- 
servers of  nature^  have  made  mention  of  the  cantharidea  in 
the  remotest  Umes,    But  theyhAve  bhly  considered  them 

581—2 


28 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  24, 


under  that  relation  which  was  most  suitable  to  their  own 
profession,  and  as  furnishing  to  medicine  one  of  its  most 
powerful  agents.  The  naturalist,  who  is  less  anxious  about 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  medicinal  virtues  of  the  dead, 
than  wiUi  the  peculiar  habits  of  the  living  cantharides,  is 
yet  very  far  from  having  acquired  in  this  regpeci  certain, 
extensive,  and  satisfactory  information.  The  only  species 
which  has  been  deemed  to  be  endowed  with  useful  proper- 
ties has  caused  a  forgetfulness  of  all  the  others  which  com- 
pose the  entire  genus;  and  all  that  we  know  in  general  re-' 
^>ecting  these  insects  is,  that  in  our  European  climates  they 
Lve  on  plants,  devour  Uie  leaves  of  certam  trees,  shun  the 
cold,  appear  at  the  commencement  of  sprinff,  and  disappear 
at  the  D«ginning  of  autumn.  We  are  therefore  unable  to  do 
any  more  than  present  some  general  ideas  respecting  the 
cantharis  which  is  peculiarly  consecrated  to  the  purposes  of 
medicine. 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  experiments  on  insects 
relatively  to  their  utility  in  medicine  and  ^  the  artsj 
have  been  too  much  neglected  in  general.  Their  diminu- 
tive size  has  doubtless  caused  them  to  be  too  much 
despised.  It  cannot,  however,  be  doubted  that  there 
must  be  a  great  number  of  them  whose  virtues  are  at  least 
equal  to  those  of  the  cantharides,  and  many  others  which 
are  less  acrid  and  less  caustic,  might  in  many  cases  be  taken 
internally,  with  less  danger  and  a  greater  chance  of  success. 
We  may  rest  assured  that  all  the  species  which  belong  to  the 
genus  Vantharia  possess  pretty  nearly  the  same  virtues  as  the 
roecies  which  is  most  e;enerafly  known,  and  e<msequently  in 
all  the  countries  in  which  they  are  found,  the  same  usage 
might  be  made  of  them.  Among  the  insects  taken  firom 
other  genera,  which  mieht  fiun^  caustic  and  irritating 
particles,  and  which  might  be  substituted  for  the  cantha- 
rides to  a  certain  extent,  we  may  range  m«foe,  ff^lahrU, 
earabWf  tetMhriOy  cicinddoy  9caribeSy  eoecmellaj  &c.  The 
cast  skin  of  the  majority  of  the  caterpillars  produces  a  dust, 
which  scattered  by  the  vrinds,  raises  pustules  on  the  fiice  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact.  The  same  effSsct  is  occasioned  by 
the  hair  and  wool  of  certain  phalene  when  they  are 
touched.  Marian  found  at  Surinam  some  species  of  the 
larvs  of  lepidoptera,  which  one  could  not  touch  without 
being  suddimly  attacked  with  inflammation. 

The  early  history  of  this  insect  is  but  little  known. 
The  female  deposits  her  eggs  separately,  forming  them 
into  an  agglutinated  mass,  and  burying  them  underground* 
The  larvae  have  a  soft  body,  of  a  yellowish  white,  com- 
posed of  thirteen  rings;  the  head  rounded,  somewhat 
flat,  and  furnished  with  two  short  antennae:  the  mouth 
is  provided  with  two  tolerably  solid  jaws,  and  four 
antennulas.  They  have  six  short  and  scaly  feet.  They 
live  in  the  earth  and  feed  on  various  roots.  When  they 
have  attained  their  full  growth,  they  change  into  the 
nymph  state  ii^  the  earth,  and  do  not  come  out  of  it 
until  they  have  assumed  the  perfect  insect  form. 

The  cantharides  are  abundant  in  Spain  and  in  the  south 
of  France,  especially  in  the  month  of  June,  when  they 
assemble  for  the  purpose  of  pairing.  This  is  the  time 
when  they  must  be  seized,  especially  at  the  hour  of  sun- 
set or  sun-rise,  when  they  are  in  a  somewhat  torpid  state. 
They  are  found  upon  ash-trees,  Tartarian  honey-suckles, 
lilacs,  rose-trees,  poplars,  elms,  &c.,  the  leaves  of  which 
they  devour,  and  when  this  sort  of  food  is  wanting,  they 
throw  themselves  upon  com  and  grass,  and  commit  great 
damage.  As  they  appear  in  large  troops  or  swarms, 
and  are  accompanied  by  a  very  penetrating  odour,  some- 
what similar  to  that  of  mice,  it  is  not  difficult  to  dis- 
cover and  collect  them,  provided  certain  precautions  are 
adopted  which  should  never  be  neglected.  The  odorous 
particles  exhaled  by  them  are  so  very  corrosive,  that 
people  have  been  violently  affected  whilst  gathering  them 
duriuff  the  heat  of  the  day  with  bare  hands,  or  even  when 
they  nave  fallen  asleep  under  trees  where  swarms  of 
them  have  gathered.  The  persons  who  collect  them  are 
protected  by  masks  and  gloves. 

There  are  two  modes  of  collecting  cantharides.  The 
first  and  most  simple  consists  in  spreading  under  the 
tree  which  harbours  these  insects  several  cloths  on  which 
they  are  made  to  fall  by  shaking  or  beating  the  branches. 
The  insects  are  then  gathered  on  a  hair  sieve,  and  held 
over  the  vapour  of  boiling  vinegar,  which  kills  them ;  or 


they  are  collected  on  a  linen  cloth,  which  is  folded  and 
steeped  several  times  in  vinegar  and  water.  This  ii 
the  method  most  generally  adopted. 

The  second  method  is  to  spread  cloths  about  the  tree, 
and  the  vapour  of  vinegar  is  diffused  by  causing  it  to  be 
boiled  in  earthen  pans  placed  in  chafing-dishes.  The 
trees  are  then  shaken  to  cause  the  cantharides  to  fall: 
they  are  picked  up  inmiediately,  and  enclosed  for  twentj- 
four  hours  in  vessels  of  wood,  earth,  or  glass. 

When  the  insects  are  dead  it  is  necessary  to  dry  them 
thoroughly,  otherwise  they  would  contract  a  most  detest- 
able odour,  and  be  rendered  unfit  for  medicinal  purposes. 
For  this  purpose  they  are  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sod, 
or  of  a  stove,  or  they  are  placed  in  a  well^red  attic  on 
hurdles  covered  with  linen  cloth  or  paper.  They  are 
occasionally  stirred  about  with  a  stick,  or  with  the  haiuis 
protected  with  gloves,  for  without  tlxis  precaution  the 
workmen  would  be  exposed  to  the  most  painful  sensa- 
tions. When  properly  dried,  the  cantharides  are  so 
light  that  fifty  of  tnem  weigh  scarcely  a  dram. 

The  insects  are  preserved  in  boxes  or  bands  lined  with 
paper,  and  firmly  closed.  A  part  of  our  supply  of  can- 
tharides is  from  Astracan  and  Sicily :  but  though  bearing 
the  name  of  Spanish  blistering  fiies,  the  greatest  qusntitj 
is  obtained  from  St.  Petersburg;  and  the  Russian  insects 
are  said  to  be  superior  to  those  from  Sicily  and  France. 
Cantharides  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of  many  insects  tnd 
worms,  but  as  these  feed  only  on  the  inert  part,  they  do 
not  destroy  the  vesicant  property. 

Chemists  have  subjected  cantharides  to  analysis,  and 
have  separated  from  them  a  peculiar  substance,  which  s 
called  cantharadin:  this  is  the  vesicating  or  blistering 
principle  of  the  insect.  It  is  a  white  substance  under  the 
form  of  small  crystalline  plates ;  when  pure  it  is  insoluhk 
in  water;  it  is  soluble  in  ether,  in  boiling  hot  alcohol, 
and  in  the  fixed  oils.  Some  chemists  regard  it  as  a 
kind  of  animal  camphor. 

Cantharides  also  yield  to  analysis  the  following  snh- 
stances : — 1 .  A  greenish  fluid  oil,  insoluble  in  water,  hot 
soluble  in  alcohol.  This  is  inert.  2.  A  black  matter, 
also  inert;  it  is  soluble  in  alcohol  but  not  in  water.  3. 
A  yellow  viscid  matter  soluble  both  in  water  and  in 
alcohol.  This  has  no  blistering  property.  4.  A  little 
fatty  matter;  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia;  acetic 
and  uric  acids  also  occur  in  cantharides. 

The  external  application  of  cantharides  is  made  by 
reducing  them  to  powder,  mixing  them  up  with  some 
fatty  substance  and  applying  a  plaster  thus  formed  to  the 
surface  of  the  body.  It  immediately  begins  to  act,  and 
detaches  the  outer  skin  firom  the  dermis  with  great 
rapidity.  When  given  internally  it  is  in  the  form  of  an 
ethereal  or  alcoholic  tincture ;  but  it  is  a  medicine  requi- 
ring the  utmost  degree  of  caution  and  circumspection  in 
its  administration ;  and  the  cases  in  which  it  is  proper  to 
give  it  as  an  internal  remedy  are  very  few. 


Meloe  protcarabma,  Linn.    Tax  OilBsrtlk. 


Mtlop  PfiicatoTiut^  I4nn.    Thi  BLMTEKixo-BsBTtK 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


FoiRTEB  ura  s 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS. 

Jt/LY. 

Ths  present  month  is  not  distiD^ahed  for  any  gpecial 
employment  which  can  be  designated  a  rural  sport:  the 
angler  continoes  to  ply  his  voc&tjoo,  and  we  might  dwell 
on  many  interesting  particulars  in  connection  with  this 
sport,  but  as  we  have  already  given  a  brief  outline  of 
his  proceedings,  and  are  engs^ml  in  a  course  of  articles 
descriptive  of  several  of  the  most  highly-prized  among 
the  inhabitants  of  our  rivers,  it  appears  unnecessary  to 
devote  further  space  to  this  subject.  The  approauiing 
season,  however,  presents  so  many  attractions  to  the 
■portaman,  and  enters  so  lai^Iy  into  his  anticipations  of 
pleasures  to  come,  that  we  shall  not  be  considered  as 
deviatinj;  from  our  course,  if  we  also  lodi  forward  to  the 
"  Shooting  season,"  and  make  a  few  observations  on  the 
Mgadous  and  truly  interesting  animals  employed  by  the 
shooter  to  secure  the  different  kinds  of  game  which  will 
shortly  become  the  object  of  his  pursuit. 

England  has  long  been  celebrated  for  the  superior 
excellence  not  only  of  its  horses  but  of  its  sporting-dogs. 
Our  grey-hounds,  fox-hounds,  and  harriers  are  un- 
equalled,  and  that  they  are  so  results  from  the  care 
which  is  taken  to  keep  the  species  distinct.  The  instinct 
and  the  fine  olfactory  powers  of  these  animals  are  re- 
markable; but  in  the  pointer  and  setter  the  instinct 
manifested  is  still  more  extraordinary.  These  latter 
animals  appear  to  be  endowed  with  their  peculiar  quaU- 
ties  especially  for  the  service  of  man,  while  those  of  all 
otfaev  luiimala  are  calculated  for  the  supply  of  their  own 
iacUvidual  wants,  as  well  as  being  secondarily  of  import- 
ance to  the  human  race. 

When  the  iutellectnal  endowmenia  of  the  domesticated 
racea  of  dogs  ore  permitted  to  weigh  in  the  scale, — when  we 
bc^in  to  consider  the  bcnlties  which  ^e  bonnty  of  nature 
has  bestowed  upon  them,— the  sincenty  and  disintentrted- 
neas  of  their  attachment, — the  sagacity,  strength,  velocity, 
courage,  and  perfect  obedience  which  tney  proffer  to  man, 
— w«  cannot  refiise  them  oar  admiraUon  ana  affection.  To 
wrlut  other  species  oonld  we  look  for  voluntary  aaeociotion 
with  out  fbrtuuMl  Which  of  them  would,  ifke  the  dog, 
lead  oathafiilliifattf  MuMwaooteathiAl    IVhich  con 


rejoice  in  onr  joy,  be  viailant  and  bold  in  our  deftncei 
obedient  to  order,  foithfiil  in  onr  adversity,  understand  our 
least  words  and  ngns,  and  die  on  our  graves  from  pure 
attachment!  These  qualities,  we  all  know,  do^  poMUS. 
Here,  then,  we  find  the  eonrce  of  that  consideration  which 
is  granted  them  by  all  men  near  a  sUte  of  nature ;  and 
although  conceded  by  them  with  niggardly  hands,  the 
wild  man  of  the  eld  world,  the  stoical  hunter  of  the  new, 
the  half-^ezen  Eaqoimaux,  and  the  savage  of  Australia, 
differ  only  in  their  mode  of  acknowledgment  ftem  the 
exprewions  of  favour  with  which  the  drover,  the  shepherd, 
the  sportaman,  and  the  fine  lady  of  civilized  society  rtgard 

As  the  dog  aloue,  of  all  the  brute  creation,  voluntarily 
■SBodates  himself  with  the  condition  of  man's  existence, 
it  ia  iaic  to  presume  also  that  he  was  the  first,  and  therefore 
the  oldwt  of  man's  companions ;  that  to  his  manifold  good 
qualities  the  firet  hunters  were  indebted  for  their  conqueet 
Bud  subjugation  of  other  speciee.  We  do  even  now  perceive, 
notwithstanding  the  advance  of  hnnum  reason  and  the  pro- 
grev  of  invention,  that  in  a  thousand  instances  we  cannot 
dispense  with  his  asustance. — Liairr.-CoL.  Shuh. 

Doubtless  it  required,  at  first,  a  long  course  of  patient 
education  and  camul  management  to  produce  even  a 
distant  approach  to  the  perfection  of  the  present  breed 
of  pointers;  hut  certain  it  is  that  an  instinct  fovourabte 
to  "pointing"  must  have  existed  in  this  race  of  dogs 
in  particular,  for  of  no  other  animal  can  it  be  said,  tlut 
with  proper  tnuning  he  would  form  a  substitute  for  the 
true  pointer. 

The  pointer  was  originally  a  native  of  Spain;  and 
among  our  English  breed^  such  dogs  as  have  the  most 
Spanish  blood  in  their  veins  are  esteemed  the  best.  The 
Spanish  pointer  is  about  twenty-one  inches  in  heighL 
He  has  a  large  head,  is  heavily  made,  broad-chested, 
stout-limbed,  with  a  large  dew-lap;  his  eyes  are  full  and 
widely  separated,  and  his  nose  broad;  his  tail  is  straight, 
short  and  thick,  and  his  ears  large,  pendulous,  and  fine; 
the  finest  dogs  have  a  round  ana  not  a  flat  foot.  When 
pointing,  he  raises  one  of  the  fore-legs,  and  stands  on 
three  only,  with  his  face  and  tail  in  a  Ime  with  his  back. 
This  is  the  position  he  always  assumes  when  he  comes 
gradually  upon  the  scent;  but  whenever,  by  running  with 
the  win^  or  any  other  circumstance,  he  comes  suddenly 
upon  game,  he  iriU  stand  ia  the  most  extraordinary 


80 


THE  SA^tJRDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  54, 


attitude,  and  will  have,  sometimes  a  very  picturesque, 
sometimes  a  very  grotesque  appearance.  The  disposi- 
sition  to  stand  at  the  sight  of  game  is  manifested  even 
by  puppies  of  this  breed,  and  is  a  remarkable  instance 
of  the  transmission  of  propensities,  which  are  un- 
doubtedly in  part  acquired.  And  when  a  dog  of  this 
breed  is  incapacitated  through  age  from  maintaining  his 
*^  point'*  in  the  natural  posture,  he  will  sit  down  on  his 
haunches  with  his  face  towards  the  game,  turning  his 
head  occasionally  to  see  whether  the  gun  be  approaching. 

Notwithstanding  the  acknowledged  excellerifeii  of 
British  pointers,  it  is  frequently  lamented  by  true  s))dH8- 
men,  that  there  is  not  the  same  care  taken  to  k&^p  thii 
species  distinct  as  in  the  case  of  hounds,  and  ih  bbh^e- 
quence  that  the  number  is  comparatively  few  where  thte 
qualities  of  that  race  remain  unmixed  with  those  bt 
other  dogs.  Many  dogs,  esteemed  by  their  owners  as 
first-rate,  are  found  to  bear  little  resembktice  ih  ^dit^t 
of  shape  and  appeal-aiicc  tb  the  ti-tile  (^oiHter^  atid  it*,  ^8  U 
is  maintained  by  high  duthoHty  iil  th^  sporting  world, 
the  instihbt  of  poiiiting  be  an  inextinguishable  and  inde- 
structible |)rlncipic  in  the  blood  bf  the  pointer,  and  that 
the  further  aby  dog  is  removed  frotn  the  original  Spabish 
pointer  the  worse  the  dog  is,  theti  such  dogs,  how- 
ever they  may  be  Iniproved  as  to  beauty  of  form,  will 
necessarily  possess  a  cbtnibixtiire  of  Qualities  rendering 
them  inferior  to  the  original  breed. 

The  trouble  in  training  mongrel  dogs  is  double  that 
of  true  pointers.  The  usual  price  paid  for  *'  breaking  a 
dog,"  as  it  is  termed,  is  from  two  to  five  guineas.  Much 
of  the  future  usefulness  of  the  dog  depends  on  the 
temper  and  judgment  of  the  person  employed  in 
educating  him.  To  give  our  uninitiated  readers  a  spe- 
cimen of  the  shooter*8  *'ocabulary  we  quote  a  list  of 
some  of  the  words  made  use  of  by  the  breakers  and 
sportsmen  to  the  dogs. 

^  "  To-ho*'  spoken  in  an  under-tohc,  when  the  dog  is  ranging^, 
is  a  warning  to  him  that  he  is  close  upon  the  game,  and  b  a 
direction  to  him  to  stand.  There  is  no  necessity  for  using 
it  to  a  dog  that  knows  his  business.  Spoken  in  a  peremptory 
manner  it  is  used  to  make  the  dog  crouch  when  he  has  flushed 
game,  or  been  otherwise  In  feult.  **  Down-cKargt^^  or  "  d&wn- 
to^hargty^  is  used  to  make  the  dog,  whether  it  be  near  or  iX 
a  distance,  to  crouch  when  the  shooter  charges,  that  the  dog 
may  not  flush  game  when  the  shooter  is  unprepared.  Whch 
the  dog  will  hot  crouch,  but  continues  beatihi,',  the  leg-Strap 
may  be  put  on.  "  Takt  A<«rf,"and  ^Bt  carifid^^*  are  lised 
When  the  dog  ranges  over  ground  where  it  is  customary  to 
find  birds.  **  Take  heed"  is  a  word  of  correction  ;  "  Be  eare- 
ful^  of  encoulisgement.  The  former  is  used  by  way  of  caution 
or  notice  to  prevent  the  dog  flushing  birds  by  running  over 
the  ground  too  flist ;  the  latter  is  likewise  a  caution,  but  used 
When  the  dogs  beat  slowly  or  carelessly.  "  Warefmce"  is 
used  to  prevent  dogs  passhig  a  fence  before  the  gun.  The  dog 
should  never,  on  any  account,  leave  an  inclosure  until  his 
master  has  left  it.  «  Wwr$;*  or  "^Beware;*  is  used  to  rate 
a  dog  for  giving  chace  to  a  hare,  birds>  or  cattle,  pointing 
larks,  or  approaching  too  near  the  heels  of  a  hoi-se.  "  SeeJr 
is  the  direction  to  tno  dog  to  look  for  a  dead,  or  wounded 
bird.  hare,  or  rabbit.  •*  Dead^'  is  used  to  make  a  dog  relin- 
quish his  hold  of  dead  or  wounded  game.— OaitfoiyA  Shooting 

The  Setter'  is  endowed  with  sagacity  and  intelligence 
equal  to  that  of  the  pointer,  but  is  reckoned  inferior  in 
fineness  of  scent,  and  is  less  staunch.  It  pdrtakes  of  the 
character  of  the  pointer  and  spaniel,  from  which  it  has 
most  probably  descended.  The  setter  will  face  briars  and 
gorse  bushes,  and  also  delight  in  water,  in  which  respects 
it  has  the  advantage  of  the  pointer  who  shows  a  repug- 
nance to  them  ;  thus  thie  setter  is  preferred  on  marshes 
for  snipe  shooting,  And  also  in  heavy  covers ;  while  the 
pointer  is  far  superior  on  open  groundj  and  will  endure 
the  greatest  share  of  fatigue. 

The  disposition  of  the  setter  is  mild  and  gentle,  and  it 
shows  much  attachment  and  gratitude  towards  a  kind 
master.  In  colour  it  is  in  general  white,  with  large 
epots  or  blotches  of  liver  colour  or  red.  The  hair  is  not 
bu  smooth  as  that  of  the  pointer,  but  possesses  the  wavy 


character  of  the  spaniel's ;  the  ears  also  resemble  those 
of  the  latter  animal.  Mr.  Bell  gives  an  interesting  ac- 
count of  one  of  these  animals  as  to  its  domestic  qualities. 
It  was  a  setter  bitch,  which,  although  not  regularly 
trained,  was  an  excellent  dog  in  the  field.  The  animal 
appeared  to  be  always  on  the  watch  to  evince  love  and 
gratitude  to  those  wno  were  kind  to  her,  and  the  instioet 
of  attachment  was  in  her  so  powerful  that  it  showed  it- 
self in  her  conduct  towards  other  animals  as  well  as  to 
her  human  friends.  A  kitten  lately  taken  from  iti 
mother,  was  brought  up  with  the  dog,  and  at  first 
showed  all  the  usual  horror  on  the  approach  of  its  com- 
panion. But  Juno  seemed  determined  to  conquer  the 
Untipathv)  ilhd  by  the  most  winning  and  persevering  kind 
bess  and  f6i*b^arance — advancing  and  receding  as  site 
{bund  the  way5)hlrdnegs  bf  hfer  pew  friend's  temper  re» 
quired — ^she  combletely  tktiiicflbd  the  kitten  to  her;  and 
a^.She  had  lately  lost  her  piipples,  and  still  had  some  mil 
whi  the  pailr  were  bften  seett  seen  Ivibg  together  before 
ih^  fire,  tiib  kitten  sUckin^  heF  kibd  foster-molh«r,  who 
wa4  lickihg  atid  baressihg  her  lift  her  own  offspring.  On 
dnoihtef  dbbasiob  i^hen  a  Spaniel  bitch  had  puppies,  of 
which  nil)  ekcbptltig  obe,  l^er^  destroyed,  Juno  would 
iAke  everjr  bt^pbrthniiy  tb  fttl^al  the  remaining  one  from 
its  mother *s  nest|  and  earry  it  to  her  owUj  ivhere  she 
would  lick  and  fondle  it  with  the  "grcdtest  teudemess. 
The  inothtit*,  Rlso  a  gobd-teinpered  creature,  as  soon  u 
she  had  discovered  the  theft,  hastened,  of  course,  to  bring 
back  thb  little  one,  which  was  again  to  be  stolen  on  the 
first  favourable  opportunity;  until,  al  length,  the  two 
bitches  killed  the  poor  puppy  between  them  as  they  were 
endeavouring  each  to  pull  it  from  the  other;  and  all  this 
with  the  most  perfect  mutual  good  understanding. 

Such  anecdotes  might  be  miiltiplied  with  respect  to 
the  next  species  of  sporting*dog  we  have  to  notice,  (/•> 
the  Spaniely  for  of  all  dogs,  this  is  perhaps  the  most 
affectionate  in  its  nature,  thfel  moit  grkteful  forklndfless^ 
and  the  most  patient  ih  enduring  ill-treatmeat.  The 
spaniel  is  the  best  dog  fbfr  beatiiig  covers,  provided  he 
can  be  kept  heAt  the  gtln:  Hd^  !d  geberally  expected  to 
give  tongne  when  gatne  is  flushed ;  som^  spaniels  will 
give  notice  of  the  gUm^  before  it  spribgs,  which  is  not 
arnis^  where  wood-cocks  only  are  expected  to  be  found; 
but  \trood-cock  and  pheasant  shooting  are  usuallv  com- 
bined, and  the  latter  sport  canilbt  be  condueied  too 
quifetly.  Whatever  the  spedes  bf  gAine  may  be  spaniels 
are  the  l)est  dogs,  where  the  cover  is  «b  thick  that  the 
shooter  cannot  keep  his  eye  upon  th^  dbgs; 

The  dogd  called  JRetrievet^  are  thoso  cmplored  to 
find  lost  birds.  Newfoundland  dogs  atto  risckbii'ed  the 
best  for  this  purpose.  A  good  retrifever  has  a  terr  fo^ 
sense  of  smelliue,  and  is  as  dure  to  follow  th^  track  of 
the  wounded  bird,  on  whose  scent  ho  \h  fitf  t  put,  as  s 
blood-hound  that  of  a  human  being  br  deer. 

ScifcNC«  has  scattered  her  matenal  behefiti  to  Isrishlr 
wherever  she  has  been  in  presence,  that  nb  small  number « 
her  followers — and  all  the  multitude — have  left  off  ga*^ 
on  the  resplendency  of  her  countenance  in  their  eager  acran- 
ble  for  her  gifts.  From  those  who  frequent  her  courts  witn 
such  views,  she  veils  her  brightness  and  withdraws  htr 
spirit,  leaving  them  to  grovel,  poring  like  Alanimon  on  the 
goldeti  pavements  of  her  mansion,  while  their  ears  are  dial 
to  its  celestial  harmonies,  and  their  inouths  closed  io  its 
breathings  of  paradise. — Quarterfy  Renew. 

I  KNOW  that  eastern  winds  have  power 
To  nip  the  young  and  tender  flower; 
Clouds  may  obsciire  the  rising  day, 
And  its  young  gloHes  fiule  away: 
And  so,  my  hopes  may  meet  with  bligfnt, 
My  early  days  seeih  dtark  as  ni^ht; 
Blessings  may  leave  me  one  by  olie, 
And  yet  I  shall  not  be  alone. 
God  Avill  be  with  me,  and  his  lorb. 
Through  weary  years  of  care,  wUl  ptov<> 
Amid  the  desert  one  green  spot, 
Ond  hdpe  that  Btill  d'eoeiveth  m 


1 8  a.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


'91 


BEET-ROOT  SUGAR. 

II.    The  Early  Modes  of  Producing  Sugar 

F^oM  THB  Beet. 

Is  our  last  article  on  this  subject,  we  briefly  enumerated 
the  different  kind^  of  JBlfiOf  or  Beet-rqot,  {ui^  silso  the 
mode  which  had  beon  recommended  for  the  cultivation 
of  those  varieties  of  the  ropt  which  i^bouad  most  in  sac- 
cliarine  matter.  We  now  proceed  to  notice  the  process 
of  obtaining  the  juice  from  the  root,  and  of  converting 
it  into  sugar.  The  reseai^hea  detailed  in  the  last  paper 
were  chiefly  ti^e  of  M.  Aehard;  but  the  method  of 
obtaining  the  sugar,  which  we  shall  describe,  is  that 
adopted  by  Professor  Qottling,  as  being  rather  more 
easy  in  practice  tbap  that  flf  Aeh&rd. 

Gottling  recommends  the  raots  to  be  taken  out  of 
the  ground  about  the  end  of  September  or  the  beginning 
of  October,  in  order  to  have  good  weather  ibr  drying 
them.     They  should  be  welj  wa^h^d  as  sppedily  as  pos- 
sible, and  their  small  fibres  should  at  the  same  time  l^e 
cut  off;  as  lil^ewise  such  pj^rt  of  t}je  root  j^sj  In  grQ>Y}qg 
had  risen  above  the  surface  of  the  earth.     The  roots  are 
to  be  afterwards  wiped  with  a  cloth,  and  laid  upon  a  dry 
floor ;  their  heads  ftre  to  be  cut  q$P  and  given  to  the 
cattle ;  and  the  roots  should  be  then  sliced  lengthwise 
down  the  middle,  each  half  again  cut  into  thin  slices, 
and  loQsely  hung  upon  strong  thread  upon  nails,  in  an 
airy  chamber  or  place  sheltered  from  rain.     The  slipes 
should  not  be  plaped  too  ne^  together,  le«t  they  spoil, 
nor  too  many  be  put  upon  om  atripg;  it  h  advisable 
to  turn  the  strings  upside  down  once  or  tw^ice,  to  effect 
a  speedier  drying.     In  the  course  of  ten  or  twelve  days 
they  become  so  dry  that  the  strings  may  be  removed 
nearer  together,  in  or4er  to  allow  fresh  roots  to  be  hung 
up,  if  there  should  be  scarcity  of  room.     Instead  of 
placing  the  sliced  rpots  upon  strings,  stages  may  be 
made  in  outb|iildii^s ;  and  the   slices  may  b^  l^id  on 
netted  frames.    If  the  drying  season  be  far  advanced, 
or  a  frost  be  esqpected,  the  beet-roots  should  nqt  be  ex- 
posed to  the  external  air,  bat  should  b®  dried  in  a  warm 
room  on  strings  o|r  netted  ftraxpes,  resembling  the  flakes 
formerly  used  in  Yorkshire  for  dryinjf  oat-cakes. 

The  slicing  of  the  beet-rqot  may  conveniently  form  an 
evening  occupation;  and  po  more  should  be  sliced  at 
once  than  pan  be  strung  pr  placed  op  frames  to  drvj  as 
it  is  not  advisable  to  lei  the  r^ots  remain  ixi  slices  long 
in  a  heap.  The  roots  may  be  dried  in  stove-rDOins  by 
artificial  heat ;  but  great  care  is  in  that  case  required  to 
keep  tfaem  fre.e  fronj  being  smoked  or  burned,  as  the 
sugar  would  hence  become  daii-coloured,  aijd  of  api  pn- 
pleasant  flavour.  It  is  l^ttejr  therefore  not  to  dry  the 
roots  l^y  mejans  of  stoves,  ^less  if^  case  pf  necessity^ 
ftuch  a«  yfh&v0  ihfi  freyl  ssay  pr^YPot  the  foots  &Qia 
being  dne<i  in  the  open  air.  Where  oppprtunity  wUl 
not  permit  the  beet-roots  to  be  sliced  sooa  after  being 
taken  out  of  the  earth,  they  should  be  placed  in  cellars 
and  covered  with  straw,  or  put  into  holes  in  dry  sandy 
earth,  ^nd  preserved  till  wanted. 

The  ropts  should  be  dried  throughput,  and  not  par- 
tially. If  they  appear  grey  pn  tie  outside,  they  should 
be  white  Qr  red  on  the  insiste;  and*  if  chiewed  oetweex^ 
the  teeth,  they  should  have  a  very  sweet  taste,  free  frpip 
must  or  acidity.  When  dry,  the  roots  are  ready  to  have 
the  sugar  extracted;  and,  to  eflect  this,  it  is  necessary 
'o  provide  three  wide  but  shallow  wooden  tubs,  made  of 
><'»k,  ash,  willow,  or  some  other  non-resinous  wood. 
Eaoh  tub  should  have  a  cock  or  spigot  near  the  bottom, 
nd  should  be  pjace4  at  such  a  height  from  the  ground 
hat  a  smaller  Vessel  may  stand  beneatlj  it,  to  receive 
he  liquor  when  drawn  off.  The  three  vessels  are  thus 
l^oed  near  each  other,  in  a  place  where  the  temperature 
'  ^>)out  52°  Fahr. ;  and  where  good  clear  water  may  con- 
^^  iently  be  pumped  into  the  upper  vessels. 

'^he  dried  slices  of  beet-root,  after  being  sifted  from 
^^^  X  and  loose  fibres,  are  put  mto  one  of  the  upper  tubs. 


Clear  cold  water  is  then  poured  on  the  roots,  to  about 
one-third  in  height  above  them.  After  the  beet  has 
been  thus  steeping  for  three  hours,  being  stirred  at 
intervals  with  a  wooden  paddle,  the  second  tub  is  sup- 
plied with  about  as  much  beet  as  had  been  put  into  the 
first;  and  the  sweet  liquor  from  the  first  tub,  is  drawn 
into  the  vessel  upderpe^h,  and  ppured  upon  this  second. 
Suffioietit  clear  water  is  thep  put  ipto  the  first  tub  to 
^over  the  beet;  aud  thp  beet  ip  both  tub?  is  stirred  occa- 
sipnaUy  for  ai^Qther  period  oi  tljvee  Jiourg.  The  liquor 
io  tl^e  second  tub,  which,  if  the  beet  ivere  of  tjie  proper 
kind,  would  Qo\y  be  vprv  sweet  ^d  pf  an  ^reeabl^  red 
polQur,  is  drawn  off*,  and  filtered  thrpugh  &  ^Ipvp  or  flan^ 
ueh  into  the  vessel  beneath* 

After  this,  the  second  supply  of  liquor  is  drawn  from 
tbp  first  tub,  9^nd  poured  ipto  the  second;  more  frpsh 
water  is  ppured  on  tJie  first  tub ;  anpL  both  ^^^  left  to 
Steep  fpr  three  hoqr^,  as  before.  Then  the  third  tul)  is 
brought  into  requisition  in  the  san^e  way  ^s  the  other 
twPi  by  putting  iptp  it  |ui  equal  quantity  of  dry  beet,  tp 
which  IS  added  the  liquor  from  the  second  tub.  After 
which,  the  liquor  from  the  first  tub  is  removed  to  the 
second;  and  the  beet  in  the  first  tub,  being  now  deprived 
of  s^charinp  xn&tter,  may  he  used  for  ff^eding  hogs  or 
pattle. 

Wh^  Another  period  of  three  hours  has  elapsed,  the 
liquor  is  drawn  froin  the  third  tub,  by  filtering  a^  beforp ; 
and  the  Uquid  from  the  second  vessel  is  ppured  ipto  the 
third.  Another  supply  of  fresh  w&ter  is  poured  into  the 
spcond  vesspl,  and  is  allowed  tq  ren^^  three  hours, 
being  stirred  occasionally.  During  this  time  the  first 
tub  is  cleansed,  and  ^  new  supply  of  beet  is  put  into  it. 
This  goes  throiigh  the  same  routine  of  processes  as 
before ;  and  thus  the  operations  continue  until  the  sac- 
charine matter  has  been  obtained  from  all  the  beet.  It 
will  be  seen  that  this  apparently  circujtpus  employment 
of  the  three  tubS)  anq  the  interchange  froni  one  to 
luiothcr,  is  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  all  the  saccharine 
matter  from  the  beet,  without  loss ;  biit  it  wilj  not  be 
necessary  to  trace  the  steps  further.  The  spent  roots 
having  been  g|ven  as  food  tp  caftlc;  an4  the  juice  bcipg 
ready  for  boiling  intp  sugar,  the  operatio]:}s  procped  as 
follow. 

The  extracted  saccharine  liq^qr  is  boiled  4own  to  the 
consistence  pf  syrup;  then  put  into  a  copper,  and  boiled 
pver  4  moderate  fire  until  that  degree  pf  thickness  js 
obtained  that  a  phia}  which  holds  qne  punce  of  ^v^ter  will 
contain  eleven  dracloms  of  the  syrup.  As  the  scum 
or  froth  rises,  it  must  be  cariefully  taken  off.  When  the 
§yrup  is  hrPHfi^^^  ^  the  desired  consistence  the  fire  must 
bp  removed  ^om  the  copper,  and  the  syrup  gradually 
ppured  through  a  thij^  woollen  cloth,  placed  over  a 
wppden  or  stone  vessel.  The  syrup  must  not  cool  too 
much  before  thus  filtered,  otherwise  it  becomes  "  ropy." 

When  the  filtered  syrup  is  somewhat  cool,  it  js  laded 
intp  shallow  wooden  or  stone  vessels  to  crystallize ; 
vessel^  made  of  tin,  and  also  shallow  earthen  vessels, 
such  as  are  used  to  produce  cream,  may  however  be 
adopted  for  this  purpose.  The  vessels,  fille4  witli  syrup, 
are  placpd  in  a  room  heated  to  about  70**;  and  care  is 
taken  to  keep  the  syrup  clear  from  flies  and  dust.  .  If  the 
syrup  has  been  of  a  proper  consistence,  crystals  will  soon 
begin  to  form  at  the  bpttom  of  the  vessefs ;  and  in  the 
space  pf  eighteen  or  twenty  days,  the  crystallization  will 
be  copapleted.  The  mass  must  then  be  put  into  a  strong 
linen  sack,  well  secured,  and  placed  under  a  press  to 
squeeze  out  the  liquid  from  the  sugar  which  remains  in 
the  bag ;  a  cheese-press  or  long  lever  will  serve  for  the 
purpose  of  pressure.-  The  liquid  matter  may  be  set  to 
crystallize  a  second,  and  even  a  third  time,  and  will 
yield  sugar  of  a  coarser  quality. 

The  sugar  first  obtained  may  be  rendered  purer  by 
well  mixing  therewith  a  small  quantity  of  clear  spring- 
water,  and  placing  it  again  under  the  press ;  the  coloured 
syrup  will  then  run  out,  and  leave  the  sugar  in  the  bag 


32 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  24,  1841. 


in  A  much  purer  state  than  before.  By  repeating  the 
operation  the  sugar  becomes  so  far  improved,  that  it 
assumes,  when  dried  and  rubbed,  the  state  of  a  fine 
white  powder.  The  separated  syrups  being  again 
carefully  boiled,  more  sugar  will  be  obtained  from  them 
by  crystallisation. 

K  the  sugar  produced  by  the  first  pressure  be  dissolved 
in  as  much  clear  water  as  will  form  a  syrup,  and  placed 
again  in  a  warm  room  to  crystallize,  it  will  yield  a  much 
purer  and  harder  sugar.  The  syrup  may  Uien  be  se]^- 
rated  without  pressure  from  the  sugar,  merely  by  in- 
clining the  vessel,  and  allowing  the  syrup  to  run  off  from 
the  crystals.  The  remaining  thick  syrups  may  be  used 
as  treacle  or  molasses,  and  will  serve  the  purposes  of  the 
distiller. 

Such  is  the  process  which  Professor  Gottling  si^gested 
for  the  preparation  of  beet-root  sugar,  and  which  was 
first  made  known  in  England  by  Mr  John  Taylor.  We 
may  here  follow  up  these  details  by  a  notice  of  the  con- 
stituent elements  of  beet-root,  as  determined  by  Ph>- 
fessor  Lampadius,  of  Freyberg. 

Beet-root  contains  or  consists  of  water,  fibrous  matter, 
sugar,  mucilage,  albumen,  starch,  and  three  substances 
which,  for  want  of  better  names,  are  termed  the  colour* 
ing,  the  odoriferous,  and  the  bitter  principles.  The 
following  very  interesting  train  of  experiments  was 
made  by  Professor  Lampadius,  with  a  view  of  determi- 
ning what  substances  he  could  obtain  from  one*hundred 
and  ten  pounds  of  the  white  beet-root,  the  Beta  eicla 
of  Linnsus.  The  beet,  when  washed,  peeled,  cleaned, 
and  gyrated,  gave  a  mass  weighing  eighty-seven  pounds ; 
out  of  which  were  pressed  forty-one  pounds  and  a  half  of 
juice.  This  juice  was  boiled  with  twenty  ounces  and  a 
half  of  charcoal  powder ;  by  which  it  was  made  to  yield, 
when  filtered  and  evaporated  down  until  crystallized,  five 
pounds  of  a  brownish-yellow  g^rained  sugar,  and  five 
ounces  of  brown  syrup.  This  brown  sugar,  after  being  dis* 
solved  in  six  pounds  of  lime  water,  mixed  with  one  pound 
of  blood,  was  boiled,  filtered,  and  evaporated;  from 
which  resulted  four  pounds  five  ounces  and  a  half  of 
purified  brown  sugar,  and  six  ounces  and  a  half  of  syrup. 
The  purified  sugar  thus  produced,  was  then  dissolved  in  six 
pounds  of  lime  water,  mixed  with  one  pound  of  milk,  and 
boiled  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour ;  during  the  boiling  a  smaU 
quantity  of  white  wine  vinegrar  and  a  little  more  milk 
were  added ;  the  saccharine  matter  was  filtered  and  treated 
as  before;  and  the  product  was  four  pounds  of  well- 
grained  white  powder  sugar.  The  resiauum  after  pres- 
sure, the  brown  syrups  of  the  first  two  processes,  and  the 
remains  of  the  filtrations,  weighed,  when  collected,  forty 
pounds.  They  were  then  mixed  with  one  ouart  of  yeast 
and  eighty  quarts  of  water,  heated  to  1 12^  Fahr,;  and, 
after  fermenting  forty-eight  hours,  were  distilled. 
They  furnished,  at  the  first  distillation,  fifteen  quarts  of 
weak  spirit,  which,  on  a  second  distillation,  gave  eight 
quarts  of  a  better  spirit ;  from  which,  when  rectified,  were 
produced  three  quarts  and  a  half  of  spirits  resembling 
rum. 

We  must  beg  the  reader  to  bear  in  mind,  that  the 
foregoing  details  give  a  view  of  what  had  been  done  by 
Margrat,  Achard,  and  Gottling,  at  various  periods  pre- 
ceding the  commencement  of  the  present  century.  In 
the  next  paper  on  this  subject,  we  shall  detail  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which,  and  the  mode  in  which,  the 
French  government  took  advantage  of  these  experiments, 
in  encouraging  the  cultivation  of  the  beet-root  in  that 
country. 


Thb  study  of  nature  requires  two  analifications  of  the 
mind,  which  at  first  sieht  appear  to  be  opposed  to  each 
other : — the  compiehensive  view  of  a  bold  senius  that  em- 
braces the  whole,  and  the  minnte  and  carednil  inspection  of 
an  unwearied  industry  that  lives  upon  the  smallest  objects. 

— BUFFOK. 


BIRTBDAT  tlKES. 

Thou  wakest  from  rosy  sleep  to  play. 
With  boundiiig  heart,  my  boy  I 

Before  thee  lies  a  long  bright  day 
Of  snmmer  and  of  joy. 

Yet,  ere  the  cares  of  life  lie  dim 

On  thy  young  spirit's  wings, 
Now,  in  thy  mom,  foiget  not  Him 

Rrom  whom  each  pure  thought  springs. 

And  then,  my  child,  in  fatnre  yean^ 

Wherever  thy  path  may  be. 
When  strength  is  gone,  or  grief  appean^ 

He  will  remember  thee ! — ^Mrs.  HxxAirs. 


It  wonld  be  easy.to  produce  from  the  writings  of  Infidels 
jumy  testimonies  to  tne  excellence  of  Christiaiiity.  Boling- 
Jiolce  affirms,  that  if  Christianity  has  been  a  human  inroh 
tion,  it  is  the  most  amiable  invention  that  ever  was  impood 
on  mankind  for  their  good ;  .that  it  contains  a  most  sunple 
and  intelligible  mle  of  belief,  worship,  and  mannen;  anl 
that  the  Gk«pel  is  one  continued  lesson  of  the  strictest  mo- 
rality, of  justice,  of  benevolence,  and  of  universal  charity. 


It  is  no  unusoal  thin^  for  men  of  the  most  abandooed  dii- 
ncter  to  be  struck  with  profound  awe,  and  restrained  from 
their  vile  purposes,  by  the  presence  of  an  eminentlr  piou 
person.  There  is  a  power  in  real  sodliness,  which  com* 
mands  the  reverence  of  those  who  nate  it ;  and  this  th« 
proudest  unneis  often  so  far  feel,  as  to  be  unable  to  cany  on 
their  violent  opposition  against  it,  while  yet  no  saving  change 
is  effected  upon  them^— -Bobixson.  , 


Thb  human  body  considered  simply  aa  an  engine  to  be 
worked  by  a  superior  agent— as  a  system  of  combined  and 
organized  matter,  to  be  actuated  and  controlled  by  a  Utui^ 
SDirit,  is  a  most  wonderful  instance  of  creative  power  ani 
plastic  skill.    It  may  be  considered  as  a  world  in  miniature, 
as  an  epitome  of  all  the  sciences,  as  an  abridgment  of  the 
great  book  of  nature.    To  whatever  part  of  it  we  direct  oar 
attention,  we  discover  a  most  remarkable  exemplification  of 
the  eeneral  laws  of  physics.    In  its  optics,  as  ezpresiTe  of 
the  nmctions  of  the  eye,  we  have  mathematics  oi  the  higb- 
est  order.    In  the  mrmation  of  the   bones,  and  in  the 
arrangement  of  its  various  joints  and  ligaments,  we  hare 
the  principles  of  mechanics  most  strikingly  exhibited  to 
our  view.    In  the  circulation  of  its  flui^  the  heart,  the 
arteries,  and  the  veins,  may  be  regarded  as  an  hydriDlie 
apparatus.    The  process   of  respiration  is  an  example  of 
pneumatic  action.    In  the  gradual  formation  of  its  geoenl 
substance — ^in  the  precipitation  of  the  various  elements 
which  constitute  its  specific  parte,  we  have  chemistira 
some  of  its  finest  and  most  beautiful  combinations.   Orv 
and  above  all  these  subordinate  agendea,  however,  there  is 
a  master  principle — ^there  is  life,  the  grand  chemist,  the 
mighty  engineer,  who  su^rintends  and  regulates  the  whole. 
And  although  he  is  invisible  to  the  keenest  eye,  and  bsffles 
the  strong^  microscope,  the  effects  which  he  works  are 
too  palpable  to  admit  a  rational  doubt  of  his  senazste  and 
diatmct  existence,  and  the  vcoy  obecurity  of  nis  retreat 
tends  only  to  raise  our  admiration  of  the  power  end  iriadoD 
of  that  Ming,  by  whom  he  was  originally  created,  aad  hjr 
whose  will  he  has  been  attached  to  our  fiame.  ,'^J^ 
may  we  say  in  the  view  of  this  mysterious  union  ^f}^ 
and  soul— H>f  matter  and  spirit  in  the  present  conditioD « 
our  nature,  that  we  are  "  teeifaUj  and  wonderfblly  ma^e. 


This  is  therefore  doubtiess  the  just  and  legitimate  metJKH 
of  studying  the  science  of  physiolosy— to  legaxd  it  as  exh^ 
biting  throughout  a  most  remarkable  illustiation  m^ 
**  manifold  wudom  of  God.'*  So  forcibly  was  tiie  celebnj^ 
heathen  philosopher  and  phyrician,  Gafen,  stnickwitb  th» 
fajci.  that  he  remarked,  that  if  there  was  no  other  proof  ot 
it,  tiie  examination  of  the  human  eye  alone  wonld  be  soffi- 
cient  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  a  Supreme  fieiqg*'^ 
Daviks's  Handmaid, 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STBAKD. 
PoBUMSD  III  Wbislt  NvMiKKf ,  Pmio«  Okk  Pnirr.  a»»  ij»  Mmtw-*  f»^ 

PSIOS  SiZVBlfOK. 

S»ld  by  aU  BoolueUen  and  N«wsv«iid«n  !•  Um  Kiag^o^ 


JbaiurlTdif 


N9  582. 


31^,  1841.  {tofSnT. 


TURKEY    AND    THE    TURKISH    PROVINCES. 


WALLACHIA  AND  THE  WALLACHIANS. 
Ik  our  recent  article  on  Moldavia,  we  stated  that  this 
jrovince  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  Wallachia.  The 
.wo  together  seem  indeed  to  have  formed  the  ancient 
irovince  of  Dacia,  in  the  time  of  the  Rom  an  a ;  but  to 
lave   been    separated  at  a  subsequent  period  in  their 

^Vallachia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Moldavia,  and 
he  Austrian  province  of  Transylvania  ;  on  the  west  by 
laun.it  and  Servia ;  and  on  the  south  and  east  by  the 
)&nubc,  which  separates  it  from  Hulgaria.  The  proxi* 
lity  of  the  Black  Sea  on  one  side,  and  of  the  Carpa- 
)iaii  mountains  on  the  other,  ti;ive  a  variiible  character 
I  the  climato;  but  this  variability  is.  not  so  gradual  aa  in 
nglaod :  the  sunuOer  comes  in  very  suddenly  and 
irccly,  but  is  of  short  duration ;  while  the  winter  ia 
>th  long  and  severe.  Tlie  Danube  is  generally  frozen 
'er  for  six  weeks ;  the  ice  being  of  such  a  thickness  as 
form  a  road  for  the  heaviest  artillery  with  perfect 
fety.  Generally  speakings  Wallachia  may  be  deemed 
cold  country ;  and  this,  together  with  a  damp  quality  in 
e  soil,  and  the  existence  m  many  marshy  places,  pro- 
ces  a  marked  effect  on  the  animal  and  vegetable  pro- 
ctions  of  the  district     The  vegetables  are  said  to  be 

inferior  fiavoor;  the  flowers  deficient  in  perf\ime;  the 
mestic  animals  remarkable  for  mildness;  the  bears, 
■Ives,  faxes,  and  other  wild  animals,  much  more  timid 
in  in  other  countries ;  and  lastly,  man  himself,  dull 
i  hcavv.  with  weak  passions,  no  strength  of  mind,  and 

utter  aversion  to  a  life  of  industry.     Such  are  said, 

the  authority  of  one  who  dwelt  long  in  the  country, 
be  the  characteristics  of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia,  so 

as  the  influence  of  climate  is  tronccmed. 
Voi,.  XIX. 


In  our  former  paper  we  took  occasion  to  describe  the 
humbler  classes  of  inhabitants;  their  avocations  and 
their  weaknesses.  We  will  here  glance  at  the  more 
wealthy  inhabitants;  for  Wallachia  and  Moldavia  bear  a 
close  resemblance  in  these  respects. 

We  have  said  that  these  provinces  are  governed  by 
voyvodes,  more  frequently  termed  HoMpodart;  and  that 
by  recent  treaties  between  Turkey  and  Russia,  these 
Hospodars  have  become  more  than  ever  independent  of 
the  former,  and  elective  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants. 
Throughout  the  whole  of  the  last  century,  although  the 
choice  of  these  governors  was  nominally  in  the  hands  of 
the  people,  yet  the  Sultan  in  fact  appointed  them  with 
as  little  deference  to  the  wilt  of  the  people  as  in  any 
other  of  the  Turkish  provinces.  This  being  the  case, 
it  was  matter  of  state  policy  not  to  t^point  a  native 
Wallachian  or  Moldavian  to  this  post,  lest  feelings  of 
palrioUsm  might  induce  him  to  rebel  against  the  extor- 
tionate demands  of  the  Sultan.  On  the  other  band, 
tliere  were  reasons  why  it  was  deemed  imprudent  to 
appoint  native  Turks  to  this  office,  since,  being  Moham- 
medans, they  were  wholly  estranged  from  the  people  of 
those  provinces.  The  plan  acted  on,  therefore,  was  to 
appoint  Greeks,  residing  at  or  connected  with  Constanti- 
nople, to  the  office  of  Hospodar;  because,  although  their 
religion  corresponded  with  that  of  the  Wallachians  and 
Moldavians,  yet  they  fawned  upon  the  Ottoman  court, 
and  looked  in  that  quarter  for  support  and  promotion. 
We  mention  this  circumstance  as  an  explanation  of  the 
fact,  that  a  number  of  wealthy  Greek  families  arc  found 
in  these  provinces,  connected  more  or  less  with  the 
Hospodars. 

When  the  choice  of  the  Hotpodar  was  thus  virtually 
582 


84 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  81, 


k 


in  the  hands  of  the  Sultan,  the  Greek  ohoeen  to  fill  the 
office  received  hi«  investiture  at  Constantinople  with 
great  pomp.  The  military  crest  ww  put  on  his  head  by 
thft  Muzhur  Aga,  and  the  robe  of  honour  by  the  Vizier 
himself.  He  was  honoured  with  military  music,  and 
made  his  oath  of  allegiance  in  the  presence  of  the  Sultan. 
From  the  palace  he  went  in  solemn  procession  to  the 
patriarchal  Greek  church,  where  prayers  and  ceremonies 
were  performed  similar  to  those  which  were  formerly 
observed  at  the  inauguration  of  the  Greek  Emperors. 
He  was  then  accompanied  to  his  principality  by  Turkish 
*;fficers,  and  made  a  public  entry  into  the  capital  of  the 
province  with  a  great  display  of  magnificence,  attended 
by  the  nobles  and  the  higher  orders  of  the  clergy. 

When  Captain  Frankland  travelled  through  Wallachia 
in  1827,  he  found  that  the  Hospodar  was  a  Greek 
named  Nicholas  Ghika,  whom  he  visited,  and  of  whom 
he  says : — "  His  Highness  received  us  with  the  greatest 
affability,  rising  from  his  sofa,  and  standing  upon  it  as 
he  received  us.  He  then  gave  us  pipes  and  coffee,  and 
we  conversed  with  him  in  Italian  and  French:  he  is  a 
middle-aged,  good-louking  man.  His  revenue  is  about 
three  hundred  thousand  pounds  sterling;  and  he  is  said 
to  have  amassed  an  immense  fortune,  which  he  has 
lodged  at  Vienna.*'  Captain  Frankland  found  that  the 
Hospodar  was  at  that  time  embroiled  with  some  of  the 
nobles  oq  account  of  certain  public  monies  which  he  was 
suspected  to  have  appropriated  to  his  own  private  use. 
Dr.  Me  Michael  well  ehafaeteriied  the  Hospodars,  at 
the  period  of  the  reeent  ebangcs,  as  exhibiting  the  extra- 
ordinary phenomenon  of  a  nearly  pure  despotism  exer- 
cised by  a  Grr^ek  Prince,  who  was  himself  at  the  same 
time  an  abject  slave  to  the  Ottoman  I'orte. 

The  Boyars^  or  oative  hobles  of  Wallachia  and  Mol- 
davia, are  but  a  rude  class,  compared  with  a  parallel  class 
in  Western  Europe.  Their  education  is  usually  confined 
to  the  mere  knowledge  of  reading  and  writing  the  lan- 
guage of  the  country,  and  the  modern  Greek.  Some 
few  add  to  this  superficial  stock  of  learning,  a  few 
of  the  rudiments  of.  the  French  language ;  and  a  few 
others  converse  in  it  without  understanding  anything  of 
its  grammar  or  principles.  A  slight  acquaintance  with 
two  or  three  ancient  authors,  or  the  power  of  compo- 
sing a  few  verses,  is  sufficient  to  obtain  for  them  the 
titles  of  literati  and  poets,  and  the  admiration  of  their 
acquaintances.  In  short,  the  inducements  to  mental 
culture  are  so  few,  that  early  discipline  and  instruction 
are  scarcely  thought  of.  They  cannot  be  taxed  so 
much  with  any  actual  propensity  to  vice,  as  with 
the  absence  of  any  ennobling  characteristics:  igno- 
rance and  established  prejudices  are  their  worst  enemies. 
They  are  greedy  in  the  acquisition  of  wealth,  and 
heedless  in  its  expenditure:  averse  to  the  trouble  of 
superintending  their  private  affairs,  they  entrust  them  to 
the  hands  of  stewards,  who  too  often  enrich  themselves 
at  their  employers'  expense.  A  lax  state  of  morality  is 
thus  engendered,  which  sheds  its  pernicious  influence 
through  the  humbler  classes. 

Those  Boyars  who  have  no  public  employment,  spend 
their  time  in  a  very  idle  manner,  resorting  to  the  capitals 
Bukharest  and  Jas^y,  for  the  sake  of  society,  and  leaving 
the  management  of  their  country  estates  in  very  in- 
adequate hands.  They  attend  clubs  and  masked  balls  at 
the  capitals ;  but  seldom  appear  to  engage  in  anything 
which  can  advance  or  aid  their  country,  except  when 
some  political  ferment  arises. 

When  we  state  that  two  hundred  and  ten  days  of  the 
?ar  i\xe  regarded  by  the  Wallachians  and  Moldavians  as 
olidays  or  fasts,  during  which  no  work  must  be  done, 
the  reader  will  easily  conceive,  not  only  how  stagnant 
must  be  the  state  of  manufacturing  and  commercial  in- 
dustry throughout  the  country,  but  also  how  large  a  scope 
is  opened  for  temptation  and  immorality  of  all  kinds ;  the 
Boyars  are  "  killing  time"  in  their  pursuit  of  pleasure ; 
and  the  poor  visit  brandy-booths  or  cellarsy  wnere  the 
xmnd  and  body  suffer  equally. 


I 


The  Greek  population  of  these  provinces  bears  a  con- 
siderable reseliiblance  to  that  of  the  higher  classes  of  so- 
ciety in  the  Morca,  in  dress,  religion,  and  maniierF.  The 
causes  which  led  to  their  ajipointnjent  in  the  govtn,:::! li 
of  the  provinces  we  have  already  detailed,  and  the  lim  of 
conduct  which  they  pursued  there  was  such  as  naturdly 
resulted  from  subservience  to  the  Sultan,  and  the  abstncc 
of  any  patriotic  feeling  for  the  cx)untry  which  they  go- 
verned. It  has  been  well  observed  of  the  moral  condi- 
tion of  the  Greeks  in  the  last  century  : — 

Humiliated,  degraded,  and  oppressed  as  the  Greeks  were 
since  they  had  ceased  to  be  a  nation,  civilization  degenei'ated 
among  them,  in  proportion  to  the  weight  and  baihaiisui  of 
the  yoke  tliat  had  been  inii}osed  on  them ;  and  they  liud  in- 
sensibly contracted  those  habits  of  corruption  and  senile 
obedience,  which  must  be  inseparable  from  a  state  of 
slaverv  similar  to  theirs.  Dissimulation  and  fake]k<od 
became  the  most  prominent  features  of  their  character;  &vA, 
in  short,  the  foroe  of  the  causes  which  acted  upon  thtu 
incessantly  familiarized  tliem,  by  degrees,  to  everytlimg 
that  coula  be  degrading  and  humiliating  to  man. 

It  was  from  among  such  men  that  the  Hospodars  of 
W^allachia  and  Moldavia  were  chosen  duiing  the  greater 
part  of  the  last  Century. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  people  are  employed  more  or 
less  in  agricultural  pursuits,  the  pooi'er  classes  cultiraiiiig 
the  lands  of  the  richer,  and  receiving  payment  iu  kind 
instead  of  money.  Mr.  Wilkinson,  in  describing  ibe 
mode  of  husbandry  in  these  provinces,  says  that  the 
manner  of  tilling  does  not  materially  differ  from  that  oi 
ether  eountries  in  Europe*  exeept  that  oxen  are  ahay> 
employed  instead  of  horses.  Wheat  is  sown  during  trie 
autumn;  and  barley  and  Indian  corn  in  spring.  Tk 
harvest  of  the  first  two  generally  takes  place  in  themoctii 
of  July,  that  of  the  latter  at  the  beginning  of  SepteniUr; 
and  as  Indian  corn  is  required  for  the  nourighmcut  of  a 
great  portion  of  the  population,  the  quantity  of  it  sovQ 
and  reaped  every  year  is  equal  to  that  of  whe:t. 
Barley,  being  used  only  as  food  for  cattle  and  poultry, i^^ 
sown  in  much  smaller  proportion.  The  vine  is  cultna- 
ted  to  a  limited  extent,  and  is  planted  in  such  places  as 
are  most  sheltered  from  the  weather :  the  grape  is  seUom 
gathered  before  the  end  of  September,  and  as  it  (io«'S 
not  come  to  a  perfect  state  of  maturity,  it  makca  hut  ic- 
different  wine  of  a  light  quality  and  sourish  taste.  Tut 
same  writer  observes: — 

The  great  waste  of  land  left  in  both  provinces  in  a  st^ti^ 
of  nature,  and  the  universal  custom  of  not  cultivatmg  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  high  roads,  give  to  the  countn', 
in  many  parts,  an  appearance  of  desolation ;  and  a  trayeli^r. 
who  only  judges  by  the  scenery  within  his  view,  is  art 
sometimes  to  think  himself  in  a  wilderness;  he  meei^ 
with  few  habitations  on  his  way,  except  those  attached  ta 
the  post-houses,  and  hardly  perceives  any  other  population* 

It  need  perhaps  scarcely  be  said,  after  a  due  considera- 
tion of  the  character  of  the  inhabitants,  that  good  roads 
and  good  modes  of  conveyance  from  town  to  town,  ar? 
not  to  be  looked  for.  Our  cut  represents  a  vehicle  vhkh 
we  may  term  the  "  post-chaise"  of  the  inland  parts  <^ 
these  provinces.  These  vehicles  are  made  entirely  w 
wood,  without  a  single  particle  of  iron  about  them :  co^' 
sequently,  they  are  very  lights  readily  upset,  and  «s 
easily  righted :  they  are  about  three  feet  high,  and  fofif 
feet  long,  and  capable  only  of  holding  a  portmanteau, 
upon  which  a  small  quantity  of  hay  being  placed,  tw 
traveller  sits.  The  rudeness  of  their  construction  mat*'* 
them  easy  of  repair ;  they  are  changeable  at  every  post- 
house,  and  four  horses  are  harnessed  to  each.  These 
vehicles  are  driven  by  postilions,  who  generally  wear  a 
rough  goatskin  cap* 

In  our  sketches  illustrative  of  Turkey  and  the  Turkisa 
Provinces,  we  aim  at  taking  as  varied  a  course  as  our 
narrow  limits  ^ill  permit ;  dwelling  sometimes  chic  fly  on 
the  antiquities,  at  others  on  the  historical  associations,  a* 
others  on  the  topographical  beauties  of  the  district  se- 
lected.    In  these  two  papers  on  Moldavia  and  Walhuto 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


35 


we  have  directed  our  attention  mainly  to  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  inhabitants,  rather  than  to  the  num^ 
ber  and  ranks  of  their  towns,  &c.,  since  the  peculiar  con- 
dition of  these  districts  with  respect  both  to  Russia  and  to 
Turkey,  makes  the  state  of  the  population  a  matter  of 
much  interest. 


A  SCENE  IN  THE  BICETRE. 

.  The  Bicetre  is  the  Bedlam  of  Paris,  and  Pinel,  the  chief 
actor  m  the  following  triumph  of  huumanity,  was  an  ac- 
complished physician  of  the  time.  We  have  before 
alluded  to  the  incident  at  page  60,  Vol.  XVI.,  Saturday 
Magazine,  but  the  w^isdom,  courage,  and  humanity 
which  the  act  displays,  render  it  worthy  of  a  more  ex- 
tended notice. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1 792,  Pinel,  after  having 
many  times  urged  the  French  Government  to  allow  him 
to  unchain  the  maniacs  of  the  Bicetre,  but  in  vain,  went 
himself  to  the  authorities,  and  with  much  earnestness 
and  warmth  advocated  the  removal  of  this  monstrous 
abuse.  M.  Couthon,  a  member  of  the  Commune,  gave 
way  to  M.  Piners  arguments,  and  agreed  to  meet  him 
at  the  Bicetre.  Couthon  there  interrogated  those  who 
were  chained,  but  the  abuse  he  received,  and  the  con- 
fused sounds  of  cries,  vociferations,  and  clanking  of 
chains  in  the  filthy  and  damp  cells,  made  him  recoil 
from  PineVs  proposition.  "You  may  do  what  you  will 
with  them,"  said  he,  "but  I  fear  you  will  become  their 
victim."  Pinel  instantly  commenced  his  undertaking. 
There  w^ere  about  fifiy  whom  he  considered  might  be 
unchained  without  danger  to  the  othersj  and  he  began 
by  i-eleasing  twelve,  with  the  sole  precaution  of  having 
previously  prepared  the  same  number  of  strong  waist- 
coats, with  long  sleeves,  which  could  be  tied  behind  the 
back,  if  necessary. 

The  first  man  on  whom  the  experiment  was  to  be 

tried   was  an   English   Captain,  whose  history  no  one 

knew,  as  he  had  been  in  chains  for  forty  years.    He  was 

thought  to  be  one  of  the  most  furious  among  them ;  his 

keepers  approached  him  with  caution,  as  he  had  in  a  fit 

of  fury  killed  one  of  them  on  the  spot  with  a  blow  from 

his  manacles.     He  was  chained  more  rigorously  than 

any  of  the  others.     Pinel  entered  his  cell  unattended, 

and   calmly  said  to  him,    "  Captain,  I  will  order  your 

chains  to  be  taken  off,  and  give  you  liberty  to  walk  in 

the  court,  if  you  will  promise  me  to  behave  well  and 

injure  no  one."     "  Yes,  I  promise  you/*  said  the  maniac, 

"but  you  are  laughing  at  me,  you  are  all  too  much 

afraid    of  me."     "I    have  six  men,"   answered   Pinel, 

"  ready  to  enforce  my  commands,  if  necessary.     Believe 

me  then,   on  my  word,   I  will  give  you  your  liberty  if 

you  will  put  on  this  waistcoat." 

He  submitted  to  this  willingly,  without  a  word;  his 
chains  were  removed,  and  the  keepers  retired,  leaving 
the  door   of  his  cell  open.     He  raised  himself  many 
times  from  his  seat,  but  fell  again  on  it,  for  he  had  been 
in  a  sitting  posture  so  long  that  he  had  lost  the  use  of 
his  leg^s ;  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  he  succeeded  in  main- 
taining his  balance,  and  with  totterinnr  steps  came  to  the 
door  of  his  dark  cell.     His   first  look  was  at  the  sky, 
anci    he   cried  out  enthusiastically,    "How  beautiful!" 
J^urinor  the  rest  of  the  dav  he  was  constantly  in  motion, 
^«'ilking  up  and  down  the  staircases,  and  uttering  short 
^'^'^-lamaiions  of  delight.     In  the  evening  he  returned  of 
5'*-^    own  accord  into  his  cell,  where  a  better  bed  than  he 
\iiu\  been  accustomed  to  had  been  prepared  for  him,  and 
'"-*    :t-li-pt  tranquilly.     During  the  two  succeeding  years 
"*'  '^-jh  he  spent  in  the  Bicetre,  he  had  no  return  of  his 
'"  ■  X'ious  paroxysms,  but  even  rendered  himself  useful 
.'     <L.?:ercising  a  kind  of  authority  over  the  insane  pa- 
,  ~  t:?,  whom  he  ruled  in  his  own  fashion. 
^^ItO   next  unfortimate  being  whom  Pinel  visited  was 
"*"  oldier  of  the  French  guards,  whose  great  fault  was 
•  ^    V  -kenness :  when  once  he  lost  self-command  by  drink, 


he  became  quarrelsome  and  violent,  and  the  more 
dangerous  from  his  great  bodily  strength.  From  his 
frequent  excesses,  he  had  been  discharged  from  his 
corps,  and  had  speedily  dissipated  his  scanty  means. 
Disgrace  and  misery  so  depressed  him  that  he  became 
insane ;  in  his  paroxysms  he  believed  himself  a  general, 
and  fought  those  who  would  not  acknowledge  his  rank. 
After  a  furious  struggle  of  this  sort,  he  was  brought  to 
the  Bicetre  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  excitement.  He 
had  now  been  chained  for  ten  years,  and  with  greater  care 
than  the  others,  from  his  having  frequently  broken  his 
chains  with  his  hands  only.  Once  when  he  broke  loose, 
he  defied  all  his  keepers  to  enter  his  cell  until  they  had 
each  passed  under  his  legs ;  and  he  compelled  eight  men 
to  obey  this  strange  command.  Pinel,  in  his  previous 
visits  to  him,  regarded  him  as  a  man  of  original  good 
nature,  but  under  excitement,  incessantly  kept  up  by 
cruel  treatment ;  and  he  had  promised  speedily  to  ame- 
liorate his  condition,  which  promise  alone  had  made  him 
more  calm.  Now  he  announced  to  him  that  he  should 
be  chained  no  longer ;  and  to  prove  that  he  had  con- 
fidence in  him,  and  believed  him  to  be  a  man  capable  of 
better  things,  he  called  upon  him  to  assist  him  in  re- 
leasing others  who  had  not  reason  like  himself,  and  pro- 
mised, if  he  conducted  himself  well,  to  take  him  into  his 
own  service.  The  change  was  sudden  and  complete. 
No  sooner  was  he  liberated,  than  he  became  obliging 
and  attentive,  following  with  his  eye  every  motion  of 
Pine],  and  executing  his  orders  with  as  much  address 
as  promptness ;  he  spoke  kindly  and  reasonably  to  the 
other  patients ;  and  during  the  rest  of  his  life  was  en- 
tirely devoted  to  his  deliverer.  And  "  I  can  never  hear 
without  emotion,*'  (says  M.  PineKs  son,  the  author  of 
this  memoir,)  "  the  name  of  this  man,  who  some  years 
after  this  occurrence  shared  with  me  the  games  of  child- 
hood, and  to  whom  I  shall  always  feel  attached." 

In  the  next  cell  were  three  Prussian  soldiers,  who 
had  been  in  chains  for  many  years,  but  on  what  account 
no  one  knew;  They  were  in  generid  calm  and  inoffen- 
sive, becoming  animated  only  when  conversing  together 
in  their  own  language,  which  was  unintelligible  to  those 
about  them.  They  were  allowed  the  only  consolation  of 
which  they  appeared  sensible, — to  live  together.  The 
preparations  taken  to  release  them  alarmed  them,  as 
they  imagined  that  the  keepers  were  come  to  inflict  new 
severities,  and  they  opposed  them  violently  when  re- 
moving their  irons.  When  released,  they  were  unwil- 
ling to  leave  their  prisons,  and  remained  in  their  habitual 
posture.  Either  grief  or  loss  of  intellect  bad  rendered 
them  indifferent  to  liberty. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  days,  Pinel  released  fifty- three 
maniacs  from  their  chains ;  among  them  were  men  of 
all  conditions  and  countries, — workmen,  merchants, 
soldiers,  lawyers,  &c.  The  result  was  beyond  his  hopes. 
Tranquillity  and  harmony  succeeded  to  tumult  and 
disorder,  and  the  whole  discipline  was  marked  with  a 
regularity  and  kindness  which  had  the  most  favourable 
effect  on  the  insane  themselves,  rendering  even  the 
most  furious  more  tractable.  Humane  physicians  in 
every  part  of  the  civilized  world,  sooner  or  later,  re« 
sponded  to  the  feelings  which  dictated  this  memorable 
act,  the  remote  consequences  of  which  brought  sympathy 
to  a  thousand  cells  of  suffering  and  neglect. 


Never  were  the  splendour  and  magnificence  of  courts,  and 
numerous  trains,  and  noble  retinue,  set  in  a  truer  light, 
than  when  the  King  of  kings  contented  himself  with  the 
ministry  of  his  meek  mother,  and  chose  to  receive  the  first 
respects  of  a  few  humble  shepherds.  ^  Never  was  tlie  true 
use  of  power  more  nicely  taugnt,  nor  its  haughty  arrogance 
and  insolent  abuses  more  effectually  reproached,  than  by 
this  proof,  that  God  was  then  strongest,  when  he  put  on  the 
greatest  appearance  of  weakness.  The  princes,  and  great 
ones  of  this  world,  are  then  most  truly  great,  most  like  their 

Slorious  Original  above,  when  they  wink  no  condescension 
elow  ihem  for  a  g^nnal  good. — ^Dban  Stakhopb. 

582—? 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Jtu  31, 


THE    ZEBU. 


The  domesticated  Asiatic  Ox,  or  Zebu,  from  the  per^t 
■greement  of  its  internal  Btructure  with  that  of  the  com- 
mon ox,  ia  generally  believed  to  be  merely  a  variety  of 
that  animal.  It  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  production 
of  those  distinctive  characters  which  now  mark  the  two 
races,  and  separate  them  from  each  other ;  hut  whatever 
may  have  been  the  cause  of  the  differences  between  the 
common  and  the  Indian  ox,  these  differences  rapidly  dis- 
appear  by  the  intermixture  of  the  breeds,  and,  at  the  end 
(^  a  few  generations,  are  entirely  lost. 

Not  only  does  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  zebu 
exactly  correspond  with  that  of  the  ox,  but  the  more 
essential  particulars  of  external  conformation  are  the 
same  in  both  animals.  The  form  of  the  head  presents 
no  difference  whatever.  In  both,  the  forehead  is  flat,  or 
slightly  depressed,  of  a  height  nearly  equal  to  its  breadth, 
thus  giving  a  square  outline.     An  angular  protuberance 

E asses  directly  across  the  skull,  between  the  bases  of  the 
oms.  The  size  and  direction  of  the  horns  vary  much. 
In  some  they  are  short  and  sub-erect,  in  others  they 
are  comparatively  long  and  point  backwards.  The  ears 
of  some  are  of  the  ordinary  size,  but  in  others  they  are 
long  and  pendulous.  The  dewlap  is,  in  many  cases, 
ve^  largely  developed. 

These  animals  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  large 
fatty  hump  on  the  shoulders.  Numerous  breeds  of  this 
humped  variety  are  scattered,  more  or  less  extensively, 
throughout  Southern  Asia,  the  Islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  the  Eastern  Coast  of  Africa,  from 
Abyssinia  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  They  differ  in 
size  from  that  of  a  lai^  mastiff-dog,  to  that  of  a  full- 
grown  buffalo.  The  colour  of  this  animal  varies  in 
different  climates.  Its  ordinary  hue  is  a  light  ashy  grey, 
passing  into  a  cream-colour  or  milk-while,  but  it  is  not 
(infrequently  marked  with  various  shades  of  red  or  hrown, 
and  it  has  heen  known  to  become  perfectly  black.  The 
hump  is  sometimes  elevated  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
and  retains  an  upright  position;  but  it  often  becomes 
half  pendulous,  hanging  partly  over  towards  one  side. 
Those  furnished  with  a  second  hump  are  of  a  distinct 
breed,  said  to  be  very  common  in  Surat.  Among  the 
other  breeds  there  are  some  altogether  without  horns, 
and  others  having  only  the  semblance  of  them,  the  ex- 
ternal covering  being  destitute  of  the  support  of  bony 
processes,  and  consequently  flexible  and  pendulous. 

The  Indian  ox  is  employed  throughout  the  various 
countries  we  have  named  for  nearly  the  same  purposes 
as  the  European  one.  It  is  a  beast  of  burthen,  and  an 
article  of  food  and  domestic  economy.  In  some  parts  of 
India  it  executes  the  duties  of  a  horse,  and  is  used  both 


to  the  saddle  and  hampss.  It  is  said  to  perfono  jont. 
neys  of  twenty  and  thirty  miles  a  day,  though  the  oU 
writers  speak  of  fifty  or  sixty  miles  a  day  as  its  usiu^ 
rate  of  travelling.  The  beef  affordijd  by  this  animal  ii 
far  from  equalling  that  of  the  Furopean  ox:  the  huKp, 
which  is  chiefly  composed  of  fat,  is  reckoned  the  mai 
delicate  part. 

The  whole  of  the  different  breeds  of  xebus  are  IieM  in 
great  veneration  among  the  Hindus.  They  do  noi  ia 
general  object  to  work  them,  but  to  deprive  them  of  liffi 
under  any  pretext  whatever,  is  accounted  a  sin;  and  to 
partake  wiUi  those  who  eat  of  their  flesh  is  coQsidered 
the  height  of  impiety,  A  select  number  of  these  animali 
are,  however,  exempted  from  all  services,  and  dccmcJ 
especially  sacred.  They  have  the  privilege  of  Blrayiog 
about  the  towns  and  villages,  and  taking  their  M 
whence  they  please.  They  are  not  allowed  to  want  for 
anything,  and  the  most  delicate  food  is  cheerfully  prepawl 
for  them  by  the  devotees,  who  impose  on  themselves  tWi 
charitable  office.  Respecting  the  superstitious  respect 
paid  to  these  sacred  animals  we  have  the  following  ct- 
mark  from  the  Orittttal  AnnvaL 

On  the  banks  of  the  river  (Cavery),  in  the  nMgliboir 
hood  of  a  small  pagoda,  we  saw  a  couple  of  firaminee  bulK 
so  sleek  and  lat  as  to  form  a  oerfect  contrast  with  the  popu- 
lation around  thera,  everything  suffering  fiom  the  si 
scarcity  of  greiti,  while  the  bones  of  these  sacred  anmaj! 
were  loaded  with  an  ancnmhrance  of  consecrated  Ae^  " 
was  melancholy  to  see  that  while  thousands  of  human  tcic^ 
were  starving,  tlio  bulls  dedicated  to  the  stem  divinJlJ, 
Siva,  were  so  pampered  that  they  would  eat  nothing  ™ 
the  most  delicate  food,  and  this  was  generally  takea  «!»* 
fastidious  and  pallid  ^petite.  These  hulls  weie  ver}'  souU 
but  very  beautiful;  the  dewh^  of  one  of  them  h«Bg^ 
from  his  throat  and  between  his  fore-l^s,  almost  tou^ 
the  grouud.  I  could  not  help  feeling  deeply  the  »*d  6* 
that  the  miseries  of  their  fellow-creatuiea  were  looted  upf" 
with  cruel  indifference  by  the  wealthy  members  of  i^ 
Hindoo  community;  while  before  the  dumb  creatures  "f" 
voted  to  (heir  gods,  and  those  senseless  blocks  which  /"^ 
the  diapuBting  effigies  of  their  divinities,  that  food  »iissJ>" 
tered  which  would  liave  saved  whole  fiuuilics  from  priaii"? 
with  hunger. 

In  Benares,  and  other  cities  which  are  crowded  "'''' 
the  more  wealthy  Hindoos  of  high  caste,  ibcse  aniwiil* 
are  exceedingly  numerous,  thronging  the  street",  ana  ia' 
courts,  and  areas  of  temples.  They  are  very  fal,  it- 
dotent,  and  inoffensive. 

Benares  is  accounted  the  holiest  of  the  Hindoo  nt^f^ 
and  occupies  a  somewhat  similar  position  to  that  «liitn 
Rome  once  held  among  the  cities  of  ChrislenJm"- 
Bishop  Heber  tells  us  that  the  more  conspicuous  par" 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


«7 


of  the  houses  in  this  city  are  adorned  with  gaudy  paint- 
ings of  flower-pots,  men,  women,  hulls,  elephants,  gods, 
and  goddesses,  in  all  their  many-formed,  many-headed, 
many -handed,  and  many^weaponed  varieties. 

The  sacred  hulls  devoted  to  Siva  (says  this  author),  of 
every  age,  tame  and  familiar  as  masting,  walk  lazily  up  and 
(lo>vn  these  narrow  streets,  or  are  seen  lying  across  uiem, 
and  hardly  to  be  kicked  up  (any  blows  indeed  given  them 
must  be  of  the  gentlest  kind,  or  woe  be  to  the  profime  wretch 
who  braves  the  prejudices  of  this  frantic  population)  to  make 
way  for  the  Tonjon* 

At  the  famous  Hindoo  festival  called  Ponjol,  celebrated 
on  the  last  three  days  of  the  year,  the  concluding  ceremony 
is  the  worship  of  the  cow,  the  emblem  of  Bhavanu  The 
animals  are  first  sprinkled  with  holy  water;  then  the 
devotees  make  four  prostrations  before  them ;  their  horns 
arc  then  painted  with  various  colours ;  garlands  of  flowers 
and  strings  of  cocoa-nuts  and  other  fruit  are  put  round 
their  necks,  which  being  shaken  off  as  they  walk  or  run 
about,  are  eagerly  picked  up,  and  preserved  as  sacred 
relics  by  the  crowd.  The  consecrated  animals  are  then 
driven  in  a  body  through  the  villages  and  followed  by 
crowds ,  of  people,  who  make  a  discordant  noise  upon 
various  musical  instruments  During  the  remainder  of 
the  day  the  cows  stray  whithersoever  they  please,  and 
feed  in  every  field  without  restraint. 


Who  hastens  to  be  rich,  resembles  him 
Who  is  resolved  that  he  will  quickly  swim. 
And  trusts  to  full-blown  bladders !    He,  indeed, 
With  thieso  supported,  moves  along  with  speed ; 
He  laughs  at  those  whom  untried  depths  alarm, 
By  caution  led,  and  moved  by  strength  of  arm ; 
TiU  in  midway,  the  way  his  folly  chose, 
His  full-blown  bladder  bursts,  and  down  he  goes ! 
Or,  if  preserved,  'tis  by  their  ftiendly  aid. 
Whom  ho  despised,  as  cautious  and  a&aid. 


The  propriety  of  cultivating  feelings  of  benevolence  towards 
oux  fellow  creatures,  is  seldom  denied  in  theory,  however 
frequently  the  dutv  may  be  omitted  in  practice.  It  has  been 
recommended  by  the  eloquence  of  heathen  philosophers,  and 
enforced  by  some  extraordinary  examples  of  heathen  philan- 
thropy, but  as  the  foundations  on  which  they  built  their 
beauti^  theories  of  virtue  were  naiTow  and  confined,  the 
superstructure  was  frail  and  perishable,  and  never  was  the 
true  foundation  discovered,  till  brought  to  light  by  Jesus 
Christ.  He  first  taught  how  the  obstacles  to  benevolence 
were  to  be  removed  by  conquering  that  pride,  self-love,  and 
vain-glory,  which  had  till  then  constituted  a  part  of  the 
catalogue  of  hunum  virtues.  He  first  taught  the  imiversality 
of  its  extent  by  connecting  it  with  the  love  of  the  common 
Father  and  Benefactor  of  all ;  and  made  the  love  of  our 
fellow-creatures  the  test  and  criterion  of  our  love  to  our 
Creator,  while  from  true  devotion  to  the  Supreme  Being, 
he  taught  that  benevolence  to  man  must  necessarily  flow. 
He  likewise  taught  that  upon  all  who  were  convinced  of 
these  truths,  and  were  anxious  to  fulfil  the  Divine  command- 
ments. Divine  assistance  would  be  bestowed.  He  alone 
ennobled  virtue,  by  the  assurance  of  an  eternal  reward,  and 
gave  dignity  to  tms  jjrobatory  scene,  by  representing  it  as 
introductory  to  a  glorious  and  evcr-durmg  state  of  telicityt 
— EuzABETH  Hamilton. 


How  manifold  are  thy  deep  wonders,  Lord  ! 

Night  after  night  into  thy  heavens  I  gaze. 

And  watch,  as  circling  through  the  starry  maze, 
The  golden  planets  move  in  sweet  accord. 
0  blasphemy  of  fools,  O  thought  abhorred  ! 

Tliat  would  th'  eternal  characters  erase, 

Which  to  the  creature  show  in  living  blaze 
Creative  Wisdom,  and  a  Grod  record : 

Yea^Kjharacters,  that  they  who  run  may  read, 
Writ  every  where,  throughout  each  land  and  sea, 

In  telling  of  His  power  are  all  agreed. 
Yet  nought  on  Earth  beneath,  in  Heaven  above. 

Declares  like  Jesus,  sinner  !  given  for  thee, 
A  Grod  of  holiness,  a  God  of  love. — Kev.  C.  STaoxo. 


ON  SWIMMING- 

Self-Preservatiok  from  Drowning. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted,  that  with  the  abundant  sup- 
ply of  water  assured  to  this  metropolis,  more  use  of  it 
is  not  made  for  the  purposes  of  personal  health  and  com- 
fort. Perhaps  no  capital  in  Europe  is  so  poorly  supplied 
with  baths,  and  certainly  in  none  is  bathing  so  little  prac- 
tised. This  is  much  to  be  lamented,  for  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  frequent  bathing  is  highly  conducive  to  health, 
and  would  tend  to  prevent  or  mitigate  many  of  the  evils 
usually  found  in  overcrowded  cities.  From  this  little 
familiarity  with  immersion  in  water,  it  doubtless  happens 
that  so  few  persons  are  acquainted  with  the  art  of  swim* 
ming,  and  with  the  mode  in  which  they  should  conduct 
themselves  when  risk  of  drowning  presents  itself.  The 
English  above  all  other  people  should  be  good  swimmers, 
exposed  as  they  are  by  their  insular  situation  and  com- 
mercial pursuits,  and  disposition  to  visit  other  lands,  so 
frequently  to  perils  by  sea :  yet,  while  several  towns  on 
the  Continent  have  their  swimming  schools,  none  such 
exist  in  London. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  Dr.  Franklin  did  not  put 
into  force  hb  intention  of  establishing  one.  However^ 
were  public  baths  more  numerous,  this  would  be  the  less 
to  be  regretted,  as,  when  frequent  opportunities  of  prac- 
tice are  afforded,  self-instruction  is  by  no  means  difficult. 
The  Romans  expressed  their  opinion  of  a  man's  great 
stupidity  by  saying  '*  lie  can  neither  read  nor  swim. ' 

Most  animals  have  a  natural  aptitude  for  swimming, 
not  found  in  man,  for  they  will  at  once  swim,  when  even 
first  thrown  into  the  water;  but  it  must  be  observed  that 
the  motions  they  then  employ,  much  more  resemble 
their  ordmary  movements  of  progression,  than  those  made 
use  of  by  man  under  similar  circumstances. 

The  children  of  several  uncivilized  nations,  especially 
when  warmth  of  clinuite  exists,  frequent  the  water  from 
an  early  age,  and  seem  almost  to  swim  by  instinct :  the 
remarkable  powers  of  endurance,  agility,  and  strength 
manifested  while  in  the  water  by  manv  individuals  of 
savage  tribes  are  well  known ;  powers  which  often  enable 
them  to  come  off  victorious  in  struggles  with  some  of  the 
fiercest  inhabitants  of  their  rivers-  and  coasts. 

The  art  of  swimming  is  by  no  means  of  difficult  at- 
tainment, and  several  authors  (especially  Dr.  Franklin) 
have  supplied  directions  to  facilitate  its  acquisition. 
Above  all  things  self-confidence  (not  rashness  leading 
into  danger)  is  required,  and  when  this  is  possessed  all 
difficulty  soon  ceases,  especially  if  the  learner  be  assisted 
at  first  by  some  friend  who  is  a  swimmer.  Dr.  Franklin 
(himself  an  expert  swimmer)  recommends  that  at  first 
a  familiarity  with  the  hutnfani  power  of  water  be  gained, 
and  to  do  this  he  desires  the  learner,  after  advancing  into 
the  water  breast-high,  to  turn  round  so  as  to  bring  his 
face  to  the  shore :  he  is  then  to  let  an  e^  fall  in  the 
water,  which  being  white  will  be  seen  at  the  bottom. 
His  object  now  must  be  by  diving  down,  with  Ids  eyes 
open,  to  reach  and  bring  up  this  e^ :  he  will  easily  per-  - 
ceive  that  he  is  in  no  danger  in  this  experiment,  as  the 
water  gets  shallower  of  course  towards  the  shore,  and, 
because,  whenever  he  likes,  by  depressing  his  feet,  he  can 
raise  his  head  agam  above  water. 

The  thing  which  will  most  strike  beginners  will  be  the 
great  difficulty  they  experience  in  forcing  themselves 
through  the  water  to  reach  the  e^^  in  consequence  of 
the  great  resistance  the  water  itsetf  offers  to  their  pro- 
gress ;  and  this  is,  indeed,  the  practical  lesson  derivable 
from  the  experiments ;  for  the  learner  becomes  assured 
of  the  very  great  supporting  or  sustaining  power  af- 
forded by  water,  and  hence  derives  a  confidence  essential 
to  rapid  progress.  This  sustaining  power  of  water  is 
shown  under  many  circumstances;  thus,  a  stone,  which 
on  land  requires  two  men  to  remove  it,  might  in  water 
be  easily  carried  by  one. 

A  man  may  walk  with  impunity  upon  broken  glass  in 


33 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[July  31, 


(le<^p  water,  hecaiise  his  wcijflit  is  supportetl  by  the  water. 
]]ut  iii.inv  men  have  l>een  drowned  in  attempting  to  wade 
aer>.<,  tli-  lords  nf  rivers,  from  not  l>einLr aware  that  the  body 
is  «.'.ipp)i"Ld  by  the  water,  and  does  not  press  on  the  bottom 
surnLi-'utly  to*  c:ive  a  sure  tooting  a^^ainst  a  very  tririing 
current.  'A  man,  therefore,  carrying  a  weight  on  his  head 
or  slioulders,  may  safely  pass  a  river,  where,  without  a 
load,  he  would  be  carried  down  the  stream*. 

In  fact,  the  knowledcre  of  this  "  fluid  support,"  consti- 
tutes the  irround-work  of  all  elForts  at  self-preservation 
from  death  by  drowning. 

That  a  person  exposed  to  danp^er  by  water  should  swim 
well  is  important,  as  adding  to  his  security,  but  it  is  still 
more  important  that  he  should  know  that  he  can  be  sup- 
ported in  the  water,- even  without  swimming,  (provided 
he  retains  his  presence  of  mind,)  by  a  very  trifling  eftbrt ; 
for,  while  ihi  best  swimmer,  by  his  exertions,  would  in 
no  very  lono^  time  become  exhausted,  by  means  of  merely 
fioatln^-  on  the  water  much  fatiuue  would  be  spared  him, 
and  his  chanee  of  heinu'  :^aved  much  increased.  In  fact 
to  do  this  is  cxceetlin^ly  easy,  for  the  human  body  is, 
when  tlin  eiicst  is  filled  with  air,  as  by  an  ordinary  in- 
spiration,  of  a  let^s  tpecilic  j:ra\ity  (that  is,  weight  in 
pronoiiion  to  bull<)  tii.iu  tlje  water  which  supports  it, 
and,  therefore,  must  float;  and  it  does  so  naturally, 
havin«r  about  hilf  the  head  above  the  water;  so  that  the 
person  exposed  to  danger  has  only  to  turn  upon  his 
back,  in  order  that  that  half  consist  of  the  face,  and  free 
respiration  bo  thus  secured.  But,  to  float  thus  upon 
the  water,  the  *rreatest  care  must  bo  taken  not  to  elevate 
the  arras  or  other  parts  above  its  surface,  and  it  is  in 
remembering  this  caution,  that  presence  of  mind  at  the 
time  of  danger  confers  so  much  benefit,  for,  in  the  mo- 
ment of  terror,  a  person  thrown  into  the  water  almost 
instinctively  stretches  out  his  hands  aloft  to  grasp  at 
some  object,  thereby  depriving  himself  of  a  means  of 
proceeding  which  would  frequently  keep  him  afloat  until 
succour  arrived.  By  elevating  any  part  of  the  body  in 
this  way,  we  remove  it  from  the  support  afforded  by  the 
v.'ater,  and  thus  render  sinking  inevitable.    . 

Mr.  Nicholson  in  liis  journal  relates  an  instructive  in- 
stance of  the  importance  of  this  caution.  While  the  ship 
Worcester  was  sailing  along  the  Ganges,  at  the  rate  of 
seven  or  eiirht  knots  per  hour,  a  man,  who  was  unable  to 
swim,  fell  into  the  water.  When  first  perceived,  his  head 
was  above  water ;  he  held  up  his  hands,  and  after  a  few 
seconds  splashing  he  sank:  soon  after  he  rose  again*  and 
the  ofUe*  r  of  the  ship,  who  had  a  trumpet  in  his  hand, 
called  out  to  him,  "Keep  your  hands  down  in  the  water." 
He  obeyed,  j^md  remained  a  considerable  time  afloat, 
while  a  bo:it  was  manned  for  his  assistance ;  by  a  blunder 
of  the  sailors  in  their  haste  the  boat  was  considerably 
delayed,  and  the  ship  was  rapidly  distancing  him ; 
alarmed  at  this,  he  forgot  his  instructions,  aga^a  raised 
his  liauds,  dashed  them  in  the  water,  and  soon  sank : 
he  however  speedily  rose  again,  and  obeying  the 
same  instructions,  incessantly  repeated  to  him  by  the 
captain,  by  means  of  his  trumpet,  again  floated.  W'hen- 
evcr  he  deviated  from  this  rule  he  sank,  and  this  he  did 
at  least  five  times  before  the  boat  reached  him,  when  he 
had  been  r.lmost  carried  out  of  hearing;  when  taken  up 
he  was  so  little  hurt  as  to  be  able  to  assist  in  rowing 
back  to  the  ship.  Mr.  Nicholson  concludes  with  the 
following  simple  rule  :  "  When  a  man  falls  into  deep 
water,  he  will  rise  to  the  surface  by  floatage,  and  will 
continue  there  if  he  do  not  elevate  his  hands.  If  he 
move  his  hands  under  the  water  in  any  manner  he 
pleases,  his  head  will  rise  so  high  as  to  allow  him  free 
liberty  to  breathe.  And  if  he  move  his  legs,  as  in  the 
action  of  walking  (or  rather  walking  up  stairs),  his 
shoulders  will  rise  above  the  water ;  so  that  he  may 
then  use  less  exertion  with  his  hands,  or  apply  them  to 
other  purposes." 

Dr    Arnott,    in   allusion    to   this    subject,   observes 

•  ArvottN  KlcmruU  of  Pkvsieg. 


that  so  many  persons  are  drowned  who  might  be  saved, 
for  the  following  reasons  :  1.  Their  believing  iLat  ic- 
tinned  exertion  is  nece^^sary  to  preserve  the  body  ironj 
sinking,  and  their  hence  assuming  the  position  ii  a 
swimmer  with  the  face  downward,  in  which  the  who.e 
head  must  be  kept  out  of  the  water  in  order  to  euJ s. 
them  to  breathe,  whereas,  when  laying  on  the  back,  on.j 
the  face  need  be  above  the  water.  2.  From  the  grouu- 
less  fear  that  water  entering  by  the  ears  may  drouo  as 
if  it  entered  by  the  mouth  or  nose,  and  their  empiovirff 
exertions  to  prevent  this.  3.  The  keeping  the  hriics 
above  the  surface  already  alluded  to.  4.  Negltctm-  :o 
take  the  opportunity  of  the  internals  of  the  wavts  ja  .,.- 
over  the  head  to  renew  the  air  in  thtur  chests  h  ..: 
inspiration.  5.  Their  not  knowing  tlie  importar.c  : 
keeping  the  chest  as  full  of  air  as  possible,  which  l;j 
nearly  the  same  efl'ect  as  tying  a  bladder  full  ol  n 
around  the  neck  would  have. 

We  have  dwelt  thus  long  upon  the  power  of  ^u\r 
(especially  salt  water  by  reason  of  its  greater  utr.:;*. i 
to  support  the  weight  of  the  human  body,  as  not  oil. 
is  it  the  principal  circumstance  to  be  remembered  ViC 
exposed  to  danger  of  drowning,  but  because,  >*Ue  i 
due  confidence  in  it  is  acquired,  all  difficulty  in  Uar....: 
to  swim  soon  ceases.  It  is  to  this  end  the  prac.iti  :• 
commended  by  Franklin  is  directed,  and  by  rt2>oi}  d 
ignorance  or  forgetfulness  of  it,  so  many  per^i >  n 
the  hour  of  peril,  by  their  fruitless  and  injurious  txer- 
tion,  as  it  were  drown  themselresy  who  might  by  ill- 
quill ity  and  presence  of  mind  be  saved. 

Although  floating  in  water  is  sufficient  to  pre^rr^ 
from  immediate  danger,  yet  ought  not  the  acquisition  :r 
the  art  of  swimming  to  be  neglected.  Progres»sion  k 
this  means  depends,  like  the  flight  of  birds,  upon  'ic 
law  in  mechanics  of  every  action  beiog  foUoved  Iv  i 
corresponding  action,  (t.  e.  reaction,)  but  in  an  on> 
site  direction;  and,  thus,  the  reaction  of  the  air,  coc:- 
pressed  by  the  downward  motion  of  the  bird's  vir: 
causes  it  to  mount  aloft  in  proportion  to  the  fon : :' 
communicates  by  that  motion  ;  so,  the  backward  ^r  • .:, 
communicated  by  the  simultaneous  movement  of  tl^r 
hands  and  feet  of  the  swimmer,  causes  his  forward  pr> 
gress  in  the  water.  When  once  familiarized  with  i-^ 
support  he  derives  from  the  water  itself,  he  soon  K-t: 
to  make  this  stroke  correctly,  especially  if  aidci  -  ' 
supported  by  some  more  experienced  friend,  a  meaus 
more  desirable  than  the  use  of  corks  or  bladders.  M^ 
Nicholson  makes  the  following  interesting  remarks  upc:i 
the  subject : 

Dr.  Franklin's  method  of  learning  to  swim  by  stmgjrlir; 
to  descend  to  the  bottom  is  better  calculated  to  give  ct.':.-* 
than  skill ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  ailowetl  ti. 
he  who  has  acquired  the  former  will  require  very  littl.  i* 
the  latter  to  become  a  swimmer.       I  liave  neveithu  -^ 
remarked  that  those  boys  who  were  the  most  daii;.: 
plunging  into  the  water  before  the}'  could  swim,  havern- 
arrived  at  the  art  later  than  othei-s  who  have  attendcJ  v . 
some  care  to  the  method  of  striking  their  arms  and  K,.'.  ^ 
have  known  several  pereons  who,  after  acquiring  the  nu  t 
of  striking  the  arras  separately,  so  as  to  have  gaincJ  >   ■ 
fidence  to  walk  in  water  rising  above  the  shoulders,  nil  ' 
striking  the  legs  while  the  body  was  supported  by  the  h^-' 
bearing  on  the  ground  in  shallow  water,  have  s^\anl  well  - 
the  first  trial  to  combine  both  together.     The  riilt--    • 
swimming  swiftly  and  with  little  fatigue  are  few.    I^* 
body  must  lie  as  near  the  suHace,  and  the  head  as  lo^'.  -^ 
conveniently  may  be.     The  knees  must  be  kept  mde  j'm  "■ 
der,  in  order  that  the  obliquity  of  action  in  one  hx  -'"■.' 
counteract  that  in  the  other,  instead  of  tlieir  joint  ac :  t 
producing  a  libratory  motion  of  the  body ;  and  the  MrV.c 
or  impulse  must  be  given  with  much  more  Telocity  lhi;i 
that  employed  in  drawing  the  legs  up  again. 

Many  persons  recommend  that  the  motions  of  ir:z^ 
when  swimmin;^  should  be  observed,  as  so  »early  rcscJi:- 
bling  those  employed  by  man. 

In  conclusion,  we  wish  to  impress  upon  all  loami'r^ 
I  the  necessity  of  knowing  well  the  character,  hot* -i* 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


39 


depth,  &c.,  of  the  places  wherein  they  practise.  To 
I  rirn  to  swim,  it  requires  that  the  water  should  reach  at 
I  .St  to  the  shoulders,  but  when  higher  than  this,  or 
h  vond  the  depth  of  the  swimmer,  he  should  never  go 
unaccompanied  by  an  experienced  person.  .1.  C. 


TiiK  inward  pleasare  and  satisfaction  arising  from  the  prac- 
tice of  virtuous  actions,  may  be  greatly  overclouded  in  the 
present  state  by  bodily  diseases  and  misfortunes  ;  and  the 
inward  pain  and  remorse  generally  felt  on,  or  attending  the 
co'iiMiisslon  of  vicious  and  wicked  deeds,  may  be  greatly 
Miu'thered,  or  not  so  much  felt,  from  an  eager  pursuit  after 
sc-iKsual  gratifications,  or  an  attendance  on  business  and 
spoular  emplo\Tnents ;  but  in  another  world  there  will  be  no 
diseases  or  misfortunes  to  overcloud  the  one,  nor  sensual 
gratitications  or  secular  employments  to  smother  or  prerent 
the  other  being  felt  to  all  eternity. 


The  belief  of  a  supernatural  assistance  is  so  reasonable,  so 
consonant  to  our  ideas  of  the  Divine  goodness  and  of  human 
frailty,  that  philosophers,  even  in  the  heathen  world,  were 
sensible  how  much  it  was  wanted,  and  have  expressly 
asserted,  that  without  Divine  assistance  no  man  could 
make  a  progress  either  in  wisdom  or  virtue.  What  reason 
BUiTgested  to  them.  Revelation  has  ascertained  to  us,  which 
represents  us  as  temples  and  habitations  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
— Uev.  G.  Carr. 

Under  the  persuasion  that  no  disaster  can  reach  us  without 
the  permission  of  Him  who  watches  over  u«  with  an  eye 
that  never  slumbers,  and  a  tenderness  which  notliing  but 
guilt  can  withdraw  from  us,  we  can  face  those  unkno\>ni 
terrors  from  which  pagan  philosophy  turned  away  dismayed ; 
we  can  look  forward,  unmoved,  into  futurity,  and  contem- 
plate all  the  possible  contingencies  that  may  befal  us,  with 
mirepidity  and  unconcern ;  with  the  cheernilness  of  a  mind 
at  perfect  ease,  reposing  itself  in  full  confidence  and  security 
on    the   great    Disposer   of  all    human   events. — ^Bishop 

1  ORTEUS. 

T  AnouR,  though  it  was  at  first  inflicted  as  a  curse,  seems  to 
•  0  the  gentlest  of  all  punishments,  and  is  fruitful  of  a  thou- 
sand blessings :  the  same  Providence  which  permits  diseases, 
produces  remedies ;  when  it  sends  sorrows,  it  often  sends 
friends  and  supporters;  if  it  gives' a  scanty  income,  it  gives 
good  sense,  and  knowledge,  and  contentment,  which  love  to 
dwell  under  homely  roofs;  with  sickness  come  humility, 
and  repentance,  and  piety ;  and  affliction  and  grace  walk 
hand  in  hand. — Jortin. 


The  slave  who  digs  in  the  mine  or  labours  at  the  oar,  can 
rejoice  at  the  project  of  laying  down  his  burden  together 
with  his  life ;  out  to  the  slave  of  guilt  there  arises  no  hope 
from  death.  On  the  contrary,  he  is  obliged  to  look  forward 
^ith  constant  terror  to  this  most  certam  of  all  events,  as 
the  conclusion  of  all  his  hopes,  and  the  commencement  of 


his  greatest  miseries. — Blair. 


It  was  an  excellent  rule  which  Marcus  Antoninus  prescribed 
to  himself  in  his  private  meditations  :  **  Manage,  says  he, 
*'  all  your  actions  and  thoughts  in  such  a  manner,  as  if  you 
were  just  going  out  of  the  world." 

As  the  Supreme  Being  has  expressed,  and,  as  it  were,  printed 
hi^  idefis  in  the  Creation,  men  express  their  ideas  in  books, 
^^htch,  by  this  great  invention  or  our  latter  ages,  may  last 
2'i  l<^-)ng  as  the  sun  and  moon,  and  perish  only  in  the  general 
v.'t'^t  of  nature.  Thus  Cowley,  in  his  poem  on  the  Re- 
j^urt-ection,  mentioning  the  destruction  of  the  universe,  has 
tiiea-_e  admira})le  lines : 

Now  all  tlie  wide  extended  sky, 
And  all  th'  liarmonious  worlds  on  high, 
And  Virgil's  sacred  Work,  shall  die. 
U\<i  xe  is  no  other  metliod  of  fixing  these  thoughts  which 
arise  and  disappear  in  the  mind  of  men,  and  transmitting 
tiiein  to  the  last  periods  of  time ;  no  other  method  of  giv- 

know- 
mixed 

--  , . — ed  into 

tiie  H'orJd  of  npirits.  Statues  cau  last  but  a  few  thousands 
^^  y^f^  edifices  fewer,  and  colours  still  fewer  than  edifices. 


FRESH-WATER  FISH. 
VI. 

The  Carp,  {Cyprinus  Carpioy  Linn.) 

The  Carp  family  (Cyprinoid^g)  is  the  first  of  the  five 
families  into  which  Cuvier  divides  his  second  great  di- 
vision or  order  of  osseous  fishes.  This  order  (Mala- 
copterygii  Abdominales)  includes  those  fishes  whote 
ventral  fins  are  attached  to  the  abdomen,  behind  th(i 
pectorals,  and  unconnected  with  the  bone  of  the  shouldpr. 
This  order  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  fresh-water 
fish. 

All  the  species  of  the  genus  Cyprinus,  of  which  the 
common  carp  is  the  type,  are  inhabitants  of  fresh  water; 
most  of  them  have  the  faculty  of  bringing  their  lips 
forward,  and  drawing  them  back,  in  consequence  of  the 
anterior  part  of  the  mouth  being  formed  of  very  small 
bones,  connected  by  elastic  ligaments.  The  mouth  is 
small,  the  jaws  feeble,  and  very  often  without  teeth,  but 
with  teeth  on  the  pharynx,  which  compensate  somewhat 
for  their  absence  on  the  jaws.  Their  bodies  are  scaly, 
and  they  have  not  the  soft  dorsal  fin  which  occurs  in 
the  salmon  family.  They  are  the  least  voracious  of  all 
the  finny  tribes.  The  different  species  so  much  re- 
semble each  other,  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  them.  Most  of  them  are  esculent,  but  their 
flesh  is  not  of  the  first  quality. 

The  common  carp  is  found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  the 
southern  and  temperate  parts  of  Europe;  and  it  is  only 
in  consequence  of  the  care  bestowed  on  them  that  they 
are  found  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  the  continent. 
Beckman  says, — 

We  are  told  that  these  fish  were  brought  from  Italy  to 
Prussia,  where  they  are  at  present  (1797)  very  abundant,  by 
a  nobleman  whose  name  is  not  mentioned.  This  service, 
however,  may  be  ascribed  with  more  probability  to  the 
Upper  Burggrave  Casper  von  Nostiz,  who  died  in  1588,  and 
wno,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  firet  sent  carp 
to  Prussia  from  his  estates  in  Silesia,  and  caused  them  to  bo 
put  into  the  lai-ge  pond  at  Arensberg,  not  far  from  Creuz- 
oerg.  As  a  memorial  of  this  circumstance,  the  figure  of  a 
carp,  cut  in  stone,  wus  shown  formerly  over  a  door  at  the 
Castle  of  Arensberg.  This  colony  must  have  been  very 
numerous  in  the  year  1535,  for  at  that  period  carp  was  sent 
from  Koniffsberg  to  Wilda,  where  the  Archdulce  Albert 
then  resided.  At  present  a  great  many  carp  are  tran«>orted 
from  Dantzic  and  Konigsberg  to  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Den- 
mark. It  appears  to  me  probable  that  these  fish  after  that 
period  became  every  where  known  and  esteemed,  as  eating 
fish  in  Lent  and  on  fast  days  was  among  Christians  consi- 
dered to  be  a  religious  duty,  and  that,  on  this  account,  they 
endeavoured  to  have  ponds  stocked  with  them  in  every 
country,  because  no  species  can  be  so  easily  bred  in  these 
reservoirs. 

Since  the  time  when  Beckmann  wrote,  until  the  present 
time,  the  sale  of  the  carp  has  formed  part  of  the  revenue  of 
the  nobility  and  gentry  in  Prussia,  Pomerania,  Branden- 
burg, Saxony,  Bohemia,  Mecklenburg,  and  Holstein ;  and 
the  treatment  of  this  useful  fish  has  long  since  been  re- 
duced in  these  countries  to  a  kind  of  system,  founded  ou 
numerous  experiments  made  during  several  generations  in 
the  families  of  gentlemen,  well  skilled  in  every  depart- 
ment of  husbandry.  They  construct  carp  ponds,  and 
stock  them  with  a  few  breeders,  which  in  a  short  time 
fill  the  pond.  It  is  recommended  to  have  three  ponds,  viz., 
a  spawning  pond,  a  nursery,  and  a  pond  for  adult  fish. 
It  has  been  found  that  such  ponds  as  are  surrounded 
by  poor,  clayey  soils,  or  are  exposed  to  the  north  and 
east  winds,  or  have  much  wood  about  them  so  as  to  ob- 
struct the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  contain  hard  or  very  cold 
water,  or  such  water  as  issues  from  mines,  moors,  or 
mosses,  will  never  allow  the  fish  to  thrive.  Water-fowl 
must  be  kept  away  from  the  ponds  during  the  spnwnl  :: 
season.  Every  full-grown  carp  must  be  allowed  a  r  r.v c 
in  the  pond  equal  to  a  square  of  fifteen  feet:  the  inoro 
room  they  have,  the  more  quickly  will  they  grow,  r.nd 
the  oftener  they  are  fed  the  better.    Mr.  Forster  has 


THE  SATURD4Y  MAGAZIKE. 


l3vLi  31,  mi, 


known  them  to  attain  the  weight  of  twenty-five  pounds 
bv  being  carefully  attended  to.  During  winter,  should 
tfie  poad  be  corered  with  ice,  it  muat  be  broken  in  many 
parta,  as  without  tlie  admission  of  air  the  fieb  would  soon 

An  extraordinary  but  cruel  method  of  iraproving 
carp  for  culinary  purposes  is  described  in  the  Philoto- 
phieal  Tratuaetiotu  for  1754. 

It  in  very  doubtful  at  what  time  the  carp  was  intro- 
duced into  England.  The  year  1514  ia  mentioned  by 
Fuller  as  the  time  when  Leonard  Maschal,  a  gentleman 
of  Plunistead  in  Sussex,  introduced  the  tench,  but  there 
is  some  reason  for  doubting  whether  we  ought  to  give 
him  the  honour  of  introducing  the  carp  also.  Carp  are 
mentioned  in  the  Boka  of  St.  Albans,  published  by 
Wynkyn  de  Worde,  as  early  as  1486.  This  boke  con- 
taim  a  treatise  on  fishing  and  several  more  serious  tracts, 
compiled  by  Dame  Julyans  Bamea,  prioress  of  the  nun- 
nery of  Sopwell  near  St.  Albans,  a  lady  celebrated  for 
her  learning  and  accompliahments.  The  reason  for  her 
publishing  the  treatise  on  fishing  in  the  manner  in  which 
it  appears,  is  given  by  her  in  the  following  words: — 
"  And  for  by  cause  that  this  present  treatyae  shouldenot 
come  to  the  hondys  of  eche  ydle  persone  whyche  wolde 
desire  it,  yf  it  were  emprynted  allone  by  itself  and  put 
in  a  lytyll  plaunfiet;  therefore  I  have  compylyd  it  in  a 
greter  nolume,  of  dyuerse  bokys  concemynge  to  gentyll 
and  noble  men,  to  the  entent  that  the  forsayd  ydle 
pcrsones  whyche  sholde  haue  hut  lytyll  meiure  in  the 
■ayd  dysporte  of  fysshynge,  aholde  not  by  this  meane 
utterly  dystroye  it. '  Speaking  of  the  carp,  she  says, 
that,  "  it  ij  a  deyntous  fysahe,  but  there  ben  but  fewe  in 
Englonde.     And  therefore  I  wryte  the  lassa  of  hym." 

In  this  country  the  carp  usually  attains  the  length  of 
from  about  twelve  to  sixteen  inches;  but  in  warmer  cli- 
mates it  will  grow  to  two,  three,  or  four  feet,  and  attain 
a  weight  of  twenty,  thirty,  or  even  forty  pounds.  Its 
general  colour  is  a  yellowish  olive,  much  deeper  or 
browner  on  the  back,  with  a  slight  hue  of  gold  on  the 
sides:  the  scales  are  large,  rounded,  and  distinct;  the 
head  large,  and  the  mouth  furnished  on  each  side  with  a 
cirrus  or  beard,  and  above  the  nostrils  a  smaller  pair:  the 
lateral  line  is  slightly  curved,  and  marked  by  a  row  of 
blackish  specka;  the  fina  are  violet-brown,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  anal,  which  has  a  reddish  cast ;  the  dorsal 
fin  ia  broad,  or  continued  to  aome  distance  from  the 
middle  of  the  back  towards  the  tail,  which  is  slightly 
forked. 

The  carp  attains  a  great  age;  specimens  have  been 
apoken  of  as  being  150  or  200  years  old.  Their  colour 
is  less  deep  as  they  'get  old,  and  in  advanced  age  it 
borders  on  white.  In  old  age,  too,  they  are  subject  to  a 
singular  malady :  the  head  and  back  become  covered  with 
moss-like  excrescences.  This  disease  seems  also  to  affect 
voung  carp  which  inhabit  snow-water,  or  water  which  has 
become  putrid :  snow-water  also  produces  pustulous 
germs  under  the  scales,  which  fishermen  call  the  small- 
pox. Their  intestines  also  often  contain  worms,  and 
their  liver  is  subject  to  ulceration. 

The  food  of  the  carp  is  larvs  of  insects  or  wonnsi 
small  testacea,  grains,  roots,  and  the  young  shoots  of 
plants.  They  ^our  readily  the  leaves  of  lettuce,  and 
other  tender  plants,  which  are  thrown  into  the  water. 
The  leaves  and  seeds  of  salad,  according  to  Blotch,  fat- 
tens them  more  quickly  than  any  other  food.  They  may 
also  be  observed  darting  out  of  the  water  to  seize  the 
insects  which  hover  over  its  surface.  The  concussion  of 
their  jaws  or  lips  in  eating,  occasions  a  peculiar  noise 
which  may  be  heard  at  some  distance.  They  can  remain 
a  long  time  without  food,  yet  when  it  is  offered  them  in 
abundance  they  often  overfeed  themselves,  and  perish 
from  the  effects  of  their  gluttony. 

Carps  delight  most  in  waters  where  the  current  is  not 
strong.  In  summer  they  frequent  weed  beds  and  are 
particularly  fond  of  those  aquatic  plants   of  stagnant 


waters  which  spring  from  the  bottom  and  rise  lo  tb 
surface.  In  rivers  they  frequent  the  still  deepe  vUcii 
have  an  oozy  bottom,  with  rushes  and  reeds,  irbere  tbn 
find  a  convenient  nidus  for  their  spawn.  Duringilni^i 
they  conceal  themselves  in  the  mud  and  pass  mani 
months  without  food,  collected  side  by  side  in  pai 
numbers.  In  the  spring,  tiiose  that  mhahit  nincioj 
waters  quit  their  winter  abode  to  seek  more  trui^d 
haunts.  If  their  progress  should  be  obstmcted  bpsi 
barrier,  they  endeavour  to  leap  over  it  by  placing  lim- 
selves  on  their  side,  bringing  the  head  and  tail  togribn 
and  then  suddenly  letting  go  this  sort  of  urculsr  sprit;. 

The  carp  is  surprisingly  prolific;  the  quantity  of  r» 
ia  so  grea^  that  it  is  said  sometimes  to  have  exaxiti 
the  weight  of  the  emptied  fish  when  weighed  sgalnttit. 
As  it  frequently  happens  with  prolific  animals,  the  gnrUa 
portion  of  the  spawn  is.  devoured  by  other  animils;  tsi 
the  young  ones  are  e:qiosed  to  numerous  dangers,  Tbi 
carp  growl  rapidly,  and  .at  the  age  of  three  years  it  luf 
few  enemies  to  fear,  except  the  otter  and  the  Urgerpit(<, 
The  eggs  of  the  carp,  as  well  as  those  of  the  sturgrai', 
are  made  into  caviar,  which  is  highly  esteemed.  Thi 
bile  of  the  carp  furnishes  a  green  colour  to  fmttn. 
and  was  formerly  used  in  medicine. 

The  carp  is  so  tenacious  of  life  that  it  mav  be  t^F' 
for  a  considerable  time  in  any  damp  place,  though  m 
immersed  in  water.  In  winter  they  may  be  transponfc 
to  a  considerable  distance  by  packing  them  up  in  plinK 
in  moietened  linen,  or  in  snow,  and  putting  t  bit  li 
bread  ateeped  in  brandy  in  their  mouth.  In  IlolUid 
they  are  suspended  to  the  roof  of  a  cellar  in  nets  iiili  li 
damp  mesa,  which  is  frequently  watered;  and  they  art  :t<i 
with  bread  and  milk  or  with  chopped  vegetables. 

They  are  transported  to  Paris  in  well-boats,  whii 
are  often  stocked  at  the  distance  of  more  than  a  huiidn<) 
leagues  from  that  capital.    ' 

The  Cyprimu  auratus,  gold  fish,  or  golden  carp,  fci' 
been  already  described  in  Saturday  Magazine,  Vol. 
XVI^p.  134. 

•  Sea  Sahiriiiji  ifayaiim.  Vol.  XVIII.,  p.  S9. 


Thb  acandal  brought  upon  religion,  as  it  was  not  eoiitml^ 
by  the  irregularities  of  one  or  two  person^  bnt  byMsici*" 
and  common  crimes ;  bo  neither  will  it  be  removed  bi  ■ 
few  single  and  private  reformations.  There  mnrt  be  cof^ 
binationa  and  public  confederacies' in  virtu^  to  balsiwuj 
connterpoise  those  of  vice,  or  she  will  never  recover  U"" 
honour  which  she  acquired  by  the  general  piety  of  her  pf 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAND. 


N2  583.         SUPPLKMENT, 


M^^u^im* 


JULY,  1841. 


{Puci 
OnPamn 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  FINE  ARTS,    No.  h 


Wliidi  to  bri|fal*cm«  Uaon^  batj  twn; 
Ba  ihii  (bf  p^H.  Ib«t  tboo,  luil  tboo  mtoos, 
iDthaBbutled  ibgwBj.iDtliMraceUed, 
CiDWDed  wjtb  U»  Iwml  of  ueentiBg  Time.— TaoHwa. 

ImsoDucnov,  Obisih  ox  the  Fiitb  Arts, 
The  VitM  Arta  an  natullj  imdentood  to  tnclade  tboM  pro- 
ductions of  human  genius  and  skill  which  are  more  or  leas 
addressed  to  the  Bentimeut  of  taste.  Their  oii^  haa  been 
the  subject  of  much  learned  dieplay  and  speculation ;  but 
BDDsiderinR  them  to  be  jmrelj  kiHtatiM  In  tn^  nature  and 
origin,  and  that  their  highest  aim  is,  b^  a  delicate  oombin»- 
tion,  to  draw  to  a  single  point  the  scattered  excellences  of 
anture,  so  as  to  excite  pleastuable  emotions,  capable  also  of 
informing,  elevating,  and  improving  the  mia^  we  must  refer 
-Jib  invention  of  these  arts,  not  to  anv  single  people,  but  to 
'»e»y  eonntry  where  human  reason  nna  been  at  all  cultiva- 
«4'  There  is  a  Iotc  of  ornament  and  display  naturally 
mptaated  in  the  human  mind,  and  a  strong  tendency  to  copy 
arroandin^  natural  objects.  Eren  the  eavase  finds  delight  in 
doming  Ins  body,  andpaases  much  of  his  tune  in  executing 


idoniing  Ins  body, 

iie  rade  csrvinn  < ^ , 

-xhibitioDB  of  hia  skill  require  only  a  general  cnltivation 
■I  the  mind  of  the  artist  to  raise  into  tosteflil  decomtions. 
The  inutatire  arts  may  therefore  be  considered  indigenous 


and  passes  mncb  of  his  time  in  executing 
n  his  niear  shaft  or  canoe,  which  simpli 

~  "II  - : I 1.1   111 l!^ 


limate  and  the  wanta  it  prodnoea.    Not  only  do  the  fine 
r<«  «xiiit  in  some  fcna  or  other  in  BTery  conntiy,  bat  we 
Vot.  XIX. 


iFnm  a  Z>raiciii(  ty  Flaman  /mn  IJu  Autism., 

find  them  in  about  the  same  stage  of  odTsncement  among  all 


origin  at  the  fine  arte, 
true  that  little  diverBity  is  found  even  among  distant 
nations  in  the  gradations  from  rude  art  to  refined  invention. 
In  the  early  itafea  of  society  men  of  all  countries  closely 
resemble  each  otLer  in  their  feelings,  wants,  means  of  giali- 


ori^.  The  early  Egyptian  and  Grecian  statnea  di^lay 
similar  lineaments  and  corresponding  attitudes ;  simolr  hi- 
cauae  the  artista  of  each  had  to  overcome  the  same  aifficuU 
ties,  and  brought  nearly  the  same  amount  of  information  to 
bear  upon  them. 

As  the  mechwiical  arts  oi^nated  in  the  phvsical  wanta 
of  man,  so  the  fine  arts  originated  partly  in  tne  derire  to 
embellish  the  rude  prodncUons  of  necessity,  and  partly  aba  U 
supply  certain  sensible  representations  of  sentiments  and 
ideas  which  to  tiie  circumscribed  capacity  of  nnenlightaaed 
ages  must  be  extremely  vague.  "  A  supreme,  spiritn^  in- 
visible intelligence  being  u^nitely  beyond  tlie  reach  of  vul- 
gar apprehension,  was  under  the  necessity  of  beii^  sha- 
dowed out  to  their  senses  through  the  medium  of  some 
more  obvious  and  famllirti'  imagery..  The  attributes  of  this 
intelligence — power,  justice,  nmey,  or  goodnesa— distincUjr 
oonnd«red,  wers  lepwataly  penonified,  and  converted  into 
objects  of  WDM.     The  vaiionB  pMrioiu  and  afliKUona  vt 


42 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


humanity— joy,  sorrow,  love,  hatred,  fear,and  revenge — were 
in  like  manner  embodied  and  clothed  ^^Hh.  notarial  shape 
an4-form;  Tq  iti\ik  ii  vds^y  be*%d<M,  that  the  6rst  oivilizers 
of  n^nkind,  or  inven|or«  of  uwful  •rta,  were  in  that  rude 
kate  of  nature  beheld  with  a  distant  reverent  nearly 
allied  to  adoration.  The  advantages  resulting  to  society  by 
their  diaeoveries  and  institutions  seemed  so  perfectly  conso- 
nant to  the  idea  of  a  superior  exWtenee,,  that  the  grateful 
simplicity  of  their  admirers  readily  subscribed  to  their  del** 
fication.  This  system,  then,  of  mythologv,  this  state  of 
polytheism,  were,  as  it  seems,  more  particularly  favourable 
to  the  introduction  of  sculptors  and  painters,  whose  works 
alone  could  furnish  sensibli^  representations,  and  thus  deter- 
mine the  object  of  devotion.  The  want,  perhaps,  of  their 
earlier  assistance  had  before  that  time  directed  tne  indiscri- 
minate worship  of  mankind,  not  only  to  animals,  but  to 
inanimate  substances,  and  even  rude  unoiganized  matter. 

The  early  history  of  the  fine  arts,  now  veiled  in  a  mist  of 
fieible  and  antiquity,  involves  details  which  appear  marvel- 
lous and  increcfible,  as  distant  objects  when  beheld  through  a 
dense  medium,  will  generally  assume  an  extravagant  and 
unnatural  magnitude.  The  national  vanitv  of  the  imagina- 
tive Greeks  was  gratified  in  referring  the  origin  of  the 
politer  arts  to  their  tutelar  divinities.  Xove,  celebrated  by 
the  mythologists  as  the  governor  of  nature,  was  the  parent 
of  the  arts ;  and  music,  his  first  born.  The  first  artist  was 
a  young  girl,  who,  perceiving  the  profile  of  her  lover's 
features  cast  on  the  wall  by  the  strong  light  of  a  lamp, 
drew  ths  first  recorded  outline  from  this  cherished  object  of 
her  affactiona.  From  such  a  trivial  beginning,  according  to 
the  Gr3cian  apolo:^e,  arose  those  arts  whose  softening 
and  humanizing  qualities  have  moderated  the  barbarism  of 
mm,  and  alleviated  the  disastrous  effects  of  vice.  The 
Greeks  represent  D«dalu8  as  the  restorer  of  the  arts  after 
the  deluge  had  involved  in  ruin  all  arts,  whether  elegant  or 
useful,  however  imperfect  or  however  improved.  Althou  rh 
a  portion  of  the  excessive  admiration  bestowed  on  him 
originnted  probably  in  the  ignorance  of  his  admirers,  yet  he 
is  generally  esteemed  the  founder  of  the  Athenian  school. 
Before  his  appear  inoe,  the  Grecian  statues  were  mere  shape- 
less stocks,  tiieir  eyes  dosed,  their  arms  hanging  down  as  if 
glued  to  the  body,  a  d  their  feet  joined  without  life,  atti- 
tude, or  gesture.  Daedalus  infused  some  spark  of  life  into 
these  stin,  motionless  trunks ;  and  his  disciples,  gradually 
improving,  attained  the  difficult  path  which  led  to  the  pro- 
duction of  those  existing  models  of  symmetry,  elegance,  and 
grandeur. 

Although  we  must  dismiss  as  groundless  any  theory 
which  advocates  the  exclusive  discovery  of  the  fine  arts,  yet 
the  attainment  of  excellence  in  the  pursuit  and  practice  of 
the  arts  generally  has  been  easier  to  some  nations  than  to 
others.  "  How  far  moral  and  physical  causes  operate  on  the 
genius  of  an  age,  has  been  a  subject  of  inquiry  frequently 
discussed  from  the  days  of  Velleius  Paterculus  to  our  own. 
Certain  it  is,  that  at  particular  revolutions  of  time,  some 
kind  of  supernatural  influence,  or,  as  it  were,  some  celestial 
emanation,  seems  to  deaoend  on  a  particular  people,  lights  up 
their  invention,  heightens  and  q;>irituali2ee  tneir  imagina- 
tion, and  calls  into  lite  and  aotion  their  dormant  fiiculties. 
Grenius  will  ever  demand  a  friendly  soil  to  flourish  and 
dilate  itself,  while,  like  the  sensitive  plant,  it  ever  shrinks 
and  sickens  at  the  rude  tonch  of  tyranny  and  oppression." 
We  do  not  propose  to  confine  our  inquiry  to  the  progress 
of  the  arts  among  one  particular  people;  but  among  the 
nations  of  antiquity,  as  &r  as  may  be  convenient,  in  chro* 
liologioal  order. 

CoMPAniSON   BBTWBEK   PAINTINO   AND   SCTTLPT0RE. 

.  Before  we  enter  on  the  task  of  sketching  the  history  and 
progress  of  the  noble  art  of  Sculpture^  it  may  be  well  to 
make  a  comparison  between  it  and  the  sister  art  of  painting, 
and  to  endeavour  to  explain  some  of  the  causes  which  ope- 
late  in  producing  the  very  different  emotions,  which  all 
persons  of  taste  must  be  conscious  of,  in  viewing  represen- 
tations on  stone  and  on  canvass.  In  doing  this,  we  sh^ 
have  occasion  to  adopt  the  sentiments  of  Mr.  Mil  man  on  the 
subject,  and  where  we  deem  it  desirable,  we  shall  present 
those  sentiments  to  our  readers  in  the  eloquent  language  of 
their  author. 

.  Sculpture  and  painting  address  the  imagination  through 
the  sense  of  sight ;  and  although  in  their  essence  strictly 
imitative  of  forms  really  existing,  and  whose  existence  is 
conceivable,  vet  by  awakening  and  keeping  ^ve  the  imagi- 
nation, they  become  purely  ictoal,  and  preatnt  n«  with  forma, 


closely  adhering  to  their  types  in  nature,  but  wrought  to 
supernatural  grandeur  or  "beauty,     To^the  iinaginalioD  we 
chiefly  owe  toe  emotioi>a  of  e|cvation,  of  l^rror,  ot  of  miU 
and  placid  delight  t^us  excited ;  en^otioos  dififehu^  witli 
our  constitutional  and  Ynent^  t6m{>erlnient,  and  in  sc<m 
respects  with  our  habitude  and  familiarity  with  addressee  oi 
this  nature.     The  mind  breathes  life  and  ;u\atiQn  00  the 
images  represeQted  in  intone  or'^t^vass,  an<^ihe  inutgloatioii 
wavers  from  the  representation  to  the  thing  rcpresent^^i, 
and  forms  for  itself  a  sort  of  indistinct  existence  fnn 
the  qualities  of  both.     The  ideas  of  motion,  breath,  mwu 
warmth,  are  so   inseparably  connected   with  our  mi'/i 
of  the  animal  form,  that  a  figure  in  marble  or  in  co!' ur 
inevitably  suggests   wliat  it  cannot  express ;  and  in  tai^ 
sense  imagination  supplies  the   deficiency   of  art.    *'Bu: 
previous  to  this  address  to  the  imagination,  panting  hi  <i2 
advantage  which  sculpture  has  not  at  all,  or  in  a  far  k-^ 
degree.   The  hannony  of  rich  and  brilliant  colours  has  doubt- 
less a  gratifying  effect  on  the  sense,  and  produces  a  pleasin? 
irritation  on  the  organ  of  sight.     The  spotless  white  uA 
glossy  smoothness  of  marble  may  indeed  make  a  sortof  rooi 
and  soothing  impression  on  the  organ,  but  this  is  faint  asd 
feeble  in  comparison  with  the  nensual  enjoyment  proceedio^ 
from  the  mellow  contrast  ^d  rich  variety  of  a  Veuetm 
picture.     Thus  painting  in  a  manner  conciliates  a  welaci: 
reception  by  its  previous  flattery  of  the  sense :  for  doubtless 
we  should  look  with  delight  on  a  mass  of  hues,  mingled  aoii 
harmonized  with  the  consummate  art  of  Titian,  though  then 
were  no  representation  of  nature,  but  an  unmeaning  suik« 
of  colour.     The  pleasure  would  indeed  be  brief,  and  the 
subsequent  dissatisfaction  and  disappointment  of  the  m'md 
at  being  thus  neglected  and  sacrificed  to  the  sense,  would  be 
unpleasant  and  even  painful ;  but  still  the  interval  heivm 
the  first  glance  and  the  discovery  of  the  deficiency  would 
assuredly  be  pleasurable." 

A  very  striking  advantage  likewise  results  to  paintia; 
from  the  wide  scope  afforded  by  perspective,  and  by  colour- 
ing, and  its  consequences  of  li^ht  and  shade.  The  range  of 
objects  selected  for  imitation  is  much  more  extensive,  and 
the  powerful  aid  of  accessories  is  brought  to  increase  th< 
illusion.  Painting  has  the  power  of  fixing  the  attention  ui 
the  point  where  she  wishes  it  to  center,  and  diverting  it 
from  what  it  is  her  interest  to  conceal.  Sculpture  on  the 
other  hand  is  cold,  naked,  and  severe,  without  accessories  w 
aid  the  illusion,  and  destitute  of  power  to  dazzle  the  seo^. 
It  must  therefore  be  exquisitely  conceived  and  finey 
wrought,  before  the  imagination  will  yield  to  its  impressicu, 
and  endow  it  with  motion  and  life.  The  concentratioo  of 
mind  necessary  to  imbibe  the  spirit  of  a  fine  piece  of  sculp- 
ture, is,  however,  very  favourable  to  our  enjoyment  of  iH* 
ideal.  "  Once  beyond  tlie  world  of  positive  reality,  we  ex- 
patiate readily,  as  fiir  as  the  artist  will  lead  us.  It  is  then, 
after  this  effort  and  exaltation,  nothing  objectionable  that 
the  shapes  we  behold  surpass  all  tliat  we  liave  hitherto  ste^ 
in  human  limb  and  feature.  We  have  already  stept  beyow 
nature,  by  looking  on  a  stone  with  somewhat  similar  feelings 
which  we  experience  in  looking  on  a  human  being ;  and  it 
is  but  little  farther  to  sympathise  with  what  differs  from 
humanity  only  in  its  perfection,  with  what  is  incompatibi? 
with  truth  only  in  its  untrue  degree  of  excellence." 

The  peculiar  connection  of  sculpture  witli  the  Greciaa 
polytheism^  and  of  painting  with  Cnristianity,  has  often  at- 
tracted attention.  Grecian  artists  appear  to  have  knovn 
little  of  the  breadth  and  depth  o£  colouring,  the  in«gic« 
effect  of  light  and  shade,  and  the  delicate  perspective  <x 
modem  painting.  The  inferiority  of  all  sculpture  on  Ciir* 
tian  subjects  is  equally  notorious.  A  German  critic  accouij* 
for  this  hy  saying  that  the  mind  of  the  Grecians  was,  li'^ 
his  atmosphere,  all  light,  while  that  of  the  Christian,  like  w 
variable  northern  sky,  presents  an  interchai\ge  of  light  \>i^ 
shade.  The  my  tliology  of  the  former  was  a  series  of  *«' 
existent  beings  of  different  poweisand  attributes.  ManV'* 
his  divinities  were  mere  ini mortal  men,  who  lost  onJ.v  5*^ 
grosser  parts  of  their  nature,  but  retained  their  diitim-^^ 
forms  and  qualities.  The  Greek  ai-tist  therefore  collect«a 
from  the  human  fonn  all  that  was  noble  and  majestic,  ae« 
purified  it  from  that  which  was  gix)S8,  or  inljarmoiiious.  m 
thus  embodied  the  very  essence  of  grace,  dignity,  and  |H^*er. 
The  Christian,  with  a  mind  influenced  by  his  climate,  i^ 
awakened  by  the  revelation  with  which  he  has  been  tdvourvJ, 
looks  into  tiie  most  important  and  mysterious  subjects,  uw 
meditates  on  eternity,  on  his  own  nature,  and  on  the  n-lA- 
tion  in  which  he  stands  to  the  Omnipresent  God.  m\i^^ 
that  is  mysterious  and  incomprehensible  meets  him  ^^  ^'^''•J 
point  of  his  inquiry,  and  calU  for  the  ««rci9e  of  faith  aaA 


StJPPLfiMENfr  FOR  JULY,  184L 


«t 


hnmilitr.  He  feiels  that  H  id  imposriUe  ad^tmtely  to  pet- 
sonify  the  subjects  which  most  affect  him.  The  subiime 
with  him  hi\s  always  a  mixture  of  the  vHgue  and  indefinite, 
an  1  is  therefore  the  sublime  of  painting,  and  not  of  sculpturo. 
The  partial  sight  and  half  revealing  of  objects  is  ill  the 
powtfF  of  painting,  but  not  of  sculpture. 

'*  Prom  its  material  and  character,  sculpture  must  be  do* 
fined  and  decisive;  painting  may  be  indeterminate  and 
vague :  in  sculpture  all  meets  the  eye ;  in  painting  more 
often  is  meant  than  meets  the  eye :  sculpture  must  show  all 
fully  and  absolutely;  painting  but  partially  and  indistinctly  t 
the  mind  gras))s  the  whole  in  sculpture;  in  painting  it  ever 
thinks  there  is  more  to  grasp :  sculpture  satisfies  end  fills 
the  imagination  it  addresses ;  painting  excites  it  till  its  own 
powers  tail,  rather  than  the  matter  suggeatted  to  it.  It  id 
this  filling  and  satnfying  the  imagination  that  makes  unity 
BO  absolutely  necessary  in  sculpture :  all  must  be  a  balance, 
an  harmony,  a  severe  simplicity.  Sculpture  must  excite 
one  general  emotion,  one  tone  must  predominate,  one  cha- 
racter pervade  the  whole  ;  for  the  imagination,  if  diverted, 
18  ever  willing  to  ^?fander ;  if  it  wanders,  it  cannot  be  satis- 
fied. 

"The  softer  maeic  of  beauty  seems  also  to  work  by  a 
different  spell  in  the  two  arts ;  and  this  appears  the  source 
of  the  difference.  In  sculpture  we  behold  the  most  exqui- 
site 8)Tnmetry,  a  graceftil  melody  of  lineament ;  each  feature 
is,  as  it  were,  the  sister  of  the  other ;  the  hair  is  clustered 
with  a  light  regularity.  Still  we  fisel  an  indescHbable  want ; 
whatever  emotion  we  have  is  not  merely  passionless,  but 
somewhat  cold.  Our  admiration  is  not  merely  devoid  of 
the  grosser  attraction  of  sense,  but  even  of  feeling;  the 
beauty  is  there  which  enraptures  the  mind,  but  not  the 
loveliness  which  enthrals  the  heart.  This  want  is  expres- 
sion, whieh  the  hue  of  the  countenance  only  and  the  eye 
can  give.  The  stronger  passions  alone  affect  the  whole  fiace, 
draw  down  the  lip,  arch  the  brow,  or  tive  a  languid  or  con- 
tracted cast  to  the  ^neral  features.  But  the  mild  afi^tions 
speak  and  breathe  m  the  colouring  of  the  face,  in  the  settled 
ligrlit  or  the  fugitive  blush,  but  chiefly  in  the  eye.  From 
these  two  sources  the  infantile  smile  and  the  maternal  look 
of  love,  all  those  softer  enchantments  of  beauty  which  need 
only  to  he  truly  embodied,  being  too  fine  and  delicate  to 
admit  any  heightening  of  the  imagination,  are  in  the  power 
of  the  nalntef  alone.** 

While  it  is  acknowledged  that  painting  has  the  t)Ower  of 
gning  more  deeply  to  the  heart,  and  of  striking  those  fine 
chords  which  respond  not  to  the  touch  of  sculpture,  yet  it 
is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  contemplation  and  study  of  the 
faultless  beauty  and  majesty  of  the  statuaries'  master-pieces 
refine  the  mind  from  what  is  gross  ;  the  Imbibing  their 
grand  and  chaste  spirit  nourishes  that  loftiness  of  soul  and 
delicacy  of  feeling  which  is  indispensable  to  true  taste. 

Taking  this  view  of  sculpture,  and  regarding  it  as  the 
elder  sister  of  painting,  we  proceed  to  notice  the  most 
ancient  existing  monuments  ot  the  axt,  and  to  take  a  brief  * 
survey  of  Egyptian  Sculpture. 

SfiCTiox  I.    On  Egyptian  Sculpture, 

Among  the  existing  monuments  of  the  ancient  Egyp^ 
tians,  examples  are  found  of  their  rudest  as  well  as  moift 
perfect  workmanship,  thus  favouring  the  opinion  that  we 
nave  specimens  of  their  earliest  as  w^\  as  latest  productions. 

The  insftitutiona  of  the  Egyptians  did  not  permit  the 
intn»duction  of  improvement  or  change,  so  that,  for  a  long 
ind  unknown  period  up  to  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Cam- 
byses;,  tite  style  of  art  is  exceedingly  rude  and  tasteless. 
The  lines  forming  the  general  contour  are  destitute  of  the 
rticefiil  ctirves  of  nature  ; — thoy  are  straight  and  projecting ; 
)ie  position  of  the  figures  is  stiflP  and  unnatural.  In  bitting 
imres  the  legs  are  parallel,  the  feet  squeezed  together,  and 
he  arms  fixed  to  the  sides ;  but  in  tne  figures  of  women 
he  left  arm  is  folded  across  the  breast;  the  bones  and  mus- 
'les  are  scarcely  discernible ;  the  eyes  are  flat  and  looking 
>blir|nely,  and  the  eye-brows  ^nk, — ^features  which  quit« 
ie^roy  the  beauty  of  the  head  ;  the  cheek-bones  are  nigh, 
he  chin  small  and  pointed,  the  ears  generally  placed  higher 
han  in  natux^^  and  the  ^t  too  huge  and  flat.  Drapery  is 
Imost  absent,  and  the  few  specimens  that  occur  only  serve 
0  sho^  the  incapacity  of  tlie  hereditary  artists  wno  exe- 
uted  it. 
The  remains  of  ancient  grandeur  still  existing  on  their 
Uive  site,  and  the  numerous  remains  preserved  in  European 
lusf^tims,  afford  abundant  means  of  testing  the  merits  of  the 
Hgiiial  or  native  sculpture  of  the  Egyptians.  These  re* 
^na  concHst  of  c<4,oflBU  statues ;  groups  or  single  figures  of 


about  tiie  natural  sto;  aad  hiefuglyphitel  and  hiatorfcal 
relieves.  These  productions  were  not  only  fermed  by  the 
chisel,  but  also  carefiiily  polished.  Even  those  on  the 
summit  of  an  obelisk,  which  could  only  be  viewed  at  a 
distance,  were  finished  with  as  much  assiduity  as  if  they 
were  to  be  subjected  to  a  close  inspection.  As  they  an 
generally  executed  in  gnmite  or  basalt  stones  of  a  very  hwnd 
texture,  it  is  impossible  not  to  admire  the  inde&tigpsble 
patience  of  the  arrets. 

The  number  of  colossal  statues  in  ancient  Egypt,  as  re*- 
corded  by  ancient  writers,  would  seem  incredible,  were  it 
not  authenticate  by  numerous  existing  lemains^  These 
and  other  enormous  works  have  struck  every  visitor  ^4th 
Wonder  and  awe.  Herodotus  says,  ^  One  of  their  build* 
ings  is  (squal  to  many  of  the  most  ctmstderable  Greek  build<« 
ings  taicen  together;"  and  a  modem  observer  remarks^ 
**  These  works  are  so  prodigious,  they  make  everything  we 
do  look  little."  Anotiier  says,  **  The  Egyptians  had  notiona 
of  durability  in  their  works  which  no  other  nation  has  suc- 
ceeded in  imitating ;  they  seemed  to  work  as  if  they  laughed 
at  time,  war,  banMrism.  Quantity  was  everything  witti 
them,  or  almost  so ;  quality  but  little.  They  wished  to 
please  themselves  and  astonish  posterity,  and  they  succee«led» 
It  would,  perhaps,  be  impossible  to  adduce  a  more  striking 
example  oi  disregard  of  time  and  patience  of  toil  than  tlie 
formation  of  a  statue  of  gnmite,  sixty  or  seventy  feet  high^. 
**  Of  these  mighty  labours,"  savs  Dr.  Memos,  ^  some  are 
hewn  from  the  living  rock,  and  left  adhering  to  the  natural 
bed;  as  the  celebrated  Sphynx,  neai*  the  Pyramids  of 
Ghizeh,  and  various  sculptures  on  the  rocks  of  the  Thebaid, 
which  look  the  shadows  of  inants  cast  by  a  declining  sun." 
Othera  appear  to  have  been  nrst  built  up  of  square  blocks  and 
then  worked  into  shape.  But  the  greater  part  are  formed 
of  one  block  of  enormous  dimensions.  Many  figures  of  the 
colossal  Sphynx  appear  to  have  been  ranged  in  considerable 
numbera  on  the  opposito  sides  of  the  approach  to  the  great 
temples.  Some  of  the  human  colossi  were  isolated,  and 
were  probably  regarded  as  objects  of  worship ;  othera  were 
used  as  columns.  The  largest  statues  now  known  are 
in  a  sitting  posture ;  these  are  at  Thebes;  the  altitude  of 
each  figure,  exclusive  of  the  lower  plinth  of  the  throne,  is 
fifty  feet,  the  material,  red  granite;  the  head  in  each  figure 
is  looking  straight  forward ;  the  arms  are  pressed  close  to 
the  sides ;  the  palms  and  fore-arm  extended,  and  i-esting 
upon  the  thighs ;  the  lower  extremities  are  perpendicular  and 
apart.  This  posture,  which  may  be  described  as  character- 
istic of  the  entire  class,  is  little  calculated  to  convey  any 
sentiment  of  grace  or  ease.  Yet,  in  these  vast,  although 
comparatively  uninformed  labours,  we  discover  more  of  the 
sublime  than  arises  from  mere  vastness,  or  even  from  the 
recollections  of  distant  time  with  which  their  memory  is 
associated.  They  are  invested  with  a  majestic  repose — with 
a  grand  and  solemn  tranquillity,  which  awes  v^thout  aston- 
ishing ;  and,  while  they  exhibit  the  greatest  perfection  to 
which  Egyptian  art  has  attained,  in  colossal  stetues  gene- 
rally, we  discover  occasional  approaches  to  truth  and  nature, 
witn  no  inconsiderable  feeling  of  the  sweet,  the  unafiected, 
and  the  flowing  in  expression  and  contour." 

Some  of  the  earliest  efforts  of  Egyptian  sculpture  seem  to 
have  been  made,  not  upon  detached  masses  of  stone,  but  upon 
the  rock  itself,  in  the  process  of  excavating  cavemsfor  the  pur- 
poses of  devotion.  Such  statues  do  not  greatly  exceed  the 
natural  size,  and,  being  detached  when  finished,  were  re- 
moved to  other  situations,  and  frequently  copied  in  detached 
blocks.  Hence,  probably,  arose  that  singular  feature  in 
Egyptian  statues,  viz.,  a  pilaster  running  up  the  back  of  the 
figure.  In  the  remains  of  sculpture  preserved  in  the  exca- 
vations of  Philoe,  Elephantis,  Silsilis,  and  at  El-Malook,'  in 
the  tombs  of  the  Theban  kings,  the  ornaments  vary  from 
simple  relievos  to  complete  statues.  In  these  latter,  the 
figures  are  not  completely  detached,  a  posterior  portien 
being  always  left  adhering;  while,  if  the  statue  be  fonnei 
by  cutting  round  a  recess,  a  pilaster  behind  rans  up  ihi$ 
whole  height,  intended  probably  to  save  labour,  or  te  iacreaae 
the  stren^h.  When  such  stetues  are  detached  for  the  jpor^ 
pose  of  removal,  the  pilaster  is  still  reteined,  probably  nuia 
the  Same  motives  or  perhaps  in  order  to  obtain  a  sarmoe  fbr 
the  inscription  of  hieroglyphics,  or  probably  from  a  blind 
adherence  on  the  part  of  tiro  sculptor  to  the  types  left  hitt 
by  his  ancestora.  There  is  a  remarkable  sameness  about  all 
these  effbrts:  the  design  and  the  attitudes  are  strangely 
limited,  altogether  showing  the  operation  of  prescriptive 
rules  and  fixed  models,  whereby  the  skill  and  imaginatlom 
of  the  artist  were  almost  as  effectually  constrained,  as  tho 
TCoductions  of  his  ehiseU 

683—2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


'  Th«  m&ug  of  ibany  of  the  ancient  %7pt!sii  stmetmct 
are  frequently  coTered  with  relievos.  In  these,  irtiere 
variety  of  sction  and  littiatioii  is  required,  the  Egyptian* 
display  their  deficiency  in  the  knowledge  of  anatomy, 
niechanica,  and  geometry.  In  alt  thne  moamnenta  the  king 
or  hero  is  Fepreoented  tbree  times  larger  than  the  other 
flgune.  Whatever  ia  the  action, — a  riege,  a  battle,  taking 
a  (own  bv  itonn, — there  is  not  the  smaltevt  Idea  of  per^teo 
tire  in  tue  place,  or  m^nitnde  of  figinrea  or  bnildmgs. 
Fuurea  in  violent  action  are  equally  deatitnte  of  jointa,  and 
other  anatomical  form,  as  they  are  of  the  balance  and  apring 
of  motion,  the  force  of  a  blow,  or  the  jnit  variety  of  UiM  in 
the  turning  figure.  "  In  a  word,"  continues  Flaxman, 
"  their  historical  art  was  informing  the  beholder,  in  the  beat 
manner  they  conld,  according  to  the  rude  charactera  they 
were  able  to  make.  From  anch  a  deacriptlon,  it  ia  easy  to 
understand  how  much  Uieir  attempts  at  historical  represen- 
tation were  inferior  to  their  single  statues." 

It  must  however  be  mautioned,  that  occarionally,  in  the 
historical  relievos,  there  appear  the  rudiments  of  higher 
art,  with  leas  of  conveution,  and  more  freedom  of  imagina- 
tion. The  hero  of  the  piece  Is  alwavs  represented  in  the 
bloom  of  yoath,  and  there  is  sometning  approaching  to 
grandeur  and  beauty  of  conception,  in  his  figure  aa  repre- 
sented on  some  of  the  monuments.  Yet  these  separate 
excellenciea  are  completely  obscured  by  the  absurdity  of  re- 
presenting him  at  least  double  the  stature  of  the  fignrea 
■niTOunding  him. 


Winkelman  has  attempted  to  elaaa  Egyptian  sculpture 
into  three  periods  or  epochs  :  The  finrt  he  naia  the  ancient 
epoch,  which  was  t^e  era  of  original  or  native  sculptnte, 
including  the  time  which  elapsed  fi^im  the  origin  of  the 
Egyptians  to  the  teign  of  Cam  byses,  in  the  sijtty-secondOlym- 
puO,  or  five  hundred  and  twenty-six  years  before  Chriit : 
the  middle  epoch,  or  era  of  Greco-Egjptian  scnlpturc,  em- 
braces tlie  period  during  which  i^pt  was  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Persians  and  Greeks  :  and  the  third,  or 
last,  l>cing  the  era  of  imitative  sculpture,  improperly  deno- 
minated Egyptian,  prevailed  about  the  -time  of  SUdrian. 
By  a  subsequent  alteration  of  his  plan,  Winkelman  extended 
the  first  of  his  periods  to  the  establishment  of  the  Greeks 
under  Alexander  the  Great  and  his  successors.  This  exten- 
aionof  the  ancient  period  is  generally  considered  just,  for 
Plato,  who  flourished  about  a  hundred  and  thirty  yean  after  ; 
Combyses,  expressly  states  that  in  painting  and  the  other  I 
imitative  arts,  the  Egyptians  bad  made  no  change;  their 


prodaetioa*  wn«  neither  inon  bMntUy,  nor  tran^  Qtu  is 
remote  ages.  The  art  of  aenlpture,  like  the  other  tKi,vu 
in  Egypt  subject  to  strict  law*,  and  all  works  of  t  nhpua 
natun  wtn  subject  to  the  form*  and  attitodu  otaaM 
by  the  authority  of  the  priesthood.  The  Gontfatutioii  tL 
the  Egyptian  govenunent  was  likewise  opposed  lodin^ 
and  innovationa  of  any  sort,  and  even  the  tndHudjn. 
ftadona  of  the  PM^Ia  were  made  lureditary  in  the  m^ 
live  familiea.  The  exertions  of  art  were  neosMSiil;  fetUt 
onder  neh  a  iryitem  as  this ;  taste  and  invtotion  wen  a- 
eluded;  ortlatkal  amlritioD  waa  kept  down;  and  tkim 
remafaied  nnchangvd  for  agea.  All  the  aacred  figum  gf 
Egjrpt  pnonit  a  reoemblance,  or  lathw  identity,  wlucl 
render*  It  very  difficult  to  fix  the  relative  antiqnil;  at  tti 
apeeimens :  In  general,  tlie  infonnation  ia  gsthmd  mlur 
finm  the  dtnation  in  which  the  figure  is  found,  sad  ibr 
rignaof  mde  antiquityor  of  Ofeeianait  which  nnoimd  i^ 
tbanGromanyendeDoepreaentedbytlieatabieitsdr.  Tk 
rept«aentMion  ol  animu  and  vqetoble  finms  could  tuiillf 
be  subject  to  the  same  otriot  laws,  and  it  is  hare  Out  n 
e^ieot  to  find  some  tokens  of  the  nriou  d^rees  of  s^ 
fnartista.  Aooordingly  wofind  a  nearer  a[^rMchtA  comet- 
neas  of  fern  and  natural  rotutdnen  of  figina  in  repmcA- 
tioH  of  onimala,  than  in  the  sculpture  of  the  bumsB  AMft 
The  matariala  nsed  in  Egyptian  acnlptan  were  wood  id 
*tone,metal  and  oloy.  Hie  woodoi  figuTH often tbwtdiii 
of  the  native  Sycamore  of  ^jpt,  ud  i^ 
,  ibly,  the  material  of  their  larger  ititna  a 
.erodotna  tells  us  that  Kiug  Amaas  amt  tn 
wooden  statnee  of  himself  as  a  present  to  the  lempU  ot 
Hera  (JunoJ  in  Samoa.    The  same^historian  infonuH 


aojprobably,  t 
Herodotna  t 


priesthood  by  each  making,  during  )is 
lifetime,  a  colossal  wooden  fignre  of  hinuelf ;  and  tlut « 
many  aa  three  hundred  and  fot^-five  were  to  be  Neo  « 
Thebes,  when  Herodotus  Tinted  that  city.  Belzoiu  tiMil 
two  wooden  fignree  of  very  fine  workmanship  in  ttte  toni' 
of  the  kings  at  Thebea;  these  were  about  saTcn  tt»  h 
h^t.^^ 

-  u  thrir  lobonrs  on  stone,  the  ^yptisna  employed  kW 
kinds  of  material:  one  toft,  a  ^>eci«a  of  Bsndstcnc;  ud 
three  vei^  hard,  a  calcueoua  rock  out  of  which  the  bia^ 
with  their  tculptureo,  an  hewn ;  basalt  or  tr^i  of  rarinu 
■hades,   &om  black  to  dark  grey,  generally  used  in  i'' 


with  laiga  crystals  of  feld-spar ;  or  of  a  dork  red  m"^ 
with  Uaek  apecks,  as  in  the  magnificent  head  in  the  Bhtiiti 
mnaeum  known  as  the  head  of  Memnon.  The  lalta  ^ 
eriptloQ  of  gnnite  is  rarely  used.  Small  figures  have  kei 
found  of  a  compoeitiou  similar  to  the  bronze  of  loier  timH. 
but  metal  upeara  to  have  been  cfwringly  uaed.  In  itx 
tombs,  sniall  im^es  of  porcelain  and  Urra  eoUa  an  n(i 

DUtaringfromllu  views  of  Winkelman  witliregvdIeilK 
epochs  of  ^yptian  sculpture,  Dr.  Thomas  has  come  tu  tk 
oonelnsion  that  there  waa  but  one  period  really  chaiarteii*' 
of  the  nation,  and  that  the  genius  of  this  mdigeDoni  ei 
i^MTiginal  art  is  to  be  discovered  only  in  the  most  SDa^' 
monuments:  it  having  suffi»ed  various  changes  under (^ 
Greeks  and  Romans.  The  methods  eroployad  by  the  Eg?- 
tian  sculptors  in  workins  their material8,arenBaUafsafw" 
conjecture.  Modern  tools  are  found  to  make  littts  in^ 
sion  on  their  porphyry,  granite,  and  basalt,  ai^  ovr  <^ 
become  confused,  when  we  reflect  upon  the  amooat  « 
patience  and  labour  required  to  produce  cmlya  fewoftiw* 
gigantic  forma,  which  are  scattered  in  aneh  ftdhmia 
throi^hont  that  remarkable couubry.  Tlmgimt  pnntf*^  , 
snpenor  antiquity  of  Egyptian  sculpture  over  that  of  Aa>  |< 
found  in  its  uniform  simpUdty;  the  grand  lines  of  coidp'si' 
tion  are  few,  acceaaorieeare  sparingly  mtrodnced,  and  nei 
they  are  mode  nss  o^  they  bear  the  aauae  aobCT,  nn*" 
character.  While  many  ofthoae  natloua  once  possewiry  y* 
finest  r^ions  of  Ana,  hare'left  scarcely  a  single  ractwntl 
of  their  ancient  greatnev,  and  while  a  riu|>eless  ■>•*  ^ 
ruins  remains  in  some  coses  the  sole  testimony  of  1>'^ 
proudest  works,  the  monuments  of  ^ypt  seMU  to  bid  de- 
nonce  to  time  and  change,  and  to  stand  in  their  stem  Dtfje*<f 
as  a  lasting  example  of  the  peraevctauea  and  toilor>i>>°^ 
:tniordinary  pe<^le. 

Sscnon  II.    Ok  Tdecui  Sccunia& 

Of  Phoenician  sculpture  we  (diall  not  attempt  a.ji» 

cription.     We  read  of  temples  adorned   whh  statoes,™ 

glittering  with  gold  and  eroenlds,  bnt  all  thair  gnat  w«n) 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  JULY,  1341. 


45 


iMn  been  JeatrDfed,  and  tiie  medals  of  th«  CaTthaffinians 
(though  thia  people  was  a  colony  of  Phoenicians)  do  not 
permit  ua  to  jndge  of  the  merits  of  their  anceston. 

Tha  Ktrunane,  Etraacan^  or  ancient  Tuscan^  called  by 
the  Greeka  Tyniieniana  or  Tyreeuiana,  and  by  thenuelves 
Raseno,  are  the  people  who  inhabited  ancient  Etrurio,  and 
who  at  a  period  when  the  rest  of  Europe  was  immetged  in 
Irnoranee  and  barbariam  am  atud  to  nare  attained  a  high 
degree  of  civil  and  eorial  nfinemeut ;  they  are  alao  aaid  by 
aoiue  nritera  to  bare  made  connderable  pn^ress  in  scolp- 
tnre,  at  an  earlier  period  than  the  Gneks ;  bnt  this  opinion 
has  been  doabted  by  many,  and  it  is  even  doubted  whether 
the  Etruscan  has  an  v  right  to  be  conddered  a  diatinet  school 
of  Bculptnre.  Worlts  of  art  were  probably  azacnted  in 
Etnina,  previous  to  the  arriTal  of  tAe  Greek  oOloiUsta  in 
North  Italy  and  South  France;  "but,"  nys  a  writer  on 
this  lubject,  "  the  more  rude  and  ancient  specimens  are 
exactly  in  the  style  of  the  very  aneimt  Greeka;  from 
whom  they  appear  to  hare  learnt  all  they  knew;  and 
wiioae  primitive  style  they  continued  to  copy,  after  a  more 
elegant  and  dignified  manner,  fonndad  trpon  mere  enlarged 
principles,  had  been  adopted  by  the  Greeka  themselves. 
Hence  tlieit  works  may  be  justly  oomidered  as  Greek,  or, 
at  least,  as  close  imitations  of  tlie  Greek:  tbey  having 
followed  their  archetyoes  strictly  and  servilelT,  though  at  a 
great  distance,  if  reckoned  by  the  scale  of  merit.  The 
proximity  of  Italian  colonies,  where  the  arte  were  cultivated 
with  the  most  brilliant  succeee  at  a  very  early  period, 
afforded  them  the  most  favourable  opportunities  ofobtuning 
inatmction ;  and  if  they  availed  themselves  of  it  at  all,  it  is 
rather  wonderful  that  their  progress  should  hare  been  so 
■low  and  oompentively  imperfect." 


Another  writer.on  this  anbject  says;— 

**  The  renown  which  belonga  to  a  nation  that  excelled  in  the 
arts,  has  become,  as  it  were,  the  inheritance  of  the  Etruscans. 
Bn^  from  the  peculiar  constitution  of  government  and 
society  in  andent  EUnria,  it  has  been  conjectured,  not  with- 
out appearance  of  reason,  that  the  works  in  bronse  and  clay, 
md  tb«  bas-relie&attributedto  them,  were  the  produce,  not 
of  the  dominant  race,  but  of  their  subject  bondsmen  or  serfs ; 
ftnd  that  in  reality  the  Etruscans,  properly  so  called,  were  as 
little  given  to  the  arts  as  the  Romans,  by  whom,  in  their 
turn,  tbey  were  subdued.  The  striking  difference  observable 
between  Tarquinii  and  Anetjum  in  their  works  of  art, 
seems  to  ooirespond  with  the  Afferent  orinn  of  the  earlier 
inhabitants  of  Northern  and  Southern  Etmria.  Volaterra 
was  naturally  led,  by  the  stone  qoarries  in  its  neighbour- 
hood, to  engage  in  the  works  for  which  it  became  celebtsted. 
The  two  former  cities,  however,  wroi^ht  only,  or  chiefly,  in 
clay.  Arretium  made  red  vases,  with  elt^ant  ^ures  in 
relief,  in  a  style  altogether  pecuUar.  Those  of  Tarquinii 
yrerv  pMUted,  and  both  in  colour  and  deugn  resemble  some 
diacoveicd  near  Corinth,  of  which  Dodwell  has  given  en- 

K rings.  Fainted  vases  are  found  only  in  the  district  of 
'quinii,  and  where  they  occur  those  of  Arretium  are 
never  met  with;  besides,  Uiey  differ  from  the  Campanian 
in  all  those  peculiarities  for  which  the  Greek  works  of  the 
Bame  kind  an  distinguished.  The  resemblance  which  is 
tbns  found  to  exist  between  the  vases  of  Tarquinii  and  of 


Corinth  irresistibly  reminds  na  of  the  story  of  Demaratiu^ 
who  is  said  to  have  been  accompanied  b^  the  potters  Euchir 
and  Engrammus;  a  circumstance  evidently  designed  to 
express  that  Tarquinii  derived  from  Greece  her  skill  in 
handling  clay,  and  the  elegant  drawing  with  which  her  vases 
were  adorned.  The  earliest  Etruscan  statues  were  of  clay ; 
but  the  statues  belonging  to  tlic  first  ages  of  Rome  were 
almost  uniformly  of  bronze,  and  the  master-pieces  which 
shed  lustre  on  Etruscan  art  are  all  of  the  same  material. 
That  thia  art  received  its  refinement  from  the  Greeks,  can- 
not, we  think,  be  reasonabl;^  questioned.  Works  of  primi- 
tive antiquity  attest  its  original  rudeness ;  and  to  the  Greeks 
alonej  improving  on  Egyptian  models  by  a  close  study  of 
the  finer  forms  and  proportions  of  nature,  belonged  that 
skill  which  throws  life  and  beauty  into  the  delineation  of 
the  human  figure.  Hence  the  subjects  of  many  of  the  most 
beautiful  Etruscan  works  of  art  are  obviously  taken  from 
the  Greek  mythology,  which,  in  Etnuia,  was  found  as  well 
adapted  to  the  purposes  of  the  artist,  as  in  the  land  to  which 
it  was  native.  But  the  Etroscans,  when  their  taste  had 
once  been  formed,  treated  their  own  conceptions  in  the 
spirit  of  their  masters;  and,  though  no  doubt  inferior  in 
grace  and  delicacy  of  execution,  they  acquired  a  correctness 
m  drawing  which  may  almost  be  stated  as  a  national  cha- 
racteristic. In  the  she-wolf  of  the  Capitol,  we  have  an  ex- 
ample of  the  perfection  to  which  Etruscan  art  hud  attained 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  of  Rome ;  nor  are  the 
finest  gems  probably  of  a  much  more  recent  dnte*." 

The  authenticity  of  many  of  the  specimens,  called  Etrus- 
can, which  have  reached  our  times,  is  liable  to  be  ques- 
tioned. Of  the  statues  in  marble,  it  is  difficult  to  say 
whether  they  are  early  Greek  or  Etruscan ;  the  smaller  ones 
in  bronze  aro  less  to  be  doubted,  being  household  divinities 
or  merely  ornaments.  On  the  ancient  relievos  found  in 
various  parts  of  Italy,  several  ore  admitted  to  be  ^nuine 
Etruscan ;  but  the  more  elegant  examples  are  behered  to 
have  been  executed  o^r  the  conquest  of  Etruria  by  the 
Itoroans,  two  hundred  and  eighty  years  before  Christ. 

The  style  of  Etruscan  sculpture  is  hard  and  overcharged, 
and  became  proverbial  among  the  Romans  on  account  of 
these  defects.  Quinctilian  has  expressly  noticed  it,and,  when 
speaking  of  the  work  of  some  Greek  sculptors,  says,  "  Callon 
luid  Egeaias  made  statues  in  the  harder  styles,  and  very  like 
the  Tuscan  figures :  Calamis  introduced  a  style  which  was  not 
so  stiff,  and  Myron  made  figures  still  more  soft  and  land- 
ing." The  most  curious  and  interesting  among  Etruscan 
remiuns  belong  to  the  class  of  engraved  bronzes,  or  patera, 
small  vessels  used  in  sacriCciiw ;  circular,  and,  in  the  ungle 
instance  of  the  Etruscan,  with  a  handle.  EtxoscMi  gems 
are  also  of  exquisite  workmanahip.  Gem  engraving  was 
brought  to  great  perfection  at  an  early  period,  both  in  Italy 
and  Greece. 

SscKoir'  ni.    Ok  Oaicuit  Scowtdkb. 

We  come  now  to  the  history  of  Grecian  sculpture,  and  to 
the  cooudeiation  of  the  causes  which  produced  so  great  a 
superiority  in  the  works  of  the  artists  of  Greece,  over  thMe 
of  all  other  nations.  Ancient  history  informs  us,  that  the 
Greeks  did  not  emerge  from  a  state  of  barbarism  till  long 
after  the  Egyptians,  the  Chaldeans,  and  Indians  had  arrived 
at  a  considerable  degree  of  civilization.  By  means  of  colo- 
nies from  Egypt  and  Phcenieia,  the  original  rude  inhabitnnla 
of  Greece  were  gradually  civilised  and  led  to  adopt  the  arU 
and  the  religious  worship  of  those  countries.  The  first 
efforts  of  Grecian  art  were  rude,  and  in  no  way  supenor  to 
those  of  other  nations ;  and  the  ancient,  or  arehtue  period,  as  it 
is  called,  of  Grecian  art  extended  through  eight  almost  un- 
known centuries  nearly  to  the  time  of  Phidias. 

A  variety  of  causes  ^pear  to  have  contributed  m  render- 
ing  the  Greeks  famous  as  BculptorB.  Their  bcautifnl  coun- 
try was  peopled,  by  the  warm  imagination  of  its  people,  with 
those  beings,  either  divine  or  heroic,  which  constituted  its 
theology.  Their  winding  streams,  flowery  plains,  and 
azure  mountains,  were  looked  upon  as  at  once  the  residence 
and  the  representatives  of  these  beings,  and  it  is  no  wonder 
that  attempts  to  present  these  objects  in  a  more  tangible 
form  should  lead  to  the  exercise  of  skiU,  and  should  excite 
the  emulation  of  ardent  minds.  The  influence  of  climate 
over  the  human  body  is  too  evident  to  require  that  we 
should  dweU  on  it  here :  and  we  may  say  with  a  modem 
writer,  "  Perhaps  no  country  in  the  worid  enjoys  a  more 
serene  air,  \tm  tinted  with  mist  and  vapours,  or  po^esses, 
in  a  hifther  d«ree,  that  mild  and  genial  warmth  which  can 
unfold  and  expand  the  human  body  into  aU  the  symmetry 

•  Enevcli9»i>a  BriUnutita, 


4G 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


of  muscular  atrengtli,  and  all  the  c'elicacies  of  female  beauty, 
in  greater  perfection,  than  the  nappy  climate  of  Greece ; 
and  never  was  there  any  people  that  had  a  greater  taste  for 
beauty,  or  were  more  anxious  to  improve  it." 

The  opportunity  given  to  artists  of  studying  their  models 
in  the  public  places,  where  the  youths  of  Greece  performed 
their  exercises  quite  naked,  may  also  be  mentioned  as  a 
reason  for  the  wonderful  progress  of  this  people  In  sculpture. 
Also,  the  high  regard  bestowed  on  those  who  attained  to 
eminence  in  the  art.  "  An  artist  could  be  a  legislator,  a 
commander  of  armies,  and  might  hope  to  have  his  statue 
placed  beside  those  of  Miltiades  and  Themistocles,  or  those 
of  the  gods  themselves.  Besides,  the  honour  and  success  of 
an  artist  did  not  depend  on  the  caprice  of  pride  or  of 
ignorance.  The  productions  of  art  were  estimated  and  re- 
warded by  the  greatest  sages  in  the  general  assembly  of 
Greece ;  and  the  sculptor  wlio  had  exercised  his  task  with 
ability  and  taste,  was  confident  of  obtaining^  immortality." 

We  have  already  spoken  of  Dcedalus,  tne  first  sculptor 
among  the  Greeks  who  attained  sufficient  celebrity  to  ensure 
the  existence  of  his  fame.  More  tkim  one  artist,  however, 
bore  the  name  of  Dcedalus,  and,  indeed,  this  name  among 
the  ancienf.s,  appears  to  hav^  been  synonymous  with  uni- 
versal genius ;  for  Deedalus  is  Sfiid  not  only  to  have  con- 
structed the  labyrinth  of  Crete,  but  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  the  wedge,  and  of  win";s,  besides  being  the 
greatest  sculptor  of  his  time.  His  mvention  of  wings  is 
said  to  have  ibrmed  his  means  of  escape  from  Crete,  to  avoid 
the  revenge  of  Minos.  Some  undei-stmd  this  merely  to 
mean  that  he  put  sails  to  the  vessel  which  bore  him  fi-om 
the  island.  Tne  works  of  Ds^dalus  were  in  wood ;  the  first 
Greek  sculptors  that  became  famed  for  working  marble  are 
said  to  have  been  Dipcenus  and  Scillis,  about  680  years 
before  Christ.  At  about  the  same  period  the  art  of  casting 
brass,  and  melting  it  into  statues,  was  taught  by  Rhcecus 
aiid  Theodorus,  both  Samians.  The  plastic  art,  or  model- 
ling in  clay,  appears  to  have  been  known  considerably 
earlier.  A  fragment  of  a  stitue,  believed  to  be  the  work  of 
Rhcecus,  is  now  in  the  British  Museum.  It  is  a  head  of 
Biomede  of  the  size  of  life,  and  forms  one  of  Mr.  Knight*8 
collection  of  bronzes. 

It  would  be  foreign  to  our  t)urpose  to  give  a  list  of  the 
numerous  sculptors  who  adorned  the  age  previous  to  the 
birth  of  Phidias.  The  little  Islands  of  Samos  and  Chios  pro- 
duced many  skilful  artists,  and  the  cities  of  Sicyon,  ^gina, 
Corinth,  and  Athens,  whence  arose  the  primitive  schools  of 
Greece,  still  continued  to  send  forth  sculptora  worthy  of 
their  ancient  celebrity. 

The  birth  of  the  great  master  of  the  art  of  statunra,  the 
renowned  Phidias,  took  place  at  Athens,  in  the  73rd  Olym- 
piad, about  four  hundred  and  eight  years  before  Christ. 
II is  mind  is  said  to  have  been  early  adorned  with  all  the 
knowledge  which  bore  on  his  profession.  He  was  skilled 
in  historv,  poetry,  fable,  geometry,  and  the  optics  of  the 
day ;  and  under  tne  reign  of  Pericles,  who  commanded  the 
treasury  of  Athens,  and  the  allied  states,  he  had  the  most 
favouraMe  opportunities  of  exercising  his  talents.  His 
chief  talent  appears  to  have  lain  in  representing  the  divini- 
ties of  his  country.  Cicero  tells  us  that  he  did  not  copy 
visible  objects,  and  thus  represent  their  features  and  resem- 
blances, but  formed  to  himself  an  idea  of  true  beauty,  upon 
which  he  constantly  fixed  his  attention,  and  which  became 
at  once  his  rule  and  model,  and  guided  at  once  both  his  de- 
sign and  his  liand.  To  tne  direction  of  this  remarkable 
man,  the  public  works  of  Athens  were  consigned,  and  under 
his  superintendence  the  celebrated  temple  of  the  Parthenon 
was  produced,  the  beauty  of  whose  embellishments  may  be 

fathered  from  the  remains  of  excjuisite  statues  and  alti  and 
assi  relievi  now  in  the  British  Museum  and  known  as  the 
Elgin  Marbles.  The  Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  near  Phy- 
galeia  wjis  the  work  of  tne  same  master-mind,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  Phygaleian  (now  also  in  the  British 
^Iiiseuin)  were  the  earl  v,  and  the  Parthenon  sculptures  the 
finished,  productions  of  Phidias*8  school. 

The  statues  in  bronze  executed  by  Pliidias,  were,  in  point 
of  number  and.  excellence,  quite  unrivalled.  His  ivory 
fct;lues*  were  also  without  parallel;  and  he  even  coiide- 
p/ ended  to  work  in  the  meaner  materials  of  wood  and  clay. 
riiny  and  Pausanias  have  given  us  some  account  of  the 
(llirfrcnt  methods  used  by  Greek  sculptors  in  the  fabri- 
c  it  Ion  of  their  metal  statues.  The  latter  historian  describes 
a  nrizen  statue  of  Jupiter  at  Lacedaemon,  the  most  ancient 
of  all  the  works  in  that  metal  then  known.    This  statue 

*  For  an  interesting  notice  of  the  Ivory  Statues  of  the  Ancienti,  fee« 
Saturday  2lagizine,  YoL  XVI.,  p.  dl. 


•  •  • 

was  of  hammer- wt)rk,  fiibricaied  in  sepamid  portions,  which 
were  afterwards  closely  riveted  together.  The  artist  «\'e3 
Learchus,  said  to  be  a  disciple  of  Dipocnus  and  Scillis,  if 
not  of  Daedalus  himself.  Several  statues  of  this  hammer- 
work,  made  by  Gitladas,  a  citizen  of  Lacedxmon,  were 
extant  in  the  time  of  Pausaniits.  An  improved  method 
appears  to  Irnve  been  subsequently  adopted,  tne  statae  being 
formed  from  lamime,  placed  one  over  another,  like  the 
weaving  of  a  garment ;  that  is,  of  plates  carved  and  chased 
into  the  forms  required.  The  casting  of  brass  was  aficr- 
wards  discovered,  as  we  have  said,  by  Rhcecus  and  Theo- 
dorus. The  latter  artist,  it  appears,  lilcewise  cast  figures  ia 
iron.  The  discovery  of  the  art  of  soldering  iron  is  attri- 
buted to  Glaucus,  a  native  of  Chios ;  and  among  the  works 
in  that  nietal  noticed  by  Pausanias,  are  a  group  of  Hercules 
and  the  Hydra,  by  an  artist  named  Tisagoras,  and  the  heads 
of  a  lion  and  a  boar,  which  he  tew  in  Pergamus,  dedicated 
to  Bacchus.  He  also  ikicntions  a  statue  of  Epaminondas 
made  of  iron. 

We  now  proceed  to  give  a  brief  account  of  the  ideas  of 
the  Greeks  concerning  the  standard  of  beauty  in  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  human  body. 

With  respect  to  the  head,  their  ideas  of  beauty  were  con- 
sistent with  a  noble  and  dignified  expression,  as  may  be  ob- 
served in  what  we  call  a  Grecian  style  of  countenance  at  the 
present  day.  The  profile  of  such  a  countenance  consists  of 
a  line  almost  straight,  or  marked  by  such  slight  inflections 
as  are  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  fVom  a  straiglit  line.  The 
forehead  and  nose,  in  th6  case  of  young  persona,  form  a  line 
Very  nearly  approaching  the  perpendicular. 

The  ideas  of  the  Greeks  respecting  the  forehead  were  very 
different  from  ours.  Ancient  artists  and  writers  inform  us 
that  they  reckoned  a  small  forehead  a  mark  of  beauty,  and 
a  high  forehead  nothing  less  than  deformity.  To  presence 
the  oval  form  of  the  face,  it  was  customary  to  represent  the 
forehead  as  partially  hidden  by  the  hair,  which  made  a 
curve  about  the  temples,  and  thus  prevented  the  angiiLir 
appearance  of  the  upper  part  of  the  fiice,  which  would 
result  from  too  great  an  exposure  of  the  forehead.  From 
similar  ideas  respecting  beauty,  the  Circassians  wore  their 
hair  hanging  down  over  their  foreheads  almost  to  the  eye- 
brows. As  to  the  eyes,  their  form  was  deemed  of  more  im- 
portance than  their  size,  though  large  eyes  were  generally 
considered  beautiful.  In  sculpture  the  eyes  were  alwa^'s  sunt 
deeper  in  the  head  than  is  natural,  because  by  deepening  the 
cavity  the  statuai-y  increases  the  light  and  shade,  and  gains 
expression.  In  the  statues  of  the  different  deities,  the  eye 
forms  a  very  characteristic  feature.  The  eyes  of  Apollo, 
Jupiter,  and  Juno  are  lai^  and  round.  Those  of  Fallaa 
are  also  large,  but  shaded  and  softened  by  the  lowering  of 
the  eyelids.  In  the  Venus  de  Medicis  we  have  an  exam- 
ple that  large  eyes  are  not  essential  to  beauty.  In  this  in- 
imitable statue,  the  eyes  are  small,  with  the  lower  eyelid 
raised  a  little,  and  imparting  an  air  of  peculiar  sweetness. 
The  beauty  of  tlie  eyebrows  consists  in  the  sharpness  of  the 
bones,  and  the  fineness  of  the  hair.  The  masters  of  the 
art  considered  the  joining  of  the  eyebrows  a  deformity, 
tliough  it  is  sometimes  found  in  ancient  statues. 

Much  of  the  expression  of  the  face  depends  upon  the 
form  of  the  moutn  ;  much  more,  in  fact,  than  can  be 
imagined  by  a  person  who  has  not  attempted  the  delinea- 
tion of  the  human  features.  In  beautiful  statues,  the  loWiT 
lip  is  always  fuller  tlian  the  upper,  in  order  to  give  an  elegant 
rounding  to  the  chin.  The  teeth  were  veiy  seldom  allowed 
to  appear.  The  Grecian  artists  never  atnnitted  a  dimpK 
except  to  distinguish  individu^s,  for  they  considered  it  by 
no  means  beautiful. 

Remarkable  was  the  care  and  attention  bestowed  by  the 
ancients  on  the  execution  of  the  ears.  In  their  portraits 
they  were  as  careful  to  secure  an  exact  likeness  of  the  ear, 
as  of  any  of  those  features  on  which  it  is  customary  to  lavuJi 
the  principal  share  of  attention.  The  careful  finish  of  the 
ear  is  frequently  sufficient  of  itself  to  distinguish  an  ancient 
statue  from  one  of  later  times.  Another  distinguishing  mark 
of  antiquity  is  afforded  by  the  manner  in  which  the  hair 
was  formedt.  On  hard  and  coarse  stones  the  hair  was  short, 
and  i4)peared  as  if  it  had  been  combed  with  a  wide  comb  ; 
in  marole  statues  it  was  curled  and  flowing.  In  female 
heads,  the  locks  were  thi*own  back,  and  loosely  tied  behind 
in  a  waving  manner ;  in  very  young  persons  the  hair  fell 
naturally  over  the  shoulders. 

The  most  perfect  necks  of  youths,  in  ancient  sculpture, 
are  nearly  circular,  like  a  portion  of  a  column.  The  com- 
mencement of  the  arms  astney  are  affixed  to  the  body  has 
a  bold  and  rounded  form,  and  the  whole  of  the  limb,  from  its 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  JULY,  1841 


47 


uinioQ  to  the  trunk  down  to  the  lYrist,  is  a  diminishing  cy- 
linder.   The  hands  of  young  persons  were  moderately  pi  ump, 
with  little  cavities  or  dimples  at  the  joints  of  the  hngers. 
The  male  hand  and  finger  had  more  breadth  and  flatness, 
and  the  knuckles  were  more  square  and  decided  even  in 
Youth.   The  female  hand  was  mor^  rounded  and  Heahv,  and 
the  fin£^rs  more  decidedly  tapering  and  cylindrical  than 
those  of  the  male«    The  terminating  joint  waa  not  bent  as  it 
2\[)pears  in  modem  atatues.    The  uails  in  men  are  more 
»iuaredy  and  in  women  more  rounded,  long,  and  delicate. 
The  ravi^ea  of  time  have  indeed  deprived  a  grei^t  number 
of  the  ancient  statues  of  lu^nds  aua  feeii,  but  fr<)m  those 
which  remaix^  it  is  evident  that  the  artista  of  those  tim^  were 
auxious  to  reach  perfection  in  these  as  well  as  in  the  more 
conspicuous  parts  of  their  work.     As  the  ancients  did  not 
cover  the  feet  as  we  do,  they  studied  them  with  u^uch 
attention,  and  gave  to  them  the  most  beautiful  turning. 
Winkelman  remarks  that  it  ia  very  rare  to  meet  with 
beautiful  knees  in  young  persons,  or  even  in  the  elegant 
representations  of  art.      He   states  that    tlie  best-tunied 
knees  and  most  beautiful  legs  are  preserved  in  the  AdoUq 
Saurocthones  in  the  Villa  Borghese ;  in  the  Apollo  wuich 
has  a  swan   at  its    feet;    and  in    the    Paccnus  of   the 
Villa  Medicis.     The  breasts,  in  statues  of  men,  were  broad 
and  elevated;  in  women,  consisting  of  a  gentle  elevatioQ 
only.    The  female  figure  is  generally  one-tcTith  shorter  than 
the  male;  tlie  jbones  are  more  straight,  aud  less  rugged 
towards  the  joints ;  the-  fonns  of  the  body  and  limbs  are 
more  roundea.    The  shoulders  of  the  female  are  narrower 
in    proportion  than    those  of   the  male ;    the    loins  are 
narrower,  and  tlie  hips  broader.    In  infancy  the  proportions 
are  of  course  extremely  different,  and  there   is  a  general 
roundness  of  limbs  and  body,  little  distinguished  by  the 
marking  of  bono  at  the  joints,  or  projecting  muscle  between 
the  joints. 

It  seldom  or  never  happens  that  equal  perfection  is  found 
ia  every  part  of  the  mme  individual ;  nence,  it  becomes 
necessary  that  the  sculptor  should  select  the  most  beautiful 
parts  from  different  models ;  and  that  with  such  judgment 
and  care,  that  all  these  detached  beauties  may  funn  a  com- 
plete and  symmetrical  whole. 

The  Greek  sculptoi-g  were  very  skilful  in  the  dispasition 
of  the  drapery  in  their  figures,  which  was  always  so  arranged 
as  to  heignten  the  genei^  effect.    The  description  of  the 
vestments  of  the  Greeks  as  given  by  Flaxman  may  be  stated 
in  an  abridged  form,  that  we  may  the  better  understand  the 
draperies  we  find  on  antique  statues.      The  largest  and 
coarsest  woollen  garment  worn  by  the  men  was  the  paJHum^ 
a  large  piece  of  cloth,  square  or  nearly  so,  and  seven  feet  in 
lengtn,  though  considerably  less  in  width.    This  was  gene- 
rally worn  by  being  folded  over,  perhaps  one-tliird  of  the 
breadth,  one  end  applied  to  the  leu  side  of  the  body,  can'ied 
under  the  right  arm,  and  thrown  over  the  left  slioulder  in 
front ;  it  formed  broad  and  simple  masses  before  and  behind, 
with  a  few  bold  and  distinct  folds,  which  left  the  body  and 
limbs  well  accounted  for  beneath.     It  was,  according  to  the 
convenience  of  the  wearer,  thrown  in  a  variety  of  different 
manners :  sometimes  one  arm  was  wrapped  in  it,  sometimes 
the  other,  and  sometimes  nearly  both :  all  the  statues  of 
philosophers,  except  the  Cynics,  are  clothed  in  this  man- 
ner.     There  were  other  garments  much  resemuiin*^   the 
pallium ;  particularly  the  manly  peplus,  the  chief  difference 
in   which  was  the  finer  texture  of  the  mateiial,  and  the 
more  numerous  folds  into  which  it  consequently  fell.     The 
comers  of  this  garment  were  sometimes  ornamented  with 
tassel 8,  or  knots. 

Of  a  still  finer  and  lighter  description  was  the  chlmna,  a 
'^.irinent  of  smaller  size  tlian  the  peplus,  but  still  in  the 
-im})e  of  a  long  square.  This  garment  is  particularly  ap- 
fii-opriate  to  youtliful  heroes.  The  tunic,  or  kiton,  was  an 
inJer  f^arment  also  worn  by  men  in  early  times;  this  had 
I  )  sU»oves,  and  hung  over  the  left  shoulder,  leaving  the  ri!,'ht 
iioiilcler  entirely  bare,  not  to  impede  action;  in  after  times 
t  hiui  short  sleeves,  was  full  in  the  body,  and  when  not 
girded  hung  down  below  the  mid-leg ;  but,  when  collected 
>y  the  girdle,  did  not  reach  lower  than  tho  knees.  This 
«>4.'ins  to  have  been  made  in  general  of  the  same  material 
vitli  the  chlsna.  The  chlamys  is  a  military  and  hunting 
lo.ik,  fcistenedwith  a  button  on  the  right  shoulder,  as  that 
viyrix  by  the  Apollo  Belvidere. 

Tho  dress  of  the  Greek  women  was  not  materially  differ- 
II*  from  that  of  the  men.  The  tunic  was  generally  made 
»  j)iss  oVer  each  shoulder,  except  in  the  case  of  Amazons, 
r  fV'inale  warrioi-s,  who  sometimes  had  the  nj^ht  shoulder 
»ft  bare;  the  tunic  of  females  reached  to  the  feet,  and  was 


lower  than  the  ankles,  even  when  girded  with  a  zone.    It 
was  made  of  a  finer  material  than  that  worn  by  men,  and 

Sroduced  long  and  variegated  folds  without  lessening  the 
istinct  appearance  of  the  figure  undem^^th.  Tlwivcplus, 
or  long  veil,  is  described  as  a  dignified  garment  by  Ilonier  ; 
it  was  worn  in  the  same  manner  by  women  as  by  men,  and 
is  a  characteristic  of  dignity,  as  Juno,  Minerva,  Vc\sta,  and 
Ceres,  are  seldom  or  never  seen  without  it  in  a  placid  state. 
Besides  the  tunic  or  kiton,  the  dignified  Greek  fomnlcs 
had  another  garment  called  the  peplo-kitony  which  appears  to 
have  been  one  piece  of  cloth  doubled  over  at  the  fop,  folded 
round  the  left  side,  the  left  arm  having  passed  throufrh 
the  top.  It  was  open  on  the  right  side,  which  presented 
two  cascades  of  folcls.  This  garment  is  very  commonly  re- 
presented on  Greek  vases.  Many  other  garments  were  worn 
oy  women,  and  answered  in  some  measure  to  thoso  in  use 
at  the  present  time,  but  they  are  of  less  consequence  to 
notice  tnan  the  vestments  above  described. 

It  remains  to  notice  the  Xloman  toga,  so  entirely  appro- 
priated by  the  Romans,  that  they  are  thence  called  gnis 
togata.  Collected  in  its  folds  it  appears  to  have  been  of  an 
oval  figure,  through  the  opening  of  which,  the  head,  the 
right  arm,  and  half  the  body  on  the  right  side  passed,  the 

f garment  resting  on  the  left  shoulder,  being  supported  by  the 
eft  hand,  falling  below  the  middle  of  the  right  leg,  and 
presenting  almost  innumerable  curvilinear  folds,  which 
encircle  the  figure  before  and  behind  from  the  left  shoulder 
downwards.  A  lap  of  this  garment  was  brought  from 
behind  over  the  left  shoulder,  tucked  into  the  upper  part 
in  frcmt  under  the  right  bi-east,  which  fold  was  called 
the  cincttis  GaitnnnSy  and  was  said  to  be  a  fashion  brought 
from  the  city  of  Gabia.  It  was  worn  by  emperors,  con- 
suls, noblemen,  and  Roman  citizens;  in  general,  it  was 
made  of  a  fine  woollen  cloth,  as  most  of  the  Roman  gar- 
ments were. 

**  In  reflecting  on  the  beauty  of  drapery,"  says  Flaxman, 
"we  must  always  refer  to  the  beauty  of  the  human  figure, 
which  it  covers ;  and  as  garments  are  worn  as  a  defence 
against  the  weather,  or  from  motives  of  modesty,  they 
should  never  be  such  an  incumbrance  as  to  impede  action  or 
overload  figure,  either  by  their  quantity,  or  mode  of 
wearing ;  which  rule  being  observed,  the  general  idea  of 
form  and  action  will  always  be  intelligible  undenieath  ;  and 
thus,  however  the  figure  may  be  covered,  the  plainer  parts 
of  the  garment  will  give  a  breadth  of  light  and  shadow  to 
the  muss,*  and  its  folds  a  beautiful  variety  of  fonn,  either  in 
harmony  with,  or  in  opposition  to,  the  form  of  the  liml)s  and 
body.  'The  cascade,  or  zig-zag  fold  of  a  long  full  g^ument 
hanging  from  the  shoulder  towards  the  feet,  by  the  irre^nilar 
geometrical  effects  of  its  light  and  sliadow,  shade  the  undu- 
lations of  living  forms  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  figure, 
whether  covered  with  drapery  or  not,  with  au  advantageous 
variety. 

**  The  fine  and  web-like  draperies,  such  as  that  of  t]ie 
Flora  Farnese,  sliow  all  the  forms  of  the  body  and  limbs, 
with  nearly  the  same  distinctness  as  if  they  had  remained 
uncovered,'  at  the  same  time  that  the  gentle  radiated  curvi- 
linear folds,  upon  a  near  examination,  contrast  the  beautiful 
forms  of  the  body  by  variation  of  lines  tfinderly  as-^imilutcd 
with  the  flesh,  in  such  a  manner  as  induces  the  spectator  to 
believe  that  tho  legist  motion  of  tho  body  will  produce  a 
different,  and  equally  pleasing  new  aiTaugement  of  the 
drapery." 

Grecian  sculpture  in  general,  may  be  distinguished  as 
appert^nning  to  tho  ancient  style,  the  grand  style,  or  tlie 
gi-aceful  st^de.  The  most  authentic  records  of  the  aiuitut 
style  are  medals  containing  an  inscription,  which  leads  us 
back  to  very  distant  times.  The  writing  is  fn  in  \\\x\\l  to 
left,  in  the  Hebrew,  and  this  alone  is  sufficient  to  prove 
their  antiquity,  since  the  practice  was  abundonrd  in  tlie 
time  of  Herodotus.  The  statue  of  Agamcmncii,  r.t  K]'.i, 
which  wan  made  by  Omatas,  has  an  inscrijjtion  from  rl-lit 
to  left.  This  artist  flourished  fifty  years  l)cfore  the  tihi<'  of 
Phidias.  In  the  primitive  schools  of  sculpture,  frohi  ilia 
time  of  Daedalus  to  that  of  some  of  the  moreimmcdi.Ui  j-ro.- 
decessors  of  Phidias,  (a  period  embracing  several  centun-  ,) 
sculpture  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  a  regular  art.  'i  ku 
founders  of  those  schools,  with  their  pupils,  were  little  mivo 
than  ingenious  mechanics,  who  followed  carving  nniong 
other  avocations.  Suih  were  Endsus  of  Athens,  cele^^raUHl 
for  three  statues  of  Minerva;  ^Epeus,  immortalized  .'.s  the 
fabricator  of  the  Ti-ojau  horse  ;  Icmulous,  spoken  of  in  the 
Odyssey  as  havin;j  sculptured  the  throne  of  Pencloi)^  ;  aid 
many  others  Who  kept  nn  the  knowledge  of  sculptuiv  during 
the  heroic  ages,  thougti  •they  appear  to  have  ma  le  Init 


48 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


little  improyement  in  the  art.  The  schools  of  Crete,  of 
Samos,  and  Chios  have  been  already  spoken  of.  The 
Chian  school  claims  the  praise  of  having  first  introduced  the 
use  of  the  material  to  wnich  sculpture  is  mainW  indebted 
for  its  porfectiony  namely,  marble.  Malas,  the  uther  of  a 
race  ot  sculptors,  and  who  is  said  to  have  lived  about  six 
hundred  and  forty^nine  years  before  the  Christian  era,  was 
the  first  to  make  the  appIicaUon  of  this  material;  and  the 
beautiful  marbles  of  tneir  native  island  furnished  to  him 
and  his  successors,  one  rich  means  of  superiority. 

The  a^  of  Dipcenus  and  Scyllis,  brothers,  and  of  the 
school  of  Sicyon,  forms  an  era  in  the  histoiy  of  ancient  art^ 
markingthe  first  decided  advances  towards  the  succeeding 
style,  before  their  time  the  style  of  sculpture  had  been 
extremely  dry  and  minute.  The  designing  was  eneigeticaL 
but  harsh ;  it  was  animated,  but  without  gracefulness ;  and 
the  violence  of  the  expression  deprived  the  whole  figure  of 
beauty.  While  the  limbs  and  countenance  were  rude  and 
incorrect  in  form  and  expression,  the  ornamental  details 
were  worked  wiUi  the  most  elaborate  care.  This  taste  for 
extreme  finish  arose  from  the  limited  resources  of  the  art 
itself,  from  tiie  manner  of  dressing  prevalent  at  that  period, 
and  more  especially  from  the  mediocrity  of  artists,  feadinflr 
them  to  bestow  on  parts,  that  application  which  should 
have  been  directed  towards  the  penecting  of  the  whole. 

The  fault  of  fiastidiousncss  and  ill-bestowed  labour  also 
attaches  to  the  works  of  the  artists  we  have  named,  but  a 
great  improvement  was  effected  by  them,  and  their  names 
are  therefore  deservedly  recorded  as  the  benefactors  of  the 
art  in  that  period.  Their  execution  was  much  more  free, 
the  whole  effect  more  powerful,  and  the  forms  better  selected 
and  composed.  There  are  at  present  in  the  British  Museum, 
colossal  neads  of  Hercules  and  Apollo,  believed  to  be  the 
work  of  Dipcenus  and  Scyllis,  which  admirably  illustrate 
the  stvle  of  art  at  this  early  period. 

Sculpture  was  now  practised  throughout  a  lam  extent  of 
country,  and  the  school  of  Magna  Gnecia,  whicn  hod  long 
been  rising  in  importance,  now  began  to  vie  with  those  of 
Sicyon,  Chios,  &c.  Five  hundred  and  seventeen  years 
before  Christ  the  fame  of  all  preceding  sculptors  suffisred  by 
the  reputation  of  two  Chian  orothers,  Bujpalus*and  Anthe- 
mis,  who  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  pertection  the  disco- 
very of  their  ancestors, — sculpture  in  marble.  Their  works 
were  highly  valued  in  succeeoing  ages,  and  formed  part  of 
the  treasures  removed  to  Rome  by  order  of  Augustus.  The 
arts  flourished  at  Athens  under  the  government  of  Pisistra- 
tus,  and  under  his  protection  many  esteemed  artists  em- 
ployed their  skill  with  advantaffe  to  themselves  and  their 
country.  A  corresponding  zeal  tor  the  arts^  and  fi)r  sculp- 
ture in  particidar,  now  manifested  itself  in  various  parts  of 
Greece.  The  victory  of  Marathon,  which  took  place  four 
hundM^  and  ninety  years  before  the  Christian  era,  Rave 
fresh  life  and  eneigy  to  the  institutions  of  Greeo&  and  by 
the  artists  of  this  period  up  to  the  time  of  Pericles  tne  ^rand 
style  was  practised,  and  finally,  by  the  renowned  Phidiasy 
brought  to  perfection.  Of  the  immediate  predecessors^  or 
early  contemporaries  of  Phidias,  the  foUowmg  are  a  few  of 
the  principal  namra.  Onatas  and  Glaucias  of  JSgiha,  Critias, 
Cfdamis,  Pythagoras  of  Rhegium,  Polycletus,  Scopas, 
Alcamenes,  and  last  and  peatest  of  the  early  school,  Myron. 
From  the  severe  and  smiple  majesty  of  the  grand  Btyle  a 
progressive  chimge  commenced  even  in  the  life^time  of  Phi- 
dias, to  one  of  more  studied  elegance  and  softer  character. 
**^  Sublimity,"  says  Dr.  Memos,  '*  is  in  its  own  nature  a  more 
simple  sentiment  than  beauty,  and  the  sources  whence  it 
springs  infinitely  more  limited.  I^  then,  we  find  the  true 
sublime  in  Grecian  sculpture  con&ied  almost  to  the  age 
and  labour  of  one  man,  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  when  the 
same  is  the  case,  not  only  in  their  poetry,  an  art  fiir  more 
abundant  in  resources,  but  in  the  poeticiu  literature  of  eveiv 
people?  The  sculptors,  then,  who  followed  the  era  of  Peri- 
cles to  the  death  of  Alexander,  can  be  called  inferior  to 
Phidias,  only  in  the  same  sense  as  the  poets  who  suc- 
ceeded will  lie  termed  inferior  to  Homer.  In  both  instances, 
the  change  was  but  the  application  of  principles,  which  in 
their  essence  could  not  vary,  the  subjects  requiring  a  modi- 
fication of  certain  ^stingni^ing  qualities. 

The  third  style  of  Grecian  sculpture  was  the  graceful  or 
beautiful.  It  was  introduced  by  Praxiteles  and  Lys^pus. 
They  designed  to  please  ratiber  tnan  to  astonish  by  their  per- 
formances, and  to  raise  admiration  by  giving  delight.  Praxi- 
teles was  a  native  of  Magna  Grccia,  bom  about  three  hun- 
dred and  sixtjr-four  years  before  Christ.  ''Finding  the 
highest  sublimities  in  the  more  masculine  graces  of  tne  art 


already  reached,  perceiving  also  that  the  taste  of  his  a^e 
tended  thitherwwds,  he  resolved  to  woo  exdusively  the 
milder'  and  gentler  beauties  of  style.  In  this  punoit  h 
attuned  eminent  success.  None  ever  more  happily  sttooeeded 
in^  uniting  softness  with  force,— el^^ance  and  refinement 
with  simplicity  and  purity :  his  grace  never  degenerates  into 
the  afiected,  nor  his  delicacy  into  the  artificial."  Amoor 
the  known  works  of  this  master  are  his  Cupid,  ApoUo,  the 
Uzard-killer,  Satyr,  and  Bacchus  with  a  liaiaiu  The  cele- 
brated Venus  of  Gnidos  was  his  work. 

Lysippus,  a  Sicyonian,  contemporaiy  and  rival  of  Pnzi« 
teles,  is  said  to  have  wrought  only  in. metal.  Thisscolptor 
was  bom  in  the  lowest  walks  ot  life,  and  was  in  a  great 
measure  self-taught.  He^  was  a  diligent  follower  of  natoie, 
and  seems  to  have  been  distinguished  by  a  more  nuMMmli^tf 
chazacter  than  was  common  in  art  at  that  period.  He  pro- 
duced  colossal  and  equestrian  statues  in  bronze,  and  hii 
Tarentine  Jupiter,  uxty  feet  in  height,  was  equal  in  nug- 
nitude  to  any  of  the  undertakings  of  preceding  scnlptois. 
Alexander  mowed  this  artist  particular  favour,  and  to 
Lysippus  alone  was  granted  permission  to  cast  the  prince's 
statue.  -  He  also  executed  twenty-one  equestrian  statnes  i 
.Alexander's  bod^r-guard  who  fell  at  the  Gnmicns.  Not  onlj 
was  he  fiunous  in  works  that  demanded  a  forceful  and 
vigorous  composition,  but  he  also  excelled  in  delicacy 
of  finish,  and  knowli^ge  of  symmetiy.  So  gnat  waa  the 
renown  of  this  artist,  that  even  the  tyrannical  Tiberiaa  was 
seized  with  apprehension  at  an  insurrection  of  the  Romsa 
people,  caused  by  the  removal  of  the  figure  of  Lympims 
m>m  one  of  the  public  baths.  On  the  death  of  Alezanao^ 
a  fiatal  and  immediate  decline  was  visible  in  the  fine  aits, 
and  the  period  of  that  decline  extended  from  the  dlsmem* 
berment  of  the  Macedonian  empire  to  the  final  rednctioa  of 
Greece  into  a  Roman  province^--a  space  of  nearly  two  him* 
dred  years. 

The  unrivalled  excellence  of  Greek  sculpture  is  suffi- 
ciently attested  by  the  works  of  ancient  art  still  lemaming; 
some  of  the  most  highly  famed  of  these  are  as  follows  :—'^e 
Apollo  Belvidere,  justly  deemed  one  of  the  most  admiiable 
works  of  Grecian  art ;  the  Dying  Gladiator,  greatly  vahied 
for  its  truth  and  beauty,  and  its  admirable  execuljon;  the 
statues  of  Venus,  Diana,  Mercury,  and  Bacchus,  illuatntire 
of  the  best  days  of  Grecian  sculpture ;  the  Faun  of  the  Flo- 
rence Gallery,  restored  by  Michael  Angelo.  The  ancieat 
groups  are  perhaps  yet  more  precious  monuments  of  the  suh- 
umity,  beauty,  ana  heroism  of  Greece.  The  Iaocooo,  ani- 
mated with  tne  hopeless  agony  of  the  &ther  and  sons,  is  the 
work  of  Ajpolloaorus,  Athenodorus,  and  Agesander  of 
Rhodes.  The  groups  of  Dirce,  Hercules,  and  Antcns, 
Atreua^  Orestes,  and  Electra,  and  Ajax  supporting  PatiDcIos, 
are  examples  of  fine  form,  chaiacter,  and  sentiment.  Niobe 
and  her  youngest  daughter,  by  Scopas,  ia  esteemed  an  exqui- 
site specimen  of  art.  The  difficult  but  haxmonioiis  compo- 
sition representing  the  Wrestlers  must  not  be  omitted,  nor, 
for  graceful  proportion,  Cupid  and  Psyche.  The  Elgin 
marbles,  belonging  as  they  do  to  a  penod  when  the  ait 
hod  reached  its  highest  excellence,  may  well  be  considered 
a  peculiar  treasure  to  the  British  nation.  For  further  parti- 
culars reelecting  these  marbles,  we  refer  our  leaders  to  the 
Sahurdw  Mofforine^  Vol.  XVI.,  p.  217  and  233. 

Our  nontispiece  represents  two  antique  fignns  illnstia- 
tive  of  ancient  Grecian  art.  One  is  a  texminal  statue  of 
Pan  playing  upon  a  pipe.  He  is  generally  represented 
nakea,  but  the  long  robis  with  which  he  ia  here  clothed,  and 
the  diadem  which  decorates  his  head,  not  only  evince  tbe 
custom  but  likewise  show  the  manner  in  which  theaadenta 
occasionally  clothed  the  statues  of  their  deities. 

In  this  figure  **the  act  of  breathing  into  the  in- 
strument is  so  admirably  expressed,  that  we  may  almoit 
fiuicy  we  hear  the  sounds  of  the  music;  and  it  is  not  im- 
prolMtble,  that  this  statue  may  be  a  copy  of  the  one  which 
gave  rise  to  the  Greek  epigram  of  Araoius.  The  point  of 
this  epigram  is,  that  the  artist  had  animated  the  figure  of  Fm, 
by  infiising  breath  into  it." 

The  other  fiffure  is  that  of  Phocion,  an  Athenian  com- 
mander, one  of  the  most  virtuous  chaxacteis  of  antiqaity) 
who  lived  about  377  &.c. 


LONDON : 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKER,  WEST  STBIKD. 
PvBLitBxn  i»  Wbxxlt  Nvmbssi.  Pbmx  Onb  PKirirf,  uk9  im  Movmi  fs*"* 

Pbiob  SiKPnoK. 
8old>y  all  Beokaelbn  mnd  VwwwwiAan  la  Qm  MBt^/m,' 


N°.  584.  AUGUST  7T.=,  1841.  {oi.'X.t. 


>ZIIKKT  icnu  IM  CAIBO. 


50 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[August  7, 


SKETCHES  OF  CAIRO^ 

I- 

The  desire  of  An  intelleotual  people  to  l>ecome  moro 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  various  nations  of  the 
world  is  one  of  the  means  which  Providence  hfti  ap- 
pointed of  diffusing  the  blessings  of  civilization.  Some 
men  feel  an  ardent  desire  to  visit  distant  lands, — to 
study  the  manners,  laws,  and  customs  of  their  inhabitants, 
-^to  examine  the  natural  phenomena  and  productions  with 
reference  to  science  or  to  commerce, — and  such  men 
willingly  expatriate  themselves  in  order  to  gratify  the 
ruling  principle  of  their  minds.  But  all  men  feel  this 
principle  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  and  the  sketches  of 
the  artist  and  of  the  traveller  are  received  with  that 
respect  and  attention  which  show  how  deeply  interested 
we  are  in  the  condition  of  our  fellow-creatures  in  every 
part  of  the  habitable  globe.  Such  are  the  feelings  of  a 
people  advancing  in  knowledge.  How  different  is  the 
view  of  this  subject  taken  by  a  nation  which  for  many 
centuries  has  occupied  only  a  stationary  position  I  the 
Arab  looks  with  astonishment  at  the  labours  of  the 
antiquary  among  the  ancient  monuments  on  the  banks  of 
the  Nile,  and  is  satisfied  that  he  would  not  undergo 
such  toil  were  he  not  seeking  for  hidden  gold :  even  the 
more  polished  Egyptian  regards  the  traveller  either  as  a 
spy  or  as  an  emissary  from  his  king,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
convince  him  that  this  is  not  the  case,  so  strange  is  the 
idea  of  a  man's  incurring  great  trouble  and  expense, 
for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  the  knowledge  of  foreign 
lands. 

We  feel,  however,  that  the  motives  of  the  traveller 
are  pure  and  disinterested,-.*his  object  being  either  to 
confer  benefits  on  the  people  among  whom  he  travels, 
or  to  contribute  to  the  advancement  of  science  among 
ourselves.  At  no  distant  period  the  details  of  the  tra- 
veller were  received  with  suspicion,  even  among  our- 
selves,— ^his  object  was  supposed  to  be  to  astonish  and 
mislead, — and,  referring  everything  to  the  standard  of 
our  own  manners  and  customs,  we  received  with  con- 
temptuous incredulity  whatever  differed  greatly  from  it. 
This  littleness  of  feeling  has  gradually  given  way  under 
the  exertions  of  first-rate  men,  who  have  visited  and 
revisited  distant  climes,  and  have  authenticated  and 
enlarged  the  accounts  alreadv  received.  The  artist  and 
the  traveller  unite  in  oonvejring  to  us  ideas  so  clear  and 
precise  of  the  different  regions  of  the  globe  that  we  may 
well  h^  content  to  remain  at  home,  and  yet  become 
minutely  acquainted  with  whatever  region  we  desire  to 
be  informed  of. 

Egypt  has  ever  been  a  land  to  which  the  traveller's 
curiosity  has  been  directed;  but  while  the  antiquities, 
the  manners,  and  customs  of  its  ancient  inhabitants  have 
excited  so  much  attention,  it  has  been  regretted  that  the 
modern  tenants  of  this  wonderful  land  should  have  been 
so  imperfectly  noticed.  Through  the  exertions  chiefly 
of  two  individuals  this  cause  of  regret  no  longer  exists. 
Since  Mr.  Lane  has  published  his  Account  of  the  Man* 
tiers  and  Customs  of  the  Modem  Eg^ptianSf  and  Mr. 
Robert  Hay  his  lUustroHone  of  Cairo,  we  are  in  posset- 
sion  of  detuls  so  full,  accurate,  and  minute  that,  although 
it  would  be  too  much  to  say  that  nothing  more  is  left 
to  be  desired,  yet  it  is  probable  that  no  other  people 
have  received  a  ffreater  share  of  attention  from  the 
artist  and  the  traveler.  Mr.  Lane  resided  among  them 
for  several  years,-~adopted  their  language,  dress,  man- 
ners and  national  peculiarities.  Mr.  Hay  has  furnished 
a  noble  volume*  of  lithographic  prints,  in  the  most 
exquisite  style  of  art,  from  drawings  made  on  the  spot, 
accompanied  with  letter-press  descriptions;  and  from 
these  two  sources,  as  also  from  the  small  but  accurate 

*  lUtulrations  of  Cairo,  by  Bobbbt  Hay,  Esq.,  of  Unplum.  Draum 
on  ttoneJby  J.  C.  Bournb, uruUr  the  tuperintendtnce  o/Owbn  B.  Cartbb, 
ArehitecL  This  work  is  apptopriatelT  dedkated  to  Edward  WUliam 
Lane,  Ewj., "  as  a  tribute  of  zeqwct  for  ttie  zeal  and  fidelity^  he  bat  evinced 
111  hia  literary  porBoita  connected  with  that  country."^ 


work  of  Miv  Kinnear,  who  visited  Egypt  in  IS.'iQ,  we 
propose  to  furnish  a  few  sketches  of  Cairo,  first  offerir? 
our  best  thanks  to  Mr.  Hay  for  the  kind  liberality  v^iili 
which  he  has  allowed  us  to  copy  his  drawings. 

Grakd  Cairo,  the  modem  Egyptian  metropolis 
now  called  Musr,  was  foimded  by  Jawhar,  a  Moggrebis 
eeneral,  in  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century.  He  give 
his  new  city  the  name  of  Al-Kahira,  or  El-Ckahi- 
REH,  (that  is,  The  Victorious,)  whence  Europeans  bare 
formeci  the  name  of  Cairo.  It  is  situated  at  the  entraDce 
of  the  valley  of  Upper  Egypt,  midway  between  the 
Nile  and  the  eastern  mountain-range  of  MoockuttuoL 
Between  it  and  the  river  is  a  tract  of  land,  mostly  nil- 
tivated,  which  in  the  northern  parts  (where  the  port  of 
Boolack  is  situated)  is  more  than  a  mile  wide,  and  at 
the  southern  part  less  than  half  a  mile.     The  city  ocoi- 

Sies  a  space  equal  to  about  three  square  miles,  and  is 
ivided  into  the  new  and  old  cities.  The  old  city  is  oc 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  now  almost  unin- 
habited. The  new  city,  which  is  properly  Cairo,  is 
seated  in  a  sandy  plain,  about  two  miles  and  a  balf  from 
the  old  city,  and  on  the  same  side  of  the  river.  It  i« 
extended  along  the  mountain,  near  a  point  of  which,  at 
an  angle  of  the  town,  a  castle  is  built,  the  city  bavisr 
been  removed  hither,  it  is  supposed,  in  order  to  ht 
under  its  protection.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  walL 
and  the  gates  are  shut  at  night. 

*  The  streets  of  Cairo  are  in  general  narrow  and  intri- 
cate, especially  in  the  Jews'  quarter,  where  some  of  tbe 
passages  barely  admit  of  two  persons  passing  eacb 
other.  The  windows,  with  curiously  carved  wooden 
lattices,  project  so  much  on  either  side  as  nearly  to  me^t 
over-head,  and  exclude  much  of  the  light*  and,  altbough 
this  produces  a  useful  and  agreeable  shade  from  the  m, 
it  gives  a  sombre  and  dismal  appearance  to  those  streets 
which  contain  only  dwelling-houses.  In  these  itreets 
very  few  passengers  are  seen,  but  ill  the  baxaan  vi^ 
great  thoroughfares  there  is  a  continual  stresm  of  Turks, 
Copts,  Jews,  Dervishes,  and  Bedaweens  from  the  Desert, 
in  their  picturesque  and  graceful  costumes. 

A  stranger  who  merely  passed  through  the  streets 
would  regard  Cairo  as  a  very  close  and  crowded  city,  but 
that  it  is  not  so  is  evident  to  a  person  who  overlooks 
the  town  from  the  top  of  a  lofty  house,  or  from  ^ 
minaret  of  a  mosque,  from  whence  may  be  ohwrved 
within  the  walls  many  vacant  places,  some  of  which. 
during  the  season  of  inundation,  are  lakes.  The  p^- 
dens,  burial-grounds,  the  courts  of  bouses,  and  the 
mosques  also  occupy  a  considerable  area.  The  great 
thoroughfares  have  generally  a  row  of  shops  aloog  each 
side.  Above  the  shops  are  apartments,  which  do  not 
communicate  with  them,  and  wfiich  are  seldom  occupie<l 
by  the  persons  who  rent  the  shops.  To  the  right  ao^ 
left  of  the  great  thoroughfares  are  by-atreets  and  quar- 
ters. Most  of  the  by-streets  have  a  large  wooden  gite 
at  each  end,  closed  at  night,  and  kept  by  a  porter  within. 
who  opens  to  any  persons  requiring  to  be  admitted. 
The  quarters  mostly  consist  of  several  narrow  lane?, 
having  but  one  general  entrance,  with  a  gate,  which  is 
also  closed  at  night,  but  several  have  a  by-street 
passing  through  tbem. 

In  a  country  where  neither  births  nor  deaths  ar? 
registered,  it  is  diiBcult  to  ascertain  with  any  preci^io& 
the  amount  of  population.  A  few  years  ago  a  calcuU- 
tion  was  made  founded  on  the  number  of  houses  in  Eg}?'" 
and  the  supposition  that  the  inhabitants  of  each  house  i£ 
the  metropolis  amount  to  eight  persons,  and  in  the  pro- 
vinces to  four*  Mr.  Lane  thinks  this  compuUtion  ap- 
proximates very  nearly  to  the  truth;  and,  according  to 
It,  Cairo  contained  previous  to  the  plague  of  1835  about 
240,000  inhabiUnts.  That  calamity  removed  not  less 
than  one-third  of  the  amount;  but"  the  deficiency  vss 
rapidly  supplied  from  the  villages.  Of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  metropolis,  about  190,000  arc  JEgyptian  Moos- 
lims;  about  10,000  are  Copts,  or  Christian  t^tians; 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


51 


between  3000  and  4000  are  Jews;  and  the  remainder 
are  strangers  from  various  parts  of  the  world. 

We  will  speak  more  particularly  of  the  Mooslims  in  a 
future  article.  The  Copts  are  most  prohably  the  des- 
cendants of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  differ  from  the 
Mooslims  in  religion ;  a  difference  sufficient  in  a  land  of 
religious  intoleration  to  sever  every  other  tie  between 
them.  It  is  difficult  for  a  stranger  to  perceive  any  dif- 
ference between  the  Coptish  countenance  and  that  of  the 
Mooslim,  beyond  a  certain  downcast  and  sullen  expres- 
sion of  countenance  which  generally  marks  the  former. 
The  Copt  is  distinguished  by  a  black  or  dark  blue  turban, 
or  one  of  a  grave  drab  colour;  and  the  Mooslims  them- 
selves often  fail  to  recognize  a  Copt  when  they  see  him 
in  a  white  turban.  The  Coptish  patriarch,  although 
styled  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  has  his  residence  m 
Cairo,  and  is  said  to  be  very  wealthy.  He  is  chosen  by 
lot  from  among  the  monks  of  the  convent  of  St.  Anthony. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  who  adhere  to  the  Greek 
Church,  they  are  of  the  sect  called  Jacobites  or  Eutv- 
chians,  from  Jacobus  Baradaeus,  the  propagator  of  the 
Eutyehian  doctrines. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  traits  in  the  character  of  the 
Copts  is  their  bigotiy.  They  bear  a  bitter  hatred  to  all 
other  Christians;  even  exceeding  that  with  which  the 
Mooslims  regard  the  unbelievers  in  el-Islam.  Yet  they  are 
considered,  by  the  Mooslims,  as  much  more  inclined  than 
any  other  Christian  sect  to  the  Mohammedan  faith ;  and 
this  opinion  has  not  been  formed  without  reason ;  for  vast 
numbers  of  them  have,  fr6m  time  to  time,  and  not  always 
inconsequence  of  persecution,  become  proselytes  to  this 
religion.  They  are,  generally  speaking,  of  a  sullen  temperj 
extrenxcly  avaricious,  and  abominable  dissemblers ;  cringing 
or  domineering  according  to  circumstances. 

The  Copts  are  not  now  despised  and  degraded  by  the 
mernment  as  they  were  a  few  years  ago.  Some  of  them 
We  even  been  reused  to  the  rank  of  beys.  Before  the  accession 
of  Mohhammad  Alee,  neither  the  Copts  nor  other  Eastern 
Christians,  nor  Jews,  were  ppenerally  fulowed  to  ride  horses 
in  I^ypt ;  but  this  restriction  has,  of  late  years^  been  with- 
drawn. A  short  time  since,  the  Mooslims  or  Damascus, 
who  are  notorious  for  their  bigotry  and  intolerance,  com- 
plained to  the  conqueror,  Ibraheem  Basho,  of  the  Christians 
in  their  city  being  allowed  to  ride  horses ;  urginff,  that  the 
Mooslims  no  longer  had  the  privilege  of  distinguishing  them^^ 
Relres  from  the  infidels.  The  Basha  replied,  *'  Let  the  Moos- 
lims still  be  exalted  above  the  Christians,  if  they  wif  h  it :  let 
them  ride  dromedaries  in  the  streets:  depend*  upon  it  the 
Christians  will  not  follow  their  example."  The  Copts 
enjoy  an  immunity  for  which  they  are  much  envied  hy 
most  of  the  Mooslims:  thev  are  not  liable  to  be  taken  for 
military  service  ;  as  no  Mohammedan  prince  would  honour 
a  Christian  by  employing  him  to  fight  against  a  Mooslim 
enemy. 

The  Coptic  is  now  a  dead  langfuage,  and  is  only  pre- 
served in  the  religious  books ;  the  Arabic  being  spoken 
bj  the  Copts  as  by  the  Mooslims,  and  taught  in  their 
schools. 

The  Jews  inhabit  the  worst  quarter  of  Cairo »  a  laby- 
rinth of  dark  narrow  lanes,  in  which  it  is  hardly  possible 
for  two  persons  to  pass.  In  their  dress  and  persons 
they  are  generally  slovenly  and  dirty.  Many  of  them 
have  sore  eyes  and  a  bloated  complexion,  occasioned,  it 
is  said,  by  the  grossness  of  their  food,  in  which  they  use 
great  quantities  of  oil  of  sesame.  They  lead  a  very 
quiet  life :  indeed,  they  find  few  but  persons  of  their  own 
sect  who  will  associate  with  them;  for  they  are  held  in 
the  utmost  contempt  and  abhorrence  by  the  Mooslims  in 
general,  and  are  said  to  bear  a  more  inveterate  hatred 
than  any  other  people  to  the  Mooslims  and  the  Moham- 
medan religion.  The  more  wealthy  Jews  dress  hand- 
somely at  home ;  but  put  on  plain  or  even  shabby  clothes 
before  they  go  out:  and,  although  their  houses  have  a 
niean  and  dirty  appearance  from  the  outside,  many  of 
them  contain  handsome  and  well  furnished  rooms.  The 
condition  of  the  lower  orders  is  very  wretched ;  many  of 
them  having  no  other  means  of  support  than  the  alms  of 
their  superiors  of  the  same  sect. 


The  protection  afforded  by  Mohhammad  Alee  to  the 
Copts  and  Jews,  is  one  great  cause  of  the  unfavourable 
feeling  with  which  the  rigid  Mooslims  regard  the  present 
government.  The  Christian  reader  will  be  delighted  to 
hear  that  a  Protestant  mission  is  established  in  Cairo, 
and  that  the  service  of  the  Church  of  England  is  per- 
formed publicly  every  Sunday.  The  boys  from  the 
missionary  school  attend  the  public  service  m  the  chapel ; 
and,  it  is  said,  that  several  of  them  are  children  of  Moos- 
lim parents,  who  are  induced  to  send  them  to  the  school 
that  they  may  acquire  the  English  language,  which  is 
becoming  an  important  accomplishment.  "  Indeed,  there 
can  be  little  doubt,"  says  Mr.  Kinnear,  <<  that  the  tolera-. 
tion  of  the  pacha's  government  has  had  a  considerable 
effect  in  relaxing  the  bigotry  of  the  mass  of  the  popula- 
tion, and  is  undermining  the  foundations  of  Mohham- 
madinism." 

In  our  frontispiece  is  represented  one  of  the  sebeels,  or 
public  reservoirs  for  the  gratuitous  supply  of  water,  which 
the  burning  climate  of  Egypt  has  rendered  necessary, 
and  the  charity  and  munificence  of  the  wealthy  have 
supplied.  There  are  about  three  hundred  in  the  city, 
and  these  are  annually  filled  at  the  time  of  the  inunda- 
tion. 

The  Emeer  'Abd  er-Rahman  Ky^hhya,  a  person  of 
great  wealth  and  power,  who  died  in  1199,  a.h,*  (1766, 
A.D.),  erected  this  and  several  other  sebeels  and  cha- 
ritable buildings*  It  exhibits  a  fantastic  combination  of 
Turkish  and  Arabian  tastes,  but  is  more  unassuming  and 
chaste  than  many  of  the  sebeels  built  within  the  last 
seventy  years ;  and  the  window  through  which  the  thirsty 
passenger  receives  his  draught,  is  ornamented  with  a 
handsome  bronze  grating.  Upon  the  upper  part  of  the 
building  is  an  open  kuttab  or  school,  which  generally 
accompanies  the  sebeels,  and  it  is  situated  at  the  point 
where  two  streets  branch  off* 

In  the  forf^round,  seated  in  the  public  street,  before 
the  shop  of  an  'Attar  or  druggist,  upon  the  floor  of 
which  is  seen  a  nargeeleh  for  smoking,  is  represented  a 
servant  in  the  act  of  pounding  some  substance  in  a 
wooden  mortar.  A  female  of  the  lower  order  is  advan- 
cing, veiled  by  the  dark  boorko ;  and  another,  a  mendi- 
cant, is  asking  alms  with  her  face  uncovered, — a  common 
circumstance  amongst  that  class. 

Beyn  el-Kasreyn,  that  is,  the  Street  between  the  two 
Palaces,  was,  a  few  years  ago,  an  interesting  spot  for  the 
antiquarian,  from  the  fact  of  some  remains  existing  of 
those  buildings. 

*  The  Mohammedans  reckon  from  the  "  Hegira"  or  Flight  ot  Uieir 
Prophet 

Man,  indeed,  may  be  called  a  bee,  in  a  figurative  style.  In 
search  of  sweets,  he  roams  in  various  regions,  and  ransacks 
every  inviting  flower.  Whatever  displays  a  beautiful  appear- 
ance, solicits  nis  notice,  and  conciliates  nls  fiivour,  if  not  his 
affection.  He  is  often  deceivi;d  by  the  vivid  colour  and 
attractive  form,  which,  instead  of  supplying  honey,  produce 
the  rankest  poison ;  but  he  perseveres  in  his  researches,  and 
if  he  is  often  disappointed,  he  is  also  often  succ^sful. 
The  misfortune  is,  that  when  he  has  found  honey,  he 
enters  upon  the  feast  with  an  appetite  so  voracious,  that 
he  usually  destroys  his  own  delignt  by  excess  and  satiety. 
— Kkox. 


Among  all  the  graces  that  adorn  a  Christian  soul,  like  so 
many  jewels  of  various  colours  and  lustres,  against  the  day 
of  her  espousals  to  the  Lamb  of  God,  there  is  not  one  more 
brilliaat  than  patience. — ^Bishop  Hobjix. 

In  the  least. 
As  well  as  in  the  greatest  of  his  works. 
Is  ever  manifest  a  present  God : 
As  well  in  swarms  of  glittering  insects,  seen 
Quick  to  and  fro,  within  a  foot  of  air. 
Dancing  a  merry  hour,  then  seen  no  more, 
As  in  the  systems  of  resplendent  worlds. 
Through  time  revolving  iu  unbounded  t-^ce. 

I  Carlos  Wilcox. 

*  684—2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[ACGDII?, 


OPTICAL  ILLUSIONS.  IV. 
We  reaume  our  notice  of  some  curious  optical  pheno- 
mena, in  which  objects  appear  to  the  eye  under  circum- 
sUnces  Bingularly  deceptiTC.  We  gave  several  insUnces 
of  thia  kind  in  the  former  papers,  and  shall  now  add  to 
the  number. 

Dr.  Rwel,  in  a  paper  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Society,  a  few  years  ago,  described  a  curious  optical  de- 
ception which  takes  place  when  a  carriage-wheel,  rolling 
along  the  ground,  is  viewed  through  the  intervals  of  a 
Hries  of  vertical  bars,  such  as  those  of  a  palisade,  or  of 
«  Venetian  window-blind.  Under  such  circumstances, 
the  spokea  of  the  wheel,  instead  of  appearing  straight,  as 
they  would  naturally  do  if  no  bars  intervened,  seem  to 
have  a  considerable  degree  of  curvature.  The  distinct- 
ness of  this  appearance  is  influenced  by  several  circum- 
stances; but  when  everything  concurs  to  favour  it.  Dr. 
Roget  states  the  illusion  as  being  irresistible,  and,  from 
the  difficulty  of  detecting  its  real  cause,  exceedingly 
atriking. 

The  degree  of  curvatnre  in  each  spoke  varies,  accord* 
ing  to  the  situation  it  occupies  for  the  moment  with  re- 
apect  to  a  perpendicular  line.  The  two  spokes  which 
Arrive  at  a  vertical  position,  above  and  below  the  axle,  are 
Men  of  their  natural  shape,  that  is,  without  any  curva- 
ture. Those  on  each  side  of  the  upper  one  appear 
slightly  curved ;  those  more  remote,  still  more  so ;  and  the 
curvature  of  the  spokes  increases  as  the  eye  follows  them 
dmonieardt  on  each  side,  till  we  arrive  at  the  lowest 
spoke,  which,  like  the  first,  again  appears  straight.  The 
most  remarkable  circumstance  relating  to  this  visual 
deception  is,  that  the  convexity  of  these  curved  images 
of  the  spokes  is  always  turned  downwards,  on  both  sides 
of  the  wheel;  and  that  this  direction  of  their  curvature 
is  precisely  the  tame  whether  the  wheel  be  moving  to 
the  right  or  to  the  left  of  the  spectator.  The  annexed 
cat  will  iUuitrate  the  appearance  here  alluded  to. 


Dr.  Roget  then  instituted  a  series  of  experiments,  for 
the  purpose  of  arriving  at  results  which  might  furnbh  a 
probable  cause  for  the  phenomenon;  and  he  places  his 
results  under  six  different  heads. 

1.  A  certain  degree  of  the  velouty  in  the  wheel  is 
necessary  to  produce  the  deception  above  described.  If 
this  velocity  be  gradually  communicated,  the  appearance 
of  curvature  is  first  perceptible  in  the  spokes  which  hare 
a  horizontal  position;  and  as  soon  as  this  is  observed,  a 
■mail  increase  given  to  the  velocity  of  the  wheel,  pro- 
duces tvddenli/  the  appearance  of  curvature  in  all  the 
lateral  spokes.  The  degree  of  curvature  remains  pre. 
wsely  as  at  first,  whatever  greater  velocity  be  given  to 
the  wheel,  provided  it  be  not  so  great  as  to  prevent  the 
eye  from  following  the  spokes  distinctly  as  they  revolve; 
for  it  is  evident  that  the  rapidity  of  revolution  may  be 
such  as  to  render  the  spokes  invisible.  It  is  also  to  be 
noticed  that,  however  rapidly  the  wheel  revolves,  each 
individual  spoke  appears,  during  the  moment  it  is  viewed, 
to  be  at  rest. 

2.  Tlie  number  of  spokes  in  the  wheel  makea  no  dif- 
ference in  the  degree  of  curvature  they  exhibit. 

3.  The  appearance  of  curvature  is  more  oerfectly  seen 
when  the  intervals  lietween  ^e  bars,  through  which  the 


wheel  is  viewed,  are  narrow;  provided  they  are  nfi- 
ciently  wide  to  allow  of  the  distmct  view  of  all  ihe  paru 
of  the  wheel  in  succession,  as  it  possca  along,  For  the 
same  reason  the  phenomenon  is  seen  to  the  greakst  iJ. 
vantage  when  the  bars  are  of  a  dark  colour,  or  shad^ 
and  when  a  strong  light  is  thrown  upon  the  wheel.  Tie 
deception  is,  in  like  manner,  aided  by  every  circuiastun 
which  tends  to  abstract  the  attention  from  the  ittrs,ud 
to  fix  it  upon  the  wheel. 

4.  If  the  numbers  of  bars  be  increased  in  the  umt 
given  space,  no  other  diSerence  will  result  than  a  greiUr 
multiplication  of  the  curved  images  of  the  spokes;  bm  if 
a  certain  relation  be  preserved  between  the  onglei  nib- 
tended  at  the  eye  by  the  whole  intervals  of  the  bars,ud 
of  the  extremities  of  the  spokes,  this  multiplicatui  of 
images  may  be  corrected.  The  distance  of  the  wbed 
from  the  bars  is  of  no  consequence,  unless  the  bttertit 
very  near  the  eye,  as  in  that  case  the  apertures  betwen 
them  may  allow  too  large  a  portion  of  the  wheel  to  Ic 

5.  If  the  bars,  instead  of  being  vertical,  are  incliiKd 
to  the  horizon,  the  same  general  appearances  result;  bD 
with  this  difference,  that  the  spokes  occupybg  potitinu 
parallel  to  the  bars,  are  those  which  have  no  ippunl 
curvature;  while  the  curvatures  of  the  other  spokes  ben 
the  same  relation  to  these  straight  spokes,  and  to  nek 
other,  that  they  did  in  the  former  case.  When  iheindi- 
nation  of  the  bars  is  considerable,  the  images  beow 
more  crowded,  and  the  distinctness  of  the  appesruaii 
thereby  diminished.  The  deception  totally  ceases  >ln 
the  wheel  is  viewed  through  bars  that  are  parallel  lo  tit 

6.  It  is  essential  to  the  production  of  this  effect  tbii 
a  combination  should  take  place  of  a  progressiva  villi  t 
rotatory  motion.      Tlius,  It  will  not  take  place  if,  vluB 
the  bars  are  stationary,  the  wheel  simply  revolves  on  \\s 
axis,  without  at  the  same  time  advancing ;  nor  shcn  ii 
simply  moves  horizontally,  without  revolving.    On  ilx 
other  hand,  if  a  progressive  motion  be  given  to  the  bm   I 
while  the  wheel  revolves  round  a  fixed  axis,  the  sptin 
immediately  assume  a  curved  appearance.    The  suk 
effect  will  also  result  if  the  revolving  wheel  be  rievfd 
through  fixed  bars  by  a  spectator,  who  is  himself  noro;  | 
either  to  the  right  or  left;  because  such  a  movementv 
the  part  of  the  spectator  produces  in  his  field  of  ^'^  , 
an  alteration  in  the  relative  sitnation  of  the  ban  W 
wheel.  I 

Having,  in  the  true  spirit  of  an  experimenUli^  tbv 
investigated  the  consequences  that  would  fbllo"  fx^ 
changes  in  the  arrangement  of  the  moving  object,  ^ 
a  view  to  determine  the  relative  importance  of  ewM* 
Roget  proceeds  to  explain  the  principle  on  whicbiM 
phenomenon  rests.  In  his  mode  of  so  doing,  we  Ke  lu 
advantage  of  thus  searching  the  experiment  tiroart 
various  forms  and  stages  j  for  a  writer,  in  a  scicsl* 
journal  three  or  four  years  before,  while  describiof '  ' 
similar  phenomenon,  stated  that  the  curvature  of  Ik  ' 
spokea  is  produced  just  the  same,  whether  a  whtd  " 
running  along  a  plane  as  it  revolves,  as  in  the  «se  of' 
carriage  driven  through  the  street,  and  ^iea'ed  tiniD!^ 
the  ordmary  iron  railing,  or  whether,  as  iu  a  flj-^lw 
seen  through  a  similar  railing,  it  merely  revokes  m  "* 
own  axis.  Dr.  Roget,  however,  shows  both  from  ihw? 
and  experiment,  that  there  must  be  a  combinalii>n  rf' 
progressive  with  a  rotatory  motion.  It  matters  ^"^r, 
the  production  of  the  phenomenon,  whether  the  «'** 
or  the  system  of  bars  progress,  provided  one  or  oll« 
does  so. 

Dr.  Roget  clearly  shows,  that  the  true  prsci|*  "° 
which  this  apparent  curvature  of  the  spokes  depends,  is"* 
same  as  that  to  which  is  referable  the  illusion  tbaloccur! 
when  a  bright  object  ia  wheeled  rapidly  round  in  a  "rf^' 
giving  rise  to  the  appearance  of  a  line  of  light  throuf"' 
it  the  whole  circumference ;  namely,  that  an  i™P""'i 


made  by  a  pencil  of  rays  on  the  retina, 


if  suffiueo''; 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINR 


51 


vivid,  will  remuq  for  h  certun  time  after  the  cause  liaa 
ceased.  To  illiutrate  the  production  of  the  curves  by  a 
di^rain  would  involve  considerable  intricacy  of  detail; 
but  Dr.  Roget  justlv  observes,  that  the  principle  may 
be  well  sbowa,  and  with  coniparative  simplicity,  by 
suppoung  that  th«  wheel  has  only  one  spoke  or  radius 
instead  of  several,  that  it  revolves  in  a  stationary  axis 
without  progresBiDg,  and  that  one  single  aperturci  instead 
of  a  system  of  bars,  progresses  firom  one  aide  to  the 

In  the  annexed  cut,  the  wheel,  provided  with  one  spoka 


or  radius  o  B,  in  revolving  ii  the  direction  of  the  arrows, 
and  it  supposed  to  be  seen  through  a  single  narrow 
aperture  or  crevice,  moving  horizontally  is  a  given  direc- 
tion p<i.  To  simpUfjr  the  case  further,  we  vrill  suppose 
that  the  progressive  motion  of  the  aperture  is  just 
equal  to  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  circnniference  of  the 
wheel.  Such  being  the  circumstances  of  the  experiment, 
it  will  not  be  difficult  to  understand,  that  if,  at  the  time 
of  the  transit  of  the  aperture,  the  radius  should  happen 
to  occupy  either  of  the  vertical  positions  v  o  or  oh,  the 
whole  of  it  would  be  seen  at  once  through  the  aperture, 
in  its  natural  position.  But  if  it  should  iuppen  to  be  in  an 
oblique  posltioo  ho,  terminating  at  any  point  of  the  cir- 
cumference, at  the  moment  the  aperture  has,  in  its  pro- 
gress horisontally,  also  arrived  at  the  same  point  r,  the 
extremity  of  the  radius  will  now  first  come  into  view, 
while  all  the  renuining  part  of  it  is  hidden.  By  con- 
tinuing to  trace  the  parts  of  the  radius  that  are  succes- 
sively seen  by  the  combmed  motions  of  the  aperture  and 
of  the  radius,  we  shall  find  that  they  occupy  a  curve  r 
abed,  generated  by  the  continued  intersection  of  these 
two  lines.  Thus,  when  the  aperture  has  moved  to  A, 
the  radius  will  be  in  the  position  o  a;  when  the  former 
is  at  B,  the  latter  will  be  o^,  and  so  on. 

If,  pursuing  the  same  mode  of  inquiry,  we  suppose, 
that  when  the  aperture  is  just  pasting  the  centre,  the 
radius  is  found  in  a  certain  position  on  the  other  side 
o  T,  and  rising  towards  the  sununit,  then,  by  tracing  as 
before  the  intersections  of  these  lines  in  their  progress, 
we  shall  obtain  a  curve  precisely  similar  to  the  former. 
Its  poaitiou  will  be  reversed ;  but  its  convexity  will  still 
be  downwards.  If  the  impressions  made  by  these  limited 
portions  of  the  spoke  follow  one  another  with  sufficient 
rapidity,  they  will,  as  in  the  case  of  the  luminous  circle 
already  alluded  to,  leave  in  the  eye  the  trace  of  a  con- 
tinuous curve  line;  and  the  Spoke  will  appear  to  be 
curved,  instead  of  straighL 

By  applying  a  similar  train  of  reasoning  to  the  pheno- 
menon which  gave  rise  to  these  investigations,  Dr.  Roget 
satisfactorily  shows  that  the  cause  may  be  arrived  at. 
Since  the  curved  appearance  of  the  lines  results  from  the 
combination  of  a  rotatory  with  a  progressive  motion  of 
the  spokes,  in  relation  to  the  apertures  through  which 
they  are  viewed,  it  seems  pretty  evident  that  Uie  same 
phenomenon  must  be  produced  if  the  hart  be  at  rest, 
and  both  kinds  of  motion  be  united  in  the  wheel  itself; 
for,  whether  tb?  bars  move  horitontally  yntii  mpect  to 


the  wheel,  or  the  wheel  with  respect  to  the  bars,  the 
relative  motion  between  them,  and  its  effects  to  the  eye 
placed  behind  the  aperture,  must  be  the  same.  Tue 
attention  of  the  spectator  should  in  both  cases  be  wholly 
directed  to  the  wheel,  so  that  the  motions  in  question 
should  be  referred  altogether  to  it. 

Dr.  Roget  investigates  the  mathematical  nature  of  the 
curves,  into  which  the  spokes  are  apparenily  thrown; 
hut  such  an  investigation  is  unsuited  for  our  pages. 


LABYRINTHS. 
This  curious  class  cf  buildings  seems  to  liave  been 
used  in  ancient  times  for  the  purposes  of  imprisonment 
and  devotion.  A  labyrinth  is  an  architectural,  or  other 
kind  of  construction,  whose  numerous  passages  and  per> 
plexing  win<UxLgB  render  the  escape  from  it  difficult  and 
almost  impossible.  It  was  composed  of,  or  filled  with 
chambers  and  galleries,  one  running  into  the  other;  so 
that,  without  a  clue  or  guide,  a  stranger  could  not  pass 
through  it.  These  edifices  were  not  built  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  people  lose  their  way :  this  was  merely 
an  accidental  pecuUarity,  on  account  of  which  every 
confused  mass  of  things,  difficult  to  be  disentangled,  has 
been  called  a  labyrinth  or  maxe. 

The  construction  of  labyrinths  in  modern  times  has 
been  chiefiy  for  the  purposes  of  amusement.  With  this 
view  tbey  are  often  formed  with  quickset  hedges,  as  in 
the  Sidney  Gardens  at  Bath.  The  ancients  had  four 
labyrinths  which  were  very  celebrated: — one  in  Egypt, 
another  in  Crete,  a  third  in  Lemnos,  and  a  fourth  in 
Italy:  these,  therefore,  we  shall  do  well  to  notice  in 

The  Egyptian  labyrinth,  the  most  celebrated  of  all, 
was  situated  in  Central  Egypt,  above  Lake  Moerls,  not 
far  from  CrocodilopoUs,  in  the  country  now  called  Fe^ 
yoom.  It  was  built  about  650  years  b.c.  by  twelve 
kings,  who  reigned  at  one  time  in  Egypt;  and  it  was 
probably  intended  for  the  place  of  their  burial,  and  to 
commemorate  the  actions  of  their  reign.  The  beauty 
and  the  art  of  the  building  were,  according  to  Herodotus 
who  saw  it,-  almost  beyond  belief, — superior  to  the 
pyramids.  Tho  edifice  contained  twelve  courts  enclosed 
with  walls,  with  as  many  doors  opposite;  sii  opening  to 
the  north,  and  six  to  the  south,  contiguous  to  one 
another;  the  tame  exterior  wall  extending  round  them. 
There  were  3000  chambers;  half  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  building  above  ground,  and  the  other  half  below 
ground.  ITie  chambers  above  were  seen  by  Herodotus, 
and  astonished  him  beyond  conception;  but  he  was  not 
permitted  to  see  those  below,  where  were  buried  the 
holy  crocodiles,  and  the  monarchs  whose  munificence 
had  raised  the  ediSce.  The  roofs  and  walls  were  en- 
crusted with  marble,  and  adorned  with  sculptured  figures. 
The  courts  or  halls  were  surrounded  with  stately  and 
poUshed  pillars  of  white  stone  ;  and  according  to  some 
authors,  the  opening  of  the  doors  was  artfully  accompa- 
nied with  a  terrible  noise,  like  peals  of  thunaer. 

The  arrangement  of  the  chambers  of  the  Egyptian 
labyrinth  seems  to  have  been  symbolic  of  the  zodiac 
ana  the  solar  system.  They  excelled,  in  splendour  and 
art,  all  human  works.  At  present,  only  ISO  rooms  are 
reported  to  be  accessible:  the  others  are  dark  and 
choked  with  rubbish.  The  ancient  labyrinth  is  supposed 
to  he  identical  with  the  ruins  of  Casr  Caroun. 

In  the  midst  of  these  ruins  a  lar^  edifice  rises  up,  of 
which  there  are  several  halls  remaining,  filled  with 
trunks  of  columns.  A  portico,  half  demolished,  encom- 
passes it.  Staircases  may  be  distinguished,  by  which 
they  mounted  to  different  apartments :  and  others,  by 
which  they  descended  into  subterraneous  passages.  But 
what  particularly  attracts  attention,  is  the  view  of 
several  low,  narrow,  and  very  long  cells,  which  seem  to 
have  had  no  other  destination,  than  to  contain  the  bodies 
of  \h»  sacred  crocodiles,  brought  hither  from  Crocodil9- 


64 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[  AuooiT  7| 


polis,  or  the  City  of  Crocodiles,  a  town  of  Egypt  near 
the  Nile,  above  Memphis.  The  crocodiles  were  held  there 
in  the  greatest  veneration;  and  they  were  so  tame  that 
they  came  to  feed  from  the  hands  of  their  feeders.  This 
city  was  afterwards  called  Arsinde.  The  crocodiles  were 
embalmed  before  being  consigned  to  the  subterraneous 
cells  of  the  labyrinth. 

These  ruins,  placed  on  the  western  side  of  the  Nile, 
at  a  league's  distance  from  Birket  Caroun,  formerly 
Lake  Mceris,  can  only  correspond  with  the  labyrinth; 
for  ancient  authors  assigned  it  this  position,  and  point 
out  no  town  on  that  side.  Strabo,  Ptolemy,  and  Hero- 
dotus, all  agree  in  placing  the  labyrinth  beyond  the  city 
of  Arsinoe,  on  the  western  side,  and  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lake  Mceris.  This  is  exactly  the  situation  where  we 
meet  with  the  ruins  described  by  Savary.  Modem  tra- 
vellers are  all  of  them  still  astonished  at  theie  noble  and 
magnificent  ruins. 

The  labyrinth  of  Crete  was  the  most  celebrated  and 
classic  of  these  mazes.  It  belonged  to  the  ancient  town 
of  Gnossus,  which  was  situated  on  the  north  of  the  island 
of  Crete,  now  called  Candioy  and  west  of  the  present 
city  of  Spinalonga.  This  building  was  constructed  by 
Dedahis,  an  Atnenian,  for  Minos,  who  was  King  of 
Crete,  about  fourteen  centuries  before  the  Christian  era* 
It  was  built  upon  exactly  the  same  plan  as  the  £g3rpttan 
labyrinth;  but  it  was  by  no  means  so  large.  We  are 
told  that,  by  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  Cretans, 
this  labyrinth,  with  its  many  and  varied  spiral-formed 
windings,  was  designed  as  a  prison,  for  the  secure  and 
close  confinement  of  malefactors;  and  likewise,  that 
Deedalus,  its  architect,  having  incurred  the  displeasure 
of  Minos,  was  almost  its  first  inmate. 

Now  there  still  exists  a  subterraneous  mase  in  the 
island  of  Candia,  the  ancient  Crete,  near  the  ruins  of 
Gortyna,  and  somewhat  to  the  south  of  Gnossus,  where* 
abouts  is  now  the  town  of  Spinalonga.  At  about  an 
hour's  march  from  the  plain  of  Gortyna  is  the  mouth  of 
this  labyrinth  or  quarry,  which  is  about  seven  or  eight 
paces  broad  at  its  entrance,  but  so  low  that  a  man 
cannot  pass  It  without  stooping:  on  advancing  a  litile 
way  the  passage  widens,  though  even  here  it  is  often 
obstructed  with  large  stones  lying  here  and  there,  and 
also  by  the  surface  being  extremely  rough  and  uneven. 
The  roof  is  fiat,  for  it  is  cut  in  the  rock  above,  and 
formed  of  beds  of  stone,  lying  horizontally  one  upon 
another;  proceeding  onwards  through  a  sloping  cavern, 
a  great  number  of  turnings  and  winding^  is  met  with,  so 
irregular  and  intricate,  that  should  a  traveller,  without 
a  bidl  of  thread  or  some  other  contrivance,  strike  into 
one  of  them  out  of  the  main  path  or  alley,  he  would  be 
in  great  danger  of  being  bewildered  and  lost  ;-^or  few 
persons  have  been  bold  enough  to  explore  all  its  mazes, 
so  that  visitors  in  general  keep  along  the  principal  path, 
and  seldom  deviate  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left;  and, 
even  in  this  case,  to  guard  against  all  possible  accidents, 
they  take  such  precautions  as  scattering  straw  on  the 
ground,  or  sticking  up  pieces  of  paper  at  every  turning ; 
for  the  eternal  gloom  and  obscurity  can  scarcely  be  pene- 
trated by  the  torches,  with  which  every  traveller  is  ftir- 
nished,  and  whose  faint  light  only  seems  to  add  to  the 
awful  gloom  and  perplexity. 

On  the  left  there  are  several  vaults  without  any  outlet, 
and  the  proper  and  direct  road  lies  on  the  right  of  the 
entrance,  where,  after  ascending  by  a  narrow  path,  the 
traveller  is  compelled  to  creep  upon  his  hands  and 
knees  for  about  a  hundred  paces,  on  account  of  the  low- 
ness  of  the  roof.  Having  reached  the  end  of  this 
dwarfish  defile,  the  ceiling  suddenly  rises  to  a  consider- 
able elevation,  and  the  visitor  finds  himself  upon  his 
feet  again.  The  vaulted  galleries  through  which  he  now 
proceeds  are  seldom  less  than  seven  feet  in  height,  and 
from  six  to  ten  in  width,  having  a  countless  variety  of 
avenues,  opening  on  each  side,  and  crossing  each  other 
in  different  directions.    These  roads  are  all  out  with  a 


chisel  in  the  rook,  the  layers  of  which  aire  disposed  in  a 
horizontal  plane,  and  are  of  a  g^yish  colour.  In  some 
places  enormous  masses  of  stone,  half  torn  from  the 
roof,  seem  ready  to  fall  upon  the  head  of  the  adven- 
turous passenger,  while  he,  in  danger  of  being  crushfd, 
must  stoop  low,  in  order  to  pass  beneath  them.    Earth* 

Quakes,  from  which  this  island  has  often  suffered,  haT6 
oubtless  occasioned  these  fractures  in  the  rod[. 
The  traveller  has  often,  after  advancing  a  considerable 
distance  in  one  division,  to  retrace  his  steps,  on  accomit 
of  no  opening  being  in  that  direction.  Sometimes,  aft^r 
long  windings,  he  is  surprised  to  find  himself  at  the 
very  place  from  which  he  had  last  set  out.  To  enume- 
rate or  describe  all  the  complication  or  intricacy  of  the 
circuitous  avenues  cut  in  ttiis  stupendous  excavation 
would  be  almost  beyond  the  power  of  language.  Seeing 
them  is  the  only  method  of  obtaining  an  accurate  know- 
ledge, and  of  thoroughly  appreciating  these  gigantic 
wonders.  Some  of  these  galleries  form  curves,  leading 
imperceptibly  to  a  wide  space,  the  roof  of  which  is  sup- 
ported by  large  pillars,  and  here  three  or  four  roads 
meet,  running  in  opposite  directions,  while  others  extend 
in  a  spiral  form  for  a  considerable  way,  and  in  several 
ramifications  are  carried  to  a  great  length,  and  being 
then  terminated  by  the  rock,  put  a  stop  to  the  traveller's 
progress. 

'The  distance  from  the  mouth  to  the  end  of  the  eavem 
is  more  than  a  mile:  here  the  walk  divides  itself  into 
two  or  three  branches,  and  terminates  in  two  large  halls, 
from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  square.  In  passing  along  one 
of  this  infinite  number  of  winding  paths,  a  very  fine 
grotto  is  discovered,  the  roof  of  which  is  elevated  in 
tiie  form  of  a  dome,  all  of  which  appears  formed  by  the 
hand  of  nature.  It  however  possesses  no  stalactites, 
nor  are  any  such  crystal  curiosities  met  with  in  any  part 
of  this  undergrouna  wilderness,  for  the  cavern  is  com- 
pletely dry,  and  no  water  is  seen  trickling  through  the 
rock,  as  is  usual  in  such  places ;  but,  as  there  is  no  vent 
or  admission  for  fresh  air,  the  consequence  is  that  a 
most  disagreeable  smell  or  effluvium  is  oonstantly  floatp 
ing  in  the  atmosphere  of  these  vaulted  tomb4ike  paths, 
and  the  thousands  of  bats, — ^the  only  occupants  of  these 
dark  recesses, — do  not  conduce  a  little  to  the  foul  and 
disgusting  scent  with  which  the  nosei  of  travellen  are 
assailed  in  their  progress.  There  is  a  most  peculiar 
property  connected  with  the  stone  of  this  qnarry,  for  it 
18  a  surprising,  but  yet  authenticated  fact,  that  any  letters 
or  figures  inscribed  or  engraved  on  the  plain  surface  of 
the  rock  will,  in  the  course  of  time,  swell  above  the 
face  of  the  stone,  and  be  no  longer  hollow,  bat  pro- 
jecting or  embossed  characters,  and  the  matter  produced 
by  this  filling  up  is  always  found  to  be  whiter  than  the 
rest  of  the  rock. 

In  wandering  through  such  an  horrific  and  sombre 
place  as  this,  the  imagination  conjures  up  a  host  of 
frightful  or  fantastic  images  ^-4t  fancies  steep  predpices 
and  yawning  chasms  about  to  ensnare  the  feet  of  the 
curious  observer, — ^hideous  monsters  ready  to  spring  opoQ 
him  at  every  turn, — ^in  a  word,  a  thousand  chimeras, 
which  have  no  existence  except  in  romances  and  fables; 
and  when  a  traveller  thinks  of  himself  as  being  there 
alone,  without  either  thread  or  torch,  he  feels  a  thrilling 
horror  come  over  him,  a  torpor  seizes  his  mind,  and  his 
faculties  seem  to  forsake  him :  his  very  soul  is  filled  with 
terror.  Every  thing  around  convinces  him,  that,  if 
placed  in  such  an  aw&l  situation,  all  hope  would  be  ex- 
tinguished in  his  bosom,  and  nothing  would  be  left  bat 
to  meet  death  with  fortitude  and  resignation. 

Some  writers  imagine  that  the  mase  at  Gortyna  was 
nothing  but  a  quarry,  out  of  which  were  dug  the  mate- 
rials for  building  the  ancient  towns  of  Gnossus  and  Gor- 
Sna;  but  others  decidedly  oppose  this  opinion,  stating 
at  the  stone  is  too  soft  for  the  purposes  of  architecture: 
that  the  way  from  the  cavern  is  almost  intpassable,  espe- 
cially for  vehicles  heavily  laden;  and  that,  had  the  way 


184L] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


55 


been  good,  the  entrance  to  the  cayem  would  have  been 
larger;  and  that,  aa  it  is,  all  stones  brought  from  the  in- 
terior must  have  been  first  broken  into  small  pieces,  which 
would  have  greatly  and  unnecessarily  increased  both  the 
labour  and  the  expense.  We  come,  therefore,  to  the 
most  probable  conjecture, — ^which  is,  that  it  was,  at  first, 
an  enormous  cave;  that  nature  had  drawn  the  pUui  and 
formed  the  outlines ;  that  Dasdalus  enhirged  several  of 
the  passages,  and  cut  out  many  new  ones ;  and  that  various 
other  persons  have  had  the  curiosity  to  extend  it,  by 
widening  the  avenues  and  taking  down  large  strata  of 
stone  to  heighten  the  roof. 

Lemnos,  now  called  Siaiimene,  is  situated  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Archipelago,  formerly  called  the 
jEgean  Sea.  The  labyrinth  constructed  on  this  island 
is  said  to  have  surpassed  the  others  in  splendour  and 
magnificence.  It  was  supported  by  forty  columns  of 
uncommon  height  and  thickness,  and  equally  admirable 
for  their  beauty  and  grandeur. 

The  labyrinth  at  Clusium  in  Tuscany  was  erected  by 
Porsenna,  the  king  of  that  place,  about  B.C.  530.  It 
was  probably  intended  to  be  his  own  sepulchre.  It  was 
a  square  building  of  stone,  fifty  feet  in  height,  and  thirty 
on  each  side.  At  each  comer  stood  a  pyramid,  and  also 
one  in  the  centre,  each  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high, 
and  at  the  base  seventy-five  feet  wide.  We  have  no 
further  particulars  to  offer  our  readers  respecting  the 
Lemnlan  and  Clusian  labyrinths. 


BEET-ROOT  SUGAR 


Blame  not  the  fates,  nor  call  their  lot  unkind, 
Whose  wants  are  many,  and  whose  joys  confined; 
For  Heaven*8  best  gifts  ore  equal  showered  around. 
As  vernal  dews  that  bathe  the  thirsty  ground. 
On  the  an  just  and  just  the  rain  doth  fall, 
The  sun's  bright  glories  shine  alike  on  all; 
The  ambient  air  alike  its  current  blows 

On  rich  and  poor,  on  brothers  and  on  foes; 

And  love — the  last  best  gift  of  bounteous  Heaven-^ 

Alike  to  all  the  tribes  of  Earth  is  given. 

The  late  Lady  Xortbampton. 

Good  manners  consist  in  a  constant  maintenance  of  self- 
pespect,  accompanied  by  attention  and  deference  to  others; 
ixi  correct  language,  gentle  tones  of  voice,  ease,  and  quietness 
ixi  movements  and  action.  They  repress  no  gaiety  or  ani- 
naation  which  keeps  free  of  offence;  they  divest  seriousness 
<^:f  an  air  of  severity  or  pride.  In  conversation,  good  manners 
r«8tram  the  vehemence  of  personal  or  party  feelings,  and 
j>TOmote  that  versatUity  which  enables  people  to  converse 
r«ftdily  with  strangers,  and  take  a  passing  interest  in  any 
*W^LS*  may  be  addressed  to  them,—  Woman's  RigMs 


He  who  best  understands  himself  is  least  likely  to  be  de- 
ceived by  others:  you  judge  of  others  by  youreelves,  and 
tnerefore  measure  them  by  an  erroneous  standard,  whenever 
your  autometry  is  fiilse.— Southet. 

Bt  reading  we  enjoy  the  dead,  by  conversation  the  livinir. 
and  by  contemplation  ourselves. 

SouTUDE  sometimes  is  best  society. 

FnxER  says,  that  if  God  has  no  need  of  human  learnings 
still  less  has  He  of  human  ignorance. 


The  firm  endufance  of  suffering  by  the  martyrs  of  con- 
sti«'nce,  if  it  be  rightly  contemplated,  is  the  most  consola- 
tory spectacle  in  the  clouded  life  of  man ;  &r  more  ennobling 
arid  sublime  than  the  outward  victories  of  virtue,  which 
njust  be  partly  won  by  weapons  not  her  own,  and  are  often 
tlie  lot  of  her  foulest  foes.  Magnanimity  in  enduring  pain 
foi"  the  sake  of  conscience,  is  not  indeed  an  unerring  mark 
ot  rectitude,  but  it  is  of  all  destinies  that  which  most  exalts 
^"e  sect  or  party  whom  it  visits,  and  bestows  on  their  story 
^"  Undying  command  over  the  hearts  of  their  fellow-men.** 
•^^  Jaj^es  MACKimroBB. 


III.    The  Introductiok  of  the  Manufacture 

INTO  France. 

In  the  second  paper  on  this  subject  we  gave  an  outline 
of  the  methods  in  which  Achard  and  Gottling  produced 
sugar  from  beet-root,  towards  the  latter  end  of  the  last 
century.  We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  course  taken 
by  the  French  government  in  relation  to  this  matter. 

We  alluded  in  the  first  article  to  the  desire  of  Bonaparte 
that  France  should  be  quite  independent  of  England  in 
obtaining  a  supply  of  the  necessaries  of  life.     But  there 
was  another  motive  which  turned  the  direction  of  the 
French  people  to  this  subject,  viz.,  the  enormously  high 
price  which  cane-sugar  had  attained,  and  which  was  at  one 
time  six  francs  the  kilogramme  (about  two  shillings  and 
three  pence  per  pound).   Attention  was,  in  the  first  place, 
directed  to  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane  itself  in 
Provence,  but  this  utterly  failed.   Then  fruits  and  stems 
of  various  kinds  were  tried,  to  ascertain  whether  sugar 
could  be  obtained  therefrom,  but  these  attempts  like- 
wise failed.     M.  Deyeux  was  then  ordered  to  prepare  a 
report  to  the  Institute  of  the  experiments  made  by  the 
Prussian  chemist,  Achard,  detailed  in  our  last  paper ; 
and  the  report  given  in  by  Deyeux  was  very  favourable 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  beet  for  the  sake  of  producing 
sugar.     The  experiments  of  Achard,  however,  being 
received  with  some  degree  of  distrust,  he  immediately 
offered  to  repeat  them  before  persons  worthy  of  con 
fidence,  and  to  publish  the  results  in  a  memoir.     The 
opinion  of  scientific  men  became  then  more  favourable 
to  the  project,  and  he  established  one  or  two  manufacto- 
ries for  beet  sugar.     These  attempts,  probably  from  the 
Inefficient  scale  in  which  new  projects  are  almost  neces- 
sarily conducted,  failed  in  producing  any  striking  results. 
The  plan  fell  into  disrepute  for  a  time,  and  a  new  project 
was  entered  on,  viz.,  that  of  producing  sugar  from  raisins. 
The  government  sought  to  encourage  this  experiment, 
by  offering  rewards  to  those  who  should  be  most  suc- 
cessful in  them*     By  a  decree  of  the  18th  of  June, 
1810,  a  sum  of  one  hundred  thousand  francs,  and  the 
cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  were  given   to   M. 
Proust,  and  another  sum  of  forty  thousand  francs  was 
awarded  to  M.  Fouquet,  for  their  exertions  in  this  mat- 
ter.    But  the  success  of  these  attempts  was  not  such 
as  to  lead  to  permanent  results,  and  they  were  aban- 
doned. 

The  motives  which  had  led  to  the  institution  of  these 
experiments  still  continuing,  Bonaparte  resolved  to  re- 
sume, on  a  larger  scale,  the  experiment  with  the 
beet-root.  On  the  15th  of  January,  1812,  a  decree 
appeared  establishing  five  chemical  schools,  for  the 
fabrication  of  sugar  from  beet-root;  situated  respec- 
tively at  Paris,  Wachenhem,  Douai,  Strasburg,  and 
Castelnaudary.  A  hundred  pupils  were  attached  to  these 
schools,  each  of  whom,  after  three  months'  study,  and  a 
strict  examination,  was  to  receive  a  thousand  francs. 
The  Minister  of  the  Interior  was  empowered  to  plant 
one  hundred  thousand  arpenis  (nearly  equivalent  to 
English ' acres)  of  land  in  France  with  beet-root;  and 
four  years'  exemption  from  taxes  were  promised  to  cul- 
tivators. Five  large  manufactories  were  to  be  established, 
for  the  preparation  of  sugar  from  the  root;  and  their 
mode  of  arrangement  was  such  that  the  production  of 
about  five  million  pounds  of  sugar  per  annum  was  calcu- 
lated on.  What  the  success  of  these  measures  might 
have  been,  we  do  not  know,  for  the  disastrous  Russian 
campaign,  which  soon  followed,  had  the  effect  of  opening 
the  ports  of  France  to  sugar  produced  by  foreign  coun- 
tries. At  that  early  stage,  the  beet*  sugar  production 
could  not  stand  without  government  protection;  and 
this  protection  being  withdrawn,  the  whole  machinery 
fell  to  the  ground,  and  for  ten  years  very  little  was  done 
in  the  matter. 
At  length,  in  the  year  182^,  several  manufactories 


56 


THE  SATURDA.Y  MAGAZINE. 


[August  7, 1841. 


were  established,  but  for  the  tnoat  part  under  unfavour- 
able circumstances;  for  the  speculators  seldom  united 
the  knowledge  and  experience  of  the  manufacturer  with 
that  of  the  agriculturist.  The  want  of  this  union  of 
talent  operated  so  disastrously,  that  one  half  of  the 
manufactories  were  abandoned  by  the  year  1829.  This 
latter  year,  however,  formed  a  point  of  time  fk'om  which 
this  great  experiment — ^for  such  it  undoubtedly  is — 
assumed  a  more  favourable  appearance.  The  slow  mode 
of  crystallization  until  then  adopted,  was  abandoned  for 
one  more  expeditious;  and  many  improvements  were 
from  time  to  time  brought  to  bear,  either  upon  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  root  itself,  or  upon  the  preparation  of 
sugar  from  the  juice  thence  extracted.  Notwithstanding 
a  tax  which  was  Isdd  upon  beet-root  sugar,  the  spread  of 
the  manufacture  was  so  rapid,  that  by  the  year  1838 
there  were  five  hundred  and  fifty  establishments  in 
France,  which  produced  sixty  million  kilogrammes  (about 
a  hundred  and  thirty  million  pounds,  of  beet-root  sugar. 
In  considering  the  relative  advantages  likely  to  result 
from  the  use  of  beet  and  from  cane-sugar,  Chaptal,  after 
an  experience  of  twelve  years,  came  to  these  two  conclu- 
sions :— that  the  juice  extracted  from  the  beet  does  not 
differ  from  that  yielded  by  the  sugar-cane,  either  in 
colour,  taste,  specific  gravity,  or  crystallization ;  and  that 
the  cultivation  of  beet  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  sugar, 
may  advantageously  proceed  concurrently  with  that  of 
the  sugar-cane,  when  the  price  of  cane-sugar  is  as  high 
as  one  franc  twenty  centimes  the  demi-kilogramme,  that 
is,  that  when  the  price  of  cane-sugar  obtained  from  the 
French  colonies  is  as  high  as  thirteen-pence  per  pound, 
the  beet-sugar  may  be  prepared  with  a  profit.  These 
facts  being  stated  and  admitted,  Chaptal  proceeds  to 
consider  how  far  the  culture  of  the  beet  may  be  favour- 
able to  France  generally.  He  states  that  the  culture  of 
the  beet  does  not  prevent  the  gprowth  of  a  single  ear  of 
corn,  because  the  beet  forms  an  intermediate  crop,  imme- 
diately after  the  gathering  of  which,  com  may  be  sown. 
Moreover,  the  crop  of  com  grown  in  a  soil  previously 
planted  with  beet  is  said  by  him  to  be  better  than  in  any 
other  soil;  because  the  soil  has  been  loosened  by  the 
beet-roots,  and  cleared  by  the  weeding  which  the  beet 
crop  has  undergone.  A  farther  advantage  is,  that  the 
preparation  of  the  beet  takes  place  principally  in  winter, 
and  furnishes  work  to  horses  and  fum-servants,  who  are 
often  unemployed  at  that  season.  The  food  for  cattle 
is  also  provided  by  the  same  means  as  the  beet  is  pro- 
duced; for  the  part  of  the  plant  which  g^ws  above 
ground,  and  which  is  not  used  in  the  sugar-preparation, 
constitutes  one  of  the  most  valuable  kinds  of  fodder. 
There  is  one  remark  by  Chaptal  which  is  of  much  im- 
portance in  relation  to  the  manner  in  which  the  manu- 
facture should  be  carried  on.  He  says: — <*To  insure 
success  for  beet-root  sugar  establishments,  it  is  necessary 
that  they  be  united  to  rural  cultivation.  These  kind  of 
manufactures  are  misplaced  in  towns.  The  roots  are 
more  expensive  when  purchased  from  others,  than  when 
the  manufacturer  grows  them  himself;  the  remaining 

Sarts  of  the  plant  find  scarcely  any  market  in  a  town ; 
and-labour  and  fuel  are  dearer;  and  farm -servants  are 
less  easily  procured."  Acting  on  these  principles, 
Chaptal  himself,  as  we  shall  show  in  our  concluding 
article,  combined  in  his  own  person  the  agriculturist  and 
the  manufacturer. 

From  numerous  experiments  made  upon  the  beet-  root 
of  Bondues,  a  village  situated  near  Lille,  Pelouze  found 
that  a  soil  in  which  tobacco  had  been  grown  the  preced- 
ing year  yielded  roots  of  a  considerable  size,  and  of  a 
saccharine  richness,  equal  to  that  of  roots  of  a  smaller  size, 
and  superior  to  similar  roots  planted  in  a  soil  not  pre- 
viously occupied  with  a  tobacco  crop.  In  two  neigh- 
bouring fields,  one  of  which  had  had  a  tobacco  crop  the 
preceding  year,  and  the  other  had  not,  the  produce  of 
sugar  from  the  former  was  fifty  per  cent,  more  than  from 
the  latter. 


It  thus  appears,  that  the  French  chemists  a&d  agricul- 
turists have  succeeded  in  bringing  the  cultivation  of  the 
beet  to  a  point  of  considerable  importance.  Indeed,  at 
the  present  time,  the  quantity  of  beet-root  sugar  made 
in  France  very  nearly  equals  that  of  the  cane-sugar  b- 
ported  from  her  colonies.  The  relation  which  nof 
exists,  or  ought  to  exist,  between  the  two  kinds  of  sogu, 
with  respect  to  taxation,  encouragement,  &&,  although 
occupying  the  attention  of  persons  in  that  country,  would 
have  no  interest  for  the  English  reader,  since  beet-root 
sugar  is  not  cultivated  in  the  British  dominions. 

We  have  one  more  paper  to  present  on  this  subject,  in 
order  to  work  out  the  plan  proposed.  We  gave,  in  tiie 
second  article,  a  detail  of  the  processes  adopted  forty  or 
fifty  years  ago,  in  Germany ;  but  we  wish  to  give  an 
idea  of  the  methods  actually  adopted  in  France.  Chap* 
tal  was  a  chemist,  an  agriculturist,  and  a  taianufactuier, 
and  has  given  a  full  account  of  the  modes  which  he  adopted 
for  cultivating  the  plants,  gathering  the  roots,  expressing 
the  saccharine  juice  therefrom,  and  obtained  er)'sta]liih> 
sugar  from  the  juice.  A  brief  account  of  his  process 
will  occupy  our  concluding  paper. 


To  preserve  health  is  a  moral  and  religions  duty :  for  healtli 
is  the  basis  of  all  social  virtues ;  we  can  be  useful  no  ha^ 
than  while  we  are  well. — Da.  John sok. 


Medicine  is  God's  second  cause  of  health. 


In  exalting  the  faculties  of  the  soul,  we  annihilate,  in  a 
great  degree,  the  delusion  of  the  senses. — An b  Mastir. 

Kino  Louis  the  Twelfth  of  France  was  natundly  incW 
to  economy :  this  was  once  made  a  topic  of  ridicule  in  b 
presence,  to  which  he  replied,  "I  had  rather  see  my  wur- 
tiers  laugh  at  my  avarice,  tham  my  people  weep  at  iny  ex- 
travagance.'*  . 

Everything  is  either  lost  or  won  in  the  heart;  it  is  thcR 
that  all  battles  take  place :  all  moral  contests  axe  carried 
on  independently  of  external  objects,  and  previous  io  the 
visible  scuffles  of  divided  interests. 


"0  my  son,"  says  an  Arabic  proverb,  **take  care  thatywr 
mouth  breaks  not  your  neck.'^ 


Death  is  at  all  times  solemn,  but  never  so  much  so  as  at 
sea.  A  man  dies  on  shore:  his  body  remains  withbi^ 
friends,  and  ^Hhe  mourners  go  about  the  streets;"^ 
when  a  man  Mis  overboard  at  sea  and  is  lost,  there  it^ 
denness  in  the  event,  and  a  difficulty  in  realizing  it,  ^^ 
giviBS  to  it  an  air  of  awful  mystery.  A  man  dies  on  sho«, 
you  follow  his  body  to  the  grave;  a  stone  marks  the  s^ 
You  are  often  prepared  for  the  event.  There  is  *1*^ 
something  whion  helps  you  to  realize  it  when  it  happ^ 
and  to  reoiU  it  when  it  has  passed.  A  man  is  shot  do«^' 
your  side  in  battle,  and  the  mangled  body  remains  an  «^| 
and  a  rkU  evidence;  but  at  sea,  the  man  is  near  f  ou,  at  r<i^ 
side  you  hear  his  voice,  and  in  an  instant  he  is  ff^^j  ^ 
notlung  but  a  vacatur  shows  his  loss.  Then,  too,  at  wa^^ 
use  a  homely  but  expressive  phrase— you  misi  a  man  so  ao^^* 
A  dozen  men  are  shut  up  together  in  a  bark,  °F°^^^ 
wide  sea,  and  for  months  and  months  see  no  forms  and  n^ 
no  voices  but  their  own,  and  one  is  taken  suddenl)^  frj* 
among  them,  and  they  miss  him  at  every  turn.  ^^^^ 
losing  a  limb.  There  are  no  new  faces  or  new  scenes  to* 
up  the  gap.  Tliere  is  always  an  empty  berth  in  the  i^ 
castle,  ana  one  man  wanting  when  Une  small  night  ^^  ,^ 
mustered.  There  is  one  less  to  take  the  wheel,  and  onjK» 
to  layout  with  you  upon  the  yard.  You  miss  his  io«aj 
and  the  sound  of  his  voice,  for  habit  has  made  them  aim*' 
necessary  to  you,  and  each  of  your  senses  feels  the  loss." 
Two  Years  before  ths  Matt, 

LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STBAKD.    ^ 

POBLDKMP  m  WlMKLT  NOMBBM,  PUOfe  GmC  PsmiT.  AKPtM  3l0lf 

Parts,  pricx  BrxpcjicK. 


