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THE 


PMERICAN GEOLOGIST 


A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY 


Editor: N. H. WINCHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. 


. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS: 


FLORENCE Bascom, Bryn Mawr, Pa. 
CHARLES E. BEECHER, New Haven, Conn. 


SAMUEL CALVIN, Iowa City, Iowa. 


JOHN M. CLARKE, Albany, N. Y. ULYSSES S. GRANT, Evanston, Ill. 


HERMAN L. FAIRCHILD, Rochester,N. Y. GEORGE P. MERRILL, Washington,D.C. 
PERSIFOR FRAZER, Philadelphia, Pa. WARREN UPHAM, St. Paul, Minn. 
ISRAEL C. WHITE, Morgantown, W. Va. 
HORACE V. WINCHELL, Butte, Mont. 


VOLUME XXIX 


JANUARY TO JUNE, 1902 


MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 
THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO. 


1902 


THE UNIVERSITY PRESS OF MINNESOTA. 


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CONTENT=: 


JANUARY NUMBER. 


Epwarp Water CLaypote. [Portrait.] 
Le AMAT oo BS eed COMUSEDGH: vascic oer fste AE silk Khe age Bon) aps Ww toate ont EF 
Prof. George M. Richardson .........-.+-+++.- ad 
Dr. Norman Bridge So Mate het Ca aoe 
PEAS OD NG. ors Fionn oN ned Main oy Ca A Cte bie 
EvrtorIAL CoMMENT. 
Lake Superior Iron Ore Deposits ...........---.0eeeeeeees 
Review or RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 
The High Plains and their Utilization, Willard D. Johnson, 
52; A preliminary report on the roads and road-building ma- 
terial of Georgia, S. I”. McCallie, 56; Lessons in’ Physical 
Geography, Chas. R. Dryer, 57; Geology of Rand Hill and 
vicinity, H. P. Cushing, 58. 
MontuHiy AvutHor’s CATALOGUE OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITER- 
Oo TURE oe eee fy fein 5s tapes ite i 
PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEws. 
ceeiOnical Soctety Of HAMETICA. ale oes 1c ne ta kee wee ere 
OO OELTRSNS COUGAR Sr ae RIA, gy Ae I 2d ee 


FEBRUARY NUMBER. 


SKETCH OF THE Lire or ZApocK THompson. George H. Perkins. 
[TEGTHUE TRY ETA cole Peat re canoer eared fetes ©) al esa amt gr 
THe DuRATION OF THE ToRONTO INTERGLACIAL Pertop. A. P. C ole 

A ee 0 tonic hn ekg bk s Wale e o Ma clare ~'8id dv Pe edocs 
Notes oF A GEOLOGICAL RECONNOISSANCE IN EASTERN VALENCIA 
County, New Mexico. D. Wilson Johnson. [Plates II and 
TA Uigs Beds Seas ate EAP eGR pe eee ee OL 1 end a 


Tue Sacrep HEART GeySER Sprinc. C. P. Berkey ..........+... 
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERM SIERRAN. O. H. Hershey...... 
Tue AreAL GEOLOGY OF THE CASTLE Rock Recion, CoLorapo. 
Ne ees 7 REE, Wy Aaa pan viene why SNA RANIABN Gases 
Compete Renpu, VIII Concres GEoLoGIQuE INTERNATIONAL, 
eS Ts SN OE FORAGE iaipc 28 3235 obs ds 3% ols Ob van ose 


EprrortaL CoMMENT. 
The Question of the Unit of Geological Mapping ..... 
Review oF Recent GeovocicaL Literature. Die Geokraphineie 
Verbreitung und Entwickelung des Cambrian, Fritz Frech, 


56473 


59 


64 


IV Contents. 


117; Maryland Geological Survey, Allegany County, 1900, 
W. B. Clark, Director, 119; Kiniderhook Faunal Studies, III, 
The Faunas of beds 3 to 7 at Burlington, Iowa, Stuart Weller, 
120; Ueber die. Borkholmer Schicht in Mittelbaltischem Silur- 
gebiet, Carl Wiman; 123. 

MontHty AutTHor’s CATALOGUE OF ReceNT GEoLocicAL LiTERA- 
Ty) 1 Sed eS ne ee AMER me 

CORRESPONDENCE. 
The Section of Geology and Mineralogy of the New York 
Academy of Sciences, December 16, Richard E. Dodge, 127; 
Notes on the Surface Geology of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, 
James To: Malls sc. oc. cc ca u's cute evs 5b vow Oe comin ae 

Personal AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS ... 2... %2%s20 0 oodles en 
The Nejed Meteorite; The New African Mammal; The Siber- 
ian Mammoth; Texas Academy of Sciences; Diamonds in 
New South Wales; The Carnegie Institution; Fossil Types 
in the American Museum of Natural History. 


MARCH NUMBER. 


Dr. FERDINAND VON RoEMER. [Portrait.] F. W. Simonds...... 
Tue Rate or Laterat Erosion At Niacara. [Plates Mie 
G.. Predérick Wright. .. «.» i. «isieaee sae eee 
Note oN A New XIPHOSURAN FROM THE Upper DEVONIAN OF 

PENNSYLVANIA: , Gz 2: ~Beethep c.> sis oelalese tee ae 
THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CRYSTALLINE CEMENTS. E. C. Eckel 
SKETCH OF THE IRON Ores oF Minnesota. N. H. Winchell..... 
New Evipences oF EperroGenic MovEMENTS CAUSING AND ENp- 

ING THE Ice AGE. Warren Upham............ 
A Permian Gtacrat Invasion. E. S. Bastin. ......6....+sesuss 
OricIN AND DistripuTION oF Minnesota Crtays. Chas. P. 

BOERBY | hous serie visthis cerns tetas 
EpirortaL COMMENT. 

Commemorative Tablet of the American Association for the 

Advancement of «Science: 00. bse See eee eee 
kKeview oF Recent GEOLocicAL LITERATURE. 

Petrographisches Praktikum, Reinhold Reinish, 179; Addi- 

tional Notes on the Cambrian of Cape Breton, with descrip- 
tions of new species, G. F. Matthew, 180; The Geology of 

Cincinnati, J. M. Nickles, 181; Studies in Evolution, C. E. 

Beecher, 182. 

MontHity AutHor’s CaAtTaALocue or Recent GeroLoorcat Liter- 

PEWS bah ba vWiAbe betes teh vOhe cee 
‘ CORRESPONDENCE, : 

Reorganization of the ‘Gedlowic Branch of the United States 
Geological Survey, Bailey Willis, 188; On Belinurus Kiltor- 
kensis, Baily, H. M. A., 188; Analysis of the Mount Vernon 
Loess, Nicholas Knight, 189; Delegates of the United States 
Government to the International Congress of Geologists, Per- 


| 


a | 


| 


123 


131 
140 
144 
146 
154 


162 
16y 


17I 


178 


183 


Contents, 


._ sifor Frazer, 189; The Derivation of the Rock name ‘An- 
orthosite,”’ H. P. Cushing, 190; New York Academy of Sci- 
ences, E. O. Hovey, I9g1. 

IRERSONALS AND? SCIONTINIC. NEWSi's- « cekies ce lied debicwsbevdenes 


APRIL NUMBER. 


A REVISION OF THE BryoOzOAN GENERA DeKAyIA, DEKAYELLA AND 
* HETEROTRYPA OF THE CINCINNATI Group. Edgar R. Cuim- 
ings. ye Ee 8 6 | A a Se cae 
GroLocicaL History OF THE CHARLES RIvER IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
Preatrick’ G. Clapp.* |Plates -XUII-XVI.].....6..6000..5. 
GroLocicaL History oF THE HEMATITE IRON OrES OF THE ANT- 
WERP AND FowLer Bett IN New York. II’. O. Crosby 
Notes Upon THE MaucH CHUNK OF PENNSYLVANIA. John J. 
PU DEVIDINSUIDUIE Seen ths RRM LM cig 8 he soho drew aT alae 
Epiror1AL COMMENT. 
ee eer Bas ers COMLCTAIY 39 2 « wrdrsctc 6 wip welsh akin ta to 
REvIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE. 
Acrothyra and Hyolithes, a comparison, G. F. Matthew, 251, 
Hyolithes gracilis, and related forms from the Lower Cam- 
brian of the St. John Group, G. F. Matthew. 251; A Back- 
ward Step in Palaeobotany, G. F. Matthew, 251; Om de 
senglacial og postglacial nivaforandringer i kristianiafeltet, 
W.C. Brégger, 252; Catalogue of the types and figured spec- 
imens in the paleontological collection of the American Mu- 
seum of Natural History, R. P. Whitfield and E. O. Hovey, 
255; Notes on the Raised Coral Reefs in the Islands of the 
Riukiu Curve, S. Yoshiwara, Geological Structure of the 
Riukiu (Loochoo) Curve, S. Yoshiwara, 253; The Journal 
of Geography, 254; Records of the Past, 254; Wonderland, 
1¢02, 254; The Chronological Distribution of the Elasmo- 
branchs, O. P. Hay, 255; The Geology of the Northeast 
Coast of Labrador, R. A. Daly, 256 
MontTHLy AvuTHor’s, CATALOGUE OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL LITER- 
ATURE ...., ANE PL ee TO ee re ge ee ee 


MAY NUMBER. 


A SKETCH oF THE Historica, GeoLtocy oF ESMERALDA County, 
NevaDa tee Pare. PPlate VIET oe coke nce qesaes 
Some CrysTALLINE Rocks or SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. Oscar H. 
NN es sa cade W Le eile nat nol eh ins wsels wd od o'c 
PALEONTOLOGICAL SpecuLATions, III. L. P. Gratacap.......... 
Note oN A TERTIARY TERRANE New IN Kansas GeoLocy. George 
LP Oe Og SR es A ir a ere 
New Species oF Fossits FROM THE SuB-CARBONIFEROUS Faced OF 
NorTHEASTERN Missourr. R. R. Rowley. [Plate XVIII.].. 


193 


256 
260 


vi Contents. 

Review or Recent GeovocicaL LITERATURE. 
Ostracoda of the basal Cambrian rocks of Cape Breton, G. 
F. Matthew 311; A geological study of the Fox islands, 
Maine, Geo. O. Smith, 311; The physical effects of contact 
metamorphism, Joseph Barrell, 313. 

MontHiy Autuor’s CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITER- 
GBEUOME Sih ce co's 6c vviee.csenns as neu ov bape pas pEennE nn 

CORRESPONDENCE. 
New York Academy of Sciences, E. O. Hovey, 320; Earth- 
quakes in Nicaragua, J. Crawford, 323. 

PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC. NEWS... 2:0... 2see ns eee mee 


JUNE NUMBER. 


Tue Huronrian Question. A. P. Coleman.................- 
THE ORIGINAL SOURCE OF THE LAKE SuPERIOR IRON Ores. J. E. 
SPUEM ora she. Siuerdied Cruse Oe eee ee ieee. Seo a: 


Some Tertiary FoRMATIONS OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. O. H. 
FUG SOY sain «2's 's vo .5sn'g Se ine ee) eee ae 
THE SPECIMEN OF NEMATOPHYTON IN THE NEW YorkK STATE 


Museum.” Ci. 9. Prosser. ich. gases gee ee eee 
TouRNALINE Contact Zones NEAR ALEXANDRIA BAY, N. Y. C. 

A Smyra,: Jay 22. cis. os SR Or ee eae oe oes ae 
DETERMINATION OF THE CAMBRIAN AGE OF THE MAGNESIAN LIME- 

STONES ‘or Missounr. “€) “RO Wages sors oc. oe 
Saint AuGUSTINE AND HaecKet. Ferstfor Fraser............. 
MontHiy AvutuHor’s CataLocuE oF Recent GEoLoGicAL Lirera- 

TORE: Glas (sc P20 ..ge ees sass Le Rete Ree a eee Beare 
CORRESPONDENCE. 


Sensation in a Crater on the Occurrence of an Earthquake. 
J. Crawford onc ccce ci See a 
Volcanoes and Earthquakes in Nicaragua. /. Crawford...... 
PERSONAL AND ScrieNtTIFIC News. 

S. W. Williston, 395; T. A. Jaggar and Es O. Hovey, 
395; National Geographical Society, 306; W. G. Miller, 306; 
Geological Excursion, 306; Monts Pelée and Soufriére, 306; 
National Academy of Sciences, 307; A. E. Barlow, 308. 


r 


eee etee ee Sass ce ts we Gees 60s VERS 24 OS BOS SCO Fe 8 ee eee ee eee 


317 


324 


393 
395 


eur See, 
BIONITH J AL ew aA Ie 
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rusk AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 
VOL... skakahs PLATE 


THE 


AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


Vou. XXIX. JANUARY 1902. No. 7: 


EDWARD CLAYPOLE-THE SCIENTIST. 
By Dr. THEO. B. Comstock, Los Angeles, Cal. 
‘Learned in the lore which Nature can impart, 
Teaching that sweet philosophy. aloud 
Which sees the ‘silver lining’ of the cloud— 
Looking for good in all beneath the skies— 
These are the truly wise!” 

Sixty years ago, in the little village of Ross, Hereford, Eng- 
land, on the river Wye made famous by Tennyson, there tived 
the Rev. Edward Angell Claypole,.a worthy Baptist minister of 
more than ordinary erudition, with his devoted and capable 
Wife, née Elizabeth Blunt. Their son, Edward Waller Clay- 
‘pole, was the eldest of their six children, and his early life was 
not passed in idleness nor in the midst of luxury. He inherited 
sturdy qualities from. both parents. Although it does not ap- 
pear in the records accessible that much direct. encouragement 
came from them towards the prosecution of scientific studies; 
and although we know that his final determination in that di- 
rection cost him and them untold pangs over unreconcilable 
differences of opinion; yet there can be traced in all his after 
career a consecration of self and an indomitable will, not less 
the heritage of the hard schooling of his ancestors in the Scotch 
school of divinity at the university of Edinburgh, because it 
led the young truth-seeker into then forbidden paths. His 
father, in a different sphere, would have been as true to his own 
convictions had not his little world then happened to be in 
agreement with him. His paternal grandfather had seceded 
from the established church, becoming a Baptist dissenter, un- 
der like circumstances. Independence of thought and a tend- 
ency to liberal ideas were, therefore, deeply rooted in the family 
soil. 


=F eae 
~ * é 


- The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


Edward’s early training was severe and protracted. His 
parents were unable to do more than to guide and instruct him 
at home. His good mother was, in many respects, a remarka- 
ble woman and her counsel and admonition made lasting im- 
pressions upon his character. In classical lore, his father was 
very proficient, and with his aid the son made such rapid 


progress that, at fifteen, he was able to assist in teaching. Two ~ 


years later he passed the matriculation examinations of the 
university of London, but was pecuniarily unable to avail him- 
self of further advantages of that non-instructing body, which 
at that time required graduation from certain accredited schools 
as a preliminary to the granting of degrees. These restric- 
tions being removed in 1859, he soon after met all the require- 
ments for both the baccalaureate degrees, in arts and scicnce. 
There would have been no great difficulty in obtaining the ad- 
vanced degree of doctor of science at this time, by further ex- 
aminations, but Mr. Claypole refused to do this, upon principle; 
and he, therefore, waited many years until the terms for grant- 
ing this degree had been so altered as to make it an honor 
worth having. Accordingly, he then presented some original 
work and was highly complimented when the degree was con- 
ferred upon him in 1888. 


Whatever we may think of the scholastic methods of the — 


period of his youth, there can be no two opinions regarding 
the advantages of the old classical drill, in linguistic results, 
to such, at least, as were worthy to survive its drudgery. Here 
we have the secret of his remarkable power of expression, his 
masterful command of the English language. One of the 
strongest features of our friend’s influence in the world was 
the adequate use of rhetoric. His pen and voice invariably 
attested his classical training, although they never lost sight of 
the sturdy power of clean-cut Saxon deprived of its sting. 
Two sisters of his mother, residing at Cheltenham, England, 
gave him his first inspiration towards the study of nature, when 
he was but a boy of 10 or 12 years of age. They encouraged 
him to observe and classify plants and to collect fossils from 
the quarries near by. Later, while teaching others, he laid 
the groundwork in other branches of science, though pos- 
sessed of scant opportunities and more meager facilities. Old 
bottles and wisps of straw with original apparatus constructed 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock. 3 


by himself, formed his laboratory equipment in physics and 
chemistry. Financial limitations and engrossing duties served 
apparently as spurs to his achievements. After his marriage, 
in 1865, to Jane Trotter of Coleford, Gloucestershire, England, 
we learn that his time was mainly given to educational work 
in classical and mathematical subjects. But he evidently found 
time to pursue scientific studies during these years, for his 
earliest publications, appearing in 1870, at the ripe age of 
thirty-five, manifest not only the scholarly language and precis- 
ion of thought which indicate the reflex influence of his own 
classical instruction, but also an array of facts and results 
of personal observation which seem little less than marvelous 
under all the circumstances. He toiled laboriously and waited 
patiently until the evidence was complete. Then he came forth 
with a series of papers so thoroughly digested that they are as 
worthy to stand as monuments to his fame as any of the long 
list of subsequent publications. 

The Proceedings of the Bristol (Eng.) Naturalists’ Society 
for the years 1871 and 1872 carry upon their title pages the 
name of Edward Claypole, as editor. In these were published 
his first scientific papers. It is very noticeable that with them, 
as with almost all the papers afterwards written by him, the 
titles are so worded as to modestly imply that his work is not 
exhaustive upon the subjects treated. During the three years, 
1870, 1871, and 1872, he read before the Bristol society the - 
following papers: 

“On some Evidence in Favor of Subsidence in the Southwest Coun- 

ties of England During the Present Period.” (Read Jan. 12, 1870.) 
“On the Development .of the Carboniferous System in the Neighbor- 

hood of Edinburgh.” (Read Jan. 10, 1871.) 

“On the Subsidence of the Southwest Counties of England During 

the Present Era.” Paper No. 2. (Read Jan. 12, 1872.) 

“On the Same Subject. No. 3. (Read May 2, 1872.) 

These contributions represent original work of a very high 
order, and could never have been written without a knowledge 
of the subject gained after years of observation. The reader 
cannot fail to be forcibly impressed with the pains-taking care 
and thoughtful consideration which had evidently been given 
before publication. To these articles might as fitly be applied 
as to any of his able writings, the remark once made by a 
brother geologist, ““Whatever he publishes is eminently Clay- 


4 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


polean.” It is not too much to claim that, if they were to be 
sent out now over his own signature, without comment, geolo- 
gists unfamiliar with them, would consider them newly written. 
So well had he threshed out his material that revision at this 
late date would be merely technical and probably wholly unnec- 
essary. Thus at the threshold of his career, he appears with 
character and habits thoroughly formed by his rigid school- 
ing, and although he grew in strength and influence in later 
years, he never failed to “go to the bottom” of his subject, even 
at the start. 

A great crisis in his life came about this time. He was not 
the only one who was made to suffer for conscience sake at 
that period. The revolutionary ideas of Darwin, supported 
by an overwhelming array of facts accumulated slowly for 
years, now came irresistibly before Edward Claypole as a 
newly forged tool with which to work upon the raw materials 
of earth. But it cost him heavily to retain it. 

The widespread revolution in thought at the time of the ap- 
pearance of Charles Darwin’s treatise on “The Origin of 
Species,” which gave impetus to the doctrine of evolution, we 
may suppose was much more bitter in Claypole’s environment 
by reason of its nearness to the fountain-head. At any rate, the 
young man, now nearly thirty-five, recovering slowly from 
results of the financial depression of 1866, with increasing 
family and bowed down over the loss of his estimable wife, was 
soon compelled to stand champion for that science to which 
he had then committed himself. It became necessary to re- 
nounce his allegiance or to forfeit his means of support. The 
authorities of Stokescroft College, at Bristol, where he was 
teaching, were alarmed by the tendency of his influence over 
students, impelling them to think for themselves. They insist- 
ed upon a statement of his religious beliefs. This appearing 
to clearly demand of him a branding of the hypothesis of evo- 
lution as heretical and forbidden doctrine, he declined to 
acquiesce, and his resignation followed as a necessity. 

Only those who bear the scars of cruel wounds received in 
that memorable conflict can fully appreciate the depth of moral 
courage necessary to meet the issue as Claypole met it, with his 
surroundings and necessities. And with all that, he was soon 
forced to quit his native land and all his family ties to seek a 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock. 5 


home in a foreign clime, with three motherless infants demand- 
ing his care. His noble wife died in 1870, leaving a young son 
and twin daughters, the latter but a few weeks old. 

Bravely he battled against an overwhelming tide of «iisaster, 
striving to avert the necessity of removal to America. In 1872, 
he was the successful applicant for the professorship of mathe- 
matics and natural science in the University College of Abery- 
stwyth, Wales; but he had not completed arrangements for 
transfer to this post, when the same bigoted spirit appeared 
there, and he was not permitted to assume the work. 

He then came to the United States, in October, 1872, 
thinking to meet a more tolerant attitude on this side of the 
Atlantic. His hopes were not realized. Almost at this date 
(about August, 1871) the present writer was proposed as can- 
didate for a vacancy in geology, in an American college, and 
was informed in a letter from one of his supporters that his 
election was liable to follow; “‘but,” he added, “if you go there, 
you must keep very dark on the subject of evolution”. Declin- 
ing further consideration of the matter for that reason, his 
friends supported another candidate, now a prominent college 
president, who failed to get the appointment, because he also 
could not “keep silent regarding evolution.” These matters are 
mentioned here to recall the spirit of those times and to make 
clear how severe was the struggle made by Dr. Claypole in 
his persistent determination to acquire the mere right to seek 
truth and exercise his best judgment unhindered. 

Can we doubt that the tight drawn lips, which betokened 
his unswerving firmness of character, were mainly due to these 
harsh experiences? But whence came that tolerant smile and 
the long life afterwards of gentle and manly defense of those 
wrongly accused, with never a word to wound, but ever a kind- 
_ly thought for others? Undoubtedly these were the very re- 
sult of these trials which tested and proved him true. Much 
of this lofty character was inherited, but if we read aright, 
his scientific work, as well as his earnest, simple life and his 
power to think and to tell and to do, came even more from 
this bitter school of experience in which he was not the 
teacher, but the faithful learner. 

Very few know how he struggled through the first years 
of his residence in America. There was no welcome then for 


6 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


men like him, except where he had. not had opportunity to be- 
come acquainted. The friendship of Henry W. Bellows, of 
New York, and Rev. Edward Everett Hale, of Boston, gave 
him work in Latin teaching and the reviewing of text-books. 
Dr. Hale secured for him in 1873, the chair of natural science 
at Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Olio. Dr. Edward Or- 
ton, afterwards the state geologist of Ohio, was his predeces- 
sor there. Horace Mann, the great light in American educa- 
tion, was the founder of Antioch. Professor Claypole re- 
mained eight years in this position, retiring when the institu- 
tion temporarily closed from lack of financial support. Soon 
after going there another bitter trial came to him in the terrible 
death of his young son, who fell from a railroad train in 
England. 

This period of his life covered one of those terms of pre- 
paration and mental digestion which, to the casual observer, 
may seem comparatively unfruitful. But it is certain that a very 
large part of the results of his observation and deliberation, 
which appeared in later years was based upon studies made 
during this epoch. Heavy demands. were made upon him for 
work outside his regular department. His equipment, as we 
know, was broad and thorough, but much time which might 
better have been devoted to scientific investigation was con- 
sumed in teaching languages and other subjects not germane 
to his chair. 

In the eight years of his incumbency he produced thirteen 
papers of importance bearing mainly upon Ohio geology, but 
these came at intervals which plainly attest the serious method 
of the investigator. Not until two years after going to Yellow 
Springs did he get into print on the subject of his work there. 
In 1875, he read a very valuable paper before the Cincinnati 
Society of Natural History, entitled “Present State of the 
Glacial Controversy”. 

In 1877, he contributed to the “Canadian Naturalist” a pa- 
per on the “Preglacial Formation of the beds of the Great 
Lakes”, following in 1878 with a second article on the same 
subject. These contained, apparently, the first announcement 
of views which afterwards made him the doughty opponent 
of some of the sires of American geology. But his contests 
were never waged save in the cause of truth and he never en- 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock. 7 


tered the lists without the most thoughtful preparation. His 
arguments in this case were invincible, although not greedily 
accepted by his compeers in science. In this manner the sub- 
ject of the ice age became his specialty, and with this he was 
identified very closely in after years of his life of diligent re- 
search. 

His chair at Antioch was as broad as was common in those 
‘days, when natural history branches were not fairly out 
of swaddling clothes. His mind clearly recognized the unity 
in variety of all nature; hence we find numerous notes recorded 
in various periodicals of the times, in the newspapers and 
elsewhere, on topics relating to botany and zoology, as well 
as to geology. In 1877, he wrote an admirable and well-timed 
article for the introduction to S. A. Miller’s “American Palaeo- 
zoic Fossils’, on the subject of Nomenclature. 

For years familiar with the work and writings of Prof. 
Claypole, and many times charmed with his tasteful diction, 
the detailed examination of his papers for the purpose of this 
sketch, has more strikingly emphasized on the writer the won- 
derful clearness of his most technical publications and the per- 
manent value of even the smallest scrap of observations record- 
ed by his pen. He tells of the number and variety of insects 
caught at night under the electric light with the enthusiasm 
andinterest of a school-girl, and the facts are as valuable and as 
well embalmed for future use as in a technical presentation. 
His description of a tornado and explanation of its causes reads 
like a romance, but it has all the scientific accuracy of an astute 
treatise. 

Thus he appears in 1877 in a paper read before the Mon- 
treal Horticultural Society and reprinted in the Quarterly Jour- 
ral of the Geological Society of London, on “Migration of 
Plants from Europe to America”, and again in 1878, in the 
same medium, on “Migration of Animals from America to 
‘Europe and Vice Versa.” In 1877, he also contributed to 
“Psyche,” of Cambridge, Mass., a paper “On a Borer in the 
Leaf Stalk of the Buckeye.” In 1878, again, he describes in 
the “American Journal of Science,” and in the English “Geo- 
logical Magazine,” “Glytodendron—Fossil Upper Silurian 
Tree.” Then there is another silent working period, until 1881, 
when he follows up his earlier work on the basins of the great 


8 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


lakes, by throwing a bombshell into the geologists’ camp at 
the Cincinnati meeting of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science, in a paper entitled: “Evidence from 
the Drift of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, in support of the 
Pre-glacial Origin of the Basins of Lakes Erie and Ontario.” 
At this same meeting he presented a paper on “An Archime- 
diform Fenestellid in Upper Silurian Rocks of Ohio,” and 
one on the “Life History of the Buckeye Stem Borer.—Ser- 
icoris instrutana.” He also contributed “Entomological Notes 
for the Summer of 1881,” to an issue of the Canadian En- 
tomologist of that year. 

While at Antioch College, in 1879, he was married to 
Katharine Benedicta Trotter, of Montreal, a second cousin 
of his first wife. This estimable lady survived him barely 
long enough to perform the loving labor of furnishing the 
material for this biography. The evidences of her devo- 
tion and helpfulness are apparent in all his later work. 

The world does not always learn of the influence of the 
“silent partner’ for good or ill, in a great man’s life—the 
wife—who by devotion and patient endurance, added to 
judicious counsel, makes his burdens light and his renown se- 
cure, or who may, unthinkingly or purposely, hold him down 
and prevent or mar his accomplishment. To those who knew 
him by his words and works it may seem unnecessary to look 
beyond those piercing, deep-set eyes, and those firm-closed lips, 
from which the tolerant smile was never absent, for an explana- 
tion of his power. But a closer examination of his life and 
times will reveal influences from sources too holy and sacred 
to be adequately estimated here. Suffice it to say that very 
few men have been so blessed in the home circle by intelli- 
gent and helpful co-operation of wife and children in scien-_ 
tific pursuits, and that no sketch of his career can be com- 
plete without a warm tribute of praise to both his devoted 
partners and to the daughters whose able original work 
stands beside his own in the transactions of the learned so- 
cieties of America. What all this must have been to him, and 
how deeply-woven have been these subtle influences into the 
life work of Edward Claypole we may but feebly comprehend. 

Sut there is due from one who was honored by the kindly 
friendship of Mrs. Claypole (she died at Pasadena, Cal., but a 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock. 9 


few weeks after her husband’s decease) and who knew her 
attainments and qualifications as helpmeet companion, at least 
a word of acknowledgment here of her work for science. Rev- 
erently conning the files of Dr. Claypole’s papers, records and 
memoranda there come up frequently mute, but striking, tes- 
timonials to the intimate association of the wife with his tech- 
nical pursuits. She had prepared for the examinations leading 
to his degrees and shared in his intellectual life as few others 
could. Her enthusiasm and honest pride in his work were in- 
spiring spectacles, and her own description of his achieve- 
ments (quoted later in this sketch) is an admirable illustra- 
tion of the share she always had in his life-work. In her death, 
American geology and geologists have lost a kindred spirit. 
Her absence from the annual meetings of the American Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science, will be keenly felt by 
those who were wont to greet her and him as inseparable ele- 
ments upon such occasions. Her last words to the writer were 
in reference to such an occasion when the names of mutual 
friends were happily recalled; and the greetings sent to her in 
remembrance of her husband from the Denver meeting, in 1901, 
at the time of his decease, were cherished among her precious 
jewels. 

Professor Claypole’s paper on pre-glacial geology antago- 
nized pet theories of earlier workers, although his arguments 
were largely supported by their own statements of facts. Possi- 
bly for this reason, his abilities were not utilized by the Ohio 
Geological Survey. But in October, 1881, when leaving An- 
tioch, he was called to the Second Geological Survey of Penn- 
sylvania, being assigned to Perry and Juniata counties. ‘hen 
began another distinct period in his life. He was for a time 
called away from the study of the Ice Age and its antececent 
era to the contemplation of Silurian and Devonian fossils, and 
to the solution of geognostic problems. 

His discoveries in this field were epoch-making, and it 
was fortunate for his fame that his skill in drawing was no 
less remarkable than his powers of description. His maps 
and illustrations of fossils were not redundant, but always 
accurate and perspicuous. Many of the original sketches de- 
picting the type specimens are now preserved in his library, 
convincing proofs of the importance of his researches. 


10 The American Geologist. Jannary,: 2002 


It is not an uncommon affair for men of no particular eru- 
dition to be honored as mere collectors, in the naming of spe- 
cific variations requiring new titles. But it is very rare for 
generic names to be so bestowed. Professor Riley, formerly 
United States entomologist, thus honored professor Claypole 
in selecting the name Claypoleana to apply to an important dis- 
covery by him of a new genus of insects. A striking instance 
of his personal modesty is afforded by the effort he made to 
avoid this well merited compliment. 

Besides the two large volumes of the Pennsylvania survey 
which contain the prolific work of Edward Claypole, the im- 
mediate and after results of his labors there appear in num- 
erous papers read before learned societies in America and Eu- 
rope, and in frequently contributed articles to newspapers. 

Perhaps no other scientist in the United States has been so 
prodigal of his gifts to the public in the form of simple and 
readable expositions of the results of scientific study. Aside 
from his lectures and correspondence, he regularly reported in 
popular language for the local press, the meetings of the great 
associations with which he was identified, and he very frequent- 
ly contributed articles bearing upon the work of the survey. 
In a scrap-book of newspaper clippings, on his library shelves, 
I find 51 such articles, of which 30 appeared in the columns 
of the Perry County (Pa.) Freeman, during the two years 
which cover the period of his engagement on the Pennsylvania 
survey. The range of subjects is shown by the appended list 
of titles: 

“The Object of a Geological Survey,” (3 articles), 

“The Act Providing for a Second Geological Survey of Pennsyl- 
vania.” 

“A Botanical Curiosity in Perry County.” 

“The Sandstone Ridges of Perry County” (2 articles). 

“Mistaken ‘Geological Specimens of Antiquity.’” 

“The Volcanic Rocks of Perry County.” (2 articles). 

“The American Association in Montreal.” (2 articles). 

“Note on the Agency of Insects in Preventing the Fertilization of 

Plants.” 

“The Weather.” (3 articles). 

“The Transit of Venus at New Bloomfield.” 
“The Perry County Coals.” 

“The use of Lime on Land.” 

“The Hessian Fly.” 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock. II 


“Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of 

Science at Minneapolis.” 
“About Anglo-Saxon,” 

“Salt and Plaster on the Land.” 
“Some Old Perry County Fish.” 

The results of his work upon the Pennsylvania survey were 
important and extensive. We can best epitomize them in the 
words of the good wife who but briefly survived him, ‘as she 
gave them to me from her own intimate knowledge of his zeal- 
ous labors through that brilliant period of his life. She writes: 

“The Survey extended over Perry and Juniata counties and was 
the occasion of some of his most important contributions to palzon- 
tology and geology. It was here that the great fiad of tne Paizeaspis 
remains was made, the, at that time, oldest, geologically speaking, 
fish remains known. They came from the Silurian (Upper) and the 
establishment of their true antiquity on unquestionable geological 
and paleontological evidence was a task involving the most careful 
and laborious work, one that only a man possessing almost infinite 
patience, greatest delicacy of touch and an almost. dogged determi- 
nation could accomplish. The small scales, or plates, that were 
found had to be ground down thin enough to demonstrate micro- 
scopically their true bony structure. Edward Waller Claypole had 
none of the modern apparatus for rapid grinding, and had to work 
by hand. The extreme brittleness of the material rendered many 
efforts. necessary before final success was achieved. The further es- 
tablishment of the age of the rocks was one involving great care and 
accuracy of observation and deduction, but when established it was 
beyond question and, try as they might, other geologists could not 
break the evidence, and to America belongs the honor of having the 
oldest known remains of fossil fish; previously the oldest had been 
in England. Since that time attempts have been made to show that 
still older ones exist, but the evidence for these is not yet at Jeast 
beyond question. Besides this special piece of work, the survey 
resulted in discovering many interesting new species of fossils and 
also the working out of general geological problems in rock torm- 
ation (and earth movements) making the time spent of great rich- 
ness to him, personally, in geological experiences.” 

Sixteen important papers were contributed by him to vari- 
ous scientific associations while engaged upon this survey and 
twelve more were published as direct results of this work in the 
years succeeding, to 1887. 

The Pennsylvania Legislature having failed to provide for 
the full prosecution of the survey, professor Claypole accepted 
a call to the chair of natural science at Buchtel College, Ai ron, 


Ohio, established in 1883, being the founder there of that de- 


12 The American Geologist. January, 1902, 


partment. He assumed these duties early in 1884, remaining 
steadily for 14 years, when he came to Pasadena (1898) on 
account of the illness of his wife. 

At Buchtel he again took up his work upon the phenomena 
of the Ice Age, having abundant illustrations within easy 
reach. Some idea of the scope of his studies and their re- 
sults may be gleaned from the titles of his publications dur- 
ing this period, including the twelve valuable papers previously 
mentioned, which appeared in the first years of his residence 
at Akron. <A list of 102 of these contributions to science pub- 
lished from 1884 to 1898, classified according to departments, 
appears as follows: 


Palzeontology | 22: «:chit rs asaya ns ee eas 49 
Tee | Age: i. .00 vc 10 iene a eee eee 14 
Structural. ‘Geology™.<...2,s.<2:h.vos mebwrare eee one II 
Philosophieal,, Discussions. .s.0 > cee eae 9 
Physical. Geography ....... ORM Ee ore 6 
Archeology. 425 )./8 died te rata eee ee aa ean er ele 3 
Zoology i: thetic aie otis ol aT Skew eaten tetas 2 
Recent Geology Vr. oti kta t coeien cron e weenie ates 2 
Oil,- Nattirali— Gab he cs olla ee ee oe eee ee ra 2 
Botany, Vegetable Physiology (each I) ........ 4 


Anatomy, Microscopy. 


. ‘Total, 102 

Very many valuable articles were also contributed by him to 
the Daily Beacon, published at Akron. 

Dr. Claypole was honored by election to membership in 
many of the foremost associations for the promulgation of sci- 
ence in Great Britain and America. The appended list caunot 
be regarded as complete. The dates of election are in many 
cases nearly coincident with the reading of important papers 
before these societies. 

Member, Bristol, (Eng.) Naturalists’ Society, (Secretary 2 or more 
years.) 

Fellow of the Geological Society of London. 

Fellow of the Geological Society of Edinburgh. 

Fellow of the Geological Society of America. (Original Fellow). 

Fellow of the Cordilleran Section, Geological Society of America. 

Fellow American Association for the Advancement of Science. 

(Chairman Section E, 1807; Secretary Section E, 1886.) 

One of the Founders and First President of the Ohio Academy of 

Sciences, 

Member of the International Geological Congress, 1801. 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist —Comstock. 13 


Member, American Microscopical Society (President 1897.) 
Member, Davenport Academy of Sciences, Davenport, Iowa. 
Member, Natural History Society of Cincinnati, O. 

Member, Trinity Historical Society, Dallas, Texas. 

Member, Torrey Botanical Club, New York, N. Y. 

Member, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. 

Member, Entomological Society of Ontario, Canada. 

Member of the Western Reserve Historical Society, Cleveland, O. 
Member of the Montreal Horticultural Society. 

Member of American Society for Psychical Research. 

Member of Local Societies in Ohio, Pennsylvania and elsewhere. 
Honorary Member of the Southern California Academy of Sciences, 

Los Angeles. 

He contributed valuable papers to nearly all these organ- 
izations. At the American meeting of the International Con- 
gress of Geologists his linguistic attainments were prominently 
displayed, he being the only home member who delivered his 
address in French, the regulation tongue for the proceecings 
of the Congress. 

Among the journals which were enriched many times by 
articles from his pen were: 

American Naturalist. 

Geological Magazine, London. 

Quarterly Journal of Geology, London. 

Canadian Naturalist. 

Journal of American Society for Pineal Research. 
Canadian Entomologist. 

Popular Science Monthly. 

American Geologist. 

As one of the editors of the reports GEoLoGist, which 
position he ably filled from the inception of that journa!, in 
1888, until his death, he had often to write in no uncertain 
terms regarding the controversies of men eminent in scientific 
work. In such articles there was no indirection nor round- 
about diplomacy. Nor did he ever lower his dignity or put 
forth one word of censure without the. most careful delibera- 
tion. An article from his pen published in the Popular Science 
Monthly, April, 1893, entitled “Professor G. F. Wright and 
his Critics,” is a most interesting example and will bear close 
scrutiny. He begins by stating the difficulty in the way of 
solving, all at once, the mooted points concerning the antiquity 
of man and the history of the glacial period. Then he refers 
to professor Wright’s book and quietly outlines the work done 


14 The American Geologist. Jannat}, Soe 


by that investigator, following this with a vigorous, but calm, 
protest “against the style and manner of the articles which 
‘have appeared in condemnation of the work and in denuncia- 
tion of the writer.” He next wards off charges of favoritism 
by showing up some of the weakness of the author in question 
and continues in masterful tone: ’ 

“There is, however, little occasion here to expose the weak 
points of the volume, because this has already been done in’ 
a most excellent and exhaustive manner [by his critics] * * 
We believe that he [Mr. Wright] may comfort himself with the 
thought that the worst that could be said has been said con- 
cerning his little volume.” 

He follows this with statements and quotations to show 
that several writers have been abusive and unjust, merely be- 
cause professor Wright’s theological views are unacceptable to 
them. He calls attention to the harm done to science by this 
revival of the old intolerant spirit of which scientists have com- 
plained when held or exercised by earlier theologians, and 
shows that the general public will, although erroneously, lay 
the blame upon the cause of science. 

But when we consider all that Dr. Claypole himself had 
borne, in his hard struggles, on account of this very weapon 
of theological bias, and how much reason he might have had 
for joining those who mocked, the following paragraph from 
his pen reveals depths of character and breadth of mind not 
frequent among us, to say the least: 

“Some of the critics have gone out of their way to make caustic 
remarks on the profession of the author. Surely they should be 
familiar enough with the records of science to be aware that in spite 
of all obstacles which theology has thrown in her path, many theolo- 
gians have risen superior to their environment, and to them geology 
is deeply indebted. Without the labors of Buckland, Sedgwick and 
Woodward, Bonney, Blake, Crosskey, Fisher and Renard, Haughton 
and Hitchcock, many valuable chapters would be missing from her 
literature. Instead of regretting that a theological professor should 
be found in the geological field, it would be more seemly to wish that 
there were more such men. Instead of showing apparent jealousy, all 
helpers should be made welcome. Official reserve and exclusive- 


ness are out of place in science. The field is the world, the harvest 
is plenteous, and the laborers are ‘all too few.” 


Sublimely eloquent words are these to be uttered by one 
whose early history was such as has been tamely outlined in 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock. 15 


this place. But they are only as sincere and exalted as was the 
whole life of the man whom we were privileged to know and 
to take as our inspiration to higher achievement. 

And we may learn from his words and the living of his 
life, that bigotry, prejudice and superstition grow out of the 
narrowness of weak human nature, and that they are not, as 
we are prone to feel, the exclusive property of any one or 
other sect or of any faction in religion, education, politics, 
business, science or art. Change about the words a little and 
his remarks will find us self-convicted of the same intolerant 
spirit, which never concealed from his gaze the underlving 
principle; for well he knew that some of those who bore him 
the least good-will were earnest in their belief that they alone 
were keepers of the truth. ; 

There is another characteristic feature of this very able 
article. Although many references are made in foot-notes to 
the exact places in which the objectionable criticisms may be 
found, there is not one instance in which the name of the critic 
appears. Such work in science is of a very high order, and as 
rare as elevated. 

Much more ample illustrations might be given of Dr. Ciay- 
pole’s yoeman service to science by such utterances as this up- 
on similar occasions, but there is only space for one other in- 
stance. It was at the meeting of the American Association for 
the Advancement of Science at Buffalo, in 1886. 

The geologists had made a trip from Clifton down the 
Niagara River valley, to Lewiston, and back along the gorge 
to Niagara Falls, and the aftermath of discussion in Section 
E was among the most interesting and hotly contested in the 
history of the association. *Theories and plausible explanations 
of the gorge phenomena were advanced in close proportion to 
the number of speakers. Dr. Claypole had things to say which 
were not wholly acceptable to some great workers in this field. 
It did not seem an opportunte time for him to engage in the 
debate, and many would have prevented this if they could. 
But when he finally held the floor, his words came like healing 
balm, and in the most logical manner he presented the argu- 
ment concisely and exhaustively, leaving the whole question in 
the best possible condition for amicable settlement. It was a 
masterstroke of diplomacy, a tactful presentation of his own 


16 The American Geologist. January, 1002. 


contentions without acrimony, and it won the day completely. 

It was at this meeting that his paper entitled “Buffalo and 
Chicago” was presented, and his book on the “Lake Age in 
Ohio” was published in London and Edinburgh the following 
year. But he had announced his views on the “Preglacial Ori- 
gin of the Great Lakes,” with convincing arguments well sup- 
ported by facts, as early as 1881. 

Professor J. P. Lesley in his Introduction to Dr. Claypole’s 
volume (being Report of Progress, 1885, on his work in Perry 
County, Pennsylvania,) thus summarizes the remarkable work 
accomplished by the latter : 

1. Limitation of the term Clinton to the lower division of 
No. V., First Geological Survey of Pennsylvania. 

2. The consequent establishment of the Onondago for- 
mation as embracing the upper 1600 feet of No. V. 

3. Demonstration of the absence of Niagara beds from 
Perry County. 

4. Demonstration of the absence of Corniferous lime- 
stones, and allotment of hitherto supposed Corniferous to the 
Marcellus division of Hamilton group. 

5. Definition of 600-700 feet of shales as Upper Hamilton, 
Genesee and Portage beds. . 

6. Demonstration of fauna, partly Chemung and partly 
peculiar, high up in the Catskill. 

7. Systematic tracing of Kingsmill sandstone along all 
the Catskill outcrops of the county. 

The reports of other members of the Geological Survey of 
Pennsylvania teem with references to Dr. Claypole’s aid in the 
determination of fossils and in other ways. 

It is very interesting to review the mental history of the 
man throughout the Buchtel period, which was divided into 
well-marked epochs. In the first epoch, from 1883 to 1886, his 
papers were mainly confined to notes and observations on 
phases of his prior work in Pennsylvania. But in closing up 
his volume of facts he was led to generalizations which fore- 
shadowed the next epoch of philosophical discussion, which 
covered the ensuing years to 1890,, inclusive. 

His contributions to science in this second epoch were of 
great value and well repay careful perusal. They cover 
such topics as the materials of the Appalachian mountains, 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock. . 17 


the direction of organic variation, the geologic aspects of 
evolution, the phenomena of glaciers, the physics of the earth’s 
interior, deposition and subsidence, continents and deep seas 
and related subjects. 

Then, in the third epoch, from 1891 to 1897, his attention 
was given very largely to the Devonian Cladodont sharks, 
of which the Ohio shales afforded him ample illustration. His 
many papers issued during these years are among the richest 
of his gifts to American geology and palaeontology. Perhaps 
none more clearly evince his unswerving devotion to truth, 
his invincible perseverance in working out minute details and 
his comprehensive grasp of the right relations of isolated facts. 
Certainly this group of papers stands secure as an enduring 
monument no less remarkable than his earlier publications on 
Palaeaspis and the Pteraspidian fishes. 

He exhibited collections of fossils and casts of Cladodonts, 
etc., at the Belgian Exposition, 1897, and read a valuable paper 
reviewing their discovery. Strong efforts were made, without 
avail, to induce him to advertise these and to obtain pecuniary 
profit from their commercial use. 

The knowledge he had acquired of Silurian and Devonian 
aspects was most ably collated in a treatise on the “Devonian 
Formations of the Ohio Basin”, which anonymously won the 
“Walker Prize” of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
in 1895. It is to be regretted that this paper has not been 
given the circulation which its merits warrant. 

A new period in Dr. Claypole’s career began with his en- 
forced removal to California in 1898, primarily for the benefit 
of his invalid wife, who, however, survived him, following him 
shortly after, as if sustaining life only to ensure this compila- 
tion of the facts of his career in suitable form for presentation 
in the files of the AMERICAN GEoLocist, whose readers for thir- 
teen years were indebted to him for very much of the best of 
its contents. 

Throop Institute, at Pasadena, welcomed him to a profess- 
orship and it goes without saying that his zeal and efficiency 
there were most pronounced to the hour of his death. He 
had been in California somewhat more than three years, but it 
was characteristic of the man not to publish hastily. He had 
already begun to bring forth ripe fruit from his labors there 


18 The American Geologist. " Gannary, 190% 


and to exhibit the hungry desire to know the geology of his 
new environment. The earthquake of San Jacinto and the oc- 
currence of petroleum in California gave him topics for papers 
in the Grotocist, and he brought valuable new material before 
the Southern California Academy of Sciences, at Los Angeles, 
and more fully before the Cordilleran Section of the Geological 
Society of America, in San Francisco, as early as December, 
1900. 

The economic aspects of geology did not escape his atten- 
tion and his advice was sought and followed in some impor- 
tant cases in Ohio and California. His judgment pro or con, 
was always correct, because only announced after the most 
careful consideration; but pecuniary reward for his services 
was never the main object in view. 

In a paper previously mentioned—“Buffalo and Chicago, 
or What Might have been’’—he discusses as a purely scien- 
tific problem the features of hydrography upon which the prac- 
tical engineering work of the “Drainage Canal” was after- 
wards based, and in other instances he appears strongly in 
much the same relation to accomplished technical progress as 
that held by Joseph Henry with reference to the Morse tele- 
graph, or by Faraday, Tyndall, and Thompson and other 
great investigators to the practical electric machines. 

Dr. Edward Claypole was thoroughly equipped for the 
work of life, he was in every sense an “educated man”, as the 
term is recently defined by Dr. Nicholas Murray Butler, who 
gives five tests of education, as follows :— 

1. “Correctness and precision in the use of the mother 
tongue.’ One of Dr. Claypole’s most apparent traits in his writ- 
ten or spoken language, was always the use of terse and fin- 
ished sentences, couched in elegant, but simple diction. With 
him, this was a natural result of his classical training, and it 
is not too much to claim for him a considerable share of influ- 
ence in aiding the movement towards linguistic precision. 

Below is a copy of a letter which was preserved among 
his papers. An editor, who had scrutinized the proof sheets 
of a paper submitted by him, had objected to the use of a 
certain phrase, and this present letter was sent as a protest 
against any change of the idiom: 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock. 19 


“My Dear Sir:— 

Your card has arrived and I suppose ere now, you -have my 
proof. What you say has much surprised me. I thought the dif- 
ference between us was merely one of taste, and am quite at a loss to 
understand your calling my expression ‘found it was’ not English. 
If -you object merely to the omission of ‘that,’ the difference is unim- 
portant and you may insert the word. Good writers and grammar- 
ians use both forms and allow both. If you object to ‘found, you 
may substitute ‘discovered’ or ‘learned.’ This difference is quite im- 
material. I think ‘found’ as good as either. But, I take it, your ob- 
jection is to the use of the word ‘was,’ instead of ‘to be;’ otherwise 
you would not have marked the proof at that word. Taking this 
ground, I must dispute the accuracy of your condemnation of my 
word. You do not name your authority. I wish you had done so. 
I am not now engaged in teaching and many of my books are not 
accessible, but I wish to ask your consideration of the following four 
points: 

First. This form is used in scores of expressions in every day life, 
which can hardly be condemned, and condemnation of which would 
be useless in the face of Horace’s line, ““Usus quem penes arbitrium est 
et jus et norma loquendi.” Ex.—I found it was raining. I saw it 
was he. We found—saw—felt—knew it was impossible to go farther. 

Second. I have not access to grammarians or their works to any 
great extent, but G. P. Marsh says: “We have in English a remark- 
able construction, borrowed probably from the Latin, by which, in a 
dependent proposition, the objective with the infinitive is put for the 
nominative with the finite verb. Thus: ‘I think him to be a man of 
talents,’ instead of ‘I think he is a man of talents... Now, awkward 
as this is, its meaning is unequivocal. 

Third. The expression is used by classic English writers. 

‘I think our work is well begun, 
I think ’t will prove a Warden raw?”—Scott. 

‘As we made our way through the crowd I perceived we brought 
good humor with us’—Goldsmith. 

‘Tell him he hath made a match.’—Henry V. 

‘Eve, now I see thou art exact of taste.’-—Milton. 

Fourth. The difficulty of-avoiding the construction is shown by ~ 
the following sentence, extracted from your card of this evening: 
“We cannot consent to the use of ‘found jit was,’ which I find * * * 
is not English.’ 


i oe a oe ee a, ee a ee 


“T am always glad’to be informed of errors in what I write. I am 
as sdiable to them as others, but I want satisfactory evidence of them, 
which you must admit is reasonable. 

“With kind regards, Yours very truly, 


“E, W. CLAYPOLE.” 


20 The American Geologist. JOnnaty,7eeee 


2. “Those refined and gentle manners which are the ex- 
pression of fixed habits of thought.” Who would need to look 
beyond the beaming countenance and the general bearing of 
the man to get an affirmative reply to any question of the appli- 
cation of this qualification to Edward Claypole? The manu- 
scripts which he left unpublished fully attest the well formed 
habit of thinking. 

3. “The power and habit of reflection.” This describes his 
method of attacking every problem and marks the very pivot 
of his career. One is forcibly struck with the permanent value 
of all that he has published. It will stand because it is the re- 
sult of careful reflection. 

4. “The power of intellectual growth.” If we study the 
development of any great man minutely we shall not fail to dis- 
cern, in later life, a power to use past experience and past 
learning as tools for greater and more rapid conquests. It was 
the constant intellectual growth of this man which enabled him 
with the little time and few opportunities at his command, to 
gain an understanding of the structure and geologic history of 
California mountain ranges which was most remarkable. His 
address upon this subject one year ago before the Geological 
Section of the Southern California Academy of Sciences, in 
Los Angeles, and his paper read before the Cordilleran Section 
of the Geological Society of America, December, 1900, in 
San Francisco, amply bear out this statement. 

5. ‘Efficacy, the power to do.” What has already been 
told of his scientific work is more than enough to prove his 
fitness here; but it is far from the just estimate of his worth 
and deeds. 

There are otner aspects of the man as a scientist which 
have not yet been touched; the subject is too broad for more 
than hasty generalization, but it is very difficult to condense 
the facts within proper limits. 

Many friends have remarked the general resemblance of 
his projecting brow and deep-set eyes to those features in 
the countenance of Darwin, although the nose and smile on the 
lips were characteristically his own. In some respects his 
physiognomy was not unlike Joseph LeConte’s, his warm 
friend, in whose life there was much to parallel his own. 

In the winter of 1900, Dr. Claypole went to visit LeConte 


rea, 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock. 21 


on the occasion of the meeting of the Cordilleran Section 
mentioned before. He asked me if I could not join him; re- 
marking that it would probably be the last opportunity to 
meet our friend in this life. There had been cherished inci- 
dents in which the loving kindness of both these great men 
had endeared them to me, and it was hard to be obliged to de- 
cline the invitation. But how little did we then realize that 
so soon one would hie him in full harness, for the last time, 
to the scenes of. his early labors, and the other, only resting 
a little in the midst of his life work, would start out to meet 
him and return not at roll-call here. 

I saw Dr. Claypole after his meeting with LeConte and 
was more than ever impressed with the close relation of the 
two men in character and life-work. 

Versatility in men of average caliber usually betokens 
weakness, but there are great minds which can be broad. It 
was impossible for Dr. Claypole to be narrow in any sense. 
His culture was so comprehensive as to fit him to grasp wide 
and diverse problems and to bring them into harmony with the 
one idea of the “unity and universality of law’. It was this 
principle animating his whole being and outcropping incessant- 
ly in his life work, which made him chafe under artificiai re- 
strictions. Hence we find him reaching out, not blindly, but 
fearlessly, into paths which led beyond the boundaries of 
geology, strictly so-called. This was his recreation, simply a 
change of work, but probably too little removed from his 
regular pursuits to avail in prolonging life. 

Thus, he made valuable contributions, at times, to ento- 
mological, microscopical and horticultural societies, and his 
notes on botany and meteorology possess peculiar value. 

For some reason which is not now apparent, the year 
1885 was marked by great activity in the lecture field. He 
had worked off the bulk of his material gathered on the 
Pennsylvania survey and his palaeontological studies in the 
Ohio Devonian were not fairly begun. Probably need of 
rest and inability to rest except by change of work, impelled 
him to this course. Consequently there are manuscripts left 
in his library whose titles cannot appear in the bibliography, 
but which must have afforded rare treats to those who heard 
them as lectures. While mostly on literary subjects, they are 


22 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


scientifically put together and they clearly indicate the source 
of the perspicuous language employed in all Dr. Claypole’s 
scientific writings. 

Some of the titles of these completed manuscripts are here 
given :— 

King Lear. (Not read, but a most excellent review.) 

History of the Play of Hamlet. (A remarkable piece of work.) 

The English of Hamlet. Shakespeare Club, Buchtel College, 1885; 
(A masterful analysis). 

Fossil Teachers. School meeting of Summit & Portage Co.’s, at 
Akron, O., Oct. 1, 1885. 

“These are the fossil teachers. They are very interesting speci- 
mens—very valuable for the museum. It is very instructive to meet 
with them and talk to them and find out how may things were done 
years ago. It is very entertaining to hear their objections to new 
methods and subjects, and to see how stereotyped it is possible 10 be- 
come, how antiquated a man may be without knowing or suspecting it. 
But however entertaining and amusing such characters may be they 
are not the teachers for the present day.” 

“In fact, the self improvement of the teacher is the key to his 
own progress and to the progress of his pupils.” 

The Cyclone and the Weather,—(Uncertain date.) 

(Dr. C.’s daughter relates an interesting incident illustrating his 
keen sense of the duty of recording observations of natural phenom- 
ena. After the storm he rushed home and upon meeting his children, 
he excitedly exclaimed “Did you read the barometer ?”) 

Slovenly work :—Read at the meeting of the Ohio College Assoc- 
iation at Cleveland, O., December, 1885. 

“Too much classic reading is required and too little classic knowl- 
edge; too many pages of mathematical books and too little mathemat- 
ics; too much Chambers and Taine and Hart and Bertillion, and 
too little English Literature and English Grammar; too much Huxley 
and Martin and Youmans and too little cray-fish and butterfly and 
bird.” 

“IT may be mistaken, I may be fanatical in some points. but if 
you doubt all the rest I have said, if you dispute my premises and deny 
my conclusions, yet let me commend the central thought of this essay 
to at least careful consideration: ‘Less work better done.’ ” 

The Firmament of Genesis. (Date unknown). (A full presen- 
tation of the argument against literal interpretation of scripture, 
evincing a remarkable familiarity with Hebrew. 

Geology and Theology. (An essay of convincing logic without 
acerbity. ) 

On the teaching of Geology. Read before Ohio College Assoc- 
iation at Springfield, O., Dec., 1&&s5. 

“For the fundamental doctrine of science js the constancy and 
inevitability of natural law—its unswerving constancy, its inevitable 


Edward Claypole, The Scientist—Comstock, 23 


certainty. Could the public mind be fairly tinctured with this spirit 
in vain would quacks and charlatans parade their efforts to catch its 
ear.” 

“To one accustomed to narrow views especially on the subject 
of time, it is a revelation to contemplate the almost endless, or, rather, 
beginningless periods with which geology deals. As astronomy en- 
ables the eye to penetrate distances before unconceived and _ strength- 
ens the mind to burst through imaginary barriers hitherto erected to 
space, so geology gives us the power of looking back over aeons of time 
that almost surpass our previous conception of eternity and enables 
us to revel in a wealth cf duration equal to that of extent as re- 
vealed by the telescope.” 

Immigrants. (A beautiful specimen of his popular work, ex- 
tremely interesting without sacrifice of one iota of scientific accuracy.) 

Cause of the Last War of Granada. (Full of Meat.) 

The Story of Louis Napoleon. (A Charming Essay.) 

Mud Run. (Uncertain date.) 

Ancient Lake at Old Portage, Ohio. (Date of publication un- 
known. ) 

Another list of titles taken from the volumes of classi- 
fied notes on his shelves, forms the pabulum of lectures not 
written out in full, illustrating the range of his investigations 
for such purpose. 

He was by training and by circumstances, all his life, a 
teacher. Learned as he was, endowed by nature, and equipped 
through earnest study, his instruction could not but be of the 
quality best adapted to entice and stimulate his students to do 
their best, and in doing it to come into close touch with the 
inner nature of the man. His great career as geologist was 
not the one glory of his life, for his record as teacher was 
equally exalted, and above all, his manhood shone forth sub- 
lime. 

From the pen, as from the heart, of an active and honored 
American geologist came these words upon learning of his 
death,—‘‘Many of the best scientific men of the United States 
received their early training and inspiration at the hands of 
Dr. Claypole.” And so I trust the lack of completeness in 
this biography, a slight return for gracious favors received at 
his hands, may be overcome by the contemplation of what he 
must have been to many others. 


24 The American Geologist. January, 290%, 


EDWARD WALLER CLAYPOLE AS A TEACHER. 


By PROFESSOR GEORGE MANN RICHARDSON, 
Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, California. 


It is my purpose to speak of professor Claypole’s great 
powers as a teacher, and of the wonderful influence for good 
that he has exercised in the lives of young people with who he 
has come in contact. 

What I have to say must of course be drawn largely from 
my own experience as one of his pupils. You will therefore, 
pardon, I hope, a brief mention of my educational history 
which has no interest save as it illustrates the strong influence 
that he almost unconsciously exercised over his pupils. More- 
over, my experience, I am sure, was much the same as 
that of others of my classmates, for our individual opinions 
were singularly unanimous on all points that concerned pro- 
fessor Claypole. 

I also feel very sure that there are many pupils in this 
{Institute who already recognize the influence he has had in 
their lives, and who already value it highly. They will cer- 
tainly value this influence the more as they grow older and 
find how unfortunately rare such men as professor Claypole 
are in the world. 

As I look back over my school days in college and out, 
three of my teachers stand out from the others as men of great 
force of character, as men who stood high in their chosen field 
of knowledge, and as men who inspired enthusiasm for work 
in those with whom they came in contact, in short they were 
great teachers. Of these the first in point of time was Profes- 
sor Claypole, he was also first in the amount of influence that 
he had over me, and in the love that he inspired. 

I entered the preparatory department.of Antioch College, 
not because I wanted to go to school, but as the result of a 
truce with my mother who was sincerely anxious that I should 
gain a college education. A compromise was finally arranged, 
by which school work was to continue until the entrance ex- 
aminations for some college had been passed, when further 
education would be optional with myself. The three vears of 
study that lay before me seemed to extend into a far distant 
future. The first year at Antioch passed, leaving me happy 


Edward Claypole, The Teacher.—Richardson. 25 


that one-third of the task had been accomplished. I still felt no 
need of a college education. During that year, however, there 
was a great deal of enthusiasm among the older students about 
professor Claypole, who was absent, and one often heard re- 
gret expressed that he was away from the college. Upon la- 
menting the hard position, as an illustration of the perversity 
of fate, that one who did not want to go to school was obliged 
to go, while there were many anxious to go who could not, a 
friend replied: “Wait until professor Claypole returns, and 
then you will want to go to school; he will make you werk and 
you will not know it.” 

The first meeting of the class in botany under professor 
Claypole was a complete surprise. A few simple home-made 
instruments were produced, which we were asked to duplicate 
for ourselves, and each was to come next time with the instru- 
ments which he had made, and a few blossoms of a simple 
flower which could easily be obtained. The study of botany 
began with the study of a plant and not a book. Some of you 
no doubt are thinking “‘all this is natural enough,” and in the 
present day, so it is, but we must not forget that it has taken 
splendid work of a few pioneers like professor Claypole to con- 
vince us of it. 

Soon we became very much interested in this new work. 
Our youthful enthusiasm and surprise at the many things we 
saw were never repressed, but were met with his ever kindly 
smile and carefully directed into useful channels. My first 
realization that a change was coming over me arose from a 
new attitude towards Saturdays. Heretofore this day had 
been looked forward to as a respite from tedious routine, a 
day to be spent in fishing, in nutting, and in other ways that 
the healthy boy has at command. But soon after the study 
of botany began it appeared that Saturday was a splendid day 
to go to the laboratory and have an uninterrupted time with 
plant and microscopes; or it proved the very day needed to 
make a long trip after some particular specimen, or to scttle 
a disputed point that had arisen in the class room during the 
week. There was no more time that needed killing. 

A Saturday that could be spent on an excursion in company 
with professor Claypole himself, was one to be looked forward 
to and long afterward remembered by the whole class. The 


20 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


stones and every living thing seemed to extend hands to us in 
welcome ; they actually seemed to thrust themselves upon our 
attention and to whisper their secrets into our ears. Even 
the old familiar swimming hole was made to yield new and 
surprising facts to our wondering minds. 

By the end of the first term I foresaw that I might yet be 
willing to go to college. 

In the next term there was a class in mineralogy and an- 
other in chemistry under professor Claypole, and in the follow- 
ing term he had classes in zoology and in Latin, all of which I 
attended. My interest and enthusiasm grew continually and, 
by the end of the year, a miracle had happened, for I studied 
Latin with pleasure. 

One morning professor Claypole came into the mineralogy 
class with a fragment of labradorite which he had just found. 
It was the first specimen of this mineral found in that locality, 


it being farther south than its usual occurrence. The ques- 


tion as to how it came to be there followed naturally enough, 
then came a discussion of the transportation of stones by gla- 
ciers, and this one was made to give an affirmative answer to 
the question: Did the glacier ever extend as far south as An- 
tioch college ? 

All became very much interested in the stone that had so 
much to say to us. Finally the professor said that he had 
broken that piece from a much larger stone, and he would be 
interested to see who would bring in another part of the same 
stone. Where it was to be found was for us to discover. 
This was a challenge to our powers of observation that all 
were alert to accept, but although every one was constantly on 
the lookout for labradorite, no ene found the coveted specimen. 
Near the end of the term professor Claypole asked if any had 
succeeded, but none could report the discovery. He then asked 
if we had not observed the boulder at the college gate. We all 
knew of this, for we had passed it three or four times daily, but 
that was all; none of us knew that it was the much looked for 
labradorite. Then came his pleasant laugh at our confusion. 
When he found the labradorite himself he brought the boulder 
home and placed it there, with the freshly broken side to the 
ground, so as not to especially attract our attention that he 
might ascertain how thoroughly we saw the things about us. 


Edward Claypole, The Teacher.—Richardson. 27 


There was a moral here that he never put into words, but we all 
understood it. It was one that his whole life emphasized: 
“See and understand the things nearest you.” 

Our course in zodlogy developed largely into a course in 
comparative osteology. When we became familiar with the 
fact that the frame work of most animals was made after one 
plan, and then began to study the variations in that frame- 
work in different animals, variations that came about as re- 
sults of different habits, and to meet the needs of different en- 
vironments, the whole class became intensely interested in the 
work. 

I remember going home to the farm that summer fully 
resolved to return the following autumn with many new skele- 
tons for the college museum. 

It was certainly something new for a boy who had never 
exhibited keen interest in anything, and who had a solid and 
well deserved reputation for laziness, to be found staying up 
into the night, time and again, after days spent in the harvest 
field, to prepare the skeletons of animals that he had caught; 
and for this same boy who had always hated school, to be 
anxiously looking forward to the opening of another college 
year. The home folks were very much impressed with this 
change, and so indeed were the neighbors, some of whom shook 
their heads in doubt concerning the future of one so erratic 
and vacillating. 

But, alas, owing to financial troubles, Antioch college tem- 
porarily closed its doors, an occurrence that a year earlier | 
should have viewed with considerable satisfaction, but which, 
coming when it did, seemed to me a terrible calamity. ; 

Professor Claypole went to Pennsylvania to take up work 
in connection with the geological survey of the state, and I 
never again was able to profit by his instruction. 

That one year brought about a complete change in my at- 
titude toward an education, a complete change in my ideas as 
to what an education meant, and professor Claypole alone 
was responsible for it. It is no wonder then, that I have al- 
ways felt that here was a debt I could not pay; and that he, 
to a greater extent than any one person, marked out for me my 
life work. 

Professor Claypole’s great power as a teacher did not rest 


28 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


on the occasional pupil that he waked up from a lethargy of in- 
attention and lack of interest, but upon the fact that he came 
nearer to producing this-result in all his pupils than any other 
teacher that I have ever known. I have never seen in any other 
classes such a universal desire of the students to do the very 
best work of which they were capable. 

How was this influence exercised? Certainly it was not 
the result of conscious effort upon his part. It was a part of his 
nature. 

Although, as I have said, he completely revolutionized my 
ideas as to an education, I do not remember to have heard him 
say a word upon the subject of education, he never made any 
attempt to point out the advantages of an education, or the 
disadvantages of being without one. In fact the advantages 
and disadvantages, as these terms are commonly understood, 
concerned him but little. He did not care for an education as 
a means of personal advancement. I have rarely seen one 
with so little of the self-seeking element in his character. 

He did have the keenest interest in all things, and an all- 
consuming desire to know this world in which we live. This 
interest was so intense and so genuine that it was contagious, 
the vereist clod of a boy could not long remain in contact with 
it without becoming to a certain extent inspired by it; and 
even the stupid soon became less stupid in his presence. 

Added to this was one of the kindliest and most lovable of 
natures. I do not remember to have ever heard from professor 
Claypole a reprimand or cutting remark intended to hurt the 
feelings of a pupil. Errors and youthful indiscretions of 
course there were, but these were corrected in a way that made 
us all fell that next time we should do better, if such a thing 
were possible. We worked because our interest in the subject 
had been aroused and no matter how interested we became, 
we found that our teacher was more interested, no matter 
how hard we were willing to work, we found that he was will- 
ing to work harder. 

He led us, he never drove us. He was always before us, 
never behind us. We were guided by example, not by precept, 
He apparently took the greatest interest in the work and suc- 
cess of each, and was ready, not to answer our questions, but 
rather to show us how to ask our questions of nature herself 
and how to get her to answer them. 


Edward Claypole, The Teacher —Richardson. 29 


With nothing of the self seeking in his own nature, it is 
not surprising that he should never appeal to that element in 
the nature of his pupils. Good work was always rewardec! by 
encouragement, but never by praise, and never by an intimation 
that it was a little better than the work of another. 

We all knew that in him we would always have a sympa- 
thetic friend who was always easily approached; there was no 
false dignity, that device of small souls that fear their small- 
ness will be discovered, to keep us at a distance. 

He was the most even tempered of men, always kindly, 
sympathetic, genuine; shams of all kinds were foreign to his 
nature. He nad that never failing quality of true greatness, 
a delightfully simple, unassuming nature. These traits were 
so apparent that the least observing of us all saw them and 
loved him for them. 

He did not live in the past, nor yet the future, but he 
lived in the present. The duties of each moment occupied that 
moment. The thing at hand and the present opporturities 
were for him the most important. No other time and no wther 
opportunities were to be compared with the present time and 
the present opportunity. One did not need to be long with him 
to realize that the center of the universe was right where he 
stood. 

I have often marveled at the wonderful display of natural 
phenomena, and the wonderful richness in plant and animal life 
of the country immediately surrounding Antioch College. I 
am very sure that I have never seen so much of interest any- 
where else. Yet the country was not, after all, peculiar in this 
respect, it was simply that we had professor Claypole there 
to open our eyes for us. 

It was, of course, inevitable that he should love California. 
When I saw him here two years ago he was perfectly haz py, 
his only care being for the health and strength of her he 
loved most. He spent much of the time opening my eyes to 
the wonderful beauties of nature in and about Pasadena. I 
feel very sure that the people who have known him there, have 
learned of many new and before undreamed of interests that 
surround them, they have found Pasadena more attractive, and 
better worth living in than before they knew him. 

When I learned that he was to live in California my first 


30 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


thought was that California will be more than ever worth liv- 
ing in, she will take on new charms for all of us who can come 
in contact with professor Claypole. 

Indeed so well developed was this lovable trait of seeing 
the best in all things that I truly believe he would have been 
entirely happy in the midst of the dreariest desert, could be 
have had his loved ones with him; and there he would have 
seen beauty and found the material from which to learn na- 
ture’s laws; and the traveler who passed his way would have 
found an oasis under his feet. 

He would have said with Agassiz that “he had no time to 
make money”. In this beautiful world he did not covet power 
or wealth, —wealth that costs too much.” 

I have never known another whose every trait so univer- 
sally called forth love and admiration. 


EDWARD CLAYPOLE—THE MAN 


By Dr. NORMAN BRIDGE, President of the Board of Trustees, Throop Institute, 
Pasadena, California. 


There is no other lesson in all the universe which trans- 
cends that of a human life. This is a primal truth notwith- 
standing the fact that the history of no human life is ever com- 
pletely told. Whether we know the whole or part matters lit- 
tle, so long as we see the lesson. 

The careers of men are largely determined by accident, 
and the fates of environment. Opportunity has made some 
mediocre men great in the pageantry of the world; while some 
of the greatest of all time have led quiet and unblazoned lives 
for want of some accident that let them win a battle or be one 
out of a score of students to find the epoch truth they all were 
groping after and knew must be near. Thus many of the 
estimates of history are inadequate or wrong. 

It is the character of a man that measures him and by 
which his value to his kind is finally told. And this is the qual- 
ity that is first born to him, and then must grow and ripen 
and be hammered by the work and impediments of his life. It 
is these that fix every man’s place somewhere in the equations 
of the race. 


Edward Claypole, The Man.—Bridge. 31 


While a man lives his character and career are in the mak- 
ing. The final estimate can never be made in life, for until its 
end the evidence is never quite all in. Death alone permits the 
case to be closed and submitted to the judgment of history. 
History is said to grow calm and judicial by time; it also 
may grow hazy and unfair. It fixes on the more tangible facts 
of a man’s career like his battles, his campaigns or his recorded 
acts, and deals more or less justly with them. But it often 
misses the best part of him, which is his character and work in 
the unturbulent calm of life, as these affect men and women 
about him, and mould and change them, and even create their 
careers for them. 

Who most has influenced the lives of others? What lives 
so affected have most changed the careers of still others? The 
answers to these questions reveal the real place of a man in 
society. 

Professor Claypole’s life comprised a volume of numerous 
lessons and many kinds of instruction. 

Born in England and coming down from a line of 
superior people and scholars on both sides of his family, he 
inherited a love of learning and a disposition to study and wis- 
dom. His father and paternal grandfather were Baptist cler- 
gymen and fine classical scholars, and his own taste was nat- 
urally toward the classics and literature. But in his childhood 
some cultivated women, sisters of his remarkable mother, took 
him out into the fields and showed him some of the beauties 
and possibilities of botany and geology, and his enthusiasm 
was instantly aroused. Here was an opportunity to study 
things, not merely the writings about things and thoughts: 
and the taste then created continued through life; it determined 
his career and made of him a great teacher and an authority on 
science. 

He was a voracious reader and student, a devourer of 
encyclopedias and all manner of the strongest books, even in 
childhood. Taken once to a lecture on astronomy at eleven 
years of age he startled his family on reaching home by cor- 
recting the lecturer as to some of his facts and figures, and 
did it from memory of what he had read unknown to his elders. 

In pursuit of his education he met with difficulties. His 
clerical ancestors were dissenters from the established church. 


32 The American Geologist. Janney 


For this reason none of the teaching universities in all England 
was open to him, lack of means made it impossible for him to 
go to Scotland where he would have been admitted, or to at- 
tend any of the fitting schools in England. So with his fa- 
ther’s aid and his own efforts he fitted himself for and accom- 
plished matriculation at the University of London, which is an 
examining body, not a teaching one, and was founded spec- 
ially for dissenters. But now because he had been prepared by 
private study instead of at some of the accredited schools, 
further advancement was impossible and he had to wait for 
some years until in 1859 the University modified its rules 
and admitted students who were prepared by any school or by 
any means to take its examination and gave degrees to those 
who had earned them. Then he took there three degrees in 
succession, B. A. in 1862, B. Sc. 1864, and D. Sc. 1888. 

Teaching was his profession and he taught all his working 
life except two years when he was on the geological survey of 
Pennsylvania. For nearly a third of a century he taught in 
collegiate institutions. He taught many things, nearly the 
whole curriculum of an ordinary college at different times, 
and everything with equal facility, but his specialty was 
the natural sciences and particularly geology. His first am- 
bition was to be a civil engineer, not a teacher. He might have 
made a good engineer, but it is certain that he was a teacher 
born, as truly as men are born gentlemen or geniuses. To his 
inborn powers he added the highest development of studied 
excellence. 

The refinement of his art in this sort was founded on his 
erudition, which was enormous; On his enthusiasm for scienti- 
fic truth; on his great manual dexterity; on a remarkable gift 
of extempore drawing that made it easy and interesting for 
him to illustrate his work, and especially on the grace of his 
personality and the terse and beautiful way in which he said 
things without verbiage or cant. His interest in the studies 
was so genuine that it was infectious to his students. Whether 
in pursuit of some investigation, or over a problem, or doing 
a manipulation, his patience was limitless. This quality was 
impressive to his students as it was to his colleagues. Then 
in all his earlier years he was a leader among fhe boys in out 
of door sports, a thing that is always a bond between teacher 


Edward Claypole, The Man.—Bridge. 33 


and students. But he had no sympathy with organized college 
sports, and always doubted their ultimate value. 

Pupils under him lost respect for themselves in poor work 
and bad purposes; and those of them who were worth saving 
to an intellectual life became inspired to do the best that was 
in them. More than that, they acquired his methods of 
thought and reasoning; his mental habits became theirs, and 
they have gone out to transmit these traits and impulses to 
others and these still to others, and so on in a chain of influc nce 
that always exalts, and whereof no man knows the end. 

In his treatment of students he was gentleness itself. On- 
ly poor work and dishonesty could rouse him to severity. He 
would go to any length to help a sincere student in geniiine 
work; but would never yield an inch in his standard to let 
even such a student through his finals. He expected the best - 
of every student and usually got it. Years ago there was once 
some formal criticism by his colleagues of his methods of teach- 
ing, but the classes of his critics were small while his were 
large. ‘The trouble was that his lucid, realistic and practical 
way of presenting his subject drew pupils; the very thing that 
the modern university bids for. 

Of a race of dissenting Baptists it was natural that he 
should find occupation as a teacher in a Baptist college. It 
was a college for the education of ministers, a theological 
schogl in which he taught for several years. Strange that the 
theological basis there should have been such that teaching the 
simple truths of the classics and science in a broad and manly 
way would unsettle young men for the business of the minis- 
try! Yet it did this and, of course, the teacher had to go. And 
when he wished to teach in a college in Wales and could not 
subscribe to its theology he was not accepted. At this time there 
was not a college in England where he could teach, and to the 
Presbyterian colleges of Scotland he would have been equally 
unacceptable. 

Then like the pilgrims of more than two centuries before. 
and fer similar reasons, he came to America where there must, 
he thought, be liberty to teach the truth freely. But here 
he met with some disappointments of the sort he had encoun- 
tered in England. It was his failing, if failing it is, that he 
must teach the truth as he saw it. His loyalty to the truth 


34 The American Geologist. January, 1902, 


the fact proven—was like a religion to him. Evolution to him 
was the way in which the purposes of Providence are worked 
out, to renounce it would be irreligious. 

His sacrifices for his loyalty to truth had recompense at 
tast; for he lived to see the doctrine of evolution defended by 
theologians, and Darwin acknowledged to have made the 
greatest contribution to thought of the just ended century. 
The metamorphosis had been as radical as that from the 
witchcraft laws of Massachusetts of old, to those of the Com- 
monwealth of today. He lived to see Oxford and Cambridge 
accept dissenting students without signing the 39 articles; or 
swearing that the Queen was the head of the church; to see 
the University of London open its doors to women (his own 
wife having taken high honors there) and extend its degrees 
to any student who could pass its examinations. He had 
declined to come up for his doctor’s degree as long as an exam- 
ination for which one could cram was required; he could have 
crammed for it easily, but he believed this degree should be 
given for original work only; and finally, long aiter he had 
come to America, the University came to his way of thinking, 
and then he crossed the ocean and, on the strength of his 
original work on the geology of Pennsylvania and Ohio, re- 
ceived the degree of doctor of science. 

As a scholar he was exact and accurate; he hewed to the 
line as though by instinct. He did not try to remenyber 
everything, but he tried first to understand everything he read 
or considered, and then as a matter of fact he did remember 
nearly everything, and he could usually at a moment’s notice 
lay his hands on any fact or reference he needed. 

As a scientist speaking to the world he was slow and pains- 
taking lest he might send forth an immature message. It 
was modesty and self-effacement as well as love of truth that 
led to this, a want that has tempted men to rush into print with 
uproven facts and lame theories. He had a great aversion for 
unpondered declarations and unverified science. This led him 
to a degree of scrupulosity that probably retarded his pubtica- 
tions and restricted his fame; but it could not lessen his worth. 
The fame of the hour and especially the plaudits of the un- 
thinking had the least possible charm for him. To cater to 


—- =-_ ~ + 


Edward Claypole, The Man.—Bridge. 35 


such things wittingly would have been a degradation of his 
self respect. 

In spite of his caution, his contributions to knowledge were 
large. They did not take the form of books, but were mostly 
articles contributed to numerous scientific journals, proceed- 
ings of learned societies and official reports published by gov- 
ernment. Their number mounted into the hundreds and cov- 
ered not only geology in which he was most interested, but 
any fields of science besides, as well as literature and general 
learning. What a labor is represented in all this writing and 
revision! What erudition and study it stands for. Yet it 
only expressed the work of his mind and hand as it came along 
day by day. For him to attempt to write a great paper mere- 
ly to astonish the world was unthinkable. He wrote wher in 
his investigations or those of others a word came to him that 
demanded utterance. And his investigations were going on 
constantly. The new theories and principles which he pro- 
mulgated were mostly fated to stand. There was a shower 
of opposition and argument against some of them; but the 
final verdict of science has confirmed him in almost every in- 
stance. 

He begam in youth the habit of writing for serial publica- 
tions. When he was but 17 he was with a brother editing and 
publishing a student’s paper called The Home Journal. It 
appeared monthly, and the edition was usually limited to one 
copy, and was not printed, but written by his own precise hand, 
and illuminated by drawings as perfect as a modern litho- 
graph. These last gave promise of the fine drawings that 
later illustrated his scientific papers. It was contributed to 
by his several brothers and himself, and was not filled with 
student gossip, jokes and, editorials on the way to run a col- 
lege, but with strong articles on science and literature, as e. g.: 
“The Rise and Progress of Language,” “The Causes that Led 
to the Restoration of Charles II.,” “The Attraction of Gravi- 
tation,’ and “Conscience.” The articles all show painstak- 
ing care and extensive study. 

His taste for serious journalism continued through life and 
he wrote extensively for scientific periodicals, especially those 
devoted to geology. He was one of the founders, and al- 
ways one of the editors, of the American Geologist, begun in 


36 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


1888, and wrote for it a large number of articles, reviews and 
criticisms. 

It was his fortune to have made in 1884 in Perry county, 
Pennsylvania, the discovery of a new genus (two species) of. 
fossil fishes in the Silurian rocks at a lower level than any fish 
remains had been found before. These were as he then said 
the ‘oldest indisputable vertebrate animals which the werld has 
yet seen.” He worked out the specimens and the subject with 
great labor and patience and named the species Palacaspis» 
americana and P. bitruncata. Although his position about 
this discovery was controverted by many experts at the t:me, 
it has never been shaken in the least from that day to this. 

The personal demeanor of this man was so superior and re- 
fined as to be a model for every man and the envy of most 
of them. He was always gentle, never intense save when con- 
fronted by untruth and dishonor. He was non-combative yet 
keenly enjoyed discussion; if he was injured or felt himself to 
be, he was silent. He would discuss but never contend, unless 
it was for some vital principle or against what he thought 
an injustice; and he never lost his temper or his patience. 
Thereby he could always lift a heated debate out of personali- 
ties and into dignified discussion. | He had an abiding love of 
justice and would struggle for it, but always with diginty. 
When a decision rested with himself his judicial sense stood 
so erect that it would sometimes tip backward. This was the 
case especially when he had or could have any personal in- 
terest in the decision. If his own children were in his ¢lasses 
he held them to a severer rule than the rest of the students. 
With what he regarded as public or private wrong he could 
never compromise in the smallest degree. Like most of the 
great reformers he never learned that much of the best prog- 
ress of the world comes as a matter of compromise. Because 
there was corruption in politics he could rarely be induced to 
go to the polls to vote. 

He enjoyed exercise and work. — His fire-wood he bought 
in large sticks so that he could have the exercise of sawing 
and splitting it. His book-cases were mostly made with his 
own hands, and he bound creditably many of his numerous 
volumes of periodicals. Geologist and botanist that he was, 
he enjoyed tramping over the country and his students fre- 


_ 


Edward Claypole, The Man.—Bridge. 37 


quently went with him to their delight and benefit. But 
sometimes his tramps were too much for them, and once they 
determined that they would tire him out. So several of the 
strongest of them planned a journey with him for this pur- 
pose. They had saved their strength beforehand and thought 
they were sure of victory, but one by one they fell out of the 
squad, and the last One to give up came back and reported 
that the professor had disappeared over the hill with a step as 
elastic as that of a boy. 

-His conversation was full of good fellowship, never tasp- 
ing or aggressive. He had little small talk. He had none of 
the quality of the Bohemian, but he was a good companion, 
best always for the thoughtful and seekers after knowledge. 
He rarely laughed loudly, but as he spoke a smile often played 
upon his countenance, a smile whose charm could not be sur- 
passed, for it shone with refinement and intelligence. It was 
the smile of the cultivated Englishman; it never rose to the 
wide-open laughter of those who are quick to grasp American 
jokes ; and he never came to appreciate these as the natives do. 

His nature was a serious one always, and he probably 
failed of some solace that might have come to him had he been 
able to appreciate fully the jests, hyperbole, irony and satire 
of this country. But he also lacked the intensity and intem- 
perance in thought, speech and action, that make so many 
native Americans need these aids to balance their moods. It 
must not be understood that he was devoid of humor. He had 
humor, but it was rather as an infrequent and subtle surprise 
and so the more enjoyable to the few to whom it ever came. 

If he needed any balancing emotion it was for a certain 
intensity of feeling that was known only to his very intimates. 
This appeared at times in a degree of melancholy shown in deep 
and unspoken grief at the premature close of a career, or of a 
life at the threshold of its usefulness. Calamities within his 
own househeld put him to severe tests of this kind. As the 
deepest waters run still so his intensest feelings were com- 
pletely hidden from the world in general. 

All of nature’s sounds were meaningful to him. The birds 
and the insects made music that he knew of, and it was 
harmony. But of man’s artificial harmonies the science only 
concerned him. He knew and was interested in the sound 


38 The American Geologist. Janes aa 


. 


that each pipe or string of an instrument made, and why and 
how, and why the tones harmonized with each other or failed 
to do so. But music was no pleasure to him. Yet his own 
voice was melody. No one who knew him ever heard a man’s 
voice that was more musical, and no one of us ever heard it 
raised in anger or discord. The knowledge seekers not only 
found his voice beautiful, but doubly charming because always 
laden with wisdom; and after they had listened for an hour 
to his conversation on various subjects in a flow as easy and 
modest as ever heard, as fresh as a zephyr from the mountains, 
and in language so concise and pure that it would do to print 
exactly as uttered and for the perfected literature of our 
speech, they went away feeling that somehow they had been 
with a sage of the centuries. They actually experienced one 
of the psychological miracles by acquiring as their own some 
of his perspective grasp. He had calmed their nervous tension 
and made them look for and see things with a more’certain and 
consciously certain vision. The effect was comparable to the in- 
fluence of General Grant on his soldiers before one of the bat- 
tles in Virginia. When he simply rode down the line of the 
army and observed everything in his inimitable quiet way. 
His words were few and chiefly in the way of suggestion and 
inquiry ; not a loud word or ore for mere effect, but every man 
that saw it, from being nervous and impetuous suddenly be- 
came a real soldier and examined his cartridges and arms and 
began to save his resources which before he had wasted, that 
he might be ready for the time of need. 

Prof, Claypole’s tastes as the-world uses the word were 
severely simple. Show and parade appealed to him but little. 
He was himself wholly incapable of either. His clothes were 
a necessity to him, so he wore them. He never had any 
pleasure in their display. He was modest and retiring in all 
his ways; and never pushed himself or preferred himself be- 
fore others. He was never a stickler for his personal rights; 
therein he belied certain definitions of Englishmen. He 
would take an inconvenient lecture hour without a complaint 
rather than ask a colleague to make a possibly net inconven- 
tent change to accommodate him. 

Taught by his early experiences to practice the most 
rigid economy, he continued this through life. His personal 


Edward Claypole, The Man.—Bridge. 39 


wants were few and envy and jealousy seem to have bee left 
@ut of his nature. He was not unhappy over the larger ex- 
penditure of his neighbors, except because of its sometime 
wastefulness when done for show. Had he been more agres- 
sive he doubtless might have made money by his knowledge 
of geology, but scientists rarely become rich, even when they 
give themselves to the work of invention. 

He was an ideal expert witness in court, for he was so 
fair and candid, so amazing in his information, and so evi- 
dently free from any impulse to air his knowledge, that judge 
and jury always believed his testimony. 

His public scientific lectures were masterpieces in -ub- 
stance and style. The test of their perfection was the fact 
that those who heard them usually absorbed their substance 
and remembered them as a precious intellectual experience. 

He was apparently emotion-blind to every sentiment of 
egoism and conceit. He did not care to be  lionized or 
paraded; he was too great to need such attentions. He 
even shunned having his photograph taken, and the best pic- 
ture of him had to be secured by a ruse. While he walked 
daily among men no one of whom was his peer in mentali- 
ty or equipment, he never betrayed to even his friends by word 
or manner that he was conscious of his superiority. He was 
unselfish and unworldly, and in spirit, as guileless and exalted 
as the man of Nazareth. World famous as a man of science, 
the recipient of honors from the most famous of men, from 
governments and: educational institutions throughout the 
world, he carried them all so modestly and quietly that his 
neighbors hardly knew of them. 

The purity of his personal and domestic life, his devotion 
to his own, and especially to his invalid wife, made an exam- 
ple for men and angels, for there has been nothing finer this 
side of the stars. The great truth became incarnate in him 
early that only in a life of unselfish service for others is there 
perfect peace. That life he lived ideally to the end, and it 
found him the joy that belongs to the saints. For him there 
was no far pilgrimage in search of the Holy Grail, either 
for body or soul. He knew it was within his reach every hour, 
and he daily laid his hand upon it, was glad and unafraid. No 
specific act or uttered formula for the safety of his soul ever- 


40 The American Geologist. January, 200% 


lastingly was possible for him. The whiteness of his living 
soul and the reverent rectitude of his daily life were the onty 
talisman he needed or would have. 

To have come close to his great nature was a mental and 
moral inspiration, and to have known him thus was to love him 
always. To have absorbed some of his thought, and to have 
caught even a little of his spirit and mental methods, was a 
growth in intellectual stature. It was a high privilege that this 
institution, its faculty and students as well as the community at 
large, had his services and great personality for the three 
final years of his life, and in the zenith of his mental ripeness 
and power. His presence and labors have dedicated anew 
this spot to scholarship, and to that useful education in things 
and thoughts which his own life so well symbolized. 

As if to bless his final pilgrimage the three years he spent 
here were among the happiest and most peaceful of his life. 
Here he was reminded of his young life in England when he 
first had a home of his own. Here he found congenial com- 
panions and people who he said had time to stop and think. 
His life here was free from turmoil and he could do his best 
thinking. He found joy in the scenery, the mountains, the 
flowers and the foliage—especially of the pepper boughs; and 
the unstudied fields of geology of. the region offered him a 
hundred enticing problems. 

He had another experience here that gave him tranquil 
comfort, one that in this presence I hesitate to mention, but 
dare not omit. It was his three years of association with 
a faculty that, he many times privately said, averaged superior 
to any other he had known, in the completeness of its har- 
mony, Magnanimity, and loyalty to high aims. 

This utterance that may be considered as having come to 
us here as a final benediction from his vanishing hand, wafts 
back also his hope and prayer that such harmony and loyalty 
and magnanimity may possess all faculties of instruction ev- 
erywhere, and always. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


1870. 

On some Evidence in Favor of Subsidence in the South West 
Counties of England during the Present Period —Vol. V., Part 1, 
read January 12, 1870 Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists’ So- 
ciety. 


| 


Claypole’s Bibliography. 41 


1871. 

On the Development of the Carboniferous System in the Neigh- 
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1872. 

On the Subsidence of the South West Counties of England dur- 
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On the same Subject. No. 3—Vol. VII., Part 1., read May 2, 
1872. 

1873. 

Review of Cranchi’s Translation of Virgil's Aeneid, Old and 
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Review of Allen & Greenough’s Latin Grammar. Old & New, 
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1875. 

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1877. 

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On a borer in the leaf stalk of the Buckeye. Psyche. 

Preglacial formation of the Beds of the Great Lakes. 1. Can- 
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1878. 

Migration of Animals from America to Europe and vice versa. 
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Migration of Plants from Europe to America, with an attempt 
to explain certain Phenomena. Journal Royal Geolog. Society of 
London. 

On Glyptodendron—Fossil Upper Silurian tree. American Jour- 
nal of Science. Same Title, Geological Magazine, London. 

1870. 

Migration of European Animals to America and American to 

Europe. Montreal Horticultural Society. 


1881. 

Preglacial Origin of Lakes Erie and Ontario. Proc. Amer. Assoc. 
Adv: Sci. 

Evidence from the drift of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, in support 
of the Pre-glacial Origin of Basins of Lakes Erie and Ontario, 
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Archimediform Fenestellid in Upper Silurian Rocks of Chio. 
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42 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


Entomological, Notes for the Summer of 1881. Canadian En- 
tomologist. 
1882. 
Note on the Agency of Insects in Preventing the Fertilization of 
Plants. Perry County (Pa:) Freeman, Sep. 27. 
Notes on the Fauna of the Catskill Red Sandstone. 
Note on the occurrence of traces of a northern Flora in S. W. 
Ohio. 
Note on the Sterility of the Canadian Thistle at Yellow Springs, 
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On the Hamilton Sandstone of Middle Pennsylvania. Proc. Amer. 
Assoc. Adv. Sct. p. 244. 
On Large Crustacean from the Catskill Group of Pennsylvania. 
Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., p. 265. Minneapolis Meeting. 
Renssleria from the Hamilton Group of Pennsylvania. Proc. 
Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sct., p. 266. 
Note on the present Condition of the Box Huckleberry. 
Vaccinium brachycerum Mchx., in Perry Co., Pa. Proc. Amer. 
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1883. 
Entomological Notes for 1883, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Set. 
Helicopora—A new spiral Fenestellid. Quarterly Journal Geo- 
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Large Fish Plate from the Upper Chemung (?) beds of North- 
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Perry County Fault, etc. Proc. Amer Phil. Society, Vol. XXI. 
On Helicopora, a New Genus of North American Fenestellids. 
Quarterly Journal Geological Society. 
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On the Box Huckleberry in Perry County. Proc, Amer, Phil. 
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On the genus Renssleria in the Hamilton grou». Proc. Amer. 
Phil. Secieiy 
On a Large Crustacean from the Catskill of Pennsylvania. Proc. 
Amer. Phil. Society. : 
On some Fish Remains recently discovered in the Silurian rocks 
of Pennsylvania. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., p. 424. 
On Ctenacanthus and Cyracanthus from the Chemung of Penn- 
sylvania. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Philadelphia Meeting. 
A new Carboniferous Trilobite, p. 303. Geol. Mag. 
Pennsylvania before and after the Elevation of the Appalachian 
Mountains. Geol. Mag., p. 434. 
Remains of Fish from the Upper Silurian of Pennsylvania.  p. 


510. 


Claypole's Bibliography. 43 


The Clinton Shales of Pennsylvania. Amer. Phil. Society. 

Preliminary notes on Fossil Fishes in Silurian Rocks. American 
Naturalist. 

Clinton and other Shales. Proc, Amer. Assoc, Adv. Sci. 

Pennsylvania before and after the elevation of Appalachian 
Mountains. Proc, Amer. Assoc, Adv. Sci. 

Dalmanites? cuyahoga, Akron, Ohio. Geological Magazine. 

1885. 

A Pteraspidian Fish of Upper Silurian of North America. Geo- 
logical Magasine. p. 280. 

A Pteraspidian Fish of Upper Silurian of North America. “(mer- 
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Vertical Range of Certain Species. America Naturalist. 

Perry County. Vol. 1. Report of Progress. Second Geological 
Survey of Pennsylvania. F2:435 pages, illustrated by 48 page 
plates and two colored maps. 

Perry County. Vol, 11. Paleontology. Second Geological Sur- 
vey of Pennsylvania. 

1886. 

Report on some Fossils from lower Coal Beds. Ii"yoming Hist. 
and Geol. Soe. 

Preliminary note on some fossil wood from the Carboniferous 
rocks of Ohio. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. p. 219. 

Buffalo & Chicago. Proc. Amer, Assoc. Adv. Sci., p. 224. 

[he deep Well at Akron, Ohio. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 
p. 228. Ann Arbor Meeting. : 

Buffalo and Chicago, or What Might Have Been. meritcan Nat- 
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Report on some Fossils from the Lower Coal Measures. /’roc. 
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1887. 

Material of the Appalachians. American Naturalist. 

Organic Variation Indefinite, not Definite, in Direction. Proc. 
Amer. Phil. Society. Yj 

Lake Age in Ohio. Maclachin & Stewart Edinburgh Simpkin 
Marshall & Co., London. 

Lake Cuyahoga, a study in Glacial Geology. Proc. Amer. Assoc. 
Adv. Sci., p. 218. 

The Four Great Sandstones of Pennsylvania. Proc, Amer. slssoc. 
Adv. Sci., p. 277. 

What’ is it? Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., p. 312. New York 
Meeting. 

Variation. Proc. Amer. Phil. Socicty. 

Paradise found. A Review. Universalist Quarterly Review. 


1828. 
Darwin and Geology. American Geologist. 
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Nature of Natural Gas. American Geologist 


44 . The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


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On some Investigations regarding the interior of the Earth. 
American Geologist. 

Eccentricity Theory of Glacia) Cold, versus the Facts. Proe, 
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188. Dictionary of Fossils. (Contributions to, including many 
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1880. 

The Reality of a Level of no Strain in the Earth. Proc. Amer. 
Assoc, Adv. Sci... Toronto Meeting. 

Glaciers and Glacial Radiants in the Ice Age. Amer. Geologist. 

The Story of the Mississippi and Missouri, American Geologist. 

1890.. 

Illustration of the “Level of no Strain.” American Geologist. 

On the Making of Pennsylvania. American Geologist. 

Continents and Deep Seas. Bull. Geological Soc. Amer. 

The American Devonian Placoderms. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., p. 616. 

Subsidence and Deposition as Cause and Effect. Proc. Amer. 
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1891, 

Memoire Preliminaire sur le decouverte de Poissons Fossiles dans 
les terraines Siluriens Superiewrs d’Ameriqve. Read before Inter- 
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A deep Boring in the Pleistocene. Bull. Geological Soc. Amer. 

Pre-glacial Drainage of Summit Cornty, Ohio. Bull. Geological 
Soc. Amer., p. 504. 

On a Deep Pre-Glacial River Bed near Akron, Ohio. Pree. 
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On Episode in the History of the Cuyahoga River, Proc. Amer. 
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Exhibition of a Skull of a Pig found in Ohio, having a Flint 
Arrow-head imbedded in the Bone. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. 
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Claypoles Bibliography. 45 


On the Dentition of Titanichys and its allies. Bull. Geological 
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A new Gigantic Placoderm from Ohio. American Geologist. 
A Bed of Peat in the London Clays? p. 534. Imerican Geol- 
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1893. 
The Fossil Sharks of Ohio. Proc. Amer. Assoc, Adv. Sct.. 
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Preglacial Man not improbable. American Geologist. 
The Cladodom Sharks of the Cleveland Shales. American Geol- 
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An Examination of Glyptoedendron claypolei, etc. American Ge- 
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On three new species of Dinicthys. American Geologist. 
The Upper Devonian Fishes of Ohio. Geological Magazine.  p. 
443. 
A new Species of Dinicthys. Bull. Geol. Society Amer. 
A New Cladodont from Cleveland Shales. Bull, Geol, Soc. 
America, 
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‘ 1894. 
Structure of the Teeth of Devonian Cladodont Sharks. Proc. 
Amer. Micros. Society, Vol. XV. 
On the Structure of the Bone of Dinichthys. Proc. Amer. Mi- 
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A new species of Carcinosoma American Geologist. 
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On a new Placoderm. Brontichthys Clarki. American Geologist. 
1895. 
A new specimen of Cladodus Clarki. American Geologist. 
Recent contributions to our knowledge of Cladodont Sharks. 
American Geologist. 
Actinophorus Clarki, Newberry. American Geologist 
Glacial Notes from the Planet Mars. American Geologist. 
The Cladodonts of the Upper Devonian of Ohio. American Ge- 
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Micros. Soc. 
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Amer, Micros. Society 


40 The American Geologist. January, 1902, 


. Ohio State Academy of Science. Papers read at C.ncinrnati, 
1895. 
‘ Whence came the Devonian Fishes of Ohio? 
A New Titanichthys. Read at Columbus, 1896 
Some Recent Fossils from Cuyahoga Falls. 
An Anatomical Abnormity in the Human Hand. 
A peculiar Katydid. 
List of Butterflies found in Summit County. 
A mode of Preserving Specimens for Class Use. 
Notes on the Potato Root Fungus. 
Teeth of Mazodus. Proc. Amer. Micros. Socicty. 
On the Structure of some Paleozoic specimens from Ohio. 0c. 
Amer. Micros, Society. 
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Proc. Amer, Assoc. Adv. Sct. Buffalo Meeting. 
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XVIII. 
1897. 
Microscopical Light in Geological Darkness. President’s Ad- 
dress. Proc. Amer. Micros. Society. 
A new Dinicthys—Dincthys kepleri. American Geologist. 
1808. 
Paleolith and Neolith. American Geologist. 
Glacial Theories—cosmical and Terrestrial. American Geologist. 
Microscopical Light in Geological Darkness. (Extract from Pres- 
ident’s address before Micros. Society.) American Geologist. 
1¢oo. 
Earthquake at San Jacinto, California. American Geologist. Vol. 
25. 
A White-Hot Liquid Earth and Geological Time. American Ge- 
ologist. Vol. XXV. May. 
Traquair on Silurian Fish. American Geologist. Vol. 25. 
Paper on Geology of Sierra Madre in Southern California, read 
before the Cordilleran Section, Geol. Soc. Amer., Dec., 1900. 
1QOI.* 
Petroleum in California. Amertcan Geologist. 
Many other papers were read before Horticultural and Ento- 
mological Societies. 


CHRONOLOGY 


1835 Born at Ross, Herfordshire, England, June rst. 

1847 Began teaching at Abingdon, Berkshire, England. 

1854 Matriculated, the University of London. 

1862 Received the degree B. A. from the University of Londen. 

1854 Received the degree B. Sc. from the University of London, 

1865 Married to Jane Trotter of Coleford, Gloucestershire, England. 

1866 Appointed tutor in Classics and Mathematics at Stokescroft 
College, Bristol, Englana. 


ae oF 7 


Claypole’s Chronology. 47 


1872 Resigned position in Bristol; came to America. 

1873. Appointed Professor of Natural History at Antioch Cotiege, 
Yellow Springs, Ohio. 

1881 Left Antioch. Appointed on staff of Second Geological Sur- 
vey of Pennsylvania. 

1883 Appointed Professor of Natural Science in Buchtel College, 
Akron, Ohio. 

1888 Received the degree D. Sc. from the University of London. 
Became one of the founders and editors of the “American Geolo- 
gist.” 

18¢8 Appointed Professor of Geology and Biology at Throop Poly- 
technic Institute, Pasadena, California. i 


EDITORIAL COMMENT. 


LAKE SUPERIOR IRON ORE DEPOSITS. 


Ten years ago the iron ore mined in the Lake Superior 
region was more than one-half the total product of the United 
States. Last year (1900) from this region alone came nearly 
three-fourths (19,121,393 long tons) of the total—an amount 
which exceeds the total annual product of any foreign coun- 
try. This ore is of higher grade than the average foreign 
ore. The Lake Superior region thus stands out preéminently 
as the most important iron ore district in the world. Because 
of its importance from an economic standpoint, as well as be- 
cause of the inviting opportunities it offers for geological in- 
vestigation, this region has been a favorite field of work for the 
geological surveys of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, 
and for the United States Geological Survey. The last organi- 
zation has undertaken a detailed study of the different districts, 
first under the direction of Irving, and, after his death, under 
the direction of Van Hise. The latter is especially well quali- 
fied to write concerning these iron ore deposits, for to him is 
due in large measure the credit for the solution of the compli- 
cated problems which surround the genesis of these ore bodies 
and the geology of the districts in which they lie. It is a pleas- 
ure to know that there has just appeared from his pen a valua- 
ble summary description and comparison of the different iron 
ore districts of the Lake Superior region.* 


*The iron,ore deposits of the Lake Superior region, by C. R. Van Hise 
21st Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol, Survey, part iii, pp. 305-434, pls. xlviii-lix, 1901 


48 The American Geologist. January ee 


This paper has three chapters, the first of which contains 
a general discussion of principles. Here the stratigraphy of 
the region is outlined, and the iron-bearing formations in par- 
ticular are described. There are three rock series which con- 
tain iron horizons of importance—the Archean, the Lower Hu- 
ronian and the Upper Huronian—in each of which practically 
the same conditions favorable for the production of large ore 
bodies have existed. The general process of ore formation for 
the whole Lake Superior region is the same as that already 
described in the monographs on the Penokee-Gogebic and the 
Marquette districts. In brief this consists of (1) the leaching 
of the iron from older, mainly igneous, rocks and its deposition 
in a largely non-clastic sedimentary formation; (2) the rocks 
of this iron-bearing formation were originally, or have become, 
cherty carbonates; (3) circulating meteoric waters have dis- 
solved and carried downward this iron carbonate, and the iron 
has been précipitated as an oxide; (4) along with this precipi- 
tation and the consequent enrichment of favorable parts of the 
iron-bearing formation, replacement has also taken place, the 
siliceous part of the rocks having been removed; (5) the ore 
bodies thus formed occur in pitching troughs, the bottom and 
sides of the troughs being composed of rather impervious rock. 
The ore bodies are thus formed in and from the iron-bearing 
formation by descending waters. In this paper it is stated 
that the original rock of the iron-bearing formation, instead 
of always being a cherty carbonate, may have had the iron in 
part in another form, such as a sulphide (pyrite) or a silicate. 

The changes outlined in the last paragraph are the normal 
changes taking place in the iron-bearing formation near the 
surface. These changes result in the production of ore bod- 
ies and the peculiar rocks which accompany them, such as jas- 
pilytes, ferruginous cherts, etc. In some places, however, this 
formation has been subjected to deep-seated changes, some- 
times accompanied by contact metamorphism, and here amphi- 
bole-quartz-magnetite rocks, and in extreme cases pyroxene- 
olivine-quartz-magnetic rocks, have been produced. In such 
places no ore bodies of economic importance are known. 

The second chapter is devoted to a description of the ore 
bodies and the formations in which they occur in the different 
districts. There are six .of these districts—the Penokee-Go- 


a 


Editorial Comment. 49 


gebic, the Marquette, the Crystal Falls, the Menominee, the 
Vermilion and the Mesabi. Monographs on the first three dis- 
tricts have already been published by the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, and a special folio concerning the Menominee 
district has been issued. ‘The details of these districts are the 
same as given in the above-mentioned publications and need not 
be repeated here. There are, however, three new points which 


should be noted—(1) the naming of some of the formations 


which have not heretofore received distinct designations, (2) 
the importance of faults on the Penokee range, and (3) the 
recognition of a sedimentary iron-bearing horizon (not impor- 
tant economically, however,) in the Archean of the Marquette 
district. 

The geology of the Vermillion and Mesabi ranges has not 
been discussed in detail heretofore by the United States Geolo- 
gical Survey, and the present paper contains the results of 
much careful work in these districts. In the writing of the 
descriptions of the Vermilion and Mesabi districts Van Hise 
was assisted by Clements and Leith, respectively, who are en- 
gaged in the preparation of monographs on these ranges. The 
results here presented concerning the stratigraphy of that 
part of Minnesota in which these ranges lie may be summar- 
ized as follows: (1) The presence of three unconformable 
series, which in ascending order are as follows, the names in 
parentheses being those used by the Minnesota survey: the 
Archean (Lower Keewatin), the Lower Huronian (Upper 
Keewatin) and the Upper Huronian (Animikie). (2) In 
each of these series is an iron-bearing formation. (3) The 
iron-bearing formation of the Vermilion range is in the Ar- 
chean (Lower Keewatin), that of the Mesabi range is in the 
Upper Huronian (Animikie), while the iron-bearing formation 
of the Lower Huronian (Upper Keewatin) contains, as far as 
known, no ore deposits of importance. The above results dif- 
fer from the earlier opinions of the geologists of the United 
States Geological Survey in two particulars. First, in the fact 
that formerly the Upper Keewatin and the Animikie were re- 
garded as one and the same series, and, second, in the fact that 
the iron-bearing formation of the Vermilion range was thought 
to be of Lower Huronian age. The present recognition of a 
sedimentary iron-bearing formation unconformably below the 


50 The American Geologist. Janugey seer 


Lower Huronian (Upper Keewatin), i. ¢., in the Archean 
(Lower Keewatin), has necessitated a modification of the de- 
finition of the term Archean as first proposed by Van Hise, 
which modification has been noted in these columns.* The 
broad and important conclusions, summarized above, concern- 
ing the stratigraphy of northeastern Minnesota are identical 
with those reached by the Minnesota survey, and it is a subject 
for congratulation to the geologists of that survey that the 
later and more detailed work of the United States Geological 
Survey confirms their conclusions. But of much more impor- 
tance is the fact that, because of the agreement in the conclu- 
sions of geologists who have worked in the district at different 
times and who have approached it from different points of 
view, we can now feel assured that the correct solutions of the 
broader problems in the stratigraphy of the district have been 
reached and will be generally adopted. There are, however, 
certain points in regard to details of stratigraphy, the origin 
of certain rocks and the genesis of the ore bodies, concerning 
which the conclusions reached in the present paper differ from 
the views of some of the Minnesota geologists, especially from 
those of the state geologist. 

The Vermillion district is one of very complicated and close 
folding, and a regional cleavage is commonly present. In fact 
the geology of this district is so complicated that heretofore 
only the broadest outlines of the stratigraphy have been pre- 
sented. The ore bodies occur in, but at or near the bottom 
of, the Soudan formation, which lies upon the Ely greenstone, 
the two constituting the essential part of the Archean. The ore 
bodies lie in troughs in the greenstone, and these bodies, as 
well as the various phases of the Soudan formation, are be- 
lieved to have been derived from a siliceous iron carbonate in 
the same manner as in the iron districts on the south side of 
lake Superior. ; 

The Mesabi range—the latest to be discovered and the most 
important of all—is treated in some detail. The three forma- 
tions which constitute the Upper Huronian in this district are 
a lower quartzyte (Pokegama) formation, a middle or iron- 
bearing (here named Biwabik) formation and an upper or 
slate (here named Virginia) formation. The rocks of the 


*AMEKICAN GROLOGIST, Vol, xxviii. p. 385-388, Dec., 1901. 


Editorial Comment. 


wm 
— 


range dip in a gentle monocline to the south and have been 
gently folded in a direction transverse to the range, The ore bod- 
ies are mainly located in the synclines of these transverse folds, 
and consequently the long axes of most of these bodies lie 
transverse to the range. The original rock of the iron-bearing 
formation, i. e., the rock from which the ore bodies are de- 
rived, is regarded as having the iron in part as a carbonate and 


_in part as a silicate. This silicate, which occurs in green 


granules and is termed glauconite in the Minnesota reports, is 
here stated to contain no alkalies and thus is not glauconite, but 
a ferrous silicate. The primary basis for the map of the Mesabi 
range (maps of the more important parts of all the districts, 
except the Crystal Falls, accompany the paper) is a_ large 
amount of detailed work done by J. U. Sebenius under the 
direction of W. J. Olcott, superintendent of the Lake Superior 
Consolidated iron mines. 

The last chapter of this paper is a comparison 2) 'm- 
mary, and in it the author takes occasion to speak of the quan- 
tity of iron ore available and gives rules for prospecting for 
iron ore in general and in each of the districts in particular. 

The paper is a valuable summary—a full and not a brief 
summary—of the geology of the most important iron ore dis- 
trict in the world. Its chief theme is the genesis and relations 
of the ore bodies themselves, and as such it will prove of espec 
ial value to those engaged in the exploitation of iron ore in the 
Lake Superior region. Papers of this character, especially 
those monographs on which this paper is based and which are 
accompanied by detailed geological maps, have done more 
than anything else to demonstrate to mining men the impor- 
tance of strictly geological work in relation to mining enter- 
prises. And it is not inappropriate to call attention to the 
facts that the work on which such papers is based is conceived 
and carried forward in the broadest spirit of scientific and 
theoretical (using this term in no disparaging sense) investi- 
gation, that the important economic results came as a direct 
consequence of this spirit, and that results of equal impor- 
tance would in all probability not have been reached had the 
work been conceived and carried forward in a strictly economic 
spirit. U.S... 