Ibatur^dS       m^^^^im. 


W-  585. 


14'.?,  1841. 


WARWICK    CASTLE. 


Od  the  tirm  rock.  ■  bouteoTu  nDtnmcv 

Fm  health  uid  pieman  fonnad.     Full  lo  lb*  K>ilth 

A  (IsUIt  ruga  of  hi|i;b  RnballM  wiUi 

And  iotij  lowm,  and  precipin*  raM, 


II*  gmodauT,  wordi 


id  andmit  pomp  confciL 


iMOMG  the  number  of  castellated  manBions  (remarks 
Ir.  Bntton),  which  formerly  abounded  in  England,  very 
!w  have  continued  to  be  inhabited,  and  adapted  to  the 
omestic  arrangementa  of  modem  timea.  Those  of 
i"indsor,  Roby,  Lumley,  and  Warwick,  are  therefore 
^markable:  for  whilst  they  present  the  external  features 
r  frudal  ages,  and  impress  the  spectator  with  sentiments 
F  chivalry  and  romauce,  their  apartments  are  at  once 
tncioiis  and  elegant;  their  inmates  are  accomplished 
id  polite;  and  the  annexed  gardens  and  pleasure-grounds 
■o  replete  with  every  charm  to  fascinate  the  eye  and 
lease  the  senses.  Formerly  these  places  were  intended 
>  protect  a  rude  and  austere  race  of  mail-clad  kni;;ht3 
id  their  vassal  dependants;  now  they  are  occupied  by 
en  of  enlarged  and  enlightened  minde,  and  fay  women 
'suavity,  benevolence)  and  beauty.  Instead  of  the  art 
war,  and  human  butchery,  as  formerly  studied  within 
'ir  walla,  we  now  find  the  fine  arts  and  literature  cul- 
at^d  and  understood.  The  contrast-is  powerful  and 
^c-ing:  for  now,  instead  of  viewing  the  frowniug  bat- 
tnents  and  dismal  cells  with  dread  and  terror,  we 
Vol.  XIX. 


contemplate   them  as  objects   of  grandeur    and    pic- 
turesque beauty. 

The  present  Castle  of  Warwick  affords  specimens  of 
the  workmanship  of  different  and  distant  ages.  The 
oldest  parts  present  some  bold  and  almost  impregnable 
spedmens  of  Norman  architecture,  whilst  a  few  parts 
display  the  tasteless  additions  of  modem  times.  The 
foundation  is  Uid  on  a  vast  bed  of  rock,  which  rises  pre- 
cipitously from  the  northern  bank  of  the  river  Avon. 
Impending  over  this  classical  stream  is  a  long  tine  of 
buildings,  consisting  of  towers,  state  apartments,  and 
subterranean  offices.  At  the  south-eastern  extremity  is 
that  majestic  edifice  called  Cssar's  tower,  and,  at  the 
opposite  end,  is  a  bold  projecting  turret.  This  front 
extends  above  400  feet,  and  presents,  in  its  elevation,  a 
grand,  picturesque,  and  stupendous  mass.  From  the 
level  of  the  water  to  the  basement  floor,  the  rock  has  been 
cut  away  in  an  almost  perpendicular  face,  and  is  nearly 
of  equal  height  with  the  whole  superincumbent  building. 
This  mass  of  rock  is  diversified  by  hanging  shrubs,  fis- 
sures, and  varied  stains  and  mosses.  Projecting  from 
it,  near  the  eastern  end,  is  a  flour  mill,  from  which  a 
ledge  of  rocks  extends  across  the  river,  and  occasions  a 
constant  water-fall,  of  nearly  the  whole  stream,  'JTie 
southern  front,  with  the  return  of  the  western  side,  con- 
!<ist9  of  a  gallery,  a  tower  gateway  to  the  inner  court, 
and  a  flanking  wall  connecting  this  gateway  with  the 
keep-tower,  which  occupies  the  summit  of  a  high  conical 
686 


58 


THE*  SATURDAY  'MAGAZINE. 


[August  U, 


mount.     The  embattled  and  terraced  wall  again  returna 
from  this  keep'Vound  the  northern  side  of  the  inner  court; 
and  about  midway  between  the  eastern  and  western  ends, 
it  forms  a  semicircular  sweep,  and  is  flanked  and  guarded 
by  two  bastion  towers.     The  walls  and  small  apertures 
of  these  exhibit  great  strength.     From  these  the  wall 
continues  to  the  north-east  angle,  where  is  a  lofty  poly- 
gonal building  called  Guys  Towevy  and  here  the  wall 
returns  at  right  angles  to  the  grand  entrance  tower  gate- 
way.    Hence  it  passes  to  the  great  tower  at  the  south- 
eastern angle.     The  whole  of  the  walls  are  surmounted 
by  embrasures,  loop-holes  for  arrows,  a  parapet,  and  a 
terrace  walk.     The  latter  was  conducted  through   the 
towers  up  and  down  flights  of  steps,  and  to  various  mer- 
Ions  and  machicolations.     Near  the  centre  of  the  eastern 
wall  is  the  principal  entrance-gateway.     Mr.  Britton 
says  that  this  is  a  grand  and  very  curious  feature  of 
castellated  architecture,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  perfect 
specimen  remaining  in  the  country.     A  bridge,  formerly 
a  draw-bridge,  is  thrown  across  a  wide  fosse ;  on  the 
inner  bank  of  which  is  the  chief  portal,  flanked  by  two 
octagonal  towers  with  small  loop-holes  in   each  face, 
holes  over  the  arch,  and  a  portcullis  within.     Further 
under  the  archway  was  a  second  barrier  formed  by  strong 
folding  doors  or  gates.     About  forty  feet  further  was  a 
second  portcullis,  and  still  within  that  was  another  pair 
of  doors  or  gates,  filling  up  a  large  arch.     This  passage, 
nearly  ninety  feet  long,  opens  to  the  inner  ballium  or 
court  by  a  lofty  arch,  flanked  by  octagonal  towers,  which 
rise  to  a  consiaerable  height,  and  contain  several  stories 
or  floors,  formerly  used  for  the  residence  of  porters  and 
domestics.     Other  rooms,  staircases,  and  galleries  were 
distributed  in  various  parts  about  this  entrance.     Near 
the  doors  and  portcuUisses  were  apertures  in  the  vaulted 
roof  for  annoying  assailants,  and  under  the  arched  way 
were  several  niches  for  wardens,  and  door-wavs  to  stairs, 
to  rooms,  and  to  the  walls.     After  passing  through  this* 
long,  gloomy,  and  strongly-guarded  archway,  we  come 
to  the  inner  ballium,  surrounded  bv  the  principal  dwell- 
ing apartments  to  the  south ;  the  lofty  keep-tower  and 
mount,  with  a  tower  gateway  to  the  west;  a  high  em- 
battled wall  with  bastion  towers  to  the  north;  and  the 
Gateway  tower,  with  Guy's  tower,  Cesar's  tower,  and  a 
lofty  connecting  wall  to  the  east. 

The  two  towers  just  named  are  very  imposing  objects 
and  interesting  examples  of  architectural  design.  The 
date  of  the  elevation  of  Cesar's  tower  is  unknown:  the 
iliode  of  construction  is  somewhat  rude,  and  possesses 
many  singularities.  **  Jutting  from  one  side  of  this 
tower  is  an  embattled  turret  of  stone,  where  imagination 
may  place  the  herald  at  arms,  demanding,  in  a  long 
past  century,  the  name  and  purpose  of  those  so  hardy 
as  to  advance  unbiddden."  The  other  tower  is  named 
after  the  champion  of  the  castle,  the  redoubted  Guy*. 
This  part  of  the  structure  is  upwards  of  100  ft.  in  height, 
and  was  built  by  Thomas  Beauchamp,  earl  of  Warwick, 
in  1894,  at  the  cost  of  395/.  5«.  2d.      ^ 

The  entrance  is  flanked  by  embattled  walls,  richly 
clothed  with  ivy ;  and  the  deep  moat,  now  dry,  is  lined 
with  various  shrubs,  and  ornamented  with  trees  of  a 
vigorous  and  noble  growth.  The  disused  moat  is  crossed 
by  a  stone  bridge,  and  the  entrance  is  by  double  machi- 
colated  towers,  through  a  series  of  passages  once  fraught 
with  multiplied  dangers  for  the  intruder.  In  the  great 
court,  to  which  the  visitor  passes,  the  display  is  truly 
magnificent.  The  area  is  a  soft  green  sward;  but, 
spread  around,  are  viewed  the  remains  of  fortifications 
raised  in  turbulent  ages.  The  relics  are  perfect  in  out- 
line, and  no  battlement  exhibits  the  havoc  of  time ;  while 
the  hand  of  taste  has  spread  a  softness  over  the  whole 
productive  of  most  grateful  relief.  We  see  with  pleasure 
the  ivy  bestow  pictorial  mellowness  on  parapets  and 
turrets,  which  must  have  been  only  rugged  and  formid- 

*  In  one  of  the  xooms  attached  to  Cttaar's  Tower  are  still  preMiredthe 
sword,  sbidd,  hebnet,  ^.  ascrihed  to  the  legendaiy  hero  Gnjr 


able  when  manned  with  warriors  in  steel,  and  fresh  in 
early  masonry  i' but- now  th»  Inroad  Golfaic  windows  rap* 
plant  the  cheerless  single  light  and  fatal  loop-hole. 

The  interior  of  this  august  fabric,  (which  is  fiinugW 
in  a  chaste  but  magnificent  style,)  we  need  not  describe. 
A  few  historical  facts  relating  to  the  castle  may,  howeyer, 
be  found  interesting. 

There  is  no  record  concerning  the  precise  era  at  which 
a  fortified  building  was  founded  on  this  spot.  The  castk 
has  been  described  by  some  writers  as  of  British,  and  by 
others  as  of  Roman,  origin.  The  foundation  seems  to 
have  taken  place  before  the  Norman  Conquest;  anditia 
probable  that  Ethelfleda,  the  daughter  of  King  Alfred, 
first  constructed  a  strong-hold  in  this  place.  The  for- 
tress was,  for  some  time,  the  residence  of  the  Vice- 
comites,  or  lieutenants  of  the  Earls  of  Mercia;  and 
Turkill,  who  was  Vice-comes  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest, 
was  directed  by  William  the  First  to  add  considerably  to 
the  extent  and  strength  of  the  fortifications.  Soon  after- 
wards the  Norman  monarch  appointed  Henry  de  New 
burgh  as  Governor,  and  created  him  Earl  of  WarwicL 
At  the  latter  end  of  King  Stephen's  reign  it  was  oc- 
cupied by  that  monarch's  soldiers,  for  Gundred,  countess 
of  Warwick,  turned  these  out  to  make  room  for  Henry, 
duke  of  Normandy,  afterwards  crowned  as  King  Heary 
the  Second.  In  the  nineteenth  year  of  this  reign  tbe 
sheriff  accounted  for  vi/.  xiii*.  ivrf.  for  twenty  quarters 
of  bread-corn;  xx».  for  twenty  quarters  of  malt;  ci.  for 
four  beefs  salted;  jxu.  for  ninety  cheeses;  and  xu,  for 
salt,  then  laid  up  in  the  castle.  The  next  year 
jxjlL  x».  Yiiidf.  were  paid  to  soldiers  in  garriBon  here; 
and  vi/.  ziii«.  xic^.  for  repairs. 

In  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Third  the  extraordinary 
strength  of  this  building  was  alleged  as  a  reason  for 
prohibiting  the  widowed  Countess  of  Warwick  from 
marrying  any  person  without  the  king's  consent.  In 
the  furious  contests  which  afflicted  the  latter  years  of 
Henry  the  Third,  Warwick  Castle,  almost  impregnable 
to  open  assault,  was  taken,  in  consequence  of  Williaro 
Mauduit,  the  then  earl,  neglecting  to  keep  due  guard 
The  rebels  were  stationed  at  Keuilworth  in  great  pover. 
They  surprised,  and  took  possession  of,  Wannck  Castle, 
took  the  earl  and  his  countess  prisoners,  and  demolished 
some  of  the  walls.  The  damage  thus  done  to  the  castle 
was  not  repaired  till  the  reign  of  Edward  the  V^ 
when  Thomas  Beauchamp,  earl  of  Warwick, "  erected 
anew  the  outer  wall  of  the  castle,  with  divers  towers. 
The  castle  was  afterwards  successively  occupied  m 
governed  by  John  de  Clinton,  Thomas  Holland,  earl  of 
Kent,  George  Plantagenot,  duke  of  Clarence,  and  m 
of  Warwick,  who  made  some  alterations  in  the  buildio^ 
and  proposed  to  make  more,  but  was  attainted  of  w\ 
treason  by  his  brother.  King  Edward  the  Fourth,  wi» 
ordered  him  to  be  drowned  in  a' butt  of  Malmsey  wine. 
The  castle  is  described  as  being  in  a  very  mffloos 
condition  in  the  second  year  of  King  James  the  Firj 
when  it  was  granted  to  Sir  Fulke  Grevile,  whoexpcndea 
"upwards  of  20,000/.  m  repairing  and  adorning  tW 
same  for  a  family-seat."  "He  made  it,"  says  Dngdale, 
« not  only  a  place  of  great  strength  but  extraordmaJj 
delight,  and  the  most  princely  seat  within  the  niwil^ 
parts  of  England."  He  was  created  Baron  Brooke, 
and,  according  to  his  monumental  inscription,  was  "^f'' 
vant  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  counsellor  to  King  J^^ 
and  friend  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney."  He  was  murderea 
by  his  own  servant  at  Brooke  House,  in  Holboro,  an 
was  succeeded  by  Robert  Lord  Brooke,  who  took  par^ 
with  the  pariiament  against  Charles  the  First  V^^ 
Castle  now  became  a  garrison.  It  was  ^'{f^,  j 
August,  1 642,  by  the  Earl  of  Northampton,  ana  <><^^°"; 
by  Sir  Edward  Peito,  with  a  very  small  force.  Soon  aiu 

celebrated  battle  of  E^ige-W'' „^!5 


was  fought  the  v«^«v.»^»v^v.  .,«.»v.w  ^.  — ^         ,, 
Brooke  was  killed  by  a  musket-shot  at  Licheeid 
his  son  Robert,  in  more  peaceable  times,  *\n*^  °P 'Je 
state  apartment  at  a  considerable  expense,   and  m 


18410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


69 


many  other  improvements.  The  subsequent  noble  pos- 
sessors of  the  castle  have  from  time  to  time  so  arranged 
and  decorated  the  halls,  that,  while  a  proper  allusion  is 
made  to  the  antique  castellated  outlines  of  the  edifice, 
the  purely  domestic  comforts  of  the  homes  of  England 
are  not  forgotten. 


IV. 


BEET-ROOT  SUGAR. 

The  present  mode  op  preparation  in 

France. 


Chaptal  sows  the  beet  seeds  in  the  month  of  April  or 
the  beginning  of  May,  and  thus  avoids  on  the  one  hand 
many  inconveniences  of  cold  and  rain  likely  to  result  at 
an  earlier  period,  and  inconveniences  of  an  opposite  kind 
if  left  to  the  month  of  June.  He  recommends  that 
every  cultivator  should  prepare  the  seeds  for  himself,  by 
using  such  as  he  had  collected,  in  the  previous  Septem- 
ber, from  the  beet  plants,  each  of  which  will  yield  five  or 
six  ounces  of  seed.  All  arable  lands  are  fitted  for  the 
growth  of  the  beet ;  and  Chaptal  ploughs  three  times  for 
the  preparation  of  the  beet-sowing,  viz.,  twice  during 
the  winter,  and  once  in  the  spring. 

There  are  different  modes  of  sowing  the  seeds.     The 
first  is,  indiscriminately  over  the  ground;  a  mode  which 
takes  much  less  time,  at  a  season  when  all  hands  are 
busy;  but  in  subsequently  transplanting  the  young  plants, 
they  are  very  likely  to  be  injured.     Other  methods  are 
adopted  by  different  persons ;  but  the  one  which  Chap- 
tal prefers  is,  sowing  in  rows.     When  the  ground  is  pre- 
pared, a  range  of  depressions,  about  an  inch  in  depth, 
are  made  by  means  of  a  rake  whose  teeth  are  eighteen 
inches  apart;  and  women,  who  follow  the  rake,  deposit 
seeds  in  the  depressions,  at  a  distance  of  about  sixteen 
Jnches  apart:  each  woman  thus  sows  six  or  eight  thou- 
.^umd  seeds  per  day,  and  covers  them  over  with  earth  by 
he  hand. 
As  the  beet  is  likely  to  be  injured  by  the  vicinage  of 
ither  plants,  and  also  by  the  earth  bemg  hard  or  not 
rell  drawn  up  around  it,  the  young  plants  require  careful 
ttention.  Weeding  is  necessary  twice  during  the  growth, 
ot  only  for  the  removal  of  noxious  plants,  but  also  for 
e  purpose  of  opening  the  ground  to  the  reception  of 
^a/r  and  moisture.     By  the  month  of  October  the  roots 
VlAve  acquired  that  perfection  which  fits  them  for  further 
operations,  and  the  plants  are  taken  up  before  the  frost 
arrives.    In  the  southern  and  warmer  parts  of  France, 
the  root  comes  to  maturity  at  an  earlier  period,  and  must 
be  gathered  early,  else  the  saccharine  principle  undergoes 
changes  which  unfit  it  for  the  required  purpose. 

As  each  root  is  taken  up,  the  leaves  are  cut  off  and 
left  on  the  ground,  where  cattle  and  sheep  feed  on  them ; 
and  it  is  found  that  the  leaves  which  die  and  serve  as 
manure  to  the  soil  bring  it  into  a  state  peculiarly  fitted 
for  a  com  crop.  As  the  roots,  when  collected,  are  ex- 
tremely sensitive  to  heat  and  cold,  great  care  is  required 
in  their  treatment.  They  are  left  on  the  field  for  a 
short  time,  to  evaporate  some  of  their  moisture,  and  are 
then  taken  to  a  bam  where  they  are  laid  in  heaps,  with 
layers  of  straw  beneath,  around,  and  above  the  heap. 
Some  cultivators  dig  a  trench  in  the  open  field,  line  it 
with  straw,  and  fill  it  up  with  the  beet-roots,  which  are 
then  covered  with  thatch  or  straw.  Shielded  in  this 
way  from  the  weather,  the  roots  remain  until  about  to 
be  used. 

The  first  operation  on  the  roots  is  to  cleanse  them 
from  dirt  and  mould,  and  to  cut  off  the  rootlets  and  other 
usele3s  parts.  They  are  then  ground  to  pulp  by  a 
machine,  moved  either  by  horses  or  by  a  water-mill. 
The  machine  consists  of  two  cylinders,  each  about  twenty- 
four  inches  in  diameter,  the  surfaces  of  which  are  covered 
with  teeth.  The  cylinders  being  made  to  rotate  very 
rapidly,  the  roots  are  brought  in  contact  with  them,  and 
speedily  reduced  to  fine  shreds  or  pulp.  (The  reader 
will  recollect  that,  in  Gottling's  metho<^  the  roots  were 


sliced  and  hung  upon  strings  to  dry).  The  pulp  faJh 
into  a  vessel  lined  with  lead.  This  method  of  rasping 
is  found  much  more  -effectual  than  expression,  for  the 
latter  method  yields  but  forty  or  fifty  per  cent,  of  juioe 
whereas  the  former  often  3rields  as  much  as  eighty. 

As  the  pulp  is  ground,  it  is  put  into  strong  canvas 
bags,  and  placed  under  a  powerful  press  to  squeeze  oat 
the  juice.  The  residue  is  stirred,  and  subjected  to  a 
second,  or  even  third,  pressure,  till  all  the  juice  is  ex- 
tracted. The  liquor,  as'  it  is  pressed  out,  runs  into 
a  copper,  until  it  is  two-thirds  full.  A  fire  is  now 
lighted,  and  the  contents  of  the  copper  are  raised  to  a 
temperature  of  about  180^  Fahr.  In  the  mean  time,  a 
mixture  of  lime  and  water  has  been  prepared,  by  gradu- 
ally pouring  as  much  water  upon  ten  pounds  of  quick- 
lime as  will  give  a  cream-like  consistency  to  the  mixture. 
This  is  poured  into  the  copper  when  its  contents  are  at 
180^,  and  is  well  mixed  with  the  juice  by  stirring.  The 
heat  is  then  increased  till  the  mixture  boils,  when  a 
thick  and  glutinous  scum  rises  to  the  surface.  As  soon 
as  clear  bubbles  arise  through  this  scum,  the  fire  is  sud- 
denly extinguished  by  water  being  poured  on  it,  or  by 
a  proper  damper.  The  scum  hardens  as  it  cools ;  and 
the  sediment  being  deposited,  the  liquor  becomes  clear, 
and  of  a  light  straw  colour.  The  scum  is  then  care- 
fully removed  with  a  perforated  skimmer,  and  is  put  into 
a  vessel  till  such  time  as  the  liquor  remaining  in  it  can 
be  pressed  out.  A  cock  is  now  opened  about  five  inches 
above  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  and  all  the  clear  liquor  is 
drawn  off.  Another  cock,  lower  down,  lets  out  the  re- 
mainder until  it  begins  to  appear  cloudy ;  that  which  still 
remains  is  afterwards  boiled  again  with  that  extracted  by 
pressure  from  the  scum.  The  clear  liquor  is  now  sub- 
jected to  evaporation  in  another  boiler  which  is  wide  and 
shallow.  The  bottom  is  but  slightly  covered  with  the 
juice  at  first,  and  it  boils,  rapidly.  As  the  water  evapo- 
rates, fresh  juice  is  admitted.  When  a  certain  degree 
of  inspissation,  or  thickening,  has  taken  place,  animal, 
charcoal  is  gradually  added;  in  such  proportion,  that 
one  hundred  weight  of  charcoal  is  required  for  the  juice 
of  two  tons  and  a  half  of  beet,  which  is  now  reduced  to 
about  four  hundred  gallons.  The  evaporation  by  boiling 
continues  until  a  regular  syrup  is  obtained.  This  is 
now  strained  through  a  linen  bag,  and  the  liquor  is  kept 
flowing  by  means  of  steam  or  hot  air,  and  assisted  by 
pressure.  In  two  or  three  hours  all  the  clear  syrup  will 
have  run  through. 

The  S3rrup  then  goes  through  a  farther  succession  of 
processes  to  convert  it  into  sugar.  It  is  again  boiled  and 
skimmed,  until  it  has  attained  a  certain  degree  of  con- 
centration, which  is  known  thus ; — ^the  skimmer  is  dipped 
into  the  syrup  and  drawn  out;  some  of  the  thick  syrup 
which  adheres  to  it  is  taken  between  the  thumb  and 
finger,  and  held  there  till  the  heat  is  reduced  to  that  of 
the  skin ;  the  finger  and  thumb  are  then  separated,  and 
if  the  syrup  be  of  a  proper  strength,  a  thread  will  be 
drawn  out,  which  has  the  transparency  of  barley-sugar 
When  the  syrup  has  this  proper  degree  of  consistency, 
called  "  proof,"  the  fire  is  put  out,  and  the  syrup  is  car- 
ried to  the  cooler,  which  is  a  vessel  capable  of  containing 
all  the  syrup  produced  by  four  operations  or  boilings. 
Here  the  sugar  is  to  crvstallize.  As  soon  as  this  process 
commences,  the  whole  is  well  mixed  and  stirred;  and, 
before  it  becomes  too  stiff,  earthen  moulds,  of  the  well- 
known  sugar-loaf  shape*  are  filled  with  the  crystallising 
mass.  'V^en  these  moulds  are  full,  they  are  carried  to 
the  coolest  place  on  the  premises.  As  the  crystalliza- 
tion goes  on,  the  crust  formed  on  the  top  is  repeatedly 
broken,  and  the  whole  is  stirred  till  the  crystals  are  col- 
lected in  the  centre ;  the  crystallization  is  then  allowed 
to  go  on  without  further  disturbance.  In  three  days  the 
process  is  so  far  advanced,  that  the  pegs  which  are  put  into 
the  holes  at  the  points  of  the  moulds  may  be  taken  out, 
and  the  molasses  or  uncnrstallizable  syrup  allowed  to 
run  out.    White  syrup  is  then  poured  on  the  top  of  the 

685—2 


«0 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE," 


[AUGBIT  H, 


moulds,  wliich  filters  through  the  mass,  and  carries  part 
of  the  colouring  matter  with  it. 

Sometimea  this  latter  process  is  effected  by  what  is 
termed  claying.  A  stratum  of  fine  moist  pipe-olay  is 
l^d  on  the  sugar  in  the  mould;  aad  clear  wat«r  being 
poured  on  the  clay,  filters  through  tti  and  carries  off  the 
colouring  manner  remaining  in  the  sugar.  But  if  great 
care  be  not  taken,  one-fifth  or  sixth  of  the  sugar  becomes 
diasolved,  and  is  carried  off  in  the  form  of  syrup. 
Chaptal  at  one  time  employed,  instead  of  either  of  these 
two  methods,  another  in  which  alcohol  was  poured  on  the 
sugar,  in  such  manner  ag  to  carry  off  the  colouring 
matter.  But  he  abandoned  the  plan  oiler  two  moniha' 
trial;  Ending  that  he  lost  a  considerable  quantity  of 
alcohol,  and  thai  the  sugar  retained  a  little  odour  of  the 
alcohol. 

By  whatever  mode  the  sugar  is  bleached  in  the  moulds 
the  loaf  is  removed  from  the  mould  as  soon  as  hardened, 
and  placed  in  a  stove,  where  it  remains  till  dry. 

The  molasses,  or  uucrystallizable  syrup,  which  remuns 
firom  this  process,  is  very  nearly  identical  with  that  pro- 
duced from  cane-sugar,  and  from  which  rum  is  distilled. 
We  shall  not,  therefore,  detail  the  plan  which  Chaptal 
adopted  for  distilling  spirit  from  the  molasses,  as  that  is 
an  operation  which  does  not  belong  to  a  sugar  refinery. 
The  greater  part  of  the  operations  described  above 
are  nearly  the  same  as  those  by  which  sugar  is  prepared 
from  the  juice  of  the  sugar-cane,  except  that  much 
greater  skill  and  nicety  are  required,  on  account  of  the 
smaller  comparative  quantity  of  sugar  contained  in  the 
beet.  But  when  the  sugar  is  once  prepared,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  it  from  cane-sugar.  Five  tons  of 
clean  roots  produce  about  four  and  a  half  hundred-weight 
of  coarse  sugar,  which  give  about  a  hundred  and  sixty 
pounds  of  double-refined  sugar,  and  sixty  pounds  ta 
inferior  lump-sugar.  The  rest  is  molasses,  from  which 
spirit  may  be  obtained.  The  dry  residue  of  the  roots, 
^Wr  expressing  the  juice,  consists  chiefly  of  fibre  and 
inudlage,  and  amounts  to  about  one-fourth  of  the  weight 
of  the  clean  roots  used.  It  contains  all  the  nutritive 
part  of  the  root,  with  the  exception  of  four  and  a  half 
per  cent,  of  sugar,  which  has  been  extracted  from  the 
juice,  the  rest  being  water. 

The  political  and  commercial  considerations  involved 
in  the  question,  how  far  the  cultivation  of  the  beet-root 
will  permanently  benefit  France  is  one  into  which  we 
need  not  farther  enter,  as  it  has  no  particular  relation 
to  our  own  country. 


the  mechanical  powers  by  which  the  arm  could  pofom  ifg 
or  twelve  moves;  it  then  requited  to  be  wound  un  Ulu  i 
watch;  after  which  it  was  capable  of  conlbuingliie  aim 
number  of  motions.  The  automaton  could  not  plaj  udI« 
M.  de  Kempelen  or  his  substitute  was  near  it,  to  direct  lu 
moves.  A  Bm«llsquareboiduriM;thegame,w»sfreqnHiil. 
consulted  by  the  exhibitor;  and  herem,  (says  Mr,  1™,) 
consisted  the  setret,  whioh  he  told  me  he  could  xn^wr- 
ment  commnnicste.  He  who  could  best  H.  de  Eenpda 
was  of  course  certain  of  ooo^nering  the  antomateti. 


ON  CHESS.  No.  XV. 
The  Autouator  Cmesb-Platkr.  3. 
At  the  time  when  the  automaton  made  its  first  appear- 
ance in  England,  chess  was  extensively  patronised  and 
played  by  the  up^r  classes  of  sodety.  The  great 
niilidor  spent  a  large  portion  of  his  time  in  London, 
formed  a  large  chess-school  around  him,  and  excited 
public  attention  by  those  wonderful  exhibitions  for  which 
be  was  so  celebrated;  viz.,  playing  at  the  same  time 
three  Afferent  games  against  three  good  players,  without 
seeing  any  one  of  the  chess-boards.  These  circumstances 
contributed  to  make  the  chess -automaton  a  subject  of  the 
greatest  curiosity,  and  although  the  sum  of  five  shillings 
was  charged  for  admission  to  see  the  automaton,  yet 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  persons  crowded  to  the  eini- 

Mr.  Twiss,  in  his  amusing  work  on  Chess,  informs  us 
that  he  was  present  on  some  of  these  occasions,  and  con- 
versed with  M.  de  Kempelen,  who  once  remarked: — 

That  the  most  suiprising  |circnmstance  attending  his 
automaton  was,  that  it  hod  been  exhibited  at  Presourg, 
Vienna,  Paris,  and  London,  to  thousands,  many  of  whom 
were  mathematicians  and  chess-playen,  and  yet  the  secret 
r>y  which  he  governed  the  motion  of  its  arm,  was  never  dis- 
covered,   Ue  prided  hiauelf  soleljr  on  the  constntstioQ  of 


Th«  unM,  with  lb*  Urn  imck  cloMd.     SJa  Tfeir. 

This  last  assertion,  however,  is  by  no  meus  trw,  » 
we  shall  see  hereafter. 

The  Monthfy  Reouie,  for  April  1 784,  has  the  fbUm^ 
ing  remarks ; — 

Many  are  umple  enough  to  afiirm  that  the  wooden  nB 
played  realfy,  and  by  himtdf,  (like  certun  politicisns  it  > 
deeper  game)  without  any  communication,  with  bia'ne'i''' 
Ml.  It  appeaiB,  indeed,  as  yet  nnacconntable  to  the  tpKO- 
tor&  how  the  artist  imparts  his  Influence  to  the  sutomaUi 
at  the  time  of  his  playing,  and  all  the  hypotheses  'i^  ' 
have  been  invented  by  ingenious  and  learned  men  t«  un- 
fold this  mystery  are  but  vague  and  ioadequate;  but  v^ 
they  even  otherwise,  they  rather  increaee  than  diminitliiK 
admiration  that  is  due  tothesaiprinngtalaits«iiddexlaitT 
of  H,  de  Kempelen, 

A  pamphlet  was  at  the  same  time  published  in  Loud'* 
entitled.  The  Auioinalon  ChMt-plager  EjiponJ"' 
Deiecled;  in  which  the  author  eays : — . 

I  gee  a  foreigner  come  among  us,  and  demand  fiveA'db^ 
-piece  admittance,  to  see  what  he  calls  an  aatomston  diea- 
player.  An  automaton  is  a  self-moving  aigine,  witb  IM 
principle  of  motion  within  iteelfj  but  this  chea-pUyers* 
such  tning.  And  therefore  to  coll  it  an  aDtomtton,  i>  j*  ' 
impoeition,  and  merits  a  public  detection;  eqiccislly,  k^ 
hi^  price  of  five  ahillings  for  each  person's  admisaior^ 
duces  the  visitor  to  believe  that  its  movements  are  «*? 
lerformed  by  mechanic  jwwers :  when,  in  feet,  Hie  ""^  i 
[elusion  is  supported  by  mvisible  confederates.  I 

The  opinion  became  very  common  that  the  suteiMl* 
vas  moved  bv  a  concealed  player,  but  where  and  bowl"' 
was  concealed  after  the  apparently  complete  exposure  « 
the  interior  of  the  machine,  was  as  great  a  mystery  « 
ever.  One  pamphleteer  declares  that  he  saw  the  ennix'  i 
trimnungs  oi  the  Turk's  outer  ganneut  move  once  « 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


61 


twice,  when  the  figu)re  should  have  been  quite  motionless ; 
and  he  is  convinced  that  there  is  a  concealed  confederate : 
"  for,"  says  he,  "  they  only  exhibit  the  automaton  from 
I  till  2  0  clock,  because  the  invisible  player  could  not 
bear  a  longer  confinement ;  for  if  he  could,  it  cannot  be 
supposed  that  they  would  refuse  to  receive  crowns  for 
admittance  from  12  o'clock  to  4,  instead  of  from  only  1 
to  2." 

The  automaton  in  the  course  of  its  travels  visited, 
by  special  invitation,  the  court  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
at  Berlin,  where  it  conquered  the  monarch  and  his  whole 
court.  Eager  to  possess  himself  of  the  secret,  Frederick 
for  a  large  sum  of  money  bought  the  automaton,  and  in 
a  secret  interview  with  M .  de  Kempelen  learnt  the  whole 
art  and  mystery  of- this  wonderful  machine.  Certain  it 
is,  that  like  a  child  who  cries  after  a  new  toy  and  no 
larger  regards  it  when  possession  has  shorn  it  of  its 
novelty,  Frederick  threw  aside  the  automaton,  and  for 
many  years  it  lay  forgotten  and  neglected  among  the 
worn-out  furniture  of  the  Royal  Court  of  Berlin. 

M.  de  Kempelen  died  at  Vienna  in  1804.  In  1806 
when  Napoleon  occupied  Berlin,  we  find  the  automaton 
chess-player  under  another  master,  and  prepared  again  to 
astonish  the  world.  Napoleon  played  a  game  with  the 
automaton.  After  a  few  moves  he  purposely  made  a 
false  move;  the  automaton  inclined  its  head,  replaced  the 
piece,  and  made  a  sign  to  Napoleon  to  play  correctly. 
He  did  so,  and  after  a  few  moves,  again  played  a  piece 
incorrectly.  On  this  occasion  the  automaton  removed 
the  piece  from  the  board  and  played  its  own  move. 
Napoleon  was  highly  amused,  and  after  a  short  time 
made  a  false  move  for  the  third  time,  when  the  automa- 
ton swept  the  pieces  from  the  board  and  declined  to 
continue  the  game. 

We  need  not  trace  the  progress  of  the  automaton  in 
^second  tour  that  it  made  through  various  cities  of 
IXurope,  until  we  again  find  it  in  London  in  1819. 
^Ve  will  merely  stop  for  a  moment  at  the  Court  of  the 
King  of  Bavaria,  to  relate  an  anecdote  of  Prince  Eugene 
Seauhamois,  the  king's  son-in-law,  told  so  amusingly 
■by  Mr.  George  Walker — 

Eugene  was  fond  of  chess,  and  monev  was  of  little  object. 
^He  could  not  resist  the  temptation  of  acquiring  the  secret 
^i^hich  had  set  the  wits  of  the  world  at  defiance  ror  so  many 
years ;  and  for  the'  second  time  was  the  automaton  chess- 
player sold  like  a  slave  for  a  price.  Thirtv  thousand  francs 
^ere  asked  by  the  proprietor,*  and  this  sum  was  un- 
hesitatingly paid  by  rrince  Eugene  for  the  machine  and 
its  key. 

And  now^  the  moment  has  arrived  when  the  treasured 
mystery  of  de  Kempelen  is  to  be  again  opened  at  the  golden 
bidding  of  royalty.  The  veil  is  about  to  be  raised  and  the 
curiosity  of  the  king  to  be  gratified.  The  courtiers  are  dis- 
missed the  room,  the  door  locked  by  Eugene,  and  every  pre- 
caution taken  to  ensure  his  acquiring  the  sole  knowledge  of 
the  hidden  enigma.  The  prince  is  alone  with  the  demostra- 
tor ;  the  latter,  unliesitatingly  and  in  silence,  flings  open 
simultaneously  all  the  doors  of  the  chest ;  and  Prince  Eugene 
saw — what  he  saw! 

Eugene,  somewhat  like  his  royal  predecessor  in  the 
secret,  found  that  when  once  revealed,  the  automaton 
was  not  worth  keeping.  He  therefore  acceded  to  the 
proposal  of  M<  Maelzel  to  return  him  the  machine  on 
condition  of  paying  interest  for  the  purchase  money. 
The  automaton  again  proceeded  on  its  travels — visited 
Paris,  and  was  received  with  enthusiasm,  and  by  the 
year  1819  it  was  again  established  in  London  in  Saint 
James'  Street. 

Crowds  of  visitors  flocked  to  the  exhibition:  the 
periodical  literature  of  the  day  gave  it  almost  unqualified 
praise,  and  the  success  was  tne  more  complete  in  conse- 
quence of  the  automaton  vanquishing  all  its  opponents 
with  a  few  trifling  exceptions.  This  encouraged  the 
proprietor  to  offer  odds  to  all  comers,  and  forthwith  the 
automaton  gave  the  pawn  and  move  to  all  its  antagonists, 

*  M.  Maelad,  the  celebrated  bbricator  of  the  mancal  metronome 
■ad  oilier  works  of  art 


and  scarcely  lost  one  game  in  a  hundred.  A  volume 
was  published  in  1820  entitled,  A  Selection  of  Fifty 
Games^  ftom  those  plat/ed  hy  the  Automaton  Chess- 
player dwHng  its  exhibition  in  London  in  1820.  Taken 
down  by  permission  of  Mr.  Maelzel  at  the  time  they 
were  played.  In  the  preface  to  this  work  it  is  stated 
that  :— 

Since  the  commencement  of  its  exhibition  in  Febraary 
last,  the  automaton  chess-player  has  played,  (giving  the  pawn 
and  move)  nearly  three  hundred  games,  of  which  it  has 
lost  about  SIX. 

In  our  next  article  we  will  fully  explain  the  mysteiy 
of  the  Automaton  Chess-player. 

PROBABLE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  OP 
THE  SUPREMACY  OF  THE  POPE. 

For  many  centuries,  Rome  has  been  a  city  of  splendid 
ruins,  with  no  empire  except  that  vast  supremacy  which 
is  rested  upon  the  supposed  grant  of  the  Almighty. 

At  the  time  when  the  apostles  Peler  and  Paul 
established  the  Church  irf  Rome,  it  was  the  capital  city 
of  the  civilized  world.  On  such  a  capital,  perhaps,  the 
sun  never  shone.  It  is  saying  much  less  than  the  truth 
to  assert,  that  what  Paris  is  to  France,  or  London  to 
England,  Rome  was  to  the  world;  because  France  and 
England  know  that  there  are  other  powers  upon  the 
earth  independent  of  their  respective  governments;  but 
the  subjects  of  that  empire-city  saw  no  power  upon  the 
earth  independent  of  Rome.  The  ambassadors  of  every 
potentate  came  to  do  homage  before  the  majesty  of  a 
single  throne.  Dissensions  amongst  nations  were  brought 
for  settlement  before  the  senate.  Rival  kings,  contend- 
ing for  the  same  tributary  diadem,  submitted  their  claims 
to  that  august  tribunal.  The  very  name  of  Roman 
citizen  was  a  protection  and  a  privilege  in  every  land, 
and  an  appeal  to  Rome  was  the  final  recourse  of  univer- 
sal justice. 

In  our  age,  it  is  not  easy — mdeed  it  is  hardly  possible 
— ^to  conceive  aught  of  such  a  city.  Divided  as  the 
nations  have  been  ever  since  her  decline  and  fall,  and 
each  government  displaying  but  a  fractional  part  of  her 
whole  dominion,  it  is  hard  for  us  to  imagine  the  majestv, 
the  force,  the  concentration,  the  harmony,  the  glory,  tile 
beauty,  the  overpowering  splendour  of  the  spectacle 
which  ancient  Rome,  in  the  days  of  Augustus,  displayed 
to  the  admiration  of  a  subject  world.  To  the  moral 
sense,  the  picture  was  as  sublime  as  it  was  beautiful. 
The  whole  earth  in  peaceful  subordination  to  one  man, 
and  he  content  with  the  kind  and  moderate  titles  of  gene- 
ral and  father — ^the  temple  of  Janus  shut,  and  wars  and 
commotions  almost  done  away  by  the  wise  administra- 
tion of  supreme  justice — the  whote  of  the  mighty  empire 
bringing  its  treasures  and  its  allegiance  to  the  great  centre, 
which  was  its  fountain-head  of  power,  and  enjoying  in 
return  the  rich  advantages  of  protection  and  government, 
the  valour  and  the  labour  of  its  legions,  its  science,  and 
its  literature,  which,  like  the  nerves  and  life-blood  of  the 
natural  body,  were  diffused  freely  to  the  remotest  ex- 
tremities— all  this  displayed  a  picture  of  human  unity, 
on  which,  in  its  theory,  the  philanthrophist  and  the  phi- 
losopher might  Well  gaze  with  delight;  nor  can  I  imagine 
how,  with  such  a  picture  before  them,  the  minds  of  the 
best  of  men  at  that  day  could  help  being  strongly  affected. 

About  the  time  when  the  last  touch  of  perfection  had 
been  given  to  this  wonderful  empire,  Christianity  arose, 
and  a  Church  was  established  in  the  imperial  city.  In 
wealth,  in  numbers,  in  importance,  it  is  obvious  that  it 
must  soon  have  surpassed  all  other.  Everything  in  the 
chief  city  of  an  ordinary  kingdom  acquires  a  kind  o  * 
practical  supremacy  over  the  whole  of  that  territory.  The 
professions,  the  trades,  the  fashions,  the  literature,  the 
amusements  of  the  capital,  give  a  sort  of  law  to  the  rest, 
by  a  perfectly  familiar  principle  of  deference,  which  is 
acknowledged  and  understood  by  all  men.     What  must 


62 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[August  14, 


have  been  the  strength  of  that  principle  in  regard  to 
imperial  Rome? 

But,  perhaps,  it  may  not  be  useless — ^inasmuch  as  the 
mind  is  often  aided  in  its  reflections  on  the  force  of  cir- 
cumstances by  transferring  them  to  some  familiar  object 
of  our  own  day, — if  I  try  to  illustrate  my  idea  of  a  secu- 
lar supremacy  by  a  simple  analogy. 

Let  us  suppose,  then,  that  we  had  sent  a  number  of 
missionaries  to  plant  the  Gospel  in  China,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  Churches  in  several  of  the  pro- 
vinces of  that  extensive  country.  In  the  progress  of 
their  labours,  we  are  informed  that  a  Church  is  gathered 
in  the  capital  itself.  The  emperor,  the  powerftil  man- 
darins, the  officers  of  government,  the  men  of  influence, 
are  now  likely  to  be  brought  under  the  blessed  yoke  of 
the  Gospel.  Is  it  not  reasonable  that  we  should  attach 
tenfold  more  importance  to  that  Church  than  to  the  pro- 
vincial Churches — that  for  its  support  we  should  be  most 
anxious — ^that  into  its  progress  we  should  most  fondly 
inquire,  and  that  we  should  expect,  nay  advise,  all  the 
other  missionaries  through  the  nation  to  be  most  solici- 
tous for  its  welfare,  and  most  ready  to  make  its  advance- 
ment the  primary  object  of  their  prayers  and  toils  ? 

If,  however,  such  would  be  our  views,  at  a  distance  from 
the  field  of  action,  how  much  more  would  the  same  princi- 
ple of  expediency  operate  on  the  missionaries  themselves ! 
Of  what  vast  importance  would  they  esteem  the  pro- 

fress  of  truth  in  the  capital  of  the  Chinese  empire ! 
low  surely  would  they  calculate  that  success  tJierey  was, 
in  fact,  success  every  where  I  How  thankfully  would 
they  count  the  numbers  of  converts  from  the  ranks  of 
the  influential  and  the  great,  not  because  their  souls  were 
of  more  value,  but  because  the  conversion  of  such  as 
these  was  the  readiest  mode  of  breaking  down  the  king- 
dom of  darkness,  and  inducing  multitudes  to  examine,  with 
favourable  disppsitions,  the  system  of  truth ;  and  how 
manifest  it  is,  that,  in  such  a  case,  the  missionaries  set- 
tled in  the  provincial  Churches  would  readily  grant  a 
primacy  of  influence  and  consequence  to  their  brethren 
in  the  capital  city,  which  would  make  them  the  chief 
leaders,  advisers,  and,  in  fine,  directors  of  the  whole] 
And  yet,  in  all  this,  we  see  at  a  glance  that  it  is  simply 
to  be  resolved  into  the  importance  of  the  local  situation 
that  it  has  no  connection  whatever  with  the  spiritual 
rank  or  ecclesiastical  dignity  of  the  missionaries  them- 
selves, but  is  purely  the  result  of  judicious  views  of 
practical  expediency. 

Now,  then,  if  we  were  called  to  draw  up  a  code  of 
regulations  for  a  body  of  missionaries  thus  circumstanced, 
should  we  not,  perhaps,  think  it  proper  to  advise  all  due 
regard  to  these  principles  ?     Should  we  not  say,   Be 
careful  about  union,  and  in  all  your  proceedings  consult 
together,  but  especially  do  nothing  without  consulting 
with  your  brethren  of  the  capital  city.     In  order  that 
the  good  cause  should  prosper  it  is  necessary  that  you 
should  resort  to  the  Church  established  there  as  often  as 
you  can:  by  reason  of  its  more  powerful  principality, 
being  the  seat  of  the  government,  and  the  very  heart  of 
the  empire,  the  Church  located  there  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  whole,  and  the  brethren  placed  over  it 
should   have  the  chief  direction  in  all  your   councils. 
Would  not  such  advice  as  this  be  deemed  prudent  and 
wise  by  all  men  ?     And  hence,  is  it  not  plain  that  we 
could  go  very  far  in  support  of  a  primacy,  without  de- 
parting in  the  least  from  the  ground  of  secular  superi- 
ority derived  simply  from  the  importance  of  the  location  ? 
But  in  the  situation   of  the    Christian    Church,  as 
planted  in  ancient  Rome,  there  was  much  more  than 
any  modern  analogy  can  furnish,  to  contribute  to  the 
same   result.      During   seasons   of   persecution,   when 
heathen  rage  was  excited  against  the  faithful,  The  Christ- 
ians to  the  lions !  was  the  first  cry,  and  the  Church  in 
Rome  was  usually  called  upon  to  take  the  lead  in  the 
glory  of  martyrdom.     In  times  of  peace  the  crowds  of 
philosophers  and  disputers  which  thronged  the  imperial 


city,  drew  out  the  best  talents  and  strongest  energies  of 
the  priesthood  in  the  defence  of  truth.  And  the  inllox 
of  strangers,  the  applications  for  aid,  and  the  calls  on 
liberality,  which  were  sure  to  be  most  abundant  where 
there  was  most  inducement  to  attract  them,  would  kcoD 
the  sympathies,  the  hospitality,  and  the  beneficence  of 
that  Church  in  the  Aillest'action.  Add  to  til  tliis,  that 
if  the  Christians  in  the  provinces  needed  any  indulgeon 
from  the  government,  their  request  could  be  best  pi^ 
sented  through  the  brethren  at  Rome ;  that  the  bishop 
of  Rome  was  on  the  very  spot  where  he  hid  the  best 
opportunity  of  appeasing  the  imperial  wrath,  or  ccneili. 
ating  the  imperial  favour;  that  when  the  clergy  or  others 
had  occasion  to  travel,  his  letters  would  have  the 
greatest  weight  by  reason  of  his  local  superioritj;  that 
when  any  of  the  praetors  or  provincial  magistrates  wen 
likely  to  prove  hostile  to  the  Christian  cause,  the  bilhop 
of  Rome  was  the  only  one  who  could  hope  to  have  h* 
fluence  sufficient  with  the  officers  of  the  eourt  to  htTi 
them  counteracted  or  recalled;  that  writers  on  the  Chris- 
tian religion  would  first  seek  patronage  and  praise  hm 
the  same  dignitary,  and  that  all  who  thought  themaeWes 
aggrieved  throughout  the  rest  of  the  Church  would 
naturally  endeavour  to  strengthen  their  cavse  bj  the 
sentence  of  his  approbation, — all  this,  and  mnch  more 
of  the  same  character,  suggests  itself  to  a  mind  of  com- 
mon reflection,  in  tracing  the  various  causes  of  the 
secular  primacy  obtained  by  that  Church  which  wu 
established  near  the  throne  of  the  CsBsars,  in  the  empire- 
cityof  the  world. 

The  last  feature  of  the  case  presents  the  inflaence 
which  these  circumstances  must  have  exerted  on  the 
minds  of  the  Roman  clergy  themselves,  when  connected 
with  the  important  fact  that  the  secular  empire  of  Roioe 
was  one  mighty  whole — the  earth  under  one  head,— the 
world  under  a  single  prince,  and  that  prince  called  3 
father.  Dull  and  stupid  must  the  intellect  have  been 
that  could  fail  to  discover  the  application  of  this  idea  to 
the  Christian  Church, — ^for  was  it  not  in  truth  one  king- 
dom under  a  single  King  ? — one  family  under  a  Father? 
And  why  not  give  the  benefit  of  this  consolidation  '^ 
the  hierarchy  on  earth  ?  .  Why  not  secure  to  the  whole 
Church  that  order,  and  subordination,  and  peace  under 
a  single  earthly  head,  as  the  Lord's  vicegerent,  which 
heathenism  had  brought,  in  the  affairs  of  human  goTera- 
ment,  to  such  a  marvellous  system  ?  Should  the  hosts 
of  Satan  be  better  marshalled  than  the  hosts  of  God? 
Should  one  single  will  be  felt  and  obeyed  to  the  remotest 
bounds  of  that  mighty  empire,  and  should  not  one  single 
Church,  which  is  the  spouse  of  Christ,  be  much  rather 
the  ruler  and  mistress  through  the  whole  of  Christen- 
dom ?  On  such  a  plan,  how  much  more  union  mig^^ 
be  expected ;  how  much  more  peace ;  how  much  ^ 
opportunity  for  heresy  and  false  doctrine;  and  how 
much  more  glorious  would  be  the  victory  of  the  W' 
people,  when  they  should  appear  to  the  heathen  ow 
mighty  host,  "  bright  as  the  sun,  fair  as  the  moon,  aw 
terrible  as  an  army  with  banners." 

I  can  easily  conceive  that  the  best  men  of  the  pnnH 
tive  ages,  being  accustomed  to  have  this  astonishing  em- 
pire of  the  world  continually  before  their  eyes,  and  to 
hear  it  as  the  common  and  favourite  theme  of  the  on- 
tors,  and  courtiers,  and  civilians,  and  soldiers,  and  traw' 
lers  round  them,  might  readily  in  this  manner,  be  W 
to  contemplate  the  desirableness  vid  practicahilityofa 
similar  system  in  the  Church,  and  to  cherish  and  ec- 
courage  every  advantage  they  possessed  for  its  perfect 
consummation,  as  providential  instruments  placed  m 
their  hands  by  Divine  wisdom,  for  this  especial  purpose* 
I  can  easily  conceive,  that  under  this  influence  of  their 
habitual  views,  they  would  find,  in  Scripture,  analogies* 
and  even  declarations,  which — ^had  not  the  idea  of  uni- 
versal empire  been  first  rendered  familiar  by  the  poli' 
tical  state  of  the  world — ^would  never  have  occurred  to 
them.   That  thus  disposed,  they  would  derive  a  suppose 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


6ft 


parallel  ia  principle  from  the  h%h  priest  of  ancient  Israel, 
and  instead  of  applying  it  to  the  single  district  of  a 
bbhop,  would  apply  it  to  the  whole  of  Christendom — 
that  they  would  lay  hold  on  our  Lord's  addresses  to  Peter 
(the  only  passages  in  the  New  Testament  which  inge- 
nuity itself  coidd  put  into  the  semblance  of  Divine 
authority^)  and  beg^n  to  interpret  them  in  favour  of 
their  ecclesiastical  empire, — that  all  who  were  connected 
with  Rome,  who  nad  obligations  to  the  Church  there, 
who  feared  their  censure  or  loved  their  praise,  or  who  had 
anything  to  expect  from  their  influence,  would  readily 
adopt  the  system ;  and  that  the  converts  amongst  the  great 
and  noble,  who  had  been  accustomed  to  the  maxim,  that 
Rome  was  the  mistress  of  the  world,  would  be  prompt  and 
aealous  in  defence  of  an  idea  which  harmonized  so  well 
with  their  own  political  and  patriotic  feelings— «11  this  I 
can  conceive  most  readily,  as  easily  accounting  for  the 
rise  and  progress  of  a  secular  primacy,  without  calling  it 
by  any  harsh  or  offensive  name.  I  do  not,  therefore,  look 
npon  your  doctrine  as  having  its  origin  in  tyranny,  in 
fraud,  or  in  li  desire  to  lord  it  over  mankind.  Its  begin- 
ning, I  think,  I  have  traced  to  a  much  better  set  of  prin- 
ciples. And  as  I  hold  myself  bound  in  all  cases  to  look 
for  the  most  favourable  motives  and  causes  of  human 
action,  so  I  attribute  to  the  policy  of  the  primitive  Church 
of  Rome  nothing  more  than  can  be  fully  expluned  by  the 
favourable  influence  of  their  location,  their  habits  of 
dwelling  on  the  theory  and  practice  of  universal  empire, 
and  their  desire  to  secure  the  unity  and  peace  of  the 
Church ;  on  the  supposition  that  they  were  holy  and 
well-meaning  men. 

Of  the  difference  between  the  local  primacy  and  that 
now  asserted,  I  shall  only  for  the  present  observe  that 
the  one  was  secular,  the  other  is  spiritual;  the  one  was 
human*  the  other  is  divine ;  the  one  interfered  with  the 
liberty  of  no  other  Church,  the  other  claims  authority 
<»Ter  the  whole.  The  one  grew  out  of  the  political  pre- 
eminence of  ancient  Rome,  and  should  now  be  yielded,  of 
right,  in  their  respective  proportions,  to  the  other  cities, 
ivhich,  in  the  order  of  Providence,  have  attained  a  far 
larger  measure  of  influence  over  the  affairs  of  men ;  but 
Ihe  other  insists  on  the  fiat  of  the  Almighty,  superior 
to  all  earthly  mutation,  that  Rome  shall  be  the  mother 
and  the  mistress  of  the  Christian  world  to  the  end  of 
time. — Bishop  Hopkins. 


ON  DREDGING. 


Among  the  great  effects  produced  by  apparently  small 
causes  may  be  ranked  the  accumulation  of  sand  and  mud 
in  rivers,  harbours,  canals,  and  basins,  by  the  settlement  of 
the  solid  matters  brought  down  by  rivers  from  the  land. 
The  sand-banks  near  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldte,  the 
Meuse,  the  Rhine,  the  Elbe,  the  Thames,  the  Humber, 
and  other  considerable  rivers,  furnish  important  evidence 
of  the  extent  to  which  this  subsidence  often  proceeds, 
and  of  the  serious  consequences  which  result  therefrom 
to  shipping.  Geologists  have  enumerated  many  remark- 
able instances  of  the  effects  thus  produced,  in  which  a 
place,  once  regarded  as  a  sea-port,  is  now  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  an  inland  town,  such  as  Sandwich  in  Kent, 
by  the  subsidence  of  sand  and  mud  on  the  banks.  It 
forms  no  part  of  our  present  object  to  enter  into  a  geo- 
logical inquiry  on  this  matter,  but  to  detail  the  means 
whereby  a  river,  when  too  much  choked  with  sand  and 
mud,  is  cleansed. 

The  Dutch,  whose  country  presents  an  extraordinary 
example  of  the  effects  of  these  fluviatile  deposits,  long 
ago  devised  an  apparatus  called  the  ipoon^dredging 
tnachine,  for  removing  some  of  the  sediment  from  the 
beds  of  their  rivers  and  harbours.  From  the  Dutch  its 
use  passed  to  the  English,  and  we  may  now  frequently 
see  such  an  instrument  employed  on  the  River  Thames, 
although  not  so  often  as  before  the  introduction  of 
steam-dxedging  machines. 


The  cut  at  the  end  of  this  article  will  show  pretty 
clearly  the  action  of  the  spoon-dredging  machine.  In 
the  first  place,  there  is  a  boat,  varying  in  size  according 
to  the  situation  in  which  it  is  to  be  worked,  but  gene- 
rally from  twenty  to  sixty  tons  burden.  It  is  built 
so  as  to  float  with  an  easy  draught  of  water,  and  is 
usually  built  as  an  open  boat,  with  a  kind  of  inner 
floor;  but  in  some  cases  it  is  flush-decked,  carrying 
its  cargo  wholly  upon  deck.  Sometimes  the  matters 
excavated  from  the  bottom  of  the  river  are  employed  in 
banking  on  the  sides  of  a  river,  or  in  ballasting  ships,  but 
in  other  instances  emptied  out  into  some  deeper  part  of 
the  same  river;  and  when  the  latter  is  the  case,  the  boat 
is  provided  with  a  kind  of  trap-door  at  bottom,  to  let  out 
the  mud.  In  this  case  a  hold  of  two  compartments, 
one  fore  and  one  aft,  is  formed,  represented  in  the  cut 
by  the  lines  passing  obliquely  downward,  and  shaped 
like  a  hopper,  narrower  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top. 
Each  of  these  apertures  has  an  opening  in  the  bottom^ 
through  which  the  mud  is  dropped  when  the  flap-door  a 
is  opened. 

"jnie  spoon  or  shovel  b  consists  of  a  strong  ring  or 
hoop  of  malleable  iron,  the  cutting  part  of  which  is  of 
steel ;  it  is  about  six  or  seven  feet  in  circumference,  and 
properly  formed  for  dredging  upon  soft  mud  or  gravelly 
ground.  To  this  ring  is  strongly  attached,  by  means  of 
thongs,  a  large  bag,  made  sometimes  of  bullock's  hide, 
but  more  generally  of  tanned  leather;  and  pef orated 
with  a  number  of  small  holes,  for  allowing  water  to  drain 
off.  This  bag,  the  capacity  of  which  is  about  four  or 
five  cubic  feet,  being  fixed  to  the  ring,  the  spoon-bowl 
thus  formed  is  attached  to  a  pole  thirty  or  forty  feet 
long,  or  else  to  a  pair  of  sliding  poles,  so  connected  as 
to  admit  of  being  lengthened  or  shortened  according  to 
the  depth  of  the  water  in  which  the  apparatus  is  to 
work.  A  rope  is  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  bag, 
for  directing  its  position  at  the  commencement  of  each 
operation.  The  apparatus  is  generally  worked  with  a 
chain  or  rope,  brought  from  the  spoon  to  a  winch 
worked  with  wheel  and  pinion,  through  a  block  suspended 
from  a  small  crane  used  for  hauling  the  bag  and  its  con- 
tents along  with  the  progress  of  the  boat,  and  in  lifting 
the  spoon  over  the  gunwale  to  be  emptied  into  the 
hopper  of  the  boat.  The  purchase  rope  is  led  along  the 
deck  to  the  winch,  by  a  block  placed  in  a  proper  direc- 
tion for  this  purpose.  These  boats  are  generally  managed 
by  two,  three,  or  four  men,  who  with  this  simple  appa- 
ratus can  lift  from  twenty  to  sixty  tons  of  sediment  from 
the  bottom,  at  a  depth  of  two  and  a  half  or  three 
fathoms,  when  the  ground  is  somewhat  loose  and  favour- 
able for  the  operation.  Their  mode  of  proceeding  is  as 
follows: — The  barge  being  moored  over  the  place  where 
it  is  proposed  to  dredge,  and  one  end  of  the  working- 
rope  being  fastened  to  the  chain  of  the  spoon,  and  the 
other  end  to  the  barrel  of  the  crane,  the  man  who  is 
stationed  at  the  handle  or  pole  of  the  spoon,  immedi- 
ately allows  the  spoon  to  fall  into  the  water.  At  the 
same  moment  the  man  at  the  crane-work  throws  it  out 
of  gear,  when  a  third  man  seizes  the  small  rope  which 
is  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  bag,  and  runs  with  it 
along  the  gunwale,  and  prevents  the  spoon  from  sink- 
ing until  it  gets  to  the  other  end  of  the  barge.  When 
this  is  effected,  the  man  at  the  pole  turns  it  up,  inclining 
the  pole  head  towards  the  crane-end  of  the  barge,  and 
takes  a  turn  with  a  small  rope  round  the  pole  and  rail  of 
the  vessel,  which  keeps  the  spoon  dredging  along  in  its 
proper  position.  The  man  at  the  crane  draws  alongjhe 
spoon  until  it  be  nearly  under  the  crane,  when  the  man 
at  the  pole  inclines  it  backward,  and  the  contents  (now 
deposited  in  the  bag)  are  hoisted  up  and  emptied  into 
the  barge. 

In  Holland,  this  apparatus,  and  other  simple  modes 
of  dredging,  are  much  practised  upon  the  extensive 
flats  at  the  entrance  of  their  great  navigable  rivers, 
in  connexion   with  the  sluices   and  natural  currents 


«4 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


CAUOOTT  14,'lMl. 


issuing  from  their  extensive  basins  and  canals,  and 
the  excavated  matter  is  generally  of  a  mossy  descrip- 
tion) which,  after  being  strongly  compressed  in  moulds 
by  that  industrious  people,  is  in  a  state  to  be  speedily 
used  as  turf-fuel,    , ... 

On  the  Thames  (says  a  recent  writer]  the  rooon-dredging 
machine  is  conducted  upon  a  large  scale,  and  in  the  most 
systematic  manner,  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
Trinity  Board.  The  stuff  brought  from  the  bottom  conaisti 
chiefly  of  mud  and  gravel.  This  is  not  only  a  useful  opera- 
tion lor  deepening  and  preserving  the  navigation,  but  the 
stuff  itself  is  sold  to  good  advantage,  as  ballast  for  shipping. 
To  sucli  an  extent  is  this  carried  that  the  colliers,  or  ship- 
ping from  London  to  Newcastle,  have  raised  ballast-hills  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Shields,  which,  from  their  vast  extent, 
have  become  objects  of  no  small  curiosity. 

Another  liind  of  dredging-machine,  formerly  much 
employed  in  the  river  Clyde,  and  other  parts  of  Britain, 
consists  of  a  large  plate  of  iron,  about  four  feet  long 
and  eighteen  inches  deep,  and  sharpened  on  the  under 
edge.  To  each  end  of  this  plate  of  iron  a  plank  of  hard 
wood  is  fixed  to  tenons  cut  in  the  iron,  the  sharpened 
edge  of  iron  projecting  about  four  inches  below  the 
wooden  sides.  The  whole  forms  something  like  a  box, 
without  top  or  bottom,  eighteen  inches  deep  at  the  one  end 
and  ten  inches  at  the  other.  From  the  two  extreme  points 
of  the  wood  a  chain  is  fixed,  for  attaching  the  principal 
working  rope  or  chain.  In  order  to  put  the  machine  in 
motion,  it  is  requisite  to  have  a  punt  moored  on  each 
bank  of  the  river  directly  opposite,  and  on  each  of  these 
punts  a  capstan,  or  windlass,  the  one  for  drawing  across 
the  empty  dredge,  and  the  other  for  bringing  it  hack.  In 
the  course  of  its  passage  the  dredge  is  generally  filled, 
and  by  means  of  the  capstan  it  is  drawn  so  high  up  that 
men  at  low  water  can  remove  the  stuff  with  shovels. 
Where  the  shiftings  are  not  fi-equeut  a  capstan  or  wind- 
lass may  be  placed  on  the' bank  of  a  river,  and  the 
operation  performed  as  before.  But  as  this  method  is 
very  tedious  where  dredging  of  great  extent  is  required, 
it  is  now  little  used  except  in  levelling  foundations  under 
water,  for  which  it  is  well  adapted,  if  the  material  is 
soft  sand  or  mud. 

But  by  far  the  most  complete  and  effective  dredging- 
machines  are  those  which  consist  of  an  endless  chain  of 
buckets,  ascending  tvM  and  descending  empty,  each 
bucket  collecting  its  cargo  of  stuff  trhen  at  the  bottom 
of  the  river.  Such  machines,  when  first  introduced, 
were  worked  by  men,  but  when  the  principles  on  which 
such  machines  act  were  more  fully  ascertained,  horses 
were  employed,  who  worked  round  a  covered  gin-trap, 


or  circular  path  within  the  boat.  Still  inj>r«  cicently, 
when  the  impcvlancv  of  vdiatlUitiBf  atmnx-fown  for 
that  of  horses  and  men  has  been  so  (dearlr  seen,  ttean- 
dredging  machines  have  been  constructed,  and  are  now 
used  ID  various  parts  of  Britain. 

One  of  the  most  complete  dredging-machioes  ever 
constmcted  was  made  for  the  harbour  of  Aberdeen  a 
fbw  years  t^.  The  vessel  and  the  steam-engme,  as 
well  as  the  dredging  apparatus,  wer«aU  made  expresslr 
for  the  purpose,  and  for  each  other.  The  reuel  a 
ninety  feet  long,  and  twenty-two  broad,  with  a  l(mgi- 
tndinal  opening  along  the  middle  of  the  ship,  extendi^ 
more  than  half  its  length,  being  fifty-four  feet  long,  asd 
intended  for  the  reception  of  the  frame  contajning  the 
buckets.  The  vessel  draws  only  four  feet  of  water, 
hut  the  bucket-frame  can  be  lowered  so  as  to  dredge 
at  a  depth  of  fifteen  feet.  One  half  of  the  length  rf 
die.  vessel,  as  just  observed,  has  a  longitudinal  slit  or 
opening  through  which  the  buckets  descend  into  the 
water,  and  the  other  half  contains  the  steanMngise 
by  which  the  buckets  are  worked.  The  budet-fiime 
is  a  kind  of  ladder,  placed  in  a  diagonal  diiediaa, 
through  the  middle  line  of  the  ship,  part  being  abotr, 
and  part  dipping  into  the  water.  The  frame  is  fiflj- 
two  feet  in  length,  each  side  being  of  one  entire  piwt 
of  oak  timber.  Ilie  two  ends  of  this  frsme  serve  u 
sapports  for  a  chain  to  which  the  buckets  are  attadied. 
The  links  of  the  chain  weigh,  some  fbrty-fbur,  snd 
others  eighty-four  pounds  each.  The  buckets  are  twenlF- 
one  inches  deep,  twenty-six  inches  wide  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  from  fourteen  to  nineteen  in  the  other.  Tba 
dperation,  then,  is  this.  The  steam-engine  sets  some 
machiuery  in  motion,  which  moves  the  .chain  to  ubich 
the  buckets  are  attached,  and  the  buckets  are  tliu 
drawn  alternately  up  and  down,  having  didr  mouths  or 
open  top  uppermost  when  ascending,  and  lowermost  when 
descending.  The  length  of  the  chain  is  so  r^nlsted 
that  the  buckets  may  just. dip  or  scrape  info  the  mud 
at  the  bottom  of  ^e  harbour,  and  the  mud;  when  hauled 
up,  is  emptied  into  ba^s  placed  alongside  the  vessel. 
The  expense  of  this  apparatus  in  its  complete  state 
was  nearly  five  thousand  pounds. 

Inmost  bucket-dredging  machines  there  are  two  serin 
of  buckets,  one  on  each  side  of  the  vessel,  but  the  mode 
of  operation  is  nearly  the  same  in  both  cases,  the  chain 
of  buckets  in  each  being  arranged  in  an  inclined  poaitioa 
from  head  to  stem  of  the  vessel,  and  the  buckets  slicr- 
nately  ascending  and  descending,  fiill  in  the  forma 
position  and  empty  in  the  latter. ' 


LONDON:  I'obliihAl  b;  JOHK  W.  PABKES,  Wnr  8t>»d,  udwklb;  iT. 


SdturHdil        M^Um^^* 


m  586. 


AUGUST 


21»?,  1841. 


THE   BANKS  OF  THE   THAME&    VI. 


Wb  DOW  approach  th»t  part  of  the  Thames  at  which 
it  receives  the  waters  of  the  riyer  Colne,  atMut  two 
miles  abora  the  town  of  Stunes.  TTiia  rirer  rises  in 
Hertfordshire,  not  for  from  St.  Albans,  and  ^Iw 
passing  by  Watford,  becomes  the  boundary  between  the 
counties  of  Middlesex  and  Buckingham ;  continuing  its 
course  through  Uxbridge  to  the  Thames. 

The  Thames  then  flows  between  Egham  and  Staines, 
the  former  being  on  the  Surrey  and  the  latter  on  the 
Middlesex  side ;  Egbam  is  a  large  Tillage,  in  the  north- 
weat  comer  of  the  county  of  Surrey.  It  consists  of  one 
■treet,  nearly  a  mile  in  length.  The  church,  apparently 
of  considerable  antiquity,  has  externally  but  a  mean 
appearance :  it  is  built  of  stone,  with  a  modem  mixture 
of  brick,  and  is  covered  with  a  white  stocco.  -  On  the 
north  aide  of  the  street  is  a  range  of  alms-houses, 
founded  in  1706,  by  Mr.  Henry  Strode,  merchant  of 
London,  for  six  men  and  six  women,  who  must  be  sixty 
years  of  age,  and  have  been  parishioners  of  Egham 
twenty  years  without  receiving  any  parochial  relief. 
rbe  centre  of  this  building,  which  exhibits  an  appear- 
mce  of  neatness  and  comfort,  is  the  residence  of  a 
ichoolmaster,  who  has  a  salary  for  educating  twenty  poor 
•cys  of  Egham.  This  village  furnishes  a  remarkable 
ostance  of  the  effect  which  changes  in  the  modes  of 
ravelling  will  often  effect  in  the  prosperity  of  particular 
^cea.  A  topographical  writer,  in  describing  Egham 
*  i  t  was  a  few  years  ago,  says : — "  This  place  has  many 
-^f!>ectable  inns,  and  seems  to  be  in  a  thriving  state,  the 
"^cipal  source  of  ita  prosperity  being  derived  from  its 
'  ation  as  a  great  thoroughfare  ^m  the  metropolis  to 
^  -west  and  south  of  the  kingdom."  This  account 
'  "A.  o  longer  true.     The  COmiDUiUCttioo  by  railway  from 


London  .to  the  south-western  parts  of  England  has 
removed  almost  the  entire  stage  coach  trade  from 
Egham,  and  caused  the  closing  of  many  of  the  inns. 

Northward  of  Egham,  between  it  and  the  Thames,  is 
Runnymead,  which  will  ever  be  celebrated  in  the  history 
of  this  country  as  the  spot  where  the  assembled  barons, 
in  1215,  compelled  King  John,  who  had  in  vain  resorted 
to  the  most  criminal  prevarications,  to  grant  what  is 
emphatically  denominated  Magna  Charta,  the  Great 
Charter  of  the  liberties  of  England.  Here  his  assent 
was  extorted ;  but  the  treaty  is  said  to  have  been 
actually  signed  on  an  island  in  the  Thames  still  called 
Charter  Island,  and  included  in  the  parish  called  Wrags- 
bury,  in  Buckinghamshire.  It  was  suggested  some 
years  ago,  that  a  pillar  should  be  erected  on  this  spot, 
to  commemorate  an  event  which  has  had  so  marked  an 
effect  in  the  English  character  and  constitution ;  but  we 
believe  that  nothing  of  the  kind  has  been  put  in  exe- 
cution. 

Westward  of  Egham  la  an  elevatjon  called  Cooper's 
Hill,  which  has  acquired  a  certain  degree  of  celebrity 
from  a  poem  of  the  same  name  by  Sir  John  Denham. 
This  poem  was  written  abont  two  centuries  ago,  and 
appears  to  be  a  description  of  objects  seen  from  the  hill, 
rather  than  of  the  hill  itself.  Cooper's  Hill,  the  pro- 
fessed sabject  of  the  poem,  is  not  mentioned  by  name ; 
neither  is  any  account  given  of  its  situation,  produce,  or 
history ;  but,  as  has  been  ingeniously  observed,  it  serves, 
like  the  stand  of  atelescope,  merely  as  a  convenience  for 
viewing  other  objects.  Dr.  Johnson,  speaking  of  this 
poem,  said : — 

Coofm't  HiU  is  the  worlc  that  confers  upon  Danhnm  f 
m)l(  and  diKoity  of  an  oriKiaal  withoT,    tie  aeems  to  1 
686 


ee 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[AUGtJBT  Vi 


been,  at  least  among  us,  the  author  of  a  species  of  composi- 
tion that  may  be  termed  local  poetry,  of  which  the  funda- 
mental subject  is  some  particular  landscape,  to  be  poetically 
described,  with  the  addition  of  such  embellishments  as  may 
be  supplied  by  historical  retrospection,  or  incidental  medi- 
tation. To  trace  a  new  species  of  poetry,  has  in  itself  a 
very  high  claim  to  praise ;  and  its  praise  is  yet  more,  when 
it  is  apparently  copied  by  Garth  and  Pope. 

The  associations  connected  with  this  spot  are  rendered 
perennial  by  the  lines  of  Pope : — 

Bear  me,  oh !  bear  me  to  sequestered  scenesi 

To  bow'ry  mazes  and  surrounding  greens  ; 

To  Thames's  bank,  which  fragrant  breezes  fill. 

Or  where  the  Muses  sport  on  Cooper's  Hill. 

(On  Cooper's  Hill  eternal  wreaths  shall  grow. 

While  lasts  the  mountain,  or  while  Thames  shall  flow.) 

I  seem  through  consecrated  walks  to  rove, 

I  hear  soft  music  die  along  the  grove : 

Led  by  the  sound  I  rove  from  shade  to  shade. 

By  god-like  poets  venerable  made. 

Here  his  first  lays  majestic  Denham  smig ; 

There  the  last  numbers  flowed  from  Cowley's  tongae. 

From  Egham  we  cross  the  Thames  by  a  bridge  to 
the  town  of  Staines.  Staines  Bridge  is  a  handsome 
stone  structure,  erected  in  lieu  of  an  earlier  iron  bridge 
with  a  single  arch,  which  was  not  deemed  safe.  Staines 
is  a  market  town,  with  about  two  thousand  inhabitants* 
It  has  been  much  Improved  of  late  jrears)  and  consists 
principally  of  one  wide  street*  oontatninff  some  good 
houses,  and  terminating  at  the  {bot  of  the  bridge.  The 
church,  dedicated  to  St.  Mary,  and  originally  erected  iu 
1631  by  Inigo  JoneS)  has  been  recently  rebuilt;  it  is  a 
neat  structure,  with  A  square  embattled  tower;  the 
interior,  which  ia  Well  arranged  and  handsomely  fitted 
up,  contains  about  thi^e  hundred  and  fifty  free  sittings. 

Staines,  of  Statiet)  M  it  was  fbrmerly  called,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  Saxon  word 
Hana  or  stonei  beeauiei  wtthln  its  jMirochial  limits,  the 
stone  has  immetttoflAtljr  itood^  whlen  marks  the  extent 
of  the  city  of  London's  western  Jurisdiction  on  the 
Thames.  It  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  at  Colne- 
ditch,  at  a  small  distance  from  the  church.  On  the 
upper  part  of  the  stone,  which  is  much  decayed,  is 
inscribed,  '^God  preserve  the  citv  of  London,  a.d. 
1280."  This  stone  was,  during  the  mayoralty  of  Sir 
Watkin  Lewes,  in  the  year  1781,  placed  on  a  new 
pedestal,  whose  inscription  informs  the  reader  that  it 
was  erected  exactly  over  the  spot  where  the  old  one 
formerly  stood. 

This  stone  marks  a  bound^^  beyohd  which  the 
conservancy  of  the  Thames  passes  into  other  hands; 
and  we  take  the  present  opportunity  to  offer  a  few 
explanatory  remarks  on  this  subject.  There  is  a  homelv 
proverb,  that  ''every  body's  business  is  nobody's  busi- 
ness ;"  the  truth  of  which  would  be  soon  shown  if  such 
a  river  as  the  Thames  were  left  without  definite  arrange- 
ments being  made  for  its  conservancy.  Before  the 
Y^ar  1771,  the  navigation  of  the  river  was  very  imperfect. 
li  was  carried  on  in  larg^  barges  of  two  hundred  tons 
ii  brdeh,  drawing  four  feet  water,  passing  downward  by 
the  force  of  the  stream,  and  upwards  by  the  tractive 
force  of  men  or  horses,  walking  on  the  banks.  In  some 
'  cases  the  barge  was  piilled  along  by  twelve  or  fourteen 
horses,  or  by  a  gang  of  men  varying  from  fifty  to  eighty. 
But  in  the  year  which  we  have  mentioned,  an  act  of 
parliament  was  passed  for  improving  the  navigation 
fVom  the  metropolis  to  Cricklade ;  and  soon  afterwards 
another  act  Vested  the  jurisdiction  of  that  part  of  the 
river  between  London  and  Staines  in  the  corporation  of 
the  city  of  London,  Which  has  in  consequence  made 
considerable  improvements,  by  the  construction  of 
towing-paths,  locks,  and  other  works.  The  jurisdiction  of 
the  corporation  extends  from  Staines  to  the  Crow-stone, 
near  Southend,  including  part  of  the  rivers  Med  way 
and  Lea.  It  is  the  office  of  the  lord  mayor's  deputy, 
"^he  water-bailiff,  to  search  i^r,  and  punisli^  all  persons 


who  infringe  the  laws  made  for  the  preservation  of  the 
river,  and  its  fish ;  and  in  order  to  inaintain  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  river>  the  lord  major  holds  a 
court  of  conservancy  eight  times  in  the  year,  in  the 
four  counties  of  Middlesex,  Surrey,  Kent,  and  Essex. 

With   regard  to  the  portion  of  the  Thames  above 
Staines,  we  shall  avail  ourselves  of  a  pamjihlet  published 
a  few  years  ago  by  Mr.  Allunt  of  Henley.    Whether 
any  changes  have  occurred  since  then,  we  do  not  know; 
but  we  shall  give  the  substance  of  the  statement  nude 
by  him.     The  upper  portion  of  the  Thames,  extending 
from  Staines  to  Lechlade  in  Gloucestershire,  a  distance  of 
one  hundred  and  nine  miles,  is  divided  into  five  districts; 
the   first,    from    Staines  Stone,  to   Boulter's  lock,  by 
Windsor  and  Maidenhead ;  the  second,  from  thence  to 
Mapledurham  lock,  by  Marlow,  Henley,  and  Reading; 
the  third,  thence  by  Wallingford  to  Shillingford  bridge; 
the  fourth,  from  thence  by  Abingdon  to  Oxford;  and 
the  fifth,  from  Oxford  to  Lechlade.     By  Tarious  acts  of 
parliament,  the  management  of  these  districts  of  the 
Thames  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  disinterested  com- 
missioners,  consisting   of  gentlemen  of  the  comities 
bordering  on  the  river,  possessing  lOOA'ayearrealjor 
3000/.  personal  estate.     Six  general  meetings  of  these 
commissioners  are  annually  held,  at  London,  Windsor, 
Marlow,  Reading,  Wallingnird,  and  Oxford.  Empoveied 
to  raise  by  loans  the  sum  of  seventy-fiTS  thonoDd 
pounds^  at  ati  ititei^st  of  five  jper  cent.»  they  hare  ex- 
pended that  imd  the  annual  sui^lua  of  the  toUi,  is 
making   several  t>ound4oektt»  tnostly  a  hundred  and 
twenty  fieei  in  len^h}  ht  etghiHen  in  width  $  and  also  in 
short  side-cuts,  situated  tn  places  where  the  river  was 
formerly  penned  un  fttr  the  purpose  of  t(rorking  mills, 
or  for  fishings      Considerable   autns   have  also  been 
expended  in  making  a  convenient  horse-towing  path 
along  the  whole  navij^tloui  in  ballasting  the  chaniiel 
where  necessaryi  and  in  other  itnprovetnents,  bj  which 
vessels  are  enabled  to  navigate  without  obstruction  at 
the  depth  of  three  feet  ten  inciies  in  all  leasoDs.   Bj 
these  improvements  and  the  judicious  regulations  adopted 
by  the  commissioners,  the  navigation  was  rendered  to  a 
certain  degree   safe  and  expe^tious.     The  supply  of 
water  is  generally  abundant,  from  the  many  tributary 
streams  flowing  mto  the  Thames.     Bargetf  usually  go 
down  the  river  at  the  rate  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty- 
five  miles  a  day ;  and  up  from  twenty  to  thirty  mile* 
The  tolls  are  three-pence  per  ton  at  each  pound  lock,  or 
six  shillings  and  nine-pence  per  ton  for  two  hundred  aua 
eighteen  miles ;  besides  a  toll  of  about  two  shillings  y« 
ton  throughout  to  the  weir-owners.     The  trade  in  t» 
Thames  has  been  sufficient  to  yield  a  sum  large  enoog 
to  keep  the  works  in  repair,  and  to  permit  a  consideraw 
amount  to  be  expended  in  new  works*     This  accWBi 
was  given  before  the  age  of  railroads  commenced ;  it^ 
probable  that  many  modifications  have  been  produc« 
m  the  amount  of  traffic  along  the  upper  course  of  ^ 
Thames. 

We  now  leave  Staines,  and  proceed  in  our  tour  do«a 
the  river.  Not  far  from  this  town,  St*  Ann's  hill  ap- 
pears in  a  very  conspicuous  and  elevated  sitoati(^' 
offering  a  picturesque  object  at  various  bends  of  w 
river.  Laleham  soon  appears  in  sight;  a  spot  ftsoi 
for  the  entertainment  it  affords  to  the  lovers  of  angjj^' 
The  river  at  Laleham  narrows  considerably^  and  abou? 
the  shallows  the  water  is  beautifully  transparent.    1^^ 


the  tranquillity  of  the  scenery,  Uie  various  objects  p^J* 
petually  gliding  on  the  stream,  and  groups  of  <^^^^^ 
from  the  adjacent  meadows  drinking  at  the  river,  ai 


contribute  to  form  a  picturesque  assemblage. 

From  Laleham,  the  river  proceeds  in  a  course  n 
due  south,  for  a  distance  ^  about  three  milesi  ^ 
Chertsey,  a  pretty  market-town  on  the  Surrey  side »» 
the  river.  Chertsey  formerly  derived  ewisequence  fr^ 
its  abbey,  which  ranked  among  the  more  cim"^*"^ 
monastic  iastitutiims  of  the  <:emitryj   and  po«e^ 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


annual  revenues  valued  at  the  time  of  the  dissolution  at 
aboat  seven  hundred  pounds.  Some  of  the  outer  walls 
are  the  only  remains  or  this  once  celebrated  edifice.  On 
the  site  of  the  abbey^  (which  once  contained  the  body  of 
Henry  the  Sixth.)  Sir  Henry  Carew,  master  of  the 
buck-hounds  to  Charles  the  Second,  built  a  handsome 
mansion,  called  the  Abbev-house.  Across  the  Thames 
at  Chertaey  is  a  bridge  of  seven  arches^  built  of  Purbeck 
stone,  at  an  expense  of  about  thirteen  thousand  pounds. 

The  poet  Cowley  resided  in  Cherttey  some  time,  and 
died  in  what  was  called  the  Porch-house.  He  retired  to 
this  quiet  spot  from  disgust,  wearied  out  with  the 
vexatious  attendance  upon  a  court,  and  the  fatigues  of 
business.  In  this  retreat  he  vainly  flattered  himself 
with  meeting  uninterrupted  harmony ;  but  the  fbllowing 
letter,  written  by  bim  to  Dr.  Spratt  soon  after  his 
arriyal  at  his  new  abode^  speaks  of  a  mind  \y  no  means 
satisfied  and  at  ease. 

Chertsey,  May  21, 1665, 

The  first  nleht  that  I  came  hither  t  caught  so  great  a 
eold,  with  a  oe^uxipn  of  rheum,  as.  made  me  keep  my 
ehamber  ten  days.  And,  two  dayd  after,  had  suoh  a  bruise 
en  my  ribs  with  a  &U,  that  I  am  yet  unable  to  move  er 
turn  xnyaelf  in  my  bed.  Tiiis  is  my  pefSDoal  fortune  hete 
to  begin  with.  J^Mt  besides,  I  can  ge^  40  money  fyosa  my 
tenantSy  and  have  my  meadowa  eaten  m^  ^79iV}[  i^igh^  by 
cattle  put  in^by  my  neighboura.  What  this  sigmSes,  or 
may  come  to  in  time,  God  knows ;  if  it  be  ominous,  it  can 
ena  in  nothing  less  than  hanging.  Another  misfortune  haa 
been,  and  stranger  than  all  the  rest,  that  you  have  broke 
yoor  word  with  me,  and  failed  to  oome. 

But  we  must  now  leave  Cowley  and  his  .troubles ; 
and  will,  in  the  next  paper,  proceed  on  our  tour  from 
the  town  of  Chertsey  eastward. 


■*▼■ 


GARDEN  HBRBS. 

Basix<? 

AccoRDiNO  to  fabulous  history  this  plant  ojngipatpd 
£rom  the  death  of  Ocimusy  who  fiirat  ordained  the 
coinbata  in  boQPur  of  Pallaa«  an4  b^^g  killed  by 
OyolodemaSi  a  famous  gladiator,  was  inimecUately  metf^ 
niorphosed  into  the  plant  which  bears  hiH  n^m^ 

The  Greeks  called  this  plant  cix«funr  on  aeeouot  of 
qix.ickne8s  with  which  the  seied  germinatea.  In  modem 
botany  the  term  Ooymum  is  applied  to  a  genus  of  labiate 
plants  remarkable  for  the  fragrance  of  their  leaves 
ir^ch  are  used  as  an  ingredient  in  savoury  dishesi  for 
irUeh  reason  some  of  the  species  have  been*  from  tfme 
inExmemorial,  very  generally  cultivated.  They  are  known 
io  our  gardens  as  &asii«,  the  name  6aMYiu0t»  (from  the 
G-jreek  word  for  a  kings)  having  been  ^plied  to  common 
hmM  by  the  moi^sk  writers  on  plants  in  aUnnon  to  its 
TB^al  qualities. 

Basil  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  £uFepe,  as  well  as 
tk«  East  Indies  and  some  parts  of  Africa :  it  also  grows 
wild  in  Persia.  There  are  many  varietiesy  of  which 
G«rard  eiumerates  several.    He  says  :-^ 

€hfea$  pardm  Ixuil  is  of  two  sorts,  dififerinsp  fVom  one 
another  in  biffnesSi  The  first  hath  broad,  thiok  and  fiit 
leavee,  of  a  pleasant  sweet  smell,  and  of  which  some  are 
here  and  there  of  a  blaekish  red  colour,  somewhat  snipped 
about  the  e^g^  not  unlike  the  leaves  of  French  mercury. 
The  stalk  groweth  to  the  height  of  half  a  cubity  dividing 
itself  into  qivers  branches  whereupon  do  stand  small  ana 
base  flowers,  sometimes  whitish,  and  often  tending  to  dark 
purple.  The  root  is  thready,  and  drlethat  the  approach  of 
winter. 

OUran  hoiU  is  very  like  unto  the  former^  but  is  altogether 
leaser.  The  whole  plant  is  of  a  most  odoriferous  smell, 
not  unlike  the  smell  of  a  lemon  or  citreny  whereof  i|  took 
bis  surname, 

•Bu^h  hoHl  is  a  low  and  base  plant,  having  a  thready  root 
from  which  rise  up  m^ny  smaU  and  tender  stalks,  branched 
into  divers  arms  or  boughs,  whereupon  are  placed  many 
little  Xeaves,  lesser  than  those  of  pennyroyal.  The  whole 
plant  is  of  a  most  plcMing  sweet  smell. 
'^'*<iian  basil  sends  up  a  stalk  a  foot  or  more  high,  four- 


square, and  of  a  purple  colotir,  set  at  each  joint  with  two 
leaves,  and  out  of  their  bosoms  come  little  branches :  the 
laigest  leaves  are  some  two  inches  broad,  and  some  three 
long,  growing  upon  long  stalks,  and  deeply  cut  in  about 
the  edges,  bemg  also  thick,  fat  and  juicy,  and  either  of  a 
dark  purple  colour,  or  else  spotted  with  more  or  less  such 
coloured  spots.  The  tops  of  the  branches  end  in  spokie 
tuits  01  white  flowers^  with  purple  veins  running  alongst 
them.  The  seed  is  round,  black  and  large.  The  pluit 
perishes  every  year  as  soon  as  it  hath  perfected  the  seed. 

This  harmless  and  fragrant  herb  was  the  object  of 
many  superstitious  prejudices  amons^  the  ancients,  and 
of  much  fierce  debate  among  the  old  herbalists.  The 
ancients  were  of  opinion  that  if  bas\l  were  pounded  and 
put  under  a  stone,  it  would  breed  serpents.  Instead  of 
putting  this  marvellous  quality  to  the  test,  they  continued 
to  decry  the  use  of  the  horb ;  and  when  it  was  trans- 
planted into  this  country,  our  herbalists  finding  the 
climate  too  cold  for  serpents,  transformed  them  into 
worms  and  maggots,  which,  as  it  is  gravely  stated,  this 
herb  will  engender  if  it  be  only  chewed  and  put  into  the 
sun. 

Cbrysippus^  two  hundred  years  nrC,  condemned 
basil  as  being  hurtful  to  the  stomach,  an  enemy  to  the 
sight,  and  a  robber  of  the  wits,  Diodorus  stated,  that 
by  eating  this  herb,  cutaneous  insects  are  produced. 
HoUerus  relatesi  that  an  Italian  by  frequently  smelling 
this  herb,  bred  a  scorpion  in  his  brain.  According  to 
Galen,  "  basil  is  hot  in  the  second  degree ;  but  it  hath 
adjoined  with  it  a  superfluous  moisture,  by  reason 
whereof  it  should  not  be  taken  inwardly,  but  being 
applied  outwardly,  it  is  good  to  digest  or  distribute,  and 
to  concoct/'  Galen  says  further,  that  basil  was  eaten 
by  many  persons  in  his  time,  being  corrected  with  oil 
and  \inegar. 

Gerard  reeommends  the  juice  of  basil  to  be  drunk  in 
wine  of  Chios,  or  strong  sack,  as  a  remedy  for  the  head- 
ache. ^^  Mixed  with  fine  meal  of  parched  barley,  oil  of 
roses,  4nd  vinegar,  it  is  good  against  inflammations  and 
the  sting  of  venomous  beasts.  They  of  Africa  do  affirm 
that  they  who  are  stung  of  the  scorpion,  and  have  eaten 
of  it,  shall  feel  no  pain  at  all." 

Basil  leaves  a  pleasant  smell  when  rubbed  with  the 
hand;  and  it  was  formerly  said  that  the  hand  of  a  fair 
lady  mftde  it  thrive.     Fanners  in  the  times  of  Queen 
Mj^ry  and  Queen  Elisabeth  planted  it  in  pots  to  offer  to 
their  landladies  or  others  who  visited  the  farni.    Tusser 
lays  Sp- 
line BaiU  desfa^th  it  m^y  be  hlr  lot  ^ 
To  grow  as  a  gilleflower,  trim  in  a  pot ; 
That  ladies  and  gentiles,  for  whom  yon  do  serve, 
May  hel^  h«r  a«  needeth,  poore  life  to  preserve. 

In  our  gardens  basil  is  treated  as  a  tender  annual*  It 
is  raised  in  the  spring  in  a  hot-bodi  and  turned  into  a 
warm  border  when  the  summer  is  so  far  advanced  that 
frosty  nights  are  no  longer  to  be  feared.  A  slight  frost 
would  be  instantly  fatal  to  this  plant. 

The  history  of  basil  may  be  thus  briefly  summed  up. 
first  f-'-r*The  ancients  regarded  it  as  a  most  viruulent 
and  dangerous  plant.  Seoondlt/^ — The  old  herbalists 
were  divided  in  opinion.  Culpeper  says  ^^^'^  A  way  to 
Dr.  Reason  went  1,  who  told  me  that  bazil  was  an  herb 
of  Mars,  and  under  the  Scorpion,  and  perhaps,  therefore, 
called  basilicon,  and  it  is  no  marvel  if  it  carry  a  kind  of 
virulent  quality  with  it.**  Gerard  agrees  with  Simeon 
Zethy  that,  "the  smell  of  this  plant  is  good  for  the 
heart  and  for  the  head :  that  the  seed  cureth  the  infirmi- 
ties of  the  heart,  taketh  away  sorrowfulness  which 
Cometh  of  melancholy,  and  maketh  a  man  merry  and 
glad."  Thirdly, — Modem  botanists  regard  basil  as  a 
simple  garden  herb,  useful  to  impai*t  flavour  to  soups 
and  sauces. 

BORAGEU 

The  common  borage  is  often  taken  as  the  typo  of  Bora- 
gineaa,  the  Borage  family,  a  natural  order  of  Dicotvledo- 

58G— 2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[AuoDlrSl, 


nous  plants,  containiog  about  thirty  g:enera,  and  nearly 
three  hundred  species,  Thia  herb  represents  not  only 
the  peculiarities  of  structure,  but  sensible  properties  M 
this  order:  all  the  known  species  have  an  insipid  juice, 
and  their  surface  in  covered  with  stiff,  white  hairs,  whidi 
impart  a  peculiar  roughness  or  asperity  to  the  skin,  on 
which  account  these  plants  were  formerly  called  atptri- 
Jolia,  or  rough-leaved. 

Borage  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  I^ttin  words,  ear 
end  ago,  because  the  old  herbalists  used  it  "to  comfort 
the  Ittart  and  spirits  of  those  that  are  in  a  consumption 
or  troubled  with  oA«n  swoonings,  or  passions  of  the 
h»art."  The  ancient  Romans  called  it  ovglotut,  from 
the  Greek  BwyXwnrar,  because  the  leaf  is  like  the  tongue 
of  an  ox.  The  French  call  it  latwuf  d*  hteyi^  and  the 
name  BugloBS  ia  not  uncommon  in  England.  Et^Ari»y' 
turn  \t  also  an  ancient  name  for  it,  because  when  put  into 
a  cup  of  wine  it  was  said  to  make  those  who  drsjik  of  it 
merry, — an  effect  which  we  should  be  disposed  to  attri- 
bute rather  to  the  wine  than  the  borage. 

Borage  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  England 
from  Aleppo,  but  it  grows  so  freely  in  this  country  that 
many  writers  suppose  it  to  be  indigenons.  The  herb  is 
succulent  and  mncilBginous,  and  when  brmaed  yields  a 
very  feint  odour.  Exhilarating  qualities  were  formerly 
attaibuted  to  it,  and  it  was  reckoned  one  of  the  four 
cordial  flowers,  the  other  three  being  alkanet,  roses,  and 
violets.  It  has  been  recommended  as  a  medicine  of 
great  efficacy  in  pleurisy  and  inflammatory  fever,  and  u 
such  is  Bometimes  used  in  France  in  the  form  of  a  syrup 
prepared  from  the  leaves.  The  jnice  of  borage  yielcb 
nitre,  and  on  this  account  perhaps  its  medicinal  virtues 
are  considered  salutary.  Water  distilled  from  both  the 
leaves  and  flowers  of  the  plant  was  formerly  a  favourite 
medicine,  but  is  very  little  regarded  in  modem  practice. 
Gerard  says  that  many  things  can  be  made  from  borage, 
*'  and  be  used  everywhere  for  the  comfort  of  the  heart, 
for  the  driving  away  of  sorrowe  and  increasing  the  JMe 
of  the  mind.  Sirrupe  made  of  the  flowers  oomforteth 
the  heart,  pnrgeth  melancholie,  quieteth  the  pbrentidie 
or  Innaticke  person.  The  leaves  eaten  raw  do  engender 
goode  bloode,  and  when  bmled  in  honey  and  water  they 
cure  hoarseness." 

Lord  Bacon  observes  that— 

The  leaf  of  the  borage  hath  an  excellent  i^rlt  to  repress 
the  fuliginous  vapour  of  dnsky  melancholy,  and  M  to  enre 
madnsM:  but  neverthelesa,  if  the  leaf  be  infosad  long  it 
vieldeth  fbith  bnt  a  raw  snbstaDca,  of  no  vUuc  ;  bat  Uthe 
V^We  star  a  raoall  time,  and  be  often  changed  with  freih. 
It  will  m^e  ■  flovenjgn  drink  for  melancholy  pasuons. 

Iliere  is  an  old  Latin  verse  on  tiiis  plant — 
Ego  bongo  candia  stmper  Bg»— 
which  has  been  thus  paraphrased  :— • 
I,  Borage,  bring  ooarsge. 

This  herb  is  now  almost  entirely  neglected  in  England, 
although  it  is  sometimes  used  with  wine,  water,  lemon, 
and  sugar  as  an  ingredient  in  the  favourite  old  English 
drink  ^led  "  cool  tankard."  The  plant  has  an  odour 
hkc  cucumber,  and,  in  consequence  of  the  nitre  con- 
tained in  it,  communicates  a  peculiar  coolness  and  flavour 
to  any  beverage  in  which  it  is  steeped. 


Hb  who  from  oat  the  dull  dark  euih 
Can  bid  the  red  rose  lake  jta  birth. 
And  from  the  blind  nnopaned  mine 
Call  forth  the  gem  Co  live  and  ahine. 
He,  bjMme  paverfal,  heavenly  law, 
"Will  ftom  our  darlc  eondiUon  draw 
EnjoTtnent  endless,  lovelj  light, 
And  give  ns  oonage  for  llie  fight. 
Give  sttength  throng^  eveiy  ill  to  spring 
And  bdpe,  which  oooqnMa  ewythug^— I 


WIRE-GAUZE. 


Ih  out  i«eeiit  men  on  Wire-drawing  ve  brirfy  b- 
plained  the  mode  m  which  a  bar  of  iron  or  other  eHiI 
1*  gradoaUy  reduced  in  diameter,  till  the  form  of  tin 
i>  prodneed.  We  now  proceed  to  akow  how  win,  tki 
prodnced,  nay  be  made  into  a  net,  a  doth,  a  gun,  u 
extended  materia  connitiBg  of  meshei. 

Thia  kind  of  mandactnre  aaaumes  one  of  two  fom 
according  to  circmnatance*.  If  a  fatee,  grating,  ur  wt 
be  required,  in  which  the  nesbes  are  aa  ranch  at  u  ocb 
in  diameter,  or  are  otlierwiM  than  rectangnlar  ia  lim 
the  wire  is  twiated  or  plaited  into  the  required  form  d; 
tiand;  bnt  if  the  meabes  are  iraaller  in  siie,  tke  prtiMt 
it  efiecled  by  means  of  a  loom,  in  many  respedi  rwn- 
hiing  the  cloth-weaver's  hand-loom. 

In  the  annexed  cot  (Gg.  1,)  abba  nprewoti  tk 
frame  of  the  loom,  by  which  all  the  puts  are  held  tag^ 
(her,  and  which  ii  generally  aboat  five  tiet  hgk.  (m 
feet  deep,  and  three  wide,  but  oceaaionally  much  brps- 
c  is  a  beam  or  wooden  roller,  on  the  sur&ee  of  vhid 
has  been  turned  a  number  of  deep  grooves,  inio  "iiA 
the  wins  to  form  the  "  warp  "  are  wound,  eafh  grwrt 
IBMiiiug  a  greater  or  less  number  of  wins,  scnriiif 
to  the  required  fineness  of  the  wire-cloth  or  fW- 
Theae  wires  pasa  through  vertical  openings  in  a  iind  tf 
frame-work,  s  b,  and  then  pass  over  a  roller  in  froat  J 
the  frame.  As  Ae  cloth  becomes  woven  it  b  ironed  <■  : 
another  roller  situated  beneath  the  one  just  refemdtD. 
The  tpparatni  at  d  b  consists  rf  two  sen,  or  to 
frames  of  vertica]  wires,  each  about  as  thick  u  s  «■-  , 
mon  knitting-pin,  and  in  the  middle  of  each  of  i1k* 
wires  a  small  hole  b  punched,  throi^b  yhich  ow  vi" 
of  the  warp  is  passed.  Thus  each  wire  of  tlie  vif 
has  a  separate  perforstitHi  appropriated  to  itself.  TbM 
frames  are  suspended,  two  and  two  together,  hy  t«* 
passing  over  the  top  of  the  loom,  or  elw  round  inltnt 
fixed  to  an  upper  beam,  r  o  are  two  treadle*,  b;  *^ 
the  weover  draws  down  the  inmes  altematdj,  ^"^ 
the  process  of  weavit^. 

liie  warp-wires  being  thne  arranged  in  a  pinD^ 
horizontal  layer  from  the  beam  to  the  front  rolleTi  H  > 
evident  that,  by  pressing  down  the  treadles  attend^^ 
the  warp-wires  in  the  loop-holes  of  the  frames  »'*"' 
be  alteraatdy  elevated  and  depressed,  to  as  to  ftn° ' 
paasage,  nnder  some  of  the  wires  and  above  otbcn  I* 
a  shuttle  containrag  a  bobbin  of  wire.  As  tbc  itiD» 
passes  in  this  way  across  the  warp,  it  leaves  oneiii^ 
of  "weft"  behind  it,  which  is  immediately  driTcn  up  tlw 
to  the  weft-thread  immediately  preceding  Jt|  br  u>  '"' 
strument  called  the  read,  which  swings  on  thr  loV 
part  of  the  lever  H.  The  warp-wires  being  reverwi  a 
posi^on  by  the  action  of  the  treadles,  the  layw,  iw« 
»et  of  wires,  which  was  before  elevated,  isnowdepreo^ 
and  the  depressed  wires  elevated,  and  another  un- 
thread is  similarly  thrown  across  i»  the  sbulde,  »>' 
driven  up  by  means  of  the  reod. 

The  matrnment  last  apokan  ctf, ».«.  the  reed,  ii  m"- 


IWI.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


69 


Cased  of  small  bftn  of  Bteel  wire.  Bet  u  close  as  poari- 
le,  so  u  only  just  to  admit  the  warp-wires  between 
them,  and  the  B«iDf(-frame  h,  to  which  it  is  attached,  is 
t>alanc«d  and  aided  in  ita  oBcillatioiu  by  a  heavy  mova- 
ble  piece  of  timber  i.  resting  on  pirots  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  frame. 

As  the  worlc  advances  the  wovett  cloth  is  wonod  on 
the  lower  front  roller  or  beam  by  moving  the  beam  c 
round  a  little,  by  meana  of  a  ratchet  wheel  at  one  end, 
and  the  connecting  lever  ■.  Thus  the  weaving  proceeds, 
thread  sfler  thr^  of  weft  being  thrown  across  the 
mrp,  the  two  seta  of  warp-wires  being  sltemately  ele- 
vated and  depreued. 

The  shuttles  are  of  two  kinds,  ueerding  to  the  thick- 
nesfl  of  the  wire  empWed.  In  general,  the  form  is 
that  represented  at  a  in  tho  aimex«d  cut  (fig.  2,)  difliiring 


Irat  litt!e  from  the  linen-weaver'i  thattle,  as  formerly 
used.  It  is  a  kind  of  thick  blunt  needle,  limiUr  at 
both  ends,  and  made  of  box-wood.  It  is  about  six 
inches  in  length,  and  luu  an  ajvertore  in  the  middle  for 
the  insertion  of  a  bobbin  or  pirn.  This  bobbin  is  a 
little  cylinder  rotating  on  its  axis  by  means  of  pivots  at 
the  ends,  and  the  wire  being  wonnd  on  the  bobbin,  the 
rotation  eaiUses  it  to  be  given  off  as  wanted  by  the 
vesver.  When  the  wire  ia  very  thick  it  does  not  leave 
the  bobbin  with  sufficient  ease  and  celerity,  and  in  that 
case  it  is  wound  on  a  kind  of  notched  stick,  represented 
cat  B,  and  then  driven  across  the  warp-threods. 

Power-loom  weaving  has  been  applied  to  wire-cloth, 
^L3  well  as  to  fibrous  materials,  such  as  linen,  cotton, 
».nd  woollen,  but  the  demand  is  not  sufficiently  extensive 
t  ^  render  this  application  of  steam  power  of  high  im- 
jj>ortance. 

The  reader  will  readily  call  to  mind  the  many  purposes 
fVir  which  twisted  wire  is  applied,  under  the  general  name 
(»f  "  wire-work."  Of  those  kinds  which  are  woven,  the 
c-  purser  specimens  are  used  for  fences,  pheaasntries,  lan- 
t  ^nut,  ftc,  and  the  finer  for  flour-dressing  machines, 
p^iiper-mill  washers,  fine  sieves,  meat-saiies,  dish-covers, 
^"indow -blinds,  and  a  variety  of  other  purposes. 

When  the  meshes  are  very  minute,  the  fabric  is  termed 
t^re  gmuie, — a  substance  which  has  become  interesting 
wince  the  curious  diaeovery  of  Sir  H.  Davy,  that  such 
gauxe  is  incapable  of  permitting  the  passage  of  flame. 

The  experiment  may  be  performed  with  a  piece  of 
wire-gauie,  about  nine  inches  square,  and  of  such  fineness 
as  to  contain  about  thirty  meshes  in  the  sqnare  inch.  If 
-^«e  bring  the  gauie  gradually  down  upon  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  or  of  a  spirit-lamp,  an  appearance  will  be  presented 
as  shown  in  fig.  3.  The  flame  does  not  pass  through  the 
^lue,  but  only  the  hot  inflammable  vapour  of  the 
fiame,  which  may  he  ignited  at  the  upper  surface,  as 
shown  in  fig.  4. 

If  two  pieces  of  paper  be  attached,  one  to  each  surface 
of  the  gause,  and  flame  be  applied  below,  the  under 
pie«e  will  of  course  be  consumed;  but  the  upper  piece 
-will  remain  uninjured  by  the  flame,  so  long  as  the  wire- 
^uze  remains  below  red-heat.  If,  instead  of  paper,  we 
place  camphor  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  gause,  the 
cAinphor  will  not  take  fire  there;  but  having  melted,  will 
pass  through  the  gause,  and  hum  on  the  under  surface 
only.  If  gunpowder  be  sprinkled  on  the  gause,  it  will 
not  ignite  until  the  wire  ia  hot  enough  for  the  purpose, 
"When  Lycopodium  is  projected  on  flame  it  instantly 
breaks  out  into  ablase;  but  if  this  substance  be  projected 
on  the  wire-gauie,  it  merely  bUckenSi  and  does  not  take 
fireatalL 

We  see,  then,  from  these  experiments,  that  wire-gaoie 
sa  a  barrier  to  the  progress  of  combustion,  and  that  it 


intercepts  heat  as  well  as  flame.  If  we  place  a  piece  of 
cotton-stuff  upon  the  gauie,  and  bring  the  latter  down 
upon  a  flame,  the  cotton  will  remain  uninjured  until  the 
wire  gets  red-hot : — the  flame  will  then  pass  through  and 
consume  the  stuff.  We  see  then  that  wire-gauze  ceases 
to  intercept  flame  as  soon  as  by  increase  of  tempesature 
it  ceeses  to  intercept  heat. 

Ri-i. 

Fig.  •. 


Fg.4. 


Now  siace  Uie  wire-gauze  is  formed  of  a  good  con-^ 
ducting  substance,  so  much  heat  is  abstracted  from  the 
flame,  that  the  vapour  which  passes  through  the  meshes 
is  not  hot  enough  to  appear  as  flame;  but  when  the 
gause  is  red-hot,  sufficient  heat  passes  through  to  kindle 
the  vapour,  and  then  the  flame  is  both  below  and  above 
the  gause;  in  which  ease  the  latter  only  bisects  the  flame 

The  remarkable  property  of  wire-ganze,  was  applied 
by  Sir  H.  Davy  to  the  oonstmction  of  the  miner's  safety 
lamp.  Coal-mines  are  frequently  infested  with  an  in- 
flammable compound  of  hydrogen  and  carbon  called  car- 
buretted  hydri^n,  or  by  the  miners,  fire-damp.  This 
gas  by  mingling  with  the  atmospheric  air  becomes  explo- 
sive ;  so  that  the  means  whereby  the  miner  dispelled  the 
darkness  of  his  gloomy  workshop  often  produced  his 
destruction.  To  remedy  the  frequent  disasters  thus  oc- 
casioned. Sir  H.  Davy  invented  a  lamp,  the  flame  of 
which  is  entirely  surrotmded  by  a  hollow  cylinder  of 
wire-gauze  A,  (fig  5,)  with  a  double  top,  carefully 
fastened,  by  doubling  over,  W  the  brass  rim  b,  which 
screws  on  to  the  lamp  c.  The  whole  is  protected  and 
rendered  portable  by  the  frame  and  ring  d.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  flame  of  the  lamp  cannot  penetrate  from 
within  to  the  surrounding  medium,  in  consequence  of 
the  cooling  power  of  the  metallic  tissue. 

Another  humane  application  of  wirc^uxe  was  made 
by  the  Chevalier  Aldmi,  who  applied  this  substance, 
together  with  other  badly  conducting  materials,  as  a  pro- 
tection agunst  fire.  The  incombustible  parts  of  dress 
for  covering  the  body,  anna,  and  legs,  he  formed  out  of 
strong  cloUt,  previously  steeped  in  an  alum  solution; 
and  the  parts  intended  for  the  head  were  made  of  asbes- 
tos. The  head-dress  was  a  large  cap  entirely  covering 
the  head  down  to  the  ne^  with  proper  apertures  for  the 
eyes,  nostrils,  and  mouth.  To  this  dress  was  superadded 
a  wire-gauze  dress  consisting  of  a  cap,  a  cuirass,  a 
covering  for  the  body  and  thighs;  a  pair  of  boots  of 
double  wire-gauze,  and  a  shield. 

Numerons  experimenta  were  made  to  show  the  efficacy 
of  these  defences  in  resisting  flame.  Among  many  othecs 
we  may  mention  those  exhibited  to  a  committee  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris,  Two  parallel  rows  of 
straw  and  brushwood,  supported  by  iron  frames,  were 
placed  three  feet  apart  and  extended  thirty  feet  in  length 


70 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


fAUGWT  91, 


When  this  mass  was  ignited,  the  spectators  were  obliged 
to  move  to  a  distance  of  nine  or  ten  yards  to  avoid  the 
heat.  The  flames  appeared  to  fill  up  the  whole  space 
between  the  rows,  and  rose  to  the  height  of  about  ten 
feet.  When  the  flames  were  most  fieroe,  six  firemen, 
clad  in  the  incombustible  dresses,  marehed  many  times 
at  a  slow  pace  along  the  fiery  passage.  One  of  the  men 
carried  benind  him  a  child  eight  years  old  in  a  wicker 
basket  covered  with  metallic  gauze. 

A  still  more  striking  exhibition  was  made  in  1829  in 
the  yard  of  the  barracks  of  Saint  Gervais.  Two  towers 
were  erected*  each  two  stories  highi  and  were  surrounded 
with  faggotsand  straw,  and  ignited.  The  firemen  entered 
the  towers  with  impunity,  and  one  of  them  with  his  child 
in  the  wire-gauze  basket  rushed  into  the  flames  which 
were  raging  to  the  height  of  eight  yards.  This  violent 
combustion,  accompanied  by  a  thick  black  smoke,  hid 
him  from  the  view  of  the  spectators,  and  he  remained  so 
long  invisible  that  serious  apprehensions  were  felt  for 
His  safety;  but  he  at  length  appeared,  uninjured,  and 
exulting  m  having  braved  the  terrors  of  this  fiery  gulf. 

It  is  remarkable  that,  in  these  trials,  the  firemen  were 
able  to  breathe  in  the  midst  of  the  flames  without  difil- 
culty.  This  effect  arises  from  the  circumstance  that 
much  of  the  heat  is  intercepted  by  the  wire-gauze  in  the 
passage  of  the  heated  air  to  the  lungs ;  and  also  from 
the  remarkable  power  of  the  human  body  to  resist  g^eat 
heat,  and  of  the  lungs  to  breathe  very  hot  air. 


Lm  some  vast  flood,  mibounded,  fierce,  and  strosj^ 
His  nature  leads  migoverned  man  along, 
Like  mighty  bulwarks  made  to  stem  that  tide, 
The  laws  are  formed,  and  placed  on  every  side; 
Whene'er  it  breaks  the  bonds  by  these  decreed, 
New  statutes  rise,  and  stronger  laws  succeed  j 
More  and  more  gentle  grows  the  dying  stream. 
More  and  more  strong  the  rising  bulwarks  seemi 
Till,  like  a  miner  workingf  snre  and  bIqW» 
Luxury  creeps  on,  and  ruins  all  below  1 
The  basis  sinks,  the  a«iple  piles  decay. 
The  stately  fabric  shakes  and  fall^  away* 
Primeval  wont  and  ignorance  come  on^ 
But  Freedonsi  that  exalts  the  savage  state,  la  gone.-- 

Craibb. 


Pbintino  was  invented  by  a  soldier,  gunpowder  by  a  monk, 
and  several  branches  of  the  clothing  trade  by  a  bishop ;  this 
last  is  said,  however,  airreeably  to  the  vulgar  notions  eon*- 
eerning  Bishop  Blaze,  tne  patron  saint  of  tiie  wookombert. 
But  he  obtained  that  honour,  not  on  account  of  any  im- 
provements he  made  in  the  trade,  but  because  he  suflered 
martyrdom  by  having  his  flesh  torn  by  cording  irons. 

Mblancbolt. — Of  the  melancholy  of  common  life  there  are 
two  species  that  have  but  little  resemblance.  There  is  a 
sullen  gloom  which  disposes  to  unkindness  and  every  bad 
passion ;  a  fretfulness  in  all  the  daily  and  hourly  intercourse 
of  familiar  life,  which.  If  It  weary  at  last  the  assiduities  of 
friendship,  sees  only  the  neglect  whloh  has  fimsed  and  not 
the  perversity  of  humour  which  gave  ocoamoii  to  it,  and 
soon  learns  to  hate,  therefore,  what  it  considers  as  ingrati- 
tude and  injustice ;  or  which,  if  friendship  be  still  assiduous 
as  before,  sees  in  these  very  aasiduities,  a  proo^  not  of  the 
strength  of  that  aflection  wnich  has  foi^otten  the  acrimony 
to  soothe  the  supposed  uneasiness  which  gave  it  rise, 
but  a  proof  that  there  has  been  no  offensive  acrimony 
to  be  rorgotten,  and  persists  therefore  in  every  peevish 
caprice  till  the  domestic  tyranny  becomes  habitual.  This 
melancholy  temper,  so  poisonous  to  the  happinfln,Botof  the 
individual  only,  but  of  all  those  who  are  within  the  oirole 
of  its  influence,  and  who  feel  their  misery  the  more  because 
it  may  perhaps  arise  from  one  whom  they  strive^  and  vainly 
strive  to  love,  is  the  temper  of  a  vulgar  mind.  But  there 
is  a  melancholy  of  a  gentler  species,  a  melancholy  which  as 
it  arises,  in  a  great  measure,  from  a  view  of  the  su  Airings  of 
man,  disposes  to  a  warmer  love  of  man  this  sufierer,  and 
wliich  is  alihost  as  essential  to  the  finer  emotions  of  virtue 
as  it  is  to  the  nicer  sensibilities  of  poetie  genius.-^DK. 
TuouAS  Brown. 


Taakslatioit  op  80VS  liivcs  wmiTTEir  IX  liATiy 

BT  Last  Jake  Grey. 

EvDLipss  all  malice  if  oar  God  is  nigh, 
Fruitless  all  pains  if  He  his  help  deny; 
Patient  I  pass  these  gloomy  hours  away, 
^nd  wait  the  morning  of  eternal  day. 


If  oTsr  my  bodl^  was  tmly  poeticali^if  ever  any  abonndd 
with  poetry,  it  ui  Pt^radiM  Loit^  What  an  expaDsiuao: 
&cts  nom  a  small  seed  of  history  ]  What  worlds  are  in- 
vented,— ^what  embellishments  of  nature  upon  what  oor 
senses  present  us  with !  Divine  things  are  more  noUr, 
more  divinely,  represented  to  the  imagbation  thim  by  m 
other  poem ;  a  mote  baautlftd  idaa  ib  given  of  Nttun  tiia 
any  poet  has  jmlaided  lo^— J^aliuw^Hu  just  wm^  out  of 
the  hand  of  God»  in  aU  i^  viigia  loveUnsaB,  yloiy,!!^ 
purity ;  and  the  human  race  is  shown,  not,  as  Homer's,  more 
gigantic,  more  robust,  more  valiant,  but  without  compvisQE 
more  truly  amiable,  more  so  than  by  the  pictnres  aod  sta- 
tues of  the  neatest  masters.  And  all  these  sublime  ideis 
are  conveyed  to  us  in  the  most  effectual  and  engagii^  man- 
ner. The  mind  of  the  reader  is  tempered  and  prepared  by 
pleasure :  it  is  drawn  and  allured,  it  is  awakened  aod  ion- 
goratod,  to  receive  such  impreasloni  as  the  poet  intttdedto 
give  it.  The  poem  opena  tha  fountains  of  knowledge,  jkf, 
and  virtue ;  and  pours  along  full  atreams  of  peace,  m&n, 
and  joy,  to  sueh  aa  can  penetrate  the  trae  leue  of  the 
writer,  and  obediently  listen  to  hia  song.— Bic&ijuiioir. 


OimOLES  ore  pMlsed,  not  that  ahennd 
In  lai^geneM,  but  th*  exaotly  loundi 
Buoh  praisa  they  merit,  who  excel, 
Not  in  wide  apheresg  bpt  acting  welL— ? 


Thb  common  imaginaHon  thai  wa  have  of  Paiadiie  on  tkf 
other  side  of  deat^  i%  thai  of  a  lo^y  aerial  ngm,  wIkr 
the  inmatea  float  in  ether,  or  are  mysteriously  auspendcd 
upcm  nothings— where  all  the  warm  and  aensibJe  acccm- 
paniments  which  give  such  an  expresaiQU  of  strength,  asd 
life,  and  colouring,  to  our  present  liabitation,  are  atteDosted 
into  a  sort  of  spiritual  element,  that  is  meagre,  and  i^^)e^ 
oeptible,  and  utterly  uninviting  to  the  eye  of  mortals  am 
below— -wbefi  every  vestige  ot  materialism  is  done  away,  and 
nothing  left  bat  oertain  nnaarthly  spenes  that  have  no  power 
of  allurement  and  oertain  unearUUr  eeataeies,  with  vbieliu 
is  felt  impossible  to  sympathiie.    The  holdeis  of  this  iioi- 
ginatlon  foivet  all  the  while  that  really  there  ii  no  esseotiil 
connexion  between  materialism  and  sin— that  the  wori^ 
which  we  now  inhabit  had  all  the  amplitude  and  sohditj 
of  its  present  materialism  before  sin  entered  into  it-tiu: 
God  so  far,  on  that  account,  from  looking  slightly  upon  it 
after  it  had  received  the  last  touch  of  his  creating  hand,  iffj 
viewed  the  earth,  and  the  waters,  and  the  firmameot,  bc 
all  the  green  herbage,  ^th  the  Itvmg  creatara,  and  ^ 
man  whom  He  had  raised  in  dominion  over  tliesi,  and  lij 
saw  everything  that  He  had  made,  and,  behold,  ii  w&sti 
very  gooJ,    They  forget  that  on  the  birth  of  mateiiw^ 
when  it  stood  out  in  the  freshness  of  those  glories  whiiMi^ 
great  Architect  of  Nature  had  impressed  upon  it,  thst  m 
••  the  morning  stars  sung  together,  and  all  the  sohb  of  0« 
shouted  for  joy."    They  ft>rgot  the  appeals  that  an  »»» 
•very  where  in  the  Bible  to  tUB  matortal  workinaaouT 
and  how,  from   the  face  of  these  visible  heaveni,  ^ 
the  garniture  of  this  iarth  that  we  tread  upon,  thegrral^^ 
and  the  goodness  of  Grod  ai*e  reflected  on  the  view  of  fi^ 
worshippers.    No,  my  brethren,  ^e  object  of  the  admin^*^ 
tration  we  sit  under,  is  to  extirpate  sin,  hut  it  ^^^ 
swee^  away  materialism.    By  the  convnlaions  of  the^ 
day.  It  may  he  shaken,  and  broken  down  from  its  pT^s* 
arraBgeraents;  and  thrown  into  such  fitful  agitations ». 
that  the  whole  of  its  existing  framework  shall  M  topi«^ 
and  with  ahealao  fcrveni  aa  to  malt  its  most  soUdelei»^ 
may  it  bo  utte^y  di^olved.    And  thus  may  the  eartii  a^^ 
become  without  form  and  void,  but  without  one  psfiif >*  ^^ 
its  substance  going  into  annihilation.    Out  of  the  mii^  ^ 
this  second  chaos,  may  another  heaven  and  another  ^'^  e 
made  to  arise ;  and  a  new  materialism,  with  o^^'^'^/jl 
magnificence  and  beauty,  emerge  from  the  wreck  w  ^ 
mighty  transformation:  and  the  world  be  peopled  as »''' ' 
with  the  varieties  of  material  loveUness,  and  s^  ^  ^' 
lighted  up  into  a  fixaauenl  af  maleml  iplflndonr.'^** 

CHAUfSBB. 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


»i 


SURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS. 

AUGUST. 

Now  ifiBtUfi  ^Ddi,  itoA  •knj^rringgUDii 

Bring  aatamp's  ptowimt  wwtfaer) 
The  mooroock  apiioipK,  on  whining  inii|a, 

Amaag  ths  biomiuiig  heatfaar. 

The  sport  which  id  ^ageriy  anticipati^d  Und  vigorously 
pursued  by  our  northern  neighbotird  at  this  season  of 
the  year  Is  grouse  shooting.  On  the  extensive  moors 
and  dry  centnd,  mountains  of  Scotland  red  grouse  especi- 
ally abound,  finding  eov^r  voA  prfttecjkion  from  their 
enemies  in  thd  wid»-i^nad  oairpftt  of  heather^  and  being 
concealed  from  obwlrtalio&  by  their  sitbikurity  of  colour 
with  that  of  theilr  pt^MMi  of  sheltef .  The  Heath,  which 
is  so  commo|i  in  the  txOMhem  partd  bf  the  kiilgdom  that 
our  moors  and  ttidUllit^ti  itides  tte  completely  empurpled 
with  its  blossoms,  is  a  most  valuable  plant,  and  admir- 
ably adapted  for  the  Bituations  in  which  it  is  found. 
Multitudes  of  birds  find  sustenance  in  the  tender  buds 
and  numerous  seeds )  while  to  the  poor  this  plant  affords 
a  convenient  substitute  for  more  expensive  fuel*  On  the 
slopes  and  flats  where  the  hedth  is  of  considerable  length, 
the  red  grouse  is  sure  to  be  abundant,  but  so  difficult  is 
it  to  raise  them  from  their  cover  when  the  season  has  been 
unfavourable,  and  they  are  not  in  good  feather,  that  we 
are  told  that  "  one  who  has  little  knowledge  of  the  moors 
m.iy  wander  for  dayS)  iA  the  places  where  they  are  most 
abundant,  and  not  see  a  slngfe  bird.*' 

Scotland  is  undoubtedly  superior  to  every  other  part 
of  Great  Britain  for  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  grouse, 
yet  there  are  other  localities  where  they  are,  or  have  been 
found.  Black  grouse  were  formerly  common  in  the 
New  Forest  in  Hampshire,  fthd  in  some  parts  of  Derby- 
shire, Devonshire,  and  Statfordshlre,  but  red  grouse  were 
more  rarely  found,  and  are  probably  not  to  be  met  with 
in  any  one  of  those  counties  at  the  present  time.  The 
Iieights  and  moors  of  England,  especially  of  the  southern 
parts,  are  deficient  in  cover  and  in  food>  and  are  not 
tlierefore  adapted  for  tin  protection  of  these  birds*  In 
Vorkshire  they  ar«  to  be  met  with  in  tolerable  abundante^ 
\>%i\  the  ravages  of  ike  Itod  ttiiiiers  have  greatly  lessened 
tlieir  numbers.  These  meu  4ct  1ft  Concert,  and  are  not 
e^ily  hindered  or  f  edlrained  from  their  pursuit.  Accord- 
ing  to  Mr.  Blaine  they  go  from  ten  to  twenty  in  a  body, 
naarching  in  a  Utte  from  forty  to  sixty  yards'  distance 
rjfom  each  other,  and  as  they  al«  cxcelleBi  walkets^  and 
usually  expert  ihootin^  Ihey  destroy  k  vast  iittmbef  of 
birds,  espeeially  as  they  gettetaily  begin  their  tnaraudingis 
before  the  legal  time.  They  also  tdke  other  advantages, 
ibr  certain  houses  of  call  are  ready  to  receive  the  birds 
and  to  dispatch  thferii  by  coach  to  tondon,  or  by  horse- 
loads  to  the  large  prdvlncial  ti>wti&  br  watering-places  oU 
the  coast.  The  system  of  plunder  is  therefore  complete ; 
and  the  sporting,  as  jt  regards  grouse,  is  in  a  great 
xneasure  annihilated. 

English  grouse  sh66teri  UsUallv  proceed  towards  the 
riorthem  counties  from  Staffordshire  to  the  Tweed,  or 
from  Whitby  to  Whitehaveui  but  the  poaching  propensi- 
ties  of  the  miners,  as  above  noticed,  have  left  some  dis*- 
trictsy  onoe  abounding  in  game»  now  nearly  destitute  of 
it.  Among  the  most  esteemed  localities  for  this  sport 
^'e  may  mention  Kirby  Lonsdale,  Brough,  BoWes,  Bed* 
Ix^rgh,  Kirkby  Stephen,  aiid  the  old  Spittal  leaving 
our  readers  to  seek  for  information  concerning  these 
places  in  professedly  sporting  publications,  we  |)roceed  to 
notice  the  g^uae  anotsting  of  Ireland  and  Scotland* 

The  numbers  of  grouse  iki  Ireland  are  fe^  when  com* 
pared  with  those  of  £n||kmd  akid  ScotMd.  A  Sp^rtsmaii 
t^U  us  that  he  saw  more  oi  them  en  the  mountains 
about  LfSngholm  in  Scotland  iti  one  day,  than  he  ever 
sa^v  in  Ireland  in  twenty,  although  he  has  visited  the 
^»t  preserved  mountains  of  the  latter  country.  These 
^^^  on  the  south  side  of  the  great  Galty  Mountains,  near 
^^i\;hells'  Town  in  the  couuties  of  Cork,  Limerick,  and 


Tipperary,  and  are  considered  to  be  the  best  for  grous- 
ing in  Ireland.  Enveloped  by  these  mountains  is  a  tract 
of  country  belonging  to  the  £arl  of  Kingston,  celebrated 
among  others  for  the  abundance  oi  different  kinds  of 
fame  to  be  found  on  it,  and  especially  of  grouse.  The 
Kerry,  Wicklow^  Clogheen,  Nenagh,  and  all  the  north 
country  mountains,  are  likewise  said  to  have  plenty  of 
grouse  on  them,  and  to  be  in  general  well-preserved* 

In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  grouse  shooting  lA  69 
eagerly  followed,  that  tke  lairds  are  enabled  to  exact 
considerable  sums  irom  sportsmen  by  way  of  rent  for 
their  shooting  quarters  during  the  season.  The  distance^ 
and  the  expenses  connected  with  a  journey  to  the  High^ 
lands  do  not  deter  a  considerable  number  of  persons  lh}m 
Undertaking  It,  for  tKe  shooting  of  red  grouse  is  One  of 
the  highest  marks  of  the  sportsman's  ambiticH^,  This 
sport  commences  by  law  on  the  i2th  of  Augusl*  somt 
days  before  the  shooting  of  black  grousei  and  in  setting 
out  to  the  moors,  the  grouser  is  careful  to  provide  him** 
self  well  with  all  the  requisite  materials,  sinoe  the  dis« 
iance  of  the  shooting  locality  from  places  where  he  can 
be  re-supplied  is  generally  great.  The  safest  plan  there-, 
fore  to  prevent  disappointment  is  to  take  duplicates  of 
all  the  materials.  ''  We  rented  some  grousing  grounds^" 
says  Blaine,  ^<  near  Brough  in  Westmorelandi  ^e  ascenta 
to  some  of  which  were  so  precipitous,  that  we  could  only 
make  our  way  up  the  gullies  and  water-courses  for  more 
than  three  miles  to  our  point.  As  we  were  too  enthu* 
siastic  iu  the  sport,  particularly  in  the  first  part  of  the 
season,  not  to  be  every-day  engaged  in  it,  we  employed 
a  mule  in  carrying  us  up  to  our  ground;  and  the  same 
plan  we  would  strongly  recommend  to  other  sportsmen 
thus  situated;  fbr  tnules,  it  is  well  known,  are  hardy  and. 
remarkably  safe/* 

The  heavy  mist  so  frequent  in  mountainous  regions 
is  a  great  drawback  to  this  sport»  it  is  also  of  little  avail 
to  beat  the  moors  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  so  that  success 
in  grousing  may  be  considered  very  precarious.  P^r* 
haps  it  is  mainly  owing  to  the  risk  and  uncertainty 
connected  with  the  sport,  that  it  ia  bo  highly  esteemed 
and  lealously  practised. 

The  red  grouse  iD  exolusir^ly  confined  to  the  British 
Islands,  and  has  net er  heen  found  on  any  part  of  the 
Continent  It  is  fifleen  inches  Imig)  and  Weighs  about 
nineteen  ounces,  being  a  little  larger  than  the  ptarmigan, 
though  the  difference,  except  in  the  length  of  the  wings, 
is  inconsiderable.  The  bill  is  black;  the  ejres  hazel; 
the  nostrils  shaded  with  ^maU  red  and  black  feathers  i 
at  the  base  of  the  lower  bill  there  is  a  white  spot  on  each 
sides  the  throat  ii)  red;  each  feye  is  arched  with  a  large 
naked  spot ;  the  body  is  beautifully  ttiottled  with  deep 
red  and  black»  which  gives  it  the  appearance  of  tortoise^* 
shell ;  the  breast  and  belly  are  of  a  purplisk  hue,  crossed^ 
with  amaU  duaky  lines ;  the  tail  oonsists  of  sixteen  fea- 
thers of  equal  lengths,  the  four  middlemost  barred  with 
red,  the  others  black;  the  quills  are  dusky;  the  legs 
are  clothed  with  soft  white  feathers  down  to  the  claws> 
which  are  strong,  and  of  a  light  colour.  The  female  Is 
somewhat  less :  the  naked  skin  above  each  eye  is  not  si^ 
conspicuous,  and  the  colours  of  its  plumage,  in  general, 
much  lighter  than  those  of  the  male* 

The  red  grouse  ( Tetrao  Seoticus)  belongs  to  a  sub- 
grenus  of  the  order  Gullinidet.  It  appears  to  have 
been  unknown  to  Linnssus,  while  Gmelin  regarded  it 
as  a  variety  of  the  ptarmigan.  The  food  of  this  bird 
consists  of  niountain  and  bog-berries,  and  the  young 
shoots  of  heath.  It  has  been  remarked  that  in  cultivated 
districts,  a  great  change  has  taken  place  in  the  habits  of 
the  grouse,  and  instead  of  seeking  a  precarious  sub-> 
sistence  on  the  moors  during  severe  weather,  they 
migrate  towards  the  lower  grounds,  where  hundreds 
crowd  to  the  corn-sheaves;  and  as  the  grain  there 
remains  out  a  considerable  portion  of  the  winter,  so  they 
escape  starvation  even  in  the  worst  seasons.  The 
female  lays  from  five  to  ten  eg^s  early  hi  the  spring,  in 


THE  SATURDAY  IIAGAZINE. 


CAUOUK  11,  lUl,   ! 


a  rale  nMt  on  the  ground  and  is  renurkable  for  are 
and  stteDtion  to  her  young.  She  rewilutely  fighB  their 
battles  against  the  birds  of  prey  and  the  Tensin  that 
attack  them,  nor  ia  the  male  bird  neglectful  of  his  off- 
spring. In  order  to  secure  the  flight  of  the  ckaepert, 
(as  young  grouse  are  called,)  both  parents  will  practise 
such  manceuvres  aa  may  best  divert  the  shooter's  atten- 
tion, so  that  we  find  a  sporUman  saying: — "The  very 
self-devotion  which  makes  the  parents  so  ready  a  mark, 
by  the  lingering  flight  they  make,  in  order  to  somre  the 
retreat  of  their  bnwd,  should  plead  for  them,  especially 
when  the  cheepers  are  now  almoBt  arriTBd  at  maturity, 
and  consequently  are  fit  prey  for  the  ahooter." 

Several  instances  are  recorded  of  the  groose  being 
reared  in  a  domesticated  state.  A  gentleman,  residing 
at  Green  Mount,  Tipperary,  Ireland,  is  said  to  have 
kept  two  brace  of  grouse  for  several  years,  which  were 
so  tame  that  it  was  a  common  practice  with  their  owner 
to  bring  the  birds  and  his  setters  into  the  iwrlonr  ble- 
ther, and  divert  hinualf  with  seeing  the  cloa  set:  the 
birds  did  not  pay  the  smallest  attention  to  tne  dogs,  or 
indicate  the  least  wish  to  esci^. 

In  conclnding  our  notice  oiF  the  sport  for  which  the 
present  month  is  distinguiahed  we  take  the  onportnnity 
of  expressing  our  regret  that  any  reader  of  die  Satmr- 
day  Magaxvu  ahould  diaapprove  of  the  publication  of 
our  acconnts  of  rural  sports,  on  the  ground  that  some 
of  the  incidents  are  calculated  to  justiiy  and  encourage 
cruel  and  unfeeling  pursuits.  The  description  of  the 
several  sports  practised  throughout  our  country  is  a 
mere  description  tS  faeU,  employed  in  this  instance 
as  a  vehicle  for  conveying  information  respecting  the 
animals  pursued,  and  the  localities  which  they  inhabit. 
This  was  distinctly  staled  in  our  opening  remarks,  (to 
which  we  beg  to  refer  our  readers.  Vol  XVIII.,  p.  88*) 
and  we  are  not  conscioua  of  having  departed  fmm  Ae 
plan  originally  laid  down.  In  the  description  of  the 
uigler's  sport,  we  have  used  the  term  "fascinating,"  in 
a  way  which,  though  it  has  exuted  the  objections  of  a 
correspondent,  we  know  to  be  strictly  true.  '  The  artist 
and  the  admirer  of  nature  have  expatiated  with  driight 
on  the  scenes  which  in  their  days  of  angling  they  were 
led  to  explore,  and  which,  but  for  that  amusement,  tiiey 
might  never  have  beheld.  We  perfecUy  agree  with  our 
correspondent,  in  his  remark  that  such  advantages  as 
these  may  be  attained  by  other  and  more  rational  means. 
In  the  article  in  question,  while  we  have  given  the 
opinion  of  the  honest  laaak  Walton,  to  show  what  a 
person  of  mild  and  amiable  disposition  can  say  in 
defence  of  this  sport,  we  have  also  given  the  satirical 
remarks  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  directed  at  such  as  would 
endeavour  to  prove  that  fishes  are  possessed  of  a  very 
low  degree  of  sensibility  to  pain. 

For  ourselves,  we  see  but  immaterial  ahadea  of  dif- 
ference, as  far  as  it  r^ards  tsrutUy,  in  the  several 
sports  which  have  for  their  object  the  extinction  of  ani- 
mal life,  and  we  can  therefore  fully  adopt  the  language 
of  our  favourite  poet,  when  he  says  witb  respect  to 

If  man's  oonvenieaoe,  health, 

Or  sefetr  inlafere,  bis  rights  and  daima 
Are  ponmonnt,  and  miul  extingnish  thefn> 
Else  the;  are  aU — the  meanest  things  that  aray— 
As  &ee  to  live,  and  to  enjo;  that  life, 
Aa  God  was  free  to  form  them  at  the  first. 
Who  m  His  soverdgn  wisdom  made  them  aU. 

COWPIB. 

TavB,  'twas  of  old  by  God  decreed 
That  birds  for  maiTa  sopport  may  bleed, 
His  words  to  Noah  t  not  so  plain 
The  hocoie  which  thoae  words  contain, 
Nor  knDw  I  well  what  records  hold 
The  licmu,  in  what  court  enrolled. 
To  cut  their  lives  for  poifiiM  short. 
Or  of  their  suffcringa  make  onr  Jport, 


aKtMoaLasowflant  to  hit  werA 
I'datm  U,  Ihal  tte  naedlU  fair4 
Or  beastsbsidd  faU  fey  tkoae  i4in< 
For  ImsiDeM,  rathw  thao  deli^ 
And  sorely  most  it  bean  thes^a 
And  lilttnsss  of  the  stamp  divine ;  - 
And  sure  'tis  moat  from  aemblaBoefiM 
And  blame  of  wanton  craelty ; 
And  moat  aootwdant  to  ths  part 
Wbioh  suits  the  meek  and  feeling  hcartt 
When  dnty  les^^ot  omithat  Hw; 
Shotild  tun  bom  deads' of  tdood  amy, 
Nor  OD  their  victimif  ar"   ' 


Hm,  who  Is  memifiil  and 
To  all  his  works,  the  thoughtfbl  mind 
Host  seeks  by  Idndnesa  to  express : 
And  "  gentle  heart  loves  genllMMsa*.' 


Ban  Oaens.    A*ha  SiMnt. 


I  can  conceive  no  office 


leive  no  office  more  noble  thnthatofaOn^ 
The  triumphs  of  •noeeaa&lkgidstiraiiiiir*'?'  ; 
the  statesmen— the  laurels  of  conqneet  mav  wnalhc  piwl' 
ronnd  the  brow  of  the,victor— but  the  QuutUn  uunidaiM] 
boast  of  acquisitions  more  important  than  the  «M<i>d<^ 
permanent  than  the  other.  He  may  be  buried  intnoltnR 
and  inqtoverldied  parish  his  einie  may  bs  bmn*-^ 
enjoyments  few — his  relaxatlona  qioring— bnt  lua  "™'T|' 
be  preckrus  to  those  whom  he  faaa  cotnfated  in  iBcH 
sootiied  in  aaffering,  and  cheered  in  4sMb.-lIi«  ■•  <!>«'>': 
— hk  msanory  wilt  evai  be  a  fiiKtiasMlelT  cbtiidwd  III  <*■ 
who  rerarenoe  in  him  the  initniBaiA  «f  thtii  tttnl  alo' 
Uon.— AaoKxiioiii. 

Books  are  the  iMadea  that  genius  lesvea  to  maiikiiid,''|' 
deliverad  down  nom  generation  to  geaieration,  a>  preMV 
the  posterity  of  those  who  are  yet  unbonu— Apdwi'' 

Bonaa  uncultivated  ground,  dismal  to  the  ey^  i>¥^ 
p«evishnsas  and  discontent !  mqy  not  this  be  one  cv' 
the  harsh  manners  of  savagcaT  _        _^,  ..^1 

A  field  richly  ornamented,  contriidng  h«nhftl  oW"  [ 
various  kinds,  dt^I^  in  mil  lustre  the  «»dB« " 
Deity,  and  the  ample  provlwoB  He  has  ""*  «»^  !J 
pinei  Ought  net  the  spectator  to  be  filU  -rf>g 
indeto his  Maker, and  with  bmevtdenM  to hu feU°^ 
tnrasi  Other  flue  aito  may  be  perverted  to  ex"tein^ 
and  even  ridoua,  emotions ;  hut  gardenmg,  erhicl  )^ 
the  purest  and  most  refined  pleasures,  «miot  M  w>r 
mote  erery  good  aflection.  The  gaiety  and  ^^^ 
mind  it  producM,  Inclining  the  spectator  to  «^^, 
hia  satis&ction  to  others  and  to  make  th«iB  "wW  "^ 
hhnself,  tend  naturally  to  eotaMiA  in  UmihaMHiiw 
nity  and  benevolence^— Lobs  Kaddbs. 

LONPOIf; 
JOHW  WILLIAM  PABKER,  WEBT  «T1*W|^ 

WdtyaaBsOwlHnw 


Jbdtur^dlf 


N°687. 


AUGUOT 


28t«,  1841.  {oo^SS,. 


TUfiK^Y    AND    THB    TURKISH    PROVINCES. 


U  CAUTAXUftU  At  SAMi. 


BULGARIA  AND";THE  BULGARIANS. 
Bdlgakiai  &  province  of  £uropa«n  Turkey,  owe*  its 
tirig:in,  like  inmny  other  IuUmu  or  tribes  in  the  eutern 
parts  of  Europe,  to  an  iannigration  of  Tutar  htffdea, 
from  the  countriee  near  the  Caspian.  There  wai  a 
country  called  Great  Bulgaria,  on  die  confine*  of  Aiia 
and  Europe,  i*hote  inhabitants  penetrated  to  the  west 
of  the  Black  Sea,  about  the  aiith  century  of  the  Chris- 
ttan  era.  They  were  repelled  by  the  celebrated  Beliia- 
rius:  but  in  the  following  century  Uiey  succeeded  in 
fonnine  s  kingdom,  which  they  ^lled  Little  BulgariA, 
along  the  lonthem  shores  of  the  Danube,  in  Ibe  heart 
of  what  is  now  European  Turkey.  The  victories  of 
Justinian  the  Second,  Emperor  of  ConitanUnople,  kept 
the  Bulgarians  in  awe  for  a  [time ;  but  they  graduallv 
extended  their  power  at  the  expense  of  the  Greek 
Empire,  till,  in  the  tenth  eenturv,  they  became  mas- 
ters of  Dardania,  Thessaly,  and  Epirus,  under  Simeon, 
the  moat  celebrated  of  all  their  kings.  Bulgaria  was 
subseiiuently  again  united  to  the  empire  as  a  tributary 
■tate,  and  so  continued  for  two  centuries;  but,  in  the 
thirteenth,  it  recovered  its  independence,  and  maintained 
a  continual  struggle  with  its  more  powerful  neighbour!; 
till  it  was  at  length  reduced  to  a  Turkish  provinu  by 
Bajazet,  in  1396.     As  a  Turkish  province  it  has  ever 


Bulgaria  is  bounded  in  a  more  definite  manner  than 
most  rf  the  Turkish  provinces.  Its  northern  limit  is 
the  Danube,  which  separates  it  from  Wsllactiia;  the 
eastern  boundai^  is  the  Black  Sea ;  the  southern  is  the 
nountains  of  the  Balkan;  and  the  western  u  formed 

Vol  XIX. 


principally  by  two  small  rivers.  Placed,  as  it  were,  on 
the  declivitr  of  the  Balkan,  nearly  the  whole  province  is 
rugged  and  mountainous.  Few  countries  owe  more 
to  uie  libera,  liand  of  nature  than  Bulgaria.  The  soil 
is  everywhere  productive,  and  the  numerous  streams 
fertilise  the  fields  which  they  traverse;  while  the  beauty 
of  the  climate  in  summer,  tempered  by  a.  considerable 
degree  of  cold  in  winter,  contributes  materially  to  the 
rapid  increase  of  every  kind  of  produce.  All  sorts  of 
gnuD,  cattle,  horses,  wool,  iron,  and  wine,  aro  raised 
m  abundance,  and  would  render  this  a  highly  flourishing 
country  under  a  more  liberal  government  than  that  c^ 
the  Turks;  for  the  Danube  affords  an  easy  communica- 
tion with  the  neighbouring  provinces  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, by  means  of  the  Black  Sea.  Bulgaria  is  con- 
sidered by  the  Turks  ss  the  granary  of  Constantinople, 
so  that  the  exportation  of  com  to  anv  other  place  is 
strictly  prohibited.  Wheat,  barley,  and  millet  are  raised 
in  large  quantities;  and  at  one  part  of  the  province  are 
Urge  rice  farms  belonging  to  the  Sultan,  from  the  pro- 
duce of  which,  many  of  the  officers  receive  their  salaries 
in  kind.  Honev,  of  extxllent  quality,  ii  produced  in 
gmX  abundance,  but  the  exportation  is  prohibited,  on 
the  same  ground  as  that  of  com,  vis.,  in  order  to  secure 
a  plentiful  supply  to  the  espiul. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Walsh  gives  a  fkvourable  picture  of  the 
peasantry  of  this  province.  Although  it  forms  part  of 
Turkey,  yet  the  inhabitants,  like  those  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia,  ore  Greek  Christians,  and  have  little  of  the 
Turkish  character.  The  Turks  who  reside  there  are 
chiefiy  offidab,  or,  at  least,  persona  who  deem  them- 


74 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[August  28, 


selves  superior  to  the  native  inhabitants  of  the  provincse. 
Mr.  Wikbh  drtwi  a  striking  o<mtraii  iMtwten  the  Bul- 
garians, who  are  simple,  kind,  and  affeotionatai  and  the 
Turks  residing  among  them,  who  were  rude  and  often 
brutal  in  their  conduct. 

On  the  road,  (he  says,)  we  fipequenily  met  gvonps  of  both, 
always  separate,  but  employed  in  the  same  avocations ;  the 
Turks  were  known  by  turbans,  sashes,  pistols,  and  yatigans  ( 
but  still  more  by  a  ferocity  of  aspect,  a  rode  assumption  of 
demeanour,  and  a  careless  kind  of  contempt,  that  at  once 
repulsed  and  disgusted  us.  They  never  turned  their  bufisr 
loss  or  arubas  out  of  the  way  to  let  us  pass,  or  showed  the 
smallest  wish  to  be  civil  and  obliging ;  on  the  contrary, 
they  were  pleased  if  they  pushed  us  into  a  bog  in  the  nar- 
row road,  or  entangled  us  among  trees  and  bushes.  Any 
accommodation  in  nouses  was  out  of  the  question;  if  we 
approached  one  for  a  drink  of  milk  or  water,  we  ran  the 
haiard  of  being  stabbed  or  shot. 

The  Bulgarian  peasants  are  distinguished  by  caps  of 
brown  sheep-skin ;  jackets  of  cloth,  made  of  the  undyed 
wool  of  dark  brown  sheep,  which  their  wives  spin  and 
weave;  white  cloth  trousers,  and  sandals  of  raw  leather, 
drawn  under  the  sole,  and  laced  with  strings  over  the 
instep.  They  carry  neither  pistol,  yatigan,  nor  any 
other  weapon  of  offence*  The  dress  of  the  females  is 
described  as  being  neat,  clean,  and  comfortable.  It 
generally  consists  of  a  jacket  and  petticoat  of  dark  blue 
cloth,  with  a  bright  border  of  list  round  the  edges  or 
down  the  seams;  and  an  under-garment  of  hemp  and 
cotton,  very  large,  hanging  far  below  the  petticoat, 
and  gathered  in  full  folds  round  the  neck  and  arms,  and 
worked  or  woven  with  laoe-like  borders.  Married  wo- 
men wear  handkerchlefii  on  their  heads,  with  a  long 
lappel  hanging  down  the  b*ek  behind ;  ^rls  have  their 
heads  uncovered,  with  their  hair  braidedand  ornamented 
with  different  coins.  All  wear  ear-rings,  bracelets,  and 
finger-rings,  from  an  early  age;  end  nearly  all  go  bare- 
footed. 

Those  who  are  aocaetomed  to  read  books  of  travels, 
cannot  fail  to  remark—- at  first  with  surprise,  and  after- 
wards, perhaps,  with  a  smile — the  very  discordant 
results  at  which  authors  arrive  respeetiuff  the  manners, 
character,  and  industry  of  the  people  with  whom  they 
come  in  contact  in  their  travels.  The  truth  is,  that,  in 
most  cases,  these  writers,  however  desirous  they  may  be 
to  adhere  to  the  truth,  have  seldom  opportunities  to  sift 
the  matters  on  which  they  offer  opinions.  One  traveller 
may  pass  through  a  country  in  the  bleak  season  of  win- 
ter, and  his  account  of  it  will  be  tinctured  with  the 
cheerlessness  which  he  observes ;  whereas  another,  who 
happened  to  travel  there  in  a  more  genial  season,  will 
speak  in  glowing  language  of  the  country.  Agun,  if 
a  traveller  happens  to  meet  with  kind  usage  from  those 
with  whom  he  has  communication,  he  is  apt  to  jump  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  inhabitants,  as  a  nation,  are 
kind ;  while  an  opposite  treatment  will  lead  to  an  oppo- 
site result.  We  mention  these  circumstances,  because 
we  have  found  that  the  Bulgarians,  their  character, 
manners,  and  dwellings,  are  represented  in  different 
lights  by  different  travellers;  and  we  have  wished  to 
point  out  the  probable  cause  for  these  discrepancies. 
The  traveller  from  whom  we  just  took  an  extract,  says, 
that  the  countenances  of  the  peasantry  are  so  open,  art- 
less, and  benevolent,  and  their  demeanour  so  kind  and 
cordial,  that  every  one  he  met  seemed  to  welcome  him 
as  a  friend.  Whenever  their  buffaloes  or  arubas  stopped 
up  the  way,  the  peasants  were  prompt  to  turn  them  aside ; 
and  whenever  tney  saw  him  embarrassed,  or  obliged  to 
get  out  of  the  road,  they  were  eager  to  show  that  it  was 
not  their  fault.  Their  houses  were  always  open  to  him, 
and  his  presence  was  a  kind  of  jubilee  to  tne  family ; 
and  the  compensation  he.  gave  for  their  hospitality  was 
80  small,  and  their  mode  of  receiving  it  do  disinterested, 
as  to  induce  him  to  believe  that  if  none  had  been 
offered,  none  would  have  been  asked  for. — Another  tra- 
veller, who  passed  through  this  province  in  the  winter 


season,  when  all  was  discomfort,  has  scarcely  a  word  to 
say  in  fkvoui^  either  of  the  people  or  iht  country.  We 
believe,  howover,  that.  In  this  instance,  thoss  who  apeak 
in  rather  fisvoorable  terms  approach  nearer  to  the 
truth* 

A  brief  notice  of  Mr.Tiets*s  journey  from  the  north. 
em  to  the  southern  boundaries  of  the  province  vill  en* 
able  us  to  describe  some  of  its  features.  The  party, 
eonsisting  of  two  gentlemen,  two  servants,  a  Tatar  o: 
armed  courier,  and  two  postilions,  were  mounted  on 
seven  hordes (  while  four  horses  carried  the  luggage;  all 
the  horses  being  hired,  for  a  certain  agreed  sum,  to 
carry  the  traveller  and  luggage  from  Rustchuk  on  the 
banks  of  the  Danube,  to  Constantinople.  The  travellers 
left  Rustchuk  in  the  winter  season,  and  travelled  along 
a  road  which  is  deemed  one  of  the  best  in  the  TurM 
empire.  Arrivinff  at  a  river  over  which  there  was  co 
bridge,  the  traveuers  had  to  swim  their  horses  across; 
and  as  the  water  was  partially  covered  with  ice,  th^  ford- 
ing was  anything  but  agreeable.  However,  after  a  good 
hour's  ride  they  arrived  at  a  village  inhabited  by  Bulga- 
rian Christians,  entered  a  peasant  s  dwelling,  and  thou- 
rouffhly  dried  themselves  upon  mats  and  carpets.  Mean- 
while the  Tatlir,  who  was  a  Turk,  prepared  a  meal  in 
the  Turkish  manner ;  consisting  of  a  roasted  fowl,  a  M 
of  pilau,  which  consists  of  dried  rice  cooked  in  a  little 
fat, — a  dish  of  kibabs,  consisting  of  small  pieces  cf 
mutton,  stock  on  a  wooden  skewer,  and  roasted,-^d 
finally  cheese-cakes,  to  which  succeeded  a  dessert  oHp, 
dates,  and  grapes.  The  place  of  a  table  was  supplied 
by  a  low  footstool  turned  upside  down,  on  the  four  in- 
verted legs  of  which  was  placed  a  round  wooden  disk 
for  the  reception  of  the  food.  The  cottage— as  appears 
to  be  generally  the  case  in  Bulgaria — ^was  inhabited  by 
a  whole  family,  and  the  travellers  sat  comfortablj  round 
a  blazing  fire,  conversing  with  the  host;  while  the  young 
men  were  smoking,  and  the  women  and  girls  were  spia- 
ning  cotton  and  wool.  The  Turks  know  the  value  of 
the  Bulgarians  as  an  industrious  people,  and  seem,  on 
the  whole,  to  treat  them  more  mildly  than  most  otbeis 
of  their  Christian  subjects. 

The  travellers  proceeded  at  a  quick  rate  through  & 
country  sparingly  supplied  with  towns  and  villages;  meet- 
ing on  their  way  with  many  fountains,  founded  in  most 
cases  by  the  pious  endowment  of  individuals,  for  the  re- 
freshment of  travellers  who  would  else  suffer  from  the 
little  aooommodation  afforded  in  the  way  of  inns  or 
khans*  Much  taste  is  usually  displayed  in  selecting  ao 
agreeable  snot,  shaded  by  trees,  close  to  the  road  side, 
as  the  site  of  these  springs;  an  iron  or  earthenware  ressd 
is  often  found  in  a  small  niche  built  over  the  spouting  tuhe; 
and  around  it  are  a  few  large  stones,  serving  as  seat;. 
A  well-kept,  and  gradually-ascending  road  conducted  the 
travellers  through  a  few  villages  to  the  foot  of  the  Baftaa 
mountains,  which  separate  Bulgaria  from  Roumelia.  The 
northern  or  Bulgarian  side  of  these  mountains  is  cooler 
than  the  southern,  and  is  covered  with  large  fore**^ 
consisting  of  fir,  beech,  and  oak  trees.  The  entrant 
to  the  pass  of  the  Balkan  is  very  romantic.  On  the 
left,  close  to  the  road,  and  surrounded  by  cypresses  m 
plantains,  is  an  elegant  fountain;  on  the  right,  at  the 
distance  of  about  a  mile,  a  pleasant  village  nestles  in  * 
hollow,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  The  travellers 
passed  over  a  bridge,  beneath  which  a  loud  rnshiD? 
stream  descended  from  the  heights;  and  then  rod^ 
through  a  narrow  ravine,  bordered  on  either  side  by  preja- 
pitous  and  almost  overhanging  rocks,  and  occasionally 
shaded  by  large  oak  trees.  Afler  ascending  for  fo^r 
hours,  they  arrived  at  the  small  town  of  Timowa,  whicfl 
is  deemed  the  metropoUs  of  Bulgaria.  We  mar  here 
remark,  that  Bulgaria  contains  very  few  important  iovns, 
the  inhabitants  being  rather  of  a  nastoral  character. 
livmff  m  villages  more  than  in  towns.  . 

The  travellers  left  Timowa,  and  ascended  by  a  pat" 
contiguous  to  fearful  abysses,  and  full  of  loose  stones. 


1841.] 


tMfi  8 ATUftC AY 'MAGAZINE. 


W 


it  was  so  narrow,  that  the  horses  were  obliged  to  follow 
one  another*  in  single  file  {  and  in  man j  spots  the  sure* 
footed  animals  pasB  oYer  ftithomless  chasms  scarcely  a 
foot  wide.    They  at  length  reached  a  place  where  the 
Toad  became  exceedingly  narrow,  and  made  a  bendronnd 
a  sharp  crag  lying  on  the  right,  whilst  on  the  left  a  very 
deep  abyss  yawned.     The  TatAr  drew  a  pistol  from  his 
belt,  and  fired  twice,  after  which  he  explained  to  Ids  em* 
ploycrs  the  purpose  of  so  doing.    It  appears  that  there 
is  no  possibility  of  two  horses,  especially  if  loaded,  tra* 
versing  this  narrow  path  abreast  s  in  ease,  therefore,  of 
a  carayan  being  on  the  noint  of  entering  the  pass  f^om 
the  opposite  direction,  the  pistoUshot  is  a  signal  that 
the  path  is  already  occupied,  and  that  the  advancing 
caravan  must  stop.     After  having  passed  this  dangerous 
place,  the  travellers,  came  to  the  village  of  Oablowa, 
seated  high  in  the  mountains,  close  to  a  torrent  inter- 
rupted by  many  falls;  it  was  inhabited  wholly  by  Bulga* 
rian  iron-smiths,  the  red  flames  of  whose  furnaces  shone 
through  almost  every  door,  and  the  blows  of  whose 
hammers  resounded  from  the  surrounding  mountains. 
As  we  have  now  reached  the  summit  of  the  Balkan 
pass,  the  southern  boundary  of   Bulgaria,  we  shall 
not  follow  the  travellers  any  nirther  in  Uiis  direction. 

Dr.  Me  Michael,  who  travelled  on  horseback  through 
Bulgaria  from  the  Danube  to  the  Balkan,  nearly  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  travellers  just  alluded  to,  gives  the 
following  description  of  a  village  scene,  shortly  before 
arriving  at  the  mountains  : — 

At  midday  we  halted  in  the  centre  of  a  small  village ; 
and  one  of  our  guntg$es  having  placed  himself  on  a  little 
eminence  set  up  a  loud  and  piercing  shout,  which  he  mmn- 
tained  as  long  as  his  respiration  would  allow.  No  inliabit- 
ant  Lad  been  visible  as  we  entered  the  village ;  but  after  one 
or  two  repetitions  of  this  extraordinary  summons,  an  elderly 
peasant  was  seen  making  towards  us  with  all  possible  speM, 
whom  our  conductor,  on  his  approach,  saluted  with  the  dig- 
nified appellation  of  JSchorhatckie,  or  captain,  upbraiding 
Iiun,  however,  at  tlie  same  time,  with  delay  He,  it  appeared, 
was  the  chief  of  the  village,  and  on  him  devolved  tne  duty 
of  providing  strangers  with  food  and  lodging^:  should  thetrft- 
veller  be  a  Turk,  these  accommodations  are  harshly  exacted, 
and,  I  believe,  nevev  requited ;  and  though  we  always  en- 
deavoured at  our  departure  to  satisfy  our  hosts,  yet,  at  this 
remuneration  was  uncertain,  our  arrival  in  a  village  was 
never  greeted  bv  any  very  smiling  countenances,  ^ithia 
occasion  the  Scmrbatchie  conducted  us  to  a  hut,  where  we 
obtained  our  usual  refreshment  of  bread,  eggs  and  wine,  of 
not  an  unpleasant  taste,  though  very  weak  m  its  quality.; 
these  articles  of  food  were  to  be  procured  in  almoet  every 
village  we  passed  through,  and  if  it  were  a  large  one,  the 
Turlcish  luxury  otyacwrt  was  generallj  to  be  found* 

There  are  one  or  two  Bulgarian  towns  near  the 
Danube,  such  as  Silistria  and  Rustchuk,  which  are 
worthy  of  notice;  but  as  we  have  it  in  contemplation  to 
describe  the  Danube  and  its  banks,  in  a  series  of  articles, 
we  shall  not  dwell  farther  on  the  subject  here*— Our 
frontispiece  represents  the  partially  decayed  remains  of 
one  of  those  caravanserais  which  the  traveller  so  fre- 
quently meets  with  in  Turkey. 

There  is  a  tear,who8e  muteness  speaks 

More  than  all  language  can  convey,— ^ 
A  tear,  by  which  the  full  heart  seeks 

Its  warm  emotions  to  poortray ; 
'Tis  the  most  precious  gem,  in  sooth. 

That  can  by  virtue's  eyes  be  viewed. 
In  the  heart's  mine  of  age  or  youth,--* 

It  is  the  tear  of  gratitude.r— ! 

Beware  how  you  allow  words  to  pass  lor  more  than  they 
arc  worth,  and  bear  in  mind  what  alteration  is  sometimes 
produced  in  their  current  value  by  the  course  of  time.—* 

J^OUTHEY. 

No  prince  ever  loved  peace  more  than  Kinff  Henry  the 
Seventh  of  England.  The  usual  preface  to  au  his  treaties 
w.is,  '*  that  when  Christ  came  into  the  world  peace  was 
sun^,  and  when  He  went  out  of  the  world  peace  was  be- 

fiueathed,'* 


ON  CHESS.    No.  XVI. 
The  Automaton  CHBsa-PtAYER.  4. 


I 


During  the  exhibition  of  the  Automaton  Chess-Player 
in  London  under  its  new  proprietor,  M,  Maelzel,  the 
mysterious  box,  without  which  JVI.  de  Kempelen  stated 
the  automaton  could  not  play,  was  no  longer  consulted* 
Maelzel  held  a  lighted  candle  in  the  interior  before  play- 
ing, and  then  left  the  candle  burning  on  an  adjoining 
slab.  The  mode  of  exhibiting  the  interior  of  the  chest, 
the  winding  up  of  the  machinery,  and  some  other  minor 
drcumatances,  were  carefully  observed  by  several  per* 
sons  who  endeavoured  to  prove  the  existence  of  a  oon» 
oealed  confederate.  NonOf  however,  were  successful, 
until  Mr.  Willis,  of  Cambridge,  a  gentleman  well  known 
for  his  high  scientific  attainments,  published  his  attempt 
to  analyse  the  automaton  chess-player.  Taking  advan* 
tage  of  just  so  much  as  was  seen  and  heard  at  the 
exhibition,  and  with  the  assistance  of  numerous  drawings, 
his  reasonings  amount  to  the  following  simple  oonclu* 
sion;  that  the  man,  who  really  played  the  chess  automat 
ton,  was  concealed  in  the  chest. 

We  now  proceed  to  lay  before  the  reader  an  abstraet 
of  Mr.  WilUs's  clever  work. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  exhibition  the  speetatora 
are  shown  the  interior  of  the  chest,  which  appears  to  be 
so  occupied  by  pieces  of  machinery  that  the  conoeahaenl 
of  a  human  being  seems  impossible.  When  the  move* 
ments  of  the  autonmton  begin,  the  beholders,  in  the  first 
moments  of  surprisei  and  in  the  absence  of  any  osten* 
sible  living  cause,  naturally  refer  the  effeet  to  the 
mechanism  which  has  been  exhibited,  because  the  move- 
ments immediately  follow  the  familiar  action  and  well- 
known  sound  of  winding  up  clock-work,  and  are  skilfully 
accompanied  by  the  grating  noise  of  moving  wheels. 
But  still  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  concealed  machinery 
exerts  any  influence  on  the  arm  of  the  automaton,  or 
that  the  machinery  is  ever  in  motion  at  all.  The 
machinery  at  rest  is  freely  exposed:  the  chest  is  osten- 
tatiouslv  opened,  and  the  semblance  at  least  of  wheels, 
and  pulleys,  and  levers,  is  submitted  to  inspection  without 
reserve;  but  when  their  reality  should  appear,  and  their 
connection  with  the  automaton  be  made  manifest,  the 
doors  are  carefully  closed  and  no  further  examination 
permitted.  The  glaring  oontradiotion  oetween  the  eager 
display  on  the  one  hand  and  studied  ooncealment  on  the 
other  can  only  be  reconciled  by  considering  the  exhibition 
of  the  mechanism  as  a  mere  stratagem,  calculated  to 
distract  the  attention  and  mislead  the  judgment  of  the 
spectators.  This  opinion,  too,  receives  further  support 
from  the  undeviating  mode  of  disclosing  the  interior  of 
the  chest:  doors  and  drawers  are  opened  in  one  uniform 
order,  in  which  no  variation  had  ever  been  observed. 
The  mode,  toc^  of  winding  up  was  suiBeient  to  convince 
a  skilful  mechanist  that  the  axis  turned  by  the  key  was 
quite  free  and  unconnected  either  with  spring  or  weight, 
or  any  system  of  machinery. 

In  all  machines  requiring  to  be  wound  up  two  conee- 
quences  an  inseparable  from  their  construction:  the  first  is, 
that  in  winding  up  the  machinery,  the  key  is  limited  in  the 
number  of  its  revolutions;  and  the  second  is,  that  some 
relative  proportion  mtist  be  constantly  maintained  betwixt 
the  winding  up  and  the  work  performed,  in  order  to  enable 
the  machine  to  continue  its  movements.  Now  these  results 
are  not  observable  in  the  chess-player;  for  the  automaton 
will  sometimes  execute  sixty-tnree  moves  with  only  one 
winding  up ;  at  other  times  the  exhibitor  has  been  observed 
to  repeat  the  winding  up  after  seven  moves,  and  even  after 
three  moves ;  and  once  probably  from  inadvertence  without 
the  intervention  of  a  smgle  move;  whilst,  in  er^Ty  other 
instance,  the  kepr  appeared  to  perform  the  same  number  of 
revolutions;  evincing  thereby  that  the  revolving  axis  was 
unconnected  with  machinery,  except,  perhaps  a  rateliet 
wheel  and  click,  or  some  similar  apparatus,  to  enable  it  to 
produce  the  necessarr  sounds,  and  consequently  that  the 
key,  like  that  of  a  child's  watch,  might  be  turned  whenever 
the  purposes  of  the  exhibition  seemed  to  require  it. 

We  come  now  to  examine  the  interior  of  the  chest, 


m  r\wm  t^ 


7« 


THB'SJLTUItDAT  IfAGAZIllB. 


[Anorn  tg. 


(fig.; 

the  i 


»n'd,  bf  the  usiitoiiM  of  MT«nl  diagnmi,  the  reader 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  understanding  how  a  human 
bein  g  wu  concealed  within  the  machine,  although  it  was 
apparently  thrown  completely  open  to  public  inspection 
before  the  aatomaton  commenced  play.  The  letters  of 
reference  apply  to  all  the  figurea  as  well  is  this  u  in  the 
preceding  articles. 

It  will  be  first  remarked  that  the  drawer  a  (figs-  5  ud 
61)  does  not,  when  closed,  extend  to  the  l^k  of  the 
chest,  but  leaves  behind  it  an  open  space  o,  which  is 
never  seen  by  the  spectators.  The  smaller  dirlsioQ  of 
the  chest,  the  front  door  of  which  is  seen  open  at  i, 
'figs.  3  and  7|)  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  screen  t, 
'fig.  3,  where  the  reader  is  flopposed  to  look  down  upon 
he  internal  arrangements,)  movable  upon  a  hinge  and 
so  constructed  that  it  closes  upon  the  machinery  h,  the 
same  instant  the  door  B  is  closed;  this  machinery  h  oc- 
cupies the  fVont  part,  snd  the  hinder  part  k  is  empty ; 
but  it  communicates  with  the  open  space  o  behind  the 
drawer.  The  back  of  the  greater  division  of  the  chest 
ia  double,  and  the  part  p  (fig.  6)  moves  on  a  joint  at  the 
upper  part  and  forms,  whrai  rused,  an  opening  s,  (fig.  5,) 
between  the  two  divisions  of  the  chest,  by  carrying  wi^ 
it  part  of  the  partition  b,  which  couBlsts  of  cloth  tighdy 
itretchetL 

It  will  bo  seen  that  the  body  of  the  Turk  is  oeeapied 
byaniimer  trunk  If,  (figs.  Sand  6,}  the  interior  of  which 
la  not  exhibited.  This  trunk  v  communicates  with  the 
chest  fay  an  opening  at  t.  Thus,  by  simply  raiting  til* 
&lse  hack, «  connection  is  made  between  tne  two  cup- 
boards, the  trunk  v  and  the  space  o  behind  the  drawer. 

At  u  (fig.  4)  is  a  sliding  panel  which  is  moved  01 
ride ;  the  chess-player  is  introduced  before  the  company 
are  admitted,  and  the  panel  moved  into  its  place.  The 
player  ruses  the  false  back  of  the  lai^r  cupboard,  and 
occupies  the  position  represented  in  fig.  7,  by  the  shaded 
figure.  All  H  now  ready  for  the  exhibition :  the  door 
A  of  the  smaller  division  of  the  chest  is  opened,  and  a 
quantity  of  machinery  is  seen  in  so  crowd^  a  state  that 
Hothit^  can  be  seen  far  beyond  the  opening,  and  the 
Tisitor  concludes  that  the  whole  cupboard  is  filled  with 
■imilar  machinery,  and  he  is  confirmed  in  this  conclusion 
when  the  opposite  door  b  (fig.  3)  is  also  opened,  a  can- 
dle held  to  It,  and  the  light  is  seen  to  glimmer  among 
the  wheel-work.  The  door  B  is  then  locked,  and  Uie 
screen  I  falls  into  its  place  at  the  tame  instant.  This 
door  B  is  made  to  close  by  its  own  weight,  but  is  also 
locked  because  the  bead  of  the  chess-player  is  soon  to 
be  placed  behind  it;  snd  the  chess -automaton  would 
cease  to  be  a  mystery  should  this  door  fly  open  in  wheel- 
ing the  nuchme  about  the  room.  No  notice  is  taken  of 
this  door  bwig  locked,  because  the  keys  are  wanted  for 
other  locks. 

The  door  b  being  secured  and  the  screw  >  closed,  the 
«lhihitor,  leaving  the  door  a  open,  proceeds  to  open  other 
parts  of  the  madiine.  The  drawer  a  is  next  opened  for 
the  apparent  purpose  of  showing  the  chess-men,  cushion, 
and  counters,  contained  in  it;  but  the  real  object  is  to 
^ve  the  player  time  to  shift  his  position  from  that  shown 
in  fig.  7  to  that  seen  in  figs.  7  and  9,  and  to  replace  the  false 
back  and  partition  preparatory  to  the  opening  of  the  great 
cupboard.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  body  of  the  Uving 
player  is  now  in  the  small  compartment  between  the 
screen  i  (fig.  S)  and  the  door  b,  both  of  which  ar«  closed, 
while  his  1^  are  contained  in  the  open  space  □  behind 
the  drawer  c,  and  thus  the  door  a  can  be  left  open  with 
impunity.  The  great  cupboard  being  opened,  a  glance  of 
the  eye  is  sufficient  to  show  that  no  person  is  concealed 
in  it :  and  to  make  this  more  sure  a  lighted  candle  is  held  at 
a  door  which  opens  at  the  back.  The  doors  a  c  c  bring 
left  open,  the  chest  is  wheeled  round  to  show  the  trunk 
of  the  figure;  the  door  n  (fig.  3)  is  opened,  and  the 
bunch  of  keys  allowed  to  remain  in  it,  probably  to  remove 
any  suspicion  which  may  have  arisen  by  locking  the  door 
S.    The  drapery  of  the  figure  is  then  raised,  and  two 


dons,  eac  in  tlwtniBk  and.tbe  othsr  in  the  thigh,  apestd; 
the  chsst  ia  then  wheeled  round  into  iU  origins]  puitioo 
and  the  door  closed.  Meanwhilo  the  eaaccaled  pbjcr 
witbdnnra  hsa  legs  from  behind  the  drawer,  vliidi  bt 
MB  da  dw  mare  readily  while  it  is  left  open. 

In  all  thia  routine  ttw  spectator  ™-gi~»«  that  be  ki 
inspected  the  whole  of  the  interior  of  the  qucIum,  ud 
feeh  convineed  that  tiie  paita  not  exposed  art  fidl  of 
machinery:  wliema  aereral  parts  have  not  ben  ihm 
at  all,  and  eren  when  all  Ibt  doors'rexoept  a  m  apa, 
about  one  half  of  tlie  chest  is  quite  excluded  from  lb 
sight. 

Tlie  drawer  a  bung  pushed  in  end  the  doon  acc 
closed,  the  exhibitor  oooi^ies  some  time  in  ac^utingili 
machinery  at  the  hack;  during  wbich  the  playerimniM 
the  podlioti  shown  in  a  front  view  in  fig.  10,  «id  in  pro- 
file m  fig.  11.  In  this  position  his  head  bong  iW 
the  cheas-board  he  sees  through  the  wusteoil  sf  tLe 
figure  as  eerily  aa  Arongh  a  veil,  all  the  pieos  on  tie 
chess-board,  and  he  can  reai^ly  take  up  and  put  don 
a  piece  by  means  of  a  string  communieatiiig  villi  lit 
fing«TS  of  l)n  figure.  His  right  hand  being  willim  tlie 
chest  is  employed  to  keep  in  motion  the  wheel-woik  for 
producing  tne  noise  heard  during  the  moves  snd  la  fs- 
form  any  other  movements  of  tSe  figure*. 

This  solution  by  Mr.  Willis,  of  the  difficult  proUei 
of  the  chess-automaton  is  iiighly  creditable  to  hu  agi- 
city,  for,  except  in  his  extenrive  knowledge  of  mechuial 
science,  he  had  no  ftcilities  of  observation  ttui  <lid 
not  belong  to  an  ordinary  spectator.  We  need  M, 
therefore,  be  surprised  that,  when  ril  the  avenues  to  tbc 
interior  ot  the  chest  were  closed,  Mr. Willis  should  &II 
into  error  respecting  the  mode  by  which  the  conHslcd 
player  oondueted  the  game ;  fbr,  it  aaat  be  obviixu,  tisl 
"  the  waistcoat  of  the  figure"  would  afford  s  ve^  in- 
efficient concealment  against  the  eyes  tDdeinofpH' 
merous  apeetaton,  shaiyBUWl  as  tb^  were  bycuiiontr 
to  the  detection  of  the  slightest  motion  or  sosoi   But 


B  eh^  AiF«ta«ai  nnnMfbj'a^ 


A  Bdv  thralioa,  sf  Dm  Mma^  wttb  aHAnni°f™- 

•  Tb*  nmia  witl  wl  fkil  to  dMIm  ■  iGmfiuKT  M««  "  ^' 
chi  .ccoiml  ot  the  mods  of  uUbjtliK  llw  tuMHtca  ud  d»  " 
mehuUlj  adiipud  io  Ltrndm. 


IMI.] 


THE  fi&TUKDAY  MAGAZINE; 


whaUrer  is  defident  in  Mr.  WilHs'a  uamiit  hu  bees 
subsequently  supplied  by  M.  Moarett  wko,  for  a  lou^ 
dme,  constituted  the  source  of  TiUKty  of  iha  diesi- 
■utomaton :  this  infomiBtion,  tosetiier  widi  wfaaterer  else 
vre  may  have  to  say  on  die  Bv£jeot,  vill  appear  in  our 
next  and  concluding  article.  '- 


•ijiMrtia  liI>lbMpMiUoa,ci 


We  are  willing  enongh  to  kem  at  eret  so  great  a  distance 
trom  the  faults,  to  wnich  we  Bare  little  or  no  inclination; 
ud  often  aSisct  to  make  our  seal  in  that  respect  remarkable ; 
Dtit  then  perikaps  more  brourite  vice*  hare  easy  mtrance  into 
oni  bitasta,  Kid  take  firm  poassarion  of  them.  We  are 
uocked,  for  ina(snc«^  and  wil£  mndt  canse,  at  the  monstrous 
nnd  ruinous  eagerness  for  pkasoi^  the  profligate  and  un- 
F>«<^enled  contempt  of  nlinon,  that  vrerails  ut  the  world ; 
DOT  behiTionr,  on  those  heads,  I«  nnUaineaUe^  exemplary, 
^d  we  Talne  onnelTes  upon  It  beyond  bounds.  Yet  poe- 
iibly  we  indnlge  ourselTea,  all  the  whil&  to  the  fiill  anouier 
^f ;  are  onjnirt  and  &nndnlent,  or  selfiu  and  unreasonable, 
^  penurious  and  hard-hearted,  or  o«nsorions  and  onfin^r- 
'^1  or  pee^dsh  and  ill-tempeiea ;  make  erery  one  about  ns 
^"^■•7 1  end  those  chiefly  whose  happiness  ought  to  be  our 
uttcar^  This  is  nplandiw  oonetvea  fiir  being  fortified, 
^Dtn  the  enemy  is  not  likely  to  make  an  attack;  and 
jwyiDfl  the  places  that  are  molt  exposed,  ^uite  nodefended. 


THE  BETEL-CHBWERS  OF  THE  EAST. 

Wbktheh  to  blunt  tbe  edge  of  painful  reflcctiun,  (re- 
marks Mr.  Morsden,)  or  owing  to  an  aversion  our 
natures  have  to  total  inaction,  moat  nalions  have  been 
addicted  to  the  practice  of  enjoying  by  mastication,  or 
otherwise)  the  flavour  of  substancea  possessing  an  inebri- 
ating quality.  The  South  Americans  chew  the  cocoa 
fkud  nuunbee,  and  the  Eastern  people  the  bgtel  and 
oreco,  (or,  as  they  are  called  in  the  Malay  language, 
ririh  tad  pittang)  much  in  the  same  way  as  tobacco  is 
used  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  All  persons,  without 
exception  of  age  or  sex,  begin  at  an  early  age  to  accus- 
tom themselves  to  the  use  of  betel,  until  it  becomes  an 
article  of  such  necessity  that  many  natives  of  the  East 
would  rather  be  deprived  of  their  ordinary  food  than  of 
the  means  of  gratiiying  this  acquired  want.  Europeans 
also- who  have  resided  long  among  the  hetel-chewers 
contract  the  habit,  and  enjoy  it  quite  as  much  as  the 
natives. 

Btftel,  ox  paten,  as  it  is  called  in  Bengal,  consists  of 
part  of  the  fruit  of  the  areca  palm,  folded  in  the  leaves 
of  a  kind  of  pepper  plant,  called  bettl,  smeared  with  a 
little  lime,  procured  by  burning  shells,  and  from  the 
form  thus  given  to  the  artjcle,  the  term  belel-nui  is 
derived. 

The  areca  palm  is  a  tree  growing  to  the  height  of 
forty  or  fifty  leet,  with  a  straight  round  stem,  six  or 
eight  inches  in  diameter,  covered  with  a  smooth  ash- 
oHaured  bark,  marked  with  parallel  rings.  The  leaves, 
of  which  there  are  only  six  or  seven,  ipring  from  the 
top,  and  are  six  feet  in  length,  declining  downwards 
from  a  stalk  of  considerable  length.  The  fruit  or  nut 
is  enveloped  in  a  green  shell  or  skin,  thin,  brittle,  and 
of  the  consistence  of  paper :  it  is  of  on  oval  shape,  like 
a  small  egg,  and  is  much  like  a  nutmeg  when  deprived 
of  its  huw.  When  ripe  it  appears  in  clusters  of  a  red- 
dish colour,  farming  abeantiful  contrast  with  the  bright 
green  of  ita  leaves,  and  it  then  fidls  off  to  sow  itself  in 
theground. 

Tlie  betel  plant  is  a  species  of  vine,  with  a  leaf  some- 
what like  that  of  the  ivr-  It  is  the  Piper  betel  of  botany, 
in  the  natural  order  Piperacia,  and  of  the  same  genus 
as  tha  Piptr  tiigntm  of  Linnraus.  Its  culture,  wbicb  is 
carefidly  attended  to,  is  managed  in  the  same  manner. 
Poles  are  planted  in  the  ground,  round  which  the  betel 
twines  itself,  and  aa  it  runs  up,  the  poles,  having  taken 
root,  acquire  greater  height  also.  It  is  a  creeping  plant, 
deriving  support  from  more  hardj'  vegetables,  but  it  is 
said  not  to  be  injurious  to  them,  like  some  other  plants 
of  a  similar  nature.  Particular  attention  is  bestowed  on 
the  cultivation  of  the  areca  and  the  betel.  Itwas  stated 
some  yean  ago  that  the  number  of  trees  in  the  Prince 
of  Wales's  Island  amounted  to  342,110. 

In  different  parts  of  India  betel  is  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens on  an  extensive  scale.  He  soQ  most  fiivourable 
for  the  fRIm  is  a  black  mould  on  a  substratum  of  lime- 
stone, or  intermixed  with  calcareous  nodules.  It  is 
planted  in  rows,  and  carefully  manured  and  watered 
during  several  years.  It  begins  to  bear  from  the  eighth 
or  tenth  to  theuteenth  year,  and  remains  in  perfection  for 
thirty  years.  Some  individuals,  however,  produce  fruit 
up  to  ue  seventieth,  or  even  the  hundredth  year,  but  the 

Eroduce  gradually  declines  both  in  quality  and  quantity. 
t  it  stated  that  every  fertile  tree  produces  on  an  average 
857  nuts,  and  an  ormnary  tree  as  many  as  600,  but  this 
is  by  no  means  a  general  rule,  for  some  trees  produco 
only  about  200  nuts. 

The  betel  leaf  is  cultivated  either  in  separate  gar- 
dens, where  a  red  stony  soil  on  the  side  of  a  rising 
ground  is  preferred,  and  plantains  or  bamboos  planted 
along  with  the  vines,  which  are  arranged  in  trenches,  to 
support  them  as  they  grow :  or  when  an  areca  plantation 
ta  formed  and  the  p^ms  are  about  fifteen  years  old, 
euttiiigt  of  the  yine  are  plaated  near  the  rvoU,  and 


78 


TR8  SATURDAY  MAOAZIME^^ 


[AUGUIT  9^ 


trained  up  to  the  trees.  In  twelre  or  eighteen  moiitht  the 
leaves  of  the  vine  are  fit  for  sale,  and  in  three  years  they 
have  attained  their  full  size;  in  the  fourth  year  they  didi 
and  new  plants  must  then  be  subititutM.  In  ftbmil 
eighteen  or  twenty  years  the  soil  is  eonsiderod  to  be  M* 
hausted.  The  gardens  are  always  belosed  by  a  bedf«t 
nevertheless  the  depredations  of  squirreU  and  eren  of 
elephants  sometimes  occasion  great  lost  to  the  enlliTalori* 
The  crop  of  the  arer^  is  produced  during  three  tnontbtt 
and  the  nuts  being  pulled  are  each  cut  into  Mv«n  or 
eight  pieces,  and  piled  up  in  a  heap :  equal  quantitiei  of 
it  and  of  terra  japonica,  with  a  hundred  leasee  of  beteU 
leaf,  are  then  beaten  together  with  water  and  Ihe  juioo 
strained  off.  This  is  mixed  inih  a  decoction  of  the 
Mimosa  indica  and  water,  and  the  nuts  from  the  whole 
heap  are  boiled  in  it.  They  are  then  dried  in  the  sun. 
The  fresh  nut  cannot  be  eaten,  because  in  its  crude  atalo 
it  contains  a  white  viscous  matter,  insipid  to  the  taste^ 
but  occasioning  delirium,  a  property  which  is  lost  by 
boiling  or  drying  the  nut. 

Betel  is  therefore  compounded  of  three  ingredienta, 
the  union  of  which  is  supposed  to  correct  the  efieeta 
which  each  would  produce  singly:  the  nut  improves  the 
bitterness  of  the  leaf,  and  the  lime  prevents  any  injury 
to  the  stomach.  The  first  consequences  to  the  betel- 
chewer  are  to  turn  the  saliva  red,  and  in  progress  of 
tifne  to  make  the  teeth  black.  If  the  lime  be  omitted* 
the  saliva  will  not  be  tinged;  and  the  baneM  effect  of 
this  alkali  on  the  enamel  of  the  teeth  may  be  prevented 
by  rubbing  them  with  a  preparation  whereby  they  become 
permanently  coated  with  a  black  substance  which  pre* 
serves  them  from  corrosion. 

The  medicinal  effects  of  betel  are  to  dispel  naueea,  to 
excite  an  appetite,  and  to  strengthen  the  stomach.  It 
also  possesses  nutritious  and  enlivening  qualities  which 
render  it  very  acceptable  to  its  consumers.  The  terra 
japonica  is  not  a  universal  ingredient;  its  use  is  limited 
to  certain  countries ;  and  it  is  probably  nothing  more 
than  a  preparation  from  the  areca  nut  itself.  There  are 
two  varieties  of  this  substance;  the  one  very  astringent 
and  the  other  less  so,  and  rather  sweet,  which  is  pre- 
ferred. To  obtain  the  former,  the  fresh  nuts  are  boiled 
during  some  hours  in  an  iron  vessel ;  the  decoction  is 
then  strained  off,  and  thickened  by  continued  boiling. 
The  nuts  being  dried,  are  subjected  to  a  second  boiling, 
and  the  nuts  being  tdcen  out,  this  second  decoction  Is 
thickened  by  evaporation,  and  thus  the  best  terra  japonica 
is  procured.  The  nuts  are  then  dried*  cut  into  pieces, 
and  sold.  Terra  japonica  is  also  procured  by  boiling  the 
wood  of  the  keira  tree,  or  Mimosa  ecUeehu,  This  sub- 
stance is  probably  the  same  as  the  gatnbir  of  Sumatra* 
which  we  shall  presently  mention. 

The  betcl-chewers  carry  the  ingredients  fbr  compound- 
ing betel  about  with  them,  and  serve  it  to  their  guests 
on  all  occasions ;  the  prinoe  in  a  gold  stand,  and  the  poor 
man  in  a  brass  box,  or  mat  bag.  The  betel-^nds  of 
the  upper  ranks  are  usually  of  silver  embossed  with  rude 
figures.  The  sultan  of  mocomoco  was  presented  with 
one  by  the  East  India  Company  with  jthoir  arms  on  it: 
the  sultan  also  possessed  a  box  made  of  gold  filagree, 
which  Mr.  Marsden  describes  thus;  the  form  of  the 
stand  is  the  frustrum  of  an  hexagonal  pyramid,  reversed, 
about  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter;  it  contains  many 
smaller  vessels,  fitted  to  the  angles,  for  holding  the  nut, 
leaf,  and  cAtcnam,  or  quick-lime;  with  places  for  the 
instruments  (kachiss)  employed  m  cutting  the  first,  and 
spatulas  for  spreading  the  last. 

When  the  first  salutation  is  over,  which  in  Sumatra 
consists  of  bending  the  body,  and  the  inferior  putting 
his  joined  hands  between  those  of  the  superior,  and 
then  lifting  them  to  his  forehead*  the  betel  is  presented 
as  a  token  of  hoitpitality,  ^nd  an  act  of  politeness.  To 
omit  it  on  the  one  hand,  or  to  reject  it  on  the  other* 
would  be  an  affront ;  as  it  would  be  also,  in  a  person  of 
subordinate  rank^  to  address*  a  great  man  without  the 


prcoAution  of  obttwiag  U  before  he  noks.  All  tiM 
preparation  eonsbtt  in  spreading  on  toe  nrih  leaf,  a 
small  quantity  of  the  cbunam*  and  folding  it  ap  ^  i 
slioe  of  the  pinang  nut*  8(»no  mix  with  Uiese,  gambirt 
a  aubitanoe  prepared  firom  the  leaves  of  a  tree  of  that 
namer  by  boiling  their  juices  until  a  thick  mass  is  ob- 
tained* from  which  little  balls  or  squares  are  made: 
tobacco  is  also  added,  which  is  shred  fine  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  carried  between  the  lip  and  upper  row  of 
teeth.  The  red  hue  whioh  ii  communicated  to  tk 
mouth  and  lips  Is  esteemed  ornamental :  and  an  agree* 
able  flavour  is  imparted  to  the  breath.  The  juice  is 
usually,  after  the  first  fermentation  produced  by  the 
lime,  though  not  always^  swallowed  by  the  chewers  of 
betel.  In  some  countries  it  is  not  unusual  for  the  guest 
who  receives  the  betel  from  his  host*  to  pass  it  betwea 
his  thumb  and  fore-finger*  and  apply  his  own  chunam, 
a  practice  which  never  givea  ofltooe,  and  is  s!ipt)oaed  to 
have  originated  ftom  the  horrible  practice,  once  so 
common,  of  miixinf  up  poison  in  the  lune.  The  person, 
therefore,  who  receives  the  betel  wipes  off  the  diuiiam 
of  hia  hottt  and  appHea  hii  own  More  he  piiiestiiB 
betel  into  his  mouth. 

It  might  reasonably  be  supposed  that  the  active 
qualitiea  of  betel  would  injure  the  coats  of  the  stomach, 
but  experience  seems  to  disprove  such  a  consequenoe. 
It  is  common  to  see  the  teeth  of  elderly  persons  stand 
loose  in  the  gums,  whioh  la  probably  an  effect  of  this 
custom,  but  Mr.  Marsden  does  not  tnink  that  it  affects 
the  soundness  of  the  leeth  themseWes.  Children  b^ 
to  chew  betel  yery  young,  and  yet,  he  says,  their  teeth 
are  beautiftiUy  wnite,  tiU  paint  are  taken  to  disilpire 
them,  by  filing*  and  staining  them  blaek.  To  penoDS 
who  are  not  aoeustomed  to  the  composition*  it  etuia  a 
stronff  giddineta,  astringes  and  excoriates  the  tongue 
and  nuoes,  and  deadens  fbr  a  time  the  senia  of  taste. 
During  the  fkst  of  Ramadan,  Mahomedans  abitain  from 
the  use  of  betel  whilst  the  sun  continues  above  the 
horiton  I  but  excepting  at  this  season  it  is  the  constant 
luxury  of  both  sexes,  from  an  early  period  of  childhood, 
till,  becoming  toothleaa,  they  are  reduced  to  the  neces- 
sity of  having  the  ingi^ients  previously  reduced  to  a 
paste  for  them,  that  Without  further  effort  the  betel  maj 
dissolve  in  the  mouth* 

It  is  related  in  the  Lifi  of  Sir  Stamford  Enjks,  that 
when  Lady  Raffles  reached  Merambung,  in  Sumatra, 
being  much  fatigued  with  walking,  the  feet  of  the  party 
having  dispersed  in  various  directions,  she  reclined 
under  the  shade  of  a  tree,  when  a  Malay  girl  approached 
in  a  graceful  manner,  and  on  being  asked  if  she  wanted 
anything,  repliedi  <<  Noi  but  as  you  are  quite  slooe,  I 
thought  you  might  like  to  have  a  little  bicara  (tal^;) 
so  I  came  to  ofler  you  some  nHf  (betel,)  and  sit  beside 
you.** 

It  is  stated  in  the  Bn^^opattia  Britafmica  that 

Betel  is  a  ver^^  considenble  artide  of  tesffic  in  Indiaffid 
in  China,  and,  indeed,  thronghoni  Asia.  In  the  British 
settlements  of  Bombay,  Madras  and  Bensal,  the  value « 
the  imports  amounted  in  a  single  year  to  138,836/. ;  and  if 
the  quantities  consumed  througliout  the  East  are  taken  into 
view,  it  will  appear  surprising  how  they  can  be  obtained. 
But,  owing  to  the  constant  and  extensive  demand,  w 
plants  affordinff  the  necessary  Ingredients  are  cardnnf 
cultivated;  ana  multitudes  are  employed  and  subsisted  m 
the  production  of  this  eastern  luxury. 

WnKw  all  is  qeiot  and  the  mind  at  i«Bt» 
All  in  the  oalm  of  iimocenoe  are  Uesl} 
But  when  some  scruple  mixes  with  our  j«y» 
Wo  iove  IQ  give  the  anxious  mind  employ* 


Bbivo  persuaded  of  nothing  mon  than  of  thi^  thsi,  whe* 
ther  it  be  in  matter  of  epecukaotior  of  pravtios^  no  untntU 
can  possibly  avail  the  iMitiDn  and  defender  longy  •od  tB» 
things  most  truly  are  likewise  most  .behovefoU^  ipeMB*-* 

HOOJOEB. 


184K] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


79 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY, 

2.    Ok  thb  Intsaohanob  ov  Ceopi  (c&neluiei)^ 

ANp  on  Manvres. 

Whek  w«  ffrow  in  the  muim  loil  for  iertnl  Ttars  In 

Buccesiion   different  plantoy  the  fint  of  whien  kaTes 

behind  that  which  the  leoond,  and  the  second  that  whieh 

the  third,  may  require,  the  loil  will  be  a  fruitftil  one 

for  all  the  three  kinds  of  produce.     If  the  first  plant, 

for  example,  be  wheat,  which  consumes  the  greatest  part 

of  the  silicate  of  potash  in  a  soil,  whilst  the  plants  which 

succeed  it  are  of  such  a  kind  as  require  only  small 

quantities  of  potash,  as  is  the  case  with  the  legfuminosfls, 

turnips,  potatoes,  &c. ;  the  wheat  may  be  again  sowed 

with  adyantage  ailer  the  fourth  year;  for  during  the 

interval  of  three  years,  the  soil  will,  by  the  action  of  the 

atmosphere,  be  rendered  capable  of  again  yielding  silicate 

of  potash  in  sufficient  quantity  for  the  young  plants. 

But  if  there  be  a  successive  growth  of  plants  on  the 

same  soil  which  extract  the  same  component  parts,  they 

gradually  render  that  soil  incapable  of  producing  them. 

The  nutriment  of  young  plants  consists  of  carbonic 

acid,  contained  in  the  soil  in  the  form  of  humus,  and  of 

nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia,  both  of  which  must  be 

supplied  to  the  plants*     The  formation  of  aTpi^f>iiiit 

cannot  be  effected  on  cultivated  land,  but  humus  may  be 

artificially  produced.     The  sowing  of  a  field  with  fktlow 

plants,  such  as  clover,  rye,  buck-wheat,  Ac,   and  the 

incorporation  of  the  plants,  when  nearly  at  blossom,  with 

the  soil,  effect  this  supply  of  humus  in  so  far,  that  young 

plants  subsequently  growing  in  it  find,  at  a  certain  period 

of  their  growth,  a  maximum  of  nutriment,  that  is,  matter 

in  the  process  of  decay.     The  same  end  is  obtained,  but 

with  much  gpreater  certainty,  when  the  field  is  planted 

with  esparsette  or  lucem.     These  plants  are  remarkable 

on   account  of  the  great  ramification  of  their  roots  and 

strong  developement  of  their  leaves,  and  for  requiring 

only  a  small  quantity  of  inorganic  matter.     Until  they 

reach  a  certain  period  of  their  growth,  they  retain  all 

the  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  which  may  have  been 

conveyed  to  them  by  rain  and  the  air,  for  that  which  is 

not  absorbed  by  the  soil  is  appropriated  by  the  leaves : 

they  also  possess  an  extensive  four  or  six-fold  surface 

capable  of  assimilating  these  bodies,  and  of  preventing 

the   escape  of  ammonia  from  the  soil  by  completely 

covering  it  In. 

An  immediate  consequence  of  the  production  of  the 
^een  principle  of  the  leaves,  and  of  their  remaining 
component  parts,  as  well  as  those  of  the  stem,  is  the 
Mjually  abundant  excretion  of  organic  matters  into  the 
loil  from  the  roots.  Matter  is  thus  supplied  which  is 
mpable  of  being  converted  into  humus. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  the  interchange  of  crops  is 
10  advantageous,  because  by  the  cultivation  of  different 
tinda  of  plants  upon  the -same  field  in  a  proper  order  of 
(accession,  each  kind  of  plant  extracts  only  certain  com- 
K>nent  parts  of  the  soil,  whilst  it  leaves  behind  or 
(astores  those  which  a  second  or  third  species  of  plant 
nay  require  for  its  g^rowth  and  perfect  developement. 
lut  although  the  quantity  of  humus  in  a  soil  may  be 
■icreaaed  by  artifici^  eultivation«  manures  are  necessary 
|a  replace  the  constituent  parts  of  the  soil  which  are 
lemoved  in  the  seeds,  roots,  and  leaves,  of  the  pknts 
aised  upon  it. 

When  we  consider  that  every  constituent  of  the  body 
'$  man  and  animals  is  derived  from  plants,  and  that  not 
\  single  element  is  generated  by  the  vital  principle,  it  is 
Irident  that  all  the  inorganic  constituents  of  the  animal 
anism  most  be  regarded,  in  some  respect  or  other,  as 
nure.     During  their  life,  the  inorganic  components 
plants  which  are  not  required  by  the  animal  system, 
disengaged  from  the  organism.    Alter  their  death, 
e  nitrogen  and  carbon  pass  into  the  atmosphere  as 
mouia  and  carbonic  aci{  the  products  of  thehr  putre- 


ftction,  and,  at  last,  nothing  remains  except  the  phosphate 
of  lime  and  other  salts  in  their  bones.  Now  this  earthy 
residue  of  the  putrefkction  of  animals  must  be  considered, 
in  a  rational  system  of  agriculture,  (continues  Professor 
Liebig,)  as  a  powerful  manure  for  plants,  because  that 
which  has  been  abstracted  from  the  soil  for  a  series  of 
years  must  be  restored  to  it,  if  the  land  is  to  be  kept  in 
a  permament  condition  of  fertility. 

The  author  then  proceeds  to  the  analysis  of  various 
kinds  of  animal  manure,  in  order  to  ascertain  what  sub- 
slanees  a  soil  really  receives  by  their  means ;  whether 
these  manures  are  all  of  a  like  nature  and  power;  and 
whether,  in  every  case,  they  administer  to  the  necessities 
of  a  plant  by  an  identical  mode  of  action.  We  cannot 
follow  up  these  details :  but  we  may  remark,  that  the 
fdrtiiising  properties  of  manures  are  due  to  the  presence 
of  ammonia,  in  some  form  or  other.  Plants  obtaiu  their 
nitrogen  fVom  ammonia,  which  is  supplied  to  them  by 
animal  manure.  It  is  a  point.,  therefore,  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  agriculturist  to  supply  nitrogen  in  suf- 
fioient  quantity,  and  the  readiest  form  in  which  it  exists 
is  putrescent  animal  liquid,  which  contains  nitrogen  in 
the  forms  of  carbonate,  phosphate,  and  lactate  of  am- 
monia, and  in  no  other  form  than  that  of  ammoniacal 
salts.  Hence,  grest  loss  is  experienced  by  the  farmer 
in  allowing  bis  heaps  of  manure  to  exhale  into  the  at- 
mosphere their  most  fertilizing  properties.  The  nitrogen 
of  tne  heap  escapes  under  the  form  of  carbonate  of 
ammonia,  and  a  mere  carbonaceous  residue  of  decayed 
plants  is  after  some  years  found  in  its  place.  The  loss 
from  the  escape  of  ammonia  from  manure  is  very  great, 
and,  in  spreading  manure  over  land,  there  is  a  loss  of 
fertilising  properties  which,  with  a  little  care,  might  be 
preserved.  The  method  of  preservation  is  to  mix  the 
manure  with  such  substances  as  rapidly  absorb  the  volatile 
matters.  Gypsum,  chloride  of  calcium,  sulphuric  or 
muriatic  acids,  superphosphate  of  lime,  may  be  employed 
for  this  purpose:  they  may  be  procured  at  a  very  low 
price,  and  their  action  is  to  convert  the  volatile  ammonia 
into  salts  which  possess  no  volatility.  If  a  basin,  filled 
with  concentrated  muriatic  acid,  be  placed  in  a  stable,  it 
becomes  filled,  after  a  few  days,  with  crystals  of  muriate 
of  ammonia.  The  ammonia  which  escapes  Arom  stables, 
Ae»y  is  not  only  entirely  lost  as  far  as  our  vegetation  is 
concerned,  but  it  also  works  a  slow,  though  not  less  cer- 
tun,  destruction  of  the  walls  of  the  building.  For,  when 
in  contact  with  the  lime  of  the  mortar,  it  is  converted 
into  nitric  acid,  which  gradually  dissolves  the  lime.  The 
ammonia  emitted  from  stables,  &c.,  is  always  in  combi- 
nation with  carbonic  acid.  Carbonate  of  ammonia  and 
sulphate  of  lime  (gypstmi),  cannot  be  brought  together 
at  common  temperatures  without  mutual  decomposition. 
The  ammonia  enters  into  combination  with  the  sulphuric 
aeid,  end  the  carbonic  acid  with  the  lime,  forming  com- 
pounds which  are  not  volatile,  and,  consequently,  desti- 
tute of  all  ipiell.  Now  if  we  strew  the  floors  of  our 
stables,  from  time  to  time,  with  common  gypsum,  they 
will  lose  all  their  offensive  smell,  and  none  of  the  am- 
monia which  is  formed  can  be  lost,  but  will  be  retained 
in  a  condition  serviceable  as  manure. 

The  application  of  manures  to  land  requires  much 
eareful  discrimination  and  a  great  deal  of  knowledge 
respecting  what  component  parts  of  the  soil  were  removed 
by  the  crops  which  preceded  the  manuring.  In  horse 
manure  we  restore  to  the  land  some  of  the  component 
parts  of  the  hay,  straw,  and  oats,  with  which  the  horse 
was  fed.  Their  principal  constituents  are  the  phosphates 
of  lime  and  magnesia,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  silicate  of 
potash;  the  first  three  of  these  preponderate  in  the 
com,  the  last  in  the  hay.  The  peculiar  action  of  solid 
animal  manure  is  limited  to  their  inorganic  constituents, 
which  restore  to  the  land  that  which  is  removed  in  the 
fbrm  of  coin,  roots,  or  grain.  When  straw  which  has 
been  used  as  litter  is  added  to  the  land,  a  further  quan- 
tity of  silicate  of  potash  and  phosphates  is  restored; 


so 


THE  SATURDikY  MAGAZINE. 


[  Acowr  M,  IMI 


which,  if  the  straw  be  putrefied,  are  in  ezaotly  the  same 
condition  in  which  they  were  before  being  assimilated. 

The  vegetable  constituents  of  manure  has  some  in- 
fliience  on  the  fertility  of  land,  for  by  their  decay  carbonic 
acid  is  fdrnished  to  the  young  plants.  But  their  inllu- 
ence  is  probably  not^  very  great  when  it  is  considered 
that  a  good  soil  is  manured  only  once  every  six  or  seven 
years,  or  once  every  eleven  or  twelve  years,  when  espar- 
sette  or  lucem  has  been  raised  on  it,  that  the  quantity 
of  carbon  thus  given  to  the  land  corresponds  to  only  6*8 
per  cent,  of  what  is  removed  in  the  form  of  herbs,  straw, 
and  grain,  and  further,  that  the  run  water  received  by 
a  soil  contains  much  more  carbon  in  the  form  of  carbonic 
acid  than  these  vegetable  constituents  of  the  manure. 

The  use  of  aninud  manure  in  the  crude  form  frequently 
does  harm  to  the  soil  by  disseminating  the  seeds  of 
weeds  which  have  remained  in  the  manure  without  being 
deprived  of  their  power  of  germination,  and  yet,  says 
Liebig,  it  is  considered  surprising  that  where  Uiey  have 
once  flourished,  they  cannot  again  be  expelled  by  all  our 
endeavours:  we  think  it  very  astonishing,  while  we  really 
sow  them  ourselves  every  year.  The  botanist  Ingen- 
hous,  attached  to  the  Dutch  embassy  to  China,  could 
scarcely  find  a  single  plant  on  the  corn-fields  of  the 
Chinese,  except  the  corn  itself. 

Bone  manure,  from  the  quantity  of  phosphates  of  lime 
and  magnesia  contained  in  it,  is  a  valuable  substance 
for  land.  Liebeg  says  that  the  manure  of  an  acre  of 
land  with  40  lbs.  of  bone  dust  is  sufficient  to  supplv  three 
crops  of  wheat,  clover,  potatoes,  turnips,  &c.,  with  phos- 
phates. But  the  form  in  which  they  are  restorea  to  a 
soil  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference.  For  the  more  finely 
the  bones  are  reduced  to  powder,  and  the  more  intimately 
they  are  mixed  with  the  soil,  the  more  easily  are  they 
assimilated.  The  most  easy  and  practical  mode  of  effect- 
ing their  division  is  to  pour  over  the  bones,  in  a  state  of 
fine  powder,  half  of  their  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  diluted 
with  three  or  four  parts  of  water,  and  after  they  have 
been  digested  for  some  time,  to  add  one  hundred  parts  of 
water,  and  sprinkle  this  mixture  over  the  field  before  the 
plough.  In  a  few  seconds,  the  free  acids  unite  with  the 
bases  contained  in  the  earth,  and  a  neutral  salt  is  formed  in 
a  very  fine  state  of  division.  Experiments  instituted  on  a 
soil  formed  from  grauwacke,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertain- 
ing the  action  of  manure  thus  prepared,  have  distinctly 
shown  that  neither  com,  nor  kitchen-garden  plants  suffer 
injurious  effects  in  consequence,  but  that  on  the  contrary 
thev  thrive  with  much  more  vigour. 

In  glue-manufactories  many  hundred  tons  of  a  solu- 
tion of  phosphates  in  muriatic  acid  are  yearly  thrown 
away  as  being  useless.  Professor  Liebig  suggests  the 
importance  of  examining  whether  this  sobition  might  not 
be  substituted  for  the  bones.  -The  free  add  would  combine 
with  the  alkalis  in  the  soil,  especially  with  the  lime,  and 
a  Soluble  salt  would  thus  be  produced,  which  is  known 
to  possess  a  favourable  action  upon  the  growth  of  plants. 
This  salt,  muriate  of  lime  (or  chloride  of  calcium)  is  one 
of  those  compounds  which  attracts  water  from  the  atmo- 
sphere with  great  avidity,  and  might  supply  the  place  of 
grypsum  in  decomposing  carbonate  of  ammonia,  with  the 
formation  of  sal-ammonia  and  carbonate  of  lime.  A  solu- 
tion of  bones  in  muriatic  acid  placed  on  land  in  autumn  or 
jn  winter  would,  therefore,  not  only  restore  a  necessary 
constituent  of  the  soil,  and  attract  moisture  to  it,  but 
would  also  give  it  the  power  to  retain  all  the  ammonia 
which  fell  upon  it  dissolved  in  the  rain  during  the  period 
of  six  months. 

There  are  numerous  details  in  Professor  Liebig's 
work,  which,  though  of  first-rate  importance,  are  not 
suited  to  our  pages.  Our  subject  is  rather  to  excite 
attention  to  this  subject  than  to  gratify  it:  and  we  cannot 
l>ut  express  a  hope  that  the  views  of  the  author  may  be 
fairly  tested  by  our  Agricultural  Societies,  and  reduced  to 
a  set  of  plain  rules  and  directions  for  the  benefit  ^^  aU 
.persons  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits. 


The  subject  of  maasres  is  only  nowbeginniigtobe 
understood;  but  it  seema  to  be  4  principki  of  agnonltore, 
that  those  snbstaDdes  which lunre  been  nmmi  fmi 
•oil  must  beoompletely  restored  to  it,  and  whether  tkb 
restoration  be  effected  by  means  of  animal  minnre,  ubes, 
6r  bones,  is  in  yreat  iiiwmii  f i  a  matter  d  iBdiflerenee. 
Liebig  loooks  forward  to  the  time  when  the  fields  viSbi 
manured  with  a  solution  of  glass  (silicate  of  poUslij, 
with  the  ashes  of  burnt  straw,  and  with  salts  of  pW 
phoric  add,  prepared  in  chenucal  manu&ctoriei,  eiietlj 
as  medioinee  are  now  prepared  to  be  administered  to  tb 
patienty  as  the  exigency  of  the  case  requires. 

China  is  the  birtE*plaoe  of  the  experimental  art;  tba- 
oessant  striving  alter  experiments  has  conducted  the  QiiMe 
a  thousand  years  since  to  disco veries^  which  hare  been  ^ 
envy  and  a^ixation  of  £ur(^>eans  for  centoiiei^  espeeuUj 
in  regard  to  dyeing  and  paintmg,  and  to  the  manumnmof 
porcelain,  silf,  and  colours  for  painters.  Then  we  wen 
long  unable  to  imitate,  and  yet  they  were  difleorend  bf 
ihrai  without  the  assistance  of  scientific  piinciplci:  &r  in 
the  books  of  the  Chinese  we  find  recipes  and  directions  for 
use.  but  never  explanations  of  processes. 

Half  a  centnrv  sufiioed  to  Europeans  not  onljtoeqQil 
but  to  surpass  the  Chinese  in  the  arts  and  nann&dio^ 
and  this  was  owing  merely  to  the  appfication  of  comet 
principles  deduced  mm  the  study  of  chemistiy.  Bat  bow 
mfinitoly  inferior  is  the  agriculture  of  Europe  to  tk  of 
Chinal  The  Chinese  are  ttie  most  adndrable  nrdeomd 
trainen  of  plants,  for  each  of  which  they  imdentiDdbow 
to  prepare  and  apply  the  best  adapted  manure.  TbetfttBl- 
ture  of  their  countiy  is  the  most  perfect  in  Uie  woiU;8id 
there,  where  the  dimato  in  the  most  fertile  ^tricts  diftn 
little  from  the  European,  venr  little  value  is  attacbed  to 
animal  manure.  With  us,  thick  books  are  written,  btt^ 
experiments  instituted;  the  quantity  of  manure  tomad 
by  this  and  that  plant,  is  expressed  in  hundredth  p>rti;>i» 
yet  we  know  not  what  manure  is. 


Thosx  who,  in  confidence  of  superior  capscitiei,  or  itiiifr 
ments,  disresard  t^e  common  maxims  of  hfe,  sbovld  reme^ 
ber  that  nothing  can  atone  for  the  want  of  pradeu^;  ti» 
negligence  and  irregularity  long  continued  will  mt 
knowledge  uselsai^  wit  ridicnloua,  and  genius  wim^^^ 
^^omisox. 

Skxk  yon  to  train  yoor  fisvonrite  hoy  ? 
Each  caation,  every  care,  employ, 
And,  era  jwi  venture  to  confide^, 
liet  his  preceptor's  heart  be  tried ; 
Weigh  weU  his  manners,  life,  and  soope : 

On  these  depend  thy  fotore  hope^— Gat. 


It  is  truly  a  most  Christian  exercise  to  extract '  -7-  t» 
of  piety  from  ih6  works  and  the  appearances  of  m^  J^ 
has  the  authority  of  the  sacred  wnters  upon  its  n^^ 
even  our  Saviour  himself  gives  it  the  weight  «»jf 
solemnity  of  his  example.  «« Behold  the  lilies  of  ti^«  0^' 
they  toll  not,  neltiier  do  tiiey  spin,  yet  7^}^^ 
Fa&er  caretii  for  tiiem."  He  expatiates  on  a  8mgfi»"J 
and  draws  from  it  tiie  deKghtful  argument  of  «>™«5^ 
God.  He  gives  us  to  see  fliat  taste  may  he  <f°?"J^,!y 
piety,  and  that  the  ssme  heart  may  be  occupied  wjw  w 

u  serious  in  the  contemplations  of  religioii,  «n<*j* " 
same  time  alive  to  the  charms  and  the  kvelinesB  ot  p» 

—Dm.  Chjjuuxbs.  ' 

With  us  it  has  aU  the  autiiority  of  •  monl  tphw^J*^ 
the  sobrieties  of  human  virtue  can  nerer  be  P'^JJ  ^ 
out  the  equities  of  human  virtue  bring  abo  »]^*  -^ 
moralties  of  human  life  are  too  closely  hnked  ^^^ 
woven  witii  each  oUier,  as  that  thoi^  one  aW)w» 
detached,  tiie  others  might  be  left  uni^juied  «»  "T , 
and  so  no  one  can  cast  his  purity  away  fr""*™*  ^Acss- 
violence  beinff  done  to  the  general  metal  stmetnre  v» 
sistency  of  his  whole  character. 

LONDON: 

JOHN  WILUAK  PABKEB,  WEST  8TEi^ 
»  WsBttT  M  imMM.  Paw  ■  Owm  FMnrr.  *»•  w  ■•»*»'' 


neia.bf  aU  BoekedLfN  and  V9wvmuii$n  ta  Iki  Kl«g4>** 


k. 


NS  588.  SUPPLEMENT, 


AUGUST,  1841.  {o„J^S„_ 


A    STEAM    VOyAGE    TO   INDIA. 


Uffimre-PLACS  AT  BOVUS,  SXAK  CUHO. 


With  old  piiMwlteliii(t  not  Tor  thk 
Shall  7>>  DT  poM*  crm,  be  judged  unin , 
Niw  iball  joai  pnHDcs,  bowioe'et  it  ddit 
Tha  lanllneu  cf  Nttim,  pnm  ■  bar 
To  Ae  Hhid'i  g^ning  IbU  jnylMU  whs 
Of  Aitnre  chtngn,  IhU  pmat  of  tMoq  iitiiiw 
M  V  be  duewtrtd  vhsl  In  ■»]  n  in. 
In  i^tv  of  all  tbat  bvautr  maj  dluwu 


iKwful  offifring  in^|ui'>  art;  i 

InU  baoda  the  i 
oa  jTDa  Kith  1^ 


FleaHdnilli 


Tkb  sdvautAgM  nmilting  iroia  the  eBtabluhment  of  Bteaia- 
nsvigatioa  w  bo  numerous,  that  we  need  not  feel  any  aui- 
prise  at  the  alt«ii^t  to  GzUud  its  beoefita  to  out  Eastern 
posseauona.  A  tew  nunutea'  inspection  of  a  terrestrial 
globe,  or  of  a  good  map  of  the  world,  will  show  how  circui- 
Uma  la  the  route  by  which  the  passage  from  England  to 
India  is  made^  round  the  southern  promontory  of  A&ica ; 
and  a  little  (XMuideiation  of  the  peculiar  winds  prevalent  in 
the  ludiaa  aese,  and  known  by  the  names  of  (he  trade 
tdndt  BAd  the  uumtootti,  would  show  how  desirable  it  ia  to 
have  a  motive  power  for  shipping  independent  of  the  winds. 
Ilenoe  have  arisen  two  different  classes  of  projects;  one  for 
esUblisliing  a  route  to  India  shorter  than  the  accustomed 
one  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  and  another,  for  per- 
furmiug  the  voyage  in  steam- veesets  initead  of  sailing-ressels. 
Eoch^  tiieae  dassee  of  projecta  has  had  numerous  advo- 
cate^ who,  in  too  many  caseo,  have  carried  on  the  diacotuons 
Vol.  XIX. 


relative  to  the  subject  m  a  Bpint  of  partiaanaldp  irtilcli 
has  done  more  evil  Uian  good 

In  attempting  to  sele^  a  shorfer  route  than  the  acciu- 
tomed  one,  the  att«ntion  of  navigatora  was  naturally  di- 
ftcted  to  the  HeditertauMn,  the  westeni  end  of  which 
eommniiicates  with  the  Atlantic,  and  the  eaatem  end  is 
■epanted  by  a  comparatively  short  distance  &om  two  seas 
wtkich  empty  themaelvea  into  the  Indian  Ocean,  viz.,  the 
Bed  Sea  ana  the  Persian  Gulf,  If  we  notice  the  position  of 
the  north-east  comer  of  the  Hediterraneon,  we  see  that  it 
is  not  very  far  distant  irom  the  upper  port  of  tJie  river 
Euphrates,  which  flows  downward  into  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  thence  into  the  Indian  Ocean.  We  also  sec  that  ;from 
the  mouth  of  the  River  Nile,  on  the  Heditcrranean  coast, 
to  Suez  at  the  bead  of  the  Bed  Sea,  the  distance  is  very 
moall,  and  that  this  narrow  tract  of  land,  called  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez,  is  the  onhr  bar  to  an  uninterrupted  water  commu- 
nication from  England  to  India.  Now  tnese  two  facts  have 
been  the  bases  on  which  numerous  projects  have  been 
founded  within  the  lost  few  jears.  Colonel  Chesney  and 
other  officeni  hare  been  commissioned  by  the  English 
Government  to  survey  the  river  Euphrates,  with  the  view  of 
aseectatning  whether  an  available  route  might  be  established 
in  that  direction;  white  at  the  some  time  various  public 
eompenias  have  been  established  for  forwarding  what  we 
may  perhaps  term  the  lied  Sea  project.  The  books,  pam- 
phlets, debates,  letters,  and  plans  which  have  been  publi^ed 
on  tliese  subjects  are  so  nnmeroua,  that  a  bare  ^numeration 
of  them  would  exceed  our  limits ;  and  we  shall  therefore 
wmply  state,  that  for  the  present  the  Euphrates  plan 
appears  to  be  abandoned,  chieSy  on  scconnt  of  the  lawless 
character  of  the  natives  on  either  fhnk  of  that  river,  Wa 
shall  therefore  confine  ourselvea  to  the  other  project.  A 
voyage  was  made  by  the  Enttrpritt  Bteam-veeacl  froia 
5SS 


82 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


England  to  India,  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  as  long 
back  a^  the  year  1025 ;  aAd  a  steam  toy  age  was  made  from 
Bombay  to  Egypt,  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea,  In  1830;  and  it 
then  became  a*^  question,  on  observing  the  succeai  of  these 
two  attempts,  how  far  the  Hed  Sea  mi«<ht  be  made  the 
channel  of  a  steam-packet  route  from  England  to  India.  To 
show  the  manner  in  which  it  lias  been  proposed  to  work 
out  this  plan,  we  will  give  a  short  abstract  of  a  scheme  fat 
establishmg  a  post-office  communication  on  this  route  pro- 
posed by  Captain  Head  in  1832.  He  proposed  tliat  the 
post-office  steamera,  which  at  that  time  ran  once  a  month 
from  Falmouth  to  Malta,  should  carry  the  mail-packet  to 
the  last-mentioned  place,  performing  the  distance  of  2250 
miles  in  sixteen  days.  After  stopping  two  days  at  Malta, 
the  packet  was  to  be  forwarded  by  steam  to  Alexandria,  the 
great  commercial  port  of  i*^ypt ;  the  distance,  about  837 
miles,  being  performed  in  six  days.  At  about  half-way 
between  Alexandria  and  Suez,  that  is,  between  tlie  Mediter- 
ranean and  Red  Seas,  lies  the  city  of  Cairo;  and  it  was  sup- 
posed that  a  land  journey  of  from  four  to  six  days,  by 
way  of  Cairo,  would  convey  the  packet  from  Alexandria 
to  ouez.  It  was  proposed  that  another  8tean:er  should  be 
ready  to  convey'  tlie  packet  from  Suez  to  Bombay ;  but 
as  this  distance  is  nearly  three  thousand  miles,  it  was 
proposed  to  establish  a  coal  depot  at  Aden,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Red  Sea,  1323  miles  from  Suez.  The  vessel  was  to  re- 
main two  davs  at  Aden,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  in  a 
supply  of  coals  and  other  stores,  and  was  then  to  proceed 
on  her  voyage  to  Bombay,  from  which  place  communica* 
lion  might  be  held  with  Calcutta  and  Madras  in' the  way 
most  convenient*  It  was  calculated  that  the  whole  distance 
frt)m  Falmouth  to  Bombay,  About  6250  miles,  might  be 
traversed  in  fifty-one  days. 

The  above  is  a  very  fair  example  of  the  plans  which 
were  proposed  in  reference  to  this  subject ;  but  it  soon  be- 
oame  evident  that  many  difficult  questions  had  to  be 
decided  before  the  practical  adoption  of  any  such  plans 
could  be  resolved  on.  Among  these  questions  were  such  as 
the  following; — whether  the  plan  should  be  put  in 
operation  by  the  Government,  by  the  East  India  CompanV) 
or  by  private  ioint-stock  companies;  whether  the  whole 
route  should  be  undeiiaken  oy  the  same  company,  or 
whether  one  company  should  peribim  the  passage  from 
England  to  Egypt,  and  another  mm  figypt  to  India ;  whe* 
ther  Mehemet  Ali,  the  Pacha  of  Egypt,  would  countenance 
the  establishment  of  a  route  through  his  dominions ;  whe- 
ther the  route  from  Alexandria  to  Cairo  should  be  per- 
formed by  land,  or  by  boats  or  packets  along  the  river  Nile ; 
whether  the  steam- voyage  should  terminate  at  Bombay,  or 
should  be  extended  round  the  southern  point  of  India  to 
Madras  and  Calcutta ;  and  lastly,  whethel*  it  should  be  only 
a  post-office  communication,  or  one  for  travellera  generally. 
Slowly,  and  not  till  after  much  warm  controversy  and  dis- 
cussion, have  these  difficult  questions  been  decided;  and 
we  proceed  to  state  the  actual  results  which  have  been 
attained. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  year  1838,  it  was  announced  that 
the  Sultan  of  Aden,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Red  Sea,  had  sur- 
rendered that  place  to  the  English,  for  the  purpose  of  a  coal 
dep6t,  on  an  annual  compensation  to  be  paid  to  him  by  the 
East  India  Company.  The  acquisition  of  this  town,  which 
has  the  best  harbour  in  the  Red  Sea,  placed  the  steam-com- 
xnunication  between  Bombay  and  Suez,  on  a  firmer  footing 
than  before.  This  possession,  however,  was  not  undisturbed 
by  the  restless  and  fierce  propensities  of  the  Arabs ;  for  m 
the  Autumn  of  1839  a  daring  attack  was  made  on  the  t-own 
by  the  ex-sultan  and  six  thousand  Arabs.  The  attack  was 
completely  repelled ;  and  the  Arabs  hat  cause  to  lament  the 
instigations  of  their  chief,  who  told  them  "  that  all  the 
buttons  worn  by  the  English  were  of  solid  gold,  and  that  pre- 
cious stones  and  valuables  of  all  kinds  awaited  their  expected 
victory."  This  discomfiture  was  followed  by  a  detei-ralna^ 
tion  on  the  part  of  the  Arabs  to  starve  out  the  English,  if 
possible ;  they  completely  cut  off  the  communication  from 
Aden  to  tlie  interior,  and  killed  any  straggling  soldiera  of 
the  garrison  whom  they  met  with.  The  garrison  had  to 
Obtain  provsions  by  the  aid  of  their  ships.  Matters  con- 
tinued much  in  the*  same  state  till  towards  the  middle  of 
the  year  1840^^Yhfin  the  Arabs  made  three  desperate 
attempts  to  gam  the  town,  in  May,  June,  and  July ;  but 
they  were  invariably  repulsed  with  great  loss;  and  the 
Indian  government  strengthened  the  garrison  and  fortifica- 
tions of  Aden.  From  the  accounts  which  reached  England 
in  the  early  part  of  the  present  year,  it  appears  that  the 
Arabs  had  discohtinued  their  attacks,  the  hard-worked 


soldiers  had  recovered  their  health,  the  BVpply.of  pWvlsioiis 
was  abundant,  the  climate  very  fins^  ana  the  tcide  of  the 
town  increasing ;  so  We  may  now  probably  leekoa  Ada  as 
a  pertnanent  English  estabbahment,  and  as  k  depdt  for  the 
Red  Sea  steamers. 

From  this  mention  of  Aden,  we  pass  on  to  notico  tin 
proceedings  of  the  steAm-oompanies.  The  voyB|8  hm 
Bombay  to  Suez  and  back  continued  to  be  made  at  intervals, 
long  before  the  completion  of  arrangements  for  continnifi(^ 
the  voyage  to  England*  On  the  1st  of  April,  1840,  the 
Vietona  steamer  left  Bombay ;  reached  Aden  on  the  9di; 
set  sail  again  on  the  I7tlu  after  remaining  at  Aden  twenh- 
seven  hours ;  and  reached  Suez  on  the  14th ;  thus  perform- 
ing the  journey  from  Bombay  to  Suez,  2992  mile^  m  \m 
than  sixteen  days  and  a-half.  She  set  sail  again  on  the  2l5t; 
reached  Aden  on  the  27th ;  and  arrived  at^mbay  on  the 
6th  of  May.  The  mail  from  England  happened  to  reacb 
Suez,  after  a  rapid  voyage,  about  three  days  after  the  aniTal 
of  the  Victoria  at  that  place ;  and  it  thence  renilted  that 
despatches  from  England,  dated  April  6th,  actually  mcM 
Bombay  on  the  6th  of  May,  after  an  interval  of  only  thirtj- 
one  days.  This  unexampled  celerity  of  communiation 
acted  as  a  great  spur  to  the  furtherance  of  the  plans  on  this 
subject.  About  the  middle  of  iJie  ^ear,  two  of  the  cm- 
panics  which  had  entertained  projects  on  Uub  sobjcct, 
seemed  to  approximate  towards  an  agreement.  One  of 
these  companies  proposed  to  forward  m^ls  and  letten  to 
and  from  India  by  two  routes,  one  a  land-route  thnngh 
France  via  Marseilles,  and  the  other  a  sea-route  b/ Fal- 
mouth and  Gibraltar ;  both  uniting  at  Malta. 

The  outward  mails  through  France  were  to  leave  Londoi 
on  the  4th  of  every  month ;  while  the  sea-packets  were  to 
start  on  the  Ist ;  both  to  reach  Malta  on  the  iSth,  md  to  start 
from  thence  to  Alexandria  on  the  14th.  The  ktid-iottte  w» 
principally  for  the  post-department,  as  allowkg  letters  to  be 
despatched  three  days  later ;  but  for  the  sea-route,  the 
vessels  were  to  be  fitted  up  fbr  the  reoeptloti  of  passengcA 
The  vessels  were  to  leave  the  passengers  and  letters  at  Alex- 
andria, horn  whence  thev  were  to  be  despatched  to  Indubj 
any  other  company  which  might  act  in  concert  With  the  oof 
just  alluded  to;  and  were  then  to  return  to  England  vith 
the  mail  from  India.  The  mtangetnent  pmpowd  to  Go- 
vernment, with  respect  to  the  post-office,  was,  that  letten 
would  be  conveyed  throughout  the  distance  from  London  t^) 
Alexandria  in  fifteen  days,  and  from  Alexandria  to  London, 
on  account  of  adverse  winds  in  the  Mediterranean,  in  sa- 
teen days. 

It  has  proved,  in  this  as  well  as  many  other  projects  in 
which  steam-power  is  concerned,  that  the  estimates  haw 
been  more  than  equalled  by  the  performances.  The  folios- 
ing  is  an  extract  from  the  W  of  the  Oriental^  for  her  fint 
trip  to  Alexandria  and  back,  in  the  autumn  of  the  jet 
1840:— 


OVTWASD  VOTAOB. 


HOOXB 


Timestflaining  ftom  FalmouCh  to  Gibraltar 

Gibraltar  to  Malta 
Malta  to  Alexandria 


I* 


n 
n 


tef..  IMJ  IS 

....  iiif s 


AW.lfS* 

1064 
WO 
8» 


Total  time  out  (ateazniiigj * 

Or  18  dsjrt,  17^  boon. 

H0MBW4BD   YdTAOB. 

Time  steaming  from  Alexandria  to  Malta    • . 
„  „         Malta  to  Gibraltar  .... 

„  „         Gibraltar  to  Falmouth. . 


8«9f 


0 
10! 
110 


n 


Total  ame  borne  (stoaming,) 321 

Or  13  days,  9  hours. 


1(0 


The  stoppages  at  Gibraltar  and  Malta  are  not  reckoned  ib 
this  account;  but,  including  the  allowance  for  theai,  tj^ 
vessel  performed  the  whole  distance  out  and  home  m  ♦*»( 
hours  less  than  the  contract  time.  ,  ,  • 

As  a  farther  elucidation  of  the  singukr  cffijcts  y^^  ^^ 
rapid  system  of  travelling  may  be  supposed  to  P"!""?.^,, 
the  old  modes  of  communication,  we  «ve  the  ftU^J?'^  \,, 
a  Calcutta  journal  of  last  year :— «  The  express  which  caw 
in  on  the  27th  May  to  Calcutta  from  Bombav,  ^tft J^ 
Europe  mail,  left  that  presidency  on  the  7th.    lho^  ^^^ 
was  communication  between  London  and  Bombav  w  ^ 
month  and  two  days,  and  between  London  and  ^^^^^ 
one  month  and  twelve  days— or  forty-two  days !  the  sno  ■ 
period  on  record.    On  the  2eth  of  Febmaiy,  Wie  ^^^'r 
at  the  Cape  were  in  possession  of  EngUsh  intelligence  ro^^ 
4th  of  December,  received  from  Madras,  whithent  MJi  , 
conveyed  by  the  overland  mail  I    Who  would  hare  Wj./. 
ten  years  ago,  that  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  then  tnc  «-" 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  AUGUST,  1841. 


83 


way  house  for'^nglish  news  on  its  way  to  India,  would  at 
thiM  date  be  indebted  to  an  arriyal  from  Ma  country  for  its 
own  share  of  intelligence?" 

It  was  not  until  u\,e  early  part  of  the  present  year  thai 
the  various  difficulties  to  which  we  alluded  in  the  former 
part  of  this  paper,  were  overcome  by  the  coalition  of  two 
companies ;  of  which  companies,  one  was  formed  principally 
of  persons  connected  with  the  Mediterranean  tramc,  and  the 
other  of  mercantile  men  in  India,  who  were  more  nearly 
acquainted  with  the  traffic  of  the  Red  Sea.    By  the  united 
exertions  of  the  two  bodies,  the  whole  distance  from  Eng- 
lapd  to  India  will  be  placed  under  the  r^;ulation8  of  one 
system ;  and  it  apnears,  from  an  announcement  in  the 
publicijoumals  about  three  or  four  months  ago,  that  arrange- 
ments are  being  made  for  extending  this  communication! 
not  only  to  Bombay,  the  nearest  important  city  of  India, 
but  also  to  Ceylon,  Madras,  and  Calcutta,  with  the  full 
sanction  and  support  of  the  East  India  Company.    The  Go- 
vernment has  al»o  contracted  for  the  conveyance  of  mails  to 
and  from  Alexandria  and  London,  one  maQ  to  start  eve^ 
month  in  each  direction.    Arrangements  are  idso  being  maae 
fbr  placing  steamers  on  the  Nile,  for  the  more  speedy  con- 
veyance from  Alexandria;  and  also,  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Pacha  of  Egvpt,  the  knd  route  over  the  Desert  from  Cairo 
to  Suez  is  being  made  more  efficient.    It  thus  appears  that 
the  plans  whicn  have  been  for  sixteen  or  eighteen  years 
under  discussion,  will  at  length  be  brought  into  practical 
application,  in  a  manner  which  meets  the  wisnes  and 
receives  the  sanction  of  the  Grovemment,  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  of  the  commercial  world  in  general. 

Skction  I.    BouTB  aTo  India  by  way  of  Ggtft  and  thb 

Red  Sba. 

We  now  propose  to  follow  out  an  idea  which  has  been 

partially  acted  on  in  three  of  our  former  Supplements,  viz, 

to  make  an  imaginary  trip  from  India  to  England,  or  from 

England  to  India,  and  notice  the  chief  objects  of  interest  on 

the  way.    On  the  occasions  just  alluded  to,  our  journeys 

were  overland  through  Persia ;  but  we  now  intena  to  trace 

the  route  followed  by  travellers  under  the  new  system,  in 

rhich  £!gypt  and  the  Red  Sea  constitute  portions  of  the 

route.    A  Uvely  and  pleasing  writer,  the  late  Miss  Emma 

Roberts,  made  this  journey  in  the  latter  end  of  the  year 

1839 ;  and  from  her  graphic  account  of  the  incidents  and 

Retails  of  her  journey,  we  shall  be  able  to  illustrate  in  a 

tolerably  clear  manner  the  nature  of  this  remarkable  and 

diversified  route.    We  shall  borrow  firom  other  sources  in 

our  notice  of  cities  and  countries. 

Miss  Roberts  accompanied  her  sister,  the  ladv  of  Captain 
Mc  Naghten,  to  India  m  1828,  where  sne  remamed  three  or 
four  years ;  after  which  she  returned  to  England.  But  the 
alterations  in  the  commercial  arrangement  of  India,  con- 
sequent on  the  renewal  of  the  Company's  Charter,  having 
given  a  new  tone  to  Anglo-Indian  society,  she  was  desirous 
of  once  again  visiting  a  land  which  Kad  many  pleasant 
associations  for  her.  She  Quitted  Englan4  hi  September. 
1839,  arrived  at  Bombay  in  November  in  the  same  year,  and 
reside4  in  different  parts  of  Western  India  for  about  ten 
months,  when  she  died,  to  the  universal  regret  of  the 
European  inhabitants  in  tnat  land. 

The  route  followed  by  this  lady  was  overland  through 

France,  by  packet  from  Marseilles  to  Alexandria,  up  &e 

Nile  to  Cmro,  across  the  Desert  to  Suez,  and  thence  by  sea 

to  Bombay.    Miss  Roberts  and  a  female  friend  proceeded  to 

Havre,  by  steam.    After  staying  a  few  hours  at  Havre,  the 

travellers  proceeded  by  another  steamer  to  Rouen,  up  the 

river  Seine.    Of  Havre  Miss  Roberts  says : — **  Havre  appears 

to  carry  on  a  considerable  commerce  with  India,  several 

shops  being  wholly  devoted  to  the  sale  of  the  productions  of 

the  East,  while  the  number  of  parrots  and  monkeys  to  be 

seen  show  that  the  intercourse  must  be  very  extensive.    The 

shops  had  a  very  English  air  about  them ;  and  though  the 

houses  were  taller,  and  rather  more  dilapidated  in  their 

appearance,  than  they^  are  usually  found  at  home,  they 

reuxlnded  us  of  famihar  scenes ;  and  but  for  the  novelty 

of  cllning  at  a  tMe  ^hUe^  we  mieht  have  fancied  ourselves 

^tai    in  England. Engli^  carriages  were  arriving 

iiver^   hour;  the  steamer  from  Southampton  brought  an 

^nji:iense  number  of  passengers^  and  travellers  seemed  to 

foet^  in  ftx)m  every  part  of  me  world." 

A   t  4  o'clock  on  the  following  morning  the  txavellers  left 

V^v-re  in  the  Rouen  steamer.  Tne  banks  of  the  Seine  are  pic- 

V>akT^,sque,  presenting  pleasing  objects  of  rural  enjoyment ;  the 

\\Q»wae8  have  a  neat  and  clean  appearance,  and  are  surrounded 

with  little  parterres  or  gardens  nUed  with  flowers.    By  about 


noon  the  steamer  reached  Rouen«  This  ancient  city  presents 
many  attractions  fbr  a  traveller,  particularly  those  connected 
with  the  memory  of  Joan  of  Arc;  but  nothing  seemed  to 
arrest  our  travellers'  attention  more  than  the  houses  of  the 
trading  classes.  Seven  or  eight  stories  in  height,  weather- 
stained,  and  dilapidated,  the  upper  floors  are  so  destitute  of 
everything  whicn  an  English  person  calls  comfort,  that  the 
splendour  of  the  shops  below  excites  considerable  surprise. 
It  is,  however,  impossible  to  devote  much  time  to  descrip- 
i  tions  of  BVencn  towns,  so  we  must  proceed  in  our  route. 
At  4  o'clock  on  the  (bllowing  mominop,  two  boats  proceeded 
from-Rouen  up  the  Seine,  in  one  of  which  Miss  Roberts  and 
her  co^npanion  embarked ;  and  after  going  a  certain  distance 
up  the  nver,  thev  landed,  and  proceeded  the  rest  of  the  way 
to  Paris  by  a  railway  which  had  been  recently  opened.  It 
m^y  be  here  remarked,  that,  however  pleasant  may  be  a 
voyage  up  the  river  Seine,  considered  in  respect  of  the 
scenery  on  its  banks,  an  English  traveller  is  always  sub- 
jected to  considerable  inconvemence,  on  account  of  the 
strictness  of  the  arrangements  in  l^'rance  with  respect  to 
passports. 

To  describe  anything  relating  to  Paris  would  be,  of  course, 
unnecessary  after  our  recent  Supplements  on  that  subject ; 
we  shall  therefore  merely  say  that  the  travellers  pro- 
ceeded by  diligence  to  Chalons,  having  despatched  their 
luggage  by  messa^erio  to  Marseilles.  Insteaa  of  stopping 
at  Chalons,  they  proceeded  uninterruptedly  to  Lyons, 
where  they  reminned  a  few  hours,  and  then  started  in  a 
steamer  down  the  river  Rhone  to  Marseilles.  They  stopped 
fbr  a  short  time  at  Beaucaire,  the  disembarking  at  which 
will  remind  many  a  traveller  of  scenes  which  they  have 
witnessed.  "  li'he  night  was  ven'  dark,  and  a  scene  of  great 
confusion  took  place  in  the  disembarkation.  We  had  agreed 
to  wait  quietly  until  the  remainder  of  the  passengers  got  on 
shore ;  and  Miss  E.  and  myself,  glad  to  escape  from  the 
bustle  [and  confusion  of  the  deck,  went  down  below  to 
collect  our  baggage,  &c.  The  quay  was  crowded  with 
porters,  all  vociferating  and  struggling  to  get  hold  of  parcels 
to  carry,  while  the  commiwionatrea  from  the  hotels  were 
more  than  ever  eager  in  their  recommendations  of  their  res- 
pective houses:  their  noise  and  gesticulations  were  so  great, 
and  their  requests  urged  with  so  much  boldness,  that  we 
might  have  been  led  to  suppose  we  had  fallen  into  the  hands 
of  banditti,  who  would  plunder  us  the  moment  we  got 
into  their  clutches." 

The  distance  from  Beaucaire  to  Marseilles  is  traversed  in 
the  course  of  a  few  hours.  Marseilles  is  a  city  and  sea- 
port of  France,  tlie  capital  of  the  department  of  Bouches  de 
Rhone  (Mouths  of  the  Rhone).  It  is  not  situated  exactly 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  but  some  short  distance  from  it, 
on  the  eastern  curve  of  the  Grulf  of  Lyons,,  and  therefore 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Its  direct  distance  fh)m 
Paris  in  a  straight  line  is  rather  more  than  four  hundred 
miles;  but  by  the  route  usually  followed  by  travellers 
through  Auxerro,  Chalons,  and  Lyons,  it  is  about  five  hun- 
dred* Marseilles  was  known  by  the  name  of  MassiliOf  so 
long  ago  as  six  hundred  yeare  before  the  Christian  era,  it 
having  been  founded  by  a  colony  of  lonians.  During  the 
long  mterval  which  has  since  elapsed,  more  than  twenty- 
four  centuries,  Mai'selUes  has  ever  been  a  place  of  impor- 
tance; first  in  the  hands  of  the  Greek  colonists;  then  as 
a  Roman  city ;  then  as  a  possession  of  the  Franks ;  after- 
wards as  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Provence ;  subse- 
quently as  a  port  whence  several  armaments  of  Crusadera 
sailed ;  and  in  more  recent  times  as  a  commereial  city  of  the 
French  kingdom.  The  site  of  Marseilles  is  a  rich  valley 
or  hollow  inclosed  on  the  land>side  by  hills,  and  on  the  sea- 
side by  a  harbour  formed  of  an  inlet  of  the  sea.  From  tlie 
summit  of  a  hill  on  the  north  side  of  the  town,  a  fine  view 
is  obtdned  of  the  town  and  of  tlie  numerous  country-houses 
(said  to  be  five  or  six  thousand  in  number,)  which  occupy 
the  surrounding  parts  of  the  valley.  The  entrance  from  Paris 
is  by  a  fine  brc^  planted  road  or  street,  which  extends 
into  the  heart  of  the  town,  and  is  prolonged  in  a  direct  line, 
by  a  street  of  less  width,  quite  through  the  town.  East- 
ward of  this  street  is  tiie  old  town,  occupying  a  triangular 
point  north  of  the  harbour ;  while  the  western  side  consti- 
tutes the  now  town,  which  consists  of  broad  straight  streets, 
provided  with  paved  foot-paths  and  lined  with  well-built 
nouses.  The  port  or  harbour  is  capable  of  containing 
twelve  hundred  vessels,  and  is  surrounded  by  fine  qunys 
used  as  a  promenade  by  the  townsmen  in  fine  weather. 
There  are  several  other  promenades,  as  well  as  open  scfjares 
or  '^places."  As  a  commereial  city  Marseilles  is  one  of  the 
first  in  ITiance,  since  the  entire  French  trade  with  the 

588—2 


64 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


Leyant,  as  well  as  a  considerablo  portion  of  that  with  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Barbary,  is  carried  on  from  that  port.  The 
number  of  vessels  which  enter  the  port  is  estimated  at  five 
or  six  thousand  annually ;  and  the  customs  and  other  dues 
collected  are  estimated  at  nearly  one  million  sterling.  It 
has  communications  by  daily  public  conveyances  with 
Lvonsy  Aix,  Avignon,  Nismes,  Toulon,  Geneva,  and  other 
places;  and  by  steam-boats  at  brief  intervals  with  Nice, 
Genoa,  L^hom,  Bastia,  Civita  Vecchia,  and  Naples :  and 
at  longer  intervals  with  Port  Vendre,  Barcelona,  and  Valen- 
tia.  The  commercial  character  which  these  communications 
impart  to  Marseilles  makes  it  the  resort  of  foreigners  of  all 
nations ;  and  the  variety  of  costume,  continual  bustle,  and 
medley  of  languages  wmch  this  circumstance  occasions^  are 
among  the  most  striking  features  of  the  place. 

The  great  increase  of  letters  consequent  on  the  reduction 
of  the  rates  of  postage  in  England  and  France,  as  well  as  the 
rapidity  of  communication  with  India  by  way  of  Egypt, 
have  leid  to  the  establishment  of  packets  at  Marseilles,  lor 
the  conveyance  of  mails  between  tnat  place  and  Malta.  In 
some  instances  this  is  altogether  a  French  speculation,  while 
in  others  it  results  from  an  arrangement  between  the  post- 
office  authorities  of  the  two  countries.  As  an  illustration  of 
the  mode  in  which  the  route  vid  liuseilles  is  made  available 
to  English  correspondents,  we  may  mention  that,  on  the  4th 
day  of  every  month  for  the  last  year  and  a  half,  a  mail- 
packet  has  left  London,  with  letters  of  that  date,  and  pro- 
ceeded through  France  to  Marseilles,  where  a  steamer  was 
in  readiness  to  forward  it  to  Malta,  in  time  to  meet  another 
steamer  which  left  Falmouth  with  passengers  on  the  1st  of 
the  same  month;  the  letters  and  passengers  afterwards  pro- 
ceeding in  the  same  vessel  to  Alexandna.  These  circum- 
stances bein^  premised,  it  will  be  easier  to  understand  the 
mode  in  whicn  the  traveUers  whom  we  propose  to  accom- 
pany, obtained  a  passage  to  Malta.  There  was  an  English 
steamer  waiting  at  Marseilles,  to  carry  the  mail  as  soon  as 
it  should  arrive  from  England ;  and  a  French  steamer  which 
was  about  to  start  immediately.  Miss  Roberts  and  her 
companion,  therefore,  after  spending  a  i^ort  time  at  A^r- 
seUles,  engaged  a  passage  in  the  Megara  English  steamer, 
and  proceeded  on  their  journey  as  soon  as  the  mails  amved 
from  England. 

A  glance  of  the  map  of  Europe  will  show,  more  clearly 
than  words  can  descnoe,  the  route  firom  Marseilles  to  Malta. 
Marseilles  is  at  the  northern  margin  of  a  kind  of  semicircular 
portion  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  curve  of  which  is  formed 
By  the  continuous  coasts  of  Spain,  Fiance,  and  Italy,  and 
the  base  or  diameter  by  the  northern  coast  of  Africa. 
Rather  eastward  of  the  aentre  of  this  semicircle  are  the 
islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia;  while  between  the  southern 
point  of  Italy  and  the  shore  of  Africa  is  Sicily,  at  the  south- 
em  extremity  of  which  is  the  little  isUnd  of  Malta.  This 
island  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  Mediteranean, 
both  in  a  political  and  a  commercial  point  of  view.  It 
serves  as  a  rendezvous  and  garrison  for  troops,  to  protect 
English  interests  in  that  part  of  the  world ;  and  it  fumii^ea 
a  convenient  depot  and  harbour  for  ships  on  their  way 
along  the  Mediterranean.  The  distance  along  the  Mediterra- 
nean from  west  to  east,  from  Gibraltar  to  E^rpt,  is  about  two 
thonsuid  miles,  and  Malta  is  situated  not  &r  from  the  mid- 
dle point  of  this  line*  This  very  advantageous  position  gave 
rise  to  the  arrangement  to  which  we  just  alluded,  whereby 
a  steamer  with  passengers,  vi&  Falmouth  and  Gibraltar, 
meets  a  mail-packet^  which  left  England  three  days  later 
than  the  steamer,  and  proceeded  to  Malta  by  way  of  Mar- 
seilles. The  distance  nom  Marseilles  to  Malta  b  somewhat 
less  than  from  Gibraltar  to  Malta,  the  former  occupying  a 
steamer  about  four  days  to  traverse,  and  the  latter  about 
five  days. 

Sbctiox  II.  Arrival  it  Malta  and  Voyage  to 

Alexandria. 

We  may  now  relieve  these  details  by  a  few  of  Miss 
Roberts'  pleasant  notes  of  her  ioumey  from  Marseilles  to 
Malta.  '<  The  Megara  belonged  to  a  claRs  of  steamers  built 
for  the  Grovemment  upon  some  new-&ngled  principle,  and 
which  have  the  art  of  rolling  in  any  sea.  Though  the 
waters  of  the  Mediterranean  were  scarcely  ruffled  by  the 
breeze,  which  was  in  our  favour,  there  was  so  much  motion 
in  the  vessel,  that  it  was  impossible  to  employ  ourselves  in 
any  way  except  in  reading.  In  other  respects,  the  Megara 
was  commodious  enough ;  the  stem  cabin,  with  smaller  ones 
opening  into  it,  and  each  containing  two  bed-places,  was 
Appropriated  to  the  ladies,  the  whole  being  neatly  fitted  up. 
We  found  some  agreeable  fellow-passengers;  the  only  diaw« 


back  being  a  family  of  three  children.    In  conseqaence  of 
the  cabins  being  thus  occupied,  we  could  not  preserve  the 
neatness  and  oraer  which  are  so  essential  to  comfort,  and 
which  need  not  be  dispensed  with  even  in  a  ehort  voyige. 
Our  commandant,  Mr.  Goldsmith,  a  descendant  of  th«  biotkr 
of  the  poet,  and  who  appeared  to  have  inherited  the  bene- 
volence of  his  distinguisned  relative,  was  indefii^igable  in  his 
exertions  to  render  us  happy."  *The  only  coaBts  m  sigk 
during  the  voyage  to  Malta,  were  those  of  Sardinia  nui 
Africa,  Sicily  being  too  far  off  to  be  visible;  of  Sardinia  the 
travellers  were  onl^  near  enough  to  see  a  long  saocesnoDof 
irregular  hills,  which  presented  a  beautiful  appeannce  by 
the  light  of  an  Italian  sky.    The  vessel  arrived  at  Malta  m 
the  morning  of  the  fifth  day  from  leaving  Marseilles,  \ma^ 
been  four  days  and  five  nights  on  the  voyage  *.   The  tnTel- 
lers  hastened  to  gain  a  view  of  the  island,  as  soon  as  tiu 
vessel  arrived  before  it.     **  Much  as  I  had  heard  of  the  gij 
singularity  of  the  appearance  of  Malta,  I  feltsarpriaeas  w^ 
as  delight  at  the  beautiful  scene  around ;  nor  was  I  at  til 
prepared  for  the  extent  of  the  city  of  Valetta.    The  exco- 
sive  whiteness  of  the  houses,  built  of  the  rock  of  which  the 
island  is  composed,  contrasted  with  the  vivid  green  of  tiwr 
verandahs,  gives  to  the  whole  landscape  the  air  of  a  pamtio^, 
in  which  the  artist  has  employed  the  most  brilliant  colours 
for  sea  and  sky,  and  habitations  of  a  sort  of  fiury-Iand.  Nor 
does  a  nearer  approach  destroy  this  illusion ;  there  m  no 
prominently  squalid  features  in  Malta ;  the  beggars,  vho 
crowd  round  every  stranger,  being  the  only  eridence,  at  i 
cursory  gaze,  of  its  poverty." 

Miss  Koberts  found,  on  reaching  Malta,  that  the  A^ktr» 
steamer  had  arrived  there  from  Falmouth  and  Gibnitir, 
with  the  licvant  mails,  and  that  these  mails  were  to  be  ibr- 
wtfded  to  Alexandria  in  the  government  steamer  Vfitm, 
The  reader  will  remember,  that,  at  that  period  (the  autanu 
of  1839,)  afiabrs  were  in  a  very  unsettled  state  hetvefn 
Mehemet  Ali  and  the  European  powers ;  and  the  tiavelkB 
were  recommended  to  proceed  in  the  government  steamer  t4 
Egypt  without  delay,  asthebestmeansof  ensnringapaiaice 
to  the  Red  Sea.  Miss  Roberts  and  her  lady  companiou  then 
went  on  board  this  vessel,  and  proceeded  on  their  joame)' to 
Alexandria.  In  her  notes  she  niade  sad  complaints  of  the  ug- 
lect  and  inattention  which  the  passengers  experienced  im 
the  officers  of  the  government  steamer;  but,  as  we  beliere 
that  the  proceedings  of  the  last  year  and  a  half  have  wM 
many  favourable  cnanges  in  this  respect,  we  will  not  dcUil 
the  circumstances  which  gave  rise  to  the  comphunts.  Suf- 
fice it  to  say,  then,  that  the  vessel,  after  a  five  days*  t^5 
arrived  at  Alexandria.  It  may  be  convenient  to  the  rawer 
to  bear  in  mind,  that  the  overland  mail-route  from  h^^ 
to  Marseilles,  the  sea-route  from  Falmouth  to  Gibnltsr, 
from  Gibraltar  to  Malta,  from  Marseilles  to  Malta,  and  fi^s 
Malta  to  Alexandria,  do  not  differ  one  from  another  in  p«Q| 
of  time  more  than  about  one  da^ ;  the  average  time  for  ^ 
these  portions  of  the  journey  being  from  four  to  fi^^-^- 
each.  The  route  from  Malta  to  Alexandria  passes  someviti'. 
to  the  south  of  the  island  of  Candia,  but  is  in  other  rnp^^ 
almost  entirely  out  of  sight  of  land.  The  Vukas^  m^ 
board  one  of  Mehemet  All's  protSgiSy  a  young  Egyptian  jrtJ 
had  been  educated  at  the  pasha's  expense  in  Enguwi*  ^ 
he  had  resided  for  ten  years,  principally  in  the  nw^'jjjl?!" 
hood  of  a  dock-yard,  in  order  to  study  the  art  of  ship-wuj'^' 
ing.  Although  the  temperature  b  ahnost  too  hi^  '^ 
comfort,  yet  Uie  Mediterranean  steamers  are  often  kept  f*^ 
by  a  wind-sail,  which  keeps  up  a  current  of  air  in  the  caW* 

The  Vokano  had  other  ladies  on  board;  w»<J».o"  r^ft 
at  Alexandria,  "  the  lady-passengers,  who  arriTed  id  ^ 
steamer,  agreed  to  prosecute  the  remainder  of  the  jonfl^j^ 
in  company ;  our  party,  therefore,  consisted  of  to.  ^_ 
two  servants  and  a  baby ;  the  latter  a  beautiful  li^tw  clo- 
ture, of  seven  months  old,  the  pet  and  delight  o^"'!l 
This  darling  never  cried,  excepting  when  she  was  hun??j 
and  she  would  eat  anything,  and  go  to  anybodjr.   ^^' 
the  servants  who  attended  upon  her  was  a  ^^"^"f^ 
native  of  India,  an  excellent  person,  much  attached  t*^ 
little  charge;  and  we  were  altogether  a  very  agreeable  pan  • 
quite  ready  to  enioy  all  the  pleasures,  and  to  «°f  ^""^^[^  - 
the  difficulties,  which  might  come  in  our  way.  — ^^  ^°  ^^ 
ever  is  a  time  when  a  cheerful  tone  of  spirits  is  n^^''|^ 
is  at  such  a  period  as  this,  when  females,  accustomed  to  - 
comforts  of  English  society,  are  about  to  brsTe  the  niae .  -^ 
often  lawless  customs  of  an  Oriental  country,  o*P"^ .  ^ 
those  associations  which  a  residence  at  home  presern 
them. 

•  For  an  aocoont  of  Malta,  see  Saturday  Uagatint,  itJ-  X^^^  ^ 
83, 170,  340. 


J 


SUJ^PLEMENT  FOR  AUGUST,  1841. 


8,^ 


RefeiTing  to  oiii*  Number  634  for  a  description  of 
Alexandria,  we  may  here  merel^r  remark,  that  Miss  Roberts 
found  it  all  that  travellers  describe  it  to  be,  a  city  of  nar- 
row sti-eets  choked  with  sand ;  and,  as  the  political  state  of 
Egypt  rendered  it  desirable  to  hasten  her  departure  for  the 
Red  Sea  as  much  oa  possible,  she  set  off  for  the  Nile,  to 
woceed  by  boat  up  that  river  to  Cairo.  The  party  left  the 
hotel  in  which  they  had  been  accommodated,  and  rode  to 
the  place  where  they  were  to  take  boat.  The  cavalcade 
was  a  carious  one: — "  Our  supplies  consisted  of  tea,  coffee, 
wine,  wax-candles,  (employing  a  good  glass  lanthom  for  a 
candlestick),  fowls,  bread,  fruit,  milk,  eggs,  and  butter;  a 
couple  of  fowls  and  a  piece  of  beef  being  ready  roasted  for 
the  first  meal.  We  also  carried  with  us  some  bottles  of 
filtered  water.  The  baggage  of  the  party  was  conveyed 
upon  three  camels  and  a  donkey,  and  we  formed  a  curious- 
looking  cavalcade  as  we  left  the  hotel.  In  the  first  place, 
the  native  Indian  servant  bestrode  a  donkey,  carrying  at 
the  same  time  our  beautiful  baby  in  his  arms,  who  wore  a 
pink  silk  bonnet,  and  had  a  parasol  over  her  head.  All  the 
assistance  he  required  from  others  was  to  urge  on  his  beast, 
and  by  the  application  of  sundry  whacks  and  thumps,  he 
soon  got  a-head.  The  ladies,  in  coloured  muslin  dresses, 
and  black  silk  shawls,  rode  in  a  cluster,  attended  by  the 
janissary,  and  two  Arab  servants,  also  on  donkey-back ;  a 
gentleman,  who  volunteered  his  escort,  and  the  owners  of 
the  donkeys,  who  walked  by  our  sides."  On  arriving  at 
the  banks  of  the  canal  which  leads  from  Alexandria  to  the 
Kile,  the  party  got  into  a  miserable-looking  boat  containing 
two  cabins  or  rather  cribs,  in  which  the  ladies  could  hardly 
stand  upright.  The  arrangements  had  not  then  been  entered 
en,  which  nave  since  been  put  in  operation,  of  performing 
the  voyage  to  Cairo  in  commodious  uron  steamers ;  and  the 
passengers  passed  a  sleepless  night  on  board  this  boat^  tor- 
mented, in  no  small  degree,  with  musquitoes  and  other 
unwelcome  visitors. 

On  arriving  at  Atfee,  preparations  were.made  for  ascend- 
ing the  Nile.  Nearly  all  the  boata  at  that  place  were  en- 
gaged by  Mehemet  Ali,  who  happened  to  be  at  Atfee  at  the 
time ;  but  the  governor  of  the  town  engaged  that  one  should 
be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  travellers.  All  these  mat- 
ters, it  will  be  observed,  are  now  put  in  better  train  by  the 
establishment  of  steamers  on  the  Nile.  The  mails  were 
carried  up  to  Cairo  in  the  same  boat  which  carried  the 
travellers. 

The  YO^a^  up  the  Nile  was  made  in  tolerable  comfort,  the 
ladies  enioymg  as  much  open  air  as  the  size  of  their  boat 
would  allow,  and  watching  whatever  objects  were  presented 
to  their  notice  from  shore.    However  famed  may  be  this 
noble  river,  yet  to  a  traveller  by  it,  the  banks  on  either  side 
are  singpilarly  uninteresting ;  date  trees  thinly  scattered,  and 
villages  at  wide  intervals,  are  nearly  the  only  objects  which 
break  the  monotony  of  die  flat  shores.    The  boat  was  pro- 
pelled in  three  different  ways,  according  to  circumstances ; 
ny  sails ;  by  oars,  or  by  dragging  with  ropes  along  a  towing- 
path.  **  Our  arrival  at  a  village,"  says  Miss  Roberts,  '^  alone 
relieved  the  monotony  of  the  landscape.    Some  of  these 
places  were  prettily  situated  under  groves  of  dates  and  wild 
fig-trees,  ana  they  occasionally  boasted  houses  of  a  decent 
description ;  the  majority,  were,  however,  most  wretched, 
and  we  were  often  surprised  to  see  persons  respectably 
dressed,  and  mounted  upon  good-looking  donkeys,  emerge 
from  streets  and  lanes  leading  to  the  most  squalid  and 
poverty-stricken  dwellings  imaginable.    The  amval  of  a 
boat  caused  all  the  beggars  to  hasten  down  to  the  river-side ; 
these  chiefly  consisted  of  very  old  or  blind  persons.  We  had 
provided  ourselves  with  paroi^  a  small  copper  coin,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  alms  to  the  miserable  beings  who  solicited 
our  charity;  and  the  poor  creatures  always  went  away  well- 
flatisfied  vrtth  the  trifling  gift  bestowed  upon  them.       The 
far-famed  Pyramids  came  in  sight  when  still  thirty-five 
^iles  distant ;  and  on  the  second  evening  after  embarkation 
the  boat  entered  Boulak,  the  port  of  Cairo. 

It  was  at  half-past  nine  in  the  evening,  on  October  4th, 
1889,  that  the  travellers  landed  at  Boulak ;  and  as  the  gates 
of  Cairo  are  closed  at  nine  in  the  evening,  it  was  appre- 
hended that  admission  would  not  bo  gained  that  evening.  It 
fortunately  happened,  however,  that  there  was  a  tnoolidy  or 
^hgious  fair,  neld  that  evening  at  the  opposite  end  of  the 
^ity,  and  that  the  gate  adjacent  thereto  was  still  open.  The 
party,  therefore,  hired  donkeys,  and  proceeded  round  the 
outside  of  the  city,  passing  through  the  middle  of  the  fair 
^n  their  way  to  the  open  gate.  The  peasants  were  not  a 
httle  surprised  to  see,  by  the  light  of  tneir  lamps  and  Ian- 
thorns,  a  group  of  European  ladies  riding  on  aonkeys,  at 


ten  or  eleven  o'clock  at  night ;  but  no  insult  or  hindrance 
was  offered  to  them,  and  they  safely  arrived  at  the  hotel  in 
Cairo  to  which  they  were  recommended.  Here  we  must 
leave  them  for  awhile.  Our  articles  on  Cairo  will  give  a 
tolerably  exact  idea,  so  far  as  they  extend,  of  the  curiosities 
and  inhabitants  of  this  Egyptian  metropolis ;  and  we  shall 
therefore  refrain  from  entering  into  similar  details  here. 

Section  III.     Arranoemsnts  for  crossing  the  Desbrt. 

It  will  now  be  desirable  for  us  to  notice  a  few  points 
respecting  the  route  from  Cairo  to  Suez,  the  place  of 
embarkation  on  the  steamers  destined  for  Bombay.  From 
the  banks  of  the  Nil^  to  Syria  is  one  continuous  desert, 
into  which  juts  the  arm  of  the  Red  Sea.  at  the  extremity  of 
which  Sue2  is  situated.  Hence  the  upper  part  of  this  arm 
or  branch  is  bordered  on  both  sides  by  desert  tracks ;  and 
Suez  cannot  be  reached  except  across  the  Desei*t,  whether  in 
a  south-western  direction  from  S3rria,  a  southern  direction 
from  the  Mediterranean,  or  an  eastern  direction  from  Cairo. 
The  route  to  Suez  by  way  of  Cairo  is  not  made  on  account 
of  shortness,  for  it  is  really  longer  than  if  passengera  landed 
from  the  Mediterranean  at  a  point  due  north  of  Suez,  but 
because  there  is  no  convenient  harbour  at  the  last-mentioned 
spot,  and  no  secure  town  on  the  route.  For  these  reasons, 
the  route  by  way  of  Alexandria  and  Cairo  is  adopted ;  and 
the  latter  place  having  been  reached,  a  journey  of  about 
seventy  miles  over  the  Desert  has  to  be  made  to  Suez.  • 

Now  it  is  a  question  of  no  small  importance  how  this 
route  shall  be  traveraed  in  a  manner  at  all  safe  and  comfort- 
able. A  military  officer,  inured  to  the  vicissitudes  of  active 
service,  could  gallop  over  this  distance  in  a  few  hours,  and 
could  easily  accommodate  himself  to  the  iare  he  might  meet 
on  the  way;  but  if  a  regular  line  of  cominunication,  for 
passengers  as  well  as  letters,  b  to  be  established,  it  b  obvious 
that  80  precarious  a  channel  would  not  suffice.  Perhaps  we 
could  not  better  explain  the  views  which  have  been  enter- 
tained of  the  best  mode  of  surmounting  these  difficulties, 
than  by  giving  a  few  extracts  from,  a  report  made  by  an 
officer  appointed  to  inquire  into  this  matter.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  year  1838  one  of  the  steam  navigation  companies 
to  which  we  before  alluded,  sent  Colonel  Burr  to  Egypt,  to 
forward  certain  plans  for  performing  the  overland  portion  of 
the  journey  from  Cairo  to  Suez.  In  a  letter  which  that 
officer  wrote  from  Cairo  in  the  month  of  March  in  that 
year,  he  thus  alludes  to  the  nature  of  the  arrangements 
which  he  was  making. 

*'  I  have  nearlj^  completed  an  arrangement,  by  which  four 
comfortable  carnages,  for  the  conveyance  of  at  least  thirty 
passengers,  will  be  set  going  by  September  next ;  I  only 
aw(ut  Colonel  Campbell^  approval  to  complete  the  thing. 
The  advance  for  the  purchase  of  the  four  carriages,  with  two 
^^S^®  '^^^^^ons,  and  forty  mules,  will  be  1000/.,  the  pro- 
perty being  ours,  and  merely  lent  to  the  contractors,  who 
engage  to  keep  the  whole  in  an  efficient  state  for  at  least  five 
years,  and  to  carry  passengers  in,  say  twenty-four  hours,  in-> 
eluding  halts,  for  6l.  each."  After  proceeding  to  express  a 
hope  that  the  Pacha  would  lend  his  countenance  to  the  pro- 
ject, the  Colonel  details  an  agreement  which  he  had  made 
with  a  Cairo  firm  for  building  stations  at  certain  distances 
on  the  line  of  route.  From  a  report  subsequently  made  by 
the  committee  of  the  company  which  had  sent  out  Colonel 
Burr,  it  appeared,  that  supposing  the  Pacha's  consent  could 
be  obtained,  of  which  there  seemed  little  doubt,  it  was  pro- 
posed to  build  a  centre  station  and  four  intermediate  ones, 
xhe  centre  station  to  contain  one  room  twenty-four  feet  by 
eighteen,  and  five  sleeping  apartments  of  fourteen  feet  by 
twelve,  and  fifteen  feet  nigh,  with  stabling  and  other  requi- 
site buildings ;  the  whole  inclosed  and  protected  by  a  wall 
fifteen  feet  high,  built  of  stone.  A  water-tank  also  to  be 
added,  sufficiently  large  for  the  use  of  the  mules.  The 
intermediate  bungalows,  or  stations,  were  to  be  similar  in 
character,  but  rauier  smaller. 

The  arrangements  proposed  as  to  the  houra  of  starting  and 
the  rate  of  travelling  were  these : — Ih>m  Cairo.  If  more 
than  a  sufficient  number  of  passengera  for  one  van  are 
anxious  to  proceed  to  Suez,  the  first  van  to  start  within 
forty-eight  houra  before  the  departure  of  the  steamer  from 
Suez,  and  the  second  within  twelve  houra  after  the  firet.  If 
only  sufficient  passengera  for  one  van,  to  start  thirty-six 
houra  before  the  departure  of  the  steamer;  or  as  may  other- 
wise be  agreed  on  by  the  majority  of  passengera.  jFVoot 
Suez.  The  firat  van  to  start  six  houra  after  the  landing  of 
the  first  lady  passengera  from  the  steamer ;  the  second, 
twelve  hours  after  the  firet,  if  the  number  of  passengera 
exceed  ten     In  the  event  of  there  being  no  lady  passengers, 


86 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


then  the  first  van  to  start  six  hours  after  the  landing  of  the 
first  ten  male  passengers.  Ladies  to  have  always  a  prior 
claim  as  to  proceeding  by  the  first  or  subsequent  carriages. 
The  rate  of  travelling  to  be  twenty  hours  actual  travelling ; 
two  and  a  half  hours  stoppage  at  the  central  station ;  and 
three  quarters  of  an  hour  at  the  other  stations. 

Such  were  the  views  which,  in  1838,  were  entertained  of 
the  most  feasible  mode  of  establishing  a  regular  route  across 
the  Desert.  It  was  in  the  autumn  of  1889  that  Miss  Roberts 
made  tliis  journey ;  and  we  shall  now  see  tlie  manper  in 
which  she  performed  it,  and  the  incidents  which  she  met 
with  on  the  way.  The  ladies  of  the  party,  after  remaining 
two  or  three  days  in  Cairo,  set  off  together  to  traverse  the 
Desert  to  Suez,  where  the  Berenice  steamer  had  just  arrived 
from  Bombay.  The  vehicles  provided  consisted  of  donkey- 
chairs,  one  for  each  lady ;  consisting  of  acommonarm-cliair 
fastened  into  a  sort  of  wooden  tray,  which  projected  in  front 
about  a  foot,  thereby  enabling  the  j^assenger  to  carry  a  sinall 
basket  or  other  package ;  each  chair  was  slung  by  the  anus 
to  long  bamboos,  one  on  either  side,  and  these,  by  means  of 
ropes  or  straps  placed  across,  were  fastened  upon  the  backs 
of  donkeys,  one  in  front  and  one  behind.  This  formed  a 
very  comfoi-table  vehicle ;  and  the  party  were  well  pleased 
witn  the  kind  of  accommodation.  Besides  the  vehicles,  there 
were  two  stout  donkeys,  carrying  the  beds  and  carpet-bags 
of  the  whole  company ;  three  others  on  which  servant-men 
rode ;  and  a  few  spare  ones  in  case  of  accident  on  the  road ; 
while  the  owners  or  drivers  of  the  donkeys  w^ere  eight  or 
ten  in  number.  Thus  the  cavalcade  proceeded,  at  an  easy 
walking  pace ;  and  reached  the  iirst  bun^cUoWfOT  travellers' 
restinff-house,  by  the  evening  of  the  first  day.  Tlie  bungalow 
was  tnen  in  an  unfinbhed  state,  being  unprovided  with 
windows;  but  it  was  sufficiently  forward  to  furnish  the  re- 
quired sheltet.  The  building  was  approached  from  the 
ii*ont  by  a  narrow  passage,  on  either  side  of  which  were 
sleeping-rooms  for  travellers,  as  well  as  a  kitchen,  &c.; 
while  at  the  farther  end  was  stabling  for  the  animals.  The 
rooms  were  at  that  time  unprovided  with  beds ;  but  the 
beds  which  the  travellers  brought  with  them  were  spread 
out,  and  made  as  comfortable  as  circumstances  would  admit. 