2 The American Geologist. January 1902. 


uw 


REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 
LITERATURE. 


The High Plains and their Utilization. Witarp D. Jounson. (Ex- 
tract from the Iwenty-first Annual Report U. S. Geol. Survey, Part 

4, Hydrography ). 

This excellent paper is a thorough-going treatment of the geology, 
climate and economic aspects of the high plains. In the interpretation 
of physiographic forms and the elaboration of the history of the plains, 
the author has also contributed a valuable discussion of certain princi- 
ples of erosion and deposition under conditions of aridity. 

The term “high plains” is used to designate a well defined sub-divi- 
sion of the great plains. The region so styled is a topographic unit 
consisting of an irregular but distinct north-and-south belt in western 
Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas, and eastern Colorado and 
New Mexico. It is literally and by pre-eminence “the plains,” as 
contrasted with the more dissected and more rapidly degrading re- 
gions on its west and east sides. As a climatic unit the region is 
distingushed as sub-humid, being intermediate between the humid 
prairies on the east, where farming without irrigation is practicable, 
and the arid plateau on the west with its characteristic conditions of at- 
mosphere and vegetation. 

The great plateau, sloping from an altitude of five or six thousand 
feet at the foot of the Rocky mountains, nearly to sea level at the Mis- 
sissippi river, is, in the main, a rock structure, and as such is to be 
accounted for by crustal movement; but a thin veneer (maximum 500 
feet), of unconsolidated Tertiary deposits lies upon its western por- 
tion. It is in the deposition and erosion of this superficial mantle that 
the climatic history of Tertiary and Quaternary time in this region is 
recorded. Mr. Johnson does not hesitate to pronounce the plains Ter- 
tiary a fluviatile deposit. ‘That this is so—that the deep silt, sand and 
gravel accumulation is of fluviatile origin—unmistakably appears upon 
detailed examination of its composition and structure.” It is common- 
ly spoken of as the “Tertiary Gravels,” but the great mass of its sub- 
stance is silt. Gravel and sand are prominent, but they do not consti- 
tute broad beds occupying definite horizons. They are, on the contrary, 
arranged in streaks which intersect like the lines of a net, but the 
meshes of this net are drawn out long in an east-west direction. These 
deposits are equally abundant and equally coarse at all depths. “The 
importance of the existence of gravel—even the fact of its existence—at 
all levels. has not been generally recognized.” These gravels are derived 
from the harder crystalline rocks of the eastern slope of the Rocky 
mountains. The pebbles are worn and decrease in size with distance 
from the place of their origin. There is no admixture whatever of 
freshly contributed fragments, such as may be found in beach gravels. 
Mr. Johnson finds absolutely no evidence on which to base the two- 
fold division of the plains Tertiary made by Prof, Hay, into a lower 
“Tertiary Grit” and an upper ‘Plains Marl.” 


EE 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 53 


In explanation of the manner in which these hundreds of thousands 
of square miles were covered with alluvial deposit whose surface was 
an almost perfect plain at the time of its making, the author discusses 
the work of streams in an arid climate, particularly those flowing from 
mountains to plains. Such streams aggrade their channels, Their load 
is progressively dropped, not because of decreased slope, but because of 
decreased volume due mainly to percolation. Such streams yield their 
water to the ground instead of being supplied from the ground water? 
Unlike streams ot humid regions which flow persistently along a cer- 
tain course, these streams habitually change their courses to adopt new 
ones at lower levels. If all the water of all the streams which built 
the great plains had issued from -.one canyon in the mountains, the 
plains would have the form of a very flat alluvial fan, With the waters 
issuing from the mountains at small intervals for hundreds of miles, 
the many incipient fans have coalesced into one great aggradation plain. 
While this great plain was in process of building, the streams which 
brought the sediment, were ramified over the surface in a multitude of 
interlacing channels, in a pattern whose record is now left in the net- 
work of gravel courses belonging to any one horizon. 

The history of the plains has been somewhat as follows. The plateau 
of stratified rock which forms the body of the great plains was first 
eroded into “considerable relief” by the streams which crossed it from 
the mountains. A change of climate to greater aridity then gave to the 
streams their desert habit as noted above and their deposits built the 
great plains to a higher level than that of the original surface. At pres- 
ent a greater degree of humidity again enables the streams to cross the 
plains and to degrade their channels. It is believed that this present 
degradation stage dates “from the opening of that period of cli- 
matic oscillations in the Pleistoeene” which has been correlated with the 
lakes of the great basin. There have been minor oscillations, but in the 
main, the building of the plains is regarded as having been completed 
in the Tertiary. 

Mr. Johnson does not find it necessary to invoke crustal move- 
ments, either to bring about alternations of aggrading and erosion, 
as has been suggested by Dr. Gilbert, or to provide for the varying 
coarseness of the material of the plains, as was done by professor Ha- 
worth, On the contrary, he points to the closely parallel shores of lake 
Bonneville as evidence of remarkable stability during at least a part of 
the time for which crustal oscillations have been presumed to affect the 
great plains. In general the very broad graded slope and uniform con- 
stitution of the plains are taken to indicate “long-enduring stability 
of climate” and freedom from earth movements. Nor does he agree 
with professor Haworth in considering a large rainfall necessary to 
bring from the mountains so large a mass of waste. The building 
was presumably done by streams which did not, in the main, reach the 
sea. The climate is*supposed to have been more arid than at the pres- 
ent time. The torrential habit of rains and streams in arid regions is 
assumed to be sufficient explanation for the presence of the coarsest 
gravels in the plains. 


54 The American Geologist. Janey ae 


The present topography of the high plains is strikingly flat, but 
there are saucer-like depressions which are accounted for by localized 
percolation of rain water, at once compacting and dissolving the loose 
Tertiary deposit. Some linear depressions with gentle slopes, well! 
sodded and without a central ditch are also believed to be due more 
to settling and creep than to surface erosion. The large irregular basins 
are of an entirely different type and belong to the areas where the 
Tertiary is underlaid by the Red Beds which abound in salt and gypsum. 
Peds ot the former especially have been dissolved out and have allowed 
the formations above to settle, producing basins, sometimes many miles 
in exrent. Large areas in southwestern Kansas having a tumultuous 
topography, not reconcilable with erosion by water or by wind, are 
explained in this way. 

The chief interest topographically centers about the very existence of 
the high plains. The run-off of this sub-humid strip has been unable 
to make a beginning toward dissecting the surface, while the more 
humid area on the east and the more arid strip to the west are being 
rapidly dissected and degraded. The explanation given relates this 
phenomenon to vegetation. The sub-humid region is the country of 
short grass and thick sod, the most effective protector against the be- 
ginnings of erosion. The slightly less rainfall on the west favors bunch 
grass, which offers little resistance to rill marking and gullying. The 
more lumid climate on the east can produce nothing better than the 
short sod and its more rank vegetation is inferior as a protector against 
dissection, while its greater run-off favors erosion. It is pointed out, 
however, that it is only against the beginnings of erosion that this pro- 
tection is adequate and that the eastern limit of the high plains is sharp- 
ly marked by a definite escarpment, east of which, minute dissection 
and rapid degradation are in progress. Attention is called to the pre- 
carious hold on existence, which these plains have. A heavy rain fol- 
lowing a long drought will find the sod less resistant and may make a 
beginning of gullying which will rapidly destroy the plain surface for 
a considerable area. The relation of this process to “bad lands” is sug- 
gested. 

Many of ike gravel strips are cemented by carbonate of lime, form- 
ing “mortar beds.” The behavior of this salt in comparison with 
others is examined with care. It is shown that its retention in solu- 
tion is difficult in the presence of other salts. It is inferred that the 
deposition of the lime carbonate occurred at the level of ground water, 
and, though the exact reason is obscure, it is suggested that at this 
level the descending rain water in which it was held, came into con- 
tact with the ground water charged with other salts and was thereby 
rendered unable to retain its own. Mortar beds at various levels would 
then indicate fluctuations in the level of ground water, which are to be 
correlated with fluctuations of climate. That they are “cemented on 
levels” and not beds of original structure, is evident from the way 
in which they often follow a level across the various materials and 
irregular structure of the deposits. 


—_—— 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 5 
5 


The characteristics of the climate are given in seven deficiencies; 
so named because it is one purpose of the paper to show that “the 
high plains, except in insignificant degree, are non-irrigable” and that 
therefore “for general agriculture they are irreclaimable.” The rain- 
fall, even on the southern part, the “staked plains,” is fully equal to 
that which produces the phenomenal wheat crops in the valley of the 
Red River of the North, but despite this the climate is essentially 
arid, as explained in the following summary of deficiencies. (1) The 
summer rains are, as a rule, violent, brief and local. (2) The rain- 
fall of different years differs greatly, an average of three years out of 
five showing great deficiencies. (3) The normal summer tempera- 
ture is notably greater. (4) The relative humidity is notably less. 
(5) There are more hours of sunshine. (6) There is more wind, 
which, during the summer is prevailingly from the south, hence warm 
and dry, whereas, during the same season in the Northwest the pre- 
vailing winds are northerly. (7) As a result of the foregoing, eva- 
poration is greater. 

The history of the effort to farm the plains without irrigation in 
this so-called ‘‘rain-belt” is graphically described. It began after a 
series of wet years, 1883-85, culminated in 1893 and ended in disaster. 
The chimera that the climate was changing or could be made to change 
by a general cultivation of the soil, induced many to hold on in des- 
peration, who might otherwise have abandoned the hopeless under- 
taking sooner. 

The dream of general irrigation, indulged in by some, is shown 
to have no basis of sober calculation. The author takes stock care- 
fully of the run-off and of the possibilities of storage and makes the 
estimate, that of the 800 million acres in the arid region, 350 millions 
are cultivable and of these, there aré 60 millions which are irrigable, 
that is, seven per cent. of the total arid region or seventeen per cent. 
of the cultivable portion. Of these €0 million acres, four million have 
actually been irrigated. The irrigable area of the high plains them- 
selves is very small and that actually irrigated is quite insignificant. 

Estimates of what may be expected from artesian wells are un- 
promising. The catchment area in the mountains is small, and the 
Dakota sandstone, the chief water-bearing stratum, is not continuous 
under the plains. Where it does produce, in some valleys, the yield is 
small and there is no promise for irrigation, while “for irrigation of 
the uplands, there is no artesian resource whatever.” The Meade ar- 
tesian basin is described at length. In this and a few other basins 
where artesian conditions appear, the supply of water is neither from 
the mountains nor in the Dakota sandston. “On the contrary, it is 
found that there is no universally extended artesian stratum, and no 
rise in wells whatever, except where, under a rare combination of pe- 
culiar and favoring conditions, it is locally developed from the or- 
dinary ground water.” The peculiar conditions of this local develop- 
ment are (1) A topographic basin whose bottom is below the general 
level of the ground water; (2) A relatively impervious stratum of clay, 


56 The American Geologist. January 1902. 


which is basined similarly to the surface, thus depressing the surface of 
the ground water; (3) An outlet, draining the basin; otherwise it would 
fill and form a lake, for all these clay strata are only relatively im- 
pervious, that is, they can only retard the water’s rise to its surround- 
ing level. These conditions are fulfilled in the Meade basin, which 
was studied in detail, and to some extent in a few others. Few of the 
many basins have their bottoms below the level of ground water which 
is, in general, probably little short of one hundred feet below the sur- 
face. “The fact that under normal conditions, the water plane in 
desert lowland regions of seaward inclination nowhere intersects the 
surface, but on the contrary, is almost universally lowlying is not to 
be attributed to the relatively light precipitation. The explanaton is 
to be looked for in the deep burial of the bed rock under open-tex- 
tured material, which affords opportunity for relatively large drain- 
age.” 

The impression is not to be left that the high plains can not be 
reclaimed. It is the author’s declared purpose to show “that on the 
other hand, water from under ground is obtainable in sufficient amount 
for reclamation of the entire area to other uses; that such reclamation 
has in fact already begun, and is in progress of gradual but sure de- 
velopment; and that it will be universally profitable.’ Among the as- 
sured advantages toward this reclamation are (1) everything necessary 
for phenomenal success in the raising of cattle, (2) reasonable certain- 
ty of drought-resisting crops, such as sorghum which may be used 
as forage, (3) a supply of water from wells, sufficient for domestic 
purposes and stock and sometimes for gardens; likewise the wind 
with which to pump it. These points of advantage are not specifi- 
cally mentioned in the paper, which is to be completed in a supple- 
mental publication. N. M. F. 


A preliminary report on the roads and road-building material of Geor- 
gia. By S. W. McCatttr, assistant geologist. (Geol. Survey of 
Ga., Bull. No. 8, 264 pages, 1901.) 

A fair idea of the scope of this report may be had from the chapter 
headings, which are as follows: (1) History of road construction, 
(2) The value of good roads, (3) Road construction, (4) Maintenance 
and repair of roads, (5) Road material, (6) Tools and machines used 
in highway construction, (7) The topography of Georgia in its rela- 
tion to the highways, (8) The road-building material of Georgia, 
(9) The roads of Georgia, with a brief description of the equipment, 
methods of road working and materials, by counties. The last chapter 
occupies more than half the book. Some facts of geological interest 
are given in the fifth, seventh and eighth chapters. In the latter the 
state is divided (from northwest to southeast) into a Paleozoic, a 
Crystalline and a Tertiary area, and the rocks of importance for road- 
building in each area are described. The diabases seem to be regard- 
ed as the rocks of most value for road materials, and dikes of these are 
not uncommon in the Crystalline area. These dikes are most probably 
of Jura-Triassic age, but, according to the map showing their distri- 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 57 


bution, none are known in the Paleozoic area. The report was evi- 
dently prepared as an aid and stimulus to the betterment of the roads 
of the state, and it is hoped that its object may be achieved. vu. s, G. 


Lessons in Physical Geography, Cuartes R. Dryer, pp. 430, Ameri- 
can Book Company, New York, Cincinnati, Chicago, 1901. 

The last five years have seen a greater change in the character of 
the instruction in physical geography than have any equal number of 
previous years. The reform has been largely initiated and guided by 
geologists. The somewhat vague and ill-defined field hitherto em- 
braced by this subject has been defined. Extraneous topics have been 
eliminated and much new physiographic material has been added. 

The first text-books representing the new departure to appear 
was Tarr’s “Elementary Physical Geography” (1896). This was al- 
most immediately follawed by a “First Book of Physical Geography,” 
by the same geologist. Both these books easily took the lead over any ~ 
predecessor in the field. : 

Davis and Snyder’s “Physical Geography” (1898) has been a most 
active agent in the further development of the science. 

Still more recently (1899) the Report of the Committee on College 
Entrance Requirements put in concise form what had been in the 
minds of educators on this subject. The scope of the science was con- 
sidered: Its position as a college entrance requirement was defined: 
A laboratory course was suggested and the equipment of laboratory 
and lecture rooms named. The newest and most valuable feature of 
this report was the outline of laboratory exercises which it contained. 


_ That field and laboratory work must accompany successful instruction 


in physical geography has been recognized within a few years. In re- 
sponse to this recognition field trips have, in the leading high schools, 
been introduced into the course, but laboratory work in connection 
with this subject still remains comparatively untried. Suitable 
manuals of laboratory exercises have not accompanied the text-books, 
nor heretofore have exercises been incorporated in text-books. 

Dryer’s Lessons in Physical Geography is the first text-book to 
recognize and meet this deficiency, and it is this feature which makes 
this latest text-book in the science welcome to teachers. The Realistic 
Exercises which follow the discussion of every important topic are 
practical and helpful and in a line with the proposed requirements Of 
the college entrance board of examiners for the middle states and 
Maryland. 

The illustrations of the book are in many cases new, and in every 
case good. Illustrations have been selected from new fields and are a 
distinct addition to the physiographic material now at the disposal of 
teachers. 

The arrangement of subject matter may be commended from a 
pedagogic point of view, and its presentation embraces the most re- 
cent knowledge upon the subject treated. Rarely a too cursory state- 
ment is liable to give an erroneous impression. 


~<a eer 


58 The American Geologist. January 1902. 


The discussion of isostasy and crustal contraction (p. 48) and of 
the causes of glacial movement (p. 111) are the instances of this in 
the mind of the reviewer. On p. 99 the mean annual recession of the 
“Horseshoe Fall is placed at five feet. 2.18 ft. is the figure taken from 
those of the annual reports of the commissioners by Dr. Grabau (1901). 

An excellent bibliography is appended. The volume meets with a 
high degree of success in the modern requirements of instruction in 
the subject with which it deals. F. B. 


Geology of Rand Hill and Vicinity Clinton County, H. P. CusHine. 

(19th Annual Report of the State Geologist, New York State Mus- 
eum.) 

This report comprises an account of the geography of the district 
embraced by the Mooers Atlas sheet, a summary of its geologic his- 
tory, a detailed account of the crystalline formations, a discussion of 
the structural features of the Pleistocene deposits and topographic 
features and of the economic geology of the district. 

The oldest formation of the area is the Dannemora Gneiss; a 
Pre-Cambrian crystalline, granitoid complex the origin of which is 
not positively determined. Into this body have intruded gabbroitic 
and syenitic massifs—the gabbroitic massif comprises both noryte 
and the ‘‘anorthosyte gabbro”. The latter type is characterized by 
the predominance among the index minerals of labradorite (Ab, An,) 
In spite of the place which the term anorthosyte has won in petro- 
graphic literature it seems questionable whether the term should be 
allowed, by its retention, to perpetuate an early inaccuracy in the de- 
termination of the feldspar species. 

The analysis and recalculation of the anorthosyte-gabbro shows 
a considerable percentage (7.5) of orthoclase. This constituent is not 
mentioned in the petrographic description. It may be that the potash 
molecule is largely combined with the albite molecule. 

Later igneous intrusions in the gneiss are represented by syenitic 
and diabasic dykes. 

The Palaeozoic formations of the district are a coarse gritty sand- 
stone of the Potsdam age, a Calciferous dolomyte and a siliceous 
Chazy limestone. 

The region is considerably faulted, the most marked faults 
being the Cambrian sandstone and the Chazy limestone side by side 
There is no fault affecting the relationships of the Pre-Cambrian 
gneiss and the Palaeozoic sediments. The formations are excessively 
jointed, There are two sets of master-joints striking north and south 
approximately and northeast and southwest. 

The glacial deposits, both morainic and till, are widespread, but 
very irregular and evidently of considerable physiographic interest. 

There is little of economic importance in the formations of this 
district save a large amount.of good building stone. As is the case 
throughout the Adirondack region, the origin and correlation of the 
gneisses furnish at once the most important and most difficult prob- 
lem, F. B. 


Personal and Scientific News. 59 


MONTHLY AUTHOR'S CATALOGUE 
OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE 
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY. 


Adams. Frank D. 

Experimental work on the flow of rocks (Abstract). (Bull. G. 
S. A., vol. 12, pp. 455-461, November, 1901.) 

Ami, H. M. 

Description of tracks from the fine-grained siliceous mud-stones 
of the Knoydart formation (Eo-Devonian) of Antigonish county, 
Nova Scotia. (Trans. Nova Scotian Institute of Science, vol. 10, 
PP. 330-332, 1901.) 

Ami, H. M. 

Preliminary lists of the organic remains occurring in the various 
geological formations comprised in the map of the Ottawa district, 
including portions of the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, along 
the Ottawa river. (Ann. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., vol. 12, pp. 551-77, 
December, Icor.) 

Ami, H. M. 

A biographical sketch of George Mercer Dawson [ Portrait]. (Ot- 
tawa Naturalist, vol. 15, pp. 43-52, May tIgo!.) 
Ami, H. M. 

Bibliography of Dr. George M. Dawson. (Ottawa Naturalist, 
vol. 15, pp. 201-213, Dec., 1901.) 

Anderson, F. M. 

Neocene basins of the Klamath mountains [Abstract]. (Bull. G. 
S. A., vol. 12, p. 500, Nov., 1901. 

Beecher, C. E. 

Studies in Evolution, mainly reprints of occasional papers selected 
from publications of the laboratory of invertebrate paleontology, 
Peabody Museum, Yale University, pp. 638. Yale Bicentennial Pub- 
lications. New York, London, 1go1. 

Beede, J. W. 

Fauna of the Permian of the central United States. (Trans. 
Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 17, pp. 185-189, 1g01.) 

Blake, W. P. 

Evidences of shallow seas in paleozoic time in southern Arizona. 
[Abstract]. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 493, Nov., 1901.) 
Blasdale, Walter C. 

Contributions to the mineralogy of California. (Bull. Dept. Geol., 
Univ. Cal., vol. 2, pp. 327-348, Nov., 1901.) 

Burritt, Chas. H. 

The coal measures of the Philippines. (Report to the U. S. Mil- 
itary Governor in the Philippines. War Department, Division of 
Insular Affairs, pp. 256, maps. Aug. 1901, Washington.) 
Campbell, M. R. 


Hypothesis to account for the extra-glacial abandoned valleys of 


ele 


60 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


the Ohio basin [Abstract]. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 462, Nov., 
1901.) 
Chamberlin, T. C. 

Du. patronage par le congrés d’un effort systématique pour de- 
terminer les faits fondamentaux et les principes qui doivent servir 
de bases a Ja classification géologique (Cong. Géol. Int., VIII. Prem- 
ier Fascicule, pp. 284-296, Paris, 1901). 

Charles, H. W. 

Dakota sandstone in Washington county, (Trans. Kans. Acad. Sei, 
vol. 17, p. 104. 1901.) 

Claypole, E. W. 

Sierra Madre near Pasadena [Abstract]. Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12 
p. 494, Nov., 1901.) 

Cushing, H. P. 

Origin and age of an Adirondack augite syenite. (Bull. G. S. A., 
vol. 12, p. 462, 1901.) 

Darton, N.H. 

Comparison of stratigraphy of the Black hills with that of the 
Front range of the Rocky mountains. [Abstract]. (Bull. G. S. A., 
vol. 12, p. 478, Nov., 1901.) 

Davis, W. M. 

Peneplains of central France and Brittany. [Abstract]. (Bull. 
Geol. Soc. An., vol. 12, pp. 480-83, Nov., 1901). 

Davis, W. M. 

Note on river terraces in New England. [Abstract]. (Bull. G. 
S. A., vol. 12, pp. 483-485, Nov., 1901.) 

Davis, W. M. 

An excursion to the Colorado canyon. [Abstract]. (Bull. G. S. 
A., vol. 12, p. 483, Nov., Igor.) 

Diller, J. S. 

pg a cae of the Klamath mountains. [Abstract]. (Bull. 
G. S. A., vol. 12, p: 461, Nov., 1901.) 

Dodge, R. % 

Landslides of Echo and of Vermilion cliffs. [Abstract.] (Bull. 
G. S. A., vol. 12 p. 485, Nov., 1901.) 

Dowling, D. B. 


Report on the east shore of lake Winnipeg and adjacent parts of 
Manitoba and Keewatin, from notes and surveys by J. B. Tyrrell. 
(Geol. Sur. Can., vol. 11, G. pp. 98, maps, 1900.) 

Dowling, D. B. 


Report on the geology of the west shore and islands of lake 
Winnipeg. (Geol. Sur. Can., vol. 11, F. pp. 100, maps, 1¢C0.) 


Dwight, W. B. 

Fort Cassin beds in the Calciferous limestone of Dutchess county, 
New York. [Abstract]. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 490, Nov., 1901.) 
Eakle, A. S. (and W. T. Schaller) 


Mineralogical Notes. (Bull. Dept. Geol., Univ. Cal., vol. 2, pp- 
315-326, pl. 9, Nov., 1901. 


ane? Oe 


Personal and Scientific News. 61 


Fairbanks, H.W. 


Geology of the Three Sisters, Oregon. [Abstract]. (Bull. G. S 
A., vol. 12, p. 408, Nov., 1901.) 


Fairchild, H. L. 


Proceedings of the 13th annual meeting, Albany, N. Y., and of 
the 2nd Annual meeting of the Cordilleran section, San Francisco 
1901. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, pp. 445-538, pls. 42-45, Nov., 1901.) 


Farrington, O. C. 
The pre-terrestrial history of meteorites. (Jour. Geol., vol. 9, pp. 
623-632, Oct.-Nov., 1¢o1.) 


Foerste, A. F. 

Silurian and Devonian limestones of Tennessee and Kentucky. 
(Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, pp. 305-444, pls. 35-41, Oct. 31, 1901.) 
Frazer, Persifor 

Memoir of Franklin Platt. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 454. Nov., 
1901.) 

Gould, C. N. 

On the southern extension of the Marion and Wellington forma- 
tions. (Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 17, pp. 179-181, 1901.) 

Gould, C.N. 

The Dakota Cretaceous of Kansas and Nebraska. (Trans. Kans. 
Acad. Sci., vol. 17, pp. 122-178, plates. 1901.) 

Gould, C.N. 

The Oklahoma salt plains. (Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 17, pp. 
Tol-155, 1901.) *”” 

Grimsley, G. P. 

Kansas mines and minerals. (Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 17, 
pp. 200-207, 1901.) 

Hague, Arnold 

Note sur les phénoménes volcaniques Tertiaires de la chaine d’Ab- 
saroka (Wyoming). Cong. Int., VIII, pp. 364-365, Paris, 
1901.) 

Hitchcock, C.H. 

Tuff cone at Diamond Head. Hawaiian islands. [Abstract]. (Bull 
G. S. A., vol.. 12, p. 462, Nov., 1901.) 

Hilgard, E. W. 

Sketch of the pedological geology of California, [Abstract]. (Bull 
G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 499, Nov., 1901.) f 
Hershey, O. H. 

Age of certain granites in the Klamath mountains. [Abstract]. 
(Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 501, Nov., 1901.) 

Hobbs, W. H. 

The Newark system of Pomeraug valley. Connecticut, with a re- 
port on fossil wood by F. H. Knowlton. (U. S. Geol. Sur., 21 An- 
nual report, part 3, pp. 9-162 pls. I-X VII, 1901.) 

Hoffman, G. C. 

New mineral occurrences in Canada. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 12, pp 

447-449, Dec., 1901.) 


62 The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


Keyes, C. R. 

Diverse origins and diverse times of formation of the lead and 
zine deposits of the Mississippi valley. (Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 
24, pp. 715-717, Dec. 15, 1901.) 

Knight, Wilbur C. 

Description of the Bates hole, Wyoming. [Abstract]. (Bull. G. 
S. A., vol. 12, p. 495, Nov., 1901.) 

Knowlton, F. H. 


Report on fossil wood from the Newark formation of South 
Britain, Connecticut. (U. S. Geol. Sur., 21 Ann. Rep., Part 3, p. 


161 1901.) 
Kunz, Geo. F. 

The production of precious stones in 1900. (Ex. from Mineral 
Resources of the United States, 1900. U. S. Geol. Sur., 1901.) 
Kunz, Geo. F. 

Des progres de la production des pierres precieuses aux Eats- 
Unis. (Cong. Géol. Int., VIII., pp. 393-305, Paris, 1901.) 

Lane, A.C. 

The economic geology of Michigan in its relation to the business 
world. (Mich. Miner., vol. 4, Saginaw, Dec., 1901.) 

Lawson, A.C. 

Drainage features of California. [Abstract]. (Bull. G. S. A. 
vol. 12, p. 495, Nov., 1901.) 
Lawson, A.C. 

Feldspar-Corundum, rock from Plumas county, California. [Ab- 
stract]. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 501, Nov., Igor.) 


Matthew, G. F. 


Les plus anciennes faunes palaeozoiques. (Cong. Géol. Int., VIL, 


premier fascicule, pp. 313-316, Paris, 1901.) 


Mead, J. R. 

The Flint hills of Kansas. (Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 17, p. 
207, I9OI.) . 

Merriam, J. C. . 

Geological section through John Day basin. [Abstract]. (Bull. 
G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 496, Nov. rgor.) 

Osborn, H. F. 

Correlation des horizons de mammifers tertiaires en Europe et 
en Amérique. (Cong. Géol. Int., VIII, premier fascicule, pp. 357-363. 
Paris, 1901.) 

Osborn, H. F. 

Des methodes precises mises actuellement en oeuvre dans l'étude 
des vertébrés fossiles des Etats-unis d’Amérique. (Cong. Géol. Int., 
VIII, premier fascicule, pp. 353-364, Paris, 1901.) 

Rogers, A. F. 

A list of minerals arranged according to the thirty-two crystal 
classes. (Schl. Mines Quart., vol. 23, pp. 79-80, Nov., 1901.) 
Reid, Harry-Fielding 

De la progression des glaciers, leur stratification et leurs veines 
bleues. (Cong. Géol. Int. VIII., pp. 749-755. Paris, 1901.) 


Personal and Scientific News. 63 


Sellards, E. H. 

Fossil plants in the Permian of Kansas. (Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., 
vol, 17, p. 208, 1901.) 

Scott, W. B. 

La Géologie de la Patagonie. (Cong. Géol. Int., VIII, second 
fascicule, p. 747, Paris, 1601.) ° 
Schaller, W. T. (A S. Eakle and) 

Mineralogical Notes. (Bull. Dept. Geol., Univ. Cal.) vol. 2, pp. 
315-326. pl. 9, Nov., 1gor.) 

Spurr, J. E 

Variations of texture in certain Tertiary igneous rocks of the 
great basin. Part I. (Jour. Geol., vol. 9, pp. 586-606, Oct.-Nov, 
1901.) 

Smith, Alva J. 

The Americus limestone. (Trans. Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 17, pp. 
189-104, 1901.) 

Stokes, H_N. 

Pyrite and marcasite. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 12, pp. 414-420, Dec., 
1gOI.) 

Todd, Jas. E. 

River action phenomena. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, pp. 486-490, 
Nov., Igor.) 

Turner, H.W. 


Geology of the great basin in California and Nevada. [Abstract]. 
(Bull: G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 498, Nov., 1c¢o1.) 


Van Hise,C. R. 

The Geology of ore deposits, I]. (Science New Ser., vol. 14, p. 
785, Nov. 22, 1¢ot.) 
Van Ingen, Gilbert 

The Siluric fauna near Batesville, Arkansas, Part II. (Schl. 
Mines Quart., vol. 23, p. 34-74. November, 1901.) 
Walcott, C. D. 


Sur les formations pre-Cambriennes fossiliféres. (Cong. Geéol. 
Int., VIII, premier fascicule. pp. 299-312, Paris, 1901.) 


Ward,H.A. 


Veramin meteorite. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 12, p. 453, Dec. 1901.) 


Ward, L. F. 

Geology of the Little Colorado Valley. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 12, 
pp. 401-413, Dec., 1901.) 

Washington, Henry S. 

The Foyaite-Ijolite series of magnet cove; a chemical study in 
differentiation. Part I. (Jour. Geol., vol. 9, pp. 607-622, Oct.-Nov., 
1gOT.) 

White, Mark 

Geology of the Glass mountains of western Oklahoma. (Trans. 

Kans. Acad. Sci., vol. 17, p. 199. 1901.) 


64 . The American Geologist. January, 1902. 


White, David ’ 

Age of the coals at Tipton, Blair county, Pennsylvania. (Bull. G 
S. A., vol. 12, pp. 473-477, Nov., .1¢o1.) 
Williams, E. H., Jr. 

The alleged Parker channel. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 12, p. 463, 1901.) 
Williams, H. S. 

The discrimination of time-values in Geology. (Jour. Geol. vol. 
9, pp. 570-585, Oct.-Nov., 1901.) 
Willis, Bailey 

Oil of the northern Rocky mountains. (Eng. & Min. Jour., vol. 
72, p. 782, Dec. 14, 1901.) 
Willis, Bailey 

Individuals of stratiagraphic classification. (Jour. Geol., vol. 9, 
pp. 557-570, Oct.-Nov., I1GoI.) 
Williston, S. W. 

A new turtle from the Kansas Cretaceous. (Trans. Kans. Acad. 
Sci., vol. 17, pp. 195-199, I9OI.) 
Wortman, J. L. 


Studies of Eocene mammalia in the Marsh collection, Peabody 
Museum, pls. 8 and 9. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 12, pp. 421-432, Dec., 
1gOl.) 


PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


GEOLOGICAL SOcIETY OF AMERICA, WINTER MEETING. 
This meeting was held at Rochester, at the University, under 
the presidency of C. D. Walcott, continuing three days. it 
was largely attended, and was marked by the presentation of 
thirty-six papers. The retiring address of the president was 
a sketch of the geology of America as it appears at the pres- 
ent time. This was not so much an examination of the science 
per se as an exposition of the ways and means of its prosecu- 
tion and progress, its status as an element in education and 
economics. The speaker also enumerated some of the outstand- 
ing problems that remain for the geologists of the twentieth 
century, springing mainly from the researches that have been 
entered upon in the nineteenth. 

The officers elected for 1902 are: President, N. H. Win- 
chell, First Vice-President, S. F. Emmons; second Vice-Pres- 
ident, J. C. Branner; Secretary, H. L. Fairchild; Treasurer, 
I. C. White; Editor, J. Stanley-Brown ; Librarian, H. P. Cush- 
ing; Councillors, C. W. Haves and J. P. Iddings. 

CLARENCE KING, first director of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, well known as an expert mining geologist, died 
at Phoenix, Arizona, December 24. 


ae ch Dhow CAo oe 


THR AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 
VOL. Aoedaks PLATE IL’, 


THE 


AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


Vor. XXIX. FEBRUARY 1902. No. 2. 


SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ZADOCK THOMPSON. 


GeorGe H, PERKINS, State Geologist, Burlington, Vt. 
PORTRAIT. 


There have been many reputable men of science in Ver- 
mont, men who have done much to discover and make known 
‘the natural resources of the state, but more than they all 
Zadock Thompson was the student and the interpreter of nat- 
ural history in Vermont. For more than half a century, his 
principal work, “Thompson’s Vermont,” has been the one 
constantly used reference book in many a rural home. From 
its closely printed pages hundreds of boys and girls have 
gained not merely instruction, but encouragement and in- 
spiration to open their eyes and see the wonders that lie 
about them in the hills and in the streams, the plants and an-_ 
imals of their native town. 

The life of Zadock Thompson is well deserving of thought- 
ful and reverent study as an example of a life, simple, earnest, 
full of true scientific spirit, patient, modest, and yet at all times 
ready to give forth to others the result of its labors. And these 
labors were usually carried on and the results reached in spite 
of great obstacles. 

Prof. Thompson was born in Bridgewater, Vt., on the 23d. 
of May, 1796. He was the second son of Barnabas Thomp- 
son, one of the first settlers of Windsor county. He very 
early manifested a love of study, but throughout his school 
and college days he found it difficult to pay his way. 

He earned a part of that which was necessary for his ed- 
ucation by writing an almanac which he sold himself, going 
on foot from town to town. In 1823 he graduated from the 


66 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


University of Vermont. During the following year he pub- 
lished a gazeteer of Vermont, a work of 300 pages. This was 
followed by several arithmetics, geographies, histories, travel- 
ers’ guides, almanacs, etc., as shown in the bibliography follow- 
ing this article. During these years he also taught school in 
several places. Before he entered colloge Mr. Thompson had 
formed a plan for collecting the material for a complete history, 
natural, civil, statistical, of his native state, and for more than 
twenty years he devoted much of both time and money to the 
execution of this plan. 

In 1842 he had gathered and arranged his materials and 
was ready to publish, but now his funds were wholly exhausted 
and his manuscript seemed likely to remain hidden in his desk. 
At this juncture an old friend and neighbor, Mr. Chauncey 
Goodrich, who was a publisher and printer came to the rescue 
and offered to print the work without the usual royalty and 
to wait for payment of all bills till returns should come from 
the sales of the book. The offer was accepted and an edition 
of five thousand copies was soon issued. The legislature of 
the state ordered one hundred copies for the use of the state 
library and after the publication of the work voted five hun- 
dred dollars to the author in token of the popular appreciation 
of what he had done. 

The work is in three parts each of which if less closely 
printed would make a fair sized volume The first part is 
devoted to the natural history of Vermont and is quite fully 
illustrated, the second is a civil history, and the third is an en- 
iarged and revised edition of the gazeteer. The unselfish 
spirit of the author is well shown in the price fixed 
upon this work. His publisher urged Mr. Thompson to sell 
the parts separately, charging two dollars each, or six dollars 
for the whole work which contained six hundred and forty- 
six pages and as books then sold, would not have been con- 
sidered dear at that price. Mr. Thompson, however, had all 
his life known the pain of wanting books that he could not 
afford to buy and he insisted that the price should be low 
so that those of limited means might not be deprived of the 
benefits of the work. The three parts were therefore sold 
together for two dollars and a half, though his own profits 
were thereby greatly lessened. 


Life of Zadock Thompson.—Perkins. 67 


Although busily occupied in study of natural and civil his- 
tory and in preparing his various publications, and in teaching, 
Mr. Thompson found time to study theology and in 1836 he 
was ordained deacon in the Episcopal church. On account 
of uncertain health he never settled over a parish, though he 
often preached in or near Burlington where he spent most of 
his life. 

In 1845 a geological survey was authorized by the legis- 


lature and Prof. C. B, Adams of Middlebury appointed geo- 


logist in charge. He appointed Prof. Thompson and Rev. 
S. R. Hall assistants. During the ensuing season, Prof. 
Thompson with his fellow assistant, explored a hundred and 
ten townships and were most busily occupied in the prosecu- 
tion of their work till the legislature of 1847-8 summarily put 
an end to the appropriation. The field notes, specimens and 
instruments of the survey were stored here and there for some 
months, but the next legislature ordered the scattered prop- 
erty to be collected and cared for and Prof. Thompson was 
appointed to execute the order, which he did and made a report 
of his work in 1849. No other report of the work of this 
survey was ever made as the succeeding legislature failed to 
yote necessary appropriations; and as the most important 
notes, those of Prof. Adams, were taken in a peculiar short- 
hand which only he could read, these became useless at his 
his death in 1853. In 1853 an appendix to the “History of 
Vermont” was published. This, a book of 64 pages, is main- 
ly given to natural history. 

In 1851 he was elected professor of natural history in the 
University of Vermont and about the same time some of his 
many friends, learning of his strong desire to visit the Expo- 
sition in London kindly provided the means and he spent three 
months in England and on the continent. 

After his return he published as “A Thankoffering” an ac- 
count of his tour in a volume of 143 pages. 

In 1853 an act was passed by the legislature which pro- 
vided for completing the geological survey of the state, and 
under this act Prof. Thompson, was appointed state natural- 
ist. 

Into the execution of this work he entered with enthusi- 
asm, as it afforded him the opportunity he had long eagerly 


68 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


desired to complete his study of the natural history of the 
state. He had been preparing since childhood for just this 
task and his whole soul went into it. He at once planned an 
extensive work and wrote out the title pages and contents of 
the three volumes of which it was to consist. Each volume 
was to be entitled “Natural History of Vermont,” the first 
was to be given to geology, the second to botany, the third to 
zoology. 

The work never went far beyond the plan indicated, for 
the shadow of death, which for years had hovered over his 
life, at last fell and in 1856 he died at his home in Burlington. 

It was a sore disappointment to Prof. Thompson that 
he could not finish his work and at first, when it was appar- 
ent that he must leave it unfinished he was sore distressed. 
The pathetic struggle was not long, however, and soon he 
patiently and quietly submitted to the will of the God in 
whom he had believed and trusted and his end was peace. 

As has been indicated, Prof. Thompson was hindered and 
often baffled, at least for the time, by lack of funds. There 
were other hindrances and discouragements. In an address 
before the Boston Society of Natural History, given in 1851, 
he says that what he had accomplished in the business of 
natural history he had done without any associates engaged 
in similar pursuits, without collections and almost without 
books. 

Personally, Prof. Thompson was tall, angular, of a very 
quiet and sober, though gentle manner, amiable, sweet tem- 
pered, loved by all who knew him. His opinions were re- 
spected as those of a man of sound common sense and good 
judgment. He was unaffected and childlike and though 
naturally conservative, his scientific training made him hos- 
pitable to all new truth. His sober manner may have been large- 
ly due to the consciousness that was always present during the 
latter part of his life that the disease of the heart which afflicted 
him for years might at any time end his life. Because of this 
he did not trust himself far from home alone. His most 
frequent companion during these years was a Mr. Hills, him- 
self a lover ‘of nature and a most gentle, sweet spirited man, 
who engraved nearly all of the illustrations in Prof. Thomp- 
son’s publications. 


) 


Life of Zadock Thompson.—Perkins. 69 


In an obituary published soon after Prof. Thompson’s 
death by his colleague and successor, Mr. Augustus Young, 
we find the following: “At the time of his death, Prof. 
Thompson was a professor of natural history in the University 
of Vermont, an institution to which he had been greatly at- 
tached since his graduation and the eminent self-taught natur- 


-alist who had devoted his life in a quiet and unpretentious way 


to independent scientific enquiry and the labors of authorship 
and the ministry, died in his humble home near the university 
with his intellectual armor on, ere his eye had grown dim or 
his natural force abated.” 

In the preparation of his works on natural history Prof. 
Thompson was brought into friendly relations with many of 
the scientists of his time. One of these, Dr. T. M. Brewer, of 
Boston, thus speaks of his friend: 

“His loss both as a citizen and a public man is one of no 
ordinary character. We have known him long and well, and 
in speaking of such a loss we know not which most to sympa- 
thize with, the family from whom has been taken the upright, 
devoted kindhearted head, or that larger family of science who 
have lost an honored and most valuable member. Modest and 
unassuming, diligent and indefatigable in his scientific pursuits, 
attentive to all, whether about him or at a distance, whether 
friends or strangers, no man will be more missed, not merely 
in his immediate circle of family and friends, but in that larger 
sphere of the lovers of natural science, than Zadock Thomp- 
son.” 

It would be quite impossible to understand the later life of 
Prof. Thompson unless the place filled by his wife be fully 
recognized, for he never could have accomplished all that 
he did without her efficient aid. Their attachment began 
when as children they wandered through the fields in search 
of anything strange or attractive and in after years, when 
as husband and wife they occupied a little white cottage that 
until a few years back stood near the college campus, they 
continued in more mature and useful fashion the same investi- 
gations. Here many years after her husband’s death, Mrs. 
Thompson lived in cheery old age, never losing her interest in 
the study of nature. Of more practical value was her shrewd 


-and skillful management of the household finance by which 


70 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


money was saved that carried the family safely through many 
a crisis. Their home was a museum as well. It was in the 
midst of a very fine garden always filled with thrifty flow- 
ering plants and vegetables, when the season allowed, and in- 
side on shelves, tables, anywhere, were pens, cages, boxes con- 
taining the creatures that were being petted and studied. To 
the kindly, sympathetic and efficient co-operation of his wife, 
Prof. Thompson owed no small part of his success. Two 
daughters were born to them. 


“In the preparation of his work’on the natural history of 
Vermont the author collected many specimens, some of them 


rare and valuable. Most of these are now in the state cabinet 
at Montpelier.” 


Publications of Zadock Thompson. 


The following list is believed to contain all the complete works 
published by Prof. Thompson; though besides these, he assisted in the 
preparation of sundry almanacs and other works. 

Gentleman’s Almanac, 1820. - 

A Gazeteer of the State of Vermont, 1824. 12mo0. pp. 319 

The Youth’s Assistant in Practical Arithmetic, 1825. 8vo. pp. 160. 

The Farmer’s Almanac 1827. ; 

The Green Mountain Repository, 1828. A monthly periodic! edited 
by Prof Thompson. Published only one year. 

The Iris, 1828. Semimonthly. Also edited by Prof. Thorspson. 

The youth’s Assistant in Theoretical and Practical Arithmetick, 
1828. pp. €8. 

Thompson’s New Arithmetic (Improved Ed.) 1828, pp. 2:6. 

Thompson’s New Arithmetic, Improved Edition, 1820, pp. 168. 

History of the State of Vermont, from its earliest Settlement to the 
close of the year 1832. 1833, pp. 252. 

Geography and History of Lower Canada, 1835, pp. 116. 

History of Vermont, Natural, Civil, and Statistical. In Three Parts 
1842, pp. 224, 224, 200. 

Guide to Lake George, Lake Champlain, Canada, etc. 1845, pp. 48. 

Geography and Geology of Vermont. For the use ot Schools and 
Families, 1848, pp. 218. 

Report of Proceedings and Instructions in Relation to International 
Exchanges, 1848, pp. 80. 

First Book of Geography for Vermont Children, 1849, pp. 74. 

Natural History of Vermont. Address before the Boston Society of 
Natural History, 1850, pp. 32. 

Journal of a Trip to London, Paris and the Great Exhibition of 
1851, 1852, pp. 143. 

Appendix to the History of Vermont, 1853, pp. 64. 


Life of Zadock Thompson.—Perkins, 71 


Northern Guide, 1857, pp. 45. 

History of the State of Vermont. For the use of Schools and Fam- 
ilies. 1858, pp. 252. This appears to be only a reprint of the work 
published in 1833, and the preceding a reprint of the Guide published in 


1845. 


THE DURATION OF THE TORONTO INTER- 
GLACIAL PERIOD. 


By A, P. CoLemMan, Toronto, Canada, 


In an article on the Toronto and Scarboro Drift Series in 


_the American Geologist for November Mr. Warren Upham in- 


terprets the facts which have been demonstrated regarding the 
Toronto interglacial formation as proving that there was only 
a brief recession of the ice followed by a short readvance, the 
whole requiring “only a few hundred years, or perhaps a 
thousand years more or less.” He believes that the whole 
history of the deposits was subsequent to the beginning of the 
formation of the Niagara gorge, and probably “in companion- 
ship with the great glacial lakes, Agassiz, Warren, Algonquin 
and Iroquois.” 

His conclusions are so entirely opposed to my own and to 
those of other geologists who have studied the formation in the 
field that a brief statement of the other side of the question 
seems called for; and all the more, since Mr. Upham’s long ex- 
perience and excellent work as a pleistocene geologist enable 
him to speak with authority on many points in the glacial 
and post glacial history of America. Interglacial periods he 
seems to have studied much less carefully. 

As Mr. Upham apparently accepts without hesitation my 
detailed statement of the facts,* quoting several pages of it, 
one may take it for granted that the difference between us is 
purely one of interpretation. All that is necessary then is to 
refer to points bearing on the length of time required to form 
the deposits, and on the climate and other factors, showing 
the extent to which the ice receded during interglacial time. 

In the sections near Toronto we find the following series 
of events recorded: 

An older deposit of boulder clay resting on the preglacial 
surface of Hudson River shale has been eroded by streams, 


*Jour. Geol., vol. ix, No. 4. 1901, pp. 285-310. 


72 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


which in one place have cut sixteen feet down into the shale 
below. 

At least 41 feet of stratified clay and sand were then depos- 
ited, containing leaves and trunks of trees as well as unios 
suggesting a warmer climate than that of Toronto at present, 
a climate like that of the middle United States. 

Conformably on this a series of peaty clays containing trees 
and other plants of a cool temperate climate was laid down to 
the thickness of 94 feet. 

Upon the clay rest 55 or more feet of stratified sand with 
trees of about the same kind. 

The greatest thickness of the series observed at one place 
is 186 feet, at Scarboro Hights; and the stratified sand and 
clay have the character of deposits formed in a large body of 
water as a delta. They could not have been so evenly and 
finely stratified if formed by river action on a land surface. 

The lake; which stood at least 152 feet above the present 
level of Ontario at the close of the delta formation, was then 
drained off to a level much below that of Ontario, and rivers 
began to cut valleys in the delta deposits. These valleys are 
not V-shaped gorges, but wide and with gentle slopes, the 
smallest of them, at the Dutch church, Scarboro Hights, be- 
ing more than 150 feet deep, 1,200 feet wide at the level of 
lake Ontario and about a mile wide on top. It is much more 
mature in appearance than the valleys cut by the present Don 
and Humber since the time of the Iroquois beach, for the latter 
have often steep cliff-like walls, even in loose materials, such 
as clay and sand. 

Then followed a great accumulation of glacial materials, 
four sheets of boulder clay with intervening stratified clay and 
sand, the whole 203 feet in thickness, resting on the eroded 
surface of the interglacial beds and largely filling the valleys 
just referred to. During this time the water of the lake rose 
to 360 feet above Ontario as shown by stratified clay, sand and 
gravel. 

Let us now try to sum up the minimum time necessary for 
the process which took place between the two advances of the 
ace. 

The first stream erosion, through the till and sixteen feet 
into the shale, may have demanded more than 100 years. In 


——-- 


Toronto Interglacial Period.—Coleman., 73 


the last ten years, since careful observations have been made 
of the Don and Humber, these two streams have not appre- 
ciably deepened their channels when running through the 
shale. One hundred years is therefore a small allowance 
for 16 feet of cutting. 

At the very bottom of the Don warm climate beds there 
is a thick mat of deciduous leaves with branches and trunks of 
trees, etc.; and layers with wood and leaves occur at several 
levels above this, separated by beds of stratified clay and sand. 
Unfortunately most of the wood is greatly compressed so 
that the annual rings cannot be counted, but some of the logs 
found were more than 18 inches across. My best specimen, 
a section of wood a little less than 4 inches across, shows 120 
annual rings. From their curvature it is evident that the 
complete trunk was at least 7 inches in radius, so that the 
tree must have been about 200 years old. Probably some of 
the larger logs belonged to trees of much greater age. We 
must assume therefore that the ice had retreated more than 
200 years before the warm climate beds began to form; for the 
logs at their base must have grown somewhere to the north, 
so as to have been undermined and brought down by the 
stream. How many successive generations of forest trees are 
represented in the higher beds containing wood and deciduous 
leaves is uncertain, but it is surely safe to assume that two 
generations matured, requiring at least 400 years. 

The peaty clays often show fine lamination with thin silty 
layers at intervals of 1% or 2 inches, the latter often charged 
with spruce needles, beetles’ wings, etc. These peaty layers 
are not always distinct, and there are beds of the clay 2 or 3 feet 
thick which do not show them, the peaty and silty matter being 
more or less mixed with the clay in these parts. It is natural 
to assume that the silty layers are of an annual character, and 
if we reckon that two inches of clay were deposited annually 
over the delta, which was 18% inches wide, the 94 feet re- 
quired 564 years to form. 

How long the 55 feet of overlying stratified sand needed 
for their formation is hard to guess, but half a foot a year 
seems as rapid a rate of deposit as one can assume for so 
wide a delta. This would give 110 years for the in- 
terglacial sands. The shortest time admissible for the growth 


74 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


of the forests and the laying down of the interglacial beds is 
then about 1,300 years. 

The question of interglacial water levels also has an impor- 
tant bearing on the duration of interglacial time. The evi- 
dence is conclusive that the water stood as low as in lake On- 
tario at present, if not lower, at the begirning of the waim 
climate beds; for streams were flowing and cutting channels 
in the Hudson River shale at the time. ‘Lhe water then rose 
to Go feet above Ontario during the warm climate period, and 
finally to 152 feet during the deposit of the Scarboro beds. 
Afterwards the water sank much below the level of Ontario so 
ihat wide valleys could be excavated. 

Of what nature was the barrier toward the northwest? 
he only possible causes of the rise of water are the forma- 
tion of an ice dam or a rise of the land at the outlet by reason 
of epeirogenic movements. The first supposition can scarce- 
ly “hold water” under all the circumstances. It is incredible 
that the glacier should steadily advance during the period of 
warm climate when the rich Ohio forest was flourishing along 
the Don so as to push a wall of 200 or more feet of ice 
across the Thousand Island region into the state of New York, 
damming up the waters of a powerful river. If it did so ad- 
vance during the warm period why did it withdraw again 
during the cooler climate that probably existed after the for- 
mation of the Scarboro beds? 

The supposition of a slow epeirogenic uplift toward the 
northeast, such as appears to be under way in the same re- 
gion at present, is a much more probable one than that of a 
glacial advance of 50 miles or more into a climate like that 
of Pennsylvania. Afterward there must have been an equally 
slow sinking of the land to the northeast to a level considera- 
bly below the present. These changes of level were in all 
hkelihood very deliberate processes, if Dr. Gilbert's estimate 
of the present rate of differential elevation of the Great Lakes 
region be taken as the standard. Certainly thousands or tens 
of thousands of years would be necessary to accomplish them, 
at least double the time during which the present uplift has 
been going on, 

The cutting of river valleys through 190 feet of intergla- 
cial beds after the draining off of the water should also be 


Toronto Interglacial Period.—Coleman. 75 


allowed for. The gentle slopes and rounded contours of these 
valleys prove that the work must have been lengthy. Even 
if the rivers were powerful glacial streams cutting down their 
channels rapidly, as Mr. Upham appears to assume,” this would 
not account for the wideness of the valleys and the gentleness 
of their slopes, which must have been due largely to rain and 
rill erosion. As the valleys are more mature than those now 
being cut through similar material below the Iroquois level, 
we must conclude that their production probably required a 
longer time than has elapsed since the Iroquois lake was 
drained. How long ago this took place is of course very un- , 
certain. If the present shore of lake Ontario is compared 
with the old Iroquois shore they seem of about equal maturity 
and probably required about equal times for their produc- 
tion, which suggests one-half of the time since Niagara began 
to cut its gorge for the erosion of the present river valleys be- 
low Iroquois level. As the age of Niagara is variously esti- 
mated at from 5,000 to 35,000 years, one-half of the time since 
it commenced its work may be any where between 2,500 and 
17,500 years. 

It is then altogether likely that the cutting of the intergla- 
cial river valleys occupied more than 2,500 years, perhaps 
very much more. , 

The length of time required to deposit the 203 feet of 
boulder clay and interstratified material overlying the inter- 
glacial deposits it is not necessary for us to reckon. The time 
limits for the different interglacial events as described above 
cannot, of course, be very sharply defined, but even with low 
estimates the total time demanded amounts to several thous- 
and years; more than Mr. Upham allows for the whole retreat 
of the ice from the northern states. If instead of the smallest 
admissible estimate in each case more liberal but yet thorough- 
ly probable ones are assumed, and a reasonable time allowed 
for a rich and varied forest growth to advance and occupy the 
desert plain left after the first retreat of the ice, the length of 
interglacial time must have stretched to 10,000 or more years, 
possibly to 50,000. 

Let us now turn to a consideration of the relationship of 
the ice sheet to the interglacial deposits. Mr. Upham evidently 

*Am. GEOL., Nov., 1901, p. 315. 


76 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


imagines the edge of the ice as close at hand on the northeast, 
so that its drainage could bring glacial sand and clay to the 
delta, while streams from,the westward contributed driftwood, 
leaves and mosses. 

There are thick beds of stratified glacial clays, lying be- 
tween two sheets of boulder clay belonging to the upper glacial 
deposits, which resemble somewhat the peaty interglacial 
clays; but when carefully studied the resemblance turns out 
to be only superficial. The glacial stratified clay contains no 
mica flakes, nor fossils, is charged with so much lime as to 
burn to a gray brick, for which it is largely used, and general- 
ly has a few angular pebbles, polished and scratched by ice ac- 
tion. The upper foot or two of these glacial clays has been 
weathered, however, and has had so much of its lime leached 
out by surface waters as to burn to a red brick. 

The interglacial stratified clays wherever found, at Séar- 
boro’ é6r the Don valley, show quite different characters. They 
always contain more or less of the peaty material usually asso- 
ciated with silty layers, charged with many greatly weathered 
mica flakes. Sheets of impure siderite are found as a rule every 
three or four feet. The clay contains much less lime than the 
glacial clays, and burns to a deep red brick. It is evident 
that the interglacial clay, if derived from the boulder clay or 
its associated calcareous stratified clay, has lost part of its lime 
and been enriched in iron. The small glaciated pebbles of 
glacial clays are entirely wanting, and in fact the upper lay- 
ers of peaty clay seem to be absolutely free from pebbles of 
any kind, though the lower ones, not far above the warm cli- 
mate sand and gravel, contain a very few well rounded stones 
and pebbles. 

The absence of evidences of glacial action and the fact 
that the interglacial clays are richer in iron and poorer in 
lime shows that they could not have been derived directly from 
the ice front a few miles away, but must have undergone a 
long weathering before being transported to the delta; and the 
wide spread thin sheets of siderite and of silty stuff contain- 
ing peaty fragments afford clear proof that the deposits were 
not made on a land surface, but in a wide and deep lake. These 
delta materials are known to cover more than 100 square miles 
to an average depth of from 50 to 75 feet, and they are prob- 


Toronto Interglacial Period.—Coleman. 77 


ably much more extensive than the field work shows, since 
they are largely buried under the drift left by the later ice 
advance. The river that formed the delta was therefore not 
glacial and was of great magnitude. The only stream that 
seems to fit the circumstances is an interglacial successor of 
the Laurentian river whose old channel from Georgian bay to 
Scarboro’ is shown by various deep wells. We have then a 
larger river draining an upper lake into the Ontario basin and 


flowing through a temperate country with no traces of the 


presence of glacial ice in its valley. On the contrary its depos- 
its suggest a derivation from an old and thoroughly weathered 
land surface. 

If the ice sheet still existed it must have been far to the 
northeast, so that no glacial waters were tributary to the 
Laurentian river. 

The changes in water level shown to have taken place in 
interglacial time, and the presence of a large river evidently 
not draining an ice sheet are sufficient to prove that the To- 
ronto formation could not have been laid down during the ex- 
istence of the great glacial lakes such as Warren and Iroquois. 
The well marked Iroquois beach, with shore cliffs 70 feet high, 
is cut in later glacial deposits overlying the interglacial beds, 
and must have been formed thousands of years afterwards. 
The whole period of time during which the interglacial river 
channels were being cut at a stage of very low water, and also 
the time required for the later ice sheet to advance and de- 
posit 200 feet of glacial material must have intervened be- 
tween the formation of the interglacial beds and the work of 
lake Iroquois. No one who has studied the field relations 
could hesitate in reaching this conclusion. 

It is necessary to consider next Mr. Upham’s opinion that a 
continental ice sheet hundreds of miles across and a mile thick 
could exist close to forests showing a climate like that of Penn- 
sylvania for a period of hundreds or even 1,000 years.* He 
supports this view by citing the proximity of cultivation 
to the tiny Swiss glaciers which reach thousands of feet below 
snow line; by the orchards of Norway, where cherries ripen, 
though heat and often barley will not, so short and chill is the 


summer, even though the relatively small Jostedal ice field is 


*Ibid., 313 and 314. 


78 The American Geolovist. Webraary, 


thousands of feet above the narrow sheltered valleys; by the 
presence of glaciers in the fjords of Chile 600 miles south of 
palm groves; by the perpetual snows of the Himalayas 15,000 
or 20,000 feet above the hot Indian plains and two or three 
hundred miles north of them; and by the forest growth of the 
Malaspina glacier in Alaska. 

It will be noticed that all these instances are of glaciers of 
the Alpine type except the last. No one disputes that the nar- 
row tongues of Alpine glaciers can descend even thousands of 
feet below snow line into a temperate climate, so long as there 
is a sufficient snowfield on the mountains to keep up the ice 
flow ; but how long would they last if spread out on a compara- 
tively level surface near Cleveland, Ohio? The case of the 
Malaspina glacier is more to the point, since it is a piedmont 
glacier spreading out somewhat widely near sea level; but here, 
too, the supply of ice is furnished by the highest mountains 
in North America with a snow line only 3,000 or 4,000 feet 
above the sea. It is doubtful if the Alaskan piedmont glaciers 
would survive a century if there were no mountains behind 
them. In comparing the conditions at Malaspina with those 
of interglacial eastern America it must be remembered also 
that the luxuriance of the Alaskan forest is due to the moisture 
and not to the warmth of the climate. The forest is subarctic, 
not warm temperate. That mountain-fed glacier ice can sub- 
sist close to a tangle of cedars and spruces along the chill and 
rainy north Pacific does not prove that an ice sheet not nour- 
ished by high lands could maintain itself beside forests of oak, 
maples, elms, hickories, pawpaws and Osage oranges. 

There is no example in the world of a wide expanse of 
snowfields and glacier ice in the immediate neighborhood of 
even a cold temperate forest growth without highlands behind 
to supply the waste from thawing; and if this is true of the 
moist cool shores of Alaska, how much more improbable is it 
that glacier ice spread out on a plain thousands of feet below 
snow line and exposed to the strong dry heat of a Pennsylvan- 
ia summer should long survive. 

It must be remembered that such a climate existed for 
hundreds of years to the north of Toronto, as proved by the 
annual rings of the forest trees, and that Toronto is only 500 
miles south of Hudson bay and 700 miles southeast of the cen- 


Toronto Interglacial Period.—Coleman. 79 


ter of the Labradorean ice sheet. During those centuries of 
warm, dry climate the ice must have shrunk to the vanishing 
point. There is no more reason to suppose that glacier ice ex- 
isted then in central Labrador than there is to suppose it now; 
and there is much more probability of finding glaciers at pres- 
ent around Mt. Washington, which cannot be more than 2,000 
or 3,000 feet below snow level, than of finding glacier ice on 
the low lands a few hundred miles northeast of Toronto in 
- interglacial times, when the isotherms of Pennsylvania were 
shifted 150 miles to the northward. 

My own opinion is that in the interglacial period repre- 
sented by the Toronto formation the ice completely vanished 
from eastern America, not to return for thousands of years; 
and that it is quite possible that we are now living in an inter- 
glacial period, though not so mild a one as the last. 

In concluding this rejoinder to Mr. Upham’s article it may 
be stated that a brief study of the facts on the ground has 
convinced several geologists, both European and American, 
who were formerly skeptical regarding interglacial periods, 
that here we have undoubted proof of one, and of too great a 
magnitude to be accounted for merely by a short recession of 
the ice field. Probably so able a field geologist as Mr. Upham 
would in a day or two along the Don and Scarboro’ Hights 
convince himself as others have done. 

Interglacial time has also been discussed by Dr. T. C. 
Chamberlin, in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of 
America. Vol. 1, p. 469, 1890, and by Professor N. H. 
Winchell in the American Geologist, 1892, p. 69, and No- 
vember, 1892, p. 302. The former refers to certain § an- 
cient valleys or trenches which are presumed to have 
been excavated by streams in interglacial time. This 
would require several hundred feet of perpendicular 
rock-erosion by the various streams in interglacial time. 
The latter discusses the interglacial recession of the falls of St. 
Anthony, along a gorge, now buried under the drift, on the 
west side of the Mississippi, at Minneapolis, reaching the con- 
clusion that about 15,000 years were needed for the recession of 
the falls in interglacial time. 


80 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


NOTES OF A GEOLOGICAL RECONNOISSANCE IN 
EASTERN VALENCIA COUNTY,* NEW MEXICO. 


By D. WILSON JOHNSON. 


PLATES II AND III. 


Southeast of Albuquerque, New Mexico, and east of the 
Manzano mountains, lies a region of low plains bounded on the 
west by the wooded foothills of the Manzanos, and on the east 
by a low and barren ridge terminating at the north in the hills 
of Pedernal and at the south in the Animas hills. The abrupt 
exposure of the Jumanez mesa bounds this broad valley on the 
south, while to the north the plains continue almost unbroken 
to the San Pedro and Ortiz mountains, and the rough country 
east of these groups. The whole southern portion of this val- 
ley is comprised in what is known as the “Antonio Sandoval 
Grant,’ and is especially noted for the salt and alkali basins 
which occupy its central portion. 

The low ridge referred to as marking the eastern limit of 
the southern portion of this valley is not a well defined boun- 
dary line, but merely a gentle rise above the general level of 
the valley, east of which the plains stretch unbroken by any 
prominent landmark to the horizon. In two localities on these 
plains east of the dividing ridge are found basins more or less 
alkaline and saline: the first near the Mexican village of Pinos 
Wells, southeast of the Animas hills some twelve or fifteen 
miles; the second northeast of the village about fifteen 
miles. During the summer of 1900 these different basins 
were visited by the writer, in company with Harry N. Herrick, 
in the interest of the University Geological Survey. 

The geological conditions are extremely simple. There is 
a constant dip to the east, or possibly a little south of east, 
quite marked along the western border of the valley, but becom- 
ing less noticeable as one passes further east and away from 
the axis of the Carboniferous uplift which produced the Sandia, 
Manzano and more southern ranges, until it is almost if not 
quite imperceptible at the exposures about the most eastern of 
the saline basins. A few miles northwest of Berrendo springs 
there are several imperfect exposures of alternating lime and 
 *Bor the “Report of a Geological Reeonnoissance in Seater Socorro and 


and Valencia counties,’’ C. L. HERRICK, see vol. xxv, No. 6 of the AMERICAN 
GEOLOGIsT. 


7 


Reconnoissance in New Mexico.—Johnson. Sr 


quartzyte sandstone bands. A 10 to 15 foot band of nodular 
lime (overlaid by 6 to 8 feet of reddish quartzyte sandstone ) 
yielded exceptionally large Productus punctatus Productus 
nebrascencis, together with some specimens of Productus cara 
and Derbya sp. This we refer (mainly on stratigraphical evi- 
dence) to the upper layers of the Permo-carboniferous lime 
suries, the Manzano group.” 

In several of the lakes, especially those of the northern por- 
tion of the basin, exposures occur showing 25 to 30 feet of im- 
perfectly lithified shales, alternating dark slate color and lighter 
yellowish red. These shales are saline to taste, and contain 
crystallized gypsum. This is of course a higher horizon than 
that exposed northwest of Berrendo springs. 

Passing still further east, and so still higher in the geolog- 
ical scale, we reach the Red Beds, which are exposed in numer- 
ous places over the plains on either side of the dividing ridge 
above referred to, in the basin of the southern Dog lake, the 
Pinos Wells basin, and in the basin 15 miles northeast of Pinos 
Wells. This horizon is exposed to good advantage in the high 
escarpment of the Jumanez mesa to the south, and the fact that 
it first appears in the basin of the southern Dog lake would 
seem to indicate that the dip is south of east, in this portion 
of the valley at least. 

A section of the escarpment of Jumanez mesa shows :+ 


Feet. 
OR a ee ee, re err eae 25 
Indurated yellowish to whitish sands........... 350 
Loose red sands, gypsiferous................... 100 
Imperfectly exposed red sands (?)............ 50-100 


The red sands are very abundant in both amorphous and 
crystalline gypsum, which in some places is quite pure, al- 
though not as remarkably so as at the southern end of the 
Nacimiento range. The massive gray lime is very firm and 
well preserved, and although some few fragments of fossils 
were seen, we were unable to secure specimens sufficiently 
well preserved for accurate identification. We noted Nautilus 
sp., seven inches across, a small gasteropod, and several 
specimens of coral. 


*Geology of the White Sands, C. L. HERRICK, Geol., Surv. Univ. of N. Mex., 
vol. ii, p. 4. 


fAll sections are given in descending order. 


82 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


The small exposures about the Pinos Wells basin show 


Feet. 
Teipitte. GG /¢ 5. o40s 00 cue > np hae see 8 
Yellowish: fo: white Barlds <i set eee cee eee 12-15 
Red: Sagas». ,\s's0.sce's ge 0 sie sien canes aa 25-30 
Impure: Fine ois osc oh swab eben eee eer al eee 3-5 
Red ‘sands. ;'n oo cote se eee nee nee ee 30-40 or more 


In the red sands about the basin fifteen miles northeast of 
Pinos Wells there is a very prominent band of pure white amor- 
phous gypsum, 1 to 1% feet in thickness. 

It will appear from the foregoing that the saline basins in 
and east of the Antonio Sandoval grant occur in that portion 
of the Red Beds which we have referred to the Permian. It is 
possible that the horizon exposed in the lakes north of the 
southern Dog lake may be a little below the base of what 
may be properly called the Red Beds, but it can be but a few 
feet at most. Certainly the horizon is above the Manzano 
group in the lime series, and at or below the prominent gypsum 
horizon at the base of the chocolate series. That these saline 
and alkaline basins should prove to be of Permian age is not 
surprising, but was to be expected from what has been seen 
of the Red Beds elsewhere in the Territory.+ 

Concerning the lakes themselves little is to be said apart 
from a discussion of the chemical composition of their waters 
and deposits. In the Antonio Sandoval basin almost all of the 
lakes are surrounded by embankments or dunes of white adobe 


o_O 


— ee ———— ———_ oOo 


ort ert eee re ere, 
= 


Saline clays Bnd Gye henee 


TYPICAL SECTION THROUGH A SALT LAKE. 
(Vertical scale greatly exaggerated.) 
soil, rising from twenty-five to fifty feet above the level of the 
plains. From a distance these embankments have ,the appear- 
ance of low white sand hills, and not until we had ascended 


*Bull, Geol. Sur., Univ’ N. Mex., vol. ii, Geology of the White Sands, C. L. 
HERRICK, p. 4. Also conclusion of an article on the Literature of the Permian. 
D. W. JOHNSON, and other papers of vol. ii, passim. 

+Bull. Geol. Surv., Univ. N. Mex., vol. ii, Geological Reconnoissance in 
Western Socorro and Valencia counties, and also Geology of the White Sands, 
C. L. HERRICK. 


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Pleistocene 


COUNTRY 


THE ANTONIO SANDOVAL GRANT AND SURROUNDING 


MAP OF 


GEOLOGICAL 


Reconnoissance in New Me.xico.—Johnson, 83 


one of the low rises and looked down into the basin, with its 
level floor covered with snow-white salt stretching far away to 
the south, did we realize that we were in the vicinity of the 
lakes. The lake bottom is usually from some thirty to fifty feet 
below plain level, or from fifty to one hundred feet below the 
top of the surrounding ridge. <A section of the side of one of 


these lake basins was as follows: 
5 Feet. 


Imperfectly stratified adobe soil (dune formation) 65 

Imperfectly, lithified shales ............c.sse00s0. 30 

Gradually sloping mud flat (to the edge of the 
ee aint cna tic Rin akon ak dae hu’ 10 0% I 

The upper soil, composing the embankments or dunes 
about the lakes, is not saline to the taste, and contains but little 
over 1% of sodium chloride. About a few of these lakes, es- 
pecially toward the south, these dunes are entirely lacking in 
places. As stated above, the underlying shales are strongly 
saline to the taste, and contain crystalline gypsum. The mud 
flats are often thickly strewn with fragments and small crys- 
tals of gypsum, to such’an extent that about the shores of some 
of the lakes the ants have built numerous large hills composed 
entirely of these fragments. 

As a rule most of these lakes are dry and covered with a 
thin crust of more or less pure salt. The Laguna del Perro, 
the largest of these lakes, is only dry in part, however, salt 
water standing in portions of it most if not all of the year. 
We secured samples of the white crust, to which some of the 
wet underclay necessarily adhered. Analysis of the saniples 
showed 76.6% salt.* This salt crust is of variable thickness, 
but will average about a quarter of an inch over the portions 
of the lake, dry at the time of our visit. About six inches below 
the surface crust was an inch layer of what appeared on first 
sight to be coarsely crystalline salt. Analysis showed 6% sod- 
ium chloride, the remainder being almost pure finely crystal- 
line gypsum. Clay from a foot and a half below the sur- 
face showed 6.1% salt. 

Unfortunately two terrific storms swept over the valley 
shortly after we left the Laguna del Perro, and as we jour- 
neyed along the ridges between the smaller lakes to the east. 


. *Percentage of salt based on chlorine determinations. 


84 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


we saw the latter filling rapidly from the torrents which rushed 
down the sides of the surrounding ridges, the dry white salt 
crusts giving place to several inches of muddy water. The 
roads were soon so slippery that the ponies could scarcely keep 
their footing, and in some places were almost impassable. Be- 
ing no longer able to secure samples of the surface incrusta- 
tions, we had to content ourselves with samples of the saline 
water, and of the soil from different depths. 

To the east of the northern portion of the Laguna del Perro 
is the group of smaller lakes above referred to. From a high 
point on one of the ridges we were able to see the water in 
nine of these lakes, and could locate many more by the sur- 
rounding ridges. These smaller basins averaged from 600 to 
1,000 yards in length, by 200 to 400 yards in width. Water 
from one of these smaller lakes (formerly almost or quite dry 
with very thin white salt crust) shows but 1.65% salt, while 
clay from two feet below the surface runs 5.2%. This will 
serve to give some idea of the extent to which the salt was di- 
luted. Water from another of these smaller lakes, known to be 
entirely dry before the storm, shows but 1.4% salt. About ten 
inches below the surface of the’ former lake we encountered 
another of. the layers of finely crystalline gypsum some four 
inches in thickness, carrying 10.5% salt. 

As we journeyeyd further southward we passed beyond the 
limits of the territory affected by the storms, and reached the 
so-called lake Salinas. This is evidently the great salt lake 
of the whole basin, and furnishes the salt for the ranches 
within the radius of a hundred miles or more. The almost 
pure product is hauled in wagon loads to Albuquerque, Santa 
Fre, White Oaks, and other places equally distant. The lake 
is somewhat round in shape, and perhaps a quarter of a mile 
in diameter. The water, which attains a depth of some three 
feet of more in places, is a supersaturated solution of sodium 
chloride. The samples of the water which we obtained were 
allowed to stand but a few days before analyzing, and then in 
sealed bottles. But in that short time considerable sodium 
chloride had crystallized out, while the residual brine showed 
28.35% of the salt still in solution, or nearly 2% over a normal 
saturated solution. The water is highly charged with carbon- 
ates, and it is suggested that these may affect the solubility 


j 
| 

j 
7 


Reconnoissance in New Mexico.—Johnson., 85 


for salt in such a way as to explain the above phenomenon, 
while the concentration from a normal saturated solution is an 
element to be considered. On the surface.of the lake float 
thin particles or scales of salt, and from the top of the sur- 
rounding ridge the appearance is that of a deep basin, the 
bottom covered with snow. At the bottom of the lake is a 
thick deposit of pure crystalline salt, the cubical crystals being 
very large and well preserved. The salt is secured by driving 
well out into the lake and loading the wagon from the rich de- 
posits on the lake bottom. About the shores of the lake is a 
thick crust of the salt, but of little value compared to the purer 
product in the deeper portions. Clay from two feet below the 
surface shows 7.1% salt. The subsoils from the different lake 
basins are rather constant in character, there usually being 
from one to one and a half feet of yellowish clayey mud, (often 
containing one or more gypsum bands), underlaid by a rather 
pure clay varying from dark slate to almost white in color. 

The so-called alkali ponds further south resemble the salt 
lakes to the north in size and appearance, and are frequently 
dry and covered with a white incrustation. That these ponds 
are essentially saline is evident, for when one tastes the water 
or the white crust one is first impressed by the strong saline 
taste; and not until a few seconds later does the disagreeable 
alkaline taste become noticeable. Water from one of these 
ponds shows 26.1% salt. The surface incrustation from an- 
other yields 20.5% salt, the remainder being largely sodium 
sulphate. 

Still further south are other salt lakes similar to those at 
the north of the basin. Chico lake is rather round in shape, 
perhaps a third of a mile across, and was dry at the time of 
our visit. The whole southern end was merely a broad mud 
flat, but the northern portion was covered by a very thin salt 
crust, on which were scattered beautiful large cubes of sodium 
chloride. On removing this thin crust considerable soil ad- 
hered; analysis of the whole showed 57.5% salt. Soil from two 
feet below the surface shows 12.5%. Under the usual layer of 
a foot and a half of yellowish mud comes about six inches of 
thin layers of dark greenish soil alternating with thin layers 
of salt. Below this is dark slate-colored clay. What appeared 
to be the impressions of grass were found in both the green- 


. 


86 The American Geologist. Vebraary,: 17am 


ish and darker soil. From the most southern of these lakes, 
the southern Dog lake, we secured samples of the water carry- 
ing 2.75% salt. The surface deposit was very slight. Along 
the southern shore of this lake the Red Beds are first exposed, 
and the mud flat is strewn with large fragments of amorphous 
and crystallized gypsum. 

Turning eastward we soon began to ascend the low ridge 
south of the Animas hills, passing from the bright red soil of 
the lower red sands of the Jumanez mesa section to the lighter 
soil of the yellow and white sandstones just above. Before 
reaching Pinos Wells we had again returned to the Red Beds, 
possibly toa slightly lower horizon than that exposed in the 
southern Dog lake. Between the Animas hills and Pinos 
Wells, there rises well above the level of the plains the rugged 
peaks of Cerro del Pino. This isolated mountain is composed 
of red granite, and is covered with a fairly abundant growth 
of pines and scrub oak, while dense groves of cedar extend well 
out over the surrounding plains. 

The basins at Pinos Wells resemble the alkali ponds of the 
Antonio Sandoval Grant, being slightly alkaline, but more 
distinctly saline. They were quite dry at the time of our visit, 
while the surface deposit was very slight. Blue clay from 
two feet below the surface carries 1.8% salt, while the surface 
soil (thin scrapings from surface) shows 11.7%. The salt 
basin fifteen miles to the northeast is not much larger than 
one of the smaller lakes of the Antonio Sandoval basin, and 
is similar to the basins at Pinos Wells. A little water was 
standing in some parts of the lake at the time of our visit, 
but was evidently due to recent showers. The water was 
strongly saline to the taste, and slightly alkaline. The sur- 
face deposit about the shores was very thin. Thin scrapings 
from the surface show 9.1% salt, while mixed reddish and 
bluish clay from two feet below the surface show 3.5%. 

Fifteen or twenty miles to the northwest lies Pedernal 
mountain, a low peak on the northern part of the dividing 
ridge. The peak, and the hills of Pedernal just east, are pro- 
duced by an uplift of a quartz-bearing rock similar to that 
of the Tijeras-Coyote dyke.* Along the western base of the 
hills the metamorphism produced by this intrusion is evidenced 


*Bull. Geol. Surv., Univ. N. Mex., vol. ii, Geology of the Albuqueque Sheet, 
C. 1. Herrick and D. W Jonson, 


Reconnoissance in New Mextco.—Johnson. 87 


by a broad band of hornblendic schist, exposed for several 
hundred feet at the point we crossed it. 

In several places throughout the valley are found wells 
and springs of sulphur water,—solutions of hydrogen sul- 
phide. The only evidence of igneous disturbance being so 
far distant, it is not believed that the phenomenon can be ac- 
counted for on this basis. It is suggested that a satisfactory 
explanation is to be found in chemical reactions between the 
constituents of the soil itself, due to the decomposition of the 
organic matter found in the clays and shales of this locality. 


SACRED HEART “GEYSER SPRING.” 


By CHARLES P. BeErRKky, Minneapolis, Minn, 


Considerable attention has been attracted recently to a 
spring discovered in one of the side ravines of Hawk creek, 
Renville county, Minnesota. Excavation into a boggy slide 
about two-thirds way down a hundred-foot slope freed a large 
and steady stream of excellent .water. 

A large box was sunk into the drift and an outlet made 
for the water through a two-inch pipe pushed horizontally 
through the side of the box. This pipe is about 60 to 75 feet 
long and bends downward over the slope. It is the behavior 
of the flow from this pipe that has attracted chief attention 
and has given the name to the spring. 

The natural supply of water in the box is almost exactly 
the equivalent of the outflow possible through a two-inch pipe. 
Bending of the pipe has raised a portion of it a trifle above the 
horizontal and induced a behavior similar to a siphon. The 
flow is therefore intermittent. At the foot ‘of the pipe the 
stream increases in size and force for a total time of six min- 
utes, then the pipe flows full for one minute, followed by a 
rapid decline of flow for one minute longer. It remains qui- 
escent for about a minute and a half and then repeats the op- 
eration as before. At times a considerable noise is made in the 
box of gurgling, blowing and suction which serves the more 
to mystify curious visitors. 

It is clear, however, that the spring itself is not intermit- 
tent, that the irregularity was accidentally produced by the 


88 The American Geologist. February, 50h 


particular adjustment of the pipe and that the spring is of 
the type commonly issuing from gravelly beds favorably situ- 
ated with reference to the till constituting the body of drift at 
that place. 

Independently of this supposed intermittent character, how- 
ever, this water has considerable reputation for its mineral 
qualities and is being shipped to neighboring towns for medi- 
cinal uses. 

The following is a copy of one of the analyses that the 
owner had made for its mineral constituents: 


Constituents. Grains per gallon. 
‘ Potassium’ bicarbonate .....4. 50.1004 jo ssenwse 548 
Sodium: “bicarbonate 01. .0< 0.» a5 ve eyn se oepee 2.518 
Sodiaim chloride ...2...0%. 2.0 teeen o evueeee 134 
Galcium ‘sulphate .......5...-:5. Si. wees aeeee 26.602 
Calcitim = bicarbonate. . 2.0%. 6... Vi cine 10.639 
Magnesium bicarbonate ......... ..+.+eeeeees 25.086 
Tron bicarbonate «0. as te vss .s.000 bass meee 103 
AT erTITIA 5S cs cic phew vs sa, miei, va em Sie O15 
Seed > Se oer era cus eke ies Samana 1.269 
Total, 66.914 


Sanitary Chemical Analysis. 
arts per 100,000. 


“TE GUAl, SONGS: x utes, cui insathani<s tee ceEee Swi pee 
CHIGTING OS, ue cc aie V4 cv ean san hae es Oe 14 
Pree Ammonia is, 6s Vika eek be oe ee ee ORs OO 
Albunmiinotd” amnionia. wo. tie ew tries ose oe 0005 
Oxygen absorbed from permaganate ....... trace 
Nibrates)” 0 4s28 dete e een ee ees Bae oik traces 
} ig re oe ee ery & traces 


THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TERM SIERRAN. 


By Oscar H. Hersuey, Berkeley, Calif. 


Acting on a suggestion made by Dr. Joseph Le Conte 
in a foot-note to his paper entitled “The Ozarkian and Its 
Significance in Theoretical Geology,’** that the term Ozarkian 
was preoccupied and might properly be replaced by Sierran, 
a number of writers on Pacific Coast geology have adopted the 


*Journal of Geology vol, vii., No. 6, Sept.-Oct., 1800. 


The Term Sierran.—Hershey. &o 


latter.” There can be no objection to the use of the term 
Sierran in the Pacific Coast country if its true significance be 
understood, but I submit that it is not the equivalent of and 
cannot properly replace the term Ozarkian. As I under- 
stand Le Conte, Sierran is derived from the canons of the 
Sierra Nevada region and its definition may be given as, the 
designation of that period during which these canons were in 
process of formation. ‘To arrive at a full appreciation of its 
significance we shall have to know the time of the uplift of 
the Sierra Nevada province which inaugurated the canon 
cutting. 

Through the work of Whitney, Le Conte, Becker, Brown, 
Diller, Turner, Lindgren, Ransome and Lawson, the geo- 
morphology of the Sierra Nevada mountains has been grad- 
ually evolved and is now known with a fair degree of com- 
pleteness.t On a recent pedestrian excursion in that area, 


*The objection to the term Ozarkian that it had a prior use seems to 
the writer not well made. In the paper by Broadhead referred to by 
Le Conte (American Geologist, vol. xi., p. 260, 893) the word Ozarkian 
does not once occur. There is sufficient distinctness between Ozark 
series and Ozarkian to prevent confusion. Instances of the use in 
geological literature of names similar but not identical are rather com- 
mon. There is not much importance in a name, and if Ozarkian is not 
appropriate I shall welcome the substitution of a better name. At 
present, Ozarkian appears eminently appropriate because the Ozark re- 
gion is joined on the southeast by one in which the Lafayette deposits 
are typically developed and on the north by the area of the Kansan drift 
sheet. I do not know of another area which promises so well to fur- 
nish data for fixing the limits of the period. 


+The literature of the subject is voluminous .and the following is 
probably only a partial list of the published papers bearing on it: 

Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Navada of California, by J. D. 
WHITNEY. 

The Old River-beds of California; by JosepH Le Conte. Am. Jour. 
of Sci. Third series, vol. xix., pp. 176-190. 

Science. Vol. 1, March 23, 1883, pp. 104, 195. 

Geology of the Lassen Peak District. Eighth Annual Report of the 
U. S. Geol. Sur., pp. 395-432. 

Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am. Vol. 2, pp. 327, 328. 

The Ancient River Beds of the Forest Hill Divide. Tenth Annual 
Report of the State Mineralogist of California. 

Two Neocene Rivers of California. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Am. Vol. 4. 

Revolution in the Topography of the Pacific Coast Since the Auri- 
ferous Gravel Period. Jour. of Geol. Vol. 2, No.1. [Fourteenth An- 
nual Report of the U. S. Geol. Sur.. pp. 397-434.] 
a i Notes on the Sierra Nevada. Am. Geol. Vol. xv., April, 
1894. 
[Rocks of the Sierra Nevada. Fourteenth Annual Report of the 
U. S. Geol. Sur., pp. 435-495.] 

Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada. Am. Geol. Vol. xxiii. 


June, 1895. 


go The American Geologist. Vebruary, 190%; 


I was able to gain some familiarity with the subject by per- 
sonal observation, but I can add nothing of importance to the 
work of others. I will briefly review the later Tertiary and 
Pleistocene history of the region and endeavor to fix as closely 
as possible the time of opening of the Sierran period. 

Topographically, the Sierra Nevada region is mainly di- 
vided among degraded fault-scarps, monadnock peaks, flat- 
topped divides, rolling uplands and cafions. Toward the 
north the latter two are quite distinct, but south of the Tuo- 
lume river, the surface is more deeply and broadly eroded, 
owing to greater tilting of the country and the topography is 
that of the “gulch and ridge” type. The dominating feature 
of all is the dissected peneplain, which is, over a large part of 
the area, so perfectly preserved and the evidence upon which 
its recognition has been based is so strong as to make it com- 
pare favorably in these respects with the best established pene- 
plains of the eastern states. 

It appears that late in the Tertiary era, erosion had re- 
duced the surface to an undulating plain across which the 
streams flowed in broad shallow valleys. Some disturbance, 
probably a slight depression, or possibly a slight elevation 
about their heads, caused these valleys to be filled up to the 
depth of fifty to two hundred feet and over, with alluvial 
gravel and sand, the well known Auriferous gravels proper 
or “high-level channels’” of that region. Then followed a 
period of vulcanism which may be divided into three epochs, 
known respectively from the most characteristic product of 
each, the rhyolyte, andesyte and basalt epochs. The tufts of 
the first are interstratified with the upper portion of the 
Auriferous gravels proper, but the andesyte tuffs unconform- 
ably overlie them. 


The Age of the Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra ‘Nevada. Jour. of 
Geol. vol. iv., Nov.-Dec., 1896. 
The Topography of California. Jour. of Geol., vol. v., Sept.-Oct., 


1807. 

The Ozarkian and Its Significance in Theoretical Geology. Jour. of 
Geol. Vol. vii., Sept.-Oct., 18900. 

The Drainage Features of Caliiornia. Jour. of Geo/. Vol. ix., Jan.- 
Feb., rgor. 

The Physiography of California. Bull. Am. Bur. of Geog., Sept. 
and Dec., 1901. 

Geologic Atlas of the United States. Text accompanying the Placer- 
ville, Sacramento, Jackson, Lassen Peak, . Marysville, Smarts- 
ville, Nevada City, Pyramid Peak, Dowineville, Truckee, Sonora, 
Bidwell Bar, Big Trees, Colfax and Mother Lode District sheets. , 


——— — * 


The Term Sierran.—Hershey. gi 


The peneplain was virtually completed by the close of 
deposition of the Aurifeous gravels proper and the rhyolyte 
tuff, and was then buried under the andesyte tuff which, after 
filling the shallow valleys, spread out over the uplands and 
pretty thoroughly mantled the surface of the northern half 
of the province. Small monadnocks were widely scattered 
over the peneplain, but those of sufficient size to be promi- 
nent objects in the scenery were not numerous. Probably 
a mountain 150 feet in hight was an important elevation. 
The Bear mountains in Calaveras county are regarded as 
monadnocks and a line of less elevation ike character 
extends northward next to the great va ost as far 
as Oroville. Another important group ng the sum- 
mit north of the Central Pacific railwa = Qn the readily 


pretty thoroughly base-leveled. 7 
The obliteration of the old valley systet se the 
rapid accumulation of the andesyte tuff left the streams free 
to choose new courses. At some time folloy 
opment of the tuff plain, a rather sudden 
province toward the great valley inaugurat 
consequent drainage of the northern Sierras 
elevation the streams were rejuvenated, began 
leys and practically all of the rugged scenery, of this won- 
derful mountain region is their work. 

We now come to an important problem, 
which does not seem to have been made in @ satisfactory 
manner, and which has a direct bearing on th question at 
issue. We have the product of the post-and@syte erosion 
in the form of two strongly contrasted types, the rolling up- 
lands and the cafions. Do they indicate that the uplift was 
affected in two principal stages, of which the first was the 
longer but the amount less, while the second was the pro- 
found orographic disturbance to which the deep cafions are 
due? 

It is possible that the contrast between the rolling up- 
lands and the cafions may be in part explained by a great 
difference in the resistant properties of the material exca- 
vated. During the development of the peneplain, oxidation 


solution of 


g2 The American Geologist. February, 1002. 


and partial decomposition of the bed rock extended to con- 
siderable depth, perhaps as much as several hundred feet 
on the average, softening the rocks and making them less 
resistant to subsequent weatherings and stream erosion. 
Subsequently to the uplift, after the andesitic covering had 
been removed, this comparatively easily eroded material 
would be carried away rapidly, while, when the streams 
cut down into the undecomposed rock, their work may have 
been much less effective and the results more inclined to- 
ward the cafion form. 

However, the contrast between the rolling uplands and 
the cafions @§§t00 great to be entirely accounted for under 
the abovesd mm sis. The rolling pea as along the 


met eat river, are undulating plains miles in extent 
ore suggesting a mountain region than does the 
zark plateau in Missouri. They lie at a level 
usually sev hundred feet below that of the flat-topped 
divides, which latter are remnants of the volcanic plain. 
The narrow strips of higher ground isolate them into broad 
shallow basins, which are sometimes referred to as the upper 
troughs of streams. In them the peneplain has been 
uncovered, d the present topography, except for the 
cafions, is probably similar to that of the late Tertiary time 
before the peneplain was buried. However, the surface 
at present is generally somewhat lower than that of the old 
peneplain. 

In Tuolumne county, as Ransome has pointed out,* 
there are lo@al dissected plains at the level of the rolling 
uplands which certainly postulate a base level of erosion not 
sufficiently accounted for by the presence of a resistant rock 
barrier down stream, and I am inclined to accept the opin- 
ions of others that the valley erosion of the Sierra Nevada re- 
gion was affected in two distinct periods whose products are 
respectively the upper troughs or rolling uplands and _ the 
cafions. 

It is thought probable that the Sierra Nevada region stood 
somewhat higher during the volcanic period than it did dur- 


of the 


*The Mother Lode District folio of the Geologic Atlas of the United States, 
page 7, 3rd column, 


‘ 
4 
: 
) 
: 
( 
: 
1 


The Term Sierran,—Hershey. 93 


ing the accumulation of the Auriferous gravels proper. When 
the vulcanism ceased, degradation overcame aggradation and 
the extensive removal of the andesyte and basalt covering and 
erosion of the decayed upper portion of the older rocks to 
form the present rolling uplands may have occurred without 
further uplift. The earlier epoch of erosion is not sharply 
delimited from the later stages of the vulcanism. 

The Auriferous gravels proper have long been correlated 
with the Ione formation in the great valley and considered 
of Miocene age, but the latest work of Merriam, Knowlton 
and others seems to place at least their upper portion in the 
Early Pliocene. The succeeding andesyte and basalt volcanic 
epochs were probably contemporaneous in a general way with 
the extensive Middle Pliocene vulcanism in the Coast Range 
region. This would bring the earlier stages of the post-vol- 
canic erosion in the Late Pliocene and open the Pleistocene 
with the great uplift which inaugurated the canon cutting. 
This view seems to have been held by most students of Sierra 
Nevada geomorphology. 

The correlation of the Sierran cafion with the Ozarkian 
canon valleys of the eastern states is based on the assumption 
that the great Sierra Nevada uplift was virtually contempo- 
raneous with the post-Lafayette uplift which inaugurated the 
Pleistocene in the Mississippi basin, a proposition which has 
not yet been proved and, until the intervening interior basin, 
Rocky mountains and great plains have been more thoroughly 
studied as to their Pleistocene history, it must remain conjec- 
tural. I am averse to correlating erosion cycles on opposite 
sides of the continent. Earth movements in the Pacific Coast 
country have been of such different character from those which 
affected the region east of the great plains that it is far 
from certain that they were parts of the same crustal disturb- 
ances. 

The Sierran valleys—narrow, steep-sided gorges, 1,000 to 
over 3,000 feet in depth, trenched into quite resistant forma- 
tions—cannot be directly compared with the Ozarkian valleys 
of the Mississippi basin, which are much shallower, relatively 
wider, but excavated in softer formations. Taking into con- 
sideration the difference in conditions under which the erosion 
was affected, we may easily reconcile the contrasts and refer 


94 The American Geologist. Vebruary, 2a 


both systems to approximately the same period of erosion, but 
the personal element enters too largely into this opinion to give 
it much value as a basis for correlation. 

There are not in the great valley bordering on the Sierra 
Nevada province nor in the mountain region itself any fos- 
siliferous sedimentary deposits between the lone and a middle 
Pleistocene formation by which to fix paleontologically the 
time of the great uplift. Furthermore, at the present we can- 
not positively identify its equivalent in the Coast Range re- 
gion and our supposition that it was contemporaneous with the 
uplift and truncation of the Merced formation—the latest Pli- 
ocene recognized on the Pacific coast—is based on little more 
than theoretical deduction. 

All that we can be reasonably certain of is that the incep- 
tion of the cafien cutting in the Sierra Nevada region ante- 
dated the opening of the Glacial period as that term is used in 
the eastern states and hence the Sierran period was contempo- 
raneous in part, at least, with the Ozarkian; for it will hardly 
be disputed that such profound canons must have been the 
work of a longer period than the Glacial division of the Pleis- 
tocene. 

The erosion of the cafions is supposed to have continued 
uninterrupted to the time of the glaciation of the upper courses 
of the main streams. As a matter of fact, the glaciation of the 
high Sierras had very little effect on the cafion cutting lower 
down. The erosion is in progress today, perhaps as vigorous- 
ly as ever. 

Under LeConte’s definition, Sierran apparently covers at 
least part of the Ozarkian or pre-glacial portion of the Pleis- 
tocene and nearly the whole of the Glacial period as the latter 
has been established in the eastern states and Europe. Many 
Pacific coast geologists do not seem to appreciate the com- 
plexity and length of the Glacial period. They refer to the 
short and comparatively recent glaciation in the Sierra Nevada 
region as though it were approximately equivalent to the 
whole series of events in eastern glaciation. Sierra Nevada 
glaciation is extremely interesting because of its Alpine fea- 
tures ; but when it comes to a matter of time, it is hardly worth 
mentioning. In the Klamath region, I have not seen a trace 
of any Glacial action older than the Wisconsin epoch, and I 


—_ 


have not heard of anything in the Sierra Nevada region which 
can be referred to the Iowan or any older glacial epoch. 

The so-called “glacial period” in the California mountains 
occupied the last one-twentieth or perhaps the last one-fiftieth 
of the Glacial period as the term is used in the east and in 
Europe. A large part of the cafion cutting in the Sierra Ne- 
vada region may have been accomplished during the Kansan, 
Illinoian and Iowan glacial epochs and the still longer inter- 
glacial epochs. Certainly, with the steep gradients, the Sierra 
Nevada streams were doing something during the long time 
which elapsed between the Kansan and Wisconsin epochs. I 
should say that probably one-third of the cafion cutting was 
Kansan and later in age. 

I have avoided applying the term Ozarkian in California 
because, the Glacial period being so very imperfectly repre- 
sented here, I could not distinguish the work of the Ozarkian 
from that of later time. The preceding discussion empha- 
sizes the facts that there was a marked uplift of the Sierra 
Nevada province probably at about the opening of the Pleisto- 
cene period; that the exact date, relative to crustal movenients 
in other regions, of the inception of this uplift cannot be es- 
tablished at present; that the elevated condition continued 
through the Glacial period; that no interruption leaving ap- 
preciable effects occurred until near the close of the Glacial 
period ; that it is inadvisable to correlate the canons with any 
event in the geology of the eastern states; that the period of 
cafion cutting on the Pacific coast was a very strongly marked 
one, deserves general recognition and a specific designation ; 
and that the term Sierran as applied to it is very acceptable, 
but its use should be confined to the Pacific coast country. 
Taxonomically, it is apparently almost equivalent to Pleisto- 
cene. 

Berkeley, Calif., Nov. 19, 1901. 


The Term Sierran.—Hershey. 95 


96 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


THE AREAL GEOLOGY OF THE CASTLE ROCK 
REGION, COLORADO. 


Wiis T. Lee, Trinidad, Colo. 
PLATE IV. 


The Castle Rock region lies along the eastern slope of the 
Rocky mountains, south of Denver, Colorado. It is bordered 
on the north by the area known as the Denver basin, the geol- 
ogy of which is given in monograph No. 27 of the United 
States geological survey. The area over which my studies ex-, 
tended is shown in part in the accompanying sketch map 
(plate IV). It covers parts_of the Platte Canyon and Castle 
Rock quadrangles of the United States geological survey. 
For a distance of 30 or 40 miles east of the area mapped, only 
the younger formations, the Tertiary, appear at the surface. 
To the south of this area the Tertiary extends over the up- 
turned edges of the older sedimentary formations and lies in 
contact with the crystallines of the mountains for a distance of 
about six miles. Near Deadman creek the older formations 
re-appear. 

The geological formations of this region range from pre- 
Cambrian to Tertiary. With the exception of the youngest, 
the sedimentary formations are all more or less upturned 
against the mountains, the harder strata forming the “hog- 
backs” of the foot hills region. 

1.—Cambrian.—Near Deadman creek, six’ miles south of 
the area shown in the accompanying map, occurs a limited ex- 
posure of deep red _quartzyte about 25 feet thick. It rests at 
a high inclination on the eastern face of the front range of 
these mountains. In Manitou park, which lies west of this 
range, a few miles from the region in question, occurs a red 
quartzyte which Mr. Whitman Cross refers, though with some 
doubt, to the Cambrian.* The quartzyte at Deadman creek 
corresponds in character and stratigraphic position with the 
Cambrian quartzyte of Manitou park and may be of the same 
age. 

2.—Ordovician.—Above the red _quartzyte appears a series 
of cherty limestone layers interstratified with red clay. Brachi- 
opods from this limestone were submitted to Dr. Stuart Wel- 


*U. S. Geol. Sur., Pikes Peak Folio. 


THE AMERICAN GROLOGIST, VoL. X XIX. 


"ON 


Dev the head 
Plote wi 


Castle Conglomerate 
Ra yor le 
Monument (reek 


Ara pange 
Lurame 


(RNCartencjerous 
Carboniferous 


Ordovician 


THE CASTLE ROCK AKEA, 


o = er, iGo 24 © 
oO it wu a et re ; 


a 


Geology of Castle Rock.—Lee. 97 


ler, of Chicago University, who determined some of the best 
preserved specimens to be Dalmanella testudinaria and the age 
of the series Ordovician. Other forms are present, but the 
specimens were too poorly preserved for specific identification. 
A second exposure of limestone similar to the first and simi- 
larly placed occurs within the region shown in the accompany- 
ing map, but no fossils were found in it. Its character and 
position, however, are such as to make it probably of the same 
age as the Ordovician of Deadman creek. 

3.—Carboniferous.—It has been known since the time of 
Hayden's survey that Carboniferous strata occur in Perry 
park. Mr. Whitman Cross made a small collection of fossils 
from this formation some years ago. They were identified by 
Mr. George H. Girty, of the United States geological survey. 
My own collection was 7lso examined by Mr. Girty, who has 
kindly furnished me with the following list: 


Orthothetes inaequalis Seminula subquadrata (+) 
Spirifer centronotus Cranaena n. sp. 

Spirifer sp. b. Myalina arkansasan@ 
Spiriferina solidirostris (?) Aviculopecten sp. 


Regarding the age of the formation in which these fossils 
occur, Mr. Girty says in a private letter: “I feel satisfied that 
the horizon is Lower Carboniferous and think it probable that 
it comes in the middle portion, though this is less certain.” 

Fossils occur in a thin seam of cherty limestone, about 
fifty feet from the base of the formation. The fossil-bearing 
seam is exposed in the north bank of the stream flowing 
through the park. At-the-base of the formation occur forty 
feet of coarse-grained, crumbling sandstone, conglomeratic_in 
places, and mottled in varying shades of red and gray. Above 
this sandstone is a series, ten to fifteen _feetthick, of deep red 
to white _cherty limestone in layers, alternating with red 
shale. Near the top of this series is the fossiliferous seam. 
Above is a series of several hundred feet of coarse-grained | 
sandstones and conglomerates which appear to be perfectly | 
conformable with the fossiliferous series. They are colored 
irregularly in various shades of red and gray to an extent 
which gives the series a conspicuous mottled appearance. 
The gray predominates near the base. From thence upward, 
the red becomes prominent and the series passes gradually into 


98 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


Lthe so-called “Trias’—the Red Beds. No line of demarka- 
tion was found between this formation and the Trias. 
Mr. Cross in his study of the Pikes Peak region* describes 
a similar series which’ he calls the Fountain formation, the 
thickness of which he estimates at 1,000 feet. According to 
his description, the Fountain is very similar to the Perry Park 
beds. He says,—‘They are chiefly coarse-grained, crumbling, 
arkose sandstones in heavy banks showing cross bedding. 
They are locally conglomeratic, mottled with gray and various 
light shades of red. * * * Near the base and at intervals 
throughout the series, are very dark red or purplish layers of 
arenaceous clay or fine-grained sandstone.” This reads as if it 
were written for the Perry Park beds. The Pikes Peak quadran- 
gle corners upon the Castle Rock quadrangle. It is, therefore, 
near enough to give weight to correlation on stratigraphic and 
lithologic grounds. It is probable, therefore, that some part 
at least of the sandstone series above the fossiliferous lime- 
stone of Perry Park is an equivalent of the Fountain forma- 
tion. Mr. Cross shows that the Fountain probably belongs to 
the Carboniferous. If this be true it is possible that some part 
of the Red Beds along the mountain front which have been 
called Trias may belong to an earlier age. If the fossil bearing 
stratum marks the middle of the lower Carboniferous as Mr. 
Girty thinks; and if the overlying sandstones and conglomer- 
ates are also Carboniferous; and if these together with the 
Red Beds proper—the so-called Trias—make a conformable 
group, as seems to be the case, it would seem rational in the 
absence of evidence to the contrary, to refer at least the lower 
part of the Red Beds to the Carboniferous, as Hayden sug- 
gested in his report of 1874 (p. 42). It seems rational, furth- 
ermore, to suppose that the Permian may also be represented 
in the Red Beds. This supposition is borne out to some ex- 
tent by the facts published in another article in which I have 
shown that the Red Beds of the mountain front extend east- 
ward and southward without obvious change in character to 
the Canadian river, New Mexico, where they are referred to 
the Permian by R. T. Hill. 
4—11,—The Red Beds, Morrison, Dakota, Benton, Nio- 
brara, Fort Pierre, Fox Hills, and Laramie are all represented 


*U. S$. Geol. Surv. Pikes Peak Folio. 


—---” 


Geology of Castle Rock.—Lee. 99 


in the Castle Rock region. They are the wide spread and well 
known formations of the western interior and may be passed 
over at present with little comment. Their general distribu- 
tion is perhaps sufficiently indicated by the accompanying map. 
The sandstones and conglomerates of Perry park, which have 
just been described, lie at an inclination of something like ten 
degrees. As already shown, it is doubtful how much of this 
series belongs to the formation commonly known as Trias. 
There is, however, a group of nearly veriical red strata east of 
the park forming the wall which divides the park from the 
plains region to the east. There is no doubt that this ver- 
tical series is a part of what is here referred to as the Red Beds 
proper. Near the top of this series in Perry park occurs a 
heavy bed of gypsum. It outcrops for a distance of about 
eight miles, and attains a thickness in places of fifty to seventy- 
five feet. It is not found beyond the limits of the park. 
The thickness of the gypsum varies within short distances, the 
variation being due in some cases at least to a local thinning 
from bottom upward. 

Fossils were found in the Morrison, Benton, Niobrara, and 
Ft. Pierre. The Morrison yields dinosaurs, but only fragments 
have thus far been excavated. A small collection of inverte- 
brates from the Benton near Deadman creek south of the 
southern border of the area mapped contained the following 


species.* 
Ostrea congesta var. bentonensis, Inoceramus platinus, 
Inoceramus gilberti, Prionocyclus wyomingensis, 


< labiatus, Baculites sp. 

The Niobrara limestone contains great numbers of Jnocera- 
mus deformis. The lower member of this limestone in Perry 
park is a tough brown stratum composed principally of frag- 
mentary shells. Among these, Ostrea congesta var. mobrar- 
ensis and Inoceramus pinnatus were recognized. A number of 
shark’s teeth were ?lso found. The Ft. Pierre of Perry park 
yielded the following: 


Lucina occidentalis Baculites ovatus 
Inoceramus barbini Ammonities sp. 


These forms occur in masses of shell limestone which re- 
semble the “teepe buttes” of central and eastern Colorado.+ 


*These and the following Mesozoic forms were identified by Dr. W.N LoGan. 
#G. K, GiLpert, U.S Geol. Surv., 17th Ann, Rep. “Underground Waters 
af the Arkansas.” 


100 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


The buttes of Perry park, if they can properly be called such, 
are more irregular in form and composition than those from 
the undisturbed region from which they were originally de- 
scribed, and the shells, although numerous, do not form so 
large a part of the mass. The species found in greatest abund- 
ance is Lucina occidentalis. 

12,—Arapahoe,—The type area of the Arapahoe is the 
Denver basin, lying immediately north of the Castle Rock area, 
This formation together with the Denver beds, lies above the 
undoubted Laramie and below the undoubted Tertiary. The 
Arapahoe is separated from the Laramie, as shown by Mr. 
Cross,* by a notable time division. But because of the dino- 
saurs found in it (Ceratops), the Arapahoe has been referred 
to the Mesozoic. The geographical extent of this formation is 
unknown. Mr. Emmons f states that “vertebrate fossils char- 
acteristic of the post-Laramie formations have been observed 
by professor Marsh in Monument park (a few miles south of 
the limit of the Castle Rock region) and remnants of beds re- 
sembling the Arapahoe and Denver have been observed near 
Canon City which may have been contemporaneously depos- 
ited, but whether the lake was continuous along the mountain 
front, or there were several small isolated basins, it is as yet 
impossible to determine.” In the sarme connection he states 
that at the base, occurs 50 to 200 feet of conglomerate which 
contains fragments of nearly all the older formations of the 
region. This conglomerate is found in the Cas le Rock region. 
It was observed near the northern border where it extends 
southward from its type area, the Denver basin. Thence south- 
ward, it was observed at short intervals to a point southeast of 
Perry park, where it disappears beneath the Monument Creek 
beds. It reappears again about six miles south of the southern 
border of the region mapped, and extends thence beyond the 
area examined. In the Denver basin the conglomerate is over- 
lain by a shale series. No shales were observed in t e Castle 
Rock region which could be definitely referred to the 
Arapahoe, 

The: conglomerate stands nearly vertical and forms a line 
of prominent monuments. In composit’on it resembles closely 


*U. S. Geol. Surv., Mon, 27, p. 207. 
*S. F. Emmons, U. S. Geol. Surv., Mon, 27, p. 31. 


— = 


Geology of Castle Rock.—Lee. 101 


some of the overlying Monument Creek beds. In some cases 
the two cannot be satisfactcrily distinguished unless the dip 
can be determined. The Arapzhoe stands nearly vertical, 
while the highest incknation noted in the undoubted Monument 
Creek beds is 45 degrees. In some cases st ata of intermediate 
dip could not be referred definitely to either formation. The 
thickness of the Arapahoe conglomerate is greater in the Castle 
Rock region than in the Denver bas’n. Near the northern bor- 
der a thickness of 200 feet is exposed. How much thicker it is 
at this point could not be determined. South of Indian creek a 
vertical series which seems to belong to the Arapahoe, is some- 
thing like 500 feet thick. The exposures are numerous enough 
to warrant the supposition that the formation extended unin- 
terruptedly across the Castle Rock region. The only points 
of serious doubt are, first, across the Platte-Arkansas divide, 
near the southern border of the area mapped, where the Monu- 
ment Creek beds cover the older formations, and second, a few 
miles north of Perry park where the Arap:hoe approaches the 
mountains so closely as to be covered, if present, by the crys- 
talline debris. 

13,—Monument Creek. The Monument Creek formation 
was originally described and named by Hayden. It has been 
referred by Emmons and others to the Miocene. It forms one 
of the so-called Tertiary lake deposits. It is composed of con- 
glomerates, breccias, sands and clays which alternate and in- 
termingle and grade into each other in the most lawless man- 
ner. There are beds of coarse conglomerate and breccia with 
no clay ; beds of the same with clay filling the interstices ; beds 
of sand and clay with a few large fragments; beds of pure 
sand and beds of pure clay.. Much of the clay is colored, the 
dull shades predominating. Fire clay occurs in several places. 
Many of the beds have a strikingly massive appearance. Ver- 
tical sections of twenty and thirty feet are common in which 
little evidence of bedding is seen. In many places the beds 
bear evidence of tumultuous deposit. The materials show lit- 
tle evidence of sorting. Coarse and fine; angular and rounded 
are all thrown together in confusion. Cross-bedd’ng is fre- 
quent and the cross-bedded layers themselves truncated and 
crossed. The induration of the beds is as unequal as the distri- 
bution of the materials composing them. In general, the sands 


102 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 
and gravels are loose or very feebly cemented. [iut here and 
there they are consolidated into resistant masses. This in- 
equality of induration aids erosion in producing a great variety 
of erratic topographic forms which give name to Monument 
creek from which the formation derives its name. Agatized 
wood is found in great abundance throughout the formation, 
but no specific determinations have been made. 

14,—Rhyolyte. Above the Monument creek beds lie mass- 
es of rhyolitic tuff. This tuff has been noted by Fiayden and 
others. It forms more or less of a sheet,—or sheets, in some 
places,—while in others, it occurs in somewhat irregular masses 
more or less intermingled with sand, gravel and clay. In 
places the tuff abuts abruptly against gravel beds in a manner 
which is strongly suggestive of an old stream bed filled with 
the tuff. Above the tuff, occurs a sheet of glassy rhyolyte 
about twenty-five feet thick which forms the protecting cap of 
several of the buttes near Castle rock. This rhyolyte is used 
extensively as a building stone in Denver and other cities of 
Colorado. The examination of thin sections shows, according 
to Prof. J. P. Iddings to whom they were submitted that the 
rhyolyte is a flow, but its place of ejection is unknown. 

15,—Castle Conglomerate. The youngest formation in the 
Castle Rock region is a part at least of what has been called 
by Hayden and others the Upper Monument Creek formation. 
The term seems never to have been very definitely applied. As 
used in this paper, the formation consists of the massive con- 
glomerate above the lava, having a maximum thickness. of 
ninety feet, and containing fragments of the rhyolyte obtained 
from the underlying flow. The conglomerate is massive and 
compact, with the constituent parts firmly packed and cement- 
ed. It is composed of coarse, angular, subangular and rounded 
masses firmly set in finer material. The constituents are de- 
rived from the older formations in the mountain regions to the 
west. There are pebbles and boulders of quartz, quartzyte, 
granite, etc., from the crystalline regions, and fragments of 
sandstone, limestone and conglomerate from the older sedi- 
mentary beds. But the distinctive character of this formation 
is the presence of fragments of rhyolyte. These fragments are 
sometimes five feet in diameter though the larger ones are not 
numerous. They usually have sharp or slightly worn edges 


Geology of Castle Rock.—Lee. 103 


within the region mapped, but further to the east they are 
water-worn. These upper beds, then, differ in character from 
those of the lower division; they are separated from it by vol- 
canic tuffs and flows of rhyolyte and by an unconformity rep- 
resenting a period of erosion as shown by the presence in it of 
the material from the underlying rhyolyte. It is, therefore, 
separate and distinct from the lower division. Added to this 
is the obvious inconvenience of a cumbersome name. For these 
reasons I have ventured to restrict the use of the name, Monu- 
ment Creek, to the lower division and suggest a new name, 
Castle conglomerate, for the upper division,—the name is de- 
rived from the typical development of the formation on Castle 
Rock butte. 

The name originally applied by Hayden is thus retained 
for the formation which is best known, and a new and less 
cumbersome name ‘given to the less extensive and little known 
formation. 

The areal distribution of the Monument Creek, the rhyo- 
lyte, and the Castle conglomerate is not given on the accom- 
panying map. They lie for the most part east of the region 
shown in the map. The rhyolyte is found on or near the tops 
of the buttes and mesas which abound in this region, and ex- 
tends from the northern border southward to Palmer lake, and 
eastward something like twenty miles from the mountains. 
The Castle conglomerate extends from the northern border 
southward beyond the center of the Castle Rock region, and 
eastward something like fifty miles. 


Structure. 


1. Castle Arch—tThere are two notable structural features 
in this region,—the Castle arch and the Perry Park syncline, 
The arch is a structure similar to the one near Golden, Colo- 
rado, described by Mr. Eldredge in the “Geology of the Den- 
ver Basin.” The Castle arch is found west of Castle Rock— 
the town from which the name is derived. For want of a 
better objective point, I shall refer to the place where the Mon- 
ument Creek beds come in contact with the crystallines of the 
mountains, as the crest of the arch. The relations of the sev- 
eral formations to the arch and to each other are unfortunately 
obscured near the base of the mountains by crystalline debris, 
especially near this crest. Put several points could be made 


| 
} 
\ 


104 The American Geologist. February, 100 


out with some degree of certainty. 1. The Carboniferous 
strata of Perry park together with the mottled beds of doubt- 
ful age, abut against the crystallines which form the southern 
base of the arch. 2. The Red Beds also thin from bottom up- 
ward as they approach the crest. The gypsum at the top of 
the Red Beds approaches the crystallines and is found close to 
them near the crest of the arch. 3. The Dakota sandstone is 
absent for a distance of about six miles across the crest—un- 
less a limited exposure of vertical sandstone just north of the 
crest is in part Dakota. It was not determined whether the 
absence of the Dakota is due to non-deposition or to erosion. 
4. On the north side, the basal stratum of the Niobrara lime- 
stone extends beyond the older formations and comes nearly 
if not quite in contact with the crystallines. 5. There is a 
notable development of Ft. Pierre shales both north and south 
of the crest. The maximum thickness for the Denver basin 
is estimated at 7,700 feet. It is probably thicker in Perry park 
than at any point within the Denver basin. This shale thins 
toward the crest of the arch from either direction. 6. The 
strike of the Laramie south of the arch renders it doubtful 
whether that formation ever extended over the crest. 7. The 
Arapahoe lies across the truncated edges of the older forma- 
tions from the Laramie to the Red Beds. Beyond this, in the 
region of the crest, it could not be definitely followed ow. ng 
to the surface debris. 

If the physical conditions be reconstructed by which these 
relations were brought about, we should probably have some- 
thing like the following,—An east-west elevation of the crys- 
talline rocks existed as early as the Carboniferous period, 
against which the sediments of that period were deposited. 
This elevation remained at least during the early part of the 
Red Beds period. There was an arching either near the be- 
ginning of the Dakota period resulting in the non-deposition 
of the Dakota, or after its close, resu'ting in the removal of the 


L.Dakota from the crest. It is probable that the first alternative 


is the correct one and that the reg’on was affected by the “early 
Cretaceous movement” of Mr, Emmons.* At the close of the 


(Niobrara epoch, a notable re-elevation occurred. This move- 


ment has been called by Mr. Emmons, the ‘“mid-Cretaceous 


*S. F. Emmons, U. S. Geol. Surv., Mon, 27, p. 23. 


ee ee eee 


i ae 


— a — 


Geology of Castle Rock.—Lee. 105 


movement.” Mr. Eldridge estimates that the arch at Golden, 
Colorado, was elevated 9,500 feet at this time. ‘The estimate 
was made from the thickness of the Ft. Pierre shales which 
were deposited against the arch and finally covered it. A sim- 
ilar estimate for the Castle arch would show at_least as great 
an elevation. The width of the belt occupied by the shales in 
Perry park is great. The shales lie at an inclination of 45° to 
go. Their computed thickness is at least as great as the max- 
imum given for the Denver basin (7,700 feet). (I have made 
no attempt to distinguish between the Ft. Pierre and the Fox 
Hills. The latter is inconspicuous in this region. The great 
bulk of the Montana shown on the map is Ft. Pierre.) It 
seems probable on inspection of the present distribution of the 
formations, that the shales never entirely covered the Castle 
arch. It seems safe, therefore, to assume that the elevation of 
the arch, measured from the southern side was at least as great 
as that of the Golden arch at this time (9,500 feet). This, how- 
ever, would be a measure of the amount of subsidence in the 
syncline, to be described later, as well as the elevation of the 
arch. — 

In this region as elsewhere in the Rocky mountains the dis- 
turbance at the close of the Laramie epoch was one of ae 
importance and one by which radical changes were introduced. | 
The Castle arch was destroyed at this time, partly by erustiieet 
and flattening, and partly by faulting. Ridges were thrown up| 
at right angles to its axis (the present foot hills) and the 
mountain region to the west, greatly elevated. This elevation 
and the subsequent period of erosion, previous to the deposi- 
tion of the Arapahoe, has been discussed by Whitman Cross 
in the “Geology of the Denver Basin’ and elsewhere. Some- 
thing of the extent of the movement and the length of the per- 
iod of erosion is indicated by the conglomeratic nature of the 
Arapahoe which contains pebbles from all the older formations 
of the region, and by its position south of Indian creek where 
it lies across the truncated edges of the older formations. 

It is probable that in addition to the flattening of the arch, 
there was faulting in the vicinity of the crest by which the 
southern side-was dropped to a considerable extent, tilting the 
Perry park block to the north and causing the strata in their 
present upturned condition to rest further to the west on the 


106 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


south side, than on the north side of the crest. . The somewhat 
extensive erosion which took place north of the crest previous 
to the deposition of the Arapahoe and which is shown by the 
truncation of the older formations is perhaps best explained by 
such a postulate. No such fault was located, but this could 
scarcely be expected since the Monument Creek beds extend 
nearly if not quite to the crystallines at this point, thus cover- 
ing any fault lines which may have existed at the surface pre- 
vious to the deposition of these beds. 

I have postulated an east-west arch in the belief that it 
offers the best explanation of the stratigraphical distribution of 
the region. The most serious objection seems to lie in the fact 
that the relations at several critical points could not be defi- 
nitely determined owing to the surface debris. Some of the 
phenomena could be satisfactorily accounted for by the tilting, 
faulting and thrusting which accompanied the mountain form 
ation. But these movements, while they played an important 
part, do not seem adequate to explain many of the relations 
such as the absence of the Dakota, the thickening of the Ft. 
Pierre shales, etc. It should be borne in mind that the sedi- 
mentary formations of this region have been upturned to a 
nearly vertical position. The width of the exposures, there- 
fore, as shown in the accompanying map, nearly represents the 
thickness of the formations. If the map be turned so that the 
west side forms the base, it serves as a vertical section, except 
in the case of the mottled beds of Perry park which lie at a 
low inclination. . 

2. Perry Park Syncline,—(Perry park should properly be 
defined as the space included between the mountains and the 
vertical wall of Red Beds which forms the eastern boundary. 
For convenience in the following discussion, however, I shall 
refer to the whole region containing the upturned Mesozoic 
formations shown in the center of the map, as Perry park.) 
The second structural feature of the region is the Perry park 
syncline. It lies immediately south of the Castle arch and the 
two structures are probably correlative. The southern limb of 
the arch forms the northern limb of the syncline. Many of the 
observations, therefore, made in the discussion of the arch 
apply also to the syncline, and if it were not for data more or 
less distinct from those connected with the arch, the peculiari- 


Geology of Castle Rock.—Lee. 107 


ties of the region might possibly be accounted for without post- 
ulating a syncline. Some of the more conspicuous of these 
peculiarities are as follows: 1. The presence of Carbonifer- 
ous strata in Perry park while nothing definitely referable to 
that age is known for a considerable distance either north or 
south of the park. 2. At the top of the Red Beds, a heavy 
stratum of gypsum occurs which 1s confined to the park. It 
thins out in either direction. Its thickness varies abruptly, due 


in some cases at least, to irregularities in the floor upon which 


it was deposited. 3. The Dakota sandstone is present in nor- 
mal development but thins out at either extremity of the park. 
4. The Colorado formations make a prominent hog-back with- 
in the park, but thin out toward the extremities. Some mem- 
bers of the Colorado group, however, extend for some distance 
beyond the points where the hog-back ceases. There is one 
limestone layer about four feet thick which seems to be pecu- 
liar to the park. It was not found elsewhere in the region. It 
is very hard and composed principally of fragmentary shells. 
It forms the crest and is the main cause of the prominence of 
the Colorado hog-back within the park. 5. The local thick- 
ening of the Ft. Pierre shales has been referred to, perhaps 
sufficiently. It should be noted in this connection, however, 
that there is evidence of thinning toward the south, although 
it is not so conspicuous as in the northern limb. 6. A some- 
what different group of data is found in the attitude of the 
hog-backs in the park. The upturned strata composing them 
are broken into four distinct sections. Unfortunately these 
sections which are so distinct in the field cannot be adequately 
represented on the topographic map from which the accom- 
panying map is taken. The first section to the north strikes 
N. 7°E. with the strata either vertical or overturned to a 
greater or less extent. The second section strikes N. 57°W. 
with nearly vertical strata. The third strikes practically east 
and west with strata dipping less than 10°. The fourth, 
southernmost turns again to a nearly north-south hedieies 
with the strata vertical. 

These peculiarities both of form and structure, seem to be 
best accounted for by postulating a synclinal structure of long 
duration. According to this postulate there was: 1, a synclinal 
trough in the crystallines in which the Carboniferous strata 


} 


108 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


were deposited. 2, A local depression took place at the close 
of the Red Beds period making conditions favorable for the 
deposition of gypsum. The uneven base of the gypsum sug- 
gests that the floor upon which it was deposited was an eroded 
surface. If this be true, it natura ly follows from the absence 
of the gypsum on both sides of Perry park, either that the re- 
gion in general was above sea level during the gypsum form- 
ing stage, or that the gypsum which may have been deposited 
beyond the limits of the park, was removed by subsequent 
erosion. In the first case its deposition may be explained by 
local depression; in the second case its preservation may be 
due to such depression. 3. The presence of the Dakota and 
the Colorado formations in the center, and their disappearance 
at the extremities of the park, indicate either that they were 
formed in a depression between two land surfaces, or that 
their extremities were carried away by erosion. As already — 
stated, the former is the more probable. 4. A still further de- 


| pression occurred during the Colorado period, allowing the 


Lams 


| 


Niobrara limestones to extend beyond the Dakota. The Col- 
orado hog-back composed principally of the limestones of the 
Niobrara epoch, assumes a prominence in Perry park such as 
is found nowhere else in the region. In general, along the 
mountain front of central Colorado, the hog-back east of the 
Dakota is of small importance and formed principally of a 
hard stratum of Niobrara limestone. Within the limits of the 
park this hog-back attains a prominence equalling that of the 
Dakota and is composed of Niobrara limestones the lower 
stratum of which has already been referred to as different 
from anything found in that formation elsewhere in the vicin- 
ity. 5. At the close of the Niobrara epoch a notable depres- 
sion of the syncline occurred, allowing a great accumulation 
of shale. This depression affected a wider area than other 
movements had affected, as shown by the extension to the 
south of the thick shale formation. Owing, however, to the 
covering of the shales by the Monument Creek beds, the south- 
ern extent of this depression is unknown. 6. No other move- 
ment is indicated until the close of the Laramie epoch. This 
movement seems to have affected the syncline in a peculiar 
way. I have already called attention to the probability that 
the Perry park block was tilted to the north by a depression 


Geology of Casile Rock.—Lee. 109 


_ of the northern limb. When the change in folding which had 


formerly been by north-south thrust, was changed to an east- 
west thrust, the tilted syncline was doubled on its axis. At the 
base were hard strata—the sandstones and conglomerates of 
the Red Beds, the Dakota sandstone and the Colorado lime- 
stones. The body of the trough was filled with thousands of 
feet of soft shale. When the folding occurred, there was a 
tendency to bring the lower hard strata which had been pre- 
viously bent downward in the form of an arc, into a straight 
line, thus shortening the line of outcrop. This shortening was 
accompanied by a breaking and arching of the harder strata 
into the soft shales above. The attitude of these sections may 
be illustrated by bending pieces of cardboard first into the 
form of a trough, and then doubling them upon their axis. 

As a corollary of the foregoing discussion, the question 
arises whether the great thickness of the shale in Perry park 
and elsewhere is due wholly to deposition, or due in some meas- 
ure to mechanical thickening produced by the movements 
which upturned the strata. It is only in the disturbed regions 
along the mountain front that great thicknesses such as that 
found in the Castle Rock and Denver regions occur. Where 
the shales lie in a horizontal position in undisturbed regions 
they do not, so far as known, attain such thicknesses as those 
shown in the upturned belt along the mountain front. A short 
distance, a mile or two at most, the various formations are 
found in a nearly horizontal position. It follows from this 
that the angle of bending lies at no great depth and that the 
shales, lying as they do above the hard strata, would be strongly 
compressed in the angle of flexure. Soft shale, such as that of 
the Ft. Pierre, would probably act as a plastic body in case of 
disturbance. This seems to be exemplified in Perry park. The 
more resistent layers, the Dakota sandstone and the Colorado 
limestone, broke and moved in blocks as previously explained. 
No evidence of such breaking appears in the shales. It is 
probable that while the original thickness of the shales in this 
region was considerable, it has been very materially increased 
by mechanical thickening. If this be true, the estimates of the 
amount of elevation and depression made from the observed 
thickness of the shales should be materially modified. 

Trinidad, Colo. 


110 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


COMPTE RENDU, VIII CONGRES GEOLOGIQUE 
INTERNATIONAL, PARIS, 1900. 


PERSIPOR FRAZER, Philadelphia. 


In the preface Dr. Barrois modestly excuses himself for 
requiring a double volume to give as interesting and varied 
matter concerning geology as was ever printed in the same 
space. He is not literally exact in saying that every previous 
Congress had expressed itself strongly in favor of having its 
proceedings published as soon as possible. At the Berlin con- 
gress of 1885, the subject was broached but it was allowed to 
pass with the remark so characteristic of large bodies of good 
natured men, that those in charge would no doubt print the 
transactions as soon as possible. At London, the confusion 


and loss of time consequent upon the absence of an authorized — 


version of the proceedings and especially of the steps which 
had been taken to secure conformity in nomenclattire, map col- 


oring etc., stimulated the congress to pass a very decided res- ° 


olution that the proceedings should be printed wit'i.a a year if 
possible and if not, with the ieast delay. Yet the volume ap- 
peared in little less than three years in spite of the energy of 
the secretary, Dr. C. LeNeve Foster, with the codperation of 
the President, professor Prestwich. The Washington (1891) 
volume was also tardy, as was that of Ztirich (1894) in spite 
of the fact that neither had to dispose of so many difficult 
problems as the congresses of Bologna (1881), Berlin (1885), 
and London (1888); and also that quite strong instructions 
were given the publishing board at Ziirich to expedite the 
issue of the volume. At St. Petersburg (1897) these instruc- 
tions were repeated, but if over two years elapsed before the 
volume appeared, its value was in large measure a compensa- 
tion for waiting. Here, however, is a volume which, while not 
so prodigally illustrated as the Bologna compte rendu, easily 
outstrips all of its predecessors in bulk and value, and yet it is 
the first to appear nearly within the time so often fixed. 

The divided volume consists of seven parts as follows: 

1. List of members. It is only fair to note the extreme 
care of the secretary general, Dr. Charles Barrois, whose hand 


—- 


Eighth International Geological Congress.—Frazer. 111 


is visible in all parts of this work. A hasty glance through 
the list of names reveals fewer mistakes in spelling the proper 
names of German, English, Italian, Russian etc., savants than 
can generally be claimed for an international list. 

2. The programmes and proposed regulations of the con- 
gress; chiefly taken from circulars and announcements issued 
to geologists in advance of its meeting. 

3. The proceedings of the meetings of the council and of 
the Congress. Bulletins of the preceding day containing the 
proposed order of business for the day they were received 
were distributed, subject to correction, each morning of the 
sessions, but to insure greater accuracy a second edition was 
sent in April to all the members, and the corrections which 
were received are embodied in the permanent volume. 

4. The reports of the committees and communications re- 
lating to the collective works of the Congress. 

5. Memoirs presented and corrected by their authors, in- 
serted in the order in which they were returned to the sec- 
retaries. Communications not so returned before the first of 
last April were resuméd by the secretaries and inserted into 
the proceedings. 

6. Succinct resumé of the excursions. 

7. The petrographical lexicon. 

On Section II. p. 65 an error occurs in giving the status 
of the members of the U. S. Geological Survey as “delegates 
of the government of the United States of America.” While 
the said government would doubtless be glad to be represented 
by so efficient a list as Bailey Willis, Hague, and Ward, in 
point of fact the U. S. Government made no appointment 
at all to the Congress unless the present writer is misinfermed. 
These gentlemen were supposed to be appointed by the Bureau 
of the U. S. Geological Survey, i. e. by themselves or their 
chief, Mr. Walcott. 

Business Transactions at the Sessions of the Council. 

I. The subjects to be presented to the Congress were di- 
vided into general and tectonic geology, stratigraphy and 
paleontology, mineralogy and petrography, and applied geol- 
ogy. A. Geikie (A), Zittel, Schmeisser, and Zirkel were 
named as presidents of these sections respectively. II. Oral 
discussions were limited to fifteen minutes. Subjects not re- 


112 The American Geologist. February. 1902. 


relating to the general questions suggested by the Congress 
not to exceed one page in the volume. M. Karpinsky pre- 
sents the report of the Spendiaroff commission which is 
printed. It gives the regulations by the minister of agricul- 
ture amd domain governing this gift. The 4,000 roubls are 
to be invested in the Russian sinking fund; the interest ac- 
cumulating between two sessions of the Congress is to be ap- 
plied to purchasing a prize to be known as the Leonide Spendi- 
aroff prize. The management of the interest shall devolve 
upon the Russian Geological Survey or, in case of its aboli- 
tion, to the department of the government which shall have 
charge of the geological works of the empire. The Inter- 
national Congress of Geologists shall propose the subjects 
for competition and award the prize. No change in the con- 
ditions shall be made without the consent of M. Spendiaroff 
or his heirs etc., III. M. Karpinsky was selected by the’ 
bureau acting as jury to be the first recipient of the Inter- 
national Spendiaroff prize. IV. M. Karpinsky is forced to 
take the Spendiaroff prize. V. Vienna is selected as the place 
of meeting of the Congress, 1903. A proposition of M. Cham- 
berlin was politely declined. M. Karpinsky reported the 
progress in Russia toward including instruction in geology 
in the nigher classes of the schools. M. Karpinsky, Tietze, 
de Lapparent, and Tschernyschew discussed the floating in- 
stitute proposed by the last congress. The view seemed to be 
that it was impracticable. The subject was referred to the 
comniittee to perfect the works of the Congress. VI. Com- 
mittee to effectuate international geological investigations and 
to perfect the work of the congress was named. A. Geikie 
(Chairman), Teall, Credner, Zittel, Mojsisovics, von Mojsvar, 
Tietze, Renard, Chamberlin, Walcott, Ch. Barrois, de Lappar- 
ent, Capellini, Brogger, Karpinsky, Pavlow, Renevier. A 
committee was appointed on motion of M. Oehlert to republish 
photographically the types of fossil species before the next 
session of the congress. Pavlow, Tschernyschew, Choffat, 
Lindstr6m, Lorriol, Chairman V. Zittel. The Spendiaroff jury 
was announced to consist of M. Bertrand, A. Geikie, Kar- 
pinsky, Tschernyschew, Zirkel, v. Zittel. VII. Functions of 
the Bureau of the Congress re-affirmed and defined. 


Eighth International Geological Congress.—Frazer. 113 


Scientific memoirs presented by their authors. 


I. Pre-cambrian fossiliferous formations. A very interesting re- 
sumé by the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey of the studies 
which he has so greatly assisted by his personal researches. C. D. 
Walcott. 14 pp. 

Il. the oldest paleozoic faunas, a very succinct statement of the 
classes of paleozoic fossils in New Brunswick, Cape Breton, and New 


_ Foundland. G. F. Matthew. 4 pp. 


III. The eastern rim of the northern part of the basin of the 
Altantic. W. H. Hudleston. 4 pp. 

IV. Old valleys invaded by the sea. Edward Hull. 5 pp. 

V. Dynamometamorphism and piézocrystallization. E, Weinschenk, 


1Q pp. 
VI. Nomenclature of metamorphic contact rocks. W. Solomon. 
5 pp. 


VII. Comparison of the Portlandian of Russia with that of 
Boulogne. A. P. Pavlow. 2 pp. 

VIII. Methods which may contribute to the elaboration of the 
genetic classification of fossils. A. P. Pavlow. 4 pp. 

IX. Precise methods actually employed in the study of vertebrate 
fossils in the United States. H. F. Osborn. 4 pp. 

X. Correlation of horizons of Tertiary mammifers in Europe 
and America. H. F. Osborn. 7 pp. 

XI. Tertiary volcanic phenomena of the Absaroka chain (Wy- 
oming). Arnold Hague. 2 pp. 

XII. Researches into the actual state of the vo'canoes of Central 
Italy. V. Sabatina. 11 pp. 

XIII. Attempt at a general classification of rocks. F. Sacco. 3 pp. 

XIV. On the glaciers and geology of the countries discovered 
by the Belgian antarctic expedition. H, Arctowski. 1 p. 

XV. On the method of expressing and representing the direction 
and inclination of beds. O. Vorwerg. 2 pp. 

XVI. Saline water of water bearing areas in the north of France. 
M. Gosselet. 3 pp. 

XVII. Classification of the Tertiary terranes of Aquitaine. V. 
Raulin. 2 pp. 

XVIII. Instruction in practical geology. L. de Launay. 5 pp. 

XIX. Progress in the production of precious stones in the United 
States. G. F. Kunz. 3 pp. 

XX. Geological formation of Holland and the draining of the 
Zuyderzee. G. J. G. Van der Veur. 8 pp. 

XXI. The recent subterranean explorations and the progress of 
Speleology. E. A. Martel. 15 pp. 

XXII. Geological observations in the grottoes of the Curé and 
of the Yonne. A. Parat. 16 pp. ; 

XXIII. The Jurassic terrane of Madagascar. H. Douvillé. 10 
pp. (contains much new material). 


114 | The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


XXIV. Geological explorations of J. De Morgan in Persia. H 
Douvillé. 8 pp. 

XXV. Geological history of graphite. E. Weinschenk, 11 pp. 

XXVI. Gelosic and Humic coals. C. Eg. Bertrand. 40 pp. 

XXVII. Note on the fossil flora of Tonkin. R. Zeiller. 4 pp. 

XXVIII. On the transformation of plants into combustible fos- 
sils. L, Lemiére. 109 pp. 

XXIX. The basin of the Loire. C. Grand’Eury. 18 pp. 

XXX. Origin, Nature, and Distribution of the elements of de- 
struction of the Vosges. Bleicher. 5 pp. 

, XXXI. Some late movements of the soil in the basins of the 
Seine and Loire. G, Dollfus. 17 pp. 

XXXII. The Silurian of Belgium. C. Malaise. 11 pp. 

XXXIII. New paths of Belgian geology. M. Mourlon. 12 pp. 
XXXIV. Applied geology and its evolution. E. Van den Broeck. 
15 pp. F 

XXXV. The minute structure of the diluvium of the Seine. S. 
Meunier. 18 pp. 

XXXVI. Stratigraphic and experimental study of subterranean 
sedimentation. S. Meunier. 14 pp. 

XXXVII. The intersections and stellations of folds in the mari- 
time Alps. Adrien Guéhbard. 15 pp. 

XXXVIILThe réle of some fossil bacterians from a geological 
point of view. B. Renault. 18 pp. 

XXXIX. Some odlitic iron ore beds of the arrondissement of 
Briey. G. Rolland. 9 pp. 

XL. Geology and Paleontology of Madagascar in the present 
state of our knowledge. M. Boule. 16 pp. 

XLI. Order of the formation of Silicates in igneous rocks. J. 
Joly. 21 pp. 

XLII. Minute mechanism. of sedimentation. J. Joly. 18 pp. 

XLIII. Presentation of the geological map of Algeria, E. Ficheur 
14. pp. 

XLIV. Geological Map of Portugal. J. F. N. Delgado and P. 
Choffat. 4 pp. 

XLV. Geology of Patagonia. W. B. Scott. 2 pp. 

XLVI. The flow of glaciers. Harry-Fielding Reid. 7 pp. 

XLVII. Progress in knowledge of the upper Cretacic in Portugal. 
P. Choffat. 18 pp. 

XLVIII. Experiments in denudation by solution of fresh water 
and sea water. J. Joly. 11 pp. 

XIX. Plateaux of the Hautes-Pyrénées, and the Dunes ef Gas- 
cory. L. A. Fabre. 14 pp. 

L. Réle of geology in utilization -of springs of potable water. 
Léon Janet. c 

LI. Basic rocks accompanying the Lherzolites and Ophites of the 
Pyrénées. Lacroix. 33 pp. 


‘a 


Eighth International Geological Congress.—Ilrazer, 115 


LII. Recent geological discoveries in the valley of the Nile and 
of the Libyen desert. H. J. L. Beadnell. 26 pp. 

LIII. Geology of the eastern desert of Egypt. T. Barron and 
W. F. Hume. 33 pp. 

LIV. Rift valleys of the East of Sinai. W. F. Hume. 9 pp. 

LV. Geology of Eastern Sinai. W. F. Hume. 19 pp. 


6. This chapter comprises an appendix to the very full 
program of the excursions, adding many details there omitted 


~ but nothing of value to repeat in a short review. The jour- 


nals and newspapers of every country have been filled with 
the actual experience of the participants, and it would be 
supererogatory to introduce this subject here. 

7. The gem of the whole double volume lies in its last 
subdivision—the Petrographical Lexicon prepared by Low- 
inson-Lessing with the assistance of various petrographers 
under the auspices of the International Committee of the 
VIIIth Congress. 

Of course it is as impossible to review a lexicon as to 
further concentrate pemican or Liebig’s extract, but a word 
may be permitted concerning this new and excellent departure 


of an international scientific congress. If geology were a 


science like medicine, hoary with age and gouty with tradition, 
its representatives in international concourse assembled would 
not dare to do anything but would content themselves with 
resolutions and discussions. It was one of the objections of 
a former director of the U. S. Geological Survey to this con- 
gress that it could not do anything. It was inadmissible to 
agree upon a nomenclature because that implied foreknowl- 
edge of everything not yet discovered which was to be classi- 
fied under it. It was improper to delimit the groups, series, 
stages, etc., because this restrained the liberty of the many 
field workers each with a corps of assistants who might dis- 
cover something inconsistent with the classifications agreed 
upon. Had this notion prevailed the congress would have 
become a great ornamental conclave of the representatives of 
“regular” geological organizations throughout the world 
whoee duties were partly friendly communion and mutual pre- 
sentation of bouquets. Well, the congress has done several 
definite things and the most valuable of them all is the estab- 
lishment of a rallying point in the rapidly growing science of 
petrography, which threatened to become a crystalline Babel. 


116 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


How many of the details adopted by the congress and 
recommended to students of the science in cartography, no- 
menclature, and petrographic classification, may be ultimately 
changed no one can say, but whatever or however important 
they may be, it will be easier to have them generally adopted 
when they are made as amendments or additions to a recog- 
nized code, just as it is easier to pass an intelligible law on the 
basis of a bill which brings the requirements in concrete form 
before the law makers. 

The present lexicon was edited from the preliminary proofs 
of a work on this subject prepared by M. Léwinson-Lessing 
and submitted to the committee on nomenclature and to the 
petrographers of the VIIIth Congress. One hundred copies 
of these proof sheets in French were printed and distributed 
to the above named recipients before the meeting of the last 
Congress. Of these thirty proofs with proposed changes were 
returned to M. Barrois, and M. Lowinson-Lessing added some 
new material. M. Barrois has shown excellent judgment in 
exercising the responsible task assigned him of deciding be- 
tween conflicting definitions of the same word, and in neces- 
sary suppressions as well as in the choice of what he has 
given. The lexicon will unquestionably be further amended 
and enriched, but even as it stands it is the most positive and 
direct contribution which has ever been made to science by 
so authoritative a body as the Congress of which M. Barrois 
so ably filled the duties of general secretary, and it is a fitting 
climax to the admirable volume of that Congress’s proceed- 
ings. 


EDITORIAL COMMENT. 


THE QUESTION OF THE UNIT OF GEOLOGICAL MAPPING. 


The growing conviction among the geologists of the United 
States Geological Survey that the requirements laid down in 
the Tenth Annual Report of the Director (J. W. Powell) for 
the construction of maps on the basis of the physical unit 
alone, can effect but a partial and imperfect expression of geo- 
logical events, led to the important conferences last winter be- 


; 


Editorial Comment. 117 


fore the Geological Society of Washington, in which the lead- 
ing parts were taken by Messrs. Willis, Williams and Cross, 
and which were participated in by Messrs. Diller, Chamberlin, 
Van Hise, Powell, Stanton, Clarke and others. The remarks 
of Messrs. Williams and Willis upon this occasion have been 
printed recently in the Journal of Geology. The agitation of 
this matter has resulted in a call by the director of the survey 
for formal consideration of the propositions involved, by a 
committee of which Mr. G. K. Gilbert is chairman. The out- 
come of this purpose to reconsider the principles which should 
guide the geologists of the Federal survey in the field and in 
cartographic expression, will be awa:ted with interest by all 
American geologists. The condition is essentially a reaction 
against the insufficiency of the old rules for the full expression 
of all geologic data and a recognition both of the impropriety 
of terming a purely physical or lithologic map, a geologic map, 
and also of the essential importance of expressing conjointly 
or independently all possible paleontologic data. 


REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 
LITERATURE. 


Die Geographische Verbrettung und Entwickelung des Cambrian, von 
Fritz FReECH, Breslau, [Cougrés géologique International, St. 
Petersburg, 1899. ] . 

This is an endeavor to reconstruct the sea and land that existed in 
the Cambrian time, and is based on the observations of various 
authors who have ‘studied the rocks of the Cambrian system, and its 
faunas. 

The general principles followed are those enunciated by Neumayr in 
his studies of the Jurassic, and his reconstruction of the seas and 
continerts of thet time. For a geography which takes into account 
great regions of the earth’s crust, local changes are totally disregarded, 
and tke grand paleontological and structural features ‘alone are to 
form the basis of our conclusions. He takes exception to Walcott’s 
niinute divisions of provinces in America, several of which he thinks 
should be merged into one or two. 

Nevertheless, he bases bis remarks on the Lower Cambrian of 
America chiefly on the correlations made by Mr. Walcott, and endeavors 


118 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


to trace the basal conglomerates as the starting point of the Cambrian 
succession, there, and in other parts of the world. 

Frech remarks upon the rarity of fossils in these conglomerates, 
and the difficulty of determining the part of the Cambrian which they 
represent, but he seems to assume that they are below the Olenellus 
Leds which he takes as the oldest fossiliferous Cambrian zone. 

He proceeds to show how this is developed in the (a) Marine 
Basin of the Rocky Mountains and gives a list of the genera which 
he supposes to characterize it; also (b) the North Atlantic Sea with a 
far more numerous and varied suite of genera; also (c) the Punjab 
in India, distinct by its dolomytes and salt deposits. 

The land areas of the Lower Cambrian are then considered with 
proofs of the existence of an Algonkian and Arctic and a Middle 
European continent. These are determined by the way in which the 
Lower Cambrian overlaps upon the older formations. 

In Middle Cambrian there were advances of the sea upon the land, 
in some countries, but in others a retreat of the ocean; an advance of 
the sea into Poland, also along the east coast of the British provinces, 
but retreat from the St. Lawrence valley; also he considers that the 
connection with the Arctic sea, existing in the Lower Cambrian time 
was now broken up. 

Then there was the Mediterranean European overlap of the sea 
extending to Bohemia in the north and to Languedoc and Spain in the 
west. This Prof. Frech claims to have been an extension of a 
Sardinian Olenellus sea. 

Dr. Frech also postulates a Pacific ocean of the Cambrian time 
on account of the absence of Paradoxides from all parts of its borders 
and the wide distribution of Olenellus. He calls attention also to 
the occurrence of Dorypyge (Olenoides quadriceps) both with Olenel- 
lus and with the middle Cambrian genera in that region. 

The author then goes on to discuss the Upper CAMBRIAN and its 
distribution, in relation to possible land areas specially referring to 
the withdrawal of the sea from the middle European areas, and the 
remarkable overlap of the ocean on large areas of the North Amer- 
ican continent; thus were separated the Olenus fauna of the Atlantic 
coast, and the Dicellocephalus fauna of the interior. “This may have 
been the first upward arching in the region of the Appalachian.” 
Frech remarks that the beds of southern Europe which have been in- 
terpreted as Upper Cambrian, are the equivalent of the Tremadoc; 
therefore according to his view not Cambrian. He appears to de 
scribe the Paradoxides bed of Massachusetts as equivalent to the Par- 
abolina and Dictyonema bed of the Acadian provinces, but this may 
not be his meaning. 

The remarkable uniformity of the Potsdam sandstone as a shore 
deposit of Upper Cambrian age is something remarkable; it is like 
the feeble coast formation of the Obolus sandstone along the north- 
ern shore of the Scandinavian Cambrian sea. The Upper Cambrian 
horizon is shown by the Dictyonema beds of Belgium and Wales, and 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 119 


to this age the author refers the Cambrian limestone of China, (ex- 
clusive of that which carries Dorypyge). Dr. Frech considers that 
the Cambrian of the Argentine, of S. E. Australia and Tasmania, be- 
longs to the one Pacific development of the Upper Cambrian. 

One might take exception to some of the remarks in this essay 
as for instance that which makes the Durness limestone Lower Cam- 
brian; possibly the Torridon sandstone is intended; or that which 
makes Anomocare, Acrotreta and Acrothele as specially characteris- 
tic genera of the Rocky mountain Lower Cambrian. The Dorypyge 
of the Rocky mountain Cambrian is spoken of as having no spines to 
the pygidium, perhaps six spines was intended. 

Dr. Frech thinks that Mr. Walcott’s subdivisions of the American 
Cambrian into provinces is too minute, and suggests looking at the 
distribution of life in the Cambrian sea from a broader point of view; 
and in fact he makes his Cambrian sea basins in some cases cover the 
whole range of Cambrian time. To him this is a necessity where he 
undertakes to review the Cambrian geography of the globe, where he 
must in large regions depend on fragmentary and most imperfect 
data. The excellence of Walcott’s work is that he deals with a smaller 
area from which much more detailed information is available, and 
therefore he can give a clearer and more satisfactory view of geologi- 
cal changes, than if he had attempted a wider field. G..F. M. 


Maryland Geological Survey. Allegany County, 1900. pp. 323, PI. 
29. Eocene, 1901. Pp. 259. Pl. 64. Wa. Buttock Crark, Director. 
These two volumes are the first of two series to be issued by the 

Maryland survey. One series is to deal with county resources, bring- 

ing forward information of economic value. The other series is to 

deal with systematic geology and paleontology, embracing the entire 
sequence of Maryland formations, the information being of educa- 
tional and scientific interest. 

The report on Allegany county includes a chapter on the physio- 
graphy by Dr. Cleveland Abbe. It embraces a detailed discussion of. 
the surface features of the region, supplementing the author’s general 
report on the whole state in “Maryland Weather Service Report,” 
Vol. 1. Mr. Cleophas C. O’Harra gives a most excellent account of 
the geology of the county. His section on the interpretation of the 
sedimentary record gives an interesting and instructive account of 
the historical geology. Other chapters deal with mineral resources, 
soils, climate, hydrography, magnetic declination, forests, and flora 
and fauna. Allegany county is not a geological unit, since its 
structural and stratigraphic features extend far beyond the limits of 
the county. It is, however, well situated for the display of these 
features, which are thus of more than local interest. Structurally, it 
lies within the district of open folding; physiographically, it includes 
parts of the greater Appalachian valley and of the Allegany plateau; 
stratigraphically, it displays a continuous series of sediments from the 
Silurian to the Permian, rich in well preserved fossils. Its economic 


120 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


resources are confined almost wholly to the western part, the chief 
product being coal. 

The Eocene report comprises a stratigraphical account by W. B. 
Clark and G. C. Martin, and a paleontological report by various spe- 
cialists. The point of view is thoroughly modern, the facts being con- 
sidered in their bearing on past physical and bionomic conditions. 
The homogeneous nature of the materials indicates undisturbed con- 
ditions throughout the Eocene. The deposits, which are largely 
glauconitic, were accumulated slowly and far from any coast. They 
contrast strongly with the contemporaneous sediments of the gulf 
region, which are highly diversified and represent accumulations from 
sediment bearing rivers. The strata of the middle Atlantic slope 
therefore are represented in the gulf by deposits many times their 
thickness. It is obvious that faunal differences are to be expected in 
the two regions and that hence the usual method of taking certain 
gulf fossils as typical of the Eocene, does not represent the facts. A 
comparison by means of tables of the mollusca and corals in the two 
regions is made, with the result that although enough common spe- 
cies are known for correlation, yet the range of these common species 
is different in the two localities and many other species are distinct. 
The true basis of stratigraphy is obviously to be found not only in 
a consideration of physical and biological criteria, but also of the ef- 
fects of these conditions on the organisms. The changing and shore 
character of the gulf region produced different faunal changes from 
the quiet deep water Atlantic coast Eocene. 

These two volumes are admirably illustrated and are bound sim- 
ilarly to the previous Maryland reports. They contain colored maps 
and sections, and are in all respects worthy of accompanying their 
predecessors. TH. 


Kinderhook Faunal Studies: III, The Faunas of Beds No. 3 to No. 
7, at Burlington, Iowa; by Stuart “Wetter. (Trans. St. Louis 

Acad. Sci., Vol. XI, pp. 149-214, 1901.) 

The third installment of the Kinderhook Faunal Studies has to do 
with the described fossils from five thin layers, having a total thick- 
ness of about thirty feet, which lie immediately beneath the great 
Burlington limestone, at Burlington, Iowa. The chief importance of 
the memoir lies in the fact that for the first time there are illustrated, 
by good figures, many of the forms described from the locality. The 
drawings of the types described by C. A. White, which are now in 
the University of Michigan, are especially to be noted. To one who 
has never collected fossils at Burlington, the paper will be particularly 
helpful in locating the exact geological horizons of the various forms. 

Altogether there are nine plates of figures. Of most of the species 
illustrated, the original descriptions are given. The critical remarks 
accompanying are especially useful to the systematic paleontologist; 
and supply long wished for information concerning the fossils in ques- 
tion which, for more than a generation have been the despair of collec- 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. Iai 


tors. These details, which make up the bulk of the paper, are the 


data upon which are based the author’s views on the general faunal 


correlation of the several rock layers containing the fossils discussed. 
The views expressed are of exceptional interest; for, as in the case of 
all this author’s faunal studies, the latter have to do with broad prin- 
ciples, notwithstanding local titles. 

The suggestion offered, says the author, ‘‘as an interpretation of all 
the faudal relationships is, that after the wide geographic distribution 
of the later Kinderhook faunas, from Ohio to beyond the Rocky moun- 
tains, there was a withdrawal of the fauna for some reason, within 


- the more western portion of the area it had occupied, where it conr 


tinued to flourish during the period of development of the Osage faun- 
as in the Mississippi valley. At a much later period. the beginning of 
Genevieve time, this western fauna again migrated eastward and en- 
tered into the fauna of the St. Louis limestone and its stratigraphic 
equivalents. The recurrence, in rocks of the age of the St. Louis lime- 
stone at Batesville, Arkansas, of a fauna of much older type, even 
Devonian, has been recorded by Williams, but this Batesville fauna 
seems to have migrated eastward from the southwestern region. The 
eastward migration from the northwest of the fauna containing per- 
sistent Kinderhook types, probably occurred at approximately the 
same time as a similar migration from the southwest, the evidence 
of which is recorded in the rocks of Arkansas.” 

There is one feature in the present paper to which attention 
might be called, that is, indeed, rendered all the more conspicuous 
by an absence of all mention of it. It is a very essential factor in 
the correct understanding of all Kinderhook faunas. The oversight 
is, perhaps, due largely to the fact that the author has been de- 
voting himself particularly to the study of the Carboniferous fos- 
sils. The suggestion, however, applies not to the work of this au- 
thor alone, but to nearly every one who has written on Kinder- 
hook questions. As a result of this inattention to certain factors 
there has been necessarily, though unintentionally it is no doubt 
true, a straining of the facts to fit a theory. The identification of 
the species is made by comparing them only with stratigraphically 
higher forms. Comparison with the lower species gives some very 
different results. In many cases in which this actually has been 
done, the inevitable deductions are to the effect that the closest 
affinities of many of the organic remains from the Kinderhook are 
to be found with the earlier forms rather than with the later. 
Comparisons only with the geologically higher forms tend to carry 
the “Carboniferous aspects” of the various faunas downward much 
farther than should really be done. 

It is unfortunate that the author apparently uses the term 
Chouteau in two very different senses. In one case, it refers to 
the uppermost limestone of the Kinderhook. Elsewhere it alludes 
to the faunal, or time, equivalent of the Kinderhook terrane, of 
which the Chouteau limestone forms the upper third. In the latter 


ft 


122 The American Geologist. February, 1902, 


sense, the term Chouteau ranks taxonomically with the titles Osage 
and Genevieve. As the term was clearly defined as a part of the 
formation subsequently called Kinderhook, it is certainly impos- 
sible to drop its meaning in this sense. By no canon of nomen- 
clature can the term in the second sense be retained. So the quicker 
it is eliminated in the last mentioned application, the less is the 
confusion that is likely to ensue. ‘Chouteau, if it is to be retained 
at all, as a valid biotic term in geology, can only be made to apply 
to the fauna of the stage of the Chouteau limestone and its equiv- 
alents. In this sense it satisfies all the requirements of dual classi- 
fication in geology. Moreover, it may refer to a fauna that is a 
compact unit. It applies to a fauna that is believed to belong en- 
tirely to the Carboniferous. It eliminates the elements which are 
not Carboniferous in character. 

Although the title “Chouteau fauna” frequently appears in re- 
cent geological literature, it is rarely used with precise mean- 
ing. The biological geologists are inclined to apply the term to the 
oldest of the three faunal categories into which they subdivide the 
“Eocarboniferous” of the Mississippi valley. But the “Kinderhook” 
formation is now known to contain a mixture of faunas, or rather 
several distinct faunas. 

There is another grave consideration which is seldom taken into 
account. The fauna which is generally thought to be the fauna from 
the original Chouteau limestone is at best a fancied medley of shad- 
dowy definition. Practically no detailed work has yet been done on 
the fossils of this formation. Careful determination of the exact 
horizons of the various forms has not even been attempted. Of the 
species described as from the original Chouteau in central Missouri, 
many are now known to be from formations other than the terrane 
under consideration. It is small wonder, therefore, that the Chou- 
teau or Kinderhook fauna as we have long known it, is apparently 
ill-defined, anomalous, and puzzling. In the critical study of the 
lowest Carboniferous faunas of the Mississippi valley there is need 
before all else of exact determinations of the various organic forms 
that actually occur in Chouteau limestone at the type locality in cen- 
tral Missouri. It is only with this type-fauna that the faunas of the 
Kinderhook from other localities and other horizons can be com- 
pared with profit. Until the fossils from the original Chouteau are 
carefully collected and studied anew and in their enirety the “Chouteau 
Fauna” must be regarded as a quantity unknown. 

It is manifest that one of the very first “Kinderhook faunal studies” 
should be a study, at first hand, of the fauna of the original Chouteau 
limestone. 

A noteworthy point, in the third enstallment, is the consideration 
of the first layer underneath the beds in question—the Chonopectus 
sandstone—as pre-Louisianan; that is, older than any part of the ori- 
ginal Kinderhook. If this be the true interpretation, the Carbonifer- 
ous must be cut off at the bottom at a very much higher level in the 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 123 


section at Burlington than had been generally supposed to be the 
case. However, the recent discoveries in the shales beneath the 
Chonopectus sandstone, of faunal elements very much older than 
has been found anywhere else in the section find additional ex- 


planation. 
Altogether, professor Weller’s paper is a most welcome contribu- 
tion to Kinderhook literature. Ce. 7X. 


Ueber die Borkholmer Schicht in Mittelbaltischem Silurgibict. von 
Cart WimMan. (Bull. Geol. Instit. Upsala No. 10. Vol. V, Part 2, 
1900. ) 

This memoir gives a full account of the fossils found in the island 
of Gotland and elsewhere in the above named bed of the Leptena 
limestone of the Upper Silurian. Fragments of this bed in the con- 
dition of erratic blocks are scattered in drift over the island of Got- 
land and contain more or less of silicious nodules. These are sup- 
posed to have been lumps of colloid silica that formed at the bottom 
of the Silurian sea of that time, as the flint of the Cretaceous chalk 
did at a later period in western Europe. 

By the careful method of manipulation adopted by Wiman an ex- 
tensive and varied fauna was obtained, consisting of trilobites, mol- 


. luses, brachiopods, Bryozoa, corals, graptolites, sponges, etc. 


A table is given, showing the occurrence of the several species in 
the various blocks from the bed, that were studied. Also a list of 
the known fauna of the Leptzna limestone. 

About a dozen new species are described in this memoir, and 
three new. genera of graptolites—Reticulograptus, Galeograptus and 
Diseograptus. The memoir is illustrated with four plates of figures 
and several wood cuts. co Atie Sie 9 


MONTHLY AUTHOR'S CATALOGUE 
OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE 
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY, 


ECKEL, E. C. 

The formation as the basis for geologic mapping. (Jour. Geol., 
vol. 9, pp. 708-717, Nov.-Dec., 1901.) 
ELLS, R. W. 

The Carboniferous basin of New Brunswick. (Trans. Roy. Soc. 
Can., 2nd ser., vol. 7, sec. 4, pp. 45-56, read May 23, 1901.) 
GORDON, C. H. 

On the origin and classificaion of gneisses. (Proc. Nebr. Acad. 
Sci., vol. 7, pp. 60-96, Nov., 1cor.) 
HALLOCK, WILLIAM 


_ Peculiar effects due to a lightning discharge on Lake Champlain 
in August, 1900. (Jour. Geol., vol. 9, pp. 671-673, Nov.-Dec., 1901.) 


s @=a 


124 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


HOVEY, E. O. (and R. P. WHITFIELD) 

Catalogue of the types and figured specimens in the paleontological 
collection of the geological department, American Museum of Natural 
History. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 11, part 4, pp. 357-5C0, 
Dec. 27, 1901.) 

JULIEN, ALEXIS A. , 

A study of the structure of Fulgurites. (Jour. Geol., vol. 9, pp. 
673-693, Nov.-Dec., 1901.) 

KNIGHT, W. C. 

Geology of the Oil Fields (Wyoming). (Bull. No. 4, School of 
Mines, Univ. Wyo., April. 1901.) 

KNIGHT, W. C. 

The Sweetwater Mining district, Freemont county, Wyoming. 
(Bull. Univ. Geo. Sur. Wyo., June, 1901.) 

NICKLES, J. M. 

The Geology of Cincinnati. (Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 20, 
pp. 49-100, Jan. 10, 1902.) 

NICKLES, J. M. 

Description of a new Bryozoan, Homotrypa bassleri, n. sp., from 
the Warren beds of the Lorraine group. (Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., 
vol. 20, pp. 103-105, Jan. 10, 1902.) : 
PURDUE, A. H. 

Physiography of the Boston mountains, Arkansas. (Jour. Geol., 
vol. 9, pp. 694-701, Nov.-Dec., 1901.) 

SALISBURY, R. D. 

Glacial work in the western mountains in igor. (Jour. Geol., vol. 
9, pp. 718-731, Nov.-Dec., 1901.) 

SINCLAIR, Wm. J. 

The discovery of a new fossil Tapir in Oregon. (Jour. Geol., 
vol. 9, pp. 702-707, Nov.-Dec., 1901.) 

STANTON, T. W. 

Chondrodonta, a new genus of ostreiform mollusks from the Cre- 
taceous, with description of the genotype and a new species. (Proc. 
U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. 24, pp. 301-307, pls. 25 and 26, 19or.) 
WASHINGTON, HENRY S. 

The Foyaite-Ijolite series of Magnet cove; a chemical study in 
Differentiation. Part 2. (Jour. Ceol., vol. 9, pp. 64°-670, Nov.-Dec., 
1904.) 

WHITFIELD, R. P. (and E. O. HOVEY.) 

Catalogue of the types and figured sp<cimens in the paleontological 
collection of the geological department, American Museum of Nat- 
ural History. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 2, part 4, 1901, pp. 
357-500, Dec. 27, 1901.) 

WILLISTON, S. W. 

Winged Reptiles. (Pop. Sci. Monthly, vol. 60, pp. 314-322. Febru- 
ary, 1902.) 

WORTMAN, J. L. 

Studies of Eocene mammalia in the Marsh collection, Peabody 
Museum. (Am, Jour. Sci., vol. 13, 4th ser., pp. 39-46, Jan., 1901.) 


SS ee 


Correspondence. 125 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


Tue Section or GeoLocy AND MINERALOGY oF THE New York AcAp- 
EMY OF SCIENCES; meeting December 16 

Mr. D. W. Johnson gave a paper on “Notes on the Geology of the 
Saline Basins of Central New Mexico.” This paper will be published 
in the next number of the American Geologist. 

Dr. D. S. Martin presented a paper entitled “Some Geological! 
Notes on the Neighborhood of Buffalo, N. Y., made in the summer 
of 1901.” Dr. Martin did not claim any special novelty for the data 
presented, but judged that they might be of interest to any members 
not acquainted with that region. Dr. Martin first outlined roughly the 
distribution of the series from the Medina to the Corniferous lime- 
stone, and then mentioned in detail certain special features. He par- 
ticularly noted certain joint seams in the Niagara limestone near Lock- 
port, N. Y., which have been much eroded and decomposed, and 
which are now filled with a dark-brown, clay-like material, contain- 
ing numbers of half decayed modern land shells, such as Helix albo- 
labris. He then described the series of rocks exposed in the quarries 
found on north Main street, Buffalo, which are now the source of 
the famous Eurypterus specimens. This series extends from the 
Corniferous limestone to the Sailna series, and is divisible into five 
members, known as the Corniferous limestoné, the Blue limestone, 
the Bullhead rock, the Water limestone and the Salina. Dr. Martin 
particularly emphasized the contact between the Bullhead rock and the 
overlying Blue limestone, and noted the occurrence of a sandstone 
dike extending to the top of the Bullhead series. 

Mr. A. J. Quereau, in a paper entitled “The Grain of Igneous 
Rocks,” said that a general observation might be made in regard to 
intrusive dykes. Near the margin the rock is dense, often glassy with- 
out any appreciable grain, whereas the grain begins to grow coarse ac- 
cording to some definite law, progressively as the distance from the 
wall increases. The present paper is based on the study of the laws 
governing such increase. It appears that the loss of heat is of para- 
mount importance.* ; 

The problem taken up is very analogous to the one presented by 
the cooling of a slab of finite thickness and of great length and depth 
with respect to the first dimension, viz. the thickness. The method 
followed rests on the Theorie de la Chaleur, of Fourrer, and on the 
general theory of cooling by professor R. S. Woodward.t The fol- 
lowing laws have been deducted: 1. The zone of varying grain will 
vary indirectly. as the initial temperature. From this follows that, 
a. Plutonic rocks, very deenly seated will not present a zone of 
varying grain to any extent. b. Rocks which come to rest at a tem- 
perature nearing their consolidation point will present a wide zone of 


*ALFRED C. LANE, Geol. Surv. of Michigan, vol. vii. 
tAnnals of Mathematics, vol. iii. 


126 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


varying grain. 2. The time of cooling, other conditions being the 
same, varies as the square of the thickness of the dike.* From this 
last law it is assumed that the size of the crystals varies as the 
snuare of their distances from the nearest margin; then the square 
root of their area which can be measured varies directly as the 
distances from the margin. Thus we have a simple law of easy 
application. RicHarp E. Dopce 
Secretary pro tem. 

Notes ON THE SURFACE GEOLOGY oF Rio GraNnpe po Sut, Brazi.7 I 
cannot give you any definite information from my notes about Ter- 
tiary deposits in Brazil; because in Rio Grande do Sul, where I had 
opportunities for observations and study there are no deposits which 
I know certainly to be of Tertiary age. 

The rocks there are Archean, or, at least, low down in the series, 

and on their upturned edges are loose materials, cemented gravels 
etc. which are almost certainly Tertiary or probably Quaternary, with 
exceptions to be below noted, and with the further exceptions, per- 
haps, of the terraces near the coast. 
* I have had no opportunity to study the terraces along the sea 
coast. I noticed in Rio Grande do Sul that the coast is low and 
sandy. The city of Rio Grande do Sul is on a sand spit. From 
Pelotas inland toward Bagé are terraced sands and clays, the age of 
which I did not have an opportunity to inquire into. This terracing 
shows that there has been uplifting of a broad area there. The road 
passes off of these deposits and enters the hills at about four leagues 
west of Pelotas. 

Thence all the way inland to Bagé and Lavras, the rocks are very 
generally hidden by a deposit which I will call loess, and which I 
think is allied by origin as well as character to the loess of the Miss- 
issippi valley. It is of fine grain, clayey, of yellow or drab color 
where not darkened by organic matter, and shows but little variation 
in coarseness or fineness. However, streaks of+sand appear in the 
lower parts of it, and sometimes it passes downward into a sandy 
layer. This latter, however, may probably belong to the cascalho or 
gravel group to be below described. 

The loess is not derived from rocks in the immediate neighbor- 
hood where it occurs, for it preserves its identity or great similarity 
of character over wide areas where the rocks vary widely. 

Below the loess in places and lying between it and the “bed-rock” 
is cascalho, or gravel and sand. This is of material of the immediate 
neighborhood in which it is found. It consists principally of pebbles 
and of grains of yuartz and other hard materials, and at Lavras is 
confined to the immediate neighborhood of the quartz veins from 
which it originated. 


*RIEMANN, Partielle Differentiel Gleichungen. 

+These notes are from private letters by Mr. Mills in reply to inquiries 
about the geology of the region spoken of. The notes are quite brief, but they 
relate to a region about whose geology very little is known. Aside from a 
slight rearrangement and the omission of parts relating to other localities the 
letters are published just as he wrote them.—J. C. BRANNR, Stanford Univer- 
sity, California, December 3, 1901. 


ee 


OOo 


Correspondence. 127 


In Rio Grande do Sul the channels of the present drainage have 
been cut down through the loess and cascalho, and the country has 
evidently been raised since the loess was deposited. The same eleva- 
tion undoubtedly caused the terracing along the coast. 

I had occasion to examine very carefully the gold bearing gravels 
at the Lagoa de Maga in the province ‘of Rio Grande do Sul. The 
lake is simply a deepened and widened section of the Comaquam river 
near the village of Lavras in latitude, about 10’, 49’ west of Rio de 
Janeiro, and longitude about go’, 44’ south. The lake is said to be 
about 700 feet above sea level and occupies a basin eroded from the 
hard porphyry to a depth of 7.5 feet at the lowest below the rocky 
outlet. The hard feldspathic porphyry is softened in places in the 
bed of the lake, and excavations in the lake show softening to a depth 
of at least 12 or 15 feet, but the softening is by no means as exten- 
sive in this part of Rio Grande do Sul as it is in the Province of 
Minas. It does not extend over all of the bed of the lake. 

Resting on the rock is a thin, irregular, varying sheet of gravel 


and sand, which is often entirely wanting; where it exists it is but a 


few inches thick. It consists largely of rounded, smooth, quartz peb- 
bles and also of more irregular pieces of porphyry. The quartz pebbles 
are evidently from quartz veins which traverse the porphyry in the 
immediate neighborhood. 

This is the cascalho, or gravel, in which the gold is found. It is 
exposed on the bed-rock above the level of the lake, and it is proba- 
bly distributed in patches over the surface of the rock in the neighbor- 
hood generally: but nowhere within my observations was there found 
a continuous sheet over any extended area. I did not see it more than 
6.6 feet thick, except in some narrow furrows or channels in the rock 
in the bed of the Lagoa where the gravel and local large boulders 
alone formed a mass three feet thick. 

Next above the gravel and resting directly on the rock where the 
Cascalho is wanting is the loess-like deposit, which is spread over the 
surface of the country generally. It consists of a fine clayey material 
of yellow or drab color where not darkened by organic matter and of 
uniform texture. However, streaks of sand appear in the lower part of 
it, and sometimes it passes downward into a sandy layer which may 
have been deposited at the same time as the gravel, but I found no gold 
in it, though I tested it repeatedly by washing. Near the surface the 
loess becomes mingled with organic matter, and passes upward into 
a dark soil. In one place an excavation near the lake showed a thick- 
ness of 13.6 feet of loess. 

Next foilowing the loess are irregular deposits of sand found only 
along water courses, but often at higher levels than the water now 
attains. I did not see these sands anywhere lying on the loess. 

The lake crosses the outcrop of some veins of quartz, and the grave! 
is mostly limited to the immediate neighborhood of such outcrops, ex- 
cept at the bend of the still water of the pool. 

James E. Mis. 
Quincy, Plumas county, California, July 20, 1888. 


128 The American Geologist. Pebrasty, 2a 


PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Proressor W. B. Scorr has returned to Princeton from 
. his visit to the Argentine Republic. 

THE DEGREE LL. D. was conferred by Rutgers College on 
J. C. Smock, late state geologist of New Jersey. 

Mr. G. N. Knapp, of Stanton, Minn., will be connected 
with the New Jersey survey during 1902, on the Pleistocene 
of that state. 

HuGu MILLER’s PLACE OF BIRTH, Cromarty, has begun a 
movement to erect a museum and library to celebrate the cen- 
tenary of his birth. 

Proressor ALpHEus Hyarr, paleontologist of Harvard 
and Boston universities, died suddenly of apoplexy at Cam- 
bridge, Mass., Jan. 16, at the age of 63 years. 

Mr. J. S. DiLLer gave the presidential address of the Geo- 
logical Society of Washington, Dec. 18, 1901, on the subject: 
“The Wreck of Mt. Mazama,” illustrated by lantern views. 

THE NEW AFRICAN MAMMAL, Okapia johnstoni, was de- 
scribed recently by E. Ray Lankester in a memorir read be- 
fore the Zoological Society of London. According to Prof. 
Lankester the nearest living ally of the okapi is the giraffe. 

Tue NEJED METEORITE, from central Arabia, which fell in 
the year 1280, is described in Science, Jan. 24, by H. A. Ward. 
It was lately procured from the heirs of Mr. James R. Greg- 
ory, at London, and is now in the Ward-Coonley collection 
on deposit at the Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York. 

SIBERIAN MamnortH. The expedition sent out by the St. 
Petersburg Academy of Science to obtain the remains of the 
male mammoth discovered in northeastern Siberia is well on 
its return journey. It is stated that the hide of the mammoth 
is in an almost complete state of preservation, and in the stom- 
ach and teeth remains of undigested food were found.—wNat. 
Geog. Mag. 

GEOLOGICAL Society OF WasHiInGTon. At the meeting 
held December 11th, Mr. G. K. Gilbert spoke on ‘*Petrographic 
and geologic notes from Western Utah,” and Mr. Bailey Wil- 
lis on “Geologic notes of the northern Rocky mountains.” 
The ninth annual meeting was held on December 18th, at 
which time Mr. J. S. Diller delivered the presidential address. 
His subject was “The wreck of Mt. Mazama.” 

AT THE LATE MEETING OF THE TEXAS ACADEMY OF 
Sciences, Dr. F. W. Simonds gave a popular illustrated lec- 
ture on “Petroleum,” and read a sketch of the life and work 
of Ferdinand von Roemer, “‘the father of the geology of Tex- 
as.” Other papers were read by Prof. T. U. Taylor on “The 


Personal and Scientific News. 129 


Big Springs of the Edwards Plateau ;” by John Q. Prather on 

“The Austin Chalk Underlying Waco,” and by Prof. Harring- 
ton on “The Fertilizing Value of the Brazos River Flood 
Waters.” The president of the Academy is J. C. Nagle, Col- 
lege Station. 

DiAMonps IN New SoutH Wages. According to the re- 
port of E. F. Pittman, government geologist of New South 
Wales, the diamonds found at Ruby hill are from a rock re- 
sembling that of the Kimberley pipes in Seuth Africa; 1. e. 
in a volcanic breccia or agglomerate consisting of angular 
and sub-angular fragments of claystone, felsyte, basalt, eclo- 
gyte, etc., with calcite, garnet, chrome diopside, ete. This oc- 
curs in a Tertiary volcanic vent formed at a point of weakness 
in the older rocks, viz.: at the actual junction of an old intru- 
sive quartz-felsyte with the Carboniferous sediments. But 
few diamonds have as yet been found, but since the geological 
and mineralogical accompaniments are nearly identical with 
those at Kimberley, it is expected that ultimately important 
diamond-bearing localities will be discovered. 

Tue Carnecie InstirutTion. The chief aims sought in 
the establishment of the Carnegie institution aré as follows: 

First—To increase the efficiency of the universities and 
other institutions of learning throughout the country by util- 
izing and adding to their existing facilities, and by aiding 
teachers in the various institutions for experimental and other 
work in these institutions as far as may be advisable. 

Second—To discover the exceptional man in every depart- 
ment of study, whenever and wherever found, and enable him 
by financial aid to make the work for which he seems specially 
designed his life work. 

Third—To promote original research, paying great atten- 
tion thereto, as being one of the chief purposes of this institu- 
tion. 

Fourth—To increase facilities for higher education. 

Fifth—To enable such students as may find Washington 
the best point for their special studies to avail themselves of 
such advantages as may be open to them in the museums, 
libraries, laboratories, observatory, meteorological, piscicul- 
tural, and forestry school, and kindred institutions of the sev- 
eral departments of the government. 

_ Sixth—To ensure the prompt publication and distribution 
of the results of scientific investigation, a field considered to 
be highly important. 

These and kindred objects Mr. Carnegie holds may be at- 
tained by providing the necessary apparatus, by employing 
able teachers from the various institutions in Washington and 
elsewhere and by enabling men fitted for special work to «e- 
yote themselves to it, through salaried fellowships or scholar- 


130 The American Geologist. February, 1902. 


ships, or through salaries with or without pensions in old 
age, or through aid in other forms to such men as continue 
their special work at seats of learning throughout the world. 

SUMMARY OF THE CATALOGUE OF FossiL Type AND Fic- 
URED SPECIMENS IN THE COLLECTIONS OF THE AMERICAN 
Museum or Natura History, NEw York. 


. FPIGurRED RPEER- 

TYPES SPECIMENS ENCES 

ol. | . |e ieee 

PARTS g | § $| $ 

S13) 812) 442 g 

2/18/8181 2) #1 & 

Rete ee A gl ells = 
Cambrian and Lower Silurian..... 448] 10 }1070} 16) 107| 450) 836) 2372 
Upper, Siburiati...csstcisnsecsssectvatnces 635| 22 |1791| 92| 0} 625/1236) 4504 
BIS V OMAN fedaass vx cress ecto toass cores sas 667| 27 |1707| 158} 5] 717\3320) 5437 

Lower Carboniferous to Quater- 

DOALY sxccacci instead tbsp sdaagvetnsiprerss 472) 12 |1598) 233)  7| 387\1160) 2011 


f ity rh CPR! Det MR 2222| 71 wns 499) 119|2179)6561|14324 


“The term ‘type,’ as employed in the Geological Depart- 
ment of the American Museum, embraces not only the speci- 
mens actually used by an author in the original description of 
a species, but also those specimens which have been used by 
the same author in the further elucidation of the species in 
subsequent publications. The types may or not have been il- 
lustrated in connection with the first publication. ‘Figured 
specimen’ is the term applied here to the specimens which 
have been identified with a species by another person than the 
author of the species and which have been illustrated in some 
publication. From the standpoint of the student aad investi- 
gator, types are the most valuable portion of any collection, 
and should, therefore, be marked in some conspicuous manner 
and be preserved with the greatest care. All the types and 
figured specimens in this department are individualized by the 
use of a small rhomb of emerald green paper securely gummed 
to each.” 

ScuureEr, IN ADVOCATING AN AQuEo-IGNEOUS THEORY of 
the origin of granite, suggested that, owing to the presence of 
water the magma might cool down considerably below the tem- 
perature necessary for solidification under the conditions of 
ordinary dry fusion, and thus allow minerals which cannot en- 
dure a high degree of heat to crystallize out before other con- 


stituents less fusible by the simple dry method. 
C. R. Keyes. 


cds 
e 
tela 
OFTHE 
UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS. 


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FERDINAND V. ROEMER. 


THRE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 


Vom. XXIX. PLATE V. 


THE 


BaMERICAN, GEOLOGIST. 


Vor. XXIX. MARCH, 1902. No. 3. 


DR. FERDINAND VON ROEMER, THE FATHER OF 
THE GEOLOGY OF TEXAS; HIS LIFE 
AND WORK.* 
By FREDERIC W. SIMONDs, Austin, Texas. 


PORTRAIT. 


Ferdinand Roemer, who has justly been called the ‘Father 
of the Geology of Texas,” was born at Hildesheim, Hanover, 
on January 5, 1818. His early education was obtained at the 
Gymnasium Andreanum of that town, where, under the influ- 
ence of his teacher, Dr. Muhlert, he developed a great fondness 
for science, especially in the line of natural history. His love 
of geology, however, was strongly developed by excursions 
with his oldest brother, F. A. Roemer, Frederic Hoffmann and 
F. A. Quenstedt. Notwithstanding his predilection in this di- 
rection, he was induced by his brother, probably with the view 
of entering a well established profession, to undertake the 
study of law. Accordingly, from 1836 to 1839 he was engaged 
in attending legal instruction at Gottingen, with the exception 
of the summer semester of 1838, which was spent at Heidel- 
berg. Still the attraction of science was well-nigh irresisti- 
ble. With the keenest pleasure he listened to Hausmann on 
geognosy and when at Heidelberg the zoological instruction of 
Bronn was eagerly sought. His future calling was, however, 
to be decided in favor of his natural bent. As he was about to 


*I wish here to express my great indebtedness to Dr. Karl Hintze, ‘enc mend 
of mineralogy at the ntvérekks of Breslau, the pupil, friend and colleague of 
Dr. v. Roemer, first for the excellent photograph reproduced in the accompany- 
ing illustration, and second for copies of his publications upon the life, charact- 
er and work of the distinguished scholar who first gave to the world an ont- 
line of the geology of Texas. From the latter and the notice by Dr. W. Dames, 
in the Newes Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologie und Palaecontologie, 1892, I. 
Band, I have taken much of the matter which appears in this sketch. In trans- 
lating from the German I have been ably assisted by my friend, Mr. Conrad L. 
B. Shuddemagen. 


en ety SP ee 


132 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


present himself for examination in the higher legal course, 
for political reasons—although he himself was an innocent 
party—certain difficulties appeared and he withdrew. Thus 
science gained a brilliant scholar and geology a zealous inves- 
tigator. 

Going to Berlin (1840) he came within the influence of 
such men as Weiss, in mineralogy, von Dechen, in geology, es- 
petially that of Germany, Gustav Rose, in geognosy and min- 
eralogy, Mitscherlich and H. Rose, in chemistry, von Lichten- 
stein in zoology, Johannes Miiller, in anatomy and physiology, 
Dove in physics and Steffens in anthropology. 

On May Io, 1842, he received the degree of doctor of 
philosophy, having presented a paleontological dissertation en- 
titled ‘De Astartarum genere et speciebus quae e saxis iuras- 
sicis et cretaceis proveniunt.” 

The time spent at Berlin had an important bearing upon 
his future in still another direction. It was here that an inti- 
mate friendship sprung up between him and von Dechen, Bey- 
rich, and Ewald, and his iptercourse with them led, on his 
part, to a wider comprehension of geology and a better un- 
derstanding of the methods to be pursued in research. About 
this time he became engaged in a series of investigations in the 
Rhenish mountains which covered the summer season of sey- 
eral years. The results of this work were published, in 1844, 
under the title “Das Rheinische Ubergangsgebirge. Eine palae- 
ontologisch-geognostische Darstellung.” The next year 
(1845) his first contribution to the “Neues Jahrbuch fur Min- 
eralogie, Geologie und Palacontologie”’ appeared and thereaf- 
ter for more than forty years his name was familiar to the 
readers of that journal. 

He now (1845) entered upon that part of his career which 
is of the greatest interest to Americans, especially Texans. 
With means provided in part by the “Berliner Akademie der 
Wissenschaften” and with the warm personal endorsement of 
the celebrated traveller and explorer, Alexander von Hum- 
boldt, he undertook a journey to America for the purpose of 
studying its geology and paleontology, in the course of which 
he spent a year and a half in the then little known state of 
Texas. Here, to judge from the results of his investigations, 
his activity must have been very great, for, in addition to con- 


Dr. Ferdinand von Roemer. 133 


tributions furnished the American Journal of Science and 
Arts in 1846 and 1849 (II. Series Vols. I and VI.) and a 
more popular work entitled “Texas. Mit besonderer Ricksicht 
auf deutsche Auswanderung und die physischen ‘Verhiltnisse 
des Landes,” published at Bonn in 1849, he gave to the world 
in 1852 “Die Kreidebildungen von Texas und ihre Einschlusse. 
Mit einem die Beschreibung von Versteinerungen aus palao- 
zoischen und tertiaren Schichten enthaltenden Anhange und 
mit 11 von C. Hohe nach der Natur auf Stein gezeichneten 
Tafeln,” printed also at Bonn, by Adolph Marcus. It was this 
work that won for him the title “Father of the Geology of 
Texas.” That Roemer should have been able to accomplish 
so much during his brief sojourn in the state is remarkable 
considering the limited means of transportation and the seri- 
ous danger from wandering bands of Indians when conducting 
scientific work outside of the immediate vicinity of the settle- 
ments. Under such circumstances that his results should have 
been so accurate is a little short of phenomenal. 

Before proceeding farther it may be well to direct attention 
to some of the salient points brought out by these early inves- 
tigations. “Die Kreidebildungen” is not entirely devoted to 
the Cretaceous or Chalk formation of Texas, for, in addition 
to a detailed consideration of that formation and its fossils, 
the introduction treats of such topics as the following: ‘‘Geo- 
graphic Position and General Orographic Character of Tex- 
as,” in which the greater topographic features of the state, with 
the exception of the western mountains, are clearly described ; 
“General Geognostic Constitution of the Land”; “Diluvial and 
Alluvial Formations”; ‘Tertiary Formations’; Older or 
Paleozoic Strata”; and “Plutonic Rocks.” The appendix, 
moreover, contains descriptions of fossils from the paleozoic 
strata and descriptions of fossil woods by professor Unger. 
In view of the above outline it scarcely need be said that this 
work has been a fruitful source of inspiration to all who have 
made a special study of the topographic and geologic features 
of this region. That it as well as the earlier descriptive volume 
should not have been translated into English long ago is some- 
what remarkable. Concerning the geological map in the ear- 
lier volume, based upon Wilson’s geographic map, it is fair to 
say that the general features of the state are well shown and 
with an unexpected degree of accuracy. 


134 The American Geologist. March, 2a 

But Roemer’s American studies were by no means confined 
to Texas. In 1860 he published “Die Silurische Fauna des 
Westlichen Tennessee; eine Palaeontologische Monographie,” 
with five plates. 

In June, 1848, he became Privat Docent in mineralogy and 
paleontology at Bonn. That his studies in Texas were still 
uppermost in thought is apparent from the title of his proba- 
tionary discourse, “Eine iibersichliche Darstellung der Geog- 
nostischen Verhiltnisse von Texas.” His natural gifts as a 
teacher rendered possible, in 1855, the call to an ordinary pro- 
fessorship in the University at Breslau, in connection with 
which he became director of the mineralogical cabinet. Here 
he found a few minerals, scarcely sufficient to meet the needs 
of instruction in a realschule, stored away in most inaccessible 
quarters. At once he determined to undertake the laborious 
task of making a great collection. How well he succeeded is 
shown by the fact that he left to his successor one of the rich- 
est and best arranged collections of minerals and fossils in any 
of the Prussian universities. 

In 1861, to the great satisfaction of his colleagues and 
friends, he declined a flattering call to Gottingen. Five years 
later, in 1866, his fidelity and labor were rewarded by the re- 
moval of his collections into a new and commodious building, 
erected largely after his own plans, on the Oder between 
Schuhbriticke and Universitatsplatz. In arranging the collec- 
tions in their new appartments Dr. Roemer was ably assisted 
by Oberbergrath Martin Websky, who under his influence soon 
resolved to devote himself entirely to science, becoming first 
extraordinary professor at Breslau and later the successor of 
Gustav Rose at Berlin. It was not a small matter to have 
discovered such a man. But his influence with his students 
~vas also great, for on the list of those, who, under the inspira- 
tion of his teaching, took upon themselves science as a life 
work we find such names as H. Credner, W. Dames, Kk. Hintze, 
Cl. Schtiter, Th. Liebisch, H. Eck, K. von Seeback, T. Tietze, 
and others who have gained recognition in the learned world. 
Indeed, no better evidence of his unusual power as a teacher is 
needed. Says one of his students: “His love of teaching, his 
ready utterance, his kindly care for his pupils remained un- 
changed to the end. When well advanced in years he taught 


Dr. Ferdinand von Roemer. 135 


with the same zeal, the same vivacity, and the same clearness 
that characterized his work when a young man.,’’* 

While his activity in the routine duties of his professorship 
was very great it was not less in the direction of research and 
investigation. In the Neues Jahrbuch f. Min. Geol. und Pal. 
Dr. Dames has listed over 350 titles of publications in the 
interval between his graduation in» 1842 and his death in 
1891, many of which represent long and patient in- 
vestigations. While it would not be possible’ within 
the limits of this sketch even to mention all the subjects cov- 
ered, for they are of wide range, attention may be called to a 
few other than those already alluded to in the preceding pages. 
During the years 1852-1854 he published in connection with 
its author a revision of H. G. Bronn’s ‘‘Lithaea geognostica oder 
Abbildung und Beschreibung der ftir die Gebirgs-Forma- 
tionen bezeichnenedsten Versteinerungen. Bd. I. 2: Palaeo- 
Lethaea; Kohlen-Periode (Silur, Devon, Kohlen-und Zechs- 
tein-ormation).” More than twenty years Tater we find 
him again engaged upon an enlarged and revised edition of 
this work. The atlas, with 65 plates, appeared in 1876; in 
1880 the first part of the text, and in 1883 the second part. It 
is a matter of regret that he did not live to complete this un- 
dertaking. In 1861 he published “Die Fossile Fauna der Sil- 
urischen Diluvial-Geschiebe von Sadewitz bei Ols in Nieder- 
schlesien.” This was in the form of a “Gratulationsschrift” 
of the Silesian Society to the Breslau University at its jubilee 
held that year. 

In July 1862 the preparation of a geognostic map of Up- 
per Silesia on the scale of I : 100,000 was authorized by the 
Prussian Ministers of Commerce, Trade and Public Works 
and Roemer was selected to direct its construction. For 
eight years assisted by O. Degenhart, H. Eck and A. Halfer, 
he devoted himself to this work and at the same time made 
numerous short contributions announcing new discoveries in 
the geology and paleontology of that region. These served 
as forerunners of the “Geologie von Oberschlesien,” a work 
in three volumes published in 1870, which contained the com- 
plete results of the investigations of himself and his assistants. 
The great value of this publication is evident when we take in 


*Danes. 


136 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


to consideration that up to this time little was known of the 
geology of the province which had long been famous for the 
value of its mineral deposits. 

After the publication of this work he found time not only 
to rewrite portions of Lethaea Palaeozoica, to which reference 
has already been made, but to prepare numerous smaller con- 
tributions treating of his investigations and studies among 
which may be found the first observations upon the discovery 
of diluvial mammals in the low plain of northern Germany, es- 
pecially in Silesia and Poland. So great was his interest in 
this direction that later he undertook an investigation of the 
Polish bone caves concerning which he published, in 1883, a 
large work bearing the title “Die Knochenhdlen von Ojcow 
in Poland” (Palaeontographica, 29). This was translated 
into English by John Edward Lee, under the title “The Bone | 
Caves of Ojcow in Poland’, and published the following year 
in London. 

As further evidence of Roemer’s great activity it may be 
remarked that he had already prepared and published (1880) 
a description of the Carboniferous limestone fauna of the 
west coast of Sumatra—‘Uber eine Kohlenkalk fauna der 
Westkiiste von Sumatra” (Paleontographica 27)—based up- 
on a fine collection sent him in 1876 by Verbeek. 

In 1885 appeared Lethaea erratica (Palacont. Abhandlg. 
von Dames u. Keyser, Bd. II. 5. Berlin) embracing an enum- 
eration and description of the boulders occuring in the North 
German plain. Among his papers published in 1887 is the 
description of a fossil crustacean from the Shoal Creek region 
near Austin entitled “Graptocarcinus Texanus, eine Brachyure 
aus der oberen Kreide von Texas” with an illustration (N. 
Jahrb. f. Min. etc., 1887, Bd. I. 173). The next year he pub- 
lished the description of “‘Macraster, eine neue Spatangoiden- 
Gattung aus der Kreide von Texas” (N. Jahrb. f. Min., ete., 
1888, Bd. I. 191) represented by M. Texanus from George- 
town. The same year he also published “Uber eine durch 
die Haufigkeit Hippuriten-artiger Chamiden ausgezeichnete 
Fauna der oberturonen Kreide yon Texas.” (Paleontol. Abh. 
Bd. IV. 3, Plates). The fauna here considered is from Bar- 
ton’s creek, a well-known locality a short distance southwest 
of Austin. Of the twenty-one species described he regarded 


Dr. Ferdinand von Roemer. 137 


eighteen as new. Objection has been well taken by the stu- 
dents of Texan geology to the assignment of this fauna to 
the Upper Huronian for, as a matter of fact, the strata are 
Lower Cretaceous, and cannot be correlated with that form- 
ation. 

But Roemer was a mineralogist as well as a geologist ana 
paleontologist. In a practical way this was shown in his 
great work at the Breslau Museum. His love for minerals 
was strong and his knowledge such that he was envied by the 
younger men who specialized in that line. It has, however, 
been said that his greatest service to mineralogy was that he 
“saved” to that science the incomparable Websky. 

Again, Roemer was a man of wide experience in travel. 
Not only did he visit North America, but in Europe every 
country and some countries several times; England in 1851, 
1866, 1871, and 1876; Ireland in 1883; Holland and Belgium 
in 1854; Sweden in 1856 and 1878; Austria and Upper Italy 
in 1857; Piedmont and Bohemia in 1858; Norway in 1859; 
France in 1860; Russia in 1861; Turkey in 1863; Spain In 
1864 and 1872; Switzerland in 1869. These journeys, his 
numerous publications and an unusual aptitude in acquiring 
foreign languages, made him probably the best known Ger- 
man geologist of his time. 

As would naturally be expected, his long and active career 
brought him many honors both at home and abroad: in recog- 
nition of his great service to science he was invested with a 
title by the state and elected to membership in many of the 
learned societies, among which may be mentioned the Geo- 
logical Society of London, ‘1859; the Royal Academy of Sci- 
ence, Berlin, 1869; the Imperial Academy of Science, St. 
Petersburg, 1874; the Royal Bavarian Academy of Science, 
Munich, 1885. In the year last mentioned he was also the 
recipient of the Murchison medal of the Geological Society. 

'Roemer’s knowledge was not, however, entirely confined 
to science, though its range here was surprisingly great; he 
was also well informed in the classics and belle letters. His 
nature was winning, his manner attractive, and his influence 
with the young great. It scarcely need be said that he had 
many friends and admirers. Although happily married for 
twenty-three years he. was childless, yet his love of children 


138 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


was shown in the rearing of lis wife’s nieces as his daughters. 
It was his great good fortune to be able to look back upon 
a life rich in opportunities and fruitful in results. He had 
expressed the hope that the end might find him in the full 
possession of his powers rather than burdened with the in- 
firmities of old age, and his wish was granted. He died at 
Breslau on December 14, 1891, in his seventy-fourth year. 


Publications of Dr. von Roemer upon Subjects relating 
to North America. 

1846.- 

A sketch of the Geology of Texas. (Am. Jour. Sci. 
and Arts, II. Ser. Vol. II. 358.) 

1848. 

Uber ein bisher nicht beschreibenes Exemplar von Euryp- 
terus aus Devon-Schichten des Staates New York in Nord- 
amerika. (Palaeontographica, Bd. I.) 

Uber Hall’s Palaeontologie des Staates New York. 
(Neues Jahrbuch ftir Min., Geol. u. Pal.) 

Neue Art Blumenbachium und mehrere unzweifelhafte 
Spongien aus dem Obersilur-Kalke von Tennessee. (Neues 
Jahrb. f. Min.) 

Geologen-Versammlung zu Boston. Reisebericht. (Neues 
Jahrb. f. Min.) 

Neue Arten von Pseudocrinites und Prunocystites in 
Gross-Britannien und Nordamerika. (Neues Jahrb. f. Min.) 

Contributions to the Geology of Texas. (Am, Jour. Sci. and 
Arts, IL. Ser. vol, vi. 27.) 

. 1849. 

Beitrage zur Geologie von Texas. (Neues Jahrb. f. Min.) 

Texas, Mit besonderer Riicksicht auf deutsche Auswander- 
ung und die physischen Verhaltnisse des Landes. Mit einer 
Karte. Bonn: Adolph Marcus. 

1852. 

Die Kreidebildungen von Texas und ihr organischen 

Einschlusse. Bonn: Adolph Marcus. 
1853. 

Geologische Arbeiten tiber Texas. (Neues Jahrb. f. Min.) 

Vergleich b6mische und Nordamerika nischer silur-bildung- 
en. (N. Jahrb. f. Min.) 


Dr. Ferdinand von Roemer. 139 


: 1854. 
Uber ein Echinid aus dem Kohlenkalke von St. Louis am 
Mississippi. (Sitszungsber. d. niederrh. Ges. Marz.) 

Dorycrinus, ein neues Crinoidengeschlecht aus dem NWeh- 

lenkalke Nordamerikas. (Arch. f. Naturgesch. Jahrb. XIX. 1.) 
1855. 

Uber den Bau von Melonites multipora, ein Echinid aus 
dem amerikanischen Kohlenkalk. (Arch. f. Naturgeschich. 
Jahrg. XX.) 

Uber Calceola Tennesseeensis. (Verh. d. naturh. Ver. f. 
Rheinl. u. Westph.) 

Uber Melonites multipora Norwood. (Ver)h. d. Naturh 
Ver. f. Rheinl. u. Westph. 

1856. 

Uber die Fahrten des Sauropus primaevus im rothen 
Sandstein von Pottsville in Pennsylvania. (34. Jahresber. d. 
schles. Ges.) 

1858. 

Uber einige Mineralien aus New-Holland, Nordamerika 

und Sachen. (36. Jahresb. d. schles. Ges. 
1860. 

Die silurische Fauna des westlichen Tennessee: eine pa- 
laeontologische Monographie. Mit 5 Tafeln. Breslau. 
Silurfauna von Tennessee. (N. Jahrb. f. Min.) 

1877. 
Eurypterus lacustris von Buffalo. (55 Jahresber. d. schles. 


Ges. ) 
188o. 
Notiz tiber Belemnites ambiguus Morton aus der Kreide 
von New Jersey. (Neues Jahrb. f. Min.) 
1883. 
Uber Hall’s Gattung Dictyophyton. (61. Jahresber. d. 
_ schles. Ges. ) 
Notiz tiber die Gattung Dictyophyton. (Zeitschr. d. geol. 
Ges. 35.) 
1884. 
Sammlung von Kreide-Versteinerungen aus Texas. (62. 
Jahresber. d. schles. Ges.) 
1887. , 
Graptocarcinus Texanus, ein Brachyure aus der oberen 
Kreide von Texas. (Neues Jahrb. f. Min.) 


140 The American Geologist. March, 208s 


Uber H. v. Meyer’s Mastodon Humboldti Cuv.? aus Mex 

ico. (Neues Jahrb. f. Min.) 
1888. 

Macraster, eine neue Spatangoiden-Gattung aus der 
Kreide von Texas. Mit 1 Tafel. (Neues Jahrb. f. Min.) 

Uber eine durch die Haufigkeit Hippuriten-artiger Cham- 
iden ausgezeichnete Fauna der oberturonen Kreide von Texas. 
(Palaeontol. Abh. Bd. IV. 3 Tafeln. 
School of Geology, University of Texas. 


THE RATE OF LATERAL EROSION AT NIAGARA. 


By PROF. G. FREDERICK WRIGHT, Oberlin, Ohio. 


PLATES VI-VIII. 


In the Popular Science Monthly for June, t899, I presented 
the result of certain observations the year before upon the later- 
al erosion of the walls of the gorge of Niagara river near the 
edge of the escarpment at Lewiston, seven miles below the falls. 
The reader is referred to that article for several photographs 
and a profile section, drawn to scale, showing the extent of 
the enlargement at the mouth of the gorge upon the east side. 
Briefly the results of the measurements then made are, that 
the Niagara limestone, which is the upper stratum throughout 
and is here 340 feet above the river, has been undermined and 
broken off 388 feet since the erosion of the gorge began. But, 
in order to get an approximate idea of the time required to ac- 
complish that amount of lateral enlargement, it is necessary 
to obtain the rate at which the face of the precipice is crumb- 
ling away under the influence of subaérial agencies. To get 
light upon this point, I was again commissioned in 1899, by 
the New York Central Railroad to spend such time as was 
necessary for investigations leading to more definite results. 
In pursuance of this, a week was spent, with competent en- 
gineers as assistants, in determining the actual extent to which 
the crumbling away of the rocks has proceeded since the rail- 
road was built, in 1854. 

The accompanying diagram shows how the road crosses 
the several strata as it gradually descends the face of the 
gorge. (Plate VI.) It is necessary only to add: 


a ale BEL OEE: 
Saritess ry rc ' ’ 
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LaPeer ey pT 


LIBRARY 


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OF THE 


UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS 


XXIX., 


EOLOGIST, VOL. 


AMERICAN 


THE 


if ’ 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Vol. X XIX. PLATE VIII. 


ph tg EPG A SIE ERAN BME 


OF THE 
UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS. 


- 7 


“~~ fn \t 


Rate of Niagara Lateral Erosion.—Wight. 141 


1st. That the Niagara limestone is continuous at the sur- 
face up to the falls, gradually increasing in thickness along 
the edge of the gorge. At the escarpment near Lewiston, this 
limestone is only twenty feet thick; one mile up the gorge, it 
is nearly fifty feet, and at the present cataract it is seventy or 
eighty feet thick. 

2d. The Niagara shale preserves throughout a pretty uni- 
form thickness of from sixty to seventy feet, and does not any- 

, where exhibit any very marked variations in its composition. 

3d. The Clinton limestone presents throughout the sec- 

tion a continuous and very compact stratum from fifteen to 
twenty feet in thickness. 

* 4th. Between the Clinton limestone and the quartzose 
Medina sandstone, the space is occupied by about seventy feet 
of material which is rapidly crumbling away where exposed, 
although there are in it two or three bands of limestone and 
sandstone. These, however, are not sufficiently compact to 
present any serious obstacle to the eroding forces. The lower 
part of it is especially friable. 

To get a basis for future comparison, we first measured 
from the outer base of the arch of the tunnel along the outside 
rail southward for a distance of 7,500 feet. We could not well 
mark the stations permanently; but, as the railroad is not 
likely to be shifted to any appreciable extent, or, if it is, there 
will be a record of it, future observers can find the exact points 
of our sections with little trouble by measuring again from 
our starting-point. 

At two places the opportunity was specially favorable for 
observation. As will be seen by referring to our section, the 
Medina and Clinton shales are accessible in an exposure be- 
tween 800 and 1,100 feet from the tunnel; while the Niagara 
shale is accessible between 6,000 and 7,000 feet from it. In 
the first of these places, we made sixteen profile sections, from 
which we can obtain, with considerable exactness, the rate at 
which the Clinton and Medina shales crumble away. At the 
second place we made six profile sections, which secure the 
same results for the Niagara shales. 

Section I. was made at 860 feet from the tunnel in the 
Clinton shale. Measuring from the outer rail, it was four- 
teen feet to the original foot of the cut, and twenty-eight feet 


142 The American Geologist. March, 1998 


Hy 
i 


| 


Clinton 
Sh. 


Ai aygara as. 


Seo J See IL 


SECTIONS IN THE NIAGARA GORGE. 


to the farthest line of erosion fourteen feet above the foot; that 
is, the extreme erosion here was fourteen feet in fifty-five 
years. The average of fifteen measurements in the Clinton 
shale between 800 and 1,100 feet, at twenty-foot intervals, was 
13.6 feet for the extreme amount of erosion in fifty-five years, 
being three inches per year. 

Section II. was made 6,317 feet from the tunnel, in the 
Niagara shale. The foot of the cut was thirteen feet from the 
outer rail, and the greatest lateral extent of erosion, thirty- 
three feet, making the amount twenty feet in fifty-five years. 
The average amount of greatest erosion along this exposure, 
as shown by eleven measurements between 6,140 and 7,325 
feet from the tunnel, was 14.8 feet, or three and one-quarter 
inches per year. 

From this it appears that the rate at which the Clinton and 
the Niagara shale crumble away where unprotected is one and 
a half inches per year, that being the actual rate at which it 
has crumbled along the faces where measurements were made. 


~ pie) Saal . 
a 7 . 


Rate of Niagara Lateral Erosion.—Wright. 143 


The question as to how much protection has been afforded 
by the talus and the growth of vegetation cannot be definitely 
answered. But as our photographs show, the Niagara shale 
has not been protected at all by talus, and only slightly by veg- 
etation; and, indeed, it is doubtful if the trees growing upon 
such a steep slope are any protection in the long run. They are 
all small, and none of them are old. They are uprooted before 


they are old, and thereby loosen the soil to which they cling. 


It is true that the fragments of shale tend to arrange them- 
selves somewhat like shingles on a roof, and so shed the water 
to some extent. But the frosts and the frequent heavy showers 
are constantly disturbing this arrangement. It therefore 
seems entirely within the bounds of probability that the lateral 
erosion of the Niagara shale at the mouth of the gorge has 
proceeded at one-seventh the rate observed at the exposures 
measured, which is one-quarter of an inch per year, or one 
foot in fifty years. This is the amount necessary to accomplish 
the total enlargement in 10,000 years. 

Photograph 1 shows the tunnel which is the starting-point for our 
measurement. The rocks exposed are the lower part of the Clinton 
shale and the upper part of the Medina. 

Photograph 2 shows the exposure of the eastern side of the lower 
end of the gorge as viewed from the Canada side. The exposed sur- 
face of the Niagara shale is well seen, together with the relation of 
the Niagara limestone to the Clinton limestone. 

Photograph 3 gives a closer view of the exposure of the Niagara 
shale between the Niagara limestone and the Clinton limestone, about 
5,000 feet from the tunnel. 

Photograph 4 shows the erosion of the Clinton shale at about 
1,500 feet from the tunnel. 


NOTE ON A NEW XIPHOSURAN FROM THE UP- 
PER DEVONIAN OF PENNSYLVANIA. 


By C. E. BEECHER, New Haven, Ct. 


The species of Prestwichia here described is chiefly inter- 
esting as being considerably older than any known form in this 
genus, and as showing the segmental structure of the cephalo- 
thorax. 

The members of the family Belinuridze seem to have 
reached their greatest development during the deposition of 
the Coal Measures, and a considerable number have been de- 


144 Tne American Geologist. March, 12m 


scribed from this horizon, in Europe and America. The only 
Devonian type hitherto noted from America is the Protolimu- 
lus eriensis of H. S. Williams (sp.), from the Chemung 
group in Erie county, Pennsylvania. It is therefore of some 
importance to be able to add a second distinct form, belonging 
to another genus, and occurring at nearly the same geological 
horizon. 

The species here described, and referred to Prestwichia, 
was discovered in the sandstones of the Upper Chemung group, 
near Ackley Station, Warren county, Pennsylvania, by Mr. F. 
A. Randall of Union City, Pa. Three examples of the cephalo- 
thorax are represented in the collection, varying somewhat in 
size, but clearly belonging to the same species. Since the ab- 
domen in this form is unknown, the principal diagnostic char- 
acter between the genera Prestwichia and Belinuris can not be 
applied, yet the size and general expression of the cephalo- 
thorax agree more closely with the known species of Prest- 
wichia. On this account, the present type is referred to the 
latter genus with little hesitation. 

The writer takes pleasure in dedicating this species to his 
lifelong friend, Mr. F. A. Randall, in recognition of his im- 
portant services on the geology and paleontology of Warren 
county, Pennsylvania. 


Prestwichia randalli, n. sp. (Figure 1.) 


Cephalothorax crescentic, convex, with a slight depression in front; 
width more than twice the length; anterior border somewhat subquad- 
rate in outline; posterior margin concave; genal angles broad, angular, 
apparently not extending into spines. 

The glabellar region is marked by a conical elevation along the mid- 
dle, extending about two-thirds the length of the cephalothorax, and 
terminating at the apex in a distinct node. There is a ridge on each 
side of this node, extending outward, then curving backward nearly 
parallel to the axial cone, and joining the posterior margin. The spaces 
enclosed between the conical axis and the outer ridges are each marked 
by five, low, rounded nodes, which may be considered as lobes of the 
glabella and are thus indicative of its segmental nature as well as of a 
corresponding number of paired appendages on the ventral side. 

The eyes seem to have been situated on rather prominent elevations 
of the ridges limiting the glabellar area. Their location is represented 
by the exfoliated spots in the figure here given. Another specimen, not 
illustrated, shows the position of the eyes more closely, though from 
the coarseness of the rock no definite details can be observed. 


Note on a New Xiphosuran.—Beecheyr. 145 


FIGURE 1. Prestwichia randalli. The type specimen; one and one-half 
times natural size. Chemung group, Warren county, Pennsylvania, 


The proximal genal regions are marked by flattened areas, defined 
by a slight angulation of the contour. These areas evidently corre- 
spond to the concavities on the ventral side, adjacent to the space occu- 
pied by the attached basal joints of the gnathopodites. 

Abdomen and telson unknown, 

The type specimen, consisting of a cephalothorax minus the right 
cheek, has a length of about 20 mm. The width from the center of the 
glabella to the outer margin is 22 mm., making the entire width 44 mm. 
The glabellar cone has a width of nearly 7 mm. at the base and tapers 
to a width of 2.5 mm. at the apex. A fragment of a larger cephalo- 
thorax has a length of 24 mm. A third specimen shows the entire out- 
line of the cephalothorax, and has a width of 46 mm. 

On account of the meagerness of the material, not many 
features can be used for a comparison of this species with 
Protolimulus eriensis Williams. The most obvious differences 
consist in the absence of the long, stout, genal spines, and the 
proportionately wider cephalothorax. <A species of Belinurus 
(B. kiltorkensis Baily) has been described by Woodward* 
from the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Ireland, and this Is 
also quite distinct from the present form in having genal 
spines and a relatively longer cephalothorax. 

The lobation at the sides of the axis may be compared with 
that in the glabella of many trilobites, and may be likewise 
indicative of the number and arrangement of the paired ap- 
pendages beneath. The median node at the end of the conicaf 
axis probably denotes the position of the forcipulate antennz 
which were doubtless close together in front of the mouth, as 
in Limulus. The lateral or jaw lobes are five in number and 
of nearly the same dimensions, from which it may be inferred 


*A Monograph of the British Fossil Crustacea of the Order Merostomata, 
party, p.2838. Palaeontographical Society, 1878. 


146 The American Geologist. 


that the gnathopodites were quite uniform in size and less 
differentiated than in Eurypierus and Pterygotus. 

Yale University Museum, New Haven, Conn., February 5, 
1902. 


THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CRYSTALLINE 
CEMENTS. 


By Eow1s C. Ecket, N. Y. State Museum, Albany, N. Y. - 


The past few years have been chiefly notable, in economic 
geology, for the number of papers which have been devoted to 
discussions of the occurrence of cement materials or of the tech- 
nology of various classes of cements. In such of these papers 
as were not confined to a consideration of only one type of ce- 
ment, some attempt at classification of the cements has usually 
been made. Two prominent types of these schemes of classi- 
fication may be described as the geological, based upon the 
relations existing between the raw materials of the different 
cements; and the engineering, based almost entirely upon the 
variations in one quality, hydraulicity. Both these plans, if 
carried to their logical conclusions, result in certain incon- 
gruities of grouping. In the following pages an attempt has 
been made to formulate a classification which shall be at once 
rational and practical. In the preparation of a scheme such 
as the following, adapted to the various cements now made, 
it has been necessary to neglect certain relations, more general, 
perhaps, than any which are made use of, but not well adapted 
as bases for a working classification. Prominent among the 
relations which have been neither used nor overlooked, is that 
existing between the members of a series which would begin 
with pure lime and pass through the. hydraulic limes to the 
true cements. Certain practical difficulties prevent the recog- 
nition, in any present day classification, of this relation. For 
in such a theoretically perfect series, Portland cement could 
not be considered to be more than one particular point in the 
transition from pure calcium oxide to pure tri-calcic silicate. 
A statement to that effect, even though justified on theoretical 
grounds, would be extremely inadvisable at present; for it 1s 
only (comparatively) lately that the practical differences be- 
tween this, the most important of our cements, and the slag 


The Crystalline Cements.—Eckel. 147 


(pozzuolanic) and socalled “natural Portland” cements has 
been recognized by the public. So far as present practice is 
concerned, several fairly well-marked types of cements are 
manufactured, and any attempt to minimize, on purely theor- 
etical grounds, the value of the generally accepted definitions 
of these types would be a serious error. The more purely the- 


. oretical aspects of the question will, if possible, be discussed 


in a future paper. 

The scheme of classification presented below is based pri- 
marily upon the amount of chemical change caused by the 
processes of manufacture and use; and secondarily upon the 
chemical composition of the cement after setting. Though 
not perfect it is believed to be more consistent and 
complete than any hitherto used. The present paper, 
which is a summary of that part of the discussion of greatest 
interest to geologists, will be followed by a more detailed dis- 
cussion of the technology and properties of the various cement- 
ing materials, to be published in a technical journal. It is prob- 
able that some revision of the grouping here given will be both 
necessary and possible before the more detailed paper is issued ; 
and the writer invites discussion and criticism of the material 
here presented. 


CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENTS. 


I. Simple Cements. Includes all those cementing mater- 
ials which are produced by the expulsion of a liquid or gas 
from the raw material; and whose set is due to the simple re- 
absorption of the liquid or gas and a re-assumption of original 
composition. | 

I. a. Hydrate Cements; set due to reabsorption of water. 

I. b. Carbonate Cements; set due to reabsorption of car- 
bon dioxide. 

II. Complex Cements: Includes all those cementing ma- 
terials whose set is due to the formation of new compounds 
during manufacture or use. 

II. a. Silicate Cement: Set due to the formation of sil- 
icates. 

II. b. Oxychloride Cements: Set due to the formation 
of oxychlorides. 


’ 


148 The American Geologist. March, (77% 


I. SIMPLE CEMENTS. 


The raw materials from which cements of the present 
group are made occur in nature as hydrous calcium sulphate 
(gypsum) ; calcium carbonate (calcite, “limestone” ) ; and cal- 
cium-magnesium carbonate (dolomyte, “magnesian lime- 
stone.’’ ) 

During the processes of manufacture—of which the fund- 
amental one is simply the application of a sufficient degree of 
heat, these raw materials part with much or all of their water 
or carbon dioxide, and the resulting cements are therefore 
composed respectively of an almost anhydrous calcium sul- 
phate (“plaster-of-Paris”) ; calcium oxide (“quicklime”) or 
a mixture of calcium and magnesium oxides (magnesian lime). 

On being used in such a manner that they can more or less 
freely reabsorb the water or carbon dioxide which has been 
liberated during manufacture, the cements “set,” this “set” be- 
ing caused simply by reassumption of their original composi- 
tion. Plaster-of-Paris which has set, for example, is not chemi- 
cally distinguishable from gypsum from which it was manufac- 
tured, and, if we disregard the sand, added to counteract 
shrinkage, hardened lime mortar is nothing more or less than 
an artificial limestone. In the first subgroup of this ciass, 
water is the substance removed during manufacture and reab- 
sorbed during use; in the second, it is carbon dioxide. An in- 
termediate subgroup should really be inserted, (in order to 
make the classification theoretically complete), to include those 
cements made by driving off carbon dioxide and setting in con- 
sequence of the addition of water. Here the raw material is 
a carbonate; the set cement a hydroxide. In this subgroup 
would fall magnesia and, under certain conditions of burning, 
the magnesian limes. The definition of simple cements, given 
above, would, of course, require slight modifications. 


I. a. HYDRATE CEMENTS. 


The raw material on which all the commercial cements of 
this class are based is gypsum. By its partial dehydration is 
produced plaster-of-Paris, by far the most important member 
of the group. By the addition of relatively small amounts 
of certain other materials, and by slightly varying the processes 
of manufacture, the time of setting, hardness, and other prop- 


: 
‘ 
: 
‘ 


The Crystalline Cements.—Eckel. 149 


erties of the plaster can be changed sufficiently to warrant sep- 
arate naming of the resulting products, some of which are 
of considerable commercial importance for special uses. 
Plaster-of-Paris. Gypsum is a hydrous sulphate of calcium 
(CaSO,, 2H,O) whose composition, when pure, corresponds 


= ~ . , . * * 
to sulphate of lime 79.1%, water 20.9%. As mixed it is usually 


far from pure, carrying at times as high as 25% or even more 
of impurities, chiefly silica, alumina, oxide of iron, and calcium 
carbonate. Certain of these foreign ingredients:seem to exer- 
cise an appreciable effect upon the rate of set of the resulting 
plaster. In addition to these variations from natural causes, 
“accelerators” and “retarders” are frequently employed. 

Upon heating to about 120°-130° C. gypsum loses three- 
fourths of its water. Plaster-of-Paris, the result of this in- 
complete dehydration, is a definite hydrous calcium sulphate 
with the formula 2CaSO,, H,O, corresponding to the compo- 
sition sulphate of lime 93.8%, water 6.2%. (Complete dehy- 
dration of gypsum, which would occur at about 170° C. would 
result in the formation of an anhydrous lime sulphate corre- 
sponding to the mineral anhydrite. This completely anhy- 
drous sulphate re-hydrates very slowly, and is consequently 
of no commercial importance. ) 

Upon the addition of water, plaster-of-Paris rapidly re- 
hydrates and “sets” reassuming the composition of gypsum. 

The rate of set of plaster is regulated by the addition of 
non-crystalline materials (blood, glue, starch, etc.) which serve 
to retard the set; or of alum or borax, which accelerate it. 

Keene’s Parian, and other hard-finishing cements are made 
by adding to plaster-of-Paris a dilute solution of borax or aium, 
and, after drying, reheating at a low red heat. 


I. b. CARBONATE CEMENTS. 


The cements of this group are oxides, derived from car- 
bonates by the application of heat, and becoming recarbonated 
upon exposure, under proper conditions, to any such source of 
carbon dioxide as the atmosphere. From the examination of 
old mortars it seems probable that a certain amount of action 
takes place between the silica of the sand and the lime, result- 
ing in the formation of lime silicates ; but this effect is of slight 


i] 
150 The American Geologist. March, 190. 


importance compared with that occurring in consequence of 
the reabsorption of carbon dioxide from the air. 

Cements of this class are prepared at a higher temperature 
than are those of the preceding group, carbon dioxide requiring 
a greater degree of heat for its dissociation from . limestone 
and dolomyte than is necessary for driving off the water from 
gypsum. Both pure lime and (to a somewhat less degree) the 
magnesian limes are of great importance as building cements. 
A note at the end of the section on magnesian limes calls 
attention to the fact that, under certain conditions, they de- 
velop hydraulic properties ; but in this case their set is not due 
to recarbonation, but to the formation of magnesium hydroxide. 

Lime. On heating a relatively pure carbonate of lime to a 
sufficiently high degree, its carbon dioxide is driven off, leay- 
ing calcium oxide (CaO) or “‘quicklime.” Under ordinary con- 
ditions, dissociation is perfect until a temperature of 925° C. 
is reached; the process is greatly facilitated by blowing air 
through the kiln, or by the injection of steam. On treating 
quicklime with water, “slaking” occurs, heat being given oft 
and the hydrated calcium oxide (Ca H,O,) being formed. 
This hydrated oxide, will, upon exposure to the atmosphere, 
slowly reabsorb sufficient carbon dioxide to reassume its orig- 
inal composition as a lime carbonate. In order to counteract 
the shrinkage which takes place during this process, sand 
is invariably added in the structural use of the material; and 
it is probable that certain reactions take place between the lime 
and the silica of the sand. These, however, though doubtless 
contributing to the rapidity of set and final hardness of the 
resulting mortar, are only incidental to the principal cause— 
recarbonation. The presence of impurities in the original 
limestone affects the character of the lime produced. Of these 
impurities, the presence of silica in certain quantities gives the 
product hydraulic properties; these silica-limes will be dis- 
cussed in the next group as Hydraulic Limes. 

Magnesian Limes. The presence of any considerable 
amount of magnesium carbonate in the stone from which a 
lime is obtained has a somewhat noticeable effect upon the 
character of the product. If burned at the temperature usual 
for pure limestone, magnesium limestones give a lime which 
slakes without evolving much heat, expands less in slaking, 


The Crystalline Cements.—Eckel. 151 


and sets more rapidly than a pure lime. To this class belong 
the well known and long used limes from Canaan (Conn.), 
Tuckahoe, Pleasantville and Ossining (N. Y.), various local- 
ities in New Jersey, and Cedar Hollow ( Penn.) 

Under certain conditions of burning magnesian limes yield 
hydraulic products, but in this case, as in the case of the pro- 
duct from pure magnesite, the set seems to be due to the form- 
ation of a hydrate rather than of a carbonate. At present 
advantage is not taken of this principle in the manufacture of 
hydraulic cements. 


Il. COMPLEX CEMENTS. 


The cements of this group, though differing somewhat in 
other characters, agree in one very prominent feature; the 
(rational) composition of the cement, after setting is mark- 
edly different from that of the material, or mixture of mater- 
ials, from which the cement was manufactured. Of the sub- 
groups (silicilate cements and oxychloride cements), the 
former is of great commercial importance, while the latter is of 
interest chiefly because of the use of certain oxychloride cem- 
ents in the fabrication of several artificial stones of some im- 
portance. 

II. a. SILICILATE CEMENTS. 


The silicilate cements form a very well marked and distinct 
natural group. All the cements of this class are hydraulic, 
though varying much in the degree of hydraulicity; and, in 
all, this property of setting under water is due largely or en- 
tirely to the formation of tri-calcic silicilate (3CaO. SiO,) 
though an extensive series of other silicate or of silico-alumin- 
ates may also be found (Under the head of hydraulic limes 
will be noted one possible exception to this statement.) 

Le Chatelier has discussed this subject in great detail, one 
of his principal contributions being now readily accessible.* 

In this group are included the three great classes of cem- 
ents, (natural, Portland, pozzuolanic,) as that term is used 
by engineers, together with the hydraulic limes. 

So far as processes of manufacture are concerned, two 
very distinct sub-groups can be formed. One of these is char- 
acterized by the fact that the calcareous and siliceous elements 


*Le CHATELIER Tests of Hydraulic Cements. Trans. Am. Inst. M. Bo XVil, 


152 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


are calcined after mixture (which mixture may be either nat- 
ural or artificial). In this sub-group fall the hydraulic limes, 
and the natural and Portland cements. The pozzuolanic cem- 
ents, which fall into the second sub-group, are formed by sim- 
ple mixture, without subsequent calcination, of materials of 
proper composition, one of the materials being invariably 
slaked lime, and the other a silico-aluminous material. 

Hydraulic Limes. The presence of a certain amount of 
silica in a limestone gives hydraulic properties to the lime pro- 
duced by its calcination. Theoretically the proper composition 
for a hydraulic limestone should be calcium carbonate 86.8%, — 
silica 13.2%. The hydraulic limestones in actual use, however, 
usually carry a much higher silica percentage, reaching at 
times to 25% ; while alumina and iron are commonly present in 
quantities which may be as high as 6%. Though not positively 
detrimental to the quality of the hydraulic lime, it is probable 
that both alumina and iron may be regarded as inert, and there- 
fore negatively harmful. The lime content of the limestones 
commonly used varies from 55% to 65%. 

After burning, water is added (usually by sprinkling) to 
slake the portion of the product consisting of free lime which 
must result from burning a limestone of the composition noted 
above. The slaking of this part of the product suffices to dis- 
integrate the entire mass, so that crushing is unnecessary. 

The hydraulic limes are, relatively to the cements proper, 
feebly hydraulic. The abundance of materials suitable for the 
manufacture of natural cements has prevented the manufac- 
ture of hydraulic lime in the United States, though in Europe 
the industry is of considerable importance. 

It seems probable that some hydraulic limes low in silica 
depend for their hydraulicity entirely upon the aluminates 
found during burning, but they are of little engineering value, 
or commercial importance. 

Natural Cements, This class, which is retained because of 
engineering necessities, is very heterogeneous. As commonly 
defined, it includes all cements manufactured by burning, at 
comparatively low temperatures (i. e., below the clinkering 
point) limestones containing sufficient silica, alumina or mag- 
nesia to give a hydraulic product. The difficulty in presenting 
a comprehensive definition for the group arises from the fact 


The Crystalline Cements.—Eckel. 153 


that it contains cements very different in composition and 
character. In use, cements of this class may be distinguished 
from Portlands by their lower specific gravity, more rapid set, 
anal smaller ultimate strength. They carry 20%-30% silica, 
30% to 60% lime, 2% to 40% magnesia, 6% to 20° 
aluminum and iron. The mere statement of this range in com- 
position shows what widely different products are here in- 
cluded. The silica content is the least variable, as might in- 
deed be expected in view of the fact that to a large extent it 
causes the hydraulicity of the product. 

Portland Cement. Portland cement is the product obtained 
by burning an intimate mixture (in definite proportions) ot 
lime, silica and alumina to the point of incipient vitrefaction ; 
and pulverizing the resulting clinker. The mixture may be 
either natural or artificial, The proportions of its essential 
components, before burning, will vary little from lime 75%, 
silica and alumina 25%. The composition of the cement will 
oscillate within narrow limits about the proportions lime 60% 
silica 22%, alumina 8%. 