The  party  started  again  at  nine,  o'clock  on  the  following 
morning,  with  the  air  at  a  warm  temperature,  but  mode- 
rated by  a  pleasant  jbreeze  wUich  blew  aci*oss  the  desert. 
On  the  road  they  were  overtaken  by  a  lalifa,  which  they 
had  seen  bivouacking  in  the  desert  the  previous  evening. 
This  kalifa  or  party  consisted  of  the  governor  of  Jiddah, 
who  was  travelung  to  Suez  with  his  wife  and  family.  The 
lady  travelled  in  a  vehicle  formed  of  two  rude  kinds  of 
sofas  or  settees,  canopied  overhead,  and  having  a  resting- 
place  for  the  feet ;  it  was  placed  on  the  top  of  a  camel,  vr'mx 
a  cloth  curtain,  to  exclude  the  sun,  and  to  ensure  the  pri- 
vacy customary  amonj  Mohammedan  fijmales.  The  travel- 
lers, on  their  way  to  Suez,  occasionally  met  small  parties  of 
Bedouins,  distinguished  by  their  fierce  countenances  glaring 
from  beneath  the  large  rolls  of  cLoth  twisted  over  their  tur- 
bans. One  or  two,  superior  to  the  rest,  were  handsomely 
dressed,  well  armed,  and  mounted  on  handsomely  capan- 
aoned  camels.  Small  as  the  means  of  defence  were  on  the 
part  of  the  travellers,  the  Bedouins  did  not  attempt  to 
plunder  their  baggase ;  the  power  of  Mehemet  Ali  having 
infused  a  spirit  or  ooedience  into  these  men,  such  as  pachas 
and  fi^overnors  can  seldom  effect. 

About  the  middle  of  the  day  they  arrived  at  another 
bungalow,  where  they  stopped  an  hour  or  two ;  here  they 
^ain  found  the  kalifa  whicu  had  passed  them  in  the  morn- 
ing, the  females  of  which  shared  with  our  travellers  the 
scanty  accommodation  of  the  place.  The  paftv  was  soon 
again  in  motion,  enjoying  the  curious  scene  whicn  their  own 
cavalcade  must  have  presented.  The  five  vehicles  were 
sometimes  abreast,  giving  the  riders  an  opportunity  of  con- 
versing ;  but  more  frequently  they  were  scattered  over  the 
plain,  the  guides  allowing  the  donkeys  to  choose  their  path 
provided  its  general  direction  were  onward.  Occasionally 
a  s^are  donkey,  or  one  carrying  the  baggage,  would  stray 
off  in  an  oblique  direction,  and  then  the  drivers  were  com- 
pelled to  make  a  wide  detour  to  bring  them  in  again.  Once 
or  twice,  too,  the  ropes  bjr  which  a  chair  was  fastened,  would 
slip,  and  deposit  the  fair  occupant  on  the  ground;  or  a 
donkey  would  stumble  and  Ml ;  but  no  serious  accident 
occurred.  The  resting-place  for  the  night,  at  about 
midway  from  Cairo  to  Suez,  consisted  of  tents,  the  bun- 
galow having  been  only  just  commenced.  The  ladies  of 
the  party  occupied  one  tent,  on  either  side  of  which  were 
divans  or  raised  platforms,  on  which  to  place  the  beds. 
There  were  other  tents  occupied  by  English  gentlemen  who 


were  passing  from  Sue?,  where  tbey  had  landed  from  tha 
Berenice;  and  thus  the  desert  became  a  kind  of  half-way 
station,  (it  is  not  far  from  being  so  in  actual  distance))  at 
which  English  travellers  to  and  from  India  met. 

The  next  morning,  soon  after  they  had  started,  tie  tn- 
vellers  met  a  double-bodied  phaeton,  drawn  by  two  hordes 
and  two  camel^  having  an  English  gentleman  and  a  Peman 
within,  and  an  Arab  riding*  as  postilion  on  one  of  the 
oamels;  this  curious  medley liad  just  come  from  Suez^aod 
was  proceeding  at  a  rapid  rate  to  Cairo.  These  were  fol- 
lowed by  other  passengers  by  the  Berenice^  some  of  whom 
wei-e  lames  riding  in  donkey-chauns,  and  others  mounted  on 
the  backs  of  camels.  In  the  middle  of  the  day  our  travel- 
lers arrived  at  another  bungalow;  where  they  met  one  of 
the  vans  which  had  been  provided  for  this  route  bv  the 
Steam  Navigation  Company ;  it  consisted  of  a  tilted  aai 
upon  springs,  and  was  drawn  b^  a  pair  of  horses.  Xotbing 
farther  occurred  worthy  of  notice  till  they  arrived  at  the 
resting^lace  for  the  night ;  when  they  were  overtaken  b/ 
three  English  gentlemen,  who  had  wished  to  visit  the 
Pyramids  before  proceeding  onward  to  India,  and  who  had 
crossed  the  desert  in  great  haste.  The  whole  party  were  to 
start  at  three  o'clock  in  the  following  mominK;  and  while 
all  else  were  asleep.  Miss  Roberts  silently  left  her  tent  by 
starlight,  and  roamed  forth  with  an  object  which  we  vdh. 
state  in  her  own  words : — **  I  had  lone  desired  to  spend  a 
night  alone  upon  the  desert ;  and  witnout  wandering  to  a 
dangerous  distance,  I  placed  a  ridee  of  sand  between  my 
solitary  station  and  the  objects  -which  brought  tlie  busy 
world  to  view,  and  indulged  in  thoughts  of  scenes  and  cir- 
cumstances which  happened  long  ago.  According  to  the 
best  authorities  we  were  in  the  track  of  the  Israelites;  and 
in  meditations  suggested  by  this  interesting  portion  of  Bible 
history,  the  time  passed  so  rapidly,  that  I  was  suipnsed  when 
I  found  the  people  astir  and  preparing  for  our  aepariure." 

The  party  started  at  three  o'clock,  and  did  not  stop  till 
they  arrived  at  the  end  of  the  journey,  except  for  a  &w 
minutes  at  the  last  bungalow,  which  they  reached  at  nine 
o'clock.  It  was  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  day, 
after  having  spent  three  nights  f^d  portion  of  four  da)-8  on 
the  road^  that  they  reached  Suez.  The  reader,  by  comparing 
the  detailsjust  given,  with  the  plans  proposed  m  the  early 
part  of  18^  for  the  passage  of  the  des^  will  see  that  those 
plans  had  been  actea  on  to  a  slight  extent,  by  the  establish- 
ment of  one  or  two  bungalows,  and  one  or  two  vehicles  to 
traverse  the  route.  But  many  circmnstances,  to  which  we 
need  not  particular!;^  allude  nere,  nrevented  the  prowaed 
plan  from  being  earned  out  in  its  fullest  extent ;  ana  the 
contests  which  took  place  during  the  year  1840  hetween 
Mehemet  Ali  and  the  European  powers  put  a  tempoiaiy 
check  on  the  prosecution  of  these  schemes,  although  the 
Paclia,  in  the  midst  of  his  difficulties,  seemed  generally  dis- 
posed to  guarantee  the  safe  conduct  of  English  travelled 
across  the  desert.  The  termination  of  hostilities  in  that 
quarter  has  allowed  attention  to  be  steadily  directed  to  thif 
overland  route ;  and  at  the  present  time  increased  fiicilities 
for  travellers  are  being  provided,  by  the  estahlishmeot  of 
iron  steamers  from  Alexandria  to  Cairo,  and  of  conTeoient 
vehicles  and  resting-places  from  Cairo  to  Suez, 

We  may  here  say  a  few  words  respectipg  the  xouU  froro 
Cairo  to  Suez  across  the  Desert.  There  are  the  strongest 
reasons  for  believing  that  a  ship  canal  anciently  existed  along 
this  route,  by  which  a  vessel  could  sail  unintemiptedly  i^om 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Bed  Sea.  passages  in  some  of  the 
early  writers  clearly  point  to  the  existence  of  such  a  canal; 
while  the  researches  of  modem  travellers  have  no  less  clearly 
led  to  the  tracing  of  a  remarkably  level  valley,  or,  if  we  rosy 
use  the  term — trough,  which  wa«  once  filled  with  water. 
When  the  French  had  possession  of  figypt,  the  engineers 
who  accompanied  the  army  surveyed  this  track  with  much 
accuracy,  and  formed  a  plan  for  re-o(>ening  the  anci^^* 
canal.  It  appears  not  improbable  that  if  the  French  m 
retfldned  possession  of  that  country,  they  would  have  earned 
out  a  scheme  which  offered  such  an  advantageous  naval  p«tu 
to  our  IndiaQ  possessions,  towards  which  Buonaparte  wv 
known  to  have  directed  a  longing  pye.  As  events  tumfd 
out,  however,  the  scheme  was  abanaoned ;  but  still  it  m> 
not  been  forgotten ;  and  we  think  that  there  is  no  impWj 
priety  or  inconsistency  in  surmising  that  the  time  ^tJJ 
come  when  one  of  these  ^lans  will  be  accomplished ;  vi«.p 
the  re-opening  of  the  ancient  canal  from  Cairo  to  Suea;  tnc 
laying  down  of  a  railway  on  the  very  level  valley  wlucn 
the  site  of  this  canal  presents;  or  the  establishment  oi  * 
canal  from  the  Mediterranean  to  Suez,  altogether  mdepea- 
dent  of  the  route  by  Alexandria,  the  Me^  and  Cairo. 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  AUGUST,  1841. 


87 


Sechok  rv,  EifSA&KATioir  ov  thh  Rbd  Bba, 

We  now  proceed  onward  towards  India.    From  "Mlm 
Roberts's  account  of  Suez,  it  appears  to  be  a  place  possessed 
of  but  few  attractions: —  *'  Distance  lends  no  encnantment 
to  the  view  at  Suez*    It  is  difficult  to  fancy  that  the  few 
miserable  buildings,  appearing  upon  the  inargin  of  the  seai 
actually  constitute  a  town;  and  the  heart  sinks  at  the 
approach  to  a  place  so  barren  and  desolate.    M/  donkeys 
carried  me  through  a  gap  in  the  wall^  which  answered  all 
the  purposes  of  a  gateway;  and  we  passed  along  broken 
ground  and  among  wretched  inhabitemts,  more  fit  for  the 
abode  of  sarage  beasts  than  men«    Even  the  stiperior  des- 
crlx)tion  of  houses  bore  so  forlorn  and  dilapidated  an  appear- 
ance, that  I  actually  trembled  as  I  approached  them,  rearing 
tliiit  my  guide  would  stop  and  tell  me  that  my  journey  was 
at  an  end.*'  ^  There  were  two  hotels  or  lodging-houses  m  the 
town,  established  by  the  agents  of*the  English  houses  con- 
nected with  the  steam  communication  wim  India ;  and  in 
one  of  these  hotels  Miss  Roberts  and  her  companions  took 
up  their  abode  for  the  two  or  three  days  of  their  stay  in 
Suez.   The  Bcrenieey  a  government  steamer  In  which  the  tra- 
vel lers  embarked  for  Bombay,  was  complained  of  by  Miss 
Roberts  as  bein^  sadly  unfitted  for  the  wants  of  tlie  nassen- 
gers ;  but  as  this  is  one  of  the  circumstances  whicn  have 
j^robably  been  put  on  a  better  footing  since  that  time,  we 
will  not  dwell  on  these  discomforts. 

It  may  be  desirable  to  take  a  general  sketch  of  the  Red 

Sea,  on  which  we  are  now  embarked.    This  celebrated  sea 

is  a  very  long  and  narrow  sheet  of  water,  extending  from 

Suez  in  a  direction  nearly  south-east  to  the  straits  of  Sab-el- 

Maiideb.    At  its  upper  or  northern  extremity  it  is  divided 

into  two  divei^ing  points,  one  proceeding  north-west  to 

Suez,  and  called  tne  Gulf  of  Suez ;  the  other  proceeding 

north-east    to    Akaba,    and    called    the    Gulf  of  Akaba. 

Between  these  two  Gul&  is  a  jutting  promontory  on  which 

is  situated  Mount  Sinai  and  many  other  spots  celebrated  in 

eucred   history.    After  having  lefl  this  promontory,  and 

entered  the  sea  into  which  the  two  gulfs  jointly  enter,  we 

liave  Egypt  on  the  west  side,  and  Arabia  on  the  east.    The 

Arabian  side  presents  to  us,  at  distances  greater  or  less  from 

the  shore,  Medina,  Mecca,  Mochaj  and  other  towns ;  while 

oa  tlie  African  side  there  are  tew  places  of  importance 

besides  Cosseir  and  Berenice.    Cosseir  is  the  first  of  tliese 

towns  to  which  we  arrive ;  and  as  there  are  many  curious 

circumstances  connected  with  its  position  and  history,  we 

we  will  offer  a  few  remarks  on  the  subject. 

Cosseir  is  situated  on  a  part  of  the  coast  almost  exactly 
parallel  with  the  famed  city  of  Thebes,  on  the  Nil^  at  about  a 
iiTindred  miles  distance  from  it;  and  there  is  evidence  that 
tlicre  was  anciently  a  considerable  traffic  in  this  direction. 
Oosseir  was  the  sea-port  of  Thebes,  at  the  time  when  that 
m^agnificent  city  was  the  mettx)poli8  of  the  Pharaohs.  At 
time  present  day  the  road  from  Cosseir  to  Kenneh,  a  town  on 
tl:i.e  Nile  not  far  distant  from  Thebes,  is  spoken  of  as  very 
good ;  indeed  the  obstacles  to  travelling  seem  to  be  so  few, 
til  at  Mr.  Lushington,  who  some  years  ago  crossed  It  in  a 
jc»^mey  homewanl  from  Bombay  In  the  depth  of  winter, 
re<x)rds  with  high  glee  the  gratification  ot  enjoying  an 
e?c:cellent  Christmas  dinner  at  the  middle  resting-stage  of 
til «  journey,  and  describes  tlie  weather  and  the  atmospher^ 
both  during  the  night  and  day,  as  being  bland,  cheering  and 
salubrious.  Wells  of  good  water  have  alwavs  subsisted 
\\>o\xi  midway  on  the  route;  and  It  is  said  that  excellent 
waMr  has  been  found  at  other  places  by  boring.  One  of  the 
[Utf^st  extraordinaf}"  circumstances  connected  with  this  route 
5,  that  there  are  uidications  of  what  may  be  called  a  railway 
rn.ck  having  existed  there  in  formclr  times ;  that  is,  that  an 
irt  ificial  level  appears  to  have  bean  constructed  for  the  whole 
li.«9  tance,  as  a  means  of  diminlsning  friction*  In  the  evi- 
Icxnce  given  before  a  Gottimitte|  of  the  House  of  Commons 
m  steam  communioatlpn  with  Indifti  a  few  years  ago,  sereral 
vi  en  esses  gave  it  as  ineir  optilioilf  from  ocular  inspection, 
htmX  an  excellent  ooaoh  oir  wagon  road  might  be  formed  with 
-cry  little  trouble  fW>m  Cosseir  to  the  Nile;  and  Colonel 
3u  rr,  to  whom  we  have  before  referrea  as  an  agent  of  one 
>i  -the  companies  employed  in  establtihintf  i  oonvenleni 
"oiite  from  Cairo  to  Suez,  was  also  dlrsoted  ny  the  company 
o  visit  the  Coaseir  route,  and  to  asoerUiln  the  practicability 
»f  building  stations.  We  believe,  however,  that  the  Suez 
outc  has  been  deemed  more  convenient  of  the  two,  and 
hat  the  route  by  Cosseir  is  at  present  abandoned,  so  fiir  as 
'i^fTuLu-  passengers  to  or  from  India  are  concerned.  Of 
posseir  itself,  an  English  traveller,  who  visited  it  three  or 
our  years  ago,  thus  .speaks: — "Cosseir  is  a  very  small 


harbour,  only  capable  of  holding  two  or  three  sliips.  which 
take  shelter  to  leeward  of  a  coral  reef,  on  which  uiey  lay 
their  anchors,  but  subject  to  be  driven  on  shore  in  case  of  a 
sudden  change  of  wind ;  but  as  this  seldom  or  ever  happens, 
we  have  never  had  any  accidents.  The  native  boats,  iiniich 
draw  veiy  little  water,  lie  close  in  to  the  town,  and  take 
their  cargo  of  grain  in  with  great  facility.  The  town  con- 
sists of  about  three  hundred  nouses,  ill  built;  and  the  in- 
,  habitants  are  merely  those  who  are  employed  in  shipping 
off  grain,  and  a  few  who  keep  the  bazaar.  The  English 
agent  is  a  civil  obliging  creature,  a  son  of  the  one  at  Genneh. 
Waghorn  has  a  packet  agent  here :  an  Italian  doctor  serves 

him,  Signer  Morice,  who  stands  upon  a  wooden  leg 

A  large  caravan  of  camels,  which  were  returning  to  Genneh 
after  hringing  over  grain,  afforded  us  a  cheap  opportunity 
of  getting  to  the  Nile.  We  hired  three,  for  which  we  paid 
five  piastres,  each  ten-pence.  We  bade  adieu  to  Cosseir  with 
gladness ;  and  after  the  second  hour  of  our  journey,  we  saw 
the  Red  Sea  for  the  last  time.  The  caravan  consisted  of 
eighty  camels.'* 

At  some  distance  southward  of  Cosseir,  on  the  African 
shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  is  situated  the  remains  of  the  ancient 
port  of  Berenice.  As  Cosseir  was  the  site  of  the  sea-port  to 
Thebes  under  the  dynasty  of  the  Pharaohs,  so  was  Berenice 
the  metropolitan  sea-point  in  the  times  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  supremacy.  The  route  from  Berenice  to  Thebes 
appears  never  to  have  been  used  since  the  times  just  referred 
to,  although  Belzoni  describes  it  as  being  one  of  the  best 
harbours  in  the  Red  Sea.  The  town  is  in  a  state  of  complete 
ruin ;  and  it  does  not  appear  that  there  are  sufficient  ad- 
'vantages  attending  this  route  to  render  a  reconstruction 
desirable. 

When  we  have  proceeded  sufficiently  southward  along 
the  Red  Sea  to  be  opposite  Mecca,  we  find  on  the  Arabian 
coast  the  sea-port  town  of  Jedda.  It  presents  a  very  im- 
posing appearance  from  the  sea;  but  a  nearer  approach 
dissipates  the  favourable  impression  which  its  appearance 
from  a  distance  is  calculated  to  make,  as  is  indeed  the  case 
with  most  Oriental  towns.  The  port  is  formed  by  succes- 
sive crescents  of  coral,  behind  which  vessels  can  ride  at 
anchor  in  perfect  security,  even  in  the  roughest  weather. 
As  these  reefs  only  rise  to  the  water's  edge,  they  afford  shel- 
ter only  firom  the  sea ;  so  that,  while  a  vessel  ndes  in  perfect 
safety  m  smooth  water,  she  remains  exposed  to  the  winds. 
When  the  wind  blows  strongly,  the  side  of  the  reefs  exposed 
to  its  force  becomes  fringed  with  a  white  feathery  curl, 
which  increases  in  height  on  their  edges  as  they  extend  sea- 
ward. The  houses  of  the  town  are  constructed  of  madrepore, 
and  consist  of  several  stories;  but  from  irregularity  of 
design,  and  a  certain  dirtiness  in  their  external  appearance, 
they  are  not  so  pleasing  as  the  houses  in  some  other  parts  of 
Arabia.  The  windows  are  latticed,  and  the  projecting  bal- 
cony, so  general  an  ornament  to  the  buildings  of  the  East, 
is  here  left  unpalnted,  nving  the  dwellings  a  neglected  and 
decayed  appearance.  The  doorways  and  windows  are  in 
every  variety  of  the  Arabesque  style.  Like  all  Oriental 
towns,  the  streets  are  exceeding  narrow,  so  that  in  some  of 
them  the  sun  cannot  shine  more  than  one  hour  of  the  day, 
and  only  at  one  season.  The  bazaars  are  well  supplied ; 
and,  during  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  filled  vnth  strangers 
from  all  the  Moslem  countries  of  the  East.  The  shops  are 
small  cells,  about  eight  feet  square,  in  which  the  merchant 
sits  MAidst  his  wares ;  the  buyer  stands  in  the  street,  and 
whein  the  bazaar  is  not  covered,  a  small  mat  or  piece  of  sail- 
cloth 'pt'Otects  him  from  the  sun.  Merchants,  pilgrims, 
dervisneS)  And  beggars,  crowd  the  bazaars  to  excess. 

Shortly  after  we  hate  passed  the  sea-port  and  town  of 
Mocha,  (for  ft  description  of  which  we  refer  to  our  No. 
243),  we  comft  to  the  strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  which 
is  the  narrow  channel  by  which  the  Red  Sea  empties  its 
waters  into  the  Indiati  Ocean.  It  is  formed  by  two  j)roject- 
ing  or  approaching  promontories  of  the  Arabian  and  Abys- 
sinian shores.  From  Cape  Bab-el-Mandeb  on  the  Arabian 
side,  to  the  Abyssinian  coast,  the  nearest  distance  is  sixteen 
miles,  which  Is  therefore  deemed  the  width  of  the  strait. 
At  a  few  miles  distance  from  the  Arabian  shore  is  a  little 
island  called  Perim,  which  divides  the  strait  into  two  parts, 
of  which  the  eastern  is  called  the  Little  Strait,  and  the  west- 
em  the  Great  Strait.  The  Little  Strait  is  the  one  most 
generally  used  by  seamen,  principally  because  the  depth  of 
water  is  such  as  to  allow  of  anchorage.  The  Large  Strait, 
which  is  about  nine  or  ten  miles  wide,  is  so  very  deep,  that 
a  f-ope  of  a  hundred  fathoms  will  not  reach  the  bottom. 
Tlie  name  of  the  strait,  Bab-el-Mandeb,  which,  in  Arabic, 
signifies  the  "  Gate  of  Tears,**  soems  to  have  been  given  in 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE, 


eoiuMjuence  of  the  dongers  to  which  simJl  and  light  veMels 
an  exptaed  in  a  Barww  sea,  siuroundi'd  by  rocky  shores, 
■ltd  ■nbieot  to  frequent  guata  of  wiud,  Aithoufih  the  Little 
Strait  is  four  miles  wide,  yet  the  ftrallable  width  for  oavini' 
tion  is  leag  than  a  mile.  A  recent  voyager,  who  entered  the 
straits  in  an  Arabian  Tessel,  says,  "It  felt  calm,  and  tbe 
cuin«nt  drifted  us  about  in  the  narrowest  part  of  the  streit, 
which  is  hardly  h^  a  mile  wide.  The  moon  rose,  and  we 
were  in  some  aegree  relieved  from  our  anxiety,  as  it  enabled 
us  to  judge  our  distance  from  the  shore,  and  ascertain  for 
certainty  if  we  were  taking  the  ri^ht  course,  which  ia  here- 
abouts rather  diflicult  to  discover  in  the  dark.  Our  jolly- 
Iwat  was  lowered,  and  we  t«wed  the  vessel  off  tbe  land, 
which  we  had  approached  so  near,  that,  should  any  wind 
have  blown,  it  would  have  been  kept  from  catching  our  sail 
by  the  rocks,  which  frowned  above  ua.  The  ancient  raari- 
tiers,by  the  names  they  havegiven  to  the  different  headlands 
and  islands  here  and  in  the  neighbourhood,  have  left  ua  an 
everlasting  memorial  of  the  dangers  attending  the  Eaalem 


maritime  commoree  in  those  times.  The  entrance  of  the 
ia  i^ed  the  Gate  of  Sorrow  or  Weeping;  the  Cape  itself, 
Affliction ;  the  extreme  east-point  of  Africa,  which  must  have 
been  ^e  last  land  they  lost  sieht  of,  the  Cape  of  BuriaL" 

We  at  length  arrive  at  Aden  situated  a  short  distance 
without  the  strait,  and  in  the  direct  route  from  thence  to 
Bombay;  and  here  we  join  company  again  with  Mies 
Roberts  and  her  fellow  travellera,  whom  we  left  at  the 
npper  port  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  party  landed  at  Aden, 
and  were  conveyed  in  palanquins  to  tlie  place  where  the 
cantonmenta  were  situated,  now  fast  advancing  towairds  the 
dignity  of  fortificaUons.  The  road  led  for  a  mile  or  two, 
along-  the  sea-shore,  with  high  cracs  piled  on  one  side ; 
after  which  the  party  ascended  a  height,  which .  led  to  an 
.  aperture  in  tbe  nills  called  the  Pass,  around  which  was 
wild  but  beautiful  scenerj-.  The  narrow  and  inclosed  pass 
led  down  a  rather  steep  declivi^  to  a  sort  of  basin,  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  with  lofty  hills,  and  on  the  fourth 
by  the  aea.  It  wiU  be  remembered,  from  the  circumstances 
lAiich  we  detailed  in  the  early  port  of  the  paper,  that  about 
the  time  when  Miss  Roberts  visited  Aden,uie  British  settle- 
ments had  not  been  freed  from  the  hostile  attacks  of  the 
Arabs.  The  following  is  that  lady's  account  of  the  place 
as  she  found  it  at  the  time  of  her  visit: — "  At  first  sight 
of  Aden,  it  is  difficult  to  auppoae  it  to  be  the  resi- 
dence of  human  beings,  and  mon  c(^>«dally  of  European 


families.  The  town,  if  suqh  it  may  oe  called,  Moadioli 
few  scattered  luua*  tt  stomfafftmiAy  i«mh-tiUii>- 
Bether,  with  pigwn-hedes  for  ivindaw^  aad  rg&h  i^liid, 
beiuK  flat,  and  appvently  sarroinded  fcy  a  low  pirjptt, 
offbra  no  idea  vf  their  bemg  habit^le.  It  is  diSiculi  u 
find  a  comparison  for  these  dwellings,  which  iqipeartd  tobt 
composed  of  nothing  more  than  four  walls,  and  ytt  to  jnda, 
from  tiie  apertures,  CMktained  two  or  mors  aaii«t.  tk 
greater  numbers  were  inclosed  in  a  sort  of  yard  or  mi. 

Kund,  the  fences  being  formed  of  long  yellow  ttedi;  tl» 
a  substantial  dwellings  were  entirely  nude  of  Uieae  reeds, 
so  that  they  looked  like  immense  crates  or  c^ea  for  domo- 
tio  fowls.  My  palanquin  at  length  stopped  at  a  Sighl  k 
steps  hewn  oat  of  the  rock ;  and  I  found  mjKlf  at  t^ 
entrance  of  a  habitation,  half- bungalow,  hslf-tent;  and  cr. 
tainly,  as  the  permanent  abode  of  civilized  beui|i,  lb 
strangest  reddence  I  had  ever  seen.  The  upright  aDdfruDc- 
work  were  made  of  reeds  and  bambooa,  lined  wilb  tlui 
mal^  whioL  had  at  one  time  been  double,  but  the  btihm 
thua  afforded  for  rata  being  found  inconvenient,  the  mis 
casing  had  been  removed."  The  explanation  of  lliis  ^p*- 
rently  strange  state  of  things  is  this ;  that  the  Indian  nrnn- 
ment  had  not  at  that  time  fixed  upon  the  site  intendedfoitiii 
station  offices,  &C.,  at  Aden,  ana  the  European  iidubiusu 
delayed  building  their  houses,  which  were  to  tie  duillt 
stone  structures,  until  the  decision  was  made.  Since  that 
period,  much  progress  has  l>een  made  in  developing  the  r- 
Bonrces  of  Aden,  ukd  establishing  it  as  a  valuable  depot- 
dency  of  the  British  crown. 

Here  we  bring  to  a  conclusion  onr  notice  of  the  inttral- 
ing  points  connected  with  a  steam  voy^  to  India.  Fiom 
the  peninsula  on  which  Aden  is  situated,  no  land  inttrYeoa 
tut  the  traveller  arrives  stBomtiay;  he  leaves  Socotn,  v 
island  which  was  at  one  time  to  have  been  used  ai  i  inl 
depot  instead  of  Aden,  on  the  right,  and  the  soathem  wa 
of  Arabia,  together  with  the  entrance  to  the  PeraaDGnif, 
OD  the  left.  The  importance  of  Aden  conrasts  parti;  in  fi" 
feet,  that,  from  tliat  port  a  steamer  can  be  sapphed  wiili  fml 
and  aU  other  stores  for  the  voyage  from  tbencs  to  Boml*;' 

A  little  reflection  on  the  details  which  have  beengi<entD 
this  paper  will  convince  the  reader,  that  the  grand  pRJect 
of  steam  communication  with  India,  (for  grand  it  ctrtuolf 
is,}  b  still  only  in  ita  in^cy,  and  that  we  may  look  fbmril 
to  a  SQccessive  chain  of  improvements  in  every  part  rf  4e 
commercial  machinery  by  which  it  is  aecompluned, 


LOimON    FuUidMtnrJOeN  W.  PABKBR,  Wall  ataaati,  BdaaUtrlllD 


Sdturlra^ll        M^^^^m^ 


N°  589,  SEPTEMBER 


tOm  PmiT. 


SKETCHES    OF    CAIRO.     11. 


A  zuKKisn  irrKNi 


The  nouses  of  Curo  are  generally  of  brick,  cssed  exter- 
ully,  and  often  internally,  with  the  soft  calcareous  stone 
of  the  oei^bbouring  tnountaui,  which  when  newW  cut  ii 
of  ■  light  yellowish  hue,  but  its  colour  soon  lurkeni. 
The  aluroBte  counes  of  the  front  are  sometimes 
coloured  red  and  whita,  pArtJcularly  in  Urge  houses,  as 
is  the  case  with  moat  mosques.  The  Euperatructure  pro- 
jects about  two  feet :  the  roof  is  flat  and  covered  with 
pUster. 

The  houses  are  rich  in  that  description  of  ornament 
known  to  architects  as  the  Arabet^e,  in  which  much 
Uste  and  fancy  are  often  displayed.  Entrance*  to 
houses  are  often  richly  adorned,  and  over  the  doors  is 
frequently  sculptured  the  invocation  Ya  Allah.'  "O 
God  !"  and  the  words  "  The  Creator  is  the  EverUiling," 
*"'  "  He  is  the  Creator,  the  EverUtldng,"  punted  in 
Um  blaeli  and  while  oh>nwtWl  upoa  t^  door,  both  aa 

Vol  XIX. 


a  charm,  and  to  remind  the  master  of  the  nouse,  wben- 
ever  he  enters  it,  of  his  own  mortality. 

Many  of  the  tradesmen  also  place  over  their  shops 
(genersJly  upon  the  hanjfing  shutter  turned  up  in  front) 
a  paper  mscribed  with  the  name  of  God  or  uat  of  the 
Prophet,  or  both,  or  the  profession  of  the  faith,  ("  There 
is  no  deity  but  God :  Mohhammad  is  God's  apostle,) 
the  bittniuah,  ("  In  the  name  of  God,  the  compassionate, 
the  mercifiil,")  or  some  maxim  of  the  Prophet,  or  a 
verse  of  the  Ckooran,  as  "Verily  we  have  granted  thee 
a  manifest  victory,"  or  an  Invocation  to  the  Deity,  luch 
as  "0  thou  Opener  [of  the  doors  of  prosperity  or  sub- 
sistence^  I  O  thou  Wise  I  O  thou  Supplier  of  our 
wants  I  O  thou  Bountiful  1"  This  invocation  is  often 
pronounced  by  the  tradesman  when  he  first  opens  his 
shop  in  the  morning,  and  by  the  pedestrian  vender  of 
■null  cMu&odities,  bteai^  ngetMtt,  Sic,  when  he  leta 


90 


i  HE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Septhibkb.^, 


out  on  his  daily  rounds.  It  is  &  cattom  among  the 
lower  orders  to  put  the  first  piece  of  money  that  they 
receive  in  the  day  to  the  lips  and  forehead  Itefora  it  is 
consigned  to  the 'pocket. 

The  apartments  on  the  ground-floor  next  the  street 
are  furnished  with  small  wooden  grated  windows,  placed 
sufficiently  high  to  prevent  the  passengers,  even  on 
horseback,  from  seeing  through  them.  The  upper  win* 
dows  project  a  foot  or  two,  and  are  mostly  formed  of 
turned  wooden  lattice-work,  which  is  so  close  that  it 
shuts  out  much  of  the  light  and  sun,  and  screens  the 
inmates  from  view,  while  at  the  same  time  it  admits  the 
air.  A  little  projecting  window  is  sometimes  formed  so 
as  to  be  constantly  exposed  to  a  current  of  air :  within 
this  are  placed  porous  earthen  bottles,  for  cooling  water 
by  evaporation.  Many  houses  are  furnished  with  glazed 
window-frames  placed  within  the  lattice-work,  which  are 
closed  during  winter. 

The  houses  are  generally  two  or  three  stories  high ; 
and  almost  every  house  that  is  sufficiently  large  incloses 
an  open  court,  which  is  entered  by  a  passage,  constructed 
with  one  or  two  turnings,  in  order  to  prevent  passengers 
from  looking  along  it.  In  this  passage,  just  within  the 
door,  is  a  long  stone  seat,  built  against  the  back  or  side- 
wall,  for  the  porter  and  other  servants.  In  the  court  is 
a  well  of  slightly  brackish  water,  which  filters  through 
the  soil  from  the  Nile,  and  on  its  most  shaded  side  are 
commonly  two  water  jars,  which  are  replenished  daily 
with  water  of  the  Nile,  brought  in  skins«  The  principal 
anartments  look  into  this  court. 

For  a  minute  description  of  the  various  apartments,  and 
the  general  domestic  economy  of  the  houses  of  Cairo, 
we  refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  I^ane's  valuable  work.  In  the 
plan  of  almost  every  house  thare  *is  an  utter  want  of 
regularity.  The  apartments  are  generally  of  different 
heights,  so  that  a  person  has  to  ascend  or  descend  one, 
two,  or  more  steps,  to  pass  from  one  chamber  to  another 
adjoining  it  The  principal  aim  of  the  architect  is  to 
render  the  house  as  private  as  possible,  particularly  that 
part  of  it  which  is  inhabited  by  the  females  of  the  esta- 
blishment, and  not  to  make  any  window  in  such  a  situa- 
tion as  to  overlook  the  apartments  of  another  house. 
Another  object  of  the  architect  in  building  a  house  for 
a  person  of  rank  or  wealth  is  to  make  a  secret  door, 
from  which  the  tenant  may  make  his  escape,  in  case  of 
danger  from  an  arrest,  or  an  attempt  at  assassination,  and 
it  is  also  common  to  make  a  hiding-place  for  treasure  in 
some  part  of  the  house. 

In  every  point  of  view,  (says  Mr.  Lane,)  Must  (or  Cairo) 
must  be  regarded  as  the  first  Arab  city  of  our  affe,  and  the 
manners  and  customs  of  its  inhabitants  are  particularly  in- 
teresting, as  they  are  a  combination  of  those  which  prevail 
most  generally  in  the  towns  of  Arabia,  Syria,  and  the 
whole  of  NorUiem  Africa,  and  in  a  great  degree  in  Tur- 
key. There  is  no  other  place  in  which  we  can  obtain  so 
complete  a  knowledge  of  the  most  civilized  classes  of  the 
Arabs. 

The  term  Arab  is  used,  wherever  the  Arabic  language 
is  spoken,  only  to  designate  the  Bedawees  collectively ; 
in  speaking  of  a  tribe  or  of  a  small  number  of  those 
people,  the  word  Orban  is  also  used,  and  a  single  indi- 
vidual is  called  Bedawee,  In  Cairo  the  distinction  of 
tribes  is  almost  wholly  lost,  the  native  Mooslim  inhabi- 
tants calling  themselves  commonly  El  Muiretyeefh 
Owlad  Must,  and  Owlad  el'Beledj  which  signify  *'  peo- 
ple of  Musr,"  «  children  of  Musr,"  and  "  children  of 
the  town." 

The  Mooslim  Egyptians  are  described  as  a  good-look- 
ing race  of  men,  about  the  middle  height,  robust  and 
well-proportioned,  with  fine  open  foreheads,  and  a  half- 
smiling  expression  about  the  mouth  which  is  rather  pre- 
possessing. It  is  difficult  for  the  stranger  to  imagine 
now  the  poor  little  children  that  are  seen  with  meagre 
skinny  limbs,  can  ever  acquire  the  well-built  muscolar 
frame  of  the  yonng  men. 


Travellers  have  been  strucs  with  the  number  of  men 
in  Egypt  who  are  either  wholly  or  mirtially  blind.  Many 
suffer  from  ophthalmia  and  other  oiseases,  but  the  prac- 
tice was  long  common  for  mothers  to  extirpate  the 
right  eyes  of  their  nude  children,  to  unfit  them  for 
military  service.  The  Pacha  adopted  many  plans  for 
stopping  this  horrid  practice,  and  none  sncoeeaed  until 
he  ingeniously  ordered  two  regiments  of  one-eyed  sol- 
diers to  be  raised :  the  conscription  being  therefore  no 
longer  to  be  evaded  by  this  mutilation,  the  custom 
ceased. 

The  costume  of  the  Mooslims  will  be  understood 
better  by  referring  to  figures  than  to  printed  descriptions. 
Among  the  few  personal  ornaments  worn  by  the  men 
the  most  remarkaj)le  is  the  seal-ring  which  decorates  the 
liMle  finger  of  the  right  hand.  This  ring  is  generally  of 
silver  with  a  cornelian  or  other  stone,  upon  which  is  en- 
graved the  wearer's  name,  accompanied  by  the  words 
'*  his  servant,"  that  is  'Hhe  servant  or  worshipper  of 
God,"  and  often  by  other  words  expressive  of  the  person's 
trust  in  God,  &c     Mr.  Lane  says: — 

The  Prophet  disapproved  of  gold ;  therefore  few  Moodims 
wear  gold  rings,  but  the  women  have  various  omameDts 
(rings,  bracelet^  &c.)  of  that  precious  metal.  The  setl- 
ring  is  used  for  siffuing  letters  and  other  writings,  and  its 
impression  is  consider<^  more  valid  than  the  sign-nuniu]*. 
A  little  ink  is  dabbed  upon  it  with  one  of  the  fingers,  and 
it  is  pressed  upon  the  paper,  the  person  who  uses  it  hariiig 
first  touched  nis  tongue  with  another  finger,  and  moistened 
the  place  in  the  paper  which  is  to  be  stamped.  Almost 
every  person  who  can  afford  it  has  a  seal-ring,  even  tfaon^ 
he  be  a  servant  The  regrukr  scribes,  literary  men,  &s<i 
numy  others,  wesr  a  silver,  disss,  or  copper  dawaytk^  whirli 
is  a  case,  with  reoeptacles  for  ink  and  pens,  stuck  in  tlM 
^^irdlef.  Some  have,  in  the  place  of  tfiis,  or  in  addition  to 
It,  a  caasoknift^  or  a  dagger. 

The  Egyptian  usually  takes  his  pipe  with  him  whererer 
he  goes,  (unless  it  be  to  the  mosque,)  or  it  is  carried  bv& 
servant,  although  it  is  not  common  to  smoke  during  a  ride 
or  a  walk.  He  thrusts  the  tobacco-purse  in  his  boson: 
as  also  a  handkerchief  embroidered  with  coloured  silks  aod 
gold,  and  neatly  folded.  Many  persons  of  the  middle 
orders  who  wish  to  avoid  being  thought  rich,  conceal 
their  rich  dress  under  a  long  black  cotton  gowu,  such  as 
is  worn  by  the  lower  classes. 

In  all  Mohhammadan  countries  the  most  important 
part  of  the  male  attire  is  the  turbaUy  and  the  respect 
paid  to  it  is  very  great.  Its  colours  and  forms  are  dtie^ 
prescribed  by  law,  and  serve  as  distinguishing  o^^- 
whether  of  respect  or  aversion.  In  die  houses  of  tk 
more  wealthy  classes  there  is  usually  a  particular  chair 
devoted  to  its  reception  at  night,  wbien  diair  it  n^^ 
used  for  any  other  purpose*  As  an  eaanple  of  t^^ 
respect  paid  to  the  turban,  it  was  rdatad  to  Mr.  ^^ 
that  an  aUim  (a  man  of  science  or  ieamlng)  being  throvn 
off  his  donkey  in  the  streeU  of  Cairo,  his  turban  fell  of 
and  rolled  along  for  several  yards ;  whereupon  the  passen- 
gers ran  after  it,  crying,  "  Lift  up  the  crown  of  El-Islara  • 
while  the  poor  alim,  whom  no  one  came  to  assist,  calW 
out  in  anger,  '<  Lift  up  the  thwkh  (master  or  doctor)  a 
El-Islam  I" 

As  it  is  highly  indecorous  in  a  woman  to  disco* 
yer  her  features  except  to  her  immediate  relations,  the 
veil  is  in  constant  use:  this  is  a  long  narrow  piece  » 
muslin,  suspended  by  a  gold  ornament  from  the  upper 
part  of  the  forehead,  and  covering  the  nose  sod  h^a 
half  of  the  face :  the  eyes  and  part  of  the  forehead  beof 
exposed.  The  expression  of  the  eyes  is  considerwHf 
heightened  by  staining  the  eyelids  with  a  hluk  povd^r. 
called  kohl.'  this  is  the  smoke-black  produced  by  hnrniBf 
an  aromatic  resin,  or  the  shells  c^  almonds.  The  kohl  is 
applied  with  a  small  probe  of  wood,  ivory,  or  silver,  taper- 
ing towards  the  end,  but  blunt:  this  is  moistened  some 

•  Therafim,  gifiiig  the  riog  to  anoUiM  pemm  k  the  ntnoit  otfk  «^ 
confifdenoe.    8a«  Gcoena  xIL  42, 
^  TbM  ii  a  ytrj  mcient  dBton.    Cm  Biaia  faL  S  9>  'i' 


I 


184L] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


91 


times  with  rose-water*  then  dipped  into  the  powder,  and 
drawn  along  the  edges  of  the  eyelids.  This  cnstom  pre- 
vailed among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  as  is  shown  hy  the 
sculptures  and  paintings  in  the  temples  and  tombs  ;  and 
kohl-vessels,  with  the  probes,  and  even  the  remains  of  the 
black  powder,  have  been  found  in  the  ancient  tombs. 

Females  are  also  accustomed  to  stain  certain  parts  of 
their  hands  and  feet  with  the  leaves  of  the  hhenna  tree, 
or  Egyptian  privet,  which  impart  a  yellowish  red,  or  deep 
orange  colour.  Many  thus  dye  only  the  nails;  others 
extend  the  dye  as  high  as  the  first  joint;  some  also  make 
a  stripe  along  the  second  joints:  it  is  common  also  to 
dye  the  whole  of  the  inside  of  the  hand  and  sole  of  the 
foot.  The  (^lour  is  not  permanent,  but  requires  to  be 
renewed  after  two  or  three  weeks. 

Many  of  the  females  of  the  lower  orders  adorn  their 
persons  with  indelible  marks  of  a  blue  or  greenish  hue. 
The  operation  is  performed  with  several  needles  tied  toge- 
ther:  with  these  the  skin  is  pricked  in  the  desired  pattern ; 
some  smoke-black  mixed  with  milk  is  then  rubbed  in,  and 
about  a  week  after,  before  the  skin  has  healed,  a  paste  of 
the  pounded  fresh  leaves  of  white  beet  or  clover  is  applied, 
which  gives  a  blue  or  greenish  colour  to  the  marks. 

Parents  in  Egypt  treat  their  children  with  the  utmost 
love  and  tenderness;  and  however  much  the  son  is 
caressed  and  fondled,  he  generally  displays  a  most  pro- 
found and  praiseworthy  respect  for  his  parents.  Dis- 
obedience to  parents  is  considered  by  the  Mooslims  as 
one  of  the  greatest  of  sins,  and  accordingly  an  undutiful 
child  is  very  seldom  heard  of  among  the  Egyptians  or  the 
Arabs.  Sons  scarcely  ever  sit  or  eat,  or  smoke  in  the 
presence  of  the  father,  unless  requested  to  do  so;  and 
they  often  even  wait  upon  him  and  upon  his  guests  at 
meals,  and  on  other  occasions :  and  they  do  not  cease  to 
act  thus  when  they  have  become  men. 

But  although  the  children  are  objects  of  so  much 
solicitude,  they  are,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  the 
wealthier  classes,  generally  very  dirty  and  shabbily  clad. 
Mr.  Lane  says: — 

The  stranger  here  is  disgusted  by  the  sight  of  them,  and 
at  once  condemns  the  modem  Egypti^s  as  a  very  filth v 
people,  without  requiring  any  other  reason  for  forming  sucn 
an  opinion  of  them ;  but  it  is  often  the  cose  that  those  chil- 
dren who  are  most  petted  and  beloved  are  the  diiliest  and 
worst  clod.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see,  in  the  city  in 
which  I  am  writing,  a  lady  shuffling  along  in  her  ample 
U^b  and  hkab^arah  of  new  and  rich  and  glistening  silks,  and 
one  who  scents  the  whole  street  with  the  odour  of  musk  or 
civet  as  she  passes  along,  with  all  that  appears  of  her  person 
scrupulously  clean  and  delicate,  her  eyes  neatly  bordered 
with  kohl,  applied  in  the  most  careful  manner,  and  the  tip 
of  a  finger  or  two  showing  the  fresh  dye  of  the  hhenna,  and 
by  her  side  a  little  boy  or  girl^  her  own  child,  with  a  face 
besmeared  with  dirt,  and  with  dlothes  appearing  as  though 
they  had  been  worn  for  months  without  c^ing  washed.  Few 
things  surprised  me  so  much  as  sights  of  this  kind  on  my 
first  arrival  in  this  country.  I  naturally  inquired  the  cause 
of  what  struck  me  as  so  strange  and  inconsistent,  and  was 
informed  that  the  affectionate  mothers  thus  neglected  the  ap- 
pearaiice  of  their  children,  and  purposely  left  them  unwashed, 
and  clothed  them  so  shabbily,  particularly  when  they  had 
to  take  them  out  in  public,  from  fear  of  the  evil  eye,  which 
is  excessively  dreaded,  and  especially  in  the  case  of  children, 
since  they  are  generally  esteemed  the  greatest  of  blessings, 
and  thensfore  most  likely  to  be  coveted. 

The  group  shown  in  our  frontispiece  is  taken  from 
one  of  the  prints  in  Mr.  Hay's  noble  volume  already 
referred  to  ( p.  50),  where  it  is  also  thus  described : — 
A  Turkish  Effendee  seated  in  a  wekaUh,  or  building 
chiefly  designed  for  the  reception  of  merchants  and  their 
goods,  writing  a  memorial  for  a  client  who  appears  in 
the  gibbehy  or  long  cloth  robe,  over  the  kuftdn^  or  silken 
vest,  and  with  his  dawdyeh  or  ink-horn  in  his  girdle. 
Tlie  Effendee  merely  wears  the  saltah,  or  jacket,  over  his 
kviftan,  and  is  seated  upon  one  of  the  coarse  mats  of  the 
country,  another  mat  being  used  as  a  screen  behind  him. 
His  zarf,  or  paper  case,  with  his  pipe,  are  beside  him. 
The  writing  paper  used  in  Egypt  is  thick  and  glared; 


it  is  chiefly  imported  from  Venice,  and  glazed  in  Egypt. 
The  ink  is  very  thick  and  gummy.  Reeds  are  used 
instead  of  pens ;  and  they  suit  the  Arabic  character  much 
better.  The  Arab,  in  writing,  places  the  paper  upon  his 
knee,  or  upon  the  palm  of  his  left  hand,  or  upon  what 
is  called  a  mis*ned  *eh,  composed  of  a  dozen  or  more  pieces 
of  paper  attached  together  at  the  four  corners,  and  re- 
sembling a  thin  book,  which  he  rests  on  his  knee.  His 
ink  and  pens  are  contained  in  his  dawdyeh^  together  with 
the  penknife,  and  an  ivary  instrument  upon  which 
the  pen  is  laid  to  be  nibbed.  He  rules  his  paper  by  lay- 
ing under  it  a  piece  of  pasteboard  with  strings  strained 
and  glued  across  it,  and  slightly  pressing  it  over  each 
string.  Scissars  are  included  among  the  apparatus  of  a 
writer:  they  are  used  for  cutting  the  paper:  a  torn  edge 
being  considered  as  unbecoming. 


THE  GOOD    MI88IOKARY. 

Hs  lefi  his  Christian  friends  and  native  strand, 

By  pity  for  benighted  men  constrained; 

His  heart  was  fraught  with  charity  unfeigned; 
His  life  was  strict,  his  manners  meek  and  bland. 
Long  dwelt  he  lonely  in  a  heathen  land, 

In  want  and  wearine8s,-*yet  ne'er  complained; 

But  laboured  that  the  loet  sheep  might  be  gainedf 
Not  seeking  reoompense  from  human  hand. 
The  credit  of  the  arduous  worka  he  wrought 

Waa  reaped  by  other  men  who  came  behind : 
The  world  gave  him  no  honour — ^none  he  sought, 

But  cherished  Christ's  example  in  his  mind. 
To  one  great  aim  his  heart  and  hopes  were  given,— 
To  serve  his  God,  and  gather  souls  to  Heaven. 

Paikgle. 


The  joy,  resulting  from  the  diffusion  of  blessings  to  all 
around  us,  is  the  purest  and  sublimest  that  can  enter  the 
human  mind,  and  can  be  conceived  only  by  those  who  have 
experienced  it.  Next  to  the  consolations  of  divine  gi-ace, 
it  18  the  most  sovereign  balm  to  the  miseries  of  life,  both  in 
him  who  is  the  object  of  it,  and  in  him  who  exercises  it ; 
and  it  will  not  only  soothe  and  tranquillise  a  troubled  spirit, 
but  inspire  a  constant  flow  of  good  humour,  content,  and 
gaiety  of  heart. — Bishop  Portbus, 


Thb  tender  parent,  whose  breasts  have  nourished,  and  whose 
prayers  have  blessed  ns,  slumbers  in  the  dust.  The  lovely 
child,  whose  life  and  qualities  were  just  expanding  to  view, 
is  cropped  by  an  untimely  blast.  The  friend  of  our  bosoms, 
who  was  dear  to  us  as  our  own  souls,  is  gone,  inreooveraMy 
gone,  to  that  bourn,  whence  no  traveller  returns.  We  think 
with  sadness,  that  they  once  were.  We  sigh  with  anguish, 
that  they  will  be  here  no  more.  But  we  shall  go  to  them. 
We  dbafi  lie  down  in  the  grave  together,  and  our  ashes  sliall 
be  mingled  vrith  theirs,  in  the  morning  of  the  resurrection, 
they  wiU  revive  together.  We  shall  appear  with  them  be- 
fore the  throne  of  the  Lamb.  If  we  have  been  as  little 
children,  we  diail  enter  with  them  into  the  kingdom  of 
Heaven,  where  there  shall  be  no  more  sorrow,  separation, 
nor  death ;  and  God  shall  wipe  away  all  tears  from  every 
eye. — Djsslqix, 

m 

Thb  strict  honesty  of  the  Bedawin  among  themselves  is  pro- 
verbial, however  little  regard  they  may  have  to  the  right  of 
property  in  others.  If  an  Arab's  camel  dies  on  the  road, 
and  he  cannot  remove  the  load,  he  only  draws  a  circle  in  the 
sand  round  about,  and  leaves  it.  In  this  way  it  will  remain 
safe  and  untouched  for  months.  In  passing  through  Wady 
Sa'l  on  our  way  to  'Akabah,  we  saw  a  black  tent  hanging 
on  a  tree  :  Tuwellib  said  it  was  there  when  he  passed  the 
year  before,  and  would  never  be  stolen.  Theft,  he  said,  was 
held  in  abhorrence  among  the  Tawarah,  but  the  present 
year  the  famine  was  so  great  that  individuals  were  some- 
times driven  to  steal  food.  He  had  just  returned  from 
]^vpt  with  a  camel-load  of  grain  for  his  family,  which  he 
haJf  put  into  one  of  their  maffazines  as  a  place  of  safety,  but  • 
it  had  all  been  stolen.  Burckhardt  relates  that  he  was  ohown 
in  Wady  Humr  a  point  upon  the  rocks,  from  which  one  of 
the  Tawarah,  a  &w  years  before,  had  cast  down  his  son 
headlong,  bound  hand  and  foot,  for  an  offence  of  the  very 
same  kind.— Bobutsom's  Palestine, 

589-^2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[StPTEMnt4 


SIEGE-PIECES. 

Od«  more  V  Newirk*  cullfrgil*, 
Lani  left  wUbflol  ■  warder,  . 

I  tVtei.  hxAni,  IbtoMil,  and  with  Tbee, 
OiHt  HiBctnl  of  tb*  Borln.— Waani' 


Im  wtdition  to  the  varioni  sorts  of  money,  both  fbreign 
md  domeBtic,  vhich  i*e  hive  considered  in  previous 
articki,  we  mvat  now  say  a  frw  words  respectiBg'  thos« 
Tmiubble  Bpeciniont  of  coin  termed  SiboK'I'iecm. 
They  tometimes  come  under  tha  ^pelUtion  of  Obsidi- 
ONAL  money;  bemuse  these  piece*  »re  made  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  regular  money  in  a  town  which  is  in  ft 
state  of  si^e,  or  so  blockaded  as  to  be  cut  off  fiom 
Gonunnnication  with  the  rest  of  the  country. 

The  usage  of  coining'  money  for  the  immediate  use  of 
a  Uo^«ded  town  is  very  ancient,  and  the  pieces  thus 
■tmck  generally  bear  in  their  fabrication  and  nuterial, 
evidenoM  of  the  calamitous  and  bereaved  condition 
which  gave  ri*e  to  the^  existence.  They  are  moatly  of 
had  OHtal,  and  rudely  formed ;  an  observation  to  which 
some  exceptions  of  course  oocar,  but  they  are  not  name* 
rous.  The  shape  of  these  coins,  or  medals,  varies  ^~ 
sometimes  they  are  round,  sometimes  oval,  and  some- 
times square;  occasionally,  even  octagon  or  triangular, 
Ste.  The  type  and  inscriptions  vary  equally.  Some  are 
engraved  on  both  sides,  whiuh,  however,  is  rare;  br  far 
the  greater  part  having  no  reverse.  The  arms  of  the 
besieged  city  are  often  found  on  them,  and  sometimes 
tho^e  of  the  sovereign  or  governor ;  but  it  is  most  com- 
mon to  see  the  iMiin*  of  the  town  only  f  either  entire  or 
abridged),  with  the  date  and  value.  Tne  earliest  speci- 
mens  of  this  kind  of  money  at  present  known,  are  these 
which  were  struck  at  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  in  Italy,  at  the  sieges  of  Pavia  and  Cremona, 
under  Francis  the  FirsU  In  1529,  a  mint  of  this  de- 
scription was  formed  at  Vienna,  then  besi^ed  by  the 
Turiush  Sultan,  Soliman  the  Second.  The  first  war 
between  Spain  and  Holland  produced  a  conuderable 
quantity  of  obsidiooal  coins.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
observe,  that  these  coins  had  merely  a  temporaiy  and 
local  value,  like  the  Tradtiman't  Tokent*  already  de- 
scribed. They  did  not,  therefore,  pass  into  perpetual 
or  general  currency;  but  were  in  &ct  a  sort  of  token  or 
obligatioa  contracted  by  the  governor  or  the  magis- 
trates of  the  blockaded  places  to  meet  the  exigencies  of 
the  particular  time. 

We  cannot  hut  feel  interested  in  remembering,  that 
much  of  this  ohsidional  money  was  put  out  by  the  Royal- 
ists, during  the  unhappy  troiU)les  and  commotions  which 
na^ed  the  reign  of  Charles  the  First.  It  is  the  more 
necMBary  for  us  to  particularize,  as  we  here  refer  back 
to  the  most  engrosung  times  and  events  of  our  national 

In  r^ard  to  the  unfortunate  monarch  just  mentioned, 
we  are  told,  that  the  unhappy  situation  c^  the  king's  af- 
fairs might  be  traced  by  bis  money,  which  grew  worse 
and  worse  in  the  stamp,  till  at  last  they  hardly  deserved 
the  name  of  cot'u;  for  they  seemed  to  be  rather  the 
woric  of  a  smith  (as  perhaps  they  were),  than  of  an  en. 

•  3HVol.XVII.,p.«a,ortUawDrt 


graver  and  c<nner;  it  being  manifest  they  were  «aiudm 
the  greatest  hurry  and  confusion. 

The  principal  English  siege-pieces,  of  which  spediwi 
have  eome  dwra  to  our  times,  arc  those  sUmfedit 
Newark  in  1643  and  1646,  having  the  form  of  a  Wop, 
as  may  be  seen  at  the  head  of  this  paper.  TIimb 
stamped  at  the  siege  of  Carlisle  hi  1 645,  are  of  u  oc- 
tangular ahape.  Of  the  Pontefract  pieces,  tomt  in 
round,  some  octangular,  and  some  loteege-ihtpcd. 
Another  sort  of  money  consisted  merely  rf  bih  of 
silver-plate  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  with  i  not 
rapreientation  of  a  castle  stamped  upon  it,  as  thit  of 
Scarborough,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  cut  at  the  end  gf 
this  article. 

NeWrk,  whose  ancient  castle,  now  in  ruins,  Wonii- 
worth  visited  with  Ms  brother-poet,  Sir  Write/ Sntt, 
was  held  by  a  body  of  Royalists  under  the  commud  of 
Sir  John  Henderson,  at  the  beginning  of  the  dtil  vtr. 
Hiis  town  is  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  stands  on  in  un 
of  the  river  Trent.  In  1644,  it  was  besieged  by  ibodj 
of  I^liamentarv  force*  under  Sir  John  Mddrna  ad 
Lord  Willoughby  ctf  Paihanu  Prince  Rupert,  dm. 
cing  to  relieve  the  place,  anrprised  the  besieged  by  tbt 
rapidity  of  his  march,  drove  part  of  their  forcesorertk 
Trent,  and  compelled  another  portion  to  capitulilf.vllt 
all  their  artillery  and  ammunition.  In  tne  wiDttr «( 
1644-5,  it  was  ^^u  besieged  by  the  ParliameDOmaSi 
but  without  success,  the  garrison  having  been  nbnri 
by  Sir  Marmaduke  Langdale,  who  was  sent  by  Vma 
Rupert  for  diat  purpose.  The  troops  at  Newitk,  im 
under  Sr  Riehard  Byron,  being  thus  reUevedfivniiiegc 
were  of  material  service  to  the  King's  cause  in  this  pafli 
beating  some  Parliamentary  detachments,  *n(i  krepiif 
their  posts  in  a  state  of  alarm.  Among  other  Mnico, 
a  detachment  from  this  garrison  assisted  at  the  itonw; 
of  LeicesUr  in  1645.  Not  long  after  his  deftst  t 
Nasebyt  the  king  was  at  Welbeck,  in  the  northtni  put 
of  the  county,  and  marehed  northward  to  DoBctsto', 
with  the  view  of  joining  Montrose  in  Scotland.  Vpm 
the  arrival  of  a  body  of  Scots,  however,  at  RotberiiiDi 
the  king  retired  to  Newark,  wbitber  Sir  Mvnuiiiiie 
Langdale  had  retreated  after  the  battle  of  NsKbj.in 
1645.  From  Newark  the  King  marched  to  Oifotd,  M 
was  again  at  Newark  in  October,  after  the  sane  ntr; 
and  it  was  there  that  he  was  desert«d  by  his  ne|uK«i 
Rupert  and  Maurice,  and  by  seven!  of  his  oScen.  b 
November,  being  pressed  by  the  approach  of  the  Sao 
under  the  Earl  ot  Leven,  and  by  a  body  of  Parlismeoti- 
rians  unde;  Poynti,  from  the  west,  he  withdrew  la  Oi- 
ford.  Newark  was  forthwith  besieged  by  tbe  ScoD; 
nnd,  in  May,  1646,  the  King  surrendered  hiffiNlFK 
Southwell  to  the  Scotch  commiBsionera.  by  whom  be*« 
conducted  to  the  beai^ers'  quarters.  The  day  ifterka 
arrival,  Newark  was  delivered  up  by  his  orders. 

The  ancient  and  stupendous  castle,  once  the  cIwTi 
and  still  the  ornament  of  Scarborough,  was  proWlj 
built  in  the  reign  of  King  Stephen.  During  tbf  ci<il 
wars  in  the  calamitous  reign  of  Charles  the  First,  tfu' 
castle  was  twice  besieged,  and  taken  by  the  IVIiuB^t- 
ary  army.  The  first  siege  lasted  for  twelve  loontw; 
and  Sir  John  Meldrum,  by  whom  the  foroci  of  ?v]a- 
ment  were  commanded,  fell  before  the  works.  Tbe«n- 
mand  of  the  besieging  army  then  devolved  upon  'f'^ 
Matthew  Boynton,  to  whom  Sir  Hugh  Cholmley,  ike 
governor,  was  obliged  to  surrender,  on  the*22ndDfMi 
1645.  Colonel  Boynton,  the  successor  of  the  bvuwti 
having  declared  for  the  King,  the  castie  once  more  <*■* 
into  the  hands  of  the  Royalists ;  hut,  the  garrison  gm*' 
ing  mutinous,  the  colonel  was  obliged  to  capiUiiateiM 
on  the  i9th  of  December,  1648,  the  fortress  was  t^ 
surrendered  to  Parliament,  and  taken  possessim  of  '° 
their  name  by  Colonel  Bethel  Tne  castle,  sbiring  the 
fate  of  its  fellows,  was  dismantled  by  order  of  Pvli>- 

SMrborough  is  in  the  North  Riding  of  Yoiiihir* 


IB41.] 


triS  SAtURDAY  ilAGAZlNE. 


■nd  u  situated  m  the  recess  of  a  beantifiil  bay  on  the 
ihore  of  the  Gennan  Oceui. 


Sii«i-Pnn  Of  SciBwnocaa 


UOUR-OLABS  AND    BIBLB. 
Lme,  Chriotiant  on  tl^  Biblk,  and  that  gilM^ 

Which  abeda  its  aanda  throo^  minutes,  bowi^  aad  daja, 

And  jean;  it  apeak*  not :  methiak*  it  Mjn 
To  every  human  heart,^ — "  So  mortals  pan 
Od  to  tb^  dork  and  ailsnt  grave  1"  ala*  i 

For  man  : — an  exile  upon  earth  he  ttnya, 

Wraiy,  And  wondering  through  benighted  wa^; 
Ta  day  in  ettengtii,  to-morrow  like  the  graea 
That  withen  at  hia  fset.    ■*  Lift  up  thy  head, 

Poor  ptlgiim,  toilioe  in  thia  rale  of  tears ; 
That  Book  declaiea  whoae  blood  for  thee  wai  shed. 

Who  died  to  give  thee  lifej  and  though  thj  jean 
Tv»  like  a  ahade,  pointing  to  thy  death-bed. 

Oat  of  the  deep  thy  ciy  an  ai^el  hean, 
And  by  hia  guiding  hand  thy  ete^  to  Heaven  are  ted." 

Ir  BoeetidBnoe  with  a  former  promiae,  tlie  old  man  (the 
Soperior  of  the  cosTent  of  Honnt  Snal)  put  into  our  hands 
1  BoaU  quantity  of  the  manna  of  tlie  peniosala,  fiunaus  at 
\mt  aa  Ijeiag  the-sncoeaaorof  the  laraeuti^  m^wrn,  thoneh 
not  to  be  re^krded  aa  tlte  «me  (abstanee.  According  to  hie 
Kconnt  it  i»  not  prodnoed  ereiy  year ;  eometimea  only 
tjtry  five  or  six  rears,  and  tlie  qoantity  in  general  has 
matly  ^minishea.  It  !a  faond  in  the  form  of  shining 
dieuon  the  twigs  and  biaadies  (not  upon  the  leaTei)  of 
ths  Iar&,  (  TtmaH»  flWHea  sMMiMra  of  Ehrenb^^)  6om 
which  it  exudea  in  conaeqaence  of  tlie  pDuctare  of  an  io- 
Mct  of  the  eoecna  kind,  (Cbonu  MtMitworHf  of  the  same 
nstoialisL)  What  falls  npon  tha  aand  is  Mid  not  to  be 
gathered.  It  has  the  appeuanoe  of  gum,  is  of  «  sweetish 
teste,  and  melts  when  exposed  to  the  sun  or  to  a  fire.  Ilie 
Arabs  connder  it  as  a  mat  delicacy,  nod  Uie  pilgrims  prise 
it  highly,  emeciaUy  those  from  Russia,  who  pay  a  high 
piice  tat  it.  The  Superior  had  now  but  a  small  qnantity, 
which  he  ma  keefrfnr  aninst  an  enected  rtrit  from  the 
mnian  oonsal-generaT  in  Egypt.  Indeed,  so  scarce  had  it 
beconie  of  late  yeais^  as  to  beu'  a  price  of  twenty  or  twenty- 
Gtc  piastres  a  pound. 

Of  the  manna  of  the  Old  Testament  it  is  said :— "  When 
(h«  dew  that  Iny  was  ^odc  up,  behold,  upon  the  face  of  the 
dcMrt  a  amM.  round  thing,  small  as  the  hoar-frost  on  the 
Eroiind, — and  it  was  like  coriander-seed,  white ;  and  the 
tute  of  it  waa  like  wafers  with  honey.  And  the  people 
gathered  it,  aad  ground  it  in  mills,  and  beet  it  in  a  mortar, 
01  baked  it  in  pans,  and  made  cakes  of  it,  and  the  taste  of 
it  wu  as  the  taste  of  fresh  oiL  And  when  the  dew  fell  \H>on 
the  camp  in  the  night,  the  muuia  fell  upon  it."  Of  all 
these  chontcterislic*  not  one  is  ^tplicable  to  the  present 
'asDoa.  And  even  could  it  be  shown  to  be  the  same,  sttll 
a  nipply  of  it  in  sufficient  abundance  for  the  daily  consump- 
tion of  two  millions  of  people  would  have  been  no  less  a 
nutscle,— RoBiirsON's  Falettina. 


A  lux  ii  seldom,  if  ever,  unhappy  for  not  knowing  the 
thoughts  of  others;  but  he  that  doM  not  attend  to  the 
notiixis  of  his  own  is  cert^nly  miserable. — H^scns  An- 

KWIBCl.  

Whk»  to  the  angel's  native  home 
The  Fktber  bids  his  children  come. 
Bids  tears  be  dried,  and  moe  forgiven, 
In&ni  1  of  taeh  M  thou,  is  Heaveol— Cmlt. 


FRESH-WATER  nSH, 

VII. 

Tux  Barbel.     {Cyprinut  Barhvt.') 


Thk  name  of  this  fish  is  derired  bom  the  harhi,  wattUt, 
or  cirri,  attached  about  its  mouth.  Many  other  fish  ar* 
thos  oirrated,  and  it  appear*  probable  that  all  auoh  are 
gronnd^eeders,  that  is  they  seek  their  food  cloae  to  the 
bottom.  In  such  genera  ss  have  these  soft  fleshy  pro- 
cesses very  highly  developed,  as  in  most  of  the  Siluridar, 
or  oat-fiah,  they  are  employed  to  decoy  others  upon  which 
they  prey.  The  cat-Esh,  concealed  from  observation  in 
the  hollows  of  the  bank,  throws  out  his  long  cirri,  which, 
betag  flexible,  are  mistaken  for  worms  by  other  smaller 
fiah,  whicb  are  thus  brought  within  reach  of  their  true 
owner.  They  are  much  shorter  among  the  cod-fish; 
and  but  slightly  developed  in  the  tench  family.  Hie 
long  appendage  risii^  from  the  nose  of  the  frog-Sshea 
(Uie  genui  liaphitu  of  Linnsus),  is  analogous  to  thcee 

It  is  probable,  (says  BIr.  Swainson,)  that  these  amphlbiouft- 
looking  creatures  are  the  meet  imperfect  swimmers  in  the 
whole  class:  and  being  camiTorona,  this  inaptitude  for 
pursuing  their  ptey  ia  made  up  to  them  by  a  very  long  fihi- 
ment  risine  from  the  head,  and  terminated  by  a  flat  moon- 
shaped  enkigemenL  so  as  to  bear  a  ludicrous  rescmUanca 
to  a  fishing-lme  with  a  bait  at  the  end :  the  fish  lurks  in  its 
hole,  and  throws  out  this  natural  line,  and  thus  attrocta  its 
prey.  Its  vulgar  name  of  fishing-frog  is,  therefore,  peculi- 
arly expressive ;  fbr  it  not  only  angles,  but  ft  Is  of  that  type 
wUcb  repiteents  the  amphibious  frcga  smrag  the  abertant 

The  term  barbel  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
Latin  barba,  a  beard ;  or,  rather,  barbalulut,  having  a 
little  beard :  thus  Cicero  speaks  of  the  Barbatuhu  mulliit. 
The  barbel  is  called  barbeUo  in  Italy;  barbean  in 
France,  where  the  diminutive  harbilion  is  used  to  esprest 
a  little  barbel.  The  term  barbel  is  also  used  in  heraldry, 
but  in  a  more  extended  sense;  for  the  comb  and  wattles 
of  the  cock  are  said  to  i>e  barbel,  when  of  a  different 
colour  from  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  fish  barbel,  in 
the  coat  of  Bar,  forms  one  of  the  quarterings  of  the 
arms  of  Margaret  of  Anjou,  Queen  of  Henry  the  Sixth, 
and  founder  of  Queen's  Coll^,  Cambridge.  She  waa 
daughter  of  Ren£,  duke  of  Anjou,  titular  king  of  Jeru- 
salem. These  arms  ore  very  beautifully  punted  in 
glass  in  the  windows  of  Ockwells,  in  Berkshire". 

The  cirri  of  the  barbel  are  four  in  number,  two  bang- 
ing from  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  and  two  rather  shorter 
attached  to  the  upper  jaw  near  the  snout.  This  fish  is 
remarkable  for  the  great  extension  of  the  upper  jaw 
beyond  the  lower,  and  this  formation  probably  assists  the 
anunal  in  stirring  up  the  ground  in  search  of  worms  and 

The  barbel  is  sometimes  called  the  btviih^ohit*  carp: 
it  is  a  handsome  fish ;  its  colour  is  of  a  slight  silvery 
gray,  with  a  darker  cost  on  the  upper  parte ;  the  scalei 
middle-si  led,  rounded,  and  well-ilenned;  the  dorsal  Sn 

•  For  ■□  ■ccomil  of  this  bsaolUid  m 


M 


THB  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[8lPTZMB£ft  4, 


is  rather  small  than  large,  situated  on  the  middle  of  the 
back,  and  of  a  bluish-brown  colour,  with  the  second  ray 
extremely  strong,  sharp,  and  serrated  on  both  sidea;  the 
pectoral  and  ventral  fins  are  pale  brown  and  tipped  with 
yellow;  the  tail  is  dull,  purple,  and  forked;  the  snout  or 
upper-lips  reddish ;  the  lateral  line  *  straight  or  nearly 
so,  and  punctated  with  minute  black  dots.  Mr.  Blaine 
says,  that — 

There  is  to  be  observed  (In  full-grown  barbels  particularly) 
an  incurvation  of  the  last  upper  ray  of  the  caudal  fin  or  tail. 
With  this  the  snared  fish  la  able  to  make  a  very  forcible 
attack  on^'the  lino  which  holds  him  by  a  tail-stroke,  in 
which  this  spinous  hook  first  catches  and  then  cuts  it|  and 
such  a  blow  he  will  very  ftequentlv  give  if  the  line  be 
allowed  to  slacken.  The  serrated  dorsal  spine^  which  bounds 
the  second  ray  of  tliat  fin,  forms  also  another  offensive 
weapon  both  agdnst  nets  and  lines,  and  sometillMl  the  hands 
of  the  angler  suffer  unless  he  be  careful. 

Walton  also  remarks,  that — 

The  barbel  affords  on  angler  choice  sport,  being  a  lusty 
and  a  cunning  fish ;  so  lusty  and  cunning  as  to  endanger 
tiie  breaking  of  the  angler's  line,  by  running  his  head  forcibly 
towards  any  covert^  or  hole,  or  bank^  and  then  striking  at 
the  line  to  break  it  off  with  his  tail ;  and  also  so  cunnix^g  to 
nibble  and  suck  off  your  worm  dose  to  the  hook,  and  yet 
avoid  the  letting  the  hook  come  into  his  mouth. 

The  barbel  is  to  be  found  in  most  of  our  riversi  as  alao 
in  those  of  Middle  and  Southern  Europe.  Its  moat 
favourite  haunts  are  in  currents  of  moderate  rapidity, 
which  flow  over  gravelly  beds  and  among  large  atones. 
These  fish  are  gregarious,  and  lurk  in  shoals  under  the 
shelter  of  overhanging  banksy  or  among  the  weed-beds  of 
deep  waters. 

Under  bridges  in  the  strongest  currents  they  may  be 
seen,  and  counted  one  by  one,  apparently  l;^g  as  fijttnres, 
which  has  given  rise  to  the  eostom  of  letting  down  hooks 
fixed  on  a  lead,  which,  dropping  among  them  occasionally^ 
fastens  one  in  afoul  manner,  as  it  is  termed.  They  are  un- 
suspicious in  the  extreme,  and  will  often  suffer  themselves 
while  grovelling  in  the  gravel,  to  be  caught  up  in  this  way. 
Piles,  weirs,  and  locks^  are  likewise  lavourite  resorts  of 
theirs.  Barbel  are  much  in  motion  during  the  nic^ht,  at 
which  time  they  principally  seek  their  food,  for  which  their 
small  penetrating  eve  gives  facilities ;  and,  if  our  observa- 
tions are  correct,  the  internal  oiganization  of  their  visual 
<Mgan  particularly  fits  it  for  crepuscular  vision :  that  they 
are  gifted  with  nocturnal  vision  in  an  eminent  degree  la 
certain,  from  the  readiness  with  which  they  djgfinjriiiah 
and  take  a  bait  during  night-fishing.    Blaine. 

While  the  barbel  is  boring  and  turning  up  the  loose 
soil  at  the  bottom  of  rivers  in  expectation  of  finding  food 
for  itself,  small  fish  are  seen,  (according  to  Mr.  YarrelFa 
observation,)  attending  it  to  pick  up  minute  animalcule 
in  the  removed  earth. 

The  barbel  varies  from  two  to  three  feet  in  lengthy 
and  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  pounds  in  weight.  It  spawns 
in  May  or  June,  and  is  very  prolific  Barbel  angling  is 
a  favourite  spot  with  many,  especially  in  the  Thames 
and  in  the  Lea;  but  as  an  article  of  food  this  fish 
is  not  esteemed:  the  roe  is  generally  admitted  to  be 
poisonous,  and  cases  are  recorded  where  the  flesh  has 
produced  inconvenient  and  even  dangerous  results  to 
those  who  have  eaten  it.  Other  writers  say^  that 
both  the  roe  and  the  flesh  may  be  safely  eaten;  but 
we  would  caution  our  readers  against  both.  During  the 
spawning  season  fish  are  in  general  unwholesome,  and 
the  barbel  probably  more  so  than  other  fish ;  so  that,  if 
eaten  at  all  times  of  the  year,  it  may  have  proved  inju- 
rious at  one  time  and  harmless  at  another,  and  hence,  may 
have  arisen  the  great  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  thie 
edible  qualities  of  the  barbel. 

*  "  Tba  lateral  line,  where  it  eziato,  m  in  the  mora  typical  gnrnpa, 
deserves  much  attentaoo:  the  scales  of  which  it  is  fomied  are  idwajs  of  a 
peculiar  construction, — ^being  perforated  in  the  middle  for  the  free  issue  of 
tliiU  mucous  substance  which  is  so  preralent  among  fish,  and  which  is 
secreted  in  certain  glands  beneath:  these  scales  ore  generally  of  a  dtflhrent 
shupe  from  those  of  the  body ;  and  they  httre  been  rsc^itly  employed 
hy  our  best  JichlhyologistB  as  additional  aids  tv  diaoriiaiiistipg  i^ecies, 
which  otherwise  bear  a  dooe  ztsemblonoo."    Swaim soit. 


We  will  conclude  our  notice  of  the  barbel  vith  u 
amusing  anecdote,  related  by  Sir  John  Hawkins;— 

Fishing  for  barbel  is,  at  best,  but  a  doll  recreation. 
They  are  a  sullen  fish,  and  bite  but  slowly.  The  angler 
drops  in  his  bait ;  the  bullet,  at  the  bottom  of  the  line,  iixes 
it  to  one  spot  of  the  river.  Tired  with  wuting  for  a  l^te,  he 
generally  lays  down  his  rod,  and,  exercising  the  patience  (if 
a  setting-dog,  waits  till  he  sees  the  top  of  his  rod  move; 
then  b^ins  a  struggle  between  him  and  the  fish,  which  hh 
calls  his  sport;  and  that  being  over,  he  lands hia prize, fesh 
baits  his  hook,  and  lays  in  for  another. 

Living,  some  yeaiv  ago,  in  a  village  on  the  banb  of  the 
Thames,  I  was  used,  in  the  summer  months,  to  be  mach  is 
a  boat  on  the  rivet.  It  ehanced  that,  at  Sheppertoo,  where 
I  had  been  for  a  few  days,  I  frequently  passed  sn  eldt^rly 
gentleman  in  his  boat,  who  appeared  to  be  fishing,  at  dlfiir- 
ent  stations,  for  barbel.  After  a  few  salutatioiu  had  passed 
between  us,  and  we  were  become  a  little  acquainted,  I  took 
occasion  to  inquire  of  him  what  diversion  he  had  met  with. 
^  Sir,"  says  he,  **  I  have  had  but  bad  luck  to-day,  for  I  fish 
for  barbel,  and  you  know  they  are  not  to  be  caught  like 
gudgeons."  **  It  is  very  true,**  answered  I,  "  but  vbt 
vou  want  in  tale,  I  suppose  ^'ou  make  up  in  wd^t." 
**  Why,  Sir,'*  says  he.  **  that  is  just  as  it  happens:  it  b  true 
I  like  the  sport,  and  love  to  catch  fish,  but  my  great  delight 
is  in  goittff  after  them.  I'll  tell  vou  what.  Sir/'  continQed 
he,  ^  I  am  a  man  in  years,  and  nave  used  the  sea  all  my 
life  [he  had  been  an  India  captain^,  but  I  mean  to  ^  no 
more ;  and  have  bought  that  little  house  which  you  see 
there  [pointing  to  it],  for  the  sake  of  fishing.  I  eet  into 
this  boat  [which  he  was  then  mopping]  on  a  Mondar 
morning,  and  fish  on  till  Saturday  night,  for  barbel,  as  I 
told  you,  for  that  is  my  delight ;  and  tms  I  hare  done  for  a 
month  together,  and  in  all  that  while  have  not  had  ooe 
bite." 


Ok  the  wild  gorse 
Look  for  the  rose  of  Shiraz,  ere  ye  seek 
Knowledge  or  virtue  from  tiie  iU-tiained  sou 
Of  blind  indttigeooe,  luxury,  or  pride. 

Mil.  Wmt. 

Thb  beginning,  and  progress,  and  end  of  human  lift  resoi* 
ble  the  origin,  and  growth,  and  decay  of  a  plant  We  both 
of  US)  at  first)  arose,  firom  one  common  parent,^the  Eirtb; 
into  which  we  shall  be  again  resolved.  If  weannotbiiiM 
in  the  bud  of  lifo ;  or  if,  through  the  weakness  of  the  frstf 
and  constitution,  we  are  not  bowed  down  again  to  the  giwH) 
still  as  we  grow  we  are  continually  exp<»ed  to  the  stoisu 
and  tempests  that  beat  upon  us,  and  break  us  down«  Or 
should  we  be  permitted  to  arrive  at  our  full  proportion  a 
strength  and  height,  and  esci^  thoee  diseases  which  m}ta 
our  bloom,  and  thoee  accidents  which  lie  in  wait  to  des^y 
US)  yet  in  the  ooune  of  Nature  how  soon  do  oar  ofgnj 
decay,  and  the  fountaina  of  lifo  diy  up^  our  hoooszs  "11 
from  our  heads^  and  we  langniah,  fode,  and  cfiel^-D** *^ 
Tottu. 

The  Biblb. — ^In  every  generation,  and  wherever  the  Kprt 
of  revelation  has  shone,  men  of  all  rankS)  conditioDS> ju^ 
states  of  mind,  have  found  in  this  volume  a  correspondiii' 
for  every  movement  toward  the  better  felt  in  ^^^f!^ 
heai-ts.  The  needy  soul  has  found  supply,  the  feeble  a  w^ 
the  sorrowful  a  comfort ;  yea,  be  the  recipiency  the  lf» 
that  can  consist  with  mortal  life,  there  is  an  answering  ?«J 
ready  to  enter.  The  Bible  has  been  found  a  spiritual  >roTft 
—spiritual,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  outward  and  coinin« 
to  all.  You  in  one  place,  I  in  another,  all  men  sjjnewi^ 
or  at  some  time,  meet  with  an  assurance  that  the  ^^^\ 
fears,  the  thoughts  and  yearnings  that  proceed  fivni,  or  ^ 
to,  a  right  spint  in  us,  are  not  dreams  or  Meeting  sin^^^ 
ties,  no  voices  heard  in  sleep,  or  spectres,  which  tnc 
suffers,  but  not  perceives.  As  if  on  some  dark  mgnt  a  p 
grim,  suddenly  beholding  a  bright  star  moving  befoitniin. 
should  stop  in  fear  and  perplexity.  But  lo !  traveller  ^ 
traveller  passes  by  him,  and  each,  being  questioned  ww»^ 


whitheJ 
idiD< 


he  is  going,  makes  answer,  *f  I  am  following  7®°  ^' 
star!"  The  pilgrim  quickens  his  own  steps,  and  pi^ 
onward  in  confidence.  More  confident  still  will  he  *  ^^ 
by  the  way-side,  ho  should  find,  heie  and  there,  aiic«j^ 
monuments,  each  with  its  votive  lamp,  and  on  ^^,Q^ 

name  of  some  former  pilgrim,  and  a  record  ^^^^^. 
seen  or  bc|(un  to  follow  the  beoigBiBt  •lvl--CoLB>^ 


i 


18410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


95 


OPTICAL  ILLUSIONS-    V. 

Ik  our  last  paper  on  this  subject,  we  brought  before  the 
reader  the  results  of  a  series  of  experiments  by  Dr. 
Roget,  and  the  very  clear  explanation  which  he  g^ives  of 
the  causes  of  an  apparent  curvature  in  the  spokes  of  a 
moving  wheel,  when  seen  through  a  series  of  parallel 
apertures.  On  the  present  occasion,  we  will  direct  our 
attention  to  various  experiments  performed  by  Professor 
Faraday  as  described  a  few  years  ago  in  a  scientific 
journal. 

Dr.  Faraday  notices  several  instances  of  phenomena 
bearing  considerable  resemblance  to  those  described  by 
Dr.  Roget.  Happening  to  be  present  in  a  large  manu- 
factory, he  s^w  two  cog-wheels  which  were  moving  with 
such  velocity,  that  if  the  eye  were  retained  immoveable, 
no  distinct  appearance  of  the  cogs  in  either  could  be  ob- 
served; but  upon  standing  in  such  a  position  that  one 
wheel  appeared  behind  the  other,  the  distinct  though 
shadowy  resemblance  of  cogs  moving  slowly  in  one 
direction  was  immediately  seen.  He  also  adduces  an 
instance  of  a  somewhat  similar  kind,  as  having  been 
witnessed  by  Mr.  Brunei  at  the  Thames  Tunnel.  Two 
small  wheels  being  connected  together,  an  endless  rope 
which  passed  over  and  was  carried  by  one  of  them,  im- 
mediately returned  and  passed  in  the  opposite  direction 
orer  the  other,  and  consequently  moved  the  two  wheels 
in  opposite  directions  with  g^at  but  equal  velocities. 
When  viewed  from  a  particular  position,  they  presented 
the  appearance  of  a  wheel  with  immoveable  radii. 

Dr.  Faraday,  with  that  manipulative  ingenuity  which 
80  distinguishes  him  in  matters  of  science,  devised  means 
for  illustrating  many  phenomena  of  this  kind  on  a  small 
scale.  For  instance,  he  suggests  a  mode  of  illustrating  the 
phenomenon  of  the  coach  wheel,  described  by  Dr.  Roget. 
His  plan  is,  to  make  a  small  wheel  of  pasteboard  revolve 
before  a  black  or  dark-coloured  ground;  and  whilst 
regarding  the  wheel  fixedly,  to  traverse  the  space  before 
it  with  a  little  barred  grating  also  cut  out  of  pasteboard. 
By  altering  the  position  of  the  eprating  and  the  direction 
of  its  motion,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  straight  lines  in 
the  wheel  are  always  parallel  to  the  bars  of  the  grating, 
ind  that  the  convexity  of  the  curved  lines  is  always 
towards  that  side  of  the  grating  where  its  motion  coin* 
cides  in  direction  with  the  motion  of  the  radii  of  the 
wheel.  By  varying  the  velocity  of  the  wheel  and  the 
position  of  the  grating,  the  curves  present  great  variety 
of  appearance. 

A  double  wheel  often  presents  a  singular  appearance. 
When  the  two  wheels  of  a  gig  or  carriage  in  motion  are 
looked  at  from  an  oblique  position,  so  that  the  line  of 
sight  crosses  tfae  axle,  the  space  through  which  the  wheels 
overlap  appears  to  be  divided  into  a  number  of  fixed  curved 
lines,  passing  from  the  axle  of  one  wheel  to  the  axle  of  the 
other.  This  is  shown  in  an  exceedingly  prettv  manner  by 
the  following  arrangement,  proposed  by  Dr.  r  araday.  Cut 
two  equal  wheels  out  of  white  cardboiurd,  having  an  equal 
number  of  radii,  from  twelve  to  twenty  or  thirty,  as  in 
the  annexed  cut,  fig.  1.  Insert  a  large  needle  through 
their  centres,  so  as  to  act  as  an  axle  for  both,  keeping 
thorn  two  or  three  inches  apart  Revolve  them  between 
the  fingers,  and  look  at  them  in  an  oblique  direction 
ag^ainst  a  dark  or  black  ground.  The  radii  will  then 
appear  to  have  lost  their  individual  existence,  but  will 
present   the    very  curious  appearance  represented   in 

fi&-  2. 

When  a  dark-coloured  wheel  of  a  carriage  is  moving 
on  a  lisrht-coloured  road,  so  that  the  sun  shines  almost 
directly  on  its  broadside,  and  the  wheel  and  its  shadow 
arc  looked  at  obliquely,  so  that  the  one  partly  overlaps 
the  other,  then,  in  the  overlapping  part,  luminous  or 
lif^ht  lines  will  be  perceived  curved  more  or  less,  and 
c  )njoiirtng  the  axle  and  its  shadow,  if  the  wheel  and 
shadow  are  superposed  sufficiently;  or,  tending  to  do  so, 
if  they  are  superposed  only  in  part:  the  appearance  being 
the  more  perfect  as  the  motion  is  more  rapid*  The  modie 


suggested  for  imitating  this  efiect,  is  to  make  a  paste- 
board wheel,  similar  to  that  described  in  the  last  para 
gfraph,  to  blacken  it,  to  stick  it  on  a  pin,  and  to  revolve 
it  in  sunshine  or  in  candle-light  before  a  sheet  of  white 
paper.  An  effect  similar  to  that  of  ^g.  3  may  be  thus 
produced. 

.Dr.  Faraday  contrived  a  very  pretty  machine,  by 
which,  with  slight  adjustments,  a  large  variety  of  eficcts 
might  be  produced,  more  or  less  analogous  to  those 
which  have  engaged  our  attention.  As  some  of  our 
readers  might  possibly  feel  inclined  to  construct  such  an 
apparatus  for  tnemselves,  we  will  give  a  representation  of 
it,  together  with  a  deicription  of  the  mode  in  which  it  was 
constructed. 

A  board  was  fixed  upright  upon  the  middle  of  another 
board,  serving  as  a  base.  The  upright  board,  repre- 
sented by  the  framework  of  fig.  4,  was  cut  so  as  to  leave 
three  vertical  stems,  one  in  the  middle  and  two  at  the 
ends,  forming  points  of  support,  which  were  supplied 
with  little  caps  made  of  sheet  copper,  and  bent  into  the 
shape  of  fig.  5.  Phese  copper  caps,  when  in  their  places, 
Aimish  four  bearing^  for  the  support  of  two  axes,  one  on 
each  side  the  middle.  The  axes  arc  small  pieces  of  steel 
wire  tapered  at  the  extremities ;  each  has  upon  it  a  little 
roller  or  disk  of  soft  wood,  which,  though  it  can  be 
moved  by  force  from  one  part  of  the  axis  to  another,  has 
stUl  friction  sufficient  to  carry  the  latter  with  it  when 
turned  round.  These  axes  are  made  to  revolve  in  the 
following  manner.  A  circular  copper  plate  about  four 
inches  in  diameter  has  three  pulleys  of  different  diameter 
fixed  upon  its  upper  surface,  whilst  its  lower  surface  is 
covered  with  a  piece  of  sand-paper  attached  by  cement. 
A  hole  is  made  through  the  centre  of  the  plate  and 
pulleys,  and  guarded  by  a  brass  tube,  so  fitted  as  to  move 
steadily  but  fireely  upon  an  upright  steel  pin  fixed  in  the 
middle  of  the  centre  wooden  support ;  when  the  plate  is  in 
its  place,  it  rests  upon  the  two  middle  rollers  belonging  to 
the  horizontal  axes,  whilst  it  is  rendered  steady  by  the  up 
right  pin.  The  plate  can  easily  be  turned  round  in  a  hori 
Kontal  plane;  and  it  then  causes  the  two  axes  with  their 
rollers,  through  the  friction  occasioned  by  the  sand-paper, 
to  revolve  ip  opposite  directions ;  and  the  velocities  of 
these  can  be  made  either  equal  to  each  other,  or  to  differ 
in  almost  any  desired  ratio,  by  shifting  the  rollers  upon 
the  horizontal  axes  nearer  to  or  farther  from  the  centre 
of  the  stand. 

To  produce  motions  of  the  axis  in  the  game  direction, 
an  aperture  was  cut  in  the  lower  part  of  the  upright 
board;  a  roller,  turned  for  it,  loosely  fitted  within  the 
aperture;  and  a  steel  pin  or  rod  passed  as  an  axis 
through  the  roller.  The  roller  hangs  in  its  place  by 
endless  lines,  made  of  thread,  passing  under  it,  and  over 
little  pulleys  fixed  on  the  horizontal  axes  ;  when,  there- 
fore, it  is  turned  by  the  projecting  pin,  it  causes  the  re- 
volution of  the  axes.  A  variation  in  the  velocities  may 
be  obtained  by  having  the  roller  of  different  diameters 
in  different  parts,  and  by  having  pulleys  of  different 
dimensions. 

This  apparatus  had  to  carry  wheels  either  with  cogs 
or  spokes,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  experiment 
about  to  be  tried,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  wheels 
was  as  follows.  The  wheels  were  cut  out  of  card- 
board, with  a  diameter  of  about  seven  inches,  and  were 
formed  with  cogs  or  spokes  at  pleasure.  A  piece  of 
cork,  such  as  the  end  of  a  phial  cork,  about  the  tenth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness, was  then  fastened  by  a  little  soft 
cement  to  the  middle  of  the  wheel,  and  a  perforation 
was  made  through  the  centre  both  of  the  cork  and  of 
the  cardboard.  The  wheels  could  then  at  any  time  be 
put  upon  the  axes,  and,  being  held  sufficiently  firm  by 
the  fiiction  of  the  cork,  turned  with  them.  By  these 
arrangements  the  axes  could  be  changed,  or  the  wheels 
shifted,  or  the  velocities  altered,  with  very  little  trouble. 

With  such  an  apparatus  as  this  Dr.  Faraday  made 
many  curious  experiments^  all  depending,  in  some  degree 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 

IV  a. 


or  other,  on  tlie  princtplea  before  espUined.  Two  sqnd 
cardboard  vheeU,  with  liiteen  coga  each,  were  mounted 
in  Bucb  a  way  >s  to  have  equal  velocitiei,  but  in  oppmits 
directions.  When  put  into' motion,  which  was  eaaily 
done  by  the  thumb  and  finger,  applied  to  the  upper 
pulley  of  the  horizontal  copper  plate,  they  presented 
each  the  appearance  of  an  uniform  tint  at  the  part  cor- 
raiponding  to  the  series  of  ciws  or  teeth,  proTided  the 
eye  was  so  placed  at  to  see  the  whole  of  both  wheels ; 
but  when  such  a  position  was  chosen  for  the  eye,  that 
the  wheels  appeared  to  be  superposed,  then  in  place  of 
an  uniform  tint,  the  appearance  of  teeth  or  ct^s  was 
seen, — misty,  hut  perfectly  stationary,  whatever  the 
degree  of  velouty  given  to  the  wheel.  By  cutting  the 
Mgs  or  teeth  in  the  wheel  nearest  to  the  eye  (the  left 
one  in  the  cut),  deeper,  the  eye  could  be  broim;ht 
nearly  into  the  prolongation  of  the  axes  of  the  wheels, 
and  the  phenomenon  be  seen  in  great  completeness. 
The  number  of  speclral  teeth,  if  the  term  may  be 
employed,  presented  to  the  eye  under  these  circum- 
itanees,  was  exactly  double  the  number  of  teeth  in  either 
wheel ;  thus  a  wheel  with  twelve  teeth  produced  twenty- 
four  black  and  twenty-four  white  alternations,  giving 
ttie  appearance  of  twenty-four  teeth,  with  an  equal  num- 
ber of  intervening  spaces.  When  one  wheel  was  made 
to  move  a  little  faster  than  the  other,  by, shifting  the 
wooden  roller  on  its  axis,  then  the  ^ctrum  travelled 
in  the  direction  of  that  wheel  which  had  the  greater 
velocity;  and  the  greater  the  difference  between  the 
velocities  of  the  two  wheels,  the  faster  did. the  spectral 
wheel  appear  to  move.  When  the  wheels  were  observed 
in  such  a  direction  that  they  only  partially  visually 
superposed  each  other,  the  effect  took  place  only  in 
those  parts.    . 

In  another  experiment  wheels  were  fixed  on  the 
machine,  consisting  of  radii  or  spokes,  twelve  in  num- 
ber, equal  in  length  and  width.  When  revolved  alone,  each 
wheel  gave,  with  a  certain  velocity,  a  perfectly  uniform 
tint,  hut  when  visually  superposed  there  appeared  a  fixed 
wheel,  having  twenty-four  spokes,  equal  in  dimensions 
to  the  original  spokes.  VariaUons  of  the  positions  of 
the  eve,  or  of  the  relative  velodty  of  the  two  wheels, 
caused  corresponding  differences  to  occur  in  the  spectral 

In  observing  these  effects  Dr.  Faraday  slates  that 
either  the  wheels  should  be  black  or  in  shade,  whilst 
the  part  beyond  is  illuminated,  or  else  that  the  wheels 
should  be  white  and  enlightened,  whilst  the  part  beyond 
is  in  deep  shade.  The  cog-wheels  present  nearly  the 
same  appearance  in  both  cases,  though  in  reality  the 
parts  of  the  spectrum  which  appear  darkest  by  the  one 
method  are  lightest  by  the  other.  The  spoke  wheels 
give  a  spectrum  having  white  radii  in  the  first  method, 
and  dark  radii  in  the  second.  Placing  the  wheels 
between  the  eye  and  the  clouds,  on  a  white  wail,  or  a 
lunar  lamp,  answers  well  for  the  first  method,  and  for 
the  second,  merely  reversing  the  position,  and  allowing 
the  light  to  shine  on  the  parts  of  the  wheel  towards  the 
eye,  whiUt  the  back-ground  is  black. 


p^     ^ 


In  our  next  paper  we  shall  describe  other  eiptiineiU 
relating  to  this  smgular  inbiect,  made  by  Dr.  FtndiT, 
and  shall  also  state  the  mode  in  which  tlut  philoHphrr, 
acquiaacing  in  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Beget,  expltJD!  ml 
accounts  fi>r  the  production  of  these  pMnomeoi. 


WHAt  a  fine  moral  does  Hilton  incolcale  thnojfant  U 
Paradue  LmI,  by  showiiw  that  all  the  wnIedhb  lod  ua 
of  the  rebel  aiwels  was  w  natural  conseqneDct  ot  am 
sinning.  And  it  may  in  general  be  obHrved  of  Uiltm,  tli 
he  is  scarcely  ever  so  hi  hurried  on  by  the  fire  of  UiaMi, 
as  to  forget  the  main  end  of  all  good  writing,  Ike  nan- 
mendafion  of  virtue  and  religion. — TarBa. 


which  stu^natiscs  those  as  fi>ols  who  covpUn  th 
foiled  of  happinen  by  sudden  d^th.     Quevtdo  lala,  Bi 


moat  dt^  and  that  the  time  ol 


Thk  names  of  Uoreb  and  Sinai  are  used  intcRhnipsU)''' 
the  Pentateuch,  to  denote  the  mountain  on  which  I)"  I'' 
was  given;  and  this  circnmstance  has natuitlly  occssiw 
difficulty  to  commentators.  The  most  obvious  sad  amt» 
explanation  is,  to  regard  one  f  Sinai)  as  the  pmeisl  BUitt)' 
the  whole  cluster,  and  the  otiior  (Eloreb)  ss  d«igD>l^ 
particular  motuttain ;  much  aa  liie  aaine  Damss  in  Mpk^H 
by  the  Christians  at  the  oMaeut  day.  S<x  loo^  tb  Ana 
now  apply  the  name  Jebel-et>Tur  to  Uta  whole  M^  ^ 
nite  region;  while  the  dilfereut  mount^ns  of  wbick  "' 
composed  an  cdled  Jebel  Kltherin.  Jebal  H&M,  &c  M 
lookmg  at  the  subiecta  dnrinc  wu  sojourn  at  the  oxn^' 
was  led  to  a  similar  condnason;  ^plyi^  the  nama  «"■ 
ever  dilferantly,  and  regarding  Horeb  aatbegaMil" 
and  Sinai  as  the  particular  one.  Two  oircnmsWeaa^ 
to  favour  this  conclusion.  On*  is,  that  befijie  ui  i^ 
the  march  of  the  Ismelites  from  *fe^  to  the  pl«*,*5" 
the  Law  wss  given,  the  btter  is  caUed  only  Honbijiwl 
the  Arabs  now  speak  of  going  from  Cairo  to  Jebd-rt-i"' 
while  during  the  loiouni  of  the  Hsbrew*  bafon  tkt  b» 
tun.  it  is  spoken  of  (wiUi  one  exc^rtion)  only  m  Siw;  ■• 
after  their  departure,  it  is  w«n  referred  to  exd«"7^ 
Horeb.  The  other  and  mam  fact  i^  that  while  U"^ 
itee  were  encamped  at  Rephidim,  Hoses  was  «""°^''li 
go  on  with  the  elders  before  the  people  and  miiU  <M  <? 
b>  Horeb,  m  order  to  obtam  water  for  the  t«»p.  '» 
neceesary  inference  is,  that  some  part  of  Horeb  •si,'*' 
Rephidim ;  while  Snai  was  yet  a  day's  msrch  ii^"^' 
Robimsoh's  PaUiUnt. 

Tbou  Uncnate,  Unseen,  and  Undefiar^ 
Bouroe  of  all  life,  and  Fountain  of  the  iniDd, 
Pervading  Sinrit  1  whom  no  eye  cu  tnee; 
Felt  through  »11  time,  and  working  in  sU  "P"^ 
Imegiaatios  cannot  fttunt  that  spot,  ' 

Around,  above,  beneath,  where  Ttoo  art  not. 

a  MoktW*"'' 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKEH,  WEST  STWKR 


^a^turtrdif        Mmmnt. 


N9.  590.  SEPTEMBER 


11^,  1841. 


THE  BANKS  OF  THE  THAMEa    VU. 


if  the  reader  have  an  opportunity  of  looking  at  a  map 
of  the  course  of  the  Thames,  he  will  find  that  the  p<nnt 
at  which  the  river  Wey  eotera  the  Thamea  is  the  most 
Miathera  during  its  whole  course.     It  is  at  that  point 
that  we  resume  our  tour,  between  Chertsey  and  Oatlandg. 
Between  Chertsey  Brid^  and  the  Wey,  on  the  Surrey 
aide  of  the  river,  is  Wobum  Park,  a  beautiful  seat,  the 
grounds  of  which  were  laid  out  as  a.firme  ornee  by  Mr. 
Sputhcota,  whose  talenta  in  that  species  of  (rardeniug 
were  thus  apostrophised  by  Maaon  in  his  Englith  Oar- 
On  tlicc  too,  Southcote,  shall  the  Muse  bestow 
No  vulgar  praiae,  for  tliou  to  humblest  tbings 
Could'st  bring  euuobling  beauties :  decked  b;  thee,^ 
The  simple  farm  eclipsed  the  garden's  pride, 
E'eo  as  the  virgin  hlush  of  iuuoceuoaj 
The  mimicry  M  art. 
Adjoining'  these  grounds  is    Ham   Farm,  or  Park, 
through  which  the  river  Wey  finds  it*  oonne  to  the 
Thamef.  This  tributary,  rising  on  the  borders  of  Surrey, 
Bouth-west  of  Haalemere,  first  takes  its  course  by  Lip- 
hook,  in  Hampshire:  agcun  entering  Surrey  it  runs  east- 
ward to  Godalming  and  Guildford,  having  been  joined 
at  Shalford  by  a  stream  which  rises  in  the  commons  to 
the  south  of  Wotton,  and  which,  though  small,  supplies 
a  great  number  of  milTs,   besides   embellishing  many 
pleisure-gnmnds  in  its  course.      From  Gialdford  the 
Wey  posses  north-«astward  to  Woking,  letves  the  town 
at  a  small  distance  on  the  north-west,  then  proceeds  to 
Vol.  XIX. 


Weyhridge,  to  which  place  it  gives  name,  and  there  dit- 
charts  itself  into  the  Thames. 

Eastward  of  Weyhridge,  and  following  the  curvature 
of  the  river  for  some  distance,  is  the  manor  of  Oatlands, 
once  belonging  to  the  late  Duke  of  York,  and  remark- 
able for  the  many  hands  into  which  it  has  passed.  Before 
the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth  it  belongea  to  the  fiimily 
of  Rede,  one  of  the  members  of  which  exchanged  it 
with  the  monarch  for  the  manor  of  Tanbridge,  in  the 
same  county.  While  royal  property  it  was  at  intervals 
the  residence  of  some  branches  of  the  royal  family. 
Qneen  Elizabeth  occasionally  visited  it ;  Ann,  consort  of 
James  the  First,  here  built  a  room  called  the  silk-worm 
room.  Charles  the  Second  settled  this  mator  on  his 
mother,  Henrietta  Maria,  for  her  life.  The  mansion  had 
been  much  injured  during  the  civil  wars,  and  after  the 
death  of  the  queen,  Charles  granted  a  lease  of  it  to  the 
Earl  of  St.  Alhana.  It  next  passed  into  the  possession  of 
Lord  Chief-Justice  Herbert,  upon  whose  attainder  it  was 
granted  to  the  Earl  of  Torrington.  The  next  possenor 
and  occupant  was  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  nom  the 
descendant  of  whom  the  Dnke  of  York  purchased  Oat- 
lands. 

We  must  now  cross  the  Thames,  and  view  the  little 
village  of  Shepperton,  the  retreat  of  many  an  adherent 
of  Izaak  Walton.  The  quiet  and  serene  beauties  of  the 
neighbourhood  are  well  calculated  for  the  mind  of  such 
a  man  as  ■'  honest  Izaak,"  who  learned  the  art  of  angling 
on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  and  whose  AngUr't  tfiik 
»90 


98 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[September  U^ 


points  out  the  spots,  tha  employwenta,  iw4  the  associa- 
tions which  delighted  himf 

I  in  the8«  flowery  ^lai^s  would  be : 

These  crystal  streams  should  solace  me. 

To  whoso  harmonious  bubbling  noise 

I  with  my  angle  would  rejoice. 

Or,  on  that  bank,  feel  tb9  Wpst  w^d 

Breathe  health  and  plenty,  please  my  mind, 

To  see  sweet  dew-drops  kiss  these  flowers. 

And  then  waahfid  off  by  April  sliowers  { 

Here  hear  my  Kenna  sing  a  song ; 

There  see  a  blackbird  feed  her  young, 

Or  a  laverock  build  her  nest : 

Here  give  my  weary  spirits  rest, 

And  raise  my  low-pitched  thoughts  above 

Earth,  or  what  poor  mortals  love : 

Thus  free  from  law-suits,  and  the  noise 

Of  princes'  courts,  I  would  rejoice, 

Or  with  wy  Bryan  and  a  book 

|4oit<ir  long  dAJs  near  Shawford  brook  | 

There  sit  by  hnn  WJd  eat  my  meat, 

Therp  see  (he  sun  both  rise  and  set ; 

There  hid  good  mommg  to  i^esLt  dfliyi 
Thei'e  inedTt^te  m  time  Away 
And  fwgle  oAa  una  beg  te  have 
A  Qui^l  pttwge  to  a  weleewe  gmve. 

Whllp  spertlni  of  thii  prince  «rf  mglers,  we  may 
remapli  (h»l  the  Tbumes,  near  the  spot  at  which  we  have 
now  arrivetit  fthQUp4«  with  almoat  every  different  species 
of  fish  that  ia  to  be  (bund  in  other  British  rivers,  such 
as  percht  eels,  roaQhi  daoe,  bleak,  barbel,  The  roach, 
it  is  said,  are  never  seen  below  liOndou  bridges  the 
others  are  foun4  »«  low  as  the  wittof  eontinues  fresh. 
Flounders  are  seldom  found  abov«  FulhdWi  whither  they 
are  conveyed  by  the  tidOi  The  eillmon  Appears  in  the 
river  about  the  middle  of  Feb^uAryi  its  capture  being 
prohibited  during  pertoiu  of  the  autumnal  and  winter 
months.  The  shadi  like  the  salmoOi  is  A  fish  of  passage ; 
it  appears  about  the  beginning  of  June,  the  usual  weight 
being  from  four  to  Sve  pounds. 

Again  we  cross  to  the  Surrey  side  of  the  river,  and 
pay  a  passing  visit  to  the  town  of  Walton.  It  has  been 
stated,  but  on  what  grounds  we  do  not  know,  that  Wal^ 
ton  was  formerly  in  the  equnty  of  Middlesex,  but  that» 
three  or  four  hundred  years  ago,  the  old  channel  of  the 
Thames  was  changed  by  an  inundation,  by  which  also  a 
church  was  destroyed.  At  about  a  furlong  above  the 
bridge,  at  Walton,  is  a  place  called  Cowey  Stakes,  where, 
according  to  some  authorities,  Csesar  passed  the  Thames, 
Stout  stakes,  driven  into  the  bed  of  the  river  at  this 
place,  have  been  a  source  of  much  conjecture  and  dist 
cussion.  Bede  stated  that  the  Britons  had  stationed 
themselves  on  the  other  side  of  the  river,  and  bad 
fenced  the  bank  with  sharp  stakes,  securely  driven  into 
the  ground:  these  stakes  he  describes  as  being  as  thick 
as  a  man's  thigh,  and  as  being  soldered  or  pointed  with 
lead  at  the  bottom,  as  if  to  make  them  pepetrate  more 
essily  into  the  ground.  It  has,  however,  been  justly 
observed  by  others  that  the  object  of  driving  these 
stakes  could  hardly  have  been  the  prevention  of  Cvasar's 
attempt  to  cross  the  river,  since  the  stakes  range 
directly  across  from  bank  to  bank.  Others  have  sup* 
posed  that  they  are  merely  remains  of  a  fishing-weir, 
Mr.  Bray,  the  historian  of  Surrey,  was  informed  by  a 
fisherman,  w^ho  had  lived  at  Walton,  and  known  the 
river  all  his  lii«,  that  at  this  place  he  had  taken  up 
several  stakes,  of  the  thickness  of  his  thigh,  about  siv 
feet  long,  shod  with  iron,  the  wood  very  black,  and  so 
hard  as  to  turn  the  edge  of  an  axe.*  Mr.  Speaker 
Onslow  had  a  set  of  knife  and  fork  handles  made  iVom 
them,  which,  when  worked,  were  as  black,  hard,  and 
heavy,  as  ebony.  Whatever  might  have  been  the  pur- 
pose for  which  these  stakes  were  driven  into  the  river, 
the  remains  of  Roman  camps  in  the  neighbourhood 
seem  to  afford  some  support  to  the  opinion  that  this 
was  the  spot  at  which  Caesar  crossed  the  river. 

Near  Walton  arc  the  beautiful  grounds  of  Paine's 


Hill,  long  celebrated  lf»f  ^  AkiU  with  which  thij  vera  i 
laid  out  by  their  proprietor,  tie  Hon.  Chsrles  Himiltos. 
A  considerable  part  of  these  graiuids  jsn  the  aorth  side 
was  taken  from  the  barren  heath ;  the  south  side  vu  a 
bank  above  the  river  Mole,  which  runs  at  the  foot  of  it. 
Availing  himself  of  the  inequalities  of  the  knd,  ite 
made  his  phmtationa  and  placed  his  buildiiigB  witk  the 
utmost  judgment,  and  formed  a  spacious  piece  of  water, 
which,  though  considerably  above  the  bed  of  tlie  rlTer, 
is  supplied  £om  it  by  a  simple  but  ingenious  contriTinee. 
Horace  Walpole,  in  his  ObservaHons  on  Gardewmg, 
speaks  with  much  oommendation  of  these  grounds.  He 
distinguishes — 

Three  kinds  of  gardens, — the  garden  which  oonoeds  itself 
with  the  park,  the  ornamental  £urm,  and  the  forest  orsange 
garden,  by  which  I  mean  that  kind  of  Alpine  sceneiy,  com- 
posed almost  wholly  of  pines  and  firs,  a  few  birch,  and  nch 
trees  as  assimilate  with  a  savage  and  mountiunoafl  oouniiy. 
Mr.  Charles  Hamilton^  at  Faine's  Hi}l,  has  hi  my  opiiu(»i 
given  a  perfect  example  of  this  mode  in  the  utmost  bound- 
ary of  his  ^rden.  All  is  great  and  foveign  and  nda,  the 
walks  seem  not  deal|fned|  but  ei|t  throngh  the  woad  of 
pmes,  and  the  style  </ the  fi^iolf  III  1N»  gtAud,  ftnd  fxmdnded 
with  so  serious  an  air  of  w(U  ftftd  \inoiativ«M  fi;ten1»tlut 
when  vou  look  down  mi  ibil  asemipg  fem^  J^  ^ 
amasea  to  find  only  a  niw  WMi 

The  church  at  W^alton  coqtutni  Ul«  tombs  of  imnl 
persons  of  some  notoriety,  d;mwm  m)m\  \$  ^i^ 
Lilly,  the  Astrologer,  In  ftbo  «fiiMCd  Iff  ffwirfti 
several  brass  plates,  which  9»rf9  10  r09ord  I  vsry  sin- 
gular (bat  of  activity,  They  appMf  |q  hftf  f  been  once 
laid  over  a  grave  stone.  On  out  of  IheM  pU0>t  •'o^ 
Belwyn,  bis  wifis,  and  eleven  chtldroUi  We  repreBented 
in  a  praying  postnre  i  on  another  plota  he  is  isen  seated 
on  the  back  of  a  itagi  holding  by  one  of  the  VBiisd^ 
horns  with  his  left  hand,  and  plunying  a  ewoMl  into  it^ 
neck  with  bis  right.  It  appears,  mm  a  bUek-lettsr  in- 
scription, that  this  John  Sefwyn  waa  undar-kceper  of  the 
nark  at  Oatlands,  in  the  reign  of  Quoan  KUiao^:  the 
bugle-horn>  the  badge  of  h&  ofiea,  ii  apparent  on  the 
plates.  This  man,  according  to  a  tradition  wbieb  seems 
to  be  supported  by  the  testimony  of  the  monvmsoti  ^^ 
extremely  famous  ft^m  bis  strength,  agility,  snd  skill  ^ 
horsemanship,  specimens  of  all  of  which  he  exhibited 
before  the  queen,  at  a  grand  stag-hunt  in  that  park. 
While  attending  at  the  hunt,  as  was  the  duly  of  his 
office,  he,  in  the  heat  of  the  chase,  suddenly  leaped  to 
his  horse,  upon  the  back  of  the  stag,  both  numing  9^ 
the  same  time  with  the  utmost  speed,  and  not  oaly  W 
his  seat  gracefully^  in  spite  of  every  effort  m  w 
affrighted  beast,  but,  drawing  his  aword,  guided  iua 
with  it  towards  the  queen,  and  when  near  to  ^^ 
plunged  it  into  bis  throat,  so  that  tho  stag  fell  dead  at 
her  feet, 

Proceeding  down  the  river  from  Walton,  the  view  ob 
either  side  is  bounded  by  the  osiers  with  which  it^  banks 
are  thickly  covered,  till  the  elegant  village  of  Sunbury 
appears,  presenting  a  long  range  of  fine  domestic  struc- 
tures, among  which  Sunbury  rUce,  at  its  eastern  extre- 
mity, is  seen  to  great  advantage  from  the  river.  1^ 
mansion,  some  years  ago  the  residence  of  tbe  ^°''^' 
Percy  Wyndham,  has  four  fronts,  with  a  pavilion  at 
each  corner.  The  grounds  are  QXtensire,  and  ths  pl<^^' 
surcflawn  and  plantations  disposed  with  considerthle 
taste  and  judgments  The  ornamental  dwellmgs  of  t^ 
handsome  village  are  not  confined  to  the  mai^ia  of  tM 
river.  The  road  leading  northward  to  the  eommou  is 
bordered  by  many  detached  villas,  with  good  eonlinnous 
pleasure-grounds,  and  such  likewise  occur  in  other  pa^ts 
of  the  parish,  Kempton  ?ark  contains  an  ei^tensive  miR' 
sion,  built,  in  imitation  of  the  Gothic  style,  by  the  lat« 
Mr,  Hill,  proprietor  of  the  gonpowder  mills  on  Houns- 
low  Heath.  On  this  domain  stoo4  a  palace  of  oar 
early  kings,  of  the  eaisteaico  of  which  no  traditioo  »*• 
mains,  though  an  inquisitiont  taken  by  order  ^  fidwar^, 
the  Third,  in  1331,  and  preserved  among  the  rcconis  of 


^ 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAOAZmE. 


99 


the  ToWerf  6i9t4ttitn  H  as  hftthlg  fAlIra  into  s  dAiigeronft 
f;tate  of  dilapf^Atlotif  and  it  #as  pfbhiLh)y  demolished  at 
that  i\ne  id  say«  tll«  expense  df  fepdif s« 

The  tmjfist  next  feadiei  Mainpfoti  Bridge,  with  the 
tltta^e  of  Maitititdn  adjoining.  In  the  feign  of  Edward 
the  Confessor^  Halnpton  belonged  to  Earl  Algar»  a 
powerAil  ftkxon  nobtemanf  and  after  the  Norman  Con- 
quest it  wifl  hdld  bj  Walter  de  Bt.  Vakri^  whe  )n*obab4y 
gdte  the  adremson  of  the  IWingt  to  the  prionr  of  Takeljr, 
in  Esnex)  whk'h  was  a  cell  to  the  abbey  of  Bii  Vftleti,-  in 
Picardy,  bdt  the  manof  stibseqtlently  becAfne  the  ptoperty 
of  ^\t  llobeft  Ofay,  whdse  widow,  in  121 1,  left  it  to  the 
Knights  dospitalfers,  and  they  at  one  period  had  an 
establishment  here  for  the  msters  of  that  order*  'Three 
centuries  afterwards  it  pasted  into  the  bands  of  the 
Crown,  under  elreifinstaticss  whleb  we  shall  detail  when 
describitiir  Hafiipfiort  Conrt  Pa!ae«<i 

The  village  of  Hampton  stands  ibout  «ie  llifle  atld  a 
half  Ttom  the  psllate,  an  the  north  side  of  the  Thatnes. 
It  contains  sevjeral  handsome  Tillas,  particularly  one 
which  belonged  to  the  celebrated  Garrick,  en  the  lawn 
in  front  of  which  is  a  small  temple  dedicated  to  8hak<< 
spere.  Hampton  Court  Aridge,  whieh  is  of  wood,  has  a 
)if ht  and  pleasing  eff^eti  There  is  alsO  ft  fieftj  oTer  the 
rirer  at  the  Tillage  of  Hamptoti,  for  carriages  and  fodt- 
passengefs. 

Bv  far  the  most  attractlTe  obie^ft  a4  or  near  Hampton 
is  Iiampton  Court  Palace,  a  oescriptioii  of  which  we 
inuflt  defer  to  enr  neit  paper. 


Trtfi  PATAGONlASg. 

CApf  AlK  fCtftd,  of  D.M.8.  Adveniiirei  was  engaged^ 
rith  the  expeditioii  ttnder  his  direction,  for  severaiyears 
in  survering  the  southern  shores  ef  South  AmetieiU 
rhe  A/veniure  and  the  Beagle  entefed  the  Strait  of 
Vlagalhacns  (oemnKmly  ealied  Magellan,)  In  the  latter 
nd  of  Decewibet^  18364  This  was,  of  course,  the 
wmra<«T  season  of  these  tegions.  Captain  King  thus 
[escribes  his  Htst  ititenieW  with  the  Patagenians. 

In  the  eyeniflg  ad  Indian  was  observed  oil  hensbaisk 
iding  to  and  fr^  upon  the  beach,  but  the  weather  preTented 
ny  sending  a  boat  until  the  next  moroingi  when  Lieitl« 
!^)oke  went  oii  shore  to  commuaicate  with  hint  aad  other 
Indians  who  appeared,  soon  after  da wn^  up<m  tbebeaeh.  Ob 
iuidlng,  he  was  received  without  the  least  distrust.  The/ 
vore  eiglit  or  ten  in  number^  oonsisting  of  an  old  man  and 
m  wile,  tliree  young  men,  and  the  rest  children,  all 
nounted  on  good  horses.  The  woman^  who  appeared  to  be 
ibout  fifty  years  of  age,  was  seated  astride  upon  a  pile  of 
kins,  hung  round  with  jmvis  of  fresh  guanaeo  meat*  itnd 
(ried  horseffesli.  They  were  ail  wrappM  in  mafttles^  made 
hiefly  of  the  skitis  of  guanacoes.  These  maizes  were 
ai^e  enough  to  cover  the  whole  body.  Some  were  made  of 
kins  of  the  zorilto,  or  skunk^  an  anisial  like  the  pole-eat^ 
mt  ten  times  more  ofiensivei  and  others^  of  skins  of  the 
nma, 

'he  tallest  of  the  Indiana,  eiccepting  the  old  man,  who 
not  dismownty  was  rather  less  than  six  feet  in  height, 
were  robust  in  appearance,  and  with  respeet  to  the  head, 

B^h  of  body^  and  breadl^i  of  shoulders^  of  gigantie  size ; 
refore,  when  on  horseback,  or  seated  in  a  boat^  they 
Speared  to  be  t^Ul,  as  well  as  lai^e  men.  In  proportion  to 
fce  parts  above-mentioned,  their  extremities  were  very  small 
Jd  short,  so  that  when  standing  they  seemed  but  of  mode- 
Wp  size,  and  their  want  of  proportion  was  concealed  W  the 
ttntU',  which  *ilreloped  the  body  entirely,  tlie  hcaa  and 
»t  being  ike  oflljr  paJts  ejcposed. 

Wlion  Mr.  Coote  feftded,  he  j^resented  some  medals  (pro- 
Mod  for  the  pnnjose  of  ^ving  aWav  to  the  Indians,)  to  the 
'est  man,  aiia  the  wotiiAti :  and  suspended  them  round 
jr  necks.      A  fi^lefidly  feeling    being   established,  the 
Ives  disitioiiftted,  aitd  etefi  permitted  our  men  to  ride 
T  hot^s,  without  el^ificlng  the  least  displeasure  at  the 
advantage  teken  of  thelf  good  ndturc/ 
Mr.  Cooke  fetnfHed  16  Che  ship  with  three  itatives,  whom 
'  had  induced  to  go  With  lis  to  ffllzabeth  Island  ^  Uie  others 

Th0  ilesh  of  the  g<MMOo,  or  Ikna;  eUeh  mtt  h$  ISrtffMt   fh« 
'  of  South  America. 


were  to  meet  them  and  provide  us  with  guanaoe  meat, 
to  which  arrangement  the  elders  of  the  family  had,  after 
much  persuasion,  assented^  At  Arst  they  objected  to  their 
companions  embarking  with  us,  unless  we  left  hostages  ibr 
their  safety  ]  but  as  this  was  refused  they  did  not  press  the 
wAnif  and  the  three  young  men  embarked.  They  went  on 
Doard  nnging,  in  high  glee. 

While  the  ship  was  getting  under  wayi  I  went  ashote  to 
a  large  number  of  Indiana,  who  were  waiting  on  the  beach* 
When  toy  boat  landed  they  were  mounted  and  collected  in 
one  place*  I  was  surprised  to  hear  the  woman  accost  me  in 
Bpanish ;  of  which,  however,  she  knew  but  a  few  words. 
Idaving  presented  medals  to  each  of  the  party,  thej  dis* 
inonnted  (excepting  the  elders),  and  in  a  few  minutes  became 
quite  familiar.  By  this  time  Capt.  Stokes  had  landed,  with 
several  of  his  officers,  who  increased  our  party  to  nearly 
double  the  number  of  theirs ;  notwithstanding  which  ttiey 
evinced  neither  fear  or  uneasiness.  The  woman,  whose  name 
was  Maria,  wished  to  be  very  communicative ;  she  told  me 
that  the  man  was  her  husband,  and  that  she  had  five  child^ 
dren.  One  of  the  young  men,  whom  we  afterwards  fcnind 
to  be  a  son  of  Maria,  who  was  a  principal  person  of  the 
tribe^  was  moimted  upon  a  very  fine  horse,  well  groomed, 
and  equipped  with  a  bridle  and  saddle  that  would  nave  done 
credit  to  a  respectable  horseman  of  Buenos  Ayres  or  Monte 
Video.  The  young  man  wore  heavy  brass  spurs,  like  those 
of  the  Guacos  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  juvenile  and  feminine 
appearance  of  this  youth  made  us  think  he  was  Maria's 
daughter,  nor  was  it  until  a  subsequent  visit  that  our  mis- 
take was  discovered.  The  absence  of  whiskers  and  beard 
gives  all  the  youngef  men  a  rery  effeminate  look,  and  many 
eailtiot  be  distingnlshed  in  appearance  from  the  Women,  but 
by  the  iWode  hi  which  they  wrap  theit  mantles  around  them, 
and  by  their  hair,  which  is  turned  up  and  cofifined  by  a 
fUlet  of  worsted  yam.  The  women  cross  their  mantle  ovei^ 
the  breast  like  a  shawl,  and  fasten  it  together  with  two 
l*ori  pins  or  skewers,  tound  which  ate  twisted  strinj;s  of 
beMis  and  other  omatnents.  They  also  wear  their  hmr  di- 
vided, and  gathered  into  long  tresses  or  tails,  which  hang 
oiie  before  each  eat ;  and  those  who  have  short  hair,  Wear 
ftdse  tails  made  of  horse-hair.  Under  their  mantle  the 
women  wesir  a  sort  of  petticoat,  and  the  men  a  triangular 
piece  of  hide  instead  of  breeches.  Both  sexes  sit  astride, 
nut  the  Women  upon  a  heap  of  skins  and  mantles  when 
ridinr.  Both  sexes  wear  boots  made  of  the  skins  of  hote^ 
hind  legs,  of  which  the  parts  about  the  hock-Johits  serte  fof 
the  heels. 

The  only  weapons  which  we  observed  With  these  people 
wete  the  oolas,  or  balls,  precisely  similar  to  thope  used  ny 
the  Pampas  Indians ;  but  they  arc  fitter  for  hunting  than 
for  offfehee  or  defence.  Some  are  furnished  witli  three  balls, 
bftt,-  in  gelieral,  there  are  only  two.  These  balls  are  made 
of  small  bags  or  purses  of  hide,  moistened,  filled  with  iron 
prtites,  or  sotne  other  heavy  substance,  and  then  dried. 
They  ai'e  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  and  attached  to  the 
extremities  of  a  thoner,  tliree  or  four  yards  in  length.  To 
use  them,  one  ball  is  field  In  the  hand,  and  the  other  swung 
setewil  times  round  the  head  until  both  are  thrown  at  the 
abject,  whteh  they  rarely  miss.  They  wind  round  it  vio- 
lently, afid,  if  it  be  an  animal,  throw  if  down.  The  bolas, 
wffli  thfee  balls,  similarly  connected  together,  are  thrown 
in  the  same  manner. 

As  more  time  could  not  be  spared,  we  went  on  boatd.-^ 
The  Wind  having  been  very  strong  and  a^inst  the  tide,  the 
ship  had  much  motion,  which  made  our  Fatagonianptissen- 
gets  very  sick.  The  next  day,  the  wind  proved  contrary, 
and  the  Patagonians  showed  much  uneasiness  at  being 
kept  on  board  so  much  longer  than  they  expected ;  but, 
as  they  seemed  to  understand  the  cause  of  their  deten- 
tion, and  as  their  sickness  ceased  when  we  reached  smootJi 
Water,  they  gradually  recovei'ed  their  good  humour,  and  be- 
came very  communicative.  As  well  as  we  could  understand 
their  pronunciation,  their  names  were  Coigh,  Coichi, 
and  Ai^hcn.  The  Indians  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  wdth 
whom  tner  are  not  on  friendly  terms,  are  designated  by 
them  Sapallios.  This  name  was  applied  to  them  in  a  con- 
tempttious  manner. 

Aighen's  features  Were  remarkably  dlffefent  from  thos^ 
of  his  companions.  Instead  of  a  flat  nose,  his  Was  aquiline 
and  prominent,  and  his  countenance  was  full  of  expression. 
He  proved  to  be  good-tempered  and  easily  pleased;  and 
whenever  a  shade  of  melancholy  began  to  appear,  our  assu- 
rance of  landing  him  on  the  morrow,  restored  his  good 
humour,  which  was  shown  by  singing  and  laughing. 

Goiehfs  head  was  long  ana  flat,  at  the  top ;  the  forehead 

590^2 


100 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


tSlPTSMBtR  11, 


broad  and  liigh,  but  eovered  with  h^  witliin  an  inch  and 
a  half  of  the  eyebrow,  which  had  scaicely  any  hair.  The 
eyes  were  smaU,  the  nose  was  shorty  the  mouth  wide,  and 
the  lips  thick.  Neck  shorty  and  shoulders  veiy  broad.  The 
arms  were  short,  and  wanting  in  muscle,  as  were  also  the 
thighs  and  legs.  The  body  was  long  and  laige,  and  the 
breast  broad  and  expanded ;  nts  height  nearly  six  feet. 

The  next  day  we  rounded  Elizabeth  Island,  and  reached 
Cape  Negro,  whero  we  landed  the  Indians,  after  making 
them  several  useful  presents,  and  senduu^  some  trifles  by 
Aighen  to  Maria,  who,  with  her  tribe,  had  lighted  hujge 
fires  about  the  country  behind  Peckett's  Harbour,  to  invite 
us  to  land.  Our  passengers  frequently  pointed  to  them, 
telling  us  that  they  wero  made  by  Mana,  who  had  brought 
plenty  of  guanaco  meat  for  us. 

t  In  the  following  May  the  Adventure  was  again  in 
the  same  neighbourhood. 

After  the  gale  had  abated,  we  proceeded  with  fiur  weather 
and  a  light  breeze  to  the  Second  Narrow,  when  the  wind 
fell ;  but  the  tide  being  in  our  favour  we  passed  rapidly 
through.  On  a  hill  near  us  wo  observed  three  or  four 
Patagonian  Indians  standing  together,  and  their  horsea 
feeding  close  to  them.  A  lire  was  soon  kindled,  to^  attract 
our  notice,  to  which  signal  we  replied  by  showing  our 
colours ;  and  had  we  not  already  commimicated  vrith  these 
people,  we  should  certainly  have  thought  them  giant^  for 
they  **  loomed  very  laige*'  as  they  stood  on  the  summit  of 
the  hill.  This  optical  deception  must  doubtless  have  been 
caused  by  mirage :  the  haze  has  always  been  observed  to  be 
Tery  great  during  fine  weather  and  a  hot  day,  arising  from 
rapid  evaporation  of  the  moisture  so  abundantly  deposited 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  in  all  parts  of  the  Strait. 

As  soon  as  the  Pats^onians  found  they  wero  noticed,  they 
mounted,  and  rode  dong  the  shoro  abreast  of  us,  being 
joined  by  other  parties,  until  the  whole  number  could  not 
nave  been  less  than  forty.  Several  foals  and  dogs  wero  with 
them.  Having  anchored  in  Gregory  Bay,  whero  I  intended 
'romaining  for  two  days  to  communicate  with  them,  I  sent 
up  a  rocket,  burnt  a  blue  light,  and  dispatched  Lieutenant 
Cooke  on  shoro  to  ask  for  a  large  supnly  of  guanaco  meat» 
for  which  we  would  pay  in  knives  ana  beads.  The  boat  re- 
turned on  board  imme<uately,  bringing  four  natives,  three 
men,  and  Maria.  This  rather  remarkable  woman  must 
have  been,  judging  by  her  appearance,  about  forty  years  old ; 
she  is  said  to  Imve  been  bom  at  Assuncion,  in  Paraguay,  but 
I  think  the  place  of  her  birth  was  nearor  Buenos  Ayres. 
She  spoke  broken,  but  intelligible,  Spanish,  and  stated  her- 
self to  be  sister  of  Bysante,  the  cacique  of  a  tribe  near  the 
Santa  Cruz  River,  who  is  an  important  personage,  on  aceount 
of  his  size  (which  Maria  descriDed  to  be  immense,)  and  his 
riches.  In  speaking  of  him,  she  said  he  was  veiy  rich^  he 
had  many  mantles,  and  also  many  hides  (^*  mujf  rico,  tiene 
muchas  mantas  y  tambien  muchos  cueros.  )  One  of  Maria's 
companions,  a  brother  of  Bysante,  was  the  taUest  and  largest 
man  of  this  tribe ;  and  though  he  only  measurod  six  feet  in 
height,  his  body  was  large  enough  for  a  much  taUer  man. 
He  was  in  great  afiBiction ;  his  daughter  had  died  only  two 
days  beforo  our  arrival ;  but,  notwithstanding  his  sad  story, 
wnich  <soon  found  him  friends,  it  was  not  long  beforo  he 
became  quite  intoxicated,  and  b^gan  to  sing  and  roar  on  the 
subject  of  his  misfortimes,  with  a  sound  moro  like  the  bel- 
lowing of  a  bull  than  the  voice  of  a  human  being.  Ilpon 
anplymg  to  Maria,  who  was  not  quite  so  tipsy  as  her  bro- 
tner,  to  provent  him  from  making  such  hideous  noises,  she 
laughed  and  said,  ^'  Oh,  never  mind,  he's  drunk,  poor  feUow ! 
his  daughter  is  dead,"  (Es  boradio,  povrecito,  murio  su 
hija) ;  and  then,  assuming  a  serious  tone,  she  looked  towards 
the  sky,  and  muttered  in  her  own  language  a  sort  of  prayer 
or  invocation  to  their  chief  demon,  or  ruling  spirit,  whom 
Pigafetta,  the  comp^on  and  historian  of  Magalnaena,  called 
Sdiebos,  which  Admiral  Bumey  supposes  to  have  been  the 
original  of  one  of  Shakspearo's  names  in  the  TempeH  i-^ 

His  art  is  of  such  power, 

He  could  control  my  dam's  god  Setebos. 

Maria's  dress  was  similar  to  that  of  other  females  of  the 
tribe;  but  she  woro  ear-rings,  made  of  medals  stamped  with 
a  figuro  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  which  with  the  brass  pin  that 
secured  her  mantle  across  her  breast,  wero  given  to  her  by 
one  Lewis,  who  had  passed  by  in  an  American  sailing  ves- 
sel, and  who,  we  understood  from  her,  had  made  them 
"Christians." 

I  accompanied  Maria  to  the  shoro.  On  landing,  she  con- 
ducted me  to  the  place  where  her  family  wero  seated  round 
her  property.    They  consisted  of  Manuel,  her  hoaband,  And 


three  childron,  the  eldest  beiii^  known  bjr  the  appeUationof 
Capitan  Chioo,  or  ^  Little  Chief."  A  skin  being  gpmd  out 
for  me  to  sit  on,  the  fiimily  and  the  greater  part  of  Uie  tribe 
collected  around*  Maria  then  presented  me  with  wreral 
mantJea  and  skins,  for  which  I  gave  in  retom,  a  avori, 
remnants  of  red  bidze,  knives,  scissors,  looking-glssses^  and 
beads :  of  the  latter  I  afterwards  distributed  bunches  to  all 
the  children,  a  present  which  caused  evident  salis&ctionto 
the  mothers^  many  of  whom  also  obtained  a  share.  The 
receivers  wero  selected  by  Maria,  who  directed  me  to  dte 
youngest  children  first,  then  to  the  elder  ones,  and  lastly  to 
the  girls  and  women.  It  was  curious  and  amnsine  to  wit- 
ness the  order  with  which  this  scene  was  conducted,  and  the 
romarkable  patience  of  the  children,  who,  with  the  greatest 
anxiety  to  possess  their  trinkets,  neither  opened  their  lips; 
nor  held  out  a  hand,  until  she  pointed  to  them  m  8acceaio&. 

Having  told  Maria  that  I  had  moro  things  to  diapoae  of 
for  guanaco  meat»  ahe  dismissed  the  tribe  mm  ammd  bk, 
and,  simng  ahe  was  going  for  meat,  moonted  her  hone,aDd 
rode  off  at  a  brisk  pace. 

On  her  rotuxn,  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  gninaco 
meat,  her  husband  told  her  that  I  had  been  very  inqnisitiTe 
about  a  red  baize  bundle,  which  he  told  me  contained 
"  Cristo,'*  upon  which  she  said  to  me,  ^  Qniere  miiar  mi 
Cristof'  (Do  you  wish  to  see  my  Christ?)  snd  then,  ujoa 
my  nodding  assent,  called  around  her  a  number  of  the  tnbe, 
who  immediately  obeyed  her  summons.  Many  of  the 
women,  however,  remained  to  take  caro  of  their  Taluabk 
A  ceromony  then  took  place.  Maria,  who  by  the  lead  eht 
took  in  the  proceedings,  appeared  to  be  high  priestess  as  we& 
as  cacique  or  the  tribe,  began  by  pulverising  some  wfaiti^ 
earth  in  the  hollow  of  her  hand,  and  thentddng  a  moath* 
fbl  of  water,  spat  from  time  to  time  upon  it,  until  ahe  had 
formed  a  pinnent,  which  she  distributed  to  the  restjieaerr- 
in^  only  sufficient  to  mark  her  £aoe,  eyelids,  arms,  and  haii 
with  the  figuro  of  the  cross.  The  manner  in  which  this 
was  done  was  peculiar.  After  rubbine  the  paint  m  her  Idt 
hand  smooth  with  the  palm  of  the  ri^t,  she  scored  wAi 
across  the  paint,  and  again  othero  at  right  angles,  lesTing 
the  impression  of  as  many  crosses,  which  she  stamped  u^ 
difierent  parts  of  her  body,  rubbing  the  paint  and  maikiag 
the  crosses  afiresh,  after  every  stamp  was  made. 

The  men,  after  having  marked  themselves  inaamikr 
manner  (to  do  which  some  stripped  to  the  wiust,  asd 
covered  all  their  body  with  improssions),  proceeded  to  do 
the  same  to  the  boys,  who  wero  not  permitted  to  pofom 
this  part  of  the  ceremony  themselves.  Manuel,  llaria'» 
husband,  who  seemed  to  be  her  chief  assistsnt  on  the  oe»- 
sion,  then  took  from  the  folds  of  the  sacred  wrapper  an  avi, 
and  with  it  pierced  either  the  arms  or  ears  of  idi  the  pai^> 
each  of  whom  presented  in  turn,  pinched  up  hetweeatba 
finger  and  thumb,  that  portion  of  fie^  which  was  t«  be  per- 
forated. The  object  evidently  was  to  lose  blood,  and  im 
from  whom  the  blood  flowed  freely  showed  marks  of  satis- 
faction, while  some  whose  wounds  bled  but  little  imdernc^ 
the  operation  a  second  time. 

When  Manuel  had  finished  he  nve  the  awl  to  Mir^ 
who  pierced  his  aim,  and  then,  wiui  great  solemsitf »» 
cafe,  mattering  and  talking  to  herself  in  Spcnish,  (nctt^^ 
words  of  which  could  I  catch,  although  I  knelt  <io^<^ 
to  l»er,  and  listened  with  the  greatest  attention,)  she  remoT«d 
two  or  three  wrappers,  and  exposed  to  ourviewasrow 
figure,  carved  in  wood,  representing  a  dead  person,  strrtcn^ 
out.  ♦  ♦  ♦  ♦  ♦  Each  family  possesses  its  own  honsehoW 
god,  a  small  wooden  image,  about  three  incbes  in  le^ 
the  rough  imitation  of  a  man's  head  and  shouldo^  ^^ 
they  consider  as  the  ropreeentative  of  a  superior  Wi 
attributing  to  it  all  the  good  or  evil  that  h^pess  to  theia. 


A  onrrLSMAK,  who  had  recently  become  known  t^  j;^ 
bishop,  asked  me  one  day  to  let  him  look  into  a  copy  of  ti-' 
Protegtant  JSTempie.  He  opened  the  volume  at  p.  260,  aoj. 
pomting  to  a  note  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  he  obserredl^- 
«  he  knew  a  family,  which  had  been  led  to  study  the  woro 
of  Bishop  Taylor,  (whom  previously  they  had  known  oaiy 
by  name,)  by  that  single  note  of  Bishop  Jebb."  His  qo^'- 
tation  made  so  deep  an  impression,  that  the  fiunily  in  f^ 


tion  procured  Taylor's  works  on  the  atnii^  <^?<^;  ^^ 
since  become  intimately  conversant  with  his  writing  i  ^« 
anecdote  is  a  proof  of  the  service  which  may  be  '«"^*"^?J 
a  line  or  two,  whero  taste  and  judgment  are  directed  to  t» 
promotion  of  good.  This  one  quotation  was,  prohshlv,  mow 
effective  than  the  most  laboured  panegyric— Foasran  s  xf* 
rfBuhop  JM. 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


101 


THE  HAWK-MOTH. 


IlMlH^lMn'  ___. 

Pnn  Om  fint pokd  tdla  itatiU  nca; 
Claihad  in  dBboaniT,  on  iIh  Ittlj  •pr*]' 
UniiBn,  he  wean  hia  idlant  boon  Hrar, 
Till  ulial*  orawn  DfaU  IhU  lib  nip^iah 
Siiriuighl  tlw  TolonlBT  urnr  dlM. 
Dan  undtr  aotb  bia  dnUii«  eoDna  b>  ba^di. 
And  ID  lb*  tomb  a  wDUsa  gUNt  dcMOiA : 
Tbera  long  aadndad  in  hut  loadj  cell 
Forgali  lbs  tun,  tod  bida  Ibe  wold  bmreD : 


O'er  Om  wide  wi 


to  b«^  tba  wUiliriDd  Mom. 


But,  irban  mDliiug  monlhi  lian  won  ibdr  wtj', 
Mlini  nnile  the  wooda,  and  wban  Iba  2 
When  Uugha  Um  Tlrid  wta-ld  in  T 
'^•bontaindais 


tgnontia  lia 
loda,  andwb 
Irid  wm-M  ii 
Ha  bom*  >nd  Bis  trinimibant  Aon 
AnJ[  wUis  Ua  nsw-boni  beantk*  b( 


nlbdrwiT, 
I  zsphrn  plaj, 
mflribluHD, 


jOfbi 


into  air  en  purpi 

■abcawllbwMI       _ 
moi  of  bk  miou  baautiai  wingi  hii  waf , 
And  noibtiia  Ureal  flowaa,hina«If  mm  Ur  (ban  U»j! 
And  daama  wak  man  tb*  blon  pioniaa  Tain. 
WIms  wonni  can  dia,  Bad  gbsiooi  riaa  agiinf 


Thb  Sphiaxes,  or  Hawk-niotlif ,  beloof;  to  a  vexj  intereBb- 
ing  family  of  lepidopteroua*  inieota;  which  family  haa 
Wn  named  Crepuseularii,  fiwn  the  circnmrtance  that 
many  of  the  species  are  obaerved  chiefly  during  the  morn- 
ing and  erening  twiligiht.  These  insects  are  distiagTiiahed 
by  the  antenniB,  which  are  piismatic  or  fusiform,  and 
usually  thickest  in  the  middle.  Their  colours  are  in 
general  agreeably  Taried,  the  under  wings  being  often 
banded.  They  ny  with  great  itrei^th  and  celerity, 
owing  to  the  extent  and  firm  connstenee  of  their  wings, 
tbe  powerful  muscles  by  which  they  are  moved,  and  the 
bird-like  manner  in  which  their  taper  bodies  are  poised. 
During  flight  they  produce  a  strong  humming  noiae, 
occasioned  by  the  rapid  vibration  of  these  wings,  which 
renders  their  approach  easily  percepUble.  Instead  of 
settling  upon  flowers,  like  beea  and  other  inaects,  they 
are  frequently  observed  merely  to  hover  over  or  before 
them,  and  to  extend  their  long  tnbular  trunks  towards 
the  nectaries.  This  peculiar  hovering  motion  has  ob- 
tained for  them  the  appellation  of  Hawk-moth*.  The 
motions  of  one  of  these  insects  is  beautifiilly  described  by 
Mi33  Mitford,  who,  in  noticing  her  garden,  traces  "  the  gay 
gambols  of  the  common  butterflies,  as  they  sport  around 
the  dahlias,  or  watches  that  rarer  moth,  whicn  the  coun- 
try-people, fertile  in  pretty  names,  call  the  bee-bird;  that 
bird-like  insect  which  flutters  in  the  hottest  days  over 
the  sweetest  flowers,  inserth^  its  long  proboscis  mto  the 
small  tnbesof  the  jasmme,  and  hovering  over  the  learlet 

*  Tb*  taMeti af  llda odw  w«M  Mowd  hj  Tina— la  LaFinarruu, or 
■iagiid  vilA  uratii.  that  ii,  Iba  wiap  an  eoKiad  witb  imbilcatad  icalia 
nj  ftialliaia,  WMainiini  In  Ibanabod  pjt  imlj  Iba  ^tpaaranca  of  men  parti- 
clea  at  dot  V  powdar,  bnt  nbJUt&g  under  the  micmacopa  a  regular 
NriM  aT  aealaan  featiMCi,  pacnliai,  aa  IB  dive  r-  ' ' 


otriUiHea&ip 


flowers  of  the  geraninm,  whose  bright  colour  seems  re 
fleeted  on  its  own  feathery  breast;  that  insect  which 
seems  so  thoroughly  a  creature  of  the  air,  never  at  rest, 
always  when  feeding  self-poised  and  self-supported,  and 
whose  wings  in  their  motion  have  a  sound  so  deep,  so 
full,  so  lulling,  and  so  musical;  notbiug  so  pleasant  as  to 
■it  amid  that  mixture  of  the  flower  and  the  leaf,  watching 
the  bee-bird,'" 

The  caterpillars  of  these  moths  vary  greatly  in  their 
forms,  especially  in  the  fore-part  of  the  body.  In  some 
this  part  is  susceptible  of  great  elongation,  like  the  trunk 
of  an  elephant,  whence  those  species  are  called  elephant 
hawk-moths.  This  motion  is  effected  when  the  insect  is 
feeding  or  seeking  food,  at  which  time  the  neck  assumes 
a  narrow  conical  form,  truncated  in  front,  the  head  and 
face  forming  the  truncated  part;  when  in  repose  they 
withdraw  this  elongation.  Other  species  elevate  the 
fore-part  of  the  body,  while  the  rest  of  the  body  is  applied 
flat  to  the  surface  on  which  it  rests,  which  posture,  re- 
sembling that  of  the  Egyptian  sphinx,  has  furnished  a 
name  to  the  insects.  In  some  the  akin  is  of  so  tough  or 
flexible  a  texture,  as  to  be  capable  of  bearing  great  pressure 
without  injury.  Bonnet  pressed  the  grub  of  the  privet 
hawk-moth  under  water,  till  it  was  as  flat  and  empty  as 
the  finger  of  a  glove,  yet  within  an  hour  it  became 
plump  and  lively,  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  These 
caterpillars  have  also  a  bom  on  the  eleventh  ring, 
directed  backwards,  and  a  little  curved.  This,  from  its 
figure  and  direction,  has  been  supposed  an  offensive  or 
defensive  weapon ;  hut  no  one  has  observed  the  insect 
make  use  of  it  for  such  piurposes.  Besides,  though 
called  a  horn,  it  is  of  a  fleshy  substance,  and  too  soft  to 
inflict  any  injury. 

The  caterpillars  of  the  hawk-moths  arc  smooth,  and 
fiimished  with  sixteen  legs,  the  ten  posterior  being  called 
pro-legS'f ;  they  are  of  cylindric  form.  They  lire  soli- 
tarily, and  feed  on  the  leaves  of  vegetables.  They  are 
at  first  very  active,  and  when  disturbed,  fall  from  the 
leaf  upon  which  they  were  placed,  suspending  themselves 
by  a  thread;  when  more  aged  they  become  sluggish. 
They  undergo  the  chrysaTis  state  and  make  their  cocoons 
in  the  earth,  or  upon  its  surface  covered  with  leaves. 
The  chrysalis  state  generally  lasts  seven  or  eight  months. 

One  of  the  most  elesant  insects  of  this  genus  is  the 
Sphinx  Ligvttri,  or  Privet  hawk-moth.  It  ia  a  largo 
insect,  measuring  nearly  four  inches  ono  a  half  from 
wing's  end  to  wing's  end;  the  upper  wings  are  of  a 
hrewn  colour  most  elegantly  varied  or  shaded  with 
deeper  and  lighter  streaks  and  patches;  the  under  wings 
and  body  ore  of  a  fine  rose  colour,  barred  with  transverse 
block  smpes.  Tbe  caterpillar,  which  is  very  lai^e,  is 
smooth,  and  of  a  fine  green,  with  seven  oblique  purple 
and  white  stripes  along  each  side;  and  furnished  at  the 
hinder  part  with  the  horn  referred  to  above.  This  beau- 
tiful caterpillar  is  often  found  in  the.  months  of  July 
and  August  feeding  on  the  privet,  the  like,  tbe  poplar, 
and  some  other  trees,  and  generally  changes  to  n  chrv- 
salis  in  August  or  September,  retiring  for  that  purpose 
to  a  considerable  depth  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  after  casting  its  skin,  continuing  during  the  whole 
winter  in  a  dormant  state,  the  sphinx  emei^ing  from  it 
in  the  succeeding  June. 

Sphinx  ocellala  is  perhaps  still  more  beautiful:  it  is 
rather  smaller  than  the  preceding:  the  body  is  brown,  ns 
also  the  wings,  which  are  finely  clouded  with  difleient 
abodes,  while  the  lower  wings  are  of  a  bright  rose  colour, 
each  marked  with  a  fine  ocellated  black  spot,  with  a  blue 

t  Tboae  ealarpillan  wfaich  epin  aiUi,  ifliii^iajiii  a  All  or  dnda  d 
Yif  maana  of  Iba  aiUm  lioe  wbicta  UujnrDdiics.  With  ihii  lino  thoy 
droplliroDgbaqiaceofKvorat fect,aw]bTquaii!y diwi]  --  ^  t 

mariwd  Ibctn  out  &r  a  prey.  When  tbe  danger  ii  nrt  . 
lumi  loita  fcnnrr  altnatioD  bj  cUmtiing  ibiitkcn  otblfl.forwl 
iti  Iirfrleo  are  hmiabed  with  ■  mrred  claw ;  wUla  the  proJfga.  aa  (hBi 
are  adlM,  an  well  adapted  lor  holding  it  Gno  to  tljr  branch  when  it  hia 
ra^Died  il,  the  pniJega  being  anialncl«d  on  the  principle  of  Ibrming  a 
■ntaxm,  Uke  the  leather  tucker  with  which  bora  lift  and  ihig  aluna.  So 
difficult  ia  il  to  remoTe  o  caicrpillar  from  a  branch  wilhoul  lifjuTj,  that 
ooUaelDfi  amalt]'  cnl  off  Iha  biUKb  and  bear  Iba  Inaecl  awaj  n|KHi  il. 


1012 


THE  SATUBDAY  MAOAZDfe. 


[Septembib  11, 


interior  eirt^tef  Bud  a  blBdc  oeiitr«.  This  iiia«el  proctedi 
from  a  green  eaterpillar  of  n  tough  or  ihaj^reen^like  son 
face,  marked  on  oBeh  sidt  bj  seTen  oblique  jellowish- 
white  streaks^  Bfld  fumisbed  like  the  preceding  with  a 
horn  al  the  tail.  It  is  principally  found  on  the  willow; 
it  retires  underground  in  August  or  Septetnber  to 
undergo  its  changei,  and  re-appears  in  the  following 
June  as  a  perfect  insect. 

The  most  remarkable  of  all  Enropeao  insects  of  this 
genns  is  the  Sphinm  Atropoi  of  Linli«niB«  This  is 
kirger  than  the  two  former )  the  upper  wings  are  of  a 
fine  dark  grej,  with  slight  markings  of  orange  and  white; 
the  under  wings  are  bright  orange^  marked  by  a  pair  of 
transtetse  black  bands :  the  body  Is  Also  orange^oolouredt 
Bttarked  at  the  sides  with  black  bftrfl,  while  along  the  top 
of  the  back  from  the  thorat  to  the  tail  runs  a  broad  blue* 
grey  stripe:  on  the  top  of  the  thorax  is  a  very  large 
patch,  of  A  most  singular  appearance^  eiactly  resembling 
the  usual  aspect  of  a  skull,  or  death's  head ;  it  is  of  H 
pale  grey,  varied  with  dull  oohre  colour  and  black* 
This  peculiar  appearance  has  given  to  the  insect  the 
name  of  the  Death VhoBd  ttoih,  a  figure  of  which  may 
be  seen  by  referring  to  Saturday  Magasin0f  VoL  L, 
p.  69,  with  some  ingenious  remarks  thereon  by  the  an- 
thor  of  the  Joumai  of  a  Naiurali&t. 

When  in  the  least  disturbed  or  irritated^  this  inaeet 
emits  a  stridulons  sound,  something  like  the  squeaking 
of  a  bat  or  mouse,  and  from  this  drcumstaaee,  as  well 
as  the  symbol  of  mortality  which  is  Impressed  upon  it, 
it  is  held  in  much  dresld  by  uneducated  persons  in 
seteral  parts  of  £urope,  its  appearance  being  regarded  a§ 
a  kind  of  ill  omen,  or  bafbingef  of  approaching  fmis. 
We  are  informed  by  the  celebrated  Reaumur,  that  the 
members  of  a  female  content  in  France  were  thrown 
into  great  constematioti  by  the  appearance  of  one  €^ 
these  insects,  which  happened  to  fiy  in  during  the  e? en- 
ing  at  tlie  door  of  the  dofmitcry.  A  tmmber  of  thefte 
insects  appeared  some  yearB  ago  In  the  pfOtiflCe  of  Bre- 
tagne  to  the  great  terror  of  the  peasants,  who  believed 
them  to  be  the  cause  of  certain  efndemic  maladies, 
which  then  prerailed  in  that  country.  Iii  the  Isle  of 
France  the  natives  believe  that  the  diist  etai  from  the 
wings  of  tide  insect  in  fiymg  through  an  apnrtitient^  i§ 
productive  of  blindness  io  the  tisual  organs  on  whicB  it 
ftlls. 

The  caterpillar  fVom  WhieU  iWtt  etlrious  sphiiix  pro^ 
ceeds,  is  in  the  highest  degree  beautifiil,  shd  far  surpadses 
in  size  every  other  Enropean  hisect  of  the  kind«  It 
sometimes  measures  nearly  five  inches  in  lengthy  Md  ie 
of  considerable  thickness:  Hs  colour  is  bright  yellow; 
the  sides  are  marked  by  a  row  of  seven  most  elegifcnt 
broad  stripes  or  bands  of  a  mijled  violet  and  sky-^Mere 
colour ;  the  tops  of  the^  bands  meet  on  the  back  hi  so 
many  angles,  and  are  varied  on  that  part  with  jet-black 
spots:  it  is  furnished  With  the  Usual  hornpy  appendage 
on  the  last  joint. 

This  caterpillar  is  principally  found  on  the  pot^fd 
and  the  jasmine,  these  pknf  s  being  its  fatonrite  food. 
It  usually  changes  into  a  chrysahs  at  the  latter  end  <tf 
the  month  of  August,  and  the  complete  insect  emerges 
in  the  following  month:  but  some  individnals  have 
been  observed  to  remain  unchanged  till  the  fbllowing 
summer. 

S.  hippapka^i  h  an  inhabitant  of  Dauphiny;  the 
larva,  either  to  avoid  the  glare  of  light,  or  the  attacks  of 
enemies,  conceals  itself  during  the  day  beneath  the  dead 
leaves  at  the  roots  of  trees,  and  emerges  only  ^  night 
for  the  purpose  of  seeking  food. 

The  sphinx  affords  a  striking  emblem  of  the  change 
which  we  ourselves  shaB  undergo,  when  our  present  life 
has  terminated.  When  the  first  period  of  the  insect's 
life  has  passed,  it  retires  to  the  earth,  and  there  remains 
buried  during  several  months;  it  then  rises  to  the  mxt" 
face,  and  bursting  from  the  confinement  of  its  tomb, 
commenced  a  being  of  powers  comparatively  so  exakedy. 


and  of  beauty  s0  ltt]Mficr|  IB  itot  to  bC  beheld  witkouttbe 
highest  admiration. 

The  plan  of  nature,  in  rraating  these  sylph^like  ifikbit- 
ants  of  air  is  wonderful  indeed^  Who  aottld  eter  pte-sap- 
pose  that  so  lively,  delicate.  iAd  hHUktfti  tn  BiMet  as  a 
butterfly,  so  airy  m  its  habtta,  and  so  fiistidiotts  fti  Ito  food, 
should  be  derived  from  a  crawling,  voracious  wonnl  The 
butterfly,  on  iBSuing  tnm  ita  eoeoon,  is  entlrel/ formed. 
Nothing  of  its  prior  state  remaina*  Iti  flgufi,  lis  habits, 
all,  in  a  word,  is  ao  changed^  tlttrt  it  cilt  iio  lefi(|«f  be  kco*- 
nised.  The  butterfly  is  agility  itseli^  Citd  gftce  {>ehKinified. 
It  appears  to  disdain  the  earthy  and  in  its  mi^ficent  robe 
to  seeK  the  skiea^  while  it  la  soBtatned  wiiit  ncetar  like  the 
&bled  divinities  of  old<  lasubig  Irind  its  dark  cndle,  it 
seems  to  rejoice  in  ItB  netr^bom  ^rXlstenCe,  to  cotttt  the  son- 
beam,  or  delight  in  recognising  the  gtDveS  ot  M6»  when 
its  laborious  infimc/  had  been  passed.  lis  Ufa  is  now  i 
scene  of  pwpetnal  c^jejrracttt.  It  waDders  fram  ioirer  to 
flower,  continually  in  purBUit  of  the  pluMWW  of  Bordty 
and  change.— GnifrtTn^s  CttiaiL 

Ik  March  last,  as  t  WBB  TepMn^  tc  the  UBttf  e  ifflhge  of 
BuBtem^  to  sorveya  bridge  which  was  thrown  aerMtlie 
road,  on  my  route  firoBi  the  Bla(k>n  of  JnllasosBf  en  elonsg 
the  Soubunreeka  rivcTi  my  attentioii  wae  aftHaeCsi  to  i 
number  of  human  skeleton^  which  lay  scattered  in  Tuious 
directions  upon  the  white  sands  adjacent  to  the  course  of 
the  stream.  Upon  inquiry  I  learned  that  these  imfbr- 
tunate  relics  were  the  remaiif  of  irflgrims  who  vere 
on  their  road  to  the  great  pagoda  of  JUggernait,  snd  had 
been  drowned  two  evenings  before  by  means  ol  a  ftrrt-boat 
sinking  with  them  during  a  violent  MtCh-wSster.  Onmj 
approaching  several  of  theas  sad  vestigeB  of  iliortBlity,  I  per- 
ceived that  the  flesh  had  been  completely  deToured  mm 
the  bones  by  Fariah  dogs^  tulturis^  abd  otiier  obscene  ani- 
mals. The  only  portion  of  the  BBVend  corpses  I  noticed 
that  remained  entire  and  unlouehed  trete  flie  oettomsof  the 
feet  and  the  insidfH  of  the  headi^  atid  this  ettnordinarjr 
circumdMCB  bumedhit^  hmnM  to  mind  that  remarkable 
passage  recorded  In  the  Buxjim  Book  of  KingB,relatiiigto 
the  death  and  nltilMle  ftHe  ef  iciebel,  who  WBl,  as  to  her 
body;  eaten  of  dogi^  mt  neChing  tetti^ned  ef  her  but  the 
**  yaXnm  ol  her  hands  afid  tfee  solea  ef  h^  hei/"  The 
former  tiarfative  may  afford  us  corroborative  pfeof  of  the 
rooted  antipathy  that  the  dog  has  to  prey  upon  the  hnmao 
hands  and  feet.  Why  sueh  should  oe  the  esse  remainaa 
mystery. — Ihm  on  Jndian  Correspondent  of  Ike  Times* 

O*  an  sMcB,  file  we  iwe  Mvcfi  t9  the  eciirielkki  OM^  tfft^ 
thte^  which  mmi  tsm  do  er  malte  here  below^  by  hr  the 
BBCBt  mertientdas^  wcfcdeifal,aMd  worthy  afe  the  thiap  that 
we  catt  BoetEB!  Tlieae  poor  bHs  of  n^-papCr,  with  Mack 
ink  on  them,  ^m  the  dauy  newspaper  to  the  ssc^  Heftretr 
Book,  what  have  they  tiot  done  f  what  an?  they  not  d<^- 
Tor,  indeed^  Whatever  be  the  outward  form  M  flie  tmfl^i 
(hits  of  paper,  «r  We  mf,  kn4  tlaek  ink)  ie  )t  eel  reA)ji^ 
MHom,  the  MighM  act  of  m*i'B  iKutly  tei  prodiwi 
bevh?    it  ie tim  l^ikei^  ef  m«B,.*--«he  true  thaonsteiK 

virtue^  hy  which  bm»  werliB  «U  tfatags  whatsosm.  All 
that  he  docsy  and  Mi^te  pasB^  is  the  vesture  of  a  Thee^ht. 
this  London  City,  with  all  its  housee,  nakces,  sies^ 
engines,  cathedralsi  and  huge  fmmeasttn})!^  Mti^  ^ 
tumult,  wW  is  it  but  a  fhot<]^— bttt  mflHonB  of  <hfl#t» 
made  into  one,— a  ^nge  imnt«»urahle  ftfMit  of  A  JBtfvowt, 
embodied  in  hri«k,  in  i«m,  sBara^ke^diMtririwArptfiun^ 
Hackney  coacheB,  Mmheriae  Dlseks^  B0d  th^  mt  «  "• 
Not  8  hriok  wae  made  bet  seme  Saitt  M  to^«Mil  of  tJie 
meking  ef  that  briekr  The  tkh%  we  oalM '< tiBio(  P*ff[ 
with  tiaoeeof  bkok  lafc  '^  is  the/wrMT  emk>dimeBt  a  tb<»ugM 
of  Boan  can  have,  iTo  wonder  it  u^  ki  afi  ways,  the  activest 
and  noblest.— CARLfiJS. 


jk... 


rrtTATKo  lie  pifecediiig  fmf&fn^M  Ihrf  «l«««i5lS^ 

in  ttiiA  near  ffie  great  pWd  el-Kr*  #§»ftr «W»  *??*»S! 
b#?,  paBturfng  hSi  esMMdCr  n^tfMrt**^  •^*?**'^JlT 
SBtfortkcm.    Be dra*  the mifc If  tk^ esiiide) »*  W 

as  well  ae  AcBT  «4  geia%  whM»  Ikcy  haivei^  pB^^; 
used  >e  walcBr  InBUck  a.cM  t^M^af^ 
three  or  four  months  without  it.  Ulheis  had  toW  nstnw 
the  CBttct  ifswiB  WiiW  e«ok  »  evB»y  tkise  4if »  *«"5^ 
and  every  fite  dgr*  lttlrlfieer^bn#  ftoi»|«W2;^^ 
the  pastures  are  dfy.  Of  wfietf  t*qr  tflfrft****^*^' 
BowiOir'B  Paleetmem 


1841.] 


THB  &1TUJIOAT  lUOAZINB. 


I0» 


MAPS  AMD  MAPPING     I. 

PXOCRSSS     OF     MAP-MAK|Na.^-ANCIBHT    MaP8|— 

i  Maps  of  ths  MiootE  Aoes. 

^  O'tr  the  mi^  wj  finger  tao^t  to  ftraj, 

OroM  many  •  rtgion  mariEi  the  finding  wej; 

Fram  Me  to  wa,  ftnm  Teilm  IP  rM)iP  S  ipnb 

And  9r9W  «  o)Br«  ^eogiapher  bjr  hi^, 

■t 

Amoiki  t&e  fitaay  flonsaras  wiueh  engigeiha  iatallectaal 
ttttantton  botk  (k  Ihose  wlia  tanry  at  kome  and  thoM 
who  travel  abroad,  whether  for  hminoi  pv  p)iiafuF8» 
Mapb  an  of  egsantial  importann.    At  the  latt«r  travel 
in  reaiit]^,  to  ths  fbrmev  may  aseompaajf  thein  in  imagi- 
nation,  and  pietura  up  the  leanes  whieh  they  deseribe. 
J     We  propoie,  therelbre,  te  fbrniah  ia  tbia  paper,  (br  the 
general  b«iefit  of  our  readers^  a  eoooiae  detail  tit  the 
Miiery  of  mapt,  and,  in  two  sueeeeding  avticleg,  a  biief 
account  of  the  prinoiplei  on  which  they  are  uaually  eon- 
itmoted. 
The  word  ^  Map  "  seems  to  have  been  derived  from 
i>    the  Latin  mampa,  a  table-napkin,  whieh,  iu  the  pubtie 
:    games  of  the  Roman  circus  was  hung  out  at  the  pne- 
^    tor's,  or  other  great  magistrate's  seat,  aa  a  signal  for  the 
race,  or  other  Aversions,  to  begin.^    The  mappa  was  re- 
ceived for  this  purpose  by  the  mapparnu^  from  the  con- 
sul, prator,  or  other  g^reat  officer.    Notice  was  anciently 
given  by  sound  of  trumpet,  but  Nero  is  said  to  have 
•    introduced  the  mappa,  by  throwing  his  napUn  out  of  the 
window,  to  satisfy  the  people,  who  grew  noisy  at  the 
delay  of  the  sports  while  he  was  at  dinner. 

Without  entering  at  present  hito  a  scientific  definition 
of  our  subject,  we  may  just  state  that  maps  have  been 
ordinarily  understood  to  be  plane  drawings,  meant  to 
represent  the  form,  extent,  position,  and  other  particulars 
of  the  various  countries  of  the  eartb.  Such  maps  as 
have  been  intended  to  delineate  niere  particularly  the 
ocean,  or  any  part  ef  H,  have  commonly  borne  the  name 
of  "  Charts.^  " 

It  seems  natural  for  man,  even  in  the  earliest  stages 
of  society,  to  endeavour  to  express,  with  more  or  less  of 
;>roportlon,  the  principal  llMitures  of  the  countries  in  and 
about  which  he  dwells.  An  intimation  of  this  branch  of 
tbe  geographical  art  being  in  use  among  the  Israelites  is 
g^iven  at  the  beginning  of  the  18th  chapter  of  the  Book 
of  Joshua:  the  deicription  of  the  land  of  Canaan  there 
spoken  of  was  enjoined  in  the  year  1444  B.C.,  and  was 
made  in  order  that  the  Jewish  leader  might  apportion  to 
the  several  tribes  their  respective  inheritances.  T|ie 
Israelites  must  have  derived  tneir  knowledge  in  this  way 
fr-om  the  Egyptians,  as  the  Greeks  drew  tbeir  infbrmt^- 
tlon  ftx>m  the  PhoBuicians,  the  great  traders  of  anticjuity, 
who,  in  the  ftirtherance  of  their  mercantile  pursuits,  had 
probably  visited  every  spot  of  the  then  known  earth. 

The  first  person,  however,  who  is  spoken  of  as  having 
constructed  anything  like  a  cegular  map  of  the  world 
waa  Anaxlmander>  we  Milesian  philosopW>  who  flou- 
rished in  ihe  9ixth  century  befbre   Christ.      He  also 
made  Globes :  he  taught  that  the  earth  was  of  a  cylin- 
drical  form ;  that  men  were  bom  of  earth  and  water 
nUxed  together,  and  heated  by  the  beams  of  the  sun; 
4\xAt  the  earth  moved,  and  that  the  moon  received  light 
^om  the  sun,  which  he  considered  as  a  circle  of  ire, 
like  a  wheel,  about  twenty-eight  timea  bigger  than  the 
«arth.     He  also  made  some  of  the  earliest  sun-dials. 

Hcnrodotna  relates  that  certain  Persiana,  conunisaioned 

l>y  Dof iua  the  Firsts  failed  from  Sidon,  in  Pbcani^ia*  to 

^he  coasts  of  Greeeoi  which  they  eiaminedt  and  tran* 

.^cribedi  until  they  arrived  as  far  as  Tarentum,  in  Italy. 

^ICliBy  aeem  to  have  produced  a  sort  of  outline  map :  this 

^<x»k   place  about  500  B.C.     Not  long  after,  as  we  are 

-eold  l>y  the  same  writer,  Arlstagoras,  vnlting  Cleomenes, 

king  of  Sparta,  in  order  to  solicit  his  assistance  against 

el^e  pQiakna*  axliibiled  to  thi  kkm  »  brum  plate  or 

t^^mblet,  whereon  the  round  earth  was  engraved,  together 


with  the  sea  and  all  the  rivers.  The  abj6et  in  view  wa« 
of  eonrae  tp  explain  to  the  l^aoedasmonians  the  situation 
itf  Persiatvnthe  probable  route  of  the  invading  army •-*-«• 
and  tho  nature  and  object  of  the  desired  assistance. 

Itinerary  maps  ef  the  plaeea  of  encampment  were 
almost  indispensable  to  toe  commanders  of  armies. 
Diognetua  and  Baton  are  mentioned  by  Pliny,  as  the 
aurveyora  of  the  marches  of  Alexander,  who  was  very 
careful  in  examining  the  measures  of  his  surveyors,  and 
in  obtaining  hia  deaeriptiona  from  the  most  akilfiil 
persons. 

The  progreaa  of  mapTmaking  was  v^  considerably 
advaneed  by  Eratoathenea,  who  flourished  in  the  third 
century  prior  to  the  Christian  era.  I)e  was  keeper  or 
president  of  the  Library  at  Alexandria.  He  has  been 
called  a  second  Plato,  the  cosmographer  and  the  geometer 
of  the  world.  He  is  supposed  to  be  the  inventor  of  the 
armillary  sphere.  With  the  instruments  with  which  the 
munificence  of  the  Ptolemies,  kings  of  Egjrpt,  supplied 
the  Library  of  Alexandria,  he  was  enabled  to  measure 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  which  he  called  30|^*,  it 
being  in  fact  nearly  3d^*.  He  also  measured  a  degree 
of  the  meridian,  and  determined  the  extent  and  circum- 
ference of  the  earth  with  great  exactness,  by  means 
adopted  by  the  modems.  He  introduced  into  his  map  a 
regular  parallel  of  latitude,  which  he  accomplished  by 
tracing  a  line  over  certain  places  whose  longest  day  was 
observed  to  be  of  the  same  length.  This  parallel  ex- 
tended from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  the  mountains  of 
India,  passing  through  the  island  of  Rhodes,  and,  from 
its  central  position  with  respect  to  the  principal  ancient 
nations,  it  became  a  standard  of  reference  in  the  maps  of 
this  period.  Succeeding  geographers  made  m^ny  attempts 
to  determine  the  longitude  of  places  by  measurements 
of  this  line,  but  with  no  great  success.  He  also  drew  a 
meridian  from  Meroe,  in  Western  Ethiopia,  through  Syene, 
to  Alexandria,  ia  Lower  Egypt.  At  this  time  a  connexion 
was  made  to  subsist  between  astronomy  and  geogrraphy, 
so  that  the  advancement  of  the  former  tended  to  the 
Improvement  of  the  latter.  Hence  it  was  that  Hippar- 
ehus,  who  flourished  about  150  b.o,  by  fixing  the  oon- 
stmction  of  maps  on  something  }ike  a  mathematical 
basis,  enabled  the  geographer  to  lay  down  his  latitudes 
and  longitudes  upon  certain  principles.    ' 

The  celebrated  geographer  Strabo.  who  died  a.d.  25, 
ftimishes  na  with  the  state  of  geography  in  the  age  of 
Augustus  CsBsai^  But  the  extent  of  the  earth's  surface 
known  to  this  writer  does  not  much  exceed  that  which 
was  known  fiour  or  five  centuries  earlier.  His  map  of 
the  world  exhibits  some  remarkable  errors.  He  supposed 
the  Pyrenees  to  run  north  and  south)  he  cuts  off  the 
projecting  province  ef  Brittany  Acom  France,-^places 
Ireland,  not  to  the  west,  but  to  the  north  of  Britain,-— 
and  makes  the  Caspian  communicate  with  the  Northern 
Ocean,  though  Herodotus  had  accurately  described  it  as 
a  lake.  A  very  good  illustration  of  the  geogrraphy  of 
the  ancients  may  be  seen  in  the  frontispiece  to  No.  879 
of  this  work* 

A  sort  of  map,  or  road-book|  called  an  IHnerary^ 
was  much  in  use  among  the  Romans  at  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era.  It  resulted  from  the 
necessity  for  fbmishine  the  leaders  of  armies  with  infor- 
mation of  their  destined  route;  and  though  these  itinera- 
ries, or  suf veys,  were  made  with  cpnsiderable  care,  there 
are  uq  traces  of  mathematical  geography  in  those  which 
have  been  handed  down  to  us,  the  chief  object  in  view 
being  clear  directions  fbr  the  march  of  their  armies. 

All  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  had  been  sur- 
veyed when  Ptolemy  composed  his  system  of  geography, 
tn  the  middle  of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era. 
This  production  is  valuable;  because  he  has  therein 
carried  into  full  practice,  and '  to  greater  perfection,  the 
system  of  latitudes  and  longitudes,  published  by  the 
celebrated  Hipparcbu9,  about  &ree  hundred  years  befbre- 

As   Ptolemy  derived  his  infbnnation  respecting  the 


104 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[S: 


11,  I84'ii 


distances  of  places  chiefly  from  itinerary  measurements, 
which  usually  exceeded  the  truth,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
his  map  of  the  world  should  exhiWt  enormous  errors, 
more  especially  in  places  beyond  the  ordinary  range  of 
the  Roman  empire.  He  represents,  for  instance,  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa  nearly  as  a  straight  line  I  ^  He 
places  Carthage  313  English  miles  to  the  south  of  its 
true  place,  and  Constantinople  276  miles  too  far  to  the 
north.  He  also  makes  the  Mediterranean  sea  about  1000 
English  miles  longer  than  it  really  is  I  Some  of  the 
most  distinguished  and  best  known  places  in  Europe 
have  been  set  down  600  or  600  miles  too  far  apart: — 
and,  strange  to  say,  many  such  gross  inaccuracies  con- 
tinued in  the  maps  till  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  I  •  But  we  have  already .  noticed  this  subject  in 
our  second  article  on  Ancient  Navigation:  Vol.  XIH., 

p;  208. 

It  siBems  not  improbable  that  the  maps  found  in.  the 
MSS.  of  Rolemy^re  really  copies  of,  or  derived  from, 
original  maps  constructed .  by  him,  or.  under  his  care. 
So  great  an  influence  had  this  writer  on  the  minds  of 
most  modern  geographers  until  within  150  years  ago, 
that  many  instances  might  be  adduced,  in  which  the 
authority  of  Ptolemy,  who  was  but  sUghtly  acquainted 
with  one:  half,  of  the  globe,  was  blindly  submitted  to  in 
an  age  when  Europeans  wandered  over>  it's  entire  surface. 

The  itineraries  of  the  Romans  were  of  two  kinds, — 
Picia,  and  the  AnnotcUay  the  drawn  and  written :  the 
latter  contsdned  the  names  of  the  stations  and  chief 
places  from  one  another,' without  any  detail:  whereas, 
the  former  have  all  the  graphic  finish  of  a  modem  map. 
Of  the.  former  kind  of  itinerary,  the  mc^t  remarkable  that 
remain. to  us,  are  the  Itinerary  of  Antonine,  the  age  of 
which  it  is*  difficult  to  ascertain ;  and  the  Itinerary  of 
Jerusalem,  a  fragment  which  points  out  th^  whole  route 
from  Bordeaux  to  that  city 

Of  the  painted  itineraries,  a  fine  specimen  is  still  pre- 
served in  Uie  Imperial. Library,  of  Vienna ;  and  it  has  been 
engraved  and  published  under  the  name  of  the  Peutin^ 
gerian  Table.  It  was  probably  originally  made  about 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Severus,  or  in  the  year  230  a.d. 
The  copy  whiph  at  present  exists,  is  thought  to  be  the 
work  of  a  monk  of  the .thirteeenth  century;  it  owes  its 
name  to  Conrad  Peutinger,  a  citizen  of  Augsburg,  to 
whom  it  formerly  belonged,  and  by  whom  it  was 
illustrated  in  a  learned  commentary.  The  countries 
marked  on  this  map  are  not  placed  in.  it  according  to 
their  geographical  position,  their  respective  limits,  and 
their  real  size;  they  are  ranged  arbitrarily,  one  after  the 
other  from  west  to  east,  without  any  regard  to  figure,  or 
latitude  and  longitude.  ;  This  table,  or  picture,  is  about 
twenty-two  feet  long,  and  one  foot  broad. 

Some  curious  particulars  have  come  down  to  us  illus- 
trative of  the  geographical  ignorance  of  the  Midolb 
Ages.  The.  maps  of  these  times .  may  be  generally 
classed,  first,— -into  those  in  which  the .  notions .  of  the 
ancients  were  adhered  to;  and  secondly,— those  which 
exhibited  new  discoveries  or  countries  popularly  be- 
lieved to  exist.  Many  maps,  of  the  Jirst  class  are  .extant, 
iu'which  the  old  world  is  represented  as  one  great  island ; 
Africa  terminating  to  the  north  of  the  equator.  Among 
maps  of  the  second  class  are  those  which  seem  to  show 
some  important  discoveries  in  the  west  of  Europe  and 
of  Africa  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

The  geography  of  the  Arabians  is  but  imperfectly 
known.  Their  most  eminent  geographer,  Al  Edrissi, 
who  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  eentury, 
divided  the  world  into  seven  climates,  from  the  equator 
northward;  and  each  climate  was  again  divided  into 
eleven  equal  parts,  from  the  western  coast  of  Africa  to 
to  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia;  the  inconvenience  of  which 
arrangement  is  very  obvious. 

In  the  year  1383,  two  noble  Venetians,  named  Zeni, 
having  entered  into  the  service  of  aprince  of  the  Faroe 
Islan&y  which  lie  to  the  norUi  of  Scotland,  drew  up  a 


map  to  illustrate  the  accovnt  of  their  navigations  m  these 
seas. 

In  some  of  the  old  British  maps,  which  are  rude  in  de- 
sign and  execution,  Scotland  is  represented  as  an  island 
separated  from  England  by  an  arm  of  the  sea.  Ireland  b 
also  divided  in  two  by  the  river  Boyne,  which  is  repre- 
sented as  a  canal  connecting  the  Irish  Channel  with  the 
Atlantic.  The  towns  are  drawn  in  these  maps  of  a  dis- 
proportionate size ;  and  the  abbeys,  with  their  walls,  gates, 
and  belfries,  occupy  so  grreat  a  space,  as  to  leave  little 
room  for  the  rivers,  boundary-linesy  or  places  of  less 
seeming  importance. 

We  have  elsewhere  noticed  tiie  fiunoof  silTer  msp  of 
Chmrlemagne*;  but  one  of  the  most  curious  geognt)hical 
monuments  of  those  times  is  a  map  preserved  in  the 
Library  of  Turin,  attadied  to  a  manuscript'  copy  of  the 
Apocalypse,  whidi  was  written  in  the  Year  a.d.  787.  It 
represents  the  earth  as  a  plane  boundsd  by  a  drcolir 
line,  and  divided  into  three  unequal  parts,  to  .the  sooth, 
Africa  is  separated  by  the  ocean  from  a  land  called  the 
fourth  division  of  the  wonldi  where  the  antipodes  dwdl, 
and  which  the  excessive  heat. of  the  torrid  xone  had 
hitherto  prevented  from  being  visited.  .  At  the  foor 
sides  of  the  world  are  rephesented  the  figures  of  the  fbor 
winds,  each  astride  upon,  a  pair  of  bellows,  which  he 
works,  and  at  the  same  time,  with  a  oondi-^eU^plied 
to  his  mouth,  he  blows  hurrioa,ne8,  as  may  be  coojectoied 
from  his  distended  cheeks. :  At  the  top  of  the  map,  whidi 
is  the  east,  are  Adam  and  Eve,  the  serpent,  and  the  tree 
of  forbidden  fruit:  at  their  right  hand  is  Asia. 

The  maps  of  the  middle  ages  erreid  as  olien  firom  the 
love  of  mere  systematical  arrangement,  as  fipom  want  of 
information*  This  is  shown  in  the  map  of  Martino 
Sanudo,  which,  was  published  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteeenth  century,  and  has  Jerutplem  as  its  c«^^ 

Passing  by  mapy  other,  old  maps,  whidi  were  executed 
before  the  discoyery.  of  America. by  Columbus  at  w 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  one  remains  to  be  noticed, 
which,  if  its  reality  were  fuDy  proved,  would  reduce  the 
merit  of  that  great  navigator  to  the  mere  ^^"^^^ 
countries  which  were  known,  perhaps,  a  century Jiwre 
his  time.  This  supposed  discovery  is  mdicated  ma 
map  constructed  by  Andrea  Bianco  in  1486,  and  p«s^fy^ 
in  the  Public  Library  of  Venice.  inthismap,inadditi(Jfl 
to  much  correct,  false,  and  imaginative  information,  b 
repres«ited,  to  the  west  of  the  Canary  Islands,  a  mf^. 
of  great  length,  and  of  a  quadrilateral  form,  to  vhicli  b 
given  the  name  of  AntUia.  This  country,  in  Uie  saw 
situation  and  with  the  same  name,  is  also  found  on  t^ 
globe  made  by  Martm  Behaim,  at  the  close  of  Ac  fine^^ 
century.  Many  persons  believe  that  die  ^^r" 
Bianco  was  the  continent  of  South  America ;  wfe  om 
maintain  that  it  owed  its  existence  wholly  to  the  wthon 
imagination.  The  maps  of  Bianco,  howe«r,^  contaJi 
much  to  interest  us,  independent  of  *^c»>f  ^^*^X 
in  the  first  sheet  of  his  ^colleetidn  is  ^f'lj^?^ 
mariner's  compass,  together  with  some  na^fl^w^ 

With  the  discovei:y  of  America,  radoop^^pf^^j 
sion  and  improvement  of  geographical  inw«wtoQO»  ^P^ 
became  more  clear  and  correct,  and  beganj.tifey  \ 
be  constructed  on  principles  more  in  accdrwM^  * 
the  precision  of  science,  as  we  shdl  show  In  o«r  u» 

•  See  SotttrduyMagagm,  Yd.  Xlil^F  ^^ 

.  ♦ 

A  oimTAnr  petuhmt  Greek,  obiectfaig  io^AigjJ««J^ 
he  was  a  Scythian;  "Tro^"  said  Anaohairim^^^Dftr  ««^ 
dii^gnbcesme,  butyoudiqgtiaoeyoiErooantxy*  ' 

LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKE&.  WBBt  ^J^' 

pBi«i8i««eK.  .._• 


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THE  SATUBDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[September  18, 


SKETCHES  OF  CAIRO, 

HI. 

The  mosques  of  Cairo  are  ntimerous,  and  some  of  them 
so  large  as  to  occupy  spaces  three  or  four  hundred  feet 
square.  They  are  mostly  huilt  of  stone,  the  alternate 
courses  of  which  are  generally  coloured  externally  red 
and  white.  A  large  mosque  commonly  consists  of  por- 
ticoes surrounding  a  square  open  court,  in  the  centre  of 
which  is  a  tank  or  fountain  for  ablution.  One  side  of 
the  building  faces  the  direction  of  Mekkeh,  and  the 
portico  on  this  side,  being  the  prinoipal  place  of  prayer, 
is  more  Bpacloui  than  tiiose  on  the  three  other  sides 
of  the  court.  It  has  generally  tw6  or  more  rows  of 
columns,  forming  so  many  aisles  parallel  with  the  exterior 
wall.  Bometimei  this  portico  like  the  other  three  is  open 
to  the  courts  in  some  oases  it  is  separated  from  the 
court  by  partitions  of  wood,  connecting  the  front  row  of 
columns.  In  the  centre  of  its  exterior  wall  is  a  niche, 
which  marks  the  direction  of  Mekkeh ;  and  to  the  right 
of  this  is  the  pulpit.  Opposite  the  niche  there  is  gene- 
rally a  platform  surrounded  by  a  parapet  and  supported 
by  two  small  columns ;  and  by  it,  or  before  it,  are  one  or 
two  seats,  having  a  kind  of  desk  to  bear  a  volume  of  the 
Ckooran,  from  which  a  chapter  is  read  to  the  congrega- 
tion. The  walls  are  generally  quite  plain,  being  simply 
white-washed;  but  in  some  mosques  the  lower  part  o 
the  wall  of  the  place  of  prayer  is  lined  with  coloured 
marbles,  and  the  other  part  ornamented  with  various 
devices  executed  in  stucco,  but  mostly  with  texts  of  the 
Ckooran  (which  form  long  friezes,  having  a  plea  ing 
eiTect),  and  never  with  the  representation  of  anything 
that  has  life.  The  pavement  is  covered  with  matting, 
and  the  rich  and  poor  pray  side  by  side,  without  any 
distinction  as  to  rank;  unless,  (as  is  sometimes  the 
case,)  the  rich  man  is  attended  by  his  servant,  who 
bnngs  a  prayer-carpet  and  spreads  it  for  his  master. 
The  prayer-carpet  is  about  the  size  of  our  hearth-rugs, 
and  has  a  niche  represented  upon  it^  the  point  of  which 
is  turned  towards  Mekkeh. 

The  Mooslim  prepares  himself  for  prayer  by  ablution. 
In  every  mosque  there  is  a  tank  or  reservoir  for  the 
supply  of  water;  the  person,  therefore,  having  tucked 
up  his  sleeves  a  little  higher  than  his  elbows,  says,  in  a 
low  voice,  **  I  purpose  performing  the  woodoo  (ablution) 
for  prayer/'  He  then  washes  his  hands  three  times ; 
and  this,  as  well  as  every  after  ceremony,  is  accompanied 
by  its  peculiar  prayer  or  ejaculation.  He  then  rinses 
his  mouth  thrice,  throwing  the  water  into  it  with  his 
right  hand.  Next,  with  his  right  hand,  he  throws  water 
up  his  nostrils  (snuffing  it  up  at  the  same  time),  and 
then  blows  it  out,  compressing  his  nostrils  with  the 
thumb  and  finger  of  the  left  hand;  and  this  also  is  done 
three  times.  He  then  washes  his  face  three  times,  throw- 
ing up  the  water  with  both  hands  His  right  hand  and 
arm,  as  high  as  the  elbow,  he  next '  washes  three  times, 
and  as  many  times  causes  some  water  to  run  along  his 
arm  from  the  palm  of  the  hand  to  the  elbow ;  he  then 
repeats  the  same  ceremony  with  the  left  hand  and  arm. 
He  next  draws  his  wetted  right  hand  over  the  upper 
part  of  his  head,  raising  his  turban  or  cap  #ith  his  left. 
If  he  have  a  beard,  he  then  combs  it  with  the  wetted 
fingers  of  the  right  hand;  holding  his  hand  with  the 
palm  forwards,  and  passing  the  fingers  through  the  hair 
from  the  throat  upwards.  He  then  puts  the  tips  of  hit 
fore-fingers  into  his  ears,  and  twists  them  round,  passing 
his  thumbs  at  the  same  time  round  the  back  of  the  ears 
from  the  bottom  upwards.  Next  he  wipes  his  neck  with 
the  back  of  the  fingers  of  both  hands,  making  the  ends 
of  his  fingers  meet  behind  his  neck,  and  then  drawing 
them  forward.  Lastly,  he  washes  his  feet  as  high  as 
the  ankles,  and  passes  his  fingers  between  the  toes. 

The  woodoo,  (says  Mr.  Lane),  is  generally  performed  in 
less  than  two  minutes;  most  penons  hunying  through  the 


act,  BM  well  as  omitting  almoefc  all  the  piayers,  ^c,  which 
should  accomjpany  and  follow  the  ictiena.  It  is  noi  naoiied 
before  each  of  the  five  daily  pnivfr&  when  the  person  is  con-' 
scious  of  having  avoided  erety  kina  of  impnttty  since  the 
Lust  perfonnanoe  of  this  ablution.  When  water  cannot  be 
easily  procured,  or  would  be  injurious  to  the  health  of  ik 
indivianal,  he  xossy  perform  the  ablution  with  dust  or  nk 
This  ceremony  is  called  tey  emmoom.  The  person,  in  this 
case,  strikes  the  palms  of  lib  hands  upon  any  dry  dnst  or 
sand  (it  will  suffice  to  do  so  upon  his  dotli  robe,  as  it  most 
contam  some  dustV  and,  with  ooth  hands,  wipes  his  face; 
then,  having  strucK  his  hands  again  upon  the  aust,  he  wipes 
his  right  hand  and  arm  as  high  as  the  elbow ;  and  then,  the 
left  liand  and  arm,  in  the  same  manner.  This  completes  ike 
ceremony 

Not  only  is  cleanliness  required  in  the  worshipper, 
but  also  in  the  ground,  mat,  carpet,  robe,  or  whaterer 
else  it  be,  upon  which  he  prays.  Persons  of  the  lower 
orders  often  pray  upon  the  bare  ground,  whiefa  is  con- 
sidered clean  if  it  be  dry ;  and  they  are  in  no  harry  to 
wipe  off  the  dust  which  adheres  to  the  nose  and  forehead 
in  prostration,  for  it  is  regarded  as  ornamental  to  the 
face ;  but  when  a  person  has  a  cloak  or  any  other  gar- 
ment that  he  can  conveniently  take  off,  he  spreads  it 
upon  the  ground  to  serve  as  a  prayer-carpet. 

Prayer  is  required  of  the  Mooslim  five  tines  in  the 
course  of  everv  day.  First,  about  four  minutes  after 
sun -set;  secondly,  when  the  evening  has  closed  and  it 
is  qiiite  dark ;  thirdly,  at  day-break ;  fourthly,  at  noon 
or  a  little  later ;  ana  lastly,  between  noon  and  night 
The  Prophet  would  not  allow  his  followers  to  pray  at 
aun-rise,  nor  exactly  at  noon  or  aun-set,  beeaoie,  be 
said,  infidels  worshipped  the  tun  at  such  times.  The 
several  times  of  prayer  are  announced  by  the  mooeddin 
of  each  mosque  from  the  ininaret.  Mr.  Lane  sav!, 
"  Most  of  the  mooeddin s  of  Cairo  have  harmonious  and 
sonorous  voices,  which  they  strain  to  the  utmost  piich: 
yet  there  is  a  simple  and  solemn  melody  in  their  chants 
which  is  very  striking,  partionlarly  in  the  stillness  of 
night." 

The  devotions  of  the  Mooslimt,  consisting  as  they  do 
for  the  most  part  of  a  heartless  repetition  of  words  and 
idle  ceremonies,  have  no  permanent  influence  on  the 
people  generally ;  and  are,  indeed,  felt  to  be  a  burden- 
some task,  so  that  "  there  are  comparatively  few  persons 
in  Egypt  who  do  not  sometimes,  or  often,  neglect  this 
duty  L  of  prayer] ;  and  many  who  scarcely  ever  pray." 

For  the  forms  of  prayer,  and  a  minute  description  of 
the  ceremonies,  positions  of  the  body,  4ic.,  which  accom- 
pany their  utterance,  we  refer  to  Mr«  Lane's  work.  In 
the  course  of  these  ceremonies  many  ejaeulations  are  r^ 
peated  thirty-three  times.  These  repetitions  are  counted 
on  a  string  of  beads  ninety-nine  in  number,  with  amvk 
between  each  thirty-three.  The  beads  are  formed  of 
aloes  or  other  odoriferous  or  precious  wood,  or  ef  coral 
or  of  certain  fruit-stones,  or  seeds,  &e.  In  the '^  vain 
repetitions,"  varied  ablutions,  and  other  eotmeBials  of 
the  Mooslim  faith,  we  have  an  exact  counterpart  of  the 
practice  of  the  Pharisees  of  old  so  expreuly  coodenned 
by  our  blessed  Lord,  as  being  the  eleanaing  of  the  outside 
merely,  while  within  was  extortion  and  excsH. 

The  Mooslim  says  the  iye  daily  pittjers  i»  his  1kh2« 
or  shop,  or  in  the  niotqae,  aeeordiiig  «•  nay  Im  v^ 
convenlenft  to  hira:  it  ia  seldom  that  «  person  gec«  from 
his  house  to  the  mosque  to  pm,  sseepk  to  join  the  con* 
fvegatkm  on  Friday.  Men  of'^tho  lover  orders  ofteQer 
my  in  the  mosques  than  those  who  ksye  a  comfortable 
home,  and  a  mat  or  carpet  upon  whi^  to  pray. 

The  same  prayers  are  said  by  the  congregation  in  the 
mosque  on  the  noon  of  Friday,  but  diere  are  additional 
rites  performed  by  the  Imam  and  other  ministers  on 
that  occasion.  The  chief  reasons  for  selecting  Friday 
as  the  Mohammedan  .sabbath,  were,  it  is  said,  because 
Adam  was  created  on  that  day,  and  died  on  th  s^ 
day  of  the  week,  .and  because  the  general  resurrection 
was  prophesied  to  happen  on  that  day ;  whence  1  nw^ 
was  named  the  day  of  £l-Gom'ah|  or  the  assesibly.  To^ 


1841.1 


THE  BATURDAT  MAGAZINE. 


107 


Mooslim  does  not  abstain  from  worldly  business  on  Fri« 
dayexcept  during  tbe  time  of  prayer. 

The  large  mosques  are  open  from  day-break  till  nearly 
two  hours  af1;er  sun*set.  The  others  are  closed  between 
the  hours  of  morning  and  noon  prayers;  and  most 
mosques  are  also  closed  in  rainy  weather  (except  at  the 
times  of  prayer)  lest  persons  who  have  no  shoes  should 
enter  and  soil  the  pavement  and  matting.  Buch  persons 
always  enter  by  the  door  nearest  the  tank  or  fountain 
that  they  may  wash  before  they  pass  into  the  place  of 
prayer;  and  generally  this  .door  is  left  open  in  dirty 
weather.  The  great  mosque  £1-Azhar  remains  open  aU 
night,  with  the  exception  of  the  principal  place  of  prayer, 
which  is  partitioned  off  from  the  rest  of  the  building.  In 
many  of  the  larger  mosques,  particularly  in  the  afternoon, 
persons  are  seen  lounging^  chatting  together,  eating, 
sleeping  and  sometimes  spinning,  or  sewing,  or  engaged 
in  some  other  simple  craft;  but  Mr.  Lane  says  that,  not- 
withstanding such  practices,  the  Mooslims  very  highly 
respect  their  mosques. 

The  other  religious  practices  of  the  Mooslims  consist 
in  aimt^'gwmgffiuting^  and  piigrimage*  We  will  quote 
Mr.  Lane's  aceount  of  this  last  duty  of  the  Mooslim. 

•  It  is  ineumbent  on  ewiy  MoosU]&,  to  pexfom  onoe  in  his 
Ufey  the  pilsprimitte  to  Mekkeh  and  Mount  Aia&t,  unless 
poverty  or  fil  health  pnyeat  him ;  or,  if  a  Hhana&e,  he  may 
send  a  deputy  whose  expenses  he  must  pay.  Many,  however, 
negkct  the  duty  of  pilgrimage  who  cannot  plead  a  lawful 
excuse,  nor  are  they  reproached  for  so  doing.  It  is  not  bv  the 
visit  to  Mekkeh,  and  tne  perfbrmance  of  the  ceremonies  of 
circuiting  the  Kaabeh  seven  times,  and  kissing  the  "  hia/dk 
stone"  in  eash  round)  and  other  rites  in  the  holv  city,  that 
the  Mooslim  acquiTCS  the  title  of  Bl-hhagg  or  the  pusrim ; 
the  final  objeoi  of  the  pi]p;rimage  is  Mount  Arafati  six  hours 
journey  distant  from  MeKkeh.  During  his  performance  of 
the  required  ceremonies  in  Mekk&h,  and  also  during  his 
journey  to  Arafat  and  until  his  completion  of  the  pllgrim- 
Age^  the  Mooslim  wears  a  peculiar  dress,  called  ehnram^ 
generally  consisting  of  two  simple  pieces  of  cotton,  or  linen, 
or  woollen  oloth|  without  seam  or  ornament,  one  of  which 
is  wmpped  round  the  loins,  and  the  other  thrown  over  the 
shoulders;  the  instep  and  heel  of  eaeh  foot,  and  the  head^ 
ii^uat  be  bare;  but  umbreilsB  are  now  used  by  many  of  the 
lulgrims.  It  is  necesssarv  that  the  pilgrim  be  present  on  the 
occasion  of  a  khootbeh  which  is  recited  on  Mount  Arafat  in  the 
aflernoon  of  the  9th  of  the  month  of  Zool-IIheggah.  In  the 
ensuing  evening,  after  sunset,  the  pilgrims  commence  their 
return  to  Mekkeh.  Halting  the  following  day  in  the  valley 
of  Mina  (or,  is  it  is  mens  commonly  oalled,  Moona),  they 
complete  Uie  cesemonies  of  the  pilgnmage  Inr  a  sa4rifiee  (of 
6d»  or  more  male  sheep^  he-goalfl|  cow%  or  she-camels,  part 
of  the  fledi  of  which  they  eat^  and  part  aive  to  the  poor,) 
and  by  shaving  the  head  and  clipping  tne  nails.  Every 
one  after  this  resumes  his  usual  dress,  or  puts  on  a  new  one, 
if  provided  with  such.  The  sacrifice  is  called  el-fida  (or 
the  ransom),  as  it  is  performed  in  commemomtlon  of  the 
ransom  of  Ismaeel  (or  Ishmael)  by  the  saorifioe  of  the 
mm  when  he  was  himself  aboiit  to  have  been  offered 
up  by  hit  &ther:  to  it  is  the  general  opinion  of  the  Moos- 
lims that  it  Was  this  son,  not  Isaaoy  who  was  to  have  been 
aaorifioed  by  his  fiither. 

•  Our  frontispiece  (selected  isom  one  of  the  views  in 
Mr.  Hay't  admirable  work)  represents  the  collegiate  and 
aeimlchral  mosque  adjoining  the  Muristan.  Over  its 
ootranoe  is  the  following  inscription : — 

•  In  the  name  of  Crod,  the  oompassionato,  the  meicifnl,  the 
SoHan  £1'-Adil  es  galehee^  Mohammed,  the  son  of  the 
deceased  Sultan  Kalaoon  (may  God  sanctify  his  soul!^ 
founded  this  honoured  Kuboeh  (or  dome-crowned  building) 
in  the  months  of  the  year  696  a.h.  (a.  d.  1295-6). 

The  Minaret  (says  Mr.  Hay)  is  partly  coloured  With 
broad  alternate  Stripes  of  red  and  white,  so  commonly 
adopted  in  Cahro,  plessfaig  in  the  relief  it  gives  to  the  eye 
from  the  glare  of  an  ardent  su%  and  the  monotony  of  colours 
in  so  arid  a  elinuite« 

The  Saltan  Kalaoon  is  said  to  have  been  a  skilful 
physician,  and  superstition  preserves  ha  the  mosque  seve- 
ral' talismanic  mementoes  of  bis  roputations  amongst 
them  are  two  oohunns^  the  toiloh  of  one  of  whieh  is 
believed  to  be  a  sure  cure  of  jaundice. 


The  celebrated  charitable  foundation  which  adjoins 
this  mosque  is  destined  to  receive  weak  and  insane 
patients.  It  was  founded  by  the  Sultan  Kalaoon,  and 
bears  the  following  inscription : — 

Our  Lord  the  most  great  Sultan,  el-Melik  el-Mansoor 
Seyf-ed-Deen  Kalaoon,  es-Salehee,  commanded  to  found  this 
noble  venerated  Kubbeh  and  blessed  coUeffe  and  blessed 
Beemaristan ;  and  the  commencement  of  the  construction 
thereof  was  in  Rabeea-el-Akhir,  in  the  year  683  (a.  d.  1284) ; 
and  the  completion  thereof  in  Gumada-*l-oola,  in  the  year 
684. 

Part  of  the  minaret  of  the  Barkrookeveh  is  also  repre- 
sented. Three  musicians  with  the  zemr  and  tabl  (haut- 
boy and  drum)  precede  a  marriage  procession;  the 
female  friends  and  relations  of  the  bride  follow,  amongst 
whom  the  virgins  are  distinguished  by  their  white  dresses. 
The  bride,  supported  by  four  others  of  her  relations,  is 
beneath  the  canopy;  the  corners  of  which,  on  the  top  of 
the  poles,  are  adorned  by  embroidered  handkerchiefs. 

MAPS  AND  MAPPING.    II. 

Modern  Maps. — Projection  of   the   Sphere*-^ 
Gnomonic. — Orthographic. 

Modern  Mapping  is  particularly  distinguished  by  the 
accuracy  with  which  the  relative  positions  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth  are  marked,  in  consequence  of  the  aid 
afforded  to  the  subject  by  astronomical  discovery.  At- 
tempts were  at  first  made  to  determine  the  longitude  of 
places,  by  observing  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon ; 
but  this  method  proved,  on  experience,  so  likely  to  be 
attended  with  error,  that  astronomers  were  constrained 
to  abandon  it.  Galileo,  by  the  discovery  of  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter,  in  1610,  introduced  a  more  certain  method, 
which  was  rendered  available  by  means  of  the  simulta- 
neous observations  of  Picard  and  Cassini,  at  the  obser- 
vatories of  Uraniburg  (in  Denmark)  and  Paris. 

These  experiments  were  made  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century;  and,  in  consequence  of  their 
success,  MM«  Picard  and  De  la  Hire  were  employed, 
to  examine  and  to  correct  the  map  of  France  by  astro- 
nomical observations.  In  executing  this  task,  they  were 
obliged  to  contract  France  within  much  narrower  boun- 
daries than  it  was  supposed,  according  to  the  maps  of 
that  time,  to  occupy.  They  reduced  it  above  one  degree 
of  longitude  along  the  western  coast  from  Brittany  to 
the  Bay  of  Biscay;  and,  in  the  same  manner,  they 
cut  away  about  half  a  degree  from  the  shores  of  Lan« 
guedoc  and  Provence.  These  changes  gave  rise  to  a 
jest  of  Louis  the  Fourteenth,  who,  when  complimenting 
the  astronomers  at  the  completion  of  their  task,  told 
them  **  he  was  sorry  to  observe  that  their  journey  had 
cost  him  a  large  portion  of  his  kingdom.*' 

But  the  map-makers  of  the  times,  with  an  inveterate 
attachment  to  the  notions  and  methods  of  their  prede- 
cessors, were  tardy  in  taking  to  their  service  the  astro- 
nomical observations  which  were  multiplied  round  them 
every  day.  The  map  of  the  Mediterranean  was  not 
adjusted  until  the  year  1720;  and  it  was  then  done  in 
consequence  of  Chaflelles  being  sent  to  the  Levant,  to 
ascertain  the  difference  in  longitude  between  the  shores 
of  Palestine  and  the  meridian  of  Paris. 

William  Delisle  and  J.  B.  d'Anville,  by  eschewing 
the  errors  of  the  ancients  and  adopting  the  light  of 
modem  sciencot  brought  the  state  of  mapping  to  a 
greater  perfection  than  it  had  heretofore  obtained. 
While  the  French  were  thus  engaged,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  English  laboured  to  the 
same  end  by  means  of  Halley  and  Newton.  As  the 
process  of  map-making  now  began  to  attain  the  compa- 
rative completeness  of  recent  times,  we  need  not  dwell 
further  on  this  part  of  our  subject,  than  to  observe  that, 
notwithstanding  tbe  advanced  state  of  our  astronomical 
and  geographical  knowledge,  and  the  science  and  skill 
disptoyed  in  Our  great  national  and  other  surveys,  we 

591—2 


108 

must  8tiU  regard  maps  as  works  in  progress,— always 
unfinished,  and  still  waiting  the  corrections  to  be  sup- 
plied by  the  science  and  enterprise  of  succeeding  ages. 

We  shall  endeavour  now  to  describe  in  a  dear,  but 
concise,  manner,  the  fundamental  principles  which  have 
been  employed  at  various  times  and  on  various  occasions 
for  the  production  of  maps,  or  scientific  pictures  of  the 
earth's  surface.  The  reader,  being  doubtless  acquainted 
with  the  form  of  the  earth,  will  see  at  once  that  the  main 
object  to  be  achieved  is,  to  represent  on  a  phme,  or  flat, 
surface  that  which  is  actually  round,  or  spherical.  The 
smaller  the  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  ta  be  repre- 
sented, the  more  easily  may  this  be  done;  but  the  nearer 
we  approach  to  a  hemisphere  of  the  earth,  the  more  dif- 
ficult is  this  object  to  be  accomplished,  without  distortion 
of  some  of  the  parts.  All  the  methods  used  with  this 
view  are  but  approximations  to  correctness^  as  we  shall 
presently  explain. 

From  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth,  the  divisions 
and  varieties  of  its  surface  may  be  most  simply  and  most 
accurately  represented  by  means  of  a  globe ;  and,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  correct  notion  of  its  general  geogpraphical 
features,  there  is  no  mode  of  representation  so  satisfac- 
torv.  Large  globes  are,  however,  expensive  and  incon- 
venient instruments;  and  small  ones,  by  not  admitting 
miflScient  detail,  are,  for  most  geographic  purposes, 
entirely  useless.  For  instance,— wit£  a  scale  which 
would  make  the  map  of  England  extend  only  about  six 
inches  from  north  to  south, — ^thus  giving  one  degree  of 
latitude  to  an  inch, — ^the  diameter  of  a  globe,  on  which 
the  whole  surface  of  the  earth  should  be  delmeated, 
would  be  upwards  of  9^  feet  I  In  this  representation 
we  must  also  omit  all  the  minute  divisions  of  the  coun- 
tries of  the  earth,  together  with  a  vast  body  of  geogra- 
phical and  statistical  distinctions,  invaluable  to  geography 
as  a  science. 

We  not  only  have  terrestrieU  maps,  which  aim  at  re- 
presenting the  convex  surface  of  the  earihf  but  eelettial 
or  astronomical  maps,  are  made  to  represent  the  (appa- 
rent) concave  surface  of  the  heavef^s. 

Of  terrestrial  maps  there  are  two  sorts,— ^tfo^ropAM?, 
or  land-maps;  and  hydrographies  or  sea-maps:  the 
former  are  specially  styled  "Maps,"— the  latter  are 
usually  denominated  "  Charts." 

Geographical  maps  are  univentU  or  partieular;  the 
former  representing  the  two  hemispheres  of  the  worlds— 
the  latter  containing  only  particular  portions  of  the 
globe.  When  maps  give  the  nature  of  the  graundj  the 
roads,  buildings,  &c.,  in  detail,  they  become  topographic 
maps,  which,  necessarily  embracing  a  very  small  ex- 
tent of  country,  are  not  usually  referred  to  any  sphe- 
rical projection,  but  are  represented  as  geometric  plimes, 
the  objects  in  them  occupying  the  positions  severally 
assigned  to  them  by  the  trigonometrical  operations  of 
the  survey.  The  same  distinction  is  made  in  charts  of 
small  bays  and  harbours.  In  either  of  these  cases  they 
are  often  called  "  Plans."  Maps  which  are  intended 
merely  to  illustrate  some  of  the  sciences,  bear  their  own 
peculiar  names;  as  geological,  mineralogical,  or  botanical 
maps. 

The  various  methods  adopted  by  geographers  in  the 
construction  of  maps,  may  be  referred  to  two  principles, 
^-Projection  and  Development. 

The  term  "  Projection,"  implies  a  ihrowimgfirwardf 
or  laying  doum  in  front:  it  is  used  to  express  generally 
the  representation  of  the  surfisuse  of  a  sphere  according 
to  the  rules  of  perspective. 

I.  Of  projection  as  referring  to  the  first  principle, 
there  are  four  sorts  in  common  use ; — ^the  Gnomonic  or 
Central, — the  Orthographic, — ^the  Stereogfraphic,— and 
the  Globular:  all  these  are  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  the  different  positions  of  the  projecting  point 
in  which  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed. 

1.  In  the  Gnomonic  or  Central  Projection,  the  eye 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


CSeptkbibei  18) 


is  nippoaed  to  be  placed  in  the  d€Htr$  of  the  spheie,!! 
at  c;  and  the  various  objects  to  be  delineated  are  tnuu* 
fecred  from  the  sphere  to  the  plane  a  b,  which  is  a  tut- 
gent  to  its  surface  at  d,  where  the  rays  axe  direct  It 


is  termed  gnomomCf  becanse  of  the  connexion  beitea 
the  metiiods  of  laying  down  this  projection  and  thoie  bt 
the  conatruetion  of  a  gnomon^  or  sun-dial.  The  gno* 
mon,  or  style  of  a  dial,  is  the  plate  which  projects  firm 
the  surface  of  the  dial-plate»  tne  edge  of  its  8Wowd^ 
termining  the  hour-line. 

A  slight  consideration  of  this  sort  of  projection  nubi 
it  numifest  to  us  that  it  is  most  profitaoly  emploved  ia 
astronomical  maps ;  portions  only  of  the  concave  sphere  of 
the  heltvens  b«ng  aiforded  at  one  view,  as  may  be  obferrel 
by  reference  to  the  preceding  diagram;  where  it  it 
evident  that  five  or  six  jvfafM-mapa  would  be  required  to 
lay  down  the  concave  surfiice  of  tiie  sphere  wboieeentn 
is  c.  It  wiU  be  observed  also  that  an  entire  hemii^IierB 
cannot  be  thrown  upon  the  plane  a  b. 

In  this  projection^  all  the  great  cirdeeof  the  sphcRi 
—that  is,  all  such  as  have  their  centres  coinddiog  vith 
the  centre  of  the  earthy— appear  as  straight  linesjwhich 
property  belongs  to  no  other  projection. 

Though  this  projection  may  be  advantageoosly  applied 
to  any  maps  of  a  limited  extent,  yet  it  is  more  puliai- 
larly  usefiil  in  maps  of  the  polar  r^ons  of  the  giobe> 
In  this  case,  the  meridians  will  be  straight  lines  radnting 
from  tiie  centre,  and  the  paraUela  o£  ktitude  eoooentrie 
circles.  Other  cases  of  this  projeetion,  in  respect  of 
terrestrial  maps,  are  seldom  brought  mto  use,  beeuie 
the  construction  is  rendered  troublesome,  on  aooonnt  cf 
the  parallels  of  latitude  becoming  curves  of  difficult  deli- 
neation. 

2.  The  Orthographic  projection  is  so  naM 
becanse  the  deUneaiion  is  completed,  as  it  were,  hyvV" 
lines.  In  this  projection  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  it 
an  infinite  distance  off;  so  that  the  visual  rays  ^^^ 
sphere  in  parallel  lines.  The  perspective  plane,  <m  wm 
a  Jiemisphere  is  supposed  to  be  dellneateo.  Is,  therefore 
at  right  angles  to  the  visual  rays^— hence,  ererypoio^ 
of  the  hemisphere  is  transferred  to  this  plane  by  perpea* 
diculars  let  fall  upon  it.  It  will  be  seen  at  onoe  fitan 
the  annexed  figure,  that  the  representation  wiD  decrease 
in  accuracy  with  the  increase  of  distance  from  ^5^ 
tre;  the  parts  near  the  drcnmference  being  loui^vvre* 
shortened  and  distorted.  For  instance,--«ldM'ng<^  "^ 
points  ABC  D  are  equidistant,  their  representatiTes ahei> 
are  very  unequally  disposed. 

By  this  projection  the  surface  of  a  hemisphere  » 
reduced  to  that  of  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere,  or  only  n^ 
its  hemispherical  area;  and,  conseqnentlv,  all  paitt  « 
that  surface  are  contracted,  while  equal  parts  of  o» 
spherical  surface  are  not  reduced  to  equal  spaces  on  tae 
map.  On  account,  therefore,  of  tiie  excessive  ctmtnc- 
tion  on  approaching  the  extremities,  this  V^Jf^ 
though  it  is  occasionally  used  for  «»*ro«*^*^*V^ 
poses,  is  almost  exploded  in  the  eonstmction  of  g«<f"' 
phical  m^s* 


mu2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


109 


The'  orUiograplue  projeeti<m  of  any  objeet^-^he 
terrestrial  globe  for  example, — with  all  its  circlea,  and 
the  continents  and  islands  on  it  surface,  is  nearfy  the 
representation  or  picture  which  an  artist  would  delineate 
on  a  plane  surface,  if  he  meant  to  represent  the  globe  at 
a  considerable  distance  from  the  eye;  and  it  is  exactly 
the  appearance  which  the  globe  would  have,  supposing 
an  eye  could  view  it  at  an  infinite  distance  off. 

In  a  polar  map  of  this  projection^ — that  is,  a  map 
which  has  one  of  the  poles  for  ita  centre, — ^the  meridians, 
as  in  the  polar  gnomonic  maps,  will  be  radii,  and  the 
parallels  concentric  circles.  In  an  equatorial  map,  or  one 
in  which  the  equatorial  regions  of  the  globe  are  made  to 
occupy  the  centre  of  the  map,  the  plane  of  projection 
coincides  with  the  plane  of  one  of  the  meridians.  In 
thb  case,  the  latitude-circles  will  form  straight  lines 
parallel  with  the  equator,  which  will  be  also  a  straight 
line:  the  meridians  will  form  portions  of  ellipses. 

We  shall  notice  the  prindptes  employed  in  the  other 
modes  of  projection,  in  our  next  and  concluding  paper. 

Fig.  3. 


CHINA.    XII. 

Thb  Island  of  Chusan — Militaby  Occupation 
— H0U8S8  AND  Offices  of  thb  Chinbbb. 

The  extreme  jealousy  with  which  the  authorities  of  the 
CehHuii  JBmpire  are  accustomed  to  resard  all  foreigners, 
enhances  the  value  of  any  authentic  mformation  which 
nay  be  obtained  respecting  a  people,  of  whom  the  litUe 
we  know  only  adds  to  our  desire  of  a  more  thorough 
bowledge.  Valuable,  indeed,  to  the  political  economist 
fouid  be  an  authentic  statement  of  the  statistics  of  an 
empire  which  in  many  things  differs  so  widely  from  all 
the  kingdoms  of  Europe ;  a  country  where  ciTilixation 
md  literature  seem  to  haye  adranced  to  a  certain  extent, 
md  then  for  ages  to  have  remained  stationary ;  a  country 
nore  densely  peopled  than  any  other  part  of  the  worm, 
uid  yet  where  all  emigration  is  so  much  discouraged, 
hat,  to  nae  an  expression  of  their  own,  *^  when  a  Clmui* 
nan  leaves  the  flowery  land  to  wander  in  countries 
>eyond  the  sea,  he  rarbly,  if  oyer,  is  permitted  to  return 
0  his  native  land;"  a  country  which,  notwithstanding  ita 
rast  extent  of  territory  and  immense  population,  has  for 
o  many  centuries  been  the  seat  of  a  permanent  govern* 
nent  more  exempt  from  revolution  than  any  other  in 
he  world.  Various  writers,  indeed,  have  presented  us 
rith  their  accounts  of  China,  but  those  which  enter  most 
Qto  detail  seem  obnoxious  to  the  remark  of  Lord  Jocelyn, 
hat  their  ^'  lengthened  labours  require  an  appetite  for  the 
oarvelloaB  to  digest.  Dates  and  exact  statements  of 
inance.  ^c,"  continues  he,  ^  are  difficult  to  be  correctly 


obtained  in  any  country,  but  more  particularly  la 
these  far  eastern  lands;  and  it  is  not  probable  that  a 
jealous  race  like  the  Chinese  would  permit  a  stranger  to 
become  very  intimately  acquainted  with  their  internal 
policy.  Errors  may  have  arisen  not  from  any  inten- 
tional mis-statement,  but  from  a  guileless  disposition* 
giving  too  easy  a  credence  to  the  natives  of  the  country." 

We  have  been  careful  in  the  information  with  which, 
from  time  to  time,  we  have  furnished  our  readers,  to 
confine  ourselves  to  such  subjects  as  might  fall  under 
the  observation  of  Europeans,  and  to  draw  from  none 
but  authentic  sources;  we  now  proceed  to  make  a  few 
extracts  from  the  Personal  Narratioe  lately  published 
by  Lord  Jocelyn,  who  acted  for  some  months  in  the 
capacity  of  Military  Secretary  to  the  China  mission,  but 
was  compelled  by  severe  illness  to  return  home.  Passing 
over  the  capture  of  the  island  of  Chusan,  we  will  accom- 
pany the  conquerors  into  the  city  of  Tinghai:-— 

'*  A  few  of  tiie  staff  entered  the  town,  accompanied  by 
interpreter,  to  quiet  the  fears  of  the  inhabitants. 


an 


whilst  the  troops  remained  in  position  on  the  outer  side 
of  the  fosse.  The  main  street  was  nearly  deserted » 
except  here  and  there,  where  the  frightened  people  were 
performing  the  kow-tow*  as  we  passed.  On  most  of 
the  houses  was  placarded  *  Spare  our  lives ;'  and  on 
entering  the  jos-houses  were  seen  men,  women,  and 
children,  upon  their  knees,  burning  incense  to  the  gods  ; 
and  although  protection  was  promised  them,  their  dread 
appeared  in  no  manner  relieved.  Many  were  posting 
down  the  back  lanes  into  the  country  with  their  spoil, 
for  we  afterwards  found  the  goods  principally  carried 
away  were  taken  by  plundering  natives,  not  by  the  legiti-» 
mate  owners* 

^At  last  we  came  to  the  house  of  the  Chumpin  (Ad- 
miral): the  gates  leading  to  the  entrance-yard  were  painted 
with  huge  ungainly  figures,  denoting,  they  said.  Justice 
and  Punishment.  On  one  side  was  the  Room  of  Justice, 
and  thumb-screws  and  rattans  were  seen  lying  about.  The 
path  to  the  inner  apartment,  called  the  Hall  of  Ances- 
tors, lay  through  an  open  court,  round  which  were  the 
offices  of  the  government  clerks.  Some  letters  and 
papers  half-finished  showed  the  haste  with  which  the 
town  had  been  evacuated.  Passing  Uirough  the  pourt 
we  entered  a  guard-house,  which  led  anin  to  a  trelliced 
walk,  at  the  south  end  of  which  was  the  hall.  Here  on 
the  couches  were  the  pipes  half-smoked,  and  the  little 
cups  filled  with  the  untasted  tea ;  cloaks,  mandarin's  caps, 
and  swords  lay  about  in  confusion.  Following  up  our 
research  we  at  last  came  to  the  apartments  oip  the  ladies : 
these  rooms  were  curiously  furnished,  and  strewed  with 
clothes  of  all  descriptions  and  for  all  purposes.  Silks, 
fans,  china,  little  shoes,  crutches,  ana  paint-pota— the 
articles  of  a  Chinese  Uidy's  toilette-^lay  toswd  in  a  sad 
and  tell-tale  nUUef  and  many  of  these  fairy  shoes  were 
appropriated  by  us  as  lawful  tootf. 

"  The  town  of  Tinghai,  or  Tinghai-een,  covers  a  large 
snace  of  ground  at  the  mouth  of  a  valley  or  rather  gorge ; 
the  neighbouring  hiUs  are  clothed  with  wild  shrubs,  of 
which  tiie  tea-pUnt  is  the  most  predominant.  The  city 
lies  embosomed  in  luxuriant  paddy,  except  towards  the 
rear,  where  a  beautiful  hill  commands  the  whole  town, 
dotted  with  clumps  of  fine  trees,  part  of  it  being  included 
within  the  wall  and  the  fortifications  that  encircle  the 
town.  Two  paved  roads  lead  down  to  the  suburbs  on  the 
shore,  a  distance  of  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  flanked 
on  the  left  by  the  Jos-house  hill.  The  buildings  in  and 
near  seem  to  consist  of  large  warehouses  belonging  to 
the  merchants  of  the  town,  and  are  very  convenient  for 
shipping  and  landing  their  cargoes.  Tinghai  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall,  about  sixteen  feet  in  thickness  and 
twenty  in  height :  there  are  four  gates,  agreeing  with  the 
cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  traverse  much  in  the 

tiie  bfitd  iqpon  tha  groano. 
•depth 


110 


THE  BAtURDAY  MAOA2m£. 


[SB?TElfBU  18, 


form  of  Marhattah  forte)  the  principal  one  being  on  the 
southern  point  facing  the  sea«  The  wall  is  surrounded 
by  a  canal,  which  acts  as  a  ditch  to  the  fortification* 
except  at  the  north-west  angle.  Two  powder-magaiinea 
were  found  [neatlj  packed  and  filled  with  ammunition, 
and  with  implements  for  the  manu&ustttre  of  powder  t  on 
the  walls  were  mounted  gingalls  and  Cannon  of  various 
calibres,  but  none  exceeding  a  nine*pounder;  and  wall- 
pieces  with  shifting  breeches,  each  having  eight  or  nine 
spare  breeches  attached  to  it,  ready  loaded.  The  streeto 
are  narrow,  and  many  of  the  houses  dry-rubbed,  and 
polished  outoide ;  but  tne  rooft  are  the  most  picturesque 
part  of  the  buildings.  Many  of  the  respectable  houses 
have  pretty  gardens  attached  to  them,  with  a  high  wall 
shutting  them  out  entirely  from  the  town.  The  interiors 
of  some  of  the  houses  were  found  beautifully  Aimished^ 
and  carved :  one  that*  Is  now  inhabited  by  the  Governor, 
and  believed  to  have  been  the  property  of  a  literary  charac- 
ter, was,  when  first  opened,  the  wonder  and  admiration  of 
all.  The  different  apartments  open  round  the  centre 
court,  which  is  neatly  tiled  ;  the  doors,  window-fitimes, 
and  pillars  that  support  the  pent  roof,  are  carved  in  the 
most  chaste  and  delicate  style,  and  the  interior  of  the 
ceiling  and  wainscot  lined  with  Aretwork,  whioh  it  must 
have  required  the  greatest  nicety  and  care  to  have  exe- 
cuted. The  furniture  was  in  the  same  keeping,  deaotiBg 
a  degree  of  taste  the  Chinese  have  not  in  general  credit 
for  with  us.  The  bed  places  in  the  sleeping  apartments 
of  the  ladies  were  large  dormitories,  for  they  can  hardly 
be  called  beds:  at  one  comer  of  the  room  is  a  separate 
chamber,  about  eight  f^t  square,  and  the  same  in  height ; 
the  exterior  of  this  is  usually  painted  red,  carved,  and 
gilt ;  the  entrance  is  through  a  circular  aperture,  three 
fBet  in  diameter,  with  sliding  pannels ;  in  the  interior  is 
a  couch  of  large  proportions,  covered  with  a  soft  mat 
and  thick  curtains  of  mandarin  silk  s  the  inside  of  the 
bed  is  polished  and  painted,  and  a  little  chair  and  table 
are  the  remaining  Aimiture  of  this  dormitory. 

'<  Many  of  the  public  buildings  excited  great  astonish** 
ment  among  those  who  fkncied  they  were  In  a  half 
bari>arous  country.  The  public  arsenals  were  ftmnd 
stocked  with  weapons  c^  every  description,  placed  with 
the  greatest  neatness  and  regularity  in  their  different 
compartments:  the  clothes  for  the  soldiers  were  like* 
wise  ticketed,  labelled,  and  packed  in  large  pisses, 
and  the  arrows,  which  firom  thdr  sice  and  strength  drew 
particular  attention,  were  carelbDy  and  separately  ar^ 
ranged.  To  each  arsenal  is  attached  a  fire-engine, 
similar  to  those  used  in  our  own  country. 

'*The  government  pawnbroker's  shop  was  also  a  source 
of  Interest:  in  it  were  fi»und  dresses  and  articles  of  every 
kind,  evidently  things  belonging  to  the  upper  as  well  as 
the  lower  classes,  for  many  of  the  fbrs  here  taken  were 
of  valuable  descriptions  i  each  article  had  the  owner's 
name  attached,  and  the  date  of  its  being  pawned :  tUi 
is  one  of  the  plans  of  the  local  government  fbr  raising 
their  supplies.  In  the  treasury  there  was  a  sad  deficH 
for  the  prise-agents,  no  bullion  being  discovered  in  the 
chests :  this,  however,  had  been  evidently  cleared  out  by 
the  government  servants. 

*' The  town  is  intersected  with  canals,  which  run  at  the 
back  of  many  of  the  principal  streete,  thereby  enabling 
the  inhabitants  to  take  their  goods  without  trouble  AH>m 
their  own  doors  to  any  part  of  the  city,  and  thus  com* 
municate  with  the  suburbs  and  port  with  the  greatest 
fkcility,  by  the  water-gate. 

<*  t^me  of  the  Jos  houses,  in  this  place,  fi*om  what  we 
i^ave  seen  and  heard  ftom  others,  are  to  be  surpassed  by 
none  in  China.  In  Lord  Macartney's  mission,  the  one 
at  Macao  is  mentioned  as  the  finest  specimen  they  saw 
in  the  whole  tour,  but  all  those  who  have  visited  the 
principal  ones  at  Unghai  agree  in  their  great  superiority 
over  it.  In  the  great  temple  some  of  the  flrnres  fai  the 
principal  ball  ara  upwards  of  fifteen  feet  nigh,  hand- 
somely wrought,  standing  in  the  centre  on  a  l<my  podaa 


k 


tal,  while  around  the  walls  are  small  imiga  of  fhe 
same  desoription  m  all  sorts  of  grotesque  sttitodei.  We 
were  particularly  struck  by  one,  the  figme  of  a  vonan, 
with  a  ehild  apparently  issuing  from  her  breast,  and  a 
glory  round  her  head.  It  seems  difficalt  to  ity  from 
what  this  has  arisen,  unless  from  the  piotares  of  the 
Virgin,  which  the  Chinese  formerly  obtained  {rontb 
Jesuit  missionaries,  and  have  thus  distorted.  A  wliito 
elephant  was  likewise  a  great  subject  of  ^ismd, 
being  hitherto  luiown  only  as  a  figure  of  worship  in  Bi^ 
mah  and  Siam. 

**  Very  few  women  were  found  in  any  of  ths  lunno, 
although,  as  it  afterwards  appeared,  whole  fanilieiaf 
Chinese  were  then  residing  in  the  town,  locked  op  ia 
their  dwellings,  aad  were  not  discovered  antil  the  ulte- 
rior oocupation  of  the  city  by  the  troom  for  winter 
quarters.  All  the  women  we  saw  here  nad  the  little 
feet  which  to  the  south  is  generally  the  appendage  of  the 
higher  orders,  and  made  use  of  a  crutch  when  valkinf. 
Many  of  the  silks  taken  in  the  houses  of  mandariiu  ud 
people  of  wealth  were  of  the  finest  textures,  and 
covered  with  magnificent  embroideries. 

'^  Since  I  have  seen  many  of  the  houses  and  temples 
of  the  Chinese,  the  paintings  on  the  old  china  imported 
into  England  have  struck  me  as  the  best  delineation  of 
the  buildings  and  figures  of  these  extraordinary  people, 
and  it  is  wonderful  how  correct  they  are  in  the  nflin 
features." 


Hb  who  contends  for  truths  whioh  he  has  himself  been  p^ 
mitted  to  discover,  may  well  sustain  the  conflict  in  which 
presumption  and  error  are  destined  to  £dl.  The  mhlictiiT 
Dunal  may  neither  be  sufficiently  pure  nor  enligntefied  to 
decide  upon  the  issue,  but  he  can  appeal  to  poeteritv,  and 
reckon  with  confidence  on  ^^  its  sure  decree.  —Sia  I^ahd 
Bbbwsteb. 

ON  CHESS.  No.  XVIL 
Th9  Automatok  Cr£88-Player.  5. 
The  explaol^tion  which  has  been  given  of  the  Chess 
Automaton  is  admitted  to  be  correct  in  all  its  details 
etcept  as  regards  the  means  employed  by  tile  concealed 
player  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  moves  of  Iiis  antago- 
nist and  to  make  his  own.  This  information  belongs 
however,  to  those  minor  detaOa  which  could  onlj  be  ob* 
tained  by  actual  inspection  of  the  interior  arrangemenU 
of  the  machine: — we  can  scarcely  admire  too  liigbly  the 
sagacity  of  Mr.  Wilis,  who,  enjoying  no  adfantagej  ef 
inspection  beyond  those  given  to  the  spectators  is  gtoe- 
raly  auceeeded,  n«verthelesB»  in  diaeoverin|p  the  aecretn 
this  lammis  maohittei  and  damonatTatiBg,  by  metai » 
drawings  and  dear  detoriptioiM,  the  presence  and  poa- 
titti  of  the  mtmuilpmnr  which  worked  the  vam^ 
Mtv  WilliB  imagined  that  the  concealed  plajer  ^ 
tained  a  view  of  the  ehess-^boatd  by  lookmg  throoflt^ 
waiHsoat  af  like  figure,  so  that  hia  head  was  sepanttd 
fromtkespeetatorsonlybyat&iinyeiL  Oleobject^ 
to  this  theory  a#e  nmneroiis  i  ammg  tbd  msnj  ^f^  ^ 
ears,  sharpened  aa  they  were  by  anxiom  eurimit jt  »^ 
thing  would  sandy  he  teen  or  heard  tokad  to  diM»v<^^ 
*-4he  smallest  siotimi  or  aonndr— eveti  the  simp^  ^^ 
respimtiaB  in  that  eonfi^ed  ittnatbn,  might  detset  w 
eonfoderate.    It  is  avidtai  that  da  Kewpeltt  foiesav  lU 

ibis,  and  was  ihna  hsd  to  piovida  the  ingtnious  >»^ 
wo  are  aboot  to  deseHhe,  aa  b^)r  ^^  >»<>'*  "^^^ 
efieetoal  fbr  caitying  on  tha  game* 

It  is  proiM^  to  state  that  M.  Monret  himaeK  ^  m 
the  secret  ttdkafoe  ef  M«  Maclsel,  furnished  an  aecoem 
of  the  ayatariea  of  die  automaton,  firom  which  N-  » 
Tonmay,  a  monber  of  the  Parts  Cheas  Club,  \Mr^ 
Hshod  faia  aiMimt  in  the  fifat  yolume  of  £«  /'otoa^^v* 
French  periodleal*  devoted  chiefly  to  Chess.    It»f^ 

this  aouree  ihat  wa  have  (Mvtfd  the  foUowing  mfo^ 
tion*  vhiah  niay»  thaaehft  9  m  vrary  xe^act,  be 

andMBtif. 


1841.2 


THS  SATURDAY  MAOAZINfi. 


in 


We  stated  in  a  former  article,  that,  daring  the  expo- 
sure of  the  interior  mechanienii  the  exhibitor  held  a 
lighted  candle  to  several  parts  of  the  machinery,  and 
that  he  left  hie  candle  burning  on  an  adjoining  slab:  the 
reason  for  this  was  to  prevent  any  notice  being  taken  of 
a  wax  taper  in  the  interior  of  the  machine,  should  its 
rays  chance  to  flash  out  during  the  exbibition«  The  wax 
taper  furnished  the  concealed  player  with  light;  and  he 
was  supplied  with  air  by  certain  openings  which  did  not 
appear,  and  by  others  which  appeared,  neeessary  to  die 
construction  of  the  outer  chest,  or  to  the  trunk  of  the 
Turk. 

Within  reach  of  the  concealed  player  were,  Jini,  a 
handle  by  which  he  couid  guide  the  arm  of  the  automa- 
ton; Mecondl^f  an  elastic  spring  for  moving  its  fingers; 
and,  ihirdl^i  a  cord  in  communication  with  bellows  for 
prod'acing  a  sound  to  imitate  *<  Check*."     The  prinoipal 
contrivance  requiring  explanation  is,  that  by  which  the 
player  was  made  acquainted  with  the  moves  on  the  au- 
tomaton chess-board,  and  thus  enabled  to  repeat  them  on 
A  smaller  chess-board  of  his  own.     The  concealed  player 
is  seated  in  that  part  of  the  chest  immediately  under  the 
automaton's  chess-board,  and  may  be  supposed  to  be 
looking  up  to  the  ro<^  of  his  narrow  cell.    There»  on 
what  may  be  called  his  ceiling,  he  sees  a  representation 
of  that  chess-board,  each  square  painted  to  correspond 
with  the  square  above;  the  only  difference  being,  that, 
in  the  automaton's  board,  some  of  the  squares  are  occU'* 
pied  by  chess-men  and  the  rest  are  empty,  while,  in  the 
board  beneotih,  f  vfery  one  of  the  squares  is  numbered  and 
fiiraished  with  a  small  metallic  knob.    Svery  chess-man 
on  the  automaton's  board  contains  a  small  magnet,  and 
each  move  made  with  any  one  sets  in  motion  the  metal- 
k  knob   belonging  to  the  squares  from  and  to  which 
luch  piece  19  played. 

To  illustrate  this  action  more  clearly,  let  the  reader 
oppose  himself  placed  under  a  table  both  surfaces  of 
rhich  are  respectively  divided  into  sixty^foor  eorre- 
ponding  squares :  to  each  square  of  the  under-side  of  the 
able  is  suepended  by  means  of  a  very  short  thread  a 
ittle  iron  ball.  Now,  as  a  magnet  exerts  its  attractive 
orce  for  unmagnetised  iron  and  steel  through  any  known 
abstance,  (except,  of  course,  through  iron  and  steel,)  it 
\  quite  clear  that  the  wood  of  the  table  will  not  prevent 
he  magnets  contained  within  the  chessmen  from  attract- 
Qg  the  little  balls,  and  holding  them,  as  it  were,  fixed  to 
he  under  surface  of  the  table :  but,  as  there  are  only 
hirty-two  chessmen  actually  on  the  board  at  the  com- 
lencement  of  the  game,  it  follows  that  thirty-two  balls 
re  attached  to  the  wood  of  the  table,  while  the  other 
hirty-two  remain  suspended  by  their  threads.  As  soon 
s  one  particular  piece  is  taken  up  for  the  purpose  of 
laking  a  move  it  b  obvious  that  the  metallic  knob  im- 
lediately  helow  it,  being  no  longer  subject  to  the  mag- 
etic  attraction,  falls  as  far  as  it  is  permitted  by  the 
mgth  of  the  thread  which  supports  it,  and  thus  inti- 
lates  to  the  person  below  that  the  square  just  occupied 
7  a  piece  is  now  vacant; — but  the  piece  being  placed 
a  another  square,  the  knob  below  that  square  starts 
p  and  thus  indicates  the  precise  square  to  which  the 
icce  was  played.  The  concealed  player  repeats  the 
love  on  a  little  board,  with  which  he  is  furnished, 
nd  which  ia  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  board 
D  the  underside  of  the  table ;  this  board  is  C(mstructed 
1  the  manner  of  the  chess-boards  used  in  travelling 
)  <as  to  be  safe  from  the  danger  of  having  the  pieces 
pset.  On  this  board  he  also  makes  his  own  move,  and 
ikes  note  of  the  numbers  of  the  squares  from  and  to 
hich  his  piece  is  played ; — ^he  then  sets  the  arm  of  the 
itomaton  in  motion, — stakes  up  the  piece  he  designs  to 
'ay, — the  little  knob  falls  down ; — he  plays  the  piece 
)  the  square  intended,  and  the  little  knob  rises  up ; — 
3d  thus  the  game  proceeds. 


byM. 


Iftkis  second 


or. 


This  illustration  will  afford  the  reader  a  more  perfect 
notion  than  has  yet  been  given  of  the  mode  of  working 
the  automaton.  We  have  nothing  more  to  say  respecting 
the  mechanical  nart  of  this  strange  deception,  and  there- 
fore beg  to  conclude  our  notice  with  a  translation  of  the 
latter  half  of  M«  de  Toumay's  very  amusing  article. 

M.  Maelsel  having  entered  into  an  agreement  with 
M.  Mouret,  a  very  eminent  chess-player,  to  conduct 
the  internal  arrangements  of  the  automaton,  the  two 
confederates  set  out  on  a  tour  for  the  purpose  of 
spreading  the  fame  of  the  automaton,  and  reaping  the 
benefit  ^  the  deception  in  many  towns  ti  England, 
Scotland,  and  Holland,  where  it  was  yet  only  known 
by  report.  The  most  complete  success  attended  this 
journey.  Wherever  they  went,  spectators  crowded  to 
the  exhibition  to  witness  the  triumphs  of  the  automa- 
ton, who  always  kept  his  ground  against  his  antagonists, 
and  came  off  victorious,  in  spite  of  the  advantage  which 
he  permitted  to  his  opponent  in  giving  him  the  pawn  and 
move; 

The  exhibitor  and  his  assistant  went  on  for  some  time 
in  perfect  harmony:  accounts  were  settled  between  them 
at  every  halting-place,  and  each  was  perfectly  satisfied. 
It  happened,  however,  on  one  of  these  occasions  that 
M.  Maelzel  remained  debtor  to  his  assistant  for  a 
considerable  sum,  and  as  weeks  and  months  passed  by  he 
still  had  some  pretext  for  omitting  its  payment.  At 
lengrth  a  year  had  passed,  without  producing  the  desired 
settlement,  and  M.  Mouret,  weary  of  this  delay,  found 
the  means  of  frightening  his  companion  into  his  proper 
duty. 

The  automaton  was  then  at  Amsterdam ;  the  king  of 
Holland  sent  one  morning  to  engage  the  exhibition- 
room,  at  the  same  time  oidering  a  sum  equal  to  three 
thousand  Arancs,  to  be  paid  to  M.  Maelsel.  The  latter 
went  joyfidly  to  announce  the  good  news  to  his  associate 
-—they  oreakfasted  together,  and  were  delighted  at  the 
thought  of  entering  the  lists  with  a  orowned  head.  M. 
Maelzel  then  hastened  to  make  such  preparations  as 
should  make  the  exhibition  as  brilliant  as  possible.  The 
performance  was  to  commence  at  half-past  twelve  at 
noon.  Twelve  o'clock  arrives,  and  it  is  time  for  M. 
Mouret  to  take  his  station  in  the  chest.  But  he  has  not 
yet  arrived,  and  M.  Maelsel  hastens  to  find  out  tho 
cause  of  the  delay.  What  is  his  surprise  to  find  Mouret 
in  bed,  and  seised  with  a  convulsive  trembling.  *^  What 
do  I  see?  what  is  the  matter?"  exclaimed  Maelzel.  "  I 
have  a  fever,"  said  his  artftil  assistant. — "Why,  you  were 
very  well  just  now  f"— "  Yes,  but  this  is  a  sudden  attack." 
— *•  The  king  will  be  here  presently." — "  He  must  go 
back  again." — But  what  can  I  say  to  him?" — "Tell  him 
the  automaton  has  got  the  fever."-*^"  No  more  of  this 
folly."—"  I  don't  wish  to  joke  with  you." — ^"  Then  pray 
get  up."—"  Impossible." — "  Let  me  call  a  physician."— 
"  It  is  of  no  use." — "  Is  there  no  means  of  subduing  this 
fever?"—"  Yes,  one  only."—"  What  is  it  ?"— "  To  pay 
me  the  1500  firancs  you  owe  me.'* — "  You  shall  have 
them  . . .  this  evening  r" — ^"  No,  no,  this  moment" — ^M. 
Maelzel  saw  too  plainly  that  there  was  no  alternative, 
and  went  to  fetch  the  money.  The  cure  was  wonderful ; 
the  automaton  was  never  so  attractive  before.  The  King 
did  not  actually  play,  but  he  advised  his  Minister  of  War, 
who  played  for  him.  The  pair  were  completely  beaten 
by  the  automaton,  but  all  the  blame  of  the  defeat  was,  of 
course,  thrown  upon  the  Minister. 

Another  anecdote  is  related  of  the  automaton  to  the 
following  effect.  In  one  of  the  towns  of  Germany  a  conju- 
ror had  been  exhibiting  his  various  tricks,  to  the  delight 
and  amazement  of  the  inhabitants,  when  the  arrival  of 
the  automaton  presented  a  still  more  powerful  object  of 
attraction,  and  left  the  poor  fellow  without  an  audience. 
Annoyed  and  jealous  at  the  reputation  of  his  rival  >  he 
went  to  be  himself  a  witness  of  the  new  performance, 
and  fh)m  his  own  experience  in  the  art  of  deception  he 
felt  conyinced  that  the  chest  contained  a  hidden  player. 


112 


THfi  SATDRDaT  magazine. 


CSEwniwa  21, 1 


He  therefore  began  all  at  once  to  raiie  a  cry  of  "  Hre," 
in  which  he  was  seconded  by  one  or  two  oompaniona. 
The  spectators  were  seiied  with  the  greatest  alarm,  in 
which,  Btrang«  to  say,  the  automaton  participated,  and 
in  his  fright  upset  his  adversary  and  tottered  about  as  if 
he  were  mad.  Happily,  M.  Maeliel,  who  preaerred 
his  presence  of  mind,  was  able  to  push  him  behind  a 
curtain,  where  he  bood  became  quiet,  and  recovered  bis 
usual  dignified  bearing.  The  iJann  of  fire  wa«  soon 
discovered  to  be  false,  and  the  conjuror  did  not  gain 
anything  by  his  attempt  to  undeceire  the  company. 
Aiter  this  event  M.  Maekel,  in  ^ving  direction!  to  a 
candidate  for  the  office  of  concealed  player,  waa  accus- 
tomed to  say,  "  If  you  hear  a  cry  of  fire,  don't  Btir  ;  I 
will  come  to  your  help." 

The  automaton  was  afterwards  talen  to  North  Ame- 
rica, where  it  was  exhibited,  during  several  yeara,  in  the 
principal  towns  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  South 
America  then  received  a  visit  from  this  wonder  of  the 
age,  and  after  a  due  exhibition  of  its  powers  the  automa- 
tou  finally  sank  into  oblivion,  and  waa  deposited  in  a 
lumher-rooro  at  New  York,  where  we  believe  it  still 
remains,  never  again  perhaps  to  he  the  meana  of  exdting 
curiosity  or  interest. 


THE  WATER  SCORPION. 
(_Nepa  Imeari*.) 

The  genus  Nepa  includes  a  family  of  aquatic  hemi- 
pterous  insects  mhabiting  stagnant  waters,  and  preying 
on  the  smaller  water  inaects,  &C.  -  The  largest  species 
yet  known  ia  Nepa  grandit,  a  native  of  Surinam  and 
other  parts  of  South  America.  This  speoies  far  exceeds 
all  the  European  animals  of  that  genus  in  siie.  It 
measures  three  inches  in  length.  It  lives  in  the  water, 
in  the  larva  and  pupa  state,  and  attacks  not  only  other 
water  insects  hut  some  animals  much  lai^r  than  itself; 
Madame  Merian  represents  this  species,  among  her 
Surinam  insects,  as  preying  upon  tadpoles  and  young 
frogs.  Its  colour  is  a  dull  yellowish  brown,  with  a  few 
darker  shades  or  variegations :  the  under  wings  are  of  a 
eemitransparent  white  colour,  and  the  abdomen  ia  ter- 
minated by  a  short  tubular  process. 

The  term  Nepa  is  suppoaed  by  some  to  have  been 
originally  a  misprint  from  fftpa,  a  Latin  word  applied 
to  the.  scorpion.  The  structure  of  the  individuals  of 
this  fiunily  shows  their  rapacious  character:  they  seise 
their  prey  by  the  assistance  of  their  ft)re-legs  and  con- 
vey it  to  the  mouth,  which  consists  of  a  short,  but  acute 
and  strongly  articulated  proboscis,  with  which  they  are 
enabled  to  inflict  a  sharp  wound. 

The  common  water  scorpion  {Nepa  ctfiMva)  is  a 
very  frequent  inhabitant  of  stagnant  waters  in  our  own 
couutry.  It  measures  about  an  inch  in  lengib,  and  iq>- 
pears  when  the  wings  are  closed  entirely  of  a  dull  brown 
colonr ;  hut  when  the  wings  are  expanded,  the  body  ^- 
peara  of  bright  red  colour  above,  with  a  black  longitu- 
dinal band  down  the  middle :  the  lower  wings,  which  are 
of  a  fine  transparent  white,  are  decorated  with  red  veins : 
from  the  tail  proceeds  a  tubular  bifid  process  or 
style  nearly  of  the  length  of  the  body,  and  which  appears 
single  on  a  general  view,  the  two  valves  of  which  it  con- 
■lata  being  generally  applied  close  to  each  other  through- 
out their  whole  length.  The  animal  is  of  slow  motion, 
and  is  often  found  creeping  about  the  shallow  parts  of 
ponds,  &c.  In  the  month  of  May  it  deposits  its  eggs 
on  the  soft  surface  of  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water;  they  are  of  a  singular  shape,  resembling  some  of 
the  crowned  seeds,  with  a  coronet  of  seven  bristles;  and 
before  they  are  deposited,  these  bristles  closely  embrace 
the  e;^  next  to  them  in  the  ovary  like  a  sort  of  sheath, 
as  if  a  chain  of  thistle  seeds  were  formed  by  placing  each 
in  succession  in  the  bosom  of  the  down  of  the  one  next 
to  it.     As  the  mother  insect  deposits  these  eggi  in  the 


stems  ct  aquatic  pkats,  the  bristleB,  which  ire  paitlj  1^ 
on  the  outside,  are  prohaUy  intended  to  yn^m  it 
aperture  from  being  closed  up,  by  the  n^  gnmli  gf 
the  plant.  When  the  young  are  hatched,  thej  tw  w 
more  than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  iu  lengtL  The  Wt? 
and  pupn  differ  in  appearance  from  the  conplite  imt 
in  having  only  the  rudiments  of  wings,  and  being  j  i 
paler  or  yellower  colour.  The  perfect  uisect  bretiia 
by  means  of  a  single  pair  of  spiracles  placed  be!mid,tiii 
lateral  spiracles  being  obsolete  or  mdhaeDliL  K 
insect  flies  only  by  nwht,  when  it  wanden  ibont  tb 
fields  in  the  neighbourhood  of  its  native  walcn  in  qM 

Nepa  UmearitK  an  insect  of  a  higfalysuigDluiipNt, 
bearing  a  distant  resemblance  to  some  of  tlie  "mIIw 
insects  of  the  genus  Mantis  and  Pkasma.  It  maaae 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  tip  of  the  moU  t« 
the  b^inning  of  the  abdominal  style  or  procett,  vbicb  i 
itself  of  equal  length  to  the  former  part,  sad  ibc  t^t 
animal  is  extremely  slender  in  proportion  to  iti  loftl: 
the  legs  also  are  long  and  slender,  and  the  foieV 
much  longer  in  proportion  than  those  of  the  HOBd 
species,  N.  cintreaf  the  colour  of  the  auiniil  ii  U 
yellowish  brown,  the  back,  when  the  wings  anopudtj, 
appearing  of  a  brownish  red,  and  the  tmder  wiigi  iliit 
and  transparent.  It  inhabits  the  larger  sttgntct  nm 
frequenting  the  ahallower  parts  during  the  middle  of  tit 
day,  when  it  may  be  observed  preying  npMt  tbe  mUB 
water  insects,  &e.  Ita  motions  are  singulai;  it  cAa 
strikes  out  all  its  1^  at  intervale  with  aland  of  tM- 
ing  motion,  and  continues  the  exerciae  for  a  coiuidoi^ 
time.  Its  eggs  ore  smaller  than  thbseof  N.tiiumd 
an  oval  shape,  and  furnished  with  two  processes  ettinf- 
ties  divaricating  from  the  top  ot  meh. 

According  to  Rosel  the  red  eggs  of  a  water-nittin 
dejxMited  upon  the  bodies  of  the  water  seorpiou;  ui 
what  is  very  remarkable,  these  e^s  appear  to  maa* 
in  siae  during  the  <  process  c^ 'thatching.  D«  Geo  tt- 
marked,  that  the  water  scorpiona,  when  much  i^tVa 
with  them,  became  gradually  weakened  as  tbe  (^ 
increased  in  siie. 


Thbrx's  not  B  leaf. within  the  bower; 

There's  not  a  bird  upon  the  tree ; 
There's  not  a  •fei^-drap  on  the  floirer; 

Bot  been  the  in^reet,  Lord !  of  Thee. 
Thy  hand  the  varied  leaf  demgned, 

And  gave  tlie  bird  He  thrillhig  tono; 
Thy  power  the  dew-drop'a  tints  combined, 

Till  like  the  diamond's  blaie  the;  ahesa 
Yesj  dew-dropa,  leaves,  and  buds,  and  all, 

The  smallest,  like  the  greatest  tlunn; 
The  sea's  vast  space,  the  earth's  wide  nil 

Aliks  procMm  Thee  Ku^  of  kings.— 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKER,  WEST  STBIKR 
»  Dim  Pan*.  *»»"  *"* 


N?  692.  SEPTEMBER 


25^P,  1841.  {okIpS-t. 


TURKEY  AND  THB  TURKISH  PROVINCES, 


ANTIOCH  AND  ITS  VICINITY. 
In  the  present  Beries  of  articles  we  do  not  profess  to 
adopt  a  strictly  goc^raphical  arrengeineot  of  our  subject, 
but  to  give  Skttehet,  each  of  which  will,  to  a  certain 
degree,  be  complete  in  itself,  while  the  whole  collec- 
tively will  illustrate  the  landscapes,  the  commerce,  the 
buildings,  the  religion,  the  mannen  and  customs,  &&, 
of  that  widelv'Spread  and  highly -diversified  empire  over 
which  the  Grand  '  Seigneur  reigns.  In  the  last  two 
papers  deselected  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  as  the  sab- 
Jects.of  our  notice.  In  the  next  two  or  three  we  shall 
visit  some  of  the  Asiatic  towns  of  the  empire,  such  as 
Antiocb,  Mecca,  and  Medina. 

Afler  having  passed  through  Asia  Minor,  that  re- 
markable peniasula  which  separates  the  Mediterranean 
from  the  Block  Sea,  ne  arrive  at  Syria,  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  manner  in  which 
this  country  is  now  governed  was  partly  espluned  in  the 
series  of  articles  on  the  Syrian  Coast,  in  our  last 
volume,  and  we  therefore  shall  here  content  ourselves 
with  observing  that  Antii>ch  is  in  the  northern  part  of 
this  region,  within  the  pachalic  of  Aleppo  or  Haleb. 
This  once  splendid  city,  known  as  Antiocbcia  to  the 
ancients,  was  the  capital  of  the  Syro- Macedonian  em- 
pire, and  being  situated  about  midway  between  the 
cities  of  Constantinople  and  Alexandria,  has  since  then 
been  the  centre  of  an  extensive  caravan  trade.  Its 
position,  too,  on  the  beautiful  river  Orontes,  has  placed 
it  in  favourable  proximity  to  the  Mediterranean. 

With  the  exception  of  Jerusalem  there  is  not  perhaps 
another  city  of  which  the  records  present  so  sad  a  cata- 
logue of  revolutions  and  direful  calamities  as  Antiocb. 
Besides  the  usual  plagues  of  Eastern  cities,  pestilence, 
famine)  £re,  and  sword,  it  has  been  peculiarly  subject  to 
the  most  dreadful  earthquakes.     The  city  was  founded 

Vol.  XIX. 


by  Seleucus  Nicanor,  300  years  before  Christ,  and  was 
held  under  much  t3n:anny  and  civil  contest  by  the  family 
of  the  Seleucidffi,  until  near  the  time  of  Pompey's  con- 

Juest,  and  the  reduction  of  the  city  and  country  beneath 
le  Roman  yoke,  b.  c.  65.  It  was  in  the  reign  of  Tra- 
jan, in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1 1 5,  that  we  first  find  men- 
tion of  those  terrible  earthquakes  with  which  Antioch 
more  than  any  other  city  has  been  visited.  It  is  said 
that  on  that  occasion  Trajan,  being  at  Antioch,  narrowly 
escaped  with  his  life,  and  the  city  was  almost  entirely 
destroyed;  but  the  munificence  of  the  emperor  was 
employed  to  repair  the  misfortune,  as  far  as  it  lay  in 
his  power,  and  the  city  soon  resumed  its  ancient  splen- 
dour and  commercial  aspect.  It  would  be  wearisome  to 
onr  readers  to  go  through  the  long  list  of  disasters 
which  befel  this  city, — sometimes  a  prey  to  famine  and 
the  plague;  ft^uently  overturned  by  earthquakes;  now 
"  thenretaken  by  the  Romans; 

ire ;  at  another  time  pillaged 
by  the  Turks;  afterward  captured  under  circumstances 
of  treachery,  cruelty,  and  fanaticism  by  the  Crusaders ; 
and  then  soon  after  taken  away  from  them,  with  great 
slaughter  of  the  inhabitants,  by  the  Sultan  of  £gypt, 
and  thus  remaining  in  a  deserted  and  ruinous  condition, 
till,  with  the  rest  of  Syria,  it  passed  into  the  bands  of 
the  Ottoman  Turks,  to  whose  empire  it  has  ever  since 
appertained. 

We   have  the  testimony  of  many  travellers  to  the 
fertJlity  of  soil  and  richness  of  landscape  which  mark 
the  vicinity  of  Antioch, 
and   degraded   state,   and 


duties  by  the  luxuries  of  this  splendid 


1  in  its  present  neglected 
e  can  therefore  the  better 
!B  of  wealth  and   delight  "' 

were  attracted  by  its  plea- 
ailiired  from   their 


593 


114 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Skptembee  25, 


lowing  18  the  description  of  the  scenery  on  the  banks  of 
the  Orontes,  as  given  by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles. 

We  now  began  to  fellow  the  banks  of  the  rirer,  and  were 
astonished  by  the  beauty  of  the  scenery,  fer  surpassing  any- 
thing we  expected  to  see  in  Syria,  and,  indeed,  any  thuur  we 
lad  witnessed,  even  in  Switzerland,  though  we  walked 
mine  hundred  miles  in  that  country,  and  saw  most  of  its 
beauty.  The  river,  from  the  time  we  becan  to  trace  its 
banks,  ran  continually  between  two  high  hills,  winding  and 
turning  incessantly :  at  times  the  road  led  along  precipices 
in  the  rocks,  looking  down  perpendicularly  on  the  nver. 
The  luxuriant  variety  of  foliage  was  prodigious,  and  the 
rich  green  myrtle,  which  was  very  plentiful,  contrasted 
with  the  colour  of  the  road,  the  soil  of  which  was  a  dark 
red  gravel,  made  us  imagine  we  were  riding  through  plea- 
sure-grounds. The  laurel,  lanrustinus,  bay-tree,  fig-tree, 
wild  vine,  plane  tree,  English  sycamore,  arbutus,  both  com- 
mon and  andrachne,  dwarf  oak,  &c.,  were  scattered  in  all 
directions.  At  times  the  road  was  overhung  with  rock& 
covered  with  ivy;  the  months  of  caverns  also  presented 
themselves,  and  gave  a  wildness  to  the  scene ;  ana  the  per^ 
pendicular  clifls  jutted  into  the  river,  upwards  of  three 
hundred  feet  high,  forming  comers  roimd  which  the  waters 
ran  in  a  most  romantic  manner.  We  descended  at  times 
into  plains  cultivated  with  mulberry  plantations  and  vines, 
and  prettily  studded  with  picturesque  cottages.  The  occa- 
sion^ shallows  of  the  river,  keeping  u])  a  perpetual  roaring, 
completed  the  beauty  of  the  scene,  which  lasted  about  two 
hours,  when  we  entered  the  plain  of  Suadeah  (Selenciik) 
where  the  river  becomes  of  a  greater  breadth,  and  runs  m 
as  straight  a  line  as  a  canal.*' 

Under  the  Macedonian  kin^^ s  of  Syria  the  worship  of 
the  goddess   Daphne  was  condactea  in  a  grove  near 
Antioch,  which   had   been   planted  by   Seleucut,   the 
founder  of  the  city.     This  beautiful  grove  of  laurels 
and  cypresses,  with  its  temple  and  oracle,  was  lonjr  the 
most  fashionable  and  splendid  place  of  resort  for  Pagan 
worship   in  the  East.    The  conduct,  of  the  people  of 
Antioch  seems  to  have  closely  corresponded  witn  the 
instructions   they  received  from   the  debasing  rites  of 
Pagan  worship,  for  they  are  described  to  us  as  luxurious 
in  life  and  licentious  in  manners.     In  such  a  soil  as  this 
we  should  scarcely  have  hoped  to  find  Christianity  taking 
root;  but,   nevertheless,  we  find  on  the  arrival  frOm 
Cyprus  and  Cyrene  of  certain  converts  who  had  fled 
from  persecution  to  take  refuge  in  Antioch,  gpreat  num- 
bers of  the  people  of  that  city  listened  to  the  tidings  they 
brought,  believed  the  Gospel  message,  and  embraced  the 
religion  of  Christ.  The  name  of  Christian^  first  bestowed 
on  the  disciples  in  that  city,  was  not  applied  to  them  in 
honour  of  their  Lord,  or  simply  to  mark  the  distinction 
between  them  and  others  who  adhered  to  paganism,  but 
it  was  applied  to  them  aa  a  term  of  contempt  and  of  the 
bitterest  reproach;  yet,  notwithstanding  the  opprobrium 
attached  to  that  name,  many  were  found  willing  to  bear 
it,  and  to  separate  themselves  from  the  vices  and  profli- 
gacies of  their  city,  that  they  might  tread  in  the  steps 
of  their  self-denying  Lord.     To  this  they  were  encou- 
raged by  the  examples  of   Paul  and   Barnabas,   who 
laboured  during  a  whole  year,  by  preaching  and  exhorta- 
tions, to  establish  the  new  converts  in  the  knowledge 
and  belief  of  the  truth.     Thus  was  formed  out  of  a 
luxurious  and  idolatrous  people  a  community  of  true 
believers,  at  first  comparatively  few  in  number,  but  after 
a  while  increasing  to  a  great  extent,  and  becoming  an 
illustrious  and  influential  body,  eminent  for  charity  of 
spirit  and  consistency  of  conduct.      It  would  detain  us 
too  long,  to  speak  of  the  prosperity  and  increase  of  this 
church  in  the  time  of  Chnrsostom,  at  the  latter  part  of 
the  fourth  century  after  Christ.     It  was  a  worldly  pro- 
sperity, that  was  too  great  for  the  spirUual  weljare  of 
the  Christians,  and  which  appears  to  have  prepared  the 
way  for  succeeding  apostasy. 

We  must  now  proceed  to  describe  the  remaining 
traces  of  former  greatness,  which  were  visible  in  this 
place,  before  the  earthquake  of  1S22  laid  it  entirely  in 
ruins.'  At  that  period  a  large  part  of  the  immense 
vails  wbicti  formed  the  boundary  of  the  ancient  city 


were  still  standing.  They  were  from  thirty  to  fifty 
feet  high,  fifteen  feet  thick,  and  flanked  bynttmeroos 
square  towers,  and  though  much  fuinedi  they  distinctly 
marked  the  ancient  boundary.  There  are  different 
accounts  as  to  the  space  inclosed  by  them.  Mr.  Buck- 
ingham says  that  they  have  a  circuit  of  nearly  four 
miles,  but  his  statement  is  far  below  that  of  the  more 
ancient  authorities.  The  buildings  at  Antioch,  at  the 
period  alluded  to,  were  of  a  mean  description,  and  no 
traces  remained  of  architecture  worthy  of  the  **  Queen  ot 
the  East,*'  as  this  city  was  once  proudly  named.  Hie 
language  spoken  there  was  chiefly  Turkish,  though 
there  were  a  few  Christian  families  remaining,  and  some 
Jews.  The  Christians  were  accustomed  to  assemble  for 
prayer  in  one  of  the  cayes  or  excavations  in  the  rock, 
which  are  numerous  in  Antioch,  and  which  appear  to 
have  been  the  ancient  Necropolis*,  or  cemetery. 

Great  numbers  of  medals  and  engrayed  stones  hare 
been  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Antioch,  especially 
during  the  winter  season,  when  the  ground  has  been 
laid  bare  by  heavy  rains.  The  most  interesting  are 
those  of  the  Seleucidse,  the  founders  and  beautifiers  of 
the  ancient  city :  there  are  also  many  of  the  period  of 
Julius  Cesar  and  Augustus,  with  great  quantities  of 
Phosnician  coins. 

The  modem  name  of  Antioch  is  AntaJcia:  it  is  verr 

« 

little  known  to  the  western  nations:  the  attacks  of  it^ 
ancient  iuhtef'ranean  enemy  have  reduced  it  almost 
entirely  to  ruins,  and  everything  connected  with  that 
once  proud  and  stately  city  must  now  be  reckoned  with 
the  past. 

^  This  word,  i«MHbtod/t7mi%,iBetns*'fth6dtjr  of  OwdMi' 


IN   TIM18   or   DIITRESS   AMD   DANGER. 

Oh  cm,  that  madest  earth  and  sky,  the  darkness  and  thedsj, 
Give  ear  to  this  Thy  fSuniljr,  and  hdp  ns  when  we  pny ! 
For  wide  the  waves  of  bitterness  around  onr  vessel  roar, 
And  heavy  grows  the  pilot's  heart  to  view  the  rod^  shore! 
The  cross  our  Master  bore  for  us,  for  Him  we  fiun  wonld  bear, 
But  mortal  strength  to  weakness  turns,  and  cournfe  to  despair! 
Then  mercy  on  our  failings,  Lord !  oar  sinking  mith  renev! 
And  when  Thy  sorrows  visit  us,  oh!  send  Thy  patience  toa- 

BisBov  Hnn 


On  the  whole,  we  make  too  much  of  fiinlts;  the  details  of 
the  business  hide  the  real  centre  of  it.  Faults!  Themtest 
of  fiiults,  I  should  say,  is  to  be  conscious  of  none.  Beiden 
of  the  Bible,  above  all,  one  would  think,  might  koo^ 
better*    Who  is  called  there  the  man  according  to  God'iovi 

heart)  David,  the  Hebrew  King»  had  fiOkn  into  sins  eoough; 
blackest  crimes;  there  was  no  want  of  sins.  And,  there- 
upon, the  unbelievers  sneer  and  ask,  la  this  your  man  ac- 
cording to  6od*8  heart?  The  sneer,  I  must  say,  aeems  to 
me  but  a  shallow  one.  What  are  fiiults,  what  are  the  oat' 
ward  details  of  a  life,  if  the  hmer  secret  of  it,  the  remone, 
temptation,  true,  often  baffled,  never-ended  struggle  of  it, 
be  forgotten?  *  It  is  not  in  man  that  walketh  to  mrsct  u> 
stepa.'  Of  all  acts  is  not»  for  a  man,  repealflMef  the  not 
divine?  The  deadliest  ^  I  say,  ware  that  same  sopera- 
lious consciousness  of  no  sin ; — ^that  is.  death;  the  heart, » 
conscious,  is  divorced  from  sincerit)^  numility,  and  feet ;  u 
dead:  it  is 'pure*  as  dead  drr  sand  is  pure.  David's bfc 
and  history,  as  written  fbr  ns  in  those  Psalms  of  hi^  I  con- 
sider to  be  the  truest  emblem  ever  given  of  a  man's  monj 
progress  and  warfare  here  below.  AU  earnest  senU  will 
ever  discern  in  it  the  fidthftd  struggle  of  an  earoest  himi«^ 
soul  towards  what  is  good  and  best.  StrngglA  often  hilBed, 
sore  baffled,  down  as  into  entire  wreck;  yet  a  stmggisMj*^ 
ended;  ever»  with  tears,  rspentanoe^  true  unoonqaeniuf 
purpose,  begun  anew.  Poor  numan  nature  I  J^s'^o**^,! 
walking,  in  truth,  always  that:  «a  successibn  of  Ww? 
Man  can  do  no  other.  In  this  wild  element  of  a  life,  w  ^ 
to  struggle  onwards;  now  fallen,  deep  ahassd:  aed  ertfV 
with  tears,  repentasnce^  with  bleeding  heart,  he  has  to  ii» 
again,  straggle  again  stai  onwards.  That  his  itniale«|j 
ftuthful,  unconquerable  ones  that  is  the  questioo  of  f^ 
tions.  We  wiUputiq»  with  many  sad  details^  if  ths  90^  91 

it  were  true, — CjliuiTIiB, 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


lllr 


ON  CHESS.    No.  XVni. 
On  the  Powers  of  the  Pieces  and  Pawns. 

We  have  hitherto  supposed  the  reader  to  be  acquainted 
with,  at  lr'\st,  the  alphabet  of  chess ;  and  have  not  hesi- 
tated to  eiuploy  many  of  the  technical  terms  used  in  the 
game.  In  the  concluding  articles  of  this  course  we  hope 
to  furnish  some  curious  and  useful  information  on  sub- 
jects which  are  scarcely  noticed  in  books  devoted  to  the 
elements  of  chess-play. 

We  quite  agree  with  the  suggestion  of  a  recent  writer 
that  the  best  method  of  learning  the  names  of  the 
pieces  with  their  moves,  and  the  manner  of  placing 
them  at  the  beginning  of  the  game,  is  to  take  an  hour's 
lesson  from  a  friend.  Supposing  this  to  have  been  done, 
and  the  student  to  be  engaged  in  actual  play,  he  will 
soon  perceive,  that  the  various  pieces  have  different 
degrees  of  power;  that  a  rook  is  of  more  value  than  a 
bishop  or  a  knight,  and  that  a  pawn  is  of  far  less  value 
than  a  minor  piece.  He  will  find  the  queen  to  be  a  match 
for  several  pieces,  and  may  be  willing  to  part  with  a  rook, 
a  bishop,  and  a  knight,  in  order  to  capture  his  antago- 
nist's queen.  The  different  values  or  the  pieces  and 
pawns  are  soon  appreciated  by  the  player,  and  he  endea- 
vours to  regulate  his  exchanges  accordingly ;  nevertheless, 
few  persons  have  attended  to  the  circumstances  which 
decide  these  values,  and  although  they  are  numerically 
expresRed  in  most  elementary  works  yet  the  computa- 
tions which  have  led  to  them  are  always  omitted. 

If  a  general  had  two  bodies  of  troops  similar  in  most 
respects,  but  one  of  which,  from  any  cause  whatever, 
could  ooeupy  only  a  particular  part  of  any  hostile  dis- 
trict ;  while  the  other  was  capable  of  occupying  different 
posts  at  distant  points  by  a  series  of  rapid  movements ; 
the  first  body  would,  generally  speaking,  be  far  less 
valuable  than  the  second.     Now  something  analogous  to 
this  occurs  at  chess :  those  pieces  which  are  capable  of 
taking  the  greatest  range  over  the  board,  and  of  making 
the  most  rapid  movements,  are  the  most  valuable.     For 
the   hills  and  valleys  of  a  contested  country,  we  have 
nothing  but  black  and  white  squares  on  the  chess-board ; 
therefore  the  test  of  strength  which  we  are  now  consi- 
dering is  this, — ^how  many  squares  of  the  chess-board 
can  each  piece  or  pawn  command  at  one  time  ? 

In  the  first  place,  let  us  suppose  the  board  to  be  deared 
of  its  pieces  and  pawns,  and  one  of  each  to  be  placed  on  it 
in  succession.  Choose  a  central  square,  such  as  the 
king's  4th,  and  ascertain  how  many  squares  a  pawn  or  a 
piece  can  command  from  that  position.  A  pawn  placed 
on  that  square  commands  two  others,  being  those  to 
which  it  would  move  if  it  made  a  capture.  The  knight 
could  move  to  any  of  8  squares;  the  bishop  to  any 
one  of  13  squares:  the  rook  to  14:  the  queen  to  27; 
and  the  king  to  8. — ^We  rel\rain  from  demonstrating  these 
numbers,  because  the  reader  can  easily  satisfy  himself 
on  this  point,  by  placing  the  pieces,  one  after  another, 
on  the  king's  4th  square,  all  the  other  squares  being 
unoccupied.  So  far,  then,  as  this  mode  of  comparison 
is  concerned,  the  power  of  the  pieces  to  move  on  to 
other  squares  is 

Pawn  ...  «  2 
Knight...  =  8 
Bishop...  a  13 
Rook  ...  «B  14 
Queen ...  »  27 

ITintt  >.      ft 

But  we  have  now  to  inquire  whether^  this  proportion 
eiists  for  all  the  squares  equally.  A  very  little  experi- 
ence will  show  that  it  does  not:  every  piece  is  diminished 
in  value  as  it  approaches  the  edges  of  the  board;  but 
this  diminution  is  not  the  same  for  all.  Let  us  select 
the  king's  rook's  square,  and  notice  the  change  in  the 
powers  of  the  pieces.  Testing  them  one  by  one,  we  shall 
find  that  the  number  of  squares  to  which  each  can  move 
is— 


Pawn    ... 

B3 

1 

Knight... 

B 

2 

Bishop  ... 

«■ 

7 

Rook    ... 

as 

14 

Queen  ... 

BB 

21 

King    ... 

B 

3 

Here  it  will  be  seen,  that  while  the  rook  has  not 
changed  in  value,  the  others  have  done  so  considerably, 
but  in  different  ratios.  If  we  select  any  other  square 
intermediate  between  the  centre  and  the  comer,  we  shall 
find  the  numbers  to  be  higher  than  the  one,  and  lower 
than  the  other  of  our  two  lists.  The  knight,  for  instance, 
commands  2,  3,4,  6,  or  8  squares,  according  to  where  he 
may  be  situated;  the  bisnop  commands  7,  9,  11,  13 
squares;  and  so  on.  The  correct  way,  therefore,  of  com- 
paring the  powers  of  the  pieces  in  moving  over  the  open 
DQard  is  to  suppose  a  piece  to  be  placed  on  every  one 
of  the  sixty-four  squares  in  succession — to  add  up  the 
respective  powers  in  all  these  positions, — and  to  divide 
the  result  by  64.  This  is  a  process  analogous  to  that 
employed  in  every  department  of  science  for  the  obtain- 
ing of^an  average  or  meauy  whereby  small  errors,  varia- 
tions, and  discrepancies,  become  absorbed,  or  expunged 
by  mutual  correction  in  the  general  result;  and  it  is  per- 
fectly applicable  in  the  present  case.  This  being  done, 
it  is  found  that  the  average  power  of  each  piece  to  move 
over  the  open  beard  is  nearly  as  follows : — 

Pawn  ...  s  H 
Knight...  »  6\ 
Bishop ...  s  8} 
Rook  ...  M  14 
Queen  ...  =22} 
King    ...  =s   6| 

Here  the  bishop  is  said  to  be  =8},  which  means 
that  in  consequence  of  his  sometimes  -commanding  as 
many  as  13  squares,  and  at  other  times  as  few  as 
7,  the  average  d  the  whole  is  8i;  and  so  of  the  others 
—the  rook  being  of  constant  vfdue  in  any  position  ou 
the  open  board* 

We  have  now  something  like  a  test  of  the  respective 
powers  of  the  pieces,  by  which  we  begin  to  see  the  ad 
vantage  of  making  exchanges  of  one  for  another.  But 
still  this  is  nothing  more  than  a  groundwork  on  which 
to  found  subsequent  calcuktions,  for  we  have  proceeded 
on  a  supposition  which  never  occurs  in  practice, — ^vis.,  an 
open  or  cleared  board.  The  intermixture  of  pieces  among 
each  other  over  the  field  of  contest,  gives  rise  to  varia- 
tions so  complicated  and  so  remarkable  that  it  has  re- 
quired great  analytical  research  from  distinguished  men, 
to  trace  them  to  their  sources.  We  strongly  doubt 
whether  this  has  yet  been  done  correctly;  but  still  an 
approximation  to  correctness  has  been  made,  and  we  will 
briefly  notice  the  manner  in  which  the  inquiry  has  been 
conducted. 

We  have  hitherto  considered  the  board  to  be  cleared, 
and  have  ascertained  the  relative  values  of  the  pieces  on 
that  supposition.  Let  us  now  suppose  the  pieces  and 
pawns  to  be  arranged  for  the  commencement  of  a  game, 
and  view  their  positions  before  the  game  begins.  Here  wo 
are  struck  with  the  remarkable  fact  that  the  pieces  are 
almost  powerless;  it  is  true  they  act  as  defenders  of  the 
pawns  which  front  them;  but  as  to  the  power  of  moving, 
none  of  them  posssess  it  except  the  knight.  The  king, 
the  queen,  the  bishop  and  the  rook  cannot  move  a  step 
until  some  of  the  pawns  are  moved,  and  the  knight  owes 
hi^  power  of  moving  to  his  singular  privilege  of  leaping 
over  other  pieces  or  pawns.  So  far,  then,  as  the  power 
of  moving  is  concerned,  a  pawn  is  actually  more  power- 
ful than  even  a  queen  at  the  commencement  of  the 

game. 

Now  in  actual  play,  the  relative  powers  of  moving  are 
always  intermediate  between  the  two  extremes  which  we 
have  mentioned,  from  the  time  of  the  first  move  being 
made,  the  eonstrained  limits  of  the  pieces  begin  to  be 
broken,  and  their  natural  powers  to  be  developed;  but 

692—2 


11^ 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Septembir  2S 


on  the  other  hand,  these  powe^  never  attain  the  rank 
given  to  them  hy  our  first  supposition,  for  the  two 
kings— «ven  if  nothing  else — are  always  on  the  board. 
The  power  of  moving  from  square  to  square  varies  as 
the  game  proceeds,  but  not  with  equal  rapidity:  for  in- 
stance;— ^the  knight  is  powerful  from  the  verv  beginning 
of  the  game,  because  whatever  be  near  him  ne  can  leap 
over  the  intervening  piece ;  while  the  rook  is  seldom  of 
much  use  till  several  of  the  pieces  and  pawns  are  off  the 
board.  The  rook  increases  nis  value  by  the  thinning  of 
the  combatants  more  rapidly  than  any  other  piece,  and 
therefore  the  ratio  of  his  value  is  continually  increasing. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  degree  of  openness  of  the 
board  changes  the  proportionate  value  of  the  pieces,  and 
it  is  diffic^t  to  fii  4  point  where  the  power  may  be 
deenled  an  average  between  the  highest  and  lowest.  It 
is  assumed,  however,  that  we  may  suppose  eadi  party  to 
have  lost  three  pieces  and  four  pawns,  leaving  four  pieces 
and  four  pawns  to  defend  the  King.  This  is  a  fraction 
more  than  half  the  original  forces,  and  may  therefore  be 
taken  as  an  average  or  medium  between  the  powers  pos- 
sessed by  the  respective  pieces  when  the  board  is  quite 
open,  and  when  all  the  pieces  are  arranged  for  the  com- 
mencement of  a  game. 

If  during  the  progress  of  a  game,  when  about  half 
the  pieces  and  pawns  have  been  removed  by  mutual 
exchanges,  one  of  the  players  estimate  the  various 
powers  of  his  remaining  pieces,  he  may  sometimes  ob« 
serve  that  a  whole  rank,  or  file  of  squares  is  blocked  up 
by  the  intervention  of  one  single  piece  or  pawn,  and 
moreover,  that  the  intervening  piece  or  pawn  may  be  of 
his  own  party.  In  such  a  case  his  own  troops  actually 
stand  in  each  other's  way ;  and  the  less  skilful  the  player, 
the  more  likely  is  this  self-imposed  blockade  to  occur. 
It  may,  and  sometimes  does  happen  in  practice,  that 
every  square  to  which  the  knight's  peculiar  leap  allows 
him  to  move,  is  occupied  by  one  of  his  own  forces;  and 
the  queen,  after  making  a  capture,  is  frequentiy  found 
to  be  so  hemmed  in  by  inferior  pieces  and  pawns,— -some 
of  her  own  party,  and  others  belonging  to  the  antago- 
nist, but  well  supported — that  she  becomes  almost  useless. 
If  a  piece  be  blocked  up  by  one  of  the  same  party,  the 
moving  power  in  that  direction  is  temporarily  suspended, 
until  the  obstructing  piece  is  removed;  and  if  the  ob- 
structing piece  be  of  the  opposite  party,  but  of  inferior 
value,  and  supported^  to  capture  that  piece  would  be 
a  loss,  so  that  a  passage  in  that  direction  may  be  deemed 
practically  blocked  out.  From  all  this  it  will  be  seen, 
that  the  comparative  values  of  the  pieces,  at  and  about 
the  middle  of  the  game,  are  greatly  modified  by  the 
liahiUty  of  obstruction,  arising  from  the  intervention  of 
a  piece  belonging  to  the  same  party,  or  of  a  supported 
inferior  piece  of  the  opposite  party. 

Other  variations  in  value  will  be  not  ced  in  oar  next 
article  on  this  subject. 

Fruits  ov  Sinoa.pose.— The  boats  are  seen  entering  the 
harbour  before  sun-rise,  laden  with  pine-apples  and  other 
fruits:  the  former,  although  not  equal  to  those  of  the  Eng- 
lish hot-house,  bear  no  comparison,  from  their  superior 
flavour,  with  the  same  fruit  of  either  East  or  West  Indian 
growth.  Here  they  are  in  such  abundance  that  captains  of 
Bhivs  frequently  purchase  them  by  boat-loads  to  scour  their 
decks,  which. from  the  acidity  they  possess,  they  have  the 
property  of  whitening.  But  here,  and  here  only  in  its 
prime,  18  found  the  most  delicious  of  all  fruits,  the  mangos- 
tein,  which,  once  tasted,  is  never  forgotten;  and  often,  on  a 
sultry  Eastern  morning,  the  traveller  recollects  the  baskets  of 
these  cool  and  luscious  fruits  that  were  here  his  morning 
meel.'-'JSfuB  Months  with  the  Chinsse  Expedition, 

Thb  onlv  difference  between  the  camel  and  the  dromedary 
is,  that  the  latter  is  trained  for  riding,  and  the  former  for 
burdens.  The  distinction,  at  the  most,  is  the  same  as  be- 
tween a  riding-horse  and  a  pack-horse;  but,  among  the 
Bedawto,  so  far  as  our  experience  went»  it  seemed  to  amount 
to  litUe  more,  than  that  the  one  had  a  riding-saddle^  and 
the  oiher  a  pack-fiaddle«^«-EoBXK80N's  Potefm. 


MAPS  AND  MAPPING:    HL 

The  Stbreooraphic  and  thb  Globular  Pro 
JECTIONB. — Development  —  Conical— -Cylin- 
drical. —  Mercator's   Projection.— Conclu- 

3ION. 

3.  The  Stereooraphic  Projection  of  the  sphere  is  so 
named,  because  the  deHn^aUon  is  supposed  to  be  Dude 
by  talking  a  Tiew  through  the  solid  sphere.  In  this  pro- 
jection, the  eye  is  considered  to  be  placed  at  the  Bui&ce 
of  the  sphere,  as  at  b  ;  hence,  it  views  the  concave  of  the 
opposite  hemisphere  a  f  b,  through  the  plane  of  that 
cu^  A  c  B  D,  in  the  pole  of  which  the  eye  is  pkccd 


Fig.  a. 


This  projection  is  therefore  the  reverse  of  the  ortko- 
graphic :  in  the  latter  the  hemisphere  was  thrown  down 
upon  the  plane  of  a  great  circle ;  but,  in  the  tteno* 
grraphic  method,  the  hemisphere  (a  f  b)  is  brought  np 
to  this  plane,  (a  c  b  d,)  which  is  the  plane  of  pn^eciioo. 

Although,  as  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  fignre^  ill 
the  various  places  on  the  concave  hemisphere  afb 
suffer  considerable  contraction  in  being  represented  on 
the  plane  of  projection  a  c  b  d,  yet  the  lul vantages offiatd 
by  lids  method  of  projection  have  brought  it  more  isto 
use  than  the  methods  before  mention^  It  is  espe- 
cially calculated  for  maps  of  the  world,  at  usually  wt 
in  two  hemispheres,  from  the  circumatance  of  the  Tepi»> 
sentation  being  so  Uttle  distorted  at  the  extremiUes;  is 
may  be  seen,  in  the  figure,  by  tracking  up  the  several 
parts  of  the  concave  circumference  a  f  b  to  the  plane  of 
projection  above* 

This  projection  is  also  preferable,  on  aocoont  of  tbe 
meridians  and  parallels  intersecting  each  other  at  right 
angles,  as  they  do  on  the  globe.  Its  construction  ahos 
less  difficult  than  that  of  others;  since  all  the  grett 
circles  of  the  sphere  are  either  cirolea  or  straight  lines  ia 
the  projection.  The  meridian  of  20*'  W.  is  the  (hm 
usually  selected  by  English  geographers  for  the  plane  a 
projection  in  these  uuips  for  the  world,  becanse  ti^ 
meridian  passes  very  nearly  between  the  eastern  and 
western  continents,  which  therefore  occupy  their  respec- 
tive hemispheres.  , 

4.  The  Globular  projection  is  a  modification  « 
the  kst,  and  is  so  nauMsd,  because,  like  the  stereographic» 
it  is  chiefly  used  for  making  maps  of  the  world. 

We  have  already  shown  that  the  atereographic  proje^ 
tion  insures  a  general  similarity  in  all  its  parts,  and 
enables  us  to  project  at  least  a  hemisphere  in  a  single  siap. 
without  any  violent  distortion  of  the  configurations  oa 
the  surface  from  their  real  forms.  But  as  in  the  ortho- 
graphic projection  the  borders  of  the  hemisphere  are 
unduly  crowded  together,  in  the  atereographic  tbetf 
projected  dimensions  are,  on  the  contrary,  aonip'^^ 
enlarged  in  receding  from  the  centre.  Ito  will  w 
visible  by  inspecting  t^e  previous  figure. 

To  meet  this  inconvenience,  and  to  give  a  general 
equability  to  the  perspective,  the  globular  projection 
was  originated  by  M.  de  la  Hire,  on  the  following  [«»- 
ciple:^-He  supposes  the  eye  to  be  placed  at  a  distanoi 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


117 


Hg.4 


from  the  sphere  equal  to  the  sine  of  46^;  that  is,  if  the 
diameter  of  the  sphere  he  equal  to  two  hundred,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  eye  from  the  nearest  point  of  the  eircumfe- 
renra  Would  he  70tV  Some  further  modification  was 
subsequently  deemed  desirahley  in  order  that  the  me- 
ridians mignt  intersect  the  equator  at  equal  distances. 
This  condition  is  very  nearly  fulfilled  when  the  distance 
of  the  eye  is  59  j-,  the  diameter  being  200,  as  before. 

In  this  projection,  therefore,  the  arcs  of  the  sphere, 
and  their  projections,  are  very  nearly  proportionate  to 
each  other;  or,  in  other  words,  equal  spaces  on  the  spheric 
surface  are  represented  by  equal  spaces  on  the  map,  by 
m  approximation  as  near  the  truth  as  can  be. 

When  the  eye  is  placed  at  the  surface  of  the  sphere, 
18  at  E,  (fig.  3,)  all  the  meridians  and  parallels  are  re- 
rresented  on  die  plane  of  projection,  as  they  really  are 
n  the  surface  of  the  globe  itself;  they  are  all  circular : 
lut,  when  the  eye  is  placed  out  of  the  surface,  as  at  b, 
fig.  4,)  the  meridians  and  parallels  lose  the  form  of 
ircies,  and  become  ellipses,  in  proportion  to  the  distance 
»f  the  eye  from  the  surface  of  the  sphere.  The  meri- 
lians  and  parallels  in  the  globular  projection  are,  there- 
ore,  in  reality,  ellipses.  They  are  not,  however,  usually 
Irawn  so ;  geographers  contenting  themselves  ¥dth  cir- 
ialar,  in  place  of  elliptical  curves ;  and,  as  the  deviation 
s  excessively  small  in  this  projection,  the  practical 
itility  of  the  map  \a  not  affected. 

II.  Projection,  when  referred  to  the  principle  of 
DEVEI.OPMSNT,  is  uuderstood  to  be  the  unfolding,  or 
preading  out,  of  the  spherical  surface  on  a  plane.  This, 
lowever,  first  supposes  the  sphere  to  be  converted  into 
.  cone  or  a  cylinder; — ^these  being  the  forms,  portions 
f  which  most  resemble  portions  of  a  sphere,  and  which, 
t  the  same  time,  are  susceptible  of  the  required  develop- 
Qient. 

The  methods  of  projection  before  explained,  are 
isoally  employed  in  the  representation  of  a  hemisphere; 
lut  are  seldom  used  in  delineating  the  geographical 
catures  of  a  single  country:  for  these  the  method  of 
leveiopment  is  commonly  employed,  which  is  of  two 
orts,— the  Conical  and  the  CylindricaL 

1 .  It  is  a  known  property  of  a  coney  that  its  curve 
arface  can  be  expanded  into  a  plane;  hence,  any  figure 
elineated  on  it,  can  always  he  exhibited  exactly  in  all 
;s  dimensimis  on  a  plane  surface.  Now,  a  part  of  the 
arfaee  of  a  sphere  contained  between  two  parallels  of 
ititnde,  not  very  remote^  will  not  differ  much  from  the 
arface  of  a  frustrom  of  a  cone«  that  touches  the  sphere 
1  the  parallel  midway  between  them.  Hence,  it  will  be 
oen  tliat,  in  the  conical  projection,  the  sphere  is  sup- 
osed  to  be  circumscribed  by  a  cone  a  b  c,  which  touches 
be  sphere  at  the  circle  intended  to  represent  th6  middle 
arallel  of  the  mapr— ^^^  If  the  points  on  the  sphere 
e  now  projected  on  the  cone  by  Imes  drawn  from  the 


Pi»  «. 


centre,  it  b  evident  that,  in  a  zone  extending  but  a  short 
distance  on  each  side  of  the  middle  parallel,  as  the  zone 
included  between  a  a'  and  c  c',  the  points  on  the  cone 
will  very  nearly  coincide  in  position  with  the  correspond- 
ing ones  on  the  sphere.  All  the  delineations  having 
been  thus  made,  the  cone  is  then  conceived  to  he  un- 
rolled, or  developed^  on  a  plane  surface. 

If  the  map  be  made  to  extend  much  above  or  below 
the  middle  parallel,  the  distant  parts  will  be  very  much 
distorted.  To  remedy  the. defects  of  this  projection, 
viarious  modifications  have  been  suggested  and  used ;  but 
into  these  our  limits  will  not  allow  us  to  enter. 

We  cannot  help  ohserving,  therefore,  that  the  conic 
method  of  development  is  best  adapted  to  represent 
countries  to  any  extent  in  the  difference  of  longitude,  or 
round  the  >irhole  circumference  of  the  earth,  if  required 
to  only  a  certain  extent  in  difference  of  latitude.  This 
projection  is  simple  and  easy  of  construction,  owing  to 
the  facility  of  describing  the  parallels  of  latitude  in  con- 
centric circles,  and  the  meridians  in  straight  lines. 

At  the  first  view  of  the  case  it  might  be  difficult  to 
conceive  that  the  surface  of  the  globe  could  be  repre- 
sented by  a  part  of  the  surface  of  a  cone;  yet  we  may 
easily  produce  the  surface  of  a  cone  from  a  piece  of 
paper  cut  into  a  circular  form  or  base;  and  we  could 
as  easily  conclude  that,  if  a  cone,  about  twice  the  height 
of  the  semi-diameter  of  the  globe,  were  to  be  conceived 
standing  on   the  same  base  with  the  hemisphere. 


as 


namely  on  the  equator,  the  surface  of  such  a  cone 
would  in  part  lie  within  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and 
then  that  the  surface  of  the  globe,  at  so  small  a 
distance  from  the  surface  of  the  cone,  might  be  very 
easily  projected  or  delineated  on  it ;  and  in  such  a  case, 
the  projection  of  the  countries  and  their  bearings,  dis- 
tances, &c.,  will  be  very  nearly  the  same  on  the  surface 
of  4he  included  part  of  the  cone,  as  on  that  of  the  globe 

itself. 

2.  From  what  has  been  said  of  the  cone,  it  will  be 
easily  seen  that  a  cylinder  may  be  applied  to  the  sphere 
in  a  similar  manner,  and  that  a  zone  of  very  limited 
extent  in  latitude  may,  without  very  material  error,  be 
developed  on  a  cylinder.  The  peculiarity  of  this  method 
is,  that  the  meridians,  as  well  as  the  latitude-circles, 
are  projected  in  parallel  straight  lines;  which  circum 
stance  makes  it 'very  applicable  to  nautical  purposes,  and 
from  which  ori^nates  the  ingenious  method,  called 
Mercator*»  prwctUmy  which  is  now  so  universally 
adopted  in  our  charts,  and  to  which,  in  the  last  place,  we 
must  briefly  allude. 

The  line  on  which  a  ship  sails,  when  directing  her 
course  obliquely  to  the  meridian,  is  on  the  globe  a  spiral; 
since  it  cuts  all  the  meridians  through  which  it  passes, 
at  equal  angles.  Owing  to  this  and  other  causes,  a  map 
constructed  on  the  principles  of  the  spherical  projectionsi 


118 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[SEFTEHBn  2ii 


Hf. 

6. 

— ^ . — . . 

"9 

^. 

. 

-~i 

J 

/ 

N 

!:. 

\ 

_ 

— 

"A/ 

z 

< 

— 1 

)/. 

r  ■■ 

^ 

^ 

■ 

1  — 

. 

' 

...L, 

m 

fe 

^■w 

-» 

1 

mmm 

m^ 

»» 

was  found  to  be  very  instdequate  to  the  want«  of  the 
navigator.  Meroator  justly  consideredt  that  mariners 
do  not  employ  maps  to  know  the  true  figures  of  CQun-« 
tries,  so  mucn  as  to  determine  the  course  the^  sliall 
steer,  and  the  bearing  and  distance  of  those  pomtf  or 
places  which  lie  near  their  track;  and  this  projection  ia 
the  result  of  his  efforts  to  secure  to  the  seaman  these  de*? 
sirable  ends.  The  merit  of  this  work  is  thougbt  by  many 
to  be  more  justly  due  to  Wright ;  for,  althouj^  Mercator 
published  his  first  chart  in  1556,  he  omitted  Uk  explain 
the  principles  of  it;  and  his  degrees  of  latitude  did 
not  preserve  a  just  proportion  in  their  increase  towards 
the  poles.  Wnght,  in  1599i  cQrrected  these  error^i  an4 
explained  the  principles  of  his  improved  construction^  in 
which  the  degrees  of  latitude  on  the  chart  were  mi^e  to 
increase  towards  the  poles,  in  the  same  ratio  9i»  the  de- 
grees of  longitude  decrease  on  the  globe;  by  which 
means,  the  course  which  a  ship  steers  by  the  compass, 
becomes  on  the  chart  a  straight  line;  yet,  the  various 
regions  of  the  map,  however  distorted,  preserve  their 
true  relative  bearing,  and  the  distances  between  them 
can  be  accurately  measured. 

The  modes  of  projection  which  we  treated  of»  before 
entering  upon  those  of  Development,  may  be  considered 
natural  ones ;  inasmuch  as  they  are  reauly  perspective 
representations  of  the  surface  of  half  the  globe  on  a 
plane.  Mercator's  is  entirely  an  artificial  one,  represents 
ing  the  sphere  tis  it  cannot  oe  seen  from  any  one  pointx 
but  as  it  might  be  seen  by  an  eye  carried  successively 
over  every  part  of  it.  In  it,  the  degrees  of  latitude  and 
longitude  bear  always  to  each  other  Uieirjust  proportion^ 
the  equator  is  conceived  to  be  extended  out  into  a  straight 
line,  and  the  meridians  are  straight  lines  at  right  an^es 
to  it,  as  in  the  figure.  Altogether,  therefore,  the  general 
character  of  maps  on  this  projection  is  not  very  dissimi- 
lar to  what  would  be  produced  by  referring  every  point 
in  the  globe  to  a  circumscribing  cylinder,  by  lines  drawn 
from  the  centre,  and  then  unrolling  the  cylinder  into  a 
plane.  Like  the  stereographic  projection,. it  gives  a  true 
representation,  as  to  form,  of  all  the  parts»  but  it  varies 
gp'eatly  in  scale,  in  its  different  regions;  the  polar  portions 
in  particular  being  of  necessity  extravagantly  enlarged» 
as  the  upper  part  of  the  figure  shows;  and  the  whole 
map,  even  of  a  single  hemisphere, — that  isa  from  pole  tQ 
pole,  or  180**, — ^not  bemg  comprisable  within  any  finite 
limits* 

Mercator's  chart  may  be  produced  by  development  in 
the  following  manner; — Conceive  that  a  sphere,  with  the 
meridians  and  parallels  and  countries  delineated  on  iti  is 
inclosed  in  a  hollow  cylinder,  and  that  the  axis  of  the 
sphere  coincides  with  that  of  the  cylinder*  Imaging  now 


that  the  sphere  is  expanded  in  its  dimeniioD9>  justisi 
soap-bubble  is  produced  by  blowing  air  intoiiorua 
blaader  would  swell  in  all  directions  by  inflatico,  the  puti 
always  stretching  uniformly  ^-ithe  meridiaai  viUtiieB 
lengUien  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  paralleK  till  era] 
point  of  the  expanding  spherical  sur&ce  comes  into  odd- 
taet  with  the  concave  sur&ce  of  the  cylinder:  the  meri- 
dians will  at  last  become  straight  lines,  and  the  paralkii 
circles  on  that  surftce;  the  former  in  Uie  direction  ofiu 
length,  and  the  Utter  parallel  to  its  base^  which  is  tite 
equator,  w.  n«  Suppose  now  the  cylinder  to  be  cutop^ 
along  one  of  the  meridians,  and  spread  into  a  pUue,  tk 
surface  thu$  produced  will  be  Mercator's  chart. 

In  works  on  navigation  are  to  be  found  ubles  w 
"  Meridional  parts,"  by  means  of  which  the  meridians  d 
these  maps  may  be  duly  divided  for  drawing  the  paraOas 
of  latitude  ana  the  position^  of  places  acwately  ^ 
dowu* 

Thus  we  have  endeavoured  to  lay  before  our  reade» 
the  fundamental  principles  on  whidx  the  ^  ^.^T 
making  has  for  several  centuries  been  built  up*  |'  ^ 
should  be  pleased  with  the  subject,  be  may  now  adTaa- 
tageously  have  recourse  to  such  treatises  of  this  sort  a 
ahow  up»  in  all  its  details,  the  entire  process  of  coostnc^ 
ing  maps  and  charts  of  all  kinds. 


In  the  {nfimqr  of  a  science  there  is  no  *P^<^^Jj 
absurd  as  not  to  merit  examination«  the  most  ^J^^ 
fimciful  explanations  of  ihcts  have  often  been  ionnd  tne  ^ 
ones;  and  opinions,  which  have  In  one  centvy  heenobj«|^ 
of  ridicule,  nave,  hi  the  next,  be«n  admitted  among  tlw^ 
menta  of  ear  knowledge.  Tha  phyncal  irarid  ^^ 
woaden,  and  the  variooa  Imna  of  mM»  eaubU  m  " 
innpertiea  and  relations  te  move  extnoidinaiy  tu*^ 
wildest  fiincy  eould  have  oonoeived.  Humvi  iWA  «t^ 
appaUed  before  thia  mi«;nifioent  disnky  of  cmtivv  F^ 
and  they  who  have  drunk  deej^st  of  its  wisdom  ^r^ 
least  disposed  to  limit  the  excursionii  of  physical  specoir 

Tke  influence  of  the  hm^JmOfm  as  an  inrtromnt  «<  ^ 
search,  has,  wa  think,  bestt  rnneh  ovirieelBsd  b^  tho«v» 

.havaventoiedtonrokwetopkilBMdbj.   Thisftcsi^" 
ol  tha  gmtest  vafiie  in  nhyrfirf  Mi%J&  t  tf  ^^ 
guide,  and  confide  in  its  kidi0ationS|  it  wiU  in&^hly/^^ 
^^     "  ploy  it  1^  an  auxiliary,  it^  wiU  aforf  ^^ 

e  aid.    Its  o] 
light  troops  which  are  sent  out  w  op*^*!--"  — j;^-  _;j;  ^jj^jy 


U9;  but,  if  we  employ  &«  b»  ou  aujmuwjs  •►  "- 1  -  ^t  a, 
the  most  invaluable  sld.  Ito  operation  is  like  that^  ^^ 
light  troops  which  are  sent  out  to  ascertain  the  ^^^.va, 
position  of  an  enemy.  When  the  struggle  commences,  u«^ 
servioee  terminate;  and  it  u  by  the  solid  phabnx  (^ 
judgment  thai  tha  hattle  nusi  kefiMisM  mA  voa.-^ 
Datui  BunncB. 


1841.] 


THB  SATCADAT  MAGAZINE. 


119 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHa 

SEPTEMBER. 


Nov  on  the  rarget  of  Ibe  boiiiidk«  air, 

Though  bonio  triamphsut,  9xt  tbej  uM ;  tfie  gas, 

Glanoed  Just,  and  sudden,  firom  the  Ibwler's  aje, 

O'ertakea  their  aotmding  \kBknm:  and  again 

Inimodiati  brings  them  firan  the  to^eittig  wing, 

Dead  ct»  the  yoand:  dr  diivfa  llMtai  wUi  diptfMd» 

Wounded  and  wheeling  TarioiSt  down  the  whid» 

These  are  not  siitjecu  for  the  peaceihl  Muse, 

Kor  will  ^  ttain  with  soeh  her  spotless  softg; 

Than  meat  driighwd  Whrn  she  aonal  saaa 

The  whole  mixed  anlmaVoteatiiin  xoond 

Alite  and  liafpf.  \       fTaouMK, 


Ok  the  first  day  itf .  the  prMent  inontlii  th«  tliootiiilf  of 
Partridges  beoomea  lawful,  and  ia  joyfully  entered  on  W 
ft  Tast  number  of  persona  througnout  ina  oeuntry*  It 
^Dendly  forms  the  young  shooter's  first  leaaon  at  game, 
ind  in  order  to  be  saecessfnl  he  oareftillT  notes  the 
babits  of  the  bird  at  diflbrent  aeaaoas,  and  under  dif- 
ferent aorta  of  weather^  &o* 

In  the  seal  for  deafemction  which  seems  to  pervade  all 
rsnka  and  classes  of  society  at  this  particular  period,  it 
may  seem  out  of  place  to  speak  of  the  usefulness  of  the 
inimala  which  form  the  especial  object  of  pursuit,  or  to 
offer  a  recommendation  in  their  behalf,  that  the  war 
igainst  the  species  may  be  regulated,  and  kept  withiu 
due  bounda,  So  that  man  may  not  reduce  their  numbers 
to  his  own  injury*  In  the  caae  of  the  partridge,  as  well 
fts  in  that  of  many  other  birds,  it  is  fully  beheved  that 
if  we  understood  their  habita  aright,  we  ahoold  oflen  be 
disposed  to  cherish  that  which  we  are  now  aealona  to 
destroy. 

The  common  partridge  seems  in  an  especial  manner 

0  belong  to  an  agricultural  country*    Wherever  the  soil 

1  extensiw^ly  cultirated,  there  it  inrivea  and  multiphea, 
vi  with  all  the  persecutions  to  which  it  is  subjected,  we 
bfer  find  these  birds  driven  to  make  their  permanent 
bode  in  wild  and  solitary  places*  Their  pertinacious 
dherence  fto  the  same  tumip^field,  or  to  the  same  clover- 
tatted  stubble,  has  aptly  been  comp  red  to  that  of  a 
louutavQ-taibe  of  human  beings  dinging  to  their  fkst- 
lesses  in  a  war  of  extirpation* 

Now  it  cannot  be  supposed  by  any  reflecting  mind 
hat  the  habits  with  which  these  birds  are  endura,  their 
ttachment  to  a  cultivated  soil,  and  the  rapid  multipli- 
ation  of  their  species,  are  without  their  particular 
se  and  end  in  the  economy  of  Nature*  There  must  be 
good  design  In  it,  and  one  in  whioh  the  welfare  of  the 
Oman  race  is  concerned.  It  has  beeti  well  said  that 
that  whieh  invariably  accompanies  improvement,  is, 
le  may  rely  on  it,  necessary  to  Improvement;*'  and  it  is 
pt  difficult  to  see  that  it  is  so  in  the  present  case*  All 
Inis  that  feed  upon  the  ground  live  almost  exclusively 

Cn  tnseeUf  under  which  general  name  we  include  many 
.11  living  creatures,  to  whom  the  application  of  the 
tm,  in  ita  strict  sense,  does  not  belong.  And  although 
IS  partridge  also  feeds  on  grun,  seeds,  bulbous  plants, 
m  and  thus  partakes  of  the  produce  of  the  cultivated 
Id  with  man,  yet  the  service  it  renders  in  consuming 
overplus  of  msects  may  be  set  against  this;  and  If  it 
lid  be  fairly  estimated  would,  we  doubt  not,  be  found 
more  considerable  than  the  injury  suatained* 
he  time  of  the  year,  the  weather,  and  many  other 
mataneee  iafuenoe  the  practice  of  the  partridge- 
er*  The  vmutA  way  of  proceeding  in  search  of  these 
m  Septefeberie  to  trvtne  stubbles  first,  and  then  the 
to  and  turnip-field,  Whererfhe  birds  frequently  bask 
such  fields  lie  contiguous  to  the  stubble;  When 
shooter  break*  a  covev«  he  proceeds  without  loss  of 
to  aeareh  after  the  aispersed  birds,  for  the  parents 
to  call  almost  immediately  on  their  alighting,  the 
g  ones  answer,  and  in  less  than  half  an  Hour,  if  not 

eu^  bjr  th%  prseenee  of  the  shooter  and  his  dogs, 


the  whole  of  the  covey  will  be  re-assembled,  probably  in 
security  in  some  snug  comer,  where  the  shooter  least 
thinks  of  looking  for  them.     Dispersed  birds  afford  what 
is  called  the  **  best  sport"  to  the  shooter,  for  while  under 
the  protection  of  the  old  ones  they  are  guided  by  the 
superior  sagacity  and  watchfulness  of  their  parents,  but 
when  deprived  of  them,  they  are  truly  discomfited,  and 
do  not  know  whither  to  run  for  safety :  as  the  season 
advances,  birds  are  longer  in  re-assembling.    In  this 
respect  much  also  depends  on  the  weather  and  the  time 
of  me  day.    The  habits  of  partridges  at  the  early  part 
of  the  season,  are  somewhat  as  follows. — Just  before 
sunrise  they  nth  to  a  brook,  spring,  or  marsh,  to  drink ; 
fW>m  livluch  place  they  almost  immediately  fiy  to  a  field 
where  they  can  find  plenty  of  insects,  or  to  the  nearest 
com  or  stubble  field,  when  they  will  remain,  according 
to  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  other  circumstances, 
until  nine  or  ten  o'clock,  where  thev  go  to  bask.     The 
basking-plaoe  is  frequently  on  a  sandy  bank-side,  facing 
the  sun.  whe  the  whole  co  vey  remains  huddled  together 
for  several  hours.     About  four  or  five  o'clock  they 
retum  to  the  stubbles  to  feed,  and  about  six  or  seven 
they  go  to  their  jucking-plaee,  a  place  of  rest  for  the 
nignt,  where  they  remain  closely  packed  together  until 
the  morning.     Ineir  times  of  feeding  and  basking  vary 
according  to  the  length  of  the  days.     While  the  com  is 
standing,  partridges  will  often  remain  in  it  the  whole  day. 
The  uncertainty  as  to  where  partridges  mav  be  found 
increases  afler  the  middle  of  October.     At  this  time  if 
much  disturbed  they  will  occasionally  take  shelter  in  the 
woods,  where  they  may  be  flushed  one  by  one. 

The  number  of  birds  in  a  covey  varies  much,  but  is 
considered  to  average  from  ten  to  nfteen.  The  length  of 
flight  of  a  covey  also  differs  according  to  the  na<:ufe  of  the 
ground.  In  a  fertile  farm  in  a  com  country,  the  sports- 
man has  not  any  great  distance  to  travel  before  he  comes 
again  upon  his  covey,  sometimes  the  mere  passing  of  a 
hedge  will  enable  him  to  reach  them,  but  in  a  very  open 
country,  where  the  birds  have  been  used  to  a  much  more 
extensive  range,  a  mile,  or  even  more,  has  been  traversed 
in  following  tiieir  flight. 

The  partridge  of  Britain  (Tetrao  Perdix,  Linn.)  is 
of  two  kinds,  me  common,  or  ash-coloured  (ctn^^a)  and 
the  Guernsey  or  red-legged  {tufa);  but  the  latter  is 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  Channel  Islands. 

The  common  partridge  is  so  well  known  that  it  is 
almost  unnecessary  to  describe  it*  The  weight  of  a  full- 
grrown  male  bird  in  good  condition  is  about  nfteen  or  six- 
teen ounces,  that  of  the  female,  about  two  ounces  less; 
the  length  of  the  entire  bird  is  about  thirteen  inches,  the 
breadth  twenty.  The  bill,  and  naked  parts,  are  of  a 
bluish-g^y  colour,  with  the  exception  of  a  red  spot 
behind  the'  eye.  The  general  colour  of  the  plumage  is 
brown  ash,  elegantly  mixed  with  black,  and  each  feather  is 
streaked  down  the  middle  with  buff-colour.  The  feathers 
of  the  throat,  cheeks,  and  over  the  eyes  are  reddish- 
orange.  The  legs  of  the  male  are  furnished  with  a  blunt 
spur,  or  knob  behind,  and  the  breast,  with  a  crescent  of  a 
deep  chesnut  colour.  The  feathers  of  the  female  are  in 
general  of  a  duller  hue  than  those  of  the  male,  but  it  is 
only  the  experienced  sportsman  that  can  distinguish  the 
difierence  of  sex  when  the  birds  are  on  the  wing.  Those 
who  are  able  to  do  this  always  aim  at  the  male  bird,  as 
there  is  a  greater  number  of  male  partridges,  than  of 
females. 

The  age  of  partridges  is  discovered  by  the  bill  and 
legs,  which  are  yellowish  when  young,  but  become  of 
a  dark  bluish-white  as  they  increase  in  age.  Another 
method  is,  by  examining  the  appearance  of  the  last 
feather  of  the  wing,  which  is  pointed  after  the  first  moult, 
but  in  the  following  year  Is  quite  round.  The  size,  and 
plumage  of  the  partridge,  however,  is  much  affected  by 
local  circumstances :  the  finest  birds  are  found  in  those 
situations  where  cultivation  has  been  the  most  successful, 
while  in  districts  that  are  comparatively  unproductive 


120 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[8«PTlMBUS5,lMi; 


and  Bterilo,  the  appearance  of  the  bird  has  occasionally 
led  to  the  opinion  of  ita  being  a  distinct  species,  or  at 
least  a  Tariety, 

Partridges  are  the  most  prolific  of  the  wild  gallinids, 
the  egga  being  seldom  fewer  than  twelve  in  number, 
while  they  are  often  as  many  as  twenty,  and  have  on 
seToral  occasions  greatly  exceeded  that  nuiuber,  as  the 
following  instances  will  show.  In  the  year  1793  a  part- 
ridge nest  wag  found  in  a  fallow  field  on  the  farm  of 
Mr.  Pratt,  near  Ferling,  in  Essex,  with  thirty-three  eggs ; 
twenty-three  of  the  ag^  were  hatched,  and  the  birds 
went  off;  the  number  of  the  e^^  was  ascertained  before 
hatching  to  decide  a  bet  laid  by  a  person  who  refiised 
to  credit  so  unusual  a  production.  In  order  to  cover  tl 
whole  of  the  ^gs,  the  female  had  piled  up  aeven  in 
curious  manner  in  the  centre.  A  nest  was  also  found 
1798,  at  Elborough,  Somersetshire,  in  a  wheat-field,  with 
twenty-eight  egga.  Mr.  Daniel  tells  na  that  upon  the 
farm  of  Lion  Hall,  in  Essex,  belonging  to  Colonel 
Hawker,  1 788,  the  following  incident  was  i^own  to  many 
persons.  A  partridge,  instead  of  forming  her  nest  as 
usual,  on  the  ground,  chose  the  top  of  an  oak  pollard, 
and  tJiis  tree,  too,  had  one  end  of  the  bars  of  a  stile 
fastened  to  it,  so  that  the  passengers  along  the  footway, 
in  getting  over  the  stile,  duturbed  and  uncovered  the 
bird  before  she  began  to  sit  dose.  The  farmert  whose 
name  was  Belt,  apprised  Mr.  Daniel  of  the  circumstance, 
which  he  laughed  at  as  being  the  report  of  the  work- 
people, and  said  it  was  only  a  wood  pigeon  they  had  mis- 
taken for  a  partridge ;  but  the  former,  who  had  killed 
some  hundrads  of  partridges,  so  positively  affirmed  his 
haying  beheld  the  bird  upon  tLe  nest  on  the  tree,  and 
also  having  told  the  eggs  to  the  number  of  sizteon,  that 
Mr,  Danid  was  persuaded  to  ride  to  the  spot,  where  the 
partridge  was  seen  sitting :  in  a  few  days  she  hatched  six- 
teen eggs;  and  her  brood,  scrambling  dowa  the  short 
and  rough  boughs  which  grew  around  the  trunk  of  the 
tree,  reached  the  ground  in  safety. 

The  nest  usua^  made  by  the  partridge  is  merely  a 
hole  scratched  in  aij  mould,  or  a  few  bents  and  decayed 
leaves  strewed  roughly  in  the  hollow  made  by  an  ox  or 
horse's  hoof.  Sometimes  it  is  formed  on  hedge-banks, 
sometimes  in  com  or  grass,  frequently  in  clover.  It  is 
often  found  beneath  the  shelter  of  some  low  bush  or 
tuft  of  grass.  The  ef^  are  generally  laid  about  the 
latter  end  of  May ;  they  are  of  a  greenish-gray  colour, 
and  the  female  sits  so  remarkably  close,  that  not  only 
does  she  not  rise  when  her  nest  is  approached,  but  it  is 
difficult  to  drive  her  from  it.  She  is  at  this  time  very 
bold  in  driving  off  her  winged  foes ;  aud  magpies,  cranes, 
and  other  plunderers  of  nests,  are  valiantly  opposed  in 
their  depredations.  The  male  partridge  does  not  share 
the  labour  of  incubation,  but  is  attentive  to  his  mate, 
and  joins  her  in  defending  the  brood,  and  uses  many 
arts  to  decoy  visitors  away  from  the  nest.  Frequent 
and  heavy  rams  during  the  time  of  laying  and  incuba- 
tion are  very  unfavourable  ;  many  of  the  eggi  are  chilled 
or  drowned,  and  if  the  weather  is  wet  when  the  young 
first  leave  the  shell  the  cold  benumbs  the  little  strength 
they  have  in  their  legs,  and  they  soon  fall  and  die,  even 
while  their  mother  is  leading  them  forth  in  search  of  food. 

The  affection  shown  by  the  partridge  for  its  young  is 
peculiarly  strong  and  lively.  Both  parents  seem  equally 
assiduous,  after  the  birds  are  hatched,  in  leading  them 
out,  and  directing  them  to  their  proper  food,  and  in  pro- 
tecting them  by  every  means  in  their  power  ftom  their 
enemies.  Insects,  larvoe,  and  eggs,  are  the  food  of 
young  partridges ;  ant-eggs,  in  particular,  seem  neces- 
sary to  their  existence.  At  this  period  the  male  and 
female  frequently  sit  close  together  and  cover  the  young 
with  their  wings,  exhibiting  such  evident  marks  of 
parental  tenderness,  that  few  persons  would  willingly 
disturb  or  injure  them  in  such  a  situation.  When  they 
are  accidentally  discovered,  or  alarmed  by  a  dog,  they 
act  in  a  manner  thus  described  by  an  eye-witness  >— 


immediataly  in  the  way  of  dai^«r,  in  order  to  miskd  tin 
enemy  ;  he  flie^  or  rather  nms  along  the  groond,  hauw 
his  wings  and  exhibiting   evwy  synpt^  of  diiillh, 
whereby  the  dog  Is  decoyed  by  a  too  eager  expedatinrf 
an  eawr  prey,  to  run  further  6om  the  covey,   Tbi  taab 
flies  off  m  a  contrary  directioi^  and  to  a  eceahs  tiAvi,  ' 
bnt  soon  after  secretly  returning  she  fiaos  ha  HtbnJ 
brood  closely  squatted  among  the  giws,  sad  eo 
with  haste  oy  her  JDcidng  soe  lout  them  fra 
before  the  d<^  has  nsd  time  to  return  bom  the  piiiiiiiL° 
Partridges  ar«  easUy  tamed,  but  do  not  braediDoa 
finement.     An  instance  is  given  of  one  of  theM  \kis  i 
becoming  so  fiuniliar  in  a  clergyioan'e  fiunily  «bm  il 
was  reared,  that  it  would  attend  the  parlosr  M  bnil&tt 
and  other  times,   and  would  aflerwards  itrelcli  ib^ 
before  the  fire,  seeming  to  enjoy  the  wsrmtli  u  if  it 
were  ita  natural  bask  on  a  annny  banL    The  dop  rf  , 
the  house  naver  molested  it,  but  at  last  it  fell  Toitt  6»  i 
paws  of  a  strange  cat  and  was  killed.    The  i^  d 
partridges  are  freque&tiy  collected,  and  haubed  atin 
domestic  hens,  the  broods  being  aAerwaids  tUMd  luU  I 
preserves  for  the  purpose  of  stocking  then,   b  ths 
case,  the  food  of  the  young  birds  should  at  Snt  cws 
of  the  e^gs  of  the  sm^  ant;  afWwards  theyiknldlf  ' 
fed  with  fresh  curds  mixed  with  lettuce,  ehiebnj,  cr 
groundsel.     It  will  be  some  time  bdbre  they  (u  W 
grain  readily. 

In  FrankUn's  ConttantMMth  we  meet  with  u  icmi! 
of  the  method  practised  bythe  Arabs  of  Monnll<^ii 
in  taking  the  partridge,  -so  that  "  to  hunt  the  partnl;! 
upon  the  mountains"  is  still,  as  in  Scriptare  Iim^' 
custom  of  that  country.  The  Arabs  mike  »  ^ 
souare  ftame  of  wood,  ca  about  five  feet  in  beigbt,  ore 
which  they  stretch  an  ox-hide  peifbrated  is  tiirN  <( 
four  places.     The  ox-hide  is  mored  qnietlf  in  a  m^ 

Bisition,  and  the  Arab  concealing  himself  bebiuM 
dden  from  the  view  of  the  game,  which  aninipedn^ 
allow  the  sportsman  to  come  within  shot  of  then,  i" 
Arab,  seeing  through  one  of  the  apertures,  qvietl;  F^ 
trudes  the  musile  A  his  long  musket  thrangfa  (»^ 
hole,  and  firing  upon  the  bir^  as  they  feed  is  «>"!* 
upon  the  ground,  kills  a  ^«at  many  of  them. 


In  all  these,  (the  arUdee  of  fidth  compiaed  m  ft«  «^ 
the  sky  of  my  beHef  Is  serene,  unclouded  1^  dooM.  "JT 
to  God  that  my  Mth,  that  Mth  which  worin  op  ^^ 
man,  confirming  and  conforming,  wtfe  bnt  inp*PT, 
tion  to  my  belief  to  the  foU  scuuieecence  of  »? JS 
sad  the  deep  consent  of  mjconacienoe  I  Tbeveiy  o""" 
argue  the  troth  of  the  irtiole  scheme  and  ?Fj*^, "  J 
ondeistandiiig,  unce  I  see  plainly  that  so  m«t  tlu  uo" 
appear,  if  it  be  Uie  truth. — Co: 


LONDOH: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKEE.  WEST  STEAKH 


Sdtur^dn       iM^Q^^m. 


N?  593.  SUPPLEMENT, 


SEPTEMBEB.  1841.     {oJ^S„_ 


— _>: 


round  D7  Mr,  O&ii-n  E 


or   rORTUKE. 

Roms.  and  ccir  in  ths  Siiaah  Uiueiim. 


132 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  FINE  ARTS.    No.  II. 


Section  IV.    Roman  Sculptttrb. 

Wb  have  already  stated  that  the  declitie  of  GreoUm  sculp- 
ture commenced  at  the  period  of  the  dismemherment  of  we 
Macedonian  empire,  and  extended  through  nearly  two  hun- 
dred years.  The  fatal  blow  to  its  eiustence  was  given  by 
the  success  of  the  Roman  arms.  In  the  year  146  b.c.  the 
celebrated  city  of  Corinth  was  sacked  bv  the  conquerors, 
and  deprived  of  the  treasures  of  art  which  had  been  accumu- 
lating for  ages.  Athens  was  subdued  in  the  year  86  fi.c., 
and  other  cities  sharing  the  same  fate,  the  glory  of  Greece 
was  extinguished,  and  her  splendid  works  of  art  were  left  to 
the  mercy  of  a  people  little  qualified  to  appreciate  their  merit. 

The  character  of  the  Romans  as  the  conquerors  of  the 
world  is  so  little  in  accordance  with  the  cultivation  of  the 
milder  arts  of  peace  that  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  sculp 
ture,  in  all  ages  of  their  histoty,  existing  rather  as  a  plant 
of  foreign  growth,  partially  cultivated  in  their  soil,  than  as 
an  indigenous  production  of  their  own  clime.  The  passion 
for  conquest  was  too  prevailing  to  allow  of  enthusiasm  for 
art.  The  works  of  Greece  and  Etruria  were  valued  and  ad- 
mired as  the  fruits  and  troj^hies  of  their  victories,  but  were 
not  viewed  in  the  light  of  mstruments  by  which  their  own 
moral  condition  might  be  improved,  and  the  barbarism 
of  their  nation  in  some  measure  removed.  At  the  con- 
quest of  Syracuse,  indeed,  we  find  some  appearance  of  the 
true  feeling  of  admiration  for  the  arts  in  the  reply  of  Mai'- 
ccllus,  who  was  accused  of  unjustly  robbing  the  devot«d 
city  of  its  marble  treasures.  lie  declared  that  he  had  done 
BO  for  the  good  of  Rome,  that  the  pttblid  edifices  might 
be  embellished,  and  that  his  own  coHntrymeU  miffht 
acquirb  a  taste  for  the  arts  and  elegance  of  the  Greeks. 
But  although  each  victory  was  followed  by  the  aceession  of 
new  specimens  of  art  to  Rome,  and  although  attlong  these 
specimens,  some  of  the  most  exquisite  examples  of  Gi^cian 
performances  were  brought  before  their  eyes^  we  do  not  per- 
ceive a  taste  for  sculpture  to  have  been  awakened,  in  any 
measure  corresponding  with  the  advatitages  thus  offered  to 
them  in  the  study  of  the  best  models  of  the  art*  The  pas- 
sion for  forming  collections,  which  is  ItaiDd  to  have  been 
extremely  prevalent  at  the  period  td  which  W6  tiow  allude, 
doubtless  evinces  considerable  interest  ih  works  of  art,  and  to 
that  source  do  we  probably  oWe  the  {itesefVation  of  nume- 
rous specimens  which  would  otherwise  hafe  been  destroyed. 
But  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans  sCUlptUfe  suoii  degenerat&d, 
for  they  had  inherited  the  works  Of  Greeee  Withotlt  any 
portion  of  the  genius  of  their  authof  9; 

During  the  latter  period  of  the  ComillotlWealth)  various 
sculptors  of  distinguished  natne  were  itHiidetlt  Iti  different 
parts  of  Italy,  and  attempts  were  suecessively  tnade  by 
Sylla,  Porapey,  and  Cipsar,  to  elevate  the  afts  lii  Rotue. 
^jliey  collected  statues,  gems,  &c.,  and  invited  to  the  tapital 
the  yet  remaining  sculptors  of  Greece,  by  Whoee  labotit^  not 
ouly  Rome  itself  but  manv  of  the  citied  of  Asia  Mihori 
Spain,  and  Gaul  were  embellished. 

But  the  chief  impulse  was  given  to  0eui|t^M  M  ^i^lded 
in  Rome,  during  the  sway  of  Au^stus.  Ths  patfonagQ  of 
a  monarch  who  could  wield  for  his  purposes  iJiie  energies  Of 
the  whole  enlightened  world,  was  necessarily  of  high  advab^ 
tage  to  the  art.  He  carefully  collected  the  nn^sl  Works  that 
could  be  procured,  and  fixed  them  in  promliiefit  situatlotlB 
In  the  city  :  no  expense  was  spared  to  enrich  tho  different 
collections  of  statues  and  paintings,  but  of  all  the  ^ulptot^ 
whose  names  have  reached  us  as  having  flourished  in  ihifiu 
the  best  age  of  the  arts  in  Rome,  every  one  is  Gfeek^  and 
chiefly  Athenian.  Pasiteles,  Arcesilaus,  I'rojyirud,  and 
Evander,  were  some  of  the  most  eminebti  "  The  artsi  in- 
deed, were  revived,  but  th^  ci^alivd  spirit  Which  infuses 
life  and  soul  into  their  productions^  whibti  stamps  theni  with 
originality  and  thought,  could  not  m  f^Salledt  The  character 
of  design  and  of  execution  is  evidently  the  same  as  that 
by  which  the  last  era  of  sculpture  in  Greece  is  distingubhed, 
or  rather  it  is  superior ;  tor  settled  government  ample 
reward,  and  certun  honour,  not  only  drew  to  Rome  every 
man  of  talent,  but  also  awakened  new  powers.  But  in  the 
finest  specimens,  there  is  no  evidence  of  new  energies,  aided 
by  the  union  of  two  separate  modifications  of  talent ;  nor  in 
the  inferior,  any  exhibition  of  the  more  original,  though  it 
might  be  ruder,  efforts  of  an  aspiring  and  distinct  national 
taste.    Either  or  both  of  these  effects  would  have  been  ap- 


parent, bad  tiiere  been  native,  prior  to  this  importation  of 
Greek,  artists.    On  the  contrary,  everything  in  the  sculp- 
ture of  this  era  dlsootefs  a  descent  from  a  state  of  highei 
excellence ;  every  touch  exhibits  rather  what  has  been,  than 
presaffes  the  eminence  for  which  we  are  to  draw  upon 
futnnty.    From  Augnstua  to  Trajan,  during  a  period  of  i 
hundred  and  fi)rty  years,  the  principles  and  practice  of  the 
Greeks  continued  to  be  observed,  with  such  difference  only 
as  political  causes  can  easily  reconcile,  but  witli  a  progm- 
sive  decay.    The  most  favourable  periods  during  thiB  space 
were  the  reigns  of  Vespasian,  Titus^  and  Trajan ;  for  the 
reign  of  Nero,  whose  taste,  like  his  morals,  was  comipt, 
which  Pliny  has  assumed  as  an  epoch  in  the  Rooum  school, 
was  propitious  to  practice,  not  to  improvement.'*  (Hnos.) 
The  taste  and  energy  displayed  by  Trajan  gave  new  aninu- 
tion  to  the  arts  in  Greece  and  Italy,  and  his  reign,  together 
with  those  of  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines,  has  been  accounted 
the  golden  age  of  sculpture  in  Rome.    The  distingoishing 
characteristic  of  the  art  as  it  existed  in  Hadrian's  tim^, 
Was  extreme  minuteness  of  finish,  indicating  the  labour 
more  of  the  hand  than  of  the  mind.  .  Mechamcal  dexterity 
was  displayed  in  careful  working  with  the  file,  the  ebkl, 
and  the  drill,  and  an  air  of  studied  and  afiPected  refinemest 
pervaded  the  whole,  to  the  utter  extinction  of  all  chAne- 
teristic  and  natural  expression.    ^*  For  the  sublime  is  sab- 
stituted  the  difficult,  tne  florid  for  the  elegant;  and  in  eveir 
remaining  specimen,  we  can  readily  detect  the  taste  %)m 
preferred  a  poetaster  to  Homer,  or  the  laboured  inanities  of 
the  Sophists,  to  the  vigorous  and  manly  eloquence  of  Demo*- 
thenes  and  Cicero."    The  style  thus  adopted  has  been  con- 
sidered sufficiently  distinct  from  preceding  methods  to  he 
called  the  Roman  style  of  sculpture ;  and  as  exhibiting  the 
national  taste  for  display  and  ornament,  it  is,  perhaps,  rightly 
so  denominated,  although  it  appeai^s  tolerably  certain  tfa^t 
even  during  the  flouriuiing  period  of  the  art,  Greek,  aixi 
not  native,  artists  were  employed  on  all  the  chief  works  of 
sculpture  that  were  produced  at  Rome. 

To  the  munificence  of  Hadrian,  the  arts  were  indebted  fbr 
much  of  the  prosperity  which  they  enjoyed  at  the  com- 
mencement ot  the  seoDnd  century.  Several  of  the  ancient 
temples  which  liad  fallen  into  decay,  were,  by  his  oideR, 

hers  were  erected  in 
ys  of  art.     He  coi 

_         ^       Jupiter  at  Atliens, 

statue  of  tne  god  in  gold  and  ivory,  and  with  several  other 
works  of  art,  among  which  was  a  colossal  statue  of  Hadrian 
himself.  This  prince  had  a  splendid  villa  eighteen  mil^ 
from  Rome,  the  celebrated  villa  of  Tivoli,  where  he  collectfti 
together  such  a  vast  number  of  specimens  of  ancient  art, 
that  even  up  to  the  present  time,  every  firesh  excarationjis 
led  to  the  discovery  of  some  object  of  interest  In  1771, 
Mr.  Gavin  Hamilton  discovered  the  head,  of  which  a  dn^- 
inff  is  given  at  p.  1 25.  It  was  found  in  that  part  of  Hadrian  s 
villa  called  the  Pantanella,  and  near  it  a  similar  hesd,  bat 
of  inferior  execution,  which  was  depositod  in  the  Vatican. 
The  first-named  head  is  thus  spoken  of  by  Mr.  Taylor  ^- 

*'  We  cannot  too  strongly  express  our  admirstion  of  thij 
very  spirited  and  masterly  piece  of  sculpture:  its  gcn^r^ 
character  evidently  shows  that  it  representaa  head  of  one  ot 
the  Homeric  heroes.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
ascertain  the  particular  person  whom  it  was  intended  to  re- 
trirsent,  but  hitherto  without  success.  It  is  conaidewi  iv 
inclined  to  the  right,  and  is  looking  upward  with  a  counts 
nance  expressive  of  the  deepest  anguish  both  of  mind  «}<' 
body.  The  hair  of  the  head,  though  not  long,  is  in  bold  bb^i 
dlstmct  maasM)  And  the  beard  is  very  short  and  dose  to  tha 
face. 

"We  mayf^mai'k  a  great  simUarity  between  thed* 
ra(iter  of  this  head  and  that  of  Menelaus  m  the  Fre^^ 
colleetion^  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  a  group  represpntin-' 
Menelaus  supporting  the  dead  body  of  Patroaus.  We  a^ 
not,  however,  inclined  to  thhik  that  the  head  now  before  ^^ 
was  intended  to  represent  Menelaus,  as  the  head  of  that  htr> 
b  in  the  instance  just  mentioned,  as  Well  as  in  every  otbeT 
instance  which  we  are  acquainted  with,  covervd  with  ^ 
helmet,  and  the  beard  is  much  more  ample." 

The  nose  in  this  statue,  and  a  small  portion  of  each  1/ 
are  modem,  as  are  also  part  of  the  lobe  on  the  left  ear,  ^' • 
a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  bust  on  v-bici 
the  head  is  placed  is  not  antique:  the  line  of  aeparation  s 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  SEPTEMBER,  184L 


123 


marked  in  the  wood-cat.    The  height  is  one  foot,  nine 
inches  and  a  half. 

In  the  reign  of  Hadrian  some  of  the  superstitionB  of 
£gypt  were  introduced  into  Italy,  and  became  so  mixed  up 
with  the  worship  of  the  Romans,  that  the  gods  of  the  Nile 
were  publicly  honoured,  and  their  statues  admitted  as 
objects  of  adoration.  This  enlargement  of  the  catalogue  of 
their  deities  caused  a  great  demand  throughout  the  empire, 
for  statues  and  other  representations  connected  with  the 
Egyptian  ceremonies.  Accordingly  we  find  that  the  vilb 
of  Tivoli  was  decorated  with  imitations  of  Egyptian  figures 
and  subjects,  and  that  remains  of  this  nature  have  been 
found  in  considerable  nun^ber,  both  there  and  in  other  parte 
of  Italy. 

After  the  death  of  Hadrian  sculpture  rapidly  declined, 
though  during  the  time  of  the  Antonines  some  attention 
was  paid  to  the  art,  and  busts  of  some  merit  were  executed. 
The  best  and  most  characteristic  sculpture  of  Rome  was 
that  which  adorned  their  public  monuments,  and  which  re- 
corded the  history  of  their  emperors'  triumphs ;  as  in  the 
Trajan  column,  where  the  exploits  of  the  emperor  ore  repre- 
sented in  one  continued  winding  relief  from  the  base  to  the 
Buminit,  and  are  crowned  by  ihe  statue  of  the  emperor  him- 
self.    In  the  difference  of  style  and  execution  in  the  two 
colunms  of  Trajan  and  Antoninus^  may  be  distincUy  traced 
the  rapid  decay  of  the  art  during  the  period  which  elapsed 
between  their  erection,  while  still  later,  in  the  arch  of  Sep- 
timus Severus  the  low  condition  of  the  art  is  fully  mani- 
fested.   The  arches  raised  to  Titus,  Trajan,  Severus,  and 
Const^antine  are  among  the  principal  compositions  of  Roman 
sculpture.    "  They  breathe,*'  says  Flaxman,  ^  the  spirit  of 
the  people  they  commemorate,  which  was  conouest  imd 
universal  dominion ;  they  owe  no  inspiration  to  tne  muses, 
urge  no  claim  to  the  epic,  or  dramatic ;  they  are  the  mere 
paragraphs  of  military  gazettes,  vulgar  in  conception,  fero- 
cious in  sentiment;  on  the  columns  and  arches,  the  prin- 
cipal objects  are  mobs  of  Ronuins  cased  in  armour,  bearing 
down  unarmed,  scattered  Crermans,  Dacians  or  Sarmatians, 
soldiers  felling  timber,  driving  piles,    carrying  rubbish, 
shouldering   battering    rams,    killing  without  mercy,  or 
dragging  or  binding  captives." 

Tne  efforts  of  Constantine,  on  his  ascending  to  the  impe- 
rial dignity,  were  directed  to  restore  that  reeling  for  the 
arts  which  seemed  almost  to  have  departed  from  Rome.  He 
established  schools  of  architecture,  and  distributed  rewards 
and  privileges  among  the  most  distinguished  students,  en- 
deavouring thus  to  excite  an  honourable  emulation  among 
the  youths  of  the  capital.  B}^  these  means  he  succeeded  in 
rabing  several  consiaerable  buildings,  but  in  adorning  them 
he  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  sculptors  of  a  former 
age,  and  to  seek  afresh  in  the  cities  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor 
for  such  remains  of  ancient  art  as  had  been  left  by  former  col- 
lectors. He  also  gave  employment  to  artists  of  his  own  time, 
but  their  works,  chiefly  in  metal,  showed  but  too  plainly  that 
the  spirit  of  ancient  art  was  irrecoverably  lost.  To  give  the 
reader  some  idea  of  the  profusion  of  plundered  specimens  of 
art  which  were  eventually  collected  together  at  Rome,  we 
may  state  that  no  less  th^  eleven  thousand  exouisite  works 
of  Greek  and  Etruscan  sculpture  adorned  the  imperial  city 
in  the  time  of  its  splendour;  so  that  Petromus,  alluding  to 
the  taste  for  these  ornaments  and  the  profusion  of  them, 
observes,  that  it  was  easier  to  meet  a  god  in  Rome  than  a 

niazi* 

The  establishment  of  a  seat  of  imperial  government  at 
Constaatinople  was  a  faiaX  blow  to  the  greatness  of  Rome, 
and  another  cause  for  the  continued  decline  of  the  arts  in  the 
latter  city;  yet  it  is  from  the  reign  of  Constantine,  when 
Christiamty  was  established  in  the  empire,  that  the  dawn- 
ing of  modem  art  Is  recognised.  It  will  be  seen  from  the 
foregoing  sketch  that  Roman  sculpture  is  so  inferior  as  to 
bear  no  comparison  with  that  of  Greece,  The  best  works 
were  produced  by  Greek  artists,  and  the  attempts  of  the 
Romans  are  for  the  most  part  characterized  b^  poverty 
of  invention,  meanness  of  design,  and  unskilnil  execu- 
tion. The  art  seems  seldom  to  have  met  with  efficient 
patronage,  except  where  busts  or  portrait  statues  were  re- 
quired to  please  the  vanity  of  individuals  ;  accordmgly  we 
find  the  excellence  of  these  latter  works  conspicuous  above 
that  of  the  other  departments  of  art;  indeed,  the  collection 
of  busts  of  successive  emperors  reaching  through  a  period  of 
three  centuries,  constitutes  an  invaluable  series,  as  it  regards 
the  history  of  art.  ^ 

In  the  illustrations  which  accompany  our  notice  of  Roman 
sculpture  our  readers  will  observe  that  though  each  of  the 
specimens  we  have  represented  was  found  near  Rome,  there 


is  ieason  to  believe  that  in  each  case  the  work  was  cither  in 
part  or  wholly  the  work  of  Greek  artists.  The  statue  of 
the  Goddess  of  Fortune  was  found  by  Mr.  Gavin  Hamilton 
near  the  Via  Laiina^  a  short  distance  from  Rome.  Tl)e 
deseription  runs  thus:  ^'The  statue  of  the  Goddess  of  For- 
tune with  a  modius  on  her  head ;  her  right  htmd  holds  a 
rudder,  the  lower  part  of  which  rests  upon  a  globe,  and  her 
left  hand  supports  a  cornucopia  filled  with  com  and  fruits 
of  differ^it  kinds.  The  modius  and  the  cornucopia  allude 
to  the  abundance  supposed  to  be  conferred  by  this  goddess 
upon  her  votaries.  From  a  passage  in  Horace,  in  which 
Fortune  is  styled  the  mistress  of  the  sea,  it  has  been  con- 
jeetured  that  tlie  rudder  is  a  symbol  of  her  particular  influ- 
ence over  that  element.  But  it  is  more  probable  that  the 
rudder  is  a  metaphorical  symbol  of  her  general  dominion 
over  the  affairs  of  the  world,  and  this  latter  supposition 
seems  to  be  very  fully  confirmed  by  the  circumstance  of  the 
rudder  being  placed  upon  the  globe. 

**  Fortune  was  worshipped  in  very  early  times  by  the 
Greeks;  but  her  image  does  not  appear  on  any  of  the 
more  ancient  Greek  medals,  and  indeed  of  the  numerous 
figures  of  her  now  extant  both  in  marble  and  bronze,  not 
one  appears  to  be  of  high  antiquity.  It  was  not  till  the 
time  of  the  Roman  emperors  that  the  worship  of  this 
goddess  was  universally  established.  After  this  period  one 
of  the  most  common  figures  on  the  Greek  and  Roman  coins 
was  that  of  Fortune ;  and  as  a  proof  of  the  great  ascen« 
dency  which  she  was  believed  by  the  Romans  to  hold  over 
the  interests  of  mankind,  no  less  than  twenty-five  temples 
were  erected  to  her  at  Rome." 

Of  this  statue,  the  neck  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
modius  are  modem,  and  the  head,  though  ancient,  has  be- 
longed to  another  figure.  The  right  hand  and  the  whole  of 
the  rudder,  except  a  small  portion  attached  to  the  globe,  are 
dso  modem,  as  is  the  left  hand  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
cornucopia.  The  height,  including  the  pedestal,  is  three 
feet,  one  inch. 

The  terminal  head  of  the  bearded  Bacchus,  of  which  we 
dive  a  representation  at  p.  128,  was  found  near  the  Porta 
Latina,  at  Rome.  It  is  crowned  with  vine-leaves,  which  de- 
scend on  each  side  of  the  fiice,  and  with  a  broad  ample  diadem, 
hanging  loosely  over  the  forehead  in  the  form  of  a  festoon. 
Most  of  the  ancient  marble  termini  have  a  sqiiare  cavity  on 
e{ich  side  of  them,  rather  below  the  shoulders,  but  in  the 
present  example,  these  cavities  are  filled  up  by  two  ^uare 
projections  on  which  the  ends  of  the  diadem  rest.  These 
projections  show  the  ancient  mode  of  joining  a  number  of 
these  termini  together  by  rails  or  bars,  in  allusion  to  the  use 
to  which  termini  were  originally  applied,  namely  as  fences, 
and  boundaries. 

In  concluding  these  remarks  on  Roman  sculpture  we  may 
naturally  be  led  to  inquire,  what  is  the  reason  that  a  people 
so  distinguished  as  this,  for  manly  and  persevering  talent, 
should,  of  all  the  nations  that  liave  held  supremacy  in  the 
earth,  be  the  least  remarkable  for  any  bold  peculiarities,  or 
successful  darings  of  their  own  geniusi  especially  in  an  art 
where  the  practice  is  laborious,  the  principles  grave  and 
simple,  and  therefore,  apparently  well  adapted  to  suit  the 
nature  of  Roman  talentf  We  have  already  anticipated  the 
most  evident  answer  to  this  inouiry,  in  alluding  to  the  war- 
like and  impetuous  spirit  of  tne  conquerors  of  the  world, 
which  led  them  rather  to  action  and  business  than  to  elegant 
acquirements.  But  we  muat  also  remember  that  the  art  ot 
sculpture  was  the  peculiar  eminence  of  the  people  they  had 
conquered,  and  having  no  respect  for  its  professors,  und  con- 
sidering them  as  little  better  than  slaves,  they  were  the  less 
likely  to  admire  and  successfully  to  practise  the  art  itself. 
Then  the  amazing  profusion  of  the  beautiful  works  of 
Greece,  presented  tnem  with  such  abundant  means  of  deco- 
rating their  building  and  palaces,  that  there  was  the  less 
inducement  to  employ  native  artists  in  the  execution  of 
works  which  could  not  full  of  being  greatly  inferior  to 
the^e  which  came  ready  prepared  to  their  hand. 

Sbction  V.    MoDBRW  Sculpture  in  Italy. 

Flaxmau  is  of  opinion  that  we  may  justly  date  the 
beginning  of  modern  art,  from  that  period  when  paint- 
ing and  sculpture  ceased  to  be  employed,  as  heretofore, 
on  the  pagan  gods,  but  were  engaged  to  illustrate  sub- 
jects connected  with  Christian  worship.  Thus  from  the 
time  of  Constantine  the  arts  slowly  and  gradually  re- 
vived, and  an  original  character  made  itself  apparent,  even 
in  the  rude  and  almost  frightful  attempts  of  the  early 
Christians.  While  inspired,  perhaps,  with  a  taste  for  sculp- 
ture by  means  of  the  scattered  remains  of  Grecian  art,  they 


124 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


I 


drew,  at  the  same  time  from  their  own  I'esources,  and  were 
by  no  means  servile  copyists  of  the  artists  of  a  former  age. 
In  those  early  days  many  of  the  artists  united  the  three 
professions  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  and 
sculpture  can  scarcely  oe  said  to  hare  assumed  a  distinct  and 
appropriate  character  until  the  time  of  Nicolo  Pisano,  who 
commenced  his  profession  earlv  in  1200,  and  exhibited  a 
surpiising  degree  of  skill  and  talent  in  his  art.  His  works, 
witn  those  of  his  sen  Gioyanni  and  his  scholars,  still 
adorn  many  of  the  cities  of  Italy.  In  the  cathedrals  of 
Pisa,  Pistoja,  Siena,  and  Orvieto,  are  magnificent  marble 
pulpits  enriched  with  bassi  relievi  and  statues.  These  are 
the  works  of  the  Pisani,  and  give  a  high  idea  of  their  taste 
and  feeling.  The  fa9ade  of  the  cathedral  of  Orvieto  is  deco- 
rated with  relievi  in  white  marble  by  the  same  artists, 
illustrating  some  of  the  principal  facts  recorded  in  the  Sacred 
Writings.  These  performances  have  attracted  much  admi- 
ration on  account  of  the  simplicity  and  grace  manifested  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  several  groups,  and  in  the  form  of  the 
individufu  figures.  Nicolo  Pisano  lived  to  an  advanced  age, 
and  though  several  excellent  works  were  performed  by  his 
scholars,  it  was  not  till  the  succeeding  century  that  a  worthy 
successor  appeared.  This  was  his  grandson,  Andrea  Pisano, 
who  in  the  year  1330  executed  a  work  of  mat  beauty  at 
Florence,  illustrating  the  life  of  St.  John.  It  is  in  bronze, 
and  forms  one  of  the  gates  of  the  Baptistery  in  that  city. 
His  marble  statues  were  considered  by  Flaxman  to  be  infe- 
rior to  those  of  Nicolo  and  Giovanni,  his  predecessors. 

The  first  academy  of  desini  was  established  at  Florence, 
in  1350,  and  at  the  close  of  tne  same  century  sculpture  was 
once  more  firmly  established  throughout  Italy,  ana  itinerant 
sculptors,  not  unskilful  in  their  art,  wandered  from  thence 
over  Germanv,  France,  and  Wen  England,  where  their 
works  have  oeen  traced  in'  the  sculptured  ornaments  of 
Grothic  edifices.  Thus  did  the  mild  genius  of  Christianity 
prove  favourable  and  miunly  instrumental  in  the  revival  of 
the  arts.  *'  Upon  the  age  now  passing  in  review,"  says 
Memes,  **  when  Freedom  again  rises,  we  behold  genius  also 
revive,  as  if  the  sweeter  sensibilities  and  the  mamier  virtues 
had  altogether  slumbered  through  the  long  long  night  of 
ignorance  and  despotism.  It  is  thus  tliat  spring,  breathing 
on  bank  and  wild  wood,  unchains  the  bud  and  the  blossom 
from  the  tenderest  floweret  to  the  hardy  oak." 

The  laboura  of  the  fifteenth  oentuiy  m  all  the  elegant  arts 
will  ever  hold  a  distinguished  place  in  history.  In  the  first 
year  of  that  century  no  less  than  six  great  masters  were  com- 
}>etitors  for  the  same-public  work,  the  bronze  doora  of  the  bap- 
tistery of  Florence,  luui  each  of  these  oompetiton  afterwaros 
became  the  head  of  a  'flourishing  school.  Their  names  are, 
Brunelleschi,  Ghiberti,  Jacomo  deUa  Querela,  Nicolo  Lam- 
bert!, Francisco  di  Valdambrino,  and  Simon  dei  Colle. 
Ghiberti,  then  a  youth  of  twenty-three,  was  the  successful 
candidate,  and  tne  work  thus  assigned  to  him  occupied 
forty  yeai"s  of  his  life,  and  is  one  of  the  proudest  triumphs 
of  modem  art.  The  southern  door  of  this  edifice  had  pra- 
viously  displayed  the  talents  of  Andrea  Pisano :  the  northern 
and  eastern  doors  wera  to  carry  to  future  generations  the 
fiune  of  Lorenzo  Ghiberti.  The  northern  door  represents 
the  life  of  our  Saviour, — the  eastern  door  the  most  striking 
events  of  the  Old  Testament  history.  Michel  Angelo  is 
said  to  have  admired  them  so  highly  that  he  declared  them 
fit  to  be  "  the  gates  of  Paradise.*^ 

^.  **  Among  the  illustrious  names  for  which  this  period  was 
remarkable,  that  of  Donatello  stands  deservedly  conspi- 
cuous. The  works  of  this  artist  are  exceedingly  numerous, 
and  are  scattered  all  over  Italy :  they  are  executed  in  every 
variety  of  1  material,  and  in  various  degrees  of  magnitude. 
His  marble  statue  of  St.  George  was  greatly  admired  by 
Michel  Angelo,  as  was  also  the  statue  of  St.  Mark,  deco- 
rating the  same  building,  the  church  of  Or  San  Michele  at 
Florence.  Respecting  the  latter  statue  it  is  said  that,  after 
surveying  it  for  some  time,  Michel  Angelo  exclaimed, 
•  Mark,  whv  dost  thou  not  speak  to  me  f  "  The  scholars  of 
Donatello  nave  been  divided  into  two  classes, — ^those  who 
were  fellow-labonrera  with  him,  and  whose  celebrity  is 
chiefly  owing  to  the  assistance  they  lent  him  in  his  great 
works,  and  those  more  legitimate  disciples  who,  without 
following  servilely  in  the  track  of  their  master,  derived 
their  knowledge  m  the  first  place  from  his  precepts,  and 
subsequently  added  to,  and  even  improved  on  the  principles 
with  which  they  set  out. 

Respecting  this  age  it  lias  been  justly  said  that  modem 
sculpture  attamed  its  manhood.  A  character  of  tmth  and 
simplicity,  faitliful  imitation  of  nature,  and  just  expression, 
visibly  begin  from  the  time  of  Nicolo  Pisano,  whose  own 


style  was  ramarkable  for  sweetneis  and  absence  of  pteten- 
sion.  A  degree  of  meagreness  and  restramt  long  pervaded 
the  early  school,  yet  even  in  the  works  of  the  foaiteenth 
century,  the  art  being  chiefly  dedicated  to  devotional  par- 
poses,  and  to  the  memory  of  departed  worth,  "an  air  of 
dignified  sincerity,  a  touching  portraiture  of  the  gentkr 
aflections,  difiiise  over  the  mina  of  the  spectator  a  mdao- 
cholv  yet  pleasing  serenity,  to  be  felt  rather  than  descnbed." 
In  the  succeeding  century  the  style  becomes  mora  elevated 
yet  not  less  true :  the  execution  at  the  same  time  la  bold 
and  felicitous,  and  the  imitation  is  fiuthfiil  to  nature.  Oob 
department  of  sculpture  attained  an  eminence  in  the  fiAeath 
century  which  has  not  been  soipassed.  This  b  the  higii 
and  the  low  relief  pracUsed  by  Donatello  and  Ghiberti, 
whera  the  sacred  fiubjecta  represented  appear  to  have  im- 
parted to  the  genius  of  the  sculpton  a  portion  of  their  oim 
sacred  dignity  and  holy  feeling. 

It  would  be  foraign  to  our  purpose  to  describe  the  wodo, 
or  even  to  record  the  names  of  tne  meritorious  artists  who 
filled  Italy  during  the  fifteenth  century:  suffice  it  to  wf 
that  so  great  was  the  advancement  in  sculpture,  so  aameiom 
the  schools  of  art,  that  the  a^  in  its  bright  prospects  his 
been  compared  to  that  of  Pericles :  '4t  wanted  but  a  Phi- 
dias to  crown  its  prosperity,  and  in  Michel  Angeb  ik 
genius  of  Greece  seemed  to  be  supplied."    This  exteo^ 
dinary  man  united  the  professions  of  sculptor,  painter,  lod 
architect)  and  was  illustrious  in  each.  The  opmiona  rapeet- 
ing  him  may  difier  in  many  respects,  but  all  must  azne 
that  his  works  have  a  strongly  marked  character  of  thai 
own,  and  possess  wondrous  power  and  dignity,   fiis  vnt 
and  almost  superhuman  conceptions  were  executed  m  a 
most  astonishing  manner,  and  with  a  perfect  knowledge  tf 
the  true  principles  of  his  art.    Michel  Angelo  Buoiurotti 
was  bom  m  1474,  and  living  to  the  advanced  age  of  niaetT, 
was  the  means  of  influencinfi^  the  efforts  of  art  duniig  the 
greater  part  of  the  sixteentn  century.     ^Anatomy"  ays 
Flaxman,  **  motion  and  perapective  of  figure,  the  complia- 
tion,  harmonv,  and  grandeur  of  his  grouping,  with  the 
advantage  and  fiicilitv  of  execution  in  naintmg  and  sculp- 
ture, besides  his  matnematical  and  mecnanicafattcuDmeQ^ 
in  aix;hitecture  and  building,  which,  together  with  the 
many  and  prodigious  works  n»  accomplished,  demoostnte 
how  greatly  he  contributed  towards  the  restoration  of  wt." 
Some  of  the  most  renowned  works  in  sculpture  by  Mkhel 
Angelo  are  the  colossal  statue  of  Moses,  a  grand,  but  not 
alt^ether  pleaung  performance ;  the  statues  of  If^jo 
and  Giuliano   di  Medici :    the  David ;   the  Viigin  ^ 
dead  Saviour,  &c.    Several  of  his  works  ara  left  in  an  un- 
finished state.    Impatient  of  slow  pxogresuve  toil,  yet  full 
of  activity  and  inaustiy,  his  power  of  perfonnance  coold 
not  keep  pace  with  his  rapidity  of  conceiving  and  dedg^ung 
ma^ificent  tindertakings.     In  the  course  of  lus  histoir, 
which  we  shall  hereafter  lay  before  our  readers,  inaseparate 
form,  it  will  be  also  apparent  that  he  had  many  difficulties 
to  contend  with  in  the  execution  of  his  works,  arising  from 
the  jealousies  or  ignorance  of  those  by  whom  he  was  sor- 
rounded.    The  following  opinion  on  the  most  celebnufl 
work  of  this  artist  may  be  taken,  with  some  little  modiha- 
tion,  as  giving  a  good  idea  of  the  general  character  of  his 
performances.     "  The  Moses,  on  me  tomb  of  Julius  the 
Second,  amid  the  creations  of  genius  rises  a  solitaiy  ^ 
matchless  monument.    Without  model  among  the  prodac- 
tions  of  antiquity,  it  has  remained  inimitable  and  unimi- 
tated  in  modem  times.    Neither  in  Nature  do  we  find  its 
prototype :  it  is  the  extraordinary  conception  of  an  exi^ 
ordinary  mind.     Thus  isolated  by  its  own  peculiar  sob- 
limity  of  character,  this  statue  exhibits  a  striking  res^' 
blance  of  the  imagination  whence  it  derived  existence.  We 
behold  a  being  who  awes,  who  subdues,  yet  who  &us  w 
interest,  for  with  such  humanity  entertains  no  conununion 
of  feelmg.    Here  the  sublime  is  too  exdusively  som%^^ 
the  vehement  and  the  marvellous;  every  effort  isforcwJ 
every  trait  exaggerated,  and  ihe  whole  shows  a  daring  ori- 
ginality, verging  on  the  extravagant  and  the  &Ise ."   I^oJ' 
withstanding  the  faults  which  the  manner  of  Michel  Angeio 
threw  more  or  4ess  into  all  his  productioiu^  the  majesty  aB^ 
grandeur  of  his  statues  compensated  in  a  great  measure  tor 
minor  defects.     In  the  numerous  imitators  of  this  gK» 
man  we  find  that  for  the  most  part  the  manner  of  the  artist, 
including  the  faults,  is  carefuUy  retained,  while  tlie  stamp 
of  originality  and  genius  is  wanting  to  atone  for  the  latter. 

Michel  Angelo  died  in  1664,  and  was  buried  in  theclmrcQ 
of  Santa  Croce,  in  Florence,  and  a  monument  is  r^^  ^ 
him,  in  which  is  a  basso  relievo,  by  himself,  of  a  Mmodm 
and  Child.    Thb  monument  is  the  work  of  his  pnpUs,  ana 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  SEPTEMBEll,  IMl. 


coiuiaU  of  a  bust  of  Michel  Angelo  over  a  saicophag;uB, 
wilh  Ktatuea,  snppoaed  to  represent  Punting,  Sculpture,  and 

Architecture. 

Jaciipo  Tatti,  better  known  as  Sansovino,  had  studied  with 
Midiel  Angelo,  and  after  his  death  became  the  founder  of 
a  numerous  and  respectable  Bchool.  He  presided  over  the 
Venetian  works  of  sculpture  and  architecture,  and  enjoyed 
a  Miuiderable  reputation.  SanaoTOio  was  more  deserving 
uf  praise  ae  an  architact  than  as  a  sculptor.  His  statues 
in  the  Palace  of  the  Doge  at  Venice  are  elaborately  exe- 
cuted, bat  very  deficient  in  the  true  principles  of  art. 
At  the  time  at  which  we  hare  now  arrived  a  profnaon  of 
onument  began  to  be  employed  in  yrorka  of  Bculptute,  and 
atlAa  beatovred  that  time  and  attention  on  minutue  of 
mouldings,  scrolls,  flowers,  and  other  merely  omamental 
irorks,  winch  ehonld  have  been  given  to  the  higher  objects 
coonected  with  their  profession.  There  are  fins  specimens 
of  this  elaborate  style  at  Venice,  but  the  richness  of  the 
effeet  makea  but  poor  amends  for.  the  loss  of  simpLidty  and 

One  of  the  most  diatinguished  contemporaries  of  Michel 
Angela  and  of  Sansovino,  was  Baccio  Bimdinelli,  boi-n  in 
Hft7-  Ho  was  extremely  unpopular  with  his  brother  artiste, 
and  is  said  to  have  contended  with  Michel  Angilo  with  less 
j^eneroiis  weapons  than  thoee  of  talent.  To  him  is  attributed 
iJie  unworthy  act  of  secretly  destroying  that  great  artist's 
celebrated  cartoon  of  the  Battle  of  Pisa,  whicli  was  con- 
sidered at  tlie  time  the  most  excellent  dedgn  that  Iiad  ever 
beta  executed,  so  thatall  the  most  celebrated  painters  of  the 
day  attended  to  make  studies  from  it.  We  find  the  works 
of  Bandinelli  unsparingly^  condemned  by  contemporary 
writers ;  but  from  the  specimens  of  hia  performances  wluch 
still  remain  he  seems  entitled  to  a  hign  place  among  ttie 
sculptors  of  hia  day.  The  bassi  relievi  round  the  screen 
of  the  high  altar  in  the  Duomo  of  Florence  are  deserving 
ofmuch  prtuse  for  their  breadth  and  fine  treatment,  but 
they  arc  liable  to  the  charge  which  attaches  to  ell  ttie  other 
petfonnonces  of  this  arUst,  I.e.,  a  too  great  appearance  of 
the  picturesque,  leading  to  on  affected  style  of  attitude  and 
arrangement.  In  the  cnurch  of  the  Annunziata  at  Florence, 
is  a  marble  group  the  uze  of  life,  where  he  introduced  his  own 
Mrtrait  in  the  form  of  Nicodemus  supporting  Christ.  This 
vas  intended  for  his  own  monument.  To  this  artist  was  in- 
rusted  the  restoration  of  the  right  arm  of  the  celebrated 
jonp  of  the  I^aocoon,  The  next  artist  to  whom  we  shatl 
'eft.'r  is  Benvenuto  Cellini,  bom  at  Florence  in  1500.  Uo 
ras  distinguished  as  a  sculptor,  founder,  and  chaser.  Uis 
ar^r  works  are  preserved  at  Florence,  and  are  all  executed 
n  bronze ;  his  snialler  works  abound  in  foreign  collections, 
nif  coiiaist  of  tasteful  ornaments,  medals,  bucklers,  dag);er- 
lilts.  Sec,  Guglielmo  della  Porta  was  one  of  the  moat  skilful 
■f  the  Lombard  sculptors.  Hia  most  remarkable  work  is 
he  monument  of  Paul  III,  in  St.  Petei-'s  at  Rome.  The 
ecumbent  figures  in  this  monument  representing  Prudence 
nd  Justice,  the  one  a  female  of  advanced  years,  the  otiier 
young  and  beautiful  woman,  are  exceedingly  fine.  We 
ave  already  noticed  the  taste  for  fine  and  curious  execution 
■hich  had  become  prevalent  among  artists,  to  the  exclusion 
r  l>rTU^fiil  simplicity  and  repose.  This  destructive  taste  was 
illy  illuatroted  in  uie  works  of  Giovanni  di  Bologna,  other- 
ise  an  artist  of  talent,  and  endued  with  bold  and  elegant 
inceptions.  Baldinucci,  who  wrote  the  life  of  this  artist, 
-cords  on  interview  between  Giovanno  and  Michel  Angelo, 
hen  the  former  was  quite  in  the  commencement  of  hu 
ireer,  and  was  anxious  For  the  opinion  of  the  great  master 
'  a  figure  which  he  had  executed  with  great  care  and 
inuteness  of  finish.  After  examining  the  work,  "  Young 
on,"  s^d  Michel  Angelo,  "leam  to  compose  your  figure 
fure  yo'a  try  to  finish  it."  In  1508,  Bernini  was  bom  at 
ipics,  and  tliouffb  greatly  inferior  to  the  mighty  master  of 
c  la»t  century,heproveahiraself  tobeposseiBea  of  endow- 
!nts  by  which  he  might  have  reacheu  a  high  standard  of 
cellt^nce.  Ue  bad  genius,  fertility  of  fancy,  wonderful 
wers  of  execution,  with  unceasing  industry  and  ambition 
excel.  But  he  had  neither  a  well-regulated  judgment, 
r  a  manly  taste.  To  him  the  simplicitv  of  the  ancienia 
incd  rneagreness  and  povertr  of  style,  wnile  the  grandeur 
Mioliel  Arigelo  was  deemed  more  forcible  but  too  severe. 
■  therefore  tried  to  erect  a  third  etyle  possessing  greater 
;ii^h  and  energy  than  the  former,  and  more  suavity  and 
ce  thaii  thelatter.  In  this  futile  attemut  he  was,  not- 
.hatancling  his  great  talents,  the  undoubted  instrumeot 
liastening  the  decline  of  sculpture,  by  iutroducing  a 
e  and  flattering  taste,  and  confirming  the  tendency  to  an 
rloaded  and  dsborate  style.    Bernini  was  master  of  the  , 


IS5 

works  to  several  popes  in  succenlon,  and  means  were  thus 
afforded  him  of  diCFusing  hia  peculiar  views.  Some  of  his' 
most  remarkable  works  may  be  briefly  noticed.  The  menu- 
ments  of  Urban  VIII.  and  Alexander  VII.  are  splendid  ex- 
amples of  his  talents,  though  exhibiting  fully  the  influence 
of  the  false  taste  we  have  alluded  to.  That  of  Alexander, 
in  particular,  is  beautifully  executed,  but  strangely  com- 
posed. The  figure  of  the  pope  appears  seated  in  the  centre 
of  a  deep  niche,  and  all  around  him  is  distributed,  as  a 
ground-work  to  the  whole,  a  moss  of  cloud  and  curtain,  in 
the  four  comeie  of  which  are  plunged  allegorical  groups  of 
figures.  Those  in  the  background  are  inconspicuous,  but  the 
troni  comers  are  occupied  by  Truth  and  Charity :  the  latter 
with  her  infants  u  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  power  of 
the  artist  to  give  an  unyielding  material  the  semblance  of 
elasticity,  the  softness  and  roundness  of  human  ficsh.  The 
Apollo  and  Daphne  by  Bernini  in  ihe  Villa  Bor)rhese  is  a 
very  meritorious  performance,  displaying  great  skill  in  exe- 
cution. A  statue  of  David  preparing  to  throw  the  stono 
is  full  of  enerpf  and  fine  ox^iression ;  it  was  an  early  per- 
formance, and  forms  a  jiortiuiC  of  the  artist  himself.  Four 
colossal  statues  reprcHunting  Four  Doctors  of  the  Church 
supporting  the  clioii-  of  St.  Peter,  in  the  church  of  that 
apostle,  are  finely  imiigined,  but  injured  by  want  of  simple 
expression  and  attitude. 


ith  Bernini  were  Algardi  and  Flam- 
to  a  certain  d^reo  copyists  of  Bernini, 
til  have  Bome  claim  to  originality.  The  former  is 
celebrated  for  having  produced  the  largest,  though  not  the 
best  relievo  of  modem  art.  It  represents  the  discomfiture 
of  Attila  by  the  miraculous  appearance  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul.  The  work  is  executed  in  marble,  in  five  pieces, 
and  measures  about  thirty  feet  in  height,  and  eighteen  in 
width.  Flammingo  at  first  contented  himself  with  imita- 
tions of  the  style  of  Bernini ;  but  suheequently  copied  from 
nature,  and  become  eminent  for  his  skill  in  representing 
the  round  and  healthful  forms  of  very  young  children.  Of 
some  of  these  representations  Rubens  is  reported  to  Iinve 
said,  "  Nature  rather  then  art  appears  to  have  sculptured ; 
tlie  marble  seems  si.ftened  into  life," 

After  Bernini,  who  died  in   1G80,  Camilla  Rusconi,  » 
esteemed  the  master  Bculptoi  of  Italy.     Ue 


126 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


followed  the  same  prindplee  as  his  nredeeeeaor,  bat  hk 
talents  were  much  inferior,  and  the  deterioration  of  taate 
became  yet  moie  rapid  in  hia  hvids,  while  external  ciicum- 
■tancee  also  contributed  to  the  &11  of  scnlpture* 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  name  the  artists,  who  beinj^ 
either  contemporaries  with  or  successors  to  Rusconi  conti- 
nued with  more  or  less  of  ability  to  carry  out  the  same 
views,  in  this  declining  period  of  the  art.  Through  neariy 
a  century,  from  the  &ath  of  Bernini  to  the  appeamnoe  of 
Canova,  there  is  not  occasion  to  pause  over  the  works  of  a 
single  artist,  except  .to  mourn  the  bad  taste  by  which  his 
talent  was  warped  and  misapplied; 

**  Art  has  never  been  reformed,"  sajrs  Hemes,  ^after  alapse 
from  high  eminence,  by  mere  imitations  of  example  however 
excellent,  nor  bv  onlv  following  rules  for  the  ooirection  of 
error,  ^ome  mmd  or  uncommon  firmness  and  good  sense  is 
requii«d,  who  b^inning  with  nature  brinp;s  to  the  work  of 
reformation  oriffinaJ  powers  and  severs  judgment;  fimcy 
and  feeling,  with  correctness  and  cultivated  taste:  one,  in 
short,  of  those  rare  minds  whose  merits,  great  in  themselves, 
become  incomparably  greater  viewed  with  the  times  in 
which  they  oommmenoed  their  career;  whose  exertions, 
WonderAil  in  their  own  accomplishments,  ars  yet  mors  ad- 
mirable from  the  progress  which  others  have  tiiereby  been 
able  to  effect.  Sucli  a  genius  was  that  possessed  by  Canova, 
a  name  venerable  alike  for  virtue  and  for  talents."  For  a 
description  of  the  most  celebrated  work9  of  this  great  artist 
we  beg  to  refer  our  readers  to  three  articles,  entitled 
Canova  nnd  hU  Works,  in  Vol.  XVIII.  pp.  18,  50,  and  66 
of  this  Magazine.  Whether  we  consider  the  multiplicity 
of  his  labours,  the  elegance  and  purity  of  his  taste,  the 
fertility  of  his  genius,  or  the  correctness  of  his  judgment, 
we  must  acknowledge  Canova  to  have  been  a  most  extra- 
ordioary  artist,  eminently  calculated  to  b^  the  restorer  of 
Italian  seulpture  from  the  state  of  degradation  into  which 
It  had  &llen,  and  to  establish  improvemsnt  upon  genuine 
tmd  universal  principles  of  art. 

The  genius  of  Canova  gave  a  new  and  MQeral  impulse  to 
sculpture.  Tborwaldsen,  bom  at  Coperuiagen,  in  1772,  is 
classed  among  Italian  artists,  and  considered  the  head  of  the 
modem  achDol.  The  genius  of  this  sculptor  is  forcible,  but 
its  eneifY  U  rather  owing  to  peeuliar  views,  than  arising 
from  rem  aiceellenoe.  His  prineipal  works  are  the  Triumph 
of  Alexander,  two  exquiinte  pieoes  of  Night  and  Aurora, 
and  his  Henmry-^'aii  example  of  the  beauties  and  defects 
of  the  artist^  style.  Uis  relievos  are  remarkably  fine. 
That  of  AlexM^der's  Triumph  has  been  called,  notwithstand- 
ing some  minor  defeeti»  one  of  the  grandest  compositioiis 
in  the  world.  The  character  of  Thorwaldsen  as  a  K^lptor 
has  been  thus  summM  up :  **  Thorwaldsen  posseMes  singu- 
lar, but  in  some  respectS|  erratic  genius.  His  ideas  of  com- 
position are  irregular  {  bis  powers  of  fimcy  sorpass  those  of 
execution :  his  conceptions  seem  to  loee  a  portion  of  their 
value  and  freshness  m  the  act  of  realizen^^nt.  As  an  indi- 
vidual artist  he  will  command  deservedly  a  liigh  rank  among 
the  names  that  shall  gp  down  to  posterity.  As  a  sculptor, 
who  will  influence  or  nas  extended  the  principles  of  art,  his 
pretensions  are  not  great ;  or  should  this  Influence  and  these 
claims  not  be  thus  limited,  the  standard  of  genuine  and  uni- 
versal excellence  must  be  depreciated  in  a  like  degree." 
There  are  other  names  which  might  be  worthily  associatad 
with  that  of  Thorwaldsen,  but  as  It  is  not  requisite  to  dwell 
on  the  history  of  living  artists  in  a  brief  sketch  like  this, 
we  close  our  history  of  Italiail  art,  and  proceed  to  that  of 
other  countries. 

Section  VI.    British  Sculpture. 

The  knowledffe  of  sculpture  introduced  into  England  by 
the  Romans  at  the  time  or  their  subjugation  of  this  country 
appears  to  have  been  very  rude  and  imperfect,  and  the  spe- 
cimens which  can  be  referred  to  that  early  date,  are  so 
badly  executed,  as  to  lead  to  the  supposition  that  they  were 
the  work  of  the  common  soldiers,  rather  than  of  the  artists 
of  Rome.  During  their  sway  in  Britain,  however,  some 
taste  for  works  of  art  was  excited  among  the  conquered 
people.  Flaxman,  quoting  the  language  of  Speed,  says  that 
King  Cadwaiio  being  buried  in  St.  Martin's  Church,  near 
Ludgate,  his  image,  great  and  terrible,  triumphantlv  riding 
on  horseback,  artificially  cast  in  brass,  was  placed  on  the 
western  gate  of  the  city,  &c.  The  death  of  Cadwaiio  is 
placed  at  a.d.  677.  After  the  final  evacuation  of  the  country 
by  the  Romans,  the  attempt  to  imitate  the  human  form 
was  little  practised,  and  throughout  the  dominion  of  their 
successors,  the  Saxons,  we  find  the  art  in  a  feeble  state,  and 
rudely  displayed.    From  the  time  of  the  Norman  invaaiony 


we  tnee  the  intfoduction  of  a  better  style  of  art,  BtOl  ftrthff 
improved  and  modified  in  th^  time  of  the  CrusAdeB,  whe& 
foreign  travel  had  enlighteneid  the  minds  of  maltitiidn  ii 
matters  of  taste,  and  spread  abroad  a  knowledge  and  appiceU- 
tion  of  Grecian  statuaiy,  which  soon  began  to  show  itself  is 
the  improvement  of  English  sculpture.  Before  the  aid  ofthe 
eleventh  oentuiy,  there  is  no  evidence  of  sepulchral  itatiuiy 
having  been  executed  in  England.    This  praetiee  we  mj 
theremre  conclude  to  have  been  introduced  at  the  time  U 
the  Norman  invasion.    In  the  cloisters  of  WeetmiBster 
Abbey  are  aoulptured  effigies  carved  in  very  low  relief « 
coffin-shaped    slabs,    supposed  to  represent  two  abbo^ 
VitaUa  who  died  ui  1067,  and  Crispfnus  who  died  in  1117. 
After  the  rstum  of  the  Crusaders  good  sense  sad  shsplt 
grace  began  to  be  apparent  in  works  of  art,  and  to  ndmn 
the  imperfootioBB  which  w«e  still  tobe  found  in  the  work- 
manship.   The  number  of  ancient  monuraenta  exeenttd 
during  the  early  period  of  our  history,  and  still  adonJBf 
our  old  cathedrals  and  abbeys^  is  coniddenble;  yei  very 
little  is  known  of  their  authors.    It  is  probable  that  mj 
many  of  our  most  beautiful  aivchitectural  and  Kulptnd 
works  were  performed  by  foreigners^  members  of  those  fn- 
temities  of  itinerant  artists  of  whom  we  have  spoken  in  oor 
Supplements  <m  Abchitbcturb,  and  whose  societies  wen 
composed    of  architects,    seulptorB,  workers  in  mosair, 
builders,  designers  (  each  strictly  attending  to  his  psrticniar 
department,  but  under  the  common  guidance  of  the  geoenl 
oversea.    That  this  was  really  the  case  seems  nearly  proved 
by  the  fiict  that  the  very  improvements  introduoed  by 
Giovanni  da  Pisa,  son  of  meolo  rMsano,  are  decidedly  appa- 
rent in  English  works  of  that  period.     It  is  ^  Uat 
English  names  are  reoorded  as  the  masters  of  the  worb  in 
our  most  celebrated  sections,  but  there  b  much  reason  to 
believe  that  many  of  these  persons,  whose  names  hav^e  beat 
handed  down  to  posterity  m  connection  with  psrtienk 
undertakings,  were  the  ecclesiastics,  who  laid  their  plans  sod 
communicated  their  wishes  to  the  foreign  artists,  and  I7 
whose  direction  the  buildings  were  commenced. 

This  state  of  things,  finr  from  being  prejudicial  to  tW 
development  of  native  talent,  was  the  means  of  foaterin^ 
and  assisting  it,  and  we  have  every  reason  to  conM 
that  in  the  veiy  works  we  have  been  speaking  ofiDUBe* 
reus  assistants  must  have  been  needed,  and  selected  fr'm 
among  the  English,  to  carry  out  the  gnand  designs  of  ^^ 
who  nad  the  principal  chaige  of  the  work.  It  '^  ^ttk 
doubted  but  that  some  fine  monuments  of  our  Hennes  aad 
Edwards  during  the  fifteenth  century,  are  the  woikset 
home-bred  talent.  It  was  the  opinion  of  Flaxmaa  that  tix 
mater  part  of  the  sculpture  of  Wells  Cathedral,  hnilt  I7 
Bishop  Joceline  during  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  co- 
tury,  was  the  work  of  native  artiste.  Some  of  the  etatB« 
exmbit  much  grace  and  simplicity.  But  the  sculptnie  of ^ 
reiffn  of  Edward  the  First,  and  the  statues  of  that  mow 
and  his  queen  in  Westminster  Abbey,  bear  proof  of  lb« 
being  the  work  of  Italian  artiste.  Under  Edward  the  W 
the  art  appears  to  have  been  muck  cultivated  hy  ^^^ 
men,  and  various  interesting  works  exhibit  their  skill,  i^ 
name  of  William  Austin  is  honourably  recorded  as  t^ 
author  of  Beauchamp,  Eari  of  Warwiclrs  monmoeot  in  w 
Warwick  chapel.  It  is  well  known  that  two  Italian  ficul^ 
tors  were  much  employed  in  England  during  the  sixteei^^ 
century,  t.^.,  Cavallini  and  tlie  celebrated  Torregiano,  ves 
exeouted  the  monument  in  Henry  the  Seventh's  Chap«l  ^; 
the  prioe  of  one  thousand  pounds.  John  of  Padua,  a  puj^ 
of  Michel  Angelo,  was  master  of  works  to  H^^  ?  j 
Eighth.  The  monumente  of  this  period  to  which  M^ 
names  are  attached,  do  not  ^chibit  evai  a  tolerable  d^ 
of  skill.  Indeed,  from  the  time  of  Henry  the  E^th  's 
Charles  the  First,  the  art  of  sculpture  fell  into  much  negl«<^j 
during  the  eventful  period,  and  amidst  the  strapies,  «h^ 
preceded  the  esteblisnment  of  the  Refcyrmed  religioo,  it  7^ 
quently  happened  that  party  filing  and  mistaken  zcsl  i'; 
to  the  mutilation  or  total  destruction  of  the  ehoioeet  ^ 
mens  of  art.  Under  tliese  citoiunstanees,  there  was  ii;^^ 
encouragement  to  the  sculptor  to  continue  his  y(fcii^''' 
Charles  the  First  was  much  inclined  to  enoouraae  the  t^' 
It  was  by  his  order  that  the  civtoons  of  Raphael,  and  ot^" 
rolendid  works,  were  made  the  property  of  this  cotin'^ 
Ena^lish  sculptors  flourished  in  that  reign,  and  thougli  t ' 
style  and  composition  of  their  works  are  oi  a  very  low  crj ' 
there  is  occasionally  a  boldness  of  conception  which  rtn'-^^ 
them  worthy  of  notice. 

All  the  sculptors  of  talent  who  flourished  in  Tf-?^^^'] 
during  the  last  century  were  foreigners,  though  »»«  • 
them  by  long.xeeidenoe  among  us  earned  a  British  6^* 


k 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  SEPTEMBER,  1841. 


127 


rhe  principal  works  were  executed  by  Gibbon,  Gibber, 
dteevens,  De  Vere,  Bertocini,  Sheemacker,  Roubiliac*  This 
rariety  of  sculptors,  from  different  countries,  brought  a 
rariety  of  taste  and  style,  but  yery  little  of  sound  principle 
a  art. 

The  school  of  British  soulptnre,  jproperly  to  called,  may 
»e  considered  as  commencing  with  fiaoKt,  who  was  Ixwa  in 
1738,  and  died  in  1805.  <<  He  was  the  first  of  our  natiT« 
culptores"  says  Cunninffham,  ^  whoee  aims  were  uniformly 
ofty  and  heroic,  and  wno  desired  to  bring  poetry  to  the 
lid  of  his  Gompositionst"  His  finest  work  .was  his 
liouming  Achillea,  and  the  anecdote  which  accompanies 
he  notice  of  it  by  tlie  memorialist  abore  named,  Is  too  cha- 
Bcteristio  to  be  withheld*  When  the  statue  was  completed, 
rraise  was  poured  upon  the  artist  from  all  quarters  |  some 
ored  it  because  it  was  classic,  others  because  it  was  natuml, 
Old  more  because  the  sentiment  of  sorrow  w^  larvely  dif- 
used  from  the  iace  oYer  the  figure.  He  was  justiy  proud 
>{  this  noble  work,  and  proceeded  to  remove  U  to  the  ex- 
hibition rooms  in  Somerset  House*  The  packing  and 
remoying  of  sculpture  is  at  all  times  attended  with  danger, 
md  so  it  proved  in  this  instance,  for  the  wagon  was  over- 
turned in  the  street,  and  the  Mourning  Achilles  shivered 
Into  five  hundred  pieces.  Banks,  who  accompanied  the 
zarriage,  witnessed  the  destruction  of  his  figure — ^the  work 
}f  a  whole  twelvemonth  was  lost  in  one  moment,  and  as  he 
iepeuded  upon  it  for  the  establishment  of  his  name,  all 
tiopes  of  future  celebrity  for  the  moment  vanished.  He  re- 
turned home,  and  such  was  his  command  of  temper, — his 
[>hilos(>phic,  or,  more  properly,  devout  resignation  under 
this  cauiDiity, — ^that  neither  his  wife  nor  daughter  observed 
tliat  anything  unfortunate  had  happened.  He  returned  to 
he  exhibition  room,  collected  the  scattered  fragments  of  his 
work,  and  assisted  by  his  younger  brother,  pieced  it 
mtiently  and  skilfully  together,  and  restored  the  Mourning 
^.cliilles  to  something  luce  its  original  beauty.  He  tiden 
^oTumunicated  what  had  happened  to  his  wife* 

Bncon,  bom  in  1740,  was  in  every  respect  an  English 
irtist,  and  almost  self-taught.  His  statue  of  Samuel  John- 
on,  in  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  is  greatly  admired  for  its  fine . 
lud  truthful  expression.  In  the  same  building  is  another 
igcample  of  his  talent,  in  the  statue  of  the  benevolent  and 
philanthropic  Howard..  Contemporaiy  with  these  two 
rtists  was  Nollekeni^  '^who,"  savs  Memes,  ^^knew  his  orf, 
lut  wanted  sdencey  dignity,  and  &ncy." 

We  now  come  to  the  most  eminent  sculptor  this  country 
las  yet  produced, — ^the  celebrated  John  Flaxman,  bom  in 
755.  This  artist  and  his  works  have  been  recently  noticed 
t  some  length  in  the  pages  of  the  Sainrday  Magasnne :  we 
hall  therefore  content  ourselves  with  adding  the  opinions  of 
AT  Thomas  Lawrence  and  of  Count  Cicognara  respecting 
lis  merits.  The  former  speaks  thus :  *'  The  elements  of 
is  style  were  founded  in  Grecian  art,  on  its  noble  princi- 
les — on  its  deeper  intellectual  power,  and  not  on  the  mere 
urface  of  its  sxill.  Though  master  of  its  purest  lines,  he 
T9»  still  more  the  sculptor  of  sentiment  tlian  of  form)  and 
rhilst  the  philosopher,  the  statesman,  and  the  hero  were 
reii.ted  by  him  with  appropriate  dignity.  Hot  even  in 
taphael  have  the  gentler  feelings  and  sorroivs  of  human 
ature  been  treated  with  more  touching  pathos  than  in 
le  various  degrees  and  models  of  this  inestimable  man. 
ike  the  greatest  of  modem  pamters,  he  delighted  lo  trace 
'oin  the  actions  of  familiar  life  the  lines  of  seUtlfnent  and 
ass  ion,  and  from  the  populous  haunts  and  momentary 
eacefulness  of  poverty  and  want,  to  form  his  inestimable 
roups  of  childhood  and  maternal  tenderness,  with  those 
oblc  compositions  from  Holy  Writ,  as  beneficent  in  their 
lotive  as  they  were  novel  in  their  design."  Count  Cicog- 
ara  thus  testifies  to  the  opinion  the  It^ians  entertained  of 
ur  renowned  countryman :  '^  To  Flaxman  out*  obligations 
re  very  great,  since,  as  far  as  our  acquaintance  With  his 
mrks  extends,  they  serve  nobly  to  elevate  from  a  certain 
lonotonous  lethargy,  and  to  create  afresh  that  taste  for  the 
'▼i?re  and  golden  style  of  antiquity  which  he  applied  to  his 
wa  inventions." 

At  the  present  day  our  country  ma^  boast  of  sculptors 
f  Bupcrior  talents,  and  from  the  beautiful  specimens  of  art 
f\i\vii  have  appeared  during  the  last  few  years,  we  may 
onHdently  anticipate  a  hign  degree  of  excellence  to  m 
ttained  in  this  art.  A  just  taste  is  every  day  becoming 
lore  widely  diffused,  and  liberality  of  patronage  is  giving 
jH>\vprful  stimulus  to  the  exertions  of  our  sculptors*  An 
nf><>rtHnt  step  towards  this  desirable  state  of  things  was 
iken  at  the  early  part  of  this  century  b^  thepurcluMe  of 
uie  o£  the  most  celebrated  works  of  ancient  art|  aad  their 


public  exhibition  in  our  National  Munenm.  Since  the 
works  of  the  celebmted  Pliidias  liave  bueii  tlius  lu(>iit;lit 
before  us,  every  dei);ii*tmeiit  of  taste  has  beeu  im|irovcd, 
sculpture  in  particular.  And  thus  may  it  long  continue 
to  be  with  this  most  pleasing  art.  It  has  been  well  remarked 
that,  '^Sculpture  seems  especially  calculated  to  flourish 
amongst  us*  The  grave  and  manly  character  of  the  art 
agrees  wi^h  the  tone  of  national  genius,  harmonises  with 
onr  free  institutions,  and  may  fi^  in  our  history  souifcefl 
of  the  brightest  inspiration*" 

^  A  fbw  of  the  more  striking  proofs  of  British  talent,  as  exhi- 
bited in  our  publio  monuments,  may  here  receive  a  brief 
notice.  The  colossal  equestrian  statue  in  brass  of  Geoige 
III.  placed  at  the  extremity  of  that  noble  avenue  called  the 
Long  Walk  in  Windsor  Park,  presents  an  admirable  likeness 
of  the  sovereign.  It  is  twenty-six  feet  in  height,  and  with 
its  pedestal  (which  is  a  mass  of  stones  intended  to  represent 
a  ruck),  reaches  an  elevation  of  fifty  feet.  The  eminent 
sculptor  (Mr*  Westmacott)  to  whom  the  public  is  indebted 
for  this  mie  performance,  has  not  escaped  censure,  as  It  re^ 
spects  the  drapery  of  the  figure ;  for  those  who  so  well  re- 
member their  beloved  Sovereign,  attired  in  a  plidn  English 
dress,  are  naturally  surprised  and  oflcnded  at  the  Roman 
costume  in  which  he  is  represented.  It  has  been  justly 
said  that  a  &lse  idea  will  be  conveyed  to  future  generations 
respecting  the  style  of  dress  in  England  during  the  nine-» 
teenth  century,  for  owing  to  the  almost  imperishable  nature 
of  the  material,  this  statue  will  probably  exist  for  thousands 
of  ^earsi  The  apparent  height  of  tills  statue  is  ffreatlr 
diminished  by  the  lofly  proportions  of  the  trees  by  which  it 
is  immediately  surrounded. 

Foremost  in  the  list  of  metropolitan  monuments  must  be 
placed  the  statne  of  the  Duke  of  York  erected  at  the  prin- 
cipal entrance  to  St.  James's  Park.  The  figure  is  thirteen 
feet  nine  inches  in  height,  and  stands  on  a  beautiful  Doric 
column,  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  feet  high.  The  duke 
is  represented  In  mt>dem  costume,  with  a  cuirass  and  mill* 
tarv  boots.  His  right  hand  rests  unon  a  sword,  eight  feet 
in  neight,  and  across  his  left  shoulder  is  thrown  an  ample 
mantle  emblazoned  with  the  order  of  the  Garter. 

The  colossal  statue  in  bronze,  erected  in  Hanover  Square 
to  the  memory  of  William  Pitt,  is,  in  many  respects  the 
finest  in  London.  Mr*  Chantry  has  represented  tne  orator 
in  the  act  of  addressing  an  audience. 

Another  celebrated  public  testimony,  of  which  the  last 
named  admirable  sculptor  was  the  author,  is  the  marble 
statue  of  Watt,  in  Westminster  Abbey*  Nothing  could 
more  faithfuUjr  express  the  character  of  the  philosopher 
than  this  exquisite  composition,  breathing  in  its  simplicity 
and  repose,  the  calm  and  reflecting  mind  of  tiie  extra- 
ordinary man  it  is  designed  to  commemorate. 

The  commemoration  of  individual  excellence  and  public 
worth  seems  theprincipal  sphere  at  present  for  the  statuary 
in  England.  "The  features  of  the  wise  man,"  savs  Milman, 
"  and  the  figure  of  the  warrior,  cannot  be  too  distinct  and 
determinate;  and  though  more  imaginaxy  subjects  fail  him, 
the  English  sculptor  cannot  want  matter  for  his  skill,  till 
the  line  of  English  heroes  and  English  sages  is  extinct. 
Modem  sculptors  have  often  attempted  to  substitute  alleeory 
for  mythology ;  but,  besides  the  difliculty  of  distinguishing 
these  beings  by  their  attributes,  there  is  this  strong  objec- 
tion:— ^we  cannot,  by  any  effort,  believe  their  actual 
existence,  or  forget  that  they  cannot  exist ;  that  they  are 
but  philosophic^  symbols.  The  Grecian  divinities  required 
an  abstract  exercise  of  the  imagination  to  credit  their 
existence  in  their  beauty  and  majesty ;  but  there  was  no 
obtrasive  impossibility,  nothing  that  positively  contradicted 
their  reality  of  being.  But  though  Minerva,  and  Mars,  and 
Apollo,  are  obsolete  to  our  feelings,  and  unenlivening  to  our 
imagination,  yet  for  representations  of  embodied  wisdom, 
atid  valour,  and  poetry,  our  memory  would  gladly  cleave 
to  particular  images.  The  statue  of  Newton,  with  its  deep 
concentration  of  tnoughtand  undisturbed  retirement  within 
itself,  may  stand  a  strong  and  vivid  emblem  of  philosophy. 
Why  diould  the  dying  figure  of  Wolfe  or  Nelson  be  con- 
fined to  the  canvas?  The  satisfied  serenity  of  the  expiring 
conqueror  should  be  wrought  in  durable  marble.  And  in 
Milton  'sleeping  under  the  Italian  shade,'  in  his  youthful 
beauty,  the  calm  and  holy  inspiration  of  poetnr  might  be 
moulded  and  wrought  in  all  its  fulness  and  pertSfiction." 

Section  VII, 
Fbsnch,  Gbbhan,  and  Spanish  Sculpture. 
We  caimot  close    our  remarks   on  sculpture  without 
I  briflfljr  advertiii;  to  that  of  the  nations  above  mentioned. 


123 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


altliougli  wo  find  litlle  to  attmct  ftttcnlion  in  the  works  of 
thejr  native  artiste.  As  in  tlic  case  of  the  early  hwtory  erf 
our  own  country,  so  many  of  the  beat  worlcB  wew  executed 
by  Italian  KulpUirs,  tliat  the  arCcuaeoiTcelybe  said  to  have 
had  BJi  exisUnc«  apart  trom  Iheir  labours.  Neverthelev 
French  sculptora  of  some  eminewM  an  spoken  of  aa  early 
as  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centary.  Jean  Gougon  com- 
pleted thecelebrated  Fountainofthelnnocentain  1560.  His 
contemporary,  Jean  Cousin,  also  possessed  talent,  but  his 
works,  though  not  without  grace,  ore  deficient  in  etrength 
and  correctness.  German  Pilon  is  spoken  of  as  a  master 
whose  productions  are  Aill  of  energy,  but  wanting  in  simple 
and  natural  expression.  Jacques  d'Angonleme  was  oon* 
temporary  with  Michel  Angelo,  and  the  national  vanity 
has  shown  itself  in  the  statement  that  he  once  defeated  that 

Ct  master  in  a  trial  of  skill.  GioTanni  di  Bologna  we 
I  already  named.  He  Ailed  the  whole  of  Frane«  with 
the  principles  of  his  former  master,  down  to  the  time  of 
Louis  the  Fourteenth.  At  this  time  excessive  refinement 
of  decoration  prevailed,  and  the  tendency  to  minuteness  of 
execution,  and  flatter  in  composition  and  design,  which  had 
characterized  French  sculpture  almost  from  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  at  its  height.  Girardoit  and  Puget  were  the 
celebrated  artists  of  this  period ;  the  fonncr  possessed  great 
merit,  though  not  sutScient  to  justify  tlie  languwe  of 
Voltaire,  "  it  a  (gale  tout  ce  que  PatttiquU^  a  de  viiu  oeait.'' 
PugeL  the  fiivourita  of  hia  country,  is  enoreetio  m  composi- 
tion, bold  and  full  of  movement  in  his  method  of  honillin^, 
but  is  deficient  in  nobleness,  grace,  and  science.  Sarasin  is 
■pokcn  highly  of  oa  the  author  of  the  Caryatides  at  tha 
Louvre.  The  ancceeding  artists  followed  the  steps  of 
Girardon  and  Puget,  until  the  excesses  of  the  unh^ipy 
period  of  the  Revolution  put  an  end,  for  the  time,  to  Ule 
arts  of  peace,  and  proved  destructive  to  the  treasures  of 
uitiquity.  One  of  the  lost  statues  executed  previous  to  this 
dreadful  outbreaking  was  that  of  Voltaire  by  Pigal,  which 
called  forth  the  following  severely  just  epigram : 

Kgal  au  naturcl  represento  Voltaire— 
Iioequeletlo  d  In  fois  offre  I'homme  et  Tantenr, 

L'lsil  qui  le  voit  snns  parure  etrang^re 
Eat  cffray^  de  di  moigreur  1 

Germany  appears  to  have  made  little  progress  in  scnlp- 
tupe  prior  to  tlie  seventeenth  century.  The  bronze  statues 
surrounding  the  toinb  of  the  Emi>eror  Maximilian  at  Inn- 
spmck  ore  mdeed  attributed  to  Laffier  or  Loffler,  who  died 
in  13C5;  but  thty  are  more  frequently  assigned  to  two 
brothers  of  tlie  name  of  Godi,  probably  Italians.  Ranch- 
muller  preceded  Shluter  of  Uamhurf^,  who  visited  Rome, 
and  attached  liimself  to  the  manner  of  Michel  Angelo. 
Some  finely  executed  pieces  of  sculpture  in  Vienna  were  the 


work  of  Hesserschmidt.  In  later  times  Ohnmiclit,  Son. 
neschein,  Nohl,  and  the  two  Shadofs  have  highly  diitin. 
guished  themselves.  The  Spinuii^  Girl  of  the  ymn^er 
Shadof  is  esteemed  one  of  the  most  exquisite  iBilUitmaof 
nature  which  modern  art  con  show.  Still  Gennaay  is  mm 
celebrated  for  writers  on  the  philoaophy  of  sculpture  ihio 
for  artiata  who  han  sUaiiwd  emineDce  in  tiie  {oKtin  of  th( 
art. 

Spanish  historians  give  a  long  list  of  native  tcnlptm 
from  the  beginning  of  the  raxteenth  century.  The  gntta 
part  of  them  ^peur  to  have  been  employed  in  omsinenliD; 
the  churches  of  Spain,  and  are  little  Imown  heyoad  thrir 
own  country,  Bemlffaet^  a  pnpil  of  Mlehd  Aupln, 
appears  to  have  founded  the  £ntr^[nlar  school  of  mlpton. 
lie  adorned  JCadrid,  Sangowa,  and  otbet  towni,  villi  wdHls 
that  exhibit  much  of  Ule  graoaenr  and  expreanoD  of  ucint 
art,  Paul  de  Cespidea  was  odebrated  as  a  teulplor  of  ^ 
merit,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  Philip  de  Csttn  mo- 
tributed  greatly  to  raise  the  art  ai^  to  dUiiiM  trat  piiiui- 
plee  and  correct  taste,  in  Spain. 


In  conclnsion  we  may  quoto  the  remarks  of  Mr.  Gnttni 
on  the  advantages  expected  by  the  ancients  from  the  »«II- 
directed  exeraise  of  sculpture,  **  The  history  of  Gpcrtf 
might  be  studied  in  the  steeet,  as  well  as  in  the  closet.  1^ 
veiy  ornaments  of  their  houses  were  pregnant  with  ntilik. 
and  while  they  entert^ned  the  eye,  informed  the  JDiipuen'l, 
and  transmitted  shining  examples  to  the  latest  j»sIfi^v. 
So  prevalent  and  uniform  were  the  effects  expeclfdfnm 
these  sculptured  monitors  among  the  Romsna,  tbil  tbnr 
satirists  and  orators  instanced  the  frequent  neglect  of  Ibcn 
Bs  a  mark  of  aggravated  degeneracy.  Their  bold  fipf 
and  glowing  dtwcriptions  represented  the  venerable  suita 
as  animated  with  shame  and  anger  at  the  conuptiixi  of 
their  iBce,  painted  them  as  domestic  and  eve^pfF^ 
accusers.  With  a  stem  and  indignant  nlencc  tieioo- 
jured  them,  by  those  precious  monuments,  no  loi¥"t"'-^ 
their  excesses  tomish  their  hereditary  honour^  oriiW' 
the  peace  of  those  illustrious  shades  by  whose  saftring)  s^  - 
virtue  those  honours  were  purehssed  and  acqaind.  M 
great  advantages  did  the  ancients  1>oth  expect  anii  i^" 
from  a  well-Srected  exercise  of  sculpture;  nor  btn  •' 
reason,  even  in  these  days,  to  suspect  that  its  opail:"^ 
should  vary,  or  its  influence  on  tbo  genins  of  a  prapk  'f  ^ 
sensibly  diminished.  1 

"  Briton  has  ever  warmly  and  abundantly  dischu^'i'' 
debt  of  gratitude  to  her  deceased  benefiictors:  butirttwrm'    , 
go  farther :  she  should  begin  to  reap,  in  the  cerim  t"""™-    | 
ragement  of  public  virtue,  the  fruits  of  that  Uwnoiw  l"^- 
faction  to  which  her  patient  ingenuity  has  i^sed  the  arti 


LONDON.  PaUUwdl7lDBH  W.  PABKSB,  Wnr  Stbud,  tad  sold  It  sIlBoalwIlcTi 


N?  594.  OCTOBKR  s-??,  1841.  {o 


lOnI 


SKETCHES    OF    CAIRO.    IV. 


XHAM'SL-KHALESUB,  CAIEO 


130 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[OcTOBttl, 


SKETCHES  OF  CAIRO.    Na.  IV. 

Tujfe  di^trifli  Obnit&cmly  known  is  tfat  Khdn  d-tChal«elee 
comprehends  within  It  sevefttl  lar^e  kh&ns,  or  W«kikhs ; 
but  it  is  properly  confined  to  a  much  smaller  space  within 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  khaa  represented  in 
our  frontispiece.  It  was  founded  about  A.  ^.  690.  {A.  D. 
1291,)  by  a  person  named  Khaleel.  This  wekaleh  is  a 
favourite  fesoTt  of  the  Tuf ks^  ftnd  BaUvei  of  the  higher 
orders.  Its  shops  are  principally  occupied  by  the  dealers 
in  silks,  shawls,  and  ready-made  clothes;  and  on  public 
market  days,  it  is  nearly  impassable  from  the  budy  throng. 
Mi*.  Hay  has  not  repreienMl  it  on  ittch  Ad  ooMfion,  and 
on  th&t  aetount  thii  Yiew  eskiblti  the  bttildtngi  lo  grefttef 
advantage*  It  ll  lofky  and  6<}tMr«d  In,  id  M  lo  etclude 
the  ardent  rays  of  the  iun  And  vet  Admit  inffident  light. 
Mr.  Lano  deicribei  A  wekidAh  ai  a  building  luf round- 
ing A  square  or  oblong  eonrt.  Iti  ff round  floor  oonsists 
of  vaulted  maga«tnei,  fbr  merohAndiie,  whieh  fACw  the 
court;  and  these  tnagaitnei  Are  iOtfletinies  used  as  shops. 
Above  them  are  generally  lodging!,  which  are  entered, 
from  A  gallery  ettending  along  eaeii  of  the  four  sides  of 
the  court;  or,  In  the  ptaee  of  theso  lodging*,  there  are 
other  magatlnes,  and  in  many  wekalehs  which  have 
apartment!  Intended  aa  lodgings,  fheio  apArtments  are 
used  A!  magazines.  In  general,  a  wekAleh  hAt  only  one 
common  entrAnce,  the  £ior  of  whleh  U  eloied  at  night, 
and  kept  by  A  porter.  There  are  about  two  hundred  oi 
these  bnildingi  in  Cairo,  and  three-fourthi  of  that  number 
are  within  fthAt  pArt  which  constituted  the  original  city. 

It  Is  oommon  In  Cairo  for  a  portion  of  A  street  or  a 
whole  itreet  to  contain  shops  appropriated  to  one  parti* 
cular  trade }  and  this  is  called  the  soock  or  market  of 
that  trade,  or  is  named  after  a  neighbouring  mosque. 

Tha  shop  Is  a  square  recess  or  eell,  generally  about 
sit  or  seven  fbet  high,  and  between  three  and  four  feet 
wide«    Its  floor  Is  even  with  the  raised  seat  of  stone  or 
brick,  built  against  the  f^ont.    Tho  ihop  it  Airnished 
with  fblding  shutters,  eommonly  consisting  of  three 
leavesi  ona  above  another  i  the  uppermost  of  these  is 
turnea  up  In  fh)nt,  the  other  two  leaves,  sometimes 
folded  together,  are  turned  down  upon  the  raised  seat, 
upon  whkh  Is  spread  a  mat  or  carpet,  and  sometimes  a 
cushion  or  two  is  added.   There  the  shopkeeper  generally 
sits,  unless  obliged  to  retire  a  little  way  within  his  shop, 
to  make  room  for  two  or  more  customers,  who  mount  up 
on  the  seat,  taking  off  their  shoes  before  they  draw  up 
their  fbet  upon  the  mat  or  OArpet»    To  a  rcgukr  cus- 
tomer, or  one  who  makes  Any  oonsiderable  purchase,  the 
shop-keeper  generally  presents  A  pipe,  and  sends  to  the 
nearest  eoffee-shop  for  coffee,  which  ii  served  in  small 
china  eups  placed  within  eupi  of  brass.     Not  more  than 
two  persons  ean  sit  conveniently  upon  the  raised  seat  of 
the  snop,  unless  It  be  more  dian  usually  spacious.    On 
this  Seat  the  shopman  usually  says  his  pravers,  in  sight 
of  the  passengers  in  the  street.    When  he  leaves  his 
shop  for  a  short  time  he  relies  for  the  proteetlofl  of  his 
property  upon  tho  next  ahop«keepers,  or  hangs  up  a  net. 
He  seldom  closes  and  locks  the  shutters,  eieept  at  night 
wht^n  he  returns  to  his  house,  or  when  he  gOiS  to  the 
mosque  on  Friday. 

Buying  ^d  eelling  (says  Mr,  Lane),  are  hera  very  tire- 
some processes  to  persons  unaoeustomed  to  such  modes  of 
bargainlttg.  When  a  shop-ke^r  is  asked  the  price  of  any 
of  bis  goods,  he  generally  demands  more  than  he  expects  to 
receive  I  the  customer  declares  the  price  exorbitant,  and 
offers  about  half,  or  two-thirds,  of  the  sum  first  named :  the 
price  thus  bidden  is  of  course  rejected;  but  the  shop-keener 
lowert  his  demand  i  and  then  the  customer^  in  hie  turn,  bids 
somewhat  higher  OiAn  before :  thus  they  uauatly  go  on  until 
^^J^^^J^^^^-'^y  between  the  eumter  demanded 
Mid  tnaft  first  offered:  and  so  the  bargain  la  concluded 
When  a  penKm  would  make  any  but  a  trifli^  purchase! 
havmg  found  the  wUcle  that  exacUy  suits  himThe  general] v 
makes  up  his  namd  for  a  long  altercation :  he  mounts  upon 
the  mustubah  (raised  seat)  of  the  shop :  seaU  himself  at^ 
ease;  fiUa  and  lighti  hia  pipe;  and  then  the  contest^ 


Words  commences^  and  lasla  often  half  an  hoar  «  €m 
more.  Sometlfflea  the  shop-keeper  orths  eutomerinUr. 
rupts  tlie  bargaining  by  l&&t>dudng  some  ifTelemt  topic 
of  conversation  I  aa  If  the  One  had  determined  to  abitelis 
demand  no  further,  or  the  other  to  bid  no  bigW:  tiien 
again  the  haggling  is  continued.  The  bargain  being  con- 
eluded,  and  the  purchaser  having  taken  his  leave,  hL  ser- 
rant  generally  receives,  from  the  tradesman,  a  small  present 
of  money,  which  if  not  nven  spontaneously,  he  scnipleenol 
to  demand.  Among  the  lower  orden^  a  Itargsau  of  the  most 
triflii^  nature  is  often  made  with  a  great  deal  of  yehemencs 
of  voioe  and  gesture :  a  person  ignorant  of  their  laagoage 
Would  imagine  that  the  j^rties  engaged  in  it  werje  qnarrellbg 
and  highly  enraged.  The  peasants  will  often  say,  when  a 
person  aaka  the  price  of  any  thing  which  they  hare  forsaic, 
"  Receive  it  as  a  present*;"  this  answer  having  become  a 
oommon  form  of  speech,  they  know  that  advantage  will  not 
be  taken  of  it :  and  when  desired  again  to  name  the  price, 
they  will  do  so  i  but  generally  name  a  sum  that  is  exor- 
bitant/* 

In  addition  to  the  numerous  shops  for  the  supply  of 
the  necessaries  and  luxuries  of  life  a  variety  of  articles 
are  hawked  about  the  streets  for  sale.    Someoftlie 
street  cries  are  verv  curious.     The  seller  of  timii  or 
lupins  sottietimes  cries,  "  Aid  I  O  Imbabeel  Aid!"  This 
ii  understood  In  two  ways :  as  an  invocation  for  aid  to 
the   Sheykh  £l-Imbabee,  a  celebrated  Mooslim  saint. 
buried  at  the  village  of  Imbabeh,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Kile,  opposite  Cairo,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  which 
village  the  best  tirmil  is  grown ;  and  secondly  as  imply- 
ing tbat  it  is  through  the  aid  of  the  saint  that  the  tirmis 
of  Imbabeh  is   so  excellent.      Sometimes  the  bv^e: 
cries,  **  The  tirmis  of  Imbabeh  surpasses  the  almond  f 
Also,  "  O  how  sweet  are  the  little  children  of  theriverr 
This  lait  ery  alludes  to  the  mode  in  which  the  tirmis  is 
prepared  for  food.     To  deprive  it  of  its  natural  bitter- 
ness it  is  soaked  for  two  or  three  days  in  a  teisel  fu'l 
of  water;   then  boiled;  and  after  this   seared  np  in  i 
basket  full  of  palm-leaves,  and  thrown  into  the  M'. 
where  it  is  lefl  to  soak  again  two  Or  thraa  days;  sft? 
which  it  is  dried  and  eaten  cold,  With  a  litUe  salt  The 
seller  of  sour  limei  oriel,  <*God  make  them  ll|ht  roreasv 
of  sale] !  O  limes  I"    The  touted  pips  3  a  kind  of 
melon,  and  of  the  water  melon,  are  often  anaonoced  b? 
the  cry  of  "  O  Consoler  of  the  etobarrassed !  0  pips'' 
A  seller  of  a  aweetmeat  compoaed  of  treacle  fried  vith 
other  ingredient!  is,    *'For  a   nail  I   0  ive«txDeatr 
Children  and  servants  often  exchange  iron  naib  and  otkr 
articles  of  iron  for  these  sweetmeata,  and  hence  the  err. 
The  hawker  of  oranges   cries,    "lllaeyl   0  oranges' 
ilmey  I**  and  similar  cries  are  used  by  the'venden  of  otk? 
fruits  and  vegetables;  so  that  it  ia  aometimes  impossible ts 
guess  what  article  is  really  announced  for  safe;  ei«*?' 
that  the  least  excellent  of  the  firulta  mentioned  in  the 
cry  is  often  the  only  fruit  the  man  has  to  sell;  Aus. 
when  a  man  cries  "  Svcafflore  igs  I  O  grapes  I"  B«  ^ 
fl|s  alone  for  sale,  and  these  are  not  ao  good  as  grapes 
The  seller  of  roses  utters  a  singular  ery  i  **  The  rose  wis 
a  thorn:  from  the  sweat  of  t&e  Prtfphot  it  opened  itJ 
flowers."    This  alludes  to  a  miracle  relatod  of  the  Pro- 
phet.   The  fragrant  flowers  bf  tho  hhenna  tree  (or 
Egyptian  privet  h  ara  Urns  announced  (br  tale  t  *'Odour$ 
of  paradise  I  0  (lowers  of  the  hhenna  I"  A  kind  of  cottca 
cloth,  made  by  maehlnary,  whioh  ia  aal  In  motoi  bv  ^ 
bull,  is  announotd  as  <«The  work  of  tii#  bull  1 0  mskleBs 
As  the  water  of  the  welhi  in  Cairo  la  somewhat  bm'»* 
ish,  numerous  mekcktu  (waterHnrriers)  obtain  a  liTf^'i 
hood  by  supplying  the  iahabituta  with  water  from  tb- 
Nile.   During  the  seaion  of  th«  inimdation,  ti^e  isckcbs 
draw  their  water  tnm  a  canal  which  mns  through  the 
city  I  but  at  other  times  it  is  brought  up  from  the  river 
in  skins  bv  camels  and  assea,  or  by  the  water-crrricr 
himself,    fhie  Watar-sktns  of  Ui«  camel  ara  a  pair  of 
wide  bags  of  ot-hide,    Tha  aaa  bears  a  goat^ikin :  :i ' 
also  does  the  sackcka,  if  he  have  no  ass.     His  crj  .^ 


•    K 


As  Ephion  did  to  Almbaiii,  wbon  tin  latter  eraiMMd  hit  «i^  *' 
puichtta  th«  esre  Md  fidd  of  Madipdbh.'*    Sm  OmmNi  xsifii  1^- 


1841.] 


THB  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


131 


<<0I  may  God  compensate  me  t**  For  a  goaf  9  skin  of 
water  brought  from  a  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half  or 
two  miles  he  obtains  scarcely  more  than  a  penny.  Many 
sackckas  supply  passengers  In  the  streets  with  water* 
The  water-skin  of  one  of  these  carriers  is  provided  with 
a  long  brass  spout ;  and  he  pours  the  water  into  a  braas 
cap)  or  an  earthen  vessel,  for  any  one  who  would  drink. 
Another  set  of  water-carriers  called  hhemalaes  carry  on 
their  backs  a  vessel  of  porous  grey  earth.  This  serves 
to  cool  the  water.  Sometimes  the  water  is  scented  with 
orange  flowers,  and  often  a  sprig  of  naring  U  stqck  in 
the  mouth  of  his  water- vessel.  Other  persons  perambu- 
late the  streets  with  infusions  of  Uquorioey  sherbet^  and 
other  drinks  for  sale. 

We  have  purposely  abstained  from  any  notice  of  the 
political  condition  of  the  Mooslims,  because  many  changes 
have  already  taken  place  or  are  still  in  progress^  so  that 
any  details  which  we  could  five  would  apply  rather  to 
the  past  tbmn  to  the  present.  We  will  theretbre  conclude 
thse  sketcfaies  with  a  few  detached  notices  of  the  domes- 
tic manners  of  the  Mooslim  Egyptians* 

The  M o«>slims  are  formal  and  regular  in  their  soeial 
manners ;  tliough  generally  very  easy  in  their  demeanour 
and  free  in  conversation.     Many  of  their  commonest 
usages  are  founded  on  the  precepts  of  thsir  religion, 
such  as  the  common  salutation  of  *^  Peace  be  on  yott  i" 
the  reply  to  which  is,  ^  On  you  be  peace*  and  the  merey 
of  God,  and  his  blessings !"   This  salutotion  is  never 
addressed  by  a  Mooslim  to  a  person  of  another  religion^ 
nor  vice  versd.    Mr.  Lane  says  that  a  European  tra- 
veller not  disguised  by  Turkish  dress,  often  fancies  that 
he  is  greeted  with  this  salutation  when  it  is  really  in- 
tended for  his  Mooslim  attendant.    When  friends  salute 
each  other  they  join  their  right  hands,  and  then  each 
kisses  his  own  hand,  and  puts  it  to  his  Ups  and  forehead, 
or  his  forehead  only,  or  his  breast;  or  merely  places  it 
on  his   breast  without  kissing  it.     It  is  a  customary 
mark  of  respect  to  conceal  the  hands  in  the  sleeves  of 
the  ckooftan  in  t]ie  presence  of  a  person  of  high  rank. 
In  polite  society,  when  a  person  asks  his  friend,  '^  How  is 
your  health  ?'*  the  reply  is,  ^^  Praise  be  to  God  i"  and  it 
is  only  by  the  tone  of  a  voice  in  which  the  answer  is 
made  that  the  inquirer  can  infer  whether  his  friend  be 
well  or  ilL     The  ordinary  compliments  in  use  in  Egyp- 
tian society  are  extremely  numerous. 

When  a  person  visits  the  house  of  another  be  neyer 
enters  unawares;  and  particularly  if  he  have  to  ascend 
to  an  upper  apartment  he  calls  out  for  permissiout  or 
claps  his  hands,  in  order  tliat  the  females  of  the  bouse 
being  warned  of  his  approach  may  retine  or  yeil  them- 
selves. On  entering  the  room  where  the  master  of  the 
house  ia  seated,  he  gives  the  selam,  whieh  the  maater  re- 
turns, and  welcoaoes  his  guest  with  afOability*  To  his 
superiors  or  equals  he  rises;  and  ^the  former  and  often 
to  the  latter  he  yields  the  most  honourable  place,  which 
is  the  conEuer  of  the  deewan.  The  upper  end  of  the  room 
is  called  th«  tudr.,  and  the  seat  extending  along  it  is  more 
honourable  than  those  at  the  sides.  Visitors  of  inferior 
rank  to  the  master  never  seat  themselves  at  the  upper 
end  unless  invited  to  do  so,  and  then  they  often  decline 
the  honour.  During  the  visit  smoking  is  nearly  always 
carried,  on  and  coffee  introduced;  for,  say  the  Arabs, 
'^  tobacco  without  coffee  is  like  meat  without  salt.'" 

It  was  once  common  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  to 
sprinkle  the  guest  before  he  rose  to  take  his  leave  with 
rose  or  orange-flower  water,  and  to  perfume  him  with 
the  smoke  of  some  odoriferous  sdbstance ;  but  of  late 
yeai*s  this  custom  has  declined.  The  Egyptians  are 
very  fond  of  perfumes,  and  often  fumigate  their  apart- 
nients.  It  is  also  common  to  fumigate  the  cups  from 
which  they  drink  their  coffee  with  the  smoke  of  mastic ; 
and  wealthy  persons  someUmes  impregnate  the  coffee 
itself  with  the  fragrance  of  ambergns. 

IMr.  Lane  describes  the  Egyptians  as  being  extremely 
courteous  to  each  other,  wi^  a  peeuliarfraoeand  dignity 


in  their  manner  of  salutaUon  and  their  general  demeanour, 
combined  with  easiness  of  address,  which  seems  natural 
to  them ;  and  is  observable  even  in  the  peasants.  The 
middle  and  higher  classes  of  townspeople  pride  them- 
selves upon  their  politeness  and  elegance  of  manners, 
and  their  wit  and  fluency  of  speech.  Affability  is  a 
general  characteristic  of  the  Egyptians  of  all  classes.  It 
is  common  for  strangers  even  in  a  shop,  after  mutual 
salutation,  to  enter  into  conversation  with  each  other  with 
as  much  freedom  as  if  they  were  old  acquaintances ;  and 
for  one  who  lias  a  pipe  to  offsr  it  to  another  who  has 
none;  and  it  is  not  unnsualf  nor  unpolite,  for  strangers 
to  ask  each  ojtber'f  names,  professions  and  places  of  abiode. 
They  art  generally  very  Uvely  in  their  talk;  but  seldom 
noisy  in  tbsir  mirth ;  anything  which  pleases  them  being 
gonerally  acknowledged  by  a  smile  or  an  eaelamation. 

But  oif  the  leading  features  of  iMf  ebaracter  none  is 
more  remarkable  tbati  ibeir  religious  pride.  They  regard 
persons  of  everv  other  faitb  as  the  children  of  perdition ; 
and  such  the  Mooslim  is  early  taught  to  despise.  False- 
hood was  commended  by  their  prophet,  when  it  tended  to 
obtain  any  advantage  over  the  enemies  of  their  faith ; 
and  hence,  veracity  is  a  virtue  extremely  rare  in  Modem 
Egypt ;  for,  as  Mr.  Lane  well  observes,  if  people  are 
allowed  to  lie  in  certain  cases,  they  insensibly  contract  a 
habit  of  doing  so  in  others.  The  Mooslims  are  also 
grossly  superstitious*;  they  haye  full  faith  in  written 
charms  and  ajnulots,  and  in  the  influence  of  mag^c,  and 
resort  to  the  most  absurd  and  ridiculous  practices  to  pro- 
tect themselves  fromi  enchantment,  the  evil  eye,  &q.  They 
are  moreover  very  indolent,  obstinate^  sensual,  and  often 
rapacious. 

One  pleasing  feature  in  their  characters  is  the  hu- 
manity with  which  they  treat  the  lower  animals.  Dogs 
are  very  numerous  in  Cairo,  and  although  regarded  as 
unclean,  they  are  not  only  unmolested,  but  their  wants 
are  daily  provided  for*  omall  troughs  are  daily  replen- 
ished with  water  for  the  dogs.  In  each  street  where 
'there  are  shops,  a  sadccka  is  paid  a  small  sum  monthly, 
for  sprinkling  the  street  and  filling  the  dogs'  trough  in 
that  street.  The  dogs  are  of  use  in  removing  the  offal 
thrown  out  from  the  butchers*  shops  and  from  houses. 
Tbcy  generally  ayoid  coming  in  contact  with  the  men; 
as  if  they  had  an  instinctive  feeling  that  the  people  of 
^  city  regarded  them  as  unclean^  It  is  curious,  also, 
that  houseless  cats  in  Cairo  are  fed  at  the  expense  of  the 
ckadee;  every  afternoon  a  quantity  of  offal  is  brought 
into  the  great  court  before  the  Mahhakemeh,  and  the 
cats  are  allowed  to  eat.  Many  persons,  when  they  want 
to  get  rid  of  a  cat,  send  it  to  the  ckadee's  house,  and  let 
it  loose  in  the  great  court. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  mention  another  prevailing 
charaetertitio  of  the  modern  Egyptians,  which  is,  love  of 
their  country.  In  general  they  have  a  great  dread  of 
quitting  their  native  land;  and  many  who  had  determined 
to  visit  a  foreign  country  for  the  sake  of  considerable 
prospective  advantages,  found  their  resolution  give  way 
as  the  time  of  their  intended  departure  drew  near. 

It  is  an  vnceath,  a  stnmgt  thing,  and  even  nnnatand,  that 
neither  a  man's  appetite,  nor  his  health,  norths  time  of  the 
day,  nor  his  ordinary  diet,  shall  be  the  reason  or  occasion  of 
a  man's  drinking,  or  the  rule  whereby  to  try  the  convenient 
when  or  season  of  it ;  but  whenever  a  man  shall  make  such 
and  such  a  bargain  with  me,  or  pay  me  for,  or  get  payment 
fkym  me  of  such  and  sudi  thing,  that  must  be  the  rule  of 
my  eatSng  and  drinking.  What  beast  would  be  thus  dealt 
with?  There  is  a  drinking  of  health8--4>y  this  meaxis 
leiY^ing,  tempting,  or  occaeioning  drinking  in  others:  this  is 
one  of  the  highest  provocations  to  drunkenness.  What  can 
be  the  use  of  drinlnng  healths?  It  was  a  notable  saying  of 
a  great  man,  solicited  to  drink  the  kmg's  health,  "By  your 
leave  I  wVLlpratf  for  the  kinc's  health  and  drink  my  own." 
This  practice  will  probably  be  found  to  have  arisen  from 
heathen  idolaters,  who  used  libations  to  Jove,  Bacchus,  &c.; 
It  is  certain  there  is  no  vestige  for  it  in  Chriatianity,  nor 

any  reason  for  it.— DtnEtvaif* 

^  694—2 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


Octobers, 


FRESH-WATER  HSH. 

VHI. 

The  Tench      (O/pnnus  Tinea.— hmn.'i 


Wilh  nTcDoni  «■«■  (Wonn  hi 

YsL  bowKw'n  be  ba  with  ftndiK  pined 

TbaTiNca  b*  ipara,  >  BediEiii^  Uod ; 

For  vbflo  br  vooiidB  dlatnMvd,  or  laa  dJHMk 

Ha  court!  Iha  uiaUry  Mi  *»  sua. 

Clew  to  hit  icalea  tlie  Und  phjainan  glidH, 

And  twiUM  ■  haaling  bdNm  from  U*  ^dgi. 

Tub  above  lines,  extracl«d  from  the  piicatory  eelogne* 
of  Mr.  Diaper,  express  an  old  uid  ver^  remarkable 
supemtitltion,  which  Walton  relates  nith  amusing  sim- 
plicity. After  introducing  the  Tench  u  the  ''physician 
of  fishe*,"  he  says: — 

In  every  tench's  head  there  are  two  little  stones,  which 
ferei^  pliyaicians  make  great  use  of,  but  he  is  not  com- 
mended for  wholesome  meat,  though  there  be  very  much 
use  made  of  them  for  outward  applications.  Rondeletins 
■ays,  that  at  his  being  at  Rome,  he  saw  a  great  cure  done  by 
l^)plying  a  tench  to  the  feet  of  a  rery  Bick  man.  This^  ha 
■ayfl,  was  done  afW  an  unusual  manner  by  certain  Jews. 
And  it  is  obwrred  that  many  of  those  people  hare  many 
aecreta  yet  unknown  to  Christians-;  secrets  that  have  never 

Kbeen  written,  but  have  been,  (since  the  days  of  their 
cifflon,  who  knew  the  nature  of  all  things,  even  from  the 
eedar  to  the  shrub,)  delivered  by  tradition,  from  the  father 
to  Uie  son,  and  bo  from  generation  to  generation,  without 
writing;  or  (unless  it  were  casually),  without  the  least 
oommunicating  them  to  any  other  nation  or  tribe;  for  to 
do  that  they  accoont  a  profimation.  And,  yet,  it  is  thought 
that  they,  or  aome  spirit  worse  than  they,  first  told  us  tSat 
certain  maeoU  swallowed  alive  were  a  certain  cure  for  the 
yellow  jaundice.  This,  and  many  other  medicines,  were 
diaoav«red  by  them,  or  by  nrelation;  for,  donhtlcM,  we 
attuned  them  not  by  study. 

Well,  this  fish,  besides  hhi  eating,  U  Tery  naefnl,  both 
dead  and  alive,  for  the  good  of  nunkmd.  But  I  will 
meddle  no  more  with  tha^  my  h<meit  humble  art  teaches 
no  such  bolduess :  there  are  too  many  foolish  meddlen  in 
ph^icand  divinity,  that  think  themselves  fit  to  meddle 
with  hidden  secrets,  and  so  bring  destruction  to  their  fol- 
lowers. But  I'll  not  meddle  with  Ihem,  any  ferther  than  to 
wish  them  wiser ;  and  shall  tell  you  next  (for  I  hope  I 
Doay  be  so  bold)  that  the  tench  ia  the  p^meian  o/Mst,  for 
the  pike  especially ;  and  that  the  pike,  being  either  sick  or 
hurt,  is  cured  by  the  touch  of  the  tench.  And  it  is  ob- 
served that  the  tyrant  pike  will  not  be  a  wolf  to  his  phy- 
■idan,  but  forbeara  to  devout  him  though  he  be  never  so 
hungry. 

This  fiah,  that  corriM  a  natural  balaam  in  him  to  cure 
both  himself  and  others,  loves  yet  to  feed  in  very  foul 
water,  and  amonpt  weeds.  And  yet,  I  am  sure,  he  eats 
pleasantly,  and,  doubtless,  you  wLU  think  so  loo,  if  you 
taste  him. 

The  remarks  of  modem  observers  seem  to  show  that 
while  we  must  dismiss  as  fabulous  the  wonderful  healing 
qualities  of  the  tench  towards  their  fellow  fishes,  yet  the 
surprising  fact  seems  well  ascertained,  that  the  tench, 
from  whatever  cause,  is  secure  from  the  attacks  of 
the  pike,  the  eel,  and  all  other  piedatory  fresh-water 


fish.    Mr.  Daniel  and  Mr.  Salter  state  the  lact  in  plaii 
and  unqualified  terms : — 

Whether  the  forbeaiance  of  the  pike  (wyi  the  liUet 
gentleman)  arises  faomrespectto  the  healing  qiuli^bftbt 
tench,  or  is  to  be  attributed  to  a  dislike  of  tbe  aliiay  nuUtr 
on  its  body.  I  know  not ;  but  I  believe  the  tench  is  foMj 
free  from  tiie  persecution  of  the  jack  and  pike,  for  I  hm 
nsver  taken  MM  that  has  been  at  aU  mutilated  in  its  Gin,  tail, 
OTanjrotherpartjOiwith  any  of  those  wounds  or  scut  gn  Ik 
body  whidi  an  so  frequently  met  with  by  the  si^lcrtgH^ 
the  small  fish  ha  takes;  the  eel  alsofbrMoeehiiTtiTidtjriii 
regard  to  the  tanch,  both  bynight  and  day.  1  htTebon 
aeveral  titmmen  to  be  laid  at  night  baited  with  UnfA, 
roach,  dace,  bluk,  and  tench,  each  about  six  or  nia 
Inchealong,  and  when  those  trimmers  wereeunuDcdiilli 
morning,  both  eeb  and  jack  have  been  taken  by  ttie  liocfa 
baited  with  any  other  fish  but  the  t«nch,  which  I  fbimii  ■ 
lively  as  when  put  in  the  river  the  precedti^  night,  with- 
out ever  having  bem  disturbed ;  this  has  been  invuiiUr 
the  ca«e  during  roy  experience;  neither  have  I  met  wja 
even  one  soUlary  iutonce  to  the  contrary  leliltd  bjia; 
of  my  aoquainlanee,  who  had  numerous  oppottuuitia  d 
noticuig  the  ungnlar  urcumstances  of  the  perfect  baiaa 
frnn  anv  heatile  attack  which  the  tench  en^oyt  ora  no; 
other  iimabitant  of  the  liquid  element,  aiiamg&DintlieRG- 
tinnal  oonilieta  among  eacn  other. 

The  tench  seems  to  have  been  introduced  into  hf 
•and  from  the  lakes  of  Southern  Europe.  It  i)  ilu  . 
found  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  ItinbUta  stk 
stagnant  waters  or  a  loamy  clayey  soil  which  torn  i 
soft  muddy  bottom ;  or  the  most  tranquil  riven  liiicl 
flow  over  a  muddy  bed.  Mr.  Daniel  hastakenttnck 
out  of  Munden  Hall  Fleet,  in  Essex,  where  the  wUr 
was  so  foul,  and  the  weeds  so  thick,  that  the  flewi  cdd 
hardly  be  sunk  through  them ;  the  mud  was  ilso  iDtokr- 
ably  fetdd,  and  bad  dyed  the  fish  c^  an  inky  colonr,  ml 
yettheteueh  were  well  grown,  and  of  fine  flavour;  nuif 
that  were  takeu  weighed  nine  or  ten  pounds  the  bno- 
Sometimes  the  flesh  of  the  tench  is  so  tainted  bj  lit 
rank  weeds  or  impurities  of  the  water  in  which  il  «•- 
stantly  dwells,  that  it  cannot  be  eaten;  if,  however,  tk 
fish  be  conveyed  to  other  purer  water  it  loses  the  ofo- 
sive  taint  in  a  few  days. 

This  fish  is  known  as  the  mwcosw  Uackuk  tlii 
earp.  Its  form  varies  with  its  age,  but  Mr-BUiHSUts 
as  a  general  type,  that  it  is  thick  in  proportion  lo  i^ 
lengu  as  three  to  one;  when  very  ftill  and  oell  fed,  il 
has  been  seen  nearly  as  broad  as  it  is  long.  The  ^ 
is  full,  but  proportionate  to  the  bulky  figure;  the  uM 
short,  blunt,  and  bounded  by  a  moderately  used  lu 
rounded  mouth.  It  has  two  tnaigaificant  cirri,  out  ■< 
each  angle  of  the  mouth.  Ai  to  ita  teeth,  the  nnui 
of  Walton  on  the  carp  applies  here ;  for  the  tench  ii''U 
be  reckoned  amongst  those  laather-mouthed  fish,  "iath 
I  told  you,  have  their  teeth  in  their  throat  ;isd  to  >» 
reason  he  is  very  sejflom  lost  by  breaking  hii  bol^  ii 
your  hook  be  once  stuck  in  his  chaps."  The  eyes  >" 
small  and  round ;  and  the  iris  red.  The  gill-coTen  « 
of  a  bright  yellow:  the  fins  and  tail  laige,  snJni 
dark  purplish  hue.  The  general  colour  of  the  fiih  u  > 
deep  obve,  with  a  golden  tint  shining  through  theiaJ* 
The  scales  are  small  and  thin,  and  adhere  dosel;  to  u* 
skin;  their  number  has  been  computed  at  not  less  tbu 
thirty  thousand.  The  fins  of  the  female  are  said  »  » 
much  longer  than  those  of  the  male.  The  risddilw 
with  which  the  surface  of  the  scales  is  thickly  cot^ 
together  with  ita  reputed  healing  quahties,  we  »" 
already  noticed.  ,    . 

These  fish  spawn  at  the  end  of  spring  or  the  beginJnil 
of  summer ;  they  form  a  nidus  about  the  roots  sad  flo"' 
of  aquatic  plants.  The  young  fVy  appear  in  a  stort 
time,  and  grow  quickly,  and  are  soon  ready  to  sda  " 
the  numbers  of  their  race;  for  the  tench  is  even  bob 
prohfic  than  the  carp :  four  hundred  thousand  ot»  m« 
been  counted  in  a  single  roe.  Like  the  carp,  the  low 
will  live  long  out  of  water,  and  may  be  carried  in  W 
I  to  •  coniiderable  d'  ' 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


IftS 


Mr.  Daniel  informs  us  of  a  most  remarkable  tench, 
the  unusual  form  and  size  of  which  are  not  easily 
accounted  for.  A  piece  of  water  at  Thornville  Royal, 
Yorkshire,  which  had  been  ordered  to  be  filled  up,  and 
vrherein  wood,  rubbish,  &c.,  had  been  thrown  for  years, 
^-as  in  November,  1801,  directed  to  be  cleared  out. 
Persons  were  accordingly  employed,  and  almost  choked 
up  by  weeds  and  mud,  so  little  water  remained,  that  no 
one  expected  to  find  any  fish,  except  a  few  eels ;  and  yet 
nearly  two  hundred  brace  of  tench  of  all  sizes,  and  as 
many  perch,  were  found.  After  the  pond  was  supposed 
to  be  quite  free,  under  some  roots  there  seemed  to  be 
an  animal,  which  was  conjectured  to  be  an  otter :  the 
place  was  surrounded,  and  on  opening  an  entrance  among 
the  roots,  a  tench  was  found  of  a  most  sing^ular  form, 
having  literally  assumed  the  shape  of  the  hole  in  which 
he  had  been  confined.  His  length  from  fork  to  eye  was 
two  feet  nine  inches;  the  circumference,  almost  to  the 
tail,  was  two  feet  three  inches ;  the  weight  eleven  pounds 
nine  ounces  and  a  quarter ;  the  colour  was  also  singular, 
the  belly  being  of  a  char,  or  vermilion.  This  extra- 
ordinary fish  after  having  been  inspected  by  many 
gentlemen,  was  carefully  put  into  a  pond;  but  either 
from  confinement,  age,  or  bulk,  it  at  first  merely  floated, 
and  at  last  with  difficulty  swam  gently  away.  At  the 
time  Mr.  Daniel  wrote  it  was  alive  and  well. 

The  tench  is  in  season  from  May  to  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember ;  one  of  about  five  pounds  weight  often  costs  as 
many  shillings  in  the  London  market.  It  was  once  so 
little  yalued  as  to  be  eaten  only  by  poor  people. 

There  are  many  apparently  well  authenticated  instances 
of  fishes  preserving  their^vitality,  even  in  a  frozen  state; 
and  it  is  even  said  that  in  northern  latitudes  advantage 
is  taken  of  this  circumstance  to  transport  eels  and 
perch  fVom  one  locality  to  another.  This  vitality,  how- 
ever, does  not  exist  in  all  species  inhabiting  the  same  lati- 
tudeb.   Mr.  Swainson,  from  personal  observation,  says— 

Upon  the  breaking  up  of  the  long  and  seveife  frost  of  this 
winter  (1837—8),  we  have  had  the  mortification  of  seeins; 
the  dead  bodies  of  between  thirty  and  forty  fine  tench 
floating  on  the  surface  of  a  pond  in  the  garden,  into  which 
three  or  four  pair  had  been  put  four  years  ago.  The  pond 
Lb  of  rain-water,  with  a  sott  muddy  bottom,  which  has  a 
depth  of  from  two  to  four  feet,  and  is  fringed  with  many 
aquatic  plants.  Abundant  shelter  was  thus  afiorded  for  the 
fish ;  and  yet  there  can  be  no  <doubt,  we  think,  that  they 
have  all  been  killed  by  cold.  The  people  about  the  place 
assert  that  this  mortality  would  not  nave  hi^pened,  had 
holes  been  broken  in  the  ice  for  the  admisnon  of  air:  but 
were  this  absolutely  necessary  in  all  cases^  it  would  follow 
that  the  tench  of  all  such  ponds  as  had  not  been  opened 
would  have  been  likewise  killed. 

It  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the  power  which  some 
fish  undoubtedly  haye  of  preserving  their  vitality  through 
very  low  degprees  of  temperature ,  to  find  that  many  of 
them  can  not  only  exist,  but  actually  breed,  in  hot 
springs  of  various  countries  at  temperatures  varying 
from  80®  to  120°  Fahr.  But  the  most  startling  fact  is 
that  recorded  by  Humboldt;  he  says  that  during  his 
researches  in  tropical  America,  he  found  fish  thrown  up 
aliye  from  the  bottom  of  an  exploding  volcano,  along 
with  water  so  hot  as  to  raise  the  thermometer  to  210s 
being  two  degrees  only  below  boiling.  Mr.  Swainson 
*udiciously  remarks  :•— 

Conmdering  this  excessive  heat,  it  ia^  we  think,  too  much 
to  suppose  that  the  water  in  which  tiiese  fish  habitually 
resided  was  always  of  such  a  temjperature.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fiict,  that  springs  in  the  vicinity  of  volcanoes  are 
Tenr  often  oonsideramy  heated  before  an  eruption  takes  place ; 
and  until  we  are  in  possession  of  further  evidence  on  this 
point,  we  believe  that  such  was  the  case  in  the  present  in- 
stance :  the  internal  fijres,  in  all  probability,  had  greatly 
kted  the  water  previous  to  its  having  been  eamelled  from 
natural  badn.  Wore  the  increased  heat  had  killed  the 
es ;  a  sapposition  much  more  probable,  than  that  the 
_  ea  vronld  uve  and  w^nt  in  a  fluid  whose  temperature 
Irould  be  sufficient  to  prepare  them  for  the  table* 


COMMBRCB  OF  LSECRES. 

All  our  leeches  are  imported  from  Hamburg.  The  Hamburg 
dealers  dnw  their  supplies  from  the.Ukrain.  ^Having 
exhausted  all  the  lakes  of  Siberia,  Bohemia,  and  other  more 
fremiented  parts  of  Europe,  the  buyers  are  now  rolUng 
gradually  and  implacably  eastward,  carrying  death  and  de- 
solation amonff  the  leetmes  in  their  course,  sweeping  all 
before  them,  tm  now  they  have  got  as  &r  as  Pultava,  the 
pools  and  swamps  about  which  are  yielding  them  great  cap- 
tures," (Brenmer,'JSvmr«.  tfi  the  Interior  ofRtueia,) 

Leeches  are  sometimes  imported  in  bags  hut  more  usually 
in  snudl  barrels,  eadi  holding  about  2,000,  the  head  being 
jnade  of  stout  canvas,  to  admit  the  ur.  The  best  vessels  for 
preserving  these  animals  are  unglazed  brown  pans  or 
wooden  tubs.  The  dealers  have  a  notion  (and.  possibly* a 
correct  one)  that  the  leaden  glazing  is  injurious.  These 
pans  should  be  veiy  little  more  than  half  filled  with  soft 
water  (pond, .river,  or  rain  veater.)  This  does  not  require 
chimging  so  often  as  is  commonly  supposed,  hi  vezy  hot 
weamer,  or  when  the  water  has  become  bloody,  or  other- 
wise much  discoloured,  it  should  be  changed  every  day  or 
so ;  otherwise,  in  summer  every  four  or  five  days  or  a  week, 
in  winter  once  a  month,  is  beueved  by  huge  dealers  to  be 
sufficient. 

The  connunpUon  ef  leeches  must  be  enormous.  Some 
years  ago  it  was  stated  that  four  principal  dealers  in  London 
unported  on  the  average,  000,000  monthly,  or  7,200,000 
annually.  (Price,  Treat,  on  Songmeuet.)  Fe4  ( Cows  cTHist. 
Nat.)  says^  *'It  is  esthnated  &at  3,000,000  are  annually 
consumed  in  Paris;  and  as  the  population  of  Paris  is  to 
that  of  the  whole  of  France  as  one  is  to  thirty-three,  it 
follows  that,  independently  of  exportation,)  100,000,000  are 
consumed  annually,  which  is  equivalent  three  leeches 
annually  for  each  person.  Now,  if  we  estimate  the  average 
price  at  fifty  francs  per  thousand,  we  shall  have  the  enor- 
mous sum  of  five  mifiions  of  francs  paid  for  thb  one  article 
of  our  materia  medica." — ^Pebsi&a. 


THE  ALPS  AFTER  SUNSET. 

While  the  eye  is  feasting  on  the  rich  tints  which  succeed 
to  the  bright  light  of  day,  and  wishes  they  might  last  for 
ever,  the  rose  colour  gradually  dies  away,  and  its  place  b 
taken  by  a  livid,  deaa  white,  resembliijg  so  fearfuDv  that 
of  a  corpse,  that  I  felt  quite  diocked  as  well  as  startled  by 
the  change, — nor  have  I  ever  met  vrith  any  one  whose 
nerves  were  not  more  or  less  disturbed  by  this  painful  tran- 
sition from'the  blush  of  health,  as  it  were,  to  the  paleness 
of  death!  I  have  seen  very  wild  deserts  in  Peru  and  else 
where,  and  many  other  scenes  of  desolation  in  the  world, 
but  none  which  has  struck  me  with  so  deep  a  feeling  ox 
melancholy  as  the  aght  of  Mont  Blanc  during  the  penod, 
fortunately  a  brief  one,  in  which  this  livid  hue  is  thread 
over  it.  Before  the  shades  of  nidiit  finally  settie  oves  all, 
a  very  sliffht  and  scarcely  perceptible  return  of  the  rose-tint 
is  often  visible  on  the  snow,  a  sort  of  reanimation  of  the 
scene,  which  is  most  cheering  and  consolatory.-— Capxaut 
Basil  Hall* 


EVENTIDE. 


There  is  an  eventide  in  the  day,  and  hour  when  the  son 
retires  and  the  shadows  fall,  and  when  nature  assumes  the 
appearance  of  soberness  and  silence.  It  is  an  hour  which 
in  all  ages  the  good  have  loved,  as  bringing  vrith  it  senti- 
ments and  aflPections  more  valuable  than  aU  the  splendour 
of  the  day.  lis  first  impression  b  to  still  aU  the  turbu- 
lence of  {nought  or  passion  which  the  day  may  have  brought 
forth.  When  all  is  silent  around  us,  we  fed  a  kindred  still- 
ness breathe  upon  our  souls,  and  calm  them  from  the  agita* 
tions  of  society.  In  the  day  we  live  with  men,  in  the  even- 
tide we  begin  to  live  with  nature.  We  see  the  world  with- 
drawn from  us,  the  shades  of  night  darken  over  the  babita- 
tions  of  men,  and  we  feel  ourselves  alone.  It  is  an  hour 
fitted  to  still,  but  with  a  sentie  hand,  the  throb  of  every 
uxmily  passion,  and  to  waken  in  our  hearts  those  pure 
afiections  which  the  glare  of  day  may  have  dissofved. 
While  the  shades  of  night  darken  upon  our  dwellings,  the 

Slendours  of  the  firmament  come  forward  to  our  view, 
eaven  onens  to  our  eyes  the  radiance  of  a  sublimer 
being;  and  while  we  fmet  for  a  time  the  obscurity  of 
earthly  concerns,  we  ftel  that  there  are  ^yet  greater  tlungs 
than  tlie0e«''«-Au9OE« 


184 


THE  SATUHDAY  MAGAZINK. 


NATIVES  OF  TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO. 


COcTom  % 


The  Indians  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  appear  to  be  gene- 
rally inferior  to  those  of  Patagonia,  (»ee  p.  99.)  Thtj 
are  in  person  considerably  shorter  and  smaller.  Captain 
King  gives  the  following  account  of  a  party  who  visited 
his  ship,  the  Adventurey  during  his  survey  of  the  south-* 
em  shores  of  South  America,  in  1827. 

These  natives  conducted  themselves  quietly,  and,  except 
one  of  the  women,  who  wished  to  keep  a  tin-pot  in  which 
some  water  had  been  given  her,  made  no  attempt  to  pilfer. 
Their  canoes  were  paddled  by  the  women,  occasiondly 
helped  by  the  men.  One  or  two  of  the  former  were  young 
and  well  featured,  but  the  rest  were  hideous ;  and  all  were 
iilthy  and  most  disagreeable,  from  the  quantity  of  seal-oil  and 
blubber  with  which  thev  had  covered  their  bodies.  After 
we  had  obtained,  by  barter,  all  the  articles  they  had  to  dis- 
pose of,  I  presented  them  with  red  caps  and  medals,  of  which 
they  were  very  proud. 

Their  astonishment  was  much  excited,  and  they  were 
pleased  bv  hearing  a  watch  tick ;  but  I  bdieve  I  had  very 
nearly,  though  unintentionally,  given  great  offence,  by 
cutting  off  a  lock  of  hair,  from  the  head  of  one  of  the  men. 
Assuming  a  grave  look,  he  very  carefully  wrapped  the  ' 
hair  up,  and  handed  it  to  a  woman  in  the  canoe,  who,  as 
carefully,  stowed  it  away  in  a  basket,  in  which  is  kept  her 
beads  and  paint ;  tiie  mm  then  turned  round,  requesting 
me,  very  seriously,  to  put  away  tlie  scissors,  and  my  com- 
pliance restored  hun  to  good-humour. 

They  were  iU-clothed,  with  mantles  made  of  guanaco,  or 
otter-skins,  but  not  so  neatly  as  those  of  the  Fatagonians^ 
Their  bodies  were  smJMred  over  with  a  mixture  of  earth, 
charcoal,  or  red  ochre,  and  seal-oil  j  which,  combined  with 
the  filth  of  their  persons,  produced  a  most  offensiye  ^fme]], 
Their  hair  was  bonnd  by  a  fillet  of  plaited  twine,  made 
perhaps  with  strips  of  bark,  and  a  few  of  them  had  it  turned 
up ;  but  to  none  aid  it  appear  to  be  an  object  of  attention. 


Captein  King  thus  spenks  of  a  party  flat  risited  hii 
•hip  m  March,  1838^—  ' 

They  amduoted  tbemfelTes  very  quietly  Aamt  their 
stay  on  board,  inth  the  exception  of  one  who  tried  toZ 
my  pocket  of  a  handkerchief ;  the  offender  was  ordXt 
of  the  vessel,  and  there  was  no  further  attempt  to  pilfer 
Tliey  wished  to  go  below  but  this  was  not  pemiul  C 
cause  the  odour  of  their  oily  persons  was  scnreelv  tolmhU 
even  m  the  open  air.  As  to  food,  tallow  candfes,  biwdL 
beef,  plum-puddmg,  were  equaUy  liked,  and  swallowediBo* 
voraciously.  One  of  them  was  discovered  takine  the  ttUov 
out  of  the  end  of  the  deep  sea-lead  and  eating  it,  althodi 
mixed  with  sand  and  dirt.  ^^ 

Their  method  of  carving  their  food  is  similar  to  thai  of 
the  I^quimaux  Indians;  apiece  of  blubber  being  held  in 
the  left  liand,  a  comer  of  it  w  taken  between  the  teeth,  and 
it  is  then  cut  by  a  knife,  held  under-handed,  into  ^u 
backward  and  forward,  without  passmg  the  iiistnim^ 
entirely  through,  so  that  when  the  operation  is  finished,  the 
piece  draws  out  into  a  long  band,  about  an  inch  thick, 
tormod  by  the  connected  strips.  The  whole  affair  fawn  fini 
to  last  IS  most  oflFensive  to  the  sight,  and  the  counteosottof 


except  one  of  the  youne;  women,  who  repeatedly  combed 
and  arranged  hers  with  the  well-toothed  jaw  of  a  porpoise. 
The  next  morning,  seeing  us  under  weigh,  they  came 
alongside,  and  tried  to  induce  us  to  anchor  again.  One 
young  man  was  very  importunate,  and  his  wife  used  all  her 
nmcied  allurements  to  second  his  proposal.  So  liighly  did 
they  esteem  beads  and  buttons,  that  a  few  of  each  would 
have  purchased  the  canoe,  the  wife,  and  children,  their  dosa. 
and  all  the  furniture. 

Captain  Stokes  says  that  the  average  height  of  those  that 
he  met  with  was  five  feet,  five  inches ;  tlieir  habit  of  body 
spare ;  the  limbs  badly  turned,  and  deficient  in  muscle;  the 
hair  of  their  head  black,  straight,  and  coarse ;  their  beards^ 
whiskers,  and  eyebrows,  naturally  exceedingly  scanty,  are 
carefully  plucked  out;  their  forehead  is  low;  the  nose 
rather  prominenty  with  dilated  nostrils;  their  eyes  are  dark, 
and  of  a  moderate  size ;  the  mouth  is  large,  and  the  under 
lip  thick ;  th^r  teeth  are  small  and  regular,  but  of  a  bad 
colour.    They  are  of  a  dirty  copper  colour ;  their  counten- 
ance is  dull,  and  devoid  of  expression.     For  protection 
against  the  rigours  of  these  inclement  regions,  their  clothing 
is  miserably  suited ;  being  onlv  the  skin  of  a  seal,  or  sea- 
otter,  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  with  the  hairy  side  out- 
ward.    Tlie  tracts  they  inhabit  ore  altogsther  destitute  of 
four-footed  animals ;  tliey  liave  not  domesticated  the  gnae 
or  ducks  wliich  abound  here,  of  tillage  they  are  utterly 
ignorant,  and  the  only  vegetable  productions  Jiiey  eat  ai«  a 
few  wild  berries,  and  a  kind  of  scorweed. 

Their  principal  food  consists  of  muscles,  limpets,  and 
sea-eg^j^s,  and,  as  often  as  possible,  seal,  sea-otter,  2>orpoise, 
and  wliale.  Fonner  voyagers  have  noticed  the  avidity  with 
which  they  swallow  the  most  ofleusive  offal,  such  as 
decaying  seal-ekins,  rancid  seal  and  w^hale-blubber,  &c. 
When  on  board  my  ship,  they  ate  or  drank  greedily  what- 
ever was  offered  to  them,  salt^bee^  salt-pork,  peserved 
mea^  pudding,  pea-soup,  tea,  cofiee,  wine,  or  bnEindy — 
nothing  came  amiss.  One  little  instance,  however,  showed 
wliat  they  preferred.  As  they  were  going  ashore,  a  lump 
of  the  tallow  used  for  aiming  the  lead  was  given  to  them, 
and  received  with  particular  delight.  Is  was  scrupulously 
divided,  and  placed  in  i]ie  little  baskets  which  they  fom 
of  rushes,  to  be  reserved  for  eating  last,  as  the  richest  treat. 
•  The  nature  of  their  domestic  ties  we  had  no  opportunity 
of  observing ;  their  manner  towards  their  children,  is  affec- 
tionate and  caressiBg.  I  often  witnessed  the  teoderaess  with 
which  they  tried  to  quiet  the  alarms  our  presence  at  fii^t 
occasioned,  and  the  pleasuxe  yhich  they  showed  when  we 
bestowed  upon  the  little  ones  any  trifling  trinkets. 


among  the  party,  each  of  whom  proceeds  to  extract  ite  oily 
juices  by  drawing  it  through  his  teeth  and  suckinff  it,  nfter 
which  it  is  wanned  in  the  fire  to  facilitate  division  iato 
small  pieces,  which  are  swallowed,  or  bolted,  withftut 
mastication.  Morsels  of  this  dainty  food  were  giTen  not 
only  to  the  elder  children,  but  even  to  in&nts  at  the 
breast.  The  next  day,  the  women  had  daubed  thai  fsM 
all  over  with  bright  red  ochre,  to  add  to  their  beauty,  so 
doubt* 

The  following  is  Captain  Fits-Roy's  aceouDt  of  Iw 
first  interview  with  tJie  Fuegiaas,  during  bis  operatioos 
in  her  Majesty's  ship  the  Beagk, 

On  the  13th  April,  1829,  when  working  near  the  land, 
agamst  a  light  southerly  foreeese,  we  saw  a  small  cmoe 
paddling  alon^  shore,  and  some  people  walking  on  Uie  beach. 
While  flie  ship  was  standing  off,  I  went  to  tliem,  being  tk 
first  savages  1  had  ever  met.  In  the  canoe  were  an  oii 
man,  his  daughter,  and  a  child,  and  on  shore  were  two 
Fuegian  men  with  several  dogs.  Their  figures  reminded 
me  of  drawings  of  the  Esquimaux,  being  rather  below  the 
middle  size,  wrapj)ed  in  rough  skins,  wuth  their  hair  hang- 
ing down  on  all  sides,  like  old  thatch,  and  tlieir  skins  of  a 
reddish-brown  colour,  smeared  over  witJi  oil,  and  yery  dirtr. 
Their  features  were  ba<L  but  peculiar;  and  if  pbymognomjf 
can  be  trusted,  indicated  cunnings  indolence,  pasave  forU* 
tude,  deficient  intellect,  imd  w^ant  of  energy.  I  obaemd 
that  \h»  forehead  was  ,very  small,  and  ill-f£aped;  the  tk« 
was  long,  narrow  between  the  eyes,  and  wide  at  the 
point,  and  the  upper  lip  long  mid  protruding.  Tjev 
had  small,  retreating  chins;  bad  teetlx  ;  high  cheek-boDs; 
small  Chinese  eves,  at  an  oblique  angle  with  the  iio«; 
coarse  hair ;  wide  ill-formed  mouths,  and  a  laugh  ss  if  tht! 
upper-lip  were  immoveable.  The  head  was  very  small 
e^edally^  at  the  top  and  bade ;  thei«  were  v^y  few  boiujp: 
for  a  craniologist.  Thev  asked  earnestly  for  "  tabac,  taljac," 
but  seemed  very  timid.  We  bartered  some  biscuit  anl 
old  knives  for  a  few  of  their  arrows,  skins,  speare,  &c. 

Their  canoes,  twenty- two  feet  long,  and  about  three  w^A 
were  curiously  made  of  the  branches  of  trees,  covered  witi 
pieces  of  bcjccli-tree  bark,  sewed  together  with  intestine^ 
of  seals.  A  fire  was  burning  in  the  middle,  upon  v^ 
earth,  and  all  their  prc^rty,  oonaistiiig  of  a  few  skins  tf^ 
bone-headed  lances,  was  stowed  at  the  ends. 

The  younff  woman  would  not  have  beea  ill-lookmg,  ^ 
she  been  well  scrubbed,  and  all  the  yellow  clay  with  which 
she  was  bedaubed,  washed  away.  I  think  they  uw  the 
clayey  mixture  for  warmth  rather  than  for  show  as  it  ^f^ 
the  pores  of  the  skin,  preventing-  evaporation,  and  kecpiK 
cut  the  cold  air.  Their  only  clothing  was  a  skin,  thi««T. 
loosely  about  them ;  and  tlieir  hair  -wbs  much  like  a  b«rsf*J 
mane  tliat  lias  never  been  combed. 

Captain  Fitz-Roy  subsequently  found  the  natives  a- 
tremely  troublesome,  and  atroo^ly  recommends  t>ii^ 
weakly  manned  vessels  should  avoid  them  if  ninnen)8> 
In  some  scufiies  with  his  boat's  crew  they  showed  grt- 
strength.  "  It  is  astonishing,*'  he  says,  "how  vervV-' 
rcctly  t"hey  throw  stones,  and  to  ^hat  a  distance ;  whin  (^ 


•«j| 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


135 


first  stone  fell  close  to  us,  we  all  thought  ourselves  out  of 
musket- shot/* 

The  Adventure  and  Beagle  lost  several  boats  during 
their  surveying  expedition,  of  which  more  than  one  was 
stolen  by  the  Fuegians.  Captain  Fitz-Roy  was  deter- 
mined to  pursue  the  thieves,  but  his  endeavours  to  seize 
the  boat  were  fruitledi.  In  the  course  of  his  search  he 
made  many  prisoners,  most  of  whom  subsequently 
escaped.  Thinking  that  benefit  might  accrue  from 
having  some  of  them  taught  English,  Caplatn  Fitz-Uoy 
brought  to  England  four  of  the  natives;  two  young  men 
who  were  named  by  the  crew  "  York  Minster "  and 
*' Boat  Memory;"  a  girl  whom  they  called  "Fuegia 
basket/'  and  a  boy  who  was  called  "  Jemmy  Button,'*  be- 
cause the  price  given  for  him  was  a  large  shining 
mother-of-pearl  button. 

At  Monte  Video,  on  the  voyage  home,  these  Indians 
were  taken  ashore  to  view  the  town.  "  The  apparent 
astonishment  and  curiosity  excited  by  what  they  saw," 
says  Captain  Fitz-Roy,  "  extraordinary  to  them  as  the 
whole  scene  must  have  been,  were  much  less  than  I  had 
anticipated ;  yet  their  conduct  was  interesting,  and  each 
day  they  became  more  communicative.  It  was  here  that 
I  first  learned  from  them  that  they  make  a  practice  of 
eating  their  enemies  taken  in  war.  The  women,  they 
explained  to  me,  cat  the  arms ;  and  the  men  the  legs ; 
the  trunk  and  head  were  always  thrown  into  the  sea.' 

The  acts  of  camiibaUsm  occasionally  committed  by  their 

countrvmen,  were  explained  to  me  in  such  terms,  and  with 

0uch  signsi  that  I  could  not  possibly  misunderstand  them ; 

and  a  still  more  revolting  account  was  given,  though  in  a 

leas   explicit  manner,  respecting  the  horrible  &te  of  the 

eldest  women  of  their  own  tribes,  when  there  is  an  Unusual 

scarcity  of  food.    This  half-understood  story  I  did  not  then 

notice  much,  for  I  could  not  believe  it,  but  as,  since  that 

time,  a  familiarity  with  our  language  has  enabled  them  to 

repeat  this  horrid  tale  more  circumstantially,  and  as  it  has 

been    confirmed  by  the  testimony  of  other  Fuegians,  I  no 

longer  hesitate  to  state  my  firm  belief  of  this  strange  and 

diabolical  atrocity. 

Soon  after  their  arrival  in  England  Boat  Memory  died 
of  small-pox;  the  others  were  placed  with  a  school- 
master at  Walthamstow  for  board  and  education. 

I  took  them  myself,  (says  the  Captain,)  from  the  coach- 
ofHce  to  Walthainstow ;  they  were  glad  to  see  me,  but 
secuxed  bewildered  by  the  multitude  of  new  objects. 
Passing  Charing  Cross,  there  was  a  start  and  exclamation  of 
astonishment  from  York.  '*  Look,"  he  said,  fixing  his  eyes 
on  the  lion  upon  Northumberland  House,  which  he  cer- 
tainly thought  alive,  and  walking  there.  I  never  saw  him 
show  snch  sudden  emotion  at  any  other  time.  They  were 
much  pleased  with  the  rooms  prepared  for  them  at  Wal- 
tliamstow ;  and  the  schoolmaster  and  his  wife  were  equally 
pleased  to  find  the  future  inmates  of  their  house  very  well- 
disposed,  quiet,  and  cleanly  people;  instead  of  fierce  and 
dirty  savages.  At  Walthamstow  they  remained  from  De- 
cember, 1830,  till  October  1831,  when  they  were  again 
taken  on  board  the  Beagle,  to  return  to  their  native  land. 
A  young  man,  named  Richard  Matthews,  accompanied  them 
with  the  intention  of  remaining  at  Tierra  del  Fuego  to  in- 
struct the  savages.  Not  a  few  ooats  were  required  to  tran- 
sport to  the  ship  the  large  cargo  of  clothes,  tools,  crockery- 
ware,  books,  and  various  things  which  the  families  at 
Wal tliamstow  and  other  kind-hearted  persons  had  given. 

"When  approaching  Tierra  del  Fuego,  (continues  Cap- 
tain Kitz-Koy^  tliey  seemed  to  be  much  elated  at 
the  certauity  of^  being  so  near  their  own  country ;  and  the 
boy  ^vas  never  tired  of  telling  us  how  excellent  his  land 
was — how  glad  his  friends  would  be  to  see  him — and  how 
well  they  would  treiit  us  in  return  for  our  kindness  to  him. 
The  attentions  which  York  paid  to  his  intended  wife, 
Fue^a^  afforded  much  amusement  to  our  party.  He  had 
long:  shown  himself  attached  to  her,  and  had  gradually  become 
excessively  jealous  of  her  good- will.  He  told  me  that  he 
would  rather  live  with  Jemmy  Button  in  the  Tekeenica 
country,  than  go  to  his  own  people.  This  was  a  complete 
change  in  his  ideas,  and  I  was  very  glad  of  it ;  because  it 
niig-ht  be  far  better  that  the  three,  York,  Jemmy,  and 
Fucj^ia,  should  settle  together.  I  little  thought  how  deep 
a  scheme  Master  York  Min«t«r  had  in  contemplation* 


We  reached  WooUyo,  and  selected  a  space,  favourably  situ- 
ated for  our  encampment,  landed,  marked  a  boundary-line, 
placed  sentries,  and  made  the  various  arrangements  necessary 
tor  receiving  the  anticipated  visits  of  some  hundred  natives. 
Canoes  began  to  arrive,  their  owners  hauled  them  ashore  on 
the  beach,  sent  the  women  and  children  to  old  v/igwams  at 
a  little  distance,  and  hastened  themselves  to  see  the 
strangers.  While  I  was  engaged  in  watching  the  proceedings 
at  our  encampment,  and  poor  Jemmy  was  getting  out  of 
temper  at  the  quizzing  he  had  to  endure  on  account  of  his 
oountr3rmen,  wnom  he  had  extolled  so  highly  until  in  sight, 
a  deep  voice  was  heard  shouting  from  a  canoe  more  than  a 
mile  distant.  Up  started  Jemmy,  from  a  bag  foXl  of  nails  ^d 
tools  which  he  was  distributing,  leaving  them  to  be  scram- 
bled for  by  those  nearest,  and,  upon,  a  repetition  of  the 
shout,  exclaimed,  '^  My  brother!"  He  then  told  me  that 
it  was  hb  eldest  brothei-'s  voice,  and  perched  himself  on  a 
huge  stone  to  watch  the  canoe,  which  approached  slowly, 
being  small,  and  loaded  with  several  people.  When  it 
arrived,  instead  of  an  eager  meeting,  there  was  a  cautious 
circumspection  that  astonished  us.  Jemmy  walked  slowly 
to  meet  the  party,  consisting  of  his  mother,  two  sisters,  and 
four  brothers.  The  old  woman  hardly  looked  at  him  before 
she  hastened  away  to  secure  her  canoe,  and  hide  her  pro- 
perty, all  she  possessed — a  basket  containing  tinder,  nre* 
stone,  paint,  &c.,  and  a  bundle  of  fish.  The  girls  ran  oif 
with  her  without  even  looking  at  Jemmy ;  and  the  brothers 
(a  man  and  three  boys)  stood  still,  stcu-ed,  walked  up  to 
Jemmy,  and  all  round  him,  without  uttering  a  word.  Ani- 
mals when  they  meet  show  fax  more  animation  and  anxiety 
than  were  displayed  at  this  meeting.  Jemmy  was  evidently 
much  mortified,  and  to  add  to  his  confusion  and  disappoint- 
ment) as  well  as  my  own,  he  was  unable  to  talk  to  his 
brothers,  except  by  broken  sentences,  in  which  English 
predominated.  After  a  few  minutes  had  elapsed,  his  elder 
orother  began  to  talk  to  liim ;  but  although  Jemmy  under- 
stood what  was  said,  he  could  not  reply.  York  and  Fuegia 
were  able  to  understand  some  words,  but  could  not,  or  did 
not  choose  to  speak. 

Many  of  the  natives  assisted  us  in  carrying  wood,  and 
bringing  bundles  of  grass  or  rushes  to  thatch  the  wigwams 
which  uiey  saw  we  were  making,  in  a  pleasant  sheltered 

Sot,  near  a  brook  of  excellent  water.  One  wigwam  was  for 
atthews,  another  for  Jemmy,  and  a  third  for  York,  and 
Fuegiiu  York  told  me  that  Jemmy^s  brother  was  ^  vezir 
much  friend,"  that  the  country  was  <^  very  good  land,"  and 
that  he  wished  to  stay  with  Jemmv  and  Matthews.  A  small 
plot  of  ground  was  selected  near  the  wigwams,  and,  during 
our  stay,  dug,  planted  and  sowed  with  potatoes,  carrots, 
turnips,  beans,  peas,  lettuces,  onions,  leeks,  and  cabbages. 
Matthews  and  his  party — Jemmy,  York,  and  Fuegia — ^went 
to  their  abode  in  the  tmee  new  wigwams.  In  that  made  for 
Matthews,  Jemmy  also  took  up  ms  quarters  at  first :  it  was 
high  and  roomy  for  such  a  construction ;  the  space  overhead 
was  divided  by  a  floor  of  boards,  brought  from  the  ship,  and 
there  most  of  Bfatthews's  stores  wore  placed,  but  the  most 
valuable  articles  were  deposited  in  a  box,  which  was 
secretly  hid  in  the  ground  underneath  the  wigwam,  where 
fire  could  not  reach.  Matthews  was  steady  and  as  willing 
as  ever,  neither  York  nor  Jemmy  had  the  slightest  doubt  of 
their  being  all  well-treated ;  so  trusting  that  Matthews,  in 
his  honest  intention,  to  do  good,  would  obtain  that  assist- 
ance in  which  he  confided,  I  decided  to  leave  him  for  a  few 
davs. 

Nine  days  afterwards  we  returned  to  Woollya,  and  the 
sight  of  several  bits  of  cloth  with  which  the  Indians  we  saw 
on  shore  were  decorated,  made  me  feel  very  anxious  about 
Matthews  and  his  party.  Our  boats  touched  the  shore ;  the 
natives  came  hallooing  and  jumping  about  us,  and  then,  to 
my  extreme  relief,  Matthews  appeared,  dressed,  and  loolong 
as  usual.  After  him  came  Jenuny  and  York,  also  dressed 
and  looking  well;  Fuegia  thev  said  was  in  a  wigwam. 
Matthews  gave  a  bad  account  of  the  prospect  which  he  saw 
before  him,  and  told  me  that  he  did  not  think  himself  safe 
among  such  a  set  of  utter  savaffes  as  he  found  them  to  be. 
No  violence  had  beea  committed,  beyond  holding  down  liia 
head  by  force,  as  if  in  contempt  of  his  stxength ;  but  he  had 
beok  hanhly  threatened  by  several  men,  and  from  the  signs 
used  by  them,  he  felt  convinced  they  would  take  his  life. 
Sometmies  a  party  of  them  gathered  round  him,  and  if  he 
had  nothing  to  give  them,  teased  him  by  pulling  the  hair  of 
his  £use,  puriiing  him  about,  and  making  mouths  at  him; 
his  only  partiaaas  ^ere  the  women.  Now  and  then  he  left 
Jemmy  to  guard  the  hut,  and  went  to  the  natives*  wlg- 
wttiii%  where  the  womMi  always  received  him  kindly, 


ne 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[October  %  1841. 


making  room  for  him  by  their  fire^  and  giving  him  a  share 
of  whatever  food  they  had,  without  aakinff  for  anything  in 
return.  York  and  Faegia  fiiredyery  well;  they  loot  no- 
thing, but  Jemmv  was  sadly  plundered,  even  by  his  own 
&miiy.  Our  fforden^  upon  which  much  labour  had  been 
bestowed,  had  been  trampled  over  repeatedly,  althoach 
Jemmy  had  done  his  best  to  prevent  the  people  from  waft- 
ing there.  When  questioned  about  it,  he  looked  very 
sonowM,  and,  with  a  sbw  shake  of  the  head,  said,  **  My 
people  verv  bad;  great  fool;  know  nothing  at  all;  very 
great  fool/'  It  was  soon  decided  that  Matthews  should  not 
remain.  I  considered  that  he  had  already  imdeigone  a 
severe  trial,  and  onght  not  to  be  again  exposed  to  such 
savages,  however  wiUing  he  might  be  to  tiy  them  fiffther, 
if  I  thought  it  right-  The  next  difficulty  was  how  to  get 
Matthews's  property  safely  into  our  boats  in  the  fiice  of  a 
hundred  Fuegiims.  Tins,  however,  was  accomplished,  and 
after  distributing  several  usefiil  articles,  we  departed  from 
the  wondering  throng  assembled  on  the  beach. 

On  the  6th  of  March,  1834  (thirteen  months  afterwards), 
the  B^le  anchored  at  WooUya.  The  wigwams  in  which  we 
had  left  York,  Jemmy,  and  Fuegia  were  found  empty,  though 
uninjured :  the  garden  had  been  trampled  over,  but  some  tur- 
nips and  potatoes  of  moderate  size  were  pulled  up  by  us, 
and  eaten  at  my  table,  a  proof  that  the^  may  be  grown  in 
that  region.  Not  a  iivinf  soul  was  visible  anywhere ;  the 
wigwams  seemed  to  have  oeen  deserted  man^r  months ;  and 
an  anxious  hour  or  two  passed,  after  the  ship  was  moored, 
before  three  canoes  were  seen  in  the  offing,  paddling  hastily 
towards  us,  from  the  place  now  called  Button  Island.  Look- 
ing through  a  glass  I  saw  that  two  of  the  natives  in  them 
were  washing  ther  faces,  while  the  rest  were  paddling  with 
might  and  main :  I  was  then  sure  that  some  of  our  arauaint^ 
ances  were  there,  and  in  a  few  minutes  recognised  Tommy 
Button,  Jemmy's  brother.  In  the  other  canoe*  was  a  fiice 
which  I  kne^ir,  yet  could  not  name.  **  It  must  be  some  one  I 
have  seen  before,"  said  I,— when  his  sharp  eye  detected  me^ 
and  a  sudden  movement  of  the  hand  to  his  head  (as  a  sailor 
touches  his  hat)  at  once  told  me  that  it  was  indeed  Jemmv 
Button — but  how  altered !  I  could  hardly  restrain  my  feel- 
ings, and  I  was  not,  bv  any  means,  the  only  one  so  touched 
by  his  8j[ualid,  miserable  appearance.  He  was  naked,  like  his 
companions,  except  a  bit  of  skin  about  his  loins ;  his  hair  was 
long  and  matted,  just  like  theira ;  he  was  wretchedly  ihin^ 
and  his  eyes  were  affected  by  smoke.  We  hurried  him  below, 
clothed  him'  immediately,  and  in  half  an  hour  he  was  sitting 
with  me  at  dinner  in  my  cabin,  using  his  knife  and  fork 
properly,  and  in  eveiy  way  behaving  as  if  he  had  never  left 
us.  He  spoke  as  much  English  as  ever,  and,  to  our  astonish- 
ment, his  companions,  his  wife,  his  brothenand  their  wives, 
mixed  broken  English  words  in  their  taUcing  with  him. 
Jemmy  recollected  every  one  well,  and  was  very  glad  to  see 
them  all,  especially  Mr.  Bjrnoes,  (the  snigeon,)  and  James 
Bennett.  I  thought  he  was  ill,  but  he  surprised  me  by  saving 
that  he  was  "  hearty,  sir,  never  better,"  that  he  had  not  been 
ill,  even  for  a  day,  was  happy  and  contented,  and  had  no  vnsh 
whatever  to  change  his  way  of  life.  He  said  that  he  got 
'^Plenty  fruits,"  Texcrescences  of  the  birch-trees  and  berries,) 
**  plenty  birdies,"  **  ten  guanaco  in  snow  time,"  and  ^  too 
much  nsh."  Besides,  though  he  said  nothing  about  her,  I 
heard  that  there  was  a  good-looking  young  woman  (for  a 
Fuegian)  in  his  canoe,  who  was  said  to  be  his  wife.  Directly 
this  became  known,  shawls,  handkerchiefs,  and  a  gold-laced 
cap  appeared,  with  which  she  was  speedily  decorated ;  but 
feara  had  been  excited  for  her  husband  s  safe  return  to  her,  and 
no  finery  could  stop  her  crying  until  Jemmy  again  showed 
liimself  on  deck.  While  he  was  below  his  brower  Tommy 
called  out  in  a  loud  tone—"  Jemmy  Button,  canoe  comel 
After  some  time,  the  three  canoes  went  asliore,  laden  with 
presents,  and  their  ownen  promised  to  come  again  early  next 
morning.  Jemmy  gave  a  nne  otter-skin  to  me,  which  he  had 
dressed  and  kept  purposely ;  another  he  gave  to  Bennett. 

Next  morning,  Jemmy  shared  my  breakfiist,  and  then  we 
liod  a  long  conversation  hy  ourselves ;  the  result  of  which 
was,  that  I  felt  quite  decided  not  to  make  a  second  attempt 
to  place  Matthews  amour  the  natives  of  Tierra  del  Fu^. 
Jemmy  told  me  that  he  knew  very  little  of  his  own 
language ;  that  he  spoke  some  words  of  English,  and  some 
Tekeenica,  when  he  talked  to  his  fieunily ;  and  that  they  all 
understood  the  English  words  he  used.  York  and  Fuegia 
left  him  some  months  before  our  arrival,  and  went  in  a  large 
canoe  to  their  own  country.  The  last  act  of  that  cunning 
fellow  was  to  rob  poor  Jemmy  of  all  his  cloUies;  nearly  aSL 
the  tools  his  Tekeenica  ** friend*^'  had  left  him;  and  various 
other  necessaries.  Fuegia  was  dressed  as  usnal,  and  looking 


well,  when  they  decamped :  her  helpmate  was  also  well 
clothed,  and  hazdly  lost  anything  I  left  with  him.  Jemmy 
said  *'  I  oik  wry  much  jaw,"  **  pick  up  big  stones."  '*all 
men  afraid."  Fuegia  seemed  to  oe  very  hsppy,  sod  quite 
contented  with  her  lot.  Jemmy  asserted  that  she  helped  to 
^Gfttch  (steal)  his  clothe^"  while  he  was  ssleep,  the  night 
before  York  left  him  naked* 

It  was  senerally  remarked  that  his  fionily  wereheeome 
oonsiderably  mora  numaniJEed  than  any  savages  we  hid  kcb 
in  Tierra  del  Fu^go :  that  they  put  oonfidenoe  in  us;  wen 
pleased  by  our  return;  that  tney  were  ready  to  do  what 
wa  could  explain  to  be  for  their  interest ;  and  in  short, 
that  the  first  step  towards  civiliaation— 4hat  of  obttmiaj 
their  confidence— was  undoubtedly  made :  but  sn  iDdiridiu], 
with  Ihnited  means^  could  not  then  go  fiurther.  The  vble 
scheme,  with  respect  to  establishing  a  missionarj  with  the 
Fuegians  who  were  in  England,  among  their  coiiiitiTiiiai, 
was  on  too  small  a  scale,  although  so  earnestly  assistod  hj 
Mr.  Wilson,  Mr.  Wigiam,  Mn  Coaies,  and  other  loDd 
friends. 

I  cannot  help  still  hoping  that  some  benefit,  howirer  , 
slight,  may  result  from  the  intercourse  of  these  people,- 
Jemmy,  York,  and  Fuma,  with  other  natives  ofTieindel 
Fue^.  Perhaps  a  ship^wrecked  seaman  may  hereifier 
receive  help  imd  kind  treatment  from  Jemmy  Bottoo'i 
children ;  prompted,  as  they  could  hudly  fail  to  be,  by  \k 
traditions  they  will  have  heard  of  men  of  other  kods;  md 
bv^an*  idea,  however,  fiunt,  of  their  duty  to  God  as  well  a 
tnoir  neighbour.  That  Jemmy  felt  mncere  gratitade  a,  I 
think,  proved  by  his  having  so  carefrdly  piesenred  two  fine 
otter  skins,  as  I  mentioned ;  by  his  asking  me  to  cazryibov 
and  quiver  full  of  arrows  to  the  schodnuister  at  Waltbiza- 
stow,  with  whom  he  had  lived;  by  his  having  made  tn 
Bpear-heads  expressly  for  Mr.  Darwm ;  and  by  tbepkasim 
he  showed  at  seeing  us  all  again. 

As  nothing  more  could  be  done,  we  took  leaTeofoor 
young  friend  and  his  fiunily,  every  one  of  whom  was  loided 
with  presents^  and  sailed  awavfrom  Woollya. 


WORLDLY  rRlEKDSRlP. 

Thbae  is  within  the  world  in  which  we  dwell 
A  friendship  answerinff  to  that  world  full  well; 
An  interchange  of  looks  and  actions  kind, 
And,  in  some  sense,  an  intercourse  of  mind ; 
A  uafcfttl  commerce,  a  convenient  trade. 
By  which  both  parties  are  the  happier  made : 
And,  when  the  thing  is  rightly  understood 
And  justly  valued,  it  is  wise  and  good. 

I  speak  not  here  of  friendships  that  excite 
In  boys  at  school  soeh  wonder  and  deliglit, 
Of  high  heroic  friends,  in  serious  strife^ 
Contending  which  should  yield  a  forfeit  iife^ 
Such  wondrous  love,  in  their  maturer  days, 
Men,  if  they  credit,  are  content  to  praise. 

I  speak  not  here  of  friendships  tme  and  just. 
When  friend  can  friend  with  life  and  hononr  tnsi; 
Where  mind  to  mind  has  long  familiar  growoi 
And  every  failing,  eveiy  virtue  known. 
Of  those  I  speak  not;  things  so  rich  and  rare, 
Tliat  we  degrade  with  jewels  to  compare, 
Or  bttUion  pore  and  massy.    I  intend 
To  treat  of  one  whose  neighbour  eaJled  him  friend, 
Or  called  him  neighbour ;  and  with  reason  good— 
The  friendship  rising  from  the  neighbouriiood. 
A  sober  kind,  in  common  service  known; 
Not  such  as  is  in  death  and  peril  shown: 
Bach  as  will  give  or  ask  a  helping  hand. 
But  no  important  sacrifice  demand ; 
In  &cty  a  friendship  that  will  long  aUde^ 
If  seldom  rashly,  never  strongly,  tried. 
Yes !  these  are  sober  friendships,  made  for  nae; 
And  much  convenience  they  in  life  produce. 
Like  a  good  coat,  that  keeps  us  from  the  cold, 
The  cloth  of  frieze  is  not  a  cloth  of  gold ; 
But  neither  is  it  piebald,  pieced,  and  poor,— 
'Tis  a  good  useful  coat,  and  nothing  more.— CtAiac 

LONDON: 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAND. 
PviLtMZD  n  Wbcklt  N  VMBxmi.  Psiei  Ovs  Ptsmr,  am  w  Movnu  A>* 

Pun  Sixraros. 
'Sold  hy  aU  Bobktdlm  ud'NMmMdart  is  Iha  thi^^ 


^a^r^a^H        fi^^^^int^ 


N  -  595.  OCTOBER 


9^™",  184L 


THE    COTTAGES    OF    SWITZERLAND 


IWUf  COTTAOU. 


Iqainta  te  pttriot  paiMoa  Da  hk  havti 
And  «'■&  Own  ilk  tfamt  noBil  bto  n^rito  i 
EnhincB  tba  bliii  hii  kmi^  hud  wyplki; 
DeuiiOiatihsil  to  which  bimnl  Do^ni 
And  inr  that  hill  vUsli  Hlta  Um  to  ibi  M 
And  u  ■  child,  vIhb  inriBg  noDdi  nwlMt 
Clisgi  ckas  lad  cIomt  to  the  nudw'*  hna 
Su  ih*  load  totnnt,  ud  llw  whiriwiod'*  rot 


SwiTXZKLAND  occupies  K  singular  position  among  Eu- 
ropean nations.  It  bai  no  coonenon  whaterer  vith  the 
ocean,  but  is  hemmed  in  by  three  large  countries,  Ger- 
manj,  France,  and  Italy.  This  circumstance  has 
naturally  given  to  its  inhabitants  and  its  instjtutiooa  a  cer- 
tain mixed  resemblance  to  all  three  of  those  countries. 
But  this  resemblance  is  less  striking  than  would  in  most 
cases  be  found,  on  account  of  the  mountain-<bains  which 
serve  as  a  barrier  between  Switzerland  and  the  neigh* 
b  oaring  countries.  These  mountains  are  more  particularly 
remarkable  for  their  siie  and  extent  on  the  southern  side 
of  Switserland,  where  they  separate  it  from  Italy,  and  this 
is  precisely  the  part  where  the  influence  of  a  neighbouring 
xi&tion  baa  been  least  felt,  for  Switzerland  and  its  inhabit- 
A.nts  resemble  Italy  much  less  than  it  resembles  either 
Germany  or  France.  But  there  b  a  peculiar  character 
al>out  the  Swiss,  which,  in  truth,  separates  them  from 
all  three  of  the  countries  we  have  named.  This  is  as 
«>btervable  in  their  dwellings  as  in  anv  part  of  their 
«c«nomy.  A  Swiss  cottage  a  oHOOated  in  our  minds 
Vol-  XIX 


with  a  kind  of  edifice  differing  «  good  deal  front  those 
of  Germany,  Italy,  or  France. 

A  Swiss  cottage  in  the  Canton  de  Vand,  according  to 
the  description  of  M.  Simond,  very  frequently  bears 
the  following  character.  It  is  not  unusually  of  the 
enormous  sise  of  eighty  or  one  htmdied  f^  square.  It 
is  Tery  low,  but  has  an  exceedingly  lofty  shingle  roof, 
which  is  loaded  with  lai%e  stones,  to  prevent  it  from 
being  blown  away  with  ue  wind,  and  projects,  in  the 
piazsa  shape,  over  an  outside  gallery,  up  a  flight  of 
stairs.  This  is  properly  the  ground  fioor,  or  rather  the 
snow  floor,  for  the  lower  floor,  ramparted  aa  it  is  with 
fire-wood,  and  buried  in  snow  in  winter,  becomes  a 
sort  of  cellar,  where  the  provisions  are  kept,  and  where 
the  cows  are  housed.  A  large  door,  in  the  centre  of 
the  building,  gives  entrance  to  the  various  farming  car- 
riages and  implements,  as  well  as  to  all  the  winter 
fodder :  thus  the  stable,  the  bam,  and  the  dwelling,  are 
all  under  the  same  roof,  with  all  the  apparatus  of  home 
manufactures,  carried  on  in  winter,  and  their  produce, 
cheese,  butter,  &c.  The  family  have  access  to  all  parts 
of  this  their  domestic  world,  without  ever  stepping  out 
of  doors.  These  houses  (which  a  single  spark  might 
set  in  a  blaze),  as  well  as  all  the  houses  in  the  Canton 
de  Vaud,  are  obliged  by  law  to  be  insured.  The  accounts 
are  kept  by  government,  free  from  any  contingent 
charges  of  administration,  and  the  proprietors  of  houses 
pay  no  premium,  but  only  their  respective  share  of  losses 
by  fire.    The  houMS  are  estimated  «t  three-fourths  of 


138 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Octobers, 


their  value  only,  and  the  aggregate  of  losses  is  equal  to 

about  one  in  4  thousand  yearly.       .       ,      .        ^t. 

The  wme  truvriler,  being  looatedfbr  a  tirnt  m  another 
part  of  -gwitwrland,  glvw  a  deicrlpti«i  of  a  oottage 
apparently  rather  -more  humble  than  the  areraga  run  of 
them.  It  was,  however,  built  of  larch,  and  wai 
spacious  and  clean.  It  had  a  large  common  room  up 
Btairs,  with  several  windows  to  it.  The  furniture  of 
the  room  consisted  of  a  long  bench  round  three  sides, 
and  a  long  table  before  it :  an  enormous  earthen  stove 
was  so  pkced  and  constructed  as  to  answer  the  purpose 
of  steps  to  ascend  to  the  next  story  above,  by  an  opening 
in  the  ceiling  of  the  room.  The  kitchen,  in  another 
part  of  the  building,  had  no  chimney,  but  the  smoke 
issued  out  through  a  hole  in  the  roof,  covered  with  a 
•butter  that  was  opened  op  closed  by  pulling  a  rope. 
Above  the  first  floor,  built  of  stone,  the  structure  waa 
composed  of  square  beams,  placed  one  over  the  other, 
and  dovetailed  at  the  angles  of  the  building,  the  whole 
covered  with  boards,  within  and  without  Although 
the  sides  of  the  building  showed  only  one  story  above 
the  ground  floor,  yet  the  gable  end,  or  rather  front,  had 
four  or  five,  each  marked  by  a  row  of  small  contiguous 
windows.  This  front  was  decorated  With  passages  from 
the  Scriptures,  inscribed  ypty  neatly  on  the  wood.  The 
wood  was  not  paintedi  k«*  lh«  turpantine,  which  had 
long  before  ooaed  ihniU|h  \\%  JKWPai,  had  hardened  on 

the  surface  to  a  Und  of  vaniiaH% 

An  entertaiaing  English  ivrlteri  UMy  daoaaaa«i  Mr« 
Inglis,  haa  ffi^p  a  ywj  dalailoA  aeoonni  of  iha  houaasi 
within  and  >rilhauli  in  a  P*rt  f*f  Swliaariand  called 

Daring  vxf  d«y^  ^1^  I  M^ed  tivfouffh  man  V  large 
Tillages,  the  names  of  whioh  Y  aa  not  reooUect,  but  whose 
■ice  appaued  Vl  ma  f^^  dlspyaportiojiate  to  the  extent  of 
the  vaUey  in  whieh  I  fomid  U^em.  The  great  siae  of  the 
hooaes,  howevei^  mibr  aeoovints  fbr  Uiis.  In  no  part  <rf 
Europe  have  I  aalA  Iha  \wm  of  |he  natives  ao  laive  i^  ] 
found  them  throuihaut  Iha  whale  aC  the  Unter  and  Ob^ 
Engadine. 

He  then  proceeda  la  atatu  tl^t  a  vlUag«  in  every  part 
of  the  Engadine  ia  th«  aama^i  It  aanaiiU  of  one  street^ 
long  or  shortbi  aa  Iha  oaaa  ^my  h»%  with  aome  frw  and 

very  short  lateral  openings,  scarcely  deserving  the  name 
of  streets.  In  some  part  of  the  street  there  is  an  open 
space,  with  a  fountain  in  the  centre, — ^plain,  but  not  ineli- 
gant,  and  closely  adjoining  the  village,  but  seldom  form- 
ing a  naPi  of  {if  ia  Iha  yiOaga  Qhufeh,-^i]i  sise  and 
architecture  nearly  resemUinf  Ike  country  ehurchea  in 

Sco4«a4y 

The  ^uaea  in  thaae  viUagea  are  of  an  enofmoua 
aise :  indae4  Mr.  Inglis  affirms  that  they  cover  an  area 
greater  |han  that  oeeiupiad  hy  any  two  housea  in  Portland 
f  l«ee.  TMir  h^hX  «avep  aseeeds  two  atoriea,  and  the 
roofi  which  ia  covered  with  aquaie  piecea  of  wood,  laid 
Q«  Uke  akataai  upcm  whioli  truaka  of  ^r^treea  are  placed 
tranatarae^,  falls  haok  at  a  very  acute  angle.  The  exte« 
rior  of  the  houaea  praaemta  a  good  deal  of  decoration. 
Up^  the  whita  pU^ter  capiea  of  Greek  and  Roman  de- 
aigns  are  painted  in  lead  eolour)  painted  Doric  or  Corb* 
tluan  eolumna  adorn  the  door-poata,  and  the  imitation 
ia  ao  good  aa  to  deeeive  a  spectator  until  he  approaches 
near.  The  door  or  gateway  ia  generally  arched,  and  painted 
with  soma  tasteful  design.  Somelimea  an  imitation  of  a 
Greek  pediment  ia  painted  aver  the  windows,  and  in 
some  instances  every  part  of  the  exterior  is  painted  with 
one  unifonB  design,  the  whob  front  and  sides  being  set 
off  with  piUara,  pibstera,  pediment,  &oo  so  as  to  give 
at  a  diats^ce  some  reaemblanoe  to  a  Grecian  temple. 

It  is  diffiouU  ^says  Mr.  Inglis)  to  understand  how  this 
oustom  and  toate  nav«  arisen.  The  painting  is  for  the  most 
part  old,  and  in  some  places  has  been  renewed,  but  not  with 
eoual  skill;  and  upea  the  housea  recently  ereeted  nothing 
of  the  kind  haa  been  attempted.  These,  however,  are  but 
few,  and  form  a  very  trifling  e^oeptio^  whfi\  vpeakiog  of 
tho  ftppeai'ance  of  the  Engadixve  viJtiUges.    I  cajonot  conceive 


imj  other  origin  of  so  singular  and  so  nnivensl  a  onctice 
than  that  some  Grieon  arehitect,  who  had  l«ft  hit  xif&ft 
valleyi,  acquired  in  Italy  a  taite  Ibr  the  dsialo  models  of 
that  limd,  and  returning  to  hip  cottntr^r^eai^rcM  hit  pro- 
feasion,  and,  ai  the  same  time,  fed  nis  recollection  of  the 
glorious  things  he  had  seen,  b^  adorning  the  buildings  of 
his  native  vilmge.  The  taste  might  soon  spread,  and  in  the 
rix  or  eight  villages  of  the  Ober  EngacQua  a  few  jem 
only  would  he  requind  to  satisfy  its  demands.  In  all 
that  I  have  yet  said,  or  may  still  say,  respecting  the  vil- 
lages and  houses  of  the  Engaoine,  I  speak  with  reference  to 
both  the  Ober  and  Unter  Enrndine,  with  iha  axoepilon  of 
the  painting  upon  the  walls,  wnich  I  think  is  confined  to  the 
Ober  Engadine ;  at  all  events  it  does  not  extend  to  mon 
than  one  village  in  the  lower  Valley.  Let  me  add  to  this 
description  of  the  exterior  of  the  houses,  that  upon  eome 
part  of  the  wall,  generally  over  the  gate,  is  found  an  insenp- 
tion,  sometimes  in  Roman,  eometimes  in  Latm,  indicating 
the  period  at  which  the  house  was  built,  setting  forth  the 
name  of  the  builder,  and  containing,  besides,  a  recommendi- 
tion  of  the  house  and  ita  inhabitants  to  the  protection  of 
God. 

Mr.  Inglis  then  describes  the  Interior  of  these  dwel- 
lings. Within  the  gateway  or  door  ia  a  spacioua  cham- 
ber, with  an  earthen  floor,  which  serves  ai  a  lort  of 
inner  court«yard,  and  which  praaenta  a  strange  eontiut 
to  the  ornamented  gateway,  Thia  apartment  ia  used  u 
a  general  store-house.  Ranged  on  one  aide  are  all  the 
utensils  required  in  a  dairv,  aueh  as  ohuma,  ehees^ 
presseai  and  the  innumerable  flat  wooden  dishes,  osed 
for  the  reception  ot  the  milk.     On  another  side  ue 

various  upricuUttral  im^t manias  together  with  Udd?^ 
sawa,  ana  other  loola.  Several  aimnin|*itMi  ^^ 
in  one  eomar :  a  quantity  of  skina  aif  Kaimad  ia  mA^'- 
and  one  end  ii  alwaya  datoted  la  Iha  ftiei,  aad  li  knped 
with  wood  aa  high  aa  the  roof.  Vrom  tUa  \up  it<«- 
room  are  entrances  leading  to  thf  dlfl^iant  apvtlM^^ 
the  kitchen,  the  eating  roomai  and  other  roo»t,vurpj 
in  nnmher  acoordlnv  to  tha  aita  of  Iha  kouie  w<l  ^ 
neoessities  of  the  lhmDy«    The  fUiAltOia  of  tkaie  nm 

is  always  abundant^  aolalanliala  and  aomatimes  m- 
mautod  with  oarrad  iiood«iKffk%    Tlia  aleepinff*^ 
ure^  sdmost  9imf%  above  atalt«»  but  acareely  earmY^ 
hA  convenience  nilh  the  lowar  Mii  of  ika  totse. 
Swiaa  houaaa  appaaf  la  Uf%  boon  kuttt  of  wood  for 

many  ages  past  5  prohl^bly  the  majority  of  them  tow 
never  b^en  formed  of  any  other  material.  Coxe,  writing 
sixty  years  ago,  respecting  the   canton  of  Appenzel, 

says: — 
In  our  way  to  Appenael  «a  ealood  aawal  li0»n^di 

were  all  built  of  w«ed,  neateess  and  eonvenicnce  h^  tM 
principal  object  of  ihe  ownere;  euch  Ik  remarksWe  demfl- 
ness  prevailed  tbrQ^ghout  aa  affovded  a  most  striking  }Jf 
of  the  general  attention  wUch  people  pay  to  that  eaKDtiti 
article.  A  continned  ehain  of  these  cultivated  Aoontsm^ 
richly  clothed  with  wood,  and  thiekly  studded  wiOi  hunlew, 
exhibit  a  series  of  landseapee  inexpressibly  pleasing. 

In  another  passage,  speaking  of  Aargau,  he  says:— 

The  houses,  Ml?e  those  of  Appenael  and  Glarua,  aw  gea^ 
leDy  of  wood,  and  it  was  a  nalnral  observation  of  one « 
our  serrant^  ha  passfa^  through  a  continued  chain  of  wcb, 
that  aa  theie  wa«  no  deficiency  of  atone,  It  ■wmed  exw»- 
dinary  to  ewpiey  ^w>od  aleaae  «ar  the  puipoaes  of  twW 
But  it  may  be  remarked  that  these  wooden  koa8»«»*" 
constructed  and  easily  repaired^  and  beii«  Iflwd  "» •  ^ 
pact  manner,  with  smaU  roowa,  a»d  low  cejnng^  « "^ 
ciently  warm  even  fbr  so  cold  a  climate.  The  duel  om 
tion  arises  from  the  danger  of  flre,  vhich,  howeyer,  tf  » 
some  meaeuFe  obviated  b/  Ihe  method  of  bulling  ^ 
eottagee  detaehed  from  eaeh  other.  But  this  oba^^ 
doesnot  hold  with  respect  to  some  of  the  hMwt  VffpJ 
^hich  are  expoeed  to  the  ravf^iea  of  this  dreadhl  eaJMw?' 

Of  course  the  dwellings  in  Switaerland  vary  with  tie 
place  where  they  are  built,  and  with  the  »«*»»  f  f^ 
to  whom  they  belong ;  but  the  cut  at  the  head  rf  ^ 
article  may  be  considered  as  a  genenu  repreaenUUve  w 
the  houses  in  the  romantia  valleys  of  that  country* 


18410 


THB  lATUROAH  MA0A2IN1E. 


IM 


MEMOIR  OF  THE  LATfi  Dr»  THOMAS 

YOUNO. 

In  1831,  a  memoir  of  Df.  Thomas  Young,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  men  of  the  affe,  wad  printed  solely 
for  private  di8trihution»  and  with  the  hope,  modestly 
expressed  on  the  part  of  the  writer,  that  the  *'  linperfect 
siietch  "  then  produced  wOuld  afterwards  be  fllled  up  by 
*'8ome  abter  hand.'* 

With  the  exception  of  the  short  but  masterly  sketch 
given  by  the  celebrated  M.  Araco,  in  the  Revue  des 
Deux  JuondeSf  this  hope  has  not  been  yet  fulfilled;  but 
as  the  name  of  Young,  and  the  fame  of  his  extraordi- 
nary attainments,  m^v  have  reached  many  of  our  readerSf 
and  excited  a  desire  for  fhrther  information  respecting 
this  highly  gifted  individual,  we  proceed  to  lay  before 
them  such  details  as  may  be  conveniently  gather^  from 
the  sources  above  alluded  to. 

Thomas  Young  was  bom  at  Milverton,  in  Somerset- 
shire, on  the  13th  of  June,  1773.     Mis  parents  were 
Quakers,  and  of  the  strictest  of  diat  sect :  his  mother 
was  a  niece  of  Dr.  Richard  Brocklesby,  a  physician  of 
eminence,  who  was  connected  with  some  of  the  most 
dlstingruished  literary  and  political  characters  of  his 
time,   and  who  numbered   among   his  most  intimate 
friends  Johnson,  Burke,  and  Windham,     Td  the  Influ- 
ence  of  the  early  impressions  of  the  Quaker  tenets 
Dr.  Young  "  was  accustomed  to  attribute  in  some  degree 
the  power  he  so  eminently  possessed  of  an  imperturbable 
resolution  to  effect  any  object  on  which  he  Was  engaged, 
which  he  brought  to  oear  on  everything  he  undertook, 
and  by  which  he  was  enabled  to  work  out  his  own  educa- 
tion almost  from  infancy,  with  little  comparative  assist- 
ance or  direction  from  others.'^     He  passed  the  first 
years  of  his  life  at  the  house  of  his  maternal  grand- 
father, Mr.  Robert  Davies«  of  Minebead«  whom  active 
commercial  engagements  had  not  prevented  from  colti- 
vating*  the  classics. 

Young  appears  to  have  been  a  forward,  if  not  a  preco- 
cious child;  but  unUke  the  majority  of  such  children,  he 
abundAntlv  fulfilled  the  expectations  ot  his  iHends,  so 
that  his  after  course  more  than  corresponded  With  the 
promise  of  his  vouth.  At  the  age  of  two  j/eari  he 
could  read  fluently,  and  showed  siffus  of  an  extraordinary 
memory.  Very  soon  after  this,  m  the  intervals  of  his 
attendance  at  a  village  school  at  Minehead,  he  eommitted 
to  memory  a  nnmb«r  of  English  verses,  and  by  the  time 
he  was  four  years  old  he  hM  learned  by  heart  a  variety 
of  Eoghsh  authors,  and  even  different  Latin  poems, 
which  he  could  recite  from  beginning  to  end,  though 
unacquainted  with  the  language.  B^ore  he  was  six 
years  old  he  was  sent  to  a  school  kept  by  a  dissenting 
minister  at  Bristol.  Here  the  mediocrity  of  his  master 
proved  no  barrier  to  his  progress,  for  he  became  essen- 
tially his  own  instructor,  and  had  generally  studied  the 
last  pages  of  his  books  before  he  had  reached  the  middle 
under  the  eye  of  the  teacher. 

When  he  was  eight  years  old  he  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  a  land-snrveyor  of  merits  residing  near  his 
father's  house,  and  was  allowed  to  spend  as  much  time  as 
he  liked  during  the  holydays,  in  the  office  of  that  gen- 
tleman, where  he  was  indulged  with  the  use  of  mathema- 
tical aad  philosophioal  instmnents,  and  the  pemsal  ct 
three  volumes  of  a  DteH&nofy  of  ArU  and  Sciences, 
These  ^ere  to  him  sources  of  instruction  and  delight,  at 
which  he  never  seemed  to  be  weary.  At  this  time  he 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  land-surveying,  and  amused 
himself  in  his  walks  by  measuring  heights  with  a  quad- 
rant 

From  the  age  of  nine  to  his  fourteenth  year  Young 
lived  with  a  Mr.  Thomson,  at  Compton,  in  Dorsetshire, 
virhere  he  was  occupied,  in  common  with  the  other 
boarders,  with  a  close  attention  to  Greek  and  Latin. 
He  was  always  at  the  head  of  his  class,  and  yet  at  the 
same  time  he  made  some  progress  in  French,  Italian, 


Hebrew,  Persian,  and  Arable.  The  French  and  Italian 
he  learned  in  order  to  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  a  compa^ 
nion,  who  had  in  his  possession  several  works  printedat 
Paris,  of  which  he  wished  to  know  the  contents;  the 
Hebrew  to  read  the  Bible  b  the  original;  the  Persian 
and  Arabic  with  a  view  of  deciding  this  question,  raised 
during  a  conversation  at  dinner, — *^  Are  the  differences 
between  the  Oriental  languages  as  marked  as  between 
those  of  Europe?"  I^thout  the  certainty  that  we 
^ther  our  information  from  authentic  sources  we  should 
Hesitate  to  add,  that  at  the  time  when  he  was  making 
this  extraordinary  progress  In  languages,  he  entered  so 
ardently  on  the  study  of  botany  that  in  order  to  examine 
plants  .he  set  about  the  construction  of  a  microscope, 
without  any  other  guide  than  the  descriptions  given  by 
Benjamin  Martin.  In  order  to  sucoeed  in  his  difficult 
task  he  found  it  necessary  to  acquire  much  dexterity  in 
the  art  of  turning,  and  fiuling  upon  a  demonstration  ia 
Martin's  Philoeophy^  which  exhibited  some  fluxional 
symbols,  he  was  not  satisfied  until  he  had  read  and 
mastered  a  short  introduction  to  the  doctrine  of  fluxions. 

Such  incessant  activity  had  the  effect  which  might 
have  been  expected,  and  at  fourteen  years  the  health  of 
Young  was  greatlv  changed.  Me  was  attacked  by  symp- 
toms of  what  his  irlends  feared  to  be  incipient  consump- 
tion,— ^symptoms  which  happily  yielded,  after  a  time,  to 
the  prescriptions  of  art  ana  the  extreme  care  of  his 
parents.  During  his  indisposition  he  merely  relieved  his 
attention  by  what  to  him  stood  in  the  place  of  repose — a 
course  of  Greek  reading  in  such  authors  as  amused  the 
weariness  of  his  confinement.  In  the  year  1787  he 
became  the  fellow-pupil  of  the  grandson  of  Mr.  David 
Barclay,  of  Youngsbury,  in  Hertforshire,  it  having  been 
agreed  that  the  two  youths  should  pursue  their  studies 
together,  under  a  private  tutor,  at  Mr.  Barclay's  house. 
As  a  proof  of  his  proficiency  at  this  period  we  may 
give  the  following  anecdote.  On  the  day  of  his  arrival 
at  Youngsbury  Mr.  Barclay  gave  him  some  sentences 
to  copy,  to  ascertain  if  he  wrote  a  good  hand.  Young, 
perhaps  a  little  humbled  at  such  a  proof  being  required, 
asked  permission  to  retire  into  an  adjoining  room.  Me 
remained  longer  than  appeared  necessary,  and  Mr. 
Barclay  began  to  joke  about  the  young  ouaker's  want  of 
dexterity;  but  he  presently  returned  witn  a  remarkably 
beautiful  copyi  ana  a  translation  of  the  sentences  into 
nine  different  languages. 

According  to  the  Memoir  we  principally  follow,  the 
tutor  did  not  arrive,  and  Young  took  it  on  himself  not 
only  to  direct  the  studies  of  his  companion,  but  of 
another  student^  who  now  joined  them,  Mr.  Modgkiui 
author  of  the  Calligraphta  Ofaca.  But  M.  Aragcr 
grives  us  a  different  account.  He  saysy  the  preceptor, 
who  directed  the  studies  of  the  two  young  scholars  ai 
Youngsbury  was  a  distinguighed  young  man,  the«. 
engaged  in  perfecting  himself  in  a  knowledge  of  the 
ancient  languages,  and  was  afterwards  the  author  of 
the  Cailigraphia  Graca.  He  was  not  long,  however, 
in  perceiving  the  superiority  of  one  of  the  two  pupils, 
ana  observed  with  tne  most  laudable  modesty,  that  in 
their  common  studies,  the  true  tutor  was  not  always  he 
who  bore  the  title. 

Thus  passed  the  five  years  from  1787  to  1792,  the 
summers  bemg  spent  in  Hertfordshire,  and  the  winter* 
in  London.  The  little  party  of  students  had  the  advan- 
tage of  occasional  masters,  during  their  annual  visits  to 
the  metropolis,  and  with  this  aid  Young  made  himself 
surprisingly  familiar  with  the  great  writers  of  antiquity, 
keeping  ample  notes  of  his  studies.  He  had  now  ac- 
quired facility  in  writing  Latin,  composed  Greek  verses, 
which  were  well  received  by  the  distinguished  scholars 
of  the  day,  and  applied  himself  assiduously  to  the  higher 
mathematics.  To  the  studies  of  botany,  zooloey,  and 
especially  entomology,  he  at  the  same  time  paid  consi- 

I'  derable  attention.    He  drew  up  from  original  sources  a 
detsiled  analysis  of  the  numerous  systems  of  philosophy 
596— a 


14i> 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[October  9, 


which  were  professed  in  the  different  schools  of  Greece. 
The  train  of  thought  excited  hy  the  study  of  the  con- 
flicting opinions  of  the  ancients  is  supposed  to  have 
mitigated  in  some  degree  Young's  attachment  to  the 
views  of  his  own  sect,  the  quakers,  from  whose  society 
he  subsequently  separated  himself,  during  his  residence 
in  Edinburgh.  In  the  course  of  his  visits  to  London 
he  attended  the  dbemicaJ  lectures  of  Dr.  Higgins,  and 
having  previously  prepared  himself  by  reading  on  the 
subject,  he  began  to  make  simple  experiments  of  his 
own.  But  he  was  never  fond  of  repeating  experiments, 
nor  even  of  originating  new  ones,  considering  that, 
however  necessary  to  the  advancement  of  science,  they 
demanded  a  g^reat  sacrifice  of  time,  and  that  when  the' 
fact  was  once  established,  that  time  was  better  emploved 
in  considering  the  purposes  to  which  it  might  be  applied, 
or  the  principles  which  it  might  tend  to  elucidate. 

Dr.  Brocklesby,  the  maternal  uncle  of  Young,  being 
justly  proud'  of  the  success  of  the  young  scholar,  com- 
municated some  of  his  compositions  to  philosophers  and 
literary  men,  and  thus  introduced  him  to  the  notice  of 
Burke,  Windham,  and  other  celebrated  characters.  By 
means  of  their  patronage.  Young  might  easily  have 
secured  some  lucrative  post  imder  government,  but  he 
preferred  the  independent  though  laborious  career  of  a 
aterary  life.  By  the  advice  of  his  uncle,  he  directed 
his  views  to  the  studies  necessary  for  the  practice  of 
physic.  These  studies  were  commenced  in  London 
under  Baillie  and  Cruickshank,  and  continued  at  E^n- 
burgh,  where  Doctors  Black,  Baillie,  and  Munro,  were 
then  highly  distingpushed.  Young  took  his  degree  at 
Gottingen  in  1795. 

The  biographer  of  Young  justly  remarks  that  his  self- 
conducted  education  in  privacy,  was  not  without  its  dis- 
advantages :  that  though  the  acquirements  he  made  during 
those  five  years  of  seclusion  were  gpreat,  he  was  not  gain- 
ing that  which  is  acquired  insensibly  in  the  conflict  of 
equals  in  the  commerce  of  the  world, — the  facility  of 
communicating  knowledge  in  the  form  that  shall  be  most 
unmediately  comprehended  by  others,  and  the  tact  in 
putting  it  forth  that  shall  render  its  value  immediately 
appreciated. 

JBefore  taking  his  degree,  Young  had  become  known 
to  the  scientific  world  by  a  controversy  which  he  had 
carried  on  with  Dr.  Beddoes  on  Crawford's  Theory 
of  Heat;— by  a  Memoir  concerning  the  habits  of  spiders ; 
and  by  an  observation  relating  to  Gum  Lahdanum.  He 
also  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  his  Observa- 
tions ou  Vision,  and  his  Theory  of  the  Muscularity  of 
the  Crystalline  lens  of  the  Eye,  which  became  the  sub- 
ject of  much  discussion,  Jolin  Hunter  laying  claim  to 
having  previously  made  the  discovery.  He  was  soon 
after  elected  a  feuow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

In  the  intervals  of  more  serious  pursuits  he  found 
leisure  for  cultivating  those  arts  in  which  his  earlv 
education  had  left  him  deficient.  Everything  was  with 
him  a  science,  and  whatever  he  followed  he  followed 
scientifically.  He  cultivated  skill  in  bodily  exercises, 
took  lessons  in  horsemanship,  in  which  he  always  had 
great  pleasure,  and  practisea  under  various  masters,  all 
sorts  of  feats  of  personal  agility.  The  first  time  he 
mounted  a  horse,  the  riding-master  who  accompaned  him 
leaped  over  an  elevated  barrier;  Young  wished  to  follow 
him,  but  was  thrown  over  the  horse's  head  ten  feet.  He 
got  up  without  saying  a  word— made  a  second  trial — ^was 
again  dismounted,  but  did  not  pass  this  time  over  the 
head  of  the  animal.  On  the  third  trial  the  young  stu- 
dent succeeded  in  accomplishing  what  had  been  done 
before  him.  Both  at  Edinburgh,  and  at  Gottingen  he 
carried  these  kinds  of  exercises  much  farther  than  might 
have  been  expected.  He  even  vied  successfully  with  a 
distinguished  rope-dancer,  and  acquired  extraordinary 
facility^ n  the  art  of  vaulting  on  a  horse.  Thus  we  find 
a  striking  contrast  between  Newton,  riding  in  a  carriage 
mih  his  arms  extended  and  grasphig  the  coach  doorsi 


from  the  fear  of  falling;  and  his  iUustrious  competitor, 
who  would  gBllop  erect  upon  two  horses,  with  all  tha 
assurance  of  a  nding-master. 

While  at  Gottingen,  he  excited  the  wonder  of  his 
fellow-students  by  ms  attainments  and  almost  incredible 
industry.  He  had  acquired  at  an  early  period  a  profound 
knowledge  of  the  theory  of  music.  His  taste  ror  paint- 
ing was  confirmed  during  his  residence  in  Germany 
There  his  attention  was  entirely  taken  up  with  the  col- 
lection at  Dresden.  He  studied  the  defects  and  peculia- 
rities of  the  greatest  matters,  their  frequent  changes  of 
style,  the  material  objects  of  their  work,  and  the  modifi 
fications  which  the  objects  and  colours  underwent  in  the 
lapse  of  time.  He  is  said  to  have  studied  painting  in 
Saxony  in  the  same  manner  as  he  had  studied  the  lan- 
guages in  his  own  country,  and  as  latterly  he  cultivated 
the  sciences.  In  fi&ct,  everything  in  the  sight  of  Young 
appeared  worthy  of  meditation  and  research.  Hb  col- 
lege acquaintances  relate  that  having  entered  his  room 
during  the  day  that  he  had  received  nis  first  lesson  in 
dancing  a  minuet,  they  found  him  busy,  with  a  rule  and 
compass,  measuring  the  intersecting  directions  which  the 
two  dancers  followed,  and  the  different  improvements 
which  the  various  figures  appeared  susceptible  of  ac- 
quiring. 

During  his  residence  in  Germany  he  composed  a 
treatise  entitled  De  Corporii  ffumani  Vtrtbus  Conser^ 
vatricibuSf  leaving  few  volumes  unconsulted  which  had 
any  connexion  with  his  subject.  He  also  gained  a  very 
general  and  accurate  acquaintance  with  the  language  and 
literature  of  Germany,  which  he  kept  up  throughout  his 
life;  he  remarked  that  he  found  in  Germany  a  love  of 
•new  inventions,  singularly  and  somewhat  pedantically 
combined  with  the  habit  of  systematizing  old  ones,  and 
of  giving  an  importance  to  things  in  themselves  trifling, 
which  in  his  case  rather  confirmed  an  original  habit  ik 
dwelling  on  minutise  more  than  his  subsequent  experience 
led  him  to  think  was  advantageous. 


Thb  Russian  is  scarcely  ever  seen  to  strike  the  animal  over 
which  he  has  power— his  horse  is  seldom  propelled  by  any 
other  influence  than  a  few  cheering  and  encooramng  sounds, 
and  if  thb  increases  not  his  pace,  he  does  not,  he^ed  with 
savage  fury,  dissect  the  savage  beast  with  a  scouige,  beat  oat 
an  eye,  or  tear  out  his  tongue.  The  Russian  proverb  U, 
**  It  is  not  the  horse,  bnt  the  oats,  that  csrry  you."  As 
long  as  the  horse  will  eat»  he  feeds  him;  and  his appaamiee 
generally  honours  the  humanity  of  his  master. 


PBRDIDX   DIEM. 

*"!  HAVC  lost  a  day,"  said  Titos,  "  for  this  day 
To  none  have  I  done  good."    Oh !  rather  say. 
The  day  this  noble  sentiment  had  birth 
Shines  out  transcendent  with  enduring  worth. 
Small  the  maierial  good  thou  coQld*St  achiever- 
Transient  and  limited ;  bnt  Time  shall  leave 
These  words  a  living  lesson,  potent  still 
To  sway  towVds  generous  de^ds  the  htiman  will. 
When  he  hath  stript  of  power  Imperial  Rome, 
And  cnunbled  into  dust  her  proudest  dome—JBL  W. 


Thx  results  of  deep  research  or  extravagant  qpeeolation 
seldom  provoke  hostility,  when  meekly  announced  as  the 
deductions  of  reason,  or  tiie  convictions  of  conscioice.  As 
the  dreams  of  a  recluse  or  an  enthusiasty  they  may  excite 
pity  or  call  forth  contempt;  but^  like  seeds  quietly  cast  into 
the  earth,  they  will  rot  and  germinate  according  to  the 
vitality  with  which  they  are  endowed.  But,  if  new  and  start- 
ling opinions  are  thrown  in  the  face  of  the  community — ^it 
they  are  uttered  in  triumph  or  in  insult — in  contempt  of 
public  opinion,  or  in  derision  of  cherished  errors  they  lose 
the  comeliness  of  truth  in  the  rancour  of  their  propagation; 
and  they  are  like  the  seed  scattered  in  a  hurricane,  which 
only  irritates  and  blinds  the  husbandman.— Sin  David 
Bbxwixbb 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


141 


OPTICAL  ILLUSIONS.    VL 

ng.i. 


In  our  last  paper  on  this  subject  we  described  several 
remarkable  experiments  made  by  Dr.  Faraday,  as  well 
as  the  apparatus  which  he  contrived  for  conducting  them. 
We  now  proceed  to  speak  of  other  experiments,  made 
by  the  same  gentleman. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  experiment  described 

at  the  end  of  the  last  paper,  two  wheels  having  an  equal 

number   of  teeth   or  cogs,  but  one  having  the  teeth 

deeper  than  the  other,  gave,  when  viewed  in  ^e  revolving 

apparatus,  a  spectral  wheel  with  double  the  number  of 

teeth.     This  is  shown  by  the  annexed  figure,  (fig.  1,)  in 

which  a  is  the  wheel  nearest  to  the  eye,  and  having  the 

deepest  teeth,  b  the  other  wheel,  having,  like  the  other, 

sixteen  teeth,  and  c  the  spectral  wheel,  with  thirty-two 

teeth.     It  would  be  tedious  to  follow  out  the  cause  of 

each  variety  of  effect  produced  in  this  experiment,  but 

it  may  suffice  generally  to  say,  that  they  all  result  from 

the  occurrence  of  one  set  of  impressions  on  the  retina 

before  a    previous  set  of  impressions  has  lost  its  in« 

fluence. 

Dr.  Faradav  describes  a  very  simple  experiment,  to 
show  the  production  of  a  spectral  line,  where  none  such 
exists  in  the  original  objects.  If  a  little  rod  of  white 
cardboard,  five  or  six  inches  long,  and  one  thirtieth  of 
an  inch  wide,  be  moved  to  and  fro,  from  right  to  left, 
before  the  eye,  an  obscure  or  black  ground  bmg  beyond, 
it  will  appear  to  spread  a  tint  over  the  space  through 
which  it  moves,  as  in  &g.  2,  a.    A  similar  rod  held  and 


moved  in  tne  other  hand  will  produce  the  same  effect, 
imt  if  there  be  visually  superposed,  t.  e.,  if  one  be  moved 
■o  and  fro  behind  the  other,  also  moving,  then  in  the 
quadrangular  space  included  within  the  intersection  of 
:he  two  tints  will  be  seen  a  black  line,  sometimes 
straight,  and  connecting  the  opposite  angles  of  the  quad- 
'angle,  as  in  fig.  2,  h,  at  other  times  oval  or  round,  or 
'ven  square,  according  to  the  motions  given  to  the  two 
cardboard  rods.  This  appearance  is  visible  even  when 
he  rods  are  several  inches  or  a  foot  apart,  provided  they 
ire  visually  superposed.  By  carefully  examining  the 
'ffects  produced,  and  tracing  them  to  their  causes,  it  will 
>e  seen  that  the  black  line  is  the  path  of  the  intersecting 
)oint  of  the  moving  rods.    As  their  motions  vary,  so 


does  the  course  of  this  point  change,  and  wherever  it 
occurs  there  is  less  eclipse  of  the  black  ground  beyond 
than  in  the  other  parts,  and  consequently  less  light 
from  that  spot  to  the  eye  than  from  the  other  portions 
of  the  compound  spectrum  produced  by  the  moving 
rods. 

In  the  experiment  just  described  the  eye  should  be 
fixed,  and  the  part  observed  should  be  between  the 
planes  in  which  the  rods  are  moved.  Those  who  find  it 
difficult  to  observe  the  effect  at  first  will  instantly  be 
able  to  do  so  if  the  rod  nearest  the  eye  be  black,  or  held 
so  as  to  throw  a  deep  shade :  the  line  is  then  much  more 
distant.  Two  bright  pins  or  needles  produce  the  effect 
very  well  in  diffuse  day-light,  and  the  line  produced  by 
the  shadow  of  one  on  the  other  and  that  belonging  to 
the  intersection  are  easily  distinguished  and  separated. 
If,  while  a  single  bar  is  moved  in  one  hand,  several  bars 
or  a  grating  is  moved  in  the  other,  then  spectral  lines, 
equal  to  the  number  of  bars  in  the  grating,  are  produced. 
If  one  grating  is  moved  before  another,  then  the  lines 
are  proportionably  numerous ;  or,  if  the  distances  are 
equal,  and  the  velocity  the  same,  so  that  many  spectral 
lines  may  coincide  in  one,  that  one  is  so  much  the  more 
strongly  marked.  If  the  bars  used  be  serpentine  or 
curved,  the  lines  produced  may  be  either  straight  or 
curved  at  pleasure,  according  as  the  positions  and  motions 
are  arranged,  so  as  to  make  the  intersecting  point  travel, 
in  a  straight,  or  a  curved,  or  in  any  other  line. 

Dr.  Faraday  shows  that  the  production  of  a  line  in 
this  experiment,  where  none  exists  in  the  original  objects, 
depends  on  the  same  cause  as  the  production  of  a  spec- 
tral wheel,  with  twice  as  many  teeth  as  either  of  the 
real  wheels,  in  the  experiments  with  the  revolving  ma- 
chine; and  to  show  more  clearly  the  nature  of  this  effect 
he  varied  the  experiments  in  several  different  ways. 

1.  When  wheels  were  used,  having  equal  but  oblique 
teeth,  and  the  obliquity  in  the  same  direction,  the  spec- 
trum was  also  marked  obliquely,  but  when  the  obliquity 
was  in  opposite  directions  the  spectrum  was  marked  as 
with  straight  teeth. 

2.  When  equal  wheels  were  revolved  with  opposite 
motions,  one  rather  faster  than  the  other,  the  spectrum 
travelled  slowly  in  the  direction  of  the  fastest  wheel : 
when  the  difference  in  the  velocity  of  the  two  wheels 
was  made  greater  the  spectrum  travelled  faster. 

3.  When  one  wheel  contained  more  cogs  than  the 
other,  as,  for  instance,  twenty-four  and  twenty-two,  then 
with  equal  motions  the  spectrum  was  clear  and  distinct, 
but  travelled  in  the  direction  of  the  wheel  having  the 
greatest  number  of  teeth.  When  the  other  wheel  was 
made  to  move  so  much  faster  as  to  bring  an  equal  num- 
ber of  cogs  before  the  eye,  in  the  same  time  as  the  other, 
the  spectrum  became  stationary  again. 

4.  When  the  motion  of  the  wheels  upon  the  machine 
is  in  the  same  direction,  the  velocities  equal,  and  the  eye 
placed  in  the  prolongation  of  the  axis  of  the  wheels,  no 
particular  effect  takes  place.  If  it  so  happens  that  the 
cogs  of  one  coincide  with  those  of  the  other,  the  uniform 
tint  belonging  to  one  wheel  only  is  produced.  If  they 
project  by  the  side  of  each  other,  it  is  as  if  the  cogs 
were  larger,  and  the  tint  is  therefore  stronger.  But 
when  the  velocities  vary,  the  appearances  are  very 
curious:  the  spectrum  then  becomes  altogether  alter- 
nately light  and  dark,  and  the  alternations  succeed  each 
other  more  rapidly  as  the  velocities  differ  more  from  each 
other. 

5.  When  wheels  with  radii,  instead  of  cogs  or  teeth, 
are  put  upon  the  machine,  the  carriage-wheel  phero- 
menon  is  observed  with  great  perfection.  They  should 
be  viewed  obliquely,  so  as  to  be  visually  superposed  only 
in  part:  and  provided  the  wheels  are  alike,  and  botli 
revolving  in  the  same  direction  with  equal  velocity,  they 
immediately  assume  the  curved  form  described  in  the 
last  paper. 

6.  If  the  wheels  revolve  in  opposite  directions^  then 


I4t 


THE  SATURDAY  MAOAZIKE. 


LOcToiii  9 


the  ipeetntl  linci,  originatbig  ftt  aadi  aiii  u  a  pole,  hare 

another  disposition. 

7.  The  carriage-wheel  exneriment  may  be  fbrther  imi- 
tated, by  mounting  the  revoiTing  machine  with  a  single 
wheel  carrying  sereral  equal  radii  at  equal  distances, 
and  holding  a  small  grating  between  the  wheel  and  the 
eye.  The  bars  of  the  grating  should  be  equidistant,  the 
intervals  between  them  being  about  equal  to  that  between 
the  extremities  of  two  contiguous  spolies  of  the  wheel. 

As  a  variation  in  the  mode  of  obserrhig  many  of 
these  phenomena  Dr.  Faraday  recommends  the  following: 
to  cast  the  shadows  of  the  revolving  wheels,  either  by 
sun  or  by  candle-light,  upon  a  screen,  and  observe  their 
appearance.  The  way  in  which  the  cogs  or  radii  of  the 
wheels  shut  out  more  or  less  of  a  back-ground  from  the 
eye  will  enable  tkem,  to  an  equal  degree,  to  intercept 
light  which  would  otherwise  fatt  upon  a  screen.  When 
the  two  equal  cog-wheels  are  revolved,  so  as  to  have  the 
shadows  cast  upon  a  white  screen,  that  shadow  eihibits 
all  the  appearances  and  variations  observed  when  the  eye 
is  looking  by  the  wheels  in  shade  at  a  white  back-ground. 
The  shadow  is  light  where  the  wheels  appear  dark,  for 
there  the  light  has  passed  by  the  cogs,— and  dark  where 
the  wheels  appear  ught,  for  there  the  cogs  have  inter- 
cepted most  of  the  ravs.  The  screen  shcmld  be  near  to 
the  wheels,  that  the  shadow  may  be  sharp,  and  it  is  con- 
venient to  have  one  wheel  of  rather  smaller  radius  than 
the  other,  or  else  to  place  them  obliquely  to  the  sun,  for 
the  purpose  of  distinguishing  the  shadow  of  each  wheel, 
and  showing  how  b^ttfuuv  the  spectrum  breaks  out 
where  they  superpose.  When  the  spoke-wheels  are 
revolved  they  also  cast  a  shadow,  presenting  either  the 
appearance  of  fixed  or  moving  radii,  according  to  the 
eircumstances  already  alluded  to. 

The  same  ingenious  philosopher  also  shows  that  rtf- 
ftecHon  will  produce  a  smiilar  train  of  beautiftil  effects, 
if  a  white  cardboard  wheel,  with  equal  radii,  be  fixed 
upon  a  pin,  and  rotated  between  the  fingers  before  a 
glass,  so  that  the  \rbeel  and  its  reflected  image  may 
visually  superpose  in  part,  the  fixed  hues  idll  be  seen 
passing  in  curves  between  the  axis  of  the  wheel  and  the 
reflected  imw.  If  the  penon  gradually  recede  from  the 
glass,  but  stiU  look  through  the  wheel  in  his  hand  at  the 
reflected  image,  f. «.,  still  retain  them  supeiposed,  which 
is  best  done  by  bringing  the  revolving  wneel  close  to 
the  eye,  he  will  see  the  lines  or  radii  of  the  reflected 
fanage  gradually  become  straight,  and  when  from  three 
feet  to  any  greater  distance  from  the  ^lass,  will  tee  the 
spectrum  of  the  reflected  image,  havmg  as  many  dark 
radii  upon  it  as  thero  are  radii  in  the  wheel  he  is  revolv- 
ing, whatever  the  velocity,  or  however  irregular  the 
motion  of  the  wheel,  these  hues  are  perfectly  stationary. 
A  very  striking  deception  may  be  obtained  in  this  way, 
by  revolving  a  single  cog-wheel  between  the  flngers 
before  the  glass,  when  iVom  twelve  to  eighteen  feet 
from  it  It  is  easy  to  revolve  the  wheel  before  the  face, 
so  that  the  eves  may  see  the  glass  through  or  between 
the  cogs,  and  then  the  reflected  image  appean  as  if  it 
were  tn»  image  of  a  cog-wheel,  having  the  same  num- 
ber of  cogs,  but  perfectly  still,  and  every  cog  distinct, 
instead  of  being  the  image  of  one  in  such  rapid  motion 
that  by  direct  vision  the  cogs  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  each  other,  or  theb  existence  ascertamed.  The 
effect  is  rerj  striking  at  night  if  a  candle  be  placed  just 
before  the  face,  and  near  to  it,  but  shaded  by  the  wheel: 
in  the  reflection  the  wheel  is  then  well  illuminated,  and 
the  reflected  face  or  shadow  forms  a  good  back-ground 
against  which  to  observe  the  effect.  When  we  come  to 
speak  of  M.  Plateau's  experiments  it  will  be  seen  that 
this  gentleman  made  much  use  of  a  mirror  apparatus  for 
such  experiments  as  these. 

Another  experiment,  beautiful  from  iU  very  simplicity, 
was  described  by  Dr.  Faraday.  A  disk  of  cardboard, 
about  two  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter,  was  cut  into  a 
whe<rf  like  fig.  9:  another  ^sk,  rather  luger,  was  cut 


Fig.  9. 


into  a  similar  wheat,  and  then  the  radii  of  one  were 
twisted  obliquely  like  thewings  of  a 
ventilator,  and  the  radii  of  the  other 
similarly  twisted,  but  in  the  opposite 
direction.  A  small  hole  being  made 
in  the  centra  of  eaeh,  a  large  pin  was 
passed  through  that  of  the  simiUer  wheel, 
and  then  a  small  piece  of  cork  passed  on 
to  the  pin,  to  hold  the  wheel  near  the  head, 
but  free  to  turn.  Two  or  three  beads  were  then  added, 
the  second  wheel  put  on,  and  then  a  second  piece 
of  cork.  The  end  of  the  pin  was  then  stuck  into  a 
quill  or  a  pencil,  and  thus  was  formed  an  apparatus 
very  like  a  child's  windmill^  except  that  it  had  tvo 
sets  of  vanes,  revolving  in  opposite  directions.  On 
walking  across  a  room  towards  a  window  or  a  candle, 
with  this  little  toy  In  the  huidi  or  blowing  at  it  slightly 
from  the  mouth,  the  lines  wera  beautifully  seen,  being 
either  stationary  or  moving,  aeeording  to  the  relative 
velocity  of  the  two  wheels.  This  could  be  altered  at 
pleasura  by  inclining  the  vanes  more  or  less,  or  by  blow* 
ug  towards  the  centra  of  the  wheels,  or  towards  the 
edges*  when  the  lafger  hind  wheel  received  more  propil* 
save  foroe. 

The  more  the  truths  of  scienee  are  studied,  the  non 
evident  does  it  appear  that  those  trathi  may  often  bi 
Qlustnted  and  experimented  on  by  very  simple  and 
cheap  appatrntve ;  and  these  ex)>eriments  by  Dr.  Faradtj, 
on  the  curious  and  often  pleating  illusion  under  vhicb 
the  evidence  of  the  eve  is  pUMied,  exemplify  this  is  a  pro* 
minent  manner.  We  sh^  shortly  fesume  the  mbjed, 
by  detailing  the  reiolts  of  experiments  made  by  otbir 
ingenioos  philosophers. 


BUVVALO  OAIICS  Of   THS  AMBEICAN  IVDlAHt. 

Wa  obeerved,  eomhig  from  the  vmage,  a  gtoap  of  lodisu, 
fiBteetleaUydnesedlnbnfialo  skin^eoasto  besraaroiig 
rseetnblanee  to  that  beast.  They  xetaiaed  the  hesd,  baud, 
and  ligs  of  the  aaisMl  entixe,  and  wera  so  well  difigaied 
that  several  of  them,  at  a  little  <iii^fai^<^  might  ban  biea 
mistaken  fi)r  the  brateitselt  Thev  had  nrspared  themaelm 
to  give  us  the  buffiilo  dance.  They  ouraw  no  in  a  lars« 
cirde,  at  a  little  distance  ftom  a  skin  tent  which  had  beta 
lent  to  us  by  them,  our  own  marouee  having  become  sracli 
tattered  in  a  heavy  gale  a  lew  nighte  previoiii.  Thekadff 
of  thia  band  waa  the  Big  Kaw»  wlie  friskid  betiod  ibi 
gmve  head  and  beard  of  an  enonnona  bnffialo  bolL  la  ^ 
oentre  of  the  oiicle  were  seated  a  number  of  baflUoei^  ^^ 
business  it  was  to  sing,  while  the  rest,  consiaiiitt  of  cm 
squaws,  and  pappooses^  or  in  other  words,  of  bulls,  cov^ 
and  calves,  danced  to  their  musie.  The  chorus  commeoced 
with  a  low,  monmful  ditty,  which  set.the  whole  herd « 
dancers  in  motion*  They  began  by  movxi^  slowly  roood 
the  singers,  but  ae  the  chant  grew  more  and  more  msaid 
the  vivacity  of  the  herd  increased.  From  a  walk  tiMy 
quickened  tneirpaoe  to  a  trot;  fromatrot  it  ambled  off  into 
a  fiill  gcdlop.  Now  the  spirit  of  the  beeet  b^gan  to  sbo« 
out.  The  cows  bellowed ;  the  bulla  frisked,  roared,  ao^ 
fought;  they  kicked  up,  they  tore  up  the  ground,  asd 
chased  each  other  round  the  cirde.  This  Med  someti^ 
until  they  grew  ttproaiioua,  and  the  bottiiv  of  hons  "* 
furious.  At  this  aijjht  the  cows  drew  off,  and  atvcial  »«| 
after  bursting  out  into  a  loud  bawl,  raised  up  from  aU  na^ 
and  mounting  upon  their  two  hind  feet»  started  oif  ur  ts| 
village*-4oo  much  frightened  to  teke  any  fiaitber  abait » 
the  day's  diversions.  The  dance  lasted  for  about  two  w^ 
afier  which  the  Big  Kaw,  under  the  form  of  a  »J^'r!^ 
old  bull,  came  and  seated  himself  upon  a  billet  of  wood, » 
our  sides.    He  appeared  perfecdy  satisfied  with  btf  P 

formance,  but  was  grievously  out  of  wind.        ,        , 
After  this  followed  several  other  dances  of  a  9undareD>^ 

meter.     They  received  their  appelletions  fiom.  ^f^ 
animals,  and  the  merit  of  a  dance  consisted  in  imitaliBg'' 

nearly  as  posribk  the  actions  of  the  beast  from  f^ 
received  its  naipe.    They  continued  untU  late  in  the  ^«^ 
noon,  when  the  Indians,  one  aflter  another,  departed  V)  ^ 
homes;  and  long  before  nine  o'clock  the  busy  bum 
entirely  stilled,  and  a  deep  silence  hunff  oyef  our  mh 
the  saxvounding  prafrie«— /lulkNi  tSStekm. 


IMIO 


THB  BATURDAY  MAOAZmS. 


14< 


CHINA,  xm. 

IsiAVD  ov  CBirfAii«««AFi>iAmAiroa  ov  tbb  Couk* 

TRY.^Rl8FECT   f OR   TRB  DXAIW«*Jof«HoUSM-«» 

BUDHISTB.-— MaNDAHINS. 

Wb  recentlj  presented  our  readers  wUh  some  aeommt  of 
Tinghid,  or  Tinghai-eeii}  a  fAty  in  the  laLmd  of  Ghosan^ 
for  whioh  we  were  indebted  to  the  interesting  namtlveof 
Lord  Joeeilyn:  we  anin  svail  oiueelTea  of  the  inforqu^ 
tion  he  has  famiabed  of  what  ho  witnMod  in  other  parte 
of  the  island. 

A  native   compradore,  (purveyor,)  who  had  been  of 
eiiential  uae  to  our  troops  in  proouring  auppUea  of 
cattle*  and  in  aaaiating  as  an  infterpietor  in  default  of  a 
betteri  was*  while  fomging,  awawi  by  mandarin  soldiers* 
aad  carried  away  pig*fashion>  upon  a  pole.    Two  or  threo 
small  parties  wort  ordered  to  tvavorao  the  island  in  pur- 
suit of  him,  ono  of  whioh  wat  accompanied  by  our 
author.  He  thus  describes  the  scenery  of  the  interior  ^•«• 
The  road»  or  rather  paAi  waa  flagged  with  large 
square  Uocka  of  stone,  ^  suffloient  breadth  to  allow 
three  persons  to  wdk  abreast^    Through  this  town*  and 
indeed  oYor  the  whole  iitaud)  the  roads  were  of  the  same 
description ;  and  from  what  we  have  sinoe  seen  of  the 
tracts  of  the  main  landi  thev  appear  all  on  the  aame 
model,  and  of  the  aame  breadths    After  traversing  for 
some  milea  a  luxuriant  sea  of  paddy-flelda,  the  way 
wound  up  the  side  of  the  mountains,  through  a  lonely 
pass :  the  path  here  waa  out  into  easy  flights  of  stepa, 
and  these  passages,  which  were  numerous  through  uie 
whole  island*  were  ail  formed  in  the  same  manner.    The 
surrounding  hills  were  covered  with  the  tea^plant,  cotton* 
dwarfM>ak,  and  a  apeciea  of  arbotna»  rich  with  its  red 
fruit  I  whilst  their  lofty  summita  towered  on  high,  clad 
in  the  bright  green  paature.    The  long  valleys  seen 
from   the  asoent  stretched  from  the  mouths  of  the 
iifl^reat  ravines*  seme  lost  in  the  many  windings  in  the 
lilU,  whilat  others  again  swept  down  to  the  sea*ahore, 
aden  with  their  luxuriant  crops  of  rice,  bending  to  the 
Qoraixifir  breese  $  and  fkr  away  over  the  curious  build- 
ags  of  Tinghai,  the  British  fleet  lay  anchored  on  the 
sleeping  water.     Here  and  there,  as  if  dropped  at  ran- 
\om  upon  the  sides  of  the  hills,  were  dumps  of  fine 
rees)  and,  pe^dng  through  their  thick  folls^e^  the  rood 
if  houses  and  temples  diversified  the  scene.    Amongst 
aan^r  oS  the  beautifttl  groves  of  trees  which  h«e  in^Ho 
be  wanderer  to  repose^  spots  are  selected  as  the  resting* 
ilaeea  of  mortality :  and  gaaing  en  these  tranquil  scenes, 
rhere  tlio  sweet  clematis  and  frsgrant  flowers  help  to 
ecorate  the  last  home  of  man,  the  moat  careless  eye 
anuot  fail  to  mark  the  beauties  of  the  grave. 

It  is  stiU  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  the  Chinese  do 
ot  oarry  their  veueration  of  the  dead  to  the  point  of 
doration  ;  and  some  centuries  ago,  the  Jesuits,  the  first 
tissionar  J  labourers  in  this  country,  finding  it  impossible 
>  freeae  up  the  warm  afieetions  felt  upon  this  pmnt, 
imed  them  into  their  own  ehsnnel  by  inculcating  the 
ravers  fbr  the  dead  upon  their  proselytes. 
The  natives  of  this  island  do  not  inter  their  dead  as  in 
le  southern  provinces ;  but  the  corpse  is  placed  upon 
le  ground  in  a  wooden  coffin,  covered  with  a  lid,  easily 
tznoved,  highly  polished,  round  which  the  wild  flowers 
id  creepeta  blossoia.  In  most  of  the  houses  we  entered 
1  the  island,  these  hurge  boxes  were  the  first  artide  that 
et  the  eye  in  the  entrance  chambers  In  the  tenanted 
'aves  wnich  curiosity  induced  ns  to  open,  the  body 
»peared  dressed  as  in  life,  the  pipe  and  tobacco  lay  on 
e  hreast»  and  leases  and  rice  at  the  unconscious  head. 
While  the  men  stopped  to  breakfast  in  a  temple,  we 
liked  on  to  some  of  the  neighbouring  houses.  They 
»rc  all  deserted  except  one,  which  appeared  to  belong 
the  head  man  of  the  district ;  it  was  buried  in  a  grove 
palm  and  citron  trees,  and  other  shrubs  uakaown  to 
,  and  surrounded  by  a  gardsn  where  the  Cape  jeasa- 
ne  and  oth^r  sweet  flowers  perfhmed  the  neighbour- 
od.       T%e  buildhig  was  a  good  specimen  of  their 


country  dwellings  i  on  entering  through  a  laige  wooden 
gateway  we  found  a  yard  or  court,  surrounded  on  two 
sides  by  different  out-houses  serving  as  granaries  and 
plaoea  to  dry  fruit,  whilst  the  remaining  sides  were  the 
apartments  of  the  family  end  the  Hall  of  Anceators,  a 
room  used  in  common  by  all  the  members  of  the  house-i 
hold.  The  reason  of  the  large  sise  of  these  farm-houses 
is  obvious,  when  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  they 
generally  contain  a  father,  mother,  sons,  their  wives  and 
children.  The  front  of  the  Hall  of  Ancestors  was  prettily 
trellised  over,  and  rested  on  pillars,  dry^robbed  and 
carved ;  the  interior  of  this  large  room  was  surrounded 
by  matted  sofas ;  and  little  tables  stood  in  the  centre,  on 
which  were  placed  the  teacups  and  pipes.  Under  the 
projecting  roof  was  seated  a  venerable  man,  with  a  lot^ 
white  beard  betokening  him  to  be  a  grandfather,  for 
they  never  permit  its  growth  until  that  period*  The 
rest  appeared  to  have  fled  s  and  he  looked  so  lonely  and 
desolate,  with  the  tears  streaming  down  his  withered 
fkce,  that,  although  we  were  convinced  that  the  com** 
pradore  had  been  taken  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
village,  we  could  not  find  it  in  our  hearts  to  cq^ture  thit 
patriaroh,  although  he  proved  to  be  the  elder  of  the 
district,  and  acknowle^ed  having  heard  the  people 
carrying  off  the  man  the  previous  moniing.  The  heat 
was  intense,  and  as  the  men  kept  continuaUy  falling  out 
from  its  effects,  we  determined  to  f urround  a  vilVsge  and 
procure  cooliea  to  carry  the  peeks  and  to  act  as  guides. 

Having  seised  a  sufiieieat  number  for  our  pnrposei 
we  held  a  parlejr  with  a  small  party  that  had  taken  up  a 
position  in  a  neighbouring  temple,  telling  them  that  out 
intentions  were  amicable,  and  that  we  required  the 
servioes  of  the  men  we  hsd  tsken,  but  would  repay  them 
for  their  labour.  During  the  conversation  two  little 
duldren  stole  out  of  one  of  the  houses,  and  although 
they  were  at  first  terrified  by  the  strangers,  I  succeeded 
in  tempting  one,  a  very  pretty  ohildt  to  play  with  a  gay 
eap  I  worn  on  my  head.  A  few  quarter-dollars  soon 
made  us  good  friends ;  and  the  people,  seeing. we  were 
not  tiie  bloody-minded  barbarians  they  expected,  became 
as  troublesome  from  their  curiosity  and  familiarity  as 
they  had  formeriy  been  coy.  Mo  part  of  our  dress  was 
left  untouched,  and  our  hands  were  examined,  by  which 
they  appeared  to  judge  of  our  sHualions  in  life. 

Our  hahing^piaaes  were  generally  in  the  temples, 
and  the  village  supplied  us  with  provisions.  The 
Chinese,  as  far  as  these  joaJiottsee  are  conoemed,  show 
vary  litUe  respeet  for  their  religion.  Amongst  them** 
selves  they  put  them  to  the  same  purpose  as  we  did  for 
our  troops,  and  mandarins  and  tmvellers  of  all  descrip- 
tieiis  use  thcan  as  caravansaries  on  thdr  journeys ;  the 
mandarins*  indsed,  if  their  rank  is  superior  to  the  jos's 
as  a  god,  place  the  latter  outside  the  building  dming 
their  sojonm. 

On  the  third  evening  we  reached  a  small  town  buried 
in  a  thick  wood,  the  entrance  to  which  was  over  a 
cfurious  bridge^  formed,  like  most  of  those  in  Tinghai,  of 
three  blocks  of  stones  or  rather  slabs,  the  centre  piece 
lymg  parallel  to  the  water,  whilst  the  one  on  each  side 
slants  upwsords  from  tlm  bank,  resting  at  one  end  on 
the  land,  and  at  the  other  dovetailed  into  the  centre 
stone.  These  are  eftte  seen  fourteen  feet  long  by  four 
or  five  in  breadth ;  how  they  mansge  to  place  them  in 
the  poaition  seems  extraordinary,  aa  no  machinery  for 
the  purpose  has  been  found,  and  they  say  it  is  done 
mer^  by  manual  lahotar. 

The  party  failed  in  thetr  endeavours  to  recover  the 
man  of  whom  they  were  in  search,  but  took  some  ol  the 
principsl  inhabitants  prisoners,  to  be  held  as  hostages  for 
his  safety.  The  men  had  suffered  severely  from  ague 
and  dysentery  in  their  march,  but  arriving  at  a  se8r>p<NrU 
found  a  steamer  to  tdce  thena  back  to  Tinghai. 

In  the  passage  we  passed  by  Poutoo,  a  small  island 
wHhin  muaket-shel  of  Chittatt:  tins  is  a  curious  spot, 
net  only  from  its  natoofal  beauties^  tihich  are  very  great 


144 


THE  SATURDAY  MAOAZIMB. 


[OCTOBBB  9,  1841. 


and  thought  by  those  who  had  been  at  Canton  to  resem- 
ble it,  with  its  rocky  stairs,  winding  along  the  sides  of 
the  hUls,  clothed  with  citron  and  other  trees,  but  also  on 
account  of  its  being  the  Mecca  of  the  Chinese  religion^ 
to  which  the  worshippers  of  Budh  make  frequent  pil« 
grimages,  somewhat  in  the  style  of  the  Mussulman 
Hadji.  It  possesses  a  large  temple,  or  rather  a  number 
of  temples,  buried  in  the  rocks  and  jungle;  more  curious 
and  picturesque,  however,  from  thdr  situation,  than  from 
any  great  magnificence  in  the  structure.  Attached  to  it 
is  a  monastery,  containing  some  fifty  priests,  who  seemed 
proud  of  their  possession,  and  anxious  that  visitors 
should  admire  it.  The  old  father  of  this  monastery 
was  upwards  of  eighty  years  of  age :  they  all  complained 
of  a  great  scarcity  of  food,  as  their  liveUhood  consists  in 
the  offerings  to  the  gods  presented  by  the  worshippers  to 
the  temple ;  and  these,  during  the  late  troubles,  had  been 
differently  employed.  It  was  agreed  at  the  time  that 
something  should  be  done  to  endeavour  to  minister  to 
their  relief,  but  some  weeks  afterwards,  other  parties  of 
military  visiting  the  same  place,  found  that  starvation 
had  driven  many  from  their  hold,  and  the  poor  father 
was  fiut  travelling  to  his  long  home  from  the  want  of 
the  necessaries  of  life. 

Our  author  sailed  with  the  expedition  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Peiho,  and  here  bnded  with  Captain  Elliot,  who  had 
been  invited  to  an  interview  witn  the  commissioner, 
Kea'shen.  Two  miles  from  the  town  they  were  met, 
agreeably  to  the  etiquette  towards  visitors  of  rank,  by 
a  mandarin  junk,  on  board  of  which  were  two  officers, 
one  with  the  red  button  in  his  cap,  who  was  the  general 
of  the  emperor's  Tartar  body-g^uard,  and  the  other,  a 
blue-button  mandarin,  holding  some  rank  in  Kea'shen's 
household. 

They  entered  our  boat,  says  our  author,  and  handed 
round  their  agate  snuff  bottles,  and  soon  became  quite 
familiar.  Blue-button  was  particularly  communicative, 
asking  our  names  and  different  profession?,  and  inform- 
ing us  oi  his  own  military  deeds;  and  in  a  private  com- 
munication he  acknowledged  that  in  '*  the  secret  cham- 
ber" he  sometimes  indulged  in  the  opium  pipe.  Ked- 
button,  however,  who  seemed  of  a  more  morose  dispo- 
sition, frequently  called  him  to  order,  as  if  he  feared 
some  disclosures  firom  his  talkative  propensities. 

At  the  landing-place  a  bridge  of  boats  had  been  con- 
structed for  our  use  across  the  mud-flat ;  and  a  narrow 
pathway,  leading  some  hundred  yards  from  the  shore, 
brought  us  to  an  encampment,  which  had  been  thrown 
up  for  the  reception  of  the  mission. 