Portland cement is distinguished from natural cements by 
the fact that it is calcined at a higher temperature and from 
slag cements by the fact that, after calcination, no material 
is added (except a small amount of gypsum, to regulate the 
set). The specific gravity of Portland cement averages about 
ae 

The lime in the Portland cement mixture is generally de- 
rived from pure limestone or marl; the argillo-siliceous ele- 
ments from shales, clays or argillaceous limestones. 

Pozsuolanic Cements. In this sub-group are included those 
cementing materials made by mixing in proper proportions 
without subsequent calcination, powdered slaked lime with cer- 
tain alumino-siliceous materials. As to origin, the materials 
added may be artificial (blast-furnace slag) or natural (trass, 
pozzuolana, santorin). Slag is the only one of these at pres- 
ent used in the United States. 

The slag used must be basic, running high in lime. im- 
mediately on issuing from the furnaces it must be “granu- 
lated” by a jet of cold water. This material is dried and mixed 
with 15% to 40% of powdered slaked lime; and the mixture 
finely ground. 


154 The American Geologist. March, 1902 _ 


i. b. OXYCHLORIDE CEMENTS. 

Oxychloride Cements. “In 1853 Sorel discovered the fact 
that zinc chloride mixed with zinc oxide united therewith to 
form a very hard cement. A solution of magnesium chloride 
in like manner sets with magnesia, the product being in both 
cases an oxychloride.”* . 

Though cements of this class cannot well be put on the 
market as cements, the property above noted has been taken 
advantage of in the manufacture of a number of patented artt- 
ficial stones, the exact methods followed varying with the dif- 
ferent processes. “Sorel stone,” one of these, is frequently 
quoted in engineering text-books, but has never come into any 
prominent use as a structural material. 


SKETCH OF THE IRON ORES OF MINNESOTA,.+ 


By N. H. WINCHELL, Minneapolis, Minn. 


CONTENTS. 


Early opinions of its ExXistenCe........:...ceeeeeee cceeeweeeeecesenereeees 154 
Acttral Exploration .......ccccccceeee ices ceecseeseceeceeeersecteceseesscsecenes 156 
Annual production ..........c.cccee ceeeeeceeeeeceeeaeecenecnesnenceneeeareeeees 157 
Minnesota Surveys’ AQCNCY..ccccccccececee seceeceesees seserecereesenees 156 
Geological relations...........sccsesrscesscecenececsseeseees soseeecenecseoeens 157 
Origin of the ores. History of opinion. Irving, Wads- 
worth, Spurr, the writer ........ccccccsseccsee csccececencesecseveneres 159 
Prospect Of GiSCOVETICS...0....c..cceceerceceeeeereneeeeenecesene scenes enee ee 161 
Conteh welOn via cceciesd scatavcvvaccedenduscccsckes uavvunveswscvehsueswehltnaberieann 162 


The first published references to iron ore of commercial 
value in Minnesota were by geologists in the employ of the 
State or of the United States. Charles Whittlesey, of Ohio, 
was connected with the United States Geological Survey of 
D. D. Owen, in 1848 to 1850, and examined the region now 
containing these ores. Hypothetically he stated that the geo- 
logical structure warranted the expectation of iron ore north 
of lake Superior, but he did not see it, and his opinion was not 
published till 1866,+ after the State of Minnesota had instituted 
its own survey under ‘Hanchett and Eames. 


*THorre, T. BE. Dictionary dsoited Chemistry, 3rd ed. 1894, vol. i, p. 485. 


+ Paper read +4 Boise City, Idaho, before the Iuternational Mining Con- 
gress, July 24, 190 


t Report of Ss scethoss in the Mineral regions of Minnesota during the 
years 1848, 1859 and 1864. Cleveland, 1866, p. 10. 


——— rl 


Tron Ores of Minnesota.—IlWVinchell, 155 


Dr. Hanchett, in his report for 1864, states that he had 
seen samples of rich hematite from the vicinity of Vermilion 
lake, and had made an ineffectual effort to see the ore in 
place.* Mr. H. H.. Eames, however, in 1865, succeeded in 
reaching the spot, and his report for that year contains the 
first description of the Vermilion Iron range at any point.} 

Nothing further was known of this locality till 1t was re- 
ported on again by the State Geological Survey in 1878.% 
From that date to the examination of Prof. H. H. Chester 


‘(published in 1884), no further public knowledge was pos- 


sessed of the Vermilion range, although Prof. Chester’s ex- 
aminations were made in 1875 and 1880. Being for private 
parties, the information was not published until 1884.$ There- 
after the Minnesota reports contained almost annually some 
report on the Vermilion Iron range. 

The Mesabi Iron range was first noted by J. G. Norwood, 
of the survey of D. D. Owen, near Gunflint lake, in 1850. It 
was noted and reported by H. H. Eames at Prairie river, near 


the western extremity of the range in 1866.|| Midway _be- 
tween these extremes this range was discovered by the United 


States land surveyors, by reason of the magnetic character of 
the ore there contained in it. Exploration, however, did not 
turn out well at this point. The examinations of Prof. Ches- 
ter, in 1875, under the instigation of Mr. Geo. H. Stone, were 
directed to this part of the range, and his examination of the 
Vermilion range at this time was incidental, and was done by 
Geo. R. Stuntz and John Mallmann, who had been sent out 
by him. Prof. Chester’s report on that part of the Mesabi 
range was unfavorable, and nothing has transpired since to 
invalidate his conclusions. Other explorations followed, viz., 
in 1886, at Gunflint lake, and in 1888 at Mesabi station. Cap- 
italists also entered upon the range eastward from Prairie 
river, where experimental test-pits and shafts were sunk under 
direction of Mr. Eli Griffin. In the fall of 1890 the first im- 
portant discovery of iron was made, viz., the -Mountain Iron 


* Report of the State Geologist, AUG. H. HANCHETT, M. D., St. Paul. 1864. 
+ Report of the State Geologist, Henry H. a on the metalliferous 
region borderiug on lake Superior, St. Paul, 1866, p. 

{ Geological and Natural History Survey of 5, wad Ninth Annual Re- 
port. 1880, pp. 103 and 104. 

§ The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, Eleventh An- 
nual Report, 1884, p. 160. 

|| Geological Reconnoissance of the Northern Middle and other counties of 
Minnesota, by Henry H. Eames, State Geologist, St. Paul, 1866, pp. 35, 56. 


March, 1902 


) 


156 The American Geologist. 


mine. As with the-Vermilion range, the Minnesota Survey 
followed all the developments and sometimes guided them and 
prior to this date had mapped the range from Gunflint lake 
to the Mississippi river. This map was published in the 
spring of 1891,* and was widely distributed. After the publi- 
cation of this map, and the report which accompanied it, ex- 
plorations were more systematic and less expensive. 

Attention should be called, at this point, to an important 
fact bearing on the utility of geological surveys. It will be 
noted that both iron ranges were discovered by geologists con- 
nected with official surveys, and that in their reports they 
called attention to the probable future value of these deposits. 
When the lately closed survey of Minnesota was engaged in 
that part of the state, the annual reports repeated and empha- 
sized the importance of these ores, describing them as fully 
as the circumstances would permit, and urging the citizens of 
the state to take steps to retain their Wealth within the state 
rather than have it diverted to eastern capitalists. Elsewhere 
the writer has made use of the following language: 

“Geological surveys are sometimes accused of not discoy- 
ering anything. Their function is described to be, to estimate 
and map out and describe discoveries made by others. They 
cannot go into the field equipped with the necessary tools for — 
digging and blasting. The practical explorer and the actual 
iriner must do that. The explorer is a scout who usually pre- 
cedes all strictly geological surveying, and the miner is the 
rank and file of the regular army which opens up the mining 
industry and leads to the advance of other modern industries. 
The geological survey of a state may be considered, in general - 
terms, a corps of ‘sappers and miners,’ or skilled engineers, 
ready to serve in any emergency, to guide in explorations, to 
construct and repair bridges, or to conduct the whole cam- 
paign, as cceasion arises. At least that has been the function 
of the Minnesota survey in respect to the development of the 
iron ores. They were discovered on both ranges by the State 
Geological Survey, under Mr. Eames, who made the first 
known description of them. They have been repeatedly pub- 


+ ae : andialice 
* The iron Ores of Minnesota, Bulletin vi, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur. Minn., 
Minneapolis, 1891, p. 112 and map. 


+ Discovery and development of the iron ores of Minnesota. Collections of 
the Minnesota Historical Society, vol. viii, p. 33, 1895 [1898]. 


Tron Ores of Minnesota.—lV inchell. 157 


lished by the present survey, and the trend of the Mesabi range 
was actually mapped prior to the discovery of any of the great 
ore bodies that are now known at Biwabik and Virginia.” 
The Geological Survey has been in the heat of the campaign 
from the beginning to the present. It has seen every test-pit, 
and has noticed the result. It has advised every mining com- 
pany, at least if its advice was asked. It has urged explora- 
tions in certain places, and it has had the unpleasant duty to 
discourage it in others, sometimes after many thousands of 
dollars had been invested. It has been a constant attendant, 
and sometimes a leader, in every important phase of this 
march.” ‘ 

Since the commencement of shipments of iron ore from 
Minnesota, the state has steadily advanced in rank amongst 
the iron-producing states. The first shipment was made in 
1884. Last year the amount shipped was 9,834,399 long tons, 
and that of Michigan, the leader in this industry, was but 92,- 
328 long tons greater, these two states furnishing more than 
one-third the total output of the United States. 

Geological relations. While the ores now exploited are de- 
rived from two formations, there are four formations in Min- 
nesota that contain notable amounts of iron ore, and these all 
may in the future become productive in commercial amounts. 
These formations are as follows, the oldest at the bottom: 

1. The Cabotian gabbro. | ee 

2. The Animikie taconyte 3 

3. The Upper Kewatin jaspilyte. } 

4. The Lower Kewatin jaspilyte. 3 

Of these, Nos. 2 and 4 are at present the only productive 
formations. The former (No. 2) is found in the Mesabi 
range and the latter (No. 4) on the Vermilion range. They 
both furnish hematite, that from the Mesabi range being 
“soft,” and that from the Vermilion range being usually hard. 
The Chandler mine at Ely, however, on the Vermilion range, 
supplies an ore that is easily mined, and is sometimes denom- 
inated “soft.” Some of the largest mines on the Mesabi range 
are simply great open pits, from 50 to 150 feet deep, into 
which steam cars and steam shovels are run on a gentle grade, 


Archean. 


+ This map, however, was not published till June, 1891, shortly after the 
first important discovery, the Mountain Iron Mine, wus publicly known. 


158 The American Geologist. March, 20% 


the ore being scooped up by the steam shovel and dumped, 
without assortment or washing, upon the ore cars standing ad- 
jacent, and thence carried direct to the shipping point on lake 
Superior. But the mines on the Vermilion range are deep, 
underground, many-chambered excavations. The enclosing 
rock of the Vermilion range is a green-stone, usually alternat- 
ing with the iron ore sheets or strata, and varying to a strati- 
fied, water-laid rock showing plainly its oceanic origin. Al- 
ternations of strata of jasperoid silica with but little iron, with 
a green schist, or slate, are not an uncommon feature of the 
Lower Kewatin. The ore itself is a form of jaspilyte, a banded 
siliceous rock that occurs as lenses of greater or less size in the 
greenstone of the region. These bands are usually much con- 
torted, varying from pure white silica in very fine grain to 
brown, purple and black in proportion as the ores of iron share 
in their composition. Hence, they present a handsome out- 
ward aspect. Being firmer than the surrounding rock, such jas- 
pilyte lenses frequently stand isolated high above the surround- 
ing surface. These contorted lenses, which are the most valuable 
as ore bodies, seem to have the structure of rhyolitic lavas, the 
banding being due to an original fluidal structure, and it is in 
the periphery of these primary lenses that occur inter-lamina- 
tions of the fine silica with the green schists, denoting the action 
of sedimentation. Still, very large amounts of banded Jasperoid 
silica are apparently wholly of sedimentary origin, so far as the 
same is indicated by the straight banding, and by admixture 
with the green schists. On the Mesabi range the ore is in lenses 
as on the Vermilion range, but these lenses are of soft ore, and 
have a tendency to retire from observation. The lenses, more- 
over, are not composed of contorted laminations, but of 
straight or but slightly wavy strata, which can be seen to ex- 
tend from one end to the other. In these lenses the ore ceases 
to the right or left, or up or down in the stratification, by grad- 
ual change in the nature of the rock. This is not always by 
an increase in silica, which is the gangne impurity on the Ver- 
milion range, but by the encroachment of an impure ore known 
as taconyte. This taconyte is of two sorts, viz., (1) a sili- 
ceous granular rock, essentially like the ore itself but worth- 
less as ore because of the high per cent of silica, and (2) a 
gray or brownish amorphous rock which is neither ore nor 


Iron Ores of Minnesota.—IVinchell. 159 


silica, but which still contains both substances. The transi- 
tion to this rock is not always abrupt, but sometimes it is quite 
gradual, there being a gradation or alteration from the rock to 
the ore. Underlying the ore horizon is almost always a-sand- 
stone or quartzyte, although this is wanting at the eastern end 
of the range and the ore comes directly on the granite or 
greenstone of the Archean. Overlying the ore is a black slate, 
and this black slate is also somewhat inter-stratified in the ore 
at a few points. This black slate becomes more siliceous and 
coarse, making quartzyte, and develops into a great thickness. 
Unconformably over the whole country the Cretaceous ocean 
deposited its own sediments, but these have as yet been found 
only in isolated places, and they present no obstruction to the 
prospector or the miner. The drift deposits are heavy and 
reach in some places a thickness of a hundred feet. In the 
productive part of the range the iron bearing rock, and the 
ore, are wholly hid by the drift sheet. 

The most interesting points in the natural history of the 
iron ores of Minnesota are connected with their origin. Iron 
ore, like all ores, has had a cause for its existence, some cause 
however, inherent in the operations cf nature which has pro- 
moted its accumulation at certain places in greater amount; 
for all the ores, and especially iron ore, are widely disseminat- 
ed. There is probably not an ounce of natural water on the 
face of the earth, unless it be freshly fallen from the clouds, 
that does not contain a small amount of iron in some form. 
The problem has been to learn the factors that have collected 
this iron in large amounts at certain places. 

The late R. D. Irving supposed it to have resulted from the 
oxidation of a carbonate of iron. He postulated, therefore, a 
great primordial vegetable age whose characteristics could be 
compared to those of the Carboniferous, and whose function was 
to store up carbon, and secondarily iron ore. Carbon and iron 
ore are frequently associated, as in the Coal Measures, the fo-- 
mer taking the chemical combinations of limestone and the 
latter of kidney iron ore. In the application of this theory 
the kidney iron ore, and the siliceous carbonate of lime are 
supposed to have combined to produce a “cherty carbonate,” 
and from this last the present ores resulted from simple ox- 
idation and concentration. The fortuitous positions of the 


160 The American Geologist. March, 190% 


strata, their inclination, their alternation in composition and 
their having been broken and penetrated by igneous dikes, 
have had much to do, according to this hypothesis with the lo- 
calization of the chief iron deposits. 

Dr. M. E. Wadsworth advanced the idea that the jaspilyte 
seen at Marquette, Mich., which there constitutes the ore-bear- 
ing rock, is of igneous origin, the direct result of igneous in- 
trusion amongst the other rocks of the region. He appealed to 
certain structural features which to him indicated such forcible 
fracture and intrusion. 

Mr. J. E. Spurr, working for the Minnesota Geological 
Survey, with minute microscopical inspection and by means of 
a combination of field observation with chemical and petro- 
graphical research, traced the iron oxide back to greensand, 
which he took to have been glauconite. This supposed glau- 
conite was compared to that formed of foraminiferal remains 
in the Cretaceous formations and it led naturally to the sup- 
position that the sea in which the ore was formed was one that 
swarmed with microscopic organisms. 

The latest hypothesis of the origin of the iron ores of Min- 
nesota is that of the writer published in the fifth volume of the 
Minnesota report. Accepting the greensand of Mr. Spurr as 
the immediate source of the Mesabi ore, this hypothesis as- 
sumes that such greensand is not of the nature of glauconite, 
but of volcanic glass or basic obsidian. It presumes that an 
epoch of igneous activity began at or near the commencement 
of the Taconic, not only in Minnesota but throughout the lake 
Superior basin. This was accompanied by igneous eruption 
and lava flows. Such lavas were frequent near the ancient 
ocean shores and gave rise to much obsidian. They were also 
submarine, and heated the ocean adjacent, giving it more 
powerful attack on the pre-existing shores as well as on the 
lavas themselves. The result was the distribution of glass 
sands along the ancient shores in the same manner as Silica 
and other sands accumulate along the shore of lake Superior 
at the present time. Such sands, more or less mingled with 
the traps from which they were derived, constitute at the 
present the soft ores and the two sorts of taconyte mentioned 
above. The same explanation is applied to the ores of the 
Vermilion range, but it is necessary to understand that in the 


Iron Ores of Minnesota.—IlW inchel!. 161 


Vermilion range the chief ore bodies are composed of the al- 
tered obsidian lava masses, instead of sands of detritus derived 
from them. In both ranges the chemical attack of the oceanic 
waters on the lavas resulted in the silicification of the obsidian, 
and the concentration of the contained iron locally in the lenses 
mentioned, while the alkaline elements were carried away in 
solution as carbonates. Along with this chemical change in 
the obsidian, the ocean itself deposited in the near vicinity a 
large amount of chemical silica and probably of iron, these 
substances, especially the former, forming the stratified jaspi- 
lyte associated with the ore bodies and furnishing also the fine 
silica which permeates the fine schists of the region. The de- 
tails of the evidence of this hypothesis cannot be given. Suf- 
fice it to say, that it satisfies all the conditions and depends on 
long examination in the field, and on microscopical examina- 
tion of the ores. It also throws light on some unsolved struc- 
tural problems connected with the eastern end of the Mesabi 
range. It appeals to the well known tendency of silica to re- 
place all non-crystalline substances when it is in solution in 
alkaline water, preserving their forms. Wherever these lavas 
became crystalline prior to cooling, they seem to have main- 
tained their composition, in the main, only having been pene- 
trated by interstitial silica and reddened by the entrance of a 
small amount of iron. When they were incipiently crystalline 
they have been changed to the masses of hard grayish-brown 
taconyte which replaces the ore on the Mesabi range. 

If with this hypothesis in mind, we attempt to forecast the 
future of the Mesabi iron range, we can restore in our mind’s 
eye the ancient shore line of the Archean across northeastern 
Minnesota. We can see the sands resulting from the commi- 
nution of the lavas, drifting westward along that shore, ever 
increasing toward the west, as the shore sands of lake Superior 
at the present drift westward and accumulate in greatest 
amount in the col at the western end of the lake. The Arch- 
ean lands of northern Minnesota may have formed a shallow 
strait, or even a Taconic col, somewhere to the westward from 
Duluth, and into that col the Taconic waves must have driven 
the sands in question. If we could remove the drift from 
northern Minnesota and could see the lines of the old Taconic 
shore, we could doubtless see the location of the greatest 


162 The American Geologist. March, (220% 
amount of these sands. In case the same chemical processes 
attacked these sands throughout their extension, we should 
doubtless find the greatest deposits of the Mesabi ore in the 
western extension of this Taconic col. 

There is, therefore, no theoretic reason to expect that the 
Mesabi ore is near its exhaustion. On the contrary, the pres- 
ent productive area can hardly be expected to be its greatest, 
but new discoveries are likely to greatly enhance its volume 
and its geographic range. 

Minneapolis, July 20, 1901. 


NEW EVIDENCES OF EPEIROGENIC MOVEMENTS 
CAUSING AND ENDING THE ICE AGE. 


By WARREN UPHAM, St. Paul, Minn. 


The evidences of great epeirogenic uplifts which are ascer- 
tained by soundings of fjords and of river valleys on the sub- 
marine slopes of North America, Europe, and western Africa, 
belonging to the Pleistocene period, far surpass the ordinary 
geologic record of epeirogenic movements through long pre- 
ceding periods and in the recent and present time. From the 
submerged valleys or channels of the Hudson river and the St. 
Lawrence, of numerous rivers then flowing into the Pacific 
from California, of the Adour off the southwestern coast of 
France, and of the Congo off the African coast south of the 
equator, as also from many other such submerged channels 
along the border of these continents, it is known that during | 
the latest geologic period, which in its culmination was char- 
acterized by the accumulation of the North American and 
European ice-sheets, these great land areas of three continents 
were elevated 3,000 to 6,000 feet, or more, higher than now.* 


*Several papers in which the evidences of epeirogenic movements causing 
glaciation have been considered by the present writer are as follows: 
seaman Age in North America, by Pror. G. F, WRIGHT, 1889; appendix, pp. 
Ls eo. 
m a amnaa Geol, Soc. of America, vol. i, for 1889, pp. 563-7; vol. x, 1898, pp. 
AM. GEOLOGIST, vol. vi, pp. 327-339, Dec., 1890; vol. xxii, pp, 101-108, § 
Aug., 1898, treating of the fords and submerged valleys of Europe. 4 | 
Proc., Am. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. xli, 1892, pp. 171-3, treating of the 
Casao submarine valley and the “Bottomless Pit," off the coast of western 
ca. 
Very important early papers assigning land elevation as the cause of the 
Ice Age were published by DANA and LECONTR, and this view is well stated in 
their text-books of geology. 


Evidences of Epeirogenic Movements.—U pham. 163 


The vast areal extent of the uplifts, and the great altitudes 
which they attained, producing an arctic climate and snowfall 
during all the year in the present temperate zone, were perhaps 
never before equaled, on so grand a scale, in the earth's his- 
tory. Their result, the Ice age, was not less unique, being 
alone, as a period of continental glaciation, during the very 
long eras since the closing part of Paleozoic time. The very 
great depths to which the bottoms of the former river valleys 
are submerged have been so lately determined, and they seem 


-so astonishing in comparison with the general geologic sta- 


bility and permanence of the continents and ocean basins, that 
all geologists will welcome the report of Prof. W. C. Brog- 
ger’s recent studies of epeirogenic movements preceding, at- 
tending, and following the glaciation of the Christiania region 
in southern Norway.* 

An English summary of this volume is given at its end, 
in pages 679-714, followed only by its indexes and plates. The 
figures of the fossil marine molluscan faunas, of Late Glacial 
and Postglacial age, occurring near Christiania, comprise 140 
genera, represented by 277 species. Many of these species are 
illustrated by two, three, or four figures; and for a consider- 
able number two or more varieties are figured. 

These studies are very instructive, as they take account of 
a hitherto generally unrecognized or neglected class of evi- 
dences of land uplift and subsidence, namely, the character of 
fossil marine shells, which give testimony by the species and 
their known habitats, as in deep or shallow water, or on shores 
at or near the range of the tides, concerning the altitude of the 
land when they were living at the localities, since depressed or 
uplifted, where they are now found fossil. 

During the time of maximum extension of the European 
ice-sheet, according to the opinion of Brégger, the Scandinav- 
ian peninsula was greatly uplifted; and probably all western 
Europe participated more or less in the same movement. The 
evidence noted by Brogger consists in the occurrence at great 
depths in the Norwegian sea, near Spitzbergen and between 


*Om de Senglaciale og Postglaciale Nivaforandringer i Kristianiafeltet 
(Molluskfaunan) [On the Late Glacial and Postglacial Changes of Level in the 
Christiania Region], by W. C. BroGGER, assisted by E. B. MUNSTER, I. OYEN 
and others. Geological Survey of Norway, No. 31; pages 731, with 19 plates, 
and 69 figures in the text. Christiania, 1900 and 1901. 


1604 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


Iceland and Jan Mayen, of fossil shallow water mollusca of 
the arctic Yoldia fauna, dredged at depths of 1,000 to 1,333 
fathoms, or 6,000 to 8,000 feet. As the Norwegian fathom 
and foot slightly exceed these measures of English usage, it 
appears that this region of the sea bed, presumably with the 
contiguous land areas to such extent as to form a large tract 
of the earth crust, “must have been uplifted at least 2600 
metres higher than it is at present.” . 

Dr. Frithjof Nansen, discussing this hypothesis, concludes 
that transportation of these shallow water shells by floating ice 
in floes or bergs to be dropped from them to these great depths 
of the sea is extremely improbable. “If so,” writes Brogger, 
“no other explanation is left than the supposition of a former 
uplift of the sea bottom.” 

The elevation which may be thence inferred for Scandi- 
navia before and during the accumulation of the ice-sheet 
would permit stream erosion of its many long, irregular, and 
branching fjords. The longest and deepest, the Sogne fjord, 
extending inland in a devious course more than a hundred 
miles, has a sounding of 4,080 feet near the middle of its 
course. At the mouth of Aurlands fjord, seventy-five miles 
from the outer coast, its depth is 3,875 feet; and this southern 
branch fjord, sixteen miles long and about one mile wide, 
lying between precipitous rock walls 3,000 to 4,000 feet high, 
has a depth of 1,535 feet at the mouth of its magnificent trib- 
utary, the Nero fjord, which is about ten miles long and varies 
in width from a tenth to three-fifths of a mile. These 
and the other abundant fjords of Norway seem to me to have 
been eroded by rivers to nearly their present depth when the 
land stood thousands of feet above its present hight. 

Brégger shows that the Drammen fjord, which he specially 
studied, was made shallow in its outer or coastal part by 
deposition of glacial and modified drift, chiefly during the clos- 
ing Champlain epoch of the Ice age, attended by the formation 
of marginal moraines, while its deep inland course was still 
filled with ice, and that this inner part of the fjord was left 
nearly free of drift when that ice melted. Another reason for 
the usual deepening of the fjords as they are followed inland 
may be a greater preglacial uplift of the inner part of the 
country than of the coast, accounting, with drift deposition as 


Evidences of Epeirogenic Movements.—U pham. 105 


thus noted, for the greater part or nearly all of this difference 
in depth. 

Glacial erosion, which contributed the latest part in the 
sculpturing of the fjords, also tended to the same result; but 
I think that this element of their origin was secondary to river 
action and far less efficient. The tributary drainage courses 
opening at great hights upon the sides of the fjords, called 
“hanging valleys” by Gilbert and regarded by him and by 


_ Davis as proofs of mainly glacial erosion of the grand fjords, 


may be attributed in some places to changes of the preglacial 
topography by glaciation and drift deposits, carrying post- 
glacial streams where none before existed. It is very difficult 
to suppose that the greater part of the channeling of the fjords 
of Norway took place during the glaciation of the country, by 
ice erosion, as would be required by the argument from trib- 
utary “hanging valleys,” entering the great fjords by high 
waterfalls. According to that explanation, the masses of 
morainal drift at the mouths of the fjords along the outer coast 
would be of mountain size. More probably the fjord erosion 
in Norway was chiefly accomplished by rivers during the long 
Mesozoic and Tertiary eras, the stream beds being finally 
worn nearly or quite to the bottoms of the present fjords at the 
time of culmination of the pre-glacial and Early Glacial land 
elevation. The ensuing ice sculpture and drift accumulations 
gave the superficial and minor features of the landscape, but 
not its grand outlines. The great depths of the Norwegian 
fjords seem to me due mostly to preglacial stream cutting; 
but these very deep main river valleys were widened by 
glaciation from V to U forms of cross sections, the tributary 
valleys being thus truncated with precipitous falls.* 

Stages in the depression of this part of the earth crust 
from its great preglacial elevation are cited by dredgings from 
originally littoral shell banks at depths of 100 to 300 meters 
along the west coast of Norway, southwest of Ireland, near 
Rockall, and off the Fzr6e islands. 


* Consult recent papers by Pror. EDWARD HULL on the fjords and sub- 
merged valleys of Europe and Africa, Journal of the Victoria Institute, Lon- 
don, vols, xxx-xxxiii, 1898-1901; and by Pror. W. M. Davis, on Glacial 
Erosion in France, Switzerland and Norway, Proc., Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 
vol. xxix, pp. 273-322, with plates, July, 1900, giving the bibliography of the 
theury of fjord erosion by glaciation. 


106 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


Later, changes of the mollusca inhabiting the sea in the 
Christiania valley during the formation of the several marginal 
moraines, marking successive pauses of the retreat of the ice 
boundary, enable our author to distinguish six successive 
faunal conditions, passing more or less definitely from one to 
another, as follows: 

1. The older Yoldia clay, deposited on the present sea 
bed near the shores and on the land to the outermost moraine 
ridge, denoting a gradual sinking of the land from 50 meters 
or more above its present level to about 30 meters below that 
level. 

2. The younger Yoldia clay, only one to two meters thick, 
belonging to’ the later part of the time of formation of the 
outer moraine, denoting subsidene to about 75 meters lower 
than now. 

3. The oldest Arca clay, a few meters thick, also found 
exclusively outside the outer moraine, proving a continued 
sinking until the land was depressed 100 to 125 meters lower 
than it is at present. 

4. The middle Arca clay, of deep water, and the older 
Portlandia clay, of less depth, forming together a very thick 
deposit between the outer or first and the second series of 
marginal moraines, which are twelve to fifteen mules apart. 
At the time of its deposition the land was at least 150 meters 
lower than now; and the temperature of the sea, though still 
arctic, Was somewhat warmer than in the preceding stages. 

5. The younger Arca clay, much worked for brickmaking” 
in the Christiania valley, deposited between the second series of 
moraines and the third great series, showing a further moder- 
ation of the sea temperature and a continuance of the sub- 
mergence. At the same time, the younger Portlandia clay, 
representing less depths of water, was spread also outside the 
third moraine series, at altitudes of 100 to 175 meters above 
the present sea level. 

6. The Lophelia fauna, occurring on a dead coral reef at 
Drébak, south of Christiania, belonging to a somewhat warmer 
sea at the stage of maximum submergence, when the highest 
shore line, there 180 meters above the present shore, was 
formed. This fauna is believed to have been contemporaneous 
with the fifth station of recession of the ice-sheet, called the 


Evidences of Epetrogenic Movements.—U phan, 167 


epiglacial moraine stage. At Christiania the upper marine 
boundary is about 215 meters above the sea, showing a dif- 
ferential postglacial uplift increasing in amount from south 
to north between these places. During the epiglacial stage 
the sinking of the land ceased, and the postglacial re-elevation 
began. 

For the whole period of sinking between the formation of 
the outer marginal moraine and the fifth or epiglacial series 


of moraines, Brogger proposes the name of the Christiania 


period. It corresponds to the Champlain submergence in 
America, and this time, closing the Glacial period, may well 
be named oy both continents the Champlain epoch, as this 
name has priority. 

Dr. Brégger and his assistants have made likewise careful 
studies of the shell banks belonging to the postglacial period 
of re-elevation of this part of Scandinavia. It is thought that 
the Champlain sinking began on the borders of the peninsula, 
and gradually extended to its central area, where the depres- 
sion seems to have been more than in the peripheral tracts, as 
was pointed out several years ago by Baron De Geer, from his 
investigations made principally on the southeastern side, in 
Sweden, adjoining the Baltic sea.. Similarly, the ensuing up- 
lift of Norway and Sweden to their present hight is shown 
by the characters of the marine molluscan faunas, which are re- 
ported in full details, to have begun earliest in the peripheral 
parts and to have advanced faster there than in the central 
parts of the country, at least during the first half of the uplift. 
The re-elevation thus proceeded, as in the area of the glacial 
lake Agassiz, like a wave of permanent uplift, from the re- 
gion earliest unburdened of the ice weight to the central region 
where a part of the ice-sheet remained latest unmelted.* In 
the Christiania district no interruption and temporary reversal 
of the general postglacial uplift has been recognized, such as 
De Geer and others have shown for southern Sweden and the 
Baltic basin. 

Numerous computations and estimates collected by Hansen 
in Norway, Sweden, and other parts of the glaciated area of 
Europe. indicate that the Ice age there ended about 5,000 to 


* Journal of Geology. vol. ii, op. 383-395, May-June, 1894. _U. S. Geol. Sur- 
vey, Monograph xxv, **The Glacial Luke Agassiz,"’ 1895, pp. 474-522. 


168 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


10,000 years ago, agreeing thus with the duration of the Post- 
glacial period estimated in America by Winchell, Wright, and 
others, including the present writer. The re-elevation of the 
area of lake Agassiz, to a vertical extent of 400 to 500 feet, 
took place, as I think, within a duration of no more than 
1,000 years, with departure of the ice-sheet from that lake 
area and its drainage as now to Hudson bay. The uplift there, 
in the center of North America, was thus at the average rate, - 
probably, of half a foot or more yearly, during several cen- 
turies.* In Scandinavia, and in the United States and Can- 
ada, the Glacial period was terminated alike by a great de- 
pression of the land from the high elevation to which it had 
been raised in preglacial time, and which continued doubtless 
through the greater part of the long Ice age. By this Cham- 
plain depression a temperate climate was restored on the 
boundary of the ice-sheets, which therefore receded by peri- 
’ pheral melting, probably with pauses or often short re-ad- 
vances where marginal moraines were formed. 

Under these temperate conditions, nearly the same fauna 
and flora followed close to the receding ice border as those 
which characterize the same regions today. Such climatic, 
faunal, and floral conditions, with the mainly rapid, but some- 
times wavering and interrupted, departure of the ice-sheet and 
re-elevation of the land from its Champlain subsidence, seem 
to me to require my explanation of the origin and history of 
the Toronto and Scarboro drift series,f instead of the view 
presented by Prof. A. P. Coleman.§ If epeirogenic move- 
ments of great preglacial elevation of a continent and ensuing 
depression, like those of Europe and America reviewed in this 
paper, have been respectively the causes of the oncoming and 
of the end of continental glaciation, it appears to me very 
highly improbable that such an interglacial stage as Coleman 
infers could have a place in the Glacial period. 

Nor is the difficulty of causation for distinct epochs of 
glaciation lessened, apparently, by the ingenious theories re- 
cently proposed by Chamberlin to account for the climatic 
changes of the Ice age.|| According to any available theory 


* The Glacial Lake Agassiz,’’ pp. 227-242. 

t AM. GEOLOGIST, vol, xxviii, pp. 306 316, Noy., 1901. 

§ AM. GEOLOGIST, vol, xxix, pp. 71-79. Feb., 1902. 

|| Journal of Geology, vol. v, pp. 653-688, Oct.-Nov., 1897; vol. vii, pp. 545- 
584. 667-685, 751-787, Sept.-Dec., 1899. 


Evidences of Epeirogentc Movements.—U pham. 169 


for explaining its causes, aside from the astronomic theory, 
of Croll, which does not agree with the late time of termina- 
tion of European and North American glaciation, it is ex- 
tremely unlikely that this most unique great event of geology, 
the accumulation of continental ice-sheets, could be repeated 
two or more times, with intervening complete departure of 
the ice. . 


A PERMIAN GLACIAL INVASION. 
By Epson S. Bastin, Ann Arbor, Mich, 


The memoir by Mr. G. A. F. Molengraaf* on the “Geology 
of the. Transvaal,” which recently appeared as a bulletin of 
the Geological Society of France, contains not only much ma- 
terial descriptive of a country which seems to offer unusual 
attractions to the geologist, but contains much that is of 
especial interest to the student of glacial geology. 

It appears that the basement formations of the Transvaal 
which are of lower palaeozoic age, (the exact age is not yet 
determined) are overlain unconformably over the whole south- 
ern half of the Transvaal by the Karroo series, divisible into 
the upper and lower Karroo formations. 

The lower Karroo beds are conglomerates, in some regions 
very coarse and unstratified and in other regions composed of 
finer materials and stratified. Mr. P. C. Sutherland, a number 
of years ago, advanced the hypothesis of the glacial origin of 
this formation and assigned it to the Permian, and the work 
of Mr. Molengraaf seems to place the matter beyond doubt. 
Not only do the unstratified portions of the Karroo conglom- 
erates present all the characteristics of glacial till in their 
physical and lithological heterogeneity, but in many localities 
the surface of the, underlying primary rocks have been found 
to be polished and scored in a manner corresponding exactly 
to the scorings left by the ice of our Pleistocene glacial in- 
vasion. Roches moutonnées are also found in their typicai 
forms. 

In addition to this, the stratified portions of the Karroo 
conglomerates which, as a rule, lie to the northward of the 


* Bull. Soc. Geol. de France. Tome i, 1901, pp. 13-93. “Geologic de la 
Republique Sud Africaine du Transvaal.” par G. A. F. Molengranff. 


170 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


unstratified portion, exactly correspond in lithological charae- 
ter and mode of deposition on the underlying rocks, to the 
water-laid materials whieh were deposited by the waters flow- 
ing from our Pleistocene glaciers. 

The beds of the upper Karroo series are of a different char- 
acter. They consist of horizontal strata of fine materials, 
clays and sand, free from pebbles and very hard and compact. 
and they overlie the lower Karroo over the eastern portion of 
the Transvaal and over a large part of the Orange Free State. 
They form the plateau of Hooge Veld in the eastern Trans- 
vaal and are cut by numerous dikes of diabase which have 
often spread out so as to cap the plateau. The upper Karroo 
formation gives evidence of being, in the main, lacustral in 
origin and is supposed by Mr. Molengraaf to have been de- 
posited in the quiet waters of glacial lakes which were formed 
during the retreat of the ice. 

We have then, represented in these Transvaal beds of 
Permian age, every variety of glacial material which we find 
in our own Pleistocene deposits. This evidence brought for- 
ward by Mr. Molengraaff is only another link in the chain of 
evidence which has been slowly collecting, not only in South 
Africa but in Australia and in India, of a great glacial invasion 
in the southern hemisphere in Permian times, an invasion 
which rivalled in magnitude our own Pleistocene ice age. 
From Australia* and + and Tasmania are reported numerous 
traces of glaciation, moraines, and polished surfaces, which 
are referred by Mr. F. W. E. David to the permo-carbonif- 
erous. In India we have the Gondwana system of Permian 
age presenting almost precisely the same characteristics as 
the Kkarroo series of the Transvaal, the underlying rocks being 
also scored. 

There seems to be no ground for doubting the contempo- 
raneity of origin of the deposits in these various regions and 
a general period of glaciation in the southern hemisphere in 
Permian times. 

University of Michigan, Feb. 1902. 


+ Davin, “Evidences of Glacial Action in Australia and Tasmania.” Aus- 
tralian Assoc. for Adv. of Science, vol. vi, 1895, pp. 60-98. Also, Trans. Royal 
Soc. of South Australia, vol. xxi, 1897, pp. 61-67. 

TA. PRNCK, Die EHiszeiten Australiens, Zeitschrift Geo. Erd. Berlin, vol. 
XXXV, 1900, pp. 239-289. 


Minnesota Clays.—Berkey. 171 


ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF MINNESOTA* 
CLAYS. 


By CHARLES P. BerkKf&ty, Minneapolis. 


Minnesota is represented by the usual kinds of clays in fair 
abundance. In a natural classification based upon origin as the 
chief principle of separation all of the different members are 
to be found within her boundaries. But the rather common 
classification into brick clays, pottery clays, fire clays etc., is 
not serviceable in the present study of Minnesota material. + 
A wide range of uses has not yet been established with these 
materials, while the factors leading to definite conclusions as 
to origin are better known. 

The ultimate origin of all clays is the same the world 
over. Decay of feldspathic igneous rocks to earthy hydrous 
silicates has furnished practically all of the materials from 
which has been derived and accumulated all the minor classes 
and qualities of clays. But the immediate origin of any par- 
ticular deposit is always some special method of accumula- 
tion or transportation and is nearly always determinable. It 
is these minor differences of origin that serve as the best 
means of separation into characteristic classes or types, and 
it is often these same differences that have most influenced 
the quality as well as the abundance of neighboring deposits. 

The terms necessarily used in such a classification are well 
known to every student so that definitions are wholly unneces- 
sary, but a discussion of the development of the various clays 
of this state will give some opportunity to explain special 
features. 

I. Residuary Clays. 

These are clays of all sorts whose immediate origin is the 
decay of rock formations and in whose accumulation transpor- 
tation has not been a prominent factor. 

1. Kaolinic decay products from feldspathic rocks consti- 
tute the simplest case. Although rocks that would produce 
such materials are very abundant in Minnesota geological 


_* Abstract of a paper read before the Minnesota Academy of Natural 
Sciences, Peb 11, 1902. 

+ County descriptions in the series of Final Reports, vols. i, ii, and iv, of 
the Minnesota (seological and Natural History Survey contain many discus- 
os ot the clays of different localities in their relations to other geologic 
ormations. 


172 The American Geologist. ; March, 190: 


formations, the actual distribution of such residuary deposits 
is very limited. This is no doubt largely due to the invasion 
of glacier ice which transported and worked over almost all 
of the original weathered zone. Post glacial decay has ac- 
complished little. The numerous outcrops of granite, gneisses, 
and gabbro are comparatively fresh. So complete has been 
the destruction of this earlier weathered zone that only in the 
most protected areas is there any remnant of it still to be 
found. Ina few places in the Minnesota valley, however, there 
are exposed deeply decayed granitic gneisses. Such an oc- 
currence at Redwood Falls has attracted some attention from 
time to time but has not seemed to warrant development. 

2. Common residuary clays are from the insoluble residue 
left on the surface exposures of limestone formations as a re- 
sult of continuous weathering and loss of soluble constituents. 
They are of limited areal extent for largely the same reasons 
as in the above case. In the “driftless area’’ of southeastern 
Minnesota, however, there are deposits of this type. There is 
no noteworthy brick production from clays wholly of this ori- 
gin. Deposits in this area are so intimately associated with 
loess accumulations, which are also used, that distinctions can 
be made only in individual cases. 


Il. Transported Clays. 

A. Sedimentary Formations Used as Clays. There are 
several different formations used, the most valuable being 
Ordovician and Cretaceous shales. 

1. Argillaceous Slates. These are true slates—older meta- 
morphosed shales. A plant at Thomson, thirty miles south- 
west of Duluth, is the only one that has tried this kind of 
material. The slates have to be crushed and the dry press 
process is used. Bricks made from this formation were good 
in quality and finish, but the expense and difficulty of handling 
such material seems to have discouraged the enterprise. No 
product has been reported for several years. There is no fault 
in the method of working, but the slates are very hard and do 
not lend themselves easily to economic working. 

The slates themselves are not of great extent. Cloquet, 
Thomson and Carlton mark the locality about which they 
occur. 


Minnesota Clays.—Berkey. 173 


2. Clay Shales Formations. Shales are sedimentary rocks 
formed as the direct result of transportation of residuary and 
decay products and their assortment by water. They are, as 
clay shales, fine grained, friable and carry varying quantities 
of such impurities as sand, lime, iron and organic matter. 

Such shales are abundant in the sedimentary districts of 
Minnesota. To this class belong some of the most valuable 
and noted deposits of the state. 

The Ordovician shales are found only in the southeastern 
- quarter of the state. Minneapolis is very near this northern 
limit. The Minnesota river bluffs near St. Paul exhibit their 
typical development and relationships to the limestone beds of 
the ordovician. Alternating beds of limestone and shales oc- 
cur with the result that an excess of lime renders a large por- 
tion of the total thickness unsuited to economic uses. But from 
these shales the Twin City Brick Company, whose plant is in 
St. Paul, make the only first-class brick produced at the present 
time in Minnesota. Grave difficulties to successful working 
-have been so far overcome by this company that they already 
have a reputation throughout a large part of the United States 
for an exceptionally attractive line, of front brick. Their 
range of artistic colors in pressed brick is the envy and de- 
spair of almost every competitor now in the market. 

Although the same beds occur in abundance at other points 
in the general district mentioned, and although they have 
proven so valuable to this one company, still no other develop- 
ment of them has yet been attempted. 

Cretaceous shales in at least one occurrence are very noted 
and of great value. This is in the case of the stoneware clay 
of Red Wing. The deposit there is very limited in area and 
bears some evidence of considerable glacial disturbance but it 
is essentially a representative of the great shales formations 
of Cretaceous age. Stoneware industries founded upon this 
deposit at Red Wing have no superiors in quality or quantity 
of product in the United States. 

Similar formations occur at other points especially in the 
western half of the state beneath the drift, but none have yet 
been found to exhibit so valuable qualities as the Red Wing 
stoneware clay. 


174 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


B. Glacial Clays. Clays which may be traced directly to 
conditions connected with glaciation are designated by the 
three terms till, glacial stream deposits and glacial lake clays. 
All of them are abundant, each type is used in common brick 
manufacture and here and there some particular deposit has 
proven of special importance and value. 

1. Glacial Till or boulder clay is most common of all the 
glacial clays. Occasionally there has been a partial assorting 
of materials approximating the well known “modified drift” 
and an accumulation of the finer clayey constituents into de- 
posits comparatively free from injurious coarse matter. By 
far the greater number of deposits of course do carry much 
injurious matter of this sort and are not workable for this 
reason. In localities where some effective assortment has op- 
erated and where the Kaolinic constituents have been abund- 
ant these accumulations become useful and important. 

An important deposit of this kind is that near Princeton in 
Mille Lacs county where a splendid quality of common red 
brick is being made in large quantity. Similar deposits are 
worked in other localities but most of them on a smaller scale. 

In the case of these till accumulations especially a knowl- 
edge of the main features of glaciation serves as a good guide 
to certain standard qualities of the products from them. For 
example there are two contrasting types of drift in Minnesota, 
—one is called the “gray” drift which has been brought by ice 
movements from the north and northwest, the other is called 
the “red” drift which has come from the north and northeast. 
These two overlap in part in the central areas, but the two are 
seldom intimately mixed. As a result each gives its own char- 
acteristic quality to the clay beds produced from it. Gray drift 
carries an excess of lime and accordingly bricks made from 
the unweathered clay of this relationship always burn light- 
colored. Where weathering has converted this, however, into 
a residuary product, loss of lime may cause sufficient alteration 
of proportions to give a red color. The red drift carries an 
excess of iron. These clays burn red. But as a rule they are 
inclined to exhibit greater coarseness of texture and are also 
of smaller areal extent than the gray drift clays. 

2. Glacial lake clays are closely related to the modified 
condition of the last class, but in this case it is always clear 


=. 


a. 
ee 


_ 


Minnesota Clays.—Berkey. 17 


un 


that the material was actually laid down in quiet water such 
as a lake would afford. The clays of this class appear to be 
interglacial in point of time of accumulation and seem to have 
been in part an accompaniment of the oscillations and mutual 
adjustments of the ice streams from the east and the west. It 
is only in the zone representing the intermediate territory be- 
tween these two that such deposits have been found, Accord- 
ingly glacial lake clays are closely confined to the eastern bor- 
der of the state. Whether or not the series of lakes repre- 


- sented by lake Undine in the Minnesota river valley was ac- 


companied by similar valuable deposits is not clear from pres- 
ent development. Such as are well known seem to owe their 
accumulation more to the river than to the existence of the 
lakes. 

But in eastern Minnesota and northwestern Wisconsin oc- 
cur extensive and valuable deposits that are certainly glacial 
lake clays. In Minnesota a large development has been war- 
ranted in one of these lake beds at Wrenshall in Carlton county 
within thirty miles of the head of lake Superior. Several 
plants are firmly established and the total output is approxi- 
mately twenty millions per year. All are common brick chiefly 
of the sand mould type, but the quality is excellent. 

This deposit has an areal extent of two or three miles at 
least and recently another part of it at Clear creek has been 
opened. These beds are strongly stratified in blue and gray 
alternating layers from the bottom to within a few feet of the 
top where a red color prevails. Total thickness is more than 
forty feet. Brick made from this top stratum burn deep red, 
those from the bluish gray zone below burn cream colored. 
So extensive an occurrence of gray material which is usually 
associated with the western drift is somewhat surprising in a 
locality so far east. But the fact is plain and the presence of _ 
a capping of red clay may throw some light on conclusions as 
to sources of supply of material at that time. Of course a 
red zone at the top might be caused by weathering® as in the 


‘case Of some of our residuary products in other areas, but the 


fact that the line of division between the two colors is rather 
sharply marked and the fact that the red stratum and its 


* Minn. Geol. and Nat. History Survey, Final Rep., vol. iv, p. 21, Minne 
apolis, 1899. 


176 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


burned product exhibits a much coarser grain and poorer qual- 
itv than the gray clay below leads the writer to conclude that 
the source of supply was actually different and that the main 
characters of the red zone are original and not to any consid- 
erable extent induced. If this conclusion is at all correct it is 
reasonable to conclude further that the chief source of supply 
for this deposit was the glacial debris brought from the north- 
west, that it was accompanied and succeeded by an invasion of 
red material from the east and. that its best development pre- 
ceded the withdrawal of the ice from this region. In short it 
was in a minor way inter-glacial as related to the oscillations of 
the Wisconsin stage of the Ice Age. Whether this deposit 
formed in “Lake Nemadji” of Professor Winchell’s writings _ 
or in some earlier one, is of little consequence in this general 
treatment. Certainly one other deposit further south along the 
St. Croix was accumulated earlier. 

3. Glacial Stream Deposits. In this type is included the 
river silts deposited during the withdrawal of the ice. During 
this time no doubt many of the streams were large and at times 
heavily laden with fine matter gathered from glacial debris. 
In occasional quiet eddies or other still water some of this load 
would surely be dropped. The result has been some very val- 
uable and accessible brick clays. There are two areas prom- 
inent in this state in such clays. One is along the present 
Minnesota river from Shakopee ‘to New Ulm and the other is 
along the Mississippi river from Minneapolis to Little Falls. 

In both cases the worked clays form a part of terraces bor- 
dering the present river channels. In some cases there may 
easily be a reasonable doubt as to the exact age of the deposits, 
but in the case of the chief representatives it seems certain that 
they were accumulated close upon the withdrawal of the ice 
borders. A few may be even interglacial. The source of ma- 
terial is all western drift and as a result the clays burn cream 
and gray. 

These clays occupy first rank in point of production. The 
most extensive plants are at Chaska in the Minnesota valley, 
and at Minneapolis in the Mississippi valley Both localities 
produce immense quantities of common brick of good quality 
and easy, cheap manufacture. The largest brick plant in Min- 
nesota is located at Chaska. 


Minnesota Clays.—Berkey. 177 


C. Recent Alluvial Deposits. The recent river muds are 
so closely related to the last class that in many cases it is not 
practicable to separate them. They occupy the same areas and 
are due to similar immediate conditions except the overwash 
source of material. 

D. Loess or Wind Deposits. To this class belong more of 
the clays usually worked on a small scale than to any other 
single one. Many are no doubt not true loess accumulations, 
but I have intended to include here all those in which wind 
transportation has been one of the chief factors in origin. 
Many of the ‘‘loams” reported from numerous localities really 
belong in this class. Some are described usually as “‘loess 
loams” and many might be called ‘“‘residuary loess.” Those in 
certain areas sometimes grade into one or another of the above — 
mentioned types especially the “glacial lake” and “residuary 
clays.” 

The loess clays with this interpretation are. therefore widely 
distributed although they are nowhere of very great thickness 
or of very special value. 

To this class the Red River valley clays which are of con- 
siderable local value in the vicinity of Moorhead and East 
Grand Forks seem to belong. In that district the workable 
stratum is only from six to twenty-four inches thick and lies 
immediately below the black soil and upon the sediments of 
glacial lake Agassiz. Southeastern Minnesota, especially the 
driftless area, also exhibits much loess-covered territory. 
Many small producers in widely scattered localities are work- 
ing this kind of clay. 

Summary. This article is intended to group the facts 
known as to the origin of Minnesota clays and point out typ- 
ical representatives of each geologic class. Although several 
of these different classes of material. overlap in occasional 
localities, in the main the distinctions are readily made out and 
the classification easy of application. 

The large clay working establishments of the state are us- 
ing either clay shales or stream deposits or glacial lake clays. 
The smaller and scattered brick plants of chiefly local import- 
ance are using fi// and modified drift or residuery loess and 
“loam” clays. 


178 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


EDITORIAL COMMENT. 


COMMEMORATIVE TABLET OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIA- 
TION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 


At the last New York meeting of the American Associ- 
ation for the Advancement of Science, the Geological Section 
(E) requested the council to take formal cognizance of the 
pre-natal history of the Association by authorizing the erec- 
tion cf a commemorative tablet on the house occupied by the 
late Dr. Ebenezer Emmons* at Albany, where the first steps 
were taken toward the organization of the Association of 
American Geologists, from which the present body evolved 
by organic enlargement. 

In the memorial presented to the council the facts which 
led to this organization are given as follows: 


During the prosecution of the Geological Survey of the state of 
New York the need of the geologists for consultation and inter- 
change of view with others engaged in official geologic work led to 
the suggestion of an organization of a body of American geologists. 
It appears that lieutenant W. W. Mather, one of the New York 
geologists, first suggested the subject of such a meeting to the Board 
of Geologists in November 1838. * * * 

This suggestion was taken up for consideration at a meeting held 
November 20, 1838 at the house of Dr. Ebenezer Emmons, corner of 
High street and Hudson avenue, Albany. The action taken by the 
geologists was one of unanimous’ approval of the proposition and 
Lardner Vanuxem of the Third District was commissioned to open 
communication with other geologists, specially with president Hitch- 
cock, with reference to carrying this project into effect. 

The undertaking was not immediately successful and at a meet- 
ing held in the autumn of 1839 the purpose of the geological board 
was reiterated. This meeting was also held at Dr. Emmons’ house, 
the four geologists and the paleontologist being present and also 
Ebenezer Emmons Jr., who still survives. As a result of the second 
undertaking on the part of the New York geologists a meeting was 
called at Philadelphia for April 1840, where and when the organization 
of the Association of American Geologists was carried into effect. The 
following year the Association again met in Philadelphia at which 
time the membership of the body was largely increased, and in 1842 
the place of meeting was Boston and then, as already rehearsed, the 
tie a and sketch of Ebenezer Emmons may be found in the GROLOGIST 
vol. vii, p. 1. 


} A portrait and sketch of W. W. Mather may be found in vol. xix, p. 1 of the 
GEOLOGIST. 


—————E 


Editorial Comment. 17 


name and the scope of the Association we re, at the 


naturalists, both enlarged. 


IN. THIS HOUSE, THE HOME OF 
DR.EBENEZER EMMONS 


THE FIRST FORMAL EFFORTS WERE MADE, IN 
1838 AND 1839,TOWARD THE ORGANIZATION OF THE 
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GEOLOGISTS 


THE PARENT BODY OF THE 
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE 


s& ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE 
BY WHOSE AUTHORITY THIS TABLET IS ERECTED 
1901 


At the Denver meeting (1901) of the Association the com- 
mittee which had been appointed to consider the proposition 
reported favorably and their recommendations were unani- 
mously adopted by the council. The commemorative tablet 
of which a photograph is here reproduced, has now been put in 
place on the Emmons house. The committee in charge of this 
matter was John M. Clarke, C. H. Hitchcock, J. Mck. 
Cattell, W. J. McGee and Theodore Gill. The cost of the 
tablet has been borne by Dr. T. Guilford Smith of Buffalo, 


New York. 


REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 
LITERATURE. 


sches Praktikum, von Dr. RetnuHotp ReINisH. Erster 


Gesteinbildende Mineralien, mit 82 Textfiguren. Berlin, Gebrider 


S 


Borntraeger, 1901. Preiss 4 marks und 20 Pfennigs 

This is an elementary companion for students in petrography 
rock-forming minerals are distributed into groups according to t 
crystal systems, and their essential characters described and sor 
illustrated. It also includes a statement of their chemical 
and its chief variations, The microscope is supposed to | 


familiar to the student, as well as the attachmet 


180 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


erties of light are applied to the investigation of thin sections. Crystal- 
lography and the symbols denoting the sides and angles of crystals age 
equally assumed as known by the operator. Naumann’s system is 
used, but with alternative expressions of Miller’s symbols—thus follow- 
ing the practice of the French. This continental condescension to 
the English system perhaps presages the’ ultimate entire adoption and 
use of the simple and meaningful symbols of Miller. 

For American use this little work will serve as a handy compend of 
the essential petrographic characters of the rock-forming minerals. It 
will be useful for reference after the difficulties of mineralogy and 
microscopical manipulation shall have been mastered, and when as a 
teacher or as an investigator the need arises to refer to some authori- 
ty for the established differences existing between minerals. But at 
present there is no need for any English-speaking student to resort to 
works in foreign languages in order to have a guide in petrographic in- 
vestigation, N. H. W. 


Additional notes on the Cambrian of Cape Breton, with descriptions 
of New Species. By G. F. Mattrnew. (Bulletin of Natural His- 
tory Society of New Brunswick, Canada. No, XX, vol. IV, pt. V.) 
The above article is given to a description of the Neotremata of 

the Etcheminian or Basal Cambrian and to the fauna of the Truncado 

beds of the island of Cape Breton in Nova Scotia. The Neotremata 
are represented in the collections from the Etcheminian beds made 
in Cape Breton by three genera, Acropthyra, Acrotreta and Acrothele. 

The first genus is established for a number of forms prevalent in 

the Etcheminian rocks, which there largely replace Acrotreta, tho it 

is to be noted that the latter so far as is known, is of equal antiquity. 

Both are found in the effusive rocks which lie at the foundation of 

the Cambrian sediment, both in New Brunswick and Cape Breton. 

Acrothele, on the contrary, has not been found in the lower Etch- 

eminian fauna, but appears plentifully in the upper. 

In a table bound in with the article, Dr. Matthew shows in synop- 
tical form the parallelism of the several parts of the Cambrian sys- 
tem in the eastern provinces of Canada to the succession which is 
found to exist in Europe, and especially in Wales. Almost all the 
important faunas of the European Cambrian rocks have now been 
found in Canada, as this table shows; and the parallelism is remark- 
ably close, esnecially in the Middle and Upper Cambrian. This fa- 
vors the view that a continuous ocean existed in Cambrian time, be- 
tween the two continents of Europe and America. 

The variations which a number of neotrematous brachiopods un- 
derwent in early Cambrian time is of interest; Dr. Matthew records 
several new species and mutations, which are represented in five 
plates of figures. 

The Tremadoc fauna of the Upper Cambrian is represented by 
several characteristic genera, Asaphellus 2 sp.; Triarthrus, 1 sp.; 
Parabolinella, 1 sp.; Angelina, 1 sp.; Bellerophon, 3 sp.; also Lin- 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 181 


guella, Acrotreta and Modiolapsis. This is the third fauna of the 
Upper Cambrian reported from that island; the others being Peltura, 
collected by the late Dr, Homyman, and Dictyoruna, collected by Mr. 
H. Fletcher. The Tremadoc species are shown on a plate at the end 
of the article. 

Two tables in the text show the development of Acrotreta in the 
~Cambrian and Ordovician, and the distribution of Acrothele. 


The Geology of Cincinnati, by Joon M. Nicktes. (From the Journal 
of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Vol. XX, No. 2, pp. 
49-100, I map.) 

Careful studies of limited areas are always valuable, and doubly so 
when they treat of typical localities. The paper under consideration 
deals with the Cincinnati period as exposed at Cincinnati, the type 
locality, and so much of the underlying Trenton as is exposed there. 
A brief sketch of the topography showing modifications produced by 
glacial action, and pre-glacial watercourses, is followed by a careful 
and accurate historical resumé of the literature pertaining to the 
geology of the region under discussion and the matter of nomen- 
clature. The term Cincinnati or Cincinnatian is shown to have sur- 
vived by a process of natural selection. The divisions, or groups as 
they are called in the paper, of the Cincinnati period, are recognized 
as the Utica, Lorraine and Richmond, each easily separable by faunal 
and more or less marked lithological characteristics into stages or 
hemere. Those of the Utica are designated as Lower, Middle and 
Upper, with faunal designations also. For the subdivisions of the 
Lorraine, both faunal and geographical designations are proposed. 
The latter in descending order are Warren, Mt. Auburn, Corryville, 
Bellevue, Fairmount and Mt. Hope beds. The Richmond, not exposed 
in the immediate vicinity of Cincinnati, is divided into Lower, Middle 
and Upper subdivisions. Under each subdivision is given its litho- 
logical and other features and a list of the species of fossils found 
therein. The large number of species listed in the paper, nearly goo, 
shows how industrious the collectors of Cincinnati and the surround- 
ing region have been in their search for the paleontological treasures 
entombed in their hills. The region is noted for the fine preservation 
of its fossils. The paper cannot but prove helpful in the study of 
the Cincinnati period in other sections of this country. 

The map is based on the recent topographical map of the U. S., 
Cincinnati sheet, issued by the U. S. Geological Survey, leaving out 
the twenty-foot contour lines, but retaining the 100-foot lines, and 
indicates the location of all outcrops of importance. A sketch map 
of the pre-glacial drainage, printed in the text, is copied from Gerard 
Fowke’s without acknowledging the source, an omission which the 
reviewer knows to be the fault of the printer, not of the author. 

It appears that this article is filling an existing need. Professor 
Prosser has sent for a lot of copies to be used by his classes in the 


182 The American Geologist. March, 1a 


Ohio State University, and Mr. Charles Schuchert uses it in arrang- 
ing the Harris collection of Cincinnati fossils in the United States 
National Museum at Washington, and has placed a copy as a guide 
for visitors who wish to examine that collection. Siae 


Studies in Evolution; mainly reprints of occasional papers selected 
from the publications of the laboratory of invertebrate paleontology, 
Peabody museum, Yale University, by CuHartes Emerson Breecuex 
New York Charles Scribner’s Sons; London, Edward Arnold 

1901. $5.00. 

This work is one of the Yale bicentennial publications, dedicated to 
the graduates of the University. It contains 440 pages and 34 plates 
and concludes with an excellent index. It is a republication of the 
principal papers of Dr. Beecher selected from various sources bearing 
on the development of some of the invertebrate animals, and 
on certain features of organic evolution. The author's earliest 
paper on the development of fossil brachiopods was prepared 
jointly with J. M. Clarke, of Albany, and it may be considerea 
as one of the first steps amongst American paleontologists toward the 
systematic study of the progressive changes of fossil invertebrates. Wal- 
cott, Ford and Matthew had done similar work with some species of 
trilobites and Hyatt had described and illustrated some of the pro- 
gressive characters of cephalopods. Morse alone (or almost alone) of 
American paleontologists had studied some of the early stages of 
brachiopods (Terebratulina) as early as 1873, but those studies were 
partial and more or less fragmentary, owing to the lack of a large sup- 
ply of specimens, whose stratigraphic and geographic origin was known. 
At Albany such material was found, in the collections and laboratories 
of Prof. James Hall. This paper is placed No. 4 in the series devoted 
to the development of the Brachiopoda. It is preceded by papers that 
treat of more general principles, such as the genesis of the brachiopodal 
parts, the stages of growth and decline, the morphology of the brachia, 
correlations of ontogeny and phylogeny, and by a revision of the fami 
lies of loop-bearing Brachiopoda. It is followed by the paper on the 
development of Bilobites, that on the development of Terebratalia obso- 
leta Dall, and by that on the development of the brachial supports in 
Dielasma and Zygospira. 

The opening paper of the volume is that on the origin and cendite 
cance of spines, a discussion which by its completeness and symmetry 
will long stand amongst the American classics of evolution. 

“Just as all the features of terrestrial topography are included be- 
tween the limits of plains and mountains, and the mountains are con- 
sidered as the limit of progressive accidentation, so the spines of ani- 
mals or the monticules and pinacles of their surface may be considered 
as the limits of progressive differentiation. The primitive base-level, 
or peneplain, becomes elevated, and by erosion is cut up into tablelands, 
mesas, and buttes, with intersecting valleys. The valleys are 


ee 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 183 


gradually depressed, and the country becomes rougher until max- 
imum are reached. Then follows a reduction of the inequalities cf 
the surface, and finally in old age, the smooth, gently rounded outlines 
of geographic infancy appear again. So in organisms, the smooth, 
rounded embryo or larval form progressively acquires more and more 
pronounced and highly differentiated characters through youth and 
maturity. In old age it blossoms out with a galaxy of spines, and 
with further decadence produces extravagant vagaries of spines, but 
in extreme senility comes the second childhood, with its simple growth 
and its last feeble infantile exhibit of vital power. 

“The history of a group of animals is the same. The first species 
are small and unornamented. They increase in size, complexity and 
diversity until the culmination, when most of the spinose forms be- 
gin to appear. During the decline extravagant types are apt to de- 
velop, and if the end is not then reached the group is continued in the 
small and unspecialized species which did not partake of the general 
tendency to spinous growth.” 

Scarcely less important are the author’s various papers on the 
structure and development of trilobites, though less unique. He here 
states the principles of a natural classification of trilobites, discusses 
their systematic position, entering more minutely into the morphology 
of Triarthrus and the structure and appendages of Trinucleus. 

The body of the volume closes with papers on the development of 
a poriferous coral, a symmetrical cell development in the Favositidae 
and on the shell of Tornoceras Hyatt. 

This gathering together of the papers of Dr. Beecher in a symmet- 
rical body constitutes a notable contribution to evolution, and every 
geologist will rejoice that they are brought into this convenient and 
compact form accompanied, as they are, by such emendations as 
bring them up to date. N. H. W. 


MONTHLY AUTHOR’S CATALOGUE 
OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE 
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY, 


BARBOUR, E. H. 
Report of the Geologist; altitudes in Nebraska. (Ann. Rep. Bd. 


Agr., 1900, pp. 169-180.) 


BARBOUR, E. H. : 
The state geological survey [Nebraska]: report of progress for 
the summer of 1900. (Proc. Neb. Acad. Sci., vol. 7, 1901, pp. 166-169.) 


BARBOUR, E. H. 
The unpublished meteorites of Nebraska. (Proc. Neb. Acad. Sel., 
vol. 7, p. 34, pl. 1, 1901.) 


184 The American Geologist. March, 190% 


BERKEY, C. P. 
The Sacred Heart geyser spring. (Am. Geol., vol. -29, pp. 87-88. 
Feb., 1902.) 


BISHOP, IRVING P. 
Oil and gas in southwestern New York (53 Ann. Rep. N. Y. State 
Mus., pp. 10-134. Albany, N. Y., 1901.) 


BRANNER, J. C. 

Occurrence of fossil remains of mammals in the interior of the 
states of Pernambuco and Alagoas, Brazil, plate 1. (Am. Jour. Sel, 
vol. 13. pp. 133-137. Feb., 1902.) 


BROADHEAD, G. C. 
History of Geological Surveys in Missouri. (Encyclopedia His- 
tory of Missouri. pp. 27-31. St. Louis, 1901.) 


BROADHEAD, G. C. 
Geology [and] Mineralogy [of Missouri]. (Encyclopedia History 
of Missouri. pp. 31-? and 390-393. St. Louis, 1901.) 


CLAPP, FREDERICK G. 
Geological history of Charles river. (Tech. Quart., vol. 14, Sep. 
and Dec., 1901. 


CLARKE. JOHN M. 
Report of the State Paleontologist, 1899. (53 Ann. Rep. N. Y. 
State Mus., pp. 659-816. Albany, 1901.) 


CLARKE, JOHN M. 

Oriskany fauna of Becraft mountain, Columbia county, New York. 
(Mem. N. Y. state Mus., No. 3, vol. 3. Oct. 1900. 104pp., 9, plates, 
quarto.) 


COLEMAN, A P. 
The duration of the Toronto interglacial period. (Am. Geol., vol. 
29, pp. 71-80. Feb. 1902.) 


CUMINGS, E. R. 

Notes on the Ordovician rocks of southern Indiana. (Proce. Ind. 
Acad Sci., 1900, pp. 200-216, 1901.) 
CUMINGS, E. R. 

Some developmental stages of Orthothetes minutus, n. sp. (Proc. 
. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1900, p. 216-218, 1901. 
DALL, W. HH. 

Alpheus Hyatt. (Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 60, p. 439. Mar. 1902. [Por- 
trait].) 
DILLER, J. S. 

The wreck of Mt. Mazama. (Science, vol. 15, pp. 203-211. Feb. 
%, 1902.) 


Author's Catalogue. 185 

FAIRCHILD, H. L. 
Proceedings of the Thirteenth summer meeting, held at Denver, 
Colorado, Aug. 27 1901, (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 18, pp. 1-16. Dec., 1901.) 


FISHER, C. A. 


Comparative value of Bluff and valley wash deposits as brick 
inaterial. (Am. Rep. Neb. Bd. of Agr. 1900. pp. 181-184.) 


FISHER, C. A. (C. N. GOULD and). ‘ 


The Dakota and Carboniferous clays of Nebraska. (An. Rep. Bd. 
Agr. 1909. pp. 185-194.) 


FISHER, C. .A 

Methods of studying and displaying quarry products as em- 
ployed by the Univerxsity of Nebraska Geological Survey. (Proc. 
Neb. Acad. Sci., vol. 7, Nov., 1901, pp. 153-155. pp. 11-13.) 


FRAZER, PERSIFOR. 
Compte Rendu VIII Congress Geologique International, Paris, 1900. 
(Am. Geol., vol. 29, pp. 110-116, Feb., 1902.) 


GOULD, C. N. (and C. A. FISHER). 
The Dakota and Carboniferous clays of Nebraska. (Ann. Rep. Ba. 
Agr. Neb., 1900. pp. 185-194.) 


GRANGER, WALTER. (H. F. OSBORN AND.) 
Fore and hind limbs of Sauropoda from the Bone Cabin quarry. 
(Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist:, vol. 14. pp. 199-209. Dec., 1901.) 


GRANT, U. S. 
Junction of Lake Superior sandstone and Keweenawan traps 
in Wisconsin. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 13, pp. 6-9. Dec., 1901.) 


HATCHER, J. B. 

On the cranial elements and the deciduous and permanent den- 
tations of Titanotherium. (Annals of the Carnegie Museum, vol. 1, 
pp. 256-262. pls. 7 and 8, 1901.) 


HATCHER, J. B. 
Sabal rigida: a new species of Palm from the Laramie. (An. 
Car. Mus., Pittsburg, vol. 1, pp. 263-264, 1901.) 


HATCHER, J. B. 
The Jurassic Dinosaur deposits near Canyon City Colorado. (An. 
Car. Mus., vol. 1, pp. 327-341, 1901.) 


HATCHER, J. B. 
On the structure of the Manus in Brontasaurus. (Science. N. S.. 
vol. 14, Dec. 27, 1901. pp. 1015-1017.) 


HAYES, C. W. 
Tennessee white phosphate. (21 Ann. Rep. U. S. G. S., part 3, pp. 
477-485. pl. 65, 1901.) 


186 The American Geologist. March, 190% 


HAYES, C. W. 
The Arkansas bauxite deposits. (21 Am. Rep., U. S. Geol. Sur., 
part 3, pp. 441-472, pls. 66-64, 1901.) 


HERSHEY, O. H. 
The significance of the term Sierran. (Am. Geol., vol. 29. pp- 


88-96. Feb. 1902.) 


HILLEBRAND, W. F. 
Composition of yttrialite, with a criticism of the formula as- 
signed to thalenite. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 12, pp. 145-152. Feb., 1902.) 


HOBBS, W. H. 
Still rivers of western Connecticut. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 13, pp. 
17-26. pls. 1 and 2, Dec. 28, 1901.) 


JOHNSON, D. W. 
Notes of a geological reconnoissance in eastern Valencia county, 
New Mexico, pls. 2 and 3, (Am. Geol. vol. 29, pp. 80-87, Feb. 1902.) 


KEMP, J. F. 

Precambrian formations of parts of Warren, Saratoga, Fulton, 
and Montgomery counties [New York]. (53 Ann. Rep., N. Y. State 
Mus., 1899. Albany. pp. 17-37. 1901. 


LOOMIS, F. B. 
On Jurassic stratigraphy in southeastern Wyoming, (Bull. Am. 
Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 14, pp. 189-199. pls. 26, 27. Dec. 1901. 


MATTHEW, Gi°Fs 

Additional Notes on the Cambrian of Cape Breton, with descrip- 
tions of new species. (Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc., New Brunswick. vol. 4, 
part 5, pp. 377-425, pls. 13-18. 1902. 


MERRILL, F. J. H. 
Report of the director and State Geologist [New York]. 1899. 
(53 Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus., 1899. Albany, 1901.) 


MILLS, JAS. E. 
Note on the surface geology of Rio Grande do Sul. (Am. Geol. 
vol. 29, p. 126. Feb. 1902.) 


NEVIUS, J. N. 
Emery mines of Westchester county. (53 Ann. Rep. N. Y. State 
Mus. pp. 115-154. Albany, 1901.) 


NEVIUS, J. N. 
Roofing slates of Washington county. (53 Ann. Rep. N. Y. State 
Mus., pp. 135-150. Albany, 1901.) 


ORTON, EDWARD. 
Petroleum and natural gas in New York. (53 Ann. Rep. N. Y- 
Ctate Mus. pp. 395-530. Albany, 1901.) 


Author's Catalogue. 187 


OSBORN, H. F. (and WALTER GRANGER). 
Fore and hind limbs of Sauropoda, from the Bone Cabin quarry. 
(Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 14, pp. 199-209. Dec., 1901.) 


PENFIELD, S. L. (H. L. WELLS and). 
New occurrence of sperrylite (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 138, Feb. 1902, 
pp. 95-96.) 


PERKINS, GEO. H. 
Sketch of the life of Zadock Thompson | Portrait]. (Am. Geol. 
vol. 29. pp. 6-71. Feb., 1902. 


- SAFFORD, J. M. 


Classification of the geological formations of Tennesee. (Bull. 
G. S. A., vol. 13. pp. 10-14, 1901.) 


SAFFORD, J. M. 
Horizons of phosphate rock in Tennessee. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 
13, pp. 14-15, Dec., 1901.) 


SMYTH, C. H., JR. 
Geology of the crystalline rocks near the St. Lawrence river. (53 
Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Mus., pp. 83-104, Albany, 1901.) 


VAN HISE, C. R. 
Geological excursion in Colorado. (Bull. G. S. A. vol. 13, pp. 2-5. 
Dec., 1901.) 


VERY, F. W. 
A cosmic cycle. Il. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 13, pp.98-114. Feb., 1992.) 


WELLS, H. L. (and S. L. PENFIELD). 
New occurrence of sperrylite. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 13. Feb., 1902. 
pp. 95-96.) 


WHITFIELD, R. P. 

Note on a very fine example of Helicoceras stevensoni, preserv- 
ing the outer chamber. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist .vol. 14. pp. 219- 
221. pls. 29 and 30. Dec.. 1901.) 


WHITFIELD, R. P. 

Description of a new Teredo-like shell from the Laramie group 
(Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 16, pp. 73-76, Feb., 1902. ph. 28 
and 29.) 


WHITFIELD, R. P. ; 

Description of a new form of Myalina from the coal measures 
of Texas. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 16, pp. 63-66. Feb. 5, 
1902.) 


WHITFIELD, R P. 

Observations on and emended description of Heteroceras sim- 
plicostatum Whitfield. (Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 16, pp. 67-72, 
pp. 23-27. Feb. 5, 1902.) 


188 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


WINCHELL, N. H. 
The geology of the Mississippi valley at Little Falls, Minnesota. 
(Kakabikansing, pp. $9-104, 1902.) 


WORTMAN, H. L. 
Studies of Hocene mammalia in the Marsh collection, Peabody 
museum. (Am Jour. Sci., vol. 13, pp. 115-128. Feb., 1902.) 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


REORGANIZATION OF THE GEOLOGIC BRANCH oF THE UNitep STATES 
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

In the U. S. Geological Survey the Geologic Branch is reorganized 
by the appointment of Mr. C. Willard Hayes to the position of 
Geologist in charge of Geology to take effect March Ist, 1902. Mr. 
Hayes has been connected with the survey since 1887 and has served 
with ability in various relations as assistant geologist, geologist, and 
since 1900 as geologist in charge of investigation of non-metalliferous 
economic deposits. He is now placed in administrative control of the 
Geologic Branch in order that the Director may be relieved of exec- 
utive details and the organization may be strengthened by the un- 
divided attention of its head to carrying out the Director’s general policy. 
By this appointment Mr. Willis, who since 1897 as assistant in Geology 
to the Director has performed the administrative work of geology, is 
freed from that duty and will be at liberty to give more attention to the 
division of areal and stratigraphic geology, of which he has charge. 

In announcing these changes at a meeting of geologists in the office 
of the survey on February 20th, the Director called attention to the 
plan of organization of the Geologic Branch set forth in the twenty- 
first annual report, pages 20 and 21, and more fully elaborated in the 
forthcoming twenty-second annual report. The fundamental idea of 
the organization is that scientific direction and supervision may be and 
in most cases should be separated from administrative control. Spe- 
cialists are placed in charge, each one of investigations in a particular 
subject, Becker, Chamberlin,, Day, Emmons, Hayes, Stanton, Van Hise, 
and Willis having been thus appointed, but their authority is in general 
limited to consideration and approval of the scientific aspects of the 
work. Administrative authority remained immediately with the Di- 
rector, and is now in a degree transferred to the Geologist in charge 
of Geology, Mr. Hayes. Bartey Wits. 


On Bettnurus KittorKensts Baily. Amongst the papers bearing 
on Canadian geology published during the year 1901 may be mentioned 
one brief note by professor Grenville A. J. Cole, M. R. I. A. F. G. §. 
in the February issue of the Geological Magazine, Decade IV, No. 440, 
p. 52, London, 1901. In this paper professor Cole criticises the views 


Correspondence. 189 


of a writer, “R. W. E.” in The Ottawa Naturalist for January 
1900, who ascribes the Kiltorcan beds of Ireland to a much lower 
horizon than is generally accepted. After discussing the biologic rela- 
tions and characters of Belinurus kiltorkensis Baily, and comparing 
this species with North American as well as European examples of the 
same genus, the writer concludes thus: “I feel, then, that Belinurus 
may be safely regarded as occurring in the Upper Old Red sandstone 
of Ireland, which some authors have proposed to include in the Lower 
Carboniferous series. There seems no reason to depart from the 
determination made by Mr. Baily and Dr. Woodward thirty years 
ago, a determination that has become widely known through the works 
of Zittel and other paleontologists.” H. M. A, 


ANALYSIS OF THE MouNtT VERNON Loess. Loess occurs to a con- 
siderable depth on the hills in the vicinity of Mount Vernon, Iowa. On 
the somewhat elevated ridge on which Cornell College is located, the 
formation extends to a depth of forty feet, diminishing from the sum- 
mit. In general it overlies the Kansan and Paha drifts, and is usually 
absent over the Iowan. A brick yard is located in the Mount Vernon 
loess from which a good quality of brick is obtained. The specimen 
chosen for analysis was taken from the brick yard, eight feet below 
the surface of the earth. The analysis was made by Frank Hann in 
the chemical laboratory of Cornell College under the direction of Dr. 
N. Knight. The following results were obtained: 


MPO sticistaldie ne 5.tiy le pulps ph a ccue th Ths 8 70.86% 
0 tat fe ee ee ee ee eee 4.70 
Serene | ee te Pe ae 2.97 
Al,O, hott ale A Ripe A) eee GA ee a 8.01 
MnO, se MR Bt rs eed aoe aa SE 0.28 
on 6 OE oi gn Leen Saree Baeey Sem 4.13 
RO 55 Bo WEIR MeN eT eet cest eres 3.12 
| 8 eee ee Meee eee ee en 1.18 
Ee gee ee Pat Poe oe Se oe 1.69 
poo 0S See 7S et OOS ere eee 0.59 
pS See te errr ee eee eT eee 0.40 
EE SE I aie an ek SLA one "LS nA 0.10 
BRA ike te aie win y wings ceiea dv ndvap tenes 1.10 
99.08 
Feb. 26, 1902. “NicHoLtas KNIGHT. 


DELEGATES OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT AT THE INTERNA- 
TIONAL ConGress oF GeoLocists. Mr. Arnold Hague writes me: * * 
“T hold an appointment from our government. My appointment reads: 
‘Arnold Hague, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has been appointed a 
delegate on the part of the United States to the International Congress 
of Geologists.’ It is signed by John Hay, Secretary of State, and bears 
the red seal of the State Department. Upon my arrival in Paris I 


1gO The American Geologist. March, 1902 


presented it personally to professor Goudry,’—(Gaudry)—“and on the 
termination of the Congress he returned it to me and it is now in my 
possession.” * * * 

The undersigned was therefore misinformed, and corrects herewith 
his unintentional error. 

This is not the place to consider the propriety of the action of the 
United States in sending three employés of one of its bureaux as its 
representatives to a purely scientific congress. It is an innovation, so 
far as the International Congress of geologists is concerned, dating 
subsequently to the Ztirich Congress of 1894, where Prof. Renevier 
and his committee of organization first awakened the official world to 
the possibilities inherent in the idea of “delegate.” The realization of 
these possibilities diminishes the influence of the independent unattached 
worker through the effulgence of. the red seal and autograph of the 
premier of a great country, yet the humble toiler’s regret at his 
shrunken proportions will be mitigated by the: 

* %* * “consoling thought to feel 
He paid the taxes which impelled the steel.” 
(with apologies to Byron). 
March 3, 1902. Persiror Frazer. 


Tue DerIVATION OF THE Rock NAME “ANortHosiTe.” In the Jan- 
uary, 1902, number of the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, in a review of my 
Rand hill paper, the reviewer, F. B., makes the following statement ;— 
“In spite of the place which the term anorthosyte has won in petro- 
graphic literature it seems questionable whether the term should be 
allowed, by its retention, to perpetuate an early inaccuracy in the de- 
termination of the feldspar species.” Similar statements have been 
frequent in recent literature and all seem to the writer to be based on 
a misconception of the derivation of the word. 

The Canadian geologists originated and have since consistently used 
the name. They distinctly state its derivation from Delesse’s term 
“anorthose”’ which he proposed to include the group of triclinic feld- 
spars, and as a convenient generic name to distinguish them from fhe 
monoclinic orthoclase “‘orthose.”’ *They clearly recognized that the 
feldspar in the rock varied from andesine to anorthite, labradorite be- 
ing the more common form, Anorthose as used by Delesse means 
precisely the same thing as the current term plagioclase. Anorthosyte 
was not proposed for an anorthite rock in especial nor is the name 
indicative of such derivation. Anorthityte would be the form were it 
so. 

Time has clearly shown that the name was unfortunately chosen, 
as evinced principally by the amount of misconception which has arisen 
concerning it. Moreover Delesse’s term has never passed into usage 
and has since been appropriated to another usage, anorthose now mean- 
ing anorthoclase. Yet curiously the misconception to which the term 


*Geology of Canada. 1 aaa, pp. 22, 83-35, 588-90. 
F. D, Apams, Neues Jahrb., Reil.-band viii, p. 423. 


{ 
‘ 


Correspondence. 191 


gives rise seems to be in regarding it as an anorthite, not as an an- 
orthoclase rock. The name was properly given, the mineralogy of the 
rock was perfectly understood, the name properly indicated the miner- 
alogy, and was transferred to the group of igneous rocks of which the 
Canadian occurrences are the types when their igneous origin was 
recognized. It has come into large use as applied to a perfectly defi- 
nite rock group, and in my judgment both the requirements of priority 
and the dictates of common sense necessitate its continued use, rather 
than the injection of a substitute name into a literature which is already 
suffering indigestion from a surfeit of new names. 

The only objection urged against the name which has come under 
my notice and which seems to me to be valid has been urged by Kold- 
erup.* He argues that the name is equally applicable to an albite or 
oligoclase rock and that these are too acid to be grouped with rocks 
which are properly regarded as an end series of the gabbro family, 
This same objection would apply equally to plagioclasyte, recently 
proposed by A. N. Winchell to replace anorthosyte. But such rocks 
are of the rarest, so that the objection seems more theoretical than 
real. Kolderup proposes no substitute, but argues for the use of lab- 
radorfels, anorthitfels, etc., and does away with the group name. 
There can be no possible objection to this minuter subdivision where 
it is possible, but for the purpose of mapping, in the Adirondacks at 
least, it is not possible, and the more comprehensive name, or a more 
comprehensive name, is an absolute necessity. 

The Adirondack geologists have consistently followed the Canadian 
lead in the use of the term anorthosite, believing that no sufficient 
grounds exist for a substitute name, and are glad to take the lead in 
a protest against an attempt to shelve it. H. P. CUSHING. 

Above statement was submitted to Profs. Kemp and Smyth for their 
approval or disapproval, and their comments follow. 

I fully agree with the statements of Professor Cushing as given 
above. They are correct in fact and sound in principle. J. F. KEMP. 

Professor Cushing’s views in regard to the term anorthosite seem 
to me right, beyond question. Cc. A. SMYTH, JR. 


New York AcApeMy oF SCIENCES. JAN. 20. Professor R. P. Whit- 
field read two papers. The first was upon the Ammonite Heteroceras 
simplicostatum, in which he amended and elaborated the description of 
that species which he had given in the Newton and Jenny report on 
the Black hills, published in 1880, the new observations being based 
upon material gathered by Dr. E. O. Hovey on an expedition of the 
American Museum last summer. This material shows conclusively 
that the three genera Hamites, Ancyloceras and Heteroceras have no 
independent existence, because single individuals show the distinguish- 
ing characters of all three genera combined. This fact has been sus- 
pected by the author when at work upon the Newton material twenty- 
five years ogo, and it has been hinted at in writings of Hyatt ane 


*Bergens Museums Aarbog, 1896, Die labradorfelse, etc., p. 23. 


1g2 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


others, but these were the first specimens described which settled the 
question. 

Professor Whitfield’s second paper described a new Teredo-like 
shell from the Laramie group of eastern Wyoming, collected by Mr. 
Barnum Brown of the American Museum. This Teredo, to which the 
author has given the name Xylophomya laramiensis, is more than an 
inch in diameter, thus ranking with the largest species of the family 
known. 

These two papers may be found in full in the current volume of 
the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 

Professor James Douglas gave a description, illustrated by topo- 
graphic map and numerous lantern slides, of the famous Rio Tinto 
group of the copper mines of the Huelva district in Spain. These 
mines have been worked from time immemorial, the earliest knowledge 
of them dating from the Phoenicians, who occupied the country in 
the eleventh century B. C. The Romans also obtained a large amount 
of copper from these deposits, and it is an interesting fact that the 
slags which they left are purer, that is, freer from copper, than those 
which are made there today. The ore is a copper-bearing pyrite, 
carrying some silica. The copper-bearing portions run irregularly 
through the iron pyrites, and the Rio Tinto Company has removed 
millions of tons of forty-two per cent iron ore in getting at its copper 
ore. The iron ore is not profitable at the present time, although it 
may become so in the distant future. There are some remains of the 
workings of the ancients here. At Tharsis in particular the old 
shafts are very peculiarly constructed, one at least being spiral to en- 
able the miners to carry the ore on their backs. Shelves are excavated 
at intervals in the walls of the shaft to enable the men to rest their 
loads-on their weary journey to the surface. 

The mines are worked now as open air diggings in circular ter- 
races. They produce about two million tons of ore per year, and it is 
estimated that there are one-hundred and sixty million tons in sight. 
Some silver-bearing galena is associated with the copper ore. The old- 
fashioned method of roasting the ore in heaps was kept up until 1893, 
but the ore is now leached by means of water. This is a long process, 
requiring four years for its thorough completion, but the copper fs 
leached out so that less than one-fourth of one per cent is left in the 
tailings. The great bulk of the world’s supply of sulphuric acid is 
obtained from the Rio Tinto pyrite, which is shipped all over the world 
for the purpose of manufacturing the acid. Five hundred thousand 
tons per year are utilized in this way. 

The paper was discussed by Dr. Julien and Mr. Howe, and the 
section passed a hearty vote of thanks to Professor Douglas for his 
kindness in giving the paper. 

February 17, Dr. O, P. Hay read a paper on the Snoutfishes ot 
Kansas. In this paper the author presented a brief history of our 
knowledge of the genus Protosphyrzna, and a statement showing what 


—— 


Correspondence. 193 


portions of the skeleton were still unknown. Those parts which are 
best known are the skull, especially the elongated snout, and the jaws, 
the shoulder and the caudal and pectoral fins. These parts have sel- 
dom been found associated, and there have been established three ser- 
ies of species, one on the teeth, one on the snout, and the third on the 
fins. It is certain that as new collections are made and studied some 
of these sub-species will be reduced to synonymy. The author pointed 
out various errors on the part of writers in the interpretation of dif- 


_ ferent elements of the skeleton and illustrated his pointe by means 


of specimens. 

Dr. A. A. Julien gave an impromptu discussion of the relation of 
honestones to the cutting edge of tools, in the course of which he said 
that the quality of a hone depended on the size and shape of its com- 
ponent particles, and upon the cement joining the whole together, ex- 
except in the case of the novaculites from Arkansas, in which the hon- 
ing quality is due to the sharp edges of minute cavities left by the sol- 
ution of calcite; and in the case of the turkey-stone, in which the 
honing quality is due to veinlets of quartz intersecting a rock which 
has been formed by silica replacing a granular limestone. A micro- 
scopic study showed that the edge of a tool is not regularly serrated, 
part of’ it being smooth and part undulatory. Viewed on edge the 
sharpest tools are practically straight, while the others are more or 
less irregularly wavy. Viewed in the cross-section, a fine edge is seen 
to be a perfect wedge, while duller tools show a minute shoulder. 

E. O. Hovey, Secretary. 


PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Dr. Georce P. Merritt discussed “Rutile Mining in Vir- 
ginia”, at the meeting Feb. 12 of the Geological Society of 
Washington. 

Pror. R. S. Tarr of Cornell University is in Italy. He 
will also visit Germany and the British islands for the purpose 
of studying their drift features. 

Dr. M. E. Wapswortu, head of the Department of Mines 
and Mining in the Pennsylvania State College, has been elected 
Geologist for the Pennsylvania State Board of Agriculture. 

Dr. H. P. KUmmMet, who has been acting state geologist 
of New Jersey since the resignation of Dr. J. C. Smock last 
summer, has been appointed state geologist by the board of 
managers. Mr. Ktinmel has been connected with the New 
Jersey survey since 1892. 

Pror. G. C. BroapHEeap has an excellent review and 
epitome of the history of geological surveys in Missouri, and 
of early mining operations in the “Encyclopedia History of 


194 The American Geologist. March, 1902 


Missouri.” St. Louis, 1901, followed by a statement of the 
present mining and mineral wealth of that state. 

Fietp CoLtumMBian Museum. The following geological lee- 
tures are in the free lecture course for March and April: Tex- 
as Petroleum, Dr. W. B. Phillips; The Northern Rocky Moun- 
tains, Dr. Stuart Weller; Geological Field work in the Lron 
and Copper districts of the Lake superior region, Prof. U. 5. 
Grant. 

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON. At the meeting ot 
January 22, Mr. J. E. Duerden read a paper on the “Develop- 
ment of Septa in Paleozoic Corals ;’’ Mr. C. K. Leith one on 
the “Mesabi Iron Range of Minnesota.” and Mr. Whitman 
Cross discussed briefly the paper of Mr. Willis on stratigraphic 
classification. 

Dr. A. W. G. Wixson, late of Harvard University and the 
Geological Survey of Canada, is at present studying in Europe. 

At a meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History, 
held Feb. 19th, professor W. ©. Crosby presented at greater 
length than has yet been done, arguments to prove the super- 
glacial origin of eskers. 

THE COMPLETION OF THE GEOLOGICAL Map or EvropeE.— 
The following information has just been given by Dietrich 
Reimer concerning the completion of the geological map of 
Europe.— 

The issue of the 24 sheets which are required to complete 
the map of Europe is dependent upon the furnishing of geolog- 
ical materials by the interested governments. So soon as this 
material from Russia, and topographical data of the north 
coast of Africa are forthcoming the remaining sheets will ap- 
pear rapidly one after another. P. F. 

IN THE FEBRUARY NUMBER OF THIS JOURNAL we stated 
that the director of the U. S. Geological Survey had appointed 
a committee to reconsider the rules published by that organiza- 
tion in its Tenth Annual Report. This committee spent several 
days considering the voluminous correspondence submitted to it 
by the geologists of the Survey and others. Good progress has 
been made and a sub-committee is now at work drawing up 
the wording of the new rules according to the minutes of the 
general committee. Later we hope to present the important 
work of the committee in more detail. 

Mr. L. M. PRINDLE is now assistant in Petrography at Har- 
vard University, in place of Dr. E. C. E. Lord. 

In the survey for the more accurate location of the Canadian 
boundary, begun last season, the Dominion government had 
one geological party in the field, the United States three. For 
the former, Dr. R. A. Daly, late of Harvard University, carriea 
the field work to a point a few miles east of the end of the 


B 


i i I a ell 
’ 


Personal and Scientific News. 195 


Fraser river delta, the short distance being due to the difficul- 
ties of the route. Of necessity, most of the studies concerned 
problems in the delta. It is expected that next season's ex- 
plorations will be more rapid. 

The department of geology and geography at Harvard 
University has moved into new quarters, in a new wing of the 
museum projected by Louis Agassiz; this part being built 
through the generosity of the Agassiz family. General geology 
occupies the second floor, physiography and meteorology the 
fourth, and experimental and general research courses the 
fifth. A lecture room fills the first floor, and exhibition rooms, 
part of the general system of the museum, the third. 

A Dritt Hore 4,800 Freer Deep. <A borehole which was 
begun in January, 1899, with a Sullivan diamond drill, near 
Johannesburg, South Atrica, was recently completed success- 
fully. 

The drill hole on the Turf Club grounds which is nearly 
two miles from the outcrop of the main reef struck the main 
reef at 4,800 feet or within 25 feet of the depth at which it 
was expected the formation would be struck. A curious feature 
in connection with the sinking of this bore-hole was the fact 
that the rods were left in the hole for 20 months while hos- 
tilities were going on. The details of the work when it was 
renewed are best given in the following quotations from the 
report of the engineers, which is as follows: ‘Having com- 
pleted all our preparations, we started to withdraw the rods 
on Sunday morning, May 26, at 9:10 a.m. The full pressure 
of steam at our disposal was applied, and as the rods took the 
strain. it was a moment of great anxiety to the onlookers, and 
we held our breath in suspense, as it was seen the rods had 
not moved an inch. The next moment, however, to our great 
relief and delight, they gradually and evenly slipped outwards 
and so continued to lift, without a hitch throughout the day, 
so that at knocking-off time we had pulled 1,850 feet. Work 
was resumed at daylight on the following Monday morning, 
and we are happy to inform you that by 10 a. m. on that day 
all the rods were safely out of the hole. 

The nature of the ground passed through was fairly fa- 
vorable and the regular Rand formation. 

Brazilian carbons which to-day are worth about £9 per 
carat or about four times the value of ordinary diamonds were 
used in the drilling. 

The weight of the rods which carried out this operation 
was about 16 tons. To prevent such an enormous weight press- 
ing too heavily on the carbons while drilling, the rods were 
suspended on a hydraulic cylinder, which allowed the rods to 
descend as desired; in fact, the enormous pressure of the rods 


196 The American Geologist. May 


could have been run at a weight just sufficient to tickle one’s 
hand if necessary.”—J/ines and Mterals. ; 
WEALTH OF THE UNITED States. MINES AND MINERALS. 
The standing of the United States with her neighbors, and es- 
pecially with those of Europe, is illustrated by the following 
statistics taken trom the London Daily Mail Year Book for 
1902. As regards wealth this authority places the United 
States at the head of the list of great nations, and while the 
United States heads this list of countries in its wealth. it shows 
the smallest national indebtedness, the figures for these two 
items being as follows: 


Percentage of 
Indebtedness. | Wealth. Indebtedness 
i | to Wealth. 
United States ......... | $1,076,270,000 | $79,620,500,000 | 1.4 
RSOTITUREW verbs a ws wate | 3,170,370,000 | 39,213,240,000 | 8.1 
United Kingdom ....... | 3,438,220,000 | 57,495,220,000 | 6 
Russia .............-.++ | 3,462,570,000 | 31,280,750,000 | II.1 
Prancerh vcdreer ce eee | 6,033,930,000 | 47,190,300,000 } 128 


Under the head “Commercial Competition,” the Year Book 
says that “the first year of the twentieth century opened badly 
for two of the four leading industrial nations.” The trade of 
the United States was good and showed no decline from the 
booming period of 1899 and 1900, but rather, in most indus- 
tries a continuance of the boom of which the United States 
has had so disproportionately large a share, and France, which 
has responded less expansively to the boom, remained unaf- 
fected by the decline and progress elsewhere. In England and 
Germany, however, the decline was felt acutely. 

Under the head of “Fight for the iron trade,” it calls atten- 
tion to the fact that the United States is now the world’s largest 
producer of pig iron and steel, and says, “It will be noted that 
the United Kingdom has lost ground, producing 396,749 tons 
less in 1900 than in 1899, the total for Great Britain being 
nearly 5,000,000 tons less than in America. An unsatisfactory 
feature in the British iron and steel trade is that In 1900 we 
imported more iron and steel than in any previous year, and 
exported less, while the United States exported more than 
ever.” The tollowing table shows the pig iron and steel pro- 
duction for 1900 to be— 


Pig Iron. Steel. 

: Tons, Tons, 
United States ..... Sen. ——<«_ 
TIRERE MOOR, on cies, | spaee | 8,008,570 | 4.001.054 
REN ct Gd pwns Wa no's ds ba cee at | 8,404,852 4,700 000 
erin A, SUR eee ee | 2,600,404 | 1,624,046 


PRISONER try ohn oN as dis vc a ab ae | 2,821,000 } 1,404,000 


Tup AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Vou. X XIX. 


PraTe X. 


eS&) 


SaeeNnee 


SS 


‘THe AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. X XIX. 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VOL. X XIX 


; 
7 03 < 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VoL. X XIX PLATE XII. 


THE 


AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


Vor. XXIX. APRIL, 1902. No. 4. 


— 
—— —$_—__—_—__—_ 


A REVISION OF THE BRYOZOAN GENERA DE- 
KAYIA DEKAYELLA AND HETEROTRYPA 
OF THE CINCINNATI GROUP. 
By EpGaR R,. CUMINGS. 
PLATES IX, X, XI AND XII. 

The genera Dekayia E. & H., Dekayella Ulrich and He- 
terotrypa Nicholson, together with the genera Petigopora Ul- 
rich, Leptotrypa, Ulrich Atactopora Ulrich and Orbipora 
Eichwald constitute the family Heterotrypidae* of the Tre- 
postomatous Bryozoa. . ; 

The present paper deals with the first three of these genera 
and endeavors to prove that they together constitute but one 
genus to which the prior term Dekayia should be applied. 

Dekayia Edwards and Haime.— This genus was founded 
in 1851 by Milne-Edwards and Haime? for the reception of a 
single species.—D. aspera E. & H. 

The following is their description of the genus: 

“Polypier a calices polygonaux, a murailles fortes, et munies en 
certain points de petites colonnes pointues, semblables a celles qu'on 
observe dans d’autres familles, chez les Stylocoenia et les Protaraea. 
Pas de traces de cloisons. 

Ce genre, qui ne renferme qu'une seule espéce, se distingue de toutes 
les autres Favositides, par la présence des petites colonnes qui hérissent 
les autres Favositides, par la présence des petites colonnes qui hérissent 
sa surface. Sous tous les autres rapports il est extremement voisin > 
des chztetes.” 

The type species Dekayia aspera E. & H. is thus described : = 

“Polypier en masse subramifiée et un peu irréguliére. Calices petits, 
polyganoux, a murailles simples, peu inégaux, présentant a leur angles 
et, 4 des distances variables des cones trés-sallaints, compactes, aigues 


* NicKLes AND BASSLER, Am. Foss. Bryozoa Bull. No. 173, U.S.G-.S.,, 
att pp. 31, 32 
+ Pal. Foss des Terr. Pal., p. 277, pl. xvi, figs. 2, 2a. 
t Ibid., p. 278. 


198 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


et striés, qui donnent un aspect spinuleux a la surface. Largeur des 
calices, un quart de millimétre. Planchers horizontaux. 
Siturien (inférieur). Etats-Unis: Cincinnati, (Ohio.) 

Dekayia was adopted in 1879 by H. A. Nicholson, as a 
sub-genus of the genus Monticulipora D’Orb. The following 
is Nicholson's diagnosis : 

“Corallites of two kinds, the larger tubes with thin walls, polygonal 
in shape, and provided with well developed tabule. The smaller tubes 
isolated by the larger corallites, apparently destitute of tabulz, their 
walls greatly thickened, and appearing on the surface as so many 
detached spiniform processes placed at the angles of junction of the 
iarger tubes. Type of the group, Dekayia aspera, E. & H."* s 

On page 298 (Jbid.) he further states that 

“The corallum in Dekayia is truly dimorphic, that the surface- 
columns are the homologues of the spines which are so abundantly de 
veloped in M. (Heterotrypa) tumida, Phill, M. (Heterotrypa) mon- 
iliformis, Nich. and other forms of Monticulipora. * * * Taking 
this view of the subject, the species of Dekayia are principally sep- 
arable from the spiniferous species of Monticulipora (Heterotrypa) by 
the fact that in the former the spines are much reduced in number 
and increased in size, while they are always isolated by the large 
tubes, these latter being of one kind only.” 

In 1882 Mr. Ulrich} included the genus in his family Mon- 
ticuliporide (used here in a wider sense than subsequently), 
with the following definition: 

“Dekayia, Edwards and Haime——Ramose, with branches cylindri- 
cal or compressed. Interstitial cells wanting. Spiniform tubuli few 
but very large. They constitute a conspicuous external feature of 
the zoarium.” 

In 1883 an extended description of the genus was 
given and several new species were added to the two (or one) 
then known. The description of the genus is as follows := 

“Zoarium growing upward from a more or less largely expanded 
basal attachment, into rarely cylindrical, usually flattened branches, 
which occasionally may become subfrondescent. Surface sometimes 
with low monticules, usually, however, nearly even. Cells with poly- 
gonal apertures, sometimes apparently consisting of one kind only, 
but more commonly a few interstitial cells may be detected, which 
are more especially developed between the individuals constituting the 
groups of larger cells, that always furnish a more or less conspicuous 
feature of the surface. Cell-walls always thin, sometimes excessively 
so, there being but one species (D. trentonensis n. sp.) [placed by 
Nickles and Bassler in Dekayella] in which the tube walls as the 


* Paleozoic Tabulate Corals, 1879, Pr — 292. 
+ Tour, Cin, Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. v, p. 
t Jour. Cin, Soc. Nat. Hist., vol, vi, ry a8. 


Revision of Bryosoan Genera.—Cumings. 199 


tubes pass from the axial into the peripheral region, are more than only 
very slightly thickened. Spiniform tubuli in the typical species few, 
but very large, and not infrequently already present in the axial region 
of the zoarium. In other species (D. appressa n. sp. and D. paupera 
n. sp.) they are reduced in size but their number remains about the 
same. In one (D. multispinosa n. sp.) they are also comparatively small, 
but more numerous. When in good state of preservation, at certain 
stages in the growth of the zoarium, the cell-apertures over larger or 
smaller patches of the surface are covered by a thin calcareous pellicle, 
On such covered spots the spiniform tubuli are very conspicuous. Dia- 
phragms straight, usually few, sometimes almost entirely absent, oc- 
casionally (in the peripheral region) from one-half to one tube-di- 
‘ameter distant from each other.” * 

In Zittel’s Paleontology (Eastman’s translation) we have 
Dekayia “distinguished from Dekayella by the absence of the 
smaller set of acanthopores, and lesser number of mesopores 
and diaphragms” (p. 273). 

Under this genus as thus defined are now placed five species 
from the Cincinnati group, and one, doubtfully, from the 
Hamilton group.* 

Heterotrypa.—This name was proposed in 1879 by Nichol- 
son ¥ for a subgenus of the genus Monticulipora D’Orb., with 
the following definition : 

“Heterotrypa, Nich—Corallites of two or sometimes of three 
kinds; the larger ones subpolygonal partially separated by the de- 
velopment of numerous smaller circular or irregularly shaped tubes 
[mesopores], of which there is no more than a single row. Walls 
thickened towards the mouths of the tubes. Tabule [diaphragms] 
conspicuously more numerous in the smaller tubes than in the larger 
ones. Type of the group the Monticulipora mammulata D’Orb. [— 
Heterotrypa frondosa of Ulrich and others] (which is also the type 
of the whole genus.’’) 

Under the subgenus as thus defined, Nicholson places 
(Ibid., p. 293) besides Monticulipora mammulata, M. ramosa 
Edwards and Haime. M. rugosa E. & H., M. frondvsa D’Or- 
bigny, (=Peronopora dicipiens Rominger sp.) M. Jamesi 
Nich., M. moniliformis Nich., M. tumida Phillips, M, gracilis 
James, “and various other more or less certainly established 
species.” In his monograph on the genus Monticulipora 
(1881) M. frondosa is removed to the subgenus Peronopora,? 
and the complete list of species placed under the subgenus 


tin ap) pi 


* Bull. U. S. G. S. No. 173. 1900, pp. 228, 229. 
+ Paleozoic Tabulate Corals, p. 291. 
t Op. Cit.. p. 215. 


200 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


Heterotrypa is: Monticulipora mammulata D’Orb., M. tumida 
Phill. M. ulrichi Nich., M. gracilis James, M. andrewsii Nich., 
M. ramosa D’Orb., M. rugosa E. & H., M. dalei E. & FL, M. 
moniliformis Nich., M subpulchella Nich., M. onealli James, 
M. nodulosa Nich., M. jamesi Nich., M. implicata Ulrich, M. 
girvanensis Nich., M. trentonensis Nich., and M. dawsoni Nich., 

In 1883 Mr. E. O. Ulrich, in hts American Paleozoic Bryo- 
zoa,* again revised the group, limiting Heterotrypa (by him 
ranked as a genus) to two of the above species, H. frondosa 
(=Monticulipora (Heterotrypa) mammulata Nich.) and H. 
subpulchella, and himself adding several new species. The re- 
mainder he distributes among the genera Callopora Hall, Am- 
plexopora Ulrich, Homotrypa Ulr., Batostoma Ulr., Batostom- 
ella Ulr., and Monotrypella Ulr. 

Mr. Ulrich’s definition of the genus as thus restricted is: 

“Zoarium growing from an expanded base, attached to foreign 
objects, upward into simple, often undulated or irregularly inoscu- 
lated fronds, and occasionally into flattened branches. Cell-apertures 
varying in shape from polygonal to circular. They are separated from 
each other by walls or interspaces, which may be comparatively thin 
(H. solitaria), or nearly as thick as their own diameter ( H. vaupeli). 
Interstitial cells from few to very numerous, always angular or sub- 
angular. Spiniform tubuli [acanthopores] small, usually numerous 
(sometimes excessively so, as in H. vaupeli) occasionally inflecting the 
walls, and giving the cell apertures an irregular petaloid appearance. 
Internally we find that the walls of the tubes are more or less thick- 
ened as they enter the ‘mature’ region and apparently amalgamated with 
one another. The diaphragms are straight, of one kind only, more 
numerous in the interstitial tubes than in the proper zocecia, and 
always more crowded in the ‘mature’ regions than in the ‘immature’ 
or axial region.” t 

The genus as thus defined includes, according to Nickles 
and Basslert nine species from the Cincinnati group of the 
Ohio valley and Illinois, and two species from the Hamilton, 
doubtfully placed in this genus. 

Dekayella Ulrich.—This genus was founded in 1882 by Mr. 
Ulrich. The following is his original diagnosis: § 

“Dekayella, Ulrich—Ramose, branches often compressed. Inter- 
stitial cells more or less numerous, often aggregated into irregular. 

* Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Naat vol. vi, p. 83. A brief diagnosis is given on 
% Mibu woie vi pS ‘86. 


t Ball, U.S. G. 5. No. 173, 1900, pp. aaa 290. 
§ Jour. Cin, “Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. v, p. 15 


Revision of Bryozsoan Genera.—Cumings. 201 


‘macule.’ Spiniform tubuli of two kinds; large ones arranged as in 
Dekayia, and a much greater number of small ones. Diaphragms in 
both sets of tubes straight.” The type of this genus is D. obscura. 

On page 90 (Ibid., vol. VI.) the following observations on 
Dekayella are given: 

“Dekayella is probably more nearly allied to Dekayia than to any 
other genus of the monticuliporide. On the other hand the cell struc- 
ture slightly resembles that of Heterotrypa. From the former the 
new genus is separated by having the tube-walls in the ‘mature’ region 
of the zoarium thicker; in having numerous interstitial tubes, and in- 
stead of one, two distinct sets of spiniform tubuli. From Hetero- 
trypa, Dekayella is distinguished by its ramose growth, and two sets 
of spiniform tubuli. The most peculiar character of the genus is 
found in the two sets of spiniform tubuli, differing from each other, 
both in their time of development, and in size. The larger set are 
precisely like those of Dekayia, and, as is likewise the case in that 
genus, they make their appearance in the axial or ‘immature’ region of 
the zoarium. This fact seems to point to a considerable difference in 
the functions of the two sets. The smaller spiniform tubuli are pre- 
cisely like those of Heterotrypa, Amplexopora, and other genera of 
the Monticuliporidae, in which these structures exist, and in none of 
these do they appear before the zoarium has become fully matured.” 

In Eastman’s translation of Zittel’s Grundzuge der Paleon- 
tologie, 1899, the following brief diagnosis of Dekayella is 
given (p. 273): 

“Ramose, branches sometimes compressed. Mesopores more or 
less numerously distributed among the zocecia. Acanthopores of two 
sizes, the smaller ones the more abundant, and present only in the 
peripheral region.” 

Nickles and Bassler include in this genus five species and 
five varieties from the Trenton and Cincinnati groups.* 

The above quoted descriptions give the sum of the generic 
characters said to be possessed by twenty-six species and va- 
rieties, the majority of which are from the middle beds of the 
Cincinnati group of the Ohio valley. Under his description of 
Dekayella Mr. Ulrich, as we have seen, summed up the dif- 
ferential characters of his three genera. Dekayella is said to 
have comparatively thick walls in the mature region and 
to have numerous mesopores and two sets of acantho- 
pores, the larger set being sometimes present in the axial 
region. Dekayia has thin walls, few or no mesopores, and on- 
ly the large set of acanthopores. Heterotrypa has a frondes- 
cent type of growth and only the small set of acanthopores. 

* Bull. U.S. G. S., No. 173, 1900, pp. 226-228. 


202 The American Geologist. April, 196% 


In order to make the points of similarity and dissimilarity 
still more emphatic the characters given in the above descrip- 


tions may conveniently be arranged in three parallel columns: 


HETEROTRYPA 
Zoarium growing 
from an expanded 
attached base’ up- 
ward into a_ simple 
often undulated or 
irregularly inosculat- 
ed frond or _ occa- 
sionally into flat 
branches, 


Cells polygonal to) 


circular. 
Cell walls thin to 
thick. 


Mesopores few to 


numerous, always 
angular, 
Acanthopores — small, 


usually numerous. 
Present only in the 
peripheral region. 


Diaphragms 
straight and of one 
kind, more numerous 
in the mesoperes and 
always more crowded 
in the mature than 
in the immature re- 


gion, 
Walls —_ apparently 
amalgamated with 


one another. 


DEKAYELLA 
Zoarium growing 
upward from an at- 
tached base into cyl- 
indrical often com- 

pressed branches. 


Cells rounded or 
ring-like. 

Cell walls some- 
what thickened  to- 
ward the surface. 

_ Mesopores numer- 
ous. 


Acanthopores of 
two sizes, large and 
~ small. 

Large ones present 
in the arial region, 


Diaphragms 
Straight and of one 
kind more numerous 
in the mesopores and 
always more crowd- 
ed in the mature 
than in the immature 
region, 


DEKAYIA. 


upward from an ex- 
panded basal attach- 
ment into rarely cyt- 
indrical usually flat- 
tened branches, Oc- 
casionally subfrond- 
escent. 