A  blue  screen  was  placed  at  the  entrance,  so  as  to 
hide  the  interior  from  the  gaze  of  the  public ;  and  here 
we  were  met  by  many  more  mandarins,  and  marshalled 
into  the  presence  of  kea'shen ;  he  rose  at  oiur  entrance, 
and  received  the  mission  with  great  courtesy  and  civility. 
Indeed,  the  manners  of  these  high  mandarins  would  have 
done  honour  to  any  courtier  in  the  most  polished  court 
in  Europe.  He  begged  us  to  remain  covered,  and  was 
introduced  to  each  person  separately,  and  expressed  his 
hopes  that  the  supplies  had  been  received  by  the  squadron. 
He  made  some  excuse  for  our  reception  in  the  tents,  but 
intimated  that  Tarkou  was  some  distance  from  the  land- 
ing place.  Judging  from  appearance,  he  might  have  been  a 
man  of  forty,  and  looked,  what  he  is  said  to  be  by  his 
countrymen,  a  person  of  great  ability:  his  tail,  the 
Chinese  appendage  to  men  of  all  ranks,  except  priests,  was 
remarkable  for  its  length  and  the  care  that  was  evidently 
bestowed  upon  it.  lie  was  dressed  in  a  blue  silk  robe, 
with  a  worked  girdle :  on  his  legs  were  the  white  satin 
boots  common  to  all  the  higher  orders :  his  head  was 
covered  with  a  mandarin  summer  cap,  made  of  fine 
straw :  in  it  was  placed  the  deep  red  coral  button,  de- 
noting the  rank  or  the  wearer,  and  the  peacock's  feather, 
drooping  between  the  shoulders.  On  the  whole,  his 
dress  was  plain,  but  the  mandarins  when  in  full  costume, 
judging  from  specimens  taken  at  Chusan^  must  have  a 
very  gorgeous  appearance. 


■ 

The  encampment  was  surrounded  by  a  hi^  canvass 
wall,  resenbliog  tliat  wUdh  enorbba  Hie  privite  ^wrt- 
ments  oC  great  men  and  native  njaks,  when  travelling 
in  India.  Inside  this  screen  were  eight  small  tents,  in 
each  of  which  a  table  and  forms  were  placed.  These 
formed  an  oval,  and  in  the  centre  was  erected  a  canvass 
cottage,  of  rather  an  ingenious  description,  whilst  at  the 
upper  end,  concealed  by  another  screen,  stood  the  tent  of 
conference.  This  was  lined  with  yellow  silk  (the  royal 
colour)  and  worked  with  the  arms  of  the  empire  at  the 
back. 

The  interpreters  and  Captain  Elliot  remained  with  the 
commission,  whilst  the  rest  of  the  officers  and  gentle- 
men sought  the  tents  around,  in  which  the  lower  order  of 
mandarins  were  busy  preparing  abreakfisst  for  the  party; 
for  it  was  an  extraordinary  thmg  in  this  visit,  that  every- 
thing was  apparently  done  by  mandarins-— none  of  their 
servants  being  admitted. 

The  meal  consisted  of  numerous  little  plates,  piled 
one  upon  the  top  of  the  other,  containing  birds'-nest 
sonps,  sea^slugs,  shaiks'  fins,  hard-boiled  egg^t  whose 
interiors  were  far  advanced  to  chickenhood,  and  dressed 
fish:  these  were  the  greatest  delicacies,  lliis  is  but  a 
small  portion  of  the  supply,  lor  at  the  table  where  I 
had  the  honour  to  partake  of  the  good  fiar^  there  were 
no  less  than  thirty  of  these  little  saucers.  These  break- 
fasts were  spread  in  the  diffevent  tents,  and  each  was 
intended  to  stay  the  ravenous  appetites  of  five  bar- 
barians. 

Some  time  afterwards,  when  the  expeditioB  had 
sailed  further  south,  some  msndarins  came  oiF  to  the 
ship  and  break&sted  with  the  admiral.  It  was  surprimg 
to  see  the  enormous  quantity  of  food  they  devoured ; 
and  one  who  was  of  an  unmense  size,  weigmng  upwards 
of  thirty  stone,  upon  being  questioned  as  to  his  powers  of 
consumption,  acknowledged,  with  a  degree  of  vanity,  that 
a  sheep  was  his  ordinaiy  allowance  lor  three  days,  nor  did 
he  seem  at  all  satisfied  with  his  morning  nmL  The 
Chinese,  like  the  natives  of  India  esteem  sise  and  bulk, 
as  they  imagine  such  an  exterior  a  sign  of  weal^  and 
power,  and  respect  it  accordingly. 

We  were  much  struck  at  the  immense  bodO  j  strength 
and  power  of  the  northern  Chinese,  particoUuiy  of  the 
men  who  were  employed  tracking  the  boats  upon  the 
river,  who,  although  seemingly  a  wretched  dass,  mote 
like  beasts  of  burden  than  human  beings,  are  ponessed 
of  such  physical  powers  that  six  or  eight  of  them  wiH 
drag  agamst  the  stream,  and  with  apparent  ease,  a  boat 
of  considerable  tonnage. 

A  full  aooonnt  of  those'singular  people^  the  Chinese  boat- 
tracken^  has  already  been  given  in  our  sixth  article  «i 
the  ifopmen  aN<f  OiUpsii  ^<^  CMfias0,yoL  X.,  p.  8S. 


A  FBimfD  of  mine,  whUe  shooting  wild-fowl  with  his 
brother,  was  attended  \y  a  SMSoious  Kewfimadland  dog: 
in  getting  near  some  reeos  by  the  side  of  a  river,  tliejthrew 
down  their  hats,  and  crept  to  the  side  of  the  water,  where 
they  fired.  They  soon  afterwards  sent  the  dog  for  their 
hats,  one  of  which  was  smaller^  than  the  other.  Aits 
several  attempts  to  bring  them  both  together  in  his  month, 
the  dog  at  last  placed  the  smaller  hat  m  the  laiger  ooe^ 
pressed  it  down  with  his  foot,  and  then  brought  them  bolk 
together.  This  fiict  need  not  be  doubted.  Ilieee  indiri- 
duals  have  both  at  different  tames  assured  me  of  its  troth. 
I  know  an  instance  somewhat  similar.  A  ipamel  m 
endeavouring  to  bring  a  dead  hare  to  his  master.  After 
several  ineSectual  efibrts  to  carry  it  in  his  month,  or  to  dng 
it  along,  he  contrived  to  get  aU  the  feet  of  the  hare  in  his 
mouth,  and  in  this  way  conveyed  it  to  his  master.-    ^ — 


LONDON: 

JOHN  WILLIAH  PABKES,  WEST  STRAND; 

PuauBBaB  Of  WsBBLT  NmoiMt  0«B  rmm  Panrrt  avvw  JCwruT 

Past**  raicB  BiTrawpw. 

floMlf  aUBosksgaansBd  BemnBtaslaihtStavtak 


Ibaftitr^a^^ 


N9  696. 


lerp,  1841.  {o.frS„. 


THE   BANKS  OF  THE   THAMES.    TOI 


t^t  HQj  iri|^t,(ir)licb  ■  Wight  (hers  b*J 

Tn  Hhom  tl^  tettj  hnrui  unfawirTi  remi.^ 
Dii«t  bii  MclB,  &ic  HapiptDQ  Court,  to  thH 
idul  balk :  ibtn  turn  s^ 

"  Put  kuigBlhn 


■UMITON   COUBT, 


thj  (plmdiil  balli :  iha  tuin  again 
b  pnHtd  dome  bj  ■deuce  praiiad, 
Iha  rest,"  (he'd  lajj  -  but  timn  Ibr  gods  wnt  t^tet.' 


11  uHn  iqr  goiu  wan  naea. 
J.  P.  Amdiiwi,  «/l<r  OaDTitri. 

Cabdinal  Wolset,  13ce  many  other  unbitioiu  men, 
hastened  hu  own  downfall  bv  makinff  too  obtrusive  a 
show  of  the  power  and  wealth  which  his  ambition  had 
acquired  for  him.  York  Place,  (since  known  as  White- 
hall,) and  Hampton  Court  Palace,  were  instances  of  this 
uncontrolled  love  of  splendour.  Both  belonged  to  the 
Cardinal,  both  were  fitted  up  with  almost  unprecedented 
splendour,  and  both  passed  from  the  hands  of  this  mis- 
calculating man  to  those  of  the  wily  monarch  from  whom 
he  bad  obtained  all  his  pow;er  and  wealth. 

Soon  after  the  Cardinal  came  into  possession  of 
Hampton  Conrt  Palace,  it  is  said  that  he  fitted  up  no 
less  than  two  hundred  and  eighty  silken  beds,  with  suit- 
able hanging,  for  the  accommodation  of  visitors.  In 
1 526  Wolsey  thought  it  expedient  to  present  the  palace 
to  Henry  the  Eighth;  and  that  monarch  resided  in  it 
occasionally,  especially  towards  the  end  of  bis  reign. 
Edward  the  Sixth  was  bora  in  the  palace;  and  the  sub- 
sequent sovereigns,  Mary  and  Elizabeth,  frequently 
visited  it.  At  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  James 
the  First  the  conference  was  held  at  Hampton  Court, 
from  which  resulted  the  new  translation  of  the  Bible, 
and  certain  alterations  in  the  Litany.  Charles  the  First 
occasionally  resided  at  Hampton,  but  rather  as  a  prisoner 
than  as  a  free  monarch.  Cromwell  made  it  one  of  his 
residences,  and  the  seen*  of  hU  daughter  Elliabeth'a 

Vol.  XIX. 


marriage  with  Lord  Falconberg.  Charles  the  Second, 
and  James  the  Second,  passed  a  portion  of  their  time  in 
the  palace;  and  William  rebuilt  the  state  apartments  and 
some  othei'  parts  of  the  edifice.  From  that  time  the 
palace  has  not  been  occupied  as  a  royal  residence,  except 
for  a  short  time  by  the  Prince  of  Orange,  to  whom  the 
use  of  it  was  granted  in  1 793  as  an  asylum,  after  he  had 
been  compelled  to  quit  his  own  dominions.  The  principal 
domestic  parts  of  Hampton  Court  are  now  occupied  by 
different  private  families,  on  whom  grants  for  life  have 
been  conferred  by  the  Crown. 

It  appears  probable  that  the  original  plan  of  Hampton 
Court  Palace  comprised  five  open  courta  or  quadrangles, 
all  surrounded  by  buildings ;  but  after  the  alterations 
which  it  has  since  undergone,  it  is  now  composed  of  but 
three.  The  approach  to  the  house  is  from  the  west, 
which  side  containr  ranges  of  subordinate  apartments 
and  offices;  the  entrance  to  these  is  by  a  plain  gateway, 
and  at  each  extremity  of  the  west  front  is  an  octangular 
brick  turret.  Within  this  outer  portal  is  the  first  court, 
about  a  hundred  and  seventy  feet  by  a  hundred  and 
forty,  surrounded  on  all  four  sides  by  buildings  of  mora 
or  less  elegance ;  among  which  is  the  west  end  of  the  . 
Great  Hall,  presenting,  with  its  lai^  rich  window,  the 
impressive  resemblance  of  a  venerable  chapel.  The  pas- 
sage to  the  middle  quadrangle  is  by  a  groined  archway, 
finely  omamented.  This  court,  which  is  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  outer  one,  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  a 
range  of  buildings  in  which  is  the  reverse  front  of  the 
portal  leading  from  the  first  court ;  on  the  east  by  another 
range  in  which  is  a  fine  oriel  window,  and  a  very  rich 
poijal  flanked  by  turrets ;  on  the  south  by  a  colonnade 
595 


146 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[OCTOBElL  16, 


of  the  Ionic  order,  designed  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  but 
scarcely  harmdnising  with  the  rest  of  the  building;  and 
the  north  by  the  Great  Hall,  one  end  of  which  is  seen  in 
the  outer  court. 

'  The  Great  Hall  is  more  than  ahundred  feet  long,  bv 
forty  ?ride,  with  an  elegant  gable  window  at  each  end. 
The  sides  are  lighted  by  seven  lofty  windows,  placed  at 
a  considerable  height  from  the  ground,  as  was  customary 
in  old  halls,  to  afford  space  for  the  tapestried  hangings 
beneath.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  Hall  is  a  dais  or 
platform,  and  on  one  side  of  it  a  window  of  most  exqui- 
site workmanship,  on  one  pane  of  which  the  Earl  of 
Surrey  wrote,  with  a  diamond,  some  lines  to  the  **  fair 
Geraldine."  The  roofing  of  the  Hall,  which  is  of  oak, 
is  open-worked,  and  so  exquisitely  carved  as  to  produce 
a  general  splendour  of  effect  that  almost  approaches  to 

sublimity. 

It  is  impossible  to  visit  this  Hall  without  carrying  the 
imagination  back  to  the  time  when  Cardinal  Wolsey 
held  here  his  more  than  regal  banquets.  Mr.  Jesse 
tells  us,  on  the  authority  of  the  chroniclers  of  those 
days,  that  Wolsey's  household  consisted  of  one  thousand 
persons,  and  that  the  arrangements  of  the  palace  were 
consistent  with  the  due  and  even  luxurious  accommoda- 
tion of  this  large  nimiber.  In  the  Hall  there  were  three 
boards  or  tables,  presided  over  by  three  officers,  one  a 
steward  (a  priest,)  another  a  treasurer,  (a  knighti)  and 
the  other  a  comptroller,  (an  esquire;)  also  a  confessor,  a 
doctor,  three  marshalii  three  ushers  of  the  hall,  and  two 
almoners  and  grooms*  The  officers  of  the  Hall  kitchen, 
of  the  private  kitchen,  and  of  the  state  apartments,  were 
so  numerous,  and  classified  in  such  an  exact  manner,  that 
we  cannot  attempt  to  enumerate  them ;  suffice  it  to  say 
that  all  these  were  daily  fed  in  the  Hall ;  one  table  being 
for  lords  of  the  household,  another  for  gentlemen,  and 
others  for  the  inferior  degrees* 

Cavendish,  Stow,  and  the  other  ohron&clers  of  past 
time,  have  dwelt  with  minute  wonder  on  the  magnificent 
entertaiments  given  by  Wolsey  in  tbii  Hall*  One  in 
particular,  given  to  the  French  ambassadors  sent  over  at 
the  conclusion  of  a  peace  in  1528,  was  specially  noted: 
ihe  lord  mayor  entertained  them  in  London ;  the  king 
feasted  them  at  Greenwich  and  at  Richmond;  but 
Wolsey *s  banquet  at  Hampton  far  exceeded  the  others. 
The  rich  hangings  of  arras,  the  massive  silver  and  gold 
plate,  the  regiments  of  tall  yeomen  in  gay  liveries  that 
waited  upon  the  guests,  the  glare  of  the  torches,  the 
costliness  and  excellence  of  the  wines,  the  savour  of  the 
meats,  and  the  superabundance  of  everything,  are  all 
descanted  on  by  otowe  with  g^reat  minuteness.  Th6 
Cardinal,  we  are  told,  did  not  enter  the  Hall  till  the  end 
of  the  first  course,  (perhaps  to  show  his  importance,) 
but  after  he  had  welcomed  the  guests,  and  taken  his 
seat,  the  banquet  proceeded* 

Anone  came  up  the  second  course,  with  so  many  dishes, 
subtleties,  and  devices,  above  a  hundred  in  number,  which 
were  of  so  goodly  proportion  and  cost  lie,  that  I  thmk  the 
Frenchmen  never  saw  the  like.  The  wondeV  was  no  less 
than  it  was  worthie  indeed.  There  were  castle^  with 
images  the  same  as  in  St.  Paul's  Church  for  the  quantity, 
as  well  counterfeited  as  the  painter  should  have  painted  it 
on  a  cloth  or  wall.  There  were  beast^  birds,  and  nerson- 
ages,  most  lively-made  and  counterfeited,  some  nghting 
with  swords,  some  with  ^ns  and  cross-bowes,  some  vaulting 
and  leaping,  some  dancing  with  ladies,  some  on  horses  in 
oomplete  namesse,  joustlug  with  loi»  and  sharp  speares, 
with  many  more  devices.  Among  all  other  was  a  chess- 
Hboerd,  made  of  spioed  plate,  with  men  thereof  the  same ; 
and  for  the  good  proportion,  and  because  the  Frenclmien  be 
rerie  expert  in  tliat  play,  my  Lord  Cardinall  gave  the  same 
to  a  gentleman  of  France,  commanding  there  should  be 
made  a  goodlie  case  for  the  preservation  thereof  in  all  haste, 
that  he  might  convey  the  same  into  his  country.  Then 
took  my  lord  a  boule  of  gold  filled  with  ippocrass,  and 
putting  off  hie  cappe^  said,  '*  I  drink  to  tlie  king  my  sove- 
reign lord,  and  next  unto  the  king  your  master,*'  and 
therewith. drank  a  good  draught.    And  when  he  had  done, 


he  desired  the  grand  master  to  pledge  liim,  cup  and  all,  the 
which  was  well  worth  five  hundred  narks»  and  ao  caused 
all  the  lords  to  pledge  these  two  royal  princes.  Then  went 
the  cups  so  merriely  about,  that  many  of  the  Franchmen 
were  Mn  to  be  led  to  their  beds. 

But  we  must  leave  the  Hall  and  its  festivities*  The 
third  quadrangle  of  which  the  palace  consists,  usually 
called,  from  the  fountain  in  the  area,  the  Fountain  Courts 
consists  chiefly  of  buildings  constructed  by  Sir  Christo- 
pher Wren  in  the  reign  of  King  William  the  Third,  at 
the  time  when  the  south  and  east  sides  of  the  old 
palace  were  taken  down,  and  the  present  state  apartments 
in  those  divisions  erected.  The  north  and  west  sides 
were  left  standing,  but  were  externally  renovated  to  cor- 
respond with  the  new  buildings.  Tne  court  measures 
more  than  a  hundred  feet  in  each  direction ;  and  on  eadi 
side  is  a  betutiful  colonnade  of  the  Ionic  order,  with 
duplioated  columns. 

On  the  Qortharn  side  of  the  Fountain  Court  is  the 
Chapel*  It  ii  paved  with  black  and  white  marble,  and 
fitted  up  with  oak,  elaborately  carved  in  many  parts 
by  the  celebrated  Gibbons*  The  roof  is  of  a  Gothic 
pattern,  with  elaborately-worked  pendant  ornaments. 
Before  the  civil  war  this  chhpel  was  ornamented  with 
stained  glass  and  pictures:  but  at  that  disturbed  period, 
we  are  told  that-* 

Sir  Robert  Harlow  gave  order  (according  to  the  ordinance 
of  l^irliament,)  fbr  the  puttbig  down  and  aemolishing  of  the 
popish  and  superstitious  plotures  in  Hampton  Court,  where 
the  altar  waa  taken  down,  and  the  table  brought  out  into 
the  body  of  the  church,  the  rails  pulled  down,  and  the  steps 
levelled,  and  the  popish  pictures  and  superstitious  images 
that  were  in  the  gloss  wmdows  were  also  demolished,  and 
order  given  for  the  new-glazinar  of  them  with  ^hdn  glasa ;  and, 
among  the  rest,  there  was  puUed  down  the  picture  of  Christ 
nailed  to  the  cross,  which  was  placed  right  over  the  altar, 
and  the  pictures  of  Mary  Magdalen  and  others,  weeping  by 
the  foot  of  the  Cross;  and  some  other  such  iaolatrous  pic- 
tures were  pulled  down  and  demolished* 

The  east  and  south  fronts  of  tha  palact,  comprismg 
the  state  •partments,  form  two  extensive  piles.  The 
eastern,  three  hundred  and  thirty  feet  in  length,  is 
chiefly  built  of  bright  red  bricks,  but  with  decorations 
of  stone;  the  central  compartment,  in  which  is  the 
state  entrance  to  the  palace,  is  of  stone,  and  highly 
embellished.  The  south  front  is  about  the  same 
length  as  the  eastern*  and  has,  like  it,  a  central  com- 
partment of  stone,  but  is  not  so  highly  embellished ;  it 
looks  over  the  gardens ;  and  the  ground  was  here  sunk 
ten  feet,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  view  from  the 
lower  apartments.  The  numerous  state  apartments  are 
of  magnificent  dunensions ;  and  they,  as  well  as  other 
apartments  in  the  palace,  are  splendidly  fitted  up,  and 
adorned  with  pictures  by  the  first  masters. 

The  most  valuable  treasures  of  art  in  the  palacse  are 
unquestionably  the  Cartoons  of  Raffiielle,  which  are 
known,  at  least  by  name,  to  most  readers*    They  vera 
drawings  (cartoons)  intended  as  copies  fbr  tapestry;  and 
done  by  Raffaelle,  rather  more  than  three  centuries  ago. 
When  they  were  sent  to  Arras,  in  order  that  tapestriee 
might  be  worked  from  them,  the  weavers  cut  each  ol 
them  perpendicularly  into  six  or  seven  slips,  in  order  to 
work  more  conveniently*     The  tapestries  thus  produced 
were  admired  and  exhibited  at  Rome;  while  the  inesti- 
mable patterns  or  cartoons  lay  in  oblivion  in  a  cellar  at 
Arras  for  a  whole  century*    At  length  Charles  the  First, 
at  the  suggestion  of  Rubens,  sought  them  out;  when  it 
was  found  that  several  of  them  were  torn  to  fingmetits 
or  otherwise  destroyed;  there  being  only  the  slips  of  seven 
of  them  remaining  in  an  entire  state.    Some  years  alter 
this,  William  the  Third  caused  seven  stretching-fbames 
to  be  made,  secured  the  slips  carefully  in  their  respective 
places  to  form  the  original  pictures,  and  built  a  room  lor 
their  reception  at  Hampton  Court  Pahiee,  where  they 
still  remain*     Propoaitions  have  at  some  periods  been 
made  to  remove  them  to  Londoni  where  they  could  be 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


lit 


more  seeil  and  appreciated:  but  it  is  fbared  that  the 
effect  of  the  metropolitan  atmosphere  on  the  water- 
colours,  in  which  they  are  painted,  would  be  unfavour- 
able, while  the  Cartoon  Gallery  is  allowed  to  be  well- 
adapted  for  their  reception.  The  subjects  of  these 
cartoons  are  as  follow: — 1.  The  Death  of  Ananias.  2. 
Elymas  the  Sorcerer  struck  blind  by  St.  Paul.  8.  The 
Lame  Man  restored  by  Saint  Peter  and  Saint  Paul.  4. 
The  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes.  5.  Saint  Paul  and 
Saint  Barnabas  at  Lystra.  6.  Saint  Paul  preaching  at 
Athens.  7.  The  last  charge  to  Peter.  We  may  re- 
mark, that,  on  the  sale  of  the  collection  formed  by 
Charles  the  First,  the  cartoons  were  secured  at  the  price 
of  300/.  by  Cromwell,  whose  known  determination  to 
possess  them  prevented  competition ;  but  not  long  after- 
wards he  obtained  a  loan  of  50,000/.  on  them  from 
Holland,  which  sufficiently  mdicates  the  estimation  in 
which  they  were  held. 

Of  the  very  large  collection  of  pictures  by  distinguished 
masters,  contained  in  different  apartments  of  the  palace, 
we  have  not  room  here  to  speak ;  but  we  must  give  a 
passing  notice  of  some  singular  tapestries  in  a  room 
called  Wolsey's  withdrawing-room.  This  room  is  entered 
by  a  doorway  from  the  centre  of  the  dais  in  the  Hall. 
It  is  about  sixty  feet  long,  thirty  wide,  and  twenty  high. 
The  ceiling  is  decorated  with  pendent  ornaments,  between 
which  are  fleurs-de-lis,  roses,  portcullises,  eoats-of-arms, 
&c.  The  ribs  are  of  oak,  and  were  formerly  elaborately 
painted  and  gilt;  they  are  divided  into  compartments, 
and  from  them  small  pendants  descend  as  at  the  inter- 
sections. Around  the  room  are  a  series  of  tapestries 
worked  by  Flemish  artists,  and  placed  in  their  present 
position  by  Cardinal  Wolsey.  Of  these  tanestries  Mr. 
Jesse  remarks : — 

With  all  their  drawbacks,  these  tapestries  possess  quali- 
ties which  the  real  artist  and  connoisseur  will  immediately 
recognise  as  worthy  of  study  and  attention*  The  vigour  of 
some  of  the  groups  and  single  figures,  the  expression  of  many 
of  the  heads,  the  feeling  for  simple  and  often  elegant  form, 
and  also  the  exceeding  mce  and  beauty  of  disposition  and 
arrangement  of  many  of  the  draperies,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
bold,  though  it  must  be  admitted,  often  strange  conception 
of  the  allegories— afford  &ir  compensation  for  many  defects 
which  arise  out  of  ignorance  of,  or  want  of  practise  in,  true 
drawing,  and  the  absence  of  a  grander  and  purer  style. 

The  pleasure  grounds  attached  to  the  palace  are  laid 
out  in  the  formal  Dutch  taste;  and  in  a  gurden  chilled  the 
private  garden  is  the  celebrated  grape-vine,  a  hundred  and 
ton  feet  long.  This  vine  was  planted  more  than  seventy 
years  ago;  and  it  has  been  known  to  yield  in  one  season 
two  thousand  two  hundred  bunches  of  grapes  weigh- 
ing on  an  average  one  pound  each.  A  park,  nearly  nve 
miles  in  circumference,  b  situated  near  the  river;  and  in 
it  is  a  canal  half  a  mile  in  length  bordered  with  fine 
lime-trees.  A  labyrinth  or  maze,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  palace,  is  one  of  the  objects  which,  taken  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  various  other  attractions  of  the  place,  make 
Hampton  Court  one  of  the  pleasantest  jaunts  to  the 
visitor  which  the  "  banks  of  the  Thames  "  can  afford.  At 
this  part  of  our  noble  river  the  scenery  on  both  banks 
has  always  been  celebrated  for  its  beauty. 


•        •        •      Children  we  are  all 
Of  one  great  Father,  in  whatever  dime 
Kature  or  chance  hath  cast  the  seeds  of  life, 
AU  tongues^  all  colours :  neither  after  death 
Shall  we  be  sorted  into  languages 
And  tints,  white,  black,  sad  tawny,  Greek  and  Goth, 
Northmen,  and  offering  of  hot  Africa; 
The  AU-FVither,  He  in  whom  we  live  and  mov% 
Ho,  the  indifferent  Jndge  of  all,  regards 
Nations,  and  ^ues,  and  dialects  alike ; 
According  to  their  works  shall  they  be  jodgedi 
When  even-handed  Jnstioe  in  the  scale 
Their  good  and  erii  weighs,— -Sou test* 


THB  SCOKOMY  OF  MAniKB  UFB, 

Apart  from  the  local  advantsges  to  such  people  as  those  of 
the  Channel  Islands — who  use  it  as  fuel  and  as  manure — of 
stranded  sear  weed,  there  is  a  principle,  connected  with  the 
fact  of  its  coming  ashore,  which  it  is  necessary  to  under- 
stand before  one  can  examine  the  sea  with  due  knowledge 
of  the  economy  of  that  extraordinary  element.  It  is  a  fact, 
nalpable  to  any  one's  observation,  that  all  the  coasts  of  the 
land,  composed  of  mineral  substances,  or  of  dead  shells,  or 
other  animal  productions,  or  vegetable  ones  in  which  life 
is  extinct,  are  habitually  wett«d  by  the  ocean  waters,  to 
the  full  extent  that  these  waters  act  upon  them.  It  is 
also  a  feet,  well  known  to  those  acquainted  with  the  eco- 
nom  v  of  nature,  but  not  so  palpable  to  common  observation 
in  those  who  do  not  attend  to  the  principle  of  things, 
that  no  living  production  of  the  sea,  or  any  other  water,  is 
wetted  by  that  water  while  it  remains  in  the  living  state. 
This  is  known  to  be  the  case  in  all  waters,  however  soft  and 
limpid  they  may  be,  or  however  mixed  with  saline  and 
other  active  substances;  and  it  is  also  known  that  the 
more  such  substances  exist  in  the  composition  of  any  water, 
whether  of  the  sea  or  of  any  other  collection,  the  more  com- 
pletely are  the  living  inhabitants  of  that  water,  animal  or  vege- 
table, protected  against  its  action  upon  the  surface  of  their 
bodies.  The  substance  which  nature  employs  for  this  purpose 
is  a  mucous  or  slimy  matter,  of  some  descriotion  or  other,  in 
which  the  surface  of  the  living  being  is  haoituaUy  bathed, 
and  by  which  it  is  completely  protected  frohi  that  mace- 
rating and  decomposing  influence,  which  the  water,  whether 
salt  or  fresh,  would  otherwise  exert  upon  it,  and  in  so  far 
operate  its  destruction ;  in  the  same  manner  as  water  very 
speedily  decomposes  the  greater  number  of  organised  sub- 
stances after  they  are  dead. 

The  most  remarkable  and  important  relation  between 
the  waters  of  the  sea  and  the  dead  and  living  inhabitants  of 
that  element,  is  not,  however,  the  circumstance  of  the 
living  productions  and  inhabitants  elaborating  a  mucous  or 
slimy  production,  by  which  the  wetting  is  prevented,  and 
which  applies  not  only  to  aquatic  plants  and  animals 
covered  with  soft  skins,  but  even  to  the  most  compact  of 
the  porcelain  shells,  which,  when  living,  are  invested  with 
a  kind  of  membrane,  often  of  extreme  tenuity,  which 
possesses  the  same  quality.  The  curious  part  of  the  mat- 
ter is,  the  difference  of  their  i-elation  in  the  sea  to  a  sub- 
stance  which  can  be  wetted  by  its  waters,  and  to  one  which 
cannot  be  so  wetted.  The  wettable  substance  finds  its  way 
to  the  wettable  shore  by  an  obscure  but  by  a  veiy  certain 
and  constant  kind  of  attraction ;  and  the  substance  which 
the  water  of  the  sea  cannot  wet  has  no  such  tendency  to 
come  on  shore,  but  remains  to  perform  its  functions  in  the 
water.  No  matter  whether  it  is  marine  plant,  marine  ani« 
mal  of  any  kind  whatsoever,  or  aquatic  bird  which  fre* 
ouents  the  waters  without  habitually  living  in  their  volume ; 
for  if  the  plant  or  the  animal  is  fitted  bv  nature  for  living 
in  the  sea,  there  is  no  surface-action  of  the  sea  upon  it  as 
long  as  it  is  in  the  living  state ;  and  It  consequently  has  no 
tendency  whatever  toward  the  shore.  But  when  either 
plant  or  animal  dies,  and  ceases  to  perform  its  functions, 
including  the  production  of  the  water^repelling  mucus 
among  the  resf^  it  is  immediately  subiected  to  the  economy 
of  the  waters,  just  as  if  it  were  a  dead  thing;  and  then  the 
action  of  the  sea  casts  it  on  the  shore,  as  having  no  longer 
connexion  with  the  energy  and  economy  of  li\ing  nature 
there.  Thi^  is  the  cause  of  the  vast  accumulations  of  shells 
with  which  we  meet  on  various  shores,  and  on  some  of  the 
shores  of  tiie  Channel  Islands  among  the  rest ;  and  it  is  aJso 
the  reason  why  that  searweed,  whieh  is  so  valuable  to  the 
Channel  Isldnders,  comes  ashore  in  considerable  quantities^ 
after  those  violent  disturbances  of  the  ocean  waters  which 
have  torn  it  from  its  natural  situation  as  a  living  ve^table, 
and  transferred  it  over  to  those  dead  products  which  the 
sea  invariably  casts  upon  the  strand,  as  being  no  longer 
nsefbl  in  its  very  varied  economy. 

If  the  people  of  the  Channel  Islands  were  fully  awan  of 
this  peenliiur  property  of  dead  searweed,  it  might  save  them 
no  small  portion  of  their  labour  at  those  times  of  the  year 
when  the  time  arrives  to  cut  and  carry  this  weed  as  a  very^ 
necessary  article  of  their  provision,  both  domestic  and  agn- 
cultural.  If  they  were  simply  to  cut  it  down — that  is, 
to  sever  it  from  tne  tentacula  or  roots  by  which  it  adheres 
to  the  rocks  without  deriving  any  nourishment  from  them 
•^hen  it  would  not  go  out  to  sea,  but  would  be  collected 
in  the  bays  in  the  creeks  to  probably  the  same  extent  as 
now,  and  with  a  gfeat  reduction  of  laibour  to  those  whom  it 
is  viduable  as  an  article  of  domestic  economy. — Munin. 

696—2 


14d 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


[October  I6i 


BRUNELLESCHI, 


AVD 


THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  S.  MARIA  DEL  FIORE, 

AT  FLORENCE. 

If  we  date  from  the  death  of  Justinian  the  entire  dis- 
appearance of  the  system  of»  and  the  taste  for,  the 
architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome;  and  if  we  pass 
over  the  long  and  gloomy  period  wherein  the  fairest 
works  of  antique  art  were  a  prey  to  the  ravages  of  the 
Northmen,  we  shall  find  that  Italy  prepared  the  way  for 
the  restoration  of  good  taste,  and  that  Filippo  Brunel- 
leschi  was  the  first  to  prepare  the  way  for  its  reception. 

This  illustrious  Italian,  bom  in  1375,  was  descended 
from  an  ancient  Florentine  family:  his  father  was  a 
notary,  to  which  profession  young  Filippo  was  destined. 
He  received  a  good  education,  but  his  father  observed 
with  some  dissatisfaction  that  his  son  was  more  attached 
to  the  ingenuities  of  the  hand  than  to  the  culture  of  the 
head ;  and  in  despair  of  making  him  excel  in  literature 
and  law,  he  placed  him  with  a  goldsmith,  an  art  which 
was  then  in  great  repute,  since  it  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  finest  of  the  arts  of  design,  which  the 
ornamental  taste  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  fully. 
developed  and  encouraged. 

Our  young  artist  became  captivated  with  the  charms 
of  sculpture,  which  taste  was  encouraged  by  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  afterwards  celebrated  sculptor  Donatello. 
Filippo  also  studied  with  gpreat  assiduity  the  sciences  of 
geometry,  optics,  and  mechanics;  and  his  youtig  and 
ardent  fancy  looked  forward  to  architecture,  as  the 
subject  on  which  his  genius  was  to  display  its  full 
power;  so  that,  when  Donatello  was  about  to  visit 
Rome  for  the  purpose  of  studying  sculpture,  Brunel- 
leschi  determined  to  accompany  him  to  gaze  upon  the 
architectural  monuments  of  antiquity,  which  at  that  time 
were  not  only  forgotten  in  Rome,  the  place  of  their 
birth  but  the  principles  upon  which  they  were  con- 
structed were  unknown  to  the'  whole  world. 

It  is  one  of  the  grand  properties  of  genius  to  see 
clearly  that  which  to  other  eyes  is  obscure.  Many  of 
the  professors  of  art  and  science,  in  their  numerous 
important  and  extensive  departments,  are  undoubtedly 
men  of  g^at  and  exalted  talent;  they  follow  in  the  path 
of  their  predecessors,  and  simplify  and  improve  our 
knowledge;  but  the  man  of  genius  does  more  than  this; 
he  penetrates  deep  into  the  mysteries  of  nature,  removes 
the  veil  which  prevents  other  men  from  seeing  farther, 
opens  new  fields  of  research,  discovers  hidden  principles 
which  are  new,  or  explains  and  brings  out  into  the  light 
of  day  such  as  have  long  been  lost. 

.  When  Brunelleschi  arrived  at  Rome  he  was  lost  in 
surprise  and  admiration  at  the  sight  of  so  many  archi- 
tectural wonders,  which  in  his  day  existed  in  a  better 
state  than  at  present.  The  world  is  five  centuries  older 
than  when  our  young  architect  first  sat  down  among 
the  ruins  of  imperial  Rome.  His  wonder  seems  to 
have  bewildered  him ;  so  that  it  required  a  long  time 
before  he  could  acquire  that  sober  state  of  mind  neces- 
sary for  the  study  of  these  wonderful  models.  Even 
then  he  is  said  to  have  forgotten  the  commonest  offices 
of  life, — ^the  hours  of  repast  and  of  sleep.  He  was 
constantly  constructing  plans,  —  measuring  antique 
edifices,— obtaining  exact  proportions, — ^and  endeavour- 
ing to  establish  the  true  characters  of  the  three  orders, 
so  as  to  arrive  at  that  system  of  reason,  intelligence  and 
harmony  which  was  to  re-establish  and  perpetuate  the 
authority  of  his  principles.  The  ambition  of  becoming 
the  restorer  of  ancient  architecture  sustuned  his  courage 
and  excited  his  ardour;  his  pecuniary  resources  were 
exhausted,  but  his  profession  of  goldsmith  supplied  him 
with  daily  bread:  his  enthusiasm  in  the  cause  of  archi- 
tecture was  genuine: — ^it  was  not  of  that  weak  and 
flimsy  nature  which  wears  itself  out  in  protestations  of 
what  it  will  do:^Ma  was  tho  <<deep  stream  which 


bubbles  not  :*'— it  sources  were  concealed  within  bim- 
self,  and  they  were  not  communicated  even  to  bis 
intimate  friend  Donatello,  who  returned  to  Florence, 
leaving  Brunelleschi  at  Rome  amid  the  ruins  of  past 
grandeur. 

We  come  now  to  notice  the  work  upon  which  the 
fame  of  Brunelleschi  chiefly  rests.  The  giknd  Basilica 
or  the  Cathedral  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  at  Florence  was 
commenced  by  Amolfo  di  Lapo,  about  the  year  1295,  a 
few  years  before  his  death.  It  appears  that  Amolfo, 
in  the  conception  of  a  vast  plan,  intended  to  cover  the 
spacious  octangular  area  between  the  four  branches  of 
the  cross  with  an  inunense  vault.  This,  however,  is 
only  conjecture;  since  the  architect  did  not  leave  behind 
him  any  plan  for  inclosing  this  enormous  space.  He 
and  his  contemporaries  had  no  knowledge  of  the  resources 
of  Greek  and  Roman  architecture;  and  the  knowledge 
and  skill  of  the  time  did  not  warrant  such  an  underta- 
king as  this  gigantic  dome.  The  only  person  who  at  all 
favoured  the  practicability  of  such  a  scheme  was  Bru- 
nelleschi, whose  secret  ambition  when  at  Rome,  was  to 
erect  this  great  work  without  any  centering,*  or  internal 
support  from  carpentry  work,  but,  taking  as  a  point  of 
departure,  the  summit  of  the  nave,  to  buUd  his  vault 
in  stone,  and  to  make  its  'elevation  proportionate  to 
the  rest  of  the  edifice.  At  that  time  such  a  project  as 
this  was  thought  to  be  wild  and  visionary. 

Brunelleschi  wanted  only  a  little  more  knowledge  in 
the  art  of  construction.  He  again  applied  himself,  and 
interrogated  the  monuments  of  antiquity :  he  looked  into 
these  works  for  the  reasons  of  their  solidity;  the  means 
whereby  they  were  executed;  the  relations  of  their 
masses;  the  processes  whereby  the  materials  were 
worked ;  the  secrets  of  their  union  and  of  their  transport 
and  position;  the  mechanical  laws  whereby  to  calculate 
forces  and  resistances ;  the  boundary  linoi  in  short,  be- 
tween boldness  and  temerity. 

In  1407  Brunelleschi  returned  to  Florence.**  In  this 
year  the  most  eminent  architects  and  engineers  were  con- 
vened from  all  parts  to  deliberate  on  the  best  means  for 
completing  the  cathedral.  Many  formidable  difficulties 
were  opposed  to  the  construction  of  a  single  vault,  and 
there  was  no  existing  building  which  could  be  taken  as  a 
precedent.  The  dome  of  Sancta  Sophia  was  somewhat 
smaller  in  diameter  than  the  one  now  proposed:  this  one, 
together  with  that  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice  and  the 
cathedral  at  Pisa,  was  constructed  under  such  yery  dif- 
ferent circumstances  as  to  afford  little  practical  informa- 
tion to  bring  to  the  construction  of  the  new  dome.  Bru- 
nelleschi, however,  had  solved  the  difficulty.  He 
appeared  at  the  meeting,  and  with  great  sagacity  and 
self-restraint,  revealed  a  part  only  of  his  plan.  He  fore- 
saw that  the  exposition  of  the  whole  of  it  would  bare 
the  effect  of  placing  those  weapons  in  the  hands  of 
another  which  he  felt  himself  destined  to  jrield.  He  ad- 
vised, therefore,  that  the  substructure  "of  the  fiitore 
cupola  should  be  commenced,  and  certain  other  precan- 
tionary  measures  used,  until  the  final  decision  of  the 
meeting  should  be  made.  This  advice  was  agreed  to, 
and  the  plan  recommended  by  him  was  pat  into  practice. 

Delighted  thus  to  have  imparted  the  first  impulse  to 
this  great  work,  he  devoted  many  months  to  the  con- 
struction of  his  models.  A  second  meeting  of  architects 
and  engineers  was  convoked,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  fiD« 
decision,  when  Brunelleschi  suddenly  quitted  Florence 
and  went  to  Borne.  .  . 

And  here  is  another  remarkable  feature  in  the  mm 
of  this  extraordinary  man.  He  calculated  upon  the 
weakness  of  human  nature:  knowing  that  men  often 
seek  eagerly  after  that  which  is  afar  off,  and  as  it  were 
inaccessible,  but  which,  if  close  at  hand,  and  easily  ob- 
tainable, they  too  often  despise,  he  calculated  tbat^ 
services  would  be  the  more  appreciated  in  Florence,  when 
they  must  be  sought  after  in  Rome.  Nor  was  be  de- 
ceived, for  scarcely  had  he  departed  when  his  alw^"** 


1841.3 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


CATUEDIUL  OP  UIKl  lUeil,  1.1  FLOBBNCS. 


om  the  meeting  irai  wverely  felt.  The  judges  recalled 
mind  the  superiority  of  his  arguments  and  of  hia 
lowledge,  and  the  ascendancy  which  be  had  assumed 
d  maintained  in  the  first  conference  over  all  his  com- 
titora.  They  lent  to  tiim,  and  told  him  that  the  fal« 
the  enterprise  depended  on  him,  and  be^ed  him  to 
3ten  hla  return.  Bnineileschi  did  teturo;  he  appeared 
ain  before  this  assembly,  and  saw  that  it  was  com- 
8ed  of  men  made  timid  rather  by  the  feeling  of  their 
■n  inexperience  and  insufficiency  for  the  task  than  hy 
fW  knowledge  of  its  difficulties.  The  dme  was  wasted 
vain  discuBsions  and  ^mid  propositione.  Brunelteachi 
ight  neither  to  augment  their  fears,  nor  too  much  to 
niniah  them.  He  spoke  to  them  as  follows : 
[  will  not  conceal  from  you  the  magnitude  of  the  difficnl- 
3  belonging  to  the  project  which  occupies  our  attention, 
ia  the  pecuUaritv  of  mat  things  to  be  difficult.  I  think 
ee,  even  now,  obstacles  greater  in  character  and  in  nnm- 
-_than  you  perhaps  have  imagined.  I  doubt  whether  the 
liitnta  would  ever  have  dared  to  construct  a  vault  of  such 
naendoua  magnitude  as  the  one  we  now  propose  to  raise, 
Mve  h>ng  meditated  on  the  meana  for  so  adapting  both  the 
emal  and  external  construction  of  it  as  to  iusure  success ; 
;  the  peculiar  form  and  the  great  height  of  the  edifice 
re  me.  If  onr  ranlt  were  circular  I  wmild  resort  to  the 
thod  adopted  by  the  ancients  in  the  Pantheon  or  Rotunda. 
t  here  we  liave  eight  facets,  and  consequently  eisht  up- 
'Jt  courses  of  stones  to  elevate,  which  we  mnst  unite  with 
rest  of  tho  structure  ;  thus  the  affiiir  becomes  more  dif- 
-i  tf  and  no  one  coa  be  better  assured  of  the  difficulty  than 


myself.  God  forbid,  however,  that  I  should  despair,'  Who 
can  doubt  that  the  Great  Author  of  all  science,  to  whoso 
hoDoni  this  me^ificent  temple  is  erected,  will  not  confer 
strength,  intelhgence,  and  genius  on  him  who  ahall  be 
selected  for  this  undertaking  (  As  for  me,  who  am  not  com- 
missioned to  this  work,  bow  can  I  be  useful  to  youl  If  the 
matter  rested  on  me  elone  I  confess  that  I  should  feel 
courage,  and  donbt  not  of  finding  the  means  of  snccess, 
without  encountering  so  many  difficulties.  But  how  can  I 
reveal  to  yon  these  means,  since  you  have  as  yet  decided  on 


not  content  with  what  I  may  propose,  but  that  yoi 

ble  here  from  all  porta  of  Europe  die  most  skilful  masters 
of  the  art,  submit  to  their  searching  deliberation  all  the 
points  of  difficnity,  and  then  decide  finally  in  fiivout  of  him 
who  shall  propose  the  most  simple  and  effectual  plana,  and 
announce  them  with  the  greatest  rectitude  of  mind  and 
judgment. 

Thus  artfully  did  Brunelleschi  argue.  His  advice 
was  adopted,  but  he  refused  to  show  his  modeU  Clever 
as  a  tactician,  as  well  as  profoundly  skilful  as  an  archi- 
tect, he  songht  hy  concealing  himself  from  curiosity  to 
excite  it  the  more.  He  pleaded  business  at  Rome,  and 
thus  eluded  the  premature  offers  made  to  him.  He  set 
out  on  this  third  expedition,  in  order  to  gain  a  fresh  ac- 
cession of  strength  among  the  models  of  antiquity  for 
the  great  trial  which  he  himself  had  provoked.  Here 
we  must  leave  him,  and  conclude  the  lubjoct  of  this 
notice  in  a  future  article. 


150 


THE  SATUUDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[OcTOBia  16, 


ON  CHESS.    No.  XIX. 


On  the  Powers  op  the  Pieces  and  Pawns, 

{Concluded.) 

Another  variation  of  value  arises  from  the  following 
circumstance : — Suppose  a  bishop  to  be  at  one  end  of  a 
diagonal  line  of  squares  cleared  of  pieces :  a  queen  or 
rook  could  not  be  placed  on  any  square  of  that  diagonal 
without  being  en  prises  a  circumstance  which,  from  their 
superior  value,  would  be  avoided,  whether  they  were 
supported  or  not.  Also  a  bishop,  knight,  or  pawn 
could  not  be  placed  on  that  diagonal,  without  capture, 
unless  supported.  A  similar  power  is  possessed  by 
the  other  pieces,  and  may  be  thus  expressed: — ^if  a 
piece  commands  a  certain  range  of  squares,  the  opposite 
party  cannot  place  on  any  square  of  that  range  a  superior 
piece,  or  an  unsupported  equal  or  inferior  piece,  without 
immediate  loss.  It  will  be  observed,  that  this  is  not 
the  power  of  moving  along  a  line  of  squares,  but  of 
preventing  the  antagonist  from  occupying  any  square 
of  that  line  without  loss*  Supposing  the  board  to  be 
about  half-cleared  of  men,  the  power  of  the  relative 
pieces  in  thus  preventing  the  opponent  from  occupying 
any  square  in  a  particular  line,  has  been  calculated  to  be 


Pawn    ..«  ■■    2 
Knight...  m    6} 
Bishop  ..•  M    7i 
Rook    ...  M  lo( 
(lueen  •••  m  17 

But  if  we  now  omit  all  hostile  proceedings,  and 
consider  simply  how  many  squares  a  piece  may  com- 
mand, without  taking  any  opposing  piece,  we  arrive 
at  diGTcrent  results,  principally  because  the  pawn  moves 
straight  forward  when  merely  making  a  move,  but 
diagonally  when  capturing.  The  proportionate  number 
of  optional  squares  within  the  reach  of  the  piece  at  one 
move, — supposing  the  boardi  at  befbre,  to  be  about  half- 
cleared  of  combatants,— ^have  been  calculated  at 

Pawn    ...  e=    1 

Knight ...  8     A 

Bishop    ...    aa      7 

Rook     ...  »  10 
Queen  ...as  16i 

Suppose  we  wish  to  attack  a  particular  piece  with  ono 
of  our  own.  If  ours  happen  to  be  a  pawn,  we  can  do  so 
by  moving  it  to  one  square  only ;  but  if  it  be  a  bishop, 
the  diagonals  may  be  so  far  clear  as  to  allow  of  our 
doing  it  in  either  of  the  directions.  Place  the  black 
king  on  his  own  square,  and  the  antagonist  white  bishop 
on  its  queen's  bishop's  2nd.:  the  bishop  can  give  check 
at  two  different  squares.  With  the  king  in  the  same 
position,  and  the  antagonist  rook  on  its  own  square: 
the  rook  can  check  at  two  different  squares.  Wltn  the 
black  king  in  the  same  position,  place  the  white  queen  on 
her  bishop's  second:  she  can  check  at  six  different 
squares.  Place  the  white  knight  on  his  king's  fourth; 
he  can  check  the  king  on  two  squares.  In  all  these 
cases,  we  suppose  the  attacking  piece  to  be  free  from 
any  obstruction,  either  from  an  ally  or  an  antagonist. 
From  this  enumeration  of  powers  it  is  seen,  that  when  a 
particular  piece  is  to  be  employed  to  make  an  attack  on 
a  particular  antagonist  piece,  it  may  often  be  done  on 
more  than  one  square.  But  as  the  intervention  of  other 
pieces  would  in  some  degree  prevent  this  from  being 
done,  and  as  the  presence  of  other  pieces  blocks  out 
some  more  than  others,  according  to  their  different 
modes  of  movement,  we  have  hence  a  new  scale  of 
powers.  The  comparative  power  of  the  different  pieces, 
in  choosing  what  point  to  select  as  a  position  of  attack, 
has  been  estimated  at 


Pawn 

X 

2 

Knight 

sm 

6 

Bishop 

8S 

6i 

Rook 

as 

11 

Queen 

sa 

24 

Let  us  assume  that  a  piece  is  actually  attacked.  Ic 
order  to  save  it,  one  of  three  things  must  be  done:— 1st, 
to  capture  the  attacking  piece:  2nd.,  to  interpose  another 
piece :  3rd.,  to  remove.  Now  different  pieces  have  these 
several  powers  in  different  degrees ;  and  to  compare  thea 
it  will  be  convenient  to  suppose  that  the  attacking  piece 
cannot  be  captured  without  loss :  there  will  then  remain 
two  modes  of  releasing  the  piece.  If  the  attack  be  mace 
by  a  pawn,  nothing  can  be  interposed,  since  the  beli^^ 
rent  pieces  are  close  together :  the  assailed  party  ks 
therefore,  nothing  to  do  but  to  remove  to  a  more  distint 
square.  If  the  attacking  piece  be  a  knigbt,  no  interpoii- 
tion  will  ward  off  the  attack ;  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
privilege  of  this  piece  in  leaping  over  other  pieces.  If 
a  bishop  attack  a  rook,  interposition  will  not  sate  it, 
because  the  bishop  may  take  the  interposed  piece,  with- 
out being  re-captured  by  the  rook;  this  arises  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  rook  has  not  the  diagonal  povtr 
of  the  bishop :  removal  is  the  only  way  of  saying  the 
rook.  For  a  somewhat  similar  reason,  if  a  rook  attack 
a  bishop,  no  interposition  will  save  it,  because  the  bishop 
and  the  rook  move  in  different  ways : — interposition  L> 
therefore,  of  no  avail.  In  all  these  examples  it  is  a- 
sumed  that  the  attacked  and  the  interposed  pieces,  vt 
not  supported  or  defended  by  others.  From  a  loiiiQte 
calculation  of  the  various  kinds  and  decrees  of  th:» 
power,  it  is  found  that  the  dislodging  faculitf,  or  the 
power  of  an  assailant  to  compel  the  removal  of  as  » 
sailed  piece,  is  greater  in  the  pawn  and  the  knight  thaj: 
in  the  other  pieces  in  comparison  with  their  general.]' 
inferior  power^  being  in  the  ratio  of 

Pawn    ...  M  0-8 

Knight ...  i-  2*8 

Bishop  ...  BB  1*0 

Rook     ...  «s  2*0 

Q,ueen  ...  ■»  4*7 

From  the  circumstance  of  a  pawn  being  capable  d 
promotion  to  the  rank  of  a  piece,  its  value  is  greater 
than  it  would  be  if  that  privilege  were  denied;  and  as  i: 
alone  is  capable  of  this  sudden  increase  of  power,  tiie 
ratio  of  its  value  when  compared  with  the  pieces,  l^ 
higher.  The  pawn  has  likewise  an  increase  of  compan- 
tive  power  resulting  from  its  use  as  a  support  for  a  sap«- 
rior  piece.  If  a  piece  make  an  attack  on  another  of  ic* 
ferior  value,  a  pawn  may  be  a^  effectual  a  support  for  the 
latter  as  a  superior  piece  would  be :  this  circuinstaE* 
also  increases  the  ratio  of  the  pawn's  power.  On  the 
contrary,  if  two  pawns  become,  by  capture  or  exchin^ 
placed  one  behind  the  other,  or  »•  doubled,"  the  power« 
the  hindmost  one  is  much  decreased,  particularly  it  ^ 
the  rook's  file ;  so  much,  indeed,  that  the  two  together  J« 
deemed  not  to  be  worth  more  than  one  pawn  ana  * 
quarter  under  usual  circumstances.  Another  cirfus* 
stance  which  modifies  the  power  of  a  pawn  is  the  ««• 
tiguity  or  not  of  another  pawn  on  the  adjoining fi"? J* 
a  pawn  is  isolated,  that  is,  if  neither  of  the  adja^J*^ 
files  is  occupied  by  a  pawn,  the  pawn's  value  is  be.«» 
the  average  hitherto  expressed ;  but  if  it  be  supported  ty 
pawns  on  both  the  contiguous  files,  its  value  is  ^^ 
enhanced.  These  details  show  how  much  the  valee « 
a  pawn  depends  on  position.  . 

Lastly,  there  is  a  difference   of  power  in  dli|i^ 
pieces  in  giving  checkmate  to  the  adverse  king*   ^^ 
the  king  has  no  pieces  or  pawns  left  for  his  ^^^^Jf'^ 
attacking  pieces  show  degrees  of  power  very  differ*® 
from  those  which  they  possess  in  the  usual  course 
the  game.    A  rook  is  of  almost  infinite  value  comptj^ 
with  a  bishop  or  a  knight ;  for  while  the  former,  acnjj 
in  conjunction  with  the  king,  may  give  ^'^^^"^^.^ljj 
must  do  so  if  proper  care  be  taken,  a  knight  or  a  bj^  ^ 
cannot.     Under  such  circumstances  a  rook  is  "^ "^ 
valuable  as  the  queen,  for  the  latter  has  now  a  sa:?^ 
amount  of  power  which  cannot  be  brought  into  use;  ^ 
checkmate  is   given   nearly  in  the  same  way  ^^ 
rook  as  by  the  queen,  only  rather  more  slowly. 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


The  reader  will  now  be  in  a  condition  to  understand, 
from  this  brief  and  necessarily  imperfect  sketch,  how 
many  circumstances  must  be  taken  into  account  before 
we  can  correctly  estimate  the  relative  value  and  power 
of  the  combatants  in  the  chess  battle-field.  In  order  to 
elicit  something  like  a  practical  rule  which  may  be 
valuable  in  play,  all  the  several  lists  which  we  have 
piven,  and  a  few  more  besides,  are  added  together,  and 
the  total  balance  of  each  power  compared  with  that  of 
the  others.  The  values  of  any  particular  piece,  in 
moving  over  the  open  board — in  moving  over  a  board 
about  half  cleared  by  play— in  keeping  off  an  antagonist 
from  a  particular  set  of  squares — in  making  an  attack 
on  two  or  more  different  squares — in  dislodging  an  an- 
tagonist from  a  particular  square — in  giving  mate  with- 
out the  aid  of  other  pieces,  &c., — are  added  together : 
this  is  done  for  each  piece ;  and  finally,  the  whole  are 
reduced  to  smaller  numbers  by  makmg  a  pawn  ■»  1. 
The  final  relative  values  then  are  as  follows ;— . 

Pawn  M.  ■■  I'OO 
Knight...  B  3*05 
Bishop  ...  Bs  3*50 
Rook  „.  «  6'48 
Queen  ...»  9*94 

As,  from  the  nature  of  the  game,  the  king  is  invalu- 
ible,  since  he  is  never  exchanged  or  captured,  he  is  ex- 
chided  from  the  computation.  It  will  be  seen,  from 
his  list,  that  a  knight  is  worth  about  three  pawns; 
ind  that  a  rook  is  worth  a  bishop  and  two  pawns,  or 
ive  pawns  and  a  half.  There  appears  to  be  nearly 
lalf  a  pawn  difference  of  value  between  the  knight 
md  the  bishop;  but  the  most  experienced  players 
ire  generallv  willing  in  an  indifferent  part  of  the 
[ame,  to  exchange  one  for  the  other,  thereby  implying 
bat  the  two  are  valued  equally.  This  would  appear 
0  show  that  the  computed  values  are  not  quite 
orrect;  but  the  discrepancy  has  been  explained  in  a 

rarkable  manner.  Suppose  a  bishop  and  a  knight  to 
on  the  board,  but  not  immediately  attacking  each 
Iher.  Take  the  average  state  of  the  board,  and  the 
Uhop  could  attack  the  knight  in  a  smaller  number  of 
loves  than  the  knight  could  attack  the  bishop,  arising 
ffincipally  from  the  knight  being  unable  to  act  at  a  dis- 
ance.     This  smaller  number  of  moves  is  often  suflicient 

0  give  "  the  move,"  the  advantage  of  which  in  aii  average 
tate  of  the  game  is  reckoned  to  be  equal  to  half  a  pawn : 
his  value,  added  to  that  of  the  knight,  would  account 
or  the  superior  value  of  the  bishop. 

The  result  arrived  at  in  this  manner  is  found  to  be 
lofficiently  near  to  that  which  experience  points  out  to 
he  player,  to  merit  attention  ;  still  the  Inode  in  which 
t  is  arrived  at  is  too  uncertain  and  conjectural  to  give  it 

1  scientific  character.  The  time  has  not  yet  arrived  for 
ipplying  the  rigour  of  mathematics  to  the  game  of  chess, 
'0  as  to  demonstrate  the  excellence  of  one  move  over 
>tners,  in  the  precise  ratio  of  the  powers  possessed  by 
he  pieces.  The  great  dependence  of  the  player's  success 
>n  position,  independent  of  the  number  of  his  pieces,  and 
he  striking  effect  which  the  single  move  will  often  pro- 
'uce,  have  hitherto  prevented  any  attempt  to  include  the 
^hole  game  in  a  system  of  mathematical  laws.  Until  this 
^^  he  done,  we  doubt  whether  chess  ought  to  be  termed 
I "  science ;"  since  we  are  accustomed  to  apply  this  term 
^  those  subjects  only  which  fall  under  the  influence 
"  general  laws  or  principles  which  are  universallv 
^<lmitted. 


151 


Goiy  is  a  Spirit  none  can  see, 

He  ever  wiw,  and  e'er  shall  bo; 

His  ejOy  with  infinite  survey, 

Views  every  realm,  by  night  or  day. 

What  has  been,  is,  or  shall  be  done, 

Or  here,  or  there,  to  Him  is  known  | 

Nor  can  one  thought  arise,  unseen, 

In  mind  of  angolf,  or  of  men.— Doddbidoe. 


FATHER  LONG-LEGS,    (Tipula  rivosa.) 

Few  of  our  readers,  perhaps,  are  unacquainted  with 
the  slender,  fragile  insect  popularly  called  Father^  or 
/fflfrv  Long-legs.  During  the  evenings  of  autumn  they 
must  have  noticed  its  long  and  delicate  limbs  reposing 
on  the  shrubs  in  their  gardens,  or  more  probably  they 
have  witnessed  its  ineffectual  struggles  to  extricate  those 
feeble  limbs  from  the  spider's  web,  or  from  the  alluring 
candle,  towards  which,  m  common  with  many  other  in- 
sects, it  is  too  apt  to  hasten. 

This  insect  is  the  largest  of  the  European   Tipul©, 
being  often  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and 
possesses  characters  which  are  shared  by  the  other  species 
of  that  genus,  and  are  sufiicient  to  distmguish  them  from 
gnats  and  other  somewhat  similar  insects.     These  cha- 
racters are  the  length  and  trifling  bulk  of  the  body,  the 
extent  of  the  wings,  and  the  length  and  slender  form  of 
the  legs,  which  are  also  remarkably  fragile,  so  that  it  is 
difiKcult  to  handle  the  insect  without   breaking  them, 
and  they  even   appear  insuflicient  for  the    support  of 
the  body,   which   the   insect  balances,   and  causes  to 
vacillate  continually.     This  vacillation  is  attributed  by 
Kirbj  and  Spence  to  the  weight  of  the  body  and  the 
elasticity  of  the  legs,  and  the  object  of  it  is  supposed  by 
them  to  be  in   some  way  connected   with  respiration. 
Rennie  conjectures  that  this  constant  motion  mav  be  for 
the  purpose  of  exercising  themselves  and  of  driving  the 
fluids  into  their  long  legs,  which  may  not  be  effected  in 
the  exercise  of  flying  on  account  of  their  legs  then  re- 
maining almost  motionless.    Another  point  by  which  the 
insects  of  this  genus  may  be  easily  distinguished  from 
gnats,  is  the  mouth,  which  in  Tipularias  projects  but  little 
while  in  gnats  it  forms  a  long  proboscis. 

The  larvas  of  these  insects  vary  much  in  their  form  and 
habits,  some  being  terrestrial,  others  aquatic.  In  general 
they  resemble  elongated  worms,  with  the  body  divided 
into  rings;  sometimes  they  are  furnished  with  appendages 
performing  the  ofilce  of  feet,  in  other  cases  they  are 
entirely  destitute  of  such  aids  to  locomotion.  The  head 
is  of  an  invariable  figure,  but  in  those  of  the  larger  spe- 
cies it  is  small,  and  usually  concealed  under  the  first 
ring.  It  is  furnished  with  two  fleshy  horns,  two  hooks, 
and  two  scaly  pieces :  the  last-named  appendages  serve 
to  cut  and  bruise  the  aliment  on  which  the  larvie  feed. 
Their  respiration  is  carried  on  by  means  of  two  stigmata, 
situated  in  the  last  ring  of  their  bodies,  which  is  con- 
siderablv  depressed.  They  live  beneath  the  earth,  at 
the  depth  of  one  or  two  inches,  and  are  most  abundant 
in  wet  pastures.  Their  food  is  said  by  most  writers  to 
consist  of  the  softer  kinds  of  vegetable  substances,  the 
fine  fibres  of  roots,  &c.,  but  in  the  supplementary  notes 
to  Cuvier's  lasecta  it  is  stated  that  they  feed  on  earth 
and  soil,  and  that  although  they  do  not  cat  plants,  yet, 
nevertheless,  they  do  them  much  injury,  because  as  tney 
often  change  place,  they  raise  and  detach  the  roots, 
which  they  expose  to  be  dried  up  by  the  sun.  These 
larvae  are  also  found  in  the  cavities  of  half -rotten  trees, 
where  they  find  a  mould  of  a  rich  quality.  They  undergo 
their  metamorphosis  in  the  earth,  and  change  there  into 
the  chrysalis  state.  In  this  new  form  they  are  of  a 
greyish  colour,  and  the  rings  of  their  bodies  are  covered 
witn  projections  and  spines  inclining  backwards.  The 
organs  of  respiration  are  now  situated  on  the  head,  and 
consist  of  two  horns,  differing  in  length  according  to 
the  species.  The  use  of  the  spines  becomes  evident  as 
the  time  of  the  last  metamorphosis  approaches.  By 
their  means  the  larvae  push  and  raise  themselves  above 
the  surface  of  the  earth  to  -the  height  of  about  half  their 
body,  and  thus  they  await  their  final  change.  At  length 
the  skin  of  the  chrysalis  bursts  open  and  releases  the 
perfect  insect,  the  elegant  Tipula,  to  the  enjoyment  of 
life  and  liberty.  It  is  during  the  month  of  September 
that  this  last  change  takes  place,  and  at  that  time  in 
situations  such  as  we  have  described  the  perfect  insects 


152 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


are  very  abundant,  walking  upon  the  tops  of  the  grass 
as  if  they  were  placed  upon  high  stilts,  or  flying  up  in 
swarms  into  the  air,  witn  a  faint  but  perceptible  noise 
occasioned  by  the  action  of  their  wings.  Latreille,  in 
noticing  the  singular  organs  called  balancers,  or  poisers, 
situated  near  the  wings,  in  these  and  other  dipterous 
insects,  says,  that  they  occupy  the  situation  of  the  spines 
in  bees  and  wasps,  with  spiracles  in  the  same  manner 
situated  behind  them,  whence  it  is  evident  that  the  hinder 
part  of  the  chest,  where  these  balancers  are,  corresponds 
to  the  part  which  in  the  male  cicada  and  the  cricket  con- 
tains the  organs  of  sound.  But  from  the  observations  of 
De  Geer  and  other  naturalists,  it  appears  that  the  buzz- 
ing of  insects  is  continued  after  they  have  have  been 
deprived  of  these  organs,  therefore  they  can  be  in  no 
way  connected  with  the  production  of  sound.  The  true 
use  of  the  balancers  is  that  which  their  name  imports, 
and  which  is  thus  explained  in  the  language  of  Derham ; 
"  If  one  of  the  poisers,  or  one  of  the  lesser  auxiliary 
wings,  be  cut  off,  the  insect  will  fly  as  if  one  side  over- 
balanced the  other,  until  it  fallcth  to  the  ground;  so  that 
if  both  be  cut  off  they  will  fly  awkwardly  and  unsteadily, 
manifesting  the  defect  of  some  very  necessary  part.  The 
use  no  doubt  of  these  poisers  and  secondary  lesser  wings 
is  to  poise  the  body,  and  to  obviate  all  the  vacillations 
thereof  in  flight,  serving  to  the  insect  as  the  long  pole, 
laden  at  the  ends  with  lead,  docs  to  the  rope-dancer." 
Another  naturalist  (ScJiehev)  is  of  opinion  that  the 
poisers  are  air  holders,  and  affirms  that  without  their 
aid  the  insect  is  unable  to  fly  at  all. 

The  attitude  of  the  female  in  laying  her  eggs  is  very 
singular.  Supporting  her  body  in  a  vertical  position  by 
by  means  of  her  hind-legs,  she  thrusts  the  extremity  into 
the  earth  and  deposits  one  or  more  eggs  in  the  hole  thus 
made ;  she  then  moves  forward  without  altering  the  posi- 
tion of  her  body,  and  proceeds  with  her  task  in  a  similar 
manner  in  another  place.  The  ovipositor  of  this  insect 
is  well  adapted  to  this  method. of  working,  as  it  consists 
of  a  sort  of  pincers  of  a  horny  consistence  and  sharp  at 
the  point.  The  eggs  are  small,  oblong,  a  little  curved, 
and  of  a  shining  black.  Each  female  lays  a  large  num- 
ber of  these  eggs. 

The  larvaa  of  smaller  tipulae  are  found,  some  in  cow- 
dung,'  some  in  different  kinds  of  mushrooms,  and  others 
in  the  water.  A  singular  species  infests  the  agaric  of 
the  oak,  though  it  does  not  penetrate  into  the  substance 
of  the  plant,  but  remains  .underneath  it.  The  skin  of 
this  larva  is  humid,  and  it  covers  the  places  where  it 
passes  with  a  gluey  coat,  which  it  produces  at  its  mouth. 
It  forms  a  curious  little  nest  or  tent  of  the  same  material, 
and  finally  spins  a  cocoon  of  a  conical  figure,  and  with  a 
rough  surface,  in  which  it  incloses  itself,  and  changes 
into  a  chrysalis.  In  this  form  it  remains  about  fifteen 
days,  when  it  emerges  as  a  perfect  insect. 

The  aquatic  larva)  are  numerous,  and  differ  much  from 
each  other  in  conformation.  Some  of  them  live  in  holes 
in  the  banks  of  streams  where  the  water  reaches  them ; 
while  others  are  more  active  in  their  habits  and  swim  with 
great  agility.  Many  inclose  themselves  in  cases,  formed 
of  any  available  materials  within  their  reach ;  in  fact, 
these  aquatic  species  have  little  in  common  but  the  stig- 
mata, or  breathing  processes,  the  number  of  which  is  the 
'same  in  all.  In  their  chrysalis  state  they  also  vary  nearly 
as  much  as  in  the  first  stage  of  their  existence.  Some  re- 
main entirely  without  motion  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole 
which  the  larva  had  mhabited,  others  swim  and  run  with 
swiftness  in  the  water.  All  are  provided  with  respiratory 
organs,  and  apply  them  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to 
pump  in  the  air.  The  insects  produced  from  these  larvae 
are  rather  small,  and  are  frequently  mistaken  for  gnats. 
In  their  perfect  state  the  tipuls  are  largely  destroyed 
by  birds,  and  yet  their  numbers  are  very  g^at,  as  must 
be  evident  to  most  persons  living  in  the  country.  The 
Wvae  of  the  aquatic  species  also  afford  food  to  fish  and 
to  carnivorous  aquatic  insects. 


[OCTOBIE 16, 1841 

There  are  several  other  species,  besides  the  lai^  imect 
already  described  (T^mla  rivo$a)f  to  which  ve  may 
briefly  direct  the  attention  of  onr  readers,  lier  an 
commonly  spoken  of  as  crane-ftUs,  Hie  garden  am* 
fly  {T.  hotiorum)  is  rather  smaller  than  T,  nVoio,  nd 
is  produced  from  a  larva  and  chrysalis  of  a  darker  coloor. 
The  wings  of  this  species  are  transparent,  with  obKUiely 
marked  whitish  variegations. 

Another  very  common  species  is  71  oUracta,  nearij 
similar  in  size  to  the  preceeding.  It  has  tran^aicDt 
wings  with  a  dusky  rib  or  upper  edge.  In  the  lanaitate 
some  insects  of  this  species  were  made  the  subject  of 
an  experiment  by  Mr.  Stickney  (as  related  byKirbjaod 
Spence),  in  order  to  ascertain  their  power  of  reasdng 
cold.  Several  of  the  g^bs  were  exposed  to  a  seTcre 
frost,  till  they  were  congealed  into  masses  of  ice,  yet 
some  of  them  survived. 

Tipufa  comicina  is  described  by  Shaw  as  being  of  a 
middle  size,  with  transparent  wings  having  a  nurgiial 
dusky  spot.  The  body  is  yellow,  with  three  loDgitodiiul 
dusky  streaks.  Its  larva,  which  is  found  in  meidoi^ 
&c.,  is  brown,  with  a  flattened,  or  truncated  tail,  beset 
with  a  certain  number  of  radiating  soft  spines  or  pni- 
cesses,  and  the  chrysalis  is  slender,  and  furnished,  a  in 
most  others,  with  minute  spines  about  its  segments,  by 
the  assistance  of  which  it  is  enabled  to  raise  itself  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth  when  its  final  change  approscbeii. 
There  are  not  many  insects  in  this  genus  adorned  n\ 
lively  colours ;  T.  crocata  however,  is  of  a  polished  blark, 
with  yellow  rings  round  the  abdomen. - 

One  of  the  most  familiar  specimens  of  the  smslk 
TipulsB  may  be  observed  in  great  numbers  on  iriBdofs 
in  the  decline  of  summer.  It  is  an  elegant  species  called 
by  Linnaeus  Tipula  phaltienoidei*  Its  general  leD«tb  is 
about  the  tenUi  o^  an  inch,  and  the  wings,  which  an 
very  large  in  proportion  to  the  insect,  are  of  so  orsl 
shape,  and  of  a  grey  colour,  mottled  and  variegated  in  u 
elegant  manner  with  dusky  specks.  -The  edges  oftb« 
wings  are  fringed  with  hairs,  and  under  the  microscope 
the  whole  insect  presents  a  beautiful  appearance. 

Another  species  is  called  T.  plumoaa  from  bsTiiig 
plumed  antennae.  It  is  of  the  size  of  the  common  gna; 
and  is  one  of  those  aquatic  species  already  meotiosedtf 
so  greatly  resembling  that  insect. 


curious  feet,  that  chUdren  are  the  best  jn^ 

jr  at  first  sight  in  the  world.  There  is  an  oW  » 

proverb,  «  They  are  never  cannie,  that  dogs  and  tairns  a 
like ;"  and  there  is  not  a  more  true  one  in  the  whole  co 


It  is  a 
character 


tion. — Jakes  Hooo. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STBAXP-^ 

Parti,  wutcn  Bixrsvcs. 
Sold  by  aU  BookftUtTB  ud  NfWireDden  la  ttf  Kii>|*» 


^afturtra^        m^^^^im* 


N?  597.  OCTOBER 


23»P,  1841. 


tOin  Pmr. 


TURKEY  AND  THE  TURKISH  PROVINCES. 


MECCA  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS. 
In  our  recent  xrtido  on  Antioch,  we  protniged  to  visit 
some  of  the  more  southern  towns  of  the  empire,  such  aa 
Mecca  and  Medina,  with  a  yiew  of  shewing  their  chief 
points  of  difference  from  the  towns  of  European  Turkey. 
We  shall  therefore  treat  of  Mecca  in  the  present  paper, 
and  devote  a  subsequent  article  to  Medina. 

Both  Mecca  and  Medina  are  situated  in  Arabia,  and 
it  seems  desirable  to  mention  in  what  way  they  are  con- 
nected with  the  TurUsh  empire.  After  the  downfall  of  the 
Caliphs  and  the  rise  of  the  Ottoman  power,  all  the  fertile 
parts  of  Western  Arabia,  as  well  as  the  principal  cities, 
came  under  the  Turkish  government  one  by  one;  and  in 
the  province  of  Hejaz,  in  which  both  Mecca  and  Medina 
are  situated,  the  Turkish  supremacy  has  hcen  shown 
somewhat  in  the  following  manner.  The  Sultan,  as  pro- 
tector of  the  Mohammedan  Holy  Places,  appoints  a 
Pacha  of  Hejaz,  who  resides  in  the  port  nearest  to  Mecca, 
with  a  Turkish  guard,  and  divides  the  receipts  of  the 
custom-house  with  the  sheriff  of  Mecca.  The  ri_se  of 
the  Wahhabites,  and  the  ambitious  designs  of  Mehemet 
All,  have  somewhat  disturbed  this  arrangement;  but  we 
believe  that,  nominally  at  least,  the  Sultan  retuns  this 
supremacy. 
Vol.  XIX. 


The  city  of  Mecca,  the  birth-place  of  Mohammed,  u 
situated  about  one  day's  journey  from  the  Red  Sea,  in  > 
valley  which  winds  irregularly  between  two  mountains; 
and  is  surrounded  by  a  district  presenting  an  pppearanco 
of  the  greatest  sterility.  Not  a  river,  streamlet,  or 
brook,  refreshes  the  traveller  in  this  sandy  valley,  or 
awakens  the  least  appearance  of  vegetation  on  its  sur- 
face. Inclosed  by  high  mountains  and  sterile  sands  and 
exposed  to  the  heat  of  a  scorching  sun,  the  inhabitants 
are  dependent  on  other  places  for  proviaiona ;  their  own 
soil  being  unable  to  repay  the  labour  of  the  cultivator. 
Their  markets  are  furnished  with  a  supply  of  flour  from 
Egypt,  with  vegetables  and  rice  from  India,  and  with 
herbs,  Ac.,  from  Tayif — the  price  being  proportioned  to 
the  difficulty  of  obtaining  them.  The  lower  classes  of 
people  obtain  water  from  wells,  and  though  it  is  heavy 
and  brackish  they  never  drink  any  other;  those  who  can 
better  afford  to  pay  for  it,  get  their  supply  from  the  neigh- 
bouring mountains,  where  rain-water  is  collected  for  that 
purpose.  It  is  remarkable,  that  there  are  very  few  dogs 
in  Mecca;  moat  other  Mohammedan  towns,  in  a  climate 
similar  to  theirs,  are  overstocked  with  these  animals,  and 
are  likewise  infested  with  swarms  of  insects  and  vei'min, 
from  which  the  sacred  city  i>  in  a  great  measure  exempt 
fi97 


154 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[October  23, 


The  chief  anuoyance  in  this  respect  is  experienced  from  1 
mice  of  the  European  kind,  which  are  numerous  and  ' 
verv  bold.  A  traveller,  who  remained  some  time  at 
Mecca,  informs  us  that  these  troublesome  visitors  would 
leap  on  his  bed  and  stare  in  his  face;  and  that  on  one 
occasion,  when  he  neglected  to  wash  some  balm  of 
luniper  from  his  hand,  they  bit  his  fingers  severely 
while  he  slept. 

It  may  be  supposed,  from  what  has  been  said  of  the 
confined  situation,  aridity  of  soil,  and  absence  of  vege- 
tation of  the  valley  in  which  Mecca  stands,  that  the  cli- 
mate must  be  very  unfavourable  to  the  health  of  its 
inhabitants;  but  this  does  not  seem  to  be  altogether  the 
case.  That  they  are  a  poor,  meagre,  wretched-looking 
race  of  men,  and  that  they  seldom  live  to  be  very  old,  we 
have  the  testimony  of  several  travellers  to  assure  us;  but 
they  appear  to  be  liable  to  few  diseases  of  a  chronic 
nature,  and  to  suffer  less  than  we  might  expect  from  the 
many  deprivations  attending  their  isolated  position  and 
burning  climate.  The  melancholy  appearance  of  these 
people  corresponds  with  the  constitution  of  their  minds : 
they  are  naturally  inclined  to  sadness^  and  the  sound  of 
singing  is  rarely  heard  in  Mecca,  while  musical  instru- 
ments seam  to  be  entirely  unknown.  They  are,  how- 
ever,  quiekly  Irritated,  wd  their  slaves  are  said  to 
receive  wowe  trealmenl  Iban  any  others  among  Mus- 

selmen. 

It  falls  not  wittiln  imf  povince  to  notice  the  circum- 
stances attendant  on  tbe  birth  of  Mohammed,  which 
event  tonk  |daf#  Hi  Mee«^  \n  the  year  of  our  Lord  569, 
or  the  sl<4i«  by  wbieh  be  attained  that  dominion  over  the 
minds  of  men  wbtoh  led  Ihem  to  embrace  all  that  fell 
from  bis  lips  a*  tlw  truth  of  God,  however  much  it 
might  mlUtale  9^m\  the  eommon  laws  of  justice  and 
humanUyi  or  f  Ite  n  wmetlon  to  immorality  and  crime. 
We  hav«  cmlj  to  do  ivitb  the  scene  of  his  early  years, 
where  before  jiroape^ty  kid  altei^d  and  sullied  his  views, 
he  spent  mvm  Inne  ammif  ^be  monnUins  that  surround 
his  city  IQ  meditating  W  bia  (teture  plans  and  on  the 
abolishmeQl  «f  idotatiwt  worship,  which  his  strong 
mind  rejected  wdi  abhon^A  0«  Wa  account,  therefore, 
not  only  the  rity  Itidfi  but  the  whole  neighbourhood  of 
Mecca,  i|  irlewod  by  m  dii^iplea  a«  a  place  of  peculiar 
sanctity,  «|id  ba»  been  fcf  «ges  the  centre  of  Moham- 
roedan  worahlm  and  tkf  nbjleet  of  oontinned  pilgrimage 
from  all  in^rts  ^f  tbe  wortd  where  bi«  lUlowew  Hte.  Py 
the  law  of  bit  leligknii  «f  ery  Muatelman  la  obliged  to 
go,  once  tn  bis  \ih  at  least,  to  pav  his  devotions  at 
Mecca;  but  there  must  have  been  found  a  way  of  dis- 
pensing with  this  law,  or  of  evading  its  reqilirements, 
since  the  number  of  the  pilgrims  at  Mecca,  grows 
less  every  year;  and  instead  of  crowding  in  multitudes, 
as  formerly,  from  all  parts  of  Asia  and  Africas  and 
bringing  with  them  rich  presents  for  the  support  of 
the  temple  at  Meccai  the  pilgrims  are  bow  oomna* 
fatively  few  in  number,  and  devoid  of  wealth:  so  that 
the  present  situation  of  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca,  who 
have  no  other  source  of  livelihood  than  that  which 
prises  from  the  visits  of  pilgrims  to  their  city,  fbrms  a 
remarkable  contrast  with  that  of  their  ancestors,  who 
abounded  in  wealth  from  the  same  cause.  So  poor  is  the 
place  by  nature*  and  so  grossly  ignorant  are  its  inhabit- 
ants, that  they  exist  in  a  stale  of  pitiable  dependence  on 
the  religious  enthusiasm  of  others;  and  in  case  the  visits 
to  Mecca  should  altogether  cease,  it  must  inevitably  be 
deserted  by  its  wretched  people  or  red\iced  to  a  simple 
dauar  or  hamlet. 

AU  Bey  giyes  the  following  lusoount  of  |he  state  of  the 
arts  and  sciences  in  Mecca  »-^ 

I  believe  there  is  no  Mnaselman  ettjr  where  the  aria  aie 
BO  little  known  as  at  Mecca*  There  is  not  a  man  io  be 
found  who  is  capable  of  makina  a  lock,  or  forging  a  key. 
All  the  doors  are  locked  with  laige  wooden  keys,,  and  the 
trunks  and  cases  with  padlocks  brought  firom  Europe. 
Slippers  and  sandals  are  brought  from  Constantinople  and 
Mgypi}  lor  they  kaew  net  kow  to  Biake  them  al  Meoca^ 


except,  indeed,  those  of  wood  or  nntanned  leather,  which 
are  veiy  bad.    There  is  not  a  single  man  to  be  found  who 
knows  how  to  engrave  an  inscription,  or  any  kind  of  desi^ 
on  hewn  stone,  as  formerly;  nor  a  single  gunsmith  or  cutler 
able  to  nu^e  a  screw,  or  to  replace  a  piece  of  the  lock  of  a 
European  gun ;  those  of  the  country  being  able  to  manufac- 
ture only  their  rude  match-locks,  their  bent  knives,  lanco, 
and  halberds.     The  sciences  are  found  in  the  same  state  as 
the  arts  at  Mecca.  The  whole  knowledge  of  the  inhabitants 
is  confined  to  reading  the  Koran,  and  to  writing  very  badly. 
They  learn  from  their  infancy  the  prayers  and  the  ceremonies 
of  the  pilg^mage  to  the  house  of  God,  to  Saflh,  and  to 
Merona,  in  order  to  be  able  at  an  «arly  age  to  eain  money 
by  officiating  as  guides  to  the  pilgrims.    Children  of  fire 
and  six  years  old  are  to  be  seen  fulfilling  these  functiouSp 
carried  upon  the  arms  and  shoulders  of  tne  pilgrims,  who 
repeat,  word  for  word,  the  prayers  which  the  cliiidren  recite, 
at  the  same  time  that  they  follow  the  path  pointed  out  by 
them  to  the  different  pkices. 

The  city  of  Mecca  is  undefended  by  walls,  and  is 
quite  open  on  all  sides.  It  has  a  strong  fortreas  on  oae 
of  the  hills,  and  there  are  some  isolated  towers  in  the 
valley,  but  they  are  capable  of  containing  only  a  small 
garrison.  Many  of  the  buildings  are  grouped  together 
at  the  north  of  the  temple,  and  are  prolonged  through 
the  valley  in  the  form  of  a  crescent.  The  principd 
streets  are  regular,  and  some  of  the  houses  are  \erj 
handsome.  They  have,  like  the  Cyprian  dwellings,  two 
rows  of  windows,  with  balconies  covered  with  blinds. 
There  are  several  large  windows,  quite  open  as  in 
Europe ;  but  the  greater  part  are  covered  with  a  curtain 
made  of  palm-tree.  These  curtuna  are  eitremely  light, 
and  effectually  screen  the  apartments  from  the  rajs  of 
the  sun,  while  they  do  not  intercept  the  entrance  of  the 
air.  The  houses  are  mostly  of  stone,  three  or  four 
stories  high,  and  ornamented  with  mouldings  and  paints 
ings.  The  doors  have  generally  a  base,  with  steps  and 
seats  on  both  sides.  All  the  staircases  are  narrow;  btit 
the  rooms  are  lofty  and  well  proportioned.  Every  in- 
habitant has  a  particular  interest  in  the  preservation  and 
adornment  of  his  dwelling,  in  order  that  it  may  invize 
the  attention  of  pilgrims:  whose  payments  for  lo<lginf3 
during  their  stay  in  the  city,  with  ^he  gifts  which  the? 
are  induced  to  bestow,  i^re  the  only  means  of  livelihood 
for  the  people  during  th^  remainder  of  the  year. 

The  population  of  M^oea  is  rapidly  diminishing. 
Some  parts  of  the  city  lie  entirely  abandoned  and  in 
ruins,  and  two-thirds  of  the  remaining  houses  generally 
stand  empty.  Notwithstanding  the  reputation  for  holi- 
ness which  belongs  to  the  city,  the  morals  of  the 
people  are  said  to  be  more  depraved  than  those  of  the 
inhabitants  of  any  other  Moslem  city.  Their  thievish 
propensities  are  indulged  in  the  very  temple  itself;  and 
they  seem  wholly  indifferent  to  the  d^raded  and 
miserable  condition  to  which  they  are  sunk.  The  women 
have  a  gracefiil  appearance,  and  speak  very  well  and  witk 
much  feeling;  but  they  are  greatly  disfigured  by  tbe  prsc- 
tice  of  making  indelible  drawings  on  their  akin,  and  cl 
staining  theur  eyelids  and  teeth,  the  latter  of  a  bright 
yellow.  Their  lips,  feet  and  hands  they  stain  with  a  icd 
colour;  and  the  materials  they  employ  fbr  this  purpose 
are  the  same  as  those  used  by  Uie  Egyptians.  Their 
dress  consists  of  an  immense  pantaloon  of  Indian 
striped  cotton,  a  loose  robe  bound  round  the  waist  with  a 
belt;  and  a  eaf^  of  India  cotton.  Their  ornaments  aie 
rings  and  bracelets,  which  they  wear  on  their  arms,  legs 
and  feet;  and  occasionally  a  nose-jewel  hanging  down  on 
the  upper  lip.  The  costume  of  the  men  is  eomposed  of 
a  benUfh  or  exterior  caftan  bound  with  a  belt,  a  shirt, 
drawers,  and  slippers. 

The  greatest  curiosity  in  Mecca  is  the  Kaaba  or 
*^  House  of  God"  which  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  whieh 
was  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  Arabs,  long  before  the 
time  of  Mohammed.  It  is  built  of  square-hewn,  but  un* 
polished  stones  of  quarts,  schorl,  and  mica :  its  height  is 
thirty-four  feet  four  Inohes,  and  its  four  sides,  (for  it  is 
nearly  square,).yary  fhnn  twenty-nine  to  thirty-eight  feet 


1841.] 


THtt  BATUftDAY  MAGA2I)m. 


155 


in  length.  la  the  angle  fbrmed  hj  the  north-east  and 
south-east  sideS)  is  placed  a  large  blaek  sUmei  whieh  is 
raised  forty*two  inches  abote  the  pavement,  and  is 
bordered  all  roand  with  a  plate  of  silver  about  a  foot 
broad. 

This  much  admired  stone  is  believed  by  all  true 
Moslems  to  have  been  at  first  a  transparent  hyacinth 
presented  to  Abraham  by  the  Angel  Gabrieli  who 
brought  it  from  heaven;  but  being  touched  by  a  sinful 
woman,  it  became  black  and  opaque*  It  Is  said  to  be  a 
fragment  of  volcanic  basalt  sprinkled  throughout  ifs  cir- 
cumference with  small  pointed,  coloured  crystals,  and 
varied  with  red  feldspath,  upon  a  black  gpround. 

The  whole  of  the  Kaaba,  except  the  base,  is  covered 
with  a  curtain  of  black  cloth.  This  cloth,  which  is 
called  Tob  el  Ifaaba  (the  shirt  of  the  Kaaba,)  is 
renewed  every  year ;  but,  instead  of  being  spread  over 
the  building,  it  is  at  first,  fastened  up  in  araper}%  to 
keep  it  from  the  hands  of  the  pilgrims ;  and  thus  it  is 
represented  in  our  engraving.  The  Tob  has  a  gold 
band  two  feet  broad,  surrounding  it  at  two-thirds  or  its 
height ;  and  on  this  band  are  inscribed  numerous  pas- 
sages from  the  Koran.  A  new  curtain  is  also  seut  every 
year  to  cover  the  door,  which  is  truly  magnificent;  being 
embroidered  all  over  with  gold  and  silver. 

The  interior  of  the  Kaaba  consists  of  a  room  or  hall, 
with  twb  pillars  to  support  the  roof.  The  columns  and 
the  wall  are  covered  with  splendid  rose-coloured  silk, 
sprinkled  with  flowers,  embroidered  in  silver,  and  lined 
with  white  silk.  This  magnificent  covering  is  presented 
by  the  Sultan  of  Constantinople,  on  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  and  it  is  only  on  that  occasion  that  it  is  ever 
changed.  The  fioor  is  paved  with  very  fine  marble. 
From  one  column  to  another,  and  from  both  columns  to 
the  walls,  there  are  bars  of  silver,  from  which  are  sus- 
pended a  great  number  of  gold  lamps,  one  above  the 
other. 

Near  the  Kaaba,  within  a  railing  of  bronze  Is  a  sort 
of  sarcophagus,  hung  with  a  black  cloth  embroidered 
with  gold  and  silver,  and  having  golden  acorns  attached 
to  it.  We  are  told  that  this  sarcophagus  fs  nothing 
else  than  '<a  large  stone  that  served  Abraham  for  a 
footstool  to  construct  the  Kaaba,  and  increased  in  height 
as  the  building  advanced,  in  order  to  facilitate  his 
labours;  at  the  same  time  that  the  stones  came  out 
miraculously  already  squared  from  the  spot  where  the 
footstool  now  stands,  and  passed  into  Ismael's  hands, 
and  thence  into  his  father's. 

Inclosed  within  a  small  building  also  near  the  Kaaba, 
is  the  well  Zemzem,  believed  by  the  Moslems  to  be  the 
one  miraculously  opened  bv  the  angel  of  the  Lord  for 
Haffar,  when  nearly  perishmg  from  thirst  in  the  desert 
with  her  son  IsmaeL  The  person  who  has  the  charge 
of  this  well,  and  is  called  the  chief  of  the  Zemzem,  is  a 
person  of  no  small  eonsequenoe»  He  gives  out  the 
water  to  the  fainting  pilgrims;  and  possessing  the  con- 
fidence of  the  ch:ef  officers  of  the  temple,  he  is  said  to 
obey  their  wishe:*  implicitly  by  taking  the  opportunity 
his  employment  affords,  of  administering  poison  to  their 
enemies,  and  to  those  who  have  become  in  any  way 
obnoxious  to  them. 

The  Kaaba  is  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  temple. 
The  ground  round  it  is  paved  with  fine  marble,  on  which 
the  pilgrims  perform  their  circuit;  for  to  walk  seven 
times  round  the  Kaaba  repeating  a  certain  number  of 
prayers  is  one  of  the  numerous  ceremonies  which  a  pil- 
grim has  to  go  through.  We  cannot  here  desciribe  them 
in  their  order;  but  the  most  important  seem  to  be, 
kissin^r  the  black  stone,  drinking  as  much  water  as 
possible  from  the  sacred  well  Zemzem, — making  seven 
jourueyB  between  two  of  the  hills  and  repeating  loud 
prayers  on  each, — having  the  head  shaved  and  repeating 
after  the  barber  certain  prayers, — performing  their  de- 
votions in  the  Kaaba,  and  afterwards, — (if  they  are  so 
highly  privileged,) — assisting  in  washing  the  floor  of  the 


I  sacred  building.  The  wkitt  thus  etnplbyed,  as  it  flows 
■  out  at  a  hole  made  for  the  purpose,  they  collect  eagerly  ,^« 
drink  it, — and  pour  it  over  their  persons.  Thus  do  theM 
poor  Mohammedans  appease  their  own  consciences,  and 
imagine  Uiat  they  are  propitiating  the  fiivour  of  God,  by 
a  round  of  empty  observances  and  wearisome  ceremonies. 
The  rapidly  declining  state  of  the  city  of  Mecca  and 
the  great  decrease  in  the  number  of  pilgrims  who  pay 
their  adorations  at  the  birth-place  of  their  prophet,  will 
probably  cause  the  foregoing  description  of  tne  place, 
and  its  customs,  to  apply,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years, 
to  the  paH  alone.  The  devastations  committed  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Mecca  by  wandering  Arab  tribes,  have 
deprived  it  of  many  sources  of  attraction  for  the  devotee. 
There  is  one  principal  object  of  pilgrimage,  however,  re- 
maining, almost  much  venerated  by  pilgrims  as  those 
within  the  city  itself;  and  with  the  mention  of  this  we 
close  our  account  of  Mecca.  The  place  we  speak  is  a 
mountain  called  Artxjaif  where,  according  to  the  ridicu- 
lous superstition  of  the  people,  Adam  met  his  wife,  after 
they  had  undergone  a  separation  for  the  space  of  two 
hundred  years ;  and  where  having  built  the  chafel  now 
standings  he  left  Hejaz  and  retired  with  Eve  into  the 
island  of  Ceylon. 


•UPBRSTITIOV  AND  IMPOSTURE. 

AitONG  thoes  persons  who  came  to  pay  their  respects  to  me, 
were  two  remarkable  impostors  residing  in  this  neighbour- 
hood, and  acting  in  difiterent  departments  of  knavery :  one 
of  them  had  lately  abandoned  his  clidms  to  supernatural 
power,  to  save  himself  from  present  injury;  and  the  reputa- 
Uon  of  the  other  I  had  completely  ruined  by  convictine 
thieves  to  whom  his  god  had  promised  concealment  ana 
security  on  receiving  p«rt  of  their  plunder.  The  former  ctf 
these  knaves^  an  old  man,  had  unluckily  for  himself  in- 
spired his  neighbours  with  a  belief  that  he  had  the  power  of 
bringing  rain  by  performing  certain  ceremonies;  and  the/ 
had  spiead  his  fiune  over  the  whole  district.  f*rom  this^ 
and  his  knowledge  of  the  appearance  of  the  sky,  and  the 
various  signs  of  coming  showers  or  approaching  heavy  rain^ 
he  had  lon^  imposed  on  the  people,  and  reaped  oousiderabto 
profit;  until  at  last  their  eagerness  of  beliet  outlining  hia 
powers  of  imposition,  not  only  destroyed  his  oocnpatton, 
out  nearly  cost  him  his  lift.  It  was  urged  by  some  onsy 
and  acquiesced  in  by  all,  that,  as  there  was  no  doubt  ef 
his  ability  to  call  down  niin  when  necessaiy.  it  ought  uot 
to  be  left  to  his  caprice  when  this  talent  should  be  exercised ; 
and  that  when  required  by  a  whole  villa^,  he  should  be 
obliged  to  furnish  rain  in  sufficient  quantities :  that,  if  he 
did  so,  he  was  to  be  liberally  rewarded ;  but  on  the  contrary^ 
if  he  were  contumacious,  and  refVised  to  give  tlie  necessary 
supply^  that  he  should  oe  tormented  with  thornsk  or  beat 
into  compliance.  Having  sufibrsd  severe  punishments  oa 
various  occasions,  he  at  last  made  up  his  mmd  no  lonaer  ta 
be  a  responsible  agent  for  the  weather^  and  loudly  ana  con^ 
stantly  denied  having  any  authority  in  the  matter.  Thi^ 
although  deemed  to  be  a  &lBe  excuse,  proved  a  sufficient 
protection  to  him  during  several  seasons  m  which  there  was 
no  deficiency  of  moisture ;  but  this  season  the  people,  losing 
all  patience  from  a  long-continued  drought  Which  was  des* 
troying  their  crops,  dhm;ed  the  recuaant  cloudKSompeller  to 
various  villages,  m  which  he  suifered  severely  lor  his  sup* 
posed  neglect.  Even  the  chief  of  the  district  had  determined 
on  having  rain  by  force,  if  fair  means  proved  insufficient^ 
and  had  sent  some  of  his  followers  to  bring  the  conjuror  to 
the  Village  where  water  was  most  required ;  it  was  while  on 
his  way  there  that  he  was  fortunate  enough  to  see  me,  and, 
making  his  escape,  threw  himself  on  my  protection.  In  the 
court*  house  the  old  man  stated,  that  he*  was  in  tenor  of  hIa 
life,  for  at  present  there  was  every  impearance  of  continue 
ance  of  the  same  dry  weather  that  had  already  done  so  much 
mischief;  and  then  gravely  proceeded  to  prove  to  me  by 
many  oaths  that  it  was  no  &iut  of  his  that  no  rain  was  forth- 
coming. I  had  some  difficulty  in  protecting  this  old  im- 
postor, particularly  as  a  few  slight  showen  fell  near  his 
village,  which  was  situated  on  one  of  the  highest  inhabited 
parts  of  the  district  s  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  people 
thought^  not  that  they  had  been  the  infiituated  dupes  of  A 
ngue,  but  thail  was  unpoasd  upon  by  «  tthnriish  Winid^-^ 
FoRBBs's  Ctsfhn*  _^ 

597—2 


156 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[OCTOBEK  23, 


THE  VEGETABLE  BUTTER  OF  AFRICA 

Jn  a  Letter  to  the  Editor  <{f  Thx  Friekd  or  AfricAj  /rem 

MiBi  (Bowdicb)  Lee. 

Having  been  long  convinced  that  the  vegetable  butter 
of  Africa  might  form  an  important  article  of  commerce, 
I  send  you  a  brief  account  of  all  that  is  known  con- 
cerning *it  either  as  observed  by  myself  or  others,  hoping, 
through  the  medium  of  your  periodical,  to  awaken  Aiore 
attention  to  its  valuable  qualities  than  it  has  hitherto 
excited. 

Mungo  Park  was  the  first  traveller  who  spoke  of  the 
vegetable  butter  in  so  decided  a  manner  as  to  give  any 
idea  of  what  it  really  is,  although  older  writers  mention 
it  under  various  names  for  grease.  In  the  countries 
which  he  first  visited,  it  was  called  the  Shea  tolu,  and  he 
describes  the  tree  from  whence  it  is  derived  as  re- 
sembling the  American  oak  in  appearance,  adding  that 
it  is  an  article  of  food,  and  bringing  a  bunch  of  the 
leaves  home.  The  flower  has  never  reached  this  country, 
but  the  seed,  or  fruit,  so  decidedly  refers  the  tree  to  the 
natural  family  of  Sapots,  that  botanists  have  placed  it 
there  as  a  species  of  Bassia,  differing  from  that  of  the 
tallow  tree  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  elsewhere.  It 
extends  over  a  large  portion  of  the  Continent,  from 
Jaloff  and  Houssa,  to  the  latitude  of  the  Gaboon  river ; 
how  much  farther  south  is.  not  yet  known ;  but  it  has 
not  been  observed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Congo. 
Mr.  Lander  constantly  mentions  it  in  his  last  voyage, 
under  the  name  of  "  mi  cadania,"  and  in  one  instance  he 
states  that  he  received  two  hundred -weight  of  the  butter 
as  a  present.  I  will  not  here  insert  any  botanical  des- 
cription of  the  Bassia,  as  it  will  be  easily  found  in 
Persoon's  list  of  the  class  Dodecandria  monog3mia,  and 
in  other  authors,  but  proceed  to  speak  of  my  own  know- 
ledge of  the  tree  and  fruit.  On  my  first  arrival  at 
Cape  Coast,  I  constantly  heard  of  the  <^  Ash&iti  grease'* 
as  an  indispensable  article  of  the  native  toilet,  for  both 
males  and  females ;  and  no  sooner  had  I  an  establish- 
ment, than  I  was  frequently  obliged  to  purchase  a  pot  of 
it  for  the  use  of  my  women.  Without  some  aid  of  this 
sort  I  was  told  that  their  skins  would  become  white  and 
scaly,  and  even  crack.  When  I  omitted  the  supply, 
•uch  constant  recourse  was  had  to  the  palm  oil  intended 
Ibr  the  lamps,  that  for  the  sake  of  my  olfactory  nerves 
I  hastened  to  repair  the  fault.  It  looked  very  dirty  and 
smelt  very  disagreeably  after  it  had  been  perfumed,  so 
that  I  was  obliged  to  insist  upon  its  being  used  in  its 
pure  state ;  but  even  this  was  not  sweet,  owing  to  the 
dirty  state  m  which  it  arrived  from  Ash^ti.  On  his 
return  from  that  place,  Mr.  Bowdich  spoke  highly  of  its 
,  fragrance  when  fresh,  and  of  its  use  in  cooking  and 
burning ;  but  a  large  pot  of  it  which  he  had  procured  at 
Coomassie,  (Kumisi)  was  either  lost,  or  stolen  on  his 
perilous  route  back  to  head-quarters.  The  vessel  in 
which  we  embarked  for  England  was  bound  to  the 
Gaboon  for  a  cargo  of  wood ;  and  we,  in  consequence, 
were  detained  in  that  river  for  .many  weeks,  at  a  distance 
of  more  than  fifty  miles  in  the  interior,  and  in  a  latitude 
of  9*  north.  During  this  period  we  passed  several  days 
in  the  native  town  of  Naange,  where  I  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  the  vegetable  butter  in  its  greatest 
perfection,  though  the  season  was  past  for  procuring 
the  flowers.  The  substance  was  perfectly  white,  and 
resembled  English  butter  immediately  after  it  is  turned 
out  of  the  churn.  The  food  cooked  in  it,  such  as  meat, 
fish,  bananas,  &c.,  had  the  most  delicate  flavour  imagin- 
able; no  smell  issued  from  it,  and  on  biscuit  it  was 
excellent.  I  filled  two  small  jars  with  it,  into  one  of 
which  I  put  salt,  in  the  manner  of  potted  butter,  but 
this  turned  rancid  before  my  four  months'  voyage  was 
completed,  while  that  in  the  other  jar,  having  been 
simply  clarified,  remained  sweet  and  fresh  for  years. 
I  was  very  anxious  to  see  the  tree,  although  not  in 
ilower ;  but  this  was  no  easy  task  for  a  European  female 


to  accomplish,  as  it  grew  in  the  thickest  part  of  the 
forest.  Preceded,  however,  by  two  natives  with  hatchets 
to  open  the  path,  two  more  to  frighten  away  reptiles, 
and  scouts  to  give  the  alarm  of  wild  beasts,  and  who 
made  ten  times  more  noise  and  fuss  than  was  necessary, 
I  was  taken  through  the  bush  to  a  tall,  straight  tree,  the 
bark  of  which  resembled  that  of  an  ash.  The  hranches 
sprang  from  the  trunk  at  so  great  a  height  that  we 
could  not  procure  either  leaves  or  pods,  and  all  the 
advantage  which  I  derived  from  my  expedition  was  the 
powdr  of  saying  that  I  had  seen  "  the  fat  tree,"  as  the 
natives  term  it.  '  The  governor  of  the  town  madenp 
for  my  disappointment  bv  giving  me  several  of  the  nuts, 
and  a  fast-decaying  pod ;  we  put  some  of  the  former 
into  boxes  of  earth,  and  brought  them  with  us  half 
across  the  Atlantic,  when  they  perished,  notwithstanding 
our  care. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Gaboon  the  butter  ii 
extracted  by  first  boiling  the  nuts,  and  then  expressing 
the  oil ;  the  inhabitants  deem  it  a  most  precious  proda^ 
tion,  and  great  distress  is  felt  when  any  scarcity  of  it 
takes  place.  Yet  they  use  no  precautions  to  increase 
the  number  of  trees.  Their  favourite  comparison  for 
anything  wonderful  or  advantageous,  is  "like  the  fat 
tree ;"  and  in  a  song  composed  on  first  seeing  white 
men,  these  are  the  words  of  the  burden. 

On  going  back  to  the  vessel,  I  showed  the  nuts  to  a 
servant  of  mine  from  Booroom,  a  country  to  the  east  of 
Ashanti ;  she  instantly  recognised  them,  and  told  m 
that  her  people  bruise  the  nuts,  boil  them,  and  when  the 
oil  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  they  skim  it  olF,  v^ 
put  it  into  calabashes  to  cool. 

When  I  visited  Africa  a  second  time,  I  procured 
some  of  the  butter  from  the  Jaloffs,  and  when  in  Eng- 
land, I  afterwards  found  it  so  healing  to  the  skin  in 
frosty  weather,  or  easterly  winds,  that  I  submitted  it  to 
the  inspection  of  M.  Chevreul,  the  celebrated  analyser 
of  different  kinds  of  grease,  and  the  following  is  a  trans- 
lation of  his  report. 

The  substance  sent  to  me  bjy  Madame  Bowdich,  nniff 
the  name  of  vegetable  butter,  is  formed : — 1st,  of  a  small 
proportion  of  aromatic  principle;  2nd.y  of  oleine;  3rd^  of 
stearine.  This  last  is  imalogous  to  the  stearine  of  mutton 
fat,  for  in  saponification  it  gives  stearic  acid.  The  TegetaUe 
butter  is  perfectly  liquid  at  112^  of  Fahrenheit,  at  \m 
it  begins  to  get  turbid,  at  96}*  it  exhibits  a  liquid  portton^m 
which  float  some  small  brilliant  crystak.  The  liquid  part 
is  a  combination  of  oleine  and  stearine,  as  are  also  the 
crystals,  but  the  latter  contain  a  much  laiver  portion  of 
stearine.  A  thermometer  plunged  into  melted  vegetahle 
butter  fiOls  to  881%  it  afterwaaxls  ascends  to  89^,  when  it 
becomes  quite  concrete.  It  is  easily  converted  into  soap, 
when  heated  with  solution  of  potash,  or  soda,  and  the  aoipt 
thus  obtained  are  analogous  to  Uioee  made  from  mutton  w, 
with  this  advantage,  tnat  they  are  inodorous.  If  it  «en 
possible  to  procure  this  substance  in  any  quantity,  and  at  * 
reasonable  price,  it  mi^ht  be  advantageously  employed  by 
soap  manuiacturers ;  either  mixed  with  vegetable  oils  to 
form  soaps  similar  to  those  mixed  with  olive-oil,  or  alone 
for  toilet  soaps.  Lastly,  the  vegetable  butter  appears  to  me 
to  be  capable  of  being  employed  for  the  same  alimcntai7 
uses  as  the  Cocoa  Butter. 


Man,  for  whom  all  thinffs  were  made,  wbb  hhnself  xna^ 
last  of  all.  We  are  taught  to  follow  the  heavenly  Artist, 
step  by  step,  first  in  the  production  of  the  inaniffls^ 
elements ;  next,  of  vegetable,  and  then  of  animal,  life ;  tiu 
we  come  to  the  master-piece  of  Creation,  man,  enaa« 
with  reason  and  intellect.  The  house  being  built,  its  ic* 
habitant  appeared  :  the  feast  being  set  forth,  the  guest  ^ 
introduced;  the  theatre  being  decorated  and  illuminated, 
the  spectator  was  admitted  to  behold  the  splendid  and 
magnificent  scenery  in  the  heavens  above,  and  the  eaTtn 
beneath  ;  to  view  the  bodies  around  hun,  XDo>'iog  id 
perfect  harmony,  and  every  creature  performing  the  pwj 
allotted  it  in  the  universal  drama ;  that  seeing,  he  mi;'"^ 
understand,  and  understanding,  adore^  it4  Supreme  Autjor 
i^nd  Pirector,*-Bi8Hor  Hours, 


k. 


18410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZIVfi. 
PEVENSEY   CASTLE. 


BDim  or  PBVSHSST  c 


Then 


nihe! 


)c1t  Geld.  ' 


So  hUi  oniuDod)  in  ' 

Tbe  tuughljr  Nurmu  Kiied  Kt  once  in  iile, 
For  which,  Ihrmigh  manj  a  cmttirr.  In  tub. 
The  RoDun,  Suoo,  Due,  had  toiW  tod  bled; 
Of  Qolhic  nBdaii  (his  thn  fiiul  bun! ; 

"   '    le  p«op]fl  ■!], 


liiedlnoi 


ndmliti 


Hon  Iba  rich  tida  of  Elagiiih  blcod  gnw  fulL — Tsouira, 

The  venerable  rains  of  Pevensey  Castle, -in  Sussex, 
form  an  impressive  memorial  of  tlut  stormy  period 
when  the  Normans  ^ciTeeded  the  Saxoas  in  the  govern* 
ment  of  Britain.  It  was  here  that  William  of  Normandy 
Innded,  nearly  eight  centuries  ago,  and  within  a  few 
miles  is  the  spot  where  the  decisive  battle  was  fought 
between  him  and  Harold  the  Saxon.  Let  us  endeavour 
to  present  the  broad  features  of  this  momentous  struggle 
iu  a  brief  and  popular  form. 

About  the  year  1040,  after  a  temporary  possession  of 
power  by  the  Danes,  Edward,  sumamed  the  Confessor, 
of  the  Saxon  lineage,  was  chosen  king  of  England.  He 
was  childless,  and  long  before  his  death  many  were  the 
discuasioua  and  apecnlations  as  to  who  should  succeed 
him.  William,  the  duke  of  Normandy,  who  was  Ed- 
ward's cousin, — Earl  Harold,  an  ambitious  noble,  whose 
sister  Edward  had  married, — and  Edgar  Atheling,  the 
real  descendant  of  the  Saxon  kings  who  had  been  dis- 
placed by  the  Danes, — all  became  objects  of  interest  in 
this  respect.  Edward,  as  he  grew  older,  showed  a  vacil- 
lating character,  which  proved  the  cause  of  much  eubse- 
:iuent  misery  to  his  kingdom.  About  the  year  1060  he 
letermined  that  William  should  succeed  him;  then  he 
rhaoged  his  mind,  and  devised  in  favour  of  the  Atheling; 
:hen  he  again  wavered,  and  sent  Harold  over  to  Nor- 
naady,  to  inform  William  of  his  final  determination  in 
lis  favour.  William,  knowing  the  influence  of  Harold 
n  England,  endeavoured  to  secure  his  friendship  and 
upport,  and,  outwardly  at  least,  succeeded.  But  Harold 
ras  an  ambitious  man,  and  left  no  measure  untried  which 
>roiuised  to  increase  his  power,  whether  legally  or  not. 


At  length,  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1066,  Edward 
approached  hia  end,  and  Harold  seems  now  to  have  im- 
bibed hopes  of  the  sovereignty.  Aceompanied  by  a  few 
adherents,  oe  found  hia  way  into  the  apartment  of  the 
dying  monarch,  whom  he  questioned  as  to  the  appoint- 
ment  of  a  successor.  "  Ye  know  full  well,  my  lords," 
said  the  now  feeble  king,  "  that  I  have  bequeathed  my 
kingdom  to  the  Duke  of  Normandy,  and  are  there  not 
those  here  whose  oatha  have  been  given  to  secure  his 
succession  ?  "  alluding  to  a  kind  of  oath  of  fealty  which 
Harold  had  taken  towarda  William.  But  Harold  re- 
newed his  importunities,  and  the  sick  and  wearied 
monarch  replied,  "Harold,  take  the  kingdom,  if  such  be 
thy  wish,  hut  the  gift  will  be  thy  rain.  Against  the 
diike  and  his  barons  no  power  of  thine  can  avail." 
Harold  replied  that  he  feared  no  enemies,  and  the  king, 
shortly  b^ore  he  breathed  hia  last,  as  if  worn  out  by 
these  cravings  for  power,  said,  with  a  sort  of  pettish 
weakness,  that  the  English  might  have  Harold,  or  any 
one  they  pleased,  for  their  king. 

Such  was  the  mode,  according  to  one  account,  in 
which  Harold  acquired  hia  equivocal  claim  to  the  English 
throne,  and  collateral  circumstances  do  not  throw  any 
discredit  on  the  account.  Sir  F.  Falgrave  shows  how 
strikingly  the  circumstances  resemble  the  sceoes  which 
often  occur  at  the  death-bed  of  a  wealthy  but  weak- 
minded  man. 

The  childlMB  owner  of  a  large  estate,  (savs  he,^  at  first 
leaves  his  property  to  his  cousin  on  the  mother's  side,  from 
whose  coimoxions  he  has  received  much  kindness.  He  ad- 
vances in  age,  and  alters  his  intentions  in  fkvour  of  a 
nephew  on  his  father's  aide,  an  amiable  young  man  living 
abroad,  and  from  whom  he  had  been  estranged  in  cona^ 

Suence  of  a  fiunily  quarrel  of  long  standing.  The  young 
eir  comes  to  the  testator'a  houae,  is  received  with  great 
affection,  and  ia  suddenly  cut  oS  by  illness.  The  testator 
then  retuma  to  bis  will  in  favour  of  nls  cousin,  who  resides 
abroad.  His  acule  and  active  brother-in-law  has  taken  the 
management  of  his  afluis,  is  well  informed  of  this  will, 
and  when  tht  testator  is  on  his  death-bed,  he  contrivea  to 
teaM  aod  paraiuda  tlie  dying  man  to  alter  the  will  again  in 


158 


1*HE  SATURDAY  MAGAKIMS. 


[OCTOBIE  t^ 


his  farour.  This  is  exactly  the  state  of  the  ease ;  and 
though  considerable  doubts  liave  been  raised  relating  to  the 
contradictory  becjuests  of  the  Confessor,  there  can  be  no 
difficulty  in  admitting  that  the  conflicting  pretensions  of 
William  and  Harold  were  grounded  upon  the  aets  emanating 
from  a  wavering  and  feeble  mind.  If  such  disputes  take 
place  between  private  individuals^  they  are  decided  by  a 
Court  of  Justice,  but  if  thev  eoilMltl  ft  kingdom  they  can 
only  be  settled  by  the  sword. 

This  familiar  way  of  illuslfiting  thd  BUbJttiit  ts  ^ftKi* 
cularly  calculated  to  impreii  its  main  fbaturM  oti  the 
mind. 

No  sooner  was  Edward  dettd  than  Harold  took  prompi 
measures  to  seize  the  vacated  throne.  William  was 
abroad;  Atheling  was  youthftil,  timid,  and  poor;  Harold 
was  at  hand,  bold,  and  aspiring ;  and  the  nobles,  partly 
by  force,  partly  by  entreat)r»  conferred  the  crown  oil 
Harold.  But  his  tenure  of  sovereignty  was  brief.  Ob 
the  6th  of  January,  10I$6|  he  assumed  the  crown,  and 
on  the  14th  of  October  lb  the  same  year  he  terminated 
his  career,  after  a  troubled  reign  of  a  very  ^w  months. 
He  contrived  to  embroil  himself  with  one  of  his  brothers 
wbo  had  joined  the  Norwegian  king  in  a  hostile  attack 
on  England,  and  on  the  very  next  day  after  Harold  had 
defeated  this  brother  in  the  north  of  England  he  heard 
that  William  of  Normandy  had  landedi  with  a  powerful 
force,  at  PevenseV,  in  Bussex. 

William  is  said  to  have  been  hunting  in  his  park  at 
Rouen  when  intelUgenne  was  brought  him  that  Bdward 
was  dead,  and  that  Harold)  in  despite  of  his  oath  of 
fealty,  had  seized  the  vacant  sceptre  of  Englandk     For 
a  time  he  was  as  one  stunned  by  the  suddenness  of  the 
announcement,  and  it  was  not  until  some  of  his  nobles 
had  aroused  him  that  he  could  form  any  decided  plan  of 
action.     As,  however,  there  seemed  to  be  a  general  im- 
pression in  his  court  that  the  claim  of  William  to  the 
English  crown  was  founded  on  a  legitimate  gift  from  the 
deceased  monarch,  the  nobles  lent  their  assistance  to  him 
in  his  project  to  dispossess  Harold.     The  times  in  which 
these  events  took  place  were  feudal  times,  in  which  nobles 
held  their  possessions  under  a  contract  to  fight  for  the 
king  whenever  he  should  require  their  services,  and  in 
which  the  vassals  or  retainers  accompanied  a  noble  to 
battle  in  return  for  the  protection  which  they  received 
from  him.      Under  such  circumstances  there  was  no 
national  army,  for  the  retainers  of  any  noble,  who  formed 
the  real  fighting  soldiery,  were   ordered  not  by  their 
king  but  by  their  lord,  and  consequently  a  king  had  to 
obtain  the  support  of  his  nobles  before  he  eould  com- 
mand the  personal  services  of  the  vassals  belonging  to 
them.     This  feudal  service  was,  however,  by  agreement 
confined  to  the  soil  of  their  birth,  and  William  found 
that  he  could  not  obtain  the  services  of  his  nobles  in  an 
invasion   of  England,  without  promising  them   large 
rewards  in  the  shape  of  possessions  in  the  conquered 
country.      This  was  a  very  important  feature  m  the 
transaction,  and  one  which  may  be  deemed  the  principal 
cause  of  the  tenure  of  land  in  England  at  the  present 
day.     Many  of  our  noblemen  can  trace  back  their  titles 
and  estates  to  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  when  their 
ancestors  received  them  in  lieu  of  services  rendered  to 
the  Conqueror. 

While  William  was  making  these  preparations  Harold 
was  preparing  for  defence  on  the  southern  coast  of 
Eno-land,  but  at  the  time  when  the  attack  was  actually 
made  Harcild  was  in  the  north  of  England.  '  He  was 
informed  by  a  messenger,  who  had  travelled  with  the 
utmost  speed,  that  William  had  cro6se4  the  Channel 
with  seven  hundred  ships  and  boats  (some  say  three  thou- 
sand) and  had  effected  a  landing  with  his  army  at  Pe- 
vensey. 

On  September  29th,  1066,  this  memorable  landing 
was  effected.  The  war-horses,  the  archers,  the  knights, 
the  standard-bearers,  the  duke  himself, — all  landed  in 
safety,  and  almost  without  opposition.  William  occupied 
an  ancient  Roman  castle,  at  Pevensey,  and  exhorted  his 


troops  to  prepare  for  the  coming  contest.  He  rendered 
all  his  vessels  unserviceable,  in  order  that  no  idea  of 
escape  might  enter  into  the  minds  of  his  soldiers,  and 
took  everv  opportunity  to  cheer  them  to  their  approach'mg 
duties.  He  is  said  to  have  stumbled  when  he  first  pot 
his  foot  upon  English  ground:  a  soldier  said, ''Jlfo/ 
n^e  est  ci:"  ^'No,"  cried  William,  showing  ^  clod  of 
ttarth  in  his  hond^  <*I  have  taken  possession  of  the 
country." 

To  meet  troops  thus  prepared  for  him  Harold  hastened 
fVom  the  north.  He  stopped  a  short  time  at  X<ondon,  to 
collect  his  forces,  and  then  hastened  onward  to  Sussex. 
Some  fruitless  attempts  are  said  to  have  been  made  at 
negotiation,  for  it  was  evident  to  each  of  the  chieftaiiis 
that  they  had  respectively  ventured  their  whole  fortunes 
on  the  cast  of  the  die,  and  before  engaging  in  a  conflict 
which  must  prove  fatal  to  one  of  them,  they  made  an 
attempt  to  avoid  the  danger.  The  attempt  was,  however, 
unsuccessful  i  each  asked  more  than  the  other  could  or 
would  concede,  and  nothing  remained  but  to  settle  the 
struggle  by  the  sword.  MHien  it  was  evident  that  battle 
was  inevitable  the  two  armies  passed  the  intervening  nigbt 
in  a  verv  different  manner*  Harold's  army  indued  in 
riot  ahd  debauoherv»  the  •  Waes-beal '  and  *  Drink-heal ' 
resounding  from  the  tents»  whereas  William's  amy 
spent  the  time  in  responding  the  Litany  and  chontiog 
psalms. 

The  next  day,  the  1 4th  of  Ootoberi  saw  the  two  armies 
pitted  against  each  Other^  The  English  were  fortified 
in  their  position  by  Uki«s  of  Ir^tichM  and  palisadoes,  and 
within  these  defences  they  Were  marshalled,  shield  against 
shield,  presenting  an  impenetrable  front  to  the  enemv. 
The  men  of  Kent  formed  the  van-guard.  The  burgesses 
of  London  claimed  the  honour  of  being  the  royal  body- 
guard, and  were  drawn  up  around  the  standon!,  at  tie 
foot  of  which  stood  Harold»  his  two  brothers,  and  the 
bravest  of  his  nobles. 

The  English  stood  to  meet  the  attack  of  the  Normans. 
William  Fitzosbom  and  Roger  Montgomery  led  the  first 
division;  Almeric  of  Thouars  and  Alan  rergaat,  the 
second ;  while  William  led  on  the  third  division  in  per- 
having  before  him  his  minstrel,   Tailiefer,  who 


son 


loudly  song  the  lay  of  Charlemagne  and  Roland,  and  the 
mighty  deeds  of  the  Paladins.  The  three  divisions,  thus 
marshalled,  attacked,  nearly  simultaneously,  three  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  English  force,  and  a  fearful  slaughter 
conimenced. 

It  forms  no  part  of  our  object  to  detail  the  events  of 
the  battle — ^the  attack  and  counter-attaok — the  fierce 
struggles  for  commanding  positions — ^the  alternate  jrield- 
ing  and  rallying  of  each  party  the  incessant  exertions 
of  the  two  leaders  to  keep  their  adherents  in  a  state  of 
excited  enthusiasm.  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  after  Harold 
had  been  wounded  iti  the  eye  by  an  arrow,  and  borne 
from  his  horse,  th6  discomfiture  of  his  troops  became 
evident,  and  the  night  closed  in  with  victory  on  the  side 
of  William.  From  that  hour  he  became  in  effi^ct,  and 
soon  after  formally,  king  of  England,  and  his  barons 
received  the  broad  lands  of  the  conquered  country  as  a 
reward  for  their  exertions  in  the  day  of  battle. 

As  to  the  real  fate  of  Harold,  a  curious  uncertadnty 
exists.  One  of  the  early  chroniclers  states  that  \^'ilUam 
surrendered  the  dead  body  of  the  defeated  monarch  to 
Githa,  Harold's  mother,  who  caused  it  to  be  buried  in 
the  abbey  of  the  Holy  Cross.  Another  writer  says  that 
a  body»  of  which  the  feature:*  were  midistinguishablei 
but  supposed  to  be  those  of  Harold,  was  found  betw^een 
the  corpses  of  his  two  brothers,  and  that  William  caused 
this  corpse  to  be  buried  in  the  sands  of  the  sea-shore* 
accompanying  his  directions  with  the  words,  *^  Let  him 
guard  the  coast  which  he  so  madly  occupied,**  and  r«« 
lusinff  to  Githa  the  purchase  of  the  body  by  its  weight 
in  gold.  A  third  account,  furnished  by  the  monks  of 
Wadtham  Abbey,  to  which  Harold  had  been  a  great 
benefactor,  states  that  the  Conqueror  having  given  fi> 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


159 


some  of  the  monks  permisiion  to  search  the  field  for  the 
dead  body  of  Harold,  they  sought  among  the  loathsome 
heaps  of  the  unburied,  but  sought  in  vain :  they  then 
obtained  the  aid  of  Editha,  one  whom  Harold  had  ten- 
derly loved,  to  search  with  them :  she  selected  a  ghastly 
and  mutilated  corpse  as  that  of  Haroldy  and  had  it 
entombed  in  Waltham  Abbey. 

There  were  those,  however,  who  denied  that  Harold 
fell  on  that  memorable  day.  Years  after  this  event, 
when  the  Norman  yoke  was  firmly  and  oppressively 
established  in  England,  a  decrepit  hermit  inhabited  a  cell 
near  the  Abbey  of  St.  John,  at  Chester.  Henry  the 
First  once  visited  the  scarred,  half-blinded,  and  recluse 
old  man,  and  is  said  to  have  heard  from  the  hermit 
himself  that  he  was  Harold,  who  had  heen  secretly  con* 
Teyed  from  the  field  of  battle  to  a  castle  on  the  coast, 
and  from  thence  to  the  place  of  his  seclusion.  Sir 
Francis  Palgrave,  after  noticing  the  various  accounts 
^ven  of  the  fate  of  Harold,  says: 

If  we  compare  the  difierent  narratives  concerning  the  in- 
humation of  Harold  we  shall  find  the  most  remarkable 
discrepancies.    It  u  evident  that  the  circumstances  were 
not  accuratoN'  known,  and  since  those  ancient  writers  who 
were  best  informed  cannot  be  reconciled  to  each  other,  the 
escape  of  Harold,  if  admitted,  would  solve  the  difiiculty. 
I  am  not  prepared  to  maintain  that  the  authenticity  of  thia 
story  cannot  oe  impugned,  but  it  ma^  be  remarked  tliat  the 
tale,  though  romantic,  is  not  incredible,  and  that  the  cir- 
cumstances may  be  easily  reconciled  to  probability.    There 
were  no  walls  to  be  scaled,  no  fosse  to  be  crossed,  no  warder 
to  be  eluded ;  and  the  examples  of  those  who  have  survived 
after  em^ountoring  much  greater  perils  are  so  very  numerous 
and  familiar,  tliat  the  incidents  which  I  have  narmted 
would  hardly  give  rise  to  a  doubt  if  they  referred  to  anj 
other  personage  than  a  king. 

A  word  or  two  respecting  the  castle  at  Pevensey. 
Tlie  spot  where  the  battle  took  place  is  that  which  is 
now  known  as  Battle,  a  few  miles  from  Hastings  and 
from  Pevensey.  Harold's  standard  was  torn  at  the  end 
of  the  conflict,  William's  planted  in  its  place,  and  a 
gplendid  abbey  afterwards  huilt  on  the  spot,  in  commemo-* 
ration  of  the  victory,  the  high  altar  occupying  the  pre- 
cise place  at  which  the  standard  had  been  planted.  On 
William's  accession  to  the  throne  he  presented  the 
manor  of  Pevensey  (called  by  the  Saxons  Peowetuea, 
and  b}'  the  Normans  Feventii)  to  his  half-brother,  Earl 
Robert,  who  fortified  it  with  the  noble  castle,  now  in 
ruins,  and  which  was  probably  formed  on  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Roman  castle.  The  remains  are  situated  on  a 
crag-gy  steep,  commanding  a  beautiful  view  of  the  adja- 
cent country.  The  external  walls  are  circular,  and  inclose 
an  area  of  seven  acres,  being,  together  with  the  towers, 
tolerably  entire  for  the  height  of  twenty-five  ieet.  They 
display  throughout  abundance  of  Roman  bricks,  which 
Turnish  corroborative  evidence  of  the  previous  existence 
>f  a  Roman  fortification  on  that  sito. 


BIOGRAPHICAL  MEMOIR  OF 
Dr.  THOMAS  YOUNG. 

II. 

3n  his  return  to  England,  Young  entered  himself  of 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  of  which  Dr.  Farmer, 
n  intimate  of  his  uncle,  was  then  master.  There  he 
ook  his  regular  degrees  in  physic,  but  did  not  attend  any 
«f  the  public  lectures.  He  contented  himself  with  pur* 
uing-  in  private  the  various  studies  in  which  he  was 
nga^d,  cultivating  the  intimacy  of  the  most  highly- 
iftcd  members  of  the  university,  and  discussing  sub- 
lets of  science  with  the  professors.  In  these  engage- 
ments he  passed  the  time  of  his  residence  at  college, 
ndin^  no  rival  in  the  variety  of  his  knowledge,  and 
i\Y  competitors  in  some  of  its  branches. 

At  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Dn  Brocklesby,  in  1797, 
)r.  Youn^  came  into  poisesnoa  ef  the  hoosey  books; 


pictures,  and  part  of  the  fortune  of  that  gentleman.  He 
now  found  himself  in  circumstances  of  independence, 
and  surrounded  by  distinguished  and  valuable  friends, 
whose  intimacy  he  continued  to  prize  and  enjoy  through 
life.  On  leavmg  Cambridge  he  settled  as  a  physician  in 
London,  in  Welbeck  Street,  where  he  continued  to  reside 
during  twenty-five  years. 

In  1801,  Dr.  Young  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institution,  and  during 
two  years  he  continued  to  lecture  alternately  with  Sir 
Humphrey  Davy.  As  a  lecturer,  he  was  not  eminently 
successful,  for  though  his  lectures  were  full  of  striking 
and  original  matter,  he  was  not  happy  in  the  mode  of 
conveying  his  ideas,  so  as  to  suit  the  capacities  of  a 
mixed  audience.  He  was  always  compressed  and 
laconic,  and  seemed  to  think  his  audience  better  in- 
structed than  such  an  assembly  could  possibly  be,  in  the 
abstruse  points  on  which  he  delighted  to  dwell ;  it  is  even 
said  that  men  of  science  could  not  follow  him  without 
considerable  difficulty.  Even  as  a  lecturer  on  the 
Practice  of  Medicine  at  St.  George's  Hospital,  he  was 
by  no  means  popular.  Arago  suggests,  that  his  want 
of  success  may  perhaps  in  justice  be  attributed  to  the 
frequent  opportunities  he  took  of  pointing  out  the  in- 
extricable difficulties  which  are  met  with  at  each  step  in 
studying  the  numerous  diseases  to  which  the  human 
frame  is  liable.  Those  among  the  faculty  who  wished 
to  attain  their  knowledge  rapidly,  and  with  as  little 
labour  as  possible,  must  needs  have  felt  discouraged  by 
such  language  as  Young  was  constently  making  use  of,~^ 
for  instance  when  he  said — **  No  study  is  so  complicated 
as  that  of  medicine ;  it  exceeds  the  bounds  of  human  in- 
telligence. Physicians  who  act  precipitately,  without 
attempting  to  comprehend  what  they  observe,  are  often 
as  much  in  error  as  those  who  constantly  generalize 
from  observations  which  are  not  analogical."  Or,  "In 
the  httery  of  medicine,  the  chances  of  the  possessor  of 
ten  tickets  are  evidently  greater  than  those  of  the  person 
who  has  only  five.'' 

The  extent  of  Dr.  Young's  knowledge  appears  to  have 
had  an  effect  that  was  unfavourable  to  his  practice  as  a 
medical  man.  He  was  imdecided,  and  wanting  in  con- 
fidence at  the  sick-bed.  Remarkably  distinguished  for 
boldness  in  his  scientific  views  in  general,  he  was  yet  so 
well  aware  of  the  prejudicial  effects  which  might  eventu- 
ally result  from  the  action  of  the  best  medicines,  that  he 
appeared  to  balance  these  against  the  favourable  chances 
which  might  be  expected,  and  this  at  a  time  when  de- 
cisive measures  were  called  for.  The  same  timidity  was 
displayed  in  all  his  medical  works. 

He  was  scarcely  convinced,  (says  Arago,^  of  the  soundness 
of  his  own  arguments,  when  he  attacked  the  celebrated  Dr. 
Radcliffe,  whose  whole  secret  in  a  brilliant  and  successful 
practice,  was,  as  he  himself  declared,*  the  employment  of 
contrary  remedies,  or  when  he  contended  with  I)r.  Broi^'n, 
who  found  himself  under  the  painful  necessity  of  acknow- 
ledging from  the  evidence  of  the  official  documents  of  a 
fever  hospital,  that  the  majority  of  fevers,  when  left  to 
themselves,  are  neither  more  severe,  nor  of  longer  duration, 
than  when  they  are  treated  by  the  best  methods. 

In  1803,  Dr.  Young  published  his  Syllabus,  a  course 
of  Lectures  on  Natural  and  Experimentel  Philosophy, 
with  mathematical  demonstrations  of  the  most  important 
theorems  in  Mechanics  and  Optics;  in  the  same  year  he 
accompanied  the  Duke  of  Richmond  and  his  brother, 
Lord  G«  Lennox,  in  his  medical  capacity,  to  Rouen,  and 
in  an  excursion  to  Paris  where  he  was  first  present  at  the 
National  Institute,  at  that  time  attended  by  Napoleon. 
There  he  made  the  acquaintence  of  several  of  the  lead- 
ing members  of  that  distinguished  body,  into  which  he 
was  himself  eventually  elected.  On  his  return  he  was 
constituted  Foreign  Secretary  to  the  Royal  Society,  an 
office  which  he  maintained  during  life.  In  1804  he 
married  Eliza,  daughter  of  J.  P.  Maxwell,  Esq.,  of 
Cavendish   Square,— -an  union  productive  of  uninter- 


160 


THE  SATtJRDAV  MAGAZINE 


[October  23,  lS4i. 


rupted  happiness  for  the  remainder  of  hit  life.  At  this 
time  it  was  Dr.  Young's  resolution  to  confine  himself  for 
the  most  part  to  medical  studies,  and  to  make  himself 
known  to  the  public  in  no  other  character.  But  he  had 
resolved  on  that  which  to  him  was  impossible.  He 
never  slackened  in  his  literary  and  philosophical  exer- 
tions. He  was  always  ready  to  lend  his  aid  to  anjr  one 
engaged  in  similar  investigations.  He  was  living  m  the 
first  circles  in  London,  and  his  avocations  could  not  he 
concealed;  therefore  it  is  conceived  that  in  putting  forth 
his  non-medical  papers  separately  and  anonymously,  he 
was  making  a  fruitless  as  well  as  voluntary  sacrifice  of 
the  general  celebrity  to  which  he  was  entitled.  From 
an  impression  that  it  would  be  likely  to  interfere  with  his 
success  as  a  medical  practitioner,  he  likewise  resigned  his 
professorship  in  the  Royal  Institution.  In  his  anony- 
mous publications,  however,  the  veil  was  very  transparent 
Two  contiguous  letters  of  a  Latin  motto,  in  a  regular 
order,  formed  the  signature  to  each  paper,  but  Young 
communicated  the  Latin  words  to  all  his  friends;  and 
few  were  ignorant  of  the  real  nature  of  his  pursuits. 
f  In  1807,  Dr.  Young  published  his  Course  of  Lectures 
on  Natural  Philosophy  and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  in  two 
quarto  volumes,  each  consisting  of  eight  or  nine  hundred 
pages,  where  every  branch  of  natural  philosophy  was 
treated  in  a  new  and  profound  manner.  It  is '  said  of 
this  work,  that  it  contains  the  original  hints,  of  more 
things  since  claimed  as  discoveries,  than  can  perhaps  be 
found  in  a  single  production  of  any  known  author.-  On 
this  occasion  Dr.  Young  forgot  his  fonper  precautions, 
and  gave  his  name  to  the  pi]d)lication.  We  cannot  give 
even  the  titles  pf  all  the  numerous  works  which  Dr.  Young 
published,  but  the  mention  of  only  a  few  of  them  will 
show  how  diversified  were  his  researches. — Memoir  on 
Iron  Furnaces.  Essays  on  Music  and  Painting.  Re- 
searches into  the  habits  of  Spiders.  On  the  Stability  of 
the  Arches  of  Bridges.  On  the  Atmosphere  of  the 
Moon.  The  Mathematical  Theoiy  of  Epicycloidal 
Curves.  Restitution  and  Translation  of  different  Greek 
Inscriptions.  On  the  Means  of  strengthening  the 
Timber-work  of  Wooden  Vessels.  On  the  Action  of 
the  Heart  and  Arteries  in  the  Phenomenon  of  Circula- 
tion. Theory  of  the  Tides.  On  the  Diseases  of  the 
chest.  On  Friction  in  the  Axes  of  Machines.  On  the 
yellow  Fever.  On  the  Calculation  of  Eclipses.  Essays 
on  Grammar : — &c.  Such  a  variety  of  elaborate  works 
seem  sufficient  to  have  shut  up  their  author  in  his  study; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  he  was  to  be  found  in  the  most 
brilliant  circles  in  London,  delighting  his  friends  with 
the  accomplishments  of  his  mind,  and  the  elegance  of 
his  manners;  He  was  a  true  living  library,  where  an 
exact,  precise,  and  substantial  answer  could  be  given  in 
an  instant  to  every  kind  of  question  which  could  be 
proposed. 

In  the  year  1814,  the  studies  of  Dr.  Young  were 
directed  to  a  subject^  which  has  added  greatly  to  his 
fame,  although  it  has  led  to  much  controversy.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  he  began  to  investigate  the  lost  litera- 
ture of  Ancient  Egypt,  and  discovered  the  key  to  the 
hieroglyphics. 

In  the  year  1814,  (says  his  biographer,)  Sir  William 
Rouse  Boughton  had  brought  with  him  from  Egypt,  some 
fragments  of  papyri,  which  he  put  into  the  hanos  of  Dr. 
Young,  the  fragment  of  the  Rosetta  Stone  having  about  this 
time  hwa  placed  in  the  British  Museum,  and  a  correct  copy 
of  its  three  inscriptions  having  been  engraved  and  circulated 
by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries.  Dr.  lu>unff  first  proceeded 
to  examine  tne  enchorial  inscriptions,  and  afterwards  the 
sacred  characters,  and  after  a  minute  comparison  of  these 
documents  he  was  enabled  to  attach  some  Remarks  on 
I^^yptian  Papyri,  and  on  the  Inscription  of  Rosetta,  con- 
tammg  an  interpretation  of  the  principal  parts  of  both  the 
Egyptian  inscriptions  on  the  pillar,  to  a  paper  of  Sir  W. 
Boughton*s,  published  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  1815, 
in  the  eighteenth  volume  of  the  Archceologia. 

He  continued  to  prosecute  these  researches  with 


almost  incredible  toil  and  activity.  In  1815  he  wrote 
on  the  subject  in  the  Museum  CriticUT%  and  in  1816 
published  two  letters  annonndng  the  progress  of  the 
discovery  of  the  relation  between  the  Egyptian  character 
and  hieroglyphics,  forming  the  basis  of  his  own  iDqoi- 
rics,  as  well  as  of  the  system  carried  further  in  its  ^ 
tails  by  M.  Champollion,  whose  attention  had  long  bees 
directed  to  similar  studies. 

The  whole  results  of  his  labours  on  this  subject  were 
first  brought  out  in  a  complete  form  in  the  article  Ecrn 
of  EncyclopcBdia  Britannica,  to  which  Dr.  Yoong  fur- 
nished sixty-three  articles,  scientific,  biographical,  and 
literary.  In  1817  he  paid  a  second  visit  to  Paris,  and 
renewed  his  intercourse  with  Humboldt,  Arago,  Cuvier 
and  Gay  Lussac.  In  1818  he  was  appointed  one  of  the 
commissioners  for  considering  the  state  of  the  weiirhts 
and  measures  of  Great  Britain.  In  the  same  jear  be 
became  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Longitude,  with  the 
charge  of  the  supervision  of  the  Nautical  Almanac. 
This  latter  appointment  was  to  him  a  desirable  one,  and 
henceforth  he  had  no  anxiety  to  increase  his  medical 
practice.  In  the  summer  of  1819  he  made  a  hasty  toar 
of  Italy,  and  examined  the  Egyptian  monuments  pre- 
served in  that  country,  returning  to  England  by  way  cf 
Switzerland  and  the  Rhine.  In  1821  he  made  an  ex- 
cursion to  Spa  and  Holland,  and  in  the  same  year  under- 
took the  medical  responsibility  and  mathematical  direc- 
tion of  a  society  for  life  assurance.  This  led  him  into 
researches  in  which  he  took  g^at  interest,  and  produced 
his  Formula  for  expressing  the  Decrement  of  Hunao 
Life,  &c..  In  1823  he  aprain  visited  Paris,  and  also  pub- 
lished  an  account  of  his  Hieroglyphical  Discoveries.  In 
1825  he  removed  from  Welbcck  Street  to  a  house  which 
he  had  built  in  Park  Square,  Regent's  Park,  vbere  be 
continued'  his  favourite  pursuits,  and  expressed  himself 
as  having  attained  the  main  objects  of  his  desire  in  tiiis 
life."  '<  i 

In  the  summer  of  1828  he  went  to  Geneva,  andthfre 
appeared  to  suffer  an  unusual  degree  of  fatigue  on  sli^'V. 
occasions,  and  syrmptoms  of  age  came  on  him,  whicii 
contrasted  strongly  with  the  freedom  from  compliitts 
which  he  had  hitherto  enjoyed.  During  his  absence 
the  Board  of  Longitude  was  abolished,  but  in  macf 
departments  of  the  Admiralty  the  assistance  of  men  of 
science  was  found  so  indispensable,  that  a  new  council  <tf 
three  members  was  appointed,  consisting  of  Dr.  Youngf 
Captain  Sabine,  and  Mr.  Faraday. 

This  change  involved  Dr.  Young  in  more  labourthan 
he  could  perform  without  injury  to  his  health,  and  is 
thought  to  have  aggravated  a  complaint  which  must  bin 
been  long,  though  insensibly  in  progress,  aod  which  ^ 
now  bringing  him  rapidly  to  a  state  of  extreme  debiiit^' 
From  the  month  of  Februaiy,  1829,Jiis  illness  continued 
with  alight  variations  till  the  10th  of  May  foHomng, 
when  he  expired  without  a  struggle,  having  hardly  con- 
pleted  his  fifty-sixth  year.  "  His  disease  proved  to  be 
ossification  of  the  aorta,  and  every  appearance  of  adranw 
age,  not  brought  on  probably  by  the  natural  course  of 
time,  nor  even  by  constitutional  formation,  hut  bj  un- 
wearied and  incessant  labour  of  the  mind  from  the  etf* 
liest  days  of  infancy."  His  remains  were  deposited  in 
Famborough  Church,  Kent.  Of  his  acquirement* «» 
almost  every  department  of  human  knowledge,  we  fl»|* 
endeavoured  to  give  some  faint  idea;  it  only  remains  <> 
add  the  testimony  of  his  biographer,  that  in  all  thcre^ 
tions  of  private  fife.  Dr.  Young  was  an  excmplarr  cW* 
racter,  and  his  whole  career  was  one  of  luefulne*" 
and  moral  rectitude. 


LONDON : 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAND. 

PguitflXD  IV  Wkbxlt  NuMBsBt.  Pbios  Omx  PxiMiT,  sjf»  IK  Moirrv>'  ' 

Pbiob  SiZPKItClC. 

8old>7  aU  BookMUen  and  NttrtYandm  la  Ibt  SlMikm, 


Sa^ttrtrdu 


N2  598.  OCTOBER 


SOT«   1841.  {ow'^T. 


THE   CITY   OF  DRESDEN. 


The  kingdom  of  Saxony,  which  forms  part  of  confede- 
rate Germanvi  hu  for  its  capital,  the  ancient  town  of 
Drebden.  The  Elbe  divides  the  city  into  two  portions, 
which  are  connected  by  a  fine  bridge,  552  feet  long,  with 
16  archea.  The  country  round  has  a  mixture  of  roman- 
tic nature  with  the  richest  cultivation ;  so  that  the  eim- 
rons  of  this  city  are  reputed  to  be  more  delightful  than 
those  of  any  other  capital  of  Europe.  The  approach  to 
the  city  is  on  almost  all  aides  by  avenues  shaded  by  trees. 
It  stands  in  a  fine  plain,  which  is,  for  the  most  part, 
surrounded  by  eminences  covered  with  trees,  viiieyards, 
or  gardens.  The  sweetness  and  amenity  of  its  aspect 
have   acquired  for  it  the  epithet  of  the  "  G«rman  Flo- 

The  heights  of  KesseUdorf,  in  the  vicinity  of  Dresden, 
were  celebrated  as  Uie  scene  of  same  important  battles 
in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  during  which  the 
city  suffered  severely.  The  important  situation  of  the 
city  caused  a  fort  to  be  hnilt  there  as  early  as  the  ninth 
century.  The  city  was  bombarded  for  nine  days  by 
Frederick  the  Great,  in  1760;  and  it  has  been  exposed  to 
the  devastatious  of  war  upon  other  occasions.  The 
Austrians  occupied  the  city  in  1809,  without  injuring 
it.  In  the  following  year  they  began  to  pull  down  the 
fortifications,  but  desisted  on  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Russian  war.  To  the  historian,  however,  Dresden  will 
present  its  most  remarkable  feature  in  being  the  centre  of 
operations,  in  1813,  in  thegieat  and  important  contests, 
when  almost  all  the  powers  of  Europe  were  arrayed 
against  Napoleon.  Besides  the  political  importance  of 
Dresden,  as  a  capital,  the  possession  of  the  Elbe,  by 
means  of  some  of  the  most  important  fortresses,  was 
another  motive,  which  induced  Napoleon  to  place  himself 
with  his  whole  army  on  the  banks  of  thia  river;  and  the 
Vot.  XIX. 


entire  neighbourhood  resembled  a  great  fortified  camp, 
from  which  he  could  pour  forth  his  columns,  with  equul 
ease,  on  the  chief  cities  around.  The  Emperor  displayed 
the  most  consummate  skill  in  the  defences  of  the  city, 
as  a  military  post.  At  the  final  retreat  of  the  French. 
Dresden  received  a  strong  Russian  garrison  and  became 
the  seat  of  the  Russian  administration  under  Prince 
Repnin.  Hie  king  of  Saxony  was  twenty  months  a  pri- 
soner of  the  Allied  Powers,  and  his  dominions  were 
then  governed  by  Russian  and  Prussian  authorities.  The 
adherence  of  this  king  to  the  fortunes  of  Nspoleon, 
though  rare  and  admirable  as  an  instance'  of  political 
integrity,  was  disastrous  to  himself  and  his  monarchy; 
his  dominions  were  ^smembered  by  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  and  the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  hiB  tern- 
torv  transferred  to  Prussia. 

When  the  French  retreated  from  Dresden  to  Leipsic 
in  1813,  they  blew  up  the  central  part  of  the  bridge 
over  the  Elbe,  which  was  repaired  at  the  expense  of  the 
Emperor  of  Russia- 
Dresden  has  very  little  external  trade  or  manufacture. 
It  is  a  place  of  transit  for  foreign  produce,  and  has 
several  fairs  during  the  year.  The  manufactures  of 
mathematical,  mechanical,  and  musical  instruments  have 
arrived  at  some  celebrity  in  this  place;  together  with 
several  other  arts  and  trades;  such  as  the  making  of 
porcelain,  earthenware,  lace,  mirrors,  and  plaited  straw. 
There  is  a  foundry  for  bomb-shells  and  cannon,  and 
another  far  bells:  there  is  also  a  yearly  exhibition  of 
Saxon  manufactures.  The  municipal  eipenses  amount  to 
nearly  7000i.  a  year,  and  the  population  may  be  reckoned 
at  60,000  souls.  As  a  town,  answering  to  the  uses  and 
conveniences  of  life,  this  place  has  been  much  improved 
since  the  war,  by   the  teveUing  of  the  fortificattons; 


162 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[OCTOBBR  SO) 


wliercby  the  ftpace  gained  has  been  illed  Ibr  g^rdeni, 
prohicnadeS)  and  new  buildlngi. 

Excepting  the  people  of  Vienna*  the  capital  of  Ans* 
tria,  no  people  of  Germany  are  so  fond  of  being  out  of 
doors  as  the  Saxons  of  Dresden,  and  no  other  capital 
displays  so  many  temptations  to  allure  them;  wood  and 
water,  mountain  and  plain,  preoipice  and  valley,  corn  and 
wine,  palace  and  cottage,  seem  tossed  together  in  bright 
confusion,  and  {;rlowing  in  a  climate,  which,  north  of  the 
AlpS)  may  well  be  called  genial.  The  rising  ground  to 
he  south-east  of  the  city,  which  was  the  principal  scene 
of  the  combats  and  bombardments  that  terminated  in  the 
retreat  of  the  French  t^  Leipsic,  is  the  only  part  of  the 
environs  at  all  devoid  of  natural  sweetness  and  beauty. 

As  the  season  of  Spring  comes  on,  strangers  visit 
Dresden  from  all  parts  of  Europe ;  and  this  city,  with  its 
fine  sky  and  scenery,  becomes  for  a  great  part  of  the 
year  the  general  rendezvous  of  Germany. 

One  of  the  especial  sources  of  attraction  for  visitors  at 
Dresden  is  its  Gne  collection  of  pictures.  Hence  it  has 
acquired  the  reputation  of  being  the  centre  of  the  arts  in 
Germany.  No  gallery  on  this  side  of  the  Alps  deserves,  as 
a  whole,  to  be  placed  above  it:  it  is  gratifying  to  find  that 
these  pictures  have  had  the  rare  fortune  to  be  treated 
with  reverence  by  every  hostile  hand.  Frederick  the 
Great,  as  we  before  remarked,  battered  down  the  churches 
of  Dresden,  and  laid  its  streets  in  ruins,  but  he  ordered 
his  cannon  and  mortars  to  keep  clear  of  the  picture-gal* 
lery.  'He  entered  as  a  conqueror,  levied  the  taxes, 
administered  the  government,  andt  with  an  affectation  of 
humility,  asked  permission  of  the  captive  Electresi  to 
visit  the  Gallerv  as  a  stranger.  Napoleon's  policy  like- 
wise induced  him  to  treat  Saxony  with  great  considera* 
tion,  and  he  was  careful  to  preserve  the  pictures  Un vio- 
lated.    None  of  these  went  to  Paris. 

Crowds  of  copyists  fill  the  fallerr  during  the  autnmer 
months.  A  sure  and  lucrative  employment  is  found  in 
making  miniature  copies  of  the  more  celebrated  pictures* 
or  individual  groups  or  figures  from  them.  Of  the  ama- 
teur artists  many  are  ladies,  and  here  the  pride  of  rank, 
which  in  everything  else  in  Germany  is  so  unyielding, 
gives  way.  The  countess  pursues  her  task  by  the  side 
of  her  more  humble  companion,  who  is  copying  for  her 
daily  bread)  under  the  gaie  of  every  strolling  stranger. 
It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  find  ladies  repairing  to 
Dresden  from  distant  capitals  to  spend  part  of  the  sum- 
mer in  copying  pictures. 

This  city  possesses  likewise  one  of  the  most  complete 
collections  of  copper-plates  in  Europe.  This  collection 
contains  everything  that  is  interesting  in  the  history  of 
the  brt,  or  valuable  for  practical  excellence.  It  possesses 
the  earliest  copper-plate  yet  known,  bearing  the  date  of 
1466.  A  vast  quantity  of  ancient  sculptures,  and  oasts 
in  gypsum  of  other  great  works^  which  could  not  be 
bought,  completes  the  Saxon  school  of  arts. 

Amongst  the  curiosities  of  Dresden  we  most  not  pass 
over  the  treasures  of  the  '*  Green  Vault,**  of  which 
every  Saxon  is  so  proud.  Whoever  takes  pleasure  in  the 
glitter  of  precious  stones,  and  in  gold  and  silver,  wrought 
not  only  into  royal  ornaments,  but  into  every  form  that 
art  can  give  them,  will  find  much  delight  m  strolling 
through  the  apartments  of  this  gorgeous  toy-shop. 
Here  are  the  crowns,  jewels,  and  regal  attire  of  the  Saxott 
princes  for  ages  back.  Pearls,  and  innumerable  carvings 
in  ivory  are  here,  and  jewelled  nick*nacks  of  all  sorts 
and  sixes. 

There  is  also  the  armoury  for  ancient  weapons,  all  so 
complete  with  reference  to  the  middle  ages,  that  were 
Europe  thrown  back  by  the  word  of  an  enchanter,  to 
those  times.  Saxony  could  take  the  field  with  a  duly 
equipped  army  sooner  than  any  other  power.  This  place 
is  therefore  just  what  a  well-stored  armoury  must  have 
been  in  the  days  of  yore.  Among  the  relics  kept  here  is 
the  first  instrument  with  which  S?hwarx  tried  his  newly 
invented  gunpowder.    The  fire  is  produced  by  friction. 


A  Bttiall  bar  of  iron  pUoed  parallel  to  tbe  bsml  ii 
moved  rapidly  backwards  and  forwards  by  the  hand: 
above  it  is  a  nint^  whose  edga  is.  prcsBed.ftnnlv  sgsliut 
the  upper  surface  of  the  bar  by  a  spring:  the  friction  of 
the  fiint  against  the  bar  strikes  out  the  fire,  which  falli 
upon  the  powder  in  a  small  pan  beneath. 

One  of  the  least  pleasing  features  of  this  gay  imd  el» 
gant  capital  is  the  number  of  condemned  malefadon 
employed  in  cleaning  the  streets,  fettered  by  Uie  leg,  and 
kept  to  their  labour  by  the  rod  of  an  overseer  ftnd  tbe 
muskets  of  sentinels.  When  not  so  employed  their  time 
is  spent  in  a  miserable  and  corrupting  confiQement,  m 
dungeons  always  loathsome,  and  sometimes  subtem- 
nebus.  Some  of  the  German  lecturers  on  political  eco* 
nomy  rail  at  the  bad  management  of  English  prisons, 
without  seeming  to  look  to  faults  nearer  home,  which  i( 
correctly  narrated  by  travellers,  are  discreditable  to  any 
European  country. 

One  thing  which  attracts  the  early  curioiity  of  risi- 
tors  at  Dresden,  is  the  custom  of  young  lads  singing 
psalms  on  Sundays  and  feast  days  about  the  town. 
Pious  men  have  bequeathed  funds  to  give  a  number  of 
boys,  who  are  at  the  same  time  choristers  of  the  different 
churches,  a  cocked  hat,  a  black  scarf,  and  a  suit  of  clothe*, 
on  condition  of  their  entertaining  the  inbabitaats  with 
sacred  music  Bands  of  ten  or  a  doien,  fdth  ooe  for  & 
leader,  each  Pressed  in  black,  with  a  iDoeksd  hat  and 
scarf,  march  slowly  about  the  town,  and  stopping  at 
every  second  or  third  house,  situ^  a  psalmt  This  singing 
is  often  very  agreeable :  the  shrill  clear  volo^  of  tbe 
young  people,  soundinff  through  the  streets,  have  some- 
thing of  simplicity)  which  ofleatlmea  pleases  u  much 
as  the  multiplied  tottes  and  Warblittfl  of  the  rsyal  or- 
chestra* 


THB  SMIORAHTS    IflMT  aABBATtt   tW  AFRICA. 

It  was,  indeed,  an  aflecting  sighti  to  look  round  on  osr 
little  band  of  Scottish  emigrants,  thus  congregated  for  the 
first  time  to  worship  God  in  the  wild  glen  allotted  for  their 
future  home,  and  the  heritage  of  their  offspring.  Thereat, 
with  his  silverv  locks,  the  aged  patriarch  of  the  psrty,  vith 
his  Bible  on  nis  knee— a  picture  of  the  hig^-prindp)^ 
grave,  Scottish  husbandman ;  his  respectable  ftmilr  £«w 
around  him.  There  was  the  widow,  with  her  meek,  kind, 
and  quiet  look  the  look  of  one  who  had  seen  better  daj'«i 
but  who,  In  adversity,  had  found  pious  resimiation-witli 
her  three  stalwart  sons,  and  her  young  maiden  daughter, 
placed  beside  her  on  the  grass.  There^  too,  were  olhen, 
delicate  females— one  of  them  very  neariy  related  to  my 
self —of  whom  I  need  not  more  particularly  spesk.  Then 
waa  the  younger  brother  of  a  Scottish  laird,  rich  in  wood, 
but  poor  in  fortune,  who,  with  an  estimable  pride,  had  ^ 
fen'ed  a  farm  in  South  Africa  to  dependanoe  on  aristocrstic 
connections  at  home.  Looking  round  on  these  collects 
groups,  on  this  day  of  solemn  assemblage,  such  reflections 
as  the  following  irrcs'stibly  crowded  on  iny  mind:— **n*^' 
I  led  forth  from  their  native  homes,  to  this  remote  corner 
of  the  globe,  all  theae  mv  fHends  and  relative^  for  P^ 
or  for  evil  1— to  perish  mneraUy  in  the  wildsnie*,  <tf  » 
become  the  honoured  founders  of  a  prosperous  settlemaH 
destined  to  extend  the  benefito  of  civiHaation  and  thtUesen 
light  of  the  Gospel  through  this  dark  nook  of  Umm 
Africa?'*  The  issue  of  our  enterprise  is  known  only  » 
Him  who  ordereth  all  things  well.  Having  selected  one  o 
the  hymns  of  our  national  church,  all  united  in  «n?^"£/^ 
to  one  of  the  old  pathetic  melodies  of  our  native  Isnd.  iw 
day  was  bright  and  still,  and  the  voice  of  psahns  n»  ^» 
a  sweet  and  touching  soleninity  among  those  wild  moon 
tains  where  the  praise  of  the  true  God  had  nsTer,  w  «J 
human  probability,  been  sung  before.  We  then  read  «nj 
of  the  most  suitable  portions  of  the  EngUsh  IftQisy*-^ 
concluded  with  an  excellent  discourse  from  a  ^^{?™®^*^j 
mons  presented  to  me  on  parting  by  the  Rev.  l^'/"°fV' 
of  Perth.  We  had  a  5milar  service  in  the  ift«ro^ 
While  we  were  singing  our  List  psalm,  an  an*««y*JT 
for  a  litUe  while  ou  the  opposite  side  of  the  n™*»  .512 
at  US  with  innooeiii  amaMO«it.  —  P«aw«*«  4P^ 


hr.o 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


163 


OrnCAL  ILLUSIONS.     VIL 

On  Binocular  Vision, 

We  now  invite  the  reader's  attention  to  a  very  curious 
class  of  optioal  illusions,  connected  with  the  use  of  two 
eves  in  the  process  of  vision*  Under  the  ordinary  sense  of 
the  word  illusion,  it  is  not  usual  to  apply  such  a  term  to 
the  act  of  seeing;  hut  in  fact  it  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  all  illusions,  viz.,  the  impression  on  the  mind,  that 
two  distinct  aots  of  vision,  one  by  each  eye,  form  but  one 
act. 

Opticians  and  anatomists  have  frequently  asked, 
"  Way  does  not  vision  with  two  eyes  produce  in  the 
mind  the  idea  of  a  double  object?  How  can  single 
vision  result  from  the  use  of  two  eyes  at  once?"  It  is 
known  that  an  image  of  the  object  is  impressed  on  the 
retina  of  each  eye ;  and  it  appears  natural  to  suppose 
that  the  mind  would  thence  recognise  two  objects 
instead  of  one,  whenever  we  look  with  both  eyes  at 
once.  This,  however,  is  not  the  case;  and  numerous 
theories  have  been  formed  to  account  for  the  illusion. 
Of  all  these  theories  that  proposed  by  Professor  Wheat- 
stone  is  the  only  one  which  seems  to  meet  all  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  case.  We  are  strongly  disposed  to  think 
that  it  is  the  correct  explanation ;  and  we  will  endeavour 
to  give  a  popular  sketch  of  that  gentleman's  views,  as 
presented  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society  three 
or  four  years  ago. 

Professor  Wheatstone  grounds  his  explanation  upon 
this  proposition, — -That  in  all  the  ordinary  cases  of  vision 
with  two  eyes,  the  effect  produced  upon  the  mind  is 
compounded  of  the  two  effects  which  would  be  produced 
by  each  eye  separately.    Hitherto,  inquirers  on  this  sub- 
ject have  been  in  the  habit  of  assuming  that  an  object 
presents  the  same  appearance  to  one  eye  as  to  the  other; 
but  Mr.  Wheatstone's  explanation  is  greatly  dependant 
on  the  curious  fact  that  the  appearance  of  an  object  is 
not  precisely  the  same  to  the  two  eyes.     To  shew  the 
nature  of  the  difference,  place  a  small  cube  immediately 
in  front  of  the  eyes,  and  at  about  seven  inches'  distance 
from  them ;  shut  each  eye  in  succession,  and  look  with 
the  other ;  the  cube  will  not  present  the  same  shape  to 
each  eye,  but  will  appear  as  a  in  the   one  instance, 
and  b  in  the  other,  in  Fig.  L     They  are  slightly  dis- 
similar, and  this  dissimilarity  increases  as  the  optic  axes 

Fig.  1. 


converge  Biore  rapidly,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing, 
as  the  object  is  viewed  at  a  smaller  distance.  Supposing 
the  cube  to  be  small — a  die  for  instance — it  will  be 
seen  on  a  little  attention,  that  the  difference  arises  fVom 
the  circumstance,  that  with  the  right  eye  we  can  see  a 
little  of  the  right  side  of  the  cube,  but  not  the  left  side ; 
while  virith  the  left  eye  we  see  a  little  of  the  left  side  of 
the  cube,  and  none  of  the  right. 

Mr.  Wheatstone  tupposea  that  our  ideas  of  ohjeets 
placed  at  a  moderate  distance,  are  formed  from  the  com- 
bination of  these  two  images  superposed  as  it  were  in  the 
mind ;  and  that  the  chief  reason  why  we  do  not  mistake 
a  picture,  however  cleverly  painted,  for  the  object  which 
it  is  intended  to  represent,  is,  that  the  image  of  a  picture 
is  exactly  tho  same  in  both  eyes,  since  the  picture  does 
not  present  /tides  or  hullc^  but  only  a  fliat  surface; 
whereas  the  image  of  an  objeet  is  different  in  the  two 
eyes*     When  an  object  is  viewed  tNjm  afhr,  the  same  \ 


difference  does  not  exist,  and  a  consequence  results  which 
we  will  state  in  Mr.  Wheatstone's  own  words: — • 

When  an  object  is  viewed  at  so  great  a  distance  that  the. 
optic  axes  of  both  eyes  are  sensibly  parallel  when  directed 
towards  it,  the  perspective  projections  of  it,  seen  by  each 
eye  separately,  are  similar,  and  the  appearance  to  the  two 
eyes  is  precisely  the  same  as  when  the  oDJect  is  seen  by  one 
eye  only.  There  is  in  such  case,  no  difference  between  the 
visual  appearance  of  an  object  in  relief,  and  its  perspective 
projection  on  a  plane  sur&ce ;  and  hence  pictorial  represent- 
ations of  distant  objects,  when  those  circumstances  which 
would  prevent  or  disturb  the  illusion  are  carefully  excluded 
may  be  rendered  such  perfect  tt«emblances  of  the  objects 
they  are  intended  to  represent,  as  to  be  mistaken  for  them ; 
the  Diorama  is  an  instance  of  this.  But  this  similarity  no 
longer  exists  when  the  object  is  placed  so  near  the  eyes  that 
to  view  it  the  optic  axes  must  converge ;  under  these  condi- 
tions a  different  perspective  projection  of  it  is  seen  by  each 
eye,  and  these  perspectives  are  more  dissimilar  as  the  con-* 
vei*genoe  of  the  optio  axes  becomes  greater. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  give  the  name  of  right  image 
to  the  appearance  which  an  object  presents  when  viewed 
by  the  right  eye,  and  left  image  to  the  appearance  pre- 
sented to  the  left  eye.  We  may  then  state  that  in  all 
pictures,  the  right  and  left  images  are  alike;  that  in  ob- 
jects seen  from  a  great  distance,  the  images  arc  so  nearly 
alike  that  we  cannot  discern  any  difference  between  them; 
that  in  objects  seen  at  a  short  distance,  the  images  are 
decidedly  dissimilar  2  and  that  the  illusive  effects  of  pic- 
tures depend  greatly  on  the  distance  of  the  objects  which 
they  are  intended  to  represent.  A  picture  of  a  near  solid 
object  eannot  be  made  to  represent  exactly  the  appearance 
of  the  object  itself,  however  consummate  may  be  the 
skill  of  the  painter ;  for  the  right  and  left  images  of  his 
picture  are  similar,  while  those  of  the  object  are  dissimi- 
lar. The  mind  does  not  accustom  itself  to  the  image 
presented  by  either  eye  singly,  but  to  both  together 
superposed  or  combined;  consequently  a  combination  of 
two  similar  images  (the  ordinary  vision  of  a  picture) 
cannot  exactly  resemble  a  combination  of  two  dissimilar 
images  (the  ordinary  vision  of  a  solid  object). 

Mr.  Wheatstone  states,  that  no  former  writer  seems 
to  have  been  aware  of  this  subject,  with  the  exception  of 
the  great  painter  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  who  explains  why 
a  painter  could  not  represent  a  small  object  exactly  as  it 
is  seen  by  the  eye,  because  the  portion  seen  by  one  eye 
is  not  the  same  as  that  seen  by  the  other.  But  Da 
Vinci  failed  to  follow  out  the  fact  to  its  singular  conse- 
quences. 

A  very  curious  question  now  presents  itself.  If  the 
right  and  left  images  of  an  object  are  dissimilar,  and  a 
piclure  fails  to  be  completely  illusive  because  its  right 
and  left  images  are  similar,  what  would  result  if  we  place 
before  the  eyes  two  pictures  at  the  same  time,  one  repre- 
senting the  right  image,  and  the  other  the  left  image,  o^ 
any  given  object  ?  To  the  solution  of  this  question  Mr* 
W^heatstone  directed  his  attention.  It  is  necessary  to 
make  the  images  of  the  two  pictures  fall  on  similar  parts 
of  the  two  retinae ;  and  fig.  2,  will  shew  how  this  may  be 
done  in  a  simple  way.  Under  the  ordinary  circumstances 
of  vision,  the  object  is  seen  at  the  point  where  the  two 


4    '9 


•98— a 


\M 


THfi  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


OcTOBfiR  30| 


axes  meet;  but  two  objects  may  be  seen  as  one,  if  they 
are  placed  one  in  the  direction  of  each  optic  axis,  at 
equal  distances  before  or  behind  their  intersection.  In 
all  the  three  cases  (fig.  2,  a.  h.  c.)  the  mind  recognises  but 
one  object.  As  unpractised  persons,  however,  find  it 
difficult  to  focalize  the  eyes  properly,  Mr.  Wheatstone 
recommends  the  employment  of  a  pair  of  tubes,  capable 
of  being  inclined  towards  each  omer  at  various  angles, 
so  as  to  correspond  with  different  convergences  of  the 
optic  axes.  By  the  use  of  such  tubes,  or  by  the  naked 
eyes  with  a  little  practice,  a  person  might  make  two 
objects  appear  as  one,  if  similarly  situated  with  respect 
to  the  converging  point  of  the  two  optic  axes. 

Now,  if  the  two  objects  thus  placed,  instead  of  being 
exactly  similar,  were  perspective  projections  of  the  same 
solid  object,  the  mind  will  still  continue  to  perceive  the 
object  to  be  single;  but  instead  of  a  representation  on  a 
plane  surface,  as  each  drawing  appears  to  be  when  sepa- 
rately viewed  by  that  eye  which  is  directed  towards  it, 
the  observer  will  perceive  a  figure  of  three  dimensions, 
the  exact  counterpart  of  the  object  from  which  the 
drawings  were  maae.  These  effects  may  be  illustrated 
by  one  or  two  instances: — If  two  vertical  lines  near  each 
other,  but  at  different  distances  fVom  the  spectator,  be 
regarded  first  with  one  eye,  and  then  with  the  other,  the 
distance  between  them  when  referred  to  the  same  plane 
will  appear  different ;  if  the  left  hand  line  be  nearer  to 
the  eyes,  the  distance  as  seen  by  the  left  eye  will  be 
less  than  the  distance  as  seen  by  the  right.  This  is  ex- 
emplified in  fig.  3,  where  a'  a  represent  the  positions 


Fig.  8. 


ooenpied  by  the  two  lines;  and  the  points  on  the  cross 
section  b  h  shew  the  relative  distances  at  which  they 
appear  apart  when  seen  by  the  two  eyes  separately. 
Now  if  the  lines  here  spoken  of  were  drawn  on  two 
pieces  of  card,  at  the  respective  distances  at  which  they 
appear  to  each  eye,  and  these  cards  be  afterwards  viewed 
by  the  aid  of  the  tubes  above  alluded  to,  the  observer 
will  no  longer  see  two  lines  on  a  plane  surface ;  but  two 
lines  will  appear,  one  nearer  to  him  than  the  other,  pre- 
cisely as  the  original  vertical  lines  themselves.  Again, 
if  a  straight  line  be  held  before  the  eyes  in  such  a  posi- 
tion that  one  of  its  ends  shall  be. nearer  to  the  observer 
than  the  other  is,  each  eye,  separately  referring  it  to  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  common  axis,  will  see  a  line 
differently  inclined;  and  if  lines,  having  the  same  appa- 
rent inclinations,  be  drawn  on  two  pieces  of  card,  and 
be  presented  to  the  eyes  as  before  directed,  the  real  posi- 
tion of  the  original  line  will  be  correctly  perceived  by  the 
mmd. 

Mr.  Wheatstone  traces  all  these  effects  to  the  same 
source  as  that  whence  arises  a  curious  appearance  ob- 
served when  a  plate  of  metal,  whose  surface  has  been 
turned  on  a  lathe,  is  viewed  by  candle-light.  When  a 
single  candle  is  brought  near  such  a  plate,  a  line  of  light 
appears  standing  out  from  it,  one  half  being  above, 
and  the  other  half  below,  the  surface;  the  position  and 
inclination  of  the  line  changing  with  the  position  of  the 
light  and  the  observer,  but  always  passing  through  the 
centre  of  the  plate.  On  closing  the  left  eye  the  relief 
disappears,  and  the  luminous  line  coincides  with  one  of  the 
diameters  of  the  plate;  on  closing  the  right  eye  tiie  line 


appears  equally  in  the  plane  of  the  surface,  but  coincides 
with  another  diameter;  on  opening  both  eyes,  it  instantly 
starts  into  relief.  The  luminons  line  here  spoken  of 
results  from  the  reflection  of  light  from  the  minutely  de- 
pressed concentric  circles  produced  by  the  tool  in  the 
operation  of  turning.  The  Professor  remarks  that  this 
appearance  must  have  been  observed  by  many  persons, 
but  that  none  had  thought  of  referring  it  to  its  cause; 
which  is  exactly  analogous  to  that  of  Uie  vision  of  two 
inclined  lines,  when  each  is  presented  to  a  different  en 
focalized  in  the  manner  before  described. 

The  difficulty  of  effecting  this  focaliaation  with  exact- 
ness led  Mr.  Wheatstone  to  construct  a  very  ingfenious 
instrument  called  a  stereoscope^  the  arrangement  and 
employment  of  which  we  shall  describe  in  our  next  paper 
on  this  subject. 


ft 


^FIFTEEK   TEARS    AGO. 

0^  1  lis  bat  ''fifteen  years  ago,** 

(How  the  years  fleet  font  away!) 
That  I  heard  the  winds  of  Autumn  blow. 

As  I  hear  their  voice  to-day ; 

And  saw, — as  now  they  meet  mine  eye-* 

The  Ueak  trees,  stripped  and  bare^ 
lift  up  their  wild  arms  to  the  sky. 

Like  mourners  in  despair  ;— 

While  the  leaves — like  the  hopes  of  the  moonur-dci^ 

Bestrewed  the  withered  earth ; 
And  I  looked  on  the  desolate  scene,  and  asidi 

With  a  sorrow  akin  to  mirth, 

*  ''I  love  the  pomp  of  the  dying  yeaiV'— 
And  gazed,  as  oft  a  child 
Hath  gioed,  they  tell  us,  on  a  bier. 
And  then,  unconscious,  smiled. 

What  then  were  the  sky  and  the  earth  to  me^ 

In  their  places,  foul  or  fair  I 
My  heart  was  young,  and  I  thought  there  woold  bs 

Eternal  summer  there. 

But  now,  as  life  with  the  roUing  wave 

Of  each  rapid  year  sweeps  on. 
All  the  buoyant  swell  of  hope,  that  gave 

My  spirit  strength,  is  gone. 

Like  the  earth  and  the  sky,  I  seem  to  bear 

Each  change  the  seasons  bring ; 
But  oh !  I  ne*er  can  hope  to  share 
.    With  them  another  spring. 

Decay  for  all  things  f — all  alas ! — 

Now  fifteen  years  have  flown— 
Beflect,  as  mirrored  in  a  glaaSy 

An  emblem  of  mine  own. 

My  spring  is  gone ;  my  summer's  sun 

Wears  Autumn's  sombred  glow— 
Oh  I  it  was  not  thus  my  verso  had  run 

But  ''fifteen  years  ago.** J.  &  B. 

Thomas  Cursok,  bom  in  AllhaUows,  Lombsrd-sinc^ 
armourer,  dwelt  without  Biahopgate.  It  happened  tiut  > 
stage-jflayer  borrowed  a  rusty  mudcet,  which  hsd  l^'f?  '^ 
leger  m  hb  shop :  now  though  his  part  were  comi^  w 
therewith  acted  an  unezpect^  tragedy,  killing  one  of  tv 

standers-by,  the  gun  casually  going  ofi^  on  the  stage»  ^/>^ 
he  suspected  not  to  be  charged.  Oh !  the  diflerenceof  diven 
men  in  the  tenderness  of  their  consciences ;  some  aie  s^ 
touched  with  a  wound,  whilst  others  are  wounded  vitM 
touch  therein.  This  poor  armourer  was  hig^hly  afflicts 
therewith,  though  done  against  his  will,  yea  without  fiu 
knowledge,  in  his  absence,  by  another,  out  of  mere  cwnw. 
Hereupon  he  resolved  to  give  all  his  estate  to  pious  ns^^ 
no  sooner  had  he  gotten  a  round  sum,  but  pres^tJy 
posted  with  it  in  his  apron  to  the  Court  of  Aiders?; 
and  was  in  pain  tiU  by  fiieir  direction  he  had  settled  it  w 
the  relief  of  the  poor  in  his  own  and  other  panshea,*^ 
disposed  of  some  nundreds  of  pounds  accordingly,  w  ^^ 
credibly  informed  by  the  then  churchwardens  of  the  ^ 
parish.  Thus  as  he  conceived  himself  casually  {t]?^"?'* "' 
a  great  distance)  to  have  occasioned  the  death  of^^^T 
was  the  immediate  and  direct  cause  of  giving  a  comion*^ 
living  to  many.— FuiiLBE, 


1841.3 


THE  SAtURDAV  MAGAZIiJE* 


166 


ON  CHESS.    No.  XX. 


Ancient  Games  from  which  Chess  is  supposed 

TO  have  been  derived. 

lir  two  former  articles  we  investigated  the  powers  of  the 
pieces,  and  endeavoured  to  afford  an  easy  account  of  the 
various  methods  which  have  heen  adopted  for  obtaining 
those  numerical  values  which  are  given  to  the  pieces  in 
elementary  works  on  chess.  We  propose  now  to  inquire 
how  the  pieces  became  invested  with  their  present  powers ; 
and  although  our  information  on  this  subject  is  not  very 
precise,  yet  it  is  sufficiently  interesting  to  form  part 
of  the  present  series. 

The  Hindoo  origin  of  chess,  supported  by  Dr.  Hyde, 
Sir  William  Jones,  and  others,  was  for  a  long  time  cre- 
dited, until  Mr.  Christie  proposed  to  consider  "  whether 
it  be  more  natural  to  conceive  the  game  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  an  effort  of  the  mind  of  one  person,  and  devised, 
formed,  and  perfected  at  one  instant  of  time;  or  whether 
it  may  not  be  considered  probable,  that  some  rude 
materials  existed,  which  falling  into  the  hands  of  inge- 
nious and  able  workmen,  at  different  periods,  were 
variously  fashioned  by  them,  and  united  at  last  in  the 
elegant  structure  of  the  modem  game."  We  propose  to 
give  a  brief  analysis  of  Christie's  attempt  to  prove  "  that 
a  game  of  pastoral  origin  was  already  in  general 
use,  which  being  expanded  as  to  the  superficies  of  its 
hoards  and  augmented  in  the  number  of  its  meUf  and 
varied  in  the  properties  of  its  pieces,  might  have  been 
fashioned  and  completed  by  the  ingenuity  of  the  Orien- 
tals into  the  modern  game  of  chess.'* 

Among  the  ancient  games  of  skill  the  one  to  which 
writers  have  referred  the  origin  of  chess  is  the  wnrrta, 
or  the  game  of  the  pebbles,  supposed  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  Palamedes  at  the  siege  of  Troy.  From 
scattered  words  and  phrases  in  various  Greek  writers, 
it  is  probable  that  the  game  was  played  on  a  board  con- 
taining sixteen  squares  with  a  central  space  called  Upa 
ypafifxrj^  the  sacred  barrier.  The  game  was  played  by  two 
persons,  one  being  provided  with  five  white  pebbles  and 
the  other  with  five  black  pebbles,  arranged  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  game  as  in  the  accompanying  figure.     Each 

player  endeavoured  to  cut 
**  '  off,  inclose,  or  block  up, 

his  adversary's  men.  In 
Constantine's  Lexicon 
the  "sacred  barrier"  is 
thus  alluded  to:—  "  The 
middle  line  was  the 
extreme  boundary  be- 
yond which  the  men 
could  not  be  moved,  and 
this  was  also  termed  the 
sacred  line;  wherefore 
when  either  of  the  parties 
was  driven  up  to  this  fixed  line  or  mark  in  the  centre  of  the 
board,  he  then  moved  his  piece  from  it,  saying,  <  I  move 
my  pebble  from  the  sacred.' "  The  offensive  moves  seem 
to  have  had  the  following  objects:  1,  the  temporary 
circumvention,  where  the  pebble  was  checked  between 
the  sacred  BJid  another  pebble ;  and  was  then,  according  to 
a  law  of  the  game,  withdrawn  with  the  expression  just 
quoted;  2,  the  circumvention  of  any  pebble  took  place 
between  two  hostile  pebbles ;  retreat  being  cut  off,  such 
pebble  was  then  taken ;  3,  each  party  endeavoured  to 
get  beyond  the  sacred,  so  as  to  occupy  his  adversary's 
half  of  the  board,  and  so  to  crowd  his  game  that  no  move 
should  be  lefl  to  him :  the  game  was  then  finished. 

There  is  a  game  which  has  been  played  all  over  the 
north  of  Europe  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  which 
Christie  supposes  to  be  identical  with  the  Greek  game 
rpiodiovy  and  more  ancient  than  the  irffTrriOy  since  d^osi- 
ting  the  pebbles  seems  to  be  more  simple  and  primitive 
than  moYing  them.    The  game  is  played  on  a  board  of 


n 

1 

n 

^^^^^^^^^^M 
^^^^^^^^H 

<■■ 

■B 

■ 

■ 

^^^^^^^ 

^H 

Hi 

1 

^^H^HB 

H 

■■■ 

^IHHk 

■■1 

^^^j  ■» .  .- 

■ 

1 

B 

f^^HB 

■ 

■ 

B 

the  following  form,  and  ^*  ^ 

is  known  in  England  by 

various  names,   such  as, 

"  Ninepenny  Marl,"   "the 

game     of      Morris"     or 

"Nine  Men's  Morris"  also 

Fivepenny  Morris,"    and 

histly  "  Merelles."     Some 

writers  state  that  the  game 

was  introduced  into  this 

country  by  the  Norman 

conquerors,     under     the 

name  of   mereUet;    and 

that  this  word,  which  signifies  counters^  was  afterwaros 

corrupted  into  morals  and  morris.     Others  suppose  the 

pastime  to  have  derived  the  appellation  of  "  Nine  Men's 

Morris"  from  the  different  coloured  men  being  moved 

backwards  and  forwards  as  though  they  were  danciug  a 

morris. 

The  scheme  or  board  for  the  game  is  frequently 
chalked  on  the  ground;  on  bam  floors;  on  the  crown  of 
a  hat;  on  the  side  of  a  pair  of  bellows ;  upon  a  table ;  or, 
(as  we  have  often  seen  it  on  Salisbury  Plain,)  it  is  cut 
out  in  the  green  sward.  Hence  the  remark  of  Titania 
in  the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream : 

^The  nine  men's  moiris  is  filled  up  with  mud, 

alluding  to  the  wet  season,  which  had  obliterated  the 
rustic  merelle  board. 

Strutt,  the  historian  of  the  Sports  and  Pastimes  of 
the  People  of  England,  gives  a  figure  of  the  merelle- 
table  as  it  appeared  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  lines 
of  which  are  similar  to  those  in  figure  2 ;  the  only  differ- 
ence is,  that  each  of  the  angles  is  marked  by  a  black 
spot. 

The  manner  of  playing  the  game  is  briefly  thus  : — two 
persons,  each  having  nine  men,  different  in  colour  or 
form,  for  distinction's  sake,  place  them  alternately,  one  by 
one,  upon  the  angles  or  spots ;  and  the  object  of 
either  party  is  to  prevent  his  antagonist  from  placing 
three  of  his  pieces  so  as  to  form  a  row  of  three,  with- 
out the  intervention  of  an  opponent  piece.  If  he 
succeed  in  forming  a  row,  he  takes  one  of  his  antagonist's 
pieces  from  any  part  except  from  a  row  of  three  which 
must  not  be  touched  if  he  have  another  piece  on  the  board. 
Every  piece  that  is  taken  is  put  into  tne  central  square. 
When  all  the  pieces  are  laid  down,  they  are  played  back- 
wards and  forwards,  in  any  direction  that  the  lines  run, 
but  they  can  only  move  from  one  spot  to  another  at  one 
time.  He  that  takes  all  his  opponent's  pieces  is  the  con- 
queror. The  game  is  subject  to  slight  variations  in 
different  counties  of  England.  In  Wiltshire,  if  the  losing 
party  have  his  men  reduced  to  three,  they  can  hop  and 
skip  into  any  vacant  place,  in  order  to  form  a  line. 
However  simple  this  rustic  game  may  appear,  much  skill 
is  required,  particularly  in  the  choice  of  the  first  places, 
so  as  to  enable  the  player  to  form  the  lines  as  pei*fcctly 
and  as  quickly  as  possible. 

The  Oriental  name  for  the  central  space  (Fig.  2)  is 
equivalent  to  the  English  pound  or /old,  and  Christie 
thinks  it  very  probable  that  it  was  originally  intended  to 
represent  something  of  this  kind;  for,  as  the  Eastern 
shepherds  amused  themselves  by  playing  with  the  pebbles, 
whilst  they  watched  their  folds,  they  might  afterwards 
have  introduced  the  figure  of  the  fold  itself  as  an  orna- 
ment to  the  board,  and  as  a  settled  place  for  depositing 
the  pebbles  captured  during  the  game. 

From  a  critical  examination  of  the  Greek  writers,  our 
author  concludes,  that  the  game  of  the  pebbles  was 
derived  from  the  original  game  of  the  Asiatic  shepherds. 
The  pastoral  character  of  this  game  now  became  mili- 
tary—the central  fold  was  converted  into  a  saci^ed^ 
which  acted  as  a  kind  of  mound  or  barrier  against 
mutual  incursions.  In  the  course  of  time  the  game  was 
modified  by  the  use  of  dice  as  well  as  pebbles,  and  formed 


IM 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[October  80 


the  ancient  ptindion:  the  board  was  now  called  the 
city  J  the  pebbles  dogSj  and  the  object  of  the  game  was 
said  to  be  to  capture  the  city:  the  pieces  appear  to 
have  been  of  two  colours,  and  one  pebble  being  circum- 
vented by  two  others  of  an  opposite  colour  was  captured. 
There  appear  to  have  been  twelve  points  on  each  side  of 
the  board,  and  fifteen  men  of  each  colour ;  but  here,  as 
the  conclusions  of  our  author  lead  us  rather  to  the  game 
of  backgammon  than  to  chess,  we  omit  much  of  his 

theory. 

The  steps  by  which  our  author  supposes  the  advance 
to  have  been  made  from  this  primitive  game  to  that  of 
chess,  (in  which  there  \%y  firsts  not  a  sacred  line,  but  a 
royal  line  behind  each  row  of  pebbles  or  pawns,  aeondhf^ 
a  king  whose  person  is  sacred,  and,  thirdly^  officers  to 
attend  him,)  are  so  very  ingenious  that  we  quote  the 
passage  at  full : 

1  have  before  explained,  the  meaning  and  office  of  the 
sacred  mark  in  the  nerraa;  and  have  shown  that,  as  the  object 
of  the  game  was  u)  effect  a  circumvention  of  any  one  pebble, 
between  two  of  the  adverse  party,  so,  the  same  could  be  pro- 
duced by  forcing  a  pebble  into  an  intermediate  station 
between  the  sacred  and  a  hostile  piece.  This  was  an 
advant.^ge  only  to  be  found  in  the  centre  of  the  board.  But 
the  purpose  of  the  sacred  was  not  complete ;  for  the  assist- 
ance of  the  sacred  would  often  have  been  desirable  for  effect- 
ing a  circumvention  in  the  disUmt  parts  of  the  boai-d. 
Hence  arose  the  idea  of  making  it  moreahle.  By  its  power 
of  co-operating  with  a  pebble  in  circumventing^  it  was 
already  endowed  with  the  properties  of  a  piece ;  and  it  was 
therefore  no  great  stretch  of  innovation  to  raise  it  to  the 
dignity  of  one,  thereby  giving  it  in  form  what  it  already 
possessed  virtually.  As  the  advantages  of  it,  in  its  first  in- 
active state,  had  been  common  to  both,  so  it  was  now  but 
fiiir  that  each  pai'tj/  should  have  a  pebbie  endowed  as  the 
Upa  ypaixfiTj  had  been.  To  distinguish  it  from  the  rest,  it 
was  perhaps  called  the  **  inviolable  pebble.'"  As  the  central 
mark  was   sacredj  so  was  this  inviolable;  and  hence  the 

custom  of  N'SVBR  TAKIXa  THE  KINO  AT  CHESS.      As  It  WOuid 

not  liave  been  prudent  to  expose  the  sacred  person  of  this 
pebble  in  the  front  line,  and  the  scanty  dimensions  of  the 
Doard  would  not  allow  of  the  pebbles  being  obtruded  further 
npon  the  middle  of  the  board,  a  place  was  assigned  to  it  in 
the  centre  of  an  xnDiTioNAL  or  rear  rank.  An'iinpei-fection 
yet  remained.  The  properties  of  the  sacred  were  twofold, — 
inviolability^  and  the  power  of  making  any  pebble  recede 
from  it.  We  have  only  found  a  representative  fur  its  first 
property.  The  whole  virtue  of  the  sacred  was  to  be  called 
into  action.  The  inviolable  pebble  was  the  solitary  occupier 
of  the  rear  rank : — it  was  thought  proper  that  attendants 
should  be  given  to  the  right  and  left  of  it,  who  should  share 
amongst  them  the  offensive  powers  of  the  sacred,  which  it 
might  not  have  been  so  consistent  with  the  character  of  the 
first  dignified  pebble  to  a.'^ume.  The  power  of  causing  to  rd- 
tire^  was  therefore  vested  in  the  companion  of  the  inviolable 
piece;  and  ht;nce  we  have  derived  the  custom  oi cliecking. 
And  with  all  this,  the  original  object  of  the  irtrrtia  was 
still  retained,  namely,  the  blockade;  to  which  the  check- 
fnate  of  tlie  modern  chess  is  certainly  analogous;  only  that  in 
the  early  game  it  was  attempted  indiscriminately  upon  the 
pebbles  in  general ;  and  in  the  improved  game,  the  effect  of 
it  is  exclusively  directed  to  the  most  conspicuous  piece. 

The  most  important  feature  in  this  ingenious  argument 
is  the  metamorphosis  of  the  sacred  mound,  barrier,  or 
temple,  into  a  "  king,"  endowed  with  the  inviolability  of 
the  sacred  (that  is,  not  subject  to  capture);  but  confer- 
ring the  repelling  power  of  the  sacred  on  the  persons  ot 
certain  officers  or  superior  pebbles  provided  for  that 
purp:>se.  In  modern  chess  the  king  has  little  or  no  re- 
pellent power;  for  he  cannot  put  himself  into  check,  while 
all  t\\c  other  pieces  may  do  so.  The  sacred  being  thus 
convortod  into  an  inviolable  piece,  and  four  officers  being 
croated  in  order  to  repel  attack,  and  guard  the  person  of 
the  kinnf,  the  centraKs  sacred  was  removed,  and  an 
adilitional  line  or  row  of  points  was  added  behind  the 
common  pebbles  or  pawns.  Doubling  some  of  these 
officers,  so  as  to  iucrease  the  number  to  eight,  and  in- 
creasing the  number  of  single  pebbles,  or  pawns  from 
five  to  eight,  are  regarded  a*  Bubsecjuent  innovations. 


The  learned  inquiries  of  our  author  tend  to  show  that 
the  Scythians,  (the  ancestors  of  the  preseul  TarUrj.) 
occupying  the  desert  tracts  eastward  of  the  Caspian,  were 
the  original  inventors  of  the  game  from  which  chpss  Las 
been  produced  by  a  regular  series  of  improvements  and 
modifications  made  during  three  thousand  years:  there- 
fore that  the  game  existed  long  before  the  siege  of  Trov ; 
and  that  it  thence  spread  westward  to  Greece,  soutii- 
west  to  Persia,  south-east  to  India,  and  east  to  Chioa; 
and  that  in  each  country  it  received  certain  modificatioQi 
and  additions. 

The  game  was  gradually  introduced  into  Rome,  and 
probably  formed  the  Ludus  Latrunculorum.  The 
object  of  this  game,  and  the  method  of  playing  it,  vert 
similar  to  the  ff-crrcia,  except  that  there  was  no  tamdi 
and  that  the  power  of  checking  was  lost  by  the  abaeoce 
of  the  central  space.  Hyde  is  of  opinion  that  the  Ludas 
Latruncnlorum  greatly  resembled  the  modem  drangbti, 
in  that  the  pebbles  moved  diagonally,  made  captures  bj 
leaping  over  the  pebbles  of  the  antagonist,  and  that  tbej 
were  crowned.  On  these  points  Christie  is  at  issue  vltb 
Hyde,  and  he  also  objects  to  the  interpretation  of  Ond 
by  Daines  Barrington,  that  the  pieces  were  shaken  like 
dice  instead  of  being  moved  like  draught-men. 

The  Chinese  chess  is  a  contest  between  two  small 
bands  of  soldiers  on  the  banks  of  a  river:  to  these  t 
number  of  pieces  is  added,  the  chief  office  of  vhich  is  to 
defend  the  general,  and  to  capture  straggling  opponeotii 
The  pieces  and  men,  as  in  the  ancient  vrcTrcta,  havenodla* 
tinction  as  to  form :  they  are  fiat  counters  of  ivoij,  as 
inch  in  breadth,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickaes% 
and  are  distinguishable  from  each  other  only  by  means 
of  certain  lines  marked  upon  them. 

Christie  is  of  opinion  that  the  Hindoo  who,  tbirtea 
centuries  ago,  is  said  to  have  invented  chess,  bonrowed 
the  ancient  game  from  the  Tartars,  who  were,  and  still 
are,  the  links  of  communication  between  all  the  natwai 
of  Asia,  and  gave  to  it  some  of  the  modiGcalions  ahodj 
alluded  to.  The  Chinese  game  in  which  the  combaUBta» 
five  on  each  side,  fight  on  the  opposite  banks  of  a  sym* 
helical  river,  is  supposed  by  our  author  to  be  a  mon 
primitive  form  than  the  Hindoo,  derived  from  the 
Tartars,  and  subjected  to  less  alteration.  Mr.Daris,ifl 
his  recent  work  on  China,  says, — *•  The  Chinese  ches 
differs  in  board,  men,  and  moves,  from  that  of  India,  aud 
cannot  in  any  way  be  identified  with  it,  except  as  being 
a  game  of  skill,  and  not  of  chance." 

It  must  be  confessed,  from  melancholy  experience,  that  i 
speculative  acquaintance  with  the  rules  of  duty,  is  too  ««• 
patihle  with  the  violation  of  its  dictates,  and  that  it  bpo^ 
sible  for  the  convictions  of  conscience  to  be  habitually  over- 
powered by  the  corrupt  suggestions  of  appetite.  To  »« 
distinctly  the  right  w^ay,  and  to  pursue  it,  are  not  pr«:«^*) 
the  same  thing.  Still  nothing  in  the  order  of  means  i^- 
mises  so  much  success  as  the  diligent  inculcation  of  reveurf 
truth.  He  who  is  acquainted  with  the  terrors  of  tht  iM^. 
cannot  live  in  the  neglect  of  Grod  and  religion  with  pr^J* 
any  more  than  with  future,  impunity ;  the  path  of  wr 
obedience  is  obstructed,  if  not  rendered  impassable;  am 
wherever  he  turns  his  eyes  he  beholds  the  sword  of  I^i*** 
justice  stretched  out  to  intercept  his  passage.  Ooilt  «^ 
be  appalled,  conscience  alarmed,  and  the  fruits  of  unla^ 
gratification  embittered  to  his  taste, — Bobebt  Hau. 

Of  the  creat  number  to  whom  it  has  been  my  paiafQl  p 
fessional  duty  to  have  administered  in  the  last  hours  of  tbtf 
lives,  I  luive  sometimea  felt  surprised  that  "^  ^^  r^ 
appeared  reluctant  to  go  to  ^'  the  undiscovered  couotiy,  ^ 
whose  bourne  no  traveller  returns."  Many,  we  may  caf . 
suppose,  have  manifested  this  willingness  to  die  from  ainJS" 
patience  of  suffisring,  or  from  that  passive  indiflRpi«J<j'' 
which  is  sometimes  uie  result  of  debility  and  extreme  boi^f 
exhaustion.  But  I  have  seen  thoae  who  have  Miivedats 
fearless  contemplation  of  the  future,  from  faith  m  the  <k'^ 
trine  which  our  religion  teaches.  Such  men  were  ik^  ^ 
calm  and  supported,  but  cheerful  in  the  hour  of  de«^ 
and  I  never  quitted  such  a  sick  chamber,  witliout  a  *»* 
that  my  last  end  might  be  like  theirs.— Sib  VLbjsxi  Hni^ 


IWU] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


167 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS. 

OCTOBER. 

gee !  from  the  brake  the  whirring  pheasant  springs. 

And  mounts  exulting  on  triumphant  wings: 

Short  is  his  joy ;  he  feels  the  fiery  wound, 

Flutters  in  blood,  and  panting  beats  the  ground. 

Ah !  what  avail  his  glossj,  varying  dyes. 

His  purple  crest,  and  scarlet-circled  eyes. 

The  vivid  green  his  shining  plumes  imfold, 

His  pftiuted  wings,  and  breast  that  flamca  with  gold!— Popb. 

Qua  tables  are  supplied  with  a  yerj  delicate  article  of 
food  by  means  of  the  sport  for  which  this  month  is  dis- 
tinguished. Pheasant-shooting  commences  on  the  Ist 
of  October,  and  these  birds,  which  are  no  less  remark- 
able for  the  eleganee  of  their  forms  than  for  the  beauty 
of  their  plumage,  are  also  highly  prised  in  an  econo- 
mical point  of  view  in  all  the  countries  where  they  are 
found.  As  an  ornament  to  parks  and  thickets  they  are 
unrivalled  among  British  or  naturalised  species,  and  in 
the  rich  and  glowing  colours  of  their  plumage  they  seem 
to  belong  to  another  and  a  more  brilliant  clime. 

Pheasants  are  in  general  shy  and  solitary  birds,  fre-^ 
quenting   the  thickest  coverts*     Spaniels  are  therefore 
usually  employed  by  the  pheasant-shooter,  and  are  re- 
quired to  be  strong,  short  on  the  legs,  and  courageous ; 
since  the  thickness  of  the  coverts  will  oppose,  and  some- 
times overpower  any  but  the  strongest  and  best-made 
do  s.     Pointers,  beagles,  and  even  terriers,  are  also  used 
in   this  sport,  but  the  nature  of  the  locality  will  best 
determine  the  sort  of  dogs  to  be  employed.     Pheasants- 
shooters,  in  general,  assemble  early,  and  after  searching 
the  stubbles  of  wheat,  barley,  and  bean-fields,  proceed  to 
the  neighbouring  woods.     A  foggy  day  is  not  deemed 
unfavourable  to  the   sport,   for  pheasants   are  apt  to 
wander  from  their  close  retreats  in  such  weather,  while 
in  bright  sunshine  they  keep  mostly  to  the  depth  of  the 
Iroods.      They  are  often  spoken  of  as  birds  of  easy  con- 
luest,  on  account  of  their  size  and  the  slowness  of  their 
light,  and  they  have  even  been  called  stupid,  because 
(v'hen  roused,  one  of  them  will  often  perch  on  a  tree,  and 
lave  its  attention  so  riveted  on  the  dogs  as  to  allow  the 
sportsman  to  approach  very  near.     The  old  birds,  how- 
ever,  have  been  observed  to  have  recourse  to  various 
stratagems,   before  they  have  been  compelled  to  take 
wing,  and  when  they  rise,  the  whirring  noise  they  make 
ivith  their  wings,   and  the  disturbance  of  the  leaves, 
:hrough  which  they  are  making  their  way,  is  so  startling 

0  the  inexperienced  hand,  that  many  a  young  sportsman 
inds  his  first  attempts  at  pheasant-shooting  far  less  easy 
)f  accomplishment  than  he  had  been  led  to  expect.  In 
Detobcr  the  trees  are  so  full  of  foliage,  that  it  is  a  diffi- 
:ult  and  wearisome  task  to  beat  the  woods  for  pheasants, 
a  addition  to  which  the  birds  often  rise  without  being 
een,  and  when  seen  and  phot,  they  are  frequently  lost, 
»r  the  search  after  them  occupies  a  considerable  time, 
shooters  therefore  endeavour  to  meet  with  them  in 
otatoe  or  turnip-fields,  deep  stubbles,  and  rushy  fields, 
ear  covers,  but  especially  imder  hedges,  holly-trees,  or 

1  coppices,  where  they  are  generally  pointed  by  the  dogs, 
nd  the  greater  part  of  them  beinpr  young  birds,  they  are 
asilv  killed.  November  is  considered  by  many  sports- 
ion' as  the  month  in  which  pheasant-shooting  is  to  be 
ad  in  perfection.  The  leaves  have  then  fallen  from  the 
•ees,  and  no  longer  obstruct  the  view  of  the  rising  bird, 
le  pathways  in  the  woods  are  more  easily  traversed,  and 
le  birds  themselves  are  full  grown,  and  in  better  con- 
ition  than  during  the  preceding  month.  But  these  ad- 
intacres  may  be  looked  on  as  in  some  measure  counter- 
ilanced  by  the  increased  wariness  of  the  birds,  and 
leir  comparative  scarcity  after  the  earlier  shootings  have 
tinned  their  numbers,  and  have  taught  those  that  re- 
ain  to  flee  the  report  of  the  destructive  gUn. 

It  is  only  on  particular  occasions  that  sportsmen  in- 
ntionally  destroy  the  hen-phea8ant«     It  seldom  happens 


that  the  hens  becoriie  tob  numerous,  and  as  they  are 
easily  distinguished  from  the  male  birds,  they  are  gene- 
rally spared.  A  conventional  understanding  was  for- 
merly entered  into,  that  a  fine  of  half-a-guinea  should  be 
paid  to  the  keeper  d^  the  manor  whenever  a  hen-pheasant 
was  killed*  This  is  frequently  evaded,  but  is  neverthe- 
less a  wise  regulation.  It  is  thus  noticed  by  the  poet 
Pye:— 

But  when  the  hen  to  thy  discerning  view. 
Her  sable  pinion  spreads,  of  duskier  hue. 
The  attendant  keeper's  prudent  warning  hear^ 
And  spare  the  ofiiBpring  of  the  future  year; 
Else  shall  the^n^,  which  custom  laid  of  old, 
Avenge  her  slaughter  by  the  forfeit  gold. 

The  Common  Pheasant  (Phtmanus  Coichicus,  Link.,) 
is  considered  as  the  t3rpe  of  the  genus  PhoHanta;  and 
though  not  originally  British  is  completely  naturalised 
in  our  country,  and  adapts  itself  with  facility  to  our  cli- 
mate, as  it  does  to  that  of  most  other  temperate  regions 
of  the  earth  where  it  has  been  introduced. 

It  seems  generally  admitted  that  the  pheasant  was 
originally  brought  from  the  banks  of  a  celebrated  river  in 
Asia  Minor.  This  river  is  in  ancient  Colchis,  and  was 
once  of  so  much  importance  that  many  towns  were 
erected  on  its  banks,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  bridges 
crossed  its  waters,  in  dififerent  parts  of  its  course.  Its 
ancient  name  was  Phasis^  but  it  is  now  called  the  i^oir, 
and  sometimes  the  Rion:  the  Russians  are  now  entirely 
in  possession  of  its  navigation.  The  ancient  Greeks,  we 
are  told,  in  ascending  this  stream  were  attracted  by  the 
beauty  of  the  birds  which  they  saw  in  great  numbers  on 
its  banks,  and  soon  secured  to  themselves  this  valuable 
addition  to  their  luxuries.  Thus  pheasants  were  rapidly 
introduced  to  the  southern  countries  of  Europe,  anji 
generally  mLde  part  of  the  expensive  and  superabundant 
repasts  of  the  ancients*  Heliogabalus,  In  his  ostentatious 
folly,  is  said  to  have  fed  the  lions  in  his  menagerie  with 
these  birds.  The  banks  of  the  Phasis  are  still,  as  in 
ancient  tiroes,  remarkable  for  the  number  of  fine  phea- 
sants to  be  seen  there.  The  name  of  these  birds,  as  it 
is  evident,  is  derived  from  that  of  the  river:  in  Italy  they 
are  called  Fasianoi,  in  France,  Patsan,  The  time  df 
their  introduction  into  Great  Britain  is  uncertain.  In  the 
time  of  our  first  Edward  the  price  of  a  pheasant  was 
four-pence,  but  we  must  remember  the  superior  value  of 
money  in  those  days,  and  also  the  rato  at  which  other 
provisions  were  sold.  For  instance, — during  the  same 
reign  we  find  that  wheat  was  sold  at  one  shilling  and 
eight- pence  the  quarter.  A  receipt "  for  to  boile  Fesant  ** 
is  also  found  in  a  book  stated  to  have  been  compiled 
by  the  master-cook  of  Richard  the  Second,  and  this, 
proves  the  bird  to  have  been  known  as  early  as  1381* 

The  accurate  description  of  the  common  pheasant  by 
Bewick  need  only  be  compared  with  the  reality,  to  prove 
its  faithfulness.  According  to  this  Naturalist  the  bird 
is  two  feet  eleven  inches  in  length*  The  bill  is  of  a  pale 
horn  colour;  the  nostrils  are  hid  under  an  arched  cover- 
ing ;  eyes  yellow,  and  surrounded  by  a  space,  in  appear- 
ance like  scarlet  cloth,  finely  spotted  with  black;  imme- 
diately under  each  eye  is  a  patch  of  short  feathers  of  a 
dark  glossy  purple;  the  upper  parts  of  the  head  and 
neck  are  deep  purple,  varying  to  glossy  ffreen  or  blue ; 
lower  parts  of  the  neck  and  the  breast  reddish  chestnut, 
with  black  indented  edges ;  the  sides  and  lower  part  of  the 
breast  the  same,  with  prett}  large  tips  of  black  to  each 
feather,  which  in  different  lights  varv  to  a  glossy  purple ; 
the  under  parts  of  the  body  are  ausky ;  the  back  and 
scapulars  beautifully  variegated  with  black  and  white,  or 
cream-colour  speckled  with  black,  and  mixed  with  deep 
orange,  all  the  feathers  edged  with  black ;  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  back  is  a  mixture  of  green ;  the  quills  are 
dusky,  freckled  with  white ;  the  two  middle  feathers  of 
the  tail  are  about  twenty  inches  long,  the  shortest  on 
each  side  less  than  five,  of  a  reddish  brown  marked  with 
transverse  bars  of  blapk*  legs  dusky,  with  a  short  blunt 


THE  SATUEDAY  MAGAZINE 


[OCTOMB  JO,  iMi: 


spar  on  each,  but  in  Bome  old  birds  the  spars  are  u 
sharp  as  needles;  between  the  toes  there  is  a  strong 
niembr^i^.  The  female  is  less,  and  does  not  exhibit 
that  Taricty  and  brilliancy  of  plumage  irhich  mark  the 
male ;  the  general  colours  are  light  and  dark  brown, 
mixed  with  black,  the  lireast  and  belly  fiaelj  freckled 
with  small  black  spots  on  a  light  ground ;  the  tail  is 
short,  and  barred  with  black  somewhat  like  that  of  the 
male ;  the  space  round  the  eye  is  covered  with  feathers. 
The  common  pheasant  is  the  only  one  of  its  kind 
which  has  multiplied  freely  in  our  island.  The  beauti- 
ful natives  of  China,  the  golden  and  silver  pheasant,  are 
confined  to  parks  and  aviaries.  The  hen  pheasant  makea 
her  nest  on  the  ground,  and  lays  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
olive-coloured  eggs,  which  are  smaller  than  those  cS  the 
domestic  ben.  The  incubation  lasts  about  three  weeks ; 
at  the  expiration  of  which  time  the  young  break  the 
shell,  and  follow  their  mother  like  chickens. 

The  ^gs  are  sometimes  destroyed  in  mowing  the 
clover  near  the  woods  which  pheasants'  frequent, 
and  of  those  which  are  batched  it  is  reckoned  that 
one-third  never  attain  their  full  growth,  for  many 
die  in  their  first  moulting,  and  numbers. more  in  ■  dis- 
order of  the  trachea,' commonly  called  "gapes."  This 
disease  is  occasioned  by  an  intestinal  worm,  which 
adheres  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  wind'pipe,  and  causes 
death  by  suffocation,  sometimes  ariainir  from  inflammation 
of  the  part,  sometimes  by  actual  obstruclion.  Fumiga- 
tion by  tobacco,  when  carefully  employed,  hat  been 
found  to  cure  this  disorder,  but  a  simpler  means  of  cure 
in  the  case  of  domestic  poultry,  amongst  whom  the 
disease  is  common,  is  to  put  a  pinch  of  common  salt  far 
back. in  the  mouth  of  the  bird  so  as  to  reach  the  upper 
part  of  the  trachea. 

These  birds  have  always  shown  a  remariuble  timidity 
and  indisposition  to  become  domesticated  like  other  gal- 
linaceous poultry.  Mr.  Waterlow  has  the  following 
remarks  on  this  subject : 

Notwithstanding  the  proximitir  of  the  pheasant  to  the 
nature  of  the  barn-door  fowl,  still  it  has  that  within  it, 
which  baffleseveiy  attempt  on  our  part  to  render  its  domea- 
tication  complete.  What  1  allude  to  is  a  most  singular 
innate  timidity,  which  never  faila  to  show  itaelf  on  the 
■udden  abrupt  appearance  of  an  object.  I  spent  some 
mouths  in  trying  to  overcome  this  timorous  propensity  in 
the  pheasant,  but  I  failed  completely  in  the  attempt.  The 
young  birds  which  had  been  hatched  under  a  domestic  hen 
soon  became  very  tame,  and  would  even  receive  food  from 
the  hand,  when  it  was  offered  cautiously  to  them.  They 
would  fly  up  to  the  window  and  feed  in  company  with  the 
common  poultry.  But  if  any  body  qiproacned  them 
nnawaiea,  off  they  went  to  the  nearest  cover  with  surprising 
velocity.  They  remained  in  it  till  all  waa  quiet,  and  then 
returned  with  their  usual  confidence.  Two  of  them  lost 
their  Uvea  in  the  water  by  the  unexpected  appearance  of  a 
painter,  while  the  barn-door  fowls  aeemed  acarcely  to  notice 
the  appearance.  The  rest  took  fiu^y  to  the  wooda  at  the 
commencement  of  the  breeding  season. 

Yet  when  pheasants  are  in  the  constant  habit  of  being 
attended  in  the  covers  by  a  keeper,  they  attend  to  his 
whistle  and  come  in  docks  to  be  fed;  but  this  is  during 
severe  weather  and  when  they  are  pressed  by  A  scarcity 
of  food. 

Pheasants  are  very  general  feeders :  blackberries,  aloes, 
haws,  grain,  seeds,  and  tender  leaves  are  eaten  by  them, 
together  with  a  great  number  of  insects.  The  hen  bird 
when  kept  in  confitlement  will  lay  many  eggs,  but  does 
not  dispose  them  properly  in  a  uest  or  sit  upon  them. 
The  eggs  are  therefore  generally  placed  under  a  common 
hen,  and  when  they  are  hatched  the  young  are  reared  in 
the  following  manner.  During  the  first  month  their 
food  consists  of  hard  boiled  eggs,  crumbs  of  bread,  and 
lettuce  leaves,  well  mixed,  with  an  addition  of  the  eggs 
of  meadow-ants.  This  food  must  be  given  frequently 
and  in  small  quantities.  Every  kind  of  moisture  is 
hurtM  to  them  at  this  early  age,  and  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  keep  them  witiumt  water,  and  never  to  Let 


them  go  abrokd  until  the  dewis  dried  np.  Thepkn  is 
which  they  are  kept,  mnst  be  very  clean,  and  they  should 
be  taken  in  before  snnset.  In  the  second  nontli  ibn 
may  receive  more  substantial  food,  such  as  whttt,  WW, 
ground  beans,  and  a  variety  of  small  insects,  »itli  ibe 
eggs  of  wood-antr  They  must  now  bsve  Kost  lo 
small  heaps  of  fine  sand,  or  of  dry  earth,  that  thej  mj 
rid  themselves  of  the  vermin  with  whicli  Ihey  begin  to 
be  infected.  Clean  water  must  also  he  given  to  thm 
frequently.  In  the  third  month  the  young  birds  mirbe 
carried,  with  the  crib,  into  the  fields,  if  possible  ■hoe 
there  is  white  clover,  the  seeds  of  which  aie  (oani  a 
strengthen  them  and  forward  their  growtL  Thej  ami 
at  first  be  fed  in  the  field  with  their  usual  food,  bntiki 
quantity  may  be  daily  diminished,  so  that  they  niiy  tan 
to  depend  more  and  more  upon  their  own  resourcn,  ud 
become  better  acquainted  with  the  country.  hSvti 
time  they  will  grow  as  wild  as  those  bred  in  th«  (oods, 
and  will  no  longer  require  to  be  provided  fothj  liast 
who' took  the  trouble  to  rear  them. 

It  has  been  found  easier  to  collect  pheasants  togttki 
on  an  estate,  than  to  keep  them  there,  when  coUcrUd. 
They  ofWn  leave  the  phu»  where  they  have  been  bnd 
in  search  of  food  that  is  congenial  to  them:  on  tlii) 
account  it  is  found  necessary  to  supply  the  coren  liib 
a  variety  of  food,  and  to  take  care  that  water  is  aim  it 
hand.  Mr.  Yarrell  mentions  a  mode  of  inducing  il»i 
to  stay  at  home  which  is  occasionally  adopted,  i.  t  K^wf 
in  summer,  beans,  peas,  and  buckwheat  miied  logctlin, 
and.allowing  the  whole  crop  to  remain  standing  oi  the 
ground.  For  winter  feeding,  cart-loads  of  lanpoUM 
are  occasionally  driven  into  the  covers  and  tcutiiei 
about  by  band. 

We  cannot  close  our  notices  of  the  pheasant  vitlioci 
mentioning  the  rare  species  of  this  genus  of  wlikli  i 
specimen  was  exhibited  some  few  years  ago  in  tbe  Zaif 
lineal  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,'  It  is  a  native  of  sow 
parts  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  but  is  very  rare  is  Pflu- 
The .  specimen  alluded  to  was  found  on  the  fiio«J 
mountains  of  Surinagnr,  and  was  called  2>M«J«rp«r 
or  Long  Tail.  It  was  a  most  beautiful  bird,  md  m 
Uil-feathers  were  of  the  extraordinary  lengib  ot  i" 
feet  six  inches.  This  apedea  is  called,  from  UeuoKit 
the  gentleman  who  first  introduced  it  into  i^ 
"  Reteet't  Pheatant." 


Perhaps  in  no  trade  has  the  divhnon  of  Isbow  Jf^ 
cearfuDy  carried  to  so  ^reat  an  extent  as  m  fiat  «  ^ 
making.  In  an  examination  before  "  w°""7\usM 
House  of  Commons,  it  was  aUled  that  there  ««»  ^j^^, 
and  two  distinct  branchee  of  this  art,  to  each  ol  »« 
boy  may  bo  apprenticed. — G.  Podlbtt  Scaora. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PAEKEB,  WEST  STRAXT^ 
FssusuB  D.  W1IBH.T  Ni»m».  Fluo.  0«  Punn,  *»»  "  "" 

Som7iUB«lMslls(s»«i»iMi«*M  In  *•'"''* 


Jba^tnr^an       iira^annr. 


K"  599.         SUPPLEMENT» 


OCTOBER,  1841.         {o^'Skt. 


THE  HOTTSES  OF  ALL  NATIONS.    11. 


Ox  a  tbrmer  occasion,  fVol.  XV.,  p.  33,)  ve  presented  a 
brief  view  of  the  rode  habitations  of  mankind,  and  aUted 
that  tlie  transition  from  these  to  the  comforts  of  a' modem 
house  was  by  no  meana  abrupt ;  that  a  wide  interval  existed 
between  them,  which  could  only  be  filled  up  by  tracing  the 
progress  of  civilization  in  various  countries  through  suucee- 
Eive  a^s.  A  portion  of  this  great  and  important  subject, 
including  AncuiTBCTtinE,  has  already  occupied  three  Sap- 
plementa,  (Vol.  XVI.,  pp.  121,  209,  and  249,)  and  we  now 
propose  to  conclude  with  a  few  rough  sketches  of  the  bouses 
of  those  nations  which  have  made  considerable  advances  in 
the  art9  of  life. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  remark,  that  our  object  does  not 
include  a  description  of  temples,  churches,  prisons,  public 
office^  hospital^  Ike.;  but  the  homes,  the  domestic  arrange- 
ments, of  ttie  middle  classes  of  society.  As  the  exhibition  of 
krchitectuml  taste  b  more  displayed  m  what  arecalled  public 
baildinge  than  in  private  houses,  we  shall  not  find  it  neces- 
mxy  to  d^vell  at  much  length  on  architectural  details  ;  but 
iliall  chiefly  direct  our  attention  to  those  anangements  by 
vhich  the  domestic  comfort  of  the  interior,  rather  than  the 
>eauty  of  the  exterior,  is  secnred.  Royal  palaces  will  not 
>ccupy  much  of  our  attention,  for  it  is  well  known  that 
uch  edifices  partake  less  of  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
leople,  than  do  dwellings  of  raore  humble  pretensions.  The 
lalacea  of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  whatever  differences 
hey  may  present  in  external  architecture  or  in  dimensions, 
cry  much  resemble  each  other  in  the  costly  deconliom  of 
he  interior. 

Vol..  XIX 


1,  UouiBs  or  TBB  AnciKNis. 

The  nature  of  the  details  which  the  ancient  clasucal 
writers  have  handed  down  to  us,  is  not  such  as  to  give  us 
much  ioBieht  into  their  dwellings  and  domestic  arrange- 
ments. >^r8  and  tumults,  ambitious  projects,  and  contests 
(or  civil  power,  were  unhappily  so  prevalent,  that  the 
"  homes"  of  the  ancients  are  but  sparingly  alluded  to,  and 
that  in  such  form  as  little  enables  ns  to  form  a  clear  con- 
ception of  them.  There  were,  however,  some  distinguished 
men  who  did  not  disdain  to  leave  on  recitfd  something  which 
would  shew  us  what  their  dwellings  were.  Among  thi» 
number  was  Pliny  the  younger,  whose  letters  on  various 
subjects,  and  to  various  persons,  hare  been  handed  down. 
Pliny  has  left  a  ungnlarly  minute  description  of  his  sum- 
mer villa  in  Tuscany.  It  is  too  long  to  present  verbatim, 
but  as  it  is  of  importance,  in  illustrating  the  arrangement 
of  the  house  of  a  Roman  gentleman,  we  will  give  a  portion 
of  it. 

"  My  villa  is  so  advantageously  utoated,  that  it  com- 
mands a  full  view  of  all  the  country  round  ;  yet  you 
approach  it  by  so  insensible  a  rise,  that  you  find  yourself 
upon  an  eminence,  without  perceiving  you  BBcended.  The 
exposition  of  the  principal  front  of  the  house  is  full  souUi, 
and  seems  to  invite  the  afternoon's  sun  in  summer  (but 
somewhat  earlier  in  winter)  into  a  spacious  and  well  pro- 
portioned portico,  conristing  of  several  members,  particularly 
a  porch  built  in  the  ancient  maimer.  In  the  front  of  tlie 
portico  is  a  sort  of  tamoe,  embelliahtd  vith  Taiions  figui«^ 
699 


170 


THE  SATOftDATt  MAGAZINE. 


and  bounded  with  a  box  hedge.  At  the  extremity  of  this 
portico  standi  a  grand  dining-room^  whi^  ^ipans  upon  one 
end  0i  lft«  ienaea,  mA  aodi  parts  of  tlM  bouse  which 
pcojeei  fi>Twaitl»  together  wtA  the  woode  tnclosing  the 
adjacent  hippodrome.  Almost  opposite  to  the  eentre  of  tlie 
portico,  stands  a  square  edifice,  Vnich  encompasses  a  amaD 
area^  shaded  by  four  plane  trees,  in  the  midst  of  which  a 
fountain  rises^  from  wbeaee  the  water^  xnniiiBg  oTer  the 
edges  of  a  m&rble  basin,  gently  refreshes  the  surrounding 
plane  trees,  and  the  yeraure  underneath  them.  Thb 
MMviiuent  consists  of  a  bed*^hainber,  secured  notDi  every 
kmd  of  noise,  and  which  the  light  itself  cannot  penetrate  ; 
together  with  a  common  dining-room,  which  I  use  when  I 
have  none  but  intimate  friends  with  me.  A  second  portico 
looks  upon  this  little  area,  and  has  the  same  prospect  with 
the  former  I  just  now  described.  There  is,  besides,  another 
Toom,  which,  beine  situated  close  to  the  nearest  plane  tree, 
enjoys  a  constant  shade  and  verdure :  its  sides  are  incmsted 
half  way  with  carved  marble ;  and  from  thence  to  the 
ceilinff  a  foliage  is  painted  with  birds  intermixed  among  the 
branches,  which  has  an  effect  altogether  as  agreeable  as  that 
of  the  carving ;  at  the  basis,  a  little  fountain,  playing  through 
several  small  pipes  into  a  vase,  produces  a  most  pleasing 
murmur, 

*'  From  a  comer  of  this  portico  you  enter  into  a  very 
spacious  chamber,  opposite  to  the  grand  dining-room,  which, 
nom  some  of  its  wmdows,  has  a  view  of  the  terrace,  and 
fh>m  others,  of  the  meadow ;  as  those  in  the  front  look 
upon  a  cascade,  which  entertains  at  once  both  the  eye  and 
the  ear ;  for  Uie  water,  daaliing  from  a  mat  height,  foams 
over  the  marble  basin  that  reeeivea  it  b^ilow.  This  room  is 
extremely  warm  in  winter,  being  much  exposed  to  the  sun ; 
and  in  a  cloudy  day  the  heat  of  an  adjoining  stove  verY 
well  supplies  ms  absence.  From  heaoe  you  uses  throuffh 
a  spacious  and  pleasant  undii—ia^  room,  into  the  cold  bauir 
room,  in  which  is  a  large  chMmiy  bath  :  but  if  yon  are  dis- 
posed to  swim  more  at  MWy  or  in  warmer  water,  in  the 
middle  of  the  area  is  a  wide  basin  for  thai  purpose,  and 
near  it  a  reservoir  from  whence  ^ou  may  be  svpplied  with 
cold  water  to  brace  yourself  again,  if  yon  shoiud  perceive 
you  are  too  much  relaxed  by  the  warm*  Contiguous  to 
the  cold  bath  is  another  of  a  moderate^dcgrseof  heiU,  which 
enjoys  the  kindly  warmth  of  the  sun,  bai  not  so  intensely 
as  that  of  the  hot  bath,  which  projecta  farther.  This  last 
consists  of  three  divisions  each  ot  different  d^^reea  of  heat : 
the  two  fsmer  lie  entirely  open  to  the  son ;  the  latter, 
though  not  so  much  exposed  to  its  rays^  rseeivea  an  equal 
share  of  its  light.  Ov^r  the  undresnng  roofm  is  built  the 
tennis  court,  which,  by  means  of  particular  cireles^  admits 
of  different  kind  of  gamea.  Net  fiv  fnm  the  baths  is  the 
staircase  leading  to  tke  ineloaad  pottieQ>  after  you  have 
first  passed  through  three  apartmentiL  •.*•••  At 
one  end  of  the  inclosed  portico,  and,  indeed,  taken  off  from 
it,  is  a  chamber  that  looks  upon  the  hippodrome,  the  vine- 
yard, and  the  mountains.  Adjoining  is  a  i*oom  which  has 
a  full  exposure  to  the  sun,  especially  in  winter;  and 
from  whence  runs  an  apartment  that  connects  the  hippo- 
drome with  the  house.  On  the  side  of  the  house  rises  an 
indLosad  summer  portico,  which  has  not  only  a  prospect  of 
tho  vineyards,  but  seems  almost  contiguous  to  them.  From 
ihe  midale  of  this  portico  you  €nter  a  dining-room,  cooled 
by  the  salutary  biieezes  from  the  Anennine  valleys ;  from 
the  windows  in  the  back  front,  whicn  are  extremely  large, 
there  is  a  prospect  of  the  vineyards ;  you  have  also  anothw 
view  of  thiem  nom  the  foldinfi^  doors,  through  the  summer 
portico.  Along  that  side  of  this  dining-room,  where  there 
are  no  windows,  runs  a  private  staircase  for  the  greater 
convenienoe  of  serving  at  entertainmenta.  At  the  further 
end  is  a  chamber,  from  whence  tlie  eye  is  nleased  with  a 
view  of  the  vineyard  and  of  the  portico,  underneath  this 
loom  is  an  inclosed  portico,  somewhat  resembling  a  grotto^ 
whioh^  enjoying  in  the  midst  of  the  summer  heats  its  own 
natural  ooolnesSy  neither  admits  nor  wants  the  refreshment 
of  external  breeaeSk  After  you  have  passed  both  these 
porticoes,  at  the  end  of  the  dining-room  stands  a  third, 
wlueh,  as  the  day  is  more  or  less  advanced,  serves  either  for 
winter  or  sununer  use.  It  leads  to  two  different  apartments^ 
one  oontaining  fo«r  chambers,  the  other  three ;  each  enjoy- 
ing, by  turns,  both  sun  and  shade." 

ill  another  v iUa  wMeh  Pliny  had  a  lew  miles  from  Rome, 
the  entrance  was  through  a  portico  into  a  coitral  court,  and 
from  thence  another  passage  led  into  a  large  hall :  on  eyery « 
ff de  of  this  wall  were  either  windows  or  doors  leading  to 
various  apartmoits.  On  one  side  of  the  hall  was  a  luge 
family  room  and  anothsr  whinh  Pliny  need  as  hislibrary  and 


study,  together  with  a  b^-room,  and  entrance^  to  nxnu 
belonging  to  the  slayea  er  eenrants^  On  the  other  ade  of 
the  hall  wem  doors  loadkig  te  the  baths  tad  ouui^  other 
bailments* 

The  excaaalaons  which  have  been  made  at  t^ompeii  sW 
that  the  Roman  dwellings  were  often  very  considerable  in 
extenti  and  4iioyided  Kith  numezpus  offices  end  mitbiwses. 
Baths  weretby-  no  means  anuausnal  adjunct  to  a  lioiise,  kimI 
some  of  them  were  constructed  with  great  ingenuity,  so  as 
to  afford  a  supply  of  hot,  warm,  and  cold  water,  to  the  dif- 
ferent rooms  apprapflatad  at  bath-romns.  This  eii8toffl,bf 
providing  baths  for  frequent  use,  was  carried  to  an  extent 
that  we  cannot  properly  appreciate  in  England.  Out  humid 
climate  affords  us  but  little  means  of  estimating  the  exqui- 
site luxury  which  a  bath  affords  to  dwellers  in  warn 
countries,  where  the  powerful  heat  of  the  snn  doling  the 
day  would  enervate  tne  body,  if  not  refresh^  by  a  bath. 
As  there  was  a  great  similarity  among  the  dwellings  of  the 
ancients,  a  short  description  will  suffice.  Amongst  the  Jevs, 
Greeks^  and  Romans,  nouses  were  flat  at  the  top,  so  that 
persons  might  walk  upon  them  ;  and  usually  had  stairs  oa 
the  outside,  by  which  they  midbt  ascend  and  descend  mih- 
out  coming  into  the  house.  Each  house,  in  fact,  was  so 
laid  out  that  it  inclosed  a  quadrangular  area  or  court ;  this 
court  was  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  being  open  to  the 
sky,  gave  lignt  to  the  house.  This  wss  the  place  when 
company  was  received,  and  for  that  purpose  it  was  covend 
with  mats  or  carpets  for  their  better  aceommodatioQ.  It 
was  paved  with  marble  or  other  materials^  aeeording  to  the 
owner's  ability,  and  provided  with  an  awniii|[  of  doth  ot 
vellum  to  ahelter  than  from  the  heat  and  viei«tn<les  of 
the  weather.  This  part  of  tiieir  boases,  calkd  by  the 
Romans  iiiiphmiim  or  eacei  ON^tais^  was  provided  vith 
ehann^  to  cany  off  the  water  into  the  common  sewen. 
The  top  of  the  house  was  level,  and  covend  with  a  stroos 
plaster  by  way  of  tenaee. 

i«    HousBB  OF  Effttuun). 

We  shall  now  direct  our  attention  to  modem  times,  id 
take  a  rqiid  glance  at  the  most  striking  differences  tkt 
exist  between  the  dwdiinga  of  different  eeontries.  H> 
shall  begin  with  our  own  country,  aa  it  will  eoabkus 
better  to  understand  the  constmction  of  othcn^ 

By  dwelling  in  a  house  surrounded  by  other  mHn 
houses^  we  are  not  unlikely  to  forget  altogether  what  m 
ita  principal  features  as  compared  with  those  of  other 
countries : — there  is  no  lack  of  instancca  in  which  extreise 
familiarity  with  a  subject  induces  a  sort  of  ignorance  « 
it  Let  us  then  examine  the  dwelling  of  an  Eoglishma 
in  moderate  circumstances.  In  Uie  fbrst  place  ^^  ^ 
that, — ^unlike  the  houses  of  oMr-there  is  no  ceaUal  co<ut 
surrounded  br  buildings :  ground  is  too  vslnable  to  aliov 
space  for  such  a  form  of  nouses.  The  roof  is  not  flit: 
our  rainy  climate  presents  us  with  but  few  inducementa  to 
visit  the  house-top.  The  windows  are  not  concealed  from 
without,  and  made  to  open  into  the  central  court :  j^^ 
and  suspicion  are  not  English  characteristics  in  ^ 
matters.  If  we  were  to  go  on,  step  by  sten,  makiflg  coo- 
parisons  thus  between  an  English  house  ana  an  Oriental  c^ 
(for  the  latter  at  the  present  day  very  much  resemble  vMt 
the  houses  of  the  ancients  used  to  be,)  we  should  find  tlii 
those  differences  are  not  the  result  of  mere  caprice,  h^ 
have  a  foundation  in  the  habits  of  the  {leople,  the  extent » 
room  compared  with  the  number  of  inhabitaata,  or  vn 
climate  of  the  country.  v  -]  d 

A  modem  London  private  house  is  generally  built « 
brick,  and  has  four  or  five  distinct  stories,  with  one  star- 
case  common  to  them  aU.  These  houses  are  not  detached, 
but,  from  the  value  of  land,  are  built  adjoirJng  o» 
another;  sometimes  thirty  or  forty  without  aByiBi*'' 
ruption.  In  the  outskuls  of  London,  where  hnd  is  jw 
quite  so  valuable,  the  wealthy  citizen  builds  his  ^^ 
detached  from  others  of  a  simihu*  kind,  and  surrounded  bv  J 
little  garden.  These  are  oflen  made  to  assume  soineihflf 
like  Uie  appearance  of  cottages, — and  "  Rose  Cottage,  - 
«  Lavender  Cottage,"— "  Pleasant  Retreat,"  &c^  written  nf 
at  the  gate,  in<Scates  that  the  owner  wuAet  to  con*ii»r 
himself  in  the  country.  It  must  he  owned  that  in  inaBj 
instances  there  is  a  good  deal  of  the  "  pride  of  ^^°^^^'^ 
in  these  mock  cottages ;  although  in  others^  much  taste  iBii 
good  arrangements  are  displayed. 

The  superior  classes  of  shops  in.  our  huge  to^iw  ao  w* 
greatly  differ  from  private  houses,  for  all  except  the  groui^* 
floor  IS  arranged  as  in  a  private  house.  Tne  oommff^ 


SUPELBISEirr  IKXR'  OCTOBERp:  lUl. 


171 


establifliuimiis  eonneeied  with  wfaelaBfe  tnde  aie  ak<^g«tfe^ 
different  baiidings.  The  domeette  RMM&sare  £bw  in  number, 
and  prindpaily  deroted  to  the  junior  partne»  of  a  firm; 
for  it  is  one  of  the  pointe  of  Mnbition  In  a  wholeaale  tnder 
to  have  a  country  nonee  (or  oottag«)  to  i«tire  to  when  the 
buBinees  of  the  day  is  concluded*  Such  is  the  cose  to  a 
remarkable  extent  in  the  city  of  London :  foreigaers  woold 
be  sQiprieedy  did  they  know  now  £bw  wealthy  familiet  haye 
their  nome, — ^their  living  and  sleeping  roomiy*— within  the 
bonndaries  of  the  city. 

When  we  leave  the  busy  aoencs  of  onr  gnat  toiwmi  ski 
extend  our  view,  to  the  eountiy^  we  find  every  kind  of 
dwelling,  fit)m  the  palace-like  Chatsworth  diownward, 
inclading  tha  manor  ifonse  of  the  ^  country  squire^" — ^the 
newly  s^rung-up  country  house  of  the  Bicrchanty*-and  the 
substantial  and  old  English  dwelling  of  the  fiinner.  In 
Loudon's  Ent^^d^ardia  &f  Cottage  Ardiiteeime  h  riven  a 
beau  ideal  of  an  English  country  house, — ^that  is,  a  detailed 
description  of  a  country  residence  for  an  English  gentloman, 
oomDiising  the  principal  features  which  distinguish  the  best 
kind  of  country  villas  in  Uiis  country.  We  cannot  do 
better,  perhaps,  than  give  an  outline  of  this  description, — 
premising,  tnat  the  noose  is  not  so  much  the  palatial 
mansion  of  a  peer,  as  the  villa  or  mansion  house  of  a 
**  country  gentleman." 

The  style  of  such  a  villa  Is  the  **  old  English,"  as  belM' 
more  picturesque  and  ornamental, — as  according  best  wi£ 
rural  scenery,— and  as  admitting  of  any  form  moiA  suitable 
for  the    yarious    offioes   and    servants^  apartments :— the 
Grecian  style,  adopted  under  such  circumstances,  would  be 
an  application  of  architectural  rules  to  purposes  for  which 
tiiey   wore  not  intended.    The  villa  is  tnerefore  in  the 
Elizabeth  style,  and  the  ground-plan  somewhat  in  the  form 
of  the  letter  H.    The  front  presents  a  centre  and  two  pro- 
jecting wings :  the  centre  containing  the  hall  and  dining- 
room,  with  a  gallery  and  staircase  behind  them.    One  wing 
is  occupied  by  the  drawing-room  and  libmry,  with  a  saloon 
between  them.    The  other  wing  contains  a  sitting  room, 
and  officea  for  the  upper  servants :  the  inferior  offices  being 
in  the  basement,  or  in  a  distinct  part  of  the  building.    The 
principal  front  is  ornamented :  m  the  centre  is  a  porch  of 
two  stories ;  and  the  wall  on  each  side  (broken  into  com- 
partments   b^    pilasters,  &c.)  contains    laige    muUioned 
windows  ;  with  a  battlement  or  pan^t  at  the  top,  decorated 
with  busts,  urns,  heraldic  ornaments^  &c.     Each  end  of 
the  projecting  wings  presents  a  bay  window,  square  or 
seTnicircular  m  form,  with  balustrade  or  stone  covering 
above.     The  high  and  steep  roof  is  decked  with  chimneys 
of  variooa  forms  and  heights ;  and  in  the  centre  is  the 
tower  oyer  the  gmnd  staircase  ;  its  cupola  roof  terminating 
in  a  rich  lantern,  and  supporting  a  weathercock  or  dwarf 
spire. — ^The  four  distinguisning  features  of  this  exterior  are, 
tne  projecting  wings,  the  high  roof,  the  numerous  chinmeys, 
and  the  lofty  staircase  tower. — Outside  one  of  the  wings  of 
the  house  is  a  terrace,  with  a  handsome  balustrade,  and 
an  entrance  is  gained  to  this  torrace  by  a  door  from  the 
saloon. 

The  porch  of  the  house  is  raised  a  stop  or  two,  and  is 
Ornamented  in  its  principal  parts,  and  contains  seats  for 
servants,  &c.  From  the  porch  we  proceed  to  Uie  entrance 
hall,  whicli  corresponds  in  style  with  the  size  of  the  building, 
and  is  more  lofty  in  English  than  in  Grecian  forms  of  vUla. 
The  hall  looks  as  if  meant  for  something  more  than  the 
mere  entr&nce  to  the  house ;  for  in  the  old  E^lish  times, 
when  the  IBaron  was  snrrounded  by  his  retainers,  the  hall 
Was  the  apartment  in  which  all  dined,— hi^h  and  low.  The 
hall  is  fa  mtshed  with  old  oak  chairs  and  benches,  a  higli 
table  across  the  upper  end,  and  other  tables  in  other  positions 
round  the  sides  of  the  halL  This  is  the  place,  too,  for  the 
armour,  the  defensive  arms,  the  hunting  implements,  the 
bows  and  arrows,  the  fishing  tackle,  the  stags'  horns  and 
other  trophies  of  the  diase.  The  floor  is  of  stone,  not 
covered  by  any  carpet :  snd  the  room  is  warmed  either 
by  hot  air  (a  modem  invention),  or  by  heaping  logs  of  wood 
on  the  large  open  fire-place  at  one  side  of  the  hdl.  From 
this  hall  there  b  a  grand  entrance  to  the  principal  apart- 
ments, and  a  humbler  one  to  the  servants'  omces. 

From  the  hall  we  proceed  to  the  gallery  beyond  it. 
This  gallery  is  a  kind  of  passage  leading  to  the  principal 
apartments.  On  one  side  it  leads  to  the  saloon,  dining-room, 
&c.  :  on  another  to  the  servants^  offices:  and  in  another  to 
the  grnnd  staircase.  The  saloon  is  a  sort  of  vestibule  to  the 
living  rooms,  having  on  one  side  a  door  leading  to  the 
'dining-room,  on  another^  door  leading  to  the  drawing-room, 
on  another  windows  which  open  on  to  the  toiraoe  imd  gar- 


den..  Tba  iaken  U  olWn  used  a$  a  mosio  room,  and  ia 
therefore  arxiuiged  impropriately,  in  being  nearly  divested 
of  fiunituitt :  indeed  if  It  were  not  so  employed,  its  general 
use  is  not  «f  a  kind  to  render  mudi  fiimiture  necessary. 

The  diawing-room  is  the  most  elegant  apartment  in  tha 
house,  as  m^  be  expected  firom  the  mode  in  which  it  is 
emploj^ed.  This  room  is  of  noble  propOTtion%  and  has  a  bay 
or  projeettng  window  at  toe  end :  tnere  are  also  windows 
OB  one  of  the  other  sides^  looking  out  into  the  terrace  and 
garden,  and  oppoatto  these  windows  is  the  fire-plaoe.  Tha 
ceiling  is  of  lac^work  «tuoQO»  intorapeiaed  witn  iliields  <^ 
the  WBiily  anna.  This  room  contains  such  of  the  best  pic-* 
tures  belonging  to  the  family  as  may  be  of  small  size.  In 
the  pier  between  the  windows  is  a  hu^  looking^glaaa^  reach- 
ing nsariy  to  the  e^lii^. 

From  tha  drawing-room  we  proceed  across  tha  saloon  to 
the  library,  the  general  errangunent  of  which  is  more  somhra 
and  aedato  than  that  of  the  drawina-room,  but  Uie  size  of 
Uie  rooms  Is  nearly  equal.  The  walls  are  of  course  chiefly 
oecupied  by  oaiee  for  books,  maps»  itc^  and  those  parta 
whick  are  not  so  occupied  are  painted  or  papered  of  soma 
snbdued  colour,  so  as  not  to  give  a  gaudy  efiect  to  a  znom 
davoted  to  study.  A  pair  of  globes^  leadii^-deskai  libmiy 
table,  &C.,  are  arrsnged  in  this  room.  Such  a  room  is  a 
aaneral  plaoe  of  reception  for  gentlemen  during  the  aadier 
noun  of  the  day. 

Tha  dintng-ffoom  is  situated  near  the  halL  Tha  walla  aii« 
of  old  oak  wainscot,  and  are  nearly  covered  with  pieturoiy^ 
this  being  the  chief  deposiioiy  of  the  fiunily  picture^  unksa 
a  gallery  be  kept  for  their  reception.  The  lam  fira^Uca 
is  provided  with  *'  dogs  "  for  the  reception  of  the  loga  used 
as  fuel.  The  taUes,  sideboard^  oellaretBi  **  dumb-waiteni*^ 
&c.,  neoeasaxy  to  such  an  apartment,  we  need  not  descsoi 
upon.  £zoq)t  in  very  lam  housesi  the  diaiiig^room  .1*  K^nt^ 
rally  the  breakfast  room'  for  the  family. 

The  private  study  is  a  room  difiariaa  from  the  libru^<in 
this,  that  although  both  are  intended  for  study  or  business, 
the  library  is  open  to  the  ladies  as  well  as  the  gentlemen, 
whereas  the  study  is  the  room  m  which  the  ^^squirs*'  tnna* 
acts  his  various  afiairs  with  steward,  bailifi>  &C.,  &c. 

These  are  the  principal  apartments  on  the  ground-floor: 
we  will  therefore  proceed  up  stoirs.  The  staircase  is  an  im* 
portant  part  of  an  old  English  house.  Tha  steps  are  Mther 
of  stone  or  of  polished  oak,  and  the  balustrades  and  rails  are 
of  carved  oak.  The  staircase  is  lighted  by  a  large  muUioaed 
window,  filled  with  stained  glass.  This  staircase  leads  up 
to  the  bed^rooms  of  the  principal  members  of  the  family. 
A  house  of  some  pretension  will  often  have  a  ^  stato  **  becU 
chamber,  devoteu  especially  to  the  use  of  sudi  visitors 
as  may  be  of  consequence.  This  ^ state**  room  is  fui^ 
nished  ia  a  somewhat  costly  style,  and  is  aceompanied  by 
two  dressing-rooms.  The  other  bed-rooms  have  one  dresa- 
ing  room  each  attached  to  them. 

The  servanto'  bed-rooms  are  on  the  highest  floor,  and  SM 
approached  by  a  separato  staircase  from  another  part  of  tha 
house.  The  stairs  are  in  connexion  below  vrith  the  house- 
keeper's room,  the  kitehen,  and  all  the  various  offices  ap^o* 
?riated  to  the  duties  and  employmento  of  the  eervanta. 
^ese  we  need  not  describe  in  detail,  but  as  an  example  of 
a  kitehen  fit  for  a  large  house,  we  may  quote  the  foUowk^ 
from  the  work  last  afluded  to : — **  I  remembw  to  have  seen 
a  kitehen,  at  a  house  In  Warvrickshire,  which  struck  ma 
particularly.  The  kitohen,  scullery,  larder,  &e.,  formed  a 
range  of  buildine  on  one  side  of  the  kitehen  court,  separate 
from  the  house,  but  there  was  a  covered  way  between  them 
The  building  was  of  two  stories,  the  kitohen  occupying  the 
centre.  It  was  a  lane  lofty  room,  of  good  proportions,  as 
high  as  two  stories  of  the  building.  You  entered  it  at  one 
end,  by  large  folding  doors,  from  a  passage  through  the 
building :  at  the  opposite  end  was  the  fire-place,  with  a  screen 
before  it,  on  one  side  of  which  was  the  door  to  the  scullery 
and  bakehouse,  on  the  other  side  a  range  of  set  coppers  of 
different  sizes.  On  one  ride  of  the  room  were  two  rows  of 
windows,  and  under  the  lower  row  a  range  of  charcoal 
stoves  and  hot  plates,  tlie  latter  to  keep  things  warm.  The 
other  side  had  only  ^e  upper  row  of  windows,  and  against 
the  wall  was  a  cesser,  above  which  the  copper  cooking 
utensils,  &c.,  were  ranged  in  a  very  ornamental  way.  A 
long  teble  was  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  and  over  the  door 
a  dtal  clock.  The  ceiling  had  a  very  handsome  cornice,  and 
a  boss  in  the  centre,  firom  which  hung  a  brass  lamp.  Oppo- 
site the  entmnce-door  another  door  admitted  you  to  a  pas- 
sage, on  one  side  of  which  were  the  larders,  on  the  otner, 
suting-rooms,  &c.,  and  at  the  end  a  staircase  led  to  tlie 
cook's  apartmenta  over.''  -  Sueh  a  kitchen -is,  however^  ^f 

599—2 


172 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


rather  a  Higlier  standard  tBaa  would  be  required  for  an 
Euq-lish  countty  house. 

Tiie  reader  will  understand  that  the  above  is  not  so  much 
a  description  of  a  house  actually  existing  as  a  means  of  con- 
veying a  general  idea  of  most  of  our  country  villas. 

If  we  visit  our  northern  neighbours  we  shall  not  find  a 
very  striking  distinction  between  their  houses  and  those  of 
the  English.  Indeed,  so  much  are  the  habits  and  tastes  of 
the  wealthy  classes  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  be- 
Ooming  assimilated  by  constant  intercourse  that  their  dwel- 
lings bear  a  very  close  resemblance  to  one  another.  We 
may,  however,  observe  that  one  characteristic  feature  of  the 
houses  at  Edinburgh  is  the  enormous  height  to  which  they 
dre  built.  No  private  houses  are  to  be  seen  in  London 
equal  m  height  to  many  at  Edinbui^h,  which  extend  some- 
times to  seven  or  eight  stories,  or  **  flats.'*  These  very  lofty 
Bouses  are,  however,  more  prevalent  in  the  trading  parts  of 
the  city  than  in  that  part  occupied  by  the  genteel  inhabit- 
ants, ft  is  worthy  of  a  nassing  remark  that  Scotland  does  not 
Oontain  so  many  middle-class  houses  as  England, — ^not  so 
many  manor-houses  of  moderately  wealthy  landowners,  nor 
houses  of  retired  tradesmen,  nor  substantial  farm-buildings. 
This  arises,  not  firom  any  inferiority  in  the  wealth  or  cha- 
iftu^r  of  the  people,  but  from  the  events  of  her  history. 
It  is  not  yet  one  nundred  years  since  Scotland  was  a  scene 
of  rebellion,  and  anarchy, — ^highlander  despising  lowlander, 
because  the  former  had  not  yet  learned  to  appreciate  the 
advantages  of  social  comfort,  as  enjoyed  in  the  lowlands, 
and  in  England.  But  since  that  period  an  unprecedentedly 
rapid  progress  has  been  made  in  every  part  of  2>cotland,  and 
her  houses,  as  well  as  the  spirit  of  her  institutions,  are  be- 
coming more  and  more  like  those  of  England.  In  Ireland, 
too^  many  circumstances  have  retarded  the  increase  of  a 
dass  of  iimabitants  between  the  very  rich  and  Uie  very  poor. 

3*    Houses  ov  Fbakcb,  SwnzBRLiim,  akd  GEBMAinr. 

We  must  cross  the  Channel,  to  visit  the  houses  of  our 
neighbour^  the  French.  These  are  generally  speaking 
larger  tlian  the  houses  of  English  persons  of  equal  rank. 
But  thb  b  partly  accounted  for  by  the  different  way  in 
which  the  house  is  parcelled  out.  In  England  a  respectable 
fionilv  will  occupy  a  house  of  moderate  size  to  themselves. 
In  France  they  would  occupy  a  portion  of  a  veiy  large 
house.  Each  floor  contains  a  suite  of  rooms,  and  a  house 
often  oontains  as  many  respectable  fiuniUes  as  there  are 
floors*  We  are  here  speaking  not  so  much  of  large  man- 
sions as  of  respectable  private  houses. 

In  Paris,  the  large  mansions  generally  obtain  the  name 
of  hU^f  a  term  which  we  apply  to  the  highest  class  of 
houses  for  public  accommodation.  Mr.  Cooper,  in  his 
J^eiidmce  in  Fratiee,  has  given  some  details  respecting 
these  Parisian  mansions.  He  says, — **  The  private  hotels 
are  even  more  numerous  than  the  private  gardens,  land  not 
always  having  been  attainable.  Of  course  these  buildings 
vary  inaige  and  magnificence,  according  to  the  rank  and 
fornine  of  those  who  caused  them  to  }^  constructed ;  but 
the  very  smallest  are  usually  of  greater  dimensions  than 
our  (American)  largest  town-houses;  though  we  have  a 
finish  in  many  of  we  minor  articles,  such  as  the  hinges, 
locks^  and  the  wood-work  in  general,  and,  latterly,  in 
marbles,  that  is  somewhat  uncommon,  even  in  the  best 
houses  of  France ;  when  the  question,  however,  is  of  magni- 
ficence, we  can  lay  no  daim  to  it,  for  want  of  arrangement, 
mi^tude,  and  space."  The  hotels  bear  the  names  of  their 
owners.  The  higher  classes  of  the  nobility  were  accustomed 
to  build  a  smaller  hotel  near  the  principal  structure,  which 
was  inhabited  by  the  inferior  branches  of  the  family,  and 
sometimes  by  fiivoured  dependents,— this  is  called  the 
peHt  hUd.  Our  first  apartments  were  in  one  of  these  petits 
hotels,  which  had  once  belonged  to  the  fiunily  of  Montmo- 
renci.  The  great  hotel,  which  joined  it,  was  inhabited,  and 
I  believe  owned,  by  an  American,  who  had  reversed  the 
usual  order  of  things  by  coming  to  Europe  to  seek  hb  for- 
tune. Our  next  abode  was  the  Hotel  Joumiliac,  in  a  small 
fjrden  of  a  remote  part  of  the  Faubourg  St.  Germain, 
his  was  a  hotel  of  the  smaller  size,  and  our  apartments 
were  chiefly  on  the  second  floor,  or  in  what  is  called  the 
tmrd  story  in  America,  where  we  had  six  rooms  besides  the 
?P^'  -  ^^  saloon,  dining-room,  &c.,  had  formerly  been 
the  bed-chamber,  dressing-rooom,  and  ante-chamber  of 
Ma«tome  la  Marquise,  and  gave  one  a  very  respectful  opmion 
of  the  state  of  a  woman  of  quality,  of  a  secondary  class, 
^ough  I  bebeve  that  this  family,  too,  was  highly  alES. 
We  ars  now  m  a  small  hotel  in  the  Rue  St,  Dominique, 


where  in  some  respecfa  we  are  better  lodged  Ibaa  vnt 
though  oompeUed  to  occupy  three  floors. .  Here  thenlooa 
is  nearly^  thirty  feet  in  length,  and  seventeen  hij^h.  It  is 
panelled  in  wood,  and  above  all  the  doors,  of  wlii^,  riI 
and  fidse,  there  are  six,  are  allegories  painted  on  canvas,  and 
inclosed  in  vrrought  gilded  frames.  Four  large  mirrors  are 
fixtures,  and  the  windows  are  vast,  and  descend  to  the  ~ 


The  dining-room,  which  opens  on  a  garden,  is  of  the  sama 
size,  but  even  lofder.*' 

On  passing  from  France  into  Switzerland,  we  find  that 
a  marked  change  occurs  in  this  respect :— that  m  the  latter 
country  each  fiunily,  generally  speaking,  has  a  heme  to  it 
self,  whereas,  as  has  been  stated,  in  France  each  family 
frequently  content  themselves  with  a  single  floor.  Then 
are  other  diflerenees,  too.  The  French  houses  are  moAj 
built  of  rough  stone,  and  stuccoed ;  while  those  of  Switzer- 
land,—particularly  ii  near  the  great  pine  forests,— eie  ofUn 
log-houses,  built  almost  wholly  of  wood,  but  finished  veiy 
carefully,  and  constructed  with  neat  accancy.  The 
walls  are  formed  of  whole  trees  neatly  squared  and  notched 
into  each  ol^er  at  the  ends  where  the  wtdls  cross.  Iha 
roof  is  of  wood ;  short  pieces  of  pine  split  into  thin  lajeis 
are  used  as  tiles,  and  held  together  by  small  spars  laid  acnw 
them,  which  are,  in  their  turn,  kept  down  by  stones.  Ma&j 
of  the  cottages  have  wooden  chimneys,  the  whole  of  the 
flue  being  formed  of  and  lined  with  wood :  the  smoke  and 
turpentine  together  produce  a  varnish,  which  preflerres  it 
fiT>m  taking  fire.  The  beams  supporting  the  roof  are  ona- 
mented  at  the  ends ;  and  the  principal  fi»nt  is  also  carved^ 
sometimes  witli  elaborate  ornaments,  and  inscriptions  in 
Grerman  text  are  painted  in  several  colours.  These  houa 
have  altogether  a  picturesque  appearance,  and  are  miKh 
warmer  than  houses  of  stone  or  brick. 

The  houses  of  Grermany  may  vary  considerably  aoeoidiQg: 
to  the  locality, — some  bordering  on  the  cold  climate  of  the 
north  of  Europe,  while  others  Mjoin  Switzerland  and  Itslj. 
In  some  parts,  such  as  North  Prussia,  the  houses  are  fianed 
of  wood  with  bricks  between ;  and  the  upper  stories  project 
over  the  lower,  and  are  supported  on  columns  gcaterallT  ^ 
wood.  In  other  parts  the  houses  are  of  frame-work  of 
wood,  the  interstices  filled  with  unbaked  bricks^  and  then 
pListered  with  cky.  While  in  otJ^er  parts,  again,  the 
arranjgement  of  the  houses  nearly  resemoles  that  of  the 
English.  We  may  here  briefly  notice  the  character  of  the 
buildings  in  two  or  three  of  the  principal  cities  of  Gennaoy. 
The  general  nature  of  the  better  class  of  houses  in  Yieuii 
is  massive  and  imposing,  rather  than  ornamental  The 
streets  are  generally  narrow ;  and  the  houses  lofty,-niu>S 
to  four  or  five  floors,  which  are  all  entered  hj  a  common 
stair.  Some  individual  masses  of  building,  m  the  heart 
of  the  city,  are  as  populous  as  large  villages.  On^ 
dwelling-house  containing  ten  large  oour^— is  peopled  b; 
more  than  twelve  hundred  inhabitants,  and  yields  a  yed; 
rental  of  6500/.  Another  building  contains  no  less  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  separate  dwefiing-houses.  ETen  the 
ordinary  buildings  are  generally  in  the  form  of  a  sqnv^ 
surrounding  a  sn^  court ;  but  the  houses  are  so  high,  and 
the  court  is  of  such  small  dimensions,  that  it  frequentlvhts 
more  the  appearance  of  a  well ;  and  the  staircase,  which  re* 
cei  ves  its  light  from  it,  is  abnost  m  darkness.  Erery  hoos^ 
whatever  number  of  families  it  may  contam  in  its  sercia 
floors,  is  under  the  superintendence  of  a  ham-mMfer^  or 
house-master,  who  b  a  personage  of  much  importance  to 
the  convenience  of  all  who  inhabit  it  He  is  generally  90s» 
humble  person  employed  by  the  prcmrietor  to  take  csre  oi 
the  house,  and  to  lock  up  the  outer  door  at  a  certain  boor  in 
the  evening,  after  which  neither  ingress  nor  ^;res8  can  » 
obtained  without  giving  him  a  fee. 

The  arrangement  of  the  large  houses  in  Berlin  is  ^^  J 
difierent  firom  those  of  Vienna.  There  is  an  m^ 
palace-like  effect  produced,  on  account  of  the  general  eis- 
ployment  of  an  Ionic  portico  in  fiont  of  most  of  the  nrincip^ 
buildings.  Sometimes  three  out  of  the  four  sides  of  i 
building  are  decorated  with  porticoes. 

Dresden,  the  capital  of  Saxony,  differs  from  both  the  fon^* 
named  cities.  The  general  style  of  building  is  m^^ 
austere,  and  imposmg.  The  wealthy  inhabitants,  in  I-n-''' 
their  residences,  thought  chiefly  of  convenience  siid  m^' 
tion,  not  of  pillared  portals  and  airy  verandahs.  Thehjc*|« 
are  lofty  and  the  streets  narrow;  but  some  of  the  priDCij  u 
streets  are  of  ample  breadth,  and  lined  with  stately,  thou,a 
unadorned  buildings.  Within  the  last  few  years,  ho«cv  r, 
a  tendency  has  shown  itself  to  introduce  more  architector^ 
regularity  than  was  formerly  displayed  in  the  houses  j» 
Dresden* 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  OCTOBER,  184i 


Mr.  CooperTisited  oae  of  the  baronial  reudcncee  on  the 
banks  of  the  Rhine,  at  present  occupied  by  a  brother  of  the 
King  of  Pnueia.  A  few  nords  may  be  eaid  respecting  it 
here.  The  entranca  ia  by  a  drawbridge.  The  court  is 
narrow  and  inconvenient ;  but  there  are  several  little 
terraces  which  command  views  of  the  scenery  of  the 
Rhine.  The  Ritter  Saal,  or  Knight's  Hall,  though  not 
large,  ia  a  cnrious  room.  The  nre-place  is  of  an  enor- 
mous size ;  and  round  the  walla  hong  numerous  pieces  by 
ancient  armour.  The  chandelier  is  a  circle  formed  of 
nniting  bucks'  horns,  from  which  lamps  are  suspended.  In 
one  comer  of  the  ball  is  an  ancient  Teswl  to  hold  water, 
and  beneath  it  a  porcelain  trough.  The  chains  tables, 
settees,  &c.,  are  all  of  oak,  and  covered  with  armorial  bear- 
ings. The  stairs  have  a  quaint  and  remarkable  appearance, 
and  in  one  instance  they  encircle  the  exterior  of  a  tower,  at 
a  giddy  elevation  of  nearly  three  hundred  feet  above  the 
river,  the  tower  itself  being  placed  on  the  ontermost  veige 
of  the  precipice. 

In  Holland  and  Bel^um,  the  bonses  do  not  possess  a 
distinctive  character.  They  are  partly  French,  partly 
Gcnnan,  and  partly  English.  But  we  may  state  cenerally, 
that  they  are  very  deficient  in  anything  like  arcnitMturol 
beauty. 

i,      HOCSES  OF   NOBTHERK   EuBOFB. 

In  the  colder  climates,  such  as  Denmark,  Runia,  Sweden, 
and  Norway,  we  find  precautions  taken  against  the  chilling 
blasts  of  -winter,  which  are  not  called  for  in  the  southern 
countries  of  Europe.  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway, 
particularly  the  latter  two  countries,  ore  not  so  well 
provided  with  middle-class  houses  as  most  of  the  other 
Earopcaa  states.  The  peasants'  houses  are  generally  log- 
houses,  but  with  a  more  highly  pitched  roof  than  those 
of  Switzerland ;  and  they  are  often  covered  with  boards 
projecting  six  feet  beyond  the  walla,  A  general  custom  in 
the  middle-class  houses  in  Russia  is  to  cover  the  roof  with 
aheet-iron,  and  paint  them  with  vivid  colours,  mostly  green 
and  red.  Another  feature,  (to  which  we  shall  presently 
further  allude,)  is  that  of  having  double  windows  to  the 

Kincipal   rooms.     In   the  villages,  each  house  presents  a 
Id     projecting    gable    towards   the    street :    tlie   houses 
are  of  two  or  three  stories  with  a  balcony  on  the  gable 

Dr.  Grariville,  during  a  residence  of  several  months  at 
St.  Petersburgh,  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  habita- 
Lions  of  the  wealthy  classes  in  that  capital,  removed  on  the 
me  hand]  torn  the  costly  splendour  of  the  Eta^enfa 


palaces,  and,  on  the  other,  from  the  more  humble  dwellings 
of  the  trading  community. 

The  entrance  to  the  St.  Fetersbnigh  mansions  is  generally 
by  a  private  door  adjoining  the  carriage  gate.  Within  is  a 
spacious  yard  or  court,  in  which  enormous  heaps  of  fire- 
wood  are  piled  on  one  side,  and  around  which  are  the  four 
sides  of  the  mansion.  Under  the  great  carria^  gateway  is 
generally  a  double  glazed  folding  door,  for  receiving  visitors 
on  grand  occasions,  leading  to  tlie  foot  of  the  grand  staircase ; 
but  the  general  daily  entrance  ia  by  the  private  door :  this 
door  is  glazed  as  well  as  the  other,  so  that  a  liveried  porter 
withinside  sees  visitors  approaching  and  opens  the  door  to 
them  without  any  application  to  a  Dell  or  a  knocker.  The 
owner  of  the  mansion  generally  occupies  the  ground  floor, 
near  the  street  door,  with  his  study,  receiving  room,  waiting 
room,  private  cabinet,  &c.  The  stcurs  of  the  staircase  leading 
to  the  upper  stories  ore  generally  of  coaisely -grained,  unpo- 
lished granite :  they  are  only  occasionally  scoured,  and  have 
seldom  a  stri)>  of  carpet  laid  on  them.  The  staircase  is 
square,  with  high  walk,  lighted  by  three  or  four  windows, 
and  decorated  with  statues,  busts,  and  pictures ;  but  they 
have  seldom  the  li^ht  iron  balustrade  which  gives  such  an 
elwance  to  the  staircase  of  an  English  manaion. 

At  the  top  of  the  staircase  we  meet  with  an  ante-room, 

Knenlly  occupied  by  lacqueys;  ttom  whence  we  enter  a 
ig  suite  of  drawing  rooms,  which  are  fitted  np  with  great 
magnificence,  having  costly  furniture  round  the  walls,  but, 
like  the  Parisian  mansions,  having  none  in  the  centre  of  the 
room.  The  floor  is  inlaid  with*  two  or  three  differently 
coloured  woods,  which  ore  kept  highly  polished.  After  the 
drawii^  rooms  come  the  lauies'  apartments,  as  they  are 
termed,  often  twelve  or  fifteen  in  number,  and  including 
liuea  or  four  state  rooms.  The  fancy  woods  for  the 
furniture  are  of  a  great  variety  of  kinds,  and  are  highly 
polished.  There  are  rich  ailk  luaperies,  and  the  walls  are 
either  painted  in  fresco  or  hung  with  silk.    The  ceiling  is 

SeneraUy  painted  in  distemper  with  an  allegorical  or  otner 
laign.  Qiandeliers  pendant  from  the  ceiling  are  not  much 
used;  but  almost  every  room  has  a  maxnincent  looking- 
glass,  the  manufacture  of  which  is  conducted  with  mudt 
skill  in  Russia. 

One  of  the  most  remarlcable  characteristics  of  these 
Russian  mansions,  is  the  swarm  (for  it  is  nothing  less)  of 
servants.  The  master  and  mistress,  as  well  as  the  guests,  ^o 
to  theante-roomat  the  top  of  the  staircase,  to  throw  off  their 
outer  garments,  such  as  cloaks,  fuis,  flannel  boola,  &c.,  and 
numeroua  servants  are  there  ready  to  receive  them.  At 
dinner,  one  servant  stands  behind  the  chair  of  every  guest. 
Bat  tbese  instances  an  comparatively  commendable :  it  is 


aw 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


stated  by  all  travellers,  that  a  lan^e  number  of  the  servants 
have  absolutely  nothing  to  do.  it  is  onl^r  partialljr  that  the 
use  of  bells  has  been  adopted  in  the  Russian  mansions,  and 
where  they  are  not  used,  a  servant  stands  in  each  room  to 
i*eceive  orders,  and  one  or  two  boys  stand  at  every  door  of  the 
suite  of  rooms,  and  thus  convey  orders  from  one  to  another. 
But  the  possession  of  more  servants  than  are  wanted,  is  only 
a  part  ofwe  avil;  for  it  is  eustomary  for  each  servant  to 
have  his  wife  and  family  in  the  house,  and  not  unfrequently 
his  relations  and  friends.  A  Russian  officer  told  Dr.  €rnin- 
ville,  that  when  he  married,  be  had  determined  to  reduce 
the  number  of  his  houseliold,  to  something  like  a  moderate 
limit,  and  he  retained  forty:  in  three  or  four  years  after- 
wards, he  found  that  he  was  supporting  double  that 
number,  the  wives  and  children  included.  It  was  stated 
that  the  Countess  Orloff  had  at  Moscow  so  man^  servants 
that  she  established  a  hospital  for  them  when  ill :  their 
number  was  eight  hundred.  Yet  it  seems,  that  there  is  not 
one  female  servant  whose  duties  are  equivalent  to  those  of 
an  liglish  housemaid  ;—bed-makimr,  dusting,  sweeping, 
&c.,  are  all  performed  b/  men.    The  existence  of  this 

Seculiarity  in  the  domestic  arrangements  of  the  Russians 
epends  on  the  state  of  society  in  general  in  that  country, 
and  is  influenced  by  causes  too  intricate  to  be  expldned 
here. 

We  may  here  consistently  allude  to  the  precautions  which 
the  Russians  take  to  adapt  their  dwellixigB  to  the  nature 
of  the  climate.  The  winters  are  very  severe,  and  the  differ- 
ence of  the  arrangements  f<v  summer  and  winter  is  greater 
than  that  which  exists  in  EngUmd.  When  the  winter 
season  is  approaching,  the  better  sort  of  houses  are  provided 
with  double  windows,  an  extra  entrance  door,  and  a  peculiar 
kind  of  close  stove.  The  mode  of  doubling  the  windows  is 
this: — A  dry  day  is  selected,  when  every  part  of  the  window 
is  as  free  from  damp  as  possible,  an  additional  window  is 
fixed  within  the  common  one,  and  a  layer  of  sand  is  laid  at 
the  bottom  between  them.  The  object  of  this  sand  is  to 
absorb  the  moisture  which  may  be  contained  in  the  air 
between  the  two  windows,  else  it  might  be  deposited  on  the 
windows  and  dim  the  glass.  Both  windows  are  caulked 
round  the  edges  with  tew,  and  one  square  of  glass  in  each 
window  is  taSde  to  open  by  means  of  a  hinge,  so  as  to  admit 
fresh  air  when  required.  The  extm  door  which  is  put  up 
*t  the  entrance  of  the  principal  apartments  is  tnickly 
wadded  with  a  kind  of  hair-clotn,  so  as  to  shut  in  a  com- 
pletely air-ti^ht  manner. 

Dr.  Granville  considers  a  Russian  stove,  or  p^tehy  to  be 
**  one  of  the  matest  luxuries  of  civilized  lite  that  can  be 
found  in  cold  climates.  It  is  by  far  a  more  rational  and 
effectual  mode  of  warming  a  house,  than  either  the  coal- 
grate  of  England,  the  blazing  hearth  of  France,  or  the  iron- 
stove  of  Crermany.  It  supplies  the  best  substitute  for  the 
j^nial  warmth  of  summer  within  doors,  and  affords  an 
equable  degree  of  heat  so  universally  spr^  in  every  part 
of  the  room  that  when  the  external  air  has  been  at  20°  Fahr., 
I  have  gladly  remained  without  any  other'  than  the  light- 
'st  dressing  gown,  in  my  room,  taking  my  station  in- 
differently m'any  part  of  it,  for  from  the  stove,  and  fre- 
quently near  a  window,  without  any  other  than  the  most 
pleasing  sensation  of  an  equal  warmth.'* — So  very  equable, 
indeed,  is  the  warmth  of  tne  apartments  shut  in  by  double 
trindows  and  warmed  by  a  stove,  that  the  inhabitants  fre- 
quently sleep  with  only  a  single  sheet  on  them. 

The  petch  forms  a  principed  article  of  frimiture  in  each 
room.  Frequently  the  sloxe  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 
wall  separating  the  two  rooms,  so  as  to  warm  both.  The 
stoves  are  built  of  stone  or  brick,  and  eased  with  white 
porcelain :  they  are  of  great  size,  and  extend  to  the  ceiling. 
The  internal  arrangement  is  this: — There  id  a  fire  ehamber 
occupying  the  lower  part,  and  extends  from  front  to  back, 
being  about  a  foot  and  a  half  wide,  and  two  feet  high  ;  in 
this  the  wood  is  burned ;  and  it  is  closed  by  an  iron  door. 
A  tube  within  carries  off  the  smoke  and  soot  of  the  burning 
wood,  and  other  tubes  convey  the  heated  air  round  every 
part  of  the  surface  of  the  petch,  so  as  greatly  to  heat  the 
prick  and  porcelain.  The  mode  of  **  keeping  the  fire  in," 
is  totally  different  from  ours.  Twelve  or  fourteen  large 
billets  of  elm,  two  feet  long  and  three  inches  thick,  are  put 
into  the  fire-chamber  and  kindled.  The  iron  door  being 
left  open,  a  most  intense  combustion  of  the  billets  takes  place, 
during  which  the  pipe,  serving  as  a  chimney,  is  left  open. 
When  all  the  woou  is  burned  away,  the  chimney  is  closed, 
the  iron  door  is  closed,  and  the  htglily  heated  air  is  com- 
pletely shut  in.  So  excellent  are  these  arrangements,  tiiat 
ihe  heated  porcelain,  brick,  air,  icc,^  of  the  stOYe^  will  im- 


Eart  an  agreeable  warmth  to  the  apartment  for  forty-eiglit 
ours  after  the  fire  is  completely  extingaished.  There  Ist 
small  door  communicating  from  the  air  of  the  room  to  the 
heated  air  in  the  stove ;  this  door  is  kept  open  or  shut, 
according  to  the  temperature  required. 

Such  is  the  geneial  nature  of  the  RusBian  8tore,-aQ 
arrangement  so  remarkably  different  from  the  open  fiT^ 
place  of  an  English  house,  that  we  oonld  scaioely  conceire 
the  effects  of  i^  were  it  not  that  within  the  last  few  yesn 
many  improvements  have  taken  place  in  the  modes  of  vann- 
ing English  dwellings,  chiefly  through  the  philanthropic 
exertions  of  Dr.  Amott. 

If  we  proceed  onwards  to  Moscow,  we  find  the  ck- 
racter  of  the  dwelliru^s  much  changed.  Although  still 
in  European  Russia,  Moscow  presents  many  of  the  features 
peculiar  to  Asia.  It  is  situated  more  completely  inland 
than  almost  any  lai^e  city  in  the  world,  and  is  so  ^  re- 
moved from  tile  countries  of  western  Europe,  that  it  par- 
takes of  but  few  of  their  characteristics.  Its  palaces 
are  of  immense  size  and  grandeur,  as  this  city  is  the  prin- 
cipal residence  of  the  great  Russian  nobles.  The  honses 
of  the  mercantile  clasws  present  a  singular  mixture  of 
Asiatic  and  European  construction,  for  Moscow  is  the  mart 
through  which  tne  treasures  of  the  East  are  diffused  over 
Russia  generally.  The  Chinese,  the  Turk^  the  Greek,  the 
Tartar,  the  Calmuck,  the  Persian, — all  visit  and  inhabit 
Moscow,  for  commercial  nurposee. 