Cells folygona/. 


Cell walls thin. 
(Thick in one spe- 
cies. ) 

Mesopores few to 
none, 


Acanthopores us- 


ually few and of 
large size. Some- 
times fairly numer- 
ous. Present in the 
axial region. : 
Diaphragms from 
almost none to mod- 
e rately abund- 
ant. More abundant 
in the mature region. 


A thin pellicle 
sometimes drawn 
over the mouths of 
the zocecia. 


The characters with which we have to deal are therefore: 
1) The type of growth, whether (a) ramose or (b) fron- 
descent; 2) the thickness of the walls; 3) the character of the 
acanthopores whether (a) large or (b) small or (c) both 
large and small; 4) the presence or absence of a pellicle clos- 


Revision of Bryozoan Genera.—Cumings. 203 


ing the mouths of the zocecia over patches of the surface of 
the zoarium; 5) the number of the mesopores. 

The writer has recently come into possession of material 
that throws new light upon each of these five characters. 

The genus, Dekayella Ulr. is said not to contain any truly 
frondescent species. The Cincinnati group affords, however, 
such a species. At the base of the Platystrophia zone (Lor- 
raine) near Manchester station (C. C. C. & St. L. R. R., Chi- 
cago & Cincinnati Division,) Dearborn Co., Indiana, occurs 
the variety of Dekayella ulrichi (Nich.) next described.” 


Dekayia ulrichi-lobata n. var. 
PL. IX, FIG. 2: Pu..X, FIG. 5; Pi. XI, Fics. 3, &. 


Zoarium consisting of irregularly lobed and greatly compressed 
branches or of wavy true fronds arising from a cylindrical base which 
is doubtless attached by an expansion as in other frondescent species. 
An average frond has a thickness of 4 mm. to 5 mm. and a breadth 
of 20 mm. or more. Surface nearly smooth, often completely so; but 
showing in some specimens subsolid sometimes slightly elevated 
macule of cells somewhat smaller than the average. Zocecia round, 
about 45 to the centimeter and from 0.16 mm to 0.2 mm. in diameter. 
Mesopores numerous, angular, filling all the interstices between the 
zocecia. The surface of some specimens seems to be covered in 
places with a thin pellicle, as in other species of Dekayia. 

Longitudinal sections show that the diaphragms are approximately 
horizontal, fairly crowded in the mature region and considerably more 
numerous in the mesopores, which are constricted at the level of each 
diaphragm. The walls present the peculiar beaded appearance char- 
acteristic of D. Ulrichi. 

Tangential sections near the surface show that the zocecia are ring- 
like in the mature region, with fairly thick walls, The acanthopores 
are fairly abundant, and of two sizes, the smaller somewhat more 
numerous. The ratio of the diameters of the largest and smallest 
acanthopores seen, is about as four to one. 

For comparison I have inserted (PI. IX, fig. 1) a tangential 
section of an ordinary ramose specimen of D. ulrichi¥ from 
the Utica beds at Cincinnati (Dalmanella multisecta zone.) It 
will be seen that the internal characters of the two are identi- 
cal. 

Since this variety of D. ulrichi is truly frondescent it 
eliminates from consideration the first of the differentia en- 


* This torm is associated with Platystrophia laticosta, Plectorthis plica- 
tella, Callopora dalei, &c. ‘ 

+ This specimenis from the collection of Bryozoa in the Yale Museum, 
labeled by Ulrich. 


204 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


umerated above, since Dekayia aspera and its associates and 
Heterotrypa are usually frondescent or subfrondescent. 

In a zone slightly lower than the one that afforded the 
specimens of Dekayia ulrichi-lobata (in the same locality) 
and associated with the highest specimens of Dalmanella mul- 
tisecta* seen, occurs a form that combines to a remarkable de- 
gree the characters of Dekayia, Heterotrypa, and Dekayella. 
The description of this form follows. 


Dekayia subfrondosa n. sp. 
PL. IX, F1GS..7, 8; PL. X, FIG. 3; Pu. XI, PIG. 1. 


Zoarium growing upward from an expanded cylindrical basal at- 
tachment into flat fronds of a thickness of 10 mm. to 15 mm. and a 
breadth of as much as 60 mm. A specimen hearly complete, except 
the cylindrical base has a height of 110 mm. The frond has a ten- 
dency to give off compressed branches along the free edges. Entire 
surface covered with small rather abruptly elevated monticules with 
an average diameter of 1.5 mm. From 12 to 13 occupy one square centr 
meter. At the apices of the monticules the cells are smaller than the 
average. Cells mostly of one kind, 0.25 mm. in diameter, 40 cells to 
the cm. 

The internal structure of this species as seen in tangential sections 
is highly instructive. In tangential sections cutting the mature region 
the cells are seen to be rather thin walled, the walls of adjacent zo- 
cecia being apparently amalgamated. That this is not the case is 
well shown in fig. 8, Pl. X, where the section cuts a portion of the 
zoarium that has been fractured and infilled with calcite along the 
fracture. The zocecia are spread apart, the wall formerly apparently 
common to two zocecia being now half on one side, half on the other 
side of the calcite seam. Where an acanthopore is present the zocecial 
wall separates from it cleanly. Indeed the acanthopore is sometimes 
left completely isolated in the calcite, showing that these structures 
belong to neither zocecial wall. The attention of those who deny the 
duplex character of the interzoccial wall should be called to this 
phenomenon. 

Only a moderate number of small tubes are seen throughout the 
main part of ordinary tangential sectinos. Fig. 8, Pl. IX, shows a 
cluster of small tubes in a portion of a section in which the walls 
are also thicker than is usual. Tangential sections of the branchlets, 
however, present almost identically the same appearance as sections 
of D. ulrichi robusta (pl. TX, fig. 4). 

* Other common members of this fauna are: Dekayia ulrichi-robusta, D. 
perfrondosa (Heterotrypa frondosa Ulr.) Callopora dalei, C. sigillaroides, 
Constellaria constellata, Escharopora pavonia, Homotrypa curvata, H., Cur- 


vata (ramose variety). Strophomena planoconvexa, Platystrophia dentata, 
Plectorthis plicatella, Zone 25 ft. thick. 


Revision of Bryozoan Genera.—Cumings. 205 


Acanthopores are numerous and conspicuously of two sizes, as is 
best shown in fig. 7, Pl. X, (x 43). They are not confined to the 
angles of the zocecia, but frequently indent their walls. 

Longitudinal sections (fig. 3, Pl. X) show that the mature region 
is very deep, the thickness of the zoccial walls varying but little from 
where the tubes bend outward, to the surface. The large acanthopores 
are conspicuous features of such sections. (a, fig. 3, Pl. X.) The 
walls present the beaded appearance characteristic of the genus. This 
I believe is in some cases due to the fact that the section cuts in and 
out of the side of an acanthopore. The large acanthopores traverse the 
entire mature region and are sometimes present even in the axial re- 
gion. Diaphragms are abundantly developed, horizontal or, rarely, 
curved, or infundibular, from one-third to two tube-diameters apart 
in the zocecia, and closer set in the mesopores. The walls of the 
latter are constricted where the diaphragms join them. 

In the crowded diaphragms, beaded walls, constricted meso- 
pores, and two sizes of acanthopores, this species is a typical 
Dekayella, very similar to D. ulrichi-robusta (pl. X., fig. 2, 
pl. IX, fig. 4). In the thinness of the walls and fewness of the 
mesopores it is a typical Dekayia (cf. figs. 7 and 10, pl. IX; 
figs. 7 and 10, pl. X), and may be compared with such a form 
as D. Multispinosa Ulr.* In the shape of the zoarium, fre- 
quency and expression of the monticules and tabulation of the 
zocecia Dekayia subfrondosa is very similar to D. perfrondosa 
(vy. fig. 1, pl. XI; fig. 1, pl. X).7 

The tangential sections of the type species Dekayia aspera 
E. & H. inserted for comparison (fig. 10, pl. IX; fig 10, pl. X) 
have the acanthopores just as certainly of two sizes as in any 
Dekayella. This is well shown in fig. 10, pl. X, (x43) in 
which the ratio of size of the largest and smallest acantho- 
pores seen is about as five to one. The ratio in a similar sec- 
tion of Dekayella ulrichi-robusta is as seven to two (see pl. 
X, fig. 9). 

In this case, therefore, the size of the acanthopores, thick- 
ness of the walls, tabulation of the zocecia and type of growth 
all fail to serve us in attempting to refer the form to one of the 
three genera Dekayia, Dekayella and Heterotrypa (as restrict- 
ed by Ulrich). 

The size of the acanthopores is perhaps of most interest, 
as it is on this character mainly that Mr. Ulrich’s genera are 

* Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. vi, 1883, pl. 6, fig 8. 


+ Cf. also H affinis. geol. Ill, viii, pl. 36, fig. 2a, and Leptotrypa stidhami, 
Ibid., pl. 36, fig. 4 a. . rs “a 


206 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


founded. It may be well therefore to discuss the subject at 
this point, since the evidence presented by the form just de- 
scribed is so unequivocal. 

In his observations on Dekayella, quoted above, Mr. Ul- 
rich says that the large and small sets of acanthopores must 
differ considerably in function. I cannot believe that this is 
the case. As is shown in this paper the two sets are present 
in practically all members of the genus Dekayia (includes 
Heterotrypa and Dekayella); and moreover there is every 
gradation even in Dekayella ulrichi between conspicuous differ- 
ence in the size and relative abundance of the two sets of acan- 
thopores in some specimens, and very little difference in oth- 
ers. The maximum difference, so far as I have noticed, oc- 
curs in Dekayia aspera, where the smallest acanthopores are so 
minute (fig. 10, pl. X) that they must usually escape notice, 
except in sections very carefully prepared and ground as thin 
as is compatible with retaining structural details. In some 
unequivocal specimens of Heterotrypa inflecta from Vevay, 
Indiana, the appearance of the acanthopores, which are very 
abundant, is just the same as in Dekayella ulrichi or D. ulrichi- 
robusta, i. e., a few very large ones and numerous very small 
ones. In fact had it not been for the thin flat frond, inflected 
apertures of the zocecia, and the occurrence of the specimen 
in the Platystrophia zone, I should at the time most certainly 
have referred it to one of these species ; and I am not sure even 
now but that it would be better to consider Heterotrypa inflecta 
as a variety of Dekayella ulrichi (very close to D. ulrichi-lo- 
bata and D, ulrichi-expansa. ) 

[ believe that the difference in size of the acanthopores as 
seen in tangential sections is due solely to the fact that some 
are cut nearer their point of origin than others. The large 
ones having originated earlier in the life of the colony, have 
attained to large size because they have attained to maturity. 
The small ones originate in the peripheral region and though 
they may enlarge rapidly, the section is quite likely to cut them 
near their point of origin where their diameter is necessarily 
small. If the Heterotrypidae are derived from an ancestor 
in which acanthopores were lacking, these structures must first 
have made their appearance in small numbers in the peripheral 
region and then have appeared earlier and earlier in succeed- 


—<=<a ss 


Revision of Bryozoan Genera.—Cumings. 207 


ing generations till they came to be present even in the axiat 
region. Their function, if they had any, must have been con- 
nected with the surface of the zoarium. Their presence in the 
axial region is interesting only as it suggests ancestral char- 
acters. As more acanthopores are added, they are added in 
the mature region. Hence the two sets co-exist in this part of 
the colony. 

This peculiarity of the acanthopores is by no means con- 
fined to the Heterotrypide, but may be seen in Batostema, 


“Amplexopora, Hemiphragma &c. 


We come now to a consideration of the type species of 
the genus Heterotrypa Nicholson, namely Monticulipora (He- 
terotrypa) mammalata Nich. (=Heterotrypa frondosa Ul- 
rich.)* 

Dekayia perfrondosa nom. noy. (Pl. IX, figs. 9, 11-13, 15, 
oe ee a, es. 1; 6: PE’ XI, fe: 6; Pi. AIL fig. -2) 
as I shall call this form, for reasons presently to be 
discussed, is the common Cincinnati species first ad- 
equately described by Nicholson under the name Monti- 
culipora mammulata, and identified by him’ with the 
form figured and described by Edwards and Haime+ 
as the Monticulipora mgmmulata D’Orbigny. I fully agree 
with Mr. Ulrich that this is not the Chaetetes mammu- 
latus of Edwards and Haime. It is also in my _ opin- 
ion not the Chaetetes frondosus of Edwards and Haime. 
There are, however, in my possession four specimens of a 
form that agrees so closely with both the figures and descrip- 
tion of Chaetetes frondosus E. & H. that I am forced to re- 
gard them as identical species. This form is Homotrypa fron- 
dosa (E. & H.) described herewith. 


* Chactetes mammulatus (non D’orbigny) NicHOLSON Quar. Jour. Geol. 
ace. Lond., 1874, vol. xxx, p. 508, pl. xxx, figs. 2, 2b;—Pal. Ohio., ii, 1875, p. 
207. 

Monticulipora (Heteotrypa) mammulata (non D'Orbigny) NICHOLSON, 
Pal. Tab. Corals, 1879, p. 294, pl. xiii, figs. 1-1b; Genus Monticulipora, 1881, 
p. 104, pl. vi, figs. 1-1g.—JAMES AND JAMES, Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., xi, 1888, 
p. 16.—]. F. James, Ibid, vol. xviii, p. 69. 

Chetetes frondosus Quenstedt. Roehren und Sterncorallen, 1881, p. 74, 
pl. exlvi fig. 8. : 

Chetetes frondosus limatus QUENSTEDT, Ibid, p.74, pl. exlvi, fig. 9. 

Heterotrypa frondosa Uric, Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. vi, 1883, 

3 


Monticulipora frondosa Wuite, Eleventh Ann. Rep. Geol. & Nat, Hist. In- 
diana, 1882, p. 380. pl. xl viii, figs. 2, 3. ‘ 
Not Chetetes frondosus D’ORBIGNY 1850, and EpWarkDs AND HAIME 1551. 


+ Pol. Foss. Terr. Pal., 1851, p. 267, pl. xix, fig. 1. 


208 The American Gevlogist. April, 1902, 


Homotrypa frondosa® (Edwards & Haime) 


Pi. X, Fics. 11, 12; Pu. XI, Fics. 2, 5; Pu. XII, Fic. 1. 


Zoarium frondescent, wavy, 4 to 6 mm. thick and 30 to 50 mm, or 
more in width. The surface is studded with large rounded stellate mon- 
ticules which are sometimes slightly elongated in the axial direction 
of the frond. Monticules usually well elevated, never conical, some- 
what spreading at the base. On an average, nine occupy a space of 
one square centimeter. They are 2 mm, to 2.5 mm.* in diameter, and 
occupied by cells larger than the average. Ordinary cells very uniform 
in size, 0.2 mm, in diameter; the diameter of the large cells in the 
monticules is frequently as much as one-third mm. Fifty cells of the 
ordinary size may be counted in one cm. An occasional mesopore may 
be detected at the angles of the zocecia. 

The internal structure of this species is that of a typical Homotrypa 
(cf. H. curvata). In tangential sections, taken near the surface, the 
cells are thick-walled, with distinct true walls, and copious deposit 
of schlerenchyma. The large cells of the monticules are a conspicuous 
feature of such sections. Only an occasional acanthopore can be de- 
tected. 

Longitudinal sections show that the zocecial walls in the axial re- 
gion are thin, slightly wavy, and that diaphragms are here lacking. 
In the mature region the walls become greatly thickened, the true 
walls being seen as a double dark median line. A series of overlap- 
ping cystiphragms is present in practically every tube, and horizontal 
diaphragms in moderate number cross from the backs of the cysti- 
phragms to the opposite wall. The cystiphragms are usually on the 
concave but are occasionally on the convex side of the wall. In fig. 
12, Pl. X, a very large zocecium is shown at a and a splitting of the 
interzocecial wall at b, which may very well produce on the surface 
the effect of lines radiating 1rom the apices of the monticules, causing 
them to appear stellate.t 

The correspondence between this species and Edwards and 
Haime’s figures and description of their Chaetetes frondosus is 
remarkably close. The spacing and diameter of the monticules 
and their expression is the same. The diameter of the cells 
both small and large is the same. The monticules in both are 
distinctly stellate owing to the peculiarity mentioned above. 


Both have the same sort of thin wavy frond. 


* MR. J. M. Nickvurs, of Cincinnati, has recently described (Jour. Cin Soc. 
Nat. Hist., vol. xx, No. 2, Jan. 10, 1902, pp. 103-105) a species of Homotrypa 
(H. Bassleri) from the same hozizon as H. frondosa, which future investigation 
may prove to be connected with the latter. H. bassleri has fewer diaphragms 
and more acanthopores than H, frondosa and a much more delicate zoarium, 


+ EDWARDS AND HAIME Say 1.5 mm.; though they do not so figure them. 
In their figures the monticules have a diameter of from 2 to 3 mm. 


t See EDWARDS AND HAIMe’s figure of an enlargement of the surface of their 
species, 


7 


Revision of ‘Bryosoan Genera.—Cwumings. 209 


As compared with any specimen of Dekayia perfrondosa 
that has come to my notice, Homotrypa frondosa is much 
closer to Edwards and Haime’s species. The former has from 
12 to 16 monticules to the square centimeter. The monticules 
are from I—2 mm. in diameter and are either inconspicuous, 
in which case they may be rounded; or sharply elevated and of 
small diameter. They almost always bear cells smaller than 
the average. Wherever I have seen a stellate monticule in 
D. perfrondosa, the appearance has always been due to strings 
of small cells on the flanks of the monticule. 

Homotrypa frondosa comes from the very top of the Lor- 
raine* or base of the so-called Richmond formation; and of 
course the same objection can be brought against it that was 
urged by Mr. Ulrich against considering H. dawsoni (a nearly 
related form) as possibly Edwards and Haime’s species, name- 
ly that it probably does not occur at Cincinnati. This objec- 
tion is scarcely valid, since Edwards and Haime state that 
Chaetetes frondosus occurs at both Cincinnati and Oxford, 
Ohio; a statement that could very well be true of the present 
form. As to the identity of the species figured by Edwards and 
Haime, and D’Orbigny’s types, I believe with Mr. Ulrich that 
the former gentlemen had D’Orbigny’s specimens before them, 
for they practically say as much in accrediting the species to the 
collection of the latter. In the preface to their work they also 
acknowledge their indebtedness to D’Orbigny and others for 
assistance and the loan of specimens. I do not believe, how- 
ever, that the form figured by Edwards and Haime is the same 
as that from which D’Orbigny drew up his one line description 
“Espéce a larges frondes dont les monticules sont coniques et 
tres espacés.” It could never be said of Edward and Haime’s 
figured specimen that the monticules are conical and widely 
spaced. Besides, these gentlemen distinctly state the contrary. + 

Nevertheless, since it is probably impossible even if we were 
to ransack the collection of D’Orbigny to say which one of 


_three or four genera he had before him when he wrote the 


* Some ofits more common associates are Callopora rugosa, Amplexopora 
pustulosa, Ceramoporella granulosa, Bythopora delicatula, Hyolithes versail- 
lesensis, Dinorthis retrorsa. This is the Homotrypa bassileri fauna of Nickles. 


+ ‘*Polpier en larges frondes, epaisses de quelques millimetres; mamelons 
arrondis, peu saillants, subradies, large d’un millimetre et demi, et distant 
d'une fois et demi, rarement deux fois leur largeur, presentant a leur sommet 
les plus grand calices: ceux-ci ont un tiers de millimetre, et les plus petits un 
cinquieme."’ Pol. Foss. des Terr, Pal., p. 267. 


210 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


above description, the figures and description of Edwards and 
Haime must decide for us the question of the type of Chaetetes 
frondosus. 

For the form now known as Heterotrypa frondosa (= 
Monticulipora mammulata Nicholson) I propose the name, 
used above, Dekayia perfrondosa.* 

The characters ascribed by Nicholson to Dekayia perfron- 
dosa are briefly as follows: 

Zoarium consisting of thin undulating expansions composed of two 
layers of corallites which diverge from an imaginary axis. Surface 
covered with rounded, conical, or elongated monticules which may be 
but slightly raised or may be conspicuously elevated above the sur- 
face. The monticules are composed of cells slightly larger (?) or 
certainly at times smaller than the average. Those on the sides of 
the monticules may be full sized while those at the apices are smaller. 
The distance between the monticules is from one-half line to one line 
(1 to2mm.). The cells are large and small, the latter always angular 
and varying in number. from almost none to moderately but not ex- 
cessively numerous. The larger have a diameter of from I-100 to I-50 
inch. The walls of the corallites are apparently amalgamated and 
thickened as they approach the surface. A variable, but often consid- 
erable number of spiniform tubuli (acanthopores) is always present. 
Large tubes with comparatively few and remote tabule which are 
always complete and horizontal. Tabula more numerous in the small 
tubes. ’ 

There are two particulars, especially important to the pres- 
ent discussion, in which the above description of this common 
and highly variable species should be amended. Dekayia per- 
frondosa sometimes has very numerous mesopores, and in 
some cases large as well as small acanthopores. I have also 
detected an occasional cystiphragm in some specimens. 

Figs. 15 and 16, Pl. LX, represent the ordinary appearance 
of tangential sections of D. perfrondosa. In these sections 
mesopores and acanthopores are relatively few, and none of 
the latter are of large size. The structure of the wall is charac- 
teristic of the group. (cf. also Callopora.) Each zocecium is 


* The pretix per is used in the intensive sense. D. perfiondosa is a character- 
istically frondescent form. 

The use of Dekayia as the name of the combined genera Dekayia E. & H., 
Dekayella Uir. and Heterotrypa Nicholson, is strictly in recognition of the 
priority of the former name. Personally I should much prefer the far more 
adequately defined and appropriate term Heterotrypa of Nicholson. That 
Dekayia aspera E, & H. is properly a member of this group there can be no 
doubt. As has been shown it has the two sets of acanthopores. It also has 
the peculiar wall structure described later in connection with D. perfrondosa 
(ef, figs. 10 and 15, pl. ix; figs 10 and 4, pl. x.) Its close relation to the latter 
form and to D, subfrondosa will be further pointed out in a later paragraph. 


Revision of Bryosoan Genera.—Cumings. 211 


encircled by a conspicuous definite dark ring separated from 
the zocecial cavity by a light band, usually narrow, of light- 
colored schlerenchyma. Between the dark rings of adjacent 
zocecia is a belt of light-colored material in which the acantho- 
pores are lodged. The mesopores may have definite dark 
rings surrounding thent, or indefinite walls, in which case they 
appear merely as clear patches in the median light-colored 
zone. This peculiar wall structure variously modified by the 
thickening or thinning of the walls, or development of namer- 


‘ous mesopores holds throughout the genus Dekayia (as emend- 


ed) and serves as its most invariable character. 

Figure 13, Pl. [X, is a tangential section of a specimen ex- 
ternally similar in every respect to the one from which the sec- 
tions just described were cut. The section differs from the 
preceding in the more numerous mesopores and acanthopores 
and in the presence of an occasional acanthopore of large size. 
The latter feature is better shown in another portion of the 
same section (fig 12, Pl. IX), and in still another portion, 
which cuts the submature region (fig. 9, Pl. IX). In the latter 
the difference in size is pronounced as is still better shown in a 
further magnification of the same section (fig. 6, Pl. X). In 
longitudinal sections the large acanthopores can sometimes be 
traced into the axial region. The small ones are present only 
in the mature region. 

I am not sure that I have detected a pellicle over the sur- 
face of any specimen of Dekayia perfrondosa. One specimen 
seems to show it. Such a character must, at all events, be of 
small importance and may very well be due to accidental 
causes. It is seen in Dekayella Ulr., as well as in Dekayia Ulr. 

Dekayia subpulchella is very closely related to D. perfrondo- 
sa, probably a good variety of the latter. In this form the walls 
are thick (fig. 14, pl. IX; fig. 4, pl. X) and the acanthopores 
conspicuously of two sizes. Not all specimens of D. subpul- 
chella show the latter character, though my sections have re- 
vealed it in most cases. 

From the above discussion it appears that the three genera 
of Ulrich*, Dekayia, Dekayella and Heterotrypa constitute but 


*In justice to this pre-eminent student of Bryozoa it should be 
added that he has seriously considered combining the three, owing to an ‘‘al- 
most complete chain’’ of connecting forms. (Geol. Minn. iii, 1893, pp. 269, 
270.) LIbeheve that with the evidence herein presented, before him, he will no 
longer hesitate to do so. 


212 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


a single genus, to which the prior term Dekayia should be ap- 
plied. The following is a diagnosis of this genus as amended: 

Zoarium ramose, or variously compressed, or lobed, or frondescent; 
growing upward from a more or less broadly expanded basal attach- 
ment. Surface smooth or variously ornamented with monticules, ma- 
cule or spines. The cells in the monticules and macule may be either 
larger or smaller than the average. 

Zocecia polygonal, subpolygonal or rounded. Mesopores few to 
numerous, angular. Acanthopores always present, typically of two 
sizes, the smaller present only in. the mature region. 

Interzocecial walls always thin in the axial region and sometimes 
in the mature region; at times considerably thickened in the mature 
region, always consisting (in sections of the mature region) of three 
elements: a median zone (usually light-colored) in which are lodged 
the mesopores and acanthopores, a definite dark band on either side 
bounding the median zone and encircling the zocecia, and a band (us- 
ually light-colored) of schlerenchyma immediately encircling the zo- 
cecial cavity. 

Diaphragms few or almost lacking, to numerous; nearly always 
straight and horizontal. Only in exceptional cases are cystoid dia- 
phragms present. Ordovician. 

The wall structure (see Pl. X, figs, 10 and 4) is, I believe, the 
most stable character of the genus. 

Dekayia as thus defined will include the following species 
and varieties: Heterotrypa frondosa Ulr. (=D. perfrondosa), 
H. affinis Ulr., H. paupera (Ulr.)N.& B., H. singularis Ulr., 
H. inflecta Ulr., (=D. ulrichi-inflecta), H. solitaria Ulr., H. 
subpulchella Nich. ( = D. perfrondosa-subpulchella), H. proli- 
fica Ulr. (=D. perfrondosa-prolifica), H. subramosa (Ulr.) 
N. & B.; Dekayia aspera E. & H., D. appressa Ulr., D. macula- 
ta James, D. multispinosa Ulr., D. pelliculata Ulr., Dekayella 
ulrichi (Nich.) Ulr., Dekayia ulrichi-expansa Cumings, D. ul- 
richi-lobata Cumings, Dekayella ulrichi-robusta Foord, D. ob- 
scura Ulr., (=Dekayia ulrichi-obscura), Dekayella praenuntia 
Ulr., D. praenuntia-echinata Ulr., D. praenuntia-multipora Ulr., 
D. praenuntia-naevigera Ulr., D. praenuntia-simplex Ulr., D. 
trentonensis (Ulr.) N. & B., D. perfrondosa-cystata Cumings. 

Dekayia magna Cumings probably represents the basal part 
of D. aspera (E. & H.): heterotrypa barrandei, H. monilifor- 
mis and Dekayia devonica probably do not belong in this group. 

General Observations—tThe relationships suggested by a 
careful study of numerous specimens of some of the above 
forms are so striking that I am convinced that we are dealing 


Revision of Bryozoan Genera.—Cumings. 213 


not merely with a genus in the ordinary sense, but with a true 
genetic line. The only species found below the Cincinnati 
group are D. trentonensis and D, praenuntia* and its varities. 
The latter may for all practical purposes be regarded as the 
western representative of D. ulrichi of the Utica beds of the 
Cincinnati region. 

In the case of Dekayia ulrichi, I believe we are dealing with 
an incipient genus. This species has a considerable range 
and distribution and is highly variable. It varies from strictly 
ramose to strictly frondescent (var. /obata); from perfectly 
smooth to monticulose (D, robusta) ; from very small and del- 
icate (D. obscura), to robust and submassive (D. robusta). 
In internal structure the zocecia may be thick-walled or 
comparatively thin-walled; mesopores are usually numerous, 
but may be considerably reduced in number. The tabulation 
varies but little, and the wall structure is always essentially 
the same. 

I have shown that the smooth type of Dekayia ulrichi pro- 
duces in the Lorraine a truly frondescent form. The monti- 
culose type (D. ulrichi-robusta) also produces a frondescent 
form that ranges throughout the Lorraine. This is the D. 
ulrichi-expansat of the above list. 

Both Dekayia ulrichi-lobata and D. ulrichi-expansa are so 
connected by intermediate forms with D. ulrichi that there can 
be no possible doubt of their direct descent from that species. 

With Dekayia perfrondosa the case is not so simple. The 
possible ancestors of this form are D. ulrichi-robusta, through 
D. subfrondosa; D, solitaria, and a small subramose form oc- 
curring in association with D. ulrichi-robusta, D. ulrichi and 
Callopora nodulosa, in the upper Utica beds, of which I have 
but a single specimen. The latter is very probably but a va- 
riety of D. ulrichi in which the mesopores and acanthopores are 
reduced to a minimum,t D. solitaria seems to belong to the 
same type as D. subfrondosa. The latter is undoubtedly the 


*See Mr. ULRICH’s Observations on the probable relation of this species to 
Dekayia and Heterotrypa, Geol. Minn., iii, p. 273 and footnote, 

+Dekayia ulrichi-expansa n. var (pl. ix, figs. 5, 6; pl. xi, fig. 7) has precisely 
the same internal structure as D, ulrichi-robusta (pl ix, fig. 4; pl. x, fig 2). It 
has, however, an undulating irregularly frondescent or submassive zoarium 
growing from a stout cylindrical base, The surtace ornamentation is the 
same asin D, wirlchi-robusta, with which the variety is connected by every 
gradation. 


tSections of this form closely resemble such sections as figs.15 and 16 pl.ix 


214 The American Geologist. April, 195%. 


true connecting link between D. perfrondosa and D. ulrichi- 
robusta. 

The intermediate character of Dekayia subfrondosa has al- 
ready been pointed out. It occurs associated with D. ulrichi- 
robusta and the lowest specimens of D. perfrondosa, and is 
connected with the latter by such 1orms as shown in figs. 9, 
11, 12 and 13, pl. 1X, while parts of tangential sections in which 
mesopores are abundant remind one very strongly of the for- 
mer. Fig. 11 is from a specimen in which the diaphragms are 
crowded and the mature region deep, very much as in D. sub- 
frondosa. The appearance of the interzocecial walls, mesopores 
and acanthopores is quite similar to fig. 15, a typical perfron- 
dosa. Sections cutting the submature region of D. perfrondo- 
sa present the same appearance as sections of the mature re- 
gion of D. subfrondosa (cf. figs. 8 and 9, pl. IX; figs 6 and 7 
pl. X), showing that the only difference between the two is 
the thickening of the walls and development of mesopores in 
the adult stage of D. perfrondosa.* 

In Dekayia aspera as shown in fig. 10, pl. IX, and fig. 10, pl. 
X, the walls in the mature region are slightly thicker than in 
D, subfrondosa (thinner than in D. perfrondosa), and the large 
set of acanthopores is extravagantly developed. The small 
acanthopores are of the normal size for Heterotrypa Ulr. That 
the large acanthopores are sometimes suppressed in D. aspera, 
at least in portions of the zoarium, seems practically certain.+ 

The main difference between it and such forms as D. Sub- 
frondosa and D. perfrondosa is in the almost total absence of 
diaphragms in D. aspera (and a few closely allied forms). Yet 
in D, perfrondosa these structures may be comparatively few 
in the zocecia,t though never entirely lacking as is occasionally 
the case in D. aspera. 

Finally Mr. Ulrich has himself long ago pointed out the 
extreme tenuity of the line between Dekayia and Heterotrypa 
Ulr., because of such connecting forms as D paupera§ and an 


*Compare the thickening of the walls, amounting in some cases to the com- 
plete filling up of the zooecia in senile stages of some recent Bryozoa. 

+Dakayia magna Cumings, is such aform,.. Many sections were prepared 
ofthis form without detecting acanthopores of more than ordinary size; yet I 
am now fully convinced that it is a true D. aspera, probably from its large size 
and cylindrical form, the basal portion of a colony. 

tIn tact Nicholson says of this species that the tabula are “comparatively 
few and remote" in the “large corallites.’’ Genus Monticulipora, p. 105. 

§Jour, Cin. Soc, Nat. Hist. vol. vi, 1883, p. 85. 


Revision of Bryozoan Genera.—Cumings. 21 


un 


undescribed form (probably the phase of D, subpulchella fig- 
ured on pl. IX of this paper). 

Another most interesting feature of the evolution of De- 
kayia, already hinted at, is the change from ramose to frondes- 
cent forms in passing from the Utica to the Lorraine beds. 
This tendency affects not only Dekayia but also Homotrypa,* 
and to a limited extent even the persistently ramose Callopora. 

In the Utica beds, shale predominates; while in the Lor- 
raine, limestone predominates ; and the conditions in the latter 


-were correspondingly more favorable to the growtn of Bryo- 


zoa (Trepostomata). We accordingly find in the Lorraine an 
immense number of species and individuals. In the succeed- 
ing shales (Dalmanella meeki zone)+ only a few Tre- 
postomata are met with, and these are ramose (Callopora, 
Bythopora, and a Dekayia quite similar to D. ulricht) ; but in 
the succeeding calcareous beds of the Rhynchotrema zone (up- 
per Richmond) # flat forms again abound. (Dekayia prolifica, 
D. Singularis, and several undescribed species of Homotrypa). 

I believe that the production of frondescent forms is mainly 
due to more luxuriant growth, and that this may affect any 
species. Any number of zocecia can be stowed on a flat zoa- 
rium without the necessity of unduly elongating the mature 
and submature regions. Again there is much less loss of space 
in the crowding together of flat than of round zoaria, as a mo- 
ment’s reflection will show. Luxuriant growth would also pro- 
duce coalescence of branches and exaggerated growth at the 
points of bifurcation, with corresponding flattening. 

Yale University, January, 1902. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX. 
Tangential Sections. 
Fig. 1. Dekayia ulrichi (Nich.), Ramose form, from the Utica beds 
at Cincinnati, O. 4 20. 
Fig. 2. Dekayia ulrichi-lobata n. var. Frondescent form, from the 
lower Lorraine, Manchester Station, Ind. + 20. 


* There is a truly ramose Homotrypa in the upper Utica, which in every- 
thing but the shape of the zoarium is a genuine Homotrypa curvata. 

+ The Dalmanella mecki fauna represents a recurrence of the Da/manelia 
multisecta fauna with practically the same physical conditions. This zone is 
not exposed at Richmond. 

t Middle Richmond of Nickles. His Upper Richmond is the same as the 
Madison beds of Foerste (Indiana, Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res., 21st Ann. Rep., 
p.218) Only the upper part of the Rhynchotrema zone is shown at Rich- 
mond, It is unfortunate that Madison, Indiana, cannot give itsname to the so- 
or pe Richmond formation. The whole formation is superbly exposed at 
Madison. 


210 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


Fig. 3. Dekayia ulrichi-inflecta (Ulr.). From the Lorraine at Man- 
chester Station, Ind. -*# 20. 

Fig. 4. Dekayia ulrichi-robusta (Foord). From the base of the 
Lorraine, Manchester Station, Ind. + 20. 

Fig. 5. Dekayia ulrichi-expansa n. var. From the base of the Lor- 
raine, Manchester Station, Ind. -* 20. 

Fig. 6. Dekayia ulrichi-expansa n. var. From the upper Lorraire 
Manchester Station, Ind. # 20. 

Figs. 7, 8. Dekayia subramosa n. sp. From the base of the Lorraine, 
Manchester Station, Ind. 4 20. : 

Figs. 9, 12, 13. Dekayia perfrondosa nom. nov. From the Lorraine, 
Cincinnati, O. 4 20. 

Fig. 10. Dekayia aspera E. & H. From the Lorraine, Cincinnati, O. 
x 20. 

Fig. 11. Dekayia perfrondosa nom. nov. From the base of the Lor- 
raine, Manchester Station, Ind. -# 20. 

Fig. 14. Dekayia perfrondosa-subpulchella (Nich.). From the upper 
Lorraine, Manchester Station, Ind. - 20. 

Fig. 15. Dekayia perfrondosa nom. nov. From the Lorraine, Cincin- 
nati, O. 4 20. 

Fig. 16. Dekayia perfrondosa nom. nov. From the upper Lorraine, 
Manchester Station, Ind. 4 20. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X. 


Fig. 1. Dekayia perfrondosa nom. nov. From the base of the Lor- 
raine, Manchester Station, Ind. Longitudinal section x 20. 

Fig. 2. Dekayia ulrichi-robusta (Foord). From the base of the Lor- 
raine, Manchester Station, Ind. Same specimen as pl. IX, fig. 
4. Longitudinal section, x 20. 

Fig. .3 Dekayia subfrondosa n. sp. From the base of the Lorraine, 
Manchester Station, Ind. Same specimen as pl. LX, figs. 7, %- 
Longitudinal section, x 20. 

Fig. 4. Dekayia perfrondosa-subpulchella (Nich.). From the upper 
Lorraine, Manchester Station, Ind. Same section as fig. 14, 
pl. IX. Tangential section, x 43. 

Fig. 5. Dekayia ulrichi-lobata n. var. From the base of the Lorraine, 
Manchester Station, Ind. Longitudinal section, x 20. 

Fig. 6. Dekayia perfrondosa nom. noy. From the Lorraine, Cincin- 
nati, O. Same section as fig. 9, pl. IX. Tangential section, x 43. 

Fig. 7. Dekayia subfrondosa n. sp. From the base of the Lorraine, 
Manchester Station, Ind. Same section as figs. 7 & 8, pl. IX. 
Tangential section, x 43. 

Fig. 8. Portion of Tangential section of Dekayia subfrondosa n. sp., 
showing median fracture of the interzocecial wall and infill- 
ing of calcite. Same section as fig. 7, pl IX, x 43. , 


eee 


Revision of Bryozoan Genera.—Cumings. 217 


Fig. 9. Dekayia ulrichi-robusta (Foord). From the base of the Lor- 
raine, Manchester Station, Ind. Same section as fig. 4, pl. IX. 
Tangential section, * 43. 

Fig. 10. Dekayia aspera E. & H. From the Lorraine, Cincinnati, O. 
Same section as fig. 10, pl. IX. Tangental section, x 43. 

Figs. 11, 12. Homotrypa frondosa (E. & H.) From the top of the 
Lorraine, Harmans Station, Ind. Same specimen as fig. 2, 
pl. XI. Tangential and Longitudinal sections, x 20 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI. 


_ Fig. 1. Dekayia subfrondosa n. sp. From the base of the Lorraine, 


Manchester Station, Ind. Sections figs. 7, 8, pl. IX and 3 and 
7, pl. X, are from this specimen. Natural size. 

Fig. 2. Homotrypa frondosa (E. & H.). From the top of the Lor- 
raine, Harmans Station, Ind. Sections, figs. 11, 12 pl. X, are 
from this specimen. Natural size 

Figs. 3 and 4. Dekayia ulrichi-lobata n. var. Fyrom the lower Lor- 

raine Manchester Station, Ind. Section, fig. 2, pl. I, was cut 

cut from no, 4. 

Homotrypa frondosa (E. & H.). Surface of No. 2, # 20. 

Dekayia perfrondosa nom. nov. Surface, a 20. For comparison 

with fig. 5. 

Fig. 7. Dekayia ulrichi-expansa n. var. From the Lower Lorraine, 
Manchester Station, Ind. Natural size. 


Fig. 
Fig. 


te 


DEscrIPTION OF PLATE XII. 


Fig. 1. Surface of Homotrypa frondosa + 4. Same specimen as pl. 
XI., fig. 2. 

Fig. 2. Surface of Dekayia perfrondosa x 4. For comparison with 
Ast r. 

Fig. 3. Surface of Peronopora decipiens (Monticulipora frondosa of 
Nicholson ) * 4. For comparison with fig. 1. 

Fig. 4. Surface of Dekayia subfrondosa x 4. Same specimen as fig. 
1, pl. XI. For comparison with fig. 2. 


218 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE CHARLES RIVER 
IN MASSACHUSETTS.* 


By Freperick G. CLAPP, Boston, Mass. 
PLATES XIII, XIV, XV AND XVI. 


The extremely circuitous course of the Charles river, to- 
gether with the great complexity of its drainage system and 
its apparent disregard for the geological structure of the re- 
gion, gives it a somewhat special interest. Lying in the south- 
eastern part of the state of Massachusetts, within the area 
covered by the Blackstone, Framingham, Dedham, and Boston 
sheets of the government topographical map, it has a drain- 
age area of about 290 square miles, and a total length, follow- 
ing the meanders, of sixty-nine miles; although its mouth 
is only twenty-five miles in a direct line from its source. 

The most impressive feature of the river, as represented 
on the map (plate 13), is its very unusual deviousness. Rising 
in the town of Hopkinton, it flows for the first few miles al- 
most directly south. But at Bellingham it bends abruptly 
to the east, and then to the north, taking a retrograde course 
as far as Medway. From this point it rums east as far as 
Rockville, and thence north and northwest to Sherborn. Tak- 
ing here a more northerly course to South Natick, it there turns 
to the east, as if to make a short cut to the sea; but at Dedham 
it bends sharply backward and flows directly away from the 
sea as far as Newton Lower falls, from which point it runs 
north to Waltham, and then east to Boston bay. 

The principal objects of this investigation have been: 

First—To determine as completely as possible the life 
history of the river. 

Second.—To explain why the river follows its present 
devious course rather than a more direct one. For instance, 
why does it bend north at Bellingham, instead of continuing 
southward to Narragansett bay, the shortest course to the sea? 
Why, when it has followed a northeasterly course for a dozen 
miles, does it bend suddenly to the northwest, instead of con- 


— _— 


*This paper is an abridgment of a thesis study done by the writerin the 
Geological Lepartment of the Massachusets Institute of Technology, and pub- 
lished in the Technology Quarterly, vol. xiv, numbers 3 and 4, (1901). The 
thesis was prepared under the supervision of PROFRssok W.O,. Crosny. The 
cuts for the illustrations shown here are kindly loaned by the Technology 
Quarterly. 


The Charles River in Massachusetts.—Clapp. 219 


tinuing across Medfield to Boston bay? Why does it not fol- 
_ low a direct course across Wellesley to Riverside, a distance of 
three and a half miles, rather than its actual course of twenty 
miles by way of Dedham? Again, upon reaching Dedham, 
why does it not flow straight to Boston bay, instead of bend- 
ing back towards Newton? 

Third.—To trace the ancient courses of the river and de- 
termine the causes of the various stages in its development. 

Fourth—To explain the relation of the river and its tribu- 
taries to the geological structure of the region. 

Fifth—To determine the position of the Charles in the 
systematic classification of rivers. 

General Topography and Geology of the Region. 

As the goverment topographical map shows, the land about 
the extreme headwaters of the Charles river attains a maxi- 
mum elevation of 600 feet, but elsewhere in this basin the high- 
est hills range from 300 to 460 feet. Professor Crosby has 
shown that the few rock hills of these hights in eastern Massa- 
chusetts are remnants of the Cretaceous peneplain. Between 
them the Tertiary peneplain is developed with an elevation of 
from 100 to 200 feet; and in this less mature plain the valleys 
of the Charles and its tributaries have been carved. 

The source of the brook which is considered the head of the 
river is at an elevation of about 500 feet. As shown by the 
profile on plate 14, the descent in the upper part of the stream 
is comparatively rapid. It crosses the 400-foot contour but one 
mile and the 300--foot but three miles, from its source. The 
200-foot contour is crossed at Bellingham, twelve miles from 
the source, and the 100-foot below Natick, about midway in 
the length of the river. Looking at the profile more in detail, 
several points are noticed where the fall is concentrated. At 
Medway there is a descent of 27 feet in a distance of half a 
mile. The descent at Newton Upper falls is 25 feet in a quarter 
of a mile, and at Newton Lower falls 22 feet in about the same 
distance. Between these points of rapid fall there are long 
stretches where it is very slight indeed. Two of these stretches, 
one between Rockville and Natick, and the other between 
Charles River village and Newton Upper falls, are especially 
noticeable. 

In general, the main valley of the Charles is broad, and 
obviously very old, but at several points, as at Medway and 


220 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


Sherborn, the river is closely bordered by the highlands for 
some distance. These are critical points in the history of the 
river; and of special significance are several gaps prominent 
in the watershed between the Charles and adjacent basins; as 
for instance, at Bellingham, Walpole and Cochituate. The geo- 
logical structure of the region is shown on plate 13. In this part 
of Massachusetts are three areas, or basins, of sedimentary 
rocks, the Boston basin on the northeast, the Narragansett basin 
on the south, and the Norfolk basin, a long narrow, connecting 
trough. These basins are occupied mostly by Carboniferous 
strata,—conglomerates, sandstones, slates, and in the Boston 
basin contemporaneous lavas,—which are in general less re. 
sistant than the surrounding granites, diorytes and felsytes. 
For this reason the Carboniferous areas are usually topographic 
as well as geologic basins. 

The history of the Charles river began in Tertiary time. 
During the preceding period marine erosion had developed 
the Cretaceous* peneplain, which was covered in all its sea- 
ward portion by Cretaceous sediments. At the close of the Cre- 
taceous period an elevation of the land took place, raising the 
peneplain with its burden of sediments out of the water. 
Across the new land surface thus formed, the streams must 
have taken the shortest courses to the sea, utterly regardless 
of the structure of the underlying pre-Cretaceous rocks. At 
first they flowed upon the unconsolidated Cretaceous sediments ; 
but as these were gradually removed by erosion, the hard rocks 
beneath were attacked, and the formation of a second, the Ter- 
tiary* peneplain commenced. 

At the time of the Cretaceous elevation the streams were 
original, and consequent upon the slope of the land. As, by con- 
tinued erosion, the Cretaceous sediments were slowly removed, 
the streams became superimposed upon the underlying form- 
ations. The basin of sedimentary rocks, being least resistant, 
were eroded more rapidly than the bordering crystallines; 
and the streams gradually shifted. their course on the softer 
rocks. Thus they became adjusted, during the Tertiary period, 
to run in the basins as much as possible. The streams rising 


*W. O. Crosny.—Geological History of the Nashua Valley During the Ter- 
tiary and Quaternary Periods, Technology Quarterly, vol. xii, No. 4, p. 289; 
Geology of the Boston Basin, Part 3, p. 538, Occasional Papers, Boston Soc. 
Nat. Hist. 


Tue Amprican GroLoaist, Vou. X XIX. 


Geological Map of t} 


gap AMBRICAN GHOLOGIST, VoL. X XIX, 


er = 


Lgs 
Vi Sa 


s ee = 


LEGEND 


a= Older Crystalline 
Formations. 
= Slate. 


Conglomerate. 


R. 


MAILE 
L 


a ea 


EE | 
| Lig 
; ee, ZZ CFP LUI] Felsite and Melaphyre. 


Geological Map of the Charles River Basin and Vicinity. Seale 1,250,000. 


— 


“USAIN SH'IAVHO AHL AO AWUHOUd 


UMOBSA(4BGD 


Vong s2ygoyy 


a. 


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Z 


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LOW WATER LEVEL. 


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High Water 


4 miles 


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MAP 
Showing Changes in Drainage 
IN THE 


GHARLES RIVER BASIN 
AND VICNITY 


F. G. CLAPP. 


SCALE 


‘ 
—---- Present Charles River Watershed. 
—---—Courses of Pre-glacial Streams. 


Tap AMBRICAN GmoLoGisT, Vou, XXIX 
_a—— 


an AMBRICAN GHOLOGIST, VoL, XXIX. 


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re . Na ok om Charles-Neponset Stage. 
/ : LF Fal [EJ Sudbury-Charles-Neponset Stage 


Map of Glacial Lake Charles. Seale, 1,250,000. (After unpublished maps by Prof. W. O. Crosby illustrating 
the distribution of drift deposits.) 


BA 


Charles River at Sanford street, Medway, showing dam built on rock 


hivision 


west of the Woonsocket I 


Broad vallev of Charles River, 


: 


verflo wer 


. between Medfield and Millis, (marshes « 


R 


H.R 


The Charles River in Massachusetts—Clapp. 221 


on the crystalline areas must have so adjusted themselves as 
to take the most direct courses to the basins. 

At the close of the Tertiary period occurred the great ele- 
vation of the land, probably amounting to several thousand 
feet in this region, which is supposed to have ushered in the 
Glacial epoch. This increased the energy of the rivers, so 
that in the bottom of their valleys they cut deep gorges. The 
gorge at the mouth of the Charles is from 100 to 200 feet 
deep—below the present sea level. During the ensuing gla- 
ciation thePleistocene gorges and some of the Tertiary valleys 
were filled and obliterated by the extensive drift deposits. Thus 
with the disappearance of the ice, the streams rarely assumed 
their former courses, but instead found new channels across 
the drift-covered surface in utter disregard of the pre-glacial 
conditions, 


The Charles River Described. 


Rising in the village of Hayden Row, Hopkinton, the river 
flows for the first few miles almost directly southward. The 
valley south of Milford is broad and evidently old. But just 
west of Bellingham a sudden bend occurs, and the direction for 
the next few miles is eastward, the stream crossing the north- 
south ridge of land through a much narrower and younger 
valley. Northeast of Bellingham it turns sharply to the north 
and for several miles flows slowly through broad meadows; 
but at Medway it is suddenly transformed into a torrent which 
dashes for half a mile through a deep and rocky ravine. 

Flowing out of this narrow gorge, the contrast is very 
great, as a broad open valley is reached, entirely devoid of rock 
outcrops, and with every appearance of being very old. At 
Rockville another change occurs, and for four miles the course 
is northeast, without a continuous well-defined valley. Near 
the mouth of the Stop river a broad valley is again encountered, 
and in it the Charles flows northwest through broad meadows, 
(fig. 2), nearly to South Sherborn. Here there is another 
turn to the north, and for the next six miles the stream winds 
about between hills and ledges. 

Below South Natick we pass from a region of frequent 
outcrops to one where they are very scattering, and once more 
reach a short portion of the valley which is undoubtedly very 
old. At Charles River village ledges are again encountered 


222 The American Geologist. April, 1992. 


and line the river as far as ( sreendale, where broad marsh- 
es once more appear. At this point the river makes a nearly 
closed detour of over two miles to the southeast, sweeping 
around by the town of Dedham, and then meanders off through 
the marshes towards Newton, (Fig. 3). It is on the eastern 
point of this bend that an artificial ditch has been cut through 
the low divide, diverting a portion of the water of the Charles 
into the rocky valley of Mother brook, leading to the Neponset, 
and thus making Boston an island. At Newton Upper falls 
the river makes a sheer fall of 13 feet and enters the pictur- 
esque Hemlock gorge, flowing for some distance between pre- 
cipitows conglomerate walls (fig. 4). Passing out of the 
gorge below a second dam, the stream again reaches a broad, 
low valley through which it flows as far as Newton Lower falls, 
where there is another narrow gorge, with falls over ledges of 
melaphyre. Below here it once more finds itself in a broad 
valley in which no surface exposures occur. A mile west of 
the Lower falls it strikes the crystalline border of the Boston 
basin, and turns to the northeast towards Riverside. At no 
point between this and Boston is there evidence that it is out 
of its preglacial course. 
Preglacial Drainage of the Region. 

In the vicinity of Dover and Sherborn the basin of the 
Charles is crossed by a belt of high land several miles in 
breadth through which the river winds in a narrow and more 
or less rocky channel. Both north and south of Dover the 
basin varies in width from thirteen to sixteen miles, but this 
belt of highlands narrows it to about six miles (plate 15). From 
this transverse ridge, which extends from the Charles-Nepon- 
set divide to the Charles-Sudbury divide, the streams flow 
off in either direction; giving it the character of a watershed, 
which, if the river did not flow across it, would be a true 
divide, separating two distinct basins. Several miles southwest 
of this band of highlands, is another, and similar, transverse 
ridge, which, with a maximum elevation of 320 feet, extends 
south from Holliston to beyond Franklin, only descending to 
about 140 feet at Medway at the point where it is crossed by 
the Charles river. 

These two prominent features in the topography indicate 
a division of the preglacial hydrographic basin into three sep- 


ae: 


Fic. 3. Charles River meadows above Nahanton street, between Newton and Needham, 
(high water.,; 


Fie. 4. View in Ilemlock gorge, showing the Upper fall. 


. - . oP bin a 8s oa 
Oe Ne St eee pn ee 


~ NS ’ 


The Charles River in Massachusetts.—Clapp. 223 


arate basins, occupied by independent streams reaching the sea 
in different directions (plate 15). These basins may conven- 
iently be designated as the basins of the upper , middle, and 
lower Charles. Furthermore, both the upper and middle basins 
are still further subdivided. 
Basin of the Upper Charles——In the case of the upper 
Charles, it has been found that :— 
1. Both east and west of the ridge extending north from 
Sellingham there are broad valleys leading toward well-marked 


gaps in the watershed on the south, and these gaps are entirely 


free from outcrops. 

2. The east-west valley at Bellingham possesses distinctly 
postglacial characteristics. 

3. The valley from North Bellingham through the gap 
in the water-parting to South Bellingham offers a nearly 
straight course. 

4. The valley of the Charles south of Caryville is much 
broader than to the north, and the width increases toward Bel- 
lingham. Between Bellingham .and Caryville it is too large to 
belong to a small stream flowing north from Bellingham, but 
it may easily have been. formed by Chicken, Shepard’s Hopping 
and Mine brooks combined. 

5. The southward course is the shortest route to the sea, 
Bellingham being only twenty miles from Narragansett bay, 
while from Boston bay it is twenty-seven miles. 

6. The topography and geology in the vicinity of Med- 
way render it improbable that any preglacial outlet existed in 
that direction; and thus the Bellingham outlet is left as the 
only alternative. 

7. This course follows the area of metamorphic rocks 
extending south from Medway. The present course, on the 
contrary, is from the metamorphic to the harder, igneous rocks. 

Thus we may conclude that the preglacial drainage of the 
region of the upper Charles passed southward through Peters’ 
and Mill rivers and the Blackstone to Narragansett bay. 

Basin of the Middle Charles——The basin of the middle 
Charles was likewise occupied by two main streams. One of 
these, which we will call the Populatic (from Populatic pond), 
rose in the vicinity of Holliston and flowed almost directly 
south, following the depression east of Medway and the val- 


224 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


ley of Mill Brook to the Norfolk basin in Wrentham; where, 
turning to the southwest, it presumably followed the narrow 
band of sedimentary rocks to the Narragansett basin, and Nar- 
ragansett bay. The other river, the Baggistere (named after 
Baggistere brook), had its source near that of the Populatic 
but flowed in an easterly drection, following the depression ex- 
tending from the mouth of Stop river along Mine brook to 
ure Neponset valley, and thence to Boston bay. 

Basin of the Lower Charles—Without the drainage of 
the basins of the middle and upper Charles the lower Charles 
would have been but a relatively insignificant stream, had it not 
received the drainage of a large area to the west which more 
than compensated for the loss on the south. It is practically 
certain that the preglacial Charles did not have its source, as 
might be expected, in the valley of Natick and Dover, but that 
it rose far to the northwest. A peculiarity of the Sudbury river 
is the fact that, although in the upper part of its course it 
flows directly towards the Boston basin to within five miles 
of its border, instead of taking the direct course of twenty 
miles to the sea across the softer basin rocks, it turns north- 
ward in the vicinity of Framingham to unite with the Assabet 
at Concord, forming the Concord river, which is tributary to 
the Merrimac at Lowell, and thence to the sea at Newbury- 
port, making a total distance from F ramingham of seventy-five 
miles. The natural explanation of this very unstable course 
is that between Concord and Cochituate the drainage has been 
reversed, and that in pre-Glacial time the river had its source 
near Concord, flowing southward to the Charles through a 
valley now indicated in part by the basins of Morse’s pond 
and Lake Waban. Further evidence that this is the course 
ef the preglacial Sudbury river may be summed up as follows: 

1. Absence of outcrops shows that between the Sudbury 
river west of Reeves hill and the Charles there is room for 
a buried valley over a mile wide. 

2. An artesian well bored just west of Wellesley and near 
the 160 foot contour went through 90 feet of sand and gravel 
without reaching bed-rock. 

3. The Sudbury river meadows widen southward. 

4. The Sudbury and its tributaries tend to converge 
toward the south rather than to the north. 


( 
( 
{ 


4\ Pn 


r eRe 
MAD 


a 
U/ 


\e 
“ 


‘R 


f the lower Charles. 


Fre, 6,—Outcrop map of a portion of the basin 0 


The Charles River in Massachusetts —Clapp. 225 


It is extremely probable that before the reversal of the 
Sudbury drainage the Assabet river was tributary to the Sud- 
bury through either Pantry or Hop brooks ; and thus the entire 
area now comprised in the Sudbury and Assabet basins drained 
into the Charles, which must, therefore, have been a stream of 
considerable size. 

Upon reaching the Boston basin the buried valley of the 
ancient river probably turns northeastward, passing beneath 
Wellesley to the valley of Rosemary brook west of Highland- 
ville, and thence northwesterly, to the present river below New- 
ton Lower falls. An interesting problem is presented by the 
broad valley of the present river lying east and northeast of 
Needham. This valley is situated on the western end of the 
West Roxbury slate belt (plate 13), and at Highlandville is 
separated from the preglacial valley of the Charles only by a 
high sand-plain, which for a mile north and south, is entirely 
free from outcrops (fig. 5). Between Highlandville and West 
Roxbury numerous borings have been made, some of which 
extend as much as 35 feet below sea-level without reaching 
bed-rock. To account for this ancient valley it has been sug- 
gested that the preglacial Charles may have flowed eastward 
along the slate belt across West Roxbury and Dorchester, thus 
making nearly a straight course from Wellesley to Boston bay. 
| have considered this view, but have been able to find no direct 
evidence to sustain it. 

Tide-Water Portion of the Charles—At the mouth of 
the Charles, as at the mouths of many of our seaboard rivers, 
there is a deep buried gorge which exists as evidence of the 
great Pleistocene elvation of the land, and its subsequeni sub- 
sidence carrying the river beds far below sea-level. That such 
is the case is shown by numerous artesian well and other bor- 
ings in Boston and vicinity.* Between the Back Bay district 
and Old Harbor, north of South Boston, wells have been 
bored to depths as great as 160-170 feet below sea-level be- 
fore reaching bed-rock, indicating that beneath this part of 
the city lies a deep east-west gorge. North of this depres- 
sion the bed-rock is shown to rise, until near the present river 
north of Beacon hill it reaches sea-level. Moreover, in Cam- 


ee 


*Geological History of the Charles River, Technology Quarterly, vol. xiv. 
No. 3, p. 199. 


226 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


bridge deep borings have been made which lie exactly in line 
with this gorge; and with a slight bend, the surface depression 
extends with an average width of two miles, across Belmont 
and Arlington to West Medford. Professor Crosby has 
shown? that the Merrimac river in pre-Glacial time was prob- 
ably tributary to Boston bay. If such was the case, its mpst 
direct course would be directly southward from Arlington 
along this depression to the Old Harbor, which would make 
the preglacial Charles a branch of the Merrimac, with the 
junction in the vicinity of Cambridgeport. A possible alter- 
native course for the Charles would be northeastward from 
Waltham, along the line of the Fitchburg railroad, joining the 
Merrimac near Spy pond. Such a course would avoid several 
difficulties which arise in connection with the Watertown route. 
Tertiary History of the Charles River System. 

Having outlined the geography of the region included in 
the basin of the Charles river as it existed at the beginning 
of the Pleistocene period, it is next in order to go back to the 
Tertiary period and show how, the Pleistocene system of drain- 
age could be brought about. 

When, at the close of the Cretaceous period, the recently 
formed peneplain was raised gradually out of the sea, a drain- 
age system must have been established following the normal 
seaward slope of the sediments, and entirely indifferent to 
the structure of the underlying hard rocks. It would be use- 
less to attempt to decipher the courses of these oldest streams. 
The last remnants of their valleys have long since disappeared, 
and they are as likely as not to have flowed at some points 
over the tops of our highest hills. Following the laws of devel- 
opment, the streams kept continuously at work wearing away 
the Cretaceous sediments until they became superimposed upon 
the pre-Cretaceous rocks of varying hardness, in which for a 
time they continued their work of erosion. 

Remnants of some of the valleys formed in the succeeding 
epochs can be seen in numerous gaps in the highlands at pres- 
ent unoccupied by large streams. One of these gaps probably 
formed in early Tertiary time, is the marked line of valley 
which the old Middlesex canal followed from Lowell to Boston, 
and which is the site of the early Pleistocene Merrimac. This 


+Geological History of the Nashua Valley, p. 802, 


The Charles River in Massachusetts.—Clap p. 227 


is the most direct route to the sea for the Merrimac, and there 
is no necessity for supposing that at any time during the Ter- 
tiary period it took a different course. Another gap of less im- 
portance, lies between Bear and Doublet hills west of Waltham. 
This pass is in line with a marked depression extending west- 
ward from Sudbury. Several miles south of this is the gap al- 
ready mentioned in the vicinity of Cochituate. This depression 
is continued eastward through the present valley of the Charles 
between Needham and Dedham, and thence along Mother 
brook to the Neponset river. Westward it is continued be- 
tween Nobscot and Green hills to the valley of the Assabet. 
A fourth line of valley extends east from the vicinity of Sher- 
born through Millis, Walpole and Norwood, and along the 
Neponset river to the sea. The high ridge extending north 
from Bellingham, and the passes in the adjacent southern 
watershed have been already noted. As the streams which 
occupied these passes are shown to have held the same locations 
at the beginning of the Pleistocene period, ‘they, like the Merri- 
mac, evidently did not change their courses greatly during 
Tertiary time. 

The development of the stream occupying the Cochituate 
gap was more complex. This river, coming from an area of 
hard crystalline rocks, crossed the softer formations in Welles. 
ley and Needham, then flowed over the crystalline area east 
of Needham, reaching the sedimentaries again in Hyde Park 
(plate 13). It is possible that this stream may be the lower por- 
tion of the Wachusett river* discovered by professor Crosby, 
who has traced its course as far as the Assabet. The discovery 
of an ancient river flowing from the Assabet to the sea makes 
it a reasonable supposition that the two were synchronous and 
hence probably the same. This stream, coming from a long 
distance, and having many tributaries, must have carved out 
a broad valley, and appropriated the drainage of a consider- 
able area. The upper portion of the Sudbury and its trib- 
utaries belonged to this system. The valley of the Sudbury 
north of Cochituate is certainly very old, and was probably 
formed at that time. Being a tributary to the powerful trunk 
stream, it could erode its valley rapidly, cutting below the 
level of the Waltham gap, and beheading the stream occupying 
*Geoloxical History of the Nashua, valley, 1. c., page 312. 


228 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


it. The lower portion of this beheaded stream is represented 
today by Stony brook, which has never been of sufficient size to 
make a large valley. One of its branches, the infantile Charles, 
flowing northward from Needham through the Boston basin, 
cut backward toward the south, and on account of its location 
on the softer rocks, deepened its valley below that of the east- 
west stream (the possible Wachusett). This river was re- 
tarded in its erosion by the crystalline areas across which it 
flowed, making possible its capture by the Charles. Thus, ex- 
cept for several minor tributary streams, the Tertiary valley 
between Wellesley and Hyde Park was left dry. The valley 
northeast of Needham was probably formed by a tributary 
to the Charles which cut backward from Highlandville along 
the slate belt to the east. 

Another great Tertiary stream draining the area under 
consideration was the Baggistere, which rose in the vicinity 
of Sherborn and flowed east and then northeast to Boston 
bay through the Neponset valley, which is shown by its great 
size to have been occupied at an early date by a large stream. 
The Neponset river, flowing entirely upon sedimentary rocks, 
was able to cut back its valley for a considerable distance, 
the limit probably being reached in the vicinity of Nor- 
folk, where, as indicated by the topography, a tributary of Nar- 
ragansett bay had its source. At first the south-flowing streams 
in this vicinity may have run directly across the crystalline 
area between the Norfolk and Narragansett basins; but in 
time they must all have been diverted to the easier outlet 
through the connecting pass at Wrentham. Thus the Norfolk 
basin became occupied by two main streams, flowing in op- 
posite directions from the watershed at Norfolk. The minor 
streams having their sources on the large crystalline area to 
the north then so adjusted themselves as to take the most 
direct courses to the main streams in the basin. It is probable, 
however, that little adjustment was necessary, as the basin 
lay directly across their seaward paths. 

The Tertiary changes outlined above were undoubtedly 
much more complex; but this appears to be the simplest se- 
quence of events which could have brought about the conditions 
existing at the beginning of the Pleistocene period. The 
preglacial streams deduced from present conditions are found 


The Charles River in Massachusetts.—Clap p. 229 


to correspond closely with those derived from the most prob- 
able development of the Tertiary drainage. 


Glacial Lake Charles. 


At the beginning of the Pleistocene period occurred the 
great elevation of the land which ushered in the Ice age. With 
the subsidence at the close of the Ice age, came the melting of 
the ice-sheet and the release of great volumes of water, which 
collected south of the receding ice-front in northward sloping 
valleys to form glacial lakes. In basins where the preglacial 
drainage had been to the north, the water-parting on the south 
naturally formed the southern barrier of the glacial lake. But 
in the basins of the upper and middle Charles the greater part 
of the preglacial drainage was southward. In these cases, at 
times when the ice-front rested at narrow portions of the south- 
sloping valleys, the detritus-laden streams from the ice-sheet 
formed apron-plains of sand and gravel which completely 
closed the valleys and presented an effectual southern barrier 
to the glacial waters. . 

Lake Charles, being retained on the south by the frontal 
plains and the intervening highlands, and on the north by the 
high ice-front, necessarily overflowed through the lowest pass 
in its southern water-parting. As the ice receded northward, 
lower and lower passes were uncovered in the southern and 
eastern sides of the basin, serving as successive outlets for the 
lake, and allowing the water to fall each time to a lower level. 
Each stage of the lake is characterized by extensive deposits of 
modified drift, the maximum elevation of each coinciding ap- 
proximately with the level of the lake during that stage. 

Bellingham and Wrentham Stages.—During its history 
lake Charles had twelve distinct outlets, two of which coin- 
cided with outlets of glacial lake Neponset (plate 16). The 
stages are less in number than the outlets, however, for dur- 
ing the earlier history of the lake each stage had several out- 
lets at or near the same level. Thus the two outlets in the 
vicinity of Bellingham and those southeast of Franklin have 
all an elevation of about 240 to 260 feet. The stage of the 
lake corresponding with these outlets may be called the Bel- 
lingham stage. 

Simultaneously with this was the Wrentham stage, dur- 
ing which the ice was disappearing from the region east of 


230 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


Franklin. In this area there were four outlets, three of 
which were south of Whiting pond and the fourth just south of 
the Pinnacle. According to the topographical map, these outlets 
vary in elevation between 240 and 280 feet, but like the Bel- 
lingham and Franklin outlets, they shotld probably all be re- 
ferred to a single stage of the lake, the elevation of which was 
somewhat variable. During these stages the lake was confined 
to the region south and west of Norfolk. The areas covered 
by water are indicated in plate 16. 

Charles-Neponset Stage. By the continued recession 
of the ice during the Bellingham and Wrentham stages a pas- 
sage was opened to the east along the north end of the ridge 
north of Foxboro, and lake Charles then became confluent with 
lake Neponset. The development of the Neponset lake had 
been going on simultaneously with lake Charles, and the ice 
had by this time receded far enough north to open the Stough- 
ton outlet, at an elevation of about 200 feet. This, being lower 
than any hitherto uncovered pass in either basin, became the 
sole outlet for the confluent lakes. The deposits of this stage 
extend up the valley of the upper Charles beyond North 
Bellingham, and in the valley of Mill brook as far as Whiting 
pond. Northward they extend nearly to Soutk. Framingham. 
The presence of 200 foot deposits west and north of Great Blue 
hill shows that while this area was covered by water the Mon- 
atiquot outlet was still blocked by ice on the east. 

Sudbury-Charles-Neponset Stage. With the disappear- 
ance of the ice from the valley of the Monatiquot river, an out- 
let was opened along the south side of the Blue hills at a level 
of about 160 feet, allowing the water to overflow to the east, 
into lake Bouvé,* which at this time had a level of about 120 
feet. During this stage the Charles and Neponset lakes were 
confluent at two points; first, through a narrow pass, perhaps 
not over 500 feet wide, between the valley of Mine brook in 
Walpole and Stop river in Medfield; and second, at Dedham, 
where the pass was nearly two miles wide. Lake Charles 
was also confluent with lake Sudbury, the water overflowing 
through the Monatiquot being not only that due to the melt- 
ing of ice in the Charles-Neponset region, but also that of a 


* A. W.GRaRAU, Lake Bouve, Occasional papers, Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 
iv, part 3, pp. 554-600. 


The Charles River in Massachusetts.—Clapp. 231 


large area to the west. At this time the ice front in the Nashua 
valley probably stood in the vicinity of Clinton, and the outlet 
of lake Nashua was through the pass at South Clinton into the 
valley of the Assabet river and thence to lake Sudbury. Thus 
the drainage of the entire area included within the watersheds 
of lakes Nashua, Sudbury, Charles and Neponset was at this 
stage tributary to lake Bouve. 

The plains of this stage of the combined lakes are by far the 
best developed of any stage. In Newton they are developed as 
far north as the Boston and Albany railroad. Extending 
westward from Brighton along the line of the railroad into 
Weston is a well developed ice-contact slope which marks the 
northern limit of the lake at this stage. Northwest of Needham 
and Sherborn the plains extend through Wellesley, Natick and 
Framingham, across the Cochituate water-parting to the val- 
ley of the Sudbury, where an extensive series of the same gen- 
eral elevation is found, extending even dow the valley of the 
Concord river into Bedford and Billerica. Between Brighton 
and Hyde Park there is a satisfactory eastern land barrier for 
the lake (pl. 16), but the absence of such a barrier in the north- 
ern part of Newton, and again in Dedham, together with the 
characteristic ice-margins found at those places, indicates that 
while on the west the ice had retreated as far north as Bil- 
lerica, it still occupied Boston bay and a large part of the 
Boston basin. 

When the region directly north of the Blue hills was finally 
uncovered, the passes in Milton and Quincy were opened and 
the lake fell to still lower levels. To these lower stages of the 
combined lakes, entirely within the Boston basin, professor 
Crosby has given the name Lake Shawmut. 

During the time when the ice was retreating from the re- 
gion and the glacial lakes were falling successively to lower 
and lower levels, new streams and drainage systems were grad- 
ually developing upon the land surface recently uncovered. The 
extensive drift deposits had so changed the character of the 
topography, however, that the streams rarely resumed their 
former courses, the principle factor in reversing the drainage 
in the upper and middle Charles being the formation of the 
apron plains which blocked the southward-sloping valleys, 
and thus formed a new water-parting north of which all drain- 


232 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


age must be northward. As lake Charles fell from stage to 
stage, all the outlets on the south and east were in turn aban- 
doned, so that when the lake finally disappeared from the basin 
of the middle Charles the new river had to take possession of 
the lowest outlet to the north, the pass midway between Med- 
field and Natick, through which it now flows. Similarly, at 
Bellinghaf, at Medway, between Charles River village and 
Dedham, and at Newton Upper and Lower falls, the filling of 
the old valley caused the new river to deviate from its pre- 
glacial course, so that it now frequently flows over ledges in 
which it is still carving its gorges. 


Bibliography. 


Barton, G. H.—Geology of the Norfolk County Basin, Graduation 
Thesis, M. I. T. Library. 

BrookLINE Water Boarp.—Report of the Special Committee on Ex- 
tension of the Water Works, July 25, 1887. 

CLapp, F. G.—Geological History of the Charles River, Technology 
Quarterly, Vol. 14, Nos. 3 and 4, (1901.) 

Crossy, W. O.—Geological History of the Nashua Valley During the 
Tertiary and Quaternary Periods, Technology Quarterly, Vol. 12, 
No. 4, (Dec. 1899) pp. 288-324. 

Geology of Eastern Massachusetts. . 

Geology of the Boston Basin, Occasional Papers, Bos. Soc. Nat 
Hist. 

Report on Borings for the East Boston Tunnel. 

Unpublished Notes. 

Crospy, W. O., and G. H. Barton.—Extension of the Carboniferous 
Formation in Massachusetts, 4m. Jour. Sci., 3rd Series, Vol. 20, 
p. 416. 

Crosny, W. O., and A. W. Graspavu.—Glacial Lakes in Eastern Massa- 
chusetts, (Abstract), Science, New Series, Vol. 3, No. 58 p. 212— 
Also Am. Geol., Feb. 1806. pp, 120-130. 

Davis, W. M.—Physical Geography. 

Rivers and Valleys of Pennsylvania, Nat. Geog. Mag., Vol 1, ‘pp. 


1531233. 
Rivers of Northern New Jersey, Nat. Ge g. Mag., Vol. 2, pp. 51- 
110, , 


Doncr, W. W.— Notes on the Geology of Eastern Massachusetts, Proc. 
Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 21, pp. 107-2r5. 

Fisuer, E. F—The Geological History of Lake Cochituate, Graduation 
Thesis, M. I. T. Library. 

Futter, M. L.—Unpublished Notes. 

Granau, A. W.—Preglacial Channel of the Genessee River, Proc. Bos. 
Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 26, pp. 559-560. 


The Charles River in Massachusetts.—Clap p. 233 


Lake Bouvé, Occasional Papers, Bos. Soc, Nat. Hist., Vol. 4, Pt. 3, 
PP. 554-600. 
Hircucock, E.—Final Report on the Geology of Massachusetts. 
Hunt, T. S—On the Boston Artesian Well and its Waters, Proc. Bos. 
Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 17, pp. 486-488. 
MAssacuusetts Drainace Commission.—Report of a Committee Ap- 
pointed to Consider a General System of Drainage for the Valleys 
of the Mystic, Blackstone and Charles Rivers, Mass. (1886). 
-Massacuusertts State Boarp or Heattu.—Special Report on Metro- 
politan Water Supply, 1895, House Document No. 500 
MetropotirAN Park CommMission.—Annual Reports, 1896 and 1900. 
Nicuots, H. W.—Drift of Wellesley and Cochituate, Graduation The- 
' sis, M. I. T. Library. 
Powe t, J. W.—Exploration of the Colorado River of the West. 
_ Russett, I. C_—Rivers of North America. 
SHater, N. S., and others.—Geology of the Narrangansett Basin, Mon- 
ograph 33, U. S Geological Survey. 
Triton, J. L— Geology of the Southwest Portion of the Boston Basin, 
Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat Fist., Vol 26, pp. 500 et seq. 
Notes on the Geology of the Boston Basin, Proc. Iwowa Acad. Sci. 
1895, Vol. 3, pp. 72-74. 
U. S. DepARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR.—Report on Water Power of the 
United States, in Tenth Census Report. 
Reports OF THE JoINT Boarp of the Metropolitan Park Commission and 
the Massachusetts State Board of Health, on the Improvement of 
the Charles River, 1804 and 1896. 
IMPROVEMENT of the Charles River, (1901). 


GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE HEMATITE IRON 
ORES OF THE ANTWERP AND FOWLER 
BELT IN NEW YORK. 


By W. O. CrospBy, Boston. 


The occurrence in specimens of the massive red hematite 
from the old Sterling iron mine near Antwerp, in Jefferson 
county, New York, of more or less pyrite and possibly pyrrho- 
tite, in addition to the well known pockets lined with crystal- 
lized siderite, chalcodite, specular hematite and quartz and 
further adorned by the brilliant golden needles of millerite for 
which this mine is famous, long ago suggested to me, as, per- 
haps, to others, that the hematite had had its origin in the 
differential oxidation of slightly nickeliferous iron sulphides, 
the nickel having remained in combination with the sulphur and 
recrystalized as millerite. But when in the summer of 1895 I 


234 The American Geologist. sa 
visited the Sterling mine, in company with Capt. Hodge, an in- 
telligent resident of Antwerp and for many years superinten- 
dent of the mine, and a party of students, I was surprised, not 
having previously read up on the geology of the mine, to find 
that the ore occurs in, and in intimate association with, a mas- 
sive, soft, greenish-black, chloritic-looking rock, which is di- 
vided in all directions by slickensides and appears to be a high- 
ly altered (chloritized) trap. It appears that this rock was 
called serpentine by Ebenezer Emmons.* In part it bears some 
icsemblance to serppentine, but in general the aspect 1s chlor- 
itic rather than serpentinic. Being fresh from the study of the 
deposits of nickeliferous pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite in the di- 
oritic rocks of the Sudbury district in Ontaroi and of 
the Gap mine in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, which 
had been quite clearly. shown by Kemp and others to 
be products of magmatic differentiation, I at once adopted 
this as a provisional explanation or working hypothesis 
for the deposits of the Sterling mine, and probably of the other 
mines of the Antwerp-Fowler belt, Capt. Hodge having assured 
me that the geological conditions were similar throughout this 
linear series of deposits. 

At the time of my visit, all of these mines had been closed 
for some time, probably never to be reopened ; but my observa- 
tions on the surface, including the dumps, supplemented by 
such information concerning the underground conditions as the 
superintendent could give me, led me to the conclusion: that the 
ore-body of the Sterling mine is in a dike, fifty feet or more 
in width, of some highly altered basic rock, possibly diabase; 
that the ore was originally a magmatic segregation of this rock, 
chiefly in the form of sulphides, which have subsequently suf- 
fered more or less complete oxidation to a considerable depth, 
the ore being now, virtually, a gossan; and that this dike is, 
probably, continuous for the entire length of the belt of mines, 
although absolute continuity is by no means essential to the hy- 
pothesis. 

The trend of the ore-belt and the hypothetical dike is ap- 
proximately northeast from the vicinity of Antwerp, closely fol- 
lowing the valley of a tributary of the Oswegatchie river. At the 


* Geology of the Second District, pp. 93-96. 


The Antwerp and Fowler Belt.—Crosby. 235 


Sterling mine, two and one-half miles from Antwerp, the south 
east side of the valley is gneissoid granite and the northwest 
side is Archean limestone. The granite is of a distinctly acid 
type, of a light gray color and medium texture, rich in quartz 
and decidedly poor in ferro-magnesian minerals—chiefly biotite ; 
but with slight pegmatitic developments of only moderate 
coarseness. The granite appears to form the southeast wall 
of the dike and the limestone, in a general way, the northwest 
wall, except that in the immediate vicinity of the mine the 
dike is, superficially, bordered on the northwest side by an out- 
lier, probably of no great thickness, of the Potsdam sandstone. 
The descriptions of the mines by Putnam, in the Tenth Census 
report (vol. 15, pp. 141-144), indicate that the sandstone is a 
fairly constant feature of the deposits, occurring also at the 
Shirtleff mine in the town of Philadelphia, which is not in the 
trend of the Antwerp-Fowler belt, and probably represents a 
distinct dike or occurrence of the chloritic rock and its associa- 
ted ore. In most cases, however, the sandstone, which is still 
approximately horizontal, is described as covering the chloritic 
rock and ore more or less completely, suggesting that this basic 
igneous rock may antedate the sandstone, which was spread 
by the Potsdam sea across its outcrop; and certainly the ex- 
treme alteration of the chloritic rock is indicative of a high 
antiquity. But, on the other hand, I have observed nothing 
in the composition of the sandstone as developed at the Ster- 
ling mine confirmatory of the view that it was deposited over 
the ore-bearing formation. It is equally true, however, that 
it contains little or no identifiable detritus from the Archaean 
granite, for it is the clean, white, quartzose sandstone of fine 
and even texeure so characteristic of the base of the Pots- 
dam ; and its composition harmonizes readily with the hypothe- 
sis that it is the newest rock in the section, as indicated by its 
horizontal attitude, if we accept the view developed in my 
study of the Archaean-Cambrian contact in Colorado* that the 
transgression of the Potsdam sea over this area was so slow 
and gradual that erosion had time to accomplish its perfect 
work, base-levelling the surface and reducing all detritus to the 
two final terms—fine quartz sand and clay. Under these con- 


ditions sediments will rarely reflect in any reliable manner the 
* Bul’. Geol. Soc. Amer., 10. 141-164. ia 


236 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


mineralogic character of formations which they cover uncon- 
formably. 

Unquestionably, the interest of the geology of the Antwerp- 
Fowler mines centers in the nature and origin of the chloritic 
rock and its true relations to the ores. On returning to Boston 
with my collection, I found that in the previous year (1894) 
Prof. C. H. Smyth* had expressed the opinion, based upon 
microscopic and chemical examinations, that the chloritic rock 
is a highly altered phase of the granite. The fact upon which 
he especially relies is the occurrence in the chloritic rock of 
glassy grains and masses of quartz, which are regarded as re- 
sidual. His analysis of a specimen free from visible quartz 
shows: SiO2, 30 per cent.; MgO, 11 per cent.; FeO, 27 per 
cent.; and H2O, 12 per cent.; the remaining 20 per cent. being, 
presumably, chiefly Al2O3. This is approximately the com- 
position of prochlorite, and indicates an ultra-basic rock, while 
the granite, as represented by my specimens, is rich in quartz 
and poor in ferro-magnesian constituents, and certainly con- 
tains as much as 70, if not 75, per cent. of silica. 

The general aspect of the rock is precisely that of many 
highly chloritized traps in the vicinity of Boston; and this re- 
semblance is hightened by the slickensides by which it is min- 
utely and almost indefinitely subdivided. These testify to dif- 
ferential movement throughout the mass, and can have, appar- 
ently, but one explanation—expansion due to chloritization 
and hydration. It is manifestly impossible to find in this light- 
colored, acid granite more than a small fraction of the magnesia 
and ferrous oxide shown by Prof. Smyth's analysis of the chlor- 
itic rock. They are clearly not chiefly residual constituents of 
the granite ; and if this hypothesis stands, the main part of each 
must be imported. The only alternative is to suppose that the 
silica and alumina have suffered improbable diminution, in 
which case the expansion of the rock essential to the explana- 
tion of the slickensides would be unexplained. But where can 
we find an adequate external source of the MgO and FeQ? 
Prof. Smyth suggests the Archaean limestone and the action 
upon it of solutions derived from the oxidation of some near-by 
deposit of pyrite. But no sulphides are known in the vicinity, 


* Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer , 6, 4. 


The Antwerp and Fowler Belt.—Crosby. 237 


except those intimately associated with the hematite in the chlo- 
ritic rock ; and it is not apparent by what reactions the magnesia 
of the limestone, existing, probably, largely in the form of in- 
soluble silicates, is to replace the acid aluminous silicates of the 
granite, reducing the silica by fully forty per cent. Prof. 
Smyth seems, farther, to regard the ore as a replacement of 
limestone, although so intimately associated with and enclosed 
in the massive chloritic rock, which is interpreted as an altered 


Fic, 1.—A fragment of the chloritic rock, showing slickensides. Two-thirds 
natural size. 


phase of granite. The masses of crystalline calcite in the ore 
are certainly suggestive of inclusions of limestone; but it 1s 
important to remember that calcite is an exceedingly impor- 
tant secondary mineral of the basic eruptives, as witness the 
crystalline calcites of the cupriferous melaphyrs of Keweenaw 
point. 

Apparently, the chemical difficulties of Prof. Smyth’s thesis 
are insuperable; but we turn now to the consideration of his 


Fic. 2.—A tragment of the chloritic rock showing, diagrammatically, stretched 
and dislocated veinlets of quartz. One-third natural size. 
main argument,—the disseminated grains of quartz in the 
chloritic rock. To begin with, the free silica or quartz appears 
to be wholly or almost wholly wanting in a considerable portion 
of the chloritic rock; and it is probably this materiaf that is 
represented by Mr. Smyth’s analysis. A considerable part of 
the quartz, also, occurs, or has occurred, in the form of veinlets, 


Fic. 3.—Another fragment of the chloritic rock showing, diagrammatically, 
angular inclusions of quartz, the most of which, at least, are probably 
due to the comminution of quartz veinlets. One-half natural size. 


varying from a line to possibly an inch or so in width. Al- 
though undoubtedly secondary features of the rock, the veinlets 
clearly antedate the final or complete alteration ; and especially 
do they antedate a large part of the hydration, expansion and 
consequent slickensiding of the mass, for they have been very 
extensively broken, dislocated and even granulated by this dif- 
ferential movement. The chloritization or greenstone altera- 
tion of a trap, it is well known, involves the liberation of a 
large amount of silica, which commonly takes the form of vein- 
lets in the rock, and then during the later stages of the alter- 
ation the veinlets may be broken and disarranged. How com- 
plete the destruction may be is well shown by figures 2 and 3, 


The Antwerp and Fowler Belt.—Crosoby. 239 


drawn from specimens collected on the dump of Sterling mine. 
The shaded areas are wholly glassy quartz; but a part of that 
The included areas are wholly glassy quartz; but a part of that 
shown in figure 3 may not be vein quartz, although the main 
part of it certainly is, as indicated by the large size and dis- 
tinctly fragmental forms of the masses. In no instance does 
the chloritic rock itself, apart from the included quartz, appear 
to have been crushed or brecciated ; but the slickensides suggest, 
rather, a differential flowing which has brecciated the unyield- 
ing quartz veinlets. It is easy to see, in the light 
of these examples, that with slender veinlets, at least, a com- 
plete and seemingly original granulation of the quartz might 
result. Again, the secondary silica in a case of this kind does 
not necessarily assume wholly the form of veinlets, but it may 
have been developed in part as amygdules or pseudo-amygdules 
or as irregular segregations and replacements. Certain it is 
that a trap rock is, during the process of chloritization, a pro- 
lific source of free silica, which is unlikely in the case of a 
large dike to wholly escape, even into cracks in the rock itself, 
crystallizing in part in interstitial or disseminated forms. 

I have not observed the masses described by Prof. Smyth 
as showing gradation from the granite into the chloritic rock 
or greenstone; but not having read his paper before visiting 
the locality, | may have overlooked them. I venture the sug- 
gestion, however, that they may be inclusions of the granite 
in the basic dike, which have naturally shared the alteration of 
the latter and are by simple contact more or less stained or im- 
pregnated by the chloritic material. Of course, this might 
happen to the unbroken granite wall of the dike as well as to 
inclusions. As showing that granitic inclusions are not wholly 
wanting, I may add that my collection from the Sterling mine 
contains a mass of distinctly pegmatitic character, in which 
coarsely crystalline mica is a prominent feature, which I broke 
out of the soft, dark-green, chloritic rock. It does not, how- 
ever, show any important alteration, even the mica being still 
essentially intact. The sandstone on the opposite side of the 
dike, although of a distinctly permeable character, does not, so 
far as I have.observed, show any appreciable chloritic impreg- 
nation, notwithstanding the fact that it is at some points very 


deeply stained or impregnated, but not replaced, by the henr- 
tite. 


240 The American Geologist. Apt, i 

As additional evidence that the quartz in the greenstone 
may be secondary rather than residuary may be mentioned 
the crystalline quartz occurring with the siderite, chalcodite, 
millerite, etc., in the pockets of the hematite; and the fact, well 
attested by specimens in my collection, that the greenstone has 
been metasomatically replaced by quartz on a considerable 
scale. One specimen shows the complete replacement of an 
angular joint-block of the greenstone nearly a foot long and 
half as thick, forming a sharply angular quartz geode of these 
dimensions (fig. 4). Even granting that the granular quartz 


lic, 4.—An angular quartz geode, due to the replacement of a jOint-block of 
the chloritic rock. About one-third natural size. 


is partly or wholly residuary does not prove the deriviation of 
this ultra-basic rock from the granite, for the original basic 
rock of this dike may «very well have been quartziferous, a 
quartz-dioryte, or possibly a quartz-gabbro. The original rock, 
while quite certainly not so acid as the granite, was not neces- 
sarily highly basic; and the magmatic segregation of sulphides 
is by no means confined to rocks eXceptionally low in silica; 
but they are fairly common in rocks of neutral or sub-acid char- 
acter, and even, as in the case of some of the ore-bearing 


The Antwerp and Fowter Belt—Crosby. 241 


dioritic rocks - the Sudbury district, in those containing free 
quartz: 

In view ofall these considerations, it appears to me most 
probable that the chloritic rock or greenstone is a highly al- 
tered, basic eruptive; although I recognize that some facts 
point to its derivation from the granite, and especially that the 
disséminated granular quartz would find thus its readiest ex- 
planation. Again, a basic dike six miles or more in length ap- 
pears far more probable than a sharply defined and apparently 
persistent zone of granite showing such a radical and unusual 
transformation as the alternative hypothesis calls for, especially 
as such a zone of alteration, while unique, and on chemical 
lines, at least, highly improbable for the granite, is entirely 
normal for the dike. In other words, if the basic dike be 
granted, the development of the sulphides in it by magmatic 
segregation, the chloritization of the silicates while still at a 
great depth, and the subsequent development of the iron ore 
by the differential oxidation of the REET appear as entirely 
normal incidents of its history. 

I may add to this that some of my specimens from the Sterl- 
ing mine show sulphides, still unoxidized, disseminated in the 
slickensided chloritic rock precisely as in the dioryte of the 
Sudbury and Gap mines; and in this connection it is interest- 
ing to note, further, that according to Brooks* and several of 
the sections given by Emmons, tle normal position of the iron 
ore is, more or less distinctly, peripheral with reference to the 
chloritic rock, thus parallelling another important feature of 
the deposits having their origin in magmatic segregation. 

Since writing this paper, I have had an opportunity to 
study some of the auriferous veins of the new Michipicoten 
district of Ontario; and I was specially interested in an occur- 
rence on the southeast side of lake Wawa, where, during the 
alteration of a basic dike, the resulting chloritic matter has 
impregnated and saturated the bordering acid granite to such 
a degree that the latter rock is completely disguised, the gran- 
ite falling under the hammer into thin, angular fragments 
which are completely coated with the shining, black, chloritic 
glaze and being easily mistaken for a chloritized trap. Closer 


* Am. Jour, Sci., 3rd series, vol. iv, pp. 22-26. 


242 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


examination shows, however, that the original minerals of the 
granite are but little altered; and that it is essentially a case 
of the saturation of a rock along joints and rifts by the sec» 
ondary mineral of a neighboring rock. This appears to throw 
some light upon the problem of the quartzose chloritic rock of 
the Antwerp-Fowler iron mines, and at least suggests the pos- 
sibility that the quartzose portions of this matrix of the iron 
ore may be, after all, a phase of the granite. But the basic 
dike is still required as a source, alike of the impregnating 
chloritic matter and of the metallic contents of the formation, 


NOTES UPON THE MAUCH CHUNK OF PENN- 
~SYLVANIA 


By Joun J. Stevenson, New York 


Professor H. D. Rogers recognized two series in the Lower 
Carboniferous of Pennsylvania, which he designated as Ves- 
pertine and Umbral. Professor Lesley rejected these names 
and replaced them with the geographical terms, Pocono and 
Mauch Chunk. The latter term is inappropriate as the char- 
acteristic features, shown by the series at that locality, mark 
only a small area within northeastern Pennsylvania. The 
Mauch Chunk, in much of the northern area, is triple, shales, 
limestones and shales; a division faintly recognizable even 
around the southern and middle anthracite fields, well-defined 
further south in the Broad Top field, east from the Alleghenies, 
and especially distinct in northern Pennsylvania on the north- 
eastern part of the Allegheny plateau within Lycoming county. 

The lower shales are present throughout northern Penn- 
sylvania, becoming the Shenango shales of I. C. White in 
the northwestern counties, but they disappear in the southern 
counties, being absent in Maryland, east from the Alleghenies, 
while under the Laurel and Chestnut Hill anticlines they dis- 
appear before the Conemaugh river is reached. 

Traces of the middle or limestone division have been recog- 
nized even at the east end of the southern anthracite field; it 
is better defined in the northern field, while in the Broad Top 
area it is distinct. Its lower portion is persistent as far north- 
ward on the Allegheny plateau as northern Lycoming county, 
northwestward to beyond Lock Haven in Clinton county and 


Mauch Chunk of ‘Pennsylvania.—Stevenson. 243 


the eastern border of Armstrong county. This portion is per- 
sistent southward as a sandy limestone of peculiar structure, 
termed the Silicious Limestone in the writer's Pennsylvania re- 
ports. The upper or great mass of the limestone, however, 
though faintly recognizable in central and northern Pennsyl- 
vania, does not become noteworthy until the southwest coun- 
ties of the state are reached, under the bold axes of the Alle- 
gheny plateau. The most northerly point, at which it has been 
recognized definitively, is in the Conemaugh river gap through 
Chestnut ridge in Westmoreland county where six feet of 
fossiliferous limestone and three feet of calcareous shale, sep- 
arated. by sixty feet of shale and sandstone, are shown in the 
railroad cuts. These are represented, probably, by I. C. 
White’s calcareous breccias on the west side of the Broad Top 
field. Southward from the Conemaugh, these upper limestones 
thicken rapidly and attain much economic importance within 
twenty-five miles, exposures being frequent within Fayette 
and Westmoreland counties in the gaps through Laurel and 
Chestnut hills as well as several localities further east in Som- 
erset county. These limestones, so insignificant at the north, 
become the notable portion in the Virginias. 

The upper shales persist in northern Pennsylvania into 
Warren county, but they disappear westward so that they are 
indefinite throughout the extreme western counties of the 
state; within the central portion of the basin, however, they 
retain their characteristics to southern Virginia. 

The United States Geological Survey has divided the 
Mauch Chunk or Umbral. The upper shales are termed the 
Mauch Chunk, the limestone is the Greenbrier, but no desig- 
nation has been affixed to the lower shales, as they have not 
been encountered sharply within any quadrangle yet mapped 
by that survey. It is unfortunate that these terms have been 
adopted, since they are as objectionable—and for the same rea- 
sons—as Chemung and Hamilton, both of which have been re- 
jected by the survey for lack of definiteness. Mauch Chunk 
was applied in Pennsylvania to the whole series above the Po- 
cono and includes the Greenbrier as well as the underlying 
shales: the writer in 1878 suggested the name Greenbrier for 
the whole series above Pocono and W. B. Rogers in 1883 used 
the terms Greenbrier shales and Greenbrier limestone. It is un- 


244 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


fortunate that the name Maxville, applied to the limestone in 
Ohio, by E. B. Andrews in 1869, has been overlooked. That 
geologist recognized the true relations of the deposit at once 
and his conclusions were confirmed in the following year by 
F. B. Meek, who had just completed the study of a collection 
made by the writer from the same limestone in northern West 
Virginia. Andrews traced the limestone through southeastern 
Ohio into Kentucky. The adoption of this name would be not 
only a recognition of the law of priority but it would be also 
a just recognition of a faithful geologist, whose work, for the 
time, was of high order. 

It is now upwards of thirty years since the writer collected 
the fossils in West Virginia upon which Meek based his de- 
terminations. No effort was made at that time to ascertain 
the distribution of the forms, but, as was the habit in those 
days, all the specimens from all parts of the deposit were 
bundled up together. For the first time, in this interyal, an 
opportunity was afforded last summer for careful examination 
of the limestone. The National road, leading from Washing- 
ton to St. Louis, and constructed in the early part of the last 
century, was macadamized in eastern Fayette county of Penn- 
sylvania with stone from this deposit, most of the material hav- 
ing been obtained from Snyder's quarries on the easterly slope 
of Chestnut (now commonly known as Laurel) ridge and seven 
miles southeast from Uniontown. The exposure in these 
quarries has been increased greatly within a few years, as 
the farmers for many miles around resort to it for limestone, 
so that now the upper part of the deposit is well shown. In 
studying this locality, no attempt was made to measure the 
overlying shales, as that work can be done only by instrumental 
survey, but the interval to the Pottsville conglomerate is ap- 
proximately 200 feet. Fully one-half of this, however, be- 
longs to the Sharon coal group, which here is continuous with 
the Lower Carboniferous as the bottom plate of the Potts- 
ville is absent. The collection of fossils was submitted to Dr. 
Stuart Weller of Chicago University, who not only gave the 
list of forms but also offered some notes respecting correla- 
tion, which will be presented in a later portion of this paper. 


The succession is as follows: 
I. Shales and sandstones, approximately. ........ ssc us Se ste SE 100° 


10. 


II. 


Mauch Chunk of Pennsylvania.—Stevenson. 


Limestone, light blue, pure, non-fossiliferous, seen.......... 
CNRS Us wick: dP bailcat 1 aR Oka ETER st he's cewh« sivsildces. 
Shale, brownish red, with thin streaks of impure lime- 
Dome, couteimne Der Dye PtOGee. oc wwwel es sce ce eis cioeee. 
Limestone, shaly, impure, bluish, weathering dirty yel- 


lowish-brown, very fossiliferous, containing several species of 


Bryozoa, Derbya crassa, Productus fasciculatus, Seminula 
subquadrata, Spirifer littoni, Phillipsia stevensoni?, fish 
tooth. The Spirifer and Seminula are almost invariably in 
BOUATELCCL VRUNEEIE A als Putte we a a Gta alee OU was Cae Ke 
Limestone, very hard, bluish, appears brecciated on the 
weathered surface. No fossils. This is exposed for a con- 
siderable distance in the field eastward from the quarry..... 
Shale, reddish brown, thinly laminated, appears to be 
non-fossiliferous except in one inch of impure limestone con- 


MAE LIKE YG. ANG DryOSOW oars sei dice tec s Avie ons vo wore 2’ to 2’ 6” 


Limestone, varies at expense of underlying shale, lower 
portion very irregular, impure, tends to be flaggy, reddish- 
brown, weathering rusty yellow; upper and more persistent 
portion is more compact, bluish but weathers rusty yellow, 
Fossils very abundant. Productus cora is not found in the up- 
per portion and is less abundant than P. fasciculatus in the 
lower portion. The topmost layer, two inches, is crowded 
with Derbya associated with a few specimens of Seminula. 
Crinoidal stems abound in the upper portion. The forms 
are Zaphrentis spinulosa, Pentremites elegans, Bryozca, Or- 
biculoidea, sp.,Derbya cra sa, Productus cora, P. fascisulatus, 
Seminula subquadrata, Spirifer littoni, Martinia contracta, 
Dielasma turgida, Allorisma, sp., Bellerophon sublaevis, Phil- 
lipsia stevensoni?, fish remains. A small Orthis and a nu- 
culoid shell were obtained but were mislaid. The Seminula 
attains large size and the Spirifer is coarser than in lower 


Rs See Tee cle cairn cies is ie MARGE ne Se nie Rw e TS ei 


Shale, laminated, reddish brown, contains P. fasciculaius in 
REN RIAL E Sy o croie.c 20 G biy's Reis hntw' aid d'ocn Spek ai teen ate cee Posws one 
Limestone with thin shale. This is the top of the quarry 
wall. On fresh surface, reddish brown, compact, tough, but 
irregular and shattered on long exposed surface, impure and 
not used for lime. Contains Zaphrentis spinulosa, Derbya 
crassa, Productus cora, P. fasciculatus, P. sp., Seminula 
subquadrata, teeth and fragments of fish bones............. 
Limestone, same color as last but evidently more compact 
and less impure, It is very tough and is exposed only in 
the quarry wall. Pyrite is present in blotches one-fourth 
inch to two inches in diameter. Crinoidal stems up to one 
inch in diameter abound. Derbya, Seminula and Spirifer oc- 
cur occasionally, but for the most part fossils are rare...... 


. 


240 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


12. Shale and limestone with Derbya and crinoidal stems....... 2° @ 
13. Limestone, very impure, argillaceous, bluish on fresh sur- 
face, brown on weathered surface. Crinoid stems abundant; 
Bryozoa, Derbya crassa, Productus cora, P. fasciculatus, 
P. sp., Seminula subquadrata, Spirifer littoni, Straparollus 


similis, Phillipaia. stevensonif ... 0000 siaccccceceedesseseawe 3 ¢ 
14. Shale and impure limestone. Phillipsia abundant, but al- 
ways with. convex side down. ......6:.0.0.0sbesecs se scene re a 


15. Limestone, impure, more or less nodular, layers, three inches 
to twelve inches thick and separated by lamine of shale. 
This is the floor of the quarry and very rich in fossils, which 
for the most part, are beautifully perfect. The forms are, 
Zaphrentis spinulosa, Z cliffordana?, Agassizocrinus sp., 
Bryozoa, several species, Derbya crassa, Chonetes sp., Pro- 
ductus cora, P. fasciculatus, Seminula subquadratc, Spirifer 
littoni, Martinia contracta, Eumetria marcyi, Dielesma tur- 
gida, Bellerophon sublaevis, Straparollus similis, Holopea 
newtonensis?, Dentalium sp., Allorisma sp.,Orth ceras near 
O. annulato-costatum, Phillipsia stevensoni, fragment of fish 
SO PUIG Leia apa thie aid edd dal bs Wintec ets Sidon ole Sta ldls wuteleet eae 42 
16. Calcareous shale, dark brown, contains very elongated Pro- 
ductus cora, occasional P. fasciculatus, Spirifer and Or- 
thoceras ike that.in Nov 15;: -<c<.2s00% ive od oe ace oO 3 
17. Limestone, hard, dark blue, weathers rusty yellow, but is 
purer than No. 15. Fossils are abundant, but, for the most 
part, not recognizable; the same Producti, Spirifer and 
Seminmla OS AWOVES x s siaievsidacs,s uses Oe cos ok evens 3 
The remainder of the section lies below the quarry and the succes- 
sion was obtained on the slope leading from the quarry to the National 
road, 
18. Calcareous shale, not fully exposed; under cover it may prove 
to be limestone. Fossils are few and indistinct, only P. fas- 


’ 


ciculatus having been recognized .................-e0ee005 6 
19. Arenaceous limestone, weathering with rough surface, fos- 

siliferous, but forms very indistinct:.....s.........ssswees cue 2 
20. Wholly: Comoemled ist vison: cen sd abn bees Haas seme See 23" 


21, Limestone, not fully exposed; the decomposing outcrop is 
reddish, but the rock weathers light buff; fossiliferous, 
contains Productus cora, P. fasciculatus, Spirifer littoni and 
Rhynchonella sp. The bed is evidently thicker than the 
EXHOSUTE. 26... cdivbcalé cegd Pua da Magee cewha Cegh nk «cine ee rer. 

22. Not well exposed, but mostly bromn shale... ............+.- 2 

23. Limestone, imperfectly exposed, upper part, reddish, com- 
pact, somewhat arenaceous, weathering light blue, no fos- 
sils; lower part is very fossiliferous containing so many 
small fragments of crinoidal stems as to appear granular on 
weathered surface; numerous minute forms resembling 


—_— 


Mauch Chunk of Pennsylvania.—Stevenson. 247 


Seminula or Dielasma are shown on weathered surface but 
all are very imperfect and none can be detected in tne 


eS OEY sate Soin acs tir a ERE TN Fe yk vege veka cans a 4 
24. Not fully exposed, but mostly brown shale.................. 12’ 
25. Limestone, impure with fragments of crinoid stems, and 

enesll: Seinitete all crime vals nae one Ss aeons. 0 10" 
ae UIIONY SOOMDERIOG: Ail dda vieiibs ire ceili brele SOi8 b Wk Belem sb2 a2 one s 
27. Sandstone or leached afenaceous limestone,............... V 
MIG, BORO, © Cos by et unh und vb sab cGy sve s ye Ane Ree 12’ 
NORM... Sota thp ca CR tae eae eo bade rN Cee bY va neees » 2 
30. The Silicious limestone. This is not reached on the slope, 


but one can follow Nos. 28 and 29 westward for 200 feet 
to a deep ravine which opens behind the Snyder house, 
where the limestone is exposed for fully 200 feet. The 
rock, known as “whinstone,” was quarried here in immense 
quantities for use on the National road, being preferred to 
the less resistant rock from the other quarry. The peculiar 
current-bedding characterizing this rock everywhere, 1s es- 
pecially notable in the lower portion, the bedding becoming 
comparatively regular in the top seven feet. The general 
structure resembles that seen in the consolidated dune sands 
Ree RESORT ICES R. (wes viics Oia Trehanee's Atte cu siete ta, d < Caos Pete 35 


. 


TEORRY TECRMOBS @OOTORUITACELY oo sic es Gees estes cee eegad 250 feet. 

The dip is southeastward at 14 or 15 degrees. The dips 
in this Chestnut (Laurel) hill are frequently very steep, 
being considerably more than forty degrees at one locality 
on the western flank, and, generally speaking, steeper than 
those of Laurel hill and other axes to the eastern edge of 
the Allegheny plateau in southern Pennsylvania. 

Mr. Meek, in 1870, decided that the fossiliferous lime- 
stone is of Chester age. By means of the more extensive 
collection, Dr. Weller has been enabled to make a closer ap- 
proximation to the horizon. He finds the fauna ‘essentially 
identical with that of the Maxville limestone in Ohio” as de- 
scribed by R. P. Whitfield in Vol. VII of the Ohio reports, 
so that he thinks “it will probably be safe to correlate the 
formation with that limestone.” This conclusion is in ex 
act accordance with the stratigraphical relations, for this 
upper limestone is continuous with the Maxville. 

Respecting its relations to the rocks of the Mississippi 
valley, Dr. Weller’s conclusions differ very slightly from 
those of Mr. Meek, who recognized the fauna unhesitatingly 
as Chester. Dr. Weller writes respecting the Maxville and 
Fayette county faunas that “they are of Genevieve age—a name 


, 


248 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


which is used to include both the St. Louis and Chester or 
Kaskaskia of earlier authors. From the relationships of the 
faunas in the east it is not easy to determine to what portion of 
the Genevieve epoch the fauna belongs. The fauna of the 
Batesville sandstone in Arkansas, however, is closely related to 
these and it lies at the base of the Kaskaskia, just above the 
St. Louis, and it will probably be safe to assume that the age 
of the Pennsylvania and West Virginia faunas is about mid- 
Genevieve.” 

From the point of stratigraphy this conclusion would ap- 
pear to be correct, for above the limestone is the shale, attain- 
ing great thickness further south, which has yielded only Ches- 
ter forms. The Silicious limestone has yieldea no fossils at 
any exposure in southwest Pennsylvania, though carefully ex- 
amined at many places.’ I. C. White, however, found in it 
an imperfect Straparollus on the western side of the Broad 
Top basin. The rock was studied carefully under the micro- 
scope by Profs. Linn and Linton of Washington and Jefferson 
college, who discovered in it an abundance of Foraminifera. It 
consists of “grains of quartz, some of feldspar, and rounded 
grains of carbonate of lime, embedded in a matrix of carbonate 
of lime, and thus held together.”* | They emphasize the pecut 
iar character ot the rock which enables one to recognize it at 
once in well drillings by aid of a glass. It is unique micro- 
scopically as well as macroscopically. Southward its silicious 
material is less disseminated, more segregated, the rock be 
comes fossiliferous and its relations are with the St. Louis. 

One may object to this conclusion, that I. C. White found 
Chester fossils in the Shenango shales in northwestern Penn- 
sylvania and that the writer has regarded those shales as un- 
derlying the Silicious limestone. There is no difficulty here. 
The Shenango shales in Crawford county of Pennsylvania are 
beyond the extreme northwest limits of the limestone and in 
that region they must represent the whole sedimentation 
throughout the post-Pocono time; so that if the Chester sea 
extended so far north, one should expect to find Chester fos- 
sils in the shales. Just as the Chattanooga shales of Tennes- 
see, beyond the area in which Pocono and Chemung have dis- 
appeared successively, must represent for that region the whole 

*Second Geol. Surv. of Penn., Ann. Rep. for 1885, p. 223. 


Mauch Chunk of Pennsylvania.—Stevenson. 249 


‘of the Devonian and Pocono sedimentation, though further 
north, the Chattanooga shales underlie the Chemung as that, 
still further north, underlies the Pocono. There is no room 
for surprise when Pocono or Waverly fossils are found in the 
Chattanooga shales of Tennessee, nor should there be ground 
for surprise if Waverly fossils are found in the Grainger shales 
further north, but still south from the southern limit of Po- 
cono.* 


EDITORIAL COMMENT. 


THE HuGH MILLER CENTENARY. 


It is one hundred years since the birth of Hugh Miller at 
Cromarty. ; 

The senior geologists of English speaking peoples into 
whose youthful] interests the inspiriting writings of this most 
unusual man profoundly entered, he has laid under a debt of 
gratitude. If it is less the fashion in this,day to read_ his 
writings, the younger generation of geologists is depriving 
itself of brilliant bits of geologic painting in wondrous setting. 
A_more alluring tale than that of Miller’s early life and the 
achievements of his manhood is rarely written.. Born 
amid the enchantments of sea and mountain, a child of the 
poor, an incorrigible truant at school because so devoted a 
lover of nature, the story of his early ambition to’ acquire a 
command of good English and of his delight in his pen, of his 
hardhanded labors a$ a stone-mason, apprentice and mastet 
(a calling which he selected because of the opportunity it 
afforded for studying in the evening hours), of his zealous ac- 
quisition of the products of the best English writers, and of 
his brilliant discoveries in geology, has been most charmingly 
and modestly told by himself. Miller’s influence upon his 
own and the present generation is not to be ascribed to his 
actual contributions to the knowledge of geological facts, his 
Old Red sandstone fishes, his Lias fossils of Cromarty frith 


*The writer hopes to present to the Geological Society of America, at its 
next meeting, an extended discussion of the Lower Carboniferous series within 
the Appalachian basin. 


250 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


or the monograph on the Geology of the Bass Rock, but much 
more to the artistic and graceful setting of these facts, and the 
philosophical discussions to which they gave birth. He acquired 
an exquisite diction which is still unapproacked by any other 
English writer on geologic subjects, and this was invigorated 
by a logical continuity and the intellectual rectitude and se- 
quentiality characteristic of his race. 

Scotsmen have a right to pride in the achievements of 
their distinguished countryman and it is therefore with em- 
inent propriety that the people of his native town, Cromarty, 
have, with the encouragement and support of many eminent 
names, undertaken to commemorate this 1ooth anniversary of 
his birth by the erection of a permanent memorial to his work 
and worth. The letter following is from the secretary of the 
Hugh Miller Centenary Committee, and is addressed to one 
of the editors of the GroLtocist who, in response to the re- 
quest, has undertaken to act as the representative of this 
committee for the United States. 


My Dear Sir:—The readers of the AmeRICAN GEOLOGIST are no 
doubt aware that, the present year being the centenary of the birth 
of Hugh Miller, an endeavour is being made to fittingly celebrate his 
centenary. It is generally agreed that no more fitting memorial of 
the event could be had than the erection in the little town where he 
was born of an institution where the many interesting geological and 
literary relics belonging to Miller may be rightly preserved. The 
“Hugh Miller Institute” will also be used as a free library, so that 
future generations may benefit by this memorial to our illustrious 
townsman. 

When, fifty years ago, Miller's splendid geological writings were 
launched upon the world, nowhere were they more eagerly received 
than in the United States, and Americans, I venture to say, have vied 
with Scotsmen in their admiration for the man who, beginning life 
in such humble circumstances, became a sort of inspiration to Eng- 
lish-speaking people. 