A  few  more  words,  ana  we  must  then  quit  the  conntries 
of  Northern  Europe.    Mr.  Laing  gives  a  graphic  picture  of 
the  domestic  arrangements  and  modes  of  emplovment,  in  the 
houses  of  the  respectable  inhabitants  of  Norway.  The 
family  room,  or  hall,  is  sprinkled  with  fresh  bright  green 
leaves,  which  have  a  lively  effect:  everythmg  is  clean  and 
shining:  an  eight-day  clock  stands  in  one  comer,  and  a 
cupboard  in  another;  benches  and  straight-backed  wooden 
chairs  are  arranged  round  the  room;  and  all  thefunilj 
occupations  are  going  on,  and  exhibit  curious  and  interestiiig 
contrasts  of  ancient  manners  with   modem  refinements, 
The  process  of  carding  wool  and  flax  is  conducted  in  ooi 
comer :  two  or  three  spinning  wheels  are  st  work  vM 
the  stove ;  and  a  young  lady  will  ^t  up  from  these  old- 
fashioned  occupations,  take  her  guitar  in  the  windovso^ 
and  phiy  and  sing,  or  gallopade  the  length  of  the  room  vith 
her  sister.    The  breakfiwt  is  kid  oat  on  a  tray  at  one  od 
of  this  apartment,  which  is  usually  specious,  occopji^ 
the  breadth  of  the  house,  and  lighted  from  both  odtf. 
This  meal  is  taken,  standing:   it  consists  of  slices  « 
bread  and  butter,  smoked  meat,  eaimges,  dried  fish,  witt 
the  fiimily  tankaid,  generally  of  massive  silver,  fall  of  "^ 
and  with  decanters  of  Frencn  and  Norwegian  biandjr,— 1» 
latter  bemg  dmnk  only  by  the  gentlemen.   While  tte 
gentiemen  are  walking  about,  conversing  and  takmg  hw* 
fast,  the  mistress  is  going  in  and  out  on  her  fiunily  asm 
servants  enter  for  orders,  neighbours  drop  in  to  hear  or  teu 
news,  the  children  are  learning  their  catechism,  or  ptfj' 
ing  about ;  and  the  whole  is  such  a  lively  anunated  scece, 
everything  is  so  clean  and  orderly,  and  tne  manners  of  in* 
people  towards  each  other  in  familiar  interoouiBe  *"^  "^{l 
able,  that  the  traveller  who  wishes  to  b^  acquMnted  witn 
the  domestic  life  of  the  Norwegians,  will  pass  an  houiTep 
agreeably  in  the  family  room.     Coffee,  if  drunk  m  tne 
morning,  is  generally  taken  an  hour  before  the  family  ^^^' 
fasiy  and  in  the  bed  room. 

5.    ItaluN'  and  Spanish  Houses. 

In  leaving  the  climes  of  Russia  and  Norway  for  thai  »^ 
«  Sunny  Italy,"  we  may  naturally  expect  that  the  dww- 
ings  of  the  mhabitants,  as  well  as  the  national  c*f»^^; 
present  many  marked  features,  arising  partly  from  tbeesfl^ 
civilization  and  refinement  of  that  people.  The  hous^ « 
the  wealthy  chisses  in  Italy  vary  greatly  with  the  positi^ 
and  nature  of  the  towns.  Under  the  general  term,  **  it*) 
we  include  the  cities  of  Venice,  Genoa,  Milan,  Fio«w^ 
Rome,  Naples,  &c.,  although  thoae  cities  belong  to  »pai*» 
states,  and  are  situated  under  different  circuu)BtsD«» 
We  will  therefore  take  a  rapid  glance  at  some  of  them  a 
succession.  ,  .  n  ^ 

The  mansions  of  the  nobility  at  VmiM,  Forsyth  itUs^ 
are  as  various  in  their  architecture  as  in  their  «f  **"^ 
Some  display  the  light  elegance  of  Sansovino;  o"ier»w 
exuberant  ornament  of  Ldughina ;  and  a  few,  the  cffj«| 
beauty  of  Palladio.  They  in  genend  affect  too  mjuiy  ort^ 
in  front:  each  order  has,  absurdly  enough,  its  full  ^^^ 
tuie;  the  lower  Goxiiioea  ait  (Ml pitmiiwataiibeuppe^*" 


SUPPLEMENT  FOR  OCTOBER,  1841. 


176 


appear  in  profile  so  many  aepanite  roofs.    In  fact,  the 
Grecian  orders,  being  foreign  to  the  manners  and  wants 
of  a  city  built  on  the  edge  of  the  water,  will  never  enter 
into  its  accommodation  but  at  the  expense  of  half  their 
beauty  and  all  their  consistency.    Most  of  the  mansions 
have  two  gates,  some  three,  in  the  middle  of  their  fronts. 
On  each  side  are  two  ranges  of  equal  windows  in  the  base* 
nient  alone.    Over  the  gates  is  a  stately  and  decorated 
superstructure  of  balconies,  arcades,  and  gigantic  windows, 
contrived  for  Venetian  pageantry,  and  set  m  studied  opposi- 
tion to  the  general  style  of  the  front,  which  this  wide  vertical 
breach  divides    into    two.    The    windows  are  generally 
arched :  in  some  mansions  this  arch  is  circular :  m  others 
it  forms  arabesque  curves  of  contrary  flexion,  which  finely 
contrast  with  the  flat  mass  of  wall.    In  some,  even  the 
Gothic  church-window  has  been  adopted.    A  great  dis- 
figurement to  these  mansions  are  the  chimneys  which  are 
nmde  prominent  objects  on  the  top.    In  former  times  the 
outsides  of  the  Venetian  houses  were  painted :  even  such  men 
as  Paul  Veronese  and  Tintoretto  were  employed  in  that 
mode  of  decorating  the  houses:  but  in  later  times  this 
enstom  lias  disappeared.    The  ceilings  of  the  apartments  are 
always  decorated.    But  since  the  downfall  of  the  Venetian 
republic,  many  circumstances  have  tended  to  reduce  the 
splendour  of  tne  city.    The  large  mansions,  palaces,  indeed 
an  they  may  be  termed,  have  many  of  them  been  deserted, 
sold,  and  dismantled,  during  the  present  century. 

Let  us  now  cross  the  north  of  Italy  to  Turin,    This  city 
is  the  capital  of  Piedmont,  and  is  more  regularly  built  than 
the  generality  of  Italian  cities;  it  has  rather  a  modem 
appearance,  and  is  very  clean,  an  advantage  gained  by  the 
flowing  of  much  clean  water  tlirough  the  streets.    No  mean 
suburbs,  and  no  mouldering  walls^  deform  its  entrance.     It 
contains  spacious  and  r^lar  streets,  which  intersect  each 
other  at  ridit  angles,  and  which  lead  to  a  grand  square  or 
piazza  in  tne  middle.    Through  the  principal  streets,  each 
side  exhibits  a  long  and  r^nlar  line  of  porticoes,  presenting 
many  beautiful  specimens  of  architecture ;  while  the  balco- 
nies above  them,  canopied  with  light  draperies,  have  a  very 
pleasing  appearance.    The  houses  and  hotels  generally  ara 
said  to  present  a  very  elegant  appearance.    It  has  been 
stated,  however,  as  a  strange  instance  of  carelessness,  that 
in  many  fa9ades  of  very  handsome  architecture,  the  holes 
are  still  left  gaping,  which  supported  the  scaffolding  at  the 
time  of  their  erection. 

Proceeding  to  the  southward,  we  come  to  the  famed  city 
of  Jrhrenccy  the  mansions  of  whose  wealthy  inhabitants  are 
distinguished  for  much  splendour.  It  has  been  observed  by 
Mr.  Bell,  that  in  the  best  streets  '^  each  house  is  a  palace ; 
and  a  palace  in  Florence,  is  a  magnificent  pile,  of  a  square 
bulky  form,  with  a  plain  front,  extending  from  two  to  three 
hundred  feet,  built  of  huge  dark-grey  stones,  each  mea- 
suring three  or  four  feet."  The  general  structura  of  these 
mansions  is  this  coarse  rubble  work  rising  to  a  height  of 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  from  the  ground.  A  stone  seat  runs 
the  whole  length  of  the  front,  wliich  used,  in  former  times, 
to  be  occupied  by  the  dependants  of  the  family,  who  fre- 
quently alept  there,  sheltered  from  the  sun  by  an  over- 
Iianging  cornice.  Large  iron  rings  are  sometimes  seen  fixed 
into  the  wall:  these  were  formerly  used  to  contain  the 
banners  of  the  owner, — to  hold  flaming  torches, — and  to 
fasten  horsea  to.  The  lower  range  of  windows  are  grated 
%nd  bcurred  with  massive  iron  frames,  which  present  much 
>f  the  melancholy  effect  produced  by  prison  windows. 
On  the  second  story  is  a  plain  and  simple  architrave :  the 
nrindows  are  high  and  arched,  placed  at  a  considerable 
listance  m>art,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  in  number,  according 
o  the  width  ^  the  building.  The  third  story  resembles 
he  secctnd  in  its  plainness,  and  in  the  number  of  its  win- 
[o  \vs«  The  roof  is  flat,  with  deep  cornice,  and  bold  pro- 
ectine  soffits,  whiehgive  a  grand  and  magnificent  effect  to 
he  whole  edifice*  The  chimneys  ara  grouped  into  stacks, 
tie  tops  of  which,  inereasine  in  bulk  as  they  rise  in  height 
3semble  a  crown.  The  shtes  with  which  the  chimneys 
re  built  are  nmged  so  as  to  act  as  ventilators.  Two  or 
irec  steps  lead  np  to  the  poreh  of  the  monnon,  the  doon 
r  which  are  stadded  with  iron,  both  for  the  sake  of  strength 
id  of  ornament,  and  the  entruice  is  an  arched  massive  iron 
itc.  The  gates  open  into  a  eourt,  the  base  of  which  is  sur- 
»unded  by  a  hi^h  arched  colonnade,  supported  by  marble 
dutnns.  Entenng  from  the  court,  a  grat  staircase  leads 
>  s\  suite  of  noble  chambers,  halls,  and  saloons,  hung  with 
Iks,  and  richly  adornei  The  ceilings  are  lofty  and  finely 
tinted  ;  the  beams  being  displayed,  and  carved, ornamented 
id  ^iit.     The  arcadeaS'  w  coiaxt  support  the  gallenes^ 


which,  informer  times,  were  generally  filled  with  fine  paint- 
ings, statues,  and  vases. 

"  In  such  palaces,"*  says  Mr.  Bell,  "  the  rulers,  the  magis- 
trete,  the  noble,  and  tlie  merchant  dined,  surrounded  by 
their  family  and  dependents.  The  manner  of  the  times 
bore  a  character  of  manly  simplicity,  which,  singularly  con- 
trasted with  the  splendour  of  tne  rich  possessions,  and  tue  im- 
portance of  their  political  sway  among  nations.  Their  guests 
were  seated,  not  by  rule,  rank,  or  birth,  but  in  the  order  in 
which  they  happened  to  arrive.  At  the  board  of  Lorenzo 
the  Magnificent,  whose  court  was  adorned  by  the  most  dis- 
tinguished men  of  the  age,  as  well  in  letters  and  science  as 
in  rank,  Michel  Angelo  and  other  celebrated  artists  were 
often  seated  next  to  himself.  Nor  did  these  habits  lessen 
the  respect  or  deference  of  the  dependents,  as  we  may  judge 
by  the  picture  given  by  Cellini  and  other  writera  of  those 
days.  From  this  combination  of  princely  power  and  pris- 
tine simplicity,  inducing  that  familiar  intercourse  of  lord 
and  dependents,  rich  and  poor,  arose  those  friendly  greetings^ 
those  salutations  in  the  streets,  which  to  this  day  excite  the 
admiration  of  strangera.*' 

r  Proceeding  southward  from  Florence,  the  two  great  cities 
which  present  themselves  on  the  western  edge  of  Italy  are 
Rome  and  Naples, — ^two  cities  which  have  scarcely  one  fea- 
ture in  common, — which  differ  indeed  as  much  as  if  they 
belonged  to  countries,  altc^ther  different.  At  Rome  there 
is  a  sober  grandeur  pervading  everything.  The  visitor  is  in 
the  heart  of  the  Roman  world,  surrounded  by  innumerable 
evidences  of  past  ages.  Thera  may  be,  and  are,  bigotry  and 
superstition  at  Rome,  but  thera  is  very  little  frivolity.  The 
character  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  nature  of  their  houses^ 
have  a  kind  of  gravity  about  them  that  does  not  faiL  to 
strike  a  stranger.  In  Naples  it  is  altogether  different :  the 
fronts  of  their  houses,  like  their  hearts,  are  all  window :  all 
is  light,  ioyotts,  frivolous,  and — ^vicious.  The  Neapohtana, 
unlike  other  people,  do  not  attempt  to  conceal  their  vices : 
they  make  ran  of  everything ;  uiey  manage  to  extract  a 
laugh  from  subjects  which  to  othen  would  seem  to  demand 
serious  attention.  The  fine  arts  ara  at  a  lower  ebb  in  Naples 
than  at  any  other  city  in  Italy,  so  that  what  refining  influ- 
ence thera  may  be  in  such  arts  is  lost  to  the  Neapolitans. 
In  Naples,  says  Mr.  Foray th,  '*  even  the  lowest  class  enjoy 
every  Messing  that  can  make  the  animal  happy,— a  delicious 
climate,  high  spirits,  a  facility  of  satisfying  every  appetite,  a 
conscience  which  gives  no  pain,  a  convenient  ignoranco  of 
their  duty,  and  a  churoh  which  ensures  heaven  to  every 
ruffian  that  pratends  to  faith.  Here  fatten  ara  not  misery, 
for  the  climate  requires  little  covering ;  filth  b  not  misery 
to  them  who  are  bom  to  it ;  and  a  few  fingerings  of  maca- 
roni can  wind  up  the  rattling  machine  for  the  day.'*  The 
inhabitants  of  Florence  stand  midway  between  those  of 
Rome  and  of  Naples,  and  perhaps  avoid  many  of  the  vices 
of  both.  And  in  tliat  particular  feature  in  which  we  have 
at  present  to  do  with  them, — their  dwelling, — ^the  same  will 
apply.  Give  a  little  more  sombreness  to  the  mansions  of 
Florence,  and  you  have  those  of  Rome :  give  them  more 
frivolity,  and  you  have  those  of  Naples. 

The  nouses  of  Spain  present  that  mixed  character  which 
is  Hkely  to  result  from  the  successive  conquest  of  a  country 
by  different  nations.  Spain  is  one  of  the  countries  in 
Eurepe  (the  other  being  Turkey)  which  have  been  under 
the  Mohammedan  yoke,  and  this  circumstance  has  not  failed 
to  impart  to  the  dwellings  of  some  parts  of  Spain  that  pecu- 
liarity which  is  seen  in  most  Moluunmedan  awellings  ; — we 
mean,  a  large  central  court  surrounded  by  buildings  on 
every  side.  As  we  shall  shortly  describe  these  courts  some- 
what minutely,  we  will  not  dwell  on  them  here.  Those 
parts  of  Spam  which  were  able  to  resist  the  Moorish 
mvaders,  have  retained  most  of  the  features  which  dis- 
tiufluish  Italian  and  French  houses  of  the  middle  class, — 
wiUi  the  addition  of  a  gloomv  appendage  called  a  jcUoiis^, 
the  nature  of  which  we  shall  hereafter  describe. 

The  houses  of  Seville  ara  thus  described  by  Stand  ish  :-* 
''The  houses  of  this  town  ara  perhaps  the  most  picturesque 
in  the  world.  You  enter  them  from  a  poreh,  or  zaguan,  to 
a  court,  round  which  ara  marble  columns,  and  these  are 
Ibund  not  only  in  the  principal,  but  even  ordinary  habita- 
tions. The  arches  between  toe  ccdumns  support  galleries  or 
rooms  above.  It  is  usual  to  inhabit  the  greund-floor  in 
summer  time  and  the  upper  story  in  winter.  In  the  former 
season  a  canvass  veil  is  plaeed  over  the  whole  court  during 
the  heat  of  the  day,  and  removed  at  night,  when  the  family 
collect  together,  to  receive  friends  under  the  galleries,  or  in 
the  courts,  whilst  flowera  ara  placed  round  a  fountain,  which 
gsnwally  plays  in  thd  centre,  the  courts  being  often  paved 


'SUPPLEMENT  FOR  OCTOBER,  1641 


^a 


with  marble.  The  lamps  which  hana;  around  the  walla  m 
eymmelrical  ammecment,  the  bubbling  of  the  water,  the 
fiagwnw  of  the  flowers,  tlie  mystical  green  branches  which 
spring  up  in  every  direction  from  hirge  earthen  pots,  cive 
an  nppearance  of  romance,  which,  added  to  the  brolcen 
liBhls,  the  irregular  architecture  of  the  buildings,  and  the 
white  Ionic  columns  of  marble,  present,  in  every  liouae,  a 
varying  subject  for  the  draftsman  or  the  painter.  To  the 
sides  of  the  walls  are  attached  mirrors,  which  reflect  all 
around,  and  pictures,  amongst  which  were  once  works  of 
art  that  would  delight  the  connoisseur.  It  has  been  calcu- 
lated that  eighty  thoueand  marble  columns  exist  in  Seville, 
but  there  assuredly  must  be  a  much  larger  number,  for 
many  are  buried  in  the  walla,  others  covered  with  plaster, 
and  on  an  average  every  house  pomesses  six." 

From  Spain  we  proceed  to  that  country  of  Europe  which 
apptuaches  nearest  to  an  Asiatic  character,  we  mean  Turkey. 
By  speaking  of  the  capital,  Constantinople,  we  shall  form  a 
suflicient  idea  of  other  parts. 

fl.    Houses  of  CoNSTAirrraopLK. 

Constantinople,  like  most  Mobaramedan  cities,  is  more 
distinguislied  for  its  mosques  than  for  its  private  dwellings. 
The  general  character  of  its  streets  is  narrowness  and  mean- 
ness; but  the  nature  of  the  houses  depends  on  the  locality. 
The  houses  in  the  suburbs  called  Galata  and  Peia,  in  which 
most  foreigners  who  visit  the  city  take  up  tlieir  residence,  are 
inhabited  by  the  foreign  enibaaBadoiB  and  other  distinguished 
■trangere,  and  are  of  courae  built  in  a  style  somewhat  worthy 
of  Oieir  reception.  But  tliB  generality  of  the  houses  are 
eaii  by  Wlieler  to  be  low,  and  t«  be  built  of  wood,  so  that 
fire  frequently  makes  much  devastation  among  them,  espe- 
espeoially  from  a  custom  wh  ich  the  Turks  have  of  smoking 
in  bed  ;  and  it  is  also  said  that  these  fires  are  not  nnfre- 
quently  the  work  of  incendiaries,  who  are  actuated  by 
the  hope  of  pilfering,  -.  The  destruction  of  the  houses 
themselves  is  no  great  matter,  for  the  rebuilding  costs 
but  little,  and  the  supply  of  timber  is  veiy  abundant; 
but  the  burning  of  merchandize  which  often  accompanies 
that  of  the  house,  is  a  distressing  disaster  to  numerous  fami' 
lies. :  When  a  fire  commences,  the  Turks  are  frequently 
obliged  either  to  pull  down  or  to  blow  up  several  houses,  in 
order  to  break  the  communication  from  one  part  of  the 
town  to  another ;  otherwise  the  whole  would  be  destroyed. 

A  curious  class  of  houses  in  Constantinople  are  the  Aan*, 
of  which  thereareabout  two. hundred.  These  hansarca 
Idnd  of  large  lodging  house.    They 


buildings,  inclosing  a  central  square.  The  CMirt  is  oRai 
ornamented  with  agfoveoftreesand  fountains.  The haiMin: 
be^dcs  warehouses  and  sUblcs  on  tlie  groand  flooi,lui 
three  stflriea  or  galleries,  one  above  the  othec,  witli  wma 
of  small  chambers,  each  of  which  is  kept  neat  and  clcaiU 
the  servants  of  the  han,  and  fitted  up  for  the  lime  niili 
the  carpets  and  slender  wardrobe  of  the  wvertd  oompen. 
These  Aatu  are  usually  for  travelling  mercbsnli ;  but  m 
sometimes  occupied  as  counting-houses  by  Tui^  nbo 
reside  at  Golata,  Pent,  or  other  suburbs  df  tbe  {itj. 
What  would  appear  remarkable  to  an  EngliBhmin  aMe- 
tomed  to  the  commercial  arrangements  of  hiHug  dwelling 
&c.,  is  that  these  Aaiu  are  open  to  all  stnngcrg  free,  inik 
the  exception  of  a  smaU  fee  to  the  Bcrvanls.  The/  ut 
for  men  of  all  countries,  and  of  every  religion,— tlie  pm 
and  the  rich,— and  they  have  had  the  good  effect  of  drew, 
ing  merchants  and  merchandize  to  Constantinople.  Tiitj 
belong  to  the  Sultan,  and  the  expense  is  defrayed  l>f  Iuol 
The  private  dwellings  in  Constantinople  are  not  of  sorb  i 
description  oa  to  merit  much  notice  here.  TheysKrhicll; 
distin^ished  for  their  flat  roofs,  by  which  they  tre  iam 
at  a  distance  from  the  mosques,  chapels,  bans,  buun,  ml 
baths,  almoet  all  of  which  have  domes  or  cupolas.  Adrii- 
nople,  another  city  of  the  Empire,  is  the  principti  place  ol 
iutercouise  vrith  merchants  from  Northern  Europe,  mi  tbt 
'  dwellings  present  that  mixed  character  which  sluutit  ine- 
vitably results  from  such  intercourse. 

We  have  now  conducted  the  reader  to . wans  dimalt^ 
among  whose  natives  the  industrious  habits  of  £un>|Hiis 
ore  but  little  exercised ;  where  the  light  of  Ginstiautj' 
has  as  yet  but  diqily  shone  ;  where  woman  is  knowii  oilf 
to  he  degraded ;  and  where  polygamy  has  sevend  the  Mj 
ties  which  join  man,  wife,  and  children  in  domestic  nmni. 
These  featui-es  of  national  character  are  observuie  in  i 
fearful  degree  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  Korttini 
Africa,  from  Morocco  to  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  ;— IbntgWi^ 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Arabia,  Persia,  Georgia,  CinasiiB,— aiJ 
indeed,  we  may  almost  say,  throughout  the  whole  i)f  AJ» 
southward  of  the  cold  regions  of  Siberia.  InncBrlvdllliH 
countries,  the  houses  of  the  inhabitontspf  higberaiidiniJ''i' 
rank  have  tiiis  peculiarity  which  distinguishes  tliemfMi 
the  houses  of  Europe,  that  the  apartments  for  the  feniiis.- 
cal led  collectively  the  harem,  or  haareem,--8re  BiliislfJ '" 
a  distinct  port  of  the  house,  sad  are  usually  KclnM 
with  a  jealousy  which  makes  their  inmates  OHspIfl^r 
prisoners. 

In  another  Supplement  we  will,  endeavour  to  font;' 
general  notion  of  tJie  dwellings  in  these  conntries.'  I 


tONDON  .  Pnblithed  bj  JOHN  W.  PAEKER,  W«i  SraufD,  md  uld  I?  ill 


178 


rH£  satuh£)aT  magazine. 


[NovKMBia  6, 


GAINSBOROUGH  AND  HI*  WORKS. 

h 

TiioMAS  (jAiksBdROUbrfi  whb  sd  gfeatljr  excelled 
among  artists  in  the  department  of  landscape-painting) 
waj  born  in  the  year  1727,  at  Sudbury,  in  Suffolk;  His 
perftoiial  history  is,  however,  very  defective,  though  his 
works  are  full   of  the  truest  nature,  and  the  purest 

fimcy. 

Like  the  best  of  the  poets,  he  was  bom  a  painter. 
He  has  said  of  himself,  tnat  during  his  boyhood,  though 
he  had  no  idea  of  becoming  a  painter^  yet  there  was  not 
a  picturesque  clump  of  trees^  a  single  beautiful  tree, 
hedge-row,  stone,  or  post,  for  some  miles  round  about 
the  place  of  his  nativity,  that  he  could  not  well  and  per- 
fectly delineate  with  his  pencil. 

Thus,  the  love  df  his  art  led  him  constantly  among 
the  ancient  trees,  the  winding  glades,  and  the  sunny 
nooks.  Scenes  are  Still  pointed  out  where  he  used  to 
sit  and  fill  his  copy-books  with  pencil] ings  of  flowers 
and  trees,  and  whatever  struck  his  fancy ;  and  it  is  said 
that  those  early  attempts  of  the  child  bore  a  distinct  re- 
semblance to  the  mature  works  of  the  man.  At  ten 
years  did  hfe  had  made  some  progress  in  sketching,  and  at 
twelve  h%  ^A%  t  confirmed  painter. 

We  if\  ii^f e  tempted  tb  barrate  a  story  of  one  rf  bii 
early  workl;  t)n  mii  B^SAIimi  ti<«  was  concealed  AHl8i)| 
some  btish^ft  m  h\%  M\i^f*%  ||lfdgti^  making  a  skm)^  bf 
an  old  fAHhlHi^  im^  Wb§H  B«  Observed  a  man  taHkingr 
very  ^iiifult^  6Vilf  l1\%  WiW  M  I8ttil$  piears,  whioH  wer6 
hangiii^  f\^  iHd  {(impiiU^  f)i#  slanting  light  of  the 
sun  happeiii*d  lO  itlFbW  m  f^t  face  into  a  highly  (Pic- 
turesque Tili^ttlfK  ttf  ii^Bt  ahd  shade :  the  young  aftist 
immediatigl^  drcW  i  tikeried^  ttf  him,  much  to  IM  pmr 
man*s  eoti^krHzlttdil  df^^f  il^tLrds.  and  much  to  lhl$  aWHse- 
ment  ^  t)!l  tUti^fi  ^h^tt  the  ihdh  W^9  ^Uff&A  With  tht^ 
desigt)  ttf  i^bbihj  (titd  j^i'd&ti,  atii  IfiHwn  how  he  tbdked 
at  thl^  lirHis  G^iHlbbFbli^D  loflf  ftfl^FWards  md^  A 
finish^  p^mtiHj^  bf  IHiS  JSudfabf^  rUlli^^^^ji  #^f|  much 
admired  ainob^  JlrliiU  Utidleir  ih<B  h«tne  of  torn  P^fii-fee's 
portr^iL 

Thdtigh  l)ii  ^f)^  Am\i^%  fhade  in  the  wood!  8f  ib(l- 
bury  #er«  Hiiniei^dbS)  f(*W  bf  th^m  are  now  IkHb^b  !b 
exis't.  Ai  tiis  i^t)utilfibti  inchbikabd)  he  became  t«ii  IMUs= 
fied  v^ith  siitSt)  t^arly  btobf^  bf  talent,  and  J^tl»  Ifil^iii 
liberal^  Iw^V  ihlBb|  fTt^ttdl  atid  Vflitbrd;  1^  bb^  Iftd^, 
we  ar«'tbidi  Hi  ^Vlg  im^if  bf  ihmi  ihH  Mii^d  i(i(>m 
on  th«  Wi\U  bf  her  ^|)^Hb1$tii,  fttid^  bb  tief  MViH|  Ldb- 
don,  iBi¥  b^cttttl($  the  property  of  IH^  ttl^tl  ihkbildHh 

Hii  liteitl  b^ib^  bdW  universally  lickbbWt^d^^;  ^ 
father  «NHI  |n^l(taded  tb  setid  him  to  to^i^H:  tl  ftp)i#ftt^ 
that  h«  ^aH  bbl  ibbris  than  fburteen  years  bf  im  Whl^b  ht^ 
left  SlidbbFi  M  Ihe  raetropolisr  &nd  ttiAl  h«  itliditfd 
undei^  H^^m^fl)  %m  bf  the  coinpanions  bf  ttbjfiliFlh;  ttt 
the  cdtlFIb  bf  UtBi  h«  Kil^ined  to  feel  thdl  bb  Undsedb^ji 
worthj^  bf  thb  m  mi  m  thade  their  ilf^b^ii^h^)  khd 
that  hil  bWh  Wb^y  mm  i^tdl^httally  difi^f^bt  frbib  Ihbse 

on  wbicb  m  m^9  m\m  wi&t^  ^pg^d;  ¥h!d  bbbiid^f:: 

ation  ))rbH«bi)Mttdiie«d  hibl  lb  di?vot^  hltttit^tf  Fiihl^F  lb 
landsl^lM^B:     Mb  F^fbiUbed  ib  LobdbH  fbbf  mH}  ^hd 

acquipsd  Am  ind  bi|[»8H«ft(§b  lb  iim  mMi^^mm  of 

eolouFt; 

Beibg  ftdw  m  ftii  «i*yfhtgbhiti  j^F)  to  »  m)m  bf 

as  haVirtjf  icrJtiHr^d  ftjptifcltidn  B]^  h»  lAtflHlS;  ski  e^incinf 
a  mod#i!  jjAietJr  lb  hH  6bttv#i-84llbrtj  knd  fextrfebig  efegHrici^ 
of  persbhi  It  bij^fi^htid.  lb  bb^  of  his  pictoriiil  excur- 
sions AMObg  ihb  Wbbdi  bf  8bf(btk)  Itial  h^  sat  down  to 
make  k  sketch  of  Aotbb  firib  trg'^s,  ^ith  sheep  reposing 
belo#)  ktid  wobd-doVeS  roosting  ikhtiV^  ^Mti  H  yobrtg 
womdrt  fetjtered  ithexpectedl|3  Ml  t\^ff  ^-propi^jt,  ti^bn 
the  scene,  and  was  at  once  adittitt«*d  irtlb  ttib  teHti«b*)» 
and  the  feelings  of  the  artist.  This  young  lady  was 
Margaret  Burr,  of  Scottish  extraction,  and  then  about 
sixteen  years,  old,  who  not  long  afterwards  became  his 
wif«. 


Sbbn  after  this  event  Oainsboroog^  removed  to  Ips- 
wich, wherb  hfe  b^tobtte  ac<|u&iilled  with  Tbicknei^se,  the 
goveriio^  bf  Lahd|(u^d  FoFt,  ih  th#  fdlloiriiig  eurious 
manner;  The  governor  was  walking:  in  th§  glfden  of  a 
fH^nd,  when  he  perceived  a  melancholv-faced  countrj- 
tnati^  with  hia  arms  locked  together,  leaning  over  the 
garddh  wall.  He  pdiilted  but  the  roan  to  his  friend, 
who,  with  assumed  gravity,  observed  that  the  fellow  had 
been  there  all  day^  that  he  was  to  be  pitied,  as  being 
either  mad  or  miserable.  The  governor  then  stepped 
forward,  with  an  intention  to  speak  to  the  madmaD,  and 
did  not  perceive  till  he  had  got  close  up,  that  it  waa 
only  a  wooden  man,  painted  upon  a  shaped  board. 

The  governor  wad  informed  that  many  had  been 
equally  deceived,  and  was  subsequently  introduced  to  the 
painter  of  it.  Gainsborough  received  him  in  his  painting 
room,  where,  he  says,  he  found  many  so-so  portmits, 
but  some  charming  landscapes^  George  Uie  Second, 
visiting  Harwich  shortly  after,  our  artist  was  employed 
by  Thicknesse  to  paint  a  view  of  a  yacht  regatta  scene. 
The  picture  was  engraved,  and  contributed  to  make  the 
name  of  the  artist  known.  Soon  after  this  he  vent  to 
Bath,  where  he  chiefly  occupied  himself  with  portrait- 
painting,  for  the  sake  of  a  ready  means  of  livelihood. 
He  got  a  considerable  quantity  of  employment.  His 
portraits  were  executed  at  first  for  five,  and  theo  for 
ISiglit  guineas  each,i — afterwards  forty  for  a  half-lengtb, 
ibd  i  hundred  for  a  full-length.  He  was  necasionallj 
vtft'jr  ft>nd  of  fun.  Once  a  rich  citiz^  Hi  lb  him  for 
his  bbrtrait,  <<  with  a  new  five  guinea  pbWdl$if««  bbb-wig 
on.  Gainsborough  found  something  »b  (rbbii^  in  the 
look  of  the  citiaen,  that  he  bttirii  bbt  inib  i  foar  of 
laughter,  of  coarse  gave  offeneb)  ^tt  ib^  hid  tmm- 
sion. 

Before  his  arrival  at  Batli  he  l^tti.  \miL  ehipteed  bj 
the  govi^nor  to  paint  Landguard  I^^SjtU  iiieltiAiig  the 
b^i^hboufing  hills,  and  the  port  ^  lltf »h^s  Ao  en- 
tfi-aving  of  this  pictuiHS  Sbfdbd  Ai»«^  i^  bftliie  and 
filtne  of  Gainsborough:  Of  tiib  bHglbtii  pm^  of  th4> 
fort  nothing  now  ri^hiAibi :  il  ^ii  Ml^%  tb  I  tall  built 
with  mortai-  ifaited  irith  s^-witef)  ib^  lb  bt^«M 

Gaibsborbtigh  aiid  thi^  goVt^fbbir  «rbir(l  MB  tf  them 
ibbd  bf  mbSic)  as  well  bs  of  ^ibiifclg;  18  tkMi  Mh  the 

Srt  bf  their  eaflV  acquaintance,  they  seem  lb  have 
b  ibbtually  pleaii«d  With  «ach  other's  eompaijr.—the 
pati*ob  b^ng  kibd  ^bd  the  j[»aintei^  obtltibg;  Btit,  when 
the  i^<»  of  itib  tatlbf  bbgAh  to  dra#  vk  attlH;ik>n  and 
favobf  of  thb  )f\x\m}  bb  Icrtlpted  Itfift  lb  let  Ibbse  bis 
natblikt  dispbftitibbt  Wtiith  ^KS  %t  bii  Hid)ipeB^nt  and 
imp^tbbus  cash  Thb  bdbil^^b^l^b  bf  Ma  st»ifit  «a>s 
thitt  thb  Ibvernbr  adbb  Ibok  bA«fib^  ibd  the  painter 
was  )bS9  bhd  ies§  anxiobft  tb  H^Mfi  HbWfi  ibf  Musef  of 
oftmt%'.  Oovemoi-  ThicktiHse  M%  bibfi  mWk  of  mis- 
r^i^reseblibg  and  Vilifying  biir  afliHl  ffl  mi  ipiboirs  of 
his  uA'f  fHend,  bbt  ib  thb  fbilowin^  fnlilf  r»^,  fit  least, 
W«  look  ib  vain  fbt  the  IBirlt  of  detf bbt lOb  :=» 
jiatbfg  mi  to  Mf.  (^blbbfbbMli  ib  ftli  h<>f  Miilkflireatti* 

tbdes  bf  beaiity^  abrf  tiHI  bbMsQ  thlced.ttl^ii  W^^  ^ 
iha!<;hle«  feHeity  li^  I^HM  bhb  ftibH  d«lh^  liiifoinenti, 
whether  il  ^^m  m  iidi-djr  m^  ihb  iWbM  likHiine,  the 
mo\Vfef  ^h»tlifti  m  *ylHbj  lit  WIlfllttiMt  bfettaito,ortbe 
sheph^  bbd^f  Wife  hat^thotfi  Ifi  iRb  M%=^ttfeefortli 
e^biiii^  bhaste  from  his  inimitableabd  fimciful pencil. 

Whcn  the  ^bibttioh  tbbib  bf  ttM  Wittthtf  ll  {Htnvduced  in 
conversation^  Oi-bH-Sehtt^d  lb  IM  ttlflS)  tS^iMft^ltumt^iU 
naturally  refer  ib  iii  inftbmiS  bb  ¥«ib(«libbl  Ihe  t^hyncian 
to  its  eflVibts  Ob  Ihb  ^mk  ^  ttt|  mbKibiiiU ;  the  man  of 
pleasure  thdjr  thlHK  bbUf  bf  !l«  Ibfl^bTlbb  to  m  ^»ort8  ot  the 
field;  the  phiibabbB^  IH^  «8dbifbbf  ioKH^k  for  it^  cause 
in  some  pref^dlfbf  jri^btpiflb  pbReffiHtei  ibid  anotJier 

bet^h  bmHftHt  mm  m^mmm  fmpm^  or  con- 
fi-ast  it  With  the  ^u\m  m  m  wm  }flim  « i  iJt«eding 

year.  Thus,  in  five  individuals  the  same  topic  may  K'^^ 
rise  to  five  tmins  Of  thought,  perfectly  distinct  from  cacn 
other,  vet  each  depending  upon  a  very  natond  and  obvious 
pxiDcipU  of  suggvattoii* 


1841.] 


THB  SATURDAY  MAGAZIWB, 


t79 


Bsmnstxeseiii, 


AMD 


THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  S.  MARIA  DBL  FIORB, 

AT  FtOBENCB. 

II. 

Is  1420,  the  most  celebrated  ^fchitects  of  Europe  again 
assembled  at  Florence.  Brunellescbi  was  inpluded  in  the 
nqmber,  and  be  flattered  himself  with  the  id^a,  that  this 
gr^nd  convQcatjon  would  supply  him  not  so  much  with 
competitors,  |^s  with  worthy  witnesses  of  his  triumph. 

Whotaver  will  reflect  (s^^vs  Quatrei^ere  de  Q,uinpy)  on 
the  existing  state  of  the  building  art»  reduced  W  all  Europe 
to  tlie  conceptions  ^nd  processes  qf  the  Gothic^  to  the  entire 
exclusion  of  the  architecture  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome; 
whoever  will  think  of  the  novelty  of  a  yzxih  of  such  lofty 
dimensions,  and  of  sach  a  diameter,  that  it  haa  never  since 
been  surpassed,  need  pot  be  aatoqisbed  at  the  weakness,  or 
tlie  absurdity  of  the  projects  which  were  presented  to  this 
numerous  ^aaembly;  it  seemed  like  a  struggle  for  superiority 
in  ignorance  and  marvellqusnes^  3ome  proposed  to  raise  up 
pillars,  whence  shou)d  branch  pif  area  as  supports  to  the 
timber  work  destined  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  cupola : 
otiiers  advised  a  great  pillar  in  the  middle  as  a  central  sup- 
port :  some  secommended  them  to  build  up  a  mountain  of 
esrth  by  way  of  scaffold:  they  were  to  mix  a  large  number 
of  pieces  of  money  in  this  earth,  and  when  the  work  was 
finished,  they  plight  trust  to  the  cupidity  of  ^ha  multitude 
to  carry  qff  thia  naiura}  scaffold. 

Brunellescbi  had  not  foreseen  thftt  true  knowledg^i  if 
put  upon  its  trial  before  ignorimt  judges,  must  bo  conT 
deroned:  lino^*  ifif  ff^inod  thp  cause,  the  judges  would 
condemn  theipselve^*  Wh^n  b^  presented  his  project,  they 
railed  at  it  as  absiird :  |hoy  d^d  Dot  underst^d  him  when 
le  proposed  to  orec^  two  cupolaS}  the  one  within  tha 
(ther,  so  as  to  leave  a  large  empty  space  between  them; 
Hit  they  laughed  outright  and  palled  hiip  ti^ae/man,  wb^n 
le  declared  that  be  would  employ  no  interjor  support,— 
o  timber-works  to  centpe  these  iipTnense  vf^nlts. 

Brunellescbi  believed  for  a  moifiont  that  the  fruit  of 
0  many  years  pf  toil  WM  ^ll  lost,  This  assembly  bad 
nly  mulipUed  the  doubts,  and  siuginented  the  irresolution 
f  the  judges.  Brunellescbi  saw  that  nothing  was  to  be 
:ained  by  stormy  debate  t  bis  strength  lay  in  his  own  find 
rue  genius ;  and  he  declined  further  to  risk  the  exposure 
\f  the  one  and  the  ridioqle  of  the  other,  before  the  pre?  • 
udices  of  blind  and  partial  judges.  He  therefore  began 
D  attack  separately  those  members  of  this  assembly, 
vhich  as  a  united  body  he  could  not  move.  He  encou- 
raged some ;  persuaded  others ;  and  half  revealed  to  all 
he  secret  of  a  very  simple  method,  which  no  one  sus-* 
lected  on  account  of  ite^iroplicity.  At  the  next  meeting 
te  experienced  no  more  taunts  and  contradictions. 

The  elements  of  Brunelleschi*B  scheme  were  quite 
rnknown  to  his  competitors.  Accustomed  tp  the  light- 
less  of  form,  and  construction  of  the  Gothic,  they  only 
mew  how  to  raise  to  a  great  height,  by  means  of  but- 
resses,  walls  hollowed  out  in  a  variety  of  ways ;  and 
Toined  vaults  formed  of  small  courses  of  masonry, 
Fhere  the  whule  thrust  was  divided  and  received  by 
naay  points  of  support.  But  it  was  above  all  things 
icce'ssary,  in  the  erection  of  the  projected  cupola,  to 
stablish  a  new  system  of  construction,  to  employ  more 
•owei-ful  materials,  more  massive  and  simple  points  of 
iipport ;  so  to  act,  that  the  construction,  in  this  vast 
iiiumference,  should  of  itself  act  as  scaffold  and  point 
•f  support.  Brunelleschi's  model  would  have  proved 
lov  all  this  could  be  done;  but  he  was  content  to 
ilence  his  opponents  by  argument  alone:  he  did  silence 
hem,  and  obtained  the  suffrages  of  his  judges ;  but  hig 
mployors,  i:i  the  absence  of  his  model,  would  not  allow 
lim  to  proceed  with  the  work  to  a  greater  height  than 

wplve  ftithoraq. 

When  truth  is  once  established  it  is  firm  and  immove* 
ble:  truth  can  lot  be  in  opposition  to  itself,  but  envy 
ind  detraction  often  exert  their  neftirious  powers  to 
>bscure  it.  It  was  whispered  about  that  the  glory  erf 
Florence  was  sullied  by  intrusting  so  magnificent  a  work 


to  one  single  architect.  A  colleague  was,  therefore 
associated  with  him:  this  was  Lorenzo  Ghiberti,  of  whom 
Brunellescbi  had  formerly  been  the  rival,  was  still  the 
enemy,  and  had  refused  to  become  the  associate.  This 
man  accepted  the  inglorious  participation  in  a  work  to 
which  he  had  contributed  nothing,  and  from  which  his 
incapacity  alone  would  have  been  sufficient  to  exclude 
him. 

Brunellescbi  became  furious  :  the  first  impulse  of  hif 
indignatiou  prompted  him  to  abandon  the  work  and  his 
native  city  ftir  ever}  bi^  friends,  however,  managed  to 
pacify  him,  and  wb^U  he  had  cooled  down,  his  course  of 
action  again  showed  his  sagacity.  He  feigned  itlncs^, 
and  thus  left  Ghiberti  sole  master  of  the  works,  in  which 
situation  Brunelleschi  well  knew  that  his  incapacity  for  the 
task  would  quickly  be  displayed.  Nor  was  he  deceived. 
The  frequent  embarrassment  and  indecision  of  Ghiberti 
soon  betrayed  his  ignorance,  and  some  great  and  palpable 
errors  into  which  he  fell,  opened  all  eyes  to  the  percep- 
tion of  it.  After  great  turmoil  ^nd  difficulty,  therefore, 
Brunelleschi  was  nominated  sole  architect  and  director 
in  chief  of  the  whole  edifice* 

From  this  moment  he  devoted  his  whole  energy  to  the 
work.  The  smallest  details  did  not  escape  his  vigilant 
foresight.  He  directed  each  workman,  but  kept  in  his 
own  hands  the  choice  and  destination  of  materials  for  his 
work.  Not  a  stone,  not  a  brick,  was  placed,  without 
having  been  first  examined  by  him.  Each  day  he  in« 
vented  (new  machines,  in  order  to  simplify  the  work  of 
building,  or  to  abridge  its  operations.     He  saw,  that  in 

f)roportion  as  the  building  rose  in  height,  the  workmen 
ost  their  time,  and  expended  their  strength  in  fhtiguing 
journeys.  He  remedied  this  inconvenience  by  establish- 
ing upon  the  vault  of  the  church  commodious  shelters^ 
and  furnishing  them  with  all  the  necessaries  of  life. 

He  had  by  this  time  displayed  his  model,  by  means  of 
which  his  secret  became  universally  known.  No  one 
was  weary  of  admiring  the  rare  skill  with  which  the 
artist  had  comprehended  all  the  details,  small  as  well  as 
great,  of  the  construction ;  the  foresight  with  which  he 
bad  calculated  the  internal  communications  and  supportSi 
the  openings  for  the  admission  of  light,  the  ascending 
slope,  the  balustrades,  the  conduits  for  carrying  off  the 
rain,  &c.;  ven  the  minutest  details  did  not  escape  him. 
But  the  greatest  admiration  was  excited  by  the  form  and 
distribution  of  his  materials,  and  by  the  mode  of  their 
combination,  whereby  that  just  system  of  equilibrium  was 
established  which,  by  mutiial  pressure  produced  mutual 
support,  and  united  the  several  parts  of  this  splendid 
dome  into  one  grand  whole. 

Brunellescbi  had  the  satisfiaction  before  his  death  to 
see  his  cupola  completed,  with  the  exception  of  the  ex- 
ternal tambour,  and  a  few  ornamental  details,  which  he 
could  afford  to  leave  another  less  gifted  individual  to 
complete. 

Tnis  great  and  celebrated  enterprise,  in  spite  of  the 
multiplied  embarrassments  and  cares  which  it  procured 
him,  was  far  from  occupying  the  entire  life  of  Brunel- 
leschi. His  celebrity  caused  his  assistance  to  be  sought 
for  in  many  of  the  great  works  which  were  executed  In 
his  time,  both  in  civil  and  in  military  architecture. 
Among  other  productions,  we  may  mention  the  church 
of  San  Lorenzo,  and  the  celebrated  Pitti  palace,  both  at 
Florence. 

Brunelleschi  died  in  the  year  1444.  H^s  remains 
were  interred  in  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  with  much  pomp 
^nd  ceremony;  a  monument  rising  high  above  his  re- 
mains that  will  perpetuate  his  name,  nnd  give  to  his 
memory  the  celebrity  which  that  splendid  edifice,  after 
the  lapse  of  nearly  fpur  hundred  years,  still  continues  to 
enjoy.  ^ 

A  couKTRTMAH  was  showu  GainsboTough's  celebrated  picture 
of  The  Pi^»— "To  be  sure,"  said  he, '« they  he  deadly -1  ke 
pigs,  but  nobody  ever  saw  three  pigs  feedin;?  together  hut 
what  one  on'em  had  a  foot  in  the  trough."— Jesse's  OUatdn^, 

600—2 


THE  eATnnDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Noni(ia6, 


■  WHAT  IS  BLIGHT  r 


u  oS  Aphir  n 


AphU: 


Th*  pvrtuita  i^  the  fxriMr,  tb«  Kftrdeoer,  rnd  all 
IIkmb  who  are  engaged  in  rural  occupatMna  bring  thorn 
■o  munh  in  contact  with  the  productioTH  of  naturei  that 
jnit  in  propartisa  as  thejr  are  inl«re«te<l  in  uoderstaoding: 
th«r  qnalitiaa,  should  we  imagine  tbein  to  be  acquoiated 
with  the  different  vegetables  grown  «r  reared  for  econo- 
nuo  purpQaes;  to  understand  the  cauw  of  the  injuries 
thejr.are  lubject  to;  and  to  devise  efficient  remedies 
for  those  injuries.  But  it  happens  unfortunately  that 
tlwse  persona  are  for  the  most  part  quite  ignorant  of  the 
natural  history  of  the  objects  of  their  care ;  they  adopt 
*  oertaio  routine  of  practice  which  they  have  been  taught ; 
bat,  aa  they  are  ifnorant  of  the  icieacf  of  their  processes, 
th«y  cannot  vary  them  to  suit  the  exiganelea  af  varying 
circuin stances;  and  tlius  they  are  exposed  tofraquent  Ii 


they  «re  satisGed,  and  seek  not  to  inquire  why  it 
more  or  less  abundant  than  that  of  succeeding  years: 
but,  if  the  crop  fail,  they  attribute  the  loss  to  the  attacks 
of  birds,  of  insects,  and  above. all  to  the  influence  of 
Uightimg  winds. 

Id  rural  pursuits  there  ia  probably  no  word  so  much 
used  aa  bught.  When  the  viad  is  easterly  and  the 
country  clothed  in  blue  miat  the  fanner  looka  anxiously 
towards  his  crops  aad  says,  there  is  "  a  blight  about. ' 
The  gardener  looks  at  the  yellow  sickly  appearance  of 
bis  fruit  trees,  their  leaves  or  blossoma  curled  up  and 
deatroyed  and  refers  this  to  the  effects  of  blight.  The 
hop  grower  sees  his  expectations  defeated  by  myriads 
upon  myriads  of  green  insects  which  eompletety  overrun 
and  desolate  his  grounds,  and  be  calls  this  a  blight. 
The  planter  perceives  innumerable  small  caterpillars 
•warming  on  his  trees  where  the  day  before  not  one  was 
Tisible :  he  remembers  that  an  easterly  wind  has  arisen, 
and  calls  it  a  blight.  Siooe  these  aud  other  limilar  mis- 
fortunes receive  the  indeSnite  and  myaterions  name  of 
blight,  it  may  Iw  useftil,  as  far  as  our  presmt  knowledge 
of  the  subject  eitends,  to  affbrd  a  fiill  answer  to  the 
question  nhiU  it  blight  f 
.    The  notion  that  certain  small  insects,  such  as  cater- 

S'llers,  aphides  or  plant-lice,  are  propagated  or  at  least 
fiised  by  certain  winds  or  states  of  the  air,  called 
blight,  has  been  gHwrally  credited  not  only  by  intelli- 
gent persons  but  also  by  many  good  naturalists  up  to  a 
very  recent  period.  Mr.  Main  says,  that  when  there  is 
in  easterlr  wind,  attended  by  a  blue  mist,  ^e  latter  ia 
called  a  blight,  "and  many  people  imagine  that  the 
abides  are  waited  through  the  air  by  this  same  mist," 
Mr.  Keith  says,  "The  farmer  supposes  these  insects  are 
wafted  to  him  on  the  east  wind,  while  they  are  only 
generated  in  the  estravaaated  juices,  as  forming  a  proper 
nidus  for  their  eggs."  Dr.  Mason  Good  says,  "  That 
the  atmosphere  is  freighted  with  myriads  of  insect  e^s 
that  eluJe  our  search,  and  that  such  eggs,  when  they 
meet  with  a  proper  bed,  are  hatched  in  a  few  hour«  into 
a  perfect  form,  is  clear  to  any  one  who  has  attended  W 
the  rapid  and  wonderful  effects  of  what,  in  common 
^K*^Ea,  is  called  a.  blight  upon  plantations  and  gar- 


It  Mens  to  bo  generaUr  ftdmitted  tkat  umb  in 
connected  with  blight,  and  that  these  insects  sajtti  ndj 
during  certain  atatea  of  the  air.  If,  therefore,  it  be 
admitted  that  the  wind  haa  any  thing  to  do  in  tiie  pn- 
duction  of  blight,  one  of  three  things  mutt  occur:  (],) 
the  wind  muM  produce  this  blight  qwntaneoutlj:  (i) 
the  eggs  from  which  the  blighta  proceed  mutt  be  wiM 
by  the  wind  to  a  given  spot:  (3,)  the  prtvaJeDK  rf 
certain  winds  must  have  an  influence  in  giving  binhto 
certain  insects  inclosed  in  eggs  previously  depotitdbf 
parent  insecta  upon  tlie  spot  where  the  bliffht  it  Ktn. 

That  any  ataW  of  the  air  or  wind  is  soequte  totht 
production  of  aoiail  life,  is  a  proposition  so  sbmni  a 
the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  that  we  put  il  \\j 
as  altogether  unworthy  of  serious  notice.  But  tiut 
^aats  may  Iw  bUghted  or  withered  up  by  dry  pircliiif 
winds  is  fully  admitted,  for  when  a  plant  first  produca 
its  young  branches  and  leaves,  these  ports  are  tender  ud 
succulent,  and  lose  their  moisture  very  readiWi  u  ibt 
a  oerUin  stato  of  moisture  and  warmth  in  the  lir  ii 
necessary  to  effect  the  solidiScation  of  the  newlj-fonnj 
tissue  i  and  if  this  state  be  maintained  tlie  bruicbeivni 
leaves  become  fully  formed,  and  no  blight  appean.  Boi 
if,  as  it  often  happens  in  this  country,  a  dryeutdr 
wind  prevails,  the  jaung  planti  part  with  their  nwiitiR 
so  rapidly  that  their  roots  cannot  maintain  a  moper  rap- 
ply,  and  the  tissue  becomes  dried  up  ana  tcarcbn. 
Sudt  ia  blight.  The  only  apparent  remedy  is  to  wppi; 
moisture  to  the  plants  so  attacked  by  wasbiog  tben  Fre- 
quently with  a  syrii^.  Under  such  cireumitaDcti  of 
l>light  it  is  not  uncommon  to  bum  large  qusDtitia  <i 
wet  litter  to  the  windward  of  the  blighted  plants,  unjff 
the  supposition  that  the  smoke  will  destrov  tbe  wot 
which  are  the  imaginary  cause  of  the  miicbief.  Wi 
need  hardly  say  that  if  any  good  arises  from  tbii  f>»  i 
tice,  it  must  be  attribut«(I  to  tbe  m<ust  warm  niub  i 
which  onvelopes  the  plants,  most  probably  witboat  dt- 
stroying  a  single  insKiL  | 

We  have  the  evidence  of  the  microscope  to  lunn  ^ 
that  every  drap  of  water  teems  with  life ;  but  it  ii  aij 
a  fancy,  quite  destitute  of  such  ocular  evidence,  ibiu 
encourages  us  to  believe  the  air  to  be  e<jually  prolific. 
It  is  difficult  to  imagine  how  the  eggs  of  iDKCts  ess  '» 
found  in  the  air,  for  those  of  every  known  ipeaeiui 
much  heavier  than  air,  and  moreover  the  parent  insects 
.display  the  greatest  anxiety  to  place  their  ^js  upon  * 
near  the  proper  food  of  the  young  progeny.  "  To  wn'' 
rait  them  to  the  winds,"  says  an  accurst*  obwtw 
"  would  be  a  complete  dereliction  of  this  inviriibl*  u* 
of  insect  economy."  And  supposing  we  admit  ibit  ie 
egga  .are  dropped  by  tbe  mother  insects  while  on  i^ 
wing. 

We-  must  alao  admit  (for  thwe  ia  no  avoiding  it),tW 
they  continue  to  float  about,  unhatcbed,  from  lh«  «»  oi  t" 
BUmmar  till  the  commencement  of  spring,  at  whicb  tun 
only  the  broods  make  their  appearance.  Yet  "b*  " 
consider  the  rains,  snows,  and  wmds  to  which  they  *"'*'' 

Sosed  for  six  or  nine  months,  we  think  the  hardiefl  ttoi- 
would  scarcely  maintain  that  a  aingle  agf  eoaU  *i- 
weatbet'  these  vicissitudes,  and  continue  to  float  in  tli<tf- 

Nor  is  it  possible  that  these  eggs  can  be  t^«  "P 
simultaneously  by  a  strong  east  wind,  and  depotitw  * 
plants,  trees,  or  other  objects  where  a'bUfht  sudtalj 
appears,  because  when  the  eggs  are  deposHed,  tberWi 
with  very  few  eiceptious,  enveloped  in  «B  »dlei« 
cement  which  glues  them  W  the  spot  where  ^M^ 
first  placed  by  the  parent  insect.  It  ftlbws,  'l""*"*] 
from  the  statement  of  these  fiM»  simple  and  well-»itwW 
facta  that  the  second  proposition  must  bediniiis«du 
untenable. 

We  now  come  to  the  third  propositioQ,  and  timt" 
once  that  tbe  action  of  certain  winds,  irfluencfd  bv«- 
riations  in  temperature,  and  other  meteorological  cbinp^ 
seems  to  be  capable  of  calling  into  lile  and  setiTltv.ui' 
were  in  an  instant,  innmnenible  insects,  which,  oneli« 


1841.1 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


181 


were  concealed  each  within  its  minute  egg,  and  m  the  next 
hour  burst  forth  to  join  myriads  of  its  kind  in  the  work  of 
destruction.  It  is  generally  considered  by  naturalists,  that 
tbe  eggs  deposited  in  the  preceding  autumn,  hating  been 
laid  at  the  same  time,  and  exposed  to  smiilar  atmospheric 
changes,  are  necessarily  hatched  at  the  same  time  in  the 
sprmg,  when,  in  fact,  intelligence  is  obtained  by  the  in- 
closed grubs,  from  the  pecidiar  state  of  the  air,  that  the 
fitting  time  for  bursting  forth  from  the  egg  is  arrived. 
We  propose  to  speak  of  the  aphides  or  plant-lice  more 
particularly  in  a  subsequent  article ;  but  should  the  reader 
find  it  difficult  to  believe  that  the  vast  numbers  of  blight- 
ing insects  often  observable  on  plants  have  proceeded 
from  the  eggs  deposited  the  preceding  autumn,  we  may 
state,  that,  in  the  case  of  the  aphides,  the  fecundity  is 
almost  incalculable.     Reaumur  proved  by  experiment 
that  one  aphis  may  be  the  progenitor  of  5,904,900,000 
descendants  during  its  life:  that  in  one  year  there  may  be 
twenty  generations.     Mr.  Rennie  has  counted  more  than 
a  thousand  aphides  on  a  single  leaf  of  the  hop;  and  in 
seasons  when  they  are  abundant — when  every  hop-leaf  is 
peopled  with  a  similar  swarm— the  number  of  eggs  laid 
in   autumn   must  be,  to  use  the  words  of  Dr.  Good, 
"  myriads  of  myriads." 

The  reader  will  now  have  no  difficulty  in  finding  an 
answer  to  the  question,  **  What  is  blight  ?"  but  we  shall 
not  perform  our  duty  satisfactorily  unless  we  enable  him 
to  convince  himself  that  blight  proceeds  from  insects  the 
eggs  of  which  were  deposited  by  their  parents  the  pre- 
ceeding  autumn,  by  searching  for  and  finding  such  eggs 
during  the  winter  months,  so  as  to  be  able  to  watch  the 
phenomena  of  blight  during  the  following  spring,  or  to 
apply  a  timely  remedy  to  its  destructive  effects. 

The  word  blight  is  often  applied  to  the  mischief  done 
by  all  such  insects  as  are  injurious  to  vegetation :  and 
therefore  includes  many  insects  of  various  genera.  It 
will  be  impossible  to  speak  of  these  within  the  short 
limits  of  the  present  article,  but  on  future  occasions 
we  may  notice  them.  At  present  we  shall  restrict 
our  notice  to  the  history  of  one  species  only,  which 
has  been  carefully  studied  by  Mr.  Lewis,  and  detailed 
in  the  Transaeiiofu  of  the  Entomological  Society, 

I£  during  the  winter  months  the  young  branches  of 
the  apple  tree  or  the  hawthorn  be  carefully  examined, 
certain  small  round  and  slightly  convex  patches  will  be 
discovered.    These  patches  are  somewhat  less  than  the 
sixth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  are  usually  attached  to 
the   outside  of  the  branches.      Each    of   these  little 
patches  is  the  work  of  a  small  white  or  lead-coloured 
moth,  studded  all  over  with  blad^  spots,  popularly  called 
*'  the  small  ermine.^'     Each  patch  consists  of  a  number 
of  eggs,  deposited  in  the  month  of  June,  covered  with  a 
glutinous  substance  which  when  newly  implied  is  of  a  pale 
yellow  colour,  but  from  exposure  to  the  weather  becomes 
dark,  and  nearly  resembles  the  bark  of  the  branch.    The 
eggs  batch  in  the  early  part  of  autumn,  and  the  grubs  re- 
main confined  during  winter,  at  which  time  if  the  case  be 
opened,  a  number  of  these  little  grubs,  which  are  of  a 
yellow  colour,  may  be  readily  seen  with  the  aid  of  a  small 
magnif  jing  glass.     As  soon  as  the  trees  beg^n  to  put 
forth  their  leaves,  the  grubs  make  their  escape,  and  as 
they  are  yet  in  a  feeble  condition,  and  cannot  eat  the 
outer  skin  of  the  leaves,  they  burrow  mto  them,  where 
they  are  protected  from  the  weather,  and  feed  upon  the 
pulp  of  the  leaf.     As  they  grow  stronger,  and  perhaps 
also  during  some  state  of  the  air  which  is  favourable  to 
them,  they  gnaw  their  way  out,  and  the  anxious  gardener, 
who   haa  hitherto  observed  only  the  brownness  of  the 
leaves,  caused  by  the  burrowing  of  the  insects  within, 
but   which  he  attributes  to  the  withering  effect  of  an 
easterly  wind,  is  astounded  when  he  perceives  myriads 
of  caterpillars  swarming  on  the  trees,  and  proceeding 
with  alarming  rapidity  in  their  devastating  course.     The 
&ot  of  their  burrowing  sufficientl/explains  the  reason  of 
fbja  sudden  appearance:  it  shows  how  one  day  npt  a 


smg«e  caterpillar  may  be  visible  on  the  trees,  ano  the 
next,  they  may  be  swarming  with  larvas  of  so  large  a 
sixe  as  so  forbid  the  idea  of  their  having  been  recently 
hatched.  The  webs  so  often  seen  covering  the  branches 
of  apple  trees,  and  the  hawthorn  of  the  hedges,  are  the 
work  of  this  little  caterpillar ;  which  after  a  time  be- 
comes of  a  lead  colour  spotted  with  black,  and  when  full 
grown  spins  an  oblong  white  cocoon,  within  which  it 
turns  to  the  pupa;  soon  after,  the  moth  hatches,  and 
generally  about  the  month  of  June,  if  it  be  a  female, 
deposits  her  eggs  iu  the  way  we  have  already  men- 
tioned. 

The  cuts  which  accompany  this  article  are  highly 
magnified  representations  of  Uie  larva  and  the  perfect 
insect  of  the  rose-plant  aphis:  the  small  line  which 
accompanies  each  figure  is  the  actual  size  of  the  insect. 

Among  the  various  remedies  for  blight  the  application 
of  the  spirit  of  tar  to  the  bark  has  been  greatly  com- 
mended; but  Sir  Joseph  Banks  found  it  sufficient  for  the 
protection  of  his  apple-trees  simply  to  remove  the  rugged 
and  dead  old  Inurk,  and  then  scrub  the  trunk  and 
branches  with  a  hard  brush. 


PRAYER    IN    CHILDHOOD 

KKEELijra  in  the  congregation, 

Bending  at  the  lonely  shrine, 
To  the  Lord  of  all  creation, 

Saviour  of  the  world,  and  mine^- 
Though  his  mercies  well  may  raise 
Man  to  loftiest  heights  of  praise, 
And  the  sins  of  man  should  be 
Seals  of  man's  humility — 
Ye^  how  oft  I  find  I'm  sttU 
Strong  in  a  rebellious  will. 
High  in  pride,  in  fervour  low—* 
"Wherefore,  wherefore  b  it  sol 

Thoughts^  whose  incense  should  aspire 

From  the  altar  of  the  heart, 
Kindled  at  the  sacred  fire, 

Faith,  and  Hope,  and  Love  impariy^ 
Thoughts,  to  which  celestial  birth 

In  the  qiirit's  depths  seemed  given. 
With  the  grosser  fumes  of  earth 

Mixed,  and  marred,  ascend  to  heaven. 
Cold  and  lifdess,  dull  and  slow-— 
"Wherefore,  wherefore  is  it  so  I 

I  can  bend  my  backward  gaze 
To  the  dream  of  childish  days;— 
Oh !  what  else  can  childhood  seem 
Than  a  swift  and  happy  dream, 
Bright — while  yet  our  sorrows  sleep- 
Whence  at  length  we  wake^  and  weep?— 
Yes !  I  can  point  to  early  years 
Memory's  glass,  though  dimmed  with  tears, 
And  in  thought  once  more  survey 
Times,  when  I  was  wont  to  pray 
By  the  evening  star*s  first  shining, 
Ere  upon  my  bed  reclining. 
And  when  mom,  with  radiant  finger 

Smiting  soft  the  curtained  pane. 
Bade  those  "f  slumbers  light"  not  linger. 

Which  shall  ne*er  be!mine  again.—- 
Then  indeed  I  lisped  m j  prayer. 
Yet  my  spirit  seemed  to  ebare 
Twice  the  warmth  it  now  doth  know*- 
Wherefore,  wherefore  is  it  so  ? 

Tis,  when  the  heart  is  soft  and  young 
That  most  to  heavenly  strains  'tis  strung^ 
Ere  yet  the  world's  rude  discord  grieves 
The  song  of  heavenward  hope  it  weaves; 
Ere  yet  the  world*s  cold  fetter  flings 
Its  burden  on  the  spirit's  wings, 
And  down  witfi  deadening  influence  weighs 
The  upward  flight  ot  pra|er  and  piaise; 
Or  thoughts  that  bind  the  soul  in  sin 
Are  fortressed  into  strength  within; 
Or  idle  sneer  and  impious  doubt 
In  secret  ambush  lurk  without. 
And  with  a  fiendish  joy  effiice 
The  tender  growth  of  early  grsoe  I J.  8.  B, 


182 


TrfE  SATCUDAY  MAGAZINE- 


[NOVEMBEI  ft, 


THE  STONE-QUARHIES  OF  EIGYPT, 


We  give  this  article  the  foregoing  title,  because  it  is 
our  object  to  poii^t  attention  \o  the  localities  which 
gavp  birth  to  those  ^normqvfs  masses  of  stone  which 
have  been,  during  foriner  aees,  distributed  over  the 
land  of  the  Nile  from  soqth  to  north.  These  still 
remain  ;  but,  for  the  most  part,  show  no  relation  to  the 
soil  where  they  ^re  now  roupd  to  exist.  The  enter- 
prise an4  research  of  modern  travellers  have,  however, 
discovered  rational  means  of  accounting  for  most  of  the 
works  of  art  and  might,  by  which  any  of  the  ancient 
nations  of  the  world  have  signalized  themselves  in  the 
view  of  the  people  of  succepding  ages. 

'  It  is,  for  our  present  purppse,  more  correct  and  com- 
prehensive to  spealt  of  toe  land  of  the  Nile  than  merely 
of  EgynU  The  *^  valley  of  the  Nile"  is  another  ele- 
ffapt  terra  for  this  wonderfti)  rejg^ion,  which  comprehends 
tne  countries  of  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia.  The 
river  inay  be  said  to  flow  ()own  from  the  Mountains  of 
the  Moon  through  Abyssinia,  Nubia,  and  Egypt,  into 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  or  from  south  to  north.  Nubia 
and  Abyssinia  formed  the  Western  Ethiopia  of  the 
ancients ;  and  Egypt  has  always  b^ei>  considered  to  be 
divided  into  Upper  and  (^ower ;  th^  Upper  l>eipg  south- 
ward and  the  Lower  to  the  north ;  the  latter  comprising 
the  Delta,  near  the  sea. 

Having  thus  spoken  of  the  geographical  character  of 
the  countries  under  our  nofice,  we  ^ijl  now  consider 
them  in  a  geological  point  of  view,  restraining  our  ob- 
servations, however,  to  the  r^gipp  properly  f^ceiving  the 
name  of  Egypt. 

The  land  of  Egypt  affords  tQ  the  nptio^  of  the 
geologist  four  distinct  regions;  threp  in  the  Upper 
Egypt,  and  one  in  the  Lower. 

1.  The  most  southern,  the  Gi^ani^  Fegipn,  which 
extends  from  Philas,  through  the  cataract  district  to 
Syene.  It  affords .  besides  granite,  also  Syenite^  and 
some  other  crystalline  prinii^iv?  rocks.  The  finest 
granites  and  syPuU^s,  ?ire  red  pnfl  highly  crystallized  ; 
and  are  remarkablp  for  thei^  durfLlbility  ap4  the  fine 
polish  which  they  fire  Pf^pJ^hle  pf  repeivipg.  Colossal 
statues,  pillars,  obelisksi  and  even  whqlp  teRiples,  are 
constructed  of  these  beautiful  foc]^s.  t^pme  of  the 
pyramids  are  said  to  h^ve  bppp  PPgiR^Hy  P^cd  with 
slabs  of  granite. 

2.  The  next,  or  JSandjtione  region,  lips  to  the  north 
of  the  granite,  s^nd  extends  from  8yene,  (Assouan,) 
northwards  ^o  Esneh,  or  pvcr  about  one  degree  of  latitude. 
This  sandstone  is  by  soine  s^uthors  rpferrpd  to  the 
grex,  or  s^ndsf^ppe  qf  Foptaipebleim,  the  paving-stone 
of  Paris ;  by  othprs,  ^  the  tfiolawi  da  Ci(fniif9  of  Swit- 
zerland ;  but  all  are  agreed  in  considering  it  fis  a  com- 
paratively recent  deposit.  Its  colours  are  white,  grey, 
and  vellow  ;  it  is  very  soft  and  easily  wprked,  and  the 
buildings  constructed  of  it  would  probably  not  have  long 
resisted  the  wes^^her,  had  they  not  been  coyerpd  with  a 
coloured  varnish.  The  great  temples,  anji  piany  pillars 
and  obelisks,  are  of  this  sandstppe  ;  \i\\i  it  dops  not  ap- 
pear ever  to  have  been  u^ed  in  bpilding  privi^te  houses. 

3.  To  the  north  of  the  sandstone,  but  tp  thp  south  of 
Tliebes,  is  the  Limestone  region.  This  substance  was 
formerly  much  used  as  a  building  material.  The  cata- 
combs of  Thebes  are  situated  in  this  limestone. 

4.  The  whole  of  Egypt  to  the  nor^h  of  the  limestone, 
that  is,  the  D^ll(n  region,  is  principfilly  coipposed  of 
alluvinm  (floating  mud)  deposited  from  the  waters  of 
the  Nile. 

It  will  be  seeq  that  the  $rst  three  geologjcfil  regions 
here  spoken  of  belong  to  Upper  Egypt,  as  likewise  a 
part  of  the  fourth. 

Before   speaking  more   directly   of  the  quarries  of 

Eprypt,  it  may  be  well  to  phserye  that  a  quarry  is  an 

^  excavation  ip  the  ground,  froip  \i'hence  are  extracted 

marble,   stone,  or   chalk,  for   the   purposes  chiefly  of 


sculpture  and  acchileetote.  Ta^  nam^  ^psars  to  W« 
been  applied  to  such  excavatians  from  the  circumstaQGe 
that  the  materials  obtained  from  them,  are  then  ^va- 
dratedi  or  formed  into  rectangular  blocks. 

All  the  materials  beforermentiqned  b#?e  Ymn  em- 
ployed in  the  formation  of  the  massive  works  which  yet 
remain  to  attest  the  magnificenpe  pf  th^  anciept  people 
of  this  country.  The  walls  9{  most  of  the  t^mpb 
were  constructed  of  sandstone*  which  appears  to  have 
been  chiefly  obtained  from  the  quarries  stjrefcbing  aiouf 
the  banks  of  the  NUet  in  the  mountains  of  (i>elseleb; 
but  the  obelisks  and  statues  which  adorned  those  temples 
are  fbrme4  of  Syenite  or  Oriental  gr^iti^,  drawn  from 
the  quarries  in  the  islands  of  Phi)fle  an4  Elephantine, 
and  particularly  from  those  vast  excavatipns  in  tbi 
mountain-terraces  abou^  Sy^ne.  At  Sais,  ia  the  Delu, 
we  are  told,  there  once  stood  <t  temple,  formed  of  a 
single  block  of  granite,  which  bad  been  floated  down 
the  Nile  on  a  raii  from  the  quarry  in  Elephantine*  Tw9 
thousand  men  were  engaged  fpr  threp  y^ars  in  the 
removal  of  this  temple,  which  was  more  th^  thirty  feet 
in  length,  twenty  in  breadth,  and  twelve  in  height;  the 
stone  was,  on  the  average,  about  ^ye  fee^  in  thipknesa. 
One  of  the  pyramids  is  formed  of  liqies^one;  a  car* 
bonatfi  of  lime,  of  a  light  gray  eolpur ;  end  the  um^ 
kind  of  stone  forms  the  interior  mesa  qf  ano^er  pyi^ 
mid,  while  the  outside  is  covered  with  red  granite. 

The  region  of  the  granitp,  wbiob  iP4y  be  (iistmguufaed 
by  referring  to  the  modern  towQ  of  AMOttaQ?  eiteodi 
from  west  to  east,  on  both  aides  of  th?  riye)?;  but  tbe 
best  specimens  Ha  near  the  stream*  and  the  granite  Ioms 
its  beautiAil  appearanoe  the  further  we  rpqede  ^om  the 
east  bank  towards  the  Desert.  The  red  granite  thtis 
occupies  only  a  small  spac«,  forming  a  kind  of  portal,  or 
entrance,  through  which  the  Nile  burets  into  £gyp^ 
forcing  its  way  amidst  innumerable  it ola|ad  ahffs,  which 
consist '  of  the  most  beautiful  roae-pploured  granite, 
This  red  granite  is  known  by  its  ^^opll^nt  colo^r,  tin 
magnitude  of  its  cryatallized  comp^p^nt  part9)  and  iu 
hardness ;  owing  to  which  last  quality,  it  receives  an 
exquisite  polish.  The  rpse-spplaui^d  fetd^pfth,  vhich 
sometimes  approaches  to  a  brickrred»  forms  ahoi|t  tvo- 
thirds  of  the  mass:  the  intermedilit^  spaces  are  filled 
with  the  spjirkling  mica  and  the  glassy  transpareni- 
looking  quart  a.  Hombl^de  is  seldom  found  fpii^ed  viih 
it  The  Theban  obelisks,  and  many  other  works  of  art, 
were  made  of  this  material* 

In  Upper  Egypt,  tlie  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
the  general  steadiness  of  the  temperature,  haye  contn- 
buted,  with  the  hardness  of  the  materiali  tq  preserve 
the  polished  surfaces  of  the  obelisk^,  and  ^heir  more 
delicate  sculptures,  uninjured  during  the  lapse  of  centu- 
ries :  but  thoso  ppar  the  sea  coast  have  bad  their  surfaces 
decomposed  by  the  aetlon  of  the  moist  atmosphere. 

Near  the  limita  of  the  red  granite  are  found  se^en> 
varieties,  occupying  a  still  mqre  Umitfsd  space,  and 
forming  a  transition-series  between  this  and  the  comnioo 
granite.  They  differ  from  the  red  granite  aod  from  om 
another,  both  in  colour,  oomponent  parts,  and  the  $!>< 
of  these  component  parts,  some  of  which  are  vfrj 
coarse,  and  others  small  and  fine.  We  see  ip  tlie  ^si^*'" 
ing  specimens  of  Egyptian  sculpture?  that  they  oltca 
selected  some  of  these  varieties  in  pi*efcpence  to  the  reJ- 
coloured  one. 

The  stone-quarries  of  Egypt  and  hfubiashPW^iistinctly 
to  the  present  day,  the  mode  in  which  the  stones  wtra 
got  out.  In  the  ftice  of  the  rock  are  seen  a  number  of 
long  horiaontal  lines,  one  above  another:  ^he  verticai 
distance  between  any  two  adjoining  lipes  she^^  ^^^ 
thickness  of  the  pieco  cut  out ;  white  the  length  is  clearW 
marked  in  several  oases,  either  by  the  trrmination  « 
the  face  of  the  rock  on  each  side,  or  by  a  vertical  roark 
on  it,  extending  from  one  heriaoqtal  iW  IQ  ^^  °^'^' 
The  stones  were  taken  out  of  the  quarry  j^st  in  l^ 
shape  and  siae  rei}UB«4y  and  were  deftaahei  ft^  ^ 


8410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


183 


n^iss  one  after  Another^  bj  means  of  little  wedges  in- 
mrtcd  in  holed  tiiade  on  the  two  faces  of  the  stone, 
riioti^h  this  is  a  slow  pfocesst  it  is  economical  as  far  as 
:htf  material  of  the  rock  is  concerned,  and  was  employed 
)oth  in  the  granite  quarries  of  Syene,  and  in  those  of 
uarrara,  In  the  time  of  the  Romans.  At,  the  latter 
})ace,  it  is  the  pfaetiee,  at  present,  to  blast  the  marble, 
}y  which  about  three-fourths  of  the  material  are  wasted, 
rhe  wedges  used  iti  Eg^pt  were  either  iron  ones  struck 
ili  at  once^  or  wooden  ones  which  were  moistt^ned,  so  as 
;o  swell  and  Start  the  stone  from  its  .position. 

It  appears  that  the  catacombs  and  etcarated  temples, 
vhich  are  numerous  in  Upper  Egypt,  are,  for  the  most 
}art,  the  results  t>f  the  quarries  of  which  we  have  been 
litherto  speaking ;  that  is  to  say,  the  quarried  ezcava- 
tion  became  A  catacomb  or  a  temple  *  r—fi-botk  being 
dike  derdted  to  the  interment  of  the  dead. 

At  the  quarry  of  Gartaas^  in  Nubiai  about  tWenty- 
ive  miles  south  of  Assouan « is  a  small  chapel,  supposed 
JO  hare  btieil  for  the  usi>  of  the  workmen.  The  door- 
wnji  as  in  the  case  of  most  of  the  quarries  in  these  parts 
)f  the  Nilcj  fronts  the  riv^r^  and  forms  the  entrance  to 
;he  long  open  galleries  which  oonduct  to  the  excava- 
;ions.  The  quArrieS  on .  the  east  side  of  the  river,  at 
Hadjar  Selseleh^  contain  representations^  cut  in  the 
(tone,  of  the  implements  used  in  quarrying :  two  of  them 
lOok  like  wedged^  but  differ  somewhat  in  shape ;  and 
mother  is  in  form  precisely  like  thd  moderp  lever^ 
which  is  used  by  masons  for  raising  stones.  It  has  a 
circular  top,  which  might  be  a  kind  of  ring,  then  a 
iiorizontal  oar  or  bolt*,  whili^  tbf»  lowe^  {Mirt  is  a  trun- 
Mted  triangle,  with  the  base  forming  the  lowest  ]part  bf 
he  instrument.  From  the  numerous  inscriptions  exist- 
ng  in  these  quarries,  It  is  evident  that  they  w^re  worked 
iJcewise  by  the  Greeks  and  Rbmans. 

The  sandstone  quarries  of  Hadjar  Seheleh  furhished 

lio  chief  materials  for  the  temples,  as  the  granite  quaf- 

les  of  Syene  (Assouan)  did  for  the  obelisks  and  colossal 

tatues.     The  Egyptians  were  careful  to  cut  out  such 

)ieces  as  suited  their  purpose  best,  from  atnong  the 

everal  varieties  of  sandstone;  and  it  is  as  easy  to  find 

arge  unbroken  masses  of  this  substance  as  in  the  quar- 

ies  of  Syene.     Beams  for  architHtVes,  to  the  leilgth  6f 

wenty-five  or  thirty  feet,  and  large  pieces  suitable  for 

:olossal  sphinxes  of  nearly  equal  length,  were  easily 

)rocured  in  these  quarries.     The  stone  is  soil  and  very 

easily  worked.     This  is  shown  in  the  case  of  the  colos- 

lal  sphinx-head  of  the  British  Museum^  which  suffers 

:onpiderably  from  the  dariip  atmosphere  of  dur  climate. 

The  vast  sizes  of  the  stones  that  were  transported 

rem  the  quarries  of  Syene,  to  the  most  remote  parts  of 

Sgypt,  may  be  inferred  from  the  huge  statues,  obelisks, 

nd  monolith  f  temples^  of  which  specimens  now  exist. 

U  the  present  day,  there  is  a  large  cubtcal  block  lying 

li  the  road,  between  the  granite  quarries  and  Syene, 

rhich,  from  some  caus6  or  oth^r,  has  never  reached  its 

estination.     It  has  sculptures  bn  two  of  its  vertical 

ices,  and  is  more  than  thirtv  feet    every   way.     In 

bother  place  was  observed  a  block  for  a  colossus,  about 

ixty -eight  feet  high.      It  is  supposed  that  the  larger 

iasscs  of  rock  used  in  constructing  temples,  Scc^  were 

iken  in  the  rough  to  the  place  where  they  were  to 

and,  and  there  received  their  full  shape  and  decoration; 

It  that  the  smaller  members  bf  the  architecture  Were 

wnpleted,  or  nearly  so.  in  th6  quarry. 

I'hc    ancient    Egyptian    method   of  producing  the 

)elisk  was  as  follows :    They  marked  out  in  a  hill  a 

btum  for  the  purpose  ;  levelled  the  surface  with  dig- 

hg  tools ;  and  then,  with  a  chisel,  cut  some  iiirrows 

f  channels  to  define  the  opposite  sides.     These  being 

leavatcd  to  a  certain  depth,  they  tore  the  obelisk  from 

*  See  tvra  interesting  articles  on  Cavern  Templet  and  Tomhtf — Nos. 

riiil  f)!  of  this  work. 
The  wtirU  "  monolUK'  is  ft-om  the  Greek,  Snd  implies  tht  hting  made 
ll  9ingU  iione. 


the  rock  by  the  aid  of  the  Wedges,  of  which,  vestiges 
now  remain.  In  a  similar  way  are  still  cut  in  France 
pieces  of  granite,  forty -five  feet  long  and  eighteen  broad. 
It  was  easier  to  seat  a  colossus  on  its  pedestal,  than  to 
deal  with  an  obelisk;  the  former  having  a  comparatively 
large  base,  and  being  less  liable  t6  snap  asunder.  The 
obelisks  when  cut  were  placed  upotl  skdges,  and  drawn 
to  the  rivef,  where,  a  v)?ssel  or  raft,  purposely  con- 
strmited,  was  firmly  tied  to  the  shore;  and  a  bridge 
being  iiiiiide  out  of  strong  beams,  frbih  the  edge  of  the 
shor^,  or  from  stepd  cUt  in  tB6  bank,  and  being  made  to 
projeci  as  far  as  the  raft^  Ally  weight,  by  means  of 
rollers,  eoutd  b^  transibt*riE>d  lb  iit  Th«  Stone  was  thus 
conveyed  by  the  fiver  tiJ  ahjr  ^M  of  figVjJli 

The  Egyptiatis  b^in^  eontcnt«d  With  low  plinths  in* 
stead  df  fitybbateSi  the  obelisks  were  thus  erected ; 
thi&j  W6.r«  dragged  iVdtn  m  H¥l^f  fttohg  a  causeway 
made  i^  ^arth  or  siones,  until  the  base  of  the  obelisk 
impended  otief  A  hbli*  hiade  in  th^  ptitilh;  A  tower  of 
beams  was  then  constructed,  ropes  tied  round  the  top 
of  the  stone,  and  engineis  sb  disposed  thAt  it  could  be 
elevated.  Wheii  it  was  raised  to  the  {Perpendicular,  it 
subsided  into  the  cavity  of  the  plinth  by  its  own  weight. 
In  carving  th^  figures  the  E^yptidtii  si^^ttt  tb  have  used 
the  same  tools  as  the  moderns ;  and  they  seldom  used  a 
pedestal  for  this  dbelisk. 


'clriKViTEt)  otJESTfi  i)v  f  kjs  deseI^t. 

All  was  aditiiy  and  btlstle  to  ptl^f^ate  the  coming  feast. 
The  kid  was  killed  bh^  dressed  with  ^t  dexteri^ 
and  despatch;  and  its  still  quivering  members  were  laia 
upon  the  fire  and  began  to  emit  savoury  odours,  particularly 
gratifving  to  Amb  nostrils.  But  now  a  change  came  over 
Sie  fair  scene.  The  Arabs  of  Whoin  we  had  bought  the  kid 
had,  in  some  Way,  learned  that  we.  #et«  to  encamp  near; 
andj  naturally  enough,  concludih^  that  the  kid  Was'bou^hf 
in  order  to  be  eaten,  they  thought  gbod  to  honour  oul^  Arabi 
with  a  visit,  tQ  the  number  of  five  or  six  persons.  Now  the 
stem  law  of  Bedawfn  hospitalitv  demands  that^  whenever 
a  gUest  is  preftnt  at  a  meal)  whetner  there  be  much  or  little^ 
the  first  and  best  portion  must  be  laid  before  the  stranger. 
In  this  instance  the  five  or  six  guests  attained  their  object, 
and  had  not  only  the  selling  of  we  kid,  but  also  the  eatin|^ 
of  it ;  While  our  po()r  Arabs,  whose  mouths  had  lon^  been 
watering  with  expectation.  Were  forced  to  lake  up  with  the 
frfl^tcnts.  Besh&nth^  who  play^  thtt  host,  fiit^d  Worst  of 
lUl ;  and  came  afterwaxtls  to  beg  fi)ra  biscuit^  nying)  be  had 
lost  the  whole  of  his  dinner.— Robinson'^  PaieHini, 


CAHADlAir  VOLfaiB. 

Both  the  spring  tod  autumnid  eolotuing  of  the  vegetable 
world  are  richer  and  fresher  hers  than  at  home.  Vegetation, 
long  opprttsed  by  a  severe  winter,  bursts  at  once  into  luxuri- 
ousness  and  liberty,  with  the  apparent  gusto  of  animal  sen- 
sation, as  If  determined  to  enjoy  the  genial  but  transient 
summer  to  tlie  utmost.  In  the  autumn  the  juices  are  not 
dried  up  in  the  leaves  by  a  slow  sereing  process,  as  in  Eng« 
land,  befoie  they  &11  off  shrivelled  and  discoloured,  but  the 
first  smart  night-frost  in  September  changes  the  foliage  at 
once,  wth  much  sap  still  circulating  vigorously,  into  red, 
brown,  yellow,  ot-  other  tints,  as  if  by  a  direct  chemical  or 
dyeing  operation.  All  shall  be  green  during  our  evening 
walk,  and  in  the  morning  the  aspect  of  the  forest  may  be 
entirely  metamorphosed,  and  we  are  presented  with  the  most 
rich  and  varied  picture  of  diflferent  but  harmonious  hues 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  letif,  its  smoothness  of  surface, 
strength  of  texture,  and  the  age  of  the  branch  from  which 
it  proceeds.  The  woods,  at  this  «eaSon,  P«Bent  one  magni- 
ficent and  unrivslled  mosaic  painting.  The  birch  and  the 
white  ash  turn  brown  and  vellow  in  a  night;  the  butter-nut 
tr^e  adopts  a  buff  livery;  tiie  maple  becomes  of  a  rich  blood 
red -every  family  has  its  own  pCNCuliar  colouring,  while  the 
hardy  pine  tribe  le^  defies  the  cold,  and  preserves  its  ci-een 
unaltered  amidst  the  general  change.  1  he  nice  grades  of 
colour  vary  infinitel3-,  according  to  the  age  and  position  of 
the  trees,  the  quality  of  the  soil,  the  earlier  or  later  lold 
weather,  tlie  Severity  of  the  frost,  with  many  other  causes 
that  have  hitherto  escaped  observation.-  Trijhf  from  my 


tHE  SATTRDAY  MAGAZINE. 


tNonuin6,lMi 


FRESH-WATER  FISH.  IX 
The  Gudgeok,  (Cyprinuf  Gohio.) 


Thit  la  ■  witUnr  baogli  th«  «bil>  b  tin], 
And  wilh  ■  soW  doih  nir  mid  nwe  tba  nod, 

Wbovo  111*  gKUlt  uiMDu  diKli  aoftlT  liiit 
And  Iban  with  ilaBdiT  lin  ud  nd  in  hud, 

Tha  mger  bits  ddi  long  he  dolh  Bblile. 
W«a  lii«kd  k  hb  Ihm,  ha  hmdiE  but  ntudl, 
X  H«id  big  cofk  ts  bar  lb*  mkub  vlib  all. 
Kt  bdt  lb*  taMi  nd  HOtna  that  mj  ba  fcund. 

And  at  iba  boltoBg  it  doth  al«»ca  he ; 
Whanai  iba  gneir  gaigean  biUa'an  nand,  -- 

Tbat  boidia  and  aUba  •■■Itnelb  bf  Kd  b;. 
'  Baa  how  ba  atribaa,  and  puk  thau  up  aa  Toond 

A  ■  if  uair  atara  ilia  rue  did  atiU  Hipplj  1 
A»d  vhtn  tha  Wl  doth  die,  or  bud  doth  pnm. 
Then  to  Butliar  place  ba  dotb  miBn. 

The  present  method  of  6abiiig  for  gwl^ront  »  very 
■imilar  to  the  picturesque  descripUon  contftined  in  the 
•bore  lines  quoted  from  Tht  Stcrtt*  of  Angling,  a 
poem  in  three  books  by  John  Dftvers,  or  John  Dennys, 
E«ln  for  it  is  uncertun  to  which  of  these  gentlemen  the 
poem  is  to  be  aacribed.  The  entry  at  Stationers'  Hall, 
February  28,  1612,  has  only  the  initials  J.  D.  att«ebed 
to  it ;  but  Walton  hai  no  doubt  that  Davera  i«  the  real 
author. 

The  gudgeon  Is  sometimes  called  the  silvery  olive 
carp ;  its  upper  lip  is  furnished  with  barbs,  and  the 
dorsal  fin  and  tail  spotted  with  black.  One  species  only 
is  known  in  this  country,  btit  probably  aoother  may 
exist.  It  is  common  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and 
exhibits  a  striking  instance  of  the  power  of  fishes  to 
accommodate  their  habits  to  various  climates.  This 
faculty  is  not  so  remarkable  in  marine  fish  because  the 
temperature  of  the  sea  does  not  greatly  vary  in  different 
ladtudes;  but  the  temperature  of  rivers  must  correspond 
with  that  of  the  soil  and  atmosphere  through  which  they 
flow.  Dr.  Russell  jnet  with  gudgeons  in  Svria ;  and 
Aristotle  mentions  tiiem  aa  being  natives  of  Greece. 
They  are  common  in  Germany,  where  a  smaller  variety, 
called  wapper,  is  also  found. 

The  gudgeon  is  very  common  in  our  rivers,  canals 
and  still  waters :  it  is  found  in  greatest  perfection  and 
most  abundantly  in  moderately  swift  rivers  which  flow 
over  a  gravelly  soil.  Their  numbers  are  so  immense 
that  some  naturalists  have  imagined  them  to  sp.twn  twice 
a  year.  It  is  most  probable,  however,  that  they  spawn 
only  once,  but  the  time  of  spawning  is  dilTercnt  in 
different  waters.  The  gudgeon  spawns  about  May,  bnt 
does  not  deposit  its  ova  at  once,  bnt  at  distant  periods 
extending  through  tbe  space  of  about  a  month. 

Some  waters  are  more  favourable  than  others  to  the 
growth  of  gudgeons.  They  are  generally  small  Gshes, 
seldom  exceeding  eight  inches  in  length.  Occasionally 
howct-cr  they  have  oeen  taken  of  larger  sifC.  Mr.  Pen- 
nant notices  one  caught  near  Uxbridge  that  weighed  half 
It  pound.  Mr.  Daniel  slates  that  he  had  some  in  a  pond 
of  his  own,  and  that  their  average  weight  was  five  or  at 
xaaH  six  to  the  pound.    Gudgeons  are  often  taken  m  ftte 


BXtenrive  waten  of  >om«  parta  of  Sngltnd  in  neti, 
bullies,  keilai  Ac.,  fcr  the  porfoaa  of  butiag  ulw  Gsh, 

for  the  marheta.    The^  ara  graady  ntaeiudufiKid, 

pecially  for  tevnlid*,  and  are  reckoned  to  be  rer^  ntj 

digeation. 

"  They  be  scattered  up  and  down  every  rinr  in  the 
shaHovt,  in  tba  heU  of  atailiier;  but  m  anhau,  ibn 
Iba  weeds  begin  to  grow  sour  and  rot,  and  the  vttthn 
colder,  then  ^ey  gauer  together,  and  get  mtc  tbe  deeper 
parts  of  the  water."— Waltom.  Ti»  gBdwon  ii  i 
ground  feeder,  as  iti  barbs  imply; — its  food  itnlct 
insects,  small  raolluaca,  and  the  spawn  and  yooog  fry  cf 
other  fishes. 

Gndgeons  are  tumally  fimnd  in  thoals ;  and  will  hb 
almost  any  baitj  so  much  so  that  a  poMn  who  ii  ndy 
impoaed  on  by  ahallow  devices  is  <Aen  e^led  a  gu^ien. 
Perhaps  tbe  moit  tempting  bait  ti  a  small  red  wora  u 
noticed  in  our  motto;  where  the  raking  or  the  uinin; 
no  of  the  bed  of  tite  river  is  also  noticed  sad  i>  ttil 
adopted  aa  an  essential  proceaa  in  gndeeon  fiilung.  Th 
object  of  raking  is  to  disturb  the  caddies,  and  nrkas 
minute  worms,  water  snails,  tce^  which  lurk  imoDf  tla 
atone*  and  gravel  at  the  bottom  of  the  stream  sad  n 
which  tbe  gudgeona  feed.  The  disturbance  eiuMlbe 
fish  to  hasten  to  the  spot  for  tbe  pnrpose  rf  gettiaf  m 
easy  aupply  of  food.  Mr.  Blaine  says,  that  in  At 
Thames  as' many  a*  fifty  doien  oS  gndgeeU  han  bia 
taken  in  a  day. 


A  nsii  lAJTBiMo  nr  t«  wtnw  ixn-  | 

The  charms  of  a  tropical  covBttr,  whei  ne«l,ii«<*>' 
btad  to  make  •  delightful  impresBtoa  on  tbe  fai»A :  ti»<> 
weroBined  along  the  lane*  and  cane-fields  of  Saa^^ 
during  the  first  taw  days  after  our  arrival,  wo  wmM  (WJ 
conceive  the  pteaahre  enjoyed  by  Crfwnhns  la^  ^ 
(bllowers,  when  the  fertility  and  beouty  of  Wert  lpd» 
scenery  first  hurst  upon  their  view.  Many  beaupilj^ 
dnctions  of  nature  however,  not  iadifenona.  are  M**" 
to  the  catakgua  of  woadera  which  inflamed  tha  tospw*" 
(rfCelnmbu*.  ■  ,    „,. 

Almost  every  plant  wa  aaw  w  m. JpM^  rod*  itenti" 
eoantiy,  from  tbe  largest  tree  tn  the  Mi»ne*weeo,«»M- 
known  to  ns,  and  formed  the  Bibject  of  a  k**""* 
troublesome  inquiry.  U  wasanftw  world  to  ns,  i»  ""' 
to  its  first  discoverer ;  and  several  days  must  be  P««o,  ""5" 
these  scenes  before  one  con  obtain  anything  ''  ,?S 
acquaintance  with  the  produrtlona  of  nature,  bple™" 
exotic  plants,  which  would  be  regarded  as  ""l^'^ 
in  «iB  preen-houees  of  EngUad  and  Ameriea.  are  J"**" 
in  the  little  garden*  of  SanU  Cru»;  and  the  ^^^Ti 
an  Bcarcdy  less  attmctive.  Amongst  tliem  "«  """T 
lalge  kinds  of  convoU-ulus,  white  and  pink,  jeHo"  ""; 
flowen,  scarlet  creepeis,  bright  blue  peas  of  stngulsi  W? V 
and,  to  cro«n  all,  the  "Pride  of'BarbodoC  ^'^ 
crimson,   sometinifa   yellow,    with   butterfly  P"?t5 

Cudant  sUmina,  and  acaci»-lifce  leaves,  adwnu^tMW^ 
great  profusion.  The  tree,  are  for  the  most  p«t»^ 
of  fruit,  and  many  of  them  are  covered  with  Inwi"' 
foliage.  To  select  a  few  of  tbe  moat  remarkabk,  1  '"^ 
just  mention  the  pfamtun  and  banana,  (nearly  lb* s»^' 
appearance,)  with  pendant  leave*  of  vast  dimtrsion.  ""J^ 
profusion  of  finger-like  fruit  growing  in  cluatfw;  l««  "H 
orange  tree,  covered  at  tiie  same  time  wilb  '"",,. 
flowers;  the  lime,  which  lines  the  hedges,  >fi''r^. 
fragiaut,  producing  in  ahnndance  a  ansJl  «"»?'r^; 
the  gnava,  with  pink  Uoaaoms  awl  pear^lw,  *»*,":. 
-  -hedge-iowi;  the  mango,  heavily  W«"'^ 


foliage,  and  with  fiuit  in  mb  ■n-~'  -,  -■"  ■■— — yy  ;v,,_ 
to  a  great  eiae,  and  profusely  covered  with  glw",  ""f.,^ 
foli«e;  lastly,  the  tamarind,  with  iU  light  feel"")"!"  , 
endlong  pods,  which  contain  the  frtiit  used  for  » (""fj 
apreoding  its  branches  far  and  wide,  like  the  BnlwU  » 


lANDON; 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PABKER,  WEST  STRASP 


Jbalitrlraili       iHata^fine^ 


K-  601.  NOVEMBER 


13T?,  1841. 


THE   RANKS  OF   THE  THAMES.    IX. 


Tub  part  rf  tbe  nver  Thames  to  which  we  had  con- 
ducted the  reader  io  our  lut  article,  vu.,  the  part  cou- 
tiguous  to  Hampton  Court,  pres«Dt«  a  remarkably 
tortuons  course,  iLnfarourBble  to '  DaTigation,  bnt  gitaily 
conduiiYO  to  the  picturesque  appearance  of  its  bank*. 
A  walk  from  Twickenham  to  Hampton,  hj  the  usudl 
public  road,  would  not  exceed  three  milcg,  whereas  by 
water  the  distance  is  sevea  or  eight. 

The  portion  of  the  river  included  hetweeo  Hampton 
and  Kingston  is  known  to  the  lovers  of  poetry  as  the 
scene  of  one  of  Pope's  finest  poems.  A  lodj  of  distia- 
^lished  beanty,  Mrs.  Arabelta  Fermor,  while  being  rawed 
along  the  river  with  a  parly  of  fViends,  had  a  loek  of  her 
hair  stealthily  cut  olT  by  a  gallant  who  formM  one  of 
the  party:  the  incident  was  trifling,  and  gave  canse  for 
offence  to  the  family  of  the  lady,  hut  on  wis  trifle  Pope 
founded  a  poe«  of  exquisite  beauty. 

Kingston,  the  neat  town  to  Hampton,  but  on  tho 
opposite  nde  of  the  riveri  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  in 
tills  part  of  England.  In  the  niarket>plaee  of  Kingston 
the  Saxon  monarchs  of  England  used  to  be  crowned, 
either  on  a  raised  platform  in  the  open  air,  or  in  the 
church.  Edward  the  elder,  Atlielstan,  Edmund,  Ed  red, 
Edwy,  Edward  the  Martyr,  and  Ethelred,  were  thus 
crowned,  between  the  years  900  and  978.  Kingston 
was  the  scene  of  a  romantic  tale  told  by  Hume  the 
historian,  relating  to  King  Edwy  and  his  Queen  Elgiva, 
in  which  a  knot  of  ambitious  nobles  effected  the  murder 
of  the  queen,  aflar  brutal  violence,  in  revenge  for  a 
■light  put  upon  them  by  the  king  and  queen.     Remote 

Vol.  XIX. 


aa  was  tbe'  period  of  these  events,  there  seems  to  b« 
proof  that  Kingston  is  the  site  of  a  town  many  centuries 
older,  or  at  least  of  an  encampment;  for,  on  digging  the 
foundation  for  a  new  bridge,  a  few  years  ago,  several 
JLoinan  military  weapons,  consisting  of  spear-heads  and 
s words,,  of  beautiful  workmanship  and  in  a  good  statff 
of  preservation,  were  discovered.  About  the  same  time 
also  several  human  skeletons,  with  Roman  ornaments  lying 
near  then,  were  discovered  io  a  neighbouring  field  on  the 
Surrey  side  of  the  river.  In  a  former  article  we  alluded 
to  the  conjectures  which  have  been  made  respecting  the 
probable  passage  of  Csesir  over  the  river  near  Wer- 
Jiridge ;  hut  these  discoveries  have  given  rise  to  the 
opinion,  that  Cxsar,  on  quiitinghis  encampment  on  Wim- 
bledon Common,  crossed  the  Thames  at  Kingston;  and 
that  the  skeletons  were  those  of  some  of  his  troops  that 
fell  in  endeavouring  to  force  the  passage  of  the  river 
against  the  opposing  Britons,  whoso  slain  are  supposed 
to  be  interred  in  a  tumulus  (not  yet  opened)  in  a  field 
called  the  Barrow  field,  on  the  Middlesex  side  of  tho 
river,  and  about  half  a  mile  trom  the  apot  where  the 
i^eapoDs  were  found. 

Over  tbe  Thames  at  Kingston  was  formerly  one  of 
the  most  ancient  bridges  on  the  river,  it  being  mentioned 
in  a  record  in  the  eighth  year  of  Henry  the  Third. 
During  the  intestine  commotions  which  from  tirtr  to  time 
disturbed  the  country,  the  bridge  was  frfqnentlv  des- 
troyed, to  cut  off  the  communication  between  Surrey 
and  Middlesex.  Tbe  bridge  existing  until  about  tweWe 
or  fourteen  years  ago  was  of  wood,  aboot  five  hundred 
601 


186 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[NoVBMBn  13, 


feet,  in  longth,  and  endowed  with  Undi  to  keep  It  in 
repair.  In  the  year  1828,  however,  it  WM  replaced  by 
an  elegant  structure  of  Portland  8tone»  consisting  of 
five  spacious  elliptical  archeS,  and  surmounted  by  a 
handsome  cornice  and  balustrade,  with  galleries  project- 
ing over  the'  piers :  the  expense  being  40,000/.  The 
town  of  Kingston  carries  on  a  considerable  amount  of 
trade;  and  since  the  opening  of  the  London  and  South 
Western  Railway,  which  passes  close  by  Kingston,- and 
which  has  a  station  at  that  place,  the  bustle  of  the  town 
has  considerably  increased,  and  the  route  to  raanv  towns 
on  the  Middlesex  side,  which  used  to  be  followed  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  river,  is  now  made  through  King- 
ston and  over  Kingston  Bridge.  With  regard  to  the 
municipal  affairs  of  the  town,  it  is  probable  that  the  recent 
act  has  made  some  changes;  but  under  the  old  ijrttere» 
the  election  of  the  members  of  tha  corporation  was 
distinguished  by  a  singular  custom,  said  to  be  sanctioned 
by  the  ancient  charter  of  the  town.  A  match  at  foot* 
ball  took  place,  in  which  the  lower  orders  engaged  with 
so  much  seal  and  activity,  that  the  Inhabitants  of  the 
principal  streets  found  it  expedient  to  barricade  all  the 
windows  in  front  of  their  houses. 

Between  Kingston  and  Twickenham  the  Thames  pre* 
sents  a  large  number  of  swans,  the  conservancy  of  which 
is  a  curious  part  of  the  privileges  of  the  Corporation  of 
L<yhdon.  The  Lord  Mayor,  either  in  person  or  by 
deputy,  goes  up  the  rirer  annually,  accompanied  by  the 
omcers  of  the  Vintners*  and  Dyers'  Companies,  to  mark 
the  young  swans.  By  an  act  of  parliament  passed  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  the  Fourth,  it  was  declared  a  felony, 
panishable  with  imprisonment  for  a  year  and  a  day»  and 
a  fine  at  the  king's  pleasure,  to  steal  the  swans*  eggs. 
Coke  mentions  a  curious  law  which  was  once  in  opera- 
tion, for  the  punishment  of  any  one  who  stole  a  lawfully 
marked  swan  from  any  open  or  common  river.  The 
swan  was  taken  and  hung  by  the  beak  from  the  roof  of  a 
house,  so  that  the  feet  Just  touched  the  ground.  Wheat 
was  then  poured  over  the  head  of  the  swan,  until  there 
was  a  pyramid  of  it  from  the  floor  sufficient  to  cover  and 
hide  tne  bird  completely  t  this  quantity  of  wheat  was 
the  fine  paid  by  the  culprit  to  the  owner  of  the  swan. 
The  swans  on  the  Thames  have  been  alluded  to  by  more 
than  one  of  our  poets,  among  whom  is  Spenser,  who 
says:— 

See  the  fair  Swans  on  Thamls*  lovely  side, 
The  which  do  trim  their  pennohs  silver  bright  | 
In  shining  ranks  they  down  the  waters  glide ; 
Oft  have  mine  eyes  devoured  the  gallant  sight. 

The  part  of  the  Thames  at'  which  we  have  now 
arrived  is  particularly  rich  in  associations  connected  with 
our  great  writers  and  wits.  Thomson,  Pope,  Horace 
Walpole,  and  many  others  whose  names  are  known  to 
every  one,  either  lived  or  died  in  this  immediate  vicinity. 
Teddington,  Twickenham,  and  Richmond,  with  the  in- 
tervening country,  form  the  loca.lity  to  which  we  allude. 
Teddington  is  a  small,  quiet  place,  distinguished  in  a 
commercial  sense  as  the  spot  to  which  the  tides  of  the  river 
ascend,  but  no  higher.  The  little  church  at  Teddington, 
with  the  surrounding  villas  and  their  ornamental  gardens, 
presents  a  very  plea^sing  scene  as  viewed  from  the  river. 
Jpaul  Whitehead,  the  poet  laureate,  and  Dr.  Hales,  a 
man  of  scientific  attainments,  lie  buried  in  the  church. 
The  Earl  of  Leicester,  a  favourite  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and  William  Penui  the  quaker,  were  residents  at  Ted* 
dington. 

A  little  below  Teddington  we  rome  to  Strawberry 
Hill,  a  mansion  celebrated  as  the  residence  of  Horace 
Walpole,  where  he  was  visited  by  most  of  the  poets  and 
wits  of  the  age.  The  site  was  originally  occupied  by  a 
small  house  let  out  as  a  lodging-house.  This  passed 
into  the  hands  of  Colley  Cibber,  a  dramatic  writer,  who 
penned  some  of  his  productions  there.  The  third 
possessor  was  a  Mr.  Chenevix,  from  whom  it  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Horace  Walpole,  about  a  century  ago.     He 


amused  himself  for  manjr  ^ears  ip  enlarging  and  bhoti- 
fying  the  house  and  the  grounds  attached  tb  it,  and 
storing  them  with  pictures,  iMittSi  and.satiquei  of  every 
description.     In  the  architecture  of  the  buildiDg,  he 
borrowed  specimens  from  the  choir  of  the  Cathednl 
Church  at  Rouen,  from  the  tQmb  of  Archbishop  Wir*. 
ham  at  Canterbury,  and  from  St.  George's  CDaptl  it 
Windsor.     It  has  been  well  observed  notwithstanding, 
that  however  elegant  the   internal   decorations  vere, 
the    place   may   be  considered  as   a   picture  of  the 
mind  of  him  who  formed  it,  in  which  there  was  DoihiDg 
gi'eaL     He  was  the  son  of  a  prime  minister,  Sir  Robert 
Walpole,  whose  power  was  of  long  duration;  his  rari 
as  Earl  of  Orford  was  among   the  higher  orders  of 
nobility ;  and  his  property  was  large.    He  was  thence 
eariy  inured  to  flattery,  with  all  the  indulgences  of  his 
situation,  and  he  continued  naturally  enough  to  eipect 
the  enjoyment  of  them  to  the  close  of  a  very  long  life. 
His  pursuits,  though  not  without  taste  and  elegance,  had 
little  of  masculine  energy  or  mental  eapaeiouraeis.  At 
Strawberry  Hill,  Walpole  established  a  printing^reis, 
where  his  own  works,  and  occasionally  a  /tu  d'tiprii  of 
a  friend)  were  printed.     The  Strawberry-Hill  editiofls, 
as  they  are  called,  which  are  now  become  scarce,  com- 
mand a  very  high  price  among  the  more  curioaa  collec- 
tors of  printed  worlts.     The  most  distinguished  of  tbe 
works  is  the  Lives  of  the  Pamtersand  Engravers,  irhidi 
Walpole  formed  from  the  papers  of  Vertue,  dded  bf  hii 
own  collections.     Strawberrv  Hill  was  possessed  tfe« 
years  sgo  by  the  Honourable  Mrs.  Dameri  to  whom  it 
was  bequeathed  by  Horace  Walpole. 

The  village  of  Twickenham,  at  which  we  neit  vmn, 
is  more  celebrated,  perhaps*  for  hamg  been  tbe  reitdeace 
of  Pope,  than  for  all  other  drcutnstanoes  put  together. 
Who  has  not  heard  of  "*  Pope's  Viifai  at  Twickenham'? 
The  name  of  Pope's  VilU  is  even  now  given  to  s  boild- 
ing  which  is  no  more  Pope's  Villa  than  the  Queen's 
Palace  is  the  old  Bu(^ingham  House.  Pope  built  a  villa 
which,  after  his  death*  passed  into  the  Wds  of  ^ 
William  Stanhope  i  tbe  cbiitl  possaaaor  was  the  Bigbt 
Honourable  Welbore  Bllit*  afterwards  Lord  Meodip; 
and  the  fourth  was  Lady  Howe,  who  has  replaced 
the  old  villa  by  one  of  more  modem  oonstruction ;  so 
that  the  real  villa  of  Pope  does  not  now  eiist  Mocli 
indignation  has  been  expressed  by  many  writers  at  to 
act  which  tended  so  much  to  break  up  tbe  local  assodif 
tions  of  the  mat  poet,  but  Mr.  Mackay  rexnarki,  tbit 
however  much  this  lady  may  have  destroved  of  the  poetj 
dwelling,  she  has  left  the  (iroUa  for  the  reverence « 
posterity,  by  far  the  most  valuable  part  of  it,  cosUioisg 
the  rooms  in  which  he  was  accustomed  to  study,  and  lo 
which  he  entertained  the  poets  and  wits  of  his  day* 

The  grotto  here  alluded  to  was  made  by  PopSi  «^ 
the  Tear  1715,  as  a  subterraneous  passage  to  a  pr^ 
on  tne  other  side  of  the  road :  and  in  a  ^tter  which  d« 
wrote  to  his  friend  Edward  Blount,  he  gives  an  animated 
description  of  the  manner  in  which  be  had  planned  isa 
laid  out  this  favourite  retreat. 

A  little  cell,  pn  the  left  hand  side  of  the  grotto,  u>^ 
to  be  Pope's  study,  on  almost  every  stone  of  which 
visitors  have  scratched  their  names^  A  cell  on  toe 
right  hand  side  was  formerly  occupied  as  a  kitchen. 

*'  Pope's  willow  "  is  almost  as  veil  known  to  f^me  ^ 
"Pope's  Vilk."  The  poet  planted  a  weeping  willow  in 
his  grounds,  which  was  considered  one  of  the  finest  spe- 
cimens of  that  tree  ever  seen,  and  was  protected  m 
propped  in  its  old  age  with  great  care  by  tnose  who  auc* 
eeeded  in  the  possession  of  the  estate*  Some  MA^ 
were  addressed  to  this  tree  by  an  admirer  of  Pop«>  ^ 
which  we  will  here  give  two: — 

Weep,  verdant  willow,  ever  weeg^ 
And  spread  thy  penthuit  branches  ronad  -'^ 
Oh  {  may  no  gaudy  floweret  creep 
Along  the  consecrated  ground  ; 
Thou  art  the  Muses*  favourite  tice— 
They  loved  the  bard  who  {ilanted  that. 


1641-] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAOAZINS. 


W 


But  all  tlie  Moses*  tender  care 
Cannot  proloni;  the  fatal  date  : 
Rude  Time  wiU  strip  thy  branches  bare, 
And  thou  must  feel  the  stroke  of  Fate :~« 
E*en  thou,  the  Muses*  favourite  tree, 
Must  fall,  like  him  who  planted  thea 

But  '*  rude  time**  was  not  the  only  one  who  strlpoed 
the  branches  bare.  The  tree  was  almost  picked  to  deaths 
and  then  rooted  up,  a  fate  which  has  made  many  admi- 
rers of  the  poet  very  indignant  against  the  proprietress 
of  the  grounds.  But  Mr.  Mackay  has,  we  think,  stated 
the  matter  in  a  fair  and  just  form,  in  the  following  re- 
marks :— 

There  was  formerly  a  willow-tree  overhanging  the  river, 
which  has  also  been  removed  ;  but  with  the  destruction  of 
this  Lady  Howe  is  not  chargeable.    So  numerous  were  the 
visitors,  and  such  pilferers  were  they,   where  a  relic  was 
concerned,  that  the  tree  was  soon  stripped  both  of  leaves  and 
branches.     Slips  of  it  were  sent  for  from  all  parts  of  the 
world  ;  and  the  owner  was  at  last  so  pestered,  tnat  she  was 
obliged^  in  aelf-defeoca,  to  uproot  the  tree,  and  make  a  relic 
of  it,  which  would  not  entau  so  much  trouble  upon  its  pos- 
sessor.    Nothing  but  the  root  now  remains,  which  is  safely 
housed  in  the  grotto ;  forming  a  substance  too  hard  to  be 
taken  away  in  little  bits  by  tne  pen-knife  of  the  visitor,  and 
too  bulky  to  be  carried  off  entire.    VisiUHrs  used  formerly 
to  play  the  same  tricks  with  the  verpr  stones  and  spars  of 
the  grotto ;  but»  upon  inquiry  of  our  guide»  we  were  informed 
thai  such  was  not  the  case  now  to  any  great  extent,  although 
occasionally  a  person  is  detected  trying  to  notch  off  a  flint 
or  a  shell,  and  a  lady  holding  an  open  reticule  ready  to  re- 
ceive it. 

The  same  gentleman*  who  yisited  tha  grotto  at 
Twickenham  a  year  or  two  ago,  said  that  he  apprehended 
tha  grotto  would  exist  but  a  little  time  longer ;  as  the 
villa  was  advertised  for  sale,  and  there  were  rumours  of 
an  intention  to  pull  down  the  grotto.  In  allusion  to  the 
manner  in  which  local  memorials  of  our  poets  and  philo- 
sophers are  gradually  destroyed,  he  said  tnat  it  is  in  vain 
to  hope,  unless  Pope's  Villa  falls  into  the  bands  of  an 
enligntened  purchaser,  that  the  grotto  will  be  preserved, 
or  Chat  even  a  stone  will  be  erected  to  mark  the  spot, 
and  to  say  **  Hbre  Pope  suno.'' 

Of  the  Thames  In  the  vicinity  of  Twickenham^  it  has 
been  remarked  by  writers  of  all  grades,  poets,  painters, 
and  topographers,  that  it  presents  scenes  of  extraordinary 
beauty.  The  river  rolls  on  through  meadows  of  the 
richest  verdure,  while  its  banks  are  adorned  with  the 
contrasted  beauty  of  the  villa  and  the  cottage,  in  a  long 
succession  of  edifices,  which  mark  the  taste  and  the 
opulence  of  those  who  possess  them.  In  the  middle  of 
the  river  b  a  little  islana  called  Twickenham  Ait,  or  more 
commonly  '*  The  £el-pie  Islandf'*  upon  which  there  vas 
until  very  lately  a  tavern  famous  for  the  mode  adopted 
there  in  dressmg  the  eels  caught  in  the  riyert 


IIoFK  t  of  all  ills  tluU  men  endure, 

The  only  cheap  and  universal  cure  I 

Thou  captive^s  freedom,  and  thou  sick  man^s  health  I 

Thou  loser's  vietory,  and  thou  beggar's  wealth  t 

Thoo  manna,  which  from  heaven  we  aat» 

To  every  taste  a  seversl  meat! 

Thon  strong  retreat  I  thou  sure-entail'd  estateb 

'Wliicli  nought  has  power  to  alienate  I 

Thou  pleasant,  lionest  flatterer !  for  none 

Flatter  unhappy  men,  but  thou  aloue ! — CowLsr. 


Ik  the  Church  of  St  Peter  at  Cologne,  tlie  altar-pieee  is  • 
lai«  and  valuable  picture  by  Rubens,  representing  the 
martyrdom  of  the  Apostle,  This  picture  luiving  been 
carried  away  by  the  Frencli  in  1805,  to  the  great  regret  of 
the  inhi^ltants,  a  painter  of  that  city  undertook  to  make  a 
copy  of  it  from  recollection;  and  succeeded  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  most  delicate  tinU  of  the  original  are  pre- 
served with  the  most  minute  aocuracy.  The  original  punting 
has  now  been  restored,  but  the  copy  is  preserved  with  it; 
and  even  when  they  are  rigidly  compared,  it  is  scarcely 
nostfible  to  distingniwi  the  ene  fipwa  the  other. 


OK  THV 

METHODS  USED  BY  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS 

FOR  TRANSPORTINa  AND  ERECTING 

LARGE  MASSES  OF  STONE. 

Tff  E  character  of  the  old  Egyptian  architecture  is  massy 
grandeur,  adapted  to  giants  rather  than  men.  Heace 
it  becomes  a  curious  matter  of  speculation  to  refer  to  the 
means  which  we  may  suppose  the  ancient  denizens  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Nile  to  have  employed,  for  removing  from 
the  quarries  to  their  due  locality  the  enormous  stones 
which  are  scattered  over  the  face  of  the  country,  and  then 
for  erecting  them  in  a  state  of  apparently  imperishable 
firmness* 

The  extent  of  the  quarries  at  Selseleh,  in  Upper 
Egypt,  which  we  have  noticed  in  a  former  paper,  is  very 
great :  they  are,  in  fact,  of  such  an  extent  that  masses 
of  any  dimensions  might  be  hewn  from  them.  In  one 
of  the  quarries  at  El-Maasara  the  mode  of  transporting 
the  stone  is  represented.  It  is  placed  on  a  sledge  drawn 
by  oxen,  and  is  supposed  to  be  on  its  way  to  the  inclined 
plane  that  led  to  the  river,  vestiges  of  which  may  still 
be  seen  a  little  to  the  south  of  the  modern  village. 

Sometimes,  and  particularly  when  the  blocks  were 
large  and  ponderous,  men  were  employed  to  drag  them, 
and  those  who  were  condemned  to  hard  labour  in  the 
quarries  as  a  punishment  appear  to  have  been  required 
to  assist  in  moving  a  certain  number  of  stones^  accord- 
ing to  the  extent  of  their  offences,  ere  they  were  libe- 
rated. This  seems  to  be  confirmed  by  the  following 
inscription*  found  in  one  of  the  quarries  of  Gertassy, 
in  Nubia :  "  I  have  dragged  110  stones  for  the  build'ng 
of  Isis  at  Phila/'  In  order  to  keep  an  account  of  their 
progress,  tbey  frequently  cut  the  initials  of  their  names, 
or  some  private  mark>  with  the  number,  on  the  rock 
whence  the  stone  was  taken,  as  soon  as  it  was  removed, 
manv  of  which  signs  occur  at  the  quarries  of  Fatcereb. 
Tiie  blocks  were  taken  from  the  quarry  on  sledges, 
and  in  a  grotto  belund  E*Dayr»  a  Christian  village 
between  Antinoe  and  £1  Bersheh»  was  first  discovered 
by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  the  representation  of  a 
colossus*  which  a  number  of  men  are  employed  in  drag- 
ging with  ropes.  This  colossus  was  probably  not  hewn 
in  the  hill  of  El  Bersheh,  but  it  is  exceedingly  interest*^ 
ing,  from  its  being  of  a  very  early  age,  and  one  of  the 
very  few  paintings  which  throw  any  light  on  the  method 
employed  by  the  Egyptians  for  moving  weights,  for  it  i9 
singular  that  we  find  no  illustration  of  the  mechanical 
means  of  a  people  who  have  left  so  many  unquestionable 
proofs  of  skill  or  capacity  in  these  matters. 

An  engraving  of  this  pieture,  which  represents  the 
transportation  of  a  colossus,  accompanies  the  present 
article.  In  the  original  picture  172  men,  in  four  rows 
of  43  each,  pull  the  ropes  attached  to  the  front  of  the 
sledge.  The  number  mav  be  indefinite,  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that  more  were  really  employed  than  are  indicated 
in  the  painting.  In  order  to  obtain  a  more  convenient 
size  for  engraving  we  have  diminished  the  number  of 
men  in  each  row  before  and  behind  i  otherwise  we  have 
given  a  fair  representation  of  the  Egyptian  artist's  work. 
A  liquid,  probably  grease,  is  poured  from  a  vase,  by  a 
person  standing  on  the  pedestal  of  the  statue,  in  order 
to  facilitate  its  progress  as  it  slides  over  the  ground, 
which  was  probably  covered  with  a  bed  of  planks,  though 
they  are  not  indicated  in  the  painting. 

Some  of  the  persons  employed  in  this  laborious  duty 
appear  to  be  Egyptians:  the  others  are  foreign  slaves, 
who  are  clad  in  the  costume  of  their  country:  behind 
are  four  rows  of  men,  who,  though  only  twelve  in  num- 
ber in  the  original,  and  diminished  by  us  to  eighty  may 
be  intended  to  represent  the  sets  which  relieved  the 
others  when  fatigued. 

Below  arc  persons  carrying  vases  of  liquid,  perhaps 
water,  for  the  use  of  the  workmen,  and  others  with  im- 
plements connected  with  the  transport  of  the  statue, 
feUoWfd  by  taskmastersi  with  their  wanHs  of  office.    On 

601— a 


THE'SATWIDAV  jrAGAMNE. 


KoVUIBUll, 


numrOBTAnov  or  ±.  codmq 

tii«  kuw  of  the  &gaTe  (Uods  b.  man  nh»  clao*  his  bawls 
to  the  xaeaiured  cadence  of  »  song,  to  now  the  time, 
and  eiuure  aimultaneouH  draught,  for  it  is  ocid?i)t  .thit 
in  order  that  the  whole  power  of  tha  dmvcrs  might  be 
^tplied  at  the  Bune  instaat)  a  signal  of -this  kind  was 
neceaaary. 

The  he^ht  of  tbo  statue  appears  to  hava  be«a  about 
twenty-four  i^«t,  inchidia;  the  pedestal.  It  nu  cf 
limeuooe.  aad  was  boimd  to  the  siedge  by  double  r«p«s, 
•  whi<^  were  tightened  by  rataat  of  long  pega  inserted 
botwoen  them,  and  twisted  round  iiolil  -  oonpletely 
braced,  .and  to  prevent  injury  from  the  friction  of  tho 
K^tea  Mfoa.  the  atone,  a  comprew  irf  leather  or  «her 
tabat^noewaa  introduced  at  the.  part  nheieUiay  touched 
theatatue.  In  the  present  instance  the  nipea  Attached 
fotmoThig  the  masa  are  confined  to  one  place^trthe 
front  of  the  statue,  but  in  bloeka  of  T»ry  great  length 
certain  pieces  of  stooe  vera  left,  projeating  from  the 
•idea  like  thetrunniona  of  a  c^nnoDr  bo- which  several 
T^iea  were  attached,  each  pdled  by  its  ow»  «t,«f  men. 

We  are  given  to  uoderatand  that  small  Uoqks  «f  stoae 
were  sent  from  the  quarries  bj  water  to  ,tb«ir  different 
phwes  of  destination,  either  in  boatioron  rafts;  butthat 
those  of  very  large  dimensions  were  dragged  hy  nw, 
«v«rtwid,  is  the  manner  already  raprescnle^;  ai^d' the 
immense  weight  of  some  of  them  shows  thBf.t)i9.£gTP' 
tiana  were  well  acquainted  with  mechanical  powers,  and 
the  mode  of  applying  a  locomotive  force  with  the  most 
wonderful  suceess.  Their  skill,  hovtever,  t«s  not  con- 
fined.to  the  mere  moving  of  immense  weights:  their 
wonderful  knowledge  of  mecbtchisin  is  shown  t^  the 
erection  of  obelisks,  and  in  the  position  of  Urgr  stones, 
raised  to  a  considerable  height,  and  adjuited  with  the 
utmost  precision ;  sometimes,  too,  in  sitnations  where  the 
i  will  not  a<hnit  the  introduction  of  the  inoUned 


apace  ) 
plane. 

Pliny,  who  dved  about  a  century  after  the  birth  of 
Christ,  describes  o  method  of  transporting  obelisks  from 
the  quarries  down  the  river,  l)y  lashing  two  flat-bottomed 
tnatt  together  side  by  side,  which  were  admitted  into  a 
trench,  cut  from  the  Nile  to  the  place  where  the  stone 
lay,  laden  with  a  quantity  of  ballast  exactly  equal  to  the 
weight  of  the  obelisk;  which,  so  soon  as  they  had  been 
introiuced  beneath  the  transverse  block,  was  all  Uken 
out;  and  the  boats  rising,  as  they  were  lightened,  bore 
awiy  the  obelisk  in  lieu  of  their  previous  burthen. 

However  imperfect  may  be  our  knowledge  of  the 
means  which  the.onc'ient  Egyptians  used  for  tranaporl- 
ing  the  material  of  their  buildings,  we  kiiow  perhaps  still 
less,  of  their  methods  of  fsrtctmg,  thejn-  Tradition  had 
presfirred  to  the  time  of  Herodotus,  who  lived  m  the  ' 
fitlh  century  B.C.,  an  account  of  the  umple  contrivance  ' 


B  sr  TKR  ANCiB!rr  ta-miksa. 

jBpd  li)  building  the  Pyrapfiids:  which  coittrivwc*  wj 
naVe  lieen  ebm  followed    in  the  c^nsl^uetioa  of  nW 
edifices!:    The  pyramid  was  built-in  receding  stsgt!,il)t 
area  of  each  stage  bctnj  teSs'Than  that  below  it.    Wha 
the  first  level  was  finished,  the  stones  intended  for  ibt 
second  course  were  lifted  u^on  it  by  means  of  cnsti, 
or  levers,  and  then  removed  to  the  proper  distSBtt  fton     . 
the  edge  of -tbft platform^'  tn'^e-same-way,  the  itoia 
intended  for  the  third  level  were  raised  upon  ike  Gnt    I 
step,  and  from  that  transferred,  to  the  nieit  abeTeii:ud    i 
so  on  to  the  top  of  the  pyramid.,    The  peculiar  sjtintaff 
of  this  method  consists'^,  tlie  small  height.tpnbicbuu    i 
stone. was  \a  be  raisf d  si-Slice. 

It  peems  probable,  in  the  case  of  other  Egypliw 
buildli^s,  that  banks  of  earth  ,irt  the  form  ofinclinri 
plnnes^pr  some  such- 5imiilR.cplitiivance3.iireiecoiflot(i 
rather  \  than  more  complicsfted-  mechanical  powcn.  tor 
raising  and  adjusting  great  weights.  It  was  pflbib^ 
easier  for  them  to  raise  their  stones  by  a  frame-wort  ni 
earth  4ith  receding  st^:es,  than  to  trust  the  prodipmis 
masses  of  their  architraves  and  {CSmkes  to  any  meciuoL' 
cal  power  which  they  could  command.  It  ws!  ofleii  ti* 
practice  in.  .Egyptian  hisildiiigs  M'ifiiatep.'theiEtonn  toT' 
,ther  >y^(dampB'of  vuioMS  kndmarrwas  enee  ohxiw 
to  have  be«a  dMM  in  the  biuldings  of  Men;^ 

Nfl  insigkt,  as  has  been  already  obser^iii'ff')^ 
UB  into  the  seorets  of  the  mechanical  knAwledge  vf  <^ 
old  iiihahitanta  of  the  NUe,  frAauduscBlptimer  >" 
pointingB  of  tite  tombs,  theugh^so  mstry  awLsnchMriM 
aubjottiB  are  .^  these  intraduced.  Oof  iafonnatiia  «<■' 
nectcd  with  thisipoiot,  is  confined-tb  the.UBe*F  !(*<"■ 
aad,aiMa4-of  cranCh  asmentioned  by  Her«d[>tai;l*t  " 
is,  however*  eetrUm  that  the  ancfcati  did  raise  ewmc"* 
raasaes^  apparently  wMt  n  facility  'Baksana  '■  "^ 
modems.  This  la^proveid  by.thaineeHmatiipenaiiiu 
of  Archimedes,  who  lived  .is  the  i  OM  eeataii  bdw 
the  Christian  era.  Somo;supf«*th«tiiw*«  tteF- 
losopher  (*h»  raised  the  shewf  thetAvns  aDdvateafi 
Egypt,  and  began  taiose  mouDds  of  eaKh'by  niBia)  *' 
which  caiBraunieatdon  is  kept-up  frmn  iowil  »  ""^^ 
during  the  inundations  of  the  Nib:   .;  •■ 

We  have  nothing  further  toaddtotheftrsgwsf  '^ 
marks,  than  the  presumption.  Wiatthe  Bsajn-.prt'f  "^ 
secret  of  the  mecMBkisl  means  of  the  oU  %vp)iui9n*- 
sisted  in  their  almost  uniimited  oommaAW -hsn'" 
Ubour.  ..By  aucfa  means. »s  this,  mosk  rf  tfa  ^»«i 
works  of  building  in  formor  ages  were  junbobly  cfo'"' 
works  which  still  continue,  as  theyhairo  iax\^t^°' 
out, so  msny  genemtMos,  io  nirp(iUian^driifU>Bi^' 
vMler  in  these  ktter  timet  .    ^     .    '-' 


1841.1 


THE,  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE 


i69 


OPTICAL  IliUSIONS, 

yiii. 

Om  BiKoctLAR  "VrsioK.  (Canihtued.) 

In  our  last  paper  on  this  subject  we  explained  Professor 
MTieatfttoncs  views  of  the  nature  of  binocular  vision, 
and  the  expennpents  ^y.  which^  h«^  iUu9trated'  the  ^^nith 
of  his  opinions.  We  also  alluded  to  an  instniment 
termed  the^sfereoscopey  which  that  gentleman  had  con- 
structed fo^.the  better  eluddation  of  this  eurions  inquiry. 
The  constru«tio».  and  use  of  this  instrument  va  shall 
now  explain* 

Fig.  4(a). 


The  StereoACope.     Front  view. 
Fig.  4  {b). 


-4= 


3 — 


55^ 


The  fleereoscope.    Tim. 

■i  * 

Fig^.  4  (a)  represents  the  firent  view,  and  fig.  4  (b) 
the  plan  of  the  instmineBt,  the  same  letters  of  reference 
being  used  in  both*  a  a'  are  two  plane  mirrors,  about 
four  inches  square,  inserted  in  frames,  and  so  adjusted 
that  thetr  backs  form  an  angle  of  90^  with  each  other. 
These  minors  are  fixed  by  their  eommon  edge  against 
an  upright,  b,  or  else  against  the  middle  line  of  a  ver- 
tical board,  cut  away  in  sueh  a  manner  as  to  allow  th^ 
eyes  to  be  placed  before  the  two  mirrors,  c  c'  are  two 
hiding  boards,  t6  which  are  attached  the  upright  boards 
x>  j>',.  which  may  thus  be  removed  to  difierent  distances 
froim  the  Buirors.  As  it  is  tteeessnry  in  most  -  of  the 
cxperimenta.thait  each  upright  board  shall  be  at  the 
same  dietaace  fnnk  the  mirror  which  is  opposite  to  it, 
this -adjustment  is  effseted  by  a  right  and  left-handed 
^oodeib  sorew.  The  two  ends  of  this  compound  screw 
pass  through  the  nuts  e  e,  which  are  fixed  to  the  lower 
parts  of  the  upright  boards  d  d%  so  that  by  turning  the 
screw  pin  one  way  the  two  boards  will  approach,  and  by 
taming  it  the  other  they  will  recede  from  each  other, 
one  always  preserring  the  same  distance  as  the  other 
£roin  the  nnddle  line,  e  sf  are  panels  to  which  the  pic- 
tures are  fixed,  ta  such  a  manner  that  their  corresponding 
lioriftontal  lines  shall  be  in  the  same  level:  these 
panels  are  capable  of  sliding  backwards  and  forwards 
in  groares  on  the  upright  boards  d  d'. 

This  being  the  nature  of  the  apparatus,  the  mode  in 
-wliich  Mr.  Wheatstone  directs  it  to  be  used  is  as  follows : 
The  observer  must  place  his  eyes  as  near  as  possible  to 


the  mirrors,  the  right  eye  before  the  right-hand  mirror, 
and  the  left  eye  before  the  left-hand  mirror,  and  he 
must  move  the  sliding  panels  e  e'  to  or  from  him,  until 
the  two  reflected  images  coincide  at  the  Intersection  of 
the  optic  axes,  and  form  an  image  of  the  same  apparent 
magnitude  as  each  of  the  component  pictures.  The 
pictures  will  coincide  when  the  slicing  panels  are  in  a 
variety  of  different  positions,  and  consequently  when 
viewed  under  different  inclinations  of  the  optic  axes, 
but  there  is  only  one  position  where  the  phenomena  can 
be  properly  observed,  and  this  is  said  by  Mr.  Wheatstone 
to  be'  that  which  takes  place  when  the  optic  axes  con* 
verge  about  six  or  eight  melius  before  the  eyes,  that  is, 
when  both  eyes  are  directed  to  a  point  six  or  eight  inches 
distant. 

Now  the  mode  in  iiihxch  this  machine  produces  the 
required  effect  may  be  thus  explained.  lu  the  sliding 
panel  on  the  right  is  fixed  a  drawing  representing  the 
appearance  which  an  obiect  ha$  to  Oie  right  eye,  and 
the'  refiecUng  sor&ce  of  the  mirror  is  placed  at  such  an 
angle  that  the  refiectedfigcre  appears  to  come  from  the 
focus  or  point  io  which  botheyos  are  directed.  By  sub- 
stituting the  word  **left  ^^  for  **  right,'*  the  same  remark 
applies  to  the  other  half  of  the  machine,  and  the  effect 
is  as  if  both  drawings  were  placed  at  the  point  of  con- 
vergence towards  which  both  eyes  are  directed.  The 
effect  then  is  found  to  be,  that  the  two  drawings  com- 
bined, bne  seen  by  one  eye  and  the  other  by  the  other, 
give  an  image  almost  exactly  resembling  the  solid  object 
itself,  with  an  appearance  of  relief,  of  solidity,  of  length, 
depth,  and  width,  such  as  no  single  drawing,  however,  skil- 
fully executed,  could  give.  The  two  eyes,  when  looking  at 
a  near  object,  do  not  pctceive  it  under  exactly  the'sftme 
circumstances,  or  of  the  same  form,  and  our  notions  of 
that  object  are  derived  from  the  combination  of  these 
two  separate  appearances :  so  in  the  steveosi'opc,  (a  term 
derived  from  trvo  Greek  words,  which  signify  to  " see  a 
solid,")  the  two  pictures  presented  by  reflection  to  the 
two  eyes,  are  not  exactly  alike,  but  by  the  proper  focal- 
fzation  the  combined  effect  of  both  is  that  of  a  solid 
body.  The  difference  between  the  appearance  of  an 
object  to  the  two  eyes,  or  between  the  two  drawings 
made  irt  conformity  thereto,  is  just  this,  that  they  arc 
two  different  projections  of  the  same  object  seen  from 
two  points  of  sight,  the  distance  between  which  is  equal 
to  the  interval  between  the  pup  Is  of  the  eyes-  of  the 
observer,  which  interval  is  generally  about  two  inches 
atid  a  half. 

The  following  are  three  of  the  arrangements  which 
Mr.  Wheatstone  employed.     In  fig.  5  (a)  are  two  cir- 

Fig.  5  fa). 


cles,  with  lines  drawn  from  the  circumference  to  a 
point  near,  but  not  quite,  at  the  centre:  hi  one  the 
point  is  nearest  to  the  right-hand  side,  while  in  the 
other  it  is  nearest  to  the  left,  and  when  both  are  placed 
in  the  stereoscope,  one  in  the  right-hand  panel  and  one 
in  the  left,  the  combined  image  of  both  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  cone,  with  its  axis  perpendicular  to  the 
drawing,  and  its  vertex  towards  the  observer.  The 
two  drawings  are,  in  fact,  copies  of  the  appearance 
which  a  small  cone  would  present  to  the  two  6yes,  with 
the  apex  towards  the  observer,  and  the  effect  of  the 
instrument  is  to  re-combine  them,  and  produce  the  relief 
which  the  images  of  objects  seen  with  two  eyes  are 


19# 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[N0V£MBEB  \S, 


accustomed  to  present.  In  like  manner  the  two  drawings 
of  fig.  5  (&)  present  in  combination  the  appearance  of 


Pif . « [hy 


the  frustrum  of  a  square  pyramid,  with  its  axis  perpen- 
dicular  to  the  picture,  and  iu  wise  farthest  from  the  eye, 
and  the  t*o  drawings  in  fig.  6  (c)  give  Ae  appearwice 
of  two  circles  at  different  distances  from  the  eyes,  their 
centres  in  the  same  perpendicular,  forming  the  outline 
of  the  frustrum  of  a  cone. 


Mr,  Wheatslone  tales,  and  •  htUe  «««J^*f  ^  r^«* 
show  the  neceaaHy  of  the  ««^««^«^^,  ^  *  ^^^^ 
able  inversion  of  tW  dfcct «  produced  when  ^^^"^ 
originally  intended  to  be  aeen  by  the  nght  ^'^^^ 
at  the  left  hand  aide  6f  the  atewpsoope,  ««d.  *^ Jf^ 
to  be  seen  by  the  left  eye  U  placed  <V>?  fH?^.. J^^^ 
^ide.     A  figure  of  three  dimenaiotts,  as  bold  mrehef  as 

IXre,  is  Svei  but  k  hps  a  diife^  fom  from  that 
SlaaiSLwhmthedfaw«f..^inaielrp«^e^^^ 

it  is  in  fact  a  eonveree  figure.  Th^  P^«»^  ^i^^*^! 
nearest  tlie  observer  in  the  proper  figure  *«  J^  «^* 
twiote  from  him  in  the  converse  ^g^^-f  e«  versA^ 
4«^  that  the  figow  ia,  as  it  we«,  mverted ;  but  It  M^^ 

an  exact  inversion,  for  the  near  parts  of  the  converse 
figure  si«ear.  smaller,  and  the  remote  parta  kr^,  th^ii 
the  saxnTparts  before  the  inversion.  Hencethe  diawt°^ 
which,  properly  pUced,  occasion  a  cube  to  be  P^^^ 
when  chanircd  in  the  manner  described,  represent  UK 
fi^strum  of  a  square  pyramid,  with  its  base  remote  from  ; 
the  eye.  In  many  instances  of  this  kind,  when  the 
regular  figure  presents  an  exterior  or  convex  appearance, , 
the  converse  will  present  an  interior  or  a  concave.  j 

As  a  means  of  proving  whether  the  Wc^ar  effects  j 
were  produced  in  the  manner  supposed,  ^f  •  ^heatAone  . 
procured  several  pairs  of  little  oufline  or  ikiAeton  solids, » 
that  is,  cubes,  octohedrons,  &c.,  formed  of -pieoesof  wire; , 
and  placed  each  p^  successively  on  stands  before  the  , 
two  mirrors.     The  effect  produced  may  be  ilhistrated  by 
that  of  a  pair  of  cubes.     When  they  were  eo  placed 
that  the  pictures  which  their  reflected  images  projected  ^ 
on  the  two   retina   were  precisely  the  same  as  Uioee ; 
which  would  hare  been  projected  by  a  cube,  placed  at  he  . 
point  of  convergence  of  the  optrc  axes,  a  cube  »n/«h^ 
appeared  before  tbeeyea;  when  they  were  so  placed  that : 
their  reflected  images  projected  exactly  similar  picture* : 
on  the  two  retin*.  all  effect  of  reUef  was  deftU;oyed,  and , 
the  compound  appearance  waa  that  of  an  outline  repre- 
mentation  on  a  plane  surface;  lastly,  when  the  cubes  were 
«o  placed  that  the  reflected  image  of  one  projected  on 
the  left  retina  the  same  picture  as  in  the  first  <»se  was 
projected  on  the  right  retina,  and  vice  versa,  the  con- 
Terae  figure  in  relief  appeared. 

.     la  these  ^aperimoBU  outline  figures  or  models,  un- 
coloured,  were  employed,  in  order  to  simplify  the  resulu ; 


for  had  either  shading  or  colouring  been  introduced,  it 
might  be  supposed  that  ibe  effect  was  wholly  or  partly 
due  to  these  circumstance? ;  whereas  by  leavinjj  them  out 
of  consideration,  Mr.  Wheatstone  distinctly  saw  that 
the  entire  effect  of  relief  is  owing  to  the  simulUncoos 
perception  of  the  two  monocular  projections,  one  on 
each  retina.  He  thinks  that,  "  if  it  be  required  to 
obtain  the  most  faithful  resemblances  of  real  objects, 
shadowing  and  colouring  may  properly  be  employed  to 
heighten  the  effecU.  Careful  attention  would  enable  an 
artist  to  draw  and  paint  the  two  component  pictnm,  m 
as  to  present  to  the  mind  of  the  observer,  in  the  result- 
ant perception,  perfect  identity  with  the  object  repre- 
sented. Flowers,  crystals,  busts,  vases,  instruments  of 
various  kinds,  &c.,  m^ght  thus  be  represented  so  as  not 
to  be  distinguished  by  sight  from  the  real  objects  them- 
selves. 

There  is  a  singular  confusion  often  presented  by  the 
geometrical  figures  contained  in  books  of  geometry. 
Whoever  has  paid  any  attention  to  this  subject,  is  aware 
that  figures  of  triangles,  squares,  circles,  spheres,  y^Xy 
gons,  polyhedrons,  &C.,  occur  at  every  few  lines  in  a 
geometrical  treatise ;  and  that  such  of  these  as  pertain  to 
solid  geometry  are  intended  to  represent  figures  of  vbidi 
some  of  the  angles,  edges,  or  sides,  are  farther  from  the 
eye  than  others.  Now  it  very  frequently  happens,  that 
the  parts  which  are  supposed  to  be  most  distant,  suddenlf 
start  up  as  it  were  into  prominence,  and  appear  nearest 
to  the  eye;  and  were  it  not  that  the  engravers  are  accns- 
tomed  to  represent  by  doUed  lines  the  parts  most  remote 
from  the  eve,  this  confusion  would  arise  yet  more  fit- 
quently.  Professor  Neckar  of  Geneva  notices  this  ctf- 
cumstance,  and  endeavoured  to  explain  it  by  drferring 
it  to  an  involuntery  change  in  the  adjustment  of  the  eye 
for  obtaining  distinct  vision.  But  Mr.  Wheautooc 
attributes  it  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  evidence  presented 
to  the  eye  by  a  mere  picture,  especially  wh#n  entirriy 
unaided  by  shadow  or  colour.  ^^  , 

In  one  more  article  we  shall  conclude  our  notice  « 
this  verv  ihteresting  series  of  experinfteoia. 


Tnmir  on  the  prudent  ant  thy  heedless  eyes, 
Ohserve  her  lahours,  sluggard !  and  be  wiae. 
No  Btem  commaad,  no  m«ttU«y  vntce. 
Prescribes  her  duties  or  dirscta  lier  ehoiee  $ 
Yet  iime^  yawad—t  she  faastf  (»wr# 
OV^naick  the  bletsii^  of  a  |)lcBiMaa  da|r< 
Waiea  Artful  Simuner  load«  the  toeouBg  plaii^ 
She  qrop§  the  h4ur^'est,  and  she  stores  the  jgrain. 
How  long  shajl  eloth  usurp  thy  useless  boura, 
Unnerve  thy  vigour,  and  «icliain  thy  potrew 
Whfle  artliil  «hades  thy  ^owny  ooiioli  en^os^ 
And  soft  sodfidtatiDn  oeuria  repno, 
Asndfll  tbe  di««^  (duninaof  ^uU  deli^ 
YeflP  cdtasea  year  witU  imreinittmrt  fli|^ 
XiU  «auit  now  foUowing*  icaudnleAt  and  slow, 
Ryn  fip"nr  to  seize  thee  like  an.ambuslied  foe.^ 


"^ 


f  ■  *i 


I  HAW.  thott^  flie  perosal  of  line  anthi^  «  »*  ^^vas^ 
the  different  regions  of  the  earifc  i  «on«  slow  <Miai  •  1»J^ 
and  rd&eshing  warmth,  whitot^fchaw  kin*  jnlhatoj 
and  fii»y iiwit;  in  one  womaet eaith  ««f»?'«!f|f^iS 
.ait,  who»  aU  ia  mgular,  and  a  thousand  .isfutrfttl  Q»>J«? 
mad  their  <?oloor8  io  :the  i^y.%&f^  ^^^%^^^'^^ 
Mother,  we  behold  nature  in  an  .unadorned  ro^esuc  sw 

plicity,  scouring  the  plam  with  a  i««;P^."i**%K 
rock,  or  talking  upon  tlie  vemgs  cOf  the  wgd.  Hete 
meet  Vith  a  Sterne,  who  faaid  ns-with  the'eolte8t«««J2i 
and  there  a  flonssean,  who  hvrries  «•  aini«  ^^^^^ 
andtenmeet.  Hawse 4hatdfllightftil«aeo««rf*^^ 
iwhich  IB  «t  m  the  botom  of  aeaaihiUjI^.  *7ifLSd 
empire  of  genius,  we  imbibe  the  '^JP^'^^^Z^d 
resembles  an  enchanted  mansion,  which,  at  tne  louai 
some  superior  hand,  at  one  time  brightens  mtp  beaotj,  ■»» 
at  another  datkena  into  hoxinr^-^-ficmnvz  Hau* 


1841.] 


THE  BATUBDAY  MAGAZINSr 


181 


0NCHBS9/XXI. 

Origin  of  th^  Poweitfl  ot  mm  Pibcm. 

In  our  la^t  artiole  we  noticed  the  attempt  made  to 
connect  cl^esi  with  two  very  ancient  gameii^  It  is  pro- 
bable that  a  patient  investigation  of  the  subject  would 
lead  to  the  conclusion,  that  from  the  elements  of  those 
two  games  draughts  was  invented,  and  thai  the  game 
represented  oi^  the  Egyptian  monuments  (see  Sat.  mag, 
vol  xviii.  p,  20)  was  the  offspring  of  Merelles  and 
Petreia* 

•The  morea  of  tho  pieces  and  pawns  in  modern  chess 
appear  eo  complicated,  that  at  first  view  it  would  be 
thought  hopeless  to  look  to  such  a  game  as  draughts  for 
their  origiot  .  But  an  attentive  analysis  of  the  moves  at 
chess  reduces  them  to  a  very  simple  character,. and  it  is 
not  improbable  that  the  moves  of  the  pieces  in  a  simpler 
and  more  ancient  garnet  were  smiilar  in  efibct  to  the 
shortest  move  of  the  Rook  together  with  the  shortest 
move  of  the  Biishop^  and  that  these  may  now  be  taken  as 
the  type  of  the  moves  of  all  the  pieces  in  the  game  of 
ehess. 

The  Knight's  movo  may  be  immediately  cited  as  an 
objection  to  this  supposition.    If  we  bear  in  mind  only  the 
shorteat  moves  of  the  rook  and  bishop,  and  thcQ  examine 
the  mod^  by  which  the  squares  of  the  chess  board  are 
attached  one  to  another:;  we  shall  see  that  they  are  con* 
mected  either  by  an  angle*  which  forms  a  path  from 
square  to  square*  by  the  contact  of  the  diagonals,7.*or 
by  a  aide,  which  forms  a  path  from  square  to  square 
between  two  parallelsp    The  firp^  of  these  movements 
belongs,  to  the  bishop  i  the  second  to  th#  rook.     Now 
the  one  of  these  movements  seems  to  have  been  com- 
bined with  the  other,  in  order  to  give  a  move  to  the 
knight^  am)  the  combination  was  of  the  simplest  kind« 
yiz^   A    compound  of  the  shortest  path  of  the  bishop 
with  the  shortest  path  of  the  rooki  or  vice  versa;  hence 
the  path  of  the  knight  is  always  of  the  same  diniensious. 
Geomatrically,  the  knight  s  leap  is  always  the  hypotenuse 
of  a  rightwmgle  triangle,,  of  yvhich  the  base  ^auals  twice 
the  perpendicular,  the  latter  being  equal  to'  the  side  of 
one  square^. 

From  the  limited  information  that  we  have  been  able 
to  collect  on  the.  origin  of  the  moves  at  chess,  we  are  led 
to  suppose  that,  at  an  ^arly  period  in  the  history  of  the 
game,  the  movea  of  some  of  the  pieces  were  Umiled  to  a 
single  square  at  a  lime  i  that  hir  a  subsequenl  privilege 
each  player  was  allowed  to  make  several  mov^aat^  once 
before  his  antagonist  moved;  and  that,  in  the  present  state 
of  the  flT^me,  whenever  a  move  is  mad^  by  certain  pieces 
of  more  than  one  square  at  a  time,  it  is  to  be  deemed  as 
the  result  9f  such  privilege  now  lost  and  forgotten^ 

But  this  privilege  is  taa  pertain  extent  preserved  m 
the  Hindostanee  game,  at  the  beginning  of  which  four  or 
eight  mo^es,  as  may  be  agmed  upon,  are  played  upon 
-both  sidas.  In  thie  game  also  the  two  royal  pawns  and 
those  of  the  two  rooks  are  allowed  to  move  two  squares 
each  at  first,  so  long  as  their  pieces  remain  at  their  squares. 
The  other  pawns  move  only  one  square  at  a  time. 
Sonne  a£  the  peculiarities  of  the  Hindostanee  game  are 
still  preserved  /at  Stroheck.  Mr.  Lewis  says,  "  The 
pieces  beixig  j4aced  as  usual,  each  party  }»  i^bliged  to 
pkiy  hie-  king  »  rook's  pawo>  queen*8  rook's  pawn»  and 
queen's  pawir^-two  sqnaresr  and  the  qtieen  to  her  third 
square.*'  After  this  1^  other  pawns  eaa  move  but  one 
square. 

We  are  not  aware,  of  the  precise  powers  of  the  pieces 
at  the  tinted*  the  introduction  of  chess  into  Europe ; 
but  we  bave  abuodaat  evidence  to  prove  that  they  were 
very  4ifi'<0rent  to  those  eibihlted  on  the  modem  chess 
board,  llir  the  ^rteenth  and  ftmrteentk  oewturies,  the 
powcrii  of  Che  i^fc,  the  knight,  and  the  pewa»  urere  the 

*  This  Ingentout  th0OiT  af  ik«  mi^  ai  th»  kni^U  more  \%  due  to 

reodoro  CifM^Mi,  Ummm  ^Qaardi^sK  wJMewsr^'^M  C«raUo 
iegli  Seaechi,''  ippeand  at  Paris  a  fow  yean  ago. 


same  as  at  present ;  but  many  remarkable  peculiarities 
belonged  to  the  other  pieces,  which  we  will  state  at  some 
length* 

1.  The  Shah,  Hkt,  or  Kino,    The  Eastern  name 
given  to  this  piece  was  #S!^aA,  equivalent  to  our  European 
word  Retf  or  King^  and  it  is  from  this  piece  that  the 
game  derives  its  name.     The  original  movement  of  the 
T^y  apjpears  to  have  been  extremely  confined,  he  being 
incapaoitated    from  moving,    except  when    absolutely 
forced  to  do  so  by  an  adverse  check :  this  may  in  some 
measure  be  accounted  for  by  reflecting  that^  as  the  value 
of  the  kin^  at  this  game  is  beyond  calculatiop  (since  the 
instant  he  u  mated  the  contest  is  decided),  they  were 
therefore  tiie  less  willing  to  risk  his  person  in  the  field. 
About  the  commencemmit  of  the  thirteenth  century  the 
rty  was  allowed  the  shortest  move  of  the  rook,  and  the 
reason  why  he  was  not  allowed  to  move  nor  to  take 
angularly  seems  to  be  found  in  the  taste  that  predomi* 
Dated  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  of  moral- 
ising almost  every  subject,  vis*,  that  the  king  ought  to 
take  everything  justly  and  not  in  an  oblique,  t.  #.  inairect» 
manner.    This  restriction,  however,  was  soon  removed, 
and  the  rey  had  the  power  of  moving  and  taking  as  well 
angularlv  as  directly ;  but  his  range  of  action  never 
exteQded  beyond  one  square. 

2«  Thx  Fkrcb  or  Queisn.  The  name  of  this  piece 
in  Persian  is  Ph$rzy  which  signifies  a  wise  and  learned 
man,  capable  of  giving  counsel  to  the  Shah.  We  have 
already  stated  that,  on  the  introduction  of  chess  into 
Europe,  the  word  Ferce  was  by  an  easy  mutation 
corrupted  into  Vierge,  a  virgin,  and  afterwards  into 
Reynet  a  queen,  though  the  old  term  Forc^  still 
continued  to  be  used,  and  the  piece  retained  its 
origi^ly  limited  mQvements  of  one  square  at  a  time, 
and  that  angularly,  and  never  directly.  The  substitution 
ef  4  female  at  this  game,  instead  of  the  vizier  of 
the  Orientals,  has  been  thus  ingeniously  explained; 
"  iV{en  are  soon  persuaded  that  the  picture  of  human 
lifer  itoder  which  they  represented  chess,  would  be 
very  imperfect  without  a  woman;  that  sex  plays  too 
impQ.rtant  a  part  not  to  have  a  place  in  the  game;  and 
h#i^ce  they  changed  the  minister  into  a  (juten,  the 
siiniUrity  of  the  words  Fierge  and  Vierge  fecihtating  the 
cbanga/'  Tha  galUutry  natural  to  an  age  of  chivali^ 
and  politeness,  si^bsequentlv  converted  the  Ferce  from 
the  l#aat  QQOf iderable  of  tne  chess  pieces  to  the  most 
powerfiU  In  the  game,  but  this  gallantry  introduced  that 
atraiig#  anomaly  into  the  game  which  destroyed  Ita 
military  (pharaeteri  a  pawn  or  foot  soUier  having  pierced 
through.  Jhe  enemy's  battalions,  was  rewarded  for  his 
valoar.hy  promotion  to  the  rank  of  vizier,  minister  cf 
state,  or.  general  s  but  it  if  absurd  to  make  the  pawn 
cbangf  his  saxt  and  from  a  foot  soldier  become  a  qiieen* 
This  powt  is  quit^  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  second 
pieee  at  chess  has  been  improperly  named  Virgin,  or 
Queen.  The  anci^nit  writers  op  the  game,  to  get  rid  of 
this  anomaly,  9nd#avpur  to  insinuate  that  such  pawns 
as  ars  made  fereeai  were  alwavs  females;  but  they  ex- 
plain this  so  ^^Tjf  awkwardly,  that  the  point  is  left  pre- 
eisely. where  it  is  taken  up.  Thus,  in  an  early  MS. 
quoted  by  Mr.  Lake  A\\»fh  tlie  foUowjng  lines  occur  in 
French: 


Jm  rtfiiiiwlaa  m^  ynt  n^^ 
Ka  Joiir  g^y  im  a^yt  obUs. 
E  pur  Iiunour  qe  a  ^ua  ay. 
IiOttr  guy  an  aatia  aK't  maClnfU 
■KytBowea  ii  poif '  001 »«»(  aiiya. 
Signioacnt  meacbinaa  de  pria. 
Kar  reynet  fiMtnaa  da  potmaa. 
B  Sn^kaa  flawaa  taa  appallwwa* 
g  pur  am  dawnysalaa  atgpafl'pt 


Tba  damada  kara  raqocated  me. 

That  tbvir  game  be  nutforKOtten. 

Asd  lar  tbaeaiaoni  that  1  bear  to  than 

I  will  bara  daaef>be  tbair  jBuma. 

My  lorda  tbe  pawna,  aa  I  tbink^ 

Bignifly  bidiaa  of  V]»bia ; 

For  paariM  wbicb  baooma  quiani, 

7beia  vapaU  PWioee; 

And  baoaoaa  they  eigirifir  dainaela, 


]9«n  foa  faraoonea  cu*  lea  ram  Sk*ui>    T1i«y  ara  not  bdQra  u  aamo  aay, 
KaralUpou'maleBaatayt.  JTartf  Ibapawaa  veiamslae, 

J^unaafbMfllaaBadaMadr«rt*  Tbpy  w^yuid  iu»w  bacioma  laiaalaa. 

By  means  of  such  reasoning  as  this  the  author  con- 
cludes, 

^puroaokaaaiCafHraitOQpovV  Ap4  bccauw  thia  la  a  game  wttli 

l4ii«r<^4»awii4afap;p9Ug9i|.  Pawiib, 

f^  pMs  af  OMiMMa  wawil  la 


193^ 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


3.  The  Alftn  or  Bishop.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  the  mutatiotis  to  which  the  phil,  or  elephant 
(the  Eastern  name  of  this  piece),  has  been  subject  in 
Europe.  It  was  evidently  aa  much  at  variance  with  the 
character  of  the  game  for  us  to  name  this  piece  the 
Bishop,  as  for  the  French  to  call  it  the  Fool. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  alfvn  had  the  diagonal 
move  of  our  bishop,  restncted  in  its  range  of  action  to 
the  third  square  from  which  it  stood.  So  that,  in  order 
to  capture  an  adverse  piece,  it  was  necessary  that  the 
alfjn  should  be  distant  from  it  one  clear  square :  thus, 
suppose  a  white  alfyn  to  be  on  the  fourth  square  of  his 
rey,  he  could  then  capture  any  pawn  or  piece  standing, 
I,  on  the  adverse  rey's  chivalier's  third  square;  2, 
reyne's  alfyn's  third  square;  3,  his  own  rey's  chivalier's 
second  square;  and  4,  his  reyne's  alfyn's  second  square. 
But  as  he  was  always  incapacitated  from  moving  to  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  squares,  no  piece  could  be 
either  captured  or  considered  en  prise^  if  situated  close 
to  it,  or  removed  at  a  greater  distance  than  the  third 
square.  As  a  compensation  for  so  confined  an  action  on 
the  board,  the  alfyn  was  allowed  the  vaulting  power  of 
the  chivalier.  Thus,  if  a  white  alfyn  be  on  hit  rey's  fourth 
square,  a  black  or  white  rok  on  the  adverse  reyne's  fourth 
square,  and  a  black  poun  on  his  reyne's  alfyn's  third 
square,  the  white  alfyn  could  capture  the  black  poun, 
notwithstanding  the  interposition  of  the  rok.  The  sub* 
sequent  extension  of  the  range  of  action  of  the  alfyn 
deprived  him,  in  the  course  of  time,  of  this  vaulting 
motion. 

4.  The  Asp  or  Horseman,  Chivalier  or  Knight.  5. 
The  Ruch,  Kuk,  Roc,  or  Rook,  that  is,  the  camel  or  dro* 
medary.  6.  The  Beidak  Poun,  Pawn,  or  Foot-soldier. 
The  powers  of  moving  and  other  prerogatives  of  these 
pieces  have  not  varied  since  the  introduction  of  the  game 
into  Europe.  We  need  only  remark,  that  to  represent 
the  swiftest  piece  on  the  board  (as  the  roc  was  at  one 
time),  by  a  castle,  is  another  strange  anomaly  in  the  game. 

By  referring  to  Caiton's  TrecUite  on  Cheee,  pub* 
lished  in  1474,  we  find  that  the  powers  of  some  of  the 
pieces  had,  at  that  time,  become  remarkably  changed. 
The  king,  for  his  first  move,  was  allowed  to  leap  over 
the  pawns,  and  pass  to  any  one  of  the  five  squares,  vis., 
king  s  knight's  third,  kine's  bishop's  third,  king's  third, 
queen's  third,  and  qaeen  s  bishop's  third.  Two  out  of 
these  five  moves  are  peculiar  to  the  knight,  and  the  other 
three  are  not  recognised  in  modern  chess.  These  two 
knight's  moves  were  not  permitted  to  the  queen,  because 
^'it  is  not  fitting  ne  convenable  thing  for  a  woman  to  go 
to  battle,  for  the  fragility  and  feebleness  of  her."  The 
queen  8  first  move  could  be  made  to  her  third  square,  to 
her  knight's  third,  or  to  the  king's  bishop's  third.  After 
the  king  and  queen  had  each  been  moved  once,  their 
moves  were  restricted  to  one  square  at  a  time:  the 
former  having  the  shortest  move  of  the  rook,  and  the 
latter  the  shortest  move  of  the  bishop 

The  bishop  had  a  prescribed  move  of  two  diagonal 
squares  at  once,  as  before  noticed;  one  effect  of  this 
move  being,  as  Caxton  says,  **  that  the  alphin  goeth  in 
six  draughts  all  the  chequer  round  about,  and  that  he 
Cometh  again  into  his  own  place." 

The  limited  power  of  the  king  is  ingeniously  explained 
by  reference  to  the  power  of  the  rook:  "Forasmuch  as 
the  king  holdeth  the  dignity  above  all  other,  therefore  it 
appcrtaineth  not  that  he  absent  himself  long,  ne  with- 
draw him  far  by  space  of  time  from  the  master  seat  of 
his  kingdom."  The  restricted  power  of  the  queen  in 
this  early  state  of  the  game  is  explained  on  the  ground 
that  **  the  king  and  queen  be  conjoined  together  by 
marriage,  and  1^  one  thing,  as  one  flesh  and  blood."  ft 
will  be  remembered  that,  at  this  time,  the  rooks  were  the 
most  powerful  pieces,  but— 

Forasmuch  as  they  be  vicars,  lieutenants,  or  commiarion- 
ers  of  the  king,  their  authority  is  of  none  effect  before  they 
issue  out;  for  at  long  as  tliey  be  within  the  palace  of  the 


[NovmaBE  18, 1841. 

king,  80  long  may  thejnoi  UMBeezecaie  thdr  eonmdarion. 
But  anon,  aa  they  issue  thev  may  nsetheiraatliority.  And 
ye  shall  undefStand  that  umx  aistheritT  isgiMt,  for  the/ 
represent  the  person  of  the  king,  and  tnerefore,  when  the 
tabiier  is  wide,  they  may  ran  aU  the  tablier.  In  Iik«iriie 
as  they  so  thxoagh  the  kingdom,  and  they  aiay  go  as  well 
white  as  Dlack,  as  well  on  tlM  right  nde  and  left,  as  forwanU 


as  backwards,  and  aa  finr  maV  they  run  ss  they  find  the 
tablier  void,  whether  it  be  of  his  adversarie's  as  of  his  own 
fellowship.  And  when  the  rook  is  in  the  middk  of  the 
tablier,  he  may  go  which  way  he  will,  into  fear  right  Una 
on  every  side ;  and  it  is  to  wit  that  JU  mojf  ta  no  wmn 
comennas,  but  alway  right  forth.  Wherriors  all  the 
subjects  of  the  king,  as  well  good  aa  evil,  ought  to  know  by 
theur  moving  that  the  authority  of  the  vieait  and  eomaii* 
sKoners  ought  to  be  very  trae,  r^teous,  and  jast. 

The  powers  of  the  knight  and  pawn  seem  to  hart 
been  the  same  as  in  modem  chess.  When  a  pawn,  how- 
ever, arrived  at  the  adversary's  royal  Une,  its  promotioo 
was  modified  by  the  singular  powers  of  the  qaeen.  If  the 

Sawn  reached  the  royal  line  on  a  black  square,  it  then 
ad  the  power  of  a  queen  placed  on  a  bkck  square,  yit, 
to  move  on  the  black  squares  diagonally  and  one  aqoare 
at  a  time.  If  the  pawn  became  a  queen  on  a  white 
square,  then  it  could  move  only  on  the  white  diagonaii 
one  square  at  a  time. 

Our  information  does  not  allow  us  to  trace  the  pro- 
gress of  the  game  from  the  time  of  Caxton,  bo  as  to 
shew  the  gradual  steps  by  which  the  pieces  became  in- 
vested with  their  present  powers^  But  we  hare  said 
enough  to  show  that  chess,  like  all  other  human  inva* 
tions,  has  bieen  subject  to  progressive  change  and  im- 
provement ;  for  notwithstanding  the  many  anomalies  in 
the  modern  game,  its  character  ie  far  more  scientific  and 
valuable  than  the  game  of  the  13tfa,  14th,  tod  15th 
centuries.  The  powers  of  the  pieces,  as  they  at  present 
exist,  may  be  accounted  for  on  very  simple  prindpH  if 
we  are  allowed  to  take  the  bishop  and  rook  as  tjipes  of 
all  the  rest.  The  diagonal  move  of  the  bishop  seems  to 
have  been  borrowed  from  the  ancient  game  c^  merelln 
(to  which  draughts  may  also  with  great  probability  be 
traced),  and  the  move  of  the  rook  may  similarly  owe  its 
origin  to  the  wefpno,  or  game  of  pebbles.  Nov,  granting 
this  to  be  the  ease,  we  arrive  at  a  very  remarkable  result 
by  comparing  the  powers  of  the  king,  the  queen,  the 
knight,  and  the  pawn  with  those  of  the  rook  snd  the 
bishop: 

1.  The  king  may  make  the  shortest  rook*s  move^  tr 
the  shortest  bishop's  move;  hut  noi  both  mt  once. 

2.  The  queen  may  make  an  optional  rote's  move,  or 
an  optional  bishop's  move;  but  not  both  at  once* 

3.  The  knight  may  make  the  shortest  ro^'t  more,  CM 

the  shortest  bishop's  move,  both  at  once* 

4.  The  pawn  may  make  the  shortest  rook's  move  for* 
ward,  when  it  does  not  capture ;  and  the  shortest  bishops 
move  forward,  when  it  does  capture. 

We  are  disposed,  therefore,  to  think  it  probable  thst 
the  moves  of  (he  bishop  and  rook  were  derived  from  100^ 
game  or  games  more  ancient  than  chess,  and  that  ^ 
certain  simple  extensions,  modifications,  or  combiniw>' 
of  the  moves  of  these  two  pieces,  were  derived  the  move* 
of  the  other  pieces  in  the  game  of  chess. 


The  Dead  are  like  the  stazs  by  day; 

Withdrawn  from  mortal  eye^ 
But  not  extinct,  they  hold  their  w^. 

In  glory  throii|^  the  dcy; 
Spirits  from  bondage  thus  set  £re^ 
Vanish  amidst  immensity. 
Where  human  thought,  like  human  S^i, 
Fails  to  pursue  their  trackleas  fiij^it. 

James  Moktoomkit. 


LONDON: 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STKAXP 
PommsB  iir  Wjkhu«t  Kmnsas,  tmum  Omu  P«irirT»  «»»<»  ^*' 


K?  602,         NOyjBMBEE 


201",  1841.  (orTl^T. 


/  NAKSUI-ROUfiTAI^  .6^  TU£  MOuNTAW  OF  SEPULCHRES 


Thi  extensive  nuns  of  Peraepolis,  t(^ther  wkk  the 
mention  mideiof  thst  .ut;  ^y  <ii«ek  wrilem,  snr  suffi- 
cient to  ••■vitwaus' diKt  'it  wavooe  oftbenlMl'inipoh- 
tant  eitiea  inaQtittib  Persia;  andr  nt^  oiringappdreittty 
to  its  ae.«er  h&vi^  bMa  the  imidenc*  of  the  Pex*i«i 
kings,  ire- in  tt  with  little  to  ekiriHaieite  hntoryi  or  to 
latiafy  the  curineitr  nhich  i»  natURtUj  exciwd  hj  ttk 
magnilicrDt  aad  intPKellB^  remains. 

Inilependeotly  of  the. objects  of  «ttraf«iMi  preeeotad 
by  the  site  of  the  cityitself,  there  is  a  carioH-ettdctraen 
of  tlie  aodrnit  grandeur  of  the  PersiMist  siuuitid  to  the 
north  of  Fenepolis,  and  «idl<>cl.  NAKHUi-UouaTAjai,  or 
the  Mot'N.TAitt  OP  Sepu««mrbs.  Thiv  nMunoun 
■bmiDdfl  iDfl«ut)itHne«'anil  eSQ3iTationB,  which  have  krag 
emiiod 'thekAUention  of  the  travatler,  the  irtiat,  nnd  the 
siitiquary:  it  rise*  tviBn  eWfstjoii,  of  about  three  kundred 
yards,  snd  is  composed  of.  &  nbitish  kind  of  marble,  in 
which  the  figure  &ad  escavatious  have.beeu  cut.  At 
the  upper  part  of  thie  mountaiu  are^  four  eKcavatioas 
which  seein  iojcnded  for  toaiha.  Sir  Bobert  Kcr  Porter 
tava  they  are  "  evidently  of  »  date^  c3eval  with  the 
splendour  of  Peisepolta.'' 

The  external  appearancft  of  the  four  sepulchres  Is 
timilar,  and  thfir  intprhal  strncttirp  prnllahlv  presents  no 
varii>ty  Jho  excavation  examined  by  Sir' Robert  Ker 
Porter  is  cut  about  fourteen  feet  Into  the  solid  rook,  noine- 
whatin  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross:  the  upright  divisiDn  of 
it  cannot  be '  lent  ttian  a  kmdri^  fert  from  eai  ta  end. 
llie  front  oC  tbe  tenab  ia  •.mimeBted  inth  feuvroai 
pilasters,  distant  fretft'eaelr  oAet  sHout  seven  feet,  a'ld 
aafarfn«i'tlwea«tti«nH(for  bftteexMTation:  thrir 

Vol.  XIX. 


bafieft  Urntinata  i^  «  tor  on  a  plinth,  piai««iing  from 
tbefoM  pf  th«  tomb  one  foot  six  inches:  their  shafti  ^ 
a^  C^wned,  \iy.  double  bulls.  -An  add'tioaal  capital 
(winpwed  of  three  square  stones  piled  on  each  other. 
the .smalleit  ^d  lowest  &it\ag  into  tke  cavity  between 
the  buljU'. necks-  with  the  largest  stoue  at  the  top}  sup- 
{Mrt«  a  pli^in  architrave.  1^  entranoe  is  between  the 
two  «8ntro  pilasters:  the  door  franie  is  finely.  pro> 
portioned,  ujth  a  carved  projecting  architrave  nicely 
fluted  and  divided  into  leaves :  but  the  gnater  part  of  the 
apparent  dpor  is  only  markvd  to  resemble  one ;  the  actual 
entrance  being  comprised  within  a  square  space  of  four 
feet  s)^  inches.. 

The  division  above  the  front  of  the  tomb  is  an  esca- 
vatioo  copiBiniug  sculptured  fignres,  and  is  made  t6 
resemble  a  sort  of  framework  for  the  purpore  of  in- 
closing, them.  The  figures  are  represented  with  their 
hands  raised-  and  supporting  two  beautifully  frieced  cor- 
nices- The  drapery  of  these  figures  is  a  short  tunic; 
the  waists  of  some  are  bound  with  a  simple  belt,  and  of 
others  with  a  dagger  hangioK  therefrom  on  the  right  hip; 
all  are  bare-hesded,  but  the  bushy  appearance  of  the 
hair  mokes  it  resemble  a  wig.  These  B  ures,  togethi-r 
with  the  cornices,  they  support,  form  the  face  of  a  so  t 
of  elevated  platform.  soToething  like  the  flat  tahle-tombi 
of  England;  but  thp  dimensions  are  very  different.'  Each 
side  of  the  structure  is  finished  by  a  pillar  of  extraordi- 
nary  shape.  If  it  be  divided  into  four  parts, — the  Imw 
reWMbles  an  ttm,'«a  ithMi  iVstt  the  huge  paw  and  limb 
of  a  Kon  descending  tr6ta  the  columnar  part  of  the 
pillar,  wUcb  is  fluted  hviisontalT^  lialf-way  up ;  and  fVom 


194 


THE  saturOAV  Magazine. 


[Novmn  VI, 


iu  wmmtt  Art*  liMM  llw  Mid  ud  ihotildert  of  tha 
uniconi'bHll,  but  without  srnanMnU.  Th*  back  of  tb« 
ueck  unites  it  with  the  tlifhest  eomiee,  whtch  fofmi  the 
top  of  the  structure  ;  bo  that  the  heads  of  the  t»o  buIU 
which  form  the  pillar*  at  each  end,  rise  higher  thuus 
plane  thejr  impporL  On  this  plane  stands  the  group 
■hewn  iu  the  Bccompanying  illuitration.    A  figure  (mwl 


probably  repreienling  the  arehimafta,  m  high-pl^Mt,) 
is  eleratad  Dn  a  pedestal  of  three  itcpni  heis  dreited  In 
an  ample  rabf  flowitir  down  to  hie  anelet ;  hit  left  hanri 
graepi  a'ltrunfr  bow  ;  nia  right  arm  la  half  exiendrd  with 
the  hand  quite  o»en  i  his  wriits  are  omametited  with 
braceiotaj  hlf  hna  Is  bare,  the  hair  bushy  behind  M  I 
uestly  curledi  his  bMrd  falU  to  the  breast:  oppotllt  to 
him  rises  another  pedestal  of  three  steps  upon  whieh  Is 

E laced  H  alUr,  probably  conUlnlnf  the  sacred  Arc,  a 
uge  <ttm  of  vhleh  aopears  at  the  top.  High  o*flr  ll 
to  the  right,  is  a  rlobular  Bgure  representing  the  inn, 
of  whtoh  the  Are  oelow  was  esteetned  the  offspring  and 
the  flmblem.  These  altar*  always  stood  towards  the 
east,  so  that  the  worshipper  might  fhce  the  point  of  the 
horison  whenee  the  great  source  of  liglit  ascended  i  and 
we  here  find  the  orb  In  such  a  direction.  Another  figure 
floats  alofl  in  the  air,  between  the  altar  and  the  archi* 
tnagus,  appearing  as  if  it  had  issued  from  the  sun;  it 
approaches  the  man  from  that  point.  This  atjrial  perton- 
Bgfe  seems  supported  by  something  like  a  collection  of 
sun-beams,  thickly  carved  in  waving,  horiiontai,  and 
*  perpendicular  lines,  interspersed  with  several  divisions  of 
narrow  cloud-shaped  masses  of  stone.  The  radistion  is 
Dot  ciroular,  but  forms  three  distinct  collections  of  ray*, 
painting  east,  weit,  and  downwards  i  they  diverge  from 
p  rin^  or  halo,  out  of  the  midst  of  which  rises  the  figure  i 
it  being  entirely  above  this  "beamy  chariot,"  from  the 
waist  Upwards,  It  is  dressed  in  a  similar  robe  to  tliat'of  the 

Eriest,  with  the  hair  and  beard  in  the  same  fashion:  but  the 
ead  is  covered  with  a  fluted  crown ;  the  left  band  holds 
a  large  and  raassv  ring;  the  right  la  elevated  and  open, 
as  if  in  the  Set  of  admonition;  a  coUpte  of  bands,  appa* 
rently  the  ends  of  his  girdle,  flow  down  through  the 
circle,  and  the  besms  m  which  the  figure  appears,  thus 
pro* lug  the  aerial  tenure  of  the  seeming  vehicle.  "  But 
when  we  compare  its  forms,  and  the  workmanship  of  its 
details,  and  its  position  with  regard  to  its  occupier,  with 
the  wings  and  finely-wrought  Others  of  the  bas-relief 
at  Pasargadce',  we  can  be  in  no  doubt,"  save  Sir  Robert 
Ker  Pirter,  "  from  the  entire  diS'erence  between  them, 
that  the  radii  we  have  been  describing,  form  a  means  of 
passing  through  the  air  totally  distiactlVoin  the  personage 
that  uses  it," 

The  monumental  deration  of  which  we  are  (peaking, 
with  its  altar  and  other  appendages,  ie  eomprised  within 
a  Bouare  frame  of  stone.  On  the  four  external  surfaces 
at  the  front  and  the  sides,  our  distinguished  traveller 
found  figures  three  deep,  stationed  one  above  the  other ; 


thOM  to  tba  fIgM  of  t1i«  altar,  afld  thh  Dieif  fktu  (d- 
warda  the  back  of  tin  Ban  On  ilia  padsiUl,  m  AntM 
in  robes  similar  to  bis:  and  tbev  have  bonnet)  ontlwir 
wig-like  hair,  resembling  in  shape  the  cra«D  on  tk 
bMd  of  the  aerial  being,  but  with  this  differenoc,  ikit 
they  are  not  fluted  i  these  figures  are  armed  witli  tjtvi; 
there  are  three  of  them  in  a  perpendicular  line  on  tin 
front  of  the  western  aspect  <i  tlie  fnune;  and  lii  nut 
and  Ble  on  the  side.  In  the  opposite  direction,  on  tW 
part  of  the  frame  which  is  to  the  left  of  the  altir,  in 
the  front  Is  a  perpendicular  line  three  deep,  of  fignrts  ii 
precisely  the  same  sort  of  dress  as  the  spearmen,  cim)»- 
ing  that  they  are  quite  unarmed.  These  also  look  toiirdi 
the  altar,  and  appear  as  moiirnersi  their  Utl  hinds  being 
ralMkl  to  their  hc«S,  and  holding*  part  of  their  gtraenU, 
as  If  to  wipe  away  their  tears.  Another  Une  rf  %uni 
la  tculptund  on  the  side  of  the  frame,  of  vhicb  tbt 
mouminr  flgum  fbm  tha  fhmt  i  but  hare  snly  qm  in 
tkree  Is  In  ■  wecpint  attitude. 

To  petMtnM  Itita  the  iDlcrlor  of  tha  lombi  ew  ■ 
worh  «  no  llttia  penonal  dangM-  ai  welt  m  flLtigiu.  TIk 
only  tnMni  by  which  a  stranger  to  these  helghti  nold 
reach  then  was  by  attaefalnr  a  ropa  to  his  wsiit,  iM 
•ttftrlng  soma  Mivng  artns  above  to  haul  him  upwsrds. 

Uf  mahmanilar  wai  at  his  sloHw  and  Ibrcbodinii  tpit, 
(Mjn  w  traveller,)  Ibr  lemptlnc  etieh  d«mcn-wnii;tit 
ulaaw.  fiyl  tha  paaaantry  of  thlsalstrlet  mn§i  to  km* 
Mtter  thaa  to  have  fhar  of  either  deev  ordlfflenlty;  aicu 
of  thsm  men  aetlvt  and  slnaw/  tlian  tha  net,  msnaftj  tg 
senmhia  ap  the  perpendlettlor  allff.  Ilka  a  rat  hangip^  bri 
wall  t  and  gaining  tm  ledge  of  tiw  platibrin,  or  vrsiiboli  u 
tha  lomh,  na  kwend  down  a  npc,  by  whwh  r — '  *"' 


n  the  gnand  to  glva  ma  lime  Ibr  thought  i  and  dann; 
my  ascent.  In  a  nannar  so  totally  dependenion  (hi  dnuniT 
of  othsn,  t  onuld  Dot  but  fwoltcet  the  Ihts  of  half  s  ihn 
kinsmen  of  DaHus  MyaMifM^  who  had  alt  petlshsd  itn" 
In  the  vary  sanis expedition.  Claalm  rriate^thstthit^ 
Panion  monarch  '  caDsed  a  tomb  te  be  dni  fitr  him  vbili^ 
yet  lived.  In  the  double  mountain  ;  bnt  wnen  It  «u  wd- 
ilalad,  the  Chaldean  sootJtiayers  fcrhad  him  to  cntti  ii 


wentobedrewnnp  by  the  priests  who  offioiated  tli«n;M 
bi  the  Belt  vrblle  they  yet  hang  betwooA  enth  and  «r,  ik 
•ttdden  appeenooeof  some  aerpsBta  en  tlic  roek  so  tentM  thi 

nle  abevs,  that  tbay  let  go  the  ropes,  and  tbe  prisMs  vw 
ed  to  piece*.'  On  this  vary  spot,  mere  than  two  il>^ 
sand  ycare  uo,  the  catastrophe  happened.  Certainly  l>*i°l 
In  any  noted  place,  has  a  most  amazing  power  Id  briniii* 
two  Ibt  distant  points  of  time  to  meet ;  at  loast  in  th«  am' 
that  ootitemplates  them.  1  should  havo  raad  the  hlstor;  o 
tbH  diaaitor  at  heme  with  almost  as  little  eooeem  ss  H  <» 

Cipli  bad  navmr  axletad ;  here  I  was  on  the  spcM  whw  ij 
ppened,  and  tfa*  soene  wni  nall*«I  i  the  penans  mmn 
sTMint  with  me,  and  I  shaddsred  fbrlhem,  whils  I  iqnwt 
In  my  own  safety.  To  incur  the  leoet  poasible  if^  " 
myself  and  my  aidstanla,  I  had  selected  the  tomb  thai  ■>* 
nenrest  the  ground  ;  but  even  that  was  upwsnli  of  »i^-I 
feet  above  Its  level;  and  I  cama  off  with  Hot  a  fi«  h™i»'' 
ftom  hard  knocks  sgalnrt  the  rock,  In  my  swinging  mwi'- 
After  this  perilous  ascent  our  traveller  made  hii  <ij 
through  a  low  and  narrow  entrance  into  a  vaulted  rbin- 
b«r,  completely  blackened  all  over  by  aradie  of  v<" 
kind,  either  from  lamps  or  other  fires:  the  plsce  «» 
stifling  and  gloomy;  at  its  farther  eltremity  were  tJii« 
arched  recesses:  each  contained  a  trougb-lue  caviij  nt 
down  into  the  rock,  and  covered  with  a  stone  of  cor- 
responding dimensions.  Every  one  of  these  coven  W 
been  broken  near  the  comers,  evidently  to  give  i  ^** 
of  the  contents  of  the  sarcophiiKus.  A  light  wm  in'™" 
duced  into  the  recesses,  by  which  the  remotest  tnsnx 
was  seen,  and  all  were  fotmdto  be  alike  empty:  noi«<^ 
any  looso  dutt  was  preoeBt  timt  mi|ht  hatt  fHwnf 


JMl.] 


THE  9ATUEDAY  MAGA2IN]p. 


199 


])eIon(e4  to  spme  mould^nd  inji^bitaut.  If  these  covert 
were  at  any  time  ever  repioved»  they  mu3t  have  been  very 
carefully  replace4f  The  open  space  of  the  chamber  be- 
tween the  catacombs  nod  the  door  is  about  five  feet;  the 
entrance  had  been  originally  closed  by  a  bloek  or  blocks  of 
stone,  the  deep  boles  beiqg  visible  on  e^cb  lide  which 
received  their  pivots  :— 

I  observed,  (says  our  traveller,)  9ome  vestiges  within,  of 
the  mode  of  haoi^iig  so  ponderoui  a  security ;  but  the  avi- 
dity of  the  spoilers  mr  Im  and  iron  has  injured  every  part 
where  the  obieets  of  their  oupldity  eould  be  rent  away. 
The  sur&ce  of  the  doort  as  It  appeiirs  without,  is  divided 
into  four  compartmsatas  the  lower  one  b  entirely  taken 
away,  being  now  quite  opea  to  the  aift  with  a  small  part 
also  of  the  second  divieton  broken  oif,  Which  probably 
happened  when  the  passage  was  forced.  When  we  look  on 
these  violences,  committ^  on  the  last  resting-places  of  the 
great,  we  cannot  but  be  fipsible  that  the  humblest  graves 
are  the  securest. 

EvBRy  charity  lAooI  (bf  the  instvaction  of  the  poor  in  the 
principles  of  ottf  Churoh,  ftud  for  their  dlMlpliiie  in  habita 
of  industry  mi  ffodUuttVi,  is  to  be  coiuldeiea  is  pne  of  the 
bulwarks  of  Ottf  eottntry ;  ae  »  fortresji,  whieh  it  would  be 
madness  not  to  k^ep  in  repair ;  as  a  numument  of  the  zeal 
and  piety  of  our  forebthers,  which  cannoti  without  sacrile* 
gioua  negtooti  be  suffered  to  decay.— Lb  BiSt 

— ^— ■■.^       ' 

WHAT  IS  HONEY-DEWf 

In  the  sumnif  r  months,  when  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry, 
the  foliage  of  trees  and  plftnts  is  often  found  covered 
with  and  rendered  glossy  by  a  sweet  clammy  substance 
known  to  persons  msident  in  the  country  by  the  name  of 
honetf^€wi  they  regard  it  as  a  sweet  substance  fallinj^ 
from  the  atmosphere.  The  production  of  this  substanee 
has  led  to  as  many  conjectures  as  that  of  Blight,  notic  ^ 
in  a  former  article.    Or,  Mason  Good  says  :— 

I  hav9  seen  a  hop-greund  completely  over-run  and  deso* 
lated  by  the  Afhk  aimim/i,  or  hop  nfreen-louse,  within  twelve 
hunre  i^fter  a  honey-dew  (which  w  a  peculiar  baae  or  mi^t 
loaded  with  poisonous  miasm]  \m  slowly  swept  through 
tJ^a  plantatio^i  and  etimuUttid  the  leaves  of  the  hop  to  the 
morbid  eeeretion  uf  a  9acchariae  and  viscid  juicei whicn.  while 
it  destroys  the  youug  shoots  pv  exhaustion,  rsnders  them  a 
IkvouritQ  resell  for  vhis  insecti  and  a  cherishing  nidus  for 
myriada  of  little  dots  that  are  its  eggs.  The  latter  are 
h^che4  within  eight  and  forty  hour«  after  tbeir  deposit, 
and  euooeeded  by  hosts  of  ether  insects  of  the  same  ki^d* 

It  has  often  happeQed  to  writers  oa  ^alural  history, 
that,  whit?  they  suecessMly  oppose  those  prejudices  of 
opinion  or  vu(gar  errors  which}  from  being  constantly 
Aoniitted  without  disputei  have  obtained  th6  itrony  hold 
of  habit  oa  the  mindi  yet  fall  into  other  prejudicei, 
namely,  those  of  sep»»  or  personal  observation,  and  thus 
«xplods  «ne  error  by  the  introduoiion  of  another  whieh 
18  more  dangerous  than  the  first  because  it  seeelvee  the 
support  of  a  learned  man.     Sir  John  Hereohel  saye  i — 

Oar  re^stance  against  the  destruction  of  the  other  ehwi  of 
prejudtcQ|»  thoie  of  sense,  is  commonly  more  violent  at  first, 
out  leas  persisteu^  than  in  the  case  of  those  of  opinion* 
Vol  to  trust  the  9y\^9x\t^  of  our  senses*  seems,  indeed,  a  hard 
condition,  and  oi^  whicbf  if  proposed,  none  would  comply 
with.  Bnt  it  (s  not  the  direct  evidence  of  our  senses  that 
we  ar«  ui  any  ease  called  upon  to  reject,  but  only  the  erro- 
neous judgmsptv  we  unconsciously  form  Grom  them,  and 
this  GiA  V  when  they  can  be  shown  to  be  so  4r  coiNit0r*#ei- 
dcnce  €i/  tk€  sam  ¥^i  vhen  one  sense  ia  brought  to  testify 
against  another,  ibr  matancey  or  the  aame  seniie  against 
iu^ii^  nod  the  obvioua  conclusions  in  the  two  caaes  disagree, 
fip  aa  to  eompfl  ua  to  acknowledge  that  «9e  o|r  other  must 
be  wrong. 

The  ehori  ettrael  we  have  f^j&a  from  Dr.  Oood, 
contains  several  prejudioef  both  of  opiniou  and  of  sense* 
The  pntP^Pologist  is  peculiarly  liable  to  error,  not  only 
frurn  the  minutenese  of  the  oqjeeta  observed,  but  from 
the  di^ulty  which  of^  e«ist»  of  distinguiehing  between 
g  cguM  and  aA  eSwtt*  The  foUowinff  detailf  wiU  enabls 
the  reader  to  trace  to  their  source  the  errom  aagiained 


in  the  quotation,  and  to  furnish  an  answer  to  the  ques* 
iion,  "What  Is  honey-dew ?'* 

During  summer,  if  we  examine  almost  any  speoles  ei 
plant,  an  immense  number  of  small  Insects  will  be  found 

{placed  side  by  side,  m  large  masses,  upon  the  stalks  and 
eavea*  These  insects  are  called  aphidkb,  /^ueerofM^ 
oxplani'iice.  The  history  of  these  little  animals  ht$ 
been  writtei^  with  great  care  by  some  of  the  most  eele* 
brated  naturalists ;  and  many  truly  remarkable  datails 
have  been  supplied,  which  are  too  well  authenticated  to 
admit  of  dispute.  But  as  the  nature  of  these  details 
renders  them  unfit  Ibr  our  pages,  we  pass  on  to  the  move 
immediate  subject  of  the  present  ^rtloie. 

The  aphides  on  the  leaves  or  stems  of  trees  appear  to 
be  in  a  state  of  total  inaction;  but  they  are  in  Aiet 
buiily  occupied  in  extractin|  the  juices  of  the  plant  with 
their  proboscis.  Their  punctures  frequently  cause 
sensible  alterations  and  damage  tp  the  leaves,  and  even 
to  the  stems  of  trees,  which  become  bent  and  contorted 
on  the  side  attacked  by  the  insectf. 

The  curvlngs  thus  effected,  (says  Bir,  Rennle,)  become 
very  advantageous  to  the  insects,  for  the  leaves,  sprouting 
from  Uie  twig,  which  naturally  grow  et  a  distance  from 
each  other,  are  Drought  close  together  in  a  bunch,  forming  a 
hind  of  nosegay,  that  conceals  all  the  eontoyr  of  the  sprig, 
as  well  as  the  inesets  which  are  embowered  under  it,  pro- 
tecting them  against  the  rain  and  the  sun,  and  at  the  same 
time  hiding  them  from  observation*  It  is  only  requisite, 
however,  wherever  they  have  formed  bowers  of  this  descrip- 
tion, to  tnlse  the  leaves,  in  order  to  see  the  little  eolony  of  the 
aphides,  or  the  remains  of  those  habitations  which  they 
have  abandoned.  We  have  somethnes  observed  sprigs  of 
the  lime  tree,  of  a  thumb's  thickness,  portions  of  which 
resembled  spM  screws,  but  we  could  not  certainly  have 
assigned  the  true  cause  for  this  twisting,  had  we  not  been 
acquainted  with  the  manner  in  which  aphidsa  contort  the 
youn^  shoots  of  this  tree. 

The  leaves  of  gooseberryi  currant  bushei,  tpple  tree*, 
k^  are  often  seen  eovored  with  tuberosities  •  and  on 
examining  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  a  crowd  of  small 
insects  will  be  seen  feeding  on  the  Juicei  of  the  leaf  and 
shielded  from  the  weather  and  many  of  their  enemies. 
On  the  leaves  of  the  elm,  the  aphides  produce  vehicles, 
or  hollow  galls  pf  about  the  sise  of  a  walnut  and  some- 
times Urger,  within  whieh  a  whole  eolony  resides  and 
the  femsie  deposits  her  eggs. 

Most  of  the  aphides  are  eovered  more  or  less  with  a 
ootton-like  down.  Ip  those  which  infbst  the  plum«tree 
and  the  cabbage  this  covering  resembles  fioun  Those 
which  live  in  tne  vesicles  of  the  elm  are  entirely  eovered 
with  this  substance.  In  the  aphides  of  the  poplar  it  is 
in  the  fbrm  of  cotton  threads ;  but  it  exists  in  largest 
quantity  on  the  aphides  of  the  beeeh  tree,  on  which 
species  the  threeds  are  sometimes  an  inch  In  length ; 
they  are  but  slightly  attached,  and  may  easily  ba  removed. 

Were  it  not  that  the  aphides  are  frequently  exposed 
to  the  attaoks  of  powerft*!  enemies,  it  is  probable  that 
tney  would  multiply  to  such  an  extent  as  toully  to 
destroy  the  plants  whose  Juices  they  suck.  The  various 
species  of  lady-birds,  both  in  the  larva  and  perfeet  sUte, 
fbed  entirely  on  aphides.  They  place  their  eggs  on  a 
leaf  where  aphides  abound,  and  when  the  young  are 
hatched  they  find  themselves  purrounded  bv  their  prey. 
The  larvfs  of  many  species  of  two^winged  flies  (i^- 
phUm)  4so  commit  great  havoc  among  the  aphides. 
Mr.  Klrby,  in  speaking  of  one  of  these  larvw,  says- 


which  be  immediately  transfixes  with  hU  *»*««*»  «l*^ 
into  the  air,  tliat  he  may  not  be  diitarbed  with  its  struggles, 
and  soon  devours.  The  havee  whieh  these  grube  make 
amongst  the  aphides  is  astonishing. 

The  Iarv9  of  the  laoe^winged  flies  are  such  enemies  to 
the  aphides,  that  Heaumur  called  them  "the  lions  of  tlie 
aphides."  The  hortieulturist  removes  large  numbers  ot 
ibeia  destmera  ef  f^tiWei  by  i»aa&s  of  a  moistened 

ev2 — i 


THE  SATORDAT  MAGAZINE. 


[Homtm  M 


bruih,  or  by  bumiog  lulphnr  or  tobacco  ud  conducting 
tha  npoura  or  the  imolie  by  meant  of  a  bellowi  or  a 
funnel  to  the  part*  affected. 

So  vut  and  lo  npid  ia  the  inereaw  of  apbidea.  and  to 
eoDitontlj  are  tbej  engaged  in  aucking  the  juices  of 
plant!,  that  (he  reader  nwd  not  be  ttartled  with  the 
muuraoce  that  tbeae  little  intectR  are  the  iole  caute  of  the 
hone} -dew  which  ia  often  found  lo  abundantly  on  the 
foliage  of  plant!  during  auinmer.  This  fact  ia  now 
eatAbkiabed  by  the  repeated  abaer*ationi  of  eminent 
naturaliita;  but  for  the  aake  of  bre*ity,  we  propose  to 
follow  the  derail*  of  Mr.  Curtia  on  this  curious  subject. 

Were  a  person  aocidentallf  to  take  up  a  book  in  which 
it  wAi  gravely  asserted  tbat  u  some  countries  there  were 
animali  that  ejerled  from  their  bodies  liquid  lugar.  be 
would  soon  lay  it  down,  regardiuf;  it  at  a  fabulous  tale 
calculated  to  impose  on  the  credulity  of  the  ignorant; 
nnd  yet  such  is  literally  the  truth,  "the  superior  size  of 
the  Apkit  filicit  will  enable  the  most  common  observer 
to  satisfy  himself  on  this  head.  On  looking  steadfastly 
for  a  few  minutes  on  a  group  of  these  insects,  while 
feeding  on  the  bark  of  the  willow,  one  perceives  a  few 
of  tbem  elevate  their  bodies,  and  a  transparent  substance 
b  evidently  ejected  from  the  two  horns  which  the  aphides 
have  at  the  hinder  part  of  the  body:  thla  is  inuueoiatelv 
followed  by  a  similar  motion  and  oischarge,  like  a  small 
ahower,  fVom  a  great  number  of  others. 

On  placing  a  pitoe  of  writing  paper  under  a  mass  of  these 
Insects,  it  aoon  beoune  thickly  ipottad.  Holding  it  a  lonwr 
time  the  ipota  united,  front  the  addition  of  others,  and  the 
whole  snr&ee  amnmed  a  ^oesy  appearance.  I  tasted  thii 
substance,  and  fbnnd  it  as  sweet  aa  sugar.  I  bad  the  leas 
besitation  in  doing  this,  as  I  had  observed  that  waqw,  flies, 
SBla,  and  insects  without  number,  devonted  it  as  qnicldy 
as  it  wji  produced;  bnt  were  it  not  for  these  it  miKht  no 
doubt  be  collected  in  con^deiable  quantities,  and  if  subjected 


The  aphides  produce  this  substance  in  so  IsTge  a  quan- 
tity that  the  vesicles  of  the  elm  and  tbe  tuberosities  of 
the  gooseberry  and  currant-bushes  often  contain  globules 
aa  large  as  a  pea.  It  is  at  first  limpid  and  transparent, 
bnt  becomes  Uiick  by  eiposure  to  the  air. 

The  origin  of  honey-dew  is  now  completely  esta- 
blished; but  as  the  notion  that  this  substance  is  formed 
in  the  atmosphere  is  still  a  favonrite  mode  of  accounting 
for  its  production,  we  will  say  a  few  words  on  the  sub- 
ject: and  we  may  also  notice  another  opinion,  tbat  honey- 
dew  is  an  esudation  from  the  plant  ib^lf. 

If  boney-dew  fell  from  the  atmosphere  it  would  cover 
everything  indiscriminately:  whereas  it  is  never  found 
except  on  certain  livii^  trees  and  plants.  It  is  also 
found  on  planta  confined  within  hor-houies  and  green- 
bouses.  It  is  found  more  abundantly  on  healthy  than 
on  sickly  trees,  because  the  aphides  select  only  the  young- 
est and  most  healthy  shoots.  If  the  honey-dew  exuded 
from  the  plant,  it  would  present  certain  general  and  uni- 
form appearances  on  all  the  leaves;  but  its  appearance 
ia  very  irregular,  not  being  alike  on  any  two  learex, 
some  leaves  having  none  of  it,  and  others  being  only 
partially  covered.  Mr.  Murray,  who  ascribes  honey-dew 
toan  electric  change  in  the  air,  opposes  the  now  received 
opinion  of  ita  production  by  apnides,  on  tbe  ground 
that  the  substance  "  was  very  abundant  on  those  plants 
tbat  were  entirely  free  from  aphides;"  but  these  lirtle 
insects  are  very  UVely  to  escape  notice  unless  we  look  in 
tbe  right  place;  they  are  careful  to  eject  the  honey-dew 
to  a  distance  from  where  tbey  may  be  feeding.  The 
source  of  tbe  honey-dew  on  certain  leaves  must  often  be 
looked  for  in  the  leaves  above,  in  the  under  surfaces  of 
which  myriads  of  aphides  may  lie  hid.  If  anything 
should  intervene  between  the  aphides  and  the  leaf  nett 
between  them,  there  will  be  no  honey-dew  on  that  leaf. 

Mr.  Curtis  has  noticed,  that  where  the  saccharine  aub- 
atauM  ha*  dropped  from  the  apbidea  for  a  tength  of 


time,  a*  fVom  the  Aphia  aalidt  In  partien.ar,  it  gitei  to 
the  surface  of  the  bark,  foliage,  or  whatever  it  hu 
dropped  on,  that  looty  kind  of  appearance  which  triin 
from  the  explosion  of  gunpowder,  which  great!?  ^- 
gures  tbe  foliage,  &e.,  of  plants.  It  ii  often  miwsken  for 
a  kind  of  black  mildew,  which  it  greatly  resembles. 


TaDLT  it  is  difficult,  in  passing  along  tbe  countries  of  wkid 
1  am  spsakinii  (the  neighbourhood  of  the  Hhunr),  if  it 
will  but  use  our  eyes  at  all,  not  to  be  foTced  In  co[^  llw 
irresistible  and  abundantiy  sufficient  powrr  of  the  ^ndo 
in  daily  operation  to  explun  the  dissolution  wliich  rmr' 
thing  on  tDB  earth  is  underling.  This  progren  but  iniM 
be  called  slow  in  comparison  to  (he  quick  marrh  of  «nt 
petty  span  of  life;  but  the  wear  and  tear  of  tlie  muDDUiB, 
and  their  final  extinction,  is  no  less  a  matter  of  phveoj 
fact  than  our  own  mortality  is.  It  cannot,  laitA,  bt 
denied  that  the  Alps  and  Andes  are  knnr.lived  tluii  ire,— 
bnt  even  their  age,^ — that  of  the  hoarisat^keoded  peak  tmof 
thi'm,  Mont  Blanc  or  Chlmboraxo,  or  the  blushing  Mtnir 


of  time,  to  say  nothing  of  etemityl  It  is  just  tha  mm 
when  we  come  to  qieak  of  distanoeai  since  oar  loaial 
stretch  on  earth,  "  from  China  to  Peru,"  fhtm  "  Indu  to 
the  Pole,"  or  even  our  iongeat  measurable  tfte»  is 


parte  of  astronomy  t 

To  some  minds  tbeae  qMcolalioiis,  or,  to  qwak  man  pif 
nerly,  these  absolute  certaintiea,  are  soutcea  of  )iaiii  >^ 
bewilderment  rather  than  of  pleasnre.  Bnt  it  appon  u 
me  that.  If  well  conducted,  diey  are  ad^)ted  to  do  good,  b} 
rendering  ut  mote  contented  with  our  lot,  and  more  can-S 
in  the  perfonnance  of  our  duty,  liy  filling  our  Iivm  ^ 
more  lofty  and  more  cheerful  objects  of  pnnuiL  U  >> 
surely  a  delightful  reflection,  and  one  filled  witli  <^ 
brightest  hopea,  that,  insignificant  as  wo  an,  we  an  RiU 
canble  of  seeing  atid  understanding  so  much  of  thot 
thti^  and  Uiat  we  ate  permitted  to  resaosi  noon  tlitm  t«i 
great  extent,  though  we  can  see  neither  their  beginnieEMT 
their  end,  nor  con  we  intemgate  thdr  purpose,  wai 
rightly  anployad  such  ^ecolalione  give^  if  anythieg  » 
earth  can,  a  fbrctasto  of  Immortality,  sod  tell,  both  to  w 
reason  and  to  the  imadnation,  tbat  the  soul  is  not  pens- 
able:  and  thus,  all  sacupursoitsae  geology  and  sstroDoniJ, 
properly  carried  on,  do  essentially  contribute  to  foiti^  "y 
bith  in  Revelation,  trr  Inculcating  or  as  It  were  ea^^ 
the  grand  doctrine  or  dependency  and  tnaldng  oi  lw> '' 
every  turn,  how  poworiese  we  are,  and  how  powerfol  i*"" 
Maker,  and  yet  bow  beneficent,  aixl,  above  all,  how  UDifon 
and  bow  admirably  oonaiatent  in  all  hia  operatioov-<^ 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 
TURKEY   AND  THE   TURKISH   PROVINCES. 


M 


t  Bepar<itioa 
From   thiB 


USVISA,   THE  I 

rr«  Viva  ntrondy  given  a  brief  account  of  Meeea,  we 
proceed  to  offer  a  aimilar  notice  of  .Mfdina,  width  i(  also 
one  of  the  holy  placps  of  thp  Mohaiiiitii'dana.  It  may 
be  well  to  glance  at  the  geographical  pusition  of  Medina, 
with  rr^l>ect  to  surroundtng  plaee*. 

In  fullowint;  the  course  of  the  Mediterranean  from 
west    to   «ftst,  our   pragreaa   ia   finally  arrested   by   the 
cuDSt  of  Svria,  which  forms  iti  eastern  tprminaiion;  and 
at  the  southern  comer  of  this  coast,  forming  the  south- 
eas'ein  extremity  or  corner  of  the  Medit 
meet  with  a   spol  which   is  a  boundarv   be 
Arabia,  and  Egypt,  and  also  an  isthmuii  i 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas, 
isthmus  the  Red  Sea  extends,  nearly  in  a  south-eastern 
direction,  for  a  distance  of  two  thouinnd  miles,  till  it 
joins  the    Indian   Ocean.     The  coast  then  trends  round 
towards  the  north-east,  till  we  arrive  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Persian  Gulf,  up  which  we  ascend  nearly  in  a  parallel 
direction  to  the  Red  Sea.     Now  all  the  immense  country 
boiind<>d  by  these  coasts, — the  Red  Sea  on  the  west,  the 
Indian  Ocean  on  the  south,  and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the 
eafit,  comprising  an  extent  of  territory  more  than  three 
times    aa    large  as  that  of  France, — is  known  by  the 
general  name  of  Arabia. 

It  is  towards  the  western  coast  of  this  large  peninsula 
that  we  must  look  for  the  city  of  Medina.  It  lies  at  a 
few  dava'  journev  from  the  coast  (estimated,  as  "  days' 
journeys  "  are  in  the  East,  by  the  rate  of  a  camel's  pro- 
gress.) at  about  one  third  of  the  length  of  the  Red  Sea 
from  its  upper  end.  that  is,  about  twice  as  far  from  the 
Straits  of  Bab~el-Mandeb  on  the  south,  as  from  the  Isth- 
tnti!)  of  Suez  on  the  north.  On  the  western  shore  of  the 
Ited  Sea,  opposite  Medina,  we  meet  with  the  sandy 
desert  which  separates  that  sea  from  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Nile;  aud  eastward  of  Medina,  we  likewise  meet 
with  sandy  deserts,  so  that  were  it  not  for  the  interven- 
tion of  the  Red  Sea,  the  town  would  seem  to  be  in  the 
hf>art  of  «  desert.  We  now  proceed  to  speak  of  the  town 
.tself.  and  its  inhabitants. 

Medina  (the  ancient  Yalhrtb),  although  the  place  of 
inml   ^  ti>*  prophft  MohanuMC^  ■■  neithar  m  e*le- 


AL-PLACE  OF  HOHAMMZD 

I  brated  as  Mecca,  nor  is  it  considered  so  much  an  act 
of  duty  to  make  pilgrimages  thither.  A  considerable 
number,  however,  of  tho?B  who  have  gone  through  all 
the  ceremonies  and  observances  at  Mecca  which  are 
necessary  for  their  attainment  of  the  title  of  hajjis, 
usually  join  the  Syrian  caravan,  or  form  themselves  into 
small  detachments,  in  order  to  visit  the  tomb  of  their 
propheL  The  distance  between  these  two  cities  is 
about  two  hundred  and  seventy  miles;  and  the  time 
occupied  by  the  journey  is  ten  or  eleven  days,  during 
which  the  pilgrims  must  be  content  to  undergo  many 
inconveniences  and  dangers;  there  being  no  public  khan 
or  place  of  accommodaiion  for  travellers  through  the 
whole  route,  and  the  depredations  of  Arab  robbers  being 
frequent  atid  daring. 

"The  city  of  Medina  is  situated  on  the  edge  of  the 
Great  Arabian  Desert.  A  circle  of  twelve  miles  round 
the  place  was  originally  considered  as  holy  ground,  in 
accordance  with  the  strict  injunctions  of  Mohammed 
himself;  but  this  precept  is  forgotten  or  entirelv  unob- 
served. The  town  is  tolcrablv  well  built;  the  homes 
are  for  the  most  part  two  stories  high,  and  entirely  of 
stone.  Tlie  principal  streets  arc  paved;  but  the  rest 
are  poor  and  narrow,  onlv  measuring  two  or  three  paces 
across.  The  city  is  9urro>jnded  by  a  wall,  end  on  a  small 
rocky  elevation  stands  the  castle,  inclosed  by  a  thick 
stone  rampart,  between  thirty-five  and  forty  feel  high, 
flanked  by  towers,  and  defended  by  a  ditch. 

Unlike  Mecca,  the  city  of  Medina  is  well  supplied 
with  water  by  means  of  wells  and  sublerraneous  canals, 
which  are  scattered  throughout  its  extent:  and  in  conse- 
quence it  is  not  so  enlirelv  bereft  of  vegetation-  or  so 
dependant  on  other  places  for  its  supplies,  ss  the  former 
eitv-  The  suburbs  extend  to  the  south  and  west,  and 
occupv  a  larger  space  of  irround  than  the  city  itself,  from 
which  they  are  separated  bv  an  open  space  containinir 
gardens,  markets,  and  a  few  huts.  There  are  very  fi-w 
public  edi6ces  at  Medina:  and  for  such  ss  there  are,  ihe 
city  is  indebted  to  the  Sultans  of  ^ypt  aud  Constanti- 
nople. 

Th«  inbaUtanti  of  Msdiu  art  «  miztd  race,  tli« 


1M 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


LNoYlUBU  SQi 


greater  part  of  whom  derive  tbeir  origin  from  foreigners  t 
who  have  been  induced  to  settle  in  the  city,  with  the 
hope  of  acquiring  gain,  in  their  traffic  with  the  pilgrims. 
In  the  course  of  a  few  generations  these  aettlers  become 
Arabs  in  feature  and  ehanuster.  Thev  live  in  a  vary  poor 
style,  and  display  mueh  gravity  anci  circumspection  in 
their  outward  deportment;  but  they  are  not  mor«  ftree 
from  vice  and  immorality  than  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca; 
indeed  it  is  notorious  that  the  Mohammedans  of  these  two 
cities,  where  we  might  aspect  to  see  the  influence  of  the 
better  part  of  their  religion  especially  predominanti  are 
more  depraved  and  immoral  than  those  of  any  other  citjr 
or  country  in  the  world. 

The  mosque  which  contains  the  tomb  of  Mohammedt 
and  which  is  the  princiual  means  of  support  of  tho  in* 
habitants  (^  Medina,  ts  situated  towarde  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  tpwn.  It  bears  some .  resemblance  to 
the  Temple  of  Mecca,  being  an  open  souaie,  divided  by 
a  partition  into  two  compartments,  and  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  oovered  arcades ;  its  dimensions,  however, 
are  considerably  leas,  being  165  paces  in  lengtht  and 
130  in  breadth.  This  mosque  was  gieotly  improved  by 
the  CaliphCi  who  bestowed  on  It  many  generous  dona- 
tions; snd  efter  its  complete  destruction  by  a  fire, 
occasioned  by  ligbtningi  when  nothing  remained  but  the 
tomb  of  the  propheti  tne  restoration  of  the  iiioaqoe  was 
undertaken  by  tne  Bulun  of  Egypt,  who  ereeted  it  in 
its  present  form,  in  the  year  of  our  tiord  U87f  There 
are  five  minarets,  and  four  nlee  to  tUe  moique  i  the 
principal  entranee  is  extremely  handsowset  the  sides  of 
the  gate  being  iolold  with  eiarble  and  glaied  tiles  of 
various  colours,  which  give  it  a  daailing  appearance. 
At  this  gate  the  hajjis  are  obliged  to  enier  when  they 
first  arrive  at  this  city  of  the  prophet,  and  at  a  fountain 
immediately  in  front  of  it,  they  are  expected  to  perform 
their  ablutions,  ere  they  advance  into  the  sacred  area. 
In  the  northern  division  of  the  square  stands  a  small 
buildingi  in  which  are  deposited  lamps  for  the  use  of  the 
mosque.  The  situation  of  the  famous  sepulchre  of  the 
prophet»  is  indicated  in  our  engraving  ny  the  cupola, 
whioh  surmonnts  the  roof  of  the  mosque*  near  one  of 
the  minaretst  To  preserve  this  venerated  tomb  from 
the  too  near  approaoh  of  the  devotees,  it  is  surrounded 
by  an  inolosure  called  SI  B^rOf  consisting  of  many 
eolnmns  supporting  an  arched  roof;  and  these  again  are 
enmroled  by  an  iron  railing  thirty  feet  high*  of  so  close 
o  texture  end  so  thickly  interwoven  with  Fnecriptions,  as 
efleetuaUy  to  hide  the  mterior*  There  ere  several  small 
windows  in  this  iron  sereen»  and  at  theprincipal  of  these 
the  pilgrims  offer  their  devotions.  Toe  glimpse  which 
is  obtained  of  the  space  inclosed  bv  the  railing,  merely 
informs  the  worshipper  thai  a  rich  curtain  is  carried 
round  on  all  sides»  resembling  that  of  a  bed*  and  th^t  it 
is  of  the  same  height  aa  the  railing  itself.  The  curtain 
Or  veil  is  of  silk  brocade  of  varioue  colonn,  interwoven 
with  silver  flowers,  and  having  a  band  of  inscriptions  in 
gold  characters,  running  aeross  the  middle^  like  that  of 
the  covering  of  the  Kaaba.  Within  this  curtain  no 
persona  are  allowed  to  eatery  exoept  those  whose  peculiar 
privilege  it  is  to  take  care  of  the  tomb,  and  to  put  on  the 
fresh  curtain  on  the  aeoession  of  a  new  Sultan  to  the 
throne  of  Constantinople  i  for»  ee  in  the  case  of  Mecca 
the  splendid  covering  of  the  interior  of  the  walls  of  the 
Kaaba  il  provided  by  the  new  SultaUt  so  beroi  the 
eurtain  for  tb«  prophet's  tomb  is  received  aa  e  donation 
from  the  same  biind»  The  remnants  of  this  sacred 
brocade  are  sent  back  to  Conetentinople,  and  are  used  as 
a  covering  to  the  feombe  of  the  sovereigns  and  princes 
there. 

It  is  not  the  tomb  of  Mohammed  alonCf  which  occu- 
piee  the  speee  within  this  double  inclosurc;  for  there 
also  are  deposited  the  remains  of  liii  two  friends,  Abu 
Beker  and  Omar.  The  three  tombs  are  said  to  be  ot 
plain  mason  work,  covered  with  precious  stuffii ;  but  the 
accounts  of  different  authors  vary  considerably  ae  to 


their  furm  and  position*  Lamps  are  suspended  all 
around  the  curtain  and  are  kept  bumiDj^  during  the 
night;  their  number  has  been  extravagantly  stated  at 
three  thousand!  but  en  eye*witness  haii  declared  them  to 
amount  to  little  more  than  one  hundred.  The  story  of 
the  suspension  of  the  prophet's  coiDn  in  (be  air  by  means 
of  two  powerftil  eugnetSi  eppeeri  to  have  be«i  an  inven- 
tion of  the  Greeks  and  Latins.  The  Moslsnt  are  so  far 
from  acknowledging  themselves  the  authors  of  this  fable, 
that  they  sniile  et  the  credulity  of  foreignersi «( hsTiog 
for  a  moment  given  uredence  to  the  tale. 

The  visit  to  the  mosque  and  tomb  of  MedlM  b  not 
obliffatory  on  «<the  fkithfldi"  vet  it  is  thought  to  bi  an 
act  highly  pleaaing  to  the  Almightyt  and  n|iiatory  of 
many  slnsi  while  it  entitles  the  pi^rim  to  deim  e«a  ty^, 
the  iwtronage  of  the  orophet  in  heaven*  So  saiious  ate 
the  inhabitants  of  Medina  to  confer  impoiUnw  on 
their  city  and  on  the  tomb  of  their  prophet,  tkat  ^j 
declare  one  prayer  eeid  within  si(|hl  w  the  Hejn  to  be 
as  eiBoacious  as  e  thousand  Mid  in  any  othor  place 
eieept  Meeeat  end  that  whoever  repeats  fertr  nnjen 
in  tUs  mosque  will  be  leved  from  thn  pains  oi  heU-fiie 
after  death.  These  aasertions  ere  ealcuUted  to  attact 
numbers  of  poor  misp:ttided  devotees,  who,  ignorant  of 
the  true  and  onlv  expiation  for  fiu,  or  unable  cloarijr  to 
discern  it  througn  the  cloud  of  tfeditiops  impcssdon  then 
by  their  fhlse  prophet*  ere  oefferU  seeking  to  stone  for 
the  sins  of  their  past  liveat  by  «  Toilsome  and  diogeroos 
pilgrimefei  and  en  omplv  round  of  observances,  s bidi 
are  little  calculated  to  give  peace  to  the  conscisnce  or 
Htielbotion  to  the  mind.  Mediwi  ie  reported  to  baTe 
been  the  depository  of  immenee  tfeesnreo  in  foniKi 

days;  but  the^e  accounta  are  probably  much  exagg^ 
rated;  and  though  in  the  sanctuary  of  this  mosque  the 
precious  things  of  Hejaa  were  certainly  kept  at  one  tinier 
and  formed  no  doubt  a  collection  of  great  value,  yet  ft 
are  not  to  believe  implicitly  the  stones  of  its  vastneas 
and  immense  eitentt  Notwithstanding  the  fpienoid 
exterior  of  the  mosque,  and  the  gi^  colottrs  with  vbicb 
it  is  decorated,  there  is  no  appeoranoe  of  real  riches  tbm 
at  the  present  dey* 

It  wiU  bseeno  eemparison  (sbm  EmeUimdt)  nithth 
shrine  of  the  meetiniifimiieetttCaihoiieeeMttin  JBonpi.*' 
rni^  pwve  ee  a  eonvmciiif  ptoo^  thoL  whatevsr  nigf  h 
theur  supentition  end  lanafaciam,  the  Mgelems  siv  wt  ^ 
posed  tg  make  the  same  pecuniary  eM^riilcos  to  their  m- 
gious  foundatiomt  as  the  Popish,  or  even  tbs  ProttfUot 
Christians  do  for  mixs, 

Medina  isi  or  was  lately»  under  tho  govemaieBt  »^ 
authority  of  a  Turkiah  comeaander»  who  takes  tb«  va; 
nageeoent  <rf  the  pecuniary  eflairs  id  tbemosqusi  aod(< 
all  other  ecclesiastical  matters*  Nest  to  him  m  iopo^ 
anoe  is  the  Cadi;  and  inapy  of  tho  native  Sv^  ^ 
hekl  in  great  respect. 


To  have  no  essistsnne  ftom  ether  miade  in  reselviiydt^^ 
In  i^neaaing  scruples^  in  balancing  deUbcrstiom^  tf  t  ^^ 
wretched  destitution. — t)tu  Johksqk. 


iiivKs  BY  li^^  souvBcr  ov  Rts  tresAar. 
Mv  days  among  the  deed  eee  pasiodt 

▲round  me  I  behold 
IPHiere'er  these  casual  eyea  ere  casl^ 

The  mighty  minds  of  oM  $ 
My  Mver-fliilfaig  ftieods  mm  they 

With  whom  I  aommuns  der  bf  dey 
With  them  I  teke  deUibe  in  week 

AsmI  eeek  relief  in  woe; 
And  while  I  understend  and  fW 

{low  much  to  thoQi  I  owe, 
My  cheeks  bave  often  been  bedeVd 
Vith  tears  of  thoughtiiil  gratitude^ 
And  from  their  Isssous  se«k  and  dad 
Instruction  with  an 


j 


I 


1641.] 


tfU!  BAtURDAV  MAtJAZlKfe. 


1»9 


OLD  ENGLISH  NAVIGATORS. 


WiLLOUOHBT,   ClIAKCBLOft,  AKt>   BURROUGHS.     I. 

It  is  our  intention  to  dvvote  th«  pratmit  and  on*  other 
paper  to  the  Uym  of  th«  navRl  oonunftiidiin  WboMtiameg 
are  given  above,  beeauM  Ihoy  mar  be  oalM  Che  fHends 
and  disciples  of  the  illustrious  CaDot>  and  because  their 
labours  were,  for  the  most  part,  eterted  jolhtly  In  the 
prosecution  of  a  yery  memorable  polar  voyage. 

Sebastian  Cabot,  as  we  have  already  observed  (p.  12), 
was  driven  to  the  neootaity  of  aolieitiof  employment 
from  the  court  of  Spain,  in  consequence  of  the  tempo- 
rary abandonment  of  maritime  enterprise  on  the  part  of 
the  English.     It  so  happened,  however,  in  the  year 
1553,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Sixth,  that  the  mer- 
chants of  London  projected  a  voyage,  having  in  view  to 
reach,  by  way  of  tke  north  and  nof^-east,  the  opulent 
and  Celebrated  regions  of  India  and  China,  ana  that 
Cabot  was  now  in  London  again,  having  been  created 
grand  pilot  of  Bnglandi  and  eonstitnted  '*  govereour  of 
the  mpterie  and  companio  of  the  marBhailla  adventttrors 
for  the  diseoverie  or  regiontt  dotniniona,  ialandt,  and 
places  unknowen."    The  merehantd.  hating  coneulted 
with  Cabot,  resolved  upon  the  expedition,  and  an  asso- 
ciation was  formed,  by  which  the  undeKaking  was  Carried 
on  in  shares  of  25/.,  so  that  the  sum  of  6000/.  was  soon 
raised,  which  was   expended  in   the  construction  and 
equipment  of  three  vessels  fitted  for  northern  and  tro- 
pical navigation.     The  youthful  monareh  Imtoured  die 
design,  and  lent  his  eonntenanee  to  the  undertaking* 

As  the  promoters  of  this  expedition  had  no  doubt  of 
its  success,  and  made  sut*e  of  teaching  the  Indian  aeaa 
by  way  of  the  pole,  they  omitted  none  of  those  precau- 
tiona  which  were  deemed  necessary  for  the  safety  of 
vessels  navigating  the  tropical  seasi— *>hence  thev  caused 
the  ahipa  to  be  sheathed  with  leadi  thinly  laid  on,  in 
order  to  deflmd  them  ft^m  the  worms  that  were  found 
to  bo  deatructive  to  wooden  sheathing  in  warm  climates. 
This  is  the  first  account  we  have  of  ships  coated  in 
England  with  a  metallic  substance,  though  the  practice 
had  been  long  familiar  to  the  Spaniards, 

The  ahips  being  provisioned  for  eighteen  months,  Sir 
Hugh  Wilioughby  was  appoinled  eaplaln-geileral  of  the 
expedition  t  Riehard  Chanoolor  waa  made  fHloiHooajor 
of  tho  fleet,  and  nominated  to  the  eommand  of  the 
"  Edward  Donadventure;"  and  Stephen  Burroughs  acted 
as  lAaater  of  Chancelor's  vessel. 

It  was  probably  owing  to  his  advanced  age  that  Cabot 
himself  did  not  aecompany  the  expedition,  but  he  drew 
out  a  series  of  instniotions,  in  which  the  whole  oonduot 
to  be  obeerved  by  the  officers  and  erew  is  carefully  laid 
down.  We  will  here  give  a  slight  sketeh  of  dioso  mlKS, 
which,  though  generalhr  good  and  usefSil,  are  not»  aa  the 
reader  will  see,  perfectly  unexcepttbnable. 

Strict  attention  is  enjoined  to  private  condoet  and 
morals  s  prayers  are  directed  to  be  read  mominff  and 
evening  on  board  each  shipf  either  by  the  chapGiin  or 
master,  and  no  **  ribaldry  or  ungodly  talki  dicing*  oard- 
ing,  tabling,  nor  other  devilish  games,"  are  permitted. 

All  nets  tending  to  a  breach  of  discipline  are  prohi- 
bited, **  conspiracies,  part-takines,  fkctions,  fhlse  tales, 
which  be  the  very  seeds  and  fVuits  of  contention.** 

The  steering  of  the  ship  was  to  be  regulated  by  a 
council  of  twelve,  the  captain  having  only  a  double  vote. 
A  daily  reoord  of  the  oonrse  of  navigation  was  ordered  to 
be  taken,  together  with  celestial  observations,  the  aspect 
of  the  lands  akmg  which  they  sailed,  and  any  other  in- 
teresting oeeurrenee»  Tho  masters  of  the  dimrent  ships 
were  to  meet  weekly,  compare  these  records,  and  enter 
the  result  into  a  common  ledger. 

Various  regulations  are  drawn  up  ibr  keeping  weekly 
accounts,  maintaining  the  cook-room,  and  other  parts  of 
the  ship  clean,  and  preventing  any  liquor  from  being 
spilled  upon  them» 

The  mariaers  were  directed  to  treat  the  natives  of  the 


eountrles  which  they  vlsitod  with  eot^slderailont  gentle- 
ness, and  courtesy ;  and  without  any  disdain,  laughing, 
or  contempt.  All  fair  means  were  to  be  usfed  for  alluring 
them  on  board,  where  they  were  to  be  well-treated  and 
clothed,  in  order  to  attract  others  !««^it  was  intimated 
that  it  would  be  well  to  intoxicate  them,  in  order  to  get 
at  their  secrets.  They  were  to  use  great  circumspection 
in  their  dealings  with  strangeri ;  and.  If  invited  to  dine 
with  any  lord  or  ruler,  to  go  well-armed,  and  in  a  posture 
of  defence. 

llie  sailors*  unlfbrms  were  to  b«  worn  only  on  part!- 
eular  occasions,  when  it  was  desirable  to  show  them  off 
"  in  good  array  fbr  the  advancement  and  honour  of  the 
voyage."  They  are  warned  not  to  be  alarmed  when 
they  saw  the  natives  of  any  place  dressed  in  lions'  and 
bears*  skins,  with  long  bows  and  arrows,  as  this  formid- 
able appearance  was  often  assumed  merely  to  inspire 
terror.  The  shatk  and  the  alligator  were  probably 
alluded  to,  when  the  sailors  were  told  that  there  were 
persons  armed  with  bows,  who  swam  naked,  in  tarious 
seas,  havens,  and  rivers,  "  desirous  of  the  bodies  of  men, 
which  they  covet  fiir  meat,'*  and  against  whom  it  was 
neressary  to  keep  diligent  watch  niffht  and  day. 

The  principal  recommendations  for  the  election  of  Sir 
Hugh  Wilioughby  to  the  supreme  direetion  of  the  enter- 
prise, seem  to  have  consisted  in  his  high  birth,  his  tall 
and  handsome  person,  his  valour  and  skill  in  war,  and 
his  heroic  disposition:  these  qualities  seem  to  have  been 
regarded  over  and  above  nautical  experienos,  which  essen- 
tial requisite  is  not  even  mentioned. 

When  tho  ships  lay  at  Greenwich,  where  the  court 
at  that  time  resided,  the  manners  received  every  mark  of 
royal  fkvour,  which  could  cheer  and  encourage  men  em- 
barking on  a  dangerous  and  important  enterprise.  King 
Edward  addressed  a  circular  letter  to  all  *'  kings,  princes, 
rulers,  judges,  and  governors  of  the  earth  ;***-*he  spoke  of 
the  benefits  of  universal  friendship ;— the  duty  of  showing 
kindness  to  strangers,  and  particularly  to  merchants  ;< — 
he  desired  free  passage  for  Sir  Huffil  Wilioughby  and 
the  others  with  him,  promising  to  mune  a  suitable  return, 
whenever  the  occasion  of  foreigners  visiting  England 
might  occur.  The  ships  set  sail  from  Greenwich  on  the 
10th  of  May,  in  order  to  have  some  fine  summer  weather 
before  them.  The  king  himself  was  confined  bv  illness 
at  this  time ;  but  the  principal  courtiers  stood  at  the 
palace-windows,  the  rest  of  tne  household  mounted  the 
towers,  while  the  people  In  crowds  lined  the  thore.  The 
ships  fired  their  guns,  causing  the  hills  and  valleys  to 
resound;  and  "  me  mariners  shouted  In  such  sort  that 
the  sky  rung  with  the  noise  thereof.  In  short,  it  was  a 
very  triumph.** 

After  stopping  a  few  days  at  Bk^wall,  the  expedition 
sailed  down  to  Woolwich  and  Gravesend,  and  thence  to 
the  coast  of  Essex,  wh^re  Contrary  winds  unfortunately 
detained  them  till  the  23rd.  Then,  with  a  fkvouring 
gale,  they  quitted  England,  and  directed  their  course  into 
the  expanse  of  the  German  Ocean.  Their  commander 
was  desirous  of  touching  at  the  coast  of  Scotland ;  but 
tills  was  midsred  impossible  by  eontrary  winds,  which 
obliged  him  also  to  make  fluent  ohangos  of  oourse, 
"  traversing  and  tracing  the  seas.**  On  the  1 4th  of  July 
they  got  among  the  islands  which  fringe  the  coast  of 
Norway^  and  at  length  arrived  at  the  larger  range  of  the 
Lofoden  Isles«  whence  they  sailed  to  the  large  island  of 
8enjan»  wheroi  finding  themselves  ignorant  of  the  relative 
sitoations  of  the  islimds  and  the  eeasti  they  endeavpured 
in  vain  to  proeare  a  pileU  As  thev  approached  the 
northern  cape  of  Europe,  Sir  Hngh  assembled  the 
eommaaders  and  exhorted  them  to  keep  close  together; 
but  in  case  of  separation^  he  appointed  a  rendesvous 
at  Wardhuys,  understood  to  be  the  principal  port  of 
Finmark.  The  weather  soon  became  rough  in  the  ex- 
treme; and,  being  obliged  to  stand  out  to  sea,  amid  the 
thick  mist  of  a  stormy  oight»  the  vessels  of  Wilioughby 
!  and  Chancelor  separated,  and  never  again  met. 


900 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


tNovBMBSR  20, 184U 


According  to  tne  account  of  Clement  Adams,  who 
was  with  Chancolor,  it  appears  that,  as  they  were  driving 
before  the  gale,  the  admiral  loudly  and  earnestly  called 
upon  them  to  keep  close  to  htm;  but  that  he  himself 
carried  so  much  sail,  and  his  vessel  was  so  superior,  that 
Chancelor  could  not  possibly  obey  the  order.  The  other 
ship  was  called  the  *'  Bona  Confidentia,*'  with  which  the 
commander  continued  his  voyage;  but  was  astonished 
and  bewildered  at  not  discovering  any  symptom  of  land; 
whence  it  appeared  that  *'the  land  lay  not  as  the  globe 
made  mention.**  The  maps  of  those  days  were,  as  we  may 
naturally  suppose,  exceedingly  imperfect ;  so  that,  after 
sailing  about  in  various  directions  for  very  many  days, 
towai^  the  pole, — eastward  and  westward, — and  then 
looking  for  land  towards  the  south,  and  having  in 
vain  attempted  to  land  at  Nova  Zembla,  they  pro- 
ceeded upon  a  new  tack,  and  at  length  saw  the  coaat 
of  Russian  Lapland.  Here  they  must  have  been  very 
near  the  opening  into  the  White  Sea,  into  which  had 
they  entered,  they  might  have  reached  Archangel,  and 
spent  the  winter  in  comfort  and  security  with  Chancelor 
and  the  others,  who  had  reached  that  place  in  safety,  as 
we  shall  relate  in  our  next  ar..icle.  Unfortunately, 
however,  instead  of  keeping  southward  when  out  at  the 
mouth  of  \yaranger  Fiord  (or  gulf),  they  sailed  away 
again  to  the  west,  in  the  hope  probably  of  reaching 
Wardhuys,  which  they  missed,  and  which  was  the  only 
point  in  those  immense  seas  of  which  they  had  any  dis- 
tinct knowledge.  The  coast  was  naked,  uninhabitedf  and 
destitute  of  shelter,  except  at  one  point,  where  they 
found  a  shore  bold  and  rocky,  but  with  some  good  har- 
bours. Here,  though  it  was  only  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber, they  began  to  feel  the  premature  rigours  of  a  north- 
em  season ;  intense  frost,  snow,  and  ice,  driving  through 
the  air  as  though  it  had  been  the  depth  of  winter.  On 
these  desolate  shores,  therefore,  they  settled  down  to  wait 
for  the  ensuing  spring;  while  rein-deer,  foxes,  Polar 
bears,  and  ** divers  beasts  to  them. unknown,  aud  there- 
fore wonderful,'*  haunted  their  settlement,  as  if  surprised 
by  the  novelty  of  the  fresh  tenants  of  the  soil. 

Nothing  more  was  .heard  of  Sir  Huih  Willoughby 
and  his  brave  associates,  until,  a  long  time  after, 
tidings  reached  England,  that  some  Russian  sailors,  as 
they  wandered  along  these  dreary  boundaries  the  year 
after,  had  been  astonished  by  the  view  of  two  large  ships, 
which  they  entered,  and  found  the  crews  all  lifeless,  to 
the  number  of  about  seventy  persons,  whom  they  jud^d 
to  have  perished  from  cold  and  hunger.  The  remains 
of  the  unhappy  sufferers  were  found  on  a  barren  and 
uninhabited  part  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Lapland,  at  the 
mouth  of  a  river  called  Arzina,  not  far  from  the  harbour 
of  Kegor.  From  papers  found  in  the  admiral's  ship, 
and  especially  by  tne  date  of  his  will,  it  appeared  that 
most  of  the  company  of  the  two  ships  were  alive  in 
January,  1.554.  They  had  entered  the  river  on  the  8th 
of  September  preceding.  The  journal  of  Sir  Hugh 
Willoughby  contains  the  following  reference  to  their 
distressed  situation  — 

Thus  remaining  in  this  haven  the  space  of  a  weeko,  seeing 
the  yeera  fiirre  spent,  and  also  very  evil  wether,  as  frost, 
snowe,  and  haile,  as  though  it  had  been  the  deepe  of  winter, 
we  thought  it  b^t  to  winter  there.  Wherefore  we  sent  out 
thret)  men  south-sijuth-west,  to  search  if  thev  could  find 
people ;  who  went  three  dayes  journey,  but  could  find  none. 
After  that  we  sent  out  other  three  westward,  four  dayes 
j  nimey,  which  alio  returned  without  finding  anj^  people. 
Then  sent  we  three  men  sonth-east,  three  dayes  journey, 
who  in  like  sorte  returned  without  finding  of  people  or  any 
similitude  of  habitation. 

The  unhappy  fate  of  Willoughby  and  these  early 
Engli:»h  navigators  is  thus  finely,  but  pathetically, 
allu    d  to  by  Thomson  :— 

Miserable  they 
Who  here  entangled  in  the  gathering  ice 
Take  their  last  look  of  the  deeoending  San  I 


While,  fun  of  death,  aad  fierce  with  tenfold  frortk 

Tlie.  loi^  king  alrht,  iucttmheai  efer  their  lieads, 

Falls  horrible.    $iich  was  the  Briton's  fate^ 

As  with  first  prow,  (what  liave  not  Britons  dared  !) 

He  for  the  poMSge  sought,  attempted  since 

8o  mooh  in  vain,  aiid  seeming  to  be  shut 

By  jealous  Nature  with  eternal  bars. 

In  these  fell  regions,  in  Araina  catight. 

And  to  the  stony  deep  his  idle  sliip 

Immediate  sealnl,  he  with  his  liapless  crew 

Each  full  exerted  at  his  several  tusk, 

Fruae  into  statues  ;  to  the  cordage  glued 

The  sailor,  and  the  pilot  to  the  .helm. 

In  our  next  paper  we  shall  pursue  the  adventures  of 
Chancelor  and  liutrou^Us,  alter  their  parting  tiom  v\  j]. 
loughby 

TuE  Lni]URT.^Hein8ius,  keeper  of  the  lihnuy  at  Le^'den, 
was  mewed  up  in  it  all  the  year  long;  and  that  which  to 
thy  thinking  should  have  bred  a  loathing  caused  in  him  a 
mater  liking.  **  I  no  sooner,*'  saith  he,  **  come  into  the 
library,  but  I  bolt  the  door  to  me,  excludiufi:  lust,  ambition, 
avarioe,  and  all  such  vices,  whose  nurse  is  Idleness^  and  their 
mother  Ignorance,  and  in  Uie  very  lap  of  eternity,  amoa^ 
so  many  divine  souIh,  I  take  my  seat  with  so  lofty  a  spint 
and  sweet  content,  that  I  pity  all  our  j^reat  ones  and  rich 
men  that  know  not  thb  li^pinei».** — Burtoji* 

If  a  man  were  to  apply  all.hb  strengtii  ditectly  to  a  rock 
or  to  a  box  of  merchandise,  which*  he  wishes  to  elevate  to 
some  point,  he  mieht  not  be  able  to  move  it  at  ail ;  or  at 
least  he  might  not  oe  able  to  raise  it  to  the  required  height. 
But  with  a  lever,  pr. with  a  wheel  and  axle,  era  pulley,  he 
efiects  his  object  with  ease.  Here  he  does  not  actually  gain 
power :  he  gains  the  means  of  aetinsf  i^poa  the  rtnkance  if 
decrees.  ,  It  b  like  taking  thb  rock  to  pieces,  and  cainyii^ 
up  the  parts  separately ;  and  a  little  reflection  must  con- 
vince us,  that  when  we  employ  a  machine,  we  exert  not 
only  all  the  force  that  would  be  requisite  in  such  a  caae,  if 
we  did  not  use  the  machine,  bnt  also  as  much  more  as  ii 
necessary  to  overcome  the  friction  and  weight  of  that 
machine.  It  b  a  great  error  to  suppose  that,  by  any  mecha- 
nical device,  force  can  be  gmtrioed^  or  evm  ansmentaL 
Mbled  by  such  a  notion,  projectors  have  imagined  that  they 
could  adjust  levers,  pendulums,  &c.,  that  would  act  with  a 
power  greater  Uian  that  which  thev  derived  from  any 
extenuu  source.  It  b  obvious,  and  should  ever  be  kepi  ia 
mind,  that*  the  tnerfja  of  matter,  in  virtue  of  whicfa,  no 
particle  of  it  ever  moves  except  in  obedience  to  some  force 
impressed  upon  it,,  and  in  proportion  to  that  force,  rendeis 
all  such  projects  entirely  impracticable.  Univeraally,  to 
overcome  a  resistance,  a  force  must  be  exerted  equal 
to  that  resistance ;  and,  as  we  have  already  said,  if  it 
be  exerted  through  a  machine,  the  force  mnst  be  absolutely 
mater  than  tliat  resistance.  But,  on  the  other  faan^ 
force  b  made  up  of  velocitv  and  the  quantity  of  matter; 
and  hence,  if  the  mass  to  be  moved,  or  the  resistanoe  to 
be  overcome  be  much  heavier  than  the  moving  power,  we 
equalise  them,  if  we  can,  by  giving  to  the  rsnsteace  a 
much  dower  motion  than  thai  which  th€  power  has  ^  thos 
making  the  greater  velocity  of  the  power  oompeoaite 
for  its  inferior  weight  or  mass.  In  all  these  cases,  howevo^ 
time  must  be  lost ;  and  it  must  be  remembered,  as  a  generJ 
principle,  that  whatever  advantage  b  gained  m  reaped  Is 
pow&rislogtinretpecttotie^m  A  man  with  a  machine  does 
no  more  than  in  the  same  time  he  would  have  done  withont 
a  machine,  provided  he  could  have  divided  the  resistaiice 
into  separate  parts.  In  many  cases,  however,  thia  ia  im- 
possible ;  and  hence  we  are  enabled,  bv  the  aid  of  machines, 
to  efitsct  what,  without  them,  would  nave  been  altogether 
beyond  our  powers— tSbfence  and  the  Arts  of  Indmatiy. 


•  AiehanedM  it  Mid  to  hftte  bfiMtad,  that,  if  he  had  •  pkoa  on  wUch 
to  •laud,  he  would  move  the  eaxth.  Had  mdi  a  place  been  AunMhed  bim, 
and  had  he  been  able,  moreover,  to  more  wiih  the  Teloriir  of  •  ouHmi 
ball,  it  would  have  taken  him  a  miUiiiii  oT  Teata  to  have  ahifttd  iIm  oanh 
only  the  twen^-aerenih  bamlnd  thnnnmdth  pan  ot  an  inch. 


LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRAKP. 

PuaUaUBO  IN    WK8KI.V  NOMMRRa.    PRICB  Oil 


pARTa,  fRtcB  Biapaitra. 
fioUbjaUBookMDflnaBA  KtwavcndMala 


Saturlra^^        m^^^^int^ 


N-  603.  NOVEMBER 


2r.P,  1841 


THE    BANKS  OF  THE  THAMES    X. 


■  THAMBS,  Wkmt  UCHMOim  RIU. 


Whila  nuUut  ummeT  openi  ill  ib  piid*, 
Thf  bill.  ddiirtitAil  Shanir     H<n  In  at  iwoif 
Th>  bsaadliB  Uadacipa :  Now  tha  iqinind  rjt 
EiDltinR  •■in.  la  bus*  Aiigiuu*  aand, 
tiaw  U  ilw  nter  bilbt  Ihu  ikin  her  pUIn. 
To  Inl^  HunnK  now,  aad  now  to  irhim 
HidciBc  WiodBT  lUU  bit  nitwclf  bnir. 
In  lanlj  csDinm  IB  Ifau  Morion  Tkw, 

"-•—' ■■ — (t.  On  win  wa  nun 

tt  Thamflft  Itnt  rani  Rnnv. 


XAiuiioiu.  then,  ran  ibnogh  tb*  pndint  waoi*. 
Thai  anMitif  ban«  o'sr  HxriDgtin'a  ntml; 
And  uooya^  ibmoa  lo  Hua'a  ambow'Tliiii  walba. 


fair  *ln^ni|  up  la  •ben  Uie  Mnan  huini 

In  Tinckin£ain  hawen.  aod  fiir  ihnr  Pnp*  Imtilan 
The  hauling  iml',  u  roiml  Hairpum'aplla; 
To  Clanmimi'i  mnnd  hniKht.  and  Eiihar'i  (nraa 
Whm  in  tha  iiieBun  iDliuida.  mbnad 
.  Dj  Ibc  anf)  windinp  oC  ihn  lilaat  MaU. 

Enchanling  nlal  bariiod  wbalaW  iba  Una* 
Haa  of  Achaia  or  Heap 


Ik  their  beautiful  lines — whose  len^h  will  be  par- 
doned on  arcmint  of  their  beauty — doei  the  poet  Thom- 
■oa  apeak  of  the  far-famed  view  from  Kicnmond  Hill, 


Tbe  town  of  Rithmond  ii  but  a  mile  or  two  diatant  fron 
Twickenham,  where  we  lefi  the  reader  in  our  laat  article; 
yet  the  whole  diat&iice  ia  lo  itndded  with  attractive  and 
pictureMiue  objects,  aa  to  seem  much  more  exteniiv* 
ihan  it  is.  Bolingbroke,  Peterborou^,  Pope,  ThomsoDt 
Rejmolda,  Horace  Walpole,  Garriek,  Colmao,  and  many 
other  diitinguiihed  men,  have  given  a  never-dying  cete* 
brity  to  the  verv  amall  district  included  withm  two  or 
three  milea  of  Twickenham,  and  of  which  Itichmond 
foraiB  apart;  a  celebrity  arising  either  from  their  poetical 
and  pictorial  allusions  to  the  scenery,  or  from  their 
luMtiog  dwelt  on  the  banks  of  the  lliames  at  tkii  park 
;  Th«  town  of  Richmond,  containing  about  lia  thouaand 
'inbabitanta,  haa  been  a  good  deal  connected  with  th« 
reigning  familiea  of  England.  The  manor  became  the 
-property  of  the  Crown  in  the  time  of  Edward  the  Firsti 
who,  aa  well  aa  his  neat  two  auccessors,  resided  here. 
The  laat-mentioned  monarch  built  a  palace  here;  and 
since  his  time,  the  manor  has  been  theresidenca  of  many 
members  of  the  royal  family.  Queen  Ann,  wife  of 
Richard  the  Second,  died  here ;  an  event  which  so  affected 
the  king,  that  he  abandoned  the  palace  and  allowed  it 
to  become  ruinoui,  bat  it  was  reitore^with  great  splen- 
dour by  Henry  the  Fifth.  Having  been  deitroyed  by 
Are  in  1498,  tbe  palace  waa  rebuilt  by  Henry  the  Seventh, 
who  changed  tbe  name  from  Sheen,  which  it  had  hitherto 
borne,  to  Rk-hmond,  timn  the  place  of  that  name  in 
Yorkahire,  the  earldom  of  which  waa  one  of  Henrv'a 
titles.  Philip  the  First  of  Spain,  and  Charles  ihe  Fifth 
of  Germany,  were  at  different  times  entertained  as  guests 
at  Richmood  Palace.  Queen  Elimbeth,  and  afterwarda 
Ckarloa  the  Pint,  fivquently  reaidad  here.     During  tbe 


3H 


THE  SATUHDAV  MAGAZINK. 


[NovxuBiB  37| 


troubles  of  the  civil  war,  the  palace  was  taken  otti  of 
royal  hatidl;  but  At  the  Restoration,  It  was  delivered  to 
the  ^ueeti  hiothef,  though  iil  A  very  dilapidated  sUte;  it 
was  shortly  afterwards  pulled  down,  and  private  houses 
erected  on  the  site,  the  owners  of  which  hold  a  lease 
from  the  Crown.  The  building  in  which  some  branches 
of  the  royal  family  have  since  resided  is  the  Lodge^  and 
not  the  palace  properly  so  called. 

There  are  two  parks  belonging  to  Richmond,  the  Old 
or  Little,  and  the  New  or  Great  Park.  Th«  Old  Park 
extends  along  the  banks  of  the  Thames  nearly  from 
Kew  to  Richmond,  and  comprises  the  extetisive  gardens, 
dairy-farm,  and  g^zing-farm,  so  much  esteemed  by 
George  the  Third.  The  Mew,  or  Great  Park,  enclosed 
by  Charles  the  First  (the  older  park  having  belonged  to 
the  palace  of  the  early  kings)  is  situated  southward  of 
Richmond,  extending  fhim  the  hill  to  the  Kingston  road. 
It  is  eight  miles  in  circumference,  and  comprises  an  area 
of  more  than  two  thousand  acres. 

The  elevated  spot  near  the  town,  known  as  Richmond 
Hill,  is  the  most  attractive  feature  in  the  neighbourhood, 
on  account  of  the  view  from  its  summit>— a  view  which 
embraces  everything  required  to  constitute  a  picturesoue 
landscape,  consisting  of  a  fertile  and  rickly-wooded 
plain,  through  Which  the  Thames  flows  in  a  winding 
course«  with  its  banks  ornamented  by  numerous  mansions 
and  villas,  and  bounded  by  hills  in  the  distance.  Its 
proximity  to  the  metropolis,  combiited  with  the  attrac- 
tion of  scenery  i^hich  it  possessei,  And  the  fkoility  of 
conveyance  both  by  land  and  water,  cause  it  tb  be  much 
resorted  to. 

Somewhat  to  the  north-east  of  ttichmnnd  is  ihe  pr^ttV 
little  vilkge  of  Kew,  situated  0|i  the  southern  biihk  of 
the  river,  opposite  Brentford.  There  li  a  rb^al  pulitee 
and  garden  at  Kew,  which  haVfe  befen  l6ng  eelebrated  ifbt* 
their  beauty, — at  tnist  \h^  garden.  The  jpalaee  is  nomi- 
nally occupied  by  ihe  King  of  tlahdver.  Us  t)uke  bf 
Cumberland.  It  was  a  privat«  miiitsibn  until  the  time 
of  King  George  the  First,  bdt  it  ^hMi  cattie  Ihtb  ihe 
hands  of  the  Crown.  GeorgiB  thb  Seebnd,  when  Prince 
of  Wales,  frequently  resided  there,  and  Thomson,  the 
poet,  who  at  that  time  inhabited  a  hou^  at  Richmond, 
was  a  freouent  visitor  at  his  table.  The  Princess  Dow- 
ager of  Wales,  mother  to  King  Geoi*ge  the  Third, 
ordered  Sir  William  Chambers  to  lay  oat  the  grounds 
and  fbrm  a  conservatbry  and  botanic  garden.  .  George 
the  Third,  who  resided  for  a  considerabTie  time  in  a  man- 
iion  since  eajiled  the  Nurser?,  in  which  liloit  of  the  royal 
ftmilV  were  bronght  up,  and  in  which  his  cddsort,  Queen 
Charlotte,  died,  gf«atly  im[iroved  and  ext^ded  the 
gardens,  which  he  united  to  those  of  Richmond,  and  be^n 
to  erect  a  royal  palace  in  the  ancient  style  of  English 
ar«hiteeture,  which,  after  remuning  for  several  yegirs 
in  lin  unfinished  state,  was  taken  down  in  1828.  The 
rt^l  gmhlens  are  tastefully  laid  oat,  and  eifabellished 
with  temples  of  the  various  oMerB  of  Grecian  arehltec 
ttlre,  i  Turkish  mosque,  and  a  Chinese  pagoda  bf  ebn- 
iidenible  elemtion,  from  the  Baihinit  ^  whi^h  a  niost 
bxtensive  prospect  is  obtained  of  the  scenery  on  the 
banks  of  the  Thames,  and  of  the  surrounding  oountrtr. 

The  botanic  garden  at  Kew  is  in  aome  respects  dis- 
tinct f^dm  the  garden  or  pleasnre-groands  attached  to 
the  paUice.  Ito  atowed  purpose  waa  tb  spread  the 
knowledge  of  botany  through  the  country,  bjr  collecting 
8}ieclmens  bf  rare  plante  from  idi  parts  of  the  World* 
tod  supplying  duplicate  specimens  to  other  gardens.  It 
occupies  about  6fieen  acres,  of  which  a  part  ii  set  off  as 
an  arboretum;  for  the  reception  of  treei,  tuid  tfai^  r^ 
mainder  is  occupied  by  stoves  and  gr^onhbuses.  bonfers 
of  herbaceous  plants,  spaces  left  for  the  arrangement  of 
greenhouse  plants  in  Uie  open  air  in  mmrner,  offices, 
yards,  &e.  The  arboretum  Contains  tnany  very  fine  speci- 
mens of  hardv  exotic  trees  and  shrubs,  most  of  which  are 
marked  With  labels,  nnmbered,  and  referring  to  a  private 
catalogue  in  the  ga^ d«B     Avumg  the  storea  and  green' 


housei  is  one  filled  with  foi^ifieent^pedmenisf  Kew 
Holland  pUinte,  %  second  with  siitail  pUitiU  frotb  the 
Ca])c  of  Gobd  Hope  and  New  Holhinil,  t  diird  with 
succulent  plants,  and  several  others  mi\i  stove  plants 
of  different  kinds.  From  the  peculiar  manner  in  which 
the  botanic  garden  is,  on  the  one  hand,  connected  vith 
the  palace  at  t^ew,  and,  on  the  other,  dependant  on  the 
nation  for  support,  it  is  not  easy  to  say  whether  it  is  a 
public  or  a  private  esteblishment.  About  three  or  four 
▼ears  ago  a  Committee  appointed  by  the  Lords  of  the 
Treasury  conunissioned  Dr.  Lindley  to  inspect  the  gar. 
den,  with  a  riew  of  reporting  how  far  it  answered  the 
purpose  for  which  it  appears  to  have  been  established, 
and  for  which  a  portion  of  the  national  revenue  is 
ever?  vear  allotted.  In  his  Reoort,  Dr.  Lindley  makes 
the  following  statement  ^— 

After  all  the  explanation  that  ban  been  offered;  afta 
allowing  foil  welgnt  to  the  assertion  that  the  botanid 
garden  at  Kew  has  always  been  a  prlvAto  establishment; 
admitting,  moreover,  that  a  latger  number  of  plants  hu 
been  given  awa^  than  is  generallv  supposed,  and  that  in 
manv  cases  applications  for  plants  have  oeen  Ubenllv  com- 
pliecT  with,  which  is  undotibtedly  the  fiwt ;  it  raillv  does 
seem  impossible  to  say  that  it  has  been  conducted  with  th«t 
liberality  or  anxiety  to  promote  the  ends  of  science,  ud  to 
render  it  useful  to  the  eottntry,  which  it  il  tisttal  to  meet 
with  in  similar  institutions  elsewhere. 

We  may  here  remark  that  the  public  are  adiaitted  to 
the  botanic  garden  daily^  dating  certain  houri  in  the 
afternoon. 

The  ehnreh  bf  k^  ti  iltUAfai^  bn  a  j^leioat  grassj 
spot  called  titii  ^  OMn,"  bet#eteii  U|e  bridge  and  the 
tottntiee  ttt  th^  bbtAttiisai  gtr4tod;  it  iras  erected  in 
ihe  rei^  dt  Qtitett  knAfx  ini  Iti  Uii  ehurbb-jard  at- 
tached to  II  tie  the  remiihs  o^  two  eelebrited  EngM 
balnters  of  the  Uii  eeiliuttt  Gainsborough  and  Zoffaor, 
Iheforthefttf  ^hm  Am  in  1768,  and  the  Utter  in  18ia 
the  scenery  bf  Ken  tnii  ceietth^ted  b^  tllemlDa  in  the 
tbllb«^ihg  lines  :^ 

Fast  by  thii  ikore  #here  thJMir  UttftliiMt  strt^ 

Reflects  ne^  gloHes  in  His  breast ; 

Where  splendid  as  the  youthful  poet*s  draam 

He  ftitms  a  scene  beyond  Elysium  blest; 

Whore  aculptur^  elegance  and  native  graoe 

Unite  to  stamp  tjie  beauties  of  the  place; 

While  swetftly  Ut;nding,  still  are  ile^ 

Hie  wavy  lawn,  the  alupiiig  green, 

While  novelty  with  caatioua  eunning 

Through  ^very  m&te  of  flinev  irutiliiiidf 

From  China  boMWs  aid  to  d^k  thl»ieeiia 

Let  us  not^  croid  to  th^  Middted^k  Side  of  the  water. 
Immediately  opposite  a  point  of  Uie  river  mlaviav  between 
Richmond  and  KeW,  is  the  pleasant  irillage  of  Isleworth. 
It  consists  of  one  prinbipill  street,  flUed  ^ItH  respectahle 
and  well-built  houses,  t^he  environs  ari^  profusely  rich 
in  beautiful  scenery,  both  banks  of  the  river  being 
adorned  with  elegani  mansiohs  and  villas,  with  their 
annexed  pleasUre^ounos  and  sbrubberies.  A  Urg^ 
portion  of  the  latid  ih  the  ne{ghb6nrhi»od  Is  eultlrated  hj 
nuirket-gardenera,  who  supply  the  Lbn'dbn  market;  rasp- 
berries and  ttriwberri^  are  produce<l  here  in  g^^^ 
beauty.  It  was  tti  IsleWbrth  ttlKt  the  Ihsui^nt  baroDs 
held  their  head-quarters  for  a  considerable  time,  in  the 
reign  of  Henrjr  the  Third,  und^  iSimoB  de  Montford, 
earl  of  Leicester*  Thei^p  ^s  a  palace  at  Islpvorth 
belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Cornwall,  the  king's  brother: 
and  during  a  contest  betwwn  the  king  tnd  the  nobl(^ 
this  palabe  was  razed  to  the  grdiind  hf  a  riotous  moh. 
which  proceeded  from  Londoo  for  that  purpose. 

But  by  far  the  most  ihteMnftting  obj«ca  mar  hlevorth 
i|i  Sion  House,  the  seat  of  Ihe  Ddke  of  Northumberland. 
The  history  of  this  house,  and  the  manor  belbnginfr  ^^ 
it,  carries  us  back  to  the  ybar  1414,  when  s  spj«- 
d  d  monastery  was  founded  at  Twickenham,  for  fisty 
filters,  thirteen  priests,  fbur  deaooaa,  and  eight  lay 
brethren  6t  Ih^  ttOtr  dT  SifaH  ikogiiiliiie;     Abous 


1841.] 


nil  8ATUS0AT  UAOAZOrB 


1103 


twenty  y«irs  aftenrartfa,  ito  eommunitx  remoTec}  to 
Isleworth,  where  a  spacioui  edifice  called  tb«  monastery 
of  Ston  was  erected  for  their  reception-  At  the  dis- 
aolutioQ  of  monasteries  under  Henry  the  Sightb»  the 
site  was  granted  to  Sir  Edward  Seymour,  afterwards 
Duke  of  Somerset,  and  Lord  Protector,  who  huiU  there- 
on the  superb  mansion  since  known  as  Sion  flquse*  After 
his  fall  it  came  into  the  hands  of  ^  ^ffiffi  (Ifris  pf 
Northumberland.  ^  ' 

The  mansion,  which  underwent  "eT(ir|)  Klfittlifffif  llid 
additions  in  the  seventeenth  century,  nnmr  f P)g9  ^ffHf** 
is  a  spacious  quadranguUtr  and  emba^Uf ^^  ;^f|f qft^  f  ith 
towers  at  the  angles.  The  entmnce  f^^  tfffll  fffmUirn 
Road  is  through  a  handsome  gatewj^y,  p^  w^^l  l|d||  pf 
which  is  an  open  eolonnade  leading  inU»  a  spacious  lawn, 
ornamented  with  clusters  of  stately  ireei»  4ad  |)iielving 
to  the  macgin  of  the  Thamea,  whioh  pursues  ita  winding 
course  along  the  border  of  the  park  and  gcpwids*  A 
noble  flight  of  steps  leads  to  the  grea^  lull,  which  is 
decpr^tgfi  vith  cplcj^s^l  f  ^tues,  and  a  ine  bronzed  cast 
of  tb«  Wjngjpflaiji^ip.  Jbe  IpU  ftncfli  mto  ^  biWjl- 
some  Tpftffrjfli^  ^^nwf  Pi  which  h  ^  M^M»  m#rMe, 
and  t)^  W*lf».  WpWi  gpvnentf  4  W  fft\\mt  Wf}  f  wW* 

antique,  fi^ffimmM  I'll  f »#*«««.  m  l«^n  BWi«|»  pf 
the  samf  fih  ^i  pftt^y  materia};  mnarf  M  Kf  Pf  f HBJP- 

tncma  i?|«gnj|lmf)fr  to  Wf  P>rt  fif  |f^a  \^^m^^.  Jlp 
pUery,  i?>wh  ppiifjdni  |he  libran  iqd  ffifiMuiy).  (#  one 

hundred  aiifj  AfWrlftW  fP®*  »°  Wflfffi!  «»4  »9  fl«?i»M 
after  tb^  ai^Mfll^'  !^JF1{!*  fP  >tueeo,  dl  the  most  light 
and  elegant  design^  '  The  ceiling  of  this  gallery  is 
embellisl^^d  with  paintings;  fui  omamf^^t^d  with  vari- 
ous devices,  faannqnisli^g  vf^th  Uie  general  plu^acter 
of  the  whole;  i^i  i^iinediaffly  below  it  s^p  paint: 
ings  in  medallipns,  exhibiting  a  ^^f  ies  pf  pqrtraiU  pf  the 
Earls  of  i!i[grtbumber|an4t  of  ^be  Percy  ai)4  o^ymour 
families.  To  descrilns  ^be  apaftn^ents  of  ^ucb  a 
building  would  be  a  useless  task ;  for  it  may  well  be 
suppose4  ^^P  ^  r^idei^  of  <viip  of  ^e  highest  and  ipost 
ancient  of  our  pobility  e^bibjtf  alt  that  v^a|t)^  and  taste 
can  accumulate  in  the  i^ay  pf  decpratipf^. 

A  little  nortbward  of  SioQ  Hou?^  is  ^<  dirty  Brent- 
ford,*' a  town  which  qiore  tban  ppe  poft  baa  signalized 
in  a  rather  uncpniplimentary  manner;  fpr  Gay  speak? 
of 

^ntford,  tedipns  town. 
For  du^  strceiSy  and  ^hite-feg^ed  chickens  Imown. 

And  Thomson  h^  spoken  of 

Prentlprd  town,  qr  toifii  of  mud- 
The  tows  consists  principally  pf  pi^p  Ippg  str^ty  pp" 
wanis  of  ^  mile  in  length*  3vhich  ooptaiuf  #  fpv  aiapu- 
factories  s  but  the  chirf  source  pf  employnien^  i^  the  in? 
habitants  used  formeriy  to  bf  dpriyed  frpm  the  inuiiense 
traffic  along  the  Great  ^eftero  S^oadt  whtd»  passpf 
through  the  tovn*  But  lince  tbff  fining  pf  tbp  Great 
Western  Bailsray»  a  considerabte  portion  of  this  traiSo 
bai  beea  reyaoved  from  thp  high  road,  and  Brentford 
has  suffered  in  eonse((|uenoe.  Brentford  is  opnsidpred 
the  county  town  of  MidiUesex:  ai  thp  elections  for  thf 
county  uited  to  be  held  there,  as  are  now  the  pominationi 
of  cendidates.  A  neat  stone  bridge,  erected  in  the  ypar 
1825,  connects  Brentford  with  Kew. 

s 

TaouGfl  reiigipn  in  its  ordinary  mode  of  exhibition  eom- 
inonds  bat  little  lespeoti  when  it  rises  to  the  sabUme^  and 
is  perceiyed  to  tincture  and  pervade  the  whple  character,  it 
seldom  fails  to  draw  forth  the  homage  of  mankind.  The 
inoet  hardened  impiety  and  daring  profligacy  will  find  it 
difHcnlt  to  despise  the  man  who  manifeBtly  appears  to  walk 
with  God,  whoee  wh<^e  system  of  life  is  evidently  influenced 
snd  directed  by  Uie  power  of  the  world  to  come.  The 
ridicule  eaat  on  reUgioos  characters,  is  not  always  directed 
towards  their  religion^  but  more  often  perhaps  to  the  little 
it  porfonns^  contrasted  with  the  loftiness  of  its  pretensions; 
'  a  ridicule  whidh  derives  its  force  from  the  very  sublimity  of 
the  principles  wl^  the  profesrion  of  piety ^ 


TH^    DEAD    BWJ^T.l»oyr^ 

A  BIRD— hut  *tis  a  foolish  tboaght*-f 
To  me  doth  seen  as  though  it  were 
A  little  n>irit  of  the  air, 

ioo  happy  to  be  killed  or  capght; 
nd  I  could  weep  to  see  a  thing, 

Bo  joyous  in  its  volant  mirth, 

Dashed  rudely  down  from  sky  to  earth 
With  bleeding  brea«t  and  brolcen  wing. 
Thou  did*8t  net  deem,  an  hour  ago. 

Poor  bird  I  when  io  jqn  azure  height 

Thy  taper  wifigs  were  twinkling  bright^ 
W  lying  l^ere  so  pold  a^d  low  I— 
W hep  mom  hupg  gUipinering  o'er  the  pUiin, 

Thy  breast  was  Wet  with  twilight  dew^ 

But  pow,  the  life-blood  oozing  through 
Hath  dyed'  it  with  a  darker  stain ; 
And  now,  to  skim  the  ninny  lea, 

And  0^  with  sortive  splash  to  break 

7he  mirror  of  the  broad  blue  lake- 
Poor  bird  !  is  i^ever  more  for  thee  I 
poou— -when  pur  portb^qa  summer  diee^ 

Thy  gathering  c(ans  will  gaily  ^ee. 

To  softer  climes  beyond  the  sea. 
Through  pethsun  tracked  by  human  eyesi 
But  tiiuu  I  thy  pilgrim  toils  are  o'er— 

8o  here  I'll  pUe  thy  sylvan  bier 

With  leaves  which  winds  have  scattered  ssesL 
Pp9r  bird  I  U)(e  tfiee  to  rise  no  piprel--— J.  9.  & 

I  wxLi.  mention  three  fects,  illustrative  of  the  Tastlr 
superior  extent  to  which»  in  oommerpial  countries,  credit  is 
necessarily  employed  f!§  an  inatrument  pf  ^^change  beyopd 
reaf  or  maUtHk  moi^ey.  These  are,  first,  that  the  entire 
commerce  of  Scotland,  both  fprei^  and  doinestic,  is  carried 
on  without  the  practical  nsp  of  a  single  gold  piece.  Secondly, 
tidat  at  the  Bankefs*  Clearing-houpe  m  London,  exchange 
trahsBCtiohs  are  daify  settled  to  the  extent  of  five  millions 
sterling— on  some  day  sof  cAtrffm  millions— without  the  inter> 
ventioQ  of  any  coin  whatever,  and  by  the  einployment  of  a 
floating  balance  of  only  about  i*20Q,0Q0  in  Bank  of  Enghmd 
notes,  then^selyes  merely  representing  the  er^ji  of  that 
establishment.  Thirdly^  that  there  ia  at  every  paomen)  ii^ 
existence  in  England  an  aggregate  mass  of  iranpferable  credit 
m  the  shape  of  book-debts,  foreign  and  |nland  bills  of 
exchange,  niprtga^^  annuities,  and  other  mpneyed  uabili- 
tiesy  including  the  great  national  debt  itself,  to  an  extent| 
as  r^:ards  the  whole  empire,  certainly  of  several  tkouearA 
miUietu  in  value,  the  whole  of  which  u  strictly  in  employ* 
ment  as  a  medium  of  exchange ;  an  instrument,  that  sb, 
whereby  Qn»  individual  obtains  po88e8sto%  by  opnsent,  of 
the  produce  or  property  of  another ;  while  the  apdouat  of 
real  or  metallic  currency  civculatipg  through  tbe  same 
countries  does  not,  perhaos,  exceed  thirty  mllUons,  and 
might  probably,  as  in  ScotlaiK^,  ^  dispense^  with  aitqgedier^ 
wioiout  in  the  least'  affecting  the  extent  of  this  proai^iqiis 
mass  of  Iraasaotions  en  crwlfi.^ScRopB's  PeUHcai  Economy . 


Wbbn  ^iiixmeans  reached  China  ihr^  hundred /eaia  ^fo, 
they  found  all  arts  arrived  at  a  degree  pi  perfeciiop  ^hicn 
Was  ^uite  astomsning,  but  wbicn  thp  Chinese  have  not 
since  surpassed.  Later  still,  they  discovered  vestiges  of 
high  stats  of  knowledge,  which  had  disappeared.  Hie 
nation  waa  industrious  and  mechanical ;  the  greater  number 
ef  scientific  methods  weie  traditionally  presepred;  but 
science  itself  no  longer  existed.  This  exolains  th|9  kind  ^ 
singular  immobility  in  which  was  found  the  mind  of  the 
Chinese.  In  following  the  steps  of  their  fathers,  they  had 
foigotten  the  reasons  after  which  their  fathers  worked  and 
acted.  They  made  use  of  the  form  without  the  sense. 
They  kept  tne  instrument,  but  had  no  loneer  the  power  of 
modifying  or  improving  it.  Accordingly  nothing  was 
left  to  them  hut  eternal  imitation,  all  Being  dark  and  un- 
known to  them  beyond  the  beaten  nath.  The  source  of 
knowledge  was  dried  up,  although  the  streams  continued 
aomehow  or  another  to  now.  In  this  manner  China  con- 
tinued to  subsist  for  agl^s,  peaceable,  industrious,  rich,  and 
happy.  War  and  revolution  were  unknown  to  them. 
Mupt  not  some  similitude  be  found  between  us  and  those 
baniariansf  Some  people  idlow  light  to  be  ravished  firom 
them>  whilst  ethaie  tcead  it  out  beneath  their  feet.— Dn 
TooQlJinrttUi, 


THE  SATURDAY  MAflAZmK. 


[NoVEMiii  17, 


ON  CHESS.  XXII. 
Ths  Khights  Move. 

Whilk  itudyingr  the  »arious  power*  of  the  piecei  ftt 
chew,  we  cannot  fu(  to  be  itnick  with  the  remarluble 
move  of  rhe  knight:  ire  have  made  it  probable  that  the 
niove  of  this  piece  originated  in  a  compound  of  the 
jboriest  motes  of  the  bishop  and  rook;  but  in  mudtm 
chess  this  piece  is  the  only  one  which  ii  allowed  to  move 
over  the  heads  of  other  pieces.  The  peculiar  power 
which  this  priTilege  gives  to  the  knight  in  aolual  play, 
it  is  not  our  purpose  here  to  discuss:  another  interest- 
ing question  will  occupy  our  attention.  A  little  cou- 
•idcr&iiiin  will  show  i  hat  the  king,  provided  no  other 
piece  were  on  the  board,  could  pass  in  succession  to  every 
one  of  the  sixty-four  squares,  either  with  or  without 
going  twice  over  the  SBme  square ;  the  queen  could  do 
the  same,  and  so  likewise  could  the  rook.  But  the  pawn, 
u  it  can  only  move  straight  forwards  (except  in  captur- 
ing, and  even  then  it  moves  obliquely  forwards),  cannot 
traverse  the  siity-fuur  squares ;  nor  can  the  bishop  do 
BO,  for  one  consequence  of  his  diagonal  move  is  to  con- 
fine him  to  squares  of  one  colour:  consequently,  he  can 
traverse  only  thirty-two  squares.  The  knight  is  yet  re- 
maining, and  a  question  arises, — Can  the  knight  traverse 
the  sixty-four  squares  without  stepping  on  any  square 
twice?  Ilie  solution  of  this  question  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  circumstances  in  tfae  history  of  chess ;  for  as 
it  was  soon  found  that  the  problem  could  not  be  solved 
by  mere  inspection,  the  difficulty  attending  it  drew  the 
attention  ol  ingenious  persons  towards  the  subject. 
Difficulties  act  upon  scientific  and  ingenious  minds 
nther  as  incentives  than  aa  discouragements;  and  this 
problem  of  the  knight's  move  attracted  the  notice  of  first- 
rate  mathematicians,  who  might  not  otherwise,  perhaps, 
Iiave  paid  any '  attention  to  cbeis  and  its  associationi. 
Among  the  distinguished  men  who  have  endeavoured  to 
solve  uis  problem  are  Euler,  Bemouilli,  Mairan,  De- 
moivre,  Montmort,  Willis,  and  Dr.  Rt^t ;  «nd  we  pro- 
pose in  the  present  chapter  shortly  to  consider  the  re- 
mits at  wfaica  they  arrived. 

Most  of  the  solutions  of  the  problem  (for  we  may 
hwe  state  at  once  that  it  can  be  solved,)  have  been 
vrired  at  by  repeated  trials,  without  proceeding  in 
Kcordance  with  any  particular  law  ;  and,  we  doubt  not, 
that  most  of  our  readers  could,  with  a  little  patience  and 
ingenuity,  carry  the  knight  over  the  aixty.four  squares, 
after  many  trials.  But  the  object  of  such  a  man  as 
Euler,  whose  profound  mathematical  talents  led  him  to 
seek  for  principles  in  every  department  of  study,  was  to 
elicit  some  general  law  by  which  the  required  object 
might  he  attained.  He  was  successful  in  tracing  the 
outline  of  a  rule  or  law  by  which  this  might  be  accom- 
plished; but  the  practical  application  of  it  was  so  diffi- 
cult, that  we  doubt  whether  any  one  but  himself  has  ever 
ftdopted  it.  The  thorough  mastery  of  the  subject  can 
only  be  attained  when  we  are  able  to  solve  the  problem 
in  all  its  varieties,  that  is  to  begin  the  circuit  of  the 
koight  at  any  given  square,  and  to  end  at  any  other 
given  square. 

In  order  to  trace  the  power  of  the  knight  step  by  step, 
KB  anonymous  writer,  about  twenty  years  ago,  gave  re- 
presentations of  imaginary  chess-boards,  rectangular,  but 
containing  a  smaller  number  of  squares  than  a  real 
board ;  and  he  was  able  to  demonstrate,  that  if  the  board 
contained  12.  20,21.  24,  25.  2S.  3D,  32,  35,  3J,  40,  42. 
48,  49,  or  56  squares,  the  knight  could  be  carried  over 
the  whjle  of  tnem,  without  going  twice  on  the  same 
square.  These  moves  of  the  knight  may  be  represented 
either  by  numerals,  or  by  lines  drawn  on  a  diagram :  the 
latter  is  the  more  periipicuoua  and  pleasing  of  the  two ; 
and  we  will  here  give  representations  of  the  modes  of 
proceeding  in  a  few  of  these  cases.  Let  us  suppose 
then  are  three  boards,  coatainiog  respectinlf  5x5, 


6x6,  and  7x7  aqaares,  the  knignt  can  be  csrritd  orer 
them  in  the  following  manner : — 

Ute  angles  represent  the   various  positions  of  the 
knight ;  and  the  lines,  his  paths  from  one  square  to  in- 
other.     Beginning  with  fig.  I  (o),  we  see  that  if  ikttcmT 
commences  at  the  left  hand  boUbm  comer,  alt  the  Iweoij- 
Fig.  1  'ai.  five  squares  in  succession  can  bi 

IB  traversed  without  any  one  bnng 
■  covered  twice;  and  the  route ler- 
I  minat*^  at  the  central  squsre.  jg 
I  fig.  1  (6.)thetourconimeBc«.l 
I  the  Hght-hand  bottom  coma 
I  aquare,  and,  after  euendBgimr 
I  the  thirty-sia  squares  in  tot- 
I  cession,  ends  at  the  sqnire  sen 
above  the  initial  square.  In  fig.  I  (c.)  the  route  is  o«t 
all  tfae  forty-nine  squares,  and  the  terminal  iquue  bit 
a  considerable  distance  from  the  initial  one. 


R(.  I  (1) 


Fi|.lM. 


These  examples  show  that  the  knight  may  make  lb 
tour  of  a  chess-board  containing  a  smallpr  mimbcr  id 
squares  than  the  regular  board;  and  there  ia  littlp dDUU 
that  it  might  alio  be  done  on  a  board  of  more  ihui  liiij- 
four  squares*.  These  imaginary  boards  have  helpfi  i» 
devise  systems  whereby  the  problem  can  be  solvn  vi 
,  n-al  board. 

j  We  will  now  give  three  diagrams,  representing  tlim 
I  modes  of  solving  the  problem  on  a  regular  chfSS-bMiti; 
and  the  reader  would  gain  a  clear  idea  of  the  subjM<  1^ 
performing  the  aame  operation  with  a  knight:  he  "I 
do  well  to  mark  each  square  with  a  counter,  sstliebigbl 
steps  on  it,  in  order  not  to  go  twice  on  the  ssnw  ufJtt. 
In  the  first  diagram  we  shall  commenre  at  one  comet 
and  terminate  at  another:  in  the  second,  we  sh»llwnr 
all  the  thirty-two  squares  of  one  half  of  the  boari,  bdait 
proceeding  to  the  other  half:  in  the  third  we  abali  F'" 
a  re-tniering  route,  that  is,  one  in  which  the/<ii(K|ii»'« 
is  situated  at  exactly  a  knight's  move  from  ik/rW 
squara,  so  that  the  tour  may  be  re-entered  on,  nd  per- 
formed in  precisely  the  same  wav  any  number  of  ton» 
In  fig.  2  («.)the  regular  boarJ  of  sixty-four  iquiws  ■ 
traveraed  by  the  knight,  beginning  at  ont-  corntr,  iw 
ending  at  another;  this,  it  will  be  seen,  forms  a  ip^ 
having  some  degree  of  svmraeiry,  but  less  au  i1i»d  '>^ 
or  two  which  we  shall  hefealVr  giie.  In  fig.  2  (4,)  u* 
squares  are  sepsreted  into  two  portions,  one  of  "ttj* 
is  traversed  before  the  knight  crosses  over  lo  ™ 
other.   Fig.  2  (c.)  possesses  th;B  distimniishing  propwtj, 


that  n 


n  any  squire ;  i 


ing  the  diagram,  we  commenced  at  the  right-hand  boii«» 
comer,  and  ended  at  the  knight's  third  square;  but  b"? 
other  initial  square  might  have  been  selected.  t««i« 
the  route  is  an  interminable  one,  re-entering  into  iif*''' 
Many  other  ingenious  modes  have  been  devispd. «"« 
of  which  we  shall  notice  hereafter;  but  no  *"'i*'^"'°'j 
attempt  to  give  a  y«i«of  solution  to  the  prob'™';^ 
been  made  public,  until  ibe  month  of  April.  IS* 
when  Dr.  Roget  communicated  a  short  but  admirjW 
paper  to  the  Philaaofihtcal  Ma^axme,  unfoWiu?  • 
method  by  which  the  problem  could  be  solved  w  "I 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZIMB. 

Fig.  3  (*). 


fonn,  that  is,  by  be^nmng  at  any  given  U|ii&re,  and  ter- 
minatinff  at  any  other  given  squaro  of  the  oppomte 
colour*.  We  will  now  attempt  to  explain  this  ingenioua 
method. 

In  the  first  place,  the  reader  must  conceive  the  board 
to  be  divided  InTo  four  quarters,  ot  sixteen  squares  each, 
hy  two  linen  passing  through  the  middle  at  right  angles 
to  each  other,  and  parallel  to  the  edges  of  the  board. 
Then  selecting  any  quarter,  we  shall  find  that  the  sii- 
teen  squares  may  be  divided  into  four  systems,  each  of 
which  consists  of  four  r^ular  knight's  moves.  These 
systems  are  shaped,  two  ts  perfect  squares,  and  two 
similar  to  the  rhombus,  losenge,  or  diamond  (in  future 
we  shall  use  the  last  of  the  three  names).  Thus  in  fig.  3 
the  sixteen  squares,  constituting  one  quarter,  are  divided 
in  to  four  systems,  represented  by  these  four  kinds  of  lines, 

'£' i,'^^y_}-'^  fonning  two  sqoues  and  two  diamonds; 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  four  sides  forming  each  of 
these  fifureS)  are  regular  knight'i  movei. 


In  the  next  place,  it  will  be  found,  that,  after  passing 
over  the  four  squares  of  one  system  in  one  quarter  of 
the  board,  we  can  pass  to  the  fame  system  in  an  adjoin- 
tng  quarter:  and,  after  traversing  that  system,  can  pass 
on  to  another  quarter,  and  so  on ;  thus,  in  sixteen  moves, 
we  can  traverse  the  sixteen  squares  forming  one  system 
of  the  whole  hoard.  We  will  demonstrate  this  as  to  Iwo 
of  the  svstemg,  and  the  reader  will  then  readily  admit  ita 
truth  as'  to  the  other  two.  In  fig.  4  (a,)  we  traverse  all 
the  sixteen  squares  of  the  system  ;  and  in  fig.  4 

(d,)  all  those  of  the  system The  diamonds  in 

the  former  case,  and  the  square  in  the  latter,  appear  to 
be  incomplete,  because  only  three  out  of  the  four  sidea 
are  represented;  hut  this  necessarily  results  from  the 
conditions  of  the  problem,  for  we  must  not  g'o  twice  on 
the  same  squarv,  which  we  inevitably  should  do  if  we 
drew  the  four  sides  of  each  figure:  the  knight,  however, 
steps  on  the  squares  representing  the  angles  of  each 
figure,  and  this  is  sufficient  to  make  our  descnption 
correct. 

Fig.*  (61 


Now  the  qnestion  which  aiiHs,  is  this:— Can  the 
knight  after  having  traversed  the  sixteen  squares  of  one 
system,  pass  on  to  another  system  ?  He  can  do  so 
nnder  certain  conditions:  he  can  pass  from  a  square  to  a 
diamond  system,  or  from  a  diamond  to  a  square  system  ; 
but  not  from  a  diamond  to  a  diamond,  or  fW)m  a  square 
to  a  square.  Moreover,  the  sixteenth,  or  last  square  of 
each  system  ought  to  be  as  near  the  centre  of  the  board 
as  possible,  since,  if  it  be  at  or  near  a  comer,  the  pasnge 
to  another  system  may  be  difficult,  or  even  impossible. 
If  we  examine  fig.  4  (a,)  we  shall  see  that,  beginning  M 
the  comer  square,  the  terminal  one  of  that  system  is 
such  M  to  allow  the  knight  to  step  on  to  either  of  the 
eouare  systems,  there  being  a  choice  of  four  moves,  of 
wnich  two  belong  to  each  of  the  square  systems :  simi- 
tarly,  from  the  terminal  square  in  fig.  4  (&.)  we  can  select 
four  squares  to  movo  to,  of  which  two  belong  to  each  of 
the  diamond  syxtems. 

If  the  neeesxary  prpcautions  be  attended  l».  it  will  now 
be  evident  that  the  problem  may  be  solved  by  the  method 
under  consideration.     Let  Uie  initial  square,  for  example. 


be  in  one  comer;  it  will  then  belong  to  «  diemond 
system.  After  traversing  the  sixteen  squares  of  that 
system,  the  knight  passes  to  a  sqjiare  avetera,  which  is 
succeeded  by  the  other  diamond,  and  this  by  the  other 
square,  when  the  tour  terminates.  A  little  practice  will 
give  the  necessary  facility,  provided  the  player  attenda 
to  these  two  points: — let,  to  complete  the  sixteen 
squares  of  one  system  before  be  passes  to  another  s  Snd, 
to  terminate  each  system  rather  towards  the  centre  o 
the  board  than  towards  one  comer.  Generally  speaking, 
he  may  pass  round  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  ad 
libitum,  and  mav  choose  any  one  of  the  sixty-four  squares 
he  pleases,  as  the  initial  square  . 

In  our  next  article  we  will  apply  this  method  to  several 
remarkable  forms  of  the  problem  under  consideration. 


Wb  say  of  a  false  man.  Trust  him  not,  he  will  deceive  yon ; 
WB  say  concerning  a  weak  and  broken  staff.  Lean  not  on  it, 
for  it'will  deceive  you.  The  man  deceives  )iroiuBe  he  is 
ffllne,  the  staff  hecnu'se  it  is  wank,  yet  our  own  heart  is  hoth. 
The  hpart  of  man  hath  not  strenirth  to  think  one  cood 
thoufcht  of  itself ;  it  cannot  command  its  own  attention  to  a 
prayer  ttn  Lines  long,  and  no  wonder  tlipn  t1i^:t  in  secret  it 
shonld  (trow  wenry  of  n  holy  relijiii'n,  whVb  C'iiswf«  "t  so 
mnnv  parts  as  to  make  the  business  of  a  whole  life.— 
JUSMI  T^IlrOB. 


208 


TH8  ftATtmOAT  MA0AZIM8. 


[NoYudin  W 


me^l,  ||  4  pro^H*  Wltt|r|»f  W^  |ntimate  UQtoii  flf  lh«l 
refinvd  W4  f tevttiri  Um  f  meli  iistingui|h«i  thp  »cu}p- 
tor,  wUb  ttlf  bowlfKlKf  of  lh«  l^ftals  and  AeM?  4t9#litiM 
80  itidif  ptmi^pl«  to  tb«  (toqnder.    We  will  f  ndwYpu?  ta 

In  WH  Ari^  ptftfNit  i^  V^H^^  ^  observed  that  tU  brOQM 
Btatpti  am  bf^nPWf  OoniUtini  pf  a  mere  shell,  dftlicttf  1| 
worM  OP  IJit  WMiripr»  IWP  pote  rudely  fashioned  in 

the  Intnrtof.  Ti>  pwdncn  f nil  ihnU  a  coinpUcatpd  seriti 
of  oparationt  art  Pnmisnry,  pomprising  altemaU  modal- 

lings  and  castings.  The  nucleus  with  which  the  artist 
commences  his  wdrk  if  an  inner  mould  or  core,  composed 
of  potter's  day,  platter,  and  brick-dust,  mixed  with 
water  to  a  working  oonsiitenct ;  thit  elay  is  worked  upon 
a  slight  iron  frame  or  sfcaloton,  and  fkshioned  into  a  rude 
resemblance  of  the  figure  about  to  be  oast,  but  smaller 
in  all  its  dimensions.  Hie  rough  eore,  thus  ibrmed,  is 
covered  with  wax  of  such  thickness,  that  the  dimensions 
of  the  figure  may  be  in  excess  of  that  intended  to  be 
executed :  and  the  sculptor  proceeds  to  aculpture  this 
waxen  surface  with  all  the  delicacy  and  care  which  he 
would  bestow  upon  a  marble  statue ;  working  out  his 
entire  design  on  the  wax.  This  part  of  the  process  being 
completed,  little  tubes  of  wax  are  fixed  perpendicularly 
to  the  8urfkce»  all  over  the  figure,  for  a  purpose  which 
will  be  presently  explained  ;  and  the  whole  of  the  wax  is 
then  coated  or  covered  with  a  layer  termed  the  shell. 
This  shell  consists  of  stmta,  formed  of  different  mate* 
rials ;  the  first  is  a  eomnosition  of  clay  and  old  white 
crucibles  well  ground  and  sifted,  and  mixed  with  water 
to  a  creamy  consistence ;  this  is  laid  on  with  a  pencil, 
in  the  manner  of  p^iQt,  seven  or  eight  successive  coats 
being  givei^,  an4  th^  surface  dried  after  each.  The 
next  sif^Um  PPPt|i»«  flf  jH^P  Wt  substance  topthtr 
with  a  iUtfp  fiWth  ta  fj?f  fl  JBPrp  Ipfidity,  and  the  fhird 
stratum  is  I^H  mprp  ipHp.     TpP  m^or  semi-fluid  ihpU, 


thus  lai4  onf  mn  Ap  (WWhIpP  W  the  different  perU, 
which  i^  pfMrWif4l  WWW  M  m  Iff^tal.  The  sheU  if 
now  seauntd  to  IPfprtl  hnnd^gm  pf  Ifon  wound  ronn4 1^ 


secured  ^  fp  tnM|  rilfff  •!  *P  top,  ppd  to  a  gratif|f  ff 
bottom,  pn  f  meh  ^^c  n^^del  hnd  lnoen  erected. 

Thus  hi  t(|  tbo  ppprilMpni  my  ^  classed  undpf  ff^ 
head  qf  mpdetlipf  {  ^Hl  1^  f^pt|  process  is  4  ytry 
curious  one,  ?t».,  tP  mrtl  PHl  0lf  prax  from  betprptsp 
the  cl^y  open  pn4  ^  PP^PP  PPP(1>  &nd  thus  loMP  p 
vacuity  afterwards  to  be  filled  up  with  metal.  The 
grating  on'^whtch  tMi  model  hks  heen  built  vp  is  plPcerf 
at  the  bottom  of  n  tcjuare  hole  made  in  the  ground. 
This  hole  is  lined  with  fhse^stone  or  briok ;  and  beneath 
the  grating  is  a  smaller  hole  provided  erith  a  fomaao* 
Whcfn  the  ftgnre  is  complete,  a  moderate  fire  it  kindled 
in  the  small  fUmaoe  juet  allnded  to  { and  the  heal,  being 
confined  and  eiqnaliied  by  boarde  phMed  over  the  bole, 
speedily  melte  the  layer  of  wax  betsreen  the  core  and 
the  shell,  and  cause*  it  to  run  down  from  all  parte  of 
the  figure,  out  of  pipes  introduced  for  that  purpoee  at 
the  foot  of  the  mould*  There  must  now  be  a  vacancy 
everywhere  where  the  wax  had  been,  and  this  vacancy 
is  carefully  preserved. 

The  hole  in  which  the  figure  is  plaeed  is  tiien  entirely 
filled  up  with  bricks ;  and  the  fire  m  the  furnace  is  con- 
tinued until  the  whole  contents  of  the  furnace,  mould  as 
well  as  bricks,  are  thoroui^kly  red-hot.  The  furnace  i« 
then  extinguished;  end  when  tne  contents  are  cpld,  the 
bricks  are  removed,  and  the  apace  ie  filled  up  by  earth 
rammed  in  closely  round  the  figuns. 

All  is  now  ready  for  the  introduction  of  the  melted 
metal,  and  ^e  will  therefore  proceed  to  speak  on  that 
point.  Sometimes  brass  is  the  metal  of  which  sti^tites 
are  formed;  but,  generally  speaking,  the  metal  is  an 
alloy  of  copper  and  tin.  In  every  case  copper  is  one  of 
the  component  metals,  for  brass  is  acomi)ounci  of  copper 


and  rinc;  while  bronze,  or  statuary  metpl,  a;  urellwbelU 
mete)  pnd  gpn-metal,  iirp  ppinnpundf  of  ppmr  lod  tin. 
Tbp  nWpf  pltTerence  bp^wenp  «|p  Ipf t-pPTOfP  thttt  com- 
POUft*  mf^  »J»  fr«  PffiPPnipn  tatVfffn  ^p  popper 
tad  tpp  HP:     Gen^fi^lll  |Opp|unff,  mm  ^^^^^ » 

Urjp?  prppprtion  of  pppder  i^  of  tin ;  but  mpit  stata- 

anpl  J^Vrt  particulat  ^^inpttonf  which  *«J  prefer. 
TM  furpppp  in  whic||  tpp  urpnw  If  m]t^  finpt^wbat 
jreieinblpi  ap  oven,  ai^d  it  provided  vitp  thms  apertures, 
pne  to  put  in  the  wo<^,  enptber  for  i|  rent*  m  s  thinl 
^  mn  tbp  fnetal  out  at.  '*  from  thU  |pst-ni«ntioQf»l  aper- 
ture, which  if  kept  clpHtd  wbiip  tbp  n^ctai  is  in  fuion,  a 
littlp  tubp  pr  canal  extendi,  by  vhipb  the  melted  metal  is 
conveyed  to  a  large  earthen  basin  situated  over  the 
mould,  and  from  this  basin  spring  a  number  of  liitle  jeti. 
for  conveying  the  metal  to  difilsrent  parts  of  the  iiguis. 
All  the  jets  are  terminated  or  stopped  with  plug1^  vhicli 
are  kept  close  until  sutfacient  metal  is  contained  in  the 
basin  to  supply  the  whole  figure ;  they  are  then  speedily 
removed  by  iron  rods  attached  to  them,  and  the  melted 
metal  msbee  into,  and  fills  up  all  the  cavities  which  bad 
been  previously  occupied  by  the  wax. 

When  all  is  oold,  the  earth  which  had  been  pressed 
into  the  pit  is  removed,  the  shell  or  crust  is  broken  off 
from  the  metal,  and  the  clay  eore  is  removed  from  within 
it;  leaving  a  thin  metallic  figure,  whose  external  rarftce 
represents  the  object  Intend^,  but  needs  to  pass  through 
the  hands  of  the  sculptor,  who  repairs  any  defects. 

Where  the  statue  is  very  large,  the  quantity  of  netal 
ueoeesary  for  this  process  is  considerable,  and  constitutes 
a  formidable  item  in  the  expense.  Hence  various  plans 
have  been  suggested  for  producing  very  thin  statues,  is 
order  to  effect  a  saving  in  the  quantity  df  metal  emplojed. 
One  such  method,  employed  to  a  considerable  extent  on 
the  Continent,  is  the  following.  The  figure  is  first  made 
in  plastf  f  of  Paris,  of  the  exact  shape  and  dimensions  it 
If  foteildf^l^'^  wbfin  completed  in  metal,  and  placed  in 

aerppt  PfHitiffO  PO  p  firm  platform.  \t  is  then  covered 
.  9T«r  PF  §  ibelli  composed  of  ^  J\m\i^r  of  pieces 
Wt#4  jm  WrWtjy  together,  so  ^|i^  ^ey  mi  ^  ^^ 

Koypdi  fM^d  \m^  Ht  fc  another  situatiflfit  <t»R»inf »«  ^^ 
tf»rior  #  Aptl?  Utactly  resembling  tfa#  prijnnaf  one  is 
plff^f.     ^e  fprj^  is  commenced  f^  tbp  bottom,  br 


m  tfficffVmff  pf  pla#^r  of  Paris,  which  unites  with  the 
land,  «||4  l^rmt  PHe  block:  the  remaining  part  of  the 
figure  is  completed  up  to  this  height  all  round,  in  a 
similar  fenanner,  by  blocks,  of  which  |Aie  nnnber  and 
amngement  must  be  such,  that  they  inay  be  renoTcd 
when  the  shell  is  eoo^ilete,  srithout  diatttfhing  the  sud. 
Another  ooiirse  it  now  oonmenoed  and  completed  in  the 
same  iray,  and  the  work  is  thoa  ooniinued  tmtil  the  whoie 
figure  is  oompietely  aorrduaded  by  tke  shell.  Dnrinf 
the  progreee  of  tu  wofk>  tuliet  Hfe  oast  in  with  tht 
plaater,  for  the  admieaion  of  the  metal,  and  for  the  escape 
of  the  air,  as  in  the  common  method  i  and  iroo  rings  are 
1^  into  the  plaster  for  die  con\teaienoe  of  raising  «A 
removing  the  blocks.  When  the  shell  is  complete,  it  n 
taken  to  pieces  and  removed  to  the  caeting-pit,  where  it 
is  carefoliy  rebuilt,  and  the  interior  filled  up  with  the 
material  to  form  the  cere.  It  In  now  «  second  time  taken 
to  pieoes,  leaving  the  core  of  the  exact  ahape  and  dimen- 
stone  of  the  original  figure,  from  which  is  sdmped  of  six^ 
a  quantity  of  material  as  v^l  give  the  neceesary  ^udne$i 
of  metal  to  each  part  of  the  figure.  The  sheH  is  tbea 
again  pnt  together  in  its  original  position,  and  will,  there- 
fore, leave  a  space  between  the  interior  of  it  and  the 
core,  exactly  equal  to  Uie  thtdmess  of  material  which  has 
been  removed.  Nothing  now  remain^  ^o  be  done,  bnt 
drying  the  mould,  and  pouring  on  (ke  metal,  vhith 
operations  are  performed  in  the  ordinary  way* — This 
method  effects  a  great  saving  of  metal ;  but  it  at  ibe  sauf 
time  requires  much  care  and  dexterity. 


1841.3 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINS 


S07 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS 

NO  VEMBER. 

MrtTBiioQi  Fowcfti  #hloh  gutdts  bjr  ttight 
Through  the  <kr](  wood  th«  uTuiQiliad  tight  i 
Which  prompts  them  hj  the  unerring  Mpell, 
The  appointed  pter'e  abode  to  tell, 
Bore  with  long  hill  the  Inveatiiig  aoold. 
And  fM,  and  froln  the  facr^  hold 
Dislodge  the  reptile  spoil !     But  who 
Can  look  Creation's  toIuim  dlftmgh, 
And  not  ft<eeh  ptooft,  at  wtf  Vat% 
Of  the  CasAToa's  raind  disoem : . 
The  end  to  whleh  his  actions  tend ; 
Thk  Aeansi  adapted  to  tlie  end ; 
The  rweoning  ihougUt :  the  ctellvi  akili 
And,  nding  all,  tba  Almightj  will? 

Biatlo^  BIaDt'I  BHtikK  iionih»» 


NovKMBBR  introduoes  tbo  opmnMBOBment  pf  a  gpprt 

thai  must  be  practised  in  bleak  and  marafay  district!  b^ 

those  who  are  its  advocates.     The  shooting  of  wood- 

eocks  and  snipes  demands  on  the  part  of  the  sportsman 

a  power  of  resisdng  the  effects  of  thf  wet  and  oold 

seasoui   and  of  baring  the  inconvenienoef  resulting 

from  the  nature  of  the  ground*     Of  snipe-shootingt  in 

particttlar»  it  has  been  saidi  that  the  man  who  follows  it 

should  be  possessed  of  a  strong  c^onstitution,  not  liable 

to  eatch  cold,  and  should  have  all  the  fortitude  as  well 

as  exertion  pf  a  water  spaniel.     To  succeed  in  his  sport, 

he  must  be  habitually  inured  to  wet,  dirt,  and  difficulty, 

and  no(t  be  daunted  by  the  most  inclement  weather.     It 

appears  strange,  to  those  who  have  but  little  sympathy 

with  the  pursuits  of  sportsmen,  that,  at  a  season  of  the 

year,  when  even  the  most  favoured  spots  of  our  Island 

present  few  attractions  to  out-door  employments,  and 

when,  except  for  the  transaction  of  necessary  duties,  we 

might  naturally  be  willing  to  shelter  ourselves  in  our 

eomfortable  homes  from  the  cheerless  and  fbggy  atmo* 

sphere  "without,— that,  at  this  uninviting  season,   the 

member*  of  the  sporting  community  should  find  their 

chief  delight  in  seeking  out  just  Uie  most  dreary,  and 

wet,  and  chilling  localities  in  our  own  and  the  sister 

island,  and  there,  in  defiance  of  bbg,  marsh,  or  half- 

frozen  pool,  should  follow,  with  so'mucli  eothusiasm, 

the  taak  of  destroying  our  winter  visitants. 

Woodcocks  are  fond  of  wild,  marshy  copses,  where, 
near  the  pobls,  which  are  frequent  in  such  spots,  they 
can  bore  the  ground  with  ease,  and  find  abundance  of 
food.  Solitude,  shelter  and  humidi^,  are  essentials 
with  these  birds ;  and,  therefore,  they  shift  their  quar- 
ters as  cultivation  changes  the  character  of  a  country. 
Devonshire,  Dorsetshire,  Cornwall,  and  Sussex,  are  the 
fevourite  English  localities  for  these  birds;  and  both 
North  and  South  Wales  are  celebrated  for  the  sport 
they  afford. 

The  Woodcock  (Scoiapas  nuHoola)  is  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  Snipes  proper,  and,  according  to  Bewick,  is 
fourteen  -inches  in  length,  twenty-six  in  breadth,  and 
weighs  about  twelve  ounces.  The  shape  of  the  head  is 
remarkable,  being  in  prottle,  rather  triangular  than  round, 
and  extending  over  the  b&s^  of  the  bill  in  all  directions,  so 
that.  In  whatever  way.  the  bill  ttia^  work  In  the  ground, 
^e  weight  of  the  he^d  |ivei  fbroe  (0  its  movements,  as  it 
penetrates  the  oosy  soil  in  search  Of  f0od.  Hie  bill  itself 
is,  however,  the  distinguishing  m/M  Of  this  jfkinily  of  birds. 
The  upper  part,  or  mandible^ Is  three  inches  long,  and  pro- 
jects beyond  the  lower  one,  ending  lil  a  kind  of  knob,  which 
is  susceptible  of  the  finest  feeling.  By  ttM^s  of  thi<  ouri- 
ous  or^n,  ihe  woodcOck,  lu  bmmon  wiib  btheir  birds  of 
the  same  genus,  is  enablea  b  distinguish  the  small 
worms,  &c.,  abounding  in  soft  moist  grounds,  and  then 
to  extract  them  with  its  sharp- pointed  tongue.  With 
the  bill  also  it  explores  among  fallen  leaves,  and  other 
rubbish,  in  search  of  insects  which  shelter  underneath. 
Three  varieties  of  woodcocks,  common  in  Britain,  are 
noticed  by  Dr.  Latham.  The  head  of  the  first  variety 
is  of  a  pAle  ndy  the  body  whitet  wd  the  wings,  brown ; 


the  second  is  of  a  dun,  or  rather  cream  colour';  and  the 
third  of  a  pure  white.  There  are  many  other  varia- 
tions in  the  plumage  of  these  bir48. 

The  grand  resort  of  woodcocks  during  summer,  is 
understood  to  be  tlie  marshy  woods  to  the  north  of  the 
Baltic,  though  this  species  is  generally  extended  through- 
out all  the  climates,  both  hot  and  cold,  of  the  Old  Conti- 
nent, and  is  also  found  in  both  North  and  South 
America.  Everywhere  it  is  a  voyaging  bird,  though  its 
migrations  are  mostly  horn  the  mountains  to  the  plains, 
and  from  the  plains  to  the  mountains,  and  not  from  one 
distant  countrv  to  another.  It  visits  this  country  at  the 
same  time  with  the  Ited-wing;  and  is  supposed  to  come 
from  Sweden.  The  most  numerous  trioes  arrive  in 
November  and  December,  and  as  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees 
are  stated  to  be  favourite  localities  with  woodcocks  in 
summer,  it  is  probable  that  some  of  our  winter  visitants 
arrive  from  thence.  The  arrival  of  these  birds  is 
hastened  or  retarded  according  to  the  weather:  they 
appear  to  wait  a  favourable  gale  to  waft  them  towards 
our  shores  without  much  exertion;  for,  that  they  are 
scarcely  able  to  endure  their  flight  is  evident  from  the 
fatigued  condition  in  which  they  often  reach  us.  Com- 
pelled to  alight  on  the  first  spot  which  ofiers  itself,  they 
have  been  not  unfrequently  picked  up  in  the  open  streets 
of  the  towns  on  the  coast,  being  too  tired  to  make  their 
escape.  They  are  in  this  case  usually  found  to  be 
extremely  lean  and  exhausted,  which  is  the  more  re- 
markable, as  other  birds  arriving  at  the  same  time,  and 
from  an  equal  distance,  show  little  symptoms  of  fatigue. 
It  appears  that  this  emaciated  condition  cannot  be  attri- 
buted solely  to  exhaustion  on  account  of  their  long 
flight  I  sibQe  those  which  are  killed  in  Norway  before  the 
migration  has  taken  place,  are  already  in  a  poor  condi- 
tion* and  infested  aaqi  vermin.  It  is  therefore  pr6bable 
that  their  fiitigue  is  the  consequence  of  their  debilitated 
state,  and  not  the  cause  of  it.  At  first  the  woodcocks 
arrive  one  by  one,  or  two  by  two,  but  later  in  the  season 
they  appear  m  flights,  according  i»  tne  wind  serves  their 
purpose.  They  are  often  descried  for  the  first  time  in 
the  evening  of  a  misty  day,  and  are  found  to  alight  in- 
differently in  wpods,  hedges,  heaths,  &o.  They  are  very 
shy  and  retired  in  their  habits,  and  rarely  take  wing 
during  the  day,  unless  disturbed.  At  close  of  day  they 
quit  the  covers,  and  wander  over  the  meadows  in  search 
of  moist  places,  where  they  bore  for  food,  retiring  to 
their  hiding  places  again  at  morning  dawn«  The  eyes  of 
these  birds  $re  large  and  cpnvex,  so  that  they  cannot  see 
well  tacept  by  twilight.  A  stronger  light  appears  pain 
ftil  to  them,  and  it  is  probably  owing  to  t^e  weakness  of 
their  visual  organSf  that  they  have  acquired  a  character 
fbr  stupidity.  In  their  mpde  of  feeding  the  eye  is  not 
called  into  use,  and  they  depend  on  the  exauisite  sense 
of  feeling  in  their  long  bill,  aided  perhaps  by  acuteness 
of  smelL  As  in  the  duck  tribe,  tne  nerves  of  the  bill 
are  extremely .  numerous,  and  highly  sensible  of  discri- 
mination by  the  touch,  so  that  when  plunged  into  the 
soft  earth,  not  a  worm  that  is  within  reach  can  escape. 

Although  the  woodcock,  in  the  great  majority  of  its 
nmnbers,  is  a  bird  of  passage  m  Brititin,  yet  nests  and 
broods  have  been  discovered  both  in  England  and  Scot- 
land, so  that  it  has  of  late  been  classed  among  our  native 
birds.  Their  nests  are  composed  of  leaves,  or  dry  plants, 
heaped  on  the. ground,  against  the  trunk  of  aome  tree, 
or  under  a  thick  root.  The  eggs  are  dull  yellowish  white, 
blotdied  with  reddish  brown,  and  are  about  four  or  five 
in  number.  They  are  rather  larger  than  those  of  the 
common  pigeon,  and  said  to  be  very  good  eating.  The 
young  birds  are  voracious  feeders ;  they  quit  the  nest 
when  they  are  only  covered  with  a  soft  down,  and  even 
begin  to  fly  before  they  have  any  other  feathers  than 
those  of  the  wings.  The  number  of  woodcocks  in  our 
islands  it  generally  admitted  to  be  on  the  decrease,  and 
Mr.  Blaine,  in  noticing  th^  circumstance,  complains  that 
these  bkds.  ar»  nnaanndfiiUy  pursued^  not,  aa  formerlyi 


!►        ••'^•V^ 


tM 


THE  SATfflflSft  MAGAZINE. 


CNoTEUBkK  37,  IB41. 


by  one  ptnwr  from  every  Wllaire,  ' 


IftefoufHlW  f^ctii 
shooters,  who  in  'our  day  have  learned  to  hiu^l] 
^ac'  '"Thd  commea-  yrin^p^a-^Cb^mMiity."  tit 
MRtor,  »«Ui*uM  prevpflt  »  *nr 'of  titttr'einMraindi 


pliK,e  uliUh  rite  woodaoeli  ehe" 


.     ^ncni-    Jiil-lng  ttlP 


acquire  ii  at  fint  darktr 
tuinJUieirtai 


e  that  cornea  to  seek  fond  and  protection  from  dfCr:(  ifi}od.     The  bill  ia,  however,  short,  and  does  not  attain 
Thp  rnmntQ;!  Snlpf!  (.iS™^"f '?-^- g'V/^lgi?)  - '*  sI*".   '•?  full_ length  for  two  or  three__r 
provincially' caIIed~7ni7e,~or'A'irciffle>~ifca(«P;  ~  Ttmnafr"    cnnrfBtency  ^  iEfl  *^"™'™-  — 
agreein)f  very  much   in  esteniiil  appearance  with  the     close  in  the  herbagt 
woodcock,  it  differs  from  ^t' ift''natahil -b<bifi,''4iid4li«4  rilSbdi'tV^lict^Ung 


18  also     lis  fuii  length  for  two  or  three  monthsj  nor  ita  proper 

Ttmnafr"   cnnrfBtency  ^  iEe  ftflowrag  sprSiig'.  ■    SnlpB"  tie  "TWr 

_:.!,   .u.     .1 —  ;„  the  herbage  at  all  tiroes,  and  are  with  difficulty 

•TSei^  fiijcht  hai  often  ao  many 


day-time,  and  for  the  concealment  of  ita  iieBt  in  thi 
breeding  Beason.  is  one  which  nonld  not  suit  the  wants 
of  the  snipe.  The  latter  bint  prefers  the  open  manhy 
grounds,  and  seek*  no  other  concealment  than  ia  afforded 
by  tufli!  of  heath,  and  gra^.  l^nipes  are  still  i 
rally  diffused  than  woodcocks,  and  there  is  no  portion  uf 
the  world  tn  vhieh  some  of  them  have  not  been  fbund. 
They  are  so  numerous  in  the  rice-grounds  of  Egypt, 
soon  after  the  crops  have  been  gathered  in,  that  it  is  not 
uncommon  for  a  person  to  shout  a  baakct-fiiU 
Tlie  soil  is,  however,  so  completely  impr^(ni 
wnter,  that  the  sportsman  finds  it  fatiguing  wi 
verse  the  fields,  and  sinks  at  every  step  be  tA^St  SQlue 
tiiues  above  hia  knees.  These  birds  are  coniBion^tlt 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  the  islands  o^  Ceylffi  anc 
Jafnn.  They  greatly  abound  in  some  parts  iDfJ;:^!)^^ 
ao  that  forty-three  brace  have,  b#fn"  killed  HttrtegeMtlii; 
man  in  six  hours.  The  ^^jOitiAon  snipe  «ttgM.about 
four  ounces ;  it  is  near  tVetye  fnchea  in  tengthi  pf -^'BuAt, 
thf  bill  occupies  three  inghee^  Tbe'-head  ia  bl^lK'  'with 
a  Eight  rufous  stripe  dpwiv  t^e  m^dle,  and  ot^ers'^ur-^ 
rounding  the  eyes;  tli^  tbi^t  ii  tthit^;  theJ  cba^, 


tiiminfra  and  windings  ■■  t«  mafia  fhm  .tiffl.^|lt  «■» 
Birds  of  prey  also  find  the  snipe  ■  tnuiUesomfr  and  lex. 
lerotu  object  of  pursuit  In  the  first  place,  tfaw  lai 
to  beat  a  long  time  before  they  can  make  it  Uii*  tk. 
wing,  Budali«i,  if  the  snipe  gets  the  least  advantaf  e,  it 
i&tubtes  M^tW  and  ao  rapidly  that  if  the  hawk  ii  not 
oltegether  (ifhpilv  out,  the  chase  is  often  a  Wgtheoed  dm. 
The  snijJfc^uskaUy  grows  very  &t  both  in  Europe  and 
Narth^Ame^il^Md  after  the  early  frosts,  its  ie«h 
ac^%|;.4  0Qe  and  d^eate  flavour.  It  is  cooked  hke 
thf^MoAciocltrvtttMtit  extracting  the  enUBila,  an  I  is 
evtif&rKere''6stcGsed  ak  an.  exquisite  game.  The  f  1  of 
'^th^  Uilpe  is  [w9ttcutarly  Delicate,  and  is  not  apt  to  i; 
tit*lo'****P^«^ Vi^  ™*»e  ^ho  eat  'it.  Snipes  are  i  i 
iufralrinis  tban^)&&odeoik»  in  this  country,  uid  in  tl 
iemiy  distriita'  a^'eaaKitlly  abundant.  In  frost 
■4^o*y  neathef/^^  fciris  resort  in  numbers  b 
,  .«pring«y  aod'otWr  pl^ees  where  the  gnmud  i 
'wj^joz/o,  t|ese4ein|f>ihe  only  situations  in  «hi<^ 


-a    ■    -    -J---    ---   -        -  r .       -     r  ^j   -    - ^  .,_.jfe  level  districts.     The  i 

netk,  and  upper  bre«t;'niofil«d  iutb  bla<Ji  «id  riyt-    Jands  of  ^mUad,  anS,  th(  Vicinity  of  the  locfas,  a  'onl 
coloured  patches:  tbe  wi™i<i;tail-<tOTePta,and  bafk/ar*'    ttftse  birds  in  cowUeXaWUVumbers;  while  in  Ent!  lod. 


bahvd  with  the  sain^ilbe  faiiK)!p;hreastiiiiu  ua,;, 
the  legs  are  in  sijnif?  ca«ek>f  a.-dj{sky  leatlicoV) 
ot^rs  green.         '^    '        '■''./■',■        -       'A 

JAutumn  is  the  ^?on  "fqr  the  ArrivaJ  of  thts-^ti^'SUa^ 
mist  of  the  loutjCfni  snj}^  wi^ft^m  .connuleir'af ' 
It.ia  then  met-Vitjl  .in,'ni9adows,-niys1»^/b( 
al4ng  the  bankr  of  ■tf^agi's  and  )tv^s.'   «^ 


cajries  its  he^oi^d^'^vtthout  ei^eF,''hoppid# 


'S  up  and  doW/'  On  takWg^i)^t, 
':.  as' often  to  bo  heard^ 


ing,  and  give^  it' a  horizontal  afovfinent.  vrni!e|  Ibl 

Tte  bill  a£ the  snipe  is  no'le^  remarl 

th(  woodcock,  being  adapted  far  boring...— .. 

ground,  where  worms  abound.'  It  is  ven^ia(ei 
remark  the  exact  adaptation  of  fonn  in  diffU^I 
their  peculiar  modes  of  life-  In  didiblinic  Vtds,  wlii^ 
ai^  and  turn  up  the  mud  of  shallow  streamA^il^aheir, 
flA  bills,  we  find  the  boat^haped  body,  th)  wetk^^oo^ 
and  alt  the  necessary  adnplations  for  ewiiiiAng  Jisd 
diving:  but  the  snipes  always  have  their  faetVin  the 
ground  while  they  feed,  and  we  find  those  feel i' (lot -.in' 
d^  so  uell  adapted  for  iralking  on  elastic  v^etV^n^ 
inasmuch  aa  they  are  destitute  of  the  long  btnd^toe, 
which  is  so  essential  for  that  purpose,  but  yet  -aeitjbrk- 
nbfy  titled  fur  walking  on  the  surface  of  soft  n:Hid,\Vnd 
in  those  moist  and  marshy  places  which  forjli-.ni^if' 
fntvouritc  localities,  while  they  are  not  in  any  w&y  odaptM 
fqr  swimming  or  diving.  i.,;—-  •, 

In  spring,  when  the  low  grounds  begin  to  g«t'S«y)'  . 
snipes  moke  their  way  to  more  itortherly  situations,  or 
tn  those  upland  regions  where  the  winter  lasts  longer, 
aad  the  surfnce  of  the  ground  continues  humid.  Some' 
fow,  however,  remain  in  most  parts  of  the  country  during 
summer;  and  in  the  north  ana  north-west  of  Britain  and 
in  th  '  hogs  of  Ireland  they  are  numerous.  The  nest  of 
the  snipe  is  always  in  close  concealment,  aniong  the 
thickest  herbage.  It  Is  rudely  constructed  of  vegetable 
fibres,  sbnlte'UmtlH  llliMl  With  witliiiiwJ  tsa^nsi     Xboaggi 


are  able  to pr*cur«f^64  Snipe-shooting  is  met  vrift  ia 
the  (ireateilt  perf^)j0i>  hi  Ireland ;  in  Wales,  al»e,  both 
North,  a/d  SDmV,'aMffe  are  pler-"=  '    -■— ^—  -    -^ 


rH,.^ 

nuM^Aajhs 


itiee  flf 'Okrtlb^(!)(*,V.hicoIn,  and  Northanj  ton, 
Essex  m^rahey  Art<4n«ir  favourite 
'.    Hf^i^-hi'ni^MWklsJtotniilMls, 
I  wSboTiA'iLdii'nk  imd  n«Iiy  dells, 
/    ,     .  j  6rlilia^^'^iteb«nM>unlun*stind 
/^s^i      Oreen  Ksita'Vheatii^  ^ivarnps  are  qiread ( 
-'V    '      You'll  hear  reV*''^  "*t  frtUe  japo 

Shrill  BoundingY  the %k^dS)>irc, 
And  aitch,  recedViS  fW)«i  tile  tlev 
Hli  ■!»(■  of  liUck  Md  ti^y  lue; 
As.  starting  frum  liix  ^e«i47  '^> 
Kefliwabntpt  the  appnjdF\<^iaen, 
And.  with  (jniok  wiiig  nndajV^  fUf^t, 
Sgulea  the  unpnutiged  fowloAftialtl. 


\ 


LONDON 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER, 


K2  604.         SUWLEMENT,  NOVEMBER.  1841.     {oii^S^ 

A  BRIEF  HISTOBT  OF  THE  FINE  AETS.    No  m. 


TlCTOUTi  »M1I  A  BOMAIi  ?*J»TIW  PO»P  AT  f«K»l«. 


no  .' 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OP  THE  FINB  ARTS.    No.  til 


•*<• 


JtaHMk. 


ON  THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  PAINTING  POSSMSBD 

BY  THE  ANOIAKTfl. 

k«..-*      --  ••     • 

The  «oltCT  canTjws  oft  mposed  the  «ml. 

TlicfH  unilv  broke  the  suii-illimi awl  cloud; 

1* lif  U-^H  tiiTis  pnwpect,  awl  the  innutitain  blue, 

Van  nhrtl  in  air;  the  precipice  lnnviie<l,  Jirc. 

While,  down. the  n)ck«  Jhe  nuhmn  inrrent  flashed | 

The  sun  ".hoiie,  trembling,  o'er  the  distant  main; 

The  tempest  fnamed,  immense;  the  driving  storm 

ftHditeiietl  the  skie*.  and,  fboro  the  dmibling  ffloom. 

On  the  scathed  oak  the  ragged  lightning  fell: 

In  closing"  shades,  and  where  the  current  strar*. 

With  Pence,  and  Lore,  and  Innocence  aroittid, 

Piped  the  lone  shepherd  to  his  feeding  flock : 

Kotitid  happy  parents  smiled  their  younger  selresj 

And  IHeDdi  'floaTerfeod  by  deilth  diridtfd  Idiigi— TttOMIoif. 

IftTRODUCTIOy. 

HAVWa  traced  in  oiir  former  Supplement  the  history  of  the 
Art  of  Sculpture  from  the  earliest  periods  to  vfhich  our 
knowledge  extends  down  to  the  present  time,  we  now  com- 
mence A  similar  underUking  with  respect  to  the  sister  drt  of 
Rtiutinv,  whicii  bein«c  more  extensive  in  the  ran|^  of  suh- 
iects  whiclt  it  presents  to  our  imai^ination^  depending  up«n 
illusion  for  some  of  its  more  striking  eflfBOts,  Ahd  employing 
principles  alwtrcictedly  unreal,  may  bo  considered  as  present- 
ing A  class  of  difficulties  to  the  artist,  altogether  different 
from  those  attending  the  practice  of  Sculpture,  and  Iti  many 
resiM?cts  more  formidalile  and  lees  likely  to  be  oTercome. 
Both  arts,  however,  liave  the  same  basis,  t.0.,  Form  ;  And  that 
basis  i«  made  the  great  and  fundamental  law  of  practice  in 
all  well  regulated  plans  of  study* 

That  painting  is  an  art  of  extreme  antiquity,  there  cannot 
be  the  slightest  doubt;  but  to  assign  the  country  where  it 
was  first  practised,  or  the  ciix'umstnnces  Attending  its  origin, 
is  beyond  the  power  of  the  historian.  It  has  been  justly 
observed  that  "  the  origin  of  a:iy  art,  science,  or  discovery, 
is  not  so  much  owing  to  the  particular  accident  which 
happened  to  the  individual  concerned,  as  to  the  intellectual 
adaptation  of  tliat  individual  to  receive  impressions  of  a 
peculiar  nature,  frotn  the  particular  circumstance  which  oc- 
cuiTed.  Thus,  whether  music  was  invented  by  the  man  who 
listening  to  the  sound  of  an  anvil,  instantly  composed  notes; 
or  whether  painting  was  discovered  by  the  girl  who  watched 
the  shadow  of  lier  lover,  as  he  sat  silent  at  the  prospect  of 
parting,  and  traced  it  on  the  wall  as  a  memento  of  thelf 
mutual  affection ;  whether  it  originated  with  Philoeles  In 
Egypt  or  Cleinthe^  in  Corinth,  or  long  before  Egypt  or 
Greece  were  habitable,  the  prineiple  is  the  same^  Without 
an  inherent  sudoeptibility  to  the  impi^ssinns  of  sound,  in 
preference  to  all  other  impressions,  in  the  man,  or  an  inhe* 
rent  susceptibility  to  the  impressions  of  form  equally  Intense 
in  the  girl,  the  intellectual  faculties  of  either  would  neVer 
have  been  excited  to  compose  notes,  or  to  defme  figuresi 
The  art  originated  witii  the  first  man  who  was  bom  with 
such  acute  sensibility  to  tile  beauty  of  form,  colour,  Hght, 
and  shadow,  a^  to  be  compelled  to  convey  his  thoughts  by 
]»0Bitire  imitation.'* 

Sbction  I.     Earltbst  Rboords  of  T&R  AlKtk 

The  cultivation  of  the  arts  is  noticed  in  Scripture  history 
as  firat  appearing  in  the  family  of  C  tin  ;  and  within  four 
centuries  after  the  Flood  we  find  that  images  of  \rood,  stone, 
and  matal  were  formed  for  idolatrous  purposes.  It  is  an 
ancient  tradition  that  Terah,  the  father  of  Abraham,  Was  a 
miker  of  fmaijes,  but  even  at  a  period  preceding  by  more 
thai  A  century  the  call  of  Abraham,  Greek  and  Egyptian 
tradition  tells  us  of  a  colony  planted  at  Sicyon  by  an 
E:^yi»tian  loader  named  ^gialeuSy  who  brought  \Vllh  him 
the  KMovvle/lge  of  sculpture  and  paintings  and  founded  the 
earliest  and  purest  school  of  Greek  art.  We  find  that  the 
w.ills  of  Bibylon  were  a lorned  with  paintings  of  dillbrent 
spcoiog  of  animals,  hunting  expeditions,  combats,  &C. 
Sc'mirimis  wis  represented  on  horseback  striking  a  leOpard 
with  a  dart,  an  I  Ninus,  her  husband,  wounding  a  lion. 
Allusion  to  this  custom  of  the  Babylonians  of  decorating 
their  walls  with  paintings  is  found  in  the  Sacred  Writings. 
The  prjphet  Kzekiel  reproving  the  Jews  for  their  idolatry 
says,  '*  I  went  in,  and  saw,  and  behold  every  foroi  of 
creeping  things,  and  abomiAAWe  l>€a5t^  %xA  m  th^  Mm 


of  the  house  of  Israel,  pouttrt^ed  upon  the  wall  rouod 
abmit**  And  ift  fliMith»r  p\hit^  the.same  prophet  a jds^ "  She 
SAW  men  portrayed  ripon  the  wall,  the  images  of  the  Chal- 
deans pourtrayed  in  vennilion,  gii-ded  with  girdles  upon  their 
loins,  exceeding  in  dved  attire  upon  their  heads,  all  uf  than 
princes  to  look  to,  after  the  maimer  of  the  Babylonians  aj 
Chaldea**  Ezek.  xxiii.  14,  16. 
I  The  key  which  has  at  leneth  been  discovered  to  the 
deciphering  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  promises  to  open  to 
us  much  of  the  liistory  of  ancient  art.  It  is  novr  little 
doubted  that  although  painting  and  sculpture  existed  m 
Egvpt^  and  were  pi^bably  at  their  highest  condition, 
eighteen  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  vet,  at  a  still 
earlier  period,  even  In  the  ages  of  which  we  nave  hitheilA 
had  nothing  more  than  a  fabulous  account,  the  arts  iren 
known  in  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Ethiopia,  The  existence 
and  the  exploits  of  Ethiopian  monarcns  are  now  found 
commemorated  on  the  existing  ruins  of  their  cities,  and  cor- 
respond in  k  remarkable  manner  with  the  Jewish  and  QmV 
histoiHtttis ;  and  it  is  considered  probable  that  the  coui-se 
of  civilijuition  descended  from  Ethiopia  to  Ej^ypt.  la 
the  Bristol  Museum  may  be  seen  some  fine  specimens  of 
Ethiopian  skill,  in  two  nobly  executed  lions,  on  the  shoul- 
ders of  one  of  which  Is  the  name  of  Amenoph  111.,  coiled 
Meinnon  by  Greek  historians.  These  w^erc  found  by  Lord 
Prudhoe  among  the  remains  of  a  mngnificent  city,  situtted 
eighty  miles  above  Dotlgoh^,  and  stipposed  to  have  been  the 
Capital  of  Tirhakah  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Tin 
Walls  and  teniplea  of  Thebes  also,  were  decorated  ri;li 
paintings  and  sculpture,  as  early  as  the  nineteeutb  ccntunr 
befoi'e  Christ ;  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  succeed- 
ing efforts  of  Egyptian  art  never  exceeded  in  merit  thi 
specimens  which  remain  of  those  veiy  early  tunes. 

To  account  for  this  circumstance  it  is  conjectured  tktat 
the  early  period  of  which  we  are  speaking  the  artists  ven 
allowed  to  follow  their  own  feelings,  and  to  commemorati 
in  any  way  they  liked,  the  actions  of  their  employers, 
whei-eas  it  is  well  known  that  in  later  times,  tlie  arts  i& 
general  were  practised  entirely  in  suhservicncy  to  the 
priesthood,  ami  as  by  law  every  child  was  compelled  ta 
follow  the  profession  of  his  father  it  is  not  to  be  wondewd 
at  that  painting  and  sculptufe  degenerated,  rather  than  pro- 
gressed, among  this  singular  people,  and  that  in  the  time  of 
the  Ptolemies  the  former  an  was  little  better  than  an 
illuminated  hierojjlyphic.  "  The  effect  that  the  use  of 
hieroglyphic  painting,  whether  more  or  less  near  towritingi 
had  upon  the  ai-t  or*  painting  itself,  was  most  disastrwui 
Those  Who  were  permitted  to  paint  at  all,  were  bouad  to 
make  no  improvement  The  ait  waa  jealously  kept  for  the 
adornment  of  hideous  mummy  cases,  and  sepulchral  cham- 
bers, where  the  neai'est  approachea  to  what  is  properly 
painting  were  a  sort  of  portraits,  dmwn  upon  tlie  inn« 
coflins,  which  were  composed  of  folds  of  linen,  prewrw 
with  a  clialk  ground,  or  basso  relievos  either  coloured  them* 
selves,  or    unitated    in  flat  colours  upon  the  walls."- 

CALLrOTT, 

The  Egyptians  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  possessed  the 
art  of  painting.  The  coloured  subjects  found  on  the  ^«Uj 
of  toml)S  and  caverns  are  many  of  them  merely  colouKd 
basso  relievos :  the  outline  waa  dmwn  im  red  chalk  and 
corrected ;  it  wils  then  cut  out  by  the  sculptor,  and  coIooM 
by  the  painter  in  simple  unbreken  colours.  Thus  there  «J 
blue  gods,  yellow  goddesses^  and  red  men,  with  green  and 
black  draperies.  The  pigments  were  for  ih»  niget  ptf| 
ochres ;  but  tlie  blues  and  greens  appear  to  have  beea 
prepared  from  copper ;  the  btick  was  lomp*black,  «d  tw 
white  a  very  fine  lime*  This  distant  approach  to  tM 
art  of  painting  seems  to  have  been  the  mere  i^t^^  *' * 
desire  to  distinj>tilsh  the  personiig«a  in  tli«f  fivups  «b<**^ 
represent  the  colour  of  the  nations,  whether  vnils,  taio»T, 
Of  black,  with  whom  they  were  at  worfor^  or  from  vflw» 
they  recvlved  homage.  There  is  nothing  in  these  groo^ 
dosirving  the  name  of  a  picture,  since  tliereitiwkaowledpj 
of  light  and  shadow,  and  no  idea  of  either  lineal  or  aerwi 
perspoctive.  Ncitlier  have  we  any  record  of  an  Kpypt'J* 
painter  in  the  annals  of  the  art  Of  the  adommeut  of  tw 
mummy  cases  above  referred  to  we  give  soane  fnrtlier  ootJi^, 
for  the  benefit  of  such  of  our  readers  as  may  not  have  nw 
an  ODDortunity  of^xamiwog  U^n  for  themselvca  is  joa 
ct^llfe^iwi  of  the  BriMMuse^m.    The  oukr  er  y^^^ 


SUPPLEMENT  PQR  NOVEMBER    1841 


911 


can  of  a  mummy  is  nftde,  it   i$  beliovad,  of  gycamore 

woodi  8ometime«  out  out.,  of  a  «^lid  piepoi,.  gpn)^i)ue«  com- 

pustjil  uf  sevoml  pieces  jofned  toffethor  b>'  Wooden  ]>^g8«    It 

IS  Kunerolly  of  cunsiderablo  thickaefu,  and  ia  coated  on  tUa 

outside  with  distemper  colour,  oo  which  various  emhlema- 

ticiU  devices  ave  paiuted  in  a  v»Ty  iuf(.Tiai('  maun«r»    Th^ 

ruds  represantatjon  of  tlis  fao^  wbiph  «i)pe«rs  oa  tha  uppai* 

part,  is  sometimes  painted  red  to  dt^nota  tlmt  tbf  hpdy 

Unclosed  witbi|i  is  tW  of  a  malai  somfttiwes  yallow,  for 

the  female,  and  oocasionally  it  is  glli)^.    As  soon  as  tha 

upper  portion  of  ths  mummy  casa  is  rsmoved,  the  second  or 

mav  casa  appears.    This  is  not  pomposad  of  wood,  but  of 

at  kast  tan  cr  a  doxen  lavitrs  of  linsn  fiiwly  ^mented 

togetliur  by  a  strong  glue,    TUis  casa  is  said  tp  ba  originally 

formed  on  a  rude  mudei  of  ths  si;ce  and  sliapaof  the  Kwatlitid 

body,  and  wln^n  the  cement  has  beooma  snmciaptly  ivy^  lim 

moJol  is  taken  awav  and  tUs  body  introducad,  tb^  apertura 

being  i^'terwards  closed  by  an  ingenious  lacing,  find  tha 

mm  covered  with  a  strip  of  cloth,  glued  or  oamanted  over 

it.    It  U  on  this  inner  easa  iluit  the  largest  portion  of  ornar 

meat  is  bestowed.    '*  1  have  m^n  some,'*  says  a  gentleman 

who  had  a^islstad  in  the  opening  of  several  mummies,  '*  which 

must  h^va  occupied  many  days,  perhaps  many  weeks,  in  the 

very  elaborate  outlining  and  colouring  in  water*colour  or 

distemper;  i^nd  finally  vamiihing  or  nxing  the  subject  of 

tlii%t  hieroglyph  or  allegory.    The  ground  of  this  painting  is 

of  very  fine  and  pure  white,  resemoHiijj;  stuccor    The  p^ts 

that  are  drawn  on,  and  appai-ently  outlined  with  a  pen  and 

then  coloured,  are  the   only  parts   that  are   afterwards 

Fa)'nished : — the  blank  parts  of  tne  white  ground  remain  un- 

varnished,  except  where  tlie  varnish-brush  has  occasionally 

slipped  beyond  tlia  outline,  and  there  tbe  white  bos  b^oms 

yellow.    This  white  ground  mfi^  be  disturbed  by  a  wetted 

finger,  which  is  not  the  ease  with  tlie  varni4ied  partSy 

Their  varnish  must  ImvQ  been  of  excellent  quality,  as  it 

retains  its  transparency  SAd  gloss  itt  a  most  i'^^tr^rdin^ry 

degree ;  in  some  instoue^  app^ng  09  if  executed  only  a 

few  days," 

From  all  that  can  ba  gathered  of  IlgygtUn  art,  it  d^es 
not  appear  that  painting  ever  flourished  lu  that  country, 
or  that  other  nations  were  mugh  indebted  to  )!)gypt  ibr 
their  knowledge  of  the  art.  f  lie  only  minute  account  we 
have  of  any  peculiar  works  executed  by  tribes  who  inay  be 
supposed  to  have  gained  their  knowledge  of  the  ^rts  from 
^gypt  is  that  contained  In  the  books  of  Moses ;  and  this 
leads  ifs  to  the  eonsidsration  of  the  ^tate  of  fiii  anipug  the 
Uehrew9> 

Section  IT.    NoncBs  of  Hbprbw  Art. 

or  the  knowledge  pf  tha  arts  possessed  by  the  Hebrew 
nation  after  their  deliverance  from  the  bondage  of  iE)gypt  we 
have  the  m  ost  interesting  intimations  in  the  nlstory  of  tlmt 
people,  and  in  the  directions  given  them  for  tlie  making  pf 
the  ark  and  the  tabernacle.  '^  Moreover,  tlmu  shalt  make 
the  tabem&cle  with  ten  curtains  of  fine  twined  line^,  an4 
blue»  and  purple,  and  scarlet :  with  cherubims  oif  cunning 
work  slialt  thou  make  them."  (Exjod.  xxvi.  I,)  "  And  tlie 
Lord  spake  unto  Moses,  saying,  See,  I  have  called  by  naipe 
Bc;^eel  t|ge  son  of  Uri,  the  son  of  Hur,  of  the  tribe  of 
Judiih  ;  aiul  I  have  filled  him  with  the  spiiit  of  God,  in 
wisdom,  and  in  understanding,  and  in  knowledge,  and  in  all 
nmnnar  of  workmanship,  to  devise  cunning  works,  to  work 
in  gold,  and  in  silver,  and  in  brass,  and  in  cutting  of  stonef, 
to  s^t  them,  and  in  carving  of  timber,  to  work  in  all  manner 
of  workmcinship."  (Exod.  xxxi.  1^5,)  We  6n<l  tliat  in 
tlie  pre))Aration  of  tlie  tabernacle  they  must  have  understood 
the  weaving  of  fine  linen ;  the  preparing  and  dyeing  of  skins ; 
tlie  makini^of  sciirlet,  red,  blue,  and  purple  dyes;  tha  various 
modes  of  carving  in  woud ;  the  easting  and  chiselling  of 
metals,  and  the  engraving  of  precious  stones,  and  setting  them 
according  to  the  jeweller^s  art.  Still  there  is  no  allusion 
divide  to  the  exiatence  of  painting  as  om  of  the  find  afts 
inion<<  tliia  Hebrews,  and  no  proof  that  it  ws^  cultivated 
iiuon^  theiH  as  Mich.  This  se«ios  the  more  exinsordinary,  as 
t  is  hiirdly  poittble  t«  suppose  a  people  working  in  stone, 
iilver,  goldp  and  timber,  and  making  rich  embroidery  on 
curtains  and  borders  of  garmeats^  witA  rarious  ether  eiever 
I e  vices,  and  to  be  destitute  of  the  knowledge  of  painting, 
ndced,  tKare  is  erBry  reason  to  believe  that  icoloared  designs 
11  list  have  heea  made  to  serve  as  patterns  for  the  working  of 
\ivir  tapestry,  and  it  is  difficult  to  aasini  any  otiier  reason 
^r  tlte  nc»^lect  of  the  art  than  that  wfaieti  has  been  assigned 
y  Hti  eminent  authority,  f.«.,  that  the  nepreaentation  of  any 
itjevt  by  paiuting  was  not  p«nnitted  to  the  Hebrews. 
'liJjs  irietv  oi  the  aubj«(;t  •eima^  aonntoanaad  by  a  paisi^ 


in  the  book  of  KufnberB,  where  pletur^  are  named  among 
the  objects  of  the  idolatrous  woi-ship  of  the  Cmiaanites : 
**  And  the  Lord  spake  unto  Moses  in  the  plains  of  Moab,  by 
Joidan  near  Jorichp,  Siiying,  Speak  unto  tlie  children  of 
Israel  and  say  unto  them,  When  ye  are  pa&jed  over  Jordan, 
into  tha  land  of  Cannani  then  ye  shall  drive  out  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  land  frpm  before  ypu,and  d^tio^  all  their 
pidurdi^  and  destroy  aU  their  niulten  ima^ps,  and  quita 
pluck  down  all  their  high  places,"  (Numbers  xxxiii.  60^ 
62.) 

Section  III.    Painting  among  the  Phcenicians,  Persians^ 

Chinesb,  and  Japanese. 

With  respect  to  the  art  of  painting  among  the  Phoenicians,. 
Persians,  and  other  Eastern  nations,  we  are  assured  that  it 
has  been  from  the  earliest  ages,  vi|e  and  wretched  in  th^ 
extreme.  The  Chinese,  who  have  remained  in  nearly  the 
same  state,  as  to  civilization,  for  a  period  uf  several  thousand- 
year's,  have  from  very  early  times  niade  u**e  of  written  signs 
for  tl^  purpose  of  i<etaining  the  memory  of  particular  events, 
and  anmng  the  elementary  chariurt^us  pouiposing  by  their 
endless  com)>inations  the  langutige  of  that  people,  it  is  not 
diffioult  to  trace  the  mde  forms  of  men  and  animaU,  jiouses, 
trees,  lulls,  fiic  The  art,  however,  among  them  remained 
at  a  vei^  low  point,  and  their  itsligion  was  not  ealcnlated 
to  call  wth  their  genius*  They  seem,  until  within  a  very 
nioeat  period,  to  have  'contented  thi;mselves  with  only  ao 
muoh  knowledg[a  of  painting  as  might  enable  them  to  deco^ 
mts  their  beautiful  poreelain,  and  their  lacquered  wares.  Of 
Uie  degree  of  dexterity  to  which  they  liad  attained  Mrs« 
Callcott  thus  speaks ;— ^  The  Chinese  had  oeiiainly  attained 
to  gr^at  manual  dexterity,  and  the  power  of  oopying  ser* 
vilely  whatever  inanimjito  subjects  were  before  tiiem ; 
and  tliey  had  discovered  the  metlmd  of  extiacting  colours 
from  inaUUic  substances,  capabb  of  bearins  the  turnace,  as 
YffM  AS  those  of  more  obvious  use  in  the  chalks  and  earths 
of  their  country;  besides  some  of  the  finest  varnishes  in 
existeuea*  We  ought  not  to  roaivel  tlmt  tliey  did  not  attain, 
ia  their  painting,  to  common,  much  less  to  ideal  beauty, 
when  we  refiept  on  the  general  character  of  foru)  in  their 
own  nation  or  thsir  Tartar  conqueroi's,  which  is  very  far 
below  tliat  of  the  Indians  and  their  western  neighbours.. 
And  we  have,  perlmps,  no  right  to  ^cpect  Ijetter  huniaa- 
shapes  than  that  of  the  portly  mandarin  and  his  crimu- 
fboted  hdy  upon  their  plates  and  dislies.  But  their  animals,' 
wliethsi^  painted,  modelled  in  cky,  or  cast  in  ntetal,  a>'e  less 
distorted  than  their  men:  and  as  to  persnetctive,  linear  or 
aeiial,  tiu»y  seem  to  have  no  sense  of  eitner.  In  fiowers^ 
and  hii*ds,  their  pencilling  is  delicate,  and  often  true  to 
admiration;  bat  even  in  tiiese  objects,  except  in  ti^eatiiies  on 
bataay  pr  t^mitholog^v,  their  peculiar  taste  breaks  out  in 
nonstrouf  eombinations  of  leaves  and  fiowers  that  never 
grew  in  the  sains  soil,  and  of  beaks  and  wings  that  were 
naver  l^aU^heid  in  tl»e  »)nie  nest.''  Within  a  recent  period: 
^  change  luw  takan  pbioa  in  Chinose  art,  and  proofs  hava. 
bean  glvan  of  aa  attempt  to  ioutate  Europeans  in  their 
saperior  skill  and  knowledge, 

Aman^  tlia  more  imaginative  people  of  India,  wttii  tlieir 
fii^id  religion  and  exaggeiat<^d  poetry,  we  might  reasonid>ly 
look  for  greatar  advancement  in  ikni  ait,  yet  no  specimen  of 
eaosidevaole  antiquity  Ims  been  preserved  to  show  what  was. 
the  fatm^  t/liai^  of  painting  ia  that  country,  and  as  to  the 
modem  productions  of  India,  as  conveyed  to  us  in  tlia 
di^ns  on  their  tapestry,  sliawls,  and  cai'})ets,  they  have 
become  ealabiiated  oa  aaaoant  of  the  excellence  of  tlLs 
materials  and  not  on  aacount  of  tlie  purity  of  the  design. 
Of  the  just  proportions  of  the  human  figure  the  artists  of 
that  country  are  totally  ignorant,  and  their  representtitions 
of  the  lower  animals  ai'e  not  always  clearly  distinguibhable, 
the  one  firom  tlie  other. 

The  Japaneas  ajppear  to  have  attained  considerable  dex-^ 
terity  in  many  of  tlie  arts;  and  even  in  painting  the  old' 
Ji^aa  figuros  more  neatly  approach  to  beauty  of  style  tiiaii 
is  tha  aase  with  Chinese  productions  of  a  similar  kind. 

JSacnov  IV.    On  Etucscan  Art. 

We  have  now  to  joonsider  the  state  of  art  among  a  most 
infterasting  people,  wliose  origin  and  history  are  involved  in* 
ojtKKurity,  and  whose  early  acquaintance  with  science  has 
ejtcited  inueh  astonisliment  among  those  who  have  searched 
the  most  deeply  into  the  subject,  and  have  trace<i  their  fro- 
grass  by  naaans  of  tha  bi^autiful  and  curinns  specimens  nf  tiv.  ir 
works  still  oxtaat.  These  are  the  Etruscans,  ropcrtiug' 
whom,  most  authors  a^vce  tliat  they  \^^nv  not  the  nUuriuinal 
inhahitaiits  of  tha  land  of  Etrurta,  yet  none  ju-e  il-c  i  •  1  -.  - 1  u  1 1 1  ix*. 


2iK' 


Ttl£[  SAJWV^A(T/^fmmJVS3St/3JTV]> 


I 


KU'UMMif/xire  nut  lup^oe'tolihaso^^f^^beir  iBaUdni^  hnii 
eHiM  th'imigh.iinleKpiiciii  "wMi'.QrQQcn^iPP  tho 

oij^lni^gehiat^f  the^P^opbt  tb«j^  Mf^fttniQeA  to^soiltidca:* 
alib  emtfimM/iii  tbe/iwto  bel^Do  A^me^WAa  founMii  .te 
PHnri^U*  Ahatitlwro  iiwrii».befwtifulj»6ltttw  at'Ard«4 
luid  liMliLviiutt^  whiebi  wero  «l<)et  .ih^  KOMe^  ^bstovdti^^ 
td  Wiak^mm  ih*  Eurufloatu!  nvn  MyMcedia^  art  eten 
b«i>t«  ih«  GtPMkfl,  ind  .it  ^v«f .  a  trnji^ion  <9^  fba  Mibot*.  aaes^ 
that  Dndaliia Bving fr^im  MuHMMttle^}  iaEUruriArAfui n»t 
8owe4  tba  fleecb  ^f  design*  li^u/9  M90  lays  ibat.bjsfom 
Room  wm  buUty  <»9ting  oC  i«^|aly«du}pt^a:«,.And.  t>»intidi^ 
exiUod  in  fiiaiiria -  anfceiw  to.  any  ctuuMOtion  j^C  tUe 
Etmaeaiid  vitln  Gii#^«e*  .         .  • 

Very  few  reliea  Of  Imf^ftMoe^  wok  an  9hcml<t^e  »vt- 
denee  of  their  tHlevte  .in  art,%h«4  h^en  dfiooteied  of *thta 
ancient  p«o^>  until  .176(>  ^wben  toiaha  decaMttd*  with; 
Tarioua  aeaigof  <:wi0i»/broug|>it;.ta  light. at  Tarquinia^  the 
capital  «ity. of  'aneteni  Btraria^  Fublk  attrition  do^  not. 
ap|Mar  to  hare  been  tpreatlyeiCGited  hythiA  event  UU.the 
camuaeitoeiinent  «f  Hie  i^n^ent  .<eatiiry».  when  ynvafe  ool-/v 
lecUons  of  £trjaeBAn.Qbj«e4B  be^  U»  befonneM  aad  valued^ 
aod  when'facr#iiiiii^of  pif^tonal  deeoH^tiofia  totf*  tomb^  weve 
pi^bliolv  axhibited  in  UmdoPt.^th  the  in^iMinietttak  ^tetnes' 
theinedvee.'  Mta.  jQaii^iltori  Giyy.  ip.  htis  hitereetiag  work 
Ob  EUrona^doBonbee  her  vieit  to  this  eichibitiaa,  previoupdy 
to  her  departure  for  Italy »,  and  exproHsea/ the  astgai^hnieut 
whidi  woa  naturally  ^Itat  the  ^ht'of  Ejects  oCauoh  ai^ 
and  gvandear  aethe  ^oeW  JVtatuee  then  boforq  Iverk.and 
whkh  had  laiti  \indisturbed  (hrouKhout  eo  ni^y  Bgiep,  Qat 
as  it  is  writh  the  paintiiy  of  Etnuria  we  aiip:new  ooncamed} 
we'sMl  .eomtcat  ottmeivaa  with^qu^Ung^  her  pr«n\ark«  an 
thoee  which  foruiod  part  of  tlte  same  exiubition.  *^  Having 
8ee&  theee  toinbe^  we  w«re  .conducted  u^  staira  into  other 
ntnoll  darkcliafnbei?^  X  tliink  feur  in  number  but  al)  pi^^ 
rate>  fyotfi  aavh  other,  and  lighted  in  the  aan>e.  manner* 
'I]hf^V..'wei«e  without'  eacoophe^jua  or  onunaent,-  bat  lia4 
daecxibfd!  n^^n  |he  walla  a  eanea  of  the  inost  apliit^^d 
l^ely  ioalonred' painiinge*.  In  one  was  a  Tvicliniunigi  a  n>ao: 
1^  wpina^  cUuy.  dreeeed  bewg^  aeated  toother  as  if/prer< 
eidi^gover  aome  grand  entertainment  withpUee-^of  v^aea 
aifd  ta)UE|9,naur  thaniy  d#nqei9y,and  players  npoi^  inatnimi^tf 
ofi fBGli^jjde,;ai]d  serieai^a  waitingto ^xxy  raund  vf^a^d/ 
wine^.  .J^ii  aijiother  chamber  ^wae  adi^riot,  rafi^,vii.apoth^, 


I  i 


viaUbto  T4r/E|uin>a  itaelf^  Mrs.  Giey  had'/in  ^9PI?P^n|i^X  of  j 
inapectiiy  many  liin^Uar.  works*    Sjie  waa  iAforwed  ^hat  tl^e , 
neciopotia  Or  bniyi^g-place  of  that  cijty  w:aa  foo^pi^^d  4o* 
eiptend  ov^r  sixteen  «^n«re  ibiJes»  land  jindging  mrA  wk^,  ti^o 
thousand  tpwba.wlMch  Juai^  Wen  opened  of  late  jeMl  f.he , 
number  in  all  caanot  b^  less  than  two  inilUona|  V.^l^j^  {s: 
snfiioient  to  give  ua  an  idea  of  tka.^^iite  pouiUatl^:  ^f 
apcif  Qt  EtruriiL  especiaUy^is  this  necropejis  atands  npt^one,. 
bnt  is  surronndad  on  aU  ^uldes.by  oemeteries.acarceiy,  J^&rior 
to  itself  one  of  which,.(tbat  of  Glutei  t^AsMtk)  ^x$.  Gqsy 

rnks  of  as  having  probably  Jbeen  tho  West^nst^r  •  Alibey 
Ceiitral  JCtmria.  Of  the  great  number  of  tombs  w)i;iica 
have  of  late  years  been,  excavated  at  Tarquiniiuoqly  nlue 
ai^e  preserved  Tor  the  iB8nectip^  of  the  ptuiona  <  t)neof  the 
most  inUresting  though  bv  no  inean^  tWn>q«i  impjcurtant  is 
the  C^QMaera  del  M^rto^  w  it  has  been  called,  in  aUusioiit  ^ 
the  subject  which  decorates  its  walls*.  *Mt  exhibits^*' ,saya 
our  authQifess,  **an  affecting  scene  of  domestic,  m(^aner«L  the 
preparation  of  a  dead  body  for  it^la^  resting-place,  and  the' 
piety  of  the  daiighter  and  friends  of  the ,  jdecease^.  The 
paintings  remain  only  on  three  walls  of  this  chamber  c  those 
on^th^  side  of  the  entrance,  which  consbted  of  i»Dulous 
animals,  being  obliterated.  On  entering  we  wera  struck 
with  the  graceful  figure  of  a  girl  clad  in  a  mantle  and  timic, . 
havii)ff  jewelled  ears,  and  pointed  hosldns^  with  hair  di- 
Bhevelled,  and  in  an  attituae  of  grie^  who  performed  the 
last  sad  offiees  for  an  aged  man.  He,  venerable  from  hia 
white  hair  and  Veard,  is  laid  out  on  a  bed  of  state^  oma- . 
mcnted  with  purple,  and  covered  with  a  tunic  which  reaches ' 
midway  down  the  leg,  and  isj  joined  to  a  hood  like  that  of 
modem  friars  coming  over  his  head,  which  rests.on  a  double 
pillow.    To  watch  tne  last  moments,  ^  well  as  tomlose  tlie 


eyes  and  mouth,  to  wash  the  body,  andl  to  anoint .  it, 
always  the  child^s  office.    And  here  she  is  assisted, by  a 


wa? 

a  son. 


Thid  Ni«iM'iof^/thii'EI«i«(4tfMft^rlum0vr4hiiir;4^  irith 
lifiuaciaim^dimeipgknol hsa»  lareotM*- .  The v^iy.^hnjKu^er 
qf  death]ianot/WtthAtit^t^4K>ttke^tliMine0!agrtt^^sc(oiiH 
pahimenti;!  whiltttniAhelmiddlamillad^nii^ri^.tAtretluo^ 
whoyio  lhe<Bflluadof;th4<flul»^'jPO«Ta^uta4iJHttif)i^<\)e«iide 
lai^s  vatet-icirttanlentad'^'itb  ftlMta^ipkiaid  initlieq^p^of 
thef ^ic«ttn ;  .lHiiA^tmrl>iOftoi«  danfifti^.4ra  ;mp9B$#iiM»  m4 
wlMiiiviBrcttpt0riQg«»lasa».'!    •  •   ..  ,   \u.  m-m.,' 

Andthav/towb  exhiJbit^d  .#  veio?  diffiimot  aeei^:i  a  Jap- 
lioMa/and  splendid  enteetainmei^  fpnne^i  tltetfinavprfpruOQ 
sul^eot  Ihr  iAms  deeamtieb  of  thtf  chamber  of.  tbedc^^  ^t 
have  *not 'apnea  for  .the  vtwy  imtreetiAg  lad  ^li^t^if^f^  ^ 
oription  of  this^and  <the  otjM* tombf^  4agi^p  ^  '%•  Gm, 
but;tl(0  tnmpImM  nalitfe.  of  the  .i>epMaenNti<^m!  if^m 
waUB/give.nB  ino  MeaA  opibleiB  ,of  thQ  -ec^^  of  £|in)Kw 
artistai.aait  .xc^ku^a. the- design. and ,mii(pipg.  nf  ^m  tiuV 
jeeta.  .  The  pamtmg  i*  tlie  tomb  weiWye  alh^ded  1,0,  wiiich 
is  called  tha  67raflto  M  TmHfm,  ful\y  di^i^lays  t^JEHnucaa 
magnifioeise  AndMb  and  Inmito;^'  S:>plendi4  $e^  dmaea 
tiiMt  the:guests,the  iahlessi^d couches  hav«  paiity-eoloBred 
eovarJngaiaf rgieat  ririmew  snd  beaut^»  vesaBls  and  cvpe  d 
Tarioua  Ibvms. load  a  sort  of  buffot  at.  Uie  side  of  the  festal 
chiaiibarfdaadog-girla  are  present  habited  in  dresses  of  tlie 
most  epleQdidL«(|teriaI,;<9nbroidered  wUh, minute  stai^  and 
adorned  with  pai^y^aujved  g^mitjujr^imd  ever^appttF- 
ano^rof  iluiucy  attenda   thia  funei^  ^ntcrtainafeiit.   k 
remarkable  fHezaeC.ii^ures  drawn  'ya  ^  very  spirited  maamx 
butinQt!ahaded,ahd  with  Golpuns  ^c^efcely  .di&tia^8hAUe,is 
onetof  tlie.P^>jt^tsof  itjtefeiit in  the  tomo.cfUled the  Grooa 
tUi  ChMrdiml^  '  Ikcoi^ts  of  a  pipcese^qn  of  fpuU  to  judg<i 
ment,  «iid  qiM.-^  the  gcoui^^videnMy  .i^^^^aa^  th?  state 
of'  a  ipevfon,  iwhf ,  dm^ng  'his  lifcj  /bad  •  b^  of,  a  dAuhtful 
cliaiaatier*.  i^ch  both  of  gpod  wd  enrfl-bolng  attributed  u 
hinki  H^ :!«,  dcwgwl  in:  a-iCV.  >«f«fP  M)pjf^.h'  ^»« 
winged  gienii»  the  <oiWi  ^;ood»  fand  Jibe  pt  har^eyjJd  ^'F^  ^^  "^^* 
teodiii^  ft>r  ti»  wl»wiY»i:po«WJfj<>n,pf,  wmi'.ln^bceafjer- 
ness  4ff>  idisjiHte  Mi»  iffff  4<^4  iXhfiy  cnpnot  draw  jt  on,  but 
reiii^i«^Metiofwry9ito..nHMfK,tbe,Hp<;¥^^^  cKsa-aot^r  outfit 
deoeleed:  /.The:ge»i«  in  th|s  ^^^fi^W  ^L  ^^'^  ^'^y* 
^Jile  tW'.^Wilp!  W  !*'ithQWt  tJienuttife,,eyu,genlAa«'lty 
tiii0we)Md  f»»^jil|ftip94  A^^Jtjeing;  jwntj^  ^^^ 

Gpey  iWtly;rainsfrl^4!j^|.ayip^t  to  .Ujo-tpmba  Of  bestheiusia 
brings  Jrftne,  tO^Jif*  ?Yit!i.pa?ulial:  ft»?i^,tjb/e  fjQjuwl^twns  « 
Chortiaplty,  .  t|^>  ,therMBiwmi^4,  .E;tfUMani  Uie  pawp 

frem.tbiejfwn  W  thf».Hnaeen.ww4.>W8c«*T^i?»ft;W«^^^ 
he-jtii^.to  dispel  .Ita.-glQPva  w.MV€^.r^pp?M[ii|M^        te^^w 
gaielyiSf^d  jocund  terValijy,  .b^y.^k-UjcJi  w  jlwnUWibimselt 
wii^.^e.h^  tl^.tlun  eti^te^  the  dopf^VTi;^  aoiu.\vfls  accu- 
rately .l^preeenlffd.^.  IJut  ^h^t  pis.elfoy^  Y,ejr^,unata^\2  to 
ilisj^l  ^eubtaiind  carog  is  proved, for  t^  pi^reaan  thw^w 
n,thi9.foUoYiiM-  tomb,;  Heri  lyp  Jv^yei(tbp,Pf>^'Vrs ot  gow 
and  avil»  •  contending  jfor  nne  wljiO  l«?)«w   jiothim  oi  f^ 
Mm^^i  Mpdiatw;  wd  tJbieto.  we.  liny^  t^io  tm^^  ^V^' 
sen^t^,  o?  yoMths  i)eai^ty,  and  dipniti',  (\  ^rlpw  to  fisni^t 
wiih  IIP  .^^nidiy  power  to  jilucsk  tnem  from.,  wir  fii*j>. 
Haw.coiAfortable,  hay, how  beiuUfu),  do.tW  i^pst Jbck- 
neyi^di.fpcpiressions  in  our  churcnyaroa  seeip^alii^  a  vhit  to 
thsitombeof  ^beeemcn."    .,    ,  ^.       .    •    . 

.  The  above  afxaonnt  of  ^trueiHm  baiutia^  will  be  smm* 
eient/  ioff  our  present  pnipoeei  ma  wq  rnay  conclude  bt 
saying  that  the  qteeimensleft  us  of  tl^eir  art  are  many  uf 
thena  .extremely  beantiful  in  lasfe,  4e6i^.  expressiQUi  ^^ 
I^^K^I^;  Jbnt  we  havja  little  9nportuj(iity,,^r  .judging  of  tk 
colouriiu^'  of  the  ]^tr^scan ,  schoo),  as  inS^o^  ^'i;cco«or  dij^ 
temner  tthe modes  emiployjed  by  tUja .geo^lf)  w, adapted 
neitlier ,  fps  depth  nor.  for  Jbon^,  The ,  ,|i^nf^  .  vas^  01 
Etmri^are  ex^trem^y  be^uti^^i.fna  ihevvmc^jik  of daiea 
and  proportion  in  Q)^  arp,^^ljr..tGe  i^q^oaa  in  ue 
finest  works. pfQreekswlptnto.,  ..       .!:;./   ni'i; 

SvxmtntVC  ANt*E»TGH«etiKt»A4lttt!m. 


Pot  our  .knowledge  of  ilie  early  atate  of  art  among  tk 


J.      I  .,w  *      '^  of /»rely  ^prifo^y.  Whi^elii  Vitis  Ws  last 


in  tliat  &ivou«:ed  land  we  can  jndga  <^}9^>1>y  imerg^oeA  &r  ^^ 
pfpduii^tlon  of  the  Grecian  pencil,  ^n^aSipL^  Vj?^H^rj**^©' 
ment,  and  the  opthions  of  ancient  criu<»arenor^IWBy^^s^^ 
factory.    We  hav€^  it  .is  troe^  a, . :t]p^lur  and  CTrtemftUc 
account  .of  early  painting,  .hui  li  baa  'be«^'I\bM^ci^       t^^* 
pcogreesive  advances  foUow  each'  oth^V  itf  linime^\66  arti- 
ficial torepresont/aithfiilly  the  i^ltei^ie  Ylit^''^d^^^^^ 
which  usually  attends  the  ^9n.J:?l  ^^jSJ^iiK^''^ 
of  tba' Greeks  IS.  said  to  be  aa',tQlIpi«&'  Jit  mSuViB^^K 


m*  •■• 


SUPPLEK^RS/EOBI/NOirfiMSEA^  mtT 


SIfSC 


V  iioiirft'  Inside  -vvith  -MAok*  M  irei  docoir  pvofiie  fi|rafou> 
T.i?fj  pfAntifttj^  >cf«r«  tatted  jlKiEMriVNkf^ iftot&'tv^o  vrarda^siff- 1 
lumn'^ i<*»Ah^ef*  «tid ■^'^oidnvr^vfAnd^beartiM ^hdi could* 
tints  HHup  «*ff!iiee><>i«^iig'ft^a  V(Hll>biadkiw4Miiookiidifpov^ 
as  ofiiliifiitit'  tnfeh;"  AfMv  tor-ihnd  Uft^mtoUiwdiiof  iprodaciiigi' 
erfeetby  ^tt<niMMr'kml^^«S^><t<^  be'  imdwfeljwd/  «iiil4iiw  < 
outline  without  shade  was  caUed  v^^ftt^woffmrn^iaigfAiymg 
''otUV  W  draNC».''*  '^tt  taimt'  Ad  ^miiu  wlMiwwbold 
eiutt^^it^'v^tuimi'itpon  jtoJii^'MAHi^ti'  010  tmnle:  was 
Ciec/pLin%nS'Of  OoHntti;  and  his  tnodeiAtiay  aiiiiple  0019* 
lie  •^roiRid'up*  a  )tt4  liKiik,  imd'  ii$«dat  in  acfiisl^alftetiipt'at 
iint'tatmg  tk4  ^lottr  •of'liiitihati  ftdsh;;  O&i  UB^ateOaittthii 
Gi«(4w9dm(he^  the  fftretitiMi  df  col»iir,  iMloa^ti<tb»  Gfablu 
d.'flfR^imd  ihb  £g[7^iatis1ikd4itAd6  pAitM^S'Oti 'their  <W8^  * 
and  tmubs'tiedHy  a  t!hNMlttuld'7««V'Mfi>tew  T-bk  4ii80DVtfry ' 
Witt  called'  ih^de'Ar^Mt,''et'8mg)«-5M>lotti;&4 1  oiM'Ootoi»i  1lav^^^  - 
been  employed*,  it  naiwraUy' follbw^d  Iha^'  ^thetB^  w^d'flMm  - 
obtamed'  ii«^  dlff^sreati'^rehd;  so  thU^/M^iiir^M,  mp  niMrf *:< 
coloured,  became  the  iMefoir  the'ti^  «lyUi'9f  arlii^  Wei 
cannot  here  dwelt  on  the^tiatare  df  distempeft  «>d  '«ie— iKic- 
patntinti^,  lis  pvaetieed  %/  the  Qreekw,  (fi»r  tii»  laCtttr  mibject 
we  may  i^f^r  6ui*  r^det^  to  a  reeent  ttumber  of  thnStOufdi^  < 
MapasiM,)  hut  miist  proceed  to  tiotlee  iheptimsipal'aitiits 
and  their  prodactioftsrMmtffie^eitrilestttiiietex.  •  :  /   .   . 

We  hAirt  already  ttientloned  th«  nHlst  t^^  whom  tlui' 
inventitrn  of  oiktline'  is* aseiibed  by  ^ihty,  'The*  naMes 
of  Ardices  of  €omtb,  and  of  Tefeptmne^^of'  dioyort^>Aii»> 
aasOQ^Kted   ^ith  that  Of  Cleotilmnluir,  htttr  «ft.  theit*' (ler*'" 
formamres  ird'  haVe  little  ^6ttree;  exoept  titi^  aoeumtW\>f ' 
^lian,  tLpplUkhy,  ttodimftt^  U^thlH  ^»ty*  ^MoA^  ihlit4he> 
artiUs  were'  oUiAfed  tO'  *^i1io  uttdeytietith  their  ^wr«t<lhed> 
designs, '•TlHar  W'tf  bull'  (hft  tsu  httu«e,<lfferife'a'  two/^^ 
Annoiig  thefi9tottochk^iiiMfst&  ofi^'ifii1gle^x>k(mrpttinters^'Cimeii'  • 
the  CitonUtti  a^^ii  tohave-fai' '^e^^^fate  «ellowSi 
He  13  said  to  iiare'invetite4'f<»^dio^ettihgf«*  and 'dhiwrihjf 
otijecrts  kt  kiktij^ef;  "He  UAid  tl¥e'^hatWbtoteMiiid'f«r^^> 
heitds  so  iuAto make'th^rtT'lbokfiiflp'trp^'orUeoMM;' 4Mit^ of 
tumtngr  aside;  Ue-  aDft>  !Tnt*jved'**thtf •  d¥ap*ri«ss^  «by  ki'rtwffr' 
tiiem  unduMioQES  Uud '  folde.'^ '  Attdt!ie(t  tftealli 'IMut'ef  this''' 
period,  was  Pt)ly^bi\iS«  tli*e  GVe<tfk  kstfi»i<M  liri^vlbritiiiweiMI ' 
puinter,  \«-hO  seemsrio  h^Ve  pd^isfed'a  teaiflOi^^fUr  h^^rt^^ 
and  to  have  boen  abore)iU'consi^(!etiitlMy^ef^gli2n;'-'TAe^hiil) 
at  Delphi  mid  the' pohito '^t  Ath^bs  n^et^  j>ainttxi>g*rMUii  > 
tous!y  bv'fAiV,  mid'lni9''(ffeiiiter^t»d  edAddk %i  'lenglM 'Xflet'i 
with  its  pro'pet' ablOid^Ud^Meitt  !f]f  adktee  ofltUe  Arirphlc^i 
tyonic  council,  titbit  he  was  he&eefdi'wnrd  io<beibalkMatiled>' 
at  the  expense^  of  GPt^e. '  Prom  hl»  tiM'  i)Mpit>v<^eliit" 
was  carried '  fbtward'  fot  half  a  ^titttry  by  Myeort^ehietty^^ 
remarkable  foi"  his  bidll  ^|tl'  represetilitig  h^tse^l'  bth^'^ 
minute  and  i«^eutate'Dtotiy^ttsr  ot'^opHon ;  bjr  -A^U)4>b<i^h,<< 
famed  for  boldttesS  atid  ettetgy;  by  b^enief,  tlie  failfet  bf 
Parrhosimi:  arid  by  ApoTlod6ttt^  tffie  A't{^ email,  Wli6  it^koM^^' 
or  perfected  (he  knowledge  ojPtfeht'aM  shade.    jSKvO^lUkk^"^ 
proved  his  ^yle  so  mUch  bythiSkno\tledge  As'toe^cft^  the  , 
envy  of  Apolfodoms.    According  to  Hiny, "  the^oo^ vAitiAi ' 
Apollodoroa  opened' Zeuacis  bol<»y  miurebed'Chraagfh,'dai^ita^' 
everything  the  pencil,  could  do,  and  carfylAg-  iti  tO'  tlte- 
greatest  glory."    This  was  about  tSie  95th  Olympiapd.   to 
Z^xis  is  attributed  the  merit  of  dutrodudttg  sifflulk^ity  >0f  ^ 
composition,  relying  rather  upon  the  per^eHon  ora  smgle 
figure  to  Concentrate  the  interest,  tlnin' upon  the  ertiwd'of 
objects  introduced  by  tb^  eurliet  mastets.  ,  He  \rm  ecjfually  * 
simple  i-n  his  icoloui-lhc-,  using  two,  Ofat  rtios't -foiifj  pig^ 
mtrtts.    After  this  artist  cAme  Parthasius^  who  tjeenis  to 
liave  surpasaied  him  in  coloaHng,  but  whose  works  were 
numy  of  therti  jdegrailed  by  fn^Jebeney.    Timuhlhes  'beeiiittie 
celebrdtedt^n  account  oR  htstepresenttttloii  of- the  sacrifice 
ot*  Iphigeniain  Aulis,  which  Waa  fVill  of  toucMng  expres- 
sion.    1  u  c^KAi'M^?  th«  f<vcf»  of  ,iM  MifT  w^a^wwi XMSnipelled 
to  iUtend  the  sacrifice  of  l\is  daughter,  jie  appealed  more 
stron^'ly  to  tUe  feeling^  thiinif  be  biid  attempted  to  depict 
tli'o  gneNtWckert  countenance   of  the  unliap)py    parent. 
FoHoxVuig,  Thmiinthes,  were  fiupottjpos,  renowned'  fbi*'  the 
splendour  of  hfc  style,  AristideS,  the  great  master  of  expres- 
sion, Pafilphilus^'  eminent  for  naturalfteling  and  ti^itli,  and 
AjjeUes,  wli9Se.  name  is  s^Tionymous  With  perfection  of 

finUh.     .  '  "  l 

liie  ft^e-^of  ApiHes  witnessed  both  the  glory  and' the 
decgiy  of  ancfcrit  art.  Thi.s  refined  and  accomplished  artist 
was  an  eminent  example  of  persetering  industry,  and  not 
only  painted  Widuousiy,  but  wrote  copioufeTy  on  bis  art 
IFis  treatS^sesVw  extant  about  the,  year  1100  of  our  exa,^ 
and  as  tile/  Wore  nrobably  iDust,rated  with  designs,  their 
is  tdM WU  %nitk.   The  lewbng'  ftatuM  of  hk 


foUcrvfeAi  byt  4htr7gt«at«8t'painterBf  o(^  hit  day.  'lAfieiica'ial 
^id  to'bav^beentfi  mr|r|^neMWB  wiMivaiifd'Xinei  wtKuh^aililyi'i 
$ckD6whMig«d4ay'pl4iifo«rsti|MrioHty1n>otlier9^    Plii^r:bas  > 
tnwKty  inkdotte^respeM^  ttlispbintor,  fMm  whifhwe  may  a 
8e]eot'4hfr.  IMIowihig..^  PtiitoMiQe('it»e>  an^  crftc^aient'lirtisti,  i 
wiS'ii»t«Hiis:  at  'RhMea^  Atid  Ape]le»  sailed" to  iHnib  iahwUl  t^^ 
pory^'him  »  vtoiti    OH'hfe  i»ttal  ho-wa^ disappoints  to  fllnd^ 
thtfiMitt  absent 'frMn  hoiiye;    Aft'dd  woman*  showed  biib' 
intoitlie  paintings  toom,  where  he  found  a  tablet  with  its  wax 
grtfund  ready  fora  i^ct&ii^iOid'tAkrng^p  if  brush,  hodrew  im . 
ex^iblto  line  in-eoumr  d9wn  the  tAblel?«   After  his  departure; 
Pmtbgittes  returned  and' was  ehown  what  had  h«)pened,  and 
on  contemplating  the  beauty  of  the  fortiv,''ho^  isaid  ftotw  otheit 
bitt  Apel^s^'eoam  ha\iie -oxeettt»d'^si»^  pdkeet  «  work^    Me 
thoifitOok'iir  bMish,  tnd  dyew.  Another  stilt  fnot«  fefined,' 
saying, ''^ If  the  ttmi|iet  cadi  Agaifi,  she wi  hlm.'^f^*and  say 
thai '-  thie  ie :  iHiat'  he '  U  •  se^mg;^ '    ApeH«fe  vetntied,  and v 
blhi^iHg tO'seiBf  hiiffteK'  onidoiie',ito4ij  Ii'  bmsh;  and  drewa 
tlfit^,  the  Kefhiemetft  at  whieh  it.  waa'-knpos^ibte  io  exoeed. 
When  Protogettee  saw.  Vli^^he  oontteed  thM  hci  oonld  carry 
th^'lineiK^Airih^ff;  'Thi^'  tifl^^  "wiaa  pi«serfed  long  after 
the  'death  ^of  %ioth '^Hlsts;  «ad  'af^i^'the'  Mtfqv^  of  the 
RomAw  It  watf  preserved  in  the  palaoe^of  the'Cd^esrs  on  the 
PatMlho-HiHv    Pliny  ^peatre  wit  ^'fldpeflor  to  ail  that 
could"  be  fbulld  in  the  iftnbst^  we^A  tlion^h  oonsieting  of - 
three  lihes  only.    What  Utese'  lines  wet^;  it  Is  now  Impos* 
siMer  to  saj^,  though  'Michel  Afigeld^  was  of  opfinlon  tliat 
tli^  mtwt  hat«' tepresent^  the  eontbufr  of  s(Wne  p^rt  of  the 
body.    Thtf  tSdblet  wacr  utaibi*tutiate9y  destroyed  at  the  aamO' 
timo  with  th^pAhiee  Where  ft  Wds  deposited. 

fApelles'ftjIs'beleii  called  the  eouTt-fiwrottrite  of  antlqtrity, 
sinee  Ijy  liis' plea^ilig  tatiiin  porMU  pftintmg,  he  wasi' 
enabled*  te  B^^te'cnt  tlie  nH>at  agreeable  expression  of  amy 
sittev^e  f^ee;  imd  to  eoftteai!,  or  to  turn  to^dvanti^,  iOi  peculiar  ^ 
defi^et^.  Thftr-wM  the  secret^  donbtlees,  of  his  great  tk>pti'' 
l»#fty. '  "<^  There  b  no  grathJude,"  eays  Mr.  Harfitt^  ••  ecimi' 
tom^ «^titttde of bein^tmeeeseifiilly pahited.  Hf^g^bow to' 
the  UhKBOWn  power  of  navtng  tUeirtnomentAry  expr^ftssion^* 
ob^wed,''!Befe»d,  transferred,  and' fixed  fbr.age9,  and  Whilst^ 
extents  imA  t^vass'  last,  cAiiiW  oiV,  for  tl^e  adrtiWtion'of' a* 
dytftht  ttgc,,\then'  file  existiOgone  is  prtst  a*d 'fovgdtleni^ 
wft^r  titti  eqttal  the  gratlttrde 'of  A' woman'to' h^tefier^ 
beJiiity  preWrvetf,  w*ile  she  1*  In'  her'bloofal,  fbr  the  adfhi^' 
fiiifonf'^'lier  (^ildh^h  when  ag^  hae  tffniVelM  heir  form,  br' 
ini^f()H^n^  de&troVed  her  happiness  1  Hie  World  may  b^^ 
^vttt^d;;  rttdt*d,  roused,  by  'tl^  comtwftmfotwtion  of  tb* 
il'de^'ofieneestto  ot  hetoes  i  but  no  ftynrpathy  is  ever' 
*^''"^^^"^er*ynal  "^anitletf  af--—  -..x.^....  .-^^■,.. 

s&r<$f j[iaititeW,aabyt! 

imitgmelioYVTeqniTed 
Icttfd  ■fftifel^tbrc^  Hftti  tb  leari  Hie  mode!  befbte  him,  tfshig^ 
if  bAly  to,  realist* Ms  oWn  bumftig  eon<?eption^  so  that  afl' 
iikferiesrbf  ihe'iiidivfduAf  ^s'bst ;  he  rehires  no  more  than  - 


d^ee'bf  ethlSeilisbmcnt.    There  the  great  portriiit-painter- 
8he!w$  tJlfe  degree  of  fancy  wanted,  anA  be  that  embeJlislics 
niVisi,*Witfi'dut  foslng  Ttsemblftrree,  t^-fll  be  the  most  welcomed,' 
as  ApeDeiS  WiWL'by.the  world;" 

I'lYe.  great43it  •  woHt  6f  Apelles*  st»cms  to  hare  been  lifs ' 
Veirtts  AnHdybmetie,  bttnefng  painted  on  wood  it  vrdr 
destroy^  b;j**Jnsecfs  ?n  the'"  tiifte  of  Aw»nstus;  He  binjan 
another, •))tit  died  before  it5  completion.  It  la  mentioned  as' 
a  proof  of  .the  tevereftce  entertfrfned  for  his  taleiitJ*.  tlirttj 
nltlioii]^  this painthig  was  finished  as  fhr  ns  the  boat,  and* 
the  nnnfrfnmg  contours  were  also  completed,  no  one  would 
venture  to  touch  the  picture  for  the  final  stages  of  the ' 
figure. 

Of  the  other  painters  of  this  celebrated  period,  A^clcpm- 
dorus  WHS  renowned  for  proportion,  Nicbinac^us  fbr  skllf 
of  band,  and  Tlieon  for  wild  conceptions.    Pansias  and' 
Euphranor  appear  to  have  been  Uie    pr  atest   encauhtic 


itonf  tn 
period  of  (Jref^k  painfiifg.  '•' 


sri4' 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


any  period  so  completely  uational  in  Greece  astlie  eistertrt) 
The  Keueral  taste  in  JPainting  was  not,  as  in  Sculpture, 
formed  and  established  by  public  and  venerated  nionuraent^^ 
and  consequently  the  wholesome  restraints  of  public .opioion 
could  not  operate  in  an  equal  degree.  The  ambition  and 
the  tidents  of  jwinters  were  not  excited  and  dii^cted  by  the 
iwtlonality  of  their  performances,  nor  waa  tlifi  standard  of 
excellence  formed  until  the  severe  purity  of  ancient  taate 
had  suffered  a  sad  declme.  Painting  appeai-B  to  have  been 
too  soon  aljandonud  to  the  caprice  of  private  patronage  and 
judgment,  and  could  never  compete  with  Sculpture,  whose 
laboura  were  publicly  dedicated  to  the  renown  of  the  good, 
the  letu-ned,  and  the  brave.  One  hundred  and  sixty-nine 
sculptors  are  mentioned  by  Pausanias,  while  he  luis  only 
recorded  the  names  of  fifteen  painters ;  and  after  three  cen« 
turies  of  spoliation  he  found  in  Gi^ece  three  thousand 
Btatuea,  not  one  of  them  a  copy,  while  he  describes  only  one 
hundred  and  thirty* ouh  painting. 

Grecian  ai't  has  been  divided  mto  three  periods ;  tlia  fint 
being  tliat  previous  to  the  time  of  Pericles ;  the  second  thai 
ot*  Pericles  himseU;  considered  the  highest  and  purest  in 
painting,  sculpture,  tmd  ai'chitecture ;  the.  third,  or  epoch  of 
Alexander,  the  most  reHned,  but  prophetic  of  the  corruu- 
tion  which  followed.  After  this  mst  period  came  tlie  sutk 
jugation  of  the  Greeks  bv  the  Koiuan  pow^r,  and  the 
seizure  of  their  noblest  works  to  adorn  the  capital  of  Italy. 

Section  VI.    Ancient  Roman  Paintino. 

The  time  at  which  painting  began  to  be  emidoyed  for  the 
purposes  of  external  and  internal  decoration  in  Rome,  seems 
to  have  been  that  when,  during  the  reign  of  the  Tanjuins, 
Etrnria  exercised  so  much  iniluence  over  the  arts  ot  that 
city^  But  the  -fini  recorded  specimen  of  Roman  ait  was 
not  e!^ecuted  until  near  two  hundved  yeans  lat^r,  jvhen  ono 
of  the  great  and  noble  fduilly  of  the  Fabii  painted  the 
Temple  of  Health  iu  such  a  manner,  that  the  vrork  was 
highly  esteemed  even  after  tlie  inti'oduotion  of  Greekpic- 
tures.  On  account  of  this  performance,  the  family  of  fabii 
took  the  surname  of  Pictor.  Tho  pabiting  was  destroyed 
by  lire,  with  the  temple  itself,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius 
Cffisar.  About  sixty  years  after  the  time  of  Fabius  Pictor, 
lived  a  poet  and  tragedian,  named  Pacuvius,  who  is  named 
aa  ttie  great  painter  in  the  time  of  the  republic.  He  painted 
the  Temple  of  Hercules  in  the  cattle  market  in  Home, 
and  the  pictures  aro  said  to  have  given  dignity  to  the  art 
itself. 

A  singular  use  made  of  painting  among  the  Romana  i« 
referred  to  in  Mrs.  Calloott*s  Etaaj^M  on  the  art.  Thu  inordi- 
nate love  of  military  iame  b^  which  they  wei-e  actuated, 
found  a  mode  of  gratification  in  this  charming  art ;  and  it 
appears,  that  Valerius  Maximus  Messala  was  tlie  lirst  to 
adopt  a  practice  of  exhibiting  pictures  of  his  own  actions 
which  became  afterwai'ds  pretty  common,  though  con- 
demned by  some  of  the  chief  men  of  the  republic  Messala 
caused  a  picture  to  be  hung  up  in  the  Porta,  a  pubic 
place,  representing  the  battle  of  Messana,  where  lia  haa  van« 
quished  both  the  Carthaginians  and  Hiero  of  Syracuse,  who 
had  joined  his  former  enemies  to  res'st  the  invasion  of  his 
country  by  tlie  Romans.  By  the  means  of  this  picture,  Mes* 
sal  a  kept  himself  before  the  eyes  of  the  people  in  the  situa- 
tion best  calculated  to  further  his  views  vvhenever  he  should 
be  n  candidate  for  the  magistracy.  This  picture  told  the  story 
of  his  achievement  to  the  best  advant^ige,  and;  was  likely  to 
eng  ige  the  affections  of  the  people  on  his  behalf.  Tnese 
exhibitions  were  sometimes  productive  of  uijurious  effects. 
The  anger  of  Scipio  Africanus  was  excited  against  his  bro- 
ther, Lucius  Scipio,  because  the  latter  exhibited  a  picture 
of  the  battle  of  Sardis,  which  won  him  the  title  of  Asiaticus, 
but  in  which  his  nephew,  the  son  of  Africanus,  was  taken 
prisoner.  Scipfo  Emilianui^  again,  was  highly  offended  at 
tlie  display  of  a  picture  of  the  taking  of  Carthage,  exhi- 
luted  iu  the  market  place  by  Lucius  Hostilius  Mancinus. 
It  ap])cars  that  Mancinus  was  the  first  to  enter  Carthage  on 
tlie  tiikinn"  of  the  city,  and  on  his  return  to  Rome,  being 
desirous  of  tlie  consulship,  he  had  a  picture  painted,  repre- 
senting the  strong  situation  of  tlie  town,  with  its  fottifi- 
cutions,  and  oil  tlm  machines  employed  in  the  attack  and 
defence,  besides  the  actions  of  the  besiegei's,  in  whicli,  care 
was  taken,  tliat  those  of  Mancinus  should  be  mo«t  con- 
spicuous. This  he  hung  up  in  the  Forum,  and,  seating 
himself  by  it,  ha  explained  to  the  people  all  the  parts  of 
the  picture,  particularly  those  in  which  he  was  concerned, 
in  such  a  niannci*,  tliat  be  won  their  good  will,  and 
gained  the  consulship  at  the  very  next  election.  Paintings 
were  teniplo^-ed  in  Ui«  mm  way  hy  lawyers,  in  tmir 


plsadingt,  and  bacssnt  the  meoai  of  nmiuly  ivtKfai%  tlie 
opinions  of  the  people.  They  were  also  oanHed  about  by 
persons  who  liod  suffered  any  loss  or  misfortune^  to  excite 
the  sympathy  of  the  benevolent.  Thongh  these  represen- 
tations  were  probably  rough  in  their  style  of  exeraiiun, 
tliere  must  have  been  enough  of  individual  likeness,  und  of 
con*ect  grouping,  to  enable  the  people  to  Roognise  th«ir 
meaniBg,  ana  this  argues  oo&sidetable  skill  on  the  part  c^ 
the  painter. 

From  the  time  of  the  consul  Mummius  foreign  nietortt 
were  daily  brouglit  to  Rome,  and  the  public  baildings  of 
the  city  wove  hung  with  the  works  oi  AriFtides,  Apeliei, 
and  all  the  most  &med  artists  of  Greece.  In  the  Temple  of 
Peace  was  placed  the  most  valued  of  all  the  works  of  Pro- 
togenos,  f  .0.,  the  hunter  Jolysus  with  his  dogs  and  game. 
This  picture  was  at  Rhodes,  where  the  artist  hved,  vhen 
Demetrius  laid  si^pe  to  tlia  town,  and  it  is  said  that  he 
abstained  from  an  attack  which  conld  not  bav^  failed  of 
being  sucoessiiil,  lest  in  the  confusion  of  the  battle,  the  pi^ 
tun  should  receive  injury.  The  Cyclops  of  Timaiitli^ 
and  Uie  Scylla  of  Nichonioehas,  were  also  deposited  in  tbi 
Temple  of  Pesos.  Soma  of  the  most  pfecioas  works  of 
Zouxis  odomsd  tlie  Temido  of  Concord  and  the  printe 
vilUs  in  Roma. 

The  inilux  of  hoautiful  statues  and  pictures  at  Eoms 
during  this  period,  was  donbdess  the  cause  ef  the  partial 
i«vivid  of  taste,  and  of  the  sstsfolishment  of  the  naroerooi 
schools  which  spmng  up  tliroughout  Italy.    Yet  we  do  not 
reoid  of  any  artist  whosa  nami  became  illustrious.    Ludiui, 
of  tha  time  of  Augustas,  is  spoken  of  as  the  first  who  dtco^ 
ated  the  wolUi  of  houses   with  representations  of  runl 
scenery ;  Aursliua,  Cornelius  Pinus  and  Actius  Priscvs  vm 
employed  by  Vespasian  to  decoreie  some  teniplts  which  be 
rebuilt ;  but  their  pictures  were  of  an  infenor  charteter, 
and  hove  £bw  pretSDJbions  to  excellence.    Great  encoun^^ 
ment'wos  ^ven  to  artists  in  tlie  time  of  tlie  nidginiiicent 
Hadrian.    But  with  thb  emperor  and  the  Antonines  the 
prospeiity  of  the  arts  ceased.    Pliny  tails  us  of  an  vsM  of 
Piiatortan  rank,  Alterius  Labeo,  who  in  his  time  was  mr 
skilful  in  smaU  works  of  painting,  probably  miniatutvf; 
the  same  author  mentions  among  the  last  of  sticient  ItaluB 
pointers,  Turpilins,  a  noble  Venetian,  who  painted  at  Ve- 
rona, in  tlie  fimt  csentury  of  our  era.    It  was  during  tVu 
fint  century  tliat  the  great  catastrophe  occasioned  bv  the 
eruption  ot  Mount  Vesuvius  took  place,  wlien  the  cities  of 
Pompeii  and  Herenhuiettm  were  buried  under  vast  shoutn 
of  stones,  aslieB,and  lava.    Pompeii  remained  buried  for 
sixteen  hundred  and  asvsnty»six  years.    The  fiist  indira- 
tions  of  ruins  wen  observed  in  168d,  but  the  excavations 
did  not  Qommence  till  17M.    Sach  works  of  art  as  w<it 
not  portable,  and  wen  therefore  necessarily  left  behind  bt 
the  flying  inhabitants,  still  remain  as  fresh  m  st  the  da)  <)f 
their  dtsappearonee,  and  the  disoovery  of  these  citiei  has 
therefore  greatly  enlightened  us  with  respect  to  Roman  arti 
and  eufitoms.      *^£very  one  nansi  be  strack,''  says  )if»- 
Calbott,  ^with  the  ^reat  di^>arity  between  the  bronzes 
and  marbles,  and  the  pictures  of  Pompeii.  Some  of  the  btouM 
figures,  and  most  of  the  iurniture  of  that  uietsl,  are  exqti<' 
site  in  teste  and  execution,  and  many  of  the  veM^  an 
not  far  Itehind  them.    But  tlie  pioturee  are  of  a  very  m^ 
rior  character,  generally  speaking.    Single  figuivs  there  an 
of  great  l)eauty,  and  some  anibeeqnes  elegantly  designs- i 
but  the  groujis  are  for  the  most  part  more  like  scuiptnrt 
tlian  painting^;  and  the  few  landscapes  ans  little  better  than 
tliose  of  the  Chinese.    To  account  for  this  in  some  mtism>. 
I  would  suggest,  that  the  pictures  we  have  found  are  rwitf'l 
the  decorations  of  small  private  houaes,  and  tliat  they  mo^ 
have  been  executed  late  in  the  decline  of  art^  because  thegt^t 
earthquake  which  had  destroyed  the  temples  of  Pompeii, 
but  a  tew  years  before  that  eruption  of  the  mountain  wlmb 
buried  the  town,  must  liave  shaken  the  stucco  from  tbe 
walls,  and  with  it  whatever  specimens  of  art  of  a  het(^ 
time  might  liave  then  existed.    Besides,  the  inhahitanU  <f^ 
Pompeii  hod,  most  of  them,  time  to  escape  with  their  in<«| 
pracious  moveables.    Now  if  any  of  the  newdents  at  Jlist 
small  provincial  town  possessed  any  Greek  pictures  or  othif) 
of  value,  they  were  painted  on  light  wooden  panels  (uu^ 
or   sycamore)  and  were  easily  removed,  so  that  if  ^ 
saved,  they  must  Imve  been  consnnied  in  the.  fields  by  tfie 
ficrv  showers  tliat  destroy od  aaore  persons  without  thep|te9 
of  the  town  than  within  them.    Henee  I  cannot  think  jn- ^ 
the  pictures  of  Pompeii  ftirnish  a  fair  criteHon  hy  ^Inf-i  '^ 
judge  of  the  real  nature  of  antique  painting,  any  iiwn'  ''/j 
the  arabesques  tliat  hava  been  tbund  in  the  Komnh  l^'ti-^ 
and  sabtexnAean  chombem .  of .  ikha  paiacei^  whi«h  wtf  s.^- 


SUl^PLEMENT  FOR  NOVEMBER,  1841 


213 


not  suppose  to  have  been  the  {tkcea  where  the  choicest 
works  of  arts  were  placed.** 

Premising  thus  inuchy  conceniiag  the  impropriety  of 
judj<ing  of  tiie  Roman  schools  of  ^intlng  in  general  by  the 
specimens  discovered  at  Pompeii,  we   proceed  to  notice 
snme  of  the  existing  remahis  of  art  in  that  long  buried 
cltv.      Examples  are   found,   in  great  number,  of  the 
walls  of  apartments  being  painted  in  a  fanciful  manner, 
and  sometimes  the  method    employed    by   the  artist  is 
very  singuLu*.    The  picture,  though  not  in  an  ill  si-ite  of 
preservation,  and  though  to  be  seen  at  a  convenient  d!s>- 
tance,  is  quite  nndistinguishable  on  a  neai-er  approach. 
Sir  W.  Gell  describes  a  painting  of  this  kind  in  a  chamber 
near  the  entrance  of  the  Chalcidium.    At  a  certain  distance 
a  town,  a  tent,  and  somethlnff  like  a  mairiage  ceremony, 
might  be  perceived ;  but  which  vanished  into  an  assembloge 
of  apparently  unmeaning  blots,  so  as  to  entii-ely  elude  tiie 
skill  of  the  artist  who  was  endeavouring  to  oopy  It  at  the 
distance  of  three  or  four  feet.    Another  picture  of  the  same 
kind  was  visible  in  the  chamber  of  the  Perseils  and  An- 
di-omeda.    An  entire  farm-yard,  with  animalsi  a  fountiiin, 
and  a  beggar,  seemed  to  invite  the  antiquary  to  a  closer 
inspection,  which  only  produced  confusion  and  disappoint- 
ment, and  proved   tliat  the  picture  could   not   be  copied, 
except  by  a  painter  possessing  the  skill  and  touch  ot  the 
original  artist.    A  house  of  the  minor  class,  yet  l>imarkable 
for  the  paintings  with  whicli  it  was  adoi'ned,  was  visited  by 
Mayois   in   1812.    He  copied  two  of  them,  and   shortly 
after  that  time  tlie  piaster  detaching  itself  from  the  wall, 
they  fell,  and  were  destroyed.    The  subject  of  one  of  them 
w;is  taken  from  the  Odyssey,  and  represents  Ulysses  and 
Circe,  at  the  moment  when  the  hero,  having  drunk  of  the 
charmed  cup,  dmws  his  sword  and  advtinoes  to  avenge  his 
C')nipanions.    The  goddess,  terriiied,  makes  her  subuiission 
at  once,  as  described  by  Homer,  while  her  two  attendants 
fly  in  alarm.    Circe  uses  the  vei^  gesture  of  supplication 
so  constantly  described  by  Humer,  as  she  sinks  on  her 
knees,  e>&tending  one  hand  to  clasp  the  knees  of  Ulysses, 
witii  the   other  endeavouring  to  touch  his  beard*     In  a 
housL*  called  Com  Carolina^  because  it  was  excavated  in  the 
presence    of  Q^ueen  Caroline,  the  paintings  were  found  in 
good  pres  ervation,  though  they  have  rapidly  decayed  since 
that  period.    Two  of  them  are  engitrved  in  Sir  \V.  Gell*s 
work.     One  of  them  is  explained  to  be  either  Diana  and 
Endymion,  or  Venus  and  Adonis.    A  youth,  whose  head  is 
encircled  with  rays  of  liglit,  is  sitting  down  holding  two 
spears ;  a  female  hgure  of  great  beauty  is  approaching  him, 
and  between  them  is  Hymen  with  his  torch  and  ptUm-branchk 
The  female  is  rather  scantily  dressed,  but  richly  ornamented 
with  ear-rings,  necklace,  armlets,  tuid  bracelets.    The  otlier 

})icture  represents  Perseus  and  Andrameda  after  the  hero 
las  slain  the  monster.  He  holds  behind  him  something 
like  a  skull,  which  is  probably  intended  for  Medusa's  liead, 
and  his  double-pointed  awoi'd  lies  beside  him  on  the  ground. 
Andromeda  is  in  full  costume,  and  wears  a  white  tunie^ 
with  a  blue  peplura  or  lai^  wrapper. 

The  honse  ot  the  female  dancers  in  the  street  of  Herca* 
laneura,  is  remarkable  for  the  beanty  of  its  paintings. 
Among  them  are  four  elegant  figures  of  female  dancers, 
from  which  the  house  receives  its  name.  Another  repre- 
sents a  fiffure  reposing  on  the  borders  of  a  clear  lake,  sur- 
rounded oy  villas  and  pidaces,  on  the  bosom  of  which  a 
flock  of  ducks  and  wild  fowl  are  swimming.  The  FuUonioOy 
or  scouring-house,  had  its  walls  adorned  by  a  very  inter- 
esting series  of  paintings,  where  the  various  processes  con- 
nected wiUi  fulling  and  scouring  cloth  are  admirably  illus- 
tmted.  The  house  of  the  tragic  poet,  and  the  houses  of  the 
great  and  little  fountains,  excited  a  gi*eat  sensation  at  the 
time  of  their  discoveiy,  not  so  much  for  their  extent,  as  on 
account  of  tlie  beauty  and  richness  of  their  decorations. 
In  the  former  dwelling  was  found  a  painting  that  has  been 
esteemed  one  of  the  most  beautiful  8i)ecimens  of  ancient 
art  that  lias  descended  to  modem  times.  The  subject  is 
Achilles  delivering  Briseis  to  the  heralds.  It  is  thus  dc- 
scrihed  by  Sir  W.  G«ll :— **  The  scene  seenw  to  take  place 
in  tiie  tent  of  Achilles,  who  sits  in  the  centre.  Patroclns, 
with  his  back  towards  the  spectator,  and  with  a  skin  or 
deeper  red,  leads  in  from  the  left  the  lovely  Briseis  in  a 
lon^  and  floating  veil  of  apple-green.  Her  fjicc  is  beautiful, 
ami,  not  to  dwtdl  upon  the  artJniess  of  her  eye,  it  is  evident 
that  the  pimting  of  her  ruby  lip  was  imagined  by  the 
pjiintor  as  one  of  her  most  bewntoning  attributes.  Achilles 
jiri-sents  the  fiiir  one  to  the  hemlds  on  the  right ;  and  hisr 
attitude,  his  manly  beauty,  and  the  m/^ificent  ejcjiression 
of  his  connte&anc^,  are  inimitable.    Th4  t^nl  nkM  to  be 


divided  by  a  drapeiy  about  breast-high,  and  of  a  sort  ot 
dark  bluish-green,  like  the  tent  itself.  Behind  this  stand 
several  warriors,  the  golden  shield  of  one  of  whom,  whether 
intentionally  or  not  on  the  part  of  the  painter,  forms  a  soil 
of  glory  round  the  head  of  the  principal  hero.  It  is  pro- 
bably the  cony  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated  pictures  of 
antiquity.  When  first  discovered,  the  colours  were  fresh, 
and  the  flesh  particularly  had  the  transparency  of  Titian. 
It  suffered  much  and  unavoidably,  during  the  excava- 
tion, and  something  from  the  means  taken  tti  preserve  it, 
when  a  committee  of  persons  qualified  to  judge,  had  de- 
cided that  the  wall  on  which  it  was  painted  was  not  in  a 
state  to  admit  of  its  removid  in  safety.  At  length,  after 
an  exposure  of  more  than  two  yeai-s,  it  was  thought  better 
to  attempt  to  transport  it  to  the  studii  at  Naples,  than  to 
sufl^er  it  entirely  to  aisappear  from  the  wall.  It  was  accord- 
ingly removed  with  success  in  the  summer  of  182C,  and  it 
is  hoped  that  some  remains  of  it  may  exist  to  posterity.** 

In  tlie  same  house  is  a  representation  on  a  white  ground 
of  the  combat  between  the  Greeks  and.  Amazons.  Some 
of  the  female  warriors  are  in  chariots,  some  on  horses,  and 
tliey  are  armed  w^ith  bows,  shields,  and  battle-axes.  They 
are  clothed  in  blue,  green,  and  purple  draperies,  and  are 
represented  in  violent  action.  Tne  men  ai*e  distinguished 
by  wearing  helmetSj  while  the  women  have  the  head  bare. 
These  figures  are  more  remarkable  for  their  spirited  com- 
position, tlian  for  accui'acy  of  drawing.  A  very  beautiful 
production  ornaments  a  chamber  in  this  house,  called,  froni 
the  subject  of  the  picture,  the  chamber  of  Leda.  Pictures 
of  Venus  and  Cupid,  of  Ariadne,  aiid  of  the  sacrifice  of 
Iphigenia,  also  serve  to  increase  the  interest  attached  to 
this  dwelling. 

At  the  north-east  angle  of  the  Forum,  stands  an  edified 
called  the  Pantheon,  which  contains  several  paintings 
worthy  of  notice.  The  designs  are  well  composed  and  the 
colouii  brilliant.  One  of  the  most  interesting  i&thatof  a 
female  artist,  holding  in  one  hand  nn  oval  white  ualette, 
apparently  of  silver,  in  the  other,  brushes  tingea  with 
several  colours.  Her  five  fingers  appear  to  fi:rasp  the 
palette,  through  as  many  holes  perforated  in  the  metal. 
Tlie  paintings,  for  the  most  jvart,  consist  of  architectural 
compositions  of  long  aerial  columns,  vistas  seen  through 
doorways,  showing  the  ornamented  ceilings,  a  variety  of 
figures  and  bordei-s  of  flowers  generally  painted  in  diizzlinjj 
colours,  among  which,  bright  vermilion,  jet  black,  deep 
crimson,  azure  blue,  and  bright  yellow,  prevail  to  form  the 
ground.  A  variety  of  mixed  tints  are  auded  to  these,  whicli 
consist  principally  of  light  greys,  pink,  purple,  and  green. 
In  the  centre  of  compartments  formed  by  the  arabesques,  his- 
torical subjects  are  painted.  The  subject  of  one  is  the  return 
of  Ulysses  in  disguise  to  Ithaca,  and  his  meeting  with  Pene- 
lope, as  recorded  in  the  nineteenth  book  of  the  Odyssey.  Tho 
picture  represents  the  queen  inquiring  of  the  suppost»d  men- 
dicant stranger  for  tidmgs  of  Ulysses.  She  is  dothed  in  a 
violet  coloured  robe,  and  a  white  mantle,  or  perhaps  a  species 
of  veil.  She  holds  the  materials  for  spinning  in  her  hands. 
ITlysses  has  a  white  tunic,  and  a  yellow  chlaymis  or  pallium. 
The  attendant  Eurynome  is  also  represented.  The  dis- 
tinguishing characteristic  of  this  painting  is  said  to  be  its 
total  absence  of  affectation.  Tliere  is  not  that  strong 
effect  of  light  and  shadow  employed  in  modern  painting, 
for  though  the  picture  is  shaded  it  is  onl^  to  n  de})th  thati 
might  exist  in  the  open  air.  The  following  remarks  of 
Sir  W.  Gell,  made  in  connection  with  the  painting  we  refer 
to,  are  interesting  and  important : — "  It  is  of  consequence 
to  preserve  everything  which  can  convey  to  us  the  concep- 
tions which  tho  ancients  themselves  formed  on  the  suhjects 
connected  with  poetry  and  history,  before  dress  and  manners 
had  undergone  that  complete  change  which  took  place 
soon  af^cr  the  general  introduction  of  "Christianity.  By 
collecting  the  materials  which  Pompeii  and  Ilerculaneum 
have  already  furnished,  and  may  hereafter  supply,  we  shall 
probably,  ere  lon;r,  have  the  means  of  formmg  editions  of 
the  wn'iters  of  antiquity,  and  decorating  our  classical  and 
mythological  dictionaries  with  figures  and  illustrations 
which  the  ancients  themselves  nii'dit  have  approved,  but 
which  have  hitherto  been  {.ttempted  in  vain." 

In  the  house  of  the  Quocstor,  otherwise  called  the  houbc 
of  tlie  Dioscuri,  or  sons  of  Jupiter,  there  are  some  excellent 
paintings  of  figures,  among  whieh  we  may  notice  that  of 
Jupiter  seated  on  his  throne,  and  crowned  by  Victoiy, 
attired  in  her  usual  flying  drapery  aud  with  S.C.  on  hur 
shield.  The  figure  represented  in  our  fr.Jiiuspieco  a.s> 
represents  Victory,  but  differs  materially  from  that  of 
'  which  we  have  just  spoken.    It  is-  conjectured  that  tho 


21G 


TH£  8ATUBDAY  MAOAZINS. 


jrenhis  of  Rome  may  possihly  be  intended  bjr  this  elegant 
iiijare,  as  tiie  j^lohe  in  iier  hand  r:  y  >  *  understood  to  siff- 
nify.  The  trophy  in  her  left  hand  proves  the  goddess  to  be 
of  Homnn,  and  not  of  Grecian  invention.  The  globe  does 
not  bear  an  v  representation  of  oceans  or  continents^  bnt  is 
merely  marked  witli  a  few  indistinct  touches. 

From  the  preceding  account  it  will  be  evident,  that 
although  the  faults  of  the  paintings  at  Pompeii  taken  as  a 
wliole  may  be  numerous,  as  it  respects  accuracy  of  per- 
spective and  other  important  particulars,  still  there  is 
satficient  betraty  in  many  of  the  groups  and  single  figures, 
to  make  these  remains  of  ancient  art  important  to  those 
ivho  wish  to  study  the  grouping  and  composition  of  the 
ancients,  and  to  render  them  wortliy  of  tlieir  most  attentive 
consideration. 

Mrs.  Callcott  mentions  the  discovery  of  two  reryr  beau- 
tiful specimens  of  antique  painting,  found  in  a  vineyard 
near  Home  in  1823,  which  seem  to  corroborate  her  opinion 
that  the  pictures  scattered  through  the  Italian  provinces 
M-ere  genendly  inferior  to  those  belonging  to  Rome  itself  or 
the  immediate  neighbourhood.  One  of  these  was  the  half 
figure  of  a  boy,  with  a  double  flute ;  broad  in  colour  and 
effect,  and  round  and  fine  in  form,  somewhat  resembling 
one  of  the  Venetian  frescoes,  particularly  those  of  Paul 
Veronese.  The  other  was  a  Ganymede,  very  beautiful  in 
form,  and  remarkable  for  the  effect  of  light  and  shadow. 
The  light  in  this  painting  is  described  as  &lling  principally 
on  the  body  of  Ganym^e  in  the  centre,  and  illuminating 
the  blue  sky  on  the  lef^ ;  but  a  low  light  stone  altar  b 
placed  on  the  right  to  balance  it.  Over  the  altar  an  eagle 
with  outstretched  winp[S  is  dark,  and  the  slmdow  is  con- 
tinued behind  the  lower  part  of  the  figure  of  the  boy  by  a 
purple  mantle. 

Sbctiox  YII.    Materials  emploted  in  the  PAurriivag 

OP  THE  Ancients. 

The  antients  painted  principallv  upon  wood,  of  which  we 
find  the  larch,  the  cornel,  the  cedar,  the  cvpress,  the  holly, 
the  By(5amore,  and  the  box-tree,  mentioned  by  ancient  wri- 
ters. The  boards  or  tablets  were  prepared  with  a  thin 
ground  of  chalk  and  size  of  some  Kind.  Linen  cloth  or 
canvass  was  also  employed  to  paint  upon,  but  we  have  no 
direct  evidence  of  its  use  before  the  reign  of  Nero.  Parch- 
ment, ivory,  and  plaster  were  the  other  materials.  With 
respect  to  the  pigments  employed  by  the  ancients,  the 
gre^itcr  number  are  employed  still.  It  is  commonly  believed 
that  only  four  colours  were  known  in  tlie  time  o(  Apelles, 
and  that  these  *were  white  and  black,  and  red  and  yellow 
ochres.  This  belief  is  founded  on  an  expression  in  Pliny 
to  that  effect,  but  when  we  find  Pliny  himself  describing 
the  Venus  Anadyomene  of  Apelles,  as  rising  from  a  green 
or  azure  ocean,  under  a  bright  blue  sky,  we  are  at  once 
undeceived  on  this  point.  Other  authors  lead  us  to  the 
conclusion,  that  so  manv  and  so  beautiful  were  the  ancient 
pigments,  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  modem  science  has 
given  us  any  advantage  in  this  respect.  In  the  Egyptian 
catacombs,  long  before  the  time  of  the  great  painters  of 
Greece,  blues  and  greens  are  as  commonly  found  as  yellows 
and  reus.  And  we  know  that  in  the  time  of  Moses,  scarlet, 
red,  blue,  and  purple,  were  the  colours  employed  in  tlie 
furniture  of  the  ars  of  the  covenant,  and  the  vestments  of 
the  priests. 

Of  the  white  colouring  matters,  the  oMnise,  or  white  lead 
of  modem  painters,  was  known  to  the  ancients,  but  could 
not  have  been  so  valuable  to  them,  unless  they  had  some 
oils,  or  vehicles  of  that  nature,  wherewith  to  apply  it,  for 
it  turns  black  when  used  in  water  or  fresco  pamting.  A 
natural  earth  from  Egypt,  Crete,  and  Gyrene,  was  much 
valued  ;  a  very  fine  pigment  was  also  made  of  chalk  ground 
with  the  white  gLiss  of  which  rings  and  other  ornaments 
were  made,  and  therefoi-c  called  annulare.  The  finest  de-i 
scription  of  lime  was  used,  repeatedly  washed,  and  beaten, 
and  then  formed  into  cakes  which  were  dried  in  the  sun. 

The  Romans  divided  colours  into  two  classes,  florid  and 
grswe,  and  we  may  adopt  this  division  in  speaking  of  the 
ancient  pigments.  The  florid  colours  were  the  more  valu- 
a>>Ie,  and  appear  to  have  been  cinnabar,  minium,  armenium, 
purpurissum,  indicum,  ostrum,  chrysocoUo. 

Vermilion,  called  in  its  rough  stfit'C  cinnabar,  is  the 
moRt  Ijnirumt  and  valuable  red,  and  appears  to  have  had 
Rovnething  of  n  saci-ed  clmracter  in  tlie  estimation  of  the 
Romans,  since  the  first  duty  of  a  censor,  in  entering  upon 
his  office,  was  to  paint  Jupiter^s  fiioe  with  vermilion,  and 
the  faces  of  all  the  gods  were  adorned  in  a  ateilar  manner. 
Theophrostus  tells  us^  th«t  Calliafl^  an  Atbeniaiif  calcined 


it,  and  brought  It  to  its  vtvy  fint  eolonr.   ¥unai,ornd 
1^,  is  often  confounded  with  native  ol&iuil»r,  bat  is 
decidedly  inferior  in  quality,  and  blackens  on  expomn  to 
ll^ht  and  air,  unless  secured  by  strong  varnishes.   Aroie. 
nium,  purpurissum,  indicum*  or  indigo,  and  ostrom,  wen 
different  shades   of  blue,  the    first   Iwing  the  splendid 
colour  now  called  ultra-marine.     Theophrastos  aays  tiut 
one  of  the  kin^  of  Egypt  mvented  the  method  of  mi!va 
the  beautiful  Armenian  blue,  so  nrecious,  that  kings  seat 
])resents  of  it  to  each  other.    The  li4>is  lazuli,  from  which 
the  colour  is  obtained,  is  found  in  Siberia  md  on  ^ 
borders  of  Persia,  as  well  as  in  China^  where  the  prepam- 
tion  of  the  colour  has  Ion?  been  known.    Some  of  the  ancieot 
imitfitlons  of  this  beautiful  colour  were  composed  of  esrtli, 
boiled  with  wood,  or  indigo.    Several  lumps  of  a  deep  bliie 
substance,  found  in  the  baths  of  Titu«^  were  snalyzed  by 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  and  were  found  to  be  a  frit  made  by 
means  of  soda,  and  coloured  with  oxide  of  copper.  Powdered 
and  mixed  with  clialk,  they  produced  tints  exactly  corre- 
sponding with  the  blues  stul  preserved  on  the  walls  of  the 
same  baths.    Indigo  was  introduced  into  the  We»t  from 
India,  not  long  before  Pliny's  time,  and  was  imm^lately 
adopted  for  shadows  and  strong  lines.    All  the  ADcient 
greens  examined  by  Davy,  proved  to  be  comhuiations  of 
copper,  apd  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  natire 
chrysocolla  was  carbonate  of  copper.    The  name  of  cIiqso- 
colla  (gold-fflae),  was  probably  deriv^  firom  the  greea 
powder  usea  by  goldsmiths  as  solder,  into  which  copps 
entered. 

The  austere  colonre  were  more  numerous  Aan  the  Horid. 
Of  the  red  earths,  Sinopls,  brought  from  the  citv  of  Sinope 
in  Pontns,  was  much  esteemed.    The  red  ground  at  Pcin* 
peii  and  elsewhere  were  made  with  this  colour.   It  is  nov 
sold  hi  our  shops  as  Aiinenian  bole»  and  is  used  in  torn 
manufactures.    There  was  a  red  ooloar  used  by  the  aocieoU 
especially  to  represent  blood,  and  from  their  account  of  it, 
they  were  evidently  ignorant  oi  its  orison.    They  (k^ribed 
it  as  produced  bv  the  mixed  blood  of  elephants  and  dragoas 
in  their  deadly  nghts.    This  is  probably  the  some  sublet 
still  called  dragon's  blood,  the  resin  oi  the  Dracmi^  drec$ 
of  Linnieus.    Sandaracha  was  a  substance  found  in  tcoU 
and  silver  mines,  varyuig  between  red  and  yellow.   Vm 
was  also  a  paler  sort  of  sandaracha,  which,  winh  orfnoint, 
or  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  and  the  sevend  oohieBu  iD»d«  ^ 
their  different  yellows.    The  Attic  and  Craltie  ochres  wen: 
pale,  but  many  of  those  found  in  the  hilla  j^iear  Bootf  wm 
darker,  and  their  tints  were  still  farther  deepwi  hjl>nniu|> 
Several  of  the  ochres  when  burnt  assume  a  leldiah  hnv. 
The  blacks  used  by  the  ancients  appear  to  him  heen  tbe 
soot  collected  from  buminjg  sudi  sabstanoQB  M  R^in  ^ 
pitch.    Black  was  also  obtained  from  a  peoiAr  ^s^tli,  and 
from  the  blood  of  the  cuttle  fidi.     AtmniflBt«ia  wft:  tl>c 
name  ^iven  to  the  best  kinds  of  black-— Kimn^onj  to  th« 
vitriolic  black,  only  used  for  stalnipg  woo4« '   Two  kui<i^ 
of  blue  were  formed  Avith  a  sand  pioound  in  f^)!""^ 
Scytfaia,  and  Cyprus,  which  was  dyed  wM^  the  kicf «( 
herbs.      These  blues  were  called  resfiactLtefy  m^\xm 
and  lomentum. 

In  concluding  our  notice  of  this  salHeet  we  mifioy  tiie 
language  of  Sir  Humphrey  Davy :— "  It  tt^peats  tibat  tne 
Greek  and  Roman  painters' hod  almoat  iHl  tfiie  same  coloun 
as  those  employed  by  the  great  Italian  ]i|aa|(ai%  it  the  pn^ 
of  the  revival  of  the  arts  in  Italy.  TW  had  indeed  m 
advantage  over  them  in  two  colours,  the  Ta^ifittlMi  or  ^P* 
tian  azure,  and  the  Tyrian  or  marine 

**The  azure,  the  red  and  yellow  o 
are  the  colours  which  seem  not  to  have 
the   ancient  fresco  paintings.     The 
than  recently  made  Dutch  cinnabar^ 
inferior  in  tmt  to  that  sold  in  the  jSHip; 
genei*al  are  dull.     Massicot  and  orpl 
among  the  least  durable  of  the  anciem 

"  If  red  and  yellow  ochres,  bhuika 
colours  most  employed  by  Protogeiias 
they  likewise  the  colours  most  employ 
Titian  in  their  best  style.    The  St.  Ji 
gallery  at  Florence,  oiler  striking  «yfl  ,^      «>—  r- 
which  all  the  deeper  tints  are  evident^  jmwed  by  ni 
and  yellow  ochres,  and  carbonaceoua  amf||l|QJc«. 


/ 


alMa 
larker 

kadis 


Bv 


LONDON: 

JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  W»T  WRAKP. 
or  WnasiiT  NuMasM.  pmok  One  ^«jaiv,  Asom  ^Ij"* 
Paatb,  riucs  BoLnuKm, 


218 


THE  SATUHDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Decembul  4, 


GAINSBOROUGH  AND  HIS  WORKS.  IL 

Li  KB  the  Dutch  artiste,  Gainsborough  was  devoted  to 
the  repi^sfttitatioii  of  the  nii*tll  features  of  his  own  coun- 
try. His  figures',  mostly  those  of  country  people,  are 
in  general  conspicuous  objects  in  his  pictures.  In  the 
National  Gallery  are  his  two  well-known  pictures,  the 
«*  Waterincr. Place  "  and  the  *'  Market  Cart.  The  for-, 
mer  represents  in  the  foreground  a  piece  of  still  water, 
at  which  some  cows  are  drinking,  and  children  playing 
among  rocks,  with  tall  trees  overshadowing.  The 
feeling  of  rural  tranquillity  is  well  preserved  in  this  pic- 
ture :  the  subject,  though  simple,  is  well  calculated  to 
exhibit  the  skill  and  character  of  the  artist ;  and  the 
effect  results  mainly  from  the  contrast  of  bright  lights 
and  deep  shadows.  The  tone  of  colouring  is,  however, 
by  some  thought  to  be  heavy,  and  the  details  not  well 
made  out. 

An  idea  of  the  second  picture,  the  "  Market  Cart,'* 
may  be  conveyed  by  the  fronti^tpiece  to  our  present 
article.  We  see  a  road  overgrown  with  bushy  trees ; 
two  country  girls  are  seated  upon  a  cart,  loaded  with 
turnips  and  other  vegetables  ;  two  lads  are  walking,  and 
other  figures  enliven  the  back-ground.  The  tone  of  this 
picture  is  highly  rich  and  harmoniouSb'  According  to 
Dr.  Waagen, — 

It  pleases  the  eye  by  a  warmth  of  ciJourihg  which  is 
peculiar  to  Oaikishorough^  yet  the  tone  of  the  ilgnres  is 
very  false,  the  handling  aflvcted  atld  slight)  the  colouHng 
much  broken.  What  a  difference  between  such  a  picture 
and  an  old  Dutch  otie^-^For  instance,  ah  Isaac  Ostado  ti'eat- 
uVfT  A  similar  suhject  t  UoW  |>ithy  and  solid  is  his  execu- 
tion !  huw  tHjUmled  lUid  aceuratel y*  charactericed  every  indi- 
vidual ohject,  yet  without  neglecting  the  kaifmony  of  the 
whole. 

We  are,  howeve)")  ineliued  to  ththk  that  there  is  more 
justice  in  the  general  remarks  i^  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 

who  sny«»  t — * 

A  novelty  and  tieeuliarity  of  manner,  as  it  is  often  a 
cause  of  OUr  apprObiitiou,  so  likewise  it  Is  Ofteh  a  ground  of 
censui-e;  as  being  contrary  to  the  pmetice  of  other  painters, 
in  whose  manner  we  have  been  initiated^  and  in  whose 
favour  v^'e  have  perha))!  t)eeft  (n^possessed  fit>m  our  infancy, 
for,  fond  Iks  we  al'e  of  novelty,  we  Hre  upon  the  whole  crea- 
tures of  habit.  HoWeVeri^it  is  certain  tliat  all  those  odd 
scratches  and  markii,  Which  on  a  close  e^caminatlon,  are  so 
observable  in  G  un3borou;|[)i'f  (jictureS)  and  which  even  to 
experienced  painteH  appear  rather  the  effect  of  uccident  than 
design  tills  chaos,  this  uncouth  and  sliapeless  appearance, 
bv  a  kiAd  of  magic,  at  a  Certain  distance  assumes  form,  and 
all  the  narts  seem  to  diti))  Into  their  pi'oper  pkccs,  so  that 
we  can  liardly  i*efuse  acknowledging  the  ntll  effect  of  dili- 


¥ 


ence,  under  the  am>eattknce  of  chance  and  hasty  negligence. 

'hat  Oalnsboi'ougn  himself  Considei-ed  this  pi'culiarity  in 
his  matmer,  and  the  t^ower  it  possesses  of  exciting  surpnse, 
as  a  beauty  in  his  Wotke,  t  Ihink  may  lie  infen-ed  fix>m  the 
ea^er  desiire  Which  We  know  he  always  expt^essed,  that  his 
pictut*es  at  the  fikhlbition  should  be  seen  near  as  Weil  as 
at  a  dlstancei 

Defoi*e  «>eiUminf  dur  memoir  of  his  life  we  will  dis- 
tinctly uotlee  one  othei^  paintiUi^  of  Gaiusborough,  and 
that  a  remat'kable  t)tt«  i  il  it  t^tititled  "  the  Blue  &ov.*' 
This  \%  the  portrait  of  a  yuuth  in  k  blue  dress,  and  it  is 
now  in  the  gallery  of  the  Marquis  of  Westminster.  It 
has  a  natural  elevation  of  look,  and  great  M»«  ^  hiiU 
tude,  but  the  een\)ean  splendour  of  the  boy*s  coat  is  at 

first  sbme#hat  Startlit^g.  This  picture  owed  lii  Origin 
to  a  dispute  l)etweeu  Gainsborough  anil  Dlher  artists. 
Gainsboi^tlgh*!  tibjeet  Wii  j^raetiealty  to  disprove  the 
opinion  of  l^f  Joshua  Reyuoldt^^^thatthe  predominance 
of  blue  in  a  picture  was  it^tsompatible  with  good  colour-^ 
ing ;  and  in  spite  6t  the  blue  dresi,  dor  artist  iU«c«eded 
in  producing  a  harmonious  and  pleasitt^  ^IktU  **  And 
in  truth  th^re  are/^  says  Waapn^  **  in  the  cool  idiades 
of  colours  in  which  blue  acts  the  chief  part,  very  tender 
and.  pleasing  harmonies,  which,  however.  Sir  Joshua, 
with  his  way  of  seeing,  could  not  much  approve.  The  Blue 
Boy  is  besides  greatly  distmguished  for  spirit  and  care- 
ful solid  painting/' 


Reynolds  used  to  say  that  Gainsborough  covld  copy 
Van  Dyck  so  exquisitely  that  at  a  certain  dietanee  the 
copy  could  not  be  distinguished  from  the  orltioalf  or  any 
difference  be  observed  betw*een  them.  He  thought 
Gainsborough*8  manner  to  be  peculiarly  his  own,  and 
one  which  produced  great  force  and  effect:  one  daj, 
while  examining  a  picture  of  his  with  considerable  atten- 
tion, he  said,  '*  I  cannot  make  out  how  he  produces  his 
effect." 

As  Gainsborough's  circumstances  improved^  he  felt 
himself  enabled  to  indulge  his  peculiar  tastes.  He 
was  not  greatly  attached  to  reading,  but  considered  him- 
self to  be  well  read  in  the  volume  of  nature,  and  that 
that  was  learning  sufficient  for  him.  Me  did  not  there- 
fore much  covet  the  intercourse  of  literary  men,  but  jet 
he  was  fond  of  company,  and  passionately  so  of  music. 
He  esteemed  a  good  musician  as  one  of  the  first  of  men, 
and  a  good  instrument  as  one  of  the  noblest  works  of 
human  skill.  He  in  consequence  devoted  much  of  his 
leisure  to  fiddles  and  rebecs:  he  collected  numerous 
instruments,  and  received  at  his  table  muxical  professors 
of  all  descriptions,  except  bagpipers.  He  admired 
Giardini  and  his  violin, — Abel  and  his  viol-de-gamba, 
— Fischer  and  his  hautboy,  and  was  delighted  with  a 
strolling  harper  who  came  from  the  Welsh  mountains 
to  Bath.  Music  was  with  him  at  all  times  a  favourite 
topic  of  conversation,  and  during  his  leisure  he  practised 
by  fits  and  starts  on  his  numerous  instruments,  and  his 
performance  is  said  to  have  been  worthy  of  praise. 

One  of  Grainsborough's  acquaintances  in  Bath  was 
Wiltshere,  the  public  carrier,  a  kind  and  worthy  man,  who 
.loved  the  artist  and  admired  his  works.  In  one  of  his 
landscapes  the  painter  wished  to  introduce  a  horse,  and 
as  the  carrier  had  a  very  handsome  one,  he  requested 
the  loan  of  it  for  a  day  or  two,  and  named  his  purpose : 
the  carrier  saddled  and  bridled  it,  and  sent  it  as  a 
present.  Upon  this  the  artist  painted  the  wagon  and 
horses  of  the  friendly  carrier,  put  his  whole  family  and 
himself  into  it,  and  sent  it  well  framed  to  Wiltshere, 
with  his  best  respectst  This  picture  is  considered  to  be 
a  capital  performance*  While  our  artist  resided  iU  Bath, 
but  exhibited  his  picturel  in  London,  Wittahere  was 
annually  employed  iU  the  removal  of  his  paintings^  and 
constantly  refused  to  accept  money  for  his  servtces,  but 
being  a  great  lover  of  the  art,  he  would  ask  afid  obtain 
a  small  picture  of  the  painter,  according  to  the  amount 
of  carriage  performed*  Beveral  of  these  ttfetllf«s  still 
remain  iU  the  family  df  the  earner,  and  wtUt  ¥idile  is 
justly  appreciated* 

When  settled  tfk  Ldttddtl)  Gainsboroiifb  Mgig^  in 
portraiture  and  landscape  paibtinf  with  f^lh  #aslin|:  and 
increasing  suet^ss.  He  had  a  fine  house  aikd  tfaUery 
in  Pall  Mall,  and»  though  Sir  Joshua  was  tlieft  mg^h  in 
favour^  yet  there  was  room  for  another  ^bo,  to  just 
delineation  of  character,  added  a  fbrte  and  a  f^^edom 
^;hiph  approached)  aud  sometimes  rivalled)  Vab  Dyck. 
The  splendour  of  Hit  edt«Mirs  Was  permanent)  and  lo  all 
his  performances  h«  imparted  an  air  of  truUi* 

A  conversation  ur  fkmlly  piece  of  Um  kifif^  llk»  ^tieen, 
aiid  the  three  roVal  listers,  wu  HM^  idlfind,  as  also 
Were  sufne  sketches  of  the  Duchess  of  t)ev«iishiret  but 
Qntnsborough  declined  to  lend  to  Chatiwtirlh  a  painting 
of  her  Grace,  because  he  felt  thai  ^  her  datftling'  beauty, 
and  the  sense  Which  he  l^Utertaiftcd  nf  th«  channi  of  her 

looks  and  h«r  c&iiir«rsaltoih  took  away  lliai  te«lifteas  of 
hand  and  hasty  h^ptUMi  of  Iduck  wUdl  Mtaged  to 
him  iti  his  orditaary  tnoiiiettta.'* 

Gainsborough  never  aitariiid  ktl  warn  15  wy  of 
hia  productions)  and  v^y  seldom  tlie  date.  Oii«  of  his 
own  chief  fkvourite  compositions  wai  t^  ^  Cottage 
t^rt  with  her  Dog  and  Pitcher,**  which  i«^  na  Cliniiing- 
ham  remarks,  a  happy  and  well-considered  scene. 

Such  a  picture,  is  well  calculated  to  illustrate  the 
following  spirited  observations  of  the  above-named 
writer:-^ 


1«41.3 


THB  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


3]9 


The  ohief  worki  of  Gainsbonrngli  ara  not  what  is  nsaally 
called  landacape,  for  he  ha4  no  wiah  to  create  gardens  of 
paracliae,  and  leave  ^em  to  the  sole  eiuoyment  of  the  sun 
and  breeze.  The  wildest  nooks  of  his  woods  have  their 
living  tenants,  and  in  sli  his  glades  and  his  valleys  we  se9 
the  sona  and  daughters  of  men.  A  deep  human  syinpathy 
unites  us  with  his  pencil,  and  this  is  not  lessened  because 
all  its  works  are  stamped  with  the  iinag^  of  Old  England. 
His  paintings  have  a  national  look.  He  l^longs  to  no  school  2 
he  b  not  reflected  from  tlie  glass  of  man,  but  from  that  of 
nature.  He  has  not  steeped  hi«  landscapes  in  the  atmo- 
.  s)jher»  of  Italy,  like  Wilson,  nor  borrowed  the  postures  of 
his  porURaits  from  the  old  masters,  like  Reynolds.  No 
acadeniy  schooled  down  into  uniformity  and  imitation  the 
truly  Knglish  and  intrepid  spirit  of  Gainsborough* 

Gainaborougb  lived  to  the  affe  of  si^^ty^pna-  Being 
present  at  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  he  wai  sitting 
with  bia  bap](  to  an  open  window,  wh^n  he  suddenljT  felt 
aometbipg  very  cpld  touch  bis  neck;  stiffneas,  and  pain 
succeeded.  On  returning  hopae,  a  mark  was  seen  about 
the  fize  of  a  shilling,  which  was  harder  tp  the  touch 
than  the  aurrounding  skin,  and  which  he  said  still  felt 
cold.  The  use  of  nannel  did  not  avail  to  remove  it. 
The  most  eminent  surgeons,  however,  and  John  Hunter 
among  them,  declared  there  was  no  danger;  It  turned 
out  however,  according  to  the  presentiment  of  the 
artist  himself,  to  be  a  cancer,  which  proved  fatal.  On  his 
death-bed  he  sent  for  Revolds  to  thank  him  for  the  kind 
and  liberal  manner  in  wKich  he  had  always  spoken  of 
him  in  public  and  in  private.  This  was  the  more  pleas<> 
ing  because  it  was  generally  known  that  professional 
jealousies  had  ei^isted  between  theio  artists,  In  a  Pis* 
course  pronounced  soon  after  thp  death  of  his  rival, 
Reynolds  thus  refers  to  the  occasions^ 

I  cannot  prevail  op  myself  to  suppress,  that  I  was  not 
connected  with  him  by  any  habits  of  fumiliainty  t  if  any 
little  jealousies  had  subsisted  oetween  ns»  they  were  foigottep 
in  those  moments  of  sinceritv;  and  he  tunied  towards  me  as 
one  who  V4S  engrossed  by  tne  same  pursuits,  and  who  de- 
served his  good  opinion,  by  being  sensible  of  his  excellence. 
Without  entering  into  a  detail  of  what  passed  at  this  last 
interview,  the  impression  of  it  upon  mv  mind  was,  that  his 
regret  at  losing  life,  was  principally  the  regret  of  leaving 
his  art ;  and  mors  especially  as  he  now  began,  he  said,  to 
see  wliat  hb  deficiencies  were :  which  he  aald,  he  flattered 
himself  in  bis  last  works  wars  in  some  maasur^  supplied. 

These  remarks  on  the  dying  artist's  atate  of  mind  may 
teach  us  that  whatever  we  allow  to  become  the  first 
object  in  life  will  assuredly  cling  to  us  even  on  the 
threshold  of  eternity ;  and  It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
make  tjie  inquiry,  even  with  respect  to  our  most  innocent 
and  laudable  pursuits,  whether  they  are  not  usurping  a 
place  in  our  t)ioughts  and  affections,  which  as  immortal 
and  responsible  creatures  we  cannot  safbly  assign  to 
them. 

Gainsborough  was  bnri^d  on  the  9th  of  August,  1 788, 
in  Kew  Church-yard ;  according  to  his  expressed  wish 
his  name  alone  was  cut  on  the  tomb-stone.  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  Sir  William  Chambers,  West,  Meyers,  Bar- 
tolozzi,  Paul  Sandby,  Cotes,  Sheridan  and  others  at- 
tended his  funeral. 

We  have  already  expressed  regret  that  the  biography 
of  this  great  artist  is  so  meagre.  There  are,  however, 
niany  details  respecting  him  preserved  in  the  fourteenth 
Discourse  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  which  must  be  pecu- 
liarly valuable  to  the  student,  not  only  as  affording  him 
the  character  of  this  master  frcm  one  so  well  qualified 
to  pronounce  it,  but  also  as  revealing  some  of  the 
methods  of  working  whereby  Gainsborough  produced 
such  charming  effects.  For  the  general  reader  a  few 
extracts  from  this  Discoursie.  will  sufllce:  the  student 
yi'\\\  do  well  to  study  the  Discourse  itself. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  performance  occurs  the  fol- 
low inir  remarkable  passage,  which  is  alike  honourable  to 
him  who  uttered  it  and  to  him  who  is  the  subject  of  it, 
and  which  our  subsequent  experienoa  m  art  has  fully 
confirmed. 


I  If  ever  this  nation  should  produce  genius  sufficient  to 
acquire  to  us  the  honouTiible  distinction  of  an  EnRlisli  school, 
the  name  of  Gainsborough  will  be  transmitted  to  pcsteiitv, 
in  the  history  of  the  art,  amou^  the  verv  first  of  tnat  rising 
name. 

Comparing  Gainsborough  with  certain  masters  of  the 
Roman  school,  he  savs: — 

For  my  own  part  I  confess  I  take  more  interest  in,  and 
ani  mors  captivated  with  the  powerful  impi-ession  of  nature, 
which  Gainsborough  eidiibited  in  his  |M)rtmits  and  \n  his 
landscapes,  and  tlie  interesting  simplicity  and  elegance  uf 
bis  little  ordinary  beggai*  children,  than  with  any  of  the 
works  of  that  srliool,  since  the  time  of  Andi-ea  Sacchi,  or 
perhans  we  may  say  Carlo  Maratti, — two  paiutera  who  m^y 
truly  DC  said  to  be  Ultimi  IU)MA.NOBu»f . 

And  then,  anticipating  the  surprise  with  which  this 
bold  opinion  waa  likely  at  that  time  to  be  receivedi  he 
adds  ;-— 

I  am  well  aware  how  much  I  lay  mvself  open  to  the  cen- 
sure and  ridicule  of  the  acadeniicai  professors  of  other 
nations  in  prefeirin^  the  humble  attempts  of  Gainsl  orouzh 
to  the  works  of  those  regular  graduates  in  the  great  his- 
torical style.  But  we  have  the  sanction  of  all  mankipd  in 
preferring  genius  in  a  lower  i-ank  of  art)  to  feebleness  and 
insipidity  in  the  highest. 

Among  the  cayses  which  led  Gainsborough  to  the 
attainment  of  such  high  excellence,  Sir  Joshua  states 
the  fundaniental  one  to  be 

The  love  which  he  had  to  his  art,, to  which  indeed  his 
whole  mind  appeai-s  to  have  been  devoted,  and  to  which 
everything  was  referred ;  and  this  wo  may  fairly  conclude 
from  various  circumstances  of  his  life,  which  w^ere  known 
to  his  intimate  friends.  Among  othei-s  he  had  a  habit  of 
continually  remarking  to  those  who  happened  to  be  about 
him,  whatever  peculiarity  of  countenance,  whatever  acci- 
dental combination  of  fiKure,  or  happy  eficcts  of  light  and 
shadow  occurred  in  prospects,  in  the  sky,  in  walking  the 
streets,  or  in  companv.  if,  in  his  walks,  he  found  a  cliarac- 
tcr  that  he  liked,  ana  who^e  attendance  was  to  be  obtained, 
he  ordered  him  to  his  house :  from  the  fields  he  brought 
int^  his  pain tingoiYKun  stumps  of  ti^eesy  weeds,  and  animals  of 
vai'ious  kinds,  and  designed  them,  not  from  memory,  but  im- 
mediately fiimi  the  objectts.  He  even  framed  a  kind  of  model 
of  landscapes  on  his  table,  composed  of  broken  stones,  diied 
herbs,  and  piecee  of  looking-fftass,  which  he  magnified  apd 
improved  into  rocks,  trees,  and  water.  How  far  this  lat^r 
practice  may  be  useful  in  giving  hints  the  profbssoi-s  of 
landscape  can  best  detennine.  Like  every  other  jtechnical 
pmcticeL  it  seems  to  me  wholly  to  depend  on  the  general 
talent  of  him  who  uses  it. 

Another  illustration  of  bis  great  affection  for  his  art 
waa  his  custom  of  painting  by  night,  since  he  could  not 
amiise  himself  in  the  evening  by  any  other  means  (not 
even  by  music)  so  agreeable  to  himself. 

I  am  indeed  (says  Sir  Joshua)  much  inclined  to  believe 
that  it  is  a  practice  very  advantageous  and  Improving  to  an 
ailist,  for  by  this  means  he  will  acquire  a  new  and  a  nigher 
perception  of  what  is  great  and  beautiful  in  nature.  By 
eandle-li^ht  not  only  objects  appear  more  beautiful,  but 
frpm  the^r  being  in  a  great««r  breadth  of  light  and  shadow, 
as  well  as  liavinp^  a  greater  breadth  and  uniformity  of  colour, 
nature  appears  m  a  higher  style,  and  even  the  nesh  seems 
to  take  a  nigher  aud  richer  toue  of  colour* 


Thebb  is  something  sublime  in  the  impression  produced 
upon  a  contemplative  mind,  passing  fram  hall  to  hall,  and 
gallery  to  gallery,  of  a  museum  filled  with  the  noblest 
objects  of  humtm  genius,  wrested  from  the  oblivion  of  long 
departed  ye.irs.  As  you  enter  each  apartment,  a  new  era  in 
the  history  of  the  world  seems  to  dawn  upon  you— and  you 
find  yourself  suiTounded  with  the  most  illustrious  bein;>s,  by 
whose  genius  and  whose  actions  it  was  distingiiished  and 
adorned.  Centuries  there  dwindle  into  hours  and  miimtes — 
YOU  pass  from  age  to  age  as  you  move  from  room  to  room— 
and  ui  the  lounge  of  a  morning,  you  seem  to  have  communed 
with  the  gi-eatest  cliaractei's  that  have  an])eared  upon  the 
busy  theatre  of  the  ancient  world.  Insteao  of  days,  months 
and  years  might  be  devoted  to  the  ejcamination  of  such  inter- 
esting objects,  and,  after  all,  the  eye  of  the  connoisseur,  and 
the  mind  of  the  Christian  philosopher,  would  discover  new 
beauties,  and  soggeat  fresh  trains  of  thought. 

605 — ^ 


220 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Deceubu  4| 


OPTICAL  ILLUSIONS     IX. 

On, Binocular  Vision,  (concluded,) 

I N  describing  the  very  interesting  experiments  of  Mr. 
Wheatstone  on  the  subject  of  binocular  vision,  we 
have  given  some  of  the  figures  by  which  he  illustrates 
the  truth  of  the  principles  which  he  was  the  first  to 
unfold.  We  may  now  give  a  few  others,  from  which  it 
will  be  evident  that  an  almost  interminable  number  might 
be  produced.  They  are  arranged  in  pairs,  each  pair 
consisting  of  two  monocular  pictures,  as  Mr.  Wheatstone 
very  conveniently  terms  them ;  that  is,  pictures  as  seen 
by  one  eye  only ;  one  picture  of  each  pair  representing 
the  appearance  which  a  certain  solid  body,  would  present 
to  the  right  eye;  the  other,  the  appearance  presented  to 
the  left.  These  pairs,  when  placed  in  the  stereoscope, 
'  produce  a  combined  image,  in  which  the  idea  of  relief 
IS  strongly  impressed  on  the  mind.     In  fig.  6  (a)  the 


Fig.  6.  (a). 


FiS-  6  C&)- 


.^ -7\ 


image  and  that  of  ea^h  of  the  pictures.  This  compa- 
rison may  be  made  by  placing  the  two  drawings  side  bj 
side  on  a  plane  before  the  eyes,  and  making  the  optic 
axes  converge  to  a  point  either  nearer  or  farther  vbaa 
the  plane  in  which  the  pictures  are  placed :  the  two 
pictures  and  their  binocular  image  being  thus  all  brought 
into  a  line,  it  is'  found  that  the  ktter  is  midway  m 
size  between  the  other  two.  It  is  justly  remarked  by 
Mr.  Wheatstone,  that  were  it  not  for  this  biaocolar 
coalescence  of  two  uneqyal  images,  we  could  never  see 
objects  clearly  except  when  looking  immediately  foN 
wiurd;  for  wheii  we  look  obliquely  towards  either  side, 
say  the  right,  the  left  eye  is  at  that  moment  farther  froa 
the  object  than  the  right  eye  is,  and  consequently  recog- 
nises it -as  being  smaller  in  size;  yet  the  resultant  image 
is  clearly  defined,  in  consequence  of  the  law  just  detafled. 
With  regard  to  the  effect  of  placing  two  pictures  of 
different  forms,  before  the  two  eyes,  Mr.  Wheatstone 
arrived  at  a  very  curious  result,  and  one  which  seems  to 
open  an  extensive  field  for  inquiry.  If  two  small  vie* 
tures,  such  as  a  and  b,  fig.  8,  be  placed,  one  in  eachaalf 

a  Fig.  8.  h 


\/D 


g 


Fig.  r  (a). 


dgbt  leaves  or  fans  appear  really  to  stand  out  in  relief; 
80  do  the  steps  in  fig.  6  (ft) ;  the  five  leaves  or  plates  in 
fig.  7  (a);  and  the  small  tower  in  fig.  7  (6). 

The  results,  of  the  experiments  .  made  by  aid  of  the 
stereoscope  prove. that  if  two  pictures  of  similar  size, 
and  differing-from  each  other  only  in  the  same  degree 
as  objects  <fifier  in  their  appearance  to  the  two  eyes,  be 
viewed  in  the  way  described  in  our  last  paper,  they 
will  produte  an  image  apparently  in  relief.  But  in  order 
to  embrace  other  varieties  of  the  question,  it  may  be 
'aisked,  "  What  would  result  if  the  pictures  were  of  dif- 
ferent magnitudes  ?  "  and  "  What  would  result  if  they 
were  of  different  forms  ?  "  Mr.  Wheatstone  gives  the 
results  of  his  investigations  of  these  two  poiia^. 

First  as  regards  the  difference  of  magnitude.  If  two 
squares  or  circles,  differing  a  little  in  size,  be  drawn  on 
two  separate  pieces  of  paper,  and  placed  in  the  stereo- 
scope, so  that  the  reflected  image  of  each  shall  be 
equally  distant  from  the  eye  by  which  it  is  regarded,  it 
will  be  seen  that  they  coalesce,  and  produce  a  single 
image,  notwithstanding  the  difference  of  size  in  the  pic- 
tures. This  experiment  shows  that  the  difference  of 
size  does  not  render  the  result  discordant  with  those 

before  given,  but  it  leaves  untouched  the  question  as  to  .  «-.-^^  -^  ^-^ «,  ^  *  •  i 

what  relation  exists  between  the  size  of  the  resultant  |  circumstances.    Could  this  |>oint  be  qx^teiy  k 


9 

of  the  stereoscope,  it  might  be  supposed  that  theJ^ 
sultant  image  would  be  a  lund  of  coii^used  superpositun 
of  the  one  on  the  other;  but  this  is  not  the  case.  The 
common  circular  border  remains  constant  as  a  dreie, 
but  the  letter  within  it  changes  alternately  from  that 
which  would  be  perceived  by  the  right  eye  luone  to  tbit 
which  would  be  perceived  by  the  left  eye  alone.  At 
the  moment  of  change  the  letter  which  has  jnst  been 
seen  breaks  up  into  (higments,  while  fragmmts  of  tbe 
letter  which  is  about  to  appear  mingle  with  them,  lo^ 
are  immediately  after  replaced  by  the  entire  letter.  It 
does  not  appear  to  be  in  the  power  of  the  will  to  deter* 
mine  the  appearance  of  either-  of  the  letters;  hut  the 
duration  of  the  appearanccseems  to  depend  o&  caosei 
which  are  under  our  contnd;  Thus,  if  the  two  pictuw 
be  equally  illuminated  the  alternations  appear  in  genenl 
of  equal  duration,  but  if  one  picture  be  moreilluniinted 
than  the  other,  that  which  is  less  so  will  be  perceired 
during,  a  shorter  time. 

The  drcwunstance  for  which  this  last  mentioned  ei- 
periment  may  be  deemed  important,  is  that  it  corrobo* 
rates  certain  experiments  made  by  other  philosophers  on 
the  subject  of  colour.  It  is  known  that  if  blue  and 
yellow  fragments  or  powders  be  mixed,  a  green  colour 
will  result;  that  orange  results  from  a  mixture  of  r«l 
and  yellow,  &c.;  and  it  has  been  supposed  by  somethito 
one  eye  gazed  upon  a  red  colour,  while  the  other  ^|K<1 
upon  yellow,  or  one  upon  blue  and  the  other  upon  yellov, 
that  the  mind  would  appreciate  in  the  one  case  an  onn«e 
tint,  and  in  the  other  a  green,  the  component  coloufl 
being  individually  lost  in  the  blending  of  the  two.  W. 
d0  la  Tour  made  an  experiment  on  this  point,  by  pUa»K 
a  blue  disc  before  tbe  right  eye,  and  a  yellow  one  before 
the  left ;  but  instead  of  the  green  tint  which  would  appe« 
if  these  two  colours  had  mingled  before  their  arrival  » 
a  single  eye,  he  perceived  the  two  colours  distinctly  *»« 
separately,  one  or  the  other  alternately  predfiwUng 
either  partially  or  wholly  over  the  disc  Mr.  W  heatston 
states  the  result  in  an  exactly  similar  manner;  antt  i 
would  be  a  very  interesting  question  to  <1^^^^' 
whether  other  eyes  see  the  phenomena  in  ^be  sa^ 
manner.  It  is  known  that  great  differences  «ist  in  » 
power  of  vision,  in  the  appreciation  of  colour,  u»  ^ 
symmetrical  position  of  the  optical  axes  of  the  two  e^ 
Ac  and  it  often  happens  that  many  of  the  results  o 


tained  by  experiments  are  a  good  deal  influenced  oyiu  .^ 


ISM.") 


THE  SATUSDAY  UAGAZINE. 


221 


nught  lead  to  important  results,  for  the  theory  seems  to 
show  that  the  mind  does  not  and  cannot  appreciate  two 
hnages  at  once,  as  presented  in  the  two  eyes,  hut  alter- 
nates rapidly  from  the  appreciation  of  the  one  to  that  of 
the  other* 

As  the  experiments  with  the  stereoscope  snow  that 
there  is  an  essential  diffsrence  in  the  appearance  of 
ohjects  when  seen  with  two  eyes,  or  when  only  one  eye  is 
employed,  and  that  the  most  vivid  belief  in  the  solidity 
of  an  object  of  three  dimensions  arises  from  two  different 
perspective  projections  of  it  being  simultaneously  pre- 
sented  to  the  mind,  it  may  be  asked,  how  do  persons, 
who  see  with  one  eye,  avoid  mistaking  a  picture  for  a  solid 
object,  and  how  do  those  who  are  accustomed  to  see  with 
two  eyes,  avoid  mistake  When  they  close  one  eye  ?  Mr. 
Wheatstone  answers  these  questions  thus^— Although  the 
simultaneous  vision  of  two  dissimilar  pictures  suggests 
the  relief  of  objects  in  the  most  vivid  manner,  yet  there 
are  other  signs  which  suggest  the  same  ideas  to  the  mind, 
which,  though  more  ambiguous  than  the  former,  become 
less  liable  to  lead  the  judgment  astray  in  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  our  previous  experience*  The  vividness  of 
relief,  arising  from  the  projection  of  two  dissimilar  pic- 
tures, one  on  each  retina,  becomes  less  and  less,  as  the 
object  is  seen  at  a  gpreater  distance  before  the  eyes,  and 
entirely  ceases  when  it  is  so  distant  that  the  optic  axes 
are  parallel  while  regarding  it.  We  see  with  both  eyes 
all  objects  beyond  tBis  distance  precisely  as  we  see  near 
objects  with  a  single  eye;  for  the  pictures  on  the  two  re- 
tins  are  then  exactly  similar,  and  the  mind  appreciates 
no  difference  whether  two  identical  pictures  fall  on  cor- 
responding parts  of  the  two  retinas,  or  whether  one  eye 
is  impressed  with  only  one  of  these  pictures.  A  person  de- 
prived of  the  sight  of  one  eye  sees  therefore  all  external 
objects  near  and  remote,  as  a  person  with  both  eyes  sees 
remote  objects  only;  but  the  vivid  effect  arising  from 
binocular  vision  of  near  objects  is  not  perceived  by  the 
former:  to  supply  this  deficiency  he  has  recourse  uncon- 
sciously to  other  means  of  acquiring  more  accurate  in- 
formation ;  of  which  the  principal  is  the  motion  of  the 
head.  The  manner  in  which  the  movement  of  the  head 
furnishes  this  collateral  evidence  is  thus  explained: — 
The  mind  associates  with  the  idea  of  a  solid  object 
every  different  projection  of  it  which  experience  has 
hitherto  afforded ;  a  single  projection  may  be  ambiguous, 
from  its  being  also  one  of  the  projections  of  a  picture, 
or  of  a  different  solid  object;  but  when  different  projec- 
tions of  tlie  same  object  are  successively  presented,  thev 
cannot  all  belong  to  another  object,  and  the  form  to  which 
they  belong  is  completely  characterized.  While  the 
object  remains  fixed,  at  every  movement  of  the  head  it 
is  viewed  from  a  different  point  of  sight,  and  the  picture 
on  the  retina  consequently  continually  changes. 

The  reader  will  remember,  that  in  one  of  our  former 
papers  on  optical  illusions,  we  described  the  appearance 
vrhich  a  hollow  cavity,  such  as  the  interior  of  a  shallow 
vessel,  or  an  intaglio,  or  seal,  presents  when  viewed 
under  particular  circumstances ;  it  appears  to  the  eye  to  be 
convex  instead  of  concave;  a  seal  or  intaglio  appearing 
to  have  been  converted  into  a  cameo.  We  explained  that 
this  apparent  change  or  illusion  is  brought  about  princi- 
pally by  the  mode  in  which  light  and  shadow  are  dis- 
tributed over  the  object;  but  Mr.  Wheatstone  attributes 
the  effect  partly  to  circumstaaoes  which  )iave  fdready  been 
explained  ia  these  papers* 


There  are  other  branches  of  this  interesting 
and  extensive  subject,  into  which  Mr.  Wheat- 
stone partly  enters;  but  as  he  gives  us  ground 
for  hope  tnat  he  will  at  some  future  period 
publish  the  results  of  further  experiments 
thereon,  we  will  not  here  present  tnose  fea- 
tures which  are  as  yet  imperfect.  We  will, 
therefore  take  leave,  till  some  future  time,  of 
these  important  contributions  to  the  physio- 
logy of  vision. 
We  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  a  hope  that  the 
reader  vrill  repeat  all  these  interesting  and  instructive 
experiments.  The  stereoscope  is  an  instrument  which 
may  be  easily  and  cheaply  constructed.  For  all  ordinary 
purposes  the  screw  might  be  dispensed  with  and  a  lateral 
movement  given  to  the  flaps  e  e  ,  fig.  4  (a),  by  means  of 
hinges.  The  various  figures  must  be  drawn  accurately  And 
neatly  on  drawing-paper  or  card ;  the  right-hand  figure 
on  one  piece,  and  the  left-hand  figure  on  another. 
Should  the  young  student  find  any  difficulty  in  procuring 
the  two  little  mirrors,  let  him  purchase  two  pieces  of 
plate  glass  of  the  required  size,  and  silver  them  himself 
according  to  the  following  simple  directions,  which  we 
borrow  from  Mr.  Tomlinson's  Stwienfi  Manual  of 
Natural  Philosophy. 

To  construct  a  plane  mirror, — ^procure  a  piece  of  plate- 
glassi  and  polish  it  until  perfectly  clean.  Tnen  cut  out  a 
piece  of  tin  foU  of  the  exact  size  of  the  riass :  let  the  foil  be 
quite  smooth  and  free  from  wrinkles  ana  holes.  Place  it  on 
any  smooth  and  level  surfiioe,  and  cover  it  with  a  layer  of 
dean  mercuiy :  then  having  gently  smoothed  the  sunace  of 
the  mercuiy,  by  means  of  apiece  of  cotton  wool,  or  a  hare's 
foot,  the  under  surfiice  of  the  mercury  will  combine  with  the 
foil ;  the  upper  sur&oe  being  brilliant  and  reflective.  Then 
place  a  piece  of  stout  paper  of  greater  extent  than  the  in 
tended  mirror  upon  this  amalgam ;  and  lay  the  glass  upon 
the  paper  exactly  over  the  amalp;am.  Press  firmly  upon  the 
glass ;  and  dmw  out  the  paper  m  a  steady  equable  manner : 
this  will  exclude  the  air  nom  between  the  ATnalgati^  and  the 
under  Bur£M»  of  the  glass.  The  gkws  will  Ums  be  evenly 
coated  with  the  amalgam,  and  a  pLme  mirror  will  be  formed; 
which  must  not  be  taken  up  directly ;  but  left  under  pres- 
sure of  a  heavy  weight  for  a  few  hours,  during  which  time 
the  surfiioe  on  whidi  the  mirror  rests  should  be  gradually 
sloped  in  order  that  all  superflnous  mercury  may  drain  off. 

Mancboo  Tabtabt 

Is  tributary  to  both  China  and  Japan,  but  dependent  on  the 
latter  The  men  are  athletic,  tall,  and  jealous  of  their 
women,  and  the  oountiy  not  unlike  parts  of  the  western 
coast  of  Scotland.  They  live  chiefly  on  vegetables,  varied 
bt  times  by  puppy's  flesh;  in  many  of  the  houses  we 
found  these  little  creatures  fattenins  for  their  fiite;  for, 
although  they  have  plenty  of  bullocks,  they  employ 
them  only  for  agricultural  purposes;  and  all  through 
China  and  along  this  coast,  milk,  a  principal  article  of  diet 
among  European  peasantry,  is  not  used.  tS^e  remarked  that 
the  Chinese  at  Chusan  laughed  immoderately  at  our  soldiers 
milking  the  goats,  as  they  think  it  unnatural  that  man 
should  drink  we  milk  of  animab.  However,  the  Tartars  to 
the  westward  are  said  by  travellers  to  live  almost  entirely 
on  the  milk  obtained  from  the  camel;  so  this  must  be  a 
prejudice  which  the  people  of  Manchoo  have  derived  from 
the  Chinese. 

We  found  the  most  useful  articles  of  bai'ter  here  were  the 
brass  buttons  on  a  naval  jacket,  the  worth  of  one  being  es- 
timated &r  higher  than  a  Spanish  dollar,  of  which  they  did 
not  seem  at  first  to  comprenend  the  vidue ;  for  a  button, 
kindly  frurnished  me  from  the  jacket  of  a  friend,  I  became 
the  owner  of  a  aheep  and  some  poultry,  and,  I  suspect,  both 
purchaser  and  seller  were  equally  proud  of  their  ability  at 
Darter. 

Their  houses  are  much  the  same  as  in  China,  but  the  mode 
of  cultivating  the  land  must  be  here  laborious.  All  the 
hills  are  terraced  to  the  summit,  on  account  of  the  severe 
rains  to  which  they  are  subject  and  which  often  sweep  the 
whole  side  of  a  hill  into  the  valley  below.  Traces  of  these 
devastaUons  meet  the  sight  on  every  side,  showinff  how 
is  the  oiecantiiOiu*-^  Mwihi  wUh  the  VMneee 


•S2 


THB  flATURDAy  If  AOAnNB. 


[Dictum  4, 


ON  SHOOTING  STARS. 


For  Bome  years  p««t  4  periodioal  phepomenon  has  oc- 
eurred  on  the  9th  and  10th  of  AufiTuat,  and  still  more 
strikingly  on  the  )Sth  and  Idth  of  November,  to  which 
the  attention  of  astronomers  and  meteorologists  has  been 
drawn  in  a  marked  degree,  via*,  the  appearaqce  of  a  very 
large  number  of  meteors  or  shooting«stars« 

What  these  shooting  stars  are  we  are  little  able  to  sur- 
mise. Aerolites,  fire-balls,  sbooting*stars,  and  other 
phenomena  of  somewhat  analogous  kinds,  have  attracted 
attention  from  early  ages,  and  numerous  theories  have 
been  advanced  to  account  for  their  formation*  Soon 
after  Franklin  made  known  bis  researches  in  electricity, 
an  opinion  was  formed  that  sbooting*stars  were  due  to 
some  electrical  action  going  on  in  the  atmosphere.  After- 
wards Chladni,  a  celebrated  German  philosonher,  con- 
ceived that  the  origin,  both  of  those  bodies  whicn  actually 
fell  to  the  earth,  and  of  those  which  roerclv  appeared 
luminous  in  the  heavens,  might  be  accounted  for  m  some 
sueh  way  as  the  following)  tliat  these  meteors  are 
masses  of  matter,  moving  through  space  with  velocities 
equal  to  those  of  the  planeu;  that  when  thev  encounter 
the  earth's  atmosphere  they  become  inflamed  by  the  re- 
sistance and  friction,  and  thence  rendered  luminous; 
ftnd  that  some  of  them  burst  into  pieces,  and  scatter 
masses  of  stone  and  iron  on  the  ground*  This  thepry 
wa9  ridiculed  by  some  and  supported  by  others,  but 
attention  was  not  so  strongly  drawn  to  the  aulyect  until 
it  was  observed  that  the  luminous  meleort  appeared  in 
greater  abundance  about  the  dates  above  mentioned  than 
at  any  other  periods  of  the  year. 

Sir  William  Hamilton,  after  describing  an  eruption  of 
Vesuvius,  wbiph  took  place  on  the  9th  of  August,  1779, 
apoke  of  a  phenomenon  which  occurred  in  the  foUowiug 
nightf 

It  was  universalljr  remarked  (said  he)  thai  the  air  this 
night,  for  many  hours  after  the  imiption»  was  filled  with 
mettors,  such  as  are  vulgarly  called  fallinf^-stari.  They 
shot  generally  in  a  horiiontal  direction,  leaving  a  luminous 
teaip  behind  them,  but  which  quickly  disappeafid.  The 
night  was  remarkably  fine,  starlight,  and  without  a  cloud. 
This  kind  of  electrioal  fire  seemed  to  be  harmloM,  and 
never  to  yeach  the  ground,  whereas  tliat  with  which  the 
black  voloanic  cloud  of  last  night  was  pregnant  appeared 
mischievous,  like  that  which  attends  a  severe  thunderstorm. 

.  Professor  Quetelet,  of  I)ruiseU,  bus  collected  nume- 
rous proofs  of  similar  phenomena  having  occurred 
within  the  last  few  ye4r$,  on  the  9tb  and  10th  of  August- 
Similar  ei^hibitions  have  taken  place  during  the  first 
week  in  August,  but  the  9th  and  10th  seem  to  be  the 
most  conspicuous  days.  At  a  meeting  of  the  Astrmio- 
inioal  Society  about  two  years  ago,  Professor  Schaniacher 
gave  an  account  of  some  August  meteors  which  he  had 
observed  in  conjunction  with  several  other  astronomers, 
and  other  scientific  bodies  have  received  numerous  com- 
munications of  a  similar  kind. 

But  the  November  meteors  are  still  more  numerous 
than  those  of  August.  The  first  recorded  observations 
of  which  We  are  aware  is  that  of  the  11  th  of  November, 
1799,  when  Humboldt  and  Bonpland  observed  many 
thousands  of  shooting-stars  within  a  few  hours,  at  Ca- 
mana,  in  South  America,  and  in  the  same  ni«^ht  similar 
meteors  were  observed  by  different  persons  throughout 
almost  the  entire  extent  of  America,  as  well  as  in  some 
parts  of  Europe.  On  the  12th  of  November,  1833, 
philosophers  in  every  part  of  Europe  saw  numerous  dis- 
plays of  these  bodies,  but  the  following  year,  .  833,  pre- 
sented a  phenomenon  which  surpassed  everything  previ- 
ously Heen.  From  the  accounts  which  Professor  Olmsted 
gave  of  what  he  saw  on  the  12th  of  November  in  that 
year,  at  a  place  in  North  America,  M.  Arago  computed 
the  numl>er  of  meteors  on  that  night  at  not  much  less 
than  a  quarter  of  a  million  I  In  the  years  1834,  1835, 
iB86»  and  1838,  similar  eahibitions,  more  or  less  eiten- 
sive,  have  been  noticed  in  many  parts  of  the  worid ;  bat 


it  has  been  stated  that  ]  839  and  1840  wefe  not  10  pro. 
lific  in  them. 

Before  giving  an  outline  of  the  theories  whicti  bave 
been  offered  in  explanation  of  these  phenomensi,  it  may 
be  well  to  state  ^hat  is  known  respecting  their  leight 
and  velocity. 

No  experiments  seem  to  bave  been  made  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  height  and  velocity  of  shooting-sUn 
until  the  year  1798,  when  Brandes  and  Benienberg,  tvo 
(lerman  astronomers,  undertook  a  series  of  obserratiom 
for  this  purpose.  Having  selected  a  lise,  about  nise 
miles  in  length,  they  stationed  themselves  at  iu  extieni- 
ties,  and  began  to  observe  on  nights  previously  sgiMd 
on.  Whea  a  meteor  was  seen  they  immediately  traced 
its  apparent  path  on  a  celestial  map,  noticing  carefuUv 
the  exaet  times  of  its  appearance  and  eitipction,  vith 
any  other  circumstances  likely  to  assist  in  identifying  i). 
Several  of  the  meteors  were  sufficiently  idestiied  to 
make  it  certain  that  they  were  seeq  by  both  psnisi,  and 
the  recorded  resultst  when  worked  out  by  the  aid  of 
trigonometry,  gave  tolerable  indications  of  the  bsigbu 
and  velocities  of  the  meteors.  Of  twenty4«o  computa* 
tions  thus  obtained,  it  was  found  that  ens  gave  \k 
height  of  the  meteor  about  6  English  miles  above  the 
surface  of  the  earth;  si  a  other*  were  betveen  6  aad4d 
miles  highs  nine  were  between  45  and  90  wiles;  aad 
sia  were  above  00  miles,  one  being  as  much  as  14(1 
With  respect  to  velocities  there  were  only  two  obserrar 
tions  which  could  be  depended  on«  one  of  which  gavai 
velocity  of  about  ^]  miles>  and  the  other  85  miles  per 
secondi-«-r*a  velooily  eaoeeding  that  of  the  earth*  itvai 
noticed  as  a  remarkable  circumstancoi  and  eae  deserriiif 
of  attention  in  reference  to  anv  theories  on  the  aubjedi 
that  one  of  the  meteors  moved  upward*^  or  tway  froe 
the  earth. 

About  the  year  189S  another  attempti  on  a  vm 
eitensive  scale,  was  made  to  measure  the  heights  sod 
velocities  of  meteors.  The  German  observer,  Bnnda. 
assisted  by  several  other  persona,  made  a  series  ef  ob- 
servations, from  April  to  October,  1823,  in  Breslauiod 
the  neighbouring  towne*  Puring  this  interval  mm 
than  eighteen  hundred  sbopting-atars  were  observed  bf 
some  or  other  of  tlm  partiesi  but  only  about  a  hundred 
of  these  were  observed  simultaneously  at  differrat  placd* 
so  as  to  afford  the  means  of  computing  the  heights  aad 
velocities.  Of  these  meteors,  the  altitudes  of  four  ^m 
computed  to  be  under  \6  miles ;  fifteen  were  betwea 
15  and  SO  miles  (  twenty-two  were  between  30  and  4S 
miles  I  thirty-five  were  between  4o  and  70  miles;  tbirteea 
were  between  70  and  90  miles ;  and  eleven  were  above 
90  miles.  The  four  highest  bad  altitudes  of  140, 22a 
d80,  and  460  miles,  respectively.  Of  those  meteon 
whose  directions  of  motion  was  sutficiently  detenrno^ 
it  was  found  that  twenty-sia.had  »  motion  dowp  wards, 
nine  upwards,  and  on^  horiaontal,  With  respect  to  the 
velocities  with  whioh  thev  movoi  only  three  copipuutioai 
were  made  which  oould  be  depended  on,  and  these  gave 
velocities  of  93,  28,  and  37,  miles  in  a  second,  respec- 
tively,— all  being  greater  than  the  velocity  of  the  eartli 
in  its  orbit. 

In  1 824  M.  Quetelet  made  a  similar  series  of  obser- 
vations in  Belgium  I  the  results  of  which  gave,  as  "le 
velocity  of  the  Various  meteors  which  he  measurpd.  froa 
10  to  2o  miles,  the  mean  being  a  Uttle  less  than  the  ve- 
locity of  the  earth  in  her  orbit.  In  August,  I  S3* 
M.  Wartmann,  and  several  assistants,  made  an  f^^^^^^* 
series  of  observations  of  a  similar  kind  in  SwitaerlaflO* 
8ome  of  the  observers  stationed  themselves  at  ^^J!**^ 
while  the  others  were  stationed  at  Planchettes,  a  villa  ^ 
about  sixty  miles  distant.  On  the  10th  of  Aogiut.  ir 
the  spaee  of  about  seven  hours  and  a  half,  ijearly  m 
hundred  meteors  were  observed  at  Geneva;  while  those* 
Planchettes  observed  rather  more  than  a  bundreii;  '^ 
from  a  oomparison  of  the  two  sets  of  observatiow»  jj  '* 
found  that  the  average  of  height  of  these  whirh  wi 


1841.] 


IMS  satuhdav  magazine. 


ftM 


been  observed  at  both  •tations  was  more  than  500 
miles;  while  the  velocities  attaiDed  the  startUjig  amount 
of  240  miles  in  a  second. 

Such  are  the  results  of  the  observations  which  have 
been  made  on  the  heights  and  velocities  of  these  meteors ; 
and  we  next  speak  of  the  theories  which  have  been 
framed  to  account  for  them.  Mr*  Galloway,  in  a  paper 
read  before  the  Astronomical  Society  a  few  months  ago, 
divides  these  theories  into  five  classesi  and  states  some 
of  the  objections  which  may  be  urged  against  each. 

I.  Benzeuberg,  and  some  other  observers,  suppose  that 
shooting^  stars  and  fire-balls  are  substances  projected 
from  volcanoes  in  the  moon.  If  a  body  were  projected 
vertically  from  the  surface  of  the  moon  with  a  veloc  ty 
five  time?  greater  than  that  of  a  cannon-ball,  it  is  capable 
of  calculation,  on  the  theory  of  gravitation,  that  the  pro* 
jectile  would  reach  a  point  in  space  where  the  earth's 
attraction  is  stronger  than  the  moon*s,  and  would  conse- 
quently then  fall  to  the  earth.  Benzenberg,  in  accordance 
with  this  theory,  supposes  that  shooting  stars  are  small 
masses  of  stone,  from  one  to  five  feet  in  diameter ;  which 
are  projected  from  lunar  volcanoes,  and  instead  of  fall- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  are  whirled. round  it  in  a 
kind  of  orbit«  The  objections  to  this  theory  are  the  ex* 
traordinary  numbers  which  appear  at  intervals,  and  the 
periodicity  of  the  August  and  November  meteors. 

•2.  The  second  theory,  proposed  by  Dr.  Olbers,  is,  th&t 
the  shooting-stars  are  the  debris  or  fragments  of  a  large 
planet,  burst  into  pieces  by  some  internal  explosion,  and 
of  which  the  asteroids,  Pallas,  Ceres,  Juno,  and  Vesta 
arc  the  principal  remaining  portions.  These  small  frag- 
ments he  supposes  to  circulate  about  the  sun  in  very 
elongated  orbits ;  and  that  when  they  approach  the  region 
of  space  through  which  the  earth  is  moving,  they  enter 
the  earth's  atmosphere,  and  by  reason  of  the  resistance 
and  friction  are  rendered  luminous,  whereby  they  present 
to  us  somewhat  the  appearance  of  stars. 

3.  M.  Biot  supposes  that  these  meteors  have  a  close 
connection  with  the  zodiacal  lightt  This  is  a  lens-shaped 
portion  of  the  heavens  which  presents  a  slightly  lu- 
minous or  nebulous  appearance,  similar  to  that  called  the 
"  milky  way."  It  is  objected  to  this  theory,  that  as  the 
earth  passes  obliquely  through  the  plane  of  this  zodiacal 
li^ht,  it  must  vary  in  its  distance  therefrom,  and  that 
therefore  the  shooting-stars  ought  to  present  very  differ- 
ent appearances  at  different  times;  whereas,  they  are 
nearly  alike  all  the  year  through,  although  more  plenti- 
ful at  some  periods  than  others. 

4.  Arago  and  many  other  astronomers  suppose  that 
independently  of  the  great  planets,  there  exist  in  the 
planetary  regions  myriads  of  small  bodies  which  circulate 
about  the  sun,  generally  in  groups  or  zones;  and  that 
one  of  these  zones  intercepts  the  ecliptic  al>out  the  place 
through  which  the  earth  passes  in  November.  It  would 
appear  from  a  letter  which  Sir  John  Herschell  sent  to 
the  Athenaeum  JournAl  a  few  weeks  ago,  that  he  coincides 
in  this  opinion  so  far  as  relates  to  the  August  meteors. 
He  says  : — "The  meteors  of  August  9, 1840,  in  so  far  as 
I  observed  them,  radiated  almost  without  exception  from 
a  point  in  the  heavens  very  near  the  star  y  (gamma)  in 
the  constellation  Perseus:  which  is  almost  coincident 
w  th  the  point  (near  the  star  B  Camelopardali)  from 
which  I  observed  them  to  emanate  on  the  1 0th  of 
Auirust,  1 83 J.*'  Facts  of  this  nature  appear  almost 
decisive  in  favour  of  the  opinion,  that  a  zone  or  zones  of 
these  bodies  revolve  about  the  sun,  and  are  intersected 
by  the  earth  in  its  annual  revolution. 

Mr.  Galloway  adduces  five  classes  of  objections  to 
this  hypothesis.  First. — That  bodies  moving  in  groups 
in  this  way,  would  necessarily  move  in  the  same  direction, 
and  consequently,  when  they  become  visible  from  the 
earth,  they  would  all  appear  to  emanate  from  one  point, 
and  move  towards  the  opposite  ;  whereas  shooting-stars 
are  observed  on  the  same  nights  to  emanate  from  all 
points  of  the  heavena>  and  to  move  in  all  poasible  direc- 


tions. Secondly.*— The  average  velocity  at  «hich  these 
shooting-stars  seem  to  move  grpatly  exceeds  that  which 
any  body  circulating  about  the  sun  can  have  at  the  dis- 
tance of  the  earth.  Thirdlv. — From  the  luminous  train 
which  they  generally  leave  behind  them;  from  their  being 
situated  within  the  earth's  shadow,  and  at  heights  i'ar 
exceeding  those  at  which  the  atmosphere  can  be  supposed 
capable  of  supporting  combustion,  it  follows  that  their 
light,  instead  of  being  reflected  from  the  sun,  is  self^ 
supported,  contrary  to  every  analogy  of  the  solar  system. 
Fourthly. — If  the  shooting -stars  be  solid  matter,  passing 
within  a  few  hundred  miles  of  the  earth,  many  of  them 
would  inevitably  be  attracted  to  it ;  which  has  never  yet 
been  known  to  occur.  Last  iy.«*  Some  of  the  shooting- 
stars  are  seen  to  move  in  a  path  inclining  upwards;  a 
fieict  which  is  difilcult  to  reconcile  with  the  theory. 

5.  The  last  theory  to  which  we  shall  allude  is,  that 
advanced  by  C^pocci  of  Kaples.  He  supposes  the 
Aurora  Borealis,  shooting-stars,  aerolites,  and  comets,  to 
have  a  common  origiui  and  to  be  due  to  the  aggregation 
of  atoms  of  matter,  brought  into  unison  by  magnetic 
action*  He  supposesi  that  in  the  planetary  spaces  there 
exist  bands  or  zones  of  nebulous  particles,  more  or  less 
fine,  and  endued  with  magnetic  forces,  which  the  earth 
traverses  in  its  annual  revolution ;  that  the  smallest  and 
most  impalpable  of  these  particles  are  occasionally  pre- 
cipitated on  the  magnetic  poles  of  our  globe,  and  form 
polar  auroras ;  that  the  particles  a  degree  larger,  in  which 
the  force  of  gravitation  begins  to  be  manifested^  are 
attracted  by  the  earth,  and  appear  as  shooting-atars :  that 
the  particles  in  a  more  advanced  state  of  concretion  give 
rise  in  like  manner  to  the  phenomena  of  flre-balls) 
aerolites,  &c.;  that  the  comets,  which  are  known  to  have 
very  small  masses,  are  nothing  else  than  the  largest  of 
thea^rolltes,  which  in  course  of  time  collect  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  matter  to  be  visible  from  the  earth. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  details  that  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge  is  inadequate  to  explain  the  sub- 
ject of  shooting  stars.  Our  ignorance  of  a  subject  is 
often  well  displayed  by  the  many  conflicting  theories 
which  accompany  it;  but  we  are  generally  so  anxious  to 
explain,  that  time  ift  not  allowed  to  collect  materials 
necessary  to  an  explanation.  Probably  many  years  of 
accurate  observation  will  be  necessary  to  form  a  con- 
sistent theory  on  a  subject  which  has  only  just  begun  to 
be  included  among  the  periodical  phenomena  of  nature. 


GARDEN^HERBS.    XI. 

Hyssop. 

DtoeoomoBS,  that  gave  so  many  rules  for  the  knowledge 
of  simpiesy  hath  left  Hyssop  {Ifyssoptu  ArabumA  alto- 
gether without  description,  as  being  a  plant  so  well  knowTi 
that  tt  needed  none  :  whose  example  1  follow.  A  second 
kind  of  hyssop  (/T.  arabum  flore  rubro^)  is  like  the  common 
hyssop,  and  diflereth  in  that,  that  this  hyssop  hath  his  small 
and  slender  branches  decked  with  fair  red  flowers.  A  third 
kind  {H*  oMa  florihue^)  diflfei*eth  only  in  having  flowers  as 
white  as  snow.  The  fourtli  kind  (/r.  tmuifoUa)  is  of  all 
the  rest  of  the  greatest  beauty ;  it  hath  a  woodv  root,  tough, 
and  full  of  strings,  from  which  rise  up  small,  tough,  and 
slender  flexible  stalk&  whereupon  do  grow  infinite  numbers 
of  small  fennel-like  leaves  much  resembling  those  of  the 
smallest  grass^of  a  pleasant  smell  and  aromatic  taste,  like  unto 
the  rest  of  the  hyssops,  but  much  sweeter ;  at  the  top  of  the 
stalks  do  grow  among  the  leaves  small  hollow  flowers  of  a 
bluish  colour  tendinir  to  purple.  We  have  in  England  in  our 
gardens  another  kina  like  unto  the  former,  but  the  leaves  are 
some  of  them  white,  some  green,  as  the  other,  and  some  green 
and  white,  mixed  and  spotted,  very  goodlv  to  behold.  Of 
which  kind  we  have  moreover  in  our  garoens  another  sort, 
whoee  leaves  are  wonderfully  curled,  rough  and  hairy,  grow- 
ing  thick  thrust  together,  making  as  it  were  a  tuft  of  leaves; 
in  taste  and  smell,  and  in  all  other  things  like  unto  the 
common  hyssop.--<jrEBABD. 

Hyssop  has  nearly  the  same  name  in  most  Europe  un 
languagesi  and  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  word  oj^ubf 


324 


TH&  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[DecEum  4, 1 


which  hit  been  Ttrioiuly  tnintUted;  bat  its  most  pro- 
bable lignificatioa  is  a  boly  lierb,  or  herb  for  puri^ng 
boly  pUcea.  At  the  institn^on  of  the  PassoTer,  Nloiei 
commanded  the  Israelites  to  take  a  bunch  of  hyssop,  and 
dip  it  in  the  blood  oft  lamb,  and  to  sprinkle  the  lintel 
aod  the  door-posts.  (Exodus  xii.  22.)  It  nas  also  used 
by  the  priest  at  the  cleansing  of  persons  afflicted  with 
leprosy,  as  well  aa  for  purifyui^  ttie  boose  of  the  leper. 
(Leviticus  xiv.  4,  49,  and  &20  These,  and  other  pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  do  not  refer  to  the  plant  which  now 
bears  the  name  of  hyssop.  A  modem  authority  is  of 
opinion  that  the  hyssop  of  Scripture  is  the  Phytolacca 
decandra,  or  that  it  belonged  to  the  genus  in  which  this 
plant  occurs.  The  length  and  straightness  of  the  stem 
are  characteristic  of  the  various  kinds  of  pbytolaccai  and 
afford  an  obvious  reason  why  the  Roman  soldier  placed 
a  spoog«  filled  with  vinegar  upon  hyssop  in  order  to  raise 
it  to  the  lips  of  our  Saviour.  (John  xix.  29.)  The  Ph^. 
lolaeca  decandra  and  other  species  of  the  genus,  contain 
a  considerable  quantity  of  potash,  so  that  a  hundred 
pounds  of  its  ashes  afford  forty-two  of  the  caustic  alkali ; 
oence,  an  illustration  is  afforded  of  the  passage  in  Psalm 
li., — "Purge  me  with  hyssop,  and  I  shall  be  clean." 

The  accompanying  cut  and  description  we  borrow  from 
the  Bible  Ogclopiedia  i~ 

The  Phytolacca  belongs  to  the  family  Chau^iodeeK,  in  which 
the  banlU  plant  is  found,  but  it  is  unlike  the  rest  of  its 
congeners  in  Uie  extreme  beauty  of  its  flowers,  and  the 
berries  by  which  they  are  succeeded.  These  flowers  are 
generally  of  a  fresh  and  lively  pink,  disposed  in  elegant 
clnatets.  The  beniei  are  compounded  of  a  circle  of  carpetla, 
or  minute  fraits  closely  joined  together.  The  leaves  are 
generally  smooth,  and  neatly  shimd,  and  the  stem  is  long, 
smooth,  and  wand-like.  It  usuatly  rises  tu  about  a  foot  and 
a  half  in  height,  but  in  Palestine  it  sometimes  exceeds  two 
feet. 

Burder  says, — 

Sahnasiua,  cited  by  Wolfins,  proves  that  there  was  a  spe.- 
ctes  of  hyssop  whaae  stalk  was  sometimes  two  feet  long, 
which  was  sufficient  to  reach  a  person  on  a  cross,  that  waa 
by  no  means  so  lofty  as  some  erroneously  imagine. 

Some  authors  have  imagined  that  the  hyssop  of  Scrip- 
ture is  the  shrub  which  we  call  Winter  Savory:  but 
this  opinion  is  contradicted  by  Pliny,  who  gives  an  account 
of  savory  and  another  distinct  account  of  hyssop:  he  says 
that  the  best  hyssop  grew  on  Mount  Taurus  in  Cilicia, 
and  next  to  that  the  hyssop  of  Paniphylia  was  moat 
esteemed.  He  describes  it  as  a  herb  not  friendly  to  the 
stomach.  The  Romans  used  it  with  figs  as  an  aperient, 
and  with  honey  as  an  emetic :  and  a  plaster  formed  from 
it  waa  thought  to  be  a  reinedy  for  the  sting  of  aenients. 
Rve  sprigs  of  hyssop,  and  two  sprigs  of  rue,  boiled 
with  three  figs  are  recommended  by  him  as  au  excellent 
drink  to  relieve  the  chest. 

Alton  notices  three  species  of  hyssop  and  four  varieties 
of  the  common  sort,  the  earliest  of  which  was  cultivated 
in  England  in  1548.  The  species  of  hedge  hyssop 
noticed  by  this  author  are  exotics;  but  as  early  as  the 
year  1590,  Gerard  states  that  he  found  the  broad-leafed 
hedge  hyssop  growing  wild: — 

It  groweth  in  moist  places,  I  fbnnd  it  growing  upon 
the  bog  or  marrlsh  ground,  at  the  ftmher  end  of  Ilompstead 
Heath,  and  upon  the  same  heath  towards  Lundun,  neere 
unto  the  head  of  the  springs  that  were  digged  for  water  to 
be  conveied  to  London,  1690,  attempted  by  that  careful  citi- 
zen Sir  John  Il!art,  Knigh^  Lord  Maior  of  the  Citie  of 
London ;  at  whicji  time  myself  was  iu  his  Lordship's  com- 

Eany,  and  viewing  for  my  pleaanre  tlie  same  goodly  springs, 
found  the  s^d  plant  not  lierctofore  remembered. 
Mr.  Henry  Phillips  has  collected  n  number  of  autho- 
rities to  show  the  high  estimation  in  which  hyssop 
was  held  during  the  palmy  days  of  the  herbalists 
Uudoens  wrote  much  on  the  medical  virtues  of  this  herb ; 
he  recommends  a  decoction  of  this  plant  with  figs,  rue 
and  honey,  boiled  together,  as  g^od  for  the  complaints  of 
the  chest,  shortneii  of  brea^  and  bard  dry  coughs: 


when  given  with  figs  h^  says  it  is  an  enellest  Ternifuge, 
and  is  an  «dmirtble  gargle  for  the  mouth  and  tbroit. 
He  states  also  that  hyssop  boiled  in  vinegir,  iid 
held  in  the  mouth,  eases  the  tootb-acbe;  and  thittbi 
decoction  removea  congealed  blood  occasioned  by  bnuM, 
and  takes  off  the  blade  or  bine  marks.  Later  sothm 
have  greatly  commended  it  in  cases  of  bruises ;  it  wj 
be  applied  either  as  a  cataplasm,  or  a  little  busdk  k 
the  plant  put  into  linen  na  and  anplied  to  the  put. 
Ray  gives  an  account  from  Mr.  Boyle  of  a  violent  ran- 
tuBion  from  a  kick  of  a  horse  which  was  hsppilj  cnml 
by  this  herb,  boiled  and  applied  as  a  catapluin.  Ht 
says,  that  the  violent  pain  was  almost  instantly  rcmornl, 
and  the  very  mark  andblackneaa  taken  off  in  afewbgun. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  in  modem  practice  a  simple 
fomentation  of  water  would  ha  tbougtitaa effectual  uanj 
medicated  preparation  of  the  herbalists. 

Riolanus  the  elder  speaks  of  the  efficacy  of  hjstop  k 
sugillations*  of  the  eyes: — 

I  found  by  experience  (says  that  physician,)  th*  Iralli  of 
what  Archigenes  affirms,  in  Galen,  which  is,  that  if  tlu 
tops  of  hyssop  be  tied  up  in  a  cloth,  and  IxHled  miTSt«t,iiLd 
the  cloth  afterwards  applied  warm  to  the  livid  eye,  tbeUMd 
will  be  attncted  by  the  hvasop  to  such  a  degree  is  to  ritis 
the  linen.  Upon  this  authority  I  have,  several  tinia,p- 
scribed  a  decoction  of  hyssop  against  sugillations,  evesif 
the  eyes;  only,  instead  of  water,  I  sometiuio orjcnd lie 
bag  to  be  boiled  in  wine;  and  directing  the  ^plication «f  it 
somewhat  vrarm  to  the  eye-lids,  when  the  patient  vcnl  to 
bed,  his  eyes  being  shut,  the  Uvidnen  was  removed  u>t)I 
as  I  could  wish. 


Philetatea  dtecnii* 


Lloto,  in  his  StaU  WbrtXie*,  gives  the  following  sttoont " 
Sir  Edward  Coke :—"  His  parts  were  admirable;  be  "«' 
deep  judement.  faithful  memory,  active  fcncy.  Aiw  l^r 
jewel  of  his  mind  was  pnt  into  n  fait  case,— a  biautiW 


body  with  n  comely  ci ,     _   , 

wipe  and  keep  clean,  delighting  in  good  olotbes,  well  '<>"• 
and  being  wont  to  say,  that  the  outward  neatoea  of '" 
bodies  might  be  a  monitor  of  purity  to  our  souls." 

LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PARKER,  WEST  STRASD. 

PoBUHiSD  IV  WiiaLT  Ndbvih,  rsica  Oki  Puon,  at  a 

UotTSLT  PtBTl,  rues  SiXFIKCI. 

Sold  b;  an  Besisdlan  uri  NewivdidM^  la  te  KnfiM 


Sa^tnrHan        M^U^^im* 


N?   606.  DECEMBER 


nV,  1841. 


{Pun 
On  Psnir. 


THE    SILVER    BOOK    OF   THE   GOSPELS. 


s^irm.i^[n!iHi^esinnpii^'5iY|i,D|i€<s|yD  ^ff 


TAC-«I)ULB  aFEClMEK  Ot  ZRI  BILTBR 


OV   THX  OOSTKUa 


The  art  of  printing  was  first  brought  into  lue  by 
Europeims  &bout  four  hundred  yeara  aince,  when  our 
ancestora  benn  to  shake  off  their  loDg  sleep  of  a  thou- 
sand years.  Five  centuries  before  that  the  Chinese  bmn 
to  use  the  same  art  at  the  oppoaite  extremity  of  the  Old 
World,  when  England  vaa  struggling  for  life  againat  the 
Danes ;  but  a  sort  of  printing  or  impresaing  was  practised 
in  Europe  perhaps  fifteeh,  or  at  least  titirteen  centu- 
ries ago.  So  near  indeed  did  this  mode  of  impressing 
approach  the  present  art  of  printing,  that  it  is  surprising 
no  further  progress  was  made.  It  would  be  a  curioua 
speculation  to  consider  how  far  the  complete  discovery  of 
printing  might  have  repelled  the  thick  cloud  of  ignorance 
which  hovered  so  long  over  Europe  :  the  effect  may  not 
perhaps  have  been  great :  the  barbarous  tribes  who  over- 
whelmed the  civilized  world  might  not  have  appreciated 
the  art,  though  the  subject  of  this  article  shows  that, 
under  one  aspect  at  least,  they  were  not  inattentive  to 
literature.  One  valuable  remit  would  have  been,  that 
many  important  works  now  lost  wouid  have  been  pre- 
served. 

Only  one  work  is  now  known  to  exist  tmpresaed  in 
the  manner  alluded  to,  though  probably  others  were 
executed  in  the  same  way.  It  is  a  translation  of  part 
of  the  New  Testament  into  a  very  ancient  dialect  of 
the  German  language,  and  is  commonly  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Godiic  Gospels,  or  the  Silver  Book.  It  is 
deposited  in  the  Public  Library  at  Upsal,  in  Sweden. 
This  book  is  coniposed  of  very  thin  smooth  vellum, 
of  a  fine  purple  or  violet  colour,  and  something  of  the 
shape  and  nite  of  the  Saturday  Magaxine.  The  first 
three  lines  of  each  Gospel,  the  beginniiig  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  of  any  other  important  passage,  and  the 
names  of  the  evangelists,  are  impressed  in  gold  letters  : 
the  rest  is  all  in  silver.  Much  of  the  volume,  in  fact 
nearly  a  half,  is  now  lost,  Init  more  than  one  hundred 

Vol..  XIX. 


and  sixty  leaves  are  yet  remaining,  to  show  how  beanttftit 
the  whole  must  have  been  when  complete,  and  to  enable  an 
artist  to  judge  with  accuracy  of  the  means  by  which  the 
work  was  done. 

Any  one  who  has  seen  a  bo<Abinder  letter  the  back 
of  a  book  will  have  a  good  idea  cS  the  manner  in  which 
the  Silver  Book  wa»  executed,  for  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  processes  were  very  similar.  A  bookbinder  rubs 
some  aticky  substance,  such  as  white  of  esg,  on  the 
bode  be  is  about  to  letter,  places  a  leaf  of  gold  upon  it, 
and  then  takes  up  a  series  of  heated  met^  letters,  one 
aAer  another,  and  presses  each  in  its  turn  strong  v  upon 
the  gold  leaf.  The  gold  is  firmly  fixed  upon  the  lewer 
in  uie  places  where  the  impression  is  made,  and  the 
remaining  loose  gold  is  wiped  off'  with  a  rag,  This  wag 
the  old  process  of  lettering,  which  is  still  mudi  in  use,  «nd 
this  was  the  way  in  which  the  Silver  Boc^  waa  executed, 
only  that  silver  was  used  inatead  of  gold,  and  a  cement 
(S  an  oily  nature  instead  of  the  white  of  egg. 

Much  dispute  having  arisen  as  to  the  reality  of  this 
process.  Professor  Ihreinstituteda  veryminuteesuniaa- 
tion  of  the  Codex  in  the  presents  of  four  literary 
gentlemen,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  work 
was  produced  by  the  impression  of  metal  types.  In  the 
first  place  each  letter  is  respectively  so  exactly  nmilar 
in  form  to  every  other,  that  it  would  be  quite  impossible 
for  the  best  writer  to  imitate  its  perfect  regularity :  thU 
argument  will  be  best  appreciated  bv  those  who  hne 
compared  the  very  best  manuscripts  witn  any  printed  book 
whatever :  they  must  have  remarked  that  m  print,  fnim 
all  the  similar  letters  being  cast  in  the  same  mould,  the 
regularity  is  indisputable,  however  defective  in  other 
matters  the  execution  ma^  be.  The  next  proof  was  the 
tangible  remuns  of  the  impression  :  the  form  of  every 
letter  is  hollow  on  the  face  of  the  velluni,  and  on  turn 
log  to  tbebackof  the  leaf]  it  is  there  found  to  be  convex, 
6<j6 


29.6 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Decembee  11, 


so  palpably  that  the  simplest  touch  will  imsMNliately  $how 
the  place  where  the  type  has  beea  pret«ed  down,  the 
margin  hein^  qaite  leaootb  and  the  impressed  part 
rough.  In  a  hundred  cases  the  substance  of  the  vellum 
has  been  actually  cut  out  by  the  impression  of  the  tool, 
while  the  surrounding  leaf  is  entirer  To  complete  the 
evidence,  a  film  of  a  glutinous  or  oleaginous  nature  was 
in  many  parts  perceptible,  in  a  strong  light,  between  the 
metallic  foil  and  the  vellum  to  which  it  had  adhered. 

The  only  argument  now  remaining  for  those  who 
contended  that  the  whole  was  written  with  a  pen,  de- 
pended on  the  assertion  that  vellum  could  oot  be  im- 
pressed in  that  way,  without  wrinkling  up  and  becoming 
contracted*  This  was  however  disproved  by  Gerard 
Meerman,  who  says,  in  his  Origine»  Typographicmy 
that  his  bookbinder  tried  the  process  for  him,  ana  found 
it  succeed  as  well  with  vellani  as  with  leather* 

Some  fragments  of  other  portions  of  Scripture  have 
since  the  discovery  of  the  Silver  Book  been  found  in 
several  places,  particularly  parts  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  in  the  Library  of  Wolfenbuttle :  these  were 
published  by  Knittel,  who  states  that '  they  appear  to 
have  been  impressed  in  a  similar  way  to  those  of  the 
Upsal  Beok.  It  is  curious  enough  that  this  language 
should  be  the  only  one  in  which  evident  proofs  of  the 
practice' of  this  art  should  be  found.  It  must  have  beea 
too  costly  for  ordinary  use,  and  perhaps  the  only  persons 
rich  enough  to  command  such  expensive  luxuries  were 
the  monarch*  of  the  conquering  tribes  by  whom  the 
lancfuage  was  spoken. 

The  history  of  the  Silver  Book  ia  curious ;  it  had 
been  lying  from  an  unknown  period  in-  the  Library  of 
Werden,  near  Dusseldorf,  on  the  Rhine,  until  the  early 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  it  was  removed 
to  the  city  of  Prague,  in  order  to  escape  the  ravages  of 
the  thirty  years'  war.  When  that  city  was  taken  by 
Konigsniark,  the  book  oame  into  the  possession  of  the 
Swedes,  and  was  deposited  in  the  Royal  Library  of  Stock- 
holm. Very  soon  after  this  the  learned  Vossms  became 
possessor  of  it,— how,  it  is  not  known,  but  he  was  sus- 
pected of  having  stolen  it,  while  on  a  visit  to  Christina, 
queen  of  Sweden.  Voss  took  it  with  him  to  Hollahd, 
where  about  seven  years  after  it  was  seen  in  his  posiet- 
sion  by  Puffendorf,  who  purchased  it  for  the  sum  of  six 
hundred  rix  dollars,  on  account  of  the  Count  Gabriel  de 
la  Gardie,  by  whom  it  was  presented  to  the  Public 
Library  of  Upsala,  where  it  still  remains. ' 

The  language  and  age  of  this  version  of  the  Scriptures 
have  been  still  more  a  subject  of  dispute  than  the  man- 
ner of  its  execution.  It  is  commonly  called  Gothic,  and 
supposed  to  be  the  translation  made  in  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century  by  Ulphilas,  bishop  of  the  Goths,,  who 
then  inhabited  the  country  now  called  Walachia,  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  Danube*  This  is  still  the  usual 
opinion,  but  several  learned  men  have  called  it  in  ques- 
tion ;  they  argue,  and  we  are  much  disposed  to  agree 
with  them,  that  there  is  no  evidence  whatever  of  its 
being  Gothic,  and  that  the  presumption  is  rather  in 
favour  of  its  being  Prankish,  because  the  place  where  it 
was  found  was  not  inhabited  by  the  Goths  but  was  a 
a  portion  of  the  territory  of  the  old  Pranks.  The  alpha- 
bet is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  known  existing  re- 
mains of  old  Prankish,  and  two  additional  characters, 
found*  in  no  other  dialect  of  the  German  tongue,  very 
nearly  amount  to  a  positive  evidence  of  the  country  and 
date  of  the  work.  Those  letters  are  ^  and  6,  the  first 
of  which,  in  the  Silver  Book,  stands  for  th^  and  the  last, 
for  qu.  Now  it  is  stated  expressly  by  Gregory  of  Tours, 
a  Prench  historian,  who  lived  in  the  sixth  century,  that 
Chilperic,  king  of  the  Pranks,  ordered  four  letters  to  be 
added  to  the  alphabet  of  their  language,  and  the  two 
letters  given  above  are  among  the  four.  As  the  use  of 
these  letters  ceased  with  the  life  of  the  monarch  who  intro- 
duced them,  the  date  of  the  book,  if  this  opinion  be  well 
founded,  may  be  ascertained  within  a  short  period,  Chil- 


peric having  died  in  584*  tfter  a  reign  of  seventeen  years. 
Perhaps  in  this,  aa  in  many  ptber  disputes,  there  tnaj 
have  been  truth  on  botl^  sidU;  the  translation  may  hst 
been  that  of  Ulphilas,  and  the  copy  now  existing  im- 
pressed by  a   Prank   of  the   time   of  Chilperic.   The 
language  of  all  these  tribes  was  the  same.    Procopius 
in  the  sixth  century,  and  still  more  positively  Walafrid 
Strabo  in  the  ninth,  asserts  this;  bis  words'are,  "The 
Goths  or  Getes  who  dwelled  in  the  provinces  of  Greece^ 
when  converted  to  the  faith  of  Christ,  used  our  lan- 
guage, that  is  the  Theotisc  •  .  .  they  had  the  Scriptures 
translated  into  their  own  tongue,  copies  of  which  are 
yet  in  existence."     The  word  Theotisc  is  nearly  ideoti- 
cal  with  Teutachf  the  name  by  which  the  Germaos  de- 
signate their  country  and  language  to  tliis  day:  and  the 
Pranks  used  a  cognate  language  even  in  France,  as  late 
at  least  as  in  the  days  of  Chariemagne.^ — Whichever  way 
the  question  may  be  decided,  it  must  he  admitted  that 
the  Silver  Gospel  is  one  of  the  oldest  books  and  most 
curious  remains  of  ancient  art  known  to  be  in  eiistence. 
A  fac  simile  of  part  of  a  page  of  the  Silver  Book  is 
given  at  the  head  of  this  paperi     The  four  lines  sho^ 
contain  the  twenty-fourth  anud  beginning  ef  the  twenty- 
fifth  verses  of  the  eleventh  chapter  of  Samt  MaUhew, 
with  the  exception   of  the  first  syllable  of  the  tveoty- 
fourth  verse,  which  is  in  the  preceding  Une,  not  copied 
here.     The  twenty-fifth  verse  being  the  heginmog  of 
a  new  subject  or  section  is  headed  with  ofold  in  the  ori- 
ginal, shown  in  the  fac-simile  by  dptted  letters.   The 
transcription  in  Roman  letters  and  literal  translation 
will  stand  thus,  supplying  the  few  letters  at  the  beginning 
and  end  to  make  complete  sense: — 


CBwe]  tbanh  qwiOia  init  thatei 

oiithal 
iftadomge  sutlso  walrthith 
in  dafa  staaoa  thah  thua 
Iniih  galnamma  mela  andhaf 

[lanu]. 


Truly  I  nj  to  you  tbai  for  tha. 

eartti 
of  Sodom  better  it  fhaUbe 
in  the  day  of  jadgnMnt  thanforvM 
In  that  time  [^esn]  uswtiel. 


The  bottom  of  the  page  has  been  selected  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  the  ornamental  mode  of  exhibitisf 
what  appears  to  be  the  parallel  passages.  The  lefteis 
RI,  on  tne  left  of  the  colonnade,  stand  for  110,  being  tbe 
number  of  the  sec  ion,  as  at  that  time  the  New  Testamnit 
had  not  been  divided  into  chapters  and  verses.  The 
monogram  in  the  first  arch,  composed  of  M  sunnouoU^ 
by  ^  (th),  stands  for  Matthew,  and  the  letters  under  it 
for  109,  110.  In  the  next  arch  stands  JOH,  and  in  tbe 
third  LUK,  with  the  letters  RIB,  meaning  112;  in  tbe 
fourth  arch  is  the  monogram  £  for  Mark.  AD  the» 
letters  are  of  gold;  and  the  effect  of  the  whole,  combiot^l 
with  the  purple  hue  of  the  vellum,  is  a  degree  of  magnifi- 
cence which  could  not  have  been  expected  in  a  work  we- 
cuted  at  such  a  period,  and  which  is  not  often  surpasses 
in  our  own  day  of  i^plendid  typography. 


The  present  life  overcomes  futurity,  by  beuig  daily  ^^ 
us,  as  a  small  object  near  the  eye  can  shut  out  the  mcs 
magnificent  prospect  beyond. — ^Aird. 

To  play  with  important  truths,  to  disturb  the  repose  ct 
establisned  tenets,  to  subtilize  objections,  and  elnde  pnwf,  '^ 
too  often  the  sport  of  youthful  vanity,  of  wlucb  maturtr 
experience  commonly  repents.  There  is  a  tims  when  evert 
man  is  weary  of  raism^  aifficulties  only  to  task  himaelf  j^^ 
their  solution,  and  deaures  to  enjoy  truth  without  the  lab^ 
or  hazard  of  contest. — Da.  Samukl  Johnson. 


Fablbs  were  suffered  to  float  vaguely  through  tite  popsi^ 
mind  of  the  ancients,  but  of  religious  instruction,  in  <^°[ 
sense  of  the  words,  no  trace  i«  to  be  discovered,  excfp> 
amongst  the  Jewish  nation. 

If  the  evidence  of  revelation  had  been  wesk,  vBy  ^;^ 
minds  like  those  of  Locke,  of  Bacon,  and  <tf  Newton,  «bij^ 
boldly  destroyed  prejudices  in  science,  bUnd  to  those  in  Kii 
gion  i-^LoBD  Tjuomicoutb. 


1S41.J 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


LIGHT  AND  DARK  MORNINGS. 


Lv  the  pages  of  that  once  almost  univerial  Kalendar, 
the    venerable    Vo:r   Stellarum,   which   still  annually 
announces  itself  as  "containing  all  things  fitting  for 
such  a  work,"  under  the  undying  editorship  of  "Francis 
Moore,  Physician,"  who,  regretfully  be  it  spoken,  -yet 
holds  his  oracular  sway  over  the  minds  of  thousands, 
many  of  your  readers  will  hare  noticed  a  column  headed 
«  clock  before  the  sun,"  or, «  clock  after  the  sun."     It  is 
well  known  that  a  sun-dial  and  a  well  regulated  dock 
seldom  indicate  precisely  the  same  time;  and  the  infor- 
mation contained  in  the  undying  editor's  table  of  "  the 
equation  of  time,"  is  duly  appreciated  by  those   who 
wish  to  regulate  tiiieir  clocks  or  watches. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  give  a  long  or  learned  disser- 
tation on  the  subject  of  the  *^  equation  ijt  time*,"  or  to 
explain  at  much  length  the  different  terms  used  for 
denoting  time's  admeasurement.  There  is  solar,  or 
apparent,  time,  as  shown  by  a  sun-dial ;  and  there  is  mean 
time,  or  true  time,  as  shown  by  the  dock.  There  is  the 
sidereal  day,  that  is,  the  time  of  the  earth's  revolution 
on  its  axis,  or  the  time  that  elapses  between  the  south- 
ing of  any  star  to-night  and  its  coming  to  the  meridian, 
or  southing,  the  next  night,  which  is  23  hours  and  56 
minutes  ;  and  there  is  our  solar  day  of  24  hours,  that  is, 
24  hours,  on  an  average,  throughout  the  year. 

Then  we  have  the  astronomical  day,  oommendng  and 
terminating  at  noon,  computed  by  24  hours,  (not  12  and 
12,  as  in  the  solar  day;)  thus  October  12th  Ifih.  30m. 
of  astronomical  time,  means  4  past  4  of  the  morning  of 
the  1 3th  by  the  ordinary  mode  of  computation ;  and  we 
have  the  original,  the  primeval  day,  commencing  and 
terminating  in  the  evening,  as  in  the  language  of  Holy 
Writ,  "And  the  evening  and  the  morning  were  the 
first  day,"  which  mode  of  computation  is  still  observed 
by  the  Jews,  their  sabbath  terminating  on  the  evening  of 
our' and  thdr  "seventh  day,  which  is  the  sabbath  at  the 
Lord."     At  this  time,  6  o'clock  in  the  evening,  they 
reopen  their  shops,  which  have  been  closed  since  6  o'clock 
of  Friday,  and  again  commence  business  for  the  remain- 
der of  the  Saturday  evening,  closing  them  during  the 
Sunday ;  thus  "  losing,"  as  some  will  term  it,  two  days 
in  the  week,  by  continuing  to  observe  their  own,  as  well 
as  the  Christian  sabbath.     May  the  day  speedily  approach 
when  they  shall  come  into  the  true  sheepfold. 

When  at  school,  we  were  rightly  instructed  that,  "  the 
sun  sets  as  much  after  6  as  it  rises  before,  or  as  much 
before  as  it  rises  after."  This  is  worth  remembering : 
and  to  such  of  our  younger  readers  as  are  not  familiar 
with  the  rule,  we  recommend  a  second  perusal.  But  it 
applies  only  to  6  o'clock  solar  time,  and  not  to  true 
time:  for  a  person  who  should  suppose,  on  the  13th  of 
October,  for  instance,  and  the  1st  of  March,  (these  two 
days  being  of  equal  length,)  that  the  sun  will  rise  at  the 
same  time,  on  each  day,  by  the  clock,  would  find  himself 
just  half  an  hour  wrong  in  his  reckoning;  as  a  reference 
to  any  Almanac  that  gives  the  sun-rise  and  sun-set  in 
trucy  not  solar  J  time,  will  immediately  convince  him. 

There  are  only  four  days  in  the  year  on  which  the 
clock  and  sun  coincide,  viz, — th^  15th  of  April,  the  15th 
of  June,  the  1st  of  September  and  the  24th  of  Decem- 
ber ;  and  the  times  of  greatest  variation  are  the  10th  of 
February,  when  the  clock  is  15  minutes  hefore  the  sun, 
and  the  2nd  of  November,  when  it  is  16^  minutes  after 
the  sun ;  thus  making  a  difference  of  half  an  hour  between 
the  two  extremes.  And  to  this,  as  the  cause  of  our 
"  light"  or  "  dark"  mornings  or  eveningS;  it  is  my  wish 
to  direct  the  attention  of  the  reader. 

It  may  be  seen  by  referring  to  any  table  which  gives 
the  time  of  sunrise  and  sunset  at  London,  that  on  the 
21st  of  February  and  the  2l8t  of  October,  the  sun 
rises  at  52  minutes  after  6,  solar  time;  now  both  days 
being  of  equal  length,  (10  hours  and  16  minutes,)  the 
sun  of  course  rises  at  the  same  hour,  solar  time,  each 

*  Sse  Saturday  Magasine,  Vol  ZIV.,  p.  63;  Vol.  XV.,  P*  l^^* 


sa7 

day ;  and  according  to  the  rub  pJreviously  mentioned, 
he  must  set  52  minutes  before  6  solar  time,  but  if  we 
take  the  time  by  the  dock,  we  shall  find  that  he  rises 
half  an  hour  later  on  the  2l8t  of  February  than  on  the 
21st  of  October;  for  in  February  the  clock  is  14 
mmutes  before  the  sun;  and  consequently,  by  clock 
time,  he  nses  6  minutes  after  7,  and  the  mornings  are 
dark.  In  October,  on  the  contrary,  although  the  day 
18  the  same  length,  yet  the  clock  being  16  minutes  after 
the  sun,  he  rises  36  minutes  after  6;  and  the  mornings 
are  «*  light,"  and  at  this  season  of  the  year,  early  risers 
reap  a  decided  benefit-from  the  phenomenon  of  nature. 

Early  rising  I  Oh  that  we  had  more  practical  acquaint- 
ance with  this  blessing,  that  we  were  more  alive  to  the 
beauties  and  melodies  of  the  **  sweet  hour  of  prime," 
that  we  more  frequently  compelled  ourselves  to  taste 
the  pleasures  so  rapturously  described  by  the  poet. 

The  mom  is  ttp  agahi,  the  dewy  mom. 

With  breath  all  incense,  and  with  cheek  all  bloom, 

lAoghing  the  clouds  away  in  playful  seom^ 

To  a  contemplative  mind,  and  a  lover  of  nature— ^ 
to  one  who 

liooks  through  nature  np  to  nature's  God. 

the  theme  is  inexhaustible.  With  heart  and  soul  he 
adopts  Beattie's  beatific  outburst  to  the  ''melodies  of 
mom ; "  as,  with  emotions  known  only  to  him  who  can 
lift  his  eyes  to  heaven  and  say  "  My  Father  made  them 
all/'  he  exclaims 

But  who  the  melodies  of  mom  ean  tell  ? 
The  wild  brook  babbling  down  the  mountain  side; 
The  lowing  herd;  the  sheepfold's  simple  bellf 
The  pipe  of  early  shepherd  dim  descried 
In  the  lone  valley;  echoing  far  and  wide 
The  clamorous  horn  along  the  clifils  above : 
The  hollow  murmur  of  the  ocean  tide ; 
The  hum  of  bees;  the  linnet's  lay  of  love; 
And  the  full  choir  that  wakes  the  universal  grove. 
And,  adopting  the  same  writer's  description  of  the 
beauties  of  morning,  say, 

Oh  bow  [can  I]  renounce  the  boundless  store 
Of  charms  which  nature  to  her  votary  yields  ? 
The  warbling  woodland,  the  resounding  shore. 
The  pomp  of  groves,  the  garniture  of  fields ; 
Alt  that  the  genial  ray  of  morning  gilds  f 

Gentle  reader  I  excuse  this  digression ;  and,  with  one 
more  extract,  I  will  return  to  the  subject  of  my  paper ; 
it  is  from  the  pen  of  a  pieus^  lawyer,  when,  descanting 
on  "  the  droDs  of  dew  hanging  from  every  blade  of 
grass,  and  reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun  in  a  thousand 
different  directions,  *  he  says : — **  Not  a  sound  was  heard, 
nor  a  leaf  moved,  whilst  the  secret  operation  was  advan« 
dug:  and  what  a  pleasant  emblem  does  this  afford  of 
the  influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  How  mild,  how 
gentle,  how  imperceptible  have  its  effusions  often  been 
upon  our  minds  I  *' 

To  return:  it  will  be  seen  from  what  has  gone  before, 
that,  when  the  clock  is  before  the  sun,  the  mornings  are 
"dark"  and  the  evenings  "light;"  and  when  the  clock 
is  afler  the  sun,  the  mornings  are  "light,"  and  the 
evenings  "dark."  In  fact  the  "equation  of  time"  causes 
such  a  variation  of  time  between  the  clock  and  the  sun, 
that,  on  two  days  of  the  year,  of  precisely  the  same 
length,  the  sun  may  rise  half  an  hour  earlier  one  day 
than  on  the  other.  See  1st  of  February  and  10th  of 
November. 

In  May  and  August  the  equation  is  reversed;  but 
the  variation  being  less,  the  phenomenon  is  of  course 
not  so  striking. — From  a  Correspondent* 


Thosb  tliat  with  diligence  fight  agamst  poverty,  though 
neither  conquer  till  death  makes  it  a  drawn  battle,  expect 
not,  but  prevent,  their  cmving  of  thee:  for  God  forbid  the 
heavens  should  never  rain  till  the  earth  first  opens  her 
mouth ;  seeing  some  grounds  wUl  sooner  bum  than  chap.-^ 
Fuller, 

606—2 


d98 


Trtfi  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[DidSMiseR  U, 


ON  CHESS.    XXIII. 


Thb  Knight's  Movb,  (eonelud§d*) 

When  the  metliod  of  solving  the  problem  of  the  knight's 

moTe,:  as  stated  in  our  last  article,  is  thoroughly  under- 

stoodv  th^  young  chess  student  may  pass  on  to  that  which 

constitutes  the  peculiar  feature  m  Dr.  Roget's  method, 

and  whidi  confers  on  it  that  g^enerality  and  comprehen- 

siyeness  never  before  attained :  vis.,  the  power  of  ending 

as  well  as  of  beginning  on  any  gwen  square,  provided, 

of  course,  that  the  two  squares  be  of  opposite  colours. 

When  the  two  given  squares  are  named,  the  player  must 

attentively  notice  to  what  systems  they  belong:  whether 

both  are  m  diamond  systems  or  in  squares,  or  one  in 

a  diamond  and  the  other  in  a  square :  also,  if  both  are 

diamonds,  whether  the  two  form  parts   of  the  tame 

diamond  system  or  not.     The  determination  of  these 

points  will  decide  the  mode  of  procedure.     If  the  two 

squares  belong  to  the  same  system,  we  must  depart  from 

one  of  the  instructions  given  in  the  last  article:  we 

must  not  complete  that  system  before  passing  to  another, 

because  one  square  belonging  to  it  is  to  be  the  very  last 

of  the   64.     We  must  therefore  pass  on  to  another 

system  before  completing  the  first  one,  and  it  is  optional 

to  leave  as  many  as  we  please,  to  assist  in  forming 

links  to  conduct  to  the  terminal  square.     Dr.  Roget 

recomjnends  that  one  or  two  squares  of  the  system 

should  be  left  to  the  last,  but  we  incline  to  the  opinion 

that  it  will  be  better  to  leave  a  greater  number, — ^that  is, 

after  covering  two  or  three  squares  of  that  system  to 

which  the  initial  square  belongs,  pass  on  to  the  other 

three  systems  successively,  complete  the  48  squares  of 

which  they  consist,  and  then  cover  the  remaining  13  or 

14  squares  of  the  first  system.    We  will  illustrate  this 

by  a  problem.     Required :  to  commence  at  the  kingU 

rook's  square,  and  to  terminate  at  the  king's  bishop's 

6th  square.     These  two  squares  belong  to  the  same 

diamond  system;  consequently  we  must  pass  on  to 

another  system  before  completing  this    one.    In  the 

diagram   (fig.  5)  we  begin  at  the  rook's  square,  and 

cover  only  two  squares  <»  the  diamond  system  to  which 

it  belongs :  we  then  pass  on  to  a  square  system,  the  16 

squares  of  which  we  complete ;  after  this  we  traverse  the 

16  squares  of  the  other  diamond  system,  and  then  the  16 

of  the  other  square ;  finely,  we  cover  the  remaining  14 

squares  of  the  first  diamond  system,  and  end  at  the 

required  position. 

If  the  initial  and  terminal  squares  are  respectively 
in  the  two  diamond  or  the  two  square  systems,  another 
modification  is  required,  arising  from  the  circumstance 
that  the  knight  cannot  pass  from  one  diamond  system 
to  the  other,  nor  from  one  square  system  to  the  other. 
Let  the  initial  square  be  in  one  diamond  system,  and 
the  terminal  square  in  the  other.  Complete  the  first 
diamond  system ;  then  one  of  the  square  systems;  then 
traverse  a  portion  of  the  second  diamond  system,  omit- 
ting that  square  which  is  to  be  the  terminal  square,  as 
well  as  some  others;  after  this,  cover  the  second  square 
system;  and  lastly,  traverse  the  remainder  of  the  second 
duamond  system,  ending  on  the  required  one.  By  trans- 
posing the  words  "square"  and  "diamond"  in  this 
description,  it  will  be  available  for  that  variety  of  the 
problem  which  begins  in  one  square  system  ana  ends  in 
the  other. 

If  the  initial  square  be  in  a  diamond  system  and  the 
terminal  in  a  square  one,  or  vice  versd,  the  solution  is 
easier  than  in  either  of  the  cases  before  supposed; 
because  all  the  four  systems  can  be  completely  traversed 
in  succession,  by  bearing  in  mind  that  the  second  system 
traversed  must  not  be  tiiat  which  contains  the  terminal 
square. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  impress  on  the  mind  of  the 
reader,  that  attention  to  the  respective  nfeteme  in  which 
the  initial  and  terminal  squares  are  contained,  is  the 
point  of  most  importance  in  giving  a  general  solution  to 


the  varieties  of  this  problem.     When    this  is  once 
attended  to,  minor   difficulties  are  more  readily  lur- 
mounted.     Among  these  are,  the  quarter  of  tbc  Wd 
on  which  the  terminal  square  is  situated.    Not  only 
must  the  tour  of  the  knight,  in  a  given  problem,  end  in 
a  particular  system,  but  also  in  a  particular  quarter  of 
the  board;  and  as  the  tour  may  generally  be  made 
from  left  to  right  or  from  right  to  left  at  pleasure, 
we  must  choose  that  direction   which,  while  it  obeys 
the  conditions  of  the  problem  as  to  83r8teni8,  shall  ter- 
minate in   that  quarter  which   contains  the  teminal 
square.     We  may  illu«trate  this   by  referring  again 
to   fig.  5.   .  The  terminal  square  is  in  the  right  hand 
upper  quarter.     After  covering  2  squares  of  the  first 
diamond  system,  and  then  traversing  the  48  squares 
which  constitute  the  other  three  systems,  we  find  the 
knight  in  the  left  hand  upper  quarter,  only  two  squares 
distant  from  the  terminal  square;  and  as  we  have  still 
14  moves  to  make,  we  manage  to  go  into  all  the  other 
three  quarters  of  the  board  before  arriving  at  that  one 
which  contains  the  terminal  square.     In  every  instance, 
if  the  rules  which  we  have  given  are  attended  to,  and 
any  difficulty  arises  towards  the  end  of  the  tour,  a 
reconsideration  of  a  few  of  the  last  moves  will  enable 
the  player  to  surmount  the  difficulty.     The  moves  vhicb 
it  is  in  the  power  of  the  knight  to  make  at  any  given 
moment,  varying  from  one  to  eight  in  number,  give 
such  interminable  variety  to  the  modes  of  solution,  that 
the  judgment  of  the  player  must  be  exercised  as  to  the 
choice  of  the  mode  of  proceeding  in  each  particular 
instance;  but  it  is  only  in  the  last  few  moves  that  this 
judgment  is  particularly  called  for,  provided  the  pre- 
scribed rules  are  Attended  to.     Of  the  number  of  ways 
in  which  the  problem  can  be  solved  no  estimate  has  yet, 
as  far  as  we  are  aware,  been  made ;  nor  do  we  know  of 
any  means  but  actual  trial  by  which  it  could  be  deter- 
mined, since  the  regular  arithmetical  law  of  permutatioa 
will  not  here  apply.     If  the  squares  of  the  board  were 
numbered  from  1  to  64,  and  these  numbers  were  noted 
down  in  the  order  in  which  the  knight  moved,  we  hare 
very  little  doubt  that  this  order  might  be  varied  in  more 
than  a  million  different  ways;  there  are  64x32=3043 
modes  of  varying  the  initial  and  terminal  squares  alone; 
and  in  each  mode  the  intermediate  moves  are  susceptible 
of  variation  at  almost  every  step  of  the  process. 

Such  is  the  result  to  which  Dr.  Roget's  extremely 
ingenious  investigation  enables  us  to  arrive.  Until  his 
method  appeared,  no  one,  we  believe,  was  able  to  insure 
a  solution  to  the  problem  when  both  the  initial  and  ter- 
minal squares  were  prescribed;  except  in  the  limited 
instance  of  a  re-entering  route,  where  the  terminal  square 
is  a  knight's  move  £stant  from  the  initial  ooe.  By 
the  method  which  we  have  just  endeavoured  to  explau)* 
the  problem  can  be  solved  whether  the  terminal  square 
be  far  removed  from  the  initial  one,  or  contiguous  to 
it;  the  only  condition  being,  that  the  squares  must  be  of 
different  colours. 

To  shew  the  interesting  variety  of  which  this  problem 
is  susceptible,  we  will  here  give  three  additional  repre- 
sentations, each  of  which  possesses  some  peculiar  pro* 
perty  capable  of  being  committed  to  memory;  they  a|^ 
partly  original,  and  partly  altered  from  methods  already 
known;  and  the  whole  of  them  differ  from  Dr.  Roget ^ 
mode  of  solution.  Fig.  6  is  produced  by  attending  care- 
fully to  this  one  simple  rule : — Keep  asjurfrom  the  cei^ 
of  the  hoard  as  possihle.  In  obedience  to  this  direction, 
the  tour  of  course  commences  in  one  comer,  no  mat*^ 
which,  and  every  successive  move  is  determined  according 
to  the  distances,  from  the  centre  of  the  board,  to  those 
squares  open  to  the  knight;  the  greatest  distance  being 
always  chosen.  It  might  appear  from  this  rule,  that  i* 
terminal  square  ought  to  be  still  nearer  to  the  centre 
of  the  board  than  it  is  seen  to  be;  but  it  will  be  found 
that  in  the  course  of  the  preceding  moves,  the  four 
central  squares  have  necessarily  become  occupiedj  9ifi<* 


I 


1 8^0 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 
Fi(.a 


it  happens  in  some  cases  that  there  is  only  one  square 
left  open  to  the  knight,  and  that  one  may  probably  be 
near  the  centre  of  the  board.  No  difficulty  will  occur, 
provided  we  adhere  strictly  to  the  one  rule  laid  down. 

Fig.  7  is  produced  bv  adhering  to  the  following  rule: 
Plaif  ikt  knight  to  thai  agruare  mhere  h»  ka»  Itatt 
power.  Supposing  the  board  to  be  unoccupied  except 
by  the  knight,  the  reader  can  easily  satisfy  himself,  that 
the  knight  can  command  3,  3,  4,  6,  or  S  squares,  accord- 
ing to  his  position:  if  in  one  comer,  he  commands 
only  2  squares ;  if  he  be  on  the  knight's  square,  he 
commands  3  squares;  if  on  the  bishop's  square,  4aquares  ; 
and  as  he  approaches  the  centre,  the  squares  com- 
manded are  4,  6,  or  8  in  number.  Now  the  rule  requires, 
that  in  every  instance  the  square  chosen  for  the  knight's 
leap  be  that  which,  of  all  those  remaining  open  to  the 
knight,  wilt  give  him  least  power.  If  at  any  move  there 
are  two  open  squares  of  equal  power  in^this  respect,  either 
one  may  be  chosen.  In  many  points  this  solution 
resembles  the  last,  sintv,  generally  speaking,  the  knight 


has  "least  power"  when  "farthest  in  the  centre;"  but  a 
comparison  of  the  two  figures  produced  will  show  that 
the  routes  are  by  no  means  identical. 

Fig.  8  (a)  is  possessed  of  a  most  remarkable  numerical 
property,  and  belongs  to  a  class  of  problems  which  woald 
be  found  fertile  in  interesting  combinations.  In  order 
to  exhibit  this  property,  we  have  in  a  separate  diagram 
or  table,  fig.  8  (S,)  numbered  the  squares  in  the  order 
in  which  the  knight  stepped  on  them.  The  tonr  com- 
mences on  one  of  the  central  squares,  which  we  have 
marked  1,  and  terminates  on  the  king's  bishop's  third, 
which  is  therefore  marked  64.  Shv  it  will  be  found, 
that  if  we  select  two  squares  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
centre,  and  equidistant  from  it,  the  diffh-enct  of  the  two 
numheri  oceupt/ing  those  tquaret  will  be  alteoi/t  eijiial 
to  32.  Thus,  the  opposite  comer  squares  arc  16  and 
48,  27  and  59;  and  48—15=59—27=32:  the  four 
central  squares  are  I  und  33,  14  and  46;  and  33— 1  = 
46—14^32.  In  the  same  way  we  may  select  any  two 
squares,  provided  the  tentre  of  the  board  is  precisely 
Fig.  9  (<■, 


43 

u 

4 

W 

10 

« 

6 

97 

• 

BO 

4B 

M 

• 

38 

11 

n 

te 

*7 

13 

• 

M 

11 

SB 

7 

31 

a 

K 

4B 

88 

8 

M 

13 

M 

« 

40 

1 

14 

U 

84 

88 

SB 

M 

41 

le 

41 

84 

,. 

S4 

SO 

43 

60 

«7 

n 

11 

fl3 

88 

aa 

S8 

91 

la 

ei 

80 

S3 

18 

between  them,  and  equidistant  ftOTu  them,  and  we  shall 
find  that  the  smaller  number  tubtracted  from  the  greater 
will  invariably  leave  32. 

There  are  other  remarkable  circnmstances  connected 
with  this  last  solution.  The  route  is  a  re-entering  or 
interminable  one,  and  the  figure  produced,  as  seen  in 
fig.  8  (a,)  is  one  of  the  most  symmetrical  which  we  have 
yet  given.  The  route  lieing  interminable,  may  be  com- 
menced on  any  square,  and  as  the  initial  square  must 
always  be  marked  1,  the  distribution  of  the  numbers 
over  the  board  would  vary  with  the  varying  of  the  initial 


ir 

a 

4S 

38 

U 

10 

48 

SO 

43 

8V 

IS 

9 

44 

87 

1* 

11 

» 

18 

41 

48 

» 

19 

88 

48 

40 

4B 

0 

19 

84 

47 

4 

13 

S» 

90 

88 

M 

1 

91 

S3 

88 

83 

11 

38 

91 

84 

« 

S 

93 

9T 

K 

88 

eo 

96 

S3 

8d 

88 

89 

81 

SS 

81 

84 

89 

34 

1 

square,  every  square  being  affected  alike.  Now  it  will 
bo  found,  that  at  whatever  square  the  route  commences 
the  same  numerical  law  will  hold  good;  there  will  in 
fact  be  128  modes  of  varying  the  order  of  the  numbers, 
m  all  of  which  the  same  figure  will  be  produced,  and  the 
same  remarkable  law  will  he  observed;  because  any 
square  out  of  the  64  may  be  selected  as  the  initial  square, 
and  from  each  we  may  begin  the  route  either  to  tha 
left  or  the  right. 

Another  example  of  the  maintenance  of  a  particular 
law  throughout  the  numbers  obtained,  we  will  here  giv« 


230 


THE  SATURDAY^MAGAZINE. 


[Dbcbicber  1 1, 


in  order  to  shew  the  reader  how  varied  may  be  the 
resultis  to  which  he  can  arrive  by  a  little  ingenuity.  Fig. 
9  (a,)  la  a  very  pleasinflr  and  Bymmetrical  figure,  pro- 
duced by  a  route  of  which  the  numbers  are  entered  in 
fig.  9  (b).  If  Uiese  numbers  are  examined,  it  will  be 
found,  tnat  the  difference  of  two  numben  situated  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  centre,  and  equidistant  from  it,  is 
16, — half  the  amount  of  constant  difference  in  the  last 
case.  This  route  is  not  a  re-entering  one,  and  we  do 
not  think  it  could  be  made  so,  with  a  constant  difference 
of  16, 

The  reader  will  now  have  had  sufficient  proof  of 
the  diversified  solutions  of  which  the  knight's  problem 
is  susceptible.  We  have  never  heard  of  a  che«9  kalei- 
doscope, but  the  instructions  we  have  given  will  enable 
him  to  form  one  out  of  the  numerous  other  modes  of 
solution  which  may  be  left  to  his  ingenuity  to  produce. 
Nor  will  the  study  of  this  subject  be  without  its  use  to  the 
chess-player;  since  it  not  only  teaches  the  art  of  manoeuv- 
ring this  beautiful  pieoe,  but  brings  the  fact  into  forcible 
notice,  that  the  knight  has  less  power  of  moving,  and 
therefore  becomes  less  valuable,  wlien  he  approaches 
the  comers  and  sides  of  the  board. 


SACRED    LITERATURE. 


DiviKiTY  and  ethics  are  the  oentie  round  which  the  national 
literature  of  a  great,  a  thoughtful,  and  enduring  people, 
must  ever  revolve.  The  subject-matter  of  these  sciences 
alono  possc&ses  an  interest  sufiliciently  steady  and  intenseyto 
give  bulh  and  impart  active  purpose  to  great  ideas.  The 
literature  which  rests  on  taste  and  mannei-s,  is  dependant  for 
its  chann  on  those  peculiarities  which  gave  it  existence. 
The  literatui'c  of  mere  sentiment  springs  up  and  perishes, 
annually,  before  the  sated  eye,  like  other  sickly  productions 
of  the  hot-bed.  The  literature  of  classical  research  is  in- 
telligible to  few;  and  being  deficient  in  applicability  to 
the  practical  realities  of  life.  Is  almost  limltea  in  value  to 
the  charm  of  an  cxquirite  amusement.  Tho  pursuits  of 
natural  science,  though  in  the  highest  degree  useful  and 
pleasant  to  man,  as  inhabiting  the  world  of  sense,  regard 
merely  his  external  accommodation,  and,  with  their  results, 
will  disappear  when  ^  all  these  thinss  shall  be  dissolved." 

But  the  literature  of  divinity  ana  ethics  is  liable  to  none 
of  these  objections.  Rooted,  not  alone  in  the  truth  of 
things  (which  is  the  essential  ffround  of  all  literatiire,' worth 
the  name),  but  in  Deity  itselfTits  pure  themes  are  fit  to  be 
adorned,  and  never  can  they  be  exhausted,  by  the  loftiest 
inspiration  of  genius.  Not  concerned  in  the  external  wel- 
fare only,  and  present  interests,  of  mankind,  but  with  men's 
inmost  and  immortal  well-being,  it  has  a  practical  value 
which  cannot  be  over  estimated.  Making  no  severe  demands 
upon  intellect,  no  rarer  qualification  is  needed  for  enjoy- 
ing it,  than  ordinary  sobriety  of  mind.  Dependant  on 
nothing  fluctuating,  it  possesses  equal  charms  for  the  wise 
and  good  of  every  period,  age,  and  condition.  Whatever  is 
sublime  in  thought,  may  be  met  with  in  the  pages  of  our 
sacred  writers.  Whatever  is  rich,  powerful,  lioole  in  elocu- 
tion, their  high  majestic  themes  demand,  and  have  received 
from  them.  Whatever  is  strict  in  logic  and  cogent  in  argu- 
ment finds  here  a  place  and  application.  Minds  of  the  most 
various  altitude  and  construction  here  expatiate  in  an  apt 
and  ample  field.  The  abysmal  simplicity  of  St.  John,  and 
the  fervent  ratiocinative  energy  of  St.  Paul, — ^the  eloquence 
of  Chrysostom,  and  the  warmth  of  Augustine,^the  affec- 
tionate sweetness  of  a  Leighton,  and  the  exhaustive  vigour 
of  a  Barrow, — ^find  here  more  than  commensurate  employ- 
ment. 

So  attractive  and  absorbing,  so  high  and  central  are  the 
subjects  which  this  deportment  of  literature  presents,  that 
all  great  ^Titers,  in  proportion  as  they  approach  those  alti- 
tudes of  conception  and  expression,  their  being  able  to  reach 
which,  marks  them  great,  rush  into  it,  and  become^  at  least 
for  a  time,  moral  and  theological  teachers.  Shakspeare  in 
his  most  earnest  moments  was  a  divine  and  moralist; 
Addison  and  Johnson  were  often  professedly  such  ;  to  the 
same  sphera  the  genius  of  Wordsworth,  and  even  sometimes 
of  Scott, 

Repairing,  in  their  golden  lirns  drew  light. 

Introductory  Euojf  to  Gems  of  Sacred  Literature, 


"     GARDEN  HERBS. 

'  Tansey* 

Tanaeetum  vulfiraiisy  or  common  tansey,  it  a  well-known 
native  plant.  It  belongs  to  the  Corymbiferous  trib'^  of 
the  natural  order  Compotita,  and  is  common  in  the  bar.!;$, 
hedges  and  borders  of  fields  in  most  parts  of  the  miudlo 
of  Europe,  and  very  frequent  in  England.  Linnau? 
enumerates  eight  species  of  this  herb.  The  comrion 
vellow-blossom  tansey,  of  which  there  are  three  varieties, 
IS  said  to  be  a  native  of  BriUin.  The  English  nane 
of  this  plant  is  either  an  abbreviation  of  the  Latin,  or  is 
derived  from  the  Freuch  name,  TanaUi, 

This  herb  may  often  be  seen  growing  in  churchyards, 
and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  once  used  as  a  funeral 
plant.  Boerhaave  informs  us  that  the  leaves  iutruded 
into  the  mouth  and  nostrils  of  a  dead  body  preserve  it 
from  decay,  and  from  the  attacks  of  insects;  whence  the 
plant  has  been  called  Athanasia^  or  the  immortal.  It  is 
also  stated  that  if  meat  be  rubbed  over  with  tansej  the 
flesh-fly  will  not  deposit  its  eggs  in  it 

Tansey  has  a  bitter  taste,  and  an  aromatic  smell;  it 
was  formerly  held  in  regard  for  warming  and  strength- 
ening the  stomach,  for  which  reason  the  young  leaves 
obtamed  a  place  among  culinary  herbs,  their  juice  being 
used  in  puddings.  In  Gerard's  tune  they  made  cakes  of 
the  young  leaves  in  the  spring  mixed  with  eggB,  which 
were  called  tansies; "  these,'*  he  says,  *^  be  pleasant  in  taste 
and  good  for  the  stomache;  for  if  any  bad  humours 
cleave  thereunto,  it  doth  perfectly  concoct  them  and  earnr 
them  off.  The  root  preserved  m  honie  or  sugar,  is  aa 
especial  thing  against  the  gout,  if  everie  day  for  a  cer- 
taine  space,  a  reas6nable  quantitie  thereof  be  eaten  fast- 
ing." Boerhaave  says :  <*  This  balsamic  plant  may  si:p- 
ply  the  place  of  nutmegs  and  cinnamon.  For  I  believe 
Asia  does  not  afford  a  plant  of  greater '  fragrancy  th:n 
tansey." 

Notwithstanding  this  high  praise,  tansey  is  now  bit 
rarely  used  as  a  domestic  vegetable;  our  habits,  custoir.<, 
and  diet  are  not  those  of  our  forefathers,  ospeciallr  io 
those  times  when  the  season  of  Lent  was  strictlv  ob- 
served  as  a  fast.  It  was  then  a  common  practice  to 
make  cakes  at  Easter,  of  flour,  eggs,  and  the  tender  leaver 
of  tansey,  and  these  were  not  only  n-eatly  prized,  but  were 
thought  necessary  to  be  eaten  at  that  season  in  particu- 
lar, to  relieve  the  stomach  of  the  real  or  imaginary  ills 
occasioned  by  a  continued  diet  of  fish  and  pulse.  The 
custom  of  eating  these  cakes  at  Easter  only  is  greatly 
censured  by  Culpeper : — 

The  world  (says  he)  being  overrun  with  poperr,  a  monster 
called  superstition  perks  up  his  head,  and,  as  a  jud^ent  of 
God,  obscures  the  oriffht  beams  of  knowledge  by  hisdi&mal 
looks ;  (physicians  seemg  the  pope  and  his  imps  sel£sh  began 
to  be  so  too),  and  now,  forsooth,  tansies  mast  be  eaten  only 
on  Palm  and  Easter  Sundays^  and  iJieir  neighbour  days. 
At  last,  superstition  being  too  hot  to  hold,  and  the  sel6.^h- 
ness  of  phvsicians  walking  in  the  clouds;  after  the  friars  and 
monks  had  made  the  people  ignorant,  the  superstition  of  the 
time  was  found  out  by  the  virtue  of  tiie  herb  hidden,  and 
now  it  is  almost,  if  not  altogether,  left  off.  Surely  our  phv- 
sicians are  beholden  to  none  so  much  as  tiiey  are  to  monk^ 
and  friars.  For  want  of  eatine  this  herb  in  spring,  makes 
people  sickly  in  summer ;  and  that  makes  work  for  the  phy- 
sician.   If  it  be  against  any  man  or  woman's  conscience  to 


may 

the  same  effect. 

Tansey  is  perennial :  it  may  be  easily  propagated  by 
seed,  and  also  by  parting  the  roots  in  spring,  and  past- 
ing them  in  any  sort  of  light  soil  or  situation. 

Chervil. 

Sweet  chervil,  or  sweet  cicely,  groweth  v«?y  like  the  grw* 
hemlock,  having  Luge  spread  leaves  cut  into  divers  ptftSr 
but  of  a  fresher  green  odour  than  the  hemlock,  tastiugas 
sweet  as  the  aniseed.  The  stalks  rise  up  a  yard  hi^b,  or 
better,  being  creased  or  hpllow,  having  leaves  at  the  joints 


18410 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


291 


but  lesser;  and  at  the  tops  of  the  branched  stalksy  umbels 
or  tufts  of  white  flowers ;  after  which  come  large  and  long 
creased  black  shining  seed,  pointed  at  both  ends,  tasting 
quicky  yet  sweet  and  pleasant.  The  root  is  great  and  white, 
growing  deep  in  the  ground,  and  spreading  sundry  long 
branches  therein,  in  taste  and  smell  stronger  than  the  leaves 
or  seeds,  and  continuing  many  years. 

Such  is  the  old  Herbalist's  description  of  Chmro^ 
phyllum  sativum  (natural  order  UmheUifercB)^  of  bota- 
nists. Tliis  herb  was  called  Xaipc^XXov  by  the  Greeks, 
cither  from  its  numerous  leaves,  or  as  the  old  herbalists 
suppose  from  the  joy  and  gladness  which  they  affirm  the 
leaves  of  this  plant  produced  in  those  who  ate  them.  The 
Romans  adopted  the  same  word,  and  called  the  herb 
ChcBrophvllumt  and  in  most  of  the  modern  languages  of 
Europe,  the  name  of  this  vegetable  is  derived  from  the 
same  source;  the  Dutch  call  it  Kervellt  the  Germans 
Korffbly  the  Italians  Cerefoglio^  the  French  du  Cerfeuilf 
and  our  oldest  botanists  write  it  Cheruill, 

Chervil  is  a  native  of  the  Levant,  and  various  parts  of 
Europe,  and  is  sometimes  foimd  in  its  native  state  in  this 
country.     When  young  it  somewhat  resembles  parsley; 
but  as  it  runs  to  seed,  it  bears  more  the  appearance  of 
hemlock.     The  tender  leaves  are  grateful  to  the  palate, 
especially  when  used  in  soups  and  salads.     It  is  much 
cultivated  by  the  French  and  Dutch,  who  are  so  fond  of 
it,  that  they  scarcely  ever  omit  it  in  their  soups  and 
salads :  and  it  is  considered  to  be  a  milder  and  more  agree- 
able addition  to  seasonings  than  the  parsley,  so  generally 
used  by  English  cooks.      Gerard,  about  two   hundred 
years  ago,  had  an  extensive  garden  in  London,  in  that 
part  of  Holbom  now  called  Hatton  Garden,  and  in  his 
Herhcd  he  says: — "  The  great  sweet  cheruill  groweth  in 
my  garden,  and  in  the  gardens  of  other  men  who  have 
been   diligent  in  these  matters."     He  recommends  the 
roots  of  this  plant  to  be  first  boiled,  and  then    eaten 
with  oil  and  vinegar,  *'  which  is  very  good  for  old  people 
that  are  dull  and  without  courage;  it  reioiceth  and  com- 
forteth  the  heart,  and  increaseth  their  strength." 

We  select  from  Mr.  Rogers*  Vegetable  Cultivator  the 
method  of  rearing  this  useful  plant;  Chervil  is  annual, 
and  the  seed  should  be  sown  to  keep  up  a  succession, 
from  the  beginning  of  March  till  June,  at  the  intervals 
of  about  a  month,  as  the  younger  it  is  the  higher  flavour 
it  imparts. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  in  shallow  drills,  from  six  to 
nine  inches  apart,  and  covered  over  lightly  with  the 
mould;  it  can  also  be  sown  broad-cast  and  raked  in 
lightly  and  evenly.  If  the  plants  rise  thick,  a  slight 
thinning  will  be  necessary;  and  in  dry  weather  a  little 
water  will  be  useful. 

To  have  chervil  for  use  throughout  winter,  it  should 
be  sown  towards  the  end  of  August  in  a  three  or  fbur 
foot  bed,  which  may  be  hooped  over  and  the  plants  pro- 
tected with  mats  m  frosty  weather.  The  plants  re- 
main livhere  sown,  and  are  never  transplanted.  They 
are  proper  for  gathering  when  the  leaves  are  three  or 
four  inches  in  growth,  and  must  be  cut  ofif  close;  they 
will  shoot  up  again,  and  may  be  gathered  in  succession, 
though  the  plants  of  the  spring  and  summer  sowing  soon 
•  spinfic  up  into  seed-stalks,  ceasing  to  produce  yoimg 
leaves,  which  are  the  useful  parts. 

THE  WATER-OUZEL. 

Cinclus  aquaticus. 

The  remarkable  appearance  and  habits  of  this  bird  have 
excited  much  popular  as  well  as  scientific  attention ;  and 
as  it  is  very  generally  dispersed  over  Europe  and  ca- 
pable of  enduring  all  climates,  so  large  a  variety  of  names 
have  been  applied  to  it  as  frequently  to  embarrass  the 
student  who  may  desire  from  books  to  add  to  the  know- 
ledge gained  by  observation  in  the  haunts  of  nature.  In 
Wales  tbis  bird  is  the  Mwyalchen  y  dwfr;  in  the  Scotch 
Highlands  the  Gohha  uisge;  in  England  it  is  called  the 
Water  ousel,  the  Dipper,  the  Penrith  ouzel,  the  Water 


crakej  the  Water  crow,  the  Water  eolly,  the  Bessy 
Dueker,  and  some  other  names.  The  Scotch  call  it  the 
Water  pyei^  the  Water  cra9,  Sco, 

The  Water  Ouzel  belongs  to  the  dentirostral  division 
of  Cuvier's  great  order  Passeres,  and  to  the  thrush 
family  in  that  order.  The  bird  is  dumpy  in  appear- 
ance, but  full  of  energy  and  activity.  The  bill  is  slender, 
the  head  and  the  forehead  low ;  the  body  is  short  and 
compact,  the  wing9  short  and  rounded;  the  tail  is  also 
short,  but  very  thick  and  strong.  Its  plumage  is  thick 
and  close,  like  that  of  aquatic  birds,  and  though  the  bird 
remains  long  in  tbe  water  its  plumage  does  not  become 
wet.  The  colour  of  the  bird  on  the  head,  back,  and  sides, 
is  deep  brown;  the  rest  of  the  upper  part,  black:  the  tail 
feathers  and  quills  are  also  black ;  the  throat  and  breast 
are  white,  shading  off  into  reddish-brown  towards  the 
under  parts,  and  gradually  becoming  deeper  in  hue  to- 
wards the  extremity  of  the  tail: .the  bill  is  dark  brown, 
and  the  feet  yellowish-grey.  The  markings  are  nearly 
the  same  in  both  sexes.  The  markings  in  the  young 
birds  appear  to  be  subject  to  variation. 

The  water  ouzel  loves  to  haunt  the  rocky  wilds  of 
almost  any  northern  clime;  it  seems  not  to  care  for  the 
vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  provided  it  can  be  near 
watex  that  is  not  frozen  it  is  cheerful  and  happy.  The 
deep  and  rugged  channels  worn  by  the  mountain  streams 
which  dash  on  against  opposing  rtfdcs,  or  amidst  loose 
stone0|  are  the  favourite  resorts  of  the  water  ouzel. 

........*•    The  bird 

Is  here, — the  solitary  bird,  that  makes 
The  rock  his  sole  companion.    Leafy  vale^ 
Green  bower,  and  hedge-row  £ur,  and  garden  rich 
With  bud  and  bloom,  delight  him  not ; — he  bends 
No  spray,  nor  roams  the  wilderness  of  boughs, 
Where  love  and  song  detain  a  million  wings. 
Through  all  the  summer  mom — the  summer  eve  ;— 
He  has  no  fellowship  with  waving  woods,— < 
He  Joins  not  in  their  merry  minstrelsy,— 
But  flits  from  ledge  to  ledge,  and  through  the  day 
Sings  to  the  HighUmd  waterfall,  that  speaks 
To  him  in  strains  he  loves,  and  lists 
For  ever.— <^ABBixoTOir. 

The  habits  of  the  water  ouzel  are  retiring :  when  it 
becomes  observed  by  the  traveller,  it  flits  from  stone  to 
stone,  chirping  and  appearing  as  if  incapable  of  flight. 
If  pursued  it  appears  scarcely  to  make  an  effort  to  avoid 
capture,  and  yet  it  is  seldom  or  never  captured.  The 
traveller,  secure  of  his  prey,  gives  chase ;  the  bird  is 
almost  within  reach  ;  it  flirts  its  tail,  and  every  now  and 
then  jerks  round,  as  if  half  astonished,  half  inviting. 

So  onward  they  &te  (says  the .  writer  of  the  agreeable 
sketches  of  the  Feathered  Tribes  of  the  British  Islands)  till 
they  come  to  a  bolder  and  tougher  stratum,  which  has  ob- 
structed the  stream,  but  at  the  same  time  given  it  fsJl  and 
force  to  scoop  out  a  pool  below,  which  though  it  boils  where 
the  cascade  plnnges  ?or  rather  where  it  rises  again),  is  placid 
compared  with  the  orawlings  that  have  been  passed.  The 
water  merelv  laves  a  beach  of  clean  pebbles,  the  rocks  on 
the  other  side  are  **  sky  high,"  without  footing  even  for  a 
bird,  and  the  breast,  over  which  the  water  dashes,  seems  too 
high  for  a  thing  so  hopping  and  badly- winged.  The  bird 
halts  on  the  beach,  and  forward  the  traveller  rushes,  hat  in 
hand,  to  the  capture,  but  the  wet  stones  are  treacherous,  end- 
long he  falls,  dips  himself,  and  rising  sees  the  hat  which  was 
to  capture  the  bird,  whirling  round  and  round  in  the  eddies. 
The  bird  too  has  vanished—it  is  **  a  sprite  *'  to  wile  him  into 
peril.  But  it  soon  **  bobs  "  to  the  surface,  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  pool  on  the  other  side,  with  its  feathers  dry  without 
any  shaking  of  the  water,  and  leaping  first  on  one  stone  and 
then  another,  it  descends  the  ravine  with  the  same  noncha- 
lance that  it  ascended.  To  recover  the  hat  is  a  much  more 
arduous  matter  than  to  lose  the  bird,  but  that  too  may  be 
accomplished  with  one  of  the  long  suckers  of  hazel,  which 
grow  from  the  tangled  and  gnarled  stool  on  the  bank,  though 
if  the  hold  be  not  taken  warily,  and  kept  carefully,  there 
may  be  a  second  dipping — and  yet  no  dipper  to  boast  of. 