We may therefore, I think, safely bespeak the co-operation of 
Americans in our endeavour to honor the memory of Hugh Miller, so 
that the intended memorial may be said to be, not local, but represen- 
tative of his admirers throughout the world. The Centenary Commit- 
tee feel assured you will be glad to take charge of any subscriptions 
that may be forthcoming for this purpose. I am &c., 

J. Barn, Hon. Sec’ y, 
Hugh Miller Centenary Committee. 
Cromarty, Scotland, March 10, 102. 


Editorial Comment. 251 


Should this appeal touch a responsive chord in any read. 
ers of this magazine, subscriptions to any amount may be sent 
to John M. Clarke, State Hall, Albany, N. Y., by whom they 
will be forwarded to the treasurer of the local committee and 
acknowledgment thereof will be duly made. 


REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 
LITERATURE. 


Acrothyra and Hyolithes—a comparison by G. F. Mattuew LL. D. 
[Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. 2 Ser. vol. vii, sec. iv, p, 93.] 

In this is deseribed the genus of brachiopod, Acrothyra, an ancient 
type allied to Acrotreta and in connection a comparison is made of 
this shell with those of the genus Hyolithes in which the ventral 
valve of the former is correlated with the conical shell of the latter. 
and the dorsal of the former with the operculum of the latter. 

This comparison is carried into the muscular and circulatory sys- 
tems of each, and certain striking resemblances are shown in the 
arrangement of the muscles; but on the other hand certain muscles 
of the inarticulate brachiopods are wanting in the Hyolithide. 


Hyolithes gracilis and related forms from the Lower Cambrian of 
the St. John Group. By G. F. MattrHew, LL. D. [Trans, Roy, 
Soc. Can., 2 Ser., vol. vii, sec. iv, p. 109.] 

This article describes one of three related forms of Hyolithes of 
the Lower Cambrian which have been found at St. John, (two are 
supposed to be varieties of the third) in different zones of the St. 
John group. They are compared with Orthotheca hermelini Holm of 
‘the same part of the Cambrian in Sweden, from which they differ 
in having a more strongly arched dorsal lip—also to O. teretiuscula 
Linrs., from which they differ in the flattened dorsal side. A plate 
accompanies the article, showing the three varieties of this sspecie— 
H. gracilis. 


A Backward Step in Palaeobotany. By G. F. Matruew LL. D. 
[Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., 2 Ser., vol. vii, sec, iv, p. 113]. 

From the “St. John Plant Beds” Sir Wm. Dawson described many 
years ago a flora containing a number of plants of genera unknown. 
By comparison with known Devonian genera he came to the con- 
clusion that this flora was Devonian, and so described it. 

This determination has lately been called in question by Messrs. 
David White and R. Kidston. The former has found many of the 


252 The American Geologist. Aprii, 1902. 


forms in the Pottsville conglomerate flora-Millstone Grit; the latter 
finds in it many Coal Measure series. 

This article of Dr. Matthew's is written to show the stratigraph- 
ical objections to this view of the age of the “St. John plant beds,” 
viz: that they are of the age of the Millstone grit ot the Coal Meas- 
ures. . . 

Sections are given showing the relation of the plant beds to the 
overlying Mispec terrane and the Lower Carboniferous terrane, both 
of which underlie the Millstone Grit, as that term is used and under- 
stood in the maratime provinces of Canada. 


Om de senglacial og postglacial nivaforandriger i Kristianiafeltet (Mol- 
luskfaunan). Norges geologiske undersogelse, No. 31, pp- Xii, I- 
731,, pls. i-xix, 1900-1901. By W. C. Broccer. 

The terminal moraines on both sides of the Christiania fiord were 
considered by De Geer as indicating the lower limit of the last great 
ice sheet, but the results of the investigations by professor Brogger in 
this work show that the land ice extended to the extreme boundary of 
the land mass in southern Norway, and even beyond this limit- 

Many new occurrences of the late and post-glacial deposits are 
recorded, and accompanied by lists and illustrations of the contained 
faunas. On the basis of their molluscan fossils, these deposits are 
classified into a number of divisions, indicating changes in level and 
climate. There was first a period of subsidence of the land after the 
morainic period (ra-time), which is divisible into six stages. This 
was followed by a period of re-elevation divided into seven stages and 
reaching down to the recent period. The climate during the latter 
part of the post-glacial uplift was somewhat warmer than at present, 
Brogger agrees with Ekholm in his time estimate of 9000 years since 
the formation of the kitchen-middens of Denmark, or the beginning of 
the Littorina sea in the Baltic area. 

The succession of faunas and deposits is treated in great detail, and 
the whole work is an admirable example of exact methods of geologi- 
cal and faunal correlation. ep mt 


Catalogue of the Types and Figured Specimens in the Paleontological 
Collection of the Geological Department American Museum of 
Natural History. By R. P. Wutrrtevp and E. O. Hovey. (Bull. 
American Museum of Nat. Hist,, Vol. XI, 500 pp., New York, 1901.) | 
The recently issued part 4 of volume eleven completes the cata- 

logue bearing the title given. The volume forms one of the most 

important aids to the working paleontologist, that has been published 
in a long time. It is a model of its kind. As an example of what can 
be done along this line it is well worthy of emulation by every museum 
making pretensions to being a repository of described material. If 
there is anything which a student of fossils needs above all else, it 
is certainly a record of the disposition of type-specimens. His labors 
are incalculably lightened by such knowledge, in a form for ready 


—— = 


Review of Reeent Geolo gical Literature. 253. 


reference. Working paleontologists of all countries must be under 
lasting obligations to Messrs. Whitfield and Hovey for their pains- 
taking efforts, 

The most notable itection of fossils which the Museum possesses 
is the famous series that was acquired through a long period of years 
by the late James Hall. “The principal feature of that collection is 
the large number of type and other illustrated specimens, especially of 
Paleozoic species, which it contains, This Hall collection may well be 
considered the standard reference collection for all workers in North 
American Paleozoic paleontology; hence the desirability, in the opin- 
ion of the senior author of this catalogue, who himself has been iden- 
tified with the collection for more than forty-five years, of publishing 
a complete record of these valuable specimens. Other collections have 
been added to the department from time to time through exchange and 
other means, but with few exceptions they contain no types. Most of 
the ‘figured specimens’ in the series are those which were identified, 
redescribed, illustrated and published by professor Hall in the early 
volumes of the Paleontology of New York, and therefore have almost 
the dignity and value of types.” 

Reference may be made to the February number of the Geotocist for a 
tabular statement of the numerical summaries of type and figured 
specimens here catalogued, and for a definition of the term type as here 
employed. — Cre ee 


Notes on the Raised Coral reefs in the Islands of the Riukiu curve. S. 

Yosutwara, (Jour. Coll. Sci., Imp. Univ. Tokyo, vol. 16, part 1. 

pp. 14, 2 plates, 1901.) 

Geologic structure of the Riukiu (Loochoo) Curve, and tts relation 
jo the northern part of Formosa. S. YosHiwaRa. (Jour. Coll. 
ci., Imp. Univ., Tokyo, vol. 16, pp. 67, plates and maps. 1901.) 

The Riukiu Curve, is commonly called, on European and American 
maps, the Loochoo group of islands, extending northeastward from 
Formosa. Since the acquirement of Taiwan (Formosa) by Japan, the 
Japanese have taken measures to survey and examine that island and 
the dependent islands intervening and surrounding. 

The raised reefs are more ancient than the recent reefs. They are 
homogeneous in structure and consist of a true coral formation, with 
interstratified sandy layers rarely inclosed. The latter are found to- 
ward the north. The raised reefs are found from ten to 684 feet above 
the sea. The foundation of these reefs consists of Tertiary and 
Paleozoic sediments, as well as igneous rocks. They are mostly later 
than the Tertiary and are horizontal, in contrast with the inclined beds 
on which they lie. They evidently have been raised from the rocky 
sea-bottom, or fringed the margins of islands. They are distinguished 
from the recent reefs by their position, structure and color, often 
forming terraces, while the recent reefs are seen fringing the shores 
id ai low tide, there being neither atolls nor barrier reefs amongst 
theni. 


254 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


The first knowledge of the natural history of the Riukiu curve is 
due to the American expedition under Commodore Perry, 1852-1854, 
in whose report is a sub-report by R. G. Jones, giving some geological 
descriptions of the “island of Great Lew Chew.” Later studies have 
been by Furet who regarded the formation, as indicated by fossils, as 
belonging to the upper part of the Mesozoic. Déderlein, in 1880, after 
two weeks’ travel in the interior of the islands in the Oshima group, 
thought that the formation consisted of Archean rocks chiefly 
granulyte and gneiss. Several Japanese geologists have more recently 
reported on some parts of this “curve,” and on the geology of the 
northern part of Taiwan. 

In general, the author has concluded that these islands consist 
chiefly of Paleozoic rocks having a steady dip northwestward, toward 
the China sea. They rise sometimes over 1,500 feet above the sea. 
Westward from the axis of the curve is a series of volcanic islands, 
located as supposed, along a great fissure, which seems to extend a 
great distance further southwest, while eastward from the axis is 
found an outer sedimentary zone made up of Tertiary sediments, the 
older portion of which is toward the south. These parts are called the 
“inner neovolcanic belt,” the “median Paleozoic belt,” and the “outer 
Tertiary belt.’ These, according to Prof. Koto, coincide with those 
in the peninsula of Malaca, the Andaman isles, and the Nicobar isles 
in the Indian ocean, with the Banda isles in the East Indies, and with 
the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies. 

This paper consists of a summary statement of results. Its weak- 
est feature is that it gives none of the paleontological data on which 
was based the determination of the age of the Paleozoic rocks. It is, 
however, a very valuable contribution to the geology of the Japanese 
empire. NW. We 

The Journal of Geography, formed by the consolidation of two 
geographical journals, was started in January. It is published by J. 
L. Hammett & Co., (Philadelphia?). ‘Subscriptions and advertisements 
should be sent to the Journal of Geography, 41 North Queen street 
Lancaster, Pa.; 41-45 East roth street, New York, or 116-120 Summer 
street, Boston, Mass. The editors are Prof. R. E. Dodge. Columbia 
University, New York City; J. Paul Goode. University of Pennsyl- 
vania, and FE. M. Lehnrets, State Normal School, Winona, Minne- 
sota. Copyrighted by E. M. Lehnerts. N. H. W 


Records of the Past, is another new scientific journal, started with 
January, 1902. It is issued from Washington, under the auspices of 
the Record$ of the Past Exploration Society, 214 Third St., S. E., and 
is edited by Rey. Henry M. Baum, assisted by Frederick B. Wright. 
It is profusely and excellently illustrated. Annual subscription, $2.00: 
issued monthly; three years, $5.00 in advance. N. H. W. 


Wonderland ,1902. This publication which appears yearly, is de- 
voted to the northwestern country tributary to the Northern Pacific 


7? a 
a 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 255 


railway. It describes the early mining and attempts at mining in 
Montana, mentions many stirring incidents of early discovery and set 
tlement, illustrated by many scenes of natural topography and ‘erosion, 
mountains, valleys and gorges. Its excellent and numerous half-tones 
are in the best style and the typography and printing are without blem- 
ish. It also embraces short descriptions of the Yellowstone Park and 
of the Puget Sound country. Its author is O. D, Wheeler. It is 
printed for general distribution, and can be obtained by sending six 
cents in postage stamps to C. S. Fee, St. Paul, giving address. 
N. H. W 


The Chronological Distribution of the Elasmobranchs by O. P. Hay, 
(Am. Phil. Trans. vol. 20), 

In a paper in Science for 1899 the author published a diagram which 
was intended to illustrate the chronological distribution of the fossil 
fishes of North America. The present paper is an elaboration of the 
same subject, in a consideration of the single group—the sharks—in both 
North America and Europe. The results show that the group under- 
went two culminations, one in Sub-Carboniferous, the other in early 
Mesozoic time, and that although there were slight variations in number 


- in the two localities, as a general rule the rise and decline of the group 


was contemporaneous in Europe and America. At the close of the 
Permian there. was an almost complete extinction in both localities. 
From the Miocene to the present there has been a decline. Dr. Hay 
plots these facts upon a curve. The curve can be taken as relatively 
accurate only, since no account is taken of the varying conditions of 
fossilization prevailing in these different ages. The sharks, being 
pre-eminently cartilaginous, are particularly in need of the best con- 
ditions of fossilization. 

A consideration of the various families of elasmobranchs brings 
out some interesting facts. Starting with the generalized stem of 
which Cladoselache fs the nearest known representative, various branch- 
es were given off which culminated in the adaptive forms of the Sub- 
carboniferous. The second culmination is conclusively shown not to 
be a return of these same specialized forms, but is a second radiation 
from a generalized stem. Only one family survived the break between 
Palaeozoic and post-Palaeozic time. This is the family represented 
by Cestracion, the present Port Jackson shark, and this family can be 
traced back to the Devonian, and represents an outgrowth of the 
Cladoselachian line and hence the stem line of both radiations. 

These facts are most interesting, and Dr. Hay is to be congratu- 
lated upon the careful work he is doing. He offers no explanation 
of the facts beyond a rather unsatisfactory suggestion of a loss in 
vital force from over specialization as a cause of the Permian extinction. 
Since the development of the family took place for the most part tn 
continental seas which were uplifted and became dry land with the Ap- 
palachian revolution, it hardly seems surprising that highly specialized 


256 The American Geologist. April, 1902. 


forms should not survive. Moreover the modern sharks are highly de- 
veloped in their mode of protecting their eggs, and it is quite possible 
that there was some weak spot in the ontogeny of the early sharks 
which led to their extinction. I. seh 


The Geology of the Northeast Coast of Labrador. REGINALD A. DALY 
(Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. 38, Geol. Ser. vol. 5, No. 5, pp. 203-270, 
pls. 1-13, February, 1902.) 

This admirable description is based on a cruise made in the suni- 
mer of 1900 by a party organized by Mr. Huntington Adams, 
in a forty-ton schooner. The party embraced, besides the author 
and a crew of four men, Messrs. H. B. Bigelow, L. B. McCormick 
and H. W. Palmer. Owing to head winds and drift ice the objective 
point of the expedition was not reached till Aug. 21, and but two 
weeks could be given to exploration, as the homeward journey to 
St. John’s, on the island of Newfoundland, had to commence. Many 
of the points at which the ship was delayed on the outward trip were 
subjected to hurried reconnoissance, and these were fruitful im in- 
teresting observations. 

Without mentioning here any lees important results of this 
cruise, it will suffice to call attention to Mr. Daly's observations on 
the limit of highest post-glacial submergence. A curve is constructed 
to show the relation of the present warped highest shore line to the 
sea level. It is highest at St. John’s, Newfoundland, viz: 575 feet. 
It descends northward to Gready bay to 260 feet, just south of Ham- 
ilton inlet. It rises to Hopedale to 390 feet, and descends to Nack- 
vak bay to 250 feet, the extreme points being eleven hundred miles 
separate, along the Atlantic coast. Dr. Daly says: “This pronounced 
warping is inconsistent with the view that changes in the position 
of the level of the sea over great stretches of the earth’s surface are 
produced solely by independent vertical movements of the surface 
of the ocean. Along the line on which our observations were made 
there has been unequal positive uplift of the earth’s crust. The force 
responsible for this great piece of work has been applied locally 
and in varying degree. The result is that today the actual distance 
from the centre of the earth of every point on that line is greater 
than it was at the close of the glacial period.” 

Comparing this result with others reached by Low and by De 
Geer as to the region east and southeast of James bay and south- 
ward from Newfoundland, one is led to the conclusion, as remarked 
by the author, that the greatest elevation of the American continent 
in’post Glacial time has been experienced in the region of the cen- 
tral nevé; and that the comparatively greater uplift of the region 
of Newfoundland is connected with the local character of its glacia- 
tion which, according to Chamberlin, was not due to an extension of 
the ice-fields of the mainland, N. HOW. 


. 
{ 


Author's Catalogue. 257 


MONTHLY AUTHOR'S CATALOGUE 
OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE 
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY, 


ADAMS, F. D. 

An experimental investigation into the flow of marble. (Can. 
Rec. Sci., vol. 8, pp. 426-436, Jan., 1902.) 

ADAMS, GEORGE Il. 

Oil and Gas fields of the western interior and northern Texas 
Coal Measures and of the upper Cretaceous and Tertiary of the 
western gulf coast. Bull. No. 184, U. S. G. S., pp. 64, pls, 10 1901 
AMI, H. M. 

Notes on the Albany meeting of the Geological Society of Amer- 
ica, held Dec., 1900. (Can. Rec. Sci., vol. 8, pp. 471-477, Jan., 1902.) 
BARKER, GEORGE F., 

Frederick Augustus Genth. (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., vol. 40, pp. 
x-xxii, portrait, Dec., 1901.) 

BEECHER, C. E. 

Ventral integument of trilobites, (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 13, March, 
1902, p.. 165-174, pls. 2-4 
BRANNER, J. C. 

Geology of the northeast coast of Brazil. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 
13, pp. 41-98, pls. 4-15, Feb., 1902.) 

BROWER, J. V. 


Kakbikansing. Memoirs of explorations in the basin of the Miss- 
issippi. vol. 5, pp. 126, 30pls. St. Paul, 1902. 


DALY, R. A. 


The Geology of the northeast coast of Labrador. Bull. Mus, 
Comp. Zool., Geol. Ser., vol. 5, pp. 205-270, 13 plates, Feb., 1902. 


DERBY, O. A. 


Occurrence of monazite in iron ore and in graphite. (Am. Jour. 
Sci., vol. 18, March, 1902. pp. 211-212.) 


DAVIS, W. M. 

Studies for students: base level, grade and peneplain., (Jour. 
Geol., vol. 10, Jan.-Feb., 1902. pp. 77-111.) 
DOUGLAS, JAMES, 


Record of borings in the Sulphur Spring valley, Arizona, and of 
agricultural experiments in the same locality, (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 
vol. 40, pp. 161-164. Dec., 1901.) 


ECKEL, E. C. 


The preparation of a geological map. (Jour. Geol., vol. 13, Jan- 
Feb., 1902. pp. 36-58.) 


EMMONS, S. F. 


Clarence King, (with bibliography). (Am. Jour. Sei... vol. 13) 
March, 1902. pp. 224-237.) 


258 The American Geologist. April, 1902, 


FENNEMAN, N. M. 
Development of the profile of equilibrium of the subaqueous 
shore terrace. (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, Jan.-Feb., 1902. pp. 1-32 . 


HARRINGTON, B. J. 

George Mercer Dawson, [with portrait.]. (Can. Rec. Set. vol. 8, 
pp. 413-425. Jan., 1902.) 
HENSHAW, SAMUEL. 

Alpheus Hyatt, (Science, vol. 15, pp. 300-302, Feb. 21, 1902.) 


LAWSON, A. C. 

Third Annual meeting of the Cordilleran section of the Geolog- 
ical Society of America. (Science, vol. 15. March 14, 1902. pp. 410- 
417,) 

LAWSON, A. C. (and CHARLES PALACHE.) 

The Berkeley hills: a detail of coast range geology. Bull. Dept 
Geol., Univ. Cal, vol. 2, No. 12, pp. 349-450, pls. 10-17, map, 
Jan., 1902.) 

LEE, WILLIS T. 


The Morrison shales of southern Colorado and northern New 
Mexico. Jour. Geol., vol. 10, Jan.-Feb., 1902, pp. 36-58,) 


LUQUEUR, L. Mcl 


On the determination of the relative refractive indices of minerals 
in rock sections by the Becke method. (Sch. Mines Quart., vol. 23, 
1902, pp. 127-133.) 
MATTHEW, G. F. 
Ostracoda of the basal Cambrian rocks in Cape Breton. (Can. 
Rec. Sci., vol. 8, pp. 437-466, 2 pls. Jan., 1902.) 
OSBORN, H. F. A 
Recent Zoopaleontology. (Science, vol. 15, pp. 355-357. Feb. 28, 
1902.) 
PALACHE, CHARLES (A. C. LAWSON and) 


The Berkeley hills: a detail of coast range geology. Bull. Dept. 
reol., Univ. Cal., vol. 2, No. 12, pp. 349-450, pls. 10-17, map, Jan., 
1902. 


PHILLIPS, W. B. 

Sulphur, Oil and Quicksilver in Trans-Pecos, Texas. Bull, No. 2, 
Univ. Texas Mineral Survey, pp. 43, plates. Austin, 1902. 
PRATT, J. H 

The occurrence and distribution of corundum in the United 
States. Bull. No, 180, U. S. G. S., pp. 98, pls, 14, 1901. 
QUEREAY, A. L. 


Size of grain in igneous rocks in relation to the distance from the 
cooling wall. (Schl. Mines Quart., vol. 23, pp. 181-195, pls. Jan. 
1902.) 


ROGERS, A. F. 


Mineralogical Notes, No. 3. (Schl. Mines Quart., vol. 23, pp. 133- 
133. . Jan. 1902.) 


Author's Catalogue. 253) 


SALISBURY, R. D. 

Recent progress in glaciology. (Science, vol. 15, pp. 853-355. Keb. 
28, 1902.) 

SCUDDER, S. H. 

Adephagous and Clavicorn Coleoptera from the Tertiary depos- 
its at Florissant, Colorado, with descriptions of a few other forms 
and a systematic list of the non-rhyncophorous Tertiary Coleoptera 
of North America. pp. 148, pls. 11, Mon. 40, U. S. Geol. Sur. 1900. 
STOKES, H. N. 

On Pyrite and Marcasite. Bull, No. 186, U. S. G. S., pp. 48, 1 pl. 
1901. 

TODD, J. E. 


How to measure the flow of a well with a foot rule. 4 pp. Vermil- 
lion, S. Dak., Nov. 15, 1901. 


TODD, .J. E. 

Hydrographic history of South Dakota, (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 13, 
pp. 27-40, pl. 8, Jan. 28, 1302.) . 
UPHAM, WARREN. 

Primitive man in the Ice age. (Kakabikansing, pp. 116-119.) 
VERY, W. F. 


A cosmic cycle. Part III. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 13, Mar., 1902, 
pp. 185-196. 


WARMAN, P. C. 


Catalogue and index of the publications of the United States 
Geological Survey, 1880-1901. Bull. No. 177, U. S. GC. S., pp. 858, 
1901.) 


WASHINGTON, H. S 


Igneous rocks from eastern Siberia. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 18, March 
1902, pp. 175-184. 


WEED, W H. 


The El Paso tin deposits. Bull. No. 178, U. S. Geol. Sur., pp. 15, 
map. 1901. 


WHITE, I. C. 


Geological horizon of the Kanawha black flint. (Bull. G. S. A,, 
vol. 18, pp. 119-126, March, 1902. 


WHITEAVES, J. F. 

On the genus Panenka, Barrande, with a description of a second 
species of that genus from the Devonian rocks of Ontario. (Ott. 
Nat., vol. 15, pp. 263-265, 1 pl. Feb. 15, 1902.) 

WILMOTT, A. B. 


The nomenclature of the lake Superior formations. (Jour. Geol. 
vol. 10, Jan.-Feb., 1902, pp. 67-76.) 


WOLFF, J. E. 


Leucite-tinguaite from Beemerville, New Jersey. Bull. Mus. 
Comp. Zool., Geol. Ser., vol. 5, pp. 273-277, Feb., 1902. 


WORTMAN, J. L. 


Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh collection, Pea- 


260 The American Geologist. April, 1962, 


body Museum, Part. VL, (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 13, March, 1902. pp. 
197-206, plate VL 


WRIGHT, FRED E. 


A new combination wedge for use withthe petrographical micro- 
scope. (Jour. Geol, vol. 10, Jan.-Feb., 1902. pp. 23-35.) 


PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


THE STUDENTS OF THE UNIversity OF CALIFORNIA held 
memorial exercises in honor of the late Prof. Jos. Le Conte on 
Feb. 26, the anniversary of his birth. An address was made by 
Prof. Thos. R. Bacon. The students of the University are 
collecting funds to assist in the erection of a granite lodge 
which the Sierra club proposes to construct in the Yosemite 
valley, as a memorial to Dr. Le Conte.—Science. 

An AMERICAN MINING AssoctaTIon of the Philippine is- 
lands was recently organized at Manila, the president being J. 
B. Earlt. The present leading object is to cause the extension 
of the mining laws of the United States to the Philippine is- 
lands; the Spanish mining code was practically a failure. 
In the meantime numerous prospectors have located claims, or- 
ganized districts similar to those of the mining states and terri- 
tories of the Union, and are carrying on more or less deyelop- 
ment. They are without legal existence antl recognition, but de- 
sire the extension of the mining laws of the United States to 
the islands. Circulars embodying their sentiments have been 
addressed to the proper officers at Washington. 

Tue AMERICAN PuiLosopuicaL Society. The following 
titles of geological papers were on the printed programme of 
the Philosophical Society at the “general meeting’’ April 3, 4, 
and 5, viz: Systematic Geography, W. M. Davis; The upper 
Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary section of Central Montana, 
Earl Douglass ; Origin of the Oligocene and Miocene deposits 
of the great plains, J. B. Hatcher; On the Molluscan fauna ot 
the Patagonian formation, Dr. H. von Ihering; Evolution and 
Distribution of the Proboscidea in America, H. F. Osborn ;. 

AT THE MEETING OF MARCH 12, OF THE GEOLOGICAL So- 
ciety oF WaAsHINGTON, the following papers were presented: 
Lithologic phases of the upper Carboniferous of Kansas, Indian 
Territory, and Oklahoma, by G. I. Adams; Clarence King’s 
views of Catastrophism and Uniformitarianism, S. F. Emmons; 
Gold-bearng quartzytes of eastern Nevada, E. B. Weeks: 
Notes on a (hitherto undescribed) meteorite from Admire, Kan- 
sas, G. P. Merrill. 


LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY ILLINOIS. 


ae 


4 


THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, VOL. XXIX. PLATE, XVIL-A 


be | 


- 4 > Fina a 
SBR eis Pees 


Fie 3 ip Nac hi 


DETRITAL MATERIALS IN CAVE SPRING RAVINE IN THE SILVER PEAK RANGE. 


PLATE, XVII-B 


FAULT SCARP IN ANDESYTE, N, W. OF COW CAMP IN THE SILVER PEAK RANGE. 


—- 


THE 


AMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


Vor. XXIX. MAY, 1902. No. 5. 


—_—— 


A SKETCH OF THE HISTORICAL GEOLOGY OF 
ESMERALDA COUNTY, NEVADA. 


By H. W. TurNgr, San Francisco, Cal. 
PLATE XVII. 


The following sketch embodies a brief statement of the re- 
sults of a thorough examination of a small area about tlic 
Siiver Peak range and a general reconnaissance of Esmeralda 
county, south of Walker lake. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Esmeralda county forms a portion of south-western Ne 
vada, and fies wholly in the Great Basin, the drainage of 
which finds no outlet to the sea. The area here treated lies 
chiefly between parallels 38’ and 37° north latitude, covering 
abeut G,0c0 square miles. 

At the north end of the county at the west of Walker lake 
is the Wassuck range, the highest point of which, Mt. Grant 
attains an altitude of 11,247 feet. Further to the south is the 
niajestic Invo range, culminating in White mountain which is 
14,200 feet in hight, but only the eastern flanks of the north 
end of this range are within the limits of the county. The 
Silver Peak range attains an altitude of 9,500 feet, Lone moun- 
tain, 9,510 feet, and a high range in the south end of the 
county known as the Grape Vine mountains also reaches a 
considerable elevation. 

Taken as a whole, the region is extremely arid and is 
characterized by a sparse vegetation except along the tops of 
the highest ridges. The ranges in general have a north-soutii 
trend, and are separated by wide valleys which often contain 


262 The American Geologist. — May, 1902, 


playas or dry beds of lakes over which a thin sheet of water 
frequent!y spreads after a rain. 

In formér times, a large part of the Great basin was occu- 
pied by lakes of which the present lakes such as Great 
' Salt lake, Pyramid lake and Walker lake are merely fesiduals. 
It is, therefore, certain that in the past the climate of the reg- 
ion was much more humid than it is at present. This is well 
exemplified in Esmeralda county. In Miocene time, the area 
now covered by Clayton valley, the south end of Big Smoky 
valley, the north part of Silver Peak range and Columbus 
valley was the basin of a fresh-water lake, a description of 
which may be found in the 21st Annual Report of the United 
States Geological Survey.* 

In later time a Pleistocene lake covered much of north- 
ern and western Nevada. This is known as Lake Lahontan,+ 
and a south arm of this lake extended into Esmeralda county, 
covering the basin of Walker lake. The terraces of this an- 
cient lake may be plainly seen on the west side of Walker lake 
at the base of the Wassuck range. The latter is now about 25 
miles long and 4 and 5-10 miles wide. Formerly it extended 
south to the east of Hawthorne, at one point being only about 
half a mile from the present town site. 


Geology. 


In no part of the world can geological field work be done to 
better advantage than in the Great Basin. Except in those areas 
which are to be sure very extensive, that are covered with 
Pleistocene and Recent deposits, the rocks are almost every- 
where finely exposed, there being no soil or a very thin soil. 
In the western part of the Great Basin there are representa- 
tives of a large portion of the sedimentary series from the 
oldest Cambrian to the Recent. It is even possible that Ar- 
chean rocks exist here. Perhaps the greatest break in the ser- 
ies is in Cretaceous time, sediments of this period being thus 
far not reported. Beds of marine origin later than the Juras- 
sic are unknown in western Nevada, so that it is probable that 
this part of the Great Basin has been a land mass since the 


* The Esmeralda formation, a tresh-water lake deposit by H. W. Turner 
with a description of the fossil plants by F. H. Knowlton, and of a fossil fish, 
by F. A. Lucas, Twenty-first Ann, Report, U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. ii. pp. 191- 
226, pis. 24-31. 

+ For a more extended account of this lake see I. C. Russell, 3rd Annual 
Report, U.S. Geological Survey, 1883, aud Monograph xi, 1885. 


————— 


MJ 


Esmeralda County, Nevada.—Turner. 263 


close of the Jurassic. In the line of igneous rocks, there is a 
great variety, granite, syenyte, monzonyte, dioryte, diabase, 
gabbro, rhyolyte, dacyte, andesyte and basalt being found in 
abundance, 

The following formations have been identified in Esmeral- 
da county. Some of these will be described in detail under the 
various mining districts in which they occur. 


The Archean Era. 


The oldest rocks of North America are the gneisses and 
schists of the Lake Superior region. These are known to be 
of pre-Cambrian age, and are called typical Archean rocks. 
They are regarded as forming a portion of the primeval crust 
of the globe. In the western United States, Archean rocks 
have been described at many points, but later investigations 
tend to show that some of these areas are of Paleozoic age 
The most certain criterion for the Archean is that of the posi- 
tion below the oldest fossiliferous rocks with an unconformity 
between. 

In the Silver Peak range, underlying Lower Cambrian sed- 
iments, is a complex, the oldest members of which are certain 
gneisses. One of these is a granite-gneiss. Another gneiss 
contains quartz, with both orthoclase and soda-lime feldspar, 
thus approximating to a quartz-monzonyte in composition. It 
may be called a quartz-monzonyte-gneiss. In addition there — 
are granite-augen-schists, and also a_ series of calcareous 
schists, the origin of which is uncertain. These calcareous 
schists are remarkable for the great number of nodules (augen) 
and streaks of, granite which they contain. They usually weath- 
er a dark brown color, strongly resembling an impure limestone 
on the exposed surfaces, yet thin sections of the rock always 
show that it contains much ground up granitic material, as if 
it had been formed by the shearing of a granite, the calcareous 
material possibly having been supplied from other sources by 
infiltration. 

A distinctly later member of the complex is a coarse, white 
granite, sometimes containing muscovite or white mica, more 
often containing little or no mica. At Some points it grades 
over into syenyte by the loss of quartz. This granite is intrud- 
ed into the calcareous schists, above described at innumerable 


264 The American Geologist. May, 1902. 


peints. Although a part of the complex, this white granite is 
regarded as later than the overlying dolomyte for it appears to 
be intrusive in it. Coarse white pegmatyte dikes cut all the 
rocks of the complex. They are probably genetically related 
to the white-granite. 


The Algonkian Era. 


Mr. C. D. Walcott has established a lower limit for the 
Cambrian rocks, which if: applied in this district will place 
some of the dolomytes and quartzytes of the Silver Peak quad- 
rangle in the Algonkian. He writes: *““At present I draw the 
basal line of the Cambrian in Utah and Nevada at the bottom 
of the arenaceous shale carrying the Olenellus fauna. This 
refers to the quartzyte and siliceous shales of the Wasatch and 
similar sections, including that of the Eureka district, and that 
of the Highland range of Nevada, to the Algonkian Period 
(Era). On this basis, the dolomyte, quartzyte and the green 
knotted schists, underlying the Olenellus zone, north of the 
Clayton valley, must be called of Algonkian age. This might 
apply as well to some of the quartzyte and quartz-schist im- 
inediately west of the village of Silver Peak, and to the basal 
dolomyte generally of the Mineral Ridge, as well to some sim- 
ilar rocks, south of Cow Camp. 


The Paleozoic Era. 


Lower Cambrian. In the mountains north of Clayton val- 
ley and in those to the south-east crossed by the road from 
Silver Peak to Lida valley, and also in the Silver Peak range, 
Lower Cambrian rocks form large areas. The section north of 
Clayton valley shows at the base, a massive dolomyte, next 
a massive green quartzyte, both barren of fossils, with over- 
lying knotted schists, then Archeocyathus limestone and green 
Olenellus slate with dark limestone and some quartzyte and 
thin bedded slate near the top of the series, the general dip 
of which is here to the east. 

Along Barrel Spring ravine by the side of the Lida road, 
an even better section may be seen. Here the rocks dip south- 
east for a distance of two miles, at an average angle of 25 
degrees. Fossils are found in nearly all parts of this section 


* Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. 37, 189, pp. 374-392, 


an ee aa 


Esmeralda County, Nevada.—Turner, 265 


those nearest the base being large forms of Olenellus with 
some smaller species. The rock forming this lowest Olenel- 
lus zone is a dark micaceous slate. Higher up are layers of 
dark limestone with some quartzyte, the limestone being often 
crowded with little orbicular bodies, somewhat resembling 
Stromatopora, but which are not certainly of organic origin. 
Then comes a second Olenellus zone, composed of green 
slate, again succeeded by fossiliferous limestone. 

In the Silver Peak range the basal dolomyte, and quartzyte 
if present, does not show such a great thickness as elsewhere. 
The basal member of the Lower Cambrian here is at most 
points a dolomyte, resting directly on the basement complex, 
but this dolomyte may not correspond to the basal dolomyte of 
the section north of Clayton valley. 

Upper Cambrian. Lying unconformably on the Lower 
Cainbrian or Silver Peak formation, is a series of thin bedded 
limestones, and reddish slates with some layers of black chert. 
This series may be designated ‘The Emigrant formation,’ 
since it is finely developed to the south of Emigrant Pass in 
the northern part of the Silver Peak range. In this formation 
are abundant little disk-shaped shells, (linguloids) fragments 
ot phyllopods (Phyllocarida), and some corals and trilobites. 
The shells are in an excellent state of preservation. These 
fossils are regarded by Mr. C. D. Walcott as indicating an 
Upper Cambrian age.* They appear to conformably underlie 
the cherts and slates of the Palmetto formation which is chief- 
ly characterized by graptolite remains. Moreover, the phyllo- 
pods, so commor in the Upper Cambrian, are found imbedded 
with slate containing graptolites at the base of the Palmetto 
formation, and the little disk-shaped shells (linguloids) were 
found in the slate but a few feet under the graptolite slate with 
no evident unconformity, so that there appears to be no sharp 
line of separation between the Emigrant formation of Upper 
Cambrian, and the Palmetto formation forming the base of the 


_ Ordovician. 


Ordovician. At many points in the Silver Peak range, in 
the ’almette mountains, in the ranges north of Clayton valley, 


* In my paper on the Esmeraldaformation in the AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 
Vol. XXV, 1900, and in the 21st Annual Report of the U. S. Geol. Survey, this 
series of rocks is said to be of Middle Cambrian age. Later investigation 
based on more material has convinced Mr. Walcott, that they are of Upper 
Cambrian age. 


266 The American Geologist. May, 1902. 


and in the hills north of Chilcoot pass on the road from Sil- 
ver Peak to South Klondyke, there are dark thin bedded cherts 
with Jayers of gray graptolite slates, and smaller amounts 
of reddish slates, and an occasional limestone layer. The most 
abundant and characteristic fossils of this formation, are the 
graptolites found :n the gray slates. 

The collection of graptolites was examined by Mr. Chas. 
Schuchert who states that there are two horizons represented, 
one, the Normanskill or Lower Trentonian, and the other the - 
Quebec horizon. Nearly all of the graptolites, howeyer, belong 
to the Normanskill zone. In the Quebec horizon, Mr. Schu- 
chert found two characteristic genera, Didymograptus and Tet- 
ragraptus. 

In the Palmetto mountains and at some other points there 
are very numerous streaks of light colored felsitic rocks, in- 
terbedded with the dark cherts of the Normanskill zone. In 
certain cases similar looking streaks are metamorphosed into 
garnet rocks. “fhe microscope shows that these felsitic layers 
represent altered ihyolitic or dacitic tuffs and lavas, but the 
nature of the lavers which have given rise to garnet rocks, 
is not yet clear, for it is evident that acid rocks, having the 
composition of rhyolytes and dacytes, could not be altered into 
garnet rocks without an addition of a large amount of lime. 
These interbedded lavas afford certain evidence that in Ordo- 
vician time there were volcanic eruptions in the region. 

Carboniferous. South-east of Candelaria by the Columbus 
trail are sandstones and slate with cherty layers. No study was 
made of the formation. Tossils were collected at a point about 
3 niles north-west cf Columbus, at an elevation of about 4,- 
oco feet. The fossils were first found by William Grozenger 
of Columbus. ‘lhey are in part spirifers, and are referred by 
Mr. Chas. Schuchert to the Carboniferous period. 

Mr. Schuchert writes—‘Both forms are specifically unde- 
termined at present. The spirifer (apparently a new species) 
belongs to the S. cameratus section, fossils recognized as char- 
acteristic of the Upper Carbonic. The Productus is appar- 
ently identical with one from the region north of Mt. Shasta 
in California, also associated with Upper Carbonic species. 
These forms remind one more of the fauna found in the Shasta 
region than the fauna of a similar age farther cast.” 


S$ 


PILOT MTS. 


N 


Esmeralda County, Nevada.—Turner. 267 


CHERT, LIMESTONE AND SHALE. 
SECTION OF THE JURASSIC ROCKS OF THE PILOT MOUNTAINS. 


CHERT 


RED SHALE 


SHALE ANUVESITE 


SHALE 


q 
0 
P 
— « 
w 
° 
g 2 
3 
= 
z 
< 
<u 
a 
<5 a 
a> Zs 
zz | 
as a 


‘ 


5000 — 


. 


The Mesozoic Era. 


Jurassic. The Pilot moun- 
tains are composed of sedi- 
ments which on the western 
side dip rather evenly to the 
south-east at angles of 40°-70 
degrees. As seen in Dunlap 
Canyon at the north base of 
the mountains, the rocks 
lowest down in the series are 
sedimentary breccias, com- 
posed of angular fragments 
of cherty rocks, cemented by 
finer material, then succes- 
sively limestone with fossils, 
shale, limestone and_ shale. 
Still higher lie the thin bed- 
ded chert layers in which the 
Pacific copper mine lode is 
located. The fossils found in 
the lower limestone were re- 
ferred to Prof. J. P. Smith of 
StanfordjUniversity, who de- 
termined the following fos- 
sils: 

Cidaris, sp. undet. 
Terebratula, sp. undet. 
Spiriferina, sp. undet. 
Pentacrinus, sp. undet. 
Entodium cf. meeki Hyatt. 

These appear to indicate 
a lower Jurassic age. 


The Tertiary Era. 


In Tertiary time the Great 
Basin was _ pre-eminently 
characterized by broad lakes, 
flowing streams and _ large 
and numerous volcanoes. As 
evidence of the existence 
of the lakes, we have sand- 
stones, shales and _ lacustral 


208 The American Geologist. May, 1902. 


marls containing the remains of fish, fresh water Mollusca, 
and leaves of deciduous trees like the oak and fig. as well 
as tree trunks, six feet in diameter, and also abundant ferns 
and marsh grasses. 

The evidence as to the flowing streams is rather a logical 
deduction from the lakes, than direct evidence obtained from 
old river deposits; although such deposits exist in minor 
amount. In all regions of sufficient precipitation to support 
lakes there are of course always flowing streams. The 
evidence of the former existence of large volcanoes, is the vast 
amount of volcanic material in many of the ranges. The 
craters of these ‘Tertiary 1olcanoes, however, have long since 
been worn away. ‘There arc, to be sure, finely preserved cra- 
ters within the county, but these are clearly of Pleistocene age. 

Tertiary Lake Reds. 1 other publications* there has been 
described a series of lake beds well exposed in Clayton valley, 
in the south end of Big Sincky valley, at the north base of the 
Silver Peak range and clsewhere. The beds consist chiefly ot 
sandstone, buff colored shuie and slate, often somewhat flinty, 
and soft lake beds or lacustral marls. There are local devel- 
opiments of conglomcrates and -reccias on a large scale. Near 
the north base of the Silver Peak range there are workable coal 
seanis. These contain fresii water shells, and fish and plant 
remains. According to Dr. j. C. Merriam of the University 
of California, and Prof. F. H. Knowlton of the U. S. Geologi- 
cal Survey these fossils undicate a middle Tertiary age; but 
since the fossils came chiefly from near the base of the beds, 
and since the series 1s a thick one, nearly all Miocené and 
Pliocene time may be represented. There are thin buff col- 
Ored shales similar to the shales of the lake beds referred to 
(Esreralda formation) im a basin north-west of the Pilot 
mountains between Summit Springs and Crow Springs. 

There are lake beds contasing abundant fossils, four miles 
west of Dlack Springs near the line between Esmeralda and 
Nye counties by the road from Sodaville to Cloverdale. A 
block of this material was obtained from Robert Stewart of 
Sodaville. It was made up chiefly of fresh water shells, ce- 
niented by minute shells ‘cstracods). The fresh water shells 


*AmM. GEOLOGIST. Vol. XX V. 1800, p. 168, and the paper on the Esmer- 
alda Formation in the 21st Ann. rep. of the U. S. Geol. Survey. 


_  -{. 


—_ ss 


Esmeralda County, Nevada.—Turner. 269 


were examined by Dr. J. C. Merriam who identified Sphaerium 
sp. similar but not s:dentical with S. idahoense from Fossil hill, 
Kawash mountains, Nevada; Melania sp. (?) and Carinfe.x, 
two species, like forms from Fossil hill. The Fossil hill forms 
have been regarded as Miocene, but Dr. Merriam does not 
consider the material sufficienc to definitely determine the age. 
lie states that they are unlike Pleistocene forms, and are also 
unlike the forms that are iound in the Esmeralda formation. 

There are also said to be fossil beds in the valley near Soda- 
ville, 

The ostracods were 1efcrred to Dr. R. H. Chapman, who 
states that some of the species are new. He identified the 
foliowing genera: 

1. Ilyocypris sp. nov., near J. gibba but distinct in important points. 

Candona sp. near C. kingsleyi. 


2. 
3. Candona sp. probably new. 
4. Candona sp. probably new. 


The Quaternary Era. 

Pleistocene. In this period there is here included all of 
geologic time from the close of the Pliocene to the Recent or 
Human period. The deposits of the Pleistocene age of Esmer- 
alda county may be censidercd under two heads, desert detri- 
tus, and lake terraces. 

There is nothing so striking in the Great Basin region as 
the numerous detrital slopes which spread out from all the 
canyous and fill extensive pertions of the valleys. Consid- 
ering the very small precipitation in this region, the forma- 
tion of these numerous alluvial fans would seem to involve a 
very long period of time. They are composed chiefly of coarse 
material, often containing bou'ders tons in weight. Where 
the older detrital fans are cut by the present water courses, 
the stratified arrangement cf these materials is clearly evident, 
(see Plate NVIT—A.) and there can be no doubt that they 
are due to the action of water. A consideration of the raanner 
in which rain falls in all this desert country suffices to explain 
the formation of these detrital slopes, for, although the pre- 
cipitation. is very small when the region as a whole is consid 
ered, it is often very great within the space of a few hours over 
a limited number of square miles. The action of the sun and 
frost on the rocks of this very dry region results in the surface 


270 The American Geologist. May, 1908- 


rocks being everywhere tlioiovghly cracked up, and the frag- 
ments although about in their original position are easily dis- 
placed. When a cloudburst occurs, the rain runs off in tor- 
rents, and sweeps hefore 1 large quantities of this fractured 
material and when the clondbursts are of sufficient size, they 
will carry boulders many tons in weight far out on to the 
plains. There is, therefore, no difficulty in accounting for the 
formation of the alluvial fans, but the time that must be allotted 
to the formation if we suj-ose the precipitation to have been 
no greater in the early Pleistocene than at present, would be 
enormous. It is quite certain, however, that in earlier Pleisto- 
cenc time, the y:recipitation was much greater than at present. 
It is probable, therefore, that the larger part of these detrital 
slopes were formed during the first half of the Pleistocene. 
This would harmonize with the record in the Sierra Nevada, 
where the larger part of Pleistocene time was required for the 
excavation of the canyons. This early Pleistocene period of 
erosion may be termed ihe Sierran period, and the larger de- 
trital slopes of the Great Bzsin would then be referable to this 
period, The detrital fans of the early Pleistocene often attain 
a thickness of 2vo feet or more, as in the “wash” on the west 
side of the Silver Peak range which is followed by the road ffom 
Fish Lake valley to Cave Springs. The older detritus has 
undergone elevation at many points, as can be seen on the west 
side of Fish Lake valley, along the base of White mountain, 
and on the west of the Silver Peak range, particularly to the 
north of Fish lake— Siiver Peak road, there being here hills 
1,000 feet in elevation zbove the valley composed chiefly of 
beds of Pleistocene gravei and detritus, which have been tilted, 
while the detrital beds south of this road have merely under- 
gone elevation. There are detrital masses high up in some of 
the ranges, as on the north slope of the Palmetto mountains 
on the south slope of the Pilot mountains, and in Chilcoot pass 
by the road from Silver Peak to the South Klondyke quartz 
inine. These detrital masses must have originally occupied de- 
pressions, and suggest recent elevation of the ranges on whose 
fianks they lie. 

To the early or middle Pleistocene must be relegated the 
lake Lakontan terraccs of the north part of the county, best 
secn on the west side ef Walker lake. 


Esmeralda County, Nevada.—Turner. 271 


The Recent or fiuntan Period. The deposits subsequent 
to the Pleistocene which may be considered as having formed 
in recent times, are the playas or dry lake beds, and the most. 
recent of the detrital fan material. Beds of dry lakes or playas 
cccupy the lowest portion of nearly all of the valleys in the 
county. Many of them contain valuable deposits of various 
salts. The playas of Teels marsh, Rhodes marsh, and the play- 
as of Coluinbus,and Fish Lake valleys, have been extensively 
-worked for borax which is still being produced from the last 
three localities. The piava of Big Smoky valley, locally known 
as the San Antonio marsh, shows a thin coating of an efflor- 
escence which consists largely of chloride of sodium, and the 
Clayton valley playa shows a thick white coating of choride of 
sodium over many square miles. 

During the Recent cr Human period many of the older 
alluvial fans have undergone elevation, and the waters of sub- 
sequent time have cut “washes” in them and spread the mater- 
ials out in the form of alluvial fans, but at lower altitudes than 
the older alluvial fans. These newer detrital materials are 
constantly being addeu to, the fresh material being distinguish- 
able from the older by its lighter color. 

At the south end of the Clayton valley is a considerable 
group of hills. composed entirely of wind-blown sand. This is 
said to contain a small amount of gold distributed through it. 
These dunes appear to have been formed in an eddy in the air 
currents, which sccm permanently to exist at this point. They 
shift about from \ear to year to a certain extent, but on the 
whole retain essentiaily at their present location. In some 
other valleys there are also sand-dunes. 


Structural Geology 


It has long been held that many of the Basin ranges owe 
their origin to uplifts along normal faults, the valleys repre- 
senting subsided areas. The evidence obtained by myself in 
the course of the field work confirms this view. Some of the 
steep slopes seem to represent ancient fault scarps, the origin- 
al fault surfaces heing tow largely removed by erosion. The 
vallevs are in purt certainly true rock basins, whose rims are 
composed of rocks older than the desert detritus. It seems 
apparent that the cnly way that such valleys can form is by sub- 
sidence. Although along the steep slopes which are here attrib- 


292 The American Geologist. May, 


uted to faulting, definite evidence of displacement is not al- 
ways discernible, it may be said that this is plainly because 
of the fault <urfaces having been eroded. Moreover, definite 
evidence exists at some points. For instance the steep north 
slope of the Silver Peak range is ascribed to faulting and along 
the north base of the range the lake beds of the Esmeralda for- 
mation are crumpled and broken and at some points stand ou 
edge, while a few kundred feet away they dip rather evenly 
to the north and north-east at angles of 20 degrees to 35 de- 
grees. A basalt dike for a short distance follows this E—W. 
fault. 

The Palmetto mountains likewise appear to have been ele- 
vated along an 1¢.—-\W. fault line, and along this line are sey- 
cral strong springs, and a dike of rhyolyte with an E.—W. 
course seems to iizve intruded along this fault zone. 

Smaller faults of the normal type are extremely abun- 
dant, and can be plainly seen at nearly all points where the 
rocks are arranged in lavers, as in the rhyolitic tuffs, and in 
tlie slates and sandstones of the Esmeralda formation. In the 
more massive igneous rocks as well, such faults are some- 
cumes apparent as in andesyte north-west of Cow Camp, the 
original groovings of the fault wall being still preserved as is 
shewn on Plate XVIU--B. 

Direction of the faults. In general it may be stated that 
many of the faults 1rend either N.—S. or E—W. 

Time of faulting. There is evidence that some of the Pal- 
eozoic beds were folded and displaced before the period of nor- 
mal faulting. These earlier disturbances perhaps occurred at 
the time of the intrusion of the granolytes. Much of the nor- 
mal faulting, however, appears to date from the close of the 
Tertiary. 1£:identiy, for example, the displacement along the 
north face oi the Silver Peak range must have occurred after 
the deposition of the Tertiary lake beds for they are involved 
in this disturbance. Probably faulting occurred well into Pleis- 
tocene time for the detrital materials of the early Pleistocene 
along the cast base of White mountain on the west side of 
lish Lake valley, appear to have been rather sharply uplifted 
along a N.—S. line. This fault line cuts across the older de- 
trital fans leaving scarps facing the valley. Other evidences 


of the uplift of the Pleistocene materials have already been _ 


noted under the head of “Pleistocene.” 


| 


Esmeralda County, Nevada.—Turner. 273 


SOME CRYSTALLINE ROCKS OF SOUTHERN 
CALIFORNIA. 


By Oscar H. Hersuey, Berkeley, California. 
INTRODUCTION. 


The olde: crystalline rocks of the state of California have 
not received the attention which they deserve. Through the 
nicchievous influence of early studies on metamorphism in 
the Coast Ranges, the idea has gone abroad that virtually all 
of the highly crystalline schists west of the summit of the 
Sierra Nevada range represent zones of contact metamor- 
phism in strata ranging in age from Devonian to early Cre- 
taceous. Walcott and Turner have demonstrated that in east- 
ern California, in Inyo county, there is a lower Cambrian ser- 
ies of quartzytes, limestones, slates and shales resting uncon- 
formally upon an old complex of gneiss, schist and granite; 
but the idea has not until quite recently been seriously enter- 
tained that the same pre-Cambrian series intruded by a Meso- 
zoic granite underlies and forms the foundation of much of 
the country west of a line drawn along the axis of the great 
valley of California and thence prolonged southeastward to the 
gulf of California. 

This subject of the older rocks is of special interest to the 
present writer. In the field of California it is in its infancy. 
Presently general interest in it will be aroused and an effort 
will be made to bring into some systematic arrangement thc 
fragments of knowledge of the supposed pre-Cambrian rocks 
which we now possess and which will be rapidly extended. 
Students will no longer assume that a given outcrop of schist 
represents strata no older than the Paleozoic, for no other 
reason than a conviction that metamorphism in California 
is no indicator of age. Doubtless in the early stages of this 
ingairy there will be many errors made and much confusion. 
The history of the investigation of the pre-Cambrian rocks 
of the Lake Superior region will be repeated with interesting 
variations. Not having as a basis, the precision of paleontol- 
ogical evidence, but being dependent entirely upon structure 
studies, it is probable that at times entire series will be reversed 
in chronological order. 


274 The American Geologist. May, 1902. 


The special purpose of this paper is to show some of the in- 
teresting problems presented by the older crystalline rocks of 
southern California and to make a beginning in their classi- 
fication, although the latter will be only tentative. During 
the past winter the writer had the opportunity of examining 
in a reconnaissance manner, the Fraser Mountain and Sierra 
Pelona regions, and portions of the Tehachapai, Sierra Madre 
and San Bernardino ranges, together with quite an extended 
section of Mohave desert, all comprised in the counties of 
Los Angeles, Ventura, Kern and San Bernardino. A special 
search was instituted for an equivalent of the Klamath schist 
series and the reader may judge from the following pages 
what success attended this effort. 

Structurally, that portion of southern California which lies 
between Mohave desert and the sea, is a succession of roughly 
rectangular orographic blocks bounded by faults. Some of 
these blocks have been greatly elevated and the soft sediments 
eroded from off the crystalline complex, while others have 
been profoundly depressed and in them the older rocks are 
buried under a vast thickness of Cretaceous and Tertiary sed- 
iments. 

The different members of the crystalline rocks discriminat- 
ed will be discussed under the following headings: 

1. The Pelona Schist Series. 

2. The Gneiss Series. 

3. The Rocks of Fraser Mountain and Vicinity. 

4. The Mesozoic Granites. 

5. The Ravenna Plutonic Series. 

6. The Gneiss near Barstow. 

7. The Quartzyte-Limestone Series of Oro Grande. 

8. The Schists in Cajon Pass. 


Tue Petona Scuist SErRIes. 


The eastern portion of the valley of the Santa Clara river, 
in Los Angeles county, is bounded on the north by a prominent 
ridge, known as the Sierra Pelona. It reaches an altitude of 
5000 feet and has a comparatively even crest-line and narrow 
but rounded summit. It is a single narrow fault-block, elevat- 
ed at the close of the Pliocene period and tilted steeply to the 
south. The entire ridge from Deadman’s canon on the west 


| 
] 
| 


Rocks of Southern California—Hershey. 275 


to its termination eastward where it approaches Antelope val- 
ley, a distance of about 20 miles and with an average width 
of about 4 miles, is composed of a single series of schists, 
mostly mica schists. There are no granite intrusives and few 
dikes of any kind. Strikes and dips are locally varied, but as 
a whole the strike seems to be prevailingly east-west and the 
general dip northerly at angles of 10 to 40 degrees, averaging 
between 20 and 30 degrees. Going up the mountain on the 
south side, due north from the Mitchell ranch in Mint canon, 
the following succession was made out: 

1. The lower slopes, in places extending up two-thirds of the 
way, are composed of a uniformly light yellowish, coarse, 


' granular mica schist of muscovite and quartz. The mica is less 


abundant than in a typical mica-schist and the general appear- 
ance of the rock suggests an approach to the gneissic structure, 
although it is certainly a different formation than the gneisses 
on the south. The estimated exposed thickness is 2000 feet. 
It seems in general to dip into the mountain and to pass under 
the darker schists of the summit, which it grades into by inter- 
stratification. 

2. A more varied and more typically schistose series of mica 
schists of a prevailingly dark color, much being a dark lead- 
gray, which may be nearly black underground. These schists 
are coarse and granular, but muscovite is abundant. The gen- 
eral appearance of the series is quite unlike the Calaveras 
schists of the Sierra Nevada region, but remarkably like the 
Abrams mica schist of the Klamath region. 

At various places along the crest of the Sierra Pelona are 
masses of micaceous blue limestone schist identical in charac- 
ter with the limestone schists of the Abrams formation. They 
have a regular, thin-bedded structure like lamination, appar- 
ently representing original bedding. In places they are beau- 
tifully contorted. 

At other horizons are thin-bedded, quartzytes, retaining 
sufficient of the original structure to make their detrital origin 
unquestionable. One small knob is composed wholly of 
quartzyte debris. 

The mountain is traversed by narrow bands of a green, 
fine granular rock which, when unaltered, seems to be a chlor- 
itic schist, but in many places it is altered to dull pink talc 


276 The American Geologist. May, 100% 


much stained with iron oxide as are the narrow talc belts in 
the serpentine areas of the north. , 

There are also quite a number of narrow strips of coarsely 
crystalline actinolite, precisely as in the Abrams mica schist. 
These are not the result of contact metamorphism as in the™ 
Franciscan series, but of regional thermo-metamorphism act- 
ing on strata of the proper chemical composition to yield them. 

The major portion of the series is a true mica schist like 
the bulk of the Abrams mica schist, but along the crest of the 
mountain where occur the calcareous, chloritic and actinolitic 
members interbedded with the regular mica schists (an asso- 
ciation characteristic of the transition from the Abrams mica 
schist to the Salmon hornblende schist) there are layers of a 
dull greenish, coarsely granular rock which resembles the low- 
er stratum of the Salmon hornblende schist. It apparently 
consists of somewhat rounded grains of quartz separated and 
surrounded by thin folia of blade-shaped crystats of dark 
green and black hornblende. Some mica is present in this 
Sierra Pelona representative; otherwise it* is identical with 
the Salmon schist above mentioned. Nothing of the kind was 
seen in the Sierra Nevadas. 

At the summit of the Sierra Pelona occurs a vein, partly 
of fine granular, transparent quartz and partly of irregular 
masses of iron oxide of a black color with cavities lined with 
vellow ochre, a kind of vein peculiar to the Abrams mica schist 
in the Klamath region, increasing the probability of the Pelona 
and Abrams schists being identical. 

Che estitzeted thickness of the dark colored schists is 
3,000 feet, making 5,000 feet forthe series—the Pelona Schist 
Series. 

About the head of the Texas cafion, the schists of the 
Sierra Pelona stand nearly vertical, but locally leaning over 
to one or the other side, the general strike being east-west. 
The dark-colored schists form the summit and the light yellow 
schists, the southern flank. Near the base of the mountain 
come in apparently schists and quartzytes which are much 
stained with iron, give the surface a buff color, and in places 
they seem to be much less metamorphic than the schists in the 
bulk of the mountain. Some spots appear decidedly like blue 
cherts of the Lower Slate series in the Kiamath region, only 


Rocks of Southern California.—Hershey. 277 


partly converted into schist. These may be fragments of a 
newer schist series than the Pelona series, but I fear the evi- 
dence is deceptive and the phenomena due to alteration of the 
yellow schists by a Tertiary deposit once resting on them. 

The schists of Pelona mountain are equally metamorphosed 
throughout and show regional and in nowise local or contact 
metamorphism. They were altered to about their present de- 
gree long anterior to the intrusion of the neighboring Meso- 
zoic granites. 

So strongly have I been impressed by the similarity in lith- 
ology and sequence of the dark member of the Pelona schists 
and the Abrams mica schist, and their marked dissimilarity 
from any schists observed anywhere else in California, that i 
propose to correlate them tentatively. The Salmon hornblende 
schist proper is absent in southern California. During the 
past summer, Prof. A. C. Lawson, while reconnoitering the 
area of the hornblende schist in Siskiyou county, suggested 
that its chemical composition and remarkable uniformity 
throughout a great thickness indicate that it was originally a 
fine water-laid volcanic ash rather than the ordinary shale or 
slate which I had maintained as its pre-metamorphic con- 
dition ; and thereupon I remembered that the lower portion of 
the formation in the Bully Choop region has a structure very 
suggestive of highly altered squeezed or sheared tuffs such as 
are common in a later volcanic series of the Klamath region. 
If the hornblende schist was originally a tuff as is probable, 
it may have been more local in development than the associated 
mica schist and perhaps no great body of it was formed in 
southern California. It is also possible that it was developed 
in the Pelona region but has been destroyed by erosion; the 
attitude of the schists is such that it is due above any portion 
of the mountain; the very highest strata exposed are those 
which in the north are the transition beds. 

The coars2 yellow schists forming the lower member of the 
Pelona series have not been identified in the Klamath region. 
So far as known their horizon is not due at the surface as the 
Abrams schists have nowhere been sufficiently elevated and 
eroded. We, therefore, probably have in southern California 
older rocks than any known in the northern part of the state. 


278 The American Geologist. May, 1902. 


THE GNEISS SERIES. 

Aside from the intrusive Mesozoic granites, the older rocks 
of Los Angeles county occur in parallel belts having a gen- 
eral east-west trend. The first belt south of the Pelona schists 
is occupied by the gneiss series which has an average width of 
three miles and extends from the vicinity of Soledad pass to 
Texas canyon, a distance of about twenty-five miles. Three 
principal types of gneiss are represented which may be briefly 
described as follows: ; 

1. A light gray, fine-grained gneiss of quartz, white feld- 
spar and brown mica perhaps in part biotite. This phase is 
the commonest in the gneiss belt and has the appearance of 
being an altered ancient granite. In places it seems to have 
been partially fused and squeezed into neighboring crevices. 

2. A darker, more basic and coarser-grained variety. This 
appears to be in the form of dike-like masses irregularly dis- 
tributed through the light gneiss, suggesting that the relation 
of the one to the other is that of intrusion. The unsheared 
Mesozoic granites present a similar mixture of dark basic 
granite intruded by light acid granite; and, by shearing and 
intense metamorphism under heat and pressure, | can conceive 
their being converted into just such rocks as this gneiss 
series. However, the latter is very much older than the Mes- 
ozoic granites which intrude it as batholiths and dikes as well 
as narrow dikes of fine-grained gabbro and diabase, none of 
these later rocks being sheared. 

3. A singular, very coarse-grained sort of gneissic rock 
of dark gray color, characterized by aggregates of light pink 
and white small crystals seemingly of feldspar and quartz. 
They are surrounded by sometimes concentric bands of mica, 
quartz and feldspar like in the ordinary gneiss. Frequentiy 
the quartz-feldspar aggregates have perfectly round, eliptical 
or oval forms, and their borders are sharp. No mica occurs 
in these pebble-like portions. The most common form is the 
ellipse, when the major axis of each “pebble” in a given section 
has a common plane, but instances are observed of exceptions 
where a single elliptical “pebble” may vary 10° to 15° from the 
plane common to its neighbors. Where the “pebbles” are 
small they seem to have been generally squeezed and flattened, 
but the larger “pebbles” (one to two inches in diameter) seem 


Rocks of Southern California.—Hershey. 279 


to have better resisted the squeezing action. The appearance of 
the rock is that of a highly metamorphosed squeezed conglom- 
erate like those occuring in the Calaveras in the Sierra Nevada 
region, rather than as an altered, sheared, crushed and “rolled” 
coarsely porphyritic granite. 

The relation between the gneiss and Pelona schists could 
not be determined as the line of contact was everywhere ob- 
scured by intrusive granite or strips of Tertiary conglomerate 
and this remains one of the interesting problems of that re- 
gion. In Mint canyon, the first rock seen on the south of the 
Tertiary belt which lies along the schist and granite border is 
the conglomerate (?) gneiss which is the prevailing rock for 
over a mile. Indeed, except for large masses of intruded mus- 
covite granite, an east-west belt several miles wide seems to 
belong exclusively to this coarse pebbly gneiss. Its prevailing 
dip is southerly at a high angle. Narrower belts of the same 
type occur in the area of the finer gneisses. 

I am of the impression that the true succession is that the 
fine gneisses constitute the basal portion of the section and are 
the oldest rocks exposed in the state of California, probably 
corresponding to the Archean gneisses or ancient altered gran- 
ites of Nevada, Arizona and the Rocky Mountain region; the 
codrse, pebbly gneiss is next in age and represents a sort of 
basal conglomerate to the schist series, the “pebbles” probably 
having been derived through the erosion of the Archean gran- 
ites ; the yeliow mica schist is the third formation ; and the dark 
mica schists oi Pelona mountain the newest of this very 
ancient series. . The coarse gneiss and succeeding schists 
would thus bear to the Archean gneisses the same relation as 
exists between the Algonkian and Archean of the eastern states. 
‘The reader must not be led astray by the neatness of this 
classification as the above relation between the gneisses and 
schists is not proved, but merely suggested. 


THE ROCKS OF FRASER MOUNTAIN AND VICINITY. 


Gorman’s Station is in the extreme northwestern corner of 
Los Angeles county, just east of Fraser mountain. The nar- 
row northwest-southeast ridge (altitude about 6,000 feet) 
north of it, a member of the Tehachapai range and the actual 
divide at this point, is mainly an unsheared granite with flesh- 


280 The American Geologist. May, 190%. 


colored feldspar. This contains several inclusfons, one just 
northwest of Gorman’s Station, of dark brown mica schist, 
light gray gneiss and white, coarsely crystalline limestone or 
marble. Another spot of marble about 50 by 100 feet in di- 
mensions occurs in the granite on the summit a little west of 
north from Gorman’s Station. Similar limestone inclusions 
are known to occur in the San Emedio range a little further 
westward. This very coarse crystalline white limestone is 
quite unlike the blue micaceous limestone schist of the Pelona 
and Abrams schists and. evidently belongs to a different series 
yet it occurs in characteristic and unmistakable form rather 
widely distributed in southern California. The Santa Fe 
Railway company has dumped along its roadbed between Bar- 
stow and San Bernardino, the same kind of marble but con- 
taining black specks which are apparently graphite; this it 
probably derived from the old quarries near Colton. Similar 
limestone occurs among the older rocks in the Santa Lucia 
range, and according to the reports of Whitney’s survey, in 
the Tehachapai range near the Canada de las Uvas and in the 
Gavilan range, all characterized by graphite. 

Fraser mountain and the lower country south to Piru 
creek are mainly of gneiss (including the fine-grained and 
coarse conglomerate-like varieties in parallel belts and cer- 
tainly the same series as that described from the Santa Clara 
River valley), and of schist, with intrusive granite of the un- 
sheared Mesozoic series not much developed although it oc- 
curs in dikes and other limited areas. A considerable area of 
the schist occurs just southwest of Fraser mountain and dis- 
plays a dark brown, medium-grained mica schist. This dif- 
fers in important respects from the Pelona and Abrams schists 
and apparently belongs to a different series. It is identical 
with the schist which is found in connection with the white 
limestone near Gorman’s Station. Similar schist seems to be 
associated with the same limestone in the Santa Lucia range. 

I think we now have evidence enough to establish another 
series of schists and limestone which for convenience in dis- 
cussion may be designated the San Emedio series. Although 
it occurs usually as fragments included in or at least intruded 
by the Mesozoic granites, I believe it displays regional and pre- 
Mesozoic metamorphism. It is thoroughly crystalline and its 


Rocks of Southern California.—Hershey. 281 


degree of alteration is fully as great as that of the Pelona 
schist series. Its relations to the latter are not known and can- 
not even be conjectured. It is curiously associated with the 
eneiss series and small patches of brown schist like the San 
Emedio series occur in the gneiss area south of Pelona moun- 
tain, but what may be their significance I cannot say. I should 
like to place it in the interval between the Algonkian and the 
Mesozoic, (and in the Santa Lucia range it has been classed as 
Carboniferous for no very good reason,) but it has the same 
claims for a pre-Cambrian age as the Pelona schists. Its age 
remains one of the interesting problems of the older crystalline 
rocks. 

The gneisses, schists, granites and limestone of this Fraser 
mountain region were first discovered by the members of 
‘Whitney’s survey and have since been reported on by Dr. H. 
W. Fairbanks, but no attempt was made to classify them. 


THE MESOZOIC GRANITES. 


Near the head of the Tick canon, there is a long, narrow, 
east-west dike of white, medium-grained, very acid granite, 
composed of quartz and feldspar, with no appreciable quanti- 
ties of biotite or hornblende. It is intruded in gneiss and being 
unsheared, strongly contrasts with it. North of the divide, in 
the basin of Mint creek, there is a small batholith several miles 
in diameter, Of a very light colored, unsheared, muscovite 
granite, intrusive in the gneiss series. About the main mass 
are apophyses of similar granite cutting through the gneisses 
on the south, and the schists on the north. It is composed of 
quartz, a straw-yellow, varying to light pink feldspar, and mica, 
of which white pearly muscovite is conspicuous; but there are 
no appreciable quantities of biotite or hornblende. 

The mountain range directly north of the Sierra Pelona 
has soil of a uniform light yellowish color suggesting granite. 
Further west the same range, the Sierra de la Liebre becomes 
streaked suggesting the gneiss series. The Tehachapai range 
is almost exclusively granite which near the western end is 
of the light pink, very acid variety. Alamo mountain in Ven- 
tura county is partly composed of a darker, more basic gran- 
ite and this in Piru canon is overlaid by a great thickness of 
dark olive Cretaceous shales, probably Knoxville, with a very 
coarse basal breccia-conglomerate, 500 feet thick. 


282 The American Geologist. Mav, 350%. 


From Mint Canyon to Soledad pass there is a succession of 
small batholiths of the light pink granite andthe railroad 
crosses the summit in a valley excavated in this granite. Ad- 
joining it on the south is an east-west belt occupied by a rather 
basic granitic rock of gray color, somewhat like certain 
phases of the Sierra Nevada granodiorytes. Both biotite and 
hornblende are important constituents. Its areas are of a uni- 
form light brown color, strongly contrasted with the comspic- 
uously light colored acid granite on the north. 

The main mass of granite occupies the western portion of 
Mohave desert. It outcrops in low, undulating belts several 
miles in width and abounding in knolls and low mountain 
masses. Antelope valley is a structural depression occupied 
by a great thickness of Tertiary and Quaternary deposits, but 
the country north of it to the Tehachapai range, except for a 
_narrow belt of rhyolyte resting on granite and the broad, al- 
luvium-floored basins, should be mapped as granite. It is the 
-outhward extension of the great grano-dioryte belt of the 
Sierra Nevada region. It has a well-defined eastern boundary 
trending north-south about ten miles west of Barstow, with 
many reentrants and dike-like arms. 

Most of the granite forming the low mountains of Mohave 
desert and giving them their uniform light brown color is of 
the light pink variety occurring in Tehachapai mountain at 
Gorman’s Station. It consists of quartz and pink or flesh-col- 
ored feldspar, with relatively unimportant constituents of dark 
minerals (biotite and some hornblende). It is of medium tex- 
ture in mass, but just east of the railroad about two miles 
north of Rosamond it abounds in large vein-like masses of 
coarse pink pegmatyte or graphic granite, very abundant in 
fragments on many small knolls. Similar pegmatyte dikes are 
common throughout this main granite area and are always 
connected with the acid variety of granite, although occurring 
in a darker granite as intrusives. 

At Bissell Station occurs an outcrop of light gray biotite- 
hornblende granite or grano-dioryte. The Santa Fe Railway 
company once quarried similar gray granite on the south shore 
cf Rogers dry lake-bed, although the neighboring range of 
hills seems to be composed mainly of the light qink variety. 
Vive miles east of Kramer, grano-dioryte of a typical Sierra 
Nevada variety appears in the crest of a low smooth ridge. 


Rocks of Southern California.—Hershey. 283 


The railroad between Barstow and San Bernardino reaches 
the granite mass at mile-post sixteen,‘and at mile-post seventeen 
there are two round granite knolls standing in the center of the 
valley near Mohave river. They are of the light colored gran- 
ite with scarcely any mica or hornblende. ‘Then the granite 
border circles around by the west and is not again touched by 
the railroad until near mile-post thirty-three, beyond which for 
several miles it traverses a narrow rock gorge excavated by 
Mohave river in the solid granite rock giving splendid expos- 
ures. The mass of the rock is a medium-grained, light gray, 


~ hornblende-biotite granite or the typical grano-dioryte of the 


Sierra Nevada region, very closely resembling the Rocklin 
granite. Near mile-post thirty-three are areas of the light pink 
granite with little or no hornblende or mica, but which shows 
“a strong tendency to develop bands of a coarse pegmiatitic 
structure. It is the typical pink granite of Mohave desert. 
Here it seems to occur as dikes in the granodioryte. In the 
walls of the gorge, very narrow dikes of pink pegmatyte occur 
frequently in the gray grano-dioryte. 

The granite belt continues south into the San Bernardino 
and Sierra Madre mountains. In Cajon pass the relation be- 
tween the two varieties was placed beyond doubt. The wagon 
road. between Summit and Cajon stations enters a rock gorge 
about a mile and a half from the latter. The granite is mainly a 
gray hornblende-biotite granite or grano-dioryte, rather more 
basic than usual in southern California, but not differing from 
certain phases of the intrusive grano-dioryte of the Sierra Ne- 
vada region. Narrow dikes of light pink, coarse, pegmatitic 
granite traverse the gray granite. Finally these pink dikes 
become very abundant, enlarge and pass into a large solid 
mass or small batholith of pink granite of the kind so fre- 
quently observed on Mohave desert, removing all doubt o7 
the pink granite, even when occurring in large masses being 
intrusive in the gray grano-dioryte. 

I have concluded that the whole granite area is probably 
mainly of grano-dioryte in which the pink granite is intruded 
in small batholiths and dikes; but the latter and especially the 
pegmatyte is the more resistant and usually forms the out- 
crops. 


284 The American Geologist. May, 1902. 


The ‘“granodioryte” as in the Sierra Nevada region is ap- 
parently not a true granite as its feldspars are mainly plagio- 
clase, but the pink variety seems to more nearly approach the 
composition of a true granite. The two are a complementary 
series and represent the same magma at different stages. The 
pink granite bears the same relation to the granodioryte as the 
aplytes of the north. Although so sharply delimited and so 
strongly contrasted, there is no very great difference in their 
ages. This granite mass is part of the great grano-dioryte 
batholith of the Sierra Nevada region which has been proved 
to be of later age than the Mariposa slates which belong to the 
latest recognized epoch of the Jurassic period. The main bath- 
olith of Mohave desert sends long arms and outlying smaller 
batholiths into the Coast range region where they are known to 
be older than the Knoxville shales, as in Piru cafon. The in- 
trusion of this granite series, therefore, occurred sometime 
during the interval between the deposition of the latest fos- 
siliferous Jurassic sediments and the earliest, positively iden- 
tified, fossiliferous Cretaceous sediments. It may be presumed 
with reason that the same granite series is that which under- 
lies and is older that the Franciscan series a little farther west 
than I carried my investigations. 


THE RAVENNA PLUTONIC SERIES. 


The western. end of the Sierra Madre range in the vicinity 
of Lang and Ravenna stations seems to be composed largely 
of a plutonic series of a peculiar and rather unusual composi- 
tion. Just east of Lang station, Soledad canon is entered on 
the south by a deep, narrow cafion which extends far back 
into the high mountains. The creek brings out crystalline 
rocks of a great variety, from a very acid to a very basic. 
Several small specimens were selected from the rock in place 
near the mouth of the cafon and submitted to Dr. A. C. Law- 
son, who has kindly furnished me the following notes in ref- 
erence to them: 

A. A coarse-grained allotriomorphic granular aggregate of plagio- 
clase, green hornblende and magnetite. The plagioclase is charac- 
terized by prevailingly low symmetrical extinction angles not exceed- 
ing 30° and has a sp. g. of 2.67. It is therefore andesine and the rock 
is a hornblende dioryte. 


B. A coarse-grained allotriomorphic granular aggregate of plagio- 
clase having symmetrical extinctions of albite lamella ranging in value 


——— 


Rocks of Southern California.—Hershey. 285 


up to 18’ and a sp. g. of 2.66. It is therefore an andesine. The feld- 
spar is partially decomposed, the alteration products being epidote and 
a colorless :vica probably paragonite, both abundant. The rock bears 
the same relation to dioryte that the anorthosytes do to gabbro, 

C. Same as B. Sp. g., constituent feldspar, 2.66. 

D. An allotriomorphic granular aggregate of plagioclase having 
symmetrical extinctions of albite lamellae ranging up to 25’ and a 
sp. g. of 2.65. This feldspar is andesine. It is rather cloudy with the 
decomposition products. With the andesine there is a little green 
hornblende but not enough to detract from its essentially feldspathic 
character. The feldspar forms two kinds of aggregates in respect of 
texture, a fine-grained granular aggregate occupying the spaces be- 


‘tween the coarser aggregate of large anhedrons. 


The rock bears the same relation to dioryte that anorthosyte does 
to gabbro. 

The first represents the commonest kind, consisting of a 
elear feldspar of a delicate bluish or black tint and green fi- 
brous horneblende; but the most remarkable variety of the ser- 
ies is a massive crystalline of medium texture, of a pure white 
color and a chalky appearance as seen from a distance. Speci- 
mens B. and C. as described above are fairly representative 
of it. It is known to the people of the vicinity as limestone. It 
begins at the small canon near Lang where it adjoins a coarse 
dioryte of medium composition, and extends eastward fo1 
miles, spreading out into a belt several miles in width and 
forming considerable mountains which from a distance hav> 
a white color strangely contrasted with the dark dioryte moun- 
tains south of them. About 3,000 feet east of Lang, Soledad 
canon issues into a Pliocene basin through a narrow gorge cut 
into this white crystalline. In the vicinity, the white massif 
contains dikes of coarse dioryte and of finer dioryte containing 
needle-shaped crystals of primary hornblende somewhat like 
the “‘dioryte-porphyryte” of the Klamath region but coarser. 
Neither the dioryte proper, the white crystalline nor the dikes 
are appreciabivy sheared. No gneiss,schists nor granite occurs 
in this area. 

Another member of the series is an aggregate of feldspar 
of the clear, lilac variety. By the appearance and increase of 
green hornblende this grades into the normal variety. By the 
continued decrease of the feldspar, the series grades into the 
most basic which has scarcely any feldspar. Bluish iron ox- 
ide (probably in part ilmenite) occurs abundantly in the more 
basic varieties as a primary constituent. All are related—a 


286 The American Geologist. May, 1902. 


complementary series. They are bound together by a common 
feldspar, andesine. 

This plutonic series is unique for southern California, if 
not for the state at large, judging from its appearance in the 
field. Its relation to the granite on the north was not de- 
termined and remains one of the interesting problems of Cal- 
ifornia historical geology. I predict that it will be 
found to be Mesozoic in age and just a little older than 
the granitic series. 


THE GNEISS NEAR BARSTOW. 


From near Barstow a broad low range of hills (in places 
truncated as if a dissected terrace) extends toward the west- 
northwest about four miles. The colors are black and dull 
light green with some spots of ‘white and yellow. Upon close 
inspection at three miles from Barstow, I was surprised to 
find the black color due to a very basic, dark greenish dioryte, 
generally massive, but in many places schistose from shearing. 
The dioryte is intruded by light pink granite, coarse pegmatitic 
in narrow dikes, seemingly apophyses of the great mass on the 
west. There are other masses of a light gray rock having the 
general appearance of dacyte porphyry of the Klamath region. 
Bands of schists among dioryte layers are mineralized and 
prospected for ores. 

A great black mountain several miles farther northwest is 
probably also of dioryte. This is a more ancient dioryte than 
any known in the Klamath and Sierra Nevada regions. 

About one mile west of Barstow, the same north bluff 
shows a series of dark and light greenish gneisses and schists. 
This is evidently an old complex intruded by the light colored 
granite. In particulars it is somewhat different from any- 
thing which I have seen in any other part of California, but 
while it is not exactly like any particular stratum in the “Kla- 
math and Pelona schist series, it has a general resemblance to 
them in the matter of character of metamorphism and appear- 
ance of age. I shall tentatively correlate this schist-gneiss 
series near Barstow, with the Pelona schists and neighboring 
gneisses and with the Abrams schist of the Klamath region 
ina general way, considering them all pre-Paleozoic and per- 
haps in part Archean and in part Algonkian. The schists and 
gneisses near Barstow, east of the great Sierra Nevada-Mo- 


Rocks of Southern California,—Hershey. 287 


have Desert granite belt, are doubtlessly a part of the so- 
called “Archean complex” of gneiss and schist which Turner 
and others have found to underlie the Lower Cambrian rocks 
in Inyo county and to form the basement crystalline complex 
in Nevada, Arizona and the Rocky Mountain region in gen- 
eral. It is a feature common to the Klamath schist series, the 
Pelona schist series and this “Archean” series near Barstow 
that they have been subjected to intense thermo-metamorphism 
without profound dynamical deformation and have never been 
so thoroughly sheared and closely folded as later rocks, (not- 
ably the Calaveras,) remaining yet in positions usually far 
from vertical. 


THE QUARTZYTE-LIMESTONE SERIES OF ORO GRANDE, 


A group of abrupt, very rocky mountains just east of Oro 
Grande, in San Bernardino county, was examined to five miles 
east of the village and found to be composed of two forma- 
tions, quartzyte and limestone. The quartzyte is a hard, fine- 
grained rock, white underground, but stained pink and dull 
red on the surface, giving rise to dark rugged peaks. Under 
a small hand microscope, it shows secondary enlargement of 
quartz grains like the Baraboo quartzyte of Wisconsin, but 
the grain is finer. It is unlike anything ever before observed 
by m@gin California in that there is a large body of pure quartz- 
yte wkich was originally a very pure quartz sand. Its general 
appearance is similar to the quartzytes just east of Ogden, 
Utah. 

The limestone is hard, blue and crystalline from meta- 
morphism. It is massive as the bedding planes are generally 
destroyed. Its purity is unusual for California limestones and 
it is extensively quarried and burned in kilns at Oro Grande. 
In the limestone are some bands of dark gray fine micaceous 
schists—highly altered clay shales. 

The quartzyte and limestone are folded to a moderate de- 
gree and somewhat broken up by small faults. A strip of the 
limestone extends east from Oro Grande. It is 100 to 800 feet 
in width, but the real average thickness of the limestone is 
probably no more than 200 feet. This band is at the axis of 
a shallow and narrow syncline and the limestone clearly over 
lies the auartzyte. A quarryman told me that another lime- 
stone mountain occurs on the north and still another line of 


288 The American Geologist. May, 1902. 


outcrops to the south. We have then three east-west belts of 
limestone separated by two anticlinal belts of quartzyte. “Mar- 
ble mountain,” mapped about fifteen miles east of Oro Grande 
is probably a part of this same series. 

This combination of pure quartzyte overlaid by nearly pure 
limestone with virtually no formation of schists or slates is an 
unusual one for California, but is an association common in 
the Rocky Mountain and Black Hills region. The alteration of 
the Oro Grande series has destroyed all fossils and its age can 
only be conjectured, although in this case such conjecture may 
have a very strong basis. Except for a higher degree of met- 
amorphism, it is identical in character with the Lower Cam- 
brian series described by Walcott* from Inyo county and I be- 
lieve the propriety of classing it as Lower Cambrian will 
hardly be questioned. 

The relation between the Oro Grande series and the gneiss- 
schist series near Barstow is not proved, but it is safe to say 
that the former is newer than and rests on the latter. The 
Oro Grande Lower Cambrian series shows regional metamor- 
phism. Its appearance indicates a slightly less age than the 
Klamath and Pelona Schist series, but a somewhat greater 
age than the Devono-Carboniferous of the Klamath and Sierra 
Nevada regions. The occurrence of this Lower Cambrian 
series so near to the Pelona schists but less highly metamor- 
phosed than the latter seems to me to corroborate other evi- 
dence of the pre-Cambrian age of the Pelora and indirectly 
of the Klamath Schist series. 

At mile-post thirty-two and one-half from Barstow toward 
San Bernardino, the railroad touches a line of outcrop of a 
fine-grained schistose rock which weathers to a dark color. A 
band of it several hundred feet wide extends northeast along 
the border of the Mesozoic granite to well up the slope of a 
high quartzyte mountain whose southern flank the granite 
reaches. I consider the dark band a zone of contact-meta- 
morphism in the quartzyte due to the intrusive granite. It 
is properly a quartz schist, The less degree of alteration af- 
fecting the series uniformly over many square miles and far 
distant from any intrusive granite is pre-Mesozoic. 


*Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xlix, March, 1895, p, 141. 


—-s-- - 


Rocks of Southern California.—Hershey. 289 


At mile-post twenty from Barstow, there appears from 
under the Quaternary gravel, a limited area of hard, massive, 
ght gray rock of very fine texture and non-committal appear- 
ance. Under a hand microscope it appears like a very fine 
quartzyte or a felsyte. Certain characters suggest a highly 
metamorphosed novaculyte, but it is more probably an altered 
old rhyolyte. 

One-half mile east of Helen station (mile-post twenty-one), 
there is a black rocky hill rising prominently above the Quater- 
nary gravel deposit. It is composed of the above fine-grained, 
white and light gray rock stained black on the surface. In 
belts it is schistose from shearing. There is some greenstone 
in connection with it. It becomes coarse-textured in one local- 
ity and is evidently at this place a metamorphosed fragmental, 
apparently an old rhyolyte tuff. Angular white fragments 
are abundant. Probably the mass of the rock is a fine rhyolyte 
tuff with some rhyolyte sheets. It is a much older series than 
the Tertiary rhyolytes so strongly developed on the desert 
farther north. Its appearance is somewhat suggestive of al- 
tered rhyolytes of Carboniferous and Triassic series in north- 
ern California, but I would rather connect it tentatively witli 
the Cambrian series close by on the south; it has been meta- 
morphosed to the same extent. 


THE SCHISTS IN CAJON PASS. 


About two miles south from Cajon station, the railroad 
enters a gorge which Cajon creek has cut through mica 
schists. They strike northwest-southeast and dip northeast at 
a high angle. The first member encountered is a gray, rather 
coarse granular mica schist resembling the Pelona series and 
also certain phases of the Abrams mica schist. Next come 
some green schists which appear like sheared greenstone and 
may be a metamorphosed diabase dike. Some granite also 
appears. Then follows a great bed, very thick, of a light gray, 
very fine grained rock which seems to be a fine micaceous 
quartzyte schist. The railroad is on this formation for several 
miles, to and beyond Keenbrook staffon. It is a different schist 
than any ever before observed by me in California and I am 
unable to suggest an age for it. It seems to pass under the 


ordinary mica schist, some of which, however, is interstratified 
with it. 


° f é . 9 
290 The American Geologist. Mat, ne 


The schists occur in a narrow belt extending southeast 
through the pass. Low hills near Verdemont station are com- 
posed of the dark gray mica schist, and a line of low hills 
standing in the valley seems to carry the belt nearly to San 
Bernardino. This schist belt is a fragment of some sedimen- 
tary series surrounded and intruded by the Mesozoic granites. 
Its correlation remains one of the unsolved problems of that 
interesting region. I will suggest that it may finally prove 
to be a portion of the San Emedio series. 


CONCLUSION. 


It is evident by this time that the rugged mountains and 
desert plains of Southern California contain a considerable 
variety of old crystalline formations and that it promises to 
prove a splendid field for the student of pre-Paleozoic geology. 
It binds the Archean continent of the Interior Basin region to 
the ancient land mass which, it is presumed, occupied the site 
of the present Coast ranges. In its Mesozoic granites, it con- 
tains the key to the relation between the Jurassic rocks of the 
Sierra Nevada region and the Franciscan series of the Coast 
ranges. It is an extensive region—‘a land of magnificent dis- 
tances,” as a miner paraphrased. The few weeks which I 
have spent in it scarcely resulted in what deserves to he called 
a beginning of the elucidation of its geology. 

Berkeley, Calif., March 4, 1902. 


PALAEONTOLOGICAL SPECULATIONS. 


By L. P. GrRaTacapPp, New York. 
Due 
Formal Tendency. 


Something very like tendency, direction, appears in a re- 
view of a large number of fossil forms where there is discov- 
erable any change at all in structure or shape or size. Take a 
strict and definite case of evolutional change and it exhibits a 
procession of forms in which some structural feature appears 
more and more developed until it assumes extravagant propor- 
tions, or inversely displays diminishing importance, until it 
is obliterated. 


age ‘ell . 


Palaeontological Speculations.—Gratacap. 291 


In Dr. Beecher’s striking and memorable contribution the 
“Development of the Brachiopoda” (A. J., Vol. XLL., p. 343, 
Won SLuLV., p. 133) we are shown a series of connected 
changes extending over a vast period of time, presumably un- 
der very varying conditions, quite undeviatingly continued 
until a structural limit has been reached. He has emphasized 
the progressive dissimilarity in the form and relation of thie 
valves of Lingula, Terebratulina, Cistella, Discinisca, Theci- 
dium and Crania; he shows us that these variations are related 
to two important organic characters, viz.: “the length and di- 
rection of the pedicle and the position and structure of the 
pedicle opening.” He has drawn attention to the “types of 
pedicle openings” and as they “furnish a method for an or- 
dinal grouping of the genera of brachiopods”’ it is significant 
that “this is found to agree with the chronological history of 
the class.” 

Take again the orderly and consecutive movement of parts 
from a larval or primitive state to a fixed, mature condition, 
which Beecher has discussed in his “Classification of the Tril- 
obites.” (Amer. Jour., 4th Series, Vol. III.). The eyes in the 
first stages of trilobitic evolution have been ventral presum- 
ably, and they have in the higher or later forms migrated to 
the dorsal position. So Dr. Beecher gives the progression of 
these characters in the following steps: (1) absence of eyes; 
(2) eye lines; (3) eye lines and marginal eyes; (4) marginal 
eyes; (5) submarginal eyes; (6) eyes near the pleura of the 
neck segment. 

Dr. Beecher again points out the changes in the glabella. 
He says (p. 102); “throughout the larval stages, the axis of 
the cranidium shows distinctly by the annulations that it is 
composed of five fused segments, indicating the presence of as 
many paired appendages on the ventral side. In its simplest 
and most primitive state it expands in front, joining and form- 
ing the anterior margin of the head (larval Ptychoparia and 
Sao). During later growth, it becomes rounded in front, and 
terminates within the margin. In higher genera, through ac- 
celeration, it is rounded and well defined in front, even in the 
earliest stages, and often ends within the margin (larval Triar- 
thrus and Acidaspis). From these simple types of simple pen- 
tameous glabellz, all the diverse forms among species of var- 


292 The American Geologist. Mays 0 


ious genera have been derived, through changes affecting any or 
all the lobes. The modifications usually consist in the pro- 
gressive absolescence of the anterior annulations, finally pro- 
ducing a smooth glabella, as in //laenus and Niobe. The neck 
segment is the most persistent of all, and is rarely obscured. 
The third, or mandibular segment is frequently marked by 
two entirely separate lateral lobes, as in Acidaspis, Conolichas, 
Chasmops, etc. Likewise, the fourth annulation carrying the 
first pair of maxillz is often similarily modified in the same 
genera, also in all the Protide, and in Cheirurus, Crotaceph- 
alus, Sphaerexochus, Ampyx, Harpes, etc. Here again among 
adult forms, the stages of progressive differentiation may be 
taken as indicating the relative rank of the genera.” 

We are certainly presented here with a regulated and fairly 
evenly graded development which seems independent of ex 
ternal accidents, contingent on variable disturbances, as nat- 
ural selection or survival, and are forced to contemplate a 
series of physiological phenomena which possesses the fixity of 
an undeviating tendency. It is probable that an evolutional 
process started, it advances with certainty, with or without 
reinforcement from environment. 

What has been called the “biogenetic law” has been illus- 
trated also in cephalopods and the Pelecypoda, and as Mr. 
James Perrine Smith has remarked “paleontology is synony- 


mous with phylogeny;’’ it is a record in fossils of changes ’ 


which bring about determinative results, and the scheme it 
presents seems to have a. systematic effectiveness which lies 
outside of the fortuity. of selection or environment. 

An examination of the succession of changes which have 
produced the modifications in form or structure in the Brach- 
iopoda, trilobites, Pelecypoda and cephalopods, accentuates the 
general impression that while selection, environment, survival, 
etc., have played a part in the influences that have shaped this 
succession, there is a different and mandatcry law behind them 
which absolutely, without their secondary intervention, would 
have produced a very similar result. 

In the development of form in the Brachiopoda we find 
that morphologists dwell upon the shortening of the pedicle 
and the tendency, thus started, of widening the shell as the 
posterior part of the shell is brought nearer to the object of 


Palaeontological Speculations —Gratacap. 293 


support, because of interference with its axial extension. Dr. 
Beecher under “Genesis of Form,” says: “The principal char- 
acters shared by the two valves are the general outline and the 
hinge. In typical and generalized forms, as Lingula, Tere- 
bratulina, Cistella, and Discinisca, considered as before in re- 
gard to length of pedicle, freedom of movement, and direc- 
tion of longitudinal axis to the object of support, we find a 
key to these types of structure. In the individual development 
of Terebratulina, as shown by Morse, we first have the early 
embryonic shell (protegulum) with a short pedicle and 
straight hinge. The next stage retains both these characters, 
but the valves have become more unequal and the pedicle 
opening confined to the fissure of one valve. The result is a 
shell very much like Argiope or Megerlia (Megathyris and 
Muhlfeldtia), to which professor Morse also called attention. 
The same author next showed that the succeeding stage had 
a comparatively long pedicle, and a shell linguloid in form. 
Afterwards the defining of the pedicle opening, shortening of 
the pedicle and truncation of the neutral beak produced the 
final characteristic external features of Terebratulina. The 
deduction from this example and from Lingula is, that genera 
having pedicles sufficiently long to admit of freedom of axial 
movement have elongate and rostrate shells. The shortening 
of the pedicle brings the posterior part of the shell in more or 
less close proximity to the object of support, and, as growth 
cannot take place in that direction, it increases laterally, re- 
sulting in broader forms with extended hinge areas, as in many 
species of Cistella, Scenidium, Muhlfeldtia, Terebratella, 
Kraussina, etc.” 

If this is true it might be anticipated that a shortening of 
the pedicle would he attended with some slight widening of 
the shell at the beaks. It does not seem to be. Lingula mur- 
phyana King, is a long shell with a long pedicle; L. hiaiis, 
- Swains, has a shorter pedicle but structurally is an identical 
shell with murphyana; Lingula anatina is a broad shell short 
peduncled but retains the usual linguloid character of the 
beaks ; L. ovalis Rv. is a small narrow shell with short pedicle. 
In none of these forms of course is there any or very slight. 
suggestion of hinge areas, and there is no more suggestion of 
a hinge area in the short pedicled than in the long pedicled 


294 The American Geologist. May, ae 


e 

lingulas. Certainly in these cases there is no substantial or 
even approximate interference with the rostral extension of the 
shell. As many Lingulas are sand burrowers, the mechan- 
ical influence of a short or long pedicle does not seem under 
such circumstances evident. But assuming that a decreasing 
length of pedicle at last brings the beaks in contact or almost 
in contact with the surface of support, the tendency of growth 
at the beaks would seem to be repelled and a narrowing rather 
than widening effect produced, except as friction irritates the 
surface of the shell and might produce thickenings and callos- 
ity. 

The successive and related stages of hinge areas developed, 
and the succession of broader shells with cardinal growth, while 
accompanying a shorter and shorter pedicle until the organism 
may become sessile, can be as naturally assigned to a formal 
tendency, involved in the biological idea of a brachiopod, as to 
the varying accidents of position. In the Discinide where the 
shell is fixed by a peduncle passing through a hole in the ventral 
valve, and in the Craniide where there is no peduncle and the 
ventral valve is adherent, an opposite tendency has been started, 
and driven to its natural climax. These tendencies may be re- 
inforced by environment, mechanical conditions, strain, even 
survival or selection, but the organic fitness of the shell presup- 
poses an aptitude, which, aroused, pushes the shell towards lim- 
ital forms. 

The thought of formal tendency seems more forcibly sug- 
gested when we examine the outlines of development, prepared 
by Dr. Beecher, of the trilobite phylum. 

Here again Dr. Beecher significantly remarks: “Next must 
be considered the progressive addition of characters during 
the geological history of the protaspis, and in the ontogeny of 
the individual during its growth from the larval to the mature 
condition. It was shown in the paper already referred to, that 
there was an exact correlation to be made between the geolog- 
ical and zoological succession of first larval stages and adult 
forms, and therefore both may be reviewed together.” 

Broadly considered, the growth changes in the development 
or evolution of higher forms of trilobites from lower forms 
consists in a migration of the eyes from a ventral position to 
a dorsal position, the disappearance of the annulation in the 


me tes 


vey ian 


Palaeontological Speculations.—Gratacap. 295 


cephalon, the increase in size of the free cheeks, and the re 
ceding of the facial suture towards the axis. Such a meta- 
morphosis has all the character of inevitableness. It does not 
seem to be fortuitous, secondary, or precipitated by such vary- 
ing adventitious influences as environment or survival selec- 
tion. 

The examples of evolution of the Cephalopoda have been 
reviewed by numerous authors, though its establishment is 
due to Quenstedt, Von Buch, Brown, Hyatt. A series of 
changes from straight to arcuate to coiled and involute shells 
has been made out with a reversion in pathological or senile 
periods, in the Jura and Cretaceous. The changes have been 
thus summarized by Hyatt: “The efforts of the Orthoceratite 
to adapt itself fully to the requirements of a mixed habitat 
gave the world the Nautiloidea: the efforts of the same type 
to become completely a littoral crawler developed the Am- 
monoidea. The successive forms of the Belemnoidea arose in 
the same way; but here the ground-swimming habitat and 
complete fitness prevailed, for that was the object, whereas 
the Sepioidea represent the highest aims as well as the highest 
attainments of the Orthoceratites, in their surface swimming 
and rapacious forms.” 

Paleontologically regarded the habitat of these derivative 
forms does not seem so contrasted as to lead to efforts of adap- 
tation violent enough to produce these changes, and in the evo- 
lution of ammonoid forms from goniatitic, the assumption of 
septal modification seems to have no relation to either habitat 
or effort. | 

Is there not rather implied here a “law of growth.” The 
“laws of growth” have been insisted on by Eimer and Piepers 
(See Die Farbenevolution bei den Pieriden, M. C. Piepers), 
although their English reviewers have had little patience with 
them. Piepers has taken some pains, and apparently not al- 
together unsuccessfully, to show that in the course of color 
evolution in the Pierids, starting from an original red the pro- 
cess of color change is toward white which final stage is 
gradually attained by paling through orange and yellow, or 
through an intermediate black. The view of Piepers is weil 
described in the language of his reviewer. He believed in 
“this inevitable tendency arising from an internal impulse to- 


296 The American Geologist. ae 
wards change in a definite direction, taken in conjunction with 
external influences which act chiefly by way of accelerating 
or retarding the process of change, and in relation with indi- 
vidual differences of susceptibility to stimulus.” 

Formal tendency is evident in less intricate and more 
easily verifiable cases amongst fossils. Dr. Beecher whose re 
searches are so comprehensive has pointed out in his essay 
upon the “Origin and Significance of Spines’”’ that there is a 
“formal tendency” whereby in organisms there is “the smootii 
rounded embryo or larval form progressively acquiring more 
and more pronounced and highly differentiated characters 
through youth and maturity,” and although this growth has 
been analyzed by him as referable to eleven categories of sec- 
ondary influence, it is impossible to reserve the conviction that 
it embodies something more innate. 

In fossils there are tendencies in form which seem quite 
inexplicable on the assumption of purely secondary causes, as 
the increasing ventro-dorsal convexity, of some groups of 
Rhynchonella, the rostral elongation of others (Rhynchotreta), 
the extension of the hinge line in Spirifer, the widening of the 
cardinal area, also in Spirifer, the advancing arcuateness of the 
ventral valves in Stropheodonta, etc., while in internal struc- 


ture the progressive modifications of the internal loop form . 


series of related states apparently independent of any con- 
ceivable external circumstances. 

In the Orthidz the development of a reverted pedicle valve 
which might be said to begin in such forms as O. flabellites, O. 
tricenaria, continues until such extravagant distortion is 
reached as is displayed in O. (Plesiomys) porcata, O. retrorsa, 
Plectorthis kankakensis. The tendency to bend back the ven- 
tral valve may have originated in some accommodation to po- 
sition, but once started it has progressed to abnormal limits, 
by an organic necessity. 

The extreme convexity nodular development and _ resupi- 
nate exaggeration in Derbya seems similarly to be rather an 
organic climax to the same anticipatory features in Streptor- 
hynchus, Orthotetes, and Meekella. 

The arched ventral valve in Strophonella, Stropheodonta 
becomes hemispherical in such advanced forms of the same 
group as S. hemispherica, S. concava and Productus costatus. 


. 


Palacontological Speculations.—Gratacap. 297 


In the Spiriferidz the extension of the hinge line and the 
widening of the cardinal area are evident features which admit 
theoretically of great development. They attain it. The 
former can be traced from S. niagarensis to marcyi, ligus, dis- 
junctus, mucronatus, the latter in S. macrothyris, audaculus, 
Syringothyris typa. 

The shells of the Trematospiridae, Nucleospiridae, Zygo- 
spiridae suggest Spirifer in outline, but might be readily mis- 
taken for them, in some species, but they never exhibit such 
limital forms as are found in the Spiriferidae. These formal 
tendencies do not develop in them. If these limits of Spirifer 
have been produced by strain, elision, conformity, etc., why 
have not such predicaments worked similar results in them? 
Their biological plasticity does not allow it. In short there 
seems apparent in fossils an inherent character which admits 
of modification in certain directions, prescribed by their’ na- 
ture; and different groups move on under the impact of en- 
vironment or some organic impetus resident within them, to- 
wards limital forms, participation in which are denied other 
groups not adapted for these formal tendencies. 

A review of a series of fossil forms through many forma- 
tions establishes the conviction that evolution is not circum- 
stantial, but presents a certain inevitableness in the strict and 
graded tendencies of form. Again such tendencies are also 
evinced in the extreme exaggerations shown in limited faunas, 
as the crinoidal life of the Keokuk beds. 


Simultaneous Faunas. 


Dr. Weller has (Journal of Geology) illustrated two types 
of faunas, (1) the cosmopolitan; (2) the provincial faunas. 
He says: ‘During Silurian time, for instance, there seems to 
have been in existence a great cosmopolitan, shallow water, 
marine fauna, which is represented in America, in Europe, in 
Australia, and New Zealand, and probably will be discovered 
also in the other continents. The conditions for the develop- 
ment of such a fauna seem to have been the presence of wide- 
spread, shallow seas upon the continental platforms, epi-conti- 
nental seas, as they have recently been called. With broad 
seas of this sort around the borders of the continents, and ex- 


2098 The American Geologist. Bay, See 
tending into the interior by means of great tongues or lobes, 
and with conditions approximating base-levels upon the land, 
there would be a great limestone forming epoch, and with the 
probable atmospheric conditions of such an epoch the tempera- 
ture conditions upon the earth would be far more nearly 
equable than they are today, so that the same species could live 
both in the tropics and far in the polar regions, as the distribu- 
tion of the fossils indicates to have been the case. Under such 
conditions the shallow water marine organisms would have the 
most favorable opportunity for intercommunication with all 
parts of the world, and there would be developed just such a 
cosmopolitan fauna as we know existed in Silurian time.” 

Provincial faunas on the other hand were those circum- 
scribed local aggregates of species which resulted from the 
breaking up of the evenly sweeping and continuous coast line 
into bays, straits, gulfs, and arms, with a consequent disturb- 
ance of tides and currents, diversities of temperature and a 
shifting and dislocation of bottoms that led to variations of 
form, new inherited tendencies, and modified functions. 

This distinction of provincial and cosmopolitan faunas re- 
ceived full recognition from D’Orbigny as far back as 1843. 
His language is very expressive and interesting: “Cette con- 
temporaneéité d’existence qu’on remarque a d’immenses distan 
ces aul premier temps de l’animalisation et jusqu’ a l’e€poque ou 
se deposaient les terrains cretacés inférieurs, semble dependre 
d’une température uniforme, et du peu de profondeur des mers 
qui permettaient aux étres non-seulement d’y éprouver partout 
Vinfluence de la lumiére extérieure, condition indispensable a 
leur existence, mais encore de se propager et se répandre sans 
obstacle d’un lieu a l’autre, ce qui ne pourrait plus avoir lieu 
dés que par l’influence de l’inégalité de latempérature, le re- 
froidissement de la terre d’un coté, les systemes terrestres de 
soulevement de l‘autre, ainsi que les grandes profondeurs des 
océans, apportaient autaut de barriéres infranchissables a la 
zoologie cOtiere et sedentaire, On doit donc croire que l'uni- 
formité de répartition des premiers étres sur le globe tient 
autant a 1’ égalité de température determinée par la chaleur 
centrale qu’au peu de profondeur des mers; tandis que le 
morcellement des faunes, par bassins de plus en plus restreints, 
en approchant de |’ époque actuelle, provient du refroidisse- 


Palaeontological Speculations —Gratacap. 209 


ment de la terre. des barriéres terrestres et marines qui ont 
mis obstacle a |’ extension des faunes riveraines.” 

That position and accidents of environment change form, 
not to ultra specific examples, but to extreme variations is well 
shown in Purpura lapillus. In sheltered coasts this protean 
shell becomes lengthened with revolving lines, upon veined or 
colored rock it shows color bands, both broad and narrow, in 
exposed situations it has a tapering spine and long aperture, 
in very sheltered places it again becomes lengthened, robust 
and with irregular surfaces, in exposed sites with small food 
supply it is small, in exposed sites with fair food supply it is 
small with depressed spine, and cancellated, on flat beds at low 
water long, sculptured, with a large last whorl, in shelters un- 
der boulders with good food supply it is sculptured, on oyster 
beds it is sculptured with spinulose fringes, again exposed, it 
shows small elevated ridges, in very sheltered places with 
abundant food they become long and smooth, again in very 
exposed positions with poor food supply they are small, some- 
what distorted, but in similar spots with abundant food supply 
they become normal and turbinate, others are shouldered and 
small, and lastly in sheltered areas with poor food supply they 
are small with prominent revolving ridges. 

Variations of this kind simply illustrate how more widely 
contrasted conditions might, in the lapse of a long time, pro- 
duce much more sharply defined differences. It would seem 
assumed by modern naturalists that however stationary life 
seems to day, in geological time evolution, or a ceaseless or- 
ganic impulse to differentiate types, and introduce new groups, 
controlled invincibly the seething currents of animal activity. 

Provincial faunas were thus originated, or as Dr. Welles 
has expressed it, “this type of development was, of course, 
brought about by the greater or less isolation of great shallow 
water tracts in different parts of the world, in each of which 
the evolution of the life progressed along its own peculiar 
lines, molded by the particular environmental conditions which 
obtained in each tract or province.” 

But are we not permitted to assume that if evolution acted 
upon one separated section of a cosmopolitan fauna it would 
act upon all other separated portions at the same’ time, and 
that if conditions were very much alike in these two separated 


300 The American Geologist. cio <= 
portions the organic results might be also appreciably similar. 
Is it an insupportable speculation that such a thing as simul- 
taneous faunas are possible and that the biological processes 
which originated a faunal expression in one place might pro- 
duce one resembling it in another if the physical constants 
were the same? 

The statement baldly made does seem difficult to accept. 
And yet thrown into more generalized form as applicable to 
groups, families, or generic resemblances, it is entirely reason 
able. 

It assumes that evolution is omnipresent, working inces- 
santly upon animal forms, through the slow accumulation of 
differences, or possibly by even abrupt changes which repre- 
sent the accommodation of the organism to new requirements, 
or suddenly introduced environmental differences. The homo- 
geneity of nature remains unassailed if we accept simultaneous 
consequences in its different areas under identical conditions. 
It is even cognizable as a true proposition, at least in theory, 
that evolution has produced a number of origins, and that the 
faunal population of the world was the result of the approx- 
imating edges of great faunal patches which started at dif- 
ferent points under the fecund influence of this persistent, per- 
vasive, brooding agency of biological progress. Such con- 
clusions are easily affirmed and demonstrated in land faunas 
and, in so far as there could be segregation in the early 
oceans, it seems also a feasible proposition there. 

The Cambrian faunas of Bohemia, Sweden, Norway, and 
of eastern North America, might be regarded as disconnected 
simultaneous faunas, while in North America itself the Aca- 
dian western and southern Cambrian provinces are, not incon- 
ceivably, quite disparate and isolated faunal facts, in spite of 
all assumed stratigraphical relations. 

And in this connection we are also as logically permitted 
to assume that this inexorable evolution may act with more 
certainty and speed in some areas than in others. This has 
been however frequently suggested. The imaginative picture 
thus presented is not unlike this. 

We have in one section of a universal ocean a fauna fol- 
lowing its formal tendencies under conditions of acceleration, 
in another section a similar fauna responding more slowly to 


Palaeontological Speculations —Gratacap. 301 


the developmental influences, themselves perhaps less active, 
and a resultant finally appears in which contemporaneous 
faunas are at quite different stages or levels of evolution. The 
irruption into a fauna of an earlier technical form, of a part of 
a really contemporaneous fauna which has put on a later bi- 
ological expression would produce phenomena not unlike that 
of Barrande’s prophetic colonies. And this was _ practically 
Barrande’s own conclusion, though the subversive effects of 
stratigraphical study practically nullified them. 

Finally can we hazard the conjecture that evolution may 
produce synchronous identical biological results ? 


NOTE ON A TERTIARY TERRANE NEW IN 
KANSAS GEOLOGY. 


By GrEorGE I. ADAMS, Washington, D. C. 


In the summer of 1895, while making a reconnaissance in 
southwestern Kansas, I observed at a locality on the Cimarron 
river in Seward county, certain beds which appeared to me to 
be of Tertiary age, but which are wholly unlike the marls and 
mortar beds of Kansas. In the summer of 1896, I revisited 
the locality and searched for further outcrops with the hope 
of determining the relation of the beds and obtaining fossils 
which would indicate their age. The place at which the best 
exposures may be seen is in Secs. 25 and 26, T. 345., R. 31 
W., on the south side of the Cimarron river near a ranch at 
that time occupied by Mr. Kneeland. The formation dips to 
the eastward, certain beds having a measured dip of Io de- 
grees. The structure, however, is not regular. The lowest 
beds consist of a fairly well cemented white sandstone in thick 
strata. This sandstone has been quarried to a limited extent 
for building purposes. A particular layer shows numerous 
tracks, apparently those of a large turtle. Above the sand- 
stone there is a stratum of limestone about eight feet thick. 
Higher in the series there are other beds of similar nature 
somewhat thinner bedded. One of these, a soft chalky lime- 
stone about ten feet in thickness, is also represented on the 
north side of the Cimarron, in a low hill at which place it has 
been sawed into building stone which is used by the ranchmen 


302 The American Geologist. May tal 


and at Arkalon. Above the chalky beds there are sandstones 
usually thin bedded. Near the channel of the Cimarron they 
outcrop in a low anticline and to the east of the stream occur 
in a ledge exhibiting low dips. 

In searching for fossils at this locality nothing of special 
significance was found. In the hill north of the river where 
the chalky beds are quarried there is a thin layer of clay over- 
lying the limestone in which were found the condyle of a 
large mammal, and the ramus of a carnivore jaw. 


Sketch of tracks in sandstone, one-fourth natural size. 


The relation of the mortar beds to those above described 
is plainly one of unconformity, the coarse “mortar bed” sand- 
stones lying discordantly upon the upturned edges of the 
series. At the time I observed the beds the dip was regarded 
by me as indicative of structure which might be connected 
with the artesian conditions of the Meade basin which lies to 
the northeast along Crooked creek, and I called the attention 
of Mr. Haworth to the locality thinking that it might be de- 
scribed in connection with the geology of the Meade artesian 
area, but no note has thus far been made of it. 

It is probable that the formation described by F. W. 
Cragin (American Geologist, Vol. VIII, 1891, p. 29), as “A 
Leaf-bearing terrane in the Loup Fork,” occurring on the 


LIBRARY 
OF THE 


UNIVERSITY of ILLINOIS. 


THH AMERICAN GHOLOGIST, 


VoL. X XIX. 


PLALE XVIII. 


New Kansas Tertiary Terrane—Adams. 303 


North Canadian and Beaver creek in what is now Oklahoma, 
is of the same age as the beds on the Cimarron in Kansas. The 
localities at which he observed outcrops are in the vicinity of 
Alpine and from them he obtained leaf impressions, fragmen- 
tary remains of fishes, small gasteropod shells, and diatoms. He 
also reported the proximal end of an ulno-radius bone of a 
camelid. This fossil he regarded as determining the age of the 
beds to be Loup Fork. The chalky beds he described as a 
“lacustrine marl.”’ 

The localities which were examined by Cragin were vis- 
ited by E. C. Case who reported his observations as “A Geo- 
logical Reconnaissance in Southwestern Kansas and No Man’s 
Land” (Kansas University Quarterly, Vol. II, page 143.) 
He found fragments of bones which could not be determined 
generically and obtained a collection of leaves which were 
referred to the genera Smilax, Sapindus, Ficus, Platinoides, 
and Populus. 

The purpose of this note is to record the occurrence in 
Kansas of the terrane first described by Cragin, and to call 
attention to this locality as a field which is promising to a 
careful collector. From what I have seen of the Tertiary of 
the great plains I am inclined to believe that the beds at Alpine | 
and on the Cimarron will prove to be older than Loup Fork. 
In this opinion I am supported by evidence afforded by its. dis- 
cordant relation to the mortar beds, and by the general re- 
semblance of the formation to the White River. 


NEW SPECIES OF FOSSILS FROM THE SUBCAR- 
BONIFEROUS ROCKS OF NORTH- 
EASTERN MISSOURI. 


By R. R. RowLey, Louisiana, Mo. 


PLATE XVIII. 


Agaricocrinus praecurSsor, n. sp. 


Fic 1. Side view of the body of the type specimen. 
Fic 2. Anterior view of the body of the same specimen. 
Fic. 3. Posterior view of the same specimen. 
Fics. 4 and 5. Dorsal and ventral views, respectively, of the type. 
The dorsal cup of this crinoid is but slightly convex. The 
stem base covers much of the basal plates as a shallow exca- 


304 The American Geologist. Mayer 


vation and is surrounded by a low narrow rim. All of the 
dorsal plates are more or less convex or low tumid, those of 
the radial series being broader than long. The first radials 
are six and seven sided while the second plates of the series 
are four sided. The third or axillary plates are five sided in the 
right and left posterior rays, but hexagonal and non-bifurcating 
in the other three rays in most of the specimens. 

In one of the rays of a detached dorsal cup the second 
radial plate is an axillary piece. The series of double arm 
pieces rests directly on the third radial plate. The first inter- 
radial plate is a little longer than broad and supports above 
two elongate pieces that fill the depression between the arm 
bases. The first azygous interradial is about as long as broad 
and supports above three somewhat smaller pieces of equal 
length and width, two being seven sided and one six. Above 
these are two series of three smaller plates each, to the top 
of the arm lobes. 

The anterior and the two antero-lateral rays give rise to but 
one arm each (in one specimen, the right antero-lateral ray 
has two arm bases) while the right and left posterior rays 
support two arms each, making seven (eight in one specimen) 
arms in all, the fewest number yet observed on an Agarico- 
crinus. 

The ventral disk is strongly elevated and the plates both 
of the ambulacral and interambulacral areas are more or 
less tumid except those of the anal area which are smooth, 
the area itself being extravagantly elongate and inflated. The 
small anal opening is situated near the top of this inflation 
and the sides and top of this smooth, inflated area are bounded 
by a line of strong nodes somewhat after the manner of Agar- 
icocrinus orontrema but in A. praecursor the anal opening is 
not at the bottom of a pit. The strongest nodes of the ven- 
tral disk are above the arm bases. 

A detached ventral disk of a somewhat larger specimen ap- 
parently of this species has the immediate region about the 
anal opening somewhat flattened and entirely surrounded by 
a ring of nodes, the latter invading the lower part of the anal 
interambulacral area. On this specimen the nodes become 
spine like and flattened processes. 


This interesting crinoid was obtained from the limestone layers 
of the Chontean beds at Fern Glen, St. Louis Co., Mo., and the type 


Fossils of N. E. Missouri.—Rowley. 305 


specimen was found by Mr. D. K. Greger and given to the writer 
in whose collection all the specimens now are. 
Cyathocrinus Snivelyi, n. sp. 
PLATE XVIII. 
Fic 6. Side view of the dorsal cup of the type specimen. 
Fie. 7. Basal view of the dorsal cup of the same. 
Fic. 8. Top view of the dorsal cup to show the thickness of the plates. 

Body rather large, length and breadth equal. Column 
large and round. ‘The five infrabasals in the type specimen 
are of unequal size, two being much shorter than the other 
three, thus giving a greater length to one side of the fossil 
than to the other. The infrabasals if of the same size would 
be a little wider than long. 

Four of the five basals are hexagonal and of equal length 
and width. The fifth is heptagonal, supporting above a pent- 
agonal anal piece. Two pieces, one much smaller than the 
other, rest upon the anal plate in the type and extend but little 
above the dorsal cup. The radial plates are the largest plates 
in the body, wider than long and with an almost circular 
brachial scar each which occupies over half the width of the 
plate and directed almost horizontally. All of the plates are 
convex, being depressed along the sutures and with a clustet 
of low tubercles, running together on the infrabasals. On 
the radials, the tubercles form a semicircumference about the 
brachial scar. The tendency toward confluence of the tuber- 
cles is not wholly confined to the infrabasals but is noticed 
at the center of each basal and the anal plate, there being no 
invasion of a narrow sutural area. 

The surface of the plates is minutely granular. Test thick. 


Our species may be compared with M. and W.’s C. farleyi. 

The specific name is in honor of the discoverer Mr. Z. T. Snively 
of Wayland. 

From the Keokuk limestone of Fox river, Clark Co.. Mo. Collec- 
tion of the author. 


Cyathocrinus granulosus, n. sp. 
PLATE XVIII. 


Fic. 9. Side view of the dorsal cup. 
Fic. 10. Basal view of the same specimen. 
The width of body is greater than the length. All the 
plates are convex. Column large. Infrabasals short. The 
basals are of equal length and width. The radials are heavy 


306 The American Geologist. May. rate 


and overhang the plates below. Brachial scar rounded and 
nearly horizontal. Arm plates heavy like those of Bary- 
crinus. The anal plate is pentagonal. The first radials each 
have a central short tubercle and the surface of all the plates 


is beautifully granular. The plate sutures are depressed. 
Found by Mr. Z. T. Snively in the Keokuk group on Fox river, 
near Wayland, Mo. 
In the author’s collection. 


Lobocrinus dubius, n. sp. 
PLATE XVIII. 


Fic. 11. Anal side view of the body of the type specimen 

The basal plates extend obliquely outward as rather thin, 
sharp expansions after the manner of Eretmocrinus. The 
first radial plates are a little broader than long and although 
separated from each other and surrounding plates by deep 
rounded grooves are themselves flattened on the outer surface. 
The second radials are quadrangular and hardly broader than 
long, verrucose. The third radials are broader than long 
and, as axillary plates, support above, two primary rad- 
ials each, of a secondary series. These latter support a second 
plate that is axillary, bearing on its left, sloping upper side an 
arm base and on its right a radial plate of the third order, 
directly under an arm base. The lower plate of each inter- 
radial area is large, as broad as long, and flattened on the 
outer surface as in the first radials, supporting above a much 
smaller plate (two in the left antero-lateral interradius). 
Above this first interradial is a minute plate, (One area has 
still another smaller plate above while.one other has but two 
plates altogether). The first plate of the anal interradius is 
as long as broad and seven sided, flattened on the outer sur- 
face and supporting above three wart-like plates. Above 
these latter are two small plates. All of the dorsal plates are 
strongly verrucose. 

The ventral disk is hardly convex with plates but slightly 
nodose. The base of the anal tube is nearly central and the 
plates are heavy, while the tube itself is but moderately large. 
The grouping of the arm bases forms five not very distinct 
lobes, each giving rise to four arms, except the anterior which 
has but two, eighteen in all. 


‘are same) TY 


Fossils of N. E. Missouri.—Rowley. 307 


The column appears to have been rather small with a small 
round central perforation. Arms unknown. 

This crinoid seems to have affinities with Batocrinus, Eret- 
mocrinus and Lobocrinus, agreeing with the latter in the 
lobed character of its arm bases, with Batocrinus in general 
form and wart-like plates. With Eretmocrinus it agrees in 
the character of its basal plates, though somewhat less ex- 
panded, but lacking entirely the inflated ventral disk. 

Its nearest ally seems to be Lobocrinus longirostris. 

It comes from the Cryptoblastus melo horizon ot the Lower Bur- 
lington limestone and the type is from Marble Head quarry a mile 


and a half above Louisiana on the Mississippi river. 
Collected by John Lonergan and presented to the writer. 


Lobocrinus? dubius var. pustulosus n. var. 
PLATE XVIII. 
Fic. 12. Anal side view of the type specimen. 

This fossil has the same plate arrangement as L. dubius, 
much the same shape of body and low, almost flat ventral disk, 
the calyx or dorsal cup expanding moderately to the periphery 
until the width is greater than the depth. 

The basal plates are thin oblique expansions much like 
those of Eretmocrinus but less extended. The plates of the 
ventral disk are nodose and stronger than those of L. dubius, 
while the plates of the dorsal cup are strongly wart-like but 
never flattened as on the latter species. The lobed characte: 
of the periphery is hardly noticeable. The number of arms is 
probably the same in both fossils but as var. pustulosus is half 
imbedded in the limestone this cannot be definitely ascertained. 

From the fourth division of the Lower Burlington limestone, 
Pratt’s quarry, Louisiana, Mo. 

Lobocrinus? insolitus, n. sp. 
PLATE XVIII. 
Fic. 13. Side (anal) view of the type specimen. 

The basal plates of this species are thin and expanded. 
The first radials are large, broader than long and tumid or 
ridge-like. The second radials are four sided and hardly 
wider than long, nodose. The third radials are broader than 
long, ridge-shaped. The second plate above the third radial 
on each side is also an axillary plate with a single piece on 
each side between it and the arm base. The first plate of each 
of the four regular interradial areas is large, with equal length 


308 The American Geologist. May, 1902. 


and breadth and low conical in outer surface features. Above 
this latter are two much smaller nodose plates. The large 
anal interradial is a little deeper than wide and with conical 
outer surface. Three somewhat smaller ridge-like plates rest 
upon this and above them three still smaller nodose plates 

The dorsal cup itself is obconical with length and width 
about equal. The ventral disk is conical and hardly so deep 
as the dorsal cup. The plates of the latter are much less 
strongly nodose than those of the dorsal cup. 

The base of the anal tube is strong and the plates heavy, 
leaving but a small canal in the anal tube. The lobes formed 
by the arm bases are not strongly marked, hardly noticeable, 
in fact. The left posterior ray supports but three arm bases 
while the right has four, the right and left antero-lateral, four 
each, while the anterior itself has but two—17 in all. The 
column is small and with a small central perforation. Arms 
unknown. 

This crinoid has characters allying it to Lobocrinus, Eret- 
mocrinus and Batocrinus. In the depth of its ventral disk © 
it differs much from the two preceding species of Lobocrinus 
and may have to be removed to Eretmocrinus or Batocrinus, 
to both of which it seems closely related. 

Lower Burlington limestone, White Ledge, Mo. 

EretmocrinuSs? parvus, pn. sp. 
PLATE XVIII. 
Fic. 14. Side view of the type specimen. 

The expansion of the dorsal cup from the basal plates tu 
the arm bases is but little. The three basal plates are heavy 
for so small a body, while the first radials are large and rathet 
extravagantly produced outward into wart-like nodes. The 
second radials are very small, quadrangular and without ele- 
vation above the general surface. The third radials are pen- 
tagonal and hardly nodose. The radials of the second series 
consist of a primary plate, longer than wide, and an axillary 
piece supporting the arm bases. The only plate of the inter- 
radial series is rather small and wart-like. (There is appar- 
ently a want of other plates above.) The large azygous plate 
is of equal length and width and strongly nodose. Above it 
appears to be but one small nodose plate. The ventral disk 
is but moderately elevated, has but few plates and most ot 


Fossils of N. E. Missouri.—kowley. 309 


these have heavy spinous nodes, especially those ambulacrally 
located. The anal tube is rather small and a little eccentric 
in position. 

The arm bases form five rather strong lobes, the right and 
left posterior ones having three arms each while the anterior 
ray supports but two and the right and left antero-lateral 
four each or sixteen in all. Column small and round. This 
little fossil has some affinity with Lobocrinus. 

From the fourth division of the Lower Burlington limestone, 
Pratt’s quarry, Louisiana, Mo. 

Eretmocrinus brevis, n. sp. 
PLATE XVIII. 
Fics. 15, 16. Anal side and basal views of the type. 

Dorsal cup low and greatly expanded. Basal plates form 
a truncate lower surface with sharp outer edges but no con- 
vexity beyond the body surface. The column is small, round 
and with a small circular canal. The first radials are much 
wider than long. The second radials are quadrangular and 
twice as wide as long. The third radials are pentagonal and 
wider than long. The second radial series consists of three 
very wide plates, to the arm bases. The interradial area seems 
to be filled by but one large plate. The first azygous interradial 
supports three smaller plates above and upon these latter rest 
two or three small elongate pieces. The plates of the dorsal 
cup are without apparent convexity. The ventral disk is low 
and the plates hardly convex except one near the center ot 
each ambulacrum which supports a small acute spine. Anal 
tube eccentric. 

The periphery is separated into five lobes of two arm bases 
each, except the right posterior ray which supports three, mak: 
ing eleven arms in all, unless the rays bifurcate beyond the 
body. This is the most depressed form of Eretmocrinus yet 
described. 

It is from the Upper Burlington limestone of White Ledge, Mo.., 
and the type is in the author’s cellection. 

Spirifer pikensis, n. sp. 
PLATE XVIII. 
Fic. 17. View of the cardinal edge with the brachial valve turned 
somewhat obliquely to the observer. Natural size. 


Fics. 18 and 19. Views of the pedicel and brachial valves, respectively, 
one-half diameter. 


310 _ The American Geologist. eae 


Fics. 20 and 21. Front edge and cardinal line of the united valves, 

x. 

Fic 22. Lateral view of the shell showing the strong elevation of the 
mesial fold, x. 

This splendid Spirifer is not likely to be confounded with 
any other form of the same horizon. It is broader than iong 
and, without the mesial fold, would be semicircular in outline. 

The cardinal extremities are rounded and the cardinal area 
is narrow and with nearly parallel edges. There are from 
twenty to twenty-five low, rounded plications on either side 
of the mesial fold. The plications on both valves are dichot- 
omous. The elevation of the mesial fold at the front edge 
of the brachial valve is extravagant and the plications that 
traverse the fold are broad and with little or no elevation. 

The pedicel valve has from twenty to twenty-five low, 
rounded, dichotomizing plications either side of the broad, 
deep sinus. There are from twelve to fifteen flattened plica- 
tions in the sinus, the ones on the sides being broadest. The 
beak of the pedicel valve is but little incurved and is separated 
from the beak of the brachial valve by half the width of the 
cardinal area. The aperture is uncovered and a low, broad 
triangle. 

Both the mesial fold and sinus begin near the ends of the 
beaks. Two strong lines of growth cross the plications and 
finer undulating lines traverse the front of the shell. The test 
is rather thin and the diameter from valve to valve is little, 
compared with the otherwise great dimensions of the shell. ° 

The semicircular outline, great elevation of the mesial fold, 
great depth of the sinus, general depressed character of the 
shell at the umbonal region together with the narrow cardin- 
al area and the round dichotomizing plications will serve to 
identify this spirifer. In size it is hardly less than S. grimesi. 

It comes from the fifth and sixth horizons of the Lower Burlington 


and the basal layers of the Upper Burlington limestone at Louisiana, 
Mo. 


The type, as well as all other fossils described in this paper, be- 


_ longs to the author’s collection. 

All figures on the plate are of natural size, except 18, 19, 20, 21 
22, which are reduced (X14). 

Feb. 20, 1902. 


i ee ek ee ee i 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 311 


REVIEW OF RECENT GEOLOGICAL 
LITERATURE. 


Ostracoda of the Basal Cambrian Rocks of Cape Breton; by G. F. 

Marrnpw LL.D. F. R. Sy G. 

In this article are described the Ostracoda that have been found 
in the Cambrian rocks of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, older than the 
Paradoxides beds. 

These forms are referred to five genera of which three are new, 
viz: Bradoria (and subgenus Bradorona) Escasona and Indiana. 
Some species are referred doubtfully to Leperditia and Schmid- 
tella. Uhe new genera are based chiefly on peculiarities of the ocular 
tubercle and adductor muscle scar, as well as on the form.. Fifteen 
species and twelve mutations and varieties are enumerated. These 
are scattered thro’ the Coldbrook and Etcheminian terranes (forming 
the Basal Cambrian). A table is given showing the distribution, from 
which it appears that the subgenus Bradorona and the genus Escasona 
chiefly characterize the Lower Etcheminian, while Schmidtella (?) 
and Bradoria are more common in the Upper Etcheminian fauna. 

Only two ostracods have been found in the lowest Cambrian 
terrane (Coldbrook) a species of Indiana and one of doubtful affin- 
ities. 

The Etcheminian genera are notable for the approximation ot 
the adductor muscle to the anterior end of the cardinal line; and 
usually for the possession of an ocular tubercle above and close to the 
muscle scar. The scar-and sulcus common in the middle of the 
va've of many Ordovician Ostracoda are wanting in the genera dis- 
cussed in this paper. 

Many of the species are notable for their unusual width, this being 
frequently equal to the length, and sometimes exceeding it. 

Two plates of figures of the several new species and mutations ac- 
company this article. 


A Geological Study of the Fox Islands, Maine; by Gro. O. SmirTH. 

(Colby College Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 1.) April, 1902, pp. 53, price 

50 cents, in paper covers. ; 

The state of Maine is almost a terra incognita so far as its geol- 
ogy is concerning. It is therefore particularly interesting to know 
that the report on the geology of Fox Islands, off the Maine coast, has 
recently appeared as one of the Bulletins of Colby College. The study 
Was first privately published in a limited edition by the author, Dr. 
G. O. Smith, in 1896, as a thesis for the Ph, D. degree at the Hopkins. 
The present paper differs from the earlier one in containing a fuller 
discussion of the general geology of the district and a much briefer 


312 The American Geologist. aed Ris 


description of the microscopic characters of the rock specimens studied. 
All the essential features of the original paper are retained in the new 
edition, but some of its more technical features have been omitted. 

The Fox islands comprise a group of rocky islands in Penobscot 
bay. They are composed largely of greenstone-schists, volcanic lava 
and various intrusives. Subordinate areas are occupied by sedimen- 
tary rocks. The greenstone schists are basic lavas and tuffs of Pre- 
Niagara age. The sediments are in two small areas, one in Vinal 
Haven and one in North Haven, the two largest islands of the group. 
The North Haven beds comprise 600 ft. of shales, quartzytes, limestone 
and conglomerates that have been determined as Niagara by Beecher. 
The sediments in Vinal Haven are quartzytes, quartzitic slates and 
various banded schists, the exact age of which has not been deter- 
mined, but because of their strong metamorphism they are inferred to 
be much older than the Niagara sediments and the volcanic deposits. 

The most interesting series represented in the district are those 
consisting of the lavas and associated tuffs. Of these there are two— 
a more basic series distributed on the shores of the “thoroughfare” 
separating North Haven from Vinal Haven and on the islands in the 
“thoroughfare,” and an acid series confined to-the northwestern portion 
of Vinal Haven. In composition the rocks of the first series are clas- 
sified as andesytes, diabase-porphyries and quartz-porphyries. They 
have suffered much change in the way of devitrification, but their 
structure is well enough preserved to serve as a means for their iden- 
tification. The clastic volcanics are especially well preserved. Their 
tuffaceous structure is particulary characteristic, the typical “‘ash 
structure” being observed in many sections. The acid volcanics of 
Vinal Haven are glassy rhyolytes with beautiful flow structures, 
spherulitic rhyolytes, rhyolitic flow breccias and rhyolitic tuffs. The 
spherulitic phases form striking rock ledges—the spherulites possessing 
all shapes and sizes up to three inches in diameter. 

The volcanic rocks are cut by numerous dykes some of which are 
microgranites or porphyries, but the greater number are diabases 
and quartz diabases. 

The greater part of Vinal Haven—all that part lying south of the 
volcanic rocks—is composed of the famous pinkish gray granite, so well 
known as a favorite monumental rock, and a coarse grained black rock 
which has long been quarried under the name of a “black granite,” 
and which in some instances is dioryte and in other cases an olivine 
diabase. The granite is older than the basic intrusive and both ap- 
pear to be younger than the volcanics. 

Brief descriptions of all the principal types of rocks are given in 
the study and data which served to determine their sequence are 
described. A concluding chapter summarizes the result reached by 
the author and a well executed map depicts the distribution of the 
rock formations. 

The report gives indubitable proof that there was an old volcano 
in the Fox islands region during early Paleozoic time and that it must 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 313 


have deported itself like the volcanoes of Tertiary and later times, 
With a little volume like this one as a touring companion, the sum- 
mer visitor to the coast of Maine may add a great deal to the pleasure 
of his outing.* Wi Si, B) 


The physical effects of contact metamorphism, JoserH BaARRELL (Am. 

Jour. Sci., vol xiii. Apr. 1902. pp. 279-206.) 

Dr. Barrel reaches some important results that go to elucidate some 
of the obscure and unstudied changes that take place in sedimentary 
rocks when brought into contact with igneous intrusives, He alsa gives 

data from which it can be determined what was the nature of sedi- 
“mentary rocks from which given metamphoric minerals have been 
derived. He finds that remarkable changes take place in mass and 
volume where sedimentary rock is metamorphosed, the loss in vol- 
ume sometimes reaching 47 per cent, and in weight nearly 30 per cent. 
The following table and accompanying observations are taken from 
his article: 

Relation of metamorphic minerals to original composition —From 
the species and proportionate amounts of the metamorphic minerals 
seen in thin section, it will be desirable to determine the nature of the 
original sediments and thence the changes undergone in mass, vol- 
ume and mineral composition. Leaving aside for the present those 
possible accessions connected with impregnation and fumarole action, 
the chemical elements will remain present as before stated except for 
the expulsion of a greater or less quantity of water and carbonic acid. 
To determine this relation of metamorphic minerals to original compo- 
sition, some definite basis must be adopted. For that reason the sedi- 
ments are assumed to consist of a number of stable minerals, the results 
of thorough decomposition. As has been shown, in argillaceous rocks 
such a condition is never perfectly reached, and where such have suf- 
fered changes the losses computed on the above basis must be dimin- 
ished by a factor depending upon the incompleteness of the decom- 
position of the original rock. In strata consisting of quartz sand and 
carbonates, however, the changes will be strictly those shown by the 
following table. ; 

The metamorphic minerals given in the table, except for the omis- 
sion of biotite, are those of commonest occurrence in strata adjacent 
to igneous rocks. Biotite, though of common occurrence as a result 
of metamorphism in rocks of an arenaceous-argillaceous character, 
has such a complex composition that it is useless to attempt to com- 
pute from what materials it has come, unless something is known of 
-the unmodified strata. The ferrous oxide, magnesia and alkalies pres- 
ent in biotite, furthermore, are indicative of an incompletely decom- 
posed sediment, and add to the difficulties. The absence of biotite 
from the table for that reason, however, is not a serious matter, since 


* Since the original report on which the present edition was based had a 
very limited circulation and since copies of it are not now available, it may be 
of interest to know that copies of the present edition are purchasable from 
the Registrar of Colby College, Waterville, Me., at the price of 50 cents each. 


314 


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Review of Recent Geological Literature. 315 


the materials forming it have possessed but little carbon dioxide and a 
medium amount of water and consequently in metamorphism have 
not changed greatly in volume or mass. While the table shows in a 
general way and with a fair degree of accuracy the changes taking 
place to produce such minerals, for any special application it may be 
necessary to extend it in order to take in materials in the original 
sediments not here considered. The computations have been carried 


out with accuracy tothe final digit and therefore the only inaccuracies 


which would attend its use would be from a lack of definite knowledge 
in regard to the original and final composition of the sediments of any 


~ particular case. 


It is seen from the above table that wollastonite is produced from 
a siliceous limestone, diopside from a siliceous limestone containing 
some quartz. Vesuvianite commonly has a small part of its alumina 
replaced by ferric oxide, but here it is computed on an iron-free basis 
It is seen to be produced by a sediment not far in composition from that 
yielding grossularite, and has been observed together with it in rock 
sections. 

In epidote the aluminum and iron are interchangeable, the molecu- 
lar ratio of the two varying from 6:1 to 3:2. For this reason both zoi- 
site, the iron free epidote, and also the alumina free epidote molecule 
have their relations shown to the original sediments. If it is desired 
to find what sediments would furnish a given compound of the two 
molecules, it may be done by considering the ratio which is present in 
the mineral of the zoisite to iron epidote molecules and their respective 
molecular weights, that of the zoisite being 455, alumina free epidote 
451. In the same way any mixture of the albite and anorthite mole- 
cules may have its relations determined, the data of each being here 
given. ; 

The soda which is frequently shown to exist in hornfels by the 
presence of a soda-lime feldspar may have existed in unmetamor- 
phosed strata in a variety of forms. In fresh material it might occur 


~as a-soda-lime feldspar or feldspathoid, but these being somewhat 


readily decomposed it would more naturally be anticipated as a 


hydrous silicate, especially as.a zeolite. Merely to show in a general 


way the relations between an albite occuring in a hornfels and the zeol - 
ite minerals analcite has been selected. 

Orthoclase, being a mineral which often occurs in minor quantities 
in hornfelses, has been introduced for the sake of completeness. 
The greater part of it has probably come from yet undecomposed 
though finely comminuted orthoclase, which under the conditions 
of metamorphism has collected into definable crystals. Another part, 
however, is no doubt furnished by some of the many hydrous alkaline 
silicates reacting with other materials. 

Andalusite is seen to result from a clay upon the expulsion of the 
combined water, and is attended by the separation of a large amount 
of free silica, being the only mineral here considered which does 
not come from the union of two or more minerals of decomposition, 
but on the contrary breaks into two minerals during the process of 


316 The American Geologist. ba 


metamorphism. Under that part of the table called “Results of 
Metamorphism” the percentages of the constitutents are given into 
which the sediments break up in the production of the metamorphic 
mineral. 

The latter is the only one of them remaining in the strata, the 
others escaping as gases, and thus its percentage indicates the amount 
of shrinkage. 

On being set free the gases expand to many times the original 
volume of the sediments, the numbers in the table being the volume 
to which they expand at o degrees centigrade and 760 millimeters pres- 
sure, the unit being the original volume of sediments. In computing 
the volumes of the metamorphosed strata, the porosity factor, being a 
variable quantity, has not been included, but nevertheless it is seen 
that in all cases the shrinkage in volume is greater that the shrinkage 
in weight. 


Since to use this table it may sometimes have to be supplemented, the 
method of compution is given below: 


Grossularite, Cag Ale(SiO4)3 
S$i0O2 40, AleOg 27°7, CaO 37°3 per cent. 


Silica, SiOz, mol. wt. 60° 
Kaolinite, HaAleSiea09, mol. wt. 258'8. 
2H20=36, Al2Og=102°8, 2S8i02=—120. 
Calcite, CaCOg, mol. wt. 100. 
CaO=56, COo—44. 
Using grossularite as a basis of compution. 


ys ake =57°2; amt. of kaolinite required by 100 parts of 
grossularite. 

Bi 2 eee =26.5; amt. of silica brought in by kaolinite 
D58'Bia ray! Mees 8 y ; 

57° 2 x Bb =8'0; amt. of water brought in by kaolinite. 
258'8 g 

40 — 26°5=13°5; amt. of free silica required by 100 parts of gros- 
sularite. 

‘ 100 ; : ; 
37°3 x 56 =66°6; amt. of calcite required by 100 parts ofgrossularite. 
ae. 44 ae ; ' 
66°6 x 56.293; amt. of carbon dioxide brought in by calcite. 

Thus: — 


57°2 Kaolinite  ) { 100° Grossularite. 
13°5 Quartz | | 8.0 Water. 
66°6 Calcite t , 29.3 Carbon dioxide. 
137°3 Sediments | igs Nes 7 ile 

Bringing this to a basis in which the amount of sediments shall form 
the unit gives the following figures: — 

100 parts of sediments consisting of 41.7 kaolinite, 9°8 quartz and 
48°5 calcite yield 72'°8 parts of grossularite, 21°4 carbon dioxide and 
5°8 of water as shown in the table. 


Review of Recent Geological Literature. 317 


To compute the volumes divideeach weight by the specific gravity 
ofthe substance, giving the ratio of volumes. Add together those 
forming the original sediments and compare with the volumes of the 
several products of metamorphism. The compution for grossularite is 
as follows:— 


9'8—2'6 = 3°83. s"vol:.of quarta2. 
4.1°7—2'5 mh Ta Eh : vol. of kaolinite. 
48°5—2'6 2 Bre ; vol. of calcite. 
—. 39.2 ; vol. of sediments. 
72°8—3'5 —=20°S ; vol. of garnet. 


21°4— °00197= 10830; vol. ot carbon dioxide. 
5°8— .00081— 7148 ; vol. of water vapor. 
Dividing each of these volumes by 39 2, to compare them to the vol- 


ume of the sediments as a unit, gives the composition by volume as 
indicated in the table. 


MONTHLY AUTHOR’S CATALOGUE 
OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE 
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY. 


AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER. 
An expedition to the Maldives (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 13, pp. 
297-308, Apr. 1902.) : 


AMI, H. M. 
On Belinurus Kiltorkensis, Baily (Am. Geol., vol. 29, p. 188, Mar. 
1902.) 


ANDERSON, F. M. 
The physiographic features of the Klamath mountains. (Jour. 
Geol., vol. 10, pp. 144-159, Feb.-Mar., 1902.) 


ARNOLD, DELOS AND RALPH. 

The marine Pliocene and Fleistocene stratigraphy of the coast 
of southern California. (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, pp. 117-138, Feb. 
Mar., 1902.) 


BAIN, H. FOSTER. 
Individuals of Stratigraphic Classification: Discussion. (Jour. 
Geol., vol. 10, pp. 139-142, Feb.-Mar., 1902.) 


BARRELL, JOS. H. 

Physical effects of contact metamorpnhism. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 
13, pp. 279-296, Apr,, 1902. 
BASTIN, EDSON S. 


A Permian glacial invasion. (Am. Geol. vol. 29, pp. 169-170, 
Mar. 1902.) 


BEECHER, GC. E. 
Note on a new Xiphosuran from the Upper Devonian of Penn- 
Sylvania. (Am. Geol., vol. 29, pp. 143-146, Mar., 1902. 


/ 


318 The American Geologist. pag ln 52 


BEEDE, J. W. 

Invertebrate Paleontology of the Red Beds. (Geol. Sur., Okla., 
Advance Bull., First Biennial report.) 7 
BERKEY, C. P. 

Origin and distribution of Minnesota clays. (Am. Geol., pp. 
171-177, Mar., 1902.) 

CLAPP, FREDERICK G. 

xeological history of the Charles river in Massachusetts. (Am. 
Geol., vol. 29, pp. 218-233, Apr., 1902.) 

CROSBY, W. O. 

Geological history of the Hematite iron ores of the Antwerp 
and Fowler belt in New York. (Tech. Quart., vol. 14, pp. 162-170, 
Sep. 1901.; also Am. Geol., vol. 29, pp. 233-242, Apr., 1902. 
CUMINGS, EDGAR R. 


A Revision of the Bryozoan genera Dekayia, Dekayella and 
Heterotrypa of the Cincinnati group. (Am. Geol., vol. 29, pp. 197- 
218, Apr. 1902.) 

CUSHING, H. P. 

The derivation of the rock name “anorthosite.” (Am. Geol., vol. 
29, p. 190, Mar., 1902. : 

ECKEE, EnG- 

The classification of the crystalline cements. (Am. Geol., vol. 
29, pp. 140-154, Mar., 1902. 

FRAZER, PERSIFOR. 

Delegates of the United States Government at the Internation- 
al Congress of Geologists. (Am. Geol., vol. 29, p. 189, Mar. 1302.) 
GILPIN, EDWARD Jr 

Report on the mines of Nova Scotia. (Ren., Dept. Mines, for 
the year ending Sep. 30, 1901. Halifax, 1902, pp. 87 and xxxi.) 
GWILLIN, J. C. 

Glaciation in the Atlin district, British Columbia. (Journ. Geol., 


vol. 10, pp. 182-185, Feb.-Mar., 1902.) 


HERSHEY, OSCAR H. 
Boston mountain Physiography. (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, Feb.-Mar., 
1902, pp. 160-165.) 


HOMES EO: 
New York Academy of Sciences. Jan. 20. (Am. Geol., vol 29, 
Mar., 1902, pp. 191-193.) 


KNIGHT, NICHOLAS. 
Analysis of the Mount Vernon Loess. (Am. Geo., vol. 29, Mar. 
1902, p. 189.) 


Author's Catalogue. 319 


LAMBE, L. M. 

On Trionyx foveatus, Leidy and Trionyx vagans, Cope, from the 
Cretaceous rocks of Alberta. (Summary report of the Geol. Sur. 
Can. for 1901, pp. 6. 4 pls., 1902.) 


MATTHEWS, G. F. 

Acrothyra and Hyolithes, a comparison. (Trans. Roy. Soc., 
Can., vol. 7, sec. iv, pp. 93-106, 1901.) 

Hyolithes gracilis, and related forms from the Lower Cambrian 
of the St. John Group. (Trans. Roy. Soc., Can., vol 7, sec. iv, pp. 
109-111, 1901.) / 

A backward step in Paleobotany. (Trans. Roy. Soc., Can., vol. 
7, sec. iv, pp. 113-122, 1902.) 


MERRILL, GEO.’P. 


Report of the Department of Geology for the year 1839-1900. 
(Smith. Inst., U. S. Nat. Mus., Rep. for 1900, pp. 45-57.) 


NEWSON, J. F. 
Drainage of southern Indiana. (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, Feb-Mar., 
1902, pp. 166-181.) 


O’HARRA, C. C. 

The mineral wealth of the Black Hills. Bull. No. 6, South Da- 
kota Schol of Mines, pp. 88. Rapid City, Jan., 1902. 
OSBORN, H. F. 

Homoplasy as a law of latent or potential homology. (Am. Nat., 
vol. 36, Apr., 1902. pp. 259-271.) 


PACKARD, A S. 
An afternoon at Chelles and the earliest evidence of human in- 
dustry in France. (Pop. Sci. Month., vol. 61. May, 1902, pp. 81-83.) 


POOR, CHARLES LANE (Editor). 
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 14, Part 2, 
Jan. 1901-Dec. 1902. 


RIGGS, ELMER S. 
The Dinosaur beds of the Grand river valley of Colorado. 
(Field Col. Mus., Geol. Ser., vol. 1, No. 9, pp. 267-274, Sept., 1901.) 


RIGGS, ELMER S. 

The fore leg and vectoral girdle of Morosaurus, with a note on 
the genus Camarosaurus. (Field Col. Mus., Geol., Ser., vol. 1, No. 
10, pp. 275-281, Oct., 1901.) 


SHERZER, W. H. 
Ice work in southeastern Michigan. (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, Feb.- 
Mar., 1902, pp. 194-216.) 


SIMONDS, F. W. 
Dr. Ferdinand von Roemer [portrait]. (Amer. Geol., vol. 29, 
Mar., 1902, pp. 131-140.) 


320 The American Geologist. - May, (ee. 


STEVENSON, JOHN J. 
Notes upon the Mauch Chunk of Pennsylvania. (Am. Geol., 


vol 29, Apr., 1902, pp. 242-251.) 


UPHAM, WARREN. 
New evidences of eveirogenic movements, causing and ending 
the ice age. (Am. Geol., vol. 29, Mar., 1902, pp. 162-169.) 


WALCOTT, C. D. 

The outlook of the geologist in America. (Bull. G. S. A., vol. 
13, pp. 99-118, Heb., 1902.) 
WATSON, THOMAS L. 

On the occurrence of anlite, pegmatite and tourmaline bunches 
in the Stone Mountain granite of Georgia. (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, 
Feb.-Mar., 1902, pp. 186-193.) 


WHITE, I. C. 

yeological horizon of the Kanawha black flint. (Bull. @ S. 
Ac, Vol, 13; pp. 219-126; Mar:, 1902.) 

WILLIS, BAILEY. 

Reorganization of the geologic branch of the United States 
geological survey. (Am. Geol., vol. 29, Mar., 1902, p. 188.) 
WILLISTON, S. W. 

Hind limb of Protostega. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 13, Apr., 1902; 
pp. 276-278.) 

WINCHELL, N. H. 

Sketch of the iron ores of Minnesota. (Am. Geol., vol. 29, pp. 
154-162.) 

WOODWORTH, J. B. 

Pleistocene geology of portions of Nassau county and Burrough 
of Queens. N. Y. state Mus., Bull. 48, Dec., 1901, pp. 617-670. 
WRIGHT, F. G. 

The rate of lateral erosion at Niagara. (Am. Geol., vol. 29, Mar., 
1902, pp. 140-143.) 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


Ar A Late MEretInG oF THE NEw York ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
J. J. Stevenson was elected president for the current year and E. O. 
Hovey secretary. On account of the centenary of the publication of 
Playfair’s “Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth,” mem- 
orials of James Hutton and John Playfair were then read by profes- 
sors J. J. Stevenson, J. F. Kemp and R. E. Dodge. 

Professor Stevenson, after speaking of the conditions prevailing 
in British geology prior to the publication of Hutton’s memoir in 1785, 
gave briefly the characteristic features of Hutton’s ,doctrines and ac- 


Correspondence. 321 


counted for the ease with which his work could be misunderstood 
and misinterpreted. He described the conflict to which the memoir 
led and emphasized the bitterness of those who opposed the doctrine 
on theological grounds. The preparation of Playfair’s work was due 
as much to a desire to defend Hutton as to support his theory. Play- 
fair appealed to those opponents whose knowledge of the theory 
was derived chiefly from attacks made upon it: for them he showed 
that the theory is beautiful, symmetrical and in no sense inconsist- 
ent with the scripture. In dealing with the other class of opponents, 
led by Kirwan and De Luc, he used vigorous language, exposing their 
ignorance and insincerity and denouncing the virulence with which 
they had given a theological turn to the controversy. In defending 
the theory, Playfair brought his own great resources to bear, now cor- 
recting errors, now elaborating the doctrine and in some places broadly 
anticipating some of the great writers of later days. 

The inviting style gained many readers for the book, among them 
Greenough and his associates who founded the Geological Society of 
London, that theory might be replaced by observation. Hutton’s 
theory attained final triumph in 1830 when Lyell published his ‘Prin 
ciples.” Playfair’s work hastened the birth of geology, as now un- 
derstood, by a full quarter of a century and finally divorced our sci- 
ence from cosmagony. 

Professor Kemp devoted his memorial more to the personal his- 
tory of Hutton, saying in brief: James Hutton was born in 1726 
and after his course at school and university, first studied law, but 
being too much interested in chemistry, gave it up after a year and 
studied medicine three years in Edinburgh and two years on the Con- 
tinent at Paris and elsewhere, taking his M.D. degree at Leyden 
in 1749. The career of a physician did not attract him much, how- 
ever, after all, and he turned his attention to agriculture. In 1752 he 
went to a farm in Norfolk, where his mind first definitely turned to 
mineralogy and geology. In 1754 he settled down on his ancestral 
estate in Berwickshire, where he remained fourteen years, with oc- 
casional visits to Edinburgh and more distant parts of the kingdom. 
In 1768 he gave up country life and removed to Edinburgh to devote 
himself entirely to the study of geology and kindred sciences. His 
untiring industry enabled him to accomplish a marvelous amount of 
work in chemistry and finally to elaborate the essays in geology which 
revolutionized that science and, with the elucidation given his work 
by Playfair’s “Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth,” 
raised it to the high plane which it has occupied ever since. Modern 
geology dates from the publication in 1802 of Johr Playfair’s explan- 
ation, elaboration and defense of Hutton’s theories. 

Professor Dodge said in part: To James Hutton we owe many 
fundamental truths now recognized in psysiography, and to John Play- 
fair we owe the elucidation of these ideas, and their application. 

The doctrine that rivers are the cause of their valleys, and the 
proof thereof is perhaps the most important foundational idea that 


322 The American Geologist. May, i902: 


we owe to the combined labor of these two geological worthies. 
Playfair’s clear exposition of the possible origin of river terraces, his 
acute description of the relation of lakes to rivers, his analysis of the 
varied forms of shorelines, and his emphasis of the importance of 
initial shorelines, all clearly exploited in his “Illustrations,” deserve 
to take rank with the much quoted passage on rivers and their valleys, 
as being accepted geographical truths far in advance of their time. 

Professor Dodge also read a paper entitled: “An interesting Land- 
slide in the Chaco Canon, New Mexico.” On a high mesa to the south- 
east of the Chaco Canon, and about four miles below Putnam, New 
Mexico, is a series of stone monuments about five feet high and four 
feet in diameter, These monuments stand on the edge of a rim rock 
of an old escarpment nearly 300 feet high. The rim rock of the 
escarpment is a course brown sandstone capped by about two feet of 
thinbedded dark brown sandstone containing sharks’ teeth. The face 
of the escarpment has recently slipped along a series of joints running 
approximately parallel to the face of the escarpment, and in a general 
direction of S. 30 E. The recesses between slipped blocks can be 
sounded to a depth of over so feet, and are wider at the base than 
at the top as a rule. 

In the slipping an ancient rock hogan twenty feet in diameter has 
slid 2.5 feet vertically and 8.3 feet horizontally without displacing 
the rock walls to any serious extent. 

The second paper by the same author, was on “Arroyo Formation.” 
An arroyo is a steep sided, narrow gulch cut in a previously filled 
gravel and adobe valley in the arid west. 

The study of the process of formation of arroyos, some of which 
have been under observation for several years, seems to show that the 
work has changed from aggradation to degradation because of some 
influence that has caused the focussing of the running water. Such 
a concentration of water is made possible by overfeeding of the land, 
which removes the help af roots in holding soil particles, combined 
with the habit of cattle to move in processions along trails that make a 
natural channel -for water. 

The study of the rate of valley filling or erosion is difficult, because 
of the tendency of arroyos cut in adobe to maintain nearly vertical 
walls, and because a fallen block of adobe may be sealed over in the 
next flood, so that it looks in place. This problem is of special im- 
portance, because the adobe deposits in some places contain relics of 
human occupation to the depth of many feet. The exact or even the 
approximate antiquity of the deposits cannot be definitely determined 
because of the several ways in which the order of events in such a case 
may be interpreted. 

Mr. van Ingren’s paper was on “The Ausable Chasm” and detailed 
some of the results of the author’s own observations on that cele- 
brated locality besides referring to the work of others on the geology 
and physical features of the region. 

EpmMunp QO. Hovey Secretary. 


Correspondence. 323 

EARTHQUAKES IN NicaracuA An earthquake ocurred in western 
Nicaragua about 11:40 today lasting for seventeen or cighteen sec- 
onds. Originated beneath and developed from the south side of 
volcano Momotombo at the western extremety of lake Managua where 
its intensity was more than 300 mm. per second, or, between //7 ana 
Vif of the Rossi-Forel scale. Several adobe houses were destroyed 
and many badly damaged at the railway station, Momotombo, at west- 
ern foot of the volcanic mass, and it broke down part of the wharf 
at that station into the lake—also tumbled down from the wharf into 
lake a switching locomotive and one car loaded with coffee. No lives 
are reported lost. This earthquake extended in an east of north 
direction across Nicaragua into the Caribbean sea and in a west of 
south course into the Pacific, at Leon, Chinendega and Corinto its 
intensity was about 200 mm. per second; in Managua, Granada and 
lake Nicaragua about 100 mm. per second. At Matagalpa and north 
eastward it was about 80 mm. per second. At the Nicaragua canal 
route through lake Nicaragua and west of that lake its intensity was 
about 100 to 150 mm. per second. The movement svas undulfatory 
with but little jarring—only such as is incident to waves of force mov- 
ing through strata and being reflected from strata of different dens- 
-ities. An interesting phenomenon was numerous, high, short waves 
of water in lake Managua that continued to rise from the southwestern 
foot of the volcano for several minutes after the “earth-wave” had 
been felt and these waves of lake-water rushed across the lake and 
broke against the high southwestern coast like Labrador’s high tides 
during a storm; they appear to have been caused by a fissure opening 
from the interior of the volcano into the lake through which pent up 
gases escaped, in force and quantity enough to preven, for the time, 
the bursting forth into volcanic activity of the superheated, highly 


-compressed gases forming beneath the volcanic mass miles down below 
the earth’s serface. J. CRawrorp. 
Managua 24 March, 1902. 


Another earthquake ocurred last night in western Nicaragua—caus- 
ing much fear and disturbance at Momoton station, Leon, Chinendega 
and Corinto, and reported lighter at Granada, lake Nicaragua and 
about the western part of the route approved for an interoceanic canal. 
Volcano Momotombo is now emiting volumes of gases and vapors 
illuminated in their centre. No authentic reports as to details are 
received to this date but judging from reports, this was about the 
same force as the earthquake at 11:40 on yesterday, 24th instant. 
If the facts in detail when known by me are found interesting enough 
or if other earthquakes occur I will inform you by the next mail. It 
is an unusual time of the year for earthquakes noted in Nicaragua. 
The moon is full and on the meridian when the first earthquake oc- 
cured and on the horizon when the second one occured; therefore ac- 
cording to the opinion of some the former should have been assisted by 
the moon and the latter retarded by it; climate has been unusually cool 
until he evening of the 23rd instant, when it became quite warm, and 
continues to be unpleasantly warm. J. Crawrorp. 

Managua, 25 March, 1902. 


324 The American Geologist. ger 


PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Mount McKIN_ey, which is the highest mountain on the 
continent, lies in the heart of the Alaskan range, and no one 
has yet reached its base. A. H. Brooks. 

On Apr. 7, 1902, Dr. FRANK R. VAN Horn was made 
professor of geology and mineralogy at Case School of Applied 
Science, Cleveland, Ohio. 

Since 1898 THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
has been making systematic geologic and topographic surveys 
of Alaska. The annual appropriation by Congress for this 
work has been recently increased from twenty-five thousand to 
sixty thousand dollars in order to extend the investigation of 
Alaska’s mineral resources. This increase has not been ade- 
quate to the needs of the work. The mineral interests have 
developed so rapidly in the past few years, and surveys in this 
distant province are so expensive, that it has been impossible 
with only sixty thousand dollars yearly to satisfy many of the 
urgent demands for work in various parts of the territory. 

THe Lawsuit oF PEARSON vs. THE GREAT NORTHERN 
RAILROAD was referred, by agreement, to judge Kelly of St. 
Paul, before whom the case was tried and argued about a year 
ago. This suit was referred to in the GeEoLocist, vol. 28, 
p. 65, as it involved the science of geology in a pretended new 
“law” for the origin and distribution of coal. Mr. Pearson 
laid claim to 1,500,00 dollars as his share in certain coal de- 
posits in Montana. Judge Kelly has recently rendered his 
decision, awarding Mr. Pearson $500 on salary due him for 
services. from which it may be inferred that the new “law,” 
and the coal deposits claimed to have been discovered under 
its guidance by Mr. Pearson, were not considered, from a legal 
point of view, of any more value than they are from a geo- 
logical. 

Tue UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SuRvEy has just issued, 
in Bulletin No. 177, a catalogue and index of its publications. 
This compilation has been made necessary by the increase in 
the number of the publications, since the last catalogue was 
published in 1893, and by the need of a convenient classifi- 
cation. The first part of the compilation is composed of 
notices of all the Survey’s publications from its inception to 
date—the Annual Reports, Monographs, Bulletins, Water 
Supply and Irrigation Papers, the volumes of the old series 
of Mineral Resources, Geologic Atlas Folios, Topographic 
Atlas Sheets, special maps and miscellaneous publications. 

The second portion of the volume is an index alphabetical- 
ly arranged, comprising 742 pages. It is a broad classifica- 
tion of the subject matter of the publications, yet sufficiently 
detailed to be of value in economic, scientific, engineering 
and educational lines. 


THE 


POAMERICAN GEOLOGIST. 


Vor. XXIX. JUNE, 1902. No. 6. 


THE HURONIAN QUESTION. 


By A. P. COLEMAN, Toronto. 


In the history of geology it has often occurred that work- 
ers who have approached some difficult problem from oppo- 
site directions in the field have entirely failed to agree when 
they met, partly because certain aspects of the problem at- 
tracted attention on the one side and others on the other, and 
partly because of a confusion of terms, a given name being 
employed in different senses by the two parties. 

The best example of such a controversy in America is to 
be found in the treatment of the relationship and nomencla- 
ture of the Pre-Cambrian rocks around lake Superior by the 
geologists who began the study of these difficult formations 
on the north shore, and those who later took up the work on 
the south shore. 

The seemingly interminable dispute appears at last to be 
entering on a more hopeful stage when the two sides are ap- 
proaching an agreement regarding the facts of the field rela- 
tionships, though differing in the names to be applied to the 
different formations. The subject has been revived by the 
appearance of professor Van Hise’s interesting and important 
work on the “Iron Ore Deposits of the Lake Superior Region,” 
*in which he revises some of his previous opinions and at last 
admits that sedimentary rocks belonging to the iron range 
occur in the Archean, and that the gneisses and granites 
generally called Laurentian in Canada, have an eruptive 
relationship. to them. His recognition of this fact is due to 
his study of the iron ranges of the Vermilion and Michipicoten 
districts north of lake Superior, and it is satisfactory to find 


* U. S. Geol. Soc., 21st Ann. Rep., part 3. 


326 The American Geologist. Ba 


that his interpretation of the facts coincides with that adopted 
years ago by the geologists of Canada and Minnesota. 

In reality he had already unconsciously admitted this point 
in earlier writings when in describing the Kitchi schists with 
their ferruginous cherts and jaspers near Marquette he in- 
cluded them in the Basement Complex ;* but it is well to have 
a direct confirmation of the views of the northern geologists 
by so able a student of the Pre-Cambrian as professor Vani 
Hise. 

According to his new grouping the Pre-Cambrian includes 
three sedimentary series containing iron ores, the lowest, 
which he places in the Archean, corresponding to the Kee- 
watin or Lower Huronian of the Canadian and Minnesota 
geologists; the next which he calls Lower Huronian, corres- 
ponding to the Upper Huronian or so-called typical Huronian 
of Canada; and the uppermost, which he calls Upper Hur- 
onian, being the same as the Canadian and Minnesota Animi- 
kie. Professor Van Hise finds the same number and arrange- 
ment of formations, but believes the Animikie to be the equiv- 
alent of the Huronian of Logan and Murray, and therefore 
gives the formations a different set of names. 

Professor Willmott in an excellent article on “The Nomen- 
clature of the Lake Superior Formations’’+ discusses the sub- 
ject and brings forward what appear to be conclusive proofs 
that the nomenclature mentioned above as used by the Can- 
adian and Minnesota geologists is the correct one. 

An editorial note in the same number of the Journal ot 
Geology signed with professor Van Hise’s initials says that 
the paper “proposes several radical changes from the succes- 
sion as held by those who have for many years laboriously 
studied this region. At the present time I shall not dis- 
cuss professor Willmott’s proposals. I merely wish to state 
that the evidence presented for them appears to me wholly 
inadequate, and I therefore record my dissent.” 

As my own field work has lain for several years in the 
Huronian region of Ontario, in the course of which every im- 
portant area of that formation from the provinces of Quebec 
to Minnesota has been visited and most of the critical points 


*U. S. Geol. Sur., Monograph xxviii, pp. 186-7, etc.; Ont. Bur. Mines, 
1900, p. 185. 


+ Jour. Geol., vol. x, No. 1, 1902, pp. 67-76. 


The Huronian OQuestion.—Coleman. 327 


studied, I wish to reinforce professor Willmott’s position, 
which I believe to be sound. In regard to the editorial note 
mentioned, if it had read ‘radical changes from the suc- 
cession as held by those who have for many years studied 
the region south of lake Superior,’ we could all have agreea 
with it; but the author of the admirable summary of the 
literature of this vexed subject in the U. S. Bulletin 86 must 
know that the conclusions reached by the northern geologists 
differ from those held by geologists south of lake Superior, 
and that some of them were expressed before the work on 
the south shore had begun. 

There are two points which should be kept in mind—that 
the subdivisions were first made and named on the north 
shore, and that the exposures on the north shore are on the 
whole far better than on the south, where the drift is so much 
thicker as to hide much of the surface. The natural conditions 
are therefore in favor of the northern geologists. 

Since professor Van Hise now admits that some of the 
northern iron ranges are Archean, the main point left in 
dispute is the question of the relation of the Animikie to the 
Huronian. 

It is well known to all students of the Pre-Cambrian that 
Sir William Logan and his assistants and practically all 
other Canadian field geologists who have examined the north 
shore are agreed in putting the Animikie above the Huronian 
with a great unconformity between. This has been the opinion 
of Dr. George Dawson, of Dr. Bell, of professor Lawson, of 
Mr. McInnes, who has mapped the region for the Canadian 
survey, and of others including professor Willmott and my- 
self in Canada, as well as of the geologists of Minnesota; and 
most of these geologists have given reasons to support their 
opinions. 

The view that the Animikie and Huronian are identical 
was apparently originated by Irving and has been supported 
by professor Van Hise, but, so far as my knowledge of the 
literature extends, by no one else who has visited the region. 
Irving apparently visited the north shore with a preconceived 
idea, made only a flying trip, and certainly misunderstood a 
number of points of vital importance. He appears to have set 
out with the idea that the Penokee iron range of Wisconsin cor- 


328 The American Geologist. Jone 


responded to both the original Huronian and tae Animikie; 
and that therefore the original Huronian and the Animikie 
must be equivalent to one another. He further believed that 
the Vermilion iron range of Minnesota was of the same age.* 

To support this view he compares the lithology of the Hur- 
onian of lake Huron with that of the Animikie and finds them 
alike. He states correctly that the Huronian of lake Huron 
consists essentially of a thick series of quartzytes and of gray- 
wacke conglomerate; but when he proceeds to describe the 
Animikie as consisting chiefly of quartzytes, he certainly goes 
bevond the facts as observed at Thunder bay and the coast as 
far as the Minnesota boundary. There the rocks of this series, 
as agreed upon by all geologists who have written on the sub- 
ject but himself, are mainly shaly slates passing downwards 
into black cherty rocks, and with sills of diabase at various 
levels, the uppermost looked on in earlier days as a “crowning 
overflow.”” Yet he finds “ton the west side of Thunder bay 
many hundred feet of ringing quartzyte and hard clay slate.” + 

After personal examination of that shore I can say with 
confidence that no hundreds of feet of any rock usually called 
quartzyte are to be found there, and in any case these dark 
earthy \siliceous slates or cherts are as different in character 
as possible from the white or red or brown quartzytes north 
of lake Huron. 

In almost every particular the Animikie rocks at Port 
Arthur are in striking contrast with the Huronian of lake 
Huron. Irving states, however, that thicker quartzytes exist 
along the Minnesota shore of Superior though his own descrip- 
tion of them is sufficient to show that they do not resembie 
the quartzytes of lake Huron. They are spoken of as “at 
times arenaceous, in other cases hard, ringing quartzyte, again 
true clay slate, and in yet other places of an intermediate 
nature ;”= a description that is as far as possible from any 
rock series in the Huronian and especially from the character- 
istic glassy quartzyte. We may conclude then that the lith- 
ological argument is not in favor of the equivalence of the 
two series of rocks. 

As a support to his revolutionary view he states that Logai 
was so much in doubt regarding the Animikie that he placed 

* U. S. Geol. Sur., 3d An. Rep., p. 1.70, etc. 


+ Ibid., p. 160. 
t Ibid., p. 158. 


The Huronian Question.—Coleman. 329 


“a strip of rocks along the north shore of Thunder-bay, which 
are most plainly part of the Animikie slates,” in the Huronian. 
It is indeed difficult to account for such a statement, for there 
is actually a strip of steeply tilted green schist along that shore 
which Logan properly called Huronian, and resting on it 
are remnants of Animikie, proving in the most conclusive way 
the discordance of the two series. Irving apparently failed 
to see these schists, along which I have walked for miles,* 
and his statement regarding Logan’s position is clearly due to 
his own lack of local knowledge. He was not aware that 
typical examples of both Huronian and Animikie occur along 
that coast, the more prominent points, which no doubt, specially 
attracted his attention, being Animikie. 

That Irving confused two totally different formations in 
the Port Arthur region is evident from several other state- 
ments. He mentions the “arenaceous flat lying ferruginous 
beds along the Dawson road immediately back of Port Ar- 
thur” and in the next sentences includes with them the con- 
torted and brecciated banded jaspers of the Lower Huronian 
found in the same general region.+ If he had done a little 
more detailed work he might have found convincing evidence 
of an immense break between the two. The banded siliceous 
rocks of the iron range occur in typical form near Kaministi- 
quia station on the Canadian Pacific railway and in Coumee 
township and at other points to the south and southwest. 
They have a steep dip, are often crumpled and folded and 
brecciated and are as different as possible from tie flat lying 
cherts etc., sometimes containing iron ore, at the base of the 
neighboring Animikie a few miles to the south. These iron 
bearing siliceous rocks are practically continuous with the 
Mattawin and other iron ranges connecting with the Ver- 
niilion range in Minnesota, which professor Van Hise makes 
Archean, and the schists with which they are associated may 
be found at Kakebeka not far off still steeply tilted, underlying 
horizontal cherty dolomyte of the Animikie. 

The improbability that these folded, tilted, schistose rocks 
should belong with the flat unmetamorphosed Animikie slates 
seems to have troubled Irving, however; for he says “‘accept- 


* Bur. Mines, Ont., 1900, p. 149. 
7 U. S. Geol. Sur., 5th An. Rep., p. 204. 


330 The American Geologist. See 


ing for the time some of them as Huronian, we are immedi- 
ately confronted with a structural problem of a great deal of 
difficulty, i. e., the relation of these folded schists to the un- 
folded Animikie series.”* And he goes on to explain that the 
Animikie towards the north is found to lie against a belt of 
granite and gneiss, north of which again come the belts of 
folded schist; and that the two were once continuous and are 
now separated merely because of the erosion of the crowns 
of the folds between them. 

The evidence that the folded schists with truncated edges 
underlie the flat Animikie itself, and therefore cannot be con- 
tinuous with it, is to be found immediately on the shore of 
Thunder bay, as noted by Logan, but overlooked by Irving; 
and the supposition of a band of Laurentian between them 
is incorrect. 

However, since Irving’s days much has been learned of the 
Precambrian, and it has been proved that the rocks mapped 
by Logan as Huronian include two distinct series separated 
by a great unconformity; so that we have an Upper Huron- 
ian sharply divided from a Lower Huronian, which includes 
near its summit the iron ranges of Ontario and the Vermilion 
range of Minnesota. The arguments presented to disprove 
Irving’s correlation of the Huronian rocks of the Port Arthur 
region with the overlying Animikie apply only to the Lower 
Huronian, 1. e., to the iron range and its associated schists. 

It may still be argued that the Upper Huronian is the 
equivalent of the Animikie, and this is the position taken by 
professor Van Hise; who can of course no longer defend Iry- 
ing’s position, since he places the Vermilion series, which 
Irving made Animikie, in the Archean. 

If we do not admit the lithological resemblance between 
the Animikie and the Upper Huronian, it may still be said 
that the two regions are too far apart to make lithological cri 
teria useful. Those who advocate the eauivalence of the two 
may point to the fact that the so-called typical Huronian, the 
region mapped by Murray, resembles the Animikie in the 
gentle dip of the strata, which are often almost horizontal; 
while other parts, wrongfully called Huronian, have steep 
dips and are closely folded. 


* Ibid., p. 206. 


——— ee 


The Huronian Question.—Coleman. 331 


This argument applies only to the small area north of lake 
Huron described and mapped by Murray. It does not apply 
to the other localities described by Logan in his formal sum- 
ming up of the question in 1863, when his mature views were 
expressed; for the Huronian of lake Temiscaming and of 
Dore river consists of steeply dipping schists and slates. 

In reality the so-called typical Huronian is quite extep- 
tional in more ways than one, as may be seen by a comparison 


~with the other regions described. 


The dips of the strata mentioned by Logan and Murray 
are from 18 to 45° on a section near Echo lake, and more to 
the eastward they gradually diminish until just beyond Thes- 
salon they become nearly horizontal, with a slope seldom more 
than 6’; while in almost all other parts of the Huronian the 
dips are more nearly vertical than horizontal, and are often 
for long distances practically vertical. Even within a few 
miles on each side of the region studied by Murray we find 
the usual steep dips; e. g., at Garden river five miles west of 
Echo lake the dip of the Huronian limestone is 70’ to 80’; 
and a mile or two east of Blind river, just beyond the part 
mapped by Murray, the quartzytes and schist conglomerates 
have dips of from 75° to go’, more often the latter, and the 
same dips occur for fourteen miles to the east along the line 
of the “Soo” branch of the Canadian Pacific railway. 

One may safely say that dips less than 45° are everywhere 
rare except in the Thessalon region where Murray worked, 
and that in most parts the dips are not far from verticality. 
The cause of this is to be found in the fact that normally the 
Huronian of northern and western Ontario forms close folds, 
generally nipped in between Laurentian areas; while the area 
mapped by Murray has gentle open folds and has undergone 
less squeezing. 

One expects also to find the Huronian north of lake Hur- 
on less sheared and rearranged by the action of mountain 
building processes than elsewhere, and this is actually the 
case. The quartzytes, arkoses and “slate” conglomerates mak- 
ing up the bulk of the original Huronian are less schistose 
and less crystalline than the rocks of normal Huronian areas; 
but on the other hand they are more metamorphosed than any 


* Geol. Can., 1863, p, 62. 


332 The American Geologist. cane 


of the Animikie rocks of the Thunder bay region, where the 
nearly horizontal shaly slates and impure dolomytes with 
odlitic layers of chert and jasper hardly show any hints of 
metamorphism and have a surprisingly modern look as com- 
pared with even the Huronian of Thessalon. 

When we take into account this fact, and also the fact 
that every known region of Upper Huronian is characterised 
by having at its base a great thickness of schist conglomer- 
ate of very peculiar and easily recognizable character, while 
the Animikie shows only a thin basal conglomerate entirely 
different in appearance, it is evident that the evidence is op- 
posed to a correlation of the Animikie with the Upper Huron- 
ian. 

Let us turn next to the stratigraphical relationships of the 
Upper Huronian to the lower Huronian, and of the Animikie 
to the Lower Huronian. There can be no doubt that the great 
basal conglomerate of the Upper Huronian, found from 
point to point for at least 800 miles acress northern Ontario, 
represents a long time interval between the two formations 
during which great erosion took place, yet in general no im- 
portant unconformity in attitude has been noted between them. 
Wherever the two have been distinguished we find the schist 
conglomerates having the same strike and the same nearly 
vertical dip as the adjoining schists or the iron range rocks 
of the Lower Huronian, clear evidence that the two series 
of rocks have undergone to a large extent the same squeez- 
ings, shearings and foldings and so have developed similar 
schistose structures. As shown by professor Willmott, they 
have both been affected by the eruption of the adjoining Laur. 
entian areas. So far as my own experience goes the paral- 
lelism of strike and dip between the Upper and Lower Hur- 
onian is complete, though in some cases the Upper or the Low- 
er series may be found without the other, when of course, evi- 
dence must be wanting on this point. Even in the original 
Huronian region, where the Lower Huronian is largely absent, 
there are some rather uncertain examples of this parallelism, 
as for instance at the north end of Echo lake, where the lower 
“slate’’ conglomerate rests upon green schist, which is prob- 
ably Lower Huronian. 

We may hold then that in general when the two subdivis- 
ions of the Huronian occur together they are parallel as to 


The Huroman Question.—Coleman., 333 


strike and dip, having been acted on by the same mountain 
building forces. 

Everyone who has examined the relations of the Animikie 
to the Lower Huronian has found a quite opposite condition 
of affairs. The Animikie, with very little in the way of basal 
conglomerate or in many cases none at all, rests horizontally 
on the steeply tilted Huronian and Laurentian schists, and’ has 
therefore been deposited since the whole of the folding and 
tilting of the Huronian took place; so that it has not at all 
the relations to the Lower Huronian found where Upper and 
Lower Huronian occur together in other parts of northern 
Ontario. 

The most satisfactory proof of the later age of the Anim- 
ikie would be to find it resting unconformably on the Upper 
Huronian schist conglomerate, but up to the present no out- 
crop showing this has been observed. 

Though this absolutely conclusive evidence is lacking, the 
nearest outcrops of Upper Huronian conglomerate are so 
different in character and attitude as to make the discordance 
suggested very probable. At Heron bay on the east there 
are steeply tilted, greatly sheared schist conglomerates par- 
allel with iron range rocks of the Lower Huronian. A few 
miles to the north of Port Arthur Dr. Bell reports dioritic 
conglomerates, with various slates or schists and some quartz 
ytes, evidently normal Upper and Lower Huronian rocks 
as different as possible from the belt of flat lying Animikie 
just to the south, though unfortunately he has not recorded 
the dip; and he mentions the same conglomerates within 
eight miles of the Animikie near the Kaministiquia river.* 
Prof. Willmott has found Upper Huronian conglomerate of 
the ordinary type west of Port Arthur and only a short 
distance from the Animikiey ; and schist conglomerates have 
been observed by Mr. McInnes at various points in the She- 
bandowan region to the west,t as well as by Dr. Lawson to the 
southwest on lake Saganaga,§ and still farther west on Seine 
river, Rainy lake and lake of the Woods. 

We find characteristic schist conglomerates of the Upper 
Huronian, steeply tilted and parallel in position with the Low- 

* Geol. Sur. Can., ini 60. op soaeadaae. — 

+ Jour. Geol., vol. x, No. 1, 1902, p. 74. 


t Geol. Sur. Can., 1897, pp. 18 and 19 H. 
§ Lake Superior Stratigraphy, AM. GEOL., vol, vii, 1891, p. 324. 


334 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


er Huronian schists, from point to point for hundreds of miles 
on each side of the Animikie region and within a few miles 
of the Animikie strata themselves, and we find the steeply 
tilted Lower Huronian schist, with which the Upper Huron- 
ian everywhere else is sharply folded, underlying the level, 
undisturbed Animikie sediments. How much probability is 
there that this particular part of the Upper Huronian should 
have escaped the fate of all the rest and remained flat and 
unaffected when undoubted Upper Huronian rocks were nipped 
into close folds and changed into thoroughgoing schists, with- 
in a few miles to the north, and almost everywhere else 
throughout the whole province. 

The Animikie rocks are entirely different lithologically 
from those of any part of the Upper Huronian, consisting 
of shaly slates, cherts and dolomytes instead of schist con- 
glomerates and quartzytes; they are almost unchanged sedi- 
ments, while the Upper Huronian is everywhere more or less 
recrystallized and schistose; they are lying unconformably on 
the upturned edges of the Lower Huronian schists, while the 
Upper Huronian wherever associated with the Lower Huroni- 
an is parallel with it and caught in the same set of folds. Why 
should two such entirely different series of rocks be confound- 
ed under the same name? 

Professor Van Hise has naturally followed the lead of 
his senior in the region where both have done so much vyal- 
uable work; but he has shown that the logic of facts opposes 
part of Irving’s theories in his classification of the Vermil- 
ion series as Archaen instead of Animikie; and we may hope 
that he will not continue to support Irving’s other erroneous 
view concerning the equivalence of the Animikie with the 


original or Upper Huronian when he studies the facts in the 
field. 


It is a little astonishing that Irving should have seen fit 
to put his own view of the Animikie, arrived at after what 
seems to have been a very hurried and imperfect study, against 
the matured opinions of Logan and all the other geologists 
who worked in the region; and we may hope that the con- 
fusion of terms between the northern and southern geologists 
which his mistake has brought into Pre-cambrian geology 
will soon be set right, now that the two schools of geolo- 
gists have met on the same ground. 


Lake Superior Iron Ores.—Spurr. 335 


THE ORIGINAL SOURCE OF THE LAKE 
SUPERIOR IRON ORES. 


By J. E. Spurr, Constantinople, Turkey. 


In 1893 the author spent a few months on the Mesabi 
range in Minnesota, where he became interested in the genesis 
of the iron ores. He spent the winter working up the results 
of his trip; then, being obliged to reluctantly leave the fasci- 
nating field, he threw the results of this work into a hasty bul- 
letin, and departed. It was his hope that at some future time 
he might find opportunity to revise and extend his study, but 
fate has led him in other paths. 

After eight years of experience and reflection, the author 
is seized with the desire to use the pruning knife vigorously, 
whenever he looks at his first publication. Yet in the main 
thesis of the work—the origin of the iron ores—he still finds 
his youthful satisfaction. And the gradual] acceptance by 
most geologists of his general conclusions in this regard, to- 
gether with the circumstance that there is, among some, a slight 
misunderstanding of the details, have prompted him to write 
this sketch of his present views. 


THE LAKE SUPERIOR IRON-BEARING ROCKS. 


It is well known that the most important. iron-mining reg- 
ion in the world is near the western half of lake Superior. 
Within this region, and comparatively close together, are sep- 
arate districts or ranges,—thus called not so much on account 
of their topography as because in them the ore-bodies are 
grouped in linear arrangement, following the outcrop of cer- 
tain sedimentary formations. The Marquette, the Menom- 
inee, the Gogebic, the Vermilion, and the Mesabi ranges are 
the chief ones. The first three are on the south side of the 
lake, in Michigan and to some extent in Wisconsin; the last 
two are on the north side, in Minnesota. 

Not only the geographical grouping, but the nature, ap- 
pearance, and geologic relations of the ores in these different 
districts have marked them since the days of their earliest 
scientific investigation as belonging to a single general class 
of ore-deposits, and thus they are usually referred to as simp- 
ly the lake Superior iron ores. 


336 The American Geologist. time, a 


The ores in the several districts do not all belong to the 
same geologic period. According to the latest results of the 
U. S. Geological Survey, there are ore-bearing horizons in the 
Archean, the Lower Huronian, and the Upper Huronian. 
Yet the appearance of the ores and the containing rocks in 
each district is such as to show a close relation and to suggest 
a common origin. 

It is true that even in a single district the ores and ore- 
bearing rocks exhibit a great variety. But everywhere a band- 
ed structure of crystalline or cryptocrystalline silica and iron 
is characteristic, and in the older and greatly altered forma- 
tions, such as those of the Vermilion (Archean), there is lit- 
tle else. In the eastern Menominee (Lower Huronian) the 
rocks consist chiefly of this banded silica and iron, but there 
are many apparently fragmental quartz grains. In the Lower 
Marquette (Lower Huronian) there is the same banded silica 
and iron, but chiefly at the top of the peculiar iron-bearing 
formation; further down there is ferruginous chert and slate, 
grunerite-magnetite slate, and sideritic slate, the last especially 
toward the bottom. In the Penokee-Gogebic district (Upper 
Huronian), the peculiar iron-bearing formation consists chief- 
ly of sideritic slate and slaty and cherty iron carbonate, ferru- 
ginous slate and chert (where the iron is mostly oxide), and 
actinolite and magnetite schist. Finally, the Mesabi range 
contains all of these rocks in its iron-bearing formation. There 
is the banded silica and iron (“‘jaspilyte”) of the older ranges, 
with the cherty siderite, the sideritic chert and slate, and the 
hematite-magnetite-actinolite schist and slate of the Marquette 
and Penokee-Gogebic. There is, besides, a large class of rocks 
not identified in the other ranges. They vary greatly in color, 
etc., but are all characterized by small, typically rounded gran- 
ules, often visible only under the microscope. They are the 
spotted-granular rocks of the present writer. 


The Origin of the Iron-Bearing Rocks. 


The banded silica and iron which is the chief rock in the 
older ranges offered to investigators little clue as to its or- 
igin; it was even at first supposed to be a primary rock. 


The earliest exploited of the districts was the Marquette.. 


Here the banded silica and iron was taken to be an unaltered 
or little altered rock, and an eruptive origin was assigned to 


Lake Superior Iron Ores.—S purr. 337 


it by Foster and Whitney (1851) and by Wadsworth (1880).* 
Credner (1869) and Brooks (1873) favored the idea that the 
iron ores were old limonite beds in a sedimentary series, sub- 
sequently metamorphosed. Likewise the banded silica and 
iron of the Vermilion range was supposed by N. H. and H. 
V. Winchell (1889-1891) to have been orginally formed in 
practically its present condition, but instead of adopting the 
eruptive theory of the geologists on the south shore of lake 
_ Superior they advanced the hypothesis of direct chemical pre- 
cipitation from the waters of a hot primordial ocean, the silica 
and iron being supposed to have been alternately precipitated. 

It was chiefly by observations in the geologically younger 
districts, where, besides the banded silica and iron, there were 
found many other rock-types which were transitional into the 
banded rock, that the idea originated that not only this band- 
ed rock, but also many of the associated phases, were second- 
ary, and were derived from some original rock by a thorough 
internal alteration and chemical interchange. Irving and Van 
Hise, by their work in the comparatively little-altered rocks of 
the Penokee-Gogebic district (about 1888-1892), advanced the 
question enormously. They showed that the ferruginous 
slates and cherts, where the iron is in the oxidized state and 
is more or less banded with silica, and even the actinolite and 
magnetite schists, have resulted from the alteration and re- 
crystallization of the slaty and cherty iron carbonate. At first 
Irving adopted the theory that this iron carbonate had been 
formed by the replacement of an original limestone,+ but he 
afterwards abandoned it, and considered the cherty carbon- 
ate to have been the original rock. In regard to the iron the 
following statement was made := 

“Whether the iron was originally precipitated as a car- 
bonate, or was decomposed and precipitated as a hydrated 
sesquioxide, just as limonite now forms from iron carbon- 
ate in places where bog ore is depositing, is uncertain. If 
the latter is taken to be the case—and it is perhaps the most 
probable supposition—it ts necessary to believe that the or- 
ganic matter with which the limonite was associated reduced 


* Later (1893) Wadsworth came to believe that the iron-bearing rocks 
were metamorphosed sediments. 

+ Am. Jour. Sci., (III), vol. xxxii, Oct., 1886. 

tIRVING and VAN HIsE, Tenth Ann. Rept., U. S. Geol. Surv., The Penokee 
Iron-Bearing Series, p. 396. 


338 The American Geologist. June, 1902: 


the latter to the protoxide,* and by decomposition furnished 
the carbon dioxide to unite with the protoxide, and thus repro- 
duce iron carbonate.” 

Concerning the silica, they wrote: 

“Our conclusion ts then: First, that the chert was mainly 
deposited simultaneously with the iron carbonate with which 
it is so closely associated; and second, that it is probable that 
the chert is of orgamc origin,t although we have no positive 
proof that it is not an original chemical sediment, while it may 
in part be from both sources.” 

In 1893, the present writer perceived that most of the mul- 
titudinous rock phases of the Mesabi iron-bearing formation 
were secondary and were derived from one another by rear- 
rangement and crystallization. He saw this and worked out 
most of the changes even before he had the opportunity, on 
returning from the field, to read the literature of the iron-de- 
posits on the south shore of the lake. The discovery, that 
what he feared might be deemed a too radical conclusion had 
already been sustained for the Penokee-Gogebic range, en- 
couraged him, and he set about to continue his investigations 
with the aid of the microscope. Further work showed that 
while the variety of rocks in the iron-bearing formation was 
great, they were not so dissimilar in their internal structure 
as in their outward appearance. ‘There were sideritic cherts 
and cherty carbonates, banded hematite and cherty silica, mag- 
netite-hematite slates, actinolite slates, etc., like the rocks which 
had been described from the Penokee-Gogebic. But these 
were all evidently greatly altered rocks and further removed 
from the original source than certain abundant kinds which 
he called the spotted granular rocks, from their being under 
the microscope made up of many rounded or angular or ir- 
‘regular granular bodies in a generally silicious matrix. These 
granules give a mottled and fragmental appearance to the 
the granules are composed of silica, generally of finer texture 
than the silica of the ground-mass, with siderite, hematite, lim- 
onite, magnetite, and a green hydrous ferrous silicate, in all 
combinations and proportions.$ ‘There are besides various sub- 
ordinate minerals, such as actinolite, calcite, apatite, epidote, 


* The italics are mine. (J. E. S.) 

+ Op. cit., p. 397. 

i The italics are mine (J. E. S.) 

§ Bull. X, Minn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv., pp. 138-139. 


Lake Superior Iron Ores.—S purr. 339 


pyrite and clayey matter. In the least altered rocks the granules 
were found to be made up almost exclusively of the green fer- 
rous silicate. The other forms of iron,—the carbonates as well 
as the oxides—were found to be derived from alteration of 
this original silicate. It was shown that this silicate is un- 
stable, and that decomposition begins by the appearance of 
very tiny transparent rings of silica scattered through the 
mineral. These rings steadily grow, till in the last stage they 
meet and form a continuous mass of silica. In proportion as 
the silica separates out, the remaining portion of the green 
mineral becomes darker and opaque from the separation of 
iron oxide, so that finally the original mineral has disappeared, 
leaving a mixture of hydrous tron oxide and silica. 

From this condition the silica changes somewhat by coars- 
ening of texture and by changing of position; and the iron 
may change into carbonate or magnetite, with or without the 
assumption of crystalline form. Subsequent changes often 
bring this siderite or magnitite back to the hematitic or limon- 
itic condition, and thus the fluctuation is kept up indefinitely. 
All these changes and many more were demonstrated by mic- 
roscopic work, and the alteration of the spotted-granular rock, 
not only to sideritic chert, but also to banded iron and silica, 
and even into iron-ore bodies, was followed in all its stages. 

The evidence put forward as to the derivation of the 
Mesabi iron from an original green hydrous ferrous silicate 
was accepted by the state geologist and others of the Minne- 
sota survey, and by outside scientific writers in general. It 
was not fully accepted by the United States Geological Survey 
until its parties had made a thorough study of the Mesabi; 
but on emerging from this study they also have agreed that 
the iron ores “have resulted from the alteration of certain 
rocks containing green granules, which, on analysis, prove to 
be essentially ferrous silicate.’’* 

The present writer agrees with the geologists of the United 
States Geological Survey, with those of the Minnesota survey, 
and so far as he knows, most others, in believing that the 
greater part of the ores of the Lake Superior region have had 
a common origin. The iron-bearing formation of the Peno- 
kee-Gogebic region lies, like that of the Mesabi, in the Upper 


* Eng. and Min, Jour., Feb. 22; 1902, p. 277. 


340 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


Huronian. It is 800 to 1000 feet thick; the present write: 
estimated the thickness of the Mesabi iron-bearing formation 
at from 500 to 1000 feet. The Gogebic iron-bearing forma- 
tion is underlain by a persistent quartzyte 500 feet thick, and 
overlain by a very thick (12,800 feet and less) series of slates, 
etc. The Mesabi formation is likewise underlain by a persis- 
tent quartzyte of approximately 500 to 800 feet in thickness, 
and overlain by a very thick series of slate. The Mesabi and the 
Gogebic are only a hundred miles apart, and the strata of the 
two districts dip toward each other, those of the Mesabi south, 
those of the Gogebic north. It is therefore probable that the 
iron-bearing member is identical in these ranges. Most of the 
other iron ranges are provedly of different age, some being 
Lower Huronian and some Archean; but the same peculiar 
types of rocks as those recognized in the Mesabi and Gogebic, 
although far more altered and with the fresher types lacking, 
are associated with the ore deposits, and point most strongly 
to a common origin. 


The Nature of the Original Ferrous Silicate. 


There remains but one question on which there is not 
a fairly general agreement.—the nature of the hydrous green 
ferrous silicate which the writer has shown to be the source 
of the iron. 

In his original investigation the writer summed up his 
inquiries as follows :* 

“Chemically, it is essentially a hydrous protosilicate of iron, with a 
small amount of alumina, variable small amounts of calcium and mag- 
nesium, and trifling quantities of the alkalies. Chemically it seems 
more closely related to glauconitz than to any other mineral, and 
differs chiefly in the absence of the usual larger amount of potash. 
Another way in which it differs from the ordinary glauconite ‘s that the 
iron here is normally in the protoxide state, while in nearly all the 
reported analyses of glauconite it is mainly in the sesquioxide condi- 
Oia rcr ly. & o> wee 

“The specific gravity of glauconite is given by Dana as from 2.2 
to 2.35: while we have found that of our mineral as higher than 2.8. 
But the glauconite of the St. Lawrence limestone (Upper Cambrian) 
of Minnesota, analyzed by professor S. F, Peckham, has according 
to him, a specific gravity of 3.634; and from the chemical composition 
of the mineral it must be that in many cases the density rises above 3. 


* Bull. X, Minn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, p. 235-7. 


—r 


Lake Superior Iron Ores.—S purr. 341 


“Optically, the mineral has been found by professor Wolff to have 
all the characters of glauconite. 

“Tts habit, so far as can be made out, is also that of glauconite, 
in that it occurs in disseminated grains through a sedimentary bed, 
and that these grains appear to have had originally rounded outlines, 
due to attrition. 

“We must conclude, therefore, that the mineral is probably a var- 
iety of glauconite.* The characters by which it differs from the or- 
dinary mineral may be explained in two ways. In regard to the small 
amount of potash, it may either be believed that this substance was 
-absent from the original composition of the mineral, or that it has 
subsequently been removed by solution. But since its absence is ac- 
companied by the presence of iron in the ferrous condition, we find 
it difficult to believe the latter supposition; for the same agents which 
would remove the alkalies would probably effect the oxidation of the 
iron. In regard to the excess of protoxide, again, it may be believed 
either that the iron of glauconite is normally.a protosilicate, and 
that the analyses which show an excess of the sesquioxide are from 
more or less oxidized specimens; or, as seems more probable, that 
there may have been an original difference.” 

This conclusion as to the nature of the green hydrous fer- 
rous silicate was for a long time unchallenged. Recently, 
however, professor N. H. Winchell, who had formerly consid- 
ered the mineral glauconite, has brought forth arguments 
favoring the idea of a volcanic origin of the mineral.+ The 
writer regrets that he has not the report in question at hand 
at present, to go into this inquiry a little further. 

Still more recently, Messrs. Van Hise and Leith have an 
nounced that the mineral cannot be glauconite. Not having 
the original paper, the writer is obliged to quote from reviews: 

“This silicate, which occurs in green granules and is 
termed glauconite in the Minnesota reports, is here stated 
to contain no alkalies,t and thus is not glauconite,$ but a fer- 
rous silicate.” || 

“The most interesting of the late developments concern 
the origin of the iron ores. They have resulted from the al- 
teration of certain rocks containing green granules, which on 
analysis, prove to be essentially ferrous silicate. They lack 


* Italics not present in original. (J. E. S.) 
+ Final Report, Minn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, vol. v. 


ti.e¢., in PROFESSOR VAN HISE’s paper on the iron-ore deposits of the Lake 
Superior Region, 21st Ann. Rep., U. S. Geol. Sur., part iii. 


§The italics are mine. (J. E. S.) 
Review in AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, Jan., 1902, p. 51. 


342 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


potash, and so cannot be glauconite and of organic origin* 
as supposed by Spurr.’”’+ 

This is hardly sufficiently tangible. The statement that the 
mineral is a ferrous silicate, and the observation concerning 
the absence of the alkalies, potash and soda, reiterate those of 
the present writer. The reader will doubtless be puzzled to 
know, as much as is the author of this article, why the same 
characteristics, which the author considered compatible with 
the consideration of the mineral as glauconite, should now be 
stated as full proof to. the contrary. 

The last sentence quoted above may be resolved into two 
statements—First: “They lack potash and so cannot be glau- 
conite”’; and second, “They lack potash, and so cannot be ot 
organic origin.” The first statement admits of a discussion; 
but the logic of the second does not appear. It is probable, 
however, that this last is a hasty statement, and was hardly 
meant, for in the next paragraph, after speaking of the evi- 
dence of sedimentary origin of the iron-bearing formation, 
and advancing the hypothesis that the iron was precipitated 
from the sea-water as limonite, the author of the report goes 
on to say: 

“The limonite settled and became mingled with organic 
material, the presence of which is shown by the association 
with carbonaceous slates, and was reduced to the protoxide 
form. The simultaneous decomposition of the organic ma- 
terial freed carbon dioxide. Silica also precipitated (chert is 
known to develop under such conditions) probably through 
the agency of organisms. Both of these substances could com- 
bine readily with the iron protoxide, but im the case of the 
Mesabi rocks the main combination was the protoxide and sil- 
ica, = giving the ferrous silicate which we now find.” 

Therefore, after all, the author assigns an organic origin to 
the ferrous silicate, and the question may be dropped. Briefly, 
he believes that iron protoxide reduced to this form by organic 
material, and silica precipitated by the same agency, united 
“to form the hydrous ferrous silicate. This is exactly the 
theory which is generally held, and which the present writer 
holds, concerning the origin of glauconite. 


* The italics are mine. (J E.S.) 

+ Report of paper before the Geological Society of Washington, by C. Kk. 
LEITH. in Eng. and Min. Jour., Feb. 22, 1902, p. 277. 

t{ The italics are mine. (J. E. 8S.) 


~~. = 


Lake Superior Iron Ores.—S purr. 343 


So the differences between the views of the present writer 
and those of Messrs. Van Hise and Leith resolve themselves 
to still smaller dimensions. Each believes that the original 
source of the iron is a hydrous ferrous silicate of organic 
origin; and the remaining point is fortunately a slight one, 
the writer having decided to call the mineral glauconite, and 
his fellow-geologists objecting to this nomenclature. 

Just, then, what is glauconite and what are its limits? Can 
-our mineral be classed with the glauconites, or must we name 
it with a new name? 


, 


First, as to the chemical composition. Our mineral is, | 
repeat, ‘‘essentially a hydrous protosilicate of iron*with a small 
amount of alumina, variable small amounts of calcium and 
Magnesium, and trifling quantities of the alkalies.’* Dana 
defines glauconite as “essentially a hydrous silicate of iron 
and potassium; but the material is mostly, if not always, a 
mixture, and consequently varies much in composition.”+ In 
Dana's Manual of Geologyt the New Jersey glauconite is de- 
fined as “‘a soft, dark or light green silicate of alumina, iron, 
and potash, with water.’ Zirkel defines the mineral as “a 
hydrated silica of chiefly ferrous iron (or ferric iron), with 
potassium, also some alumina and calcium.”$ Neither Dana 
nor Zirkel gives a chenucal formula for the mineral—it has 
none. 

As regards the different elements present in glauconite, 
the writer finds in the few analyses at hand alumina varying’ 
from 15.21 per cent to I per cent; magnesia from 16.60 pe 
cent to .57 per cent, lime from 3.30 per cent to a trace; potash 
from 7.91 per cent to less than 1 per cent; soda from, 1.28 per 
cent to nothing; and water from 12.60 per cent to 4.71 per 
cent. As to the iron oxide, it varies from 30.69 per cent to 
16.30 per cent. The silica ranges from 40 per cent to 52.86 
per cent. 

In the course of his investigation of the Mesabi rocks the 
writer had two analyses made of the green silicate, by two dif- 
ferent methods. The only difficulty lay in the free silica, 
which was so disseminated in it that a thorough exclusion 
was impossible. It therefore became necessary to estimate the 


* Bull. X, Minn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv., p. 235. 

+ The italics are mine. (J. E. S.) 

t Third edition (the only one I have access to), p. 58. 

§ Lehrbuch der Petrographie, 2d edition., vol. iii, p. 728. 


344 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


exact amount of silica in the silicate (which was taken at 50 
per cent), and from this to compute the proportions of the 
bases. The results of these two analyses are given below, side 


by side with three analyses of undisputed glauconites: 
Glauconite, Glauconite, 


Grodno French Glauconite, Mesabi Mesabi 
Valley, creek, Paris green green 
Russia.* Penna.j+ Basin.i mineral.§ mineral.|} 
Sili@avice.cccsvester-eermes 49.76 52.86 40.00 50.00 50.00 
PACHA Aeeeee se eececemes 8.18 7.08 1.00 5.54 C26 
Sesquioxide of iron 16.80 1,205 N 24.70 8.05 9.81 
Protoxide of iron.. 3.77 OES it) ne 26.56 17.91 
Mapnesia........... ie) ROTO 2.90 16.60 3.78 5.45 
1Dyi01\2inenbee apascaccaa acd 0.41 trace 3.30 2.59 17h 
Potashicsaie dees -asaee TheBsTt 2123 1.70 41 so 
Sod Gisstvesaeserresseesseh- OraZ CHACET, Je yaesscecees 45 trace. 
WAVE WS Pbeacegocadonsonceras 9.82 84.3 12.60 2.54 7.54 
100.00 100.18 100.00 99.92 99.99 


Among these analyses the writer considers that Nos. 2 and 
5, an undisputed glauconite and the Mesabi green mineral, 
are much closer together than 1 and 3, two analyses of glau- 
conite. 

Chemically, therefore, there seems no reason why the Mes- 
abi green silicate cannot be classed as a glauconite. Its iron is 
chiefly in the protoxide state, whereas in most glauconites it 
is chiefly sesquioxide; but the French Creek glauconite quoted 
above contains likewise chiefly protoxide. Dana° speaks of 
the California Cretaceous glauconite as a ferrous silicate (20 
to 25 per cent protoxide of iron). Zirkel’s general definition 
of glauconite, above quoted, gives preference to the protoxide 
over the sesquioxide. In this point, at least, then, there is no 
possible difficulty. 

The final chemical point is the question of the trifling 
amount of potash present. This question was raised and 
discussed by the writer in his original work. 

The most ordinary glauconite contains 6 or 7 per cent of 
potash (the highest under the writer’s observation at present 
is 7.91 per cent), but many analyses show 3 or 4’ per cent only. 
Analysis No. 2, quoted above, contains 2.23 per cent; analysis 
No. 3, 1.70 per cent; while a specimen analyzed by Murray 


* JANA, System of Mineralogy, 6th ed , p. 684. 

+ Ibid. 

+ BERTHIER, Annales des Mines, 6. 1821, p. 459. 

§ Bull. X, Minn. Geol and Nat. Hist. Survey, p. 233. 
\| Op. cit.. p. 235. 

° Manual of Geology, 3d edition, p. 458. 


Lake Superior Iron Ores.—S purr. 345 


and Renard* from off the coast of Australia, afforded less 
than one per cent. This being the case, our two analyses of 
the Mesabi mineral, with their .41 and .31 per cent potash, 
come far closer as regards potash, to the glauconites low in 
potash above quoted, than these do to the glauconites high in 
potash. Moreover, Murray and Renard concluded that by a 
study of the ancient rocks near the coast where the glauconite 
forms “it is possible to suggest, with a considerable degree ot 
certainty, the relative abundance of the potash in the deposites 
where the glauconite is forming.’”’ For since the glauconite 
derives its constituents especially from the “debris of granite, 
gneiss, mica-schists, and other ancient rocks’ which “must 
give birth by their decomposition to potassium, derived from 
the orthoclase and the white mica of the gneisses and the 
granites” the relative abundance of potash in these rocks will 
roughly correspond to that in the glauconites. Now the land 
surface at the time of the deposition of the Mesabi iron-bear- 
ing formation must have consisted of the complex of pre-Ani- 
mikie granites, gneisses, and schists. Ordinary granites gen- 
erally contain 4 to 8 per cent of potash, but several analyses} 
from the region under consideration} show a small amount of 
this substance. Of three analyses, one showed 2.80 per cent 
K,O, another 1.68, and a third .71. The schist seems still 
poorer; an analysis of green schist from Tower showed .30 
per cent potash, and another from the falls of the Kawishiwi 
.27 per cent. These are the only analyses the writer has access 
to at the present moment. On the other hand, the green 
schists contain plenty of iron (one of the above mentioned 
analyses shows 9.87 per cent, the other 19.23 per cent iron 
oxide) ; so it seems only natural that the ferrous silicate should 
form in abundance, under the influence of organic matter, in 
the ocean into which the mud from these rocks was washed; 
and that it should be destitute of potash. 

Of more importance, perhaps, than the exact chemical 
composition of a mineral are its physical qualities. Thus the 
amphiboles are related more by form and optical characters 
than by chemical composition. The same is true of pyroxene, 


* Reports, Challenger Expedition, vol. Deep Sea Deposits, p. 387. 

+ U.S. GRANT, 21st Ann. Rep., Minn. Geol. und Nat. Hist. Surv., pp.+1-44. 

Also AM, GEOL., June, 1893, p. 385. 

t The first is from Kekequabic lake; the second from the Kawishiwi river; 
the third from Saganaga lake. 


340 The American Geologist. sane 


feldspar, scapolite, etc. In amphibole, alumina varies from 
o to 18.20 per cent.; iron, from o to 40.40 per cent.; lime, 
fromy. 0, to 20:47 pen cent.;5\ etc. 

Now the physical characters of our mineral are those of 
glauconite. Professor Wolff* described it as of “a brownish- 
green to clear-green color, partly isotropic, partly aggregate 
polarizing, in feebly polarizing dots and specks. Hardly any 
pleochroism, no cleavage. They resemble in all physical char 
acters glauconite-grains.” + 

One of the most characteristic features of the Mesabi 
green silicate as described and figured by the writerz, is the 
peculiar process of decomposition, marked by the appearance 
in the thin section of numberless tiny silica rings, which 
erow until they unite, the iron which is at the same time 
separated giving to the residual glauconite a progressively 
~darker and browner color. 

Zirkel remarks§ that in glauconite sandstores (green sand- 
stone) : 

“The glauconite-grains, which are sometimes sparse, sometimes 
abundant, in this sandstone, break up on weathering into many concent- 
ric spherical shells,|| and the iron oxide of the glauconite changes 
into hydrated oxide of iron, whereby the greenish color of the stone 
gradually is changed to a light brown.” 

Since his Minnesota work the writer has found in Alaska 
ancient glauconite-bearing rocks (perhaps Silurian) where the 
glauconite shows the same process of decomposition and trans- 


formation. He quotes from himself :{ 

“The jasperoids are rocks consisting chiefly of silica, generally 
chaleedonic or cryptocrystalline, and are plainly derived from the sil- 
iicatlonNon ober LOCKS. sl sean 

“An interesting and important variety is the glauconite jasperoid 
or taconyte, such as has been described by the writer as occurring 
abundantly in the iron-bearing rocks of the Mesabi range in Minne- 
sota. In the rocks of the Rampart series° it also appears that the 
glauconitic limestones pass into jasperoids, which are colored red, 
green, brown, or gray by iron in its different forms, or occasionally 
by manganese, or which are light gray or nearly white, as a result 
Ol, thessepanation 1Of the mmoles sn en nn eee 


* Bull. X, Minn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, p. 331. 

+ The italics are mine. (J. E. S.) 

t+ Ibid., p. 133, and plate VI, figs. 1 and 2. 

§ Lehrbuch der Petrographie, vol. iii, p. 728. 

|| Whose cross-sections are rings. (J. E. S.) 

{ 18th Ann. Rep., U. S. Geol. Surv., part iii, pp. 160, 161, 164, 165, 166 
° Alaska, Yukon river. 


= wry 


Lake Superior Iron Ores.—S purr. 347 


“A rock exhibiting well the transition between the glauconitic 
limestone and the jasperoid was collected on the Yukon river in the 
lower Ramparts. Here in a cliff was seen a thin seam of bright red 
jasper, with dark-green fine-grained rocks on both sides, which was 
in immediate contact with coarser-textured green rock shown by 
microscopic examination to be typical tuff. A thin section of the 
rock at the contact of the bright-red jasper seam with the dark-green 
chert is made up mostly of cryptocrystalline silica, which is chalce- 
donic in places, with spherulitic aggregates showing dark crosses un- 
der crossed nicols. Glauconite is abundant in irregular grains of 


- all sizes, and the decomposition of this mineral, forming chalcedonic 


silica and iron oxide, is seen in all its stages. The process is that 
observed by the writer in the rocks of the Mesabi iron range. This 
decomposition accounts for the ragged outlines of the grains of 
glauconite. The iron is dark red, apparently of ocherous hematite, and 
occurs everywhere, though it is considerably less in amount than the 
glauconite. It shows a tendency to accumulate in irregular clumps. 
Calcite in frequent ragged areas is residual, being encroached on by 
cryptocrystalline silica, which is evidently replacing it. * * re 

“In this thin section are seen organic remains of complicated 
structure. The structure is brought into prominence by the increased 
amount of glauconite and iron oxide which have formed in the canals 
and other cavities. Mr. Bashford Dean, of Columbia College, has 
examined this section and has determined the structure as unquestion- 
ably that of a fish-tooth. 

“A section of the bright-red jasper into which the green rock 
passes, taken only a few inches from the specimen above described, 
is composed entirely of very fine-grained silica, which is stained 
throughout with iron oxide so deeply that the rock is aphanitic even 
under the microscope. 

“Green and red jasperoids having the same structure as above 
described, with the exception of the residual glauconite and calcite, 
are frequent in the rocks of the Rampart series, and by reason of their 
superior hardness are most conspicuous in conglomerates which have 
been derived from these rocks.” 

In Texas, the glauconite, in the Tertiary glauconite sands, 
has, according to Penrose and other writers,* furnished, by its 


decomposition, limonite iron ores in large amount. 


The Origin of Glauconite. 


Dana? observes that the kinds of glauconite are: 1. Green 
earth of cavities in eruptive rocks. 2. Green grains of sand 
beds of rocks, as of the green sand of the chalk formation. 
The second kind is of course the most important, but the 


*Resumé by J. F. Kemp, Ore Deposits of the United States and Canada. 
Fourth edition, p. 98. 


7 System of Mineralogy, 6th ed., p. 683. 


348 The American Geologist. SURE ee 


writer quotes the first to recall that silicate of iron of chloritic 
appearance and habit, even when in eruptive rocks, is called 
glauconite. 

Concerning the origin of glauconite grains in sedimentary 
rocks, I translate from Zirkel.* 

“The microscopic investigations of Ehrenberg have shown that 
many glauconite grains are the casts of foraminiferal shells, which 
were filled with the glauconite substance and later dissolved. Reuss, 
while he could plainly recognize many of the glauconite grains investi- 
gated by him as incrustations or fillings of foraminiferal shells, or 
could conclude them to be the broken up fragments of such shell- 
fillings, nevertheless expressed himself against the universal applica- 
tion of Ehrenberg’s observation, and considered the great majority 
of the grains as concretions which had grown from the center out- 
wards. Also Gtimbel says, ‘While it is clear that glauconite forms 
in the cavities of foraminifera or other marine animals, such as small 
gasteropods, pteropods, serpulz, and ostracods, and while it is sure 
that many of the grains which are now mixed with the sand and are 
without an organic shell covering, owe their origin to the breaking 
up of dissolved shells full of glauconite substance, yet there are many 
other glauconite grains, which cannot be referred. from their form 
or their size, to such an origin.’ He believes these have formed as 
entoolites. According to this, a thin film of glauconite is deposited 
on the surface of gas-bubbles, and inside of these the further filling 
is accomplished by intussusception. He supposes this formation of 
glauconite to always take place near the shores or in inconsiderable 
depths of the sea, But the glauconite grains, which occur in the green- 
ish sands and bluish muds of the present deep-sea deposits, are part- 
ly quite evident casts of foraminifera, and in part have a rounded 
form with often warty surface; since there is often the appearance 
that the deposition of the glauconite has burst the foraminiferal shell, 
the supposition follows that the rounded grains are also casts, which 
continue to grow after the dissolution of the shell (Murray and 
Renard ).” 

From this it will be seen that although glauconite (for 
example, that in the igneous rocks) may form without the 
assistance of organic matter, yet in the sedimentary rocks 
this agency is most active in its formation. Where the or- 
ganic material is most abundant, as within the tiny shells 
of foraminifera, etc., the building of glauconite is most active, 
but it is certain that these glauconite grains grow up concre- 
tionary action often beyond the limits of the shell. It is also 
probable that small particles of organic matter, scattered 
through the rock, may each begin the precipitation of glaucon- 
ite, which may grow to a grain of considerable size. 


* Lehrbuch der Petrographie, 2d ed., vol. iii, p. 728. 


ee 


Lake Superior Iron Ores.—S purr. 349 


Conclusions. 


The writer, therefore, states his conclusions as follows: 

1. That the iron ores of the Mesabi range, and the var- 
ied and peculiar rock-types of the iron-bearing formation 
are derived from the alteration and rearrangement of a sedi- 
mentary rock containing large quantities of a green hydrous 
ferrous silicate, in generally rounded, small, separate grains. 

2. That the rocks containing iron carbonate, including 
‘the phases called cherty siderites and sideritic cherts, are one 
of the results of alteration of this original rock, the iron car- 
bonate and also a large proportion of the silica being derived 
from the green silicate. 

3. That the green silicate was formed largely through 
the agency of organic matter. 

4. That its habit, form, optical and chemical qualities 
mark it as belonging to the class of glauccuites, and mark 
the original rock as a green sand. 

5. That in accordance with what is known of the form- 
ation of green sand, the iron, silica, etce., of which the glau- 
conite is composed, were probably derived largely from fine 
land silt,* in part also from solution in the sea water.+ . 

6. That the above conclusions probably apply to most 
of the other lake Superior iron ores. 


SOME TERTIARY FORMATIONS OF SOUTHERN 
CALIFORNIA. 


By Oscar H. HERSHEY, Berkeley, Calif. 


INTRODUCTION. 


In the course of several short pedestrian .excursions, ag- 
gregating 600 miles, the writer had the rare fortune of en- 
countering in southern California, during this present winter, 
an interesting series of Tertiary formations which had not 
hitherto been reported and discussed; and while the object of 
the excursions was primarily one not purely geological, suffi- 
cient material was gathered, it is believed, to warrant its being 
thus publicly recorded: for every addition to our knowledge 


* Bull. X, Minn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv., p. 240. 
+ Op. cit., p. 243. 


350 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


of the fascinating subject of the Pacific coast Cenozoic geol- 
ogy brings us nearer to the final elucidation of its problems. 

The southern California field is unique in that the forma- 
tions are so well exposed. Much of the country is virtually 
a desert and although life conditions in it are somewhat 
strenuous, the enthusiastic geologist will willingly overlook 
a few hardships for the sake of having the structure as clear- 
ly displayed in a distant view as though charted. One may 
stand on a peak overlooking some of the Pliocene basins and 
determine the structure of many square miles of territory and 
thousands of feet in thickness of strata almost as readily as if 
he held the basin in his hand and took it apart block from 
block. 

In the valley of the Santa Clara river of the South, about 
30 miles north of Los Angeles, there is a basin-shaped depres- 
sion in the older rocks occupied by Upper Pliocene strata, 
and at its extreme eastern end there appear remnants of older 
Tertiary formations which will be discussed 1nder the names, 
respectively, of the Escondido and Mellenia series. 


THE Esconpipo SERIES 


Near the head of Tick Canyon, about four miles north of 
Lang station on the Southern Pacific railway in Los Angeles 
county, the following section from north to south and begin- 
ning at the bottom of the series, was roughly measired along 
the sides of a gorge where there is a beautiful exposure: 


Type-section of the Escondido series in Tick canyen. 


Gneiss (older complex) occupies first 5,000 feet of canon. 
Thickness. 
Basal conglomerate, Diuitse verticaler- np ss.. cecum 780 feet. 
Coarse buff and light ereem sandstone \... 3-!:.. sn cae 70 feet. 
3. White sandstone, alternating with a white thin bedded 
or banded material apparently either a rhyolyte with 
Low. Strictube on shiv Olyte cutee erst ere errr ote 230 feet. 


. 


load 


to 


4. Dark red and brown lava of basic composition, showing 
flow structure; semi-crystalline. Some layers are por- 
phyritic and some slightly amygdaloidal. Much of it is 
stained bright green. It appears too basic for andesyte 


and 1s. probably (a. basalt’ was oceeds 06 o> 2 + POORER 

5) sbright light red sandstone and™=shale,).....--.ssseeee go feet. 
6 Dark brown’ basalts Ge) avers acc noes bares See eee GnGeEE 
Rede isamdStOme; 1. cuscne.e inayat ace Meee nePeke tarenese, Sess ee archon 


cos 


Green’ ssamd'stome: — sen occas Sake ene ae Cae ace eer ep one 10 feet. 


California Tertiary Forimations.—Hershey. 351 
mmr IimeaminyGlitic: titi n (cee ape als Ga phehy 2.60 vis, on nial er ethiel te vie 4 feet. 
to. Green sandstone and conglomerate, ...................- 20 feet. 
PRPINEOASATIONSCONG) So cv asdina Cumcieersiesaterbiins « « Hickam 20 feet. 
12. Dark brown basalt (?) and a more acid lava with fine flow 

CUE (0) TC oe Pe PE: ae yal ees Re) er odd) “5S-feet. 
13. Dark red, very coarse tuff containing abundant Pi Ue 
OL Pereer vino efOrmationSectratcees ass v5 oy es Je ole Pee 200 feet. 
14. Dark brown, coarse-grained amygdaloidal lava, ........ 100 feet. 
Semeder iT ty. CIT OCCT SST hte aise see ads eo sce 8 6 obs xsd, 6ys 3 feet. 
RemeroAt iC. DIUE-Shay whale cect ictrar hea es epee nsse cece, A ROCES 
ere DTOWi- SAIS. .t Vier mtb Aw ies sce dvs Ke eb ee wets 4 feet. 
ie. Coarse, light: brown sandstone) c02.).05)3:. 665... : 5 feet. 
19. Series of alternating shales and Pandetanice ; nearly verti- 
cal; bright colors including red, yellow, blue and purple; 
SHALES DIT Iys UATIID ALEC @ worries sah rae s 6S alee ss hore - 150 feet. 
20. White shales impregnated with gypsum, ................ 10 feet. 
2m, Variegated shales and sandstones, ....0......4....0... 120 feet. 
22. Light blue-gray conglomerate (granitic debris largely) and 
STUBS MAIER Rta thal. Beara Se Ee oy eae tte go feet. 
23. Pink sandstone; thin and heavy bedded; dips southerly 
ORLON for UCL CES hee ee ees ieee meray Re ae hve, « 350 feet. 
Ber PeOAsse: light STAY SANAStOUG, oo. Sie 2 vs ne ch die alow ae wae = 50 feet. 
25. Dark brown, coarse-grained basic lava showing flow struc- 
Ln e ROA oe ogee cee eer are eee Rete Meee nner see Ra rcet 150 feet. 
SLO” Sars tmcs tra hc ten Bed cea urate vomaane Bese ss oha ty 4S 3864 feet. 


The lava flows were contemporary with the sediments 
and not later intrusions. In places the sandstone is red- 
dened and hardened under a lava sheet, but the sandstone over 
it is unaltered. The heavy tuff stratum (No. 13) 1s undoubt- 
edly bedded with the other sediments and it contains frag- 
ments of the lower lavas. Parts of the sheets were very ve- 
sicular, and the surface of the volcanic area abounds in chal- 
cedony which has weathered out of the amygdules. 

The lava is local in its heavy development. Through its 
resistant properties it gives rise to a range of rugged black 
mountains. Just east of Tick canyon there seems to have been 
a center of eruption, marked by an unusually prominent group 
of peaks. The sandstone layers among the lava sheets were 
somewhat broken up, apparently by subsequently erupted lava. 
The different sheets, about five in number, thin rapidly to east 
and west and at the distance of one mile several have wedged 
out entirely. At one place the lower sheet is in contact with 
the gneiss, but I have a suspicion that the contact between the 


352 The American Geologist. Sune, aoe 


crystalline and Tertiary rocks at this locality is a faulted one, 
producing the effect of overlap. Certain black, very basic 
gabbro dikes in the neighboring gneiss may represent the 
roots of the volcano. There are no evidences of a crater as 
the old voleano has been turned up on its side and deeply 
eroded. 

The Tertiary formations in this region have the struc- 
ture of a trough trending northeast to southwest and closed 
on the northwest end. They dip toward the axis of the trough 
and curve around the northeast end-in a very beautiful and 
instructive manner. Each successive series laps past the next 
older, so that the older series are in the forms of crescent or 
horse-shoe-shaped areas, having their greatest width at the 
northeastern end of the trough and rapidly thinning out and 
disappearing on its sides. 

The Escondido series appears first at Mint canyon, several 
miles west of Tick canyon, and trends eastward, widening to a 
maximum of about one mile, a little east of the latter canyon. 
Just east of the valley of the Aguadulce creek, where is the pro- 
longation of the axis of the trough, the sandstone swings rap- 
idly to the south, but the line of lava peaks continues eastward. 
The lava range doubtlessly marks the site of a set of east-west 
fissures. Perhaps it was the outflow of lava through these 
fissures that caused a subsidence of the region and permitted 
the accumulation of several thousand feet of sediments over 
what had just previously been a land area. 

The Escondido canyon, the next main valley east of the 
Aguadulce (the latter marked on some maps as the Canyada de 
la Sierra Pelona,) exposes a splendid section through the series. 
The following thicknesses are merely estimates. The series of 
lavas and sandstones dip westerly at angles of 20° to 40°, 
the prevailing dip being 30°. The exposure is so perfect in 
the narrow winding canyon with precipitous and even over- 
hanging walls that no faulting can have escaped attention. 
seginning at the head of the canyon there is, resting on the 
schist-gneiss-granite-complex— 

Section in Escondido Canyon Thickness. 


1. A coarse breccia-conglomerate of angular and subang- 
ular blocks of granite, gneiss, etc., from the underly- 
ing older complex, all well cemented and in places 
clearly ystratifiied 334.5 fn eek ee ee cee coo feet. 


California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 353 


2. A massive sheet of dark reddish brown basic lava seem- 
ingly a typical basalt, in places very vesicular or 


amygdaloidal, abounding in secondary chalcedony, .. 2000 feet. 
3. Red and yellow sandstones and coarse breccia-con- 

glomerate of granitic and gneissic material, ........ 200 feet. 
4. Dark basic lava passing upward into dark red tuff, .. 200 feet. 


5. A great series of dull red and yellowish coarse sand- 
stones and coarse breccia-conglomerate of granitic 
BIC SN EISSI Cam ATCE Ian recite trate Cpe aid. e.s od) a sac apices 3000 feet. 


tale ete eRe acres ek en id pad ale heeds 6 59co0 feet. 
No. 2 may be correlated with No. 4 of the Tick canyon sec- 
tion, No. 3 with Nos. 5-11 inclusive and No. 4 is similar to 
Nos. 12-13, the coarse red tuff being a characteristic and 
easily recognized stratum. No. 5 of the Escondido canyon sec- 
tion is remarkable for its heavy beds of coarse breccia-con- 
glomerate which recur at frequent intervals throughout the 
series. Blocks of granite and gneiss up to three feet in diam- 
eter may occur anywhere, even in the sandstones compara- 
tively free from conglomerate. It is a characteristic of this 
sandstone and conglomerate series that although overlying and 
newer than the vast mass of lava, the material is essentially all 
debris from the schist-gneiss-granite complex. The material 
grows finer to the westward, and at the valley of the Agua- 
dulce, the very coarse breccia-conglomerates have been re- 
duced to ordinary conglomerates. A local source of much of 
the material is indicated by the abundance of Ravenna dior- 
ytes in the conglomerates on the south side of the trough and 
their rarity on the north side. 