The  manner  in  which  the  water  ouzel  seeks  its  food  is 
very  remarkable,  and  does  not  seem  to  have  been  gene- 


232 


TH£  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[DlCKHBH  11, 1841, 


rally  known  until  the  commumcation  of  M.  Hebert  to 
the  Count  de  Buffon  excit«d  the  attention  of  naturalist*. 
I  lay  ambuahed  (wya  he)  <»i  the  verge  of  the  lake  Man- 
tua, in  a  bat  form^  of  pln«-biHitchee  and  enow,  where  I 
pRtiently  wut«d  till  a  boat,  which  was  rowing  on  the  lake, 
aliould  drive  some  wild  ducks  to  the  wat«r's  edge.  I  ob- 
sei'ved  without  being  perceived :  before  me  was  a  email 
inlet,  tbe  bottom  of  which  gently  elielved,  and  might  be 
about  two  or  three  feet  deep  in  the  middle.  A  water  ouzel 
ertopped  here  more  than  an  nour,  and  I  hadfuU  lehure  to 


It  entered  ii 


0  the  water,  diaappeared, 
e  of  the  inlet,  which  it 


thua  repeatedly  forded.  It  traversed  the  whole  of  the  bot- 
tom, and  seemed  not  to  have  chan^  its  element,  and  dia- 
covered  no  heutation  or  reluctance  iii  the  immeision.  How- 
ever, I  perceived  several  times,  tliat  oa  often  as  it  waded 
deeper  than  the  knee,  it  displayed  its  wings,  and  allowed 
them  to  hang  to  the  ground.  I  remarked  too  that  when  I 
could  discern  it  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  it  appeared  env»- 
lopod  with  air,  which  gave  it  a  brilliant  snr&ce,  like  aome 
sorts  of  beetles,  which  are  always  in  water,  encloaod  with  a 
bubble  of  air.  Its  view  in  dropping  it«  wings  on  entering 
the  water  might  be  to  confine  thu  air :  it  was  certainly  never 
without  some,  and  it  seemed  to  quiver:  these  ungular 
habits  of  the  water  ouzel  were  unknown  to  all  the  sports- 
men whom  I  talked  with  ;  and  perhaps  without  the  acci- 
dent of  the  snow-hut  I  should  have  ever  been  ignorant  of 
them ;  but  I  con  aver  that  the  bird  came  to  my  rery  het, 
and,  that  I  might  observe  it,  I  did  not  kill  it< 

The  quivering  motion  of  the  wings  spoki 
above  extract  is  simply  an  upward  stroke  t«nding  to  keep 
the  body  down,  in  oppoeitioi;  to  any  difference  in  gravity 
between  the  bird  and  an  equal  bulk  of  water.  As  soon 
Bi  the  bird  enters  the  water  it  elevates  its  head  and  raises 
its  wings,  and  thus  depresses  the  body;  and  this  is  done 
BO  easily  and  so  rapidly  that  the  bird  runs  down  the 
bank  to  the  bottom  of  the  stream  with  apparently  no 
greater  effort  than  would  be  required  for  simple  motion 
on  dry  land.  A  moment's  reflection  will  make  it  appear 
less  wonderful  that  a  bird  should  be  able  to  remain  be- 
neath a  fluid  which,  bulk  for  bulk,  it  heavier  than  itself, 
than  to  sustain  itself  in  the  air,  which,  bulk  for  bulk, 
is  so  very  much  lighter  than  itself.  In  flying,  the  bird 
sustains  itself  by  the  downward  stroke  of  t  e  wings,  and 
the  water  ouzel  pursues  its  food  in  the  water  by  adopting 
a  process  the  very  reverse  of  flying. 

This  bird  feeds  on  water  insects,  larvs,  worms,  dragon 
flies,  water  beetles,  and  most  of  the  animal  substances 
which  occur  in  water.  It  delights  in  those  little  pools  be- 
tween the  rapids  where  the  trout  deposits  its  spawn:  this, 
u  well  aa  the  spawn  of  the  salmon,  is  a  favourite  food  for 
the  water  ouzel  and  its  young.  When  the  banks  are 
eovered  with  snow,  and  most  other  birds  are  to  a  great  ex- 
tent deprived  of  the  means  of  procuring  food,  the  water 
onsel,  perched  on  a  stone  in  the  brook,  sings  to  the  tune 
of  many  waters,  and  fears  nothing  but  ice,  which  locks 
up  its  source  of  food,  and  deprives  it  of  its  retreat  from 
terrestrial  dangers.  But  as  soon  as  the  ice  has  disap- 
peared, it  is  again  independent  and  happy.  It  is  not 
often,  however,  that  the  bird  is  "frozen  out,"  because  it 
prefers  the  dells  among  tbe  secondary  hills  near  the  low 
country,  where  springs  occur  which,  breaking  out  from 
a  considerable  depth,  seldom  freeze,  and  in  which  the 
young  of  many  little  animals  supply  it  with  food. 

The  water  ouzel  breeds  early  in  the  season;  the  eggs 
are  of  abeauUfiil  white,  and  not  more  than  five  in  number. 
The  young  birds  are  of  quick  growth;  they  are  great 
feeders  and  are  constantly  chirping  after  food  in  the 
absence  of  their  parents.  The  building  of  the  nest  is 
begun  early  in  the  season ;  it  is  constructed  with  much 
labour,  and  is  formed  on  the  outside  generally  of  mosa, 
which  is  kept  green  by  the  moisture  of  the  place,  so  that 
it  has  the  (.ppearance  of  a  natural  mossy  tuh:  it  ia  lined 
with  such  dry  leaves  or  fibres  aa  the  place  affords;  itis 
covered  with  a  sort  of  dome,  and  haa  an  opening  in  the 
side.  The  situation  of  the  neat  is  often  under  a  pro- 
jecting stone  in  a  hole  of  the  rock,  or  even  in  a  hole  in 
a  wall,  provided  the  situation  be  sufficiently  retired  and 


near  the  water.  The  structure  of  the  neat,  hoaenr,  ii 
differently  deaeribad  by  difcrant  natiuaU*,  tad  it  mi; 
Tsry  according  to  local  ciicumstaucei.  .Mr.  K^mie 
speaks  of  having  found  a  nest  of  this  bird  at  Som  Cleugli, 
in  Ayrshire,  which  he  describes  as  a  romiotic  tpot, 
where  thickly- wooded  rocks  of  variegated  undslone  Hk 
for  several  hundred  feet  on  each  side  of  a  small  bruok, 
approaching  in  some  parts  so  near  that  the  lusbomi 
cannot  reach  the  channel  below.  Bv  the  ude  of  a  lup 
block  of  sandstone,  which  had  fallen  into  tbestKu 
from  the  over-hanging  cliff,  in  one  of  those  dirkcned 
comers,  a  pair  of  water  ouzels  had  built  their  neat.  The 
block  in  its  fall  had  dragged  down  with  it  an  old  nioss' 
grown  hazel,  whose  roots  were  plentifiilly  clothed  »ith 
lady-fern,  sweet  woodroof,  and  a  profiisioQ  of  green  mces. 
These  convenient  materials  were  employed  hj  the  Urdt 
for  the  frame-work  of  their  fabric,  which  was  imtl; 
arched  over  with  a  withered  fem-leaf,  and  over  this  m 
placed  a  warm  coatiog  of  green  moss  with  a  f^  chips 
of  the  woodroof.  The  lining  was  of  similar  nialeriaJ!, 
but  of  finer  quality  and  more  smoothly  amngcd. 
It  was  so  near  the  edge  of  the  stream,  that  it  must 
have  been  overflowed,  had  a  flood  occurred,  u  is 
not  unusual  from  its  vidnitr  to  the  Clomfbrt  rtngc  of 
hills.  Hie  water  ouzel  is  said  by  Bewick  sotnetiines  to 
nestle  behind  a  waterfall,  when  it  overshoots  ■  <tnp 
rock,  and  thus  leaves  a  vacant  space ;  and  Mr,  ReDoie'} 
observation  seems  to  confirm  the  statement;  forhehu 
"  watche4  a  pair  of  these  birds  flitting  stealthily  cut 
and  in  from  such  a  locality  at  a  small  linn  in  the  moon 
above  Wemyss  Bay,  Refrewshire ;"  but  the  force  of  tie 
falling  stream  prevented  him  from  getting  snSdntJ; 
near  to  discover  the  nest. 

Montagu  discovered  one  of  these  nests  under  i  hdiII 
wooden  bridge  in  Caermarthenshire :  the  nest  wu  bnih 
with  hay,  fibres  and  moss,  and  lined  with  dry  oak  leatn- 
Tbe  nest  was  captured,  but  within  a  fortnight  snotlifr 
was  constructed  in  the  same  plac«:  this  was  sIm  taken; 
a  third  was  constructed,  and  we  refrret  to  add  that  tbe 
persevering  little  architects  were  a  third  time  plundtred. 
The  same  naturalist  gives  another  example  of  a  nest  which 
he  found  in  a  steep  mossy  bank  projectmg  overa  rivulrt; 
and  from  the  facility  with  which  moss  could  be  procnml. 
the  nest  so  closely  resembled  a  portion  of  the  bank,  thil 
it  could  not  have  been  discovered  but  for  the  parent 
birds  being  observed  carrying  in  fish  to  their  young- 

The  water  ouael  sings  only  during  the  early  put 
of  the  year;  its  summer  note  is  but  a  mere  chirp. 


Tlw  chmro 
And  Uu  UiwDi  voice, 

Mnimuriiig  deliciooilj. 


LOHDON; 
JOHN  WILLIAM  FABKEK,  WEST  SHUIta 
'wmnLX  VmoMMt,  rucx  Ohb  PainrT.  *>*  <■  HV" 

BoUbjraUSt 


Ibatur^dS        Mm^^int. 


N°  607. 


DECEMBER 


18T?,  1841. 


TURKEY  AND  THE  TURKISH  PROVINCES. 


THE  ARCHIPELAGO,  AND  ITS  MARINERS. 

At  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Mediterranean  a  yery 
remarkable  arm  of  the  sea  bends  towards  the  north  ;  re- 
niarkabb  ss  forming  the  maritime  separation  between 
Europe  and  Asia;  as  being  the  channel  by  which  Con- 
stantinople and  the  Black  Sea  are  reached;  as  being 
studded  with  a  vast  number  of  islands;  and  as  having 
bwn  in  Europe,  almost  the  birthplace  of  civilization. 
This  is  the  JEgean  Sea;  and  the  islands  which  stud  it 
form  collectively  the  Grecian  Archipelago. 

If  we  examine  a  map  of  this  region,  we  see  that  the 
whole  western  shore  of  Asia  Minor  bounds  it  on  the 
^^t ;  that  some  of  theTurkish  provinces  bound  it  on  the 
north;  and  that  Greece — anciently  independent,  then 
under  the  yoke  of  the  Turks,  and  now  independent  again, 
— forms  its  western  boundary.  This  portion  of  sea  is 
about  four  hondred  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  two 
hundred  from  east  to  west  The  islands,  which  are  so 
numerous  that  they' have  never  been  accurately  counted, 
lie  BMitered  over  nearly  the  whole  of  this  seaj  some  are 
beautifully  fertile  and  picturesque,  producing  wine,  oil, 
gums,  raisins,  tigs,  silk,  honey,  wai,  oranges,  lemons, 
cotton,  &c.;  while  others  are  mere  barren  masses  of  lock. 
Of  these  islands,  those  whose  nam«s  are  best  known  to 
g«'neral  readers  are  Samos,  Scio,  Lemnos,  Mitylene,  Pat- 
moi,  Cos,  NaiDs,  Paros,  Antiparoi.  MUo,  tnd  Argentieni, 

Vol.  XIX.  .        t~  -.        .  S 


The  inhabitants  of  these  islands  are  a  fine,  hardy, 
athletic  race,  generally  good  sailors.  Their  dress  con- 
sists of  a  short  jacket  and  waistcoat,  without  *  collar, 
very  full  breeches,  with  a  red  sash  round  the  waist,  a 
small  red  cap  fitting  close  to  the  crown  of  the  head,  and 
shoes  resembling  our  slippers.  The  legs  and  throats  are 
generally  bare ;  they  wear  moustaches,  but  never  beards; 
and  the  hair  is  make  to  hang  back  over  the  neck  to  a 
great  length.  The  women  are  generally  beautiful,  and 
their  dress  simple;  when  not  employed  in  their  house- 
hold occupations,  their  time  is  chiefly  taken  up  with 
spinning,  knitting,  and  weaving. 

It  is,  however,  in  a  maritime  point  of  view  that  we 
are  about  to  consider  this  singular  region.  The  islands 
being  very  small,  the  inhabitant!  on  each  are  few  in 
number;  and  as  they  are  obliged  to  depend  a  good  deal 
on  each  other,  it  results  that  much  intercourse  is  main- 
tained from  island  to  island.  The  Greeks  of  the  Levant 
have  thus  become  good  sailors;  and  form  the  principal 
part  of  the  crews  in  the  Turkish  as  well  aa  the  Greek 
vessels.  Among  the  vessels  here  employed,  one  which 
is  found  in  tliat  comer  of  the  Archipelago  leading  to  the 
Black  Sea,  is  the  caiijite,  a  small  kind  of  sloop,  with 
tails,  and  a  few  rowers.  These  caiques  are  long,  narrow, 
boats,  eitremely  light,  and  provided  with  one,  two,  or 
three  small  sails,  which  are  set  only  in  fair  weather,  or 
when  the  wind  is  not  too  strong.  The?  are  not  provided 
607 


234 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE/ 


[December  18 


with  ballast,  and  are  so  buoyant  that  a  somewhat  stiff 
breeze  would  overset  them,  if  the  boatman  did  not  take 
care  to  let  go  the  sail  on  the  smallest  dangvr  and  to  turn 
the  boat  Dy  shifting  th«  halm*  The  caiques  belonging 
to  the  Sultan  are  remarkable  fbr  their  size,  their  elegance, 
and  the  number  and  dexterity  of  the  rowers ;  these  latter 
are  twenty-eight  in  number,  and  are  dressed  in  white. 

The  Tcssels  that  go  greater  distances  are,  of  course,  of 
larger  aize,  and  are  better  provided  with  sails.  We 
cannot  perhaps  better  illustrate  the  nature  of  such  a 
vessel  and  of  its  crew  than  by  following  the  narrative  of 
a  traveller  in  these  seas.  Some  years  ago,  Mr.  Turner, 
an  Englishman,  l^  Constantinople  to  go  to  Syria  in  a 
small  Turkish  vessel,  passing  through  the  Archipelago 
in  his  way.  The  vessel  was  about  a  hundred  tons 
burden,  and  was  loaded  with  a  cargo  of  olives  and  nuts 
belonging  to  a  merchant  of  Candia  named  Tussein  Ago. 
The  captain  of  the  vessel  was  what  Mr.  Turner  calls  a 
sans  soucit  with  a  most  extraordinary  &ce,  having  one  eye, 
one  nostril,  and  one  moustachio  at  least  half  an  inch 
higher  than  the  other;  he  was  called  naptain,  simply 
from  the  boat  being  his;  he  had  no  command  over  his 
men,  for  he  had  not  the  slightest  idea  of  manoeuvring  a 
ship.  The  crew  were  twelve  in  number,  of  whom  four, 
who  were  Turks,  were  very  inefficient  seamen;  imd  the 
other  eight  were  intelligent  and  active  Greeks*  The 
passengers  consisted  of  about  thirty  persons,  comprising 
two  or  three  English  gentlemen,  two  Freoohmeo,  tkie 
Candiote  merchant  and  his  brother,  and  several  Turks 
and  Greeks.  Among  them  was  a  very  devout  Turk,  who 
regularly  performed  his  ablutions  and  prayers  five  tiroes 
a  day,  and  every  evening,  taking  an  hour^fass  in  his  hand, 
sang  a  prayer  for  favourable  weather,  in  the  chorus  of 
which  he  was  joined  by  all  the  other  Mohammedans. 
The  Turkish  paseengers  paid  from  forty  to  fifty  piastres 
each,  for  their  passage  ft'om  Constantinople  to  Cyprus ; 
the  Englishmen  paid  much  higher,  under  an  agreement 
to  be  provided  with  board,  which  proved  to  be  of  the 
sorriest  kind.  On  the  day  efter  they  started,  Mr. 
Turner  was  astonished  to  see  all  the  sails  still  up,  not- 
withstanding a  gale  was  blowing,  which  to  most  seamen 
would  have  been  a  hint  to  "  furl."  He  represented  the 
danger,  but  all  in  vain ;  for  they  were  excessively  angry 
at  his  remonstrances,  which  they  said  would  bring  mis- 
fortunes upon  them,  for,  **  if  they  were  destined  to  perish, 
all  precautions  would  be  in  vain:" — this  is  an  example  of 
the  power  of  the  notion  of  fatalism  on  the  Turkish  cha- 
racter. On  the  same  evening  a  dispute  arose  among  the 
Turkish  passengers  :-^-the  merchant  Tussein,  on  account 
•of  the  cold,  wanted  to  perform  his  ablutions  in  warm 
water;  but  this  the  Turkish  devotee  would  not  allow  to 
be  lawful,  insisting  that  there  was  no  instance  on  record 
of  Mohammed  having  so  acted.  Tussein  retorted  on 
the  devotee,  that  he  had  been  praying  sitting,  which  he 
asserted  was  not  consistent  with  their  religion ;  bat  the 
devotee  replied,  that  he  had  only  done  so  that  evening  1 
daring  the  gale,  when  the  ship  rolled  so  that  he  could 
not  stand  on  the  deck,  and  that  in  this  case  there  was  a 
special  permission  granted  to  Mohammedans  at  sen  to 
pmy  sitting: — ^thus  the  dispute  ended.    • 

Th^  party  landed  occasionally  at  the  islands  which 
thipy  passed,  visiting  the  objects  most  worthy  of  notice, 
and  then  embaricing  again  to  proceed  on  their  voyage. 
The  instances  of  superstition  and  ignorance  which  they 
met  with  in  the  crew  and  passengers  were  many,  and 
some  of  them  hidicrons ;  but  we  will  only  allude  to  one 
or  two  which  relate  to  navigation,  and  which  obtain 
great  credit  among  the  Turkish  seamen.  The  English 
travellers  having  one  evening  sought  to  relieve  the 
tedium  of  the  voyage  by  a  game  at  cards,  Tussein  came 
into  the  cabin  and  begged  them  to  desist,  urging  that 
some  misfortunfe  would  else  surely  happen  to  the  ship ; 
nnd  to  induce  them  to  believe  him,  he  related  a  story  of 
what  had  once  happened  to  himself: — He  was  once  de- 
tained at  Rhodes  twenty-eight  days  by  contrary  whids,  | 


during  which  he  amused  himself  by  playing  cards  with 
the  crew»  of  some  other  ships*  The  captain,  much 
vexed  at  the  delay,  at  length  said  he  was  sure  there  must 
be  some  cause  for  the  contrary  winds;  and  going  down 
to  search  the  cabin,  he  found  the  cards,  which  he  fiuDg 
overboard  in  a  great  rage.  Immediately  the  wind  be- 
came fair,  and  they  had  a  very  prosperous  voyage  to 
Alexandria;  but  the  other  ships,  three  in  number,  whose 
crews  had  not  thrown  away  their  cards,  were  all  taken 
by  an  enemy's  squadron; — ^that  the  cards  were  the  caufc 
of  the  contrariety  of  the  wind,  Tussein  stoutly  main- 
tained. A  day  or  two  afterwards,  while  sailing  round  a 
cape,  a  sudden  gust  of  wind  disturbed  the  equilibrium 
of  the  vessel,  and  also  of  an  old  Turkish  passenger,  vho 
immediately  railed  against  the  Englishmen,  and  said  that 
it  was  occasioned  by  their  drinking  rum,  and  not  perform- 
ing ablutions  after  meals. 

Mr.  Turner  states  that  in  the  Greek  boats  trading 
about  the  Arehipelago,  the  sailors  receive  no  fixed  pay 
from  the  captain,  who  is  always  the  owner  of  the  boat;  the 
captain  takes  half  the  profit  or  freight,  on  account  of 
the  boat  being  his,  and  of  his  being  obliged  to  Iceep  it 
in  repair  at  his  own  expense;  he  then  divides  the  other 
half  with  his  comrades,  taking  two  shares  for  him^eli. 
For  instance,  a  boat  manned  by  four  men,  includiog  the 
captain,  has  gained  one  hundred  piastres  clear,  after 
deducting  the  expense  of  provisioning;  the  captain  first 
takes  fifty,  which  he  lays  aside  to  pay  for  the  repairs  of 
the  boat  when  necessary;  he  then  oat  of  the  remainiiu 
fifty  takes  twenty,  and  gives  ten  a-piece  to  his  tluve  sieo. 
In  ihe  Idriote  vessels,  the  captain  (when  owner),  aflc 
supplying  provisions,  and  paying  all  expenses,  take^ 
halt  the  profit  for  the  ship,  and  t^n  divides  the  remain- 
der among  himself  and  the  crew,  taking  two  shares  for 
himself,  giving  two  to  the  boatswain,  two  to  the  tcrimo, 
or  supercargo,  one  and  a  half  to  the  cook,  and  one  t- 
each  man. 

We  will  now  accompany  another  timveller,  Mr.  Emer- 
son, in  a  voyage  among  the  islands  <rf  the  Archipela^C' 
This  gentleman,  in  his  Letters /ram  tkeJSgean^  says:" 

There  is  more  intense  excitement  in  sailing  hy  nigbt 


in 


the  Levant  than  in  any  other  sea  I  have  ever  poeed  om. 
There  are  a  thousand  possible  dangers  from  sadden  v^jqaIIs 
and  pirates,  and  sunken  rocks^  that  keep  the  imaginatioii  oa 
a  continued  stretch :  then  the  softened  azure  of  the  midnigbt 
sky  is  so  pure  and  placid,  and  its  little  twinkling  stars  are 
so  sparklingly  reflected  in  the  deep  dark  sea  beneath  then ; 
and  if,  as  is  seldom  the  case,  it  be  anight  of  clouds  and  dark- 
ness, there  will  follow  in  the  wake  of  the  vessel  a  long  lio( 
of  phosphorescent  light,  which  heaves  and  glitters  like  a, 
9tream  of  lava,  till  it  agdn  subsides  into  dimness  and  repofic. 
Mr.  Emerson,  after  visiting  Smyrna,  engaged  a  ptf* 
sage  from  thence  on  board  a  br^,  commanded  bj  s 
Greek,  named  P^nagies  Androcopoulo.    The  vessel  pro- 
ceeded slowly  on  its  voyage,  now  stopping  to  let  tie 
passengers  enjoy  the  beautifhl  scenery  on  shore,  no? 
•topping  for  want  of  wind  to  move  onwards:  sosietiineJ 
•he  narrowly  escaped   being  captured  by  the  Greek 
pirates  which  infest  these  seas,  and  at  other  timvs  met 
with  small  vessels  from  which  sponge-divers  were  car- 
rying on  their  hazardous  occupation.     TTie  captain  bore 
down  upon  almost  every  island  they  came  to,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  arrangement  entered  into  with  his  pas- 
sengers ;  but  even  without  such  arrangements,  the  cap- 
tains of   these   small  passage-vessels  are  accustooicd 
to  do  so,  sel(k>m  remaining  more  than  eight  and  fortv 
hours   at  a  time  at  sea.      In  this  part  of  tiie  Me<ii- 
terranean  islands  are  so  frequent,  that  the  navigatioa 
seems  rather  inland  than  at  sea.     One  cluster  of  isl'^"" 
is  never  lost  sight  of  till  another  aj^ars;  and  as  tb 
seamen  who  traffic  from  port  to  port  form  numff'^J' 
acquaintances  at  each,  a  trip  througn  the  Archipebgo  j»' 
to  a  Greek,  merely  a  succession  of  visits  to  old  frieDw?. 
since  he  only  parts  with  one  in  the  morning  to  sup  ^'*»^ 
another  at  night.    This  circumstance  has  a  smgiilar  m^ 
on  the  navigation  of  these  parts,  for  the  rcis,  or  capu^^ 


1841.] 


THB  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


S85 


does  not  trouble  himself  much  aboot  eharts  or  log-books, 
observations  or  bearings:  his  ressel  is  to  him  as  much  a 
yacht  as  a  merchant-vessel,  and  his  voyage  as  much  one 
of  pleasure  as  one  of  business*  This  tendency  in  the 
Greek  sailors  to  land,  for  enjoyment's  sake,  whenev^ 
an  opportunity  offers,  has  been  humorously  alluded  to  by 
a  modern  writer:— 

A  merchant,  who,  sailing  from  (Greece  to  IVieste^ 
Grew  vexed  with  the  crew,  and  avowedly  teefy. 
Because,  as  he  said,  being  laiy  and  Chre^s, 
They  were  always  for  putting  in  harbowre  and  Qreek% 
And  instead  of  conveying  bim  qpuok  with  his  lading, 
(As  moj  men  would  who  had  due  sense  of  trading,) 
Could  never  oome  near  a  green  isle  with  a  spring. 
But  smack  they  went  to  it  like  birds  on  the  wing. 

After  going  to  Rhodes  and  some  other  islands,  Mr. 
Emerson  made  a  further  passage,  in  a  small  brig*of-war, 
of  eighteen  guns,  whioh  had  formerly  been  employed  by 
the  Greek  merchants  to  carry  wheat  to  Spain  and  France, 
but  had  afterwards  exchanged  her  grain  for  guns.  Her 
cabin  was  high  and  roomy,  built  of  unpainted  fir,  hung 
with  arms  and  amber  pipes^  and  surrounded  by  a  divan, 
on  which  the  captain  and  his  second  officer  were  wont  to 
take  their  coffee  and  smoke  their  chibouques.  The  ship's 
company  were  a  set  of  good-humoured  but  idle  fellows; 
whose  time  was  chiefly  spent  in  sleeping,  singing,  or 
playing  cards;  and  they  would  lie  for  hours  together 
under  the  shadow  of  a  sail,  laughing  and  shouting  over 
their  favourite  g^me  of  casino*  Navigation  appeared 
to  be  very  little  understood  by  the  captain  or  his  officer, 
for  the  cruises  of  the  vessel  were  such  aa  seldom  kept 
it  far  distant  from  land. 

By  confining  our  attention,  however,  exclusively  to 
the  smaller  maritime  enterprises  of  the  inhabitants  of 
these  isiamds,  we  scarcely  do  justice  to  the  Greek  seamen. 
Their  general  merits  as  mariners  will  be  better  under^ 
stood  from  the  following  extract  from  a  writer  on  this 
subject :— — 

The  Gr-eeks  are  universally  addicted  to  commerce,  and 
their  mar-fne  is  in  many  respects  highly  important.  The 
islanders  &>rm  the  most  enterprising  portion  of  the  nation, 
and  carrv  on  a  petty  trade  in  numbsness  half-deoked  boats, 
>v'ith  high  stems  and  stems,  and  one  thick  short  mast,  with 
a  long  yard.  They  perform  these  voyages  even  as  far  as 
Constantinople  and  Smyrna,  without  chart  or  compass,  and 
merely,  as  of  old,  by  the  observation  of  coasts  and  head- 
lands. But  they  are  acquainted  with  the  management  of 
the  largest  vessels  of  European  construction,  and  besides 
navigating  the  Ottoman  navy  as  seamen,  they  have  large 
merchant-ships  of  their  own,  which  trade  aa  fiur  as  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  and  make  an  ocossional  voyage  to 
England.  The  natives  of  Hvdra  particularly,  the  most  exr 
pert  of  the  Greek  mariners  nave  accumulated  great  wealth 
oy  their  commerce,  <and  nave  purchased  from  the  Turks 
the  independent  election  of  their  own  magistrates.  The 
number  of  Greek  mariners  actually  employed  at  sea,  is 
supposed  to  be  not  less  than  fifty  thousand,  and  they  are 
considered  as  capable  of  being  trained  to  any  kind  of  naval 
■ervice. 

With  certain  modifications  resulting  from  tne  change 
in  the  relations  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Turks,  the 
above  account  would  be  applicable  in  our  own  day. 


I9  the  stroke  of  War 
Fell  oertain  on  the  gnllty  head,  none  els^— 
If  they  that  make  the  cause  might  taste  the  effeotj 
And  drink  themselves  the  bitter  cup  they  mix; 
Then  might  the  Bard,  the  Child  of  Peace,  delight 
To  twine  fresh  wreaths  around  the  Conqueror's  brow; 
Or  haply  strike  his  high-toned  harp,  to  swell 
The  trumpet*8  martial  sound,  and  bid  them  on 
When  Justice  arms  for  vengeance ;  but,  alas ! 
That  undistinguishing  and  deathful  storm 
Beats  heaviest  on  the  exposed  and  innocent; 
And  they  that  stir  its  fury,  while  it  raves, 
Safe  and  at  distance,  send  their  mandates  forth    * 
tJnto  the  mortal  ministexs  that  wait 
To  do  their  bidding!  Caowx, 


OLD  ENGLISH  NAVIGATORS. 

WlLLOUGHBY,  ChANCELOR,  AND  BURROUGHS. 

Whbk  Richard  Chancelor  parted  from  his  commander 
he  seems  to  have  gone  on  considerably  to  the  north, 
for  he  speaks  of  having  arrived  at  a  place,  where  was 
perpetual  daylight,—*'  a  continual  light  and  brightness 
of  the  sun,  shining  clearly  upon  the  great  and  mighty 
sea."  He  must,  however,  have  taken  an  easterly,  and 
then  a  southern  direction,  before  many  days;  for  he  suc- 
ceeded without  difficulty  in  reaching  Wardhuys,  where 
he  waited  fbr  a  considerable  time  for  his  companions; 
after  which,  disregarding  the  alarming  reports  of  perils 
that  would  beset  his  farther  progress,  he  pushed  on 
gallantly  towards  his  mysterious  destination.  The 
adventurers  were  j^ided  to  the  entrance  of  an  immense 
bay,  which  was  no  other  than  the  White  Sea,  as  yet 
unknown  to  Western  Europe.  They  espied  a  little  fish» 
ing-boat,  the  crew  of  which,  having  never  seen  a  vessel 
of  such  a  comparatively  vast  site  as  the  Edward  Bon- 
adventure,  took  the  alarm  and  fled  at  full  speed.  Chan- 
celor, with  his  party,  pursued  and  overtook  them;  where- 
upon they  fell  Hat  on  the  ground,  half  dead,  crying 
for  mercy.  He  kindly  raised  them;  and  by  looks, 
gestures,  and  g^fts,  expressed  the  most  kind  intentions. 
Being  then  allowed  to  depart,  they  reported  everywhere 
"  the  singular  gentlenesse  and  courtisie  of  the  strangers;'^ 
so  that  the  natives  came  in  crowds,  and  the  sailors  were 
well  supplied  with  provisions  and  everything  they 
wanted. 

After  inquiring  on  what  part  of  the  world  they  had 
been  thrown,  our  navigators  found  that  they  were  at  the 
extremity  of  a  vast  country,  but  imperfectly  known  in. 
Europe  by  the  name  of  Russia  or  Muscovy,  and  then 
under  the  absolute  rule  of  a  sovereign  named  Ivan  Vasi- 
lovitch,  who  held  his  court  at  Moscow,  which  was  1500 
miles  distant,  and  could  only  be  reached  by  sledges  over 
the  snow.  Chancelor  sought,  and  obtained,  permission 
to  visit  the  capital.  He  was  favourably  received  by  the 
czar,  and  his  able  agency  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
commercial  intercourse,  which  has  since  subsisted  with 
little  interruption  between  England  and  Russia. 

We  are  told  that  the  English  navigators  were  aston-* 
ished  at  the  pomp  and  magnificence  of  the  Russisn 
court.  The  czar  behaved  st  first  in  a  reserved  and 
stately  manner  towards  the  strangers;  but  at  another 
interview  conversed  more  familiarly  with  them.  **  The 
prince  called  them  to  his  table,  to  receive  each  a  cup 
rrom  his  hand  to  drinke,  and  took  into  his  hand  Msster 
George  KiUingworthes  beard,  which  reached  over  the 
table,  and  pleasantly  delivered  it  to  the  metropolitan, 
who,  seeming  to  bless  it,  said  in  Russ,  <  This  is  God's 
gift;'  as  indeed  at  that  time  it  was  not  only  thick,  broad, 
and  yellow  coulered,  but  in  length  five  foot  and  two 
inches  of  assize." 

In  the  following  spring,  Chancelor  sailed  from  Arch- 
angel, and  arrived  safely  in  England,  bringing  with  him 
a  letter  from  the  czar  to  Edward  VI.  This  letter 
expressed  a  cordial  desire  to  open  an  intercourse  with 
England,  and  to  grant  to  the  Company  of  Merchants- 
Adventurers  every  privilege  necessary  t«  enable  them 
to  carry  on  traffic  in  his  kingdom. 

Thus  the  expedition  had  failed  in  its  immediate  object, 
besides  the  disastrous  loss  of  Willoughby  and  his 
associates ;  but  the  prospect  of  establishing  a  trade  with 
an  extensive  empire  served  as  some  compensation.  A 
new  charter  was  granted  to  the  Society  of  Merchants- 
Adventurers,  who  assumed  the  title  of  "  The  Muscovy 
Company."  Chancelor  was  sent  out  again,  with  cre- 
dentials from  Philip  and  Mary,  and  commissioned  to 
treat  with  the  czar  of  Muscovy,  respecting  the  commer- 
cial privileges  and  immunities  whicn  his  majesty  might 
be  pleased  to  grant  to.  the  newly-chartered  company* 
The  original  object,  however,  of  a  passage  to  IncUa  by 

607—2 


236 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[Decehbix  18, 


the  p(^e»  eastward,  was  atill  kept  in  new.  The  adTen« 
turern  were  instructed  not  merely  to  seek  for  commer- 
cial gain,  hut  also  to  increase  their  geographical  know- 
ledge, and  "  to  use  all  wayes  and  meanes  possihle  to 
leame  howe  men  maye  pass  from  Russia,  either  hy 
land  or  hy  sea,  to  Cathaia*." 

But,  before  this  expedition  could  produce  its  effects, 
another  vessel  was  fitted  up  in  1556,  the  Searchthrift, 
and  placed  under  the  command  of  Stephen  Burroughs, 
who,  on  the  first  voyage,  had  acted  as  master  of  Chan- 
oelor*8  vessel.  The  sole  and  express  destination  of  this 
vessel  was,  the  eastern  passage  by  the  pole  to  India. 
There  was  as  much  enthusiasm  and  hope  upon  this  as 
upon  the  first  occasion.  Cabot  came  down  to  Gravesend 
with  a  large  party  of  ladies  and  gentlemen;  and  having 
first  gone  on  board,  and  partaken  of  such  cheer  as  the 
vessel  afforded,  invited  Burroughs  and  his  company  to  a 
splendid  banquet  at  the  sign  of  the  Christopher.  After 
dinner,  a  dance  being  proposed,  the  venerable  pilot,  as 
Burroughs  tells  us  in  his  journal,  *^  for  very  joy  that  he 
had  to  see  the  towardness  of  our  intended  discovery, 
entered  into  the  dance  himseUe,  amongst  the  rest  of  the 
young  and  lusty  company." 

Burroughs  set  sail  from  Gravesend  on  the  29th  of 
April;  but  did  not  arrive  at  the  islands  and  straits  of 
Waygats,  between  Nova  Zembla  and  the  continent, 
before  the  middle  of  July.  The  crew  were  very  much 
alarmed  by  the  monstrous  pieces  of  ice,  which  they  saw 
floating  about,  and  often  became  so  entangled  with  them, 
that  they  could  with  difficulty  avoid  one  mass  without 
striking  upon  another.  At  one  time  a  huge  whale  came 
so  close  to  the  ship,  that  they  might  have  thrust  a  sword 
into  him;  but  the  commander,  fearing  lest  the  monster 
should  overset  the  vessel,  caused  the  men  to  shout  with 
all  their  might,  as  Nearchus  had  done  many  ages  before 
in  the  Arabian  sea.  The  like  effect  was  produced  in 
both  cases:  thi^  mighty  animal,  which  is  neither  fero- 
cious nor  very  courageous,  plunged  into  the  depths  with 
an  astounding  noise. 

Our  navigators  here  fell  in  with  a  Russian  sail.  From 
their  commander,  Loshak,  they  learnt  that  the  country 
about  there  belonged  to  the  wild  Samoiedes,  who  were 
described  as  cannibals,  and  worshippers  of  idols.  Bur- 
roughs saw  in  one  place  more  thui  three  hundred  of 
their  idols,  of  the  rudest  workmanship  ever  beheld. 
They  consisted  of  figures  of  men,  women,  and  children, 
badly  carved,  with  the  eyes,  mouths,  and  other  parts 
stained  with  blood.  These  barbarians  had  no  houses; 
but  lived  in  tents  made  of  deer-skins.  Our  navigators 
in  all  probability  found  the  inhabitants  of  the  polar 
islands  and  of  tne  north  of  Asia,  very  similar  to  the 
occupants  of  these  regions  at  the  present  day. 

We  have  a  curious  story  handed  down  to  us  of  a  scene 
witnessed  by  Johnson,  one  of  the  companions  of  Bur- 
roughs, among  the  Samoiedes  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Pechora,  a  river  at  the  north-east  of  European  Russia. 
It  is  represented  as  a  scene  of  magic  incantation,  per- 
formed by  one  of  the  great  northern  wizards,  who  live  by 
deluding  the  borderers  of  the  Arctic  circle. 

The  magician  first  took  a  great  sieves  something  like  a 
drum;  then  he  began  to  sing,  as  people  in  England 
halloo,  whoop,  and  shout  after  the  hounds;  to  which  the 
people  present  responded  with — ^^  Igkoj  igha^  ighaP* 
The  conjuror  at  length  fell  into  convulsions,  and  dropped 
down  as  if  dead,  tiiough  his  breathing  could  still  be 
heard.  When  Johnson  asked  the  meaning  of  all  this,  he 
was  told, — ^^  Now  doth  our  god  tell  him  what  we  shall 
do  I"  After  he  had  remained  thus  for  a  short  time,  the 
people  began  to  cry  **Agfi4Wi  aghaof" — ^upon  which  he 
arose,  and  again  began  to  sing.  Then  he  took  a  sword, 
and  thrust  it  through  his  body,  so  that  it  entered  at  the 
breast,  and  came  out  at  the  back.  We  are  told  that 
Johnson  saw  it  go  into  the  shirt  before,  and  issue  out  at 

*  .Cathma,  or  Cathaj,  U  the  name  formerly  ^reo  to  China,  and  the 
east  of  A«U  in  ^enorol. 


the  shirt  behind;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  its  actual 
passage  was  very  narrowly  scrutinised,  which  U  quite 
sufficient  to  shew  that  the  spectators  were  imposed  upon. 
The  magician  then  sat  down  with  a  vessel  of  hot  water 
before  him,  and  a  line  or  rope  of  deer-skin  wound  nniiid 
his  body;  over  all  of  which,  as  well  as  hbnself,  a 
large  cloth  mantle  was  spread.  The  ends  of  the  Im 
being  left  outside  of  the  mantle,  were  drawn  tight  br  two 
men  in  opposite  directions,  till  something  wu  Heard 
falling  into  the  vessel.  Johnson  was  horrified  at  being 
informed  that  this  was  the  magician's  head,  shoulder, 
and  left  arm,  severed  firom  the  body  by  the  Tioknt 
pulling  of  the  rope.  When  Johnson  asked  leave  to  lift 
the  cloak,  and  view  this  sad  spectacle,  he  was  mfbrmed 
that  no  one  could  do  so  and  live.  After  the  multitade 
had  sung  and  hallooed  for  some  time,  the  mantle  was 
lifted  up,  and  the  conjuror  came  forth  perfectly  entire; 
all  the  parts  cut  asunder  being  understood  to  have  been 
miraculously  replaced.  How  far  soever  this  gross  and 
obvious  imposture  succeeded  in  deluding  Johnson,  it 
seems  to  have  had  an  unlimited  effect  with  the  creduloui 
and  ignorant  natives. 

Our  sailors  had  passed  fifteen  leagues  beyond  tbe 
mouth  of  the  Pechora,  and  were  nearing  Nova  2Sembla, 
when  the  advanced  season  of  the  year  prevented  tbem 
from  peiietrating  any  further.  Am<mg  other  causes  tn 
mentioned  the  hindrance  from  the  north  and  north- 
easterly winds,  which  seemed  to  the  commander  more 
powerful  than  in  any  other  place;  the  immense  quan- 
tity of  ice,  which  seemed  likely  to  be  still  farther  accu- 
mulated; the  nights  waxing  duk,  and  winter  with  all  its 
storms  beginning  to  draw  on.  On  these  grounds  it  was 
decided  to  return,  and  winter  at  Colmogro;  in  order 
to  resume  their  eastward  navigation  with  the  ensuing 
spring:  but,  in  consequence  of  other  employment,  this 
design  was  not  carried  into  effect,  and  the  vessel  returned 
to  England  in  the  succeeding  year. 

In  the  mean  while  Chancelor  had  proceeded  on  bis 
mission  to  Archangel  and  to  Moscow,  where  affairs  had 
been  well  and  prosperously  carried  on.    The  csar,  Inn 
Vasilovitch,   sent  Wk  with   Chancelor,  Osep  Nepea 
Gregorowitch,  the  regal  ambassador  and  orator,  as  he 
was  termed,  with  four  ships  heavily  laden  with  furs,  wax, 
train-oil,  and  ot]|^r  Russian  commodities,  to  the  value  ^ 
upwards  of  20,000/.,  which   belonged  partly  to  tbe  mer- 
cnants,  and  partly  to  the  orator.     But  the  homeward 
voyage  was  most  calamitous:  two  of  the  vessels  were 
wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Norway;  a  third  reaehedthe 
Thames ;  but  the  Edward  Bonadventure,  in  which  were 
the  principal  persons  of  the  expedition,  was  driren  bj 
the  storm  into  the  bay  of  Pitsligo,  on  the  north-east 
of  Scotland,  where  it  went  entirely  to  pieces.    Chaocdor 
endeavoured,  in  a  very  dark  night,  to  convey  himself  and 
the  ambassador  ashore  in  a  boat.     This  boat  was  om- 
whehned  by  the  tempest,  and  Chancelor  was  drownedi 
together  with  most  <^  his  crew:  the  ambassador,  bow- 
ever,  by  great  good  fortune  succeeded  in  reaching  the 
land.     He  was  conducted  to  London  with  great  pomp) 
where  he  was  honourably  treated  by  the  Enntsh  goTem- 
ment;  and  the  commercial  relations  of  England  and 
Russia  were  established  on  a  closer  and  more  solid 
basis. 

These  polar  voyages  were  now  suspended  for  a  while, 
in  consequence  of  the  attention  of  ihe  Muscory  Com* 
pany  being  directed  to  the  establishment  of  a  new  mer- 
cantUe  communication  with  the  interior  of  Asia. 


Credulity  has  been  defined  to  be— -Belief  without  reason. 
Scepticism  is  its  opposite — ^Reason  without  belief. 


He  who  is  governed  by  preconceived  qpfmons,  may  be  com- 
pared to  a  spectator  wno  views  the  suxroundin^  objects 
through  coloured  glasses,  each  asBuming  a  tinge  simiiar  to 
that  of  the  glass  employed.-— Db«  Fasis. 


k. 


mio 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


337 


ON  THE  MEANS  OP  DIMINISHING 
FRICTION. 

A  LAROB  portion  of  tbe  force  neceuary  to  every  kind 
of  motion  is  comuined  by  varioiu  obstmctioiu  which  the 
moving  body  h&a  to  eneaunter.  The  resistance  of  the 
ai  r  is  one  of  tbe  cuues  of  retardatioD ;  «  degree  of  coheiive 
kttnctioa  between  the  touching  BubstAiices  is  naotber ; 
hut  tbe  chief  impediment  arises  from  the  rubbing  of  tbe 
Burfacei  wbich  come  incessaiitly  into  contact.  Tbii 
obstructing  power  inberent  to  all  bodies  constitutes 
friction,  wbich  produces  so  many  diversGed  effects  and 
eierla  bo  extensive  an  influence  in  diminisbiDf^  the  per* 
formauce  of  all  machinery.  If  we  could  procure  a  hori- 
zontal plane  surface,  perfectly  free  from  toe  smallest  in* 
equalitiea,  and  then  place  upon  it  a  flat  surface  also  per- 
fectly smooth,  any  amount  of  force  applied  to  such 
body  would  set  it  in  motion,  and  tbe  motion  would  con- 
liuuc  undiminished,  except  by  atmospheric  resistance. 
But  when  we  find  that  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  does 
not  exist  in  nature,  and  cannot  be  formed  by  art:  that 
every  surface,  however  smooth  it  may  appear  to  the  eye, 
a  full  of  furrows,  prominences,  and  roi^hnestei,  we  need 
not  be  surprised  at  the  large  amount  of  force  necessary 
to  be  maintained  for  the  production  of  motiou  of  the 
simplest  kind. 

In  tbe  construction  of  machines,  many  ingenioua  and 
often  complicated  methods  are  devised  fw  Himininliing 
friction.  When  we  find  a  principle  everywhere  and  at 
every  instant  at  work,  teuding  to  destroy  the  forces  we 
are  producing  in  the  arts  and  ordinary  concerns  of  life, 
we  constantly  complain  of  it  as  an  evil,  and  do  all  we  can 
to  remove  it;  we  would  even  destroy  it  if  we  could,  and 
think  that  machine  tbe  most  perfect  wbicb  exhibits  the 
least  amount  of  friction.  Yet,  were  it  not  for  friction, 
tbe  world  would  scarcely  be  habitable.  Were  there  no 
friction^ 

It  wonld  be  impossible  for  a  man  to  move  from  any 
position  in  which  n*  might  be  plaoed.  without  tlu  aid  of 
some  fixed  obstacle  by  means  of  which  he  might  pnll  or 
push  himself  forwara.  And  nere  there  no  boricontal 
power  of  resistance  in  tbe  ground  on  which  he  treads,  to 
destroy  the  forward  motion  which  he  gives  himself  at  eveiy 
step,  ne  would  retain  that  motion  unUl  soma  obetacfe 
interposed  to  destroy  it;  so  that  the  principal  part  of  his 
time  would  be  ^>Gnt  in  oacillatine  about  between  the  ob- 
stacles^ natoial  or  artificial,  whidi  the  earUi's  surfiice  pre- 
sented to  his  motion ;  an  oecillation  which  wonld  be  common 
to  all  the  obieeta,  animate  or  inanimate,  about  him.  The 
slightest  wind  would  sweep  him  before  it ;  tbe  slightest  incli- 
nation  of  his  body  would  oring  him  to  the  ground ;  every- 
thing he  put  out  of  his  hand  would  start  away  from  him, 
with  the  lateral  force  which  he  could  not  fidl  to  communicate 
to  it,  in  releamng  his  hold.  If  he  attempted  to  sit  down, 
his  chair  would  slip  from  under  him ;  and  whoi  he  songht 
to  lie  down,  his  couch  would  glide  away  frcon  him.  lie 
Would  in  all  probability  be  driven  to  forsake  the  land,  and 
dwell  upon  the  waters  as  the  more  stable  element*. 

There  are  two  general  methods  of  investigating  the 
nature  and  operation  of  friction.  The  first  method  is,  to 
ascert^n  tbe  weight  required  to  draw  abodv  under  the 
pressure  of  a  given  load  along  tbe  horiiontal  surface  of 
another.  The  second  is  still  simpler,  and  consists  merely 
in  raising  the  end  of  tbe  upper  plane,  till  it  acquire*  the 
declination  at  which  the  load  begins  to  slide.  The  ex- 
treme declination  of  the  plane  is  hence  called  the  angle 
of  repose. 

The  angle  of  repose  often  determine*  the  outline  of 
natural  objects.  TliuB,  fine  sand  slides  more  easily  than 
mould,  and  hence  sand-bills  have  generally  a  softer 
ascent  than  the  grassy  flanks  of  mountains.  Tbe  latter, 
without  beiog  broken  into  precipices,  may  rise  at  an 
angle  of  forty  degrees;  but  ^e  former,  will  seldom  sup- 
port an  acclivity  above  twenty-five  degrees.  Tbe  angle 
of  repose  of  iron  pressing  upon  iron  being  sixteen 
degrees,  if  the  threads  or  spirals  of  a  vice  wind  closer 

*  MaiiLSl's  Mithaniti  appliii  M  l!u  Artt,  Sod  EJliuo, 


than  thii  inclination,  the  scretr  mtut  hold  at  any  place  to 
which  it  is  carried. 

Tiie  means  emptoyed  to  diminish  friction  are  of  two 
kinds;  viz.,  either  by  tbe  interposition  of  unctuous  or 
oily  substances  between  the  moving  surfaces,  or  by 
certain  mechanical  arrangement*.  In  delicate  work,  such 
as  clocks  and  watchei,  where  metal  works  ^>inst  metal, 
the  best  substance  perhaps  is  olive  oil.  But  in  some 
machines  where  the  strain  is  very  great,  solid  unguents 
appear  to  be  preferable  to  oil,  and  in  such  case  taliow  or 
hc^'s  lard  is  nsnolly  employed.  The  "  Anti-Attrition 
Composition,"  which  has  been  so  much  advertised  for 
sale,  is  simply  a  mixture  of  four  parts  of  hog's  lard  and 
one  part  of  plumbago.  In  launchmga  ship  the  "ways"  or 
sliders  ore  smeared  with  %aU  soap.  The  slope  of  these 
sliders  is  in  general  not  more  than  from  4  to  5^  degrees. 
The  lowest  friction  is  here  exerted,  all  previous  adhesion 


being  destroyed  by  blows  of  the  mallet,  and  shocks  given 
in  the  act  of  withdrawing  the  wedges.  Tbe  momentary 
friction  being  4,  leaves  an  accelerating  force  of  3,  which 


hurries  the  vessel  forwards,  notwithstanding  its  ii 
pressure  of  perhaps  3d  tons  on  every  square  foot  of  the 
slide.  If  any  impediment  in  the  track  should  stop 
the  progress  of  tbe  ship,  it  soon  regains  sudi  adhesive 
power  as  to  render  its  removal  very  difficult.  A  tremu- 
lous agitation  is  the  only  expedient  to  urge  the  ponderous 
mats  forward*. 


When  oil  i*  applied  to  lubricate  large  works,  it  is  apt 
to  drun  off,  unless  means  are  taken  to  confine  it.  .  The 
best  contrivance  for  preventing  the  waste  of  oil  and  for 
keeping  gudgeons  and  axes  properly  supplied  with  it,  is 
Barton's  Patent  Lnbricator,  the  uigenious  ctmstmction 
of  which  will  be  understood  from  the  ar«ompanying 
section  and  description,  a  is  a  section  of  a  metallic 
vessel  filled  with  oil  and  closed  by  a  cover  fitting  tightly  to 
keep  out  dust;  £  is  a  small  tube  rising  nearly  to  tbe  top 
of  uie  vessel,  with  the  lower  part  extending  an  inch  or 
two  below  it,  and  inserted  into  an  aperture  made  through 
the  block  directly  over  tbe  shaft  e:  tbroogh  this  tube  a 
few  threads  of  woollen  yam  are  drawn,  which  reach  to 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  conduct  the  oil  by  capil- 
lary attraction,  as  a  syphon,  in  minute  but  regular 
quantities  to  the  shaft  or  gudgeon  a  the  whole  of  the 
oil  in  tbe  vessel  is  thus  carried  over,  entirely  free  from 
dust  or  other  impurities,  and  in  tbe  precise  quantity 
required,  which  is  easily  regulated  by  tbe  number  of 
threads.  The  economy  of  tiiis  contrivance  is  equal  to 
"     machinery  to  whkh  it  il  applied  will 


its  ingenmty: 


MuMen  Uling  doini  of  whIi  < 
~ig  bvjoDd  UB  tenn  of  BquOibri 

_  „ .,   jut  taj  •ceidsaMl  ihock  djai 

1,  md  lb*  irbols  fila  i>  pntiplMMd  to  Iba  ground'— Liiui 


238 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[DiCBMBn  ISf 


P 


run  with  less  friction,  fast  longer,  and  require  less  power. 
The  Patent  Lubricator  has  been  applied  to  the  wheels 
of  gentlemen's  carriages  with  considerable  success:  a 
half  a  pint  of  oil  will  keep  the  axle  well  lubricated  for  a 
considerable  time,  and  the  wheels  never  require  to  be 
taken  off  for  the  purpose  of  greasing. 

The  mechanical  contrivances  for  the  diminution  of  fhc- 
tion  consist  either  in  avoiding  the  contact  of  such  bodies 
as  produce  much  friction,  or  by  substituting  as  much  as 
possible  the  motion  of  rolling  for  that  of  sliding.  Thus, 
IT  a  heavy  load  be  drawn  upon  a  sledge,  the  motion  is 
that  of  sliding  which  is  accompanied  by  the  greatest 
amount  of  friction;  but  if  the  load  be  placed  upon 
rollers,  the  nature  of  the  motion  is  changed  and  becomes 
that  in  which  there  is  the  least  amount  of  friction. 
Large  maases  of  stone  or  timber  would  require  an  enor- 
mous force  to  move  them  on  a  level  road,  but  the  motion 
is  easily  effected  when  rollers  are  put  under  them. 

The  wheels  of  carriages  may  be  regarded  as  rollers 
which  are  being  continually  carried  forward  with  the 
load.  In  addition  to  the  friction  on  the  road,  wheels 
have  the  friction  of  the  axle  in  the  nave;  but  they  do 
not  have  to  encounter  the  friction  of  rollers  with  the 
under  surface  of  the  load,  nor  that  of  the  carriage  which 
bears  the  load.  The  advantages  of  wheel  carriages  in 
diminishing  friction  do  not  arise,  as  is  somethnes  sup- 
posed, from  the  slowness  with  which  the  axle  moves 
within  the  box  compared  with  the  rate  at  which  the 
wheel  moves  over  the  road:  the  amount  of  friction  does 
not  in  any  case  vary  considerably  with  the  velocity  of 
the  motion.  In  .wheel  carriages  the  roughness  of  the 
road  is  more  easily  overcome  by  large  wheels  than  by 
small  ones.  The  former  are  not  so  liable  to  sink  into 
holes  as  the  latter,  and  in  surmounting  an  obstacle,  the 
load  has  to  be  elevated  less  abruptly.  The  smaller  the 
rubbing  axis  of  a  wheel,  the  less  the  friction.  Castors 
on  household  furniture  act  as  wheels. 

Friction  is  also  diminished  when  the  rubbing  surfaces 
are  made  of  different  materials.  Axles  made  of  steel 
may  with  advantage  be  made  to  bear  on  brass;  in  small 
machines,  such  as  time-keepers,  the  steel  axle  sometimes 
plays  in  agate  or  diamond  cups. 

Friction  wheels  or  rollers  are  sometimes  employed  to 
remove  the  effects  of  friction.  The  axle  of  a  wheel, 
instead  of  revolving  within  a  hollow  cylinder  which  is 
fixed,  rests  upon  the  edges  of  wheels  which  revolve  with 
it.  This  is  a  species  of  motion  in  which  the  friction  is 
of  least  amount.  In  Atwood's  machine  described  in 
Vol.  XIIL,  p.  181,  of  this  work,  friction  wheels  are.ad- 
mirably  employed. 

SwEBT  is  the  voice  of  well-earned  praise 

To  every  virtuous  ear; 
The  inspirmg  meed  of  youthftil  Tays, 

And  e'en  to  manhood  dear. 

Ab  opening  flowers  to  sunny  skies 

Their  blooming  fra|franoe  bring ; 
Warm'd  bj  the  approval  of  the  wise^ 

Th'  unfolding  virtues  spring. 

Yet  oft,  with  undisceming  mind, 

The  applause  of  man  is  given  t 
But,  0  my  soull  what  joy  to  6nd 

Thy  deeds  approved  in  Heaven. 

The  thief  who  picks  our  pocket  does  not  so  much  harm  in 
society,  nor  occasion  so  much  pain,  as  they  may  be  charged 
with,  who  shock  the  ear  of  piety  with  profaneness,  or  tear 
open  the  wounds  of  the  bleeding  heart  by  forcing  upon  it 
some  painful  recollection, — Beattie. 


No  species  of  reputation  is  so  cheaply  acquired  as  that 
derived  from  death-bed  fortitude.     When  it  is  fruitless  to 


contend  and  impossible  to  ily,  little  applause  is  due  to  that 
resignation  which  patiently  awaits  Its  doom, — Robcob's 
Lorenzo  de  Medici. 


PALIMPSESTS. 

Thb  term  **  P<Mnpaest"  has  been  applied  to  manu* 
BcriptS)  from  which  th^  original  writing  has  been  eraied, 
or  washed  out,  and  whicn  have  been  then  written  on  again. 
The  word  is  aptly  chosen,  as  it  implies,  aoeording  to  its 
derivation  from  the  Greek,  the  fact  of  the  material  for 
writing  on  having  been  cleamed  again. 

The  material  which,  from  its  tenacity  and  consistency, 
was  best  capable  of  being  submitted  to  this  process,  was 
parchment:  the  reader  will  find  a  very  interesting 
article,  descriptiTe  of  the  preparation  of  this  substance,  at 
Vol.  XlII^  p.  183,  of  this  work. 

It  seems  that  the  practice  of  re-cleansing  parchment, 
er  ramoving  the  first  writing,  was  not  confined  to  the 
middle  or  &rk  age8,-^to  the  inhabitants  of  the  cloisters, 
but  was  in  vogue  even  before  the  Christian  era:  it  was 
probably  resorted  to  from  the  time  of  the  first  produc- 
tion of  parchment  itself;  for  we  are  told  that  this  mate- 
rial was  always  a  scarce  commodity  until  rather  recent 
times.  A  preparation  for  effacing  the  original  writing 
on  parchment  was  known  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
Cnsar;  and  Cicero,  when  writing  to  one  of  his  friends, 
commends  him  for  having  been  so  economical  as  to  write 
on  a  palimpsest,  but  says  that  he  should  like  to  know 
what  those  writings  could  possibly  have  been  which  were 
considered  of  less  importance  than  a  letter. 

The  ancients  were  in  the  habit  of  using  likewise  leaves 
or  strips  of  the  papyrus  plant  for  the  purposes  of  writing. 
This  plant  is  common  in  Abyssinia,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  and 
is  also  met  with  in  Calabria  and  Sicily;  it  inhabits  both 
stagnant  waters  and  running  streams.  The  English 
word  *'  paper,"  is  derived  from  the  name  of  this  plant. 
The  ancients  had  also  a  method  oi  cleansing  the  papjnis- 
leaves  of  the  original  writing,  though  this  substance  was 
naturally  very  delicate  and  friable. 

That  parchment  was  a  very  costly  material  in  the 
middle  ages  may  be  known  from  the  fact  that  when  Guy, 
count  of  Nevers,  sent  a  valuable  present  of  plate  to 
the  Chartreux  of  Paris,  the  unostentatious  monks  re- 
turned it  with  a  request  that  he  would  send  them  parch- 
ment instead. 

The  scarcity  and  expense  of  parchment,  therefore,  and 

the  demand  for  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  end  books  of 

.devotion  in  those  times,  ft^quently  induced  the  monks 

to  erase  or  wash  out  the  writings  of  the  classical  authors, 

to  make  room  for  those  of  the  Fathers.    The  original 

writing  upon  the  parchment  could  be  scratched  out,  and 

a  peciUiar  kind  of^knife  belonged  to  the  apparatus  of  a 

transcriber:  the  parchment  scratched  in  tins  manner  wss 

rubbed  over  with  pumice-stone,  to  render  it  more  fit  for 

writing.     The  practice  of  thus  removing  old  writings  for 

the  sake  of  the  parchment  was  so  common  in  the  four- 

>teenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  that  when  the  emperor  of 

Germany  empowered  the  creation  of  an  imperial  notary, 

one  of  the  chief  articles  of  the  diploma  of  this  officer 

was,  that  he  should  not  use  scraped  vellum  in  drawing 

deeds.      The  manufacture  of  parchment  has  certainly 

been  carried  on  in  all  ages ;  but  that  of  the  ancients  wjs 

distinguished  for  its  beauty,  strength,  and  whiteness;  for 

which  reason,  in  later  ages,  a  palimpsest  of  the  ancient 

parchment  was  preferred  to  all  the  preparations  of  the 

new.  ... 

But,  in  many  cases,  the  monks  were  not  able  to  oblj' 

terate  entirely  the  ancient  writings;  and  a  careful  exatni- 

mination  of  these  pa)impsest  manuscripts  has  led  to  t  e 

discovery  of  some  valuable  works  and  fragments  of  tw 

classical   authors.     Among  the  most  important  is  tR? 

treatise  of  Cicero  «  on  the  Republic,"  which  was  found  m 

the  Vatican  Library  at  Rome  by  Angelo  Mai.  in  a  msnu- 

script  which  had  been  re-written  with  the  Commcntan 

of  St.  Augustin  on  the  Psahns.     The  Jnst'Uvtions  o^ 

Gains,  which  contained  the  Roman  code  of  la^s  at 

,  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  were  also  reco 


crc<i 


1841.] 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


239 


iu  a  similar  manner  in  the  library  of  the  chapter  of 
Verona. 

This  latter  manuscript  consists  of  127  sheets  of  parch- 
ment, the  original  writing  on  which  was  the  four  books 
of  the  Institutions,  by  Gains,  a  Roman,  who  lived  about 
the  year  a.d.  150.  This  original  writing  had,  on  some 
pages*  been  washed  out,  so  far  as  was  practicable,  and  on 
others  scratched  out;  and  the  whole,  with  the  exception 
of  two  sheets,  had  been  re- written  with  the  Epistles  of 
St.  Jerome.  The  lines  of  the  original  and  of  the  sub- 
stituted writing  run  in  the  same  direction,  and  often 
cover  one  another; — a  circumstance  which  considerably 
increased  the  difficulty  of  deciphering  the  text  of  Gains. 
In  addition  to  this,  sixty-three  pages  had  been  written 
on  threg  times :  the  first  writing  was  the  text  of  Gaius, 
which  had  been  erased;  and  the  second*  which  was  a 
theological  work,  had  shared  the  same  fate,  to  make 
room  for  the  Epistles  of  St.  Jerome.  This  work  of  Gaius 
was  found  and  restored  in  the  year  1816. 

The  re*production  of  the  traces  of  the  original  writing 
on  the  parchments  has  not,  however,  always  been 
found  so  difficult  a  matter  as  in  the  case  oi  the  InstitU' 
iions  of  Gaius.  '  As  the  transcribers  in  the  middle  ages, 
when  the  want  of  writing-materiab  was  felt,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  great  demand  for  missalsy  &c.»  often 
divided  the  large  sheets  of  written  parchment,  the 
second  set  of  lines  is  sometimes  found  diagonal  to  the 
first;  so  that  the  old  and  new  cross  each  other,  or  the 
old  lines  have  remained  above  the  others. 

We  thus  see  that  some  valuable  writings  of  the 
ancients  have  already  been  recovered  from  beneatli 
monkish  effusions  or  superstitious  legends,  by  carefully 
following  the  traces  of  the  pen  or  style,  which  had  im- 
pressed the  former  performance  upon  the  membrane; 
and  i^hich  traces  still  continued  to  exist  in  spite  of  the 
impressions  made  by  the  second  scribe.  The  original 
characters  thus  often  remain  legible,  so  as  ta  be  visible 
to  tha  naked  eye ;  or  they  may  be  made  to  appear  with 
the  assistance  of  chemical  agents.  Persons  whose 
business  it  was  in  the  middle  ages  to  prepare  parch- 
ments by  erasing  manuscripts,  were  called  '^  parchment- 
restorers." 

This  subject  has  greatly  attracted  the  attention  of 
philologistSf  or  lovers  of  literature,  for  some  years  past 
The  increasing  zeal  in  the  search  for  remains  of  classic 
learning  has  directed  the  attention  of  the  most  erudite 
scholars  to  these  hidden  treasures ;  and  we  may  hope 
that  the  great  collections  of  manuscripts  at  Rome, 
Naples,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Sec,  which  have  been  as 
yet  but  little  examined,  will  afford  us  many  more  rem- 
nants of  the  literature  of  olden  time. 


THE  MECHANICAL  PROCESSES  OF 

SCULPTURE. 

It  is  difficult  to  name  a  branch  of  art,  the  successful 
application  of  which  requires  &  more  varied  combination 
of  powers  than  that  of  sculpture.  The  artist  places 
before  him  a  lifeless,  shapeless  block  of  marble,  and  from 
this  he  elaborates  a  figure  which  represents  all  the  per- 
sonal beauties  of  the  human  form,  and  in  some  instances 
almost  seems  to  represent  mind,  as  manifested  by  the 
expression  of  the  features.  Not  only  must  the  sculptor 
be  familiarly  acquainted  with  the  anatomy  of  the  human 
form,  and  those  nice  gradations  of  expression  which 
indicate  the  varied  workings  of  the  mind  within,  but  he 
must  also  possess  consummate  mechanical  tact,  in  cutting 
the  block  neither  more  nor  less  than  is  necessary  for  the 
production  of  the  desired  effect.  There  is  one  very 
marked  distinction  between  the  labours  of  the  painter 
and  those  of  the  sculptor :  if  the  former  employ  a  wrong 
colour,  or  use  it  injudiciously,  he  can  repair  his  error, 
.  either  by  removin:^  the  paint,  or  by  working  upon  it; 
but  if  the  sculptor  were  to  chisel  away  too  much  of  his 
marble  at  any  one  point,  no  subsequent  re'jair  would 


adequately  restore  the  deficiency.  Having  in  another 
place  treated  of  sculpture  as  a  fine  art,  we  now  propose 
to  give  a  brief  description  of  the  mechanical  process  of 
sculpture. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  sculptor  produces  a 
statue  or  bust  without  any  copy  to  guide  him.  He 
models  a  figure  in  the  first  instance  of  some  plastic  and 
yielding  substance,  and  when  this  model  is  completed 
be  imitates  it  by  cutting  the  block  of  marble  to  a  similar 
form.  The  model  is  built  up  or  formed  piece-meal,  not 
hewn  or  cut  out  of  a  solid  lump,  and  the  modeller  is 
thus  enabled  to  attain  the  desired  form  with  more  ease, 
because  he  can  add  or  remove  small  portions  of  the  sub- 
stance at  pleasure.  It  appears  pretty  certain  that  the 
ancients  almost  always  formed  their  first  models  in  wax« 
although  in  modern  times  clay  is  generally  used  for  this 
purpose.  This  preference  of  the  ancients  for  the  use 
of  wax  did  not  result  from  their  non-acquaintance  with 
the  use  of  clay,  but  from  certain  advantages  which  wax 
possesses  over  clay.  Indeed,  as  has  been  observed  by  a 
recent  writer,  if  clay  could  be  made  to  retain  its  original 
moisture,  it  would  undoubtedly  be  the  fittest  substance 
for  the  models  of  the  sculptor,  but  when  it  is  placed 
either  in  the  fire,  or  left  to  dry  imperceptibly  in  the  air, 
its  solid  parts  grow  more  compact,  and  the  figure,  losing 
thus  a  part  of  its  dimensions,  is  necessarily  reduced  to 
a  smaller  volume.  This  diminution  would  be  of  no  con- 
sequence if  it  affected  the  whole  figure  equally,  so  as  to 
preserve  the  proportions  unaltered,  but  in  effect  the 
smaller  parts  of  the  figure  dry  sooner  than  the  larger, 
and  thus  losing  more  of  their  dimensions  than  the  latter 
in  a  given  space  of  time,  the  symmetry  and  proportion 
of  the  figure  somewhat  suffer.  On  the  other  hand,  wax 
cannot  be  worked  up  so  smoothly  to  represent  the  fleshy 
parts  as  clay,  iind  hence  the  plan  usually  followed  is  a 
combination  of  both,  by  making  a  model  of  clay,  then 
making  a  mould  of  plaster  from  this  model,  and  lastly 
casting  a  second  model,  from  this  mould,  in  wax. 

When  the  artist  has  prepared  a  drawing  conveying  a 
general  idea  of  the  figure  to  be  modelled,  he  proceeds  to 
build  up  his  statue  or  group,  for  which  purpose  a  general 
nucleus  or  skeleton  is  first  formed  of  wood  or  iron  :  to 
this  small  crosses  are  generally  attached,  in  order  to  form 
fixed  points  of  support  for  the  clay.  The  clay,  carefully 
prepared  for  that  purpose,  is  then  laid  on  the  skeleton, 
either  by  the  hand,  or  by  some  convenient  implement, 
and  by  means  of  sniall  wood  or  ivory  tools,  with  their 
ends  pointed,  round,  square,  or  diagonal,  he  gives  the 
clay  the  required  form.  Whether  the  figures  are  or  are 
not  to  be  coTered  with  drapery,  he  models  them  naked, 
in  order  to  insure  correctness  of  anatomical  detail,  and 
afterwards,  if  requisite,  foorms  the  drapery  by  extra  layers 
of  clay. 

When  the  model  is  completed,  it  is  not  often  that  the 
sculptor  proceeds  to  chisel  his  marble  from  the  clay 
model  as  a  pattern,  but  he  forms  a  plaster  mould,  from 
which  to  obtain  a  plaster  or  wax  figfure.  Supposing,  for 
simplicity  of  description,  that  the  work  is  a  bust,  he 
encases  the  clay  model  of  the  bust  with  a  thin  stratum 
of  cream-like  plaster;  but  as  this  case  has  afterwards  to 
be  removed  from  the  model,  he  adopts  the  following 
plan.  A  thin  edge  or  ledge  of  clay  is  laid  along  the 
bust  from  the  head  to  the  base,  on  both  sides,  so  as  to 
form  a  separation  between  the  front  and  back  portions 
of  the  bust,  and  the  front  is  first  completed  up  to  this 
ridge  of  day,  the  moulder  carefully  casting  the  thin 
plaster  into  the  recesses  of  the  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  &c. 
A  thicker  plaster  is  then  thrown  on,  till  a  thickness  of 
two  or  more  inches  is  obtained.  The  ridge  of  clav  is 
now  removed,  the  edges  of  the  plaster  are  slightly 
touched  with  oil,  and  the  back  is  covered  in  the  same 
way,  till  the  whole  becomes  a  shapeless  lump  of  plaster. 
This  lump  is,  when  dry,  separated  bj  a  few  blows  with 
the  mallet  and  chisel,  so  as  to  come  off  the  model  in  two 
pieces,  which  together  form  a  mould  or  countei-part  of 


940 


THE  SATUftDAir  MAGAZINE. 


[Dbciubm  18, 1841- 


i 


L 


the  model.  These  two  pieces,  after  bein^  cleaned,  are  i 
slightly  moistened  with  oil,  and  united  vtpiiU  with  cords 
wrapped  round  them.  A  plaster  cast  from  Ihis  mould 
is  then  obtained,  by  pourinr  liquid  plaster  iflto  it,  and 
by  breaking  or  separating  the  two  halves  of  the  mould 
when  the  plaster  has  set :  if  the  cast  be  of  wax  instead 
of  plaster,  the  mode  of  casting  is  nearly  the  same. 

When  the  clay,  plaster,  or  wax  model  is  completed,  the 
sculptor  proceeds  to  imitate  it  in  marble.  There  are 
various  contrivances  for  g^uiding  him  in  this  operation, — 
of  which  one  is  as  follows.  A  number  of  small  black 
points  are  marked  upon  the  model  in  every  principal 
projection  and  depression,  to  give  the  distances,  heights, 
and  breadths  sufficient  to  copy  the  model  with  exactness. 
The  ancients  effected  this  b^  considering  every  three 
points  on  the  figure  as  formmg  a  triangle,  which  they 
made  in  the  marble  to  correspond  with  the  same  three 
points  in  the  model,  by  trying  it  with  a  perpendicular 
line,  or  some  other  definite  line,  both  in  the  marble  and 
in  the  model. 

Another  contrivance,  suggested  by  the  Academy  of 
Painting  at  Rome,  is  the  following.  The  statue  or 
model  which  is  to  be  copied  is  inclosed  in  a  frame  that 
fits  it  exactly;  the  upper  part  of  which  is  divided  into  a 
eertain  number  of  equal  parts ;  and  to  eaeh  of  these  parts 
a  thread  is  fixed,  with  a  piece  of  lead  at  the  end  of  it. 
These  threads,  hanging  freely  downwards,  shew  what 
parts  of  the  stone  are  most  removed  from  the  centre, 
with  much  more  perspicuity  and  precision  than  the  dots 
before  spoken  of;  and  they  also  afford  the  sculptor  a 
tolerable  rule  by  which  he  may  measure  the  more  strik- 
ing variations  of  height  and  depth.  But  a  seifious 
difficulty  nevertheless  attends  the  use  of  this  method ; 
for  as  it  is  impossible  by  means  of  a  straight  line  to 
determine  with  precision  the  direction  and  nature  of  a 
curve,  the  sculptor  has  no  certain  rule  to  guide  him 
in  his  contours ;  and  whenever  the  line  which  he  is  to 
describe  deviates  from  the  direction  of  a  plumb-line  or 
vertical,  he  must  necessarily  feel  at  a  loss,  and  proceed 
somewhat  on  conjecture.  Another  inconvenience  attend- 
ing this  method  is,  that  there  is  no  certain  rule  to 
determine  exactly  the  proportion  which  the  various 
parts  of  the  figure  ought  to  bear  to  each  other.  Even 
if  horisontal  lines  be  drawn  intersecting  the  plumb- 
linos,  the  difficulty  is  not  wholly  removed;  for  the 
squares  formed  by  transverse  lines  that  are  at  a  distance 
from  the  figure,  although  they  be  exactly  equal,  yet 
represent  t£e  parts  of  the  figure  greater  or  smaller, 
according  as  they  are  more  or  less  removed  from  our 
position  or  point  of  view.  Still  however,  notwithstanding 
these  defects,  this  method  is  deemed  by  some  persons 
the  best  that  has  been  devised. 

A  third  method,  and  the  one  most  generally  adopted 
in  modem  practice,  is  the  following.  When  the  block 
of  marble  is  ascertained  to  be  of  sufficient  sixe,  it  is 
fixed  on  a  basement  of  stone,  or  a  strong  wooden  bench 
called  a  banker^  in  front  of  which  is  a  long  strip  of 
marble,  divided  into  feet  and  inches.  Another  strip  of 
marble  divided  in  the  same  manner,  is  placed  below  in 
front  of  the  model;  and  a  wooden  perpendicular  rule,  the 
height  of  the  work,  is  placed  so  as  to  be  moveable  from 
the  strip  of  marble  or  scale  under  the  model  to  that 
which  is  under  the  block  to  be  cut  This  wooden  rule 
is  first  placed  on  the  scale  of  the  model;  and  the  exact 
distance  from  it  to  any  prominent  part,  such  as  the  nose 
or  chin,  for  example,  having  been  taken,  the  rule  is 
removed  to  a  corresponding  position  on  the  other  scale, 
and  the  workman  cuts  away  the  marble  to  the  same 
distance  from  the  perpendicular  at  the  same  height,  that 
is,  till  he  has  arrived  at  that  point  of  the  block  which  is 
to  form  the  prominent  part  in  question.  The  sculptor 
then  proceeds  in  the  same  way  with  other  prominent 
parts;  and  afterwards  to  the  depressions  which  inter- 
'  vene  between  them ;  until  he  has  at  length  obtained  a 
rough  figure,  containing  within  it  all  the  other  minute 


details  which  remain  to  J^e  brought  out  by  |hi  skilful 
hand  of  tb»  pn^. '    \'  x  ^    •    >   '    ^^     ■}, 

A  variatiw  <^  ^^a^vc  'ttitf  lid  J|  pr^iy^sM^r  some 
flcnlptors.  -  the  model  and  block  of  marbfe  being  ranged 
side- by  side  on  the  bench  or  platform,  a  brass  frame  h 
placed  in  front,  on  which  slides  a  brass  perpendiruJar 
joint.  This  joint  carries  d  tube  througlf  which  a  rod 
passes,  and  which  is  bcought  in  front  of  the  model,  to 
some  particolar  part  of  which  "the  point  of  the  rod  1§ 
appliea;  the  point  being  set,  it  is  retained  st  that  dis- 
tance in  the  tube  by  a  screw.  The  instrument  is  uov 
placed  in  a  corresponding  position  in  front  of  the  block, 
on  which  the  position  of  tne  point  is  marked  by  the  end 
of  the  rod.  A  hole  is  now  drilled  in  the  block  in  this 
place,  to  such  a  depth  as  to  allow  the  sliding  rod  to 
penetrate  it  to  the  proper  distance.  Another  point  is 
now  taken,  and  the  block  drilled  in  a  similar  manner; 
till  at  length  it  is  pierced  in  every  direction.  These 
parts  are  then  cut  away  with  the  chisel,  care  being  taken 
never  to  remove  any  part  below  where  the  drill  has  been. 
Mr.  Behnes«  the  sculptor,  has  invented  a  very  bgenioos 
machine  for  producing  the  required  effect  somewhat  in 
this  manner. 

When  the  assistant  workmen  have,  in  some  one  of  the 
ways  described  above,  brought  the  blo^ck  of  marble  to  a 
rough  stage  of  approximation  to  the  desired  form,  the 
master*hand  proceeds  with  his  delicate  and  difficult  work. 
He  chisels  the  figure  with  a  fiat-ended  steel  tool  about 
half  an  inch  broad.  In  the  plain  parts  he  cuts  a  chan- 
nel in  the  surface  from  one  given  point  to  another;  then 
cuts  other  channels  parallel  with  ft,  leavii^  intervening 
ridges  about  an  ei^th  of  an  Indh  Vn&;  then  cuts 
other  channels  in  a  direction  at  ri?ht  angles  with  the 
former;  and  lastly  cuts  away  the  rexAaming  rough  surface. 
It  is  found  that  by  no  onier'xneffQS.'can.he  produce  a 
les«l  and  regular  surfine;  hot  this  bej^tfcfe  produced, 
he  can  easily  vary  ^tt  witl^-^She-  requisite'  undoIatfoDs. 
Generallv  speaking,  the  chiifei  and  himlUier  are  the  tools 
employed ;  but  when  the  hollows  are  so  deep  and  intricate 
as  not  to  be  easily  reached  by  this  means,  drills  of 
different  kinds  are  employed,  followed  by  other  tools 
furnished  with  long  handles,  and  worked  by  the  hand 
only,  without  the  use  of  a  hunmer.  It  need  scarcel j  be 
observed,  that  to  produce  a  succeaafiil  imitalioa  of  the 
fulness  of  muscle,  the  pliability  of  the  softer  psrts,  jli^ 
strength  of  tendons,  and  the  nrmpess  of  hone,  requires 
that  the  sculptor  should  be  well  acquainted  with  the 
anatomical  characteristics  of  the  several  parts.  The 
light,  soft,  and  curly  appearance  of  the  hair  requires 
considerable  manual  dexterity  to  imitate. 

When  the  chiselling  is  completed,  the  surface  of  the 
marble  requires  another  process  lo  bring  it  to  a  smooth 
state.  This  is  effected  by  the  use  of  rasps  and  filss* 
made  for  this  purpose  in  Raly ;  coarser  rasps  being  xae^ 
first,  and  then  very  fine  files.  If  any  part  of  the  piece 
of  sculpture  is  required  to  have  an  unusually  sniooth 
surface,  it  is  rubbed  over  with  pumice  stone  afler  the 
file  has  been  used ;  and  sometimes  the  whole  surface  li 
rubbed  or  ground  carefully  over  with  small  pieces  of  grit- 
stone, accommodated  to  the  various  forms  of  the  surface, 
as  to  fiat  spaces,  rounds,  hollows,  &c.  The  hair  does  not 
admit  of  being  finished  in  this  way,  as  the  delicacy  and 
lightness  of  its  appearance  requires  that  the  finishing 
touches  should  be  given  by  a  very  fine  and  keeu-edg^^ 
tool. 

If  the  bust  or  figure  on  which  the  sculptor  i*  itj^^^ 
be  not  very  large,  he  places  it  on  a  laxge,  sqnare,  four* 
footed  stool,  provided  with  a  movable  top  which  turns 
round  on  brass  or  iron  balls. 


LONDON ; 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PAAKfiR^  WEST  STRAND. 

PCBLUJIBO  IM  WSKKLY   NUXBBM,  PBICB   OXB  PsmlT,  A^D  f 

MoKTBLT  Pasts,  pbicb  Sxxyekcb. 
Sold  bj  an  BookwUen  and  NevsTeaden  iu  (he  %iat^ 


Sacturlias 


N9  608. 


DECEMBEK 


9RTH     1  OAi  f      PiiicB 


FLOATING    ISLANDS. 


It  wa«  a  fancy  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  that  Delos,  one 
of  the  Cjclades,  in  the  Archipelag-o,  was  originally  an 
island  floating  on  the  waves,  and  exposed  to  all  the 
casualties  of  storm  and  tempest,  but  that  Neptune,  out 
of  pity  for  its  forlorn  condition,  made  it  stationarj-,  and 
in  order  to  fix  it  securely,  begirt  it  with  the  two  islands, 
Mycone  and  Gyaros.  Absurd  as  this  idea  may  appear 
to  UB,  there  are  many  instances  of  floating  islands 
really  existing  at  the  present  day,  and  it  is  only  the  size 
and  tilualion  of  Delos,  with  the  superstition  respecting 
N^eptune,  that  make  the  story  of  the  Greeks  incredible* 
In  various  parts  of  the  world  these  islands  are  formed, 
either  naturally  or  artiRcially,  on  lakes  and  rivers ;  but 
perhaps  the  most  celebrated  among  them  are  the  Chi- 
nampai,  or  floating  gardens  of  Mexico.  It  is  said  that 
they  owe  their  origin  to  the  extraordinary  situation  in 
which  the  Aztecs  were  placed  on  the  conquest  of  their 
country  by  a  neighbouring  nation.  They  were  driven 
to  take  refuge  in  small  islands  on  the  lal^e,  and  vere 
obliged  tc  exercise  the  utmost  Ingenuity  in  order  to  pro- 
vide a  sufSciency  of  food  for  their  sustenance.  Hum- 
boldt thinks  that  the  idea  of  these  gardens  was  sug|^sted 
bv  Nature  herself,  since  on  the  marshy  banks  of  the 
lakes  of  Xochimilco  and  Chalco, '  the  agitated  waters, 
in  the  time  of  the  great  floods,  cany  away  pieces  of 
earth,  covered  with  herbs,  and  bound  together  with 
roots.  Whatever  may  have  first  prompted  the  idea, 
we  find  that  the  early  Ghinampas  were  generally  com- 
posed  of  fragmenti  of  earth,  artiflcinlly  joined  together 
and  oiiltivated,  and  that  their  use  was  for  some  time 
coiiflned  to  the  growth  of  muie  and  other  necessaries 
of  life.  When  the  Mexicans  had  delirered  thenuclvei 
Vox..  XIX. 


I  vtOATiira  uuBOs, 

■■  from  their  unhappy  condition,  the  floatbg  gardens  of 
their  lakes  were  no  longer  appropriated  to  the  exclusive 
cultivation  of  necessaries,  but  became  the  means  of 
adding  to  the  luxuries  of  the  people,  and  teemed  with 
delicious  fruits  and  fragant  flowers.  These  gardens  are 
now  extremely  cominon  in  Mexico,  and  are  of  two  kinds: 
those  which  are  always  floating  about  on  the  water,  and 
are  wafted  hither  and  thither  by  the  capricious  winds; 
and  those  which  are  attached  to  the  shore  by  chains, 
for  the  convenience  of  the  proprietor,  who  perhaps  haa 
his  dwelling  on  the  adjacent  bank.  But  even  in  this 
latter  case,  if  the  owner  of  the  Chinampa  becomes  dia- 
satisfied  with  his  situation,  or  has  some  disagreeable 
neighbour  whom  he  wishes  to  avoid,  be  ha*  nothing  U> 
do  but  to  unloose  the  chains  which  bind  his  island  to  the 
spot,  and  with  his  hut  and  his  plantation,  float  wherever 
he  pleases. 

The  principal  supply  of  flowers  and  roota  required  in 
the  city  of  Mexico  is  obtained  from  these  gardens,  nor 
is  the  cultivation  of  the  useful  vegetables  neglected. 
Some  of  these  fertile  spots  are  devoted  to  the  rearing 
of  beans,  artichokes,  and  cauliflowers,  round  which  a 
hedge  of  rose-bushes  gives  solidity  to  the  soil,  and  in 
the  time  of  their  blossoming,  a  lovely  and  fragrant  oma-t 
ment  to  the  whole.  In  the  driest  seasons  these  Chinam- 
pas  are  always  productive,  and  when  it  is  necessary  to 
renew  tbe-powera  of  the  soil  it  is  easily  done  by  means 
of  mud  taken  from  the  botl«m  of  the  lake,  which  is  of 
a  highly  fertilizing  quality.  The  gardens  are  sometimea 
of  considerable  extent,  but  more  frequently  they  are 
small,  and  contain  no  other  dwelling  than  a  little  hut  to 
dielUr  the  cultiT*tor  from  beat  or  »torais,  or  a  cottage 


i 


•r- 


,»' 


242 


THE  SATCftbAV  MAGAZINE. 


[December  2$, 


for  the  habitAtion  of  an  Indian,  who  has  the  charge  of 
a  contiguous  group  6(  gardctth.  It  Is  sAid  to  be  a  very 
plpasilig  sight  to  Wateh  the  tttriral  of  thfe  Innumerable 
rafts,  descending  at  sunrise  towards  the  city  by  the 
canals  of  Chalco  and  Istacalco,  and  bearing  the  rich 
productions  of  these  floating  islands.  It  is  likewise  a 
favourite  recreation  of  the  citizens  of  Mexico  to  proceed 
towards  evening  in  small  boats,  and  row  in  among  these 
luxuriant  gardens,  where  the  vegetation  is  alwayo  fresh 
and  brilliant,  and  where  they  find  an  agreeable  dolace 
after  the  fatigues  of  the  day. 

Floating  gardens  of  a  more  fragile  kind  than  those  of 
Mexico  are  very  numerous  in  the  lakes  of  Cashmere. 
It  may  be  known  to  many  of  our  readers  that  the  cele- 
brated land  of  Cashmere  consists  of  one  vast  valley, 
encircled  by  lofty  mountains,  and  bearing  strong  evidence 
of  having  been,  at  some  distant  period,  one  immense 
lake.  Horizontal  lines,  running  along  the  face  of  the 
mountains  on  both  sides,  mark  the  gradual  subsidence  of 
the  waters,  while  the  wondrous  fertility  of  the  soil  war- 
rants the  conclusion  that  at  one  time  an  immense  Quan- 
tity of  material  was  furnished  by  the  surrounding  eleva- 
tions. A  considerable  portion  of  the  city  of  Cashmere 
is  situated  in  a  part  of  this  valley,  where  the  ground  is 
still  marshy,  and  where,  in  considerable  inundationst  it 
is  liable  to  be  flooded.  There  are  also  numerous  lakes 
which,  with  the  river  Vidusta,  separate  the  city  into  dif- 
ferent insulated  portions.  Hence  mAnv  iniibnveniences 
arise  to  the  itihabitants,  and  the  cultivation  of  their  gar- 
dens is  checked  by  the  expectation  of  a  flood)  which  will 
render  their  labour  useless,  by  sweeping  away  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  ^oil.  These  circumstances  have  led  to  the 
practice  of  forming  floating  gardens,  or  rather,  of  taking 
advantage  of  those  partially  formed  by  nature^  In  an 
account  of  the  natural  .productions  of  Cashmere  Mr. 
Moorcroft  gives  an  interesting  description  of  these  gar* 
dens.  Various  acjtiatic  plants  spring  from  the  bottom  of 
the  lakes,  such  as  Wliter4ilieS|  ^OtlfervS^  sedg^s^  reeds, 
&c.,  and  the  boats  which  traverse  these  waters,  taking 
in  general  the  shortest  way  to  their  places  of  destination, 
cut,  as  it  were,  a  track  through  the  weeds  in  various 
directions.  In  these  patches  of  sedge  and  rushes  the 
farmer  establishes  his  melon  and  cucumber  floats,  by 
cutting  off  the  roots  of  the  aquatic  plants  about  two  feet 
under  water^  so  that  they  lose  all  connexion  with  the 
bottom  of  the  lake,  but  still  continue  attached  to  each 
other*  He  then  presses  them  together  in  closed  contact 
and  fbrms  them  into  beds  of  about  two  yards  in  breadth> 
and  of  an  indefinite  length.  The  heads  of  the  sedge, 
reeds,  and  other  plants  are  then  cut  off,  and  left  oti  the 
Burfaee  of  the  float,  which  is  next  Overlaid  with  a  thiti 
eoat  of  mud,  which  gradually  insinuates  itself  into  the 
tnasB  of  matted  stems.  The  float  is  prevented  from 
being  wafted  about  by  the  wind  by  stakes  of  willow» 
which  are  driven  through  it  at  each  end,  and  which  do 
tiot  prevent  its  rising  and  falling  With  the  rise  and  fkll 
of  the  water.  When  the  gardens  are  thus  prepared  ibr 
the  reception  of  the  Vegetable  to  be  l*aised  nn  it,  th« 
gardener  has  In  readiness  a  number  of  cucumber  and 
melon  plants,  which  he  had  previously  raised  under  matSi 
(Such  of  these  as  have  four  leaves,  he  places  upon  the 
floating  mass  at  about  two  feet  distance  from  each  other. 
After  the  planting,  no  funher  labour  is  necessary,  and 
the  only  remaining  care  is  to  collect  the  fruit.  Some  of 
these  islands  will  bear  a  man*^  weight,  but  the  fruit  is 
generally  gathered  by  a  person  sitting  in  a  boat;  and 
owing  to  the  small  breadth  of  th(e  garden,  all  the  opera* 
tions  connected  with  it  may  be  conducted  in  the  same  way. 

l*hus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  floating  gardens  of 
Cashmere  are  of  an  inferior  description  to  those  which 
have  excited  so  much  interest  in  Mexico,  and  are  not 
eapable  of  producing  an  equal  variety  of  plants;  yet 
thev  are  sufliclent  for  the  wants  of  the  people,  and 
yield  in  abundance  the  fruits  for  which  they  are  pre- 
pared. Mr.  MoorctoA  thus  speaks  of  their  luxuriance  :*^ 


t  traversed  a  tract  of  about  flfky  arres  of  th«se  floating 
gardens  in  cucumBers  and  mtloftsf'ana  saW  not  ablhreyf 
a  dozen  unhealthy  plantSi  nor  have  I  UteA  in  the  cacumber 
and  melon  grounds,  in  the  vicinity  of  very  |)Opillo«s  cities 
in  Europe,  or  in  Asia,  so  large  an  expanse  of  planUi  in  a 
state  equally  healthy,  though  it  must  be  observed,  numing 
into  BomeWnat  too  great  lu^riance  of  growth. 

lu  China,  also,  where  an  excessive  population  renders 
it  imperative  on  the  inhabitants  to  have  recourse  to  every 
expedient  for  increasing  their  means  of  subsistence, 
rafti  and  floating  islands  are  formed  on  the  surface  of 
their  numerous  lakes  and  rivers,  the  whole  of  which  are  ' 
teeming  with  life  and  vegetation.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  city  of  Canton  alone  it  is  calculated  that  more 
than  forty  thousand  persons  live  on  the  river,  in  islands, 
on  rafts,  or  in  boats.  These  persons  are  considered  as 
a  distinct  part  of  the  population,  being  under  a  separate 
regulation,  and  not  allowed  to  intermarry  with  those  on 
shore.  Even  the  large  rafts  of  timber  which  are  floated 
down  to  Canton  from  the  north  and  west,  become  the 
temporary  abodes  of  numbers.  Huts  are  erected  on 
them  and  families  of  young  children  may  be  seen  sport- 
ing fearlessly  on  these  plains  of  floating  timber. 

Several  floating  islands  have  been  observed  in  Lap 
land.  In  a  small  lake  near  the  Gothic  fortress  of  Cas* 
tello  Archione,  several  have  been  natiu^lly  formed  br 
plants  matted  and  joined  together,  which  have  attidned 
sufficient  consistence  to  allow  of  the  peasants  gettio? 
upon  them,  and  navigating  the  lake  with  them,  by  means 
of  long  poles. 

A  small  lake  at  Artois,  near  St.  Omer,  is  covered 
with  floating  islands,  and  we  are  told  that  the  neighbour^ 
ing  farmers  draw  them  near  the  shore,  and  drive  their 
cattle  on  them,  to  feed  upon  their  rich  pasturage,  after- 
wards unloosing  the  islands  again,  and  allowing  them  to  I 
drift  at  the  mercy  of  the  winds.  Some  of  these  islands  i 
exist  In  the  Lake  Gerdan,  in  Prussia,  and  are  of  consi- 
derable importance,  if  the  account  be  correct  which  Id- 
forms  us  that  a  hundred  head  of  cattle  find  pasturage 
oti  them.  Ati  Island  of  this  description  which  exists  in 
the  Lake  of  Kolk,  in  Osnabruck,  is  said  to  be  covered 
with  fine  elms. 

Small  floating  islands  exist  in  the  beautiful  Loch 
Lomond,  and  in  other  waters  of  Scotland  and  Ireland 
nor  are  the  lakes  of  Cumberland  without  a  specimen  of 
this  curiosity.  A  very  remarkable  one  has  emerged 
from  the  bottom  of  the  Derwent,  three  times  within  the 
last  thirty  years.  It  was  formed  bjrthe  gradual  deposi- 
tion of  decayed  aquatic  plants.  In  a  small  sheet  oi 
water  connected  with  Esthwaite  Lake,  Hawkeshead,  a 
floating  island,  thirty  yards  long,  by  five  broad,  has 
existed  for  many  years.  Some  years  back  a  heary 
flood  lifted  it  half  on  land,  where  it  remained  stationary, 
until  some  young  men,  taking  advantage  of  a  high  state 
of  the  water,  re-launched  it,  and  sailed  across  the  lake 
upon  it.  It  has  frequently  been  guided  from  the  smaller 
to  the  larger  lake,  and  vice  versd,  and  on  one  of  its  trips 
it  bore  fiileen  persons  across  the  waters.  The  shrubs  of 
various  sorts  growing  upon  it  supply  the  place  of  saiK 

These  islands,  generally  speaking,  may  be  regarded 
rather  as  a  matter  of  curiosity,  than  of  Economic  import- 
ance. They  occur  in  almost  every  part  of  the  world 
where  a  marshy  soil  is  prevalent.  In  the  Nile,  in  the 
Congo,  in  the  Lake  of  Tivoli,  in  the  marshy  lakes  of 
Commachio,  hear  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  in  Guayaquil,  ia 
the  kingdom  of  Quito,  and  many  other  places,  we  read 
of  the  frequency  of  floating  islands,  but  we  do  not  find 
them  appropriated  to  useful  l)Urposes  except  in  a  fc^ 
instances.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  water-surface 
of  our  own  islands  might  be  called  upon  to  contribute 
to  the  support  of  our  increasing  population,  but  it  ij 
very  much  to  be  questioned  whether  the  plan  would 
be  attended  with  beneficial  results  in  such  a  clunate  as 
ours. 

Our  engravittg  presents  a  view  of  one  of  these  lakes  ia 
the  Campagna  Romana,  about  fourteen  miles  from  the  Gt] 


\1S\ 


18410 


THE  BATURPAY  MAGAZINE. 


349 


of  Romet  of  volcanic  o^guif  Itf  undent  name  was  Aqi4a 
AlhttUe^  aince  called  Zfluro  7ar/ar»,  Ijogo  SolfiUare,  or, 
Lake  of  the  Floating  ukmdi^    The  water  is  of  a  fright 
blue  colour,  highly  charged  with  aulphur;  it  ia  much 
warmer  than  the  atmosphere,  extremely  disagreeable  to 
the  taste,  and  possesses  the  property  of  petrifying  all 
substances  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.    Thns,  the 
decomposed  rushes  and  rank  weeds  with  which  the  lake 
is  bordered,  falling  therein,  become  hardened  in  very  large 
masses,  and  float  on  the  surface :  hence  the  name,  /joJee  of 
the  Floating  lilanda.    Its  waters  are  vepovted  to  be 
fathomless,  and  no  fish  can  live  within  its  depths.     On 
the  side  of  the  lake  are  the  remains  of  the  baths,  erected 
by  M.  Agrippa,  frequented  by  Augustus,  and  subse- 
quently repaired  by  Zenobia,  Queen  of  Palmyra,    In 
consequence  thereof,  the^e  ruins  are  now  called  Bagni 
deUa  Reginoy  or  Baths  of  the  Queen. 


■9"^- 


It  Is  an  Imperative  duty  to  maintain  ai  aH  limea  an  Impop*' 
tant  truth ;  for  even  should  we  despair  pf  seeing  it  Imrae^ 
diatel v  recognised,  we  may  so  exeretse  the  minds  of  othersi 
as  to  lead  them  in  time  to  a  greater  impartiality  of  judg* 
ment,  and  in  the  end  to  a  perception  of  tl^e  Uue  light.— 
S  [Lvio  Peli^ico. 

Marrieo  life  appears  to  me  a  sort  of  nhilosepkleal  diselpllne, 
tmining  persons  to  honourable  dnttee,  worthy  of  the  good 
and  wise.  Few  unmarried  people  are  affMiied  as  they  e«^t 
to  be  towards  the  puhlie  good,  and  pereeive  what  are  re^ly 
the  most  important  objects  in  life.— Mblanoibon. 

To  me  there  is  something  afiecting  in  the  ItiH  hoky  on  what- 
ever object  it  is  cast,  for  the  last  of  everything  reminds  us 
of  the  last  of  life,  the  last  day  we  shall  spend  on  e^rth— »the 
laet  look  wo  shall  fix  upon  teivestrial  Bdene8«^when  we 
must  turn  from  the  beloved  objeots,  whooe  seetety  and 
sympathy  have  sweetened  eui  oup  of  woe,  and  filled  our 
span  of  time,  to  the  loneliness  of  death  and  ttie  realities  of 
eternity. — Sir  Thomas  Rafflbb. 

True  wisdom  bids  her  dispipl^s  search  into  the  mysteflep  of 
nature  aa  far  as  nature's  w^vs  are  penetrable  by  man ;  but. 
although  they  scorn  to  hoodwink  reason,  they  perceive  ana 
acknowledge  that  there  is  no  surer  sign  of  rationality  than 
the  forbeanng  to  torture  reason  with  inquiries  beyond  its 
scope  and  ken.   True  wisdom  teaches  that,  besides  the  things 
which  are  revealed,  there  yet  remain  secret^  which  belong 
not  to  us  or  to  our  children ;  still  the  knowledge  attained 
and  attainable  by  them  la  great ;  and  they  love  |iot  less 
because  they  know  not  more.    A^^d  how  different  must  be 
the  feelings  of  one,  who  sees  in  all  the  mechanism  and 
adaptations  of  the  universe  hut  the  effects  of  chance,  the 
results  of  a  blind  Impulse  of  mutation,  from  those  with 
which  the  self-same  wondrous  works  are  beheld  by  him 
who  traces  throughout  the  whole  creation  the  finger  of  the 
great  Creator:  the  former  misinterprets  the  book  of  nature, 
and  reads  therein  a  melancholy  talc,  by  whiqh  he  is  taught, 
not  in  humility,  but  in  despondence,  te  '^si^  nntQ  cor- 
ruption, thou  art  my  father,  and  unto  the  worn^  thou  art 
my  sister  and  my  mother ; "  while  to  the  latter,  tne  heaven 
and  the  earth,  and  all  that  they  contain,  become  narrators 
of  the  wisdom  and  benevolence  of  Him  wlio  made  them* 
Yes;  for,  although  there  is  neither  speech  nor  language, 
(by  reason's  ear)  voices  are  heard  amone  them;  and  the  true 
philosopher,  instead   of  bewildering  himself  In  unsound 
metaphysical  speculations,  perceives,  even  in  those  things 
whicti  are  the  least  understood,  sufficient  evidence  of  design 
to  forbid  their  production  to  be  attributed  to  chance :  lie 
recognises  at  once  proofa  of  skill  in  the  design,  that  he 
cannot  fathom ;  and  of  power  in  its  execution,  that  he  can 
neither  measure  nor  comprehend.    Yet,  although  incompre- 
hensible, and  hence,  to  some  a  stumb)lng-block,  and  to 
others  foolishness,  he  beholds  in  these  obscurities  many  sure 
manifestations  of  a  wisdom  without  limit,  and  of  a  power 
without  control.     Yes,   these  clouds,   which  bound  the 
horizon  of  human  knowledge,  are  clouds  of  witnesses,  for 
o'er  their  d  irkness  he  sees  extended  a  bow  of  promise,  a 
standard  of  the  Deity ;  and  therefore,  joining  in  the  common 
theme  of  praise,  with  mingled  sensations  of  gratitude  and 
love,   he  humbly  yet  confidently  declares,  "Mr  Father 
made  them  alL" — Gilbert  T.  Burvrtt, 


ON  CHESS,  xxrv, 

Chess  without  the  Boabd. 


The  severe  mental  exercise  neeessary  for  conducting  a 
game  of  chess,  without  the  help  of  board  or  men,  waa 
practised  at  a  verv  early  period  in  the  history  of  the 
garoot  So  far  back  as  970  years  after  Christ,  an  indi- 
vidual named  Joseph  Tchelebi  is  said  to  have  acquired 
a  facility  at  playing  chess,  blindfold ;  nor  was  this  at  all 
an  unusual  case  in  the  East,  The  chess-board  and  men 
were,  however,  handled  by  these  persons,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  conducting  the  game  was  thereby  greatly  les- 
sened. 

Far  more  difficult  was  the  task,  and  far  higher  rose 
the  fame  of  the  celebrated  personage  who  appeared  in 
1266,  and  astonished  the  people  of  Italy  by  his  per- 
formances. The  name  of  this  man  was  Buzecca,  a 
Suracen,  who  visited  Florence  at  the  period  above  men- 
tioned, and  gave  play  at  the  same  time  to  three  of  the 
best  artists  in  chess  which  Italy  could  produce.  These 
games  were  played  in  the  presence  of  numerous  persons 
of  distinction:  two  of  the  games  were  conducted  by 
Buzecca  without  seeing  the  board,  while  the  .third  was 
going  on  between  himself  and  an  antagonist  in  the  ordi* 
nary  manner.  Great  was  the  astonishment  and  admira- 
tion of  those  who  witnessed  this  trial  of  skill  to  find  the 
Saracen  winning  two  games  and  drawing  the  third.  The 
opponents  of  Buzecca  being  on  this  occasion  chosen  men, 
and  of  a  country  which  had  become  renowned  for  skilful 
chess-players,  there  is  the  more  reason  to  admire  the. 
talent  by  which  he  was  able  to  defeat  them,  and  to  remark 
on  the  high  state  of  cultivation  which  the  (science  of 
chess  must  have  arrived  at  in  the  East. 

Several  persons  are  mentioned  as  ei^cellent  b.indfold 
players,  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  and  commencement 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  especially  the  celebrated  Ruy 
Lopez,  chess-professor  at  tho  Spanish  court,  who  wrote 
an  elaborate  treatise  on  chess,  but  with  unusual  modesty 
omitted  to  mention  his  own  attainments  as  a  blindfold 
player.  Mang^iolini  of  Florence,  ^erone,  Medranoi 
I^onardo  da  Cutri  sumamed  II  Pnttino,  and  Paolo  3o}» 
are  some  of  the  distinguished  names  of  this  period  ix\ 
that  branch  of  chess-playing  now  under  consideration. 
The  last-mentioned  individual  was  in  the  habit  of  playing 
three  g^mes  at  once  without  seeing  any  ope  of  the 
boards,  and  without  intermitting  his  usual  strain  of 
lively  conversation.  He  was  cpntemporary  with  Ruy 
Lopep,  who  was  deoidedly  his  inferior,  and  with  Leonard* 
of  Cutri,  who  was  by  many  persons  deemed  his  equal. 
The  life  of  Paolo  is  sketched  by  two  historians,  Carrera 
and  8alvio,  and  contains  many  interesting  particulars,^ 
which  we  have  given  in  our  Botice  of  celebrated  chess- 
players. Pablo  was  the  opnqueror  of  ^v^^y  chess^ 
player  of  his  day,  except  Leonardo  da  Cutri.  The  con* 
test  between  Leonardo  and  Paolo  waa  very  severe.  They 
phiyed  a  match  which  lasted  three  whole  days.  During 
the  first  two  days  they  were  exactly  equal,  but  on  the 
third  Paolo,  who  was  sufl'ering  in  health  at  the  time, 
lost  ground,  and  was  finally  defeated.  The  two  heroes 
never  encoutftered  each  other  again.  Respecting  the 
style  of  play  of  these  two  men  we  read  that  Paolo  was 
rapid  in  bis  moves,  while  Leonardo  was  extremely  slow 
and  eautious, 

Girolano  Sacoheri,  a  priest  of  the  order  of  Jesuits, 
is  spoken  of  by  Keysler,  the  historian  of  Turm,  as  a 
man  of  extraordinary  chess  attainments.  He  lived  at 
the  early  part  of  the  last  century,  and  was  of  so  preco*- 
ous  an  intellect,  that,  before  he  was  ten  years  old,  he 
could  solve  the  most  difficult  problems  in  algebra  and 
arithmetic,  and  was  afterwards  constituted  public  lecturer 
on  mathematics  at  Pavia.  He  could  play  three  games, 
or  according  to  some  writers  even  four,  at  the  same 
time,  with  perfect  clearness  and  accuracy,  without  seeing 
any  one  of  the  boards* 

The  practice  of  playing  chess  blindfold,  had,  for  sq 

COS— 2 


^44 


•THE  SATURDAt  MfAOAfllJfe 


(Decembki  is, 


many  years  Meh  into  disuse  that  when  the  astonishing 
performances  of  Philidor  were  made  known,  they  were 
regarded  as  a  feat  of  intellect  altogether  new  and  peculiar 
to^that  great  player.  In  our  biographical  sketch  of 
Philidor  we  have  spoken  of  his  achievements  in  this 
difficult  department  of  the  game,  and  pass  on  now  to  say 
a  few  words  respecting  the  most  celebrated  blindfold 
players  of  our  own  day. 

The  fticulty  of  playing  chess  without  seeing  the  board 
is  not  the  invariable,  or  even  general  accompaniment  of 
excellence  in  that  science.  Many  first-rate  players  have 
been  unable  to  attain  it,  while  some  who  have  accepted 
odds  of  these,  have  found  little  difficulty  in  carrying  out 
a  game  to  its  termination  blindfold.  Those  who  study 
chess  chiefly  from  books,  find  less  difficulty  in  playing 
without  the  board,  than  those  who  have  acquired  their 
knowledge  chiefly  from  practice.  There  have  been  very 
eminent  men  who  never  looked  in  a  chess-book  until 
their  own  high  standing  was  already  taken — of  such 
were  La  Bourdonnais,  Deschapelles,  St.  Amant,  Bon- 
court, — again  thfere  were  others  who  were  essentially 
book-players,  and  likewise  excelled.  Mr.  Mac  Donnel, 
one  of  the  best  players  Great  Britain  has  ever  pro- 
duced, studied  much  from  ^books.  In  the  blindfold 
games  played  by  him,  moves  were  made  more  quickly 
than  when  he  saw  the  pieces. 

He  expressed  some  feeling  of  annoyance,  (says  Mr. 
Walker,)  if  the  bystanders  spoke  in  whispers,  but  had  no 
objection  to  conversation  being  carried  on  around  him  in  a 
natural  tone  of  voice. 

But  since  the  time  of  Philidor  no  one  has  excelled  so 
highly  in  the  art  of  blindfold  playing  as  the  late  M.  de 
la  Bourdonnais.  With  very  little  practice  he  was  able 
to  play  one  game  at  a  time,  within  a  pawn  of  his  strength, 
as  he  proved  by  playing  publicly  with  MM.  Boncourt, 
Jouy,  Bonfil,  ana  others.  He  afterwards  played  two 
games  at  once  against  third-  rate  players,  and  was  pre- 
paring to  play  three  blind-fold  games  at  once  against  the 
best  players,  when  an  alarming  rush  of  blood  to  the  head 
Was  the  result  of  this  severe,  and  we  may  add  useless, 
mental  exertion.  A  long  illness  was  the  consequence, 
And  M.  de  la  Bourdonnais  was  compelled  to  relinquish 
all  further  attempts  at  playing  without  seeing  the  board. 

The  difficulties  attendant  on  acquring  skill  in  chess  can 
scarcely  be  exaggerated  even  when  playing  in  the  usual 
manner  with  unlimited  time  at  command  to  expend  in  sur- 
veying the  forces  on  the  field  before  us.  In  how  vast  a 
degree  must  these  difficulties  be  multiplied  when  the 
mechanical  oljecta  of  the  chess-men  and  ohees^board  axe  ab- 
stracted, and  no  longer  exist  save  in  the  powers  of  the  mind ; 
when  the  windows  of  the  brain  are  dosed  down,  and  the 
faculties  of  sight  are  hermetically  sealed ;  when  a  bare  idea 
alone  remains  and  all  abroad  Is  darkest  night ;  when  all  that 
is  left  of  the  chess-board  and  men  is  their  vague  and  timid 
shadowr,  wanderinq^,  spectre-like,  across  the  mental  chamber, 
like  objects  on  a  camera  obscnra ;  when  memory  and  the  per- 
ceptive fisiculties  of  the  brain  most  be  taxed,  unaided,  to  name 
the  position  of  every  piece,  pawn,  and  square  of  the  chequer! 
And  when  these  efibrts  of  the  reasonix^and  thinking  powers 
require  to  be  uninterruptedly  prolonged  and  sustained, 
during  a  period  of  possibly  several  consecutive  hours,  with- 
out the  slightest  relief,  break,  pause,  rest,  or  relaxation ; 
then,  I  say,  the  art  of  playine  chess  without  seeing  the 
board,  becomes,  foirly  con8ldei«d,  an  extraordinary  e£rt  of 
the  mind ;  and  one  which  must  be  allowed  to  be,  in  the  eyes 
of  the  metaphysioian,  equally  curioua  as  interesting. 

These  remarks  by  Mr.  George  Walker  apply,  of  course, 
to  first-rate  players  who  conduct  the  game  blindfold 
within  a  pawn  of  their  strength,  and  in  this  way  play 
two  or  even  three  games  at  the  same  time.  But  to  play 
one  game  badly  without  seeing  the  board  is  compara- 
tively easy,  and  may  be  done  by  many  a  second  or  third 
rate  player  who  is  willing  to  bestow  a  little  time  on  the 
exercise. 

Mr.  Walker  gives  some  very  sensible  directions  for 
the  guidance  of  those  chess  players  who  are  desirous  of 
playing  without  seeing  the  board.     Referring  such  as  are 


interested  in  the  subject  to  his  article  in  Fraser't 
Magazine^  Vol.  XXI.,  p.  302,  we  pass  on  to  notice  the 
"  Art  of  riaying  without  seeing  the  Board,"  by  Carrera, 
whose  remarks  are  not  so  well  known  nor  so  accessible 
as  Mr.  Walker's. 


Those  rwho  are  desirous  of  learmn^  the  art  of 
without  seeing  the  board,  must  have  in  their  mind  all  the 
squares  of  the  chess-board,  and  all  the  pieces  that  are  or  were 
on  them.    It  is  not  sufficient,  as  some  think,  to  know  thet 
such  a  square  belongs  to  such  a  piece,  or  has  such  a  number, 
because  much  more  Uum  this  must  be  learned.    In  the  fiist 
place,  the  player  may  take  as  a  certain  rule,  that  oa  the  per- 
pendicular lines  all  uie  odd  numbers  are  of  the  same  oobiir', 
for  example,  if  the  first  square  of  a  line  be  white,  then  the 
third,  fifth  and  seventh  squares  will  also  be  whke;  if  the 
first  be  black,  the  thixd,  fifth,  and  seventh  will  be  black. 
It  is  difierent  with  the  oblique  lines,  which  are  eiiha  all 
white  or  all  black ;  for  example,  the  oblique  line  wluchbegiBS 
at  the  white  king's  rook's  square  is  entirely  white,  and  that 
bednning  at  Uie  white  queen's  rook's  square,  entinly  Uack; 
and  asaQ  the  straight  Imes  have  neither  mote  nor  less  than 
eight  squares^  it  is  not  necessary  to  sa^  anything  more  re- 
specting them ;  but  it  is  very  different  with  the  oblique  lines; 
only  two  of  these  contain  eight  squares,  namely,  those 
which  begin  at  the  rook's  squares^  one  of  which  is  white, 
and  the  other  black ;  those  lines  which  begrn  at  the  knight^s 
squares  having  onlv  seven  squares,  one  line  is  black,  the  other 
white ;  moreover  m>m  Che  kmght's  white  square  on  the  left 
hand  is  another  line  containing  only  two  squares,  and  from 
the  king's  black  square  on  the  right  hand,  ia  also  a  hne 
containing  only  two  squares,  but  it  would  be  tedious  to  men- 
tionall  iihe  squares  of  the  obliqae  lines;  suffice  it  to  sar, 
that  all  the  squares  whether  black  or  white,  on  the  right 
hand  or  on  the  left,  should  be  remembered  By  the  student. 
This  is  the  more  required,  because  it  is  not  only  necessanto 
know  the  squares  firom  the  beginning,  but  alao  from  the 
middle  and  end  of  the  lines :  for  example,  the  third  sqnan 
of  the  white  queen  is  white,  which  bmnches  into  an  obliqae 
line  of  four  squares  forwards  on  the  king's  side,  and  biicii- 
wards  on  the  same  line  two  squares  on  the  queen^s  fcide; 
forwards  to  the  left  is  another  line  of  three  squares,  and 
backwards  on  the  king's  side  two  squares ;  it  is  also  necessuy 
to  know  which  of  these  squares  is  the  king's  fourth,  adm- 
saiy's  bishop's  fourth,  king's  third,  rook's  second,  &e. 

With  n»ard  to  the  pieces  and  pawns,  it  ia  necesaarrto 
have  wen  fixed  in  the  mind  their  position  when  (m  th«r 
own  squares,  in  order  to  know  what  squares  they  attack: 
for  example,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  know  the  situation  of  the 
king's  pawn  at  its  own  square ;  you  must  also  know  that  it 
attacks  the  queen's  third,  and  king's  bishop's  third  s^aare; 
the  same  with  the  pieces ;  the  white  king's  kniffht  <>'»  j^  J!^ 
square  attacks  the  Icing's  second,  bishop's  and  rook's  thiw 
square :  it  is  much  more  difficult,  when  the  pieces  haw 
quitted  their  own  squares  to  know  what  squares  they  irttad, 
so  that  the  essence  of  playing  without  seemg  the  board  coih 
sist«  in  the  knowledge  of  the  relative  portion  of  the  squaw, 
and  of  one's  own  and  one's  adversary's  pieces,  so  that  va 
player  may  not  mistake,  when  he  cnecks  the  adversaiy, « 
ne  can  give  him  checkmate,  or  if  he  can  interpose^ 
piece  or  pawn  &c.,  &c. ;  all  which  requires,  too>  *  f*J*  ^ 
knowledge  of  the  pieces  exchaneed  and  taken,  for  witnoa* 
it  one  cannot  possibly  play  witnout  seeing  the  hoard. 

Of  the  pieces,  the  knight  is  considered  the  most  diificotf 
to  remember,  on  account  of  the  peculiarity  of  its  move,  ana 
therefore  I  shall  make  a  few  remarks  on  i^  from  the  sqn^ 
on  which  the  knight  is,  counting  two  squares  forvwN, 
backwards  or  sideways,  the  knight  attacks  the  sqnw^^ 
joining  the  third  square  to  the  right  and  left:  the  smaUefl 
number  of  squares  that  the  knight  can  attack  ia  when  it  b 
on  one  of  the  rooks'  squares,  as  it  attacks  only  two  ^^* 
if  it  be  on  its  own  square  it  attacks  three  squares;  m 
squares,  if  it  be  placed  on  the  bishop's,  king's,  qneen^ 
knight's  second,  or  rook's  third  or  fi)urth  square ;  n  »  ?^ 
placed  on  the  king's  third  or  fourth,  queen's  third  orfo^ 
or  bishop's  third  or  fourth,  it  attacks  ei^ht  sq^uares ;  if «  « 
placed  on  the  remaining  squares  it  attacxs  oiuy  six  ^^^ 
The  pawns  are  more  easy  to  keep  in  mind,  be<»nse  tii  7 
never  attack  more  than  two  squares,  and  the  rook^s  paw 
only  one  ;  after  the  pawns,  the  piece  the  easiest  to  remenj 
is  the  king,  then  the  rook,  then  the  bishop  (because  it  » 

'    liar  than  the  oblique  lin«^ 


I 


easier  to  remember  the  perpendicular 


the 


then  the  (jueen.     Besides  to  play  well  without  ^^"5...j^ 
board,  it  is  necessary  to  play  often,  which  is  not  a  Ji . 
fatiguing ;  no  one  can  play  so  well  from  incmor>'  as  u 


IMI.3 


THE  SATUSDAY  MAGAZINE. 


Hw  ttw  hoard ;  this  ii  allowed  by  all  who  profus  to  plaj 
witliout  aeeinz  the  board.  I  gmnl  that  aome  succeed 
belter  than  oUiers,  but  none  so  well  as  if  they  saw  the 
pieces.  It  is  not  necessary  to  be  very  skilfat  in  order  to 
j)lajr  without  seeing  the  board,  for  common  playera  succeed 
m  It;  allowixig  the  difference  in  pl^  between  seeing  and  not 
■eeing  the  piecea.-'LBwis's  TVmu^atwn  yT  Carrara. 


In  the  edacation  of  the  intellectual  powers,  two  chief  ends 
are  tn  be  kept  in  view:  firat,  the  most  advantageous  developed 
merit  of  these  powers  themselves;  and,  second,  the  eontmu- 
nieation  of  the  greatest  amount  of  knowledge  capable  of 
bein?  Imiught  into  usoflil  application; — BrititA  and  For«^ 
Medical  JCmiew. 


It  must  always  bo  the  condition  of  a  great  part  of  mankind 
to  reject  and  embrace  leneta  upon  the  authority  of  those 
whom   thsy  think  wiser  thmi   themselves^— Dr.  Simdbl 

JORKSON. 

c  be  given  to  gun  that  of 

To  adopt  popular  opimons  without  the  slightest  hesitation, 
is  to  run  the  risk  of  introducing  into  science,  to  its  great  in- 
j  ury,  a  multitude  of  confused  noilona  founded  on  phenomena 
imperfectly  seen  and  inaccurately  examined ;  but  to  reject 
such,  opinions  without  examination,  is  often  to  lose  .an 
m>portunLty  of  important  diacovery. — Magtuine  (ff  Popular 


UNION    BETWEEN    KOtri.   AMD    BODY. 

W.UEN  we  die,  we  do  not  cease  to  be,  nor  cease  to  live, 
but  <Hily  cease  to  live  in  these  earthly  bodies;  the  vital 
union  between  the  soitl  and  body  is  dissolved,  we  are  no 
Ioniser  encloistered  in  a  tabernacle  of  fleali,  we  no  longer 
feel  tlie  irapressions  of  it,  neither  the  pains  nor  pleasures  of 
tlie  body  can  ogect  ua  :  it  can  charm,  it  can  tempt  no  longer. 
I'liis  needs  no  proof,  but  very  well  deserves  our  most  senoua 
meditations. 

For  tills  teaches  us  the  difference  and  distdnction  between 
soul  and  body,  which  men  who  are  sunk  into  flesh  and 
sense  are  apt  to  forget ;  nay,  to  lose  the  very  notion  and 
belief  of  it.  All  their  delights  are  fleshly ;  tliev  know  no 
other  pleasures  but  what  their  five  senses  faruiah  tliem  with  : 
tliey  cannot  nuse  their  thoughts  above  this  body,  nor  enter- 
tain any  noble  designs,  and  therefore  they  imagme  that  they 
ore  nottiiiig  but  flesh  and  blood,  a  little  organized  and  aju- 
matcd  clay  ;  and  it  is  no  great  wonder  that  men  who  feel  (he 
workings  and  raotiona  of  no  higher  principle  of  life  within 
tbem,  but  fle^h  and  sense,  should  imagine  that  they  are 
nothing  but  flesh  themselves.  Though  methinkB,,when  we 
see  the  senseless  and  putrefyins  remains  of  a  bmve  man 
before  us,  it  is  hard  to  conceive  tW  this  is  all  of  him ;  tliat 
this  is  the  thing  \s'hich  some  few  hours  ago  could  reason 
and  discourae  ;  was  fit  to  govern  a  kingdom,  or  to  instruct 
mankind  ;  could  demise  flesh  and  seuse,  and  govern  all  his 
bodily  appetites  and  inclinations,  and  was  adorned  with  all 
divine  graces  and  virtues;  was  the  glory  and  pride  of  the 
age.  And  is  this  dead  carcase,  which  we  now  see,  the 
-whole  of  liimt  Or  was  there  a  more  divine  inhabitant, 
which  uiimatcd  this  eartlily  machine,  which  gave  life  and 
beauty  to  it,  but  which  is  now  removed  ? 

When  we  consider  that  we  consist  of  soul  and  body, 
-T('hich  are  the  two  distinct  parts  of  man,  this  will  teach  ua 
to  take  care  of  both.  For  con  any  man  who  lielieves  he  has 
n  soul  Ije  concerned  only  for  his  oodyt  A  compound  crea- 
ture cannot  lie  happy,  unless  botli  ports  of  him  enjoy  their 
E roper  pleasures.  He  who  enjoys  only  the  pleasures  of  the 
ady  is  never  the  happier  for  navin?  a  human  and  reason- 
able soul ;  the  soul  of  a  beast  would  have  done  as  well,  and 
it  may  be  better;  for  brute  creatures  relish  bodily  pleasures 
OS  much,  and  it  may  be  more,  than  men  do  ;  and  reason  is 
very  troublesome  to  those  men  who  resolve  to  live  like 
brutea,  for  it  makes  them  ashamed  and  a&aid,  which  in 
many  cases  hinders,  or  at  least  allays  their  pleasures.  And 
why  should  not  a  man  desire  the  lull  and  entire  happiness 
of  a  man?  Why  should  he  despise  any  part  of  himself, 
and  that  the  best  part  too?  And  therefore,  at  least,  we 
ought  to  take  as  much  care  of  our  souls  as  of  our  bodies. 
Do  we  adorn  our  bodies  that  we  may  be  tit  to  be  seen,  and 
verse  with  men,  and  may  receive  those  respects  which 
e  to  our  quality  and  fortune,  and  shall  we  not  adorn 
oar  souls  too  with  those  Christian  graces  wliich  make  us 
lovely  in  the  ught  of  God  and  men  I—Dbin  Sherlock. 


THE  ART  OF  DECIPHERING  THE  EFFACED 
INSCRIPTIONS  OF  COINS. 


It  ia  obvious  that  we  can  have  no  guarantee  that  speci- 
mens of  the  works  of  antiquity, — relica  of  the  timei 
gone  by, — should  pass  through  the  long  vale  of  years, 
unmutilaled,  and  uncontaminated:  for  such  worka  were 
neither  laid  up  for  the  benefit  of  the  modems,  nor  were 
many  of  them,  individually  at  least,  held  to  be  of  extra- 
ordinary value  at  the  time  of  their  production.  To  this 
number  may  he  referred  the  coins  and  medals  which  were 
struck  by  races  of  people  long  ago  extinct,  and  which 
now  speak  so  much  for  their  general  history,  their 
manners,  customs,  laws,  religion,  and  arts. 

As  we  cannot  therefore  hope  to  handle  a  coin  clean 
firom  the  Greek  or  Roman  mint,  and  as  we  are  naturally 
curious  to  know  from  what  part  of  the  entire  body,  a 
fragment  of  antiquity  may  have  fallen  off,  so,  when  we 
hold  in  our  hands  a  piece  of  money,  used  perhaps  for 
the  commonest  purposes  of  life,  by  our  terrestrial  predc> 
ceasorsof  1500  orSOOOyearaago,  we  are  eager  to  find  out 
from  it  the  nation  it  once  belonged  to,  the  prince  whose 
portrait  seems  to  glimmer  through  the  metallic  mist, 
and  all  the  subsidiary  information,  which  it  may  furnish, 
and  which  our  general  knowledge  of  the  history  of  that 
nation  concurs  to  elucidate.  When,  therefore,  the  coin 
has  become  much  or  wholly  defaced  by  accident,  or  the 
wear  and  tear  of  time,  it  is  evident  that  any  means 
which  shall  bring  again  to  light  that  which  has  been 
eSaced,  are  desirable  to  practise,  even  if  the  coin  should 
be  BO  eventually  injured;  for  it  is  plain  that  an  illegible 
coin  or  medal  is  of  no  use  whatever,  beyond  its  mere 
weight  of  metal. 

It  bos  been  for  a  long  time  known  that  the  legend,  or 
inscription,  on  a  worn-out  coin  may  be  traced  and  de- 
ciphered by  putting  the  coin  on  a  hot  iron.  It  is  not 
known  who  first  made  this  discovery,  nor  was  an  expla- 
nation of  thia  fact  ever  afforded  until  very  lately. 

When  the  coin  is  laid  upon  a  red'hot  iron,  an  oiida- 

a  takei  place  over  ita  whole  surface.  The  term  o^i- 
dation  implies  a  combination  of  the  metal  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere;  ond  the  oxidized  portion 
therefore,  covers  the  metal  like  a  thin  plate,  depending 
for  the  colour  or  tint  which  it  assumes  upon  its  thickness. 
The  film  of  oxide  produced  by  laying  the  coin  upon  a 
hot  iron  changes  ita  tint  with  the  intensity  or  continuance 
of  the  he«t>  The  parts,  however,  where  the  figure  or  the 
letters  of  the  inscription  had  existed,  oxidate  at  a 
different  rate  from  the  surrounding  parts;  so  that  these 
letters  exhibit  their  shapes,  and  become  legible  in  conse- 
quence of  the  film  of  oxide  which  covers  Uiem  having  a 
different  thickness,  and  therefore  reflecting  a  different  tint 
from  that  of  the  adjacent  parts*.  The  tints  thus  deve- 
loped sometimes  pass  through  many  orders  of  brilliant 
colours,  particularly  pink  and  green,  and  settle  in  a  bronze, 
and  sometimes  in  a  black  tint,  which  rests  upon  the 
figure  and  inscription  alone.  In  aome  cases  the  tint  left  on 
the  trace  of  the  letters  is  so  very  faint  that  it  can  but 
just  be  seen,  and  may  be  entirely  removed  by  a  alight 
rub  of  the  finger. 

The  curious  results  obtained  in  the  manner  just 
described,  are  thus  accounted  for  by  8ir  Davjd  Rrewster. 
When  we  take  a  plane  disk  of  silver,  that  has  never  been 
hammered  or  compressed,  its  surface  will  oxidate  equally, 

*  Vat  the  colniin  oT  Ibin  plUa.  n  depending  upoa  thrii  thicloK*!, 
■M  the  Fq«»  SD  Uu  Soir-BoMu,  YoL  SV.,p.  IVB,  (f  Kf. 


149 


THR  94TWI>3iY  WAGAZIN8. 


[Deckmbu  M. 


tf  all  its  p«irts  be  equally  heated.  But,  in  the  proc^^s  of 
converting  this  disk  into  a  coin,  the  sunk  pH^  ^^^  ^^^^^ 
which  were  most  compressed  by  the  prominent  parts  of 
the  die ;  and  the  elevated  parts  are  those  which  were 
least  compressed ;  the  metal  being  in  the  latter  condition 
left,  as  it  were,  more  in  its  natural  state.  The  raised 
letters  and  figures  on  a  coin  have,  therefore,  less  density 
thaa  the  other  parts,  and  these  parts  oxidate  sooner  or  at 
a  lower  temperature.  When  the  letters  of  the  legend 
are  worn  off  by  friction,  the  parts  immediately  below 
them  have  also  less  density  than  the  surrounding  metal; 
and  the  site,  as  it  were,  of  the  letters  therefore,  receives 
from  heat  a  degree  of  oxidation,  and  a  colour,  different 
from  that  of  the  surrounding  surface.  Hence  ensues 
the  revival  of  the  invisible  letters  b^  unequal  oxidatioq. 

The  influence  of  the  difference  of  density  may  like- 
wise be  observed  iti  the  beautiful  oxidations  which  are 
produced  on  the  surface  of  highly  polished  steel,  heated 
in  contact  with  air,  at  temperatures  between  430°  and 
630°.  When  the  steel  has  hard  portions,  called  by  the 
workmen,  pinst  the  uniform  tint  of  the  film  of  oxide 
stops  near  these  hard  portions,  which  always  exhibit 
colours  different  from  those  of  the  rest  of  the  mass. 
"Die^e  parts,  owing  to  their .  greater  density,  absorb 
Q^ygeu  from  the  air  in  a  less  degree  than  the  surround- 
ing portions.  The  steel,  then  expanded  by  heat,  absorbs 
oxygen,  which,  being  united  with  the  metal,  forms  the 
coloured  film.  As  the  heat  increases,  a  greater  quantity 
of  oxygen  is  absorbed,  and  the  film  increases  in  thick- 
aes^. 

^Vhen  the  experiment  is  often  repeated  with  the  same 
coin,  and  the  oxidations  successively  removed  after  each 
experiment,  the  film  of  oxide  continues  to  diminish,  and 
at  last,  ceases  to  appear  at  all ;  but  it  recovers  the  pro* 
pertv  in  the  eourse  ot  time.  When  the  coin  is  put  upon 
the  hot  iroa,  and  when  the  oxidation  is  greatest,  a  smoke 
arises  from  the  coin,  which  diminishes,  like  the  film  of 
oxide,  by  constant  repetition.  Sir  David  Brewster  has 
found  from  many  trials  that  it  is  always  the  raised  parts 
of  a  coin,  and  in  modern  coins  the  elevated  ledge  round 
the  inscription,  that  first  become  oxidated. 

There  is  a  very  curious  experiment  connected  with 
this  subject,  which  goes  beyond  anything  hitherto 
r^^lated.  This  ,to  take  a  silver  coin,  (which  answers 
the  purpose,.. best),  ^nd  after  polishing  the  surface 
as  much  as  possible,  to  make  the  raised  parts  rough 
by  the  action  pi  an  acid,  the  sunk  parts  being  left  cl§an, 
aod  polished, .  If  the  coin  thus  prepared  be  placed  upon 
a.  mass  p£  ifj^hot  iron,  and  removed  into  a  dark  room* 
the  in^fiyiptMA^on  it  will  become  more  luminous  thaa 
the  rest,  ao  tnatlt  may  be  distinctly  read  off.  The  coin 
should  be  viewed,  during  this  experiment,  through  a 
tube  blackened  on  the  inside ;  by  which  means  the  ey^ 
will.be  in  a  fitter  state  for  observing  the  effect,  and  will  be 
somewhat  protected  from  the  beat  and  smoke.  If,  instead 
of  polishing  the  depressed  parts,  and  roughening  the 
r^sed  parts  of  the  coin,  we  polish  the  raised  parts,  and 
roughen  the  iiepressed  parts,  the  inscription  and  figure 
will-be  less  luminous  than  the  depressed  parts;  but  we 
shall  be  abU  to  distinguish  them,  from  their  seeming  to 
be  traced  in  black  characters  on  a  white  ground.  The 
different  appearances  of  a  coin,  according  as  the  raised 
parts  are  polished  or  roughened,  are  shown  in  the  figures 
at  the  hfi^  of  this  article.  In  the  lef\  hand  cut,  the 
raised  parts  are  polished:  in  the  right  hand  cut  they  are 
roughened. 

The  most  surprising  form  of  this  experiment  is  when 
we  use  a  coin  from  which  the  inscription  has  'been  either 
wholly  obliterated,  or  so  much  obliterated  as  to  be 
illegiblp:  such  are  the  shillings  and  sixpences  of  the  last 
generation :  those  of  England^  France,  and  Spain,  serve 
the  purpose  of  the  experiment  very  nicely.  The  results 
with  copper  coins  are  more  difficult  to  obtain,  and  are 
less  palpable :  but  when  we  lay  a  silver  coin  upon  the 
red-hot  iron,  the  places  of  the  letters  and  figures  pecome 


exidated«  %iid  iha  film  of  0xide  n^UAlhif  more  powerfully 
than  the  rest  of  the  coin  will  be  more  luminous  than  ths 
other  parts ;  so  that  the  macription,  illegible  before,  may 
be  now  distinctly  read.  The  acid  is  not  absoluWy 
necessary  to  this  experiment,  when  using  a  thia  silver 
coin. 

To  understand  the  reason  why  inscriptions  becoine 
legible  in  the  dark,  whether  the  coin  is  in  a  perfect  state, 
or  the  letters  of  it  are  worn  off,  we  must  remember  that  all 
black  or  rough  surfaces  radiate  light  more  than  poli<M 
or  smooth  surfaces;  and  hence  the  inscriptk)Q  is  lumi< 
nous  when  it  is  rougbi  and  obscure  wheQ  it  is  polished; 
and  the  letters  covered  with  black  oxide  are  more  lm> 
nous  than  the  adiacent  parts,  on  account  of  the  superior 
radiation  of  light  by  the  black  oxide  which  covers 
them. 

Sir  David  Brewster  suggests  that  by  means  lucb  ai 
these,  invisible  writing  might  be  conveyed  from  one  place 
to  another,  by  impressing  it  upon  a  iaetallic  sarfaeet  and 
afterwards  erasing  it  by  grinding  and  polishing  that 
surface  quite  smooth*  when  expo^  to  the  requisite 
degree  of  heSit,  the  aecvet  writing  would  start  forth  in 
oxidated  letters. 

Some  old  coins,  when  being  heated,  have  givsa  out 
brilliant  red  globules,  aeoompanied  with  a  aneil  of 
sulphur;  and  sometimes,  small  globules,  like  those  of 
quicksilver,  have  exuded  from  the  surface.  Some  coin 
give  out  im  intolerable  smell;  and  an  Indian  paH^ 
beciime  perfectly  blaok,when  placed  upon  the  heated  iros* 
These  results  are  due  to  the  impurity  of  the  meul  and 
the  nature  of  the  alloy. 

The  cut  at  the  head  of  tbis  article  shows  the  reTtni 
of  a  Ronum  cohi  of  the  aeoond  eentury,  in  which 
the  province  of  Britain  is  personified.  The  fignre 
BliiTANNiA  is  found  upoa  many  other  Roman  coins, 
which  were  atruuk  for  BritaiUi  and  has  been  now  used 
iu  the  £ngUah  copper  coinage  for  168  years  past.  The 
legend  implies  that  the  emperor  Commodus,  whose  hutt 
is  on  the  obverse,  was  **  Pontifei  Maximtts/'— "is  ^ 
10th  year  of  his  tribunal  authoFity," -^<*  in  the  7ih  yesr 
of  his  reign,"  or  a.o.  1 86,— and,  <Mn  the  4th  year  of 
his  consulship:"— ^S0|  that  he  was  ** Father  of  hii 
country." 


BouyQ  up  amid  the  thaiisaad  Uss 

Of  mau's  mysterious  sympatlii^ 

Is  tb^t  strange  feeling,  that  hath  birth 

While,  gazing  on  our  parent  earth, 

The  spirit  to  itself  transfers 

The  sunshine  or  the  gloom  of  hers, 

Who  hath  not  felt  the  peace  that  lies 

On  fields  that  smile  'neath  suminer  skies 

Who  tp  th'  eternal  hymn  of  oaeaa 

Responds  not  with  as  pure  devotion, 

}iQT  dnnks  a  ioy  of  sterner  mood 

From  rugged  hill  or  pathless  woodt— HAKiiyiOV. 


Whbn  Smeaton  had  reflected  long,  in  seareh  of  tbatfonn 
which  would  be  best  fitted  to  resist  the  oombined  action  of 
wind  and  waves,  he  found  it  in  the  trunk  of  the  oak. 
When  Watt  was  employed  to  conduct  the  supply  of  water 
across  tho  Clydo  to  the  city  of  Gla^ow,  he  borrowed  bis 
admirable  contrivance  of  a  flea^ible  water-main  from  f^^' 
sidering  the  flexibility  of  the  lobster's  tail :  and  so,  when 
Mr.  Brunei  was  engaged  in  superintendiM  the  constnictioa 
of  the  tunnel  under  the  Thames,  it  was  from  observing  tne 
head  of  an  apparently  insignificant  insect,  tliat  he  derived 
his  first  conception  of  the  mgenlous  shield,  which  he  lutro- 
duced  in  advance  of  the  workmen,  to  protect  thero  from 
being  crushed  by  the  falling  in  of  the  earth.  It  becomes  va, 
then,  while  we  trace  th«  operations  of  hmnsn  ingmaj 
in  adapting  means  to  its  proposed  ends,  to  raise  our  tliougbtt 
to  that  Divine  architect  who  has  imprinted  traces  of  dj« 
wisdom  and  power  on  all  his  works:  causing  th?  heavens  w 
declare  his  glory,  and  the  earth,  throughout  all  ita  dom^ 
of  land,  sea,  and  air,  to  show  forth  hfs  handiwork,-!^*- 

PoTTBB. 


1841.] 


THE  SATUnDArMAGAZlNfi. 


247 


RURAL  SPORTS  FOR  THE  MONTHS 

DECEMBER. 

We  have  chosen  the  Ptarmigan  as  the  subject  of  our 
present  article,  not  because  the  pursuit  of  that  bird  is 
esteemed  by  sportsmen  as  deserving  particular  notice, 
•»on  the  contrary,  it  is  characterised  as  a  tame  and  un- 
interesting sport,  requiring  little  enterprise,  and  gaining 
little  merit, — but  that  we  may  draw  the  attention  of  our 
readers  to  some  remarkable  circumstances  in  the  natural 
history  of  this  tenant  of  the  regions  of  frost  and  snow. 

The  ptarmigan  belongs  to  the  grouse  family,  and  is 
sometimes  called  the  "  white  grouse.**  Its  home  is  near 
the  tops  of  elevated  mountains,  and  it  seems  so  averse 
to  the  kindly  influence  of  the  sun's  rays^  that  as  soon  as 
the  snow  begins  to  melt  on  the  sides  of  the  hills,  it 
ascends  still  higher,  until  it  gains  the  summit,  where  it 
forms  holes,  and  burrows  in  the  snow.  Most  of  the 
Alpine  districts  of  Europe  abound  In  ptarmigans,  and 
even  a^  far  north  as  Greenland  they  are  very  numerous. 
The  Oreenlanders  catch  them  in  nooses  dropped  over 
their  necks,  and  account  them  a  g^reat  luxury :  they  eat 
them,  eithet  dressed  or  raw,  and  do  not  object  to  them 
in  a  decaying  state;  the  intestines  are  reckoned  t  great 
delicacy,  and  are  eaten  with  train-oil  and  berries.  The 
Greenland  women  adorn  themselves  with  the  tall  feathers 
of  the  bird,  and  the  men  wear  shirts  made  of  the  skins^ 
with  the  feathers  next  the  body.  The  Laplanders  take 
these  birds  by  making  a  hedge  of  birch  branches  with 
small  openings  at  intervats.  In  each  of  these  openings 
is  a  snare,  and  the  ptainnigans  in  their  search  aner  the 
young  buds  and  catkins  of  the  trees  are  easily  caught* 

The  Hudson's  Bay  ptarmigan,  otherwise  called  the 
willow  partridget  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  im- 
mense numbers  which  are  taken.  Their  flesh  is  much 
csteenmed  by  the  Europeans  of  the  settlement,  and  they 
are  saLd  to  be  as  tame  as  chickens.  The  Usual  mode  of 
taking  theni  is  by  fixing  a  net  twenty  feet  square,  to 
four  poles,  and  by  means  of  a  rope  i'astened  to  these 
props  to  have  the  power  of  pulling  down  the  net  at  any 
moment.  Persons  are  employed  to  drive  the  birds  in 
the  direction  of  the  net,  and  when  a  sufficient  number 
are  assembled,  the  concealed  manager  of  the  rope  lets 
down  the  net,  and  often  entraps  fh)m  fifly  to  si5tty.  From 
November  to  the  end  of  April  it  is  reckoned  that  ten 
thousand  of  thene  birds  are  txiken  for  the  use  of  the 
settlement.  The  name  of  willow  partridge  has  been 
given  to  the  ptarmigans  of  that  country  from  their 
assembling  in  large  flocks  at  the  beginning  of  October  to 
feed  among  the  willows. 

In  Britain,  this  bird  is  only  to  be  met  With  on  the 
summits  of  the  highest  hills,  among  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  in  the  Hebrides  and  Orkneys,  and  sometimes 
on  the  lofty  hills  of  Cumberland  and  Wales.  We  may 
traverse  the  heights  covered  with  heather,  and  still  be 
far  below  the  abode  of  the  ptarmigan.  To  reach  his 
cliffy  and  desolate  abode  you  must  ascend  until,  in  the 
language  of  one  of  our  popular  writers, 

You  begin  at  last  to  feel  alone,  severed  entirely  from  the 
world  of  society,  of  life,  and  of  growth,  and  committed  to 
the  solitude  of  the  ancient  hills  and  immeasurable  sky.  The 
snow  lies  thick  on  the  side  of  the  summit,  and  even  i)eer8 
over  the  top,  defying  the  utmost  efforts  of  solstitial  heat. 
There  is  no  plant  under  your  feet,  save  lichen  on  the  rock, 
appafently  as  hard  and  stony  as  that  to  which  it  adheres — 
it  Q&n  hardly  be  said  to  grow — and  moss  in  some  crevice, 
nndistinguishable  from  the  dull  and  cold  mud  into  winch 
the  storms  of  many  winters  have  abraded  the  granite. 

And  what  are  the  objects  which  present  themselves 
to  notice  in  this  region  of  snow  ? 

A  few  mottled  pebbles,  or  at  least  what  appear  to  be  so, 
each  about  twice  the  size  of  your  hand,  Heat  some  distance, 
where  the  decomposed  rock,  and  the  rudiments  of  what  may 
be  called  the  most  elevated  mountain  vegetation,  just  begin 
to  rufHc  the  surface.  By  and  by,  a  cloud  shadows  the  sun, 
the  air  blows  ehill  as,NoTembet|  and  a  few  drops  fidl,  fieeezin^ 


or  melting  in  tiieir  descent,  you  cannot  tell  which.  The 
mottled  pebbles  begin  to  move :  yon  throw  a  stone  at  them, 
to  show  that  you  can  move  pebbles  as  \^  ell  as  the  mountain. 
The  stone  hits  beyond  them  ;  they  run  towards  your  feet 
as  if  claiming  protection:  they  are  birds, — ptarmigan, — the 
uppermost  tenants  of  the  island,  whom  not  even  winds  wliich 
could  uproot  forests,  and  hosts  which  could  all  but  con<^c»al 
mercury,  can  drive  from  these  their  mountain  haunts.  It  has 
often  been  observed  that  of  all  the  human  inhabitants  of  the 
earth,  thd  mountaineer,  be  his  mountain  ever  so  barren,  is 
the  last  to  quit  and  the  same  holds  true  of  the  mountain- 
bird. 

The  sportsmen  who  find  pleasure  in  climbing  the 
granite  cliffs,  and  wading  the  winter  snows  in  which  the 
ptarmigans  delight  to  bury  themselves,  are  few  indeed. 
An  excursion  of  this  nature  must  be  regarded  as  a 
journey  of  curiosity,  for  the  purpose  of  viewing  the 
wilder  and  more  imposing  features  of  our  country,  rather 
than  as  a  sporting  engagement  which  is  to  yield  any  pro- 
fitable return.  The  flesh  of  the  ptarmigan  except  when 
taken  very  early  in  the  season,  is  much  inferior  to  that 
of  the  red-grouse,  being  less  juicy,  and  deficient  in  flavour. 
The  chief  interest  attaching  to  the  bird  arises  from  the 
peculiarity  of  its  haunts,  the  simplic^ity  of  its  habits,  and 
the  periodical  changes  in  the  colour  of  its  plumage. 

The  plumage  of  the  ptarmigan  has  been  called  "  a 
natural  thermometer,"  on  account  of  its  variations  in 
colour  with  the  variations  in  temperature  during  the  differ- 
ent seasons  of  the  year.  The  summer  plumage  is  yellow, 
more  or  less  inclining  to  brown,  and  elegantly  mottled 
with  bladk,  grey,  and  white:  the  quills  of  the  wings, 
twenty-four  in  number,  have  black  shafts  and  white  webs 
The  tail  feathers  are  sixteen  iri  number,  seven  on  each 
side,  and  two  in  the  centre,  the  shafts  of  which  are  black. 
As  autumn  advances,  these  colours  undergo  a  gradual 
change:  the  black  and  brown  become  paler  and  paler; 
then  the  grey  fades,  until  when  the  winter  is  fully  set  in, 
the  whole  plumage  becomes  of  a  snowy  white,  except  the 
eye-streak  in  the  male,  the  outer  tail  feathers,  and  the 
shafts  of  the  middle  ones.  This  change  does  not  take 
place  in  consequence  of  a  moult,  or  falling-off  of  coloured 
feathers,  to  be  replaced  by  white  ones ;  but  the  change 
actually  takes  place  in  the  colour  of  the  feathers  them- 
selves, while  at  the  same  time  the  plumage  becomes 
ftiller,  thicker,  and  more  downy;  the  bill  is  almost  con- 
cealed, and  the  legs  are  covered  down  to  the  very  toes 
with  hair-like  feathers. 

These  changes  in  colours,  have  been  attributed  to  a 
kind  provision  of  nature  to  enable  the  birds  more  effec- 
tually"^ to  escape  their  enemies.  Now  it  is  crrtainly  true, 
that  the  summer  vest  of  the  ptarmigan'^bcars  some 
resemblance  to  the  broken  tints  produced  by  the  brown 
patches  of  heath  on  the  mountain  slopes,  which  this 
bird  frequents,  and  so  far  screens  it  from  observation: 
so  also  does  its  white  livery  serve  the  purpose  of  conceal- 
ment when  its  home  is  in  the  snow.  But  if  this  be  one 
of  the  reasons  for  the  change,  it  is  not  the  principal  one. 
Many  of  the  polar  animals,  and  others  which  inhabit 
the  colder  regions  of  the  temperate  zone,  undergo  a 
change  in  colour  similar  to  that  of  the  ptarmigan, 
and  the  rapidity  of  the  change  has  been  observed  to 
depend  upon  the  severity  of  the  season.  A  little  atten- 
tion to  the  science  of  heat,  will  assist  us  on  the  present 
occasion.  The  temperature  of  all  bodies  i^  greatly 
influenced  by  the  colour  of  their  surfaces;  those  which 
are  white  reflect  most  of  the  heat  which  falls  upon  them* 
those  that  are  black  absorb  it;  so  that  if  a  white  and  a 
black  body  be  exposed  to  a  high  temperature,  the  latter 
will  be  heated  much  sooner  than  the  former.  But  on 
the  other  hand,  a  white  body  parts  with  its  heat  slowly, 
— a  black  body  quickly ;  hence,  if  both  be  placed  in  a 
low  temperature,  the  latter  will  cool  much  sooner  tlwin 
the  former.  These  facts  have  long  been  esjiabli^licd 
with  respect  to  inanimate  matter,  but  they  apply  with 
equal  force  to  animals :  by  the  healthy  performance  of 
certain  functions  (chiefly,  respiration  and  the  circulation 


S48 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


[December  25, 1 84 1 


I 


L 


of  the  blood),  heat  is  constantly  supplied,  and  thus  is 
maintala^^d  a  temperature  necessary  to  perpetuate  the 
fuQctioQs  of  life:  a  portion  of  the  animal  heat  always 
escapes  from  the  surface  of  the  body  by  radiation:  if 
the  heat  escape  faster  than  it  is  formed,  the  temperature 
of  the  animal  body  will  fall  to  such  a  point,  that  it  is  no 
longer  sufficient  tn  maintain  life; — but,  if  the  body  be 
protected  by  substances  which  conduct  and  radiate  heat 
very  slowly,  such  for  example  as  our  winter  clothing 
and  the  feathers,  wool  and  fur  of  animals,  heat  escapes 
less  quickly  than  it  is  formed,  and  the  animal  is  thus 
enabled  to  inhabit  a  spot,  the  temperature  of  which  is 
greatly  below  that  of  its  own  body. 

Not  only  is  the  plumage  of  the  ptarmigan  adapted  by 
Providence  for  the  peculiar  situation  in  which  the 
bird  is  placed,  but  in  respect  of  its  general  form  the 
same  adaptation  is  apparent;  It  stands  more  firmly  on 
its  legs  than  the  other  birds  of  its  race,  and  presents 
but  little  resistance  to  the  wind,  in  consequence  of  its 
crouching  attitude.  Its  feet  and  claws,  though  feathered 
down  to  the  very  toes,  are  not  impeded  or  encumbered 
on  this  account,  for  the  surface  of  the  mountains  is 
generally  dry,  and  pools  of  water  are  speedily  converted 
into  ice.  The  bill  is  remarkably  strong,  and  is  well 
fitted  to  crush  the  hard  berries,  lichens,  &c.,  on  which 
the  bird  feeds.  It  is  a  habit  with  the  gallinidae  in 
general  to  swallow  gravel,  and  the  proportion  found  in 
the  stomach  of  the  ptarmigan  is  said  to  exceed  that  of 
any  other  bird.  In  winter  these  birds  congregate,  and 
live  peaceably  together,  sheltering  themselves  in  holes 
in  the  earth,  or  snow,  and  even  burrowing  through  the 
latter  until  they  contrive  to  reach  the  scanty  vegetation 
lying  beneath  its  surface.  About  the  month  of  June 
they  disperse  in  pairs,  and  make  circular  nests  a  little 
lower  down  the  mountain.  The  number  of  their  eggs 
varies  from  six  to  twelve  or  fifteen ;  and  the  young  birds 
are  covered  with  down,  of  a  colour  similar  to  that  of 
their  parents'  summer  plumage.  This  descent  of  the 
ptarmigan  to  a  somewhat  lower  situation  during  the 
breeding  season,  is  probably  with  a  view  to  find  more 
abundant  food  for  their  young,  but  it  subjects  them  to 
many  dangers,  which  in  their  more  elevated  home  they 
had  altogether  escaped.  The  old  birds  are  often  obliged 
to  fight  desperatelv  in  defence  of  their  young,  and  as 
soon  as  possible  tney  lead  them  away  to  a  place  of 
greater  security  in  the  mountain  tops.  Ptarmigans  are 
the  favourite  food  of  the  great  snowy  owl,  which  is  also 
an  inhabitant  of  the  most  desolate  regions  of  the  North. 
On  perceiving  this  well  known  and  powerful  enemy  the 
affrighted  birds  dive  instantly  into  the  loose  snow,  and 
make  their  way  beneath  it  to  a  considerable  distance, 
In  its  favourite  mountain  summit,  the  ptarmigan  has  few 
'  enemies,  being  above  the  range  of  the  fox,  the  mountain 
cat,  and  the  martin,  and  also  out  of  the  usual  hunting 
scenes  of  the  raven  and  the  eagle,  so  that  is  not  so  liable 
to  the  attacks  of  these  formidable  enemies,  as  are  the 
red  grouse,  and  other  tenants  of  the  heathery  regions 
below.  As  this  bird  is  thus  exempted  from  some  of  the 
dangers  common  to  its  kind,  so  is  it  apparently  deficient 
in  sagacity  and  resource  when  attacked.  The  expression 
of  the  head  is  stupid  or  simple.  Mr.  Daniel  calls  them 
silly  birds,  that  are  tame  enough  to  bear  driving  like 
poultry,  and  suffer  a  stone  to  be  flung  at  them  without 
their  rising;  with  all  this  gentleness  of  disposition,  it  is 
however,  difficult  to  domesticate  them.  Yet  in  their 
own  regions  they  soon  become  reconciled  to  the  sight  of 
man,  and  may  be  caught  and  destroyed  by  any  device  he 
may  choose  to  employ  against  them.  They  are  so  little 
anxious  to  hide  themselves  that  a  sportsman  meeting 
with  a  party  may  shoot  them  one  by  one,  till  he  has 
destroyed  them  all,  the  survivors  after  each  discharge 
making  no  attempt  to  get  out  of  the  reach  of  the  shot. 
They  never,  on  any  occasion  take  long  flights  or  soar 
aloft  in  the  air,  but  fly  by  taking  a  short  circle  like 
pigeons. 


Another  species  of  ptarmigan,  known  as  the  rock  ptar. 
migan,  has  lately  been  brought  into  this  country,  but  it 
extremely  rare.  It  is  somewhat  smaller  in  size,  and  mav 
be  distinguished  from  the  common  ptarmigan,  by  the  black 
feathers  of  the  back  being  cut  into  upon  the  edges,  \rith 
patches  of  yellow  only;  which,  contrasted  with  the  larger 
sixe  and  grey  plumage  of  the  other,  serves  to  render  it 
conspicuous. 

SNT&AKCB  IITTO  THE  TaoPICS. 

As  we  found  our  way  into  the  Tropics^  we  obeenred  that 
the  atmosphere  became  clearer  and  clearer;  no  mists  were 
perceptible,  the  sun  seldom  obscured,  and  the  appearance  of 
the  sky  and  stars  at  night  peculiarly  bright  and  clear.  The 
moon,  in  these  latitudies,  often  assumes  an  almost  vertirnl 
position;  and  many  of  the  stars  which  belong  to  the 
southern  hemisphere  are  visible.  Before  daylight  one  mom* 
ing,  the  captain  called  me  upon  deck  to  look  at  the  Southern 
Cross ;  which  is  certainlv  a  constellation  of  rare  beaoty. 
One  of  the  fire  stars  which  form  the  cress,  however,  is  oi 
inferior  magnitude,  and  not  in  the  true  position ;  which 
somewhat  mars  the  image.  When  I  turned  towards  the 
east,  I  enjoyed  a  still  finer  spectacle.  The  bora  of  an  almost 
expiring  moon,  Venus,  and  Mars,  were  in  all  thdr  splendoor. 
and  the  profiuion  of  azure,  lillu^  ultramarine,  pea-green, 
orange,  and  crimson,  which  mantled  the  skv  about  blf  m 
hour  before  sunrise,  I  never  before  saw  equaUed.-^uucET. 


To  ask  the  question,  *'  What  is  knowledge  T'  is  bnt  another 
way  of  inquiring,  ^What  is  God?"  for  human  leanung 
deserves  the  name  of  knowledge  only  in  the  proportion  is 
which  it  is  able  to  display  the  workings  of  the  All-wise  Crea- 
tor in  the  visible  ana  unseen  universe  of  which  we  form  a 
part.  There  is,  indeed,  a  mass  of  general  information  that  ii 
useiul  to  the  individual  in  his  relations  to  the  society  of  hU 
home  and  country;  but  this  is,  for  the  most  part,  confiw4 
to  transient  customs  and  opinions,  and  is  for  ever  beio? 
swallowed  up  in  that  flood  of  knowledge  which  has  incicased 
from  age  to  age,  spreading  its  waves  with  a  wider  sweep 
through  each  succeeding  generation,  and  which  will  ere  long 
embrace  in  one  common  bond  of  intelligence  the  gittt 
human  &mily  upon  earth. — Mantueript  Lkurs, 


Thb  real  philosopher,  who  knows  that  all  the  kinds  of  truth 
are  intimately  connected,  and  that  all  the  best  hopes  and 
encouragements  which  are  granted  to  our  nature  most  he 
consistent  with  truth,  will  m  satisfied  and  confirmed,  nther 
than  surorised  and  disturbed,  to  find  the  natural  scieDcee 
leading  him  to  the  borders  of  a  higher  region.  To  him  it 
will  appear  natural  and  reasonable,  thatL  after  jounim 
so  long  among  the  beautiful  and  orderly  laws  by  which  tiie 
universe  is  governed,  we  find  ourselves  at  last  approaching 
to  flt'flource  of  order  and  law,  and  intellectual  beauty :— that, 
after  venturing  into  the  region  of  life,  and  feeling,  and  will, 
we  arc  led  to  believe  the  fountain  of  life,  and  will,  not  to  be 
itself  unintelligent  and  dead,  but  to  be  a  living  mind,  a 
power  which  aims  as  well  as  acts.  To  us  this  doctnw 
appears  like  the  natural  cadence  of  tlie  tones  to  which  re 
have  so  long  been  listening;  and  without  such  s  final ?^ 
our  ears  would  have  been  left  craving  and  unsatisfied.'  ^ 
have  been  lingering  long  amid  the  harmonies  of  law  m 
svmmetnr,  constancy  and  development;  and  tliese  i»t«, 
though  tneir  music  was  sweet  and  deep,  must  too  often  w^ 
sounded  to  the  ear  of  our  moral  nature,  as  vague  and  un- 
meaning melodies,  floating  in  the  air  around  us,  but  coavev 
ing  no  definite  thought,  moulded  into  no  intelligible  an- 
nouncement. But  one  passage  which  we  have  again  .w 
again  caught  by  snatches,  though  sometimes  interruptw 
and  lo6t»  at  last  swells  in  our  ears  full,  clear,  and  decide: 
and  the  religious  «  Hymn  in  honour  of  the  Creator,"  to  i»  Im  '• 
Galen  so  gladly  lent  his  voice,  and  in  which  the  best  p»}' 
siologista  of  succeeding  tunes  have  ever  joined,  is  filled  mt«'  * 
richer  and  deeper  harmony  by  the  greatest  philosojih  |«  <|i 
these  later  days,  and  will  roll  on  hereafter,  the  Pf-* 
I>etual  801^'  of  the  temple  of  acieuce.—Buforfo/iheJndtU' 
Hve  Sciences^  iy  the  Rev.  William  Whkwbil. 

LONDON: 
JOHN  WILLIAM  PAEKER,  WEST  STRAXa  ^^ 

Pabts,  prics  aixruics.  • 

8oldligraUBo<}ki«U«ri«Bd  Wtwwwriwito  tUeKini**' 


N"  609.  SUPPLEMENT,  DECEMBER,  1841.      {okTSt 


THE  HOUSES  OF  ALL  NATIONS."  IIL 


intehior  of  an  oaiXKTij.  holm. 


1.  Houses  op  KoRTaBRN  Afiuca  akb  Eotpt,  I 

TnB  inhabitants  of  Nortliem  Africa  have  fur  several  centu- 
ries  been  connected  tc^ethcr  by  certain  ties  ivliich  enable  u8  i 
for  some  purposes  to  consider  them  as  one  people.  Morocco, 
Tunis,  Fez,  and  till  lately  Algiers,  have  all  had  Uolium- 
medanism  as  the  recognised  religion  of  the  state.  Their 
inosquea  are  aimilar,  their  manners  are  similar,  oud,  as  may 
be  supposed,  their  dwellinRs  also  belong,  in  their  general 
characters,  to  one  class.  All  the  countries  which  we  have 
mentioned,  lie  pretty  nearly  under  the  same  latitude,  and  are 
exposed  to  about  an  equal  temperature,  a  circumstance  that 
lias  much  influence  on  the  form  of  the  buildings.  Under 
the  general  name  of  Barbary,  therefore,  we  will  now  con- 
sider the  principal  features  in  the  houses  of  the  better  classes 
of  the  inhabitants. 

Large  doore,  spacious  chambers,  marble  parementt,  clois- 
'  tered  courts,  and  fountains,  are  very  general  in  these 
countriea,  and  accord  well  with  the  nature  of  die  climate. 
The  windows,  too,  open  not  into  the  street,  hut  into  the 
central  courts  or  quadrangles,  a  type  of  the  jealous  disposi- 
tions of  iJie  inhabitants.  The  streets  are  generally  narrow, 
pTobably  to  shield  the  houses  as  much  as  possible  from  the 
sun.  The  entrance  to  a  house  from  the  street  is  through 
a  porch  or  gateway,  with  benches  on  each  side,  where  the 
master  of  the  family  receives  visits  and  despatches  business. 
From  hence  an  opening  is  seen  into  the  quadrangle  or  court, 
which  is  open  above,  and  is  generally  paved  with  marble. 
When  a  large  assembly  is  to  be  received,  such  as  upon  the 
occasion  of  any  grand  entertainment,  the  court  is  the  place 
of  reception,  where  mats  and  carpets  are  spread  for  the  com- 
pany. It  has  been  supposed  by  Dr.  Shaw,  that  on  moat  of 
the  occasions  when  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles  are  said  to 
liave  entered  houses  and  preached  there,  &c.,  the  court  or 
quadrangle  was  the  place  of  reception ;  for  there  are  many 
points  of  resemblance  between  the  houms  of  Jnd«a  aad 
thoM  of  Darbary 
Vol..  XIX. 


In  tlie  worm,  season,  this  court  is  coverad  by  an  awning 

to  protect  the  visitors  from  the  heat  of  sun:,  this  awning  is 
stretched  out  by  ropes,  and  can  be  folded  or  drawn  out  at 
pleasure.  The  court  is  generally  suiroundcd  with  a  colon- 
Dade,  over  which  there  is  a  gallery  of  the  same  width  as  tlia 
colonnade,  with  a  baluatrada  or  lattice-work  in  front  of  it. 
From  the  colonnade  and  gallery  there  are  opeuinga  into  large 
spacious  chambers,  of  the  same  length  (vith  the  court,  but 
seldom  communicating  with  one  anotlier.  One  of  them 
frequently  serves  for  a  whole  family,  particularly  when  a 
father  allows  his  manied  children  to  live  in  the  same  house 
with  him,  or  when  two  or  more  persons  join  in  the  rental 
of  one  house.  The  walls  of  these  chambers,  in  the  houses 
of  the  wealthy,  are  covered,  from  the  middle  downwards, 
with  white,  blue,  red  or  green  hangings,  either  of  relvet  or 
of  damask :  these  are  suspended  by  hooks,  so  as  to  be  taken 
down  at  pleasure.  Above  these  hangings  is  a  more  perma- 
nent covering  for  the  wall,  such  as  stucco,  fretwork,  paint- 
ings, &c.  The  ceiling  is  genernlly  of  wainscot,  and  painted 
In  various  devices,  frequently  including  sentences  from  the 
Koran.  The  floors  are  generally  covered  with  ptunted  tiles; 
but  as  the  Moore  seldom  use  any  sort  of  scat  equivalent  to 
our  chair,  the  floor  is  covered  with  carpets  and  mats  of  rich 
materials,  oii  which  the  inmates  either  sit  cross-legged  or 
lie  at, full  I.ength.  Near  the  wall,  however,  is  frequently- 
placed  a  kind  of  raised  platform,  on  which  are  narrow  beds 
or  mattresses,  as  well  as  pilloivs. 

The  stairs  to  the  upper  story,  when  there  is  more  than 
one,  are  situated  sometimes  in  the  poreh,  and  at  others  in 
the  court.  This  staircnse  lends  not  only  to  the  upper  story, 
but  also  to  the  gallery  and  to  the  roof  of  the  house,  where 
the  Moors  pass  much  of  their  time  in  the  evening.  The 
flat  roofs  are  covered  with  plaster,  and  are  surrounded  either 
by  low  walls  or  by  balustrades.  The  terraces  serve  for 
many  domestic  purposes  for  the  use  of  the  inmates:  linen 
is  dned  there :  figs  and  raisins  are  exposed  there  to  the  heat 
of  the  eun :  it  is  also  frequently  used  as  a  pU^  of  devotion. 


2.^0 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE- 


M-my  of  these  houses  have  a  smaller  one  attached  to  them, 
consisting  of  one  or  two  rooms  and  a  terrace.  Some  of  them 
are  bnilt  Or  Br  the  porch  of  gateway  of  the  hrzev  house,  to 
which  there  is  a  door  of  commtitiieation.  Tliese  smaller 
houses  are  fteqtiently  u^sd  ^  places  of  retftcment  from  the 
bustle  of  the  central  quadrangle.  It  has  been  supposed  tliat 
many  of  the  houses  in  Syria,  Palestine,  &c.,  were  anciently 
provided  with  little  retired  chambers  each  as  wd  here 
speak  of, — that  is,  chambers  secluded  in  some  degree  from 
tne  rest  of  the  habitable  mansion.  The  following  passages 
in  the  Bible  seem  to  allude  to  some  arrangement  of  tuis 
kind :  2  Kings  4. 10,  '^  Let  us  make  a  little  chamber,  I  pray 
thee,  on  the  wall ;  and  let  us  set  for  him  there  a  bed,  and 
a  table,  and  a  stool,  and  a  candlestick,'*— Judges  lii.  20, 
**  And  Ehud  came  unto  him ;  and  he  was  sitting  in  a  sum- 
mer parlour,  which  he  had  for  himself  alone." — 2  Sam. 
xviii.  23,  ''And  the  king  was  much  moved,  and  went  up  to 
the  chamber  over  the  gat^  and  wept."  While  we  are  on 
this  subject,  we  may  briedy  allude  to  an  explanation  which 
Dr.  Shaw  has  offered  of  a  part  of  Scripture,  which,  without 
knowing  the  structure  of  tne  houses  in  the  countries  alluded 
to,  cannot  be  well  understood.  In  St.  Mark  IL  2,  we  read, 
**  And  they  came  unto  him  bringing  one  sick  of  the  palsy, 
which  was  borne  by  four.  And  when  they  could  not  come 
nigh  unto  him  for  the  press,  they  uncovered  the  roof  whei-e 
he  was :  and  when  the v  had  broken  it  up,  they  let  down 
the  bed  wherein  the  sick  of  the  palsy  lay."  Now  in  such 
houses  as  we  are  accustomed  to,  it  would  appear  more  diffi- 
cult to  make  a  sufficiently  large  hole  through  the  roof  than 
to  force  a  passsffe  through  the  throng.  But  by  considering 
the  natui*e  of  the  houses  in  those  climates,  Dr.  Shaw  thinks 
the  following  explanation  will  remove  every  difficulty. 
The  only  part  of  a  house  large  enough  to  admit  a  multi- 
tude of  people  WAS  the  open  court  or  quadrangle.  This 
court  was  covered  in  hot  weather  by  an  awning  capable  of 
being  drawn  aside  by  means  of  ropes.  The  tops  of  the 
houses  were  HaL  so  that  persona  could  walk  from  roof  to  roof 
without  difficnftir.  and  stairs  led  up  to  the  roof.  It  there*, 
fore  seems  probable,  that  the  sick  man  was  carried  up  to  the 
roof  of  the  house^  that  the  awning  waa  drawn  aside,  and 
that  he  was  lowered  into  the  open  oourt  bv  ropes. 

That  portion  of  Northern  Africa  occupied  oy  Algiers  need 
not  claim  our  attention  here,  for  in  so  far  as  it  differs,  in 
the  construction  of  its  houses,  from  the  countries  of  Barbary 
generally,  the  Supplements  which  have  been  given  on  the 
subject  of  Algiers  in  the  Saturday  Magazine  wlU  hare  eon- 
veyed  a  sufficient  idea.  We  will  therefore  proceed  eastward, 
and  approach  countries  which  have  filled  a  more  important 
page  in  history.  The  territory  once  known  by  the  famed 
name  of  Carthage  occupied  a  portion  of  the  space  between 
Egypt  and  what  is  now  called  Algiers,  but  at  present,  little 
exists  here  to  claim  notice  in  this  paper. 

Egypt  has  many  remarkable  peculiarities^  chiefly  arisinff 
from  tne  mixture  of  Turkish  and  Arabic  manners  and 
modes  of  living  prevalent  in  the  country.  The  houses  of 
Egypt  depend  a  good  deal,  for  their  form  and  character,  on 
the  religion  of  the  inhabitants ;  they  have  in  general  either 
one  or  two  stories  above  the  ground  floor,  and  there  is 
often  a  small  unpaved  court  in  the  middle  of  the  building, 
with  various  apartments  surrounding  it.  There  is  a  narrow 
pas^e  leading  into  this  court  from  the  street,  and  in  the 
passage  Ib  a  stone  seat  for  the  porter  and  other  servants. 
In  the  court  itself  is  generally  to  be  seen  a  well  for  sup- 
plying the  house  with  water;  and  the  windows  of  the 
nrinclpal  apartments  look  into  the  court,  sevend  doors 
leading  from  the  court  to  the  rooms:  in  all  these  cases 
there  is  one  door  leading  exclusively  to  the  women's  apart- 
ments. The  apartment  in  whicl\  strangers  are  received 
is  generally  on  the  ground  floor,  with  a  grated  or  latticed 
window  looking  into  the  court.  This  reception-room  has 
generallV  a  fountain  in  the  middle,  and  is  paved  with  black 
and  white  marble.  Along  two  sides  of  tne  room  runs  a 
raised  platform  covered  with  mats  and  carpets,  and  visitors 

fiueraliy  take  off  their  shoes  before  they  step  U])on  this, 
he  mode  in  which  persons  seat  themselves  in  such 
countries  will  assist  us  m  explaining  many  of  the  customs 
mentioned  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  matted  or  carpetted 
floor  is  frequently  the  only  seat,  and  if  shoes,  soiled  with 
the  dust  of  the  streets,  were  to  tread  on  this  matting,  the 
garments  would  certainly  be  disfigured  by  it :  hence  a  sense 
of  cleanliness,  as  well  as  certain  rites  connected  with  reli- 
gion, lead  the  inhabitants  to  take  off  their  shoes  previous  to 
stepping  upon  tlie  raised  platform.  There  are,  however, 
frequently  mattrasses  and  cushions,  stuffed  with  cotton  and 
covered  with  cloth  or  allk,  ranged  round  the  sides  of  the 


apartment.  The  walls  of.  this  apartment  contain  j«ceaaa 
and  cupboards^  for  the  reception  of  wateKbottles,  cofPee^ups, 
and  other  domestic  reseeid.  The  ceiling  of  the  room  is 
divided  into  compartments :  those  parts  over  the  twp  raised 
platforms  being  formed  of  carved  beams  of  wood;  while 
that  over  the  central  part  is  carved  into  higlily  decorated  and 
fiincifal  ornaments,  and  painted  of  very  diverse  ooloon.  A 
chandelier  is  frequently  suspended  from  the  centre. 

All  the  apartments  are  lofty,  generally  about  fourteen 
feet  high.  The  upper  rooms  have  often,  besides  lattice-work 
windows,  others  of  coloured  glass,  representing  flowen^ 
fruit,  birds,  &c.  These  coloured  windows  are  about  two 
feet  high  and  one  wide :  they  are  placed  above  the  other 
windows,  and  are  mora  for  ornament  than  for  use.  "On 
the  plastered  walls  of  some  apartments,"  says  Mr.  Lane, 
"  are  rude  paintings  of  the  temple  of  Mekkeh,  or  of  the  tomb 
of  the  Prophet,  or  of  flowers  and  other  objects,  executed 
bv  native  Mooslim  artists,  who  have  not  the  least  notion 
of  the  rules  of  perspective,  and  who  conseqaeotly  de&ce 
what  they  thus  attempt  to  decorate.  Sometimes,  also,  the 
walls  are  ornamented  with  Arabic  inscriptions,  of  amms, 
&e,  which  are  more  usually  written  on  paper,  in  an  embel- 
lished style,  and  inclosed  in  f^azed  frames.  So  chambers 
are  furnished  as  bed-rooms.  The  bed,  in  the  day-time,  is 
rolled  up,  and  placed  on  ooe  side,  or  in  an  adjoining  closet, 
called  khuzneh,  which,  in  the  winter,  is  d  sleeping  place: 
in  summer,  many  people  sleep  upon  the  house-ton.  A  mat 
or  carpet,  spread  upon  the  raised  part  of  the  stone  fioor,  and  a 
deewan,  (a  row  of  cushions  round  the  wall,}  constitute  the 
complete  frimiture  of  a  room.  For  meals,  a  round  tray  is 
brought  in,  and  placed  upon  a  low  stool,  and  the  company 
sit  round  it  on  the  ground.  There  is  no  fireplace:  the 
room  is  warmed,  when  neceaMn*v,  by  burning  charcoal  in  i 
chafing-dish."  The  kitchens,  nowever,  have  several  small 
receptacles  for  fire,  constructed  on  a  kind  of  bench  of  brick. 
Mimy  houses  have  at  the  top  a  sloping  shed  of  boards,  directed 
towards  the  north  or  north-west,  in  order  that  the  cool 
breezes  which  blow  from  those  quarters  may  he  conveTed 
to  an  open  apartment  beloW.  The  roof  of  the  house  is  flat, 
and  gMierally  covered  with  a  coating  of  plaster. 

For  a  notice  of  the  houses  and  domestic  axTangemeDts  of 
Cairo  in  particular^  we  refer  to  our  recent  sketches  of  tliat 
d^itaL 

2.  HotTlfli  or  AiiATic  Tvukbt. 

AfricA  l«  tmiied  id  AaU  iti  A  lingular  manner.  Th( 
two  continents  are  connected  only  by  a  narrow  dip  oi 
land, — ^thc  isthmus  of  Suez, — and  tiiis  isthmus,  as  well  as 
the  country  near  it,  is  little  better  than  a  dreaiy  deseit. 
Having  passed  this  desert,  we  come  to  Palestine,  sod, 
keeping  along  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
we  arrive  at  Jaffa,  Acre,  Aleppo,  and  other  towns.  Afw 
this,  the  great  peninsula  of  Ajia  Minor  brings  us  to  the 
Black  Sea,  and  the  provinces  of  European  Turkey.  Now 
throughout  this  range  of  country,  Turkish  influence  b 
more  or  less  prevalent,  and  there  are  a  good  many  ft**^ 
common  to  aU  the  towns  extending  from  Jemsalem  it  the 
south-east  to  Smyrna  at  the  north-west  The  citj  « 
Aleppo  is  well  situated  as  a  representative  of  the  towns 
of  Western  Asia  geneitdly.  To  the  north  of  it  is  As» 
Minor:  to  the  south,  Palestine;  and  to  the  east,  «» 
those  numerous  provinces  which  have,  at  one  time  or 
other,  formed  ^rt  of  the  Persian  Empire.  Its  hofl»» 
as  well  as  Its  mhabitants,  present  features  of  the  Tnrkirfi, 
Persian,  Syriac,  and  Arabian  countries :  and  we  shall  do 
Well  to  consider  rather  minutelr  the  nature  of  the  dweDingj- 

Aleppo  is  governed  by  a  bashaw  or  officer,  and  ^^J^' 
dence  of  this  ofHcer,  as  well  as  of  the  other  principal  officer 
of  state,  are  called  Seragliogy  (a  Persian  word  for  a  palace  or 
great  house.)  These  seraglios  are  huge  piles  of  buildiiffj 
with  nothing  like  architectural  grace  about  them.  |he 
entrance  is  throuffh  a  lai^ge  court;  and  the  gate  is  aithw 
and  decorated  with  fnarble.  Persons  of  rank  pass  on  hor*hacK 
directly^to  the  foot  of  the  grand  staircase.  The  «tat«  apart- 
ments are  of  an  oblong  form,  with,  lofty  flat  cellincs,  m 
are  well  lighted  by  a  row  of  lai^e  windows.  The  trali«  ^ 
ccilingB  are  adorned  with  flowers,  fruit,  and  fenciful  onw- 
ment^  pahited,  gilt  and  varnished:  and  verses  fr^"*-*'? 
Koran  are  seldom  omitted  as  part  of  the  decoration.  wc« 
state  apartment  has  an  elevated  platfbrm  on  each  siii« 
constituting  a  dimn^  where  dwtingulshed  visitors  «< 
invited  to  seat  themselves.  The  divan  is  covered  «iw 
mattresses,  over  which  is  thrown  a  covering  of  cjojn :  ad^ 
oblong  cushions,  stufl^ed  with  cotton  and  faced  with  suk  ^ 
Velvet,  a^  ranged  round  next  the  wall:— the  tomm  « 


SUPPLEMBMT  FOR  DtCEAfBER,  1^41. 


StSl 


ihe«o  dltand  Are  fStmMm^A  fts  th«  pliices  of  honour.  The 
lower  and  c^ntrftl  part  of  tit*  Apartment  is  Oticnpied  by  pogea 
and  others ;  indeed  all  risitor%  eatcept  thoM  of  rank,  are 
to  reniAin  on  the  central  division  of  the  room,  and  must 
not  presnme  to  step  on  the  divan. 

Tne  apartments  of  the  principal  officers  iir»  fitted  np  on 
the  Same  plan,  bnt  with  less  splendonrt  the  divans  In  tneir 
rooms  being  made  to  serve  as  beds  at  nighty  by  emi4»ying 
Additional  mattraases  and  coverlids. 

The  woraen*s  martments  are  always  separated  from  the 
fnain  part  of  the  building,  and  consist  of  several  suites  of 
rooms,  ranged  round  an  open  court.  This  court  contains 
a  shrubbery,  a  basin  with  a  ftmntaln,  itrlxmn  of  slight  lat^ 
tlced  frames,  and  other  arrangements  for  producing  a  cool 

?1ace  of  retreat  ftom  the  heat  Incident  to  the  climate, 
'here  ore  also  two  open  apartments,  called  the  ditan,  and 
the  kaah,  which  are  a  sort  of  open  reception  rooms,  where 
the  different  members  of  a  fkmily  may  congregate.  These 
are  particnlarly  delightfnli  from  the  means  taken,*^4uch 
as  fountains,  &c., — ^to  make  them  cool.  The  private  apart- 
ments of  the  females  are  ranged  round  the  court,  with 
Windows  looking  into  the  court,  to  the  exclusion  of  any 
other.  The  sleepiug  rooms  Are  usually  on  the  epround  iloor, 
and  the  visiting,  or  reception  rooms  are  above  tnem. 

Such  are  the  general  modes  of  construction  in  the  man* 
sions  of  the  bashaws,  agaS,  effendls,  and  ofBcers  of  govern- 
tnhit,  at  Aleppo. 

The  houses  of  the  merchants  seldom  have  a  6ourt  in 
fronts  the  entrance  being  immediately  from  the  street,  by  a 
large  door.  The  outer  apartments  are  small,  and  furnished 
in  a  plain  but  neat  manner.  They  serve  only  for  the  recep- 
tion of  familiar  visitors  in  the  morning,  or  at  supper  i  jot 
on  extraordinary  occasions,  thd  harems,  or  female  apart- 
mentS)  are  made  use  of,  which,  Ih  point  of  elegance,  often 
rival  those  of  the  seraglios,  and  in  the  ricjhness  of  the  fur- 
niture Aometimds  excel  th^m.  . 

The  houses  of  the  Turks  of  middle  rank  have  seldom 
more  than  one  court;  but  many  of  them  have  a  kaah,  and 
all  have  a  divan,  with  a  little  garden  and  fountain  before 
it.  Their  habitations  are  thus  airy,  arid  kept  rery  neat. 
From  this  rank,  down  to  the  lowest  order  of  Turks,  there 
are  hotisM  of  various  degrees  of  comfort;  but  they  hare 
nearly  all  somethhig  whicn  they  can  call  a  divan,  and  a  few 
buj^es  or  shrubs  by  way  of  garden: — tlieir  best  room  is 
rudely  painted^  and  decorated  with  such  ornaments  as  they 
conjnrocure. 

Tne  houses  of  the  Christians  of  the  tipper  class  consist 
generally  of  a  central  court  surrounded  by  apartments. 
The  entrance  to  these  houses  is  scarcely  to  be  distingaislied 
from  those  of  the  Turks;  and  the  interior  is  fitted  up  with 
A  good  deal  of  taste  and  neatness^ 

The  Jews,  both  European  and  native,  have  houses  built 
much  on  the  same  fashion  as  tlie  other  inhabitants  of  the  city ; 
And  in  some  instances  their  dwellings  display  no  little  mag- 
nificence within.  The  poorer  classes  of  Jews,  however, 
are  worse  lodged  than  the  poor  of  the  other  religious  corn- 
munitles« 

The  roofs  of  nearly  all  the  bett^  kinds  of  houses  are  flat, 
and  plastered  with  a  composition  of  mortar,  tar,  ashes,  and 
sand^  which  in  time  becomes  very  hard ;  but,  when  not 
laid  on  at  the  proper  season,  the  terrace  Is  apt  to  crack  in 
the  winter.  Tliese  flat  roofs  or  terraces^  are  separated  by 
parapet  walls,  and  most  of  the  natives  sleep  on  them  in 
AUmmer.  The  Europeans  who  live  contiguous  have  doors 
of  communication,  and  by  mtons  df  the  terraces  on  their 
own  houses  and  those  on  the  bazaars^  can  make  a  latffe  cir- 
cuit without  descending  into  the  street.  The  native  inhabit- 
Ants,  however,  do  not  throw  open  a  whole  line  of  terraceft 
in  this  way;  but  frequently  heighten  the  wall  of  division 
by  means  of  a  screen. 

We  will  avail  ourselves  of  the  present  opportunity  for 
speaking  of  a  part  of  the  domestic  arrangement  which  in 
warm  climates  has  a  considerable  influence  on  the  con« 
struction  of  a  town,  as  well  as  upon  the  manners  of  the  in- 
habitants,— ^we  mean  the  custom  of  bathing.  Not  only  does 
a  sultry  climate  occasion  A  neces^tr  for  a  frequent  use  of 
the  bath,  but  the  Mohammedan  religion  requires  that  ablu- 
tions should  be  made  at  cei-tain  hours  of^the  day.  Most 
of  the  large  mansions  in  Persia,  Turkey,  Syria,  Elgypt. 
Barbary,  &c.,  have  baths  within  them ;  but  the  general 
*  custom  is,  to  attend  public  baths,  a  large  number  of  which 
are  to  be  found  in  most  of  their  cities.  These  baths  or 
bagnios  being  pretty  nearly  the  same  everywhere,  we  will 
take  those  of  Aleppo  as  Ajgencral  repreaentative  of  all,  and 
will  avail  ourselves  of  Dr,  RitflscU*A  Aeoaimt  of  them. 


The  outer  room  of  thA  hummam  or  bagnio  is  called  the 
hurany,  and  is  large,  lofty,  covered  with  a  dome,  and  paved 
with  marble^  It  has  windows  towards  the  street,  but  ia 
lighted  chiefly  by  the  lantern  of  the  dome.  A  broad  stone 
platform,  or  musiahp^  about  four  feet  high,  is  built  close  to  the 
wall  on  each  side,  ^hich  being  spread  with  mats  and  car- 
pets, forms  a  divan  on  which  the  batliers  may  undress  and 
repose^  A  large  marble  fountain  in  tiie  middle  serves  both 
OS  on  ornament,  and  for  rinsing  the  bagnio  linen,  which  is 
Afterwards  hung  to  dry  on  lines  stretched  above.  The 
bathers,  as  well  as  the  servants^  walk  in  this  outer  chamber 
in  slippers,  for  tli^  stoves  having  but  small  influence  there, 
the  Wet  pavement  is  cold  to  the  naked  feet. 

Fttnn  the  hurany  a  door  opens  into  a  narrow  passage, 
leading  to  the  imstany^  or  middle  chamber,  which  has  a 
mtistaSpy  or  raised  platform,  for  the  accommodation  of  such 
as  may  choose  to  sit  there,  and  is  famished  with  several 
round  or  obi onc^  stone  basins,  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in  dia- 
meter, into  each  of  which  two  pipes  open  with  brass  cocks, 
the  one  conveying  hot,  the  other  cold  water.  These  are 
Called  ^«rtt,  and  ait*  fixed  to  tlie  wall  two  feet  from  the  pave- 
ment. There  are  also  brazeri  bowls  for  laving  out  the  water 4 
The  thermometer  in  thebnrany  is  about  64-'  Fahr.; — in  the 
passage  7fi^**-and  in  the  wastany,  or  middle  chamber,  DO-*. 

From  the  middle  chamber,  a  door  opens  immediately  into 
the  Inner  chamber,  or^ia;?^,  which  is  much  larger  than  the 
wustany,  and  heated  to  about  lOC.  It  has  no  mustahy,  or 
platform,  so  that  the  bathers  sit  or  recline  on  the  pavement, 
which  towards  the  centre  is  excessively  hot.  The  middle 
and  inner  rooms  are  less  lofty  than  the  outer  one,  and  are 
covered  with  small  cupolas,  from  which  they  receive  a  dull 
light,  by  means  of  a  few  round  apertures,  glazed  with  a  thick 
coloured  glass.  At  each  comer  of  the  juany  is  a  small  open 
recess,  in  one  Of  which  there  is  a  basin  about  four  feet  deep, 
called  the  fiMHtUy  serving  occasionally  for  a  temperate  bath. 
The  bagnios  are  heated  by  stoves  underneath,  and  the  ordi- 
nary temperature  Is  about  100^.  * 

It  must  be  home  in  mind,  that  the  mode  of  bathing 
adopted  in  these  countries  is  altogether  different  from  that 
employed  in  England.  There  is  no  plunging  into  a  largo 
body  of  water,  and  in  a  few  minutes  emerging  fi*oni  it.  Tho 
batner,  first,  in  the  outer  room,  tlu-ows  off  his  usual  dress, 
and  puts  on  A  slight  bathing  dress.  He  then  passes  into  the 
middle  room,  and  gets  gradually  warmed  by  its  temperature. 
From  thence  he  passes  into  the  inner  or  bath  room,  which 
is  heated  so  hiffhly  that  in  a  fow  minutes  he  is  in  a  profuse 
perspiration.  He  then  lies  down  on  the  warm  marble  pave- 
ment, and  is  nibbed  all  over  by  an  attendant,  with  a  kind 
of  perfumed  soap;  after  which  he  is  well  drenched  by  bowls 
of  wami  clean  water,  and  rubbed  with  dry  towels.  The 
bathing  being  thus  completed,  he  passes  into  the  middle 
room,  puts  on  his  sllppei-s,  wraps  himself  completely  in  a 
blanket,  and  then  smokes  a  cigar,  drinks  coffee,  and  con- 
verses with  his  friends  or  neigh boui-s : — indeed,  this  middle 
room  is  a  general  place  of  rendezvous  for  friends,  who  often 
^0  to  the  bath  as  much  to  meet  one  another  as  for  the  plea- 
sure of  bathing.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  females : 
by  the  customs  of  the  country  fhey  are  so  much  immured, 
tnat  they  are  glad  of  the  relief  from  constraint  afforded  by 
the  bath ;  and  it  is  not  unusual  for  them  to  take  sweetmeats, 
fVuits,  spices,  &c.,  to  regale  themselves  and  friends  in  the 
middle  chamber,  after  having  taken  the  bath.  Lady  M.  W. 
Montagu  tells  us  that  this  is  then  a  famous  place  for  gossip. 
When  the  bathers  have  remained  as  long  as  they  please  in 
the  middle  room,  they  proceed  to  the  outer  room,  resume 
their  dresses,  ond  leave  the  place.  There  are  some  baths  for 
men,  and  others  for  women ;  and  a  third  class  devoted  to 
women  in  the  forenoon,  and  men  in  the  afternoon;  the 
bathers  being  attended  by  servants  of  their  own  sex. 

d.  Houses  ot  Persia  aitd  Arabia. 
Tlie  most  general  characteristics  of  the  houses  of  the 
Hvealthier  classes  in  Persia  have  been  the  some  from  age  to 
age.  And  the  Accounts  of  different  travellers  pretty  well 
Agree  on  the  subject.  Generally  speaking,  such  houses  are 
built  in  th^  middle  of  a  fine  garden,  and  present  little  or 
none  rtf  their  beauty  to  the  street ;  for  there  is  little 
else  to  be  seen  but  a  dead  wall,  with  a  great  gate  In  the 
middle  of  it,  and  perhaps  a  screen  or  wall  within  the  gate, 
to  prevent  pasAe«*Dy  from  seeing  the  mansion, — ^great  pri- 
vacy being  sought  for  in  this  respect.  It  is  not  often  that 
the  Persian  mansions  have  more  than  one  story, — indeed,  in 
most  warm  climates,  the  houses  are  more  remarkable  for 
length  and  depth  than  for  height.  In  the  portion  of  the 
house  neat^  thv  entrance  gate  is  generally  a  little  piazza 

609—2 


i'  \^ 


252 


tttE'^A-rdiJiA^'mMjl^tM}''''' 


or  open  room,  where  the  general  busineas  of  the  inha- 
bitant is  transacted.  Beyond  this  piazza  is  a  laige  hall, 
from  twelve  to  twenty  feet  high,  which  is  the  place  of  meet- 
ing, on  the  occasion  of  great  entertainments,  &c.  On  the 
hinder  side  of  the  house  is  often  another  piazza,  with  a 
fount  .in  playing  in  front  of  it,  beyond  which  shady  walks 
are  frequently  seen.  At  each  comer  of  the  large  hall  is  a 
parlour^  or  dwelling  room,  between  which  are  small  open 
square  courts,  with  entrances  &om  the  great  hall:  the  object 
of  this  and  similar  arrangements  seems  to  be,  that  in  a  climate 
so  sultry  as  that  of  Persia,  it  is  desirable  to  liave  as  many 
open  doors  as  possible,  to  admit  air  into  the  central  haU: 
there  is  often  a  fountain  ptoyiag/in  U^e  middle  of  the  hall. 

The  w^ls  of  the  houses  are  built  somMbM-^^torned 
bricks,  and  sometimes  of  briicks  dried  in, the  sun.  The 
walls  are  of  considerable  thickness,  and  the  roof  of  the  great 
hall  is  arched,  and  some  feet  higher  than  the  smaller,  rooms 
near  it.  The  roofs  of  the  buildingson. every  side  of  the  hall 
are  flat,  and  have  stairs  leading  up  to  them.  These  flat  roofs 
form  one  of  the  most  distiiiguimiing  features  of  Asiatic  dwell- 
ings. Nothing  can  exceed  the  beauty  of  the  skv  at  those 
hours  of  the  evening  when  the  sun  has  withdrawn  his  scorch- 
ing rays.  It  is  at  such  a  time  that  the  Persian,  taking  up 
a  mattrass  to  the  roof,  there  luxuriates  in  the  indolent.«]ir 
joymentof  the  open  air>—ofte%i;|daed,.iw  parses  tha^^ight 
there,  except  at  certain  seasons,  when,  in  consequence  of 
the  powerful  evaporation  during  the  day,  a  piercing  cold- 
is  feU  at  night. 

The  kitchens,,  and  other  domestic  offices  of  the  house,  are 
generally  at  some  distance  to  the  right  or  icft>  and  the  hall 
18  the  medium  of .  communication  between  all  of  thgn. 
Sometimes  the  rooms  have  chimneys,  but.  at  other. time^ 
there  is  an  arrangement  of  acharoesl  fireiUus  mttnOged:--^ 
A  hole,  four  or  Ave  feet  in. diameter,  and  one'  or  two  deep,  is 
sunk  in  the  floor  of  the  rooai»  and  in  this  isikindled  a  char* 
coal  fire.  The  hole  is  covered  over,  with  a  thick  board,  and 
this  again  is  covered  with  a  carpet,  so  that  persona  by  sit^g 
round  in  a  circle,  and  placing  their  feet  under  the  carpet, 
ean  keep  themselves  warm  in  cold  weather.  Air  is  admitted 
to  the  fire,  and  smoke  is  condlicted  from  it,  b^pi^>ai4 
beneath  the  floor.  The  floors  of  the  rooms  are  eitner  patted, 
or  covered  with  a  hard  cement,  on  which  a  coarse <$foth' is- 
laid,  and  over  that  a  carpet.  The  walb  of  some  df  t^e  rdioini^ 
are  lined  with  fine  tiles  a  part  of  the  way^np^  and'^re 
painted  above.  -    -    .      « 

Such  arc  the  general  characters  of  the  houses  fn  that  Wide 
expanse  of  country  included  under  the  gen^rAl  'naine"of 
Persia.  But  it  must  be  here  understood,  that  these  i^tnark^' 
apply  cliiefly  to  tlie  large  towns;  for  in  the  Wide  and  inncnl- 
tivated  wastes  which  cover  so  large  a  portion  of  the  PeWletn 
empire,  the  same  kind  of  rude  and  temporary  tent^  oreoV 
gprvable  as  are  employed  by  the  roving  Arabs. '  In  a  cbuntiy 
like  England,  we  happily  do  not  know  what  it  i^  to  have  our 
large  towns  separated  *from  each  othfer  by  sandy  wasted,' 
where  neither  man  nor  beast  can  find  ibod  and  w^ter  without 
great  difficulty: — the  arrangements  of  a  n^anufacturing 
town  and  those  of  an  agricultural  village  are  certainly 
sufficiently  distinct ;  but  still,  a  roving  populatidn,  vrhd, 
when  they  have  gathered  all  the  herbage  and  fruits  at  one 
part  of  the  country,  strike  their  tents,  and  proceed  in  a  body 
to  another  locality,  is  unknown  to  us,  however  much  it 
prevails  in  Persia, 

These  remarks  apply  also  to  Arabia.  Wia  have,  however, 
nothing  to  say  here  of  the  roving  ti-ibes,  but  shall  briefly 
speak  of  the  populous  towns.  'Kie  city  of  Mecca  consists 
of  streets  arranged  with  tolerable  regularity,  and  *  Iher^  is 
something  more  pleasing  in  the  fronts  of  the  houses  than 
is  usually  observed  in  Oriental  towns.  The  houses  have 
generally  two  rows  of  windows,  with  balconies  covered  with 
blinds.  There  are  even  sever^  large  windows,  quite  open, 
as  in  Europe,  but  the  greater  nuUiber  are  covered  with  a 
curtain,  like  a  Venetian  blind,  made  of  palm-leaves :  these 
blinds  are,  extremely  light,  and  screen  the  apartments  from 
the  sun,  without  interrupting  the  passage  of  the  air  :  they 
fold  up  at  pleasure  at  the  upper  part.  The  houses  are' 
solidly  built  with  stone,  and  are  three,  four,  and  even  more 
stories  in  height.  The  fronts  are  ornamented  with  bases, 
mouldings,  and  paintings,  which  rive  them  a  very  graceful 
appejirance.  It  is  very  rare  to  imd  a  door  that  has  not  a 
base,  with  steps  and  small  seats  on  both  sides.  The  blinds 
ot  the  balconies  are  not  very  close,  and  boles  are  cut  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  them.  The  roofs  of  the  houses  form  terraces, 
surrounded  with  %  waUv  ^oub  se^MiM^eot.highy.iAen  «t  e^r^ 
tain  spaces  which  are occupisd^syn isiifc%  of  i^cnuid  wliito 
lt)rick3,  placed  s^Tumetrically,  leaving  holes  for  the  circula- 


■. 


tion  of  the  air.  All  the  staircases  are  nairow,  dark,  sod 
steep.  The  rooms  are  well-proportioned,  laive,and  lofty,  and 
have,  besides  the  large  w^indows  and  balcomes,  a  second  row 
of  smaller  windows.  The  beauty  of  the  houses  may  be 
considered  as  the  remains  of  the  ancient  splendour  of  Mecca. 
Every  inhabitant  has  an  interest  in  adorning  his  dwelling, 
in  order  to  indnoe  the  hadgi,  or  pilgrims,  to  lodge  with 
him  during  their  sojourn  at  Mecca,  for  this  is  one  of  the 
principal  sources  ol  wealtli  to  the  inliabitants,  on  account  of 
the  high  tenns  dfAnanded  and  paid. 

Another  town  in  Arabia  of  which  we  may  briefly  speak 
is  Mocha,  a  name  x-endered  familiar  to  us  by  the  exoeUait 
ooflee  brought  from  its  neighbourhood.  In  this  town  the 
prineipal  buildings,  such  as  the  residences  of  .tlie-^ven 
mwi^afficers  and  principal  inhabitants,  have  no  j^ssioDi, 
externally,  to  architectural  el^goncse^  but  still  omJMi  devoid 
of  beauty,  from  their.  Arretted  tope  and  lantaiitie  orna- 
ments in  white  stucco.  .  The  windows  are  in  general  smf^l, 
stuck  into  the  wall  hi  an  irregular  manner^losed  with 
lattices,  and  sometimes  opening  into  a  wooded  carved-work 
balooay*  In  the  upper  apartments  there  i8,j;$|penily  a 
range  of  einsulaar. windows,  above  the  others^', Ip^'^lastead 
of  glossy  with  a  thin  layer  ^  a  peculiar  ttsimsient  stone, 
.which  i^  found  in  veins  In  .a  inounfi&i  neai;  Sanaa*  "^m 
o£Um«c  can  b^  opened,  and  only  a  few  of  t^  lo^er  onea,^ 
a  consequenoe  ofTwIaqh  i»lhat  A  thortfbglv^rrent  of  Ml 
au*  is  rare  in  these  houses^  ^^t  ^  th«  .pc^lj^  \dlo  inhabit 
them  do  not  appear  to  be  ^ppreql^d  by  ft^hj 
it  is  insupportabie  to  JSuropewi  ^Sitors.;/^ 
as  the  roots  of  the  higer  houses  «m  ^ 
is  sustained  by  beams  witli  pleees  c 
wood,  laid  across  andnC^Me  t9.oach 
}e^l  in^  seldom  nsed  iz^^i^  tailcy^mpfie>  mo^  are  geoe- 
Tsjily.v&y  ufifivfisi;  tei-whm  co^^^es^^^nd  cushions  are 
used  instead  of  chairs  ^uid.  tables,  this  is  not  felt  to'be  mnch 
inconvenience.  The  inU^Dol  constmcUon  of  the  houses  is 
g^neis^y  b^*  the  passages  ore  long  and  narrow,  and  the 
staircases  so  steep  that  it  is  frequently  difficult  to  roonni 
them.  Very  little  time  is  used  in  the  constructio;!  of  any 
of'tH^so'bnildiilgSt  Cd«sUmt'<Mi^  is'  tli^re<fot^  ne^ssan^to 
pi^vent  the  introdoeiioik' •f  nloist^re.  With  ctotion,t!te 
noasee  last  ntiany •  years,  bot 'if  ^negle«ted:  th^doon  become 
a  iie&p  of -tubbisii,  fov'the  8tin*4r»Bd  bri^ks^^lien  restimc 
their  di^ginAl  form  of  mud.'   *      • 


arid 'rai^  'of  ^people.  Lord  Vslentia  sa;^ 
cc«r*e  awning^  of  its  narrow  bassaars'  j^it  ihpet  the  vS- 
dre^ed  merchants  iii  robes  ofl^'oollen'ddth,  and  from  ai)07P 
tlie  folds  of  the  snow-white  tiirbari' yon  .*e  a  Vpd  woollen 
cai>,  'w*fcfe  ia  tassel  of  wftple  sflfc.  At  ore^  ^y'.P^  ^^"^ 
the  blbck,  the  haif-nalced  AbysEfinlan,  sfr^ij^itttneyoufl: 
areea.  With  a  nose  sufficiently  prominent'  to  rite  ^^cpesaoa 
to  his  feattires,  and  hftving  his  cnrted' Wdoflt  tiait  dVed  ^'^^^, 
a  reddish  yellow,-^thB  fbppejy  of  his  courifry. ''  Tfien  lliere 
is 'the  stout  Arab  porter,  m  his  coarse  brown  gsrinent,  bow- 
ing under  a  hei^vy  load  of  dates,  the  matting  ml  dozing,  a]i>i 
clattmjr  with  the  luscious  burden.  Lastfy,  vou  have  ih 
Bedouin,  wit^  the  hue  of  the  destrt  on  his  cheek,  the 
sinewy  limb,  the  eye  dark  and  fiery.  .  He  liath  a  small  tur- 
ban, a  close-bodied  ve*t,.  a  coarse  sash,  all'  of  dnll  colour^ ; 
the  arm,  the  leg,  are  bare ;  the  brown  'bds6m,  open  to  tlw 
sub  and  wind ;  saUidals  on  hia  feef  \  a  broad,  stfatgfht,  (^vo% 
edged  Bworf  in  his  hand ;  a  long  and  ready  pqiiiara'  Ja  l»s 
girdle.  Por  the  cold  night'' wiiia  he  lias  a  cloak  of  gdalS^ 
hair,  or  blAck  or  while,  or  niad'e  in  long  broad'  fetiip^^o*  l^J^i 
colours.  He  walks  erect^  and  moves  directly  tbliiij  Jrou^ 
giving  place  to  none. ' . '.,  .^  Then  there-are  {p€|eopk:§h9t^^ 
with  their  hot  cakes  of  bread^  and  their  laige  c<yj)^cii5».vril'i 
portions  of  meat  and  fowls,  swltniriing  in  gh^i;^,jrep^J[ 
for  the  traveyer.  ,  And  (x  dtep  farther  tfie  i^fif^vki^iiip  m 


co/fee-houses,  w*ith  groups  of  townsmen' '^d^  Jw^^^i  ?*: 
clininff  on  couches  of  thfe  date-leii^  sinpl:ro^|J<]&eli:  sniwl 
hookaSis,  sippingtheir  kishii,  and  pei^etua^y  s^^ii^ 
lohff  beards.     There  are  other  toyvns  in  Ariwi^,  wch -Jb 


a  very  Jriiportaijt  piri  at  the 
>  Red  Sea.     But  nd\fifJ{  f  "^ 


Medina^  and  Aden,  once 

southern  entrance  into  the 

need  call  for  paS-ticular  notice  here :  Medipa  presets  many 

features  similar  to  Mecca,  and  Aden  to  Moc)^.  , 

4.  HousxB  OF  Ikbia  AKD'CimrAV 

4  1  f  I       *    '.    ' 

We- will  travel  eastward,  andf  notice  the  ricftit'^M  ^t^^^- 
A%hanistan.— The  housed  of  th^.  Iiighe^c1iis«|'m  !4fe^^^ 
istan  are  described  with  some  mintrteness  by  'tlid  «<»•. 
Mountstuart  Elphinstone,  in  his  Account  ofth  King^^  si 


BUPPLEMENT  FOR  DECEMBER,  1841. 


Cautul.  The  clan  of  inhabitants  nhoae  dwelling  he  thoB 
portrays,  includes  alt  the  Douranee  chiefo  and  heads  of 
tribes,  with  the  Persians  and  Tanjiks,  who  hold  offices 
ahout  the  king.  "  These  reaideaces,"  says  our  anthor,  "are 
all  enclosed  by  hiitb  walls,  and  contain  Fbeeides  stables, 
lodgins  for  servants,  &c.,}  three  or  four  different  courts, 

Snerally  laid  out  in  gardens,  with  ponds  and  fountains, 
le  aide  of  each  court  la  occupied  by  a  building,  comprising 
Torious  small  apartments  in  two  or  three  atories,  ana  some 
large  halls,  which  occupy  the  middle  of  the  building  for  its 
whole  height.     The  hjuls  ore  supported  by  tall   wooden 

Eillars  and  Moorish  arches,  carved,  ornamented,  and  pwntcd 
ke  the  rest  of  the  hall.  The  upper  rooms  open  on  the  halls 
by  galleries  which  run  alonj;  halfway  up  the  wail,  and  are 
get  olT  with  pillars  and  arches.  The  halls,  being  only  sepa- 
rated by  pillars  and  sashes  of  open  wood<work,  can  alvt'sys 
be  thrown  into  one  by  removing  the  sashes.  The  back  of 
the  innermost  one  is  a  solid  wall,  in  which  is  the  fire-place. 
The  upper  part  of  this  wall  is  ornamented  with  false  arches, 
which  look  like  a  continnation  of  the  galleries,  and  which, 
ft?  well  as  the  real  arches,  are  filled  up  on  great  occasions 
with  paintings  in  oil,  looking-glasses,  and  other  ornaments. 
There  are  amoller  rooms  along  the  other  sides  of  the  court- 
yaHs ;  and  among  them  are  comfortable  apartments  for  the 
retirement  of  the  muster  of  the  house,  oneofwhich^  at  least, 
is  fitted  up  with  glnss  windows  for  cold  weather.  There  are 
fire-places  in  many  of  these  different  apartments.  The  walls 
and  piilarB  are  ornamented  with  flowers  in  various  patterns, 
painted  in  distemper,  or  in  oil,  on  a  white  ground,  composed 
of  a  sort  of  while  woali,  mixed  with  shining  particles,  which 
b  colled  teem  gil,  or  silver  earth.  The  doors  are  of  carved 
wood,  and,  in  winter,  are  covered  with  curtains  of  velvet, 
embroidered  cloth,  and  brocade.  In  all  the  rooms,  at  a 
height  which  is  ea«Iy  within  reach,  arc  arched  recesses  in 
the  waits,  which  are  painted  very  richly,  and,  by  a  strange 
depravity  of  tast«,  are  thought  to  be  embellished  by  glass 
bottles  of  various  coloured  picktes  and  preserves.  The  poor 
also  have  these  recesses,  wlitch  they  ornament  with  China 
cups,  and  in  which  they  store  their  fruits  for  winter  con- 
sumption: the  cm  tains  in  their  houses  are  of  quiltod  chintu, 
or  ol  canvoK,  pninted  with  birds,  beasts,  flowers,  &c.,  in  oil. 
The  pictures  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  are  mostly,  if  not 
entirely,  done  in  Perna:  the  figures  are  old  Pernan  kings 
■nd  warriors,  young  men  and  womeu  drinkine  together,  or 
scenes  fn»n  some  of  the  Persian  poems.    The  principal 


ornaments  of  the  rooms  of  the  great,  are  carpets  and  fells^ 
which  serve  them  in  place  of  oir  other  furniture.  Peraan 
carpets  are  too  well  known  in  England  to  require  any  des- 
cription, but  there  is  a  kind  made  in  Heraut  which  excels 
all  others  I  ever  saw;  they  are  made  of  wool,  but  so  fine  and 
glossy,  and  dyed  with  sncli  brilliant  colours,  that  they 
appear  to  be  of  silk ;  carpets  of  highly  wrought  shawl  are 


Jso  used ;  but  this  piece  of  magnificence  must  be  very  rarely 
used  from  the  enormous  expense*. 

"There  are  fella  for  wtting  on,  spread  close  to  the  wall 
all  round  the  room,  except  where  the  entrance  is,  which,  in 
the  halls,  is  always  at  one  end.  They  are  brownish-grey, 
with  patterns  of  flowers  in  dim  colours ;  tliat  at  the  top  of 
the  room  is  broader  than  the  other^  which  are  about  thrco 
feet  and  a  half  or  four  feet  broad.  On  the  upper  felt  are 
smaller  carpets  of  embroidered  silk  or  velvet,  with  cushions 
of  velvet  for  distinguished  visitors." 

The  peninsula  of  India,  like  most  countries  which  have 
had  many  conqaerors,  presentaagroatdivereitjj  of  dwellings, 
not  only  in  splendour  and  costliness,  but  also  in  style.  As, 
however,  the  Hindoos  are  the  people  who  are  most  peiju- 
harly  connected  with  that  country,  we  will  give  a  brief 
sketch  of  the  dwellings  of  Hindoos  of  rank.  Benares  pre- 
sents the  most  marked  appearance  of  Hindoo  origin :  in  this 
city  the  amiable  Bishop  Hclier  viwted  a  house  which  he  has 
described.  It  belonged  to  two  mmors,  the  sons  of  an  opulent 
citizen.  It  was  a  building  of  strikingappearance,  and  had 
a  large  vacant  area  before  the  door.  The  house  was  very 
irregular,  and  built  round  a  small  court,  two  sides  of  which 
were  taken  up  by  the  dwolling-house,  and  the  others  by 
the  offices.  It  was  four  lofty  stories  in  height,  with  a  tower 
over  the  gate,  of  one  story  more.  The  front  had  small  win- 
dows of  various  forms,  some  of  them  projecting  on  bracket*, 
and  beautifuUycftrved.andagreat  part  of  the  wall  itself  waa 
covered  with  carved  pattern*  of  sprigs,  leaves,  and  flowers, 
like  on  old-fashioned  paper.  The  whole  was  of  stone,  but 
painted  a  deep  red.  The  general  efleet  of  tlie  house  was 
very  much  like  that  of  some  of  the  palaces  at  Venice,  aa 
represented  in  Canaletti's  views.  There  was  an  entrance- 
gateway,  with  a  groined  arch  of  rich  carving,  and  on  encli 
side  was  a  deep,  richly-carved  recesa,  like  a  shrine,  in  which 
were  idola,  with  lamps  liefisre  them, — the  househuid  gods  of 
the  family.    The  inner  court  was  covered  with  planluins 


m 


THB  SATURDAJYjWAB^ZnflRf  r 


««<l  t(m4,x0osy  with  a. raised  ^nd  ^hmitmb^  veU  ia  i^ 
(veuVo:  oa  tU«  left  baud  ADArrov  and  4taep  fllgbi  of  fitontt 
•j»t4^  I(hI  to  tiio  tot  floor,  Oa  ihU  floor  were  aevenU  rooms, 
ifiiot  very  lar/i^e,  but  beautifully  carved^  Uio  principcl  otie, 
whicii  occapiod  the  imt  floor  of  the  gatewaiy^  having  an, 
arcade  roujid  it.  The  oentirc^  abcmt  flfteen  feet  aquare^  was 
raibcd  and  .oovered  with  a  carpet.  The  aro<uie  round  was 
flnggcd  with  stones,  and  was  so  contrived  thai  on  a  vfiv 
aliort  notice  four  streams  of  water^  one  in  tke  centre  of  each 
side,  descended  from  the  roof  like  a  permanent  shower«-hath, 
and  fidl  into  stono  basins,  sunk  beneath  the  flooiv  and 
CO  veiled  with  a  sort  of  open  fretwork,  also  of  stone-  ^  These 
rooms,**  aa^s  Bishop  Ueoer,  '*  were  hung  with  a  good  many ' 
English  prmts,  of  tae  comnioii  paltrv  desoription  which  was 
fashionable  twenty  years  a^o,  such  as  Sterne  and  P9ar. 
Maria,  (the  boys  supposed  this  to  be  a  doc#r -feeling  a  lady  a 
pulse,)  the  Sorrows  of  Werter,  &c*,  together  with  a  daub  of 
the.^M'esent  Emperor  of  Delhi^  and  seTeral  portmito  in  oil  pf 
a  much  better  kind,  of  the  faUiar  of  these  boya^  some  of  hla 
pK)werful  native  friends  and  employepS|  and  of  a  very  beaiH 
tiful  woman,  of  Euivpoan  complexloo,  hut  In  an  Eastern 
dres^  of  whom  the  ooys  knew  notlung>  or  would  sav 
nothing  more,  than  that  tho  piotuit  waa  painted  for  their 
father  by  HaU*Jee  oif  Patnat  I  did  sot  indeed  if  paal  the 
question,  because  I  knew  the  reluctance  with  ^^'Illch  all  - 
Eastern  nations  speak  of  their  women,  but  it  oertalaly  had 
the  oppearanoe  ot  a  portrait,  and,  as  well  as  the  old  Baboons 
picture,  would  have  been  called  a  oreditubla  palatinfia 
most  gentlemen's  houses  in  England.*' 

Tlie  houses  of  i\\f  Mohammedan  Inhabitanii  of  India 
do  not  differ  in  any  marked  degree  from  those  of  ll^ewia  ar 
Turkey:  the  moials,  the  religion,  and  the  general  sooisi 
arrangements,  being  nearly  tne  sune.  In  the  •oythern 
provinces  of  India,  such  as  Mysore,  &c.,  the  houses  are  of 
very  large  dimensions,  inclosing  nuoierous  coui*t%  sur^ 
rounded  l>y  buildings.  There  is  also  a  very  remarkable 
jdass  of  erections  to  lie  seen  in  the  hilly  districts  towards  the 
wesiern  shore  of  the  peninsula :  these  are  called  kiUifarU, 
P|n  the  very  summit  of  a  hill  are  often  built,  not  only  tlie 
fortification  necessary  for  the  defence  of  a  place,  but  nunie- 
roiis  residences  both  for  the  governors  and  the  gbvemed. 
There  ara  but  few  fortified^  places  in  the  world  more  for^ 
mid^ble,  in  a  military  ooiut  of  view,  than  thepQ  forts; 
)ieoau99  not  only  are  the  walla  and  general  jefep^v^ 
arra^g^V^ents  of  a  very  complete  l|^ind,  but  the  hiUqn  r(hk!k 
ibey  aro  situated  i^  often  so  precipitous,  that  it  is  with  t)bu9 
utmost  difBculty  the  a^ent  to  them  ia  accou^plIsUed^  , 
'.  The  countries  to  the  south -east  of  India|  auch.as  ^if  l^yf 
man  Empire,  Slam,  IV^aya,  5ccm  do  not  d^pla/  such  s|^\^ 
niens  of  ekgaut  buildings  as  are  to  be  found  m  Indi%  an^ 
ttiereCore  n^ed  not  occupy  much  of  ou^  atteiition.  ^  The 
^'turo  of  tlie  houses,  in  and  near  the  ^innai^  ^p|re^ 
h^y  be  judged  of  from  the  following  pemark3  of  Symc^  ii^ 
hi^  Enwius^  to  Axm  ;-^*'  The  sti-ecta  of  Pegu  m^  jfpac^ousi 
aaare  those  of  all  the  Biniian  towns  that  X  liaveoee^. .  Tke 
(^w  town  is  well  paved  with  brick,  which  the  coins  qf.tht 
o]d  plentifully  supply;  and  on  each  side  of  tlie  way  tl)er<^  is 
a  diiaiu  to  carrv  ov  the, water.  The  houses  of  tUe  mef^jiecit 
peasants  of  I  egu,  and  throughout  Uie  Binnaa  empire 
]Ki8sc8s  manifest  advanfa^es  over  Indian  dwellings,  by  b^ng 
raised  from  the  ground  either  .on  wooden  posts  or  bamWos. 
accovding  to  the  size  of  the  building.  Tiie  habita^iuiis.  of 
tiie  hi^^her  ranks  are  usually  elevated  six  or  eiuht  feet^  and 
those  of  the  humbler  classes,  three  or  four.  .  Tuer^  are  uo 
brick  buddings  either  hi  Pe^u  or  Itangoop,  e:i^cept  snch  at 
belong  to  tlie  king,  or  are  dcdioated  to  theaivuiity  GauxiUna; 
his  majesty  having  orohibltcd  the  use  of  brick  or  stone  in 
pivate  buildings.  The  houses*  thei^cfore,  are  all  made  of 
matting,  or  of  sheathing-boaids,  supported  on  bamboos  or 
posts;  but  fit)m  their  being  comnosed  of  such  combustibie 
materials  the  inhabitants  are  under  continual  dread  of  ^re, 
against  which  they  take  every  precaution.  The  roofs  ace 
lightly  covered,  and  at  each  door  stands  a  long  bambooi 
with  an  iron  hook  at  the  end,  to  pull  down  the  tliatch* 
There  is  also  another  pole,  with  a  grating  of  iron  at  tljia 
extrenuty,  about  three  feet  square^  to  suppress  flame  bv 
pressure.  Almost  cverv  house  has  earthen  pota^  filled  wltn 
water,  on  the  roof;  and  a  particular  class  of  people,  whose 
business  it  is  to  extingulsK  iires^  perambulate  the  streets 
during  the  niglit*' 

The  Cistern  parti, of  A^Ia  ja  occupied  by  that  remwkabla 
people,  the  Chmeas,  a  people  who  seem  to  ^ride  themselves 
m  \q\\\^  diifcrent  in  manners,  in  dress,  m  lanc^age.  in 
luauufuctuxes,  from  everjr  other;  who  think  that  theijr 
G^>^Ury  j^  the  centre  of  civillzatloni  and  tht^  the  Europeans 


avea  aoti  id  Mbrom  noe  bihaibitiiii  MmeivDioUfioner 
of  ihe  earUu  Th«  tia«seA  oCthe  weBltiur  m  Cbins  Wr 
a  ceasideiable  resembhiMe  to  those,  which  b^re  Im 
brought  to  ligU  at  Ponpeis*  ^  Th^y  foncsst,  gemiaj^ 
speaking,  of  a  ground  floor,  containing  wveral  apartmenfis, 
which  are  lightel  by  winddwr  looking  into  a  ooitral  coarC 
Thte  iirikN^  atMitaaniialitiir  iho  tinmaiBibKl^  isden>ted 
lo m leeliplioii of  vi4ilKff% Ikai  TheimMripttEtiKiii&tt  m 
aapatttlad  crom  «ac)^  ftiitr  by  daonNQin  oo? eni4  i^itb  «}& 
haogiBgl.  Th«  liotiaet  an  mqnetilly  tttteied  by  b  4ri«le ' 
gateway, oonaisting of  ahuge  ibhling.doof^  the injtidle, 
and  a  smaller  ona  on  each  aidos  4he.  latgo  antiiacs  b  for 
diatingnishad  vintofi»  and  the  amalhir  ixa  thoaa  of  bumbkr 
rank..  It  is  iwt  anusual  to  aee  oylindriaal  lanteqishuaist 
tho  aidee  00  4hfi  ^t«,  on  which  ihaMma  afid  titis  of  Uie 
inhabitaniare  wnttaa,  ao  aa  to  ha  read,  by  nigbt.ai  ireUss 
by  day.  Ia  Ihe  bast  boueeai  there  m^  aeldm  any  lUw, 
except  a  fow  at  the  entianee.  The  fcandatioiM  ef  the 
honaee  axe  of  aaiiremely  ealii  etone^woik,  not  anfiaqttwUy 
of  graiBitc«  The.walto  era  of  bine  bikk,  and  fitqaaitiy 
haye  an  artiioial  mrtee  laid  on  them.  Stucee-work  «i 
taoelderable  doHeaesr*  repvaaenting  anisials,  flowfen>  frail, 
h^  ia  lieqneotly  9#en»  and  ia  exeeuted  at  a  lew  priee. 
Il»ner.  paHition  waUe  ate  oftea  dividad  iate  ooinpsrtdNiits 
whleh  ate  filled  with  a  kbid  of  firet^wefk  of  porcehin. 
The  loef  ie  eef^Ftfad  with  tilea,  wheee  tienTerw  Kctioa 
appf oiMdiee  to  a  eamieiifla :  they  are  leagad  aliD|  witk 
Ineif  oeniwra  aide  abpennoet,  to-  satra  aa  caanmls  w  the 
lain:  etber  tite  ara  than  Uadviih  thak  coeeiireaidedovii- 
warda.  ao  aa  to  hi«U  ^a  jaiainga  «f  the  tUeas-^tisaappoKd 
that  ihle  ylait  Iras  dariTod  from  the  nie  ef  split  IwabDoa, 
ae  ia  c««toinary  emoAg  the  Malaya. 

2\rQ.  Slaaiiiton  dMrihes  the  houaa  of  a  atflDdaiia^ 
which  may.  be  taken,  ae  a  feaicaaalatiiie^of  ibt  idor 
aoatly  dweUini^a  The  whole inidoeure of  thed^Hng w« 
in  tlie  form  af  a  pamUelograiia,  aad  aofToanded  byshigii 
brick  M^l,  the  ootaide  of  whieh  axhibited  a  plain  bisnjt  stv- 
fiiea,  eneepi  near  pne  <of  ite  angles  arh^  the  gatc"^ 
opened  into  a  nerrow  street,' IHtlaiicomiaing  Ihe  bao^some 
i^uct«ra.^withia8|de.  Tke  wfdl  ia:it6  wM^  langtk  asp- 
ported  the  ufiperxidge  of  ^)o(t  whoaa  Wer^ed^es  raitiog 
^pcia  B^  interid«  wall  peMaUel  to  the  othec«  fanned  ^  ^ 
i^i'lfe.iOf  buildinge  divided  in(9  eparftnentefbriaUrantsaifl 
offipaei.  Thts  n«t  ef  thfl  inotoa^ra  Has  itabdiTUed  iateim- 
cat  iUUAd»an|nilar  courts  of  diifereot  ahm.  In  eaeb  qn^- 
jnsm*^  ware^iUlinga  ^ipoi»  pjatforais  of  gmnftai  wd  «tv- 
K>mvded  by  a  ooloiuiede»  Thaadumna  ym»m'^'^^^ 
fflxtaen  feat  in  tueight*  and  aa  manyinehea  in  diaveter  it 
tbe  lower  ea4  deaximm  tolhaappaffextiamity  aboaiwfr' 
«i^  They  had  neither  eapii^l  t»er  \m^  eecimiing  tetke 
atript  mea^ii^  of  these  tenna  in  G)ra«iaia^eKilMtar«>  aa 
m^  diaisiops  ef  that  part  OBdled  the  eatablaliiit^  it  ^ 
nl^in.up  to  tile  eoi-nica;  at  the  lowar  end  ihfOi^  ^^^^^ 
i);oUows  cut  Into  st4>ne^  ior  their,raceptij»»ana  vbid^^onMl 
a  circular  ring  i^uad  <aah  aqmalwhat  ia.  jthe  Taaoaa  fnaBiur. 
Bet  wean  l^a  oohAmne,  for  about  «ii«»^fottith  tkf  iemtbcf  tht 
shaft  from  the  eonuoa  downwardry  Was  cai^rad  VfA  onr 
minted  ^ood*  woi,H«  ^ch  miaht  he  knaed  themieUatui^ 
and  was  of  a  dUfefeni  coh^ar  tram  Uia  oOlaaMSy  iddc^  ««« 
dniyer^allv  red<  This  eolwaade  aemed  taauppiwitbil  s^ 
of  tl^e  root  which  pcoje^iad  bayond  tha-nwUkpl^iaA^w^ 
taiTiing  up  at  the  eaalea.  ^y  veenax)!  thoie  tao&d  co^ 
nades,  ev^ry  part. of  these  axesaalfe  AuiMmgintlgii^J* 
visited  under  cover.  The  number  of  pillars  tbroogboat  m 
i^-hohj  was  not  ft werilian  aia  huadtedT  .  ••  ■  ,  •  ' 
^ .  Annexad  to  the  principal  epwtBaentwaaeaelsrBtad  mfif 
in;?,  intended  for  the  pur^aas  «f  a.pfiYate  tbeatrBandeo^ 
cert  room,  with  re  tiling,  apiurteenta  i  bablad,  and^agsHaf 
for  apec^tors  roim4  it  Mone»,of  ihe .btoiikhil|e»«rt  ^^ 
one.  story  high»  exci^t  that  whAoh  oaaipbaad  ttia  la^ 
apartnxeut  during  tha  rasideaca  of  tha!OM»«£  itnnuHuw 
in  the  iumost  (^uadnu^le.  The  i^o«l  oemi^tod  (im»m^ 
and  lofty  liail,  with  windows  of  Chinese  paiaiV-^'^'^ 
which  no  objects  could  ba4iitii|ceiehe<l  o»  jtaaatkerdde. 
M  tlie  back  of  dbis  hallr  w«aa^ci7r,.aeaMgM«<  ^ 
ten  ISBet,  which  lad.  to  aavezali  pnaU  tt^jita^  IjgbM  ^  °|j^ 
the  hail,  Thei^  inner  windewa  wweefailkfleba^'ataakM 
on  frames  of  jvood,  and  worked  by  4ba  aem>i^  iqn*^ 
aeutatioas  of  ^ower%  £:uit,  bir^  and  imnffltti;  otb^  ^ 
pawted  in  water-coiows.  Thia  apartaifpl<irat  ^^  ^  * 
a  neater  ^ia,  tl^ough  apaaa  eiwlet  ac«le»  thaaao^of tM 
others.  The  whole  of  thia  .pari  of  the  bmlcNr  «•»  «^ 
lated  fox  private  apartments.  .  Ja  ana  ef  Iha  ea^  <\^ 
zangles  was  a  baaia  qi  poad.ef  wateiwia  the  ntdi^w^ 
WQ3  built  a  stone  nx>m,  esaotiy  in  the^4hepftefeeeottM 


8VFPimiiaism:\i?aii  <di;c£MBEK,  i84i. 


255 


06t^^*  Ml^  ^  Ihe  ^ti&by.^'  In  otftmi  of  the  ^tnid- 
¥ang{^  w^re  planlled  fte^  %M  htib^  la^^t,  a^betp  of  tocks 
"wiB  nid«ly  toiled  t  and  it  0116  end  Was  a  spot:  laid  (mt  for  a 
gtttvlett  ininntiHtai^)  but  n^ty^'fii&ish^; 

TJiidet'  %1id  g^Mieml  nam^  of  America  Are'  inehided  ai  gtei&t 
II  diti9r«(ty  ef  eotidiriei'as  weirei  perhM>i,  eiret  jsJassedtog^ 
iheni .  ;«riie¥«  hs  €inu»de^  ^h  its'mtish  iHBlMutloiMteiiigred 
With  thlftisib  4fth^:Fi^eh  Inhabitanteof  tl^  L6Wer  PMtinee ; 
'ii4h«'Uti(ted  StMm^  ^th  its  novthtni-  static  ahnost  EngtSsh, 
"  ahd  itsiMtrUiem 'almosc  'Spaiilsh  j^Mexioo^  ^iik  ice  Spanish 
thattM^i*' eng^afled^iipoii  thi  auoient  Aetecs;^<«J^iQd  1^ 
fittftf^lloiis^  #tate&'«f  South  Aineriea,'all  of  wh^ch  onoe 
•b^dtlg«d  to 'Spain  "Mtd.  Portnga!,  bat  all  of  which  aw  now 
r^tthIi<ft/di'M)m«thi«g  apj^roaehrngthisretof^-^^tiy',  i^re 
.Arethe.t|iQtiv«i  Indian  ttibes,  from  the  fuivhutitere  of  the 
firbzto  Mfidne  in^e  nerthi  to  Fsta^onia  ill  the  south.  It 
may frelm  snppesed'that fiie dWelbnge,  uew^l  ai thecha- 
i«aetet  of  theinlMiMtantB  varjr  exceedingly  in  different  pafts 
of  this  wideiraot.  Still,  we  may  olass  alt  nnder  ttiMe 
headsy-^Indikn  extmetion,  Engiieh  extractloii»  and  ^pSEfish 
or  Poi^guese  extraction.  The  d  weUmge  of  the  Indians  we 
need  net  consider  here,  fbr  thev  unlrenalhr  eome  nnder  the 
denomiwtion  of  '<  nvde'*  habitation^  'Akmm  of  Canada^ 
and  the  northern  portions  ^f  the  United  States,  we  may  omit 
for  a  different  reason,  viz.,  the  better  elasses  df  hafoitations 
Tery  elosely  resemble  those ^f  England*-  We  dnli  thet«fore 
merely  offer  «  few  ima^arks  en  those  parte  which  have  onee 
been  either  Spanish  or  Portngnese  colonies. ' 

HoMibdtdti  cbnsMers  the  modem' city 'Of  M^ieo  16  ^ 
one  of  the  finest  cities  ever  btiflt  W-Burop^aaB*  There  aKs 
bnt'fW  o)ttes4liKt  can  lie  oenipai«d  tb  itv  fM*  the  nYilf^hm 
level  of  the  grooftd  em  whtiehat  is  btiitti'the  re^larit^  and 
breadth  of  the'tetreets^  and  the)  extent  lof  ^e  jpvthlic  ptiaces 
or  6(|uai^s^  The  architectnrets  genevallv  ot  a  very  pure 
style ;  and  ihtve'  ahe  edifices  ^f  a  vefy  beantffnl  constltietion. 
The  exteritn-  of  the  houses  is  not  loaded  with'  ozuaxneht. 
Two  sorts  6f  hewn*  E«en^  (the  pevotis  amygdaloid  called 
f|too;i(/4,  and !  especidly  a  pern&jrry  of  vitveons  feldspar 
without  qUarte,)  give  to- tJ^  Hexioati  biiildlngs  an  air  of 
^idity,  and  (sameume^  of  magniiieende*  There  ate  none  'of 
those  wooden  haleoniesaqd  galleiries  to  be  seen  which  disfb- 

fxLTt  sb  nmch  all'  the- Surnpean*  cit»ds  in  both  tlie  Indies. 
'he:balnstMtdes  and  gates  ave'all  of  Biscay  Mb,  ornamented 
with  biion^;ian4  ihe  houses  instead  of  iWs,'  have  teMces 
like  these  idlttdy^ and  otlsMsr  southern  oeuntrles.'  Many 
Jiaf  £he'8te^ti' are' neatly  two  milee  in  length,  perfectly  level 
aiid  itMdght;  and  with  the"  ende  lenninating  in  a  v|ew  of  the 
vio«ataini  -that  eesntttnd  the  valley  in  which  the  eil^  fs 
sitoatedt '  Thehsttsesare,  in  generai,  of  a  tiaifonn  height, 
moei  of  tbwm  l^^^S  ^1^  stories,  eaeh  from  fifteen  to 
tweit^  ftet  high.'  The  fronts  of  most  of  the  houses  are 
iminled  In  distmnper,  white,  erimsoh,  brown,  or  light  green ; 
and  owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmo^ere,  ^ley  retuh  thecr 
beaaty upimpeiiadfbr many  yearn.  Some mseripClons ate 
painted  upon  them  taken  from  Scripture,  or  stanzas  addressed 
io  the  Vttttin.  Many  of  the  heittsss  are  entirely  ocmered 
with  'glasnd  ^poieelaitt  in  a  variety  of  elmikt  designs,  by 
vhidi  a  xieh  mosahs^like  appeasniMe  la  produeed.  The  wails 
^  the  gieat  stafifeaasa  are  freqaantly  eovvred  in  the  same 
manner^  and  mixed  with  a  prefusloii  of  gBding,  whi^  in 
eantmsl  with  the  bine  and  white  poitehmi  has  a  spkndid 

There  are  no  other  dtka  or  towns  ef  Mexieo  at  all  merit- 
ing oioitce  i»  respect  of  tbieir  dwellings,  ae  the  fhrther  we 
noede«lrom  the  eapital  the  more  doea  a  commingling  ef 
Eatupean  and  iadiaa  mauMM  become  |>erceptible. 
/  At  tim  sovdiwanl  of  Mexico^  and  oecapying  the  nofthem 
^rtion  eif  South  America,  are  numerous  states  whidf  were 
baaDeiSpaaish  but  aom-now  repuhHean ;  bUi anaiehy  ao  reigns 
ihere^  thiKt  welcnaw  b«t  Ilttkdyf  theastual  condition  of  the 
itowoa  imd  honiear 

.  Th»rfseidsiice»of  the  itthahHanta  of  Chffi  may  be  judged 
oS'itov^  thsae  i^  ita  capital,  £hmtki^  This  ci^ls  divided 
iato'  reetaagaiar  and  equal  squares,  sepamted  by  streets  forty 
Cost  hratod.  v  Each  eompartiMit  er  square  measuies  about 
foufshmidied  htfi  each  way;  and  eadi  square  Is  called 
a.  quadrd;  The  streets  are  ill-paved  with  small  round 
atones  brought 'from  the  lied  of  the  river,  and  have  a  gtitter 
through  the  middle;  but  the  best  streets  are  paved  on  one 
€wk<  wUh'slaba  of  porphjrry,  quarried  from  a  neighbouring 
llill. .  The  great  central  square,  or  plaaa^  contains  the  house 
n£  the  direcSoiv  the  -nalaee  of  Justice^  the  nrison,  and  other 
fjublic  «IGae%'  togetner  with  the  dathe<ml,  the  bishop's 


I  nalace,  and  private  residences.  All  these  bnildhigs  ate 
nnHt'ofbridh,  plastered,  and  whitewashed,  and  present  no 
enecimens  of  architectttral  elegance^  The  general  nature  of 
the  privatid  dwellings  in  the  citj^,  even  those  inhabited  by 
the  Wealthy  classes^  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact,  that 
the  usual  materials  are  iu-shs^ed  sun-dried  bncks,  and  mud 
Instead  of  m6rtar.  The  tothedral  is  the  only  stone  building 
in  the  <5ity. 

Valoaraiao,  the  principal  port  of  Chill,  consists  of  little 
more  tnan  one  street :  the  houses  are  huddled  together  with- 
-out  prd^r  :-4he  church  Is  built  chiefly  of  mud.  There  is  a 
eubur^  called  Almendral,  the  houses  of  which  are  small  and 
incommodious,  of  one  ground-floor  only,  built  of  sun-dried 
bricks,  plastered  witih  hiud  and  whitewashed.  Some  have 
rude  corridors  projecting  over  the  foot-way ;  others  have 
raised  briok  paths  in  front  of  their  houses ;  but  generally  the 
fbot-patli  is  iherely  a  raised  heap  of  earth.  Some  of  the 
houses  are  roioied  with  tiles,  while  others  are  thatched  with 
rushes^  grass  or  palm-leaves ;  some  have  passages  leading 
from  the  street ;  but  in  most  cases,  the  door  opens  directly 
from  the  street  to  the  apartments ;  and  as  many  of  them 
liave  no  l%ht  but  what  they  receive  from  the  door,  this  door 
is  general^  left  open.  Some  of  the  rooms  hare  small  win- 
dows with  panelled  shutters,  having  clumsy  wooden  bfos 
In  fi'ont,  rudely  carved:  some  few  are  painted  red;  but 
gener^ly  they  are  not  painted  at  all. 
'  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  Chili  does  not  present  much  to 
eall  forth  admiration  in  the  construction  or  appearance  of 
its  houses.  Indeed  along  the  whole  western  coast  of  SoutJi 
America,  but  little  attention  seems  to  be  paid  to  the  con« 
Btruetion  of  private  dweUings;  for  earthquakes  are  so  fre« 
quent  that  anything  lofty  would  almost  inevitably  be  made 
a  heap  of  rutna^ .  Ulloa's  description  of  the  houses  of  Lima, 
the  Capital  of  Peru,  though  requiring  alterations  in  soma 
paHs  to  suit  it  to  iae  state  of  things  at  the  present  day, 
maybe  taken  as  a  tolerably  near  approach  to  the  truth.  He 
Say 8  :-^"  The  houses,  though  for  the  most  part  low,  are 
commodious,  and  make  a  gc^d  appearance.  Tney  are  all  of 
baxaremie  and  quincha.  They  appear  indeed  to  be  com- 
posed 01  more  solid  materials,  both  with  r^;ard  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  principal  walls,  and  the  imitation  of  cornices  on 
them.^  The  principal  parts  are  of  wood,  morticed  into  the 
rafters  of  the  roof.  The  walls  are  lined  within  aad.  with- 
out with  wild  canes  and  osiers,  so  that  the  tixftber-work  is 
wholly  inclosed.  The  osiers  are  plastered  over  with  clay, 
and  whitewashed.  Cornices  and  porticos  of  rough  worx- 
muiship  are  then  added^  and  whitewashed  to  imitate  stone. 
Th6  roioft  are  flat,  and  covered  only  so  fiir  as  is  necessary  to 
keep  otit  wind  and  sun.  Such  is  the  general  ch^:acter  of 
the.  nouses  in  Lima.  Those  which  are  Inhabited  by  Euro- 
peans afe  in  many  cases  built  Somewhat  in  the  style  preva- 
lent ftt  their  own  country ;  but  always  with  attention  to 
the  necemary  character  of  oeing  low,  seldom  exceeding  two 
stories  in  height,  and  very  often  not  exceeding  one.  Mr. 
Miers,  a  recent  traveller  m  South  America,  Mcribes  the 
houses  at  Mendoza,  an  important  town  In  the  La  Plata  uro« 
vinces,  aa  being  neariy  such  as  we  have  here  deaeribea  :— 
all  of  one  stor^ :  built  of  adobes^  fsun-dried  Inicks^)  phistered 
with  mud,  and  whitewashed.  £ven  the  governors  house 
was  of  Uiia  character. 

On  crossing  to  the  eastern  shore  of  South  America,  the 
dty  of  Buenoa  Ayrea  does  not  seem  to  present  many  more 
attractiona  than  those  we  have  described^  "Considered  wiUi 
reference  to  the  houses.  Mr.  Mien  mys^  **The  honees  front- 
ing the  beach  I  mistook  for  gaols^  as  they  had  no  glass 
sauies,  and  the  open  windows  wem  demnded  by  iron 
gratings ;  but  on  entering  the  town,  I  ftond  all  the  houses 
constructed  in  the  same  manner,  mostly  of  one  ground  floor : 
thrir  deserted  appearance,  and  ahabbv  exterior^  bore  more 
the  semblance  of  gaols  than  the  habltationa  of  an  industrious^ 
civiliaed,  and  free  people.*'  Mr.  Miers  and  hia  companions 
were  lodged  and  entertained  at  the  house  of  one  of  tlie  most 
respectable  inhabltanta;  and  the  mode  of  taking  meals,  &c., 
may  serve  to  convey  some  idea  of  the  manners  of  the 
{nhahitanta.  Mr?  M.  was  piaeed  at  the  top  of  the  fiimily 
t»ble,«-the  usual  seat  of  guests,  according  to  the  custom  of 
the  country.  Thme  Idaek  female  slaves  waited  at  table. 
About  twenty  dishes,  of  difllerent  sorts,  were  brought, 
each  one  after  the  other  was  removed, — containing  bread  and 
vermicelli  soup,  different  kinds  of  stews,  boiled  beef,  roast 
veal,  lettuce  salad,  and  various  sorts  of  vegetables.  The 
wish  was,  that  tne  guests  should  eat  some  of  every 
dish,-* no  easy  matter  among  such  a  number.  After  dinner, 
one  of  the  slaves  said  a  long  unintelligible  grace,  upon  the 
conehision  of  whfch  all  the   family  crossed  themselves 


356 


THE  SATURDAY  MAGAZINE. 


npon  their  fbnhMda,  montlu,  and  brauts:  the  doth  was 
not  removed,  but  waa  kept  for  the  deaacrt,  wliich  conuated 
of  a  profusion  of  ripe  ligs,  peaches,  nectarineg,  apples,  pevB, 
and  oranges.  Nothing  but  water  was  drank  at  or  after 
dinner.  A  basin  and  towel  were  brought,  in  which  all  the 
companT  washed  their  hands  in  the  Kime  water. 

Rio  Janeiro,  the  capital  of  Brazil,  is  not  provided  with 
hpnses  of  a  kind  proportionate  to  the  extent  and  importance 
of  tha  city.  The  atreeta,  which  ore  straight  and  narrow,  are 
paved  witn  granite,  but  are  scarcely  provided  with  any  li^ht 
at  niffht.  The  honsea,  which  are  generally  of  two  atones, 
and  low  and  narrow  in  proportion  to  their  depth,  are,  for 
the  moat  part,  built  of  blocka  of  granite :  the  upper  stoty 
however,  la  often  of  wood.  The  thresholds,  door-poata, 
lintels,  and  window-ftames,  are  of  maaay  qusrti  or  feldspar, 
brought  from  Bahia  in  a  state  ready  for  use.  The  roofs  are 
oniveraally  covered  with  aemi-cylindrical  tiles.  The  lower 
story  is  commonly  occupied  by  a  shop  or  warehouse  ;  the 
second  (and  third,  if  there  be  one)  by  the  family  apartments, 
to  whicn  there  are  long  and  narrow  passages  taien  from  the 

rand  floor,  and  commonicating  with  the  street.  The 
laes  used  formerly  to  have  an  appendage  called  ajealotuy, 
oijaloutie,  which  were  gloomy  projections  &om  the  upper 
windows.  These  jalousies  were  raised  on  a  platform  of 
■tone,  two  and  half  feet  broad,  and  extended  to  the  top  of 
the  window,  '  They  were  formed  of  lattice-work  of  a  taa- 
cifiil  pattern,  divided  into  panels  or  compartments,  some 
of  which  were  fitted  up  with  hinges  at  the  top,  so  as  to 
form  BBortof  flap,  which,  when  opened  a  little  way,  allowed 
persons  in  the  bolconv  to  look  dawn  into  the  street  with< 
ont  being  seen  themadves.  They  gave  to  the  fronts  of  the 
honaea  a  dull,  heavy,  and  suspiciona  appearance,  and  have 
been  superaeded  by  light  open  balconies. 

Until  the  recent  chan^  in  the  political  circumstances  of 
Brazil,  the  houses  of  Rio  Janeiro,  as  well  aa  the  general 
manuuKtures  produced,  felt  the  ill-effects  of  a  laay  sphit 
^at  used  to  distinguish  the  white  inhabitants:  they  were 
not  clever  artisans, — they  were  too  laiy  to  attain  skill, — 
and  they  were  too  proud  to  carry  even  theii  own  working 
tools  through  the  streeta.  Ur.  Luccock  baa  given  an  amus- 
ing account  of  the  combined  effect  of  these  three  blots: — "It 
was  necessary  to  open  a  lock,  of  which  I  bad  lost  the  key ; 
and  the  skill  necessary  to  pick  it  was  bo  rare,  that  the  master 
and  waiter  o{  tlie  hotel  where  I  then  lodged,  were  greatly  per- 
plexed with  my  inijuiries,  at  what  place  it  was  to  be  found. 
At  length  they  adviaed  me  to  apply  to  an  £nglish  oaipenler 
who  had  been  settled  in  Rio  about  two  yean,  and  em- 
ployed several  men,  one  of  whom  he  requested  to  'o  with 


me,  ftir  then  maatan  did  not  Tentore  to  eommond ;  mmatiag 
me  that  the  man  wDuld  execute  what  I  wanted.  He  de- 
tained me  a  long  time,  but,  to  compensate  tor  the  delay, 
made  his  appearance,  at  last,  in  full  dress,  with  a  cocked 
hat,  shoe  and  knee-buckles,  and  other  correntondinr  pam- 
phemalia.  At  the  door  of  the  house  he  still  loiteret^  wish- 
mg  to  hire  aome  black  man  to  carry  hia  hammer,  ohi^  and 
another  small  instrument.  I  augeeated  that  they  were  ligh^ 
and  proposed  to  carry  a  part  or  the  whole  of  them  myself; 
but  thia  would  have  been  as  great  a  practical  solecism  m 
unng  his  own  hands.  The  gentleman  waited  patiently 
until  a  negro  appeared;  then  made  his  bargain,  and  pro- 
ceeded in  due  state,  followed  by  bis  temporary  serranL 
The  task  was  soon  finished,  by  breaking  the  lock,  instead 
of  picking  it,  when  the  man  of  importance,  »nniring  me  a 
profound  bow,  stalked  off  with  his  follower."  Since  the 
period  of  Hr.  Luccock's  visit,  however,  many  changes  and 
improvements  have  occurred. 

There  ia  a  little  epet  at  the  soathem  extremity  of  Africa, 
we  mean  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  which  we  will  make 
a  brief  alluuon,  before  we  bring  to  a  conclusion  our  Plotted 
task.  "  The  atreeU  of  Cape  Town,"  saya  Mr.  Burchell, 
"though  not  paved,  are  kept  always  in  excellent  otder, 
and  derive  an  aKreeable  freshnesa   from  trees   of  oak  and 

Sinaster,  planted  here  and  there  on  either  aide."  The 
ousea  are  built  of  brick,  and  &ced  with  a  stucco  of  lime. 
They  are  decorated  in  front  with  cornices  and  many  archi- 
tectural ornaments,  and  fr^uently  with  figures  both  in  high 
and  low  relief.  In  front  of  each  house  is  a  paved  platform 
(caUed  the  ilo^,  or  step)  nsually  eight  or  ten  feet  wide,  and 
commonly  from  two  to  four  feet  above  the  level  of  the  alreet. 
It  is  ascended  by  atepa,  and  has,  generally,  a  seat  at  each 
end;  and  here  the  inhabitants  frequently  walk  or  nt  to 
enjoy  the  air,  or  to  converae  with  paaaing  friends.  The 
roofa  aro  flat  having  no  greater  inclination  than  is  just  suf- 
ficient to  throw  oflf  the  rain  water;  and  they  form  a  very 
commodious  terrace.  On  acoonnt  of  the  mildness  of  the 
Cape  wintera,  fire-placea  are  nowhere  seen  exceptins  in  tlw 
kitchens.  Within,  the  houses,  to  an  eye  accnstomed  to  the 
elegant  decorations  and  furniture  of  an  English  apartment, 
have  the  appearance  of  a  want  of  comfort,  and,  not  having 
a  plastered  ceiling,  the  bare  joists  and  floor  above  give  them 
the  look  of  an  unfiniahed  building.  But  the  lofUnesB  and 
size  of  the  rooms  render  them  respectable,  and  contribute 
greatly  to  their  coolness  in  summer.  This  description,  how- 
ever, was  more  applicable  some  years  ago  tbui  it  is  at  pre- 
sent, for  tiie  English  residents  are  sure  to  introduce  t^^ifh 
faabitsand  customs  more  or  less  into  the  country. 


.^r/is/vi)AK  Y/.ri:'J;/V  .  'i' 


J.   •:■  .i" 


,    ;        -  ■  ;  »     ' 

TO  ^CJUR   REAI>ERS. 


/  « 


'"'  ^'!  '  t'MTclpa©  o£  tliU,  ilie  Kindtwinih,  Toljume  ef •  iho  Saitirday,  UagaziMy  affords  a  favourable 
; ::  ><ip|iaitiiiiity  for  iJtoiisidenAg  the  Btiit©  of  ^tli€  pof^i^flat  l^itcratrireof  this  conntfy  nfc  the  period  when  our 
^"\  ar4uoi|,i/,ta^t  .cdwimei^  of  our  labours  in  fuj^lnient  of  the  dutka  then 

■  i  I  ;undttrlak«ft  by  lis-^iM^f  statin o?  ^he^  mode'  tk  -vfrMdh' 1««  propose  tb  oontintie  onr  services — atod  of  mnking 
t  'jaVe^ei-'^V/i^iuqwleily^       ,of  tfte.ypIjiAbie  ji^pqq  aqd  lasi^isiaucc  with-whicK  we  have  been  favoured 

'./.  '! ' '/It'ra^i  !i>e  ii^  iicirecpl^ec/ipjjL.pf.quVjpea^        ibat;  at  tb^o  firaQ  ^fc^^i  wc  eommcncid  oiu  under- 
taking the  humbler  clas^cs^.^f  the:  ooitiiwotttir^T^rpldrgi^tystipplkd  with  cfhcap  pamphlets,  of  the 
'•     hiVtl^daii^ero^  '^vliicb  the  nipsfc  holy  tbUigs  wore  ligbtly 

irf^.^tiie«K)9t  endenriui^ol  kui»«i' <ie^  -deridechj-^and  our  revered  histituttons  held  up  to  open 
iid  contcinpt.  '  5^^6rkg*  ortbi^  pl^a'ragter ;  could  te  siipcraedt'd  pnlyby  creating  a  taste  for 
]•  s^metiune  betisiv  "and  we  have  BeasQn  to  believe  Ibhat  the  SatuMa^  Ma^afim  has,  under  the  Divino 
' -'  'blessink  had  f  largo  share\lri^^^^  tliat  wUoleeome  tasto  wliich  is  now  so  general.  . 

-'.  .11,  /^Wc:«annetMi*it  feelgrtltitode^iiBdMgafcMfaotifcn  aij  th(?  toocftWtWhkli  has  attended  our  cflforts, 
*'     At'thc/s:vfne  ttmo'thrf.we  e.xperT<5nc0"th.b,pte^^^^^^  of  having  remitted  no  endeavours  on 

\  .:,We  paictiideaerYftandifttliy 't<>  j«atifX'tko»|^  WeTnay,  at- least,  claim  the  negative 

•'"Hreri^  6f'h'a:Vitig  itiost  eaVcfufly  eitclu'(!|e^  fr^^^  and 

'*.  *  J[^''^i^d«re4raajB4.icatiyet(>f  party  ieeii«gs.««d ^objectionable  principles,  er  whi 


{      treated 

•    ■  ^cbttl  and 


,-  »••  k 


and  sentiment  which  can 
which  might  be  likely  to 
offf^fl  gdoa-ftlSta  {tfid  defffeAty  of  fcelftig^.;  j.  '     • .   ' 

'  ^^w^Q  tt>^,mlp4<  th^i.ifeappn^lbiUty  attaching  to  the  Taoiiagdmeai  of  a  work  which  finds  its 


'•;l'\Hiy^ntoi'the'feirids'Of  so'tnttWy  tlWUiahds,  and' ihe  power  wliich  it  gives  of  inculcating  the  most. 
" ';  s^Jalajiiy.  o^  wejl  ,aj^  tb^  j^o&t  fAtal.|<?ipiwons,,iWO  .UAT6..uuifo*nJy  endeavoured  to  infuse  a  Christian 
,!.'  «iituraoter  ajid^eiidenoyint'o  e^rery  bltni6h  of  p'op^hit  knpwlcdtrc.  We  have  not  arrogated  to  oursclvc^ 
:^"  the  oJ^.c(J  ofihsiiiru^torai  on  sacred  topics,. Ibyajfttorfqring  witlvtUo  labouraol  thosowhose  especial  depart- 
r.'^jnBMl4t>-i3'(d  »l^forthand  to  defend  the -principfea'bfotft'^rftublished  faith,  nor  have  we  permitted  pnr 
^  ''jiS^^li^^'^^^^^^k^^  {h^\y9ljiqle,(or  contrQ,ye^y,»ap<jl,  ^fscusftj^i^i-^ut  *iy«  have  nevartheless  been  anxious 
^•!.iot:ffl^  4adi-a«  geueraL-beavihg'ta/onr^rvAfbuS'ftrtiel^' aBf'io  ^^^^  the  purposes  of  religion, 

^^**  •'iirfa  fb'bhbw^  wherever 'the  subject  Jjias.  ii«'^ii^ra)W  W.ip.i^o  ^*  the  blessings,  and.  advantages  we 
derive  from  the  position,  in  which,  as  members  of  a  Christian  community  and  of  a  Scriptural  church, 
wc  are  privileged  to  stand. 

f.    lys  ffliffifiently  evident  that  ^eQ^a^f^s§cg(ff|l^^  Saturday  Magazitt^f 

is  to  a&iinister  to. the  instruction  and  amusement,  not  of  ohei  claes  of  readers  in  particular,  but  of  all : 
8o'*i1iat  into  whatever  hands  the  work  may  fall,  there  ^iy  be  found  among  its  various  subjects  some- 
thjhig  to  suit  the  tastes  and  inclinations  of  every  reader.  The  ipan  of  literature,  in  glancing  over  the 
contents  of  such  a  work,  will  meet  with  some  notice  of  eminent  men  or  of  their  writings,  and  be  able 

1   *  *  \  *   ' 

to  .refresh  his  memory  or  even  to  add  to  his  knowledge  firpm  this  humble  source.     The  scientific  man 

*      *  .-        ' 

-•  *' The  djuigers  to  which  ihe  Fmtk  Is  exposed  Are  not  confined  to  the  open  assaults  of  the  infidel  and  the 
bl4|tl]|^emer.  It  caun»t  be.  doubted,  that  ^r^at  and  extensive  mischief  may  ariae  to  reHglou,  and  to  tlie  etorual  Molfarc 
of  nuf nkind,  should  ouf  general  literaturej'n'nd  the  vjmtwhs  ius?titii4iou8  of  society,  ae^iuire  a  chai-acter  ajid  tendency 
dci>i<iedly  contrary  to  tbe  principles  aiid  praotlae  of  Chriatteit^'.  That  such  baa  been,  lor  some  time  pnsi,  tlie  general 
"  j;ro\ving  tendencir.af  much.of  our  populaf^itarature,  wi|^ard1y  bo  denio4';  "hat  Uie  extent  cf  tlic  evil  is  known 
^  '  "^Soae  who  hft-ve  made  it'  the  sutqtet  c/  "particular  inyoimatiou;  It  haa  pefvaded  ntore  or  IcFsevery  branch  of 
sojqae  dej^ments  has  jSvidi^h^' f^oeiii  tl»^  i^e^iiU  of^ji^Brate  and  sysicmatic  operatlona.  TIjih  has  been  the 
jwpeeiftily  wi^4|&tf«/>  Miodie^l  ^tei^turev  and  ^^'iMf^^pJi^of  education.  Books  intended  for  the  iustructioa 
^^^  "^'leratiofilt^e^  xu.lf^e  0|iBea^.b^u  icu^le  tnsir^K^sia  £>?  teaching  the  doctrines  of  JSi.iterial.sm  under 
"-^-^^-•u^^^j^^-  |^<^th«^  Wher^  reiigiom  Qtstnietion  Nvas  indispensable,  it  lids  been  of  the  most 
fe  Ui^':ft^j;i^ft»th0  t^-Wiil^  metliod  has  been  to  scpanito  knawlcd^re 

I^Uglii^'ilSMgl^heV  «4^  been  the  pitncpld  upon  which  too  many  works  of 

^  ^dfpi^^l^^.    Anil  thi^s  they  hanTi^eeoiiie  uii£6hievous  iu  a  greater  degree  in  projiortiou  to 


^irdJ^i^j^j^^riodicals,  which  liavo  lately  become  so  considerable  a 
br^JMiife  '^teJ^JS'^t  '  ^JlS-'^^^SKi^l^^  jpai^^^if  "tlremTijCre^ften  made  vehicles  for  the  diffusion  of  infidel  opinions, 
W^h||piHkWj^S*Wi^^^  the  class  of  persons  to  whom 

theV  yK^te«||^fft|iiBdi  Swrything  h«B>been  dome  «i  .order  to  enlist  th«  passions  on  tfteir  side ;  they  have  been  mingled 
wiin^l^^^^i^ing  htemiQ«».of  «V«vy-l3Bd^  that  the  poison  might  be  rendered  more  palatable  to  general  readers.  And, 
until  lately,  except  in  a  few  instances,  the  whole  force  of  this  new  power  was  directed  aga'ust  the  principles  and 
institutions  of  religion.  Nor  has  the  magnitude  and  extent  of  this  pOwer  been  as  vet  completely  devc!op«»d,  or  its 
effects  fully  known.  It  has,  however,  been  ascertained  that  the  circulation  of  such  papers  '\\\  and  Irom  Lon<lon  alone 
amounted,  in  May  last,  to  the  number  of  300,000  weekly :  and  of  these  not  one  was  professedly  engn<,ed  in  the 
defence  or  support  of  i^eligion  and  its  institutwiwr  ■*  ^I'hy gi'uatl'r  [MTt  1)?  them  were  openly  and  avowedly  hostile  to 
everything  which  is  sacred  and  dear  to  our  religious  feelings,  and  the  remainder  wholly  dedicated  to  other  objects.'* — 
Report  of  the  Society  for  Promoting  ChrUtian  Knowledge j  for  the  year  1832. 

257 


rA 


258  TO  OUR  HEADERS. 

may' also  expect  to  find  an  abstract,  howcvor  brief,  of  ttie  inventions  and  ditcoTeries,  wliicb  refidec 
tlio  present  ago  remarkable  above  all  that  have  preceded  it.  The  lover  of  Nature  will  not  be 
disappointed  of  information  respecting  his  favonriie  study,  bui  will  find  tb^  animals,  the  plants,  the 
minerals  in  which  he  is  interested,  brought  under  his  notice  from  time  to  time,  either  in  the  Iio;hter 
sketches  of  natural  scenery,  or  the  more  scientific  arrangements  of  accurate  description.  The  a;rri- 
culturist,  the  manufacturer,  the  mechanic,  and  even  the  intelligent  operative,  will  also  find  easy 
details  respecting  the  various  branches  of  industry  in  which  they  are  engaged,  and  the  productions 
with  which  the  civilized  world  is  enriched  by  means  of  their  various  pursuits. 

With  this  general  view  of  the  objects  of  a  cheap  periodical  work,  we  have  supplied  to  the 
readers  of  the  Saturdai/  Magazine  information  on  a  large  variety  of  topics,  stiitable  to  ilie  capacities 
of  a  corresponding  variety  of  readers.     Eager  curiosity  and  desire  for  knowledge,  though  in  them- 
selves good,  inasmuch  as  they  mark  a  vigorous  intellect,  and  may  be  productive  of  highly-beneficial 
rosultsj  are  yet  so  often  found  to  operate  without  subordination  to. any  higher  principle,  that  we 
cannot  be  too  cautious  in  selecting  food  wherewith  to  appease  them,      no  may  injudiciously  stimulate 
the  appetite  till  it  can  only  be  satisfied  with  false  and  unnatural  excitements,  or  we  may  with  equal 
ill  effect  endeavour  to  alhay  its  cravings  with  harsh  and  ungrateful  aliment,  from  which  it  will  turn 
with  disgust.     There  are  subjects  which  seem  at  first  sight  to  have  little  bearing  on  happiness  or 
virtue,  and  which  will  therefore  bo  necessarily  exclndcd  from  publications  of  a  professedly  religious, 
character,  yet  inasmuch  as  these  subjects  are  capable  of  meeting  the  desire  for  knowledge  in  a  way 
that,  to  say  the  least,  cannot  be  prejudicial  to  the  moral  interest  of  the  reader,  and  as  they  may  at 
the  same   time  have  a  certain  effect  in  refining  the  taste,  enlarging  the  field   of  knowledge,  or 
suggesting  innocent  employment  of. time,  H  appears  highly  injndiciotis  to  reject  them  in  a  work 
whoso  object  it  is  to  combine  amusement  with  instruction. 

"We  may  here  allude  to  the  mode  of  illustrating  the  Saturday  Magazine.  Wherever  a  piece  of 
mechanism,  a  manufacturing  process,  a  description  of  a  building  or  country,  seemed  to  require  the  aid 
of  the  pencil  to  elucidate  and  illustrate  the  letter-press  description,  such  illustrations  have  been  given, 
of  snflRcient  distinctness  for  the  purpose  in  view,  but  without  any  pretension  to  high  artistic  excel- 
lence. Every  one  accustomed  to  the  usages  of  commercial  life  must  be  aware  that  to  ensure  conti- 
.  ttuance  to  a  periodical  publication,  and  to  fulfil  the  intentions  for  which  it  was  established,  a  remune- 
rating profit  must  be  obtained;  without  this,  the  honour  may  be  great,  but  must  be  short 
lived.  The  cost  incidental  to  the  production  of  highly-finished  illustrations  is  in  general  incompatible 
with  the  permanent  success  of  a  work  sold  at  60  low  a  price  as  ours.  The  engravings  in  onr 
Magazine  are  therefore  intended  for  illustration  rather  than  for  decoration.  We  are  contented  to 
take  our  stand  on  the  general  merits  of  the  work,  the  literature  of  which  has  gradually  elevated  it  to 
a  higher  pkico  than  it  was  originally  intended  to  occupy  among  the  periodical  publiccitions  of  the  dav, 
and  gained  it  an  introduction  to  nxHy  class  of  society. 

In  looking  back  on  our  past  course,  we  are  conscious  of  having  presented  to  onr  numerous 
readers  a  safe  and  useful  miscellany,  calculated  to  lead  them  onward  from  simpler  to  more  abstnise 
knowledge,  and  to  give  a  wholesome  direction  to  their  tastes  and  feelings.  The  testimony  of  corre- 
spondents has  given  us  frequent  and  pleasing  confirmation  of  this  belief;  and  wc  may  here  remark, 
that  the  information  wo  have  received  from  this  Source  has  always  been  most  acceptable;  thcsu;;- 
gestions  conveyed  have  met  with  serious  attention,  and  have  not  been  adopted  or  declined  on  insuffi- 
cient grounds.  From  our  limited  space,  as  well  as  from  a  desire  to  avoid  controversy  and  personal 
feeling  or  party  views,  we  are  not  able  specially. ta  notice  the  different  corarai^nieatioij$  we  ar^  fAvonroi 
vith,  yet  they  are  ever  regarded  as  welcome  indications  of  the  wishes  and  opinions  of  our  readers, 
and.  as  such,  we  are  glad  to  have  the  present  opportunity  of  acknowledging  their  value. 

Puring  the  coming  year  we  hope  to  enter  on  severiil  new  and  interesting  aubjects  of  inquiry,  and 
where  we  may  hitherto  have  appeared  to  slight  the  communications  of  any  of  our  readers,  it  will  bo 
seen  that  they  have  only  been  deferred  with  a  view  to  entering  the  more  fully  into  them  on  a  future 
occasion.  The  treasures  of  knowledge  ato  inexhaustible;  and  the  chief  difficulty  consists  in  making  a 
judiciotis  selection  for  the  benefit  of  a  variety  of  readers.  In  this  task  we  shall  continufi  to  avail 
ourselves  of  the  assistance  of  competent  and  experienced  writers  whose  time  and  attention  are  devoted 
almost  exclusively  to  the  work. 

V»t>  OF  THB  roXiUldl.' 


NEW  BOOKS  AND  NEW  EDITIONS, 


PUBLISHED  BY 


JOHN  W.  PARKER,  LONDON. 


THE  LIFE  AND  CORRESPONDENCE   OP  THE  LATE   SIR  ASTLET 

PASTON  COOPER,  Bart.;  from  Documents  bequeathed  by  him  for  tbe  purpose.  By 
BRANSBY  B.  COOPER,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  Two  Volumes,  Octevo,  with  Portrait  from  the  Picture 
by  Sir  T.  Lawrence,  P.R.A.    Nearly  Ready. 


PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY,  illustrated   by   the   Acts   of  the   PRIMITIVE 

CHRISTIANS.     By  the  Right  Rer.  RICHARD  MANT,  D.D.,  Lord  Bishop  of  Down  and 
Connor.    Octavo.     Nearly  Ready. 

By  the  same  Author, 

HISTORY  of  the  CHURCH  of  IRELAND.     Two  Volumes,  Octavo,  17*.  each. 

A  New  Edition  of  the  First  Volume  U  now  Ready. 


A  CYCLE  of  CELESTIAL  OBJECTS,  being  the  Result  of  OBSERVATIONS 

made  at  Bedford,  artanprod  in  a  practical  manner  for  the  Um  of  NAVAL,  MILITARY,  and 
PRIVATE  OBSERVERS.    By  Captain  W.  H.  SMYTH,  R.N.,  F.R.S.,  F.  Astron.  Soc,  &c 
Octavo,  with  Numerous  Illustrations.     In  the  Press. 


NATIONAL     PROVERBS,     IN    THE     PRINCIPAL    LANGUAGES    OF 

EUROPE.     Printed  Line  for  Line  in  English,  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  German.     A  small 
Ornamental  Volume.     By  CAROLINE  WARD.     Nearly  Ready. 


■Mil*     I  — 


HYDROLOGY,  or  The  WORLD  of  W^ATERS.    By  Miss  R.  M.  ZORNLIN, 

Author  of  Physical  Geography,  Recreations  in  Geology,  &c.    In  the  Press. 


ESSAYS  on  NERVOUS  DISEASES.    By  R.  B.  TODD,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Physician 

_  \ 

to  King's  College  Hospital,  and  Professor  of  Physiology  in  King's  College,  London. 


THE  PHYSIOLOGICAL  ANATOMY,   and  PHYSIOLOGY,  of  MAN.      By 

R.  B.  TODD,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  and  W.' BOWMAN,  F.R.S.,  of  Kings  College,  London.    With 
Numerous  Original  Illustrations.    Preparing  Jbr  the  Press, 


THE  PUBLIC  ECONOMY  of  ATHENS.      By  AUGUSTUS  BCECKH,  Pro- 

fessor  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  Translated  from  the  German  by  GEORGE  CORNEWALL 
LEWIS,  Esq.,  A.M.,  late  Student  of  Christ  Church,  One  of  the  Translators  of  Mullrr's 
Dorians*    New  Edition,  Retired.    One  Volume,  Octavo.     In  the  Press. 


PINDAR'S  EPINICIAN  ODES,  and  the  FRAGMENTS  of  HIS  LOST  COM- 
POSITIONS; Revised  and  Explained  by  the  Rev.  JOHN  WILLIAM  DONALDSON,  M.A., 

Head  Master  of  the  Bury  School.     Octavo,  16*. 

By  the  same  Author, 

TFIE  NEW  CRATYLUS;  or,  Contributions  towards  a  mora  accurate  Knowledge 

of  the  Greek  Language.     1 7^. 


2  NEW  BOOKS  AND   NEW  EDITIONS. 

BRANDE'S   MANUAL    of  CHEMISTRY;    thoroughly  Revised  and  greatlj 

Enlarged;  and  Incorporating  all  New  Facts  and  Discoveries  in  the  Science,  Foreign  as  well  as 
British.  By  WILLIAM  THOMAS  BRANDE,  F.R.S.;  of  the  Royal  Mint;  Professor  of 
Chemistry  in  the  Royal  Institution*  The  Fifth  Edition,  (1500  closely  printed  pages,  Octaro,) 
with  Aunerous  Illustrations,  35^. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  MECHANISM.    By  R.  WILLIS,  M.A-,  F.R.S.,  Jacksonian 

Professor  of  Natural  and  Experimental  Philosophy  in  the  Uniyersity  of  Cambridge.  Octavo, 
with  250  Illustrations,  15^. 

THE  MECHANICS  OF  ENGINEERING.     By  the  Rev.  W.  WHEWELL, 

B.D.,  F.R.S.,  Master  of  Trinity  College,  and  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy,  Cambridge.    9#. 

By  the  same  Author, 

I.  THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE   INDUCTIVE   SCIENCES,  Founded  upon 

their  Hi.story.     Two  Volumes,  Octavo,  dOf. 

II.  A  HISTORY  OF  THE  INDUCTIVE  SCIENCES,  from  the  Earliest  Times 

to  the  Present.     Three  Volumes,  Octavo,  21.  2s. 

III.  On  the  PRINCIPLES  of  ENGLISH  UNIVERSITY  EDUCATION.  5s. 

IV.  THE  MECHANICAL  EUCLID.    6*.  6rf. 

V.  THE  DOCTRINE  OP  LIMITS,  \rith  Applications.    9s. 

VI.  ON  THE  FOUNDATIONS  OF  MORALS.    2s.  6d. 


THE   ELEMENTS  OF  DESCRIPTIVE  GEOMETRY.     By  the  Rev.  T.  G. 

HALL,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  King's  College,  London.    Eighty  lUustrations,  6*.  6d. 

By  the  same  Author, 

I.  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  ALGEBRA.    6^.  6d. 

II.  A  TREATISE  on  the  DIFFERENTIAL  and  INTEGRAL  CALCULUS, 

Third  Edition,  I2s.  Sd. 


EXAMPLES  of  the  PROCESSES  of  the  DIFFERENTIAL  and  INTEGRVL 

CALCULUS.     Collected  by  D.  F.  GREGORY,  M.A.,  Fellow  of  Trinity  College.     Octayo,  18/. 


THE    UNDULATORY  THEORY,   as  APPLIED    to    the   DISPERSIOX  of 

LIGHT ;  including  the  Substance  of  several  Papers,  printed  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions, 
and  other  Journals.  By  the  Rev.  BADEN  POWELL,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  F.G.S, 
Savilian  Professor  in  the  University  of  Oxford.     Octavo,  9s, 


A  PRACTICAL   ARABIC   GRAMMAR.     By  DUNCAN   STEWART,  Esq. 

Octavo,  16#. 


LECTURES  in  DIVINITY,  delivered  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  by  JOHN 

HEY,   D.D.,   as   Norrissian  Professor,  from  1780  to  1795.    A  New  Edition,  Eevised,  in  T«o 
Large  Volumes,  Octavo,  30*.  • 


COMMENTS,    EXPLANATORY   and   PRACTICAL,   upon   the   EPISTLES 

for  the  Sundays,  Fasts,  and  Holidays  throughout  the  Year ;  for  the  use  of  Families*    By  the  lie  . 
J.  F.  HONE,  M.A.,  Vicar  of  Tirley,  Gloucester.     Ifearfy  Readj/. 


London:  JOHN  W.  PARKER,  Pvbhshbr,  West  Stbanu.