The Escondido series was deposited under static water 
conditions and apparently in the sea. The bedding is regular 
and the pebbles in most layers are well rovwnded. In Mint 
canyon there is, close under a lava sheet, a well-marked gyp- 
sum-bearing stratum about 50 feet in thickness. It is main- 
ly a dark gray sandy silt and clay or shale, heavily impregnat- 
ed with gypsum; but several layers aggregating 10 feet in 
thickness are mainly of gypsum in thin regular layers, trav- 
ersed by veinlets of satin-spar of a secondary character. Ap- 
parently there is along 2000 ft., 1oft. in thickness of 50 per 
cent gypsum rock, which may be depended on to go down 1000 
feet—say a million tons. This gypsum ‘bed seems to repre- 
sent a bay cut off temporarily from the main body of water 


354 The American Geologist. Bhs 


by a lava flow near the site of Tick canyon, and dessicated by 
the heat of the sun, resulting in the precipitation of the gyp- 
sum in layers interbedded with layers of mud. 

Fast of Tick canyon there is a layer of hard gray limestone, 
several hundred yards long and in places 18 inches thick, in- 
ter-bedded with the volcanic rock. The limestone and gypsum 
are evidences’ of a marine origin for the detrital portion of 
the series. I failed to find a trace of fossils, but the volcanic 
activity and resulting gases passing into solution in the sea- 
water may have been inimical to life on that portion of the sea 
bottom. 

The series is everywhere well lithified and even the sand- 
stones outcrop readily. Dr. H. W. Fairbanks secured some 
fine photographs of the craggy sandstones near Soledad canyon, 
but he paid no further attention to the formation. Its pres- 
ervation is due to the protective influence of the hard lava 
sheets and to its having been faulted down into the crystalline 
complex. Fragments of it are met in the higher mountains 
in most unexpected places. 

Between a range of gneiss mountains at the head of Tick 
canyon and the high schist ridge of the Sierra Pelona, a belt of 
granite is overlaid by a dull dark red (making buff hills) 
breccia and breccia-conglomerate, passing upward into well- 
stratified conglomerate and coarse sandstone. The series is 
well lithified, is mostly of granitic material, shows none of the 
neighboring lava, stands at a high angle, dips southerly, oc- 
cupies a belt 2000 to 3000 feet wide and has an estimated 
thickness of 1500 feet. It extends for miles toward the west- 
southwest down Texas canyon and its presence has given rise 
to a basin or broad valley probably one mile in average width, 
connecting on the east with a broad basin at the head of Mint 
creek. On the south side it is faulted to an extent of in 
places probably 1500 or 2000 feet. Another remnant faulted 
down into the older rocks is cut by the west fork of Mint 
canyon. These remnants of a great and perhaps wide-spread 
basal breccia conglomerate I correlate with the basal conglom- 
erate of the lava and sandstone series of Tick canyon, and 
with the basal breccia-conglomerate under the lava near the 
head of Fscondido canyon. It must be recognized as a distinct 


California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 355 


and well characterized and widespread division of the Es- 
condido series. 

East of the main Escondido canyon, the lava spreads out 
to a width in places of several miles and continues east to a 
valley trending north from Acton. But in this belt of mainly 
dark reddish brown lava hills, there are irregular areas of 
granite. Apparently the region abounds in faults, and by 
them the lava (which here lies at a comparatively low angle, ) 
-has been in places carried up high, removed by erosion and 
the underlying granitic rock laid bare. Conglomerate and 
sandstone appear with the lava as far as a prominent eleva- 
tion south of the South Escondido canyon, but eastward there 
is apparently little of it present in the series which is mainly 
lava and tuff. 

The lava bends south to the railway at Acton and one 
small area of it lies south of that village, on the south side of 
Soledad canyon. <A narrow belt of lava crosses the summit 
about two miles north of the railroad, but just north of the 
summit it bends around to the southeast, spreads out to quite 
a belt and reaches the railroad about one and one-half miles 
northeast of Vincent station. Here on both sides of the rail- 
road are low hills of dark red and purple color, composed 
of a massive bed of coarse tuff, much like that in Tick 
canyon, but containing a greater variety of lava fragments. 
A rugged purple mountain just west of this, near the summit 
is probably also of this tuff. 

Farther down the slope toward Antelope valley, certain 
dark red conglomerates, dipping northerly at a rather high 
angle and appearing in very limited patches from under the 
Quaternary detrital slope, and composed of granitic debris, 
seem to represent the Escondido series. West of the rail- 
road near Palmdale, the bright colors of a low range of hills 
indicate the same. Here also it contains a gypsum bed which 
is extensively mined. Apparently a belt of the same series 
runs westerly a long distance on the south border of An- 
telope valley. Out in the broad desert plain eastward from 
Vincent are low hills whose rugged crests and dark reddish 
color suggest that they are an eastward extension of the lava 
belt of the Soledad country. 


350 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


Tse MELLENIA SERIES, 


The middle portion of Tick canyon, about three miles 
north of Lang station, affords the completest section of this 
series. Beginning at the foot of a lava peak just east of the 
main canyon and going southwest obliquely across the valley, 
the section is as follows, in ascending order, with thicknesses 
roughly measured : 


Type-section of Mellznia series in Tick canyon. Thickness. 


I 


. Brown basal breccia of lava fragments resting on lava and 


dipping tossouthwest 30ldegrees) +... eee cee 40 feet. 
2. Buff basal breccia-conglomerate, mostly of lava: some 
GOarse Sandstomexssstnatitiedsa yer Ai ectaeyee ei el eee 40 feet. 


3. Pink, coarse argilaceous sandstone; some lava pebbles,. 40 feet. 
4. Sandy stratum of light gray color, containing much white 
MALena like wt kavertilnen te yiesn ates eee Mares ereene ees - 50 feet: 
Light gray and pink, heavy-bedded sandy shales, ........ 600 feet. 
Then a fault brings up the lava and earlier sandstones and the series 
begins again. Beginning in an easterly branch of Tick canyon, resting 
on the lava and variegated shales and sandstones of the earlier series 
i Thickness. 
1. Brown basal breccia-conglomerate, mostly of lava trag- 
mentsrand” Pebbles. “tats ae sesso ete oc eee 150 feet 
(Note.—The variegated shales between lava sheets dip northerly 
at a high angle [being slightly overturned], say 60°, and the overlying 
series dips westerly at 30°, making a splendid non-conformity. The 
actual contact is clearly exposed and no fault is present.) 
2. Pink, light gray, light green and light brown, thick-bed- 
ded, sandy shales and fine sandstones dipping wester- 


or 


n 


ly 20° to 30° asndoes all)-of this Section 2.25 .aaee ae 700 feet. 
3. Brown, buff and greenish conglomerates, mostly of lava 

EDD ESS Ay. hye ede rave Rr tke oie Za Adays et es oe QOD CEE 
4. Pink heavy bedded sandy shales and green andstoness ... 400 feet. 
5. Buff, green and gray conglomerate (mostly lava pebbles) 

Ac (COALSes Sam SUOMES ht vere mice i tere ee eee 150 feet. 


Total, 1700 feet. 

This series begins a little west of Mint canyon, trends east 

to a point about a mile east of Tick canyon, (on the axis of 
the trough,) swings rapidly around to the southwest and 
then runs straight for several miles, giving out (by overlap of 
the next series) just short of Soledad canyon near Lang sta- 
tion. Its average dip on both sides of the trough is between 
20° and 30°. It is lithified into soft rock and gives rise to 
boulder-strewn and conglomerate-capped hills of no mean size. 


——— 7 


California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 357 


Much of it stands readily in perpendicular bluffs, so brightly 
colored as to have suggested a name for a neighboring mining 
camp, the Rainbow District. The material is well rounded, 
regularly bedded and undoubtedly was deposited under static- 
water conditions. No fossils are present. The bright colors 
are due to its volcanic composition although no lava or tuffs 
in place appear in it. Perhaps the barrenness of life, the 
bright colors and the layers, of travertine may indicate fresh- 
water (lacustrine) rather than marine conditions. 

This non-conformity between the Escondido and Mellenia 
series is one of the best marked and most easily proved among 
the Tertiary formations of the state. The conglomerates in 
the lower series are of granitic debris, while those in the 
upper series are chiefly of lava derived by erosion from the 
lower series. Where the two adjoin there is a marked dif- 
ference in dip. In Tick canyon, the change is from 60° to 30°. 
Over the great mass of granitic conglomerate and sandstone 
in the Aguadulce and Escondido canyons, there is an altogether 
different series of conglomerates and shaly sandstones at least 
1000 feet thick resting on their upturned and planed-off edges, 
with different dip and strike. It is made up of material from 
the lavas of the lower series and is only an abnormally coarse 
portion of the Mellenia series. This latter is clearly in con- 
tact with different members of the lower series and laps past 
it at either end of the area. Before the basal conglomerate of 
the second series began to form, the first had been elevated into 
land, tilted at angles varying from 20° to 45° and profoundly 
eroded. It is certain that in places 1000 feet had been removed 
and evidence is not lacking that several times as much had 
been eroded from a large part of the basin. 

Among the lavas in the conglomerates of the Mellenia ser- 
ies are some andesytes and rhyolytes that are not known to 
have been erupted in the Soledad country and I refer their 
source to a volcanic series developed on Mohave desert north- 
ward from Antelope valley. This seems to furnish evidence 
that during the Mellenia epoch a portion of the Great Basin 
was drained by a river crossing the line of the present divide 
near Soledad pass and entering the sea by way of the Santa 
Clara basin. 


358 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


The relation to the overlying Upper Pliocene series is 
not so clearly made out. In Tick canyon, there might be add- 
ed to the type section of the Mellenia series the following: 
6. Buff gravel of Upper Pliocene; somewhat inclined to 

talse-bedding "exposed in ‘SectiOn;~.-.. «7-2 are eee 300 feet. 

It is difficult to place the exact line of division between 
the two series as there is no apparent unconformity in this 
exposure and no sharp line of division can be drawn anywhere. 
The two formations as a whole are quite unlike, the first being 
regularly bedded and the conglomerates distinct from the finer 
material, while the buff gravel is almost exclusively a gravel 
less regularly stratified than the other. The first is distinctly 
lithified and the second is not. The change from one to the 
other is effected in about 25 feet but this 25 feet contains a 
sort of transition from one to the other. The only evidence of 
non-conformity rests on broad structural grounds. 

About 3000 feet east of Lang station, a broad arm of 
Soledad canyon extends toward the northeast. It is excavated 
into the Tertiary formations and has splendid exposures. The 
ridge on the southeast side of the valley seems to be a con- 
glomerate of rather light color resting against the face of the 
older mountains, but I do not know much about this conglom- 
erate. The northwest side of the valley exposes the following 
section in ascending order; thicknesses estimated from mem- 
ory: 

1. Dull dark red conglomerate made up chiefly of dioryte, 
granite and gneiss debris with an occasional pebble or 


small boulder or vold™ aval. oe eee i ee 100 feet. 
2. Coarse sandstones and fine conglomerates (granitic de- 
bris) making a very showy appearance,................ 400 feet. 


3. Heavy conglomerates and coarse sandstones of light 

brown and buff colors; composed largely of hasic lavas. 300 feet. 
ac.) Rude - gravel: Mexposed: (5): marie Sree ener nae ee eee 100 feet. 

Nos. 1 and 2 represent a fragment of the Escondido series 
and No. 3 is the only representative of the Mellenia series 
which, two miles west, is 1700 feet thick. In tracing from one 
section to the other, I concluded that some hundreds of feet 
had been removed by erosion from the section near Lang 
before the Upper Pliocene was laid down. I do not think 
there was any great interval between the two series although 
there was a radical change in conditions. The Buff gravel 
laps past the Mellenia series on to the Ravenna dioryte south 
of Soledad canycn and the gneiss west of Mint canyon. 


———S | 


California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 359 


Tue Upper PLIOCENE SERIES. 


The Upper Pliocene basin of the Santa Clara river val- 
ley is oval in shape, with its major axis east to west. It ex- 
tends from a point in Soledad canyon one-half mile east of 
Lang station to near the Camulos ranch, a distance of about 
20 miles and from a point one mile south of Newhall to four 
miles up Castaic creek, a distance of about 10 miles. On all 
sides the strata dip toward the center of the basin at angles of 
20 to 30, but the chief disturbance is an unsymmetrical an- 
ticline traversing the area from northwest to southeast on the 
line of Castaic creek and Saugus. On one side of the strata, 
even the very latest Pliocene, dip to southwest at an average 
angle of 45’, not infrequently increasing to 60 or 70’, while the 
northeast slope is longer and gentler. 

The strata within the basin are clearly divisible into 
three members which, in field notes, I have designated the 
Buff, the White and the Red Banded, but it may be conven- 
ient to name them the Lang, the Soledad and Saugus divis- 
ions. 

The Lang Division.—This is a great bed of gravel and 
sand of a uniform buff color which is a distinguishing mark 
all around the basin. Red and brown lava cobbles are plen- 
tiful but there is also much granitic debris. The major 
bedding planes are regular but within each stratum there is 
the irregular and somewhat indistinct stratification common 
to alluvial deposits. It has the appearance of the delta of 
some large river flowing westward on the site approximately 
of Soledad canyon, perhaps draining Antelope valley, in part 
at least. Coarse gravel and boulders up to three feet in diam- 
eter occur at various levels in the deposit and even to the cen- 
ter of the basin: It is too well waterworn and too well strat- 
ied to be one of the “detrital slope’? accumulations so com- 
mon in the arid region. The width of the outcrop of this di- 
vision of the Upper Pliocene near Lang station is about two 
miles, and a conservative estimate of its thickness (based on 
good data, with all faulting eliminated,) gives it 3000 feet. 

The Soledad Division—This is gravel and sand, chiefly 
granitic, with lava pebbles and cobbles less abundant. It 
is finer in texture, more regularly bedded, and slightly more 
lithified than the lower members. It is inclined to outcrop in 


300 The American Geologist. ae ee 


-bare craggy hills showing the structure lines very plainly. 
The color is a uniform white or very light gray, and its ter- 
rane may be distinguished by this feature a long way off. 
Its thickness seems to be about the same as the Buff gravel, 
3000 feet. It usually dips 10° to 30°, but several miles west 
of Lang station, it has been tilted to 45°. This division I sup- 
pose to be marine. This is indicated not alone by its physical 
features, but by some paleontological evidence. An old pros- 
pector has referred me to a small canyon near Humphreys 
station (where this division alone is due) as yielding marine 
shells and other fossil debris including the bones of a whale, 
but I did not have the time to verify this statement. Marine 
shells are abundant near the oil wells about one and one-half 
miles southeast of Newhall, and Mr. Homer Hamlin says they 
occur in this Upper Pliocene series. The Lang rather than 
the Soledad division is due there and the former may be mar- 
inc in the western part of the basin. Five miles north of 
Saugus, marine shells have been collected by Mr. J. W. Wen- 
zel of Los Angeles, an intelligent miner, who states that they 
come from the gravel series. There can be little doubt that 
some part of the Upper Pliocene series is marine and from 
my observations on it, I should say it is the middle or Soledad 
division. 

The Saugus Division—This is a great series of unlith- 
ified sand, gravel and clay and has the appearance of a Quater- 
nary deposit of no greater age than the Kansan or Illinois 
drift sheets of the eastern states. Layers 10 to 30 feet thick 
of light gray gravel and sand alternate with layers of red 
sandy clay resembling old buried soils. The red layers are 2 
to 10 feet thick and grade downward graduaily into the gray 
gravel but end abruptly at the top. The whole deposit is strati- 
fied, waterworn and water-deposited; but the only real sharp, 
persistent lines are those at the top of the red layers. Its 
physical characters are unmistakably those of an alluvial de- 
posit, a river delta, progressively sinking and receiving fresh 
layers of gravel, overlaid by silt, the surface of which latter 
was weathered into soil between disturbances. The terrane 
Sccupies a central position in the basin and has an estimated 
thickness of 2000 feet. It is splendidly exposed in railway 
cuts in Soledad canyon near Saugus where it dips to the south- 


California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 301 


West at an average angle of 45°. It is eroded into sharp hills 
several hundred feet high and the oldest Quaternary river 
terrace of Soledad canyon is trenched on its disturbed beds. 

Combining the three divisions, this great gravel deposit 
with its almost incredible thickness of about 8000 feet, appar- 
ently represents the Upper Pliocene alone. On structural and 
lithologic grounds I will correlate it in a general way with thé 
Paso Robles formation discriminated by Dr. H. W. Fairbanks.* 
in the Salinas valley and with the Merced series on San Fran- 
cisco peninsula, discriminated by Prof. A. C. Lawson,+ and 
proved by abundant fossils to represent the latest Pliocene 
time. Mr. Homer Hamlin, of Los Angeles, who is familiar 
with the geology of the southern Coast ranges, particularly 
of Monterey county, confirms this correlation. 

The three divisions are conformable to each other, but 
the lower rests on very diverse formations. On the northwest 
of the basin is Cretaceous shale; on the north, schist and 
gneiss; on the northeast, the Mellenia series; on the south- 
east, dioryte and granite; and on the southwest and west, a 
great series of light yellow coarse sandstones and conglom- 
erates which constitutes the San Fernando range and is heav- 
ily developed in the valley of the Santa Clara river between 
Camulos and the sea. This rests unconformably on the 
bituminous, oil-yielding shales of the Monterey formation 
and is conceded by all who have studied it, including Mr. 
Homer Hamlin and the present writer, to be the San Pablo 
formation, generally classed as Lower Pliocene. Mr. Hamlin 
says 5000 feet in thickness of it are clearly exposed in a single 
section on the southern face of the Sierra Madre range. 

Between San Fernando and Newhall, this supposed San 
Pablo has a prevailing dip to southwest at angles of 20° to 
40°, but a reverse dip sets in on the northern side of the 
mountain so that the non-conformity with the overlying 
gravel is not a conspicuous one although none the less real 
and significant. The older formation is well lithified and 
resists erosion well, giving rise to high, craggy mountains. 
The newer is merely an unconsolidated gravel and its terrane, 
abounds in many low hills and an intricate network of ravines. 


* Journal of Geology, Sept.-Oct., 1898, p. 565. 


* Bulletin of the Department of Geology, University of California, vol. i, 
No. 4, pp. 142-148. 


362 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


A considerable interval is indicated between their epochs of 
deposition. In this hiatus I will place the Mellenia formation. 
The latter is more clearly related to the Upper Pliocene series 
than is the San Pablo of the San Fernando range. The 
Mellenia and San Pablo cannot be contemporary because in 
that case some of the lava pebbles must have reached the 
neighboring San Pablo sea, and the conglomerate and sand- 
stone south of Newhall should show the influence of the vol- 
canic material. The Mellenia is not probably older than the 
San Pablo because there is no evidence of such an interval 
between it and the Lang gravel as to have been occupied by 
the deposition in the neighboring sea of 5000 feet of conglom- 
erate and sandstone. On the contrary, the evidence is that 
the San Pablo area of the San Fernando region was dry land 
while the Mellenia series was being deposited in an inland 
fresh-water lake in the Soledad region and then later another 
orographic disturbance greatly extended the Pliocene basin, 
enabling the Upper Pliocene (Paso Robles) series to lap over 
on to the San Pablo. I shall, therefore, provisionally class the 
Mellenia series as Middle Pliocene and suggest that it may 
be an equivalent in time of the fresh-water Orindan Berkeley- 
an and Campan series, the Middle Pliocene representatives 
about the bay of San Francisco. 

The Saugus or upper fluviatile division of the gravel ser- 
ies is classed with the, Pliocene because it belongs on the in- 
ferior side of the great orographic disturbance which initiated 
typical Quaternary conditions of the Pacific coast. It is the 
very latest Pliocene in the state. It is due to the same long- 
continued and slow subsidence of this Santa Clara basin as 
the other members of the gravel series; and its accumulation 
continued until it was folded and erosion began. If the early 
Quaternary disturbance in the Pacific coast country occur- 
red at the same time as the eperiogenic uplift that inaugu- 
rated the Quaternary in the eastern states, this Saugus div- 
ision is the chronologic equivalent of the Lafayette formation. 


Tue Prru Upper PLIOCENE BASIN. 


Near Gorman’s station in the extreme northwestern cor- 
ner of the Los Angeles county there is a small Pliocene basin 
lying south of the Tehachapai range and east of Fraser 
mountain. The main basin is oval in shape, elongated to 


California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 303 


northeast-southwest and is open to Antelope valley on the 
northeast, but is drained to the south by Piru creek through 
a deep gorge. The main basin is about 12 miles long by 7 
miles in greatest width. An arm extends into the depression 
between Alamo and Fraser mountains. Another narrow arm 
extends along the very deep, narrow depression between 
Fraser mountain and the San Emedio-Tehachapai range. Still 
another arm extends northeast into Antelope valley where 
the same series is probably developed along the northern flank 
of the Sierra de la Liebre. 

This basin is occupied mainly by soft, heavy-bedded 
sandstone. On the north border, along the foot of the granite 
range, there is a narrow belt.of lava, rhyolitic in part, which 
has been faulted down into the granite anda remnants pre- 
served from erosion. Seemingly a detrital slope of granitic 
debris from the Tehachapai range, was built up over the nar- 
row strip of lava. Near the outer border and toward the top 
this detrital slope material is stratified, showing apparently 
the action of static water. On the west, where the Pliocene 
extends into a sort of cove in the schist-gneiss-granite moun- 
tains, a depression separating Fraser and Alamo mountains, 
the lower division is a buff bed of waterworn and water-de- 
posited material from the headwaters of Piru creek, and re- 
sembles the lower or Lang division of the Upper Pliocene 
in the valley of the Santa Clara river. On the southeast of 
the basin where the mountains are low and of Cretaceous 
strata, the lower division is thin and indefinite. In short, the 
lower division displays the influence of local conditions sur- 
rounding the basin, and the beginning of static-water con- 
aitions. 

The middle division and bulk of the series is an alterna- 
tion of heavy beds of light pink coarse sandstones, (with an 
occasional granite pebble,) and finer and more argillaceous 
sandstone of a light olive color. The first may have derived 
its peculiar pink color from the pink feldspar of the granite 
of the Tehachapai range, and the latter its light olive color 
and clayey constituent from the dark olive Cretaceous shales 
on the southeast. This division is sharply and regularly strat- 
ified, not of the alluvial or beach types, and seemingly corres- 
ponds in taxonomic position with the middle or Soledad 
member of the Upper Pliocene in the Santa Clara basin. 


304 The American Geologist. Tune, eee 


The upper division caps one of the highest hills in the 
basin, occurs one and one-half miles south of Gorman’s sta- 
tion, is splendidly exposed, dips gently to southwest and clear- 
ly overlies the earlier stratified members of the series. Ina 
nearly vertical section of about 400 feet there are several 
heavy beds of perfectly waterworn and apparently river-de- 
posited gravel alternating with clayey layers including the 
characteristic red, sandy, clayey, fine-grained, nearly non- 
pebbly material which in Soledad canyon I identified as buried 
soils. In fact, this upper and clearly alluvial division is near- 
ly identical in character with the Saugus or red-banded divis- 
ion of the Upper Pliocene in the Santa Clara basin. The two 
basins are not connected, but the same physical conditions must 
have affected both. Mr. Hamlin says the red clays have a 
wide distribution in the southern Coast ranges. 

The middle member appears to be marine in origin. Mr. 
William Smith, a rancher and ex-prospector, 72 years old, 
living eight miles by road south-southwest of Gorman’s sta- 
tion, showed me a remarkably well preserved “scallop” shell, 
(apparently Pecten carinum Gould, common in the Wildcat 
series in Humboldt county,) which he claimed to have found 
in the mountains five miles north where only gneiss or the 
Upper Pliocene are due. There was cemented gravel still 
attached to it.” It is not quite clear by what route the sea- 
water reached this isolated mountain locality, now hemmed in 
by high ranges of old rocks, but I rather think it was by way 
of a valley connecting with the coastal lowlands to the west 
between the Fraser-Pinos range and the San Emedio range, 
or by the San Joaquin and Salinas valleys. 

The series is tilted toward the center around the borders 
of the basin at angles from 10° to 30°, but in the central por- 
tion, much of the formation is practically horizontal. The 
estimated combined thickness of the lower or sstatic-water di- 
visions is 2000 feet and of the upper or alluvial division, 
500 feet. Since uplift, compression and tilting, it has been 
eroded into small, barren, steep hills with many cliffs. The 
most interesting fact connected with this basin is that marine 
Upper Pliocene strata have been raised on the flanks of Fras- 
er mountain, during the Quaternary era, to an altitude of 
6000 feet above the sea. 


California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 305. 


THE ROSAMOND SERIES. 


Antelope valley is a structural depression about 20 miles 
wide. On the south side there goes down under its floor the 
Escondido series with basic lavas. On the north side from a 
point two miles east of Rosamond station on the Southern 
Pacific railway to an indefinite distance west, there emerges 
from under it a rhyolyte series. Remnants of this constitute 
an east-west range of hills from 500 to 1000 feet high,: re- 
-markable for their colors of brilliant dark purple streaked 
with white and yellow. They are almost bare of soil and 
very rugged. They have a wide distribution on Mohave des- 
ert and may be distinguished many miles awav from the uni- 
form light brown ridges of granite. 

West of the railroad, a mile and a half north of Rosa- 
mond station, the lava belt, here about one mile wide, bends 
to the northwest and a range of purple and yellow hills ex- 
tends for over five miles in that direction. The strike is 
northwest and the dip to southwest at angles of 10° to 20°. 
Sections are much complicated by faulting and by the orig- 
inal inequalities, but I continued to roughly measure the fol- 
lowing sections (in ascending order) just west of the railroad 
where the sequence is fullest: 


Type Section of the Rosamond Series near Rosamend Siation. 


Granite. Thickness. 
1. Coarse and fine white sandstone, composed of granite 

debris and rhyolyte tuff, thin-bedded, regularly strat- 

ified and dipping westerly at angles of 10 to 20 de- 

ROE f HEA a art tA Wilda a. See ie PE Se BTU AT rE 500 feet. 
2. Bright, light red, stratified sandstone containing granite 

debris, some cobbles and boulders (waterworn) of 

granite and many angular and subangular fragments 

Se TREC TARE Sie an c's 23 av * rnd Siohnge Mita eee es ar ea 5 a 50 feet. 
3. Light yellow tuff mainly of rhyolyte with an occasional 

pebble of granite; roughly stratified and dipping south- 


RON elton Adina na Sn 4a via's Dire he ae Sale Cale ak gl wget 200 feet. 
4. Massive dark red lava (apparently rhyolyte); varies 

much in thickness, averaging about ................ 100 feet. 
5. Light greenish and yellow rhyolyte tuff, coarse in layers; 

contains abundant and large angular fragments of the 

underlying red lava and an occasional pebble and 

small boulder of granite; roughly stratified and dips 

Southerly Onto 30) Goarees, usa cu sewceeeidnl ae « 400 feet. 
6. White rhyolyte, brecciated in layers, ................ 300 feet. 


306 The American Geologist. Tune; Sane. 


7. Light brown coarse sandstone; much granite debris and 
rhyolyte; occurs in limited patches capping knolls,.. 100 feet. 


LE Ot all wae ek ees ola ae Cee ee -.... 1650 feet. 

This is preéminently a series of rhyolitic volcanics al- 
though some of the dark lava may be trachytic and some thin 
layers may be basic enough to be andesyte. The prevailing 
purple color of the hills is due to rugged outcrops of the 
dark red lava and the irregular strips of yellow and white 
to the rhyolyte tuffs. 

Four miles west and one mile north of Rosamond sta- 
tion is a low mountain whose colors are light red and pink. 
It is between two purple ranges and separated from them 
by detrital slopes. It is continuous by a low ridge with the 
Willow Springs Mountain, northwest of it probably two miles 
and of similar material. This short range of mountains 
represents a narrow northwest-southeast belt of granite capped 
with rhyolyte, apparently brought up from under the purple 
and yellow series by a fault with upthrow on the southwest. 

The first bright red mountain comprises the Rosamond 
mining © district and contains the Fairview and Hamilton 
mines and several prospects. Narrow branching dikes of 
white rhyolyte occur in the granite deep in the mountain, but 
the main mass of rhyolyte seems to be in the form 
of a thick sheet resting on the granite and thrown 
down into it by many, small faults. Much of this 
rhyolyte contains porphyritic quartzes. Some of it has a sort 
of shaly structure and other is a massive breccia. Under 
ground it is white but on the surface it is much stained 
with iron oxide, giving the.mountain its bright light-red 
color. The granite is stained to a dark red in many places 
under the rhyolyte. I think we are here an the site of one of 
the rhyolyte volcanoes. 

This volcanic belt seems to be represented in isolated 
patches along a line trending nearly due west along the north- 
ern border of Antelope valley to its extreme western end. 
The purple and white lavas occurring in patches faulted down 
into the granite along the southern base of the Tehachapat 
range near Gorman’s station are on this same line, are of 
similar composition and general appearance and doubtlessly 
belong to the same series. They go under the Upper Pliocene 


California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 307 


sandstone near Gorman’s station. The borax mines west of 
Fraser mountain seem to be in connection with another patch 
of them. Probably many other isolated areas will be found 
in the southern Coast ranges. 

The Rosamond belt swings around the western end of a 
broad low undulating granite belt and then starts east again. 
Three miles south of Mojave is the Exposed Treasure mine 
and a lot of other prospects on a low mountain, very rocky 
and showing colors of black, yellow and light brown. The 
hill has a base of granite and over this is a massive, very coarse 
textured, porphyritic rhyolyte. Associated with and perhaps 
over this is an ordinary white rhyolyte of massive structure. 
A black stain on the rhyolyte where exposed gives the black 
color to much of the surface of the hill. 

Soledad peak, four miles south of Mojave, is the highest 
and by far most prominent of the rhyolyte hills of this region. 
It rises to 1200 feet above the plain and shows the dark 
red, purple, yellow, light green, etc., of most of the rhyolyte 
hills. The material of a rather dark spur has the macroscopic 
appearance of andesyte, but under a hand microscope appears 
quite acid. Similar material externally resembling andesyte of 
reddish color occurs in many of the hills near the Santa Fe 
railway, 5 to 7 miles southeast of Mojave, but most of it out- 
crops like rhyolyte and seems too acid for an andesyte. Doubt- 
lessly some interesting discoveries here await the petro- 
grapher. 

I traced the lava belt eastward by means of a line of 
buttes showing the characteristic colors and topography of the 
Rosamond series, checking occasionally by a close examination. 
It is in the form of a narrow strip, rarely over several miles 
wide, trending easterly, across Mohave desert and probably 
marking a line of fissures in the granite. A prominent group 
several miles north.of Rogers dry lake-bed includes Castle and 
Desert buttes, old land-marks. If the detrital slopes were re- 
moved, the rhyolyte belt would probably be continuous to a 
point about five miles northwest of Kramer. Then there is 
an interruption for several miles, after which the rhyolyte 
sets in stronger than ever and forms a high rugged, purple 
and yellow range trending far to the eastward, not many miles 
north of the railroad. From Hinkley station eastward the 


368 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


railroad is close enough to the volcanic range to give a good 
view of it. Long streaks of white and yellow among the 
rocky red strips suggest the bedded tuffs of the Rosamond 
series. In fact, the general appearance even to some details 
is characteristic of that series. A few spots have the peculiar 
small-wrinkled topography elsewhere characteristic of the 
Upper Pliocene terranes. Several groups of purple moun- 
tains in the direction of Randsburg as seen from near Kramer 
indicate outlines of the Rosamond series far to the north from 
the main belt. 

Just west of Barstow is a hill of red and pink massive 
rhyolyte. A similar red hill occurs just east of the town. A 
bare rock of the same material stands in the valley by Mohave 
river north of town. A small hill of the same is on the south 
edge of town. These are remnants of a thick sheet which 
once occupied the valley. Other remnants occur at the foot 
of black and gray mountains of old dioryte arid gneiss, a few 
miles northeast of town. Still farther in that direction the 
view is backed by one of the high rugged groups of dark 
red and yellow-spotted mountains typical of the Rosamond 
series. This is the highest of the region and is five miles north 
of Daggett. An important borax mine is situated somewhere 
on its slopes. The view from Daggett to north, east and south 
shows only rugged sierras apparently all of the volcanic ser- 
ies. It is evident that east of Barstow the rhyolyte spreads out 
over a very extensive territory and becomes a very important 
Tertiary series largely burying the granite and gneiss of the 
old complex. 

A spur from the high red peak north of Daggett comes 
down nearly to Mohave river just northeast of the village. It 
shows typical Rosamond topography and colors at the higher 
levels. I observed in the hills near the border of the valley the 
following phases: 

1, Massive pink lava; appearance on casual survey much like 
andesyte but on close inspection with a hand microscope it seems as 
acid as some rhyolytes. 

2. White and purplish rhyolyte; slightly porphyritic, with flow 
structure well developed so as to weather out with the’ appearance 
of a stratified formation, thin-bedded and highly tilted. 

3. Breccia-conglomerate of lava and granite fragments. 

4. Red sandstones and red_ shales. 


California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 309 


5. Stratified fine and coarser tuffs of dark red color, tilted at a 
high angle. 

6. Light red beds of coarse debris of pink granite, lava, etc. 

7. A coarse, roughly stratified dark red tuff containing fragments 
of black lava. 

The last bed is very thick. Its general appearance is like 
the red tuffs of the Escondido series. Indeed all the members 
from No. 3 to No. 7, inclusive, are strongly suggestive of the 
Escondido series. They dip away from, and seem 
to rest unconformably upon the massive _ rhyolytes 
which are typically Rosamond. This only confirmed a sus- 
picion which I had before that the Rosamond and Escondido 
series are of about the same age, but that the former is slight- 
ly the older and furnished the material for the fine-textured, 
supposed rhyolyte tuff stratum under the basic lava of Tick 
canyon. 

Remnants of a later Series occur in Mohave river valley 
at several points, notably along the railroad about one and 
one-half miles east of Barstow. The following section, in de- 
scending order, of a bluff just north of the railroad, is typical 
of the series: 


Type-Section of Barstow Series near Barstow. 
Thickness. 
1. Stratified, hard brown material due to arid conditions but 
composition not determined; persistent stratum over a 


CUMS ADEM ATCA corer meta a crijecicc es seek cece mee ts 20 feet. 
Sam Rellony T ANG eit: er ay Silt. wach iettercet tet Sa eietales bu crebls 4 feet. 
3. Stratified, fine gravel and sand of dull red color and con- 

taniier stech, lavas TAGIIENES. mo tose crcl: octasicie oid loc, tae 15 feet. 


4. Structureless bed of white tuff with angular and subang- 
ular fragments of various other rock species embedded 
Meena PN at ee eat Sere eine fee ote 20 feet. 


Tipsy ea: Cohn Se a ISA BAD hb OL: SOE ea ae Se ea 50 feet. 

This formation is extensively developed on the low hills 

on the north side of the valley between Barstow and Daggett. 
It is thin, overlies unconformably the earlier series, and re- 
mains generally in a horizontal position but has been ex- 
tensively eroded. It is a valley formation made under arid 
conditions. In a small railway cutting near the bluff where 
the above was taken, this series is locally much broken up and 
overlaid unconformably by 20 feet of the rearly horizontal, 


370 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


roughly stratified, subangular gravel and clay which seem to 
form low Quaternary ridges on the south. 


CONCLUSION 


I will conclude this paper by evidence tending to fix the 
age oi the Rosamond and Escondido series. While studying 
the latter in the field I thought I was dealing with a Middle 
Pliocene series equivalent to the Berkeleyan and to the andes- 
yte-basalt epoch of the Sierra Nevada region, and the Rosa- 
mond series I correlated with the Lower Pliocene rhyolytes 
and rhyolyte tuffs about the bay of San Francisco and in the 
Sierra Nevada region; but evidence is accumulating that both 
are Eocene in age, which illustrates how dependent students 
of stratigraphic geology are on the paleontologists to straight- 
en out schemes of classification. 

Cajon pass, in San Bernardino county, is due to a north- 
west-southeast fault, obliquely traversing the Sierra Madre- 
San Bernardino range. Along the fault line there is a nar- 
row strip of Tertiary formations thrust down deep into the 
granite and schist complex. There are remnants of a dull 
vellowish or light brown, well stratified, fine sandstone, with 
some shaly and white layers suggestive of the Miocene bitum- 
inous shales. There are traces of marine fossils. At one place 
a coarse basal breccia-conglomerate was developed where the 
brown sandstone rested on the granite. The general appear- 
ance indicates the Monterey formation. 

Of much greater extent is a pink conglomerate and 
sandstone, which extends in a nearly continuous but narrow 
belt virtually entirely through the pass. It is especially de- 
veloped west of Cajon station. It is usually tilted at angles 
of 20 to 60°, averaging about 30°. The direction varies be- 
cause it is tightly pinched in between steep granite and schist 
ridges, but it is prevailingly northeasterly. The thickness may 
be several thousand feet but no .data for a careful estimate 
were taken. The conglomerate is chiefly of granite and schist 
and is coarse, boulders not being uncommon. It is well lithi- 
fied and commonly outcrops in great ledges making the struc- 
ture very plain. Its general appearance is like certain phases 
of the basal conglomerate of the Escondido series and for a 
variety of reasons I think they are identical. 


a 


- - 


v 
California Tertiary Formations.—Hershey. 371 


Dr. H. W. Fairbanks traced this pink conglomerate and 
sandstone west along the southern border of Antelope valley 
and at Rock creek, nearly midway between Cajon and Soledad 
passes, he collected marine fossils from a stratum conformably 
resting ‘on the typical reddish sandstone. These fossils were 
shown to Dr. J. C. Merriman who thought they possessed an 
Eocene facies, but the material was meager and nothing very 
definite can be based on it especially as the shells have been 
mislaid. Dr. Fairbanks is confident that the fossil-bearing 


stratum belongs over some and is a part of the reddish sand- 


stone series. and cannot have reached its present position by 
thrust or by an overturn. 

In 1875, Mr. G. K. Gilbert described* from Red Rock 
canyon on Mohave desert, not very far north from the line 
which I followed, a series of rhyolyte lavas and tuffs over- 
laid by sandstones and more basic tuffs, which seems to be 
the counterpart of my section at Daggett. Dr. Fairbanks has 
studiedy the same region and from a similar series southeast 
of Black mountain, he has collected impressions of leaves, 
which were submitted to Dr. F. H. Knowlton, who says, 
“they seem to belong to the Eocene.” 

Dark brown, massive, basic lava like that of the Soledad 
region occurs unconformably under Miocene sandstone in Cal- 
menga pass near Los Angeles. On San Clemente island? 
there are basic lavas overlaid by “‘fossiliferous, white limestone, 
which may be the equivalent of the Miocene of the coast.” 
The same volcanic series seems to be heavily developed on 
Santa Catalina island. Mr. Homer Hamlin told me that he 
has found at different places in southern California under un 
doubted Miocene strata just such a basic volcanic series as I 
have described from the Soledad region. Prof. A. C. Lawson 
has called my attention to the presence near the bay of San 
Francisco of a rhyolyte occupying the position of the Eocene. 
It is thus evident that there is precedent for finding Eocene 
volcanic material both acidic and basic in southern 
California and the Rosamond and Escondido series may well 
be tentatively placed in that group. The evidence is very meag- 


* Geographical Survey West of the 100th Meridian, vol iii, p. 142. 
7 AMERICAN GFOLOGIST, vol. xvii, February, 1896, p. 68. 


t Bulletin ‘of the Department of Geology, University of California, vol. i, 
No. 4, p. 133. 


372 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


er but it is the best we have and this statement may stimulate 
a search for better. 

I suspect that in Eocene times the sea transgressed on the 
land from the southwest to the site of the present axis of Ante- 
lope valley while the main Mohave desert region was land on 
which the Rosamond series accumulated, the stratified. water- 
worn material probably in lakes. 

I wish, also, to call attention to the analogy between this 
supposed Eocene volcanic eruption, apparentiy of rhyolyte 
followed by very basic lavas, of southern California and the 
great, seemingly Eocene, volcanic series of the isthmus of 
Panama* which began with the ejection of a vast quantity of 
rhyolyte tuff (the Panama formation proper) and ended with 
dark brown basalts and allied basic lavas. 

Berkeley, Calif., Jan. 25, 1902. 

(Note.—Since writing the above I have gained access to 
a paper on the isthmus of Panama by the eminent French 
geologist, M. Marcel Bertrand, who maintains that the Pana- 
ma formation is Miocene in age and from the observations 
detailed, his position seems well sustained. ) 


THE SPECIMEN OF NEMATOPYTON IN THE NEW 
YORK STATE MUSEUM. 


By CHARLES S. PROSSER, Columbus, Ohio. 


An account of the collection of “A fossil plant from Or- 
ange county [N. Y.] by J. N. Nevius” + has just come to the 
attention of the writer. Mr. Nevius stated that he was “in- 
formed by the state geologist of the existence of a large 
fossil piant at Monroe, Orange Co., in the upper Devonian 
sandstone, which is thought to belong to the Hamilton group, 
....The plant was imbedded in the typical thin-bedded, blue 
sandstone of that region, which is extensively used for flag- 
ging. It was located in a cut which had been excavated to 
obtain flagging, on a side hill about a mile and a half north- 
ward of the village of Monroe.” = 


* Bulletin No. 5 of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Havard Col- 
lege. vol. xxviii. 

Bulletin of the Department of Geology, University of California, vol. ii, 
No. 8, pp. 244-247. 

+N. Y. State Museum, Fifty-second An. Rept. of the Regents 1898, vol. i, 
1900, pp. r 79-r 82, plates 1-3. 


tibid., pir 79. 


?~ 


Nematopyton in the N. ¥. Museum.—Prosser. 373 


It was further stated that “As no paleobotanist has yet 
studied this specimen, its identity is not determined... . Prof. 
John M. Clarke, assistant state geologist, suggests that it 
may be the gigantic seaweed, described by Dawson under 
the name ‘Celluloxylon primaevum.’ * * Whatever the family 
and species of this plant may prove -to be, it is extremely 
rare from this horizon.’”* While in a foot note on the same 
page is the statement that “Since the above was written a 
microscopic examination of a part of the trunk has been made 
by Prof. D. P. Penhallow who determines it to be Nematophy- 
ton logani Dawson.” The succeeding report contained the fol- 
lowing account of the “‘Nematophytum at Monroe ” by the 
State Paleontologist, Dr. John M. Clarke; ‘‘Two or three years 
ago the writer, urged on the late state geologist and paleontol- 
ogist the importance of securing for the museum a specimen 
of the so-called ‘fossil-tree’ from the Hamilton rocks at 
Monroe, Orange Co. The fossil had been found on the farm of 
O.H. Cooley, whose father had years ago sent specimens to 
Prof. Hall for examination. It represents a great trunk-like sea- 
weed of the genus Nematophytum, which has, by the favor of 
Prof. D. P. Penhallow of McGill University, been identified with 
his Nematophytum logani. When originally found, the length 
of this alga was 24 feet. Visitors during a number of years 
carried away parts of the trunk, till at the date referred to only 
about 12 or 14 feet remained. Asa result of the writer’s sug- 
gestion, the specimen was obtained by the director of the state 
museum and now makes a striking specimer in its collection. 
Subsequently Mr. Cooley uncovered several more such great 
trunks and the writer has visited the locality to see if any of 
them would be a material addition to that which we already 
have. The other specimens, however, are much shorter and 
less perfectly preserved, and it has therefore seemed unnec- 
essary to incur expense in order to acquire additional exam- 
ples of this great seaweed.” + 

Dr. Clarke has written me that when he “was last at the 
locality there were six smaller trunks in sight, and although 
I did not want any of them I suggested that Mr. Cooley 
open negotiations with the iarge museums which | think 

+ hid Bifty-thira An. Rept. of the Regents, 1899 vol. i, 1901, pp. 674-675. 


The ‘Report of the State Paleontologist, 1899,’’ however, which contains the 
above account was published in 1900. 


374 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


he did, but I am not certain whether he succeeded in dispos- 
ing of any of them, though my impression is that Yale, se- 
cured one of them.” He also states that “when Dr. Ries was 
making his survey of Orange county he sent in a report about 
this seaweed” and further that “we have a memorandum of 
material collected by Mr. Van Deloo in 1870 which must 
indicate about the date at which this. material was brought 
to the attention of this office’.* In a later letter Dr. Clarke 
stated that “The large alga, doubtless that with which you 
‘are acquainted, lay at some distance from those unearthed 
later but all were in the sanie Monroe shales. From what 
Mr. Cooley told me (he seemed to recall your visit) your 
specimen was that from which his father sent fragments to 
Halk?4 

In the summer of 1890, the writer visited Monroe and 
studied the geology of Skunnemunk mountain to the north- 
west of that town. Near the base of the mountain about one 
and one half miles northwest of Monroe, a small quarry on 
the farm ot Mr. Ogden Cooley was examined. In a paper 
entitled “Notes on the geology of Skunnemunk Mountain, 
Orange county, New York,” the writer after briefly de- 
scribing the location and rocks of this quarry stated that 
“Fossil wood was also found near this ledge which was 
apparently contained in a concretion and>called the ‘fossil 
trees’ by Mr. Cooley. The specimen obtained from this 
locality has been studied by Professor F. H. Knowlton, As- 
sistant Paleontologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, and 
he identifies it as Celluloaylon primevum Dn.”’= Part of the 
specimen was later submitted to professor Penhallow who 
published a paper entitled “Notes on Nematophyton crassum” 
based upon this material and specimens of Celluloxylon prim- 
aevuim from the type locality of Hopewell, near Canandaigua, 
N. Y. As a result of this study professor Penhallow wrote 
as follows: “Comparing these specrnens with the type of 
Nematophyton crassum we find they agree with it in all 
respects except the absence of intercellular filaments from the 
former and their presence in the latter. But this difference 
may safely be attributed to the operation of greater alteration 


* Letter of March 28, 1902. 
+ Lettcr of April 2, 1902. 
+ Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xi, 1892, p. 139. 


Nematopyton in the N. Y. Museum.—Prosser. 375 


in one case than in the other, and it is therefore admissible 
to consider that my reference of Celluloxylon primevum to 
Nematophyton crassum was not only correct [in a former 
paper, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, Vol. VII., Sec. IV., 1889, 
p. 29], but that it receives striking confirmation from these 
specimens.” * 

Five years after the write*’s visit to this locality it was 
studied by Dr. Heinrich Ries who gave the following account 
in his “Report on the Geology of Orange county: “About 
one and one-half miles northwest of Monroe, on the south- 
west base of the mountain [Skunnemunk], and 300 feet lower 
than the Davidson quarries, are several small quarries on the 
tand of O. H. Cooley. The rock is a thin bedded sandstone, 
with shaly layers, which have been polished to a high degrée 
by shearing. Concretions occur in the shaly layers and 
also in the coarse sandstone ledge to the northeast of Cooley’s 
largest opening. The shales contain abundant remains of 
plants, commonest among which is Psilophyton. Several 
of the others were submitted to Prof. Knowlton, but they 
were too fragmentary for identification. Prosser notes the 
finding of Celluloxylon primevum, as identified by Knowl- 
ton. The specimen found ty Prosser represented the end 
of a stem protruding from the sandstones of Cooley’s quarry. 
At the time of the writer’s visit in September, 1895, Mr. Cool- 
ey had uncovered the specimen to a length of twenty-nine 
feet. The ‘fossil tree’ has a diameter of fourteen inches at the 
upper end and eight inches at the lower end. To this point 
it dips about thirty degrees along the bedding; the stem 
then makes a sharp turn, and can be seen extending downward 
several feet more at an angle of about seventy degrees.’’+ 

Dr. Ries has written me as follows regarding this subject: 
“I did not hear of any other specimens of Celluloxylon in 
neighboring quarries. At the time of my visit there were 
several large pieces at the opening which Cooley said he 
had removed from the end of the trunk. I believe these were 
obtained by Dr. Hollick for Coiumbia. I had an idea that the 
pieces which Mr. Nevius got had been removed. from the 
Lo ae chi emai 
eat pty ean An. Rep., State Geologist for the year 1895, vol i. 1897, pp. 


_. _New York State Museum, Forty-ninth An. Rep. of the Regents, 1895, vol. 
ii, 1898, pp. 416, 417, 


376 The American Geologist. dune, Se 


original opening after my visit. Mr. Cooley in ’95 told me 
he intended blasting deeper to expose more of the stem. As 
uncovered at the time of my visit, the stem was seen to extend 
nearly horizontal for a few feet and then bend steeply down- 
ward.,’’* 

The magnificent. specimen now in the New York State 
Museum collected by Mr. Nevius was obtained according 
to Dr. F. j. H. Merrill “from the farm of Ogden H. Cooley, 
near Monroe, Orange Co., N. Y.,fand was apparently from 
the same quarry as that mentioned above. Excavation sub- 
sequent to the writer’s visit revealed the immense specimen 
and it is almost certain that the fragments found in 1890 came 
from the trunk secured by Mr. Nevius. 

The above notes were submitted to professor Penhallow 
who has written me the following letter regarding these spec- 
imens: “On referring to my notes, I find that the specimen re- 
ferred to you as determined to be N. Logan, was sent 
to me by Prof. Clarke under the impression that it might 
be N. Ortoni, but there was no indication whatever that it 
had been derived from a stem previously examined. The 
material came in two lots. The first showed typical Cellu- 
loxylon structure, and no nozinal structure of a determinable 
character. The second lot was somewhat better, and showed 
some fairly well preserved structure which served to indicate 
*the improbability of identity with N. Ortoni. At the same 
time the form of the radial spaces suggested N. Logani as 
the nearest affinity. The occurrence of Celluloxylon struc- 
ture is not incompatible with any species, since it only repre- 
sents a condition of preservation. N. crassum and N, Logani 
closely resemble one another, and since my last notes on these 
plants, a more extended opportunity to study fresh material 
of the Laminariee under varying conditions has shown that 
when sections are taken from different portions of the same 
plant, one may note structural variations quite parallel with 
those exhibited by some of ‘he so-called species of Nemato- 
phyton, and in consequence of these facts, I have been sume- 
what more strongly disposed to the opinion expressed in one 
of my papers, that the species so-called, which have been ~* 
differentiated for purposes of convenience, may in many cases 


* Letter of April 6, 1902. 
t Letter, March 4, 1902. 


Nematopyton in the N. Y. Museum.—Prosser. 377 


be identical. ‘This view would seem to gain support from the 
facts recited in your notes, which at any rate show how diffi- 
cult it is to accurately identify fossil plants when they pre- 
sent different conditions of preservation involving an extend- 
ed obliteration of structure. 

The differences exhibited by the various specimens of the 
New York plant examined by me, are such as might well 
occur between the stipe on the one hand and the hapteres on 
the other. Replying to your question ‘Is N. crassum now 
considered a synonym of N. Logani’. I may say that I have 
never formally accepted this view, though such may eventually 
be found to be correct; and in view of all the circumstan- 
ces of the present case, I should be inclined to designate the 
N. Y. specimen as N. crassint according to the first deter- 
mination, reserving its exact identity with N. Logan until 
further evidence is obtained, es I do not believe in changing 
names, or in combining possible species once determined as 
such, unless 1e evidence is very good.’’* 


TOURMALINE CONTACT ZONES NEAR 
ALEXANDRIA BAY,N. Y.+ 


By C. H. SMYTH, Jr., Clinton, N. Y. 


The north-west end of Wellesley island, St. Lawrence river, 
is made up of two formations, the older of sedimentary, the 
younger of igneous, origin. Both formations have been meta- 
morphosed, but not sufficiently to hide the evidences of their 
origin in a large way, altho their precise delimitation has been 
rendered obscure at many points. 

The older formation comprises a yariety of schists and 
banded gneisses, together with one prominent belt of vitreous 
quartzyte. The last appears, often as a bold ridge, on the 
northwest side of the island, beginning south of Westminster 
park and extending brokenly several miles southward, show- 
ing in quantity on Grindstone island. The rock is white, gray 
or pinkish, consisting of quartz with just enough feldspar and 
mica to show a slight foliation. The strike is about north 45 
degrees east and the dip 80 degrees north. 


* Letter of March 12th, 1902. 
+ Based upon Fiecld-work done for the State Geologist of New York. 


378 The American Geologist. 1S ae 


Typical quartzytes are not common in this part of the 
state, and it is interesting to see such an excellent representa- 
tive of :pre-Cambrian sandstone. 

The schists and gneisses of the sedimentary formation are 
less satisfactory to deal with. They range from white to 
nearly black and, tho in typical exposures quite recognizable, 
often take on a more massive habit, and then are difficult to 
distinguish from the more gneissoid members of the igneous 
formation. As the quartzyte is considered a metamorphosed 
sandstone, so these schists and gneisses are regarded as re- 
presenting the muds and clays of the same mass of sediments. 
Similar quartzytes and schists occur some miles to the south, 
associated with crystalline limestones, the interval between 
showing the schist in abundance. 

All the facts justify a correlation of the Wellesley island 
metamorphosed sedimentary formation with the great pre- 
Cambrian sedimentary series of the Adirondack region. 

The igneous formation of the island is a granite or granite- 
eneiss, usually the latter, of rather fine grain, and red, pink, 
or light-gray color. It consists essentially of quartz, pink 
or white feldspar, (orthoclase, microcline and acid plagioc- 
lase,) hornblende and biotite, with the usual accessories. 

The igneous origin of the rock would be assumed upon 
purely internal evidence, but is established beyond a doubt 
by structural data. Eruptive contacts between the granite ana 
the schists occur on all sides. The granite contains fragments, 
of every shape and size, torn from the schists and quartzytes, 
while the latter rocks are cut in every direction by dikes and 
veins of granite ranging from yards to fractions of an inch 
in width. 

It is with the phenomena of some of the latter that this 
paper is particularly concerned, but before taking them up a 
word may be said as to the correlation of the granite. 

Like the sedimentary formation, the granite is continued 


on the mainland southward and can not be distinguishedl from: 


the great granite-gneiss formation of the western Adiron- 
dacks. The latter is an igneous complex, younger than the 
sedimentary series, made up of granite, syenyte, dioryte and 
related rocks, of various periods of intrusion, and ranging 
from \strongly foliated to wholly massive textures. While 


Tourmaline Contact Zones —Smyth. 379 


there is abundant evidence that this great formation is the 
product of a long continued series of intrusions, the diffierent 
members are so connected by every intermediate gradation, 
both of composition and of texture, and often so metamor- 
phosed, that their precise classification, lithological and chron- 
ological, is extremely difficult, and in many cases impossible. 

In the locality here considered, particularly near the shore 
opposite Alexandria bay, and in Westminster park, the larg- 
er dikes cutting the schists have all the characters of the main 
granite gneiss body. But the narrow dikes and veins have a 
markedly different nature and composition, Foliation is 
entirely lacking and the rock becomes coarser grained, more 
quartzose, ranging indeed to nearly pure quartz, while tour- 
maline becomes a conspicuous ingredient. In other words, 
these narrow offshoots take on a pegmatitic habit, though 
on a small scale. 

A striking feature is the distance they extend from the 
parent mass. A miniature pegmatyte dike, only a fraction 
of an inch in width, may cut the schists for many yards. In 
this respect and in the highly quartzose character of some 
of these dikes there is a strong resemblance to purely aqueous 
veins. 

But the most noticeable phenomenon presented in con- 
nection with the dikes and veins is their marked influence upon 
the surrounding schists. The latter rocks sometimes show 
changes similar to those described below, at the contacts with 
the main intrusive body, or with the large dikes that preserve 
the character of the main body. But these changes are small 
in amount as compared with the magnitude of the intrusion, 
and are exceptional. When, however, the narrow offshoots 
cut the schists the effect upon the latter is Mnarked, tho var- 
iable in amount. 

Along the margins of the dikes and veins the schists con- 
tain bands or irregular bunches of granular black tourmaline, 
forming a fine-grained, lustrous, black or gray rock. The 
tourmaline may be evenly distributed through the schists, or 
in bands parallel to the original foliation, the latter arrange- 
ment being very frequent. One side of a dike may have a 
tourmaline zone several inches wide, while the other side 
shows none. Again, irregular masses of tourmaline may 


380 The American Geologist. cane ae 


struggle off at right angles to the dike, while large masses of 
tourmaline may be separated from the dike by several feet of 
unchanged schist. Or a dike two or three inches wide may 
show no tourmaline zone, while a mere film of quartz may 
have a considerable zone on each side. In other cases, the 
tourmaline forms narrow marginal zones in the granite dike 
itself, frequently sending strings and bunches well into or 
quite across the dike. Indeed, it is quite impossible to des- 
cribe the extreme irregularity of shape, size, and distribution 
shown by the tourmaline zones. 

At some exposures, there is a network of the tiny dikes 
so that the surface of the schists is marked by a series of 
black ridges, since the tourmaline rock is resistant to weather- 
ing. 

In a general way, the amount of tourmaline seems to vary 
inversely as the width of the dikes. There is no doubt that 
the smallest dikes have tourmaline zones disproportionately 
large as compared with the zones of wider dikes. Apparently, 
too, the amount of tourmaline becomes relatively greater as 
the offshoots become more quartzose. This is, however, little 
more than a restatement of the preceding relation, since the 
narrow offshoots are usually the richest in quartz. 

The phenomena sketched resemble in many ways those 
described by Patton,* ‘though on a smaller scale; and they 
evidently have been produced by a class of processes, now gen- 
erally regarded as explaining many pegmatytes and ore de- 
posits, in which gases, vapors, and very hot solutions de- 
rived from igneous magmas are the most potent factors. 

It seems probable that the granite magma was forced, un 
changed, into the larger fissures of the schists, while, being 
charged with water vapor and gases, it was subjected to a 
process of separation, by which the vapors and very fluid pro- 
ducts of hydro-thermal fusion were injected into the narrow- 
er cracks, often wandering far from the main intrusive 
body. The larger cracks would thus be filled by the more 
normal granite magma. And as a matter of fact we find in 
them the tourmaline granite of somewhat pegmatitic habit. 
The smallest cracks, on the other hand, should show the wid- 


*H.B. PatTtTon. Tourmaline and Tourmaline schists from Belcher Iiill, 
Colorado. Bull. Geol. Am. X, pp. 21-26. 


Tourmaline Contact Zones.—Smyth. 381 


. 


est variation from the normal granite; and, as above stated, 
they are often a mixture of quartz and tourmaline, or they 
may be nearly pure quartz. Indeed, starting from the nor- 
mal granite, we might expect to find a gradation to a pure 
quartz vein, the latter being filled by hot solutions of silica, 
having their origin in the granite. As a matter of fact, this 
series is pretty well represented, but the quartz as a rule is ac- 
companied by some tourmaline. The latter mineral is, of 
course, indicative of the boric vapors so common in granite in- 
trusions, particularly, as here, characterizing a marginal, or 
contact, facies. 

The small cracks should, according to the above hypothe- 
sis, have relatively the largest tourmaline zones, which, as 
already stated, is the fact. 

The irregular distribution of the tourmaline zones is to 
be accounted for as resulting from varying quantity of boric 
emanations in different fissures, as well as from a varying 
degree of permeability of the schists. Moreover, the irreg- 
ularity is doubtless in some cases, sensibly exaggerated by 
the fact that there is only a small angle between the plane 
of the tourmaline zones, and the surface of outcrop. 

As bearing upon the condition of the magma filling the 
fissures, one further fact may be added. In the tourmaline- 
granite filling cracks a few inches wide, the tourmaline is in 
well-defined prisms, evidently the first of the essential min- 
erals to crystallize. Practically all of these prisms lie ap- 
proximately at right angles to the course of the fissure. Had 
the tourmaline crystallized before.the magma was forced into 
the fissures, the prisms would, beyond question, tend to lie 
parallel to the sides. It is thus evident that the fissures were 
filled by an entirely fluid material and that all of the minerals 
of the granite, with the possible exception of some accessories, 
have crystallized in their present position. 

While the foregoing explanation would account for the 
phenomena as practically contemporaneous, there can be no 
doubt that the filling of minor fissures by deposition from 
heated solutions would continue long after the actual period 
of intrusion. In this way pegmatitic dikes and veins would 
form which would cut the earlier filled fissures. Such rela- 
tions are actually seen in the field, but it is impossible to say 


382 The American Geologist. meh 


how general they may be. It is, of course, possible that the 
later quartz veins belong to a period entirely subsequent to the 
cooling of the intrusive rocks. 

In thin section, the rock of the tourmaline zones shows 
no features of particular interest. It is simply an aggregate 
of rounded grains of strongly pleochroic tourmaline, with 
quartz and very little feldspar. While no sections have been 
found showing the various steps involved in the passage from 
normal schist to the tourmaline rock, it is evident that the 
process consists essentially of the substitution of tourmaline 
for the biotite of the schist, the latter mineral being abundant 
in the schists but quite lacking in the tourmaline zones. While 
quartz may have been replaced, to a less extent, there is no 
evidence of the fact. 

This substitution of tourmaline for biotite is in perfect 
agreement with the phenomena described by Patton,* but un- 
like the cases described by Lingren,+ where the ferromagnesian 
minerals are unaffected. However the latter instances of 
tourmalinization are in connection with aqueous veins, not 
dikes, and the different conditions have yielded different re- 
sults. 

The granite has no features demanding special considera- 
tion. As already stated, the small dikes contain abundant 
tourmaline which resembles that of the contact rock, but is 
often idiomorphic. The feldspar in these dikes is largely 
microcline. 

In connection with the foregoing facts, interest attaches 
to the localities in the towns of Alexandria and Omar, which 
furnish specimens of pink feldspar and specular iron oxide 
to be seen in many collections. 

About a mile south of the river there is a considerable ridge 
of dark green or gray schist of varying composition, often 
calcareous, and evidently belonging to the sedimentary series. 
This schist is cut through and through by granite in every 
variety of dike, sheet and boss, affording the best example of 
intrusive structures to be seen in this region. Strangely 
enough, contact zones are inconspicuous, but one cannot spend 
an hour on this ridge without being led to think that in it 


Op. cit., p. 24. 
+ W. LINDGREN. Metasomatic Processes in Fissure Veins. Trans. Am. 
Inst. Min. Eng. XXX, pp. 626-644. 


Tourmaline Contact Zones.—Smyth. 383 


must be the old mineral localities, and such proves to be the 
fact. The writer had no time to make a careful search for 
these, but three or four openings were found and examined. 
The minerals occur in clearly marked veins, cutting sharply 
across the foliation of the schists. All of the openings found 
were in a part of the ridge where intrusive phenomena were 
less‘-marked than usual, and this, together with the fact that 
the minerals occur in what are essentially quariz veins, which, 
moreover, carry some calcite, might lead to the conclusion 
that they are not to be connected with the igneous activity. 

But such a conclusion is negatived by the fact that it is 
possible to find every gradation from these mineral veins, 
through pegmatytes, to dikes of normal granite and there 
seems no question that the veins owe their existence to the 
granitic intrusion. The character of the veins and their dis- 
tance from the mest intense igneous. activity point to the con- 
clusion that they are in reality mineral veins, and not dikes. 
In other words, they result from the filling of fissures not by 
a normal igneous magma but by hot concentrated solutions 
charged with gases and vapors derived from the neighboring 
magma. 

As in the case of pegmatytes, to which these veins are 
closely related, it is impossible to draw a sharp line between 
fusion and solution, indeed it is clearly recognized that no 
sharp distinction exists. But since much smaller’ fissures 
occurring in the region of greater intrusive activity are filled 
with normal granite, the conclusion seems obvious that the 
veins were filled by solution. The lack of tourmaline as a 
conspicuous mineral of the veins, and the absence of change 
in the walls are in harmony with this view. The character 
of the phenomena presented here may have resulted from the 
greater distance of the veins from the main intrusions or from 
their being of later date, forming during the cooling of the 
magma. 

Hamulton College, Clinton, N.Y. 


384 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


DETERMINATION OF THE CAMBRIAN AGE THE 
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES OF MISSOURI. 


By CHARLES R. KEYES, Des Moines, Iowa. 


In many places in the recent reports of the Missouri Ge- 
ologicel Survey, certain formations comprising the lower part 
of the great Magnesian limestone sequence—the Ozark series 
of Broadhead—of southeastern Missouri, are referred to as 
Cambrian in age. Many of these references to the Cambrian 
are without special qualification, or adduced proofs of state- 
ment, just as is frequently mentioned the geological age 
of any terrane, the relationships of which to associated for- 
mations are thought to be well understood. Some of the ref- 
erences to the Missouri Cambrian are, however, more than 
merely incidental in import. It is the purpose of the present 
note to call attention to the character of some of the data upon 
which was based the assignment of a Cambrian age to a con- 
siderable part of the section which had long been called Sil- 
urian; and to point out that the proofs are even very much 
more conclusive than is indicated by any that have been men- 
tioned in print. 

Lately, several articles have appeared in which the real 
significance of the published data of the Missouri Survey 
seems to be overlooked. In one of the most recent of these 
papers™, some of the references in the Missouri reports are 
pointed out as evidence that the foundation for the determin- 
ation of the Cambrian age of the southeast Missouri terranes 
was insufficient; and additional notes are offered as the first 
definite facts to be adduced on this subject. 

Ever since the publication of the Paleontology of Missouri, + 
the geologists of that state have been conscious of the de- 
sirabilitv of havine published at the earliest opportunity all 
the evidence bearmg upon the Cambrian age of most of the 
great Magnesian limestone series of the Ozarks. At the time 
that the general paleontological reports were issued considera- 
ble data relating to this phase of the subject had been already 
accumulated, but as the original manuscript which had been 
completed two years before, had been greaty expanded just 


* Am. Jour. Sci., (4), vol. xii, p. 302, 1901. 
+ Missouri Geol. Sur., vols. iv and v, 1894. 


Magnesian Limestones of Missouri.—Keyes. 385 


before going to the printers, it was not thought feasible to in- 
terrupt the printing by incorporating matter that was new, 
yet incompletely studied However, a paragraph on the gen- 
eral conclusions was inserted at’the last moment in the chap- 
ter on stratigrapiiv. It was planned to soon issue a special 
volume on the Cambrian fossils. ‘ 

At the time of the appearance of the general summary of 
the Paleontulogy of Missouri the following conclusions re- 
garding the Cambrian of the region were stated: “The geol- 
ogical age of the Paleozoic formations of Missouri, from the 
top of the column down to the base of the Trenton limestone, 
has been determined satisfactorily. Below the calcareous di- 
vision last mentioned is a great thickness of dolomitic lime- 
stones, with intercalated sandstone beds. These form what 
is commonly known as the ‘Magnesian limestone’ series. The 
lithological characters are very different from those of any 
of ihe later calcareous beds. Heretofore, fossils have not 
been fv.und abundantly in these formations; yet recent obser- 
vations have indicated that extensive faunas will be disclosed 
before long in the. rocks under consideration. Although it 
has been long known that the Magnesian limestones are 
older than the Trenton, and that they lie immediately upon 
and against the Archean crystallines unconformably, their ex- 
act geological age has always remained unsettled. There 
seems to be but little doubt, however, that part of the sequence 
is equivalent to the Calciferows of other regions. It is also 
pretty well determined thai certain of the lower beds, all below 
the ‘Sacharoidal sandstone’ perhaps, are representatives of the 
Upper Cambrian or Postdam. These conclusions appear well 
grounded beth upon stratigraphical and faunal evidence. The 
rocks of the Ozarx region have not as yet received the neces- 
sary detailed study to enable the several lines of terrane de- 
markation to be drawn.with certainty. This investigation is 
now being carried on as rapidly as possible, and promises 
very satisfactory and interesting results in the near future.” 

The actual evidence upon which the above quoted statements 
were made was very much more extensive and conclusive than 
that adduced by Beecher a decade later*, as reference to the 
“Missouri Paleontology” plainly shows. Not only were all his 

* Am. Jour. Sci., (4), vol. xii, pp. 462-463, 1901. 


386 The American Geologist. Jone ae, 


trilobitic genera noted, but at least half a dozen others among 
which may be mentioned Conocephalus, Bathyurus, and Ag- 
raulus. Altogether between 70 and 75 species that were iden- 
tifiable were found by members of the Missouri Geological 
Survey before the few fragmentary specimens mentioned by 
Beecher came into his hands. 

in regard to the little brachiopod, Lingulella lamborni 
Meck, as a determiming factor of the geological age of the 
rocks of southeastern Missouri, it may be said that it was 
distinctly recognized that its value was mi/. In fact, it at no 
time ertered into consideration. Winslow’s statements*, re- 
garding the age of the Magnesian limestones, it is believed, 
were based upon notes taken several years previous, before 
fossils had been found abundantly in the rocks in question. 
My own statementst quoted by Beecher, that in the Mine la 
Motte district “no strata younger than Cambrian are be- 
lieved to be represented,” and that “but few fossils have been 
found in the rocks of the area, so that the fossil evidence as 
to the geological age is somewhat meager” manifestly apply 
only to the small area upon which the special report was 


made—an area in the granite region, 13 by 17 miles. The 


statements are clearly not general observations on the whole 
of the state. As recently quoted a very erroneous ‘impres- 
sion is given. 

In this connection, it may be mentioned that soon after 
the publication of the report last alluded to, Mr. Greger, of 
the Missouri survey also collected in south Missouri a large 
numbe of Cambrian forms, in addition to those species previ- 
ously cbtained. His account and descriptions of species were 
to have been printed more than two years ago. 

The Cambrian age of the Magnesian limestones of south- 
east \lissouri was also inferred from data derived from two 
other independent methods of correlation. Carefully made 
geological cross-sections clearly showed that most of these for- 
mations lay beneath the base of Lower Silurian or Ordovician 
rocks. As to geological age, everything down to the bottom 
of the Trenton limestone had long been definitely deter- 
mined * Moreover, exact comparisons regarding the lith- 

* U.S. Geol. Sur., Bull, 132, p. 11, 1896. +..0, sos a 


+ Missouri Geol. Sur., vol. ix, pt. iv. p. 44, 1895. 
~ Missouri Geol. Sur., vol. viii, p. 99, 1896. 


ge ec ke of 


Magnesian Limestones of Missourt.—Keyes. 387 


ologic sequences in the neighboring localities indicated that a 
part, at least, of the Magnesian limestones were equivalent 
to what in the adjoining states were undoubted Cambrian 
terranes. 

There were, then, three separate and distinct lines of in- 
quiry into the age of the southeastern Missouri rocks. The 
data cerived from any one of these was amply sufficient to 
fix the stratigraphic position of Magnesian sequence beyond 

all reasonable doubt. 


SAINT AUGUSTINE AND HAECKEL. 
EPITOME OF HAECKEL’S “WORLD RIDDLES.” 
PersiFor FRAZER, Philadelphia. 


At a reunion dinner, given by Dr. Beverley Robinson of New York, 
to the survivors of the class of 1862, University of Pennsylvania (arts), 
in celebration of the fortieth year since their graduation, Dr. Persifor 
Frazer read to his classmates the following synopsis of Ernst Haeck- 
el’s ‘“Weltrathsel.” 

At its conclusion the participants, including three clergymen, united 
in a resolution of thanks offered by one of the latter to professor 
Haeckel for the kind greeting he had extended to the class through 
Dr. Frazer. Ed. 


Attenuated jelly fills dimension’s every place, 

Nor cold nor warm nor palpable it co-exists with space.— 

A thrill of condensation, and the atoms first exist. 

They tend to go on shrinking, and this protyle to resist. 

Thus force results and shows itself by radiance and motion; 
The atoms draw together forming islets in the ocean; 

The strain increases, heat ensues, the temp’rature’s appalling, 
The universe is flecked with matter boiling, bursting, falling, 
When, following a partial truce, both halogen and metal 

The calmer realms of boundless space in mated couples settle, 
Still it was hot, and none but pyrogenic families flourished ; 
Volcanoes were the mother’s breasts that baby crystals nourished. 
Some million cycles went their way, the angry clouds abated 
And other, cooler molecules were born from atoms mated. 
First Carbon, with a harem such as only chemists know, 

Began his endless offspring; followed soon by H:O 

Which floated from the lowering clouds that owed to it their birth, 
Until it left uncovered but a third of all the earth, 

Yet ere the earliest vapor from its latent heat had parted 
Had Carbon, the Lothario, extensive families started. 
Anhydrous carbonates, so-called, with beauty soft and placid, 


388 The American Geologist. a ae 


Always prepared to fill a gap or yield carbonic acid.— 

Our globe, the merest accident, now put a different garb on: 
To wit, a drop of water fell upon a hydro-carbon. 

The latter liked it, swelled apace, and having passed the spasm, 
Just multiplied by fission—and behold our protoplasm! 

Hence rose a progeny which needs ten thousand books to treat them 
Of Plasmodomous cells, and groups of Plasmophags to eat them.— 
Of Plasmodomous cells, and groups of Plasmophags to eat them— 
These Protozoa (single cells) improved their opportunities 

By independent union in Coenobian communities. 

They congregated closely but without connective tissue. 

By fission, spores, gemmation, were produced their further issue. 
Metazoic federation, next, the simple cells annexes, 

And swaddles them in tissue, and divides them into sexes. 

The Gastrula with double layers evolves in time but, slowly; 

The bloodless Coelentaria of course are the more lowly. 

The Coclomaria have blood, and cavities, and so forth, 

And from these federated cells man’s ancestors now go forth. 

A little ball and nucleus of membraned protoplasm 

By vastly various products spans the whole biotic chasm. 

The “ego” of the dog or man as Cytula is started, 

lwo cells and nuclei coalesced with parents traits imparted. 

Not only frame but soul results, a life becomes reality 

Till cellular secession and its consequent mortality. 


The path through earliest forms of life cannot be always threaded. 

For rocks cannot preserve the forms of plastic cells imbedded. 

So that the first beginnings of incipient zodlogy 

Are reasoned by analogy from studies in ontology. 

Yet, from the close agreement of the embryonic stages 

With the order of succession during geologic ages, 

Sufficient facts are furnished for analogy to go on 

In naming as our Adam a Laurentian Protozoow 

Which, then, through worms and mollusks in a constant progress 
rises 

Up to the stage of vertebrates—the end of all surmises. 


The time was scarce Devonian when our predecessors’ wishes 
Were gratified by reaching this exalted state—as fishes. 
Promotion followed slowly: first amphibian tails and claws, 
Then Permian Reptilia with poison in their jaws. 

Still higher rose our parent stock to realize our dreams, 
Ambitious to be Mammals they commenced as Monotremes. 
But this was not sufficient, and at quarter past Jurassic 

They grew to be Marsupials and made that structure classic. 
The hour was scarce Cretaceous when from mammals elemental 
They took the next degree above and budded out, placental. 
Nor here did effort sleep, as once the handsome youth Endymion, 


Saint Augustine aud Haeckel.—Frazer. 389 


But upward through Lemurian shapes they reached the form pro- 
simian. 

As primates Catarrhinae, Cynopitheci, were passed; 

Pithecanthropus alalus then, and speaking man at last. 


So much for our material frame, and is it then the whole, 
Or is there left to study the department of the soul, 

An immaterial something with our bodies but a span 
Surviving as the “ego” the decaying trunk of man? 

How this which was created in the blastodermic sphere 

Can fail to share its body’s death is anything but clear. 

In sound and healthy bodies its capacities are best, 

Weak when the body weakens, vanished when it’s laid to rest. 
So close is the connection of the soul and its receptacle. 
That claim of life hereafter make unbiased thinkers skeptical 
The difference of mind and soul, whatever be our leaning, 
Is difficult to formulate in words of simple meaning. 

More difficult, if creatures of environment are we, 

It is for us to deem our wills in any manner free. 


The laws of substance and of force, when all is said and done, 
Are merely paraphrases, and in point of fact are one. 

We see but one, embodying all the so-called Nature's laws, 
To feeble human intellect the First and Only Cause. 

That law of substance, force, and soul, desire, adaptation 

Which marks the fittest to survive, the rest to transformation. 
Harmonious with surroundings must be that which would not die 
And better fitted things with raw material supply. 


And what are the conclusions we are authorized to draw? 

That, Force, and Matter, Mind, and Soul, but illustrate one law. 
And is our state the final one, or shall we further fare, 

No longer masticating food; no longer growing hair? 

And shall we win the mastery over every Cosmic might? 

_And are we mere Automata? Is nothing wrong or right? 

Is then no God Almighty stretching out His hand to save? 

Is there no hope of heaven waiting us beyond the grave? 

So asks Philosophy athanatist and dualistic 

And thus replies that other one entitled the Monistic: 

“All things, all thoughts, all beings, every action which is done, 
“Are but the different forms of THe ExisteENcE which is ONE. 


The noble St. Augustine spoke a creed akin to this, 

The Pantheistic shibboleth, that “Gop Is THAT WHICH Is.” 

The Monist leader Haeckel’s view is similarly broad. 

He turns the sentence merely, holding—aLt_ THAT Is Is Gop. 
April, 1902. 


390 The American Geologist. aa 


MONTHLY AUTHOR’S CATALOGUE 
OF AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL LITERATURE 
ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY. 


ADAMS, F. D. 

Haliburton and Bancroft areas, Ontario, (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. 
Can., 1901, pp. 145-148.) 
AMI, H. M. 

Artesian wells, paleontology, Archeology, bibliographies etc. (Sum. 
Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., 1901, pp. 258-265.) 
BAILEY, L. W. 

New Brunswick. (Sum. Rep. Geol. Sur. Can. 1901. pp. 190-204.) 


BARLOW, A. E. 

The Sudbury district. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can. 1901. pp. 
143-145.) 
BELL, ROBERT. 


Summary report of the operations of the Geological survey for 
the year 1901. (pp. 263. Ottawa. 1902.) 


BROCK, R. W. 

The Boundary creek District, British Columbia, (Sum. Rep., 
Can. Geo. Sur., 1901. pp. 49-67.) 

CHALMERS, ROBERT. 

On borings for natural gas, petroleum and water: also notes on 
the surface geology of part of Ontario. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can. 
1901. pp. 158-169.) 

CLARKE, J. M. 

Marcellus limestones of central and western New York and their 
fauna, (Bull 49, N. Y. State Mus., Dec. 1901, pp. 115-138.) 
CLARKE, JOHN M. 

New Agelacrinites. (Bull. 49. N. Y. State Mus., pp. 182-198, 
Dec, 1901: 

CLARKE, J. M. 


Amnigenia as an indicator of freshwater deposits during the 
Devonic of New York, Ireland and the Rhineland. (Bull. 49. N. Y. 
State Mus., pp. 199-203, Dec. 1901.) 


CROSS, WHITMAN. 


Geologic formations versus lithologic individuals, (Jour. Geol. 
vol. 10. pp. 223-244, Apr.-May, 1902.) 


Author's Catalogue. 391 


DALY, R. A. 


The geology of the region adjoining the western part of the in- 
ternational boundary. (Sum. Rep., Can. Geol. Sur. 1901. pp. 37-43.) 


DOWLING, D. B. 


The West side of James Bay. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., 1901. 
pp. 107-115.) 


DRESSER, J. A. 


Petrography of Shefford and Brome mountains. (Sum. Rep., 
Geol. Sur. Can., 1901. pp. 183-187.) 


ELLS, R. W. 


The district around Kingston, Ontario. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. 
Can., 1901. pp. 170-183.) 


EMMONS, S. F. 


Clarence King: a memorial. 1902. 12 pages and portrait. New 
York. Engineering and Mining Journal. 


FARIBAULT, E. R. 

Nova Scotia gold fields. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can. 1901. pp. 
214-221.) 
FLETCHER, HUGH. 


Kings and Hants counties, Nova Scotia. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. 
Can., 1901. pp. 208-214.) 


HERSHEY, O. H. 


The: Quaternary of southern California. (Bull. Dept. Geol., Univ. 
Cals, vol. 3, pp. 1-30.) 


HOFFMANN, G. C. 


Chemistry and mineralogy (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., 1901. pp. 
230-239.) 


HOPKINS, T. C. 


Clays and clay industries of Pennsylvania: -III. Clays of the 
great valley and South Mountain areas. (Appendix, Ann. Rep., Pa. 
State College. 1899-1900. 1901.) 


HOVEY, E: O. 

The paleontological collections of the geological department of 
the American Museum of Natural History. (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, 
pp. 252-255, Apr.-May, 1902.) 

INGALLS, E. D. 

The progress of mining in Canada in 1901. (Sum. Rep., Geol. 
Sur. Can., 1901. pp. 239-244.) 

JOHNSTON, J. F. E. 


Eastern part of the Abitibi region. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., 
1901, pp. 128-141.) 


392 The American Geologist. Tune, fae 


KEYES, C. R. 

Character and stratigraphical peculiararities of the southwestern 
Towa coal fields. (Eng. & Min. Jour., vol. 73. p. 661. May. 10, 1302.) 
KUNZ, GEO. F. 

Composition of Tormaline. (Eng. & Min. Jour., Apr. 5, 1902. vol. 


73, p. 482.) 


LAFLAMME, PROF. 
Geological exploration of Anticosti. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., 


1901, pp. 188-194.) 
LAMBE, L. M. 

Red Deer river, Alberta. (Sum. Rep., Can. Geol. Sur., 1901, pp. 
80-81.) 
LANE, A. C. 

Coal of Michigan, its mode of occurrence and quality. (Part 2, 
vol. 8, Geol Sur. Mich., pp. 1-232, 1902.) 
LEACH, W. Ww. 

Crow’s Nest Coal Field. (Sum. Rep., Can. Geol. Sur., 1901. pp. 
67-79.) 
MATTHEW, G. F. 

Cambrian rocks and fossils of Cape Breton (Sum. Rep., Geol. 
Sur. Can., 1901. pp. 221-230.) 
MATTHEW, G. F. 

Ostracoda of the basal Cambrian rocks in Cape Breton. (Can. 
Rec. Sci., vol. 8, pp. 487-468, Feb., 1902.) 
McCONNELL, R. G. 

The Yukon District. (Sum. Rep., Can. Geol. Sur., 1901, pp. 23-37.) 


McINNES, Wm. 

Region southeast of Lac Seul. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can, 190i. 
pp. 87-93.) 
McNAIR, F. W. 

The divergence of long plumb lines at the Tamarack mine. (Eng. 
& Min. Jour., vol. 73, pp. 578-580. Apr. 26, 1902.) 
PARKS, W. A. 

The country east of Nipigon lake and river. (Sum. Rep., Can. 


Geol. Sur., 1901, pp. 108-107.) 


POOLE, H. S. 


The coal problem in New Brunswick. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. 
Can., 1901. pp. 204-206.) 


PROSSER, CHARLES S. 


The Sunbury Shale of Ohio. (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, pp. 262-313, Apr.- 
May, 1902.) 


——— 


Author's Catalogue. 393 


REID, H. F. 

The variations of glaciers. III, (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, pp. 313- 
317, Apr.-May, 1302.) 
RUEDEMANN, R. 

Trenton conglomerate of Rysedorph hill and its fauna. (Bull. 
No. 49, N. Y¥. State Mus. pp. 4-114. Dec., 1901.) 
SENECAL, C. O. 


Mapping and engraving. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., 1901, 
pp. 244-251.) 


TURNER, H. W. 


: Notes on unusual minerals from the Pacific states. (Am. Jour. 
Sci., Vol. 18, May, 1902. pp. 343-346.) 


UDDEN, J. A. 


Loess with horizontal shearing planes. (Jour. Geol., vol. 10, pp. 
245-251, Apr.-May, 1902.) 


VAN NAME, R. G. 


Crystals of crocoite from Tasmania. (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 13, 
May, 1902, pp. 339-242.) 


WATSON, L. W. 


Prince Edward Island. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., 1901, pp. 
206-208.) 


WHITEAVES, J. F. 


Paleontology and Zoology. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., 1901 
pp. 251-258.) 


WILSON, A. W. G. 


The country west of Nipigon lake and river. (Sum. Rep., Geol. 
Sur. Can., 1901, pp. 94-103.) 


WILSON, W. J. 


Western part of the Abitibi region. (Sum. Rep., Geol. Sur. Can., 
1901, pp. 115-128.) 


WOOD, ELVIRA. 


Marcellus limestone of Lancaster, Erie County, N. Y. (Bull. 49, 
N. Y. State Mus., pp. 139-181. Dec. 1901.) 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


SENSATION IN A CRATER ON THE OCCURRENCE OF AN EARTHQUAKE. 
No further information has arrived, since my last letter concern- 
ing the recent severe earthquake in Nicaragua on the 24th instant, 
owing to the fact that during “samune saute,” (holy week), just 
past, no mails arrive. There is, however, reliable news that the un- 


394 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


dulations of the earth’s surface in the cities of Leon and Chinondega 
caused the church bells to toll, i. e., caused the bells which are 
fixed within the towers of the churches to be sounded by the clapper 
which is freely suspended in each bell, as the church and the tower 
oscillated to and fro—another evidence that my estimate, v. of the 
Rossi-Ferol scale, was about correct. 

During this class, and stronger earthquakes it is ficult to learn 
from the people the material facts, other than injuries to persons and 
property. They try to and do tell the truth as they remember the 
impressions received at the time, phenomena of light and sound; but 
the atmosphere: is so disturbed, entangled as it were by the numerous 
rapid inflections and refractions of the waves of light, sound and 
force in almost every direction, that no one is correctly impressed 
by what they feel or see or hear during the few moments—excepting 
that everything is in confusion. 

I remember the confused condition of the atmosphere during a 
severe earthquake that occurred while, with four mozos, or peons 
I was more than 200 feet below the surface of the earth in the crater 
of an extinct volcano. We ‘had been an hour getting down to the 
lake in the crater. It occupied almost two-thirds of the crater, was 
crescent-shaped, with convex surface westward, the water line on 
the eastern margin-of the lake being a chord extended north and 
south. The walls of the crater bounding the convex side of the lake 
were nearly perpendicular and 300 feet high in some places. The 
mozos were in the shade of a tall but low-branching tree. My four 
companions were bathing in the lake. I was seated on a knoll coy- 
ered with grass, writing my notes, having my feet near the margin 
of the lake, and about two feet above the water, when clouds hid the 
sun, the atmosphere became oppressively “heavy,” and warm, and 
the early movements of a severe earthquake were felt. These ap- 
pearances became stronger and stronger and lasted, in all, about 
26 seconds. The mozos hurriedly climbed the tree.» The bathers, 
in their haste to get to the shore, made slow progress, stumbling into 
the water every few steps; I arose to my feet and saw, apparently, 
that the little stream of water that I had admired flowing over 
mosses and ferns down from the walls into the lake, was a cloud of 
spray or heavy visible mist, nearly over me, and the lake of water 
and its western wall of rock were rising to entomb me; and as thle 
moving cloud uncovered the face of the sun I saw, apparently, the 
brilliancy of the sun-light, dazzling in September, from the 
surface far above me, as if the brilliancy of a farewell to 
time and things; soon recovering myself the scene and the 
sounds were mysterious, varying, deceptive, but splendid. The 
reflections and refractions of the undulations of force, light and 
sound from the waterfalls and the atmosphere charged with much 
dust, in almost every direction, were too rapid for the senses to fol- 
low, and were very confusing. When we got to the surface of the 


Correspondence. 395 


surrounding country we examined houses near the crater whose 
heavy tile roofs had been shaken off and broken on the ground. 
We had been “safer” at the bottom of the crater than if we had 
been on the surface of the country near the lake. After the earth- 
quake was over I noted that the water in the lake had risen toward 
my feet only about one foot. J. CRAWForD. 
Managua, Mar. 31. 


VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES IN NICARAGUA. Lava has_ been 
flowing from the cone of Assosky—a part of the volcanic mass Mo- 
motombo—in Nicaragua, since the earthquakes on 24th March, 1902, 
according to weliable reports since communication interrupted 
during the latter part of “samune saute” (holy wevk), has been re- 
established. The chief cone of Momotombo at the western margin 
of lake Managua, continues to emit clouds of gases and vapors. 
Matagalpa people declare they never before felt an earthquake in 
that part of Nicaragua. However, there are many Tertiary, large 
fissures now filled with cementing “gangue” in that part of this 
country. Those two earthquakes on 24th March 1902 took an un- 
usual direction and had a strange south of east breadth for spherical 
and circular waves of earthquake force. The usual progress of 
such waves in Nicaragua has been west of north and south of east 
along near to the Pacific coast, but the waves on the 24th of last 
month progressed east of north for more than 250 miles across Nic- 
aragua into the Caribbean sea, and west of south into the Pacific from 
the r origin beneath Momotombo. An inter-oceanic canal acrose 
Nicaragua in the proposéd canal route would have felt only a rather 
moderate force excepting it was strong about “Breto” the proposed 
Pacific harbor to the proposed canal. 

Very respectfully and truly, 
April 2, 1902. J. CRAWFORD. 


PERSONAL AND SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 


Pror. S. W. Wittiston has been elected head of the de- 
partment of paleontology at the University of Chicago. 

Drs. T. A. JAGGAR AND E. O. Hovey have also sailed to 
the West Indies for the purpose of examining the phenomena 
of the late eruptions. 

MoHAWKITE has been mined as a copper ore and 170 tons 
have been sold, netting about $75 per ton. It occurs in the 
copper district of lake Superior accompanying the main lode 
of the Mohawk mine. 

A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF CLARENCE Kino, by R. W. 
Raymond, James T. Gardner, S. F. Emmons and J. D. Hague, 


396 The American Geologist. Suries Aes 


was read at the late meeting of the American Institute of Min- 
ing Engineers at Philadelphia. 

Dr. Joun H. MatHews, the Carnegie fellow at Columbia 
University, was awarded the Carnegie gold medal on May & 
by the Iron and Steel Institute of London, for his research 
work on low carbon steel alloys. 

THe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Society, Washington, has 
sent the following of its members to examine and report on 
the late volcanic eruptions at Martinique and St. Vincent, viz: 
Robert T. Hill, Israel.C. Russell and C. E. Borchgrevink. 

Dr. J. W. SpeNceER has returned to Washington after an 
extended trip in Mexico and Central America. He crossed the 
Tehuantepee isthmus on mules and in ox carts, then visiting 
Gautemala and Honduras, touching the corner of Salvador. 
The object of the trip was to study the resemblances or con- 
trasts with the submarine topography of the West Indies. 

Pror. W. G. MILLER has been appointed Provincial geolo- 
gist and Inspector of Mines of Ontario. This is a new 
office, recently provided for, and the appointment took effect 
May 1. Prof. Miller has occupied the chair of geology and 
petrography at Queen’s University, and has for some time 
past been connected with the Ontario School of Mines at 
Kingston. He has also been associated with the Bureau of 
Mines in the economic exploration of northern and eastern 
Ontario, more particularly in connection with the iron, gold 
and corundum resources of those districts. The appointment 
is an excellent one. Prof. Miller has done good work, and 
much may be expected from him in the larger field opened to 
him by his new position —(Eng. and Mining Jour.) 

GEOLOGICAL Excursion. On May 15, 16 and 17 about fifty 
students from the University of Wsconsin and from North- 
western University participated in an excursion to Devils lake, 
Wisconsin, and to the Dalles of the Wisconsin river. The par- 
ty was under the leadership of Prof. C. R. Van Hise, assisted 
by Prof. J. Morgan Clements and Prof. U. S. Grant. May 
15 and 16 were spent in the Devil’s lake district where the 
phenomena connected with the Baraboo (Upper Huronian) 
quartzyte and the unconformably overlying Postdam sandstone 
could be studied, and where also the sharp contrast between 
the glaciated and the driftless areas’ is very prominent. Of 
especial interest is the small but beautifully perfect terminal 
moraine and the pre-glacial river gorges. At Kilbourn on May 
17 the dalles of the Wisconsin and other instructive erosion 
phenomena in the beautifully cross-bedded Postdam sandstone 
were studied. 

Monts PELEE AND SOUFRIERE, the former on Martin- 
ique the latter on St. Vincent, West Indies, have been in violent 
eruption since. May 8. On that date they burst into terrific 


q 


Personal and Scientific News. 397 


activity, resulting in the destruction of the city of St. Pierre 
on Martinique, and several villages, and the estimated loss, on 
both islands, of about 30,000 people. The most remarkable 
phenomena attended these eruptions. Along with clouds of 
ash and streams of lava, vast quantities of explosive gas were 
emitted. This gas was the chief agent in the almost instan- 
taneous death of the inhabitants of St. Pierre. It flowed from 
the crater enveloping the surrounding country. It was a suf- 
focating canopy, which on explosion, which was not delayed, 
set fire to the city and utterly destroyed all life within its reach, 
whether animal or vegetable. It spread over the harbor and 
destroyed a number of vessels that were at anchor. These 
also suffered from the falling of bombs and finer molten mat- 
ter. This eruption is the most remarkable in America within 
historic time, and ranks with Vesuvius and Krakatoa. 

THe Sprinc MEETING oF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF 
SciENCEs was held in the lecture room of the National Muse- 
um at Washington April 16-18, inclusive. Below is a list of 
the papers offered: 

I. Evolution of the Titanotheres III. Models and Restorations, 
Henry F. Osporn 

Il. Homoplasy and Latent Homology. A Correction, 

Henry F. Ossorn 

III. Evidence that North America and Eurasia Constituted a 

Single Zoological Realm during the Mesozoic and Cen- 
ozoic, and that Correlations can be Established as a Basis 
for Uniformity of Geological Nomenclature, 

Henry F. Oszorn 

IV. Monograph of the Bombycine Moths of America, including 

their Transformation; with a Revision of the Known 
Genera. Part III. Sphingicampide, 
ALPHEUS S. PACKARD 

V. On the Coral Reefs of the Maldives, ALEXANDER AGASSI” 

VI. On the Theory of the Formation of Coral Reefs, 

ALEXANDER AGASSIZ 


VII. Psychophysical Fatigue, 2 - J.McK. CatrTeLt 
VIII. On Some Optical Properties of Asphalt, Epowarp L. NicHois 
IX. The Classification of the Sciences, CHARLES S. PEIRCE 
X. The Postulates of Geometry, .. - CwHartes S. PEIRCE 
X17 2 Lhe Color System; ./.=..6.-)0.- - CHARLES S. PEIRCE 
XII. The Compulsory fotteductian of the French Metrical Sys- 
tem into the United States, - - WruiitamM SELLERS 

XIII. The Disintegration of Comets, - = AsapH HAtt 
XIV. A New Computation of the Coefficients of Precession and 
Nutation, - = - = IRA IBSEN STERNER 
Introduced by AsapH HALL 

XV. The Distribution of the Stars, - - E. C. PICKERING 


XVI. The Variability in Light of Eros, - - E.-C. PICKERING 


398 The American Geologist. June, 1902. 


XVII. The Physiological Station on Monte Rosa, H. P. Bow- 


DITCH (With lantern illustrations.) — 

XVIII. On Catalysis, - . - . James M. Crarts 
XIX. The Atomic Weight of Caesium, - -;- T. W. RicHarps 
XX. The Significance of Changing Atomic Volume, T. W. RicH- 

ARDS 


XXI. Determination of the Weight of the Vapor of Mercury at 
Temperatures Below 100 degrees, Epwarp W. Morey 
XXII. Biography of Professor William A. Rogers, ARTHUR SEARLE 
Presented by Epwarp W. Morey 
XXIII. Biographical Memoir of General J. G. Barnard, 
Henry L. Asgor 
XXIV. Biographical Memoir of General Francis A. Walker, 
Joun S. BILLiInes 
XXV. Biographical Memoir of J. S. Newberry, - C. A. WHITE 
New members were elected as follows: C. R. Van Hise, 
Geologist, Madison, Wisconsin; W. W. Campbell, Director 
of the Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, California; C. Hart, 
Merriam, Biologist, Department of Agriculture, Washington ; 
Wm. Trelease, Botanist, St. Louis, Missouri; George E. Hale, 
Astronomer, Williams Bay, Wisconsin ; S. F. Emmons was 
elected Treasurer. a ol 
The investigations of the past summer (1901) have shown 
conclusively that the unaltered normal or type rock at Sudbury 
with which the deposits of nickeliferous pyrrrhotite and chal- 
copyrite are associated possesses rather exceptional character 


and interest. It belongs to the general family of gabbros, but . 


has nearly always traces of a broad ophitic or diabasic struc- 
ture, which, although rude at times, is generally quite distinct.” 
A. E. Barlow. 


INDEX TO VOL. XXIX. 


A 


Adams, G. I., Note on a Tertiary 
terrane new in Kansas geology, 
301. 

Additional notes on the Cambrian 
peetsADS Breton, G. F. Matthew, 
a! 


Allegany county, Maryland, W. B. 
Clark, Director, 119. 


Ami, H. M., Belinurus Kiltorken- 
sis, 188. 

American Museum of Natural His- 
tory, 130. 


Analysis of Mount Vernon loess. N. 
Knight, 189. 
Areal geology of the Castle Rock 


region. Willis T. Lee, 86. 
B 


Backward step in paleobotany, G. 
F. Matthew, 251. 

Barlow, A. E., 398. 

Barrell, Joseph, The Physical ef- 
te of contact metamorphism, 

Bastin, E. S., A Permian glacial 
invasion, 169. 

Beecher, C. E. Note on a new 
Xiphosuran from the upper De- 
vonian of Pennsylvania, 144; 
Studies in Evolution, 182. 

ee kiltorkensis, H. M. Ami, 
188. 

Berkey, C. P., The Sacred Heart 
Geyser spring, 87; Origin and dis- 
tribution of Minnesota clays, 171. 

Borkeimer Schicht in Mittelbaltis- 
chon Silurgebiet, Carl Wiman, 

Bridge, Norman, Edward Claypole— 
The man, 30. 

Broadhead, G. C., 193. 

Brégger, W. C. Om de senglacial 
og postglacial nivaforandringer i 


Christianiafeltet, 252. 
Cc 
Carnegie Institute, 129. 


Chronological distribution of the 
Elasmobranchs, O. P. Hay, 255. 
Claypole, Edward Waller, The Sci- 
entist, Theo. B. Comstock, 1; As 
a teacher, Geo. M. Richardson, 24; 
The man, N. Bridge, 30; Bibliog- 
raphy, 40. 4 
Clapp, F. G., Geological history of 
the Charles river in Massachu- 

setts, 218. 


Clark, W. B., Report on Allegany 
County, Maryland, 119. 
Classification of the Crystalline ce- 


ments. E. C. Eckel, 146. 

Coleman, A. P., The MHuronian 
question, 325; The duration of 
the Toronto interglacial period, 
ie 

Compte Rendu, VIII Congress Geo- 
logique International, P. Frazer, 
110. 


Commemorative tablet of the Amer- 
ican Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, 178. 

Comstock, T. B., Edward Claypole, 
The scientist, 1. 

Correspondence. 

Reorganization of the Geologic 
Branch of the U. S. Geologicai 
Survey, Bailey Willis, 188. 

On Belinurus Kiltorkensis, H. M. 
Ami, 188. 

Analysis of Mount Vernon Loess, 
N. Knight, 189. 

Delegates of the U. S. Govern- 
ment at the Int. Cong. Geol., 
P. Frazer, 189. 

Derivation of 
Amorthosite, 
190. 

New York Academy of Sciences. 
E. O. Hovey, 191, 320. 

Crawford, J., Earthquakes in Nic- 
aragua, 323, 393. 

Cushing, H. P., Derivation of the 
rock name anorthosite, 190; Geol- 
ogy of Rand hill and vicinity, 
Clinton county, 58. 

Cumings, E. R., A revision of the 
Bryozoan genera Dekayia, Dek- 
ayella and Heterotrypa of the 
Cincinnati group, 197. 


the rock name 
reves 1eushineg, 


D 


Daly, R. A., 194; The geology of 
the northeast coast of Labrador, 


256. 

Deep drill-hole at Johannesburg, 
195. 

Derivation of the rock name anor- 
thosite, H. P. Cushing, 190. 

Determination of the Cambrian age 
of the Magnesian limestones of 
Missouri, C. R. Keyes, 384. 

Diamonds in New South Wales, 129, 

Diller, J. S., 128. 

Dodge, R. E., The section of Geol- 

ology and Mineralogy of the New 
York Academy of Sciences, 127; 
321. 


400 Index. 


Douglas, James, 192. 

Dryer, C. R., Lessons in physical 
geography, 57. L 
Duration of the Toronto intergla- 
cial period, A. P. Coleman, 71. 


E 


Earthquakes in Nicaragua, J. 
Crawford, 323. 

Eckel, C. E., The classification of 
the crystalline cements, 146. 


Editorial Comment. 
Lake Superior Iron ore deposits, 
47 


The question of the unit of geo- 
logical mapping, 116. 

Commemorative tablet of the 
American Association: for the 
Advancement of Science, 178. 

The Hugh Miller centenary, 249. 


= 


Ficld Columbian Museum, 94. 

Fossils. 
Acrothyra and Hyolithes, a com- 

parison, 251. 

Agaricocrinus praecursor, 303. 
Belinurus kiltorkKensis, 188. 
Cyathocrinus snivelyi, 305. 
Cyathocrinus granulosus, 305, 
Dekayia perfrondosa, 307. 
Dekayia subfrondosa, 304. 
Dekayia ulrichi-lobata, 303. 
HKretmocrinus brevis, 309. 
Hretmocrinus parvus, 308. 
Heteroceras simplicostatum, 191. 
Homotrypa frondosa, 308. 
Hyolithes gracilis, 251. 
Lobocrinus dubius, 306. 
Lobocrinus dubius, var pustul- 
osus, 307. 
Lobocrinus insolitus, 307. 
Prestwichia randalli, 144. 
Spirifer pikensis, 309. 
Xylophomya laramiensis, 193. 

Fossil types in the American Muse- 
um of Natural History, 130. 

Frazer, P., Compte Rendu, VIII 
Congres Geologique International, 
110; Delegates of the United 
States government at the Inter- 
national Congress of Geologists, 
meee Saint Augustine and Haeckel. 
87. 

Frech, Fritz, Die Geog. Verbreitung 
und Entwickelung des Cambrian, 
ilaly( 


G 


Geographische Verbreitung und 
Entwickelung des Cambrian, 117. 

Geology of the northeast coast of 
Labrador, R. A. Daly, 256. 

Geology of Rand hill and vicinity, 
Clinton county, H. P. Cushing, 58. 

Geology of Cincinnati. J M- 
Nickles, 181. 

Geeteical excursion in Wisconsin, 
396. 

Geological history of the Charles 
river in Massachusetts, F. G. 
Clapp, 218. 

Geological history of the hematite 
iron ores of the Antwerp and 


Fowler belt in New York. W. O. 
Crosby, 233. 

Geological map of Europe, 194. 

Geological Society of America, 64. 

Geological Society of Washington, 
128. 

Geological study of the Fox Islands, 
Maine, G. O. Smith, 311. 

Gratacap, lL. P., Paleontological 
speculations, III, 290: 

H 

Hay, O. P., Snout fishes of Kansas, 
192; Chronological distribution of 
the Elasmobranchs, 255. 

Hershey, O. H., The significance of 
the term Sierran, 88; Some Ter- 
tiary formations of southern Cali- 
fornia, 349; Some _ crystalline 
rocks of southern California, 273. 

High plains and their utilization, 
Willard D. Johnson, 52. 

Hovey, E. O. (R. P. Whitfield and), 
Catalogue of the types and fig- 
ured specimens in the paleonto- 
logical collection of the American 
Museum of Natural History, 252; 
New York Academy of Sciences, 
191, 3205. 395. 

Hugh Miller centenary, 249. 

Huronian question, A. P. Coleman, 
325. 

iEbyeatt, Aj, ili28: 


J 


Jaggar, T. A., 395. 


Johnson, W. D., High plains and 
their utilization, 52. 

Johnson, D. W., Notes of a geolog- 
ical reconnoissance in eastern Va- 
lencia county, New Mexico, 80. 

Journal of Geography, 254. 

Julien, A. A., 193. 


K 


Kemp, J. F., 321. 

Keyes, C. R., 130. 

Kinderhook faunal studies at Bur- 
lington, Stuart Weller, 120, 

King, Clarence, 64, 395. 

Knight, N., Analysis of Mount Ver- 
non loess, 189. 

Kitimmel, H. P., 193. 


Lake Superior Iron Ore Deposits, 
47; 154. 

Lee, W. T., The areal geology of 
the Castle Rock region, Colorado, 
86. 

Lessons in Physical Geography, C. 
R. Dryer, 57. 


Martin, G. C., 12 
Martin, D. S., 12 
Mathews, J. H., 396. 

Matthew, G. F., Additional notes 
on the Cambrian of Cape Breton, 
180; Ostracoda of the basal Cam- 
brian rocks of Cape Breton, 311; 
Acrothyra and Hyolithes, a com- 
parison, 251; Hyolithes gracilis 
and related forms, 251; A back- 


M 
0. 
5. 


i 


Index. 


ward step in paleobotany, 251. 

McCallie, S. W., A preliminary re- 
port on the roads and road-build- 
ing material of Georgia, 56. 

Merrill, Geo. P., 198. 

Miller, W. G,. 396. 

Mills, James E., Notes on the sur~ 
face geology of the Rio Grande 
do Sul, 127. 

Mowhawkite, 395. 

Monthly Authors’ catalogue, 59, 123, 
188, 256, 317, 390, 

Monts Pelée and Soufriére, 396. 

Mount McKinley, 324. 


N 


National Academy of Sciences, 397. 

Nejed Meteorite, 128. 

New evidences of  epeirogenic 
movements causing and ending 
the ice age. Warren Upham, 162. 

New species of fossils from the sub- 
Carboniferous rocks of Northeast- 
ern Missouri, R. R. Rowley ,303. 

New York Academy of Sciences, 
127; 191; 320. 

Nickles, J. M., 
cinnatti, 181. 

Notes on a new Xiphosuran from 
Pennsylvania. C. E. Beecher, 144. 

Note on a tertiary terrane new in 
Kansas geology, G. I. Adams, 301. 

Notes upon the Mauch Chunk of 
ee, J. J. Stevenson, 

Notes of a geological reconnois- 
sance in eastern Valencia county, 
New Mexico, D. W. Johnson, 80. 

Notes on surface geology of the 
Rio Grande do Sul. James E. 
Mills, 127. 

Notes on the raised coral reefs, and 
on the geological structure of the 
Riukiu curve, 8S. Yoshiwara, 253. 


The geology of Cm- 


fe) 


Olbfarra, Cy C.; 119. 

Om de senglacial og postglacial 
nivaforandringer i Kristianiafel- 
tét, W. C. Brégger, 252. 

Origin and distribution of Minne- 
sota clays, C. P. Berkey, 171. 
Original source of the lake Super- 
ior iron ores, J. E. Spurr, 335. 
Ostracoda of the basal Cambrian 
rocks of Cape Breton, G. F. Mat- 

thew, 311. 


Pp 


Paleontological speculations, III, L. 
P. Gratacap, 290. 

Pearson, H. W., Suit against Great 
Northern railroad, 324. 

Perkins, Geo. H., Sketch of the lifé 
of Zadock Thompson, 65. 

Permian Glacial invasion, E. S. 
Bastin, 169. 

Petrographisches Praktikum, R. 
Reinish, 179. - 

Physical effects of contact meta- 
morphism, Jos. Burrell, 313. 

Preliminary report on the roads and 


road-building materials of Georg- 
ia, S. W. McCallie, 56. 


401 


Prindie, L. M., 194. 

Frosser, C. S., The specimen of Ne- 
matophyton in the N. Y. State 
Museum, 372. 


Q 
Quereau, A. J., 125. 
R 


Rate of lateral erosion at Niagara, 
G. F. Wright, 140. 

Records of the Past, °254. 

Reinish, R., Petrographisches Prak- 
tikum, 179. 

Revision of the Bryozoan genera 
Dekagia, Dekayella and Hetero- 
trypa of the Cincinnati group, E. 
R. Cumings, 197. 

Richardson, G. M., Edward Waller 
Claypole as a teacher, 24. 

Rowley, R. R., New species of fos- 
sils from the sub-Carboniferous 
rocks of northeastern Missouri, 
303. 


Ss 


Sacred Heart Geyser Spring, C. P. 
Berkey, 87. 

Saint Augustine 
Frazer, 387. 

Scott, W. B., 128. 

Siberian Mammoth, 128. 

Significance of the term Sierran. 
O. H. Hershey, 88. 

Simonds, F. W., 128; Dr. Ferdinand 
von Roemer, 131. 

Sketch of historical geology of Es- 
meralda county, Nevada, H. W. 
Turner, 262. 

Sketch of the iron ores of Minne- 
sota, N. H. Winchell, 154. 

Sketch of the life of Zadock Thomp- 
son. Geo, A. Perkins, 65. 

Smith, G. O., A geological study of 
the Fox Islands, Maine, 311.. 

Smock: J;..C., 128. 

Smyth, C. H,. Tourmaline contact 
i ae near Alexandria bay, N. Y., 
EY We 

Some Tertiary formations of South- 


and Haeckel, P. 


hy California, -O. H. Hershey, 
349. 
Some erystalline rocks of south- 


ern California, O. H. Hershey, 


273. 


Specimens of Nematophyton in the 


New York State Museum, C. S8. 
Prosser, 372. 

Spencer, J. W., 396. 

Spurr, J. E., The original source 
of the Lake Superior iron ores, 
335. 

Stevenson, J. J., 320; Notes upon 


the Mauch Chunk 
vania, 242. 

Studies in Evolution, C. E. Beecher, 
182. : 


of Pennsyl- 


+ 

Parr i... 198: 

Thompson, Zadock. Sketch of the 
life of, Geo. H. Perkins, 65. 

Tourmaline contact zones near 
Alexandria bay, N. Y., C. H. 


Smyth, Jr. 377. 


402 


Turner, H. W., A Sketch of the 
historical geology of Esmeralda 
county, Nevada, 262. 


U 


Upham, Warren, New evidences of 
epeirogenic movements causing 
and ending the ice age, 162. 

United States Geological Survey, 
324, 

Vv 


Von Roemer, Dr. Ferdinand, F. W. 
Simonds, 131. 


WwW 


Walcott, C. D., 64. 

Wadsworth, M. E., 193. 

Wealth of the United States, 196. 
Weller, Stuart, Kinderhook Faunal 
studies, III, 120. 


Index. 


Whitfield; -R. P:, 191; ‘Gnd se 
Hovey). Catalogue of the types 
and figured specimens in the pa- 
leontological collection, Am. Mus. 
Nat. Hist., 252. 

Willis, Bailey, Reorganization of 
the Geological Branch of the U. 
S. Geol. Survey, 188. 

Williston, S. W., 395. 

Winchell, N. H., Sketch of the 
iron ores of Minnesota, 154. 

Wiman, Carl, Ueber die Borkelmer 
Schicht in Mittelbaltischem sil- 
urgebiet, 123. 

Wonderland, 1902, 254. 

Wright, Geo. F., The rate of lateral 
erosion at Niagara, 140. 


yy. 


Yoshiwara, S., Notes on the raised 
coral reefs and on the Geological 
structure of the Riukiu curve, 253. 


Errata for Volume XXIxX. 


Page 38, line 20, after Virginia place a comma in place of a period, 


and read when for “When.” 


Page 22, line 14, for “may” read many. 
> ’ 


Page 137, third line, for “Upper Turonian” read Upper Huronian. 


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